From 3af93d1f2570073f2671b24a5d367974f6f9e468 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: zhiyu_remote Date: Sat, 9 May 2020 11:30:01 +0800 Subject: [PATCH] assignment5 submit --- Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/README.md | 27 + Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/__init__.py | 0 .../assignment5/logan0czy/char_decoder.py | 119 + Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/cnn.py | 77 + .../assignment5/logan0czy/en_es_data/dev.en | 851 + .../assignment5/logan0czy/en_es_data/dev.es | 851 + .../logan0czy/en_es_data/dev_tiny.en | 2 + .../logan0czy/en_es_data/dev_tiny.es | 2 + .../assignment5/logan0czy/en_es_data/test.en | 8064 + .../assignment5/logan0czy/en_es_data/test.es | 8064 + .../logan0czy/en_es_data/test_tiny.en | 4 + .../logan0czy/en_es_data/test_tiny.es | 4 + .../assignment5/logan0czy/en_es_data/train.en | 216617 +++++++++++++++ .../assignment5/logan0czy/en_es_data/train.es | 216617 +++++++++++++++ .../logan0czy/en_es_data/train_tiny.en | 10 + .../logan0czy/en_es_data/train_tiny.es | 10 + Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/highway.py | 83 + .../assignment5/logan0czy/model_embeddings.py | 71 + .../assignment5/logan0czy/nmt_model.py | 397 + .../logan0czy/outputs/test_outputs_a4.txt | 8064 + .../outputs/test_outputs_local_q1.txt | 4 + .../outputs/test_outputs_local_q2.txt | 4 + Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/run.py | 351 + Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/run.sh | 35 + .../assignment5/logan0czy/sanity_check.py | 185 + .../sanity_check_en_es_data/1e_tgt.pkl | Bin 0 -> 1331 bytes .../char_vocab_sanity_check.json | 32 + .../gold_padded_sentences.pkl | Bin 0 -> 1299 bytes .../vocab_sanity_check.json | 168 + Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/utils.py | 116 + Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/vocab.json | 89792 ++++++ Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/vocab.py | 271 + .../assignment5/logan0czy/vocab_tiny_q1.json | 271 + .../assignment5/logan0czy/vocab_tiny_q2.json | 78 + 34 files changed, 551241 insertions(+) create mode 100644 Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/README.md create mode 100644 Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/__init__.py create mode 100644 Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/char_decoder.py create mode 100644 Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/cnn.py create mode 100644 Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/en_es_data/dev.en create mode 100644 Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/en_es_data/dev.es create mode 100644 Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/en_es_data/dev_tiny.en create mode 100644 Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/en_es_data/dev_tiny.es create mode 100644 Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/en_es_data/test.en create mode 100644 Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/en_es_data/test.es create mode 100644 Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/en_es_data/test_tiny.en create mode 100644 Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/en_es_data/test_tiny.es create mode 100644 Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/en_es_data/train.en create mode 100644 Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/en_es_data/train.es create mode 100644 Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/en_es_data/train_tiny.en create mode 100644 Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/en_es_data/train_tiny.es create mode 100644 Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/highway.py create mode 100644 Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/model_embeddings.py create mode 100644 Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/nmt_model.py create mode 100644 Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/outputs/test_outputs_a4.txt create mode 100644 Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/outputs/test_outputs_local_q1.txt create mode 100644 Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/outputs/test_outputs_local_q2.txt create mode 100644 Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/run.py create mode 100644 Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/run.sh create mode 100644 Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/sanity_check.py create mode 100644 Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/sanity_check_en_es_data/1e_tgt.pkl create mode 100644 Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/sanity_check_en_es_data/char_vocab_sanity_check.json create mode 100644 Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/sanity_check_en_es_data/gold_padded_sentences.pkl create mode 100644 Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/sanity_check_en_es_data/vocab_sanity_check.json create mode 100644 Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/utils.py create mode 100644 Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/vocab.json create mode 100644 Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/vocab.py create mode 100644 Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/vocab_tiny_q1.json create mode 100644 Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/vocab_tiny_q2.json diff --git a/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/README.md b/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..64c0d7f --- /dev/null +++ b/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +# Assignment 5 written questions +## Character-based convolutional encoder for NMT +### Model description and written questions +(a) 对于卷积神经网络也是一样的。卷积核是作用于输入序列的固定长度，所以无论输入序列长度有多长区别只在于进行卷积的次数 +(b) 如果需要至少一个输出的话，左右两侧padding各自的大小为：(kernel_size - (m_model+2))/2；如果是要kernel的每一个列向量权重都可以作用于输入序列的每一个字符上的话，左右两侧padding的大小为kernel_size-1。 +(c) 除了能减缓梯度消失的问题，同时也使得网络自适应地选择向后传递的信息；b_gate的初始化应该尽量使sigmoid函数初始输出为1，即尽量保留x_proj的值，所以初始化应该为positive的。 +(d) 优点1：更好的并行化；优点2：每一个step的representation都能够接触到全局的信息。 +(f)自己编写了sanity_check以后发现在模型构建以及其他各个部分的过程中，使用简单的程序来进行检查是十分必要的，比如排查输入输出维度是否和预期的匹配，网络中各个部分有哪些参数，对网络的计算过程有更清晰的认识。 +## Analyzing NMT Systems +(a) 找到的字典中的词——'traducir':4603; 'traduzco':40991; 'traduce':7931; '不存在的——'traduces', 'traduzca', 'traduzcas' +why bad:很多没有出现在词典中，但是和词典中一些词形式相近的词在翻译时作为``处理会极大影响对原句的语义表征。 +this model's solution:使用word-character based model的好处是不受提供的词典大小的限制，在出现词典外的单词时通过character model能够捕获到与词典内形式相近的词的意思 +(b) +i.`word2vec all`--nearest words for each item +* `financial`: economic, business, markets, market, money +* `neuron`: neurons, dendrites, cerebellum, nerve, excitatory +* `Francisco`: san, jose, diego, california, los +* `naturally`: occurring, easily, natural, humans, therefore +* `expectation`: operator, assumption, consequence, otherwise, implies +ii. `character-base`--nearest words for same items +* `financial`: vertical, informal, physical, cultural, electrical +* `neuron`: Newton, George, NBA, Delhi, golden +* `Francisco`: France, platform, tissue, Foundation, microphone +* `naturally`: practically, typically, significantly, mentally, gradually +* `expectation`: exception, indication, integration, separation, expected +iii. +Word2Vec是语义相似性，CharCNN是形式上的相似。从各自的模型来看，Word2Vec是基于上下文训练得出word embedding，所以能够很好的反应各词之间的语义信息；而CharCNN对字符向量运用卷积，因为单一的字符是没有确切的意义的，所以卷积得到的结果很可能就是根据词的组成字符的相似性得出的。 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/__init__.py b/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/__init__.py new file mode 100644 index 0000000..e69de29 diff --git a/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/char_decoder.py b/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/char_decoder.py new file mode 100644 index 0000000..44e72a3 --- /dev/null +++ b/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/char_decoder.py @@ -0,0 +1,119 @@ +#!/usr/bin/env python3 +# -*- coding: utf-8 -*- + +""" +CS224N 2019-20: Homework 5 +""" + +import torch +import torch.nn as nn + + +class CharDecoder(nn.Module): + def __init__(self, hidden_size, char_embedding_size=50, target_vocab=None): + """ Init Character Decoder. + + @param hidden_size (int): Hidden size of the decoder LSTM + @param char_embedding_size (int): dimensionality of character embeddings + @param target_vocab (VocabEntry): vocabulary for the target language. See vocab.py for documentation. + """ + super(CharDecoder, self).__init__() + self.target_vocab = target_vocab + self.charDecoder = nn.LSTM(char_embedding_size, hidden_size) + self.char_output_projection = nn.Linear(hidden_size, len(self.target_vocab.char2id)) + self.decoderCharEmb = nn.Embedding(len(self.target_vocab.char2id), char_embedding_size, + padding_idx=self.target_vocab.char_pad) + + def forward(self, input, dec_hidden=None): + """ Forward pass of character decoder. + + @param input (Tensor): tensor of integers, shape (length, batch_size) + @param dec_hidden (tuple(Tensor, Tensor)): internal state of the LSTM before reading the input characters. A tuple of two tensors of shape (1, batch, hidden_size) + + @returns scores (Tensor): called s_t in the PDF, shape (length, batch_size, self.vocab_size) + @returns dec_hidden (tuple(Tensor, Tensor)): internal state of the LSTM after reading the input characters. A tuple of two tensors of shape (1, batch, hidden_size) + """ + ### YOUR CODE HERE for part 2a + ### TODO - Implement the forward pass of the character decoder. + x = self.decoderCharEmb(input) + x, dec_hidden = self.charDecoder(x, dec_hidden) if dec_hidden else self.charDecoder(x) + scores = self.char_output_projection(x) + return scores, dec_hidden + ### END YOUR CODE + + def train_forward(self, char_sequence, dec_hidden=None): + """ Forward computation during training. + + @param char_sequence (Tensor): tensor of integers, shape (length, batch_size). Note that "length" here and in forward() need not be the same. + @param dec_hidden (tuple(Tensor, Tensor)): initial internal state of the LSTM, obtained from the output of the word-level decoder. A tuple of two tensors of shape (1, batch_size, hidden_size) + + @returns The cross-entropy loss (Tensor), computed as the *sum* of cross-entropy losses of all the words in the batch. + """ + ### YOUR CODE HERE for part 2b + ### TODO - Implement training forward pass. + ### + ### Hint: - Make sure padding characters do not contribute to the cross-entropy loss. Check vocab.py to find the padding token's index. + ### - char_sequence corresponds to the sequence x_1 ... x_{n+1} (e.g., ,m,u,s,i,c,). Read the handout about how to construct input and target sequence of CharDecoderLSTM. + ### - Carefully read the documentation for nn.CrossEntropyLoss and our handout to see what this criterion have already included: + ### https://pytorch.org/docs/stable/nn.html#crossentropyloss + device = torch.device("cuda:0" if torch.cuda.is_available() else "cpu") + tgt_char_seq = char_sequence[1:, :] + input_char_seq = [] # input char_sequence without token + for item in char_sequence: + vec = [self.target_vocab.char_pad + if char_idx==self.target_vocab.end_of_word else char_idx for char_idx in item] + input_char_seq.append(torch.tensor(vec, device=device).unsqueeze(0)) + input_char_seq = torch.cat(input_char_seq)[:-1, :] + + target_scores, _ = self.forward(input_char_seq, dec_hidden) + metric = nn.CrossEntropyLoss(ignore_index=self.target_vocab.char_pad, reduction='sum') + loss = metric(target_scores.view(-1, len(self.target_vocab.char2id)).contiguous(), tgt_char_seq.view(-1).contiguous()) + + return loss + ### END YOUR CODE + + def decode_greedy(self, initialStates, device, max_length=21): + """ Greedy decoding + @param initialStates (tuple(Tensor, Tensor)): initial internal state of the LSTM, a tuple of two tensors of size (1, batch_size, hidden_size) + @param device: torch.device (indicates whether the model is on CPU or GPU) + @param max_length (int): maximum length of words to decode + + @returns decodedWords (List[str]): a list (of length batch_size) of strings, each of which has length <= max_length. + The decoded strings should NOT contain the start-of-word and end-of-word characters. + """ + + ### YOUR CODE HERE for part 2c + ### TODO - Implement greedy decoding. + ### Hints: + ### - Use initialStates to get batch_size. + ### - Use target_vocab.char2id and target_vocab.id2char to convert between integers and characters + ### - Use torch.tensor(..., device=device) to turn a list of character indices into a tensor. + ### - You may find torch.argmax or torch.argmax useful + ### - We use curly brackets as start-of-word and end-of-word characters. That is, use the character '{' for and '}' for . + ### Their indices are self.target_vocab.start_of_word and self.target_vocab.end_of_word, respectively. + batch_size = initialStates[0].size()[1] + decodedChars = [] + for step in range(max_length): + if step == 0: + chars_in = torch.empty(1, batch_size, dtype=torch.long, device=device).fill_(self.target_vocab.start_of_word) + scores, dec_hidden = self.forward(chars_in, initialStates) + chars_out = torch.argmax(scores, dim=-1) + else: + scores, dec_hidden = self.forward(chars_in, dec_hidden) + chars_out = torch.argmax(scores, dim=-1) + chars_in = chars_out + decodedChars.append([self.target_vocab.id2char[char_idx.item()] for char_idx in chars_out[0]]) + + decodedWords = [] + for batch_id in range(batch_size): + word = '' + for i in range(max_length): + if self.target_vocab.char2id[decodedChars[i][batch_id]] != self.target_vocab.end_of_word: + word = word + decodedChars[i][batch_id] + else: + break + decodedWords.append(word) + + return decodedWords + ### END YOUR CODE + diff --git a/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/cnn.py b/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/cnn.py new file mode 100644 index 0000000..c47f7ce --- /dev/null +++ b/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/cnn.py @@ -0,0 +1,77 @@ +#!/usr/bin/env python3 +# -*- coding: utf-8 -*- + +""" +CS224N 2019-20: Homework 5 + +Usage: + cnn.py view + cnn.py value + cnn.py -h +""" + +from docopt import docopt +import torch +import torch.nn as nn +import torch.nn.functional as F +import numpy as np + +class CNN(nn.Module): + # Remember to delete the above 'pass' after your implementation + ### YOUR CODE HERE for part 1g + def __init__(self, char_embedding, n_features, kernel_size=5, padding=1): + """define conv1d network + params: + char_embedding (int): characters' embedding dimension + n_features (int): number of conv1d filters + kernel_size (int): convolution window size + """ + super(CNN, self).__init__() + self.char_embedding = char_embedding + self.conv = nn.Conv1d(char_embedding, n_features, kernel_size, padding=padding) + + def forward(self, x): + """ + params: + x (n_words, char_embed, n_chars): words in a sentence with embedded characters + + return: + x_conv (n_words, word_embedding): embedded words matrix + """ + assert x.size()[-2] == self.char_embedding, "input tensor shape invalid, should be (n_words, char_embed, n_chars)" + x = self.conv(x) + x = F.relu(x) + x_conv, _ = torch.max(x, dim=-1) + return x_conv + + ### END YOUR CODE + + +if __name__ == '__main__': + args = docopt(__doc__) + seed = 2020 + torch.manual_seed(seed) + torch.cuda.manual_seed(seed) + np.random.seed(seed // 2) + + x = torch.tensor([[[1., 1., 1., 1.], + [-2, -2, -2., -2.]], + [[2, 2, 1, 1], + [0.5, 0.5, 0, 0]]], dtype=torch.float32) + print("input tensor shape: ", x.size()) + x = x.permute(0, 2, 1).contiguous() + model = CNN(x.size()[-2], 3, kernel_size=2) + if args['view']: + print("model's parameter print...") + for p in model.parameters(): + print(p) + elif args['value']: + print("value confirmation...") + for p in model.parameters(): + if p.dim() > 1: + nn.init.ones_(p) + else: + nn.init.zeros_(p) + x_conv = model(x) + print("input:\n{}\nsize: {}".format(x, x.size())) + print("output:\n{}\nsize: {}".format(x_conv, x_conv.size())) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/en_es_data/dev.en b/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/en_es_data/dev.en new file mode 100644 index 0000000..5b212b5 --- /dev/null +++ b/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/en_es_data/dev.en @@ -0,0 +1,851 @@ +Last year I showed these two slides so that demonstrate that the arctic ice cap, which for most of the last three million years has been the size of the lower 48 states, has shrunk by 40 percent. +But this understates the seriousness of this particular problem because it doesn't show the thickness of the ice. +The arctic ice cap is, in a sense, the beating heart of the global climate system. +It expands in winter and contracts in summer. +The next slide I show you will be a rapid fast-forward of what's happened over the last 25 years. +The permanent ice is marked in red. +As you see, it expands to the dark blue -- that's the annual ice in winter, and it contracts in summer. +The so-called permanent ice, five years old or older, you can see is almost like blood, spilling out of the body here. +In 25 years it's gone from this, to this. +This is a problem because the warming heats up the frozen ground around the Arctic Ocean, where there is a massive amount of frozen carbon which, when it thaws, is turned into methane by microbes. +Compared to the total amount of global warming pollution in the atmosphere, that amount could double if we cross this tipping point. +Already in some shallow lakes in Alaska, methane is actively bubbling up out of the water. +Professor Katey Walter from the University of Alaska went out with another team to another shallow lake last winter. +Video: Whoa! Al Gore: She's okay. The question is whether we will be. +And one reason is, this enormous heat sink heats up Greenland from the north. +This is an annual melting river. +But the volumes are much larger than ever. +This is the Kangerlussuaq River in southwest Greenland. +If you want to know how sea level rises from land-base ice melting this is where it reaches the sea. +These flows are increasing very rapidly. +At the other end of the planet, Antarctica the largest mass of ice on the planet. +Last month scientists reported the entire continent is now in negative ice balance. +And west Antarctica cropped up on top some under-sea islands, is particularly rapid in its melting. +That's equal to 20 feet of sea level, as is Greenland. +In the Himalayas, the third largest mass of ice: at the top you see new lakes, which a few years ago were glaciers. +40 percent of all the people in the world get half of their drinking water from that melting flow. +In the Andes, this glacier is the source of drinking water for this city. +The flows have increased. +But when they go away, so does much of the drinking water. +In California there has been a 40 percent decline in the Sierra snowpack. +This is hitting the reservoirs. +And the predictions, as you've read, are serious. +This drying around the world has lead to a dramatic increase in fires. +And the disasters around the world have been increasing at an absolutely extraordinary and unprecedented rate. +Four times as many in the last 30 years as in the previous 75. +This is a completely unsustainable pattern. +If you look at in the context of history you can see what this is doing. +In the last five years we've added 70 million tons of CO2 every 24 hours -- 25 million tons every day to the oceans. +Look carefully at the area of the eastern Pacific, from the Americas, extending westward, and on either side of the Indian subcontinent, where there is a radical depletion of oxygen in the oceans. +The biggest single cause of global warming, along with deforestation, which is 20 percent of it, is the burning of fossil fuels. +Oil is a problem, and coal is the most serious problem. +The United States is one of the two largest emitters, along with China. +And the proposal has been to build a lot more coal plants. +But we're beginning to see a sea change. +Here are the ones that have been cancelled in the last few years with some green alternatives proposed. +However there is a political battle in our country. +And the coal industries and the oil industries spent a quarter of a billion dollars in the last calendar year promoting clean coal, which is an oxymoron. +That image reminded me of something. +Around Christmas, in my home in Tennessee, a billion gallons of coal sludge was spilled. +You probably saw it on the news. +This, all over the country, is the second largest waste stream in America. +This happened around Christmas. +One of the coal industry's ads around Christmas was this one. +Video: Frosty the coal man is a jolly, happy soul. +He's abundant here in America, and he helps our economy grow. +Frosty the coal man is getting cleaner everyday. +He's affordable and adorable, and workers keep their pay. +Al Gore: This is the source of much of the coal in West Virginia. +The largest mountaintop miner is the head of Massey Coal. +Video: Don Blankenship: Let me be clear about it. Al Gore, Nancy Pelosi, Harry Reid, they don't know what they're talking about. +Al Gore: So the Alliance for Climate Protection has launched two campaigns. +This is one of them, part of one of them. +Video: Actor: At COALergy we view climate change as a very serious threat to our business. +That's why we've made it our primary goal to spend a large sum of money on an advertising effort to help bring out and complicate the truth about coal. +The fact is, coal isn't dirty. +We think it's clean -- smells good, too. +So don't worry about climate change. +Leave that up to us. +Video: Actor: Clean coal -- you've heard a lot about it. +So let's take a tour of this state-of-the-art clean coal facility. +Amazing! The machinery is kind of loud. +But that's the sound of clean coal technology. +And while burning coal is one of the leading causes of global warming, the remarkable clean coal technology you see here changes everything. +Take a good long look: this is today's clean coal technology. +Al Gore: Finally, the positive alternative meshes with our economic challenge and our national security challenge. +Video: Narrator: America is in crisis -- the economy, national security, the climate crisis. +The thread that links them all: our addiction to carbon based fuels, like dirty coal and foreign oil. +But now there is a bold new solution to get us out of this mess. +Repower America with 100 percent clean electricity within 10 years. +A plan to put America back to work, make us more secure, and help stop global warming. +Finally, a solution that's big enough to solve our problems. +Repower America. Find out more. +Al Gore: This is the last one. +Video: Narrator: It's about repowering America. +One of the fastest ways to cut our dependence on old dirty fuels that are killing our planet. +Man: Future's over here. Wind, sun, a new energy grid. +Man #2: New investments to create high-paying jobs. +Narrator: Repower America. It's time to get real. +Al Gore: There is an old African proverb that says, "If you want to go quickly, go alone. +If you want to go far, go together." +We need to go far, quickly. +Thank you very much. +Last year at TED I gave an introduction to the LHC. +And I promised to come back and give you an update on how that machine worked. +So this is it. And for those of you that weren't there, the LHC is the largest scientific experiment ever attempted -- 27 kilometers in circumference. +Its job is to recreate the conditions that were present less than a billionth of a second after the universe began, up to 600 million times a second. +It's nothing if not ambitious. +This is the machine below Geneva. +We take the pictures of those mini-Big Bangs inside detectors. +This is the one I work on. It's called the ATLAS detector -- 44 meters wide, 22 meters in diameter. +Spectacular picture here of ATLAS under construction so you can see the scale. +On the 10th of September last year we turned the machine on for the first time. +And this picture was taken by ATLAS. +It caused immense celebration in the control room. +It's a picture of the first beam particle going all the way around the LHC, colliding with a piece of the LHC deliberately, and showering particles into the detector. +In other words, when we saw that picture on September 10th we knew the machine worked, which is a great triumph. +I don't know whether this got the biggest cheer, or this, when someone went onto Google and saw the front page was like that. +It means we made cultural impact as well as scientific impact. +About a week later we had a problem with the machine, related actually to these bits of wire here -- these gold wires. +Those wires carry 13 thousand amps when the machine is working in full power. +Now the engineers amongst you will look at them and say, "No they don't. They're small wires." +They can do that because when they are very cold they are what's called superconducting wire. +So at minus 271 degrees, colder than the space between the stars, those wires can take that current. +In one of the joints between over 9,000 magnets in LHC, there was a manufacturing defect. +So the wire heated up slightly, and its 13,000 amps suddenly encountered electrical resistance. +This was the result. +Now that's more impressive when you consider those magnets weigh over 20 tons, and they moved about a foot. +So we damaged about 50 of the magnets. +We had to take them out, which we did. +We reconditioned them all, fixed them. +They're all on their way back underground now. +By the end of March the LHC will be intact again. +We will switch it on, and we expect to take data in June or July, and continue with our quest to find out what the building blocks of the universe are. +Now of course, in a way those accidents reignite the debate about the value of science and engineering at the edge. It's easy to refute. +I think that the fact that it's so difficult, the fact that we're overreaching, is the value of things like the LHC. +Thank you. +I want to start out by asking you to think back to when you were a kid, playing with blocks. +As you figured out how to reach out and grasp, pick them up and move them around, you were actually learning how to think and solve problems by understanding and manipulating spatial relationships. +Spatial reasoning is deeply connected to how we understand a lot of the world around us. +This question was so compelling that we decided to explore the answer, by building Siftables. +In a nutshell, a Siftable is an interactive computer the size of a cookie. +They're able to be moved around by hand, they can sense each other, they can sense their motion, and they have a screen and a wireless radio. +Most importantly, they're physical, so like the blocks, you can move them just by reaching out and grasping. +And Siftables are an example of a new ecosystem of tools for manipulating digital information. +And as these tools become more physical, more aware of their motion, aware of each other, and aware of the nuance of how we move them, we can start to explore some new and fun interaction styles. +So, I'm going to start with some simple examples. +This Siftable is configured to show video, and if I tilt it in one direction, it'll roll the video this way; if I tilt it the other way it rolls it backwards. +And these interactive portraits are aware of each other. +So if I put them next to each other, they get interested. +If they get surrounded, they notice that too, they might get a little flustered. +And they can also sense their motion and tilt. +One of the interesting implications on interaction, we started to realize, was that we could use everyday gestures on data, like pouring a color the way we might pour a liquid. +So in this case, we've got three Siftables configured to be paint buckets and I can use them to pour color into that central one, where they get mixed. +If we overshoot, we can pour a little bit back. +There are also some neat possibilities for education, like language, math and logic games where we want to give people the ability to try things quickly, and view the results immediately. +So here I'm -- This is a Fibonacci sequence that I'm making with a simple equation program. +Here we have a word game that's kind of like a mash-up between Scrabble and Boggle. +Basically, in every round you get a randomly assigned letter on each Siftable, and as you try to make words it checks against a dictionary. +Then, after about 30 seconds, it reshuffles, and you have a new set of letters and new possibilities to try. +Thank you. +So these are some kids that came on a field trip to the Media Lab, and I managed to get them to try it out, and shoot a video. +They really loved it. +And, one of the interesting things about this kind of application is that you don't have to give people many instructions. +All you have to say is, "Make words," and they know exactly what to do. +So here's another few people trying it out. +That's our youngest beta tester, down there on the right. +Turns out, all he wanted to do was to stack the Siftables up. +So to him, they were just blocks. +Now, this is an interactive cartoon application. +And we wanted to build a learning tool for language learners. +And this is Felix, actually. +And he can bring new characters into the scene, just by lifting the Siftables off the table that have that character shown on them. +Here, he's bringing the sun out. +Video: The sun is rising. +David Merrill: Now he's brought a tractor into the scene. +Video: The orange tractor. +Good job! Yeah! +DM: So by shaking the Siftables and putting them next to each other he can make the characters interact -- Video: Woof! +DM: inventing his own narrative. +Video: Hello! +DM: It's an open-ended story, and he gets to decide how it unfolds. +Video: Fly away, cat. +DM: So, the last example I have time to show you today is a music sequencing and live performance tool that we've built recently, in which Siftables act as sounds like lead, bass and drums. +Each of these has four different variations, you get to choose which one you want to use. +And you can inject these sounds into a sequence that you can assemble into the pattern that you want. +And you inject it by just bumping up the sound Siftable against a sequence Siftable. +There are effects that you can control live, like reverb and filter. +You attach it to a particular sound and then tilt to adjust it. +And then, overall effects like tempo and volume that apply to the entire sequence. +So let's have a look. +Video: DM: We'll start by putting a lead into two sequence Siftables, arrange them into a series, extend it, add a little more lead. +Now I put a bass line in. +Video: DM: Now I'll put some percussion in. +Video: DM: And now I'll attach the filter to the drums, so I can control the effect live. +Video: DM: I can speed up the whole sequence by tilting the tempo one way or the other. +Video: DM: And now I'll attach the filter to the bass for some more expression. +Video: DM: I can rearrange the sequence while it plays. +So I don't have to plan it out in advance, but I can improvise, making it longer or shorter as I go. +And now, finally, I can fade the whole sequence out using the volume Siftable, tilted to the left. +Thank you. +So, as you can see, my passion is for making new human-computer interfaces that are a better match to the ways our brains and bodies work. +And today, I had time to show you one point in this new design space, and a few of the possibilities that we're working to bring out of the laboratory. +So the thought I want to leave you with is that we're on the cusp of this new generation of tools for interacting with digital media that are going to bring information into our world on our terms. +Thank you very much. +I look forward to talking with all of you. +I am a writer. +Writing books is my profession but it's more than that, of course. +It is also my great lifelong love and fascination. +And I don't expect that that's ever going to change. +But, that said, something kind of peculiar has happened recently in my life and in my career, which has caused me to have to recalibrate my whole relationship with this work. +And the peculiar thing is that I recently wrote this book, this memoir called "Eat, Pray, Love" which, decidedly unlike any of my previous books, went out in the world for some reason, and became this big, mega-sensation, international bestseller thing. +The result of which is that everywhere I go now, people treat me like I'm doomed. +Seriously -- doomed, doomed! +Like, they come up to me now, all worried, and they say, "Aren't you afraid you're never going to be able to top that? +Aren't you afraid you're going to keep writing for your whole life and you're never again going to create a book that anybody in the world cares about at all, ever again?" +So that's reassuring, you know. +But it would be worse, except for that I happen to remember that over 20 years ago, when I was a teenager, when I first started telling people that I wanted to be a writer, I was met with this same sort of fear-based reaction. +And people would say, "Aren't you afraid you're never going to have any success? +Aren't you afraid the humiliation of rejection will kill you? +Aren't you afraid that you're going to work your whole life at this craft and nothing's ever going to come of it and you're going to die on a scrap heap of broken dreams with your mouth filled with bitter ash of failure?" +Like that, you know. +The answer -- the short answer to all those questions is, "Yes." +Yes, I'm afraid of all those things. +And I always have been. +And I'm afraid of many, many more things besides that people can't even guess at, like seaweed and other things that are scary. +But, when it comes to writing, the thing that I've been sort of thinking about lately, and wondering about lately, is why? +You know, is it rational? +Is it logical that anybody should be expected to be afraid of the work that they feel they were put on this Earth to do. +And what is it specifically about creative ventures that seems to make us really nervous about each other's mental health in a way that other careers kind of don't do, you know? +Like my dad, for example, was a chemical engineer and I don't recall once in his 40 years of chemical engineering anybody asking him if he was afraid to be a chemical engineer, you know? +"That chemical-engineering block, John, how's it going?" +It just didn't come up like that, you know? +But to be fair, chemical engineers as a group haven't really earned a reputation over the centuries for being alcoholic manic-depressives. +We writers, we kind of do have that reputation, and not just writers, but creative people across all genres, it seems, have this reputation for being enormously mentally unstable. +And all you have to do is look at the very grim death count in the 20th century alone, of really magnificent creative minds who died young and often at their own hands, you know? +And even the ones who didn't literally commit suicide seem to be really undone by their gifts, you know. +Norman Mailer, just before he died, last interview, he said, "Every one of my books has killed me a little more." +An extraordinary statement to make about your life's work. +But we don't even blink when we hear somebody say this, because we've heard that kind of stuff for so long and somehow we've completely internalized and accepted collectively this notion that creativity and suffering are somehow inherently linked and that artistry, in the end, will always ultimately lead to anguish. +And the question that I want to ask everybody here today is are you guys all cool with that idea? +Are you comfortable with that? +Because you look at it even from an inch away and, you know -- I'm not at all comfortable with that assumption. +I think it's odious. +And I also think it's dangerous, and I don't want to see it perpetuated into the next century. +I think it's better if we encourage our great creative minds to live. +And I definitely know that, in my case -- in my situation -- it would be very dangerous for me to start sort of leaking down that dark path of assumption, particularly given the circumstance that I'm in right now in my career. +Which is -- you know, like check it out, I'm pretty young, I'm only about 40 years old. +I still have maybe another four decades of work left in me. +And it's exceedingly likely that anything I write from this point forward is going to be judged by the world as the work that came after the freakish success of my last book, right? +I should just put it bluntly, because we're all sort of friends here now -- it's exceedingly likely that my greatest success is behind me. +So Jesus, what a thought! +That's the kind of thought that could lead a person to start drinking gin at nine o'clock in the morning, and I don't want to go there. +I would prefer to keep doing this work that I love. +And so, the question becomes, how? +And so, it seems to me, upon a lot of reflection, that the way that I have to work now, in order to continue writing, is that I have to create some sort of protective psychological construct, right? +I have to sort of find some way to have a safe distance between me, as I am writing, and my very natural anxiety about what the reaction to that writing is going to be, from now on. +And that search has led me to ancient Greece and ancient Rome. +So stay with me, because it does circle around and back. +But, ancient Greece and ancient Rome -- people did not happen to believe that creativity came from human beings back then, OK? +People believed that creativity was this divine attendant spirit that came to human beings from some distant and unknowable source, for distant and unknowable reasons. +The Greeks famously called these divine attendant spirits of creativity "daemons." +Socrates, famously, believed that he had a daemon who spoke wisdom to him from afar. +The Romans had the same idea, but they called that sort of disembodied creative spirit a genius. +Which is great, because the Romans did not actually think that a genius was a particularly clever individual. +They believed that a genius was this, sort of magical divine entity, who was believed to literally live in the walls of an artist's studio, kind of like Dobby the house elf, and who would come out and sort of invisibly assist the artist with their work and would shape the outcome of that work. +So brilliant -- there it is, right there, that distance that I'm talking about -- that psychological construct to protect you from the results of your work. +And everyone knew that this is how it functioned, right? +So the ancient artist was protected from certain things, like, for example, too much narcissism, right? +If your work was brilliant, you couldn't take all the credit for it, everybody knew that you had this disembodied genius who had helped you. +If your work bombed, not entirely your fault, you know? +Everyone knew your genius was kind of lame. +And this is how people thought about creativity in the West for a really long time. +And then the Renaissance came and everything changed, and we had this big idea, and the big idea was, let's put the individual human being at the center of the universe above all gods and mysteries, and there's no more room for mystical creatures who take dictation from the divine. +And it's the beginning of rational humanism, and people started to believe that creativity came completely from the self of the individual. +And for the first time in history, you start to hear people referring to this or that artist as being a genius, rather than having a genius. +And I got to tell you, I think that was a huge error. +You know, I think that allowing somebody, one mere person to believe that he or she is like, the vessel, you know, like the font and the essence and the source of all divine, creative, unknowable, eternal mystery is just a smidge too much responsibility to put on one fragile, human psyche. +It's like asking somebody to swallow the sun. +It just completely warps and distorts egos, and it creates all these unmanageable expectations about performance. +And I think the pressure of that has been killing off our artists for the last 500 years. +And, if this is true, and I think it is true, the question becomes, what now? +Can we do this differently? +Maybe go back to some more ancient understanding about the relationship between humans and the creative mystery. +Maybe not. +Maybe we can't just erase 500 years of rational humanistic thought in one 18 minute speech. +And there's probably people in this audience who would raise really legitimate scientific suspicions about the notion of, basically, fairies who follow people around rubbing fairy juice on their projects and stuff. +I'm not, probably, going to bring you all along with me on this. +But the question that I kind of want to pose is -- you know, why not? +Why not think about it this way? +Because it makes as much sense as anything else I have ever heard in terms of explaining the utter maddening capriciousness of the creative process. +A process which, as anybody who has ever tried to make something -- which is to say basically everyone here --- knows does not always behave rationally. +And, in fact, can sometimes feel downright paranormal. +And she said it was like a thunderous train of air. +And it would come barreling down at her over the landscape. +And she felt it coming, because it would shake the earth under her feet. +She knew that she had only one thing to do at that point, and that was to, in her words, "run like hell." +And she would run like hell to the house and she would be getting chased by this poem, and the whole deal was that she had to get to a piece of paper and a pencil fast enough so that when it thundered through her, she could collect it and grab it on the page. +And other times she wouldn't be fast enough, so she'd be running and running, and she wouldn't get to the house and the poem would barrel through her and she would miss it and she said it would continue on across the landscape, looking, as she put it "for another poet." +And then there were these times -- this is the piece I never forgot -- she said that there were moments where she would almost miss it, right? +So, she's running to the house and she's looking for the paper and the poem passes through her, and she grabs a pencil just as it's going through her, and then she said, it was like she would reach out with her other hand and she would catch it. +She would catch the poem by its tail, and she would pull it backwards into her body as she was transcribing on the page. +And in these instances, the poem would come up on the page perfect and intact but backwards, from the last word to the first. +So when I heard that I was like -- that's uncanny, that's exactly what my creative process is like. +That's not at all what my creative process is -- I'm not the pipeline! +I'm a mule, and the way that I have to work is I have to get up at the same time every day, and sweat and labor and barrel through it really awkwardly. +But even I, in my mulishness, even I have brushed up against that thing, at times. +And I would imagine that a lot of you have too. +You know, even I have had work or ideas come through me from a source that I honestly cannot identify. +And what is that thing? +And how are we to relate to it in a way that will not make us lose our minds, but, in fact, might actually keep us sane? +And for me, the best contemporary example that I have of how to do that is the musician Tom Waits, who I got to interview several years ago on a magazine assignment. +And we were talking about this, and you know, Tom, for most of his life, he was pretty much the embodiment of the tormented contemporary modern artist, trying to control and manage and dominate these sort of uncontrollable creative impulses that were totally internalized. +But then he got older, he got calmer, and one day he was driving down the freeway in Los Angeles, and this is when it all changed for him. +And he's speeding along, and all of a sudden he hears this little fragment of melody, that comes into his head as inspiration often comes, elusive and tantalizing, and he wants it, it's gorgeous, and he longs for it, but he has no way to get it. +He doesn't have a piece of paper, or a pencil, or a tape recorder. +So he starts to feel all of that old anxiety start to rise in him like, "I'm going to lose this thing, and I'll be be haunted by this song forever. +I'm not good enough, and I can't do it." +And instead of panicking, he just stopped. +He just stopped that whole mental process and he did something completely novel. +He just looked up at the sky, and he said, "Excuse me, can you not see that I'm driving?" +"Do I look like I can write down a song right now? +If you really want to exist, come back at a more opportune moment when I can take care of you. +Otherwise, go bother somebody else today. +Go bother Leonard Cohen." +And his whole work process changed after that. +Not the work, the work was still oftentimes as dark as ever. +But the process, and the heavy anxiety around it was released when he took the genie, the genius out of him where it was causing nothing but trouble, and released it back where it came from, and realized that this didn't have to be this internalized, tormented thing. +It could be this peculiar, wondrous, bizarre collaboration, kind of conversation between Tom and the strange, external thing that was not quite Tom. +When I heard that story, it started to shift a little bit the way that I worked too, and this idea already saved me once. +Not just bad, but the worst book ever written. +And I started to think I should just dump this project. +But then I remembered Tom talking to the open air and I tried it. +So I just lifted my face up from the manuscript and I directed my comments to an empty corner of the room. +And I said aloud, "Listen you, thing, you and I both know that if this book isn't brilliant that is not entirely my fault, right? +Because you can see that I am putting everything I have into this, I don't have any more than this. +If you want it to be better, you've got to show up and do your part of the deal. +But if you don't do that, you know what, the hell with it. +I'm going to keep writing anyway because that's my job. +And I would please like the record to reflect today that I showed up for my part of the job." +Because -- Because in the end it's like this, OK -- centuries ago in the deserts of North Africa, people used to gather for these moonlight dances of sacred dance and music that would go on for hours and hours, until dawn. +They were always magnificent, because the dancers were professionals and they were terrific, right? +But every once in a while, very rarely, something would happen, and one of these performers would actually become transcendent. +And I know you know what I'm talking about, because I know you've all seen, at some point in your life, a performance like this. +It was like time would stop, and the dancer would sort of step through some kind of portal and he wasn't doing anything different than he had ever done, 1,000 nights before, but everything would align. +And all of a sudden, he would no longer appear to be merely human. +He would be lit from within, and lit from below and all lit up on fire with divinity. +And when this happened, back then, people knew it for what it was, you know, they called it by its name. +They would put their hands together and they would start to chant, "Allah, Allah, Allah, God, God, God." +That's God, you know. +Curious historical footnote: when the Moors invaded southern Spain, they took this custom with them and the pronunciation changed over the centuries from "Allah, Allah, Allah," to "Ol, ol, ol," which you still hear in bullfights and in flamenco dances. +In Spain, when a performer has done something impossible and magic, "Allah, ol, ol, Allah, magnificent, bravo," incomprehensible, there it is -- a glimpse of God. +Which is great, because we need that. +But, the tricky bit comes the next morning, for the dancer himself, when he wakes up and discovers that it's Tuesday at 11 a.m., and he's no longer a glimpse of God. +He's just an aging mortal with really bad knees, and maybe he's never going to ascend to that height again. +And maybe nobody will ever chant God's name again as he spins, and what is he then to do with the rest of his life? +This is hard. +This is one of the most painful reconciliations to make in a creative life. +But maybe it doesn't have to be quite so full of anguish if you never happened to believe, in the first place, that the most extraordinary aspects of your being came from you. +But maybe if you just believed that they were on loan to you from some unimaginable source for some exquisite portion of your life to be passed along when you're finished, with somebody else. +And, you know, if we think about it this way, it starts to change everything. +This is how I've started to think, and this is certainly how I've been thinking in the last few months as I've been working on the book that will soon be published, as the dangerously, frighteningly over-anticipated follow up to my freakish success. +And what I have to sort of keep telling myself when I get really psyched out about that is don't be afraid. +Don't be daunted. Just do your job. +Continue to show up for your piece of it, whatever that might be. +If your job is to dance, do your dance. +If the divine, cockeyed genius assigned to your case decides to let some sort of wonderment be glimpsed, for just one moment through your efforts, then "Ol!" +And if not, do your dance anyhow. +And "Ol!" to you, nonetheless. +I believe this and I feel that we must teach it. +"Ol!" to you, nonetheless, just for having the sheer human love and stubbornness to keep showing up. +Thank you. +Thank you. +June Cohen: Ol! +You know, I've talked about some of these projects before -- about the human genome and what that might mean, and discovering new sets of genes. +We're actually starting at a new point: we've been digitizing biology, and now we're trying to go from that digital code into a new phase of biology with designing and synthesizing life. +So, we've always been trying to ask big questions. +"What is life?" is something that I think many biologists have been trying to understand at various levels. +We've tried various approaches, paring it down to minimal components. +We've been digitizing it now for almost 20 years; when we sequenced the human genome, it was going from the analog world of biology into the digital world of the computer. +Now we're trying to ask, "Can we regenerate life or can we create new life out of this digital universe?" +This is the map of a small organism, Mycoplasma genitalium, that has the smallest genome for a species that can self-replicate in the laboratory, and we've been trying to just see if we can come up with an even smaller genome. +We're able to knock out on the order of 100 genes out of the 500 or so that are here. +When we look at its metabolic map, it's relatively simple compared to ours -- trust me, this is simple -- but when we look at all the genes that we can knock out one at a time, it's very unlikely that this would yield a living cell. +So we decided the only way forward was to actually synthesize this chromosome so we could vary the components to ask some of these most fundamental questions. +And so we started down the road of: can we synthesize a chromosome? +Can chemistry permit making these really large molecules where we've never been before? +And if we do, can we boot up a chromosome? +A chromosome, by the way, is just a piece of inert chemical material. +So, our pace of digitizing life has been increasing at an exponential pace. +Our ability to write the genetic code has been moving pretty slowly but has been increasing, and our latest point would put it on, now, an exponential curve. +We started this over 15 years ago. +It took several stages, in fact, starting with a bioethical review before we did the first experiments. +But it turns out synthesizing DNA is very difficult. +There are tens of thousands of machines around the world that make small pieces of DNA -- 30 to 50 letters in length -- and it's a degenerate process, so the longer you make the piece, the more errors there are. +So we had to create a new method for putting these little pieces together and correct all the errors. +And this was our first attempt, starting with the digital information of the genome of phi X174. +It's a small virus that kills bacteria. +We designed the pieces, went through our error correction and had a DNA molecule of about 5,000 letters. +The exciting phase came when we took this piece of inert chemical and put it in the bacteria, and the bacteria started to read this genetic code, made the viral particles. +The viral particles then were released from the cells and came back and killed the E. coli. +I was talking to the oil industry recently and I said they clearly understood that model. +They laughed more than you guys are. And so, we think this is a situation where the software can actually build its own hardware in a biological system. +Design is critical, and if you're starting with digital information in the computer, that digital information has to be really accurate. +When we first sequenced this genome in 1995, the standard of accuracy was one error per 10,000 base pairs. +We actually found, on resequencing it, 30 errors; had we used that original sequence, it never would have been able to be booted up. +Part of the design is designing pieces that are 50 letters long that have to overlap with all the other 50-letter pieces to build smaller subunits we have to design so they can go together. +We design unique elements into this. +You may have read that we put watermarks in. +Think of this: we have a four-letter genetic code -- A, C, G and T. +Triplets of those letters code for roughly 20 amino acids, such that there's a single letter designation for each of the amino acids. +So we can use the genetic code to write out words, sentences, thoughts. +Initially, all we did was autograph it. +Some people were disappointed there was not poetry. +We designed these pieces so we can just chew back with enzymes; there are enzymes that repair them and put them together. +And we started making pieces, starting with pieces that were 5,000 to 7,000 letters, put those together to make 24,000-letter pieces, then put sets of those going up to 72,000. +At each stage, we grew up these pieces in abundance so we could sequence them because we're trying to create a process that's extremely robust that you can see in a minute. +We're trying to get to the point of automation. +So, this looks like a basketball playoff. +When we get into these really large pieces over 100,000 base pairs, they won't any longer grow readily in E. coli -- it exhausts all the modern tools of molecular biology -- and so we turned to other mechanisms. +We knew there's a mechanism called homologous recombination that biology uses to repair DNA that can put pieces together. +Here's an example of it: there's an organism called Deinococcus radiodurans that can take three millions rads of radiation. +You can see in the top panel, its chromosome just gets blown apart. +Twelve to 24 hours later, it put it back together exactly as it was before. +We have thousands of organisms that can do this. +These organisms can be totally desiccated; they can live in a vacuum. +I am absolutely certain that life can exist in outer space, move around, find a new aqueous environment. +In fact, NASA has shown a lot of this is out there. +Here's an actual micrograph of the molecule we built using these processes, actually just using yeast mechanisms with the right design of the pieces we put them in; yeast puts them together automatically. +This is not an electron micrograph; this is just a regular photomicrograph. +It's such a large molecule we can see it with a light microscope. +These are pictures over about a six-second period. +So, this is the publication we had just a short while ago. +This is over 580,000 letters of genetic code; it's the largest molecule ever made by humans of a defined structure. +It's over 300 million molecular weight. +If we printed it out at a 10 font with no spacing, it takes 142 pages just to print this genetic code. +Well, how do we boot up a chromosome? How do we activate this? +Obviously, with a virus it's pretty simple; it's much more complicated dealing with bacteria. +It's also simpler when you go into eukaryotes like ourselves: you can just pop out the nucleus and pop in another one, and that's what you've all heard about with cloning. +With bacteria and Archaea, the chromosome is integrated into the cell, but we recently showed that we can do a complete transplant of a chromosome from one cell to another and activate it. +The new chromosome went into the cell. +In fact, we thought this might be as far as it went, but we tried to design the process a little bit further. +This is a major mechanism of evolution right here. +We find all kinds of species that have taken up a second chromosome or a third one from somewhere, adding thousands of new traits in a second to that species. +So, people who think of evolution as just one gene changing at a time have missed much of biology. +There are enzymes called restriction enzymes that actually digest DNA. +The chromosome that was in the cell doesn't have one; the chromosome we put in does. +It got expressed and it recognized the other chromosome as foreign material, chewed it up, and so we ended up just with a cell with the new chromosome. +It turned blue because of the genes we put in it. +And with a very short period of time, all the characteristics of one species were lost and it converted totally into the new species based on the new software that we put in the cell. +All the proteins changed, the membranes changed; when we read the genetic code, it's exactly what we had transferred in. +So, this may sound like genomic alchemy, but we can, by moving the software of DNA around, change things quite dramatically. +Now I've argued, this is not genesis; this is building on three and a half billion years of evolution. +And I've argued that we're about to perhaps create a new version of the Cambrian explosion, where there's massive new speciation based on this digital design. +Why do this? +I think this is pretty obvious in terms of some of the needs. +We're about to go from six and a half to nine billion people over the next 40 years. +To put it in context for myself: I was born in 1946. +There are now three people on the planet for every one of us that existed in 1946; within 40 years, there'll be four. +We have trouble feeding, providing fresh, clean water, medicines, fuel for the six and a half billion. +It's going to be a stretch to do it for nine. +We use over five billion tons of coal, 30 billion-plus barrels of oil -- that's a hundred million barrels a day. +When we try to think of biological processes or any process to replace that, it's going to be a huge challenge. +Then of course, there's all that CO2 from this material that ends up in the atmosphere. +We now, from our discovery around the world, have a database with about 20 million genes, and I like to think of these as the design components of the future. +The electronics industry only had a dozen or so components, and look at the diversity that came out of that. +We're limited here primarily by a biological reality and our imagination. +We now have techniques, because of these rapid methods of synthesis, to do what we're calling combinatorial genomics. +We have the ability now to build a large robot that can make a million chromosomes a day. +When you think of processing these 20 million different genes or trying to optimize processes to produce octane or to produce pharmaceuticals, new vaccines, we can just with a small team, do more molecular biology than the last 20 years of all science. +And it's just standard selection: we can select for viability, chemical or fuel production, vaccine production, etc. +This is a screen snapshot of some true design software that we're working on to actually be able to sit down and design species in the computer. +You know, we don't know necessarily what it'll look like: we know exactly what their genetic code looks like. +We're focusing on now fourth-generation fuels. +You've seen recently, corn to ethanol is just a bad experiment. +We have second- and third-generation fuels that will be coming out relatively soon that are sugar, to much higher-value fuels like octane or different types of butanol. +But the only way we think that biology can have a major impact without further increasing the cost of food and limiting its availability is if we start with CO2 as its feedstock, and so we're working with designing cells to go down this road. +And we think we'll have the first fourth-generation fuels in about 18 months. +Sunlight and CO2 is one method ... +but in our discovery around the world, we have all kinds of other methods. +This is an organism we described in 1996. +It lives in the deep ocean, about a mile and a half deep, almost at boiling-water temperatures. +It takes CO2 to methane using molecular hydrogen as its energy source. +We're looking to see if we can take captured CO2, which can easily be piped to sites, convert that CO2 back into fuel to drive this process. +So, in a short period of time, we think that we might be able to increase what the basic question is of "What is life?" +We truly, you know, have modest goals of replacing the whole petrol-chemical industry -- Yeah. If you can't do that at TED, where can you? -- become a major source of energy ... +But also, we're now working on using these same tools to come up with instant sets of vaccines. +You've seen this year with flu; we're always a year behind and a dollar short when it comes to the right vaccine. +I think that can be changed by building combinatorial vaccines in advance. +Here's what the future may begin to look like with changing, now, the evolutionary tree, speeding up evolution with synthetic bacteria, Archaea and, eventually, eukaryotes. +We're a ways away from improving people: our goal is just to make sure that we have a chance to survive long enough to maybe do that. Thank you very much. +We're looking at many, many gigabytes of digital photos here and kind of seamlessly and continuously zooming in, panning through it, rearranging it in any way we want. +And it doesn't matter how much information we're looking at, how big these collections are or how big the images are. +Most of them are ordinary digital camera photos, but this one, for example, is a scan from the Library of Congress, and it's in the 300 megapixel range. +It doesn't make any difference because the only thing that ought to limit the performance of a system like this one is the number of pixels on your screen at any given moment. +It's also very flexible architecture. +This is an entire book, so this is an example of non-image data. +This is "Bleak House" by Dickens. Every column is a chapter. +To prove to you that it's really text, and not an image, we can do something like so, to really show that this is a real representation of the text; it's not a picture. +Maybe this is an artificial way to read an e-book. +I wouldn't recommend it. +This is a more realistic case, an issue of The Guardian. +Every large image is the beginning of a section. +And this really gives you the joy and the good experience of reading the real paper version of a magazine or a newspaper, which is an inherently multi-scale kind of medium. +We've done something with the corner of this particular issue of The Guardian. +We've made up a fake ad that's very high resolution -- much higher than in an ordinary ad -- and we've embedded extra content. +If you want to see the features of this car, you can see it here. +Or other models, or even technical specifications. +And this really gets at some of these ideas about really doing away with those limits on screen real estate. +We hope that this means no more pop-ups and other rubbish like that -- shouldn't be necessary. +Of course, mapping is one of those obvious applications for a technology like this. +And this one I really won't spend any time on, except to say that we have things to contribute to this field as well. +But those are all the roads in the U.S. +superimposed on top of a NASA geospatial image. +So let's pull up, now, something else. +This is actually live on the Web now; you can go check it out. +This is a project called Photosynth, which marries two different technologies. +One of them is Seadragon and the other is some very beautiful computer-vision research done by Noah Snavely, a graduate student at the University of Washington, co-advised by Steve Seitz at U.W. +and Rick Szeliski at Microsoft Research. A very nice collaboration. +And so this is live on the Web. It's powered by Seadragon. +You can see that when we do these sorts of views, where we can dive through images and have this kind of multi-resolution experience. +But the spatial arrangement of the images here is actually meaningful. +The computer vision algorithms have registered these images together so that they correspond to the real space in which these shots -- all taken near Grassi Lakes in the Canadian Rockies -- all these shots were taken. +So you see elements here of stabilized slide-show or panoramic imaging, and these things have all been related spatially. +I'm not sure if I have time to show you any other environments. +Some are much more spatial. +We had to worry about the lawyers and so on. +This is a reconstruction of Notre Dame Cathedral that was done entirely computationally from images scraped from Flickr. +You just type Notre Dame into Flickr, and you get some pictures of guys in T-shirts, and of the campus and so on. +And each of these orange cones represents an image that was discovered to belong to this model. +And so these are all Flickr images, and they've all been related spatially in this way. +We can just navigate in this very simple way. +(Applause ends) You know, I never thought that I'd end up working at Microsoft. +It's very gratifying to have this kind of reception here. +I guess you can see this is lots of different types of cameras: it's everything from cell-phone cameras to professional SLRs, quite a large number of them, stitched together in this environment. +If I can find some of the sort of weird ones -- So many of them are occluded by faces, and so on. +Somewhere in here there is actually a series of photographs -- here we go. +This is actually a poster of Notre Dame that registered correctly. +We can dive in from the poster to a physical view of this environment. +What the point here really is is that we can do things with the social environment. +This is now taking data from everybody -- from the entire collective memory, visually, of what the Earth looks like -- and link all of that together. +Those photos become linked, and they make something emergent that's greater than the sum of the parts. +You have a model that emerges of the entire Earth. +Think of this as the long tail to Stephen Lawler's Virtual Earth work. +And this is something that grows in complexity as people use it, and whose benefits become greater to the users as they use it. +Their own photos are getting tagged with meta-data that somebody else entered. +And of course, a by-product of all of that is immensely rich virtual models of every interesting part of the Earth, collected not just from overhead flights and from satellite images and so on, but from the collective memory. +Thank you so much. +Chris Anderson: Do I understand this right? What your software is going to allow, is that at some point, really within the next few years, all the pictures that are shared by anyone across the world are going to link together? +BAA: Yes. What this is really doing is discovering, creating hyperlinks, if you will, between images. +It's doing that based on the content inside the images. +And that gets really exciting when you think about the richness of the semantic information a lot of images have. +Like when you do a web search for images, you type in phrases, and the text on the web page is carrying a lot of information about what that picture is of. +What if that picture links to all of your pictures? +The amount of semantic interconnection and richness that comes out of that is really huge. +It's a classic network effect. +CA: Truly incredible. Congratulations. +And of course, we all share the same adaptive imperatives. +We're all born. We all bring our children into the world. +We go through initiation rites. +We have to deal with the inexorable separation of death, so it shouldn't surprise us that we all sing, we all dance, we all have art. +But what's interesting is the unique cadence of the song, the rhythm of the dance in every culture. +All of these peoples teach us that there are other ways of being, other ways of thinking, other ways of orienting yourself in the Earth. +And this is an idea, if you think about it, can only fill you with hope. +Now, together the myriad cultures of the world make up a web of spiritual life and cultural life that envelops the planet, and is as important to the well-being of the planet as indeed is the biological web of life that you know as a biosphere. +And you might think of this cultural web of life as being an ethnosphere, and you might define the ethnosphere as being the sum total of all thoughts and dreams, myths, ideas, inspirations, intuitions brought into being by the human imagination since the dawn of consciousness. +The ethnosphere is humanity's great legacy. +It's the symbol of all that we are and all that we can be as an astonishingly inquisitive species. +And just as the biosphere has been severely eroded, so too is the ethnosphere -- and, if anything, at a far greater rate. +And the great indicator of that, of course, is language loss. +When each of you in this room were born, there were 6,000 languages spoken on the planet. +Now, a language is not just a body of vocabulary or a set of grammatical rules. +A language is a flash of the human spirit. +It's a vehicle through which the soul of each particular culture comes into the material world. +Every language is an old-growth forest of the mind, a watershed, a thought, an ecosystem of spiritual possibilities. +And of those 6,000 languages, as we sit here today in Monterey, fully half are no longer being whispered into the ears of children. +They're no longer being taught to babies, which means, effectively, unless something changes, they're already dead. +What could be more lonely than to be enveloped in silence, to be the last of your people to speak your language, to have no way to pass on the wisdom of the ancestors or anticipate the promise of the children? +And yet, that dreadful fate is indeed the plight of somebody somewhere on Earth roughly every two weeks, because every two weeks, some elder dies and carries with him into the grave the last syllables of an ancient tongue. +And I know there's some of you who say, "Well, wouldn't it be better, wouldn't the world be a better place if we all just spoke one language?" And I say, "Great, let's make that language Yoruba. Let's make it Cantonese. +Let's make it Kogi." +And you'll suddenly discover what it would be like to be unable to speak your own language. +And so, what I'd like to do with you today is sort of take you on a journey through the ethnosphere, a brief journey through the ethnosphere, to try to begin to give you a sense of what in fact is being lost. +Now, there are many of us who sort of forget that when I say "different ways of being," I really do mean different ways of being. +Take, for example, this child of a Barasana in the Northwest Amazon, the people of the anaconda who believe that mythologically they came up the milk river from the east in the belly of sacred snakes. +Now, this is a people who cognitively do not distinguish the color blue from the color green because the canopy of the heavens is equated to the canopy of the forest upon which the people depend. +They have a curious language and marriage rule which is called "linguistic exogamy:" you must marry someone who speaks a different language. +And this is all rooted in the mythological past, yet the curious thing is in these long houses, where there are six or seven languages spoken because of intermarriage, you never hear anyone practicing a language. +They simply listen and then begin to speak. +Or, one of the most fascinating tribes I ever lived with, the Waorani of northeastern Ecuador, an astonishing people first contacted peacefully in 1958. +In 1957, five missionaries attempted contact and made a critical mistake. +They dropped from the air 8 x 10 glossy photographs of themselves in what we would say to be friendly gestures, forgetting that these people of the rainforest had never seen anything two-dimensional in their lives. +They picked up these photographs from the forest floor, tried to look behind the face to find the form or the figure, found nothing, and concluded that these were calling cards from the devil, so they speared the five missionaries to death. +But the Waorani didn't just spear outsiders. +They speared each other. +54 percent of their mortality was due to them spearing each other. +Their hunters could smell animal urine at 40 paces and tell you what species left it behind. +In the early '80s, I had a really astonishing assignment when I was asked by my professor at Harvard if I was interested in going down to Haiti, infiltrating the secret societies which were the foundation of Duvalier's strength and Tonton Macoutes, and securing the poison used to make zombies. +In order to make sense out of sensation, of course, I had to understand something about this remarkable faith of Vodoun. And Voodoo is not a black magic cult. +On the contrary, it's a complex metaphysical worldview. +It's interesting. +If I asked you to name the great religions of the world, what would you say? +Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, Judaism, whatever. +There's always one continent left out, the assumption being that sub-Saharan Africa had no religious beliefs. Well, of course, they did and Voodoo is simply the distillation of these very profound religious ideas that came over during the tragic Diaspora of the slavery era. +But, what makes Voodoo so interesting is that it's this living relationship between the living and the dead. +So, the living give birth to the spirits. +The spirits can be invoked from beneath the Great Water, responding to the rhythm of the dance to momentarily displace the soul of the living, so that for that brief shining moment, the acolyte becomes the god. +That's why the Voodooists like to say that "You white people go to church and speak about God. +We dance in the temple and become God." +And because you are possessed, you are taken by the spirit -- how can you be harmed? +So you see these astonishing demonstrations: Voodoo acolytes in a state of trance handling burning embers with impunity, a rather astonishing demonstration of the ability of the mind to affect the body that bears it when catalyzed in the state of extreme excitation. +Now, of all the peoples that I've ever been with, the most extraordinary are the Kogi of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta in northern Colombia. +Descendants of the ancient Tairona civilization which once carpeted the Caribbean coastal plain of Colombia, in the wake of the conquest, these people retreated into an isolated volcanic massif that soars above the Caribbean coastal plain. +In a bloodstained continent, these people alone were never conquered by the Spanish. +To this day, they remain ruled by a ritual priesthood but the training for the priesthood is rather extraordinary. +And for this entire time, they are inculturated into the values of their society, values that maintain the proposition that their prayers and their prayers alone maintain the cosmic -- or we might say the ecological -- balance. +It is that beautiful. It is yours to protect." +They call themselves the "elder brothers" and they say we, who are the younger brothers, are the ones responsible for destroying the world. +Now, this level of intuition becomes very important. +Whenever we think of indigenous people and landscape, we either invoke Rousseau and the old canard of the "noble savage," which is an idea racist in its simplicity, or alternatively, we invoke Thoreau and say these people are closer to the Earth than we are. +Well, indigenous people are neither sentimental nor weakened by nostalgia. +Now, what does that mean? +Whether it's the abode of a spirit or a pile of ore is irrelevant. +What's interesting is the metaphor that defines the relationship between the individual and the natural world. +I was raised in the forests of British Columbia to believe those forests existed to be cut. +That made me a different human being than my friends amongst the Kwagiulth who believe that those forests were the abode of Huxwhukw and the Crooked Beak of Heaven and the cannibal spirits that dwelled at the north end of the world, spirits they would have to engage during their Hamatsa initiation. +Now, if you begin to look at the idea that these cultures could create different realities, you could begin to understand some of their extraordinary discoveries. Take this plant here. +It's a photograph I took in the Northwest Amazon just last April. +This is ayahuasca, which many of you have heard about, the most powerful psychoactive preparation of the shaman's repertoire. +This plant had in it some very powerful tryptamines, very close to brain serotonin, dimethyltryptamine, 5-methoxydimethyltryptamine. +If you've ever seen the Yanomami blowing that snuff up their noses, that substance they make from a different set of species also contains methoxydimethyltryptamine. +To have that powder blown up your nose is rather like being shot out of a rifle barrel lined with baroque paintings and landing on a sea of electricity. It doesn't create the distortion of reality; it creates the dissolution of reality. +They can only be taken orally if taken in conjunction with some other chemical that denatures the MAO. +Now, the fascinating things are that the beta-carbolines found within that liana are MAO inhibitors of the precise sort necessary to potentiate the tryptamine. So you ask yourself a question. +How, in a flora of 80,000 species of vascular plants, do these people find these two morphologically unrelated plants that when combined in this way, created a kind of biochemical version of the whole being greater than the sum of the parts? +Well, we use that great euphemism, "trial and error," which is exposed to be meaningless. +But you ask the Indians, and they say, "The plants talk to us." +Well, what does that mean? +This tribe, the Cofan, has 17 varieties of ayahuasca, all of which they distinguish a great distance in the forest, all of which are referable to our eye as one species. +And then you ask them how they establish their taxonomy and they say, "I thought you knew something about plants. +I mean, don't you know anything?" And I said, "No." +Well, it turns out you take each of the 17 varieties in the night of a full moon, and it sings to you in a different key. +All cultures through all time have constantly been engaged in a dance with new possibilities of life. +And the problem is not technology itself. +The Sioux Indians did not stop being Sioux when they gave up the bow and arrow any more than an American stopped being an American when he gave up the horse and buggy. +It's not change or technology that threatens the integrity of the ethnosphere. It is power, the crude face of domination. +Or if we go into the mountains of Tibet, where I'm doing a lot of research recently, you'll see it's a crude face of political domination. +You know, genocide, the physical extinction of a people is universally condemned, but ethnocide, the destruction of people's way of life, is not only not condemned, it's universally, in many quarters, celebrated as part of a development strategy. +And you cannot understand the pain of Tibet until you move through it at the ground level. +This young man's father had been ascribed to the Panchen Lama. +That meant he was instantly killed at the time of the Chinese invasion. +His uncle fled with His Holiness in the Diaspora that took the people to Nepal. +His mother was incarcerated for the crime of being wealthy. +He was smuggled into the jail at the age of two to hide beneath her skirt tails because she couldn't bear to be without him. +The sister who had done that brave deed was put into an education camp. +One day she inadvertently stepped on an armband of Mao, and for that transgression, she was given seven years of hard labor. +The pain of Tibet can be impossible to bear, but the redemptive spirit of the people is something to behold. +And in the end, then, it really comes down to a choice: do we want to live in a monochromatic world of monotony or do we want to embrace a polychromatic world of diversity? +And it's humbling to remember that our species has, perhaps, been around for [150,000] years. +The Neolithic Revolution -- which gave us agriculture, at which time we succumbed to the cult of the seed; the poetry of the shaman was displaced by the prose of the priesthood; we created hierarchy specialization surplus -- is only 10,000 years ago. +The modern industrial world as we know it is barely 300 years old. +Now, that shallow history doesn't suggest to me that we have all the answers for all of the challenges that will confront us in the ensuing millennia. +When these myriad cultures of the world are asked the meaning of being human, they respond with 10,000 different voices. +And it's within that song that we will all rediscover the possibility of being what we are: a fully conscious species, fully aware of ensuring that all peoples and all gardens find a way to flourish. And there are great moments of optimism. +This is a photograph I took at the northern tip of Baffin Island when I went narwhal hunting with some Inuit people, and this man, Olayuk, told me a marvelous story of his grandfather. +The Canadian government has not always been kind to the Inuit people, and during the 1950s, to establish our sovereignty, we forced them into settlements. +This old man's grandfather refused to go. +The family, fearful for his life, took away all of his weapons, all of his tools. +Now, you must understand that the Inuit did not fear the cold; they took advantage of it. +The runners of their sleds were originally made of fish wrapped in caribou hide. +So, this man's grandfather was not intimidated by the Arctic night or the blizzard that was blowing. +He simply slipped outside, pulled down his sealskin trousers and defecated into his hand. And as the feces began to freeze, he shaped it into the form of a blade. +He put a spray of saliva on the edge of the shit knife and as it finally froze solid, he butchered a dog with it. +He skinned the dog and improvised a harness, took the ribcage of the dog and improvised a sled, harnessed up an adjacent dog, and disappeared over the ice floes, shit knife in belt. +Talk about getting by with nothing. And this, in many ways -- -- is a symbol of the resilience of the Inuit people and of all indigenous people around the world. +The Canadian government in April of 1999 gave back to total control of the Inuit an area of land larger than California and Texas put together. +It's our new homeland. It's called Nunavut. +It's an independent territory. They control all mineral resources. +An amazing example of how a nation-state can seek restitution with its people. +And finally, in the end, I think it's pretty obvious at least to all of all us who've traveled in these remote reaches of the planet, to realize that they're not remote at all. +They're homelands of somebody. +They represent branches of the human imagination that go back to the dawn of time. And for all of us, the dreams of these children, like the dreams of our own children, become part of the naked geography of hope. +So, what we're trying to do at the National Geographic, finally, is, we believe that politicians will never accomplish anything. +We think that polemics -- -- we think that polemics are not persuasive, but we think that storytelling can change the world, and so we are probably the best storytelling institution in the world. We get 35 million hits on our website every month. +156 nations carry our television channel. +Our magazines are read by millions. +Thank you very much. +I'm going to talk to you about some stuff that's in this book of mine that I hope will resonate with other things you've already heard, and I'll try to make some connections myself, in case you missed them. +But I want to start with what I call the "official dogma." +The official dogma of what? +The official dogma of all Western industrial societies. +And the official dogma runs like this: if we are interested in maximizing the welfare of our citizens, the way to do that is to maximize individual freedom. +The reason for this is both that freedom is in and of itself good, valuable, worthwhile, essential to being human. +And because if people have freedom, then each of us can act on our own to do the things that will maximize our welfare, and no one has to decide on our behalf. +The way to maximize freedom is to maximize choice. +The more choice people have, the more freedom they have, and the more freedom they have, the more welfare they have. +This, I think, is so deeply embedded in the water supply that it wouldn't occur to anyone to question it. +And it's also deeply embedded in our lives. +I'll give you some examples of what modern progress has made possible for us. +This is my supermarket. Not such a big one. +I want to say just a word about salad dressing. +175 salad dressings in my supermarket, if you don't count the 10 extra-virgin olive oils and 12 balsamic vinegars you could buy to make a very large number of your own salad dressings, in the off-chance that none of the 175 the store has on offer suit you. +So this is what the supermarket is like. +And then you go to the consumer electronics store to set up a stereo system -- speakers, CD player, tape player, tuner, amplifier -- and in this one single consumer electronics store, there are that many stereo systems. +We can construct six-and-a-half-million different stereo systems out of the components that are on offer in one store. +You've got to admit that's a lot of choice. +In other domains -- the world of communications. +There was a time, when I was a boy, when you could get any kind of telephone service you wanted, as long as it came from Ma Bell. +You rented your phone. You didn't buy it. +One consequence of that, by the way, is that the phone never broke. +And those days are gone. +We now have an almost unlimited variety of phones, especially in the world of cell phones. +These are cell phones of the future. +My favorite is the middle one -- the MP3 player, nose hair trimmer, and crme brle torch. +And if by some chance you haven't seen that in your store yet, you can rest assured that one day soon, you will. +And what this does is it leads people to walk into their stores asking this question. +And do you know what the answer to this question now is? +The answer is "no." +It is not possible to buy a cell phone that doesn't do too much. +So, in other aspects of life that are much more significant than buying things, the same explosion of choice is true. +Health care. It is no longer the case in the United States that you go to the doctor, and the doctor tells you what to do. +Instead, you go to the doctor, and the doctor tells you, "Well, we could do A, or we could do B. +A has these benefits, and these risks. +B has these benefits, and these risks. What do you want to do?" +And you say, "Doc, what should I do?" +And the doc says, "A has these benefits and risks, and B has these benefits and risks. +What do you want to do?" +And you say, "If you were me, Doc, what would you do?" +And the doc says, "But I'm not you." +There's enormous marketing of prescription drugs to people like you and me, which, if you think about it, makes no sense at all, since we can't buy them. +Why do they market to us if we can't buy them? +The answer is that they expect us to call our doctors the next morning and ask for our prescriptions to be changed. +Something as dramatic as our identity has now become a matter of choice, as this slide is meant to indicate. +We don't inherit an identity; we get to invent it. +And we get to re-invent ourselves as often as we like. +And that means that every day, when you wake up in the morning, you have to decide what kind of person you want to be. +With respect to marriage and family, there was a time when the default assumption that almost everyone had is that you got married as soon as you could, and then you started having kids as soon as you could. +The only real choice was who, not when, and not what you did after. +Nowadays, everything is very much up for grabs. +I teach wonderfully intelligent students, and I assign 20 percent less work than I used to. +And it's not because they're less smart, and it's not because they're less diligent. +It's because they are preoccupied, asking themselves, "Should I get married or not? Should I get married now? +Should I get married later? Should I have kids first, or a career first?" +All of these are consuming questions. +And they're going to answer these questions, whether or not it means not doing all the work I assign and not getting a good grade in my courses. +And indeed they should. These are important questions to answer. +Work -- we are blessed, as Carl was pointing out, with the technology that enables us to work every minute of every day from any place on the planet -- except the Randolph Hotel. +There is one corner, by the way, that I'm not going to tell anybody about, where the WiFi actually works. +I'm not telling you about it because I want to use it. +So what this means, this incredible freedom of choice we have with respect to work, is that we have to make a decision, again and again and again, about whether we should or shouldn't be working. +We can go to watch our kid play soccer, and we have our cell phone on one hip, and our Blackberry on our other hip, and our laptop, presumably, on our laps. +And even if they're all shut off, every minute that we're watching our kid mutilate a soccer game, we are also asking ourselves, "Should I answer this cell phone call? +Should I respond to this email? Should I draft this letter?" +And even if the answer to the question is "no," it's certainly going to make the experience of your kid's soccer game very different than it would've been. +So everywhere we look, big things and small things, material things and lifestyle things, life is a matter of choice. +And the world we used to live in looked like this. [Well, actually, they are written in stone.] That is to say, there were some choices, but not everything was a matter of choice. +And the world we now live in looks like this. +And the question is, is this good news, or bad news? +And the answer is, "yes." +We all know what's good about it, so I'm going to talk about what's bad about it. +All of this choice has two effects, two negative effects on people. +One effect, paradoxically, is that it produces paralysis, rather than liberation. +With so many options to choose from, people find it very difficult to choose at all. +I'll give you one very dramatic example of this: a study that was done of investments in voluntary retirement plans. +A colleague of mine got access to investment records from Vanguard, the gigantic mutual-fund company of about a million employees and about 2,000 different workplaces. +And what she found is that for every 10 mutual funds the employer offered, rate of participation went down two percent. +You offer 50 funds -- 10 percent fewer employees participate than if you only offer five. Why? +Because with 50 funds to choose from, it's so damn hard to decide which fund to choose, that you'll just put it off until tomorrow. +And then tomorrow, and tomorrow, and tomorrow, and of course tomorrow never comes. +Understand that not only does this mean that people are going to have to eat dog food when they retire because they don't have enough money put away, it also means that making the decision is so hard that they pass up significant matching money from the employer. +By not participating, they are passing up as much as 5,000 dollars a year from the employer, who would happily match their contribution. +So paralysis is a consequence of having too many choices. +And I think it makes the world look like this. +You really want to get the decision right if it's for all eternity, right? +You don't want to pick the wrong mutual fund, or the wrong salad dressing. +So that's one effect. The second effect is that even if we manage to overcome the paralysis and make a choice, we end up less satisfied with the result of the choice than we would be if we had fewer options to choose from. +And there are several reasons for this. +The more options there are, the easier it is to regret anything at all that is disappointing about the option that you chose. +Second, what economists call "opportunity costs." +Dan Gilbert made a big point this morning of talking about how much the way in which we value things depends on what we compare them to. +Well, when there are lots of alternatives to consider, it is easy to imagine the attractive features of alternatives that you reject that make you less satisfied with the alternative that you've chosen. +Here's an example. [I can't stop thinking about those other available parking spaces on W 85th street] Sorry if you're not New Yorkers. +Here's what you're supposed to be thinking. +Here's this couple on the Hamptons. +Very expensive real estate. +Gorgeous beach. Beautiful day. They have it all to themselves. +What could be better? +"Well, damn it," this guy is thinking, "It's August. Everybody in my Manhattan neighborhood is away. +I could be parking right in front of my building." +And he spends two weeks nagged by the idea that he is missing the opportunity, day after day, to have a great parking space. +Opportunity costs subtract from the satisfaction we get out of what we choose, even when what we choose is terrific. +And the more options there are to consider, the more attractive features of these options are going to be reflected by us as opportunity costs. +Here's another example. +Now this cartoon makes a lot of points. +It makes points about living in the moment as well, and probably about doing things slowly. +But one point it makes is that whenever you're choosing one thing, you're choosing not to do other things that may have lots of attractive features, and it's going to make what you're doing less attractive. +Third: escalation of expectations. +This hit me when I went to replace my jeans. +I wear jeans almost all the time. +There was a time when jeans came in one flavor, and you bought them, and they fit like crap, they were incredibly uncomfortable, if you wore them and washed them enough times, they started to feel OK. +I went to replace my jeans after years of wearing these old ones, and I said, "I want a pair of jeans. Here's my size." +And the shopkeeper said, "Do you want slim fit, easy fit, relaxed fit? +You want button fly or zipper fly? You want stonewashed or acid-washed? +Do you want them distressed? +You want boot cut, tapered, blah blah." On and on he went. +My jaw dropped. And after I recovered, I said, "I want the kind that used to be the only kind." +He had no idea what that was, so I spent an hour trying on all these damn jeans, and I walked out of the store -- truth! -- with the best-fitting jeans I had ever had. +But -- I felt worse. +Why? I wrote a whole book to try to explain this to myself. +The reason I felt worse is that, with all of these options available, my expectations about how good a pair of jeans should be went up. +I had very low, no particular expectations when they only came in one flavor. +When they came in 100 flavors, damn it, one of them should've been perfect. +And what I got was good, but it wasn't perfect. +And so I compared what I got to what I expected, and what I got was disappointing in comparison to what I expected. +Adding options to people's lives can't help but increase the expectations people have about how good those options will be. +And what that's going to produce is less satisfaction with results, even when they're good results. +Nobody in the world of marketing knows this. +Because if they did, you wouldn't all know what this was about. +The truth is more like this. +[Everything was better back when everything was worse] The reason that everything was better back when everything was worse is that when everything was worse, it was actually possible for people to have experiences that were a pleasant surprise. +Nowadays, the world we live in -- we affluent, industrialized citizens, with perfection the expectation -- the best you can ever hope for is that stuff is as good as you expect it to be. +You will never be pleasantly surprised because your expectations, my expectations, have gone through the roof. +The secret to happiness -- this is what you all came for -- the secret to happiness is low expectations. +I want to say -- just a little autobiographical moment -- that I actually am married to a wife, and she's really quite wonderful. +I couldn't have done better. +But settling isn't always such a bad thing. +Finally -- One consequence of buying a bad-fitting pair of jeans when there is only one kind to buy is that when you are dissatisfied, and you ask why, who's responsible, the answer is clear: the world is responsible. +What could you do? +When there are hundreds of different styles of jeans available, and you buy one that is disappointing, and you ask why, who's responsible? +It is equally clear that the answer to the question is "you." +You could have done better. +With a hundred different kinds of jeans on display, there is no excuse for failure. +And so when people make decisions, and even though the results of the decisions are good, they feel disappointed about them; they blame themselves. +Clinical depression has exploded in the industrial world in the last generation. +I believe a significant -- not the only, but a significant -- contributor to this explosion of depression, and also suicide, is that people have experiences that are disappointing because their standards are so high, and then when they have to explain these experiences to themselves, they think they're at fault. +And so the net result is that we do better in general, objectively, and we feel worse. +So let me remind you. +This is the official dogma, the one that we all take to be true, and it's all false. It is not true. +There's no question that some choice is better than none, but it doesn't follow from that that more choice is better than some choice. +There's some magical amount. I don't know what it is. +I'm pretty confident that we have long since passed the point where options improve our welfare. +Now, as a policy matter -- I'm almost done -- as a policy matter, the thing to think about is this: what enables all of this choice in industrial societies is material affluence. +There are lots of places in the world, and we have heard about several of them, where their problem is not that they have too much choice. +Their problem is that they have too little. +So the stuff I'm talking about is the peculiar problem of modern, affluent, Western societies. +And what is so frustrating and infuriating is this: Steve Levitt talked to you yesterday about how these expensive and difficult-to-install child seats don't help. +What I'm telling you is that these expensive, complicated choices -- it's not simply that they don't help. +They actually hurt. +They actually make us worse off. +If some of what enables people in our societies to make all of the choices we make were shifted to societies in which people have too few options, not only would those people's lives be improved, but ours would be improved also, which is what economists call a "Pareto-improving move." +Income redistribution will make everyone better off -- not just poor people -- because of how all this excess choice plagues us. +So to conclude. [You can be anything you want to be -- no limits] You're supposed to read this cartoon, and, being a sophisticated person, say, "Ah! What does this fish know? +You know, nothing is possible in this fishbowl." +Impoverished imagination, a myopic view of the world -- and that's the way I read it at first. +The more I thought about it, however, the more I came to the view that this fish knows something. +Because the truth of the matter is that if you shatter the fishbowl so that everything is possible, you don't have freedom. You have paralysis. +If you shatter this fishbowl so that everything is possible, you decrease satisfaction. +You increase paralysis, and you decrease satisfaction. +Everybody needs a fishbowl. +This one is almost certainly too limited -- perhaps even for the fish, certainly for us. +But the absence of some metaphorical fishbowl is a recipe for misery, and, I suspect, disaster. +Thank you very much. diff --git a/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/en_es_data/dev.es b/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/en_es_data/dev.es new file mode 100644 index 0000000..16d8e5a --- /dev/null +++ b/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/en_es_data/dev.es @@ -0,0 +1,851 @@ +El ao pasado proyect estas dos diapositivas para demostrar que la capa de hielo rtico, que durante los ltimos tres millones de aos ha sido del tamao de los 48 estados, se ha reducido en un 40 por ciento. +Pero esto minimiza la seriedad de este problema concreto porque no muestra el grosor del hielo. +La capa de hielo rtico es, en cierta forma, el corazn palpitante del sistema climtico global. +Se expande en invierno y se contrae en verano. +La siguiente diapositiva que mostrar ser una aceleracin de lo que ha sucedido en los ltimos 25 aos. +El hielo permanente est marcado en rojo. +Como ven, se expande hasta el azul oscuro. Ese es el hielo anual en invierno. Y se contrae en verano. +El as llamado hielo permanente, de cinco aos o ms, pueden ver que es casi como la sangre, derramndose del cuerpo. +En 25 aos ha pasado de esto, a esto. +Este es un problema porque el calentamiento afecta al suelo helado en torno al ocano rtico donde hay una cantidad enorme de carbono helado que, al derretirse, es convertido en metano por los microbios. +Comparado con el total de contaminacin del calentamiento global en la atmsfera, esa cantidad podra duplicarse si cruzamos este punto inflexin. +Ahora mismo en algunos lagos de Alaska el metano est emergiendo a borbotones del agua. +El profesor Katey Walter de la Universidad de Alaska fue el invierno pasado con otro equipo a otro lago poco profundo. +Video: Impresionante! Al Gore: Ella est bien. La pregunta es si lo estaremos nosotros. +Y una razn es, que este enorme disipador de calor calienta Groenlandia desde el norte. +ste es un ro de deshielo anual. +Pero los volmenes son ms grandes que nunca. +ste es el ro Kangerlussuaq en el suroeste de Groenlandia. +Si quieren saber cmo se eleva el nivel del mar por el derretimiento del hielo terrestre esto es donde llega al mar. +Estas corrientes se incrementan rpidamente. +Al otro extremo del planeta, la Antrtida la masa de hielo ms grande del planeta. +El mes pasado los cientficos informaron de que el continente est ahora en balance negativo de hielo. +Y la Antrtida occidental que se apoya sobre islas submarinas, es especialmente rpida en su deshielo. +Eso equivale a seis metros de nivel marino, como Groenlandia. +En los Himalayas, la tercera masa de hielo ms grande, desde la cima se ven nuevos lagos, que hace unos aos eran glaciares. +El 40 por ciento de la gente en el mundo obtiene la mitad del agua potable de esa corriente de deshielo. +En los Andes, este glaciar es la fuente de agua potable para esta ciudad. +Las corrientes han aumentado. +Pero cuando se vayan, tambin lo har gran parte del agua. +En California la nieve en Sierra ha disminuido en un 40 por ciento. +Esto afecta a los embalses. +Y las predicciones, como han ledo, son preocupantes. +Esta sequa en el mundo ha llevado a un aumento drstico de los incendios. +Y los desastres en todo el mundo se han incrementado a un ritmo totalmente inslito y sin precedentes. +Se ha multiplicado por cuatro en los ltimos 30 aos respecto a los 75 aos anteriores. +ste es un patrn completamente insostenible. +Si observan dentro del contexto de la historia pueden comprender lo que esto est provocando. +En los ltimos cinco aos hemos aadido 70 millones de toneladas de CO2 cada 24 horas... 25 millones de toneladas cada da a los ocanos. +Observen con atencin el rea del Pacfico oriental, desde las Amricas, hacia el oeste, y en cada lado del subcontinente Indio donde hay un agotamiento drstico de oxgeno en el ocano. +La mayor causa del calentamiento global, junto a la deforestacin, que supone el 20 por ciento, es la quema de combustibles fsiles. +El petrleo es un problema, y el carbn es el problema ms grave. +Los Estados Unidos es uno de los dos mayores emisores, junto con China. +Y la propuesta ha sido construir ms plantas de carbn. +Pero empezamos a ver un cambio radical. +Aqu estn las que se han suspendido en los ltimos aos con algunas alternativas verdes sugeridas. +Sin embargo hay una batalla poltica en nuestro pas. +Y las industrias del carbn y del petrleo se gastaron 250 millones de dlares el ltimo ao promoviendo el carbn limpio, lo que constituye un oxmoron. +Esa imagen me record algo. +Por Navidades, en mi hogar en Tennessee, se derramaron 3.800 millones de litros de lodo de carbn. +Seguramente lo vieron en las noticias. +ste es, de todo el pas, el segundo flujo de residuos ms grande de EE. UU. +Sucedi por Navidades. +Uno de los anuncios de la industria del carbn en Navidades fue ste. +Video: Frosty, el hombre de carbn, es un alma alegre y jovial. +Abunda aqu en EEUU, y contribuye a que la economa crezca.. +Cada da Frosty el hombre de carbn se est haciendo ms limpio. +Es bueno, bonito y barato y los trabajadores mantienen su salario. +Al Gore: sta es la fuente de mucho del carbn en Virginia Occidental. +El minero de la mayor explotacin a cielo abierto dirige Massey Coal. +Video: Don Blankenship: Djenme aclarar algo, Al Gore, Nancy Pelosi, Harry Reid, no saben de qu estn hablando. +Al Gore: As que la Alianza por la Proteccin del Clima ha lanzado dos campaas. +Esta es una de ellas, parte de una de ellas. +Video: Actor: En COALergy vemos el cambio climtico como una seria amenaza a nuestros negocios. +Por eso nos hemos marcado como primer objetivo gastar mucho dinero en un esfuerzo publicitario para contribuir a sacar a la luz y enmaraar la verdad sobre el carbn. +La verdad es que, el carbn no es sucio. +Creemos que es limpio... huele bien, tambin. +As que no se preocupen por el cambio climtico. +Djennos esto a nosotros. +Video: Actor: Carbn limpio, ya han escuchado mucho hablar de l. +As que recorramos una instalacin de carbn limpio moderna. +Asombroso! La maquinaria hace como ruido. +Pero es el sonido de la tecnologa de carbn limpio. +Y mientras que quemar carbn es una de las causas del calentamiento global, la excepcional tecnologa limpia de carbn que ven aqu lo cambia todo. +Miren bien, es la tecnologa de carbn limpio de hoy. +Al Gore: Finalmente, la alternativa positiva se cruza con nuestro desafo econmico y nuestro desafo de seguridad nacional. +Video: Narrador: EEUU est en crisis, la economa, la seguridad nacional, la crisis climtica. +Y la amenaza que lo une todo, nuestra adiccin a combustibles basados en el carbn, el carbn sucio y el petrleo extranjero. +Pero ahora hay una solucin para salir de este desastre. +Dotar a EE.UU. de un nuevo modelo energtico de electricidad 100% limpia, en los siguientes 10 aos. +Un plan para poner a EEUU a trabajar, hacernos ms seguros, y detener el calentamiento global. +Finalmente, una solucin suficiente para resolver nuestros problemas. +Un nuevo modelo energtico para EE.UU. Descubran ms. +Al Gore: ste es el ltimo. +Video: Narrador: Se trata de dotar de un nuevo modelo energtico a EE.UU. +Una de las maneras ms rpidas de cortar nuestra dependencia de los combustibles sucios que matan el planeta. +Hombre: El futuro est aqu. Viento, sol, una nueva red de energa. +Hombre 2: Nuevas inversiones que crearn empleos. +Narrador: Un nuevo modelo energtico para EE.UU. Es hora de ser realistas. +Al Gore: Hay un viejo refrn africano que dice, "Si quieren ir rpido, vayan solos. +Si quieren llegar lejos, vayan juntos". +Tenemos que llegar lejos, rpido. +Muchas gracias. +El ao pasado en TED di una introduccin al Gran Colisionador de Hadrones. +Y promet volver y ponerlos al tanto de cmo funcionaba la mquina. +Y aqu estoy. Para quienes no estuvieron all, el LHC es el experimento cientfico ms grande que se haya intentado jams, y tiene 27 kilmetros de circunferencia. +Su labor es recrear las condiciones que existieron menos de una mil millonsima de segundo despus del inicio del universo, hasta 600 millones de veces por segundo. +Es algo muy ambicioso. +Esta es la mquina, bajo Ginebra. +Tomamos fotos de esos mini big bangs dentro de los detectores. +Yo trabajo en ste, el cual es llamado el detector ATLAS. 44 m. de ancho, 22 m. de dimetro. +Esta es una foto espectacular de ATLAS en construccin, para que vean la escala. +El pasado 10 de septiembre encendimos esta mquina por primera vez. +Y esta imagen fue tomada por ATLAS. +Caus una gran celebracin en la sala de control. +Es una foto del primer haz de partculas dando la vuelta completa en el LHC, chocando de forma deliberada contra una seccin del LHC, y lanzando partculas al detector. +Es decir, cuando vimos esa foto el 10 de septiembre supimos que la mquina funcionaba, lo que es un gran triunfo. +No s si la ovacin ms grande fue sta o fue cuando alguien entr a Google y vio as a la pgina principal. +Significa que tuvimos impacto, tanto cientfica como culturalmente. +Alrededor de una semana despus tuvimos un problema, tuvo que ver con estos tramos de cable, estos cables de oro. +Esos cables transmiten 13 mil amperes cuando la mquina est a toda potencia. +Los que son ingenieros los mirarn y dirn: "No lo hacen. Son cables pequeos." +Pueden hacerlo porque cuando estn muy fros son cables superconductores. +Entonces, a menos 271 grados, ms fros que en el espacio interestelar, esos cables pueden transmitir esa corriente. +En una de las uniones que hay entre los ms de 9000 magnetos hubo un defecto de fabricacin. +As que el cable se calent ligeramente. Y sus 13 mil amperes repentinamente encontraron resistencia elctrica. +Y este fue el resultado. +Eso es an ms impresionante si consideran que esos magnetos pesan ms de 20 toneladas y se movieron alrededor de 30 cm. +Se daaron alrededor de 50 magnetos. +Tenamos que quitarlos y lo hicimos. +Los reacondicionamos, los arreglamos. +Ahora van de regreso para all abajo. +A finales de marzo el LHC estar como nuevo otra vez. +Lo encenderemos y esperamos recibir datos en junio o julio. Y seguiremos con nuestra bsqueda de cules son los componentes fundamentales del universo. +Por supuesto, de cierta forma esos accidentes reavivaron el debate sobre el valor de la ciencia y la ingeniera de vanguardia. Es fcil refutarlo. +Creo que el hecho de que sea tan difcil, de estar excediendo nuestro alcance, es lo que hace tan valiosas a cosas como el LHC. +Gracias. +Quiero empezar pidindoles que recuerden cuando eran nios, jugando con bloques. +Mientras aprendan como alcanzarlos y tomarlos, levantarlos y moverlos, En realidad estaban aprendiendo cmo pensar y solucionar problemas a travs del entendimiento y manipulacin de relaciones espaciales. +El razonamiento espacial est profundamente conectado a cmo entendemos mucho del mundo a nuestro alrededor. +Esta pregunta fue tan irresistible que decidimos explorar la respuesta, construyendo los Siftables. +En breve, un Siftable es una computadora interactiva del tamao de una galleta. +Se pueden mover con las manos, se pueden detectar entre s, pueden detectar su movimiento, tienen una pantalla y una conexin inalmbrica. +Ms importante, son fsicos, as que como los bloques, los puedes mover simplemente alcanzndolos y tomndolos. +Y los Siftables son un ejemplo de un nuevo ecosistema de herramientas para manipular informacin digital. +Y mientras estas herramientas se vuelven ms fsicas, ms conscientes de su movimiento, conscientes uno de otro, y conscientes de las sutilezas de cmo los movemos, nosotros empezamos a explorar nuevos y divertidos estilos de interaccin. +As que, voy a empezar con algunos ejemplos simples. +Este Siftable est configurado para mostrar video, y si lo inclino en una direccin, rodar el video de esta manera, y si lo inclino en la otra, lo rodar en reversa. +Y estos retratos interactivos estn conscientes uno del otro. +As que si los pongo juntos, se interesan. +Si quedan rodeados, tambin se dan cuenta, se pueden poner algo nerviosos. +Tambin pueden detectar su movimiento e inclinacin. +Una de las implicaciones interesantes de sta interaccin, nos empezamos a dar cuenta, fue que podamos usar gestos comunes en datos, como vaciar color en la manera en que vaciamos un lquido. +As que en este caso, tenemos tres Siftables configurados como botes de pintura y los puedo usar para vaciar color a este central, donde se mezclan. +Si nos excedemos, podemos regresar un poco. +Tambin hay algunas buenas posibilidades para la educacin, como los idiomas, las matemticas y los juegos lgicos, donde queremos darle a la gente la habilidad de probar cosas rpidamente, y ver los resultados de inmediato. +As que aqu yo... Esta es una secuencia de Fibonacci que estoy haciendo con un simple programa de ecuaciones. +Aqu tenemos un juego de palabras que es algo as como una mezcla de Scrabble y Boggle. +Bsicamente, en cada ronda recibes una letra asignada al azar en cada Siftable, y mientras pruebas formar palabras las revisa contra un diccionario. +Entonces, despus de cerca de 30 segundos se reinicia, y tienes un nuevo conjunto de letras y nuevas posibilidades a intentar. +Gracias. +Entonces, estos son unos nios que nos visitaron en Medina Lab, y arregl que los nios los probaran y tomamos un video. +Realmente les encant. +Y una de las cosas interesantes acerca de este tipo de aplicacin es que no tienes que darle a la gente muchas instrucciones. +Todo lo que tienes que decir es: "Formen Palabras", y saben exactamente qu hacer. +As que aqu hay otros personas probndolos. +Este es nuestro probador beta ms joven, abajo a la derecha. +Resulta que todo lo que quera hacer era apilar los Siftables. +As que para l, slo eran bloques. +Ahora, esta aplicacin es una caricatura interactiva +y queramos construir una herramienta de aprendizaje para el idioma. +Y este es Flix, de hecho. +Y puede traer nuevos personajes a la escena, simplemente con levantar de la mesa los Siftables que muestran al personaje. +Aqu, est poniendo al sol. +Video: El sol se eleva. +David Merrill: Ahora ha trado un tractor a escena. +Video: El tractor naranja +Buen trabajo! S! +Al agitar los Siftables y colocndolos juntos puede hacer a los personajes interactuar. Video: Guau! +DM: inventando su propia narrativa. +Video: Hola! +DM: Es una historia con final abierto, y l decide como se desarrolla +Video: Vuela, gato. +DM: Entonces, el ltimo ejemplo que tengo tiempo de mostrarles hoy es una herramienta para secuenciar msica y actuacin en vivo que construimos recientemente, en la cual los Siftables actan como sonidos tales como instrumento lder, bajo y tambores. +Cada uno de stos tiene cuatro diferentes variaciones, y t eliges cul quieres usar. +Y puedes inyectar estos sonidos a una secuencia la cual puedes ensamblar en el patrn que quieras. +Y lo inyectas simplemente al golpear un Siftable de sonido contra un Siftable de secuencia. +Estos son efectos que puedes controlar en vivo, como reverberacin y filtros. +Lo conectas a un sonido en particular y lo inclinas para ajustarlo. +Y despus, efectos globales como tempo y volumen que se aplican a la secuencia entera. +As que veamos. +Video: DM: Empezaremos poniendo un instrumento lder en dos Siftables de secuencia, los organizamos en una serie, la extendemos, y agregamos sonido. +Ahora, introduzco el bajo. +Video: DM: Ahora pondr algo de percusin +Video: DM: Y ahora conecto el filtro a los tambores, para poder controlar el efecto en vivo. +Video: DM: Puedo acelerar la secuencia completa al inclinar el tempo en una u otra direccin. +Video: DM: Y ahora conectar el filtro al bajo para conseguir ms expresin. +Video: DM: Y puedo reacomodar la secuencia mientras toca. +As que no tengo que planearla previamente, pero puedo improvisar, acortndola alargndola en la marcha. +Y ahora, finalmente, puedo atenuar toda la secuencia usando el Siftable de volumen, inclinndolo a la izquierda. +Gracias. +As que, como pueden ver, mi pasin es realizar nuevas interfaces entre humanos y computadoras que se acoplen mejor a la forma en que nuestros cerebros y cuerpos funcionan. +Y hoy, tuve tiempo de mostrarles un punto en este nuevo espacio de diseo, y algunas de las posibilidades en las que estamos trabajando para sacar del laboratorio. +As que los quiero dejar con un pensamiento: estamos en la cspide de esta nueva generacin de herramientas para interactuar con medios digitales, las cuales van a traer informacin a nuestro mundo bajo nuestros trminos. +Muchas gracias. +Espero hablar con todos ustedes. +Soy escritora. +Escribir libros es mi profesin; pero es ms que eso, por supuesto. +Es tambin el gran amor y pasin de mi vida. +Y espero que eso no cambie nunca. +Pero, dicho esto, recientemente ha ocurrido algo poco peculiar en mi vida y mi carrera, lo que ha supuesto redefinir completamente mi relacin con este trabajo. +Y lo peculiar es que recientemente escrib este libro, esta novela llamada "Come, Reza, Ama" que, decididamente a diferencia de mis libros anteriores, sali al mundo por alguna razn, y se convirti en un enorme, mega-sensacional e internacionalmente xito literario. +El resultado de esto es que a donde quiera que vaya, la gente me trata como si estuviera desahuciada. +De verdad, desahuciada, desahuciada! +Por ejemplo, se acercan a m, muy preocupados y dicen, "No tienes miedo de que no puedas nunca superar este xito? +No tienes miedo de que vayas a continuar escribiendo toda tu vida y nunca ms vayas a crear un libro que le importe a alguien en el mundo, nunca jams?" +As que eso es tranquilizante, saben. +Pero sera peor, excepto que recuerdo que hace ms de 20 aos, cuando empec a decir -- cuando era una adolescente -- que quera ser una escritora, me top con este mismo tipo de reaccin basada en miedo. +Y la gente preguntaba, "No tienes miedo de que nunca vayas a tener xito? +No tienes miedo de que la humillacin del rechazo te mate? +No tienes miedo de trabajar toda tu vida en este arte y de que nada vaya a salir de eso y de que morirs sobre una pila de sueos rotos con tu boca llena de la amarga ceniza del fracaso?" +Algo as, saben. +La respuesta - la respuesta corta a todas sas preguntas es, "S." +S, tengo miedo de todas esas cosas. +Y siempre lo he tenido. +Y tengo miedo de muchas, muchas otras cosas que la gente ni siquiera puede adivinar. Como las algas, y otras cosas que dan miedo. +Pero, cuando se trata de escribir, en lo que he estado pensando ltimamente, y que me he estado preguntando, es por qu? +Ya saben, es racional? +Es acaso lgico que se espere que uno tenga miedo del trabajo para el que siente que fue puesto en la Tierra? +Ya saben, y que es eso que especficamente tienen las carreras creativos que aparentemente nos pone realmente nerviosos sobre la salud mental de los dems de una manera que otras carreras no lo hacen, saben? +Como mi pap, por ejemplo, que era un ingeniero qumico y no recuerdo ni una vez en sus 40 aos de ingeniera qumica que alguien le preguntara si tena miedo de ser un ingeniero qumico, saben? +No suceda -- el ingeniero qumico ese, John, como va? +Simplemente no pasaba, saben? +Pero para ser justos, los ingenieros qumicos como grupo no se han ganado una reputacin a lo largo de los siglos de ser alcohlicos manaco-depresivos. +Nosotros los escritores, tenemos esa reputacin, y no solo escritores, sino la gente creativa de todo tipo, parece tener esta reputacin de ser enormemente inestable mentalmente. +Y todo lo que tienes que hacer es ver esta sombra lista de muertes slo en el siglo XX, de mentes creativas magnficas que murieron jvenes y a menudo por su propia mano, saben? +E incluso los que no se suicidaron parecen destruidos por sus dones, saben? +Norman Mailer, justo antes de morir, su ltima entrevista, dijo "Cada uno de mis libros me ha matado un poco ms." +Una declaracin extraordinaria acerca del trabajo de tu vida, saben? +Pero ni siquiera pestaeamos cuando omos a alguien decir esto porque hemos odo cosas como sta por tanto tiempo y de alguna manera hemos interiorizado y aceptado colectivamente esta idea de que la creatividad y el sufrimiento estn inherentemente ligados y que el arte, al final, siempre llevar a la angustia. +Y la pregunta que quiero hacerles a todos hoy es estn todos ustedes a gusto con esa idea? +Se sienten cmodos con ella -- +porque la ven aunque sea a slo una pulgada de distancia y, saben -- yo no me siento cmoda con esa suposicin. +Creo que es odiosa. +Y tambin creo que es peligrosa, y no quiero verla perpetuada en el prximo siglo. +Creo que es mejor si alentamos a nuestras grandes mentes creativas a vivir. +Y definitivamente creo que, en mi caso -- en mi situacin -- sera muy peligroso para m empezar a fugarme por ese camino oscuro de suposicin, particularmente dada la circunstancia en la que estoy justo en este punto de mi carrera. +La cual es -- ustedes saben, bueno, soy bastante joven, slo tengo alrededor de 40 aos. +Tal vez tengo todava otras cuatro dcadas de trabajo en m. +Y es extremadamente posible que cualquier cosa que escriba de ahora en adelante sea juzgada por el mundo como el trabajo que vino despus del extrao xito de mi libro pasado, verdad? +Debera decirlo sin rodeos, porque somos todos como amigos aqu -- es extremadamente probable que mi mayor xito ya haya pasado. +Oh, Jess, qu idea! +Saben que es el tipo de pensamiento que gua a una persona a beber ginebra a las nueve de la maana y no quiero hacer eso. +Preferira continuar haciendo este trabajo que amo. +As que, la pregunta se vuelve cmo? +Y a m me parece, despus de mucha reflexin, que la forma en la que tengo que trabajar ahora, para seguir escribiendo, es que tengo que crear algn tipo de constructo psicolgico de proteccin, verdad? +Tengo que encontrar algn modo de tener una distancia segura entre m, mientras escribo, y mi ansiedad natural sobre lo que ser la reaccin a lo que escriba, de ahora en adelante. +Y esa bsqueda me ha llevado a la antigua Grecia y a la antigua Roma. +As que mantnganse conmigo, porque esto da la vuelta completa. +Pero, en la Grecia y Roma antiguas -- la gente no crea que la creatividad vena de los seres humanos, OK? +La gente crea que la creatividad era este espritu asistente divino que vena a los humanos de una fuente distante y desconocida, por razones distantes y desconocidas. +Los griegos llamaron a estos espritus divinos asistentes de la creatividad, "daimones." +Scrates, popularmente se crea que tena un daimon que le hablaba con sabidura desde lejos. +Los Romanos tenan la misma idea, pero llamaban a este espritu creativo incorpreo un genio. +Lo que es genial, porque los Romanos no crean que un genio era un individuo particularmente inteligente. +Ellos crean que un genio era este tipo de entidad mgica y divina, que se crea, viva, literalmente, en las paredes del estudio de un artista, algo as como Dobby el elfo domestico, y que sala y asista invisiblemente al artista con su trabajo y daba forma al resultado de ese trabajo. +Tan brillante -- ah est, justo ah esa distancia de la que estoy hablando -- ese constructo psicolgico para protegerse de los resultados de tu trabajo. +Y todos saban que as es como funcionaba, verdad? +As el artista antiguo estaba protegido de ciertas cosas, como, por ejemplo, demasiado narcisismo, verdad? +Si tu trabajo era brillante no te podas atribuir todo el mrito por l, todos saban que tuviste este genio incorpreo que te haba ayudado. +Si tu trabajo fracasaba, no era totalmente tu culpa, saben? +Todos saban que tu genio era algo dbil. +Y eso es lo que la gente pensaba sobre la creatividad en Occidente por mucho tiempo. +Y entonces lleg el Renacimiento y todo cambi, y tuvimos esta gran idea, y la gran idea fue vamos a poner al ser humano individual en el centro del universo sobre todos los dioses y misterios, y no hay ms espacio para criaturas msticas que toman dictado de lo divino. +Y es el principio del humanismo racional, y la gente empez a creer que la creatividad vena completamente del individuo mismo. +Y por primera vez en la historia, empiezas a escuchar a gente referirse a este o aquel artista como si fuera un genio en vez de tener un genio. +Y debo decirles, creo que eso fue un gran error. +Saben, creo que permitir a alguien, una simple persona creer que l o ella es como, el contenedor, como la fuente, la esencia y el origen de todo misterio divino, creativo, desconocido es quiz demasiada responsabilidad para una frgil psique humana. +Es como pedirle a alguien que se trague el sol. +Deforma y distorsiona egos, y crea todas estas expectativas inmanejables sobre el rendimiento. +Y creo que la presin de eso ha estado matando a nuestros artistas los ltimos 500 aos. +Y, si esto es verdad, y yo creo que es verdad, la pregunta se vuelve, ahora qu? +Podemos hacer esto de una manera diferente? +Tal vez regresar a una comprensin ms antigua sobre la relacin entre humanos y el misterio creativo. +Tal vez no. +Tal vez no podemos simplemente borrar 500 aos de pensamiento humanstico racional en un discurso de 18 minutos. +Y probablemente hay gente en esta audiencia que puede tener legtimas sospechas cientficas sobre la nocin de hadas, bsicamente, que siguen a la gente frotando zumo de hada en sus proyectos y cosas as. +No voy a conseguir que todos estn de acuerdo conmigo. +Pero la pregunta que quiero presentar es -- Por qu no? +Por qu no pensar de esta manera? +Porque tiene tanto sentido como cualquier otra cosa que yo haya escuchado en trminos de explicar la enloquecedora arbitrariedad absoluta del proceso creativo. +Un proceso que, como cualquiera que alguna vez haya intentado hacer algo conoce -- lo que es decir, bsicamente todos los presentes -- no siempre se comporta racionalmente. +Y, de hecho, a veces puede sentirse definitivamente paranormal. +Y dijo que era como un atronador tren de aire. +Y vendra hacia ella descontroladamente sobre el paisaje. +Y lo senta venir, porque haca que la tierra temblara bajo sus pies. +Ella saba que solo tena una cosa que hacer en ese momento, y era, en sus palabras, "correr como una endemoniada." +Y corra como una endemoniada a la casa y era perseguida por este poema, y lo que deba hacer era que tena que conseguir un pedazo de papel y un lpiz lo suficientemente rpido para que cuando tronara a travs de ella, lo pudiera recoger y atraparlo en la pgina. +Y a veces no era lo suficientemente rpida, as que ella estara corriendo y corriendo, y no llegara a la casa y el poema la atropellara y ella lo perda y ella dijo que seguira avanzando sobre el paisaje, buscando, como ella dijo, "a otro poeta." +Y a veces existan estas ocasiones -- esta es la parte que nunca olvid -- dijo que existan momentos en los que ella casi lo perda, verdad? +As que, est corriendo a la casa y buscando el papel y el poema la pasaba de largo, y ella agarraba el lpiz justo mientras pasaba por ella, y entonces ella dijo, era como si lo hubiera alcanzado con su otra mano y lo hubiera atrapado. +Atrapaba el poema por la cola, y lo tiraba hacia atrs dentro de su cuerpo mientras lo transcriba en la pgina. +Y en estas ocasiones, el poema apareca en la pgina perfecto e intacto pero al revs, de la ltima palabra a la primera. +As que cuando lo escuch pens -- que extrao, as es exactamente mi proceso creativo. +Eso no es todo mi proceso creativo -- No soy la tubera! +Soy una mula, y la manera que tengo de trabajar es que me tengo que levantar a la misma hora todos los das, y sudar y trabajar y pasar por todo eso torpemente. +Pero an yo, en mi mulismo, an yo me he rozado contra esa cosa, a veces. +Y me imagino que muchos de ustedes tambin. +Saben, incluso he tenido trabajo o ideas que vienen a m desde una fuente que honestamente no puedo identificar . +Y qu es esa cosa? +Y cmo podemos relacionarnos con ella sin que nos haga perder el juicio, pero, de hecho, nos mantenga cuerdos? +Y para m, el mejor ejemplo contemporneo que tengo de cmo hacerlo es el msico Tom Waits, a quien entrevist hace algunos aos para una revista. +Y estbamos hablando acerca de esto, y ya saben, Tom, por la mayor parte de su vida ha sido el ejemplo del atormentado artista moderno contemporneo, intentando controlar y manejar y dominar estos impulsos creativos incontrolables que estn totalmente interiorizados. +Pero entonces se volvi ms viejo, ms tranquilo, y un da estaba conduciendo en la autopista en Los ngeles me dijo, y fue entonces cuando todo cambi para l. +Est conduciendo, y de repente escucha este pequeo fragmento de meloda, que viene a su cabeza como llega la inspiracin a menudo, evasiva y sugerente, y la quiere, ustedes saben, es hermosa, y la aora, pero no tiene manera de conseguirla. +No tiene un pedazo de papel, no tiene un lpiz, no tiene una grabadora. +As que empieza a sentir esa vieja ansiedad crecer en l as como, "Voy a perder esta cosa, y entonces esta cancin me va a atormentar para siempre. +No soy lo suficientemente bueno, no puedo hacerlo." +Y en vez de caer en el pnico, se detuvo. +Detuvo el proceso mental completo e hizo algo completamente novedoso. +Simplemente mir al cielo, y dijo, "Disculpa, no ves que estoy conduciendo?" +"Te parece que puedo escribir una cancin ahora? +Si realmente quieres existir, regresa en un momento ms oportuno cuando me pueda encargar de ti. +Sino, ve a molestar a alguien ms. +Ve a molestar a Leonard Cohen." +Y su proceso de trabajo cambi por completo despus de eso. +No el trabajo, el trabajo an era a menudo tan oscuro como siempre. +Sino el proceso, y la pesada ansiedad a su alrededor fue liberada cuando tomo al genio, y lo saco de su interior donde solo causaba problemas, y lo liber de vuelta al lugar del que vino, y se dio cuenta que no tena que ser una cosa interiorizada, atormentadora. +Poda ser esta colaboracin peculiar, magnfica, extraordinaria tipo de conversacin entre Tom y la extraa cosa externa que no era precisamente Tom. +As que cuando o esa historia, empez a cambiar un poco la manera en que yo trabajaba, y ya me salv una vez. +No solo malo, sino el peor libro jams escrito. +Y empec a pensar que debera de dejar el proyecto. +Pero me acord de Tom hablandole al aire y lo intent. +As que levante mi cara del manuscrito y dirig mis comentarios a una esquina vaca del cuarto. +Y dije en voz alta: "Escucha t, cosa, ambos sabemos que si este libro no es brillante no es enteramente mi culpa, verdad? +Porque puedes ver que estoy poniendo todo lo que tengo en esto, no tengo nada ms. +As que si quieres que sea mejor, tienes que aparecer y cumplir con tu parte del trato. +OK. Pero si no lo haces, sabes, al diablo con esto. +Voy a seguir escribiendo porque es mi trabajo. +Y quisiera que quede reflejado hoy que yo estuve aqu para hacer mi parte del trabajo." +Porque -- al final es algo as, OK -- hace siglos en los desiertos de frica del Norte, la gente se juntaba en bailes sagrados con msica a la luz de la luna que continuaban durante horas y horas hasta el amanecer. +Y siempre eran magnficos, porque los bailarines eran profesionales y eran geniales, verdad? +Pero de vez en cuando, muy raramente, algo pasaba, y uno de estos interpretes se volvera trascendente. +Y yo s que ustedes saben de lo que estoy hablando, porque s que todos han visto, en algn momento, una ejecucin as. +Era como si el tiempo se detuviera, y el bailarn pasaba por un tipo de portal y no estaba haciendo nada diferente de lo que haba hecho las mil noches anteriores, pero todo se alineaba. +Y de repente, no pareca ser un simple humano. +Estaba iluminado internamente y desde abajo y todo iluminado con divinidad. +Y cuando esto pasaba, en esos tiempos, la gente saba lo que era, saben, y lo llamaban por su nombre. +Juntaban sus manos y empezaban a cantar, "Allah, Allah, Allah, Dios, Dios, Dios." +Eso es Dios, saben? +Una curiosa nota histrica -- Cuando los moros invadieron el sur de Espaa, llevaron esta costumbre con ellos y la pronunciacin cambi con los siglos de "Allah, Allah, Allah" a "Ol, ol, ol," Que an se escucha en plazas de toros y bailes flamencos. +En Espaa, cuando alguien ha hecho algo imposible y mgico, "Allah, ol, ol, Allah, magnfico, bravo," incomprensible, ah est -- una visin de Dios. +Lo que es grandioso, porque lo necesitamos. +Pero, la parte difcil viene a la maana siguiente, para el mismo bailarn, cuando se despierta y descubre que es martes a las 11 a.m., y l ya no es una visin de Dios. +Es solamente un mortal con malas rodillas, y tal vez jams lograr ascender a esas alturas de nuevo. +Y tal vez nadie ms cantar el nombre de Dios mientras da vueltas, Y qu va a hacer con el resto de su vida entonces? +Esto es difcil. +Es una de las reconciliaciones ms dolorosas en la vida creativa. +Pero tal vez no debe estar lleno de angustia si ustedes no creyeran, en primer lugar, que los aspectos ms extraordinarios de su ser vinieron de ustedes. +Pero tal vez si simplemente se creyeran que era un prstamo de alguna fuente inimaginable por una exquisita porcin de su vida para entregar a alguien ms cuando hubieran terminado. +Y saben, si pensamos de esta manera, empieza a cambiar todo. +As es como he empezado a pensar, y es definitivamente como he pensado en los ltimos meses mientras he trabajado en el libro que pronto ser publicado, como la peligrosa, atemorizante sobreanticipada secuela de mi extrao xito. +Y lo que tengo que seguir dicindome cuando realmente me pongo nerviosa es, no tengas miedo. +No te abrumes. Solo haz tu trabajo. +Contina presentndote para hacer tu parte, sea cual sea. +Si tu trabajo es bailar, haz tu baile. +Si el divino, absurdo genio asignado a tu caso decide dejar que se vislumbre algn tipo de maravilla, aunque sea por un momento a travs de tus esfuerzos, entonces "Ol!" +Y si no, haz tu baile de todas formas. +Y "Ol!" para ti, de todas formas. +Creo en esto y siento que debemos ensearlo. +"Ol!" a ti, de todas formas, solamente por tener el amor y la tenacidad humana de continuar intentndolo. +Gracias. +Gracias. +June Cohen: Ol! +Saben, he hablado de algunos de estos proyectos antes, sobre el genoma humano y lo que podra significar y sobre el descubrimiento de nuevos conjuntos de genes. +Estamos realmente comenzando a partir de un nuevo punto: hemos estado digitalizando la biologa y ahora estamos tratando de pasar de ese cdigo digital a una nueva fase de la biologa, diseando y sintetizando vida. +Por lo tanto, siempre hemos estado tratando de plantear grandes preguntas. +Qu es la vida? es algo que creo que muchos bilogos han tratado de entender a distintos niveles. +Hemos intentado varios mtodos, reducindola a sus componentes mnimos. +Llevamos ya casi veinte aos digitalizndola. Cuando secuenciamos el genoma humano se pasaba del mundo analgico de la biologa al mundo digital del ordenador. +Ahora estamos tratando de plantear si podemos regenerar la vida o si podemos crear nueva vida a partir de este universo digital. +Este es el mapa de un pequeo organismo, Mycoplasma genitalium, que tiene el genoma ms pequeo de todas las especies que pueden autorreplicarse en el laboratorio. Y hemos tratado de ver slo si si podemos llegar a un genoma an menor. +Somos capaces de silenciar del orden de un centenar de genes de los 500 ms o menos que tenemos aqu. +Pero cuando nos fijamos en su mapa metablico, es relativamente simple en comparacin con el nuestro. Cranme, esto es sencillo. Pero cuando nos fijamos en todos los genes que podemos silenciar de uno en uno, es muy poco probable que esto pueda dar lugar a una clula viva. +Por lo tanto, decidimos que la nica manera de avanzar era sintetizar de verdad este cromosoma para que pudisemos variar sus componentes y poder plantearnos algunas de estas preguntas ms fundamentales. +Y as iniciamos el camino de Podemos sintetizar un cromosoma? +Puede la qumica hacer posible que fabriquemos estas molculas realmente grandes llevndonos donde nunca habamos estado antes? +Y si lo hacemos, podemos hacer que arranque un cromosoma? +Un cromosoma, por cierto, no es ms que un pedazo de materia qumica inerte. +Por lo tanto, nuestro ritmo de digitalizacin de la vida ha ido aumentando a un ritmo exponencial. +Nuestra capacidad para escribir el cdigo gentico ha ido avanzando muy lentamente, pero ha ido aumentando. Y nuestro ltimo punto lo pondra ahora en una curva exponencial. +Empezamos esto hace ms de 15 aos. +Tuvo varias etapas, de hecho, comenzando con una revisin biotica antes de que hiciramos los primeros experimentos. +Pero resulta que sintetizar ADN es muy difcil. +Hay decenas de miles de mquinas en todo el mundo que fabrican trozos pequeos de ADN, de entre 30 y 50 letras de longitud, y que es un proceso que degenera, de modo que cuanto ms larga hagamos la pieza, ms errores va a haber. +As que tuvimos que crear un nuevo mtodo para juntar estos pedacitos y corregir todos los errores. +Y este fue nuestro primer intento: empezamos con la informacin digital del genoma de Phi X 174. +Se trata de un pequeo virus que mata bacterias. +Diseamos las piezas, realizamos las correcciones pertinentes y obtuvimos una molcula de ADN de unas cinco mil letras. +La etapa ms emocionante lleg cuando tomamos este pedazo de materia qumica inerte, lo introdujimos en las bacterias y stas empezaron a leer este cdigo gentico y fabricaron partculas virales. +A continuacin las partculas virales se liberaron de las clulas y luego regresaron y mataron a las E. coli. +Hace poco estuve hablando con la gente de la industria del petrleo y les dije que ellos entendan claramente este modelo. +Ellos se rieron an ms de lo que ustedes se ren ahora. Y as creemos que esta es una situacin en la que el software puede realmente construir su propio hardware en un sistema biolgico. +El diseo es fundamental, y si ests partiendo de informacin digital del ordenador, esta informacin digital tiene que ser muy precisa. +La primera vez que secuenciamos este genoma en 1995, el nivel de precisin era de un error por cada 10.000 pares de bases. +En realidad, al resecuenciarlo encontramos 30 errores. Si hubiramos utilizado esa secuencia original, nunca habra podido ponerse en funcionamiento. +Parte del diseo consiste en disear piezas que tengan 50 letras de longitud y que tienen que solaparse con las otras piezas de 50 letras para construir subunidades ms pequeas que tuvimos que disear de manera que puedan ir juntas. +Diseamos elementos nicos para ello. +Quizs hayan ledo que les ponemos marcas de agua. +Piensen en esto: tenemos un cdigo gentico de cuatro letras: A, C, G y T. +Los tripletes de esas letras codifican aproximadamente veinte aminocidos, hay una sola designacin de letras para cada uno de los aminocidos. +As que podemos usar el cdigo gentico para escribir palabras, frases, pensamientos. +Inicialmente, todo lo que hicimos fue autografiarlo. +Algunos estaban decepcionados porque no haba poesa. +Diseamos estas piezas de manera que pudisemos digerirlas slo con enzimas. Hay enzimas que las repararan y las juntan. +Y empezamos a hacer piezas empezamos con piezas que iban desde 5.000 hasta 7.000 letras, las acoplamos para hacer piezas de 24.000 letras y luego juntamos dichos conjuntos llegando a 72.000 letras. +En cada etapa, sintetizamos abundantes piezas de stas para poder secuenciarlas, porque estamos tratando de crear un proceso que sea muy slido y que van a ver en un minuto. +Estamos tratando de llegar al punto de la automatizacin. +As pues, esto se parece a un playoff de baloncesto +Cuando nos ponemos con estas piezas muy grandes de ms de 100,000 pares de bases ya no van a crecer tan fcilmente en E. coli. Este proceso agota todas las herramientas modernas de la biologa molecular. As que recurrimos a otros mecanismos. +Sabamos que hay un mecanismo llamado recombinacin homloga, utilizado por la biologa para reparar el ADN, que puede juntar estas piezas. +Aqu tenemos un ejemplo de ello. Hay un organismo llamado Deinococcus radiodurans que puede soportar hasta tres millones de rads de radiacin. +Como pueden ver en el panel superior, simplemente se hace explotar su cromosoma. +De doce a veinticuatro horas despus, se vuelve a reconstituir, exactamente como estaba antes. +Tenemos miles de organismos que pueden hacer lo mismo. +Estos organismos pueden desecarse totalmente. O pueden vivir en el vaco. +Estoy completamente seguro de que puede existir vida en el espacio sideral, vida que puede desplazarse, encontrar un nuevo medio acuoso. +De hecho, la NASA ha demostrado que esto ocurre. +Aqu pueden ver una micrografa real de la molcula que construimos utilizando estos procesos, en realidad utilizando slo mecanismos de las levaduras con el diseo adecuado de las piezas que pusimos en ellas. Las levaduras las juntan automticamente. +Esto no es una micrografa electrnica, se trata tan slo de una fotomicrografa normal. +Es una molcula tan grande que podemos verla slo con un microscopio ptico. +Estas son imgenes tomadas a lo largo de un periodo de unos seis segundos. +As que esta es la publicacin que presentamos hace poco. +Son ms de 580,000 letras del cdigo gentico. Es la molcula ms grande jams sintetizada por el hombre de una estructura determinada. +Tiene una masa molecular superior a 300 millones. +Si imprimisemos su cdigo gentico con un tamao de fuente de diez y sin espacios, haran falta 142 pginas nada ms que para imprimir este cdigo gentico. +Bien, y cmo logramos que arranque un cromosoma? Cmo lo activamos? +Obviamente, con un virus es bastante sencillo. Pero es mucho ms complicado cuando se trata de bacterias. +Tambin es ms sencillo cuando pasas a eucariotas como nosotros: puede bastar con quitar el ncleo y meterle otro, y eso es de lo que todos han odo hablar con la clonacin. +Con las arqueobacterias, el cromosoma est integrado en la clula, pero recientemente hemos demostrado que podemos hacer un trasplante de un cromosoma de una clula a otra y activarlo. +el nuevo cromosoma entr en la clula. +De hecho, pensamos que esto sera lo ms lejos que llegaramos, pero hemos tratado de disear el proceso para llegar un poco ms lejos. +Aqu se trata de un importante mecanismo de la evolucin. +Encontramos todo tipo de especies que han incorporado un segundo o un tercer cromosoma procedente de algn lugar, aadiendo miles de nuevos caracteres a esas especies en cuestin de segundos. +As que la gente que piensa en la evolucin como un simple cambio de un gen cada vez no ha entendido mucho la biologa. +Hay enzimas llamadas enzimas de restriccin que realmente digieren el ADN. +El cromosoma que se encontraba en la clula careca de ellas. La clula el cromosoma que pusimos en ella s las tiene. +El cromosoma se expres y reconoci el otro cromosoma como material extrao, lo digiri y as logramos que en la clula slo quedara el nuevo cromosoma. +Y ste se volvi azul debido a los genes que pusimos en l. +Y en un perodo muy corto de tiempo, todas las caractersticas de una de las especies se haban perdido y dicha especie se ha convertido totalmente en la nueva especie basada en el nuevo software que habamos puesto en la clula. +Todas las protenas cambiaron, las membranas cambiaron y cuando leemos el cdigo gentico, ste es exactamente el que habamos transferido. +As que esto puede sonar como alquimia genmica, pero podemos, cambiando de sitio el ADN software, cambiar las cosas de manera bastante espectacular. +Ahora bien, he argumentado, no se trata del gnesis: esto se basa en tres mil quinientos millones de aos de evolucin, +y he argumentado que puede que estemos a punto de tal vez crear una nueva versin de la explosin Cmbrica, en la que se produce una nueva especiacin a gran escala basada en este diseo digital. +Por qu hacer esto? +Creo que esto es bastante evidente en trminos de algunas de las necesidades. +Vamos a pasar de seis mil quinientos millones a nueve mil millones de personas en los prximos cuarenta aos. +Ponindolo en mi propio contexto: nac en 1946. +Ahora hay tres personas en el planeta por cada uno de los que existamos en 1946; dentro de cuarenta aos, habr cuatro. +Tenemos problemas para alimentar, suministrar agua potable, medicamentos o combustible a estos seis mil quinientos millones de personas. +Habr que hacer un gran esfuerzo si queremos hacerlo para nueve mil millones. +Utilizamos ms de cinco mil millones de toneladas de carbn, ms de treinta mil millones de barriles de petrleo (al ao). Esto equivale a unos cien millones de barriles al da. +Cuando tratamos de pensar en procesos biolgicos o en cualquier tipo de proceso que los sustituya, va a ser un reto tremendo. +Luego, por supuesto, viene todo el CO2 procedente de este material que acaba en la atmsfera. +Ahora, a partir de nuestro descubrimiento en todo el mundo, tenemos una base de datos con alrededor de veinte millones de genes y a m me gusta pensar en ellos como en los componentes para disear el futuro. +La industria electrnica slo contaba con una docena de componentes y fjense en la diversidad que sali de eso. +En este punto estamos principalmente limitados por una realidad biolgica y nuestra imaginacin. +Ahora disponemos de tcnicas, gracias a estos mtodos de sntesis rpidos, para hacer lo que estamos denominando genmica combinatoria. +Ahora tenemos la capacidad de construir un gran robot que puede fabricar un milln de cromosomas al da. +Cuando se piensa en procesar estos veinte millones de genes diferentes o en tratar de optimizar los procesos para la produccin de octano o de productos farmacuticos, nuevas vacunas, podemos cambiar, haciendo slo con un pequeo equipo ms biologa molecular que durante los ltimos 20 aos de ciencia. +Y esto slo en cuanto a la seleccin normal. Podemos seleccionar para su viabilidad, la produccin de sustancias qumicas y combustibles, la produccin de vacunas, etc. +Esta es una pantalla que resume la informacin de algunos programas de diseo reales en los que estamos trabajando para ser de verdad capaces de sentarnos a disear especies en el ordenador. +No sabemos necesariamente qu aspecto tendrn. Sabemos exactamente cmo ser su cdigo gentico. +Ahora estamos centrados en los combustibles de cuarta generacin. +Hemos visto recientemente que el etanol de maz es slo un mal experimento. +Tenemos combustibles de segunda y tercera generacin que saldrn relativamente pronto y que van desde el azcar hasta combustibles de mucho mayor valor como el octano o los diferentes tipos de butanol. +Pero pensamos que la nica manera en que la biologa puede tener un impacto importante, sin aumentar an ms el coste de los alimentos y la limitacin de su disponibilidad, es que comencemos con el CO2 como materia prima, por lo que estamos trabajando en el diseo de clulas para seguir por esta va +y creemos que tendremos los primeros combustibles de cuarta generacin en aproximadamente ao y medio. +Luz solar y CO2 es un mtodo +, pero en nuestro descubrimiento por todo el mundo, tenemos toda clase de mtodos diferentes. +ste es un organismo descrito en 1996. +Vive en las profundidades del ocano, a una milla y media de profundidad, a temperaturas cercanas al punto de ebullicin del agua. +Convierte el CO2 en metano utilizando hidrgeno molecular como fuente de energa. +Estamos tratando de ver si podemos tomar el CO2 capturado, que puede llevarse fcilmente por tuberas a los sitios de produccin, y volver a convertir este CO2 en combustible para dirigir este proceso. +As que pensamos que, en un corto perodo de tiempo, podramos ser capaces de aumentar lo que es la pregunta bsica de Qu es la vida?. +Estamos realmente, ya saben, tenemos objetivos modestos de sustitucin de toda la industria petroqumica. Claro que s! Si esto no se puede hacer en TED, dnde se va a poder? Convertirse en una importante fuente de energa. +Pero tambin estamos trabajando ahora mismo en utilizar estas mismas herramientas para llegar a series de vacunas instantneas. +Ya lo han visto este ao con la gripe, que siempre nos falta un ao y un dlar de dar con la vacuna apropiada. +Creo que esto se puede cambiar creando anticipadamente vacunas combinatorias. +Aqu tienen cmo puede empezar a parecer el futuro cambiando, ahora, el rbol evolutivo, acelerando la evolucin con bacterias sintticas, arqueobacterias y, eventualmente, eucariotas. +Estamos lejos de mejorar a las personas. Nuestro objetivo es asegurarnos de que tenemos la posibilidad de sobrevivir el tiempo suficiente para quizs hacerlo. Muchas gracias. +Aqu estamos viendo muchos, muchos gigabytes de fotos digitales, haciendo zoom en forma continua y sin dificultades, haciendo panormicas y modificaciones de cualquier tipo. +La cantidad de informacin que veamos, el tamao de las colecciones y el de las imgenes ya no son un problema. +En su mayora son fotos de cmaras digitales comunes, pero esta, por ejemplo, es una escaneada de la Biblioteca del Congreso, con cerca de 300 megapxeles. +Es lo mismo, porque lo nico que puede limitar el rendimiento de un sistema como este es el nmero de pxeles de su pantalla +en un momento dado. Tambin tiene una arquitectura muy flexible. +Este es un libro completo, un ejemplo de datos sin imgenes. +Se trata de "Casa desolada", de Dickens. Cada columna es un captulo. +Para probarles que se trata realmente de texto, y no de una imagen, podemos hacer algo para mostrar que se trata de una representacin real del texto; no es una imagen. +Quiz sea una forma algo artificial de leer un libro electrnico. +No la recomendara. +Este es un caso ms realista. Un ejemplar de The Guardian. +Cada imagen grande es el comienzo de una seccin. +Y realmente proporciona el placer y la experiencia agradable de leer la versin real en papel de una revista o un diario, un tipo de medio propiamente de escalas mltiples. +Tambin hemos hecho algo en una esquina de este ejemplar de The Guardian. +Hemos hecho un anuncio publicitario falso con alta resolucin, mucho ms de la que puede obtenerse en un anuncio comn, y le hemos incorporado otros contenidos. +Si desean ver las caractersticas de este coche, pueden hacerlo aqu. +O ver otros modelos, e incluso especificaciones tcnicas. +Esto comprende algunas de las ideas sobre anular los lmites en torno a los inmuebles en pantalla. +Esperamos que esto implique el fin de las pantallas emergentes y otros estorbos de ese tipo: ya no seran necesarios. +Por cierto, el mapeo es una de las aplicaciones realmente obvias en una tecnologa como esta. +No voy a demorarme en esto, salvo decir que tambin tenemos cmo contribuir en este campo. +Estas son todas las carreteras de los EE.UU. +sobreimpresas en la parte superior de una imagen geoespacial de la NASA. +Ahora veamos algo ms. +Esto est en directo en la red en este momento, pueden verlo. +Es un proyecto llamado Photosynth, que combina dos tecnologas diferentes. +Una es Seadragon, y la otra una investigacin visual computarizada muy hermosa, realizada por Noah Snavely, estudiante de posgrado de la Universidad de Washington, codirigida por Steve Seitz de la misma universidad +y Rick Szeliski en el Dpto. de Investigacin de Microsoft. Una muy buena colaboracin. +Y est en directo en la web, con tecnologa de Seadragon. +Pueden apreciarlo cuando hacemos estos tipos de vistas, en las que podemos bucear a travs de las imgenes y tener esta experiencia de resolucin mltiple. +El orden espacial de estas imgenes es realmente significativo. +Los algoritmos visuales computarizados registraron estas imgenes en conjunto, de modo que se corresponden con el espacio real en que se hicieron las tomas, hechas en los Lagos Grassi, en las Montaas Rocallosas canadienses. +Aqu ven elementos de diapositivas estabilizadas o imgenes panormicas, todas relacionadas espacialmente. +No s si tengo tiempo para mostrarles otros entornos. +Algunos son mucho ms espaciales. +al ver los entornos que hemos subido a la red. +Tuvimos que ocuparmos de las capas y dems. Esta es una reconstruccin de la Catedral de Notre Dame, +realizada totalmente con ordenador a partir de imgenes tomadas de Flickr. Simplemente pongan Notre Dame en Flickr, +y podrn ver imgenes de personas en camiseta, del campus y dems. Cada uno de estos conos anaranjados representa una imagen +perteneciente a este modelo. Y estas son todas imgenes de Flickr, relacionadas espacialmente de esta manera. +Podemos navegar simplemente de esta forma tan sencilla. +. Saben, nunca pens que terminara trabajando en Microsoft. +Es muy gratificante tener una recepcin as aqu. +. Supongo que sabrn que hay muchos tipos diferentes de cmaras: desde las de telfonos mviles hasta SLR profesionales, gran parte de ellas ligadas a este entorno. +Si puedo buscar algunas de las ms raras. Muchas estn bloqueadas por rostro, y dems. +Algunas de estas son realmente una serie de fotografas... veamos. +Este es en realidad un pster de Notre Dame registrado correctamente. +Podemos acercanos desde el pster hasta una vista fsica de este entorno. +Lo que importa realmente aqu es que podemos hacer algo en el entorno social. Aqu se estn tomando datos de todos, +de toda la memoria colectiva de la apariencia visual de la Tierra, y vinculndose en su totalidad. Todas estas fotos se vinculan +y producen algo emergente que es ms que la suma de las partes. +Este es un modelo que surge de toda la Tierra. +Vanlo como la larga cola del trabajo de Tierra Virtual de Stephen Lawler. +Es algo cuya complejidad crece con el uso y cuyos beneficios para los usuarios se amplan a medida que lo utilizan. +Sus propias fotos se etiquetan con metadatos que alguien introdujo. +Por supuesto, una consecuencia de todo ello consiste en modelos virtuales enormemente ricos de cada parte interesante de la Tierra, tomados no solo de vuelos de altura e imgenes satelitales y dems, sino de la memoria colectiva. +Muchas gracias. +Chris Anderson: A ver si lo comprendo bien: este software permitir en algn momento, en los prximos aos, que todas las imgenes compartidas por cualquier persona en cualquier parte del mundo se vinculen? +BAA: S. Lo que hace realmente es descubrir crear hipervnculos, si lo quieren, entre las imgenes. +Y lo hace basndose en el contenido de las imgenes. +Y es realmente emocionante pensar en la riqueza de la informacin semntica de muchas de estas imgenes. +Como en una bsqueda de imgenes en la web, se introducen frases, y el texto de la pgina web lleva gran cantidad de informacin acerca de la imagen. +Ahora, qu sucede si dicha imagen se vincula con todas sus imgenes? +La cantidad de interconexin semntica y de riqueza procedente de ello es verdaderamente enorme. Es un efecto de red clsico. +CA: Blaise, es realmente increble. Felicidades. +BAA: Muchas gracias. +Y por supuesto, compartimos los mismos pasos imperativos de la adaptacin. +Todos nacemos. Traemos nuestros hijos al mundo. +Experimentamos ritos de iniciacin. +Tenemos que afrontar la inevitable separacin que provoca la muerte. Y no debe sorprendernos que todos cantemos, bailemos, y vivamos el arte. +Pero lo que es interesante es la cadencia de las canciones, el ritmo del baile en cada cultura. +Todos estos pueblos nos ensean que existen otras formas de ser, otras formas de pensar, otras formas de orientacin en la Tierra. +Y si reflexionamos un poco sobre esta idea solo puede llenarnos de esperanza. +Ahora, junto con las miles de culturas del mundo forman un entramado espiritual y cultural que abarca todo el planeta y es tan fundamental para su bienestar como el entramado biolgico conocido como biosfera. +Y ustedes pueden pensar en llamar a este entramado de vida cultural biolgico como lo que es una etnosfera. Y la etnosfera podra definirse como la suma total de todos los pensamientos, sueos, mitos, ideas, inspiraciones e intuiciones que han cobrado forma gracias a la imaginacin humana desde el principio de su conciencia. +La etnosfera es el gran legado de la humanidad. +Es el smbolo de todo lo que somos y lo que podemos ser como especie sumamente curiosa. +Y de igual modo que la biosfera est sufriendo un grave proceso de erosin, la etnosfera tambin padece este proceso, a un ritmo incluso ms rpido. +Y un gran indicador de esta situacin es la prdida de idiomas en el mundo. +Cuando naci cada uno de los presentes en esta sala haba 6000 idiomas hablados en el planeta. +Una lengua no es simplemente un conjunto de palabras o reglas gramaticales. +Una lengua es un destello del espritu humano, +el vehculo mediante el cual viene a nuestro mundo material el alma de cada cultura particular. +Es una fuerza generadora de la mente, un cauce, un pensamiento y un ecosistema de posibilidades espirituales. +Y de los 6000 idiomas, mientras estamos sentados aqu en Monterey, ms de la mitad ya no se susurrarn a los odos de los nios. +Ya no se ensean estos idiomas a los nios, lo que significa efectivamente, excepto que algo cambie, que estos idiomas estn prcticamente muertos. +Qu podra ser ms solitario que estar envuelto en el silencio, ser el ltimo hablante de tu propia lengua, y no poder transmitir el conocimiento de los ancestros o anticipar el futuro de los nios? +Y peor an es el horrible destino de alguien cada dos semanas, en un lugar del mundo, porque cada quince das, fallece un anciano que se lleva con l a la tumba las ltimas slabas de una antigua lengua. +Y s que algunos de ustedes consideran que quiz el mundo sera un mejor lugar si todos hablramos la misma lengua Y yo respondo: Genial!" Pero que este idioma sea el yoruba o sea el cantons +o el kogi. +Entonces todos descubriramos lo que sera no poder hablar nuestro propio idioma. +Y por eso, lo que me gustara hacer hoy es algo as como llevarlos de paseo por la etnosfera. Un breve paseo a travs de la etnosfera para darles una idea de lo que realmente se est perdiendo. +Ahora, muchos de nosotros solemos olvidar que cuando digo "distintas realidades" realmente quiero decir distintas realidades. +Tomemos por ejemplo, este nio de Barasana al noroeste del Amazonas, el pueblo de la anaconda, que creen, segn su mitologa, que vinieron de un ro de Leche, procedentes del Este, del vientre de las serpientes sagradas. +Estas son personas que cognitivamente no distinguen el color azul del verde, porque el dosel del cielo se confunde con el bosque del cual depende su existencia. +Tienen una curiosa costumbre lingstica matrimonial denominada "exogamia lingstica": deben casarse con alguien que hable otra lengua. +Y todo esto se debe al pasado mitolgico y lo curioso es que en cada choza comunitaria donde se hablan hasta seis o siete idiomas por la endogamia, no se escucha a nadie practicando un idioma. +Simplemente escuchan hasta que un da empiezan a hablar. +O una de las tribus ms fascinantes con las que he vivido son los waorani que viven al noreste de Ecuador. Un pueblo sorprendente con el que se tuvo un primer contacto pacficamente, en 1958. +En 1957, cinco misioneros intentaron entrar en contacto con ellos y cometieron un grave error. +Lanzaron desde el avin fotos en las que aparecan ellos, en actitud amistosa, sin tener en cuenta que aquel pueblo de la selva tropical jams haba visto un objeto bidimensional. +Recogieron las fotos del suelo de la selva, las miraron por detrs de los rostros, buscando el resto de la forma o la figura humana y al no encontrar nada, concluyeron que se trataba de tarjetas de visita del diablo. Entonces mataron con sus lanzas a los cinco misioneros. +Pero los waorani no solo mataban con sus lanzas a los extranjeros. +Se mataban entre s. +El 54% de la mortalidad del pueblo se debi a la matanza mutua. +Sus cazadores podan oler la orina de los animales a 40 pasos y podan decir de qu especie se trataba. +A comienzos de 1980, me dieron una misin realmente sorprendente Un profesor de Harvard me pregunt si me interesara ir a Hait, infiltrarme en las sociedades secretas, que eran la base del poder de Duvalier y los Tonton Macoutes, y proteger el veneno utilizado para crear zombies. +Para entender lo que se me peda, tena que conocer algo de esta notable religin: el vud. Y el vud no es un culto de magia negra. +Por el contrario, es una compleja visin metafsica del mundo +Es interesante. +Si les pidiera que nombraran las grandes religiones del mundo qu diran? +cristianismo, islam, judasmo, budismo, etc. +Siempre nos olvidamos de un continente, frica como asumiendo que los africanos del Sub-Shara no tienen fe religiosa, aunque evidentemente s la tienen. El vud es simplemente la sntesis de estas profundas ideas religiosas que surgieron durante la trgica dispora en los tiempos de la esclavitud. +Pero, lo que hace al vud tan apasionante es que es una relacin dinmica entre los vivos y los muertos. +Los vivos dan origen a los espritus. +Los espritus se pueden invocar desde debajo del Gran Agua respondiendo al ritmo de los bailes para desplazar momentneamente el alma de los vivos, para que en ese breve pero brillante momento, el aclito se convierta en dios. +Por eso es que a los vudistas les gusta decir que "Ustedes los blancos van a la iglesia y hablan de Dios. +Nosotros nos convertimos en Dios en el templo". +Y al estar posedos, el espritu los toma, Cmo les hara dao? +Uno ve estas demostraciones sorprendentes: aclitos del vud en estado de trance manipulando las brasas ardientes sin lastimarse, un ejemplo asombroso de la capacidad de la mente para dominar el cuerpo cuando se cataliza en el estado de extrema excitacin. +De todos los pueblos que he visitado, los ms extraordinarios son los kogi de la Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta al norte de Colombia. +Son descendientes de la antigua civilizacin tairona, que antao se extenda por toda la costa caribea colombiana. Huyendo de los espaoles de la conquista, los kogi se refugiaron en un aislado macizo volcnico que sobresale en la costa caribea. +En un continente teido de sangre por las conquistas estas personas nunca fueron conquistadas por los espaoles. +Hasta la actualidad conservan como sistema de gobierno el sacerdocio ritual. El proceso de formacin de los sacerdotes es extraordinario. +Y durante todo este tiempo, se les ensea los valores de su sociedad, los valores que conservan la premisa de que sus oraciones y solo sus oraciones mantienen el equilibrio csmico... o deberamos decir ecolgico. +Es hermoso y a vosotros os toca protegerlo. +Se autodenominan hermanos mayores y dicen que nosotros somos los hermanos menores porque segn ellos, somos los responsables estar destruyendo el mundo. +Este nivel de intuicin es muy importante. +Cuando pensamos en los indgenas y el medio ambiente, invocamos a Rousseau y la vieja mentira de un salvaje aristocrtico lo cual es una idea racista en su simplicidad o de forma alternativa, invocamos a Thoreau y decimos que estas personas estn ms cerca de la Tierra que nosotros. +En realidad, los indgenas no son sentimentales ni son dbiles por la nostalgia. +Qu significa eso? +Si esa montaa es el hogar de un espritu o una pila de minerales es irrelevante. +Lo que es interesante es la metfora que define la relacin entre el individuo y el mundo natural. +Yo crec en los bosques de Columbia Britnica donde se crea que esos bosques existan para talarse. +Eso me hizo un ser humano diferente a mis amigos, los kwakiutl, que creen que esos bosques son el hogar de Hukuk y los pjaros sagrados adems de los espritus canbales que habitaban la parte norte del mundo con quienes deban comprometerse estas comunidades durante su iniciacin Hamatsa. +Ahora, si comenzamos a pensar que estas culturas pueden crear realidades diferentes, podemos empezar a entender algunos de sus extraordinarios descubrimientos. Tomemos esta planta. +Es una foto que tom al noroeste del Amazonas en abril pasado. +Esta es la ayahuasca, muchos de ustedes pueden haber odo hablar de ella. La preparacin psicoactiva ms poderosa del repertorio de un chamn. +Esta planta tiene triptaminas muy poderosas muy parecidas a la cerotonina del cerebro, dimetiltriptamina-5 metoxidimetiltriptamina. +Si alguna vez han visto a los yanomami aspirando esa sustancia por sus narices esa sustancia fue creada de un conjunto de diversas especies que tambin contienen metoxidimetiltriptamina. +Tener que inhalar ese polvo es como salir disparado por el can de una escopeta y al mismo estar inmerso en pinturas barrocas y aterrizar en un mar de electricidad. No crea la distorsin de la realidad sino una disolucin de ella. +Solo se puede ingerir de forma oral en conjunto con otros qumicos que desnaturalicen los MAO o monoaminocidos. +Ahora, lo fascinante de esto es que los componentes qumicos de esta liana son precisamente los inhibidores MAO necesarios para potenciar las triptaminas. Entonces, uno se pregunta: +Cmo pudo ser que en una flora de 80 000 especies de plantas, estas personas encontraron 2 plantas morfolgicamente no relacionadas, que cuando se combinan de esta manera crean un tipo de versin bioqumica de un todo que es ms mayor que la suma de sus partes? +En este caso, utilizamos el conocido eufemismo, prueba y error que en realidad no tiene mucho sentido. +Pero si le preguntamos a un indgena, nos contestar: Las plantas nos lo dijeron". +Pero qu significa eso? +Los kofan reconocen hasta 17 variedades de esta liana, las cuales distinguen a gran distancia en el bosque. Todas las que nosotros distinguiramos como solo una especie. +Y les pregunt cmo establecen su taxonoma y me contestaron: Pensbamos que sabas algo de plantas". +Pero es que no sabes nada? Y yo dije, "No". +Entonces me dijeron que uno toma cada una de las 17 especies en una noche de luna llena y ellas le cantarn en una meloda distinta. +Con el paso del tiempo, las culturas cambian constantemente hacia nuevas posibilidades de vida. +Y el problema no es la tecnologa. +Los indios Sioux no dejaron de serlo cuando dejaron el arco y la flecha Tampoco los norteamericanos dejaron de serlo cuando dejaron de utilizar la carreta. +No es el cambio ni la tecnologa lo que amenaza la integridad de la etnosfera. Es el poder. La cruda cara de la dominacin. +O si vamos a las montaas del Tbet donde estoy realizando muchas investigaciones recientemente, veremos que es la cruda cara del dominio poltico. +Ustedes saben, el genocidio, la extincin fsica de un pueblo, est universalmente condenado pero el etnocidio, la destruccin del estilo de vida de un pueblo, no solo no es condenado universalmente sino que en muchos lugares es celebrado como parte de una estrategia de desarrollo. +Y no se entiende el dolor del Tbet hasta que uno lo atraviesa por tierra. +El padre de este joven haba sido relacionado con el Panchen Lama, +lo que significaba que fue asesinado casi instantneamente en el momento de la invasin china. +Su to haba huido con su santidad en la dispora que hizo desaparecer al pueblo de Nepal. +Su madre fue encarcelada por cometer el crimen de ser rica. +l mismo fue encarcelado de contrabando a la edad de dos aos y se esconda entre las faldas de su madre porque ella no poda estar sin l. +La hermana quien haba realizado esa hazaa fue recluida en un campo de educacin. +Un da, pis sin querer un brazalete de Mao y por su trasgresin fue condenada a siete aos de trabajos forzados. +El dolor del Tbet puede ser casi imposible de soportar pero el espritu redentor del pueblo es algo para destacar. +Y al final del mismo, se trata de una simple eleccin. Deseamos vivir en un mundo monocromtico y montono o queremos un mundo policromo y diversificado? +Y es humilde recordar que nuestra especie ha existido durante [150 000] aos. +La revolucin neoltica que nos dio la agricultura, y que al tiempo nos hizo sucumbir en el culto a la semilla, desapareci la poesa del chamn y apareci la prosa del clero, hemos creado un excedente de especializaciones jerrquicas... ...fue hace solo 10 000 aos. +El mundo moderno como lo conocemos tiene tan solo 300 aos de antigedad +Esta historia superficial no me sugiere que tenemos todas las respuestas para todos los desafos a los que nos enfrentaremos en los prximos milenios. +Cuando preguntamos a esta variedad de culturas del mundo el significado de ser humano responden con 10 000 voces diferentes. +Y es con esa actitud que volveremos a descubrir la posibilidad de ser lo que somos: una especie totalmente consciente de que debemos proteger todos los pueblos y todos los jardines para que encuentren una forma de florecer. Y existen grandes momentos de optimismo. +Esta es una fotografa que tom en la punta norte de la isla Baffin cuando fui a cazar narvales con varios inuits y este hombre, Olaya, me cont una maravillosa historia de su abuelo. +El gobierno canadiense no siempre fue considerado con el pueblo inuit y durante la dcada de 1950, con el fin de establecer nuestra soberana, los obligamos a vivir en asentamientos. +El abuelo de este hombre rehus a irse. +La familia, que tema por su vida, sac todas sus armas y todas sus herramientas. +Deben recordar que los inuits no tienen miedo del fro. Por el contrario, lo aprovechan. +Originalmente las cubiertas de sus trineos eran de pescado envueltas en cuero de carib. +Entonces, el abuelo de mi gua no fue intimidado por la noche rtica ni la tormenta de nieve que soplaba. +Simplemente se qued fuera, se baj los pantalones de piel de foca y defec en su mano. Y las heces comenzaron a congelarse. Les dio forma de cuchillo. +y coloc un poco de saliva al borde del cuchillo de materia fecal Cuando estuvo slido por el congelamiento, mat un perro. +Lo desoll e improvis un arns, utiliz las costillas del perro e improvis un trineo tirado por otro perro y desapareci entre los tmpanos con el cuchillo de materia fecal en la cintura. +Hablando de subsistir con nada... Y este, en muchas formas, es un smbolo de la resistencia del pueblo inuit y de todos los pueblos indgenas del mundo. +En abril de 1999, el gobierno de Canad devolvi el control total de un rea ms grande que California y Texas juntas a los inuits. +Es nuestro nuevo hogar. Se llama Nunavut. +Es un territorio independiente. Ellos controlan los recursos minerales. +Este es un ejemplo excelente de cmo una nacin-estado puede llegar y restituir a su pueblo lo que les pertenece. +Y finalmente, creo que es muy obvio... al menos para todos los que viajamos a los confines del planeta darse cuenta de que estos lugares remotos no lo son en absoluto. +Son el hogar de alguien. +Representan una parte de la imaginacin humana que se remonta al inicio de los tiempos. Y para todos nosotros, los sueos de estos nios, al igual que los sueos de nuestros propios hijos forman parte de la geografa viva de la esperanza. +Lo que tratamos finalmente de hacer en National Geographic es, creemos que los polticos nunca lograrn nada. +Consideramos creemos que la polmica no es persuasiva, pero creemos que los relatos pueden cambiar el mundo. Por eso quizs somos la mejor institucin contando historias en el mundo. Hay 35 millones de visitas en nuestro sitio web cada mes. +156 naciones tienen nuestro canal de televisin. +Millones de personas leen nuestras revistas. +Muchas gracias. +Les voy a hablar acerca de algo que est en uno de mis libros que espero resonar con otras cosas que ustedes han escuchado, e intentar hacer algunas conexiones yo mismo, en caso de que ustedes las pierdan. +Quiero empezar con lo que llamo el "dogma oficial". +El dogma oficial de qu? +El dogma oficial de todas las sociedades industriales occidentales. +Y el dogma oficial dice as: Si estamos interesados en maximizar el bienestar de nuestros ciudadanos, la manera de hacerlo es maximizar la libertad individual. +La razn de esto es tanto que la libertad en s misma es buena, como valiosa, loable y esencial a los seres humanos. +Y porque si la gente tiene libertad, entonces cada uno de nosotros puede actuar por nuestra cuenta para hacer las cosas que maximizarn nuestro bienestar y nadie tendr que decidir en nuestro nombre. +La forma de maximizar libertad es maximizando la eleccin. +Entre ms posibilidades tenga la gente, ms libertad tendr y entre ms libertad tenga, ms bienestar tendrn. +Esta idea, pienso, est tan profundamente integrada en el abasto de agua que a nadie se le ocurrira cuestionarlo. +Y tambin est profundamente integrado en nuestras vidas. +Les dar algunos ejemplos de cmo el progreso moderno lo ha hecho posible para nosotros +Este es mi supermercado. No es tan grande. +Quisiera decir unas palabras acerca de los aderezos de ensalada. +Hay 175 aderezos de ensalada en mi supermercado. Eso si no contamos los 10 diferentes tipos de aceite de oliva extra virgen y los 12 vinagres balsmicos que pueden comprar. para que hagan su propia gran variedad de aderezos, en el caso remoto de que ninguna de las 175 que ofrece la tienda les guste. +Y as es como es en el supermercado. +Y luego vayan a la tienda de electrodomsticos para ver los sistemas estereofnicos, bocinas, reproductores de CD, de cintas, sintonizador, amplificador. Y esto en una sola tienda de electrodomsticos, tienen esta cantidad de sistemas estereofnicos. +Podemos construir seis y medio millones de sistemas de estreo diferentes con los componentes que se ofrecen en una sola tienda. +Reconozcamos que hay mucho para elegir. +En otros campos, el mundo de las comunicaciones. +Hubo una poca, cuando era nio, cuando uno poda obtener cualquier tipo de servicio telefnico que quisiera, siempre y cuando viniera de Ma Bell. +Uno rentaba el telfono. No lo compraba. +Una consecuencia de esto, por cierto, es que el telfono nunca se descompona +Esos tiempos ya se fueron. +Ahora tenemos una casi ilimitada variedad de aparatos telefnicos, especialmente en el mundo de los celulares. +Estos son los celulares del futuro. +Mi favorito es el de en medio, con reproductor MP3, rasuradora de pelos de la nariz, encendedor para creme brulee. +Y si por si acaso no lo han visto en su tienda todava, les puedo asegurar que pronto algn da lo tendr. +Y lo que esto hace es conducir a la gente a entrar a las tiendas hacindose esta pregunta. +Y saben cul es ahora la respuesta a esta pregunta? +La respuesta es "No." +No es posible comprar un celular que no haga demasiado. +As, en otros aspectos de la vida que son mucho ms significativos que comprar cosas, la misma explosin de posibilidades es cierta. +Servicios de salud, ya no es ms el caso en Estados Unidos cuando uno iba al doctor y el doctor le deca a uno qu hacer. +En su lugar, uno va al doctor y el doctor dice, bueno, podramos hacer A B. +A tiene estos beneficios y estos riesgos +B tiene estos beneficios y estos riesgos qu quiere hacer? +Y uno dice: "Doc qu debo hacer?" +Y el doc dice: A tiene estos beneficios y estos riesgos y B tiene estos beneficios y estos riesgos. +Qu quiere hacer? +Y uno dice: "Si usted fuera yo, Doc, qu hara?" +Y el doc dice: "Pero yo no soy usted." +Existe una enorme mercadotecnia de los medicamentos recetados para personas como ustedes y yo, que si lo piensan, no tiene sentido en absoluto, porque no podemos comprarlos sin recetas. +Por qu nos los mercadean si no los podemos comprar? +La respuesta es que esperan que llamemos a nuestros doctores el da siguiente y pidamos que nos cambie la receta. +Algo tan drstico como nuestra identidad se ha vuelto ahora una cuestin de elegir, como lo indica esta diapositiva. +No heredamos una identidad, tenemos que inventarla. +Y nos reinventarnos con la frecuencia con la que queremos. +Y esto significa que cada da cuando nos despertamos en la maana, tenemos que decidir que clase de persona queremos ser. +Con respecto al matrimonio y a la familia, hubo un tiempo que la suposicin por omisin que casi todos tenan es que te casabas tan pronto como podas, luego empezabas a tener hijos tan pronto como podas. +La nica eleccin real era quien, no cuando y no lo que haras despus. +Hoy en da, todo est ms a nuestra dispocicion. +Doy clases con mucha fortuna a estudiantes inteligentes, y les asigno 20% menos trabajo de lo que sola hacer. +Y no es porque sean menos listos, y tampoco porque sean menos diligentes, +Es porque estn preocupados, preguntndose, Debo casarme o no? Debo casarme ahora? +O debo casarme despus? Primero los hijos o la carrera? +Todas estas son preguntas avasalladoras. +Y las tienen que contestar, aun cuando hagan o no todo el trabajo que les asigno y no obtengan buenas calificaciones en sus cursos. +En efecto tienen que hacerlo. Estas son preguntas importantes a responder. +Trabajo, somos benditos, como lo apuntaba Carl, con la tecnologa que nos permite trabajar cada minuto del da desde cualquier lugar del planeta excepto el Hotel Randolph. +Existe una esquina, por cierto pero no se los voy a contar, donde el WiFi funciona. +Y no se los voy a decir porque yo quiero usarlo. +Lo que esto significa, esta increble libertad de eleccion que tenemos con respecto al trabajo, es que tenemos que tomar una decisin, una y otra vez y otra vez acerca de si debemos o no trabajar. +Podemos ir a ver a nuestros hijos jugar futbol, y tener nuestro celular en una cadera, y nuestro Blackberry en la otra, y nuestra laptop, supuestamente, en nuestro regazo. +Incluso si los tuviramos apagados, cada minuto en que estemos viendo a nuestro hijo mutilar un partido de futbol, nos estaremos preguntando, "Debo contestar el celular?" +"Debo responder el correo? Debo hacer el borrador de la carta?" +Incluso si la respuesta a la pregunta es "no", esto ciertamente har la experiencia del partido de futbol de tu hijo muy diferente de lo que hubiera sido. +As que en cualquier lado donde miremos, cosas grandes y pequeas, cosas materiales y cosas del estilo de vida, la vida es una cuestin de elegir. +Y el mundo al que estabamos acostumbrados a vivir era as. Es decir, tenamos algunas elecciones, pero no todas era una cuestin de elegir, +Pero el mundo en el que vivimos ahora se ve as. +Y la pregunta es, son buenas o malas noticias? +La respuesta es s. +Todos sabemos lo bueno de esto, as que voy a hablar de lo malo. +Toda esto de elegir tiene dos efectos, dos efectos negativos en la gente. +Un efecto, paradjicamente, es que produce parlisis ms que liberacin. +Con tantas opciones a elegir, la gente encuentra simplemente difcil hacer la eleccin. +Les voy a dar un ejemplo drstico de esto, un estudio que se hizo de inversiones para planes de retiro voluntario. +Un colega mo tuvo acceso a los registros de inversin de Vanguard, el gigante de fondos de inversin de cerca de un milln de empleados en cerca de 2,000 diferentes lugares de trabajo. +Lo que ella encontr es que por cada 10 fondos de inversin que el patrn ofreca, la tasa de participacin bajaba dos por ciento. +Si se ofrecan 50 fondos, 10 por ciento menos de empleados participaban. que si slo se ofrecan cinco por qu? +Porque con 50 fondos a escoger, es tan difcil decidir cul fondo escoger. que simplemente lo pospones para maana. +Y entonces maana y maana y maana y maana, y por supuesto maana nunca llega. +Entendamos que esto no slo significa que la gente tendr que comer comida de perros cuando se retire porque no tendrn dinero suficiente para ahorrar tambin significa que tomar una decisin es tan difcil que dejan pasar una importante beneficio monetario de su empleador. +Al no participar, dejan pasar tanto como 5000 dlares al ao de su empleador, quien felizmente se beneficia. +As que la parlisis es una consecuencia de tener demasiadas elecciones. +Y pienso que esto hace que el mundo se vea as. +En verdad uno quiere tomar la decisin correcta si es por toda la eternidad cierto? +Uno no quiere elegir el fondo errneo, incluso el aderezo incorrecto. +Entonces este es un efecto. El segundo efecto es que aun cuando logremos rebasar la parlisis y elegir, acabamos menos satisfechos con el resultado de la eleccin de lo que estaramos si hubisemos tenido menor opciones para elegir. +Y hay varias razones para esto. +Entre ms opciones existan, es ms fcil lamentarlo todo, hace que la opcin que elegiste sea decepcionante. +Segundo, lo que los economistas llaman costos de oportunidad. +Dan Gilbert recalc esto esta maana al hablar de como la manera que valoramos las cosas varia de acuerdo a lo que las comparamos. +Bien, cuando existen muchas alternativas a considerar, es fcil imaginar los aspectos atractivos de las alternativas que rechazas, que te dejan menos satisfecho con la alternativa que has escogido. +Les pongo un ejemplo. Para aquellos de ustedes que no sean neoyorquinos, una disculpa. +Aqu est lo que se supone que ests pensando. +Tenemos una pareja en los Hamptons. +Una propiedad muy cara. +Playa fabulosa, da hermoso. Lo tienen todo para ellos. +Qu podra haber mejor? "Pues, maldita sea, " +est pensando este tipo, "Es agosto, todo mundo en el vecindario de Manhattan est fuera. +Podra estacionarme justo en frente de mi edificio." +Pasa dos semanas atormentado por la idea de que se est perdiendo la oportunidad, da tras da, de tener un buen lugar para estacionarse. +Los costos de oportunidad sustraen de la satisfaccin que obtenemos de lo que elegimos, incluso cuando lo que elegimos es estupendo. +Y entre ms opciones existan a considerar, ms aspectos atractivos de estas opciones se reflejarn en nosotros como costos de oportunidad. +Otro ejemplo. +Esta caricatura tiene varios puntos. +Hace tambin observaciones acerca de vivir en el momento, y probablemente sobre hacer las cosas despacio. +Pero un punto que hace es que en el momento en que elegimos una cosa, ests eligiendo no hacer otras cosas. Y esas otras cosas tienen muchos aspectos atractivos, que harn que lo que ests haciendo sea menos atractivo. +Tercero: escala de expectativas. +Me d cuenta de esto cuando fui a reemplazar unos jeans. +Visto jeans casi todo el tiempo. +Y hubo una poca en que los jeans eran de un solo tipo, y los comprabas, y te quedaban horrible, y eran increblemente incmodos, y si los vestas el tiempo suficiente y los lavabas las suficientes veces, empezaban a sentirse bien. +As que fui a reemplazar mis jeans despus de aos y aos de usar los viejos, y dije: "Quiero unos jeans de esta talla." +Y el vendedor de la tienda dice: "Los quiere ajustados, justos, o sueltos? +Los quiere con bragueta de botones o cierre? Deslavados a piedra o en cido? +Los quiere aflojados? +Los quiere de corte recto, estrecho, bla, bla bla..." y as se sigui. +Se me cay la quijada y cuando me recuper, le dije, "Quiero del tipo que sola ser el nico tipo que haba." +El vendedor no tena idea de lo que era, as que me pase una hora probando todos estos pantalones, y sal de la tienda -la verdad sea dicha- con el jean que mejor me ha quedado. Mejor. Toda esta eleccin me permiti mejorar. +Pero me sent peor. +Por qu? Escrib todo un libro para intentar explicrmelo a m mismo. +La razn por la que me sent peor es que, con todas estas opciones disponibles, mis expectativas acerca de un par de jeans se fueron para arriba. +Yo tena expectativas bajas. No tena expectativas particulares cuando slo haba un tipo. +Ahora que vienen en 100 diferentes, maldita sea, uno de ellos ha de ser perfecto. +Y lo que obtuve fue bueno, pero no fue perfecto. +As que compar lo que obtuve con lo que esperaba, y lo que obtuve fue decepcionante en comparacin a lo que esperaba. +Agregar opciones a la vida de la gente inevitablemente incrementa las expectativas que las personas tienen sobre lo bueno que esas opciones tienen. +Y lo que eso va a producir es menos satisfaccin con los resultados, aun cuando los resultados sean buenos. +Nadie en el mundo del marketing sabe esto +Porque si lo supieran, ustedes no sabran nada acerca de esto. +La verdad es ms parecida a esto. +La razn de que todo era mejor antes cuando todo era peor es que cuando todo era peor, era en efecto posible que gente tuviera experiencias que fuesen sorpresas placenteras. +En la actualidad, en el mundo en que vivimos, nosotros los ciudadanos industrializados, afluentes, con perfeccin de la expectativa, lo mejor que puedes aspirar es que las cosas sean tan buenas como esperabas que lo fueran. +Nunca recibirs una sorpresa placentera porque tus expectativas, mis expectativas, se fueran por arriba del techo. +El secreto de la felicidad -- que es lo que todos buscamos -- el secreto de la felicidad es tener bajas expectativas. +Quiero decirles -- un corto aporte autobiogrfico -- que estoy casado con una mujer que es realmente bastante maravillosa. +No me pudo haber ido mejor. No me acomode. +Aunque acomodarse no siempre es algo malo. +Finalmente, una consecuencia de comprar un mal par de pantalones de mezclilla cuando slo existe un tipo a comprar es que cuando ests insatisfecho y te preguntas por qu, quin es el responsable, la respuesta es clara. +El mundo es responsable qu puedes hacer? +Cuando existen cientos estilos diferentes de jeans disponibles, y compras uno que te decepciona, y te preguntas por qu, quin es el responsable? +Es de la igualmente claro que la respuesta a la pregunta eres t. +Pudiste haberlo hecho mejor. +Con un centenar de tipos diferentes de jeasn en despliegue, no hay excusa al fracaso. +Entonces cuando la gente toma decisiones, incluso cuando los resultados de las decisiones sean buenos, se sienten decepcionados por ellos, se culpan as mismos. +La depresin clnica ha explotado en el mundo industrial en la ltima generacin. +Yo creo que un contribuyente significativo, no el nico, pero significativo a esta explosin de la depresin al igual que del suicidio, es que la gente tiene experiencias que son decepcionantes porque sus estndares son muy altos. Y cuando tienen que explicarse estas experiencias a s mismos, piensan que son culpables. +Entonces el resultado neto es que en general lo estamos haciendo mejor, objetivamente, pero nos sentimos peor. +As que djenme que les recuerde. +Este es el dogma oficial, el que todos tomamos como verdadero, y que sea del todo falso. No es verdadero. +No cabe duda que algo de eleccion es mejor que nada, pero tener ms elecciones no es mejor que slo tener algunas cuantas +Existe un monto mgico. No s cul es; +pero me siento lo suficiente confiado para afirmar que hace mucho que rebasamos el punto donde esas opciones mejoraban nuestro bienestar. +Ahora, como una cuestin de polticas -- ya casi termino -- como una cuestin de polticas, la cosa a pensar es esta. Lo que permite toda estas elecciones en las sociedades industriales es la afluencia material. +Hay muchos lugares en el mundo, y hemos escuchado acerca de varios de ellos, donde su problema no es que tengan demasiadas opciones. +Su problema es que tienen demasiado pocas. +As que esto de lo que hablo es un problema peculiar de sociedades occidentales, afluentes, modernas. +Y lo que es frustrante y exasperante es esto: Steve Levitt nos habl ayer acerca de cmo no sirven estos asientos para nios caros y difciles de instalar. Es un desperdicio de dinero. +Lo que les estoy diciendo es que estas opciones complicadas y caras, no es simplemente que no sirvan, +de hecho lastiman. +Nos hacen sentir peor. +Si algo de lo que permite que la gente en nuestras sociedades tenga tantas opciones se trasladara a sociedades en que la gente tiene muy pocas opciones, no slo se mejorara la vida de esas personas, sino tambin la nuestra mejorara. Esto es lo que los economistas llaman ptimo de Pareto. +La redistribucin del ingreso nos beneficia a todos -- no slo a la gente pobre -- debido a cmo todo este exceso de opciones nos infestan. +Para concluir. Se supone que leyeron esta caricatura, y, siendo una persona sofisticada, digamos, "Oh!qu sabe este pez? +Bueno nada es posible en esta pecera." +Imaginacin pobre, visin miope del mundo, y esa es la forma en que lo le la primera vez. +Entre ms lo pienso, sin embargo, ms me acerco a la opinin de que este pez sabe algo. +Porque la verdad de las cosas es que si rompes esta pecera para que todo sea posible, no tienes libertad; tienes parlisis. +Si rompes esta pecera para que todo sea posible, reduces tu satisfaccin. +Incrementas la parlisis y disminuyes la satisfaccin. +Todos necesitamos una pecera. +Esta ciertamente es muy limitada quizs incluso para el pez, ciertamente para nosotros. +Pero la ausencia de alguna pecera metafrica es una receta para la miseria, y, yo sospecho, para el desastre. +Muchas gracias diff --git a/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/en_es_data/dev_tiny.en b/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/en_es_data/dev_tiny.en new file mode 100644 index 0000000..4d1e1da --- /dev/null +++ b/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/en_es_data/dev_tiny.en @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Thank you so much, Chris. And it's truly a great honor to have the opportunity to come to this stage twice; I'm extremely grateful. +I have been blown away by this conference, and I want to thank all of you for the many nice comments about what I had to say the other night. diff --git a/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/en_es_data/dev_tiny.es b/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/en_es_data/dev_tiny.es new file mode 100644 index 0000000..576e752 --- /dev/null +++ b/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/en_es_data/dev_tiny.es @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Muchas gracias Chris. Y es en verdad un gran honor tener la oportunidad de venir a este escenario por segunda vez. Estoy extremadamente agradecido. +He quedado conmovido por esta conferencia, y deseo agradecer a todos ustedes sus amables comentarios acerca de lo que tena que decir la otra noche. diff --git a/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/en_es_data/test.en b/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/en_es_data/test.en new file mode 100644 index 0000000..24b2bdd --- /dev/null +++ b/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/en_es_data/test.en @@ -0,0 +1,8064 @@ +You know, what I do is write for children, and I'm probably America's most widely read children's author, in fact. +And I always tell people that I don't want to show up looking like a scientist. +You can have me as a farmer, or in leathers, and no one has ever chose farmer. +I'm here today to talk to you about circles and epiphanies. +And you know, an epiphany is usually something you find that you dropped someplace. +You've just got to go around the block to see it as an epiphany. +That's a painting of a circle. +A friend of mine did that -- Richard Bollingbroke. +It's the kind of complicated circle that I'm going to tell you about. +My circle began back in the '60s in high school in Stow, Ohio where I was the class queer. +I was the guy beaten up bloody every week in the boys' room, until one teacher saved my life. +She saved my life by letting me go to the bathroom in the teachers' lounge. +She did it in secret. +She did it for three years. +And I had to get out of town. +I had a thumb, I had 85 dollars, and I ended up in San Francisco, California -- met a lover -- and back in the '80s, found it necessary to begin work on AIDS organizations. +About three or four years ago, I got a phone call in the middle of the night from that teacher, Mrs. Posten, who said, "I need to see you. +I'm disappointed that we never got to know each other as adults. +Could you please come to Ohio, and please bring that man that I know you have found by now. +And I should mention that I have pancreatic cancer, and I'd like you to please be quick about this." +Well, the next day we were in Cleveland. +We took a look at her, we laughed, we cried, and we knew that she needed to be in a hospice. +We found her one, we got her there, and we took care of her and watched over her family, because it was necessary. +It's something we knew how to do. +And just as the woman who wanted to know me as an adult got to know me, she turned into a box of ashes and was placed in my hands. +And what had happened was the circle had closed, it had become a circle -- and that epiphany I talked about presented itself. +The epiphany is that death is a part of life. +She saved my life; I and my partner saved hers. +And you know, that part of life needs everything that the rest of life does. +It needs truth and beauty, and I'm so happy it's been mentioned so much here today. +It also needs -- it needs dignity, love and pleasure, and it's our job to hand those things out. +Thank you. +As an artist, connection is very important to me. +Through my work I'm trying to articulate that humans are not separate from nature and that everything is interconnected. +I first went to Antarctica almost 10 years ago, where I saw my first icebergs. +I was in awe. +My heart beat fast, my head was dizzy, trying to comprehend what it was that stood in front of me. +The icebergs around me were almost 200 feet out of the water, and I could only help but wonder that this was one snowflake on top of another snowflake, year after year. +Icebergs are born when they calve off of glaciers or break off of ice shelves. +Each iceberg has its own individual personality. +They have a distinct way of interacting with their environment and their experiences. +Some refuse to give up and hold on to the bitter end, while others can't take it anymore and crumble in a fit of dramatic passion. +It's easy to think, when you look at an iceberg, that they're isolated, that they're separate and alone, much like we as humans sometimes view ourselves. +But the reality is far from it. +As an iceberg melts, I am breathing in its ancient atmosphere. +As the iceberg melts, it is releasing mineral-rich fresh water that nourishes many forms of life. +I approach photographing these icebergs as if I'm making portraits of my ancestors, knowing that in these individual moments they exist in that way and will never exist that way again. +It is not a death when they melt; it is not an end, but a continuation of their path through the cycle of life. +Some of the ice in the icebergs that I photograph is very young -- a couple thousand years old. +And some of the ice is over 100,000 years old. +The last pictures I'd like to show you are of an iceberg that I photographed in Qeqetarsuaq, Greenland. +It's a very rare occasion that you get to actually witness an iceberg rolling. +So here it is. +You can see on the left side a small boat. +That's about a 15-foot boat. +And I'd like you to pay attention to the shape of the iceberg and where it is at the waterline. +You can see here, it begins to roll, and the boat has moved to the other side, and the man is standing there. +This is an average-size Greenlandic iceberg. +It's about 120 feet above the water, or 40 meters. +And this video is real time. +And just like that, the iceberg shows you a different side of its personality. +Thank you. +I want you to imagine two couples in the middle of 1979 on the exact same day, at the exact same moment, each conceiving a baby -- okay? +So two couples each conceiving one baby. +Now I don't want you to spend too much time imagining the conception, because if you spend all that time imagining that conception, you're not going to listen to me. +So just imagine that for a moment. +And in this scenario, I want to imagine that, in one case, the sperm is carrying a Y chromosome, meeting that X chromosome of the egg. +And in the other case, the sperm is carrying an X chromosome, meeting the X chromosome of the egg. +Both are viable; both take off. +We'll come back to these people later. +So I wear two hats in most of what I do. +As the one hat, I do history of anatomy. +I'm a historian by training, and what I study in that case is the way that people have dealt with anatomy -- meaning human bodies, animal bodies -- how they dealt with bodily fluids, concepts of bodies; how have they thought about bodies. +The other hat that I've worn in my work is as an activist, as a patient advocate -- or, as I sometimes say, as an impatient advocate -- for people who are patients of doctors. +In that case, what I've worked with is people who have body types that challenge social norms. +So some of what I've worked on, for example, is people who are conjoined twins -- two people within one body. +Some of what I've worked on is people who have dwarfism -- so people who are much shorter than typical. +And a lot of what I've worked on is people who have atypical sex -- so people who don't have the standard male or the standard female body types. +And as a general term, we can use the term intersex for this. +Intersex comes in a lot of different forms. +I'll just give you a few examples of the types of ways you can have sex that isn't standard for male or female. +So in one instance, you can have somebody who has an XY chromosomal basis, and that SRY gene on the Y chromosome tells the proto-gonads, which we all have in the fetal life, to become testes. +And so in the fetal life the testes are pumping out testosterone. +But because this individual lacks receptors to hear that testosterone, the body doesn't react to the testosterone. +And this is a syndrome called androgen insensitivity syndrome. +So lots of levels of testosterone, but no reaction to it. +As a consequence, the body develops more along the female typical path. +When the child is born, she looks like a girl. +She is a girl. She is raised as a girl. +And it's often not until she hits puberty and she's growing and developing breasts, but she's not getting her period, that somebody figures out something's up here. +And they do some tests and figure out that, instead of having ovaries inside and a uterus, she actually has testes inside, and she has a Y chromosome. +Now what's important to understand is you may think of this person as really being male, but they're really not. +Females, like males, have in our bodies something called the adrenal glands. +They're in the back of our body. +And the adrenal glands make androgens, which are a masculinizing hormone. +Most females like me -- I believe myself to be a typical female -- I don't actually know my chromosomal make-up but I think I'm probably typical -- most females like me are actually androgen-sensitive. +We're making androgen, and we're responding to androgens. +The consequence is that somebody like me has actually had a brain exposed to more androgens than the woman born with testes who has androgen insensitivity syndrome. +So sex is really complicated; it's not just that intersex people are in the middle of all the sex spectrum -- in some ways, they can be all over the place. +Another example: a few years ago I got a call from a man who was 19 years old, who was born a boy, raised a boy, had a girlfriend, had sex with his girlfriend, had a life as a guy and had just found out that he had ovaries and a uterus inside. +What he had was an extreme form of a condition called congenital adrenal hyperplasia. +He had XX chromosomes, and in the womb, his adrenal glands were in such high gear that it created, essentially, a masculine hormonal environment. +And as a consequence, his genitals were masculinzed, his brain was subject to the more typical masculine component of hormones. +And he was born looking like a boy -- nobody suspected anything. +And it was only when he had reached the age of 19 that he began to have enough medical problems actually from menstruating internally, that doctors figured out that, in fact, he was female internally. +Okay, so just one more quick example of a way you can have intersex. +Some people who have XX chromosomes develop what are called ovotestis, which is when you have ovarian tissue with testicular tissue wrapped around it. +And we're not exactly sure why that happens. +So sex can come in lots of different varieties. +The reason that children with these kinds of bodies -- whether it's dwarfism, or it's conjoined twinning, or it's an intersex type -- are often normalized by surgeons is not because it actually leaves them better off in terms of physical health. +In many cases, people are actually perfectly healthy. +The reason they're often subject to various kinds of surgeries is because they threaten our social categories. +Or system has been based typically on the idea that a particular kind of anatomy comes with a particular identity. +So we have the concept that what it means to be a woman is to have a female identity; what it means to be a black person is, allegedly, is to have an African anatomy in terms of your history. +And so we have this terribly simplistic idea. +And when we're faced with a body that actually presents us something quite different, it startles us in terms of those categorizations. +So we have a lot of very romantic ideas in our culture about individualism. +And our nation's really founded on a very romantic concept of individualism. +Well you can imagine how startling then it is when you have children that are born who are two people inside of one body. +Where I ran into the most heat from this most recently was last year the South African runner, Caster Semenya, had her sex called into question at the International Games in Berlin. +I had a lot of journalists calling me, asking me, "Which is the test they're going to run that will tell us whether or not Caster Semenya is male or female?" +And I had to explain to the journalists there isn't such a test. +In fact, we now know that sex is complicated enough that we have to admit nature doesn't draw the line for us between male and female, or between male and intersex and female and intersex; we actually draw that line on nature. +So what we have is a sort of situation where the farther our science goes, the more we have to admit to ourselves that these categories that we thought of as stable anatomical categories that mapped very simply to stable identity categories are a lot more fuzzy than we thought. +And it's not just in terms of sex. +It's also in terms of race, which turns out to be vastly more complicated than our terminology has allowed. +As we look, we get into all sorts of uncomfortable areas. +We look, for example, about the fact that we share at least 95 percent of our DNA with chimpanzees. +What are we to make of the fact that we differ from them only really by a few nucleotides? +And as we get farther and farther with our science, we get more and more into a discomforted zone where we have to acknowledge that the simplistic categories we've had are probably overly simplistic. +So we're seeing this in all sorts of places in human life. +One of the places we're seeing it, for example, in our culture today, in the United States today, is battles over the beginning of life and the end of life. +We have difficult conversations about at what point we decide a body becomes a human, such that it has a different right than a fetal life. +We have very difficult conversations nowadays -- probably not out in the open as much as within medicine -- about the question of when somebody's dead. +In the past, our ancestors never had to struggle so much with this question of when somebody was dead. +At most, they'd stick a feather on somebody's nose, and if it twitched, they didn't bury them yet. +If it stopped twitching, you bury them. +But today, we have a situation where we want to take vital organs out of beings and give them to other beings. +And as a consequence, we're stuck with having to struggle with this really difficult question about who's dead, and this leads us to a really difficult situation where we don't have such simple categories as we've had before. +Now you might think that all this breaking-down of categories would make somebody like me really happy. +I'm a political progressive, I defend people with unusual bodies, but I have to admit to you that it makes me nervous. +Understanding that these categories are really much more unstable than we thought makes me tense. +And it makes me tense from the point of view of thinking about democracy. +So in order to tell you about that tension, I have to first admit to you that I'm a huge fan of the Founding Fathers. +I know they were racists, I know they were sexist, but they were great. +I mean, they were so brave and so bold and so radical in what they did that I find myself watching that cheesy musical "1776" every few years, and it's not because of the music, which is totally forgettable. +It's because of what happened in 1776 with the Founding Fathers. +The Founding Fathers were, for my point of view, the original anatomical activists, and this is why. +What they rejected was an anatomical concept and replaced it with another one that was radical and beautiful and held us for 200 years. +So as you all recall, what our Founding Fathers were rejecting was a concept of monarchy, and the monarchy was basically based on a very simplistic concept of anatomy. +The monarchs of the old world didn't have a concept of DNA, but they did have a concept of birthright. +They had a concept of blue blood. +They had the idea that the people who would be in political power should be in political power because of the blood being passed down from grandfather to father to son and so forth. +The Founding Fathers rejected that idea, and they replaced it with a new anatomical concept, and that concept was all men are created equal. +They leveled that playing field and decided the anatomy that mattered was the commonality of anatomy, not the difference in anatomy, and that was a really radical thing to do. +Now they were doing it in part because they were part of an Enlightenment system where two things were growing up together. +And that was democracy growing up, but it was also science growing up at the same time. +And it's really clear, if you look at the history of the Founding Fathers, a lot of them were very interested in science, and they were interested in a concept of a naturalistic world. +They were moving away from supernatural explanations, and they were rejecting things like a supernatural concept of power, where it transmitted because of a very vague concept of birthright. +They were moving towards a naturalistic concept. +And if you look, for example, in the Declaration of Independence, they talk about nature and nature's God. +They don't talk about God and God's nature. +They're talking about the power of nature to tell us who we are. +So as part of that, they were coming to us with a concept that was about anatomical commonality. +And in doing so, they were really setting up in a beautiful way the Civil Rights movement of the future. +They didn't think of it that way, but they did it for us, and it was great. +So what happened years afterward? +And women successfully argued that. +Next came the successful Civil Rights movement, where we found people like Sojourner Truth talking about, "Ain't I a woman?" +We find men on the marching lines of the Civil Rights movement saying, "I am a man." +Again, people of color appealing to a commonality of anatomy over a difference of anatomy, again, successfully. +We see the same thing with the disability rights movement. +The problem is, of course, that, as we begin to look at all that commonality, we have to begin to question why we maintain certain divisions. +Now mind you, I want to maintain some divisions, anatomically, in our culture. +For example, I don't want to give a fish the same rights as a human. +I don't want to say we give up entirely on anatomy. +I don't want to say five-year-olds should be allowed to consent to sex or consent to marry. +So there are some anatomical divisions that make sense to me and that I think we should retain. +But the challenge is trying to figure out which ones they are and why do we retain them and do they have meaning. +So let's go back to those two beings conceived at the beginning of this talk. +We have two beings, both conceived in the middle of 1979 on the exact same day. +Let's imagine one of them, Mary, is born three months prematurely, so she's born on June 1, 1980. +Henry, by contrast, is born at term, so he's born on March 1, 1980. +Simply by virtue of the fact that Mary was born prematurely three months, she comes into all sorts of rights three months earlier than Henry does -- the right to consent to sex, the right to vote, the right to drink. +Henry has to wait for all of that, not because he's actually any different in age, biologically, except in terms of when he was born. +We find other kinds of weirdness in terms of what their rights are. +Henry, by virtue of being assumed to be male -- although I haven't told you that he's the XY one -- by virtue of being assumed to be male is now liable to be drafted, which Mary does not need to worry about. +Mary, meanwhile, cannot in all the states have the same right that Henry has in all the states, namely, the right to marry. +Henry can marry in every state a woman, but Mary can only marry today in a few states a woman. +So we have these anatomical categories that persist that are in many ways problematic and questionable. +And the question to me becomes: What do we do, as our science gets to be so good in looking at anatomy, that we reach the point where we have to admit that a democracy that's been based on anatomy might start falling apart? +I don't want to give up the science, but at the same time it kind of feels sometimes like the science is coming out from under us. +So where do we go? +It seems like what happens in our culture is a sort of pragmatic attitude: "Well, we have to draw the line somewhere, so we will draw the line somewhere." +But a lot of people get stuck in a very strange position. +So for example, Texas has at one point decided that what it means to marry a man is to mean that you don't have a Y chromosome, and what it means to marry a woman means you do have a Y chromosome. +Now in practice they don't actually test people for their chromosomes. +But this is also very bizarre, because of the story I told you at the beginning about androgen insensitivity syndrome. +If we look at one of the founding fathers of modern democracy, Dr. Martin Luther King, he offers us something of a solution in his "I have a dream" speech. +He says we should judge people "based not on the color of their skin, but on the content of their character," moving beyond anatomy. +And I want to say, "Yeah, that sounds like a really good idea." +But in practice, how do you do it? +How do you judge people based on the content of character? +I also want to point out that I'm not sure that is how we should distribute rights in terms of humans, because, I have to admit, that there are some golden retrievers I know that are probably more deserving of social services than some humans I know. +I also want to say there are probably also some yellow Labradors that I know that are more capable of informed, intelligent, mature decisions about sexual relations than some 40-year-olds that I know. +So how do we operationalize the question of content of character? +It turns out to be really difficult. +And part of me also wonders, what if content of character turns out to be something that's scannable in the future -- able to be seen with an fMRI? +Do we really want to go there? +I'm not sure where we go. +What I do know is that it seems to be really important to think about the idea of the United States being in the lead of thinking about this issue of democracy. +We've done a really good job struggling with democracy, and I think we would do a good job in the future. +We don't have a situation that Iran has, for example, where a man who's sexually attracted to other men is liable to be murdered, unless he's willing to submit to a sex change, in which case he's allowed to live. +We don't have that kind of situation. +I'm glad to say we don't have the kind of situation with -- a surgeon I talked to a few years ago who had brought over a set of conjoined twins in order to separate them, partly to make a name for himself. +But when I was on the phone with him, asking why he was going to do this surgery -- this was a very high-risk surgery -- his answer was that, in this other nation, these children were going to be treated very badly, and so he had to do this. +My response to him was, "Well, have you considered political asylum instead of a separation surgery?" +The United States has offered tremendous possibility for allowing people to be the way they are, without having them have to be changed for the sake of the state. +So I think we have to be in the lead. +Well, just to close, I want to suggest to you that I've been talking a lot about the fathers. +And I want to think about the possibilities of what democracy might look like, or might have looked like, if we had more involved the mothers. +And I want to say something a little bit radical for a feminist, and that is that I think that there may be different kinds of insights that can come from different kinds of anatomies, particularly when we have people thinking in groups. +Now for years, because I've been interested in intersex, I've also been interested in sex difference research. +And one of the things that I've been really interested in is looking at the differences between males and females in terms of the way they think and operate in the world. +And what we know from cross-cultural studies is that females, on average -- not everyone, but on average -- are more inclined to be very attentive to complex social relations and to taking care of people who are basically vulnerable within the group. +And so if we think about that, we have an interesting situation on our hands. +Years ago, when I was in graduate school, one of my graduate advisers who knew I was interested in feminism -- I considered myself a feminist, as I still do -- asked a really strange question. +He said, "Tell me what's feminine about feminism." +And I thought, "Well that's the dumbest question I've ever heard. +Feminism is all about undoing stereotypes about gender, so there's nothing feminine about feminism." +But the more I thought about his question, the more I thought there might be something feminine about feminism. +That is to say, there might be something, on average, different about female brains from male brains that makes us more attentive to deeply complex social relationships and more attentive to taking care of the vulnerable. +So whereas the fathers were extremely attentive to figuring out how to protect individuals from the state, it's possible that if we injected more mothers into this concept, what we would have is more of a concept of, not just how to protect, but how to care for each other. +And maybe that's where we need to go in the future, when we take democracy beyond anatomy, is to think less about the individual body, in terms of the identity, and think more about those relationships. +So that as we the people try to create a more perfect union, we're thinking about what we do for each other. +Thank you. +In 2007, I decided that we needed to reconceptualize how we thought about economic development. +Our new goal should be that when every family thinks about where they want to live and work, they should be able to choose between at least a handful of different cities that were all competing to attract new residents. +Now we're a long way away from that goal right now. +There are billions of people in developing countries who don't have even a single city that would be willing to welcome them. +But the amazing thing about cities is they're worth so much more than it costs to build them. +So we could easily supply the world with dozens, maybe hundreds, of new cities. +Now this might sound preposterous to you if you've never thought about new cities. +But just substitute apartment building for cities. +Imagine half the people who wanted to be in apartments already had them; the other half aren't there yet. +You could try and expand the capacity by doing additions on all the existing apartments. +But you know what you'd run into is those apartments and the surrounding areas have rules to avoid discomfort and the distractions of construction. +So it's extremely hard to do all of those additions. +But you could go out someplace brand new, build a brand new apartment building, as long as the rules there were ones that facilitated construction rather than getting in the way. +So I proposed that governments create new reform zones big enough to hold cities and gave them a name: charter cities. +Later I learned that at about this same time, Javier and Octavio were thinking about the challenge of reform in Honduras. +They knew that about 75,000 Hondurans every year would leave to go to the United States, and they wanted to ask, what could they do to make sure that those people could stay and do the same things in Honduras. +In the summer of 2009, Honduras went through a wrenching constitutional crisis. +At the next regularly scheduled election, Pepe Lobo won in a landslide on a platform that promised reform, but reconciliation as well. +He asked Octavio to be his chief of staff. +Meanwhile, I was getting ready to give a talk at TEDGlobal. +Through a process of refinement, trial and error, a lot of user testing, I tried to boil this complicated concept of charter city down to the bare essentials. +The first point was the importance of rules, like those rules that say you can't come in and disturb all the existing apartment holders. +We pay a lot of attention to new technologies, but it takes technologies and rules to get progress, and it's usually the rules that hold us back. +In the fall of 2010, a friend from Guatemala sent Octavio a link to the TEDTalk. +He showed it to Javier. +They called me. +They said, "Let's present this to the leaders of our country." +So in December we met in Miami, in a hotel conference room. +I tried to explain this point about how valuable cities are, how much more valuable they are than they cost. +And I used this slide showing how valuable the raw land is in a place like New York City: notice, land that's worth thousands of dollars, in some cases, per square meter. +But it was a fairly abstract discussion, and at some point when there was a pause, Octavio said, "Paul, maybe we could watch the TEDTalk." +So the TEDTalk laid out in very simple terms, a charter city is a place where you start with uninhabited land, a charter that specifies the rules that will apply there and then a chance for people to opt in, to go live under those rules or not. +So I was asked by the president of Honduras who said that we need to do this project, this is important, this could be the way forward for our country. +I was asked to come to Tegucigalpa and talk again on January fourth and fifth. +So I presented another fact-filled lecture that included a slide like this, which tried to make the point that, if you want to create a lot of value in a city, it has to be very big. +This is a picture of Denver, and the outline is the new airport that was built in Denver. +This airport alone covers more than 100 square kilometers. +So I was trying to persuade the Hondurans, if you build a new city, you've got to start with a site that's at least 1,000 square kilometers. +That's more than 250 hundred-thousand acres. +Everybody applauded politely. +The faces in the audience were very serious and attentive. +The leader of the congress came up on stage and said, "Professor Romer, thank you very much for your lecture, but maybe we could watch the TEDTalk. +I've got it here on my laptop." +So I sat down, and they played the TEDTalk. +And it got to the essence, which is that a new city could offer new choices for people. +There would be a choice of a city which you could go to which could be in Honduras, instead of hundreds of miles away in the North. +And it also involved new choices for leaders. +Because the leaders in the government there in Honduras would need help from partner countries, who could benefit from partner countries who help them set up the rules in this charter and the enforcement, so everybody can trust that the charter really will be enforced. +We went and looked at a site. +This picture's from there. +It easily could hold a thousand square kilometers. +And shortly thereafter, on January 19th, they voted in the congress to amend their constitution to have a constitutional provision that allows for special development regions. +In a country which had just gone through this wrenching crisis, the vote in the congress in favor of this constitutional amendment was 124 to one. +All parties, all factions in society, backed this. +To be part of the constitution, you actually have to pass it twice in the congress. +On February 17th they passed it again with another vote of 114 to one. +Immediately after that vote, on February 21st to the 24th, a delegation of about 30 Hondurans went to the two places in the world that are most interested in getting into the city building business. +One is South Korea. +This is a picture of a big, new city center that's being built in South Korea -- bigger than downtown Boston. +Everything you see there was built in four years, after they spent four years getting the permits. +The other place that's very interested in city building is Singapore. +They've actually built two cities already in China and are preparing the third. +So if you think about this practically, here's where we are. +They've got a site; they're already thinking about this site for the second city. +They're putting in place a legal system that could allow for managers to come in, and also an external legal system. +One country has already volunteered to let its supreme court be the court of final appeal for the new judicial system there. +There's designers and builders of cities who are very interested. +They even can bring with them some financing. +But the one thing you know they've already solved is that there's lots of tenants. +There's lots of businesses that would like to locate in the Americas, especially in a place with a free trade zone, and there's lots of people who'd like to go there. +Around the world, there's 700 million people who say they'd like to move permanently someplace else right now. +There's a million a year who leave Latin America to go to the United States. +Many of these are a father who has to leave his family behind to go get a job -- sometimes a single mother who has to get enough money to even pay for food or clothing. +Sadly, sometimes there are even children who are trying to get reunited with their parents that they haven't seen, in some cases, for a decade. +So what kind of an idea is it to think about building a brand new city in Honduras? +Or to build a dozen of these, or a hundred of these, around the world? +What kind of an idea is it to think about insisting that every family have a choice of several cities that are competing to attract new residents? +This is an idea worth spreading. +And my friends from Honduras asked me to say thank you, TED. +I'm Jessi, and this is my suitcase. +But before I show you what I've got inside, I'm going to make a very public confession, and that is, I'm outfit-obsessed. +I love finding, wearing, and more recently, photographing and blogging a different, colorful, crazy outfit for every single occasion. +But I don't buy anything new. +I get all my clothes secondhand from flea markets and thrift stores. +Aww, thank you. +Secondhand shopping allows me to reduce the impact my wardrobe has on the environment and on my wallet. +I get to meet all kinds of great people; my dollars usually go to a good cause; I look pretty unique; and it makes shopping like my own personal treasure hunt. +I mean, what am I going to find today? +Is it going to be my size? +Will I like the color? +Will it be under $20? +If all the answers are yes, I feel as though I've won. +I want to get back to my suitcase and tell you what I packed for this exciting week here at TED. +I mean, what does somebody with all these outfits bring with her? +So I'm going to show you exactly what I brought. +I brought seven pairs of underpants and that's it. +Exactly one week's worth of undies is all I put in my suitcase. +I was betting that I'd be able to find everything else I could possible want to wear once I got here to Palm Springs. +And since you don't know me as the woman walking around TED in her underwear -- that means I found a few things. +And I'd really love to show you my week's worth of outfits right now. +Does that sound good? +So as I do this, I'm also going to tell you a few of the life lessons that, believe it or not, I have picked up in these adventures wearing nothing new. +So let's start with Sunday. +I call this "Shiny Tiger." +You do not have to spend a lot of money to look great. +You can almost always look phenomenal for under $50. +This whole outfit, including the jacket, cost me $55, and it was the most expensive thing that I wore the entire week. +Monday: Color is powerful. +It is almost physiologically impossible to be in a bad mood when you're wearing bright red pants. +If you are happy, you are going to attract other happy people to you. +Tuesday: Fitting in is way overrated. +I've spent a whole lot of my life trying to be myself and at the same time fit in. +Just be who you are. +If you are surrounding yourself with the right people, they will not only get it, they will appreciate it. +Wednesday: Embrace your inner child. +Sometimes people tell me that I look like I'm playing dress-up, or that I remind them of their seven-year-old. +I like to smile and say, "Thank you." +Thursday: Confidence is key. +If you think you look good in something, you almost certainly do. +And if you don't think you look good in something, you're also probably right. +I grew up with a mom who taught me this day-in and day-out. +But it wasn't until I turned 30 that I really got what this meant. +And I'm going to break it down for you for just a second. +If you believe you're a beautiful person inside and out, there is no look that you can't pull off. +So there is no excuse for any of us here in this audience. +We should be able to rock anything we want to rock. +Thank you. +Friday: A universal truth -- five words for you: Gold sequins go with everything. +And finally, Saturday: Developing your own unique personal style is a really great way to tell the world something about you without having to say a word. +It's been proven to me time and time again as people have walked up to me this week simply because of what I'm wearing, and we've had great conversations. +So obviously this is not all going to fit back in my tiny suitcase. +So before I go home to Brooklyn, I'm going to donate everything back. +Because the lesson I'm trying to learn myself this week is that it's okay to let go. +I don't need to get emotionally attached to these things because around the corner, there is always going to be another crazy, colorful, shiny outfit just waiting for me, if I put a little love in my heart and look. +Thank you very much. +Thank you. +This is a representation of your brain, and your brain can be broken into two parts. +There's the left half, which is the logical side, and then the right half, which is the intuitive. +And so if we had a scale to measure the aptitude of each hemisphere, then we can plot our brain. +And for example, this would be somebody who's completely logical. +This would be someone who's entirely intuitive. +So where would you put your brain on this scale? +Some of us may have opted for one of these extremes, but I think for most people in the audience, your brain is something like this -- with a high aptitude in both hemispheres at the same time. +It's not like they're mutually exclusive or anything. +You can be logical and intuitive. +And so I consider myself one of these people, along with most of the other experimental quantum physicists, who need a good deal of logic to string together these complex ideas. +But at the same time, we need a good deal of intuition to actually make the experiments work. +How do we develop this intuition? Well we like to play with stuff. +So we go out and play with it, and then we see how it acts, and then we develop our intuition from there. +And really you do the same thing. +So some intuition that you may have developed over the years is that one thing is only in one place at a time. +I mean, it can sound weird to think about one thing being in two different places at the same time, but you weren't born with this notion, you developed it. +And I remember watching a kid playing on a car stop. +He was just a toddler and he wasn't very good at it, and he kept falling over. +But I bet playing with this car stop taught him a really valuable lesson, and that's that large things don't let you get right past them, and that they stay in one place. +And so this is a great conceptual model to have of the world, unless you're a particle physicist. +It'd be a terrible model for a particle physicist, because they don't play with car stops, they play with these little weird particles. +And when they play with their particles, they find they do all sorts of really weird things -- like they can fly right through walls, or they can be in two different places at the same time. +And so they wrote down all these observations, and they called it the theory of quantum mechanics. +And so that's where physics was at a few years ago; you needed quantum mechanics to describe little, tiny particles. +But you didn't need it to describe the large, everyday objects around us. +This didn't really sit well with my intuition, and maybe it's just because I don't play with particles very often. +Well, I play with them sometimes, but not very often. +And I've never seen them. +I mean, nobody's ever seen a particle. +But it didn't sit well with my logical side either. +Because if everything is made up of little particles and all the little particles follow quantum mechanics, then shouldn't everything just follow quantum mechanics? +I don't see any reason why it shouldn't. +And so I'd feel a lot better about the whole thing if we could somehow show that an everyday object also follows quantum mechanics. +So a few years ago, I set off to do just that. +So I made one. +This is the first object that you can see that has been in a mechanical quantum superposition. +So what we're looking at here is a tiny computer chip. +And you can sort of see this green dot right in the middle. +And that's this piece of metal I'm going to be talking about in a minute. +This is a photograph of the object. +And here I'll zoom in a little bit. We're looking right there in the center. +And then here's a really, really big close-up of the little piece of metal. +So what we're looking at is a little chunk of metal, and it's shaped like a diving board, and it's sticking out over a ledge. +And so I made this thing in nearly the same way as you make a computer chip. +I went into a clean room with a fresh silicon wafer, and then I just cranked away at all the big machines for about 100 hours. +For the last stuff, I had to build my own machine -- to make this swimming pool-shaped hole underneath the device. +This device has the ability to be in a quantum superposition, but it needs a little help to do it. +Here, let me give you an analogy. +You know how uncomfortable it is to be in a crowded elevator? +I mean, when I'm in an elevator all alone, I do all sorts of weird things, but then other people get on board and I stop doing those things because I don't want to bother them, or, frankly, scare them. +So quantum mechanics says that inanimate objects feel the same way. +The fellow passengers for inanimate objects are not just people, but it's also the light shining on it and the wind blowing past it and the heat of the room. +And so we knew, if we wanted to see this piece of metal behave quantum mechanically, we're going to have to kick out all the other passengers. +And so that's what we did. +We turned off the lights, and then we put it in a vacuum and sucked out all the air, and then we cooled it down to just a fraction of a degree above absolute zero. +Now, all alone in the elevator, the little chunk of metal is free to act however it wanted. +And so we measured its motion. +We found it was moving in really weird ways. +Instead of just sitting perfectly still, it was vibrating, and the way it was vibrating was breathing something like this -- like expanding and contracting bellows. +And by giving it a gentle nudge, we were able to make it both vibrate and not vibrate at the same time -- something that's only allowed with quantum mechanics. +So what I'm telling you here is something truly fantastic. +What does it mean for one thing to be both vibrating and not vibrating at the same time? +So let's think about the atoms. +So in one case: all the trillions of atoms that make up that chunk of metal are sitting still and at the same time those same atoms are moving up and down. +Now it's only at precise times when they align. +The rest of the time they're delocalized. +That means that every atom is in two different places at the same time, which in turn means the entire chunk of metal is in two different places. +I think this is really cool. +Really. +It was worth locking myself in a clean room to do this for all those years because, check this out, the difference in scale between a single atom and that chunk of metal is about the same as the difference between that chunk of metal and you. +So if a single atom can be in two different places at the same time, that chunk of metal can be in two different places, then why not you? +I mean, this is just my logical side talking. +So imagine if you're in multiple places at the same time, what would that be like? +How would your consciousness handle your body being delocalized in space? +There's one more part to the story. +It's when we warmed it up, and we turned on the lights and looked inside the box, we saw that the piece metal was still there in one piece. +And so I had to develop this new intuition, that it seems like all the objects in the elevator are really just quantum objects just crammed into a tiny space. +You hear a lot of talk about how quantum mechanics says that everything is all interconnected. +Well, that's not quite right. +It's more than that; it's deeper. +It's that those connections, your connections to all the things around you, literally define who you are, and that's the profound weirdness of quantum mechanics. +Thank you. +My name is Amit. +And 18 months ago, I had another job at Google, and I pitched this idea of doing something with museums and art to my boss who's actually here, and she allowed me to do it. +And it took 18 months. +A lot of fun, negotiations and stories, I can tell you, with 17 very interesting museums from nine countries. +But I'm going to focus on the demo. +There are a lot of stories about why we did this. +I think my personal story is explained very simply on the slide, and it's access. +And I grew up in India. +I had a great education -- I'm not complaining -- but I didn't have access to a lot of these museums and these artworks. +And so when I started traveling and going to these museums, I started learning a lot. +And while working at Google, I tried to put this desire to make it more accessible with technology together. +So we formed a team, a great team of people, and we started doing this. +I'm going to probably get into the demo and then tell you a couple of the interesting things we've had since launch. +So, simple: you come to GoogleArtProject.com. +You look around at all these museums here. +You've got the Uffizi, you've got the MoMA, the Hermitage, the Rijks, the Van Gogh. +I'm going to actually get to one of my favorites, the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York. +Two ways of going in -- very simple. +Click and, bang, you're in this museum. +It doesn't matter where you are -- Bombay, Mexico, it doesn't really matter. +You move around, you have fun. +You want to navigate around the museum? +Open the plan up, and, in one click, jump. +You're in there, you want to go to the end of the corridor. +Keep going. Have fun. +Explore. +Thanks. I haven't come to the best part. +So now I'm in front of one of my favorite paintings, "The Harvesters" by Pieter Bruegel at the Met. +I see this plus sign. +If the museum has given us the image, you click on it. +Now this is one of the images. +So this is all of the meta-data information. +For those of you who are truly interested in art, you can click this -- but I'm going to click this off right now. +And this is one of these images that we captured in what we call gigapixel technology. +So this image, for example, has close to, I think, around 10 billion pixels. +And I get a lot of people asking me: "What do you get for 10 billion pixels?" +So I'm going to try and show you what you really get for 10 billion pixels. +You can zoom around very simply. +You see some fun stuff happening here. +I love this guy; his expression is priceless. +But then you really want to go deep. +And so I started playing around, and I found something going on over here. +And I was like, "Hold on. That sounds interesting." +Went in, and I started noticing that these kids were actually beating something. +I did a little research, spoke to a couple of my contacts at the Met, and actually found out that this is a game called squall, which involves beating a goose with a stick on Shrove Tuesday. +And apparently it was quite popular. +I don't know why they did it, but I learned something about it. +Now just to get really deep in, you can really get to the cracks. +Now just to give you some perspective, I'm going to zoom out so you really see what you get. +Here is where we were, and this is the painting. +The best is yet to come -- so in a second. +So now let's just quickly jump into the MoMA, again in New York. +So another one of my favorites, "The Starry Night." +Now the example I showed you was all about finding details. +But what if you want to see brush strokes? +And what if you want to see how Van Gogh actually created this masterpiece? +You zoom in. You really go in. +I'm going to go to one of my favorite parts in this painting, and I'm really going to get to the cracks. +This is "The Starry Night," I think, never seen like this before. +I'm going to show you my other favorite feature. +There's a lot of other stuff here, but I don't have time. +This is the real cool part. It's called Collections. +Any one of you, anybody -- doesn't matter if you're rich, if you're poor, if you have a fancy house -- doesn't matter. +You can go and create your own museum online -- create your own collection across all these images. +Very simply, you go in -- and I've created this, called The Power of Zoom -- you can just zoom around. +This is "The Ambassadors," based in the National Gallery. +You can annotate the stuff, send it to your friends and really get a conversation going about what you're feeling when you go through these masterpieces. +So I think, in conclusion, for me, the main thing is that all the amazing stuff here does not really come from Google. +It doesn't, in my opinion, even come from the museums. +I probably shouldn't say that. +It really comes from these artists. +And that's been my humbling experience in this. +I mean, I hope in this digital medium that we do justice to their artwork and represent it properly online. +And the biggest question I get asked nowadays is, "Did you do this to replicate the experience of going to a museum?" +And the answer is no. +It's to supplement the experience. +And that's it. Thank you. +Thank you. +Good afternoon, everybody. +I've got something to show you. +Think about this as a pixel, a flying pixel. +This is what we call, in our lab, sensible design. +Let me tell you a bit about it. +Now if you take this picture -- I'm Italian originally, and every boy in Italy grows up with this picture on the wall of his bedroom -- but the reason I'm showing you this is that something very interesting happened in Formula 1 racing over the past couple of decades. +Now some time ago, if you wanted to win a Formula 1 race, you take a budget, and you bet your budget on a good driver and a good car. +And if the car and the driver were good enough, then you'd win the race. +This is what, in engineering terms, you would call a real time control system. +And basically, it's a system made of two components -- a sensing and an actuating component. +What is interesting today is that real time control systems are starting to enter into our lives. +Our cities, over the past few years, just have been blanketed with networks, electronics. +They're becoming like computers in open air. +And, as computers in open air, they're starting to respond in a different way to be able to be sensed and to be actuated. +If we fix cities, actually it's a big deal. +Just as an aside, I wanted to mention, cities are only two percent of the Earth's crust, but they are 50 percent of the world's population. +They are 75 percent of the energy consumption -- up to 80 percent of CO2 emissions. +So if we're able to do something with cities, that's a big deal. +Beyond cities, all of this sensing and actuating is entering our everyday objects. +That's from an exhibition that Paola Antonelli is organizing at MoMA later this year, during the summer. +It's called "Talk to Me." +Well our objects, our environment is starting to talk back to us. +In a certain sense, it's almost as if every atom out there were becoming both a sensor and an actuator. +And that is radically changing the interaction we have as humans with the environment out there. +In a certain sense, it's almost as if the old dream of Michelangelo ... +you know, when Michelangelo sculpted the Moses, at the end it said that he took the hammer, threw it at the Moses -- actually you can still see a small chip underneath -- and said, shouted, "Perch non parli? Why don't you talk?" +Well today, for the first time, our environment is starting to talk back to us. +And I'll show just a few examples -- again, with this idea of sensing our environment and actuating it. +Let's starting with sensing. +Well, the first project I wanted to share with you is actually one of the first projects by our lab. +It was four and a half years ago in Italy. +The summer was a lucky summer -- 2006. +It's when Italy won the soccer World Cup. +Some of you might remember, it was Italy and France playing, and then Zidane at the end, the headbutt. +And anyway, Italy won at the end. +Now look at what happened that day just by monitoring activity happening on the network. +Here you see the city. +You see the Colosseum in the middle, the river Tiber. +It's morning, before the match. +You see the timeline on the top. +Early afternoon, people here and there, making calls and moving. +The match begins -- silence. +France scores. Italy scores. +Halftime, people make a quick call and go to the bathroom. +Second half. End of normal time. +First overtime, second. +Zidane, the headbutt in a moment. +Italy wins. Yeah. +Well, that night, everybody went to celebrate in the center. +You saw the big peak. +The following day, again everybody went to the center to meet the winning team and the prime minister at the time. +And then everybody moved down. +You see the image of the place called Circo Massimo, where, since Roman times, people go to celebrate, to have a big party, and you see the peak at the end of the day. +Well, that's just one example of how we can sense the city today in a way that we couldn't have done just a few years ago. +Another quick example about sensing: it's not about people, but about things we use and consume. +Well today, we know everything about where our objects come from. +This is a map that shows you all the chips that form a Mac computer, how they came together. +But we know very little about where things go. +So in this project, we actually developed some small tags to track trash as it moves through the system. +So we actually started with a number of volunteers who helped us in Seattle, just over a year ago, to tag what they were throwing away -- different types of things, as you can see here -- things they would throw away anyway. +Then we put a little chip, little tag, onto the trash and then started following it. +Here are the results we just obtained. +From Seattle ... +after one week. +With this information we realized there's a lot of inefficiencies in the system. +We can actually do the same thing with much less energy. +This data was not available before. +But there's a lot of wasted transportation and convoluted things happening. +But the other thing is that we believe that if we see every day that the cup we're throwing away, it doesn't disappear, it's still somewhere on the planet. +And the plastic bottle we're throwing away every day still stays there. +And if we show that to people, then we can also promote some behavioral change. +So that was the reason for the project. +My colleague at MIT, Assaf Biderman, he could tell you much more about sensing and many other wonderful things we can do with sensing, but I wanted to go to the second part we discussed at the beginning, and that's actuating our environment. +And the first project is something we did a couple of years ago in Zaragoza, Spain. +It started with a question by the mayor of the city, who came to us saying that Spain and Southern Europe have a beautiful tradition of using water in public space, in architecture. +And the question was: How could technology, new technology, be added to that? +And one of the ideas that was developed at MIT in a workshop was, imagine this pipe, and you've got valves, solenoid valves, taps, opening and closing. +You create like a water curtain with pixels made of water. +If those pixels fall, you can write on it, you can show patterns, images, text. +And even you can approach it, and it will open up to let you jump through, as you see in this image. +Well, we presented this to Mayor Belloch. +He liked it very much. +And we got a commission to design a building at the entrance of the expo. +We called it Digital Water Pavilion. +The whole building is made of water. +There's no doors or windows, but when you approach it, it will open up to let you in. +The roof also is covered with water. +And if there's a bit of wind, if you want to minimize splashing, you can actually lower the roof. +Or you could close the building, and the whole architecture will disappear, like in this case. +You know, these days, you always get images during the winter, when they take the roof down, of people who have been there and said, "They demolished the building." +No, they didn't demolish it, just when it goes down, the architecture almost disappears. +Here's the building working. +You see the person puzzled about what was going on inside. +And here was myself trying not to get wet, testing the sensors that open the water. +Well, I should tell you now what happened one night when all of the sensors stopped working. +But actually that night, it was even more fun. +All the kids from Zaragoza came to the building, because the way of engaging with the building became something different. +Not anymore a building that would open up to let you in, but a building that would still make cuts and holes through the water, and you had to jump without getting wet. +(Crowd Noise) And that was, for us, was very interesting, because, as architects, as engineers, as designers, we always think about how people will use the things we design. +But then reality's always unpredictable. +And that's the beauty of doing things that are used and interact with people. +Here is an image then of the building with the physical pixels, the pixels made of water, and then projections on them. +And this is what led us to think about the following project I'll show you now. +That's, imagine those pixels could actually start flying. +Imagine you could have small helicopters that move in the air, and then each of them with a small pixel in changing lights -- almost as a cloud that can move in space. +Here is the video. +So imagine one helicopter, like the one we saw before, moving with others, in synchrony. +So you can have this cloud. +You can have a kind of flexible screen or display, like this -- a regular configuration in two dimensions. +Or in regular, but in three dimensions, where the thing that changes is the light, not the pixels' position. +You can play with a different type. +Imagine your screen could just appear in different scales or sizes, different types of resolution. +But then the whole thing can be just a 3D cloud of pixels that you can approach and move through it and see from many, many directions. +Here is the real Flyfire control and going down to form the regular grid as before. +When you turn on the light, actually you see this. So the same as we saw before. +And imagine each of them then controlled by people. +You can have each pixel having an input that comes from people, from people's movement, or so and so. +I want to show you something here for the first time. +We've been working with Roberto Bolle, one of today's top ballet dancers -- the toile at Metropolitan in New York and La Scala in Milan -- and actually captured his movement in 3D in order to use it as an input for Flyfire. +And here you can see Roberto dancing. +You see on the left the pixels, the different resolutions being captured. +It's both 3D scanning in real time and motion capture. +So you can reconstruct a whole movement. +You can go all the way through. +But then, once we have the pixels, then you can play with them and play with color and movement and gravity and rotation. +So we want to use this as one of the possible inputs for Flyfire. +I wanted to show you the last project we are working on. +It's something we're working on for the London Olympics. +It's called The Cloud. +And the idea here is, imagine, again, we can involve people in doing something and changing our environment -- almost to impart what we call cloud raising -- like barn raising, but with a cloud. +Imagine you can have everybody make a small donation for one pixel. +And I think what is remarkable that has happened over the past couple of years is that, over the past couple of decades, we went from the physical world to the digital one. +This has been digitizing everything, knowledge, and making that accessible through the Internet. +Now today, for the first time -- and the Obama campaign showed us this -- we can go from the digital world, from the self-organizing power of networks, to the physical one. +This can be, in our case, we want to use it for designing and doing a symbol. +That means something built in a city. +But tomorrow it can be, in order to tackle today's pressing challenges -- think about climate change or CO2 emissions -- how we can go from the digital world to the physical one. +So the idea that we can actually involve people in doing this thing together, collectively. +The cloud is a cloud, again, made of pixels, in the same way as the real cloud is a cloud made of particles. +And those particles are water, where our cloud is a cloud of pixels. +It's a physical structure in London, but covered with pixels. +You can move inside, have different types of experiences. +You can actually see from underneath, sharing the main moments for the Olympics in 2012 and beyond, and really using it as a way to connect with the community. +So both the physical cloud in the sky and something you can go to the top [of], like London's new mountaintop. +You can enter inside it. +And a kind of new digital beacon for the night -- but most importantly, a new type of experience for anybody who will go to the top. +Thank you. +How would you like to be better than you are? +Suppose I said that, with just a few changes in your genes, you could get a better memory -- more precise, more accurate and quicker. +Or maybe you'd like to be more fit, stronger, with more stamina. +Would you like to be more attractive and self-confident? +How about living longer with good health? +Or perhaps you're one of those who's always yearned for more creativity. +Which one would you like the most? +Which would you like, if you could have just one? +(Audience Member: Creativity.) Creativity. +How many people would choose creativity? +Raise your hands. Let me see. +A few. Probably about as many as there are creative people here. +That's very good. +How many would opt for memory? +Quite a few more. +How about fitness? +A few less. +What about longevity? +Ah, the majority. That makes me feel very good as a doctor. +If you could have any one of these, it would be a very different world. +Is it just imaginary? +Or, is it, perhaps, possible? +Evolution has been a perennial topic here at the TED Conference, but I want to give you today one doctor's take on the subject. +The great 20th-century geneticist, T.G. Dobzhansky, who was also a communicant in the Russian Orthodox Church, once wrote an essay that he titled "Nothing in Biology Makes Sense Except in the Light of Evolution." +But if you do accept biological evolution, consider this: is it just about the past, or is it about the future? +Does it apply to others, or does it apply to us? +This is another look at the tree of life. +The human part of this branch, way out on one end, is, of course, the one that we are most interested in. +We branch off of a common ancestor to modern chimpanzees about six or eight million years ago. +In the interval, there have been perhaps 20 or 25 different species of hominids. +Some have come and gone. +We have been here for about 130,000 years. +It may seem like we're quite remote from other parts of this tree of life, but actually, for the most part, the basic machinery of our cells is pretty much the same. +Do you realize that we can take advantage and commandeer the machinery of a common bacterium to produce the protein of human insulin used to treat diabetics? +This is not like human insulin; this is the same protein that is chemically indistinguishable from what comes out of your pancreas. +And speaking of bacteria, do you realize that each of us carries in our gut more bacteria than there are cells in the rest of our body? +Maybe 10 times more. +I mean think of it, when Antonio Damasio asks about your self-image, do you think about the bacteria? +Our gut is a wonderfully hospitable environment for those bacteria. +It's warm, it's dark, it's moist, it's very cozy. +And you're going to provide all the nutrition that they could possibly want with no effort on their part. +It's really like an Easy Street for bacteria, with the occasional interruption of the unintended forced rush to the exit. +But otherwise, you are a wonderful environment for those bacteria, just as they are essential to your life. +They help in the digestion of essential nutrients, and they protect you against certain diseases. +But what will come in the future? +Are we at some kind of evolutionary equipoise as a species? +Or, are we destined to become something different -- something, perhaps, even better adapted to the environment? +In this vast unfinished symphony of the universe, life on Earth is like a brief measure; the animal kingdom, like a single measure; and human life, a small grace note. +That was us. +That also constitutes the entertainment portion of this talk, so I hope you enjoyed it. +Now when I was a freshman in college, I took my first biology class. +I was fascinated by the elegance and beauty of biology. +I became enamored of the power of evolution, and I realized something very fundamental: in most of the existence of life in single-celled organisms, each cell simply divides, and all of the genetic energy of that cell is carried on in both daughter cells. +But at the time multi-celled organisms come online, things start to change. +Sexual reproduction enters the picture. +And very importantly, with the introduction of sexual reproduction that passes on the genome, the rest of the body becomes expendable. +In fact, you could say that the inevitability of the death of our bodies enters in evolutionary time at the same moment as sexual reproduction. +Now I have to confess, when I was a college undergraduate, I thought, okay, sex/death, sex/death, death for sex -- it seemed pretty reasonable at the time, but with each passing year, I've come to have increasing doubts. +I've come to understand the sentiments of George Burns, who was performing still in Las Vegas well into his 90s. +And one night, there's a knock at his hotel room door. +He answers the door. +Standing before him is a gorgeous, scantily clad showgirl. +She looks at him and says, "I'm here for super sex." +"That's fine," says George, "I'll take the soup." +I came to realize, as a physician, that I was working toward a goal which was different from the goal of evolution -- not necessarily contradictory, just different. +I was trying to preserve the body. +I wanted to keep us healthy. +I wanted to restore health from disease. +I wanted us to live long and healthy lives. +Evolution is all about passing on the genome to the next generation, adapting and surviving through generation after generation. +From an evolutionary point of view, you and I are like the booster rockets designed to send the genetic payload into the next level of orbit and then drop off into the sea. +I think we would all understand the sentiment that Woody Allen expressed when he said, "I don't want to achieve immortality through my work. +I want to achieve it through not dying." +Evolution does not necessarily favor the longest-lived. +It doesn't necessarily favor the biggest or the strongest or the fastest, and not even the smartest. +Evolution favors those creatures best adapted to their environment. +That is the sole test of survival and success. +At the bottom of the ocean, bacteria that are thermophilic and can survive at the steam vent heat that would otherwise produce, if fish were there, sous-vide cooked fish, nevertheless, have managed to make that a hospitable environment for them. +So what does this mean, as we look back at what has happened in evolution, and as we think about the place again of humans in evolution, and particularly as we look ahead to the next phase, I would say that there are a number of possibilities. +The first is that we will not evolve. +We have reached a kind of equipoise. +And the reasoning behind that would be, first, we have, through medicine, managed to preserve a lot of genes that would otherwise be selected out and be removed from the population. +And secondly, we as a species have so configured our environment that we have managed to make it adapt to us as well as we adapt to it. +And by the way, we immigrate and circulate and intermix so much that you can't any longer have the isolation that is necessary for evolution to take place. +A second possibility is that there will be evolution of the traditional kind, natural, imposed by the forces of nature. +And the argument here would be that the wheels of evolution grind slowly, but they are inexorable. +And as far as isolation goes, when we as a species do colonize distant planets, there will be the isolation and the environmental changes that could produce evolution in the natural way. +But there's a third possibility, an enticing, intriguing and frightening possibility. +I call it neo-evolution -- the new evolution that is not simply natural, but guided and chosen by us as individuals in the choices that we will make. +Now how could this come about? +How could it be possible that we would do this? +Consider, first, the reality that people today, in some cultures, are making choices about their offspring. +They're, in some cultures, choosing to have more males than females. +It's not necessarily good for the society, but it's what the individual and the family are choosing. +Think also, if it were possible ever for you to choose, not simply to choose the sex of your child, but for you in your body to make the genetic adjustments that would cure or prevent diseases. +What if you could make the genetic changes to eliminate diabetes or Alzheimer's or reduce the risk of cancer or eliminate stroke? +Wouldn't you want to make those changes in your genes? +If we look ahead, these kind of changes are going to be increasingly possible. +The Human Genome Project started in 1990, and it took 13 years. +It cost 2.7 billion dollars. +The year after it was finished in 2004, you could do the same job for 20 million dollars in three to four months. +Today, you can have a complete sequence of the three billion base pairs in the human genome at a cost of about 20,000 dollars and in the space of about a week. +It won't be very long before the reality will be the 1,000-dollar human genome, and it will be increasingly available for everyone. +These changes are coming. +The same technology that has produced the human insulin in bacteria can make viruses that will not only protect you against themselves, but induce immunity against other viruses. +Believe it or not, there's an experimental trial going on with vaccine against influenza that has been grown in the cells of a tobacco plant. +Can you imagine something good coming out of tobacco? +These are all reality today, and [in] the future, will be evermore possible. +Imagine then just two other little changes. +You can change the cells in your body, but what if you could change the cells in your offspring? +What if you could change the sperm and the ova, or change the newly fertilized egg, and give your offspring a better chance at a healthier life -- eliminate the diabetes, eliminate the hemophilia, reduce the risk of cancer? +Who doesn't want healthier children? +And then, that same analytic technology, that same engine of science that can produce the changes to prevent disease, will also enable us to adopt super-attributes, hyper-capacities -- that better memory. +Why not have the quick wit of a Ken Jennings, especially if you can augment it with the next generation of the Watson machine? +Why not have the quick twitch muscle that will enable you to run faster and longer? +Why not live longer? +These will be irresistible. +And when we are at a position where we can pass it on to the next generation, and we can adopt the attributes we want, we will have converted old-style evolution into neo-evolution. +We'll take a process that normally might require 100,000 years, and we can compress it down to a thousand years -- and maybe even in the next 100 years. +These are choices that your grandchildren, or their grandchildren, are going to have before them. +Will we use these choices to make a society that is better, that is more successful, that is kinder? +Or, will we selectively choose different attributes that we want for some of us and not for others of us? +Will we make a society that is more boring and more uniform, or more robust and more versatile? +These are the kinds of questions that we will have to face. +And most profoundly of all, will we ever be able to develop the wisdom, and to inherit the wisdom, that we'll need to make these choices wisely? +For better or worse, and sooner than you may think, these choices will be up to us. +Thank you. +Imagine a big explosion as you climb through 3,000 ft. +Imagine a plane full of smoke. +Imagine an engine going clack, clack, clack. +It sounds scary. +Well, I had a unique seat that day. I was sitting in 1D. +I was the only one who could talk to the flight attendants. +So I looked at them right away, and they said, "No problem. We probably hit some birds." +The pilot had already turned the plane around, and we weren't that far. +You could see Manhattan. +Two minutes later, three things happened at the same time. +The pilot lines up the plane with the Hudson River. +That's usually not the route. +He turns off the engines. +Now, imagine being in a plane with no sound. +And then he says three words. +The most unemotional three words I've ever heard. +He says, "Brace for impact." +I didn't have to talk to the flight attendant anymore. +I could see in her eyes, it was terror. +Life was over. +Now I want to share with you three things I learned about myself that day. +I learned that it all changes in an instant. +We have this bucket list, we have these things we want to do in life, and I thought about all the people I wanted to reach out to that I didn't, all the fences I wanted to mend, all the experiences I wanted to have and I never did. +As I thought about that later on, I came up with a saying, which is, "I collect bad wines." +Because if the wine is ready and the person is there, I'm opening it. +I no longer want to postpone anything in life. +And that urgency, that purpose, has really changed my life. +The second thing I learned that day -- and this is as we clear the George Washington Bridge, which was by not a lot -- I thought about, wow, I really feel one real regret. +I've lived a good life. +In my own humanity and mistakes, I've tried to get better at everything I tried. +But in my humanity, I also allow my ego to get in. +And I regretted the time I wasted on things that did not matter with people that matter. +And I thought about my relationship with my wife, with my friends, with people. +And after, as I reflected on that, I decided to eliminate negative energy from my life. +It's not perfect, but it's a lot better. +I've not had a fight with my wife in two years. +It feels great. +I no longer try to be right; I choose to be happy. +The third thing I learned -- and this is as your mental clock starts going, "15, 14, 13." +You can see the water coming. +I'm saying, "Please blow up." +I don't want this thing to break in 20 pieces like you've seen in those documentaries. +And as we're coming down, I had a sense of, wow, dying is not scary. +It's almost like we've been preparing for it our whole lives. +But it was very sad. +I didn't want to go; I love my life. +And that sadness really framed in one thought, which is, I only wish for one thing. +I only wish I could see my kids grow up. +About a month later, I was at a performance by my daughter -- first-grader, not much artistic talent -- And I'm bawling, I'm crying, like a little kid. +And it made all the sense in the world to me. +I realized at that point, by connecting those two dots, that the only thing that matters in my life is being a great dad. +Above all, above all, the only goal I have in life is to be a good dad. +I was given the gift of a miracle, of not dying that day. +I was given another gift, which was to be able to see into the future and come back and live differently. +I challenge you guys that are flying today, imagine the same thing happens on your plane -- and please don't -- but imagine, and how would you change? +What would you get done that you're waiting to get done because you think you'll be here forever? +How would you change your relationships and the negative energy in them? +And more than anything, are you being the best parent you can? +Thank you. +I have had the distinct blessing in my life to have worked on a bunch of amazing projects. +But the coolest I ever worked on was around this guy. +This guy's name is TEMPT. +TEMPT was one of the foremost graffiti artists in the 80s. +And he came up home from a run one day and said, "Dad, my legs are tingling." +And that was the onset of ALS. +So TEMPT is now completely paralyzed. +He only has use of his eyes. +I was exposed to him. +I have a company that does design and animation, so obviously graffiti is definitely an intricate part of what we admire and respect in the art world. +And so we decided that we were going to sponsor Tony, TEMPT, and his cause. +So I went and met with his brother and father and said, "We're going to give you this money. +What are you going to do with it?" +And his brother said, "I just want to be able to talk to Tony again. +I just want to be able to communicate with him and him to be able to communicate with me." +And I said, "Wait a second, isn't that -- I've seen Stephen Hawking -- don't all paralyzed people have the ability to communicate via these devices?" +And he said, "No, unless you're in the upper echelon and you've got really amazing insurance, you can't actually do that. +These devices aren't accessible to people." +And I said, "Well, how do you actually communicate?" +Has everyone seen the movie "The Diving Bell and the Butterfly?" +That's how they communicate -- so run their finger along. +I said, "That's archaic. How can that be?" +So I showed up with the desire to just write a check, and instead, I wrote a check that I had no freaking idea how I was going to cash. +I committed to his brother and his father right then and there -- I'm like, "All right, here's the deal: Tony's going to speak, we're going to get him a machine, and we're going to figure out a way for him to do his art again. +Because it's a travesty that someone who still has all of that in him isn't able to communicate it." +So I spoke at a conference a couple months after that. +I met these guys called GRL, Graffiti Research Lab, and they have a technology that allows them to project a light onto any surface and then, with a laser pointer, draw on it, and it just registers the negative space. +So they go around and do art installations like this. +All the things that go up there, they said there's a life cycle. +First it starts with the sexual organs, then it starts with cuss words, then it was Bush slanders and then people actually got to art. +But there was always a life cycle to their presentations. +So that started the journey. +And about two years later, about a year later, after a bunch of organization and a bunch of moving things around, we'd accomplished a couple things. +One, we battered down the doors of the insurance companies, and we actually got TEMPT a machine that let him communicate -- a Stephen Hawking machine. +Which was awesome. +And he's seriously one of the funniest -- I call him Yoda, because you talk to the guy, you get an email from him, and you're like, "I'm not worthy. This guy's so amazing." +The other thing we did is we flew seven programmers from all over the world -- literally every corner of the world -- into our house. +My wife and kids and I moved to our back garage, and these hackers and programmers and conspiracy theorists and anarchists took over our house. +A lot of our friends thought we were absolutely stupid to do that and that we were going to come back and all the pictures on the wall would be removed and graf on the walls. +But for over two weeks, we programmed, we went to the Venice boardwalk, my kids got involved, my dog got involved, and we created this. +This is called the EyeWriter, and you can see the description. +This is a cheap pair of sunglasses that we bought at the Venice Beach boardwalk, some copper wire and some stuff from Home Depot and Radio Shack. +We took a PS3 camera, hacked it open, mounted it to an LED light, and now there's a device that is free -- you build this yourself, we publish the code for free, you download the software for free. +And now we've created a device that has absolutely no limitations. +There's no insurance company that can say "No." +There's no hospital that can say "No." +Anybody who's paralyzed now has access to actually draw or communicate using only their eyes. +Thank you. +Thank you guys very much. That was awesome. +So at the end of the two weeks, we went back to TEMPT's room. +I love this picture, because this is someone else's room and that's his room. +So there's all this hustle and bustle going on for the big unveiling. +And after over a year of planning, two weeks of programming, carb-fest and all-night sessions, Tony drew again for the first time in seven years. +And this is an amazing picture, because this is his life support system, and he's looking over his life support system. +We kicked his bed so that he could see out. +And we set up a projector on a wall out in the parking lot outside of his hospital. +And he drew again for the first time, in front of his family and friends -- and you can only imagine what the feeling in the parking lot was. +The funny thing was, we had to break into the parking lot too, so we totally felt like we were legit in the whole graf scene too. +So at the end of this, he sent us an email, and this is what the email said: "That was the first time I've drawn anything for seven years. +I feel like I had been held underwater, and someone finally reached down and pulled my head up so I could breathe." +Isn't that awesome? +So that's kind of our battle cry. +That's what keeps us going and keeps us developing. +And we've got such a long way to go with this. +This is an amazing device, but it's the equivalent of an Etch A Sketch. +And someone who has that kind of artistic potential deserves so much more. +So we're in the process of trying to figure out how to make it better, faster, stronger. +Since that time, we've had all kinds of acknowledgment. +We've won a bunch of awards. +Remember, it's free; none of us are making any money on this thing. +It's all coming out of our own pockets. +So the awards were like, "Oh, this is fantastic." +Armstrong Twittered about us, and then in December, Time magazine honored us as one of the top 50 inventions of 2010, which was really cool. +The coolest thing about this -- and this is what's completing the whole circle -- is that in April of this year, at the Geffen MOCA in downtown Los Angeles, there's going to be an exhibition called "Art of the Streets." +And "Art of the Streets" is going to have pretty much the bad-asses of the street art scene -- Banksy, Shepard Fairey, KAWS -- all of these guys will be there. +TEMPT's going to be in the show, which is pretty awesome. +So basically this is my point: If you see something that's not possible, make it possible. +Everything in this room wasn't possible -- this stage, this computer, this mic, the EyeWriter -- wasn't possible at one point. +Make it possible, everyone in this room. +I'm not a programmer, never done anything with ocular recognition technology, but I just recognized something and associated myself with amazing people so that we could make something happen. +And this is the question I want everyone to ask yourself every single day when you come up with something you feel that needs to be done: if not now, then when? And if not me, then who? +Thank you guys. +I have spent the past few years putting myself into situations that are usually very difficult and at the same time somewhat dangerous. +I went to prison -- difficult. +I worked in a coal mine -- dangerous. +I filmed in war zones -- difficult and dangerous. +And I spent 30 days eating nothing but this -- fun in the beginning, little difficult in the middle, very dangerous in the end. +In fact, most of my career, I've been immersing myself into seemingly horrible situations for the whole goal of trying to examine societal issues in a way that make them engaging, that make them interesting, that hopefully break them down in a way that make them entertaining and accessible to an audience. +So when I knew I was coming here to do a TED Talk that was going to look at the world of branding and sponsorship, I knew I would want to do something a little different. +So as some of you may or may not have heard, a couple weeks ago, I took out an ad on eBay. +I sent out some Facebook messages, some Twitter messages, and I gave people the opportunity to buy the naming rights to my 2011 TED Talk. +So what you were getting was this: Your name here presents: My TED Talk that you have no idea what the subject is and, depending on the content, could ultimately blow up in your face, especially if I make you or your company look stupid for doing it. +But that being said, it's a very good media opportunity. +You know how many people watch these TED Talks? +It's a lot. +That's just a working title, by the way. +So even with that caveat, I knew that someone would buy the naming rights. +Now if you'd have asked me that a year ago, I wouldn't have been able to tell you that with any certainty. +But in the new project that I'm working on, my new film, we examine the world of marketing, advertising. +And as I said earlier, I put myself in some pretty horrible situations over the years, but nothing could prepare me, nothing could ready me, for anything as difficult or as dangerous as going into the rooms with these guys. +You see, I had this idea for a movie. +Morgan Spurlock: What I want to do is make a film all about product placement, marketing and advertising, where the entire film is funded by product placement, marketing and advertising. +So the movie will be called "The Greatest Movie Ever Sold." +So what happens in "The Greatest Movie Ever Sold," is that everything from top to bottom, from start to finish, is branded from beginning to end -- from the above-the-title sponsor that you'll see in the movie, which is brand X. +Now this brand, the Qualcomm Stadium, the Staples Center ... +these people will be married to the film in perpetuity -- forever. +And so the film explores this whole idea -- (Michael Kassan: It's redundant.) It's what? (MK: It's redundant.) In perpetuity, forever? +I'm a redundant person. (MK: I'm just saying.) That was more for emphasis. +It was, "In perpetuity. Forever." +But not only are we going to have the brand X title sponsor, but we're going to make sure we sell out every category we can in the film. +So maybe we sell a shoe and it becomes the greatest shoe you ever wore ... +the greatest car you ever drove from "The Greatest Movie Ever Sold," the greatest drink you've ever had, courtesy of "The Greatest Movie Ever Sold." +Xavier Kochhar: So the idea is, beyond just showing that brands are a part of your life, but actually get them to finance the film? (MS: Get them to finance the film.) MS: And actually we show the whole process of how does it work. +The goal of this whole film is transparency. +You're going to see the whole thing take place in this movie. +So that's the whole concept, the whole film, start to finish. +And I would love for CEG to help make it happen. +Robert Friedman: You know it's funny, because when I first hear it, it is the ultimate respect for an audience. +Guy: I don't know how receptive people are going to be to it, though. +XK: Do you have a perspective -- I don't want to use "angle" because that has a negative connotation -- but do you know how this is going to play out? (MS: No idea.) David Cohn: How much money does it take to do this? +MS: 1.5 million. (DC: Okay.) John Kamen: I think that you're going to have a hard time meeting with them, but I think it's certainly worth pursuing a couple big, really obvious brands. +XK: Who knows, maybe by the time your film comes out, we look like a bunch of blithering idiots. +MS: What do you think the response is going to be? +Stuart Ruderfer: The responses mostly will be "no." +MS: But is it a tough sell because of the film or a tough sell because of me? +JK: Both. +MS: ... Meaning not so optimistic. +So, sir, can you help me? I need help. +MK: I can help you. +MS: Okay. (MK: Good.) Awesome. +MK: We've gotta figure out which brands. +MS: Yeah. (MK: That's the challenge.) When you look at the people you deal with .. +MK: We've got some places we can go. (MS: Okay.) Turn the camera off. +MS: I thought "Turn the camera off" meant, "Let's have an off-the-record conversation." +Turns out it really means, "We want nothing to do with your movie." +MS: And just like that, one by one, all of these companies suddenly disappeared. +None of them wanted anything to do with this movie. +I was amazed. +They wanted absolutely nothing to do with this project. +And I was blown away, because I thought the whole concept, the idea of advertising, was to get your product out in front of as many people as possible, to get as many people to see it as possible. +Especially in today's world, this intersection of new media and old media and the fractured media landscape, isn't the idea to get that new buzz-worthy delivery vehicle that's going to get that message to the masses? +No, that's what I thought. +But the problem was, you see, my idea had one fatal flaw, and that flaw was this. +Actually no, that was not the flaw whatsoever. +That wouldn't have been a problem at all. +This would have been fine. +But what this image represents was the problem. +See, when you do a Google image search for transparency, this is --- This is one of the first images that comes up. +So I like the way you roll, Sergey Brin. No. +This is was the problem: transparency -- free from pretense or deceit; easily detected or seen through; readily understood; characterized by visibility or accessibility of information, especially concerning business practices -- that last line being probably the biggest problem. +You see, we hear a lot about transparency these days. +Our politicians say it, our president says it, even our CEO's say it. +But suddenly when it comes down to becoming a reality, something suddenly changes. +But why? Well, transparency is scary -- like that odd, still-screaming bear. +It's unpredictable -- like this odd country road. +And it's also very risky. +What else is risky? +Eating an entire bowl of Cool Whip. +That's very risky. +Now when I started talking to companies and telling them that we wanted to tell this story, and they said, "No, we want you to tell a story. +We want you to tell a story, but we just want to tell our story." +See, when I was a kid and my father would catch me in some sort of a lie -- and there he is giving me the look he often gave me -- he would say, "Son, there's three sides to every story. +There's your story, there's my story and there's the real story." +Now you see, with this film, we wanted to tell the real story. +But with only one company, one agency willing to help me -- and that's only because I knew John Bond and Richard Kirshenbaum for years -- I realized that I would have to go on my own, I'd have to cut out the middleman and go to the companies myself with all of my team. +So what you suddenly started to realize -- or what I started to realize -- is that when you started having conversations with these companies, the idea of understanding your brand is a universal problem. +MS: I have friends who make great big, giant Hollywood films, and I have friends who make little independent films like I make. +And the friends of mine who make big, giant Hollywood movies say the reason their films are so successful is because of the brand partners that they have. +And then my friends who make small independent films say, "Well, how are we supposed to compete with these big, giant Hollywood movies?" +And the movie is called "The Greatest Movie Ever Sold." +So how specifically will we see Ban in the film? +Any time I'm ready to go, any time I open up my medicine cabinet, you will see Ban deodorant. +While anytime I do an interview with someone, I can say, "Are you fresh enough for this interview? +Are you ready? You look a little nervous. +I want to help you calm down. +So maybe you should put some one before the interview." +So we'll offer one of these fabulous scents. +Whether it's a "Floral Fusion" or a "Paradise Winds," they'll have their chance. +We will have them geared for both male or female -- solid, roll-on or stick, whatever it may be. +That's the two-cent tour. +So now I can answer any of your questions and give you the five-cent tour. +Karen Frank: We are a smaller brand. +Much like you talked about being a smaller movie, we're very much a challenger brand. +So we don't have the budgets that other brands have. +So doing things like this -- you know, remind people about Ban -- is kind of why were interested in it. +MS: What are the words that you would use to describe Ban? +Ban is blank. +KF: That's a great question. +Woman: Superior technology. +MS: Technology's not the way you want to describe something somebody's putting in their armpit. +Man: We talk about bold, fresh. +I think "fresh" is a great word that really spins this category into the positive, versus "fights odor and wetness." +It keeps you fresh. +How do we keep you fresher longer -- better freshness, more freshness, three times fresher. +Things like that that are more of that positive benefit. +MS: And that's a multi-million dollar corporation. +What about me? What about a regular guy? +I need to go talk to the man on the street, the people who are like me, the regular Joes. +They need to tell me about my brand. +MS: How would you guys describe your brand? +Man: Um, my brand? +I don't know. +I like really nice clothes. +Woman: 80's revival meets skater-punk, unless it's laundry day. +MS: All right, what is brand Gerry? +Gerry: Unique. (MS: Unique.) Man: I guess what kind of genre, style I am would be like dark glamor. +I like a lot of black colors, a lot of grays and stuff like that. +But usually I have an accessory, like sunglasses, or I like crystal and things like that too. +Woman: If Dan were a brand, he might be a classic convertible Mercedes Benz. +Man 2: The brand that I am is, I would call it casual fly. +Woman 2: Part hippie, part yogi, part Brooklyn girl -- I don't know. +Man 3: I'm the pet guy. +I sell pet toys all over the country, all over the world. +So I guess that's my brand. +In my warped little industry, that's my brand. +Man 4: My brand is FedEx because I deliver the goods. +Man 5: Failed writer-alcoholic brand. +Is that something? +Lawyer: I'm a lawyer brand. +Tom: I'm Tom. +MS: Well we can't all be brand Tom, but I do often find myself at the intersection of dark glamor and casual fly. +And what I realized is I needed an expert. +I needed somebody who could get inside my head, somebody who could really help me understand what they call your "brand personality." +And so I found a company called Olson Zaltman in Pittsburg. +They've helped companies like Nestle, Febreze, Hallmark discover that brand personality. +If they could do it for them, surely they could do it for me. +Abigail: You brought your pictures, right? +MS: I did. The very first picture is a picture of my family. +A: So tell me a little bit how it relates to your thoughts and feelings about who you are. +MS: These are the people who shape the way I look at the world. +A: Tell me about this world. +MS: This world? I think your world is the world that you live in -- like people who are around you, your friends, your family, the way you live your life, the job you do. +All those things stemmed and started from one place, and for me they stemmed and started with my family in West Virginia. +A: What's the next one you want to talk about? +MS: The next one: This was the best day ever. +A: How does this relate to your thoughts and feelings about who you are? +MS: It's like, who do I want to be? +I like things that are different. +I like things that are weird. I like weird things. +A: Tell me about the "why" phase -- what does that do for us? +What is the machete? What pupa stage are you in now? +Why is it important to reboot? What does the red represent? +Tell me a little bit about that part. +... A little more about you that is not who you are. +What are some other metamorphoses that you've had? +... Doesn't have to be fear. What kind of roller coaster are you on? +MS: EEEEEE! (A: Thank you.) No, thank you. +A: Thanks for you patience. (MS: Great job.) A: Yeah. (MS: Thanks a lot.) All right. +MS: Yeah, I don't know what's going to come of this. +There was a whole lot of crazy going on in there. +Lindsay Zaltman: The first thing we saw was this idea that you had two distinct, but complementary sides to your brand personality -- the Morgan Spurlock brand is a mindful/play brand. +Those are juxtaposed very nicely together. +And I think there's almost a paradox with those. +And I think some companies will just focus on one of their strengths or the other instead of focusing on both. +Most companies tend to -- and it's human nature -- to avoid things that they're not sure of, avoid fear, those elements, and you really embrace those, and you actually turn them into positives for you, and it's a neat thing to see. +What other brands are like that? +The first on here is the classic, Apple. +And you can see here too, Target, Wii, Mini from the Mini Coopers, and JetBlue. +Now there's playful brands and mindful brands, those things that have come and gone, but a playful, mindful brand is a pretty powerful thing. +MS: A playful, mindful brand. What is your brand? +If somebody asked you to describe your brand identity, your brand personality, what would you be? +Are you an up attribute? Are you something that gets the blood flowing? +Or are you more of a down attribute? +Are you something that's a little more calm, reserved, conservative? +Up attributes are things like being playful, being fresh like the Fresh Prince, contemporary, adventurous, edgy or daring like Errol Flynn, nimble or agile, profane, domineering, magical or mystical like Gandalf. +Or are you more of a down attribute? +Are you mindful, sophisticated like 007? +Are you established, traditional, nurturing, protective, empathetic like the Oprah? +Are you reliable, stable, familiar, safe, secure, sacred, contemplative or wise like the Dalai Lama or Yoda? +Over the course of this film, we had 500-plus companies who were up and down companies saying, "no," they didn't want any part of this project. +They wanted nothing to do with this film, mainly because they would have no control, they would have no control over the final product. +They enabled us to tell the story about neuromarketing, as we got into telling the story in this film about how now they're using MRI's to target the desire centers of your brain for both commercials as well as movie marketing. +We went to San Paulo where they have banned outdoor advertising. +In the entire city for the past five years, there's no billboards, there's no posters, there's no flyers, nothing. +And we went to school districts where now companies are making their way into cash-strapped schools all across America. +What's incredible for me is the projects that I've gotten the most feedback out of, or I've had the most success in, are ones where I've interacted with things directly. +And that's what these brands did. +They cut out the middleman, they cut out their agencies and said, "Maybe these agencies don't have my best interest in mind. +I'm going to deal directly with the artist. +I'm going to work with him to create something different, something that's going to get people thinking, that's going to challenge the way we look at the world." +And how has that been for them? Has it been successful? +Well, since the film premiered at the Sundance Film Festival, let's take a look. +According to Burrelles, the movie premiered in January, and since then -- and this isn't even the whole thing -- we've had 900 million media impressions for this film. +That's literally covering just like a two and a half-week period. +That's only online -- no print, no TV. +The film hasn't even been distributed yet. +It's not even online. It's not even streaming. +It's not even been out into other foreign countries yet. +So ultimately, this film has already started to gain a lot of momentum. +And not bad for a project that almost every ad agency we talked to advised their clients not to take part. +What I always believe is that if you take chances, if you take risks, that in those risks will come opportunity. +I believe that when you push people away from that, you're pushing them more towards failure. +I believe that when you train your employees to be risk averse, then you're preparing your whole company to be reward challenged. +I feel like that what has to happen moving forward is we need to encourage people to take risks. +We need to encourage people to not be afraid of opportunities that may scare them. +Ultimately, moving forward, I think we have to embrace fear. +We've got to put that bear in a cage. +Embrace fear. Embrace risk. +One big spoonful at a time, we have to embrace risk. +And ultimately, we have to embrace transparency. +Today, more than ever, a little honesty is going to go a long way. +And that being said, through honesty and transparency, my entire talk, "Embrace Transparency," has been brought to you by my good friends at EMC, who for $7,100 bought the naming rights on eBay. +EMC: Turning big data into big opportunity for organizations all over the world. +EMC presents: "Embrace Transparency." +Thank you very much, guys. +June Cohen: So, Morgan, in the name of transparency, what exactly happened to that $7,100? +MS: That is a fantastic question. +I have in my pocket a check made out to the parent organization to the TED organization, the Sapling Foundation -- a check for $7,100 to be applied toward my attendance for next year's TED. +The idea behind the Stuxnet computer worm is actually quite simple. +We don't want Iran to get the bomb. +Their major asset for developing nuclear weapons is the Natanz uranium enrichment facility. +The gray boxes that you see, these are real-time control systems. +Now if we manage to compromise these systems that control drive speeds and valves, we can actually cause a lot of problems with the centrifuge. +The gray boxes don't run Windows software; they are a completely different technology. +But if we manage to place a good Windows virus on a notebook that is used by a maintenance engineer to configure this gray box, then we are in business. +And this is the plot behind Stuxnet. +So we start with a Windows dropper. +The payload goes onto the gray box, damages the centrifuge, and the Iranian nuclear program is delayed -- mission accomplished. +That's easy, huh? +I want to tell you how we found that out. +When we started our research on Stuxnet six months ago, it was completely unknown what the purpose of this thing was. +The only thing that was known is it's very, very complex on the Windows part, the dropper part, used multiple zero-day vulnerabilities. +And it seemed to want to do something with these gray boxes, these real-time control systems. +So that got our attention, and we started a lab project where we infected our environment with Stuxnet and checked this thing out. +And then some very funny things happened. +Stuxnet behaved like a lab rat that didn't like our cheese -- sniffed, but didn't want to eat. +Didn't make sense to me. +And after we experimented with different flavors of cheese, I realized, well, this is a directed attack. +It's completely directed. +The dropper is prowling actively on the gray box if a specific configuration is found, and even if the actual program code that it's trying to infect is actually running on that target. +And if not, Stuxnet does nothing. +So that really got my attention, and we started to work on this nearly around the clock, because I thought, "Well, we don't know what the target is. +It could be, let's say for example, a U.S. power plant, or a chemical plant in Germany. +So we better find out what the target is soon." +So we extracted and decompiled the attack code, and we discovered that it's structured in two digital bombs -- a smaller one and a bigger one. +And we also saw that they are very professionally engineered by people who obviously had all insider information. +They knew all the bits and bites that they had to attack. +They probably even know the shoe size of the operator. +So they know everything. +And if you have heard that the dropper of Stuxnet is complex and high-tech, let me tell you this: the payload is rocket science. +It's way above everything that we have ever seen before. +Here you see a sample of this actual attack code. +We are talking about -- around about 15,000 lines of code. +Looks pretty much like old-style assembly language. +And I want to tell you how we were able to make sense out of this code. +So what we were looking for is, first of all, system function calls, because we know what they do. +And then we were looking for timers and data structures and trying to relate them to the real world -- to potential real world targets. +So we do need target theories that we can prove or disprove. +In order to get target theories, we remember that it's definitely hardcore sabotage, it must be a high-value target and it is most likely located in Iran, because that's where most of the infections had been reported. +Now you don't find several thousand targets in that area. +It basically boils down to the Bushehr nuclear power plant and to the Natanz fuel enrichment plant. +So I told my assistant, "Get me a list of all centrifuge and power plant experts from our client base." +And I phoned them up and picked their brain in an effort to match their expertise with what we found in code and data. +And that worked pretty well. +So we were able to associate the small digital warhead with the rotor control. +The rotor is that moving part within the centrifuge, that black object that you see. +And if you manipulate the speed of this rotor, you are actually able to crack the rotor and eventually even have the centrifuge explode. +What we also saw is that the goal of the attack was really to do it slowly and creepy -- obviously in an effort to drive maintenance engineers crazy, that they would not be able to figure this out quickly. +The big digital warhead -- we had a shot at this by looking very closely at data and data structures. +So for example, the number 164 really stands out in that code; you can't overlook it. +I started to research scientific literature on how these centrifuges are actually built in Natanz and found they are structured in what is called a cascade, and each cascade holds 164 centrifuges. +So that made sense, that was a match. +And it even got better. +These centrifuges in Iran are subdivided into 15, what is called, stages. +And guess what we found in the attack code? +An almost identical structure. +So again, that was a real good match. +And this gave us very high confidence for what we were looking at. +Now don't get me wrong here, it didn't go like this. +These results have been obtained over several weeks of really hard labor. +And we often went into just a dead end and had to recover. +Anyway, so we figured out that both digital warheads were actually aiming at one and the same target, but from different angles. +The small warhead is taking one cascade, and spinning up the rotors and slowing them down, and the big warhead is talking to six cascades and manipulating valves. +So in all, we are very confident that we have actually determined what the target is. +It is Natanz, and it is only Natanz. +So we don't have to worry that other targets might be hit by Stuxnet. +Here's some very cool stuff that we saw -- really knocked my socks off. +Down there is the gray box, and on the top you see the centrifuges. +Now what this thing does is it intercepts the input values from sensors -- so for example, from pressure sensors and vibration sensors -- and it provides legitimate program code, which is still running during the attack, with fake input data. +And as a matter of fact, this fake input data is actually prerecorded by Stuxnet. +So it's just like from the Hollywood movies where during the heist, the observation camera is fed with prerecorded video. +That's cool, huh? +The idea here is obviously not only to fool the operators in the control room. +It actually is much more dangerous and aggressive. +The idea is to circumvent a digital safety system. +We need digital safety systems where a human operator could not act quick enough. +So for example, in a power plant, when your big steam turbine gets too over speed, you must open relief valves within a millisecond. +Obviously, this cannot be done by a human operator. +So this is where we need digital safety systems. +And when they are compromised, then real bad things can happen. +Your plant can blow up. +And neither your operators nor your safety system will notice it. +That's scary. +But it gets worse. +And this is very important, what I'm going to say. +Think about this: this attack is generic. +It doesn't have anything to do, in specifics, with centrifuges, with uranium enrichment. +So it would work as well, for example, in a power plant or in an automobile factory. +It is generic. +And you don't have -- as an attacker -- you don't have to deliver this payload by a USB stick, as we saw it in the case of Stuxnet. +You could also use conventional worm technology for spreading. +Just spread it as wide as possible. +And if you do that, what you end up with is a cyber weapon of mass destruction. +That's the consequence that we have to face. +So unfortunately, the biggest number of targets for such attacks are not in the Middle East. +They're in the United States and Europe and in Japan. +So all of the green areas, these are your target-rich environments. +We have to face the consequences, and we better start to prepare right now. +Thanks. +Chris Anderson: I've got a question. +Ralph, it's been quite widely reported that people assume that Mossad is the main entity behind this. +Is that your opinion? +Ralph Langner: Okay, you really want to hear that? +Yeah. Okay. +My opinion is that the Mossad is involved, but that the leading force is not Israel. +So the leading force behind that is the cyber superpower. +There is only one, and that's the United States -- fortunately, fortunately. +Because otherwise, our problems would even be bigger. +CA: Thank you for scaring the living daylights out of us. Thank you, Ralph. +I want you now to imagine a wearable robot that gives you superhuman abilities, or another one that takes wheelchair users up standing and walking again. +We at Berkeley Bionics call these robots exoskeletons. +These are nothing else than something that you put on in the morning, and it will give you extra strength, and it will further enhance your speed, and it will help you, for instance, to manage your balance. +It is actually the true integration of the man and the machine. +But not only that -- it will integrate and network you to the universe and other devices out there. +This is just not some blue sky thinking. +To show you now what we are working on by starting out talking about the American soldier, that on average does carry about 100 lbs. on their backs, and they are being asked to carry more equipment. +Obviously, this is resulting in some major complications -- back injuries, 30 percent of them -- chronic back injuries. +So we thought we would look at this challenge and create an exoskeleton that would help deal with this issue. +So let me now introduce to you HULC -- or the Human Universal Load Carrier. +Soldier: With the HULC exoskeleton, I can carry 200 lbs. over varied terrain for many hours. +Its flexible design allows for deep squats, crawls and high-agility movements. +It senses what I want to do, where I want to go, and then augments my strength and endurance. +Eythor Bender: We are ready with our industry partner to introduce this device, this new exoskeleton this year. +So this is for real. +Now let's turn our heads towards the wheelchair users, something that I'm particularly passionate about. +There are 68 million people estimated to be in wheelchairs worldwide. +This is about one percent of the total population. +And that's actually a conservative estimate. +We are talking here about, oftentimes, very young individuals with spinal cord injuries, that in the prime of their life -- 20s, 30s, 40s -- hit a wall and the wheelchair's the only option. +But it is also the aging population that is multiplying in numbers. +And the only option, pretty much -- when it's stroke or other complications -- is the wheelchair. +And that is actually for the last 500 years, since its very successful introduction, I must say. +So we thought we would start writing a brand new chapter of mobility. +Let me now introduce you to eLEGS that is worn by Amanda Boxtel that 19 years ago was spinal cord injured, and as a result of that she has not been able to walk for 19 years until now. +Amanda Boxtel: Thank you. +EB: Amanda is wearing our eLEGS set. +It has sensors. +It's completely non-invasive, sensors in the crutches that send signals back to our onboard computer that is sitting here at her back. +There are battery packs here as well that power motors that are sitting at her hips, as well as her knee joints, that move her forward in this kind of smooth and very natural gait. +AB: I was 24 years old and at the top of my game when a freak summersault while downhill skiing paralyzed me. +In a split second, I lost all sensation and movement below my pelvis. +Not long afterwards, a doctor strode into my hospital room, and he said, "Amanda, you'll never walk again." +And that was 19 yeas ago. +He robbed every ounce of hope from my being. +Adaptive technology has since enabled me to learn how to downhill ski again, to rock climb and even handcycle. +But nothing has been invented that enables me to walk, until now. +Thank you. +EB: As you can see, we have the technology, we have the platforms to sit down and have discussions with you. +It's in our hands, and we have all the potential here to change the lives of future generations -- not only for the soldiers, or for Amanda here and all the wheelchair users, but for everyone. +AB: Thanks. +I just came back from a community that holds the secret to human survival. +It's a place where women run the show, have sex to say hello, and play rules the day -- where fun is serious business. +And no, this isn't Burning Man or San Francisco. +Ladies and gentlemen, meet your cousins. +This is the world of wild bonobos in the jungles of Congo. +Bonobos are, together with chimpanzees, your living closest relative. +That means we all share a common ancestor, an evolutionary grandmother, who lived around six million years ago. +Now, chimpanzees are well-known for their aggression. +But unfortunately, we have made too much of an emphasis of this aspect in our narratives of human evolution. +But bonobos show us the other side of the coin. +While chimpanzees are dominated by big, scary guys, bonobo society is run by empowered females. +These guys have really worked something out, since this leads to a highly tolerant society where fatal violence has not been observed yet. +But unfortunately, bonobos are the least understood of the great apes. +They live in the depths of the Congolese jungle, and it has been very difficult to study them. +The Congo is a paradox -- a land of extraordinary biodiversity and beauty, but also the heart of darkness itself -- the scene of a violent conflict that has raged for decades and claimed nearly as many lives as the First World War. +Not surprisingly, this destruction also endangers bonobo survival. +Bushmeat trades and forest loss means we couldn't fill a small stadium with all the bonobos that are left in the world -- and we're not even sure of that to be honest. +Yet, in this land of violence and chaos, you can hear hidden laughter swaying the trees. +Who are these cousins? +We know them as the "make love, not war" apes since they have frequent, promiscuous and bisexual sex to manage conflict and solve social issues. +Now, I'm not saying this is the solution to all of humanity's problems -- since there's more to bonobo life than the Kama Sutra. +Bonobos, like humans, love to play throughout their entire lives. +Play is not just child's games. +For us and them, play is foundational for bonding relationships and fostering tolerance. +It's where we learn to trust and where we learn about the rules of the game. +Play increases creativity and resilience, and it's all about the generation of diversity -- diversity of interactions, diversity of behaviors, diversity of connections. +And when you watch bonobo play, you're seeing the very evolutionary roots of human laughter, dance and ritual. +Play is the glue that binds us together. +Now, I don't know how you play, but I want to show you a couple of unique clips fresh from the wild. +First, it's a ball game bonobo-style -- and I do not mean football. +So here, we have a young female and a male engaged in a chase game. +Have a look what she's doing. +It might be the evolutionary origin of the phrase, "she's got him by the balls." +Only I think that he's rather loving it here, right? +Yeah. +So sex play is common in both bonobos and humans. +And this video is really interesting because it shows -- this video's really interesting because it shows the inventiveness of bringing unusual elements into play -- such as testicles -- and also how play both requires trust and fosters trust -- while at the same time being tremendous fun. +But play's a shapeshifter. +Play's a shapeshifter, and it can take many forms, some of which are more quiet, imaginative, curious -- maybe where wonder is discovered anew. +And I want you to see, this is Fuku, a young female, and she is quietly playing with water. +I think, like her, we sometimes play alone, and we explore the boundaries of our inner and our outer worlds. +And it's that playful curiosity that drives us to explore, drives us to interact, and then the unexpected connections we form are the real hotbed for creativity. +So these are just small tasters into the insights that bonobo give us to our past and present. +But they also hold a secret for our future, a future where we need to adapt to an increasingly challenging world through greater creativity and greater cooperation. +The secret is that play is the key to these capacities. +In other words, play is our adaptive wildcard. +In order to adapt successfully to a changing world, we need to play. +But will we make the most of our playfulness? +Play is not frivolous. +Play's essential. +For bonobos and humans alike, life is not just red in tooth and claw. +In times when it seems least appropriate to play, it might be the times when it is most urgent. +And so, my fellow primates, let us embrace this gift from evolution and play together, as we rediscover creativity, fellowship and wonder. +Thank you. +Back in New York, I am the head of development for a non-profit called Robin Hood. +When I'm not fighting poverty, I'm fighting fires as the assistant captain of a volunteer fire company. +Now in our town, where the volunteers supplement a highly skilled career staff, you have to get to the fire scene pretty early to get in on any action. +I remember my first fire. +I was the second volunteer on the scene, so there was a pretty good chance I was going to get in. +But still it was a real footrace against the other volunteers to get to the captain in charge to find out what our assignments would be. +When I found the captain, he was having a very engaging conversation with the homeowner, who was surely having one of the worst days of her life. +Here it was, the middle of the night, she was standing outside in the pouring rain, under an umbrella, in her pajamas, barefoot, while her house was in flames. +The other volunteer who had arrived just before me -- let's call him Lex Luther -- got to the captain first and was asked to go inside and save the homeowner's dog. +The dog! I was stunned with jealousy. +Here was some lawyer or money manager who, for the rest of his life, gets to tell people that he went into a burning building to save a living creature, just because he beat me by five seconds. +Well, I was next. +The captain waved me over. +He said, "Bezos, I need you to go into the house. +I need you to go upstairs, past the fire, and I need you to get this woman a pair of shoes." +I swear. +So, not exactly what I was hoping for, but off I went -- up the stairs, down the hall, past the 'real' firefighters, who were pretty much done putting out the fire at this point, into the master bedroom to get a pair of shoes. +Now I know what you're thinking, but I'm no hero. +I carried my payload back downstairs where I met my nemesis and the precious dog by the front door. +We took our treasures outside to the homeowner, where, not surprisingly, his received much more attention than did mine. +A few weeks later, the department received a letter from the homeowner thanking us for the valiant effort displayed in saving her home. +The act of kindness she noted above all others: someone had even gotten her a pair of shoes. +In both my vocation at Robin Hood and my avocation as a volunteer firefighter, I am witness to acts of generosity and kindness on a monumental scale, but I'm also witness to acts of grace and courage on an individual basis. +And you know what I've learned? +They all matter. +So as I look around this room at people who either have achieved, or are on their way to achieving, remarkable levels of success, I would offer this reminder: don't wait. +Don't wait until you make your first million to make a difference in somebody's life. +If you have something to give, give it now. +Serve food at a soup kitchen. Clean up a neighborhood park. +Be a mentor. +Not every day is going to offer us a chance to save somebody's life, but every day offers us an opportunity to affect one. +So get in the game. Save the shoes. +Thank you. +Bruno Giussani: Mark, Mark, come back. +Mark Bezos: Thank you. +This may sound strange, but I'm a big fan of the concrete block. +The first concrete blocks were manufactured in 1868 with a very simple idea: modules made of cement of a fixed measurement that fit together. +Very quickly concrete blocks became the most-used construction unit in the world. +They enabled us to to build things that were larger than us, buildings, bridges, one brick at a time. +Essentially concrete blocks had become the building block of our time. +Almost a hundred years later in 1947, LEGO came up with this. +It was called the Automatic Binding Brick. +And in a few short years, LEGO bricks took place in every household. +It's estimated that over 400 billion bricks have been produced -- or 75 bricks for every person on the planet. +You don't have to be an engineer to make beautiful houses, beautiful bridges, beautiful buildings. +LEGO made it accessible. +LEGO has essentially taken the concrete block, the building block of the world, and made it into the building block of our imagination. +Meanwhile the exact same year, at Bell Labs the next revolution was about to be announced, the next building block. +The transistor was a small plastic unit that would take us from a world of static bricks piled on top of each other to a world where everything was interactive. +Like the concrete block, the transistor allows you to build much larger, more complex circuits, one brick at a time. +But there's a main difference: The transistor was only for experts. +I personally don't accept this, that the building block of our time is reserved for experts, so I decided to change that. +Eight years ago when I was at the Media Lab, I started exploring this idea of how to put the power of engineers in the hands of artists and designers. +A few years ago I started developing littleBits. +Let me show you how they work. +LittleBits are electronic modules with each one specific function. +They're pre-engineered to be light, sound, motors and sensors. +And the best part about it is they snap together with magnets. +So you can't put them the wrong way. +The bricks are color-coded. +Green is output, blue is power, pink is input and orange is wire. +So all you need to do is snap a blue to a green and very quickly you can start making larger circuits. +You put a blue to a green, you can make light. +You can put a knob in between and now you've made a little dimmer. +Switch out the knob for a pulse module, which is here, and now you've made a little blinker. +Add this buzzer for some extra punch and you've created a noise machine. +I'm going to stop that. +So beyond simple play, littleBits are actually pretty powerful. +Instead of having to program, to wire, to solder, littleBits allow you to program using very simple intuitive gestures. +So to make this blink faster or slower, you would just turn this knob and basically make it pulse faster or slower. +The idea behind littleBits is that it's a growing library. +We want to make every single interaction in the world into a ready-to-use brick. +Lights, sounds, solar panels, motors -- everything should be accessible. +We've been giving littleBits to kids and seeing them play with them. +And it's been an incredible experience. +The nicest thing is how they start to understand the electronics around them from everyday that they don't learn at schools. +For example, how a nightlight works, or why an elevator door stays open, or how an iPod responds to touch. +We've also been taking littleBits to design schools. +So for example, we've had designers with no experience with electronics whatsoever start to play with littleBits as a material. +Here you see, with felt and paper water bottles, we have Geordie making ... +A few weeks ago we took littleBits to RISD and gave them to some designers with no experience in engineering whatsoever -- just cardboard, wood and paper -- and told them "Make something." +Here's an example of a project they made, a motion-activated confetti canon ball. +But wait, this is actually my favorite project. +It's a lobster made of playdough that's afraid of the dark. +To these non-engineers, littleBits became another material, electronics became just another material. +And we want to make this material accessible to everyone. +So littleBits is open-source. +You can go on the website, download all the design files, make them yourself. +We want to encourage a world of creators, of inventors, of contributors, because this world that we live in, this interactive world, is ours. +So go ahead and start inventing. +Thank you. +Today I'm going to talk about unexpected discoveries. +Now I work in the solar technology industry. +And my small startup is looking to force ourselves into the environment by paying attention to ... +... paying attention to crowd-sourcing. +It's just a quick video of what we do. +Huh. Hang on a moment. +It might take a moment to load. +We'll just -- we can just skip -- I'll just skip through the video instead ... +No. +This is not ... +Okay. +Solar technology is ... +Oh, that's all my time? +Okay. Thank you very much. +So a couple of years ago I started a program to try to get the rockstar tech and design people to take a year off and work in the one environment that represents pretty much everything they're supposed to hate; we have them work in government. +The program is called Code for America, and it's a little bit like a Peace Corps for geeks. +We select a few fellows every year and we have them work with city governments. +Instead of sending them off into the Third World, we send them into the wilds of City Hall. +And there they make great apps, they work with city staffers. +But really what they're doing is they're showing what's possible with technology today. +So meet Al. +Al is a fire hydrant in the city of Boston. +Here it kind of looks like he's looking for a date, but what he's really looking for is for someone to shovel him out when he gets snowed in, because he knows he's not very good at fighting fires when he's covered in four feet of snow. +Now how did he come to be looking for help in this very unique manner? +We had a team of fellows in Boston last year through the Code for America program. +They were there in February, and it snowed a lot in February last year. +And they noticed that the city never gets to digging out these fire hydrants. +But one fellow in particular, a guy named Erik Michaels-Ober, noticed something else, and that's that citizens are shoveling out sidewalks right in front of these things. +So he did what any good developer would do, he wrote an app. +It's a cute little app where you can adopt a fire hydrant. +So you agree to dig it out when it snows. +If you do, you get to name it, and he called the first one Al. +And if you don't, someone can steal it from you. +So it's got cute little game dynamics on it. +This is a modest little app. +It's probably the smallest of the 21 apps that the fellows wrote last year. +But it's doing something that no other government technology does. +It's spreading virally. +There's a guy in the I.T. department of the City of Honolulu who saw this app and realized that he could use it, not for snow, but to get citizens to adopt tsunami sirens. +It's very important that these tsunami sirens work, but people steal the batteries out of them. +So he's getting citizens to check on them. +And then Seattle decided to use it to get citizens to clear out clogged storm drains. +And Chicago just rolled it out to get people to sign up to shovel sidewalks when it snows. +So we now know of nine cities that are planning to use this. +And this has spread just frictionlessly, organically, naturally. +If you know anything about government technology, you know that this isn't how it normally goes. +Procuring software usually takes a couple of years. +We had a team that worked on a project in Boston last year that took three people about two and a half months. +It was a way that parents could figure out which were the right public schools for their kids. +We were told afterward that if that had gone through normal channels, it would have taken at least two years and it would have cost about two million dollars. +And that's nothing. +There is one project in the California court system right now that so far cost taxpayers two billion dollars, and it doesn't work. +And there are projects like this at every level of government. +So an app that takes a couple of days to write and then spreads virally, that's sort of a shot across the bow to the institution of government. +It suggests how government could work better -- not more like a private company, as many people think it should. +And not even like a tech company, but more like the Internet itself. +And that means permissionless, it means open, it means generative. +And that's important. +But what's more important about this app is that it represents how a new generation is tackling the problem of government -- not as the problem of an ossified institution, but as a problem of collective action. +And that's great news, because, it turns out, we're very good at collective action with digital technology. +Now there's a very large community of people that are building the tools that we need to do things together effectively. +It's not just Code for America fellows, there are hundreds of people all over the country that are standing and writing civic apps every day in their own communities. +They haven't given up on government. +They are frustrated as hell with it, but they're not complaining about it, they're fixing it. +And these folks know something that we've lost sight of. +And that's that when you strip away all your feelings about politics and the line at the DMV and all those other things that we're really mad about, government is, at its core, in the words of Tim O'Reilly, "What we do together that we can't do alone." +Now a lot of people have given up on government. +And if you're one of those people, I would ask that you reconsider, because things are changing. +Politics is not changing; government is changing. +And because government ultimately derives its power from us -- remember "We the people?" -- how we think about it is going to effect how that change happens. +Now I didn't know very much about government when I started this program. +And like a lot of people, I thought government was basically about getting people elected to office. +Well after two years, I've come to the conclusion that, especially local government, is about opossums. +This is the call center for the services and information line. +It's generally where you will get if you call 311 in your city. +So Scott gets this call. +He types "Opossum" into this official knowledge base. +He doesn't really come up with anything. He starts with animal control. +And finally, he says, "Look, can you just open all the doors to your house and play music really loud and see if the thing leaves?" +So that worked. So booya for Scott. +But that wasn't the end of the opossums. +Boston doesn't just have a call center. +It has an app, a Web and mobile app, called Citizens Connect. +Now we didn't write this app. +This is the work of the very smart people at the Office of New Urban Mechanics in Boston. +So one day -- this is an actual report -- this came in: "Opossum in my trashcan. Can't tell if it's dead. +How do I get this removed?" +But what happens with Citizens Connect is different. +So Scott was speaking person-to-person. +But on Citizens Connect everything is public, so everybody can see this. +And in this case, a neighbor saw it. +And the next report we got said, "I walked over to this location, found the trashcan behind the house. +Opossum? Check. Living? Yep. +Turned trashcan on its side. Walked home. +Goodnight sweet opossum." +Pretty simple. +So this is great. This is the digital meeting the physical. +And it's also a great example of government getting in on the crowd-sourcing game. +But it's also a great example of government as a platform. +And I don't mean necessarily a technological definition of platform here. +I'm just talking about a platform for people to help themselves and to help others. +So one citizen helped another citizen, but government played a key role here. +It connected those two people. +And it could have connected them with government services if they'd been needed, but a neighbor is a far better and cheaper alternative to government services. +When one neighbor helps another, we strengthen our communities. +We call animal control, it just costs a lot of money. +Now one of the important things we need to think about government is that it's not the same thing as politics. +And most people get that, but they think that one is the input to the other. +That our input to the system of government is voting. +Now how many times have we elected a political leader -- and sometimes we spend a lot of energy getting a new political leader elected -- and then we sit back and we expect government to reflect our values and meet our needs, and then not that much changes? +That's because government is like a vast ocean and politics is the six-inch layer on top. +And what's under that is what we call bureaucracy. +And we say that word with such contempt. +But it's that contempt that keeps this thing that we own and we pay for as something that's working against us, this other thing, and then we're disempowering ourselves. +People seem to think politics is sexy. +If we want this institution to work for us, we're going to have to make bureaucracy sexy. +Because that's where the real work of government happens. +We have to engage with the machinery of government. +So that's OccupytheSEC movement has done. +Have you seen these guys? +It's a group of concerned citizens that have written a very detailed 325-page report that's a response to the SEC's request for comment on the Financial Reform Bill. +That's not being politically active, that's being bureaucratically active. +Now for those of us who've given up on government, it's time that we asked ourselves about the world that we want to leave for our children. +You have to see the enormous challenges that they're going to face. +Do we really think we're going to get where we need to go without fixing the one institution that can act on behalf of all of us? +We can't do without government, but we do need it to be more effective. +The good news is that technology is making it possible to fundamentally reframe the function of government in a way that can actually scale by strengthening civil society. +And there's a generation out there that's grown up on the Internet, and they know that it's not that hard to do things together, you just have to architect the systems the right way. +Now the average age of our fellows is 28, so I am, begrudgingly, almost a generation older than most of them. +This is a generation that's grown up taking their voices pretty much for granted. +They're not fighting that battle that we're all fighting about who gets to speak; they all get to speak. +They can express their opinion on any channel at any time, and they do. +So when they're faced with the problem of government, they don't care as much about using their voices. +They're using their hands. +They're using their hands to write applications that make government work better. +And those applications let us use our hands to make our communities better. +That could be shoveling out a hydrant, pulling a weed, turning over a garbage can with an opossum in it. +And certainly, we could have been shoveling out those fire hydrants all along, and many people do. +But these apps are like little digital reminders that we're not just consumers, and we're not just consumers of government, putting in our taxes and getting back services. +We're more than that, we're citizens. +And we're not going to fix government until we fix citizenship. +So the question I have for all of you here: When it comes to the big, important things that we need to do together, all of us together, are we just going to be a crowd of voices, or are we also going to be a crowd of hands? +Thank you. +Well this is a really extraordinary honor for me. +I spend most of my time in jails, in prisons, on death row. +I spend most of my time in very low-income communities in the projects and places where there's a great deal of hopelessness. +And being here at TED and seeing the stimulation, hearing it, has been very, very energizing to me. +And one of the things that's emerged in my short time here is that TED has an identity. +And you can actually say things here that have impacts around the world. +And sometimes when it comes through TED, it has meaning and power that it doesn't have when it doesn't. +And I mention that because I think identity is really important. +And we've had some fantastic presentations. +And I think what we've learned is that, if you're a teacher your words can be meaningful, but if you're a compassionate teacher, they can be especially meaningful. +If you're a doctor you can do some good things, but if you're a caring doctor you can do some other things. +And so I want to talk about the power of identity. +And I didn't learn about this actually practicing law and doing the work that I do. +I actually learned about this from my grandmother. +I grew up in a house that was the traditional African-American home that was dominated by a matriarch, and that matriarch was my grandmother. +She was tough, she was strong, she was powerful. +She was the end of every argument in our family. +She was the beginning of a lot of arguments in our family. +She was the daughter of people who were actually enslaved. +Her parents were born in slavery in Virginia in the 1840's. +She was born in the 1880's and the experience of slavery very much shaped the way she saw the world. +And my grandmother was tough, but she was also loving. +When I would see her as a little boy, she'd come up to me and she'd give me these hugs. +And she'd squeeze me so tight I could barely breathe and then she'd let me go. +And an hour or two later, if I saw her, she'd come over to me and she'd say, "Bryan, do you still feel me hugging you?" +And if I said, "No," she'd assault me again, and if I said, "Yes," she'd leave me alone. +And she just had this quality that you always wanted to be near her. +And the only challenge was that she had 10 children. +My mom was the youngest of her 10 kids. +And sometimes when I would go and spend time with her, it would be difficult to get her time and attention. +My cousins would be running around everywhere. +And I remember, when I was about eight or nine years old, waking up one morning, going into the living room, and all of my cousins were running around. +And my grandmother was sitting across the room staring at me. +And at first I thought we were playing a game. +And I would look at her and I'd smile, but she was very serious. +And after about 15 or 20 minutes of this, she got up and she came across the room and she took me by the hand and she said, "Come on, Bryan. You and I are going to have a talk." +And I remember this just like it happened yesterday. +I never will forget it. +She took me out back and she said, "Bryan, I'm going to tell you something, but you don't tell anybody what I tell you." +I said, "Okay, Mama." +She said, "Now you make sure you don't do that." I said, "Sure." +Then she sat me down and she looked at me and she said, "I want you to know I've been watching you." +And she said, "I think you're special." +She said, "I think you can do anything you want to do." +I will never forget it. +And then she said, "I just need you to promise me three things, Bryan." +I said, "Okay, Mama." +She said, "The first thing I want you to promise me is that you'll always love your mom." +She said, "That's my baby girl, and you have to promise me now you'll always take care of her." +Well I adored my mom, so I said, "Yes, Mama. I'll do that." +Then she said, "The second thing I want you to promise me is that you'll always do the right thing even when the right thing is the hard thing." +And I thought about it and I said, "Yes, Mama. I'll do that." +Then finally she said, "The third thing I want you to promise me is that you'll never drink alcohol." +Well I was nine years old, so I said, "Yes, Mama. I'll do that." +I grew up in the country in the rural South, and I have a brother a year older than me and a sister a year younger. +When I was about 14 or 15, one day my brother came home and he had this six-pack of beer -- I don't know where he got it -- and he grabbed me and my sister and we went out in the woods. +And we were kind of just out there doing the stuff we crazily did. +And he had a sip of this beer and he gave some to my sister and she had some, and they offered it to me. +I said, "No, no, no. That's okay. You all go ahead. I'm not going to have any beer." +My brother said, "Come on. We're doing this today; you always do what we do. +I had some, your sister had some. Have some beer." +I said, "No, I don't feel right about that. Y'all go ahead. Y'all go ahead." +And then my brother started staring at me. +He said, "What's wrong with you? Have some beer." +Then he looked at me real hard and he said, "Oh, I hope you're not still hung up on that conversation Mama had with you." +I said, "Well, what are you talking about?" +He said, "Oh, Mama tells all the grandkids that they're special." +I was devastated. +And I'm going to admit something to you. +I'm going to tell you something I probably shouldn't. +I know this might be broadcast broadly. +But I'm 52 years old, and I'm going to admit to you that I've never had a drop of alcohol. +I don't say that because I think that's virtuous; I say that because there is power in identity. +When we create the right kind of identity, we can say things to the world around us that they don't actually believe makes sense. +We can get them to do things that they don't think they can do. +When I thought about my grandmother, of course she would think all her grandkids were special. +My grandfather was in prison during prohibition. +My male uncles died of alcohol-related diseases. +And these were the things she thought we needed to commit to. +Well I've been trying to say something about our criminal justice system. +This country is very different today than it was 40 years ago. +In 1972, there were 300,000 people in jails and prisons. +Today, there are 2.3 million. +The United States now has the highest rate of incarceration in the world. +We have seven million people on probation and parole. +And mass incarceration, in my judgment, has fundamentally changed our world. +In poor communities, in communities of color there is this despair, there is this hopelessness, that is being shaped by these outcomes. +One out of three black men between the ages of 18 and 30 is in jail, in prison, on probation or parole. +In urban communities across this country -- Los Angeles, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Washington -- 50 to 60 percent of all young men of color are in jail or prison or on probation or parole. +Our system isn't just being shaped in these ways that seem to be distorting around race, they're also distorted by poverty. +We have a system of justice in this country that treats you much better if you're rich and guilty than if you're poor and innocent. +Wealth, not culpability, shapes outcomes. +And yet, we seem to be very comfortable. +The politics of fear and anger have made us believe that these are problems that are not our problems. +We've been disconnected. +It's interesting to me. +We're looking at some very interesting developments in our work. +My state of Alabama, like a number of states, actually permanently disenfranchises you if you have a criminal conviction. +Right now in Alabama 34 percent of the black male population has permanently lost the right to vote. +We're actually projecting in another 10 years the level of disenfranchisement will be as high as it's been since prior to the passage of the Voting Rights Act. +And there is this stunning silence. +I represent children. +A lot of my clients are very young. +The United States is the only country in the world where we sentence 13-year-old children to die in prison. +We have life imprisonment without parole for kids in this country. +And we're actually doing some litigation. +The only country in the world. +I represent people on death row. +It's interesting, this question of the death penalty. +In many ways, we've been taught to think that the real question is, do people deserve to die for the crimes they've committed? +And that's a very sensible question. +But there's another way of thinking about where we are in our identity. +The other way of thinking about it is not, do people deserve to die for the crimes they commit, but do we deserve to kill? +I mean, it's fascinating. +Death penalty in America is defined by error. +For every nine people who have been executed, we've actually identified one innocent person who's been exonerated and released from death row. +A kind of astonishing error rate -- one out of nine people innocent. +I mean, it's fascinating. +In aviation, we would never let people fly on airplanes if for every nine planes that took off one would crash. +But somehow we can insulate ourselves from this problem. +It's not our problem. +It's not our burden. +It's not our struggle. +I talk a lot about these issues. +I talk about race and this question of whether we deserve to kill. +And it's interesting, when I teach my students about African-American history, I tell them about slavery. +I tell them about terrorism, the era that began at the end of reconstruction that went on to World War II. +We don't really know very much about it. +But for African-Americans in this country, that was an era defined by terror. +In many communities, people had to worry about being lynched. +They had to worry about being bombed. +It was the threat of terror that shaped their lives. +And these older people come up to me now and they say, "Mr. Stevenson, you give talks, you make speeches, you tell people to stop saying we're dealing with terrorism for the first time in our nation's history after 9/11." +They tell me to say, "No, tell them that we grew up with that." +And that era of terrorism, of course, was followed by segregation and decades of racial subordination and apartheid. +And yet, we have in this country this dynamic where we really don't like to talk about our problems. +We don't like to talk about our history. +And because of that, we really haven't understood what it's meant to do the things we've done historically. +We're constantly running into each other. +We're constantly creating tensions and conflicts. +We have a hard time talking about race, and I believe it's because we are unwilling to commit ourselves to a process of truth and reconciliation. +In South Africa, people understood that we couldn't overcome apartheid without a commitment to truth and reconciliation. +In Rwanda, even after the genocide, there was this commitment, but in this country we haven't done that. +I was giving some lectures in Germany about the death penalty. +It was fascinating because one of the scholars stood up after the presentation and said, "Well you know it's deeply troubling to hear what you're talking about." +He said, "We don't have the death penalty in Germany. +And of course, we can never have the death penalty in Germany." +And the room got very quiet, and this woman said, "There's no way, with our history, we could ever engage in the systematic killing of human beings. +It would be unconscionable for us to, in an intentional and deliberate way, set about executing people." +And I thought about that. +What would it feel like to be living in a world where the nation state of Germany was executing people, especially if they were disproportionately Jewish? +I couldn't bear it. +It would be unconscionable. +And yet, there is this disconnect. +Well I believe that our identity is at risk. +That when we actually don't care about these difficult things, the positive and wonderful things are nonetheless implicated. +We love innovation. +We love technology. We love creativity. +We love entertainment. +But ultimately, those realities are shadowed by suffering, abuse, degradation, marginalization. +And for me, it becomes necessary to integrate the two. +Because ultimately we are talking about a need to be more hopeful, more committed, more dedicated to the basic challenges of living in a complex world. +And for me that means spending time thinking and talking about the poor, the disadvantaged, those who will never get to TED. +But thinking about them in a way that is integrated in our own lives. +You know ultimately, we all have to believe things we haven't seen. +We do. As rational as we are, as committed to intellect as we are. +Innovation, creativity, development comes not from the ideas in our mind alone. +They come from the ideas in our mind that are also fueled by some conviction in our heart. +And it's that mind-heart connection that I believe compels us to not just be attentive to all the bright and dazzly things, but also the dark and difficult things. +Vaclav Havel, the great Czech leader, talked about this. +He said, "When we were in Eastern Europe and dealing with oppression, we wanted all kinds of things, but mostly what we needed was hope, an orientation of the spirit, a willingness to sometimes be in hopeless places and be a witness." +Well that orientation of the spirit is very much at the core of what I believe even TED communities have to be engaged in. +There is no disconnect around technology and design that will allow us to be fully human until we pay attention to suffering, to poverty, to exclusion, to unfairness, to injustice. +Now I will warn you that this kind of identity is a much more challenging identity than ones that don't pay attention to this. +It will get to you. +I had the great privilege, when I was a young lawyer, of meeting Rosa Parks. +And these women would get together and just talk. +And every now and then Ms. Carr would call me, and she'd say, "Bryan, Ms. Parks is coming to town. We're going to get together and talk. +Do you want to come over and listen?" +And I'd say, "Yes, Ma'am, I do." +And she'd say, "Well what are you going to do when you get here?" +I said, "I'm going to listen." +And I'd go over there and I would, I would just listen. +It would be so energizing and so empowering. +And one time I was over there listening to these women talk, and after a couple of hours Ms. Parks turned to me and she said, "Now Bryan, tell me what the Equal Justice Initiative is. +Tell me what you're trying to do." +And I began giving her my rap. +I said, "Well we're trying to challenge injustice. +We're trying to help people who have been wrongly convicted. +We're trying to confront bias and discrimination in the administration of criminal justice. +We're trying to end life without parole sentences for children. +We're trying to do something about the death penalty. +We're trying to reduce the prison population. +We're trying to end mass incarceration." +I gave her my whole rap, and when I finished she looked at me and she said, "Mmm mmm mmm." +She said, "That's going to make you tired, tired, tired." +And that's when Ms. Carr leaned forward, she put her finger in my face, she said, "That's why you've got to be brave, brave, brave." +And I actually believe that the TED community needs to be more courageous. +We need to find ways to embrace these challenges, these problems, the suffering. +Because ultimately, our humanity depends on everyone's humanity. +I've learned very simple things doing the work that I do. +It's just taught me very simple things. +I've come to understand and to believe that each of us is more than the worst thing we've ever done. +I believe that for every person on the planet. +I think if somebody tells a lie, they're not just a liar. +I think if somebody takes something that doesn't belong to them, they're not just a thief. +I think even if you kill someone, you're not just a killer. +And because of that there's this basic human dignity that must be respected by law. +I also believe that in many parts of this country, and certainly in many parts of this globe, that the opposite of poverty is not wealth. +I don't believe that. +I actually think, in too many places, the opposite of poverty is justice. +And finally, I believe that, despite the fact that it is so dramatic and so beautiful and so inspiring and so stimulating, we will ultimately not be judged by our technology, we won't be judged by our design, we won't be judged by our intellect and reason. +Ultimately, you judge the character of a society, not by how they treat their rich and the powerful and the privileged, but by how they treat the poor, the condemned, the incarcerated. +Because it's in that nexus that we actually begin to understand truly profound things about who we are. +I sometimes get out of balance. I'll end with this story. +I sometimes push too hard. +I do get tired, as we all do. +Sometimes those ideas get ahead of our thinking in ways that are important. +And I've been representing these kids who have been sentenced to do these very harsh sentences. +And I go to the jail and I see my client who's 13 and 14, and he's been certified to stand trial as an adult. +I start thinking, well, how did that happen? +How can a judge turn you into something that you're not? +And the judge has certified him as an adult, but I see this kid. +And I was up too late one night and I starting thinking, well gosh, if the judge can turn you into something that you're not, the judge must have magic power. +Yeah, Bryan, the judge has some magic power. +You should ask for some of that. +And because I was up too late, wasn't thinking real straight, I started working on a motion. +And I had a client who was 14 years old, a young, poor black kid. +And I started working on this motion, and the head of the motion was: "Motion to try my poor, 14-year-old black male client like a privileged, white 75-year-old corporate executive." +And I put in my motion that there was prosecutorial misconduct and police misconduct and judicial misconduct. +There was a crazy line in there about how there's no conduct in this county, it's all misconduct. +And the next morning, I woke up and I thought, now did I dream that crazy motion, or did I actually write it? +And to my horror, not only had I written it, but I had sent it to court. +A couple months went by, and I had just forgotten all about it. +And I finally decided, oh gosh, I've got to go to the court and do this crazy case. +And I got into my car and I was feeling really overwhelmed -- overwhelmed. +And I got in my car and I went to this courthouse. +And I was thinking, this is going to be so difficult, so painful. +And I finally got out of the car and I started walking up to the courthouse. +And as I was walking up the steps of this courthouse, there was an older black man who was the janitor in this courthouse. +When this man saw me, he came over to me and he said, "Who are you?" +I said, "I'm a lawyer." He said, "You're a lawyer?" I said, "Yes, sir." +And this man came over to me and he hugged me. +And he whispered in my ear. +He said, "I'm so proud of you." +And I have to tell you, it was energizing. +It connected deeply with something in me about identity, about the capacity of every person to contribute to a community, to a perspective that is hopeful. +Well I went into the courtroom. +And as soon as I walked inside, the judge saw me coming in. +He said, "Mr. Stevenson, did you write this crazy motion?" +I said, "Yes, sir. I did." And we started arguing. +And people started coming in because they were just outraged. +I had written these crazy things. +And police officers were coming in and assistant prosecutors and clerk workers. +And before I knew it, the courtroom was filled with people angry that we were talking about race, that we were talking about poverty, that we were talking about inequality. +And out of the corner of my eye, I could see this janitor pacing back and forth. +And he kept looking through the window, and he could hear all of this holler. +He kept pacing back and forth. +And finally, this older black man with this very worried look on his face came into the courtroom and sat down behind me, almost at counsel table. +About 10 minutes later the judge said we would take a break. +And during the break there was a deputy sheriff who was offended that the janitor had come into court. +And this deputy jumped up and he ran over to this older black man. +He said, "Jimmy, what are you doing in this courtroom?" +And this older black man stood up and he looked at that deputy and he looked at me and he said, "I came into this courtroom to tell this young man, keep your eyes on the prize, hold on." +I've come to TED because I believe that many of you understand that the moral arc of the universe is long, but it bends toward justice. +That we cannot be full evolved human beings until we care about human rights and basic dignity. +That all of our survival is tied to the survival of everyone. +That our visions of technology and design and entertainment and creativity have to be married with visions of humanity, compassion and justice. +And more than anything, for those of you who share that, I've simply come to tell you to keep your eyes on the prize, hold on. +Thank you very much. +Chris Anderson: So you heard and saw an obvious desire by this audience, this community, to help you on your way and to do something on this issue. +Other than writing a check, what could we do? +BS: Well there are opportunities all around us. +If you live in the state of California, for example, there's a referendum coming up this spring where actually there's going to be an effort to redirect some of the money we spend on the politics of punishment. +For example, here in California we're going to spend one billion dollars on the death penalty in the next five years -- one billion dollars. +And yet, 46 percent of all homicide cases don't result in arrest. +56 percent of all rape cases don't result. +So there's an opportunity to change that. +And this referendum would propose having those dollars go to law enforcement and safety. +And I think that opportunity exists all around us. +CA: There's been this huge decline in crime in America over the last three decades. +And part of the narrative of that is sometimes that it's about increased incarceration rates. +What would you say to someone who believed that? +BS: Well actually the violent crime rate has remained relatively stable. +The great increase in mass incarceration in this country wasn't really in violent crime categories. +It was this misguided war on drugs. +That's where the dramatic increases have come in our prison population. +And we got carried away with the rhetoric of punishment. +And so we have three strikes laws that put people in prison forever for stealing a bicycle, for low-level property crimes, rather than making them give those resources back to the people who they victimized. +I believe we need to do more to help people who are victimized by crime, not do less. +And I think our current punishment philosophy does nothing for no one. +And I think that's the orientation that we have to change. +CA: Bryan, you've struck a massive chord here. +You're an inspiring person. +Thank you so much for coming to TED. Thank you. +Announcer: Threats, in the wake of Bin Laden's death, have spiked. +Announcer Two: Famine in Somalia. Announcer Three: Police pepper spray. +Announcer Four: Vicious cartels. Announcer Five: Caustic cruise lines. +Announcer Six: Societal decay. Announcer Seven: 65 dead. +Announcer Eight: Tsunami warning. Announcer Nine: Cyberattacks. +Multiple Announcers: Drug war. Mass destruction. Tornado. +Recession. Default. Doomsday. Egypt. Syria. +Crisis. Death. Disaster. +Oh, my God. +Peter Diamandis: So those are just a few of the clips I collected over the last six months -- could have easily been the last six days or the last six years. +The point is that the news media preferentially feeds us negative stories because that's what our minds pay attention to. +And there's a very good reason for that. +Every second of every day, our senses bring in way too much data than we can possibly process in our brains. +And because nothing is more important to us than survival, the first stop of all of that data is an ancient sliver of the temporal lobe called the amygdala. +Now the amygdala is our early warning detector, our danger detector. +It sorts and scours through all of the information looking for anything in the environment that might harm us. +So given a dozen news stories, we will preferentially look at the negative news. +And that old newspaper saying, "If it bleeds it leads," is very true. +So given all of our digital devices that are bringing all the negative news to us seven days a week, 24 hours a day, it's no wonder that we're pessimistic. +It's no wonder that people think that the world is getting worse. +But perhaps that's not the case. +Perhaps instead, it's the distortions brought to us of what's really going on. +Perhaps the tremendous progress we've made over the last century by a series of forces are, in fact, accelerating to a point that we have the potential in the next three decades to create a world of abundance. +Now I'm not saying we don't have our set of problems -- climate crisis, species extinction, water and energy shortage -- we surely do. +And as humans, we are far better at seeing the problems way in advance, but ultimately we knock them down. +So let's look at what this last century has been to see where we're going. +Over the last hundred years, the average human lifespan has more than doubled, average per capita income adjusted for inflation around the world has tripled. +Childhood mortality has come down a factor of 10. +Add to that the cost of food, electricity, transportation, communication have dropped 10 to 1,000-fold. +Steve Pinker has showed us that, in fact, we're living during the most peaceful time ever in human history. +And Charles Kenny that global literacy has gone from 25 percent to over 80 percent in the last 130 years. +We truly are living in an extraordinary time. +And many people forget this. +And we keep setting our expectations higher and higher. +In fact, we redefine what poverty means. +Think of this, in America today, the majority of people under the poverty line still have electricity, water, toilets, refrigerators, television, mobile phones, air conditioning and cars. +The wealthiest robber barons of the last century, the emperors on this planet, could have never dreamed of such luxuries. +Underpinning much of this is technology, and of late, exponentially growing technologies. +My good friend Ray Kurzweil showed that any tool that becomes an information technology jumps on this curve, on Moore's Law, and experiences price performance doubling every 12 to 24 months. +That's why the cellphone in your pocket is literally a million times cheaper and a thousand times faster than a supercomputer of the '70s. +Now look at this curve. +This is Moore's Law over the last hundred years. +I want you to notice two things from this curve. +Number one, how smooth it is -- through good time and bad time, war time and peace time, recession, depression and boom time. +This is the result of faster computers being used to build faster computers. +It doesn't slow for any of our grand challenges. +And also, even though it's plotted on a log curve on the left, it's curving upwards. +The rate at which the technology is getting faster is itself getting faster. +And on this curve, riding on Moore's Law, are a set of extraordinarily powerful technologies available to all of us. +Cloud computing, what my friends at Autodesk call infinite computing; sensors and networks; robotics; 3D printing, which is the ability to democratize and distribute personalized production around the planet; synthetic biology; fuels, vaccines and foods; digital medicine; nanomaterials; and A.I. +I mean, how many of you saw the winning of Jeopardy by IBM's Watson? +I mean, that was epic. +In fact, I scoured the headlines looking for the best headline in a newspaper I could. +And I love this: "Watson Vanquishes Human Opponents." +Jeopardy's not an easy game. +It's about the nuance of human language. +And imagine if you would A.I.'s like this on the cloud available to every person with a cellphone. +Four years ago here at TED, Ray Kurzweil and I started a new university called Singularity University. +And we teach our students all of these technologies, and particularly how they can be used to solve humanity's grand challenges. +And every year we ask them to start a company or a product or a service that can affect positively the lives of a billion people within a decade. +Think about that, the fact that, literally, a group of students can touch the lives of a billion people today. +30 years ago that would have sounded ludicrous. +Today we can point at dozens of companies that have done just that. +When I think about creating abundance, it's not about creating a life of luxury for everybody on this planet; it's about creating a life of possibility. +It is about taking that which was scarce and making it abundant. +You see, scarcity is contextual, and technology is a resource-liberating force. +Let me give you an example. +So this is a story of Napoleon III in the mid-1800s. +He's the dude on the left. +He invited over to dinner the king of Siam. +All of Napoleon's troops were fed with silver utensils, Napoleon himself with gold utensils. +But the King of Siam, he was fed with aluminum utensils. +You see, aluminum was the most valuable metal on the planet, worth more than gold and platinum. +It's the reason that the tip of the Washington Monument is made of aluminum. +You see, even though aluminum is 8.3 percent of the Earth by mass, it doesn't come as a pure metal. +It's all bound by oxygen and silicates. +But then the technology of electrolysis came along and literally made aluminum so cheap that we use it with throw-away mentality. +So let's project this analogy going forward. +We think about energy scarcity. +Ladies and gentlemen, we are on a planet that is bathed with 5,000 times more energy than we use in a year. +16 terawatts of energy hits the Earth's surface every 88 minutes. +It's not about being scarce, it's about accessibility. +And there's good news here. +For the first time, this year the cost of solar-generated electricity is 50 percent that of diesel-generated electricity in India -- 8.8 rupees versus 17 rupees. +The cost of solar dropped 50 percent last year. +Last month, MIT put out a study showing that by the end of this decade, in the sunny parts of the United States, solar electricity will be six cents a kilowatt hour compared to 15 cents as a national average. +And if we have abundant energy, we also have abundant water. +Now we talk about water wars. +Do you remember when Carl Sagan turned the Voyager spacecraft back towards the Earth, in 1990 after it just passed Saturn? +He took a famous photo. What was it called? +"A Pale Blue Dot." +Because we live on a water planet. +We live on a planet 70 percent covered by water. +Yes, 97.5 percent is saltwater, two percent is ice, and we fight over a half a percent of the water on this planet, but here too there is hope. +And there is technology coming online, not 10, 20 years from now, right now. +There's nanotechnology coming on, nanomaterials. +And the conversation I had with Dean Kamen this morning, one of the great DIY innovators, I'd like to share with you -- he gave me permission to do so -- his technology called Slingshot that many of you may have heard of, it is the size of a small dorm room refrigerator. +It's able to generate a thousand liters of clean drinking water a day out of any source -- saltwater, polluted water, latrine -- at less than two cents a liter. +The chairman of Coca-Cola has just agreed to do a major test of hundreds of units of this in the developing world. +And if that pans out, which I have every confidence it will, Coca-Cola will deploy this globally to 206 countries around the planet. +This is the kind of innovation, empowered by this technology, that exists today. +And we've seen this in cellphones. +My goodness, we're going to hit 70 percent penetration of cellphones in the developing world by the end of 2013. +Think about it, that a Masai warrior on a cellphone in the middle of Kenya has better mobile comm than President Reagan did 25 years ago. +And if they're on a smartphone on Google, they've got access to more knowledge and information than President Clinton did 15 years ago. +They're living in a world of information and communication abundance that no one could have ever predicted. +Better than that, the things that you and I spent tens and hundreds of thousands of dollars for -- GPS, HD video and still images, libraries of books and music, medical diagnostic technology -- are now literally dematerializing and demonetizing into your cellphone. +Probably the best part of it is what's coming down the pike in health. +Last month, I had the pleasure of announcing with Qualcomm Foundation something called the $10 million Qualcomm Tricorder X Prize. +We're challenging teams around the world to basically combine these technologies into a mobile device that you can speak to, because it's got A.I., you can cough on it, you can do a finger blood prick. +And to win, it needs to be able to diagnose you better than a team of board-certified doctors. +So literally, imagine this device in the middle of the developing world where there are no doctors, 25 percent of the disease burden and 1.3 percent of the health care workers. +When this device sequences an RNA or DNA virus that it doesn't recognize, it calls the CDC and prevents the pandemic from happening in the first place. +But here, here is the biggest force for bringing about a world of abundance. +I call it the rising billion. +So the white lines here are population. +We just passed the seven billion mark on Earth. +And by the way, the biggest protection against a population explosion is making the world educated and healthy. +In 2010, we had just short of two billion people online, connected. +By 2020, that's going from two billion to five billion Internet users. +Three billion new minds who have never been heard from before are connecting to the global conversation. +What will these people want? +What will they consume? What will they desire? +And rather than having economic shutdown, we're about to have the biggest economic injection ever. +These people represent tens of trillions of dollars injected into the global economy. +And they will get healthier by using the Tricorder, and they'll become better educated by using the Khan Academy, and by literally being able to use 3D printing and infinite computing [become] more productive than ever before. +So what could three billion rising, healthy, educated, productive members of humanity bring to us? +How about a set of voices that have never been heard from before. +What about giving the oppressed, wherever they might be, the voice to be heard and the voice to act for the first time ever? +What will these three billion people bring? +What about contributions we can't even predict? +The one thing I've learned at the X Prize is that small teams driven by their passion with a clear focus can do extraordinary things, things that large corporations and governments could only do in the past. +Let me share and close with a story that really got me excited. +There is a program that some of you might have heard of. +It's a game called Foldit. +It came out of the University of Washington in Seattle. +And this is a game where individuals can actually take a sequence of amino acids and figure out how the protein is going to fold. +And how it folds dictates its structure and its functionality. +And it's very important for research in medicine. +And up until now, it's been a supercomputer problem. +And this game has been played by university professors and so forth. +And it's literally, hundreds of thousands of people came online and started playing it. +And it showed that, in fact, today, the human pattern recognition machinery is better at folding proteins than the best computers. +Ladies and gentlemen, what gives me tremendous confidence in the future is the fact that we are now more empowered as individuals to take on the grand challenges of this planet. +We have the tools with this exponential technology. +We have the passion of the DIY innovator. +We have the capital of the techno-philanthropist. +And we have three billion new minds coming online to work with us to solve the grand challenges, to do that which we must do. +We are living into extraordinary decades ahead. +Thank you. +I'm going to speak about a tiny, little idea. +And this is about shifting baseline. +And because the idea can be explained in one minute, I will tell you three stories before to fill in the time. +And the first story is about Charles Darwin, one of my heroes. +And he was here, as you well know, in '35. +And you'd think he was chasing finches, but he wasn't. +He was actually collecting fish. +And he described one of them as very "common." +This was the sailfin grouper. +A big fishery was run on it until the '80s. +Now the fish is on the IUCN Red List. +Now this story, we have heard it lots of times on Galapagos and other places, so there is nothing particular about it. +But the point is, we still come to Galapagos. +We still think it is pristine. +The brochures still say it is untouched. +So what happens here? +The second story, also to illustrate another concept, is called shifting waistline. +Because I was there in '71, studying a lagoon in West Africa. +I was there because I grew up in Europe and I wanted later to work in Africa. +And I thought I could blend in. +And I got a big sunburn, and I was convinced that I was really not from there. +This was my first sunburn. +And the lagoon was surrounded by palm trees, as you can see, and a few mangrove. +And it had tilapia about 20 centimeters, a species of tilapia called blackchin tilapia. +And the fisheries for this tilapia sustained lots of fish and they had a good time and they earned more than average in Ghana. +When I went there 27 years later, the fish had shrunk to half of their size. +They were maturing at five centimeters. +They had been pushed genetically. +There were still fishes. +They were still kind of happy. +And the fish also were happy to be there. +So nothing has changed, but everything has changed. +My third little story is that I was an accomplice in the introduction of trawling in Southeast Asia. +In the '70s -- well, beginning in the '60s -- Europe did lots of development projects. +Fish development meant imposing on countries that had already 100,000 fishers to impose on them industrial fishing. +And this boat, quite ugly, is called the Mutiara 4. +And I went sailing on it, and we did surveys throughout the southern South China sea and especially the Java Sea. +And what we caught, we didn't have words for it. +What we caught, I know now, is the bottom of the sea. +And 90 percent of our catch were sponges, other animals that are fixed on the bottom. +And actually most of the fish, they are a little spot on the debris, the piles of debris, were coral reef fish. +Essentially the bottom of the sea came onto the deck and then was thrown down. +And these pictures are extraordinary because this transition is very rapid. +Within a year, you do a survey and then commercial fishing begins. +The bottom is transformed from, in this case, a hard bottom or soft coral into a muddy mess. +This is a dead turtle. +They were not eaten, they were thrown away because they were dead. +And one time we caught a live one. +It was not drowned yet. +And then they wanted to kill it because it was good to eat. +This mountain of debris is actually collected by fishers every time they go into an area that's never been fished. +But it's not documented. +We transform the world, but we don't remember it. +We adjust our baseline to the new level, and we don't recall what was there. +If you generalize this, something like this happens. +You have on the y axis some good thing: biodiversity, numbers of orca, the greenness of your country, the water supply. +And over time it changes -- it changes because people do things, or naturally. +Every generation will use the images that they got at the beginning of their conscious lives as a standard and will extrapolate forward. +And the difference then, they perceive as a loss. +But they don't perceive what happened before as a loss. +You can have a succession of changes. +At the end you want to sustain miserable leftovers. +And that, to a large extent, is what we want to do now. +We want to sustain things that are gone or things that are not the way they were. +Now one should think this problem affected people certainly when in predatory societies, they killed animals and they didn't know they had done so after a few generations. +Because, obviously, an animal that is very abundant, before it gets extinct, it becomes rare. +So you don't lose abundant animals. +You always lose rare animals. +And therefore they're not perceived as a big loss. +Over time, we concentrate on large animals, and in a sea that means the big fish. +They become rarer because we fish them. +Over time we have a few fish left and we think this is the baseline. +And the question is, why do people accept this? +Well because they don't know that it was different. +And in fact, lots of people, scientists, will contest that it was really different. +And they will contest this because the evidence presented in an earlier mode is not in the way they would like the evidence presented. +For example, the anecdote that some present, as Captain so-and-so observed lots of fish in this area cannot be used or is usually not utilized by fishery scientists, because it's not "scientific." +So you have a situation where people don't know the past, even though we live in literate societies, because they don't trust the sources of the past. +And hence, the enormous role that a marine protected area can play. +Because with marine protected areas, we actually recreate the past. +We recreate the past that people cannot conceive because the baseline has shifted and is extremely low. +That is for people who can see a marine protected area and who can benefit from the insight that it provides, which enables them to reset their baseline. +How about the people who can't do that because they have no access -- the people in the Midwest for example? +There I think that the arts and film can perhaps fill the gap, and simulation. +This is a simulation of Chesapeake Bay. +There were gray whales in Chesapeake Bay a long time ago -- 500 years ago. +And you will have noticed that the hues and tones are like "Avatar." +And if you think about "Avatar," if you think of why people were so touched by it -- never mind the Pocahontas story -- why so touched by the imagery? +Because it evokes something that in a sense has been lost. +And so my recommendation, it's the only one I will provide, is for Cameron to do "Avatar II" underwater. +Thank you very much. +Hi. I'm Kevin Allocca, I'm the trends manager at YouTube, and I professionally watch YouTube videos. +It's true. +So we're going to talk a little bit today about how videos go viral and then why that even matters. +We all want to be stars -- celebrities, singers, comedians -- and when I was younger, that seemed so very, very hard to do. +But now Web video has made it so that any of us or any of the creative things that we do can become completely famous in a part of our world's culture. +Any one of you could be famous on the Internet by next Saturday. +But there are over 48 hours of video uploaded to YouTube every minute. +And of that, only a tiny percentage ever goes viral and gets tons of views and becomes a cultural moment. +So how does it happen? +Three things: tastemakers, communities of participation and unexpectedness. +All right, let's go. +Bear Vasquez: Oh, my God. Oh, my God. +Oh, my God! +Wooo! +Ohhhhh, wowwww! +KA: Last year, Bear Vasquez posted this video that he had shot outside his home in Yosemite National Park. +In 2010, it was viewed 23 million times. +This is a chart of what it looked like when it first became popular last summer. +But he didn't actually set out to make a viral video, Bear. +He just wanted to share a rainbow. +Because that's what you do when your name is Yosemite Mountain Bear. +And he had posted lots of nature videos in fact. +And this video had actually been posted all the way back in January. +So what happened here? +Jimmy Kimmel actually. +Jimmy Kimmel posted this tweet that would eventually propel the video to be as popular as it would become. +Because tastemakers like Jimmy Kimmel introduce us to new and interesting things and bring them to a larger audience. +Rebecca Black: It's Friday, Friday. Gotta get down on Friday. Everybody's looking forward to the weekend, weekend. Friday, Friday. Gettin' down on Friday. KA: So you didn't think that we could actually have this conversation without talking about this video I hope. +Rebecca Black's "Friday" is one of the most popular videos of the year. +It's been seen nearly 200 million times this year. +This is a chart of what it looked like. +And similar to "Double Rainbow," it seems to have just sprouted up out of nowhere. +So what happened on this day? +Well it was a Friday, this is true. +And if you're wondering about those other spikes, those are also Fridays. +But what about this day, this one particular Friday? +Well Tosh.0 picked it up, a lot of blogs starting writing about. +Michael J. Nelson from Mystery Science Theater was one of the first people to post a joke about the video on Twitter. +But what's important is that an individual or a group of tastemakers took a point of view and they shared that with a larger audience, accelerating the process. +And so then this community formed of people who shared this big inside joke and they started talking about it and doing things with it. +And now there are 10,000 parodies of "Friday" on YouTube. +Even in the first seven days, there was one parody for every other day of the week. +Unlike the one-way entertainment of the 20th century, this community participation is how we become a part of the phenomenon -- either by spreading it or by doing something new with it. +So "Nyan Cat" is a looped animation with looped music. +It's this, just like this. +It's been viewed nearly 50 million times this year. +And if you think that that is weird, you should know that there is a three-hour version of this that's been viewed four million times. +Even cats were watching this video. +Cats were watching other cats watch this video. +But what's important here is the creativity that it inspired amongst this techie, geeky Internet culture. +There were remixes. +Someone made an old timey version. +And then it went international. +An entire remix community sprouted up that brought it from being just a stupid joke to something that we can all actually be a part of. +Because we don't just enjoy now, we participate. +And who could have predicted any of this? +Who could have predicted "Double Rainbow" or Rebecca Black or "Nyan Cat?" +What scripts could you have written that would have contained this in it? +In a world where over two days of video get uploaded every minute, only that which is truly unique and unexpected can stand out in the way that these things have. +When a friend of mine told me that I needed to see this great video about a guy protesting bicycle fines in New York City, I admit I wasn't very interested. +Casey Niestat: So I got a ticket for not riding in the bike lane, but often there are obstructions that keep you from properly riding in the bike lane. +KA: By being totally surprising and humorous, Casey Niestat got his funny idea and point seen five million times. +And so this approach holds for anything new that we do creatively. +And so it all brings us to one big question ... +Bear Vasquez: What does this mean? +Ohhhh. +KA: What does it mean? +Tastemakers, creative participating communities, complete unexpectedness, these are characteristics of a new kind of media and a new kind of culture where anyone has access and the audience defines the popularity. +I mean, as mentioned earlier, one of the biggest stars in the world right now, Justin Bieber, got his start on YouTube. +No one has to green-light your idea. +And we all now feel some ownership in our own pop culture. +And these are not characteristics of old media, and they're barely true of the media of today, but they will define the entertainment of the future. +Thank you. +This is not a finished story. +It is a jigsaw puzzle still being put together. +Let me tell you about some of the pieces. +Imagine the first piece: a man burning his life's work. +He is a poet, a playwright, a man whose whole life had been balanced on the single hope of his country's unity and freedom. +Imagine him as the communists enter Saigon, confronting the fact that his life had been a complete waste. +Words, for so long his friends, now mocked him. +He retreated into silence. +He died broken by history. +He is my grandfather. +I never knew him in real life. +But our lives are much more than our memories. +My grandmother never let me forget his life. +My duty was not to allow it to have been in vain, and my lesson was to learn that, yes, history tried to crush us, but we endured. +The next piece of the jigsaw is of a boat in the early dawn slipping silently out to sea. +My mother, Mai, was 18 when her father died -- already in an arranged marriage, already with two small girls. +For her, life had distilled itself into one task: the escape of her family and a new life in Australia. +It was inconceivable to her that she would not succeed. +So after a four-year saga that defies fiction, a boat slipped out to sea disguised as a fishing vessel. +All the adults knew the risks. +The greatest fear was of pirates, rape and death. +Like most adults on the boat, my mother carried a small bottle of poison. +If we were captured, first my sister and I, then she and my grandmother would drink. +My first memories are from the boat -- the steady beat of the engine, the bow dipping into each wave, the vast and empty horizon. +I don't remember the pirates who came many times, but were bluffed by the bravado of the men on our boat, or the engine dying and failing to start for six hours. +But I do remember the lights on the oil rig off the Malaysian coast and the young man who collapsed and died, the journey's end too much for him, and the first apple I tasted, given to me by the men on the rig. +No apple has ever tasted the same. +After three months in a refugee camp, we landed in Melbourne. +And the next piece of the jigsaw is about four women across three generations shaping a new life together. +We settled in Footscray, a working-class suburb whose demographic is layers of immigrants. +Unlike the settled middle-class suburbs, whose existence I was oblivious of, there was no sense of entitlement in Footscray. +The smells from shop doors were from the rest of the world. +And the snippets of halting English were exchanged between people who had one thing in common, they were starting again. +My mother worked on farms, then on a car assembly line, working six days, double shifts. +Somehow she found time to study English and gain IT qualifications. +We were poor. +All the dollars were allocated and extra tuition in English and mathematics was budgeted for regardless of what missed out, which was usually new clothes; they were always secondhand. +Two pairs of stockings for school, each to hide the holes in the other. +A school uniform down to the ankles, because it had to last for six years. +And there were rare but searing chants of "slit-eye" and the occasional graffiti: "Asian, go home." +Go home to where? +Something stiffened inside me. +There was a gathering of resolve and a quiet voice saying, "I will bypass you." +My mother, my sister and I slept in the same bed. +My mother was exhausted each night, but we told one another about our day and listened to the movements of my grandmother around the house. +My mother suffered from nightmares all about the boat. +And my job was to stay awake until her nightmares came so I could wake her. +She opened a computer store then studied to be a beautician and opened another business. +And the women came with their stories about men who could not make the transition, angry and inflexible, and troubled children caught between two worlds. +Grants and sponsors were sought. +Centers were established. +I lived in parallel worlds. +In one, I was the classic Asian student, relentless in the demands that I made on myself. +In the other, I was enmeshed in lives that were precarious, tragically scarred by violence, drug abuse and isolation. +But so many over the years were helped. +And for that work, when I was a final year law student, I was chosen as the young Australian of the year. +And I was catapulted from one piece of the jigsaw to another, and their edges didn't fit. +Tan Le, anonymous Footscray resident, was now Tan Le, refugee and social activist, invited to speak in venues she had never heard of and into homes whose existence she could never have imagined. +I didn't know the protocols. +I didn't know how to use the cutlery. +I didn't know how to talk about wine. +I didn't know how to talk about anything. +I wanted to retreat to the routines and comfort of life in an unsung suburb -- a grandmother, a mother and two daughters ending each day as they had for almost 20 years, telling one another the story of their day and falling asleep, the three of us still in the same bed. +I told my mother I couldn't do it. +She reminded me that I was now the same age she had been when we boarded the boat. +No had never been an option. +"Just do it," she said, "and don't be what you're not." +So I spoke out on youth unemployment and education and the neglect of the marginalized and the disenfranchised. +And the more candidly I spoke, the more I was asked to speak. +I met people from all walks of life, so many of them doing the thing they loved, living on the frontiers of possibility. +And even though I finished my degree, I realized I could not settle into a career in law. +There had to be another piece of the jigsaw. +And I realized at the same time that it is okay to be an outsider, a recent arrival, new on the scene -- and not just okay, but something to be thankful for, perhaps a gift from the boat. +Because being an insider can so easily mean collapsing the horizons, can so easily mean accepting the presumptions of your province. +I have stepped outside my comfort zone enough now to know that, yes, the world does fall apart, but not in the way that you fear. +Possibilities that would not have been allowed were outrageously encouraged. +There was an energy there, an implacable optimism, a strange mixture of humility and daring. +So I followed my hunches. +I gathered around me a small team of people for whom the label "It can't be done" was an irresistible challenge. +For a year we were penniless. +At the end of each day, I made a huge pot of soup which we all shared. +We worked well into each night. +Most of our ideas were crazy, but a few were brilliant, and we broke through. +I made the decision to move to the U.S. +after only one trip. +My hunches again. +Three months later I had relocated, and the adventure has continued. +Before I close though, let me tell you about my grandmother. +She grew up at a time when Confucianism was the social norm and the local Mandarin was the person who mattered. +Life hadn't changed for centuries. +Her father died soon after she was born. +Her mother raised her alone. +At 17 she became the second wife of a Mandarin whose mother beat her. +With no support from her husband, she caused a sensation by taking him to court and prosecuting her own case, and a far greater sensation when she won. +"It can't be done" was shown to be wrong. +I was taking a shower in a hotel room in Sydney the moment she died 600 miles away in Melbourne. +I looked through the shower screen and saw her standing on the other side. +I knew she had come to say goodbye. +My mother phoned minutes later. +A few days later, we went to a Buddhist temple in Footscray and sat around her casket. +We told her stories and assured her that we were still with her. +At midnight the monk came and told us he had to close the casket. +My mother asked us to feel her hand. +She asked the monk, "Why is it that her hand is so warm and the rest of her is so cold?" +"Because you have been holding it since this morning," he said. +"You have not let it go." +If there is a sinew in our family, it runs through the women. +Given who we were and how life had shaped us, we can now see that the men who might have come into our lives would have thwarted us. +Defeat would have come too easily. +Now I would like to have my own children, and I wonder about the boat. +Who could ever wish it on their own? +Yet I am afraid of privilege, of ease, of entitlement. +Can I give them a bow in their lives, dipping bravely into each wave, the unperturbed and steady beat of the engine, the vast horizon that guarantees nothing? +I don't know. +But if I could give it and still see them safely through, I would. +Trevor Neilson: And also, Tan's mother is here today in the fourth or fifth row. +My story begins right here actually in Rajasthan about two years ago. +I was in the desert, under the starry skies with the Sufi singer Mukhtiar Ali. +And we were in conversation about how nothing had changed since the time of the ancient Indian epic "The Mahabharata." +So back in the day, when us Indians wanted to travel we'd jump into a chariot and we'd zoom across the sky. +Now we do the same with airplanes. +Back then, when Arjuna, the great Indian warrior prince, when he was thirsty, he'd take out a bow, he'd shoot it into the ground and water would come out. +Now we do the same with drills and machines. +The conclusion that we came to was that magic had been replaced by machinery. +And this made me really sad. +I found myself becoming a little bit of a technophobe. +I was terrified by this idea that I would lose the ability to enjoy and appreciate the sunset without having my camera on me, without tweeting it to my friends. +And it felt like technology should enable magic, not kill it. +When I was a little girl, my grandfather gave me his little silver pocket watch. +And this piece of 50-year-old technology became the most magical thing to me. +It became a gilded gateway into a world full of pirates and shipwrecks and images in my imagination. +So I felt like our cellphones and our fancy watches and our cameras had stopped us from dreaming. +They stopped us from being inspired. +And so I jumped in, I jumped into this world of technology, to see how I could use it to enable magic as opposed to kill it. +I've been illustrating books since I was 16. +And so when I saw the iPad, I saw it as a storytelling device that could connect readers all over the world. +It can know how we're holding it. +It can know where we are. +It brings together image and text and animation and sound and touch. +Storytelling is becoming more and more multi-sensorial. +But what are we doing with it? +So I'm actually just going to go in and launch Khoya, an interactive app for the iPad. +So it says, "Place your fingers upon each light." +And so -- It says, "This box belongs to ... " And so I type in my name. +And actually I become a character in the book. +At various points, a little letter drops down to me -- and the iPad knows where you live because of GPS -- which is actually addressed to me. +The child in me is really excited by these kinds of possibilities. +Now I've been talking a lot about magic. +And I don't mean wizards and dragons, I mean the kind of childhood magic, those ideas that we all harbored as children. +This idea of fireflies in a jar, for some reason, was always really exciting to me. +And so over here you need to tilt your iPad, take the fireflies out. +And they actually illuminate your way through the rest of the book. +Another idea that really fascinated me as a child was that an entire galaxy could be contained within a single marble. +And so over here, each book and each world becomes a little marble that I drag in to this magical device within the device. +And it opens up a map. +All along, all fantasy books have always had maps, but these maps have been static. +This is a map that grows and glows and becomes your navigation for the rest of the book. +It reveals itself to you at certain points in the book as well. +So I'm just going to enter in. +Another thing that's actually really important to me is creating content that is Indian and yet very contemporary. +Over here, these are the Apsaras. +So we've all heard about fairies and we've all heard about nymphs, but how many people outside of India know about their Indian counterparts, the Apsaras? +These poor Apsaras have been trapped inside Indra's chambers for thousands of years in an old and musty book. +And so we're bringing them back in a contemporary story for children. +And a story that actually deals with new issues like the environmental crisis. +Speaking of the environmental crisis, I think a big problem has been in the last 10 years is that children have been locked inside their rooms, glued to their PCs, they haven't been able to get out. +But now with mobile technology, we can actually take our children outside into the natural world with their technology. +One of the interactions in the book is that you're sent off on this quest where you need to go outside, take out your camera on the iPad and collect pictures of different natural objects. +When I was a child, I had multiple collections of sticks and stones and pebbles and shells. +And somehow kids don't do that anymore. +So in bringing back this childhood ritual, you need to go out and, in one chapter, take a picture of a flower and then tag it. +In another chapter, you need to take a picture of a piece of bark and then tag that. +And what happens is that you actually create a digital collection of photographs that you can then put up online. +A child in London puts up a picture of a fox and says, "Oh, I saw a fox today." +A child in India says, "I saw a monkey today." +And it creates this kind of social network around a collection of digital photographs that you've actually taken. +In the possibilities of linking together magic, the earth and technology, there are multiple possibilities. +In the next book, we plan on having an interaction where you take your iPad out with the video on and through augmented reality, you see this layer of animated pixies appear on a houseplant that's outside your house. +At one point, your screen is filled up with leaves. +And so you need to make the sound of wind and blow them away and read the rest of the book. +We're moving, we're all moving here, to a world where the forces of nature come closer together to technology, and magic and technology can come closer together. +We're harnessing energy from the sun. +We're bringing our children and ourselves closer to the natural world and that magic and joy and childhood love that we had through the simple medium of a story. +Thank you. +I would like to talk to you about why many e-health projects fail. +And I really think that the most important thing of it is that we stopped listening to patients. +And one of the things we did at Radboud University is we appointed a chief listening officer. +Not in a very scientific way -- she puts up a little cup of coffee or cup of tea and asks patients, family, relatives, "What's up? +How could we help you?" +And we think, we like to think, that this is one of the major problems why all -- maybe not all -- but most of the e-health projects fail, since we stopped listening. +This is my WiFi scale. It's a very simple thing. +It's got one knob, on/off. +And every morning I hop on it. +And yes, I've got a challenge, as you might see. +And I put my challenge on 95 kg. +But the thing is that it's made this simple that whenever I hop on, it sends my data through Google Health as well. +And it's collected by my general practitioner as well, so he can see what's my problem in weight, not on the very moment that I need cardiologic support or something like it, but also looking backward. +But there's another thing. +As some of you might know, I've got more than 4,000 followers on Twitter. +So every morning I hop on my WiFi scale and before I'm in my car, people start talking to me, "I think you need a light lunch today, Lucien." +But that's the nicest thing that could happen, since this is peer pressure, peer pressure used to help patients -- since this could be used for obesity, it could be used to stop smoking in patients. +But on the other hand, it also could be used to get people from out of their chairs and try to work together in some kind of gaming activity to get more control of their health. +As of next week, it will soon be available. +There will be this little blood pressure meter connected to an iPhone or something or other. +And people will be able, from their homes, to take their blood pressure, send it into their doctor and eventually share it with others, for instance, for over a hundred dollars. +And this is the point where patients get into position and can collect, not only their own control again, be captain of their own ship, but also can help us in health care due to the challenges that we face, like health care cost explosion, doubled demand and things like that. +Make techniques that are easy to use and start with this to embrace patients in the team. +And you can do this with techniques like this, but also by crowd-sourcing. +And one of the things we did I would like to share with you introduced by a little video. +We've all got navigation controls in our car. +We maybe even [have] it in our cellphone. +We know perfectly where all the ATMs are about the city of Maastricht. +The other thing is we know where all the gas stations are. +And sure, we could find fast food chains. +But where would be the nearest AED to help this patient? +We asked around and nobody knew. +Nobody knew where the nearest life-saving AED was to be obtained right now. +So what we did, we crowdsourced The Netherlands. +We set up a website and asked the crowd, "If you see an AED, please submit it, tell us where it is, tell us when it's open," since sometimes in office hours sometimes it's closed, of course. +And over 10,000 AEDs already in The Netherlands already have been submitted. +The next step we took was to find the applications for it. +And we built an iPad application. +We made an application for Layar, augmented reality, to find these AEDs. +And whenever you are in a city like Maastricht and somebody collapses, you can use your iPhone, and within the next weeks also run your Microsoft cellphone, to find the nearest AED which can save lives. +And as of today, we would like to introduce this, not only as AED4EU, which is what the product is called, but also AED4US. +And we would like to start this on a worldwide level. +And [we're] asking all of our colleagues in the rest of the world, colleague universities, to help us to find and work and act like a hub to crowd-source all these AEDs all around the world. +That whenever you're on holiday and somebody collapses, might it be your own relative or someone just in front of you, you can find this. +The other thing we would like to ask is of companies also all over the world that will be able to help us validate these AEDs. +These might be courier services or cable guys for instance, just to see whether the AED that's submitted still is in place. +So please help us on this one and try to make not only health a little bit better, but take control of it. +Thank you. +I'm here to share my photography. +Or is it photography? +Because, of course, this is a photograph that you can't take with your camera. +Yet, my interest in photography started as I got my first digital camera at the age of 15. +It mixed with my earlier passion for drawing, but it was a bit different, because using the camera, the process was in the planning instead. +And when you take a photograph with a camera, the process ends when you press the trigger. +So to me it felt like photography was more about being at the right place and the right time. +I felt like anyone could do that. +So I wanted to create something different, something where the process starts when you press the trigger. +Photos like this: construction going on along a busy road. +But it has an unexpected twist. +And despite that, it retains a level of realism. +Or photos like these -- both dark and colorful, but all with a common goal of retaining the level of realism. +When I say realism, I mean photo-realism. +Because, of course, it's not something you can capture really, but I always want it to look like it could have been captured somehow as a photograph. +Photos where you will need a brief moment to think to figure out the trick. +So it's more about capturing an idea than about capturing a moment really. +But what's the trick that makes it look realistic? +Is it something about the details or the colors? +Is it something about the light? +What creates the illusion? +Sometimes the perspective is the illusion. +But in the end, it comes down to how we interpret the world and how it can be realized on a two-dimensional surface. +It's not really what is realistic, it's what we think looks realistic really. +So I think the basics are quite simple. +I just see it as a puzzle of reality where you can take different pieces of reality and put it together to create alternate reality. +And let me show you a simple example. +Here we have three perfectly imaginable physical objects, something we all can relate to living in a three-dimensional world. +But combined in a certain way, they can create something that still looks three-dimensional, like it could exist. +But at the same time, we know it can't. +So we trick our brains, because our brain simply doesn't accept the fact that it doesn't really make sense. +And I see the same process with combining photographs. +It's just really about combining different realities. +So the things that make a photograph look realistic, I think it's the things that we don't even think about, the things all around us in our daily lives. +But when combining photographs, this is really important to consider, because otherwise it just looks wrong somehow. +So I would like to say that there are three simple rules to follow to achieve a realistic result. +As you can see, these images aren't really special. +But combined, they can create something like this. +So the first rule is that photos combined should have the same perspective. +Secondly, photos combined should have the same type of light. +And these two images both fulfill these two requirements -- shot at the same height and in the same type of light. +The third one is about making it impossible to distinguish where the different images begin and end by making it seamless. +Make it impossible to say how the image actually was composed. +So here's another example. +One might think that this is just an image of a landscape and the lower part is what's manipulated. +But this image is actually entirely composed of photographs from different locations. +I personally think that it's easier to actually create a place than to find a place, because then you don't need to compromise with the ideas in your head. +But it does require a lot of planning. +And getting this idea during winter, I knew that I had several months to plan it, to find the different locations for the pieces of the puzzle basically. +So for example, the fish was captured on a fishing trip. +The shores are from a different location. +The underwater part was captured in a stone pit. +And yeah, I even turned the house on top of the island red to make it look more Swedish. +So to achieve a realistic result, I think it comes down to planning. +It always starts with a sketch, an idea. +Then it's about combining the different photographs. +And here every piece is very well planned. +And if you do a good job capturing the photos, the result can be quite beautiful and also quite realistic. +So all the tools are out there, and the only thing that limits us is our imagination. +Thank you. +So I'm going to start out by showing just one very boring technology slide. +And then, so if you can just turn on the slide that's on. +This is just a random slide that I picked out of my file. +What I want to show you is not so much the details of the slide, but the general form of it. +This happens to be a slide of some analysis that we were doing about the power of RISC microprocessors versus the power of local area networks. +And the interesting thing about it is that this slide, like so many technology slides that we're used to, is a sort of a straight line on a semi-log curve. +In other words, every step here represents an order of magnitude in performance scale. +And this is a new thing that we talk about technology on semi-log curves. +Something really weird is going on here. +And that's basically what I'm going to be talking about. +So, if you could bring up the lights. +If you could bring up the lights higher, because I'm just going to use a piece of paper here. +Now why do we draw technology curves in semi-log curves? +Well the answer is, if I drew it on a normal curve where, let's say, this is years, this is time of some sort, and this is whatever measure of the technology that I'm trying to graph, the graphs look sort of silly. +They sort of go like this. +And they don't tell us much. +Now if I graph, for instance, some other technology, say transportation technology, on a semi-log curve, it would look very stupid, it would look like a flat line. +But when something like this happens, things are qualitatively changing. +So if transportation technology was moving along as fast as microprocessor technology, then the day after tomorrow, I would be able to get in a taxi cab and be in Tokyo in 30 seconds. +It's not moving like that. +And there's nothing precedented in the history of technology development of this kind of self-feeding growth where you go by orders of magnitude every few years. +Now the question that I'd like to ask is, if you look at these exponential curves, they don't go on forever. +Things just can't possibly keep changing as fast as they are. +One of two things is going to happen. +Either it's going to turn into a sort of classical S-curve like this, until something totally different comes along, or maybe it's going to do this. +That's about all it can do. +Now I'm an optimist, so I sort of think it's probably going to do something like that. +If so, that means that what we're in the middle of right now is a transition. +We're sort of on this line in a transition from the way the world used to be to some new way that the world is. +And so what I'm trying to ask, what I've been asking myself, is what's this new way that the world is? +What's that new state that the world is heading toward? +Because the transition seems very, very confusing when we're right in the middle of it. +Now when I was a kid growing up, the future was kind of the year 2000, and people used to talk about what would happen in the year 2000. +Now here's a conference in which people talk about the future, and you notice that the future is still at about the year 2000. +It's about as far as we go out. +So in other words, the future has kind of been shrinking one year per year for my whole lifetime. +Now I think that the reason is because we all feel that something's happening there. +That transition is happening. We can all sense it. +And we know that it just doesn't make too much sense to think out 30, 50 years because everything's going to be so different that a simple extrapolation of what we're doing just doesn't make any sense at all. +So what I would like to talk about is what that could be, what that transition could be that we're going through. +Now in order to do that I'm going to have to talk about a bunch of stuff that really has nothing to do with technology and computers. +Because I think the only way to understand this is to really step back and take a long time scale look at things. +So the time scale that I would like to look at this on is the time scale of life on Earth. +So I think this picture makes sense if you look at it a few billion years at a time. +So if you go back about two and a half billion years, the Earth was this big, sterile hunk of rock with a lot of chemicals floating around on it. +And if you look at the way that the chemicals got organized, we begin to get a pretty good idea of how they do it. +And I think that there's theories that are beginning to understand about how it started with RNA, but I'm going to tell a sort of simple story of it, which is that, at that time, there were little drops of oil floating around with all kinds of different recipes of chemicals in them. +And some of those drops of oil had a particular combination of chemicals in them which caused them to incorporate chemicals from the outside and grow the drops of oil. +And those that were like that started to split and divide. +And those were the most primitive forms of cells in a sense, those little drops of oil. +But now those drops of oil weren't really alive, as we say it now, because every one of them was a little random recipe of chemicals. +And every time it divided, they got sort of unequal division of the chemicals within them. +And so every drop was a little bit different. +In fact, the drops that were different in a way that caused them to be better at incorporating chemicals around them, grew more and incorporated more chemicals and divided more. +So those tended to live longer, get expressed more. +Now that's sort of just a very simple chemical form of life, but when things got interesting was when these drops learned a trick about abstraction. +Somehow by ways that we don't quite understand, these little drops learned to write down information. +They learned to record the information that was the recipe of the cell onto a particular kind of chemical called DNA. +So in other words, they worked out, in this mindless sort of evolutionary way, a form of writing that let them write down what they were, so that that way of writing it down could get copied. +The amazing thing is that that way of writing seems to have stayed steady since it evolved two and a half billion years ago. +In fact the recipe for us, our genes, is exactly that same code and that same way of writing. +In fact, every living creature is written in exactly the same set of letters and the same code. +In fact, one of the things that I did just for amusement purposes is we can now write things in this code. +And I've got here a little 100 micrograms of white powder, which I try not to let the security people see at airports. +But this has in it -- what I did is I took this code -- the code has standard letters that we use for symbolizing it -- and I wrote my business card onto a piece of DNA and amplified it 10 to the 22 times. +So if anyone would like a hundred million copies of my business card, I have plenty for everyone in the room, and, in fact, everyone in the world, and it's right here. +If I had really been a egotist, I would have put it into a virus and released it in the room. +So what was the next step? +Writing down the DNA was an interesting step. +And that caused these cells -- that kept them happy for another billion years. +But then there was another really interesting step where things became completely different, which is these cells started exchanging and communicating information, so that they began to get communities of cells. +I don't know if you know this, but bacteria can actually exchange DNA. +Now that's why, for instance, antibiotic resistance has evolved. +Some bacteria figured out how to stay away from penicillin, and it went around sort of creating its little DNA information with other bacteria, and now we have a lot of bacteria that are resistant to penicillin, because bacteria communicate. +Now what this communication allowed was communities to form that, in some sense, were in the same boat together; they were synergistic. +So they survived or they failed together, which means that if a community was very successful, all the individuals in that community were repeated more and they were favored by evolution. +Now the transition point happened when these communities got so close that, in fact, they got together and decided to write down the whole recipe for the community together on one string of DNA. +And so the next stage that's interesting in life took about another billion years. +And at that stage, we have multi-cellular communities, communities of lots of different types of cells, working together as a single organism. +And in fact, we're such a multi-cellular community. +We have lots of cells that are not out for themselves anymore. +Your skin cell is really useless without a heart cell, muscle cell, a brain cell and so on. +So these communities began to evolve so that the interesting level on which evolution was taking place was no longer a cell, but a community which we call an organism. +Now the next step that happened is within these communities. +These communities of cells, again, began to abstract information. +And they began building very special structures that did nothing but process information within the community. +And those are the neural structures. +So neurons are the information processing apparatus that those communities of cells built up. +And in fact, they began to get specialists in the community and special structures that were responsible for recording, understanding, learning information. +And that was the brains and the nervous system of those communities. +And that gave them an evolutionary advantage. +Because at that point, an individual -- learning could happen within the time span of a single organism, instead of over this evolutionary time span. +So an organism could, for instance, learn not to eat a certain kind of fruit because it tasted bad and it got sick last time it ate it. +That could happen within the lifetime of a single organism, whereas before they'd built these special information processing structures, that would have had to be learned evolutionarily over hundreds of thousands of years by the individuals dying off that ate that kind of fruit. +So that nervous system, the fact that they built these special information structures, tremendously sped up the whole process of evolution. +Because evolution could now happen within an individual. +It could happen in learning time scales. +But then what happened was the individuals worked out, of course, tricks of communicating. +And for example, the most sophisticated version that we're aware of is human language. +It's really a pretty amazing invention if you think about it. +Here I have a very complicated, messy, confused idea in my head. +I'm sitting here making grunting sounds basically, and hopefully constructing a similar messy, confused idea in your head that bears some analogy to it. +But we're taking something very complicated, turning it into sound, sequences of sounds, and producing something very complicated in your brain. +So this allows us now to begin to start functioning as a single organism. +And so, in fact, what we've done is we, humanity, have started abstracting out. +We're going through the same levels that multi-cellular organisms have gone through -- abstracting out our methods of recording, presenting, processing information. +So for example, the invention of language was a tiny step in that direction. +Telephony, computers, videotapes, CD-ROMs and so on are all our specialized mechanisms that we've now built within our society for handling that information. +And it all connects us together into something that is much bigger and much faster and able to evolve than what we were before. +So now, evolution can take place on a scale of microseconds. +And you saw Ty's little evolutionary example where he sort of did a little bit of evolution on the Convolution program right before your eyes. +So now we've speeded up the time scales once again. +So the first steps of the story that I told you about took a billion years a piece. +And the next steps, like nervous systems and brains, took a few hundred million years. +Then the next steps, like language and so on, took less than a million years. +And these next steps, like electronics, seem to be taking only a few decades. +The process is feeding on itself and becoming, I guess, autocatalytic is the word for it -- when something reinforces its rate of change. +The more it changes, the faster it changes. +And I think that that's what we're seeing here in this explosion of curve. +We're seeing this process feeding back on itself. +Now I design computers for a living, and I know that the mechanisms that I use to design computers would be impossible without recent advances in computers. +So right now, what I do is I design objects at such complexity that it's really impossible for me to design them in the traditional sense. +I don't know what every transistor in the connection machine does. +There are billions of them. +Instead, what I do and what the designers at Thinking Machines do is we think at some level of abstraction and then we hand it to the machine and the machine takes it beyond what we could ever do, much farther and faster than we could ever do. +And in fact, sometimes it takes it by methods that we don't quite even understand. +One method that's particularly interesting that I've been using a lot lately is evolution itself. +So what we do is we put inside the machine a process of evolution that takes place on the microsecond time scale. +So for example, in the most extreme cases, we can actually evolve a program by starting out with random sequences of instructions. +Say, "Computer, would you please make a hundred million random sequences of instructions. +Now would you please run all of those random sequences of instructions, run all of those programs, and pick out the ones that came closest to doing what I wanted." +So in other words, I define what I wanted. +Let's say I want to sort numbers, as a simple example I've done it with. +So find the programs that come closest to sorting numbers. +So of course, random sequences of instructions are very unlikely to sort numbers, so none of them will really do it. +But one of them, by luck, may put two numbers in the right order. +And I say, "Computer, would you please now take the 10 percent of those random sequences that did the best job. +Save those. Kill off the rest. +And now let's reproduce the ones that sorted numbers the best. +And let's reproduce them by a process of recombination analogous to sex." +Take two programs and they produce children by exchanging their subroutines, and the children inherit the traits of the subroutines of the two programs. +So I've got now a new generation of programs that are produced by combinations of the programs that did a little bit better job. +Say, "Please repeat that process." +Score them again. +Introduce some mutations perhaps. +And try that again and do that for another generation. +Well every one of those generations just takes a few milliseconds. +So I can do the equivalent of millions of years of evolution on that within the computer in a few minutes, or in the complicated cases, in a few hours. +At the end of that, I end up with programs that are absolutely perfect at sorting numbers. +In fact, they are programs that are much more efficient than programs I could have ever written by hand. +Now if I look at those programs, I can't tell you how they work. +I've tried looking at them and telling you how they work. +They're obscure, weird programs. +But they do the job. +And in fact, I know, I'm very confident that they do the job because they come from a line of hundreds of thousands of programs that did the job. +In fact, their life depended on doing the job. +I was riding in a 747 with Marvin Minsky once, and he pulls out this card and says, "Oh look. Look at this. +It says, 'This plane has hundreds of thousands of tiny parts working together to make you a safe flight.' Doesn't that make you feel confident?" +In fact, we know that the engineering process doesn't work very well when it gets complicated. +So we're beginning to depend on computers to do a process that's very different than engineering. +And it lets us produce things of much more complexity than normal engineering lets us produce. +And yet, we don't quite understand the options of it. +So in a sense, it's getting ahead of us. +We're now using those programs to make much faster computers so that we'll be able to run this process much faster. +So it's feeding back on itself. +The thing is becoming faster and that's why I think it seems so confusing. +Because all of these technologies are feeding back on themselves. +We're taking off. +And what we are is we're at a point in time which is analogous to when single-celled organisms were turning into multi-celled organisms. +So we're the amoebas and we can't quite figure out what the hell this thing is we're creating. +We're right at that point of transition. +But I think that there really is something coming along after us. +I think it's very haughty of us to think that we're the end product of evolution. +And I think all of us here are a part of producing whatever that next thing is. +So lunch is coming along, and I think I will stop at that point, before I get selected out. +I think we have to do something about a piece of the culture of medicine that has to change. +And I think it starts with one physician, and that's me. +And maybe I've been around long enough that I can afford to give away some of my false prestige to be able to do that. +Before I actually begin the meat of my talk, let's begin with a bit of baseball. +Hey, why not? +We're near the end, we're getting close to the World Series. +We all love baseball, don't we? +Baseball is filled with some amazing statistics. +And there's hundreds of them. +"Moneyball" is about to come out, and it's all about statistics and using statistics to build a great baseball team. +I'm going to focus on one stat that I hope a lot of you have heard of. +It's called batting average. +So we talk about a 300, a batter who bats 300. +That means that ballplayer batted safely, hit safely three times out of 10 at bats. +That means hit the ball into the outfield, it dropped, it didn't get caught, and whoever tried to throw it to first base didn't get there in time and the runner was safe. +Three times out of 10. +Do you know what they call a 300 hitter in Major League Baseball? +Good, really good, maybe an all-star. +Do you know what they call a 400 baseball hitter? +That's somebody who hit, by the way, four times safely out of every 10. +Legendary -- as in Ted Williams legendary -- the last Major League Baseball player to hit over 400 during a regular season. +Now let's take this back into my world of medicine where I'm a lot more comfortable, or perhaps a bit less comfortable after what I'm going to talk to you about. +Suppose you have appendicitis and you're referred to a surgeon who's batting 400 on appendectomies. +Somehow this isn't working out, is it? +Now suppose you live in a certain part of a certain remote place and you have a loved one who has blockages in two coronary arteries and your family doctor refers that loved one to a cardiologist who's batting 200 on angioplasties. +But, but, you know what? +She's doing a lot better this year. She's on the comeback trail. +And she's hitting a 257. +Somehow this isn't working. +But I'm going to ask you a question. +What do you think a batting average for a cardiac surgeon or a nurse practitioner or an orthopedic surgeon, an OBGYN, a paramedic is supposed to be? +1,000, very good. +Now truth of the matter is, nobody knows in all of medicine what a good surgeon or physician or paramedic is supposed to bat. +What we do though is we send each one of them, including myself, out into the world with the admonition, be perfect. +Never ever, ever make a mistake, but you worry about the details, about how that's going to happen. +And that was the message that I absorbed when I was in med school. +I was an obsessive compulsive student. +In high school, a classmate once said that Brian Goldman would study for a blood test. +And so I did. +And I studied in my little garret at the nurses' residence at Toronto General Hospital, not far from here. +And I memorized everything. +I memorized in my anatomy class the origins and exertions of every muscle, every branch of every artery that came off the aorta, differential diagnoses obscure and common. +I even knew the differential diagnosis in how to classify renal tubular acidosis. +And all the while, I was amassing more and more knowledge. +And I did well, I graduated with honors, cum laude. +And I came out of medical school with the impression that if I memorized everything and knew everything, or as much as possible, as close to everything as possible, that it would immunize me against making mistakes. +And it worked for a while, until I met Mrs. Drucker. +I was a resident at a teaching hospital here in Toronto when Mrs. Drucker was brought to the emergency department of the hospital where I was working. +At the time I was assigned to the cardiology service on a cardiology rotation. +And it was my job, when the emergency staff called for a cardiology consult, to see that patient in emerg. +and to report back to my attending. +And I saw Mrs. Drucker, and she was breathless. +And when I listened to her, she was making a wheezy sound. +And when I listened to her chest with a stethoscope, I could hear crackly sounds on both sides that told me that she was in congestive heart failure. +This is a condition in which the heart fails, and instead of being able to pump all the blood forward, some of the blood backs up into the lung, the lungs fill up with blood, and that's why you have shortness of breath. +And that wasn't a difficult diagnosis to make. +I made it and I set to work treating her. +I gave her aspirin. I gave her medications to relieve the strain on her heart. +I gave her medications that we call diuretics, water pills, to get her to pee out the access fluid. +And over the course of the next hour and a half or two, she started to feel better. +And I felt really good. +And that's when I made my first mistake; I sent her home. +Actually, I made two more mistakes. +I sent her home without speaking to my attending. +I didn't pick up the phone and do what I was supposed to do, which was call my attending and run the story by him so he would have a chance to see her for himself. +And he knew her, he would have been able to furnish additional information about her. +Maybe I did it for a good reason. +Maybe I didn't want to be a high-maintenance resident. +Maybe I wanted to be so successful and so able to take responsibility that I would do so and I would be able to take care of my attending's patients without even having to contact him. +The second mistake that I made was worse. +In sending her home, I disregarded a little voice deep down inside that was trying to tell me, "Goldman, not a good idea. Don't do this." +In fact, so lacking in confidence was I that I actually asked the nurse who was looking after Mrs. Drucker, "Do you think it's okay if she goes home?" +And the nurse thought about it and said very matter-of-factly, "Yeah, I think she'll do okay." +I can remember that like it was yesterday. +So I signed the discharge papers, and an ambulance came, paramedics came to take her home. +And I went back to my work on the wards. +All the rest of that day, that afternoon, I had this kind of gnawing feeling inside my stomach. +But I carried on with my work. +And at the end of the day, I packed up to leave the hospital and walked to the parking lot to take my car and drive home when I did something that I don't usually do. +I walked through the emergency department on my way home. +And it was there that another nurse, not the nurse who was looking after Mrs. Drucker before, but another nurse, said three words to me that are the three words that most emergency physicians I know dread. +Others in medicine dread them as well, but there's something particular about emergency medicine because we see patients so fleetingly. +The three words are: Do you remember? +"Do you remember that patient you sent home?" +the other nurse asked matter-of-factly. +"Well she's back," in just that tone of voice. +Well she was back all right. +She was back and near death. +About an hour after she had arrived home, after I'd sent her home, she collapsed and her family called 911 and the paramedics brought her back to the emergency department where she had a blood pressure of 50, which is in severe shock. +And she was barely breathing and she was blue. +And the emerg. staff pulled out all the stops. +They gave her medications to raise her blood pressure. +They put her on a ventilator. +And I was shocked and shaken to the core. +And I went through this roller coaster, because after they stabilized her, she went to the intensive care unit, and I hoped against hope that she would recover. +And over the next two or three days, it was clear that she was never going to wake up. +She had irreversible brain damage. +And the family gathered. +And over the course of the next eight or nine days, they resigned themselves to what was happening. +And at about the nine day mark, they let her go -- Mrs. Drucker, a wife, a mother and a grandmother. +They say you never forget the names of those who die. +And that was my first time to be acquainted with that. +Over the next few weeks, I beat myself up and I experienced for the first time the unhealthy shame that exists in our culture of medicine -- where I felt alone, isolated, not feeling the healthy kind of shame that you feel, because you can't talk about it with your colleagues. +And you make amends and you never make that mistake again. +That's the kind of shame that is a teacher. +The unhealthy shame I'm talking about is the one that makes you so sick inside. +It's the one that says, not that what you did was bad, but that you are bad. +And it was what I was feeling. +And it wasn't because of my attending; he was a doll. +He talked to the family, and I'm quite sure that he smoothed things over and made sure that I didn't get sued. +And I kept asking myself these questions. +Why didn't I ask my attending? Why did I send her home? +And then at my worst moments: Why did I make such a stupid mistake? +Why did I go into medicine? +Slowly but surely, it lifted. +I began to feel a bit better. +And on a cloudy day, there was a crack in the clouds and the sun started to come out and I wondered, maybe I could feel better again. +And I made myself a bargain that if only I redouble my efforts to be perfect and never make another mistake again, please make the voices stop. +And they did. +And I went back to work. +And then it happened again. +Two years later I was an attending in the emergency department at a community hospital just north of Toronto, and I saw a 25 year-old man with a sore throat. +It was busy, I was in a bit of a hurry. +He kept pointing here. +I looked at his throat, it was a little bit pink. +And I gave him a prescription for penicillin and sent him on his way. +And even as he was walking out the door, he was still sort of pointing to his throat. +And two days later I came to do my next emergency shift, and that's when my chief asked to speak to me quietly in her office. +And she said the three words: Do you remember? +"Do you remember that patient you saw with the sore throat?" +Well it turns out, he didn't have a strep throat. +He had a potentially life-threatening condition called epiglottitis. +You can Google it, but it's an infection, not of the throat, but of the upper airway, and it can actually cause the airway to close. +And fortunately he didn't die. +He was placed on intravenous antibiotics and he recovered after a few days. +And I went through the same period of shame and recriminations and felt cleansed and went back to work, until it happened again and again and again. +Twice in one emergency shift, I missed appendicitis. +Now that takes some doing, especially when you work in a hospital that at the time saw but 14 people a night. +Now in both cases, I didn't send them home and I don't think there was any gap in their care. +One I thought had a kidney stone. +I ordered a kidney X-ray. When it turned out to be normal, my colleague who was doing a reassessment of the patient noticed some tenderness in the right lower quadrant and called the surgeons. +The other one had a lot of diarrhea. +I ordered some fluids to rehydrate him and asked my colleague to reassess him. +And he did and when he noticed some tenderness in the right lower quadrant, called the surgeons. +In both cases, they had their operations and they did okay. +But each time, they were gnawing at me, eating at me. +And I'd like to be able to say to you that my worst mistakes only happened in the first five years of practice as many of my colleagues say, which is total B.S. +Some of my doozies have been in the last five years. +Alone, ashamed and unsupported. +Here's the problem: If I can't come clean and talk about my mistakes, if I can't find the still-small voice that tells me what really happened, how can I share it with my colleagues? +How can I teach them about what I did so that they don't do the same thing? +If I were to walk into a room -- like right now, I have no idea what you think of me. +When was the last time you heard somebody talk about failure after failure after failure? +Oh yeah, you go to a cocktail party and you might hear about some other doctor, but you're not going to hear somebody talking about their own mistakes. +And in fact, if I knew and my colleagues knew that one of my orthopedic colleagues took off the wrong leg in my hospital, believe me, I'd have trouble making eye contact with that person. +That's the system that we have. +It's a complete denial of mistakes. +It's a system in which there are two kinds of physicians -- those who make mistakes and those who don't, those who can't handle sleep deprivation and those who can, those who have lousy outcomes and those who have great outcomes. +And it's almost like an ideological reaction, like the antibodies begin to attack that person. +And we have this idea that if we drive the people who make mistakes out of medicine, what will we be left with, but a safe system. +But there are two problems with that. +In my 20 years or so of medical broadcasting and journalism, I've made a personal study of medical malpractice and medical errors to learn everything I can, from one of the first articles I wrote for the Toronto Star to my show "White Coat, Black Art." +And what I've learned is that errors are absolutely ubiquitous. +We work in a system where errors happen every day, where one in 10 medications are either the wrong medication given in hospital or at the wrong dosage, where hospital-acquired infections are getting more and more numerous, causing havoc and death. +In this country, as many as 24,000 Canadians die of preventable medical errors. +In the United States, the Institute of Medicine pegged it at 100,000. +In both cases, these are gross underestimates, because we really aren't ferreting out the problem as we should. +And here's the thing. +In a hospital system where medical knowledge is doubling every two or three years, we can't keep up with it. +Sleep deprivation is absolutely pervasive. +We can't get rid of it. +We have our cognitive biases, so that I can take a perfect history on a patient with chest pain. +Now take the same patient with chest pain, make them moist and garrulous and put a little bit of alcohol on their breath, and suddenly my history is laced with contempt. +I don't take the same history. +I'm not a robot; I don't do things the same way each time. +And my patients aren't cars; they don't tell me their symptoms in the same way each time. +Given all of that, mistakes are inevitable. +So if you take the system, as I was taught, and weed out all the error-prone health professionals, well there won't be anybody left. +And you know that business about people not wanting to talk about their worst cases? +On my show, on "White Coat, Black Art," I made it a habit of saying, "Here's my worst mistake," I would say to everybody from paramedics to the chief of cardiac surgery, "Here's my worst mistake," blah, blah, blah, blah, blah, "What about yours?" and I would point the microphone towards them. +And their pupils would dilate, they would recoil, then they would look down and swallow hard and start to tell me their stories. +They want to tell their stories. They want to share their stories. +They want to be able to say, "Look, don't make the same mistake I did." +What they need is an environment to be able to do that. +What they need is a redefined medical culture. +And it starts with one physician at a time. +The redefined physician is human, knows she's human, accepts it, isn't proud of making mistakes, but strives to learn one thing from what happened that she can teach to somebody else. +She shares her experience with others. +She's supportive when other people talk about their mistakes. +And she points out other people's mistakes, not in a gotcha way, but in a loving, supportive way so that everybody can benefit. +And she works in a culture of medicine that acknowledges that human beings run the system, and when human beings run the system, they will make mistakes from time to time. +My name is Brian Goldman. +I am a redefined physician. +I'm human. I make mistakes. +I'm sorry about that, but I strive to learn one thing that I can pass on to other people. +I still don't know what you think of me, but I can live with that. +And let me close with three words of my own: I do remember. +Do you know how many choices you make in a typical day? +Do you know how many choices you make in typical week? +I recently did a survey with over 2,000 Americans, and the average number of choices that the typical American reports making is about 70 in a typical day. +There was also recently a study done with CEOs in which they followed CEOs around for a whole week. +And these scientists simply documented all the various tasks that these CEOs engaged in and how much time they spent engaging in making decisions related to these tasks. +And they found that the average CEO engaged in about 139 tasks in a week. +Each task was made up of many, many, many sub-choices of course. +50 percent of their decisions were made in nine minutes or less. +Only about 12 percent of the decisions did they make an hour or more of their time. +Think about your own choices. +Do you know how many choices make it into your nine minute category versus your one hour category? +How well do you think you're doing at managing those choices? +Today I want to talk about one of the biggest modern day choosing problems that we have, which is the choice overload problem. +I want to talk about the problem and some potential solutions. +Now as I talk about this problem, I'm going to have some questions for you and I'm going to want to know your answers. +So when I ask you a question, since I'm blind, only raise your hand if you want to burn off some calories. +Otherwise, when I ask you a question, and if your answer is yes, I'd like you to clap your hands. +So for my first question for you today: Are you guys ready to hear about the choice overload problem? +Thank you. +So when I was a graduate student at Stanford University, I used to go to this very, very upscale grocery store; at least at that time it was truly upscale. +It was a store called Draeger's. +Now this store, it was almost like going to an amusement park. +They had 250 different kinds of mustards and vinegars and over 500 different kinds of fruits and vegetables and more than two dozen different kinds of bottled water -- and this was during a time when we actually used to drink tap water. +I used to love going to this store, but on one occasion I asked myself, well how come you never buy anything? +Here's their olive oil aisle. +They had over 75 different kinds of olive oil, including those that were in a locked case that came from thousand-year-old olive trees. +So I one day decided to pay a visit to the manager, and I asked the manager, "Is this model of offering people all this choice really working?" +And he pointed to the busloads of tourists that would show up everyday, with cameras ready usually. +We decided to do a little experiment, and we picked jam for our experiment. +Here's their jam aisle. +They had 348 different kinds of jam. +We set up a little tasting booth right near the entrance of the store. +We there put out six different flavors of jam or 24 different flavors of jam, and we looked at two things: First, in which case were people more likely to stop, sample some jam? +More people stopped when there were 24, about 60 percent, than when there were six, about 40 percent. +The next thing we looked at is in which case were people more likely to buy a jar of jam. +Now we see the opposite effect. +Of the people who stopped when there were 24, only three percent of them actually bought a jar of jam. +Of the people who stopped when there were six, well now we saw that 30 percent of them actually bought a jar of jam. +Now if you do the math, people were at least six times more likely to buy a jar of jam if they encountered six than if they encountered 24. +Now choosing not to buy a jar of jam is probably good for us -- at least it's good for our waistlines -- but it turns out that this choice overload problem affects us even in very consequential decisions. +We choose not to choose, even when it goes against our best self-interests. +So now for the topic of today: financial savings. +Now I'm going to describe to you a study I did with Gur Huberman, Emir Kamenica, Wei Jang where we looked at the retirement savings decisions of nearly a million Americans from about 650 plans all in the U.S. +And what we looked at was whether the number of fund offerings available in a retirement savings plan, the 401 plan, does that affect people's likelihood to save more for tomorrow. +And what we found was that indeed there was a correlation. +So in these plans, we had about 657 plans that ranged from offering people anywhere from two to 59 different fund offerings. +And what we found was that, the more funds offered, indeed, there was less participation rate. +So if you look at the extremes, those plans that offered you two funds, participation rates were around in the mid-70s -- still not as high as we want it to be. +In those plans that offered nearly 60 funds, participation rates have now dropped to about the 60th percentile. +Now it turns out that even if you do choose to participate when there are more choices present, even then, it has negative consequences. +So for those people who did choose to participate, the more choices available, the more likely people were to completely avoid stocks or equity funds. +The more choices available, the more likely they were to put all their money in pure money market accounts. +Now neither of these extreme decisions are the kinds of decisions that any of us would recommend for people when you're considering their future financial well-being. +Well, over the past decade, we have observed three main negative consequences to offering people more and more choices. +They're more likely to delay choosing -- procrastinate even when it goes against their best self-interest. +They're more likely to make worse choices -- worse financial choices, medical choices. +They're more likely to choose things that make them less satisfied, even when they do objectively better. +The main reason for this is because, we might enjoy gazing at those giant walls of mayonnaises, mustards, vinegars, jams, but we can't actually do the math of comparing and contrasting and actually picking from that stunning display. +So what I want to propose to you today are four simple techniques -- techniques that we have tested in one way or another in different research venues -- that you can easily apply in your businesses. +The first: Cut. +You've heard it said before, but it's never been more true than today, that less is more. +People are always upset when I say, "Cut." +They're always worried they're going to lose shelf space. +But in fact, what we're seeing more and more is that if you are willing to cut, get rid of those extraneous redundant options, well there's an increase in sales, there's a lowering of costs, there is an improvement of the choosing experience. +When Proctor & Gamble went from 26 different kinds of Head & Shoulders to 15, they saw an increase in sales by 10 percent. +When the Golden Cat Corporation got rid of their 10 worst-selling cat litter products, they saw an increase in profits by 87 percent -- a function of both increase in sales and lowering of costs. +You know, the average grocery store today offers you 45,000 products. +The typical Walmart today offers you 100,000 products. +But the ninth largest retailer, the ninth biggest retailer in the world today is Aldi, and it offers you only 1,400 products -- one kind of canned tomato sauce. +Now in the financial savings world, I think one of the best examples that has recently come out on how to best manage the choice offerings has actually been something that David Laibson was heavily involved in designing, which was the program that they have at Harvard. +Every single Harvard employee is now automatically enrolled in a lifecycle fund. +For those people who actually want to choose, they're given 20 funds, not 300 or more funds. +You know, often, people say, "I don't know how to cut. +They're all important choices." +And the first thing I do is I ask the employees, "Tell me how these choices are different from one another. +And if your employees can't tell them apart, neither can your consumers." +Now before we started our session this afternoon, I had a chat with Gary. +And Gary said that he would be willing to offer people in this audience an all-expenses-paid free vacation to the most beautiful road in the world. +Here's a description of the road. +And I'd like you to read it. +And now I'll give you a few seconds to read it and then I want you to clap your hands if you're ready to take Gary up on his offer. +(Light clapping) Okay. Anybody who's ready to take him up on his offer. +Is that all? +All right, let me show you some more about this. +You guys knew there was a trick, didn't you. +Now who's ready to go on this trip. +I think I might have actually heard more hands. +All right. +Now in fact, you had objectively more information the first time around than the second time around, but I would venture to guess that you felt that it was more real the second time around. +Because the pictures made it feel more real to you. +Which brings me to the second technique for handling the choice overload problem, which is concretization. +That in order for people to understand the differences between the choices, they have to be able to understand the consequences associated with each choice, and that the consequences need to be felt in a vivid sort of way, in a very concrete way. +Why do people spend an average of 15 to 30 percent more when they use an ATM card or a credit card as opposed to cash? +Because it doesn't feel like real money. +And it turns out that making it feel more concrete can actually be a very positive tool to use in getting people to save more. +So a study that I did with Shlomo Benartzi and Alessandro Previtero, we did a study with people at ING -- employees that are all working at ING -- and now these people were all in a session where they're doing enrollment for their 401 plan. +And during that session, we kept the session exactly the way it used to be, but we added one little thing. +The one little thing we added was we asked people to just think about all the positive things that would happen in your life if you saved more. +By doing that simple thing, there was an increase in enrollment by 20 percent and there was an increase in the amount of people willing to save or the amount that they were willing to put down into their savings account by four percent. +The third technique: Categorization. +We can handle more categories than we can handle choices. +So for example, here's a study we did in a magazine aisle. +It turns out that in Wegmans grocery stores up and down the northeast corridor, the magazine aisles range anywhere from 331 different kinds of magazines all the way up to 664. +But you know what? +Because the categories tell me how to tell them apart. +Here are two different jewelry displays. +One is called "Jazz" and the other one is called "Swing." +If you think the display on the left is Swing and the display on the right is Jazz, clap your hands. +(Light Clapping) Okay, there's some. +If you think the one on the left is Jazz and the one on the right is Swing, clap your hands. +Okay, a bit more. +Now it turns out you're right. +The one on the left is Jazz and the one on the right is Swing, but you know what? +This is a highly useless categorization scheme. +The categories need to say something to the chooser, not the choice-maker. +And you often see that problem when it comes down to those long lists of all these funds. +Who are they actually supposed to be informing? +My fourth technique: Condition for complexity. +It turns out we can actually handle a lot more information than we think we can, we've just got to take it a little easier. +We have to gradually increase the complexity. +I'm going to show you one example of what I'm talking about. +Let's take a very, very complicated decision: buying a car. +Here's a German car manufacturer that gives you the opportunity to completely custom make your car. +You've got to make 60 different decisions, completely make up your car. +Now these decisions vary in the number of choices that they offer per decision. +Car colors, exterior car colors -- I've got 56 choices. +Engines, gearshift -- four choices. +So now what I'm going to do is I'm going to vary the order in which these decisions appear. +So half of the customers are going to go from high choice, 56 car colors, to low choice, four gearshifts. +The other half of the customers are going to go from low choice, four gearshifts, to 56 car colors, high choice. +What am I going to look at? +How engaged you are. +If you keep hitting the default button per decision, that means you're getting overwhelmed, that means I'm losing you. +What you find is the people who go from high choice to low choice, they're hitting that default button over and over and over again. +We're losing them. +They go from low choice to high choice, they're hanging in there. +It's the same information. It's the same number of choices. +The only thing that I have done is I have varied the order in which that information is presented. +If I start you off easy, I learn how to choose. +Even though choosing gearshift doesn't tell me anything about my preferences for interior decor, it still prepares me for how to choose. +It also gets me excited about this big product that I'm putting together, so I'm more willing to be motivated to be engaged. +So let me recap. +I have talked about four techniques for mitigating the problem of choice overload -- cut -- get rid of the extraneous alternatives; concretize -- make it real; categorize -- we can handle more categories, less choices; condition for complexity. +All of these techniques that I'm describing to you today are designed to help you manage your choices -- better for you, you can use them on yourself, better for the people that you are serving. +Because I believe that the key to getting the most from choice is to be choosy about choosing. +And the more we're able to be choosy about choosing the better we will be able to practice the art of choosing. +Thank you very much. +In the 1980s in the communist Eastern Germany, if you owned a typewriter, you had to register it with the government. +You had to register a sample sheet of text out of the typewriter. +And this was done so the government could track where text was coming from. +If they found a paper which had the wrong kind of thought, they could track down who created that thought. +And we in the West couldn't understand how anybody could do this, how much this would restrict freedom of speech. +We would never do that in our own countries. +But today in 2011, if you go and buy a color laser printer from any major laser printer manufacturer and print a page, that page will end up having slight yellow dots printed on every single page in a pattern which makes the page unique to you and to your printer. +This is happening to us today. +And nobody seems to be making a fuss about it. +And this is an example of the ways that our own governments are using technology against us, the citizens. +And this is one of the main three sources of online problems today. +If we take a look at what's really happening in the online world, we can group the attacks based on the attackers. +We have three main groups. +We have online criminals. +Like here, we have Mr. Dimitry Golubov from the city of Kiev in Ukraine. +And the motives of online criminals are very easy to understand. +These guys make money. +They use online attacks to make lots of money, and lots and lots of it. +We actually have several cases of millionaires online, multimillionaires, who made money with their attacks. +Here's Vladimir Tsastsin form Tartu in Estonia. +This is Alfred Gonzalez. +This is Stephen Watt. +This is Bjorn Sundin. +This is Matthew Anderson, Tariq Al-Daour and so on and so on. +These guys make their fortunes online, but they make it through the illegal means of using things like banking trojans to steal money from our bank accounts while we do online banking, or with keyloggers to collect our credit card information while we are doing online shopping from an infected computer. +The U.S. Secret Service, two months ago, froze the Swiss bank account of Mr. Sam Jain right here, and that bank account had 14.9 million U.S. dollars on it when it was frozen. +Mr. Jain himself is on the loose; nobody knows where he is. +And I claim it's already today that it's more likely for any of us to become the victim of a crime online than here in the real world. +And it's very obvious that this is only going to get worse. +In the future, the majority of crime will be happening online. +The second major group of attackers that we are watching today are not motivated by money. +They're motivated by something else -- motivated by protests, motivated by an opinion, motivated by the laughs. +Groups like Anonymous have risen up over the last 12 months and have become a major player in the field of online attacks. +So those are the three main attackers: criminals who do it for the money, hacktivists like Anonymous doing it for the protest, but then the last group are nation states, governments doing the attacks. +And then we look at cases like what happened in DigiNotar. +This is a prime example of what happens when governments attack against their own citizens. +DigiNotar is a Certificate Authority from The Netherlands -- or actually, it was. +It was running into bankruptcy last fall because they were hacked into. +Somebody broke in and they hacked it thoroughly. +And I asked last week in a meeting with Dutch government representatives, I asked one of the leaders of the team whether he found plausible that people died because of the DigiNotar hack. +And his answer was yes. +So how do people die as the result of a hack like this? +Well DigiNotar is a C.A. +They sell certificates. +What do you do with certificates? +Well you need a certificate if you have a website that has https, SSL encrypted services, services like Gmail. +Except they can if they hack into a foreign C.A. +and issue rogue certificates. +And this is exactly what happened with the case of DigiNotar. +What about Arab Spring and things that have been happening, for example, in Egypt? +Well in Egypt, the rioters looted the headquarters of the Egyptian secret police in April 2011, and when they were looting the building they found lots of papers. +Among those papers, was this binder entitled "FINFISHER." +And within that binder were notes from a company based in Germany which had sold the Egyptian government a set of tools for intercepting -- and in very large scale -- all the communication of the citizens of the country. +They had sold this tool for 280,000 Euros to the Egyptian government. +The company headquarters are right here. +So Western governments are providing totalitarian governments with tools to do this against their own citizens. +But Western governments are doing it to themselves as well. +For example, in Germany, just a couple of weeks ago the so-called State Trojan was found, which was a trojan used by German government officials to investigate their own citizens. +If you are a suspect in a criminal case, well it's pretty obvious, your phone will be tapped. +But today, it goes beyond that. +They will tap your Internet connection. +They will even use tools like State Trojan to infect your computer with a trojan, which enables them to watch all your communication, to listen to your online discussions, to collect your passwords. +Now when we think deeper about things like these, the obvious response from people should be that, "Okay, that sounds bad, but that doesn't really affect me because I'm a legal citizen. +Why should I worry? +Because I have nothing to hide." +And this is an argument, which doesn't make sense. +Privacy is implied. +Privacy is not up for discussion. +This is not a question between privacy against security. +It's a question of freedom against control. +And while we might trust our governments right now, right here in 2011, any right we give away will be given away for good. +And do we trust, do we blindly trust, any future government, a government we might have 50 years from now? +And these are the questions that we have to worry about for the next 50 years. +This is where I live. I live in Kenya, at the south parts of the Nairobi National Park. +Those are my dad's cows at the back, and behind the cows, that's the Nairobi National Park. +Nairobi National Park is not fenced in the south widely, which means wild animals like zebras migrate out of the park freely. +So predators like lions follow them, and this is what they do. +They kill our livestock. +This is one of the cows which was killed at night, and I just woke up in the morning and I found it dead, and I felt so bad, because it was the only bull we had. +My community, the Maasai, we believe that we came from heaven with all our animals and all the land for herding them, and that's why we value them so much. +So I grew up hating lions so much. +The morans are the warriors who protect our community and the livestock, and they're also upset about this problem. +So they kill the lions. +It's one of the six lions which were killed in Nairobi. +And I think this is why the Nairobi National Park lions are few. +So a boy, from six to nine years old, in my community is responsible for his dad's cows, and that's the same thing which happened to me. +So I had to find a way of solving this problem. +And the first idea I got was to use fire, because I thought lions were scared of fire. +But I came to realize that that didn't really help, because it was even helping the lions to see through the cowshed. +So I didn't give up. I continued. +And a second idea I got was to use a scarecrow. +I was trying to trick the lions [into thinking] that I was standing near the cowshed. +But lions are very clever. They will come the first day and they see the scarecrow, and they go back, but the second day, they'll come and they say, this thing is not moving here, it's always here. So he jumps in and kills the animals. +So one night, I was walking around the cowshed with a torch, and that day, the lions didn't come. +And I discovered that lions are afraid of a moving light. +So I had an idea. +And I got a switch where I can switch on the lights, on and off. +And that's a small torch from a broken flashlight. +So I set up everything. +As you can see, the solar panel charges the battery, and the battery supplies the power to the small indicator box. I call it a transformer. +And the indicator box makes the lights flash. +As you can see, the bulbs face outside, because that's where the lions come from. +And that's how it looks to lions when they come at night. +The lights flash and trick the lions into thinking I was walking around the cowshed, but I was sleeping in my bed. +Thanks. +So I set it up in my home two years ago, and since then, we have never experienced any problem with lions. +And my neighboring homes heard about this idea. +One of them was this grandmother. +She had a lot of her animals being killed by lions, and she asked me if I could put the lights for her. +And I said, "Yes." +So I put the lights. You can see at the back, those are the lion lights. +Since now, I've set up seven homes around my community, and they're really working. +And my idea is also being used now all over Kenya for scaring other predators like hyenas, leopards, and it's also being used to scare elephants away from people's farms. +Because of this invention, I was lucky to get a scholarship in one of the best schools in Kenya, Brookhouse International School, and I'm really excited about this. +My new school now is coming in and helping by fundraising and creating an awareness. +I even took my friends back to my community, and we're installing the lights to the homes which don't have [any], and I'm teaching them how to put them. +So one year ago, I was just a boy in the savanna grassland herding my father's cows, and I used to see planes flying over, and I told myself that one day, I'll be there inside. +And here I am today. +I got a chance to come by plane for my first time for TED. +So my big dream is to become an aircraft engineer and pilot when I grow up. +I used to hate lions, but now because my invention is saving my father's cows and the lions, we are able to stay with the lions without any conflict. +Ash oln. It means in my language, thank you very much. +Chris Anderson: You have no idea how exciting it is to hear a story like yours. +So you got this scholarship.Richard Turere: Yep. +CA: You're working on other electrical inventions. +What's the next one on your list? +RT: My next invention is, I want to make an electric fence.CA: Electric fence? +RT: But I know electric fences are already invented, but I want to make mine. +CA: You already tried it once, right, and you --RT: I tried it before, but I stopped because it gave me a shock. CA: In the trenches. Richard Turere, you are something else. +We're going to cheer you on every step of the way, my friend. +Thank you so much.RT: Thank you. +When I was little, I thought my country was the best on the planet. +And I grew up singing a song called "Nothing To Envy." +And I was very proud. +In school, we spent a lot of time studying the history of Kim Il-Sung, but we never learned much about the outside world, except that America, South Korea, Japan are the enemies. +Although I often wondered about the outside world, I thought I would spend my entire life in North Korea, until everything suddenly changed. +When I was seven years old, I saw my first public execution. +But I thought my life in North Korea was normal. +My family was not poor, and myself, I had never experienced hunger. +But one day, in 1995, my mom brought home a letter from a coworker's sister. +It read, "When you read this, our five family members will not exist in this world, because we haven't eaten for the past three weeks. +We are lying on the floor together, and our bodies are so weak, we are waiting to die." +I was so shocked. +This was the first time I heard that people in my country were suffering. +Soon after, when I was walking past a train station, I saw something terrible that to this day I can't erase from my memory. +A lifeless woman was lying on the ground, while an emaciated child in her arms just stared helplessly at his mother's face. +But nobody helped them, because they were so focused on taking care of themselves and their families. +A huge famine hit North Korea in the mid-1990s. +Ultimately, more than a million North Koreans died during the famine, and many only survived by eating grass, bugs and tree bark. +Power outages also became more and more frequent, so everything around me was completely dark at night, except for the sea of lights in China, just across the river from my home. +I always wondered why they had lights, but we didn't. +This is a satellite picture showing North Korea at night, compared to neighbors. +This is the Amnok River, which serves as a part of the border between North Korea and China. +As you can see, the river can be very narrow at certain points, allowing North Koreans to secretly cross. +But many die. +Sometimes, I saw dead bodies floating down the river. +I can't reveal many details about how I left North Korea, but I only can say that during the ugly years of the famine, I was sent to China to live with distant relatives. +But I only thought that I would be separated from my family for a short time. +I could have never imagined that it would take 14 years to live together. +In China, it was hard living as a young girl without my family. +I had no idea what life was going to be like as a North Korean refugee. +But I soon learned it's not only extremely difficult, it's also very dangerous, since North Korean refugees are considered in China as illegal migrants. +So I was living in constant fear that my identity could be revealed, and I would be repatriated to a horrible fate, back in North Korea. +One day, my worst nightmare came true, when I was caught by the Chinese police, and brought to the police station for interrogation. +Someone had accused me of being North Korean, so they tested my Chinese language abilities, and asked me tons of questions. +I was so scared. +I thought my heart was going to explode. +If anything seemed unnatural, I could be imprisoned and repatriated. +I thought my life was over. +But I managed to control all the emotions inside me, and answer the questions. +After they finished questioning me, one official said to another, "This was a false report. She's not North Korean." +And they let me go. It was a miracle. +Some North Koreans in China seek asylum in foreign embassies. +But many can be caught by the Chinese police, and repatriated. +These girls were so lucky. +Even though they were caught, they were eventually released, after heavy international pressure. +These North Koreans were not so lucky. +Every year, countless North Koreans are caught in China and repatriated to North Korea, where they can be tortured, imprisoned, or publicly executed. +Even though I was really fortunate to get out, many other North Koreans have not been so lucky. +It's tragic that North Koreans have to hide their identities and struggle so hard just to survive. +Even after learning a new language and getting a job, their whole world can be turned upside down in an instant. +That's why, after 10 years of hiding my identity, I decided to risk going to South Korea. +And I started a new life yet again. +Settling down in South Korea was a lot more challenging than I had expected. +English was so important in South Korea, so I had to start learning my third language. +Also, I realized there was a wide gap between North and South. +We are all Korean, but inside, we have become very different, due to 67 years of division. +I even went through an identity crisis. +Am I South Korean or North Korean? +Where am I from? Who am I? +Suddenly, there was no country I could proudly call my own. +Even though adjusting to life in South Korea was not easy, I made a plan -- I started studying for the university entrance exam. +Just as I was starting to get used to my new life, I received a shocking phone call. +The North Korean authorities intercepted some money that I sent to my family, and, as a punishment, my family was going to be forcibly removed to a desolate location in the countryside. +They had to get out quickly. +So I started planning how to help them escape. +North Koreans have to travel incredible distances on the path to freedom. +It's almost impossible to cross the border between North Korea and South Korea. +So, ironically, I took a flight back to China and headed toward the North Korean border. +Since my family couldn't speak Chinese, I had to guide them somehow through more than 2,000 miles in China, and then into Southeast Asia. +The journey by bus took one week, and we were almost caught several times. +One time, our bus was stopped and boarded by a Chinese police officer. +He took everyone's I.D. cards, and he started asking them questions. +Since my family couldn't understand Chinese, I thought my family was going to be arrested. +As the Chinese officer approached my family, I impulsively stood up, and I told him that these are deaf and dumb people that I was chaperoning. +He looked at me suspiciously, but luckily, he believed me. +We made it all the way to the border of Laos. +But I had to spend almost all my money to bribe the border guards in Laos. +But even after we got past the border, my family was arrested and jailed for illegal border crossing. +After I paid the fine and bribe, my family was released in one month. +But soon after, my family was arrested and jailed again, in the capital of Laos. +This was one of the lowest points in my life. +I did everything to get my family to freedom, and we came so close, but my family was thrown in jail, just a short distance from the South Korean embassy. +I went back and forth between the immigration office and the police station, desperately trying to get my family out. +but I didn't have enough money to pay a bribe or fine anymore. +I lost all hope. +At that moment, I heard one man's voice ask me, "What's wrong?" +I was so surprised that a total stranger cared enough to ask. +In my broken English, and with a dictionary, I explained the situation, and without hesitating, the man went to the ATM, and he paid the rest of the money for my family, and two other North Koreans to get out of jail. +I thanked him with all my heart, and I asked him, "Why are you helping me?" +"I'm not helping you," he said. +"I'm helping the North Korean people." +I realized that this was a symbolic moment in my life. +The kind stranger symbolized new hope for me and the North Korean people, when we needed it most. +And he showed me that the kindness of strangers and the support of the international community are truly the rays of hope we North Korean people need. +Eventually, after our long journey, my family and I were reunited in South Korea. +But getting to freedom is only half the battle. +Many North Koreans are separated from their families, and when they arrive in a new country, they start with little or no money. +So we can benefit from the international community for education, English language training, job training, and more. +We can also act as a bridge between the people inside North Korea and the outside world. +Because many of us stay in contact with family members still inside, and we send information and money that is helping to change North Korea from inside. +I've been so lucky, received so much help and inspiration in my life, so I want to help give aspiring North Koreans a chance to prosper with international support. +I'm confident that you will see more and more North Koreans succeeding all over the world, including the TED stage. +Thank you. +I live in South Central. +This is South Central: liquor stores, fast food, vacant lots. +So the city planners, they get together and they figure they're going to change the name South Central to make it represent something else, so they change it to South Los Angeles, like this is going to fix what's really going wrong in the city. +This is South Los Angeles. Liquor stores, fast food, vacant lots. +Just like 26.5 million other Americans, I live in a food desert, South Central Los Angeles, home of the drive-thru and the drive-by. +Funny thing is, the drive-thrus are killing more people than the drive-bys. +People are dying from curable diseases in South Central Los Angeles. +For instance, the obesity rate in my neighborhood is five times higher than, say, Beverly Hills, which is probably eight, 10 miles away. +I got tired of seeing this happening. +And I was wondering, how would you feel if you had no access to healthy food, if every time you walk out your door you see the ill effects that the present food system has on your neighborhood? +I see wheelchairs bought and sold like used cars. +I see dialysis centers popping up like Starbucks. +And I figured, this has to stop. +So I figured that the problem is the solution. +Food is the problem and food is the solution. +Plus I got tired of driving 45 minutes round trip to get an apple that wasn't impregnated with pesticides. +So what I did, I planted a food forest in front of my house. +It was on a strip of land that we call a parkway. +It's 150 feet by 10 feet. +Thing is, it's owned by the city. +But you have to maintain it. +So I'm like, "Cool. I can do whatever the hell I want, since it's my responsibility and I gotta maintain it." +And this is how I decided to maintain it. +So me and my group, L.A. Green Grounds, we got together and we started planting my food forest, fruit trees, you know, the whole nine, vegetables. +What we do, we're a pay-it-forward kind of group, where it's composed of gardeners from all walks of life, from all over the city, and it's completely volunteer, and everything we do is free. +And the garden, it was beautiful. +And then somebody complained. +The city came down on me, and basically gave me a citation saying that I had to remove my garden, which this citation was turning into a warrant. +And I'm like, "Come on, really? +A warrant for planting food on a piece of land that you could care less about?" And I was like, "Cool. Bring it." +Because this time it wasn't coming up. +So L.A. Times got ahold of it. Steve Lopez did a story on it and talked to the councilman, and one of the Green Grounds members, they put up a petition on Change.org, and with 900 signatures, we were a success. +We had a victory on our hands. +My councilman even called in and said how they endorse and love what we're doing. +I mean, come on, why wouldn't they? +L.A. leads the United States in vacant lots that the city actually owns. +They own 26 square miles of vacant lots. +That's 20 Central Parks. +That's enough space to plant 725 million tomato plants. +Why in the hell would they not okay this? +Growing one plant will give you 1,000, 10,000 seeds. +When one dollar's worth of green beans will give you 75 dollars' worth of produce. +It's my gospel, when I'm telling people, grow your own food. +Growing your own food is like printing your own money. +See, I have a legacy in South Central. +I grew up there. I raised my sons there. +And I refuse to be a part of this manufactured reality that was manufactured for me by some other people, and I'm manufacturing my own reality. +See, I'm an artist. +Gardening is my graffiti. I grow my art. +Just like a graffiti artist, where they beautify walls, me, I beautify lawns, parkways. +I use the garden, the soil, like it's a piece of cloth, and the plants and the trees, that's my embellishment for that cloth. +You'd be surprised what the soil could do if you let it be your canvas. +You just couldn't imagine how amazing a sunflower is and how it affects people. +So what happened? +I have witnessed my garden become a tool for the education, a tool for the transformation of my neighborhood. +To change the community, you have to change the composition of the soil. +We are the soil. +You'd be surprised how kids are affected by this. +Gardening is the most therapeutic and defiant act you can do, especially in the inner city. +Plus you get strawberries. +I remember this time, there was this mother and a daughter came, it was, like, 10:30 at night, and they were in my yard, and I came out and they looked so ashamed. +So I'm like, man, it made me feel bad that they were there, and I told them, you know, you don't have to do this like this. +This is on the street for a reason. +It made me feel ashamed to see people that were this close to me that were hungry, and this only reinforced why I do this, and people asked me, "Fin, aren't you afraid people are going to steal your food?" +And I'm like, "Hell no, I ain't afraid they're gonna steal it. +That's why it's on the street. +That's the whole idea. +I want them to take it, but at the same time, I want them to take back their health." +There's another time when I put a garden in this homeless shelter in downtown Los Angeles. +These are the guys, they helped me unload the truck. +It was cool, and they just shared the stories about how this affected them and how they used to plant with their mother and their grandmother, and it was just cool to see how this changed them, if it was only for that one moment. +So Green Grounds has gone on to plant maybe 20 gardens. +We've had, like, 50 people come to our dig-ins and participate, and it's all volunteers. +If kids grow kale, kids eat kale. +If they grow tomatoes, they eat tomatoes. But when none of this is presented to them, if they're not shown how food affects the mind and the body, they blindly eat whatever the hell you put in front of them. +I see young people and they want to work, but they're in this thing where they're caught up -- I see kids of color and they're just on this track that's designed for them, that leads them to nowhere. +So with gardening, I see an opportunity where we can train these kids to take over their communities, to have a sustainable life. +And when we do this, who knows? +We might produce the next George Washington Carver. +but if we don't change the composition of the soil, we will never do this. +Now this is one of my plans. This is what I want to do. +I want to plant a whole block of gardens where people can share in the food in the same block. +I want to take shipping containers and turn them into healthy cafes. +Now don't get me wrong. +I'm not talking about no free shit, because free is not sustainable. +The funny thing about sustainability, you have to sustain it. +What I'm talking about is putting people to work, and getting kids off the street, and letting them know the joy, the pride and the honor in growing your own food, opening farmer's markets. +So what I want to do here, we gotta make this sexy. +So I want us all to become ecolutionary renegades, gangstas, gangsta gardeners. +We gotta flip the script on what a gangsta is. +If you ain't a gardener, you ain't gangsta. +Get gangsta with your shovel, okay? +And let that be your weapon of choice. +So basically, if you want to meet with me, you know, if you want to meet, don't call me if you want to sit around in cushy chairs and have meetings where you talk about doing some shit -- where you talk about doing some shit. +If you want to meet with me, come to the garden with your shovel so we can plant some shit. +Peace. Thank you. +Thank you. +(Microwave beeps) You probably all agree with me that this is a very nice road. +It's made of asphalt, and asphalt is a very nice material to drive on, but not always, especially not on these days as today, when it's raining a lot. +Then you can have a lot of splash water in the asphalt. +And especially if you then ride with your bicycle, and pass these cars, then that's not very nice. +Also, asphalt can create a lot of noise. +It's a noisy material, and if we produce roads like in the Netherlands, very close to cities, then we would like a silent road. +The solution for that is to make roads out of porous asphalt. +Porous asphalt, a material that we use now in most of the highways in the Netherlands, it has pores and water can just rain through it, so all the rainwater will flow away to the sides, and you have a road that's easy to drive on, so no splash water anymore. +Also the noise will disappear in these pores. +Because it's very hollow, all the noise will disappear, so it's a very silent road. +It also has disadvantages, of course, and the disadvantage of this road is that raveling can occur. +What is raveling? You see that in this road that the stones at the surface come off. +First you get one stone, then several more, and more and more and more and more, and then they -- well, I will not do that. But they can damage your windshield, so you're not happy with that. +And finally, this raveling can also lead to more and more damage. +Sometimes you can create potholes with that. +Ha. He's ready. +Potholes, of course, that can become a problem, but we have a solution. +Here you see actually how the damage appears in this material. +It's a porous asphalt, like I said, so you have only a small amount of binder between the stones. +Due to weathering, due to U.V. light, due to oxidation, this binder, this bitumen, the glue between the aggregates is going to shrink, and if it shrinks, it gets micro-cracks, and it delaminates from the aggregates. +Then if you drive over the road, you take out the aggregates -- what we just saw here. +To solve this problem, we thought of self-healing materials. +If we can make this material self-healing, then probably we have a solution. +So what we can do is use steel wool just to clean pans, and the steel wool we can cut in very small pieces, and these very small pieces we can mix to the bitumen. +So then you have asphalt with very small pieces of steel wool in it. +Then you need a machine, like you see here, that you can use for cooking -- an induction machine. +Induction can heat, especially steel; it's very good at that. +Then what you do is you heat up the steel, you melt the bitumen, and the bitumen will flow into these micro-cracks, and the stones are again fixed to the surface. +Today I use a microwave because I cannot take the big induction machine here onstage. +So a microwave is a similar system. +So I put the specimen in, which I'm now going to take out to see what happened. +So this is the specimen coming out now. +So I said we have such an industrial machine in the lab to heat up the specimens. +We tested a lot of specimens there, and then the government, they actually saw our results, and they thought, "Well, that's very interesting. We have to try that." +So they donated to us a piece of highway, 400 meters of the A58, where we had to make a test track to test this material. +So that's what we did here. You see where we were making the test road, and then of course this road will last several years without any damage. That's what we know from practice. +So we took a lot of samples from this road and we tested them in the lab. +So we did aging on the samples, did a lot of loading on it, healed them with our induction machine, and healed them and tested them again. +Several times we can repeat that. +Well, to conclude, I can say that we made a material using steel fibers, the addition of steel fibers, using induction energy to really increase the surface life of the road, double the surface life you can even do, so it will really save a lot of money with very simple tricks. +And now you're of course curious if it also worked. +So we still have the specimen here. It's quite warm. +Actually, it still has to cool down first before I can show you that the healing works. +But I will do a trial. +Let's see. Yeah, it worked. +Thank you. +When I was 11, I remember waking up one morning to the sound of joy in my house. +My father was listening to BBC News on his small, gray radio. +There was a big smile on his face which was unusual then, because the news mostly depressed him. +"The Taliban are gone!" my father shouted. +I didn't know what it meant, but I could see that my father was very, very happy. +"You can go to a real school now," he said. +A morning that I will never forget. +A real school. +You see, I was six when the Taliban took over Afghanistan and made it illegal for girls to go to school. +So for the next five years, I dressed as a boy to escort my older sister, who was no longer allowed to be outside alone, to a secret school. +It was the only way we both could be educated. +Each day, we took a different route so that no one would suspect where we were going. +We would cover our books in grocery bags so it would seem we were just out shopping. +The school was in a house, more than 100 of us packed in one small living room. +It was cozy in winter but extremely hot in summer. +We all knew we were risking our lives -- the teacher, the students and our parents. +From time to time, the school would suddenly be canceled for a week because Taliban were suspicious. +We always wondered what they knew about us. +Were we being followed? +Do they know where we live? +We were scared, but still, school was where we wanted to be. +I was very lucky to grow up in a family where education was prized and daughters were treasured. +My grandfather was an extraordinary man for his time. +A total maverick from a remote province of Afghanistan, he insisted that his daughter, my mom, go to school, and for that he was disowned by his father. +But my educated mother became a teacher. +There she is. +She retired two years ago, only to turn our house into a school for girls and women in our neighborhood. +And my father -- that's him -- he was the first ever in his family to receive an education. +There was no question that his children would receive an education, including his daughters, despite the Taliban, despite the risks. +To him, there was greater risk in not educating his children. +During Taliban years, I remember there were times I would get so frustrated by our life and always being scared and not seeing a future. +I would want to quit, but my father, he would say, "Listen, my daughter, you can lose everything you own in your life. +Your money can be stolen. You can be forced to leave your home during a war. +But the one thing that will always remain with you is what is here, and if we have to sell our blood to pay your school fees, we will. +So do you still not want to continue?" +Today I am 22. +I was raised in a country that has been destroyed by decades of war. +Fewer than six percent of women my age have made it beyond high school, and had my family not been so committed to my education, I would be one of them. +Instead, I stand here a proud graduate of Middlebury College. +When I returned to Afghanistan, my grandfather, the one exiled from his home for daring to educate his daughters, was among the first to congratulate me. +He not only brags about my college degree, but also that I was the first woman, and that I am the first woman to drive him through the streets of Kabul. +My family believes in me. +I dream big, but my family dreams even bigger for me. +That's why I am a global ambassador for 10x10, a global campaign to educate women. +That's why I cofounded SOLA, the first and perhaps only boarding school for girls in Afghanistan, a country where it's still risky for girls to go to school. +The exciting thing is that I see students at my school with ambition grabbing at opportunity. +And I see their parents and their fathers who, like my own, advocate for them, despite and even in the face of daunting opposition. +Like Ahmed. That's not his real name, and I cannot show you his face, but Ahmed is the father of one of my students. +Less than a month ago, he and his daughter were on their way from SOLA to their village, and they literally missed being killed by a roadside bomb by minutes. +As he arrived home, the phone rang, a voice warning him that if he sent his daughter back to school, they would try again. +"Kill me now, if you wish," he said, "but I will not ruin my daughter's future because of your old and backward ideas." +What I've come to realize about Afghanistan, and this is something that is often dismissed in the West, that behind most of us who succeed is a father who recognizes the value in his daughter and who sees that her success is his success. +It's not to say that our mothers aren't key in our success. +In fact, they're often the initial and convincing negotiators of a bright future for their daughters, but in the context of a society like in Afghanistan, we must have the support of men. +Under the Taliban, girls who went to school numbered in the hundreds -- remember, it was illegal. +But today, more than three million girls are in school in Afghanistan. +Afghanistan looks so different from here in America. +I find that Americans see the fragility in changes. +I fear that these changes will not last much beyond the U.S. troops' withdrawal. +But when I am back in Afghanistan, when I see the students in my school and their parents who advocate for them, who encourage them, I see a promising future and lasting change. +To me, Afghanistan is a country of hope and boundless possibilities, and every single day the girls of SOLA remind me of that. +Like me, they are dreaming big. +Thank you. +I have never, ever forgotten the words of my grandmother who died in her exile: "Son, resist Gaddafi. Fight him. +But don't you ever turn into a Gaddafi-like revolutionary." +Almost two years have passed since the Libyan Revolution broke out, inspired by the waves of mass mobilization in both the Tunisian and the Egyptian revolutions. +I joined forces with many other Libyans inside and outside Libya to call for a day of rage and to initiate a revolution against the tyrannical regime of Gaddafi. +And there it was, a great revolution. +Young Libyan women and men were at the forefront calling for the fall of the regime, raising slogans of freedom, dignity, social justice. +They have shown an exemplary bravery in confronting the brutal dictatorship of Gaddafi. +They have shown a great sense of solidarity from the far east to the far west to the south. +Eventually, after a period of six months of brutal war and a toll rate of almost 50,000 dead, we managed to liberate our country and to topple the tyrant. +However, Gaddafi left behind a heavy burden, a legacy of tyranny, corruption and seeds of diversions. +For four decades Gaddafi's tyrannical regime destroyed the infrastructure as well as the culture and the moral fabric of Libyan society. +Aware of the devastation and the challenges, I was keen among many other women to rebuild the Libyan civil society, calling for an inclusive and just transition to democracy and national reconciliation. +Almost 200 organizations were established in Benghazi during and immediately after the fall of Gaddafi -- almost 300 in Tripoli. +After a period of 33 years in exile, I went back to Libya, and with unique enthusiasm, I started organizing workshops on capacity building, on human development of leadership skills. +With an amazing group of women, I co-founded the Libyan Women's Platform for Peace, a movement of women, leaders, from different walks of life, to lobby for the sociopolitical empowerment of women and to lobby for our right for equal participation in building democracy and peace. +I met a very difficult environment in the pre-elections, an environment which was increasingly polarized, an environment which was shaped by the selfish politics of dominance and exclusion. +Eventually, our initiative was adopted and successful. +Women won 17.5 percent of the National Congress in the first elections ever in 52 years. +However, bit by bit, the euphoria of the elections, and of the revolution as a whole, was fading out -- for every day we were waking up to the news of violence. +One day we wake up to the news of the desecration of ancient mosques and Sufi tombs. +On another day we wake up to the news of the murder of the American ambassador and the attack on the consulate. +On another day we wake up to the news of the assassination of army officers. +And every day, every day we wake up with the rule of the militias and their continuous violations of human rights of prisoners and their disrespect of the rule of law. +Our society, shaped by a revolutionary mindset, became more polarized and has driven away from the ideals and the principles -- freedom, dignity, social justice -- that we first held. +Intolerance, exclusion and revenge became the icons of the [aftermath] of the revolution. +I am here today not at all to inspire you with our success story of the zipper list and the elections. +I'm rather here today to confess that we as a nation took the wrong choice, made the wrong decision. +We did not prioritize right. +For elections did not bring peace and stability and security in Libya. +Did the zipper list and the alternation between female and male candidates bring peace and national reconciliation? +No, it didn't. +What is it, then? +Why does our society continue to be polarized and dominated with selfish politics of dominance and exclusion, by both men and women? +Maybe what was missing was not the women only, but the feminine values of compassion, mercy and inclusion. +Our society needs national dialogue and consensus-building more than it needed the elections, which only reinforced polarization and division. +Our society needs the qualitative representation of the feminine more than it needs the numerical, quantitative representation of the feminine. +We need to stop acting as agents of rage and calling for days of rage. +We need to start acting as agents of compassion and mercy. +We need to develop a feminine discourse that not only honors but also implements mercy instead of revenge, collaboration instead of competition, inclusion instead of exclusion. +These are the ideals that a war-torn Libya needs desperately in order to achieve peace. +For peace has an alchemy, and this alchemy is about the intertwining, the alternation between the feminine and masculine perspectives. +That's the real zipper. +And we need to establish that existentially before we do so sociopolitically. +According to a Quranic verse "Salam" -- peace -- "is the word of the all-merciful God, raheem." +In turn, the word "raheem," which is known in all Abrahamic traditions, has the same root in Arabic as the word "rahem" -- womb -- symbolizing the maternal feminine encompassing all humanity from which the male and the female, from which all tribes, all peoples, have emanated from. +And so just as the womb entirely envelopes the embryo, which grows within it, the divine matrix of compassion nourishes the entire existence. +Thus we are told that "My mercy encompasses all things." +Thus we are told that "My mercy takes precedence over my anger." +May we all be granted a grace of mercy. +Thank you. +I'm here today to talk about a disturbing question, which has an equally disturbing answer. +My topic is the secrets of domestic violence, and the question I'm going to tackle is the one question everyone always asks: Why does she stay? +Why would anyone stay with a man who beats her? +I'm not a psychiatrist, a social worker or an expert in domestic violence. +I'm just one woman with a story to tell. +I was 22. I had just graduated from Harvard College. +I had moved to New York City for my first job as a writer and editor at Seventeen magazine. +I had my first apartment, my first little green American Express card, and I had a very big secret. +My secret was that I had this gun loaded with hollow-point bullets pointed at my head by the man who I thought was my soulmate, many, many times. +The man who I loved more than anybody on Earth held a gun to my head and threatened to kill me more times than I can even remember. +I'm here to tell you the story of crazy love, a psychological trap disguised as love, one that millions of women and even a few men fall into every year. +It may even be your story. +I don't look like a typical domestic violence survivor. +I have a B.A. in English from Harvard College, an MBA in marketing from Wharton Business School. +I've spent most of my career working for Fortune 500 companies including Johnson & Johnson, Leo Burnett and The Washington Post. +I've been married for almost 20 years to my second husband and we have three kids together. +My dog is a black lab, and I drive a Honda Odyssey minivan. +So my first message for you is that domestic violence happens to everyone -- all races, all religions, all income and education levels. +It's everywhere. +And my second message is that everyone thinks domestic violence happens to women, that it's a women's issue. +Not exactly. +Over 85 percent of abusers are men, and domestic abuse happens only in intimate, interdependent, long-term relationships, in other words, in families, the last place we would want or expect to find violence, which is one reason domestic abuse is so confusing. +I would have told you myself that I was the last person on Earth who would stay with a man who beats me, but in fact I was a very typical victim because of my age. +I was 22, and in the United States, women ages 16 to 24 are three times as likely to be domestic violence victims as women of other ages, and over 500 women and girls this age are killed every year by abusive partners, boyfriends, and husbands in the United States. +I was also a very typical victim because I knew nothing about domestic violence, its warning signs or its patterns. +I met Conor on a cold, rainy January night. +He sat next to me on the New York City subway, and he started chatting me up. +He told me two things. +One was that he, too, had just graduated from an Ivy League school, and that he worked at a very impressive Wall Street bank. +But what made the biggest impression on me that first meeting was that he was smart and funny and he looked like a farm boy. +He had these big cheeks, these big apple cheeks and this wheat-blond hair, and he seemed so sweet. +One of the smartest things Conor did, from the very beginning, was to create the illusion that I was the dominant partner in the relationship. +He did this especially at the beginning by idolizing me. +We started dating, and he loved everything about me, that I was smart, that I'd gone to Harvard, that I was passionate about helping teenage girls, and my job. +He wanted to know everything about my family and my childhood and my hopes and dreams. +Conor believed in me, as a writer and a woman, in a way that no one else ever had. +Which is why that Ivy League degree and the Wall Street job and his bright shiny future meant so much to him. +I didn't know that the first stage in any domestic violence relationship is to seduce and charm the victim. +I also didn't know that the second step is to isolate the victim. +Now, the last thing I wanted to do was leave New York, and my dream job, but I thought you made sacrifices for your soulmate, so I agreed, and I quit my job, and Conor and I left Manhattan together. +I had no idea I was falling into crazy love, that I was walking headfirst into a carefully laid physical, financial and psychological trap. +The next step in the domestic violence pattern is to introduce the threat of violence and see how she reacts. +And here's where those guns come in. +As soon as we moved to New England -- you know, that place where Connor was supposed to feel so safe -- he bought three guns. +He kept one in the glove compartment of our car. +He kept one under the pillows on our bed, and the third one he kept in his pocket at all times. +And he said that he needed those guns because of the trauma he'd experienced as a young boy. +He needed them to feel protected. +But those guns were really a message for me, and even though he hadn't raised a hand to me, my life was already in grave danger every minute of every day. +Conor first physically attacked me five days before our wedding. +It was 7 a.m. I still had on my nightgown. +Five days later, the ten bruises on my neck had just faded, and I put on my mother's wedding dress, and I married him. +Despite what had happened, I was sure we were going to live happily ever after, because I loved him, and he loved me so much. +And he was very, very sorry. +He had just been really stressed out by the wedding and by becoming a family with me. +It was an isolated incident, and he was never going to hurt me again. +It happened twice more on the honeymoon. +The first time, I was driving to find a secret beach and I got lost, and he punched me in the side of my head so hard that the other side of my head repeatedly hit the driver's side window. +And then a few days later, driving home from our honeymoon, he got frustrated by traffic, and he threw a cold Big Mac in my face. +Conor proceeded to beat me once or twice a week for the next two and a half years of our marriage. +I was mistaken in thinking that I was unique and alone in this situation. +One in three American women experiences domestic violence or stalking at some point in her life, and the CDC reports that 15 million children are abused every year, 15 million. +So actually, I was in very good company. +Back to my question: Why did I stay? +The answer is easy. +I didn't know he was abusing me. +Instead, I was a very strong woman in love with a deeply troubled man, and I was the only person on Earth who could help Conor face his demons. +The other question everybody asks is, why doesn't she just leave? +Why didn't I walk out? I could have left any time. +To me, this is the saddest and most painful question that people ask, because we victims know something you usually don't: It's incredibly dangerous to leave an abuser. +Because the final step in the domestic violence pattern is kill her. +Over 70 percent of domestic violence murders happen after the victim has ended the relationship, after she's gotten out, because then the abuser has nothing left to lose. +Other outcomes include long-term stalking, even after the abuser remarries; denial of financial resources; and manipulation of the family court system to terrify the victim and her children, who are regularly forced by family court judges to spend unsupervised time with the man who beat their mother. +And still we ask, why doesn't she just leave? +I was able to leave, because of one final, sadistic beating that broke through my denial. +I realized that the man who I loved so much was going to kill me if I let him. +So I broke the silence. +I told everyone: the police, my neighbors, my friends and family, total strangers, and I'm here today because you all helped me. +We tend to stereotype victims as grisly headlines, self-destructive women, damaged goods. +The question, "Why does she stay?" +is code for some people for, "It's her fault for staying," as if victims intentionally choose to fall in love with men intent upon destroying us. +But since publishing "Crazy Love," I have heard hundreds of stories from men and women who also got out, who learned an invaluable life lesson from what happened, and who rebuilt lives -- joyous, happy lives -- as employees, wives and mothers, lives completely free of violence, like me. +Because it turns out that I'm actually a very typical domestic violence victim and a typical domestic violence survivor. +I remarried a kind and gentle man, and we have those three kids. +I have that black lab, and I have that minivan. +What I will never have again, ever, is a loaded gun held to my head by someone who says that he loves me. +Right now, maybe you're thinking, "Wow, this is fascinating," or, "Wow, how stupid was she," but this whole time, I've actually been talking about you. +I promise you there are several people listening to me right now who are currently being abused or who were abused as children or who are abusers themselves. +Abuse could be affecting your daughter, your sister, your best friend right now. +I was able to end my own crazy love story by breaking the silence. +I'm still breaking the silence today. +It's my way of helping other victims, and it's my final request of you. +Talk about what you heard here. +Abuse thrives only in silence. +You have the power to end domestic violence simply by shining a spotlight on it. +We victims need everyone. +We need every one of you to understand the secrets of domestic violence. +Show abuse the light of day by talking about it with your children, your coworkers, your friends and family. +Recast survivors as wonderful, lovable people with full futures. +Recognize the early signs of violence and conscientiously intervene, deescalate it, show victims a safe way out. +Together we can make our beds, our dinner tables and our families the safe and peaceful oases they should be. +Thank you. +Hi. My name is Cameron Russell, and for the last little while, I've been a model. +Actually, for 10 years. +And I feel like there's an uncomfortable tension in the room right now because I should not have worn this dress. So luckily, I brought an outfit change. +This is the first outfit change on the TED stage, so you guys are pretty lucky to witness it, I think. +If some of the women were really horrified when I came out, you don't have to tell me now, but I'll find out later on Twitter. +I'd also note that I'm quite privileged to be able to transform what you think of me in a very brief 10 seconds. +Not everybody gets to do that. +These heels are very uncomfortable, so good thing I wasn't going to wear them. +The worst part is putting this sweater over my head, because that's when you'll all laugh at me, so don't do anything while it's over my head. +All right. +So, why did I do that? +That was awkward. +Well -- Hopefully not as awkward as that picture. +Image is powerful, but also, image is superficial. +I just totally transformed what you thought of me, in six seconds. +And in this picture, I had actually never had a boyfriend in real life. +I was totally uncomfortable, and the photographer was telling me to arch my back and put my hand in that guy's hair. +And of course, barring surgery, or the fake tan that I got two days ago for work, there's very little that we can do to transform how we look, and how we look, though it is superficial and immutable, has a huge impact on our lives. +So today, for me, being fearless means being honest. +And I am on this stage because I am a model. +I am on this stage because I am a pretty, white woman, and in my industry, we call that a sexy girl. +I'm going to answer the questions that people always ask me, but with an honest twist. +So the first question is, how do you become a model? +I always just say, "Oh, I was scouted," but that means nothing. +The real way that I became a model is I won a genetic lottery, and I am the recipient of a legacy, and maybe you're wondering what is a legacy. +Well, for the past few centuries we have defined beauty not just as health and youth and symmetry that we're biologically programmed to admire, but also as tall, slender figures, and femininity and white skin. +And this is a legacy that was built for me, and it's a legacy that I've been cashing out on. +And I know there are people in the audience who are skeptical at this point, and maybe there are some fashionistas who are like, "Wait. Naomi. Tyra. Joan Smalls. Liu Wen." +And first, I commend you on your model knowledge. Very impressive. +But unfortunately, I have to inform you that in 2007, a very inspired NYU Ph.D. student counted all the models on the runway, every single one that was hired, and of the 677 models that were hired, only 27, or less than four percent, were non-white. +The next question people always ask is, "Can I be a model when I grow up?" +And the first answer is, "I don't know, they don't put me in charge of that." +But the second answer, and what I really want to say to these little girls is, "Why? You know? You can be anything. +You could be the President of the United States, or the inventor of the next Internet, or a ninja cardiothoracic surgeon poet, which would be awesome, because you'd be the first one." +If, after this amazing list, they still are like, "No, no, Cameron, I want to be a model," well, then I say, "Be my boss." +Because I'm not in charge of anything, and you could be the editor in chief of American Vogue or the CEO of H&M, or the next Steven Meisel. +Saying that you want to be a model when you grow up is akin to saying that you want to win the Powerball when you grow up. +It's out of your control, and it's awesome, and it's not a career path. +I will demonstrate for you now 10 years of accumulated model knowledge, because unlike cardiothoracic surgeons, it can just be distilled right now. +That was -- I don't know what happened there. +Unfortunately, after you've gone to school, and you have a rsum and you've done a few jobs, you can't say anything anymore, so if you say you want to be the President of the United States, but your rsum reads, "Underwear Model: 10 years," people give you a funny look. +The next question is, "Do they retouch all the photos?" +And yeah, they pretty much retouch all the photos, but that is only a small component of what's happening. +This picture is the very first picture that I ever took, and it's also the very first time that I had worn a bikini, and I didn't even have my period yet. +I know we're getting personal, but I was a young girl. +This is what I looked like with my grandma just a few months earlier. +Here's me on the same day as this shoot. +My friend got to come. +Here's me at a slumber party a few days before I shot French Vogue. +Here's me on the soccer team and in V Magazine. +And here's me today. +And I hope what you're seeing is that these pictures are not pictures of me. +They are constructions, and they are constructions by a group of professionals, by hairstylists and makeup artists and photographers and stylists and all of their assistants and pre-production and post-production, and they build this. That's not me. +Okay, so the next question people always ask me is, "Do you get free stuff?" +I do have too many 8-inch heels which I never get to wear, except for earlier, but the free stuff that I get is the free stuff that I get in real life, and that's what we don't like to talk about. +I grew up in Cambridge, and one time I went into a store and I forgot my money and they gave me the dress for free. +When I was a teenager, I was driving with my friend who was an awful driver and she ran a red and of course, we got pulled over, and all it took was a "Sorry, officer," and we were on our way. +And I got these free things because of how I look, not who I am, and there are people paying a cost for how they look and not who they are. +I live in New York, and last year, of the 140,000 teenagers that were stopped and frisked, 86% of them were black and Latino, and most of them were young men. +And there are only 177,000 young black and Latino men in New York, so for them, it's not a question of, "Will I get stopped?" +but "How many times will I get stopped? When will I get stopped?" +When I was researching this talk, I found out that of the 13-year-old girls in the United States, 53% don't like their bodies, and that number goes to 78% by the time that they're 17. +So, the last question people ask me is, "What is it like to be a model?" +And I think the answer that they're looking for is, "If you are a little bit skinnier and you have shinier hair, you will be so happy and fabulous." +And when we're backstage, we give an answer that maybe makes it seem like that. +We say, "It's really amazing to travel, and it's amazing to get to work with creative, inspired, passionate people." +And those things are true, but they're only one half of the story, because the thing that we never say on camera, that I have never said on camera, is, "I am insecure." +And I'm insecure because I have to think about what I look like every day. +And if you ever are wondering, "If I have thinner thighs and shinier hair, will I be happier?" +you just need to meet a group of models, because they have the thinnest thighs, the shiniest hair and the coolest clothes, and they're the most physically insecure women probably on the planet. +But mostly it was difficult to unpack a legacy of gender and racial oppression when I am one of the biggest beneficiaries. +If there's a takeaway to this talk, I hope it's that we all feel more comfortable acknowledging the power of image in our perceived successes and our perceived failures. +Thank you. +Photography has been my passion ever since I was old enough to pick up a camera, but today I want to share with you the 15 most treasured photos of mine, and I didn't take any of them. +There were no art directors, no stylists, no chance for reshoots, not even any regard for lighting. +In fact, most of them were taken by random tourists. +My story begins when I was in New York City for a speaking engagement, and my wife took this picture of me holding my daughter on her first birthday. We're on the corner of 57th and 5th. +We happened to be back in New York exactly a year later, so we decided to take the same picture. +Well you can see where this is going. +Approaching my daughter's third birthday, my wife said, "Hey, why don't you take Sabina back to New York and make it a father-daughter trip, and continue the ritual?" +This is when we started asking passing tourists to take the picture. +You know, it's remarkable how universal the gesture is of handing your camera to a total stranger. +No one's ever refused, and luckily no one's ever run off with our camera. +Back then, we had no idea how much this trip would change our lives. +It's really become sacred to us. +This one was taken just weeks after 9/11, and I found myself trying to explain what had happened that day in ways a five-year-old could understand. +So these photos are far more than proxies for a single moment, or even a specific trip. +They're also ways for us to freeze time for one week in October and reflect on our times and how we change from year to year, and not just physically, but in every way. +Because while we take the same photo, our perspectives change, and she reaches new milestones, and I get to see life through her eyes, and how she interacts with and sees everything. +This very focused time we get to spend together is something we cherish and anticipate the entire year. +Recently, on one trip, we were walking, and she stops dead in her tracks, and she points to a red awning of the doll store that she loved when she was little on our earlier trips. +And she describes to me the feeling she felt as a five-year-old standing in that exact spot. +She said she remembers her heart bursting out of her chest when she saw that place for the very first time nine years earlier. +And now what she's looking at in New York are colleges, because she's determined to go to school in New York. +And it hit me: One of the most important things we all make are memories. +So I want to share the idea of taking an active role in consciously creating memories. +I don't know about you, but aside from these 15 shots, I'm not in many of the family photos. +I'm always the one taking the picture. +So I want to encourage everyone today to get in the shot, and don't hesitate to go up to someone and ask, "Will you take our picture?" +Thank you. +I would like to talk to you about a very special group of animals. +There are 10,000 species of birds in the world. +Vultures are amongst the most threatened group of birds. +First of all, why do they have such a bad press? +They've also be associated with Disney personified as goofy, dumb, stupid characters. +More recently, if you've been following the Kenyan press these are the attributes that they associated the Kenyan MPs with. But I want to challenge that. +I want to challenge that. Do you know why? +Because MPs do not keep the environment clean. MPs do not help to prevent the spread of diseases. +They are hardly monogamous. They are far from being extinct. And, my favorite is, vultures are better looking. So there's two types of vultures in this planet. +There are the New World vultures that are mainly found in the Americas, like the condors and the caracaras, and then the Old World vultures, where we have 16 species. From these 16, 11 of them are facing a high risk of extinction. +So why are vultures important? First of all, they provide vital ecological services. They clean up. +They're our natural garbage collectors. +They clean up carcasses right to the bone. +They help to kill all the bacteria. They help absorb anthrax that would otherwise spread and cause huge livestock losses and diseases in other animals. +Recent studies have shown that in areas where there are no vultures, carcasses take up to three to four times to decompose, and this has huge ramifications for the spread of diseases. +Vultures also have tremendous historical significance. +They have been associated in ancient Egyptian culture. +Nekhbet was the symbol of the protector and the motherhood, and together with the cobra, symbolized the unity between Upper and Lower Egypt. +In Hindu mythology, Jatayu was the vulture god, and he risked his life in order to save the goddess Sita from the 10-headed demon Ravana. +In Tibetan culture, they are performing very important sky burials. In places like Tibet, there are no places to bury the dead, or wood to cremate them, so these vultures provide a natural disposal system. +So what is the problem with vultures? +We have eight species of vultures that occur in Kenya, of which six are highly threatened with extinction. +The reason is that they're getting poisoned, and the reason that they're getting poisoned is because there's human-wildlife conflicts. The pastoral communities are using this poison to target predators, and in return, the vultures are falling victim to this. +In South Asia, in countries like India and Pakistan, four species of vultures are listed as critically endangered, which means they have less than 10 or 15 years to go extinct, and the reason is because they are falling prey by consuming livestock that has been treated with a painkilling drug like Diclofenac. +This drug has now been banned for veterinary use in India, and they have taken a stand. +Because there are no vultures, there's been a spread in the numbers of feral dogs at carcass dump sites, and when you have feral dogs, you have a huge time bomb of rabies. The number of cases of rabies has increased tremendously in India. +Kenya is going to have one of the largest wind farms in Africa: 353 wind turbines are going to be up at Lake Turkana. +I am not against wind energy, but we need to work with the governments, because wind turbines do this to birds. They slice them in half. +They are bird-blending machines. +In West Africa, there's a horrific trade of dead vultures to serve the witchcraft and the fetish market. +So what's being done? Well, we're conducting research on these birds. We're putting transmitters on them. +We're trying to determine their basic ecology, and see where they go. +We can see that they travel different countries, so if you focus on a problem locally, it's not going to help you. +We need to work with governments in regional levels. +We're working with local communities. +We're talking to them about appreciating vultures, about the need from within to appreciate these wonderful creatures and the services that they provide. +How can you help? You can become active, make noise. You can write a letter to your government and tell them that we need to focus on these very misunderstood creatures. Volunteer your time to spread the word. Spread the word. +When you walk out of this room, you will be informed about vultures, but speak to your families, to your children, to your neighbors about vultures. +They are very graceful. Charles Darwin said he changed his mind because he watched them fly effortlessly without energy in the skies. +Kenya, this world, will be much poorer without these wonderful species. +Thank you very much. +Everything I do, and everything I do professionally -- my life -- has been shaped by seven years of work as a young man in Africa. +From 1971 to 1977 -- I look young, but I'm not -- I worked in Zambia, Kenya, Ivory Coast, Algeria, Somalia, in projects of technical cooperation with African countries. +I worked for an Italian NGO, and every single project that we set up in Africa failed. +And I was distraught. +I thought, age 21, that we Italians were good people and we were doing good work in Africa. +Instead, everything we touched we killed. +Our first project, the one that has inspired my first book, "Ripples from the Zambezi," was a project where we Italians decided to teach Zambian people how to grow food. +So we arrived there with Italian seeds in southern Zambia in this absolutely magnificent valley going down to the Zambezi River, and we taught the local people how to grow Italian tomatoes and zucchini and ... +And of course the local people had absolutely no interest in doing that, so we paid them to come and work, and sometimes they would show up. And we were amazed that the local people, in such a fertile valley, would not have any agriculture. +But instead of asking them how come they were not growing anything, we simply said, "Thank God we're here." "Just in the nick of time to save the Zambian people from starvation." +And of course, everything in Africa grew beautifully. +We had these magnificent tomatoes. In Italy, a tomato would grow to this size. In Zambia, to this size. +And we could not believe, and we were telling the Zambians, "Look how easy agriculture is." +When the tomatoes were nice and ripe and red, overnight, some 200 hippos came out from the river and they ate everything. And we said to the Zambians, "My God, the hippos!" +And the Zambians said, "Yes, that's why we have no agriculture here." "Why didn't you tell us?""You never asked." +I thought it was only us Italians blundering around Africa, but then I saw what the Americans were doing, what the English were doing, what the French were doing, and after seeing what they were doing, I became quite proud of our project in Zambia. +Because, you see, at least we fed the hippos. +You should see the rubbish -- You should see the rubbish that we have bestowed on unsuspecting African people. +You want to read the book, read "Dead Aid," by Dambisa Moyo, Zambian woman economist. +The book was published in 2009. +We Western donor countries have given the African continent two trillion American dollars in the last 50 years. +I'm not going to tell you the damage that that money has done. +Just go and read her book. +Read it from an African woman, the damage that we have done. +We Western people are imperialist, colonialist missionaries, and there are only two ways we deal with people: We either patronize them, or we are paternalistic. +The two words come from the Latin root "pater," which means "father." +But they mean two different things. +Paternalistic, I treat anybody from a different culture as if they were my children. "I love you so much." +Patronizing, I treat everybody from another culture as if they were my servants. +That's why the white people in Africa are called "bwana," boss. +I was given a slap in the face reading a book, "Small is Beautiful," written by Schumacher, who said, above all in economic development, if people do not wish to be helped, leave them alone. +This should be the first principle of aid. +The first principle of aid is respect. +This morning, the gentleman who opened this conference lay a stick on the floor, and said, "Can we -- can you imagine a city that is not neocolonial?" +I decided when I was 27 years old to only respond to people, and I invented a system called Enterprise Facilitation, where you never initiate anything, you never motivate anybody, but you become a servant of the local passion, the servant of local people who have a dream to become a better person. +So what you do -- you shut up. +You never arrive in a community with any ideas, and you sit with the local people. +We don't work from offices. +We meet at the cafe. We meet at the pub. +We have zero infrastructure. +And what we do, we become friends, and we find out what that person wants to do. +The most important thing is passion. +You can give somebody an idea. +If that person doesn't want to do it, what are you going to do? +The passion that the person has for her own growth is the most important thing. +The passion that that man has for his own personal growth is the most important thing. +And then we help them to go and find the knowledge, because nobody in the world can succeed alone. +The person with the idea may not have the knowledge, but the knowledge is available. +So years and years ago, I had this idea: Why don't we, for once, instead of arriving in the community to tell people what to do, why don't, for once, listen to them? But not in community meetings. +Let me tell you a secret. +There is a problem with community meetings. +Entrepreneurs never come, and they never tell you, in a public meeting, what they want to do with their own money, what opportunity they have identified. +So planning has this blind spot. +The smartest people in your community you don't even know, because they don't come to your public meetings. +What we do, we work one-on-one, and to work one-on-one, you have to create a social infrastructure that doesn't exist. +You have to create a new profession. +The profession is the family doctor of enterprise, the family doctor of business, who sits with you in your house, at your kitchen table, at the cafe, and helps you find the resources to transform your passion into a way to make a living. +I started this as a tryout in Esperance, in Western Australia. +I was a doing a Ph.D. at the time, trying to go away from this patronizing bullshit that we arrive and tell you what to do. +In a year, I had 27 projects going on, and the government came to see me to say, "How can you do that? +How can you do ?" And I said, "I do something very, very, very difficult. +I shut up, and listen to them." So So the government says, "Do it again." We've done it in 300 communities around the world. +We have helped to start 40,000 businesses. +There is a new generation of entrepreneurs who are dying of solitude. +Peter Drucker, one of the greatest management consultants in history, died age 96, a few years ago. +Peter Drucker was a professor of philosophy before becoming involved in business, and this is what Peter Drucker says: "Planning is actually incompatible with an entrepreneurial society and economy." +Planning is the kiss of death of entrepreneurship. +So now you're rebuilding Christchurch without knowing what the smartest people in Christchurch want to do with their own money and their own energy. +You have to learn how to get these people to come and talk to you. +You have to offer them confidentiality, privacy, you have to be fantastic at helping them, and then they will come, and they will come in droves. +In a community of 10,000 people, we get 200 clients. +Can you imagine a community of 400,000 people, the intelligence and the passion? +Which presentation have you applauded the most this morning? +Local, passionate people. That's who you have applauded. +So what I'm saying is that entrepreneurship is where it's at. +We are at the end of the first industrial revolution -- nonrenewable fossil fuels, manufacturing -- and all of a sudden, we have systems which are not sustainable. +The internal combustion engine is not sustainable. +Freon way of maintaining things is not sustainable. +What we have to look at is at how we feed, cure, educate, transport, communicate for seven billion people in a sustainable way. +The technologies do not exist to do that. +Who is going to invent the technology for the green revolution? Universities? Forget about it! +Government? Forget about it! +It will be entrepreneurs, and they're doing it now. +There's a lovely story that I read in a futurist magazine many, many years ago. +There was a group of experts who were invited to discuss the future of the city of New York in 1860. +And in 1860, this group of people came together, and they all speculated about what would happen to the city of New York in 100 years, and the conclusion was unanimous: The city of New York would not exist in 100 years. +Why? Because they looked at the curve and said, if the population keeps growing at this rate, to move the population of New York around, they would have needed six million horses, and the manure created by six million horses would be impossible to deal with. +They were already drowning in manure. So 1860, they are seeing this dirty technology that is going to choke the life out of New York. +So what happens? In 40 years' time, in the year 1900, in the United States of America, there were 1,001 car manufacturing companies -- 1,001. +The idea of finding a different technology had absolutely taken over, and there were tiny, tiny little factories in backwaters. +Dearborn, Michigan. Henry Ford. +However, there is a secret to work with entrepreneurs. +First, you have to offer them confidentiality. +Otherwise they don't come and talk to you. +Then you have to offer them absolute, dedicated, passionate service to them. +And then you have to tell them the truth about entrepreneurship. +The smallest company, the biggest company, has to be capable of doing three things beautifully: The product that you want to sell has to be fantastic, you have to have fantastic marketing, and you have to have tremendous financial management. +Guess what? +We have never met a single human being in the world who can make it, sell it and look after the money. +It doesn't exist. +This person has never been born. +We've done the research, and we have looked at the 100 iconic companies of the world -- Carnegie, Westinghouse, Edison, Ford, all the new companies, Google, Yahoo. +There's only one thing that all the successful companies in the world have in common, only one: None were started by one person. +Never the word "I," and the word "we" 32 times. +He wasn't alone when he started. +Nobody started a company alone. No one. +So we can create the community where we have facilitators who come from a small business background sitting in cafes, in bars, and your dedicated buddies who will do to you, what somebody did for this gentleman who talks about this epic, somebody who will say to you, "What do you need? +What can you do? Can you make it? +Okay, can you sell it? Can you look after the money?" +"Oh, no, I cannot do this.""Would you like me to find you somebody?" +We activate communities. +Thank you. +There are a lot of ways the people around us can help improve our lives. +We don't bump into every neighbor, so a lot of wisdom never gets passed on, though we do share the same public spaces. +So over the past few years, I've tried ways to share more with my neighbors in public space, using simple tools like stickers, stencils and chalk. +And these projects came from questions I had, like: How much are my neighbors paying for their apartments? +How can we lend and borrow more things, without knocking on each other's doors at a bad time? +How can we share more memories of our abandoned buildings, and gain a better understanding of our landscape? +How can we share more of our hopes for our vacant storefronts, so our communities can reflect our needs and dreams today? +Now, I live in New Orleans, and I am in love with New Orleans. +My soul is always soothed by the giant live oak trees, shading lovers, drunks and dreamers for hundreds of years, and I trust a city that always makes way for music. +I feel like every time someone sneezes, New Orleans has a parade. The city has some of the most beautiful architecture in the world, but it also has one of the highest amounts of abandoned properties in America. +I live near this house, and I thought about how I could make it a nicer space for my neighborhood, and I also thought about something that changed my life forever. +In 2009, I lost someone I loved very much. +Her name was Joan, and she was a mother to me. +And her death was sudden and unexpected. +And I thought about death a lot. +And ... this made me feel deep gratitude for the time I've had. +And ... brought clarity to the things that are meaningful to my life now. +But I struggle to maintain this perspective in my daily life. +I feel like it's easy to get caught up in the day-to-day, and forget what really matters to you. +So with help from old and new friends, I turned the side of this abandoned house into a giant chalkboard, and stenciled it with a fill-in-the-blank sentence: "Before I die, I want to ..." +So anyone walking by can pick up a piece of chalk, and share their personal aspirations in public space. +I didn't know what to expect from this experiment, but by the next day, the wall was entirely filled out, and it kept growing. +And I'd like to share a few things that people wrote on this wall. +"Before I die, I want to be tried for piracy." "Before I die, I want to straddle the International Dateline." +"Before I die, I want to sing for millions." +"Before I die, I want to plant a tree." +"Before I die, I want to live off the grid." +"Before I die, I want to hold her one more time." +"Before I die, I want to be someone's cavalry." +"Before I die, I want to be completely myself." +So this neglected space became a constructive one, and people's hopes and dreams made me laugh out loud, tear up, and they consoled me during my own tough times. +It's about knowing you're not alone; it's about understanding our neighbors in new and enlightening ways; it's about making space for reflection and contemplation, and remembering what really matters most to us as we grow and change. +I made this last year, and started receiving hundreds of messages from passionate people who wanted to make a wall with their community. +So, my civic center colleagues and I made a tool kit, and now walls have been made in countries around the world, including Kazakhstan, South Africa, Australia, Argentina, and beyond. +Together, we've shown how powerful our public spaces can be if we're given the opportunity to have a voice, and share more with one another. +Two of the most valuable things we have are time, and our relationships with other people. +In our age of increasing distractions, it's more important than ever to find ways to maintain perspective, and remember that life is brief and tender. +Death is something that we're often discouraged to talk about, or even think about, but I've realized that preparing for death is one of the most empowering things you can do. +Thinking about death clarifies your life. +Our shared spaces can better reflect what matters to us, as individuals and as a community, and with more ways to share our hopes, fears and stories, the people around us can not only help us make better places, they can help us lead better lives. +Thank you. +Thank you. +Today I have just one request. +Please don't tell me I'm normal. +Now I'd like to introduce you to my brothers. +Remi is 22, tall and very handsome. +He's speechless, but he communicates joy in a way that some of the best orators cannot. +Remi knows what love is. +He shares it unconditionally and he shares it regardless. +He's not greedy. He doesn't see skin color. +He doesn't care about religious differences, and get this: He has never told a lie. +When he sings songs from our childhood, attempting words that not even I could remember, he reminds me of one thing: how little we know about the mind, and how wonderful the unknown must be. +Samuel is 16. He's tall. He's very handsome. +He has the most impeccable memory. +He has a selective one, though. +He doesn't remember if he stole my chocolate bar, but he remembers the year of release for every song on my iPod, conversations we had when he was four, weeing on my arm on the first ever episode of Teletubbies, and Lady Gaga's birthday. +Don't they sound incredible? +But most people don't agree. +And in fact, because their minds don't fit into society's version of normal, they're often bypassed and misunderstood. +But what lifted my heart and strengthened my soul was that even though this was the case, although they were not seen as ordinary, this could only mean one thing: that they were extraordinary -- autistic and extraordinary. +Now, for you who may be less familiar with the term "autism," it's a complex brain disorder that affects social communication, learning and sometimes physical skills. +It manifests in each individual differently, hence why Remi is so different from Sam. +And across the world, every 20 minutes, one new person is diagnosed with autism, and although it's one of the fastest-growing developmental disorders in the world, there is no known cause or cure. +And I cannot remember the first moment I encountered autism, but I cannot recall a day without it. +I was just three years old when my brother came along, and I was so excited that I had a new being in my life. +And after a few months went by, I realized that he was different. +He screamed a lot. +He didn't want to play like the other babies did, and in fact, he didn't seem very interested in me whatsoever. +Remi lived and reigned in his own world, with his own rules, and he found pleasure in the smallest things, like lining up cars around the room and staring at the washing machine and eating anything that came in between. +And as he grew older, he grew more different, and the differences became more obvious. +Yet beyond the tantrums and the frustration and the never-ending hyperactivity was something really unique: a pure and innocent nature, a boy who saw the world without prejudice, a human who had never lied. +Extraordinary. +Now, I cannot deny that there have been some challenging moments in my family, moments where I've wished that they were just like me. +But I cast my mind back to the things that they've taught me about individuality and communication and love, and I realize that these are things that I wouldn't want to change with normality. +Normality overlooks the beauty that differences give us, and the fact that we are different doesn't mean that one of us is wrong. +It just means that there's a different kind of right. +And if I could communicate just one thing to Remi and to Sam and to you, it would be that you don't have to be normal. +You can be extraordinary. +Because autistic or not, the differences that we have -- We've got a gift! Everyone's got a gift inside of us, and in all honesty, the pursuit of normality is the ultimate sacrifice of potential. +The chance for greatness, for progress and for change dies the moment we try to be like someone else. +Please -- don't tell me I'm normal. +Thank you. +Five years ago, I experienced a bit of what it must have been like to be Alice in Wonderland. +Penn State asked me, a communications teacher, to teach a communications class for engineering students. +And I was scared. Really scared. Scared of these students with their big brains and their big books and their big, unfamiliar words. +But as these conversations unfolded, I experienced what Alice must have when she went down that rabbit hole and saw that door to a whole new world. +That's just how I felt as I had those conversations with the students. I was amazed at the ideas that they had, and I wanted others to experience this wonderland as well. +And I believe the key to opening that door is great communication. +We desperately need great communication from our scientists and engineers in order to change the world. +Our scientists and engineers are the ones that are tackling our grandest challenges, from energy to environment to health care, among others, and if we don't know about it and understand it, then the work isn't done, and I believe it's our responsibility as non-scientists to have these interactions. +But these great conversations can't occur if our scientists and engineers don't invite us in to see their wonderland. +So scientists and engineers, please, talk nerdy to us. +I want to share a few keys on how you can do that to make sure that we can see that your science is sexy and that your engineering is engaging. +First question to answer for us: so what? +Tell us why your science is relevant to us. +Don't just tell me that you study trabeculae, but tell me that you study trabeculae, which is the mesh-like structure of our bones because it's important to understanding and treating osteoporosis. +And when you're describing your science, beware of jargon. +Jargon is a barrier to our understanding of your ideas. +Sure, you can say "spatial and temporal," but why not just say "space and time," which is so much more accessible to us? +And making your ideas accessible is not the same as dumbing it down. +Instead, as Einstein said, make everything as simple as possible, but no simpler. +You can clearly communicate your science without compromising the ideas. +A few things to consider are having examples, stories and analogies. Those are ways to engage and excite us about your content. +And when presenting your work, drop the bullet points. +Have you ever wondered why they're called bullet points? What do bullets do? Bullets kill, and they will kill your presentation. +A slide like this is not only boring, but it relies too much on the language area of our brain, and causes us to become overwhelmed. +Instead, this example slide by Genevieve Brown is much more effective. It's showing that the special structure of trabeculae are so strong that they actually inspired the unique design of the Eiffel Tower. +And the trick here is to use a single, readable sentence that the audience can key into if they get a bit lost, and then provide visuals which appeal to our other senses and create a deeper sense of understanding of what's being described. +So I think these are just a few keys that can help the rest of us to open that door and see the wonderland that is science and engineering. +And so, scientists and engineers, when you've solved this equation, by all means, talk nerdy to me. Thank you. +One of my favorite words in the whole of the Oxford English Dictionary is "snollygoster." +Just because it sounds so good. +And what snollygoster means is "a dishonest politician." +Although there was a 19th-century newspaper editor who defined it rather better when he said, "A snollygoster is a fellow who seeks office regardless of party, platform or principle, and who, when he wins, gets there by the sheer force of monumental talknophical assumnancy." +Now I have no idea what "talknophical" is. +Something to do with words, I assume. +But it's very important that words are at the center of politics, and all politicians know they have to try and control language. +It wasn't until, for example, 1771 that the British Parliament allowed newspapers to report the exact words that were said in the debating chamber. +And this was actually all down to the bravery of a guy with the extraordinary name of Brass Crosby, who took on Parliament. +And he was thrown into the Tower of London and imprisoned, but he was brave enough, he was brave enough to take them on, and in the end he had such popular support in London that he won. +And it was only a few years later that we have the first recorded use of the phrase "as bold as brass." +Most people think that's down to the metal. +It's not. It's down to a campaigner for the freedom of the press. +But to really show you how words and politics interact, I want to take you back to the United States of America, just after they'd achieved independence. +And they had to face the question of what to call George Washington, their leader. +They didn't know. +What do you call the leader of a republican country? +And this was debated in Congress for ages and ages. +And there were all sorts of suggestions on the table, which might have made it. +I mean, some people wanted him to be called Chief Magistrate Washington, and other people, His Highness George Washington, and other people, Protector of the Liberties of the People of the United States of America Washington. +Not that catchy. +Some people just wanted to call him King. +They thought it was tried and tested. +And they weren't even being monarchical there, they had the idea that you could be elected King for a fixed term. +And, you know, it could have worked. +And everybody got insanely bored, actually, because this debate went on for three weeks. +I read a diary of this poor senator, who just keeps coming back, "Still on this subject." +And the reason for the delay and the boredom was that the House of Representatives were against the Senate. +The House of Representatives didn't want Washington to get drunk on power. +They didn't want to call him King in case that gave him ideas, or his successor ideas. +So they wanted to give him the humblest, meagerest, most pathetic title that they could think of. +And that title was "President." +President. They didn't invent the title. I mean, it existed before, but it just meant somebody who presides over a meeting. +It was like the foreman of the jury. +And it didn't have much more grandeur than the term "foreman" or "overseer." +There were occasional presidents of little colonial councils and bits of government, but it was really a nothing title. +And that's why the Senate objected to it. +They said, that's ridiculous, you can't call him President. +This guy has to go and sign treaties and meet foreign dignitaries. +And who's going to take him seriously if he's got a silly little title like President of the United States of America? +And after three weeks of debate, in the end the Senate did not cave in. +Now you can learn three interesting things from this. +First of all -- and this is my favorite -- is that so far as I've ever been able to find out, the Senate has never formally endorsed the title of President. +Barack Obama, President Obama, is there on borrowed time, just waiting for the Senate to spring into action. +Second thing you can learn is that when a government says that this is a temporary measure -- -- you can still be waiting 223 years later. +But the third thing you can learn, and this is the really important one, this is the point I want to leave you on, is that the title, President of the United States of America, doesn't sound that humble at all these days, does it? +Something to do with the slightly over 5,000 nuclear warheads he has at his disposal and the largest economy in the world and a fleet of drones and all that sort of stuff. +Reality and history have endowed that title with grandeur. +And so the Senate won in the end. +They got their title of respectability. +And also, the Senate's other worry, the appearance of singularity -- well, it was a singularity back then. +But now, do you know how many nations have a president? +All because they want to sound like the guy who's got the 5,000 nuclear warheads, etc. +And so, in the end, the Senate won and the House of Representatives lost, because nobody's going to feel that humble when they're told that they are now the President of the United States of America. +And that's the important lesson I think you can take away, and the one I want to leave you with. +Politicians try to pick words and use words to shape reality and control reality, but in fact, reality changes words far more than words can ever change reality. +Thank you very much. +I'm 150 feet down an illegal mine shaft in Ghana. +The air is thick with heat and dust, and it's hard to breathe. +I can feel the brush of sweaty bodies passing me in the darkness, but I can't see much else. +I hear voices talking, but mostly the shaft is this cacophony of men coughing, and stone being broken with primitive tools. +Like the others, I wear a flickering, cheap flashlight tied to my head with this elastic, tattered band, and I can barely make out the slick tree limbs holding up the walls of the three-foot square hole dropping hundreds of feet into the earth. +When my hand slips, I suddenly remember a miner I had met days before who had lost his grip and fell countless feet down that shaft. +As I stand talking to you today, these men are still deep in that hole, risking their lives without payment or compensation, and often dying. +I got to climb out of that hole, and I got to go home, but they likely never will, because they're trapped in slavery. +For the last 28 years, I've been documenting indigenous cultures in more than 70 countries on six continents, and in 2009 I had the great honor of being the sole exhibitor at the Vancouver Peace Summit. +Amongst all the astonishing people I met there, I met a supporter of Free the Slaves, an NGO dedicated to eradicating modern day slavery. +We started talking about slavery, and really, I started learning about slavery, for I had certainly known it existed in the world, but not to such a degree. +After we finished talking, I felt so horrible and honestly ashamed at my own lack of knowledge of this atrocity in my own lifetime, and I thought, if I don't know, how many other people don't know? +It started burning a hole in my stomach, so within weeks, I flew down to Los Angeles to meet with the director of Free the Slaves and offer them my help. +Thus began my journey into modern day slavery. +Oddly, I had been to many of these places before. +Some I even considered like my second home. +But this time, I would see the skeletons hidden in the closet. +A conservative estimate tells us there are more than 27 million people enslaved in the world today. +That's double the amount of people taken from Africa during the entire trans-Atlantic slave trade. +A hundred and fifty years ago, an agricultural slave cost about three times the annual salary of an American worker. +That equates to about $50,000 in today's money. +Yet today, entire families can be enslaved for generations over a debt as small as $18. +Astonishingly, slavery generates profits of more than $13 billion worldwide each year. +Many have been tricked by false promises of a good education, a better job, only to find that they're forced to work without pay under the threat of violence, and they cannot walk away. +Today's slavery is about commerce, so the goods that enslaved people produce have value, but the people producing them are disposable. +Slavery exists everywhere, nearly, in the world, and yet it is illegal everywhere in the world. +In India and Nepal, I was introduced to the brick kilns. +This strange and awesome sight was like walking into ancient Egypt or Dante's Inferno. +Enveloped in temperatures of 130 degrees, men, women, children, entire families in fact, were cloaked in a heavy blanket of dust, while mechanically stacking bricks on their head, up to 18 at a time, and carrying them from the scorching kilns to trucks hundreds of yards away. +Deadened by monotony and exhaustion, they work silently, doing this task over and over for 16 or 17 hours a day. +There were no breaks for food, no water breaks, and the severe dehydration made urinating pretty much inconsequential. +So pervasive was the heat and the dust that my camera became too hot to even touch and ceased working. +Every 20 minutes, I'd have to run back to our cruiser to clean out my gear and run it under an air conditioner to revive it, and as I sat there, I thought, my camera is getting far better treatment than these people. +Back in the kilns, I wanted to cry, but the abolitionist next to me quickly grabbed me and he said, "Lisa, don't do that. Just don't do that here." +And he very clearly explained to me that emotional displays are very dangerous in a place like this, not just for me, but for them. +I couldn't offer them any direct help. +I couldn't give them money, nothing. +I wasn't a citizen of that country. +I could get them in a worse situation than they were already in. +I'd have to rely on Free the Slaves to work within the system for their liberation, and I trusted that they would. +As for me, I'd have to wait until I got home to really feel my heartbreak. +In the Himalayas, I found children carrying stone for miles down mountainous terrain to trucks waiting at roads below. +The big sheets of slate were heavier than the children carrying them, and the kids hoisted them from their heads using these handmade harnesses of sticks and rope and torn cloth. +It's difficult to witness something so overwhelming. +How can we affect something so insidious, yet so pervasive? +Some don't even know they're enslaved, people working 16, 17 hours a day without any pay, because this has been the case all their lives. +They have nothing to compare it to. +When these villagers claimed their freedom, the slaveholders burned down all of their houses. +Sex trafficking is what we often think of when we hear the word slavery, and because of this worldwide awareness, I was warned that it would be difficult for me to work safely within this particular industry. +In Kathmandu, I was escorted by women who had previously been sex slaves themselves. +They ushered me down a narrow set of stairs that led to this dirty, dimly fluorescent lit basement. +This wasn't a brothel, per se. +It was more like a restaurant. +Cabin restaurants, as they're known in the trade, are venues for forced prostitution. +Each has small, private rooms, where the slaves, women, along with young girls and boys, some as young as seven years old, are forced to entertain the clients, encouraging them to buy more food and alcohol. +Each cubicle is dark and dingy, identified with a painted number on the wall, and partitioned by plywood and a curtain. +The workers here often endure tragic sexual abuse at the hands of their customers. +Standing in the near darkness, I remember feeling this quick, hot fear, and in that instant, I could only imagine what it must be like to be trapped in that hell. +I had only one way out: the stairs from where I'd come in. +There were no back doors. +There were no windows large enough to climb through. +These people have no escape at all, and as we take in such a difficult subject, it's important to note that slavery, including sex trafficking, occurs in our own backyard as well. +Tens of hundreds of people are enslaved in agriculture, in restaurants, in domestic servitude, and the list can go on. +Recently, the New York Times reported that between 100,000 and 300,000 American children are sold into sex slavery every year. +It's all around us. We just don't see it. +The textile industry is another one we often think of when we hear about slave labor. +I visited villages in India where entire families were enslaved in the silk trade. +This is a family portrait. +The dyed black hands are the father, while the blue and red hands are his sons. +They mix dye in these big barrels, and they submerge the silk into the liquid up to their elbows, but the dye is toxic. +My interpreter told me their stories. +"We have no freedom," they said. +"We hope still, though, that we could leave this house someday and go someplace else where we actually get paid for our dyeing." +It's estimated that more than 4,000 children are enslaved on Lake Volta, the largest man-made lake in the world. +When we first arrived, I went to have a quick look. +I saw what seemed to be a family fishing on a boat, two older brothers, some younger kids, makes sense right? +Wrong. They were all enslaved. +Children are taken from their families and trafficked and vanished, and they're forced to work endless hours on these boats on the lake, even though they do not know how to swim. +This young child is eight years old. +He was trembling when our boat approached, frightened it would run over his tiny canoe. +He was petrified he would be knocked in the water. +The skeletal tree limbs submerged in Lake Volta often catch the fishing nets, and weary, frightened children are thrown into the water to untether the lines. +Many of them drown. +For as long as he can recall, he's been forced to work on the lake. +Terrified of his master, he will not run away, and since he's been treated with cruelty all his life, he passes that down to the younger slaves that he manages. +I met these boys at five in the morning, when they were hauling in the last of their nets, but they had been working since 1 a.m. +in the cold, windy night. +And it's important to note that these nets weigh more than a thousand pounds when they're full of fish. +I want to introduce you to Kofi. +Kofi was rescued from a fishing village. +I met him at a shelter where Free the Slaves rehabilitates victims of slavery. +Kofi is the embodiment of possibility. +Who will he become because someone took a stand and made a difference in his life? +Driving down a road in Ghana with partners of Free the Slaves, a fellow abolitionist on a moped suddenly sped up to our cruiser and tapped on the window. +He told us to follow him down a dirt road into the jungle. +At the end of the road, he urged us out of the car, and told the driver to quickly leave. +Then he pointed toward this barely visible footpath, and said, "This is the path, this is the path. Go." +As we started down the path, we pushed aside the vines blocking the way, and after about an hour of walking in, found that the trail had become flooded by recent rains, so I hoisted the photo gear above my head as we descended into these waters up to my chest. +After another two hours of hiking, the winding trail abruptly ended at a clearing, and before us was a mass of holes that could fit into the size of a football field, and all of them were full of enslaved people laboring. +Many women had children strapped to their backs while they were panning for gold, wading in water poisoned by mercury. +Mercury is used in the extraction process. +These miners are enslaved in a mine shaft in another part of Ghana. +When they came out of the shaft, they were soaking wet from their own sweat. +I remember looking into their tired, bloodshot eyes, for many of them had been underground for 72 hours. +The shafts are up to 300 feet deep, and they carry out heavy bags of stone that later will be transported to another area, where the stone will be pounded so that they can extract the gold. +At first glance, the pounding site seems full of powerful men, but when we look closer, we see some less fortunate working on the fringes, and children too. +All of them are victim to injury, illness and violence. +In fact, it's very likely that this muscular person will end up like this one here, racked with tuberculosis and mercury poisoning in just a few years. +This is Manuru. When his father died, his uncle trafficked him to work with him in the mines. +When his uncle died, Manuru inherited his uncle's debt, which further forced him into being enslaved in the mines. +When I met him, he had been working in the mines for 14 years, and the leg injury that you see here is actually from a mining accident, one so severe doctors say his leg should be amputated. +On top of that, Manuru has tuberculosis, yet he's still forced to work day in and day out in that mine shaft. +Even still, he has a dream that he will become free and become educated with the help of local activists like Free the Slaves, and it's this sort of determination, in the face of unimaginable odds, that fills me with complete awe. +I want to shine a light on slavery. +They knew their image would be seen by you out in the world. +I wanted them to know that we will be bearing witness to them, and that we will do whatever we can to help make a difference in their lives. +I truly believe, if we can see one another as fellow human beings, then it becomes very difficult to tolerate atrocities like slavery. +These images are not of issues. They are of people, real people, like you and me, all deserving of the same rights, dignity and respect in their lives. +There is not a day that goes by that I don't think of these many beautiful, mistreated people I've had the tremendous honor of meeting. +I hope that these images awaken a force in those who view them, people like you, and I hope that force will ignite a fire, and that fire will shine a light on slavery, for without that light, the beast of bondage can continue to live in the shadows. +Thank you very much. +So, well, I do applied math, and this is a peculiar problem for anyone who does applied math, is that we are like management consultants. +No one knows what the hell we do. +So I am going to give you some -- attempt today to try and explain to you what I do. +So, dancing is one of the most human of activities. +We delight at ballet virtuosos and tap dancers you will see later on. +Now, ballet requires an extraordinary level of expertise and a high level of skill, and probably a level of initial suitability that may well have a genetic component to it. +Now, sadly, neurological disorders such as Parkinson's disease gradually destroy this extraordinary ability, as it is doing to my friend Jan Stripling, who was a virtuoso ballet dancer in his time. +So great progress and treatment has been made over the years. +However, there are 6.3 million people worldwide who have the disease, and they have to live with incurable weakness, tremor, rigidity and the other symptoms that go along with the disease, so what we need are objective tools to detect the disease before it's too late. +We need to be able to measure progression objectively, and ultimately, the only way we're going to know when we actually have a cure is when we have an objective measure that can answer that for sure. +But frustratingly, with Parkinson's disease and other movement disorders, there are no biomarkers, so there's no simple blood test that you can do, and the best that we have is like this 20-minute neurologist test. +You have to go to the clinic to do it. It's very, very costly, and that means that, outside the clinical trials, it's just never done. It's never done. +But what if patients could do this test at home? +Now, that would actually save on a difficult trip to the clinic, and what if patients could do that test themselves, right? +No expensive staff time required. +Takes about $300, by the way, in the neurologist's clinic to do it. +So what I want to propose to you as an unconventional way in which we can try to achieve this, because, you see, in one sense, at least, we are all virtuosos like my friend Jan Stripling. +So here we have a video of the vibrating vocal folds. +Now, this is healthy and this is somebody making speech sounds, and we can think of ourselves as vocal ballet dancers, because we have to coordinate all of these vocal organs when we make sounds, and we all actually have the genes for it. FoxP2, for example. +And like ballet, it takes an extraordinary level of training. +I mean, just think how long it takes a child to learn to speak. +From the sound, we can actually track the vocal fold position as it vibrates, and just as the limbs are affected in Parkinson's, so too are the vocal organs. +So on the bottom trace, you can see an example of irregular vocal fold tremor. +We see all the same symptoms. +We see vocal tremor, weakness and rigidity. +The speech actually becomes quieter and more breathy after a while, and that's one of the example symptoms of it. +So these voice-based tests, how do they stack up against expert clinical tests? We'll, they're both non-invasive. +The neurologist's test is non-invasive. They both use existing infrastructure. +You don't have to design a whole new set of hospitals to do it. +And they're both accurate. Okay, but in addition, voice-based tests are non-expert. +That means they can be self-administered. +They're high-speed, take about 30 seconds at most. +They're ultra-low cost, and we all know what happens. +When something becomes ultra-low cost, it becomes massively scalable. +So here are some amazing goals that I think we can deal with now. +We can reduce logistical difficulties with patients. +No need to go to the clinic for a routine checkup. +We can do high-frequency monitoring to get objective data. +We can perform low-cost mass recruitment for clinical trials, and we can make population-scale screening feasible for the first time. +We have the opportunity to start to search for the early biomarkers of the disease before it's too late. +So, taking the first steps towards this today, we're launching the Parkinson's Voice Initiative. +With Aculab and PatientsLikeMe, we're aiming to record a very large number of voices worldwide to collect enough data to start to tackle these four goals. +We have local numbers accessible to three quarters of a billion people on the planet. +Anyone healthy or with Parkinson's can call in, cheaply, and leave recordings, a few cents each, and I'm really happy to announce that we've already hit six percent of our target just in eight hours. +Thank you. Tom Rielly: So Max, by taking all these samples of, let's say, 10,000 people, you'll be able to tell who's healthy and who's not? +What are you going to get out of those samples? +Max Little: Yeah. Yeah. So what will happen is that, during the call you have to indicate whether or not you have the disease or not, you see. TR: Right. +ML: You see, some people may not do it. They may not get through it. +But we'll get a very large sample of data that is collected from all different circumstances, and it's getting it in different circumstances that matter because then we are looking at ironing out the confounding factors, and looking for the actual markers of the disease. +TR: So you're 86 percent accurate right now? +ML: It's much better than that. +Actually, my student Thanasis, I have to plug him, because he's done some fantastic work, and now he has proved that it works over the mobile telephone network as well, which enables this project, and we're getting 99 percent accuracy. +TR: Ninety-nine. Well, that's an improvement. +ML: Absolutely. +TR: Thanks so much. Max Little, everybody. +ML: Thanks, Tom. +Before March, 2011, I was a photographic retoucher based in New York City. +We're pale, gray creatures. +We hide in dark, windowless rooms, and generally avoid sunlight. +We make skinny models skinnier, perfect skin more perfect, and the impossible possible, and we get criticized in the press all the time, but some of us are actually talented artists with years of experience and a real appreciation for images and photography. +On March 11, 2011, I watched from home, as the rest of the world did, as the tragic events unfolded in Japan. +Soon after, an organization I volunteer with, All Hands Volunteers, were on the ground, within days, working as part of the response efforts. +I, along with hundreds of other volunteers, knew we couldn't just sit at home, so I decided to join them for three weeks. +On May the 13th, I made my way to the town of funato. +It's a small fishing town in Iwate Prefecture, about 50,000 people, one of the first that was hit by the wave. +The waters here have been recorded at reaching over 24 meters in height, and traveled over two miles inland. +As you can imagine, the town had been devastated. +We pulled debris from canals and ditches. +We cleaned schools. We de-mudded and gutted homes ready for renovation and rehabilitation. +We cleared tons and tons of stinking, rotting fish carcasses from the local fish processing plant. +We got dirty, and we loved it. +For weeks, all the volunteers and locals alike had been finding similar things. +They'd been finding photos and photo albums and cameras and SD cards. +And everyone was doing the same. +They were collecting them up, and handing them in to various places around the different towns for safekeeping. +Now, it wasn't until this point that I realized that these photos were such a huge part of the personal loss these people had felt. +As they had run from the wave, and for their lives, absolutely everything they had, everything had to be left behind. +At the end of my first week there, I found myself helping out in an evacuation center in the town. +I was helping clean the onsen, the communal onsen, the huge giant bathtubs. +This happened to also be a place in the town where the evacuation center was collecting the photos. +This is where people were handing them in, and I was honored that day that they actually trusted me to help them start hand-cleaning them. +Now, it was emotional and it was inspiring, and I've always heard about thinking outside the box, but it wasn't until I had actually gotten outside of my box that something happened. +As I looked through the photos, there were some were over a hundred years old, some still in the envelope from the processing lab, I couldn't help but think as a retoucher that I could fix that tear and mend that scratch, and I knew hundreds of people who could do the same. +So that evening, I just reached out on Facebook and asked a few of them, and by morning the response had been so overwhelming and so positive, I knew we had to give it a go. +So we started retouching photos. +This was the very first. +Not terribly damaged, but where the water had caused that discoloration on the girl's face had to be repaired with such accuracy and delicacy. +Otherwise, that little girl isn't going to look like that little girl anymore, and surely that's as tragic as having the photo damaged. +Over time, more photos came in, thankfully, and more retouchers were needed, and so I reached out again on Facebook and LinkedIn, and within five days, 80 people wanted to help from 12 different countries. +Within two weeks, I had 150 people wanting to join in. +Within Japan, by July, we'd branched out to the neighboring town of Rikuzentakata, further north to a town called Yamada. +Once a week, we would set up our scanning equipment in the temporary photo libraries that had been set up, where people were reclaiming their photos. +The time it took, however, to get it back is a completely different story, and it depended obviously on the damage involved. +It could take an hour. It could take weeks. +It could take months. +The kimono in this shot pretty much had to be hand-drawn, or pieced together, picking out the remaining parts of color and detail that the water hadn't damaged. +It was very time-consuming. +Now, all these photos had been damaged by water, submerged in salt water, covered in bacteria, in sewage, sometimes even in oil, all of which over time is going to continue to damage them, so hand-cleaning them was a huge part of the project. +We couldn't retouch the photo unless it was cleaned, dry and reclaimed. +Now, we were lucky with our hand-cleaning. +We had an amazing local woman who guided us. +It's very easy to do more damage to those damaged photos. +As my team leader Wynne once said, it's like doing a tattoo on someone. +You don't get a chance to mess it up. +The lady who brought us these photos was lucky, as far as the photos go. +She had started hand-cleaning them herself and stopped when she realized she was doing more damage. +She also had duplicates. +Areas like her husband and her face, which otherwise would have been completely impossible to fix, we could just put them together in one good photo, and remake the whole photo. +When she collected the photos from us, she shared a bit of her story with us. +Her photos were found by her husband's colleagues at a local fire department in the debris a long way from where the home had once stood, and they'd recognized him. +The day of the tsunami, he'd actually been in charge of making sure the tsunami gates were closed. +He had to go towards the water as the sirens sounded. +Her two little boys, not so little anymore, but her two boys were both at school, separate schools. +One of them got caught up in the water. +It took her a week to find them all again and find out that they had all survived. +The day I gave her the photos also happened to be her youngest son's 14th birthday. +For her, despite all of this, those photos were the perfect gift back to him, something he could look at again, something he remembered from before that wasn't still scarred from that day in March when absolutely everything else in his life had changed or been destroyed. +After six months in Japan, 1,100 volunteers had passed through All Hands, hundreds of whom had helped us hand-clean over 135,000 photographs, the large majority a large majority of which did actually find their home again, importantly. +Over five hundred volunteers around the globe helped us get 90 families hundreds of photographs back, fully restored and retouched. +During this time, we hadn't really spent more than about a thousand dollars in equipment and materials, most of which was printer inks. +We take photos constantly. +A photo is a reminder of someone or something, a place, a relationship, a loved one. +They're our memory-keepers and our histories, the last thing we would grab and the first thing you'd go back to look for. +That's all this project was about, about restoring those little bits of humanity, giving someone that connection back. +When a photo like this can be returned to someone like this, it makes a huge difference in the lives of the person receiving it. +The project's also made a big difference in the lives of the retouchers. +For some of them, it's given them a connection to something bigger, giving something back, using their talents on something other than skinny models and perfect skin. +I would like to conclude by reading an email I got from one of them, Cindy, the day I finally got back from Japan after six months. +"As I worked, I couldn't help but think about the individuals and the stories represented in the images. +One in particular, a photo of women of all ages, from grandmother to little girl, gathered around a baby, struck a chord, because a similar photo from my family, my grandmother and mother, myself, and newborn daughter, hangs on our wall. +Across the globe, throughout the ages, our basic needs are just the same, aren't they?" +Thank you. +Doc Edgerton inspired us with awe and curiosity with this photo of a bullet piercing through an apple, and exposure just a millionth of a second. +But now, 50 years later, we can go a million times faster and see the world not at a million or a billion, but one trillion frames per second. +I present to you a new type of photography, femto-photography, a new imaging technique so fast that it can create slow motion videos of light in motion. +And with that, we can create cameras that can look around corners, beyond line of sight, or see inside our body without an x-ray, and really challenge what we mean by a camera. +Now if I take a laser pointer and turn it on and off in one trillionth of a second -- which is several femtoseconds -- I'll create a packet of photons barely a millimeter wide. +And that packet of photons, that bullet, will travel at the speed of light, and again, a million times faster than an ordinary bullet. +Now, if you take that bullet and take this packet of photons and fire into this bottle, how will those photons shatter into this bottle? +How does light look in slow motion? +[Light in Slow Motion ... 10 Billion x Slow] Now, the whole event -- Now remember, the whole event is effectively taking place in less than a nanosecond -- that's how much time it takes for light to travel. +But I'm slowing down in this video by a factor of 10 billion, so you can see the light in motion. +But Coca-Cola did not sponsor this research. Now, there's a lot going on in this movie, so let me break this down and show you what's going on. +So the pulse enters the bottle, our bullet, with a packet of photons that start traveling through and that start scattering inside. +Some of the light leaks, goes on the table, and you start seeing these ripples of waves. +Many of the photons eventually reach the cap and then they explode in various directions. +As you can see, there's a bubble of air and it's bouncing around inside. +Meanwhile, the ripples are traveling on the table, and because of the reflections at the top, you see at the back of the bottle, after several frames, the reflections are focused. +Now, if you take an ordinary bullet and let it go the same distance and slow down the video -- again, by a factor of 10 billion -- do you know how long you'll have to sit here to watch that movie? +A day, a week? Actually, a whole year. +It'll be a very boring movie -- of a slow, ordinary bullet in motion. +And what about some still-life photography? +You can watch the ripples, again, washing over the table, the tomato and the wall in the back. +It's like throwing a stone in a pond of water. +I thought: this is how nature paints a photo, one femto frame at a time, but of course our eye sees an integral composite. +But if you look at this tomato one more time, you will notice, as the light washes over the tomato, it continues to glow. +It doesn't become dark. Why is that? Because the tomato is actually ripe, and the light is bouncing around inside the tomato, and it comes out after several trillionths of a second. +So in the future, when this femto-camera is in your camera phone, you might be able to go to a supermarket and check if the fruit is ripe without actually touching it. +So how did my team at MIT create this camera? +Now, as photographers, you know, if you take a short exposure photo, you get very little light. +But we're going to go a billion times faster than your shortest exposure, so you're going to get hardly any light. +So what we do is we send that bullet -- that packet of photons -- millions of times, and record again and again with very clever synchronization, and from the gigabytes of data, we computationally weave together to create those femto-videos I showed you. +And we can take all that raw data and treat it in very interesting ways. +So, Superman can fly. +Some other heroes can become invisible. +But what about a new power for a future superhero: To see around corners. +The idea is that we could shine some light on the door, it's going to bounce, go inside the room, some of that is going to reflect back on the door, and then back to the camera. +And we could exploit these multiple bounces of light. +And it's not science fiction. We have actually built it. +On the left, you see our femto-camera. +There's a mannequin hidden behind a wall, and we're going to bounce light off the door. +So after our paper was published in Nature Communications, and they created this animation. +And a tiny fraction of the photons will actually come back to the camera, but most interestingly, they will all arrive at a slightly different time slot. +And because we have a camera that can run so fast -- our femto-camera -- it has some unique abilities. +It has very good time resolution, and it can look at the world at the speed of light. +And this way, we know the distances, of course to the door, but also to the hidden objects, but we don't know which point corresponds to which distance. +By shining one laser, we can record one raw photo, which, if you look on the screen, doesn't really make any sense. +But then we will take a lot of such pictures, dozens of such pictures, put them together, and try to analyze the multiple bounces of light, and from that, can we see the hidden object? +Can we see it in full 3D? +So this is our reconstruction. +Now, we have some ways to go before we take this outside the lab on the road, but in the future, we could create cars that avoid collisions with what's around the bend. +Or we can look for survivors in hazardous conditions by looking at light reflected through open windows. +Or we can build endoscopes that can see deep inside the body around occluders, and also for cardioscopes. +But of course, because of tissue and blood, this is quite challenging, so this is really a call for scientists to start thinking about femto-photography as really a new imaging modality to solve the next generation of health-imaging problems. +Now, like Doc Edgerton, a scientist himself, science became art -- an art of ultra-fast photography. +that all the gigabytes of data that we're collecting every time, are not just for scientific imaging. +But we can also do a new form of computational photography, with time-lapse and color coding. +And we look at those ripples. Remember: The time between each of those ripples is only a few trillionths of a second. +But there's also something funny going on here. +When you look at the ripples under the cap, the ripples are moving away from us. +The ripples should be moving towards us. +What's going on here? +It turns out, because we're recording nearly at the speed of light, we have strange effects, and Einstein would have loved to see this picture. +The order at which events take place in the world appears in the camera sometimes in reversed order. +So by applying the corresponding space and time warp, we can correct for this distortion. +It's about time. Thank you. +Hi. This is my mobile phone. +A mobile phone can change your life, and a mobile phone gives you individual freedom. +With a mobile phone, you can shoot a crime against humanity in Syria. +With a mobile phone, you can tweet a message and start a protest in Egypt. +And with a mobile phone, you can record a song, load it up to SoundCloud and become famous. +All this is possible with your mobile phone. +I'm a child of 1984, and I live in the city of Berlin. +Let's go back to that time, to this city. +Here you can see how hundreds of thousands of people stood up and protested for change. +This is autumn 1989, and imagine that all those people standing up and protesting for change had a mobile phone in their pocket. +Who in the room has a mobile phone with you? +Hold it up. +Hold your phones up, hold your phones up! +Hold it up. An Android, a Blackberry, wow. +That's a lot. Almost everybody today has a mobile phone. +But today I will talk about me and my mobile phone, and how it changed my life. +And I will talk about this. +These are 35,830 lines of information. +Raw data. +And why are these informations there? +Because in the summer of 2006, the E.U. Commission tabled a directive. +This directive [is] called Data Retention Directive. +This directive says that each phone company in Europe, each Internet service company all over Europe, has to store a wide range of information about the users. +Who calls whom? Who sends whom an email? +Who sends whom a text message? +And if you use your mobile phone, where you are. +All this information is stored for at least six months, up to two years by your phone company or your Internet service provider. +And all over Europe, people stood up and said, "We don't want this." +They said, we don't want this data retention. +We want self-determination in the digital age, and we don't want that phone companies and Internet companies have to store all this information about us. +They were lawyers, journalists, priests, they all said: "We don't want this." +And here you can see, like 10 thousands of people went out on the streets of Berlin and said, "Freedom, not fear." +And some even said, this would be Stasi 2.0. +Stasi was the secret police in East Germany. +And I also ask myself, does it really work? +Can they really store all this information about us? +Every time I use my mobile phone? +So I asked my phone company, Deutsche Telekom, which was at that time the largest phone company in Germany, and I asked them, please, send me all the information you have stored about me. +And I asked them once, and I asked them again, and I got no real answer. It was only blah blah answers. +But then I said, I want to have this information, because this is my life you are protocoling. +So I decided to start a lawsuit against them, because I wanted to have this information. +But Deutsche Telekom said, no, we will not give you this information. +So at the end, I had a settlement with them. +I'll put down the lawsuit and they will send me all the information I ask for. +Because in the mean time, the German Constitutional Court ruled that the implementation of this E.U. directive into German law was unconstitutional. +So I got this ugly brown envelope with a C.D. inside. +And on the C.D., this was on. +Thirty-five thousand eight hundred thirty lines of information. +At first I saw it, and I said, okay, it's a huge file. Okay. +But then after a while I realized, this is my life. +This is six months of my life, into this file. +So I was a little bit skeptical, what should I do with it? +Because you can see where I am, where I sleep at night, what I am doing. +But then I said, I want to go out with this information. +I want to make them public. +Because I want to show the people what does data retention mean. +So together with Zeit Online and Open Data City, I did this. +This is a visualization of six months of my life. +You can zoom in and zoom out, you can wind back and fast forward. +You can see every step I take. +And you can even see how I go from Frankfurt by train to Cologne, and how often I call in between. +All this is possible with this information. +That's a little bit scary. +But it is not only about me. +It's about all of us. +First, it's only like, I call my wife and she calls me, and we talk to each other a couple of times. +And then there are some friends calling me, and they call each other. +And after a while you are calling you, and you are calling you, and you have this great communication network. +But you can see how your people are communicating with each other, what times they call each other, when they go to bed. +You can see all of this. +You can see the hubs, like who are the leaders in the group. +If you have access to this information, you can see what your society is doing. +If you have access to this information, you can control your society. +This is a blueprint for countries like China and Iran. +This is a blueprint how to survey your society, because you know who talks to whom, who sends whom an email, all this is possible if you have access to this information. +And this information is stored for at least six months in Europe, up to two years. +Like I said at the beginning, imagine that all those people on the streets of Berlin in autumn of 1989 had a mobile phone in their pocket. +And the Stasi would have known who took part at this protest, and if the Stasi would have known who are the leaders behind it, this may never have happened. +The fall of the Berlin Wall would maybe not [have been] there. +And in the aftermath, also not the fall of the Iron Curtain. +Because today, state agencies and companies want to store as much information as they can get about us, online and offline. +They want to have the possibility to track our lives, and they want to store them for all time. +But self-determination and living in the digital age is no contradiction. +But you have to fight for your self-determination today. +You have to fight for it every day. +So, when you go home, tell your friends that privacy is a value of the 21st century, and it's not outdated. +When you go home, tell your representative only because companies and state agencies have the possibility to store certain information, they don't have to do it. +And if you don't believe me, ask your phone company what information they store about you. +So, in the future, every time you use your mobile phone, let it be a reminder to you that you have to fight for self-determination in the digital age. +Thank you. +Hello, TEDWomen, what's up. +Not good enough. +Hello, TEDWomen, what is up? +(Loud cheering) My name is Maysoon Zayid, and I am not drunk, but the doctor who delivered me was. +He cut my mom six different times in six different directions, suffocating poor little me in the process. +As a result, I have cerebral palsy, which means I shake all the time. +Look. +It's exhausting. +I'm like Shakira, Shakira meets Muhammad Ali. +CP is not genetic. +It's not a birth defect. You can't catch it. +No one put a curse on my mother's uterus, and I didn't get it because my parents are first cousins, which they are. +It only happens from accidents, like what happened to me on my birth day. +Now, I must warn you, I'm not inspirational. +And I don't want anyone in this room to feel bad for me, because at some point in your life, you have dreamt of being disabled. +Come on a journey with me. +It's Christmas Eve, you're at the mall, you're driving around in circles looking for parking, and what do you see? +Sixteen empty handicapped spaces. +And you're like, "God, can't I just be a little disabled?" +Also, I've got to tell you, I've got 99 problems, and palsy is just one. +If there was an Oppression Olympics, I would win the gold medal. +I'm Palestinian, Muslim, I'm female, I'm disabled, and I live in New Jersey. +If you don't feel better about yourself, maybe you should. +Cliffside Park, New Jersey is my hometown. +I have always loved the fact that my hood and my affliction share the same initials. +I also love the fact that if I wanted to walk from my house to New York City, I could. +A lot of people with CP don't walk, but my parents didn't believe in "can't." +My father's mantra was, "You can do it, yes you can can." +So, if my three older sisters were mopping, I was mopping. +If my three older sisters went to public school, my parents would sue the school system and guarantee that I went too, and if we didn't all get A's, we all got my mother's slipper. +My father taught me how to walk when I was five years old by placing my heels on his feet and just walking. +Another tactic that he used is he would dangle a dollar bill in front of me and have me chase it. +My inner stripper was very strong. +Yeah. No, by the first day of kindergarten, I was walking like a champ who had been punched one too many times. +Growing up, there were only six Arabs in my town, and they were all my family. +Now there are 20 Arabs in town, and they are still all my family. I don't think anyone even noticed we weren't Italian. +This was before 9/11 and before politicians thought it was appropriate to use "I hate Muslims" as a campaign slogan. +The people that I grew up with had no problem with my faith. +They did, however, seem very concerned that I would starve to death during Ramadan. +I would explain to them that I have enough fat to live off of for three whole months, so fasting from sunrise to sunset is a piece of cake. +I have tap-danced on Broadway. +Yeah, on Broadway. It's crazy. My parents couldn't afford physical therapy, so they sent me to dancing school. +I learned how to dance in heels, which means I can walk in heels. +And I'm from Jersey, and we are really concerned with being chic, so if my friends wore heels, so did I. +And when my friends went and spent their summer vacations on the Jersey Shore, I did not. +I spent my summers in a war zone, because my parents were afraid that if we didn't go back to Palestine every single summer, we'd grow up to be Madonna. +Summer vacations often consisted of my father trying to heal me, so I drank deer's milk, I had hot cups on my back, I was dunked in the Dead Sea, and I remember the water burning my eyes and thinking, "It's working! It's working!" +But one miracle cure we did find was yoga. +I have to tell you, it's very boring, but before I did yoga, I was a stand-up comedian who can't stand up. +And now I can stand on my head. +My parents reinforced this notion that I could do anything, that no dream was impossible, and my dream was to be on the daytime soap opera "General Hospital." +I went to college during affirmative action and got a sweet scholarship to ASU, Arizona State University, because I fit every single quota. +I was like the pet lemur of the theater department. +Everybody loved me. +I did all the less-than-intelligent kids' homework, I got A's in all of my classes, A's in all of their classes. +Every time I did a scene from "The Glass Menagerie," my professors would weep. +But I never got cast. +Finally, my senior year, ASU decided to do a show called "They Dance Real Slow in Jackson." +It's a play about a girl with CP. +I was a girl with CP. +So I start shouting from the rooftops, "I'm finally going to get a part! +I have cerebral palsy! +Free at last! Free at last! +Thank God almighty, I'm free at last!" +I didn't get the part. Sherry Brown got the part. +I went racing to the head of the theater department crying hysterically, like someone shot my cat, to ask her why, and she said it was because they didn't think I could do the stunts. +I said, "Excuse me, if I can't do the stunts, neither can the character." +This was a part that I was literally born to play they gave it to a non-palsy actress. +College was imitating life. +Hollywood has a sordid history of casting able-bodied actors to play disabled onscreen. +Upon graduating, I moved back home, and my first acting gig was as an extra on a daytime soap opera. +My dream was coming true. +And I knew that I would be promoted from "Diner Diner" to "Wacky Best Friend" in no time. +But instead, I remained a glorified piece of furniture that you could only recognize from the back of my head, and it became clear to me that casting directors didn't hire fluffy, ethnic, disabled actors. +They only hired perfect people. +But there were exceptions to the rule. +I grew up watching Whoopi Goldberg, Roseanne Barr, Ellen, and all of these women had one thing in common: they were comedians. +So I became a comic. +My first gig was driving famous comics from New York City to shows in New Jersey, and I'll never forget the face of the first comic I ever drove when he realized that he was speeding down the New Jersey Turnpike with a chick with CP driving him. +I've performed in clubs all over America, and I've also performed in Arabic in the Middle East, uncensored and uncovered. +Some people say I'm the first stand-up comic in the Arab world. +I never like to claim first, but I do know that they never heard that nasty little rumor that women aren't funny, and they find us hysterical. +In 2003, my brother from another mother and father Dean Obeidallah and I started the New York Arab-American Comedy Festival, now in its 10th year. +Our goal was to change the negative image of Arab-Americans in media, while also reminding casting directors that South Asian and Arab are not synonymous. +Mainstreaming Arabs was much, much easier than conquering the challenge against the stigma against disability. +My big break came in 2010. +I was invited to be a guest on the cable news show "Countdown with Keith Olbermann." +I walked in looking like I was going to the prom, and they shuffle me into a studio and seat me on a spinning, rolling chair. +So I looked at the stage manager and I'm like, "Excuse me, can I have another chair?" +And she looked at me and she went, "Five, four, three, two ..." +And we were live, right? +So I had to grip onto the anchor's desk so that I wouldn't roll off the screen during the segment, and when the interview was over, I was livid. +I had finally gotten my chance and I blew it, and I knew I would never get invited back. +But not only did Mr. Olbermann invite me back, he made me a full-time contributor, and he taped down my chair. +One fun fact I learned while on the air with Keith Olbermann was that humans on the Internet are scumbags. +People say children are cruel, but I was never made fun of as a child or an adult. +Suddenly, my disability on the world wide web is fair game. +I would look at clips online and see comments like, "Yo, why's she tweakin'?" +"Yo, is she retarded?" +And my favorite, "Poor Gumby-mouth terrorist. +What does she suffer from? +We should really pray for her." +One commenter even suggested that I add my disability to my credits: screenwriter, comedian, palsy. +Disability is as visual as race. +If a wheelchair user can't play Beyonc, then Beyonc can't play a wheelchair user. +The disabled are the largest Yeah, clap for that, man. Come on. +People with disabilities are the largest minority in the world, and we are the most underrepresented in entertainment. +The doctors said that I wouldn't walk, but I am here in front of you. +However, if I grew up with social media, I don't think I would be. +I hope that together, we can create more positive images of disability in the media and in everyday life. +Perhaps if there were more positive images, it would foster less hate on the Internet. +Or maybe not. +Maybe it still takes a village to teach our children well. +My crooked journey has taken me to some very spectacular places. +I got to walk the red carpet flanked by soap diva Susan Lucci and the iconic Loreen Arbus. +I got to act in a movie with Adam Sandler and work with my idol, the amazing Dave Matthews. +I toured the world as a headliner on Arabs Gone Wild. +I was a delegate representing the great state of New Jersey at the 2008 DNC. +And I founded Maysoon's Kids, a charity that hopes to give Palestinian refugee children a sliver of the chance my parents gave me. +(Applause ends) It was the only time that my father ever saw me perform live, and I dedicate this talk to his memory. +Allah yerhamak yaba. +My name is Maysoon Zayid, and if I can can, you can can. +I would like to talk to you about a story about a small town kid. +I don't know his name, but I do know his story. +He lives in a small village in southern Somalia. +His village is near Mogadishu. +Drought drives the small village into poverty and to the brink of starvation. +With nothing left for him there, he leaves for the big city, in this case, Mogadishu, the capital of Somalia. +When he arrives, there are no opportunities, no jobs, no way forward. +He ends up living in a tent city on the outskirts of Mogadishu. +Maybe a year passes, nothing. +One day, he's approached by a gentleman who offers to take him to lunch, then to dinner, to breakfast. +He meets this dynamic group of people, and they give him a break. +He's given a bit of money to buy himself some new clothes, money to send back home to his family. +He is introduced to this young woman. +He eventually gets married. +He starts this new life. +He has a purpose in life. +One beautiful day in Mogadishu, under an azure blue sky, a car bomb goes off. +That small town kid with the big city dreams was the suicide bomber, and that dynamic group of people were al Shabaab, a terrorist organization linked to al Qaeda. +So how does the story of a small town kid just trying to make it big in the city end up with him blowing himself up? +He was waiting. +He was waiting for an opportunity, waiting to begin his future, waiting for a way forward, and this was the first thing that came along. +This was the first thing that pulled him out of what we call waithood. +And his story repeats itself in urban centers around the world. +It is the story of the disenfranchised, unemployed urban youth who sparks riots in Johannesburg, sparks riots in London, who reaches out for something other than waithood. +For young people, the promise of the city, the big city dream is that of opportunity, of jobs, of wealth, but young people are not sharing in the prosperity of their cities. +Often it's youth who suffer from the highest unemployment rates. +By 2030, three out of five people living in cities will be under the age of 18. +If we do not include young people in the growth of our cities, if we do not provide them opportunities, the story of waithood, the gateway to terrorism, to violence, to gangs, will be the story of cities 2.0. +And in my city of birth, Mogadishu, 70 percent of young people suffer from unemployment. +70 percent don't work, don't go to school. +They pretty much do nothing. +I went back to Mogadishu last month, and I went to visit Madina Hospital, the hospital I was born in. +I remember standing in front of that bullet-ridden hospital thinking, what if I had never left? +What if I had been forced into that same state of waithood? +Would I have become a terrorist? +I'm not really sure about the answer. +My reason for being in Mogadishu that month was actually to host a youth leadership and entrepreneurship summit. +I brought together about 90 young Somali leaders. +We sat down and brainstormed on solutions to the biggest challenges facing their city. +One of the young men in the room was Aden. +He went to university in Mogadishu, graduated. +There were no jobs, no opportunities. +I remember him telling me, because he was a college graduate, unemployed, frustrated, that he was the perfect target for al Shabaab and other terrorist organizations, to be recruited. +They sought people like him out. +But his story takes a different route. +In Mogadishu, the biggest barrier to getting from point A to point B are the roads. +Twenty-three years of civil war have completely destroyed the road system, and a motorbike can be the easiest way to get around. +Aden saw an opportunity and seized it. +He started a motorbike company. +He began renting out motorbikes to local residents who couldn't normally afford them. +He bought 10 bikes, with the help of family and friends, and his dream is to eventually expand to several hundred within the next three years. +How is this story different? +What makes his story different? +I believe it is his ability to identify and seize a new opportunity. +It's entrepreneurship, and I believe entrepreneurship can be the most powerful tool against waithood. +It empowers young people to be the creators of the very economic opportunities they are so desperately seeking. +And you can train young people to be entrepreneurs. +I want to talk to you about a young man who attended one of my meetings, Mohamed Mohamoud, a florist. +He was helping me train some of the young people at the summit in entrepreneurship and how to be innovative and how to create a culture of entrepreneurship. +He's actually the first florist Mogadishu has seen in over 22 years, and until recently, until Mohamed came along, if you wanted flowers at your wedding, you used plastic bouquets shipped from abroad. +If you asked someone, "When was the last time you saw fresh flowers?" +for many who grew up under civil war, the answer would be, "Never." +So Mohamed saw an opportunity. +He started a landscaping and design floral company. +He created a farm right outside of Mogadishu, and started growing tulips and lilies, which he said could survive the harsh Mogadishu climate. +And he began delivering flowers to weddings, creating gardens at homes and businesses around the city, and he's now working on creating Mogadishu's first public park in 22 years. +There's no public park in Mogadishu. +He wants to create a space where families, young people, can come together, and, as he says, smell the proverbial roses. +And he doesn't grow roses because they use too much water, by the way. +So the first step is to inspire young people, and in that room, Mohamed's presence had a really profound impact on the youth in that room. +They had never really thought about starting up a business. +They've thought about working for an NGO, working for the government, but his story, his innovation, really had a strong impact on them. +He forced them to look at their city as a place of opportunity. +He empowered them to believe that they could be entrepreneurs, that they could be change makers. +By the end of the day, they were coming up with innovative solutions to some of the biggest challenges facing their city. +They came up with entrepreneurial solutions to local problems. +So inspiring young people and creating a culture of entrepreneurship is a really great step, but young people need capital to make their ideas a reality. +They need expertise and mentorship to guide them in developing and launching their businesses. +Connect young people with the resources they need, provide them the support they need to go from ideation to creation, and you will create catalysts for urban growth. +For me, entrepreneurship is more than just starting up a business. +It's about creating a social impact. +Mohamed is not simply selling flowers. +I believe he is selling hope. +His Peace Park, and that's what he calls it, when it's created, will actually transform the way people see their city. +Aden hired street kids to help rent out and maintain those bikes for him. +He gave them the opportunity to escape the paralysis of waithood. +These young entrepreneurs are having a tremendous impact in their cities. +So my suggestion is, turn youth into entrepreneurs, incubate and nurture their inherent innovation, and you will have more stories of flowers and Peace Parks than of car bombs and waithood. +Thank you. +I was about 10 years old on a camping trip with my dad in the Adirondack Mountains, a wilderness area in the northern part of New York State. +It was a beautiful day. +The forest was sparkling. +The sun made the leaves glow like stained glass, and if it weren't for the path we were following, we could almost pretend we were the first human beings to ever walk that land. +We got to our campsite. +It was a lean-to on a bluff looking over a crystal, beautiful lake, when I discovered a horror. +Behind the lean-to was a dump, maybe 40 feet square with rotting apple cores and balled-up aluminum foil, and a dead sneaker. +And I was astonished, I was very angry, and I was deeply confused. +The campers who were too lazy to take out what they had brought in, who did they think would clean up after them? +That question stayed with me, and it simplified a little. +Who cleans up after us? +However you configure or wherever you place the us, who cleans up after us in Istanbul? +Who cleans up after us in Rio or in Paris or in London? +Here in New York, the Department of Sanitation cleans up after us, to the tune of 11,000 tons of garbage and 2,000 tons of recyclables every day. +I wanted to get to know them as individuals. +I wanted to understand who takes the job. +What's it like to wear the uniform and bear that burden? +So I started a research project with them. +I rode in the trucks and walked the routes and interviewed people in offices and facilities all over the city, and I learned a lot, but I was still an outsider. +I needed to go deeper. +So I took the job as a sanitation worker. +I didn't just ride in the trucks now. I drove the trucks. +And I operated the mechanical brooms and I plowed the snow. +It was a remarkable privilege and an amazing education. +Everyone asks about the smell. +It's there, but it's not as prevalent as you think, and on days when it is really bad, you get used to it rather quickly. +The weight takes a long time to get used to. +I knew people who were several years on the job whose bodies were still adjusting to the burden of bearing on your body tons of trash every week. +Then there's the danger. +According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, sanitation work is one of the 10 most dangerous occupations in the country, and I learned why. +You're in and out of traffic all day, and it's zooming around you. +It just wants to get past you, so it's often the motorist is not paying attention. +That's really bad for the worker. +And then the garbage itself is full of hazards that often fly back out of the truck and do terrible harm. +I also learned about the relentlessness of trash. +When you step off the curb and you see a city from behind a truck, you come to understand that trash is like a force of nature unto itself. +It never stops coming. +It's also like a form of respiration or circulation. +It must always be in motion. +And then there's the stigma. +I find the stigma especially ironic, because I strongly believe that sanitation workers are the most important labor force on the streets of the city, for three reasons. +They are the first guardians of public health. +If they're not taking away trash efficiently and effectively every day, it starts to spill out of its containments, and the dangers inherent to it threaten us in very real ways. +Diseases we've had in check for decades and centuries burst forth again and start to harm us. +The economy needs them. +If we can't throw out the old stuff, we have no room for the new stuff, so then the engines of the economy start to sputter when consumption is compromised. +I'm not advocating capitalism, I'm just pointing out their relationship. +And then there's what I call our average, necessary quotidian velocity. +By that I simply mean how fast we're used to moving in the contemporary day and age. +We usually don't care for, repair, clean, carry around our coffee cup, our shopping bag, our bottle of water. +We use them, we throw them out, we forget about them, because we know there's a workforce on the other side that's going to take it all away. +So I want to suggest today a couple of ways to think about sanitation that will perhaps help ameliorate the stigma and bring them into this conversation of how to craft a city that is sustainable and humane. +Their work, I think, is kind of liturgical. +They're on the streets every day, rhythmically. +They wear a uniform in many cities. +You know when to expect them. +And their work lets us do our work. +They are almost a form of reassurance. +The flow that they maintain keeps us safe from ourselves, from our own dross, our cast-offs, and that flow must be maintained always no matter what. +On the day after September 11 in 2001, I heard the growl of a sanitation truck on the street, and I grabbed my infant son and I ran downstairs and there was a man doing his paper recycling route like he did every Wednesday. +And I tried to thank him for doing his work on that day of all days, but I started to cry. +And he looked at me, and he just nodded, and he said, "We're going to be okay. +We're going to be okay." +It was a little while later that I started my research with sanitation, and I met that man again. +His name is Paulie, and we worked together many times, and we became good friends. +I want to believe that Paulie was right. +We are going to be okay. +But in our effort to reconfigure how we as a species exist on this planet, we must include and take account of all the costs, including the very real human cost of the labor. +Municipal waste, what we think of when we talk about garbage, accounts for three percent of the nation's waste stream. +It's a remarkable statistic. +So in the flow of your days, in the flow of your lives, next time you see someone whose job is to clean up after you, take a moment to acknowledge them. +Take a moment to say thank you. +My work focuses on the connection of both thinking about our community life being part of the environment where architecture grows from the natural local conditions and traditions. +Today I brought two recent projects as an example of this. +Both projects are in emerging countries, one in Ethiopia and another one in Tunisia. +And also they have in common that the different analyses from different perspectives becomes an essential part of the final piece of architecture. +The first example started with an invitation to design a multistory shopping mall in Ethiopia's capital city Addis Ababa. +And this is the type of building we were shown as an example, to my team and myself, of what we had to design. +At first, the first thing I thought was, I want to run away. +After seeing a few of these buildings -- there are many in the city -- we realized that they have three very big points. +First, these buildings, they are almost empty because they have very large shops where people cannot afford to buy things. +Second, they need tons of energy to perform because of the skin treatment with glass that creates heat in the inside, and then you need a lot of cooling. +In a city where this shouldn't happen because they have really mild weather that ranges from 20 to 25 degrees the whole year. +And third is that their image has nothing to do with Africa and with Ethiopia. +It is a pity in a place that has such rich culture and traditions. +Also during our first visit to Ethiopia, I was really captivated by the old merkato that is this open-air structure where thousands of people, they go and buy things every day from small vendors. +And also it has this idea of the public space that uses the outdoors to create activity. +So I thought, this is what I really want to design, not a shopping mall. +But the question was how we could do a multistory, contemporary building with these principles. +The next challenge was when we looked at the site, that is, in a really growing area of the city, where most of these buildings that you see in the image, they were not there. +And it's also between two parallel streets that don't have any connection for hundreds of meters. +So the first thing we did was to create a connection between these two streets, putting all the entrances of the building. +And this extends with an inclined atrium that creates an open-air space in the building that self-protects itself with its own shape from the sun and the rain. +And around this void we placed this idea of the market with small shops, that change in each floor because of the shape of the void. +I also thought, how to close the building? +And I really wanted to find a solution that would respond to the local climate conditions. +And I started thinking about the textile like a shell made of concrete with perforations that would let the air in, and also the light, but in a filtered way. +And then the inspiration came from these beautiful patterns of the Ethiopian women's dresses. +That they have fractal geometry properties and this helped me to shape the whole facade. +And we are building that with these small prefabricated pieces that are the windows that let the air and the light in a controlled way inside the building. +And this is complemented by these small colored glasses that use the light from the inside of the building to light up the building at night. +With these ideas it was not easy first to convince the developers because they were like, "This is not a shopping mall. We didn't ask for that." +But then we all realized that this idea of the market happened to be a lot more profitable than the idea of the shopping mall because basically they had more shops to sell. +And also that the idea of the facade was much, much cheaper, not only because of the material compared with the glass, but also because we didn't need to have air conditioning anymore. +So we created some budget savings that we used to implement the project. +And the first implementation was to think about how we could make the building self-sufficient in terms of energy in a city that has electricity cuts almost every day. +So we created a huge asset by placing photovoltaics there on the roof. +And then under those panels we thought about the roof like a new public space with gathering areas and bars that would create this urban oasis. +And these porches on the roof, all together they collect the water to reuse for sanitation on the inside. +Hopefully by the beginning of next year, because we are already on the fifth floor of the construction. +The second example is a master plan of 2,000 apartments and facilities in the city of Tunis. +And for doing such a big project, the biggest project I've ever designed, I really needed to understand the city of Tunis, but also its surroundings and the tradition and culture. +During that analysis I paid special attention to the medina that is this 1,000-year-old structure that used to be closed by a wall, opened by twelve different gates, connected by almost straight lines. +When I went to the site, the first design operation we did was to extend the existing streets, creating 12 initial blocks similar in size and characteristics to the ones we have in Barcelona and other cities in Europe with these courtyards. +On top of that, we selected some strategic points reminded of this idea of the gates and connecting them by straight lines, and this modified this initial pattern. +And the last operation was to think about the cell, the small cell of the project, like the apartment, as an essential part of the master plan. +And for that I thought, what would be the best orientation in the Mediterranean climate for an apartment? +And it's north-south, because it creates a thermal difference between both sides of the house and then a natural ventilation. +So we overlap a pattern that makes sure that most of the apartments are perfectly oriented in that direction. +And this is the result that is almost like a combination of the European block and the Arab city. +It has these blocks with courtyards, and then on the ground floor you have all these connections for the pedestrians. +And also it responds to the local regulations that establish a higher density on the upper levels and a lower density on the ground floor. +And it also reinforces this idea of the gates. +The roof, which is my favorite space of the project is almost like giving back to the community the space taken by the construction. +And it's where all the neighbors, they can go up and socialize, and do activities such as having a two-kilometer run in the morning, jumping from one building to another. +These two examples, they have a common approach in the design process. +And also, they are in emerging countries where you can see the cities literally growing. +In these cities, the impact of architecture in people's lives of today and tomorrow changes the local communities and economies at the same speed as the buildings grow. +For this reason, I see even more importance to look at architecture finding simple but affordable solutions that enhance the relationship between the community and the environment and that aim to connect nature and people. +Thank you very much. +So when I was eight years old, a new girl came to join the class, and she was so impressive, as the new girl always seems to be. +She had vast quantities of very shiny hair and a cute little pencil case, super strong on state capitals, just a great speller. +And I just curdled with jealousy that year, until I hatched my devious plan. +So one day I stayed a little late after school, a little too late, and I lurked in the girls' bathroom. +When the coast was clear, I emerged, crept into the classroom, and took from my teacher's desk the grade book. +And then I did it. +I fiddled with my rival's grades, just a little, just demoted some of those A's. +All of those A's. And I got ready to return the book to the drawer, when hang on, some of my other classmates had appallingly good grades too. +So, in a frenzy, I corrected everybody's marks, not imaginatively. +I gave everybody a row of D's and I gave myself a row of A's, just because I was there, you know, might as well. +And I am still baffled by my behavior. +I don't understand where the idea came from. +I don't understand why I felt so great doing it. +I felt great. +I don't understand why I was never caught. +I mean, it should have been so blatantly obvious. +I was never caught. +But most of all, I am baffled by, why did it bother me so much that this little girl, this tiny little girl, was so good at spelling? +Jealousy baffles me. +It's so mysterious, and it's so pervasive. +We know babies suffer from jealousy. +We know primates do. Bluebirds are actually very prone. +We know that jealousy is the number one cause of spousal murder in the United States. +And yet, I have never read a study that can parse to me its loneliness or its longevity or its grim thrill. +For that, we have to go to fiction, because the novel is the lab that has studied jealousy in every possible configuration. +In fact, I don't know if it's an exaggeration to say that if we didn't have jealousy, would we even have literature? +Well no faithless Helen, no "Odyssey." +No jealous king, no "Arabian Nights." +No Shakespeare. +There goes high school reading lists, because we're losing "Sound and the Fury," we're losing "Gatsby," "Sun Also Rises," we're losing "Madame Bovary," "Anna K." +No jealousy, no Proust. And now, I mean, I know it's fashionable to say that Proust has the answers to everything, but in the case of jealousy, he kind of does. +This year is the centennial of his masterpiece, "In Search of Lost Time," and it's the most exhaustive study of sexual jealousy and just regular competitiveness, my brand, that we can hope to have. And we think about Proust, we think about the sentimental bits, right? +We think about a little boy trying to get to sleep. +We think about a madeleine moistened in lavender tea. +We forget how harsh his vision was. +We forget how pitiless he is. +I mean, these are books that Virginia Woolf said were tough as cat gut. +I don't know what cat gut is, but let's assume it's formidable. +Let's look at why they go so well together, the novel and jealousy, jealousy and Proust. +Is it something as obvious as that jealousy, which boils down into person, desire, impediment, is such a solid narrative foundation? +I don't know. I think it cuts very close to the bone, because let's think about what happens when we feel jealous. +When we feel jealous, we tell ourselves a story. +We tell ourselves a story about other people's lives, and these stories make us feel terrible because they're designed to make us feel terrible. +As the teller of the tale and the audience, we know just what details to include, to dig that knife in. Right? +Jealousy makes us all amateur novelists, and this is something Proust understood. +Everything that she does that gives me pleasure could be giving somebody else pleasure, maybe right about now." +And this is the story he starts to tell himself, and from then on, Proust writes that every fresh charm Swann detects in his mistress, he adds to his "collection of instruments in his private torture chamber." +Now Swann and Proust, we have to admit, were notoriously jealous. +You know, Proust's boyfriends would have to leave the country if they wanted to break up with him. +But you don't have to be that jealous to concede that it's hard work. Right? +Jealousy is exhausting. +It's a hungry emotion. It must be fed. +And what does jealousy like? +Jealousy likes information. +Jealousy likes details. +Jealousy likes the vast quantities of shiny hair, the cute little pencil case. +Jealousy likes photos. +That's why Instagram is such a hit. Proust actually links the language of scholarship and jealousy. +When Swann is in his jealous throes, and suddenly he's listening at doorways and bribing his mistress' servants, he defends these behaviors. +He says, "You know, look, I know you think this is repugnant, but it is no different from interpreting an ancient text or looking at a monument." +He says, "They are scientific investigations with real intellectual value." +Proust is trying to show us that jealousy feels intolerable and makes us look absurd, but it is, at its crux, a quest for knowledge, a quest for truth, painful truth, and actually, where Proust is concerned, the more painful the truth, the better. +Grief, humiliation, loss: These were the avenues to wisdom for Proust. +He says, "A woman whom we need, who makes us suffer, elicits from us a gamut of feelings far more profound and vital than a man of genius who interests us." +Is he telling us to just go and find cruel women? +No. I think he's trying to say that jealousy reveals us to ourselves. +And does any other emotion crack us open in this particular way? +Does any other emotion reveal to us our aggression and our hideous ambition and our entitlement? +Does any other emotion teach us to look with such peculiar intensity? +Freud would write about this later. +One day, Freud was visited by this very anxious young man who was consumed with the thought of his wife cheating on him. +And Freud says, it's something strange about this guy, because he's not looking at what his wife is doing. +Because she's blameless; everybody knows it. +The poor creature is just under suspicion for no cause. +But he's looking for things that his wife is doing without noticing, unintentional behaviors. +Is she smiling too brightly here, or did she accidentally brush up against a man there? +[Freud] says that the man is becoming the custodian of his wife's unconscious. +The novel is very good on this point. +The novel is very good at describing how jealousy trains us to look with intensity but not accuracy. +In fact, the more intensely jealous we are, the more we become residents of fantasy. +And this is why, I think, jealousy doesn't just provoke us to do violent things or illegal things. +Jealousy prompts us to behave in ways that are wildly inventive. +Now I'm thinking of myself at eight, I concede, but I'm also thinking of this story I heard on the news. +A 52-year-old Michigan woman was caught creating a fake Facebook account from which she sent vile, hideous messages to herself for a year. +For a year. A year. +And she was trying to frame her ex-boyfriend's new girlfriend, and I have to confess when I heard this, I just reacted with admiration. +Because, I mean, let's be real. +What immense, if misplaced, creativity. Right? +This is something from a novel. +This is something from a Patricia Highsmith novel. +Now Highsmith is a particular favorite of mine. +She is the very brilliant and bizarre woman of American letters. +She's the author of "Strangers on a Train" and "The Talented Mr. Ripley," books that are all about how jealousy, it muddles our minds, and once we're in the sphere, in that realm of jealousy, the membrane between what is and what could be can be pierced in an instant. +Take Tom Ripley, her most famous character. +Now, Tom Ripley goes from wanting you or wanting what you have to being you and having what you once had, and you're under the floorboards, he's answering to your name, he's wearing your rings, emptying your bank account. +That's one way to go. +But what do we do? We can't go the Tom Ripley route. +I can't give the world D's, as much as I would really like to, some days. +And it's a pity, because we live in envious times. +We live in jealous times. +I mean, we're all good citizens of social media, aren't we, where the currency is envy? +Does the novel show us a way out? I'm not sure. +So let's do what characters always do when they're not sure, when they are in possession of a mystery. +Let's go to 221B Baker Street and ask for Sherlock Holmes. +When people think of Holmes, they think of his nemesis being Professor Moriarty, right, this criminal mastermind. +But I've always preferred [Inspector] Lestrade, who is the rat-faced head of Scotland Yard who needs Holmes desperately, needs Holmes' genius, but resents him. +Oh, it's so familiar to me. +So Lestrade needs his help, resents him, and sort of seethes with bitterness over the course of the mysteries. +But as they work together, something starts to change, and finally in "The Adventure of the Six Napoleons," once Holmes comes in, dazzles everybody with his solution, Lestrade turns to Holmes and he says, "We're not jealous of you, Mr. Holmes. +We're proud of you." +And he says that there's not a man at Scotland Yard who wouldn't want to shake Sherlock Holmes' hand. +It's one of the few times we see Holmes moved in the mysteries, and I find it very moving, this little scene, but it's also mysterious, right? +It seems to treat jealousy as a problem of geometry, not emotion. +You know, one minute Holmes is on the other side from Lestrade. +The next minute they're on the same side. +Suddenly, Lestrade is letting himself admire this mind that he's resented. +Could it be so simple though? +What if jealousy really is a matter of geometry, just a matter of where we allow ourselves to stand in relation to another? +Well, maybe then we wouldn't have to resent somebody's excellence. +We could align ourselves with it. +But I like contingency plans. +So while we wait for that to happen, let us remember that we have fiction for consolation. +Fiction alone demystifies jealousy. +Fiction alone domesticates it, invites it to the table. +And look who it gathers: sweet Lestrade, terrifying Tom Ripley, crazy Swann, Marcel Proust himself. +We are in excellent company. +Thank you. +So, we used to solve big problems. +On July 21st, 1969, Buzz Aldrin climbed out of Apollo 11's lunar module and descended onto the Sea of Tranquility. +Armstrong and Aldrin were alone, but their presence on the moon's gray surface was the culmination of a convulsive, collective effort. +The Apollo program was the greatest peacetime mobilization in the history of the United States. +To get to the moon, NASA spent around 180 billion dollars in today's money, or four percent of the federal budget. +Apollo employed around 400,000 people and demanded the collaboration of 20,000 companies, universities and government agencies. +People died, including the crew of Apollo 1. +But before the Apollo program ended, 24 men flew to the moon. +Twelve walked on its surface, of whom Aldrin, following the death of Armstrong last year, is now the most senior. +So why did they go? +They didn't bring much back: 841 pounds of old rocks, and something all 24 later emphasized -- a new sense of the smallness and the fragility of our common home. +Why did they go? The cynical answer is they went because President Kennedy wanted to show the Soviets that his nation had the better rockets. +But Kennedy's own words at Rice University in 1962 provide a better clue. +John F. Kennedy: But why, some say, the moon? +Why choose this as our goal? +And they may well ask, why climb the highest mountain? +Why, 35 years ago, fly the Atlantic? +Why does Rice play Texas? +We choose to go to the moon. +We choose to go to the moon. +We choose to go to the moon in this decade, and do the other things, not because they are easy, but because they are hard. +Jason Pontin: To contemporaries, Apollo wasn't only a victory of West over East in the Cold War. +At the time, the strongest emotion was of wonder at the transcendent powers of technology. +They went because it was a big thing to do. +Landing on the moon occurred in the context of a long series of technological triumphs. +The first half of the 20th century produced the assembly line and the airplane, penicillin and a vaccine for tuberculosis. +In the middle years of the century, polio was eradicated and smallpox eliminated. +Technology itself seemed to possess what Alvin Toffler in 1970 called "accelerative thrust." +For most of human history, we could go no faster than a horse or a boat with a sail, but in 1969, the crew of Apollo 10 flew at 25,000 miles an hour. +Since 1970, no human beings have been back to the moon. +No one has traveled faster than the crew of Apollo 10, and blithe optimism about technology's powers has evaporated as big problems we had imagined technology would solve, such as going to Mars, creating clean energy, curing cancer, or feeding the world have come to seem intractably hard. +I remember watching the liftoff of Apollo 17. +I was five years old, and my mother told me not to stare at the fiery exhaust of a Saturn V rocket. +I vaguely knew this was to be the last of the moon missions, but I was absolutely certain there would be Mars colonies in my lifetime. +So "Something happened to our capacity to solve big problems with technology" has become a commonplace. +You hear it all the time. +We've heard it over the last two days here at TED. +It feels as if technologists have diverted us and enriched themselves with trivial toys, with things like iPhones and apps and social media, or algorithms that speed automated trading. +There's nothing wrong with most of these things. +They've expanded and enriched our lives. +But they don't solve humanity's big problems. +What happened? +So there is a parochial explanation in Silicon Valley, which admits that it has been funding less ambitious companies than it did in the years when it financed Intel, Microsoft, Apple and Genentech. +Silicon Valley says the markets are to blame, in particular the incentives that venture capitalists offer to entrepreneurs. +Silicon Valley says that venture investing shifted away from funding transformational ideas and towards funding incremental problems or even fake problems. +But I don't think that explanation is good enough. +It mostly explains what's wrong with Silicon Valley. +Even when venture capitalists were at their most risk-happy, they preferred small investments, tiny investments that offered an exit within 10 years. +V.C.s have always struggled to invest profitably in technologies such as energy whose capital requirements are huge and whose development is long and lengthy, and V.C.s have never, never funded the development of technologies meant to solve big problems that possess no immediate commercial value. +No, the reasons we can't solve big problems are more complicated and more profound. +Sometimes we choose not to solve big problems. +We could go to Mars if we want. +NASA even has the outline of a plan. +But going to Mars would follow a political decision with popular appeal, and that will never happen. +We won't go to Mars, because everyone thinks there are more important things to do here on Earth. +Sometimes, we can't solve big problems because our political systems fail. +Today, less than two percent of the world's energy consumption derives from advanced, renewable sources such as solar, wind and biofuels, less than two percent, and the reason is purely economic. +Coal and natural gas are cheaper than solar and wind, and petroleum is cheaper than biofuels. +We want alternative energy sources that can compete on price. None exist. +Now, technologists, business leaders and economists all basically agree on what national policies and international treaties would spur the development of alternative energy: mostly, a significant increase in energy research and development, and some kind of price on carbon. +But there's no hope in the present political climate that we will see U.S. energy policy or international treaties that reflect that consensus. +Sometimes, big problems that had seemed technological turn out not to be so. +Famines were long understood to be caused by failures in food supply. +But 30 years of research have taught us that famines are political crises that catastrophically affect food distribution. +Technology can improve things like crop yields or systems for storing and transporting food, but there will be famines so long as there are bad governments. +Finally, big problems sometimes elude solution because we don't really understand the problem. +President Nixon declared war on cancer in 1971, but we soon discovered there are many kinds of cancer, most of them fiendishly resistant to therapy, and it is only in the last 10 years that effective, viable therapies have come to seem real. +Hard problems are hard. +It's not true that we can't solve big problems through technology. +We can, we must, but these four elements must all be present: Political leaders and the public must care to solve a problem; institutions must support its solution; It must really be a technological problem; and we must understand it. +The Apollo mission, which has become a kind of metaphor for technology's capacity to solve big problems, met these criteria. +But it is an irreproducible model for the future. +It is not 1961. +There is no galvanizing contest like the Cold War, no politician like John Kennedy who can heroize the difficult and the dangerous, and no popular science fictional mythology such as exploring the solar system. +Most of all, going to the moon turned out to be easy. +It was just three days away. +And arguably it wasn't even solving much of a problem. +We are left alone with our day, and the solutions of the future will be harder won. +God knows, we don't lack for the challenges. +Thank you very much. +So I'm going to talk about trust, and I'm going to start by reminding you of the standard views that people have about trust. +I think these are so commonplace, they've become clichs of our society. +And I think there are three. +One's a claim: there has been a great decline in trust, very widely believed. +The second is an aim: we should have more trust. +And the third is a task: we should rebuild trust. +I think that the claim, the aim and the task are all misconceived. +So what I'm going to try to tell you today is a different story about a claim, an aim and a task which I think give one quite a lot better purchase on the matter. +First the claim: Why do people think trust has declined? +And if I really think about it on the basis of my own evidence, I don't know the answer. +I'm inclined to think it may have declined in some activities or some institutions and it might have grown in others. +I don't have an overview. +But, of course, I can look at the opinion polls, and the opinion polls are supposedly the source of a belief that trust has declined. +When you actually look at opinion polls across time, there's not much evidence for that. +That's to say, the people who were mistrusted 20 years ago, principally journalists and politicians, are still mistrusted. +And the people who were highly trusted 20 years ago are still rather highly trusted: judges, nurses. +The rest of us are in between, and by the way, the average person in the street is almost exactly midway. +But is that good evidence? +What opinion polls record is, of course, opinions. +What else can they record? +So they're looking at the generic attitudes that people report when you ask them certain questions. +Do you trust politicians? Do you trust teachers? +Now if somebody said to you, "Do you trust greengrocers? +Do you trust fishmongers? +Do you trust elementary school teachers?" +you would probably begin by saying, "To do what?" +And that would be a perfectly sensible response. +And you might say, when you understood the answer to that, "Well, I trust some of them, but not others." +That's a perfectly rational thing. +In short, in our real lives, we seek to place trust in a differentiated way. +We don't make an assumption that the level of trust that we will have in every instance of a certain type of official or office-holder or type of person is going to be uniform. +I might, for example, say that I certainly trust a certain elementary school teacher I know to teach the reception class to read, but in no way to drive the school minibus. +I might, after all, know that she wasn't a good driver. +I might trust my most loquacious friend to keep a conversation going but not -- but perhaps not to keep a secret. +Simple. +So if we've got those evidence in our ordinary lives of the way that trust is differentiated, why do we sort of drop all that intelligence when we think about trust more abstractly? +I think the polls are very bad guides to the level of trust that actually exists, because they try to obliterate the good judgment that goes into placing trust. +Secondly, what about the aim? +The aim is to have more trust. +Well frankly, I think that's a stupid aim. +It's not what I would aim at. +I would aim to have more trust in the trustworthy but not in the untrustworthy. +In fact, I aim positively to try not to trust the untrustworthy. +And I think, of those people who, for example, placed their savings with the very aptly named Mr. Madoff, who then made off with them, and I think of them, and I think, well, yes, too much trust. +More trust is not an intelligent aim in this life. +Intelligently placed and intelligently refused trust is the proper aim. +Well once one says that, one says, yeah, okay, that means that what matters in the first place is not trust but trustworthiness. +It's judging how trustworthy people are in particular respects. +And I think that judgment requires us to look at three things. +Are they competent? Are they honest? Are they reliable? +And if we find that a person is competent in the relevant matters, and reliable and honest, we'll have a pretty good reason to trust them, because they'll be trustworthy. +But if, on the other hand, they're unreliable, we might not. +I have friends who are competent and honest, but I would not trust them to post a letter, because they're forgetful. +I have friends who are very confident they can do certain things, but I realize that they overestimate their own competence. +And I'm very glad to say, I don't think I have many friends who are competent and reliable but extremely dishonest. +If so, I haven't yet spotted it. +But that's what we're looking for: trustworthiness before trust. +Trust is the response. +Trustworthiness is what we have to judge. +And, of course, it's difficult. +Across the last few decades, we've tried to construct systems of accountability for all sorts of institutions and professionals and officials and so on that will make it easier for us to judge their trustworthiness. +A lot of these systems have the converse effect. +They don't work as they're supposed to. +I remember I was talking with a midwife who said, "Well, you see, the problem is it takes longer to do the paperwork than to deliver the baby." +And all over our public life, our institutional life, we find that problem, that the system of accountability that is meant to secure trustworthiness and evidence of trustworthiness is actually doing the opposite. +It is distracting people who have to do difficult tasks, like midwives, from doing them by requiring them to tick the boxes, as we say. +You can all give your own examples there. +So so much for the aim. +The aim, I think, is more trustworthiness, and that is going to be different if we are trying to be trustworthy and communicate our trustworthiness to other people, and if we are trying to judge whether other people or office-holders or politicians are trustworthy. +It's not easy. It is judgment, and simple reaction, attitudes, don't do adequately here. +Now thirdly, the task. +Calling the task rebuilding trust, I think, also gets things backwards. +It suggests that you and I should rebuild trust. +Well, we can do that for ourselves. +We can rebuild a bit of trustworthiness. +We can do it two people together trying to improve trust. +But trust, in the end, is distinctive because it's given by other people. +You can't rebuild what other people give you. +You have to give them the basis for giving you their trust. +So you have to, I think, be trustworthy. +And that, of course, is because you can't fool all of the people all of the time, usually. +But you also have to provide usable evidence that you are trustworthy. +How to do it? +Well every day, all over the place, it's being done by ordinary people, by officials, by institutions, quite effectively. +Let me give you a simple commercial example. +The shop where I buy my socks says I may take them back, and they don't ask any questions. +They take them back and give me the money or give me the pair of socks of the color I wanted. +That's super. I trust them because they have made themselves vulnerable to me. +I think there's a big lesson in that. +If you make yourself vulnerable to the other party, then that is very good evidence that you are trustworthy and you have confidence in what you are saying. +So in the end, I think what we are aiming for is not very difficult to discern. +It is relationships in which people are trustworthy and can judge when and how the other person is trustworthy. +Thanks. +Throughout the history of computers we've been striving to shorten the gap between us and digital information, the gap between our physical world and the world in the screen where our imagination can go wild. +And this gap has become shorter, shorter, and even shorter, and now this gap is shortened down to less than a millimeter, the thickness of a touch-screen glass, and the power of computing has become accessible to everyone. +But I wondered, what if there could be no boundary at all? +I started to imagine what this would look like. +First, I created this tool which penetrates into the digital space, so when you press it hard on the screen, it transfers its physical body into pixels. +Designers can materialize their ideas directly in 3D, and surgeons can practice on virtual organs underneath the screen. +So with this tool, this boundary has been broken. +But our two hands still remain outside the screen. +How can you reach inside and interact with the digital information using the full dexterity of our hands? +At Microsoft Applied Sciences, along with my mentor Cati Boulanger, I redesigned the computer and turned a little space above the keyboard into a digital workspace. +By combining a transparent display and depth cameras for sensing your fingers and face, now you can lift up your hands from the keyboard and reach inside this 3D space and grab pixels with your bare hands. +Because windows and files have a position in the real space, selecting them is as easy as grabbing a book off your shelf. +Then you can flip through this book while highlighting the lines, words on the virtual touch pad below each floating window. +Architects can stretch or rotate the models with their two hands directly. +So in these examples, we are reaching into the digital world. +But how about reversing its role and having the digital information reach us instead? +I'm sure many of us have had the experience of buying and returning items online. +But now you don't have to worry about it. +What I got here is an online augmented fitting room. +This is a view that you get from head-mounted or see-through display when the system understands the geometry of your body. +Taking this idea further, I started to think, instead of just seeing these pixels in our space, how can we make it physical so that we can touch and feel it? +What would such a future look like? +At MIT Media Lab, along with my advisor Hiroshi Ishii and my collaborator Rehmi Post, we created this one physical pixel. +Well, in this case, this spherical magnet acts like a 3D pixel in our space, which means that both computers and people can move this object to anywhere within this little 3D space. +What we did was essentially canceling gravity and controlling the movement by combining magnetic levitation and mechanical actuation and sensing technologies. +And by digitally programming the object, we are liberating the object from constraints of time and space, which means that now, human motions can be recorded and played back and left permanently in the physical world. +So choreography can be taught physically over distance and Michael Jordan's famous shooting can be replicated over and over as a physical reality. +Students can use this as a tool to learn about the complex concepts such as planetary motion, physics, and unlike computer screens or textbooks, this is a real, tangible experience that you can touch and feel, and it's very powerful. +And what's more exciting than just turning what's currently in the computer physical is to start imagining how programming the world will alter even our daily physical activities. +As you can see, the digital information will not just show us something but it will start directly acting upon us as a part of our physical surroundings without disconnecting ourselves from our world. +Today, we started by talking about the boundary, but if we remove this boundary, the only boundary left is our imagination. +Thank you. +So I was trained to become a gymnast for two years in Hunan, China in the 1970s. +When I was in the first grade, the government wanted to transfer me to a school for athletes, all expenses paid. +But my tiger mother said, "No." +My parents wanted me to become an engineer like them. +After surviving the Cultural Revolution, they firmly believed there's only one sure way to happiness: a safe and well-paid job. +It is not important if I like the job or not. +But my dream was to become a Chinese opera singer. +That is me playing my imaginary piano. +An opera singer must start training young to learn acrobatics, so I tried everything I could to go to opera school. +I even wrote to the school principal and the host of a radio show. +But no adults liked the idea. +No adults believed I was serious. +Only my friends supported me, but they were kids, just as powerless as I was. +So at age 15, I knew I was too old to be trained. +My dream would never come true. +I was afraid that for the rest of my life some second-class happiness would be the best I could hope for. +But that's so unfair. +So I was determined to find another calling. +Nobody around to teach me? Fine. +I turned to books. +["Complete Works of Sanmao" (aka Echo Chan)] ["Lessons From History" by Nan Huaijin] I came to the U.S. in 1995, so which books did I read here first? +Books banned in China, of course. +"The Good Earth" is about Chinese peasant life. +That's just not convenient for propaganda. Got it. +The Bible is interesting, but strange. +That's a topic for a different day. +But the fifth commandment gave me an epiphany: "You shall honor your father and mother." +"Honor," I said. "That's so different, and better, than obey." +So it becomes my tool to climb out of this Confucian guilt trap and to restart my relationship with my parents. +Encountering a new culture also started my habit of comparative reading. +It offers many insights. +For example, I found this map out of place at first because this is what Chinese students grew up with. +It had never occurred to me, China doesn't have to be at the center of the world. +A map actually carries somebody's view. +Comparative reading actually is nothing new. +It's a standard practice in the academic world. +There are even research fields such as comparative religion and comparative literature. +Compare and contrast gives scholars a more complete understanding of a topic. +So I thought, well, if comparative reading works for research, why not do it in daily life too? +So I started reading books in pairs. +So they can be about people -- ["Benjamin Franklin" by Walter Isaacson]["John Adams" by David McCullough] -- who are involved in the same event, or friends with shared experiences. +For the Christ, the temptations are economic, political and spiritual. +For the Buddha, they are all psychological: lust, fear and social duty -- interesting. +So if you know a foreign language, it's also fun to read your favorite books in two languages. +["The Way of Chuang Tzu" Thomas Merton]["Tao: The Watercourse Way" Alan Watts] Instead of lost in translation, I found there is much to gain. +For example, it's through translation that I realized "happiness" in Chinese literally means "fast joy." Huh! +"Bride" in Chinese literally means "new mother." Uh-oh. +Books have given me a magic portal to connect with people of the past and the present. +I know I shall never feel lonely or powerless again. +Having a dream shattered really is nothing compared to what many others have suffered. +I have come to believe that coming true is not the only purpose of a dream. +Its most important purpose is to get us in touch with where dreams come from, where passion comes from, where happiness comes from. +Even a shattered dream can do that for you. +So because of books, I'm here today, happy, living again with a purpose and a clarity, most of the time. +So may books be always with you. +Thank you. +Thank you. Thank you. +When I was in my 20s, I saw my very first psychotherapy client. +I was a Ph.D. student in clinical psychology at Berkeley. +She was a 26-year-old woman named Alex. +Now Alex walked into her first session wearing jeans and a big slouchy top, and she dropped onto the couch in my office and kicked off her flats and told me she was there to talk about guy problems. +Now when I heard this, I was so relieved. +My classmate got an arsonist for her first client. +And I got a twentysomething who wanted to talk about boys. +This I thought I could handle. +But I didn't handle it. +With the funny stories that Alex would bring to session, it was easy for me just to nod my head while we kicked the can down the road. +"Thirty's the new 20," Alex would say, and as far as I could tell, she was right. +Work happened later, marriage happened later, kids happened later, even death happened later. +Twentysomethings like Alex and I had nothing but time. +But before long, my supervisor pushed me to push Alex about her love life. +I pushed back. +I said, "Sure, she's dating down, she's sleeping with a knucklehead, but it's not like she's going to marry the guy." +And then my supervisor said, "Not yet, but she might marry the next one. +Besides, the best time to work on Alex's marriage is before she has one." +That's what psychologists call an "Aha!" moment. +That was the moment I realized, 30 is not the new 20. +Yes, people settle down later than they used to, but that didn't make Alex's 20s a developmental downtime. +That made Alex's 20s a developmental sweet spot, and we were sitting there, blowing it. +That was when I realized that this sort of benign neglect was a real problem, and it had real consequences, not just for Alex and her love life but for the careers and the families and the futures of twentysomethings everywhere. +There are 50 million twentysomethings in the United States right now. +We're talking about 15 percent of the population, or 100 percent if you consider that no one's getting through adulthood without going through their 20s first. +Raise your hand if you're in your 20s. +I really want to see some twentysomethings here. +Oh, yay! You are all awesome. +If you work with twentysomethings, you love a twentysomething, you're losing sleep over twentysomethings, I want to see Okay. Awesome, twentysomethings really matter. +This is not my opinion. These are the facts. +We know that 80 percent of life's most defining moments take place by age 35. +That means that eight out of 10 of the decisions and experiences and "Aha!" moments that make your life what it is will have happened by your mid-30s. +People who are over 40, don't panic. +This crowd is going to be fine, I think. +We know that the first 10 years of a career has an exponential impact on how much money you're going to earn. +We know that more than half of Americans are married or are living with or dating their future partner by 30. +We know that the brain caps off its second and last growth spurt in your 20s as it rewires itself for adulthood, which means that whatever it is you want to change about yourself, now is the time to change it. +We know that personality changes more during your 20s than at any other time in life, and we know that female fertility peaks at age 28, and things get tricky after age 35. +So your 20s are the time to educate yourself about your body and your options. +So when we think about child development, we all know that the first five years are a critical period for language and attachment in the brain. +It's a time when your ordinary, day-to-day life has an inordinate impact on who you will become. +But what we hear less about is that there's such a thing as adult development, and our 20s are that critical period of adult development. +But this isn't what twentysomethings are hearing. +Newspapers talk about the changing timetable of adulthood. +Researchers call the 20s an extended adolescence. +Journalists coin silly nicknames for twentysomethings like "twixters" and "kidults." +It's true! +As a culture, we have trivialized what is actually the defining decade of adulthood. +Leonard Bernstein said that to achieve great things, you need a plan and not quite enough time. +Isn't that true? +So what do you think happens when you pat a twentysomething on the head and you say, "You have 10 extra years to start your life"? +Nothing happens. +You have robbed that person of his urgency and ambition, and absolutely nothing happens. +And then every day, smart, interesting twentysomethings like you or like your sons and daughters come into my office and say things like this: "I know my boyfriend's no good for me, but this relationship doesn't count. I'm just killing time." +Or they say, "Everybody says as long as I get started on a career by the time I'm 30, I'll be fine." +But then it starts to sound like this: "My 20s are almost over, and I have nothing to show for myself. +I had a better rsum the day after I graduated from college." +And then it starts to sound like this: "Dating in my 20s was like musical chairs. +Everybody was running around and having fun, but then sometime around 30 it was like the music turned off and everybody started sitting down. +I didn't want to be the only one left standing up, so sometimes I think I married my husband because he was the closest chair to me at 30." +Where are the twentysomethings here? +Do not do that. +Okay, now that sounds a little flip, but make no mistake, the stakes are very high. +When a lot has been pushed to your 30s, there is enormous thirtysomething pressure to jump-start a career, pick a city, partner up, and have two or three kids in a much shorter period of time. +Many of these things are incompatible, and as research is just starting to show, simply harder and more stressful to do all at once in our 30s. +The post-millennial midlife crisis isn't buying a red sports car. +It's realizing you can't have that career you now want. +It's realizing you can't have that child you now want, or you can't give your child a sibling. +Too many thirtysomethings and fortysomethings look at themselves, and at me, sitting across the room, and say about their 20s, "What was I doing? What was I thinking?" +I want to change what twentysomethings are doing and thinking. +Here's a story about how that can go. +It's a story about a woman named Emma. +At 25, Emma came to my office because she was, in her words, having an identity crisis. +She said she thought she might like to work in art or entertainment, but she hadn't decided yet, so she'd spent the last few years waiting tables instead. +Because it was cheaper, she lived with a boyfriend who displayed his temper more than his ambition. +And as hard as her 20s were, her early life had been even harder. +She often cried in our sessions, but then would collect herself by saying, "You can't pick your family, but you can pick your friends." +Well one day, Emma comes in and she hangs her head in her lap, and she sobbed for most of the hour. +She'd just bought a new address book, and she'd spent the morning filling in her many contacts, but then she'd been left staring at that empty blank that comes after the words "In case of emergency, please call ..." +She was nearly hysterical when she looked at me and said, "Who's going to be there for me if I get in a car wreck? +Who's going to take care of me if I have cancer?" +Now in that moment, it took everything I had not to say, "I will." +But what Emma needed wasn't some therapist who really, really cared. +Emma needed a better life, and I knew this was her chance. +I had learned too much since I first worked with Alex to just sit there while Emma's defining decade went parading by. +So over the next weeks and months, I told Emma three things that every twentysomething, male or female, deserves to hear. +First, I told Emma to forget about having an identity crisis and get some identity capital. +By "get identity capital," I mean do something that adds value to who you are. +Do something that's an investment in who you might want to be next. +I didn't know the future of Emma's career, and no one knows the future of work, but I do know this: Identity capital begets identity capital. +So now is the time for that cross-country job, that internship, that startup you want to try. +I'm not discounting twentysomething exploration here, but I am discounting exploration that's not supposed to count, which, by the way, is not exploration. +That's procrastination. +I told Emma to explore work and make it count. +Second, I told Emma that the urban tribe is overrated. +Best friends are great for giving rides to the airport, but twentysomethings who huddle together with like-minded peers limit who they know, what they know, how they think, how they speak, and where they work. +That new piece of capital, that new person to date almost always comes from outside the inner circle. +New things come from what are called our weak ties, our friends of friends of friends. +So yes, half of twentysomethings are un- or under-employed. +But half aren't, and weak ties are how you get yourself into that group. +Half of new jobs are never posted, so reaching out to your neighbor's boss is how you get that unposted job. +It's not cheating. It's the science of how information spreads. +Last but not least, Emma believed that you can't pick your family, but you can pick your friends. +Now this was true for her growing up, but as a twentysomething, soon Emma would pick her family when she partnered with someone and created a family of her own. +I told Emma the time to start picking your family is now. +Now you may be thinking that 30 is actually a better time to settle down than 20, or even 25, and I agree with you. +But grabbing whoever you're living with or sleeping with when everyone on Facebook starts walking down the aisle is not progress. +The best time to work on your marriage is before you have one, and that means being as intentional with love as you are with work. +Picking your family is about consciously choosing who and what you want rather than just making it work or killing time with whoever happens to be choosing you. +So what happened to Emma? +Well, we went through that address book, and she found an old roommate's cousin who worked at an art museum in another state. +That weak tie helped her get a job there. +That job offer gave her the reason to leave that live-in boyfriend. +Now, five years later, she's a special events planner for museums. +She's married to a man she mindfully chose. +She loves her new career, she loves her new family, and she sent me a card that said, "Now the emergency contact blanks don't seem big enough." +Now Emma's story made that sound easy, but that's what I love about working with twentysomethings. +They are so easy to help. +Twentysomethings are like airplanes just leaving LAX, bound for somewhere west. +Right after takeoff, a slight change in course is the difference between landing in Alaska or Fiji. +Likewise, at 21 or 25 or even 29, one good conversation, one good break, one good TED Talk, can have an enormous effect across years and even generations to come. +So here's an idea worth spreading to every twentysomething you know. +It's as simple as what I learned to say to Alex. +It's what I now have the privilege of saying to twentysomethings like Emma every single day: Thirty is not the new 20, so claim your adulthood, get some identity capital, use your weak ties, pick your family. +Don't be defined by what you didn't know or didn't do. +You're deciding your life right now. +Thank you. +When I was 27 years old, I left a very demanding job in management consulting for a job that was even more demanding: teaching. +I went to teach seventh graders math in the New York City public schools. +And like any teacher, I made quizzes and tests. +I gave out homework assignments. +When the work came back, I calculated grades. +What struck me was that IQ was not the only difference between my best and my worst students. +Some of my strongest performers did not have stratospheric IQ scores. +Some of my smartest kids weren't doing so well. +And that got me thinking. +The kinds of things you need to learn in seventh grade math, sure, they're hard: ratios, decimals, the area of a parallelogram. +But these concepts are not impossible, and I was firmly convinced that every one of my students could learn the material if they worked hard and long enough. +After several more years of teaching, I came to the conclusion that what we need in education is a much better understanding of students and learning from a motivational perspective, from a psychological perspective. +In education, the one thing we know how to measure best is IQ. +But what if doing well in school and in life depends on much more than your ability to learn quickly and easily? +So I left the classroom, and I went to graduate school to become a psychologist. +I started studying kids and adults in all kinds of super challenging settings, and in every study my question was, who is successful here and why? +My research team and I went to West Point Military Academy. +We tried to predict which cadets would stay in military training and which would drop out. +We went to the National Spelling Bee and tried to predict which children would advance farthest in competition. +We studied rookie teachers working in really tough neighborhoods, asking which teachers are still going to be here in teaching by the end of the school year, and of those, who will be the most effective at improving learning outcomes for their students? +We partnered with private companies, asking, which of these salespeople is going to keep their jobs? +And who's going to earn the most money? +In all those very different contexts, one characteristic emerged as a significant predictor of success. +And it wasn't social intelligence. +It wasn't good looks, physical health, and it wasn't IQ. +It was grit. +Grit is passion and perseverance for very long-term goals. +Grit is having stamina. +Grit is sticking with your future, day in, day out, not just for the week, not just for the month, but for years, and working really hard to make that future a reality. +Grit is living life like it's a marathon, not a sprint. +A few years ago, I started studying grit in the Chicago public schools. +I asked thousands of high school juniors to take grit questionnaires, and then waited around more than a year to see who would graduate. +Turns out that grittier kids were significantly more likely to graduate, even when I matched them on every characteristic I could measure, things like family income, standardized achievement test scores, even how safe kids felt when they were at school. +So it's not just at West Point or the National Spelling Bee that grit matters. It's also in school, especially for kids at risk for dropping out. +To me, the most shocking thing about grit is how little we know, how little science knows, about building it. +Every day, parents and teachers ask me, "How do I build grit in kids? +What do I do to teach kids a solid work ethic? +How do I keep them motivated for the long run?" +The honest answer is, I don't know. What I do know is that talent doesn't make you gritty. +Our data show very clearly that there are many talented individuals who simply do not follow through on their commitments. +In fact, in our data, grit is usually unrelated or even inversely related to measures of talent. +So far, the best idea I've heard about building grit in kids is something called "growth mindset." +This is an idea developed at Stanford University by Carol Dweck, and it is the belief that the ability to learn is not fixed, that it can change with your effort. +Dr. Dweck has shown that when kids read and learn about the brain and how it changes and grows in response to challenge, they're much more likely to persevere when they fail, because they don't believe that failure is a permanent condition. +So growth mindset is a great idea for building grit. +But we need more. +And that's where I'm going to end my remarks, because that's where we are. +That's the work that stands before us. +We need to take our best ideas, our strongest intuitions, and we need to test them. +We need to measure whether we've been successful, and we have to be willing to fail, to be wrong, to start over again with lessons learned. +In other words, we need to be gritty about getting our kids grittier. +Thank you. +Growing up in Taiwan as the daughter of a calligrapher, one of my most treasured memories was my mother showing me the beauty, the shape and the form of Chinese characters. +Ever since then, I was fascinated by this incredible language. +But to an outsider, it seems to be as impenetrable as the Great Wall of China. +Over the past few years, I've been wondering if I can break down this wall, so anyone who wants to understand and appreciate the beauty of this sophisticated language could do so. +I started thinking about how a new, fast method of learning Chinese might be useful. +Since the age of five, I started to learn how to draw every single stroke for each character in the correct sequence. +I learned new characters every day during the course of the next 15 years. +Since we only have five minutes, it's better that we have a fast and simpler way. +A Chinese scholar would understand 20,000 characters. +You only need 1,000 to understand the basic literacy. +The top 200 will allow you to comprehend 40 percent of basic literature -- enough to read road signs, restaurant menus, to understand the basic idea of the web pages or the newspapers. +Today I'm going to start with eight to show you how the method works. +You are ready? +Open your mouth as wide as possible until it's square. +You get a mouth. +This is a person going for a walk. +Person. +If the shape of the fire is a person with two arms on both sides, as if she was yelling frantically, "Help! I'm on fire!" -- This symbol actually is originally from the shape of the flame, but I like to think that way. Whichever works for you. +This is a tree. +Tree. +This is a mountain. +The sun. +The moon. +The symbol of the door looks like a pair of saloon doors in the wild west. +I call these eight characters radicals. +They are the building blocks for you to create lots more characters. +A person. +If someone walks behind, that is "to follow." +As the old saying goes, two is company, three is a crowd. +If a person stretched their arms wide, this person is saying, "It was this big." +The person inside the mouth, the person is trapped. +He's a prisoner, just like Jonah inside the whale. +One tree is a tree. Two trees together, we have the woods. +Three trees together, we create the forest. +Put a plank underneath the tree, we have the foundation. +Put a mouth on the top of the tree, that's "idiot." Easy to remember, since a talking tree is pretty idiotic. +Remember fire? +Two fires together, I get really hot. +Three fires together, that's a lot of flames. +Set the fire underneath the two trees, it's burning. +For us, the sun is the source of prosperity. +Two suns together, prosperous. +Three together, that's sparkles. +Put the sun and the moon shining together, it's brightness. +It also means tomorrow, after a day and a night. +The sun is coming up above the horizon. Sunrise. +A door. Put a plank inside the door, it's a door bolt. +Put a mouth inside the door, asking questions. +Knock knock. Is anyone home? +This person is sneaking out of a door, escaping, evading. +On the left, we have a woman. +Two women together, they have an argument. +Three women together, be careful, it's adultery. +So we have gone through almost 30 characters. +By using this method, the first eight radicals will allow you to build 32. +The next group of eight characters will build an extra 32. +So with very little effort, you will be able to learn a couple hundred characters, which is the same as a Chinese eight-year-old. +So after we know the characters, we start building phrases. +For example, the mountain and the fire together, we have fire mountain. It's a volcano. +We know Japan is the land of the rising sun. +This is a sun placed with the origin, because Japan lies to the east of China. +So a sun, origin together, we build Japan. +A person behind Japan, what do we get? +A Japanese person. +The character on the left is two mountains stacked on top of each other. +In ancient China, that means in exile, because Chinese emperors, they put their political enemies in exile beyond mountains. +Nowadays, exile has turned into getting out. +A mouth which tells you where to get out is an exit. +This is a slide to remind me that I should stop talking and get off of the stage. Thank you. +You know, my favorite part of being a dad is the movies I get to watch. +I love sharing my favorite movies with my kids, and when my daughter was four, we got to watch "The Wizard of Oz" together. +It totally dominated her imagination for months. +Her favorite character was Glinda, of course. +It gave her a great excuse to wear a sparkly dress and carry a wand. +But you watch that movie enough times, and you start to realize how unusual it is. +Now we live today, and are raising our children, in a kind of children's-fantasy-spectacular-industrial complex. +But "The Wizard of Oz" stood alone. +It did not start that trend. +Forty years later was when the trend really caught on, with, interestingly, another movie that featured a metal guy and a furry guy rescuing a girl by dressing up as the enemy's guards. +Do you know what I'm talking about? Yeah. +Now, there's a big difference between these two movies, a couple of really big differences between "The Wizard of Oz" and all the movies we watch today. +One is there's very little violence in "The Wizard of Oz." +The monkeys are rather aggressive, as are the apple trees. +But I think if "The Wizard of Oz" were made today, the wizard would say, "Dorothy, you are the savior of Oz that the prophecy foretold. +Use your magic slippers to defeat the computer-generated armies of the Wicked Witch." +But that's not how it happens. +Another thing that's really unique about "The Wizard of Oz" to me is that all of the most heroic and wise and even villainous characters are female. +Now I started to notice this when I actually showed "Star Wars" to my daughter, which was years later, and the situation was different. +At that point I also had a son. +He was only three at the time. +He was not invited to the screening. He was too young for that. +But he was the second child, and the level of supervision had plummeted. So he wandered in, and it imprinted on him like a mommy duck does to its duckling, and I don't think he understands what's going on, but he is sure soaking in it. +And I wonder what he's soaking in. +Is he picking up on the themes of courage and perseverance and loyalty? +Is he picking up on the fact that Luke joins an army to overthrow the government? +Compare this to 1939 with "The Wizard of Oz." +How does Dorothy win her movie? +By making friends with everybody and being a leader. +That's kind of the world I'd rather raise my kids in -- Oz, right? -- and not the world of dudes fighting, which is where we kind of have to be. +Why is there so much Force -- capital F, Force -- in the movies we have for our kids, and so little yellow brick road? +There is a lot of great writing about the impact that the boy-violent movie has on girls, and you should do that reading. It's very good. +I haven't read as much on how boys are picking up on this vibe. +I know from my own experience that Princess Leia did not provide the adequate context that I could have used in navigating the adult world that is co-ed. I think there was a first-kiss moment when I really expected the credits to start rolling because that's the end of the movie, right? +I finished my quest, I got the girl. +Why are you still standing there? +I don't know what I'm supposed to do. +The movies are very, very focused on defeating the villain and getting your reward, and there's not a lot of room for other relationships and other journeys. +It's almost as though if you're a boy, you are a dopey animal, and if you are a girl, you should bring your warrior costume. +There are plenty of exceptions, and I will defend the Disney princesses in front of any you. +But they do send a message to boys, that they are not, the boys are not really the target audience. +They are doing a phenomenal job of teaching girls how to defend against the patriarchy, but they are not necessarily showing boys how they're supposed to defend against the patriarchy. +There's no models for them. +And we also have some terrific women who are writing new stories for our kids, and as three-dimensional and delightful as Hermione and Katniss are, these are still war movies. +And, of course, the most successful studio of all time continues to crank out classic after classic, every single one of them about the journey of a boy, or a man, or two men who are friends, or a man and his son, or two men who are raising a little girl. +Until, as many of you are thinking, this year, when they finally came out with "Brave." +I recommend it to all of you. It's on demand now. +Do you remember what the critics said when "Brave" came out? +"Aw, I can't believe Pixar made a princess movie." +It's very good. Don't let that stop you. +Now, almost none of these movies pass the Bechdel Test. +I don't know if you've heard of this. +It has not yet caught on and caught fire, but maybe today we will start a movement. +Alison Bechdel is a comic book artist, and back in the mid-'80s, she recorded this conversation she'd had with a friend about assessing the movies that they saw. +And it's very simple. There's just three questions you should ask: Is there more than one character in the movie that is female who has lines? +So try to meet that bar. +And do these women talk to each other at any point in the movie? +And is their conversation about something other than the guy that they both like? Right? Thank you. Thank you very much. +Two women who exist and talk to each other about stuff. +It does happen. I've seen it, and yet I very rarely see it in the movies that we know and love. +In fact, this week I went to see a very high-quality movie, "Argo." +Right? Oscar buzz, doing great at the box office, a consensus idea of what a quality Hollywood film is. +It pretty much flunks the Bechdel test. +And I don't think it should, because a lot of the movie, I don't know if you've seen it, but a lot of the movie takes place in this embassy where men and women are hiding out during the hostage crisis. +We've got quite a few scenes of the men having deep, angst-ridden conversations in this hideout, and the great moment for one of the actresses is to peek through the door and say, "Are you coming to bed, honey?" +That's Hollywood for you. +So let's look at the numbers. +2011, of the 100 most popular movies, how many of them do you think actually have female protagonists? +Eleven. It's not bad. +It's not as many percent as the number of women we've just elected to Congress, so that's good. +But there is a number that is greater than this that's going to bring this room down. +Last year, The New York Times published a study that the government had done. +Here's what it said. +One out of five women in America say that they have been sexually assaulted some time in their life. +Now, I don't think that's the fault of popular entertainment. +I don't think kids' movies have anything to do with that. +I don't even think that music videos or pornography are really directly related to that, but something is going wrong, and when I hear that statistic, one of the things I think of is that's a lot of sexual assailants. +Who are these guys? What are they learning? +What are they failing to learn? +Are they absorbing the story that a male hero's job is to defeat the villain with violence and then collect the reward, which is a woman who has no friends and doesn't speak? +Are we soaking up that story? +You know, as a parent with the privilege of raising a daughter like all of you who are doing the same thing, we find this world and this statistic very alarming and we want to prepare them. +We have tools at our disposal like "girl power," and we hope that that will help, but I gotta wonder, is girl power going to protect them if, at the same time, actively or passively, we are training our sons to maintain their boy power? +I mean, I think the Netflix queue is one way that we can do something very important, and I'm talking mainly to the dads here. +I think we have got to show our sons a new definition of manhood. +The definition of manhood is already turning upside down. +You've read about how the new economy is changing the roles of caregiver and wage earner. +They're throwing it up in the air. +When I asked my daughter who her favorite character was in "Star Wars," do you know what she said? +Obi-Wan. +Obi-Wan Kenobi and Glinda. +What do these two have in common? +Maybe it's not just the sparkly dress. +I think these people are experts. +I think these are the two people in the movie who know more than anybody else, and they love sharing their knowledge with other people to help them reach their potential. +Now, they are leaders. +I like that kind of quest for my daughter, and I like that kind of quest for my son. +I want more quests like that. +I want fewer quests where my son is told, "Go out and fight it alone," and more quests where he sees that it's his job to join a team, maybe a team led by women, to help other people become better and be better people, like the Wizard of Oz. +Thank you. +When I was a child growing up in Maine, one of my favorite things to do was to look for sand dollars on the seashores of Maine, because my parents told me it would bring me luck. +But you know, these shells, they're hard to find. +They're covered in sand, they're difficult to see. +However, over time, I got used to looking for them. +I started seeing shapes and patterns that helped me to collect them. +This grew into a passion for finding things, a love for the past and archaeology. +And eventually, when I started studying Egyptology, I realized that seeing with my naked eyes alone wasn't enough. +Because all of the sudden, in Egypt, my beach had grown from a tiny beach in Maine to one eight hundred miles long, next to the Nile. +And my sand dollars had grown to the size of cities. +This is really what brought me to using satellite imagery. +For trying to map the past, I knew that I had to see differently. +So I want to show you an example of how we see differently using the infrared. +This is a site located in the eastern Egyptian delta called Mendes. +And the site visibly appears brown, but when we use the infrared and we process it, all of the sudden, using false color, the site appears as bright pink. +What you are seeing are the actual chemical changes to the landscape caused by the building materials and activities of the ancient Egyptians. +What I want to share with you today is how we've used satellite data to find an ancient Egyptian city, called Itjtawy, missing for thousands of years. +Itjtawy was ancient Egypt's capital for over four hundred years, at a period of time called the Middle Kingdom, about four thousand years ago. +The site is located in the Faiyum of Egypt, and the site is really important, because in the Middle Kingdom there was this great renaissance for ancient Egyptian art, architecture and religion. +Egyptologists have always known the site of Itjtawy was located somewhere near the pyramids of the two kings who built it, indicated within the red circles here, but somewhere within this massive flood plain. +This area is huge -- it's four miles by three miles in size. +The Nile used to flow right next to the city of Itjtawy, and as it shifted and changed and moved over time to the east, it covered over the city. +So, how do you find a buried city in a vast landscape? +Finding it randomly would be the equivalent of locating a needle in a haystack, blindfolded, wearing baseball mitts. +So what we did is we used NASA topography data to map out the landscape, very subtle changes. +We started to be able to see where the Nile used to flow. +But you can see in more detail, and even more interesting, this very slight raised area seen within the circle up here which we thought could possibly be the location of the city of Itjtawy. +So we collaborated with Egyptian scientists to do coring work, which you see here. +When I say coring, it's like ice coring, but instead of layers of climate change, you're looking for layers of human occupation. +And, five meters down, underneath a thick layer of mud, we found a dense layer of pottery. +What this shows is that at this possible location of Itjtawy, five meters down, we have a layer of occupation for several hundred years, dating to the Middle Kingdom, dating to the exact period of time we think Itjtawy is. +We also found work stone -- carnelian, quartz and agate that shows that there was a jeweler's workshop here. +These might not look like much, but when you think about the most common stones used in jewelry from the Middle Kingdom, these are the stones that were used. +So, we have a dense layer of occupation dating to the Middle Kingdom at this site. +We also have evidence of an elite jeweler's workshop, showing that whatever was there was a very important city. +No Itjtawy was here yet, but we're going to be returning to the site in the near future to map it out. +And even more importantly, we have funding to train young Egyptians in the use of satellite technology so they can be the ones making great discoveries as well. +So I wanted to end with my favorite quote from the Middle Kingdom -- it was probably written at the city of Itjtawy four thousand years ago. +"Sharing knowledge is the greatest of all callings. +There's nothing like it in the land." +So as it turns out, TED was not founded in 1984 AD. +Making ideas actually started in 1984 BC at a not-lost-for-long city, found from above. +It certainly puts finding seashells by the seashore in perspective. +Thank you very much. +Thank you. +I'd like to invite you to close your eyes. +Imagine yourself standing outside the front door of your home. +I'd like you to notice the color of the door, the material that it's made out of. +Now visualize a pack of overweight nudists on bicycles. +They are competing in a naked bicycle race, and they are headed straight for your front door. +I need you to actually see this. +They are pedaling really hard, they're sweaty, they're bouncing around a lot. +And they crash straight into the front door of your home. +Bicycles fly everywhere, wheels roll past you, spokes end up in awkward places. +Step over the threshold of your door into your foyer, your hallway, whatever's on the other side, and appreciate the quality of the light. +The light is shining down on Cookie Monster. +Cookie Monster is waving at you from his perch on top of a tan horse. +It's a talking horse. +You can practically feel his blue fur tickling your nose. +You can smell the oatmeal raisin cookie that he's about to shovel into his mouth. +Walk past him into your living room. +In your living room, in full imaginative broadband, picture Britney Spears. +She is scantily clad, she's dancing on your coffee table, and she's singing "Hit Me Baby One More Time." +And then, follow me into your kitchen. +In your kitchen, the floor has been paved over with a yellow brick road, and out of your oven are coming towards you Dorothy, the Tin Man, the Scarecrow and the Lion from "The Wizard of Oz," hand-in-hand, skipping straight towards you. +Okay. Open your eyes. +I want to tell you about a very bizarre contest that is held every spring in New York City. +It's called the United States Memory Championship. +And I had gone to cover this contest a few years back as a science journalist, expecting, I guess, that this was going to be like the Superbowl of savants. +This was a bunch of guys and a few ladies, widely varying in both age and hygienic upkeep. +They were memorizing hundreds of random numbers, looking at them just once. +They were memorizing the names of dozens and dozens and dozens of strangers. +They were memorizing entire poems in just a few minutes. +They were competing to see who could memorize the order of a shuffled pack of playing cards the fastest. +I was like, this is unbelievable. +These people must be freaks of nature. +And I started talking to a few of the competitors. +This is a guy called Ed Cook, who had come over from England, where he had one of the best-trained memories. +And I said to him, "Ed, when did you realize that you were a savant?" +And Ed was like, "I'm not a savant. +In fact, I have just an average memory. +Everybody who competes in this contest will tell you that they have just an average memory. +We've all trained ourselves to perform these utterly miraculous feats of memory using a set of ancient techniques, techniques invented 2,500 years ago in Greece, the same techniques that Cicero had used to memorize his speeches, that medieval scholars had used to memorize entire books." +And I said, "Whoa. How come I never heard of this before?" +And we were standing outside the competition hall, and Ed, who is a wonderful, brilliant, but somewhat eccentric English guy, says to me, "Josh, you're an American journalist. +Do you know Britney Spears?" +I'm like, "What? No. Why?" +"Because I really want to teach Britney Spears how to memorize the order of a shuffled pack of playing cards on U.S. national television. +It will prove to the world that anybody can do this." +I was like, "Well, I'm not Britney Spears, but maybe you could teach me. +I mean, you've got to start somewhere, right?" +And that was the beginning of a very strange journey for me. +I ended up spending the better part of the next year not only training my memory, but also investigating it, trying to understand how it works, why it sometimes doesn't work, and what its potential might be. +And I met a host of really interesting people. +This is a guy called E.P. +He's an amnesic who had, very possibly, the worst memory in the world. +His memory was so bad, that he didn't even remember he had a memory problem, which is amazing. +And he was this incredibly tragic figure, but he was a window into the extent to which our memories make us who we are. +At the other end of the spectrum, I met this guy. +This is Kim Peek, he was the basis for Dustin Hoffman's character in the movie "Rain Man." +We spent an afternoon together in the Salt Lake City Public Library memorizing phone books, which was scintillating. +And I went back and I read a whole host of memory treatises, treatises written 2,000-plus years ago in Latin, in antiquity, and then later, in the Middle Ages. +And I learned a whole bunch of really interesting stuff. +One of the really interesting things that I learned is that once upon a time, this idea of having a trained, disciplined, cultivated memory was not nearly so alien as it would seem to us to be today. +Once upon a time, people invested in their memories, in laboriously furnishing their minds. +These technologies have made our modern world possible, but they've also changed us. +They've changed us culturally, and I would argue that they've changed us cognitively. +Having little need to remember anymore, it sometimes seems like we've forgotten how. +One of the last places on Earth where you still find people passionate about this idea of a trained, disciplined, cultivated memory, is at this totally singular memory contest. +It's actually not that singular, there are contests held all over the world. +And I was fascinated, I wanted to know how do these guys do it. +A few years back a group of researchers at University College London brought a bunch of memory champions into the lab. +They wanted to know: Do these guys have brains that are somehow structurally, anatomically different from the rest of ours? +The answer was no. +Are they smarter than the rest of us? +They gave them a bunch of cognitive tests, and the answer was: not really. +There was, however, one really interesting and telling difference between the brains of the memory champions and the control subjects that they were comparing them to. +When they put these guys in an fMRI machine, scanned their brains while they were memorizing numbers and people's faces and pictures of snowflakes, they found that the memory champions were lighting up different parts of the brain than everyone else. +Of note, they were using, or they seemed to be using, a part of the brain that's involved in spatial memory and navigation. +Why? And is there something that the rest of us can learn from this? +The sport of competitive memorizing is driven by a kind of arms race where, every year, somebody comes up with a new way to remember more stuff more quickly, and then the rest of the field has to play catch-up. +This is my friend Ben Pridmore, three-time world memory champion. +On his desk in front of him are 36 shuffled packs of playing cards that he is about to try to memorize in one hour, using a technique that he invented and he alone has mastered. +He used a similar technique to memorize the precise order of 4,140 random binary digits in half an hour. +Yeah. +And while there are a whole host of ways of remembering stuff in these competitions, everything, all of the techniques that are being used, ultimately come down to a concept that psychologists refer to as "elaborative encoding." +And it's well-illustrated by a nifty paradox known as the Baker/baker paradox, which goes like this: If I tell two people to remember the same word, if I say to you, "Remember that there is a guy named Baker." +That's his name. +And I say to you, "Remember that there is a guy who is a baker." +And I come back to you at some point later on, and I say, "Do you remember that word that I told you a while back? +Do you remember what it was?" +The person who was told his name is Baker is less likely to remember the same word than the person was told his job is a baker. +Same word, different amount of remembering; that's weird. +What's going on here? +Well, the name Baker doesn't actually mean anything to you. +It is entirely untethered from all of the other memories floating around in your skull. +But the common noun "baker" -- we know bakers. +Bakers wear funny white hats. +Bakers have flour on their hands. +Bakers smell good when they come home from work. +Maybe we even know a baker. +And when we first hear that word, we start putting these associational hooks into it, that make it easier to fish it back out at some later date. +One of the more elaborate techniques for doing this dates back 2,500 years to Ancient Greece. +It came to be known as the memory palace. +The story behind its creation goes like this: There was a poet called Simonides, who was attending a banquet. +He was actually the hired entertainment, because back then, if you wanted to throw a really slamming party, you didn't hire a D.J., you hired a poet. +And he stands up, delivers his poem from memory, walks out the door, and at the moment he does, the banquet hall collapses. +Kills everybody inside. +It doesn't just kill everybody, it mangles the bodies beyond all recognition. +Nobody can say who was inside, nobody can say where they were sitting. +The bodies can't be properly buried. +It's one tragedy compounding another. +Simonides, standing outside, the sole survivor amid the wreckage, closes his eyes and has this realization, which is that in his mind's eye, he can see where each of the guests at the banquet had been sitting. +And he takes the relatives by the hand, and guides them each to their loved ones amid the wreckage. +What Simonides figured out at that moment, is something that I think we all kind of intuitively know, which is that, as bad as we are at remembering names and phone numbers, and word-for-word instructions from our colleagues, we have really exceptional visual and spatial memories. +If I asked you to recount the first 10 words of the story that I just told you about Simonides, chances are you would have a tough time with it. +But, I would wager that if I asked you to recall who is sitting on top of a talking tan horse in your foyer right now, you would be able to see that. +The idea behind the memory palace is to create this imagined edifice in your mind's eye, and populate it with images of the things that you want to remember -- the crazier, weirder, more bizarre, funnier, raunchier, stinkier the image is, the more unforgettable it's likely to be. +This is advice that goes back 2,000-plus years to the earliest Latin memory treatises. +So how does this work? +Let's say that you've been invited to TED center stage to give a speech, and you want to do it from memory, and you want to do it the way that Cicero would have done it, if he had been invited to TEDxRome 2,000 years ago. +What you might do is picture yourself at the front door of your house. +And you'd come up with some sort of crazy, ridiculous, unforgettable image, to remind you that the first thing you want to talk about is this totally bizarre contest. +And then you'd go inside your house, and you would see an image of Cookie Monster on top of Mister Ed. +And that would remind you that you would want to then introduce your friend Ed Cook. +And then you'd see an image of Britney Spears to remind you of this funny anecdote you want to tell. +And you'd go into your kitchen, and the fourth topic you were going to talk about was this strange journey that you went on for a year, and you'd have some friends to help you remember that. +This is how Roman orators memorized their speeches -- not word-for-word, which is just going to screw you up, but topic-for-topic. +In fact, the phrase "topic sentence" -- that comes from the Greek word "topos," which means "place." +That's a vestige of when people used to think about oratory and rhetoric in these sorts of spatial terms. +The phrase "in the first place," that's like "in the first place of your memory palace." +I thought this was just fascinating, and I got really into it. +And I went to a few more of these memory contests, and I had this notion that I might write something longer about this subculture of competitive memorizers. +But there was a problem. +The problem was that a memory contest is a pathologically boring event. +Truly, it is like a bunch of people sitting around taking the SATs -- I mean, the most dramatic it gets is when somebody starts massaging their temples. +And I'm a journalist, I need something to write about. +I know that there's incredible stuff happening in these people's minds, but I don't have access to it. +And I realized, if I was going to tell this story, I needed to walk in their shoes a little bit. +And so I started trying to spend 15 or 20 minutes every morning, before I sat down with my New York Times, just trying to remember something. +Maybe it was a poem, maybe it was names from an old yearbook that I bought at a flea market. +And I found that this was shockingly fun. +I never would have expected that. +It was fun because this is actually not about training your memory. +What you're doing, is you're trying to get better and better at creating, at dreaming up, these utterly ludicrous, raunchy, hilarious, and hopefully unforgettable images in your mind's eye. +And I got pretty into it. +This is me wearing my standard competitive memorizer's training kit. +It's a pair of earmuffs and a set of safety goggles that have been masked over except for two small pinholes, because distraction is the competitive memorizer's greatest enemy. +I ended up coming back to that same contest that I had covered a year earlier, and I had this notion that I might enter it, sort of as an experiment in participatory journalism. +It'd make, I thought, maybe a nice epilogue to all my research. +Problem was, the experiment went haywire. +I won the contest -- which really wasn't supposed to happen. +Now, it is nice to be able to memorize speeches and phone numbers and shopping lists, but it's actually kind of beside the point. +These are just tricks. +They work because they're based on some pretty basic principles about how our brains work. +And you don't have to be building memory palaces or memorizing packs of playing cards to benefit from a little bit of insight about how your mind works. +We often talk about people with great memories as though it were some sort of an innate gift, but that is not the case. +Great memories are learned. +At the most basic level, we remember when we pay attention. +We remember when we are deeply engaged. +The memory palace, these memory techniques -- they're just shortcuts. +In fact, they're not even really shortcuts. +They work because they make you work. +They force a kind of depth of processing, a kind of mindfulness, that most of us don't normally walk around exercising. +But there actually are no shortcuts. +This is how stuff is made memorable. +And I think if there's one thing that I want to leave you with, it's what E.P., the amnesic who couldn't even remember he had a memory problem, left me with, which is the notion that our lives are the sum of our memories. +How much are we willing to lose from our already short lives, by losing ourselves in our Blackberries, our iPhones, by not paying attention to the human being across from us who is talking with us, by being so lazy that we're not willing to process deeply? +I learned firsthand that there are incredible memory capacities latent in all of us. +But if you want to live a memorable life, you have to be the kind of person who remembers to remember. +Thank you. +Today I'm going to speak to you about the last 30 years of architectural history. +That's a lot to pack into 18 minutes. +It's a complex topic, so we're just going to dive right in at a complex place: New Jersey. +Because 30 years ago, I'm from Jersey, and I was six, and I lived there in my parents' house in a town called Livingston, and this was my childhood bedroom. +Around the corner from my bedroom was the bathroom that I used to share with my sister. +And in between my bedroom and the bathroom was a balcony that overlooked the family room. +And that's where everyone would hang out and watch TV, so that every time that I walked from my bedroom to the bathroom, everyone would see me, and every time I took a shower and would come back in a towel, everyone would see me. +And I looked like this. +I was awkward, insecure, and I hated it. +I hated that walk, I hated that balcony, I hated that room, and I hated that house. +And that's architecture. +Done. +That feeling, those emotions that I felt, that's the power of architecture, because architecture is not about math and it's not about zoning, it's about those visceral, emotional connections that we feel to the places that we occupy. +And it's no surprise that we feel that way, because according to the EPA, Americans spend 90 percent of their time indoors. +That's 90 percent of our time surrounded by architecture. +That's huge. +That means that architecture is shaping us in ways that we didn't even realize. +That makes us a little bit gullible and very, very predictable. +It means that when I show you a building like this, I know what you think: You think "power" and "stability" and "democracy." +And I know you think that because it's based on a building that was build 2,500 years ago by the Greeks. +This is a trick. +This is a trigger that architects use to get you to create an emotional connection to the forms that we build our buildings out of. +It's a predictable emotional connection, and we've been using this trick for a long, long time. +We used it [200] years ago to build banks. +We used it in the 19th century to build art museums. +And in the 20th century in America, we used it to build houses. +And look at these solid, stable little soldiers facing the ocean and keeping away the elements. +This is really, really useful, because building things is terrifying. +It's expensive, it takes a long time, and it's very complicated. +And the people that build things -- developers and governments -- they're naturally afraid of innovation, and they'd rather just use those forms that they know you'll respond to. +That's how we end up with buildings like this. +This is a nice building. +This is the Livingston Public Library that was completed in 2004 in my hometown, and, you know, it's got a dome and it's got this round thing and columns, red brick, and you can kind of guess what Livingston is trying to say with this building: children, property values and history. +But it doesn't have much to do with what a library actually does today. +That same year, in 2004, on the other side of the country, another library was completed, and it looks like this. +It's in Seattle. +This library is about how we consume media in a digital age. +It's about a new kind of public amenity for the city, a place to gather and read and share. +So how is it possible that in the same year, in the same country, two buildings, both called libraries, look so completely different? +And the answer is that architecture works on the principle of a pendulum. +On the one side is innovation, and architects are constantly pushing, pushing for new technologies, new typologies, new solutions for the way that we live today. +And we push and we push and we push until we completely alienate all of you. +We wear all black, we get very depressed, you think we're adorable, we're dead inside because we've got no choice. +We have to go to the other side and reengage those symbols that we know you love. +So we do that, and you're happy, we feel like sellouts, so we start experimenting again and we push the pendulum back and back and forth and back and forth we've gone for the last 300 years, and certainly for the last 30 years. +Okay, 30 years ago we were coming out of the '70s. +Architects had been busy experimenting with something called brutalism. +It's about concrete. +You can guess this. +Small windows, dehumanizing scale. +This is really tough stuff. +So as we get closer to the '80s, we start to reengage those symbols. +We push the pendulum back into the other direction. +We take these forms that we know you love and we update them. +We add neon and we add pastels and we use new materials. +And you love it. +And we can't give you enough of it. +We take Chippendale armoires and we turned those into skyscrapers, and skyscrapers can be medieval castles made out of glass. +Forms got big, forms got bold and colorful. +Dwarves became columns. +Swans grew to the size of buildings. +It was crazy. +But it's the '80s, it's cool. +We're all hanging out in malls and we're all moving to the suburbs, and out there, out in the suburbs, we can create our own architectural fantasies. +And those fantasies, they can be Mediterranean or French or Italian. +Possibly with endless breadsticks. +This is the thing about postmodernism. +This is the thing about symbols. +They're easy, they're cheap, because instead of making places, we're making memories of places. +Because I know, and I know all of you know, this isn't Tuscany. +This is Ohio. +So architects get frustrated, and we start pushing the pendulum back into the other direction. +In the late '80s and early '90s, we start experimenting with something called deconstructivism. +We throw out historical symbols, we rely on new, computer-aided design techniques, and we come up with new compositions, forms crashing into forms. +This is academic and heady stuff, it's super unpopular, we totally alienate you. +Ordinarily, the pendulum would just swing back into the other direction. +And then, something amazing happened. +In 1997, this building opened. +This is the Guggenheim Bilbao, by Frank Gehry. +And this building fundamentally changes the world's relationship to architecture. +Paul Goldberger said that Bilbao was one of those rare moments when critics, academics, and the general public were completely united around a building. +The New York Times called this building a miracle. +Tourism in Bilbao increased 2,500 percent after this building was completed. +So all of a sudden, everybody wants one of these buildings: L.A., Seattle, Chicago, New York, Cleveland, Springfield. +Everybody wants one, and Gehry is everywhere. +He is our very first starchitect. +Now, how is it possible that these forms -- they're wild and radical -- how is it possible that they become so ubiquitous throughout the world? +And it happened because media so successfully galvanized around them that they quickly taught us that these forms mean culture and tourism. +We created an emotional reaction to these forms. +So did every mayor in the world. +So every mayor knew that if they had these forms, they had culture and tourism. +This phenomenon at the turn of the new millennium happened to a few other starchitects. +It happened to Zaha and it happened to Libeskind, and what happened to these elite few architects at the turn of the new millennium could actually start to happen to the entire field of architecture, as digital media starts to increase the speed with which we consume information. +Because think about how you consume architecture. +A thousand years ago, you would have had to have walked to the village next door to see a building. +Transportation speeds up: You can take a boat, you can take a plane, you can be a tourist. +Technology speeds up: You can see it in a newspaper, on TV, until finally, we are all architectural photographers, and the building has become disembodied from the site. +Architecture is everywhere now, and that means that the speed of communication has finally caught up to the speed of architecture. +Because architecture actually moves quite quickly. +It doesn't take long to think about a building. +It takes a long time to build a building, three or four years, and in the interim, an architect will design two or eight or a hundred other buildings before they know if that building that they designed four years ago was a success or not. +That's because there's never been a good feedback loop in architecture. +That's how we end up with buildings like this. +Brutalism wasn't a two-year movement, it was a 20-year movement. +For 20 years, we were producing buildings like this because we had no idea how much you hated it. +It's never going to happen again, I think, because we are living on the verge of the greatest revolution in architecture since the invention of concrete, of steel, or of the elevator, and it's a media revolution. +So my theory is that when you apply media to this pendulum, it starts swinging faster and faster, until it's at both extremes nearly simultaneously, and that effectively blurs the difference between innovation and symbol, between us, the architects, and you, the public. +Now we can make nearly instantaneous, emotionally charged symbols out of something that's brand new. +Let me show you how this plays out in a project that my firm recently completed. +We were hired to replace this building, which burned down. +This is the center of a town called the Pines in Fire Island in New York State. +It's a vacation community. +But that meant that two years before the building was complete, it was already a part of the community, so that when the renderings looked exactly like the finished product, there were no surprises. +This building was already a part of this community, and then that first summer, when people started arriving and sharing the building on social media, the building ceased to be just an edifice and it became media, because these, these are not just pictures of a building, they're your pictures of a building. +And as you use them to tell your story, they become part of your personal narrative, and what you're doing is you're short-circuiting all of our collective memory, and you're making these charged symbols for us to understand. +That means we don't need the Greeks anymore to tell us what to think about architecture. +We can tell each other what we think about architecture, because digital media hasn't just changed the relationship between all of us, it's changed the relationship between us and buildings. +Think for a second about those librarians back in Livingston. +If that building was going to be built today, the first thing they would do is go online and search "new libraries." +They would be bombarded by examples of experimentation, of innovation, of pushing at the envelope of what a library can be. +That's ammunition. +That's ammunition that they can take with them to the mayor of Livingston, to the people of Livingston, and say, there's no one answer to what a library is today. +Let's be a part of this. +This abundance of experimentation gives them the freedom to run their own experiment. +Everything is different now. +Architects are no longer these mysterious creatures that use big words and complicated drawings, and you aren't the hapless public, the consumer that won't accept anything that they haven't seen anymore. +Architects can hear you, and you're not intimidated by architecture. +That means that that pendulum swinging back and forth from style to style, from movement to movement, is irrelevant. +We can actually move forward and find relevant solutions to the problems that our society faces. +This is the end of architectural history, and it means that the buildings of tomorrow are going to look a lot different than the buildings of today. +It means that a public space in the ancient city of Seville can be unique and tailored to the way that a modern city works. +It means that a stadium in Brooklyn can be a stadium in Brooklyn, not some red-brick historical pastiche of what we think a stadium ought to be. +It means that robots are going to build our buildings, because we're finally ready for the forms that they're going to produce. +And it means that buildings will twist to the whims of nature instead of the other way around. +It means that a parking garage in Miami Beach, Florida, can also be a place for sports and for yoga and you can even get married there late at night. +It means that three architects can dream about swimming in the East River of New York, and then raise nearly half a million dollars from a community that gathered around their cause, no one client anymore. +It means that no building is too small for innovation, like this little reindeer pavilion that's as muscly and sinewy as the animals it's designed to observe. +Because it doesn't matter if a cow builds our buildings or a robot builds our buildings. +It doesn't matter how we build, it matters what we build. +Architects already know how to make buildings that are greener and smarter and friendlier. +We've just been waiting for all of you to want them. +And finally, we're not on opposite sides anymore. +Find an architect, hire an architect, work with us to design better buildings, better cities, and a better world, because the stakes are high. +Buildings don't just reflect our society, they shape our society down to the smallest spaces: the local libraries, the homes where we raise our children, and the walk that they take from the bedroom to the bathroom. +Thank you. +This is my niece, Stella. +She's just turned one and started to walk. +And she's walking in that really cool way that one-year-olds do, a kind of teetering, my-body's-moving- too-fast-for-my-legs kind of way. +It is absolutely gorgeous. +And one of her favorite things to do at the moment is to stare at herself in the mirror. +She absolutely loves her reflection. +She giggles and squeals, and gives herself these big, wet kisses. +It is beautiful. +Apparently, all of her friends do this and my mom tells me that I used to do this, and it got me thinking: When did I stop doing this? +When is it suddenly not okay to love the way that we look? +Because apparently we don't. +Ten thousand people every month google, "Am I ugly?" +This is Faye. Faye is 13 and she lives in Denver. +And like any teenager, she just wants to be liked and to fit in. +It's Sunday night. +She's getting ready for the week ahead at school. +And she's slightly dreading it, and she's a bit confused because despite her mom telling her all the time that she's beautiful, every day at school, someone tells her that she's ugly. +Because of the difference between what her mom tells her and what her friends at school, or her peers at school are telling her, she doesn't know who to believe. +So, she takes a video of herself. She posts it to YouTube and she asks people to please leave a comment: "Am I pretty or am I ugly?" +Well, so far, Faye has received over 13,000 comments. +Some of them are so nasty, they don't bear thinking about. +This is an average, healthy-looking teenage girl receiving this feedback at one of the most emotionally vulnerable times in her life. +Thousands of people are posting videos like this, mostly teenage girls, reaching out in this way. +But what's leading them to do this? +Well, today's teenagers are rarely alone. +They're under pressure to be online and available at all times, talking, messaging, liking, commenting, sharing, posting it never ends. +Never before have we been so connected, so continuously, so instantaneously, so young. +And as one mom told me, it's like there's a party in their bedroom every night. +There's simply no privacy. +And the social pressures that go along with that are relentless. +This always-on environment is training our kids to value themselves based on the number of likes they get and the types of comments that they receive. +There's no separation between online and offline life. +What's real or what isn't is really hard to tell the difference between. +And it's also really hard to tell the difference between what's authentic and what's digitally manipulated. +What's a highlight in someone's life versus what's normal in the context of everyday. +And where are they looking to for inspiration? +Well, you can see the kinds of images that are covering the newsfeeds of girls today. +Size zero models still dominate our catwalks. +Airbrushing is now routine. +And trends like #thinspiration, #thighgap, #bikinibridge and #proana. +For those who don't know, #proana means pro-anorexia. +These trends are teamed with the stereotyping and flagrant objectification of women in today's popular culture. +It is not hard to see what girls are benchmarking themselves against. +But boys are not immune to this either. +Aspiring to the chiseled jaw lines and ripped six packs of superhero-like sports stars and playboy music artists. +But, what's the problem with all of this? +Well, surely we want our kids to grow up as healthy, well balanced individuals. +But in an image-obsessed culture, we are training our kids to spend more time and mental effort on their appearance at the expense of all of the other aspects of their identities. +So, things like their relationships, the development of their physical abilities, and their studies and so on begin to suffer. +Six out of 10 girls are now choosing not to do something because they don't think they look good enough. +These are not trivial activities. +These are fundamental activities to their development as humans and as contributors to society and to the workforce. +Thirty-one percent, nearly one in three teenagers, are withdrawing from classroom debate. They're failing to engage in classroom debate because they don't want to draw attention to the way that they look. +One in five are not showing up to class at all on days when they don't feel good about it. +And when it comes to exams, if you don't think you look good enough, specifically if you don't think you are thin enough, you will score a lower grade point average than your peers who are not concerned with this. +And this is consistent across Finland, the U.S. +and China, and is true regardless of how much you actually weigh. +So to be super clear, we're talking about the way you think you look, not how you actually look. +Low body confidence is undermining academic achievement. +But it's also damaging health. +Teenagers with low body confidence do less physical activity, eat less fruits and vegetables, partake in more unhealthy weight control practices that can lead to eating disorders. +They have lower self-esteem. +They're more easily influenced by people around them and they're at greater risk of depression. +And we think it's for all of these reasons that they take more risks with things like alcohol and drug use; crash dieting; cosmetic surgery; unprotected, earlier sex; and self-harm. +The pursuit of the perfect body is putting pressure on our healthcare systems and costing our governments billions of dollars every year. +And we don't grow out of it. +Women who think they're overweight again, regardless of whether they are or are not have higher rates of absenteeism. +Seventeen percent of women would not show up to a job interview on a day when they weren't feeling confident about the way that they look. +Have a think about what this is doing to our economy. +If we could overcome this, what that opportunity looks like. +Unlocking this potential is in the interest of every single one of us. +But how do we do that? +Well, talking, on its own, only gets you so far. +It's not enough by itself. +If you actually want to make a difference, you have to do something. +And we've learned there are three key ways: The first is we have to educate for body confidence. +We have to help our teenagers develop strategies to overcome image-related pressures and build their self-esteem. +Now, the good news is that there are many programs out there available to do this. +The bad news is that most of them don't work. +I was shocked to learn that many well-meaning programs are inadvertently actually making the situation worse. +So we need to make damn sure that the programs that our kids are receiving are not only having a positive impact, but having a lasting impact as well. +And the research shows that the best programs address six key areas: The first is the influence of family, friends and relationships. +These six things are crucial starting points for anyone serious about delivering body-confidence education that works. +An education is critical, but tackling this problem is going to require each and everyone of us to step up and be better role models for the women and girls in our own lives. +Challenging the status quo of how women are seen and talked about in our own circles. +It is not okay that we judge the contribution of our politicians by their haircuts or the size of their breasts, or to infer that the determination or the success of an Olympian is down to her not being a looker. +We need to start judging people by what they do, not what they look like. +We can all start by taking responsibility for the types of pictures and comments that we post on our own social networks. +We can compliment people based on their effort and their actions and not on their appearance. +And let me ask you, when was the last time that you kissed a mirror? +Ultimately, we need to work together as communities, as governments and as businesses to really change this culture of ours so that our kids grow up valuing their whole selves, valuing individuality, diversity, inclusion. +We need to put the people that are making a real difference on our pedestals, making a difference in the real world. +Giving them the airtime, because only then will we create a different world. +A world where our kids are free to become the best versions of themselves, where the way they think they look never holds them back from being who they are or achieving what they want in life. +Think about what this might mean for someone in your life. +Who have you got in mind? +Is it your wife? +Your sister? +Your daughter? +Your niece? +Your friend? It could just be the woman a couple of seats away What would it mean for her if she were freed from that voice of her inner critic, nagging her to have longer legs, thinner thighs, smaller stomach, shorter feet? +What could it mean for her if we overcame this and unlocked her potential in that way? +Right now, our culture's obsession with image is holding us all back. +But let's show our kids the truth. +Let's show them that the way you look is just one part of your identity and that the truth is we love them for who they are and what they do and how they make us feel. +Let's build self-esteem into our school curriculums. +Let's each and every one of us change the way we talk and compare ourselves to other people. +And let's work together as communities, from grassroots to governments, so that the happy little one-year-olds of today become the confident changemakers of tomorrow. +Let's do this. +On November 5th, 1990, a man named El-Sayyid Nosair walked into a hotel in Manhattan and assassinated Rabbi Meir Kahane, the leader of the Jewish Defense League. +Nosair was initially found not guilty of the murder, but while serving time on lesser charges, he and other men began planning attacks on a dozen New York City landmarks, including tunnels, synagogues and the United Nations headquarters. +Thankfully, those plans were foiled by an FBI informant. +Sadly, the 1993 bombing of the World Trade Center was not. +Nosair would eventually be convicted for his involvement in the plot. +El-Sayyid Nosair is my father. +I was born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania in 1983 to him, an Egyptian engineer, and a loving American mother and grade school teacher, who together tried their best to create a happy childhood for me. +It wasn't until I was seven years old that our family dynamic started to change. +My father exposed me to a side of Islam that few people, including the majority of Muslims, get to see. +It's been my experience that when people take the time to interact with one another, it doesn't take long to realize that for the most part, we all want the same things out of life. +However, in every religion, in every population, you'll find a small percentage of people who hold so fervently to their beliefs that they feel they must use any means necessary to make others live as they do. +A few months prior to his arrest, he sat me down and explained that for the past few weekends, he and some friends had been going to a shooting range on Long Island for target practice. +He told me I'd be going with him the next morning. +We arrived at Calverton Shooting Range, which unbeknownst to our group was being watched by the FBI. +When it was my turn to shoot, my father helped me hold the rifle to my shoulder and explained how to aim at the target about 30 yards off. +That day, the last bullet I shot hit the small orange light that sat on top of the target and to everyone's surprise, especially mine, the entire target burst into flames. +My uncle turned to the other men, and in Arabic said, "Ibn abuh." +Like father, like son. +They all seemed to get a really big laugh out of that comment, but it wasn't until a few years later that I fully understood what they thought was so funny. +They thought they saw in me the same destruction my father was capable of. +Those men would eventually be convicted of placing a van filled with 1,500 pounds of explosives into the sub-level parking lot of the World Trade Center's North Tower, causing an explosion that killed six people and injured over 1,000 others. +These were the men I looked up to. +These were the men I called ammu, which means uncle. +By the time I turned 19, I had already moved 20 times in my life, and that instability during my childhood didn't really provide an opportunity to make many friends. +Each time I would begin to feel comfortable around someone, it was time to pack up and move to the next town. +Being the perpetual new face in class, I was frequently the target of bullies. +I kept my identity a secret from my classmates to avoid being targeted, but as it turns out, being the quiet, chubby new kid in class was more than enough ammunition. +So for the most part, I spent my time at home reading books and watching TV or playing video games. +For those reasons, my social skills were lacking, to say the least, and growing up in a bigoted household, I wasn't prepared for the real world. +I'd been raised to judge people based on arbitrary measurements, like a person's race or religion. +So what opened my eyes? +One of my first experiences that challenged this way of thinking was during the 2000 presidential elections. +Through a college prep program, I was able to take part in the National Youth Convention in Philadelphia. +My particular group's focus was on youth violence, and having been the victim of bullying for most of my life, this was a subject in which I felt particularly passionate. +The members of our group came from many different walks of life. +One day toward the end of the convention, I found out that one of the kids I had befriended was Jewish. +Now, it had taken several days for this detail to come to light, and I realized that there was no natural animosity between the two of us. +I had never had a Jewish friend before, and frankly I felt a sense of pride in having been able to overcome a barrier that for most of my life I had been led to believe was insurmountable. +Another major turning point came when I found a summer job at Busch Gardens, an amusement park. +There, I was exposed to people from all sorts of faiths and cultures, and that experience proved to be fundamental to the development of my character. +Most of my life, I'd been taught that homosexuality was a sin, and by extension, that all gay people were a negative influence. +As chance would have it, I had the opportunity to work with some of the gay performers at a show there, and soon found that many were the kindest, least judgmental people I had ever met. +Being bullied as a kid created a sense of empathy in me toward the suffering of others, and it comes very unnaturally to me to treat people who are kind in any other way than how I would want to be treated. +Because of that feeling, I was able to contrast the stereotypes I'd been taught as a child with real life experience and interaction. +I don't know what it's like to be gay, but I'm well acquainted with being judged for something that's beyond my control. +Then there was "The Daily Show." +On a nightly basis, Jon Stewart forced me to be intellectually honest with myself about my own bigotry and helped me to realize that a person's race, religion or sexual orientation had nothing to do with the quality of one's character. +He was in many ways a father figure to me when I was in desperate need of one. +Inspiration can often come from an unexpected place, and the fact that a Jewish comedian had done more to positively influence my worldview than my own extremist father is not lost on me. +One day, I had a conversation with my mother about how my worldview was starting to change, and she said something to me that I will hold dear to my heart for as long as I live. +She looked at me with the weary eyes of someone who had experienced enough dogmatism to last a lifetime, and said, "I'm tired of hating people." +In that instant, I realized how much negative energy it takes to hold that hatred inside of you. +Zak Ebrahim is not my real name. +I changed it when my family decided to end our connection with my father and start a new life. +So why would I out myself and potentially put myself in danger? +Well, that's simple. +I do it in the hopes that perhaps someone someday who is compelled to use violence may hear my story and realize that there is a better way, that although I had been subjected to this violent, intolerant ideology, that I did not become fanaticized. +Instead, I choose to use my experience to fight back against terrorism, against the bigotry. +I do it for the victims of terrorism and their loved ones, for the terrible pain and loss that terrorism has forced upon their lives. +For the victims of terrorism, I will speak out against these senseless acts and condemn my father's actions. +And with that simple fact, I stand here as proof that violence isn't inherent in one's religion or race, and the son does not have to follow the ways of his father. +I am not my father. +Thank you. Thank you, everybody. Thank you all. Thanks a lot. +Right now you have a movie playing inside your head. +It's an amazing multi-track movie. +It has 3D vision and surround sound for what you're seeing and hearing right now, but that's just the start of it. +Your movie has smell and taste and touch. +It has a sense of your body, pain, hunger, orgasms. +It has emotions, anger and happiness. +It has memories, like scenes from your childhood playing before you. +And it has this constant voiceover narrative in your stream of conscious thinking. +At the heart of this movie is you experiencing all this directly. +This movie is your stream of consciousness, the subject of experience of the mind and the world. +Consciousness is one of the fundamental facts of human existence. +Each of us is conscious. +We all have our own inner movie, you and you and you. +There's nothing we know about more directly. +At least, I know about my consciousness directly. +I can't be certain that you guys are conscious. +Consciousness also is what makes life worth living. +If we weren't conscious, nothing in our lives would have meaning or value. +But at the same time, it's the most mysterious phenomenon in the universe. +Why are we conscious? +Why do we have these inner movies? +Why aren't we just robots who process all this input, produce all that output, without experiencing the inner movie at all? +Right now, nobody knows the answers to those questions. +I'm going to suggest that to integrate consciousness into science, some radical ideas may be needed. +Some people say a science of consciousness is impossible. +Science, by its nature, is objective. +Consciousness, by its nature, is subjective. +So there can never be a science of consciousness. +For much of the 20th century, that view held sway. +Psychologists studied behavior objectively, neuroscientists studied the brain objectively, and nobody even mentioned consciousness. +Even 30 years ago, when TED got started, there was very little scientific work on consciousness. +Now, about 20 years ago, all that began to change. +Neuroscientists like Francis Crick and physicists like Roger Penrose said now is the time for science to attack consciousness. +And since then, there's been a real explosion, a flowering of scientific work on consciousness. +And this work has been wonderful. It's been great. +But it also has some fundamental limitations so far. +The centerpiece of the science of consciousness in recent years has been the search for correlations, correlations between certain areas of the brain and certain states of consciousness. +We saw some of this kind of work from Nancy Kanwisher and the wonderful work she presented just a few minutes ago. +Now we understand much better, for example, the kinds of brain areas that go along with the conscious experience of seeing faces or of feeling pain or of feeling happy. +But this is still a science of correlations. +It's not a science of explanations. +We know that these brain areas go along with certain kinds of conscious experience, but we don't know why they do. +I like to put this by saying that this kind of work from neuroscience is answering some of the questions we want answered about consciousness, the questions about what certain brain areas do and what they correlate with. +But in a certain sense, those are the easy problems. +No knock on the neuroscientists. +There are no truly easy problems with consciousness. +But it doesn't address the real mystery at the core of this subject: why is it that all that physical processing in a brain should be accompanied by consciousness at all? +Why is there this inner subjective movie? +Right now, we don't really have a bead on that. +And you might say, let's just give neuroscience a few years. +It'll turn out to be another emergent phenomenon like traffic jams, like hurricanes, like life, and we'll figure it out. +The classical cases of emergence are all cases of emergent behavior, how a traffic jam behaves, how a hurricane functions, how a living organism reproduces and adapts and metabolizes, all questions about objective functioning. +You could apply that to the human brain in explaining some of the behaviors and the functions of the human brain as emergent phenomena: how we walk, how we talk, how we play chess, all these questions about behavior. +But when it comes to consciousness, questions about behavior are among the easy problems. +When it comes to the hard problem, that's the question of why is it that all this behavior is accompanied by subjective experience? +And here, the standard paradigm of emergence, even the standard paradigms of neuroscience, don't really, so far, have that much to say. +Now, I'm a scientific materialist at heart. +I want a scientific theory of consciousness that works, and for a long time, I banged my head against the wall looking for a theory of consciousness in purely physical terms that would work. +But I eventually came to the conclusion that that just didn't work for systematic reasons. +So I think we're at a kind of impasse here. +We've got this wonderful, great chain of explanation, we're used to it, where physics explains chemistry, chemistry explains biology, biology explains parts of psychology. +But consciousness doesn't seem to fit into this picture. +On the one hand, it's a datum that we're conscious. +On the other hand, we don't know how to accommodate it into our scientific view of the world. +So I think consciousness right now is a kind of anomaly, one that we need to integrate into our view of the world, but we don't yet see how. +Faced with an anomaly like this, radical ideas may be needed, and I think that we may need one or two ideas that initially seem crazy before we can come to grips with consciousness scientifically. +Now, there are a few candidates for what those crazy ideas might be. +My friend Dan Dennett, who's here today, has one. +His crazy idea is that there is no hard problem of consciousness. +The whole idea of the inner subjective movie involves a kind of illusion or confusion. +Actually, all we've got to do is explain the objective functions, the behaviors of the brain, and then we've explained everything that needs to be explained. +Well I say, more power to him. +That's the kind of radical idea that we need to explore if you want to have a purely reductionist brain-based theory of consciousness. +At the same time, for me and for many other people, that view is a bit too close to simply denying the datum of consciousness to be satisfactory. +So I go in a different direction. +In the time remaining, I want to explore two crazy ideas that I think may have some promise. +The first crazy idea is that consciousness is fundamental. +Physicists sometimes take some aspects of the universe as fundamental building blocks: space and time and mass. +They postulate fundamental laws governing them, like the laws of gravity or of quantum mechanics. +These fundamental properties and laws aren't explained in terms of anything more basic. +Rather, they're taken as primitive, and you build up the world from there. +Now sometimes, the list of fundamentals expands. +In the 19th century, Maxwell figured out that you can't explain electromagnetic phenomena in terms of the existing fundamentals space, time, mass, Newton's laws so he postulated fundamental laws of electromagnetism and postulated electric charge as a fundamental element that those laws govern. +I think that's the situation we're in with consciousness. +If you can't explain consciousness in terms of the existing fundamentals space, time, mass, charge then as a matter of logic, you need to expand the list. +The natural thing to do is to postulate consciousness itself as something fundamental, a fundamental building block of nature. +This doesn't mean you suddenly can't do science with it. +This opens up the way for you to do science with it. +What we then need is to study the fundamental laws governing consciousness, the laws that connect consciousness to other fundamentals: space, time, mass, physical processes. +Physicists sometimes say that we want fundamental laws so simple that we could write them on the front of a t-shirt. +Well I think something like that is the situation we're in with consciousness. +We want to find fundamental laws so simple we could write them on the front of a t-shirt. +We don't know what those laws are yet, but that's what we're after. +The second crazy idea is that consciousness might be universal. +Every system might have some degree of consciousness. +This view is sometimes called panpsychism: pan for all, psych for mind, every system is conscious, not just humans, dogs, mice, flies, but even Rob Knight's microbes, elementary particles. +Even a photon has some degree of consciousness. +The idea is not that photons are intelligent or thinking. +It's not that a photon is wracked with angst because it's thinking, "Aww, I'm always buzzing around near the speed of light. +I never get to slow down and smell the roses." +No, not like that. +But the thought is maybe photons might have some element of raw, subjective feeling, some primitive precursor to consciousness. +This may sound a bit kooky to you. +I mean, why would anyone think such a crazy thing? +Some motivation comes from the first crazy idea, that consciousness is fundamental. +If it's fundamental, like space and time and mass, it's natural to suppose that it might be universal too, the way they are. +It's also worth noting that although the idea seems counterintuitive to us, it's much less counterintuitive to people from different cultures, where the human mind is seen as much more continuous with nature. +A deeper motivation comes from the idea that perhaps the most simple and powerful way to find fundamental laws connecting consciousness to physical processing is to link consciousness to information. +Wherever there's information processing, there's consciousness. +Complex information processing, like in a human, complex consciousness. +Simple information processing, simple consciousness. +A really exciting thing is in recent years a neuroscientist, Giulio Tononi, has taken this kind of theory and developed it rigorously with a mathematical theory. +He has a mathematical measure of information integration which he calls phi, measuring the amount of information integrated in a system. +And he supposes that phi goes along with consciousness. +So in a human brain, incredibly large amount of information integration, high degree of phi, a whole lot of consciousness. +In a mouse, medium degree of information integration, still pretty significant, pretty serious amount of consciousness. +But as you go down to worms, microbes, particles, the amount of phi falls off. +The amount of information integration falls off, but it's still non-zero. +On Tononi's theory, there's still going to be a non-zero degree of consciousness. +In effect, he's proposing a fundamental law of consciousness: high phi, high consciousness. +Another final motivation is that panpsychism might help us to integrate consciousness into the physical world. +Physicists and philosophers have often observed that physics is curiously abstract. +It describes the structure of reality using a bunch of equations, but it doesn't tell us about the reality that underlies it. +As Stephen Hawking puts it, what puts the fire into the equations? +Well, on the panpsychist view, you can leave the equations of physics as they are, but you can take them to be describing the flux of consciousness. +That's what physics really is ultimately doing, describing the flux of consciousness. +On this view, it's consciousness that puts the fire into the equations. +On that view, consciousness doesn't dangle outside the physical world as some kind of extra. +It's there right at its heart. +This view, I think, the panpsychist view, has the potential to transfigure our relationship to nature, and it may have some pretty serious social and ethical consequences. +Some of these may be counterintuitive. +I used to think I shouldn't eat anything which is conscious, so therefore I should be vegetarian. +Now, if you're a panpsychist and you take that view, you're going to go very hungry. +So I think when you think about it, this tends to transfigure your views, whereas what matters for ethical purposes and moral considerations, not so much the fact of consciousness, but the degree and the complexity of consciousness. +It's also natural to ask about consciousness in other systems, like computers. +What about the artificially intelligent system in the movie "Her," Samantha? +Is she conscious? +Well, if you take the informational, panpsychist view, she certainly has complicated information processing and integration, so the answer is very likely yes, she is conscious. +If that's right, it raises pretty serious ethical issues about both the ethics of developing intelligent computer systems and the ethics of turning them off. +Finally, you might ask about the consciousness of whole groups, the planet. +Does Canada have its own consciousness? +Or at a more local level, does an integrated group like the audience at a TED conference, are we right now having a collective TED consciousness, an inner movie for this collective TED group which is distinct from the inner movies of each of our parts? +I don't know the answer to that question, but I think it's at least one worth taking seriously. +Okay, so this panpsychist vision, it is a radical one, and I don't know that it's correct. +I'm actually more confident about the first crazy idea, that consciousness is fundamental, than about the second one, that it's universal. +I mean, the view raises any number of questions, has any number of challenges, like how do those little bits of consciousness add up to the kind of complex consciousness we know and love. +If we can answer those questions, then I think we're going to be well on our way to a serious theory of consciousness. +If not, well, this is the hardest problem perhaps in science and philosophy. +We can't expect to solve it overnight. +But I do think we're going to figure it out eventually. +Understanding consciousness is a real key, I think, both to understanding the universe and to understanding ourselves. +It may just take the right crazy idea. +Thank you. +I grew up in a very small country town in Victoria. +I had a very normal, low-key kind of upbringing. +I went to school, I hung out with my friends, I fought with my younger sisters. +It was all very normal. +And when I was 15, a member of my local community approached my parents and wanted to nominate me for a community achievement award. +And my parents said, "Hm, that's really nice, but there's kind of one glaring problem with that. +She hasn't actually achieved anything." And they were right, you know. +I went to school, I got good marks, I had a very low-key after school job in my mum's hairdressing salon, and I spent a lot of time watching "Buffy the Vampire Slayer" and "Dawson's Creek." +Yeah, I know. What a contradiction. +But they were right, you know. +I wasn't doing anything that was out of the ordinary at all. +I wasn't doing anything that could be considered an achievement if you took disability out of the equation. +Years later, I was on my second teaching round in a Melbourne high school, and I was about 20 minutes into a year 11 legal studies class when this boy put up his hand and said, "Hey miss, when are you going to start doing your speech?" +And I said, "What speech?" +You know, I'd been talking them about defamation law for a good 20 minutes. +And he said, "You know, like, your motivational speaking. +You know, when people in wheelchairs come to school, they usually say, like, inspirational stuff?" +"It's usually in the big hall." +And that's when it dawned on me: This kid had only ever experienced disabled people as objects of inspiration. +We are not, to this kid -- and it's not his fault, I mean, that's true for many of us. +For lots of us, disabled people are not our teachers or our doctors or our manicurists. +We're not real people. We are there to inspire. +And in fact, I am sitting on this stage looking like I do in this wheelchair, and you are probably kind of expecting me to inspire you. Right? Yeah. +Well, ladies and gentlemen, I'm afraid I'm going to disappoint you dramatically. +I am not here to inspire you. +I am here to tell you that we have been lied to about disability. +Yeah, we've been sold the lie that disability is a Bad Thing, capital B, capital T. +It's a bad thing, and to live with a disability makes you exceptional. +It's not a bad thing, and it doesn't make you exceptional. +And in the past few years, we've been able to propagate this lie even further via social media. +You may have seen images like this one: "The only disability in life is a bad attitude." +Or this one: "Your excuse is invalid." Indeed. +Or this one: "Before you quit, try!" +These are just a couple of examples, but there are a lot of these images out there. +You know, you might have seen the one, the little girl with no hands drawing a picture with a pencil held in her mouth. +You might have seen a child running on carbon fiber prosthetic legs. +And these images, there are lots of them out there, they are what we call inspiration porn. +And I use the term porn deliberately, because they objectify one group of people for the benefit of another group of people. +So in this case, we're objectifying disabled people for the benefit of nondisabled people. +The purpose of these images is to inspire you, to motivate you, so that we can look at them and think, "Well, however bad my life is, it could be worse. +I could be that person." +But what if you are that person? +I've lost count of the number of times that I've been approached by strangers wanting to tell me that they think I'm brave or inspirational, and this was long before my work had any kind of public profile. +They were just kind of congratulating me for managing to get up in the morning and remember my own name. And it is objectifying. +These images, those images objectify disabled people for the benefit of nondisabled people. +They are there so that you can look at them and think that things aren't so bad for you, to put your worries into perspective. +And life as a disabled person is actually somewhat difficult. +We do overcome some things. +But the things that we're overcoming are not the things that you think they are. +They are not things to do with our bodies. +I use the term "disabled people" quite deliberately, because I subscribe to what's called the social model of disability, which tells us that we are more disabled by the society that we live in than by our bodies and our diagnoses. +So I have lived in this body a long time. +I'm quite fond of it. +It does the things that I need it to do, and I've learned to use it to the best of its capacity just as you have, and that's the thing about those kids in those pictures as well. +They're not doing anything out of the ordinary. +They are just using their bodies to the best of their capacity. +So is it really fair to objectify them in the way that we do, to share those images? +People, when they say, "You're an inspiration," they mean it as a compliment. +And I know why it happens. +It's because of the lie, it's because we've been sold this lie that disability makes you exceptional. +And it honestly doesn't. +And I know what you're thinking. +You know, I'm up here bagging out inspiration, and you're thinking, "Jeez, Stella, aren't you inspired sometimes by some things?" +And the thing is, I am. +I learn from other disabled people all the time. +I'm learning not that I am luckier than them, though. +I am learning that it's a genius idea to use a pair of barbecue tongs to pick up things that you dropped. I'm learning that nifty trick where you can charge your mobile phone battery from your chair battery. +Genius. +We are learning from each others' strength and endurance, not against our bodies and our diagnoses, but against a world that exceptionalizes and objectifies us. +I really think that this lie that we've been sold about disability is the greatest injustice. +It makes life hard for us. +And that quote, "The only disability in life is a bad attitude," the reason that that's bullshit is because it's just not true, because of the social model of disability. +No amount of smiling at a flight of stairs has ever made it turn into a ramp. +Never. Smiling at a television screen isn't going to make closed captions appear for people who are deaf. +No amount of standing in the middle of a bookshop and radiating a positive attitude is going to turn all those books into braille. +It's just not going to happen. +I really want to live in a world where disability is not the exception, but the norm. +I want to live in a world where a 15-year-old girl sitting in her bedroom watching "Buffy the Vampire Slayer" isn't referred to as achieving anything because she's doing it sitting down. +I want to live in a world where we don't have such low expectations of disabled people that we are congratulated for getting out of bed and remembering our own names in the morning. +I want to live in a world where we value genuine achievement for disabled people, and I want to live in a world where a kid in year 11 in a Melbourne high school is not one bit surprised that his new teacher is a wheelchair user. +Disability doesn't make you exceptional, but questioning what you think you know about it does. +Thank you. +What do augmented reality and professional football have to do with empathy? +And what is the air speed velocity of an unladen swallow? +Now unfortunately, I'm only going to answer one of those questions today, so please, try and contain your disappointment. +When most people think about augmented reality, they think about "Minority Report" and Tom Cruise waving his hands in the air, but augmented reality is not science fiction. +Augmented reality is something that will happen in our lifetime, and it will happen because we have the tools to make it happen, and people need to be aware of that, because augmented reality will change our lives just as much as the Internet and the cell phone. +Now how do we get to augmented reality? +Step one is the step I'm wearing right now, Google Glass. +I'm sure many of you are familiar with Google Glass. +What you may not be familiar with is that Google Glass is a device that will allow you to see what I see. +It will allow you to experience what it is like to be a professional athlete on the field. +Right now, the only way you can be on the field is for me to try and describe it to you. +I have to use words. +I have to create a framework that you then fill in with your imagination. +With Google Glass, we can put that underneath a helmet, and we can get a sense of what it's like to be running down the field at 100 miles an hour, your blood pounding in your ears. +You can get a sense of what it's like to have a 250-pound man trying to decapitate you with every ounce of his being. +And I've been on the receiving end of that, and it doesn't feel very good. +Now, I have some footage to show you of what it's like to wear Google Glass underneath the helmet to give you a taste of that. +Unfortunately, it's not NFL practice footage because the NFL thinks emergent technology is what happens when a submarine surfaces, but we do what we can. +So let's pull up some video. +Chris Kluwe: Go. +Ugh, getting tackled sucks. +Hold on, let's get a little closer. +All right, ready? +Go! +Chris Kluwe: So as you can see, small taste of what it's like to get tackled on the football field from the perspective of the tacklee. +Now, you may have noticed there are some people missing there: the rest of the team. +We have some video of that courtesy of the University of Washington. +Quarterback: Hey, Mice 54! Mice 54! +Blue 8! Blue 8! Go! +CK: So again, this takes you a little bit closer to what it's like to be on that field, but this is nowhere what it's like to be on the NFL. +Fans want that experience. +Fans want to be on that field. They want to be their favorite players, and they've already talked to me on YouTube, they've talked to me on Twitter, saying, "Hey, can you get this on a quarterback? +Can you get this on a running back? +We want that experience." +Well, once we have that experience with GoPro and Google Glass, how do we make it more immersive? How do we take that next step? +Well, we take that step by going to something called the Oculus Rift, which I'm sure many of you are also familiar with. +The Oculus Rift has been described as one of the most realistic virtual reality devices ever created, and that is not empty hype. +I'm going to show you why that is not empty hype with this video. +Man: Oh! Oh! +No! No! No! I don't want to play anymore! No! +Oh my God! Aaaah! +CK: So that is the experience of a man on a roller coaster in fear of his life. +What do you think that fan's experience is going to be when we take the video footage of an Adrian Peterson bursting through the line, shedding a tackler with a stiff-arm before sprinting in for a touchdown? +What do you think that fan's experience is going to be when he's Messi sprinting down the pitch putting the ball in the back of the net, or Federer serving in Wimbledon? +What do you think his experience is going to be when he is going down the side of a mountain at over 70 miles an hour as an Olympic downhill skier? +I think adult diaper sales may surge. +But this is not yet augmented reality. +This is only virtual reality, V.R. +How do we get to augmented reality, A.R.? +We get to augmented reality when coaches and managers and owners look at this information streaming in that people want to see, and they say, "How do we use this to make our teams better? +How do we use this to win games?" +Because teams always use technology to win games. +They like winning. It makes them money. +So a brief history of technology in the NFL. +In 1965, the Baltimore Colts put a wristband on their quarterback to allow him to call plays quicker. +They ended up winning a Super Bowl that year. +Other teams followed suit. +More people watched the game because it was more exciting. It was faster. +In 1994, the NFL put helmet radios into the helmets of the quarterbacks, and later the defense. +More people watched games because it was faster. It was more entertaining. +In 2023, imagine you're a player walking back to the huddle, and you have your next play displayed right in front of your face on your clear plastic visor that you already wear right now. +No more having to worry about forgetting plays. +No more worrying about having to memorize your playbook. You just go out and react. +And coaches really want this, because missed assignments lose you games, and coaches hate losing games. +Losing games gets you fired as a coach. +They don't want that. +But augmented reality is not just an enhanced playbook. +Augmented reality is also a way to take all that data and use it in real time to enhance how you play the game. +What would that be like? +Well, a very simple setup would be a camera on each corner of the stadium looking down, giving you a bird's-eye view of all the people down there. +You also have information from helmet sensors and accelerometers, technology that's being worked on right now. +You take all that information, and you stream it to your players. +The good teams stream it in a way that the players can use. +The bad ones have information overload. +That determines good teams from bad. +is just as important as your scouting department, and data-mining is not for nerds anymore. It's also for jocks. Who knew? +What would that look like on the field? +Well, imagine you're the quarterback. +You take the snap and you drop back. +You're scanning downfield for an open receiver. +All of a sudden, a bright flash on the left side of your visor lets you know, blind side linebacker is blitzing in. Normally, you wouldn't be able to see him, but the augmented reality system lets you know. You step up into the pocket. +Another flash alerts you to an open receiver. +You throw the ball, but you're hit right as you throw. +The ball comes off track. +You don't know where it's going to land. +However, on the receiver's visor, he sees a patch of grass light up, and he knows to readjust. +He goes, catches the ball, sprints in, touchdown. +Crowd goes wild, and the fans are with him watching from every perspective. +Now this is something that will create massive excitement in the game. +It will make tons of people watch, because people want this experience. +Fans want to be on the field. +They want to be their favorite player. +Augmented reality will be a part of sports, because it's too profitable not to. +But the question I ask you is, is that's all that we're content to use augmented reality for? +Are we going to use it solely for our panem, our circenses, our entertainment as normal? +Because I believe that we can use augmented reality for something more. +I believe we can use augmented reality as a way to foster more empathy within the human species itself, by literally showing someone what it looks like to walk a mile in another person's shoes. +We know what this technology is worth to sports leagues. +It's worth revenue, to the tune of billions of dollars a year. +But what is this technology worth to a teacher in a classroom trying to show a bully just how harmful his actions are from the perspective of the victim? +What is this technology worth to a gay Ugandan or Russian trying to show the world what it's like living under persecution? +What is this technology worth to a Commander Hadfield or a Neil deGrasse Tyson trying to inspire a generation of children to think more about space and science instead of quarterly reports and Kardashians? +Ladies and gentlemen, augmented reality is coming. +The questions we ask, the choices we make, and the challenges we face are, as always, up to us. +Thank you. +I recently retired from the California Highway Patrol after 23 years of service. +The majority of those 23 years was spent patrolling the southern end of Marin County, which includes the Golden Gate Bridge. +The bridge is an iconic structure, known worldwide for its beautiful views of San Francisco, the Pacific Ocean, and its inspiring architecture. +Unfortunately, it is also a magnet for suicide, being one of the most utilized sites in the world. +The Golden Gate Bridge opened in 1937. +Joseph Strauss, chief engineer in charge of building the bridge, was quoted as saying, "The bridge is practically suicide-proof. +Suicide from the bridge is neither practical nor probable." +But since its opening, over 1,600 people have leapt to their death from that bridge. +Some believe that traveling between the two towers will lead you to another dimension -- this bridge has been romanticized as such that the fall from that frees you from all your worries and grief, and the waters below will cleanse your soul. +But let me tell you what actually occurs when the bridge is used as a means of suicide. +After a free fall of four to five seconds, the body strikes the water at about 75 miles an hour. +That impact shatters bones, some of which then puncture vital organs. +Most die on impact. +Those that don't generally flail in the water helplessly, and then drown. +I don't think that those who contemplate this method of suicide realize how grisly a death that they will face. +This is the cord. +Except for around the two towers, there is 32 inches of steel paralleling the bridge. +This is where most folks stand before taking their lives. +I can tell you from experience that once the person is on that cord, and at their darkest time, it is very difficult to bring them back. +I took this photo last year as this young woman spoke to an officer contemplating her life. +I want to tell you very happily that we were successful that day in getting her back over the rail. +When I first began working on the bridge, we had no formal training. +You struggled to funnel your way through these calls. +This was not only a disservice to those contemplating suicide, but to the officers as well. +We've come a long, long way since then. +Now, veteran officers and psychologists train new officers. +This is Jason Garber. +I met Jason on July 22 of last year when I get received a call of a possible suicidal subject sitting on the cord near midspan. +I responded, and when I arrived, I observed Jason speaking to a Golden Gate Bridge officer. +Jason was just 32 years old and had flown out here from New Jersey. +As a matter of fact, he had flown out here on two other occasions from New Jersey to attempt suicide on this bridge. +After about an hour of speaking with Jason, he asked us if we knew the story of Pandora's box. +Recalling your Greek mythology, Zeus created Pandora, and sent her down to Earth with a box, and told her, "Never, ever open that box." +Well one day, curiosity got the better of Pandora, and she did open the box. +Out flew plagues, sorrows, and all sorts of evils against man. +The only good thing in the box was hope. +Jason then asked us, "What happens when you open the box and hope isn't there?" +He paused a few moments, leaned to his right, and was gone. +This kind, intelligent young man from New Jersey had just committed suicide. +I spoke with Jason's parents that evening, and I suppose that, when I was speaking with them, that I didn't sound as if I was doing very well, because that very next day, their family rabbi called to check on me. +Jason's parents had asked him to do so. +The collateral damage of suicide affects so many people. +I pose these questions to you: What would you do if your family member, friend or loved one was suicidal? +What would you say? +Would you know what to say? +In my experience, it's not just the talking that you do, but the listening. +Listen to understand. +Don't argue, blame, or tell the person you know how they feel, because you probably don't. +By just being there, you may just be the turning point that they need. +If you think someone is suicidal, don't be afraid to confront them and ask the question. +One way of asking them the question is like this: "Others in similar circumstances have thought about ending their life; have you had these thoughts?" +Confronting the person head-on may just save their life and be the turning point for them. +Some other signs to look for: hopelessness, believing that things are terrible and never going to get better; helplessness, believing that there is nothing that you can do about it; recent social withdrawal; and a loss of interest in life. +I came up with this talk just a couple of days ago, and I received an email from a lady that I'd like to read you her letter. +She lost her son on January 19 of this year, and she wrote this me this email just a couple of days ago, and it's with her permission and blessing that I read this to you. +"Hi, Kevin. I imagine you're at the TED Conference. +That must be quite the experience to be there. +I'm thinking I should go walk the bridge this weekend. +Just wanted to drop you a note. +Hope you get the word out to many people and they go home talking about it to their friends who tell their friends, etc. +I'm still pretty numb, but noticing more moments of really realizing Mike isn't coming home. +Mike was driving from Petaluma to San Francisco to watch the 49ers game with his father on January 19. +He never made it there. +I called Petaluma police and reported him missing that evening. +The next morning, two officers came to my home and reported that Mike's car was down at the bridge. +A witness had observed him jumping off the bridge at 1:58 p.m. the previous day. +Thanks so much for standing up for those who may be only temporarily too weak to stand for themselves. +Who hasn't been low before without suffering from a true mental illness? +It shouldn't be so easy to end it. +My prayers are with you for your fight. +The GGB, Golden Gate Bridge, is supposed to be a passage across our beautiful bay, not a graveyard. +Good luck this week. Vicky." +I can't imagine the courage it takes for her to go down to that bridge and walk the path that her son took that day, and also the courage just to carry on. +I'd like to introduce you to a man I refer to as hope and courage. +On March 11 of 2005, I responded to a radio call of a possible suicidal subject on the bridge sidewalk near the north tower. +I rode my motorcycle down the sidewalk and observed this man, Kevin Berthia, standing on the sidewalk. +When he saw me, he immediately traversed that pedestrian rail, and stood on that small pipe which goes around the tower. +For the next hour and a half, I listened as Kevin spoke about his depression and hopelessness. +Kevin decided on his own that day to come back over that rail and give life another chance. +When Kevin came back over, I congratulated him. +"This is a new beginning, a new life." +But I asked him, "What was it that made you come back and give hope and life another chance?" +And you know what he told me? +He said, "You listened. +You let me speak, and you just listened." +Shortly after this incident, I received a letter from Kevin's mother, and I have that letter with me, and I'd like to read it to you. +"Dear Mr. Briggs, Nothing will erase the events of March 11, but you are one of the reasons Kevin is still with us. +I truly believe Kevin was crying out for help. +He has been diagnosed with a mental illness for which he has been properly medicated. +I adopted Kevin when he was only six months old, completely unaware of any hereditary traits, but, thank God, now we know. +Kevin is straight, as he says. +We truly thank God for you. +Sincerely indebted to you, Narvella Berthia." +And on the bottom she writes, "P.S. When I visited San Francisco General Hospital that evening, you were listed as the patient. +Boy, did I have to straighten that one out." +Today, Kevin is a loving father and contributing member of society. +He speaks openly about the events that day and his depression in the hopes that his story will inspire others. +Suicide is not just something I've encountered on the job. +It's personal. +My grandfather committed suicide by poisoning. +That act, although ending his own pain, robbed me from ever getting to know him. +This is what suicide does. +For most suicidal folks, or those contemplating suicide, they wouldn't think of hurting another person. +They just want their own pain to end. +Typically, this is accomplished in just three ways: sleep, drugs or alcohol, or death. +In my career, I've responded to and been involved in hundreds of mental illness and suicide calls around the bridge. +Of those incidents I've been directly involved with, I've only lost two, but that's two too many. +One was Jason. +The other was a man I spoke to for about an hour. +During that time, he shook my hand on three occasions. +On that final handshake, he looked at me, and he said, "Kevin, I'm sorry, but I have to go." +And he leapt. +Horrible, absolutely horrible. +I do want to tell you, though, the vast majority of folks that we do get to contact on that bridge do not commit suicide. +Additionally, that very few who have jumped off the bridge and lived and can talk about it, that one to two percent, most of those folks have said that the second that they let go of that rail, they knew that they had made a mistake and they wanted to live. +I tell people, the bridge not only connects Marin to San Francisco, but people together also. +That connection, or bridge that we make, is something that each and every one of us should strive to do. +Suicide is preventable. +There is help. There is hope. +Thank you very much. +The world makes you something that you're not, but you know inside what you are, and that question burns in your heart: How will you become that? +I may be somewhat unique in this, but I am not alone, not alone at all. +So when I became a fashion model, I felt that I'd finally achieved the dream that I'd always wanted since I was a young child. +My outside self finally matched my inner truth, my inner self. +For complicated reasons which I'll get to later, when I look at this picture, at that time I felt like, Geena, you've done it, you've made it, you have arrived. +But this past October, I realized that I'm only just beginning. +All of us are put in boxes by our family, by our religion, by our society, our moment in history, even our own bodies. +Some people have the courage to break free, not to accept the limitations imposed by the color of their skin or by the beliefs of those that surround them. +Those people are always the threat to the status quo, to what is considered acceptable. +In my case, for the last nine years, some of my neighbors, some of my friends, colleagues, even my agent, did not know about my history. +I think, in mystery, this is called the reveal. +Here is mine. +I was assigned boy at birth based on the appearance of my genitalia. +I remember when I was five years old in the Philippines walking around our house, I would always wear this t-shirt on my head. +And my mom asked me, "How come you always wear that t-shirt on your head?" +I said, "Mom, this is my hair. I'm a girl." +I knew then how to self-identify. +Gender has always been considered a fact, immutable, but we now know it's actually more fluid, complex and mysterious. +Because of my success, I never had the courage to share my story, not because I thought what I am is wrong, but because of how the world treats those of us who wish to break free. +Every day, I am so grateful because I am a woman. +I have a mom and dad and family who accepted me for who I am. +Many are not so fortunate. +There's a long tradition in Asian culture that celebrates the fluid mystery of gender. +There is a Buddhist goddess of compassion. +There is a Hindu goddess, hijra goddess. +So when I was eight years old, I was at a fiesta in the Philippines celebrating these mysteries. +I was in front of the stage, and I remember, out comes this beautiful woman right in front of me, and I remember that moment something hit me: That is the kind of woman I would like to be. +So when I was 15 years old, still dressing as a boy, I met this woman named T.L. +She is a transgender beauty pageant manager. +That night she asked me, "How come you are not joining the beauty pageant?" +She convinced me that if I joined that she would take care of the registration fee and the garments, and that night, I won best in swimsuit and best in long gown and placed second runner up among 40-plus candidates. +That moment changed my life. +All of a sudden, I was introduced to the world of beauty pageants. +Not a lot of people could say that your first job is a pageant queen for transgender women, but I'll take it. +I also experienced the goodness of strangers, especially when we would travel in remote provinces in the Philippines. +But most importantly, I met some of my best friends in that community. +In 2001, my mom, who had moved to San Francisco, called me and told me that my green card petition came through, that I could now move to the United States. +I resisted it. +I told my mom, "Mom, I'm having fun. +I'm here with my friends, I love traveling, being a beauty pageant queen." +But then two weeks later she called me, she said, "Did you know that if you move to the United States you could change your name and gender marker?" +That was all I needed to hear. +My mom also told me to put two E's in the spelling of my name. +She also came with me when I had my surgery in Thailand at 19 years old. +It's interesting, in some of the most rural cities in Thailand, they perform some of the most prestigious, safe and sophisticated surgery. +At that time in the United States, you needed to have surgery before you could change your name and gender marker. +So in 2001, I moved to San Francisco, and I remember looking at my California driver's license with the name Geena and gender marker F. +That was a powerful moment. +For some people, their I.D. is their license to drive or even to get a drink, but for me, that was my license to live, to feel dignified. +All of a sudden, my fears were minimized. +I felt that I could conquer my dream and move to New York and be a model. +Many are not so fortunate. +I think of this woman named Islan Nettles. +She's from New York, she's a young woman who was courageously living her truth, but hatred ended her life. +For most of my community, this is the reality in which we live. +Our suicide rate is nine times higher than that of the general population. +Every November 20, we have a global vigil for Transgender Day of Remembrance. +I'm here at this stage because it's a long history of people who fought and stood up for injustice. +This is Marsha P. Johnson and Sylvia Rivera. +Today, this very moment, is my real coming out. +I could no longer live my truth for and by myself. +I want to do my best to help others live their truth without shame and terror. +I am here, exposed, so that one day there will never be a need for a November 20 vigil. +My deepest truth allowed me to accept who I am. +Will you? +Thank you very much. +Thank you. Thank you. Thank you. Kathryn Schulz: Geena, one quick question for you. +Geena Rocero: Sure. Well, first, really, I'm so blessed. +The support system, with my mom especially, and my family, that in itself is just so powerful. +I remember every time I would coach young trans women, I would mentor them, and sometimes when they would call me and tell me that their parents can't accept it, I would pick up that phone call and tell my mom, "Mom, can you call this woman?" +And sometimes it works, sometimes it doesn't, so But it's just, gender identity is in the core of our being, right? +I mean, we're all assigned gender at birth, so what I'm trying to do is to have this conversation that sometimes that gender assignment doesn't match, and there should be a space that would allow people to self-identify, and that's a conversation that we should have with parents, with colleagues. +The transgender movement, it's at the very beginning, to compare to how the gay movement started. +There's still a lot of work that needs to be done. +There should be an understanding. +There should be a space of curiosity and asking questions, and I hope all of you guys will be my allies. +KS: Thank you. That was so lovely. GR: Thank you. +In many patriarchal societies and tribal societies, fathers are usually known by their sons, but I'm one of the few fathers who is known by his daughter, and I am proud of it. +Malala started her campaign for education and stood for her rights in 2007, and when her efforts were honored in 2011, and she was given the national youth peace prize, and she became a very famous, very popular young girl of her country. +Before that, she was my daughter, but now I am her father. +Ladies and gentlemen, if we glance to human history, the story of women is the story of injustice, inequality, violence and exploitation. +You see, in patriarchal societies, right from the very beginning, when a girl is born, her birth is not celebrated. +She is not welcomed, neither by father nor by mother. +The neighborhood comes and commiserates with the mother, and nobody congratulates the father. +And a mother is very uncomfortable for having a girl child. +When she gives birth to the first girl child, first daughter, she is sad. +When she gives birth to the second daughter, she is shocked, and in the expectation of a son, when she gives birth to a third daughter, she feels guilty like a criminal. +Not only the mother suffers, but the daughter, the newly born daughter, when she grows old, she suffers too. +At the age of five, while she should be going to school, she stays at home and her brothers are admitted in a school. +Until the age of 12, somehow, she has a good life. +She can have fun. +She can play with her friends in the streets, and she can move around in the streets like a butterfly. +But when she enters her teens, when she becomes 13 years old, she is forbidden to go out of her home without a male escort. +She is confined under the four walls of her home. +She is no more a free individual. +She becomes the so-called honor of her father and of her brothers and of her family, and if she transgresses the code of that so-called honor, she could even be killed. +And it is also interesting that this so-called code of honor, it does not only affect the life of a girl, it also affects the life of the male members of the family. +So this brother, he sacrifices the joys of his life and the happiness of his sisters at the altar of so-called honor. +And there is one more norm of the patriarchal societies that is called obedience. +A good girl is supposed to be very quiet, very humble and very submissive. +It is the criteria. +The role model good girl should be very quiet. +She is supposed to be silent and she is supposed to accept the decisions of her father and mother and the decisions of elders, even if she does not like them. +If she is married to a man she doesn't like or if she is married to an old man, she has to accept, because she does not want to be dubbed as disobedient. +If she is married very early, she has to accept. +Otherwise, she will be called disobedient. +And what happens at the end? +In the words of a poetess, she is wedded, bedded, and then she gives birth to more sons and daughters. +And it is the irony of the situation that this mother, she teaches the same lesson of obedience to her daughter and the same lesson of honor to her sons. +And this vicious cycle goes on, goes on. +Dear brothers and sisters, when Malala was born, and for the first time, believe me, I don't like newborn children, to be honest, but when I went and I looked into her eyes, believe me, I got extremely honored. +And long before she was born, I thought about her name, and I was fascinated with a heroic legendary freedom fighter in Afghanistan. +Her name was Malalai of Maiwand, and I named my daughter after her. +But when I looked, all were men, and I picked my pen, drew a line from my name, and wrote, "Malala." +And when she grow old, when she was four and a half years old, I admitted her in my school. +You will be asking, then, why should I mention about the admission of a girl in a school? +Yes, I must mention it. +It may be taken for granted in Canada, in America, in many developed countries, but in poor countries, in patriarchal societies, in tribal societies, it's a big event for the life of girl. +Enrollment in a school means recognition of her identity and her name. +Admission in a school means that she has entered the world of dreams and aspirations where she can explore her potentials for her future life. +I have five sisters, and none of them could go to school, and you will be astonished, two weeks before, when I was filling out the Canadian visa form, and I was filling out the family part of the form, I could not recall the surnames of some of my sisters. +And the reason was that I have never, never seen the names of my sisters written on any document. +That was the reason that I valued my daughter. +What my father could not give to my sisters and to his daughters, I thought I must change it. +I used to appreciate the intelligence and the brilliance of my daughter. +I encouraged her to sit with me when my friends used to come. +I encouraged her to go with me to different meetings. +And all these good values, I tried to inculcate in her personality. +And this was not only she, only Malala. +I imparted all these good values to my school, girl students and boy students as well. +I used education for emancipation. +I taught my girls, I taught my girl students, to unlearn the lesson of obedience. +I taught my boy students to unlearn the lesson of so-called pseudo-honor. +Dear brothers and sisters, we were striving for more rights for women, and we were struggling to have more, more and more space for the women in society. +But we came across a new phenomenon. +It was lethal to human rights and particularly to women's rights. +It was called Talibanization. +It means a complete negation of women's participation in all political, economical and social activities. +Hundreds of schools were lost. +Girls were prohibited from going to school. +Women were forced to wear veils and they were stopped from going to the markets. +Musicians were silenced, girls were flogged and singers were killed. +Millions were suffering, but few spoke, and it was the most scary thing when you have all around such people who kill and who flog, and you speak for your rights. +It's really the most scary thing. +At the age of 10, Malala stood, and she stood for the right of education. +She wrote a diary for the BBC blog, she volunteered herself for the New York Times documentaries, and she spoke from every platform she could. +And her voice was the most powerful voice. +It spread like a crescendo all around the world. +And that was the reason the Taliban could not tolerate her campaign, and on October 9 2012, she was shot in the head at point blank range. +It was a doomsday for my family and for me. +The world turned into a big black hole. +While my daughter was on the verge of life and death, I whispered into the ears of my wife, "Should I be blamed for what happened to my daughter and your daughter?" +And she abruptly told me, "Please don't blame yourself. +You stood for the right cause. +You put your life at stake for the cause of truth, for the cause of peace, and for the cause of education, and your daughter in inspired from you and she joined you. +You both were on the right path and God will protect her." +These few words meant a lot to me, and I didn't ask this question again. +When Malala was in the hospital, and she was going through the severe pains and she had had severe headaches because her facial nerve was cut down, I used to see a dark shadow spreading on the face of my wife. +But my daughter never complained. +She used to tell us, "I'm fine with my crooked smile and with my numbness in my face. +I'll be okay. Please don't worry." +She was a solace for us, and she consoled us. +Dear brothers and sisters, we learned from her how to be resilient in the most difficult times, and I'm glad to share with you that despite being an icon for the rights of children and women, she is like any 16-year old girl. +She cries when her homework is incomplete. +She quarrels with her brothers, and I am very happy for that. +People ask me, what special is in my mentorship which has made Malala so bold and so courageous and so vocal and poised? +I tell them, don't ask me what I did. +Ask me what I did not do. +I did not clip her wings, and that's all. +Thank you very much. +Thank you. Thank you very much. Thank you. +I had brain surgery 18 years ago, and since that time, brain science has become a personal passion of mine. +I'm actually an engineer. +And first let me say, I recently joined where I had a division, the display division in Google X, and the brain science work I'm speaking about today is work I did before I joined Google and on the side outside of Google. +So that said, there's a stigma when you have brain surgery. +Are you still smart or not? +And if not, can you make yourself smart again? +After my neurosurgery, part of my brain was missing, and I had to deal with that. +It wasn't the grey matter, but it was the gooey part dead center that makes key hormones and neurotransmitters. +Immediately after my surgery, I had to decide what amounts of each of over a dozen powerful chemicals to take each day, because if I just took nothing, I would die within hours. +Every day now for 18 years -- every single day -- I've had to try to decide the combinations and mixtures of chemicals, and try to get them, to stay alive. +There have been several close calls. +But luckily, I'm an experimentalist at heart, so I decided I would experiment to try to find more optimal dosages because there really isn't a clear road map on this that's detailed. +I began to try different mixtures, and I was blown away by how tiny changes in dosages dramatically changed my sense of self, my sense of who I was, my thinking, my behavior towards people. +One particularly dramatic case: for a couple months I actually tried dosages and chemicals typical of a man in his early 20s, and I was blown away by how my thoughts changed. +I was angry all the time, I thought about sex constantly, and I thought I was the smartest person in the entire world, and of course over the years I'd met guys kind of like that, or maybe kind of toned-down versions of that. +I was kind of extreme. +But to me, the surprise was, I wasn't trying to be arrogant. +I was actually trying, with a little bit of insecurity, to actually fix a problem in front of me, and it just didn't come out that way. +So I couldn't handle it. +I changed my dosages. +But that experience, I think, gave me a new appreciation for men and what they might walk through, and I've gotten along with men a lot better since then. +What I was trying to do with tuning these hormones and neurotransmitters and so forth was to try to get my intelligence back after my illness and surgery, my creative thought, my idea flow. +And I think mostly in images, and so for me that became a key metric -- how to get these mental images that I use as a way of rapid prototyping, if you will, my ideas, trying on different new ideas for size, playing out scenarios. +This kind of thinking isn't new. +Philiosophers like Hume and Descartes and Hobbes saw things similarly. +They thought that mental images and ideas were actually the same thing. +There are those today that dispute that, and lots of debates about how the mind works, but for me it's simple: Mental images, for most of us, are central in inventive and creative thinking. +So after several years, I tuned myself up and I have lots of great, really vivid mental images with a lot of sophistication and the analytical backbone behind them. +And so now I'm working on, how can I get these mental images in my mind out to my computer screen faster? +Can you imagine, if you will, a movie director being able to use her imagination alone to direct the world in front of her? +Or a musician to get the music out of his head? +There are incredible possibilities with this as a way for creative people to share at light speed. +And the truth is, the remaining bottleneck in being able to do this is just upping the resolution of brain scan systems. +So let me show you why I think we're pretty close to getting there by sharing with you two recent experiments from two top neuroscience groups. +Both used fMRI technology -- functional magnetic resonance imaging technology -- to image the brain, and here is a brain scan set from Giorgio Ganis and his colleagues at Harvard. +And the left-hand column shows a brain scan of a person looking at an image. +The middle column shows the brainscan of that same individual imagining, seeing that same image. +And the right column was created by subtracting the middle column from the left column, showing the difference to be nearly zero. +This was repeated on lots of different individuals with lots of different images, always with a similar result. +The difference between seeing an image and imagining seeing that same image is next to nothing. +Next let me share with you one other experiment, this from Jack Gallant's lab at Cal Berkeley. +They've been able to decode brainwaves into recognizable visual fields. +So let me set this up for you. +In this experiment, individuals were shown hundreds of hours of YouTube videos while scans were made of their brains to create a large library of their brain reacting to video sequences. +Then a new movie was shown with new images, new people, new animals in it, and a new scan set was recorded. +The computer, using brain scan data alone, decoded that new brain scan to show what it thought the individual was actually seeing. +On the right-hand side, you see the computer's guess, and on the left-hand side, the presented clip. +This is the jaw-dropper. +We are so close to being able to do this. +We just need to up the resolution. +And now remember that when you see an image versus when you imagine that same image, it creates the same brain scan. +So this was done with the highest-resolution brain scan systems available today, and their resolution has increased really about a thousandfold in the last several years. +Next we need to increase the resolution another thousandfold to get a deeper glimpse. +How do we do that? +There's a lot of techniques in this approach. +One way is to crack open your skull and put in electrodes. +I'm not for that. +There's a lot of new imaging techniques being proposed, some even by me, but given the recent success of MRI, first we need to ask the question, is it the end of the road with this technology? +Conventional wisdom says the only way to get higher resolution is with bigger magnets, but at this point bigger magnets only offer incremental resolution improvements, not the thousandfold we need. +I'm putting forward an idea: instead of bigger magnets, let's make better magnets. +We can create much more complicated structures with slightly different arrangements, kind of like making Spirograph. +So why does that matter? +A lot of effort in MRI over the years has gone into making really big, really huge magnets, right? +But yet most of the recent advances in resolution have actually come from ingeniously clever encoding and decoding solutions in the F.M. radio frequency transmitters and receivers in the MRI systems. +Let's also, instead of a uniform magnetic field, put down structured magnetic patterns in addition to the F.M. radio frequencies. +So by combining the magnetics patterns with the patterns in the F.M. radio frequencies processing which can massively increase the information that we can extract in a single scan. +And on top of that, we can then layer our ever-growing knowledge of brain structure and memory to create a thousandfold increase that we need. +And using fMRI, we should be able to measure not just oxygenated blood flow, but the hormones and neurotransmitters I've talked about and maybe even the direct neural activity, which is the dream. +We're going to be able to dump our ideas directly to digital media. +Could you imagine if we could leapfrog language and communicate directly with human thought? +What would we be capable of then? +And how will we learn to deal with the truths of unfiltered human thought? +You think the Internet was big. +These are huge questions. +It might be irresistible as a tool to amplify our thinking and communication skills. +And indeed, this very same tool may prove to lead to the cure for Alzheimer's and similar diseases. +We have little option but to open this door. +Regardless, pick a year -- will it happen in five years or 15 years? +It's hard to imagine it taking much longer. +We need to learn how to take this step together. +Thank you. +I'm going to talk to you tonight about coming out of the closet, and not in the traditional sense, not just the gay closet. +I think we all have closets. +Your closet may be telling someone you love her for the first time, or telling someone that you're pregnant, or telling someone you have cancer, or any of the other hard conversations we have throughout our lives. +All a closet is is a hard conversation, and although our topics may vary tremendously, the experience of being in and coming out of the closet is universal. +It is scary, and we hate it, and it needs to be done. +Several years ago, I was working at the South Side Walnut Cafe, a local diner in town, and during my time there I would go through phases of militant lesbian intensity: not shaving my armpits, quoting Ani DiFranco lyrics as gospel. +And depending on the bagginess of my cargo shorts and how recently I had shaved my head, the question would often be sprung on me, usually by a little kid: "Um, are you a boy or are you a girl?" +And there would be an awkward silence at the table. +I'd clench my jaw a little tighter, hold my coffee pot with a little more vengeance. +The dad would awkwardly shuffle his newspaper and the mom would shoot a chilling stare at her kid. +But I would say nothing, and I would seethe inside. +And it got to the point where every time I walked up to a table that had a kid anywhere between three and 10 years old, I was ready to fight. +And that is a terrible feeling. +So I promised myself, the next time, I would say something. +I would have that hard conversation. +So within a matter of weeks, it happens again. +"Are you a boy or are you a girl?" +Familiar silence, but this time I'm ready, and I am about to go all Women's Studies 101 on this table. I've got my Betty Friedan quotes. +I've got my Gloria Steinem quotes. +I've even got this little bit from "Vagina Monologues" I'm going to do. +So I take a deep breath and I look down and staring back at me is a four-year-old girl in a pink dress, not a challenge to a feminist duel, just a kid with a question: "Are you a boy or are you a girl?" +So I take another deep breath, squat down to next to her, and say, "Hey, I know it's kind of confusing. +My hair is short like a boy's, and I wear boy's clothes, but I'm a girl, and you know how sometimes you like to wear a pink dress, and sometimes you like to wear your comfy jammies? +Well, I'm more of a comfy jammies kind of girl." +And this kid looks me dead in the eye, without missing a beat, and says, "My favorite pajamas are purple with fish. +Can I get a pancake, please?" +And that was it. Just, "Oh, okay. You're a girl. +How about that pancake?" +It was the easiest hard conversation I have ever had. +And why? Because Pancake Girl and I, we were both real with each other. +So like many of us, I've lived in a few closets in my life, and yeah, most often, my walls happened to be rainbow. +But inside, in the dark, you can't tell what color the walls are. +You just know what it feels like to live in a closet. +So really, my closet is no different than yours or yours or yours. +Sure, I'll give you 100 reasons why coming out of my closet was harder than coming out of yours, but here's the thing: Hard is not relative. +Hard is hard. +Who can tell me that explaining to someone you've just declared bankruptcy is harder than telling someone you just cheated on them? +Who can tell me that his coming out story is harder than telling your five-year-old you're getting a divorce? +There is no harder, there is just hard. +We need to stop ranking our hard against everyone else's hard to make us feel better or worse about our closets and just commiserate on the fact that we all have hard. +At some point in our lives, we all live in closets, and they may feel safe, or at least safer than what lies on the other side of that door. +But I am here to tell you, no matter what your walls are made of, a closet is no place for a person to live. +Thanks. So imagine yourself 20 years ago. +Me, I had a ponytail, a strapless dress, and high-heeled shoes. +I was not the militant lesbian ready to fight any four-year-old that walked into the cafe. +I was frozen by fear, curled up in the corner of my pitch-black closet clutching my gay grenade, and moving one muscle is the scariest thing I have ever done. +My family, my friends, complete strangers -- I had spent my entire life trying to not disappoint these people, and now I was turning the world upside down on purpose. +I was burning the pages of the script we had all followed for so long, but if you do not throw that grenade, it will kill you. +One of my most memorable grenade tosses was at my sister's wedding. +It was the first time that many in attendance knew I was gay, so in doing my maid of honor duties, in my black dress and heels, I walked around to tables and finally landed on a table of my parents' friends, folks that had known me for years. +And after a little small talk, one of the women shouted out, "I love Nathan Lane!" +And the battle of gay relatability had begun. +"Ash, have you ever been to the Castro?" +"Well, yeah, actually, we have friends in San Francisco." +"Well, we've never been there but we've heard it's fabulous." +"Ash, do you know my hairdresser Antonio? +He's really good and he has never talked about a girlfriend." +"Ash, what's your favorite TV show? +Our favorite TV show? Favorite: Will & Grace. +And you know who we love? Jack. +Jack is our favorite." +And then one woman, stumped but wanting so desperately to show her support, to let me know she was on my side, she finally blurted out, "Well, sometimes my husband wears pink shirts." +And I had a choice in that moment, as all grenade throwers do. +Sure, it would have been easy to point out where they felt short. +It's a lot harder to meet them where they are and acknowledge the fact that they were trying. +And what else can you ask someone to do but try? +If you're going to be real with someone, you gotta be ready for real in return. +So hard conversations are still not my strong suit. +Ask anybody I have ever dated. +But I'm getting better, and I follow what I like to call the three Pancake Girl principles. +Now, please view this through gay-colored lenses, but know what it takes to come out of any closet is essentially the same. +Number one: Be authentic. +Take the armor off. Be yourself. +That kid in the cafe had no armor, but I was ready for battle. +If you want someone to be real with you, they need to know that you bleed too. +Number two: Be direct. Just say it. Rip the Band-Aid off. +If you know you are gay, just say it. +If you tell your parents you might be gay, they will hold out hope that this will change. +Do not give them that sense of false hope. +And number three, and most important -- Be unapologetic. +You are speaking your truth. +Never apologize for that. +And some folks may have gotten hurt along the way, so sure, apologize for what you've done, but never apologize for who you are. +And yeah, some folks may be disappointed, but that is on them, not on you. +Those are their expectations of who you are, not yours. +That is their story, not yours. +The only story that matters is the one that you want to write. +So the next time you find yourself in a pitch-black closet clutching your grenade, know we have all been there before. +And you may feel so very alone, but you are not. +Thank you, Boulder. Enjoy your night. +Intelligence -- what is it? +If we take a look back at the history of how intelligence has been viewed, one seminal example has been Edsger Dijkstra's famous quote that "the question of whether a machine can think is about as interesting as the question of whether a submarine can swim." +Now, Edsger Dijkstra, when he wrote this, intended it as a criticism of the early pioneers of computer science, like Alan Turing. +And so, several years ago, I undertook a program to try to understand the fundamental physical mechanisms underlying intelligence. +Let's take a step back. +Let's first begin with a thought experiment. +Pretend that you're an alien race that doesn't know anything about Earth biology or Earth neuroscience or Earth intelligence, but you have amazing telescopes and you're able to watch the Earth, and you have amazingly long lives, so you're able to watch the Earth over millions, even billions of years. +And you observe a really strange effect. +Now of course, as earthlings, we know the reason would be that we're trying to save ourselves. +We're trying to prevent an impact. +But if you're an alien race who doesn't know any of this, doesn't have any concept of Earth intelligence, you'd be forced to put together a physical theory that explains how, up until a certain point in time, asteroids that would demolish the surface of a planet mysteriously stop doing that. +And so I claim that this is the same question as understanding the physical nature of intelligence. +So in this program that I undertook several years ago, I looked at a variety of different threads across science, across a variety of disciplines, that were pointing, I think, towards a single, underlying mechanism for intelligence. +In cosmology, for example, there have been a variety of different threads of evidence that our universe appears to be finely tuned for the development of intelligence, and, in particular, for the development of universal states that maximize the diversity of possible futures. +Finally, in robotic motion planning, there have been a variety of recent techniques that have tried to take advantage of abilities of robots to maximize future freedom of action in order to accomplish complex tasks. +And so, taking all of these different threads and putting them together, I asked, starting several years ago, is there an underlying mechanism for intelligence that we can factor out of all of these different threads? +Is there a single equation for intelligence? +And the answer, I believe, is yes. ["F = T S"] What you're seeing is probably the closest equivalent to an E = mc for intelligence that I've seen. +So what you're seeing here is a statement of correspondence that intelligence is a force, F, that acts so as to maximize future freedom of action. +It acts to maximize future freedom of action, or keep options open, with some strength T, with the diversity of possible accessible futures, S, up to some future time horizon, tau. +In short, intelligence doesn't like to get trapped. +Intelligence tries to maximize future freedom of action and keep options open. +And so, given this one equation, it's natural to ask, so what can you do with this? +How predictive is it? +Does it predict human-level intelligence? +Does it predict artificial intelligence? +So I'm going to show you now a video that will, I think, demonstrate some of the amazing applications of just this single equation. +Narrator: Recent research in cosmology has suggested that universes that produce more disorder, or "entropy," over their lifetimes should tend to have more favorable conditions for the existence of intelligent beings such as ourselves. +But what if that tentative cosmological connection between entropy and intelligence hints at a deeper relationship? +What if intelligent behavior doesn't just correlate with the production of long-term entropy, but actually emerges directly from it? +To find out, we developed a software engine called Entropica, designed to maximize the production of long-term entropy of any system that it finds itself in. +Amazingly, Entropica was able to pass multiple animal intelligence tests, play human games, and even earn money trading stocks, all without being instructed to do so. +Here are some examples of Entropica in action. +Just like a human standing upright without falling over, here we see Entropica automatically balancing a pole using a cart. +This behavior is remarkable in part because we never gave Entropica a goal. +It simply decided on its own to balance the pole. +This balancing ability will have appliactions for humanoid robotics and human assistive technologies. +This tool use ability will have applications for smart manufacturing and agriculture. +In addition, just as some other animals are able to cooperate by pulling opposite ends of a rope at the same time to release food, here we see that Entropica is able to accomplish a model version of that task. +This cooperative ability has interesting implications for economic planning and a variety of other fields. +Entropica is broadly applicable to a variety of domains. +For example, here we see it successfully playing a game of pong against itself, illustrating its potential for gaming. +Here we see Entropica orchestrating new connections on a social network where friends are constantly falling out of touch and successfully keeping the network well connected. +This same network orchestration ability also has applications in health care, energy, and intelligence. +Here we see Entropica directing the paths of a fleet of ships, successfully discovering and utilizing the Panama Canal to globally extend its reach from the Atlantic to the Pacific. +By the same token, Entropica is broadly applicable to problems in autonomous defense, logistics and transportation. +Finally, here we see Entropica spontaneously discovering and executing a buy-low, sell-high strategy on a simulated range traded stock, successfully growing assets under management exponentially. +This risk management ability will have broad applications in finance and insurance. +Alex Wissner-Gross: So what you've just seen is that a variety of signature human intelligent cognitive behaviors such as tool use and walking upright and social cooperation all follow from a single equation, which drives a system to maximize its future freedom of action. +Now, there's a profound irony here. +Going back to the beginning of the usage of the term robot, the play "RUR," there was always a concept that if we developed machine intelligence, there would be a cybernetic revolt. +The machines would rise up against us. +One major consequence of this work is that maybe all of these decades, we've had the whole concept of cybernetic revolt in reverse. +It's not that machines first become intelligent and then megalomaniacal and try to take over the world. +It's quite the opposite, that the urge to take control of all possible futures is a more fundamental principle than that of intelligence, that general intelligence may in fact emerge directly from this sort of control-grabbing, rather than vice versa. +Another important consequence is goal seeking. +I'm often asked, how does the ability to seek goals follow from this sort of framework? +My equivalent of that statement to pass on to descendants to help them build artificial intelligences or to help them understand human intelligence, is the following: Intelligence should be viewed as a physical process that tries to maximize future freedom of action and avoid constraints in its own future. +Thank you very much. +We're at a tipping point in human history, a species poised between gaining the stars and losing the planet we call home. +Even in just the past few years, we've greatly expanded our knowledge of how Earth fits within the context of our universe. +NASA's Kepler mission has discovered thousands of potential planets around other stars, indicating that Earth is but one of billions of planets in our galaxy. +Kepler is a space telescope that measures the subtle dimming of stars as planets pass in front of them, blocking just a little bit of that light from reaching us. +Kepler's data reveals planets' sizes as well as their distance from their parent star. +Together, this helps us understand whether these planets are small and rocky, like the terrestrial planets in our own Solar System, and also how much light they receive from their parent sun. +In turn, this provides clues as to whether these planets that we discover might be habitable or not. +Unfortunately, at the same time as we're discovering this treasure trove of potentially habitable worlds, our own planet is sagging under the weight of humanity. +2014 was the hottest year on record. +Glaciers and sea ice that have been with us for millennia are now disappearing in a matter of decades. +These planetary-scale environmental changes that we have set in motion are rapidly outpacing our ability to alter their course. +But I'm not a climate scientist, I'm an astronomer. +I study planetary habitability as influenced by stars with the hopes of finding the places in the universe where we might discover life beyond our own planet. +You could say that I look for choice alien real estate. +Now, as somebody who is deeply embedded in the search for life in the universe, I can tell you that the more you look for planets like Earth, the more you appreciate our own planet itself. +Each one of these new worlds invites a comparison between the newly discovered planet and the planets we know best: those of our own Solar System. +Consider our neighbor, Mars. +Mars is small and rocky, and though it's a bit far from the Sun, it might be considered a potentially habitable world if found by a mission like Kepler. +Indeed, it's possible that Mars was habitable in the past, and in part, this is why we study Mars so much. +Our rovers, like Curiosity, crawl across its surface, scratching for clues as to the origins of life as we know it. +Orbiters like the MAVEN mission sample the Martian atmosphere, trying to understand how Mars might have lost its past habitability. +Private spaceflight companies now offer not just a short trip to near space but the tantalizing possibility of living our lives on Mars. +But though these Martian vistas resemble the deserts of our own home world, places that are tied in our imagination to ideas about pioneering and frontiers, compared to Earth Mars is a pretty terrible place to live. +Consider the extent to which we have not colonized the deserts of our own planet, places that are lush by comparison with Mars. +Even in the driest, highest places on Earth, the air is sweet and thick with oxygen exhaled from thousands of miles away by our rainforests. +I worry -- I worry that this excitement about colonizing Mars and other planets carries with it a long, dark shadow: the implication and belief by some that Mars will be there to save us from the self-inflicted destruction of the only truly habitable planet we know of, the Earth. +As much as I love interplanetary exploration, I deeply disagree with this idea. +There are many excellent reasons to go to Mars, but for anyone to tell you that Mars will be there to back up humanity is like the captain of the Titanic telling you that the real party Thank you. +But the goals of interplanetary exploration and planetary preservation are not opposed to one another. +No, they're in fact two sides of the same goal: to understand, preserve and improve life into the future. +The extreme environments of our own world are alien vistas. +They're just closer to home. +If we can understand how to create and maintain habitable spaces out of hostile, inhospitable spaces here on Earth, perhaps we can meet the needs of both preserving our own environment and moving beyond it. +I leave you with a final thought experiment: Fermi's paradox. +Many years ago, the physicist Enrico Fermi asked that, given the fact that our universe has been around for a very long time and we expect that there are many planets within it, we should have found evidence for alien life by now. +So where are they? +Well, one possible solution to Fermi's paradox is that, as civilizations become technologically advanced enough to consider living amongst the stars, they lose sight of how important it is to safeguard the home worlds that fostered that advancement to begin with. +It is hubris to believe that interplanetary colonization alone will save us from ourselves, but planetary preservation and interplanetary exploration can work together. +If we truly believe in our ability to bend the hostile environments of Mars for human habitation, then we should be able to surmount the far easier task of preserving the habitability of the Earth. +Thank you. +A few years ago, I broke into my own house. +And as I stood on the front porch fumbling in my pockets, I found I didn't have my keys. +In fact, I could see them through the window, lying on the dining room table where I had left them. +So I quickly ran around and tried all the other doors and windows, and they were locked tight. +I thought about calling a locksmith -- at least I had my cellphone, but at midnight, it could take a while for a locksmith to show up, and it was cold. +I couldn't go back to my friend Jeff's house for the night because I had an early flight to Europe the next morning, and I needed to get my passport and my suitcase. +This was going to be expensive, but probably no more expensive than a middle-of-the-night locksmith, so I figured, under the circumstances, I was coming out even. +Now, I'm a neuroscientist by training and I know a little bit about how the brain performs under stress. +It releases cortisol that raises your heart rate, it modulates adrenaline levels and it clouds your thinking. +And it wasn't until I got to the airport check-in counter, that I realized I didn't have my passport. +Well, I had a lot of time to think during those eight hours and no sleep. +And I started wondering, are there things that I can do, systems that I can put into place, that will prevent bad things from happening? +Or at least if bad things happen, will minimize the likelihood of it being a total catastrophe. +So I started thinking about that, but my thoughts didn't crystallize until about a month later. +I was having dinner with my colleague, Danny Kahneman, the Nobel Prize winner, and I somewhat embarrassedly told him about having broken my window, and, you know, forgotten my passport, and Danny shared with me that he'd been practicing something called prospective hindsight. +It's something that he had gotten from the psychologist Gary Klein, who had written about it a few years before, also called the pre-mortem. +Now, you all know what the postmortem is. +Whenever there's a disaster, a team of experts come in and they try to figure out what went wrong, right? +Well, in the pre-mortem, Danny explained, you look ahead and you try to figure out all the things that could go wrong, and then you try to figure out what you can do to prevent those things from happening, or to minimize the damage. +So what I want to talk to you about today are some of the things we can do in the form of a pre-mortem. +Some of them are obvious, some of them are not so obvious. +I'll start with the obvious ones. +Around the home, designate a place for things that are easily lost. +Now, this sounds like common sense, and it is, but there's a lot of science to back this up, based on the way our spatial memory works. +There's a structure in the brain called the hippocampus, that evolved over tens of thousands of years, to keep track of the locations of important things -- where the well is, where fish can be found, that stand of fruit trees, where the friendly and enemy tribes live. +The hippocampus is the part of the brain that in London taxicab drivers becomes enlarged. +It's the part of the brain that allows squirrels to find their nuts. +And if you're wondering, somebody actually did the experiment where they cut off the olfactory sense of the squirrels, and they could still find their nuts. +They weren't using smell, they were using the hippocampus, this exquisitely evolved mechanism in the brain for finding things. +But it's really good for things that don't move around much, not so good for things that move around. +So this is why we lose car keys and reading glasses and passports. +So in the home, designate a spot for your keys -- a hook by the door, maybe a decorative bowl. +For your passport, a particular drawer. +For your reading glasses, a particular table. +If you designate a spot and you're scrupulous about it, your things will always be there when you look for them. +What about travel? +Take a cell phone picture of your credit cards, your driver's license, your passport, mail it to yourself so it's in the cloud. +If these things are lost or stolen, you can facilitate replacement. +Now these are some rather obvious things. +Remember, when you're under stress, the brain releases cortisol. +Cortisol is toxic, and it causes cloudy thinking. +So part of the practice of the pre-mortem is to recognize that under stress you're not going to be at your best, and you should put systems in place. +And there's perhaps no more stressful a situation than when you're confronted with a medical decision to make. +And at some point, all of us are going to be in that position, where we have to make a very important decision about the future of our medical care or that of a loved one, to help them with a decision. +And so I want to talk about that. +And I'm going to talk about a very particular medical condition. +But this stands as a proxy for all kinds of medical decision-making, and indeed for financial decision-making, and social decision-making -- any kind of decision you have to make that would benefit from a rational assessment of the facts. +So suppose you go to your doctor and the doctor says, "I just got your lab work back, your cholesterol's a little high." +Now, you all know that high cholesterol is associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease, heart attack, stroke. +And so you're thinking having high cholesterol isn't the best thing, and so the doctor says, "You know, I'd like to give you a drug that will help you lower your cholesterol, a statin." +And you've probably heard of statins, you know that they're among the most widely prescribed drugs in the world today, you probably even know people who take them. +And so you're thinking, "Yeah! Give me the statin." +But there's a question you should ask at this point, a statistic you should ask for that most doctors don't like talking about, and pharmaceutical companies like talking about even less. +It's for the number needed to treat. +Now, what is this, the NNT? +It's the number of people that need to take a drug or undergo a surgery or any medical procedure before one person is helped. +And you're thinking, what kind of crazy statistic is that? +The number should be one. +My doctor wouldn't prescribe something to me if it's not going to help. +But actually, medical practice doesn't work that way. +And it's not the doctor's fault, if it's anybody's fault, it's the fault of scientists like me. +We haven't figured out the underlying mechanisms well enough. +But GlaxoSmithKline estimates that 90 percent of the drugs work in only 30 to 50 percent of the people. +So the number needed to treat for the most widely prescribed statin, what do you suppose it is? +How many people have to take it before one person is helped? +300. +This is according to research by research practitioners Jerome Groopman and Pamela Hartzband, independently confirmed by Bloomberg.com. +I ran through the numbers myself. +300 people have to take the drug for a year before one heart attack, stroke or other adverse event is prevented. +Now you're probably thinking, "Well, OK, one in 300 chance of lowering my cholesterol. +Why not, doc? Give me the prescription anyway." +But you should ask at this point for another statistic, and that is, "Tell me about the side effects." Right? +So for this particular drug, the side effects occur in five percent of the patients. +And they include terrible things -- debilitating muscle and joint pain, gastrointestinal distress -- but now you're thinking, "Five percent, not very likely it's going to happen to me, I'll still take the drug." +But wait a minute. +Remember under stress you're not thinking clearly. +So think about how you're going to work through this ahead of time, so you don't have to manufacture the chain of reasoning on the spot. +300 people take the drug, right? One person's helped, five percent of those 300 have side effects, that's 15 people. +You're 15 times more likely to be harmed by the drug than you are to be helped by the drug. +Now, I'm not saying whether you should take the statin or not. +I'm just saying you should have this conversation with your doctor. +Medical ethics requires it, it's part of the principle of informed consent. +You have the right to have access to this kind of information to begin the conversation about whether you want to take the risks or not. +Now you might be thinking I've pulled this number out of the air for shock value, but in fact it's rather typical, this number needed to treat. +For the most widely performed surgery on men over the age of 50, removal of the prostate for cancer, the number needed to treat is 49. +That's right, 49 surgeries are done for every one person who's helped. +And the side effects in that case occur in 50 percent of the patients. +They include impotence, erectile dysfunction, urinary incontinence, rectal tearing, fecal incontinence. +And if you're lucky, and you're one of the 50 percent who has these, they'll only last for a year or two. +So the idea of the pre-mortem is to think ahead of time to the questions that you might be able to ask that will push the conversation forward. +You don't want to have to manufacture all of this on the spot. +And you also want to think about things like quality of life. +Because you have a choice oftentimes, do you I want a shorter life that's pain-free, or a longer life that might have a great deal of pain towards the end? +These are things to talk about and think about now, with your family and your loved ones. +You might change your mind in the heat of the moment, but at least you're practiced with this kind of thinking. +Remember, our brain under stress releases cortisol, and one of the things that happens at that moment is a whole bunch on systems shut down. +There's an evolutionary reason for this. +Face-to-face with a predator, you don't need your digestive system, or your libido, or your immune system, because if you're body is expending metabolism on those things and you don't react quickly, you might become the lion's lunch, and then none of those things matter. +Unfortunately, one of the things that goes out the window during those times of stress is rational, logical thinking, as Danny Kahneman and his colleagues have shown. +So we need to train ourselves to think ahead to these kinds of situations. +I think the important point here is recognizing that all of us are flawed. +We all are going to fail now and then. +The idea is to think ahead to what those failures might be, to put systems in place that will help minimize the damage, or to prevent the bad things from happening in the first place. +Getting back to that snowy night in Montreal, when I got back from my trip, I had my contractor install a combination lock next to the door, with a key to the front door in it, an easy to remember combination. +And I have to admit, I still have piles of mail that haven't been sorted, and piles of emails that I haven't gone through. +So I'm not completely organized, but I see organization as a gradual process, and I'm getting there. +Thank you very much. +Interpreter: Piano, "p," is my favorite musical symbol. +It means to play softly. +If you're playing a musical instrument and you notice a "p" in the score, you need to play softer. +Two p's -- even softer. +Four p's -- extremely soft. +This is my drawing of a p-tree, which demonstrates no matter how many thousands upon thousands of p's there may be, you'll never reach complete silence. +That's my current definition of silence: a very obscure sound. +I'd like to share a little bit about the history of American Sign Language, ASL, plus a bit of my own background. +French sign language was brought to America during the early 1800s, and as time went by, mixed with local signs, it evolved into the language we know today as ASL. +So it has a history of about 200 years. +I was born deaf, and I was taught to believe that sound wasn't a part of my life. +And I believed it to be true. +Yet, I realize now that that wasn't the case at all. +Sound was very much a part of my life, really, on my mind every day. +As a Deaf person living in a world of sound, it's as if I was living in a foreign country, blindly following its rules, customs, behaviors and norms without ever questioning them. +So how is it that I understand sound? +Well, I watch how people behave and respond to sound. +You people are like my loudspeakers, and amplify sound. +I learn and mirror that behavior. +At the same time, I've learned that I create sound, and I've seen how people respond to me. +Thus I've learned, for example ... +"Don't slam the door!" +"Don't make too much noise when you're eating from the potato-chip bag!" +"Don't burp, and when you're eating, make sure you don't scrape your utensils on the plate." +All of these things I term "sound etiquette." +Maybe I think about sound etiquette more than the average hearing person does. +I'm hyper-vigilant around sound. +And I'm always waiting in eager nervous anticipation around sound, about what's to come next. +Hence, this drawing. +TBD, to be decided. +TBC, to be continued. +TBA, to be announced. +And you notice the staff -- there are no notes contained in the lines. +That's because the lines already contain sound through the subtle smudges and smears. +In Deaf culture, movement is equivalent to sound. +This is a sign for "staff" in ASL. +A typical staff contains five lines. +Yet for me, signing it with my thumb sticking up like that doesn't feel natural. +That's why you'll notice in my drawings, I stick to four lines on paper. +In the year 2008, I had the opportunity to travel to Berlin, Germany, for an artist residency there. +Prior to this time, I had been working as a painter. +During this summer, I visited different museums and gallery spaces, and as I went from one place to the next, I noticed there was no visual art there. +At that time, sound was trending, and this struck me ... +there was no visual art, everything was auditory. +Now sound has come into my art territory. +Is it going to further distance me from art? +I realized that doesn't have to be the case at all. +I actually know sound. +I know it so well that it doesn't have to be something just experienced through the ears. +It could be felt tactually, or experienced as a visual, or even as an idea. +So I decided to reclaim ownership of sound and to put it into my art practice. +And everything that I had been taught regarding sound, I decided to do away with and unlearn. +I started creating a new body of work. +And when I presented this to the art community, I was blown away with the amount of support and attention I received. +I realized: sound is like money, power, control -- social currency. +In the back of my mind, I've always felt that sound was your thing, a hearing person's thing. +And sound is so powerful that it could either disempower me and my artwork, or it could empower me. +I chose to be empowered. +There's a massive culture around spoken language. +And just because I don't use my literal voice to communicate, in society's eyes it's as if I don't have a voice at all. +So I need to work with individuals who can support me as an equal and become my voice. +And that way, I'm able to maintain relevancy in society today. +So at school, at work and institutions, I work with many different ASL interpreters. +And their voice becomes my voice and identity. +They help me to be heard. +And their voices hold value and currency. +Ironically, by borrowing out their voices, I'm able to maintain a temporary form of currency, kind of like taking out a loan with a very high interest rate. +If I didn't continue this practice, I feel that I could just fade off into oblivion and not maintain any form of social currency. +So with sound as my new art medium, I delved into the world of music. +And I was surprised to see the similarities between music and ASL. +For example, a musical note cannot be fully captured and expressed on paper. +And the same holds true for a concept in ASL. +They're both highly spatial and highly inflected -- meaning that subtle changes can affect the entire meaning of both signs and sounds. +I'd like to share with you a piano metaphor, to have you have a better understanding of how ASL works. +So, envision a piano. +ASL is broken down into many different grammatical parameters. +If you assign a different parameter to each finger as you play the piano -- such as facial expression, body movement, speed, hand shape and so on, as you play the piano -- English is a linear language, as if one key is being pressed at a time. +However, ASL is more like a chord -- all 10 fingers need to come down simultaneously to express a clear concept or idea in ASL. +If just one of those keys were to change the chord, it would create a completely different meaning. +The same applies to music in regards to pitch, tone and volume. +In ASL, by playing around with these different grammatical parameters, you can express different ideas. +For example, take the sign TO-LOOK-AT. +This is the sign TO-LOOK-AT. +I'm looking at you. +Staring at you. +Oh -- busted. +Uh-oh. +What are you looking at? +Aw, stop. +I then started thinking, "What if I was to look at ASL through a musical lens?" +If I was to create a sign and repeat it over and over, it could become like a piece of visual music. +For example, this is the sign for "day," as the sun rises and sets. +This is "all day." +If I was to repeat it and slow it down, visually it looks like a piece of music. +All ... day. +I feel the same holds true for "all night." +"All night." +This is ALL-NIGHT, represented in this drawing. +And this led me to thinking about three different kinds of nights: "last night," "overnight," "all night long." +I feel like the third one has a lot more musicality than the other two. +This represents how time is expressed in ASL and how the distance from your body can express the changes in time. +For example, 1H is one hand, 2H is two hand, present tense happens closest and in front of the body, future is in front of the body and the past is to your back. +So, the first example is "a long time ago." +Then "past," "used to" and the last one, which is my favorite, with the very romantic and dramatic notion to it, "once upon a time." +"Common time" is a musical term with a specific time signature of four beats per measure. +Yet when I see the word "common time," what automatically comes to mind for me is "at the same time." +So notice RH: right hand, LH: left hand. +We have the staff across the head and the chest. +[Head: RH, Flash claw] [Common time] [Chest: LH, Flash claw] I'm now going to demonstrate a hand shape called the "flash claw." +Can you please follow along with me? +Everybody, hands up. +Now we're going to do it in both the head and the chest, kind of like "common time" or at the same time. +Yes, got it. +That means "to fall in love" in International [Sign]. +International [Sign], as a note, is a visual tool to help communicate across cultures and sign languages around the world. +The second one I'd like to demonstrate is this -- please follow along with me again. +And now this. +This is "colonization" in ASL. +Now the third -- please follow along again. +And again. +This is "enlightenment" in ASL. +So let's do all three together. +"Fall in love," "colonization" and "enlightenment." +Good job, everyone. +Notice how all three signs are very similar, they all happen at the head and the chest, but they convey quite different meanings. +So it's amazing to see how ASL is alive and thriving, just like music is. +However, in this day and age, we live in a very audio-centric world. +And just because ASL has no sound to it, it automatically holds no social currency. +We need to start thinking harder about what defines social currency and allow ASL to develop its own form of currency -- without sound. +And this could possibly be a step to lead to a more inclusive society. +And maybe people will understand that you don't need to be deaf to learn ASL, nor do you have to be hearing to learn music. +ASL is such a rich treasure that I'd like you to have the same experience. +And I'd like to invite you to open your ears, to open your eyes, take part in our culture and experience our visual language. +And you never know, you might just fall in love with us. +Thank you. +Denise Kahler-Braaten: Hey, that's me. +When I was a kid, my parents would tell me, "You can make a mess, but you have to clean up after yourself." +So freedom came with responsibility. +But my imagination would take me to all these wonderful places, where everything was possible. +So I grew up in a bubble of innocence -- or a bubble of ignorance, I should say, because adults would lie to us to protect us from the ugly truth. +And growing up, I found out that adults make a mess, and they're not very good at cleaning up after themselves. +Fast forward, I am an adult now, and I teach citizen science and invention at the Hong Kong Harbour School. +And it doesn't take too long before my students walk on a beach and stumble upon piles of trash. +So as good citizens, we clean up the beaches -- and no, he is not drinking alcohol, and if he is, I did not give it to him. +And so it's sad to say, but today more than 80 percent of the oceans have plastic in them. +It's a horrifying fact. +And in past decades, we've been taking those big ships out and those big nets, and we collect those plastic bits that we look at under a microscope, and we sort them, and then we put this data onto a map. +But that takes forever, it's very expensive, and so it's quite risky to take those big boats out. +So with my students, ages six to 15, we've been dreaming of inventing a better way. +So we've transformed our tiny Hong Kong classroom into a workshop. +And so we started building this small workbench, with different heights, so even really short kids can participate. +And let me tell you, kids with power tools are awesome and safe. +Not really. +And so, back to plastic. +We collect this plastic and we grind it to the size we find it in the ocean, which is very small because it breaks down. +And so this is how we work. +I let the imaginations of my students run wild. +And my job is to try to collect the best of each kid's idea and try to combine it into something that hopefully would work. +And so we have agreed that instead of collecting plastic bits, we are going to collect only the data. +So we're going to get an image of the plastic with a robot -- so robots, kids get very excited. +And the next thing we do -- we do what we call "rapid prototyping." +We are so rapid at prototyping that the lunch is still in the lunchbox when we're hacking it. +And we hack table lamps and webcams, into plumbing fixtures and we assemble that into a floating robot that will be slowly moving through water and through the plastic that we have there -- and this is the image that we get in the robot. +So we see the plastic pieces floating slowly through the sensor, and the computer on board will process this image, and measure the size of each particle, so we have a rough estimate of how much plastic there is in the water. +So we documented this invention step by step on a website for inventors called Instructables, in the hope that somebody would make it even better. +What was really cool about this project was that the students saw a local problem, and boom -- they are trying to immediately address it. +[I can investigate my local problem] But my students in Hong Kong are hyperconnected kids. +And they watch the news, they watch the Internet, and they came across this image. +This was a child, probably under 10, cleaning up an oil spill bare-handed, in the Sundarbans, which is the world's largest mangrove forest in Bangladesh. +So they were very shocked, because this is the water they drink, this is the water they bathe in, this is the water they fish in -- this is the place where they live. +And also you can see the water is brown, the mud is brown and oil is brown, so when everything is mixed up, it's really hard to see what's in the water. +But, there's a technology that's rather simple, that's called spectrometry, that allows you see what's in the water. +So we built a rough prototype of a spectrometer, and you can shine light through different substances that produce different spectrums, so that can help you identify what's in the water. +So we packed this prototype of a sensor, and we shipped it to Bangladesh. +So what was cool about this project was that beyond addressing a local problem, or looking at a local problem, my students used their empathy and their sense of being creative to help, remotely, other kids. +[I can investigate a remote problem] So I was very compelled by doing the second experiments, and I wanted to take it even further -- maybe addressing an even harder problem, and it's also closer to my heart. +So I'm half Japanese and half French, and maybe you remember in 2011 there was a massive earthquake in Japan. +It was so violent that it triggered several giant waves -- they are called tsunami -- and those tsunami destroyed many cities on the eastern coast of Japan. +More than 14,000 people died in an instant. +Also, it damaged the nuclear power plant of Fukushima, the nuclear power plant just by the water. +And today, I read the reports and an average of 300 tons are leaking from the nuclear power plant into the Pacific Ocean. +And today the whole Pacific Ocean has traces of contamination of cesium-137. +If you go outside on the West Coast, you can measure Fukushima everywhere. +But if you look at the map, it can look like most of the radioactivity has been washed away from the Japanese coast, and most of it is now -- it looks like it's safe, it's blue. +Well, reality is a bit more complicated than this. +So I've been going to Fukushima every year since the accident, and I measure independently and with other scientists, on land, in the river -- and this time we wanted to take the kids. +So of course we didn't take the kids, the parents wouldn't allow that to happen. +But every night we would report to "Mission Control" -- different masks they're wearing. +It could look like they didn't take the work seriously, but they really did because they're going to have to live with radioactivity their whole life. +And so what we did with them is that we'd discuss the data we collected that day, and talk about where we should be going next -- strategy, itinerary, etc... +And to do this, we built a very rough topographical map of the region around the nuclear power plant. +And so we built the elevation map, we sprinkled pigments to represent real-time data for radioactivity, and we sprayed water to simulate the rainfall. +And with this we could see that the radioactive dust was washing from the top of the mountain into the river system, and leaking into the ocean. +So it was a rough estimate. +But with this in mind, we organized this expedition, which was the closest civilians have been to the nuclear power plant. +We are sailing 1.5 kilometers away from the nuclear power plant, and with the help of the local fisherman, we are collecting sediment from the seabed with a custom sediment sampler we've invented and built. +You can see a progression here -- we've gone from a local problem to a remote problem to a global problem. +And it's been super exciting to work at these different scales, with also very simple, open-source technologies. +But at the same time, it's been increasingly frustrating because we have only started to measure the damage that we have done. +We haven't even started to try to solve the problems. +And so I wonder if we should just take a leap and try to invent better ways to do all these things. +And so the classroom started to feel a little bit small, so we found an industrial site in Hong Kong, and we turned it into the largest mega-space focused on social and environmental impact. +It's in central Hong Kong, and it's a place we can work with wood, metal, chemistry, a bit of biology, a bit of optics, basically you can build pretty much everything there. +And its a place where adults and kids can play together. +It's a place where kids' dreams can come true, with the help of adults, and where adults can be kids again. +Student: Acceleration! Acceleration! +Cesar Harada: We're asking questions such as, can we invent the future of mobility with renewable energy? +For example. +Or, can we help the mobility of the aging population by transforming very standard wheelchairs into cool, electric vehicles? +So plastic, oil and radioactivity are horrible, horrible legacies, but the very worst legacy that we can leave our children is lies. +We can no longer afford to shield the kids from the ugly truth because we need their imagination to invent the solutions. +So citizen scientists, makers, dreamers -- we must prepare the next generation that cares about the environment and people, and that can actually do something about it. +Thank you. +Two twin domes, two radically opposed design cultures. +One is made of thousands of steel parts, the other of a single silk thread. +One is synthetic, the other organic. +One is imposed on the environment, the other creates it. +One is designed for nature, the other is designed by her. +Michelangelo said that when he looked at raw marble, he saw a figure struggling to be free. +The chisel was Michelangelo's only tool. +But living things are not chiseled. +They grow. +And in our smallest units of life, our cells, we carry all the information that's required for every other cell to function and to replicate. +Tools also have consequences. +At least since the Industrial Revolution, the world of design has been dominated by the rigors of manufacturing and mass production. +Assembly lines have dictated a world made of parts, framing the imagination of designers and architects who have been trained to think about their objects as assemblies of discrete parts with distinct functions. +But you don't find homogenous material assemblies in nature. +Take human skin, for example. +Our facial skins are thin with large pores. +Our back skins are thicker, with small pores. +One acts mainly as filter, the other mainly as barrier, and yet it's the same skin: no parts, no assemblies. +It's a system that gradually varies its functionality by varying elasticity. +So here this is a split screen to represent my split world view, the split personality of every designer and architect operating today between the chisel and the gene, between machine and organism, between assembly and growth, between Henry Ford and Charles Darwin. +These two worldviews, my left brain and right brain, analysis and synthesis, will play out on the two screens behind me. +My work, at its simplest level, is about uniting these two worldviews, moving away from assembly and closer into growth. +You're probably asking yourselves: Why now? +Why was this not possible 10 or even five years ago? +We live in a very special time in history, a rare time, a time when the confluence of four fields is giving designers access to tools we've never had access to before. +And at the intersection of these four fields, my team and I create. +Please meet the minds and hands of my students. +We design objects and products and structures and tools across scales, from the large-scale, like this robotic arm with an 80-foot diameter reach with a vehicular base that will one day soon print entire buildings, to nanoscale graphics made entirely of genetically engineered microorganisms that glow in the dark. +Here we've reimagined the mashrabiya, an archetype of ancient Arabic architecture, and created a screen where every aperture is uniquely sized to shape the form of light and heat moving through it. +In our next project, we explore the possibility of creating a cape and skirt -- this was for a Paris fashion show with Iris van Herpen -- like a second skin that are made of a single part, stiff at the contours, flexible around the waist. +Together with my long-term 3D printing collaborator Stratasys, we 3D-printed this cape and skirt with no seams between the cells, and I'll show more objects like it. +This helmet combines stiff and soft materials in 20-micron resolution. +This is the resolution of a human hair. +It's also the resolution of a CT scanner. +That designers have access to such high-resolution analytic and synthetic tools, enables to design products that fit not only the shape of our bodies, but also the physiological makeup of our tissues. +Next, we designed an acoustic chair, a chair that would be at once structural, comfortable and would also absorb sound. +Professor Carter, my collaborator, and I turned to nature for inspiration, and by designing this irregular surface pattern, it becomes sound-absorbent. +We printed its surface out of 44 different properties, varying in rigidity, opacity and color, corresponding to pressure points on the human body. +Its surface, as in nature, varies its functionality not by adding another material or another assembly, but by continuously and delicately varying material property. +But is nature ideal? +Are there no parts in nature? +I wasn't raised in a religious Jewish home, but when I was young, my grandmother used to tell me stories from the Hebrew Bible, and one of them stuck with me and came to define much of what I care about. +As she recounts: "On the third day of Creation, God commands the Earth to grow a fruit-bearing fruit tree." +For this first fruit tree, there was to be no differentiation between trunk, branches, leaves and fruit. +The whole tree was a fruit. +Instead, the land grew trees that have bark and stems and flowers. +The land created a world made of parts. +I often ask myself, "What would design be like if objects were made of a single part? +Would we return to a better state of creation?" +So we looked for that biblical material, that fruit-bearing fruit tree kind of material, and we found it. +The second-most abundant biopolymer on the planet is called chitin, and some 100 million tons of it are produced every year by organisms such as shrimps, crabs, scorpions and butterflies. +We thought if we could tune its properties, we could generate structures that are multifunctional out of a single part. +So that's what we did. +We called Legal Seafood -- we ordered a bunch of shrimp shells, we grinded them and we produced chitosan paste. +By varying chemical concentrations, we were able to achieve a wide array of properties -- from dark, stiff and opaque, to light, soft and transparent. +In order to print the structures in large scale, we built a robotically controlled extrusion system with multiple nozzles. +The robot would vary material properties on the fly and create these 12-foot-long structures made of a single material, 100 percent recyclable. +When the parts are ready, they're left to dry and find a form naturally upon contact with air. +So why are we still designing with plastics? +The air bubbles that were a byproduct of the printing process were used to contain photosynthetic microorganisms that first appeared on our planet 3.5 billion year ago, as we learned yesterday. +Together with our collaborators at Harvard and MIT, we embedded bacteria that were genetically engineered to rapidly capture carbon from the atmosphere and convert it into sugar. +For the first time, we were able to generate structures that would seamlessly transition from beam to mesh, and if scaled even larger, to windows. +A fruit-bearing fruit tree. +Working with an ancient material, one of the first lifeforms on the planet, plenty of water and a little bit of synthetic biology, we were able to transform a structure made of shrimp shells into an architecture that behaves like a tree. +And here's the best part: for objects designed to biodegrade, put them in the sea, and they will nourish marine life; place them in soil, and they will help grow a tree. +The setting for our next exploration using the same design principles was the solar system. +We looked for the possibility of creating life-sustaining clothing for interplanetary voyages. +To do that, we needed to contain bacteria and be able to control their flow. +So like the periodic table, we came up with our own table of the elements: new lifeforms that were computationally grown, additively manufactured and biologically augmented. +I like to think of synthetic biology as liquid alchemy, only instead of transmuting precious metals, you're synthesizing new biological functionality inside very small channels. +It's called microfluidics. +We 3D-printed our own channels in order to control the flow of these liquid bacterial cultures. +In our first piece of clothing, we combined two microorganisms. +The first is cyanobacteria. +It lives in our oceans and in freshwater ponds. +And the second, E. coli, the bacterium that inhabits the human gut. +One converts light into sugar, the other consumes that sugar and produces biofuels useful for the built environment. +Now, these two microorganisms never interact in nature. +In fact, they never met each other. +They've been here, engineered for the first time, to have a relationship inside a piece of clothing. +Think of it as evolution not by natural selection, but evolution by design. +In order to contain these relationships, we've created a single channel that resembles the digestive tract, that will help flow these bacteria and alter their function along the way. +We then started growing these channels on the human body, varying material properties according to the desired functionality. +Where we wanted more photosynthesis, we would design more transparent channels. +This wearable digestive system, when it's stretched end to end, spans 60 meters. +This is half the length of a football field, and 10 times as long as our small intestines. +And here it is for the first time unveiled at TED -- our first photosynthetic wearable, liquid channels glowing with life inside a wearable clothing. +Thank you. +Mary Shelley said, "We are unfashioned creatures, but only half made up." +What if design could provide that other half? +What if we could create structures that would augment living matter? +What if we could create personal microbiomes that would scan our skins, repair damaged tissue and sustain our bodies? +Think of this as a form of edited biology. +I call this material ecology. +To do this, we always need to return back to nature. +By now, you know that a 3D printer prints material in layers. +You also know that nature doesn't. +It grows. It adds with sophistication. +This silkworm cocoon, for example, creates a highly sophisticated architecture, a home inside which to metamorphisize. +No additive manufacturing today gets even close to this level of sophistication. +It does so by combining not two materials, but two proteins in different concentrations. +One acts as the structure, the other is the glue, or the matrix, holding those fibers together. +And this happens across scales. +The silkworm first attaches itself to the environment -- it creates a tensile structure -- and it then starts spinning a compressive cocoon. +Tension and compression, the two forces of life, manifested in a single material. +In order to better understand how this complex process works, we glued a tiny earth magnet to the head of a silkworm, to the spinneret. +We placed it inside a box with magnetic sensors, and that allowed us to create this 3-dimensional point cloud and visualize the complex architecture of the silkworm cocoon. +However, when we placed the silkworm on a flat patch, not inside a box, we realized it would spin a flat cocoon and it would still healthily metamorphisize. +So we started designing different environments, different scaffolds, and we discovered that the shape, the composition, the structure of the cocoon, was directly informed by the environment. +Silkworms are often boiled to death inside their cocoons, their silk unraveled and used in the textile industry. +We realized that designing these templates allowed us to give shape to raw silk without boiling a single cocoon. +They would healthily metamorphisize, and we would be able to create these things. +So we scaled this process up to architectural scale. +We had a robot spin the template out of silk, and we placed it on our site. +We knew silkworms migrated toward darker and colder areas, so we used a sun path diagram to reveal the distribution of light and heat on our structure. +We then created holes, or apertures, that would lock in the rays of light and heat, distributing those silkworms on the structure. +We were ready to receive the caterpillars. +We ordered 6,500 silkworms from an online silk farm. +And after four weeks of feeding, they were ready to spin with us. +We placed them carefully at the bottom rim of the scaffold, and as they spin they pupate, they mate, they lay eggs, and life begins all over again -- just like us but much, much shorter. +Bucky Fuller said that tension is the great integrity, and he was right. +As they spin biological silk over robotically spun silk, they give this entire pavilion its integrity. +And over two to three weeks, 6,500 silkworms spin 6,500 kilometers. +In a curious symmetry, this is also the length of the Silk Road. +The moths, after they hatch, produce 1.5 million eggs. +This could be used for 250 additional pavilions for the future. +So here they are, the two worldviews. +One spins silk out of a robotic arm, the other fills in the gaps. +If the final frontier of design is to breathe life into the products and the buildings around us, to form a two-material ecology, then designers must unite these two worldviews. +Which brings us back, of course, to the beginning. +Here's to a new age of design, a new age of creation, that takes us from a nature-inspired design to a design-inspired nature, and that demands of us for the first time that we mother nature. +Thank you. +Thank you very much. Thank you. +Raise your hand if you've ever been asked the question "What do you want to be when you grow up?" +Now if you had to guess, how old would you say you were when you were first asked this question? +You can just hold up fingers. +Three. Five. Three. Five. Five. OK. +Now, raise your hand if the question "What do you want to be when you grow up?" +has ever caused you any anxiety. +Any anxiety at all. +I'm someone who's never been able to answer the question "What do you want to be when you grow up?" +See, the problem wasn't that I didn't have any interests -- it's that I had too many. +In high school, I liked English and math and art and I built websites and I played guitar in a punk band called Frustrated Telephone Operator. +Maybe you've heard of us. +And usually I would try and persist anyway, because I had already devoted so much time and energy and sometimes money into this field. +But eventually this sense of boredom, this feeling of, like, yeah, I got this, this isn't challenging anymore -- it would get to be too much. +And I would have to let it go. +But then I would become interested in something else, something totally unrelated, and I would dive into that, and become all-consumed, and I'd be like, "Yes! I found my thing," and then I would hit this point again where I'd start to get bored. +And eventually, I would let it go. +But then I would discover something new and totally different, and I would dive into that. +This pattern caused me a lot of anxiety, for two reasons. +The first was that I wasn't sure how I was going to turn any of this into a career. +I thought that I would eventually have to pick one thing, deny all of my other passions, and just resign myself to being bored. +The other reason it caused me so much anxiety was a little bit more personal. +I worried that there was something wrong with this, and something wrong with me for being unable to stick with anything. +I worried that I was afraid of commitment, or that I was scattered, or that I was self-sabotaging, afraid of my own success. +If you can relate to my story and to these feelings, I'd like you to ask yourself a question that I wish I had asked myself back then. +Ask yourself where you learned to assign the meaning of wrong or abnormal to doing many things. +I'll tell you where you learned it: you learned it from the culture. +We are first asked the question "What do you want to be when you grow up?" +when we're about five years old. +And the truth is that no one really cares what you say when you're that age. +It's considered an innocuous question, posed to little kids to elicit cute replies, like, "I want to be an astronaut," or "I want to be a ballerina," or "I want to be a pirate." +Insert Halloween costume here. +But this question gets asked of us again and again as we get older in various forms -- for instance, high school students might get asked what major they're going to pick in college. +And at some point, "What do you want to be when you grow up?" +goes from being the cute exercise it once was to the thing that keeps us up at night. +Why? +See, while this question inspires kids to dream about what they could be, it does not inspire them to dream about all that they could be. +In fact, it does just the opposite, because when someone asks you what you want to be, you can't reply with 20 different things, though well-meaning adults will likely chuckle and be like, "Oh, how cute, but you can't be a violin maker and a psychologist. +You have to choose." +This is Dr. Bob Childs -- and he's a luthier and psychotherapist. +And this is Amy Ng, a magazine editor turned illustrator, entrepreneur, teacher and creative director. +But most kids don't hear about people like this. +All they hear is that they're going to have to choose. +But it's more than that. +The notion of the narrowly focused life is highly romanticized in our culture. +It's this idea of destiny or the one true calling, the idea that we each have one great thing we are meant to do during our time on this earth, and you need to figure out what that thing is and devote your life to it. +But what if you're someone who isn't wired this way? +What if there are a lot of different subjects that you're curious about, and many different things you want to do? +Well, there is no room for someone like you in this framework. +And so you might feel alone. +You might feel like you don't have a purpose. +And you might feel like there's something wrong with you. +There's nothing wrong with you. +What you are is a multipotentialite. +A multipotentialite is someone with many interests and creative pursuits. +It's a mouthful to say. +It might help if you break it up into three parts: multi, potential, and ite. +You can also use one of the other terms that connote the same idea, such as polymath, the Renaissance person. +Actually, during the Renaissance period, it was considered the ideal to be well-versed in multiple disciplines. +Barbara Sher refers to us as "scanners." +Use whichever term you like, or invent your own. +I have to say I find it sort of fitting that as a community, we cannot agree on a single identity. +It's easy to see your multipotentiality as a limitation or an affliction that you need to overcome. +But what I've learned through speaking with people and writing about these ideas on my website, is that there are some tremendous strengths to being this way. +Here are three multipotentialite super powers. +One: idea synthesis. +That is, combining two or more fields and creating something new at the intersection. +Sha Hwang and Rachel Binx drew from their shared interests in cartography, data visualization, travel, mathematics and design, when they founded Meshu. +Meshu is a company that creates custom geographically-inspired jewelry. +Sha and Rachel came up with this unique idea not despite, but because of their eclectic mix of skills and experiences. +Innovation happens at the intersections. +That's where the new ideas come from. +And multipotentialites, with all of their backgrounds, are able to access a lot of these points of intersection. +The second multipotentialite superpower is rapid learning. +When multipotentialites become interested in something, we go hard. +We observe everything we can get our hands on. +We're also used to being beginners, because we've been beginners so many times in the past, and this means that we're less afraid of trying new things and stepping out of our comfort zones. +What's more, many skills are transferable across disciplines, and we bring everything we've learned to every new area we pursue, so we're rarely starting from scratch. +Nora Dunn is a full-time traveler and freelance writer. +As a child concert pianist, she honed an incredible ability to develop muscle memory. +Now, she's the fastest typist she knows. +Before becoming a writer, Nora was a financial planner. +She had to learn the finer mechanics of sales when she was starting her practice, and this skill now helps her write compelling pitches to editors. +It is rarely a waste of time to pursue something you're drawn to, even if you end up quitting. +You might apply that knowledge in a different field entirely, in a way that you couldn't have anticipated. +The third multipotentialite superpower is adaptability; that is, the ability to morph into whatever you need to be in a given situation. +Abe Cajudo is sometimes a video director, sometimes a web designer, sometimes a Kickstarter consultant, sometimes a teacher, and sometimes, apparently, James Bond. +He's valuable because he does good work. +He's even more valuable because he can take on various roles, depending on his clients' needs. +Fast Company magazine identified adaptability as the single most important skill to develop in order to thrive in the 21st century. +The economic world is changing so quickly and unpredictably that it is the individuals and organizations that can pivot in order to meet the needs of the market that are really going to thrive. +Idea synthesis, rapid learning and adaptability: three skills that multipotentialites are very adept at, and three skills that they might lose if pressured to narrow their focus. +As a society, we have a vested interest in encouraging multipotentialites to be themselves. +We have a lot of complex, multidimensional problems in the world right now, and we need creative, out-of-the-box thinkers to tackle them. +Now, let's say that you are, in your heart, a specialist. +You came out of the womb knowing you wanted to be a pediatric neurosurgeon. +Don't worry -- there's nothing wrong with you, either. +In fact, some of the best teams are comprised of a specialist and multipotentialite paired together. +The specialist can dive in deep and implement ideas, while the multipotentialite brings a breadth of knowledge to the project. +It's a beautiful partnership. +But we should all be designing lives and careers that are aligned with how we're wired. +And sadly, multipotentialites are largely being encouraged simply to be more like their specialist peers. +So with that said, if there is one thing you take away from this talk, I hope that it is this: embrace your inner wiring, whatever that may be. +If you're a specialist at heart, then by all means, specialize. +That is where you'll do your best work. +But to the multipotentialites in the room, including those of you who may have just realized in the last 12 minutes that you are one -- to you I say: embrace your many passions. +Follow your curiosity down those rabbit holes. +Explore your intersections. +Embracing our inner wiring leads to a happier, more authentic life. +And perhaps more importantly -- multipotentialites, the world needs us. +Thank you. +In the year 1901, a woman called Auguste was taken to a medical asylum in Frankfurt. +Auguste was delusional and couldn't remember even the most basic details of her life. +Her doctor was called Alois. +Alois didn't know how to help Auguste, but he watched over her until, sadly, she passed away in 1906. +After she died, Alois performed an autopsy and found strange plaques and tangles in Auguste's brain -- the likes of which he'd never seen before. +Now here's the even more striking thing. +If Auguste had instead been alive today, we could offer her no more help than Alois was able to 114 years ago. +Alois was Dr. Alois Alzheimer. +And Auguste Deter was the first patient to be diagnosed with what we now call Alzheimer's disease. +Since 1901, medicine has advanced greatly. +We've discovered antibiotics and vaccines to protect us from infections, many treatments for cancer, antiretrovirals for HIV, statins for heart disease and much more. +But we've made essentially no progress at all in treating Alzheimer's disease. +I'm part of a team of scientists who has been working to find a cure for Alzheimer's for over a decade. +So I think about this all the time. +Alzheimer's now affects 40 million people worldwide. +But by 2050, it will affect 150 million people -- which, by the way, will include many of you. +If you're hoping to live to be 85 or older, your chance of getting Alzheimer's will be almost one in two. +In other words, odds are you'll spend your golden years either suffering from Alzheimer's or helping to look after a friend or loved one with Alzheimer's. +Already in the United States alone, Alzheimer's care costs 200 billion dollars every year. +One out of every five Medicare dollars get spent on Alzheimer's. +It is today the most expensive disease, and costs are projected to increase fivefold by 2050, as the baby boomer generation ages. +It may surprise you that, put simply, Alzheimer's is one of the biggest medical and social challenges of our generation. +But we've done relatively little to address it. +Today, of the top 10 causes of death worldwide, Alzheimer's is the only one we cannot prevent, cure or even slow down. +We understand less about the science of Alzheimer's than other diseases because we've invested less time and money into researching it. +The US government spends 10 times more every year on cancer research than on Alzheimer's despite the fact that Alzheimer's costs us more and causes a similar number of deaths each year as cancer. +The lack of resources stems from a more fundamental cause: a lack of awareness. +Because here's what few people know but everyone should: Alzheimer's is a disease, and we can cure it. +For most of the past 114 years, everyone, including scientists, mistakenly confused Alzheimer's with aging. +We thought that becoming senile was a normal and inevitable part of getting old. +But we only have to look at a picture of a healthy aged brain compared to the brain of an Alzheimer's patient to see the real physical damage caused by this disease. +As well as triggering severe loss of memory and mental abilities, the damage to the brain caused by Alzheimer's significantly reduces life expectancy and is always fatal. +Remember Dr. Alzheimer found strange plaques and tangles in Auguste's brain a century ago. +For almost a century, we didn't know much about these. +Today we know they're made from protein molecules. +You can imagine a protein molecule as a piece of paper that normally folds into an elaborate piece of origami. +There are spots on the paper that are sticky. +And when it folds correctly, these sticky bits end up on the inside. +But sometimes things go wrong, and some sticky bits are on the outside. +This causes the protein molecules to stick to each other, forming clumps that eventually become large plaques and tangles. +That's what we see in the brains of Alzheimer's patients. +We've spent the past 10 years at the University of Cambridge trying to understand how this malfunction works. +There are many steps, and identifying which step to try to block is complex -- like defusing a bomb. +Cutting one wire might do nothing. +Cutting others might make the bomb explore. +We have to find the right step to block, and then create a drug that does it. +Until recently, we for the most part have been cutting wires and hoping for the best. +But now we've got together a diverse group of people -- medics, biologists, geneticists, chemists, physicists, engineers and mathematicians. +And together, we've managed to identify a critical step in the process and are now testing a new class of drugs which would specifically block this step and stop the disease. +Now let me show you some of our latest results. +No one outside of our lab has seen these yet. +Let's look at some videos of what happened when we tested these new drugs in worms. +So these are healthy worms, and you can see they're moving around normally. +These worms, on the other hand, have protein molecules sticking together inside them -- like humans with Alzheimer's. +And you can see they're clearly sick. +But if we give our new drugs to these worms at an early stage, then we see that they're healthy, and they live a normal lifespan. +This is just an initial positive result, but research like this shows us that Alzheimer's is a disease that we can understand and we can cure. +After 114 years of waiting, there's finally real hope for what can be achieved in the next 10 or 20 years. +But to grow that hope, to finally beat Alzheimer's, we need help. +This isn't about scientists like me -- it's about you. +We need you to raise awareness that Alzheimer's is a disease and that if we try, we can beat it. +In the case of other diseases, patients and their families have led the charge for more research and put pressure on governments, the pharmaceutical industry, scientists and regulators. +That was essential for advancing treatment for HIV in the late 1980s. +Today, we see that same drive to beat cancer. +But Alzheimer's patients are often unable to speak up for themselves. +And their families, the hidden victims, caring for their loved ones night and day, are often too worn out to go out and advocate for change. +So, it really is down to you. +Alzheimer's isn't, for the most part, a genetic disease. +Everyone with a brain is at risk. +Today, there are 40 million patients like Auguste, who can't create the change they need for themselves. +Help speak up for them, and help demand a cure. +Thank you. +I published this article in the New York Times Modern Love column in January of this year. +"To Fall in Love With Anyone, Do This." +And the article is about a psychological study designed to create romantic love in the laboratory, and my own experience trying the study myself one night last summer. +So the procedure is fairly simple: two strangers take turns asking each other 36 increasingly personal questions and then they stare into each other's eyes without speaking for four minutes. +So here are a couple of sample questions. +Number 12: If you could wake up tomorrow having gained any one quality or ability, what would it be? +Number 28: When did you last cry in front of another person? +By yourself? +As you can see, they really do get more personal as they go along. +Number 30, I really like this one: Tell your partner what you like about them; be very honest this time, saying things you might not say to someone you just met. +So when I first came across this study a few years earlier, one detail really stuck out to me, and that was the rumor that two of the participants had gotten married six months later, and they'd invited the entire lab to the ceremony. +So I was of course very skeptical about this process of just manufacturing romantic love, but of course I was intrigued. +And when I got the chance to try this study myself, with someone I knew but not particularly well, I wasn't expecting to fall in love. +But then we did, and -- And I thought it made a good story, so I sent it to the Modern Love column a few months later. +Now, this was published in January, and now it is August, so I'm guessing that some of you are probably wondering, are we still together? +And the reason I think you might be wondering this is because I have been asked this question again and again and again for the past seven months. +And this question is really what I want to talk about today. +But let's come back to it. +So the week before the article came out, I was very nervous. +I had been working on a book about love stories for the past few years, so I had gotten used to writing about my own experiences with romantic love on my blog. +But a blog post might get a couple hundred views at the most, and those were usually just my Facebook friends, and I figured my article in the New York Times would probably get a few thousand views. +And that felt like a lot of attention on a relatively new relationship. +But as it turned out, I had no idea. +So the article was published online on a Friday evening, and by Saturday, this had happened to the traffic on my blog. +And by Sunday, both the Today Show and Good Morning America had called. +Within a month, the article would receive over 8 million views, and I was, to say the least, underprepared for this sort of attention. +It's one thing to work up the confidence to write honestly about your experiences with love, but it is another thing to discover that your love life has made international news -- and to realize that people across the world are genuinely invested in the status of your new relationship. +And when people called or emailed, which they did every day for weeks, they always asked the same question first: are you guys still together? +In fact, as I was preparing this talk, I did a quick search of my email inbox for the phrase "Are you still together?" +and several messages popped up immediately. +They were from students and journalists and friendly strangers like this one. +I did radio interviews and they asked. +I even gave a talk, and one woman shouted up to the stage, "Hey Mandy, where's your boyfriend?" +And I promptly turned bright red. +I understand that this is part of the deal. +If you write about your relationship in an international newspaper, you should expect people to feel comfortable asking about it. +But I just wasn't prepared for the scope of the response. +The 36 questions seem to have taken on a life of their own. +In fact, the New York Times published a follow-up article for Valentine's Day, which featured readers' experiences of trying the study themselves, with varying degrees of success. +So my first impulse in the face of all of this attention was to become very protective of my own relationship. +I said no to every request for the two of us to do a media appearance together. +I turned down TV interviews, and I said no to every request for photos of the two us. +I think I was afraid that we would become inadvertent icons for the process of falling in love, a position I did not at all feel qualified for. +And I get it: people didn't just want to know if the study worked, they wanted to know if it really worked: that is, if it was capable of producing love that would last, not just a fling, but real love, sustainable love. +But this was a question I didn't feel capable of answering. +My own relationship was only a few months old, and I felt like people were asking the wrong question in the first place. +What would knowing whether or not we were still together really tell them? +If the answer was no, would it make the experience of doing these 36 questions any less worthwhile? +Dr. Arthur Aron first wrote about these questions in this study here in 1997, and here, the researcher's goal was not to produce romantic love. +Instead, they wanted to foster interpersonal closeness among college students, by using what Aron called "sustained, escalating, reciprocal, personalistic self-disclosure." +Sounds romantic, doesn't it? +But the study did work. +The participants did feel closer after doing it, and several subsequent studies have also used Aron's fast friends protocol as a way to quickly create trust and intimacy between strangers. +They've used it between members of the police and members of community, and they've used it between people of opposing political ideologies. +The original version of the story, the one that I tried last summer, that pairs the personal questions with four minutes of eye contact, was referenced in this article, but unfortunately it was never published. +So a few months ago, I was giving a talk at a small liberal arts college, and a student came up to me afterwards and he said, kind of shyly, "So, I tried your study, and it didn't work." +He seemed a little mystified by this. +"You mean, you didn't fall in love with the person you did it with?" I asked. +"Well..." He paused. +"I think she just wants to be friends." +"But did you become better friends?" I asked. +"Did you feel like you got to really know each other after doing the study?" +He nodded. +"So, then it worked," I said. +I don't think this is the answer he was looking for. +In fact, I don't think this is the answer that any of us are looking for when it comes to love. +I first came across this study when I was 29 and I was going through a really difficult breakup. +I had been in the relationship since I was 20, which was basically my entire adult life, and he was my first real love, and I had no idea how or if I could make a life without him. +So I turned to science. +I researched everything I could find about the science of romantic love, and I think I was hoping that it might somehow inoculate me from heartache. +I don't know if I realized this at the time -- I thought I was just doing research for this book I was writing -- but it seems really obvious in retrospect. +I hoped that if I armed myself with the knowledge of romantic love, I might never have to feel as terrible and lonely as I did then. +And all this knowledge has been useful in some ways. +I am more patient with love. I am more relaxed. +I am more confident about asking for what I want. +But I can also see myself more clearly, and I can see that what I want is sometimes more than can reasonably be asked for. +What I want from love is a guarantee, not just that I am loved today and that I will be loved tomorrow, but that I will continue to be loved by the person I love indefinitely. +Maybe it's this possibility of a guarantee that people were really asking about when they wanted to know if we were still together. +So the story that the media told about the 36 questions was that there might be a shortcut to falling in love. +There might be a way to somehow mitigate some of the risk involved, and this is a very appealing story, because falling in love feels amazing, but it's also terrifying. +But I think when it comes to love, we are too willing to accept the short version of the story. +The version of the story that asks, "Are you still together?" +and is content with a yes or no answer. +So rather than that question, I would propose we ask some more difficult questions, questions like: How do you decide who deserves your love and who does not? +How do you stay in love when things get difficult, and how do you know when to just cut and run? +How do you live with the doubt that inevitably creeps into every relationship, or even harder, how do you live with your partner's doubt? +I don't necessarily know the answers to these questions, but I think they're an important start at having a more thoughtful conversation about what it means to love someone. +So, if you want it, the short version of the story of my relationship is this: a year ago, an acquaintance and I did a study designed to create romantic love, and we fell in love, and we are still together, and I am so glad. +But falling in love is not the same thing as staying in love. +Falling in love is the easy part. +So at the end of my article, I wrote, "Love didn't happen to us. +We're in love because we each made the choice to be." +And I cringe a little when I read that now, not because it isn't true, but because at the time, I really hadn't considered everything that was contained in that choice. +I didn't consider how many times we would each have to make that choice, and how many times I will continue to have to make that choice without knowing whether or not he will always choose me. +I want it to be enough to have asked and answered 36 questions, and to have chosen to love someone so generous and kind and fun and to have broadcast that choice in the biggest newspaper in America. +But what I have done instead is turn my relationship into the kind of myth I don't quite believe in. +And what I want, what perhaps I will spend my life wanting, is for that myth to be true. +I want the happy ending implied by the title to my article, which is, incidentally, the only part of the article that I didn't actually write. +But what I have instead is the chance to make the choice to love someone, and the hope that he will choose to love me back, and it is terrifying, but that's the deal with love. +Thank you. +I was raised by lesbians in the mountains, and I sort of came like a forest gnome to New York City a while back. +Really messed with my head, but I'll get into that later. +I'll start with when I was eight years old. +I took a wood box, and I buried a dollar bill, a pen and a fork inside this box in Colorado. +And I thought some strange humanoids or aliens in 500 years would find this box and learn about the way our species exchanged ideas, maybe how we ate our spaghetti. +I really didn't know. +Anyway, this is kind of funny, because here I am, 30 years later, and I'm still making boxes. +Now, at some point I was in Hawaii -- I like to hike and surf and do all that weird stuff, and I was making a collage for my ma. +And I took a dictionary and I ripped it up, and I made it into a sort of Agnes Martin grid, and I poured resin all over it and a bee got stuck. +Now, she's afraid of bees and she's allergic to them, so I poured more resin on the canvas, thinking I could hide it or something. +Instead, the opposite happened: It sort of created a magnification, like a magnifying glass, on the dictionary text. +So what did I do? I built more boxes. +This time, I started putting electronics, frogs, strange bottles I'd find in the street -- anything I could find -- because I was always finding things my whole life, and trying to make relationships and tell stories between these objects. +So I started drawing around the objects, and I realized: Holy moly, I can draw in space! +I can make free-floating lines, like the way you would draw around a dead body at a crime scene. +So I took the objects out, and I created my own taxonomy of invented specimens. +First, botanical -- which you can kind of get a sense of. +Then I made some weird insects and creatures. +It was really fun; I was just drawing on the layers of resin. +And it was cool, because I was actually starting to have shows and stuff, I was making some money, I could take my girlfriend for dinner, and like, go to Sizzler. +It was some good shit, man. +At some point, I got up to the human form, life-size resin sculptures with drawings of humans inside the layers. +This was great, except for one thing: I was going to die. +I didn't know what to do, because the resin was going to kill me. +And I went to bed every night thinking about it. +So I tried using glass. +I started drawing on the layers of glass, almost like if you drew on a window, then you put another window, and another window, and you had all these windows together that made a three-dimensional composition. +And this really worked, because I could stop using the resin. +So I did this for years, which culminated in a very large work, which I call "The Triptych." +"The Triptych" was largely inspired by Hieronymus Bosch's "[The] Garden of Earthly Delights," which is a painting in the [Museo del] Prado in Spain. +Do you guys know this painting? +Good, it's a cool painting. +It's kind of ahead of its time, they say. +So, "The Triptych." I'll walk you through this piece. +It weighs 24,000 pounds. +It's 18 feet long. +It's double-sided, so it's 36 feet of composition. +It's kind of weird. +Well, that's the blood fountain. +To the left, you have Jesus and the locusts. +There's a cave where all these animal-headed creatures travel between two worlds. +They go from the representational world, to this analog-mesh underworld, where they're hiding. +This is where the animal-headed creatures are by the lighthouse, and they're all about to commit mass suicide into the ocean. +The ocean is made up of thousands of elements. +This is a bird god tied up to a battleship. +Billy Graham is in the ocean; the Horizon from the oil spill; Waldo; Osama Bin Laden's shelter -- there's all kinds of weird stuff that you can find if you look really hard, in the ocean. +Anyway, this is a lady creature. +She's coming out of the ocean, and she's spitting oil into one hand and she has clouds coming out of her other hand. +Her hands are like scales, and she has the mythological reference of the Earth and cosmos in balance. +So that's one side of "The Triptych." +It's a little narrative thing. +That's her hand that she's spitting into. +And then, when you go to the other side, she has like a trunk, like a bird's beak, and she's spitting clouds out of her trunk. +Then she has an 18-foot-long serpent's tail that connects "The Triptych." +Anyway, her tail catches on fire from the back of the volcano. +I don't know why that happened. +That happens, you know. +Her tail terminates in a cycloptic eyeball, made out of 1986 terrorist cards. +Have you guys seen those? +They were made in the 1980's, they're like baseball cards of terrorists. +Way ahead of their time. That will bring you to my latest project. +I'm in the middle of two projects: One's called "Psychogeographies." +It's about a six-year project to make 100 of these humans. +Each one is an archive of our culture, through our ripped-up media and matter, whether it's encyclopedias or dictionaries or magazines. +But each one acts as a sort of an archive in the shape of a human, and they travel in groups of 20, 4, or 12 at a time. +They're like cells -- they come together, they divide. +And you kind of walk through them. It's taking me years. +Each one is basically a 3,000-pound microscope slide with a human stuck inside. +This one has a little cave in his chest. +That's his head; there's the chest, you can kind of see the beginning. +I'm going to go down the body for you: There's a waterfall coming out of his chest, covering his penis -- or not-penis, or whatever it is, a kind of androgynous thing. +I'll take you quickly through these works, because I can't explain them for too long. +There are the layers, you can kind of see it. +That's a body getting split in half. +This one has two heads, and it's communicating between the two heads. +You can see the pills coming out, going into one head from this weird statue. +There's a little forest scene inside the chest cavity. +Can you see that? +Anyway, this talk's all about these boxes, like the boxes we're in. +This box we're in, the solar system is a box. +This brings you to my latest box. +It's a brick box. It's called Pioneer Works. +Inside of this box is a physicist, a neuroscientist, a painter, a musician, a writer, a radio station, a museum, a school, a publishing arm to disseminate all the content we make there into the world; a garden. +We shake this box up, and all these people kind of start hitting each other like particles. +And I think that's the way you change the world. +You redefine your insides and the box that you're living in. +And you come together to realize that we're all in this together, that this delusion of difference -- this idea of countries, of borders, of religion -- doesn't work. +We're all really made up of the same stuff, in the same box. +And if we don't start exchanging that stuff sweetly and nicely, we're all going to die real soon. +Thank you very much. +What do you do when you have a headache? +You swallow an aspirin. +But for this pill to get to your head, where the pain is, it goes through your stomach, intestines and various other organs first. +Swallowing pills is the most effective and painless way of delivering any medication in the body. +The downside, though, is that swallowing any medication leads to its dilution. +And this is a big problem, particularly in HIV patients. +When they take their anti-HIV drugs, these drugs are good for lowering the virus in the blood, and increasing the CD4 cell counts. +But they are also notorious for their adverse side effects, but mostly bad, because they get diluted by the time they get to the blood, and worse, by the time they get to the sites where it matters most: within the HIV viral reservoirs. +These areas in the body -- such as the lymph nodes, the nervous system, as well as the lungs -- where the virus is sleeping, and will not readily get delivered in the blood of patients that are under consistent anti-HIV drugs therapy. +However, upon discontinuation of therapy, the virus can awake and infect new cells in the blood. +Now, all this is a big problem in treating HIV with the current drug treatment, which is a life-long treatment that must be swallowed by patients. +One day, I sat and thought, "Can we deliver anti-HIV directly within its reservoir sites, without the risk of drug dilution?" +As a laser scientist, the answer was just before my eyes: Lasers, of course. +If they can be used for dentistry, for diabetic wound-healing and surgery, they can be used for anything imaginable, including transporting drugs into cells. +As a matter of fact, we are currently using laser pulses to poke or drill extremely tiny holes, which open and close almost immediately in HIV-infected cells, in order to deliver drugs within them. +"How is that possible?" you may ask. +Well, we shine a very powerful but super-tiny laser beam onto the membrane of HIV-infected cells while these cells are immersed in liquid containing the drug. +The laser pierces the cell, while the cell swallows the drug in a matter of microseconds. +Before you even know it, the induced hole becomes immediately repaired. +Now, we are currently testing this technology in test tubes or in Petri dishes, but the goal is to get this technology in the human body, apply it in the human body. +"How is that possible?" you may ask. +Well, the answer is: through a three-headed device. +Using the first head, which is our laser, we will make an incision in the site of infection. +Using the second head, which is a camera, we meander to the site of infection. +Finally, using a third head, which is a drug-spreading sprinkler, we deliver the drugs directly at the site of infection, while the laser is again used to poke those cells open. +Well, this might not seem like much right now. +But one day, if successful, this technology can lead to complete eradication of HIV in the body. +Yes. A cure for HIV. +This is every HIV researcher's dream -- in our case, a cure lead by lasers. +Thank you. +For the past decade, I've been studying non-state armed groups: armed organizations like terrorists, insurgents or militias. +I document what these groups do when they're not shooting. +My goal is to better understand these violent actors and to study ways to encourage transition from violent engagement to nonviolent confrontation. +I work in the field, in the policy world and in the library. +Understanding non-state armed groups is key to solving most ongoing conflict, because war has changed. +It used to be a contest between states. +No longer. +It is now a conflict between states and non-state actors. +For example, of the 216 peace agreements signed between 1975 and 2011, 196 of them were between a state and a non-state actor. +So we need to understand these groups; we need to either engage them or defeat them in any conflict resolution process that has to be successful. +So how do we do that? +We need to know what makes these organizations tick. +We know a lot about how they fight, why they fight, but no one looks at what they're doing when they're not fighting. +Yet, armed struggle and unarmed politics are related. +It is all part of the same organization. +We cannot understand these groups, let alone defeat them, if we don't have the full picture. +And armed groups today are complex organizations. +Take the Lebanese Hezbollah, known for its violent confrontation against Israel. +But since its creation in the early 1980s, Hezbollah has also set up a political party, a social-service network, and a military apparatus. +Similarly, the Palestinian Hamas, known for its suicide attacks against Israel, also runs the Gaza Strip since 2007. +So these groups do way more than just shoot. +They multi-task. +They set up complex communication machines -- radio stations, TV channels, Internet websites and social media strategies. +And up here, you have the ISIS magazine, printed in English and published to recruit. +Armed groups also invest in complex fund-raising -- not looting, but setting up profitable businesses; for example, construction companies. +Now, these activities are keys. +They allow these groups to increase their strength, increase their funds, to better recruit and to build their brand. +Armed groups also do something else: they build stronger bonds with the population by investing in social services. +They build schools, they run hospitals, they set up vocational-training programs or micro-loan programs. +Hezbollah offers all of these services and more. +Armed groups also seek to win the population over by offering something that the state is not providing: safety and security. +The initial rise of the Taliban in war-torn Afghanistan, or even the beginning of the ascent of ISIS, can be understood also by looking at these groups' efforts to provide security. +Now, unfortunately, in these cases, the provision of security came at an unbearably high price for the population. +But in general, providing social services fills a gap, a governance gap left by the government, and allows these groups to increase their strength and their power. +For example, the 2006 electoral victory of the Palestinian Hamas cannot be understood without acknowledging the group's social work. +Now, this is a really complex picture, yet in the West, when we look at armed groups, we only think of the violent side. +But that's not enough to understand these groups' strength, strategy or long-term vision. +These groups are hybrid. +They rise because they fill a gap left by the government, and they emerge to be both armed and political, engage in violent struggle and provide governance. +And the more these organizations are complex and sophisticated, the less we can think of them as the opposite of a state. +Now, what do you call a group like Hezbollah? +They run part of a territory, they administer all their functions, they pick up the garbage, they run the sewage system. +Is this a state? Is it a rebel group? +Or maybe something else, something different and new? +And what about ISIS? +The lines are blurred. +We live in a world of states, non-states, and in-between, and the more states are weak, like in the Middle East today, the more non-state actors step in and fill that gap. +This matters for governments, because to counter these groups, they will have to invest more in non-military tools. +Filling that governance gap has to be at the center of any sustainable approach. +This also matters very much for peacemaking and peacebuilding. +If we better understand armed groups, we will better know what incentives to offer to encourage the transition from violence to nonviolence. +So in this new contest between states and non-states, military power can win some battles, but it will not give us peace nor stability. +To achieve these objectives, what we need is a long-term investment in filling that security gap, in filling that governance gap that allowed these groups to thrive in the first place. +Thank you. +I am failing as a woman, I am failing as a feminist. +I have passionate opinions about gender equality, but I worry that to freely accept the label of "feminist," would not be fair to good feminists. +I'm a feminist, but I'm a rather bad one. +Oh, so I call myself a Bad Feminist. +Or at least, I wrote an essay, and then I wrote a book called "Bad Feminist," and then in interviews, people started calling me The Bad Feminist. +So, what started as a bit of an inside joke with myself and a willful provocation, has become a thing. +Let me take a step back. +When I was younger, mostly in my teens and 20s, I had strange ideas about feminists as hairy, angry, man-hating, sex-hating women -- as if those are bad things. +These days, I look at how women are treated the world over, and anger, in particular, seems like a perfectly reasonable response. +But back then, I worried about the tone people used when suggesting I might be a feminist. +The feminist label was an accusation, it was an "F" word, and not a nice one. +I was labeled a woman who doesn't play by the rules, who expects too much, who thinks far too highly of myself, by daring to believe I'm equal -- -- superior to a man. +You don't want to be that rebel woman, until you realize that you very much are that woman, and cannot imagine being anyone else. +As I got older, I began to accept that I am, indeed, a feminist, and a proud one. +I hold certain truths to be self-evident: Women are equal to men. +We deserve equal pay for equal work. +We have the right to move through the world as we choose, free from harassment or violence. +We have the right to easy, affordable access to birth control, and reproductive services. +We have the right to make choices about our bodies, free from legislative oversight or evangelical doctrine. +We have the right to respect. +There's more. +When we talk about the needs of women, we have to consider the other identities we inhabit. +We are not just women. +We are people with different bodies, gender expressions, faiths, sexualities, class backgrounds, abilities, and so much more. +We need to take into account these differences and how they affect us, as much as we account for what we have in common. +Without this kind of inclusion, our feminism is nothing. +I hold these truths to be self-evident, but let me be clear: I'm a mess. +I am full of contradictions. +There are many ways in which I'm doing feminism wrong. +I have another confession. +When I drive to work, I listen to thuggish rap at a very loud volume. +Even though the lyrics are degrading to women -- these lyrics offend me to my core -- the classic Yin Yang Twins song "Salt Shaker" -- it is amazing. +"Make it work with your wet t-shirt. +Bitch, you gotta shake it 'til your camel starts to hurt!" +Think about it. +Poetry, right? +I am utterly mortified by my music choices. +I firmly believe in man work, which is anything I don't want to do, including -- -- all domestic tasks, but also: bug killing, trash removal, lawn care and vehicle maintenance. +I want no part of any of that. +Pink is my favorite color. +I enjoy fashion magazines and pretty things. +I watch "The Bachelor" and romantic comedies, and I have absurd fantasies about fairy tales coming true. +Some of my transgressions are more flagrant. +If a woman wants to take her husband's name, that is her choice, and it is not my place to judge. +If a woman chooses to stay home to raise her children, I embrace that choice, too. +The problem is not that she makes herself economically vulnerable in that choice; the problem is that our society is set up to make women economically vulnerable when they choose. +Let's deal with that. +I reject the mainstream feminism that has historically ignored or deflected the needs of women of color, working-class women, queer women and transgender women, in favor of supporting white, middle- and upper-class straight women. +Listen, if that's good feminism -- I am a very bad feminist. +There is also this: As a feminist, I feel a lot of pressure. +We have this tendency to put visible feminists on a pedestal. +We expect them to pose perfectly. +When they disappoint us, we gleefully knock them from the very pedestal we put them on. +Like I said, I am a mess -- consider me knocked off that pedestal before you ever try to put me up there. +Too many women, particularly groundbreaking women and industry leaders, are afraid to be labeled as feminists. +They're afraid to stand up and say, "Yes, I am a feminist," for fear of what that label means, for fear of being unable to live up to unrealistic expectations. +Take, for example, Beyonc, or as I call her, The Goddess. +She has emerged, in recent years, as a visible feminist. +At the 2014 MTV Video Music Awards, she performed in front of the word "feminist" 10 feet high. +It was a glorious spectacle to see this pop star openly embracing feminism and letting young women and men know that being a feminist is something to celebrate. +As the moment faded, cultural critics began endlessly debating whether or not Beyonc was, indeed, a feminist. +They graded her feminism, instead of simply taking a grown, accomplished woman at her word. +We demand perfection from feminists, because we are still fighting for so much, we want so much, we need so damn much. +We go far beyond reasonable, constructive criticism, to dissecting any given woman's feminism, tearing it apart until there's nothing left. +We do not need to do that. +Bad feminism -- or really, more inclusive feminism -- is a starting point. +But what happens next? +We go from acknowledging our imperfections to accountability, or walking the walk, and being a little bit brave. +If I listen to degrading music, I am creating a demand for which artists are more than happy to contribute a limitless supply. +These artists are not going to change how they talk about women in their songs until we demand that change by affecting their bottom line. +Certainly, it is difficult. +Why must it be so catchy? +It's hard to make the better choice, and it is so easy to justify a lesser one. +But -- when I justify bad choices, I make it harder for women to achieve equality, the equality that we all deserve, and I need to own that. +I think of my nieces, ages three and four. +They are gorgeous and headstrong, brilliant girls, who are a whole lot of brave. +I want them to thrive in a world where they are valued for the powerful creatures they are. +I think of them, and suddenly, the better choice becomes far easier to make. +We can all make better choices. +We can change the channel when a television show treats sexual violence against women like sport, Game of Thrones. +We can change the radio station when we hear songs that treat women as nothing. +We can spend our box office dollars elsewhere when movies don't treat women as anything more than decorative objects. +We can stop supporting professional sports where the athletes treat their partners like punching bags. +In other ways, men -- and especially straight white men -- can say, "No, I will not publish with your magazine, or participate in your project, or otherwise work with you, until you include a fair number of women, both as participants and decision makers. +I won't work with you until your publication, or your organization, is more inclusive of all kinds of difference." +Those of us who are underrepresented and invited to participate in such projects, can also decline to be included until more of us are invited through the glass ceiling, and we are tokens no more. +Without these efforts, without taking these stands, our accomplishments are going to mean very little. +We can commit these small acts of bravery and hope that our choices trickle upward to the people in power -- editors, movie and music producers, CEOs, lawmakers -- the people who can make bigger, braver choices to create lasting, meaningful change. +We can also boldly claim our feminism -- good, bad, or anywhere in between. +The last line of my book "Bad Feminist" says, "I would rather be a bad feminist than no feminist at all." +This is true for so many reasons, but first and foremost, I say this because once upon a time, my voice was stolen from me, and feminism helped me to get my voice back. +There was an incident. +I call it an incident so I can carry the burden of what happened. +Some boys broke me, when I was so young, I did not know what boys can do to break a girl. +They treated me like I was nothing. +I began to believe I was nothing. +They stole my voice, and in the after, I did not dare to believe that anything I might say could matter. +But -- I had writing. +And there, I wrote myself back together. +I wrote myself toward a stronger version of myself. +I read the words of women who might understand a story like mine, and women who looked like me, and understood what it was like to move through the world with brown skin. +I read the words of women who showed me I was not nothing. +I learned to write like them, and then I learned to write as myself. +I found my voice again, and I started to believe that my voice is powerful beyond measure. +Through writing and feminism, I also found that if I was a little bit brave, another woman might hear me and see me and recognize that none of us are the nothing the world tries to tell us we are. +In one hand, I hold the power to accomplish anything. +And in my other, I hold the humbling reality that I am just one woman. +I am a bad feminist, I am a good woman, I am trying to become better in how I think, and what I say, and what I do, without abandoning everything that makes me human. +I hope that we can all do the same. +I hope that we can all be a little bit brave, when we most need such bravery. +Just after Christmas last year, 132 kids in California got the measles by either visiting Disneyland or being exposed to someone who'd been there. +The virus then hopped the Canadian border, infecting more than 100 children in Quebec. +One of the tragic things about this outbreak is that measles, which can be fatal to a child with a weakened immune system, is one of the most easily preventable diseases in the world. +An effective vaccine against it has been available for more than half a century, but many of the kids involved in the Disneyland outbreak had not been vaccinated because their parents were afraid of something allegedly even worse: autism. +But wait -- wasn't the paper that sparked the controversy about autism and vaccines debunked, retracted, and branded a deliberate fraud by the British Medical Journal? +Don't most science-savvy people know that the theory that vaccines cause autism is B.S.? +I think most of you do, but millions of parents worldwide continue to fear that vaccines put their kids at risk for autism. +Why? +Here's why. +This is a graph of autism prevalence estimates rising over time. +For most of the 20th century, autism was considered an incredibly rare condition. +The few psychologists and pediatricians who'd even heard of it figured they would get through their entire careers without seeing a single case. +For decades, the prevalence estimates remained stable at just three or four children in 10,000. +But then, in the 1990s, the numbers started to skyrocket. +Fundraising organizations like Autism Speaks routinely refer to autism as an epidemic, as if you could catch it from another kid at Disneyland. +So what's going on? +If it isn't vaccines, what is it? +If you ask the folks down at the Centers for Disease Control in Atlanta what's going on, they tend to rely on phrases like "broadened diagnostic criteria" and "better case finding" to explain these rising numbers. +But that kind of language doesn't do much to allay the fears of a young mother who is searching her two-year-old's face for eye contact. +If the diagnostic criteria had to be broadened, why were they so narrow in the first place? +Why were cases of autism so hard to find before the 1990s? +Five years ago, I decided to try to uncover the answers to these questions. +I learned that what happened has less to do with the slow and cautious progress of science than it does with the seductive power of storytelling. +For most of the 20th century, clinicians told one story about what autism is and how it was discovered, but that story turned out to be wrong, and the consequences of it are having a devastating impact on global public health. +There was a second, more accurate story of autism which had been lost and forgotten in obscure corners of the clinical literature. +This second story tells us everything about how we got here and where we need to go next. +The first story starts with a child psychiatrist at Johns Hopkins Hospital In 1943, Kanner published a paper describing 11 young patients who seemed to inhabit private worlds, ignoring the people around them, even their own parents. +They could amuse themselves for hours by flapping their hands in front of their faces, but they were panicked by little things like their favorite toy being moved from its usual place without their knowledge. +Based on the patients who were brought to his clinic, Kanner speculated that autism is very rare. +By the 1950s, as the world's leading authority on the subject, he declared that he had seen less than 150 true cases of his syndrome while fielding referrals from as far away as South Africa. +That's actually not surprising, because Kanner's criteria for diagnosing autism were incredibly selective. +For example, he discouraged giving the diagnosis to children who had seizures but now we know that epilepsy is very common in autism. +He once bragged that he had turned nine out of 10 kids referred to his office as autistic by other clinicians without giving them an autism diagnosis. +Kanner was a smart guy, but a number of his theories didn't pan out. +He classified autism as a form of infantile psychosis caused by cold and unaffectionate parents. +These children, he said, had been kept neatly in a refrigerator that didn't defrost. +At the same time, however, Kanner noticed that some of his young patients had special abilities that clustered in certain areas like music, math and memory. +One boy in his clinic could distinguish between 18 symphonies before he turned two. +When his mother put on one of his favorite records, he would correctly declare, "Beethoven!" +But Kanner took a dim view of these abilities, claiming that the kids were just regurgitating things they'd heard their pompous parents say, desperate to earn their approval. +As a result, autism became a source of shame and stigma for families, and two generations of autistic children were shipped off to institutions for their own good, becoming invisible to the world at large. +Amazingly, it wasn't until the 1970s that researchers began to test Kanner's theory that autism was rare. +Lorna Wing was a cognitive psychologist in London who thought that Kanner's theory of refrigerator parenting were "bloody stupid," as she told me. +She and her husband John were warm and affectionate people, and they had a profoundly autistic daughter named Susie. +Lorna and John knew how hard it was to raise a child like Susie without support services, special education, and the other resources that are out of reach without a diagnosis. +To make the case to the National Health Service that more resources were needed for autistic children and their families, Lorna and her colleague Judith Gould decided to do something that should have been done 30 years earlier. +They undertook a study of autism prevalence in the general population. +They pounded the pavement in a London suburb called Camberwell to try to find autistic children in the community. +What they saw made clear that Kanner's model was way too narrow, while the reality of autism was much more colorful and diverse. +Some kids couldn't talk at all, while others waxed on at length about their fascination with astrophysics, dinosaurs or the genealogy of royalty. +In other words, these children didn't fit into nice, neat boxes, as Judith put it, and they saw lots of them, way more than Kanner's monolithic model would have predicted. +At first, they were at a loss to make sense of their data. +How had no one noticed these children before? +But then Lorna came upon a reference to a paper that had been published in German in 1944, the year after Kanner's paper, and then forgotten, buried with the ashes of a terrible time that no one wanted to remember or think about. +Kanner knew about this competing paper, but scrupulously avoided mentioning it in his own work. +It had never even been translated into English, but luckily, Lorna's husband spoke German, and he translated it for her. +The paper offered an alternate story of autism. +Its author was a man named Hans Asperger, who ran a combination clinic and residential school in Vienna in the 1930s. +Asperger's ideas about teaching children with learning differences were progressive even by contemporary standards. +Mornings at his clinic began with exercise classes set to music, and the children put on plays on Sunday afternoons. +Instead of blaming parents for causing autism, Asperger framed it as a lifelong, polygenetic disability that requires compassionate forms of support and accommodations over the course of one's whole life. +Rather than treating the kids in his clinic like patients, Asperger called them his little professors, and enlisted their help in developing methods of education that were particularly suited to them. +Crucially, Asperger viewed autism as a diverse continuum that spans an astonishing range of giftedness and disability. +He believed that autism and autistic traits are common and always have been, seeing aspects of this continuum in familiar archetypes from pop culture like the socially awkward scientist and the absent-minded professor. +He went so far as to say, it seems that for success in science and art, a dash of autism is essential. +Lorna and Judith realized that Kanner had been as wrong about autism being rare as he had been about parents causing it. +Over the next several years, they quietly worked with the American Psychiatric Association to broaden the criteria for diagnosis to reflect the diversity of what they called "the autism spectrum." +In the late '80s and early 1990s, their changes went into effect, swapping out Kanner's narrow model for Asperger's broad and inclusive one. +These changes weren't happening in a vacuum. +By coincidence, as Lorna and Judith worked behind the scenes to reform the criteria, people all over the world were seeing an autistic adult for the first time. +Before "Rain Man" came out in 1988, only a tiny, ingrown circle of experts knew what autism looked like, but after Dustin Hoffman's unforgettable performance as Raymond Babbitt earned "Rain Man" four Academy Awards, pediatricians, psychologists, teachers and parents all over the world knew what autism looked like. +Coincidentally, at the same time, the first easy-to-use clinical tests for diagnosing autism were introduced. +You no longer had to have a connection to that tiny circle of experts to get your child evaluated. +The combination of "Rain Man," the changes to the criteria, and the introduction of these tests created a network effect, a perfect storm of autism awareness. +The number of diagnoses started to soar, just as Lorna and Judith predicted, indeed hoped, that it would, enabling autistic people and their families to finally get the support and services they deserved. +Then Andrew Wakefield came along to blame the spike in diagnoses on vaccines, a simple, powerful, and seductively believable story that was as wrong as Kanner's theory that autism was rare. +If the CDC's current estimate, that one in 68 kids in America are on the spectrum, is correct, autistics are one of the largest minority groups in the world. +In recent years, autistic people have come together on the Internet to reject the notion that they are puzzles to be solved by the next medical breakthrough, coining the term "neurodiversity" to celebrate the varieties of human cognition. +One way to understand neurodiversity is to think in terms of human operating systems. +Just because a P.C. is not running Windows doesn't mean that it's broken. +By autistic standards, the normal human brain is easily distractable, obsessively social, and suffers from a deficit of attention to detail. +To be sure, autistic people have a hard time living in a world not built for them. +[Seventy] years later, we're still catching up to Asperger, who believed that the "cure" for the most disabling aspects of autism is to be found in understanding teachers, accommodating employers, supportive communities, and parents who have faith in their children's potential. +An autistic [man] named Zosia Zaks once said, "We need all hands on deck to right the ship of humanity." +As we sail into an uncertain future, we need every form of human intelligence on the planet working together to tackle the challenges that we face as a society. +We can't afford to waste a brain. +Thank you. diff --git a/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/en_es_data/test.es b/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/en_es_data/test.es new file mode 100644 index 0000000..0686bfc --- /dev/null +++ b/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/en_es_data/test.es @@ -0,0 +1,8064 @@ +Ustedes saben que lo que yo hago es escribir para los nios, y, de hecho, probablemente soy el autor para nios, ms ledo en los EEUU. +Y siempre le digo a la gente que no quiero parecer como un cientfico. +Puedo vestirme como agricultor, o con ropa de cuero, y nunca nadie ha elegido un agricultor. +Hoy estoy aqu para hablarles sobre crculos y epifanas. +Y saben que una epifana generalmente es algo que se te cay en algn lugar. +Solo tienes que dar vuelta a la manzana para verlo como una epifana. +Esa es la pintura de un crculo. +Un amigo mo hizo eso -- Richard Bollingbroke. +Es el tipo de crculo complicado del cual les voy a hablar. +Mi crculo comenz en los aos '60 en la escuela media, en Stow, Ohio donde yo era el raro de la clase. +Al que golpeaban hasta sangrar cada semana en el bao de los chicos, hasta que una maestra me salv la vida. +Ella salv mi vida al permitirme entrar al bao de la sala de profesores. +Lo haca en secreto, +por 3 aos, +y tuve que irme de la ciudad. +Tena un pulgar, y 85 dlares, y termin en San Francisco, California -- encontr un amante -- y en los aos '80, sent la necesidad de comenzar a trabajar en organizaciones que luchaban contra el SIDA. +Hace unos 3 o 4 aos, a mitad de la noche recib una llamada telefnica de esa maestra, la seora Posten que dijo, "Necesito verte. +Estoy desilusionada que de adultos nunca llegamos a conocernos. +podras venirte a Ohio, y por favor trae a ese hombre que s que ya has encontrado. +Y debo decirte que tengo cncer de pncreas, y me gustara que te apures con esto por favor". +Bien, al da siguiente estbamos en Cleveland. +La fuimos a ver, nos remos, lloramos, y nos dimos cuenta que ella necesitaba ser hospitalizada. +Le encontramos un lugar, la internamos, y la cuidamos y nos encargamos de su familia, porque era necesario, +es algo que sabamos cmo hacer. +Y as como la mujer que quera conocerme como adulto lleg a conocerme, se convirti en una caja de cenizas y fue puesta en mis manos. +Y lo que sucedi fue que el crculo se haba cerrado, se haba convertido en un crculo -- y esa epifana de la que les habl se hizo presente en s misma. +La epifana es que la muerte es parte de la vida. +Ella salv mi vida, mi pareja y yo salvamos la de ella. +Y saben que esa parte de la vida necesita todo lo que el resto de la vida. +Necesita verdad y belleza, y estoy muy felz que hoy se habl mucho de esto. +Tambin necesita -- necesita dignidad, amor y placer. Y es nuestro trabajo proporcionar esas cosas. +Gracias. +Como artista, la conexin es muy importante para m. +A travs de mi trabajo, estoy tratando de expresar que los humanos no estn separados de la naturaleza y que todo est interconectado. +Fui por primera vez a la Antrtida hace casi 10 aos, y all vi mis primeros tmpanos. +Yo estaba asombrada. +Mi corazn lata rpido, estaba mareada, tratando de entender lo que estaba delante de m. +Los tmpanos a mi alrededor sobresalan del agua casi 60 metros. Y no pude ms que pensar que se trataba de un copo de nieve sobre otro copo de nieve ao tras ao. +Los tmpanos nacen cuando se desprenden de los glaciares o se rompen las barreras de hielo. +Cada tmpano tiene su propia personalidad individual. +Tienen una manera distinta de interactuar con su ambiente y sus experiencias. +Algunos se niegan a rendirse y se aferran hasta el final, mientras que otros no pueden soportarlo ms y se desmoronan en un arrebato de pasin dramtica. +Es fcil pensar, al ver un tmpano, que estn aislados separados y solos, en gran medida como nos vemos nosotros a veces como humanos. +Pero la realidad es todo lo contrario. +A medida que se derrite un tmpano, estoy respirando su atmsfera ancestral. +A medida que se derrite un tmpano libera agua dulce rica en minerales que alimenta a muchas formas de vida. +Me acerco a fotografiar estos tmpanos como si se tratara de los retratos de mis ancestros, sabiendo que en estos momentos nicos existen de ese modo y no volvern a existir de ese modo otra vez. +No es la muerte cuando se derriten; no es un fin, sino una continuacin de su camino por el ciclo de la vida. +Parte del hielo de los tmpanos que fotografo es muy joven... tiene un par de miles de aos. +Y otra parte del hielo tiene ms de 100 mil aos. +Las ltimas fotos que me gustara mostrarles son de un tmpano que fotografi en Kekertsuatsiak, Groenlandia. +Es poco frecuente llegar realmente a presenciar un tmpano rodante. +Aqu lo tienen. +Pueden ver a la izquierda un pequeo bote. +Mide unos 5 metros. +Y me gustara que presten atencin a la forma del tmpano y su lnea de flotacin. +Se puede ver aqu, comienza a rodar, el barco se ha movido hacia el otro lado y el hombre est all de pie. +Este es un tmpano de Groenlandia, de tamao promedio. +Sobresale del agua unos 120 pies o 40 metros. +Este video est en tiempo real. +Y as noms, el tmpano muestra un lado diferente de su personalidad. +Gracias. +Quiero que imaginen a dos parejas en 1979, el mismo da, exactamente en el mismo momento, cada una concibiendo un beb. Bien. +Entonces, dos parejas cada una con un beb. +No quiero que se detengan demasiado en los detalles de la concepcin, porque si se detienen a pensar en la concepcin en s, no me van a prestar atencin. +Pensemos en eso por un momento. +Y en este escenario quiero que imaginen que, en un caso, el cromosoma Y del esperma se une al cromosoma X del vulo. +Y, en el otro caso, el cromosoma X del esperma se une al cromosoma X del vulo. +Ambos prenden y se inicia la vida. +Volveremos a hablar de ellos ms tarde. +En mi actividad suelo cumplir dos roles. +En uno de mis roles, trabajo con la historia de la anatoma. +Soy historiadora por formacin y lo que estudio en este caso es la forma en que la gente abord la anatoma -es decir, de cuerpos humanos y animales-, cmo han considerado los fluidos corporales, la idea del cuerpo; qu han pensado respecto del cuerpo. +El otro rol que desempeo en mi trabajo es el de activista, como defensora de pacientes o, como digo a veces, defensora impaciente de personas que son pacientes mdicos. +En este caso, he trabajado con personas cuyas caractersticas fsicas desafan las normas sociales. +He estado trabajando, por ejemplo, con gemelos siameses, dos personas dentro de un mismo cuerpo. +He trabajado con personas con enanismo; personas mucho ms bajas que la media. +Y he trabajado con muchos casos de personas con sexo atpico, individuos cuya tipologa fsica no encaja en los esquemas masculinos y femeninos convencionales. +En lneas generales, podemos denominarlo intersexualidad. +La intersexualidad adopta muchas formas. +Voy a ponerles algunos ejemplos de maneras de tener un sexo que no se encasilla en las formas comunes masculino o femenino. +Por ejemplo, est el caso del individuo con base cromosmica XY cuyo gen SRY del cromosoma Y le dice a las protognadas, que todos tenemos en la vida fetal, que se vuelvan testculos. +Y entonces, en la vida fetal, los testculos producen testosterona. +Pero dado que este individuo carece de receptores de testosterona, el cuerpo no reacciona a la misma. +Es el sndrome de insensibilidad a los andrgenos. +Entonces, hay niveles altos de testosterona pero sin reaccin. +Como consecuencia, el cuerpo se desarrolla siguiendo un curso tpicamente femenino. +Cuando nace, el beb tiene aspecto de nia. +Es una nia. Es criada como una nia. +Y, a menudo, no es sino hasta la pubertad, cuando est creciendo y desarrollando los senos pero no tiene el periodo menstrual, cuando alguien se da cuenta que algo est pasando. +Luego de hacerle exmenes se dan cuenta de que en vez de tener ovarios y tero, en realidad tiene testculos y un cromosoma Y. +Lo importante a entender es que uno puede pensar que se trata de un hombre, pero en realidad no es as. +Las mujeres, como los hombres, tenemos en el cuerpo algo llamado glndulas suprarrenales. +Estn en la parte posterior del cuerpo. +Las glndulas suprarrenales producen andrgenos, la hormona de la masculinizacin. +La mayora de las mujeres como yo -me considero una mujer tpica; no conoce su estructura cromosmica; yo creo ser una mujer tpica la mayora de las mujeres como yo son sensibles a los andrgenos. +Producimos andrgenos y respondemos a los andrgenos. +Como consecuencia, alguien como yo tiene el cerebro ms expuesto a los andrgenos que la mujer que naci con testculos que tiene el sndrome de insensibilidad a los andrgenos. +Por eso el sexo es algo complicado. No es que los intersexuales estn en el medio del espectro... en cierta forma pueden estar en todos lados. +Otro ejemplo: hace pocos aos recib una llamada de un muchacho de 19 aos nacido y criado como varn; tena novia, y relaciones sexuales con ella, llevaba una vida como muchacho y acababa de descubrir que tena ovarios y tero. +Tena una forma extrema de una enfermedad conocida como hiperplasia suprarrenal congnita. +Tena cromosomas XX y en el tero las glndulas suprarrenales estaban tan activas que, en esencia, creaban un entorno hormonal masculino. +Como consecuencia, sus genitales estaban masculinizados, su cerebro estaba expuesto al componente hormonal tpicamente masculino. +Naci con aspecto de nio; nadie sospech nada. +Y fue a los 19 aos cuando empez a tener problemas mdicos provocados por la menstruacin interna, cuando los doctores descubrieron que, de hecho, era mujer por dentro. +Bueno, otro ejemplo rpido de un caso de intersexualidad. +Algunas personas con cromosomas XX desarrollan lo que se conoce como ovotestis, es decir, tienen tejido ovrico envuelto en tejido testicular. +No sabemos bien por qu sucede eso. +Entonces, hay muchas variedades de sexo. +La razn por la que nios con este tipo de cuerpos -ya sean enanos, gemelos siameses, o intersexuales- se someten a cirugas normalizadoras no es para poder gozar de una mejor salud fsica. +En muchos casos la gente est perfectamente sana. +La razn por la que se someten a varias cirugas es que son una amenaza para nuestras categoras sociales. +El sistema se basa normalmente en la idea de que una anatoma particular trae aparejada una identidad particular. +Tenemos la idea de que ser mujer es tener identidad femenina; supuestamente, ser negro quiere decir tener anatoma africana en trminos histricos. +Una idea terriblemente simplista. +Y cuando se nos presenta un cuerpo que muestra algo bastante diferente, tenemos problemas con la categorizacin. +De modo que tenemos ideas muy romnticas en nuestra cultura respecto al individualismo. +Nuestra nacin se basa en un concepto del individualismo muy romntico. +Imaginen lo sorprendente que es tener hijos que nacen como dos personas dentro de un mismo cuerpo. +El caso reciente ms lgido es del ao pasado con la corredora sudafricana Caster Semenya; se puso en tela de juicio su sexo en los Juegos Internacionales de Berln. +Muchos periodistas llamaron para preguntarme: "Qu examen van a realizar para determinar si Caster Semenya es hombre o mujer?". +Y yo tena que explicarles a los periodistas que no existe tal examen. +De hecho, ahora sabemos que el sexo es tan complicado que tenemos que admitir que la Naturaleza no traza una lnea tajante entre hombres y mujeres o entre hombres e intersexuales y mujeres e intersexuales; somos nosotros quienes trazamos esa lnea. +As, lo que tenemos es una situacin en la que cuanto ms avanza la ciencia, ms tenemos que admitir que estas categoras (que pensbamos eran categoras anatmicas estables que se correspondan directamente con categoras identitarias estables) son mucho ms difusas de lo que pensbamos. +Y no slo en trminos de sexo. +Tambin en trminos de raza, algo que resulta mucho ms complicado de lo que la terminologa permite. +Como vemos, nos metemos en un terreno escabroso. +Miremos, por ejemplo, el hecho de que compartimos al menos el 95% del ADN con los chimpancs. +Qu opinaremos del hecho de diferir de ellos en slo unos pocos nucletidos? +Y a medida que progresamos en la ciencia nos metemos cada vez ms en una zona incmoda en la que tenemos que reconocer que las categoras simplistas que manejbamos probablemente son demasiado simplistas. +Y estamos observando esto en todos los mbitos de la vida humana. +Uno de ellos, por ejemplo, en nuestra cultura actual, en los EE. UU. de hoy, son las luchas al principio y al fin de la vida. +Es difcil fijar un momento a partir del cual un cuerpo se torna humano y tiene derechos diferentes a los de los fetos. +Hay discusiones muy acaloradas hoy en da -quiz no en pblico, pero s dentro de la medicina- respecto a cundo alguien se considera muerto. +Nuestros antepasados nunca tuvieron que vrselas con esta cuestin de si alguien estaba muerto. +Como mucho le ponan una pluma delante de la nariz y si se mova todava no lo enterraban. +Si dejaba de moverse lo enterraban. +Pero hoy podemos, por ejemplo, extraer rganos vitales de un cuerpo y ponerlos en otro cuerpo. +Y, como consecuencia, debemos enfrentarnos al dilema de determinar realmente la muerte de alguien. Y esto nos coloca en una situacin difcil en la que no tenemos las categoras simples del pasado. +Y quiz piensen que esta explosin de categoras podra alegrar a alguien como yo. +En poltica soy progresista, defiendo a las personas con cuerpos inusuales, pero tengo que admitir que me pone nerviosa. +Constatar que estas categoras son mucho ms inestables de lo que pensbamos me tensa. +Tensa desde el punto de vista del concepto de democracia. +Y para contarles de esta tensin primero tengo que admitir que soy una ferviente admiradora de los Padres Fundadores. +S que eran racistas, s que eran sexistas, pero eran grandes. +Quiero decir, eran tan valientes y audaces y tan radicales en lo que hicieron, que me encuentro cada tanto viendo ese musical cursi "1776" y no por la msica, que es totalmente pasable. +Es por lo que ocurri en 1776 con los Padres Fundadores. +Los Padres Fundadores fueron, para m, los primeros activistas de la anatoma y les explico por qu. +Lo que ellos rechazaban era un concepto anatmico y lo reemplazaban con otro que era radical y hermoso y se mantuvo durante 200 aos. +Y, como todos recuerdan, lo que rechazaban nuestros Padres Fundadores era la idea de la monarqua. La monarqua se basaba en un concepto muy simplista de la anatoma. +Los monarcas del viejo mundo no conocan el ADN, pero tenan clara la idea de derecho de nacimiento. +Tenan el concepto de sangre azul. +Eran de la idea de que se llegaba al poder poltico por el derecho de sangre transmitido del abuelo al padre y luego al hijo, etc. +Los Padres Fundadores rechazaron esa idea y la reemplazaron por un nuevo concepto anatmico y ese concepto era que todos los hombres son creados iguales. +Ellos nivelaron el campo de juego y decidieron que la anatoma que importaba era la anatoma en comn y no las diferencias anatmicas. Eso fue algo muy radical. +Y en parte lo estaban haciendo porque formaban parte de un sistema ilustrado en el que se estaban gestando dos cosas. +Se estaba gestando la democracia y al mismo tiempo naca la ciencia. +Y queda muy claro, si nos fijamos en la historia de los Padres Fundadores, que muchos estaban muy interesados en la ciencia y en la idea de un mundo naturalista. +Se estaban distanciando de las explicaciones sobrenaturales y por ende rechazaban el concepto de poder sobrenatural transmitido por va de una idea vaga de derecho de nacimiento. +Se estaban moviendo hacia un concepto naturalista. +Y si miramos, por ejemplo, la Declaracin de la Independencia, hablan de la Naturaleza y del dios de la Naturaleza. +No hablan de Dios y de la naturaleza de Dios. +Hablan del poder de la Naturaleza para decirnos quines somos. +Y en consecuencia nos estaban transmitiendo la idea de la coincidencia anatmica. +Y, al hacerlo, estaban sentando las bases del futuro movimiento de Derechos Civiles. +No lo pensaron de ese modo, pero lo hicieron por nosotros y fue genial. +Y qu sucedi aos despus? +Y las mujeres triunfaron. +Luego vino el xito del movimiento de los Derechos Civiles con personas del calibre de Sojourner Truth, que deca: "No soy una mujer?". +Encontramos hombres en las filas del movimiento de Derechos Civiles diciendo: "Soy un hombre". +De nuevo, gente de color que apelaba a la coincidencia anatmica sobre la diferencia anatmica y, de nuevo, triunfaron. +Vemos lo mismo con el Movimiento de la Discapacidad. +El problema es, por supuesto, que a medida que miramos las coincidencias tenemos que empezar a preguntarnos por qu mantenemos ciertas divisiones. +Pero, atencin, yo quiero mantener algunas divisiones anatmicas en nuestra cultura. +Por ejemplo: no quiero darle a un pez los mismos derechos que a un humano. +No quiero decir que debamos rendirnos ante la anatoma. +No quiero decir que a los nios de 5 aos se les deba permitir tener relaciones sexuales o casarse. +Hay algunas divisiones anatmicas que para m tienen sentido y que creo deberamos mantener. +Pero el desafo es tratar de descubrir cules son, por qu mantenerlas y si tienen sentido. +Bueno, volvamos a esos dos seres concebidos al principio de esta charla. +Tenemos dos seres, ambos concebidos a mediados de 1979 exactamente el mismo da. +Imaginemos que uno de ellos, Mary, naci 3 meses antes de tiempo: el 1 de junio de 1980. +Henry, por el contrario, naci en trmino: naci el 1 de marzo de 1980. +Por el solo hecho de haber nacido 3 meses antes que Mary se le atribuyen todos los derechos tres meses antes que a Henry -el derecho al consentimiento sexual, el derecho al voto, el derecho a beber-. +Henry tiene que esperar para todo eso no porque tenga una edad biolgica diferente, sino porque naci despus. +Encontramos otras rarezas en relacin a sus derechos. +Henry, en virtud de ser considerado hombre -si bien no les he dicho si es XY-, en virtud de ser considerado hombre ahora es pasible del enrolamiento obligatorio del que Mary no tiene que preocuparse. +Mary, por su parte, no tiene los mismos derechos al matrimonio que Henry en todos los estados, por ejemplo. +Henry puede casarse en todos los estados con una mujer, pero Mary puede casarse con una mujer slo en algunos estados. +As que todava persisten categoras anatmicas que en varios aspectos son problemticas y cuestionables. +Y ahora la pregunta es: Qu hacemos ahora que la ciencia avanz tanto en el campo de la anatoma que llegamos al punto de tener que admitir que una democracia basada en la anatoma podra desmoronarse? +No quiero renunciar a la ciencia, pero al mismo tiempo a veces siento como que la ciencia se nos escapa. +A dnde vamos? +Parece que lo que ocurre en nuestra cultura es una especie de actitud pragmtica: "Bueno, tenemos que trazar la lnea en alguna parte, as que lo vamos a hacer". +Pero mucha gente queda atrapada en una posicin rara. +Por ejemplo: Texas en cierto momento ha decidido que para casarse con un hombre no hay que tener cromosoma Y y que para casarse con una mujer hay que tener cromosoma Y. +Ahora bien, en la prctica no hacen exmenes cromosmicos a la gente. +Pero esto tambin es muy extrao dada la historia que les cont al principio del sndrome de insensibilidad a los andrgenos. +Si miramos a uno de los padres fundadores de la democracia moderna, el Dr. Martin Luther King, en su discurso "I have a dream" ofrece una solucin. +Dice que deberamos juzgar a la gente "basndonos no en el color de su piel, sino en el contenido de su carcter", yendo ms all de la anatoma. +Y quiero decir: "S, la idea parece muy buena". +Pero en la prctica, cmo se hace? +Cmo juzgar a la gente en base al contenido de su carcter? +Quiero sealar tambin que no estoy segura de que debamos basarnos en esto para garantizarles derechos a las personas, porque he de admitir que s de algunos golden retrievers que probablemente merecen ms los servicios sociales que algunos humanos que conozco. +Tambin quiero decir que quiz algunos labradores que conozco puedan tomar ms decisiones informadas, inteligentes y maduras sobre sus relaciones sexuales que gente de 40 que conozco. +Entonces, cmo poner en prctica el tema del contenido de carcter? +Resulta muy difcil. +Y una parte de m se pregunta qu sucedera si el carcter de una persona pudiese en el futuro ser medido con un instrumento, quiz con una resonancia magntica. +Queremos realmente llegar a ese punto? +No estoy segura de a dnde vamos. +Lo que s s es que parece ser muy importante que EE. UU. siga guiando esta corriente de pensamiento en relacin al tema de la democracia. +Hemos hecho un buen trabajo en defensa de la democracia y creo que haremos un buen trabajo en el futuro. +No vivimos, por ejemplo, en un contexto como el iran en el que un hombre que se siente atrado por otros hombres es susceptible de ser asesinado, a menos que est dispuesto a someterse a un cambio de sexo, en cuyo caso se le permite vivir. +No estamos en esa situacin. +Me alegra decir que no tenemos un contexto como el de un cirujano con el que habl hace un par de aos que haba hecho dar a luz gemelos siameses para luego separarlos y as acrecentar su fama. +Pero cuando al telfono le pregunt el motivo de la operacin -era una operacin muy riesgosa-, me respondi que en ese otro pas estos nios seran muy maltratados y por ende tena que hacerlo. +A lo que respond: "Bueno, ha considerado el asilo poltico en vez de la separacin quirrgica?". +EE. UU. ofrece enormes posibilidades a las personas para ser quienes son sin obligarles a cambiar por el bien del Estado. +As que creo que tenemos que estar a la cabeza. +Bueno, para terminar quiero decir que he estado hablando mucho de los Padres. +Y quiero pensar cmo sera la democracia, o como podra haber sido, si hubiramos dado mayor participacin a las Madres. +Y quiero decir algo un poco radical para una feminista, y es que creo que pueden haber distintas ideas provenientes de diferentes tipologas anatmicas, en particular si hay gente pensando en grupo. +Desde hace aos, dado que he estado interesada en la intersexualidad, tambin he estado interesada en investigar la diferencia sexual. +Y una de las cosas que me ha interesado son las diferencias entre hombres y mujeres en cuanto a la forma de pensar y operar en el mundo. +Y lo que sabemos de los estudios transculturales es que las mujeres, en promedio, -no todas, pero en promedio- tienden a prestar ms atencin a las relaciones sociales complejas y a ocuparse de aquellos que son vulnerablses dentro del grupo. +Y, si pensamos en eso, tenemos una situacin interesante en nuestras manos. +Hace aos, cuando estaba en el posgrado, uno de mis asesores que saba que yo estaba interesada en el feminismo -yo me consideraba feminista, como ahora- me hizo un planteo extrao: +"Dime qu tiene de femenino el feminismo". +Y yo pens: "Es la pregunta ms tonta que he escuchado. +El feminismo tiene que ver con deshacer los estereotipos de gnero, as que no hay nada femenino en el feminismo". +Pero cuanto ms he pensado en su pregunta, ms me ha parecido que hay algo femenino en el feminismo. +Es decir, que podra haber algo, en promedio, algo diferente entre el cerebro femenino y el masculino que nos hace ms atentas a las relaciones sociales complejas y dispuestas a ayudar a los ms vulnerables. +As, si bien los Padres estaban muy atentos a encontrar la manera de proteger a las personas por parte del Estado, es posible que, de haber inyectado ms Madres a este concepto, quiz habramos enriquecido el concepto de proteccin con el de apoyo recproco. +Y tal vez eso es lo que tenemos que hacer en el futuro cuando llevemos la democracia ms all de la anatoma: pensar menos en el cuerpo individual, en trminos de la identidad, y pensar ms en las relaciones. +As, mientras tratamos de crear una unin ms perfecta, pensemos en qu hacemos los unos por los otros. +Gracias. +En el ao 2007 decid que tenamos que reconsiderar cmo pensamos acerca del desarrollo econmico. +Nuestro nuevo objetivo debera ser que cuando cada familia piense dnde quiere ir a vivir y trabajar, tenga la posibilidad de elegir entre al menos un puado de ciudades diferentes que estn compitiendo para atraer a nuevos residentes. +Bueno, en este momento estamos lejos de ese objetivo. +Hay miles de millones de personas en pases en desarrollo que no cuentan con una sola ciudad dispuesta a recibirlos. +Pero lo sorprendente de las ciudades es que valen mucho ms que su costo de construccin. +As que fcilmente podramos entregarle al mundo decenas, quizs cientos, de nuevas ciudades. +Bueno, esto les puede sonar absurdo si nunca han pensado acerca de nuevas ciudades. +Pero simplemente reemplcenlas por edificios de apartamentos. +Imaginen que la mitad de los que quisieran vivir en apartamentos ya fueran propietarios y que a la otra mitad an le faltara para lograrlo. +Podran tratar de aumentar la capacidad haciendo ampliaciones en todos los edificios existentes. +Pero ustedes saben que el problema que enfrentaran es que esos edificios y las reas que los rodean tienen normas para evitar las molestias y las distracciones de la construccin. +As que sera muy difcil hacer todas esas ampliaciones. +Pero podran ir a un lugar totalmente nuevo, construir un edificio de apartamentos totalmente nuevo, siempre y cuando las normas de ese lugar faciliten la construccin en vez de ponerle trabas. +As que propuse que los gobiernos creasen nuevas zonas de reforma suficientemente grandes para contener ciudades y les di un nombre: ciudades bajo estatuto. +Ms tarde me enter de que ms o menos al mismo tiempo, Javier y Octavio estaban pensando en el desafo de reformar Honduras. +Saban que cada ao alrededor de 75 000 hondureos saldran de su pas para ir a los Estados Unidos, y queran preguntar qu podan hacer para asegurarse de que esas personas pudieran quedarse y hacer esas mismas cosas en Honduras. +En el verano del 2009 Honduras pas por una crisis constitucional desgarradora. +En las siguientes elecciones regulares, Pepe Lobo se impuso avasalladoramente con una plataforma en la cual prometa reformas y al mismo tiempo reconciliacin. +Le pidi a Octavio que fuera su jefe de gabinete. +Mientras tanto, yo me estaba preparando para dar una charla en TEDGlobal. +A travs de un proceso de perfeccionamiento, ensayo y error y una gran cantidad de pruebas con usuarios, trat de reducir este complicado concepto de ciudades bajo estatuto a sus ideas ms esenciales. +El primer punto fue la importancia de las normas, como esas normas que dicen que no se puede ir y molestar a todos los actuales residentes de apartamentos. +Prestamos mucha atencin a las nuevas tecnologas, pero se necesita tanto de tecnologas como de normas para progresar. Y usualmente son las normas las que nos impiden avanzar. +En el otoo del 2010, un amigo de Guatemala le envi a Octavio un enlace con el TEDTalk. +Se lo mostr a Javier. +Ellos me llamaron. +Me dijeron: "Presentmosle esto a los lderes de nuestro pas." +As que en diciembre nos reunimos en Miami, en una sala de conferencias de un hotel. +Trat de explicarles este punto acerca de lo valiosas que son las ciudades, mucho ms valiosas que su costo monetario. +Y us esta imagen que muestra el valor de los terrenos en un lugar como Nueva York. Fjense; terrenos que, en algunos casos, valen miles de dlares por metro cuadrado. +Pero era una discusin bastante abstracta y en algn momento, cuando hubo una pausa, Octavio dijo: "Paul, tal vez podramos ver el video de la charla TEDTalk." +Y la charla describa en trminos muy simples que una ciudad bajo estatuto es un lugar donde se comienza con terrenos despoblados, un estatuto que especifica las reglas que se aplicarn all y una opcin para que las personas puedan elegir si quieren ir o no a vivir bajo esas normas. +As que el presidente de Honduras me llam, y me dijo que tenamos que hacer este proyecto, esto es importante, este podra ser el camino para que nuestro pas avance. +Me pidi que fuera a Tegucigalpa y hablara de nuevo el 4 y 5 de enero. +As que present otra charla llena de datos, la cual inclua una imagen como esta, que trataba de explicar que para generarle mucho valor a una ciudad, esta tiene que ser muy grande. +Esta es una foto de Denver y la lnea blanca es el nuevo aeropuerto que se construy en Denver. +Solo este aeropuerto cubre ms de 100 kilmetros cuadrados. +As que estaba tratando de convencer a los hondureos de que para construir una nueva ciudad, hay que empezar con un sitio que mida por lo menos 1 000 kilmetros cuadrados. +Eso es ms de 100 000 hectreas. +Todo el mundo aplaudi cortsmente. +Los rostros del pblico estaban muy serios y atentos. +El lder del congreso se acerc a la plataforma y dijo: "Profesor Romer, muchas gracias por su charla, pero tal vez podramos ver el video de la charla TEDTalk. +Lo tengo aqu en mi computador." +As que me sent y mostraron el TEDTalk. +Y este explicaba lo esencial; que una nueva ciudad puede ofrecer nuevas opciones para la gente. +Habra una opcin de una ciudad a la que podran ir que podra estar en Honduras, en vez de cientos de kilmetros de distancia hacia el Norte. +Y tambin incluira nuevas opciones para los lderes. +Porque los lderes del gobierno de Honduras necesitaran ayuda de pases asociados, podran beneficiarse de los pases asociados que les ayudaran a establecer y hacer cumplir las normas del estatuto, para que todos pudieran confiar en que el estatuto efectivamente se cumpla. +Fuimos y vimos un sitio. +Esta foto es de all. +Podra abarcar fcilmente unos mil kilmetros cuadrados. +Y poco despus, el 19 de enero, votaron en el Congreso para enmendar su Constitucin y agregar una disposicin constitucional que permitiera crear estas regiones especiales de desarrollo. +En un pas que acababa de pasar por esta crisis dolorosa, la votacin en el Congreso a favor de esta enmienda constitucional fue de 124 a uno. +Todos los partidos, todas las facciones en la sociedad, la respaldaron. +Para incluirse en la Constitucin, se tiene que aprobar dos veces en el Congreso. +El 17 de febrero se aprob otra vez en otra votacin, de 114 a uno. +Inmediatamente despus de la votacin, del 21 al 24 de febrero, una delegacin de unos 30 hondureos fue a los dos lugares en el mundo que estn ms interesados en participar en la construccin de ciudades. +Uno de ellos es Corea del Sur. +Esta es una foto de un nuevo gran centro de la ciudad que se est construyendo en Corea del Sur; es ms grande que el centro de Boston. +Todo lo que se ve all se construy en cuatro aos, despus de que pasaron cuatro aos consiguiendo los permisos. +El otro pas interesado en la construccin de ciudades es Singapur. +De hecho, ya han construido dos ciudades en China y se estn preparando para una tercera. +Y si piensan sobre esto de modo prctico, este es el punto donde estamos. +Ellos tienen un sitio, y ya estn pensando en un sitio para la segunda ciudad. +Estn preparando un sistema legal que permitira que los administradores vinieran, y a la vez permitira operar bajo un sistema jurdico externo. +Un pas ya se ha comprometido a permitir que su Corte Suprema sea el tribunal de ltima instancia para este nuevo sistema judicial. +Hay urbanistas y constructores de ciudades que estn muy interesados en el proyecto. +Incluso pueden conseguir algo de financiamiento. +Pero la nica cosa que sabemos que ya han resuelto es que tienen un buen nmero de habitantes. +Hay muchas empresas que quisieran instalarse en las Amricas, especialmente en un lugar con una zona de libre comercio, y hay mucha gente a la que le gustara ir a vivir all. +En el mundo hay 700 millones de personas que dicen que les gustara cambiarse inmediatamente a otro lugar. +Hay un milln al ao que sale de Amrica Latina para ir a los Estados Unidos. +Muchos de ellos son padres que tienen que dejar atrs a su familia para ir a conseguir un trabajo; a veces son madres solteras que tienen que ganar el dinero para tan solo comer o comprar ropa. +Lamentablemente, a veces incluso hay nios que estn tratando de reunirse con sus padres que no han visto, en algunos casos, en una dcada. +Entonces, qu les parece pensar en la construccin de una nueva ciudad en Honduras? +O construir una docena de estas, o un centenar de estas por todo el mundo? +Qu les parece pensar en insistir para que las familias puedan elegir entre varias ciudades que estn compitiendo para atraer a nuevos residentes? +Esta es una idea que vale la pena difundir. +Y mis amigos hondureos me pidieron que dijera: "Gracias TED". +Soy Jessi, y esta es mi valija. +Pero antes de mostrarles lo que hay dentro, voy a hacer una confesin pblica, y es que, vivo obsesionada con los trajes. +Me encanta encontrar, vestir, y ms recientemente, fotografiar y publicar en mi blog trajes atrevidos, coloridos y diferentes para cada ocasin. +Pero no compro nada nuevo. +Toda mi ropa es de segunda mano de mercados de pulgas y tiendas de segunda mano. +Ah, gracias. +Las tiendas de segunda mano me permiten reducir el impacto de mi guardarropa en el medio ambiente y en mi billetera. +Llego a conocer personas interesantsimas; por lo general mi dinero va a una buena causa; Mi aspecto es nico; y comprar se convierte en mi bsqueda personal de tesoros. +Es decir, qu voy a encontrar hoy? +ser de mi talla? +me gustar el color? +costar menos de 20 dlares? +Si todas las respuestas son positivas, entonces siento que he ganado. +Volviendo al tema de mi valija, quiero decirles lo que empaqu para esta emocionante semana en TED. +Es decir, qu trae consigo alguien que tiene toda esa ropa? +As que voy a mostrarles exactamente lo que traje. +He trado siete pares de ropa interior, y nada ms. +Ropa interior para exactamente una semana es todo lo que he puesto en mi valija. +Me imagin que sera capaz de encontrar todo lo dems que quisiera usar despus de llegar aqu a Palm Springs. +Y ya que no me conocen como la mujer que camina por TED en ropa interior, eso significa que encontr algunas cosas. +Y me gustara mostrarles ahora los conjuntos para esta semana. +No suena interesante? +Mientras lo hago, tambin voy a contarles algunas de las lecciones de vida que, cranlo o no, he aprendido en esta aventura de no usar ropa nueva. +Comencemos con el domingo. +A esto le llamo tigre brillante. +No hay que gastar mucho dinero para verse bien. +Casi siempre te puedes ver fenomenal por menos de 50 dlares. +Todo el conjunto, incluida la chaqueta, me cost 55, y es lo ms caro que he usado en la semana. +Lunes: el color es energtico. +Es casi fisiolgicamente imposible estar de mal humor, cuando ests vistiendo un pantaln rojo brillante. +Si ests feliz, vas a atraer a otras personas felices. +Martes: La integracin est sobrevalorada. +He pasado mucho tiempo en la vida tratando de ser yo misma y al mismo tiempo integrarme. +Simplemente s t mismo. +Si te rodeas de las personas adecuadas, no solo te entendern, tambin te apreciarn. +Mircoles: Guate del nio que llevas dentro. +A veces la gente me dice que parece que juego a los disfraces, o que les recuerdo a su pequea de 7 aos. +Me gusta sonrerles y decirles: "Gracias". +Jueves: La confianza es la clave. +Si crees que te ves bien con algo, es casi seguro que lo ests. +Y si crees que no te ves bien con algo, probablemente tambin sea cierto. +Mi madre me ense esto da tras da. +Pero no fue hasta los 30 aos que realmente entend su significado. +Y voy a explicarlo en pocos segundos. +Si crees que eres una persona hermosa en tu interior y exterior, no hay mirada que no puedas atraer. +As que no hay excusa para nadie de esta audiencia. +Debemos ser capaces de lograr todo lo que queremos lograr. +Gracias. +Viernes: Una verdad universal 6 palabras para ustedes: Las lentejuelas doradas van con todo. +Y finalmente, sbado: Desarrollar un estilo personal propio y nico es una forma genial de decirle al mundo algo sobre ti sin tener que decir una palabra. +Lo he probado una y otra vez cuando la gente se me acercaba esta semana simplemente por lo que estaba usando. Y tuvimos conversaciones fantsticas. +Obviamente todo esto no va a entrar en mi pequea valija. +As que antes de irme a casa, a Brooklyn, Voy a donar todo. +Porque la leccin que estoy tratando de aprender esta semana es que hay que dejar atrs ciertas cosas. +No necesito apegarme emocionalmente a estas cosas, porque a la vuelta de la esquina, siempre habr otro traje loco, colorido y brillante esperndome, si hay un poco de amor en mi corazn y busco. +Muchas gracias. +Gracias. +Esta es una representacin de tu cerebro que podemos dividir en dos partes. +El lado izquierdo, que es la parte lgica, y el lado derecho, que es la parte intuitiva. +Por lo tanto, si utilizramos una escala para medir la aptitud de cada hemisferio, podramos disear un plano de nuestro cerebro. +Por ejemplo, ste sera alguien que es completamente lgico. +Este sera alguien que es totalmente intuitivo. +Entonces, Dnde ubicaras tu cerebro en esta escala? +Algunos optaran por uno de estos extremos, pero creo que para la mayora de los integrantes de esta audiencia, su cerebro es algo as -- con una gran aptitud en ambos hemisferios al mismo tiempo. +No es que sean mutuamente exclusivos, +Puedes ser lgico e intuitivo. +Yo me considero una de esas personas, que al igual que la mayora de los otros fsicos cunticos experimentales, necesitamos bastante lgica para concatenar estas complicadas ideas. +Pero al mismo tiempo, necesitamos bastante intuicin para hacer que los experimentos realmente funcionen. +Cmo desarrollamos esta intuicin? Bueno, nos gusta jugar con cosas. +Nos ponemos a jugar con ellas y luego vemos como reaccionan. Y luego desarrollamos nuestra intuicin a partir de ese punto. +Y en realidad, ustedes hacen lo mismo. +Cierta intuicin que pueden haber desarrollado con el paso de los aos es la que dice que una cosa puede estar solo en un lugar a la vez. +Es decir, puede sonar raro pensar que una cosa est en dos lugares diferentes al mismo tiempo, pero ustedes no nacieron con esta nocin, la desarrollaron. +Recuerdo observar a un nio jugando en una barra de estacionamiento. +Era un nio pequeo y no lo haca muy bien, siempre se caa. +Pero apuesto que el jugar con esa barra de estacionamiento le ense una valiosa leccin, y es que las cosas grandes no permiten que las traspasen, y que permanecen en un lugar. +ste es un gran modelo conceptual que se puede tener del mundo, salvo que seas un fsico de partculas. +Sera un modelo terrible para un fsico de partculas, ya que ellos no juegan con barras de estacionamiento, juegan con estas extraas pequeas partculas. +Y cuando juegan con sus partculas, descubren que ellas hacen toda clases de cosas realmente raras -- como que pueden atravesar paredes, o que pueden estar en dos lugares diferentes al mismo tiempo. +Y entonces escribieron todas estas observaciones, y la llamaron teora de la mecnica cuntica. +En ese punto se encontraba la fsica algunos aos atrs; necesitabas de la mecnica cuntica para describir esas pequeas partculas. +Pero no la necesitabas para describir los objetos grandes que nos rodean todos los das. +Eso no se ajustaba muy bien a mi intuicin, y quizs sea porque no juego muy a menudo con partculas. +Bueno, a veces juego con ellas, pero no mucho. +Y nunca las he visto. +Es decir, nunca nadie vio una partcula. +Pero tampoco se ajustaba bien a mi parte lgica. +Porque si todo est hecho de pequeas partculas y todas las pequeas partculas siguen los principios de la mecnica cuntica, entonces No debera todo seguir los principios de la mecnica cuntica? +No encuentro la razn por la cual no debera. +Y por lo tanto me sentira mucho mejor si pudiera de alguna forma demostrar que un objeto comn tambin sigue los principios de la mecnica cuntica. +Es por eso que hace algunos aos, me propuse hacer exactamente eso. +Y lo hice. +Este es el primer objeto que pueden ver que ha estado en una superposicin de mecnica cuntica. +Lo que vemos aqu es un pequeo chip de computadora. +Y pueden tratar de ver el punto verde justo en el medio. +Ese es el pedacito de metal del que voy a hablar en un minuto. +Esta es una foto del objeto. +Y aqu lo voy a ampliar un poquito. Se encuentra justo en el centro. +Y luego aqu hacemos un acercamiento bien bien grande al pequeo trocito de metal. +Lo que vemos es un pequeo pedacito de metal, con forma de trampoln y que sobresale apoyado en una plataforma. +Y entonces hice esto casi de la misma forma que haras un chip de computadora. +Fui a una habitacin limpia con un chip de silicio nuevo, y puse a funcionar todas las grandes mquinas por alrededor de 100 horas. +Para el ltimo material, tuve que construir mi propia mquina -- para hacer este orificio con forma de pileta de natacin que se encuentra debajo del dispositivo. +Este dispositivo tiene la capacidad de estar en una superposicin cuntica, pero para ello necesita de un poco de ayuda. +Permtanme hacer una analoga. +Ustedes saben lo incmodo que es estar en un elevador lleno de gente. +Es decir, cuando estoy en un elevador solo, hago toda clase de cosas raras, pero luego cuando otra gente sube dejo de hacer esas cosas, porque no los quiero molestar, o, en realidad, asustar. +La mecnica cuntica dice que los objetos inanimados se comportan de la misma manera. +Los compaeros de viaje de los objetos inanimados no son solo personas, tambin es la luz que lo alumbra y el viento que pasa a su lado y el calor de la habitacin. +Por lo tanto sabamos que si queramos que este pedacito de metal se comporte de acuerdo a la mecnica cuntica, tendramos que expulsar a todos los otros pasajeros. +Y eso fue lo que hicimos. +Apagamos las luces, luego introdujimos una aspiradora y extrajimos todo el aire, y luego lo enfriamos a una temperatura de menos de un grado por sobre el cero absoluto. +Ahora, al estar solo en el elevador, el pequeo pedazo de metal es libre de actuar como quiera. +Entonces medimos sus movimientos. +Descubrimos que se mova en formas muy extraas. +En lugar de quedarse perfectamente quieto, estaba vibrando. Y la forma en que vibraba era como una respiracin de esta forma -- como un fuelle que se expande y se contrae. +Y al darle un suave empuje, pudimos hacer que vibre y que no vibre al mismo tiempo -- algo que solo ocurre con la mecnica cuntica. +Por lo tanto lo que les estoy contando es algo realmente fantstico. +Qu significa que una cosa vibre y no vibre al mismo tiempo? +Pensemos en los tomos. +En un caso: todos los trillones de tomos que conforman ese pedazo de metal estn quietos y al mismo tiempo esos mismos tomos se estn moviendo para arriba y para abajo. +Es solo en determinados instantes cuando esos se alinean. +En el resto del tiempo estn deslocalizados. +Quiere decir que cada tomo est en dos lugares diferentes al mismo tiempo, lo que a la vez significa que todo el pedazo de metal est en dos lugares diferentes. +Creo que esto es genial. +De verdad. +Vali la pena encerrarme en una habitacin limpia para hacer esto durante todos esos aos. Porque, observen esto, la diferencia en escala entre un solo tomo y ese pedacito de metal es ms o menos la misma que la diferencia entre ese pedacito de metal y ustedes. +Por lo tanto si un solo tomo puede estar en dos lugares diferentes al mismo tiempo, y ese pedazo de metal puede estar en dos lugares diferentes, Por qu no ustedes tambin? +Digo, es mi parte lgica la que habla. +Por lo tanto imagnense si estuvieran en varios lugares al mismo tiempo, Cmo sera eso? +Cmo actuara tu consciencia si tu cuerpo estuviera deslocalizado en el espacio? +Hay otra parte de la historia. +Y es cuando lo calentamos, y encendimos las luces y miramos dentro de la caja, vimos que el metal segua ah en una sola pieza. +Y pude llegar a esta nueva intuicin, aparentemente todos los objetos en el elevador en realidad solo son objetos cunticos que estn simplemente hacinados en un pequeo espacio. +Se oye hablar mucho acerca de que la mecnica cuntica afirma que todo est interconectado. +Bueno, eso no es tan cierto; +es ms que eso, es ms profundo. +Es que esas conexiones, tus conexiones a todas las cosas que te rodean, literalmente definen quien eres. Y esa es la profunda rareza de la mecnica cuntica. +Gracias. +Mi nombre es Amit. +Y hace 18 meses realizaba otro trabajo en Google, hasta que lanc la idea de hacer algo relacionado con museos y arte a mi jefa que est aqu y que me permiti llevarla a cabo. +Me llev 18 meses y +muchas negociaciones e historias, se lo aseguro, con 17 museos muy interesantes de nueve pases. +Pero me voy a centrar en la demo. +Hay un montn de historias del porqu lo hicimos. +Creo que mi propia historia se explica sencillamente en esta diapositiva y ste es el acceso. +Crec en la India. +Goce de una gran educacin -no me quejo- pero no tena acceso a muchos de estos museos y obras de arte. +Por eso, cuando comenc a viajar e ir a museos, comenc a aprender mucho. +Y trabajando en Google, intento hacer realidad el deseo de hacerlo ms accesible mediante tecnologa. +As que formamos un equipo, un gran equipo de personas, y empezamos a hacerlo. +Mejor que muestre la demo para luego explicarles un par de cosas interesantes que hemos llevado a cabo desde su lanzamiento. +As que, simplemente: vamos a GoogleArtProject.com. +Miren alrededor todos los museos que hay. +Est la galera Uffizi, el MoMA, el Ermitage, el Rijksmuseum, el Van Gogh. +De hecho voy a entrar en uno de mis favoritos, al Metropolitan, el museo de arte de Nueva York. +Hay dos maneras de hacerlo - muy sencillo. +Hacemos clic y, pam!, ya estamos dentro del museo. +No importa dnde estn, Bombay o Mjico, eso en realidad no importa. +Ustedes se mueven por ah y se divierten. +Quieren navegar por el museo? +Abrimos el plano de arriba, y, con un solo clic, saltamos dentro. +Estn dentro, que desean ir al final del pasillo, +sigan hacia adelante. Que se diviertan! +Exploren. +Gracias, pero no he llegado a lo mejor. +Ahora estoy delante de una de mis pinturas favoritas, "Los cosechadores" de Pieter Breugel en el Metropolitan. +Veo el signo +. +Si el museo nos muestra la imagen, hacemos clic ah. +Miren, sta es una de las imgenes. +Aqu est toda la informacin de metadatos. +Para aquellos de ustedes que estn verdaderamente interesados en el arte, pueden hacer clic ah; pero yo voy a hacer clic aqu ahora mismo. +Y esta es una de las imgenes que hemos capturado en lo que llamamos la tecnologa gigapixel. +As que esta imagen, por ejemplo, contiene, creo, unos 10.000 millones de pxeles. +Y hay muchas personas que me preguntan: "Y qu se obtiene con 10.000 millones de pxeles?" +As que les mostrar lo que realmente se consigue con 10.000 millones de pxeles. +Puede hacer zoom alrededor de manera muy sencilla. +Se ven cosas divertidas que estn sucediendo. +Me encanta este chico, su expresin no tiene precio. +Pero si realmente desearan profundizar. +As es que empec a jugar, y me encontr con algo que suceda ah. +Y me dije: "Un momento, esto parece interesante." +Entr y descubr que los nios estaban en realidad jugando a algo. +Investigu un poco, habl con algunas personas del Metropolitan, y en realidad descubr que este es un juego denominado [incomprensible], que consiste en golpear una oca con un palo el martes de Carnaval. +Y al parecer era muy popular. +No s por qu lo hacan, pero he aprendido algo al respecto. +Y ahora vamos a meternos an ms en profundidad y vern que realmente se puede llegar incluso a las grietas. +Ahora slo para darles un poco de perspectiva, Voy a alejar la imagen, as vern realmente lo que hay. +Aqu es donde estbamos, y sta es la pintura. +Lo mejor est por venir, un segundo. +As que ahora vamos rpidamente a saltar otra vez al MoMA en Nueva York. +Aqu otro de mis favoritos, "La noche estrellada." +El ejemplo que mostr era para encontrar detalles. +Pero qu pasa si se desea ver las pinceladas? +Y si quieren ver cmo Van Gogh en realidad cre esta obra maestra? +Lo aumenta y de verdad que lo logra. +Voy a una de mis partes favoritas en este cuadro, Y realmente voy a llegar a las grietas. +Esta es "la noche estrellada", Creo que nunca la haba visto as antes. +Les voy a mostrar otra de mis funciones favoritas. +Hay muchas cosas cosas ms aqu, pero no tengo tiempo de mostrarlas. +Esta es la parte realmente genial. Se llama "Colecciones". +Todos ustedes, absolutamente todos, no importa si se es rico o pobre, o si se tiene una mansin, eso da igual. +Ustedes pueden en lnea crear su propio museo, crear su propia coleccin a partir de todas estas imgenes. +Es muy sencillo, entramos, - he creado esta funcin que llamo "El poder del zoom", - acabamos de hacer un zoom alrededor. +Se trata de "Los embajadores" en la Galera Nacional de Londres. +Ustedes pueden anotar cosas, enviarlo a sus amigos y mantener una conversacin acerca de lo que sienten al contemplar estas obras maestras. +As que en conclusin, creo que para m, lo principal es que todas las cosas increbles realmente no provienen de Google. +No, en mi opinin, incluso tampoco provienen de los museos. +Quiz no debera decir esto. +En realidad, provienen de esos artistas. +Y esa ha sido mi humilde experiencia con esto. +Quiero decir, espero que en este medio digital haga justicia a su obra de arte y que est representada adecuadamente en lnea. +Y la gran pregunta que me hacen hoy en da es: "Usted hizo esto para repetir la experiencia de ir a un museo? " +Y la respuesta es no. +Es para complementar la experiencia. +Y eso es todo. Gracias. +Gracias. +Buenas tardes a todos. +Tengo algo que mostrarles. +Piensen que es un pxel, un pxel volador. +En nuestro laboratorio lo llamamos diseo sensible. +Les voy a contar un poco sobre esto. +Si se fijan en esta foto... soy de origen italiano, todos los nios en Italia crecen con esta foto en la pared de su dormitorio. Pero la razn por la que les muestro esto es que ha sucedido algo muy interesante en las carreras de Frmula 1 en las ltimas dos dcadas. +Hace ya algn tiempo, si uno quera ganar una carrera de Frmula 1, tomaba un presupuesto y lo apostaba a un buen piloto y un buen coche, +y si el coche y el piloto eran lo suficientemente buenos, uno ganaba la carrera. +Esto es lo que, en ingeniera, se denominara sistema de control en tiempo real. +En esencia es un sistema que tiene dos componentes: un sensor y un accionador. +Hoy lo interesante es que los sistemas de control en tiempo real estn empezando a entrar en nuestras vidas. +Nuestras ciudades, en los ltimos aos, han sido cubiertas de redes y electrnica. +Se estn volviendo computadoras al aire libre. +Y, como tales, estn empezando a responder de manera diferente y pueden ser detectadas y accionadas. +Acondicionar las ciudades es algo grande. +Como nota aparte quera mencionar que las ciudades son slo el 2% de la corteza del planeta pero representan el 50% de la poblacin mundial; +el 75% del consumo de energa... y hasta el 80% de las emisiones de CO2. +Si pudiramos hacer algo con las ciudades, sera algo grande. +Ms all de las ciudades, todas estas detecciones y activaciones estn entrando en nuestros objetos cotidianos. +Esto es de una exhibicin de Paola Antonelli para fines de ao en el MoMA, durante el verano. +Se llama "Talk to Me" (Hblame, NT) +Bueno, nuestros objetos, el entorno, empiezan a hablarnos. +En cierto modo es como si casi todos los tomos existentes se volvieran sensores y actuadores. +Y eso est cambiando por completo la interaccin que como humanos tenemos con el entorno exterior. +En cierto sentido es casi como en el viejo sueo de Miguel ngel... +Ya saben, cuando Miguel ngel esculpi el Moiss, se dice que al final tom el martillo y se lo arroj al Moiss -de hecho an se puede ver una pequea mella debajo- y dijo gritando: "Perch non parli?" (por qu no hablas?). +Bueno, hoy, por primera vez, nuestro entorno empieza a hablarnos. +Y les voy a mostrar slo unos ejemplos; insistiendo en la idea de captar el entorno y accionar algo. +Empecemos con la deteccin. +El primer proyecto que quera compartir con Uds. es en verdad uno de los primeros proyectos de nuestro laboratorio. +Esto fue hace 4 aos y medio en Italia. +Fue un verano con suerte el de 2006. +Fue el ao en que Italia gan la Copa del Mundo. +Quiz algunos lo recuerden, jugaban Italia y Francia, y al final Zidane dio el cabezazo. +Y de todos modos, al final gan Italia. +Ahora veamos qu pas ese da observando la actividad ocurrida en la red. +Aqu vemos la ciudad. +Se ve el Coliseo en el medio y el ro Tber. +Es la maana, antes del juego. +La lnea de tiempo est en la parte superior. +Por la tarde temprano hay gente por aqu y all haciendo llamadas, movindose. +Comienza el partido: silencio. +Gol de Francia. Gol de Italia. +Entretiempo; la gente hace una llamada rpida y va al bao. +Segundo tiempo. Fin del tiempo reglamentario. +Primer tiempo adicional; segundo. +Zidane, y en un momento, el cabezazo. +Gana Italia, s! +Esa noche todos fueron a celebrarlo al centro. +Ah ven el gran pico. +Al da siguiente todos fueron al centro al encuentro del equipo ganador y del primer ministro de entonces. +Y luego todo el mundo baj. +Ven la imagen del lugar llamado Circo Massimo donde, desde la poca romana, la gente va a celebrar; es una gran fiesta, puede verse el pico al final del da. +Este es slo un ejemplo de cmo hoy se puede medir el pulso de la ciudad de un modo que no habramos podido hacer hace slo unos aos. +Otro ejemplo rpido de deteccin: no se trata de gente, sino de cosas que usamos y consumimos. +Hoy en da sabemos todo sobre la procedencia de nuestros objetos. +Este es un mapa que muestra todos los chips que conforman una Mac, cmo se ensamblan. +Pero sabemos muy poco sobre adnde van las cosas. +Por eso en este proyecto desarrollamos unas etiquetas pequeas para rastrear la basura en su desplazamiento por el sistema. +Empezamos con unos voluntarios que nos ayudaron en Seattle hace poco ms de un ao, a etiquetar lo que estaban arrojando; distinto tipo de cosas, como pueden ver, cosas que de todos modos tiraran. +Luego les pusimos un pequeo chip, una etiqueta, a la basura y luego empezamos a rastrearla. +Estos son los resultados obtenidos. +Partiendo de Seattle... +despus de una semana. +Con esta informacin nos dimos cuenta de que hay muchas ineficiencias en el sistema. +Podemos hacer lo mismo con mucha menos energa. +Estos son datos que antes no existan. +Estn sucediendo cosas complicadas y hay mucho transporte innecesario. +Pero la otra cosa que creemos es que si vemos todos los das que la taza que arrojamos no desaparece, que todava est en algn lugar del planeta, +que si la botella de plstico que arrojamos un da todava sigue ah, +que si le mostramos eso a la gente, entonces podremos promover algn cambio de conducta. +Esa fue la razn del proyecto. +Mi colega del MIT, Assaf Biderman, podra contarnos mucho ms sobre deteccin y muchas otras cosas geniales que podemos hacer con eso, pero quera ir a la segunda parte que mencionamos al principio, que es accionar sobre el entorno. +Y el primer proyecto es algo que hicimos hace un par de aos en Zaragoza . +Todo comenz con una pregunta del alcalde de la ciudad, que vino y nos dijo que Espaa y el sur de Europa tienen una hermosa tradicin del uso del agua en espacios pblicos, en la arquitectura. +Y la pregunta fue: cmo puede la tecnologa, la nueva tecnologa, sumarse a eso? +Y una de las ideas que desarrollamos en el MIT, en un taller, fue: imaginen que tienen un cao y vlvulas, vlvulas de solenoide, lengetas que se abren y se cierran. +Se crea como una cortina de agua, con pxeles de agua. +Si caen los pxeles se puede escribir en ellos, mostrar patrones, imgenes, textos. +Y al acercarnos, la cortina se abrir para que podamos pasar, como ven en la imagen. +Le presentamos esto al alcalde Belloch. +Le gust mucho +y design una comisin para disear el edificio a la entrada de la Expo. +Lo llamamos Pabelln de Agua Digital. +Todo el edificio est hecho de agua. +No hay puertas ni ventanas, pero cuando uno se aproxima se abre para que uno pueda pasar. +El techo tambin est cubierto de agua. +Y si hay un poco de viento, si se quieren minimizar las salpicaduras, se baja el techo. +O se puede cerrar el edificio y toda la arquitectura desaparece, como en este caso. +Esos das siempre habr alguien, en el invierno, cuando bajan el techo, alguien que estuvo all y que dijo: "Demolieron el edificio". +No, no es que lo hayan demolido, sino que cuando se baja casi toda la arquitectura desaparece. +Aqu est en funcionamiento. +Se ve a las personas intrigadas por lo que pasa dentro. +Y aqu estoy yo mismo tratando de no mojarme al probar los sensores que abren el agua. +Creo que debera contarles lo que sucedi una noche cuando todos los sensores dejaron de funcionar. +Esa noche fue en verdad incluso ms divertida. +Todos los nios de Zaragoza vinieron al edificio porque la manera de interactuar haba cambiado un poco. +Ya no era un edificio que se abra para dejarte pasar, sino un edificio que segua haciendo cortes y agujeros de agua y uno tena que saltar para no mojarse. +(Ruido de gente) Y para nosotros eso fue muy interesante porque como arquitectos, ingenieros, diseadores, siempre pensamos en el uso que la gente le dar a nuestros diseos. +Pero luego la realidad siempre es impredecible. +Y sa es la belleza de hacer cosas para interactuar, que la gente usa. +sta es una imagen del edificio con los pxeles fsicos, los pxeles de agua, y de proyecciones sobre ellos. +Y esto es lo que nos llev a pensar en el siguiente proyecto que les voy a mostrar. +Imaginen que esos pxeles pudieran empezar a volar. +Imaginen que pudieran tener pequeos helicpteros en el aire y que cada uno tuviese un pequeo pxel que cambia de color como si fuera una nube que se mueve en el espacio. +ste es el video. +Imaginen un helicptero, como el que vimos antes, que se mueve con otros en sincrona. +Podramos formar esta nube, +una especie de pantalla flexible como sta con una configuracin normal en dos dimensiones. +O normal, pero en tres dimensiones, en la que lo que cambia es la luz, no la posicin de los pxeles. +Se puede jugar con un tipo diferente. +Imaginen que la pantalla apareciera en distintas escalas y tamaos, en distintos tipos de resolucin. +Y que luego todo eso pudiera una nube de pxeles en 3D a la que uno puede acercarse, y atravesar, y ver desde muy diversos ngulos. +sta es la verdadera Flyfire controlada, yendo hacia abajo para formar una V, como antes. +Cuando se enciende la luz, se ve esto. Lo mismo que vimos antes. +Imaginen cada uno de ellos controlado por una persona. +Podemos tener cada pixel con una entrada que viene de personas, del movimiento de las personas, etc., etc. +Quiero mostrarles algo por primera vez. +Hemos estado trabajando con Roberto Bolle -uno de los mejores bailarines de ballet de hoy, la estrella del Metropolitan de Nueva York y de La Scala de Miln- para capturar sus movimientos en 3D y usarlos como entrada para el Flyfire. +Aqu podemos ver a Roberto bailando. +A la izquierda ven los pxeles, la captura en distintas resoluciones. +Es tanto digitalizacin 3D en tiempo real como captura de movimiento. +Puede reconstruirse todo el movimiento. +Se puede recorrer todo el camino. +Y una vez que tenemos los pxeles podemos jugar con ellos, con el color y el movimiento, con la gravedad y la rotacin. +Queremos usar esto como una posible entrada para el Flyfire. +Quera mostrarles el ltimo proyecto en el que estamos trabajando. +Es algo para los Juegos Olmpicos de Londres. +Se llama La Nube. +Y la idea es, imaginen otra vez, que pudiramos involucrar a la gente para que haga algo y cambie nuestro entorno -casi como un criadero de nubes- como la cra de granero, pero con una nube. +Imaginen que pudiramos hacer que todos donaran un poquito para un pxel. +Y creo que lo notable que ha sucedido en los ltimos aos es que, en las ltimas dos dcadas, pasamos del mundo fsico al mundo digital. +Hemos digitalizado todo, como el conocimiento, y es accesible a travs de Internet. +Hoy, por primera vez -y la campaa de Obama nos lo mostr-, podemos pasar del mundo digital, del poder auto-organizado de las redes, al mundo fsico. +En nuestro caso, esto puede que queramos usarlo para disear y hacer un smbolo. +Eso significara algo construido en una ciudad. +Pero maana puede ser para abordar los desafos de hoy: piensen en el cambio climtico o las emisiones de CO2. Cmo pasar del mundo digital al mundo fsico? +La idea es que podemos hacer que la gente se involucre en hacer esto juntos, de forma colectiva. +La nube es una nube, de nuevo, hecha de pxeles de la misma manera que la nube real es una nube de partculas. +Y esas partculas son agua, mientras que en nuestra nube son pxeles. +Es una estructura fsica en Londres, pero cubierta de pxeles. +Uno puede moverse por dentro, tener distintas experiencias. +Puede verse desde abajo, servir para compartir los momentos principales de los Juegos Olmpicos de 2012 y an ms, y puede usarse como una forma de conexin con la comunidad. +As, es tanto una nube fsica del cielo como algo a lo que uno puede subir, como una nueva cima de Londres. +Uno puede entrar ah +como si fuera un nuevo faro digital en la noche, pero lo ms importante es que ser una nueva experiencia para cualquiera que vaya a la cima. +Gracias. +Les gustara ser mejor de lo que son? +Supongan que les dijera que, con slo unos cambios en sus genes, podran mejorar la memoria... por una ms precisa, ms exacta y ms rpida. +O quiz les gustara estar en mejor forma, ser ms fuertes, tener ms resistencia. +Les gustara ser ms atractivos y seguros de s mismos? +Qu tal vivir ms con buena salud? +O tal vez sean de esas personas que siempre quisieron ser ms creativos. +Qu es lo que ms les gustara? +Qu les gustara, si pudieran elegir algo? +(Miembro de la Audiencia: Creatividad) Creatividad. +Cunta gente elegira la creatividad? +Levanten la mano. Djenme ver. +Pocos. Probablemente se deba a la cantidad de gente creativa presente. +Eso es muy bueno. +Cuntos elegiran la memoria? +Unos cuantos ms. +Y el estado fsico? +Un poco menos. +Qu tal la longevidad? +Ah, la mayora. Eso me hace sentir muy bien como mdico. +Si pudieran tener algo de esto el mundo sera muy diferente. +Es slo imaginacin? +O tal vez sea posible? +La evolucin ha sido un tema perenne aqu en la Conferencia TED pero hoy quiero darles la mirada de un mdico sobre el tema. +El gran genetista del siglo XX, T.G. Dobzhansky, que adems comulgaba en la Iglesia Ortodoxa Rusa, escribi un ensayo titulado "Nada en biologa tiene sentido salvo a la luz de la Evolucin". +Pero si efectivamente aceptan la evolucin biolgica consideren esto: se trata slo del pasado, o del futuro? +Se refiere a los otros o a nosotros? +Esta es otra mirada al rbol de la vida. +La parte humana de esta rama, bien en un extremo, es, claro, la que ms nos interesa. +Derivamos de un ancestro comn con los chimpancs modernos hace unos 6 u 8 millones de aos. +En el intervalo ha habido tal vez 20 25 especies diferentes de homnidos. +Algunas han ido y vuelto. +Nosotros hemos estado aqu unos 130.000 aos. +Podra parecer que estamos muy lejos de otras partes de este rbol de la vida pero, en realidad, en su mayora la maquinaria bsica de nuestras clulas es ms o menos la misma. +Se dan cuenta que podemos aprovechar y controlar la maquinaria de una bacteria comn para producir la protena de la insulina humana que se usa para tratar la diabetes? +Esto no es como la insulina humana; pero es la misma protena, qumicamente indistinguible, de la que sale del pncreas. +Y hablando de bacterias ... se dan cuenta que todos llevamos en el intestino ms bacterias que las clulas que tenemos en el resto del cuerpo? +Quiz 10 veces ms. +Digo, piensen ... cuando Antonio Damasio les plantea lo de la auto-imagen... piensan en las bacterias? +El intestino es un entorno maravillosamente hospitalario para esas bacterias. +Es clido, oscuro, hmedo, es muy acogedor. +Y les vamos a proporcionar todos los nutrientes que puedan querer sin esfuerzo de su parte. +Realmente es como una va rpida para las bacterias con la interrupcin ocasional de algn apuro forzoso hacia la salida. +Pero, por lo dems, somos un entorno maravilloso para esas bacterias del mismo modo que ellas son esenciales para nuestra vida. +Ayudan a digerir nutrientes esenciales, y nos protegen de ciertas enfermedades. +Pero qu nos depara el futuro? +Estamos en una especie de equilibrio evolutivo como especie? +O destinados a convertirnos en algo diferente, algo quiz mejor adaptado al entorno? +En esta vasta sinfona inconclusa del Universo, la vida en la Tierra es como un breve comps; el reino animal, como un solo y nico compas; y la vida humana, una pequea nota de gracia. +Eso era nosotros. +Y tambin fue la parte entretenida de esta charla as que espero que la hayan disfrutado. +Cuando recin ingresaba a la universidad tuve mi primer clase de biologa. +Estaba fascinado por la elegancia y la belleza de la biologa. +Me enamor del poder de la evolucin y me di cuenta de algo fundamental: en la mayora de la existencia de la vida, en los organismos unicelulares, cada clula sencillamente se divide y toda la energa gentica de esa clula se transmite a las dos clulas hijas. +Pero cuando aparecen los organismos multicelulares las cosas empiezan a cambiar. +Entra en escena la reproduccin sexual. +Y algo muy importante: con la aparicin de la reproduccin sexual que pasa el genoma, el resto del cuerpo se vuelve prescindible. +De hecho, uno podra decir que la inevitabilidad de la muerte del cuerpo entra en evolucin en el mismo momento de la reproduccin sexual. +Tengo que confesarles que cuando era estudiante universitario pensaba, bueno, sexo/muerte, sexo/muerte, muerte por sexo; pareca bastante razonable en ese momento, pero con cada ao que pasaba, cada vez tena ms dudas. +Llegu a comprender los sentimientos de George Burns, que an actuaba en Las Vegas bien entrado en sus 90 aos. +Y una noche alguien golpea a su puerta de hotel. +l abre la puerta. +Frente a l se encuentra una magnfica bailarina ligera de ropa. +Lo mira y le dice: "Vine en busca de una "sopa de sexo". +"Est bien", dice George, "yo elijo la sopa". +Me di cuenta, como mdico, que estaba trabajando por un objetivo diferente al objetivo de la evolucin; no necesariamente contradictorio, slo diferente. +Estaba tratando de preservar el cuerpo. +Quera que nos mantuvisemos saludables. +Quera recuperar la salud en la enfermedad. +Quera que viviramos ms y de manera ms saludable. +La evolucin consiste en pasar el genoma a la prxima generacin; adaptndose y superviviendo generacin tras generacin. +Desde un punto de vista evolutivo Uds y yo somos como cohetes de refuerzo diseados para enviar la carga gentica al siguiente nivel orbital y luego dejarnos caer al mar. +Creo que todos entenderamos el sentimiento que expres Woody Allen cuando dijo: "No quiero lograr la inmortalidad a travs de mi trabajo. +Quiero lograrla no muriendo". +La evolucin no necesariamente favorece a la longevidad. +No necesariamente favorece al ms grande o al ms fuerte o al ms rpido y ni siquiera al ms inteligente. +La evolucin favorece a las criaturas mejor adaptadas a su entorno. +Esa es la nica prueba de supervivencia y xito. +En el fondo del ocano las bacterias termfilas que pueden sobrevivir al calor de las fumarolas que producira, si hubiese peces all, pescado cocido al vaco, sin embargo, han logrado hacer de eso un entorno acogedor. +Entonces, qu significa esto, cuando miramos lo que est sucediendo en la evolucin y si volvemos a pensar en el lugar de los humanos en la evolucin y, en particular, si miramos para adelante, a la fase siguiente...? Yo dira que hay muchas posibilidades. +La primera es que no evolucionemos. +Hemos alcanzado una especie de equilibrio. +Y el razonamiento subyacente sera que mediante la medicina, en primer lugar, hemos sabido preservar gran cantidad de genes que de otro modo habran sido descartados y eliminados de la poblacin. +Y en segundo lugar, como especie, hemos configurado nuestro medio ambiente para que se adapte a nosotros as como nosotros nos adaptamos a l. +Y, por cierto, migramos, circulamos, y nos entremezclamos tanto que ya no es posible tener el aislamiento necesario para que ocurra la evolucin. +Una segunda posibilidad es que se produzca una evolucin del tipo tradicional, natural, impuesta por las fuerzas de la Naturaleza. +Y el argumento aqu sera: que los engranajes de la evolucin ruedan despacio, pero son inexorables. +Y en cuanto al aislamiento: cuando como especie colonicemos planetas distantes van a existir el aislamiento y los cambios ambientales que puedan producir la evolucin de manera natural. +Pero hay una tercera posibilidad, una posibilidad atractiva, intrigante y aterradora. +La denomino neo-evolucin, la nueva evolucin, que no es simplemente natural... sino guiada y elegida por nosotros como individuos en las decisiones que tomaremos. +Ahora, cmo podra suceder esto? +Cmo podramos llegar a hacer esto? +Primero consideremos la realidad de que muchas personas hoy, en algunas culturas, estn tomando decisiones respecto de su descendencia. +En algunas culturas, estn eligiendo tener ms varones que mujeres. +No es algo necesariamente bueno para la sociedad pero es lo que se elige a nivel individual y familiar. +Piensen tambin que si acaso fuera posible poder elegir no slo el sexo de su descendencia, sino, en su propio cuerpo hacer los ajustes genticos para curar o prevenir enfermedades. +Y si pudiramos hacer los cambios genticos para eliminar la diabetes o el Alzheimer o reducir el riesgo de cncer o eliminar la apopleja? +No querran hacer esos cambios en sus genes? +Si miramos al futuro ese tipo de cambios va a ser cada vez ms posible. +El Proyecto Genoma Humano comenz en 1990 y demand 13 aos. +Cost 2.700 millones de dlares. +Al ao siguiente de haber terminado, en 2004, poda hacerse el mismo trabajo por 20 millones de dlares en 3 4 meses. +Hoy, se puede obtener una secuencia completa de los 3.000 millones de pares bases del genoma humano a un costo cercano a los $ 20.000 y en cosa de una semana. +No faltar mucho para que se haga realidad el genoma humano por $1.000 y estar cada vez ms al alcance de todos. +Se vienen esos cambios. +La misma tecnologa que ha producido la insulina humana en bacterias puede hacer virus que no slo nos van a proteger de ellos mismos sino que van a inducir inmunidad contra otros virus. +Crase o no hay un ensayo experimental en curso con la vacuna contra la influenza cultivada en clulas de una planta de tabaco. +Pueden imaginar algo bueno que salga del tabaco? +Eso es realidad hoy y en el futuro va a ser cada vez ms posible. +Imaginen entonces slo otros dos pequeos cambios: +Pueden cambiar las clulas de sus cuerpos pero y si pudieran cambiar las clulas de su descendencia? +Y si pudieran cambiar el esperma y los vulos, o cambiar el vulo recin fecundado, y darle a sus hijos una mejor oportunidad de una vida ms sana, eliminar la diabetes, eliminar la hemofilia, reducir el riesgo de cncer? +Quin no quiere hijos ms sanos? +Y luego, esa misma tecnologa analtica, ese mismo motor de la ciencia que puede producir los cambios para prevenir enfermedades nos va a permitir tambin adoptar sper-atributos hiper-capacidades... una mejor memoria. +Por qu no tener el ingenio de un Ken Jennings sobre todo si uno pude aumentarlo con la prxima generacin de la mquina Watson? +Por qu no tener un msculo de contraccin ms rpido que nos permita correr ms rpido y ms distancia? +Por qu no vivir ms tiempo? +Esto va a ser irresistible. +Y cuando estemos en condiciones de pasarle esto a la prxima generacin y podamos adoptar los atributos que queramos habremos convertido la evolucin de antes en la neo-evolucin. +Vamos a tomar un proceso que normalmente podra llevar 100 mil aos y podemos comprimirlo a 1.000 aos y tal vez ocurra dentro de los prximos 100 aos. +Estas son elecciones que sus nietos, o los nietos de sus nietos, van a tener ante ellos. +Vamos a usar estas opciones en pos de una sociedad mejor, ms exitosa, ms considerada? +O, vamos a elegir selectivamente diferentes atributos que queremos para algunos de nosotros pero no para los dems? +Vamos a construir una sociedad que sea ms aburrida y ms uniforme o ms robusta y ms verstil? +ste es el tipo de pregunta que vamos a tener que enfrentar. +Y lo ms profundo de todo: vamos a ser capaces de desarrollar la sabidura y de heredar la sabidura necesaria para tomar estas decisiones sabiamente? +Para bien o para mal, y antes de lo que podra pensarse, estas opciones van a depender de nosotros. +Gracias. +Imaginen una gran explosin cuando ests a 900 mts de altura +Imaginen un avin lleno de humo. +Imaginen un motor haciendo clac, clac, clac, +clac, clac, clac, clac. Suena aterrador. +Bien, yo tena un asiento nico ese da. Estaba sentado en el 1D. +Era el nico que poda hablar con los asistentes de vuelo. +As que de inmediato los mir, y dijeron: "No hay problema. Probablemente golpeamos algunas aves". +El piloto ya haba virado el avin, y no estbamos tan lejos. +Se poda ver Manhattan. +Dos minutos despus, 3 cosas sucedieron al mismo tiempo. +El piloto aline el avin con el ro Hudson. +Generalmente esa no es la ruta. +Apag los motores. +Imaginen estar en un avin y sin ruidos. +Y luego dijo 3 palabras -- +las 3 palabras ms desapasionadas que haya escuchado. +Dijo, "Prepararse para el impacto". +No tuve que hablar ms con la asistente de vuelo. +Pude verlo en sus ojos, +era terror. La vida se terminaba. +Quiero compartir con ustedes 3 cosas que aprend sobre m mismo ese da. +Aprend que todo cambia en un instante. +Tenemos esta lista de cosas para hacer antes de morir, estas cosas que queremos hacer en vida, y pens en toda la gente a las que quera llegar y no lo hice, todas las cercas que quera reparar, todas las experiencias que he querido tener y nunca tuve. +Mientras pensaba en eso ms adelante, Me vino una frase, que es, "Colecciono vinos malos". +Porque si el vino est listo y la persona est ah, lo voy a abrir. +Ya no quiero aplazar nada en la vida. +Y esa urgencia, ese propsito, realmente ha cambiado mi vida. +Lo segundo que aprend ese da -- y esto es mientras evitbamos el puente George Washington, que no fu por mucho -- Pens sobre, wow, Realmente siento un gran pesar. +He vivido una buena vida. +En mi humanidad y con mis errores He tratado de mejorar en todo lo que hice. +Pero en mi humanidad tambin d lugar a mi ego. +Y lamento el tiempo que desperdici en cosas que no importaban con gente que s importan. +Y pens en mi relacin con mi esposa, con mis amigos, con la gente. +Y despus, como medit en eso, Decid eliminar la energa negativa de mi vida. +No es perfecta, pero es mucho mejor. +En 2 aos no he tenido una pelea con mi esposa. +Se siente de maravillas. +Ya no trato de tener razn; Elijo ser felz. +Lo tercero que aprend -- y esto es como que tu reloj mental va descontando, "15, 14, 13". +Ves el agua aproximarse. +Estoy diciendo, "Por favor vuela". +No quiero que esto se rompa en 20 piezas como se ven en esos documentales. +Y mientras bajbamos, tuve la sensacin de, wow, morir no da miedo. +Es casi como que hemos estado preparandonos para ello toda nuestra vida. +Pero fue muy triste. +No me quera ir; amo mi vida. +Y esa tristeza se enmarc en un nico pensamiento, que es, slo deseo una cosa. +Ojal pudiera ver a mis hijos crecer. +Un mes ms tarde, estaba en una actuacin de mi hija - primer grado, no mucho talento artstico ... ...todava. Y grito, lloro, como un pequeo. +Y para m, esa era toda la razn de ser del mundo. +En ese punto comprend, al conectar esos dos puntos, que lo nico que importa en mi vida es ser un gran padre. +Por sobre todo, la nica meta que tengo en la vida es ser un buen padre. +Se me concedi un milagro, de no morir ese da. +Y se me concedi otro regalo, que fue la posibilidad de mirar el futuro y volver y vivir de otra forma. +A ustedes que estn volando hoy, los desafo a que imaginen que lo mismo les pasa en su avin -- y por favor que no sea as -- pero imaginen, y cmo cambiaran? +Qu es lo que haran, que an esperan hacer porque piensan que van a vivir por siempre? +Cmo cambiaran sus relaciones y la energa negativa en ellas? +Y lo ms importante, estn siendo los mejores padres que pueden? +Gracias. +Claramente he sido bendecido en la vida con muchos proyectos asombrosos. +Pero el ms genial en el que trabaj fue para este tipo. +El tipo se llama TEMPT. +TEMPT fue uno de los graffiteros ms importantes de los aos 80. +Un da lleg a su casa despus de correr y dijo: "Pap, siento un hormigueo en las piernas". +Y ese fue el inicio de la ELA. +Hoy TEMPT tiene una parlisis total. +Slo puede usar los ojos. +Su trabajo influy en m. +Tengo una empresa de diseo y animacin as que, obviamente, el graffiti es algo intrincado que admiramos y respetamos en el mundo del arte. +Por eso decidimos que bamos a patrocinar a Tony, TEMPT, y a su causa. +As que fui y me reun con su hermano y su padre y les dije: "Vamos a darles este dinero. +Qu van a hacer con l?" +Y su hermano dijo: "Slo quiero poder hablar con Tony otra vez. +Slo quiero poder comunicarme con l y que l sea capaz de comunicarse conmigo". +Y yo le dije: "Un segundo, no es que -he visto a Stephen Hawking- no es que todas las personas con parlisis pueden comunicarse mediante esos aparatos?" +Y l dijo: "No, a menos que seas alguien importante y tengas un seguro muy bueno no puedes en realidad hacerlo. +Estos dispositivos no son asequibles para la gente". +Y yo le dije: "Bueno, cmo se comunican entonces?" +Alguien a visto la pelcula "La escafandra y la mariposa"? +Se comunican de esa manera... le van marcando con el dedo. +Le dije: "Eso es arcaico. Cmo puede ser?" +As que me present con el solo deseo de entregar un cheque y en vez de eso firm un cheque que no tena la menor idea de cmo iba a cubrir. +Me compromet con su hermano y con su padre all en ese preciso momento, "Muy bien, este es el trato: Tony va a hablar, le vamos a construir una mquina, y vamos a encontrar una manera para que vuelva a hacer su arte otra vez. +Porque es ridculo que alguien que tienen tanto en su interior no pueda comunicarlo". +As que habl en una conferencia un par de meses despus. +Conoc a estos tipos llamados GRL "Graffiti Research Lab", que tienen una tecnologa que les permite proyectar una luz en cualquier superficie y entonces, con un puntero lser, dibujan sobre eso y registran el espacio negativo. +As que van por ah haciendo instalaciones de arte como sta. +Todas las cosas que aparecen, ellos dicen, son parte de un ciclo de la vida. +Primero empiezan con los rganos sexuales, luego con las malas palabras, despus con los ataques a Bush y, al final, la gente empieza a hacer arte. +Pero siempre hubo un ciclo de la vida en sus presentaciones. +Y as empez el viaje. +Y unos dos aos despus, cerca de un ao despus, luego de mucha organizacin y de mucho mover las cosas de un lado a otro habamos logrado un par de cosas. +Una, tocamos a las puertas de las compaas de seguros y conseguimos una mquina para que TEMPT pudiera comunicarse; una mquina como la de Stephen Hawking. +Lo cual fue genial. +Y, en serio, es de lo ms divertido; Yo le llamo Yoda porque al hablar con el tipo uno recibe un correo electrnico de l, y uno se dice: "No lo merezco. Este tipo es fantstico". +La otra cosa que hicimos fue traer a siete programadores de todo el mundo -literalmente de todos los rincones del planeta- a nuestra casa. +Mi esposa, los nios y yo, nos mudamos al garage de atrs y estos hackers y programadores y conspiradores y anarquistas tomaron el control de la casa. +Muchos de nuestros amigos pensaron que hacamos algo totalmente estpido y que cuando regresramos habran quitado los cuadros de las paredes y en su lugar habra graffiti. +Pero durante dos semanas programamos, fuimos al paseo martimo de Venice, mi hijo fue parte, mi perro tambin, y creamos esto. +Se llama EyeWriter [EscritorOcular, NT] y pueden ver la descripcin. +Son un par de gafas de sol baratas que compramos en el paseo martimo de Venice Beach, algo de alambre de cobre y cosas de Home Depot y Radio Shack. +Tomamos una cmara PS3, la abrimos, la montamos sobre una luz de LED y ahora hay un dispositivo que es gratis -lo construye uno mismo; publicamos el cdigo gratis- el software se baja en forma gratuita. +Y creamos un dispositivo que no tiene limitacin en lo absoluto. +No hay compaa de seguro que diga "no". +No hay hospital que pueda decir "no". +Cualquier persona con parlisis hoy tiene acceso a dibujar y comunicarse usando slo sus ojos. +Gracias. +Muchas gracias a Uds. Eso fue impresionante. +As, al final de las dos semanas regresamos a la habitacin de TEMPT. +Me encanta esta foto porque sta es la habitacin de otra persona y esa es su habitacin. +Haba todo este bullicio y ajetreo durante la gran inauguracin. +Y luego de ms de un ao de planificacin, dos semanas de programacin, sesiones intensas de toda la noche, Tony volvi a dibujar por primera vez en siete aos. +Y esta es una foto maravillosa porque este es el sistema de soporte de su vida y est mirando a travs del sistema de soporte de su vida. +Le corrimos la cama para que pudiera ver. +Y colocamos un proyector sobre una pared del estacionamiento de afuera del hospital. +Y l volvi a dibujar por primera vez frente a su familia y amigos -y se imaginarn lo que fue el sentimiento en el estacionamiento. +Lo gracioso fue que tuvimos que irrumpir en el estacionamiento as que sentimos como si estuviramos legitimando el graffiti tambin. +Al final de esto l nos mand un correo electrnico y esto era lo que nos deca: "Esta fue la primera vez que dibujaba en siete aos. +Me senta como si hubiera estado bajo el agua y alguien finalmente viniera a rescatarme y me sacara de all para que pudiera respirar". +No es maravilloso? +En cierta forma ese es nuestro grito de guerra. +Eso es lo que nos mantiene en movimiento, desarrollando. +Y tenemos un largo camino por recorrer con esto. +Es un dispositivo genial pero es el equivalente de una Pantalla Mgica. +Alguien con este potencial artstico merece mucho ms. +Por eso estamos tratando de averiguar cmo mejorarlo y hacerlo ms rpido y robusto. +Desde entonces hemos tenido todo tipo de reconocimiento. +Hemos ganado muchos premios. +Recuerden, es gratis; ninguno de nosotros est haciendo dinero con esto. +Todo sale de nuestros propios bolsillos. +Los premios fueron del tipo: "Oh, esto es fantstico". +Armstrong tuite algo sobre nosotros y entonces, en diciembre, la revista Time nos reconoci como uno de los 50 mejores inventos de 2010, y fue realmente genial. +Lo mejor de todo esto -y esto es lo que termina de cerrar el crculo- es que en abril de este ao en el Geffen del MOCA en el centro de Los ngeles va a haber una exhibicin llamada "Arte en las Calles". +Y "Arte en las Calles" va a tener a los mejores exponentes del arte urbano -Banksy, Shepard Fairey, CAWs- todos ellos van a estar all. +TEMPT va a estar en el show lo cual es bastante impresionante. +As que, bsicamente esta es mi idea: si ves algo que no es posible, hazlo posible. +Nada de lo que hay en esta habitacin era posible -el escenario, la computadora, el micrfono, el EscritorOcular- nada era posible en cierto momento. +Hazlo posible... cualquier cosa de esta sala. +No soy programador, nunca hice nada con tecnologa de reconocimiento ocular; simplemente reconoc algo y me asoci con gente maravillosa para poder hacer que suceda. +Y estas son las preguntas que quiero que todos nos hagamos todos los das cuando nos encontremos con algo que sintamos que hay que hacer. Si no es ahora, cundo? Y si no soy yo, quin? +Gracias muchachos. +He pasado los ltimos aos metindome en situaciones generalmente muy difciles y al mismo tiempo un tanto peligrosas. +Fui a la crcel... difcil. +Trabaj en una mina de carbn... peligroso. +Film en zonas de guerra... difcil y peligroso. +Y pas 30 das comiendo solamente esto... divertido al principio, algo difcil en el medio, muy peligroso al final. +De hecho, en gran parte de mi carrera me he estado sumergiendo en situaciones en apariencia horribles con el nico objetivo de tratar. de examinar cuestiones sociales de maneras que resulten atractivas, interesantes, y, con suerte, analizarlas de una manera que se vean entretenidas y accesibles para la audiencia. +As que cuando supe que vendra aqu a hacer una TEDTalk sobre el mundo de las marcas y el patrocinio quise hacer algo un poco diferente. +As, algunos pueden haberlo odo, o no, hace un par de semanas saqu un aviso en Ebay. +Envi algunos mensajes en Facebook, algunos en Twitter, ofrec en venta los derechos del nombre de mi TEDTalk de 2011. +Lo que haba era lo siguiente: "AQU SU NOMBRE presenta: mi TEDTalk de la que no tienen idea de qu se trata y segn contenido podra explotarle en la cara, especialmente si lo pongo en ridculo a Ud o a su compaa al hacerlo. +Pero dicho esto, es una muy buena oportunidad meditica". +Saben cunta gente mira estas TEDTalks? +Mucha. +Es un ttulo en progreso, por cierto. +As que an con esa salvedad saba que alguien iba a comprar los derechos del nombre. +Si me lo hubieran preguntado hace un ao no hubiera podido decrselos con certeza. +Pero en el nuevo film en el que estoy trabajando, examinamos el mundo del marketing, de la publicidad. +Y como dije anteriormente, me he metido en situaciones horribles en los ltimos aos pero nada me poda preparar, nada poda anticiparme, para algo tan difcil o tan peligroso como entrar a las salas con estos tipos. +Ya ven, yo tena esta idea para una pelcula. +Morgan Spurlock: Quiero hacer un film que trate de la colocacin de productos, el marketing y la publicidad, y que todo el film se financie con colocacin de productos, marketing y publicidad. +La pelcula se va a llamar "La pelcula ms grande jams vendida". +Lo que sucede en "La pelcula ms grande jams vendida" es que todo de arriba a abajo, de principio a fin, tiene imgenes de marca, todo el tiempo; desde el auspiciante que aparece antes del ttulo, la marca X. +Ahora esta marca, Qualcomm Stadium, el Staples Center... +estas personas se asociarn al film a perpetuidad... para siempre. +Y as el film explora toda esta idea. (Michael Kassan: es redundante). Es qu? (MK: Es redundante). A perpetuidad, para siempre? +Soy una pesona redundante. (MK: Solo lo digo). Fue ms por nfasis. +Era "A perpetuidad. Para siempre". +Pero no slo vamos a tener el patrocinador de la marca X en el ttulo sino que vamos a asegurarnos de agotar todas las categoras que podamos en el film. +Quiz vendamos un zapato y se vuelve el zapato ms genial que hayas usado... +el auto ms genial que hayas conducido en "La pelcula ms grande jams vendida", el mejor trago que hayas bebido, cortesa de "La pelcula ms grande jams vendida". +Xavier Kochhar: La idea es entonces adems de mostrar las marcas como parte de la vida, hacerlas que financien el film? (MS: Hacer que financien el film). MS: Y en realidad mostramos el proceso completo de cmo funciona. +El objetivo del film completo es la transparencia. +Van a ver todo el proceso en esta pelcula. +Esa es la idea completa, todo el film, de principio a fin. +Y me encantara que CEG ayude a hacer que suceda. +Robert Friedman: Ya sabes, es gracioso porque es la primera vez que oigo eso; es el mximo respeto por la audiencia. +Guy: Sin embargo, no s cun receptiva va a ser la gente a eso. +XK: Tienes una perspectiva... -no s si "ngulo" es muy negativo- pero sabes cmo va a repercutir? (MS: Ni idea). David Cohn: Cunto dinero hace falta para hacer esto? +MS: Un milln y medio. (DC: Muy bien) John Kamen: creo que va a ser difcil la reunin con ellos pero que sin duda va a valer la pena convencer a un par de marcas grandes. +XK: Quien sabe, quiz para el momento que salga la pelcula nos veamos como un montn de idiotas alegres. +MS: Cul piensas que va a ser la respuesta? +Stuart Ruderfer: La mayora de las respuestas sern "no". +MS: Pero ser difcil de venderlo, por el film o por ser yo? +JK: Ambas cosas. +MS: ... significa que no eres muy optimista. +As, me ayudan? Necesito ayuda. +MK: Yo puedo ayudar. +MS: Muy bien. (MK: Bien) Impresionante. +MK: Tenemos que pensar en cules marcas. +MS: S. (MK: Ese es el desafo) Cuando miras a la gente a la que tienes que tratar... +MK: Tenemos algunos lugares a donde ir. (MS: Bien) Apaga la cmara. +MS: Pens que "apaga la cmara" significaba tengamos una conversacin fuera de micrfono. +Apaga la cmara significa "No queremos saber nada de tu pelcula". +MS: Y as fue, una por una, todas estas compaas de repente desaparecieron. +Ninguna quiso tener nada que ver con esta pelcula. +Me sorprendi. +No queran saber nada con este proyecto. +Y qued muy impresionado; pens que el concepto de la publicidad, era presentarle el producto a tanta gente como fuera posible, Hacer que tanta gente lo viera como fuera posible. +Especialmente en el mundo de hoy esta interseccin de nuevos medios y viejos medios y el escenario de los medios separados, no es la idea contar con ese nuevo vehculo digno de atencin que va a llevar el mensaje a las masas? +No, eso era lo que yo pensaba. +Pero el problema era, ya ven, que mi idea tena un error garrafal y ese error era ste. +En realidad no, no haba tal error. +No haba un error en absoluto. +Esto habra estado bien. +Pero el problema era lo que representa esta imagen. +Vean, cuando uno busca imgenes de 'transparencia' en Google aparece... esta es una de las primeras imgenes que aparecen. +Me gusta tu manera de rodar, Sergey Brin. No. +Este era el problema: la transparencia... libre de simulacin o engao; fcilmente detectado o visto; fcilmente comprensible; que se caracteriza por la visibilidad o accesibilidad de la informacin, sobre todo en las prcticas de negocio... siendo la ltima lnea quiz el problema ms grande. +Ya ven, omos mucho sobre la transparencia en estos das. +Nuestros polticos la nombran, el presidente la nombra, incluso los CEOs la nombran. +Pero de repente cuando se trata de hacerla realidad algo cambia repentinamente. +Pero por qu? Bueno, la transparencia da miedo... como ese oso raro que an sigue rugiendo. +Es impredecible... Como este raro camino rural. +Y tambin es muy arriesgado. +Qu otra cosa es arriesgada? +Comerse un tazn entero de Cool Whip. +Eso es muy arriesgado. +Cuando empec a hablar con las empresas y a decirles que queramos contar esta historia y dijeron: "No, queremos que cuentes 'una' historia. +Queremos que cuentes una historia, pero que cuentes 'nuestra' historia". +Vean, cuando yo era nio y mi padre me atrapaba en alguna mentira -y ah est l mirndome como sola hacerlo- deca: "Hijo, hay tres lados en cada historia. +Est tu historia, est mi historia, y est la historia real". +Como ven, en este film queramos contar la historia real. +Pero con slo una empresa, una agencia queriendo ayudarme -y eso slo porque conoca a John Bond y Richard Kirshenbaum de muchos aos- me di cuenta que tendra que ir por mi cuenta, tendra que quitar al intermediario e ir a las empresas yo mismo con todo mi equipo. +As que lo que empec a advertir de repente -lo que empec a darme cuenta- es que cuando empiezas a conversar con las empresas la idea de entender tu marca es un problema universal. +MS: Tengo amigos que hacen pelculas grandes, enormes, gigantes y otros que hacen pelculas pequeas, independientes, como la ma. +Y mis amigos que hacen pelculas de Hollywood grandes, gigantes, dicen que la razn por la que sus pelculas tienen tanto xito se debe a las marcas asociadas que tienen. +Y luego mis amigos que hacen pelculas independientes dicen: "Bien, cmo se supone que vamos a competir con estas grandes, gigantes pelculas de Hollywood?" +Y la pelcula se llama "La pelcula ms grande jams vendida". +Cmo vamos a ver especficamente a Ban en la pelcula? +Cada vez que estoy por salir, cada vez que abro mi botiqun, vern el desodorante Ban. +En cualquier momento durante una entrevista con alguien puedo decir "Ests bien fresco para esta entrevista? +Ests listo? Te ves un poco nervioso. +Quiero ayudarte a que te calmes. +Tal vez deberas ponerte un poco de esto antes de la entrevista". +Y ah le ofrecera uno de estos aromas fabulosos. +Tanto "Fusin Floral" como "Vientos del Paraso" van a tener su oportunidad. +Vamos a tener tanto para hombre como para mujer; slido, a bolilla, en barra, como sea. +Ese es el vistazo general. +Ahora puedo contestar sus preguntas y darles un vistazo pormenorizado. +Karen Frank: Somos una marca pequea. +Similar al tipo de pelculas ms pequeas que contabas; somos ms bien una marca rival. +Por eso no tenemos el presupuesto que tienen otras marcas. +As que hacer cosas as, ya sabes, recordarle Ban a la gente es la razn por la que esto nos interesa. +MS: Qu palabras usaran para describir a Ban? +Ban est en blanco. +KF: Esa es una gran pregunta. +Mujer: Tecnologa superior. +MS: Tecnologa no es la manera en que uno quiere describir algo que uno se pone en la axila. +Hombre: Hablamos de algo audaz, fresco. +Creo que "fresco" es una gran palabra que realmente pone a esta categora en positivo versus "combate el olor y el sudor". +Te mantiene fresco. +Cmo te mantenemos fresco ms tiempo? Con mejor frescura, ms frescura, tres veces ms fresco. +Cosas como esas que resaltan los beneficios. +MS: Y esa es una empresa multimillonaria. +Qu hay de m? Qu hay de un tipo comn? +Necesito hablarle al hombre de la calle, a las personas como yo, a los Pepes comunes. +Ellos tienen que hablarme de mi marca. +MS: Cmo definen Uds su marca? +Hombre: Mmm mi marca? +No s. +Me gusta la ropa buena. +Mujer: revivir los 80, 'patinadora punk' a menos que sea da de lavandera. +MS: Est bien, qu es la marca Gerry? +Gerry: Algo nico. (MS: nico) Hombre: Supongo que el tipo de gnero, el estilo que tengo sera como un 'glamour oscuro'. +Me gustan mucho los colores oscuros, muchos grises y cosas as. +Por lo general llevo accesorios como gafas de sol, o me gustan los cristales y similares. +Mujer: si Dan fuera una marca podra ser un 'convertible clsico', Mercedes Benz. +Hombre 2: la marca que soy, la llamara 'vuelo casual'. +Mujer 2: En parte hippie, en parte yogui, en parte 'chica Brooklyn', no s. +Hombre 3: Soy el tipo de las mascotas. +Vendo juguetes para mascotas en el pas y en el mundo. +As que supongo esa es mi marca. +En mi pequeo sector, esa es mi marca. +Hombre 4: Mi marca es FedEx porque entrego la mercadera. +Hombre 5: Marca escritor-alcohlico fracasado. +Es eso algo? +Abogado: Soy marca abogado. +Tom: Soy Tom. +MS: Bueno, no todos podemos ser marca Tom, pero a menudo me clasifico en la interseccin de 'glamour oscuro' y 'vuelo casual'. +Me di cuenta que necesitaba un experto. +Necesitaba alguien que pudiera entrar en mi cabeza, alguien que pudiera ayudarme a entender lo que llaman la "personalidad de marca". +Y encontr una empresa llamada Olson Zaltman en Pittsburg. +Ellos le ayudaron a empresas como Nestl, Febreze, Hallmark a descubrir esa personalidad de marca. +Si pudieron hacerlo para ellos, seguramente podan hacerlo para m. +Abigail: Trajiste las fotos, cierto? +MS: S. La primera foto es una foto familiar. +A: Cuntame un poco cmo se relaciona con tus pensamientos y sentimientos tu forma de ser. +MS: Estas personas modelan mi manera de ver el mundo. +A: Cuntame de ese mundo. +MS: Ese mundo? Creo que tu mundo es el mundo en el que vives... como la gente que te rodea, tus amigos, tu familia, el modo en que vives tu vida, el trabajo que haces. +Todas esas cosas se originan y comienzan en un lugar y en mi caso se originan y empiezan en mi familia, en Virginia Occidental. +A: Cul es la prxima de la que quieres hablar? +MS: La prxima es "Este fue el mejor da de mi vida". +A: Cmo se relaciona esto con tus pensamientos, sentimientos y tu forma de ser? +MS: Es como quin quisiera ser yo. +Me gustan las cosas diferentes. +Me gustan las cosas raras. Me gustan las cosas raras. +A: Cuntame del "porqu"... para qu nos sirve eso? +Cul es el machete? En qu fase de pupa te encuentras ahora? +Por qu es importante reiniciar? Qu representa el rojo? +Cuntame un poco sobre eso. +...un poco ms de ti, que no es quin eres. +Qu otras metamorfosis has tenido? +...no tiene que haber temor. En qu tipo de montaa rusa ests? +MS: Ayyy! (A: Gracias) No, gracias. +A: Gracias por tu paciencia. (MS: Gran trabajo) A: S. (MS: Muchas gracias) Muy bien. +MS: S, no s lo que va a salir de esto. +Haba mucha locura en todo esto. +Lindsay Zaltman: Lo primero que vi fue esta idea de que hay dos lados distintos, pero complementarios, en tu personalidad de marca; la marca Morgan Spurlock es una marca consciente/ldica. +Se yuxtaponen muy bien juntas. +Y creo que hay casi una paradoja en ellas. +Y creo que algunas empresas slo se centrarn en uno de sus puntos fuertes o en el otro en vez de centrarse en ambos. +Muchas compaas tienden -y es la naturaleza humana- a evitar las cosas de las que no estn seguras; evitan el miedo, esos elementos, y t en realidad les das cabida y haces que se vuelvan algo positivo para ti, y es agradable ver eso. +Qu otras marcas son as? +La primera aqu es la clsica, Apple. +Y se puede ver tambin aqu a Target, Wii, Mini de Mini Coopers y JetBlue. +Ahora hay marcas ldicas y marcas conscientes, esas cosas que han ido y venido pero una marca ldico-consciente es algo bastante potente. +MS: una marca ldico-consciente. Cul es tu marca? +Si alguien te pide que describas tu identidad de marca, tu personalidad de marca, cul sera? +Eres un atributo ascendente? Eres alguien que hace que la sangre fluya? +O eres ms bien un atributo descendente? +un poco ms calmado, reservado, conservador? +Los atributos ascendentes son como ser ldico ser fresco como El Prncipe, contemporneo, aventurero, atrevido o audaz como Errol Flynn, rpido o gil, profano, dominante, mgico o mstico como Gandalf. +O eres ms bien de atributo descendente? +Eres consciente, sofisticado como 007? +Eres establecido, tradicional, proveedor, protector?, te identificas con Oprah? +Eres confiable, estable, familiar, confiable, seguro, sagrado, contemplativo o sabio, como el Dalai Lama o Yoda? +En el transcurso de esta pelcula tuvimos a ms de 500 empresas, ascendentes y descendentes, que decan "no", no queran formar parte de este proyecto. +No queran tener nada que ver con esta pelcula, principalmente porque no tendran control, no tendran control sobre el producto final. +Nos permitieron contar la historia del neuromarketing, y llegamos a contar la historia en esta pelcula de cmo ahora usan la resonancia magntica para identificar los centros del deseo en el cerebro tanto para marketing comercial como para cine. +Fuimos a San Paulo donde han prohibido la publicidad al aire libre. +En toda la ciudad durante los ltimos 5 aos no hay vallas, no hay carteles, no hay volantes, nada. +Y fuimos a distritos escolares en los que las empresas estn hacindose camino en las escuelas con problemas de liquidez en EE.UU. +Lo increble para m es que los proyectos en los cuales he tenido la mayor respuesta o en los que he tenido ms xito son aquellos en los que he interactuado con cosas directamente. +Y eso es lo que hicieron estas marcas. +Quitaron a los intermediarios, quitaron a sus agencias, y dijeron quiz estas agencias no tienen mi mejor inters en mente. +Voy a tratar directamente con el artista. +Voy a trabajar con l para crear algo diferente, algo que va a hacer pensar a la gente, que va a desafiar la manera en que miramos el mundo. +Y cmo les ha ido? Tuvieron xito? +Bueno, desde que la pelcula se estren en el Festival de Sundance, echemos un vistazo. +Segn Burrelles la pelcula se estren en enero, y desde entonces -y esto no es todo- hemos tenido 900 millones de impresiones en los medios para este film. +Esto cubre solo un perodo de dos semanas y media. +Eso es slo en lnea... ni prensa, ni TV. +La pelcula todava no se distribuy. +Todava no est en lnea. No est en streaming. +Ni siquiera se ha presentado en otros pases todava. +En ltima instancia, esta pelcula ya ha empezado a ganar impulso. +Y no est mal pues casi todas las agencias con las que hablamos le aconsejaban a sus clientes no ser parte. +Siempre he credo que si uno se arriesga, si uno toma riesgos, que en esos riesgos hay oportunidades. +Creo que cuando uno saca a la gente de eso los est empujando al fracaso. +Creo que cuando uno entrena a sus empleados en la aversin al riesgo est preparando a toda su empresa para carecer de recompensas. +Siento que lo que tiene que suceder para avanzar es que tenemos que animar a la gente a arriesgarse. +Tenemos que animar a la gente a que no tenga miedo de las oportunidades que pueden asustarlos. +En ltima instancia, avanzar, creo que tenemos que darle lugar al miedo. +Tenemos que poner a ese oso en una jaula. +Abracemos el miedo. Abracemos el riesgo. +De a una cucharada a la vez, tenemos que abrazar el riesgo. +Y, en definitiva, tenemos que albergar a la transparencia. +Hoy ms que nunca un poco de honestidad va a recorrer un largo camino. +Y dicho esto, con honestidad y transparencia, toda mi charla "Abracemos la Transparencia" ha sido presentada por mis buenos amigos de EMC quienes por $7.100 compraron los derechos del nombre en Ebay. +EMC: Convirtiendo grandes datos en grandes oportunidades para empresas de todo el mundo. +EMC presenta "Abracemos la Transparencia". +Muchas gracias gente. +June Cohen: Entonces, Morgan, en nombre de la transparencia, que sucedi exactamente con esos $7.100? +MS: Es una pregunta excepcional. +En mi bolsillo tengo un cheque a nombre de la organizacin matriz de TED, la Fundacin Sapling, un cheque por $7.100 para ser aplicado a mi asistencia para TED del ao prximo. +La idea detrs del gusano informtico Stuxnet es en realidad muy simple. +No queremos que Irn obtenga la bomba nuclear. +Su mayor activo para desarrollar armas nucleares es la planta de enriquecimiento de Uranio en Natanz. +Las cajas grises que ven son sistemas de control en tiempo real. +Si logramos comprometer estos sistemas que controlan velocidades y vlvulas, podemos causar un montn de problemas con la centrfuga. +Las cajas grises no usan software de Windows; son de una tecnologa completamente diferente. +Pero si logramos poner un virus efectivo de Windows en un ordenador porttil usado por un ingeniero para configurar esta caja gris, entonces estamos listos. +Este es el plan detrs de Stuxnet. +Comenzamos con un instalador Windows. +La ojiva ingresa a la caja gris, daa la centrfuga, y el programa nuclear iran es demorado; misin cumplida. +Es fcil, eh? +Quiero contarles cmo descubrimos esto. +Cuando comenzamos a investigar sobre Stuxnet hace 6 meses, el propsito era completamente desconocido. +Lo nico que se saba es que es muy, muy complejo en la parte de Windows: el instalador usaba mltiples vulnerabilidades da-cero. +Pareca querer hacer algo con estas cajas grises, estos sistemas de control. +Eso nos llam la atencin, y comenzamos un experimento en el que infectamos nuestro entorno con Stuxnet y vimos qu pasaba con esto. +Entonces pasaron cosas muy extraas. +Stuxnet se comportaba como una rata de laboratorio a la que no le gustaba nuestro queso: lo ola, pero no quera comer. +No tena sentido para m. +Y luego de experimentar con diferentes sabores de queso, me di cuenta, y pens: Esto es un ataque dirigido. +Es completamente dirigido." +El instalador est buscando activamente en la caja gris si encuentra una configuracin especfica, e incluso si el programa que est tratando de infectar est efectivamente funcionando en ese lugar: +si no, Stuxnet no hace nada. +As que eso llam mi atencin, y comenzamos a trabajar en esto casi 24 horas al da, porque pens; "No sabemos cul es el objetivo." +Podra ser, digamos por ejemplo, una planta de energa de EEUU, o una planta qumica en Alemania. +Mejor que descubriramos el objetivo pronto. +Entonces extrajimos y descompilamos el cdigo de ataque, y descubrimos que estaba estructurado en 2 bombas digitales: una pequea y una grande. +Tambin vimos que estaban armados muy profesionalmente por gente que obviamente tena toda la informacin interna. +Conocan todos los puntos por los que atacar. +Probablemente incluso sepan cunto calza el operador. +As que saben todo. +Y si han escuchado que el instalador de Stuxnet es complejo y de alta tecnologa, djenme decirles: la carga es muy compleja. +Est muy por encima de todo lo que hayamos visto antes. +Aqu ven una muestra de este cdigo de ataque. +Estamos hablando de alrededor de 15 mil lneas de cdigo. +Se parece bastante al viejo lenguaje ensamblador. +Quiero contarles cmo pudimos encontrarle sentido a este cdigo. +Lo que buscbamos al principio eran llamadas a funciones del sistema, porque sabemos lo que hacen. +Luego buscbamos temporizadores y estructuras de datos y tratbamos de relacionarlos con el mundo real, con potenciales objetivos del mundo real. +Necesitamos teoras sobre destinatarios que podamos aprobar o desaprobar. +Para llegar a teoras sobre objetivos, recordamos que es definitivamente un sabotaje violento, debe ser un blanco valioso, y est seguramente ubicado en Irn, porque es donde la mayora de las infecciones ha sido reportada. +No se encuentran varios miles de objetivos en ese rea. +Bsicamente se reduce a la planta de energa nuclear de Bushehr y a la planta de enriquecimiento de Natanz. +Entonces le dije a mi asistente, "Treme una lista de todos los expertos en centrfugas y plantas de energa entre nuestros clientes." +Los llam y les consult en un esfuerzo por conjugar su experiencia con lo que encontramos en cdigo y datos. +Y funcion bastante bien. +As que pudimos asociar la pequea ojiva digital con el control del rotor. +El rotor es esa parte mvil dentro de la centrfuga, ese objeto negro que ven. +Si manejan la velocidad de este rotor, ciertamente pueden quebrarlo e incluso hacer que la centrfuga explote. +Lo que tambin vimos es que la meta del ataque era hacerlo lento y desconcertar en un obvio esfuerzo por volver locos a los ingenieros de mantenimiento, para que no pudieran resolver esto rpidamente. +Intentamos descifrar la ojiva digital grande observando muy de cerca a los datos y sus estructuras. +As, por ejemplo, el nmero 164 sobresale en ese cdigo, no se puede obviar. +Empec a investigar literatura cientfica sobre cmo estas centrfugas son construidas en Natanz y encontr que son estructuradas en lo que se llama una cascada, y cada cascada contiene 164 centrfugas. +Eso tena sentido, haba una coincidencia. +Y se puso mejor an. +Estas centrfugas en Irn estn divididas en 15 partes llamadas etapas. +Y adivinen qu encontramos en el cdigo de ataque? +Una estructura casi idntica. +As que de nuevo, eso era una buena coincidencia. +Esto nos dio mucha confianza en entender lo que tenamos entre manos. +Para que no haya malentendidos: no fue as: +los resultados han sido obtenidos tras varias semanas de trabajo duro. +Habitualmente terminbamos en callejones sin salida y tenamos que volver a empezar. +An as, descubrimos que ambas ojivas digitales apuntaban a un solo y mismo objetivo, pero desde diferentes ngulos. +La ojiva pequea est tomando una cascada, y haciendo girar los rotores y ralentizndolos, y la ojiva grande se comunica con seis cascadas y manipulando vlvulas. +En suma, estamos muy confiados en que hemos determinado cul es el destinatario. +Es Natanz, y es slo Natanz. +No debemos preocuparnos de que otros objetivos sean alcanzados por Stuxnet. +Aqu les muestro unas cosas muy interesantes que vimos, realmente me impresionaron. +Ah est la caja gris, y arriba se ven las centrfugas. +Lo que esta cosa hace es interceptar los valores de entrada de los sensores por ejemplo, de los sensores de presin y los sensores de vibracin y provee cdigo legtimo, el cual todava ejecuta durante el ataque, con falsos datos de entrada. +Y, crase o no, estos datos de entrada falsos son pregrabados por Stuxnet. +Es como en las pelculas de Hollywood donde, durante el robo, la cmara de seguridad se alimenta de video pregrabado. +Es genial eh? +La idea aqu es obviamente no slo burlar a los operadores en el cuarto de control. +Es realmente mucho ms peligrosa y agresiva. +La idea es burlar un sistema de seguridad digital. +Necesitamos sistemas de seguridad digital donde un operador humano no podra actuar rpido. +Por ejemplo, en una planta de energa, cuando la gran turbina de vapor se pasa de velocidad, se deben abrir vlvulas de escape en un milisegundo. +Obviamente, esto no puede hacerlo un operador humano. +All es donde necesitamos sistemas de seguridad digital. +Y cuando estn comprometidos, entonces pueden pasar cosas malas. +La planta puede explotar. +Y ni los operarios ni el sistema de seguridad lo notarn. +Eso asusta. +Pero puede ser peor. +Lo que voy a decir es muy importante. +Piensen en esto. Este ataque es genrico. +No tiene nada que ver, especficamente, con centrfugas, con enriquecimiento de uranio. +Podra funcionar tambin, por ejemplo, en una planta de energa, o en una fbrica automotriz. +Es genrico. +Y no tienes (como atacante) que diseminar esta carga con una llave USB, como vimos en el caso de Stuxnet. +Tambin podras usar tecnologa convencional de gusanos para diseminarlo. +Diseminarlo lo ms posible. +Y si hicieras eso, con lo que terminaras es con una ciber-arma de destruccin masiva. +Esa es la consecuencia que debemos enfrentar. +Desafortunadamente, el mayor nmero de objetivos para tales ataques no est en Medio Oriente. +Est en los Estados Unidos y en Japn. +Todas las reas verdes son espacios con gran nmero de objetivos. +Debemos enfrentar las consecuencias, y mejor que nos empecemos a preparar ahora. +Gracias. +Chris Anderson: Tengo una pregunta. +Ralph, se ha hecho pblico en muchos lados que la gente asume que el Mossad es la principal entidad detrs de esto. +Cul es tu opinin? +Ralph Langnet: Okey, realmente quieren escuchar esto? +S. Okey. +Mi opinin es que el Mossad est involucrado, pero el motor no es Israel: +el motor detrs de esto es la superpotencia ciberntica. +Existe una sola, y sa es los Estados Unidos, afortunadamente, afortunadamente. +Porque, de otro modo, nuestros problemas seran an mayores. +CA: Gracias por atemorizarnos. Gracias, Ralph. +Quiero que se imaginen un robot que se pueda llevar y que d habilidades sobrehumanas. u otro que haga que usuarios de sillas de ruedas se levanten y vuelvan a caminar. +En "Berkely Bionics" llamamos a estos robots, exoesqueletos. +No son nada distinto de algo que se pone en la maana, le da a uno una gran fuerza, que adems le incrementa su velocidad, y le ayuda, por ejemplo, a manejar el equilibrio. +En realidad es la integracin verdadera del hombre y la mquina. +Pero no solo eso - lo puede integrar y conectarlo con el universo y con otros entes exteriores. +Esto no es una idea irreal. +Para mostrarles ahora en lo que estamos trabajando comenzamos por hablar del soldado estadounidense que, en promedio, debe llevar sobre su espalda una carga de 45 kilos, y se le est exigiendo llevar an ms equipo. +Obviamente, esto conduce a algunas complicaciones importantes - lesiones en la espalda, en el 30% de los soldados - con daos crnicos de espalda. +Decidimos contemplar este desafo y crear un exoesqueleto que pudiese ayudar a manejar el asunto. +Permtanme presentarles el HULC - o Porta Cargas Humano Universal +Soldado: Con el exoesqueleto HULC puedo portar 90 kilos por terrenos variables durante muchas horas. +Su diseo flexible, permite ponerse en cuclillas arrastrarse y ejecutar movimientos con gran agilidad. +Percibe lo que quiero hacer, o a dnde quiero ir, y luego aumenta mi fuerza y mi resistencia. +Eythor Bender: Estamos listos, con nuestro socio industrial, para producir este aparato, este nuevo exoesqueleto, este ao. +O sea, que es una realidad. +Volvamos ahora la mirada hacia los usuarios de sillas de ruedas, sobre lo que me siento particularmente apasionado. +Hay 68 millones de personas aproximadamente, en sillas de ruedas, en todo el mundo. +Como un 1% de la poblacin total. +Y este es un clculo realmente conservador. +Hablamos de algo que ocurre con frecuencia, personas muy jvenes, con daos en la columna vertebral que al comenzar su vida - a los 20, 30 o 40 aos - chocan contra un muro y la silla de ruedas resulta ser su nica opcin. +Tambin hablamos de la poblacin que envejece que se multiplica rpidamente. +Su nica opcin, muchas veces - por una lesin cerebral o alguna otra complicacin - es la silla de ruedas. +Y esto ha sido as durante los ltimos 500 aos, desde su exitosa aparicin, como debo reconocer. +As, decidimos comenzar por escribir un nuevo captulo sobre movilidad. +Permtanme presentarles el eLEGS que est usando Amanda Boxtel quien hace 19 aos tuvo una lesin en la columna vertebral, y como resultado no pudo volver a caminar por 19 aos, hasta ahora. +Amanda Boxtel: Gracias. +EB: Amanda est usando nuestro eLEGS, que mencionaba. +Tiene unos sensores - +completamente no invasivos en las muletas que envan seales al computador de a bordo, aqu en la espalda. +Tambin aqu hay unas bateras que le dan energa a los motores en las caderas, y en las rodillas, y la hacen avanzar con este andar suave y muy natural. +AB: Tena 24 aos en la cima de mi vida cuando, por un extrao salto en el aire, esquiando cuesta abajo qued paralizada. +En una fraccin de segundo, perd toda sensacin y todo movimiento de la pelvis hacia abajo. +Poco tiempo despus, un doctor entr a mi habitacin en el hospital, y me dijo: "Amanda, nunca volvers a caminar". +Eso ocurri hace 19 aos. +As me rob hasta la ltima pizca de esperanza de mi ser. +La tecnologa de adaptacin desde entonces, me ha permitido aprender a deslizarme cuesta abajo en esqus, escalar rocas e incluso montar en bicicleta de mano. +Pero no han inventado nada que me permita caminar, hasta ahora. +Gracias. +EB: Como pueden ver, tenemos la tecnologa, tenemos las plataformas para sentarnos y hablar con ustedes. +Est en nuestras manos, y tenemos todo el potencial aqu para cambiarle la vida a futuras generaciones - no solo de soldados, sino a Amanda, y a todos los usuarios de sillas de ruedas, a todos. +AB: Gracias. +Acabo de regresar de una comunidad que tiene el secreto de la supervivencia humana. +Es un lugar donde las mujeres tienen la batuta, practican sexo para decir hola, y el juego es la orden del da... donde la diversin es algo serio. +Y no, no es el festival del Hombre Ardiente o San Francisco. +Damas y caballeros, conozcan a sus primos. +Este es el mundo de los bonobos salvajes de las selvas de Congo. +Los bonobos son, junto con los chimpancs, sus parientes vivos ms cercanos. +Eso significa que todos compartimos un ancestro comn, una abuela evolutiva, que vivi hace unos 6 millones de aos. +Ahora bien, los chimpancs son conocidos por su agresin. +Pero, por desgracia, hemos hecho demasiado hincapi en este aspecto en nuestras narrativas de la evolucin humana. +Pero los bonobos nos muestran el otro lado de la moneda. +Mientras que los chimpancs son dominados por tipos grandes, aterradores, la sociedad bonobo est a cargo de hembras con poder. +Estos muchachos han creado algo especial, ya que esto conduce a una sociedad muy tolerante donde la violencia mortal todava no se ha observado. +Pero, por desgracia, los bonobos son los menos comprendidos de los grandes simios. +Viven en las profundidades de la selva congolea, y ha sido muy difcil estudiarlos. +El Congo es una paradoja... una tierra de extraordinaria biodiversidad y belleza, pero tambin el corazn de la tiniebla misma... escenario de un conflicto violento que se ha prolongado por dcadas y causado casi tantas muertes como la Primera Guerra Mundial. +No es de extraar que esta destruccin tambin ponga en peligro la supervivencia del bonobo. +El comercio de carne de caza y la deforestacin hacen que no se pueda llenar ni un estadio con los bonobos que quedan en el mundo... y, honestamente, no estamos ni seguros de ello. +Sin embargo, en esta tierra de violencia y caos se puede or la risa escondida meciendo los rboles. +Quines son estos primos? +Los conocemos como los simios "haz el amor, no la guerra", ya que tienen sexo frecuente, promiscuo y bisexual para manejar conflictos y resolver problemas sociales. +No estoy diciendo que sta es la solucin a todos los problemas de la Humanidad dado que la vida de los bonobo es ms que el Kama Sutra. +A los bonobos, como a los humanos, les encanta jugar a lo largo de toda su vida. +Jugar no es slo un juego de nios. +Para nosotros y para ellos el juego es fundamental para establecer vnculos y fomentar la tolerancia. +Con l aprendemos a confiar, y aprendemos las reglas del juego. +El juego aumenta la creatividad y la resiliencia y tiene que ver con la generacin de diversidad... diversidad de interacciones, diversidad de comportamientos, diversidad de conexiones. +Y cuando uno observa el juego bonobo ve las races evolutivas mismas de la risa, la danza y el ritual humanos. +El juego es el pegamento que nos une. +No s cmo juegan ustedes pero quiero mostrarles un par de videos nicos recin tomados del medio silvestre. +Primero, es un juego de pelota estilo bonobo; y no hablo de ftbol. +Aqu tenemos a una hembra y un macho jvenes en medio de una persecucin. +Miren lo que est haciendo ella. +Podra ser el origen evolutivo de la frase: "lo tiene agarrado de las pelotas". +Slo que creo que en este caso a l le encanta, no? +S. +As que el juego sexual es comn tanto en bonobos como en humanos. +Y este video realmente es interesante porque muestra... este video realmente es interesante porque muestra la inventiva de traer elementos inusuales al juego -como los testculos- y tambin cmo el juego requiere confianza y fomenta la confianza... y al mismo tiempo es de lo ms divertido. +Pero el juego es polimrfico. +El juego es polimrfico, puede adoptar muchas formas, algunas de las cuales son ms tranquilas, imaginativas, curiosas... quiz el lugar donde se redescubre el asombro. +Y quiero que vean... esta es Fuku, una hembra joven, que est jugando con agua tranquilamente. +Creo que, como ella, a veces jugamos solos, y exploramos los lmites de nuestros mundos interior y exterior. +Y es esa curiosidad ldica la que nos impulsa a explorar, a interactuar. Y luego las conexiones inesperadas que formamos son el semillero real de la creatividad. +Estas son slo pequeas muestras de la comprensin que los bonobo nos dan de nuestro pasado y presente. +Pero tambin tienen un secreto para nuestro futuro, un futuro en el que tenemos que adaptarnos a un mundo cada vez ms difcil con mayor creatividad y mayor cooperacin. +El secreto es que el juego es la clave de estas capacidades. +En otras palabras, el juego es nuestro comodn de adaptacin. +Para adaptarnos con xito a un mundo que cambia tenemos que jugar. +Pero, aprovecharemos al mximo nuestra capacidad de juego? +El juego no es frvolo; +el juego es esencial. +Para bonobos y humanos por igual, la vida no es slo cruel y despiadada. +Cuando parece lo menos apropiado jugar, pueden ser los momentos en que sea lo ms urgente. +Por eso, compaeros primates, aceptemos este regalo de la evolucin y juguemos juntos mientras redescubrimos la creatividad, la amistad y el asombro. +Gracias. +En Nueva York soy responsable de desarrollo de una organizacin sin fines de lucro llamada Robin Hood. +Cuando no estoy combatiendo la pobreza, combato incendios como asistente de capitn en un cuerpo de bomberos voluntarios. +Y, en nuestra ciudad, donde los voluntarios complementan a un personal altamente calificado uno tiene que llegar al sitio del incendio muy pronto para entrar en accin. +Recuerdo mi primer incendio. +Yo era el segundo voluntario en el sitio, as que tena una probabilidad bastante alta de ir. +Pero an as hubo una carrera a pie contra los otros voluntarios para llegar al capitn a cargo y averiguar cul era nuestra tarea. +Cuando encontr al capitn, estaba enfrascado en una conversacin con la propietaria que sin duda atravesaba uno de los peores das de su vida. +Estbamos en plena noche, ella estaba de pie afuera en la lluvia, bajo un paraguas, en pijama, descalza, mientras su casa estaba en llamas. +El otro voluntario que acababa de llegar antes que yo, -llammosle Lex Luther- lleg primero hasta el capitn y ste le pidi que entrara y salvara al perro de la duea de casa. +El perro! Yo estaba 'tan celoso'! +Ah estaba un abogado o gestor de dinero que, durante el resto de su vida, tendra que decirle a la gente que entr en un edificio en llamas para salvar a un ser vivo slo porque me gan por 5 segundos. +Bueno, yo era el siguiente. +El capitn me hizo un ademn. +Dijo: "Bezos, necesito que entre a la casa. +Necesito que suba, atraviese el fuego, y le traiga a esta mujer un par de zapatos". +Lo juro. +No era exactamente lo que esperaba pero fui... sub las escaleras, al final del pasillo, pas a los bomberos 'reales' que a esa altura ms o menos haban terminado de apagar el fuego y entr al cuarto principal en busca de un par de zapatos. +S lo que estn pensando, pero no soy un hroe. +Llev mi carga de vuelta por la escalera donde conoc a mi Nmesis y al precioso perro en la puerta principal. +Sacamos de la casa los tesoros para la duea de casa donde, como era de esperar, su tesoro recibi mucha ms atencin que el mo. +Unas semanas ms tarde el departamento recibi una carta de la duea de casa agradecindonos por el valiente esfuerzo demostrado para salvar su casa. +La amabilidad que ella observ por sobre lo dems fue que alguien le haba alcanzado incluso un par de zapatos. +Tanto en mi vocacin en Robin Hood como en mi vocacin como bombero voluntario soy testigo de actos de generosidad y amabilidad en una escala monumental, pero tambin de actos de gracia y coraje a nivel individual. +Y saben qu he aprendido? +Todo tiene su importancia. +Entonces, cuando miro en esta sala a personas que han logrado, o estn por lograr, niveles notables de xito me gustara recordarles esto: no esperen. +No esperen a ganar el primer milln para marcar la diferencia en la vida de alguien. +Si tienen algo para dar, denlo ahora. +Sirvan comida en un comedor, limpien un parque del vecindario, +sean mentores. +No todos los das vamos a tener la oportunidad de salvar la vida de alguien pero cada da vamos a poder influir la vida de alguien. +As que entren al juego; salven los zapatos. +Gracias. +Bruno Giussani: Mark, Mark, regresa. +Mark Bezos: Gracias. +Esto puede parecer extrao, pero soy una gran admiradora del bloque de concreto. +Los primeros bloques de concreto se fabricaron en 1868 con una idea muy simple: mdulos de cemento de una medida fija que encajan entre s. +Muy rpidamente, estos se convirtieron en la unidad de construccin ms usada en el mundo. +Ellos nos han permitido construir cosas ms grandes que nosotros, como edificios o puentes, un ladrillo a la vez. +Esencialmente, estos bloques se han convertido en los pilares de nuestro tiempo. +Casi un centenar de aos despus, en 1947, a LEGO se le ocurri esto. +Se le llam ladrillo de ensamblaje automtico. +Y en unos pocos aos, los ladrillos de LEGO llegaron a todos los hogares. +Se estima que se han fabricado ms de 400 mil millones o 75 ladrillos por cada persona en el planeta. +No hay que ser ingeniero para construir hermosos puentes, edificios o casas. +LEGO lo hizo accesible. +LEGO simplemente adopt el bloque de concreto, el favorito en el mundo, y lo convirti en una pieza fundamental de nuestra imaginacin. +Mientras tanto, exactamente ese mismo ao, en los laboratorios Bell, la siguiente revolucin estaba a punto de anunciarse: el nuevo bloque de construccin. +El transistor era una unidad pequea de plstico que nos llevara de un mundo de ladrillos estticos apilados unos sobre otros a un mundo donde todo era interactivo. +Al igual que el bloque de concreto, el transistor permite crear circuitos mucho mayores y ms complejos, un ladrillo a la vez. +Pero hay una diferencia principal: El transistor era solo para expertos. +Yo personalmente no lo acepto, que los bloques de construccin de nuestro tiempo estn reservados a los expertos, as que decid cambiarlo. +Hace 8 aos, cuando estaba en el Media Lab, comenc a explorar la idea de llevar el poder de los ingenieros a las manos de los artistas y diseadores. +Hace unos aos empec a desarrollar littleBits. +Les voy a mostrar cmo funcionan. +LittleBits son mdulos electrnicos cada uno con una funcin especfica. +Estn prediseados para ser luz, sonido, motores y sensores. +Y lo mejor de todo es que se unen mediante imanes. +As que no se pueden colocar de manera equivocada. +Los ladrillos tienen un cdigo de colores. +El verde es la salida, el azul es la corriente, el rosa es la entrada y el de color naranja es el alambre. +As que solo hay que ensamblar un azul con uno verde y muy rpidamente se puede empezar a hacer circuitos mayores. +Un azul con uno verde producen luz. +Podemos poner un botn en el medio y as tenemos un regulador. +Si cambiamos el botn por un mdulo de pulso, que est aqu, y ahora tenemos una luz intermitente. +Aadimos este timbre para crear ms impacto y tenemos una mquina de ruido. +Voy a detener esto. +As que ms all del simple juego, littleBits son en realidad muy potentes. +En lugar de tener que programar, conectar y soldar, littleBits nos permite programar usando gestos intuitivos muy simples. +Para hacer parpadear ms rpido o ms lento, simplemente se gira este botn que hace que el pulso sea ms rpido o ms lento. +La idea detrs de littleBits es que sea una coleccin creciente. +Queremos que todas las interacciones en el mundo se reduzcan a ladrillos listos para usar. +Luces, sonidos, paneles solares, motores; todo debe ser accesible. +Hemos dado littleBits a los nios para verlos jugar con ellos. +Y ha sido una experiencia increble. +Lo mejor es cmo empiezan a entender la electrnica de todos los das que no se aprende en las escuelas. +Por ejemplo, cmo funciona una luz de noche, o por qu la puerta de un ascensor se mantiene abierta, o cmo un iPod responde al tacto. +Tambin hemos llevado littleBits a las escuelas de diseo. +As, por ejemplo, los diseadores sin experiencia alguna en electrnica comienzan a jugar con littleBits como un material. +Aqu se puede ver, con botellas de papel y fieltro, tenemos a Geordie creando... +(Sonido metlico) Hace unas semanas llevamos littleBits a los diseadores de la Escuela de diseo de Rhode Island, que no tienen experiencia alguna en ingeniera, solo en cartn, madera y papel y les dijimos: Hagan algo. +He aqu un ejemplo de un proyecto que han hecho, un can de confeti activado por movimiento. +Pero esperen, aqu viene mi proyecto favorito. +Es una langosta hecha de plastilina que tiene miedo de la oscuridad. +Para estos no ingenieros, littleBits se convirti en otro material, la electrnica se convirti en otro material. +Y queremos que este material est al alcance de todos. +Por ello, littleBits tiene cdigo abierto. +Se puede visitar la pgina web, descargar todos los archivos de diseo y fabricarlos. +Queremos alentar un mundo de creadores, inventores y colaboradores porque este mundo en el que vivimos, este mundo interactivo, es nuestro. +As que adelante y a inventar. +Gracias. +Hoy voy a hablarles de los descubrimientos inesperados. +Yo trabajo en la industria de la tecnologa solar. +Y mi pequea empresa busca involucrarnos con el medioambiente enfocndonos en +la colaboracin distribuida. +Este es un pequeo video de lo que hacemos. +Mmmm. Esperen un momento. +Se puede demorar un poco en cargar. +Podemos... podemos continuar mejor dejamos el video a un lado +No. +Esto no es... +Muy bien. +La tecnologa solar es... +Oh, Ya se me trmino el tiempo? +Muy bien. Muchas gracias. +Hace un par de aos lanc una iniciativa para reclutar a los mejores diseadores y tcnicos para que se tomen un ao y trabajen en un entorno que represente casi todo lo que se supone que detestan; les pedimos que trabajen en el gobierno. +La iniciativa se llam 'Code for America' y seran como unos Cuerpos de Paz para tecnfilos. +Seleccionamos algunos miembros cada ao y los pusimos a trabajar con los municipios. +En vez de mandarlos al Tercer Mundo los mandamos al salvaje mundo municipal. +Hicieron grandes aplicaciones; trabajaron con los empleados municipales. +Su tarea consiste en mostrar las posibilidades de la tecnologa actual. +Conozcan a Al. +Al es un hidrante de la ciudad de Boston. +Aqu aparece como si buscara una cita, pero lo que realmente busca es que alguien lo limpie cuando queda atrapado por la nieve porque sabe que no es muy bueno apagando incendios cuando est cubierto por un metro de nieve. +Cmo lleg a pedir ayuda de esta manera tan singular? +El ao pasado en Boston tenamos un equipo de miembros de 'Code for America'. +Estaban all en febrero y en ese momento nevaba mucho el ao pasado. +Se dieron cuenta que la ciudad nunca limpiaba estos hidrantes. +Pero uno de los miembros llamado Erik Michaels-Ober not algo ms: que los ciudadanos limpiaban con palas las aceras justo en frente de ellos. +As que hizo como cualquier buen programador, desarroll una aplicacin. +Es una linda aplicacin en la que se puede adoptar un hidrante. +Uno acepta limpiarlo cuando nieva. +Al hacerlo, uno le pone un nombre, en este caso le puso Al. +Si no lo haces, alguien puede robrtela. +O sea, tiene una componente ldica. +Es una aplicacin modesta. +Quiz sea la ms pequea de las 21 aplicaciones programadas el ao pasado. +Pero hace algo que ninguna otra tecnologa del gobierno logra. +Y se extiende en forma viral. +Un responsable de sistemas de la Ciudad de Honolulu al ver esta aplicacin se dio cuenta de que poda usarla, no para la nieve, sino para que los ciudadanos adopten sirenas de tsunami. +Es muy importante que funcionen estas sirenas de tsunami, pero la gente se roba las bateras. +Por eso le pide a los ciudadanos que las controlen. +Y luego Seattle decidi usarla para hacer que los ciudadanos despejen los desages tapados. +Y Chicago acaba de lanzarla para hacer que la gente se registre para limpiar aceras cuando nieva. +As, ahora sabemos de nueve ciudades que planean usarla. +Y esto se ha difundido sin fricciones, de manera orgnica y natural. +Si conocen un poco de tecnologa gubernamental sabrn que esto no ocurre normalmente. +La adquisicin de software por lo general lleva un par de aos. +El ao pasado en Boston tenamos un equipo trabajando en un proyecto que requiri tres personas durante dos meses y medio. +Era una herramienta para que los padres pudieran elegir la mejor escuela pblica para sus hijos. +Luego nos dijeron que de haberlo hecho por los canales normales habra llevado al menos dos aos y costado unos dos millones de dlares. +Y eso no es nada. +Ahora hay un proyecto en el poder judicial de California que hasta el momento ha costado 2000 millones de dlares y no funciona. +Y hay proyectos como este en cada nivel de gobierno. +Por eso una aplicacin que se programa en un par de das y se difunde en forma viral es una suerte de tiro de advertencia a la institucin del gobierno. +Sugiere al gobierno mejores maneras de trabajar, no como en las empresas privadas, como mucha gente piensa que debera ser. +Tampoco como una empresa tecnolgica, sino ms bien como la propia Internet. +Es decir, sin restricciones, en forma abierta y generativa. +Y eso es importante. +Pero lo ms importante de esta aplicacin es que representa la forma de abordar la cuestin del gobierno que tiene la nueva generacin; no como un problema de una institucin anquilosada sino como un problema de accin colectiva. +Y eso es muy bueno porque resulta que somos muy buenos para la accin colectiva con la tecnologa digital. +Y existe una comunidad muy grande de gente que est construyendo las herramientas para que trabajemos juntos con eficacia. +Y no slo es 'Code for America' sino que hay cientos de personas en todo el pas que contribuyen con aplicaciones cvicas todos los das en sus propias comunidades. +No se han dado por vencidos con el gobierno. +Sienten una gran frustracin ante eso pero no se quejan, lo arreglan. +Y esta gente sabe algo que hemos perdido de vista. +Y es que si dejamos de lado los sentimientos sobre la poltica, la fila en el DMV (Registro Automotor) y todas esas otras cosas que nos ponen locos, el gobierno es, en esencia, en palabras de Tim O'Reilly: "Lo que hacemos juntos porque solos no podemos". +Ahora bien, mucha gente ha abandonado el gobierno. +Si Uds. son una de esas personas, les pedira que lo reconsideren, porque las cosas estn cambiando. +La poltica no cambia; el gobierno s. +Y dado que el gobierno en ltima instancia emana de nosotros... recuerdan eso de "Nosotros, el pueblo"? El modo de pensarlo afectar la manera de producir el cambio. +Yo no saba mucho de gobierno cuando empec con esto. +Y como mucha gente pensaba que el gobierno consista en elegir personas para que ocupe cargos. +Bueno, despus de dos aos he llegado a la conclusin de que el gobierno es, sobre todo, cuestin de zarigeyas. +Este es el centro de atencin telefnica de servicios e informacin. +Es el lugar que atiende las llamadas si uno marca 311 en EE.UU. +Scott atendi esta llamada. +Ingres "Zarigeya" en la base de conocimiento oficial. +No encontr nada. Empez con control animal. +Y finalmente dijo: "Oye, puedes abrir las puertas de la casa, poner msica bien fuerte y ver si se va?" +Y funcion. As que bien por Scott. +Pero eso no fue el final de las zarigeyas. +Boston no tiene un centro de llamadas. +Tiene una aplicacin, web y mvil, llamada 'Citizens Connect'. +No programamos esa aplicacin. +Fue el trabajo de personas muy inteligentes de la Oficina de Nueva Mecnica Urbana de Boston. +Un da, esto sucedi realmente, llega este pedido: "Zarigeya en mi cubo de basura. No s si est muerta. +Cmo hago para quitarla?" +La dinmica de 'Citizens Connect' es diferente. +Scott estaba hablando en persona. +En 'Citizens Connect' todo es pblico, as que todos pueden ver esto. +En este caso, lo vio un vecino. +El prximo informe deca: "Me acerqu al lugar, encontr el cubo de basura detrs de la casa. +Zarigeya? S. Viva? S. +Di vuelta el cubo. Me fui a casa. +Buenas noches, dulce zarigeya". +Bastante simple. +Esto es genial. Es la confluencia de lo digital y lo fsico. +Y tambin es un gran ejemplo del ingreso del gobierno a la colaboracin voluntaria distribuida. +Pero tambin es un gran ejemplo de gobierno como plataforma. +Y aqu no necesariamente me refiero a la definicin tecnolgica de plataforma. +Hablo de una plataforma para que las personas se autoayuden y ayuden a otros. +Entonces, un ciudadano ayud a otro pero aqu el gobierno tuvo un papel clave: +conect a las dos personas. +Y podra haberlas conectado con los servicios gubernamentales de ser necesario pero el vecino es una mejor alternativa y ms barata que los servicios gubernamentales. +Cuando un vecino ayuda a otro, fortalecemos las comunidades. +Si llamamos a control de animales, eso cuesta mucho dinero. +Una cosa importante que tenemos que pensar sobre el gobierno es que no es lo mismo que la poltica. +Mucha gente lo entiende, pero piensa que uno es la entrada del otro. +Que nuestra entrada al sistema de gobierno es el voto. +Cuntas veces han elegido a un lder poltico? A veces gastamos mucha energa para elegir un nuevo lder poltico y luego esperamos que el gobierno refleje nuestros valores y satisfaga nuestras necesidades pero luego no vemos cambios. +Eso se debe a que el gobierno es como un ocano inmenso y la poltica es la capa superficial de 15 cm. +Por debajo est lo que llamamos burocracia. +Y decimos esa palabra con mucho desprecio. +Pero es ese desprecio lo que mantiene eso que nos pertenece eso que financiamos como algo que opera en nuestra contra, esa otra cosa, y en consecuencia estamos perdiendo el poder. +La gente cree que la poltica es sensual. +Si queremos que esta institucin funcione tendremos que hacer que la burocracia sea sensual. +Porque es all donde ocurre el verdadero trabajo de gobierno. +Tenemos que colaborar con la maquinaria de gobierno. +Eso hace el movimiento OcupaLaSEC. +Los han visto? +Es un grupo de ciudadanos preocupados que han escrito un informe muy detallado de 325 pginas en respuesta al pedido de la SEC (Comisin de Valores) sobre el proyecto de reforma financiera. +Eso no es activismo poltico, es activismo burocrtico. +Y para los que nos hemos resignado ante el gobierno, es hora de que nos preguntemos qu mundo queremos dejarle a nuestros hijos. +Hay que ver los desafos enormes que ellos tendrn que enfrentar. +Realmente creen que llegaremos a donde tenemos que ir sin solucionar la institucin que puede actuar en nombre de todos? +No podemos prescindir de gobierno, lo necesitamos para ser ms eficaces. +La buena noticia es que con la tecnologa es posible replantear de raz la funcin de gobierno de modo que pueda expandirse fortaleciendo a la sociedad civil. +Hay una generacin que creci con Internet y sabe que no es tan difcil actuar mancomunadamente, slo hay que articular los sistemas de la forma correcta. +El promedio de edad de nuestros miembros es de 28 aos as que yo, a regaadientes, soy una generacin mayor que muchos de ellos. +Esta es una generacin que ha crecido tomando la palabra y dando eso casi por sentado. +No estn dando esa batalla que todos enfrentamos sobre quin va a hablar; todos van a hablar. +Pueden expresar sus opiniones en cualquier canal al mismo tiempo y lo hacen. +Por eso cuando enfrentan el problema del gobierno no les importa mucho hacer oir sus voces. +Estn usando las manos. +Ponen manos a la obra para programar aplicaciones que hagan funcionar mejor al gobierno. +Y esas aplicaciones nos permiten usar las manos para mejorar nuestras comunidades. +Puede ser limpiando un hidrante, quitando malezas, vaciando un cubo de basura que tiene una zarigeya dentro. +Desde luego, siempre pudimos haber limpiado esos hidrantes y mucha gente lo hace. +Pero estas aplicaciones son como recordatorios digitales de que no slo somos consumidores, no slo somos consumidores de gobierno que pagamos impuestos y obtenemos servicios. +Somos ms que eso: somos ciudadanos. +Y no vamos a arreglar el gobierno hasta que no arreglemos la ciudadana. +As que quiero preguntar a todos los presentes, cuando se trata de las cosas importantes que tenemos que hacer juntos, todos juntos, seremos una multitud de voces, o tambin seremos una multitud de manos? +Gracias. +Esto es para m un verdadero honor. +He pasado la mayor parte del tiempo en crceles, prisiones y en el corredor de la muerte. +He pasado la mayor parte de mi vida en comunidades marginadas, en proyectos y lugares donde hay mucha desesperacin. +Y estar aqu en TED viendo y oyendo estos estmulos me ha dado mucha energa. +Una de las cosas que he notado en este corto tiempo, es que TED tiene identidad. +Y las cosas que se dicen aqu tienen impacto en todo el mundo. +En ocasiones, si algo viene de TED, tiene un sentido y una fuerza que no tendra de otra manera. +Digo esto porque creo que la identidad es verdadeamente importante. +Aqu hemos visto presentaciones fantsticas. +Y pienso que hemos aprendido que las palabras de un profesor pueden tener mucho sentido, pero si se ensean con sentimiento, pueden tener un significado especial. +Un mdico puede hacer cosas buenas, ero si es caritativo, puede lograr mucho ms. +Por esto quiero hablar del poder de la identidad. +En realidad no aprend esto en la prctica del derecho, mi trabajo. +Lo aprend de mi abuela. +Crec en una casa tradicional de una familia afro-estadounidense dominada por una matriarca, que era mi abuela. +Era dura, era fuerte, tena poder. +Era la ltima palabra en toda discusin en la familia. +Ella iniciaba muchas de las dicusiones en nuestro hogar. +Era hija de personas que haban sido esclavos. +Sus padres nacieron en la esclavitud en Virginia sobre el 1840. +Ella naci sobre el 1880 y su experiencia con la esclavitud conform la manera como vea el mundo. +Ella era dura, pero tambin era amorosa. +Cuando yo era pequeo y la miraba, ella se me acercaba y me daba un buen abrazo. +Me apretaba tan fuerte que apenas poda respirar y luego me soltaba. +Una o dos horas despus, volva a mirarla, se me acercaba y me deca, "Bryan, todava sientes mi abrazo?" +Y si le deca que no, me agarraba de nuevo y si le deca que s, me dejaba en paz. +Tena esta calidad humana que te haca siempre desear estar cerca de ella. +El nico problema es que tena 10 hijos. +Mi madre era la menor de los 10. +En ocasiones, cuando yo iba a pasar un tiempo con ella, no era fcil captar su tiempo y su atencin. +Mis primos estaban corriendo por todas partes. +Recuerdo cuando tena 8 9 aos, me despert una maana, me fui a la sala y ah estaban corriendo todos mis primos. +Mi abuela estaba al otro lado de la sala y me mir fijamente. +Al principio pens que era un juego. +Entonces la mir y le sonre, pero ella estaba muy seria. +Despus de 15 20 minutos, ella se levant, atraves la sala, me tom de la mano y me dijo, "Ven Bryan. Los dos vamos a conversar". +Recuerdo esto como si fuera ayer. +Nunca lo olvidar. +Me llev afuera y me dijo: "Bryan, te dir algo, pero no se lo puedes decir a nadie". +Le dije: "Est bien, Mama". +Ella dijo: "Ahora asegrame que no lo hars". Le dije, "Claro". +Luego me sent, me mir y me dijo: "Quiero que sepas que te he estado observando". +Y aadi: "Pienso que eres especial". +Dijo: "Creo que t puedes hacer lo que quieras". +Nunca lo olvidar. +Luego me dijo: "Solo quiero que me prometas 3 cosas, Bryan". +Le dije: "Seguro, Mama". +Y dijo: "Lo primero que quiero que me prometas es que siempre querrs a tu madre". +Aadi: "Ella es mi hijita, y tienes que prometerme que siempre la cuidars". +Como yo adoraba a mi mam, le dije: "S, Mama, as lo har". +Luego me dijo: "Lo segundo que quiero que me prometas es que siempre hars lo correcto aunque lo correcto sea lo difcil". +Lo pens y le dije: "S, Mama. As lo har". +Luego, finalmente dijo: "Lo tercero que quiero que me prometas es que nunca bebers alcohol". +Yo tena 9 aos, y le dije: "S, Mama, as lo har". +Crec en el campo, en el sur rural. Tengo un hermano un ao mayor y una hermana un ao menor. +Cuando tena 14 15, un da mi hermano lleg a casa con un paquete de seis cervezas, no s de dnde las sac, nos agarr a mi hermana y a m y nos fuimos para el bosque. +Apenas llegamos haciendo las locuras de siempre, +l tom un sorbo de cerveza, le ofreci a mi hermana, ella tom un poco y me ofrecieron a m. +Les dije: "No, no, no. Est bien. Uds. sigan, pero yo no voy a tomar cerveza". +Mi hermano dijo: "Venga. Hoy lo hacemo. Y t siempre haces lo mismo que nosotros. +Yo ya tom algo, tu hermana tambin. Tmate una cerveza". +Yo dije: "No. No me sentira bien. Uds. pueden seguir". +Luego mi hermano me mir fijamente +y dijo: "Qu te pasa? Toma una cerveza": +Me clav la mirada con fuerza y continu: "Ah, no ser que todava ests pensando en la conversacin con Mama". +Yo le dije: "Pero de qu ests hablando?" +l contest: "Mama les dice a todos los nietos que son especiales". +Yo qued deshecho. +Tengo que admitir algo ante Uds. +Les dir algo que probablemente no debera decir. +S que esto se difundir ampliamente. +Pero tengo 52 aos y puedo admitir que nunca he tomado ni una gota de alcohol. +No digo esto pensando que sea una virtud; Lo digo por el poder que tiene la identidad. +Cuando creamos el tipo correcto de identidad, decimos cosas a los dems que realmente ellos no le ven sentido. +No podemos conseguir que hagan cosas que no creen poder hacer. +Pienso que mi abuela naturalmente crea que todos sus nietos eran especiales. +Mi abuelo haba estado preso durante la prohibicin. +Mis tos murieron de enfermedades relacionadas con el alcohol. +Y estas eran las cosas con las que, segn ella, debamos comprometernos. +Ahora, intentar hablar sobre nuestro sistema de justicia penal. +Este pas es hoy muy diferente de lo que era hace 40 aos. +En 1972 haba 300.000 presos. +Hoy hay 2,3 millones. +En EEUU tenemos la mayor tasa de encarcelamiento del mundo. +Tenemos 7 millones de personas en libertad condicional. +Y este encarcelamiento masivo, en mi opinin, ha cambiado fundamentalmente nuestro mundo. +En comunidades pobres o negras, se encuentra tanta desazn, tanta desesperacin, determinada por estos hechos. +Uno de cada tres negros entre los 18 y los 30 aos est en la crcel o en libertad condicional. +En las comunidaddes urbanas de todo el pas, Los Angeles, Filadelfia, Baltimore, Washington, de 50 a 60% de todos los jvenes de color estn en la crcel o en libertad condicional. +Nuestro sistema no est solamente distorsionado frente a la raza, tambin lo est respecto a la pobreza. +En esta pas tenemos un sistema judicial que te trata mucho mejor si eres rico y culpable, que si eres pobre e inocente. +No es culpabilidad, sino riqueza lo que condiciona los resultados +Y parece que nos sentimos muy tranquilos. +La poltica del miedo y la furia nos hacen creer que estos no son problemas nuestros. +Estamos desconectados. +Me parece interesante. +Estamos observando en nuestro trabajo algunos desarrollos bien curiosos. +En mi estado, en Alabama, as como en otros estados, te privan de derechos por siempre si tienes una condena penal. +Ahora mismo en Alabama, el 34% de la poblacin masculina negra ha perdido definitivamente el derecho al voto. +Y si lo proyectamos a los prximos 10 aos el nivel de prdida de derechos ser tan elevado a como era antes de que aprobaran la ley del derecho al voto. +Tenemos este impresionante silencio. +Yo represento a nios. +Muchos de mis clientes son muy jvenes. +EEUU es el nico pas del mundo donde se sentencia a nios de 13 aos a morir en prisin. +Tenemos en este pas crcel para nios, sin posibilidad de salir jams. +Ahora mismo estamos en proceso de algunos litigios. +El nico pas del mundo. +Represento a personas en el corredor de la muerte. +Este asunto de la pena de muerte es interesante. +En cierto sentido nos han ensaado a pensar que la pregunta final es, las personas merecen morir por los crimenes cometidos? +Una pregunta muy sensible. +Pero se puede pensar de otra manera sobre cmo estamos en nuestra identidad. +Hay otra forma de mirarlo: no se trata de decidir si las personas merecen morir por los crmenes cometidos, sino, si nosotros merecemos matar. +Esto es interesante. +La pena de muerte en EEUU se define por error. +De cada 9 personas ejecutadas, se ha identificado una que es inocente que es exonerada y liberada del corredor de la muerte. +Una tasa de error, asombrosa; un inocente de cada 9. +Esto es interesante. +En aviacin no se permitira jams pilotar aviones si de cada 9 que despegaran, uno se habra de estrellar. +Pero de alguna manera nos aislamos del problema. +No es nuestro problema. +No es nuestra carga. +No es nuestra lucha. +Yo hablo mucho sobre estas cosas. +Hablo de raza y de este asunto de si merecemos matar. +Es interesante que en mis clases con estudiantes sobre historia afro-americana, les hablo de la esclavitud, +les hablo del terrorismo, la poca que comenz al final de la reconstruccin y que dur hasta la Segunda Guerra Mundial. +Realmente, no sabemos mucho de esto. +Pero para los estadounidenses negros en este pas, fue una poca definida por el terror. +En muchas comunidades la gente tena miedo de ser linchados. +Les preocupaba ser bombardeados. +La amenaza del terror fue lo que defini sus vidas. +Ahora hay personas mayores que se me acercan y me dicen: "Sr. Stevenson, Ud. dicta charlas, hace discursos. Dga a la gente que dejen de decir que en nuestra historia lidiamos por primera vez con el terrorismo, despus del 11/09" +Me piden que diga: "No. Diga que crecimos con eso". +La era del terrorismo continu, obviamente, con la segregacin y dcadas de subordinacin racial y de separacin. +En este pas tenemos una dinmica por la que no nos gusta hablar de nuestros problemas. +No nos gusta hablar de nuestra historia. +Y es por esto que no hemos entendido el significado de lo que histricamente hemos hecho. +Todo el tiempo chocamos unos con otros. +Constantemente creamos tensiones y conflictos. +Nos cuesta trabajo hablar de razas. Pienso que es porque no estamos dispuestos a comprometernos con un proceso de verdad y reconciliacin. +En Sudfrica, la gente entendi que no se poda superar la segregacin racial sin un compromiso con la verdad y la reconciliacin. +En Ruanda, an antes del genocidio tenan este compromiso, pero en este pas no lo hemos hecho. +Estuve en Alemania dando conferencias sobre la pena de muerte. +Fue fascinante porque uno de los profesores se par despus de mi presentacin y dijo: "Sabes que es bien preocupante escuchar lo que que dices". +Aadi: "No tenemos pena de muerte en Alemania. +Naturalmente nunca podremos tenerla aqu". +La sala se qued en silencio y una seora dijo: "No hay manera de que con nuestra historia, podamos jams meternos en la muerte sistemtica de seres humanos. +Sera irracional que nosotros, intencional y deliberadamente, nos pusiramos a ejecutar personas". +Reflexion sobre esto. +Cmo nos sentiramos en un mundo donde una nacin como Alemania, ejecutara a personas, especialmente si fuesen en su mayora judos? +No lo podramos tolerar. +Sera irracional. +Y aun as, existe esta desconexin. +Pienso que nuestra identidad est en peligro. +Si en realidad no nos preocupan estos asuntos tan difciles, las cosas positivas y maravillosas estn, sin embargo, implicadas. +Nos encanta la innovacin. +Nos fascina la tecnologa. Adoramos la creatividad. +Nos encanta el entretenimiento. +Pero ltimamente, esas realidades estn ensombrecidas por el sufrimiento, el abuso, la degradacin, la marginalidad. +En mi opinin, es necesario integrar ambas cosas. +ltimamente hablamos sobre la necesidad de tener ms esperanza, mayor compromiso, ms dedicacin con los retos bsicos de la vida de este mundo complejo. +Pienso que eso quiere decir pasar ms tiempo pensando y hablando de los pobres, los desposedos, los que nunca llegarn a TED. +Pensar en ellos es, en cierta forma, algo que est dentro de nuestro ser. +Es verdad que tenemos que creer en asuntos que no hemos visto. +As somos. A pesar de ser tan racionales, tan comprometidos con lo intelectual, +con la innovacin, con la creatividad. El desarrollo viene no solo de las ideas cerebrales. +Estas cosas vienen de ideas alimentadas tambin por las convicciones del corazn. +Esta conexin de la mente con el corazn es lo que nos impulsa a fijarnos no solo en lo brillante y deslumbrante, sino tambin en lo oscuro y lo difcil. +Vaclav Havel, el gran lder checo, hablaba de esto. +Dijo: "Cuando estbamos en Europa Oriental sufriendo la opresin, desebamos toda clase de cosas, pero principalmente lo que necesitbamos era esperanza, orientacin para el espritu, una voluntad por estar en sitios de desesperanza y ser testigos". +Bueno, esa orientacin para el espritu est prcticamente en el corazn de lo que creo, que an en comunidades como TED, debe comprometernos. +No hay ninguna desconexin relacionada con la tecnologa y el diseo, que nos permita ser verdaderamente humanos si no le prestamos la debida atencin a la pobreza, a la exclusin, a la desigualdad, a la injusticia. +Ahora quiero advertirles que estos pensamientos constituyen una identidad mucho ms desafiante que si ignoramos estas cosas. +Volvemos a encontrarlas. +Tuve el gran privilegio, siendo un abogado muy joven, de conocer a Rosa Parks. +Estas mujeres se reunan simplemente para hablar. +Ocasionalmente, la seora Carr me llamaba, para decirme: "Bryan, viene la seora Parks. Nos vamos a reunir para hablar. +quieres venir y escucharnos?" +Yo le deca: "S seora. S quiero". +Entonces ella me deca: "Bueno y qu hars cuando vengas?" +Yo le contestaba: "Escucharlas". +Entonces yo iba y simplemente las escuchaba, +Era algo muy vigorizante, muy iluminador. +Y en una ocasin estaba ah, escuchando a estas damas, y despus de un par de horas, la Sra. Parks se dirigi a m y me dijo: "Ahora, Bryan, dme que es esa idea de la justicia igualitaria. +Cuntame lo que ests tratando de hacer". +Y yo empec a darle mi discurso. +Le dije: "Bueno, estamos tratando de cuestionar la injusticia. +Tratamos de ayudar a los que han sido condenados injustamente. +Tratamos de confrontar los prejuicios y la discriminacin en la administracin de la justicia penal. +Tratamos de acabar con las sentencias de por vida, sin libertad condicional para los nios. +Tratamos de hacer algo respecto a la pena de muerte. +Tratamos de reducir la poblacin en las crceles. +Tratamos de acabar con los encarcelamientos masivos". +Le d todo mi mejor discurso y al terminar me mir y dijo: " Mmm mmm mmm". +Y aadi: "Terminars agotado, muy agotado". +En ese momento, la Sra. Carr se inclin, me puso el dedo en la cara y dijo: "Es por eso que tienes que ser muy pero muy valiente". +Yo creo que en realidad, la comunidad de TED tiene que ser mucho ms valerosa. +Tenemos que encontrar la manera de afrontar esos retos, esos problemas, ese sufrimiento. +Porque finalmente la humanidad depende de la compasin por los dems. +He aprendido algunas cosas muy simples en mi trabajo. +He sido educado en cosas sencillas. +He llegado a entender y a creer que cada uno de nosotros es superior a lo peor que hayamos cometido. +Creo que eso es cierto para todo el mundo en el planeta. +Estoy convencido que si alguien dice una mentira, no es porque sea un mentiroso. +Estoy seguro que si alguien toma algo que no le pertenece, no es que sea un ladrn. +Incluso, si alguien mata a otro, no es que sea un asesino. +Por esto creo que hay una dignidad bsica en las personas que debe ser respetada por la ley. +Tambin creo que en muchas partes de este pas y, sin duda, en muchas partes del mundo, lo opuesto a la pobreza no es la riqueza. +As no es. +En verdad pienso que en muchas partes lo opuesto a la pobreza es la justicia. +Y finalmente, creo que aunque sea muy dramtico, muy hermoso, muy iluminador, muy estimulante, no se nos juzgar por nuestra tecnologa, por nuestros diseos, ni por nuestra capacidad intelectual o racional. +Al final se juzga el carcter de una sociedad, no por la manera como tratan a los ricos, poderosos y privilegiados, sino por la forma como tratan a los pobres, los condenados, los presos. +Porque es en este contexto como empezamos a entender temas verdaderamente profundos sobre lo que somos. +En ocasiones me siento desequilibrado. Voy a terminar con una historia. +A veces hago demasiada fuerza. +Quedo cansado, como todos. +A veces esas ideas van ms all de mis razonamientos de una forma importante. +He estado representando a estos chicos que han sido sentenciados con mucha dureza. +Voy a la crcel y veo a mis clientes de 13 y 14 aos, que han sido habilitados para que se les juzgue como adultos +Y empiezo a pensar, cmo puede ser? +Cmo puede un juez convertir a alguien en lo que no es? +El juez lo habilit como adulto, pero yo veo un nio. +Una noche muy tarde estaba despierto pensando... Por Dios, si el juez te puede convertir en algo que no eres, debe tener poderes mgicos. +S, Bryan, el juez tiene poderes mgicos. +Deberas pedir algo de eso. +Como era muy tarde, no poda pensar correctamente, pero comenc a trabajar en una mocin. +Tena un cliente de 14 aos, un pequeo, pobre, negro. +Comenc a trabajar en la mocin, con un encabezamiento que deca: "Mocin para que mi cliente negro de 14 aos sea tratado como un blanco privilegiado de 75 aos, ejecutivo de una corporacin". +En la mocin puse que haba habido conducta indebida en la acusacin, en el comportamiento de la polica y en el proceso. +Haba una lnea atrevida sobre cmo en este pas no hay tica, sino toda una falta de tica. +A la maana siguiente me despert pensando esa mocin insensata sera un sueo, o realmente la escrib? +Para mi horror, no solo la haba redactado, sino la haba enviado a la corte. +Pasaron unos 2 meses, yo ya lo haba olvidado. +Y finalmente decid... Ay Dios, tengo que ir a la corte por este caso estpido. +Me sub al auto y me senta verdaderamente agobiado, abrumado. +Me fui en el auto al juzgado. +Pensaba que esto sera muy muy difcil y penoso. +Finalmente me baj del auto. Caminaba al juzgado. +Iba subiendo las escaleras cuando me encontr con un hombre negro mayor; era el conserje del juzgado. +Cuando me vio, se me acerc y me dijo: "Quin es Ud.?" +Le dije: "Soy un abogado". l replic: "Es Ud. abogado?" Le dije que s. +Entonces se me aproxim y me abraz. +Y me susurr en el odo, +me dijo: "Estoy orgulloso de Ud.". +Tengo que decirles ahora que eso fue vigorizante. +Eso se conect profundamente con mi interior, con mi identidad con la capacidad que todos tenemos de contribuir a la comunidad con una visin de esperanza. +Bueno, entr a la sala de audiencias. +Al entrar, el juez me vio +y me dijo: "Sr. Stevenson, Ud. escribi esta osada mocin?" +Le dije: "S Sr. fui yo". Y comenzamos a discutir. +La gente empez a llegar. Todos estaban indignados. +Yo era el que haba escrito esas locuras. +Llegaron los policas los fiscales asistentes, los auxiliares. +De pronto, sin saber cmo, la sala estaba llena de gente. Todos furiosos porque hablbamos de razas, porque hablbamos de pobreza, porque hablbamos de desigualdad. +Con el rabillo del ojo alcanc a ver al conserje que iba y vena. +Miraba por la ventana y alcazaba a or todo ese gritero. +Segua caminando para ac y para all. +Finalmente, este viejo negro, con cara de preocupacin, entr en la sala y se sent detrs de m, casi en la mesa de los abogados. +Unos 10 minutos despus, el juez decret un receso. +Durante el descanso un asistente del alguacil se mostr ofendido porque el conserje haba entrado en la sala. +El asistente se abalanz sobre el viejo negro +y le dijo: "Jimmy, qu haces en la sala de audiencias?" +Y el viejo negro se puso de pie, mir al asistente, me mir a m y dijo: "Entr a esta sala de audiencias para decirle a este joven que mantenga su vista en el objetivo con firmeza". +Yo he venido hoy a TED porque pienso que muchos de Uds. entienden que el arco moral del universo es muy grande, pero que se pliega hacia la justicia. +Que no podemos ser verdaderamente humanos evolucionados si no nos preocupamos por los derechos humanos y por la dignidad. +Que nuestra supervivencia est ligada a la de los dems. +Que nuestras visiones de tecnologa, diseo, entretenimiento y creatividad deben ligarse a las de fraternidad, compasion y justicia. +Y por encima de todo, a aquellos de los presentes que comparten esto, simplemente quiero decirles que mantengan la vista en el objetivo con firmeza. +Muchas gracias. +Chris Anderson: Acabas de or y ver un evidente deseo de la audiencia, de esta comunidad, de ayudar en tus propsitos, de hacer algo. +Algo que no sea un cheque. Qu podemos hacer? +BS: Hay varias oportunidades cercanas. +Si vives en el estado de California, por ejemplo, habr un referendum esta primavera en el cual se har un esfuerzo para reorientar los fondos que se gastan hoy en polticas de castigo. +Por ejemplo, aqu en California, se van a gastar mil millones de dlares en la pena de muerte, en los prximos 5 aos. Mil millones de dlares. +Y a pesar de esto, el 46% de los casos de homicidios no concluyen en arrestos. +El 56% de las violaciones no llegan a nada. +Aqu hay una oportunidad de cambio. +Este referendum va a proponer que se destinen estos fondos a hacer que se cumpla la ley, a la seguridad. +Pienso que existe una oportunidad muy cercana. +CA: Ha habido un enorme descenso en la criminalidad en los EEUU, en las ltimas 3 dcadas. +Parte de la explicacin, se dice que tiene que ver con la mayor tasa de encarcelacin. +Qu le diras a los que creen que es as? +BS: En realidad, la tasa de criminalidad con violencia ha permanecido relativamente estable. +El gran crecimiento en encarcelacin masiva en este pas no es por crmenes con violencia. +Es por la equivocada guerra contra las drogas. +Es por eso que surge este aumento dramtico en la poblacin carcelaria. +Y nos dejamos convencer por la retrica del castigo. +Tenemos 3 causas legales para llevar a la gente a cadena perpetua; por robar una bicicleta, por pequeos crmenes contra la propiedad, en lugar de hacer que devuelvan esos recursos a sus vctimas. +Pienso que tenemos que hacer ms para ayudar a las vctimas de los crimenes y no menos. +Me parece que nuestra filosofa actual sobre el castigo no hace nada por nadie. +Creo que esa es la orientacin que tiene que cambiar. +CA: Bryan, nos has emocionado sobremanera hoy aqu. +Eres muy inspirador. +Muchas gracias por haber venido a TED. Gracias. +Locutor: Crecen las amenazas por la muerte de Bin Laden. +Locutor 2: Hambruna en Somalia. Locutor 3: La polica arroja gas pimienta. +Locutor 4: Carteles despiadados. Locutor 5: Cruceros mordaces. +Locutor 6: Decadencia social. Locutor 7: 65 muertos. +Locutor 8: Alerta de tsunami. Locutor 9: Ciberataques. +Varios locutores: Guerra al narcotrfico. Destruccin masiva. Tornado. +Recesin. Bancarrota. Juicio final. Egipto. Siria. +Crisis. Muerte. Desastre. +Oh, Dios mo! +Peter Diamandis: Estos son slo algunos de los clips que consegu en los ltimos seis meses. Tranquilamente podran ser de los ltimos 6 das o de los ltimos 6 aos. +La idea es que los medios de prensa prefieren brindarnos noticias negativas porque nuestras mentes les prestan atencin. +Y eso responde a una muy buena razn. +En cada segundo de cada da nuestros sentidos reciben muchsimos ms datos de los que probablemente el cerebro puede procesar. +Y como nada nos importa ms que sobrevivir, la primera parada de todos esos datos es un antiguo fragmento del lbulo temporal llamado amgdala. +La amgdala es nuestro detector de alerta temprana, el detector de peligro. +Ordena y registra toda la informacin buscando algo en el entorno que pudiera hacernos dao. +Por eso de una decena de historias preferiremos mirar las negativas. +Ese viejo refrn de la prensa: "Si hay sangre, vende", es muy cierto. +Y dado que todos los dispositivos digitales nos brindan noticias negativas los 7 das de la semana, 24 horas al da, no es de extraar que seamos pesimistas. +No sorprende que la gente piense que el mundo va de mal en peor. +Pero quiz no sea as. +Tal vez, en cambio, lo que realmente sucede es que recibimos distorsiones. +Quiz el progreso enorme realizado en el ltimo siglo por una serie de fuerzas est acelerndose de tal forma que tenemos el potencial para crear un mundo de abundancia en las prximas tres dcadas. +No estoy diciendo que no tenemos nuestros buenos problemas: el cambio climtico, la extincin de especies, la escasez de agua y energa; sin dudas los tenemos. +Como seres humanos somos muy buenos para avizorar los problemas y, a la larga, acabamos con ellos. +Analicemos entonces lo ocurrido en el ltimo siglo para ver hacia dnde vamos. +En los ltimos cien aos, el promedio de vida se ha ms que duplicado, el ingreso promedio per cpita ajustado por inflacin se ha triplicado en todo el mundo. +La mortalidad infantil se ha reducido 10 veces. +Adems, el costo de los alimentos, de la electricidad, del transporte y las comunicaciones, ha cado de 10 a 1000 veces. +Steve Pinker nos mostr que estamos viviendo la poca ms pacfica de la historia de la humanidad. +Y Charles Kenny que la alfabetizacin mundial pas del 25% a ms del 80% en los ltimos 130 aos. +Realmente estamos viviendo una poca extraordinaria. +Mucha gente lo olvida. +Y seguimos ponindonos expectativas cada vez ms altas. +De hecho, redefinimos el significado de pobreza. +Pinsenlo, hoy en EE.UU., gran parte de las personas que viven bajo la lnea de pobreza tienen electricidad, agua, baos, refrigeradores, televisin, mviles, aire acondicionado y coches. +Los magnates barones del caucho del siglo pasado, los emperadores del planeta, jams habran soado con tales lujos. +Apoyando mucho de esto est la tecnologa y, ltimamente, su crecimiento exponencial. +Mi buen amigo Ray Kurzweil mostr que cualquier herramienta que deviene en tecnologa de la informacin salta en esta curva, la Ley de Moore, y duplica el rendimiento del precio en unos 12 a 24 meses. +Por ese motivo el mvil que tienen en el bolsillo es un milln de veces ms barato y mil veces ms rpido que una supercomputadora de los aos 70. +Ahora miren esta curva. +Es la Ley de Moore durante los ltimos cien aos. +Quiero que observen dos cosas en esta curva. +Primero, lo suave que es... en buenos y malos tiempos, en la guerra y en la paz, en recesin, en depresin y en auge. +Es la resultante de computadoras rpidas usadas para construir computadoras ms rpidas. +No se detiene ante ninguno de los grandes desafos. +Y aunque est graficada en una ley a la izquierda, se curva va hacia arriba. +La tasa de crecimiento de la tecnologa es en s cada vez ms rpida. +Y en esta curva, a horcajadas de la Ley de Moore, hay una serie de tecnologas extraordinariamente poderosas con las que hoy contamos. +La computacin en la nube, que mis amigos de Autodesk llaman computacin infinita, sensores y redes, la robtica, la impresin 3D y su capacidad de democratizar y distribuir produccin personalizada en todo el planeta, la biologa sinttica, los combustibles, las vacunas y los alimentos, la medicina digital, los nanomateriales y la IA. +Digo, cuntos vieron la victoria en Jeopardy de Watson, de IBM? +Fue pica. +Busqu en los peridicos el mejor titular que hubiera. +Y me encant ste: "Watson vence a oponentes humanos". +Jeopardy no es un juego fcil. +Juega con los matices del lenguaje humano. +Imaginen esta inteligencia artificial en la nube, disponible para todos en el mvil. +Hace 4 aos, aqu en TED, Ray Kurzweil y yo, lanzamos una nueva universidad llamada Singularity University. +Le enseamos estas tecnologas a nuestros alumnos, y, en particular, cmo pueden usarse para resolver los grandes retos de la humanidad. +Y cada ao les pedimos que lancen una empresa, o un producto o servicio, que pueda afectar positivamente las vidas de mil millones de personas en una dcada. +Piensen en eso, el hecho de que un grupo de estudiantes hoy pueda impactar la vida de mil millones de personas. +Hace 30 aos eso habra sonado absurdo. +Hoy podemos sealar una decena de compaas que ya lo han hecho. +Cuando pienso en crear abundancia, no significa crear vida lujosa para cada habitante del planeta; se trata de crear una vida de lo posible. +Se trata de tomar eso que es escaso y volverlo abundante. +Ya ven, la escasez es contextual y la tecnologa es una fuerza que libera recursos. +Les pondr un ejemplo. +Es una historia de Napolen III de mediados del 1800. +l es el tipo de la izquierda. +Invit a cenar el rey de Siam. +Las tropas de Napolen comieron con cubiertos de plata, y el mismo Napolen, con cubiertos de oro. +Pero el rey de Siam, comi con cubiertos de aluminio. +Ya ven, el aluminio era el metal ms valioso del planeta; vala ms que el oro y el platino. +Por esa razn la punta del Monumento a Washington es de aluminio. +Ya ven, aunque el aluminio es el 8,3% de la masa de la Tierra, no viene como metal puro. +Est ligado por el oxgeno y los silicatos. +Pero luego lleg la electrlisis e hizo del aluminio algo tan barato que lo usamos como si fuera descartable. +Proyectemos esta analoga hacia el futuro. +Pensemos en la escasez de energa. +Damas y caballeros, estamos en un planeta baado por 5000 veces ms energa de la que usamos en un ao. +Llegan a la Tierra 16 teravatios de energa cada 88 minutos. +No se trata de escasez, sino de accesibilidad. +Y hay buenas noticias. +Este ao, por primera vez, el costo de la energa solar en India es el 50% menos que el de la generada por diesel: 8,8 rupias versus 17 rupias. +El costo de la energa solar cay 50% el ao pasado. +El mes pasado, el MIT public un estudio que muestra que a finales de la dcada, en las partes soleadas de Estados Unidos, la electricidad solar costar 6 centavos el kilovatio por hora comparado con los 15 centavos de la media nacional. +Y si tenemos abundancia de energa tambin tenemos abundancia de agua. +Hablemos ahora de las guerras por el agua. +Recuerdan cuando Carl Sagan apunt la nave espacial Voyager hacia la Tierra, en 1990, despus que pas Saturno? +Sac una foto famosa. Cmo se llamaba? +"Un plido punto azul". +Porque vivimos en un planeta de agua. +Vivimos en un planeta cubierto en un 70% por agua. +S, el 97,5% es agua salada, el 2% es hielo, y peleamos por el 0,5% del agua del planeta, pero tambin aqu hay una esperanza. +Es una tecnologa disponible no en 10 20 aos, sino ahora mismo. +Viene la nanotecnologa, los nanomateriales. +En una conversacin con Dean Kamen esta maana, uno de los innovadores del bricolaje... me gustara compartir con Uds., me dio permiso para hacerlo... su tecnologa llamada Slingshot -quiz ya la conozcan- es del tamao de un refrigerador pequeo. +Es capaz de generar mil litros de agua potable al da de cualquier fuente -agua salada, agua contaminada, una letrina- por menos de 2 centavos el litro. +El presidente de Coca-Cola acaba de acordar que har una prueba importante de cientos de estas unidades en el mundo en desarrollo. +Si eso sale bien, y tengo plena confianza en que as ser, Coca-Cola lo implementar mundialmente en 206 pases del planeta. +Esta es una innovacin potenciada por esta tecnologa que hoy existe. +Y lo hemos visto en los mviles. +Dios mo, vamos a llegar al 70% de penetracin de los mviles en el mundo en desarrollo para finales de 2013. +Pinsenlo, ese guerrero masai tiene mejores comunicaciones mviles en medio de Kenia que el presidente Reagan hace 25 aos. +Y, de contar con un mvil inteligente con Google, tiene acceso a ms conocimiento e informacin que el presidente Clinton hace 15 aos. +Vive en un mundo de abundancia de informacin y comunicaciones que nadie podra haber predicho jams. +Mejor que eso, las cosas por las que Uds. y yo hemos pagado decenas y cientos de miles de dlares -GPS, video HD, imgenes, bibliotecas de libros y msica, tecnologa de diagnstico mdico- ahora se desmaterializan y pierden valor de mercado con los mviles. +Quiz lo mejor llegue cuando surjan las aplicaciones en salud. +El mes pasado, tuve el placer de anunciar con la Fundacin Qualcomm algo llamado el Premio X Qualcomm Tricorder, de 10 millones de dlares. +Estamos desafiando a los equipos del mundo para que combinen estas tecnologas en un dispositivo mvil con el que hablan, y dado que tiene IA, pueden toser, pueden extraerse sangre del dedo. +Para ganar tiene que hacer mejores diagnsticos que un equipo mdico certificado. +Imaginen este dispositivo en medio del mundo en desarrollo en el que no hay mdicos, donde la carga de morbilidad es del 25% y hay 1,3% de trabajadores de la salud. +Cuando este dispositivo secuencie un virus de ARN o ADN que no reconozca, llamar al ente de salud y, en primer lugar, evitar que ocurra la pandemia. +Pero esta es la mayor fuerza de producir un mundo de abundancia. +Lo llamo los mil millones en aumento. +Las lneas blancas de aqu son la poblacin. +Acabamos de pasar la marca de los 7 mil millones. +Por cierto, la mejor proteccin contra la explosin demogrfica es dotar al mundo de educacin y salud. +En 2010, tenamos menos de 2 mil millones de personas en lnea, conectadas. +Para 2020, pasar de 2 mil millones a 5 mil millones de usuarios de Internet. +Tres mil millones de mentes nunca antes odas que se suman a la conversacin global. +Qu querrn estas personas? +Qu consumirn? Qu deseos tendrn? +Y en lugar de un colapso econmico tendremos la mayor inyeccin econmica de la historia. +Estas personas representan decenas de billones de dlares inyectados en la economa global. +Y gozarn de ms salud gracias al Tricorder, de una mejor educacin con la Academia Khan y debido al uso de las impresiones en 3D y a la computacin en la nube sern ms productivos que nunca antes. +Qu nos pueden brindar 3000 millones ms de miembros de la humanidad, saludables educados y productivos? +Qu tal unas voces nunca antes odas? +Qu tal si les damos a los oprimidos, dondequiera que estn, una voz para ser escuchados y poder actuar por primera vez? +Qu aportarn estos 3000 millones? +Y si son contribuciones que ni podemos predecir? +Algo que aprend con el Premio X es que equipos pequeos, guiados por su pasin con un objetivo claro, pueden hacer cosas extraordinarias; cosas que antes slo podan hacer las grandes corporaciones y los gobiernos. +Voy a terminar compartiendo una historia que realmente me entusiasm. +Hay un programa que quiz algunos ya conozcan. +Se llama FoldIt. +Surgi en la Universidad de Washington, en Seattle. +Es un juego en el que las personas pueden tomar una secuencia de aminocidos y averiguar la forma en que se plegar la protena. +Los pliegues determinan la estructura y la funcionalidad. +Es algo muy importante en la investigacin mdica. +Y, hasta ahora, era un problema de supercomputadoras. +Han jugado con esto profesores universitarios, entre otros. +Luego cientos de miles de personas se sumaron y comenzaron a jugarlo. +Y se ha demostrado que hoy la maquinaria de reconocimiento de patrones humana es mejor plegando protenas que las mejores computadoras. +Damas y caballeros, lo que me da una confianza enorme en el futuro es que hoy tenemos ms poder como personas para asumir los grandes retos del planeta. +Tenemos las herramientas con esta tecnologa exponencial. +Tenemos la pasin del innovador del bricolaje. +Tenemos el capital del tecnofilntropo. +Y tenemos 3000 millones de mentes nuevas que se nos sumarn para trabajar en la solucin de los grandes retos y hacer lo que debamos hacer. +Tenemos por delante unas dcadas extraordinarias. +Gracias. +Voy a hablar de una idea muy pequea: +el corrimiento del punto de partida. +Y como la idea puede explicarse en un minuto, antes les dar tres ejemplos para hacer tiempo. +La primera historia es sobre Charles Darwin, uno de mis hroes. +l estuvo aqu, como saben, en 1835. +Quiz crean que persegua pinzones, pero no fue as. +En realidad recoga peces. +Y describi a uno de ellos como muy "comn". +Era el mero. +Se lo pesc mucho hasta la dcada de 1880. +Ahora el pez est en la Lista Roja de la UICN. +Pero hemos odo esta historia muchas veces, sobre Galpagos y otros lugares, as que eso no tiene nada de especial. +Pero el caso es que an venimos a las Galpagos. +An pensamos que son prstinas. +Los folletos todava dicen que siguen intactas. +Entonces qu pasa aqu? +La segunda historia, tambin ilustra otro concepto: el desplazamiento de la cintura. +Porque estuve all en 1971 estudiando una laguna en frica Occidental. +Estaba all porque crec en Europa y luego quera trabajar en frica. +Pens que podra integrarme. +Me quem mucho con el sol y estaba convencido de que yo no era de all. +Esta es mi primera exposicin al sol. +La laguna estaba rodeada de palmeras, y, como pueden ver, de unos manglares. +Haba tilapias de unos 20 centmetros, la tilapia de barba negra. +Y la pesca de esta tilapia era muy abundante y pasaba por un buen momento, as que se ganaba ms de la media en Ghana. +Cuando fui all 27 aos despus la cantidad de peces haba disminuido a la mitad. +Maduraban a los 5 centmetros. +Experimentaron una presin gentica. +An haba peces. +En cierto modo, an eran felices. +Y los peces todava estaban felices de estar all. +O sea, nada a cambiado, pero todo ha cambiado. +Mi tercera historia es que fui cmplice en la introduccin de la pesca de arrastre en el sudeste asitico. +En la dcada de 1970 -bueno, empez en la de 1960- Europa realiz muchos proyectos de desarrollo. +El desarrollo pesquero supuso imponer a los pases que ya tenan 100 000 pescadores, imponerles la pesca industrial. +Y este bote, bastante feo, se llam El Mutiara 4. +Yo sal a pescar en l, y realizamos estudios en el sur del Mar de China Meridional y, sobre todo, en el Mar de Java. +Lo que all capturamos fue algo inenarrable. +Capturamos, ahora lo s, el fondo del mar. +El 90% de lo que capturamos eran esponjas, otros animales que estn en el fondo. +Y la mayora de los peces son manchas diminutas sobre unos restos, restos que son peces de arrecife de coral. +En resumen, el fondo del mar lleg a la cubierta y luego fue arrojado. +Estas imgenes son extraordinarias porque la transicin es muy rpida. +En un ao, uno hace un estudio y luego empieza la pesca comercial. +El fondo pasa de ser un fondo slido de coral blando, en este caso, a ser un lodazal. +Esta es una tortuga muerta. +No las comieron. Las descartaron porque estaban muertas. +Una vez capturamos una viva. +Todava no estaba ahogada. +Entonces queran matarla porque era un buen alimento. +Esta montaa de restos es lo que recogen los pescadores cada vez que van a una zona en la que nunca han pescado. +Pero no queda documentado. +Transformamos el mundo pero no lo recordamos. +Ajustamos el punto de partida, al nuevo nivel, sin recordar lo que estaba all. +Si generalizamos esto ocurre algo as. +En el eje Y tenemos cosas buenas: biodiversidad, cantidad de orcas, el verdor del pas, el suministro de agua. +Y eso cambia con el tiempo. Cambia porque la gente hace las cosas con naturalidad. +Cada generacin usar las imgenes recibidas al comienzo de su vida consciente como lo normal y lo extrapolar hacia adelante. +La diferencia es que perciben la prdida +pero no perciben la prdida que ocurri antes. +Uno puede analizar la sucesin de cambios. +Y al final mantener unos miserables restos. +Y eso, en gran medida, es lo queremos hacer ahora. +Queremos mantener cosas que ya no estn, o que no son lo que fueron. +Pero uno debera pensar que este problema afecta a las personas cuando las sociedades depredadoras matan animales sin saber lo que han hecho hasta unas generaciones despus. +Porque, obviamente, un animal que es muy abundante, antes de extinguirse, es poco frecuente. +Uno no pierde animales abundantes. +Uno pierde animales poco frecuentes. +An si esto no se percibe como una gran prdida. +Con el tiempo, nos concentramos en los animales grandes, y en un mar sinnimo de grandes peces. +Se vuelven poco frecuentes porque los pescamos. +Con el tiempo quedan pocos peces pero pensamos que ese es el punto de partida. +Y la pregunta es: por qu aceptamos esto? +Bueno, porque no sabemos que era diferente. +De hecho, mucha gente, cientficos, cuestionarn que era muy diferente. +Y lo harn porque la evidencia presentada en un modo anterior no es de la forma que ellos esperaran que tenga la evidencia. +Por ejemplo, la ancdota que algunos presentan, como que capitn tal y tal observ muchos peces en esta zona no puede usarse o, por lo general no la usan los cientficos de la pesca, porque no es "cientfica". +As, tenemos una situacin en la que la gente no conoce el pasado, aunque vivamos en sociedades instruidas, porque no confan en las fuentes del pasado. +De all el papel enorme que puede cumplir una zona marina protegida. +Porque con las zonas marinas protegidas, realmente recreamos el pasado. +Recreamos el pasado que la gente no puede concebir porque el punto de partida se ha corrido y es sumamente bajo. +Eso es para las personas que pueden ver una zona marina protegida y pueden beneficiarse de la visin que proporciona, lo cual les permite borrar su punto de partida. +Y qu pasa con las personas que no pueden hacerlo porque no tienen acceso, como la gente del Medio Oeste, por ejemplo? +Creo que all las artes y el cine quiz pueden llenar el vaco. La simulacin. +Esta es una simulacin de la Baha de Chesapeake. +Hace mucho tiempo haba ballenas grises en la baha de Chesapeake; hace 500 aos. +Y habrn notado que los matices y las tonalidades son como de "Avatar". +Y si piensan en "Avatar", si piensan por qu la gente se conmovi con la pelcula -sin hablar de la historia de Pocahontas- por qu conmoverse con las imgenes? +Porque evoca algo que, en cierto sentido, se ha perdido. +Por eso mi recomendacin, la nica que dar, es a Cameron, hacer "Avatar II" bajo el agua. +Muchas gracias. +Hola. Soy Kevin Allocca, el gerente de tendencias de YouTube; y miro videos de YouTube en forma profesional. +Es cierto. +Por eso hoy veremos por qu los videos se hacen virales y qu importancia tiene eso. +Todos queremos ser estrellas: celebridades, cantantes, comediantes... Cuando yo era ms joven, eso pareca algo muy, muy difcil. +Pero hoy el video web hace que cualquiera de nosotros, o de nuestras acciones, cobre notoriedad en una parte de nuestra cultura mundial. +Cualquiera puede hacerse famoso en Internet en un santiamn. +Se suben ms de 48 horas de video a YouTube por minuto. +Y, de esos, solo un pequeo porcentaje se hace viral, recibe infinidad de visitas y gana momntum cultural. +Cmo sucede eso? +Tres cosas: creadores de tendencias, comunidades de participacin y factor sorpresa. +Bueno, empecemos. +Bear Vasquez: Oh, Dios mo, Dios mo. +Dios mo! +Guau! +Ohhhhh, guauuu! +KA: El ao pasado, Bear Vsquez public este video filmado afuera de su casa en el Parque Nacional de Yosemite. +En 2010, fue visto 23 millones de veces. +Este grfico muestra las reproducciones en el auge de popularidad del verano pasado. +Bear no se propona hacer un video viral. +Slo quera compartir un arco iris doble. +Eso es lo que uno hace si se llama Yosemite Mountain Bear. +Ya haba publicado muchos videos de la naturaleza. +Este video se haba publicado en enero. +Entonces, qu pas aqu? +Fue Jimmy Kimmel. +Jimmy Kimmel public este tweet que catapultara al video a la popularidad. +Los creadores de tendencias como Jimmy Kimmel nos presentan cosas nuevas e interesantes y las divulgan a un pblico ms amplio. +Rebecca Black: Es viernes, viernes. Hay que empezar el viernes. Todos desean que llegue el fin de semana, el fin de semana. Viernes, viernes. Empezando el viernes. KA: No pensarn que podamos tener esta conversacin sin hablar de este video, espero. +"Viernes" de Rebecca Black es uno de los videos ms populares del ao. +Lo vieron casi 200 millones de veces este ao. +Este grfico muestra la frecuencia de uso. +Al igual que "Arco iris doble", este video pareca haber surgido de la nada. +Entonces, qu pas este da? +Bueno, era viernes, es verdad. +Y si se preguntan por esos otros picos, tambin son viernes. +Pero, qu pas este da, este viernes en particular? +Bueno, la tom Tosh.0 y muchos blogs empezaron a escribir al respecto. +Michael J. Nelson, de Mystery Science Theater, fue una de las primeras personas en hacer una broma sobre el video en Twitter. +Pero lo importante es que una persona o un grupo de creadores de tendencias adoptan un punto de vista y lo comparten con un pblico ms amplio, acelerando el proceso. +Entonces, esta comunidad de personas que comparte este gran chiste interno luego empieza a hablar de eso y a hacer cosas. +Y ahora hay 10 000 parodias de "Viernes" en YouTube. +Tan solo en los primeros siete das, hubo una parodia para cada uno de los otros das. +A diferencia del entretenimiento unidireccional del siglo XX, esta participacin comunitaria es nuestra manera de ser parte del fenmeno -difundindolo o haciendo algo nuevo con eso-. +"Nyan Cat" es una animacin repetitiva con una msica acorde. +Es as, eso es todo. +Este ao lo vieron unas 50 millones de veces. +Y si piensan que eso es raro, sepan que hay una versin de tres horas que se ha visto cuatro millones de veces. +Hasta los gatos vieron este video. +Y hay gatos que vieron a otros gatos ver el video. +Pero lo importante aqu es la creatividad que despert entre la comunidad tecnfila de Internet. +Hubo remezclas. +Alguien hizo una versin a la antigua. +Y luego se hizo internacional. +De repente, surgi toda una comunidad de remezcla que hizo que esto pasara de ser un chiste tonto a algo de lo que todos podemos formar parte. +Porque hoy no slo disfrutamos, participamos. +Quin podra haber predicho algo as? +Quin podra haber predicho "Arco iris doble" o Rebecca Black o "Nyan Cat"? +Qu guion podra haberse escrito que contemplara esta situacin? +En un mundo en el que se suben dos das de video por minuto, slo aquello verdaderamente nico e inesperado puede destacarse del modo que estas cosas lo han hecho. +Cuando un amigo me dijo que tena que ver este gran video de un tipo que protesta contra las multas a ciclistas en Nueva York, admito que no me interes demasiado. +Casey Niestat: Me multaron por no circular por la bicisenda pero a menudo hay obstculos que te impiden circular adecuadamente por la bicisenda. +KA: Gracias al efecto sorpresa y a su humor, Casey Niestat logr que 5 millones vieran y entendieran su idea. +Por eso este enfoque vale para todo lo nuevo que hacemos de forma creativa. +Y todo esto nos conduce a una gran pregunta... +Bear Vasquez: Qu significa esto? +Ohhhh. +KA: Qu significa esto? +Los creadores de tendencia, comunidades creativas de participacin, lo totalmente inesperado, son caractersticas de un nuevo tipo de medios, de una nueva cultura, a la que todos tenemos acceso y es la audiencia la que define la popularidad. +Como dije antes, una de las celebridades actuales del mundo, Justin Bieber, comenz en YouTube. +No pidan permiso para expresar sus ideas. +Ahora todos somos un poco dueos de nuestra cultura pop. +Estas no son las caractersticas de los viejos medios, apenas son las de los medios actuales, pero definirn el entretenimiento del futuro. +Gracias. +Esta no es una historia terminada. +Es un rompecabezas que todava se est armando. +Djenme contarles sobre algunas de las piezas. +Imaginen la primer pieza: un hombre quemando el trabajo de toda una vida. +Es un poeta, un dramaturgo, un hombre cuya vida entera se haba apoyado en la esperanza nica de unidad y libertad de su pas. +Imagnenlo mientras los comunistas entran en Saign, afrontando el hecho de que su vida haba sido totalmente en vano. +Las palabras, por tanto tiempo amigas, ahora lo burlaban. +Se refugi en el silencio. +Muri quebrado por la historia. +l es mi abuelo. +Nunca lo conoc. +Pero nuestras vidas son mucho ms que nuestros recuerdos. +My abuela nunca me permiti olvidar su historia. +My tarea era no dejar que eso haya sido en vano, y mi leccin era aprender que la historia trat de aplastarnos, pero lo soportamos. +La siguiente parte del rompecabezas es sobre un bote al amanecer delizndose silenciosamente hacia el mar. +My madre, Mai, tena tan slo 18 aos cuando su padre muri, y un matrimonio concertado y dos nias pequeas. +Para ella, la vida se haba destinado a una tarea sola: el escape de su familia y una vida nueva en Australia. +Era inconcebible para ella que no pudiera lograrlo. +Y luego de una saga de 4 aos que desafa la ficcin, un bote se desliz hacia el mar disfrazado de buque pesquero. +Todos los adultos saban los riesgos. +El mayor temor eran los piratas, la violacin y la muerte. +Como la mayora de los adultos, my madre llevaba un frasquito con veneno. +Si nos capturaban, primero lo tomaramos mi hermana y yo, y luego ella y mi abuela. +Mis primeros recuerdos son de ese bote, el ritmo constante del motor, la proa sumergindose en cada ola, y el horizonte vasto y vaco. +No recuerdo a los piratas que vinieron varias veces, pero que fueron engaados con la valenta de los hombres en nuestro barco, o el motor muriendo y no pudiendo arrancar por 6 horas. +Pero s recuerdo las luces de la plataforma petrolera frente a la costa de Malasia, y al hombre joven que colaps y muri, finalizar el viaje era demasiado para l; y la primera manzana que prob, dada por los hombres de la plataforma. +Ninguna manzana tuvo despus el mismo sabor. +Luego de tres meses en un campo de refugiados, desembarcamos en Melbourne. +Y la prxima pieza del rompecabezas es sobre 4 mujeres a lo largo de 3 generaciones dando forma a una vida nueva juntas. +Nos establecimos en Footscray, un suburbio de clase obrera cuya poblacin est compuesta de inmigrantes. +A diferencia de los suburbios de clase media, cuya existencia yo desconoca, en Footscray, no haba sentido del derecho. +Los olores que provenan de las tiendas eran del resto del mundo. +Y los fragmentos de Ingls entrecortado se intercambiaban entre la gente que tena una cosa en comn: estaban empezando de nuevo. +Mi madre trabaj en granjas, luego en una lnea de montaje de autos, trabajando 6 das, doble turno. +An as, encontr tiempo para estudiar Ingls y obtener un ttulo en TI (tecnologa de la informacin). +ramos pobres. +Todos los dlares estaban asignados, y establecida una tutora extra en Ingls y matemticas, no importara lo que se debiera quitar, que generalmente era ropa nueva; siempre era de segunda mano. +Dos pares de medias para la escuela, uno para esconder los agujeros del otro. +Un uniforme escolar hasta los tobillos, porque tena que durar 6 aos. +Y haba cantos raros y dolorosos sobre los "ojos rasgados" y algn graffiti: "Asiticos, vuelvan a casa." +A casa, dnde? +Algo en m se endureci. +Estaba acumulando determinacin y una voz que deca: "Voy a superarlos." +Mi madre, mi hermana y yo dormamos en la misma cama. +Mi madre estaba exhausta cada noche, pero nos contbamos sobre nuestro da y escuchbamos los movimientos de nuestra abuela en la casa. +Mi madre sufra pesadillas, todas del barco. +Y mi tarea era estar despierta hasta que sus pesadillas comenzaran para poder despertarla. +Ella abri una tienda de computadoras, luego estudi para ser esteticista y abri otro negocio. +Y las mujeres venan con sus historias sobre hombres que no podan hacer la transicin, enojados e inflexibles, y chicos traumados atrapados entre dos mundos. +Se buscaron subsidios y patrocinadores. +y se crearon centros. +Viv en mundos paralelos. +En uno, era la estudiante asitica clsica, implacable con lo que demandaba de m misma. +En el otro, estaba enredada en vidas precarias, trgicamente lastimadas por la violencia, el abuso de drogas y el aislamiento. +Pero muchos recibieron ayuda a travs de los aos. +Y por ese trabajo, cuando estudiaba mi ltimo ao de abogaca, me eligieron la joven australiana del ao. +Y fui catapultada de una pieza del rompecabezas a la otra, pero sus bordes no encajaban. +Tan Le, residente annima de Footscray, era ahora Tan Le, refugiada y activista social, invitada a hablar en sitios que nunca haba odo nombrar, y en casas cuya existencia ella nunca hubiera imaginado. +Yo no conoca los protocolos. +No saba cmo usar los cubiertos. +No saba cmo hablar de vino. +No saba cmo hablar de nada. +Quera retirarme a las rutinas y al confort de la vida en un suburbio ignoto -- una abuela, una madre y dos hijas terminando el da como lo hicieron por casi 20 aos, contndose sobre el da de cada una y quedndose dormidas, las tres todava en la misma cama. +Y le dije a mi mam que no poda hacerlo. +Me record que yo tena ahora la misma edad que ella tena cuando nos subimos al barco. +El "no" jams haba sido una opcin. +"Hazlo", me dijo, "y no seas lo que no sos." +As que habl sobre desocupacin juvenil y educacin y la desatencin a los marginados y los desprotegidos. +Y cuanto ms francamente hablaba, ms era solicitada para hablar. +Conoc gente de todos los caminos de la vida, muchos de ellos haciendo lo que amaban, viviendo en la frontera de lo posible. +Y aunque termin mi licenciatura, me di cuenta que no poda quedarme en una carrera de abogaca. +Tena que haber otra pieza del rompecabezas. +Y me di cuenta al mismo tiempo que est bien ser un desconocido, un recin llegado, nuevo en la escena -- y no slo que est bien, sino que es algo por lo que estar agradecido, quizs un regalo del barco. +Porque estar adentro puede fcilmente significar colapasar los horizontes, puede fcilmente significar aceptar las presunciones de tu provincia. +Di los suficientes pasos fuera de mi zona de confort para saber que, s, que el mundo se desmorona, pero no de la manera que tememos. +Posibilidades que no hubieran sido permitidas eran alentadas tremendamente. +Haba una energa ah, un optimismo implacable, una mezcla rara de humildad y valenta. +As que segu mi intuicin. +Junt a un pequeo grupo de personas para quienes el lema "No puede hacerse" era un desafo irresistible. +Por un ao no tuvimos un centavo. +Al final de cada da, haca una olla gigante de sopa que todos compartamos. +Trabajbamos hasta bien entrada la noche. +La mayora de nuestras ideas eran locas, pero algunas brillantes, y nos abrimos paso. +Tom la decisin de mudarme a los EE.UU. +luego de un slo viaje. +Mis corazonadas nuevamente. +Tres meses despus me haba mudado, y la aventura continuaba. +Antes de terminar, permtanme contarles sobre mi abuela. +Ella creci en una poca en la que el Confusionismo era la norma social y el Mandarn local era la persona que importaba. +La vida no haba cambiado por siglos. +Su padre muri poco despus de que ella naci. +La madre la cri sola. +A los 17 se convirti en concubina de un Mandarn cuya madre la golpeaba. +Sin apoyo de su marido, caus un revuelo al demandarlo y llevar la causa ella misma, y mucho ms revuelvo caus cuando gan. +El no puede hacerse demostr ser errneo. +Estaba en la ducha en el cuarto de un hotel en Sidney cuando ella muri, a 1 000 km, en Melbourne. +Mir a travs de la mampara de la ducha y la vi parada del otro lado. +Supe que haba venido a despedirse. +Mi madre llam minutos despus. +Das ms tarde, fuimos a un templo budista en Footscray y nos sentamos alrededor de su atad. +Le contamos historias y le aseguramos que estbamos an con ella. +A la noche un monje vino y nos dijo que tena que cerrar el atad. +Mi madre nos pidi que sintiramos su mano. +Le pregunt al monje: "Por qu su mano est caliente, y el resto del cuerpo tan fro?" +"Porque Uds. han tomado su mano desde la maana," dijo. +"No la han soltado." +Si hay un nervio en nuestra familia, ese corre a travs de las mujeres. +Dado quienes ramos y cmo la vida nos form, ahora podemos ver que los hombres que hubieran llegado a nuestras vidas nos habran frustrado. +La derrota hubiera acontecido fcilmente. +Ahora quiero tener mis propios hijos, y me pregunto sobre el barco. +Quin podra desear eso para s? +Sin embargo, le temo al privilegio de lo fcil, del derecho. +Puedo darles una proa en sus vidas, sumergindose valiente en cada ola, el impvido ritmo constante del motor, el vasto horizonte que no garantiza nada? +No lo s. +Pero si pudiera darlo y verlos a salvo, lo hara. +Trevor Neilson y tambin la madre de Tan est hoy aqu, en la cuarta o quinta fila. +Mi historia comienza en Rajastn hace unos dos aos. +Yo estaba en el desierto, bajo el cielo estrellado, con la cantante suf Mukhtiar Ali. +Estbamos conversando de cmo nada ha cambiado desde la poca de la antigua epopeya india "El Mahabharata". +En aquellos das cuando los indios queramos viajar saltbamos a un carro y surcbamos el cielo. +Ahora lo hacemos con aviones. +En ese entonces cuando Arjuna, el gran prncipe guerrero indio, tena sed, sacaba un arco y con un flechazo al suelo, consegua agua. +Ahora hacemos lo mismo con taladros y mquinas. +La conclusin que sacamos fue que la maquinaria haba reemplazado a la magia. +Y eso me entristeci muchsimo. +Cada vez me senta un poco ms de tecnfoba. +Me aterrorizaba esta idea de perder la capacidad de disfrutar y apreciar un atardecer si no tena la cmara, si no poda tuitearlo a mis amigos. +Me pareca que la tecnologa tena que permitir la magia, no matarla. +De nia mi abuelo me regal su relojito plateado de bolsillo. +Y esta pieza tecnolgica de 50 aos fue para mi la cosa ms mgica. +Se convirti en una puerta dorada hacia un mundo lleno de imgenes, de piratas y naufragios en mi imaginacin. +Tuve la sensacin de que los mviles, los relojes de lujo y las cmaras impiden que soemos. +Frenan nuestra inspiracin. +Por eso me lanc, me arroj a este mundo tecnolgico para ver cmo usarlo para crear magia, en vez de matarla. +Ilustro libros desde los 16 aos. +Por eso cuando vi el iPad vi un dispositivo de narracin capaz de conectar a los lectores del mundo entero. +Se puede saber cmo tomamos el libro, +en dnde estamos, +juntar el texto con la imagen, la animacin, el sonido y el tacto. +La narracin se vuelve cada vez ms multisensorial. +Pero, para qu nos sirve eso? +Estoy a punto de lanzar Khoya, una aplicacin interactiva para iPad. +Dice: "Coloca tus dedos sobre cada luz". +Y as... Dice: "Esta caja pertenece a..." Escribo mi nombre. +Y as me vuelvo un personaje del libro. +En varios momentos me llega una cartita -- el iPad sabe donde vivo gracias al GPS -- que viene dirigida a m. +Mi nia interior se entusiasma con todas estas posibilidades. +He hablado mucho de magia. +Y no me refiero a magos y dragones sino a esa magia de la infancia, a esas ideas que abrigbamos de nios. +Por alguna razn, las lucirnagas en un frasco siempre me resultaron apasionantes. +As, por aqu, tenemos que inclinar el iPad para liberar las lucirnagas. +Y, de verdad, iluminan tu camino en lo que resta del libro. +Otra idea que me fascinaba de nia era que toda una galaxia cupiese en una bolita. +Por eso aqu, cada libro y cada mundo se transforma en una bolita que yo arrastro hacia este dispositivo mgico, dentro del aparato. +Y esto abre un mapa. +En todo libro de fantasa siempre ha habido mapas pero han sido mapas estticos. +Este es un mapa que crece, fulgura y te gua durante el resto del libro. +En ciertos puntos del libro tambin se revela. +Ahora voy a entrar. +Otro aspecto sumamente importante para m es crear contenido indio y a la vez contemporneo. +Estas de aqu son las apsaras. +Todos hemos odo de las hadas y de las ninfas pero, cuntas personas fuera de India conocen sus contrapartes indias, las apsaras? +Estas pobres apsaras han estado atrapadas en las cmaras de Indra durante milenios, en un viejo y hmedo libro. +Por eso las estamos trayendo de vuelta en una historia infantil contempornea; +en una historia que trata temas actuales como la crisis ambiental. +Y, hablando de la crisis ambiental, uno de los problemas de los ltimos 10 aos ha sido que los nios han estado encerrados, pegados a sus PCs, no han salido al mundo exterior. +Pero ahora con la tecnologa mvil podemos sacar a nuestros nios al mundo natural con su tecnologa. +Una de las interacciones del libro es esta aventura en la que hay que salir al exterior, tomar la cmara o el iPad, y recolectar imgenes de distintos objetos naturales. +De nia yo tena muchas colecciones: de palos, piedras, guijarros y conchas. +Por alguna razn los nios ya no lo hacen. +As que para recuperar este ritual de la infancia hay que salir y, en un captulo, tomarle una foto a una flor y luego etiquetarla. +En otro captulo, hay que tomar una foto de un trozo de corteza y luego etiquetarlo. +De este modo se crea una coleccin digital de fotos que luego se puede poner en la Web. +Un nio de Londres pone una foto de un zorro y dice: "Oh, hoy vi un zorro". +Un nio de India dice: "Hoy vi un mono". +Y se crea esta especie de red social en torno a una coleccin de fotos digitales que se han ido tomando. +Dentro de las variantes de conexin entre la magia, la Tierra y la tecnologa hay muchas posibilidades. +En el prximo libro planteamos tener una interaccin en la que uno sale con el iPad y el video encendido y mediante realidad aumentada ve un grupo de duendes animados que aparecen sobre las plantas de interior de la casa. +En un momento la pantalla est llena de hojas +y uno tiene que hacer el sonido del viento y soplarlas para poder leer el resto del libro. +Vamos hacia un mundo en el que las fuerzas de la Naturaleza se entrelazan con la tecnologa y la magia y la tecnologa se acercan una a otra. +Aprovechamos la energa del sol. +Estamos acercando a nuestros hijos y a nosotros mismos al mundo natural y a esa magia, alegra y amor infantil que sentamos mediante una sencilla historia. +Gracias. +Quisiera hablarles de por qu muchos proyectos de e-salud fracasan. +Y creo, realmente, que lo ms importante de eso es que dejamos de escuchar a los pacientes. +Y una de las cosas que hicimos en la Universidad Radbound fue designar a un director de la escucha. +Y no de una manera muy cientfica, ella alz una pequea taza de caf o t y pregunt a pacientes, familia y conocidos: Qu pasa?" +"Cmo podemos ayudarlo? +Y solemos pensar, que ste es uno de los mayores problemas por lo que todos, o tal vez no todos, pero la mayora de los proyectos de e-salud fracasan, ya que dejamos de escuchar. +sta es mi bscula Wi-Fi. Es algo muy sencillo. +Tiene una perilla de encendido y apagado +Todas las maanas me subo. +Y s, tengo un desafo como pueden ver. +Me puse el reto de llegar a 95 Kg. +Pero es tan simple, que cada vez que me conecto, enva mi informacin a Google Health. +Y mi mdico de cabecera tiene acceso a l tambin. As, l puede ver cul es mi problema de peso, no en el mismo momento en que necesite asistencia cardiolgica o alguna urgencia de ese estilo, sino verla hacia atrs. +Pero hay otra cosa. +Como algunos de Uds. saben, tengo ms de 4 000 seguidores en Twitter. +As, cada maana me conecto a mi bscula Wi-Fi y antes de subir a mi auto, la gente comienza a hablarme: Lucien, hoy creo que necesitas un almuerzo liviano. +Eso es lo mejor que puede pasar, ya que es presin de los pares usada para ayudar a los pacientes, pues podra usarse para la obesidad, y tambin para que los pacientes dejen de fumar. +Por otra lado, puede emplearse para mover a la gente de sus sillas y juntos desarrollar alguna actividad recreativa para tener ms control de su salud. +A partir de la semana prxima estar disponible +este pequeo baumanmetro conectado a un iPhone u otro dispositivo. +Y la gente podr, desde sus casas, tomar su presin arterial, envirsela a su mdico, y compartirlo con otros, por ejemplo, por 100 dlares. +ste es el punto donde los pacientes asumen una posicin, vuelven a recuperar el control y a ser capitanes de su propio barco; pero tambin nos puede ayudar al cuidado de la salud debido a los desafos que enfrentamos, como el disparo de los costos de la atencin medica, la duplicacin de la demanda y otros temas. +Realizar tcnicas que son sencillas de usar y comenzar con esto para involucrar a los pacientes en el equipo. +Y pueden hacerlo con tcnicas como stas, pero tambin mediante crowdsourcing. +Y una de las cosas que hicimos quisiera compartirla con Uds. con un video +Todos tenemos controles de navegacin en los autos; +tal vez incluso los tengamos en nuestros celulares. +Sabemos perfectamente dnde estn los cajeros automticos en Maastricht +Tambin dnde estn todas las gasolineras. +Y por supuesto, podemos encontrar cadenas de comida rpida. +Pero dnde est el DESA ms cercano para ayudar a este paciente? +Preguntamos pero nadie supo. +Nadie supo dnde obtener el DESA salva vidas en este momento. +Lo que hicimos fue hacer crowdsourcing en los Pases Bajos. +Creamos un sitio Web, Y le pedimos al pblico que:Si ven un DESA, por favor envenlo, dganos dnde, y cundo est abierto, ya que a veces abren en horarios de oficina y otras estn cerrados. +Y ms de 10 000 DESA ya se presentaron en los Pases Bajos. +El paso siguiente era buscar la aplicacin para eso. +E hicimos una aplicacin para el iPad. +Creamos una aplicacin para Layar, realidad aumentada, para encontrar estos DESA. +Y cada vez que estn en la ciudad de Maastricht y alguien colapsa, pueden usar su iPhone, y a las semanas siguientes utilizar su celular de Microsoft para encontrar el DESA ms cercano, lo que puede salvar vidas. +Y a partir de hoy, quisiera presentar ste, no slo como DESA 4U, que es el nombre del producto, sino tambin como DESA4US. +Y desearamos empezarlo a nivel mundial. +Estamos consultando a todos los colegas en el mundo, en otras universidades, para que nos ayuden a encontrar, trabajar y actuar como un centro para el crowdsourcing de los DESA en todo el mundo. +Cada vez que estn de vacaciones y alguien colapse, puede ser un pariente o alguien enfrente de Uds., pueden encontrarlo. +Tambin quisiera invitar a compaas en todo el mundo que pudieran ayudarnos a validar stos DESA +Podran ser servicios de mensajera o gente de telefona, por ejemplo, para ver si el DESA que se muestra est todava en su lugar. +Por favor, aydennos en sto y no slo mejorar la salud, sino tomar el control de ella. +Muchas gracias. +Estoy aqu para compartir 'mi' fotografa. +O es 'la' fotografa? +Porque, claro, son fotografas que no pueden tomar con sus cmaras. +Mi inters por la fotografa se despert con mi primera cmara digital a los 15 aos. +Se mezcl con mi pasin anterior por el dibujo pero fue un poco diferente porque al usar la cmara el proceso estaba en la planificacin. +Y cuando uno toma una fotografa con una cmara el proceso termina cuando se presiona el pulsador. +Para m la fotografa tena ms que ver con estar en el lugar correcto, en el momento indicado. +Me pareca que cualquiera poda hacerlo. +Por eso quera crear algo diferente, un proceso que comenzara al presionar el pulsador. +Fotos como esta: una construccin en una carretera muy transitada. +Pero tiene un giro inesperado. +Y, a pesar de ello, mantiene un nivel de realismo. +O fotos como estas... oscuras y coloridas a la vez pero con el objetivo comn de mantener el nivel de realismo. +Y cuando digo realismo digo foto-realismo. +Porque, claro, no es algo que pueda capturarse pero yo siempre quiero que parezca haber sido capturado de algn modo como fotografa. +Fotos en las que uno tendr que pensar un momento para descubrir el truco. +Tiene ms que ver con capturar una idea que con capturar un momento. +Pero, cul es el truco que las hace parecer reales? +Son los detalles o los colores? +Interviene la luz? +Qu es lo que crea la ilusin? +A veces la ilusin es la perspectiva. +Pero al final se trata de nuestra manera de interpretar el mundo y cmo se puede percibir en una superficie bidimensional. +En realidad no se trata de si es realista sino de lo que pensamos que es realista. +Por eso creo que los fundamentos son muy simples. +Yo lo veo como un rompecabezas de la realidad en el que tomamos distintas piezas de la realidad y las juntamos para crear una realidad alternativa. +Les mostrar un ejemplo sencillo. +Aqu tenemos tres objetos perfectamente imaginables, algo que todos podemos relacionar con el mundo tridimensional. +Pero combinados de cierta manera pueden crear algo que an parece tridimensional; como si existiera. +Pero, al mismo tiempo, sabemos que no existe. +As, engaamos al cerebro porque el cerebro no acepta el hecho de que eso realmente no tiene sentido. +Y veo el mismo proceso al combinar las fotografas. +Consiste realmente en combinar distintas realidades. +Y las cosas que hacen que una foto parezca realista creo que son esas en las que ni siquiera pensamos; las cosas que nos rodean en nuestra vida cotidiana. +Pero al combinar fotografas es muy importante considerarlo, porque de otro modo algo se ver mal. +Por eso me gustara decir que hay tres reglas simples que seguir para lograr resultados realistas. +Como pueden ver, estas imgenes no son muy especiales. +Pero combinadas, pueden crear algo como esto. +As que la primera regla es que la combinacin de fotos debe tener la misma perspectiva. +Segundo, las fotos combinadas deben tener el mismo tipo de luz. +Y estas dos imgenes cumplen con estos requisitos; fueron tomadas a la misma altura y con el mismo tipo de luz. +El tercer punto es hacer imposible de distinguir el principio y el fin de las distintas imgenes con una unin perfecta. +Tiene que ser imposible de ver dnde se compuso la imagen. +Este es otro ejemplo. +Podra pensarse que esto es la imagen de un paisaje y la parte inferior est manipulada. +Pero esta imagen est totalmente compuesta por fotografas de distintos lugares. +En lo personal pienso que es ms fcil crear un lugar que encontrarlo porque uno no necesita poner en peligro las ideas que tiene en la cabeza. +Pero requiere mucha planificacin. +Y como pens esta idea en invierno saba que tena varios meses para planificarla, para encontrar las distintas ubicaciones para las piezas del rompecabezas. +Por ejemplo, el pez fue capturado en un viaje de pesca. +Las costas son de una ubicacin diferente. +La parte subacutica fue capturada en un pozo de piedra. +Y s, incluso hice roja la casa de la cima de la isla para que pareciera ms sueca. +As que para lograr un resultado realista creo que hace falta planificacin. +Siempre se empieza con un boceto, una idea. +Luego hay que combinar las diferentes fotografas. +Y aqu cada pieza est muy bien pensada. +Si uno hace un buen trabajo al tomar las fotos el resultado puede ser muy hermoso y a la vez muy realista. +Todas las herramientas estn all y el nico lmite es nuestra imaginacin. +Gracias. +Empezar mostrando una diapositiva sobre tecnologa, muy aburrida. +Por favor, si pueden ponerla... +Es un diagrama cualquiera que tom de una carpeta ma. +No me interesa tanto mostrarles los detalles sino el aspecto general. +Se trata de un anlisis que estuvimos haciendo sobre la potencia de los microprocesadores RISC versus la potencia de las redes de rea local. +Lo interesante de esto es que sta, como muchas otras que solemos ver, es una especie de lnea recta en escala logartmica. +En otras palabras, cada paso de aqu representa un orden de magnitud en la escala de rendimiento. +Hablar de tecnologa con curvas semilogartimicas es algo novedoso. +Aqu ocurre algo extrao. +Y de eso precisamente voy a hablar. +Por favor, enciendan las luces. +Necesitara ms intensidad porque escribir sobre papel. +Por qu graficamos curvas tecnolgicas en escalas logartmicas? +La respuesta es que si las dibujara en una curva normal en la que, digamos, estos son los aos, o alguna unidad de tiempo, y esto sera cualquier medida de la tecnologa que quisiera graficar, el diagrama se vera algo ridculo. +Sera algo as, +que no dice mucho. +Pero si grafico, por ejemplo, alguna otra tecnologa, como el transporte, en una curva semilogartmica sera muy tonto, veramos una lnea recta. +Pero si ocurre algo como esto, se da un cambio cualitativo. +Si la tecnologa del transporte avanzara tan rpido como la de microprocesadores, pasado maana podramos tomar un taxi y estar en Tokio en 30 segundos. +Pero no avanza a ese ritmo. +No hay precedentes en la historia del desarrollo tecnolgico de un crecimiento retroalimentado que cada pocos aos avance rdenes de magnitud. +La cuestin que quiero plantear es... Mirando estas curvas exponenciales, vemos que no siguen eternamente. +No es posible sostener este cambio tan rpido como va. +Ocurrir una de dos cosas. +O bien se convertir en una tpica curva S como esta hasta que surja algo totalmente diferente, o quiz har algo as. +Eso es todo lo que puede pasar. +Soy optimista, por eso creo que quiz ocurrir algo as. +De ser as, ahora estaramos en el medio de una transicin. +En esta lnea estamos en una transicin de lo que sola ser el mundo, a una nueva forma. +Por eso lo que trato de preguntar, y preguntarme, es: cul es esa nueva forma que adopta el mundo? +Hacia qu nuevo estado se dirige el mundo? +La transicin parece muy, muy confusa si estamos inmersos en ella. +Recuerdo que de nio el futuro ocurra en el ao 2000 y la gente sola hablar de lo que ocurrira en el ao 2000. +Esta es una conferencia en la que la gente habla del futuro y vemos que el futuro sigue siendo el ao 2000. +Eso es todo lo que vemos. +En otras palabras, el futuro se ha encogido, ao tras ao, a lo largo de mi vida. +Pero creo que se debe a que sentimos que algo est ocurriendo, +que ocurre una transformacin. Podemos sentirlo. +Y sabemos que no tiene mucho sentido pensar a 30 o 50 aos porque todo ser tan diferente que extrapolar lo que estamos haciendo hoy no tiene ningn sentido. +Por eso quiero hablarles de cmo podra ser, cmo podra ser esa transicin que experimentamos. +Pero para hacer eso tendr que hablar un poco de cosas que no tienen mucho que ver con tecnologa e informtica. +Porque creo que la nica manera de entenderlo es tomando distancia y mirar las cosas a largo plazo. +La escala de tiempo en la que me gustara hacerlo es el tiempo de la vida en la Tierra. +Creo que esta imagen tiene sentido si la miramos cada mil millones de aos. +As, nos remontamos unos 2500 millones de aos cuando la Tierra era una gran roca estril con muchos qumicos que flotaban a su alrededor. +Si vemos la manera en que se organizaron esos qumicos nos damos una idea de cmo ocurrieron las cosas. +Y creo que hay teoras para empezar a comprender el origen con el ARN. Voy a contarles una versin simple de esto y es que, en ese momento, haba flotando unas gotitas de aceite con todo tipo de recetas qumicas en su interior. +Algunas de esas gotas de aceite contenan una combinacin particular de qumicos que les hicieron incorporar materiales del el exterior y as las gotas crecieron +y empezaron a dividirse. +En cierto sentido, esas fueron las formas celulares ms primitivas; esas gotitas de aceite. +Pero esas gotas no estaban vivas, en el sentido actual, porque cada una de ellas contena una receta aleatoria de qumicos. +Y cada vez que se dividan ocasionaban una distribucin desigual de los qumicos que contenan. +Por eso cada gotita era un poco diferente. +De hecho, las gotas que de algn modo se diferenciaban siendo mejores a la hora de incorporar los qumicos circundantes; crecan ms, incorporaban ms qumicos y se dividan ms. +Generalmente vivan ms tiempo, estaban ms representadas. +Era una forma de vida, vida qumica, muy simple, pero las cosas se tornaron interesantes cuando estas gotas aprendieron el truco de la abstraccin. +De alguna forma que no entendemos muy bien estas gotitas aprendieron a almacenar informacin. +Aprendieron a guardar informacin, que era la receta de la clula, en un qumico especial llamado ADN. +En otras palabras, elaboraron en esta evolucin sin sentido, un sistema de escritura que les permiti registrar qu eran para poder replicarse. +Lo increble es que ese sistema de escritura parece haber permanecido estable desde que evolucion hace 2500 millones de aos. +Nuestra receta, nuestros genes, tienen exactamente el mismo cdigo, ese mismo sistema de escritura. +De hecho, cada ser viviente est expresado con exactamente el mismo conjunto de letras y el mismo cdigo. +Y una de las cosas que hice slo por diversin... Ahora podemos escribir cosas con este cdigo. +Aqu tengo 100 microgramos de polvo blanco que trato de ocultar a la gente de seguridad del aeropuerto. +Pero contiene... Tom este cdigo... El cdigo tiene las letras comunes que solemos usar en esto... y escrib mis datos personales en este fragmento de ADN y lo amplifiqu 10 a la 22 veces. +Por eso si alguien quiere 100 millones de copias de mi tarjeta personal tengo muchas para todos los presentes; de hecho, para cada persona del mundo y est aqu. +Si fuera un eglatra lo habra puesto en un virus y lo habra esparcido por la sala. +Cul fue el siguiente paso? +Escribir el ADN fue un paso interesante. +Esto hizo que estas clulas estuvieran felices otros mil millones de aos. +Pero luego ocurri otro gran paso interesante en el que las cosas se tornaron muy diferentes y fue que estas clulas empezaron a intercambiar y comunicar informacin formando as comunidades de clulas. +No s si lo saben, pero las bacterias pueden intercambiar ADN. +De ese modo, por ejemplo, evolucion la resistencia a los antibiticos. +Algunas bacterias encontraron la forma de evitar la penicilina y se las apaaron para crear su pequeo ADN con otras bacterias y ahora hay muchas resistentes a la penicilina porque las bacterias se comunican. +Esta comunicacin dio lugar a que se formaran comunidades que, en cierto modo, estaban juntas en eso; y establecieron una sinergia. +De ese modo sobrevivan o fallaban juntas, o sea que si una comunidad era muy exitosa todos los individuos de esa comunidad se replicaban ms y eran favorecidos por la evolucin. +Y el punto de inflexin ocurri cuando estas comunidades se acercaron tanto que, de hecho, se unieron y decidieron escribir toda la receta de la comunidad junta en una cadena de ADN. +La siguiente etapa interesante para la vida llev otros mil millones de aos. +Y en esa etapa tenemos comunidades multicelulares, comunidades de muchos tipos de clulas diferentes trabajando juntas como un solo organismo. +De hecho, nosotros somos una comunidad multicelular. +Tenemos muchas clulas que ya no actan solas. +La clula de la piel no sirve sin la del corazn, o la de los msculos, o la del cerebro, etc. +As, estas comunidades evolucionaron y se produjeron niveles ms interesantes que el celular, algo que llamamos un organismo. +El siguiente nivel ocurri dentro de estas comunidades. +stas empezaron a abstraer informacin +y a construir estructuras muy especiales que no hacan ms que procesar informacin en comunidad. +Son las estructuras neuronales. +Las neuronas son los aparatos que procesan la informacin que esas comunidades celulares construyeron. +De hecho, empezaron a especializarse dentro de la comunidad siendo las estructuras responsables de registrar, comprender y transmitir la informacin. +Esos fueron los cerebros y el sistema nervioso de esas comunidades. +Y eso les dio una ventaja evolutiva. +Porque en ese momento como individuos... El aprendizaje estaba confinado a la duracin de un organismo, y no al perodo de tiempo evolutivo. +As, un organismo poda, por ejemplo, aprender a no comer cierta fruta porque saba mal y se enferm la ltima vez que la comi. +Eso poda ocurrir durante la vida de un organismo dado que antes haban construido estas estructuras de procesamiento de informacin que por la evolucin habran aprendido durante cientos de miles de aos por la muerte de individuos que comieron esa fruta +Por eso el hecho de que el sistema nervioso construyera esas estructuras de informacin aceler enormemente el proceso evolutivo. +Porque la evolucin podra ahora ocurrir confinada a un individuo. +Podra suceder en el tiempo necesario para aprender. +Pero luego, claro, los individuos descubrieron el truco de la comunicacin. +As, por ejemplo, la versin ms refinada que conocemos es el lenguaje humano. +Si lo pensamos, es una invencin increble. +Yo tengo una idea muy complicada una idea vaga, en la cabeza. +Estoy aqu sentado emitiendo unos gruidos y, con suerte, construyendo una idea similar, vaga y confusa, en sus cabezas que guarda cierta analoga con la ma. +Pero tomamos algo muy complicado lo convertimos en sonido, en secuencias de sonido, y producimos algo muy complicado en otro cerebro. +Eso ahora nos permite empezar a funcionar como un organismo. +De hecho, como humanidad, hemos empezado a realizar abstracciones. +Ahora pasamos por perodos similares a los organismos multicelulares; abstraemos nuestros mtodos de registro, presentacin y procesamiento de informacin. +Por ejemplo, la invencin del lenguaje fue un pequeo paso en esa direccin. +La telefona, la informtica, la cinta de video, el CD-ROM, etc. son los mecanismos especializados que ahora construimos para manejar esa informacin. +Y eso nos congrega en algo mucho ms grande, ms rpido y capaz de evolucionar ms de lo que hacamos antes. +Ahora la evolucin puede ocurrir en microsegundos. +Ya vieron el ejemplito evolutivo de Ty en el que produjo cierta evolucin con el programa Convolucin, ante nuestros ojos. +Y ahora hemos acelerado las escalas de tiempo otra vez. +Las primeras etapas de la historia que les contaba llevaron mil millones de aos cada una. +Las siguientes etapas, el sistema nervioso y el cerebro, llev unos cientos de millones de aos. +Las siguientes, el lenguaje etc., llevaron menos de un milln de aos. +Y las siguientes, como la electrnica, parece llevar slo unas dcadas. +El proceso se retroalimenta; supongo que auto-cataltico es la palabra correcta para nombrar algo que acelera su propio ritmo de cambio. +Cuanto ms cambia, ms rpido lo hace. +Y creo que es eso lo que observamos en esta explosin de la curva. +Vemos que el proceso se retroalimenta. +Pero yo me gano la vida diseando computadoras y s que los mecanismos que empleo para disearlas no seran posibles sin los avances informticos recientes. +Pero ahora diseo objetos de tal complejidad que sera imposible para m disearlos de manera convencional. +No s que hace cada transistor en esa mquina de conexiones. +Hay miles de millones. +En vez de eso, con los diseadores de Thinking Machines, pensamos un nivel de abstraccin, lo ponemos en la mquina y la mquina con eso hace algo que antes no se poda, llega mucho ms lejos y ms rpido que nunca antes. +De hecho, a veces emplea mtodos que ni siquiera entendemos bien. +Un mtodo particularmente interesante, que he estado usando ltimamente, es la evolucin misma. +Colocamos dentro de la mquina un proceso evolutivo que opera en la escala de los microsegundos. +Y, por ejemplo, en los casos ms extremos, podemos evolucionar un programa a partir de una secuencia aleatoria de instrucciones. +Le decimos: "por favor computadora, puedes correr cien millones de secuencias de instrucciones al azar? +Podras ejecutar estas secuencias de instrucciones al azar, ejecutar todos esos programas, y tomar aquellas que ms se aproximen a lo que queremos hacer?" +En otras palabras, yo defino lo que quiero. +Digamos que quiero ordenar nmeros, para poner un ejemplo simple. +As, encontramos los programas que ms se acercan a ordenar nmeros. +Claro, es poco probable que unas secuencias aleatorias de instrucciones, ordenen nmeros, as que ninguna de ellas lo logr. +Pero una, por suerte, pudo ubicar dos nmeros en el orden correcto. +Y dije: "computadora, podras tomar el 10% de esas secuencias aleatorias que mejor hicieron la tarea? +Guardemos esas y eliminemos al resto. +Y ahora reproduzcamos las que mejor ordenaron los nmeros. +Y volvamos a reproducirlas siguiendo un proceso de recombinacin anlogo al sexo". +Tomemos dos programas, que engendren hijos, que intercambien subrutinas, y que los hijos hereden las propiedades de ambos programas. +As conseguimos una nueva generacin de programas producto de las combinaciones de programas que tuvieron un poco ms de xito. +Y decimos: "Por favor, repite el proceso". +Califica de nuevo. +Introduce algunas mutaciones +e intenta de nuevo y reptelo con otra generacin. +Bueno, cada generacin lleva unos pocos milisegundos. +As, puedo hacer el equivalente a millones de aos de evolucin en unos pocos minutos o, en casos complicados, en pocas horas. +Al final, terminamos con programas que ordenan nmeros de modo absolutamente perfecto. +De hecho, son programas mucho ms eficientes que los que yo podra haber escrito a mano. +Si miro esos programas no puedo decir cmo funcionan. +He intentado analizarlos para ver cmo funcionan. +Son programas oscuros, extraos. +Pero cumplen el cometido. +De hecho, lo s, tengo la seguridad de que logran el objetivo porque vienen de un linaje de cientos de miles de programas que lo lograron. +De hecho, sus vidas dependan de lograrlo. +Una vez iba en un 747 con Marvin Minsky y saca una tarjeta y me dice: "Mira esto. +Dice: 'Este avin tiene cientos de miles de partecitas que trabajan juntas para ofrecer un vuelo seguro'. No te hace sentir tranquilo?" +Sabemos que los procesos de ingeniera no funcionan muy bien cuando se tornan complicados. +Por eso empezamos a depender de las computadoras para hacer procesos de diseo bien diferentes. +Y eso nos permite producir cosas mucho ms complejas que las que produce la ingeniera normal. +Sin embargo, no entendemos del todo las opciones que hay. +En ese sentido, va delante de nosotros. +Ahora usamos esos programas para hacer computadoras mucho ms rpidas y as poder ejecutar estos programas mucho ms rpidamente. +O sea, se retroalimenta. +La cosa va cada vez ms rpido y por eso creo que parece tan confusa. +Porque todas estas tecnologas se retroalimentan. +Estamos despegando. +Y estamos en un momento anlogo al de los organismos unicelulares cuando se volvieron multicelulares. +Somos las amebas y no podemos entender qu diablos estamos creando. +Estamos en el punto de inflexin. +Pero creo que algo viene detrs de nosotros. +Creo que sera muy arrogante de nuestra parte pensar que somos el producto final de la evolucin. +Y creo que todos nosotros somos parte de la creacin de lo que sea que venga. +Pero ahora viene el almuerzo y creo que parar aqu antes de que me eliminen. +Creo que tenemos que hacer algo con una parte de la cultura mdica que debe cambiar. +Y creo que esto empieza con un mdico, y ese soy yo. +Y he ejercido el tiempo suficiente para permitirme ceder parte de mi falso prestigio en eso. +Antes de tratar el tema de mi charla, hablemos un poco de bisbol. +Por qu no? +Estamos cerca de la final, se aproxima la Serie Mundial. +Nos encanta el bisbol, cierto? +El bisbol est lleno de estadsticas sorprendentes. +Hay cientos de estadsticas. +Est por salir "Rompiendo las reglas"; habla de las estadsticas y de usarlas para formar un gran equipo de bisbol. +Me centrar en una de ellas y espero que muchos de Uds. la conozcan. +Se llama promedio de bateo. +Y hablamos de 300, de un bateador que batea 300. +Eso significa que el beisbolista bate eficazmente, 3 de 10 veces. +Eso significa lanzar la pelota al campo de juego sin ser atrapada, y que cualquiera que trate de lanzarla a la primera base, no llegue a tiempo, y la segunda base estar salvada. +3 intentos de 10. +Uds. saben cmo llaman a un bateador de 300 en las Grandes Ligas? +Bueno, realmente bueno, tal vez del equipo de las estrellas. +Uds. saben cmo llaman a un bateador de bisbol de 400? +Por cierto, ese es alguien que de 10 golpes, acierta 4. +Legendario... como el legendario Ted Williams, el ltimo jugador de la Liga Mayor de Bisbol en ejecutar ms 400 golpes en una temporada regular. +Ahora traslademos esto a mi mundo de la medicina donde me siento mucho ms cmodo, o tal vez menos incmodo, despus de lo que les contar hoy. +Supongan que tienen apendicitis y son derivados a un cirujano que tiene tambin un rcord de 400 en apendicetomas. +As no funciona, cierto? +Ahora supongan que viven en un lugar alejado y un ser querido tiene dos arterias coronarias obstruidas y su mdico de familia lo deriva a un cardilogo cuyo rcord en angioplastia es de 200. +Pero, saben algo? +Ella est mejorando notablemente este ao +y sus aciertos han sido 257. +Esto no est funcionando. +Pero les preguntar: +Cul creen Uds. que debe ser el promedio de aciertos de un cirujano cardaco u ortopdico, de una enfermera o de un obstetra gineclogo? +1000, muy bien. +Y la verdad del asunto es que nadie en toda la medicina conoce los aciertos de un buen cirujano, de un mdico o paramdico. +Lo que hacemos, sin embargo, es enviarlos al mundo, y me incluyo, con el mandato de ser perfectos. +Que nunca, jams, cometan un error y preocpense de averiguar cmo hacerlo bien. +Ese fue el mensaje que absorb cuando estaba en la facultad de medicina. +Yo era un estudiante obsesivo compulsivo. +Una vez, un compaero en la secundaria dijo que Brian Goldman estudiaba hasta para un examen de sangre. +Tal cual. +Estudiaba en mi pequeo desvn, en la residencia de enfermeras del Hospital General de Toronto, no lejos de aqu. +Y aprend todo de memoria. +De mi clase de anatoma, memoric el origen y el trabajo muscular, la ramificacin de cada arteria que sale de la aorta, el diagnstico diferencial frecuente y el no habitual. +E incluso conoca el diagnstico diferencial sobre cmo clasificar la acidosis tubular renal. +Y mientras tanto acumulaba ms y ms conocimiento. +Y me iba muy bien; me gradu con honores. +Y egres de la escuela de medicina con la impresin de que si memorizaba todo, entonces sabra todo, o lo ms posible, cercano al todo, porque as me inmunizara de los errores. +Y funcion por un tiempo, hasta que conoc a la seora Drucker. +Yo era residente en un hospital universitario aqu, en Toronto cuando trajeron a la seora Drucker al servicio de emergencias donde yo trabajaba. +En aquel momento me asignaron al servicio de cardiologa. +Y cuando emergencias solicit consultar a un cardilogo me toc asistir a esa paciente +e informar al jefe de residentes. +Cuando vi a la seora Drucker, estaba jadeando. +Escuch un sonido resollante. +Y cuando la auscult, escuch un sonido quebradizo en ambos lados, lo que me indicaba una insuficiencia cardaca congestiva. +En estas condiciones el corazn deja de funcionar y, en lugar de bombear la sangre hacia adelante, la sangre va a los pulmones, stos se llenan de sangre, y por eso hay dificultad para respirar. +Y no era difcil de diagnosticar. +Lo hice y me puse a trabajar en el tratamiento que le dara. +Le di aspirina y medicacin para aliviar la presin en su corazn. +Le di diurticos, pldoras de agua, para que pudiera eliminar lquido. +Y en una hora o dos, ella comenz a sentirse mejor. +Y me sent muy bien. +Y ah fue cuando comet el primer error; la envi a su casa. +En verdad, comet dos errores ms. +La envi a su casa sin hablar con el jefe de residentes. +No levant el telfono ni hice lo que debera haber hecho, que era llamar a mi jefe y consultarlo con l para que la viera. +Y si mi jefe la hubiera visto, habra podido aportar informacin complementaria. +Tal vez lo hice por una buena razn. +Quiz no quera ser un residente que requiriera atencin constante. +Tal vez quera ser tan exitoso y capaz de asumir responsabilidades, que podra cuidar de mis pacientes sin siquiera contactar a mi jefe. +El segundo error que comet fue peor. +Al enviarla a su casa, no prest atencin a una voz en mi interior que me deca: "Goldman, no es una buena idea. No lo hagas". +De hecho, estaba tan inseguro que hasta le pregunt a la enfermera que cuidaba a la seora Drucker: "Crees que est bien si se va a su casa?" +Y la enfermera pens y luego dijo con total naturalidad: "S, yo creo que estar bien". +Recuerdo eso como si fuera ayer. +As fue que firm el alta, y la ambulancia junto con los paramdicos la llevaron a su casa. +Y volv a la sala del hospital. +El resto de ese da, esa tarde, tuve un mal presentimiento en el estmago, +pero segu con mi trabajo. +Al final del da, empaqu para dejar el hospital y camin hacia el estacionamiento donde estaba mi auto para irme a casa. En ese momento hice algo que no hago normalmente, +pas por el servicio de emergencias de camino a casa. +Y all otra enfermera, no la que cuidaba de la seora Drucker antes, sino otra. Me dijo tres palabras, esas tres palabras que la mayora de los mdicos de emergencia temen. +Otros especialistas las temen tambin, pero hay una particularidad en emergentologa y es que vemos a los pacientes fugazmente. +Las tres palabras son: Se acuerda Ud.? +"Se acuerda del paciente que envi a su casa?", +pregunt la otra enfermera con total naturalidad. +"Pues ella regres", con el mismo tono de voz. +Ella se fue bien. +Pero regres y al borde de la muerte. +Al cabo de una hora de haber llegado a su casa, despus de que yo le diera el alta, sufri un colapso y su familia llam al 911; los paramdicos la trajeron a emergencias con una presin arterial de 50 mm de Hg, lo que significa un shock severo. +Apenas respiraba y estaba azul. +El personal de emergencia despleg todos sus recursos. +Le dieron medicacin para subir la presin arterial +y le pusieron un respirador artificial. +Yo estaba conmocionado y sacudido hasta la mdula. +Tena una mezcla de sentimientos porque despus que la estabilizaran estuvo en terapia intensiva y esperaba contra toda esperanza que se recuperara. +Y en los dos o tres das siguientes era evidente que nunca despertara. +Tena un dao cerebral irreversible. +La familia se reuni +y en 8 o 9 das, se resignaron a lo que estaba sucediendo. +Y al noveno da, la dejaron ir. La seora Drucker, esposa, madre y abuela. +Dicen que nunca se olvidan los nombres de los que mueren. +Esa fue mi primera experiencia. +Las semanas siguientes, me castigu por ello y experiment por primera vez la malsana vergenza que existe en nuestra cultura mdica y me sent solo, aislado, sin sentir esa vergenza sana porque no puedes hablarlo con tus colegas. +Uno hace las paces y nunca ms comete ese error. +Es esa vergenza que deja una enseanza. +La vergenza malsana de la que hablo es la que nos hace sentir muy mal por dentro. +Es la que nos dice no que aquello que hicimos estuvo mal, sino que somos malos. +Y eso senta. +Y no fue por mi jefe; l era un encanto. +Habl con la familia y estoy seguro que suaviz las cosas y se asegur de que no me demandaran. +Y segu hacindome esas preguntas. +Por qu no le pregunt a mi jefe? Por qu la envi a su casa? +Y en mis peores momentos: Por qu comet un error tan tonto? +Por qu eleg medicina? +Poco a poco ese sentimiento se fue disipando. +Y comenc a sentirme mejor. +Y en un da nublado, se abri el cielo y finalmente sali el sol. Y me preguntaba si me sentira mejor otra vez. +E hice un trato conmigo mismo en el que si redoblaba los esfuerzos para ser perfecto para no cometer ms errores, hara cesar esas voces. +Y as fue. +Volv a trabajar, +pero volvi a suceder. +Dos aos despus, era ayudante en el departamento de emergencia en un hospital comunitario al norte de Toronto, y recib a un hombre de 25 aos con un dolor en la garganta. +Yo estaba muy ocupado y apurado +y l sealaba aqu. +Observ su garganta, estaba un poco colorada, +le prescrib penicilina y lo envi a su casa. +Pero mientras l se diriga a la puerta segua sealando su garganta. +Dos das despus, cuando vine a hacer mi cambio de guardia, mi jefa pidi hablar conmigo tranquilamente en su oficina. +Y pronunci las tres palabras: Se acuerda Ud.? +Recuerda al paciente que vio por un dolor en la garganta? +Pues l regres y no tena una faringitis estreptoccica. +Tena una afeccin potencialmente mortal llamada epigliotitis. +Pueden buscarla en Google. Es una infeccin, no de la garganta, sino de la va area superior, y que puede causar el cierre de esas vas. +l, afortunadamente, no falleci. +Se le administr antibiticos por va intravenosa y se recuper a los pocos das. +Y atraves el mismo perodo de vergenza y reproches, luego me alivi y regres a trabajar, hasta que sucedi una y otra vez, y otra vez. +Dos veces en el mismo turno de urgencias, no diagnostiqu apendicitis. +Y es un gran esfuerzo, especialmente trabajar en un hospital, ya que se asiste a 14 pacientes al mismo tiempo. +Pero en ambos casos, no los envi a casa y no creo que haya sido un descuido. +Uno de ellos pens que tena un clculo renal. +Orden una radiografa de riones pero result normal. Un colega que estaba revisando al paciente percibi cierta sensibilidad en el cuadrante inferior derecho y llam al cirujano. +El otro paciente estaba con mucha diarrea. +Le orden lquido para rehidratarse y le ped a mi colega que lo revisara. +Lo revis y al notar cierta sensibilidad en el cuadrante inferior derecho, llam al cirujano. +Ambos fueron operados y se recuperaron bien +Pero cada caso me atormentaba, me devoraba. +Pero me gustara decirles que comet los peores errores en los primeros 5 aos de ejercicio y como muchos colegas dicen, es una porquera. +Los ms significativos han sido durante los ltimos 5 aos. +Solo, avergonzado y sin apoyo. +Y aqu est el problema: si no puedo liberarme y hablar de mis errores, si no puedo encontrar la vocecita que me diga lo que realmente pasa, cmo podr compartir esto con mis colegas? +Cmo les enseo esto para que no cometan los mismos errores? +Si yo entrara ahora a un lugar como ste, no tendra idea de lo que Uds. piensan de m. +Cundo fue la ltima vez que escucharon a alguien hablar de fracaso, tras fracaso, tras fracaso? +Por supuesto que en una fiesta escucharn hablar de los errores de otros mdicos, pero no escucharn a alguien hablar de sus propios errores. +Y si yo supiera y mis colegas tambin, que un traumatlogo en mi hospital amput la pierna equivocada, cranme que tendra dificultades en mirarlo a los ojos. +Este es el sistema que tenemos. +La negacin total de los errores. +Es el sistema en el que hay dos posiciones: los que cometen errores y los que no; los que no pueden dormir y los que s; los que tienen psimos resultados y los que tienen estupendos resultados. +Y es casi como una reaccin ideolgica, como anticuerpos que empiezan a atacar a esa persona. +Tenemos la idea de que si apartamos de la medicina a las personas que cometen errores, nos quedar un sistema seguro. +Pero eso trae dos problemas. +En 20 aos aproximadamente de difusin y periodismo mdico, he hecho un estudio personal de mala praxis mdica y errores mdicos para aprender lo posible, desde el primer artculo que escrib para el Toronto Star hasta mi programa: "White Coat, Black Art" (Delantal blanco, arte negro). +Y lo que aprend es que los errores son omnipresentes. +Trabajamos en un sistema en el que los errores suceden todos los das, en el que 1 de cada 10 medicamentos prescriptos en el hospital son equivocados, o la dosificacin no es correcta. En un sistema en el que las infecciones intrahospitalarias son cada vez ms, y ms numerosas, provocando caos y muerte. +En este pas, mueren 24 000 canadienses por errores mdicos evitables. +El Instituto de Medicina de EE.UU. estableci 100 000. +En ambos casos, se trata de subestimaciones burdas, porque no estamos desentraando el problema como deberamos. +Y as estn las cosas. +Un sistema hospitalario donde el conocimiento se multiplica cada 2 o 3 aos, y nosotros no nos actualizamos. +La privacin del sueo invade todo +y no podemos deshacernos de ella. +Tenemos sesgos cognitivos que permiten hacer un historial perfecto de un paciente con dolor en el pecho. +Ahora, tomemos al mismo paciente con un dolor en el pecho, viene locuaz con ojos llorosos y con aliento a alcohol y, de repente, mi historia se tie de desprecio. +No es la misma historia. +No soy un robot; no hago las cosas siempre igual. +Y mis pacientes no son autos. No relatan sus sntomas siempre de la misma manera. +Por todo esto, los errores son inevitables. +As, si tomamos el sistema como nos ensearon, y eliminamos a todos los profesionales propensos a error, bueno, no quedar nadie. +Y con respecto a que la gente no quiere hablar de sus casos ms graves? +En mi programa: "Delantal blanco, arte negro", ya es una costumbre decir: "este es mi peor error". Les dira a todos, desde los paramdicos hasta el jefe de ciruga cardaca: "este es mi peor error", bla, bla, bla... "Cules son tus errores?" Y dirigira el micrfono hacia ellos. +Y sus alumnos se detendran, retrocederan, bajaran la cabeza y tragaran saliva y empezaran a contar sus historias. +Ellos quieren contar sus historias, quieren compartirlas. +Desean poder decir: "Miren, no cometan el mismo error". +Ellos necesitan un contexto donde poder hacerlo. +Necesitan una cultura mdica redefinida. +Y comienza con un mdico cada vez. +El mdico redefinido es humano, se sabe humano, lo acepta, y no se enorgullece de sus errores, pero se esfuerza por aprender de lo sucedido para ensear a otros. +Comparte sus experiencias con ellos. +Es apoyo para aquellos que hablan de sus errores. +Seala los errores de otras personas no con la intencin de atraparlos, sino de una manera amorosa y de apoyo para que todos se beneficien. +Y trabaja en una cultura mdica que reconoce que seres humanos dirigen el sistema, y cuando esto sucede, se cometen errores de vez en cuando. +Mi nombre es Brian Goldman. +Soy un mdico redefinido. +Soy humano, cometo errores +y lo siento mucho pero me esfuerzo por aprender algo que pueda transmitir a otros. +An no s qu piensan de m, pero puedo vivir con eso. +Y permtanme concluir con tres palabras personales: yo lo recuerdo. +Saben cuntas decisiones tomamos un da cualquiera? +Saben cunto escogemos en una semana? +Hace poco hice una encuesta a ms de 2000 personas y la cantidad promedio de elecciones que dice escoger un estadounidense medio, son unas 70 al da. +No hace mucho, en una investigacin siguieron durante una semana a un grupo de presidentes de empresas. +Los investigadores registraron las diferentes tareas desempeadas por estos ejecutivos y el tiempo que emplearon en tomar decisiones relacionadas con esas tareas. +Encontraron que, en promedio, acometan 139 trabajos por semana. +Naturalmente, cada trabajo inclua muchsimas minidecisiones. +La mitad de esas decisiones llevaron 9 minutos o menos. +Slo un 12% requirieron una hora o ms de su tiempo. +Ahora piensen en sus elecciones. +Saben cuntas pertenecen a la categora de 9 minutos, y cuntas a la de una hora? +Cmo califica la manera en que maneja esas decisiones? +Hoy quiero hablar de uno de los mayores problemas de la actualidad: elegir ante la sobrecarga de opciones. +Quiero hablar del problema y de unas posibles soluciones. +Mientras hablo de esto voy a hacerles unas cuantas preguntas y necesito conocer sus respuestas. +Cuando haga una pregunta, como soy ciega, levanten la mano solo si quieren quemar caloras. +De otra forma, cuando haga una pregunta, si su respuesta es positiva por favor den una palmada. +Y ahora mi primera pregunta del da: Estn listos para or hablar del problema de la sobrecarga de opciones? +Gracias. +Siendo estudiante de postgrado de la Universidad de Stanford, frecuentaba este supermercado de nivel muy, muy alto; al menos en esa poca era muy sofisticado. +Se llamaba Draeger's. +Era casi como ir a un parque de diversiones. +Haba como 250 clases distintas de mostaza y vinagre, ms de 500 tipos distintos de frutas y verduras y unas 25 de agua embotellada. Y esto era cuando tombamos agua del grifo. +Me encantaba ir a esa tienda, pero en una ocasin me pregunt, por qu nunca compro nada? +Este es el estante del aceite de oliva. +Tenan ms de 75 clases diferentes, incluyendo las que estaban en caja sellada que provenan de rboles milenarios. +Una vez decid visitar al gerente y le pregunt: "Funciona bien esta estrategia de ofrecer todas estas opciones?" +l me seal los buses llenos de turistas que llegaban todos los das, usualmente con sus cmaras. +Decidimos hacer un pequeo experimento con las mermeladas. Este es el +pasillo. +Tenan 348 clases diferentes. +Instalamos un puesto para degustar, justo a la entrada de la tienda. +Pusimos ah mermeladas de seis sabores, o de 24 sabores diferentes y observamos dos cosas: Primero, en qu caso la gente estaba dispuesta a detenerse a probar la mermelada? +Ms personas se detuvieron cuando haba 24; un 60%, que cuando haba slo seis, un 40%. +Tambin nos fijamos en qu caso estaban ms propensos a comprar un tarro de mermelada. +Aqu encontramos el efecto contrario. +De los que se detuvieron cuando haba 24, slo el 3% lleg a comprar mermelada. +De los que pararon cuando haba seis, vimos que el 30% compr mermelada. +Si hacemos los clculos, las personas tenan seis veces ms probabilidad de comprar mermelada si encontraban seis. que si encontraban 24. +Bueno, decidir que no compramos mermelada probablemente nos conviene, -al menos es bueno para conservar la lnea- pero resulta que el problema de la sobrecarga de opciones nos afecta en decisiones bien trascendentales. +Decidimos no decidir, aun cuando esto no nos convenga. +Ahora el tema del da: el ahorro financiero. +Voy a describirles un estudio que hice con Gur Huberman, Emir Kamenica y Wei Jang, en el que observamos las decisiones sobre ahorros para la jubilacin de cerca de un milln de estadounidenses, de entre unos 650 planes de este pas. +Nos interesaba ver si el nmero de ofertas de fondos disponibles en planes de ahorros para jubilacin, el programa 401, desmotivaba a la gente a ahorrar para el futuro. +Y descubrimos que en verdad s haba una correlacin. +Tenamos 657 planes que iban desde dos, hasta 59 opciones distintas. +Encontramos que cuanto mayor era el nmero de fondos ofrecidos, haba menos participacin. +As, si miramos los extremos, vemos que en los planes que ofrecen dos fondos, la tasa de participacin era del 70% o ms, no tan alta como se quisiera. +Y en los planes que ofrecan unos 60 fondos, la tasa de participacin descendi al percentil 60. +Resulta que inclusive si decides participar, cuando hay ms opciones, aun en ese caso, hay consecuencias negativas. +As, para los que decidieron participar, cuanto mayor era el nmero de opciones, ms personas se inclinaban por evitar las acciones o los fondos de inversin. +En cuanto hubiera ms opciones, estaban ms dispuestos a invertir en cuentas financieras de mercado. +Pero ninguna de estas decisiones extremas son las que nosotros recomendaramos para optimizar el bienestar financiero futuro. +En la dcada anterior hemos visto tres consecuencias negativas principales al ofrecer ms y ms posibilidades. +Lo ms probable es que pospongan la decisin, que la aplacen an cuando esto vaya en contra del propio inters. +Es ms probable que tomen las peores decisiones; en las finanzas y en la salud. +Estn ms propensos a escoger cosas menos satisfactorias, aunque objetivamente les vaya mejor. +La principal razn es que gozamos con observar esa variedad gigantesca de mayonesa, mostaza, vinagre y mermelada, pero no somos capaces de hacer los clculos para comparar, contrastar y elegir de esa impresionante exhibicin. +Hoy quiero proponerles cuatro tcnicas sencillas que hemos ensayado, de una forma u otra, en distintas investigaciones, para que puedan ensayar en sus negocios. +La primera es, Cortar. +Ya lo han odo antes, pero nunca ha sido ms cierto que hoy, que menos es ms. +La gente siempre se molesta cuando digo, "Cortar". +Se preocupan por perder espacio en el anaquel. +Pero en realidad lo que estamos viendo cada vez ms es que si uno decide cortar, deshacerse de opciones redundantes extraas, habr un aumento en las ventas, bajarn los costos, habr una mejor experiencia en la eleccin. +Cuando Proctor & Gamble pas de 26 tipos diferentes de Head & Shoulders a 15, vieron un aumento del 10% en ventas. +Cuando la corporacin Golden Cat elimin los productos para deshechos de gatos que menos se vendan, se aumentaron las utilidades en 87%, por dos causas: mayores ventas y menores costos. +Se sabe que los supermercados de hoy, en promedio ofrecen 45 000 productos. +En una tienda de Walmart se ofrecen unos 100 000 productos. +Pero la novena tienda ms grande en el mundo actual es Aldi y ofrece slo 1400 productos; un tipo de salsa de tomate en lata. +En el mundo de los ahorros financieros, pienso que uno de los mejores ejemplos que han surgido sobre cmo manejar mejor las opciones es el planteo de David Laibson, el programa de Harvard. +Todos los empleados de Harvard son incorporados automticamente a un fondo de seguro de vida. +A quienes verdaderamente desean escoger, se les ofrecen 20 fondos, no 300 o ms. +Ya saben que a menudo la gente dice, "No s como cortar. +Todas son opciones importantes". +Lo primero que hago es preguntar a los empleados: "Dganme las diferencias que hay entre esas opciones. +Y si sus empleados no pueden diferenciar, tampoco lo podrn hacer sus clientes". +Esta tarde, antes de empezar esta sesin, estuve charlando con Gary. +l me dijo que estara dispuesto a ofrecer a las personas de esta audiencia unas vacaciones con todo pagado a la carretera ms bella del mundo. +Aqu, una descripcin. +Quiero que la lean. +Voy a dejar unos segundos para leerla y luego quiero que den un aplauso si estn listos a tomar la oferta de Gary. +(Pocos aplausos) Bien. Cualquiera que est listo a aceptar la oferta. +No son ms? +Bueno, voy a mostrarles algo ms. +Ustedes saban que haba un truco. +Quin est listo para ese viaje? +Creo que en verdad alcanc a or ms manos. +Muy bien. +En realidad, Uds. tenan ms informacin en la primera ronda, que en la segunda. Pero puedo aventurarme y decir que pensaron que la segunda vez era ms real. +Porque las imgenes hacan que se viera ms real. +Esto me lleva a la segunda tcnica para manejar el problema de la sobrecarga de opciones. que es Concretar. +Para que la gente entienda las diferencias entre opciones, tienen que comprender las consecuencias de cada opcin, y que las consecuencias deben sentirse de manera muy vvida, muy concreta. +Por qu razn la gente gasta 15% a 30% ms en promedio cuando usa tarjetas de dbito o crdito, que cuando usa efectivo? +Porque no parece dinero real. +Resulta que hacer que se vea ms real, puede ser una herramienta muy positiva para que la gente ahorre ms. +Hicimos un estudio con Shlomo Benartzi y Alessandro Previtero, sobre personal de ING -funcionarios que trabajaban en ING. estas personas estaban en una reunin en la que se estaban afiliando a un plan 401. +A esa reunin, que conservamos exactamente como se acostumbraba, le hicimos una pequea adicin. +Lo que aadimos fue que le solicitamos al personal que pensaran en las cosas positivas que sucederan en sus vidas si ahorraban ms dinero. +Con esta minucia hubo un aumento en las afiliaciones del 20% y un incremento en la cantidad que estaban interesados en ahorrar o en lo que queran colocar en sus cuentas de ahorros, de 4%. +La tercera tcnica es Clasificar. +Podemos manejar ms categoras que opciones. +Por ejemplo, este es un estudio que hicimos en un pasillo de revistas. +Vimos que en los supermercados Wegman's a lo largo del corredor del nordeste, la exhibicin de revistas puede contener desde 331 tipos diferentes hasta 664. +Pero, saben? +Porque la clasificacin me indica cmo diferenciarlas. +Estas son dos exhibiciones de joyas. +Una se llama "Jazz" y la otra, "Swing". +Si piensan que la de la izquierda es Swing y la de la derecha es Jazz, den una palmada. +(Pocos aplausos) Bueno, hay algunos. +Si piensan que la de la izquierda es Jazz y la de la derecha es Swing, den una palmada. +Bueno, algo ms. +Resulta que es correcto. +La de la izquierda es Jazz y la de la derecha es Swing. Pero, saben algo? +Este esquema de clasificacin es totalmente intil. +Las categoras deben indicar algo a quien escoge, no al que las define. +A menudo se ve este problema con esas enormes listas de fondos. +Supuestamente a quin estn informando? +Mi cuarta categora: Condicionar la complejidad. +Resulta que podemos manejar mucha ms informacin que lo que pensamos, si solo la simplificamos un poco. +Tenemos que aumentar la complejidad gradualmente. +Voy a mostrarles un ejemplo de lo que quiero decir. +Veamos una decisin bien complicada; la compra de un auto. +Este es un fabricante alemn de autos que permite personalizarlo por completo. +Tienes que tomar 60 decisiones, para armar el coche. +Y estas decisiones varan en el nmero de opciones que ofrece cada una. +Colores, color exterior del auto. Tengo 56 posibilidades. +Motor, caja de cambios; 4 opciones. +Lo que voy a hacer es variar el orden en que aparecen las decisiones. +De modo que la mitad de los clientes van a ir de muchas opciones, 56 colores, a unas pocas, cuatro cajas. +La otra mitad de los clientes van a ir de pocas opciones, cuatro cajas, a 56 colores, muchas opciones. +Y qu voy a mirar? +Qu tan involucrado ests. +Si se acciona siempre el botn por defecto en cada decisin, esto indica que estn abrumados, o sea: los estamos perdiendo. +Encontramos que los que van de muchas opciones a pocas, oprimen el botn por defecto una y otra vez, y otra ms. +Los perdemos. +Si van de pocas opciones a muchas, continan ah. +La misma informacin, el mismo nmero de opciones. +Lo nico que hice fue alterar el orden en que se presenta la informacin. +Si comenzamos con lo fcil, uno aprende a escoger. +Aunque el escoger la caja de cambios no diga nada sobre las preferencias de la decoracin interior, de todas maneras nos prepara para elegir. +Nos entusiasma un producto que estamos construyendo que ahora nos tiene ms enganchados con el proceso. +Para resumir. +He hablado de cuatro tcnicas para mitigar el problema de la sobrecarga de opciones: Cortar, eliminar alternativas extraas; Concretar, hacerlo real; Clasificar, podemos manejar ms categoras con menos opciones; Condicionar la complejidad. +Todas estas tcnicas que les he presentado fueron diseadas para ayudar a manejar las alternativas; o mejor, para ustedes, para usarlas en sus asuntos, o para las personas a quienes sirven. +Es que pienso que la clave para obtener lo mejor de una eleccin es siendo cuidadoso al escoger. +Y cuanto ms cuidadosos seamos en nuestras elecciones mejor podremos practicar el arte de elegir. +Muchas gracias. +En los aos '80, en la Alemania Oriental comunista, si uno tena una mquina de escribir deba registrarla ante el gobierno. +Haba que registrar una hoja de texto de ejemplo escrita con la mquina. +Y esto para que el gobierno pudiera rastrear el origen de los textos. +Si encontraban un escrito con el mensaje incorrecto podran rastrear la huella hasta el origen de la idea. +En Occidente no concebimos que alguien pudiera hacer esto, lo mucho que esto limitara la libertad de expresin. +Nunca haramos eso en nuestros pases. +Pero hoy, en 2011, si uno compra una impresora color lser de cualquier fabricante grande e imprime una pgina, esa pgina terminar teniendo unos puntitos amarillos impresos en cada pgina que siguen un patrn que las hace propias de uno y de su impresora. +Eso nos est pasando hoy. +Y nadie parece alborotarse mucho por esto. +Este es un ejemplo de las formas en que nuestros gobiernos usan la tecnologa en contra de nosotros, los ciudadanos. +Y es una de las tres causas principales de problemas en la red. +Si vemos lo que pasa en el mundo en lnea podemos agrupar los ataques segn sus atacantes. +Hay tres grupos principales. +Estn los cibercriminales +como el Sr. Dimitry Golubov de la ciudad de Kiev, en Ucrania. +El mvil de los cibercriminales es muy fcil de entender. +Estos tipos ganan dinero. +Usan los ciberataques para ganar mucho dinero, ingentes cantidades. +Realmente hay muchos casos de millonarios en lnea, multimillonarios, que gananaron dinero con sus ataques. +Este es Vladimir Tsastsin, de Tartu, Estonia. +Este es Alfred Gonzlez. +Este es Stephen Watt. +Este es Bjrn Sundin. +Estos son Matthew Anderson, Tariq Al-Daour etc., etc., etc. +Estos tipos hacen sus fortunas en lnea pero lo hacen por medios ilegales mediante troyanos bancarios para robar dinero de nuestras cuentas cuando compramos en lnea; o roban nuestras claves para conseguir informacin de nuestras tarjetas cuando compramos en una computadora infectada. +El servicio secreto de EE.UU., hace dos meses, congel la cuenta suiza de este seor, Sam Jain, y esta cuenta tena 14,9 millones de dlares cuando fue congelada. +El Sr. Jain anda suelto; se desconoce su paradero. +Y yo digo que hoy es ms probable que cualquiera de nosotros sea vctima de un cibercrimen que de un crimen real. +Y es muy obvio que esto va de mal en peor. +En el futuro, la mayora de los crmenes ocurrirn en lnea. +El segundo grupo de atacantes en importancia que observamos hoy en da no est motivado por el dinero. +Hay otra cosa que los mueve, les motivan las protestas, les motivan las opiniones, les motivan las risas. +Grupos como Anonymous han descollado en los ltimos 12 meses ocupando un papel destacado en los ataques en lnea. +Esos son los tres atacantes principales: los criminales que lo hacen por dinero, los hacktivistas como Anonymous que lo hacen para protestar y el ltimo grupo son los Estados nacionales los gobiernos que atacan. +Y entonces vemos casos como el de DigiNotar. +Ese es un buen ejemplo de ataque gubernamental contra sus propios ciudadanos. +DigiNotar es una autoridad de certificacin de los Pases Bajos o, en realidad, lo era. +Declar la quiebra el ltimo otoo debido a un sabotaje. +Sortearon la seguridad del sitio y perpetraron un ciberataque. +La semana pasada pregunt, en una reunin con representantes del gobierno holands, le pregunt a uno de los lderes si hallaban plausible la muerte de personas a causa del ataque a DigiNotar. +Y la respuesta de l fue s. +Entonces, cmo muere la gente a causa de un ataque de estos? +DigiNotar es una autoridad certificante. +Venden certificados. +Para qu sirven los certificados? +Bueno, se necesitan si uno tiene un sitio web con https, servicios encriptados SSL, servicios como Gmail. +Salvo que intercepten una autoridad certificante extranjera +y que emitan certificados apcrifos. +Y en el caso de DigiNotar sucedi exactamente eso. +Y qu pas en la Primavera rabe y esas cosas que han sucedido, por ejemplo, en Egipto? +Bueno, en Egipto los manifestantes saquearon la sede de la polica secreta egipcia en abril de 2011 y durante el saqueo del edificio, hallaron muchos papeles. +Entre esos papeles estaba esta carpeta titulada "FINFISHER". +Y dentro de esa carpeta haba notas de una empresa con sede en Alemania que le haba vendido el gobierno egipcio herramientas para interceptar a gran escala las comunicaciones de los ciudadanos del pas. +Le haban vendido esta herramienta por 280 000 euros al gobierno egipcio. +La sede de la empresa est justo aqu. +O sea, los gobiernos occidentales le proveen herramientas a los gobiernos totalitarios para que le hagan esto a sus ciudadanos. +Pero los gobiernos occidentales tambin se hacen esto a s mismos. +Por ejemplo, en Alemania, hace slo un par de semanas se encontr el troyano Scuinst; un troyano usado por oficiales del gobierno alemn para investigar a sus propios ciudadanos. +Si uno es sospechoso en un caso criminal bueno, es bastante obvio que su telfono est intervenido. +Pero hoy se va ms all. +Se intercepta la conexin a Internet. +Usarn incluso herramientas como el troyano Scuinst para infectar nuestra computadora con un troyano para permitirles ver toda la comunicacin, y escuchar las discusiones en lnea, para obtener nuestros datos. +Cuando pensamos detenidamente en cosas como estas la respuesta obvia debera ser "Bueno, parece algo malo, pero en realidad no me afecta porque soy un ciudadano honesto. +Por qu preocuparme? +No tengo nada que ocultar". +Y ese argumento no tiene sentido. +Est en juego la privacidad. +La privacidad no se discute. +No es una cuestin de la privacidad contra la seguridad. +Se trata de la libertad contra el control. +Si bien podramos confiar en nuestros gobiernos hoy en 2011, cualquier derecho que resignemos hoy, ser para siempre. +Confiaremos ciegamente en cualquier gobierno futuro, en una administracin que podramos tener dentro de 50 aos? +Estas son las preguntas que nos deben preocupar en los prximos 50 aos. +Aqu es donde vivo. Vivo en Kenia, en la parte sur de Parque Nacional de Nairobi. +Estas son las vacas de mi pap, al fondo, y detrs de la vacas, el Parque Nacional de Nairobi. +El Parque Nacional de Nairobi no tiene cercas en el mayor parte del sur, lo que significa que animales salvajes como las cebras migran libremente fuera del parque. +Y depredadores, como los leones, los siguen, y esto es lo que hacen. +Matan nuestro ganado. +Esta es uno de las que mataron por la noche, y tan pronto nos levantamos en la maana y lo encontramos muerto me sent muy mal porque era el nico toro que tenamos. +Mi comunidad, los masis, creemos que vinimos del cielo con nuestros animales y toda la tierra para pastorearlos, y por eso los valoramos tanto. +As que crec odiando mucho a los leones. +Los moran son guerreros que protegen nuestra comunidad y el ganado, y tambin estn molestos con el problema. +As que matan leones. +Este es uno de los 6 leones que mataron en Nairobi. +Creo que por esto hay tan pocos en el Parque Nacional de Nairobi. +Un nio en mi comunidad, de los 6 a los 9 aos, es responsable del ganado de su padre y esto era lo mismo que me ocurra a m. +As que tena que encontrar una manera de solucionar este problema. +Mi primera idea fue usar fuego, porque pens que a los leones les daba miedo. +Pero me di cuenta de que en realidad esto no serva, porque incluso ayudaba a los leones a ver el establo de lejos. +No me rend. Continu. +Una segunda idea fue usar un espantapjaros. +Trataba de engaar a los leones para que creyeran que estaba cerca del establo. +Pero los leones son muy inteligentes. Vinieron el primer da y vieron el espantapjaros, y se fueron, pero el segundo da, volvieron y dijeron: esta cosa no se mueve, est siempre aqu. As que saltaron y mataron animales. +As que una noche estaba caminando alrededor del establo con una antorcha y ese da los leones no vinieron. +Descubr que los leones le tienen miedo a la luz que se mueve. +As que tuve una idea. +Y consegu un interruptor con el que prender y apagar las luces. +Y esta es una pequea lmpara de una linterna rota. +Arm todo. +Como pueden ver, el panel solar carga la batera y la batera suministra la electricidad a la pequea caja indicadora. Lo llamo un transformador. +Y la caja indicadora hace que las luces destellen. +Como pueden ver, los bombillos dan hacia afuera, porque de ah es de donde vienen los leones. +Y as es como lo ven lo leones cuando vienen de noche. +Las luces destellan y engaan a los leones para que piensen que estoy caminando por el establo, pero yo estoy durmiendo en mi cama. +Gracias. +As que las puse en mi casa hace 2 aos y desde entonces, nunca volvimos a tener problemas con los leones. +Y las casas del vecindario oyeron la idea. +Una de ellas es de esta abuela. +A ella le haban matado muchos animales los leones y me pregunt si poda ponerle las luces. +Le dije que s. +Se las puse. Pueden ver al fondo, estas son las luces para leones. +Desde entonces, las he instalado en 7 casas en mi comunidad y estn sirviendo muchsimo. +Y mi idea tambin se usa ahora por toda Kenia, para asustar a otros depredadores como hienas, leopardos, y tambin se est usando para espantar elefantes de las granjas. +Gracias a este invento, tuve la fortuna de conseguir una beca en una de las mejores escuelas de Kenia, Brookhouse International School, y estoy muy emocionado. +Mi nueva escuela ahora est ayudando a recaudar fondos y concienciar. +Incluso llev a mis amigos a mi comunidad e instalamos luces en las casas que no las tienen, y les enseo cmo ponerlas. +As, un ao atrs, era solo un nio en los prados de la sabana pastoreando las vacas de mi padre, y sola ver aviones volar, y me deca que algn da estara dentro de uno. +Y hoy aqu estoy. +Consegu la oportunidad de venir en avin por primera vez a TED. +Mi gran sueo es llegar a ser ingeniero de aviacin y piloto cuando crezca. +Sola odiar a los leones, pero ahora como mi invento est salvando a las vacas de mi pap y a los leones, podemos estar con los leones sin ningn conflicto. +Ash oln. Lo que en mi lengua significa, muchas gracias. +Chris Anderson: No te imaginas lo emocionante que es escuchar una historia como la tuya. +As que conseguiste una beca. Richard Turere: S. +CA: Ests trabajando en otros inventos elctricos. +Cul es el siguiente en tu lista? +RT: Mi siguiente invento es... quiero hacer una cerca elctrica. CA: Una cerca elctrica? +RT: S que ya se inventaron las cercas elctricas, pero quiero hacer la ma. +CA: Ya lo intentaste una vez, verdad?, y t... RT: Lo he intentado antes, pero par porque recib un calambre. CA: Al pie del can. Richard Turere, eres algo grande. +Vamos a animarte en cada paso que des, amigo mo. +Muchas gracias. RT: Muchas gracias. +Cuando era pequea, Pens que mi pas era el mejor del planeta +y crec cantando una cancin llamada "No envidio nada". +Y me senta muy orgullosa. +En la escuela, pasbamos todo el tiempo estudiando la historia de Kim II-Sung, pero nunca aprendimos mucho del resto del mundo, excepto que Amrica, Corea del Sur, Japn son los enemigos. +Aunque a veces me preguntaba sobre el resto del mundo, Pensaba que pasara toda mi vida en Corea del Norte, hasta que todo cambi de repente. +Cuando tena siete aos, vi mi primera ejecucin pblica, +pero pens que mi vida en Corea del Norte era normal. +Mi familia no era pobre y yo misma nunca haba pasado hambre. +Pero un da, en 1995, mi mam trajo a casa una carta del colega de mi hermana. +Que deca, "Cuando leas esto, los cinco miembros de la familia dejarn de existir en este mundo, porque no hemos comido en las dos semanas pasadas. +Estamos recostados juntos en el piso, y nuestros cuerpos estan tan dbiles, que estamos preparados para morir". +Estaba muy alterada. +Era la primera vez que escuchaba que las personas estaban sufriendo en mi pas. +Al poco tiempo, cuando caminaba frente a la estacin de tren, vi algo terrible que no puedo borrar de mi memoria. +Una mujer sin vida estaba muerta en la calle, sosteniendo a un nio escalido en sus brazos mirando el rostro de su madre sin poder hacer nada. +Nadie los ayudaba, porque estaban muy preocupados en cuidarse ellos mismos y a sus familias. +Una enorme hambruna arras a Corea del Norte a mediados de los '90. +Al final, ms de un milln de norcoreanos murieron durante la hambruna y solo pocos sobrevivieron comiendo pasto, insectos y corteza de rbol. +Tambin se hicieron ms y ms frecuentes los cortes de energa, todo mi alrededor estaba completamente a oscuras en la noche excepto por las luces del mar en China, apenas cruzando el ro desde mi casa. +Siempre me pregunt por qu ellos tenan luz y nosotros no. +Esta es una foto satelital de Corea del Norte en la noche comparada con los paises vecinos. +Esto es el rio Amrok, que sirve de lmite entre Corea del Norte y China. +Como pueden ver, el ro puede ser muy angosto en ciertos puntos, permitiendo a norcoreanos cruzar secretamente. +Pero muchos mueren. +A veces, vea cuerpos flotando en el ro, +no puedo revelar los detalles de cmo sal de Corea del Norte, pero solo puedo decir que durante los aos de la hambruna fui enviada a China a vivir con parientes lejanos. +Pero solo pens que estara separada de mi familia por corto tiempo. +Nunca podra haber imaginado que tomara 14 aos volver a vivir juntos. +En China, fue difcil vivir como una joven mujer sin mi familia +No tena idea de cmo sera la vida como refugiada norcoreana, +pero pronto aprend que no es solo extremadamente difcil, sino tambin peligroso, porque los refugiados norcoreanos en China eran considerados inmigrantes ilegales. +As estaba viviendo con un temor constante de que mi identidad fuera revelada, y sera repatriada a un destino horrible de vuelta en Corea del Norte. +Un dia, mi peor pesadilla se hizo realidad, cuando fui arrestada por la polica china y me interrogaron en la estacin de polica. +Alguien me haba acusado por ser norcoreana, entonces examinaron mis habilidades en el idioma chino y me hicieron muchas preguntas. +Estaba aterrada, +pens que mi corazn iba a explotar. +Si no pareca natural, podra ser encarcelada y deportada. +Pens que mi vida iba a terminar, +pero logr controlar mis emociones y contest las preguntas. +Al final del interrogatorio un oficial le dijo a otro, "Esto fue un reporte falso. Ella no es norcoreana." +Y me dejaron ir. Fue un milagro. +Algunos norcoreanos en China buscan asilo en embajadas extranjeras, +pero muchos pueden ser arrestados por la polica china y deportados. +Estas mujeres tuvieron mucha suerte. +Aunque las habian capturado, fueron eventualmente liberadas despus de una dura presin internacional. +Estos norcoreanos no tuvieron tanta suerte. +Cada ao, incontables norcoreanos son capturados en China y deportados a Corea del Norte, donde son torturados, encarcelados o ejecutados en pblico. +Aunque fui afortunada en escapar, muchos otros norcoreanos no han tenido tanta suerte. +Es trgico que los norcoreanos tengan que ocultar sus identidades y luchar tan duro solo para sobrevivir. +Incluso despus de aprender un nuevo idioma y encontrar trabajo, todo su mundo puede tumbarse en un instante. +Es por eso que, despus de 10 aos de ocultar mi identidad, he decid arriesgarme yendo a Corea del Sur +y comenc una nueva vida otra vez. +Asentarme en Corea del Sur fue un reto mucho mayor de lo que esperaba. +El ingls era muy importante en Corea del Sur, tuve que comenzar a aprender mi tercer idioma. +Tambin, comprend que haba una gran brecha entre Norte y Sur. +Somos todos coreanos, pero por dentro, hemos llegado a ser muy diferentes debido a 67 aos de divisin. +Incluso atraves una crisis de identidad. +Soy surcoreana o norcoreana? +De dnde soy? Quin soy? +De pronto, no haba un pas que pudiera llamar con orgullo mo. +Aunque adaptarme a la vida en Corea del Sur no fue fcil, hice un plan. Comenc a estudiar para el examen de ingreso a la Universidad. +Justo cuando comenzaba a adaptarme a mi nueva vida, recib una llamada alarmante. +Las autoridades de Corea del Norte interceptaron algo de dinero que envi a mi familia, y, como castigo, mi familia iba a ser desplazada a la fuerza a una ubicacin alejada en las afueras. +Tenan que huir de inmediato +asi comenc a planear cmo ayudarlos a escapar. +Los norcoreanos tienen que viajar largas distancias en el camino hacia la libertad. +Es casi imposible cruzar la frontera entre Corea del Norte y Corea del Sur, +Asi que, irnicamente, tom un vuelo a China y me encamin hacia la frontera con Corea del Norte. +Ya que mi familia no poda hablar chino, tuve que guiarlos, de alguna manera, por ms de 3 mil km a travs de China y entonces a travs del sudeste de Asia. +El viaje en autobus tom una semana, y casi fuimos atrapados varias veces. +Una vez, nuestro autobs fue detenido y abordado por un oficial de la polica chino. +Pidi la identificacin de todos. y comenz a hacerles preguntas. +Como mi familia no poda comprender chino, pens que mi familia iba a ser arrestada. +Cuando el oficial chino se acerc a mi familia, impulsivamente me puse de pie y le dije que eran personas sordomudas que estaba acompaando. +Me mir sospechosamente pero afortunadamente me crey. +Hicimos todo el camino hasta la frontera de Laos, +pero tuve que gastar casi todo mi dinero para sobornar a los guardias fronterizos en Laos. +Pero incluso despus de pasar la frontera, mi familia fue arrestada y encarcelada por cruzar la frontera ilegalmente. +Despus de pagar multas y sobornos, mi familia fue liberada en un mes, +pero al tiempo, mi familia fue arrestada y encarcelada otra vez en la capital de Laos. +Este fue uno de los puntos ms bajos en mi vida, +hice todo por liberar a mi familia, y estuvimos tan cerca, pero mi familia fue retenida en prisin a corta distancia de la embajada de Corea del Sur. +Yo iba y vena entre la oficina de inmigracin y la estacin de polica, desesperadamente tratando de liberar a mi familia, +pero no tena suficiente dinero para pagar ms sobornos o multas. +Perd la esperanza. +En ese momento, o la voz de un hombre preguntarme, "Cul es el problema?" +Yo estaba tan sorprendida que un desconocido le importara preguntar. +Con mi pobre ingls y con un diccionario, le expliqu la situacin, y sin dudar, el hombre fue al cajero automtico y me dio el resto del dinero para mi familia y para otros dos norcoreanos y sacarlos de prisin. +Le agradec con todo mi corazn, y le pregunt, "Por qu me ayuda?" +"No te estoy ayudando", me dijo. +"Estoy ayudando al pueblo norcoreano". +Me di cuenta que ese era un momento simblico en mi vida. +El amable desconocido simboliz una nueva esperanza para m y para el pueblo norcoreano cuando ms lo necesitbamos, +y me mostr que la bondad de los desconocidos y el apoyo de la comunidad internacional son realmente los rayos de esperanza que el pueblo norcoreano necesita. +Con el tiempo, despus de nuestro largo viaje, mi familia y yo nos reunimos en Corea del Sur, +pero lograr su libertad es solo la mitad de la batalla. +Muchos norcoreanos son separados de sus familias y cuando arriban a un nuevo pas, ellos comienzan con poco o nada de dinero. +Por lo tanto, podemos beneficiarnos de la comunidad internacional con educacin, prcticas del idioma ingls, prcticas de trabajo, y ms. +Podemos tambin actuar como puente entre personas dentro de Corea del Norte y el resto del mundo, +porque muchos de nosotros seguimos en contacto con familiares todava adentro, y mandamos informacin y dinero que est ayudando a cambiar Corea del Norte desde adentro. +He sido muy afortunada, he recibido mucha ayuda e inspiracin en mi vida, por eso quiero ayudar dando a norcoreanos una oportunidad de prosperar con apoyo internacional. +Estoy segura que van a ver ms y ms norcoreanos triunfando en todo el mundo, incluyendo en el escenario de TED. +Gracias. +Vivo en Centro Sur. +Esto es Centro Sur: tiendas de licores, comida rpida, terrenos baldos. +Entonces los planificadores de la ciudad se reunieron y pensaron, vamos a cambiar el nombre de Centro Sur para que represente algo ms, as que lo cambiaron a Los Angeles Sur, como si esto arreglara lo que en realidad est mal en la ciudad. +Este es Los Angeles Sur. Tiendas de licores, comida rpida, terrenos baldos. +Al igual que 26,5 millones de otros estadounidenses, vivo en un desierto de alimentos, Los Angeles Centro Sur, hogar de los lugares de comida para llevar y de comer en el auto. +Lo curioso es que los lugares de comida para llevar matan ms gente que los de comida en el auto. +La gente est muriendo de enfermedades curables en Los Angeles Centro Sur. +Por ejemplo, la tasa de obesidad en mi vecindario es cinco veces mayor que, digamos, Beverly Hills, que est como a 15 km de distancia. +Me canso de ver que esto pase. +Y me pregunto, cmo se sentiran si no tuvieran acceso a comida sana, y si cada vez que salen de casa ven los efectos dainos que el sistema de comida actual tiene en su vecindario? +Veo sillas de ruedas compradas y vendidas como autos usados. +Veo centros de dilisis pululando como Starbucks. +Y considero que esto debe parar. +Considero que el problema es la solucin. +La comida es el problema y es la solucin. +Adems ya me cans de manejar 45 minutos de ida y vuelta para comprar una manzana que no tenga pesticidas. +Lo que hice, fue plantar un bosque de alimentos frente a mi casa. +En una franja de tierra que llamamos una jardinera. +Es de 45 m x 3 m. +El punto es, que pertenece a la ciudad. +Pero uno tiene que mantenerla. +Me dije, "Bueno, puedo hacer lo que me venga en gana, dado que es mi responsabilidad y tengo que mantenerla". +As fue como decid mantenerla. +Entonces mi grupo y yo, L.A. Green Grounds, nos juntamos y empezamos a plantar nuestro bosque de comida, rboles frutales, ya saben, las nueve verduras completas. +Lo que hacemos, somos una especie de grupo pagado por adelantado compuesto por jardineros de todas las procedencias, de toda la ciudad y completamente voluntario, y todo lo que hacemos es gratis. +Y el jardn, estaba hermoso. +Luego alguien se quej. +La ciudad se me echo encima y en resumen me dieron un citatorio diciendo que tena que retirar mi jardn, el citatorio se hizo orden judicial. +Y yo me deca, "Vamos, en verdad? +Una orden judicial por plantar alimento en un pedazo de tierra que a nadie importa?" Entonces estaba como, "Bueno, llvenselo". +Porque esta vez no iba a pasar. +L.A. Times tuvo la historia escrita por Steve Lopez, y habl con el concejal y uno de los miembros de Green Grounds, que pusieron una peticin en Change.org, con 900 firmas, fuimos un xito. +Tuvimos la victoria en nuestras manos. +Mi concejal incluso llam para decir que respaldaban y adoraban lo que estbamos haciendo. +Quiero decir, vamos, por qu no? +L.A. es la ciudad de EE.UU. con ms terrenos baldos. +Tiene 68 km de terrenos baldos. +Eso equivale a 20 Central Parks. +Eso es espacio suficiente para plantar 725 millones de plantas de tomate. +Por qu diablos no les parece bien esto? +Cultivar una planta dar unas mil, 10 mil semillas. +Cuando un dlar de habichuelas les dar 75 dlares de resultado. +Es mi himno, cuando le digo a la gente, cultiva tu propio alimento. +Cultivar tu propio alimento es como imprimir tu propio dinero. +Vern, tengo un legado para Centro Sur. +Yo crec ah. Cri a mis hijos ah. +Me rehso a ser parte de esta realidad manufacturada que fue manufacturada para m por otros, y voy a manufacturar mi propia realidad. +Vern, soy artista. +La jardinera es mi grafiti, yo cultivo mi arte. +Tal como un artista de grafiti, que embellece paredes, yo embellezco suelos, jardineras. +Uso el jardn, la tierra, como un pedazo de lienzo, y las plantas y los rboles, son mi embellecimiento de ese lienzo. +Se sorprenderan de ver lo que la tierra puede hacer. si dejan que sea su lienzo. +Simplemente no pueden imaginar lo asombroso que es un girasol y cmo afecta a la gente. +Qu pas? +Soy testigo de cmo mi jardn se convirti en una herramienta de educacin, de transformacin de mi vecindario. +Para cambiar la comunidad, tienes que cambiar la composicin de la tierra. +Somos la tierra. +Se sorprenderan de ver cmo afecta a los chicos. +La jardinera es el acto ms teraputico y provocativo que puedan hacer, especialmente en una urbe. +Adems, obtienen fresas. +Recuerdo una ocasin, que vinieron una madre y su hija, eran como las 10:30 de la noche y estaban en mi jardn, sal y se vean muy apenadas. +Yo, bueno, hombre, me sent mal que estuvieran ah, y les dije, ya saben, no tienen que hacer esto as. +Esto est en la calle por una razn. +Sent vergenza al ver gente que estaba tan cerca de m con hambre, y esto solo refuerza el porqu hago esto, la gente me pregunta, "Fin, no temes que la gente vaya a robar tu comida?" +A lo que digo, "Por Dios no, no tengo miedo de que se la vayan a robar". +Para eso est en la calle. +De eso se trata. +Quiero que la tomen, pero a su vez, quiero que retomen su salud". +Hubo otra ocasin en que puse un jardn en un refugio para desamparados en el centro de Los Angeles. +Estaban estos tipos, que me ayudaron a descargar el camin. +Fue fabuloso, me compartieron sus historias sobre cmo esto los haba afectado y cmo solan plantar con su mam y su abuela, y fue fabuloso ver cmo esto los cambi, as fuera tan solo por un momento. +As Green Grounds ha llegado a plantar quiz 20 jardines. +Hemos tenido, como unas 50 personas que vienen, trabajan y participan, todas en plan voluntario. +Si los chicos cultivan col, los chicos comern col. +Si cultivan tomates, comern tomates. Pero si nada de esto se les ensea, si no se les ensea cmo el alimento afecta la mente y el cuerpo, comen a ciegas lo que les pongan en frente. +Veo a jvenes que quieren trabajar, pero tienen esta cosa en la que estn atrapados. Veo chicos de color que estn en este camino diseado para ellos, que no los lleva a ningn lado. +Con la jardinera, veo una oportunidad en la que podemos entrenar a estos chicos que se encarguen de sus comunidades para tener una vida sustentable. +Y cuando hacemos esto, quin sabe? +Quiz se produzca el prximo George Washington Carver, +pero si no cambiamos la composicin de la tierra, nunca lo haremos. +Ahora este es uno de mis planes, esto es algo que quiero hacer. +Quiero plantar todo una cuadra de jardines, donde la gente pueda compartir comida en la misma cuadra. +Quiero llevar contenedores y convertirlos en cafs saludables. +No me malinterpreten. +No estoy hablando de cosas gratis, porque lo gratuito no es sustentable. +Lo curioso de la sustentabilidad, es que tienes que sustentarla. +De lo que hablo es poner de a trabajar a la gente, sacar a los chicos de la calle, que conozcan la alegra, el orgullo y el honor de cultivar su propio alimento, abriendo mercados de agricultores. +Lo que quiero hacer aqu, tenemos que hacerlo sexy. +Quiero que todos se conviertan en renegados ecolucionarios, gnsteres, jardineros gnsteres. +Tenemos que cambiar el guin de lo que es un gnster. +Si no eres un jardinero, no eres un gnster. +Que los gnsteres tomen su pala de acuerdo? +Que esa sea su arma de eleccin. +En suma, si quieren reunirse conmigo, bueno, si quieren verme, no me llamen si quieren sentarse en sillas cmodas y tener reuniones para hablar de hacer alguna mierda... para hablar de hacer alguna mierda. +Si quieren verme, vengan al jardn con su pala para que podamos plantar algo. +Paz. Gracias. +Gracias. +(Sonido de martilleo) (Pitidos del microondas) Probablemente todos estarn de acuerdo conmigo en que esta es una carretera muy bonita. +Est hecha de asfalto, y el asfalto es un buen material para conducir, pero no siempre, especialmente no en das como hoy, en que llueve mucho. +Pueden tener una gran cantidad de agua en el asfalto que salpica. +Y especialmente si van montados en su bicicleta y estos automviles pasan, eso no es muy agradable. +Adems, el asfalto puede hacer mucho ruido. +Es un material ruidoso y si construimos carreteras, como en los Pases Bajos, muy cercanas a las ciudades, querramos una carretera silenciosa. +La solucin para eso es hacer carreteras de asfalto poroso. +El asfalto poroso, un material que usamos ahora en la mayora de las carreteras de los Pases Bajos, tiene poros y el agua puede pasar a travs de l, por lo que toda el agua de lluvia fluir hacia los lados y tendrn una carretera por la que es fcil conducir, y no salpicarn agua nunca ms. +El ruido tambin desaparecer en estos poros. +Debido a que es muy hueco, todo el ruido desaparecer, as que es una carretera muy silenciosa. +Tambin tiene desventajas, por supuesto, y la desventaja de esta carretera es que se puede deshacer. +Qu es deshacerse? Vean que en esta carretera las piedras de la superficie se salen. +Primero una piedra, luego varias ms y ms y ms, etc., y luego... bueno, no har eso. Pero le pueden daar su parabrisas, y no estarn felices con eso. +Y, finalmente, esto puede tambin llevar a ms y ms daos. +A veces pueden crear baches con eso. +Ah. Est listo. +Baches, por supuesto, que se pueden convertir en un problema, pero tenemos una solucin. +Aqu pueden ver realmente cmo aparece el dao en este material. +Es un asfalto poroso, como dije, as que solo tiene una pequea cantidad de adherente entre las piedras. +Debido a la intemperie, a la luz UV, a la oxidacin, este adherente, este betn, el pegamento entre los ridos, se encoger, y si se encoge, se harn microgrietas y se separar de los agregados. +Entonces, si conducen por la carretera, sacarn los agregados... como lo vimos aqu. +Para resolver este problema, pensamos en materiales de autorreparacin. +Si podemos hacer que este material se autorrepare, entonces probablemente tengamos una solucin. +As que lo que podemos hacer es usar lana de acero, de esa para limpiar sartenes, y podemos cortar la lana de acero en trozos muy pequeos y podemos mezclar esos pequeos trozos con el betn. +Entonces tenemos asfalto con pequeos trozos de lana de acero en l. +Luego se necesita una mquina, como la que ven aqu, que Uds. usan para cocinar... una mquina de induccin. +La induccin puede calentar, especialmente el acero, es muy buena en eso. +Entonces lo que hay que hacer es calentar el acero, derretir el betn, el betn fluir por estas microgrietas y las piedras se fijarn nuevamente a la superficie. +Hoy us un horno de microondas, porque no puedo traer la gran mquina de induccin aqu al escenario. +El horno de microondas es un sistema similar. +Puse la muestra, que ahora voy a sacar para ver qu ocurri. +Esta es la muestra que sale ahora. +Dije que tenemos este tipo de mquina industrial en el laboratorio para calentar las muestras. +Probamos muchas muestras ah y luego el gobierno, realmente vieron nuestros resultados, y pensaron: "Bueno, eso es muy interesante. Tenemos que intentarlo". +As que nos donaron un pedazo de carretera, 400 metros de la autopista A58, en la que tuvimos que hacer un carril de ensayo para probar este material. +As que eso fue lo que hicimos ah. Ven en dnde estbamos haciendo la prueba en carretera, y entonces, por supuesto, esta carretera durar varios aos sin ningn dao. Eso es lo que sabemos de la prctica. +Tomamos muchas muestras de esta carretera y las probamos en el laboratorio. +Hicimos envejecer las muestras, colocamos mucha carga en ellas, las reparamos luego con nuestra mquina de induccin y las reparamos y las volvimos a probar. +Podemos repetir esto muchas veces. +Bueno, para concluir, puedo decir que hemos hecho un material usando fibras de acero, incorporando estas fibras, usando la energa de induccin para, en realidad, aumentar la vida de la superficie de la carretera, incluso pueden duplicar la vida de la superficie. De verdad se ahorrar mucho dinero con trucos muy simples. +Y ahora, por supuesto, tienen curiosidad de si esto tambin funcion. +An tenemos la muestra aqu. Est bastante caliente. +En realidad, se tiene que enfriar primero antes de que les pueda mostrar cmo acta la reparacin. +Pero voy a hacer un intento. +Veamos. S, funcion. +Gracias. +Cuando tena 11 aos, recuerdo haberme despertado una maana con el sonido del jbilo en mi casa. +Mi padre estaba escuchando BBC News en su pequea radio gris. +Tena una gran sonrisa en su cara que era inusual en esos tiempos, porque las noticias generalmente lo depriman. +"Los talibanes se fueron!", grit mi padre. +Yo no saba qu significaba, pero poda ver que mi padre estaba muy, muy feliz. +"Ahora s puedes ir a una escuela de verdad", me dijo. +Una maana que nunca olvidar. +Una escuela de verdad. +Vern, yo tena 6 aos cuando los talibanes se apoderaron de Afganistn e hicieron ilegal que las nias fueran a la escuela. +Por los siguientes 5 aos, me vest como un nio para escoltar a mi hermana mayor, que ya no poda estar sola afuera, para ir a una escuela secreta. +Era la nica forma de que las dos pudiramos educarnos. +Cada da, tombamos una ruta diferente para que nadie pudiera sospechar a dnde bamos. +Tenamos que ocultar los libros en bolsas del mercado para que pareciera que bamos de compras. +La escuela estaba en una casa, ms de 100 de nosotras apretadas en una pequea sala. +Era agradable en el invierno, pero extremadamente calurosa en verano. +Todas sabamos que arriesgbamos nuestras vidas; la profesora, las estudiantes y nuestros padres. +De vez en cuando, la escuela se cerraba repentinamente por una semana, porque los talibanes sospechaban. +Siempre nos preguntbamos qu saban ellos de nosotras. +Nos estaban siguiendo? +Saban dnde vivamos? +Estbamos atemorizadas, pero an as, la escuela era donde queramos estar. +Fui muy afortunada de crecer en una familia donde la educacin era apreciada y las hijas un tesoro. +Mi abuelo era un hombre extraordinario para su tiempo. +Un inconformista total de una provincia remota de Afganistn. Insisti en que su hija, mi madre, fuera a la escuela y por eso su padre lo repudi. +Pero mi madre educada se volvi maestra. +Esta es ella. +Se retir hace 2 aos, solo para convertir nuestra casa en escuela para nias y mujeres de nuestro vecindario. +Y mi padre, este es, fue el primero de toda su familia en recibir educacin. +No haba ninguna duda de que sus hijos tenan que recibir educacin, incluso sus hijas, a pesar de los talibanes, a pesar de los riesgos. +Para l, haba un riesgo mayor en no educar sus hijos. +Durante los aos de los talibanes, recuerdo que haba momentos en que estaba muy frustrada por nuestra vida y estaba siempre asustada y no vea un futuro. +Quera renunciar, pero mi padre deca: "yeme, hija ma, puedes perder todo lo que tengas en la vida. +Pueden robarte tu dinero. Pueden forzarte a dejar tu casa durante una guerra. +Pero hay una cosa que siempre estar contigo, lo que est ac y si tenemos que vender nuestra sangre para pagar tu educacin, lo haremos. +As que, an quieres no continuar?" +Hoy tengo 22 aos. +Crec en un pas que ha sido destruido por dcadas de guerra. +Menos del 6 % de las mujeres de mi edad tienen ms que el bachillerato, y si mi familia no hubiera estado tan comprometida con mi educacin, yo sera una de ellas. +En cambio, me encuentro aqu orgullosa de graduarme en Middlebury College. +Cuando regres a Afganistn, mi abuelo, el que fue exilado de su hogar por la valenta de educar a sus hijas, fue uno de los primeros en felicitarme. +l no solo se jacta de mi ttulo universitario, sino tambin de que yo fuera la primera mujer, y soy la primera mujer, que lo llevo conduciendo por las calles de Kabul. +Mi familia cree en m. +Yo sueo en grande, pero mi familia tiene an ms grandes sueos para m.. +Es por eso que soy la embajadora global de 10x10, una campaa global para educar a las mujeres. +Es por lo que cofund SOLA, la primera y quiz la nica escuela privada para nias en Afganistn, un pas en el que an es riesgoso para las nias ir a la escuela. +Lo emocionante es que veo a las estudiantes en mi escuela con el fuerte deseo de aprovechar la oportunidad. +Y veo a sus padres y a sus familias que, como los mos, abogan por ellas, a pesar y an frente a una oposicin desalentadora. +Como Ahmed. No es su verdadero nombre, y no puedo mostrarles su cara, pero Ahmed es el padre de una de mis estudiantes. +Hace menos de un mes, l y su hija iban de camino desde SOLA hacia su aldea, y, literalmente, se escaparon de ser asesinados por una bomba en el camino, por minutos. +Al llegar a su casa, son el telfono, un voz le advirti que si segua enviando a su hija a la escuela, lo volveran a intentar. +"Mtenme ya, si quieren", dijo, "pero no daar el futuro de mi hija por sus viejas y retrgradas ideas". +Lo que me he dado cuenta de Afganistn, y es algo que es frecuentemente olvidado en Occidente, es que detrs de la mayora de quienes triunfamos, hay un padre que reconoci el valor de su hija y que ve que el xito de ella su propio xito. +No quiere decir que nuestras madres no hayan sido clave en nuestro xito. +De hecho, frecuentemente son las primeras intercesoras convincentes del futuro brillante de sus hijas, pero en el contexto de una sociedad como la de Afganistn, nosotras necesitamos el apoyo de los hombres. +Bajo los talibanes, las nias que fueron a la escuela se cuentan en cientos... recuerden, era ilegal. +Pero hoy, ms de 3 millones de nias van a la escuela en Afganistn. +Afganistn se ve tan diferente desde aqu en EE.UU. +Encuentro que los estadounidenses ven la fragilidad de los cambios. +Temo que estos cambios no duren mucho, despus del retiro de las tropas de EE.UU. +Pero cuando regreso a Afganistn, cuando veo a las estudiantes en mi escuela y a sus padres que abogan por ellas, que las animan, veo un futuro promisorio y un cambio duradero. +Para m, Afganistn es un pas de esperanza y posibilidades ilimitadas, y cada da las nias de SOLA me lo recuerdan. +Como yo, ellas suean en grande. +Gracias. +Nunca, nunca he olvidado las palabras de mi abuela que muri en el exilio: "Hija, resiste a Gaddafi. Lucha contra l. +Pero nunca te vuelvas una revolucionaria estilo Gaddafi". +Han pasado casi dos aos desde que estall la revolucin libia inspirada por las oleadas de movilizaciones masivas tanto de la revolucin tunecina como de la egipcia. +Un fuerzas con muchos otros ciudadanos libios, dentro y fuera del pas para llamar a un da de furia e iniciar una revolucin contra el rgimen tirnico de Gaddafi. +Y lo logramos; fue una gran revolucin. +Mujeres y hombres jvenes libios estaban en la vanguardia, exigiendo la cada del rgimen, portando pancartas de libertad, dignidad y justicia social. +Han mostrado una valenta ejemplar al enfrentar la brutal dictadura de Gaddafi. +Han mostrado un gran sentido de solidaridad desde el Extremo Oriente, hasta el oeste, hasta el sur. +Finalmente, despus de un perodo de seis meses de guerra brutal y unas prdidas de aproximadamente 50 mil muertos, logramos liberar nuestro pas y derrocar al tirano. +Sin embargo, Gaddafi dej una pesada carga, un legado de tirana, corrupcin y semillas de alteracin. +Durante cuatro dcadas, el rgimen tirnico de Gaddafi destruy la infraestructura, la cultura y la estructura moral de la sociedad libia. +Consciente de la devastacin y de los desafos, he querido, junto a muchas otras mujeres, reconstruir la sociedad civil libia, exigiendo una transicin inclusiva y justa hacia la democracia y la reconciliacin nacional. +Se establecieron aproximadamente 200 organizaciones en Bengasi durante, e inmediatamente despus de la cada de Gaddafi. Aproximadamente 300 en Tripoli. +Despus de un periodo de 33 aos de exilio, volv a Libia y con un entusiasmo nico, comenc a organizar talleres sobre el desarrollo de capacidades, y habilidades de liderazgo. +Con un increble grupo de mujeres fundamos la Plataforma de Mujeres Libias por la Paz, un movimiento de mujeres, lderes, de orientacin muy diversa, para abogar por la autonoma sociopoltica de la mujer y por nuestro derecho de participacin igualitaria en la construccin de la democracia y la paz. +Me encontr con un entorno muy difcil en el periodo pre-electoral; un ambiente que estaba cada vez ms polarizado, que se model de las polticas egostas de dominacin y exclusin. +Con el tiempo, nuestra iniciativa fue aprobada y exitosa. +Las mujeres ganaron un 17,5% del Congreso Nacional en las primeras elecciones en 52 aos. +Sin embargo, poco a poco, la euforia de las elecciones y la revolucin como un todo, fueron desapareciendo; todos los das encontrbamos noticias de violencia. +Un da nos despertamos con la noticia de la profanacin de mezquitas antiguas y tumbas sufes. +Otro da amaneci con la noticia del asesinato del embajador estadounidense y el ataque al consulado. +Otro da nos despertamos con la noticia del asesinato de oficiales del ejrcito. +Y cada da, cada da nos despertamos con el gobierno de las milicias y sus continuas violaciones de los derechos humanos de los presos y su falta de respeto de la ley. +Nuestra sociedad, formada por una mentalidad revolucionaria, se polariz ms, y se ha alejado de los ideales y principios de libertad, dignidad, justicia social, que tenamos al principio. +La intolerancia, la exclusin y la venganza se convirtieron en los conos de las consecuencias de la revolucin. +No estoy aqu hoy en absoluto para inspirarlos con nuestra historia del xito de la "lista cremallera" y las elecciones. +Ms bien estoy aqu hoy para confesar que nosotros, como nacin, elegimos mal, tomamos la decisin equivocada, +no priorizamos bien. +Porque las elecciones no trajeron la paz, la estabilidad y la seguridad a Libia. +La lista cremallera y la alternacin entre candidatos y candidatas trajeron paz y reconciliacin nacional? +No, no lo hicieron. +Qu pas entonces? +Por qu nuestra sociedad sigue polarizada y dominada con polticas egostas de dominacin y exclusin, tanto por hombres como por mujeres? +Tal vez lo que faltaba no eran solo las mujeres, sino los valores femeninos de compasin, misericordia e inclusin. +Nuestra sociedad necesita el dilogo nacional y la creacin de consenso ms de lo que necesitaba las elecciones, que solo reforzaron la polarizacin y la divisin. +Nuestra nacin necesita la representacin cualitativa de lo femenino ms que necesitar la representacin numrica y cuantitativa de ello. +Necesitamos dejar de actuar como agentes de indignacin y llamar a das de ira. +Necesitamos comenzar a actuar como agentes de compasin y misericordia. +Tenemos que desarrollar un discurso femenino, que no solo honre, sino tambin ponga en prctica la misericordia en lugar de la venganza, la colaboracin en lugar de la competencia, la inclusin en lugar de la exclusin. +Estos son los ideales que una Libia, destrozada por la guerra, necesita desesperadamente con el fin de alcanzar la paz. +Porque la paz tiene una alquimia que trata de la interrelacin y la alternacin entre las perspectivas femeninas y las masculinas. +Esa es la verdadera cremallera. +Necesitamos establecer aquello de una manera existencial antes de hacerlo de forma sociopoltica. +De acuerdo con un versculo del Corn "Salam"--la paz-- "es la palabra del Dios misericordioso, [rajeem, compasivo]". +A la vez, la palabra "raheem", que se conoce en todas las tradiciones abrahmicas, tiene la misma raz en rabe que la palabra "rahem"--tero--, simbolizando lo femenino y maternal, que abarca a toda la humanidad de la que hombres y mujeres, de la que todas las tribus y todos los pueblos han emanado. +Y as, al igual que el tero cubre completamente el embrin, que crece dentro, la matriz divina de la compasin nutre toda la existencia. +As se nos dice: "Mi misericordia abarca todas las cosas". +As se nos dice: "Mi misericordia prevalece sobre mi ira". +Que a todos se les conceda la gracia de la misericordia. +Gracias. +Estoy aqu hoy para hablarles sobre una pregunta inquietante, que tiene una respuesta igualmente inquietante. +Se trata de los secretos de la violencia domstica, y la pregunta que voy a abordar es la que todos hacen siempre: Por qu ella se queda? +Por qu iba alguien a permanecer con un hombre que le pega? +No soy psiquiatra, ni trabajadora social, ni experta en violencia domstica. +Solo soy una mujer con una historia que contar. +Tena 22 aos. Acababa de licenciarme en la Universidad de Harvard. +Me haba mudado a Nueva York por mi primer trabajo como escritora y editora en la revista Seventeen. +Tena mi primer apartamento, mi primera tarjetita verde American Express, y tena un secreto muy grande. +Mi secreto era que muchas, muchas veces, el hombre, que yo crea mi alma gemela, me apuntaba a la cabeza con una pistola, cargada con balas de punta hueca. +El hombre, al que amaba ms que a nadie en este mundo, puso una pistola en mi cabeza y amenaz con matarme ms veces de las que puedo recordar. +Estoy aqu para contaros la historia de "loco amor", una trampa psicolgica, disfrazada de amor, donde caen cada ao millones de mujeres, e incluso algunos hombres. +Hasta podra ser su historia. +Yo no parezco una tpica superviviente de la violencia domstica. +Soy licenciada en Ingls de la Universidad de Harvard y tengo un MBA en Marketing de la Wharton Business School. +He pasado la mayor parte de mi carrera trabajando para compaas de la lista "Fortune 500", entre ellas Johnson & Johnson, Leo Burnett y The Washington Post. +Llevo casi 20 aos casada con mi segundo marido y tenemos tres nios. +Mi perro es un labrador negro y conduzco una minivan Honda Odyssey. +As que mi primer mensaje para Uds. es que la violencia domstica le puede pasar a cualquiera, todas las razas, todas las religiones, todos los niveles de renta y educacin. +Est por todos lados. +Y mi segundo mensaje es que todos piensan que la violencia domstica pasa a las mujeres, que es un problema de mujeres. +No exactamente. +Ms del 85 % de los maltratadores son hombres, y el abuso domstico solo sucede en relaciones ntimas, interdependientes y de larga duracin o, dicho de otra manera, en las familias, el ltimo lugar donde querramos o esperaramos encontrar violencia; motivo por el cual, el abuso domstico resulta tan desconcertante. +Yo misma les habra dicho que sera la ltima persona en el mundo que se quedara con un hombre que le pega, y de hecho fui una vctima muy tpica debido a mi edad. +Tena 22 aos, y en los EE. UU. las mujeres de entre 16 y 24 aos de edad tienen tres veces ms posibilidades de ser vctimas de violencia domstica que las de otras edades, y ms de 500 mujeres y chicas de esa edad son asesinadas cada ao por parejas, novios y maridos abusivos en los EE. UU. +Tambin fui una vctima tpica porque no saba nada sobre la violencia domstica, sus seales de advertencia o sus patrones. +Conoc a Conor en una fra y lluviosa noche de enero. +Estaba sentado a mi lado en el metro de Nueva York y empez a flirtear conmigo. +Me dijo dos cosas. +La primera fue que l tambin acababa de licenciarse de una universidad de la Ivy League y que trabajaba en un banco muy importante de Wall Street. +Pero lo que ms me impresion en ese primer encuentro fue que era listo y divertido, y que pareca un chico del campo. +Tena unos mofletes grandes como manzanas, y un pelo rubio trigo, y pareca tan dulce. +Una de las cosas ms inteligentes que hizo Conor, desde el principio, fue crear la ilusin de que yo era la componente dominante de la pareja. +Lo hizo sobre todo al principio ponindome en un pedestal. +Empezamos a salir y le encantaba todo de m: que era lista, que haba ido a Harvard, que pona pasin en ayudar a chicas adolescentes, y mi trabajo. +Quera saberlo todo sobre mi familia, mi infancia, mis sueos e ilusiones. +Conor crea en m, como escritora y como mujer, como nadie lo haba hecho nunca. +Y era por eso que la licenciatura en esa prestigiosa escuela y el trabajo en Wall Street y su futuro brillante tenan tanta importancia para l. +Yo no saba que la primera fase en cualquier relacin de violencia domstica es seducir y hechizar a la vctima. +Y tampoco saba que el segundo paso es aislarla. +Ahora bien, la ltima cosa que quera hacer era irme de Nueva York y dejar el trabajo de mis sueos, pero pens que haba que hacer sacrificios por tu pareja, as que acept, dej mi trabajo y Conor y yo nos fuimos juntos de Manhattan. +No tena ni idea de que estaba cayendo en un "loco amor", que estaba entrando de cabeza en una trampa fsica, financiera y psicolgica cuidadosamente preparada. +El siguiente paso en el patrn de violencia domstica es introducir la amenaza de violencia para ver cmo reacciona ella. +Y aqu es donde entran en escena esas pistolas. +En cuanto nos mudamos a New England ya saben, ese sitio donde se supone que Conor tena que sentirse tan seguro se compr tres pistolas. +Una la tena en la guantera del coche. +Otra la guardaba debajo de la almohada en nuestra cama y la tercera siempre en su bolsillo. +Y deca que necesitaba esas pistolas a causa del trauma que vivi de pequeo. +Las necesitaba para sentirse seguro. +Pero esas pistolas en realidad eran un mensaje para m y, aunque nunca me haba levantado la mano, mi vida ya estaba en serio peligro, cada minuto de cada da. +El primer ataque fsico de Conor ocurri cinco das antes de nuestra boda. +Eran las 7 de la maana y an tena puesto el camisn. +Cinco das despus, cuando los 10 moretones de mi cuello haban desaparecido, me puse el traje de novia de mi madre y me cas con l. +A pesar de lo que haba ocurrido, estaba segura de que viviramos felices para siempre, porque yo le amaba y l tambin me quera muchsimo. +Y estaba muy, muy arrepentido. +Simplemente se haba sentido muy agobiado por la boda y por el hecho de formar una familia conmigo. +Haba sido un accidente aislado y nunca ms me hara dao. +Pas dos veces ms en nuestra luna de miel. +La primera vez yo estaba conduciendo hacia una playa secreta y me perd, y l me dio tan fuerte en la cabeza que rebot varias veces contra la ventanilla del coche. +Y luego, un par de das despus, conduciendo de vuelta de nuestra luna de miel, se agobi por el trfico y me tir una Big Mac fra a la cara. +Conor sigui pegndome una o dos veces por semana durante los siguientes dos aos y medio de nuestro matrimonio. +Me equivocaba cuando pensaba que era la nica en esta situacin. +Una de cada tres mujeres estadounidenses es vctima de violencia domstica o acoso en algn momento de su vida, y el Centro de Control de Enfermedades informa que cada ao 15 millones de nios son maltratados, 15 millones. +As que, en realidad, tena muy buena compaa. +Volviendo a mi pregunta: Por qu me qued? +La respuesta es sencilla. +No saba que l estaba abusando de m. +Al contrario, yo era una mujer muy fuerte, enamorada de un hombre profundamente atormentado, y era la nica persona en el mundo que poda ayudar a Conor a enfrentarse a sus demonios. +La otra pregunta que todo el mundo hace es: Por qu simplemente no se marcha? +Por qu no me fui? Poda haberme ido en cualquier momento. +Para m esta es la pregunta ms triste y dolorosa que hace la gente, porque nosotras, las vctimas, sabemos algo que normalmente Uds. ignoran: es increblemente peligroso abandonar a un maltratador. +Porque la ltima fase en el patrn de violencia domstica es matarla. +Ms del 70% de los asesinatos en casos de violencia domstica ocurren despus de que la vctima haya puesto fin a la relacin, despus de marcharse, porque entonces el abusador ya no tiene nada que perder. +Otras repercusiones incluyen el acoso permanente, incluso despus de que el abusador haya vuelto a casarse, denegacin de recursos financieros, y manipulacin del sistema judicial de familia para aterrorizar a la vctima y a sus hijos, que normalmente son obligados por los jueces a pasar tiempo no supervisado con el hombre que pegaba a su madre. +Y an as seguimos preguntando por qu simplemente no se va? +Yo fui capaz de irme, a causa de una ltima sdica paliza que venci mi negacin. +Me di cuenta de que el hombre que amaba tanto, me habra matado si se lo hubiese permitido. +As que romp el silencio. +Lo cont a todo el mundo: a la polica, a mis vecinos, a mis amigos y familiares, a completos desconocidos, y estoy aqu hoy porque todos Uds. me ayudaron. +Tenemos la tendencia a estereotipar a las vctimas como titulares espeluznantes, mujeres autodestructivas, bienes daados. +La pregunta, "Por qu se queda?" +para algunas personas es una manera de decir "La culpa es suya por quedarse", como si las vctimas eligiramos intencionalmente enamorarnos de hombres que quieren destruirnos. +Pero desde que publiqu "Loco amor", he escuchado centenares de historias de hombres y mujeres que tambin escaparon, que aprendieron una leccin inestimable de lo que les pas y que rehicieron sus vidas vidas alegres y felices como empleadas, esposas y madres, vidas completamente libres de violencia, como la ma. +Porque resulta que en realidad yo soy una vctima y una superviviente de violencia domstica muy tpica. +Me volv a casar con un hombre tierno y amable y tenemos esos tres nios. +Tengo ese labrador negro y tambin esa minivan. +Lo que no volver a tener nunca ms, jams, es una pistola cargada apuntando a mi cabeza en manos de alguien que dice que me quiere. +En este momento, igual estn pensando: "Hala, eso es fascinante!" o "Hala, qu tonta era!", pero todo este tiempo yo en realidad he estado hablando de Uds. +Les aseguro que hay unas cuantas personas, de las que me estn escuchando ahora mismo, que estn siendo maltratadas o que lo fueron de pequeos o que son abusadores ellos mismos. +El maltrato podra estar afectando a su hija, a su hermana, a su mejor amiga ahora mismo. +Yo fui capaz de poner fin a mi loco amor particular rompiendo el silencio. +Y sigo hacindolo hoy. +Es mi manera de ayudar a otras vctimas, y es mi ltima peticin hacia Uds. +Hablen de lo que han escuchado aqu. +El abuso prospera solamente en el silencio. +Tienen el poder de acabar con la violencia domstica simplemente arrojando luz sobre ella. +Las vctimas necesitamos a todo el mundo. +Necesitamos que cada uno de Uds. entienda los secretos de la violencia domstica. +Saquen el maltrato a la luz hablando de ello con sus hijos, sus compaeros de trabajo, sus amigos y familiares. +Replanteen su visin de los supervivientes como personas fantsticas y encantadoras, que tienen un futuro pleno. +Reconozcan los signos tempranos de violencia para intervenir conscientemente, para frenar su escalada y mostrar a las vctimas una salida segura. +Juntos podemos convertir nuestras camas, nuestras mesas y nuestras familias en los oasis seguros y pacficos que deberan ser. +Gracias. +Hola. Me llamo Cameron Russell, y desde hace un tiempo, soy modelo. +Para ser precisos, desde hace 10 aos. +Y siento que en este momento hay una tensin incmoda en la sala porque no debera haberme vestido as. Por suerte, he trado ropa para cambiarme. +Este es el primer cambio de ropa en un escenario de TED; as que ustedes tienen mucha suerte de presenciarlo, creo. +Si algunas de las mujeres se horrorizaron cuando aparec, no tienen que decrmelo ahora, pero lo averiguar ms tarde en Twitter. +Tambin quiero sealar que tengo el privilegio de poder cambiar lo que piensan de m en tan solo 10 segundos. +No todo el mundo tiene esa oportunidad. +Estos tacones son muy incmodos; menos mal que ya no tengo que usarlos. +La peor parte es pasar este suter por la cabeza, porque es cuando van a rerse de m, as que no hagan nada mientras me cubre la cabeza. +Muy bien. +Por qu he hecho esto? +Ha sido embarazoso. +Bueno, espero que no tanto como esta foto. +La apariencia es poderosa, pero tambin superficial. +He cambiado totalmente lo que pensaban de m en seis segundos. +Y en esta foto, nunca haba tenido un novio en la vida real, +estaba totalmente incmoda y el fotgrafo me deca que arqueara la espalda y que acariciara el cabello del chico. +Por supuesto, salvo con ciruga o un bronceado artificial como el que me hice hace dos das para el trabajo, hay muy poco que podamos hacer para transformar nuestro aspecto, el cual, aunque superficial e inmutable, tiene un gran impacto en nuestras vidas. +As que hoy, para m, ser valiente significa ser honesta. +Estoy en este escenario porque soy modelo, +porque soy una mujer bonita y blanca, y en mi sector laboral, eso es ser una chica sexy. +Voy a responder las preguntas que la gente siempre me hace, pero de forma sincera. +La primera pregunta es, cmo se llega a ser modelo? +Y siempre digo: Un cazatalentos me descubri, pero eso no significa nada. +La verdadera razn por la que me hice modelo es porque gan la lotera gentica, y soy la beneficiaria de una herencia, y tal vez se estn preguntando cul es esta herencia. +Bien, en los ltimos siglos no solo hemos definido la belleza como salud, juventud y simetra, las cuales estamos biolgicamente programados para admirar, tambin la hemos asociado a una alta y esbelta figura, a la feminidad y a una piel blanca. +Y esa es mi herencia, herencia que he sabido aprovechar para ganar dinero. +Y s que hay gente en el pblico que ahora se muestra escptica, y tal vez haya algunos amantes de la moda que digan... Espera. All estn Naomi, Tyra, Joan Smalls, Liu Wen. +En primer lugar, los felicito por saber tanto de modelos. Es sorprendente. +Pero lamentablemente tengo que informarles que en 2007, un estudiante de doctorado de la Universidad de Nueva York cont todas y cada una de las modelos en la pasarela, y de las 677 modelos contratadas, solo 27, es decir, menos del 4 %, no eran blancas. +La siguiente pregunta que la gente siempre me hace es: Podr ser modelo cuando sea mayor? +Y mi primera respuesta es: No s, no me encargo de eso. +Pero despus, lo que realmente les dira a cada una de estas nias es: Por qu? Puedes ser lo que quieras. +Puedes ser presidenta de los Estados Unidos, o la inventora del prximo internet, o una cirujana cardiotorcica ninja y poeta, lo cual sera impresionante, ya que seras la primera. +Si despus de esta lista espectacular, todava insisten, No, no, Cameron, quiero ser modelo, entonces les digo: S mi jefa. +Porque yo no estoy a cargo de nada, y t podras ser la jefa de redaccin de la revista Vogue estadounidense o la directora ejecutiva de H&M, o la prxima Steven Meisel. +Decir que de mayor quieres ser modelo es como decir que quieres ganar la lotera cuando seas mayor. +Est fuera de tu control, es sorprendente, y no es un trabajo que puedas elegir. +Voy a demostrarles todo lo que aprend en 10 aos como modelo, ya que, a diferencia de la ciruga cardiotorcica, puede resumirse ahora mismo. +No s qu pas all. +Lamentablemente, una vez que ya hayas acabado tus estudios, y tengas un currculum y unos trabajos a tus espaldas, ya no importar lo que digas, es decir, si dijeras que deseas ser presidenta de los Estados Unidos, pero tu currculum dijese: Modelo de ropa interior durante 10 aos, la gente te mirara raro. +La siguiente pregunta que la gente siempre me hace es si todas las fotos se retocan. +Y s, prcticamente se retocan todas las fotos, pero eso es solo una pequea parte de lo que sucede. +Esta fue la primera foto que me tomaron, y tambin la primera vez que us un bikini, y ni siquiera tena an mi periodo. +S que estamos entrando en el terreno personal, pero era una nia. +As luca junto a mi abuela unos meses antes. +Estas 2 fotos son del mismo da. +Mi amiga vino conmigo. +Aqu estoy en una fiesta de pijamas unos das antes de las fotos para la Vogue francesa. +Aqu estoy con mi equipo de ftbol y en la revista V. +Y esta soy yo en la actualidad. +Y espero que se den cuenta de que no soy yo en esas fotos. +Son creaciones de un grupo de profesionales, peluqueros, maquilladores, fotgrafos y estilistas, y todos sus ayudantes y gente de pre y postproduccin, y logran crear esto. Esa no soy yo. +Bueno, la siguiente pregunta que la gente siempre me hace es: Consigues cosas gratis? +Tengo demasiados tacones de 20 cms y que nunca uso, excepto el par anterior, pero los privilegios que obtengo son los que obtengo en la vida real, y de los que no nos gusta hablar. +Crec en Cambridge, y una vez fui a una tienda y me olvid de llevar dinero, y me dieron el vestido gratis. +Cuando era adolescente, viajaba con mi amiga que era una psima conductora; se salt un semforo en rojo y, por supuesto, nos pararon, y bast un lo siento, agente para poder seguir conduciendo. +Disfruto de estos privilegios por mi aspecto, no por lo que soy. Y hay gente que est pagando un precio por su aspecto sin importar quines son. +Vivo en Nueva York, y el ao pasado, de los 140.000 adolescentes a los que se les par y registr, 86 % eran negros y latinos, y la mayora de ellos eran hombres jvenes. +Y solo hay 177.000 jvenes negros y latinos en Nueva York, por lo que para ellos, no es una cuestin de me pararn? , +sino de cuntas veces me pararn? Y cundo? +Al investigar para esta charla, me enter de que al 53 % de las nias de 13 aos en los Estados Unidos no les gusta su cuerpo, y esa cifra se eleva al 78 % a los 17. +As pues, la ltima pregunta que la gente me hace es: Cmo es la vida de una modelo? +Y creo que la respuesta que esperan es: Si eres un poco ms delgada y tienes el pelo ms brillante, te sentirs muy feliz y estupenda. +Y detrs de las cmaras, damos una respuesta que tal vez as lo parezca. +Decimos: Es realmente maravilloso viajar, y tambin increble poder trabajar con gente creativa, ingeniosa y apasionada. +Y todo eso es cierto, pero es solo una parte de lo que sucede, porque lo que nunca decimos delante de las cmaras, lo que yo nunca he dicho delante de ellas, es: Soy insegura. +Y lo soy porque tengo que preocuparme por mi aspecto todos los das. +Y si alguna vez se preguntan: Con unas piernas ms delgadas y el cabello ms brillante, ser ms feliz? +solo tienen que reunirse con un grupo de modelos, porque tienen las piernas ms delgadas, el cabello ms brillante y la ropa ms a la moda, pero probablemente sean las mujeres fsicamente ms inseguras del planeta. +Pero sobre todo era difcil analizar una situacin de opresin racial y de gnero cuando yo soy una de las mayores beneficiarias. +Si hay algo que retener de esta charla, espero que todos se sientan ms cmodos al reconocer el poder de la imagen en la percepcin que tenemos del xito y del fracaso. +Gracias. +La fotografa ha sido mi pasin desde que era lo suficientemente mayor para sujetar una cmara, pero hoy quiero compartir con ustedes mis 15 fotos ms preciadas, y no fui yo quien las sac. +No hubo directores artsticos, ni estilistas, ni oportunidad de repetir las fotos, ni siquiera un mnimo cuidado en la iluminacin. +De hecho, la mayora las sacaron turistas al azar. +Mi historia comienza cuando, encontrndome en la ciudad de Nueva York para dar una ponencia, mi esposa me sac esta foto sosteniendo a mi hija en el da de su primer cumpleaos. Esa es la esquina de la 57 y la 5. +Dio la casualidad de que volvimos a Nueva York justo un ao despus, as que decidimos sacar la misma foto. +Bueno, ya se imaginan lo que viene ahora. +Cuando se acercaba el tercer cumpleaos de mi hija, mi esposa me dijo: por qu no te llevas a Sabina a Nueva York en un viaje padre-hija y continas el ritual? +Aqu es cuando empezamos a pedir a los turistas que pasaban que nos sacaran la foto. +Es sorprendente que el gesto de entregar la cmara a un completo desconocido sea tan universal. +Nunca nadie se ha negado y, afortunadamente, nunca nadie ha hudo con la cmara. +Por entonces, no ramos conscientes de cunto nos cambiara la vida este viaje. +Se convirti en algo sagrado para nosotros. +Esta foto es de unas semanas despus del 11S y tuve que explicarle a mi hija lo que haba ocurrido ese da de forma que una nia de 5 aos lo pudiese entender. +Estas fotos son mucho ms que representaciones de un momento concreto o de un viaje especfico. +Tambin son un modo de detener el tiempo en una semana de octubre y de hacernos reflexionar sobre nuestra poca y nuestra evolucin a lo largo de los aos, y no solo a nivel fsico, sino en todos los sentidos. +Porque, aunque siempre sacamos la misma foto, nuestra perspectiva cambia, mi hija alcanza nuevos hitos, y yo puedo ver la vida a travs de sus ojos y cmo percibe e interacta con todo. +Ese tiempo en concreto que pasamos juntos es algo que esperamos con ilusin todo el ao. +Recientemente, en uno de los viajes, bamos caminando, cuando de repente, se detuvo en seco y seal un toldo rojo de la tienda de muecas que adoraba de pequea en visitas anteriores. +Y me describi lo que haba sentido a los 5 aos de pie en ese mismo lugar. +Coment que recordaba su corazn palpitar con fuerza al ver ese lugar por primera vez 9 aos atrs. +Y ahora lo que mira en Nueva York son universidades, porque est decidida a estudiar en Nueva York. +Y de repente comprend que una de las cosas ms importantes que creamos son los recuerdos. +Por tanto, quiero compartir la idea de participar activamente en la creacin consciente de recuerdos. +No s ustedes, pero aparte de estas 15 fotos, no salgo en muchas de las fotos familiares. +Soy siempre el que saca la foto. +Hoy quiero animarlos a todos a aparecer en la foto, y no duden en acercarse a alguien y preguntarle: Nos saca una foto? +Gracias. +Quisiera hablarles de un grupo muy especial de animales. +Hay 10 000 especies de aves en el mundo. +Los buitres se encuentran en el grupo de aves ms amenazado. +En primer lugar, por qu tienen tan mala prensa? +Tambin se ha asociado con Disney risas personificados como personajes mentecatos, tontos, estpidos. +Ms recientemente, si han estado siguiendo la prensa keniana risas, aplausos y aclamaciones estos son los atributos que asocian con el Parlamento keniano. Pero no lo acepto. +No lo acepto. Saben por qu? +Porque los miembros del Parlamento no mantienen limpio el medio ambiente. Los parlamentarios no ayudan a prevenir la propagacin de enfermedades. +Difcilmente son mongamos. Estn lejos de extinguirse. Y, mi favorita, los buitres tienen mejor presencia. Hay dos tipos de buitres en este planeta. +Hay los buitres del Nuevo Mundo que se encuentran principalmente en las Amricas, como los cndores y los caracars, y los buitres del Viejo Mundo, donde tenemos 16 especies. De estas 16, 11 enfrentan un alto riesgo de extincin. +As que, por qu los buitres son importantes? En primer lugar, proporcionan servicios ecolgicos vitales. Limpian. +Son nuestros recolectores de basura naturales. +Limpian los cadveres hasta el hueso. +Ayudan a matar todas las bacterias. Ayudan a absorber el ntrax que de no ser por ellos se extendera y causara grandes prdidas de ganado y enfermedades en otros animales. +Estudios recientes han demostrado que en zonas donde no hay buitres, los cadveres toman de 3 a 4 veces ms tiempo en descomponerse, y esto tiene enormes ramificaciones en la propagacin de enfermedades. +Los buitres tambin tienen enorme importancia histrica. +Han estado asociados a la antigua cultura egipcia. +Nejbet era el smbolo del protector y la maternidad y, junto con la cobra, simbolizaban la unidad entre el Alto y el Bajo Egipto. +En la mitologa hind, Jatayu era el dios buitre, y arriesg su vida para salvar a la diosa Sita del demonio de 10 cabezas Ravana. +En la cultura tibetana, se realizan unos muy importantes entierros a cielo abierto. En lugares como el Tbet, no hay ningn lugar para enterrar a los muertos, o madera para cremarlos, as que estos buitres proporcionan un sistema de eliminacin natural. +Cul es el problema con los buitres? +Tenemos ocho especies de buitres en Kenia, de las cuales seis estn en extremo amenazadas de extincin. +La razn es que estn siendo envenenados, y la razn de que estn siendo envenenados es porque hay conflictos entre los humanos y la fauna. Las comunidades pastorales utilizan este veneno contra los depredadores, y como consecuencia, los buitres son vctimas de esto. +En el sur de Asia, en pases como India y Pakistn, cuatro especies de buitres estn en la lista crtica de peligro de extincin, lo que significa que en menos de 10 o 15 aos se extinguirn, y la razn es porque caen presa del consumo de ganado que ha sido tratado con una droga analgsica como el Diclofenac. +Esta droga ha sido prohibida para uso veterinario en India y han tomado una postura. +Dado que no hay buitres, ha habido una propagacin en el nmero de perros callejeros en vertederos de cadveres, y cuando se tiene perros callejeros, se tiene una enorme bomba de tiempo para rabia. El nmero de casos de rabia ha aumentado enormemente en la India. +Kenia va a tener uno de los mayores parques elicos en frica: 353 aerogeneradores van a estar arriba del lago Turkana. +No estoy contra la energa elica, pero tenemos que trabajar con los gobiernos, porque las turbinas elicas le hacen esto a las aves. Las cortan por la mitad. +Son trituradoras de aves. +En frica occidental, hay un comercio horrible de buitres muertos para servir a la brujera y al mercado de fetiches. +As que qu se est haciendo? Bien, estamos investigando a estas aves. Estamos ponindoles transmisores. +Estamos tratando de determinar su ecologa bsica, y ver a dnde van. +Podemos ver que viajan por diferentes pases, as que enfocarse en un problema localmente no va a servir de nada. +Tenemos que trabajar con los gobiernos en los niveles regionales. +Estamos trabajando con las comunidades locales. +Estamos hablando con ellos sobre apreciar a los buitres, sobre la necesidad de apreciar estas maravillosas criaturas y los servicios que proporcionan. +Cmo pueden ayudar? Puede volverse activos, hacer ruido. Pueden escribir una carta a su gobierno y decirles tenemos que centrarnos en estas muy incomprendidas criaturas. Donar su tiempo para difundir la palabra. Difundir la palabra. +Cuando salgan de esta sala, se les informar sobre los buitres, pero hablen con sus familias, con sus hijos, con sus vecinos sobre los buitres. +Son muy elegantes. Charles Darwin dijo que cambi de opinin porque los vio volar sin esfuerzo, sin gasto de energa en los cielos. +Kenia, este mundo, ser mucho ms pobre sin estas maravillosas especies. +Muchas gracias. +Cada cosa que realizo y todo lo que hago profesionalmente... mi vida... ha sido moldeada por 7 aos de trabajo durante mi juventud en frica. +desde 1971 hasta 1977. Luzco joven, pero ya no lo soy. Trabaj en Zambia, Kenia, Costa de Marfil, Argelia y Somalia. en proyectos de cooperacin tcnica con pases africanos. +Trabaj para una ONG italiana, y cada proyecto que establecimos en frica fracas. +Y estaba perturbado. +Pensaba, a los 21, que los italianos ramos buenas personas y estbamos haciendo un buen trabajo en frica. +En lugar de eso, todo lo que tocbamos lo aniquilbamos. +Nuestro primer proyecto, el que inspir mi primer libro, "Ondas del Zambezi", fue un proyecto en donde unos italianos decidimos ensear a la gente de Zambia a cultivar alimentos. +Por lo tanto, llegamos con semillas italianas al sur de Zambia a este valle absolutamente magnfico que desciende hacia el ro Zambezi, y enseamos a los locales cultivar tomates italianos y calabazas, y... +por supuesto, las personas no estaban en absoluto interesadas en hacer aquello, por lo que les pagbamos para venir a trabajar, y algunas veces, ellos no acudan. Estbamos asombrados de que los locales, en tan frtil valle, no hubiesen tenido agricultura. +Sin embargo, en vez de preguntarles cmo era posible que no cultivasen nada, simplemente dijimos: "Gracias a Dios que estamos aqu". "Justo a tiempo para salvar a las personas de Zambia de la hambruna". +Y por supuesto, todo en frica se cultiv hermosamente. +Conseguimos estos magnficos tomates. En Italia, un tomate crecera a este tamao. En Zambia, a este tamao. +Y no lo podamos creer, les estbamos diciendo a los zambianos: "Miren qu fcil es la agricultura". +Cuando los tomates estaban bonitos, maduros y rojos, de la noche a la maana, unos 200 hipoptamos aparecieron desde el ro y se comieron todo. Y dijimos a los zambianos: "Dios mo, los hipoptamos!" +Y los zambianos dijeron: "S, por eso no tenemos agricultura aqu". "Por qu no lo dijeron?" "Ud. nunca pregunt". +Pensaba que slo nosotros los italianos cometamos errores en frica, pero luego, vi lo que hacan los estadounidenses, lo que hacan los ingleses, lo que hacan los franceses, y luego de ver lo que ellos estaban haciendo, me sent bastante orgulloso de nuestro proyecto en Zambia. +Porque, como ven, al menos alimentamos a los hipoptamos. +Debieran ver los desperdicios... Debieran ver los desperdicios que les otorgamos a las confiadas personas de frica. +Quiere leer un libro, lea "Ayuda Muerta" de Dambisa Moyo, economista zambiana. +El libro se public en el 2009. +Nosotros, pases donantes occidentales, hemos entregado al continente africano dos millones de millones de dlares en los ltimos 50 aos. +No les contar respecto al dao que aquel dinero ha causado. +Slo lean su libro. +Lanlo de parte de una mujer africana, el dao que hemos hecho. +Los occidentales somos imperialistas, misioneros colonialistas, y tratamos a las personas solo de dos maneras: o los patrocinamos, o somos paternalistas. +Las dos palabras provienen de la raz latina "pater", que significa "padre". +Sin embargo, significan dos cosas distintas. +Paternalista, trato a cualquiera de una cultura diferente como si fuesen mis hijos. "Te quiero mucho". +Patrocinador, trato a todos los de una cultura diferente como si fuesen mis sirvientes. +Por eso los blancos en frica son llamados "bwana", jefe. +Ese libro me dio una bofetada en la cara. "Lo pequeo es hermoso", escrito por Schumacher, quien dijo por sobre todo desarrollo econmico, si las personas no desean ser ayudadas, djelas solas. +ste debiera ser el primer principio de la ayuda. +El primer principio de la ayuda es respetar. +Esta maana, el seor que abri esta conferencia puso un bastn en el suelo y dijo: podemos nosotros... pueden Uds. imaginar una ciudad que no sea neocolonial?" +Decid a los 27 aos solamente responder a las personas, e invent un sistema denominado Empresa Facilitadora donde Ud. nunca inicia nada, Ud. jams motiva a nadie, pero se convierte en un sirviente de la pasin local, el sirviente de los locales quienes tienen el sueo de convertirse en una mejor persona. +Entonces, qu hace Ud.? Se calla. +Jams llega a una comunidad con una idea, y se sienta con las personas de la localidad. +Nosotros no trabajamos desde las oficinas. +Nos reunimos en un caf. Nos reunimos en un bar. +Tenemos cero infraestructura. +Y qu hacemos? Nos convertimos en amigos, y averiguamos qu es lo que la persona quiere hacer. +Lo ms importante es la pasin. +Ud. le puede dar una idea a alguien. +Si esa persona no quiere hacer aquello, qu va a hacer Ud.? +La pasin que ella tiene para su propio crecimiento es lo ms importante. +La pasin que aquel hombre tiene para su propio crecimiento personal es lo ms importante. +Y entonces, les ayudamos a encontrar el conocimiento. porque nadie en el mundo puede tener xito solo. +La persona con la idea puede no tener el conocimiento, pero el conocimiento est disponible. +As que aos y aos atrs, tuve esta idea: Por qu no nosotros, por una vez en lugar de llegar a una comunidad a decirle a las personas qu hacer, por qu no, por una vez, les escuchamos? Pero no en reuniones comunitarias. +Les contar un secreto. +Hay un problema con las reuniones comunitarias. +Los emprendedores nunca asisten, y ellos jams le dirn, en una reunin pblica, lo que quieren hacer con su propio dinero, qu oportunidad han identificado. +Por lo tanto, la planificacin tiene este punto ciego. +A las personas ms inteligentes de su comunidad, Ud. ni siquiera las conoce, porque ellas no asisten a sus reuniones pblicas. +Qu hacemos? Trabajamos uno a uno, y trabajamos cara a cara, Ud. tiene que crear una infraestructura social, la cual no existe. +Ud. debe crear una nueva profesin. +La profesin es el mdico de familia de la empresa, el mdico de familia del negocio, que se establece con Ud. en su casa, en la mesa de su cocina, en el caf, y que le ayuda a encontrar los recursos para transformar su pasin en una forma de ganarse la vida. +Comenc esto como una prueba en Esperance, ciudad de Australia Occidental. +Estaba haciendo un doctorado en aquel tiempo, intentando alejarme de esta basura condescendiente en la que llegamos a decirles qu hacer. +En un ao, tuve 27 proyectos en marcha, y el gobierno me vino a ver para preguntar: "Cmo puede Ud. hacer eso? +Cmo puede hacerlo?" Y dije: "Hice algo muy, muy, muy difcil. +Me call y les escuch". Entonces... Entonces el gobierno dice: "Hgalo de nuevo". Lo hemos hecho en 300 comunidades en el mundo. +Hemos ayudado a empezar 40 000 negocios. +Existe una nueva generacin de emprendedores que estn muriendo de soledad. +Peter Drucker, uno de los ms grandiosos asesores empresariales de la historia, falleci a los 96, hace pocos aos. +Peter Drucker fue profesor de filosofa antes de involucrarse en los negocios, y esto es lo que dice Peter Drucker: "La planificacin es en realidad incompatible con una sociedad y una economa de empresa innovadora". +La planificacin es el beso de la muerte del espritu empresarial. +Entonces ahora Uds.estn reconstruyendo Christchurch sin saber lo que las personas ms astutas en Christchurch quieren hacer con su propio dinero y su propia energa. +Ud. tiene que aprender a lograr que estas personas se acerquen a conversar con Ud. +Ud. tiene que ofrecerles confidencialidad, privacidad, tiene que ser fantstico al ayudarles, y entonces acudirn, vendrn en masa. +En una comunidad de 10 000 personas, conseguimos 200 clientes. +Puede Ud. imaginar una comunidad de 400 000 personas, la inteligencia y la pasin? +Cul presentacin Uds. han aplaudido ms esta maana? +Personas locales apasionadas. Eso es lo que Uds. han aplaudido. +Entonces, lo que les digo es que el espritu emprendedor est donde est. +Estamos al final de la primera revolucin industrial -combustibles fsiles no renovables, manufactura-- y de un momento a otro, tenemos sistemas que no son sustentables. +El motor de combustin interna no es sustentable. +El fren como una forma de sostener maquinarias no es sustentable. +Lo que tenemos que considerar, es cmo nutrimos, curamos, educamos, transportamos, comunicamos a siete mil millones de personas, en una forma sustentable. +No existen las tecnologas para hacerlo. +Quin va a inventar la tecnologa para la revolucin verde? Las universidades? Olvdenlo! +El gobierno? Olvdenlo! +Sern los emprendedores y ellos lo estn haciendo ahora. +Hay una historia adorable que le en una revista futurista hace muchos, muchos aos. +Hubo un grupo de expertos que fueron invitados a debatir el futuro de la ciudad de Nueva York en el ao 1860. +Y en el ao 1860, se reuni este grupo de personas. Y especularon respecto a qu le sucedera a la ciudad de Nueva York en 100 aos, y la conclusin fue unnime: la ciudad de Nueva York no existira dentro de 100 aos. +Por qu? Porque analizaron la curva y sealaron, si la poblacin se mantiene creciendo a esta tasa, para trasladar a la poblacin de Nueva York a los alrededores, requeriran seis millones de caballos, y el estircol producido por seis millones de caballos sera imposible de abordar. +Ellos ya se estaban anegando en estircol. Por lo tanto, en 1860, estaban divisando esta sucia tecnologa que obstruira la vida de Nueva York. +Entonces, qu ocurre? En los siguientes 40 aos, en 1900, en Estados Unidos aparecieron 1001 compaas manufactureras automotrices, 1001. +La idea de encontrar una tecnologa diferente fue absolutamente absorbida y hubo muy pocas, escassimas, fbricas en lugares apartados. +Dearborn, Michigan. Henry Ford. +Sin embargo, existe un secreto para trabajar con los emprendedores. +Primero, Ud. tiene que ofrecerles confidencialidad. +De otra manera, no vendrn a conversar con Ud. +Luego, Ud. tiene que ofrecerles un absoluto, dedicado, servicio entusiasta. +Y, posteriormente, Ud. tendr que contarles la verdad con respecto a emprender. +La compaa ms pequea, la compaa ms grande, tiene que ser capaz de hacer tres cosas magnficamente: el producto que Ud. desea vender tiene que ser fantstico, Ud. tiene que contar con una comercializacin fantstica, y Ud. tiene que contar con una estupenda administracin financiera. +Saben qu? +Jams hemos conocido a un nico ser humano en el mundo que pueda hacer, vender y buscar el dinero solo. +No existe. +Esta todava no ha nacido. +Hemos investigado y observado a las 100 compaas conos del mundo Carnegie, Westinghouse, Edison, Ford, todas las compaas nuevas, Google, Yahoo. +Existe solo una cosa que todas las compaas exitosas en el mundo tienen en comn, slo una: Ninguna fue iniciada por una sola persona. +Jams la palabra "yo", pero la palabra "nosotros", 32 veces. +l no estaba solo cuando comenz. +Nadie comienza una compaa solo. Nadie. +Entonces, podemos crear la comunidad donde tenemos facilitadores, quienes provienen de un entorno de pequeos negocios sentndose en cafeteras, en bares junto a sus dedicados camaradas quienes harn por Ud., lo que alguien hizo por este caballero quien habla respecto a esta epopeya, alguien que le preguntar a Ud., Qu necesita? +Qu puede hacer Ud.? Puede Ud. hacerlo? +Bien, lo puede Ud. vender? Puede buscar el dinero?" +"Oh, no, no puedo hacer eso". "Quisiera que le busque a alguien?" +Nosotros activamos comunidades. +Gracias. +Quienes nos rodean pueden ayudarnos de muchas maneras a mejorar nuestras vidas. +No conocemos a todos los vecinos, por eso no intercambiamos mucho conocimiento a pesar de compartir los mismos espacios pblicos. +En los ltimos aos he tratado de compartir ms con mis vecinos en el espacio pblico, con herramientas simples como autoadhesivos, plantillas y tiza. +Estos proyectos surgieron de preguntas como: cunto pagan mis vecinos por sus apartamentos? +Cmo podemos prestar y pedir prestado ms cosas sin llamar a la puerta en un mal momento? +Cmo compartir ms recuerdos de nuestros edificios abandonados y comprender mejor nuestro paisaje? +Cmo compartir ms nuestras esperanzas ante las tiendas vacas para que nuestras comunidades puedan reflejar hoy nuestras necesidades y sueos? +Vivo en Nueva Orlens y estoy enamorada de Nueva Orlens. +Mi alma siempre encuentra alivio con los robles gigantes que dan sombra a amantes, borrachos y soadores desde hace siglos y confo en una ciudad +que siempre da cabida a la msica. hay un desfile en Nueva Orlens. La ciudad tiene una de las arquitecturas ms bellas del mundo, pero tambin una con la mayor cantidad de propiedades abandonadas de EE.UU. +Yo vivo cerca de esta casa y pensaba cmo podra convertirla en un espacio ms agradable para el barrio y tambin en algo que cambi mi vida para siempre. +En 2009 perd a alguien a quien amaba mucho. +Era Joan, como una madre para m; +su muerte fue repentina e inesperada. +Pens mucho en la muerte y +y esto me produjo una profunda gratitud por el tiempo vivido y +le dio claridad a las cosas significativas de mi vida actual. +Pero brego por mantener esta mirada en mi vida cotidiana. +Me parece que es fcil dejarse atrapar por el da a da y olvidar lo realmente importante para uno. +As que con la ayuda de viejos y nuevos amigos transform la pared de esta casa abandonada en una pizarra gigante y pint sobre ella frases para completar: "Antes de morir quiero..." +As, los transentes podan tomar una tiza, reflexionar sobre sus vidas y compartir aspiraciones personales en el espacio pblico. +No saba qu esperar de este experimento pero al da siguiente la pared estaba repleta y segua cubrindose. +Y me gustara compartir algunas cosas que la gente escribi en la pared. +"Antes de morir quiero ser juzgado por piratera". "Antes de morir quiero sentarme a horcajadas en la lnea de cambio de fecha". +"Antes de morir quiero cantar para millones de personas". +"Antes de morir quiero plantar un rbol". +"Antes de morir quiero vivir fuera de la red". +"Antes de morir quiero abrazarla una vez ms". +"Antes de morir quiero ir al rescate de alguien". +"Antes de morir quiero ser completamente yo mismo". +Este espacio abandonado se torn constructivo y los sueos y esperanzas de la gente me hicieron rer a carcajadas, me destrozaron, y me dieron consuelo en momentos difciles. +Se trata de saber que uno no est solo. Se trata de entender a nuestros vecinos de maneras nuevas y esclarecedoras. Se trata de dar cabida a la reflexin y la contemplacin, y de recordar qu es lo ms importante para nosotros conforme crecemos y cambiamos. +Esto ocurri el ao pasado y empec a recibir cientos de mensajes de personas apasionadas que queran hacer un muro en su comunidad +por eso con mis colegas del centro cvico hicimos un kit y ahora se han hecho muros en pases de todo el mundo, como Kazajstn, Sudfrica, Australia, Argentina y ms all. +Juntos demostramos el poder de nuestros espacios pblicos si nos dan la oportunidad de expresarnos y compartir mutuamente. +Dos de las cosas ms valiosas que tenemos son el tiempo y nuestras relaciones con otras personas. +En nuestra era de distracciones en aumento, es ms importante que nunca, encontrar las formas de conservar la perspectiva y recordar que la vida es breve y delicada. +La muerte es algo de lo que a menudo evitamos hablar, o incluso pensar, pero entend que prepararnos para la muerte es una de esas cosas que nos confieren ms poder. +Pensar en la muerte clarifica nuestra vida. +Nuestros espacios compartidos pueden reflejar mejor lo que nos importa como individuos y como comunidad y con ms medios para compartir esperanzas, miedos e historias, la gente que nos rodea no slo puede ayudar a mejorar lugares, puede ayudar a mejorar nuestras vidas. +Gracias. +Gracias. +Hoy tengo una nica peticin. +Por favor, no me digan que soy normal. +Ahora me gustara presentarles a mis hermanos. +Remi tiene 22 aos, es alto y muy guapo. +No habla, pero transmite alegra mejor que algunos de los mejores oradores. +Remi sabe lo que es el amor. +Lo comparte incondicionalmente pase lo que pase. +No es avaricioso. No mira el color de la piel. +No le importan las diferencias religiosas y fjense en esto: nunca ha mentido. +Cuando canta canciones de nuestra infancia, intentando pronunciar palabras de las que ni siquiera yo podra acordarme, me recuerda una cosa: lo poco que sabemos sobre la mente y lo maravilloso que debe ser lo desconocido. +Samuel tiene 16 aos. Es alto. Es muy guapo. +Posee la memoria ms impecable. +Sin embargo, es una memoria selectiva. +No recuerda si me rob mi chocolatina, pero recuerda el ao en que sali cada una de las canciones de mi iPod, conversaciones que mantuvimos cuando tena 4 aos, hacerse pip en mi brazo durante el primer episodio de los Teletubbies y el cumpleaos de Lady Gaga. +No les parece increble? +Pero la mayora de la gente no est de acuerdo. +Y, de hecho, porque sus mentes no se ajustan al concepto de normalidad de la sociedad, a menudo son ignorados e incomprendidos. +Pero lo que impuls a mi corazn y fortaleci mi alma fue que incluso si ese era el caso, aunque no los consideraran dentro de lo ordinario, eso solo podra significar una cosa: que eran extraordinarios... autistas y extraordinarios. +Ahora, para aquellos menos familiarizados con el trmino "autismo", es un complejo trastorno cerebral que afecta a la comunicacin social, al aprendizaje y a veces a las habilidades fsicas. +En cada individuo se manifiesta de forma distinta, de ah que Remi sea tan diferente a Sam. +Y en todo el mundo, cada 20 minutos, se diagnostica un nuevo caso de autismo, y aunque es uno de los trastornos del desarrollo que ms rpido aumenta en el mundo, no hay causa ni cura conocidas. +No me acuerdo de mi primer encuentro con el autismo, pero no recuerdo un solo da sin l. +Tena solo tres aos cuando mi hermano vino al mundo, y estaba muy emocionada de tener un nuevo ser en mi vida. +Cuando pasaron unos pocos meses, me di cuenta de que l era diferente. +Gritaba mucho. +No quera jugar como los otros bebs y, de hecho, no pareca muy interesado en m en absoluto. +Remi viva y reinaba en su propio mundo, con sus propias reglas, y encontraba placer en las cosas ms pequeas, como poner los coches en fila alrededor de la habitacin, mirar fijamente la lavadora y comer cualquier cosa que hubiera entre medias. +A medida que creca, se volva ms diferente, y las diferencias se hacan ms evidentes. +Pero ms all de los berrinches, la frustracin y la hiperactividad interminable, haba algo realmente nico: una naturaleza pura e inocente, un nio que vea el mundo sin prejuicios, un ser humano que nunca haba mentido. +Extraordinario. +No puedo negar que ha habido algunos momentos difciles en mi familia, momentos en los que habra deseado que ellos fueran justo como yo. +Pero miro atrs a las cosas que me han enseado sobre la individualidad, la comunicacin y el amor, y me doy cuenta de que son cosas que no querra cambiar por la normalidad. +La normalidad pasa por alto la belleza que nos dan las diferencias y el hecho de ser diferentes no significa que alguno est equivocado. +Solo significa que hay una visin diferente de lo que es correcto. +Si pudiera transmitirle una sola cosa a Remi y a Sam y a ustedes, sera que no tienen que ser normales. +Pueden ser extraordinarios. +Porque, autistas o no, las diferencias que tenemos... Son un don! Cada uno de nosotros tiene un don en su interior y, sinceramente, la bsqueda de la normalidad es el ltimo sacrificio del potencial. +La oportunidad para la grandeza, el progreso y el cambio muere en el momento en el que tratamos de ser como los dems. +Por favor... no me digan que soy normal. +Gracias. +Cinco aos atrs, experiment un poco lo que debe haber sido ser Alicia en el Pas de las Maravillas. +Penn State me pidi a m, una profesora de comunicaciones, que diera una clase de comunicacin a estudiantes de ingeniera. +Estaba asustada. Asustada de verdad. Asustada de estos estudiantes con sus grandes mentes, sus grandes libros y sus grandes y desconocidas palabras. +Pero al desarrollarse esas conversaciones, sent lo que Alicia debi haber sentido cuando cay por el agujero del conejo y vio la puerta de un nuevo mundo. +Justamente as me sent cuando tuve esas conversaciones con los estudiantes. Me sorprendieron las ideas que tenan, y quera que otros experimentaran tambin este mundo maravilloso. +Y creo que la clave para abrir esa puerta es una gran comunicacin. +Necesitamos desesperadamente una gran comunicacin de nuestros cientficos e ingenieros con el fin de cambiar el mundo. +Nuestros cientficos e ingenieros son los que estn atacando nuestros desafos ms grandes, desde energa a medio ambiente y cuidado de la salud, entre otros, y si no sabemos ni entendemos de esto, el trabajo no est hecho, y creo que es nuestra responsabilidad como no cientficos tener estas interacciones. +Pero estas grandes conversaciones no pueden ocurrir si nuestros cientficos e ingenieros no nos invitan a ver su mundo maravilloso. +As que cientficos e ingenieros, por favor, hblennos con simpleza. +Quiero compartir algunas sugerencias sobre cmo pueden hacerlo para asegurarse de que podemos ver que su ciencia es sexy y que su ingeniera es atractiva. +Primera pregunta para respondernos: y entonces qu? +Dgannos por qu la ciencia es relevante para nosotros. +No nos digan simplemente que estudian las trabculas, sino que estudian las trabculas, que son la estructura de malla de nuestros huesos porque es importante para comprender y tratar la osteoporosis. +Y cuando estn describiendo su ciencia, cuidado con la jerga. +La jerga es un obstculo para nuestra comprensin de sus ideas. +Seguro, pueden decir "espacial y temporal", pero por qu no decir "espacio y tiempo" que es mucho ms accesible a nosotros? +Hacerlas accesibles no es lo mismo que hacerlas tontas. +Al contrario, como dijo Einstein, que todo sea tan sencillo como sea posible, pero no simple. +Pueden comunicar claramente su ciencia sin comprometer las ideas. +Algo para considerar es usar ejemplos, historias y analogas. Son maneras de enganchar y entusiasmarnos con su contenido. +Y al presentar su trabajo, olvdense de los signos de "bala". +Se han preguntado por qu se llaman "balas"? Qu hacen las balas? Las balas matan, y matarn su presentacin. +Una filmina como esta no solo es aburrida, sino que se apoya demasiado en el rea del lenguaje de nuestro cerebro y nos abruma. +En cambio, esta filmina de ejemplo de Genevieve Brown es mucho ms efectiva. Muestra que la estructura especial de las trabculas es tan fuerte que realmente inspir el diseo nico de la Torre Eiffel. +El truco aqu es utilizar una frase simple, legible, que el pblico puede entender si se pierde un poco, y, a continuacin, proporcionar grficos que apelen a nuestros otros sentidos y creen un sentido ms profundo de entendimiento de lo que se describe. +Creo que estas son solo algunas claves que pueden ayudar a que los dems abramos la puerta y veamos el pas de las maravillas que es la ciencia y la ingeniera. +Y as, cientficos e ingenieros, cuando hayan solucionado esta ecuacin, por todos los medios, hblenme con simpleza. Gracias. +Una de mis palabras favoritas de todo el Diccionario de Ingls Oxford es "snollygoster". +Simplemente porque suena muy bien. +Y "snollygoster" significa "poltico deshonesto". +Aunque hubo un editor periodstico del siglo XIX que la defini mucho mejor cuando dijo: "Un 'snollygoster' es aqul que busca un cargo pblico sin importar partido, plataforma o principio, y que, cuando gana, lo consigue por el mero uso de una monumental verborrea retosfica". +No tengo ni idea de lo que significa "retosfica". +Algo que ver con las palabras, supongo. +Es muy importante que las palabras sean la base en poltica, y que todos los polticos sepan que tienen que intentar dominar el idioma. +No fue hasta, por ejemplo, 1771 que el Parlamento Britnico permiti a los peridicos citar las palabras exactas que se decan en la cmara parlamentaria. +Y todo esto fue gracias a la valenta de un tipo con el inslito nombre de Brass Crosby, quien se enfrent al Parlamento. +Le metieron en la Torre de Londres y le encarcelaron, pero tuvo la suficiente valenta de enfrentarse a ellos, y al final tuvo tal apoyo popular en Londres que gan. +Y slo unos aos ms tarde tuvimos el primer uso registrado de la frase "as bold as brass" (fuerte como el metal) +La mayora piensa que es literal. +No lo es. Es por un defensor de la libertad de expresin. +Pero para mostrarles realmente cmo las palabras y la poltica interactan, quiero que regresen a EE.UU., justo despus de la independencia. +Entonces, tuvieron que abordar la cuestin de cmo llamar a George Washington, su lder. +No lo saban. +Cmo llamas al lder de un pas republicano? +Esto se debati en el Congreso durante mucho tiempo. +Se presentaron todo tipo de sugerencias que podran haber fructificado. +Algunos quisieron llamarlo "Jefe de Estado Washington", y otros, "Su Alteza George Washington", y otros "Defensor de las Libertades del Pueblo de EE.UU. Washington". +No muy atrayente. +Algunos simplemente quisieron llamarlo "Rey". +Pensaban que era de probada calidad. +Y ni siquiera con ello eran monrquicos, tenan la idea de que uno poda ser elegido Rey por un plazo determinado. +Y podra haber servido. +Todo el mundo se cans inmensamente, porque este debate se prolong durante 3 semanas. +Le el diario de un pobre senador, y siempre escriba: "todava con este tema". +Lo que caus el retraso y el hasto fue que la Cmara de Representantes estuviera en contra del Senado. +La Cmara de Representantes no quera que Washington se emborrachara de poder. +No quisieron llamarlo Rey por si acaso le daba a l o a su sucesor ideas. +As pues, quisieron darle el ttulo ms modesto, ms insignificante y ms lamentable que se les ocurri. +Y ese ttulo fue "Presidente". +Presidente. No inventaron el ttulo. Ya exista antes, pero solo significaba "alguien que preside una reunin". +Era como el presidente de un jurado. +Y no tena mucha ms grandiosidad que el trmino "capataz" o "supervisor". +Hubo presidentes eventuales de pequeos ayuntamientos coloniales y fracciones de gobierno, pero realmente era un ttulo insignificante. +Y por eso el Senado se opuso. +Decan: "es ridculo, no podemos llamarle Presidente". +"Este tipo tiene que firmar tratados y reunirse con dignatarios extranjeros". +"Y quin le tomar en serio con un ttulo tan ridculo e insignificante como Presidente de EE.UU.?" +Y finalmente, despus de 3 semanas de debate, el Senado no cedi. +Podemos aprender 3 cosas interesantes de todo esto. +Primero de todo, y sta es mi favorita hasta donde he podido averiguar, el Senado nunca ha refrendado formalmente el ttulo de Presidente. +El Presidente Barack Obama tiene suerte de seguir ah, esperando a que el Senado entre en accin. +Lo segundo que podemos aprender es que cuando un gobierno dice que una medida es temporal... ...es posible que sigamos esperando 223 aos ms. +Pero lo tercero que podemos aprender, y esto es lo ms importante, y con esto les quiero dejar, es que el ttulo de Presidente de EE.UU. no suena en absoluto tan modesto hoy en da, verdad? +Sobre todo si se tienen ms de 5000 cabezas nucleares a disposicin, la mayor economa del mundo y una flota de vehculos areos no tripulados y dems. +La realidad y la historia han dotado al ttulo de grandiosidad . +De modo que al final gan el Senado. +Consiguieron su ttulo de respetabilidad. +Y tambin la otra preocupacin del Senado, la apariencia de singularidad; bueno, era una singularidad por entonces. +Pero, saben cuntas naciones tienen ahora presidente? +Y todo porque quieren sonar como el tipo que tiene las 5000 cabezas nucleares, etc. +Entonces, al final el Senado gan y la Cmara de Representantes perdi, porque ya nadie se va a sentir humilde cuando les digan que ahora son el Presidente de EE.UU.. +Y creo que esa es la gran leccin que podemos aprender, y con la que me gustara dejarles. +Los polticos intentan elegir y usar las palabras para dar forma y controlar la realidad, pero en verdad, la realidad modifica mucho ms las palabras que lo que stas podran cambiar la realidad. +Muchas gracias. +Estoy 45 a metros bajo tierra en una mina ilegal de Ghana. +El aire est cargado de calor y polvo y es difcil respirar. +Siento el roce de cuerpos sudorosos en la oscuridad, pero no puedo ver mucho ms. +Oigo voces que hablan pero, sobre todo, esa cacofona de toses masculinas y piedras partidas con herramientas primitivas. +Como los dems, llevo una linterna barata de luz tintineante sujeta a la cabeza con este elstico andrajoso y apenas puedo distinguir las resbalosas ramas que sostienen las paredes de ese agujero de un metro que cae cientos de metros en la tierra. +Se resbala mi mano y de repente recuerdo a un minero que conoc das antes, que perdi el control y cay innumerables metros en ese pozo. +Mientras hablo con Uds. hoy, estos hombres estn en lo profundo de ese hoyo arriesgando sus vidas sin paga ni recompensa y, a menudo, muriendo. +Sal de ese hoyo y fui a casa pero ellos quiz nunca lo harn, porque son presa de la esclavitud. +En los ltimos 28 aos estuve documentando culturas nativas en ms de 70 pases en seis continentes y, en 2009, tuve el gran honor de ser la nica expositora en la Cumbre de la Paz de Vancouver. +Entre todas las personas increbles que conoc all conoc a un integrante de 'Free the Slaves', una ONG que se dedica a erradicar la esclavitud moderna. +Empezamos a hablar de la esclavitud y, realmente, empec a aprender sobre esclavitud porque saba que exista en el mundo pero no a tal grado. +Cuando terminamos de hablar me sent muy mal; honestamente estaba avergonzada de ignorar esta atrocidad de nuestros das y pens: si yo no lo s, cunta gente no lo sabe? +Se me hizo un nudo el estmago y, semanas despus, vol a Los ngeles para conocer al director de 'Free the Slaves' y ofrecerle mi ayuda. +As empez mi viaje a la esclavitud moderna. +Curiosamente, ya haba estado en muchos de estos sitios. +A algunos, incluso, los consideraba mi segundo hogar. +Pero esta vez, ventilara los trapos sucios. +Un clculo conservador dice que actualmente hay ms de 27 millones de personas esclavizadas en el mundo. +Es el doble de la cantidad de africanos desplazados durante toda la trata de esclavos transatlntica. +Hace 150 aos el costo de un esclavo agricultor era de unas tres veces el salario anual de un trabajador de EE.UU. +El equivalente a unos US$ 50 000 actuales. +Sin embargo, hoy se puede esclavizar a familias enteras por generaciones por deudas nfimas de US$ 18. +Sorprendentemente, la esclavitud genera ganancias de ms de US$ 13 000 millones al ao en todo el mundo. +Muchos han sido engaados con falsas promesas de buena educacin y mejor trabajo para luego descubrir que estn obligados a trabajar sin paga, bajo amenaza de violencia y no pueden escapar. +Hoy la esclavitud opera en el comercio: los bienes producidos por esclavos tienen valor, pero quienes los producen son desechables. +La esclavitud existe en casi todo el mundo y, sin embargo, es ilegal en todo el mundo. +En India y Nepal, conoc los hornos de ladrillos. +Este espectculo extrao y formidable fue como entrar al antiguo Egipto o al Infierno de Dante. +Inmersos en una temperatura de 54 C, hombres, mujeres, nios, de hecho, familias enteras envueltas en un pesado manto de polvo- apilan mecnicamente ladrillos en sus cabezas, hasta 18 a la vez, y los llevan de los hornos ardientes a camiones que estn a cientos de metros. +Desanimados por la monotona y el cansancio trabajan en silencio, haciendo esta tarea una y otra vez durante 16 17 horas al da. +No haba pausas para comer, ni para beber, y la deshidratacin severa haca que orinar fuera bastante intrascendente. +Tan penetrantes eran el calor y el polvo que mi cmara se volvi demasiado caliente al tacto y dej de funcionar. +Cada 20 minutos yo tena que correr al auto para limpiar el equipo y hacer que funcionara con aire acondicionado para revivirlo y, sentada all, pensaba: mi cmara recibe un tratamiento mucho mejor que estas personas. +De vuelta en los hornos quise llorar pero el abolicionista que estaba a mi lado rpidamente me agarr y me dijo: "Lisa, no lo hagas. No lo hagas aqu". +Y me explic muy claramente que demostrar emociones es muy peligroso en lugares como ste, no slo para m sino para ellos. +No poda ofrecerles ninguna ayuda directa. +No poda darles dinero, nada. +Yo no era ciudadana de ese pas. +Poda ponerlos en una situacin peor de la que ya estaban. +Tuve que confiar en 'Free the Slaves' y trabajar dentro del sistema por su liberacin y confi en que lo conseguiran. +En cuanto a m, esper a llegar a casa para sentir mi corazn destrozado. +En el Himalaya, encontr nios acarreando piedras durante km por terrenos montaosos hasta camiones que esperaban abajo. +Esas grandes planchas eran ms pesadas que los nios que las cargaban y los nios las sujetan a sus cabezas con correas caseras hechas de palos, cuerdas y harapos. +Es difcil presenciar algo tan abrumador. +Cmo podemos influir en algo tan insidioso, pero tan omnipresente? +Algunos ni siquiera saben que son esclavos -y trabajan 16 17 horas al da sin paga- porque esto ha sido as toda su vida. +No tienen nada con qu comparar. +Cuando estos aldeanos reclamaron su libertad, los esclavistas quemaron ntegramente sus casas. +Al or la palabra esclavitud a menudo pensamos en trfico sexual y debido a esta conciencia mundial me advirtieron que sera difcil para m trabajar con seguridad en este negocio en particular. +En Katmand me acompaaban mujeres que haban sido previamente esclavas sexuales. +Me condujeron por unas escaleras angostas que daban a este stano sucio, de tenue luz fluorescente. +No era exactamente un burdel. +Era ms bien un restaurante. +Restaurante-cabina, como se conoce en el oficio, son locales para la prostitucin forzada. +Tienen habitaciones pequeas, privadas, donde las esclavas -mujeres con sus nias y nios, algunos de tan slo siete aos- son forzadas a entretener a los clientes y a alentarles a comprar ms comida y alcohol. +Cada puesto es oscuro y sucio, identificado por un nmero pintado en la pared y dividido por un biombo y una cortina. +Las trabajadoras a menudo sufren abuso sexual a manos de sus clientes. +De pie en la penumbra, recuerdo haber sentido un temor agudo ardiente y, en ese instante, apenas pude imaginar lo que debe ser quedar atrapada en ese infierno. +Slo tena una salida: las escaleras por donde entr. +No haba puertas traseras. +No haba ventanas suficientemente grandes como para trepar. +Esas personas no tienen escapatoria y, ya que tocamos un tema tan difcil, es importante sealar que la esclavitud, incluso el trfico sexual, ocurre a nuestro alrededor. +Hay cientos de personas esclavizadas en la agricultura, en restaurantes, en el servicio domstico y la lista puede continuar. +Recientemente, el New York Times inform que entre 100 000 y 300 000 nios estadounidenses se venden cada ao como esclavos sexuales. +Ocurre por doquier, pero no lo vemos. +Los textiles son otra actividad que a menudo relacionamos con la mano de obra esclava. +Visit aldeas indias en la que haba familias enteras esclavizadas en el comercio de la seda. +Este es un retrato de familia. +Las manos teidas de negro son del padre, las teidas de azul y de rojo, de sus hijos. +Mezclan tinturas en estos grandes barriles y sumergen la seda en el lquido hasta los codos, pero la tintura es txica. +Mi intrprete me cont sus historias. +"No tenemos libertad", dijeron. +"Todava esperamos, sin embargo, poder salir de esta casa algn da e ir a otro lugar donde realmente nos paguen nuestro trabajo". +Se estima que hay ms de 4000 nios esclavizados en el lago Volta, el mayor lago artificial del mundo. +Cuando llegamos, fui a echar un vistazo rpido. +Vi lo que pareca ser una familia de pescadores en un barco, dos hermanos mayores, algunos nios ms jvenes, tiene sentido no? +Error. Eran todos esclavos. +Los nios son separados de sus familias traficados, desaparecidos y forzados a trabajar jornadas extensas en estos botes en el lago, a pesar de no saber nadar. +Este nio tiene ocho aos. +Cuando nuestro bote se acerc estaba temblando; tema que su pequea canoa fuera embestida. +Estaba paralizado por el miedo de caer al agua. +Las raquticas ramas de los rboles sumergidos en el lago Volta a menudo atrapan redes y a nios, fatigados y con miedo, se arrojan al agua para desatar las ramas. +Muchos se ahogan. +Desde que recuerda, siempre ha sido forzado a trabajar en el lago. +Por temor a su amo no va a huir y, como toda la vida ha sido tratado con crueldad, cruelmente trata a los esclavos ms jvenes bajo su mando. +Conoc a estos muchachos a las cinco de la maana, cuando levantaban las ltimas redes, pero haban estado trabajando desde la una +en la noche fra y ventosa. +Y cabe sealar que estas redes pesan ms de 400 kilos cuando estn repletas de peces. +Quiero presentarles a Kofi. +Kofi fue rescatado en una aldea de pescadores. +Lo conoc en un refugio en el que 'Free the Slaves' rehabilita a vctimas de la esclavitud. +Kofi simboliza lo posible. +Quin llegar a ser gracias a que alguien decidi marcar la diferencia en su vida? +Conduciendo por una carretera en Ghana con socios de 'Free the Slaves', un compaero abolicionista con su moto de repente aceler y sobrepas nuestro auto y toc la ventana. +Nos pidi que lo siguieramos por un camino de tierra hasta la selva. +Al final del camino, nos inst a salir del auto, y le pidi al conductor que saliera rpidamente. +Luego seal este sendero apenas visible y dijo: "Este es el camino, este es el camino. Vamos". +Conforme empezamos a bajar, quitamos las enredaderas que bloqueaban el camino y despus de caminar cerca de una hora hallamos que el camino estaba anegado por las recientes lluvias, as que puse el equipo de fotos sobre mi cabeza a medida que descendamos en estas aguas hasta el pecho. +Despus de dos horas de caminata, el sinuoso camino termin abruptamente en un claro, y tenamos delante una masa de agujeros que poda caber en un campo de ftbol, y todos estaban llenos de trabajadores esclavizados. +Muchas mujeres tenan hijos atados a sus espaldas y, mientras buscaban oro, caminaban en aguas envenenadas con mercurio. +El mercurio se usa en el proceso de extraccin. +Estos mineros estn esclavizados en un pozo en otra parte de Ghana. +Cuando salieron del pozo estaban empapados en su propio sudor. +Recuerdo que mir sus ojos cansados, irritados, dado que muchos haban estado bajo tierra durante 72 horas. +Los pozos tienen hasta 90 metros y estas personas cargan bolsas pesadas de piedra que luego sern transportadas a otra zona en la que machacarn la piedra para poder extraer el oro. +A primera vista, el sitio parece estar lleno hombres fuertes y vigorosos pero, si miramos ms de cerca, al margen vemos trabajar a otros menos afortunados y tambin a nios. +Todos son vctimas de lesiones, enfermedades y violencia. +De hecho, es muy probable que este musculoso termine como esta vctima de la tuberculosis y del envenenamiento por mercurio en unos pocos aos. +Este es Manuru. Cuando muri su padre su to lo llev a trabajar con l en las minas. +Al morir su to, Manuru hered la deuda del to lo que lo fuerza a ser esclavo en las minas. +Cuando lo conoc, haba trabajado en las minas 14 aos y la lesin de la pierna que ven aqu es producto de un accidente en la mina, tan grave que los mdicos decan que deba ser amputada. +Adems de eso, Manuru tiene tuberculosis y, no obstante a eso, est obligado a trabajar noche y da en esa mina. +An as, l suea con ser liberado y educado con ayuda de activistas locales como 'Free the Slaves' y es este tipo de determinacin, de cara a una posibilidad remota, lo que me inspira mucho respeto. +Quiero arrojar luz sobre la esclavitud. +Saban que sus imgenes seran vistas por Uds. en todo el mundo. +Quera que supieran que daremos testimonio de ellos y que haremos todo lo posible para ayudar a cambiar sus vidas. +Sinceramente creo que si podemos vernos unos a otros como seres humanos, entonces se hace muy difcil tolerar atrocidades como la esclavitud. +Estas imgenes no son de revistas. Son de personas, personas reales, como Uds. y como yo, que merecen los mismos derechos, dignidad y respeto en sus vidas. +No hay un da que pase que yo no piense en estas tantas personas hermosas, maltratadas, que he tenido el gran honor de conocer. +Espero que estas imgenes despiertan una fuerza en quienes las ven, en personas como Uds., y espero que esa fuerza encienda un fuego y que ese fuego arroje luz sobre la esclavitud porque, sin esa luz, la bestia de la esclavitud puede continuar viviendo en las sombras. +Muchas gracias. +Hago matemtica aplicada y hay un problema peculiar para quien la hace: somos como los consultores de gestin. +Nadie sabe qu diablos hacemos. +Por eso hoy intentar... intentar explicarles qu hago. +El baile es una de las actividades ms humanas. +Nos deleitan los virtuosos del ballet y los bailarines de claqu que veremos ms adelante. +Pero el ballet demanda un grado de entrenamiento extraordinario, un alto nivel de destreza y probablemente cierta aptitud inicial que bien puede tener una componente gentica. +Lamentablemente, los trastornos neurolgicos como el mal de Parkinson destruyen gradualmente esta habilidad extraordinaria, como lo hace con mi amigo Jan Stripling que, en su poca, fue un virtuoso bailarn de ballet. +En los ltimos aos se ha progresado mucho en el tratamiento. +Sin embargo, hay 6.3 millones de personas en el mundo que estn enfermas y tienen que lidiar con una debilidad incurable, temblores, rigidez y otros sntomas de esta enfermedad, as que necesitamos herramientas objetivas para detectar la enfermedad antes de que sea demasiado tarde. +Necesitamos poder medir el progreso de manera objetiva y, en definitiva, la nica forma en que sabremos si realmente existe una cura ser cuando tengamos una mtrica objetiva y certera. +Pero es frustrante que para el Parkinson y otros trastornos del movimiento no haya marcadores biolgicos. Por eso no sirven los anlisis de sangre y lo mejor que tenemos es un examen neurolgico de 20 minutos. +Hay que ir a una clnica a hacerlo. Es muy, muy costoso, y eso significa que, fuera de los ensayos clnicos, nunca se hacen. Nunca se ha hecho. +Y qu tal si los pacientes pudieran hacerlo en casa? +Eso ahorrara un viaje dificultoso a la clnica. Qu tal si los pacientes pudieran hacerse el examen ellos mismos? +No se necesitara personal. +Por cierto, cuesta unos USD 300 en la clnica neurolgica. +Por eso, lo que quiero proponerles como forma no convencional para intentarlo, ya ven, en cierto sentido al menos, todos somos virtuosos como mi amigo Jan Stripling. +Este es un video de la vibracin de las cuerdas vocales. +Muestra a alguien sano mientras emite sonidos al hablar. Podemos imaginarnos como bailarines de un ballet vocal porque tenemos que coordinar todos esos rganos vocales para producir sonidos y todos tenemos los genes necesarios. El FoxP2, por ejemplo. +Y, como el ballet, requiere un nivel de entrenamiento extraordinario. +Pensemos el tiempo que le lleva a un nio aprender a hablar. +A partir del sonido, podemos rastrear la posicin de las cuerdas vocales conforme vibran, y as como el Parkinson afecta a las extremidades, tambin afecta a los rganos vocales. +En la traza de abajo pueden ver un ejemplo de temblor irregular de las cuerdas vocales. +Vemos los mismos sntomas: +temblor vocal, debilidad y rigidez. +El discurso se vuelve ms tranquilo y aspirado despus de un rato, y este es un ejemplo de los sntomas. +Cmo se comparan estos exmenes basados en la voz con los ensayos clnicos especializados? Bueno, ambos son no invasivos. +El test neurolgico no es invasivo. Ambos usan la infraestructura existente. +No es necesario disear toda una serie de hospitales para hacerlos. +Ambos son precisos. Bien, pero adems los exmenes basados en voz no son especializados. +Es decir, que pueden ser autoadministrados. +Se hacen muy rpidamente, llevan unos 30 segundos como mucho. +Son de costo mnimo y todos sabemos qu ocurre +cuando algo adquiere un costo tan bajo: aparece a escala masiva. +Estas son algunas metas increbles listas para abordar. +Podemos reducir las dificultades logsticas de los pacientes. +No hara falta ir a la clnica para el chequeo de rutina. +Con monitoreo de alta frecuencia podramos obtener datos objetivos. +Podramos hacer reclutamiento masivo de bajo costo para ensayos clnicos y, por primera vez, chequeos factibles a escala general. +Tenemos la oportunidad de empezar a buscar los primeros biomarcadores de la enfermedad antes de que sea demasiado tarde. +Por eso, al dar hoy los primeros pasos en ese sentido, estamos lanzando la Iniciativa Vocal del Parkinson. +Junto a Aculab y PatientsLikeMe, queremos registrar gran cantidad de voces en todo el mundo para recolectar suficientes datos y empezar a abordar estos objetivos. +Tenemos lneas locales accesibles para unos 750 millones de personas en el mundo. +Cualquiera, con o sin Parkinson, puede llamar a bajo precio y dejar grabaciones por unos centavos. Y me complace anunciar que ya hemos alcanzado el 6% de la meta en solo ocho horas. +Gracias. Tom Rielly: Entonces Max, tomando todas estas muestras de, digamos 10 000 personas, podrn decir quin est sano y quin no? +Qu sacarn de estas muestras? +Max Little: S, s. Lo que ocurre es que durante la llamada tienes que indicar si tienes o no la enfermedad. TR: Claro. +ML: Ya ven, algunas personas pueden no pasarlo. Puede que no lo terminen. +Pero vamos a obtener una muestra muy grande de datos recopilados en diferentes circunstancias, y hacerlo en diferentes circunstancias es importante porque estamos buscando limar los factores de confusin en busca de los marcadores reales de la enfermedad. +TR: Tienen un 86% de precisin en este momento? +ML: Mucho ms que eso. +En realidad, mi estudiante Thanasis, tengo que publicitarlo, ha hecho un trabajo fantstico y ahora ha demostrado que funciona en la red de telefona mvil tambin, lo que agiliza el proyecto. Ahora tenemos un 99% de precisin. +TR: Noventa y nueve. Bueno, es una mejora. +ML: Por supuesto. +TR: Muchas gracias. Max Little, pblico. +ML: Gracias, Tom. +Antes de marzo del 2011, haca retoques fotogrficos en la ciudad de Nueva York. +Somos criaturas plidas, grises. +Nos escondemos en la oscuridad, en cuartos sin ventanas y, por lo general, evitamos la luz solar. +Hacemos a las modelos delgadas todava ms delgadas, la piel perfecta todava ms perfecta hacemos lo imposible, posible y nos critican en la prensa todo el tiempo pero algunos de nosotros somos realmente artistas con talento con muchos aos de experiencia y un gusto verdadero por las imgenes y la fotografa. +El 11 de marzo del 2011, vi desde mi casa, al igual que el resto del mundo, los trgicos eventos que sucedan en Japn. +Poco tiempo despus, una organizacin donde era voluntaria, All Hands Volunteers, estuvo en el lugar trabajando como parte del equipo de respuesta. +Yo, junto con cientos de otros voluntarios supimos que no podamos quedarnos sentados en casa, as que decid unirme al grupo por tres semanas. +El 13 de mayo viaj a Ofunato. +Es un pequeo pueblo de pescadores ubicado en la prefectura de Iwate de casi 50 000 personas, uno de los primeros pueblos afectados por la ola. +El nivel de agua registrado alcanz ms de 24 m de altura y ms de tres km tierra adentro. +Como pueden imaginar, el pueblo fue devastado. +Sacamos escombros de los canales y las zanjas. +Limpiamos escuelas. Quitamos el lodo y dejamos las casas listas para ser renovadas y rehabilitadas. +Quitamos toneladas y toneladas de pescado muerto, apestoso, podrido de la fbrica local. +Nos ensuciamos y nos encant. +Durante semanas, tanto los voluntarios como los vecinos encontraron cosas similares. +Encontraron fotos y lbumes de fotos y cmaras y tarjetas SD. +Todos hicieron lo mismo. +Recogerlas y llevarlas a diferentes lugares de los pueblos de alrededor para guardarlas. +No fue hasta entonces que me di cuenta de que esas fotos representaban una parte enorme de las prdidas personales que esa gente haba sufrido. +Mientras huan de la ola, y para salvar sus vidas, tuvieron que abandonar absolutamente todo lo que tenan. +Al final de mi primera semana empec a ayudar en un centro de evacuacin del pueblo. +Ayud a limpiar los baos comunales las enormes, gigantescas baeras. +Este lugar result ser adems el lugar del pueblo donde el centro de evacuacin recoga las fotos. +All las llevaban y tuve el honor de que ese da confiaran en m para limpiar a mano las fotos. +Esto fue emocionante e inspirador, haba escuchado la expresin pensar ms all de los horizontes, pero no fue hasta traspasar yo misma mis horizontes que algo sucedi. +Al observar las fotos, encontr algunas que tenan ms de cien aos algunas todava estaban en el sobre del laboratorio, no pude evitar pensar como retocadora cmo arreglar ese rasgn y reparar aquel rasguo y conoca a cientos de personas que podan hacer lo mismo. +As es que esa noche entr en Facebook contact con algunos de ellos, y a la maana siguiente la respuesta fue tan abrumadora y positiva, que saba que tenamos que intentarlo. +As que comenzamos a retocar las fotos. +Esta fue la primera de todas. +No estaba demasiado estropeada, pero donde el agua haba decolorado la cara de la nia deba arreglarse con mucha precisin y delicadeza. +De otro modo, esa niita no tendra el aspecto de ella misma, y eso sera tan trgico como tener la foto estropeada. +Con el paso del tiempo, llegaron por suerte ms fotos y se necesitaron ms retocadores as es que entr nuevamente en Facebook y LinkedIn y cinco das ms tarde 80 personas de 12 pases se ofrecieron a ayudar. +Al cabo de dos semanas tena 150 personas deseosas de unirse. +En Japn, en julio, nos movilizamos a Rijuzentakata, un pueblo vecino al norte de Yamada. +Una vez a la semana usbamos nuestro escner en las bibliotecas fotogrficas temporales que se haban instalado, donde la gente iba a reclamar sus fotos. +El tiempo que tardaban en entregarlas es una historia diferente, dependa por supuesto del desperfecto de las fotos. +Poda implicar una hora. Poda implicar semanas. +Poda implicar meses. +Este kimono se tuvo que dibujar prcticamente a mano usando como gua las reas cuyo color y detalle el agua no haba destruido. +Tom mucho tiempo. +El agua destruy todas estas fotos sumergidas en agua salada, cubiertas de bacterias, con algas, incluso con aceite, todo ello junto con el paso del tiempo contino destruyndolas, por eso limpiarlas a mano era una parte importante del proyecto. +No podamos retocar la foto a menos que estuviera limpia, seca y hubiera sido reclamada por su dueo. +Tuvimos suerte con la limpieza a mano. +Contamos con la gua de una vecina admirable. +Es muy fcil daar an ms las fotos ya daadas. +Como dijo una vez Wynne, la lder de mi grupo es como hacer un tatuaje. +No puedes cometer errores. +La mujer que nos trajo estas fotos tuvo suerte en relacin a las fotos. +Haba empezado a limpiarlas ella misma pero se detuvo al darse cuenta que las daaba an ms. +Tambin tena duplicados. +Sin ellos, las imgenes de su esposo y de su propia cara no se habran podido reconstruir, pudimos solapar las imgenes en una sola foto y retocar la foto completa. +Cuando recogi sus fotos comparti algo de su historia con nosotros. +Unos colegas de su esposo encontraron las fotos en una estacin de bomberos entre los escombros bastante lejos de donde sola estar su casa, pero sus colegas lo reconocieron. +El da del tsunami, su marido fue el encargado de cerrar las barreras a la ola. +Tuvo que ir dentro del agua mientras las sirenas sonaban. +Sus hijos pequeos, no tan pequeos ahora, pero sus dos hijos estaban en el colegio, en colegios diferentes. +Uno de ellos qued atrapado en el agua. +Le llev una semana encontrar a toda su familia y saber que todos haban sobrevivido. +El da que le entregu sus fotos su hijo menor cumpla 14 aos. +Para ella, a pesar de todo esto, esas fotos eran el mejor regalo que poda hacerle, algo que l poda volver a mirar, algo que pudiera recordar del pasado que no hubiera sido marcado por aquel da de marzo cuando todo en su vida cambi o fue destruido. +Despus de seis meses en Japn 1100 voluntarios se haban unido a All Hands cientos de ellos nos ayudaron a limpiar a mano ms de 135 000 fotografas La gran mayora... ... la gran mayora volvieron a manos de sus dueos. Importante. +Ms de 500 voluntarios de todo el mundo nos ayudaron a devolver a 90 familias cientos de fotos totalmente restauradas y retocadas. +Durante este tiempo, realmente no gastamos ms de US$ 1000 en equipos y materiales, la mayora en tinta para impresoras. +Tomamos fotos constantemente. +Una foto es un recuerdo de alguien o algo, un lugar, una relacin, alguien querido. +Son guardianas de nuestros recuerdos e historias, lo ltimo que nos llevaramos pero lo primero que volveramos a buscar. +Sobre esto trataba el proyecto, de restaurar pequeos pedazos de humanidad, de devolver a alguien su conexin con el pasado. +Cuando una foto como esta se devuelve a alguien, supone una diferencia enorme en la vida de la persona que la recibe. +Este proyecto tambin marc una gran diferencia en la vida de los retocadores. +A algunos de ellos les conect con algo ms grande, devolver algo, usando su talento para algo que no sean modelos delgadas de piel perfecta. +Para terminar me gustara leer este correo electrnico. Lo envi Cindy el da que volv de Japn despus de seis meses. +Mientras retocaba, no poda evitar pensar en las personas y las historias mostradas en las imgenes. +Una en particular, una foto con mujeres de distintas edades desde la abuela hasta la nia pequea, reunidas alrededor de una beb, me conmovi, porque una foto similar de mi familia mi abuela, mi madre, yo y mi hija recin nacida, cuelga de nuestra pared. +En el mundo entero, en todas las pocas nuestras necesidades bsicas son las mismas, cierto? +Gracias. Aplausos +Doc Edgerton nos inspir asombro y curiosidad con esta foto de una bala que atraviesa una manzana en una exposicin de solo una millonsima de segundo. +Pero ahora, 50 aos ms tarde, podemos ir un milln de veces ms rpido y ver el mundo no a un milln o a mil millones, sino a un billn de cuadros por segundo. +Les presento un nuevo tipo de fotografa: la femtofotografa; una nueva tcnica tan rpida que puede crear videos en cmara lenta de la luz en movimiento. +Y con eso podemos crear cmaras que pueden ver tras los rincones, ms all de la lnea de visin, o ver el interior del cuerpo sin usar rayos X, y desafan realmente la idea de cmara. +Si tomo un puntero lser y lo enciendo y apago en una billonsima de segundo o sea, en varios femtosegundos crear un paquete de fotones de apenas un milmetro de ancho +y ese paquete de fotones, esa bala, viajar a la velocidad de la luz, y, nuevamente, un milln de veces ms rpido que una bala comn. +Si tomamos esa bala y este paquete de fotones y disparamos en esta botella, Cmo se dispersan esos fotones dentro de esta botella? +Cul es el aspecto de la luz en cmara lenta? +Ahora, todo esto... Recuerden que todo esto ocurre efectivamente en menos de un nanosegundo es lo que tarda en viajar la luz +pero este video est 10 mil millones de veces ms lento para que puedan ver la luz en movimiento. +Coca-Cola no auspici esta investigacin. Ocurren muchas cosas en esta pelcula; desglosar esta informacin para mostrar qu est pasando. +El pulso, nuestra bala, entra en la botella con un paquete de fotones que empieza a atravesarla y que, dentro, empieza a dispersarse. +Parte de la luz se fuga, va a la mesa, y empezamos a ver estas ondulaciones. +Muchos de los fotones finalmente llegan a la tapa y luego explotan en varias direcciones. +Como pueden ver, hay una burbuja de aire que rebota en el interior. +En ese tiempo, las ondas viajan por la mesa y debido a las reflexiones de la parte superior se ve en el fondo de la botella, despus de varios cuadros, que las reflexiones se concentran. +Ahora, si tomamos una bala comn y corriente y hacemos que recorra la misma distancia y la vemos en cmara lenta a unas 10 mil millones de veces, cunto piensan que nos llevara sentarnos a ver esa pelcula? +Un da? Una semana? En realidad, todo un ao. +Sera una pelcula muy aburrida de una lenta bala en movimiento. +Y qu tal probar con naturaleza muerta? +Pueden ver las ondas que se apoderan de la mesa, del tomate y de la pared del fondo. +Es como arrojar una piedra en un estanque. +Es la forma en que la naturaleza pinta una foto, pensaba, de un femtocuadro a la vez, pero, claro, nuestros ojos ven una composicin integral. +Pero si miran una vez ms este tomate, se darn cuenta de que, a medida que la luz se apodera del tomate, sigue brillante. No se oscurece. +Por qu? Porque el tomate est maduro y la luz rebota en su interior y vuelve a salir luego de varias billonsimas de segundo. +En el futuro, cuando esta femtocmara est en sus mviles, van a poder ir al supermercado y verificar si la fruta est madura sin tener que tocarla. +Para qu creamos esta cmara en el MIT? +Como fotgrafos, ya saben, si tomamos una foto a baja exposicin, entra muy poca luz, +pero iremos mil millones de veces ms rpido que la exposicin ms corta, as que apenas entrar algo de luz. +Mandamos esa bala, ese paquete de fotones, millones de veces, y grabamos una y otra vez con una sincronizacin muy astuta, tomamos esos gigabytes de datos y los entrelazamos computacionalmente para crear esos femtovideos que les mostr. +Podemos tomar todos esos datos en crudo y procesarlos de manera interesante. +Superman puede volar. +Otros hroes pueden volverse invisibles, +y si un nuevo poder de un futuro superhroe le permitiera ver tras los rincones? +La idea es que podramos arrojar algo de luz sobre la puerta. Rebotar, entrar a la habitacin, una parte se va a reflejar en la puerta, y desde all hasta la cmara, +de donde podramos extraer esos mltiples rebotes de luz. +No es ciencia ficcin. Ya lo hemos construido. +A la izquierda, est nuestra femtocmara. +Detrs de la pared hay un maniqu y rebotaremos la luz en la puerta. +Luego de la publicacin de nuestro artculo en Nature Communications, +y una fraccin pequea de los fotones regresar a la cmara pero, curiosamente, en momentos levemente diferentes. +Y como tenemos una cmara que funciona as de rpido, nuestra femtocmara, tiene capacidades nicas. +Tiene muy buena resolucin temporal y puede mirar al mundo a la velocidad de la luz. +As, conocemos las distancias hasta la puerta y tambin hasta los objetos ocultos pero no sabemos qu punto corresponde a qu distancia. +Al proyectar un lser se puede grabar una foto en bruto, que, ven en la pantalla, realmente no tiene ningn sentido, +pero tomaremos muchas imgenes as, decenas de imgenes, las juntaremos y trataremos de analizar los mltiples rebotes de luz, y con eso, podremos ver el objeto oculto? +Podremos verlo en 3D? +Esta es nuestra reconstruccin. +Tenemos cosas por explorar antes de sacar esto del laboratorio, pero en el futuro, podramos crear autos que eviten colisiones con lo que est a la vuelta de la curva, +o podramos buscar sobrevivientes en condiciones peligrosas mirando la luz reflejada por las ventanas abiertas, +o podramos construir endoscopios capaces de ver el interior del cuerpo sorteando oclusores, y lo mismo para los cardioscopios. +Pero, claro, debido al tejido y la sangre esto es bastante difcil, as que en realidad esto es un pedido a los cientficos para que empiecen a pensar en la femtofotografa como una nueva modalidad de visualizacin para solucionar los problemas de imagenologa en salud de la prxima generacin. +As como Doc Edgerton, l mismo un cientfico, convirti la ciencia en arte, un arte de fotografas ultrarrpidas, +me di cuenta de que todos los gigabytes de datos que recolectamos cada vez no son solo para visualizaciones cientficas, sino que podemos +crear una nueva forma de fotografa computacional con cmara lenta y cdigo de colores, +y miremos esas ondas. Recuerden, el tiempo entre cada una de esas ondas es de solo unas billonsimas de segundo. +Pero aqu tambin ocurre algo divertido. +Si miramos las ondas debajo de la tapa, estas se alejan de nosotros. +Las ondas deberan moverse hacia nosotros. +Qu ocurre aqu? +Resulta que, como estamos grabando casi a la velocidad de la luz, tenemos efectos extraos. A Einstein le habra encantado ver esta imagen. +El orden en que ocurren los eventos en el mundo a veces aparece invertido ante la cmara. +Aplicando la deformacin correspondiente de espacio y tiempo, podemos corregir esta distorsin. +Ya es tiempo. Gracias. +Hola. Este es mi telfono mvil. +Un mvil puede cambiarte la vida, y te da libertad individual. +Con un mvil puede fotografiarse un crimen contra la humanidad en Siria. +Con un mvil se puede tuitear un mensaje e iniciar una protesta en Egipto. +Con un mvil se puede grabar una cancin, subirla a SoundCloud y hacerse famoso. +Todo esto es posible con un mvil. +Soy un chio de 1984 y vivo en la ciudad de Berln. +Volvamos a ese momento, a esta ciudad. +Aqu pueden ver cmo cientos de miles de personas protestaban en busca de un cambio. +Este es el otoo de 1989. Imaginen si todas estas personas reunidas que protestan en busca de un cambio, tuvieran un mvil en el bolsillo. +Quines de los presenten tienen un mvil aqu? +Levntenlos. +Levanten sus mviles, levntenlos! +Levntenlos. Un Android, un Blackberry, guau! +Es mucho. Casi todos hoy tienen un mvil. +Pero hoy hablar de m, de mi mvil, y de cmo me cambi la vida. +Hablar de esto. +Estas son 35 830 lneas de informacin. +Datos en bruto. +Por qu est esa informacin all? +Porque en el verano de 2006 la Comisin de la U.E. present una directiva. +La Directiva de Retencin de Datos. +Esta directiva dice que cada compaa telefnica europea, cada proveedor de Internet de toda Europa, tiene que almacenar un amplio rango de informacin de los usuarios. +Quin llama a quin. Quin enva un email a quin. +Quin le enva un texto a quin. +Y si usamos el mvil, dnde estamos. +Toda esta informacin se almacena por al menos seis meses, y hasta dos aos, en su compaa telefnica o su proveedor de Internet. +Y en toda Europa la gente se plant y dijo: "No queremos esto". +Dijeron que no queran esta retencin de datos. +Queremos la autodeterminacin en la era digital y no queremos que las telefnicas y los proveedores de Internet almacenen toda esta informacin sobre nosotros. +Hubo abogados, periodistas, sacerdotes, todos dijeron: "No queremos esto". +Y aqu pueden ver unas diez mil personas que salieron a las calles de Berln y dijeron: "Libertad, no temor". +Y algunos incluso dijeron que esto sera la Stasi 2.0. +La Stasi era la polica secreta de Alemania Oriental. +Y yo tambin me pregunt si esto funciona realmente. +Pueden almacenar toda esta informacin sobre nosotros? +Cada vez que uso el mvil? +As que le ped a mi telefnica, Deutsche Telekom, que en ese entonces era la compaa telefnica ms grande de Alemania, que por favor me envaran toda la informacin que tuviesen sobre m. +Se los ped una vez, y se los volv a pedir, y no obtuve una respuesta concreta. Era todo bla, bla. +Pero luego dije: quiero tener esta informacin porque Uds. estn protocolizando mi vida. +Por eso decid iniciarles una demanda judicial porque quera tener esta informacin. +Pero Deutsche Telekom dijo no, no te daremos esta informacin. +Al final firmamos un acuerdo. +Retirara la demanda y ellos me enviaran la informacin que yo peda. +Mientras tanto, el Tribunal Constitucional Alemn fall la inconstitucionalidad para la ley alemana de la directiva de la U.E. +As que recib este feo sobre marrn con un CD dentro. +Y en el CD haba esto. +Treinta y cinco mil ochocientas treinta lneas de informacin. +Al principio las v y dije, bueno, es un archivo enorme. Bien. +Pero despus de un tiempo me di cuenta de que es mi vida. +Hay seis meses de mi vida en este archivo. +Era un poco escptico: qu deba hacer con eso? +Porque pueden ver dnde estoy, donde paso la noche, qu estoy haciendo. +Pero luego dije, quiero que esta informacin salga. +Quiero hacerla pblica. +Porque quiero mostrarle a la gente qu significa la retencin de datos. +As que, junto a Zeit Online y Open Data City, hicimos esto. +Esta es una visualizacin de seis meses de mi vida. +Uno puede acercarse y alejarse, ir hacia atrs y hacia adelante. +Pueden ver cada paso que doy. +Y puede verse cmo voy de Frankfurt en tren a Colonia, y con qu frecuencia llamo en el trayecto. +Todo esto es posible con esta informacin. +Eso da un poco de miedo. +Pero no solo se trata de m. +Sino de todos nosotros. +Primero, hay cosas como, llamo a mi esposa y ella me llama, hablamos un par de veces. +Despus me llaman algunos amigos y se llaman entre ellos. +Y luego uno llama al otro, y el otro al otro, y terminamos con esta gran red de comunicaciones. +Uno puede ver cmo su gente se comunica entre s a qu hora llaman unos a otros, a qu hora duermen. +Se puede ver todo esto. +Pueden verse los centros, los lderes del grupo. +Si uno tiene acceso a esta informacin, uno puede ver lo que est haciendo la sociedad. +Si uno tiene acceso a esta informacin, se puede controlar a su sociedad. +Este es un modelo para pases como China e Irn. +Este es un modelo para estudiar la forma de tu sociedad, porque uno sabe quin habla con quin, quin le manda un email a quin, todo esto es posible si uno tiene acceso a esta informacin. +Y esta informacin se almacena al menos seis meses en Europa, y hasta dos aos. +Como dije al principio, imaginen si todas estas personas en las calles de Berln, en el otoo de 1989, tuviesen un mvil en el bolsillo. +Y la Stasi hubiese sabido quin particip en esta protesta, y, si la Stasi hubiese sabido quines eran los lderes, esto nunca hubiese ocurrido. +La cada del Muro de Berln quiz nunca hubiese ocurrido. +Y, en consecuencia, tampoco la cada de la Cortina de Hierro. +Porque hoy en da las agencias estatales y las empresas quieren almacenar tanta informacin de nosotros como sea posible dentro y fuera de la web. +Quieren tener la posibilidad de seguir nuestras vidas y quieren almacenarlas para siempre. +Pero la autodeterminacin y vivir en la era digital no es una contradiccin. +Pero hoy uno tiene que luchar por la autodeterminacin. +Uno tiene que luchar por eso a diario. +Cuando vuelvan a casa dganle a sus amigos que la privacidad es un valor del siglo XXI y que no est pasada de moda. +Cuando vayan a casa, dganle a su representante que solo porque las empresas y las agencias estatales puedan almacenar cierta informacin, no tienen que hacerlo. +Y si no me creen, pregntenle a su compaa telefnica, qu informacin almacenan de Uds. +As que en el futuro, cada vez que usen sus mviles que les sirva para recordar que tienen que luchar por la autodeterminacin en la era digital. +Gracias. +Hola TEDWomen, qu pasa? +No es suficiente. +Hola TEDWomen, qu pasa? +Me llamo Maysoon Zayid y no estoy ebria, pero s el mdico que me trajo al mundo. +Cort a mi mam 6 veces en 6 direcciones diferentes, asfixiando a la pobre de m en el proceso. +Como resultado, tengo parlisis cerebral, por eso tiemblo todo el tiempo. +Miren. +Es agotador. Soy como una mezcla de Shakira +y Muhammad Al. +La P. C. no es gentica. +No es congnita ni puede contraerse. +Nadie maldijo el tero de mi madre y no la contraje porque mis padres fueran primos hermanos, aunque lo son. +Solo pasa por accidentes, como el que me ocurri al nacer. +Ahora, les advierto, no soy fuente de inspiracin. Y no quiero que ninguno de los presentes +se sienta mal por m, porque en algn momento de la vida, han deseado ser discapacitados. +Vamos de paseo. +Vsperas de Navidad, estn en el centro comercial, conducen en crculos en busca de estacionamiento y qu ven? +16 lugares vacos para discapacitados. +Y piensan: "Dios, puedo ser al menos un poquito discapacitado?". +Adems, les digo, tengo 99 problemas, y la P. C. es solo uno de ellos. +De existir una olimpada de la opresin, yo ganara la medalla de oro. +Soy palestina, musulmana, mujer, discapacitada y vivo en Nueva Jersey. +Si con eso no se sienten mejor, quiz deberan hacerlo. +Soy de Parque Cliffside, en Nueva Jersey. +Siempre me encant que mi barrio y mi enfermedad tuvieran las mismas iniciales. +Tambin me encanta que si quisiera caminar de mi casa a Nueva York, podra. +Muchas personas con parlisis cerebral no caminan, pero mis padres no creen en el "no se puede". +El mantra de mi padre era: "Puedes [can] hacerlo; bailar cancan". +Si mis 3 hermanas mayores limpiaban, yo limpiaba. +Si mis 3 hermanas mayores iban a la escuela pblica, mis padres demandaban al sistema escolar y se aseguraban de que yo tambin fuera, y si no sacbamos todas la nota mxima todas recibamos la zapatilla de mi madre. +Mi padre me ense a caminar a los 5 aos colocando mis talones en sus pies y simplemente caminando. +Otra tctica que usaba era colgar un dlar en frente de m para que lo persiguiera. +La stripper que llevo dentro era muy fuerte y... +S. El primer da en el jardn de infantes caminaba como un campen de boxeo que ha recibido muchos golpes. +Al crecer, solo haba 6 rabes en mi ciudad y eran todos de la familia. +Ahora hay 20 rabes, y siguen siendo todos de la familia. Creo que nadie se dio cuenta de que no ramos italianos. +Esto fue antes del 11-S y de que los polticos pensaran apropiado usar "Odio a los musulmanes" como lema de campaa. +Las personas con las que crec no tenan problemas con mi fe. +No obstante, pareca preocuparles mucho que muriera de hambre durante el ramadn. +Yo les deca que tena suficiente grasa para vivir 3 meses enteros sin comer, as que ayunar del amanecer al atardecer es muy fcil. +Bail tap en Broadway. +S, en Broadway. Es loco. Mis padres no podan pagar la terapia fsica, por eso me mandaban a la escuela de danza. +Aprend a bailar con tacones, o sea que puedo caminar con tacones. +Soy de Nueva Jersey, y all queremos ser chic, as que si mis amigas usaban tacones, yo tambin. +Y cuando mis amigas iban a pasar las vacaciones de verano en la costa de Jersey, yo no iba. +Yo pasaba mis veranos en una zona de guerra, porque mis padres teman que si no volvamos a Palestina todos los veranos, nos convertiramos en Madonna. +En las vacaciones de verano a menudo mi padre trataba de sanarme, as que yo beba leche de ciervo, me ponan tazas calientes en la espalda, me sumerga en el Mar Muerto, y recuerdo que el agua me quemaba los ojos y pensaba: "Funciona, funciona!". +Pero la cura milagrosa fue el yoga. +Debo decir que es muy aburrido, pero antes de hacer yoga era una comediante de stand-up que no poda ponerse de pie [stand up]. +Y ahora puedo sostenerme en la cabeza. +Mis padres reforzaron esta idea de que poda hacer cualquier cosa, de que ningn sueo era imposible, y mi sueo era estar en la telenovela Hospital General. +Fui a la universidad mediante la discriminacin positiva y consegu una beca para la UEA, Universidad del Estado de Arizona, porque entraba en todos los cupos. +Era como el lmur mascota del departamento de teatro. +Todos me amaban. +Hice todas las tareas de los menos inteligentes, saqu la nota mxima en mis clases, y tambin en sus clases. +Cada vez que haca una escena de El zoo de cristal mis profesores lloraban. +Pero nunca consegu un papel. +Finalmente, en mi ltimo ao, la UEA decidi hacer una obra llamada Bailan muy lento en Jackson. +Es una obra de una chica con parlisis cerebral. +Yo era una chica con parlisis cerebral. +As que empec a gritar a los cuatro vientos: "Al fin tendr un papel! +Tengo parlisis cerebral! +Al fin libre! Al fin libre! +Gracias a Dios todopoderoso, al fin soy libre!". +No consegu el papel. Se lo dieron a Sherry Brown. +Fui a increpar corriendo a la directora del departamento de teatro, llorando histricamente, como si alguien hubiese matado a mi gato, a preguntarle por qu y ella me dijo que porque crean que no podra hacer las escenas de riesgo. +Y le dije: "Disculpe, si yo no puedo hacer las escenas de riesgo, tampoco puede el personaje". +Era un papel para el que literalmente haba nacido y se lo dieron a una actriz sin parlisis cerebral. +La universidad estaba imitando mi vida. +Hollywood tiene una srdida historia de audicionar actores sin discapacidad para papeles de discapacitados. +Al graduarme, regres a casa, y mi primera gira actoral fue como extra en una telenovela. +Mi sueo se hizo realidad. +Y saba que sera ascendida de "compaera" a "mejor amiga loca" en un santiamn. +En cambio, qued all como un jarrn, no se me vea ms que la nuca, y era evidente para m que los directores de reparto no contrataban actrices gorditas, no blancas, con discapacidad. +Solo contrataban a personas perfectas. +Pero haba excepciones a la regla. +Crec viendo a Whoopi Goldberg, Roseanne Barr, Ellen, y todas estas mujeres tenan una cosa en comn: eran comediantes. +Por eso me hice humorista. +En mi primer gira llev cmicos famosos de Nueva York a Nueva Jersey, y nunca olvidar la cara del primer cmico que llev cuando cay en la cuenta de que iba a alta velocidad por la autopista de Nueva Jersey con una conductora que tena parlisis cerebral. +Trabaj en clubes de todo EE. UU., y tambin en rabe en Oriente Prximo, sin censura y sin velo. +Algunas personas dicen que soy la primera monologuista del mundo rabe. +Nunca me gusta reclamar el primer lugar, pero s s que nunca oyeron ese pequeo rumor desagradable que dice que las mujeres no somos divertidas, y nos encuentran muy divertidas. +En 2003, mi hermano de otra madre y padre, Dean Obeidallah, y yo lanzamos el Festival de la Comedia anglo-rabe de Nueva York, ahora en su 10. ao. +Nuestro objetivo era cambiar la imagen negativa de los rabe-estadounidenses en los medios de comunicacin y a la vez recordarles a los directores de reparto que sudasitico y rabe no son sinnimos. +Integrar a los rabes fue mucho ms fcil que luchar contra el desafo del estigma de la discapacidad. +Mi gran oportunidad lleg en 2010. +Fui como invitada al programa de noticias por cable Cuenta atrs con Keith Olbermann. +Entr como si fuera a un baile de graduacin, me arrastraron a un estudio y me sentaron en una silla de ruedas. +Mir a la directora y le dije: "Disculpe, pueden darme otra silla?". +Ella me mir y dijo: "Cinco, cuatro, tres, dos...". +Y estbamos en vivo! +As que me aferr al escritorio del presentador para no salir rodando de la pantalla durante el segmento, y cuando termin la entrevista, estaba plida. +Al fin tuve mi oportunidad y la desaprovech. Saba que no volveran a invitarme. +Pero no solo el Sr. Olbermann volvi a invitarme, sino que qued como participante a tiempo completo y peg mi silla. +Algo divertido que aprend en directo con Keith Olbermann fue que las personas en Internet son escoria. +Se dice que los nios son crueles, pero nunca se burlaron de m ni de nia ni de mayor. +De repente, mi discapacidad en Internet se volvi objeto de burla. +Vea clips en lnea con comentarios como: "Por qu tiembla?", +"Es retrasada?". +Y mi favorito: "Pobre bufona terrorista. +Qu enfermedad tiene? +Realmente deberamos orar por ella". +Un comentarista sugiri incluso que agregara mi discapacidad a mi currculum: guionista, comediante, paraltica. +La discapacidad es tan visual como la raza. +Si alguien en silla de ruedas no puede hacer de Beyonc, entonces Beyonc no puede hacer de alguien en silla de ruedas. +Los discapacitados son la... S, aplaudan, hombre. Vamos. +Los discapacitados somos la minora ms grande del mundo, y los ms subrepresentados en el mundo del entretenimiento. +Los mdicos decan que no caminara, pero estoy aqu delante de Uds. +Sin embargo, de haber crecido con los medios de comunicacin, no creo que estuviera. +Espero que juntos podamos crear imgenes ms positivas de la discapacidad en los medios y en la vida cotidiana. +Quiz si hubiera ms imgenes positivas, eso fomentara menos odio en Internet. +O tal vez no. +Quiz an necesitemos a toda la sociedad para ensear bien a nuestros nios. +Mi tortuoso viaje me ha llevado a lugares muy espectaculares. +Llegu a camianar por la alfombra roja flanqueada por la diva de las telenovelas Susan Lucci y la clebre Lorraine Arbus. +Llegu a actuar en una pelcula con Adam Sandler y a trabajar con mi dolo, el increble Dave Matthews. +Recorr el mundo encabezando "Los rabes se han vuelto locos". +Fui delegada en representacin del gran estado de Nueva Jersey en la CND del 2008. +Y fund "Los nios de Maysoon", una organizacin benfica para dar a los nios refugiados palestinos una nfima parte de lo que mis padres me dieron. +Fue la nica vez que mi padre me vio actuar en vivo, y le dedico esta charla a su memoria. + [descansa en paz, pap] +Me llamo Maysoon Zayid, y si yo puedo, Uds. tambin pueden. +Me gustara contarles una historia sobre un nio de un pueblo pequeo. +No s su nombre, pero s s su historia. +Vive en un pequeo pueblo al Sur de Somala. +Este pueblo est cerca de Mogadishu. +La sequa impulsa al pequeo pueblo a la pobreza y al borde de la inanicin. +Sin nada para l all, se va a la gran ciudad, en este caso, Mogadishu, la capital de Somalia. +Cuando llega all, no hay oportunidades, no hay trabajo, ni perspectivas de futuro. +l acaba viviendo en una carpa en la ciudad a las afueras de Mogadishu. +Tras quiz un ao trascurrido, nada. +Un da se le acerca un seor que le ofrece llevarlo a almorzar, despus a cenar, a desayunar. +Conoce a un dinmico grupo de personas, que le da un descanso. +Recibe un poco de dinero para que se compre ropa nueva, dinero para enviar a casa, a su familia. +Le presentan a una joven. +Finalmente se casa. +Comienza una nueva vida. +Tiene un objetivo de vida. +Un hermoso da en Mogadishu, bajo un cielo azul, estalla un coche bomba. +Ese nio de aquel pequeo pueblo con sueos de la gran cuidad era el terrorista suicida, y ese grupo dinmico de personas eran al Shabaad, una organizacin terrorista conectada con al Qaeda. +Entonces, cmo la historia de un nio de un pequeo pueblo tratando de cumplir sus sueos en la ciudad termina con l inmolndose? +l estaba esperando. +Estaba esperando una oportunidad, esperando comenzar su futuro, esperando una perspectiva de futuro, y esto fue lo primero que le lleg. +Esto fue lo primero que lo sac de lo que llamamos "el periodo de espera". +Y su historia se repite en centros urbanos alrededor del mundo. +Es la historia de los marginados, jvenes urbanos desempleados que desencadenan disturbios en Johannesburgo, desencadenan disturbios en Londres, que buscan algo mas all del "periodo de espera". +Para los jvenes, la promesa de la ciudad, el gran sueo de la ciudad es el de la oportunidad, de trabajos, de bienestar, pero los jvenes no participan en la prosperidad de sus ciudades. +A menudo es la juventud la que sufre de las ms altas tasas de desempleo. +Para el 2030, tres de cada cinco personas que viven en las ciudades sern menores de 18 aos. +Si no incluimos a los jvenes en el crecimiento de nuestras ciudades, si no les brindamos oportunidades, la historia del "periodo de espera", la puerta de acceso al terrorismo, a la violencia, a las pandillas, ser la historia de las ciudades 2.0. +Y en mi ciudad de nacimiento, Mogadishu, el 70% de los jvenes est desempleado. +el 70% no trabaja, no va a la escuela. +No hacen prcticamente nada. +Volv a Mogadishu el mes pasado, y fui a visitar el Hospital Madina, el hospital donde nac. +Recuerdo estar ante ese hospital acribillado a balazos pensando: Y si nunca me hubiera ido? +Y si me hubiese visto forzado a estar en ese mismo "periodo de espera"? +Me habra convertido en terrorista? +No estoy realmente seguro de la respuesta. +La razn por la que estuve en Mogadishu ese mes era en realidad para albergar a unos lderes juveniles en una cumbre empresarial. +Reun a unos 90 lderes juveniles somales. +Nos sentamos y tuvimos una lluvia de ideas sobre las soluciones a los grandes desafos que enfrenta la ciudad. +Uno de los jvenes en la habitacin era Aden. +l fue a la Universidad de Mogadishu, se gradu. +No haba trabajo, ni oportunidades. +Recuerdo cuando l me dijo, que debido a que era un universitario graduado, desempleado, frustrado, era el blanco perfecto para Al Shabaab y otras organizaciones terroristas, para ser reclutado. +Buscaban gente como l. +Pero esta historia toma un camino diferente. +En Mogadishu, el mayor obstculo para llegar del punto A al B son las calles. +Veintitrs aos de guerra civil han destruido completamente el sistema vial, y una motocicleta puede ser la manera ms fcil de movilizarse. +Aden vio una oportunidad y la aprovech. +Comenz una empresa de motocicletas. +Comenz alquilando motocicletas a los residentes locales quienes normalmente no podan comprarlas. +Compr 10 motos, con la ayuda de su familia y amigos, y su sueo es en algn momento expandir a cientos de motos durante los prximos tres aos. +Por qu es diferente esta historia? +Qu hace a esta historia diferente? +Creo que su capacidad de identificar y aprovechar una nueva oportunidad. +Es el espritu empresarial, y creo que el espritu empresarial puede ser la herramienta ms poderosa contra el "periodo de espera". +Faculta a los jvenes a ser los creadores de las oportunidades econmicas que estn buscando tan desesperadamente. +Y Uds. pueden entrenar a los jvenes para ser emprendedores. +Quiero hablarles acerca de un hombre joven que asisti a una de mis reuniones, Mohamed Mohamoud, un florista. +Estaba ayudndome a entrenar a algunos de los jvenes en la cumbre de la iniciativa empresarial y cmo ser innovador y cmo crear una cultura de la iniciativa empresarial. +De hecho, es el primer florista que Mogadishu ha visto en ms de 22 aos, y hasta hace poco, hasta que Mohamed lleg, si queras flores para tu boda, utilizabas ramos de plstico enviados desde el extranjero. +Si le preguntabas a alguien, "Cundo fue la ltima vez que viste flores frescas?" +para aquellos que crecieron durante la guerra civil, la respuesta sera: "Nunca". +Entonces, Mohamed vio una oportunidad. +Comenz una empresa de paisajismo y diseo floral. +Cre una granja en las afueras de Mogadishu, y comenz a cultivar tulipanes y lirios, que segn dijo, podran sobrevivir el duro clima de Mogadishu. +Y comenz la entrega de flores para bodas, creando jardines en las casas, y las empresas de la ciudad, y ahora est trabajando en la creacin del primer parque pblico de Mogadishu en 22 aos. +No hay parques pblicos en Mogadishu. +Quiere crear un espacio donde las familias, los jvenes, pueden ir juntos, y, como l dice, oler las rosas proverbiales. +Por cierto, l no cultiva rosas porque utilizan mucha agua. +As que, el primer paso es inspirar a los jvenes, y en esa sala, la presencia de Mohamed tuvo un impacto realmente profundo en los jvenes. +Ellos nunca haban pensado en iniciar un negocio. +Haban pensado en trabajar para una ONG, trabajar para el gobierno, pero su historia, su innovacin, realmente tuvo un fuerte impacto sobre ellos. +Los oblig a mirar a su ciudad como un lugar de oportunidades. +Los alent a creer que podran ser empresarios, que podran ser artfices del cambio. +Para el final del da, ya tenan soluciones innovadoras para algunos de los mayores desafos que enfrenta la ciudad. +Idearon soluciones empresariales para problemas locales. +Entonces, inspirar a los jvenes y crear una cultura de espritu empresarial es realmente un gran paso, pero los jvenes necesitan capital para hacer sus ideas realidad. +Necesitan experiencia y orientacin para guiarlos en el desarrollo y puesta en marcha de sus negocios. +Conecten a los jvenes con los recursos que necesitan, brndenles el apoyo que necesitan para pasar de la concepcin a la creacin, y crearn catalizadores para el crecimiento urbano. +Para m, el espritu empresarial es algo ms que comenzar un negocio. +Es crear un impacto social. +Mohamed no est simplemente vendiendo flores. +Creo que est vendiendo esperanza. +Su Parque de la Paz, as es cmo lo llama, cuando est creado, transformar la manera en que la gente ve su ciudad. +Aden contrat nios de la calle para ayudar a alquilar y a mantener las motos para l. +Les dio la oportunidad de escapar de la parlisis del "periodo de espera". +Estos jvenes empresarios estn teniendo un tremendo impacto en sus ciudades. +As que mi sugerencia es: conviertan a los jvenes en empresarios, incuben y alimenten su innovacin inherente, y tendrn ms historias sobre flores y Parques de la Paz que autos-bomba y "periodos de espera". +Gracias. +Tena unos diez aos y fui a acampar con mi pap en las montaas Adirondack, un rea agreste al norte del estado de Nueva York. +Era un da hermoso. +El bosque centelleaba. +El sol haca que las hojas brillaran como un vitral, y de no ser por el camino que seguamos, casi podamos fingir que ramos los primeros seres humanos en pisar esa tierra. +Llegamos a nuestro campamento. +Era un cobertizo en un risco con vista a un hermoso lago cristalino cuando descubr algo horrible. +Detrs del cobertizo haba un basurero, de unos 4 metros cuadrados con corazones de manzana podridos bolas de papel aluminio, y calzado viejo. +Y estaba anonadada, estaba muy enojada e increblemente confundida. +Los campistas que eran demasiado perezosos como para sacar lo que haban trado, quin pensaban que iba a limpiar su basura? +Esa pregunta sigui conmigo, y se simplific un poco. +Quin limpia nuestra basura? +Sin importar como organicen o dnde coloquen la "nuestra", quin limpia nuestra basura en Estambul? +Quin limpia nuestra basura en Ro o en Pars o en Londres? +Aqu en Nueva York, el Departamento de Sanidad limpia nuestra basura, a razn de 11 000 toneladas de desperdicios y 2 000 toneladas de productos reciclables todos los das. +Quera conocerlos como individuos. +Quera entender quin hace ese trabajo. +Qu se siente usar el uniforme y llevar esa carga? +As que comenc un proyecto de investigacin con ellos. +Viaj en los camiones y camin por sus trayectos y entrevist a personas en oficinas e instalaciones en toda la ciudad, y aprend mucho, pero todava era una intrusa. +Necesitaba adentrarme ms. +As que comenc a trabajar como recolectora de basura. +Ahora no simplemente viajaba en los camiones. Yo los conduca. +Y operaba las escobas mecnicas y barra la nieve. +Fue un notable privilegio y un asombroso aprendizaje. +Todos preguntan sobre el olor. +Est all, pero no es tan predominante como creen, y en los das en que es muy fuerte uno se acostumbra rpidamente. +Cuesta mucho acostumbrarse al peso. +Conoc personas que haban trabajado en ello por varios aos y sus cuerpos seguan ajustndose al peso de llevar sobre su cuerpo toneladas de basura todas las semanas. +Tambin est el peligro. +De acuerdo con la Oficina de Estadsticas Laborales, la recoleccin de residuos es una de las diez ocupaciones ms peligrosas del pas, y yo aprend la razn. +Ests saliendo y entrando en el trfico todo el da y pasan zumbando a tu alrededor. +Solo quieren pasarte, as que en general el conductor no est prestando atencin. +Eso es muy malo para el trabajador. +Y tambin la basura en s est llena de peligros que a menudo se caen del camin y provocan daos terribles. +Tambin aprend sobre lo implacable de la basura. +Cuando te sales de la cuneta y ves una ciudad desde la parte trasera del camin, logras entender que la basura es como una fuerza de la naturaleza en s. +Nunca deja de venir. +Tambin es como una forma de respiracin o circulacin. +Siempre debe estar en movimiento. +Y tambin est el estigma. +Me parece que el estigma es especialmente irnico porque creo fuertemente que los recolectores de residuos son la mano de obra ms importante en las calles de la ciudad, por tres razones. +Son los primeros protectores de la salud pblica. +Si no se deshacen de los desperdicios de forma eficiente y efectiva cada da, esta comienza a desbordarse de sus contenedores y sus peligros inherentes nos amenazan en formas muy reales. +Enfermedades que habamos controlado por dcadas y siglos vuelven a brotar y comienzan a daarnos. +La economa los necesita. +Si no podemos deshacernos de lo viejo no tenemos espacio para lo nuevo por lo que los motores de la economa comienzan a fallar cuando est en peligro el consumo. +No estoy abogando por el capitalismo, solo sealo su relacin. +Y luego est lo que yo llamo nuestra velocidad promedio diaria necesaria. +Con ello me refiero simplemente a la velocidad a la que acostumbramos movernos en la poca contempornea. +Usualmente no nos preocupamos, ni reparamos, limpiamos o llevamos con nosotros nuestra taza de caf, nuestra bolsa de los mandados, nuestra botella de agua. +Las usamos, las tiramos, nos olvidamos de ellas, porque sabemos que hay una fuerza de trabajo en el otro lado que se encargar de ello. +As que hoy quiero sugerirles un par de formas de pensar sobre la recoleccin de residuos que tal vez ayuden a reducir el estigma e incluirlos en esa conversacin sobre cmo disear una ciudad sustentable y humana. +Su trabajo, creo, es casi litrgico. +Estn en la calle todos los das, de forma rtmica. +Usan un uniforme en muchas ciudades. +Sabes cundo esperarlos. +Y su trabajo nos permite hacer el nuestro. +Son casi una forma de alivio. +El flujo que mantienen nos deja a salvo de nosotros mismos, de nuestros propios desperdicios, nuestros deshechos, y ese flujo siempre debe mantenerse de una forma u otra. +Un da despus del 11 de septiembre del 2001, Escuch el gruido de un camin de recoleccin de residuos en la calle, agarr a mi hijo pequeo y baj las escaleras corriendo, y haba un hombre haciendo su trayecto de reciclado de papel como lo haca todos los mircoles. +E intent agradecerle por hacer su trabajo ese da en particular, pero comenc a llorar. +Y me mir y simplemente asinti, y dijo: "Vamos a estar bien. +Vamos a estar bien". +Poco despus de eso comenc a investigar la recoleccin de residuos y volv a ver a ese hombre. +Se llama Paulie, trabajamos juntos muchas veces y nos hicimos buenos amigos. +Quiero creer que Paulie tena razn. +Vamos a estar bien. +Pero en nuestros esfuerzos por reconfigurar la forma en que existimos en este planeta como especie debemos incluir y tener en cuenta todos los costos, incluso el costo humano muy real de la mano de obra. +Los residuos municipales, lo que pensamos cuando hablamos de basura, representan el 3% de la cantidad de residuos de la nacin. +Es una estadstica notable. +As que en el flujo de sus das y de sus vidas, la prximas que vean a alguien cuyo trabajo es limpiar la basura de Uds., tmense un momento para reconocerlos. +Tmense un momento para decirles gracias. +Mi obra se centra en la conexin de pensar en nuestra vida comunitaria formando parte del medio ambiente donde la arquitectura nace naturalmente de las condiciones y tradiciones locales. +Hoy traje dos proyectos recientes como ejemplo de esto. +Ambos proyectos estn situados en pases emergentes, uno en Etiopa y el otro en Tnez. +Adems comparten el hecho de que los diferentes anlisis desde diferentes perspectivas se convierten en una parte esencial de la obra final de arquitectura. +El primer ejemplo comenz con una invitacin para disear un centro comercial de varios pisos en la capital de Etiopa, Addis Abeba. +Este es el tipo de construccin que nos mostraron como ejemplo, a mi equipo y a m, sobre lo que tenamos que disear. +Al principio, lo primero que pens fue: "Quiero salir corriendo". +Despus de ver algunos de estos edificios hay muchos en la ciudad nos dimos cuenta de que hay tres aspectos importantes para resaltar. +En principio, estos edificios estn casi vacos porque tienen tiendas muy grandes en las que la gente no puede darse el lujo de comprar cosas. +Segundo, se necesita emplear mucha energa debido a que el revestimiento con cristales genera calor en el interior, as que es necesario mucho enfriamiento. +En una ciudad en la que esto no debera ocurrir porque se trata de un clima templado que va de 20 a 25 grados durante todo el ao. +Y en tercer lugar, su aspecto no tiene nada que ver con frica ni con Etiopa. +Es una pena tratndose de un lugar tan rico en cultura y tradiciones. +En nuestra primera visita a Etiopa, qued realmente cautivado con el antiguo mercado que es esta estructura al aire libre donde miles de personas, van y compran cosas todos los das a pequeos vendedores. +Ah tambin est esa idea de usar el espacio pblico para generar actividad externa. +Entonces pens, que eso era lo que realmente quera disear, no un centro comercial. +Pero la cuestin era cmo construir un moderno edificio, de varios pisos, aplicando estos principios. +El siguiente reto se present al inspeccionar el sitio, que est ubicado en una zona de mucho crecimiento de la ciudad, donde gran parte de los edificios que ahora vemos en la imagen, no existan. +Y adems est entre dos calles paralelas que no se comunican en una extensin de cientos de metros. +As que lo primero que hicimos fue crear una conexin entre estas dos calles, uniendo todas las entradas del edificio. +Y esto se extiende con un atrio inclinado que crea un espacio al aire libre en el edificio que se autoprotege, por su propia forma, del sol y la lluvia. +Y alrededor de este espacio hemos aplicado la idea del mercado con pequeos negocios, que cambia en cada piso debido a la forma del espacio. +Tambin pens, cmo cerrar el edificio? +Quera encontrar una solucin que respondiera a las condiciones climticas locales. +Y me puse a pensar en un tejido similar a una caparazn de hormign con perforaciones para permitir la entrada del aire, y tambin de la luz, pero de una manera filtrada. +Luego nos inspiramos en estos hermosos botones de los vestidos de las etopes. +Tienen propiedades de la geometra fractal y esto me ayud a modelar la fachada. +Estamos construyendo eso con estas pequeas piezas prefabricadas que son las ventanas que dejan pasar el aire y la luz de una manera controlada al interior del edificio. +Esto se complementa con estos pequeos cristales de colores que utilizan la luz del interior del edificio para iluminar el edificio por la noche. +Con estas ideas no result fcil convencer a los desarrolladores porque pensaban, "Ese no es un centro comercial. No fue lo que pedimos". +Pero en definitiva todos nos dimos cuenta de que esta idea del mercado resultaba ser mucho ms rentable que la del centro comercial porque a fin de cuentas haba ms locales para vender. +Y adems la idea de la fachada era muchsimo ms econmica, no solo debido al material en comparacin con el vidrio, sino tambin porque ya no era necesario tener aire acondicionado. +As conseguimos ciertos ahorros en el presupuesto que usamos para implementar el proyecto. +Lo primero fue pensar en cmo lograr el autoabastecimiento de energa para el edificio en una ciudad en la que la electricidad se corta casi todos los das. +As que conseguimos una gran ventaja colocando fotovoltaicas en el techo. +Y luego bajo esos paneles pensamos en el techo como un nuevo espacio pblico con reas de reunin y barras que crearan este oasis urbano. +Y estos porches en el techo, que en conjunto recogen agua para los sanitarios del interior. +Se espera para principios del prximo ao, ya que vamos por el quinto piso de la construccin. +El segundo ejemplo es un plan maestro de 2000 apartamentos y servicios en la ciudad de Tnez. +Y para realizar un proyecto tan grande, el ms grande que yo haya diseado, necesitaba no solo comprender a la ciudad de Tnez, sino tambin a su entorno, su tradicin y la cultura. +Durante ese anlisis puse especial atencin en la medina, una estructura de 1000 aos de antigedad que estuvo rodeada por un muro con doce puertas de acceso conectadas por lneas casi rectas. +Cuando fui al lugar, la primera operacin de diseo que hicimos fue ampliar las calles existentes, creando 12 bloques iniciales similares en tamao y caractersticas a los que hay en Barcelona y otras ciudades de Europa con estos patios. +Adems de eso, seleccionamos algunos puntos estratgicos en relacin con la idea de las puertas interconectadas con lneas rectas, y esto modific el modelo inicial. +Y la ltima operacin fue pensar en la clula, la pequea clula del proyecto, como el apartamento, como una parte esencial del plan maestro. +Pens, cul sera la mejor orientacin para un apartamento en el clima mediterrneo? +Y es norte-sur, ya que crea una diferencia trmica entre ambos lados de la casa y por lo tanto una ventilacin natural. +As que superpusimos un esquema que asegura que la mayora de los apartamentos estn perfectamente orientados en esa direccin. +Y este es el resultado que es casi como una combinacin del bloque europeo y la ciudad rabe. +Tiene estos bloques con patios, y luego en la planta baja tenemos todas las conexiones para los peatones. +Y tambin responde a las normas locales que establecen una mayor densidad en los niveles superiores y una densidad menor en la planta baja. +Y tambin refuerza esta idea de las puertas. +El techo, que es mi espacio favorito del proyecto es casi como retribuir a la comunidad el espacio ocupado por la construccin. +Es donde todos los vecinos, pueden subir y socializar, y hacer actividades tales como correr una carrera de dos kilmetros por la maana, o saltar de un edificio a otro. +Estos dos ejemplos, tienen un enfoque comn en el proceso de diseo. +Y adems, estn en pases emergentes, donde se puede ver a las ciudades literalmente creciendo. +En estas ciudades, el impacto de la arquitectura en la vida de la gente cambia a las comunidades y economas locales al mismo ritmo que crecen los edificios. +Por esta razn, veo an ms importante mirar a la arquitectura buscando soluciones simples pero asequibles, que mejoran la relacin entre la comunidad y el medio ambiente y que tienen como objetivo conectar la naturaleza con la gente. +Muchas gracias. +Cuando tena 8 aos, una nueva nia ingres a nuestra clase. Era tan notable, como se ven todas las nueva chicas. +Tena grandes cantidades de pelo muy brillante y un pequeo estuche de lpices, lindo. Era super fuerte para las capitales de los estados, muy buena para ortografa. +Termin ese ao y yo estaba llena de celos, hasta que tram mi siniestro plan. +Un da me qued un tiempo despus de la salida de la escuela. Era un poco tarde y me escond en el bao de las chicas. +Cuando la costa estaba despejada, sal, entr en el saln de clases, tom de la mesa de mi maestra el libro de calificaciones. +Y luego, lo hice. +Alter las calificaciones de mi rival, slo un poco, slo algunas As. +Todas las As. Y me dispuse a devolver el libro al cajn. Pero, a ver, algunos de mis otros compaeros tenan muy buenas notas tambin. +As, en un frenes, correg las notas de todo el mundo, sin ninguna imaginacin. +Les puse a todos filas de Ds y a m misma una fila de As, slo por estar all, Ya que poda... +Todava me sorprende lo que hice. +No entiendo cmo surgi la idea. +No entiendo por qu me sent bien hacindolo. +Me sent importante. +No entiendo por qu nunca me atraparon. +Es que todo era descaradamente obvio +Nunca me descubrieron. +Pero sobre todo, me desconcierta la razn por la que me molestaba que esta niita, tan pequea, fuera tan buena para ortografa. +Me intrigan los celos. +Son tan misteriosos y tan penetrantes. +Sabemos que los bebs sufren de celos. +Tambin los primates. Los pjaros azulejos son muy propensos. +Sabemos que los celos son la causa nmero uno de asesinatos de cnyuges en los EE.UU. +Y, sin embargo, nunca he visto un estudio que analice la soledad, o la larga duracin o la tristeza. +Por eso, hay que ir a la ficcin, porque las novelas son como el laboratorio en que se estudian los celos en todas sus posibles formas. +De hecho, no s si es una exageracin decir que si no hubiera celos, ho habra tampoco literatura. +Pues no habra Helena la infiel, ni habra "Odisea". +No habra rey celoso, ni "Las mil y una noches". +No habra Shakespeare. +Desapareceran las listas de lecturas de la escuela secundaria, porque estaramos perdiendo "El Ruido y la Furia", no habra "Gatsby" ni "Fiesta". Nos perderamos de "Madame Bovary" y "Anna K." +Sin celos, no hay Proust. S que est de moda decir que Proust tiene las respuestas para todo, y, en cuanto a los celos, casi que las tiene todas. +Este ao se cumplen 100 aos de su obra maestra, "En busca del tiempo perdido", el estudio ms exhaustivo de los celos sexuales y tambin de la competitividad ordinaria, lo mo, todo lo que podramos tener. Y pensando en Proust, tenemos los detalles sentimentales, verdad? +Pensamos en un nio tratando de conciliar el sueo. +Pensamos en una magdalena humedecida en t de lavanda. +Nos olvidamos de lo dura que es esa imagen. +Nos olvidamos de lo implacable que es. +Es decir, se trata de libros que Virginia Woolf dijo eran tan duros como tripa de gato. +No s cmo es la tripa de gato, pero suponemos que es superfuerte. +Veamos por qu van tan bien juntos, la novela y los celos; los celos y Proust. +Ser muy obvio como que los celos, que se reducen a la persona, a su deseo, a sus impedimentos, son una base narrativa bien slida? +No s. Creo que llegamos muy cerca del hueso, cuando pensamos en lo que sucede cuando sentimos celos. +Cuando sentimos celos, nos contamos a nosotros mismos una historia. +Una historia sobre la vida de otras personas, y esas historias nos hacen sentir terrible porque estn diseadas para eso, para hacernos sentir mal. +Siendo a la vez narradores y audiencia, sabemos exactamente qu detalles incluir, para clavar el cuchillo, no? +Los celos nos hacen a todos novelistas aficionados, y eso es algo que Proust entenda. +Todo lo que ella hace para darme placer podra darle placer a otro, tal vez ahora mismo". +Y empieza a decirse a s mismo esa historia, y desde entonces, Proust dice que cada encanto fresco que Swann detecta en su amante, lo aade a su coleccin de instrumentos de tortura en su cmara privada. +Hay que admitir que Swann y Proust, eran notoriamente celosos. +Ya saben, los novios de Proust tendran que abandonar el pas, si queran romper con l. +Pero no tienes que ser tan celoso para reconocer que es un trabajo duro. Cierto? +Los celos son agotadores. +Es una emocin hambrienta. Hay que alimentarla. +Y cmo son los celos? +Los celos se nutren de la informacin. +Los celos usan los detalles. +A los celos les gustan las grandes cantidades de pelo brillante y el lindo y pequeo estuche de lpices. +Los celos se nutren de las fotos. +Es por eso que Instagram es tan exitoso. Proust enlaza bien el lenguaje acadmcio con el de los celos. +Cuando Swann est en su agona de celos, de pronto escucha detrs de las puertas y soborna a los sirvientes de su amante, entonces defiende esos comportamientos. +l dice: "Miren, s que Uds. piensan que esto es repugnante, pero no es diferente a la interpretacin de un texto antiguo o a mirar un monumento". +l dice: "Son investigaciones cientficas con verdadero valor intelectual". +Proust est tratando de demostrar que los celos se ven intolerables y nos hacen parecer absurdos, pero, en su meollo, son bsqueda de conocimiento, bsqueda de la verdad, una verdad dolorosa. De hecho, a lo que a Proust concierne, cuanto ms dolorosa la verdad, mejor. +El dolor, la humillacin, la prdida: Estas eran las vas hacia la sabidura de Proust. +l dice: "Una mujer a quien necesitamos, que nos hace sufrir, provoca en nosotros una gama de sentimientos mucho ms profundos y vitales que un hombre sabio que nos pueda interesar". +Nos est diciendo que vayamos a buscar mujeres crueles? +No. Creo que est tratando de decir que los celos nos revelan a nosotros mismos. +Y existe alguna otra emocin que nos haga abrirnos de esta manera tan particular? +Hay alguna otra emocin nos revele nuestra agresividad, nuestra horrible ambicin y nuestros derechos? +Alguna otra emocin que nos ensee a mirar con intensidad tan peculiar? +Freud escribira sobre esto ms adelante. +Un da, Freud fue visitado por un joven muy inquieto que se consuma con la idea de que su mujer lo engaaba. +Y Freud dice que haba algo extrao en ese hombre, que no se fijaba en lo que haca su esposa. +Pues ella era inocente; todo el mundo lo saba. +La pobre criatura estaba bajo sospecha sin ninguna causa. +Pero l buscaba cosas que haca su esposa, sin darse cuenta, comportamientos involuntarios. +Sonrea demasiado? o acaso accidentalmente se roz con un hombre? +Freud dice que el hombre se estaba convirtiendo en el custodio del inconsciente de su esposa. +Las novelas son muy buenas en esto. +Las novelas describen muy bien cmo los celos nos hacen a mirar con intensidad pero sin precisin. +De hecho, cuanto ms intensamente celosos somos, ms nos convertimos en residentes de la fantasa. +Y por esta razn, creo, los celos nos llevan a hacer actos violentos o ilegales. +Los celos nos impulsan a comportarnos de maneras totalmente inimaginadas. +Ahora estoy pensando en m caso a los 8 aos, lo reconozco. Pero tambin estoy pensando en esta historia que escuch en las noticias. +Una mujer de Michigan de 52 aos de edad fue capturada por haber creado una cuenta falsa en Facebook desde la que se enviaba mensajes viles, horribles a s misma, durante un ao. +Durante un ao. Todo un ao. +Ella estaba tratando de inculpar a la nueva novia de su ex novio. Tengo que confesar que cuando o esto, reaccion con admiracin. +Porque, seamos realistas. +Qu enorme, aunque desafortunada, creatividad. Cierto? +Es como de novela. +Como de una novela de Patricia Highsmith. +Highsmith es una de mis favoritas. +Ella es un personaje muy extrao y brillante de la literatura estadounidense. +Es la autora de "Extraos en un Tren" y "El Talentoso Sr. Ripley", libros que tratan de cmo los celos, confunden nuestras mentes, y una vez que estamos en la esfera, en el reino de los celos, la membrana que separa lo que es de lo que podra ser, puede ser perforada en un instante. +Tomemos a Tom Ripley, su personaje ms famoso. +Tom Ripley va de quererte o querer lo que tienes a apropiarse de tu ser y a posesionarse de lo que alguna vez tuviste, y est bajo el piso. Responde a tu nombre, lleva tus anillos, vaca tus cuentas bancarias. +Es una manera. +Pero qu hacemos? No podemos tomar la ruta de Tom Ripley. +No te puedo dar Ds a todo el mundo, tanto como a veces quisiera. +Es una lstima, porque vivimos en tiempos de envidia. +Vivimos en tiempos de celos. +Es decir, somos buenos ciudadanos de las redes sociales, dnde la moneda es la envidia? verdad? +Las novelas nos muestran la salida? No estoy segura. +As que vamos a hacer lo que los personajes siempre hacen cuando no estn seguros, cuando estn ante un misterio. +Vayamos al 221B de Baker Street y preguntemos por Sherlock Holmes. +Cuando la gente piensa en Holmes, piensa en la maldicin encarnada en el Profesor Moriarty, ese genio criminal. +Pero siempre he preferido [al Inspector] Lestrade, el jefe cara de rata de Scotland Yard que necesita a Holmes desesperadamente, necesita el genio de Holmes, pero le molesta. +Ay, me suena tan familiar... +Lestrade necesita su ayuda, pero lo resiente, y burbujea con amargura en el cada uno de los misterios. +Pero como trabajan juntos, algo empieza a cambiar, y finalmente en "La Aventura de los Seis Napoleones", una vez que Holmes entra, deslumbra a todos con su solucin, Lestrade vuelve a Holmes y dice: "No estamos celosos, seor Holmes. +Estamos orgullosos de usted". +Y le dice que no hay una persona en Scotland Yard que no quisiera estrecharle la mano. +Es una de las pocas veces que vemos a Holmes trasladado en la historia. Me parece esto muy emotivo. Esa escena tambin es misteriosa, verdad? +Parece tratar los celos como un problema de geometra, sin emocin. +Ya saben, en un minuto Holmes est del lado opuesto de Lestrade. +Al minuto siguiente estn del mismo lado. +De repente, Lestrade se permite admirar esa idea de ser l el resentido. +Podra an ser tan simple? +Qu pasa si los celos son realmente un asunto de geometra, slo una cuestin de dnde nos permitimos estar en relacin con el otro? +Bueno, tal vez no tengamos que resentirnos de la excelencia del otro. +Podemos alinearnos con ella. +Pero me gustan los planes de contingencia. +As que mientras esperamos a que eso pase, recordemos que tenemos la ficcin para consolarnos. +Solo la ficcin desmistifica los celos. +La ficcin sola los domestica, los invita a la mesa. +Y miren lo que agrupa: el dulce Lestrade, el aterrador Tom Ripley, el loco Swann, el mismsimo Marcel Proust. +Estamos en excelente compaa. +Gracias. +Solamos resolver grandes problemas. +El 21 de julio de 1969, Buzz Aldrin salt fuera del mdulo lunar del Apolo 11 y descendi sobre el Mar de la Tranquilidad. +Armstrong y Aldrin estaban solos, pero su presencia en la gris superficie lunar fue la culminacin de un proceso colectivo convulso. +El programa Apolo fue la mayor movilizacin en tiempos de paz en la historia de EE.UU. +Para llegar a la Luna, la NASA gast unos 180 mil millones de dlares de hoy da, o el 4% del presupuesto federal. +El Apolo dio trabajo a unas 400.000 personas y pidi la colaboracin de 20.000 empresas, universidades y agencias del gobierno. +Murieron personas, incluyendo la tripulacin del Apolo 1. +Pero antes de que el programa Apolo finalizase, 24 hombres viajaron a la Luna. +Doce caminaron sobre su superficie, de los cuales Aldrin tras la muerte de Armstrong el pasado ao, es ahora el ms anciano. +As que, por qu fueron? +No trajeron mucho de vuelta: 381 kilos de viejas rocas, y algo que los 24 enfatizaran despus, un nuevo sentido de la pequeez y la fragilidad de nuestro hogar comn. +Por qu fueron? La respuesta cnica es que fueron porque el presidente Kennedy quera demostrar a los soviticos, que esta nacin tena mejores cohetes. +Pero las propias palabras de Kennedy en la Universidad de Rice en 1962 nos dan una idea mejor. +John F. Kennedy: Algunos preguntan, por qu la Luna? +Por qu convertirla en nuestro objetivo? +Y tambin podran preguntar, por qu escalar la montaa ms alta? +Hace 35 aos, por qu volar sobre el Atlntico? +Por qu juega Rice contra Texas? +Elegimos ir a la Luna. +Elegimos ir a la Luna. +Elegimos ir a la Luna en esta dcada, y hacer otras cosas, no porque sean sencillas, sino porque son difciles. +Jason Pontin: Para los contemporneos, el Apolo no era solo una victoria del Oeste sobre el Este en la Guerra Fra. +En la poca, la emocin ms fuerte fue la de maravillarse ante la trascendencia de los poderes de la tecnologa. +Fueron porque era algo grandioso poder hacerlo. +El aterrizaje en la Luna ocurri en un contexto de una larga lista de triunfos tecnolgicos. +La primera mitad del siglo XX produjo la lnea de ensamblaje y el avin, la penicilina y la vacuna para la tuberculosis. +En la mitad del siglo, se erradic la poliomielitis y se elimin la viruela. +La tecnologa pareca poseer lo que Alvin Toffler en 1970 llam "fuerza acelerativa". +Durante la mayor parte de la historia de la humanidad, no podamos ir ms rpido que un caballo, o un barco con vela, pero en 1969, la tripulacin del Apolo 10 vol a 40.000 km / hora. +Desde 1970, ningn ser humano ha vuelto a la Luna. +Nadie ha viajado ms rpido que la tripulacin del Apolo 10, y el alegre optimismo sobre el poder de la tecnologa se ha evaporado al ver que problemas que imaginamos que la tecnologa resolvera como ir a Marte, crear una energa limpia, curar el cncer, o alimentar a la poblacin mundial parecen haber resultado intratables. +Recuerdo ver el despegue del Apolo 17. +Tena 5 aos, y mi madre me dijo que no mirase al tubo de escape llameante del cohete Saturno V. +Saba vagamente que esta sera la ltima misin lunar, pero estaba completamente seguro de que yo llegara a ver las colonias en Marte. +As que eso de "Algo le ocurri a nuestra capacidad para resolver problemas con la tecnologa" se ha convertido en un lugar comn. +Lo omos todo el tiempo. +Lo hemos odo durante los dos ltimos das aqu, en TED. +Parece como si los tecnlogos nos hubiesen distrado y se hubiesen enriquecido con juguetes triviales, cosas como iPhones, aplicaciones y redes sociales, o algoritmos que aceleran la venta automatizada. +No hay nada malo en la mayora de estas cosas. +Han ampliado y enriquecido nuestras vidas. +Pero no solucionan los grandes problemas de la humanidad. +Qu ocurri? +Hay una explicacin parroquial en Silicon Valley, que confiesa que se han creado empresas menos ambiciosas que aqullas de los aos en que se financiaban Intel, Microsoft, Apple y Genetech. +Silicon Valley dice que los mercados son los culpables, en concreto, los incentivos que los capitalistas de riesgo ofrecen a los empresarios. +Silicon Valley dice que la inversin de riesgo provoc que se cambiase la creacin de ideas transformacionales por la financiacin de problemas incrementales o incluso falsos problemas. +Pero no creo que esta explicacin sea suficientemente buena. +Explica mayormente lo que va mal en SIlicon Valley. +Incluso cuando los capitalistas de riesgo estaban en su punto lgido sin preocuparse por el riesgo, preferan pequeas inversiones, inversiones minsculas de las que pudiesen salir en 10 aos. +Los C.R. siempre han tenido problemas para invertir con beneficio en tecnologas como energa, que necesitan un capital enorme y cuyo desarrollo es a largo plazo. Tampoco han invertido nunca en el desarrollo de tecnologas destinadas a resolver grandes problemas porque no tienen un valor comercial inmediato. +No, las razones por las que no podemos resolver los grandes problemas son ms complicadas y profundas. +A veces, elegimos no solucionar los grandes problemas. +Podramos ir a Marte si quisiramos. +La NASA incluso ha diseado un plan. +Pero ir a Marte requerira una decisin poltica que fuese popular, y eso nunca ocurrir. +No iremos a Marte porque todo el mundo piensa que hay cosas ms importantes que hacer en la Tierra. +A veces, no podemos solucionar los grandes problemas porque los sistemas polticos fallan. +Hoy, menos del 2 % del consumo mundial de energa procede de fuentes de energa renovables como la solar, la elica y el biocarburante. Menos del 2 %, y la razn es completamente econmica. +El carbn y el gas natural son ms baratos que la energa solar y elica, y el petrleo es ms barato que el biocarburante. +Queremos fuentes de energa alternativas que puedan competir en precio. No existen. +Ahora, los tecnlogos, los empresarios y los economistas estn de acuerdo sobre qu polticas y tratados internacionales incentivaran el desarrollo de una energa alternativa: mayormente, un aumento significativo en la investigacin y desarrollo de energa, y algn tipo de control del precio del carbn. +Pero no existe esperanza en el clima poltico actual de que veremos una poltica energtica de EE.UU o tratados internacionales que reflejen ese consenso. +A veces, los grandes problemas que parecan tecnolgicos, resultan no serlo. +Sabemos desde hace tiempo que las hambrunas son resultado del fracaso en el reparto de alimentos. +Pero 30 aos de investigacin nos han enseado que las hambrunas son crisis polticas que afectan catastrficamente la distribucin de comida. +La tecnologa puede mejorar cosas como las cosechas o los sistemas para el almacenaje y reparto de alimentos, pero habr hambrunas mientras existan malos gobiernos. +Por ltimo, los grandes problemas a veces eluden una solucin porque no entendemos el problema realmente. +El presidente Nixon le declar la guerra al cncer en 1971, pero pronto descubrimos que hay muchos tipos de cncer, algunos terriblemente resistentes al tratamiento, y solo en los ltimos 10 aos parecen haberse encontrado tratamientos efectivos y viables. +Los problemas difciles son difciles. +No es cierto que no podamos resolver los problemas con tecnologa. +Podemos y debemos, pero estos cuatro elementos han de estar presentes: Los lderes polticos y la poblacin deben querer solucionar el problema; las instituciones deben apoyar la solucin; debe tratarse realmente de un problema tecnolgico; y debemos comprenderlo. +La misin Apolo, que se ha convertido en algo as como una metfora para la capacidad de la tecnologa para resolver grandes problemas, cumple con esos criterios. +Pero es un modelo irreproducible en el futuro. +No estamos en 1961. +No hay una competencia galvanizante como en la Guerra Fra, no hay un poltico como John Kennedy que heroce lo difcil y lo peligroso, y no hay una mitologa popular de ciencia ficcin como la de explorar el sistema solar. +En general, ir a la Luna result ser sencillo. +Estaba a solo tres das. +Y realmente, ni siquiera estaba solucionando ningn problema. +Estamos solos en nuestro presente, y las soluciones del futuro sern ms difciles de conseguir. +Dios sabe que no nos faltan los retos. +Muchas gracias. +Bien, voy a hablar sobre la confianza, y voy a comenzar recordndoles las ideas generalizadas que se tienen sobre la confianza. +Son tan comunes que se han convertido en clichs de nuestra sociedad. +Creo que son tres. +La primera es un reclamo: ha habido una gran disminucin de la confianza, es una creencia muy generalizada. +La segunda es un objetivo: deberamos tener ms confianza. +Y la tercera es una tarea: deberamos recuperar la confianza. +Creo que el reclamo, el objetivo y la tarea se han mal interpretado. +Lo que voy a intentar contarles hoy es una historia diferente sobre un reclamo, un objetivo y una tarea, que creo que da una idea ms clara sobre el tema. +Primero el reclamo: por qu la gente piensa que la confianza ha disminuido? +Y si lo pienso sobre la base de mis propias evidencias, no s la respuesta. +Me inclino a pensar que puede haber disminuido en algunas actividades o instituciones y que podra haber aumentado en otras. +No lo tengo claro. +Pero puedo recurrir a las encuestas de opinin, y las encuestas de opinin son supuestamente la fuente de la creencia de que la confianza ha disminuido. +Cuando miras las encuestas de opinin a lo largo del tiempo, no hay muchas evidencias de ello. +Es decir, las personas de las que se desconfiaba hace 20 aos, principalmente periodistas y polticos, siguen inspirando la misma desconfianza. +Y las personas que eran muy confiables hace 20 aos siguen siendo bastante confiables: jueces, enfermeras. +El resto estamos en el medio, y, por cierto, el ciudadano promedio de la calle est casi exactamente a mitad de camino. +Pero es esto evidencia suficiente? +Lo que las encuestas de opinin registran son, por supuesto, opiniones. +Qu ms pueden registrar? +Lo que observan son las actitudes genricas que la gente manifiesta cuando se le hacen ciertas preguntas. +Confa en los polticos? Confa en los maestros? +Ahora, si alguien te preguntara: "Confas en los verduleros? +Confas en las pescadores? +Confas en los maestros de primaria?", +probablemente comenzaras por preguntar: "Para hacer qu?" +Y esa sera una respuesta muy sensata. +Y podras decir, cuando hayan contestado tu pregunta, "Bueno, confo en algunos, pero en otros no". +Lo que es muy racional. +En definitiva, en la vida real, tendemos a depositar la confianza de forma diferenciada. +No suponemos que el nivel de confianza que vamos a sentir por un tipo determinado de oficial, funcionario o tipo de persona, va a ser uniforme en todos los casos. +Yo podra, por ejemplo, decir que confo en una cierta maestra de primaria que conozco para dar la clase de lectura, pero de ninguna manera para conducir el microbs escolar. +Despus de todo, yo podra saber que no era una buena conductora. +Podra confiar en mi amigo ms locuaz para mantener una conversacin, pero no, tal vez, para guardar un secreto. +Simple. +Y si hemos obtenido esas evidencias en nuestras vidas cotidianas de la forma en que la confianza es diferenciada, por qu dejamos de lado todo ese conocimiento cuando pensamos en la confianza en forma ms abstracta? +Creo que las encuestas son herramientas muy malas para medir el verdadero nivel de confianza real, porque intentan obviar el buen juicio inherente al hecho de confiar en algo o en alguien. +En segundo lugar, qu pasa con el objetivo? +El objetivo es tener ms confianza. +Francamente, creo que es un objetivo estpido. +No es ese el objetivo que yo perseguira. +Yo apuntara a tener ms confianza en lo que es merecedor de confianza, pero no en lo que no lo es. +En definitiva, soy partidaria de no confiar en lo que no es confiable. +Y creo que esas personas que depositaron sus ahorros con el muy acertadamente llamado Sr. Madoff, que luego desapareci con ellos, pienso en ellos, y creo, bueno, s, fueron demasiado confiados. +Tener ms confianza no es un objetivo inteligente en esta vida. +Confianza depositada o negada con inteligencia, ese es el objetivo correcto. +Una vez que uno lo dice, que dice, s, vale, eso significa que lo que importa en primer lugar no es la confianza, sino la confiabilidad. +De lo que se trata es de hacer un juicio sobre cun confiables son las personas en determinados aspectos. +Y creo que para poder hacer un juicio, estamos obligados a centrarnos en tres cosas: +Son competentes? Son honestos? Son responsables? +Y si encontramos que una persona es competente en las materias pertinentes, y es responsable y honesta, entonces tendremos una muy buena razn para confiar en ella, porque va a ser digna de confianza. +Pero si, por el contrario, no son responsables, no podramos confiar en ellos. +Tengo amigos que son competentes y honestos, pero no confiara en ellos para llevar una carta al correo, porque son olvidadizos. +Tengo amigos que estn muy seguros de que pueden hacer ciertas cosas, pero que veo que sobrestiman sus propias competencias. +Y me alegra mucho decir que creo que no tengo muchos amigos que sean competentes y responsables pero extremadamente deshonestos. +Si es as, todava no me he percatado. +Pero eso es lo que estamos buscando: confiabilidad antes que confianza. +La confianza es la respuesta. +La confiabilidad es lo que tenemos que juzgar. +Y, por supuesto, es difcil. +En las ltimas dcadas, hemos tratado de construir sistemas de rendicin de cuentas para todo tipo de instituciones, profesionales, funcionarios y dems, que nos hicieran ms fcil la tarea de juzgar su confiabilidad. +Muchos de esos sistemas han tenido el efecto contrario. +No funcionan como deberan. +Recuerdo una vez que estaba hablando con una partera y me dijo: "Bueno, vers, el problema es que toma ms tiempo hacer el papeleo administrativo que asistir el parto en s". +Y encontramos el mismo problema en toda nuestra vida pblica, e institucional, que el sistema de rendicin de cuentas que est destinado a garantizar la confiabilidad y las pruebas de confiabilidad, en realidad est haciendo lo contrario. +Lo que hacen es dificultar el trabajo de las personas que tienen que hacer tareas difciles, como las parteras, exigindoles que "marquen las casillas", como decimos. +Seguro que todos Uds. conocen ejemplos similares. +Todo, todo eso, por el objetivo. +Creo que el objetivo debera ser ms confiabilidad, y que las cosas seran diferentes si tratramos de ser dignos de confianza y le transmitiramos a las personas que somos confiables y si tratramos de determinar si otras personas, funcionarios o polticos son dignos de confianza. +No es fcil. Es el juicio, las acciones sencillas, las actitudes, lo que no se hace adecuadamente. +En tercer lugar, la tarea. +Llamar a la tarea reconstruir la confianza, coloca las cosas al revs. +Sugiere que Ud. y yo deberamos reconstruir la confianza. +Bueno, podemos hacerlo con nosotros mismos. +Podemos reconstruir un poco la confiabilidad. +Podemos hacerlo si son dos personas, juntas, intentando mejorar la confianza. +Pero la confianza, en definitiva, es distintiva porque nos la otorgan otras personas. +No puedes reconstruir lo que otras personas te han dado. +Tienes que darles las bases suficientes para que puedan confiar en ti. +Tienes que ser digno de confianza. +Y eso, por supuesto, es debido a que no puedes engaar, por lo general, a todas las personas, todo el tiempo. +Pero tambin debes aportar pruebas fehacientes de que eres digno de confianza. +Cmo hacerlo? +Eso se hace a diario, en todas partes, lo hace la gente comn, los funcionarios, las instituciones, muy eficazmente. +Les dar un simple ejemplo comercial. +La tienda donde compro mis calcetines dice que puedo devolverlos sin dar explicaciones. +Se los llevo y me devuelven el dinero, o me los cambian por los del color que yo quiera. +Eso es estupendo. Confo en ellos porque ellos mismos se volvieron vulnerables ante m. +Creo que hay una gran leccin en eso. +Si te vuelves vulnerable ante la otra parte, esa es una muy buena prueba de que eres digno de confianza y tienes confianza en lo que ests diciendo. +As que, al final, creo que a lo que estamos apuntando no es algo muy difcil de discernir. +En lo que las personas confan es en las relaciones, y en ese marco, pueden determinar cundo y cmo la otra persona es digna de confianza. +Gracias. +Desde los comienzos de las computadoras nos hemos venido esforzando por reducir la separacin entre nosotros y la informacin digital, la separacin entre nuestro mundo material y el mundo de la pantalla en el que la imaginacin se puede desbocar. +Esta separacin se ha ido reduciendo, cada vez ms y ms, a tal punto que hoy en da es de menos de 1 mm, el espesor del vidrio de una pantalla tctil, y el poder de la informtica se ha vuelto accesible a todos. +Pero me pregunto: y si no hubiera barreras? +Empec a imaginar cmo sera. +Primero cre esta herramienta que se adentra en el espacio digital, de modo que cuando la oprimes fuerte contra la pantalla transfiere su cuerpo fsico a pxeles. +Los diseadores pueden materializar sus ideas directamente en 3D, y los cirujanos pueden practicar con rganos virtuales debajo de la pantalla. +As, con esta herramienta se rompen las barreras. +Pero las dos manos permanecen todava por fuera de la pantalla. +Cmo llegar al interior e interactuar con la informacin digital usando toda la destreza de las manos? +En la divisin de Ciencias Aplicadas de Microsoft, junto con mi mentora Cati Boulanger, redise la computadora y transform un pequeo espacio sobre el teclado en un rea digital de trabajo. +Combinando un visor transparente con cmaras de profundidad para detectar los dedos y la cara, ahora puedes levantar las manos del teclado, llegar al interior del espacio 3D, y agarrar pxeles directamente con las manos. +Como las ventanas y los archivos tienen una ubicacin en el espacio real, seleccionarlos es tan fcil como agarrar un libro de un estante. +Se puede hojear el libro y resaltar lneas o palabras con el sensor tctil virtual que hay abajo de cada pantalla flotante. +Los arquitectos pueden estirar o rotar sus maquetas directamente con las manos. +En estos ejemplos, nosotros ingresamos en el mundo digital. +Y si invertimos los papeles y hacemos que la informacin digital venga hacia nosotros? +Seguramente, muchos de nosotros habremos comprado y devuelto cosas por Internet. +Ahora eso no tiene que preocuparnos. +Lo que tengo ac es un probador virtual por Internet. +Esta es la visin que se obtiene desde un dispositivo montado en la cabeza o translcido cuando el sistema comprende la geometra de tu cuerpo. +Si llevamos esta idea ms lejos, pens, en vez de solo ver pxeles en el espacio, cmo podemos hacer que sean fsicos de modo que podamos tocarlos y sentirlos? +Cmo sera un futuro as? +En el Media Lab del MIT con mi tutor Hiroshi Ishii y mi colaborador Rehmi Post, creamos este nico pxel fsico. +Este imn esfrico se comporta como un pxel en 3D en el espacio, lo que implica que tanto la computadora como los usuarios pueden mover el objeto a cualquier lugar dentro de este pequeo espacio tridimensional. +Simplificando, lo que hicimos fue anular la gravedad y controlar el movimiento mediante una combinacin de levitacin magntica, accionamiento mecnico y detectores. +Y al programar digitalmente el objeto, lo liberamos de las restricciones del tiempo y el espacio, lo que quiere decir que los movimientos humanos pueden grabarse y volver a reproducirse y quedan para siempre en el mundo fsico. +Se pueden ensear coreografas fsicamente y a distancia y la famosa toma de Michael Jordan se puede reproducir como una realidad fsica las veces que queramos. +Los estudiantes pueden usarlo como herramienta para entender conceptos complicados como el movimiento de los planetas, la fsica, y, a diferencia de los monitores o los libros de texto, esta es una experiencia real y palpable que puedes tocar y sentir. Es muy poderosa. +Pero lo que es ms fascinante que cambiar la parte fsica de la computadora es imaginar cmo programar el mundo va a cambiar nuestras actividades fsicas cotidianas. +Como ven, la informacin digital no solo nos mostrar algo sino que comenzar a actuar directamente sobre nosotros como parte del mundo fsico que nos rodea sin que tengamos que desconectarnos de nuestro mundo. +Empezamos la charla de hoy hablando de una barrera, pero si suprimimos esa barrera, el nico lmite que queda es nuestra imaginacin. +Gracias. +Me entrenaron para convertirme en gimnasta durante dos aos en Hunan, China, en los aos 70'. +Cuando estaba en primer grado, el gobierno quera transferirme a una escuela para atletas con todos los gastos pagos. +Pero mi madre tigre dijo, "No". +Mis padres queran que me convirtiera en ingeniera, como ellos. +Luego de sobrevivir la Revolucin Cultural, crean firmemente que haba solo un camino certero hacia la felicidad: un trabajo seguro y bien remunerado. +Sin importar si el trabajo me gustara o no. +Pero mi sueo era ser una cantante de pera china. +Esta era yo, en mi piano imaginario. +Una cantante de pera debe comenzar a entrenarse desde muy joven para aprender las acrobacias, as que intent todo lo que pude para ir a la escuela de pera. +Hasta le escrib al director de la escuela y al presentador de un programa de radio. +Pero a ningn adulto le agradaba la idea. +Ningn adulto me tom en serio. +Solo mis amigos me apoyaban, pero eran nios, sin autoridad, como yo. +As fue que a la edad de 15 aos, saba que ya era demasiado mayor para entrenar. +Mi sueo nunca se realizara. +Tema, que durante el resto de mi vida una felicidad de segunda clase fuese lo nico a lo que podra aspirar. +Y esto era tan injusto. +As que resolv buscar otra vocacin. +Nadie a mi alrededor quera ensearme? Bien. +Recurr a los libros. +["Obras Completas" de Sanmao (alias Echo Chan)] ["Lecciones de la Historia" de Nan Huaijin] Llegu a EE.UU. en 1995, y cules fueron los primeros libros que le aqu? +Los que estaban prohibidos en China, por supuesto. +"La Buena Tierra" trata de la vida campesina china. +Y no es propaganda conveniente. Entendido. +La Biblia es interesante, pero extraa. +Ese es un tema para otro da. +Pero el quinto mandamiento para m fue una revelacin: "Honrars a tu padre y a tu madre". +"Honrar", me dije. "Es tan diferente, y mucho mejor que obedecer". +As que se convirti en mi herramienta para salir de esta trampa de culpa confuciana y para reiniciar la relacin con mis padres. +El encuentro con una nueva cultura tambin dio lugar a mi hbito de lectura comparativa. +Brinda muchas perspectivas. +Por ejemplo, al principio este mapa me pareci fuera de lugar porque esto es lo que los alumnos en China aprendan. +Jams se me haba ocurrido, que China no tena que estar en el centro del mundo. +Un mapa implica la perspectiva de las personas. +La lectura comparativa no es algo nuevo. +Es una prctica comn en el mundo acadmico. +Hay hasta campos de investigacin como religin comparativa y literatura comparativa. +Comparar y contrastar, le ofrece a los acadmicos un entendimiento ms profundo de un tema. +Y pens que si la lectura comparativa funcionaba para investigar, por qu no hacerlo tambin en la vida cotidiana? +As fue que comenc a leer libros de a dos. +Pueden tratarse de personas ["Benjamn Franklin" de Walter Isaacson] ["John Adams" de David McCullough] que estuvieron involucrados en un mismo suceso, o amigos con experiencias compartidas. +Para el Cristo, las tentaciones son econmicas, polticas y espirituales. +Para el Buda, son todas psicolgicas: lujuria, temor y el deber social... Interesante. +Si saben otro idioma, tambin es divertido leer sus libros favoritos en dos idiomas. +["El camino de Chuang Tzu" Thomas Merton] ["El camino del Tao" Alan Watts] En lugar de perderme en la traduccin, encontr que se puede ganar mucho de ella. +Por ejemplo, es a travs de la traduccin que me di cuenta que "felicidad" en chino literalmente significa "alegra rpida". Ja! +Y "novia" en chino, literalmente significa "nueva madre". Oh-oh. +Los libros me abrieron una puerta mgica para conectarme con personas del pasado y del presente. +S que no volver a sentirme sola o impotente nunca. +Tener un sueo destrozado realmente no es nada comparado con lo que muchos otros han sufrido. +He llegado a creer que la realizacin no es el nico propsito de un sueo. +Su propsito ms importante es conectarnos con el lugar del que vienen los sueos, de donde viene la pasin, de donde viene la felicidad. +Hasta un sueo destrozado puede hacer eso por Uds. +Y es gracias a los libros, que hoy estoy aqu, feliz, viviendo nuevamente con propsito y con claridad, la mayor parte del tiempo. +Por lo tanto, que los libros siempre los acompaen. +Gracias. +Gracias Gracias. +Cuando estaba en mis 20s, vi a mi primer cliente de psicoterapia. +Yo era una estudiante doctoral en psicologa clnica en Berkeley. +Ella era una mujer de 26 aos llamada Alex. +Alex entr a la primera sesin usando vaqueros y un top holgado, se tir en el sof de mi oficina se quit los zapatos y me dijo que quera hablar de sus problemas con los hombres. +Cuando escuch esto, me sent tan aliviada. +Mi compaera de clase tuvo un pirmano como primer cliente. +Y a m me toc una veinteaera que quera hablar de hombres. +Cre que poda manejarlo. +Pero no lo hice. +Con las historias chistosas que Alex traa a las sesiones, se me hizo fcil solo mover la cabeza mientras que retrasabamos la solucin. +"Los treinta son los nuevos veinte", deca Alex, y por lo que yo vea, ella tena razn. +Uno empieza a trabajar despus, se casa despus, tiene hijos despus, hasta la muerte pasa despus. +Para veinteaeros como Alex y yo haba tiempo de sobra. +Pero poco despus, mi supervisor me presion para presionar a Alex que hablara sobre su vida amorosa. +Yo me resist. +Dije, "Claro, est saliendo con tipos debajo de su categora, se acuesta con un cabeza hueca, pero no es como si fuera a casarse con l". +Y entonces mi supervisor dijo, "Todava no, pero tal vez se case con el prximo. +Adems, el mejor momento para trabajar en el matrimonio de Alex es antes de que se case". +Esto es lo que los psiclogos llaman un momento "Aj!". +Fue cuando me di cuenta que los los 30s no son los nuevos 20s. +S, la gente sienta cabeza despus de lo que se acostumbraba, pero esto no hizo que los 20s de Alex fueran una pausa en su desarrollo. +Esto hizo que los 20s de Alex fueran el momento perfecto y lo estbamos desperdiciando. +Entonces me di cuenta, que esta clase de negligencia benigna era un problema real y tena consecuencias reales, no solo para Alex y su vida amorosa sino para las carreras, las familias y los futuros de veinteaeros de todos lados. +Hay 50 millones de veinteaeros en Estados Unidos, hoy da. +Esto significa el 15% de la poblacin, o el 100% si consideran que nadie llega a la adultez sin pasar antes por los 20s. +Levanten la mano si estn en sus 20s. +Quiero ver a los veinteaeros de aqu. +Oh, S! Son increbles. +Si trabajan con veinteaeros, aman a un veinteaero, les quita el sueo un veinteaero, quiero ver. Est bien. Increble, los veinteaeros de verdad importan. +Esta no es solo mi opinin. Estos son los hechos. +Sabemos que el 80% de los momentos claves en la vida pasarn a los 35 aos. +Esto significa que 8 de cada 10 decisiones y experiencias y momentos "Aj!" que le dan forma a su vida habrn pasado para cuando tengan 30 y tantos. +Personas de ms de 40, no entren en pnico. +Este pblico va a estar bien, creo. +Sabemos que los primeros 10 aos de una carrera tienen un impacto exponencial sobre la cantidad de dinero que ganarn. +Sabemos que ms de la mitad de los estadounidenses estn casados, viven o estn saliendo con su pareja futura a los 30 aos. +Sabemos que el cerebro termina su segunda y ltima etapa de crecimiento en sus 20s y se reprograma para la adultez, lo que significa que si hay algo que quieran cambiar de s mismos, ahora es el momento para cambiarlo. +Sabemos que la personalidad cambia ms veces durante sus 20s que en cualquier otro momento de la vida y sabemos que la fertilidad femenina llega a su tope a los 28, y las cosas se vuelven complicadas a los 35. +Los 20s son el momento para educarse sobre su cuerpo y sus opciones. +Cuando pensamos en el desarrollo del nio, todos sabemos que los primeros 5 aos son cruciales para el lenguaje y el apego en el cerebro. +Es un momento en el que su vida diaria y comn tiene un impacto desmedido en la persona que se convertirn. +Pero lo que no escuchamos con frecuencia es que hay algo llamado desarrollo adulto y nuestros 20s son un momento crtico en el desarrollo adulto. +Pero esto no es lo que los veinteaeros estn escuchando. +Los peridicos hablan sobre cambios en la lnea del tiempo de la adultez. +Los investigadores llaman a los 20s una adolescencia extendida. +Los periodistas le acuan nombres ridculos a los veinteaeros como "twixters" y "kidults." +Es verdad. +Como cultura, hemos considerado una trivialidad lo que en realidad es la dcada que define la adultez. +Leonard Bernstein deca que para lograr grandes cosas, necesitas un plan y no suficiente tiempo. +No es verdad? +Qu creen que pasa cuando le dan palmadas a un veinteaero en la cabeza y le dicen, "tienes otros 10 aos para empezar tu vida"? +No pasa nada. +Le robaron a esa persona el sentido de urgencia y su ambicin y no pasa absolutamente nada. +Y luego todos los das, veinteaeros inteligentes, interesantes como ustedes o sus hijos e hijas llegan a mi oficina y dicen algo as: "Ya s que mi novio no es bueno para m, pero esta relacin no cuenta. Solo estoy matando tiempo". +O dicen, "Todos dicen que mientras empiece una carrera antes de los 30, todo estar bien". +Pero luego empieza a sonar algo as: "Mis 20s estn por terminarse y todava no tengo nada que mostrar. +Tena mejor currculum el da que me gradu de la universidad". +Y despus empieza a sonar algo as: "Mis citas durante los 20s eran como el juego de las sillas. +Todos corran y se divertan, pero luego en algn momento alrededor de los 30, se apag la msica y todos comenzaron a sentarse. +Yo no quera ser la nica que se quedara parada, as que a veces pienso que me cas con mi esposo porque l era la silla ms cercana cuando tena 30". +Dnde estn los veinteaeros aqu? +No hagan eso. +Bueno, eso suena un poco extremo, pero no se equivoquen, los riesgos son muy altos. +Cuando se dejan muchas cosas para los 30s, hay una enorme presin a los treinta y tantos de empezar una carrera, elegir una ciudad, elegir una pareja, y tener dos o tres hijos en un periodo de tiempo mucho ms corto. +Muchas de estas cosas no son compatibles, y hay investigaciones que empiezan a mostrar, que es mucho ms difcil y estresante hacer todo de una vez a los 30s. +La crisis de la mediana edad post-milenio no se trata de comprar autos deportivos rojos. +Se trata de darte cuenta que no puedes tener la carrera que quieres ahora. +Darte cuenta que no puedes tener el hijo que quieres ahora, o que no le puedes dar un hermano a tu hijo. +Muchos treintaeros y cuarentones se ven a s mismos, y a m, sentados en la habitacin, y hablan sobre sus 20s, "Qu estaba haciendo? En qu estaba pensando?" +Quiero cambiar lo que los veinteaeros estn haciendo y pensando. +Aqu les va una historia de cmo podra ser. +Es una historia sobre una mujer llamada Emma. +A los 25, Emma lleg a mi oficina porque estaba, en sus propias palabras, teniendo una crisis de identidad. +Deca que le gustara trabajar en el arte o en el entretenimiento, pero todava no se poda decidir, as que pas los ltimos aos trabajando como mesera. +Como era ms barato, viva con un novio que mostraba ms temperamento que ambicin. +Y a pesar de vivir unos 20s muy difciles, su vida anterior haba sido an ms difcil. +Lloraba frecuentemente en nuestras sesiones, pero luego se levantaba ella misma al decir, "Uno no elige a su familia, pero puede elegir a sus amigos". +Bueno, un da Emma lleg puso su cabeza sobre sus piernas y llor durante casi toda la hora. +Acababa de comprar una nueva libreta para directorio, y haba pasado toda la maana llenndola con sus muchos contactos, pero luego se qued viendo el espacio vaco que sigue despus de las palabras "En caso de emergencia, por favor llame a..." +Estaba a punto de la histeria cuando me vio y dijo, "Quin va a estar para m si tengo un accidente automovilstico? +Quin me va a cuidar si me da cncer?" +En ese momento, me cost mucho trabajo resistir y no decir, "Yo". +Lo que Emma necesitaba no era una terapista que de verdad se preocupara. +Emma necesitaba una vida mejor, y yo saba que esta era su oportunidad. +Yo haba aprendido mucho desde que trabaj con Alex como para solo sentarme mientras la dcada decisiva de Emma pasaba delante. +As que, durante las siguientes semanas y meses, le dije a Emma tres cosas que todo veinteaero, hombre o mujer, merece saber. +Primero, le dije a Emma que se olvidara de esa crisis de identidad y consiguiera capital de identidad. +Por capital de identidad, me refiero a hacer algo que agregue valor a su persona. +Hacer algo que sea una inversin en lo que quieren ser despus. +No saba el futuro de la carrera de Emma, y nadie sabe el futuro del trabajo, pero s s esto: capital de identidad genera capital de identidad. +As que ahora es el momento para ese trabajo del otro lado del pas, de ese internado, de esa empresa que quieren probar. +No estoy descartando la exploracin veinteaera, estoy descartando la exploracin que no debera de contar, que, por cierto, no es exploracin, +es procrastinacin. +Le dije a Emma que explorara trabajos y que los hiciera contar. +Segundo, le dije a Emma que las tribus urbanas estn sobrevaloradas. +Los mejores amigos son excelentes para llevarte al aeropuerto, pero los veinteaeros que se juntan con amigos con mentes similares se limitan en cuanto a quin conocen, qu conocen, cmo piensan, cmo hablan, y dnde trabajan. +Esa nueva pieza de capital, esa nueva persona con quien salir casi siempre viene de fuera de su crculo ms cercano. +Las cosas nuevas vienen de lo que se llaman vnculos dbiles amigos de amigos de sus amigos. +S, la mitad de los veinteaeros tienen un mal trabajo o no tienen trabajo. +Pero la otra mitad no, y los vnculos dbiles son la forma de colarte a este grupo. +La mitad de los trabajos creados nunca se publican, entonces, conocer al jefe de tu vecino es la forma de conseguir un trabajo no publicado. +No es hacer trampa. Es la ciencia de cmo la informacin se pasa. +Por ltimo pero no menos importante, Emma crea que uno no elige a su familia, pero s a sus amigos. +Esto era verdad cuando estaba creciendo, pero como veinteaera, Emma pronto eligir a su familia. cuando tenga una pareja y forme su propia familia. +Le dije a Emma que el tiempo para elegir su familia haba llegado. +Tal vez piensan que los 30 es mejor edad para sentar cabeza que los 20 o incluso los 25 y estoy de acuerdo con ustedes. +Pero elegir a la persona con la que vives ahora o te acuestas ahora cuando todos en Facebook comienzan a caminar hacia el altar no es progreso. +El mejor momento para trabajar en tu matrimonio es antes de que lo tengas, y eso implica ser tan intencional en el amor como lo eres en el trabajo. +Elegir tu familia debe ser una eleccin consciente de quin y qu es lo que quieren en lugar de solo hacerlo funcionar o matar tiempo con quien sea que los elija a ustedes. +Entonces, qu pas con Emma? +Bien, revisamos ese directorio, y ella encontr al compaero de cuarto de un primo que trabajaba en un museo de arte en otro estado. +Este vnculo dbil le ayud a conseguir un trabajo ah. +Esa oferta de trabajo le dio una razn para dejar al novio con el que viva. +Ahora, 5 aos despus, es organizadora especial de eventos en museos. +Esta casada con un hombre que eligi conscientemente. +Ama su nueva carrera, ama su nueva familia, y me envo una carta que deca, "Ahora los espacios de contactos de emergencia no son lo suficientemente grandes". +La historia de Emma puede sonar fcil, pero eso es lo que me encanta de trabajar con veinteaeros. +Es muy fcil ayudarles. +Los veinteaeros son como aviones que salen del aeropuerto de Los ngeles, que salen a algn lugar del oeste. +Justo antes del despegue, un ligero ajuste en su trayectoria hace la diferencia entre aterrizar en Alaska o en Fiji. +De la misma manera, a los 21 o a los 25 e incluso a los 29, una buena conversacin, un buen descanso, una buena charla TED puede tener enormes efectos en los aos siguientes o incluso en las generaciones siguientes. +Aqu esta mi idea digna de difundir a todos los veinteaeros que conozcan. +Es tan simple como lo que aprend a decirle a Alex. +Es lo que ahora tengo el privilegio de decirle a veinteaeros como Emma todos los das: Los treintas no son los nuevos 20s, reclamen su adultez, consigan capital de identidad, usen sus vnculos dbiles, elijan a tu familia. +No se dejen definir por lo que no saban o lo que no hicieron. +Estn decidiendo su vida hoy. +Gracias. +Cuando tena 27 aos, dej un trabajo muy exigente en consultora gerencial por un trabajo que era an ms exigente: la docencia. +Fui a ensearles matemticas a alumnos de sptimo grado en las escuelas pblicas de Nueva York. +Y como cualquier profesor, apliqu exmenes y pruebas. +Les d tareas. +Cuando el trabajo volva, calculaba las calificaciones. +Lo que me llam la atencin fue que el C.I. no era la nica diferencia entre mis mejores y mis peores estudiantes. +Algunos de los que tenan un mejor desempeo no tenan puntuaciones de C.I. estratosfricas. +A algunos de mis nios ms inteligentes no les estaba yendo tan bien. +Y eso me puso a pensar. +El tipo de cosas que necesitan aprender en matemticas en sptimo grado, seguro, son difciles: proporciones, decimales, el rea de un paralelogramo. +Pero estos conceptos no son imposibles y estaba muy convencida de que cada uno de mis estudiantes poda aprender la leccin si trabajaban duro y durante el tiempo suficiente. +Despus de varios aos ms de docencia, llegu a la conclusin de que lo que necesitamos en educacin es una mejor comprensin de los estudiantes y del aprendizaje desde una perspectiva motivacional, desde una perspectiva psicolgica. +En educacin, la nica cosa que sabemos cmo medir de mejor manera +es el C.I., pero qu pasa si tener xito en la escuela y en la vida depende de mucho ms que la habilidad para aprender de manera rpida y fcil? +As que dej las aulas y fui a la universidad para convertirme en psicloga. +Comenc estudiando a nios y adultos en todo tipo de escenarios desafiantes, y en cada estudio mi pregunta era, quin tiene xito aqu y por qu? +Mi equipo de investigacin y yo fuimos a la Academia Militar West Point. +Intentamos predecir qu cadetes permaneceran en el entrenamiento militar y quines se retiraran. +Fuimos al Concurso Nacional de Deletreo e intentamos predecir qu nios avanzaran lo ms lejos posible en la competicin. +Estudiamos a profesores novatos trabajando en barrios realmente difciles, preguntndonos qu profesores an estarn enseando para el final del ao escolar y de aquellos, quin ser el ms efectivo en mejorar los resultados del aprendizaje de sus estudiantes? +Nos asociamos con empresas privadas, preguntando, cules de estos vendedores van a mantener su puesto de trabajo? +y quin va a ganar ms dinero? +En todos esos contextos muy diferentes, surgi una caracterstica como un importante predictor del xito. +Y no fue la inteligencia social. +No fue la buena apariencia, la salud fsica y no fue el C.I. +Fue la determinacin. +La determinacin es pasin y perseverancia para alcanzar metas muy a largo plazo. +La determinacin es tener resistencia. +La determinacin es aferrarse a su futuro, da tras da, no solo por la semana, no solo por el mes, sino durante aos y trabajando realmente duro para hacer ese futuro una realidad. +La determinacin es vivir la vida como si fuera una maratn, no una carrera a toda velocidad. +Hace pocos aos atrs, comenc a estudiar la determinacin en las escuelas pblicas de Chicago. +Le ped a miles de estudiantes de secundaria que hicieran mis cuestionarios de determinacin y luego esper alrededor de ms de un ao para ver quienes se graduaran. +Resulta que los nios con ms determinacin tuvieron significativamente mayores probabilidades de graduarse, incluso cuando los emparej en cada caracterstica que pude medir, cosas como el ingreso familiar, los resultados de las pruebas estandarizadas, incluso la seguridad que sentan los nios cuando estaban en la escuela. +As que no solo es en West Point o en el Concurso Nacional de Deletreo en los que importa la determinacin. Tambin est en la escuela, especialmente para los nios en riesgo de abandonarla. +Para m, lo ms impactante sobre la determinacin es lo poco que sabemos, lo poco que sabe la ciencia sobre su desarrollo. +Cada da, padres y profesores me preguntan, "Cmo desarrollo la determinacin en los nios? +Qu debo hacer para ensearle a los nios una slida tica de trabajo? +Cmo los mantengo motivados para el largo plazo?" +La respuesta ms honesta es: no lo s. Lo que s s es que el talento no les da determinacin. +Nuestros datos muestran muy claramente que hay muchos individuos talentosos que sencillamente no siguen adelante con sus compromisos. +De hecho, en nuestros datos, la determinacin comnmente no est relacionada o est incluso relacionada inversamente a las medidas de talento. +Hasta ahora, la mejor idea que he escuchado sobre desarrollar la determinacin en los nios es algo llamado "mentalidad de crecimiento". +Esta es una idea desarrollada en la Universidad de Stanford por Carol Dweck, y es la creencia de que la habilidad para aprender no es fija, de que puede cambiar con el esfuerzo. +La Dra. Dweck ha mostrado que cuando los nios leen y aprenden sobre el cerebro y cmo cambia y crece en respuesta al desafo, son mucho ms propensos a perseverar cuando fallan, porque no creen que ese fallo sea una condicin permanente. +As que la mentalidad de crecimiento es una gran idea para desarrollar determinacin. +Pero necesitamos ms. +Y ah es donde terminar mi discurso, porque ah es donde estamos. +Ese es el trabajo que tenemos por delante. +Necesitamos tomar nuestras mejores ideas, nuestras intuiciones ms fuertes, y necesitamos probarlas. +Necesitamos medir si han sido exitosas y tenemos que estar dispuestos a fallar, a equivocarnos, a comenzar todo de nuevo con las lecciones aprendidas. +En otras palabras, necesitamos ser determinados sobre hacer que nuestros nios sean ms determinados. +Gracias. +Creciendo en Taiwn como la hija de un calgrafo, uno de mis recuerdos ms atesorados es mi madre mostrndome la belleza, la forma y la figura de los caracteres chinos. +Desde ese momento, me maravill por este idioma increble. +Pero para un extranjero, parece ser tan impenetrable como la Gran Muralla China. +En los ltimos aos, me he estado preguntando si puedo derribar esta muralla, para que as quien sea que quiera entender y apreciar la belleza de este sofisticado idioma pueda hacerlo. +Comenc pensando en cmo un mtodo nuevo y rpido de aprender chino podra ser til. +Desde que tena cinco aos, comenc a aprender a cmo dibujar cada uno de los trazos de cada caracter en la secuencia correcta. +Aprend nuevos caracteres cada da durante los siguientes 15 aos. +Ya que solo tenemos cinco minutos, es mejor que lo hagamos de una forma ms rpida y sencilla. +Un acadmico chino comprendera 20 mil caracteres. +Ustedes solo necesitan mil para entender la alfabetizacin bsica. +Los primeros 200 les permitirn comprender el 40% de la literatura bsica, lo suficiente para leer seales de trnsito, mens de restaurantes, entender la idea bsica de las pginas web o los peridicos. +Hoy comenzar con ocho para mostrarles cmo funciona el mtodo. +Estn listos? +Abran su boca tanto como les sea posible hasta que sea cuadrada. +Obtienen una boca. +Esta es una persona que va a dar un paseo. +Persona. +Si la forma del fuego es una persona con brazos en ambos lados, como si estuviera gritando de manera frentica, "Auxilio! Me estoy quemando!" Este smbolo en realidad es originario de la forma de la llama, pero me gusta creer que es de la otra forma. La que les funcione. +Este es un rbol. +rbol +Esta es una montaa. +El sol. +La luna. +El smbolo de la puerta se parece a un par de puertas de una cantina en el viejo oeste. +Llamo radicales a estos ocho caracteres. +Son bloques de construccin para que creen muchos ms caracteres. +Una persona. +Si alguien camina atrs, eso es "seguir". +Como dice el antiguo dicho, dos son compaa, tres son multitud. +Si una persona estira sus brazos, esta persona est diciendo "era as de grande". +La persona dentro de la boca, la persona est atrapada. +Es un prisionero, tal como Jons dentro de la ballena. +Un rbol es un rbol. Dos rboles juntos, tenemos un bosque. +Tres rboles juntos, tambin tenemos el bosque. +Pongan una tabla bajo el rbol, tenemos los cimientos. +Pongan una boca sobre el rbol, eso es un "idiota". Fcil de recordar, ya que un rbol parlante es bastante idiota. +Recuerdan el fuego? +Dos fuegos juntos, se hace muy caliente. +Tres fuegos juntos, eso son muchas llamas. +Pongan el fuego bajo los dos rboles, eso es quemar. +Para nosotros, el sol es la fuente de la prosperidad. +Dos soles juntos, prspero. +Tres juntos, esos son destellos. +Pongan al sol y la luna brillando juntos, ese es el brillo. +Tambin significa maana, despus de un da y una noche. +El sol sale sobre el horizonte. Amanecer. +Una puerta. Pongan una tabla dentro de la puerta, es el cerrojo de la puerta. +Pongan una boca dentro de la puerta, hacer preguntas. +Toc, toc hay alguien en casa? +Esta persona est saliendo escondida de una puerta, escapando, evadiendo. +A la izquierda, tenemos a una mujer. +Dos mujeres juntas, estn discutiendo. +Tres mujeres juntas, tengan cuidado es adulterio. +As que ya hemos pasado por casi 30 caracteres. +Al utilizar este mtodo, los primeros ocho radicales les permitirn construir 32. +El siguiente grupo de 8 caracteres construir otros 32. +As con cada pequeo esfuerzo, sern capaces de aprender un par de cientos de caracteres, que es lo mismo que aprende un chino de ocho aos. +As que despus de conocer los caracteres, comenzamos a crear frases. +Por ejemplo, la montaa y el fuego juntos, tenemos una montaa de fuego. Es un volcn. +Sabemos que Japn es la tierra del sol naciente. +Este es un sol colocado con el origen, porque Japn est al este de China. +As que un sol junto al origen, creamos Japn. +Una persona detrs de Japn, qu tenemos? +Una persona japonesa. +El carcter a la izquierda son dos montaas apiladas una sobre la otra. +En la antigua China, eso significaba en exilio, porque los emperadores chinos desterraban a sus enemigos polticos ms all de las montaas. +Hoy en da, el exilio se ha convertido en salir. +Una boca que les dice hacia donde salir es una salida. +Esta es una diapositiva para recordarme que debo dejar de hablar y bajar del escenario. Gracias. +Lo que prefiero de ser pap son las pelculas que llego a ver. +Me encanta compartir mis pelculas favoritas con mis hijos; cuando mi hija tena 4 aos, vimos El mago de Oz juntos. +La pelcula domin su imaginacin durante meses. +Su personaje favorito era Glinda, por supuesto. +Le dio una buena excusa para usar un vestido brillante y llevar una varita mgica. +Pero al ver esa pelcula tantas veces, llegas a entender que es extraordinaria. +Ahora vivimos y criamos a nuestros hijos en una especie de complejo industrial de espectculos de fantasa infantil. +Sin embargo, El mago de Oz fue un acontecimiento en s mismo. +No comenz esa tendencia. +La tendencia realmente tom auge cuarenta aos ms tarde con, curiosamente, otra pelcula cuyos protagonistas, un chico de metal y un chico peludo rescataban a una chica vestidos como guardia del enemigo. +Sabes de lo que estoy hablando? S. +Hay una gran diferencia entre estas dos pelculas, hay un par de grandes diferencias entre El mago de Oz y todas las pelculas que vemos hoy. +Una es que hay muy poca violencia en El mago de Oz. +Los monos son bastante agresivos, como los manzanos. +Pero creo que si El mago de Oz se hiciese hoy, el mago dira: Dorothy, eres la salvacin de Oz como la profeca lo predijo. +Usas zapatos mgicos para derrotar a los ejrcitos generados por computadora de la malvada bruja. +Pero eso no es lo que sucede. +Otra cosa nica de El mago de Oz es que los personajes ms heroicos, sabios e incluso villanos son mujeres. +Comenc a notar esto cuando hice ver Star Wars a mi hija, unos aos ms tarde, y la situacin era diferente. +En ese momento, tambin tena un hijo +de solo 3 aos. +No fue invitado a la proyeccin porque an era muy pequeo para eso. +Pero era el segundo hijo, y el nivel de supervisin haba bajado. Por lo tanto, se desliz en la sala y qued impresionado como una mam pata con sus patitos detrs, y no creo que l entendiera lo que pasaba, pero, indudablemente, absorba todo. +Me pregunto qu perciba. +Seran temas de valor, perseverancia y lealtad? +Tendra la sensacin de que Luke se una a un ejrcito para derrocar al gobierno? +Comparemos esto con El mago de Oz de 1939. +Cmo gana Dorothy su pelcula? +Haciendo buenas migas con todos y siendo una lideresa. +Es el tipo de mundo en el que quiero que mis hijos crezcan Oz, de acuerdo? y no un mundo de hombres que luchan, que es donde estamos. +Por qu hay tanta fuerza capital F, fuerza en las pelculas para nuestros hijos, y tan poco del camino de ladrillos amarillos? +Hay mucha literatura sobre el impacto de las pelculas de violencia masculina en las nias, y deberan leerla. Es muy buena. +No he ledo tanto sobre cmo los nios reaccionan a este estmulo. +S por experiencia que la princesa Leia no proporciona el marco adecuado que me hubiese servido para navegar por el mundo de los adultos que es mixto. Creo que en el momento del primer beso, realmente esperaba que los crditos comenzaran a aparecer porque es el final de la pelcula, correcto? +Mi bsqueda ha terminado, tengo novia. +Por qu siguen de pie all? +No s lo que debo hacer. +Las pelculas se centran en derrotar al villano y obtener su recompensa, y no dejan tiempo para otras relaciones u otras aventuras. +Es casi como si por ser un nio, tienes que ser un animal tonto, y si eres una chica, tienes que usar un traje de guerrera. +Hay muchas excepciones, y defender a las princesas de Disney ante cualquiera de ustedes. +Pero envan un mensaje a los nios, aunque ellos, los chicos, no son realmente su pblico objetivo. +Hacen un trabajo fenomenal al ensear a las nias cmo defenderse contra el patriarcado, pero no necesariamente muestran a los chicos cmo defenderse del patriarcado. +No hay ningn modelo para ellos. +Tambin tenemos algunas grandes mujeres que escriben nuevas historias para nuestros hijos, tan reales y encantadoras como Hermione y Katniss, pero no dejan de ser pelculas de guerra. +Por supuesto, el tema ms exitoso de todos los tiempos contina apareciendo en clsico tras clsico, cada uno de ellos sobre las aventuras de un nio o un hombre, o dos hombres que son amigos, o un hombre y su hijo, o dos hombres que cran una nia. +Hasta que, como muchos de ustedes estn pensando, este ao, finalmente sali Valiente. +La recomiendo a todos ustedes. Ya est disponible en tiendas. +Recuerdan lo que dijo la crtica cuando sali Valiente? +No puedo creer que Pixar haya hecho una pelcula de una princesa. +Es muy buena. No dejen que eso los detenga! +Bueno, casi ninguna de estas pelculas pasa la prueba de Bechdel. +No s si han odo hablar de esto. +An no ha echado races y ya se propaga, pero tal vez hoy comenzaremos un movimiento. +Alison Bechdel es una dibujante de cmics, y a mediados de los aos 80, grab una conversacin que haba tenido con un amigo sobre la evaluacin de las pelculas que vieron. +Y es muy simple. Hay solo tres preguntas que deben hacerse: En la pelcula, hay ms de un personaje femenino que tenga lneas? +Entonces, hay que cumplir el requisito. +Estas mujeres hablan entre s en algn momento de la pelcula? +Sus conversaciones son sobre algo ms aparte del chico que tanto les gusta? De acuerdo? Gracias. Muchas gracias. +Dos mujeres que existen y hablan de cosas entre s. +Sucede. Lo he visto, y sin embargo muy raramente lo veo en el cine que conocemos y amamos. +De hecho, esta semana fui a ver una pelcula de muy buena calidad, Argo. +Verdad? Rumores de Oscar, xito de taquilla, una idea de consenso de lo que es una pelcula de Hollywood de calidad. +Prcticamente, no pasa la prueba de Bechdel. +Y no creo que debiera, porque mucho de la pelcula, no s si la han visto, mucho de la pelcula ocurre en una embajada donde hombres y mujeres se esconden durante la crisis de los rehenes. +Tenemos muchas escenas de hombres que tienen conversaciones profundas y dolorosas en este escondite, y es el gran momento para una de las actrices para echar un vistazo por la puerta y decir: Vienes a la cama, cario?. +Esto es Hollywood. +As que fijmonos en los nmeros. +En 2011, de las 100 pelculas ms populares, cuntas de ellas creen que tienen protagonistas femeninas? +Once. No est mal. +No es el mismo porcentaje que el nmero de mujeres que hemos elegido recientemente para el Congreso, entonces est bien. +Pero hay un nmero mayor que este que va a decepcionar esta sala. +El ao pasado, The New York Times public un estudio que el gobierno haba hecho. +Esto es lo que deca: +en los Estados Unidos, 1 de cada 5 mujeres dice que ha sido agredida sexualmente alguna vez en su vida. +No creo que sea la culpa del entretenimiento masivo, +ni creo que las pelculas para nios tengan algo que ver con eso. +Tampoco creo que los videos de msica o pornografa estn estrechamente vinculados, pero algo anda mal, y cuando escucho esa estadstica, una de las cosas que pienso es que hay una gran cantidad de agresores sexuales. +Quines son esos tipos? Qu estn aprendiendo? +Qu no logran aprender? +Estn asimilando la historia que dice que el papel de un hroe masculino es derrotar al villano con violencia y luego cobrar la recompensa, que es una mujer que no tiene amigos y no habla? +Nosotros estamos asimilando esa historia? +Saben, como un padre con el privilegio de criar a una hija como aquellos de ustedes que estn haciendo lo mismo, encontramos a este mundo y esta estadstica muy alarmantes y queremos prepararlas. +Tenemos herramientas a nuestra disposicin como girl power, y esperamos que eso ayude, pero tengo que preguntar, girl power va a protegerlas si, al mismo tiempo, activa o pasivamente, estamos educando a nuestros hijos para que mantengan su poder masculino? +Quiero decir, creo que la lista de Netflix es una manera de hacer algo realmente importante, y aqu me refiero principalmente a los padres. +Creo que tenemos que mostrar a nuestros hijos varones una nueva definicin de hombra. +La definicin de la masculinidad est cambiando radicalmente. +Habrn ledo acerca de cmo la nueva economa est cambiando el papel del que cuida del hogar y del asalariado. +Todo est cambiando. +Cuando le pregunt a mi hija cul era su personaje favorito de Star Wars Saben lo que respondi? +Obi-Wan. +Obi-Wan Kenobi y Glinda. +Qu tienen en comn estos dos? +Tal vez no es solo el vestido brillante. +Creo que son expertos. +Creo que estas son las dos personas en esas pelculas que saben ms que nadie, y les encanta compartir sus conocimientos con otras personas para ayudarlas a alcanzar su potencial. +Ellos son lderes. +Me gusta ese tipo de historias para mi hija, y me gusta ese tipo de historias para mi hijo. +Quiero ms historias como esa. +Quiero menos historias en las que se le diga a mi hijo: Ve y lucha solo y ms historias donde se vea que su trabajo es unirse a un equipo, tal vez un equipo liderado por mujeres, ayudar a otras personas a mejorar y ser mejores personas, como el mago de Oz. +Gracias. +De nia, viva en Maine y una de las cosas que ms me gustaba era buscar galletas de mar en las costas de Maine porque mis padres me dijeron que eso me dara suerte. +Pero ya saben, es difcil encontrar estas conchas; +estn cubiertas de arena y es difcil verlas. +Sin embargo, con el tiempo, me acostumbr a buscarlas. +Comenc a ver formas y patrones que me ayudaron a coleccionarlas. +Esto se convirti en una pasin por encontrar cosas, en un amor por el pasado y la arqueologa. +Y finalmente cuando comenc a estudiar egiptologa, me di cuenta de que ver con mis propios ojos no era suficiente. +Porque, de pronto, en Egipto, mi pequea playa en Maine haba crecido a una de casi 1300 km de longitud junto al Nilo, +y mis galletas de mar haban crecido al tamao de ciudades. +Esto es realmente lo que me llev a utilizar imgenes satelitales. +Para intentar hacer un mapa del pasado, saba que tena que ver de otra manera. +Quiero mostrarles un ejemplo de cun diferente vemos al utilizar el infrarrojo. +Este es un lugar ubicado en el delta oriental de Egipto llamado Bendix. +Y el lugar, a simple vista, parece ser marrn, pero cuando usamos el infrarrojo y lo procesamos utilizando color falso, repentinamente el lugar se ve como rosa brillante. +Lo que estn viendo son los cambios qumicos reales del paisaje provocados por los materiales de construccin y las actividades de los antiguos egipcios. +Quiero compartir con ustedes cmo hemos usado los datos satelitales para encontrar una ciudad Egipcia antigua, llamada Ity-tauy, perdida durante miles de aos. +Ity-tauy fue la capital del antiguo Egipto por ms de 400 aos en un perodo de tiempo llamado el Imperio Medio hace aproximadamente 4000 aos. +El lugar se ubica en El Fayn, Egipto, y es realmente importante porque en el Imperio Medio, hubo este gran renacimiento del antiguo arte egipcio, la arquitectura y la religin. +Los egiptlogos siempre han sabido que Ity-tauy estaba ubicado en algn lugar cerca de las pirmides de los dos reyes que las construyeron, indicadas dentro de los crculos rojos aqu, pero en algn lugar dentro de esta enorme planicie de aluvin. +Esta rea es enorme, mide aproximadamente 6,5 por 4,9 km. +Antes, el Nilo flua justo al lado de Ity-tauy y a medida que cambi con el tiempo, se traslad al este y cubri toda la ciudad. +Entonces cmo encontrar una ciudad sepultada en un paisaje extenso? +Intentar encontrarla al azar sera el equivalente a buscar una aguja en un pajar, con los ojos vendados y usando guantes de bisbol. +Entonces, usamos datos topogrficos de la NASA para hacer un mapa del lugar, con cambios muy sutiles. +Pudimos ver por dnde flua el Nilo. +Pero pueden ver ms detalladamente, y es an ms interesante, esta rea ligeramente elevada que se ve dentro del crculo aqu, que pensamos que podra ser la ubicacin de Ity-tauy. +As que colaboramos con los cientficos egipcios haciendo trabajos de muestreo; lo pueden ver aqu. +Cuando digo muestreo, es como las tomas de muestra en hielo, pero en lugar de capas de cambio climtico, buscamos capas de ocupacin humana. +5 metros abajo, debajo de una capa gruesa de lodo, encontramos una capa densa de objetos de cermica. +Esto significa que en esta posible ubicacin de Ity-tauy, 5 metros abajo, tenemos una capa de ocupacin de varios cientos de aos que datan del Imperio Medio, exactamente del mismo perodo que creemos que es Ity-tauy. +Tambin encontramos trabajos de pedrera; cornalina, cuarzo y gata; lo que demuestra que ah haba un taller de joyera. +Esto podra parecer que no es mucho, pero cuando pensamos en las piedras ms comunes utilizadas en la joyera del Imperio Medio, estas son las piedras que se usaban. +Entonces, tenemos una capa densa de ocupacin que data del Imperio Medio en este lugar. +Tambin tenemos evidencia de un taller de joyera de lite que demuestra que lo que haya estado ah, era una ciudad muy importante. +An no encontramos Ity-tauy aqu, pero regresaremos al lugar en un futuro cercano para localizarla. +Y aun ms importante, tenemos los recursos para capacitar a jvenes egipcios en el uso de la tecnologa satelital de modo que ellos tambin puedan realizar grandes descubrimientos. +Quiero finalizar con mi cita favorita del Imperio Medio, probablemente estuvo escrita en Ity-tauy hace 4000 aos: +Compartir el conocimiento es la mayor de todas las vocaciones. +No hay nada como eso en la tierra. +As que segn parece, TED no fue fundada en 1984 d. C. +Haz que las ideas ocurran realmente comenz en 1984 a. C. en una ciudad perdida no por mucho tiempo y encontrada desde lo alto. +Ciertamente pone la bsqueda de conchas marinas en perspectiva. +Muchas gracias. +Gracias. +Quiero invitarlos a que cierren los ojos. +Imagnense de pie afuera, frente a la puerta de ss casa. +Quisiera que le presten atencin al color de la puerta, al material del que est hecha. +Ahora visualicen un grupo de nudistas obesos en bicicletas. +Estn compitiendo en una carrera nudista de bicicletas y van en direccin a su puerta de entrada. +Necesito que vean esto verdaderamente. +Estn pedaleando fuerte, estn sudando, van saltando mucho. +Y chocan de frente contra la puerta de su casa. +Hay bicicletas volando por todas partes, ruedas que pasan a su lado, rayos de las ruedas que terminan en lugares absurdos. Pasen el umbral de la puerta, +al vestbulo, al pasillo, o lo que que haya al otro lado de la puerta, y observen la calidad de la luz. La luz brilla sobre el Monstruo de las Galletas. +Los est saludando con la mano +desde su silla, sobre un caballo marrn. +Es un caballo que habla. +Pueden sentir su pelaje azul hacindoles cosquillas en la nariz. +Pueden oler la galleta de avena y pasas que est a punto de meterse en la boca. +Pasen por un lado y entren a su sala de estar. +Ya en la sala, y haciendo uso mximo de su imaginacin, imagnense a Britney Spears. +Est con poca ropa, bailando sobre su mesita de centro, cantando "Hit Me Baby One More Time". +Ahora sganme a la cocina. +El suelo ha sido recubierto con un camino de ladrillos amarillos y desde el horno vienen hacia ustedes Dorothy, el Hombre de Hojalata, el Espantapjaros y el Len de "El Mago de Oz", agarrados de las manos, saltando hacia ustedes. +Bien. Abran los ojos. +Quiero contarles acerca de un concurso peculiar que se lleva a cabo cada primavera en Nueva York. +Se llama el "Campeonato de Memoria de los Estados Unidos". +Yo fui a cubrir este evento hace unos aos como periodista cientifico, esperando, supongo, que esto fuese como la final de un supercampeonato de sabios. +Haba varios hombres y unas pocas damas de diferentes edades y diferentes hbitos de higiene. +Estaban memorizando cientos de nmeros aleatorios, mirndolos solo una vez. +Memorizaban los nombres de decenas y decenas de extraos. +Memorizaban poemas enteros en solo minutos. +Competan para ver quien poda memorizar con mayor rapidez el orden de una baraja de naipes. +Y yo pensaba: "Esto es increible". +Estas personas deben ser fenmenos de la naturaleza. +Y empec a hablar con algunos de los competidores. +Este, es un hombre llamado Ed Cook que haba venido desde Inglaterra y que tiene una de las memorias mejor entrenadas. +Le pregunt: "Ed, cundo te diste cuenta de que eras un sabio?" +Ed respondi: "Yo no soy un sabio. +En realidad, tengo una memoria promedio. +Todos los que participan de esta competencia dicen que tienen memoria normal. +"Nosotros nos hemos entrenado para realizar estos milagrosos actos de memoria usando unas tcnicas antiguas, inventadas hace 2500 aos en Grecia, las mismas tcnicas que utilizaba Cicern para memorizar sus discursos, y que los acadmicos medievales utilizaban para memorizar libros enteros". +Y mi reaccin fue: "Vaya. Cmo es que no haba odo de esto antes?" +Estbamos parados fuera del saln de la competencia, y Ed, quien es un ingls maravilloso y brillante, aunque un poco excntrico, me dijo: "Josh, t eres un periodista estadounidense, +conoces a Britney Spears?" +Y yo dije, "Qu? No, por qu? +"Porque me gustara ensearle a Britney Spears cmo memorizar el orden en una baraja de naipes en vivo, en televisin nacional. +Eso le probara al mundo que cualquiera puede hacerlo". +Y yo dije, "Bueno, no soy Britney Spears, pero quizs puedas ensearme a m. +O sea, tienes que empezar por algo no?" +Y ese fue el inicio de un viaje muy extrao para m. +Termin pasando la mayor parte del ao siguiente no solo entrenando mi memoria, sino tambin investigndola, tratando de entender cmo funciona, por qu a veces no funciona y cul puede ser su potencial. +Conoc a un montn de gente realmente interesante. +Este es un hombre llamado E.P. +l es amnsico, muy probablemente con la peor memoria en el mundo. +Su memoria era tan mala que ni siquiera recordaba que tena un problema de memoria; es impresionante. +Alguien increblemente trgico, pero era una ventana que permita ver hasta qu punto nuestra memoria nos hace quienes somos. +En el otro extremo del espectro conoc a este hombre. +Este es Kim Peek. En l se basaron para el papel de Dustin Hoffman en la pelcula "Rain Man". +Pasamos una tarde juntos en la biblioteca pblica de Salt Lake City, memorizando guas telefnicas; fue centelleante. +Y al regresar, le una cantidad de tratados sobre la memoria escritos hace algo ms de 2.000 aos en latn, en la Antigedad y luego en la Edad Media. +Y aprend muchas cosas realmente interesantes. +Una de las cosas ms interesantes que aprend es que hubo un tiempo en que esta idea de tener memoria entrenada, disciplinada y cultivada no era una cosa tan rara como puede parecernos hoy en da. +Hace mucho tiempo, la gente inverta en su memoria, en proveer laboriosamente sus mentes. +Estas tcnicas han hecho posible nuestro mundo moderno, pero tambin nos han cambiado. +Nos han cambiado culturalmente, y yo dira que nos han cambiado tambin cognitivamente. +Como ya casi no tenemos necesidad de recordar, a veces parece que nos hemos olvidado cmo hacerlo. +Uno de los ltimos lugares en nuestro planeta en dnde an se encuentra gente apasionada por esta idea de una memoria entrenada, disciplinada y cultivada es esta competencia tan singular de memoria. +En realidad no es tan singular; hay competencias como sta en todo el mundo. +Yo estaba fascinado, quera saber cmo hacen estas personas. +Hace unos aos, un grupo de investigadores del University College de Londres invit a un grupo de campeones de memoria, al laboratorio. +Queran saber: Ser que tiene cerebros de alguna manera, estructural o anatmicamente diferentes del resto de nosotros? +La respuesta fue, no. +Son acaso ms inteligentes que el resto? +Les dieron una batera de test cognitivos, y la respuesta fue en realidad, no. +Haba sin embargo, una diferencia realmente interesante y significativa entre los cerebros de los campeones de memoria y las de los sujetos de control con que los compararon. +Cuando los pusieron en una mquina de resonancia magntica, escanearon sus cerebros mientras memorizaban nmeros, caras y formas de copos de nieve. Encontraron que en los campeones de memoria se iluminaban partes del cerebro, diferentes a los dems. +En efecto ellos utilizaban, o parecan utilizar, una parte del cerebro que involucra memoria espacial y navegacin. +Por qu? Hay algo que podamos aprender de esto? +El torneo de la memorizacin competitiva se maneja como una carrera armada en donde cada ao aparece alguien con una nueva manera de recordar ms cosas, ms rpidamente, y luego el resto de los competidores deben ponerse al da. +Este es mi amigo Ben Pridmore, tres veces campen de memoria. +En su escritorio, frente a l, hay 36 barajas de naipes desordenadas que l est a punto de tratar de memorizar en una hora, usando una tcnica que l invent y que slo l domina. +l utiliz una tcnica similar para memorizar el orden preciso de 4140 dgitos binarios aleatorios, +en media hora. S. +Y mientras hay una gran cantidad de maneras de recordar cosas en estas competencias, absolutamente todas las tcnicas utilizadas al final se reducen a un solo concepto que los psiclogos llaman "codificacin elaborativa". +Se ilustra con una elegante paradoja conocida como la paradoja "Baker/baker". [Baker/panadero] Dice lo siguiente: Le digo a dos personas que recuerden la misma palabra. Se los digo a ustedes. "Recuerden que hay un hombre llamado Baker". +Ese es su apellido. +Y luego les pido, "Recuerden que hay un "baker" [panadero] +Y cuando regreso ms tarde, y les pregunto "Recuerdan esa palabra que les dije hace un rato?" +"Recuerdan cul era?" +La persona a la que se le dijo que su nombre es Baker es poco probable que recuerde la misma palabra que la persona a la que se le dijo que su trabajo es "baker". +La misma palabra, diferente capacidad de recuerdo; eso es raro. +Qu pasa aqu? +Bueno, el nombre Baker, en realidad no significa nada para ustedes. No tiene ninguna relacin +con todos los otros recuerdos que bailan por su cabeza. +Pero la palabra, "baker"... Conocemos panaderos. +Usan simpticos sombreros blancos. +Tienen harina en las manos. +Huelen bien cuando vuelven a casa de trabajar. +Probablemente conozcamos algn panadero. +Y cuando oimos esa palabra por primera vez, empezamos a poner enganches asociativos para pescarlos facililmente en algn momento posterior. +Una de las tcnicas ms elaboradas para hacer esto data de hace 2500 aos en la Grecia Antigua +Se conoce como el "palacio de la memoria". +La historia dice as: Haba un poeta llamado Simnides que asista a un banquete. +Lo haban contratado como entretenimiento, porque antes, si se quera dar una muy buena fiesta, no se traa a un DJ, se contrataba a un poeta. +l se puso de pie, recit su poema de memoria, y se march, y tan pronto se fue, el saln del banquete se colaps, +matndolos a todos. +Pero no slo los mat a todos, sino que destroz los cuerpos dejndolos irreconocibles. +Nadie poda decir quin estaba ah, nadie poda recordar dnde estaban sentados. +As no podran enterrarse los cuerpos.. +Una tragedia detrs de la otra. +Simnides, parado afuera, nico sobreviviente, en medio de los escombros, cerr los ojos y se di cuenta de que con los ojos de su mente, poda ver dnde haba estado sentado cada invitado. +Tom a los familiares de la mano llevndolos hacia donde estaban sus seres queridos entre los escombros. +Lo que Simnides advirti en ese momento es algo que todos conocemos ms o menos intuitivamente, y es que sin importar si no somos buenos para recordar nombres o nmeros de telfono o instrucciones palabra por palabra de nuestros colegas, tenemos memoria visual y espacial excepcionales. +Si les pidiese que me recitaran las primeras 10 palabras de la historia que les acabo de contar de Simnides, es muy probable que les resulte muy difcil hacerlo. +Pero apostara que si les pidiese que digan quin estaba sentado sobre el caballo parlante marrn en su vestbulo, seran capaces de vizualizarlo. +La idea del palacio de la memoria es crear este edificio con los ojos de su mente y poblarla de imgenes con las cosas que se quiere recordar. Cuanto ms loca, descabellada, graciosa, escabrosa y apestosa sea la imagen, ms inolvidable ser. +Este es un consejo que viene de hace ms de 2000 aos, a los primeros tratados de memoria, en latn. +Y cmo funciona? +Digamos que Uds. han sido invitados al escenario de TED para dar una charla y quieren hacerlo de memoria, de la misma forma que lo hubiese hecho Cicern si lo hubieran invitado a TEDxRoma hace 2000 aos. +Lo que podran hacer es imaginarse que estn en la puerta de su casa. +E idear alguna especie de imagen absolutamente ridcula, loca e inolvidable para ayudarles a recordar que lo primero que quieren mencionar es esa competencia completamente inslita. +Y luego se pueden imaginarse entrando a su casa, y ver al Monstruo de las Galletas montado sobre Mister Ed. +Y eso les recordara que quieren presentar a su amigo Ed Cook. +Y luego veran a Britney Spears para recordarles esa ancdota graciosa que quieren contar. +Y luego entraran en la cocina, y el cuarto tema del que hablaran sera ese viaje extrao que hicieron por un ao entero, y tienen algunos amigos para que les ayuden a recordarlo. +As es como los oradores romanos memorizaban sus discursos, no palabra por palabra, que los va a confundir sino, tpico por tpico. +De hecho el trmino "tpico", viene del griego "topos", que significa "lugar". +Es un vestigio de cuando las personas pensaban en la oratoria y en la retrica con esta especie de trminos espaciales. +La frase "en primer lugar", sera como el primer lugar en su palacio de memoria. +Vi que esto era simplemente fascinante, y me met de lleno en eso. +Fui a algunas de estas competencias de memoria y tena la idea de escribir algo extenso sobre esta subcultura de memorizadores competitivos. +Pero haba un problema. +El problema era que una competencia de memoria es un evento patolgicamente aburrido. +En serio, es como ver un montn de personas sentadas tomando exmenes. Quiero decir, que lo ms emocionante que pasa es cuando alguien se masajea la frente. +Soy un periodista y necesito poder escribir sobre algo. +S que hay cosas increbles sucediendo en las mentes de estas personas, pero no tengo acceso. +Me d cuenta de que si iba a contar esta historia, necesitaba tratar de ponerme en su lugar. +As que comenc a pasar 15 o 20 minutos todas las maanas, antes de sentarme a ver el New York Times, simplemente tratando de recordar algo. +Quiz un poema. O los nombres de un antiguo anuario escolar comprado en un mercado de pulgas. +Y descubr que esto era sorpresivamente entretenido. +Jams hubiese esperado que lo fuese. +Era entretenido, porque no se trataba solamente de entrenar la memoria. +Lo que en realidad se trata de hacer es mejorar cada vez ms la capacidad para crear e imaginar estas imgenes ridculas, cmicas, provocativas, inslitas, absurdas y ojal inolvidables, en el ojo de la mente. +Me enganch bastante con esto. +Este soy yo, usando mi equipo estndar de entrenamiento para la competencia de memoria. +Es un par de orejeras y unas gafas de seguridad cubiertas con cinta dejando solo dos agujeritos, porque la distraccin es el peor enemigo de un competidor de memoria. +Termin regresando al mismo concurso que haba cubierto un ao antes. Tena la idea de que podra ingresar, en una especie de experimento periodstico participativo. +Pens que esto podra servir de buen eplogo para toda mi investigacin. +El problema fue que el experimento se sali de control. +Y me gan el concurso, algo que no tena que suceder. +Claro que es lindo poder memorizar discursos, y nmeros de telfono, y listas de compras, pero en realidad este no es el punto. +Estos son tan solo trucos. Trucos que funcionan +porque se basan en principios bastante bsicos sobre cmo funciona el cerebro. +Y no es necesario que se pongan a construir palacios de la memoria o memorizar barajas de naipes. Para beneficiarse con un poco de perspicacia sobre cmo funciona su mente. +Con frecuencia hablamos de personas con una gran memoria como si se tratara de un don innato, pero no es el caso. +Las grandes memorias se educan. +Al nivel ms bsico, recordamos cuando prestamos atencin. +Recordamos cuando nos concentramos profundamente. +El palacio de la memoria... Estas tcnicas de memoria, son solo atajos. +De hecho, ni siquiera son atajos de verdad. +Funcionan porque hacen que nostros funcionemos. +Fuerzan una especie de procesamiento profundo, una especie de atencin completa que la mayora no anda ejercitando por ah. +Pero la realidad es que no hay atajos. +As es como las cosas se hacen memorables. +Y si hay algo que quiero dejarles hoy, es lo que E.P., el amnsico que ni siquiera poda recordar que tena un problema de memoria, me dej a m, que es la nocin de que la vida es la suma de nuestros recuerdos. +Cunto estamos dispuestos a perder de lo que ya es nuestra corta existencia perdindonos en los Blackberries o iPhones, no prestando atencin al ser humano frente a nosotros, quien camina a nuestro lado. Seremos tan holgazanes que ni siquiera nos molestamos en procesar en profundidad? +Aprend de primera mano que existen capacidades de memoria increbles latentes en todos nosotros. +Pero si quieres vivir una vida memorable, debes ser del tipo de persona que recuerda recordar. +Gracias. +Hoy les hablar sobre los ltimos 30 aos de la historia de la arquitectura. +Es mucho para cubrir en 18 minutos. +Es un tema complejo, as que abordaremos solo un lugar complejo: Nueva Jersey. +Porque hace 30 aos, soy de N. Jersey, yo tena 6 aos y viva all en casa de mis padres en un pueblo llamado Livingston, y este era mi dormitorio de nio. +En la esquina, desde mi dormitorio, estaba el bao que comparta con mi hermana. +Y, entre mi dormitorio y el bao, haba un balcn que daba a la sala de estar. +Y ah todos pasaban el rato viendo la tele. As que cada vez que iba de mi habitacin al bao, todos me vean. Y cada vez que me duchaba y volva envuelto en una toalla, todos me vean. +Y yo era as. +Era torpe, inseguro y lo odiaba. +Odiaba ese recorrido, odiaba ese balcn, odiaba esa habitacin y esa casa. +Eso es la arquitectura. +Listo. +Esos sentimientos, esas emociones que senta, ese es el poder de la arquitectura. Porque la arquitectura no se trata de matemticas, ni de divisin de zonas, sino de esas conexiones viscerales, emocionales, que sentimos en los lugares que ocupamos. +Y no es de extraar que nos sintamos de esa manera, porque de acuerdo con la Agencia de Proteccin Ambiental los estadounidenses pasan el 90 % de su tiempo bajo techo. +O sea, el 90 % del tiempo estamos rodeados de arquitectura. +Eso es muchsimo. +La arquitectura nos determina en formas que ni siquiera nos damos cuenta. +Eso nos hace un poco ingenuos y muy, muy predecibles. +Esto significa que cuando les muestro un edificio como este, s lo que les evoca: piensan en "poder", "estabilidad" y "democracia". +Y s que lo piensan as por basarse en un edificio construido hace 2500 aos por los griegos. +Este es un truco. +Es un desencadenante que usan los arquitectos para crear una conexin emocional con las formas en que construimos nuestros edificios. +Es una conexin emocional predecible; hemos usado este truco desde hace mucho, mucho tiempo. +Lo usamos hace 200 aos para construir bancos. +Lo usamos en el siglo XIX para construir museos de arte. +Y en el siglo XX en EE.UU., lo usamos para construir casas. +Miren, estos soldaditos estables, slidos, frente al mar, alejados de los elementos. +Esto es muy, muy til, porque construir cosas es aterrador. +Es costoso, lleva mucho tiempo y es muy complicado. +Las personas que construyen. los urbanizadores y los gobiernos, siempre tienen miedo a la innovacin, y prefieren usar formas que saben que van a funcionar. +Por eso nos encontramos con edificios como este. +Es una bonita edificacin. +Es la Biblioteca Pblica de Livingston que se termin en 2004, en mi ciudad natal, y, ya saben, tiene una cpula; tiene esta cosa redonda, columnas, ladrillo rojo, que dejan entrever lo que Livingston trata de comunicar con este edificio: los nios, los valores de propiedad, la historia. +Pero no tiene mucho que ver con una biblioteca de hoy en da. +Ese mismo ao, en 2004, al otro lado del pas, se termin otra biblioteca, que luce as. +Est en Seattle. +Esta biblioteca muestra cmo usamos los medios de comunicacin en la era digital. +Es un nuevo tipo de equipamiento pblico para la ciudad, un lugar para reunirse, leer y compartir. +Entonces, cmo es posible que en el mismo ao, en el mismo pas, dos edificios, ambos denominados bibliotecas, sean tan completamente diferentes? +Y la respuesta es que la arquitectura funciona segn el principio del pndulo. +En un lado est la innovacin; los arquitectos que constantemente impulsan nuevas tecnologas, nuevas tipologas, nuevas soluciones para las formas de vida actual. +Impulsamos, impulsamos e impulsamos tanto, que nos alejamos completamente de la gente. +Todos de negro, esto nos deprime. Uds. creen que nos sentimos muy bien, pero estamos muertos por dentro porque no tenemos otra opcin. +Tenemos que ir al otro lado y volver a conectarnos con esos smbolos apreciados. +As lo hacemos, y estamos todos felices, pero nos sentimos como traidores, As que empezamos a experimentar de nuevo; hacemos oscilar el pndulo de atrs a adelante, una y otra vez. As lo hemos hecho en los ltimos 300 aos, y claro est, en los ltimos 30 aos. +Bueno, hace 30 aos salamos de la dcada de los 70. +Los arquitectos estaban ocupados experimentando con el denominado "brutalismo". +Tiene que ver con el hormign. +Eso se puede adivinar. +Ventanas pequeas, en escala deshumanizante. +Algo realmente muy duro. +As, nos acercamos a los 80, y empezamos a incorporar esos smbolos. +Empujamos el pndulo de nuevo en la otra direccin. +Tomamos esas formas que sabemos que gustan y las actualizamos. +Aadimos nen y aadimos pasteles y usamos nuevos materiales. +Les encanta. +No damos abasto. +Tomamos armarios Chippendale y los convertimos en rascacielos, que pueden ser castillos medievales hechos de vidrio. +Las formas se agrandaron, ganaron en audacia y colorido. +Los enanos se convirtieron en columnas. +Los cisnes crecieron hasta el tamao de los edificios. +Una locura. +Pero eran los 80, eso era genial. +Todos pasamos el rato en centros comerciales, nos mudamos a los barrios, y ah, en los suburbios, podamos crear nuestras propias fantasas arquitectnicas. +Esas fantasas podan ser a la mediterrnea, a la francesa, o a la italiana. +Posiblemente con un sinfn de palitos de pan. +Esto es lo que pasa con el postmodernismo. +Esto es lo que pasa con los smbolos. +Son fciles, son baratos, porque en vez de crear nuevos espacios, recreamos recuerdos de otros lugares. +Yo s muy bien, y todos Uds. saben, que esto no es la Toscana. +Esto es Ohio. +Los arquitectos se sienten frustrados y empezamos a hacer oscilar el pndulo de nuevo en la otra direccin. +En los aos 80 y a principios de los 90, empezamos a experimentar con el denominado deconstructivismo. +Descartamos los smbolos histricos; ahora contamos con nuevas tcnicas de diseo asistido por computadora, y nos encontramos con nuevas composiciones; unas formas que se estrellan contra otras formas. +Esto es acadmico y embriagador, y es sper impopular; Uno queda totalmente excluido. +Normalmente, el pndulo oscilara de nuevo en direccin opuesta. +Pero entonces, sucedi algo sorprendente: +En 1997, se inaugur este edificio. +Es el Guggenheim de Bilbao, de Frank Gehry. +Este edificio cambi fundamentalmente la relacin del mundo con la arquitectura. +Paul Goldberger dijo que Bilbao fue uno de esos raros momentos cuando crticos, acadmicos y pblico en general, estuvieron completamente de acuerdo sobre un edificio. +El diario New York Times calific esta construccin de milagrosa. +El turismo en Bilbao aument en un 2500 % cuando terminaron el edificio. +As, de repente, todo el mundo quera uno de esos edificios: Los ngeles, Seattle, Chicago, Nueva York, Cleveland, Springfield. +Todo el mundo quera uno, y Gehry estaba en todas partes. +l fue nuestro primer arquitecto estrella. +Pero, cmo es posible que estas formas, salvajes y radicales, cmo es posible que se conviertan en omnipresentes en todo el mundo? +Y sucedi, porque los medios se galvanizaron en torno a ellos y rpidamente aprendimos que esas formas significaban cultura y turismo. +Hemos creado una reaccin emocional con estas formas. +Lo mismo hicieron los principales alcaldes del mundo. +As todos crean que si tenan estas formas, tenan cultura y turismo. +Este fenmeno de comienzos del nuevo milenio pas con otros arquitectos estrella. +Le pas a Zaha y a Libeskind, y lo que pas con estos pocos arquitectos de lite en el umbral del nuevo milenio, en realidad empez a pasar con toda la arquitectura. Los medios digitales empezaron a aumentar la velocidad del consumo de informacin. +Piensen, por ejemplo, cmo consumen arquitectura. +Hace mil aos, tendran que haber caminado hasta el prximo pueblo para ver un edificio. +El transporte se acelera: pueden tomar un barco, un avin, pueden ser turistas. +La tecnologa acelera. Se puede ver en los peridicos, en la tele, y al final, todos somos fotgrafos de arquitectura, y el edificio se transporta ms all de su ubicacin fsica. +La arquitectura est en todas partes ahora; eso significa que la velocidad de las comunicaciones finalmente ha alcanzado la velocidad de la arquitectura. +Debido a que la arquitectura se mueve tan rpido, +no se precisa mucho tiempo para pensar en un edificio. +Se necesita mucho tiempo para construir un edificio, 3 o 4 aos, y en ese tiempo, un arquitecto puede disear 2, 8, o 100 edificios ms, antes de saber si el que dise hace 4 aos fue un xito o no. +Porque nunca ha habido buena retroalimentacin en la arquitectura. +As es como nos encontramos con edificios como este. +El brutalismo no fue un movimiento de 2 aos, sino de 20 aos. +Durante 20 aos, estuvimos construyendo edificios como este porque no tenamos ni idea de cunto los detestaban. +Eso nunca va a volver a suceder. Creo. Porque estamos en el umbral de la mayor revolucin en la arquitectura desde la invencin del hormign, del acero o del ascensor, y es la revolucin de los medios. +Mi teora es que cuando se aplica el pndulo a los medios de comunicacin, empieza a oscilar cada vez ms rpido, hasta llegar a estar en ambos extremos casi en simultneo, y se desdibuja efectivamente la diferencia entre innovacin y smbolo, entre nosotros, los arquitectos, y Uds., el pblico. +Ahora podemos hacer smbolos casi instantneos, con carga emocional, de algo completamente nuevo. +Les ensear cmo funciona el sistema en un proyecto que mi empresa termin recientemente. +Fuimos contratados para sustituir este edificio que se incendi. +Este es el centro de un pueblo llamado Pines en Fire Island, en el estado de Nueva York. +Es una comunidad de vacaciones. +Pero eso signific que 2 aos antes de que se terminara el edificio, ya era parte de la comunidad. Y como los dibujos se parecan exactamente al producto terminado, no hubo sorpresas. +El edificio lleg a ser parte de la comunidad. Ese primer verano, cuando la gente comenz a llegar y lo comparta en los medios sociales, el edificio dej de ser solo un edificio, se convirti en un medio de comunicacin, porque estas no son solo imgenes de un edificio, son las imgenes que uno hizo del edificio. +Y conforme uno las usa para contar su historia, se convierten en parte de la narrativa personal, y eso hace cortocircuitos con la memoria colectiva. Y al cargar estos smbolos, nosotros aprendemos. +Es decir, ya no necesitamos que los griegos nos digan cmo pensar la arquitectura. +Podemos decirnos mutuamente qu pensamos de la arquitectura, porque los medios digitales no solo han cambiado la relacin entre nosotros, sino que han cambiado la relacin entre nosotros y los edificios. +Piensen por un segundo en esos bibliotecarios de Livingston. +Si ese edificio se construyera hoy, primero iramos a Internet en busca de "nuevas bibliotecas". +Seramos bombardeados con ejemplos de experimentacin, de innovacin, sobre qu puede ser una biblioteca. +Eso son municiones. +Municiones que pueden llevar al alcalde de Livingston, a la gente de Livingston, y decirles que no hay respuesta nica a lo que puede ser una biblioteca hoy. +Seamos parte de esto. +Esta abundancia de soluciones da la libertad de experimentar. +Todo es diferente ahora. +Los arquitectos ya no son esas criaturas misteriosas que usan palabras grandilocuentes y dibujos complicados, y uno ya no es un pblico desventurado que no acepta algo que no haya visto antes. +Los arquitectos pueden escuchar, y uno no se deja intimidar por la arquitectura. +Eso significa que el pndulo oscilante de un estilo a otro, de un movimiento a otro, es irrelevante. +De hecho, podemos seguir adelante y encontrar soluciones adecuadas a los problemas que enfrenta la sociedad. +Este es el final de la historia de la arquitectura, y significa que los edificios del maana sern muy diferente a los edificios de hoy. +Esto significa que un espacio pblico en la antigua ciudad de Sevilla puede ser nico y adaptado a la medida de una ciudad moderna. +Esto significa que un estadio en Brooklyn puede ser eso, un estadio en Brooklyn, y no una mala imitacin histrica de ladrillo rojo con base en ideas de lo que debe ser un estadio. +Esto significa que unos robots podrn construir nuestros edificios, porque finalmente estaremos listos para las formas que van a producir. +Eso significa que los edificios se amoldan a los caprichos de la naturaleza y no al contrario. +Esto significa que un garaje de estacionamiento en Miami Beach, Florida, tambin puede servir para hacer deporte o para yoga, o incluso uno puede casarse all en la noche. +Esto significa que 3 arquitectos pueden soar con natacin en el East River de Nueva York, y recaudar medio milln de dlares de la comunidad unida en torno de esa causa, ya no es un cliente solo. +Significa que ningn edificio es demasiado pequeo para la innovacin, como este pequeo pabelln de renos, tan musculoso y fibroso como los animales que se van a observar. +Porque ya no importa si es una vaca o un robot quien construye nuestros edificios. +No importa cmo construimos, lo que importa es qu construimos. +Los arquitectos ya saben cmo hacer edificios ms ecolgicos, ms inteligentes y ms amables. +Hemos estado esperando a que todos Uds. los deseen. +Finalmente, ya no estamos en lados opuestos. +Encuentren un arquitecto, contrtenlo y trabajemos juntos para hacer mejores edificios, mejores ciudades, para un mundo mejor, porque hay mucho en juego. +Los edificios no solo reflejan nuestra sociedad, sino que le dan forma hasta a los espacios ms pequeos: las bibliotecas locales, los hogares donde formamos a nuestros hijos, y el paso del dormitorio al bao. +Muchas gracias. +Esta es mi sobrina, Stella. +Acaba de cumplir un ao y ya empez a caminar. +Y lo hace de esa manera genial, tpica de los nios de un ao, tambalendose, como si su cuerpo se estuviera moviendo demasiado rpido para sus piernas. +Es totalmente precioso. +Y una de las cosas que ms le gusta hacer por el momento es mirarse en el espejo. +Ella realmente ama su reflejo. +Se re y chilla, y se da a s misma esos besos grandes y hmedos. +Es hermoso. +Aparentemente, todos sus amigos hacen esto y mi mam me cuenta que yo sola hacerlo. Y me hizo pensar: Cundo par de hacer esto? +Cmo es que de repente no estamos a gusto con nuestra apariencia? +Porque, aparentemente, no nos gusta. +Cada mes, 10 000 personas buscan en Google: "Soy fea?" +Esta es Faye, tiene 13 aos y vive en Denver. +Y como cualquier adolescente, solo quiere ser querida y encajar. +Es domingo por la noche. +Se est preparando para la prxima semana en la escuela. +Tiene un poco de miedo, est un poco confundida porque, a pesar de que su mam le dice todo el rato que es hermosa, todos los das en la escuela, alguien le dice que es fea. +Entre lo que su mam le dice y lo que sus amigos, o compaeros de la escuela le dicen, no sabe a quin creer. +As que hace un vdeo de ella misma, lo publica en YouTube, y pide a otros que por favor dejen un comentario: "Soy bonita o soy fea?" +Bueno, hasta ahora, Faye ha recibido ms de 13 000 comentarios. +Algunos de estos son tan desagradables, que ni siquiera merece la pena pensar en ellos. +Hablamos de una adolescente sana, normal y corriente, que recibe estas respuestas en una de las etapas de su vida ms vulnerables emocionalmente. +Miles de personas estn publicando vdeos como este, en su mayora chicas adolescentes intentando comunicarse de esta manera. +Pero qu las est llevando a hacer esto? +Bueno, los adolescentes de hoy casi nunca estn solos. +Estn bajo presin de estar en lnea y disponibles todo el tiempo, hablando, chateando, dando "me gusta", comentando, compartiendo, publicando, esto nunca se termina. +Nunca antes hemos estado tan conectados, de manera continua, de modo instantneo, tan jvenes. +Como una madre me dijo: "Es como que hay una fiesta en su cuarto todas las noches". +Simplemente no hay privacidad. +Y las presiones sociales que van de la mano con eso son implacables. +Este entorno, de estar siempre conectado, est adiestrando a nuestros hijos a autoevaluarse basndose en el nmero de "me gusta" que tienen y los tipos de comentarios que reciben. +No hay divisin entre una vida en lnea y la vida real. +Es realmente difcil saber las diferencias entre qu es real o qu no lo es. +Y tambin, es muy difcil saber la diferencia entre lo que es autntico y lo que es manipulado digitalmente. +Qu es lo ms destacado en la vida de alguien frente a qu es normal en un contexto diario? +Y dnde estn buscando la inspiracin? +Bueno, pueden ver el tipo de imgenes que son portadas de las noticias de las chicas de ahora. +Modelos de talla cero siguen dominando nuestras pasarelas. +La tcnica del aergrafo es ahora una rutina. +Y tendencias como: #thinspiration, #thighgap, #bikinibridge y #proana. +Para aquellos que lo desconocen, #proana significa pro-anorexia. +Estas tendencias estn asociadas de las mujeres en la cultura popular de hoy. +No es difcil de ver con qu se comparan las jvenes. +Pero los chicos tampoco son inmunes a esto. +como los de las estrellas superhroes del deporte, y los cantantes rompecorazones. +Pero cul es el problema con todo esto? +Bueno, seguramente queremos que nuestros hijos crezcan sanos y sean individuos bien equilibrados. +Pero en una cultura obsesionada por la imagen, estamos enseando a nuestros hijos a dedicar ms tiempo y esfuerzo mental a su apariencia, al precio de todos los dems aspectos de su identidad. +Cosas como sus relaciones, el desarrollo de sus capacidades fsicas, sus estudios y otros aspectos comienzan a sufrir. +6 de cada 10 nias prefieren no hacer algo porque piensan que no se ven lo suficientemente bonitas. +Estas no son actividades triviales. +Son actividades fundamentales para su crecimiento como seres humanos y como contribuyentes a la sociedad y al campo del desarrollo laboral. +31 %, casi uno de cada tres adolescentes no estn interesados en los debates de clase. Evitan participar en los debates de aula porque no quieren llamar la atencin por su aspecto fsico. +Uno de cada cinco no estn asistiendo a clases en absoluto durante los das cuando no se sienten cmodos al respecto. +Y en la temporada de exmenes, si no crees que te ves lo suficientemente bien, especficamente si no crees que eres lo suficientemente delgada, obtendrs una nota menor a la del promedio de tus compaeros quienes no se preocupan por eso de la apariencia. +Y este fenmeno se ha generalizado en Finlandia, Estados Unidos y China, +y se da independientemente de lo que en realidad pesan estos jvenes. +As que, para que quede bien claro, estamos hablando de como t te ves, no de cmo eres realmente. +La baja autoestima sobre su cuerpo est debilitando el rendimiento acadmico. +Y tambin est perjudicando la salud. +Los adolescentes con poca autoestima realizan menos actividad fsica, comen menos frutas y vegetales, participan en ms dietas no saludables que pueden llevarlos a un desorden alimentario. +Tienen baja autoestima. +Son ms fcilmente influidos por las personas que los rodean y estn en mayor riesgo de depresin. +Y pensamos que es por todo esto por lo que toman decisiones ms arriesgadas, como el consumo de alcohol y de drogas, dietas drsticas, ciruga esttica, relaciones sexuales a edades tempranas y sin proteccin y dao auto-infligido. +La bsqueda del cuerpo perfecto est presionando al sistema de salud, y a nuestro gobierno le cuesta miles de millones de dlares cada ao. +Y no lo estamos controlando. +Mujeres que creen que tienen sobrepeso nuevamente, independientemente de si tienen o no tienen mayores tasas de absentismo. +El 17 % de las mujeres no se presentan a una entrevista de trabajo en un da en que no se sienten seguras con la manera como se ven. +Piensen por un momento en lo que esto est haciendo a nuestra economa. +Si nosotros pudiramos superar esto, cul sera esa oportunidad? +Liberar este potencial es de inters para cada uno de nosotros. +Pero cmo hacemos eso? +Bueno, hablando, por s solo, no te lleva muy lejos. +No basta. +Si realmente quieres cambiar las cosas, tienes que hacer algo. +Y hemos aprendido que hay tres formas claves. La primera es que tenemos que inculcar confianza en su propio cuerpo. +Tenemos que ayudar a nuestros adolescentes a desarrollar estrategias para superar la presin de las imgenes perfectas y construir su autoestima. +La buena noticia es que hay muchos programas disponibles para hacerlo. +La mala noticia es que la mayora de estos no funcionan. +Me qued muy sorprendida cuando aprend que muchos programas bien intencionados, sin darse cuenta, empeoran la situacin. +Por lo tanto, debemos asegurarnos de que el programa que siguen nuestros hijos no solamente tendr un impacto positivo, sino tambin un impacto duradero. +Y los estudios de investigacin muestran que los mejores programas se centran en seis reas claves. La primera es la influencia de la familia, amigos y relaciones. +Estos seis aspectos son puntos de partida cruciales para cualquiera dispuesto a brindar una educacin en autoestima corporal que funcione. +Una educacin es fundamental, pero enfrentarnos a este problema requiere de cada uno de nosotros que tomemos las riendas en el asunto y seamos un mejor modelo a seguir por las mujeres y las nias en nuestras propias vidas, +desafiando el estatus actual de como las mujeres son vistas y mencionadas en nuestros crculos. +No es bueno contar con la aportacin de nuestros polticos en cortes de pelo o el tamao de sus pechos, o de insinuar que la determinacin o el xito de un atleta olmpico depende del hecho de que no es una gran belleza. +Necesitamos empezar a juzgar a las personas por lo que son, no por como se ven. +Todos nosotros podemos empezar hacindolo asumiendo la responsabilidad por el tipo de imgenes y comentarios que publicamos en nuestras redes sociales. +Podemos elogiar a las personas basndonos en su esfuerzo y sus acciones y no en su apariencia. +Y djenme preguntarles: Cundo fue la ltima vez que besaron un espejo? +En resumen, tenemos que trabajar juntos como comunidades, como gobiernos y como empresas, para cambiar verdaderamente nuestra cultura, para que nuestros hijos crezcan valorando toda su persona, valorando la individualidad, la diversidad, la inclusin. +Tenemos que poner a la gente que est realmente marcando la diferencia en un pedestal, +por marcar una diferencia en el mundo real, hagamos que sean ellos los que salen en la gran pantalla porque solo as crearemos un mundo diferente. +Un mundo en donde nuestro hijos son libres de convertirse en la mejor versin de ellos mismos, donde la manera en que ellos creen que se ven nunca los retenga de ser quienes son, o de alcanzar lo que ellos quieren en sus vidas. +Piensen lo que esto puede significar para alguien en sus vidas. +A quin tienen en mente? +A su esposa? +A su hermana? +A su hija? +A su sobrina? A su amiga? +Podra ser simplemente la mujer que est a dos asientos de distancia. Qu significara para ella si fuese liberada de esa voz autocrtica en su interior, que le atormenta por no tener piernas largas, muslos ms delgados, un vientre ms plano, pies ms pequeos? +Qu significara para ella si nosotros superramos esto y diramos rienda suelta a su potencial de esa manera? +Ahora mismo, la obsesin de nuestra cultura con las imgenes nos est reteniendo a todos. +Pero ensemosles a nuestros hijos la verdad. +Ensemosles que la manera en que te ves es solo una parte de tu identidad, y que la verdad es que los amamos por quienes son y por lo que hacen, y por como nos hacen sentir. +Incluyamos a la autoestima en los currculos de nuestras escuelas. +Cambiemos cada uno de nosotros, la manera en la que hablamos y nos comparamos con otras personas. +Y trabajemos juntos como una comunidad, desde pequeos grupos hasta gobiernos, para que los pequeos traviesos de un ao de edad de hoy, se conviertan en agentes de cambio seguros de s mismos maana. +Hagmoslo. +El 5 de noviembre de 1990, un seor llamado El-Sayyid Nosair entr a un hotel en Manhattan y asesin al rabino Meir Kahane, el lder de la Liga de Defensa Juda. +A Nosair inicialmente lo declararon inocente, pero estando preso por otros cargos menores, en compaa de otros, empezaron a planear ataques a unos 12 conos de Nueva York, incluyendo tneles, sinagogas y la sede de Naciones Unidas. +Por suerte esos planes se frustraron por un informante del FBI. +Tristemente, la bomba de 1993 en el World Trade Center, no se pudo evitar. +Ms tarde Nosair sera condenado por su participacin en ese atentado. +El-Sayyid Nosair es mi padre. +Yo nac en Pittsburgh, Pensilvania, en 1983, siendo l un ingeniero egipcio, con una amorosa madre estadounidense, maestra de escuela primaria. Entre los dos hicieron todo la posible por darme una niez feliz. +Solo cuando yo tena 7 aos, nuestra familia empez a cambiar. +Mi padre me ense una forma del Islam, que muy pocos, inclusive la mayora de los musulmanes, llegan a conocer. +Por experiencia vi que cuando la gente toma tiempo para interactuar, no se requiere mucho para llegar a desear las mismas cosas en la vida. +Sin embargo, en toda religin, en todo grupo humano, siempre hay una pequea fraccin de gente que se aferra tan ardorosamente a sus convicciones que piensa que hay que usar todos los medios posibles para que todos vivan como ellos. +Pocos meses antes del arresto l se sent conmigo y me explic que en los ltimos fines de semana, l y algunos amigos, haban estado yendo a entrenamiento de tiro en Long Island, para practicar. +Me dijo que yo ira con l al da siguiente. +Llegamos al polgono de tiro Calverton que, sin saberlo nuestro grupo, estaba vigilado por el FBI. +Cuando me toc tirar, mi padre me ayud a sostener el rifle en el hombro y me explic cmo apuntar al objetivo a unos 30 metros. +Ese da, con la ltima bala que dispar le di a la pequea luz naranja sobre el objetivo y, para sorpresa de todos, especialmente ma, todo el objetivo estall en llamas. +Mi to se volvi hacia los dems y en rabe, dijo "Ibn abuh". +De tal padre, tal hijo. +A todos, el comentario les produjo mucha risa. Pero solo unos aos ms tarde comprend lo que a ellos les pareci tan gracioso. +Vieron en m, el mismo nivel de destruccin que mi padre podra causar. +Esas personas ms tarde seran condenadas por colocar una van cargada con 700 kilos de explosivos en el estacionamiento subterrneo de la torre norte del World Trade Center, causando una explosin que mat a seis personas e hiri a otras 1000. +Yo admiraba a esos hombres. +Los llamaba "ammu", que significa to. +Cuando cumpl 19, ya me haba mudado 20 veces. Esa inestabilidad durante mi niez no me permiti hacer muchas amistades. +Cada vez que empezaba a sentirme cmodo cerca de alguien ya era momento de empacar e irnos a otra ciudad. +Como siempre era yo la cara nueva de la clase con frecuencia era vctima de matoneos. +Conservaba secreta mi identidad para evitar ser el blanco. Pero ser el nuevo de la clase, silencioso y regordete, era suficiente municin. +As que la mayor parte del tiempo la pasaba en casa leyendo libros, viendo TV o jugando videojuegos. +Por estas razones no desarroll habilidades sociales, para decirlo suavemente. Por crecer bajo fanatismo, no estaba preparado para el mundo real. +Me educaron pera juzgar a la gente, con base en indicadores arbitrarios, como su raza o su religin. +Entonces, cmo pude abrir los ojos? +Una de las primeras experiencias que pusieron a prueba mi modo de pensar, fue durante las elecciones presidenciales de 2000. +En un programa preuniversitario en el que particip en la Convencin Nacional Juvenil, en Filadelfia. +Mi grupo se enfoc en el tema de la violencia juvenil. Como yo haba sido vctima de matoneo casi toda mi vida, era algo por lo que senta mucha pasin. +Los miembros de este grupo venan de diversas procedencias. +Un da, hacia el final de la convencin, descubr que uno de los chicos con quien habamos hecho amistad, era judo. +Llev varios das salir a la luz este detalle y me di cuenta de que no haba ninguna animosidad entre los dos. +Nunca antes haba tenido un amigo judo y francamente me sent muy orgulloso de haber podido vencer la barrera que toda la vida se me haba hecho creer que era infranqueable. +Otro momento crucial surgi cuando consegu un trabajo de verano en Bush Gardens, un parque de diversiones. +Me encontr con gente de todo tipo de creencias y culturas. Esa experiencia result fundamental en el desarrollo de mi carcter. +Toda la vida se me haba enseado que el homosexualismo era un pecado y, por extensin, todos los homosexuales eran malas influencias. +Por casualidad, tuve la oportunidad de trabajar con actores homosexuales all, en un espectculo, y pude ver que varios de ellos eran los ms amables y menos crticos que haba visto en la vida. +Habiendo sido acosado de nio, desarroll un sentido de empata hacia el sufrimiento de los dems. Pero no era fcil para m tratar a personas amables, exactamente de la manera como yo habra deseado ser tratado. +Por ese sentimiento pude contrastar los estereotipos que me haban enseado de nio, con la experiencia de la interaccin en la vida real. +No s cmo es eso de ser homosexual pero s s lo que es ser juzgado por algo ms all de mi control. +Luego vino el "Daily Show". +Todas las noches, Jon Stewart me haca ser intelectualmente honesto respecto a mis intolerancias, y me ayudaba a ver que la raza de las personas, la religin o la orientacin sexual, no tienen nada que ver con el carcter. +En muchas formas l se volvi mi figura paterna en un momento en que yo estaba desesperadamente necesitndolo. +En ocasiones, la inspiracin puede venir de lo inesperado. Y que un comediante judo hubiera tenido una mejor influencia en mi vida que mi propio padre, extremista, no fue en vano. +Un da tuve una conversacin con mi madre sobre cmo estaba cambiando mi modo de pensar, y ella me dijo algo que conservar en mi corazn por siempre, mientras est vivo. +Ella me mir con los ojos cansados de alguien que ha sufrido suficiente con interminable dogmatismo y me dijo: "Estoy cansada de odiar". +En ese momento me di cuenta de cunta energa negativa se necesita para mantener todo ese odio en tu interior. +Mi nombre real no es Zak Ebrahim. +Lo cambi cuando mi familia decidi romper la relacin con mi padre y empezar una nueva vida. +Entonces, por qu decid salir y ponerme en un posible riesgo? +Bueno, es sencillo. +Lo he hecho porque espero que alguien, algn da, a quien se le trate de llevar a la violencia, pueda or mi historia y entender que hay un mejor camino. Que aunque a m me condicionaron a esta ideologa violenta e intolerante, yo no llegu a hacerme fantico. +Por el contrario, decid usar mi experiencia para luchar contra el terrorismo y contra los prejuicios. +Lo hago por las vctimas del terrorismo y por sus seres queridos. Por el terrible dolor y las prdidas que el terrorismo les ha producido en sus vidas. +Por las vctimas del terrorismo hablar, contra esos actos sin sentido, como rechazo a las acciones de mi padre. +Con esta sencillez me expongo aqu como prueba de que la violencia no es inherente a ninguna religin o raza. Que los hijos no tienen que seguir los caminos de sus padres. +Yo no soy mi padre. +Gracias. Gracias a todos. Gracias de verdad. Muchas gracias. +En este momento hay una pelcula que se proyecta en sus mentes. +Es una pelcula multitrack increble. +Est en 3D y tiene sonido surround de lo que escuchan y ven ahora mismo. Pero eso es slo el comienzo. +Tu pelcula tiene aroma, sabor y textura. +Siente tu cuerpo, tu dolor, tu hambre, tu placer. +Tiene emociones, enojo y felicidad. +Tiene recuerdos, como momentos de tu infancia que se proyectan ante tus ojos. +Y tiene constantemente una voz superpuesta en tu flujo de pensamiento consciente. +El corazn de la pelcula eres t quien experimenta todo en directo. +Esta pelcula es tu flujo de conciencia, el sujeto de la experiencia de la mente y del mundo. +La conciencia es una de las verdades fundamentales de la existencia del ser humano. +Cada uno de nosotros es consciente. +Todos tenemos una pelcula interna propia, t, t y t. +No hay nada que conozcamos ms directamente. +Por lo menos, yo s que tengo una conciencia propia. +No tengo certeza de que Uds. sean conscientes. +La conciencia tambin es la razn de vivir. +Si no furamos conscientes, nada en nuestras vidas tendra sentido o valor. +Pero al mismo tiempo es el fenmeno ms misterioso del universo. +Por qu somos conscientes? +Por qu tenemos estas pelculas internas? +Por qu no somos slo robots que procesamsos lo que recibimos para producir resultados sin experimentar la pelcula interna? +En este momento, nadie sabe las respuestas a esas preguntas. +Sugiero que para integrar la conciencia a la ciencia, se necesitan algunas ideas radicales. +Algunas personas dicen que es imposible una ciencia de la conciencia. +La ciencia, por naturaleza, es objetiva. +La conciencia, por naturaleza, es subjetiva. +Entonces nunca puede existir una ciencia de la conciencia. +Porque durante casi todo el siglo XX, predomin esa visin. +La psicologa estudiaba el comportamiento objetivamente, La neurociencia estudiaba el cerebro objetivamente, pero nunca nadie mencion la conciencia. +Incluso hace 30 aos, cuando TED comenz, haba muy pocos trabajos cientficos sobre la conciencia. +Despues, hace 20 aos, todo comenz a cambiar. +Neurocientficos como Francis Crick y fsicos como Roger Penrose dijeron: "ahora es el momento para que la ciencia aborde la conciencia". +Y desde entonces, hubo una verdadera explosin, un florecimiento del trabajo cientfico sobre la conciencia. +Y este trabajo fue fantstico. Fue genial. +Pero tambin tiene limitaciones fundamentales hasta el momento. +El centro de la ciencia de la conciencia en los aos recientes fue la bsqueda de correlaciones, correlaciones entre algunas reas del cerebro y algunos estados de la conciencia. +Vimos algo de este tipo en el fantstico trabajo que present Nancy Kanwisher hace unos minutos. +Ahora entendemos mucho mejor, por ejemplo, las reas del cerebro que estn relacionadas con la experiencia consciente de ver caras o de sentir dolor o de sentirse feliz. +Pero esta sigue siendo una ciencia de correlaciones. +No es una ciencia de explicaciones. +Sabemos que estas reas del cerebro estn relacionadas con ciertos tipos de experiencias conscientes, pero no sabemos por qu. +Me gustara explicarlo diciendo que este tipo de trabajo de la neurociencia responde algunas preguntas que queremos que explique la conciencia. Las preguntas sobre lo que hacen ciertas reas del cerebro y con qu se correlacionan. +Pero en un sentido, esos son los problemas fciles, +sin ofender a los neurocientficos. +En realidad, no hay problemas fciles con la conciencia. +Pues no aborda el verdadero misterio central de esta materia: Por qu todo proceso fsico en el cerebro tiene que estar acompaado por la conciencia? +Por qu existe una pelcula interna subjetiva? +En este momento, no lo podemos entender. +Y Uds. pueden decir, dmosle unos aos a la neurociencia. +Se va a convertir en otro fenmeno emergente como los embotellamientos, como los huracanes, como la vida, y vamos a encontrar explicacin. +Los surgimientos tpicos son todos casos de comportamientos emergentes, cmo operan los embotellamientos, cmo funcionan los huracanes, cmo se reproducen, se adaptan y metabolizan los organismos vivos. Todas son preguntas sobre el funcionamiento objetivo. +Eso se podra aplicar al cerebro humano para explicar algunos comportamientos y las funciones del cerebro humano como un fenmeno emergente: cmo caminamos, cmo hablamos, cmo jugamos ajedrez; todas son preguntas sobre el comportamiento. +Pero cuando se trata de la conciencia, las preguntas sobre el comportamiento estn entre los problemas fciles. +Pero el problema difcil, es la pregunta de por qu es que todo comportamiento est acompaado de una experiencia subjetiva? +Y aqu est, el paradigma estndar del surgimiento, el paradigma estndar de la neurociencia, en realidad todava no tiene mucho que decir. +Yo soy un materialista cientfico de corazn. +Quiero una teora cientfica de la autoreflexin que funcione. Durante mucho tiempo, me golpeaba la cabeza contra la pared buscando una teora de la conciencia en puros trminos fsicos que funcionara. +Pero al final llegu a la conclusin que eso no funcionaba por razones sistemticas. +Creo que nos estancamos en este punto. +Tenemos una cadena de explicaciones maravillosa, genial. Nos acostumbramos a esto; la fsica explica la qumica, la qumica explica la biologa, la biologa explica parte de la psicologa. +Pero la conciencia no parece encajar en este esquema. +Por un lado, es un hecho que somos conscientes. +Por otro, no sabemos cmo acomodar esa idea a nuestra visin cientfica del mundo. +Creo que la conciencia, ahora mismo, es una especie de anomala, algo que necesitamos integrar a nuestra visin del mundo, pero no sabemos todava cmo. +Con una anomala como esta, se pueden necesitar ideas radicales. Creo que necesitamos ideas que al principio parecern locas, antes de poder lidiar con la conciencia de una manera cientfica. +Hay algunas posibilidades para esas ideas locas. +Mi amigo Dan Dennett, que est aqu hoy, tiene una. +Su idea loca es que no existe tal problema difcil de la conciencia. +Toda la idea de la pelcula subjetiva interna incluye una especie de ilusin o confusin. +En realidad, lo que hay que hacer, es explicar las funciones objetivas, los comportamientos del cerebro. Y as se estudia todo lo que necesita explicacin. +Bueno, ms poder para l. +Ese es el tipo de idea radical que necesitamos explorar si queremos tener una teora de la conciencia puramente reduccionista, basada en el cerebro. +Al mismo tiempo, para m y para muchos otros, esa visin est bastante cercana a simplemente negar que la observacin de la conciencia sea satisfactoria. +Pero yo voy en una direccin diferente. +En el tiempo que queda, quiero explorar dos ideas locas que creo pueden ser prometedoras. +La primera idea loca es que la conciencia es fundamental. +Los fsicos a veces toman algunos aspectos del universo como ladrillos fundamentales: el espacio, el tiempo y la masa. +Postulan leyes fundamentales que los gobiernan, como las leyes de gravedad o de mecnica cuntica. +Estas leyes y propiedades fundamentales no se explican en trminos de nada ms bsico. +Al contrario, se consideran fundamentales, y de ah se construye el mundo. +A veces, la lista de lo fundamental se alarga. +En el siglo XIX Maxwell descubri que no se pueden explicar los fenmenos electromagnticos en trminos de conceptos fundamentales preexistentes, espacio, tiempo, masa, leyes de Newton. Entonces postul las leyes bsicas del electromagnetismo. Y postul la carga elctrica como un concepto fundamental que esas leyes gobiernan. +Creo que esa es la situacin en que nos encontramos con la conciencia. +Si no se puede explicar la conciencia en trminos de ideas fundamentales preexistentes, espacio, tiempo, masa, carga, entonces por cuestin de lgica, hay que alargar la lista. +Lo ms natural sera postular la conciencia misma como algo fundamental, un ladrillo fundamental de la naturaleza. +Esto no significa que de repente no sea objeto de la ciencia, +sino que abre el camino para manejarla cientficamente. +Entonces lo que necesitamos es estudiar las leyes fundamentales que gobiernan la conciencia, las leyes que conectan la conciencia con otros conceptos fundamentales: el espacio, el tiempo, la masa, procesos fsicos. +Los fsicos a veces dicen que queremos leyes fundamentales tan simples que las podamos estampar en una remera. +La situacin de la conciencia es algo as. +Queremos encontrar leyes fundamentales tan simples que las podamos estampar en una camiseta. +Todava no sabemos qu leyes son, pero eso es lo que buscamos. +La segunda idea loca es que la conciencia puede ser universal. +Cada sistema puede tener un grado de conciencia. +Esta visin a veces se llama panpsiquismo: "Pan" por todos, "psiqui" por mente, cada sistema es consciente, no solamente los humanos, los perros, los ratones, las moscas, incluso los microbios de Rob Knight, las partculas elementales. +Incluso un fotn tiene algn grado de conciencia. +La idea no es que los fotones sean inteligentes o que piensen. +No es que un fotn pueda estar lleno de angustia cuando piensa "Ay, siempre viajando a la velocidad de la luz. +Nunca puedo desacelerar y oler las rosas". +No, as no. +Pero el pensamiento es que quizs los fotones pueden tener algn elemento de sentimiento crudo, subjetivo, algn precursor primitivo de la conciencia. +Esto puede sonar un poco loco para Uds. +Cmo alguien pensara algo tan loco? +En parte esto proviene de la primera idea loca, que la conciencia es algo fundamental. +Si es fundamental, como el espacio, el tiempo y la masa, es natural suponer que tambin puede ser universal, igual que los otros. +Tambin vale la pena notar que aunque la idea nos parece ilgica, lo es mucho menos para las personas de culturas diferentes, donde la mente humana parece ms un continuo con la naturaleza. +Una razn ms profunda proviene de la idea de que quizs la forma ms simple y poderosa de encontrar leyes fundamentales que relacionen el pensamiento con el proceso fsico, es vinculando la conciencia con la informacin. +Siempre que hay procesamiento de informacin, hay conciencia. +Procesamiento de infomacin compleja, como en un ser humano, conciencia compleja. +Procesamiento de informacin simple, conciencia simple. +Algo muy emocionante es que en los aos recientes un neurocientfico, Giulio Tononi, tom este tipo de teora y la desarroll rigurosamente con mtodos matemticos. +Tiene una medida matemtica de integracin de la informacin, que llama phi, que mide el grado de informacin integrada en un sistema. +Y supone que phi tiene que ver con la conciencia. +Entonces en un cerebro humano, hay un increble grado alto de integracin de informacin, un grado alto de phi, mucha conciencia. +En un ratn hay un grado medio de integracin de informacin, igual bastante significativo, grado de conciencia bastante importante. +Pero cuando se llega a las lombrices, microbios, partculas, el grado de phi decae. +El nivel de integracin de informacin es menor, pero no es cero tampoco. +En la teora de Tononi, todava habr un nivel de conciencia diferente de cero. +De hecho propone una ley fundamental de la conciencia: alto grado de phi, alto grado de conciencia. +Adems, otra razn es que el panpsiquismo puede ayudarnos a integrar la conciencia al mundo fsico. +Los fsicos y los filsofos con frecuencia han observado que la fsica es curiosamente abstracta. +Describe la estructura de la realidad usando un montn de ecuaciones, pero no nos habla sobre la realidad que subyace debajo. +Como explica Stephen Hawking, "De dnde sale el fuego de las ecuaciones?" +Desde la visin panpsquica las ecuaciones de la fsica se pueden dejar como estn, pero se pueden usar para describir el flujo de la conciencia. +Eso es lo que los fsicos hacen bsicamente, describen el flujo de la conciencia. +Segn esta visin, la conciencia es la que le pone fuego en las ecuaciones. +En esa visin, la conciencia no se encuentra fuera del mundo fsico como una especie de aditivo. +Est ah mismo en el centro. +Esta visin, creo, la visin panpsquica, tiene el potencial para transfigurar nuestra relacin con la naturaleza, y puede tener consecuencias sociales y ticas bastante serias. +Algunas pueden ser ilgicas. +Yo sola pensar que no deba comer nada que tuviera conciencia, entonces deba ser vegetariano. +Si eres un panpsquico y aceptas esa visin, tendrs mucha hambre. +Creo que pensndolo bien, esto tiende a transformar tus visiones, mientras que lo que importa en trminos ticos y consideraciones morales, no es tanto el hecho de la conciencia, sino su importancia y su complejidad. +Tambin es natural preguntar por la conciencia en otros sistemas, como las computadoras. +Qu hay sobre el sistema de inteligencia artificial de Samantha en la pelcula "Her"? +Es consciente? +Segn la visin de la informacin panpsquica, ella tiene un procesamiento de informacin complicado, integrado, de modo que la respuesta es s, si es consciente. +Si esto es correcto, se plantean problemas ticos bastante serios sobre la tica del desarrollo de sistemas de computadoras inteligentes y la tica de apagarlos. +Finalmente, Uds. pueden preguntar por la conciencia de colectivos completos, el planeta. +Canad tiene su propia conciencia? +O a un nivel ms local, un grupo integrado, como la audiencia en una charla TED. En este momento tenemos una conciencia colectiva TED, una pelcula interna para este grupo completo de TED, distinta de las pelculas internas de cada una de las partes? +No s la respuesta a esa pregunta, pero creo que al menos es una pregunta que debe tomarse en serio. +Entonces esta vision panpsquica, es una visin radical, y no s si es correcta. +En realidad estoy ms seguro de la primer idea loca, que la conciencia es algo fundamental, que de la segunda, de que sea universal. +La visin plantea muchas preguntas, muchos desafos, como, cmo esos pedacitos de pensamiento contribuyen al tipo de conciencia compleja que conocemos y nos encanta. +Si podemos responder a esas preguntas, entonces creo que vamos por el camino correcto hacia una teora de la conciencia seria. +Si no, bueno, probablemente ste es el problema ms difcil de la ciencia y de la filosofa. +No podemos esperar resolverlo de la noche a la maana. +Pero creo que finalmente lo iremos a descubrir. +Entender la conciencia es la verdadera clave, creo, para entender el universo y para entendernos a nosotros mismos. +Quizs slo necesitemos la idea loca correcta. +Gracias. +Crec en un pequeo pueblo rural en Victoria. +Tena un perfil muy normal, un bajo perfil de educacin. +Fui a la escuela, me juntaba con mis amigos, me peleaba con mis hermanas menores. +Todo era muy normal. +Y cuando tena 15 aos, un miembro de mi comunidad se acerc a mis padres porque quera nominarme para un premio de la comunidad. +Y mis padres dijeron: "Bien, eso es muy bonito, pero existe un problema evidente. +Ella en realidad no ha conseguido nada". Y tenan razn. +Fui a la escuela, tena buenas notas. Tras la escuela, yo tena un bajo perfil en la peluquera de mi madre, y pasaba mucho tiempo mirando las series "Buffy the Vampire Slayer" y "Dawson's Creek". +S, lo s. Qu contradiccin. +Pero tenan razn. +Yo no haca nada que fuera extraordinario en absoluto. +Nada que pueda considerarse como un logro si tomamos la discapacidad fuera de la ecuacin. +Aos ms tarde, estando en la segunda parte de la enseanza en una escuela secundaria de Melbourne, tan solo tras unos 20 minutos en la clase 11 de estudios jurdicos un muchacho levant la mano y dijo: "Oye, cundo dars tu discurso?" +Y yo: "Qu discurso?" +Bueno, yo les haba estado hablando sobre la ley de difamacin por unos buenos 20 minutos. +Y l dijo: "Ya sabes, tu discurso motivacional. +Cuando las personas en sillas de ruedas, hablan de cosas inspiracionales en la escuela?" +"Por lo general, en el saln de actos". +Y fue entonces cuando me di cuenta: Este nio haba tenido experiencias con personas con discapacidad como objetos de inspiracin. +Y no lo somos. Y no es culpa del muchacho, es decir, eso es cierto para muchos de nosotros. +Para nosotros, las personas con discapacidad no son nuestros maestros o nuestros mdicos o nuestras manicuristas. +No somos personas reales. Estamos all para inspirar. +Y, de hecho, estoy en este escenario parecindose a lo que hago en esta silla de ruedas, y probablemente Uds. estn esperando a que les inspire. Cierto? S. +Bueno, seoras y seores, me temo decepcionarles estrepitosamente. +No estoy aqu para inspirarles. +Estoy aqu para decirles que nos han mentido en relacin a la discapacidad. +S, nos han vendido la mentira de que la discapacidad es Algo Malo, A mayscula, M mayscula. +Es algo malo y vivir con una discapacidad te hace excepcional. +No es algo malo y no logra hacerte excepcional. +Y en los ltimos aos, hemos podido propagar an ms esta mentira a travs de medios de comunicacin social. +Es posible que hayan visto imgenes como sta: "La nica discapacidad en la vida es una mala actitud". +O esta otra: "Su excusa es invlida". En efecto. +O esta otra: "Antes de abandonar, intntelo!" +Estos son slo un par de ejemplos, pero existe una gran cantidad de ellos. +Puede ser que hayan visto uno, de la nia sin manos dibujando con un lpiz sostenido por la boca. +Puede que hayan visto a un nio que corre con piernas ortopdicas de fibra de carbono. +Y hay un montn de estas imgenes, que son lo que llamamos inspiracin porno. +Y uso el trmino porno deliberadamente, ya que cosifican a un grupo de personas para el beneficio de otro grupo de personas. +As que en este caso, cosificamos a los discapacitados en beneficio de las personas sin discapacidad. +El propsito de estas imgenes es inspirarlos, motivarlos, para que podamos verlos y pensar: "Bueno, por muy mala que sea mi vida, podra ser peor. +Yo podra ser esa persona". +Pero y si eres esa persona? +He perdido la cuenta del nmero de veces que me han abordado extraos querindome expresar que creen que yo soy valiente o una fuente de inspiracin, y esto suceda a antes de que mi trabajo tuviera un perfil pblico. +Era como si me felicitaran por levantarme por la maana y recordar mi propio nombre. Y esto es cosificar. +Estas imgenes, esas imgenes cosifican a las personas con discapacidad en beneficio de las personas sin discapacidad. +Estn ah para que Uds. puedan verlas y pensar que las cosas no son tan malas para Uds., o para poner sus preocupaciones en perspectiva. +Y la vida como persona discapacitada es en realidad algo difcil. +Superamos algunas cosas. +Pero las cosas que superamos no son las cosas en las que Uds. puedan pensar. +No son cosas relativas a nuestros cuerpos. +Yo uso el trmino "personas discapacitadas", deliberadamente porque me suscribo al llamado modelo social de la discapacidad, que nos dice que somos ms discapacitados debido a la sociedad en que vivimos que debido a nuestros cuerpos o diagnsticos. +As que he vivido en este cuerpo por mucho tiempo. +Estoy muy encariada con l. +Hace las cosas que necesito que haga, y he aprendido a sacar lo mejor de su capacidad as como Uds. lo hacen, y eso es lo que pasa con los nios de esas fotos tambin. +No estn haciendo nada fuera de lo comn. +Ellos simplemente estn usando sus cuerpos sacando lo mejor de su capacidad. +Entonces, es realmente justo cosificarlos en la forma que lo hacemos, al compartir esas imgenes? +Cuando la gente nos dice: "Eres una fuente de inspiracin" lo dice como un cumplido. +Y s por qu sucede. +Es a causa de la mentira, porque nos han vendido esta mentira de que la discapacidad nos hace excepcionales. +Y, honestamente, no lo hace. +Y s lo que estn pensando. +Estoy aqu boicoteando la inspiracin, y Uds. piensan: "Por Dios, Stella, no ests a veces inspirada por algo?" +Y en realidad, s que lo estoy. +Aprendo de otras personas con discapacidad en todo momento. +Sin embargo, no aprendo que soy ms afortunada que ellos. +Aprendo que se trata de una idea genial usar unas pinzas de barbacoa para recoger las cosas que se me caen. Aprendo el ingenioso truco de cmo cargar la batera del telfono mvil en la batera de la silla. +Genial. +Aprendemos de la fuerza y resistencia de los dems, no contra nuestros cuerpos y nuestros diagnsticos, sino contra un mundo que excepcionaliza y nos cosifica. +Realmente creo que esa mentira que nos han vendido acerca de la discapacidad es la mayor injusticia, +nos hace la vida difcil. +Y esa cita: "La nica discapacidad en la vida es una mala actitud", la razn de que eso es mentira se debe a que no es verdadera, debido al modelo social de discapacidad. +Un montn de sonrisas ante un tramo de escaleras no ha hecho nunca que se convierta en una rampa. +Nunca. Sonreir ante una pantalla de televisin no har aparecer los subttulos para las personas sordas. +Tampoco un montn de gente en medio de una librera e irradiando una actitud positiva convertir todos esos libros al braille. +Simplemente no va a suceder. +Quiero realmente vivir en un mundo donde la discapacidad no es la excepcin, sino la norma. +Quiero vivir donde una nia de 15 aos, sentada en su dormitorio viendo "Buffy the Vampire Slayer" no se considere no merecedora de nada por estar en una silla. +Yo quiero vivir en un mundo donde no tengamos tan bajas expectativas de las personas con discapacidad que seamos felicitados por levantarnos de la cama y recordar nuestros nombres por la maana. +Yo quiero vivir en un mundo donde valoramos el logro genuino de las personas con discapacidad, y yo quiero vivir en un mundo donde un nio del 11 grado en una escuela secundaria de Melbourne no est ni un poco sorprendido de que su nuevo maestro es un usuario de silla de ruedas. +La discapacidad no nos hace excepcionales, pero cuestionar lo que uno cree saber al respecto s que lo hace. +Gracias. +Qu tienen que ver la realidad aumentada y el ftbol profesional, con la empata? +Y cul es la velocidad media de una golondrina sin carga? +Desafortunadamente, hoy solo responder a una de esas preguntas, as que, por favor, no se desilusionen. +Cuando la gente piensa en realidad aumentada, piensa en "Minority Report" y en Tom Cruise ondeando las manos en el aire, pero la realidad aumentada no es ciencia ficcin. +La realidad aumentada es algo que suceder en nuestros das y suceder porque tenemos las herramientas para ello, y la gente necesita saberlo, porque la realidad aumentada cambiar nuestras vidas tanto como el Internet y los telfonos mviles. +As que, cmo llegamos a la realidad aumentada? +El primer paso, es lo que llevo puesto: las gafas Google Glass. +Estoy seguro de que muchos estn familiarizados con ellas. +Lo que quizs no sepan es que las Google Glass son un aparato que les permite ver lo que yo veo. +Les permitir experimentar lo que es ser un deportista profesional en el campo. +Ahora mismo, el nico modo de estar en el campo es que yo intente describrselos. +Tengo que usar palabras. +Tengo que crear un marco que Uds. llenarn con su imaginacin. +Podemos usar las Google Glass, debajo de un casco y saber lo que es correr por el campo de juego a 160 km/h, la sangre golpeando los odos. +Podemos saber que se siente que un hombre de 110 kg nos persiga, intentando decapitarnos con todo su ser. +He estado ah y les aseguro que no es nada agradable. +Traigo algunos videos para mostrarles lo qu es usar las Google Glass bajo el casco, y darles una idea de eso. +Desafortunadamente, no son imgenes de las prcticas de la NFL, porque la idea de la NFL de tecnologa emergente es un submarino subiendo a la superficie. Pero , hacemos lo que podemos. +As que veamos un vdeo. +Chris Kluwe: Vamos. +Es horrible ser tacleado. +Un momento. Acerqumonos un poco. +Preparados? +Vamos! +Chris Kluwe: Como pueden ver, es una probadita de lo que es ser tacleado en el campo de ftbol, desde la perspectiva del tacleado. +Se habrn dado cuenta de que falta gente, el resto del equipo. +Tenemos un vdeo de ellos, cortesa de la Universidad de Washington. +Mariscal de campo: Ratones 54! Ratones 54! +Azul 8, Azul 8! Vamos! +Chris Kluwe: Esto los acerca un poco ms a la sensacin estar en el campo, pero no tiene nada que ver con estar en la NFL. +Los fans quieren esa experiencia. +Los fans quieren estar en el campo, ser sus jugadores favoritos, y me han preguntado en YouTube y en Twitter: "Se puede ver desde el ngulo de un mariscal de campo +o de un corredor? +Queremos experimentar eso". +Una vez que tenemos esa experiencia con GoPro y Google Glass, cmo nos metemos de lleno?, cmo lo llevamos al siguiente nivel? +Lo llevamos a ese nivel usando algo llamado Oculus Rift, que seguramente muchos ya conocen. +El Oculus Rift ha sido descrito como el aparato de realidad virtual ms realista jams creado, y no es palabrera barata. +Y voy a ensearles el porqu, con este vdeo. +Hombre: Oh, oh! +No, no, no! No quiero seguir jugando! No! +Oh, Dios mo! Ah! +CK: Esa es la experiencia de un hombre en una montaa rusa temiendo por su vida. +Cul ser la experiencia de un fan cuando grabemos un vdeo de Adrian Peterson cruzando la lnea, deshacindose de un tacleador con el brazo antes de correr y hacer una anotacin? Cul ser la experiencia de un fan +cuando pueda ser Messi corriendo por la cancha, lanzando el baln al fondo de la red? O Federer haciendo un saque en Wimbledon? +Cul ser su experiencia cuando descienda de una montaa a ms de 100 km/h como un esquiador olmpico? +Tal vez se incrementen la ventas de paales para adultos. +Pero esto no es an realidad aumentada, +es solo realidad virtual, R.V. +Cmo alcanzamos la realidad aumentada, R.A.? +Alcanzaremos la realidad aumentada cuando los entrenadores, los mnagers y los dueos vean la informacin de lo que la gente quiere ver y piensen: "Cmo usamos esto para mejorar nuestros equipos? +Cmo lo usamos para ganar partidos?" +Porque ellos siempre usan la tecnologa para ganar. +Les gusta ganar. Les da dinero. +As que, he aqu un breve repaso sobre la tecnologa en la NFL. +En 1965, los Potros de Baltimore le pusieron una muequera a su mariscal de campo para que jugara ms rpido. +Ganaron el Super Bowl ese ao. +Otros equipos decidieron imitarlos. +Ms gente vio el partido porque fue ms emocionante, ms rpido. +En 1994, la NFL coloc radios en los cascos de los mariscales de campo y despus en los de los defensas. +Tuvieron ms espectadores porque era ms rpido, ms entretenido. +En 2023, imaginen que son un jugador volviendo a su grupo y ven su prxima jugada mostrada delante de Uds., en un visor de plstico que llevan puesto. Ya no tendrn que preocuparse por olvidar una jugada. +o por memorizar la estrategia. +Solo salen al campo y reaccionan. +Y los entrenadores lo quieren porque si no se siguen sus instrucciones, se pierden partidos, y ellos odian perder partidos. +Si pierdes partidos te despiden como entrenador. +Y ellos no quieren eso. +Pero la realidad aumentada no es solo un manual de estrategias mejorado. +La realidad aumentada es tambin un modo de recopilar informacin y usarla en tiempo real para mejorar tu forma de jugar el partido. +Cmo se hara? +Bien, una opcin muy simple sera tener una cmara en cada esquina del estadio teniendo una vista desde lo alto de la gente que est abajo. +Tambin obtienes informacin de los sensores de los cascos y los acelermetros, algo en lo que ya se est trabajando. +Y toda esa informacin se la envas a tus jugadores. +Los buenos equipos sabrn enviarla, +los malos tendrn sobrecarga de informacin. +Esto diferenciara a los buenos equipos de los malos. +As, tu equipo de informticos ser tan importante como tus reclutadores, y el anlisis de datos dejar de ser solo para nerds, +ser tambin para deportistas. Quin lo habra imaginado? +Cmo sera en el campo? +Imaginen que son el mariscal de campo. +Recibes el baln y retrocedes. +Buscas a un receptor abierto. De repente, un flash en la parte izquierda de tu visor te avisa que un defensa detrs de ti va a atacarte. Normalmente, no lo veras, pero el sistema de R.A te avisa. +Avanzas al rea de proteccin. +Otro flash te avisa que hay un receptor abierto. +Lanzas el baln, pero te derriban +y el baln pierde la trayectoria. +No sabes dnde aterrizar. Sin embargo, el receptor ve en su visor un rea de hierba que se ilumina y puede modificar la carrera. +Se aproxima, atrapa el baln, corre y anota. +El pblico enloquece y los fans han seguido la jugada desde cada ngulo. +Esto es algo que crear una emocin masiva en el partido. +Har que montones de personas lo vean, porque la gente quiere vivir esa experiencia. +Los fans quieren estar en el campo, +quieren ser su jugador favorito. +La realidad aumentada ser parte del deporte porque es demasiado rentable para no serlo. +Pero lo que yo les pregunto es: queremos que este sea el nico uso de la realidad aumentada? +Vamos a utilizarla solo como pan y circo, como nuestro entretenimiento habitual? +Porque creo que podemos usarla para algo ms. +Creo que podemos usar la realidad aumentada para fomentar la empata entre los seres humanos, para mostrar a alguien cmo es, literalmente, estar en el lugar de otra persona. +Sabemos lo que esta tecnologa vale para las ligas deportivas. +Genera miles de millones de ingresos al ao, +pero cunto vale esta tecnologa para un profesor en el aula intentando mostrar a un abusn cun dainas son su acciones desde la perspectiva de la vctima? +Cunto vale esta tecnologa para un gay en Uganda o Rusia intentando mostrarle al mundo cmo se vive siendo perseguido? +Cunto vale tambin para un Comandante Hadfield o un Neil deGrasse Tyson intentando inspirar a una generacin de nios para que piensen ms en el espacio y la ciencia en vez de notas trimestrales y Kardashians? +Seoras y seores, la realidad aumentada se acerca. +Las preguntas que hacemos, las decisiones que tomamos y los retos que enfrentamos, dependen, como siempre, de nosotros. +Gracias. +Recientemente me jubil despus de 23 aos de servicio en la Highway Patrol de California. +La mayora de esos 23 aos me los pas patrullando el extremo sur del condado de Marin, que incluye el puente Golden Gate. +El puente es una estructura icnica, conocida mundialmente por sus hermosas vistas de San Francisco, el Ocano Pacfico, y su inspirador estilo arquitectnico. +Por desgracia, tambin es un imn para el suicidio, siendo uno de los lugares ms utilizados del mundo. +El puente Golden Gate fue abierto en 1937. +Joseph Strauss, ingeniero jefe encargado de construir el puente, dijo que, "El puente es prcticamente a prueba de suicidios. +El suicidio desde el puente no es ni prctico ni probable". +Pero desde su apertura, ms de 1600 personas han saltado a su muerte desde ese puente. +Algunos creen que viajar entre las dos torres los llevar a otra dimensin, este puente se ha idealizado como tal, tal que la cada desde l te libera de todas tus preocupaciones y dolor, y las aguas que pasan debajo limpiarn tu alma. +Pero djenme decirles que sucede cuando el puente se utiliza para cometer suicidio. +Despus de una cada libre de cuatro a cinco segundos, el cuerpo choca contra el agua aproximadamente a 120 kilmetros por hora. +El impacto rompe los huesos, algunos de los cuales perforan rganos vitales. +La mayora muere en el impacto. +Los que no, normalmente se azotan en el agua indefensos y luego se ahogan. +No creo que los que contemplan este mtodo de suicidio se den cuenta de la macabra muerte a la que se enfrentarn. +Este es el cable. +Excepto alrededor de las dos torres, hay 32 pulgadas de acero paralelas al puente. +Aqu es donde la mayora de la gente se para antes de quitarse la vida. +Puedo decirles por experiencia que una vez que la persona est en ese borde, y en su momento ms oscuro, es muy difcil traerlos de vuelta. +Tom esta foto el ao pasado mientras esta joven hablaba con un oficial contemplando su vida. +Quiero decirles con alegra que tuvimos xito ese da en traerla de vuelta sobre la barandilla. +Cuando empec a trabajar en el puente, no tenamos ningn entrenamiento formal. +Luchbamos para canalizar el camino a travs de estas llamadas. +Esto no fue slo un mal servicio a aquellos que contemplan el suicidio, sino a los oficiales tambin. +Hemos recorrido un largo camino desde entonces. +Hoy, oficiales veteranos y psiclogos entrenan a los nuevos oficiales. +Este es Jason Garber. +Lo conoc el 22 de Julio del ao pasado al recibir una llamada de un posible sujeto suicida sentado en el cordn cerca del centro. +Respond, y cuando llegu, observ a Jason hablando con un oficial del puente Golden Gate. +Jason tena solo 32 aos y haba volado hasta aqu desde Nueva Jersey. +De hecho, haba volado hasta aqu 2 veces antes desde Nueva Jersey para intentar suicidarse desde este puente. +Despus de cerca de una hora hablando con Jason, nos pregunt si conocamos la historia de la caja de Pandora. +Recordando la mitologa griega, Zeus cre a Pandora, y la envi a la Tierra con una caja, y le dijo: "Nunca, nunca abras esa caja". +Bueno, un da, la curiosidad pudo ms que Pandora, y ella abri la caja. +De ella salieron plagas, penas, y toda clase de males contra el hombre. +La nica cosa buena en la caja era la esperanza. +Entonces Jason nos pregunt, "Qu pasa si abres la caja y no hay esperanza?" +Se detuvo unos instantes, se inclin a la derecha, y se fue. +Este muchacho amable e inteligente de Nueva Jersey acababa de quitarse la vida. +Habl con los padres de Jason esa noche, y supongo que cuando estaba hablando con ellos, no pareca estar sonando muy bien, porque al da siguiente, el rabino de la familia me llam para ver cmo estaba. +Los padres de Jason se lo haban pedido. +Los daos colaterales del suicidio afectan a muchsima gente. +Les planteo estas preguntas: Qu haras si un miembro de tu familia, un amigo o alguien amado fuera suicida? +Qu diras? +Sabras qu decir? +En mi experiencia, no solamente hay que hablar, sino que hay que escuchar. +Escuchar para entender. +No discutas, culpes, o le digas a la persona que sabes cmo se siente, porque probablemente no lo sepas. +Simplemente estando all, puedes ser el punto de inflexin que necesitan. +Si piensas que alguien es suicida, no tengas miedo de enfrentarlos y hacer la pregunta. +Una manera de hacerles la pregunta es: "Otros en similares circunstancias han pensado en acabar su vida; has tenido estos pensamientos?" +Confrontar a la persona de frente puede salvarle la vida y ser el punto de inflexin para ellos. +Otros signos a buscar: desesperanza, creer que las cosas son terribles y que nunca van a mejorar; Impotencia, creer que no hay nada que puedas hacer al respecto; aislamiento social reciente; y una perdida del inters en la vida. +Se me ocurri esta charla hace apenas un par de das, y recib un email de una seora y me gustara leerles su carta. +Ella perdi a su hijo el 19 de enero de este ao, y me escribi este email hace slo un par de das, y es con su permiso y bendicin que se las leo. +"Hola, Kevin. Me imagino que ests en la conferencia TED. +Debe ser toda una experiencia estar ah. +Estoy pensando que debera ir a pie al puente este fin de semana. +Solo quera dejarte una nota. +Espero que puedas contarle a muchas personas y vayan a casa hablando de ello a sus amigos que le cuenten a sus amigos, etc. +Todava estoy bastante insensible, pero notando ms momentos de darme cuenta realmente de que Mike no volver a casa. +Mike estaba conduciendo de Petaluma a San Francisco para ver el partido de los 49 con su padre el 19 de enero. +Nunca lleg all. +Llam a la polica de Petaluma y lo report como desaparecido esa noche. +A la maana siguiente, dos oficiales vinieron a mi casa y me informaron de que el coche de Mike estaba abajo en el puente. +Un testigo lo haba visto saltar desde el puente a las 1:58 de la tarde del da anterior. +Muchas gracias por luchar por aquellos que puedan estar temporalmente demasiado dbiles para luchar por ellos mismos. +Quin no ha estado antes mal sin sufrir una verdadera enfermedad mental? +No debe ser tan fcil acabar con ella. +Mis oraciones estn contigo por tu lucha. +El GGB, el Puente Golden Gate se supone debe ser un pasaje a travs de nuestra hermosa baha, no un cementerio. +Buena suerte esta semana, Vicky". +No puedo imaginar el valor que ella necesit para ir al puente y recorrer el camino que su hijo tom ese da, y tambin el valor para salir adelante. +Me gustara presentarles a un hombre al que me refiero con esperanza y valor. +El 11 de marzo de 2005, respond a una llamada de radio por un posible sujeto suicida en la acera del puente cerca de la torre norte. +Conduje mi moto por la acera y observ a este hombre, Kevin Berthia, de pie en la acera. +Cuando me vio, cruz de inmediato la barandilla, y se detuvo en ese pequeo tubo que va alrededor de la torre. +Durante la hora y media siguiente, escuch como Kevin habl sobre su depresin y desesperanza. +Kevin decidi por su cuenta ese da volver sobre ese carril y darle a la vida otra oportunidad. +Cuando Kevin volvi, lo felicit. +"Este es un nuevo comienzo, una nueva vida". +Pero le pregunt, "Qu fue lo que hizo que volvieras y le dieras a la esperanza y la vida otra oportunidad?" +Y saben lo que me dijo? +Dijo: "Me escuchaste. +Me dejaste hablar y simplemente escuchaste". +Poco despus de ese incidente, recib una carta de la madre de Kevin, y tengo esa carta conmigo, y me gustara lerselas. +"Querido Seor Briggs, Nada borrar los eventos del 11 de marzo, y usted es una de las razones por las que Kevin sigue con nosotros. +Sinceramente, creo que Kevin estaba clamando por ayuda. +Ha sido diagnosticado con una enfermedad mental para la cual ha sido correctamente medicado. +Adopt a Kevin cuando solo tena seis meses, completamente inconsciente de todos aquellos rasgos hereditarios, pero, gracias a Dios, ahora lo sabemos. +Kevin est en orden, como el dice. +Le damos gracias a Dios por usted. +Sinceramente en deuda con usted, Narvella Berthia". +Y al final ella escribe, "P.D. Cuando visit el Hospital General de San Francisco esa noche, usted figuraba como el paciente. +"Vaya que s lo tuve que resolver!" +Actualmente, Kevin es un padre carioso y miembro activo de la sociedad. +Habla abiertamente sobre los eventos de ese da y de su depresin con la esperanza de que su historia inspirar a otros. +El suicidio no es slo algo que me he encontrado en el trabajo. +Es personal. +Mi abuelo se suicid con veneno. +Ese acto, a pesar de terminar su propio dolor, me robo la oportunidad de conocerlo. +Esto es lo que hace el suicidio. +Para la mayora de la gente suicida, o aquellos que consideran el suicidio, no pensaran en lastimar a otra persona. +Simplemente quieren que su propio dolor acabe. +Por lo general, esto se logra solo de tres maneras: dormir, las drogas o el alcohol o la muerte. +En mi carrera, he respondido y he estado involucrado en cientos de enfermedades mentales y llamadas de suicidio alrededor del puente. +De esos incidentes en los que he estado directamente involucrado, solo he perdido dos, pero esos dos son demasiado. +Uno fue Jason. +El otro fue un hombre al que le habl cerca de una hora. +Durante ese tiempo, me estrech la mano en tres ocasiones. +En el apretn final, me mir, y me dijo, "Kevin, lo siento, pero me tengo que ir". +Y salt. +Horrible, absolutamente horrible. +Yo quiero decirles, sin embargo, que la gran mayora de la gente que nosotros llegamos a contactar en ese puente no se suicidan. +Adems, esos pocos que han saltado del puente y vivido y que pueden hablar de ello, ese 1% o 2%, la mayora de esas personas han dicho que al segundo que dejan de lado la barandilla se dieron cuenta de que haban cometido un error y queran vivir. +Yo le digo a la gente, el puente no slo conecta Marin con San Francisco, sino tambin a la gente. +Esa conexin, o puente que hacemos, es algo que todos y cada uno de nosotros debemos esforzarnos por hacer. +El suicidio se puede prevenir. +Hay ayuda. Hay esperanza. +Muchas gracias. +El mundo hace que seas lo que no eres, pero en tu interior sabes qu eres, y una pregunta te marca: Cmo te convertiste en eso? +Yo debo ser algo nico en ese sentido. pero no estoy sola, de ninguna manera estoy sola. +Cuando me convert en modelo sent que finalmente haba logrado el sueo que haba tenido desde nia. +Mi exterior finalmente concordaba con mi verdad interior, con mi yo interior. +Por complicadas razones, a las que me referir ms tarde, cuando miro esta foto pienso: lo lograste Geena, lo conseguiste, llegaste. +Pero el pasado octubre, descubr que, apenas, estoy empezando. +A todos nos encasillan nuestras familias, nuestra religin, nuestra sociedad, nuestro momento en la historia, incluso nuestros cuerpos. +Algunos tienen el valor de liberarse, para deshacerse de las limitaciones impuestas por el color de la piel o por las creencias de quienes nos rodean. +Son personas que siempre desafan el statu quo, lo que se considera aceptado. +En mi caso, los ltimos 9 aos, muchos de mis vecinos, muchos de mis amigos, mi agente incluso, ignor mi historia. +Creo que este enigma se denomina revelacin. +Este es el mo. +Me registraron como "nio" al nacer debido a la apariencia de mis genitales. +Recuerdo que a mis cinco aos en Las Filipinas, en mi casa, yo siempre llevaba puesta esta camiseta en la cabeza. +Y mi mam me preguntaba, "Por qu siempre llevas esa camiseta en la cabeza?" +Yo deca, "Mam, es mi pelo. Soy una chica." +Yo saba entonces cmo autodefinirme. +El gnero siempre se ha considerado un hecho inmutable, pero ahora sabemos que, en verdad, es algo ms complejo y misterioso. +Debido a mi xito, nunca me atrev a compartir mi historia, no porque pensara que ser lo que soy sea malo, sino por cmo el mundo trata a aquellos de nosotros que quieren liberarse. +Todos los das agradezco ser mujer. +Tengo mam, pap y una familia que me aceptan como soy. +Muchos no son tan afortunados. +Hay una larga tradicin en la cultura asitica que celebra el misterio del gnero. +Hay una diosa budista de la compasin. +Hay una diosa hind, diosa de los hijras. +Y cuando tena 8 aos, estuve en una fiesta en Las Filipinas que celebraba estos misterios. +Estaba delante del escenario y recuerdo que esta hermosa mujer apareci ante m, y recuerdo ese momento como si algo me golpeara: Esta es la clase de mujer que yo quisiera ser. +Y cuando tena 15 aos, cuando todava vesta de hombre, conoc esta mujer llamada T.L. +Es la directora de un concurso de belleza transgnero. +Esa noche ella me pregunt: "Por qu no has participado en el concurso de belleza?". +Me dijo que si participaba ella se encargara de los gastos de inscripcin y del vestuario. Y esa noche, gan en traje de bao, gan en traje de gala y qued tercera finalista entre ms de 40 candidatas. +Ese momento cambi mi vida. +De repente, estaba dentro del mundo de los reinados de belleza. +No mucha gente puede decir que su primer trabajo fue de reina de belleza de mujeres transgnero, pero yo s puedo. +Tambin conoc a la diosa de los desamparados, sobre todo cuando viajbamos a provincias remotas de Las Filipinas. +Pero ms importante que todo eso, conoc a mis mejores amigos de esa comunidad. +En el 2001 mi mam. que se haba mudado a San Francisco, me llam y me cont que aprobaron mi solicitud de la tarjeta verde que me poda ir a vivir a los EE.UU. +Me resist. +Le dije a mi madre, "Mami, me estoy divirtiendo. +Estoy aqu con amigos, me gusta viajar y ser una reina de belleza." +Pero entonces, dos semanas despus, me llam y me dijo, "Sabes que si te mudas a los EE.UU. te puedes cambiar el nombre y el la identidad de gnero?" +Era todo lo que necesitaba escuchar. +Mi mam me sugiri que le pusiera dos "e" a mi nombre. +Ella tambin me acompa cuando me oper en Tailandia a los 19 aos. +Es curioso que en algunas de las ciudades ms rurales de Tailandia realicen las cirugas ms prestigiosas, sofisticadas y seguras. +En ese entonces en los EE.UU., era necesario hacerse la ciruga antes de cambiarse el nombre y el gnero. +As, en el 2001 me fui a San Francisco, y recuerdo mirar la licencia de conduccin con el nombre Geena y la "F" de gnero femenino. +Fue un momento grandioso. +Para algunas personas, su documento de identidad significa poder conducir o poder conseguir un trago, pero para m era la licencia para vivir, para sentirme digna. +De pronto, mis temores se vieron minimizados, +senta que poda conquistar mi sueo y mudarme a Nueva York, y ser modelo. +Muchos no son tan afortunados. +Pienso en esta mujer de mombre Ayla Nettles. +Una mujer joven de Nueva York que valientemente viva su verdad, pero que, despreciada, puso fin a su vida. +Para muchos de mi comunidad, esa es la realidad en que viven. +Nuestras tasas de suicidio son 8 veces ms altas que las del resto de la poblacin. +Todos los 20 de noviembre hacemos una vigilia global por el Da Conmemorativo de los Transgnero. +Estoy en este escenario gracias a una larga historia de gente que pele y se puso de pie ante la injusticia. +Estas son Marsha P. Johnson y Sylvia Rivera. +Hoy, en este mismo momento, estoy saliendo del armario. +No puedo seguir viviendo mi verdad sola y solo para m. +Quiero hacer lo mejor para ayudar a los otros a vivir su verdad sin vergenza, ni temor. +Estoy aqu, exponindome, para que algn da ya no haya ms vigilias de 20 de Noviembre. +Mi verdad ms profunda me llev a aceptar lo que soy. +Lo harn Uds.? +Muchas gracias. +Gracias, gracias, gracias. Kathryn Schulz: Geena, una pregunta rpida. +Geena Rocero: Claro. Vers, primero, agradecer con todas mis bendiciones, +a mi red de apoyo, a mis padres especialmente, a mi familia, que en s es muy fuerte. +Recuerdo todas las veces que he asistido a mujeres jvenes trans, que he orientado, y algunas veces, cuando me llamaban y me contaban que sus padres no podan aceptarlo. Yo tomaba el telfono, llamaba a mi mam y le deca, "Mami, puedes llamar a esta mujer?" +Algunas veces funcionaba, otras no. Es solo identidad de gnero, eso es lo que est en el centro de lo que somos, verdad? +Es decir, a todos se nos asign un gnero al nacer, y lo que yo intento hacer es poner sobre la mesa el tema de que algunas veces esa asignacin no cuadra, y que debera haber un espacio que le permitiera a la gente autoidentificarse. Y esta es una conversacin que deberamos tener con padres, con colegas. +El movimiento transgnero est inicindose comparado con el movimiento gay. +Hay todava muchsimo trabajo por hacer. +Debera haber entendimiento. +Debera haber espacio para la curiosidad y para hacer preguntas, y espero que todos Uds. sean mis aliados. +KS: Gracias. Muy amable. GR: Gracias. +En muchas sociedades patriarcales y tribales, a los padres generalmente se les conocen por sus hijos, pero soy uno de los pocos padres a quien se le conoce por su hija y estoy orgulloso de ello. +Malala comenz su campaa por la educacin defendiendo sus derechos en el 2007. Y cuando se homenajearon sus esfuerzos en 2011, al concederle el Premio Nacional Juvenil de la paz, se hizo muy famosa, una chica muy popular en su pas. +Antes de eso, era mi hija, pero ahora soy su padre. +Seoras y seores, si echramos un vistazo a la historia de la humanidad, la historia de las mujeres es la historia de la injusticia, de la desigualdad, de la violencia y la explotacin. +Vern, en las sociedades patriarcales, justo desde el principio, cuando al nacer una nia, su nacimiento no se celebra. +No es bienvenida, ni por su padre, ni por su madre. +El vecindario viene, da sus condolencias a la madre y nadie felicita al padre. +Y una madre se abruma mucho por tener una nia. +Cuando da a luz a la primera nia, la primera hija, se pone triste. +Cuando da a luz a la segunda hija, se conmociona, y, con la esperanza de un hijo, cuando alumbra su tercera hija, se siente culpable como una criminal. +No solo la madre sufre, sino la hija. La hija recin nacida, cuando crece, sufre tambin. +A la edad de cinco aos, cuando debera ir a la escuela, se queda en casa y la escuela admite a sus hermanos. +Hasta la edad de 12 aos, de alguna manera, tiene una buena vida. +Se puede divertir. +Puede jugar con sus amigos en la calle, y puede moverse por las calles como una mariposa. +Pero cuando entra en la adolescencia, cuando cumple 13 aos, se le prohbe que salga de su casa sin un acompaante masculino. +Est confinada a las cuatro paredes de su casa. +Ya no es una persona libre. +Se convierte en el llamado honor de su padre y sus hermanos y de su familia, y si transgrede el cdigo de ese supuesto honor, la podra incluso matar. +Y es interesante que este supuesto cdigo de honor, no solo afecta la vida de una muchacha, tambin afecta la vida de los miembros masculinos de la familia. +As que este hermano, sacrifica las alegras de su vida y la felicidad de sus hermanas en nombre del supuesto honor. +Y hay una norma ms de las sociedades patriarcales que se llama obediencia. +Se supone que una buena chica debe ser muy tranquila, muy humilde y muy sumisa. +Es el criterio. +El modelo de una buena chica debe ser callada. +Se supone que debe ser silenciosa y que acepta las decisiones de su padre y su madre y las decisiones de los ancianos, incluso si no quiere. +Si la casan con un hombre que no le gusta o si la casan con un hombre viejo, tiene que aceptarlo, porque no quiere ser tildada de desobediente. +Si la casan muy joven, tiene que aceptarlo. +De lo contrario, la llamarn desobediente. +Y qu sucede al final? +En palabras de una poetisa: "La casan, la encaman, y entonces da a luz a ms hijos e hijas". +Y la irona de la situacin es que esta madre, inculca la misma leccin de obediencia a su hija y la misma leccin de honor a sus hijos. +Y este crculo vicioso contina y contina. +Queridos hermanos y hermanas, cuando naci Malala, y por primera vez, cranme, no me gusta los recin nacidos, para ser honesto, pero cuando estaba ah y mir sus ojos, cranme, me sent sumamente honrado. +Y mucho antes de que naciera, pens en su nombre, y qued fascinado con una luchadora legendaria de la libertad en Afganistn. +Su nombre era Malalai de Maiwand, y llam a mi hija as por ella. +Pero cuando me fij, todos eran hombres, y agarr mi pluma, y trac una lnea de mi nombre, y escrib, "Malala". +Y cuando ella creci, cuando tena cuatro aos y medio, la admit en mi escuela. +Se preguntarn, por qu debo mencionar la admisin de una nia en una escuela? +S, debo mencionarlo. +Pueden darlo por sentado en Canad, en EE. UU., en muchos pases desarrollados, pero en los pases pobres, en las sociedades patriarcales, en las sociedades tribales, es un gran acontecimiento para la vida de nia. +Inscribirse en una escuela significa el reconocimiento de su identidad y de su nombre. +Una admisin a la escuela significa que ha entrado en el mundo de los sueos y las aspiraciones donde puede explorar su potencial para su vida futura. +Tengo cinco hermanas, y ninguna de ellas pudo ir a la escuela, y estaran sorprendidos, dos semanas antes, cuando cumplimentaba el formulario de visa canadiense, y estaba en la parte relativa a la familia, no poda recordar los apellidos de algunas de mis hermanas. +Y la razn era que nunca haba visto los nombres de mis hermanas escritos en ningn documento. +Esa fue la razn por la que valor a mi hija. +Lo que mi padre no pudo darle a mis hermanas ni a sus hijas, pens que tena que cambiarlo. +Sola apreciar la inteligencia y la sagacidad de mi hija. +La alentaba a sentarse conmigo cuando mis amigos venan a verme. +La anim a ir conmigo a diferentes reuniones. +Y todos estos valores, he intentado inculcrselos en su personalidad. +Y esto no era solo para ella, solo para Malala. +He impartido todos estos buenos valores en mi escuela a chicas y chicos por igual. +Us la educacin para la emancipacin. +Ense a mis hijas, ense a las estudiantes, a olvidar la leccin de la obediencia. +Les ense a los estudiantes a olvidar la leccin del llamado seudohonor. +Queridos hermanos y hermanas, luchbamos por ms derechos para las mujeres, y luchbamos para tener ms y ms espacio para las mujeres en la sociedad. +Pero nos encontramos con un fenmeno nuevo. +Fue letal para los derechos humanos y, en particular, para los derechos de las mujeres. +Se llamaba talibanizacin. +Eso significa una completa negacin de la participacin de las mujeres en todas las actividades polticas, econmicas y sociales. +Cientos de escuelas se perdieron. +A las nias se les prohibi ir a la escuela. +A las mujeres se les oblig a usar velos y dejaron de ir a los mercados. +Los msicos fueron silenciados, las nias azotadas y los cantantes asesinados. +Sufran millones, pero pocos hablaron, y era aterrador tener alrededor a esas personas que matan y azotan cuando uno habla por sus derechos. +Es realmente aterrador. +A los 10 aos, Malala se levant y se levant por el derecho a la educacin. +Escribi un diario para el blog de la BBC, se ofreci ella misma para los documentales del New York Times, y habl en cada plataforma que pudo. +Y su voz era la voz ms poderosa. +Se esparci como un clamor en todo el mundo. +Y esa fue la razn por la que los talibanes no poda tolerar su campaa y el 9 de octubre del 2012, le dispararon a quemarropa en la cabeza. +Fue un da fatdico para mi familia y para m. +El mundo se convirti en un gran agujero negro. +Mientras que mi hija estaba debatindose entre la vida y la muerte, le susurr al odo a mi esposa: "Debo culparme por lo que le pas a mi hija, a tu hija?". +E impetuosamente me dijo, "Por favor, no te culpes. +Defendiste la causa justa. +Pusiste tu vida en juego por la causa de la verdad, por la causa de la paz, y por la causa de la educacin, y tu hija se inspir en ti y se te uni. +Ambos estaban en el camino correcto y Dios la proteger". +Estas pocas palabras significaron mucho para m, y no volv a preguntar de nuevo. +Cuando Malala estaba en el hospital y tena dolores severos y fuertes dolores de cabeza porque su nervio facial estaba cortado, yo sola ver una sombra oscura que se extenda por el rostro de mi esposa. +Pero mi hija nunca se quej. +Sola decirnos, "Estoy bien con mi sonrisa torcida y con el entumecimiento en mi cara. +Me pondr bien. Por favor, no se preocupen". +Era un consuelo para nosotros, y nos consol. +Queridos hermanos y hermanas, hemos aprendido de ella cmo resistir en los momentos ms difciles, y me complace compartir con Uds. que a pesar de ser un icono por los derechos de los nios y de las mujeres, es como cualquier chica de 16 aos. +Llora cuando no acaba su tarea. +Se pelea con sus hermanos, y estoy muy contento por eso. +La gente me pregunta: "Qu hay de especial en mi tutora que ha hecho tan audaz a Malala tan valiente, expresiva y ecunime?" +Les digo, no me pregunten lo que hice. +Pregntenme lo que no hice. +No cort sus alas y eso es todo. +Muchas gracias. +Gracias. Muchas gracias. Gracias. +Fui operada del cerebro hace 18 aos, y, desde ese da, la ciencia del cerebro se me ha convertido en una pasin personal. +Soy ingeniera +y quiero decirles que recientemente me he unido al grupo Moonshot. de Google, donde he tenido una divisn a mi cargo; la divisn de visualizacin de Google X. Pero todo el trabajo del que hablar hoy aqu sobre la ciencia del cerebro, lo realic antes de unirme a Google o fuera de mi trabajo all. +Habiendo dicho esto, existe un estigma cuando te sometes a una operacin de cerebro. +Sigues siendo igual de inteligente o no? +De no ser as, podrs volver a ser inteligente? +Luego de la neurociruga, me faltaba una parte del cerebro, y tena que vivir con ello. +No era la materia gris, pero era la parte pegajosa muerta del centro que crea importantes hormonas y neurotransmisores. +Inmediatamente luego de la operacin, tuve que decidir qu cantidad tomar, de ms de una docena de potentes qumicos cada da, ya que si no tomaba nada, morira en pocas horas. +Cada da, durante los ltimos 18 aos, he tenido que decidir sobre las combinaciones y mezclas de qumicos, y tratar de conseguirlas, para seguir con vida. +Ms de una vez me he salvado por poco. +Pero, por suerte, tengo alma de experimentalista, por lo que decid que experimentara para tratar de obtener las dosis ptimas ya que realmente no existe un mapa claro que lo diga en deatalle. +Comenc a probar con mezclas diferentes, y qued sorprendida al ver cmo pequeos cambios en las dosis cambiaban drsticamente mi autoimagen, mi sentido de quin era yo, mi forma de pensar, mi comportamiento con los dems. +Un caso particularmente impresionante: durante unos meses, prob dosis y qumicos tpicos para un hombre de veinte, y me sorprend al ver cmo cambiaban mis pensamientos. +Estaba siempre furiosa, pensaba todo el tiempo en el sexo, y me crea que era la persona ms inteligente de todo el mundo, y... ...por supuesto, muchas veces en el pasado he conocido varios tipos as, o quizs algunas versiones atenuadas. +Result como un extremo. +Pero mi gran sorpresa fue que no estaba intentando ser arrogante. +De hecho, estaba intentando, un tanto insegura, arreglar un problema que tena al frente, y simplemente no suceda as. +As, no poda manejarlo. +Cambi mis dosis. +Pero, pienso que esa experiencia me di una nueva apreciacin sobre los hombres y sobre lo que tienen que atravesar. Desde entonces me llevo mejor con los hombres. +Lo que trataba de lograr. al ajustar esas hormonas y neurotransmisores y dems, era recuperar mi inteligencia luego de la enfermedad y la operacin; mi pensamiento creativo, mi flujo de ideas. +Suelo pensar casi siempre en imgenes, y eso se convirti en mi punto de referencia clave: cmo consigo esas imgenes mentales que utilizo para crear prototiposrpidos, mis ideas, si se quiere? Probando nuevas ideas y recreando situaciones. +Esta clase de pensamientos no es nueva. +Filsofos como Hume, Descartes y Hobbes vean las cosas de forma similar. +Pensaban que las imgenes y las ideas mentales eran la misma cosa. +Hoy hay quienes cuestionan esta idea, y existen muchas discusiones sobre cmo funciona la mente. Para m es simple: para la mayora de nosotros, las imgenes mentales son fundamentales para el pensamiento creartivo e inventivo. +Por lo que, luego de varios aos, logre encontrar el punto justo y tengo ya montones de grandiosas mgenes mentales, realmente vvidas, bien sofisticadas y bien estructuradas. +Ahora, estoy trabajando en cmo llevar bien rpido estas imgenes mentales, de mi mente a la pantalla de la computadora. +Se imaginan qu sucedera si un director de cine fuese capaz de usar su imaginacin nicamente para dirigir al mundo que tiene al frente? +O si un msico pudiese extraer la msica de su cabeza? +Hay increbles posibilidades con esto, como la forma con que la gente creativa puede llegar a compartir a la velocidad de la luz. +Y la verdad es que, la nica dificultad para lograr hacer esto es simplemente aumentar la resolucin de nuestros sistemas de escaneo cerebral. +Djenme mostrarles por qu creo que estamos bastante cerca de llegar a esto con dos experimentos recientes realizados por dos grupos destacados en neurociencia. +Ambos utilizaron tecnologa IRM, imagen por resonancia magntica funcional, para representar el cerebro. Aqu pueden ver el escaneo cerebral realizado por Giorgio Ganis y sus colegas de Harvard. +La columna de la izquierda muestra el escaneo del cerebro de una persona que mira una imagen. +La columna del medio muestra el escaneo del cerebro de ese mismo individuo mientras se imaginaba, viendo esa misma imagen. +La columna de la derecha se cre restando el contenido de la columna central de la de la izquierda. Se ve que la diferencia es casi nula. +Esto se repiti en muchos individuos diferentes con muchas imgenes diferentes, siempre con un resultado similar. +La diferencia entre ver una imagen e imaginar ver esa misma imagen es casi nula. +Ahora, permtanme compartirles otro experimento. Este es del laboratorio de Jack Gallant en Berkeley, California. +Ellos lograron convertir las ondas cerebrales en campos visuales reconocibles. +Pongmoslo de esta manera. +En este experimento, se mostr a las personas cientos de horas de videos de YouTube mientras se escaneaban sus cerebros para crear un gran acervo de reacciones del cerebro ante las secuencias de video. +Luego, se les mostr una pelcula con imgenes nuevas, gente nueva, nuevos animales, y mientras tanto se registraba un nuevo escaneo. +La computadora, utilizando solo la informacin cerebral del escaneo lo decodific para mostrar lo que pareca que la persona estaba viendo. +A la derecha se pueden ver las deducciones de la computadora, y a la izquierda, el video que se les mostr. +Esto nos dej boquiabiertos. +Estamos bien cerca de lograrlo. +Solo necesitamos mejorar la resolucin. +Y ahora, recuerden que cuando uno ve una imagen y cuando se imaginan esa misma imagen, se crea en el cerebro el mismo mapeo. +Esto se llev a cabo con los sistemas de escaneo cerebral de mayor resolucin disponibles hoy, y su resolucin se increment como mil veces en los ltimos aos. +Ahora necesitamos incrementar la resolucin unas mil veces ms para obtener una mirada ms profunda. +Cmo lo logramos? +Existen muchas tcnicas para hacerlo. +Una es abrir el crneo e introducir electrodos. +No me ofrezco para esa. +Muchos estn proponiendo nuevas tcnicas de proyeccin por imgenes, incluso yo. Contando con el resultado reciente de la IRM, primero debemos preguntarnos lo siguiente, esta tecnologa ser el final del camino? +La sabidura convencional dice que la nica forma de obtener mayor resolucin es con imanes ms grandes, pero a este punto, imanes ms granes solo ofrecen pequeas mejoras en la resolucin, no aumentos por miles como necesitamos. +Propongo esta idea: en vez de imanes ms grandes, hagamos mejores imanes. +Podemos crear estructuras mucho ms complejas con arreglos ligeramente diferentes, como haciendo un espirgrafo. +Y por qu esto nos importa? +En los ltimos aos, una gran cantidad de esfuerzo en las IRM fueron para hacer imanes realmente grandes, cierto? +Sin embargo, la mayora de los avances recientes en resolucinprovinieron de soluciones ingeniosas y brillantes en codificacin y decodificacin, en los transmisores y receptores de frecuencia de radio FM en los sistemas de IRM. +A su vez, en vez de un campo magntico uniforme, utilicemos patrones magnticos estructurados sumados a las frecuencias de radio FM. +As, al combinar los patrones magnticos con los patrones del procesamiento de frecuencias de radio FM, podemos incrementar de forma masiva la informacin que se puede extraer en un solo escaneo. +Adems, podemos luego dividir en capas nuestro conocimiento creciente sobre la estructura del cerebro y la memoria para crear el incremento en los miles que necesitamos. +Al utilizar la IRMf deberamos ser capaces de medir no solo el fluido de sangre oxigenada, sino el de las hormonas y neutrotransmisores que he mencionado y quizs incluso la actividad neural directa. Este es el sueo. +Seremos capaces de volcar nuestras ideas en forma directa a los medios digitales. +Se imaginan si pudisemos pasar por encima del lenguaje y comunicarnos directamente mediante el pensamiento? +De qu seramos capaces? +Y cmo aprenderemos a lidiar con las verdades del pensamiento humano sin filtro? +Ustedes pensaban que la Internet es algo grande. +Estas son grandes preguntas. +Sera irresistible utilizarla como herramienta para amplificar nuestras habilidades de pensamiento y comunicacin. +Ciertamente, esta misma herramienta podra llevar a la cura del Alzheimer y enfermedades similares. +Tenemos pocas opciones ms que abrir esta puerta. +De todas formas, elijan un ao, suceder en 5 o 15 aos? +Es difcil imaginar que tardar mucho ms. +Tenemos que aprender cmo dar este paso juntos. +Gracias. +Les hablar esta noche acerca de salir del armario, y no en un sentido tradicional, no solo del armario gay. +Creo que todos tenemos armarios. +Su armario quiz sea decirle a alguna persona por primera vez que la ama o decirle a alguien que est embarazada, o decirle a alguien que tiene cncer, o cualquier otra conversacin difcil por la que uno haya atravesado en la vida. +Todo armario es una conversacin difcil, y aunque nuestros temas puedan variar tremendamente, la experiencia de haberlos vivido y haber salido de ese armario es algo universal. +Da miedo, y no nos gusta, y debe ocurrir. +Hace muchos aos atrs, trabajaba en el South Side Walnut Cafe, un restaurante en la ciudad, y estando ah, tuve que atravesar varias fases de la intensidad de la militancia lsbica: no rasurar mis axilas, citar las letras de Ani Di Franco como una letana. +Y estar pendiente de que por la holgura de mi pantaln corto y por haberme afeitado la cabeza haca poco, me preguntara normalmente un nio pequeo: "Oye, eres chico o chica?" +Y aparecera un silencio incmodo en la mesa. +Apretara mi mandbula un poco ms, me tomara mi caf con un dejo de rabia. +El padre hojeara incmodamente el peridico y la madre lanzara una fra mirada a su hijo. +Pero yo no dira nada, y hervira por dentro. +Y llegu al punto que cada vez que iba a un lugar donde haba un nio entre tres y diez aos, estaba lista para luchar. +Y ese es un sentimiento terrible. +As que me promet que la prxima vez dira algo. +Tendra esa conversacin difcil. +Entonces tras unas semanas, ocurri de nuevo. +"Eres un chico o una chica?" +Un silencio familiar, pero esta vez estaba preparada y estaba a punto de entrar de lleno en los asuntos femeninos en la mesa. Tena las citas de Betty Friedan. +Las citas de Gloria Steinem. +Incluso un fragmento de los "Monlogos de la vagina" que mostrara. +Entonces respir hondo y baj la mirada y a mis espaldas una nia de 4 aos con un vestido rosa, mirndome lo que no es un desafo para un duelo feminista, solo una nia con una pregunta: "Eres chico o chica?" +Entonces respir hondo nuevamente, me puse de cuclillas cerca de ella, y dije, "Oye, s que esto es algo confuso. +Tengo el cabello corto como el de un chico, y visto ropa de chico, pero soy una chica, y sabes, as como a ti te gusta usar un vestido rosa, y a veces te gusta usar un pijama cmodo, +pues bien, yo soy ms del tipo de chica de un pijama cmodo." +Y esa nia me mir fijamente, prestando atencin, y dijo, "Mi pijama favorito es violeta y tiene un pez. +Me puedes dar un panqueque, por favor?" +Y eso fue todo. Solamente "Ah, ok. Eres una chica. +Qu pasa con el panqueque que ped?" +Fue la conversacin difcil ms fcil de todas que jams haya tenido. +Y por qu?. Porque la nia del panqueque y yo, ambas, fuimos honestas la una con la otra. +As como muchos de nosotros, he vivido en algunos armarios en mi vida, y s, a menudo, mis paredes solan ser un arcoris. +Pero dentro, en la oscuridad, no puedes saber de qu color son las paredes. +Solo se sabe cmo una se siente viviendo en un armario. +Es as como mi armario no es diferente al tuyo o al tuyo o al tuyo. +Seguramente, les dar 100 razones del por qu salir de mi armario fue ms difcil que salir del suyo, pero este es el asunto: Lo difcil no es relativo. +Lo difcil es difcil. +Quin puede decirme que explicarle a alguien que le han declarado en banca rota es ms difcil que decirle que ha sido engaado? +Quin puede decirme que esta historia que cuento es ms difcil que decirle a tu hijo de cinco aos que te vas a divorciar? +No hay algo ms difcil, solo existe lo difcil. +Debemos dejar de clasificar lo que nos es difcil con respecto a lo que difcil para otra persona para hacernos sentir mejor o peor en relacin a nuestros armarios y debemos solo sentir empata porque todos vivimos algo difcil. +En algn punto en nuestras vidas, todos vivimos en armarios, y pueden que hagan sentir seguridad, o al menos ms seguridad que lo que ofrece el otro lado de la puerta. +Pero estoy aqu para decirles. que no importa de qu estn hechas sus paredes, un armario no es un lugar para vivir. +Gracias. Imagnense a s mismos 20 aos atrs. +Yo, que tena una cola de caballo, un vestido y zapatos de tacn alto. +No era la lesbiana militante preparada para luchar contra cualquier nio de 4 aos que entrara al caf. +Estaba congelada por el miedo, acurrucada en una esquina de mi armario oscuro empuando mi granada gay, y el mover solo un msculo es lo ms atemorizante que jams haya hecho. +Mi familia, mis amigos, completos extraos con los que he pasado mi vida entera tratando de no decepcionarlos, y ahora el mundo se daba la vuelta a propsito. +Estaba quemando las pginas de un guin que todos hemos seguido por tanto tiempo, pero si no lanzas esa granada, te matar. +Una de mis lanzamientos de granada ms memorable fue en la boda de mi hermana. +Fue la primera vez que muchos entre los invitados saban que era gay, y al hacer mis labores de dama de honor, en mi vestido negro y tacones. camin alrededor de las mesas y finalmente llegu a una donde estaban los amigos de mis padres, gente que me conoca haca aos. +Y tras hablar un momento, una de las mujeres grit, "Amo a Nathan Lane!" +Y la batalla del relato gay haba comenzado. +"Ash, alguna vez estuviste en el Castro?" +"Bueno, s, la verdad es que tenemos amigos en San Francisco." +"Bueno, nunca hemos ido all, pero hemos odo que es fabuloso." +"Ash, conoces a mi estilista Antonio? +Es muy bueno y nunca ha hablado de tener novia." +"Ash, cul es tu programa de TV favorito? +Nuestro programa favorito? Will y Grace +Y sabes quin nos encanta? Jack. +Jack es nuestro favorito." +Y luego una mujer, desconcertada pero en espera de mostrar desesperadamente su apoyo, para hacerme saber que estaba de mi lado, finalmente dijo bruscamente, "Bueno, a veces mi esposo usa camisas rosas." +Y tuve una oportunidad en ese momento, como la tienen todos los lanzadores de granadas. +Seguramente, podra haber sido fcil indicar dnde se sintieron menoscabados. +No es muy difcil encontrarlos y darse cuenta del hecho de que estaban esforzndose. +Y qu otra cosa le puedes pedir a alguien, sino esforzarse? +Si vas a ser autntico con alguien, tienes que estar preparado para lo autntico que recibes. +Es as como que las conversaciones difciles siguen sin ser mi punto fuerte. +Pregunten a cualquiera con los que yo haya salido. +Pero estoy mejorando, y sigo lo que me gusta llamar los tres principios de la Chica de los Panqueques. +Ahora, por favor vean esto a travs de la perspectiva gay, pero entiendan que lo que implica salir de cualquier armario es esencialmente lo mismo. +Nmero uno: Sean autnticos. +Squense la armadura. Sean Uds. mismos. +Esa nia en el caf no tena armadura pero yo estaba lista para la batalla. +Si quieren que alguien sea genuino, los otros deben saber que tambin sufrimos. +Nmero dos: Sean directos. Simplemente dganlo. Rasguen sus parches. +Si saben que son gay, dganlo. +Si dicen a sus padres que tal vez podran ser gay, ellos mantendrn la esperanza de que eso podra cambiar. +No les den un sentido de falsa esperanza. +Y nmero tres, y ms importante... Dejen los complejos. +Uds. comunican su verdad. +Jams se disculpes por eso. +Y algunos pueden salir heridos seguro, disclpense por lo que han hecho, pero nunca se disculpen por lo que son. +Y s, quiz algunos se sentirn decepcionados, pero eso algo en ellos, no en Uds. +Esas son las expectativas de ellos sobre lo que Uds. son, pero no las suyas propias. +Esa es la historia de ellos, pero no de Uds. +La nica historia que importa es la que Uds. quieren escribir. +As que la prxima vez que se encuentren en un oscuro armario empuando una granada, deben saber que todos hemos estado ah antes. +Y puede que se sientan muy solos, pero no lo estn. +Gracias, Boulder. Disfruten la velada. +Inteligencia, qu es eso? +Si analizamos la historia de cmo se ha visto la inteligencia, un ejemplo productivo ha sido la famosa cita de Edsger Dijkstra de que "La pregunta de si una mquina puede pensar es tan interesante como la pregunta de si un submarino puede nadar". +Cuando Edsger Dijkstra escribi esto lo hizo como una crtica a los pioneros de la informtica como Alan Turing. +Y as, hace algunos aos, emprend un programa para tratar de entender los mecanismos fsicos fundamentales subyacentes de la inteligencia. +Retrocedamos un paso. +Primero empecemos con un experimento mental. +Imaginen que son de una raza aliengena, que no saben nada de la biologa de la Tierra ni de neurociencia de la Tierra ni de inteligencia de la Tierra, pero que tienen telescopios increbles y pueden observar la Tierra, y tienen vidas increblemente largas, as que pueden observar la Tierra durante millones, incluso miles de millones de aos. +Y ven un efecto muy extrao. +Por supuesto, como terrcolas, sabemos que la razn sera que estamos tratando de salvarnos a nosotros mismos. +Estamos tratando de evitar un impacto. +Pero si son de una raza aliengena que no sabe nada de esto, que no tiene ningn concepto sobre inteligencia de la Tierra, se veran obligados a desarrollar una teora fsica que explicara cmo, hasta cierto momento en el tiempo, los asteroides que demoleran la superficie de un planeta misteriosamente dejan de hacerlo. +Y por eso afirmo que esta es la misma pregunta que la de entender la naturaleza fsica de la inteligencia. +As que en este programa que llev a cabo hace varios aos, analic una variedad de temas a travs de la ciencia, a travs de varias disciplinas, que sealaban, creo, hacia un nico mecanismo subyacente de la inteligencia. +En cosmologa, por ejemplo, ha habido una variedad de evidencias de que nuestro universo parece estar finamente ajustado para el desarrollo de la inteligencia, y, en particular, para el desarrollo de estados universales que maximizan la diversidad de posibles futuros. +Finalmente, en la planeacin de movimiento robtico, ha habido una variedad de tcnicas recientes que han intentado aprovechar las habilidades de los robots para maximizar la futura libertad de accin con el fin de realizar tareas complejas. +Y as, tomando todos estos temas diferentes y colocndolos juntos, pregunt, desde hace ya varios aos: Existe un mecanismo subyacente para la inteligencia que podamos extraer de todos estos diferentes temas? +Existe solamente una ecuacin para la inteligencia? +Y creo que la respuesta es s. Lo que estn viendo es probablemente el equivalente ms cercano a un E = mc para la inteligencia que yo haya visto. +As que lo que estn viendo aqu es una afirmacin de que la inteligencia es una fuerza, F, que acta con el fin de maximizar la futura libertad de accin. +Acta para maximizar la futura libertad de accin, o mantener las opciones abiertas, con una fuerza T, con la diversidad de posibles futuros accesibles, S, hasta un inminente tiempo futuro, tau. +En pocas palabras, a la inteligencia no le gusta quedar atrapada. +La inteligencia intenta maximizar la futura libertad de accin y mantener las opciones abiertas. +Y as, teniendo en cuenta esta ecuacin, es natural preguntar: Qu se puede hacer con esto? +Qu tan predictivo es? +Predice el nivel de inteligencia humana? +Predice la inteligencia artificial? +As que voy a mostrarles ahora un video que pienso, mostrar algunas de las aplicaciones sorprendentes de esta simple ecuacin. +Narrador: Recientes investigaciones en cosmologa han sugerido que los universos que producen ms desorden, o "entropa", durante su vida deberan tener tendencia a condiciones ms favorables para la existencia de seres inteligentes como nosotros. +Pero qu pasa si esa conexin cosmolgica tentativa entre la entropa y la inteligencia insina una relacin ms profunda? +Qu pasa si el comportamiento inteligente no solo se correlaciona con la produccin de entropa a largo plazo, sino que en realidad surge directamente de ella? +Para averiguarlo, hemos desarrollado un motor de software llamado Entropica, diseado para maximizar la produccin de entropa a largo plazo en cualquier sistema en que se encuentre dentro. +Sorprendentemente, Entropica pudo pasar mltiples pruebas de inteligencia animal, jugar juegos de humanos, e incluso ganar dinero comerciando acciones, todo ello sin que se le hubiera indicado hacer eso. +Aqu estn algunos ejemplos de Entropica en accin. +Al igual que un humano de pie sin caerse, aqu vemos a Entropica equilibrando automticamente un poste usando un carrito. +Este comportamiento es notable en parte porque nunca le dimos a Entropica una meta. +Simplemente decidi por su cuenta equilibrar el poste. +Esta habilidad de equilibrio tendr aplicaciones para la robtica humanoide y tecnologas de asistencia humana. +Esta capacidad de uso de herramientas tendr aplicaciones en la manufactura inteligente y la agricultura. +Adems, al igual que algunos otros animales pueden cooperar tirando de extremos opuestos de una cuerda al mismo tiempo para liberar la comida, aqu vemos que Entropica puede realizar una versin del modelo de esa tarea. +Esta capacidad de cooperacin tiene consecuencias interesantes para la planeacin econmica y en una variedad de otros campos. +Entropica es ampliamente aplicable a una variedad de dominios. +Por ejemplo, aqu la vemos exitosamente jugando un juego de pong contra s misma, ilustrando su potencial para el juego. +Aqu vemos a Entropica orquestar nuevas conexiones en una red social donde los amigos se desconectan constantemente y mantiene con xito la red bien conectada. +Esta misma capacidad de orquestacin de red tambin tiene aplicaciones en el cuidado de la salud, en energa e inteligencia. +Aqu vemos a Entropica organizar las rutas de una flota de barcos, descubriendo con xito y usando el Canal de Panam para ampliar a nivel mundial su alcance desde el Atlntico hasta el Pacfico. +De la misma manera, Entropica es ampliamente aplicable a problemas en defensa autnoma, logstica y transporte. +Finalmente, aqu vemos a Entropica espontneamente descubrir y ejecutar una estrategia de compra-bajo, vende-alto en una serie simulada de negociacin de acciones, exitosamente aumentando los activos bajo su gestin exponencialmente. +Esta habilidad de gestin de riesgo tendr amplias aplicaciones en finanzas y en seguros. +Alex Wissner-Gross: Lo que han visto es que una variedad de marcas de comportamientos humanos cognitivos inteligentes tales como el uso de herramientas, caminar erguidos y la cooperacin social, todos derivan de una sola ecuacin, que conduce a un sistema para maximizar su futura libertad de accin. +Ahora, aqu hay una profunda irona. +Volvamos al principio del uso del trmino robot, la obra "RUR"; hubo siempre el concepto de que si desarrollbamos mquinas inteligentes, habra una rebelin ciberntica. +Las mquinas se levantaran contra nosotros. +Una de las mayores consecuencias de este trabajo es que tal vez todas estas dcadas, hemos tenido todo el concepto de la rebelin ciberntica a la inversa. +No es que las mquinas primero se vuelven inteligentes y luego megalmanas y que intenten apoderarse del mundo. +Es todo lo contrario, que el impulso de tomar el control de todos los futuros posibles es un principio ms fundamental que el de la inteligencia, que la inteligencia general puede de hecho surgir directamente de tomar el control, en vez de ser al revs. +Otra consecuencia importante es la bsqueda del objetivo. +A menudo me preguntan: Cmo es que buscar objetivos se desprende de este tipo de marco? +Mi equivalente a esa declaracin para pasar a los descendientes para ayudarles a construir inteligencias artificiales o para ayudarles a comprender la inteligencia humana, es la siguiente: La inteligencia debe ser vista como un proceso fsico que intenta maximizar la futura libertad de accin y evitar las restricciones en su propio futuro. +Muchas gracias. +Estamos en un punto de inflexin en la historia humana, algo entre la conquista de las estrellas y perder el planeta que llamamos "hogar". +Aunque, en los ltimos aos, hemos ampliado muchsimo nuestros conocimientos de cmo encaja la Tierra en el contexto del universo. +La misin Kepler de la NASA ha descubierto miles de posibles planetas que orbitan alrededor de otras estrellas, lo que apunta a que la Tierra es solo uno entre los miles de millones de planetas de nuestra galaxia. +Kepler es un telescopio espacial que mide la intensidad luminosa tenue de las estrellas cuando los planetas pasan por delante de ellas, y bloquean un poco de esa luz que nos llega. +Los datos recogidos por Kepler muestran los tamaos de los planetas adems de la distancia que hay entre ellos y su estrella madre. +En conjunto, esto nos ayuda a entender si estos planetas son pequeos y rocosos como los planetas terrestres de nuestro sistema solar, y tambin la cantidad de luz que reciben de sus soles. +A su vez, esto da pistas sobre si estos planetas que encontramos son habitables o no. +Desafortunadamente, mientras estamos encontrando este tesoro de mundos potencialmente habitables, nuestro propio planeta est cediendo bajo el peso de la humanidad. +El ao 2014 fue el ms caluroso registrado. +Glaciares y hielo marino que han estado con nosotros desde hace milenios ahora estn desapareciendo en cuestin de dcadas. +Estos cambios medioambientales que hemos causado a escala global han superado rpidamente nuestra capacidad de alterar su curso. +Pero yo no soy ni cientfico del clima, ni astrnomo, +sino que estudio la habitabilidad del planeta influenciada por las estrellas, con la esperanza de encontrar lugares en el universo dnde descubrir vida ms all de nuestro planeta. +Se podra decir que busco oportunidades extraterrestres en el sector inmobiliario. +Ahora, como alguien muy interesada en la bsqueda de vida en el universo les puedo decir que cuanto ms busco planetas similares a la Tierra, ms disfruto de nuestro propio planeta. +Cada uno de estos nuevos mundos invita a una comparacin entre el planeta recin descubierto y los planetas que conocemos mejor: los de nuestro sistema solar. +Tomemos a nuestro vecino, Marte. +Marte es pequea y rocosa y a pesar de estar un poco ms lejos del Sol, puede considerarse un mundo potencialmente habitable demostrado esto por una misin como la Kepler. +De hecho, es posible que Marte haya sido habitable en el pasado y, en parte, es por ello que estudiamos tanto a Marte. +Nuestros rovers como el "Curiosity" rastrean su superficie en busca de pistas sobre los orgenes de la vida tal y como la conocemos. +Los satlites que la orbitan, como los de la misin MAVEN, toman muestras de la atmsfera marciana, y tratan de entender cmo Marte ha podido perder su habitabilidad. +Las empresas privadas ahora ofrecen no solo cortos vuelos espaciales sino tambin la tentadora posibilidad de vivir en Marte. +Pero a pesar de que todas estas imgenes marcianas nos recuerdan a los desiertos de nuestro planeta, lugares que estn vinculados en nuestra imaginacin con las ideas vanguardistas y pioneras, en comparacin con la Tierra, Marte es un lugar bastante terrible para vivir. +Tomemos la extensin de las reas desrticas de nuestro planeta que an quedan por colonizar, lugares realmente exuberantes en comparacin con Marte. +Incluso en los lugares ms secos y ms elevados de la Tierra el aire es fresco y repleto de oxgeno exhalado por nuestros bosques tropicales a miles de kilmetros de distancia. +Me preocupa que este entusiasmo por la colonizacin de Marte y otros planetas arrastre consigo una gran y triste sombra: la implicacin y la creencia de algunos que Marte esperar ah para salvarnos de esta autodestruccin infligida del nico planeta que sepamos que es verdaderamente habitable, la Tierra. +Por mucho que me guste la exploracin interplanetaria, estoy en profundo desacuerdo con esta idea. +Hay muchas buenas razones para ir a Marte, pero decir que Marte estar all para salvaguardar a la humanidad es como imaginarse que el capitn del Titanic nos comentar que la fiesta de verdad tendr lugar ms tarde en los botes salvavidas. Gracias. +Pero los objetivos para la exploracin interplanetaria y la preservacin terrestre no se contradicen. +No, en realidad son caras de la misma moneda: la meta de comprender, preservar y mejorar la vida en el futuro. +Los ambientes extremos presentes en nuestro mundo lucen como panoramas extraterrestres. +solo que se encuentran ms cerca de casa. +Si podemos entender cmo crear y mantener espacios habitables, en las zonas hostiles e inhspitas de la tierra, quiz podamos satisfacer la necesidad de preservar nuestro entorno e ir ms all de eso. +Les dejo con un experimento mental: la paradoja de Fermi. +Hace muchos aos, el fsico Enrico Fermi pregunt: teniendo en cuenta que nuestro universo ha existido desde hace mucho tiempo, y esperamos que existan muchos planetas en este universo, deberamos haber encontrado pruebas de la existencia de vida extraterrestre hasta ahora. +Bueno, dnde estn? +Bien, una posible solucin a la paradoja de Fermi es que cuando las civilizaciones se vuelven lo suficientemente avanzadas tecnolgicamente para considerar seguir viviendo entre las estrellas, pierden la nocin de lo importante que es proteger el origen de los planetas que impulsaron este desarrollo. +Es arrogante pensar que solo la colonizacin interplanetaria nos salvar de nosotros mismos, pero la preservacin planetaria y la exploracin interplanetaria pueden trabajar juntas. +Si realmente creemos en nuestra capacidad de someter a los ambientes hostiles de Marte para la presencia humana, entonces deberamos ser capaces de superar la tarea an ms fcil de preservar la habitabilidad en la Tierra. +Gracias. +Hace unos aos, asalt mi propia casa. +Y mientras estaba en el porche delantero mirando en mis bolsillos, me di cuenta de que no tena las llaves. +De hecho, poda ver por la ventana que estaban en la mesa del comedor, donde las haba dejado. +As que rpido intent abrir todas las otras puertas y ventanas, y todas estaban bien cerradas. +Pens en llamar a un cerrajero, al menos tena mi celular, pero a la medianoche, un cerrajero podra tardar mucho tiempo en llegar, y haca fro. +No poda volver a casa de mi amigo de Jeff para pasar noche pues tena un vuelo temprano a Europa a la maana siguiente, y precisaba de mi pasaporte y mi maleta. +Resultara caro, pero seguro que no ms caro que un cerrajero a media noche, as que pens, que a pesar de las circunstancias, sala bien parado. +Soy neurlogo de profesin y s un poco acerca de cmo funciona el cerebro bajo estrs. +Libera cortisol que aumenta el ritmo cardaco, modula los niveles de adrenalina y nubla el pensamiento. +Y cuando llegu al mostrador de facturacin en el aeropuerto, me di cuenta de que no tena mi pasaporte. +Bueno, tuve mucho tiempo para pensar en esas 8 horas sin dormir. +Y empec a preguntarme, si haba algo que pudiera hacer, sistemas que pudiera poner en su lugar, que eviten que sucedan cosas malas. +O al menos, si suceden cosas malas, que minimicen la probabilidad de que sea una catstrofe total. +As que me puse a pensar en eso, pero hasta un mes despus mis pensamientos no cristalizaron. +Estaba cenando con mi colega Danny Kahneman, ganador del Premio Nobel, y un poco avergonzado le habl de que romp la ventana, y, de que haba olvidado mi pasaporte, y Danny comparti conmigo que haba estado practicando algo llamado retrospectiva prospectiva. +Es algo que l haba aprendido del psiclogo Gary Klein, quien haba escrito de esto unos aos antes, conocido tambin como el premortem. +Todos saben lo que es el postmortem. +Cada vez que hay un desastre, un equipo de expertos viene y trata de averiguar lo que sali mal, s? +En el premortem, como explica Danny, uno mira adelante e intenta averiguar todas las cosas que podran salir mal, a continuacin, intenta averiguar qu puede hacer para evitar que las cosas sucedan o para minimizar el dao. +As que de lo que quiero hablar con Uds. es de algunas cosas que podemos hacer en la forma de una premortem. +Algunos de ellas son evidentes, otras no son tan evidentes. +Voy a empezar con las obvias. +En la casa, designar un lugar para las cosas que se pierden fcilmente. +Esto suena de sentido comn y lo es, pero hay mucha ciencia que apoya esta tesis, basndose en cmo funciona nuestra memoria espacial. +Hay una estructura en el cerebro llamada hipocampo, que ha evolucionado a lo largo de miles de aos, para hacer un seguimiento de la ubicacin de las cosas importantes, donde est el bien, donde estn los peces, que ubica los rboles frutales, donde viven las tribus amigas y enemigas. +El hipocampo es la parte del cerebro que se agranda en los taxistas de Londres. +Es la parte del cerebro que permite a las ardillas encontrar sus nueces. +Y si se preguntan si alguien realmente hizo el experimento, cortaron el sentido olfativo de las ardillas y an as podan encontrar sus nueces. +Ellas no usaban el olfato, sino el hipocampo, ese mecanismo muy evolucionado del cerebro para encontrar cosas. +Pero es realmente bueno para cosas que no se mueven mucho, no tan bueno para cosas que se mueven mucho. +Esta es la razn para perder llaves del auto, gafas de lectura y pasaportes. +As que en casa designen un lugar para las llaves, un gancho junto a la puerta, tal vez un plato decorativo. +Para su pasaporte, un cajn en particular. +Para sus gafas de lectura, una mesita en particular. +Si designan un lugar y son escrupulosos con ello sus cosas siempre estarn ah cuando las busquen. +Qu pasa con los viajes? +Tomen con el celular una foto de sus tarjetas de crdito, licencia de conducir, pasaporte, envenselo por correo a s mismos para que estn en la nube. +Si estas cosas se pierden o las roban, esto puede facilitar la sustitucin. +Estas son algunas de las cosas ms obvias. +Recuerden, cuando se est bajo estrs, el cerebro libera cortisol. +El cortisol es txico y enturbia el pensamiento. +As que parte de la prctica premortem es reconocer que bajo estrs no estaremos en el mejor momento, y hay que poner los sistemas en su sitio. +Y hay quizs no ms estresante situacin que cuando uno se enfrenta ante una decisin mdica. +Y en algn momento, todos estaremos en esa situacin, de tener que tomar una decisin muy importante sobre el futuro de nuestra atencin mdica o la de un ser querido, para ayudarles con una decisin. +Y por eso quiero hablar de eso. +Y hablar de una afeccin mdica muy particular. +Pero esto se erige como un proxy para toda toma de decisiones mdicas, y de hecho para la toma de decisiones financieras y de decisiones sociales, cualquier tipo de decisin que hay que tomar de la que se beneficiaran una evaluacin racional de los hechos. +As que supongamos que van al mdico y el mdico dice: "He recibido el resultado del laboratorio y el colesterol est un poco alto". +Todos saben que el colesterol alto se asocia con un mayor riesgo de enfermedades cardiovasculares, ataque al corazn, derrame cerebral. +As que uno est pensando que tener el colesterol alto no es lo mejor, entonces el mdico dice: "Me gustara recetarle un medicamento que le ayudar a reducir el colesterol, una estatina". +Y quiz uno ya ha odo hablar de las estatinas, y sabe que es uno de los medicamentos ms recetados en el mundo hoy. Incluso es probable que uno conozca a personas que los toman. +As uno piensa: "S, recteme la estatina!" +Pero hay una pregunta que se debe hacer entonces, una estadstica que se debe pedir de la que la mayora de los mdicos no quieren hablar, y las compaas farmacuticas incluso menos. +Es para el NNT, el nmero necesario a tratar. +Y, qu es esto, el NNT? +Es el nmero de personas que deben tomar un medicamento o someterse a una ciruga en cualquier procedimiento mdico antes de que se ayude a una persona. +Y debe pensar qu tipo de estadstica descerebrada es esa? +El nmero debe ser uno. +Mi mdico no me recetara algo si no fuera a ayudarme. +Pero, en realidad, la prctica mdica no funciona as. +Y no es culpa del mdico, y si es culpa de alguien, es de los cientficos como yo. +No hemos entendido muy bien los mecanismos subyacentes. +Pero las estimaciones de GlaxoSmithKline de que el 90 % de los frmacos funciona solo del 30 al 50 % de las personas. +As que el nmero necesario a tratar la estatina ms ampliamente recetado, cul creen que es? +Cuntas personas tienen que tomarlo antes de que ayude a una persona? +300. +Esto segn la investigacin de los investigadores cnicos Jerome Groopman y Pamela Hartzband, confirmado de forma independiente por Bloomberg.com. +Yo mismo explor los nmeros. +300 personas tienen que tomar el medicamento durante un ao antes de evitar un solo ataque de corazn, derrame cerebral u otro evento adverso. +Ahora quiz piensen: "Bueno, 1 probabilidad en 300 de bajar mi colesterol. +Por qu no, doctor? Deme la receta de todos modos". +Pero entonces uno se debe preguntar por una estadstica ms, y es, "Hbleme de los efectos secundarios". S? +Para este medicamento en particular, los efectos secundarios se producen en el 5 % de los pacientes. +Y esos incluyen cosas terribles: debilitante dolor muscular y articular, dolor gastrointestinal, pero ahora piensan: "El 5 % no es muy probable que me pase a m, an as tomar la medicina". +Pero un momento, +recuerden que bajo estrs no piensan con claridad. +As que piensen cmo asimilaran esto con el tiempo, as que no tienen que fabricar la cadena de razonamiento en el acto. +300 personas toman el frmaco, no? A una persona le ha ayudado, 5 % de los 300 tienen efectos secundarios, eso son 15 personas. +Uno tiene 15 veces ms probabilidades de salir perjudicado por el frmaco de que te ayude el medicamento. +No digo que deban o no tomar la estatina. +Solo digo que deben tener esta conversacin con su mdico. +La tica mdica lo requiere, es parte del principio de consentimiento informado. +Tenemos derecho a tener acceso a este tipo de informacin para iniciar la conversacin sobre de si uno quiere asumir los riesgos o no. +Quiz estn pensando que he lanzado este nmero en el aire por el valor del choque, pero en realidad este nmero necesario a tratar es bastante tpico. +Para la ciruga que ms se realiza en los hombres mayores de 50, extirpacin de la prstata por cncer, el nmero necesario a tratar es de 49. +As es, 49 cirugas por una persona a la que ha ayudado. +Y los efectos secundarios en ese caso, se producen en el 50 % de los pacientes. +Esos incluyen la impotencia o disfuncin erctil, incontinencia urinaria, lagrimeo rectal, incontinencia fecal. +Y si se tiene suerte y se es uno de ese 50 % los efectos solo durarn un ao o dos. +As que la idea de la premortem es pensar antes de tiempo las preguntas que uno puede plantear que impulsarn la conversacin hacia adelante. +Uds. no tienen por qu fabricar todo esto en el acto. +Y tambin quieren pensar en la calidad de vida. +Debido a que se tiene una opcin muchas veces, quieren una vida ms corta libre de dolor, o una vida ms larga que podra tener mucho dolor hacia el final? +Estas son las cosas de las que hablan y piensan de ahora, con su familia y sus seres queridos. +Pueden cambiar de opinin en el calor del momento, pero al menos que uno est entrenado en este tipo de pensamiento. +Recuerden, nuestro cerebro libera cortisol bajo estrs, y una de las cosas que sucede en ese momento es que se apagan un montn de sistemas. +Hay una razn evolutiva para esto. +Cara a cara con un depredador, no es necesario el sistema digestivo, o la libido o el sistema inmunolgico, porque si el cuerpo est gastando el metabolismo en esas cosas, no reacciona con rapidez. Podran llegar a ser el almuerzo de los leones, as que nada de eso importa. +Desafortunadamente, una de las cosas que se va por la ventana durante esos momentos de estrs es el pensamiento lgico racional, como Danny Kahneman y sus colegas han demostrado. +As que tenemos que entrenarnos para pensar en el futuro a este tipo de situaciones. +Creo que lo importante aqu es reconocer que todos somos defectuosos. +Todos vamos a fallar de vez en cuando. +La idea es pensar en el futuro cmo podran ser esos fallos, para poner los sistemas en el lugar que le ayudar a minimizar el dao, o para evitar que las cosas malas sucedan en el primer lugar. +Rebobinando a la noche de nieve en Montreal, cuando regres de mi viaje, mi contratista me instal una cerradura de combinacin junto a la puerta, con una llave de la puerta de entrada en el mismo, una forma fcil de recordarlo. +Y tengo que admitir que todava tengo montones de cartas que no he ordenado, y montones de mensajes de correo que no he ledo. +As que no soy muy organizado, pero veo la organizacin como un proceso gradual, y lo estoy logrando. +Muchas gracias. +Intrprete: Piano, "p" es mi smbolo musical favorito. +Significa tocar suavemente. +Si ests tocando un instrumento musical y ves una "p" en la partitura, necesitas tocar ms suavemente. +Dos 'p', an ms suave. +Cuatro 'p', extremadamente suave. +Este es mi dibujo de un rbol de 'p', ah se ve que no importa cuntos miles y miles de 'p' puede haber, nunca llegars a un completo silencio. +Esa es mi definicin actual de silencio: un sonido muy oscuro. +Me gustara compartir un poco sobre la historia del sistema estadounidense de signos, el ASL, adems de un poco de mi propia historia. +El lenguaje de signos francs lleg durante la dcada de 1800, y con el paso del tiempo, se mezcl con signos locales, y se desarroll el idioma que hoy conocemos como ASL. +Por lo tanto, tiene una historia de unos 200 aos. +Nac sorda. Y me ensearon a creer que el sonido no era una parte de mi vida. +Y yo crea que era verdad. +Sin embargo, ahora me doy cuenta de que no es verdad para nada. +Los sonidos son una parte muy importante de mi vida, realmente estn en mi mente todos los das. +Como una persona sorda que vive en un mundo de sonidos, es como si yo viviera en un pas extranjero, siguiendo ciegamente sus reglas, costumbres, comportamientos y normas sin cuestionarlas. +As que cmo entiendo el sonido? +Bueno, veo cmo las personas se comportan y responden al sonido. +La gente son como mis altavoces y amplifican el sonido. +Aprendo y copio ese comportamiento. +Al mismo tiempo, he aprendido que puedo crear sonidos, y he visto cmo la gente responde. +As he aprendido, por ejemplo... +"No azotes la puerta!" +"No hagas mucho ruido al comer de la bolsa de papas fritas!" +"No eructes, y cuando ests comiendo, asegrate de no araar los cubiertos en el plato". +A todo esto lo llamo "etiqueta de sonido". +Tal vez pienso en la etiqueta de sonido ms de lo que la persona promedio lo hace. +Soy super vigilante de los sonidos. +Y siempre estoy esperando con nerviosismo el sonido, sobre el que est por venir a continuacin. +De ah, este dibujo. +TBD, por decidir. +TBC, por continuar. +TBA, por anunciar. +Pueden ver que el pentagrama no tiene notas en las lneas. +Eso es porque las lneas ya contienen sonidos a travs de los borrones sutiles y manchas. +En la cultura sorda, el movimiento es equivalente al sonido. +Esta es la seal para "pentagrama" en el ASL. +Un pentagrama tpico tiene cinco lneas. +Sin embargo, para m, hacer la sea con mi pulgar as no se siente natural. +Es por eso que en mis dibujos solo tengo cuatro lneas en el papel. +En el ao 2008, tuve la oportunidad de viajar a Berln, Alemania, para una residencia artstica all. +Antes de este tiempo, haba trabajado como pintora. +Durante este verano, visit museos y espacios de diferentes galeras, y mientras iba de un lugar a otro, me di cuenta de que no haba arte visual all. +En ese momento, el sonido era la tendencia y eso me llam la atencin... +no haba arte visual, todo era auditivo. +Ahora el sonido ha entrado en mi territorio del arte. +Me va a distanciar ms del arte? +Me di cuenta de que no tiene por qu ser as. +De hecho, conozco el sonido. +Lo conozco tan bien que no solo se experimenta a travs de los odos. +Puedo sentirlo de manera tctil, o experimentarlo visualmente, o incluso como una idea. +As que me decid a reclamar la propiedad de sonido e integrarla en mi prctica artstica. +Y todo lo que me haban enseado en cuanto a sonido, decid dejarlo y desaprenderlo. +Comenc a crear un nuevo cuerpo de trabajo. +Y cuando lo present a la comunidad artstica, qued impresionada con la cantidad de apoyo y atencin que recib. +Me di cuenta que el sonido es como el dinero, el poder, el control: moneda social. +En el fondo de mi mente, siempre sent que el sonido era ajeno, era algo de una persona oyente. +Y el sonido es tan poderoso que bien podra debilitarme a m y mi trabajo artstico, o me podra empoderar. +Eleg que me empoderara. +Hay una cultura masiva en torno al lenguaje hablado. +Y solo porque yo no uso mi voz literal para comunicar, a los ojos de la sociedad es como si no tuviera una voz en absoluto. +As que tengo que trabajar con personas que me puedan apoyar de igual a igual y convertirse en mi voz. +De esa manera soy capaz de ser relevante en la sociedad actual. +As que en la escuela, en el trabajo y las instituciones, trabajo con muchos intrpretes diferentes de ASL. +Y su voz se convierte en mi voz e identidad. +Me ayudan a ser escuchada. +Y sus voces tienen valor y peso. +Irnicamente, al pedir prestadas sus voces, soy capaz de mantener una forma temporal de valor algo as como tomar un prstamo con una tasa de inters muy alta. +Si no continuara con esta prctica, siento que podra desvanecerme en el olvido y no tener ningn tipo de valor social. +As, con el sonido como mi nuevo medio artstico, profundic en el mundo de la msica. +Y me sorprend al ver las similitudes entre la msica y el ASL. +Por ejemplo, una nota musical no se puede capturar y expresar plenamente en el papel. +Y lo mismo puede decirse de un concepto en ASL. +Los dos son muy espaciales y altamente modulados lo que significa que cambios sutiles pueden afectar todo el significado tanto de las seales como de los sonidos. +Me gustara compartirles una metfora del piano, para que entiendan mejor cmo funciona el ASL. +Entonces, imaginen un piano. +El ASL se divide en muchos parmetros gramaticales diferentes. +Si se asigna un parmetro diferente para cada dedo mientras se toca el piano, como la expresin facial, el movimiento del cuerpo, la velocidad, la forma de la mano y as, mientras se toca el piano, el ingls es un lenguaje lineal, como si se pulsara solo una tecla a la vez. +Sin embargo, el ASL es ms como un acorde, se necesitan los 10 dedos de forma simultnea para expresar un concepto claro o idea en ASL. +Si solo una tecla cambiara el acorde, creara un significado completamente diferente. +Lo mismo ocurre con la msica en cuanto a tono, timbre y volumen. +En ASL, al usar estos diferentes parmetros gramaticales, se pueden expresar diferentes ideas. +Por ejemplo, la seal "fjate en eso". +Esta es la seal "fjate en eso". +Te estoy viendo. +Mirndote fijamente. +Oh, me cacharon. +Uh oh. +Qu ests mirando? +Ah, basta! +Entonces me puse a pensar, y si veo al ASL a travs de los lentes de la msica? +Si tuviera que crear un signo y lo repitiera una y otra vez, podra llegar a ser como una pieza de msica visual. +Por ejemplo, este es el signo de "da", el sol sale y se pone. +Esto es "todo el da". +Si lo repitiera y reduciera la velocidad, visualmente se ve como una pieza musical. +Todo el da. +Siento que lo mismo puede decirse de "toda la noche". +"Toda la noche". +Esta es toda la noche, en este dibujo. +Y esto me llev a pensar en unas tres diferentes tipos de noches: "Anoche", "durante la noche", "toda la noche". +Siento que el tercero tiene ms musicalidad que los otros dos. +Esto representa cmo se expresa el tiempo en ASL y cmo la distancia al cuerpo puede expresar los cambios en el tiempo. +Por ejemplo, 1 hr. es una mano, 2 hrs. es dos manos, el presente se hace ms cerca y en frente del cuerpo, el futuro es en frente del cuerpo y el pasado es en la espalda. +As, el primer ejemplo es "hace mucho tiempo". +Luego, "pasado". "Acostumbrado a" y el ltimo, que es mi favorito, con una idea muy romntica y dramtica a la vez, "Haba una vez". +"Tiempo comn" es un trmino musical con un ritmo especfico de cuatro tiempos por comps. +Sin embargo, cuando veo la palabra "tiempo comn" pienso automticamente en "al mismo tiempo". +Vean MD: mano derecha, MI: mano izquierda. +Tenemos el pentagrama a travs de la cabeza y el pecho. +[Cara: MD, garra flash] [Tiempo Comn] [En el pecho: MI, garra flash] Les voy a ensear una forma de la mano llamada "garra flash". +Pueden hacerlo conmigo? +Todos con las manos en alto. +Ahora vamos a hacerlo tanto en la cabeza como el pecho, algo as como "tiempo comn" o "al mismo tiempo". +S, muy bien. +Eso significa "enamorarse" en el sistema internacional. +El sistema internacional, como nota, es una herramienta visual para ayudar a comunicarse en todas las culturas y las lenguas de signos en todo el mundo. +El segundo que me gustara ensearles es este. Por favor, hganlo conmigo otra vez. +Y ahora esto. +Significa "colonizacin" en el ASL. +Ahora, la tercera. Por favor, sganme de nuevo. +Y otra vez. +Es "iluminacin" en el ASL. +Vamos a hacer los tres juntos. +"Enamorarse", "colonizacin" e "iluminacin". +Buen trabajo todos. +Observen cmo los tres signos son muy similares. Todos ocurren en la cabeza y el pecho. Pero transmiten significados muy diferentes. +Es increble ver cmo el ASL est vivo y prspera, al igual que la msica. +Sin embargo, hoy en da, vivimos en un mundo muy audio-cntrico. +Y solo porque el ASL no tiene sonidos, automticamente no tiene valor social. +Tenemos que empezar a cuestionar qu define el valor social y permitir que el ASL desarrolle su propio valor, sin sonidos. +Y esto podra ser un paso para hacer una sociedad ms inclusiva. +Y tal vez la gente entender que no hay que ser sordo para aprender ASL. Ni que hay que oir para aprender msica. +El ASL es un rico tesoro y me gustara que tuvieran la misma experiencia. +Me gustara invitarles a abrir sus odos, abrir los ojos, a participar en nuestra cultura y experimentar de nuestro lenguaje visual. +Y nunca se sabe, pueden hasta enamorarse de nosotros. +Gracias. +Denise Kahler-Braaten: Hey, esa soy yo. +De nio, mis padres me decan: "Puedes ensuciarlo todo, pero despus tienes que limpiarlo". +La libertad implica responsabilidad. +Pero mi imaginacin me llevaba a todos estos lugares maravillosos, donde todo era posible. +As que crec en una burbuja de inocencia o una burbuja de ignorancia debo decir, porque los adultos nos mentan para protegernos de la horrible verdad. +Al hacerme mayor, me enter de que los adultos tambin ensucian y de que no son muy buenos para limpiar los los de otros. +El tiempo pas, ahora soy adulto y enseo ciudadana e invencin en la escuela Harbour de Hong Kong. +No hay que esperar mucho para que mis alumnos al caminar por la playa tropiecen con montones de basura. +As que como buenos ciudadanos, limpiamos las playas, y no, no est bebiendo alcohol, y si lo est, yo no se lo di. +Es triste decirlo, pero hoy ms del 80 % de los ocanos contienen plstico. +Es algo espeluznante. +Y en las ltimas dcadas, hemos estado saliendo con estos grandes buques y redes, a recolectar esos trozos de plstico para estudiarlos bajo el microscopio, y los clasificamos y recopilamos esta informacin en un mapa. +Pero dura una eternidad y es muy caro y tambin es muy arriesgado usar esos botes enormes. +As que junto con mis estudiantes, con edades de 6 a 15 aos, soamos con inventar una manera mejor. +Hemos transformado nuestra diminuta aula en Hong Kong en un taller. +Empezamos a construir esta mesita de trabajo con altura ajustable para que los nios muy bajitos tambin puedan participar. +Y les dir, los nios que manipulan herramientas elctricas se sienten genial y seguros. +No exactamente. +Volvamos al plstico. +Recolectamos el plstico y lo reducimos al tamao que lo encontramos en el ocano, que es muy pequeo, debido a su fragmentacin. +Eso hacemos. +Lo dejo a la imaginacin de mis alumnos. +Mi trabajo es tratar de tomar las mejores ideas de cada nio y tratar de combinarlas en algo que esperamos que funcione. +Decidimos que en lugar de recolectar trozos de plstico, solo recolectaremos informacin. +Mediante el uso de un robot, tomamos una imagen de este plstico... los nios se emocionan mucho con los robots. +Despus creamos rpidamente lo que llamamos "un prototipo". +Somos tan rpidos en la creacin de prototipos que terminamos antes de almorzar. +Y transformamos lmparas y cmaras web en accesorios y lo ensamblamos en un robot flotante que se mover lentamente por el agua y por el plstico que tenemos ah, y esta es la imagen capturada por el robot. +Vemos los trozos de plstico flotando lentamente a travs del sensor mientras que la computadora de a bordo procesar esta imagen y medir el tamao de cada partcula, para obtener una estimacin aproximada de la cantidad de plstico en el agua. +Documentamos este invento paso a paso en un sitio web para inventores llamado "Instructables", con la esperanza de que alguien lo mejore an ms. +Lo genial en este proyecto es que los estudiantes vieron un problema local, y pum, estn tratando de solucionarlo de inmediato. +[Puedo investigar mi problema local] Pero mis alumnos en Hong Kong son nios muy bien informados. +Ven las noticias, consultan Internet, y se toparon con esta imagen: +un nio, quiz menor de 10 aos, limpiando un derrame de petrleo, solo usando las manos, en Sundarbans, la selva manglar ms grande del mundo en Bangladesh. +Se quedaron muy sorprendidos porque esta es el agua que beben, es el agua en la que se baan, el agua donde pescan, el lugar donde viven. +Pueden ver tambin que el agua es marrn, el barro y el petrleo tambin son de color marrn y cuando todo se mezcla, es muy difcil ver qu hay en el agua. +Pero existe una tecnologa simple llamada espectrometra, que permite que se vea lo que hay en el agua. +Construimos un primer prototipo de un espectrmetro que puede alumbrar a travs de toda clase de sustancias que producen espectros diferentes, lo que puede ayudar a identificar lo que hay en el agua. +Equipamos este prototipo con un sensor y lo mandamos a Bangladesh. +Lo genial de este proyecto es que ms all de resolver un problema local, o de analizar un problema local, mis alumnos usaron su empata y su sentido de la creatividad para ayudar de forma remota a otros nios. +[Puedo investigar un problema a distancia] Me vi obligado a hacer un segundo experimento, y quise ir un poco ms lejos, quizs abordar un problema ms difcil, y tambin ms cercano a m. +Soy mitad japons y mitad francs y quiz recuerden, que en 2011, hubo un terremoto devastador en Japn. +Fue tan violento que desencaden varias olas gigantes, llamadas tsunamis, y esos tsunamis destruyeron varias ciudades en la costa este de Japn. +Ms de 14 000 personas murieron en un instante. +Tambin da la planta de energa nuclear de Fukushima, una central nuclear cercana al agua. +Y hoy, segn los informes un promedio de 300 toneladas an se estn filtrando de la planta nuclear en el ocano Pacfico. +Hoy, todo el Ocano Pacfico tiene trazas de contaminacin por cesio-137. +Si vamos a la costa oeste, podemos medir la radiacin de Fukushima en todas partes. +Pero si nos fijamos en el mapa, parece que la mayor parte de la radiacin desapareci de la costa japonesa, y la mayora, de momento, tiene aspecto seguro, es azul. +Bueno, la realidad es un poco ms complicada que eso. +He vuelto a Fukushima cada ao desde el accidente e investigo de manera independiente con otros cientficos, la tierra, el ro, y esta vez quisimos llevar a los nios. +Por supuesto no los llevamos, los padres no lo permitieron. +Pero cada noche informamos al centro de control... aqu se ve el uso de mscaras diferentes. +Podra parecer que no tomaron el trabajo seriamente, pero s lo hicieron porque van a tener que vivir con la radioactividad toda su vida. +Junto con ellos discutimos los datos recopilados ese da y hablamos de lo que bamos a hacer despus, las estrategias, el itinerario, etc. +Y para hacer esto, creamos un mapa topogrfico rudimentario de la regin alrededor de la planta de energa nuclear. +Creamos el mapa de elevacin, introdujimos pigmentos para representar datos en tiempo real de la radiactividad, y rociamos agua para simular la lluvia. +Con esto pudimos notar que el polvo radioactivo se filtraba desde la cima de la montaa hacia el sistema ribereo y desembocaba en el ocano. +Era una estimacin aproximada. +Pero con base en esto organizamos una expedicin civil, la ms cercana a la central nuclear hasta la fecha. +Nos acercamos hasta 1,5 km de la central nuclear, y con la ayuda de pescadores de la zona fuimos recolectando sedimentos del lecho marino con un rastreador de sedimento a medida que nosotros inventamos y construimos. +Aqu vemos una progresin: hemos ido de un problema local a un problema remoto, a un problema global. +y ha sido muy emocionante trabajar en estas escalas diferentes, tambin con tecnologas de cdigo abierto y muy simples. +Pero al mismo tiempo, ha sido cada vez ms frustrante porque solo hemos estado empezando a medir el dao que hemos hecho. +Ni siquiera hemos empezado a tratar de resolver los problemas. +Me pregunto si deberamos dar el salto y tratar de inventar mejores maneras de hacer todas estas cosas. +As que el aula se volvi un tanto pequea por lo tanto, encontramos una instalacin industrial en Hong Kong y la convertimos en el espacio ms grande dedicado al impacto social y ambiental. +Est en el centro de Hong Kong y es un lugar donde podemos trabajar con madera, metal, qumica, un poco de biologa, de ptica, bsicamente, se puede construir casi de todo all. +Tambin es un lugar donde los adultos y los nios pueden jugar juntos. +Es un lugar donde los sueos de los nios pueden volverse realidad con la ayuda de adultos, y donde los adultos pueden ser nios otra vez. +Estudiantes: aceleracin! Aceleracin! +Cesar Harada: Preguntamos cosas como: podemos inventar el futuro de la movilidad con energa renovable? +Por ejemplo. +O bien, podemos ayudar en la movilidad de la poblacin de edad avanzada transformando sus sillas de ruedas estndar en nuevos vehculos elctricos? +El plstico, el petrleo y la radioactividad son legados terribles, pero el peor legado que podemos dejar a nuestros nios son las mentiras. +Ya no podemos permitirnos proteger a los nios de la horrible verdad porque necesitamos su imaginacin para inventar las soluciones. +As que, ciudadanos cientficos, creadores, soadores, debemos preparar a la siguiente generacin para que se preocupe por el ambiente y la gente, y para que realmente pueda hacer algo al respecto. +Gracias. +Dos cpulas gemelas, dos culturas de diseo radicalmente opuestas. +Una est hecha de miles de piezas de acero, la otra de un solo hilo de seda. +Una de ellas es sinttica, la otra orgnica. +Una se impone sobre el medio ambiente, la otra lo crea. +Una est diseada por la naturaleza, la otra por ella. +Miguel ngel dijo que cuando l mir el mrmol en bruto, vio una figura que lucha por ser libre. +El cincel era nica herramienta de Miguel ngel. +Pero los seres vivos no estn cincelados. +Ellos crecen. +Y en las unidades ms pequeas de la vida, las clulas, llevamos toda la informacin lo requerido por cada clula para funcionar y para replicarse. +Las herramientas tambin tienen consecuencias. +Al menos desde la Revolucin Industrial, el mundo del diseo ha sido dominado por rigores de la fabricacin y produccin en masa. +Las lneas de montaje han dictado un mundo hecho de partes, encorsetando la imaginacin de diseadores y arquitectos entrenados para pensar sus objetos como ensamblajes de partes discretas con funciones distintas. +Pero uno no encuentra ensamblajes de material homogneo en la naturaleza. +Piensen en la piel humana, por ejemplo. +Nuestras pieles faciales son delgadas con poros dilatados. +Las pieles de la espalda son ms gruesas con pequeos poros. +Uno acta principalmente como filtro, la otra principalmente como barrera, y, sin embargo, es la misma piel: no hay partes, no hay ensamblajes. +Es un sistema que vara gradualmente su funcionalidad mediante la variacin de elasticidad. +Aqu hay una pantalla dividida que representa mi visin del mundo dividido, la doble personalidad de cada diseador y arquitecto al trabajar actualmente entre el cincel y el gen, entre la mquina y el organismo, entre el ensamblaje y el crecimiento, entre Henry Ford y Charles Darwin. +Estas dos visiones del mundo, mi hemisferio izquierdo y el derecho, anlisis y sntesis, se muestra en las dos pantallas tras de m. +Mi trabajo, en su nivel ms simple, trata de unir estas dos visiones del mundo, alejndose del ensamblaje y acercndose al crecimiento. +Probablemente se pregunten: Porqu ahora? +Por qu no era posible esto hace 10 o incluso cinco aos? +Vivimos en un momento muy especial en la historia, un momento raro, donde confluyen cuatro disciplinas que ofrece a diseadores acceso a herramientas a las que nunca habamos tenido acceso a antes. +Y en la interseccin de estos cuatro campos, mi equipo y yo creamos. +Por favor, conozcan las mentes y las manos de mis estudiantes. +Diseamos objetos, productos, estructuras y herramientas a travs de escalas, de gran escala, como este brazo robtico con un alcance de 24 m de dimetro con una base vehicular que algn da no muy lejano imprimir edificios enteros; y grficos a nanoescala hechos de microorganismos genticamente modificados que brillan en la oscuridad. +Aqu hemos reinventado la celosa, un arquetipo de la antigua arquitectura rabe, y ha creado una pantalla donde cada abertura es de tamao nico para modelar la forma de la luz y el calor a travs de l. +En nuestro prximo proyecto, exploramos la posibilidad de crear una capa y una falda. Esto era para un desfile de moda de Pars con Iris van Herpen. Es como una segunda piel hecha de una sola pieza, rigido en los contornos, flexible alrededor de la cintura. +Junto con colaborador de impresin 3D Stratasys, imprimimos esta capa y falda 3D sin costuras entre las clulas. Les mostrar ms objetos como ese. +Este casco combina materiales rgidos y blandos en la resolucin de 20 micras. +Esta es la resolucin de un cabello humano. +Es tambin la resolucin de un escner CT. +Que los diseadores tengan acceso a esta analtica de alta resolucin y a los instrumentos sintticos, permite disear productos que se adapten no solo la forma de nuestros cuerpos, sino tambin la estructura fisiolgica de nuestros tejidos. +Tambin hemos diseado una silla acstica, una silla a la vez estructural, cmoda y tambin que absorbe sonido. +El profesor Carter, mi colaborador, volvimos a la naturaleza para inspirarnos, y al disear este patrn de superficie irregular, se convierte en sonido-absorbente. +Imprimimos esta superficie de 44 propiedades diferentes, que varan en rigidez, opacidad y color, correspondiendo a los puntos de presin en el cuerpo humano. +Su superficie, como en la naturaleza, vara su funcionalidad no mediante la adicin de otro material u otro ensamblaje, sino variando continuamente y delicadamente la propiedad material. +Pero es la naturaleza ideal? +No hay partes en la naturaleza? +No me cri en un hogar judo religioso, pero cuando era joven, mi abuela me contaba historias de la Biblia hebrea, y uno de ellas se me qued y lleg a definir mucho de lo que me importa. +Como ella relata: "En el tercer da de la Creacin, Dios manda a la Tierra hacer crecer un rbol frutal cargado de fruta". +Para ese primer rbol frutal, no habra ninguna diferencia entre tronco, ramas, hojas y frutos. +Todo el rbol era una fruta. +En cambio, la tierra hizo crecer rboles con ramas, corteza, tallos y flores. +La tierra cre un mundo hecho de partes. +A menudo me pregunto, "Cul sera el diseo si los objetos se hicieran de una sola pieza? +Volveramos a un mejor estado de la creacin? " +As que buscamos que el material bblico, el tipo de material del rbol frutal con frutas, y lo encontramos. +El segundo biopolmero ms abundante en el planeta se llama quitina, y unos 100 millones de toneladas se producen cada ao por organismos como camarones, cangrejos, escorpiones y mariposas. +Pensamos que si podamos sintonizar sus propiedades, podramos generar estructuras multifuncionales en una sola pieza. +As que eso es lo que hicimos. +Lo llamamos marisco legal. Pedimos un montn de cscaras de camarn, las molimos y produjimos pasta de quitosano. +Variando las concentraciones qumicas, hemos podido lograr una amplia gama de propiedades, desde oscuro, duro y opaco, a la luz, suave y transparente. +Para imprimir las estructuras a gran escala, se construy un sistema con mltiples boquillas de extrusin controlado robticamente. +El robot poda variar las propiedades del material sobre la marcha y crear estas estructuras hechas de un solo material 3.5 m de largo, 100 % reciclable. +Cuando las piezas estn listas, se las deja secar para encontrar una forma natural al contacto con el aire. +As que por qu seguimos diseando con plstico? +Las burbujas de aire que eran un subproducto del proceso de impresin se utilizaron para contener microorganismos fotosintticos que aparecieron por primera vez en el planeta hace 3.5 mil millones aos, como escuchamos ayer. +Junto con nuestros colaboradores en Harvard y el MIT, incrustamos las bacterias diseadas genticamente para capturar rpidamente carbono de la atmsfera y convertirlo en azcar. +Por primera vez, hemos podido generar estructuras que hacen su transicin sin problemas de viga a malla, y si se ampla an ms, a ventanas. +Un rbol frutal cargado de fruta. +Trabajar con un material antiguo, una de las primeras formas de vida en el planeta, con abundante agua y con un poco de biologa sinttica, hemos transformado una estructura hecha de cscaras de camarn en una arquitectura que se comporta como un rbol. +Y aqu est la mejor parte: para objetos diseados para biodegradarse, puestos en el mar, alimentarn la vida marina; y colocados en el suelo, ayudarn a crecer un rbol. +El ajuste para nuestra prxima exploracin utilizando los mismos principios de diseo era el sistema solar. +Buscamos la posibilidad de crear ropa para mantener la vida para los viajes interplanetarios. +Para hacer eso, debemos dominar las bacterias y controlar su flujo. +As como la tabla peridica, hicimos nuestra propia mesa de elementos: nuevas formas de vida creadas computacionalmente, fabricadas de forma aditiva y aumentadas de forma biolgica. +Me gusta pensar en la biologa sinttica como la alquimia lquida, solo que en vez de transmutar metales preciosos, se sintetizan nuevas funcionalidades biolgicas dentro de canales muy pequeos. +Este campo se denomina microfludica. +Imprimimos nuestros propios canales 3D para controlar el flujo de estos cultivos bacterianos lquidos. +En nuestra primera pieza de ropa, se combinaron dos microorganismos. +El primero es la cianobacteria. +Vive en nuestros ocanos y en los estanques de agua dulce. +Y el segundo, E. coli, la bacteria que habita en el intestino humano. +Una convierte la luz en azcar, la otra consume azcar y produce biocombustibles tiles para el entorno construido. +Pero estos dos microorganismos no interactan en la naturaleza. +De hecho, nunca se conocieron. +Ellos estn aqu, diseados por primera vez, para tener una relacin en una pieza de ropa. +Piense en ello como evolucin, no por seleccin natural, sino evolucin por diseo. +Para contener estas relaciones, hemos creado un nico canal que se asemeja al tracto digestivo, que ayudar a que fluyan estas bacterias y a que alteren su funcin de camino. +Entonces comenzamos hacer crecer esos canales en el cuerpo humano, variando las propiedades del material segn la funcionalidad deseada. +Si queramos ms fotosntesis, disebamos canales ms transparentes. +Este sistema digestivo portable, cuando se estira de un extremo a otro, abarca 60 metros. +Esta es la mitad de la longitud de un campo de ftbol, y 10 veces ms que nuestro intestino delgado. +Y aqu est, como primicia en TED, nuestra primera fotosinttica portable, canales lquidos brillantes con vida dentro de la ropa. +Gracias. +Mary Shelley dijo: "Somos criaturas pasadas de moda, solo la mitad est hecha." +Qu pasa si el diseo proporcionara la otra mitad? +Y si pudiramos crear estructuras que aumentan la materia viva? +Y si pudiramos crear microbiomas personales que escanearan nuestra piel, repararan el tejido daado y sostuvieran nuestros cuerpos? +Piense en esto como una forma de editar la biologa. +Yo llamo a esto la ecologa material. +Para ello, siempre hay que volver a la naturaleza. +Por ahora, se sabe que una impresora 3D imprime material en capas. +Tambin se sabe que la naturaleza no lo hace as. +Crece. Aade con sofisticacin. +Este capullo del gusano, por ejemplo, crea una arquitectura altamente sofisticada, un hogar dentro del cual se metamorfosiza. +La fabricacin no aditiva se acerca a este nivel de sofisticacin. +Lo hace mediante la combinacin no de dos materiales, sino de dos protenas en diferentes concentraciones. +Una acta como estructura, la otra es el pegamento o la matriz, uniendo esas fibras entre s. +Y esto sucede a travs de escalas. +El gusano de seda primero se prende en el medio ambiente, crea una estructura de tensin, y luego comienza a hilar un capullo de compresin. +La tensin y la compresin, las dos fuerzas de la vida, se manifiestan en un nico material. +Con el fin de comprender mejor cmo funciona este proceso complejo, pegamos un imn pequeo a la cabeza de un gusano de seda, a la hilera. +Lo colocamos dentro de una caja con sensores magnticos, y eso nos permiti crear esta nube de puntos en 3 dimensiones y visualizar la compleja arquitectura del capullo del gusano de seda. +Sin embargo, al colocar el gusano de seda en un parche plano, no dentro de una caja, nos dimos cuenta de que hilara un capullo plano y todava metamorforsizar sanamente. +As que empezamos a disear diferentes entornos, diferentes andamios, y hemos descubierto que la forma, la composicin, la estructura del capullo, se transmita directamente por el medio ambiente. +A menudo se hierven los gusanos de seda hasta la muerte dentro de sus capullos, su seda se deshace y se utiliza en la industria textil. +Vimos que diseando estas plantillas podamos dar forma a la seda cruda sin hervir un solo capullo. +Se metamorfosizaran sanamente, y podramos crear estas cosas. +As escalamos este proceso hasta la escala arquitectnica. +Tuvimos un robot hilador haciendo plantillas de seda, y nos colocamos en nuestro sitio. +Sabamos que los gusanos de seda emigrado hacia zonas ms oscuras y fras, por eso utilizamos un diagrama de ruta solar para revelar la distribucin de la luz y el calor en nuestra estructura. +Entonces creamos agujeros o aberturas, para bloquear los rayos de la luz y el calor, distribuyendo los gusanos de seda sobre la estructura. +Estbamos preparados para recibir a las orugas. +Pedimos 6500 gusanos de seda a una granja de seda en lnea. +Y despus de alimentarlos 4 semanas, estaban preparados a hilar con nosotros. +Las colocamos cuidadosamente en el borde inferior del andamio, y mientras hilaban, crisalizaban, se apareaban, ponan huevos, y la vida comienza de nuevo, como nosotros, pero mucho, mucho ms corta. +Bucky Fuller dijo que la tensin es la gran integridad, y tena razn. +Al hilar seda biolgica sobre la seda hilada robticamente, dan todo este pabelln su integridad. +Y en poco ms de dos o tres semanas, 6500 gusanos de seda tejen 6500 km. +En una curiosa simetra, sta es tambin la longitud de la ruta de la seda. +Las polillas, despus de la eclosin, producen 1.5 millones de huevos. +Esto podra utilizarse para 250 pabellones adicionales en el futuro. +As que aqu estn las dos visiones del mundo. +Una hila seda mediante un brazo robtico, la otra llena vacos. +Si la ltima frontera del diseo es dar vida a los productos y a los edificios que nos rodean, para formar una ecologa de dos materiales, los diseadores deben unir estas dos visiones del mundo. +Lo que nos lleva de vuelta, por supuesto, al principio. +Aqu est a una nueva era de diseo, una nueva era de la creacin, que nos lleva de un diseo inspirado en la naturaleza a una naturaleza inspirada en el diseo, que exige de nosotros, por primera vez, que nos hagamos cargo de la naturaleza. +Gracias. +Muchas gracias. Gracias. +Levanten la mano si alguna vez les han preguntado "Qu quieres ser de mayor?". +Si tuvieran que recordar qu edad tenan cuando les preguntaron por primera vez esto? +Pueden mostrrmelo con los dedos. +Tres. Cinco. Tres. Cinco. Cinco. +Ahora, levanten la mano si la pregunta "Qu quieres ser de mayor?", +les ha causado algn tipo de ansiedad. +Cualquier ansiedad. +Soy alguien que nunca pudo responder a la pregunta "Qu quieres ser de mayor?". +El problema no era que yo no tuviera ningn inters, sino que tena demasiados. +En la escuela me gustaba el ingls, las mates y el arte y desarrollaba sitios web. Adems, tocaba la guitarra en una banda punk llamada Telefonista Frustrada. +Tal vez han odo hablar de nosotros. +Y en general me gusta probar y persistir de todos modos, por haber dedicado mucho tiempo y energa y a veces dinero en este campo. +Pero con el tiempo esta sensacin de aburrimiento, este sentimiento de, esto ya no es un reto, llega a envolverme. +Y tengo que dejarlo. +Pero entonces me intereso por otra cosa, algo totalmente diferente, y me sumerjo en ello, y me dejo absorber y siento "S! He encontrado lo mo", y luego nuevamente este punto donde empiezo a aburrirme. +Y finalmente, quiero dejarlo. +Pero luego me gustara descubrir algo nuevo y diferente, y me gustara adentrarme en eso. +Este patrn me caus mucha ansiedad, por dos razones. +La primera fue porque no estaba segura de cmo iba a convertir todo esto en una carrera. +Pens que deba elegir una cosa, negar todas mis otras pasiones, y resignarme a aburrirme. +Otra razn por la que me caus tanta ansiedad fue un poco ms personal. +Me preocupaba que hubiera algo malo en esto, y algo malo en m por no definirme por nada. +Me preocupaba tener miedo al compromiso, o a estar dispersa, o a autoboicotearme o a mi propio xito. +Si pueden relacionar mi historia y estos sentimientos, me gustara preguntarles algo que me gustara haberme planteado entonces. +Pregntense a s mismos, dnde aprendieron a asignar el significado de mal o anormal para hacer cosas. +Les dir dnde lo aprendieron: lo aprendieron de la cultura. +Se nos pregunta primero "Qu quieres ser de mayor?" +cuando tenemos unos cinco aos. +Y la verdad es que a nadie le importa lo que contestas a esa edad. +Se considera una cuestin ingenua para provocar respuestas lindas en los nios como, "ser astronauta" o "ser bailarina" o "quiero ser pirata". +Inserten el disfraz de Halloween aqu. +Esta pregunta se nos hace una y otra vez mientras crecemos de diversas formas, p. ej., a estudiantes de secundaria se les pregunta que van a escoger en la universidad. +Y en algn momento, "Qu quieres ser de mayor?" +pasa de ser el ejercicio lindo de antes a lo que nos quita el sueo. +Por qu? +Si bien esta cuestin inspira a los nios a soar con lo que podran ser, no inspira a soar con todo lo que podran ser. +De hecho, hace justo lo contrario, porque cuando alguien te pregunta qu quieres ser, no se puede responder con 20 cosas diferentes, aunque adultos bien intencionados quiz se ran y digan: "Oh, qu lindo, pero no puedes ser artesano de violines y psiclogo. +Tienes que elegir". +Este es el Dr. Bob Childs y l es artesano de violines y psicoterapeuta. +Y esta Amy Ng, editora de revista convertida en ilustradora, empresaria, profesora y directora creativa. +Pero la mayora de los nios no oyen hablar de gente como esta. +Todo lo que oyen es que ellos van a tener que elegir. +Pero es ms que eso. +La nocin de vida centrada est muy idealizada en nuestra cultura. +Es esta idea del destino o la verdadera vocacin, la idea de que cada uno de nosotros tiene algo a lo que dedicarse durante su tiempo en esta tierra, y uno tiene que averiguar qu es esa cosa y dedicar su vida a ello. +Pero y si eres alguien que no est conectado de esta manera? +Qu pasa si hay muchos temas diferentes que despiertan su curiosidad y muchas cosas diferentes que quiere hacer? +No hay lugar para alguien como uno en ese marco. +Y as uno se puede sentir solo. +Uno puede sentir que no tiene un objetivo. +Y sentir que hay algo malo con uno. +No hay nada malo en Ud. +Ud. es una multipotencilidad. +Un multipotencial es alguien con muchos intereses y actividades creativas. +Es una bocanada por as decir. +Podra ayudar si se divide en tres partes: mltiple, potencial y dad. +Tambin se pueden usar otros trminos que connotan la misma idea, como erudito, renacentista. +Durante la poca del Renacimiento, el ideal era quien estaba bien versado en mltiples disciplinas. +Barbara Sher se refiere a nosotros como "escneres". +Utilicen cualquier trmino que les guste o inventen uno propio. +Me parece como una especie de adaptarnos a una comunidad, no podemos estar de acuerdo con una sola identidad. +Es fcil ver la multipotencialidad como limitacin o afliccin que uno debe vencer. +Pero lo que he aprendido hablando con la gente y escribiendo sobre estas ideas en mi sitio web, es que hay enormes fortalezas al ser de esta manera. +Aqu hay tres superpoderes multipotenciales +Uno: la sntesis de ideas. +Es decir, la combinacin de dos o ms campos y la creacin de algo nuevo en la interseccin. +Sha Hwang y Rachel Binx expresaron sus intereses compartidos en cartografa, visualizacin de datos, viajes, matemticas y diseo, al fundar Meshu. +Meshu es una empresa que crea joyas inspiradas geogrficamente. +A Sha y Rachel se le ocurri esta idea nica por su eclctica mezcla de habilidades y experiencias. +La innovacin ocurre en las intersecciones. +De ah proceden las nuevas ideas. +Y los multipotenciales, con todos sus antecedentes, pueden acceder a una gran cantidad de estos puntos de interseccin. +El segundo superpoder multipotencial es el aprendizaje rpido. +Cuando los multipotenciales nos interesamos por algo, vamos a ello. +Observamos todo lo que podemos tener en nuestras manos. +Estamos habituados a ser principiantes, por haberlo sido muchas veces en el pasado, y esto significa que tenemos menos miedo de probar cosas nuevas y salir de nuestras zonas de comodidad. +Muchas habilidades son transferibles a otras disciplinas, y traemos todo lo que hemos aprendido a cada nueva zona que perseguimos, as que rara vez empezamos de cero. +Nora Dunn es una viajera a tiempo completo y escritora independiente. +Como nia pianista perfeccion una capacidad increble de desarrollar la memoria muscular. +Ahora, ella es la mecangrafa ms rpida conocida. +Antes de convertirse en escritora, Nora era planificadora financiera. +Tuvo que aprender la mecnica de ventas ms fina cuando comenzaba sus prcticas, y esta habilidad le ayuda a escribir lanzamientos convincentes para los editores. +Rara vez es una prdida de tiempo dedicarse a lo que a uno le atrae, incluso si al final lo abandona. +Es posible aplicar ese conocimiento en un campo totalmente diferente, de una manera que uno no podra haber previsto. +El tercer superpoder multipotencial es la adaptabilidad. Es decir, la capacidad de transformarse en cualquier cosa que se necesite en una situacin dada. +Abe Cajudo es a veces director de videos, otras, diseador de pginas web, a veces consultor de Kickstarter, a veces maestro, y, a veces, al parecer, James Bond. +Es valioso porque hace un buen trabajo. +l es an ms valioso porque puede asumir diversos roles, dependiendo de las necesidades de sus clientes. +La revista Fast Company define adaptabilidad como la habilidad ms importante para el desarrollo, para prosperar en el siglo XXI. +El mundo econmico cambia tan rpidamente e impredeciblemente que son los individuos y organizaciones que puedan pivotar para satisfacer las necesidades del mercado, los que realmente prosperarn. +Sntesis de ideas, rpido aprendizaje y adaptabilidad: tres habilidades donde los multipotenciales son muy hbiles, y tres habilidades que se podran perder si estn presionados para reducir sus objetivos. +Como sociedad, tenemos un gran inters en fomentar a los multipotenciales a que sean ellos mismos. +Tenemos problemas complejos, multidimensionales ahora mismo, y necesitamos pensadores creativos no convencionales para hacer frente a ellos. +Digamos que son, en su corazn, especialistas. +Salieron del vientre sabiendo ya que queran ser neurocirujanos peditricos. +No se preocupen, no hay nada malo en Ud. tampoco. +De hecho, algunos de los mejores equipos se componen de un especialista y un multipotencial emparejados. +El especialista puede bucear en profundidad y poner en prctica ideas, y el multipotencial ofrece una amplitud de conocimientos al proyecto. +Es una hermosa relacin. +Pero todos deberamos disear vidas y carreras que armonizan con la forma cmo estamos conectados. +Y, por desgracia, a los multipotenciales en gran parte se les alienta a que simplemente sean ms como sus compaeros especializados. +Una vez dicho esto, si hay una cosa que Uds. se lleven de esta charla, espero que sea esto: reconcliense con el cableado interno, sea lo que sea. +Si Ud. es un especialista de corazn, entonces, especialcese por todos los medios. +Ah es donde Ud. dar lo mejor de s. +Pero para los multipotenciales en la sala, incluyendo aquellos que se acaban de dar cuenta de ser uno de ellos en los ltimos 12 minutos, les digo: reconcliense con sus muchas pasiones. +Sigan su curiosidad por esas madrigueras de conejo. +Exploren las intersecciones. +Abrazar nuestro cableado interno nos lleva a una vida ms autntica y feliz. +Y quizs lo ms importante, multipotenciales, el mundo nos necesita! +Gracias. +En el ao 1901, a una mujer llamada Auguste la llevaron a un psiquitrico en Frncfort. +Auguste deliraba y no poda recordar incluso los detalles ms bsicos de su vida. +Su mdico se llamaba Alois. +Alois no saba cmo ayudar a Auguste, pero velaba por ella hasta que, por desgracia, falleci en 1906. +Tras su muerte, Alois realiz una autopsia y encontraron placas extraas y ovillos en el cerebro de Auguste, de un tipo que nunca antes haban visto. +Lo an ms sorprendente, +si Auguste hubiera estado viva hoy, no podramos darle a ella ms ayuda que la que Alois le dio hace 114 aos. +Alois era el Dr. Alois Alzheimer. +Y Auguste Deter, la primer paciente en recibir un diagnstico que ahora llamamos enfermedad de Alzheimer. +Desde 1901 la medicina ha avanzado mucho. +Se han descubierto antibiticos y vacunas para protegernos de las infecciones, muchos tratamientos para el cncer, antirretrovirales para el VIH, estatinas para las cardiopatas y mucho ms. +Pero poco se ha progresado en el tratamiento del Alzheimer. +Soy parte de un equipo de cientficos que trabajan para encontrar una cura para el Alzheimer desde hace ms de una dcada. +As que pienso en esto todo el tiempo. +El Alzheimer ahora afecta a 40 millones en todo el mundo. +Pero en 2050, afectar a 150 millones que, por cierto, incluir a muchos de Uds. +Si esperan vivir hasta los 85 aos o ms, la posibilidad de contraer Alzheimer ser casi uno de cada dos. +En otras palabras, existe la probabilidad de que pasen sus aos dorados con Alzheimer o ayudando a cuidar a un amigo o ser querido con Alzheimer. +Ya solo en EE.UU., el cuidado de Alzheimer cuesta USD 200 000 millones cada ao. +1 de 5 dlares de la asistencia mdica se gasta en la enfermedad de Alzheimer. +Hoy es la enfermedad ms costosa, y sus costos prevn un aumento de cinco veces en el ao 2050, a medida que envejece la generacin del baby boom. +Puede que les sorprenda, pero el Alzheimer es uno de los mayores retos mdicos y sociales de nuestra generacin. +Pero se ha hecho relativamente poco para combatirla. +Hoy, 1 de las 10 primeras causas de muerte de todo el mundo, el Alzheimer es la nica que no se puede prevenir, curar o incluso ralentizar su desarrollo. +Entendemos menos del Alzheimer que de otras enfermedades porque hemos invertido menos tiempo y dinero en la investigacin de la misma. +El gobierno de EE.UU. gasta 10 veces ms cada ao en la investigacin del cncer que en el Alzheimer a pesar del hecho de que nos cuesta ms el Alzheimer y causa un nmero anual similar de muertes como el cncer. +La falta de recursos se debe a una causa ms fundamental: la falta de conciencia. +Porque esto es lo que poca gente sabe, pero todo el mundo debera: El Alzheimer es una enfermedad, y podemos curarla. +Para la mayor parte de los ltimos 114 aos, todos, incluso, los cientficos, confunden Alzheimer con envejecimiento. +Pensamos que llegar a ser senil en una parte normal e inevitable de envejecer. +Pero solo hay mirar una foto de un cerebro envejecido saludable en comparacin con el de un paciente de Alzheimer para ver el dao fsico real causado por esta enfermedad. +Adems de desencadenar una severa prdida de memoria y habilidades mentales, el dao al cerebro causado por el Alzheimer reduce significativamente la esperanza de vida y es siempre mortal. +Recuerden, el Dr. Alzheimer encontr placas y ovillos extraos en el cerebro de Auguste hace un siglo. +Durante casi un siglo, no sabamos mucho sobre esto. +Hoy sabemos que estn hechos de molculas de protenas. +Pueden pensar una molcula de protena como un pedazo de papel que se pliega como un origami. +Hay lugares en el papel que son pegajosos. +Y cuando se pliega bien, estos puntos pegajosos terminan en el interior. +Pero a veces las cosas salen mal, y algunos puntos pegajosos se quedan en el exterior. +Esto hace que las molculas de protena se peguen entre s, formando grupos que pueden formar grandes placas y ovillos. +Eso es lo que vemos en el cerebro de pacientes con Alzheimer. +Hemos pasado los ltimos 10 aos en la Universidad de Cambridge intentando entender cmo funciona esta disfuncin. +Hay muchos pasos, y la identificacin de qu paso bloquear es compleja, como desactivar una bomba. +Cortar un cable podra hacer nada. +Cortar los dems puede hacer que la bomba explote. +Hay que encontrar el paso correcto que lo bloquea, y luego crear un medicamento que lo haga. +Hasta hace poco, en su mayor parte se han reducido los cables y esperado lo mejor. +Pero ahora hay un grupo diverso de personas, mdicos, bilogos, genetistas, qumicos, fsicos, ingenieros y matemticos. +Y juntos, hemos logrado identificar un paso crtico en el proceso. Ahora se est probando un nuevo tipo de frmacos que bloquean especficamente este paso para detener la enfermedad. +Les mostrar algunos de nuestros ltimos resultados. +Nadie fuera de nuestro laboratorio lo ha visto todava. +Veamos unos videos de lo que sucedi al probar estos frmacos en gusanos. +Estos son los gusanos sanos, y se puede ver que se mueven con normalidad. +Estos gusanos, por otro lado, tienen molculas de protena que se pegan entre s dentro de ellos, como en humanos con Alzheimer. +Y se puede ver que estn claramente enfermos. +Pero al dar nuestros nuevos frmacos a estos gusanos en una etapa temprana, entonces vemos que sanan y viven una vida normal. +Esto es solo un resultado inicial positivo, pero la investigacin como esta muestra que el Alzheimer es una enfermedad que podemos entender y curar. +Despus de 114 aos de espera, hay esperanza real de lo que puede lograrse en los prximos 10 o 20 aos. +Pero para que crezca esa esperanza, de vencer el Alzheimer, necesitamos ayuda. +No se trata de cientficos como yo, se trata de Uds. +Debemos concienciarnos de que el Alzheimer es una enfermedad y que si lo intentamos, podemos vencerla. +En el caso de otras enfermedades, los pacientes y sus familias han encabezado ms investigacin y ejercido presin sobre gobiernos, industria farmacutica, sobre cientficos y legisladores. +Eso fue esencial para avanzar en el tratamiento del VIH a finales de los 80. +Hoy vemos esa misma unidad para vencer el cncer. +Pero los pacientes de Alzheimer a menudo no pueden hablar por s mismos. +Y sus familias, las vctimas ocultas, cuidadores de sus seres queridos da y noche, estn a menudo demasiado desgastados para salir y abogar por el cambio. +As que, realmente depende de Uds. +El Alzheimer no es, en la mayora de casos una enfermedad gentica. +Todo el mundo con un cerebro corre el riesgo. +Hoy en da, hay 40 millones de pacientes como Auguste, que no pueden crear el cambio que necesitan para s mismos. +Ayuden hablando por ellos, y ayuden a exigir una cura. +Gracias. +Publiqu este artculo en la columna Amor Moderno del New York Times, en enero de este ao. +Para enamorarse de alguien, haga esto. +El artculo trata de un estudio psicolgico, diseado para crear amor romntico en el laboratorio, y de mi propia experiencia al probarlo yo misma una noche del verano pasado. +As que el procedimiento es bastante simple: Dos extraos se turnan para hacerse 36 preguntas cada vez ms personales y luego ambos se miran a los ojos sin hablar durante cuatro minutos. +He aqu un par de preguntas de ejemplo. +Nmero 12: Si pudieras despertar maana con una cualidad o habilidad, cul sera? +Nmero 28: Cundo fue la ltima vez que lloraste ante otra persona? +Y solo? +A mediada que se avanza, stas son cada vez ms personales. +Nmero 30: --Esta realmente me gusta-- Dile a tu pareja qu te agrada de l o ella; s muy sincero esta vez, y di cosas que que no diras a alguien que recin has conocido. +Cuando me top con este estudio hace unos aos, un detalle realmente me llam la atencin, el chisme de que dos de los participantes se haban casado seis meses despus e invitado a todo del laboratorio a la ceremonia. +As que, era escptica acerca de este proceso de fabricar amor romntico, pero, desde luego, tambin estaba intrigada. +Y cuando tuve la ocasin de probar este estudio, con alguien que conoca no particularmente muy bien, no esperaba enamorarme. +No obstante, nos enamoramos, y Y pens que era una buena historia, as que la enve a la columna Amor Moderno unos meses despus. +Esa fue publicada en enero, y ahora es ya agosto, as que supongo que algunos de Uds. probablemente se pregunten: Siguen juntos todava? +Y la razn por la que creo que se cuestionan esto es porque me han hecho ya esta pregunta una y otra vez en los ltimos siete meses. +Y de esta pregunta es justamente de lo que quiero hablar hoy. +Pero regresemos al tema. +Una semana antes de que se publicara el artculo estaba muy nerviosa. +Haba estado trabajando en un libro romntico en los ltimos aos, as que, me haba habituado a escribir sobre mi experiencia en el amor romntico en mi blog. +Pero una entrada de blog puede llegar a unos cientos de vistas como mucho, y esas eran usualmente solo de mis amigos de Facebook e imagin que mi artculo en el New York Times alcanzara probablemente unas miles de vistas. +Y eso cobr una buena carga de atencin en una relacin relativamente nueva. +Pero como se dio, no tena idea. +El artculo se public en lnea un viernes por la noche, y ya el sbado, esto ocurri en el trfico de mi blog. +Y el domingo, ya me haban llamado el Today Show y el Good Morning America. +En un mes, el artculo recibi ms de 8 millones de visitas, y yo estaba, por decir algo, poco preparada para esta clase de atencin. +Una cosa es fomentar la confianza escribiendo con sinceridad sobre propias experiencias amorosas, pero otra cosa es descubrir que la vida amorosa de una ha sido noticia internacional y que las personas de todo el mundo estn realmente interesadas en el estado de tu nueva relacin. +Y cuando la gente llamaba o escriba, lo que hicieron cada da durante semanas, siempre, hacan primero la misma pregunta: An siguen juntos? +De hecho, cuando estaba preparando esta charla, hice una bsqueda rpida en el buzn de mi email con la frase: "An siguen juntos?" +y varios mensajes aparecieron inmediatamente. +Eran de estudiantes y periodistas y de extraos cordiales como este. +Me entrevistaron en la radio y lo preguntaron. +Incluso, di una charla, y una mujer grit hasta el escenario, "Oye Mandy dnde est tu novio?" +E inmediatamente me puse roja. +Entiendo que esto es parte del trato. +Si escribes sobre tu relacin en un diario internacional, deberas esperar que la gente se sienta cmoda preguntando sobre ella. +Pero yo no estaba preparada para la envergadura de la respuesta. +Las 36 preguntas parecan haber cobrado vida propia. +De hecho, el New York Times public un artculo complementario para San Valentn, que incluy las experiencias de los lectores al probar el estudio en ellos con distintos grados de xito. +As que, mi primer impulso ante toda esta atencin fue ser muy reservada con mi propia relacin. +Dije que no a cada peticin de que ambos hiciramos una aparicin pblica juntos. +Rechac entrevistas de televisin, y rehus los pedidos de fotos de nosotros dos. +Creo que tena miedo de convertirnos en los iconos inadvertidos del proceso de enamoramiento. Un rango para el que no me senta en lo absoluto calificada. +Y entiendo que la gente no quera saber solo si el estudio funcionaba, ellos queran saber si realmente funcionaba: O sea, si era capaz de producir amor perdurable, no solo una aventura, sino amor real, amor perdurable. +Pero esta era una pregunta que no me senta capaz de responder. +Mi relacin tena apenas unos cuantos meses, y senta, sobre todo, que la gente planteaba la pregunta equivocada. +Cmo saber si seguiramos juntos o no, y adems decrselo? +Si la respuesta fuese no, hara la experiencia de hacer estas 36 preguntas menos interesante? +El Dr. Arthur Aron escribi primero sobre estas preguntas en este mismo estudio en 1997. Y ah, el objetivo del investigador no era producir amor romntico. +En vez de eso, buscaba fomentar acercamiento interpersonal entre estudiantes universitarios, usando lo que Aron llamaba Apertura personal sostenida, progresiva y recproca. +Suena romntico, no? +Pero el estudio s funcion. +Los participantes se sintieron ms cercanos tras hacerlo. Varios estudios posteriores tambin usaron el protocolo Amistad Rpida de Aron como una forma rpida de crear confianza e interaccin entre extraos. +Ellos lo han usado entre miembros de la polica y de la comunidad. Y lo han usado entre personas de ideologas polticas opuestas. +La versin original de la historia, la que prob el verano pasado, que combina preguntas personales con cuatro minutos de contacto visual, fue citada en este artculo, pero desafortunadamente nunca se public. +Hace unos meses, estaba dando una charla en una pequea universidad de artes liberales, y despus un estudiante se acerc a m y me dijo con timidez: Prob el estudio y no funcion +l pareca desconcertado por ello. +Y yo: Quieres decir que te enamoraste de la persona con quien lo hiciste? +Bueno l hizo una pausa. +Creo que ella solo quiere que seamos amigos. +Y yo: Pero se volvieron mejores amigos? +Sentiste que s lograron conocerse mejor tras probar el estudio? +El asinti. +Entonces, funcion", dije. +Sin embargo, no creo que esa era la respuesta que l buscaba. +De hecho, no creo que sea la respuesta que ninguno de Uds. est buscando cuando se trata de amor. +Me top con el estudio por primera vez cuando tena 29 Y estaba atravesando una separacin realmente difcil. +Haba tenido esa relacin desde que tena 20, lo que supona prcticamente toda mi vida adulta, y l fue mi primer amor verdadero. Y no tena idea de cmo o si poda vivir sin l. +As que me volqu en la ciencia. +Investigu todo lo que pude encontrar sobre la ciencia del amor romntico, y esperaba que aquello pudiera de cierta forma vacunarme el corazn. +No s si me di cuenta de esto en el momento Pens que solo investigaba para el libro que escriba Pero, en retrospectiva, parece realmente obvio: +Pens que si me armaba con el conocimiento del amor romntico, nunca tendra que sentirme tan mal y sola como me sent entonces. +Y todo este conocimiento ha sido til de una u otra manera. +Soy ms paciente con el amor. Estoy ms relajada. +Tengo ms confianza en exigir lo que busco. +Pero tambin puedo verme ms claramente, y puedo darme cuenta de que lo que busco es a veces ms de lo que razonablemente me pueden exigir a m. +Lo que busco del amor es una garanta, no solo de ser amada hoy y de ser amada maana, sino de que seguir siendo amada indefinidamente por la persona a la que amo. +Puede ser que esta sea la garanta sobre la que la gente preguntaba cuando queran saber si an estbamos juntos. +La historia que los medios contaron sobre las 36 preguntas es que puede haber un atajo para enamorarse. +Puede haber una forma para de algn modo mitigar algo del riesgo implcito, y sta es una historia muy atrayente, porque enamorarse nos hace sentir maravillosamente, pero tambin es aterrador. +Pero creo que cuando se trata del amor, estamos muy dispuestos a aceptar la versin corta de la historia. +La versin de la historia que pregunta: An siguen juntos? +Y su contenido con una respuesta de S o No. +As que ms que una pregunta, propondra que hagamos preguntas ms difciles, preguntas como: Cmo decides quin merece tu amor y quin no? +Cmo permanecer enamorados cuando las cosas se complican?, y cmo saber cundo cortar y distanciarse? +Cmo vives con la incertidumbre que inevitablemente conlleva una relacin? O an ms, cmo vives con la duda de tu pareja? +No s necesariamente las respuestas a estas preguntas, pero creo que son un buen comienzo para tener una conversacin ms reflexiva sobre qu significa amar a alguien. +As que, si desean la versin breve de la historia de mi relacin, es esta; hace un ao, un conocido y yo aplicamos un estudio diseado para crear amor romntico, nos enamoramos, an seguimos juntos, Y estoy muy contenta. +Pero enamorarse no es lo mismo que permanecer enamorado. +Enamorarse es la parte fcil. +As que al final de mi artculo escrib: El amor no sucedi. +Permanecemos enamoramos porque tomamos la eleccin de estarlo. +Y me estremezco un poco al leerlo ahora, no porque no sea verdad, sino porque en el momento, no haba considerado todo lo que supona esa eleccin, +No consider cuantas veces tendramos ambos que tomar esa decisin, y cuanta veces tendr que seguir haciendo esa eleccin sin saber antes si l siempre me elegir o no. +Quiero que sea suficiente haber hecho y respondido 36 preguntas, haber elegido amar a alguien tan generoso, amable y divertido y haber expresado esa eleccin en el diario ms grande de EE. UU. +Pero lo que he hecho, en cambio, es convertir mi relacin en el tipo de mito en el que no creo de verdad. +Y lo que busco, y lo que tal vez pasar mi vida buscando es que ese mito sea verdad. +Quiero el final feliz implcito en el ttulo de mi artculo, que es, a propsito, La nica parte del artculo que en realidad no escrib. +Pero lo que tengo en cambio es la oportunidad de elegir amar a alguien, y la esperanza de que l tambin me amar, y es aterrador, pero ese es el trato con el amor. +Gracias. +Fui criado por unas lesbianas en plena montaa y en cierto modo llegu como un gnomo del bosque +a la ciudad de Nueva York hace un tiempo. Algo que realmente me afect pero ms detalles ms adelante. +Empezar con cuando tena ocho aos. +Tom una caja de madera, y enterr un billete de un dlar, una pluma y un tenedor en ella en algn lugar en Colorado. +Y pens que algunos humanoides extraos o unos aliengenas encontraran esta caja unos 500 aos ms tarde y aprenderan cmo nuestra especie intercambia ideas, por ejemplo cmo comemos los espaguetis. +No tena ni idea. +De todas formas, tiene gracia porque aqu estoy, 30 aos despus y todava estoy haciendo cajas. +En un momento dado estaba en Hawi --me gusta ir de excursin y hacer surf y todas esas cosas raras-- y estaba haciendo un collage para mi madre. +Y tom un diccionario y le arranqu todas las pginas e hice una especie de celdillas cuadriculadas al estilo Agnes Martin, las cubr de resina y una abeja qued atrapada. +Bueno, mi madre tiene miedo a las abejas y es alrgica a ellas, as que aad ms resina en el lienzo, pensando que poda ocultarla. +En cambio, sucedi lo contrario: De alguna manera pareca que aument de tamao, como si fuera que miraras el texto con una lupa. +Entonces que hice? Constru ms cajas. +Esta vez, empec a aadir elementos electrnicos, ranas, extraas botellas que iba encontrando por la calle, todo que pude encontrar, porque estaba buscando cosas toda mi vida, tratando de relacionarlas y contar historias sobre estos objetos. +As que me puse a dibujar alrededor de los objetos, y me d cuenta de que Dios mo puedo dibujar en el espacio. +Puedo fluir trazados, dibujar igual que se hace alrededor de un cadver en la escena del crimen. +Y saqu los objetos y cre mi propia taxonoma de especmenes inventados. +Primero, botnicos... de los que podrn hacerse una idea. +Luego hice unos insectos y criaturas extraos. +Fue muy divertido dibujar en las capas de resina. +Y fue genial, porque empec a montar exposiciones y esas cosas, y estaba ganando algo de dinero, para llevar a mi novia a cenar, por ejemplo, ir a Sizzler. +Era estupendo, hombre. +En algn momento me interes por la forma humana, esculturas de resina de tamao natural con dibujos de seres humanos dentro de las capas. +Fue genial, excepto por una cosa: me mora. +Ya no saba qu hacer, porque la resina me iba a matar. +Y me iba a la cama cada noche pensando en ello. +As que trat de usar vidrio. +Empec a dibujar en las capas de vidrio, similar al dibujo en una ventana, luego en otra ventana, y otra ventana, y tena todas estas ventanas juntas que formaban una composicin tridimensional. +Y esto realmente funcionaba, y as pude dejar de usar la resina. +As que hice esto durante aos, y mi obra culmin con algo muy grande, que yo llamo "trptico". +Para el "trptico" me inspir en gran medida en "El jardn de las delicias" de Hieronymus Bosch que es una pintura en el Museo del Prado en Espaa. +Lo conocen? +Bueno, es un cuadro fantstico. +Dicen que es un poco adelantado a su tiempo. +Bueno, el "trptico". Explicar esta pieza. +Pesa 11 000 kilos. +5,5 metros de largo. +Tiene doble cara, por lo que son 10 metros de composicin. +Es un poco raro. +Bueno, esa es la fuente de la sangre. +A la izquierda, est Jess y las langostas. +Hay una cueva donde todas estas criaturas con cabezas de animales viajan entre dos mundos. +Van del mundo de la representacin, a este inframundo de malla analgica donde se esconden. +Aqu es donde las criaturas con cabezas de animales se dirigen al faro, listas para suicidarse en masa arrojndose en el ocano. +El ocano est compuesto de miles de elementos. +Este es un dios pjaro atado a un acorazado. +Billy Graham est en el mar; El Horizon -la plataforma petrolfera del derrame- Waldo; el refugio de Osama Bin Laden, hay todo tipo de cosas raras que pueden encontrarse si miran muy bien en el ocano. +De todos modos tambin una especie de mujer-criatura. +Est saliendo del ocano, y escupe petrleo en una mano mientras que de la otra mano le salen nubes. +Sus manos son como balanzas y parece un ser mitolgico que mantiene la Tierra y el cosmos en equilibrio. +As que es un aspecto del "trptico". +Es una poco una narrativa. +Esa es la mano en la que escupe. +Y luego, cuando uno va al otro lado, tiene una trompa, como un pico de pjaro, y escupe nubes de esta trompa. +Tambin tiene una cola de 5,5 metros de largo una cola de serpiente que une al "trptico". +De todos modos, su cola prende fuego al posarse sobre un volcn. +No s por qu pas eso. +Cosas que pasan, ya saben. +Su cola termina en un globo ocular de cclope hecha de tarjetas terroristas de 1986. +Las han visto? +Se hicieron en la dcada de 1980, como si fueran tarjetas de bisbol de los terroristas. +Muy adelantadas a su tiempo. Esto me lleva a mi ltimo proyecto. +Estoy en medio de dos proyectos: Uno se llama "psicogeografas". +Se trata de un proyecto de seis aos para hacer 100 de estos seres humanos. +Cada uno es un archivo de nuestra cultura, a travs de medios y material sean enciclopedias, diccionarios o revistas. +Pero cada uno acta como una especie de archivo en forma de ser humano, y viajan en grupos de 20, 4 o 12 a la vez. +Son como clulas, se juntan, se dividen. +Y puedes caminar entre ellos. Me est llevando aos. +Cada uno es bsicamente un portaobjeto de microscopio que pesa 1300 kilos con un humano atrapado en su interior. +Este tiene una pequea cueva en el pecho. +Esa es la cabeza; est el pecho, se puede entrever la entrada. +Les acompaar por el resto del cuerpo: hay una cascada que le sale del pecho, y que le cubre el pene o no-pene, o lo que sea que tiene, un tipo de cosa andrgina. +Es un repaso rpido de estas obras porque no puedo explicarlas durante mucho tiempo. +Tenemos capas, se pueden ver. +Este es un cuerpo partido por la mitad. +Este tiene dos cabezas, y se est comunicando entre las dos. +Hay unas pldoras que salen y entran en la cabeza de esta estatua extraa. +Hay una pequea escena forestal dentro de la cavidad torcica. +Pueden verla? +De todos modos, esta charla es acerca de estas cajas, igual que las cajas en las que vivimos. +Estamos en una caja, el sistema solar es una caja. +Esto me lleva a mi ltima caja. +Es una caja de ladrillo. Se llama Pioneer Works. +Dentro de esta caja hay un fsico, un neurocientfico, un pintor, un msico, un escritor, una emisora de radio, un museo, una escuela, un brazo editorial que difunde todo el contenido que hacemos en el mundo; y un jardn. +Meneamos la caja y toda la gente de dentro choca unos con otros como partculas. +Y creo que esa es la manera de cambiar el mundo. +Cuando uno redefine quien es y la caja en la que est viviendo. +Y juntos llegamos a darnos cuenta de que todos estamos juntos en esto, que esta ilusin de que somos diferentes, estos conceptos de los pases, de las fronteras, de la religin, no funciona. +Estamos todos muy hechos de la misma materia y en la misma caja. +Y si no empezamos a intercambiar esas cosas con dulzura y gentilmente todos vamos a morir muy pronto. +Muchas gracias. +Qu hacen cuando les duele la cabeza? +Toman una aspirina. +Pero para que esta pldora tenga efecto contra el dolor, primero pasa por el estmago, los intestinos y otros rganos. +Tomar una pldora es el sistema ms eficaz e indoloro para que cualquier medicamento surta efecto en el cuerpo. +La desventaja, sin embargo, es que al tragarlo cualquier medicamento se diluye. +Y esto es un gran problema, especialmente en pacientes con VIH. +Cuando toman medicamentos antirretrovirales, estos sirven para disminuir la cantidad de virus en la sangre, y aumentar el recuento de clulas CD4. +Pero tambin son conocidos por sus efectos secundarios adversos, en su mayora negativos, porque en el tiempo que tardan en llegar a la corriente sangunea, se diluyen, y peor an por el tiempo que tardan en llegar a su destino, que es donde es ms importante: en el depsito del VIH. +Estas son regiones del cuerpo como los ganglios linfticos, el sistema nervioso, los pulmones, donde el virus est inactivo y no entra fcilmente en el torrente sanguneo de los pacientes que se someten a la terapia regular con medicamentos antirretrovirales. +Sin embargo, tras la interrupcin del tratamiento, el virus puede despertar e infectar nuevas clulas sanguneas. +Este es el gran problema del tratamiento del VIH con los frmacos actuales que es un tratamiento de por vida administrado por va oral. +Un da, me sent y pens: "Podramos hacer llegar el tratamiento directamente al depsito del virus, sin el riesgo de dilucin de los medicamentos?" +Como experta cientfica en lseres, la respuesta estaba delante de m: los lseres, por supuesto. +Si se usan en odontologa, para el cuidado de heridas y ciruga de la diabetes, pueden usarse para cualquier cosa imaginable, incluyendo el transporte intracelular de los medicamentos. +De hecho, ya estamos usando pulsos de lser para abrir o perforar agujeros extremadamente pequeos, que abren y cierran casi inmediatamente las clulas infectadas con el VIH para introducir los medicamentos. +A lo mejor se preguntan: "Cmo es eso posible?" +Enviamos un pequeo y potente rayo lser sobre la membrana celular infectada por el VIH mientras que estas clulas estn inmersas en un lquido que contiene el frmaco. +El lser atraviesa la clula, mientras que la clula absorbe el frmaco en cuestin de microsegundos. +Antes de siquiera darse cuenta, el agujero es reparado inmediatamente. +Actualmente estamos probando esta tecnologa in vitro o en placas de Petri, pero el objetivo es llevar esta tecnologa al cuerpo humano, aplicarla al cuerpo humano. +"Cmo es eso posible?" se pueden preguntar. +Bueno, la respuesta es: a travs de un dispositivo de tres cabezas. +Con la primera cabeza, que es nuestro lser, haremos una incisin en el sitio de la infeccin. +La segunda cabeza, que es una cmara, se dirige al sitio de la infeccin. +Por ltimo, la tercera cabeza, un inyector que distribuye el frmaco, lo libera directamente en el sitio de la infeccin, mientras que el lser se usa de nuevo para mantener las clulas abiertas. +Bueno, esto no parece mucho de momento. +Pero un da, si tiene xito, esta tecnologa puede conducir a la erradicacin total del VIH del cuerpo. +S. Una cura para el VIH. +Este es el sueo de todo investigador del VIH... en nuestro caso, un tratamiento con lser. +Gracias. +En la ltima dcada, he estudiado a grupos armados no estatales: organizaciones armadas como terroristas, insurgentes o milicias. +Documento lo que hacen estos grupos cuando no estn disparando. +Mi objetivo es entender mejor a estos agentes generadores de violencia y estudiar formas de alentar la transicin de la participacin violenta a la confrontacin no violenta. +Hago trabajo de campo, en el mundo de la poltica y en la biblioteca. +Entender a estos grupos es clave para resolver casi todo conflicto en curso, porque la guerra ha cambiado. +Sola ser una disputa entre estados. +Ya no. +Ahora es un conflicto entre los estados y actores no gubernamentales. +Por ejemplo, de los 216 acuerdos de paz firmados entre 1975 y 2011, 196 se firmaron entre un estado y un actor no gubernamental. +Por eso debemos entender a estos grupos; incluso debemos involucrarlos o derrotarlos en cualquier proceso de resolucin de conflictos exitoso. +Pero cmo hacerlo? +Tenemos que saber qu motiva a estas organizaciones. +Conocemos muy bien las razones por las que luchan, cmo lo hacen, pero nadie analiza qu hacen cuando no pelean. +La lucha armada y las polticas no armadas se relacionan. +Todo es parte de la misma organizacin. +No podemos entender a estos grupos, ni mucho menos derrotarlos, sin una visin global. +Los grupos armados de hoy son organizaciones complejas. +Por ejemplo, el Hezbol libans, conocido por su enfrentamiento violento contra Israel. +Desde su creacin en la dcada de 1980, Hezbol tambin ha establecido un partido poltico, una red de servicios sociales y un aparato militar. +Del mismo modo, el palestino Hamas, conocido por sus ataques suicidas contra Israel, tambin administra la Franja de Gaza desde 2007. +De modo que estos grupos hacen ms que simplemente disparar. +Son multitarea. +Establecen una maquinaria compleja de comunicacin: estaciones de radio, canales de TV, sitios web de Internet y estrategias en redes sociales. +Y aqu tienen la revista de ISIS, impresa en ingls y publicada para reclutar. +Los grupos armados tambin invierten en una compleja recaudacin de fondos sin saqueos, sino mediante negocios rentables; por ejemplo, empresas de construccin. +Estas actividades son clave. +Les permiten a estos grupos incrementar su fortaleza, incrementar sus fondos, para reclutar mejor y construir su marca. +Los grupos armados tambin hacen algo ms: crean lazos ms fuertes con su poblacin invirtiendo en servicios sociales, +construyen escuelas, administran hospitales, ponen en marcha programas de formacin profesional o de microprstamos. +Hezbol ofrece todos estos servicios y ms. +Los grupos armados tambin tratan de conquistar a la poblacin ofreciendo algo que el estado no brinda: seguridad y proteccin. +El ascenso de los talibanes en un Afganistn desgarrado por la guerra o incluso el principio del ascenso de ISIS, puede entenderse tambin examinado los esfuerzos de estos grupos por brindar seguridad. +Desafortunadamente, en estos casos, la seguridad tiene un precio insoportablemente elevado para la poblacin. +Pero, en general, proporcionar servicios sociales significa llenar un vaco, una brecha dejada por el gobierno, y les permite a estos grupos fortalecer e incrementar su poder. +Por ejemplo, la victoria electoral de 2006 del Hamas palestino no puede entenderse sin reconocer el trabajo social del grupo. +Es una escenario realmente complejo, incluso en Occidente, cuando analizamos a los grupos armados, solo pensamos en el lado violento. +Pero eso no es suficiente para entender las fortalezas de estos grupos, la estrategia o la visin a largo plazo. +Estos grupos son hbridos. +Crecen porque llenan brechas dejadas por el gobierno, y surgen como grupos armados y polticos, participan en la lucha violenta y dan gobernabilidad. +Y cuanto ms complejas y sofisticadas son estas organizaciones, menos podemos catalogarlas como algo contrario a un estado. +Cmo denominar a un grupo como Hezbol? +Dominan parte de un territorio, administran todas sus funciones, recogen la basura, administran el sistema de alcantarillado. +Es un estado? Es un grupo rebelde? +O quiz es otra cosa, algo nuevo y diferente. +Y qu es ISIS? +Las lneas se desdibujan. +Vivimos en un mundo de estados, de naciones sin estado e hbridos, y cuanto ms dbiles son los estados, como en el Oriente Medio actual, ms intervienen y llenan esa brecha los actores no gubernamentales. +Esto es importante para los gobiernos, porque para contrarrestar a estos grupos tendrn que invertir ms en herramientas no militares. +Llenar ese vaco de gobierno tiene que estar en el centro de cualquier enfoque sostenible. +Esto es muy importante tambin para establecer y consolidar la paz. +Si entendemos mejor a los grupos armados, entenderemos mejor qu incentivos ofrecer para fomentar la transicin de la violencia a la no violencia. +En esta nueva disputa entre estados y actores no estatales, el poder militar puede ganar algunas batallas, pero no nos dar paz ni estabilidad. +Para lograr estos objetivos necesitamos inversiones a largo plazo para llenar ese vaco de seguridad, para llenar ese vaco de gobierno que le permiti a estos grupos prosperar en un principio. +Gracias. +Soy un fracaso como mujer y como feminista. +Mis opiniones sobre la igualdad de gnero son vehementes, pero temo que aceptar abiertamente la etiqueta de "feminista" sera injusto para las feministas. +Soy feminista, pero bastante mala. +Y por lo tanto me autoetiqueto como una mala feminista. +O, al menos, escrib un artculo, y un libro llamado "La mala feminista" y luego en las entrevistas, la gente empez a llamarme La Feminista Mala. +As, lo que empez como una broma personal destinada a m misma y una provocacin deliberada, se ha convertido en algo ms grande. +Permtanme dar un paso atrs. +Cuando era joven, sobre todo en mi juventud y a los 20 aos, tena ideas extraas sobre las feministas, estas mujeres peludas, enojadas con los hombres y que odiaban el sexo. Como si eso fuera algo malo. +Hoy en da, veo cmo son tratadas las mujeres en todo el mundo y la ira, en particular, parece una respuesta perfectamente razonable. +Pero en aquel entonces, estaba preocupada por el tono que estaba usando la gente al insinuar que podra ser feminista. +Ser etiquetada como feminista era una acusacin, una palabra tab y desagradable. +Me etiquetaron como una mujer que no sigue las reglas, que pide demasiado, con alta autoestima y se atreve a creer que es igual o superior a un hombre. +Nadie quiere ser esa mujer rebelde, hasta que se da cuenta de que en realidad es esa mujer y no puede imaginarse ser otra persona. +Con el tiempo, a medida que fui creciendo, empec a aceptar que soy, de hecho, feminista, y adems, orgullosa de serlo. +Para m, ciertas afirmaciones son irrefutables: las mujeres son iguales a los hombres. +Merecemos el mismo sueldo por el mismo trabajo. +Tenemos derecho a viajar por el mundo como lo deseemos, libres de acoso o violencia. +Tenemos derecho a usar de manera fcil y accesible los anticonceptivos y los servicios reproductivos. +Tenemos el derecho de decidir sobre nuestros cuerpos, sin necesidad de controles legislativos o doctrinas evanglicas. +Tenemos el derecho al respeto. +Hay ms. +Cuando se habla de las necesidades de las mujeres, hay que tener en cuenta nuestras otras identidades. +No somos solo mujeres. +Somos personas con un cuerpo diferente, expresin de gnero, religin y sexualidad, condicin social, habilidades y mucho ms. +Tenemos que tener en cuenta estas diferencias y cmo nos afectan, de la misma manera que importa lo que tenemos en comn. +Sin este tipo de inclusin, nuestro feminismo no es nada. +Para m, estas verdades son evidentes, pero para ser clara: soy un desastre. +Estoy llena de contradicciones. +Hay un montn de cosas que hacen de m una mala feminista. +Tengo otra confesin. +Cuando conduzco al trabajo, escucho msica rap pandillera a todo volumen. +Aunque la letra degrada a las mujeres y me ofende profundamente, el clsico "Salt Shaker" de los Yin Yang Twins es increble. +"Hazlo realidad con tu camiseta mojada. +Perra, dale, muvete hasta que te duela la concha!" +Piensen en ello. +Pura poesa, no? +Estoy completamente mortificada por mis gustos musicales. +Creo firmemente en el trabajo del hombre, que es todo lo que yo no quiero hacer, incluyendo... todas las tareas domsticas, pero tambin matar insectos, la recogida de basura, el cuidado del csped y el mantenimiento de maquinara. +No quiero tener nada que ver con eso. +El rosa es mi color favorito. +Disfruto de las revistas de moda y de las cosas bonitas. +Puedo ver "The Bachelor" y las comedias romnticas, y tengo fantasas absurdas de los cuentos de hadas que se hacen realidad. +Algunos de mis delitos son ms descarados. +Si una mujer quiere adoptar el apellido de su marido, es su eleccin, y no soy quien para juzgar. +Si una mujer decide quedarse en casa para criar a sus hijos, acepto esa eleccin, tambin. +El problema no es que se vuelve econmicamente vulnerable a travs de esta misma eleccin, el problema es que nuestra sociedad est configurada de manera que hace que las mujeres sean econmicamente vulnerables cuando eligen. +resolvamos este problema. +Rechazo el feminismo convencional que ha ignorado o desviado histricamente las necesidades de las mujeres de color, las trabajadoras, homosexuales y transexuales, a favor de mujeres blancas, heterosexuales, de clase media y alta. +Escuchen, si eso es buen feminismo soy una feminista muy mala. +Tambin ocurre lo siguiente: Como feminista, siento mucha presin. +Tenemos esta tendencia de poner feministas destacadas en un pedestal. +Esperamos que destaquen a la perfeccin. +Cuando nos decepcionan, las retiramos con mucho gusto desde el mismo pedestal donde las pusimos. +Como he dicho, soy un desastre; ya me considero derribada de ese pedestal antes de que intenten ponerme all. +Demasiadas mujeres, particularmente las innovadoras y las lderes del sector, tienen miedo de ser etiquetadas como feministas. +Tienen miedo de ponerse de pie y decir: "S, soy feminista" por miedo a lo que significa esa etiqueta, por miedo a no poder cumplir con las expectativas poco realistas. +Tomemos por ejemplo a Beyonc, o como yo la llamo, La Diosa. +En los ltimos aos es una feminista declarada. +En los Video Music Awards de 2014, en MTV, actu delante de la palabra "feminista" de 3 metros de altura. +Fue un espectculo magnfico, ver a esta estrella del pop abrazar abiertamente el feminismo y hacer saber a las mujeres y a los hombres jvenes que ser feminista es algo para estar orgullosos. +Pasado el tiempo, los crticos culturales empezaron debates interminables si Beyonc era o no precisamente feminista. +Calificaron su feminismo, en lugar de simplemente creer la palabra de una mujer adulta y madura. +Exigimos perfeccin de las feministas, porque todava estamos luchando por mucho, queremos mucho, necesitamos tan condenadamente mucho. +Vamos mucho ms all de la crtica sensata y constructiva, para disecar el feminismo de cualquier mujer, destrozarlo hasta que no quede nada. +No necesitamos hacer eso. +El mal feminismo, o ms bien, un feminismo ms inclusivo es el punto de partida. +Pero, qu pasa despus? +Pasamos de reconocer nuestras imperfecciones a dar cuentas, pasar a la accin y ser un poco ms valientes. +Si escucho msica degradante, estoy creando una demanda para artistas que estaran ms que felices proporcionando un suministro ilimitado. +Estos artistas no cambiarn su forma de hablar sobre las mujeres en sus canciones hasta que exijamos el cambio afectando efectivamente a sus ganancias. +Sin duda es difcil. +Por qu tiene su msica que ser tan pegadiza? +Es difcil elegir algo mejor y tan fcil justificar una peor eleccin. +Pero cuando las malas decisiones se justifican esto hace que sea ms difcil para las mujeres lograr la igualdad, la igualdad que todas nos merecemos y es nuestra responsabilidad. +Pienso en mis sobrinas, de 3 y 4 aos. +Son 2 nias magnficas, decididas y brillantes, y tambin muy valientes. Quiero que crezcan en un mundo +donde se les aprecie por las criaturas fuertes que son. +Pienso en ellas, de repente, la mejor opcin se vislumbra como algo mucho ms fcil de hacer. +Todos podemos tomar mejores decisiones. +Podemos cambiar el canal cuando un programa de televisin trata a la violencia sexual contra las mujeres como deporte, vase el Juego de Tronos. +Podemos cambiar la emisora de radio cuando escuchamos canciones que tratan a las mujeres como nada. +Podemos gastar nuestro dinero para ir al cine en otra parte cuando las pelculas no tratan a las mujeres ms que como objetos decorativos. +Podemos dejar de apoyar a los deportes profesionales donde los atletas tratan a sus compaeros como sacos de boxeo. +En cualquier caso, los hombres, especialmente los hombres blancos, heterosexuales pueden decir: "No, no voy a publicar en su revista, participar en su proyecto, o trabajar con Ud., hasta que no incluya un nmero suficiente de mujeres, tanto para participar como para tomar decisiones. +No voy a trabajar con Ud. hasta que su publicacin, o su organizacin sea ms incluyente con una gama ms amplia de personas". +Aquellas de nosotras que estn subrepresentadas pero invitadas a participar en este tipo de proyectos, tambin podemos negarnos a ser incluidas hasta que ms como nosotras sean bienvenidas a superar las barreras a los puestos de decisin +ya que no somos meros peones. Sin estos esfuerzos, sin adoptar estas posiciones, nuestros logros van a significar muy poco. +Podemos cometer estos pequeos actos de valenta y esperar que nuestras decisiones lleguen a la cima, a las personas en el poder directores y productores de cine y msica, CEOs, los legisladores, las personas que pueden tomar grandes decisiones, ms valientes, para crear un cambio duradero y significativo. +Tambin podemos afirmar con valenta nuestro feminismo, bueno, malo, o de cualquier ndole. +La ltima lnea de mi libro "Mala Feminista", dice, "Preferira ser una mala feminista a no serlo en absoluto". +Esto es verdad debido a muchas razones, pero lo digo, sobre todo, porque antao mi voz me fue robada y el feminismo me ayud a recobrarla. +Hubo un incidente. +Yo lo llamo incidente para hacer frente a lo que pas. +Unos chicos me doblegaron cuando era muy joven, y no saba que los chicos pueden hacerle esto a una chica. +Me trataron como si fuera nada. +Empec a creer que no era nada. +Robaron mi voz, y despus de todo no me atreva a creer que podra decir algo que podra importar. +Pero... estaba escribiendo. +Y con ello volv a escribirme. +Me recre en una versin ms fuerte de m misma. +Le las palabras de aquellas mujeres que podan entender una historia como la ma, y de las mujeres que se parecan a m y entendan lo que significaba vivir en este mundo si tienes la piel marrn. +Le las palabras de las mujeres que me mostraron que no era nada. +Aprend a escribir como ellas, y luego aprend a escribir como yo misma. +Encontr mi voz de nuevo, y empec a creer que mi voz es poderosa ms all de lo que se puede medir. +A travs de la escritura y del feminismo, tambin descubr que si era un poco valiente, otra mujer podra orme y verme y darse cuenta de que ninguna de nosotras es la nada que el mundo trata de decirnos que somos. +En una mano, tengo el poder para lograr cualquier cosa. +Y en la otra, sostengo la realidad humillante de que soy solo una mujer. +Soy una mala feminista, soy una buena mujer, estoy tratando de mejorar mi forma de pensar, lo que digo y lo que hago, sin abandonar todo lo que me hace humana. +Espero que todos podamos hacer lo mismo. +Espero que todas podamos ser un poco valientes, cuando ms se necesita de tal valenta. +Justo despus de Navidad del ao pasado, 132 nios en California tuvieron sarampin por haber visitado Disneylandia o por estar expuestos a alguien que haba estado all. +El virus luego atraves la frontera con Canad, infectando a ms de 100 nios en Quebec. +Una de las cosas trgicas de este brote es que el sarampin que puede ser fatal para un nio con un sistema inmunolgico debilitado, es una de las enfermedades ms fcilmente prevenibles en el mundo. +Existe una vacuna eficaz contra esto desde hace ms de medio siglo. Pero muchos de los nios involucrados en el brote Disneylandia no haban sido vacunados porque sus padres tenan miedo de algo supuestamente an peor: el autismo. +Pero un momento, no fue el artculo que desat la polmica sobre el autismo y las vacunas desacreditado, descalificado y marcado por ser un fraude deliberado por el British Medical Journal? +No cree la mayora de cientficos inteligentes que la teora de que las vacunas causan autismo es una estupidez? +Creo que la mayora de Uds. lo sabe, pero millones de padres en todo el mundo siguen temiendo que las vacunas pongan en peligro a sus hijos de tener autismo. +Por qu? +He aqu por qu. +Este es un grfico de las estimaciones del aumento del autismo en el tiempo. +Durante la mayor parte del siglo XX, el autismo se consideraba una enfermedad muy rara. +Los pocos psiclogos y pediatras que haba odo hablar de ella crean desarrollar toda su vida profesional sin ver un solo caso. +Durante dcadas, las estimaciones de prevalencia siguieron estables tan solo 3 o 4 nios por cada 10 000. +Pero entonces, en la dcada de 1990, los nmeros empezaron a dispararse. +Organizaciones de recaudacin de fondos como Autism Speaks se refieren rutinariamente al autismo como una epidemia, como si pudiera contagiarse de otro nio en Disneylandia. +Qu est pasando? +Si no son las vacunas, qu es? +Si se pregunta a la gente del Centro de Control de Enfermedades de Atlanta qu est pasando, tienden a basarse en frases como "criterios de diagnstico ampliado" y "una mejor deteccin de casos" para explicar estas cifras crecientes. +Pero ese tipo de lenguaje no disipa mucho los temores de una joven madre que busca en la cara de su hijo de dos aos, el contacto visual. +Si los criterios de diagnstico tuvieron que ampliarse, por qu eran tan reducidos al principio? +Por qu fueron los casos de autismo tan difciles de encontrar antes de la dcada de 1990? +Hace 5 aos, decid descubrir las respuestas a estas preguntas. +Aprend que lo que pas tiene menos que ver con el progreso lento y cauteloso de la ciencia que con el poder seductor de la narracin. +Durante la mayor parte del siglo XX, los mdicos contaron una historia sobre qu es el autismo y cmo se descubri, pero esa historia result ser falsa, y las consecuencias de la misma estn teniendo un impacto devastador en la salud pblica mundial. +Hubo una segunda historia ms precisa del autismo que se haba perdido y olvidado en los rincones oscuros de la literatura clnica. +Esta segunda historia nos dice todo sobre cmo llegamos aqu y adnde tenemos que ir. +La primera historia empieza con un psiquiatra infantil, Leo Kanner, del Hospital Johns Hopkins. En 1943, Kanner public un artculo que describe a 11 pacientes jvenes que parecan habitar mundos privados, ninguneando a las personas de su alrededor, incluso a sus propios padres. +Podan divertirse durante horas agitando las manos ante sus caras, pero eran presa del pnico por menudencias como cuando no se colocaba su juguete favorito en su lugar habitual sin saberlo ellos. +Sobre la base de los pacientes tratados en su clnica, Kanner especul que el autismo es muy raro. +Por la dcada de 1950, como principal autoridad del mundo en el tema, declar que haba visto menos de 150 verdaderos casos de su sndrome mientras recoga referencias de lugares tan lejanos como Sudfrica. +Esto en realidad no es de extraar, porque los criterios de Kanner para el diagnstico de autismo eran muy restrictivos. +Por ejemplo, desaconsejaba dar ese diagnstico a nios con convulsiones pero ahora sabemos que la epilepsia es muy comn en el autismo. +Una vez se jact de que l haba convertido a 9 de cada 10 nios enviados por otros mdicos a su consultorio por ser autistas sin darles un diagnstico de autismo. +Kanner era un hombre inteligente, pero parte de sus teoras no eran certeras. +Clasific el autismo como una forma de psicosis infantil causada por padres fros y descastados. +Estos nios, dijo, se han mantenido cuidadosamente en un refrigerador que no descongela. +Al mismo tiempo, sin embargo, Kanner not que algunos de sus jvenes pacientes tenan habilidades especiales que agrupan en ciertas reas como la msica, las matemticas y la memoria. +Uno de los nios en su clnica podra distinguir entre 18 sinfonas antes de cumplir los 2 aos. +Cuando su madre puso uno de sus discos favoritos, l correctamente dijo: "Beethoven" +Pero Kanner tena una mala opinin de estas habilidades, afirmando cosas como que los nios estaban simplemente regurgitando lo que haban odo a sus padres pedantes, desesperados por ganar su aprobacin. +Como resultado, el autismo se convirti en fuente de vergenza para las familias, y dos generaciones de nios autistas fueron enviados a instituciones para su propio bien, convirtindose en invisibles para el mundo en general. +Sorprendentemente, no fue hasta la dcada de 1970 que los investigadores empezaron a probar la teora de Kanner de que el autismo era raro. +Lorna Wing, psicloga cognitiva de Londres, pensaba que la teora de las madres neveras de Kanner era bastante estpida. +Ella y su esposo John eran gente clida y afectuosa, y tuvieron una hija autista profunda llamada Susie. +Lorna y John saba lo difcil que era criar a una nia como Susie sin servicios de apoyo, sin educacin especial, y sin acceso a otros recursos sin un diagnstico. +Para defender ante el Servicio Nacional de Salud de que se necesitaban ms recursos para los nios autistas y sus familias, Lorna y su colega Judith Gould decidieron hacer algo que se debera haber hecho 30 aos antes. +Realizaron un estudio de prevalencia de autismo en la poblacin general. +Peinaron un suburbio de Londres llamado Camberwell para tratar de encontrar a los nios autistas en la comunidad. +Lo que vieron dej claro que el modelo de Kanner era demasiado limitado, pues la realidad del autismo era mucho ms colorida y diversa. +Algunos nios no podan hablar en absoluto, mientras que otros estaban enfrascados en su fascinacin por la astrofsica, en los dinosaurios o en la genealoga de la realeza. +De otra forma, estos nios no encajaban en cuadros bonitos y aseados, como dijo Judith, y vieron un montn de ellos, mucho ms que el modelo monoltico de Kanner habra predicho. +Al principio, estaban perdidos por intentar dar sentido a sus datos. +Cmo nadie no se haba percatado de estos nios antes? +Pero entonces Lorna encontr una referencia a un artculo publicado en alemn en 1944, el ao siguiente al artculo de Kanner, y que luego se olvid, enterrado bajo las cenizas de un tiempo terrible que nadie quera recordar. +Kanner saba sobre este artculo de la competencia, pero evit escrupulosamente mencionarlo en su propio trabajo. +No haba ni siquiera una traduccin al ingls, pero por suerte, el marido de Lorna hablaba alemn, y l lo tradujo para ella. +El documento ofrece una historia alternativa del autismo. +Su autor era un hombre llamado Hans Asperger, que diriga una clnica integrada con una escuela internado en Viena en la dcada de 1930. +Las ideas de Asperger para la enseanza de nios con diferencias de aprendizaje eran progresivas incluso para los estndares contemporneos. +Las maanas en su clnica empezaron con clases de ejercicios con msica, y los nios seguan sus juegos los domingos por la tarde. +En lugar de culpar a los padres de causar autismo, Asperger la describi como discapacidad poligentica de por vida que requera formas compasivas de apoyo y espacios adaptados durante el transcurso de toda la vida. +En lugar de tratar a los nios en su clnica como pacientes, Asperger los llam sus pequeos profesores, y se dedic a ayudar en el desarrollo de mtodos de educacin que fueran especialmente adecuados para ellos. +Fundamentalmente, Asperger vio el autismo como un continuo diverso que abarcaba una sorprendente variedad de dones y discapacidad. +l crea que el autismo y los rasgos autistas eran comunes y siempre lo han sido, viendo aspectos de este continuo en arquetipos conocidos en la cultura pop como el cientfico social torpe y el profesor distrado. +l fue ms all incluso hasta decir, que para el xito en la ciencia y el arte, una pizca de autismo es esencial. +Lorna y Judith descubrieron que Kanner estaba equivocado en que el autismo era infrecuente, as como en que los padres eran los causantes. +En los siguientes aos, trabajaron en silencio con la Asociacin Estadounidense de Psiquiatra para ampliar los criterios del diagnstico que reflejaran la diversidad de lo que llamaron "espectro autista". +A finales de los 80 y principios de los 90, sus cambios entraron en vigor, sustituyendo el modelo limitado de Kanner por uno amplio e inclusivo de Asperger. +Estos cambios no cayeron en saco roto. +Casualmente, cuando Lorna y Judith trabajaban entre bastidores para reformar estos criterios, personas de todo el mundo vean un adulto autista por primera vez. +Antes de que saliera "Rain Man" en 1988, solo un pequeo crculo, encarnado por expertos saba qu era el autismo, pero tras la inolvidable actuacin de Dustin Hoffman como Raymond Babbitt y el reconocimiento de "Rain Man" con 4 premios de la Academia, pediatras, psiclogos, maestros y padres de todo el mundo saban qu era el autismo. +Al mismo tiempo, se introdujeron las primeras pruebas clnicas fciles de usar para diagnosticar el autismo. +Ya no deba tener una conexin con ese pequeo crculo de expertos para lograr un diagnstico para su hijo. +La combinacin de "Rain Man" los cambios en los criterios y la introduccin de estas pruebas crearon un efecto de red, una tormenta perfecta de la conciencia del autismo. +El nmero de diagnsticos empez a elevarse, al igual que predijeron Lorna y Judith, de hecho esperaban que as fuera, logrando que las personas con autismo y sus familias finalmente obtuvieran el apoyo y los servicios que se merecan. +Entonces Andrew Wakefield lleg a culpar a las vacunas por el aumento en los diagnsticos. Una simple, poderosa, y seductora historia creble tan mala como la teora de Kanner de que el autismo era infrecuente. +Si la estimacin actual del centro de prevencin de que 1 de cada 68 nios en EE.UU. estn en el espectro, es correcta, los autistas son uno de los grupos minoritarios ms grandes del mundo. +En los ltimos aos, las personas autistas se han unido en Internet para rechazar la idea de que son los puzzles por resolver por los nuevos avances mdicos, acuando el trmino "neurodiversidad" para celebrar las variedades de la cognicin humana. +Una manera de entender la neurodiversidad es pensar en trminos de sistemas operativos humanos. +El hecho de que una PC no funcione con Windows, no significa que est rota. +Segn los estndares autistas, el cerebro humano normal es fcilmente distraible, obsesivamente social, y sufre de un dficit de atencin a los detalles. +Sin duda, las personas autistas tienen dificultades para vivir en un mundo no construido para ellos. +70 aos ms tarde, todava estamos alcanzando a Asperger, que crea que la "cura" para los aspectos ms incapacitantes de autismo se encuentran en la comprensin de los maestros, empleadores con capacidad, comunidades de apoyo, y los padres con fe en el potencial de sus hijos. +Una mujer autista llamada Zosia Zaks dijo una vez: "Necesitamos todas las manos en cubierta para enderezar el barco de la humanidad". +Mientras navegamos hacia un futuro incierto, necesitamos todas las formas de inteligencia humana en el planeta para hacer frente a los desafos que enfrentamos como sociedad. +No podemos permitirnos desperdiciar ni un cerebro. +Gracias. diff --git a/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/en_es_data/test_tiny.en b/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/en_es_data/test_tiny.en new file mode 100644 index 0000000..0fbf90f --- /dev/null +++ b/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/en_es_data/test_tiny.en @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +It's a true story -- every bit of this is true. +Soon after Tipper and I left the -- (Mock sob) White House -- we were driving from our home in Nashville to a little farm we have 50 miles east of Nashville. +Driving ourselves. +I know it sounds like a little thing to you, but -- I looked in the rear-view mirror and all of a sudden it just hit me. There was no motorcade back there. diff --git a/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/en_es_data/test_tiny.es b/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/en_es_data/test_tiny.es new file mode 100644 index 0000000..df2137b --- /dev/null +++ b/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/en_es_data/test_tiny.es @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +Es una historia verdadera -- cada parte de esto es verdad. +Poco despus de que Tipper y yo dejamos la -- (Sollozos fingidos) -- Casa Blanca -- -- estbamos viajando desde nuestra casa en Nashville a una pequea granja que tenemos 50 millas al este de Nashville -- +conduciendo nosotros mismos. +S que suena como cualquier cosa para ustedes, pero -- -- mir en el retrovisor y de repente simplemente me golpe. No haba caravana de vehculos all atrs. diff --git a/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/en_es_data/train.en b/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/en_es_data/train.en new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d3a4408 --- /dev/null +++ b/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/en_es_data/train.en @@ -0,0 +1,216617 @@ +Thank you so much, Chris. And it's truly a great honor to have the opportunity to come to this stage twice; I'm extremely grateful. +I have been blown away by this conference, and I want to thank all of you for the many nice comments about what I had to say the other night. +And I say that sincerely, partly because (Mock sob) I need that. Put yourselves in my position. +I flew on Air Force Two for eight years. +Now I have to take off my shoes or boots to get on an airplane! +I'll tell you one quick story to illustrate what that's been like for me. +It's a true story -- every bit of this is true. +Soon after Tipper and I left the -- (Mock sob) White House -- we were driving from our home in Nashville to a little farm we have 50 miles east of Nashville. +Driving ourselves. +I know it sounds like a little thing to you, but -- I looked in the rear-view mirror and all of a sudden it just hit me. There was no motorcade back there. +You've heard of phantom limb pain? +This was a rented Ford Taurus. It was dinnertime, and we started looking for a place to eat. +We were on I-40. We got to Exit 238, Lebanon, Tennessee. +We got off the exit, we found a Shoney's restaurant. +Low-cost family restaurant chain, for those of you who don't know it. +We went in and sat down at the booth, and the waitress came over, made a big commotion over Tipper. She took our order, and then went to the couple in the booth next to us, and she lowered her voice so much, I had to really strain to hear what she was saying. +And she said "Yes, that's former Vice President Al Gore and his wife, Tipper." +And the man said, "He's come down a long way, hasn't he?" +There's been kind of a series of epiphanies. +The very next day, continuing the totally true story, I got on a G-V to fly to Africa to make a speech in Nigeria, in the city of Lagos, on the topic of energy. +And I began the speech by telling them the story of what had just happened the day before in Nashville. +And I told it pretty much the same way I've just shared it with you: Tipper and I were driving ourselves, Shoney's, low-cost family restaurant chain, what the man said -- they laughed. +I gave my speech, then went back out to the airport to fly back home. +I fell asleep on the plane until, during the middle of the night, we landed on the Azores Islands for refueling. +I woke up, they opened the door, I went out to get some fresh air, and I looked, and there was a man running across the runway. +And he was waving a piece of paper, and he was yelling, "Call Washington! Call Washington!" +And I thought to myself, in the middle of the night, in the middle of the Atlantic, what in the world could be wrong in Washington? +Then I remembered it could be a bunch of things. +But what it turned out to be, was that my staff was extremely upset because one of the wire services in Nigeria had already written a story about my speech, and it had already been printed in cities all across the United States of America. +Three days later, I got a nice, long, handwritten letter from my friend and partner and colleague Bill Clinton, saying, "Congratulations on the new restaurant, Al!" +We like to celebrate each other's successes in life. +I was going to talk about information ecology. +But I was thinking that, since I plan to make a lifelong habit of coming back to TED, that maybe I could talk about that another time. Chris Anderson: It's a deal! +Al Gore: I want to focus on what many of you have said you would like me to elaborate on: What can you do about the climate crisis? I want to start with a couple of -- I'm going to show some new images, and I'm going to recapitulate just four or five. +Now, the slide show. I update the slide show every time I give it. +I add new images, because I learn more about it every time I give it. +Every time the tide comes in and out, you find some more shells. +Just in the last two days, we got the new temperature records in January. +This is just for the United States of America. Historical average for Januarys is 31 degrees; last month was 39.5 degrees. +Now, I know that you wanted some more bad news about the environment -- I'm kidding. But these are the recapitulation slides, and then I'm going to go into new material about what you can do. +But I wanted to elaborate on a couple of these. +First of all, this is where we're projected to go with the U.S. contribution to global warming, under business as usual. Efficiency in end-use electricity and end-use of all energy is the low-hanging fruit. +Efficiency and conservation -- it's not a cost; it's a profit. The sign is wrong. +It's not negative; it's positive. These are investments that pay for themselves. +But they are also very effective in deflecting our path. +Cars and trucks -- I talked about that in the slideshow, but I want you to put it in perspective. +It's an easy, visible target of concern -- and it should be -- but there is more global warming pollution that comes from buildings than from cars and trucks. +Cars and trucks are very significant, and we have the lowest standards in the world. +And so we should address that. But it's part of the puzzle. +Other transportation efficiency is as important as cars and trucks. +Renewables at the current levels of technological efficiency can make this much difference. And with what Vinod, and John Doerr and others, many of you here -- there are a lot of people directly involved in this -- this wedge is going to grow much more rapidly than the current projection shows it. +Carbon Capture and Sequestration -- that's what CCS stands for -- is likely to become the killer app that will enable us to continue to use fossil fuels in a way that is safe. +Not quite there yet. +OK. Now, what can you do? Reduce emissions in your home. +Most of these expenditures are also profitable. +Insulation, better design. Buy green electricity where you can. +I mentioned automobiles -- buy a hybrid. Use light rail. +Figure out some of the other options that are much better. It's important. +Be a green consumer. You have choices with everything you buy, between things that have a harsh effect, or a much less harsh effect on the global climate crisis. +Consider this: Make a decision to live a carbon-neutral life. +Those of you who are good at branding, I'd love to get your advice and help on how to say this in a way that connects with the most people. +It is easier than you think. It really is. +A lot of us in here have made that decision, and it is really pretty easy. +It means reduce your carbon dioxide emissions with the full range of choices that you make, and then purchase or acquire offsets for the remainder that you have not completely reduced. +And what it means is elaborated at climatecrisis.net. +There is a carbon calculator. Participant Productions convened -- with my active involvement -- the leading software writers in the world, on this arcane science of carbon calculation, to construct a consumer-friendly carbon calculator. +You can very precisely calculate what your CO2 emissions are, and then you will be given options to reduce. +And by the time the movie comes out in May, this will be updated to 2.0, and we will have click-through purchases of offsets. +Next, consider making your business carbon-neutral. Again, some of us have done that, and it's not as hard as you think. Integrate climate solutions into all of your innovations, whether you are from the technology, or entertainment, or design and architecture community. +Invest sustainably. Majora mentioned this. +Listen, if you have invested money with managers who you compensate on the basis of their annual performance, don't ever again complain about quarterly report CEO management. +Over time, people do what you pay them to do. +And if they judge how much they're going to get paid on your capital that they've invested, based on the short-term returns, you're going to get short-term decisions. +A lot more to be said about that. +Become a catalyst of change. Teach others, learn about it, talk about it. +The movie is a movie version of the slideshow I gave two nights ago, except it's a lot more entertaining. And it comes out in May. +Many of you here have the opportunity to ensure that a lot of people see it. +Consider sending somebody to Nashville. Pick well. +And I am personally going to train people to give this slideshow -- re-purposed, with some of the personal stories obviously replaced with a generic approach, and it's not just the slides, it's what they mean. And it's how they link together. +And so I'm going to be conducting a course this summer for a group of people that are nominated by different folks to come and then give it en masse, in communities all across the country, and we're going to update the slideshow for all of them every single week, to keep it right on the cutting edge. +Working with Larry Lessig, it will be, somewhere in that process, posted with tools and limited-use copyrights, so that young people can remix it and do it in their own way. +Where did anybody get the idea that you ought to stay arm's length from politics? +It doesn't mean that if you're a Republican, that I'm trying to convince you to be a Democrat. We need Republicans as well. This used to be a bipartisan issue, and I know that in this group it really is. Become politically active. +Make our democracy work the way it's supposed to work. +Support the idea of capping carbon dioxide emissions -- global warming pollution -- and trading it. +Here's why: as long as the United States is out of the world system, it's not a closed system. +Once it becomes a closed system, with U.S. participation, then everybody who's on a board of directors -- how many people here serve on the board of directors of a corporation? +Once it's a closed system, you will have legal liability if you do not urge your CEO to get the maximum income from reducing and trading the carbon emissions that can be avoided. The market will work to solve this problem -- if we can accomplish this. +Help with the mass persuasion campaign that will start this spring. +We have to change the minds of the American people. +Because presently, the politicians do not have permission to do what needs to be done. +And in our modern country, the role of logic and reason no longer includes mediating between wealth and power the way it once did. +It's now repetition of short, hot-button, 30-second, 28-second television ads. +We have to buy a lot of those ads. +Let's re-brand global warming, as many of you have suggested. +I like "climate crisis" instead of "climate collapse," but again, those of you who are good at branding, I need your help on this. +Somebody said the test we're facing now, a scientist told me, is whether the combination of an opposable thumb and a neocortex is a viable combination. +That's really true. I said the other night, and I'll repeat now: this is not a political issue. +Again, the Republicans here -- this shouldn't be partisan. +You have more influence than some of us who are Democrats do. +This is an opportunity. Not just this, but connected to the ideas that are here, to bring more coherence to them. +We are one. +Thank you very much, I appreciate it. +I want to start off by saying, Houston, we have a problem. +We're entering a second generation of no progress in terms of human flight in space. In fact, we've regressed. +We stand a very big chance of losing our ability to inspire our youth to go out and continue this very important thing that we as a species have always done. +And that is, instinctively we've gone out and climbed over difficult places, went to more hostile places, and found out later, maybe to our surprise, that that's the reason we survived. +And I feel very strongly that it's not good enough for us to have generations of kids that think that it's OK to look forward to a better version of a cell phone with a video in it. +They need to look forward to exploration; they need to look forward to colonization; they need to look forward to breakthroughs. +We need to inspire them, because they need to lead us and help us survive in the future. +I'm particularly troubled that what NASA's doing right now with this new Bush doctrine to -- for this next decade and a half -- oh shoot, I screwed up. +We have real specific instructions here not to talk about politics. +What we're looking forward to is -- what we're looking forward to is not only the inspiration of our children, but the current plan right now is not really even allowing the most creative people in this country -- the Boeing's and Lockheed's space engineers -- to go out and take risks and try new stuff. +We're going to go back to the moon ... 50 years later? +And we're going to do it very specifically planned to not learn anything new. +I'm really troubled by that. But anyway that's -- the basis of the thing that I want to share with you today, though, is that right back to where we inspire people who will be our great leaders later. +That's the theme of my next 15 minutes here. +And I think that the inspiration begins when you're very young: three-year-olds, up to 12-, 14-year-olds. +What they look at is the most important thing. +Let's take a snapshot at aviation. +And there was a wonderful little short four-year time period when marvelous things happened. +It started in 1908, when the Wright brothers flew in Paris, and everybody said, "Ooh, hey, I can do that." There's only a few people that have flown in early 1908. In four years, 39 countries had hundreds of airplanes, thousand of pilots. Airplanes were invented by natural selection. +Now you can say that intelligent design designs our airplanes of today, but there was no intelligent design really designing those early airplanes. +There were probably at least 30,000 different things tried, and when they crash and kill the pilot, don't try that again. +The ones that flew and landed OK because there were no trained pilots who had good flying qualities by definition. +So we, by making a whole bunch of attempts, thousands of attempts, in that four-year time period, we invented the concepts of the airplanes that we fly today. And that's why they're so safe, as we gave it a lot of chance to find what's good. +That has not happened at all in space flying. +There's only been two concepts tried -- two by the U.S. and one by the Russians. +Well, who was inspired during that time period? +Aviation Week asked me to make a list of who I thought were the movers and shakers of the first 100 years of aviation. +And I wrote them down and I found out later that every one of them was a little kid in that wonderful renaissance of aviation. +Well, what happened when I was a little kid was -- some pretty heavy stuff too. +The jet age started: the missile age started. Von Braun was on there showing how to go to Mars -- and this was before Sputnik. +And this was at a time when Mars was a hell of a lot more interesting than it is now. We thought there'd be animals there; we knew there were plants there; the colors change, right? +But, you know, NASA screwed that up because they've sent these robots and they've landed it only in the deserts. +If you look at what happened -- this little black line is as fast as man ever flew, and the red line is top-of-the-line military fighters and the blue line is commercial air transport. +You notice here's a big jump when I was a little kid -- and I think that had something to do with giving me the courage to go out and try something that other people weren't having the courage to try. +Well, what did I do when I was a kid? +I didn't do the hotrods and the girls and the dancing and, well, we didn't have drugs in those days. But I did competition model airplanes. +I spent about seven years during the Vietnam War flight-testing airplanes for the Air Force. +And then I went in and I had a lot of fun building airplanes that people could build in their garages. +And some 3,000 of those are flying. Of course, one of them is around the world Voyager. I founded another company in '82, which is my company now. +And we have developed more than one new type of airplane every year since 1982. +And there's a lot of them that I actually can't show you on this chart. +The most impressive airplane ever, I believe, was designed only a dozen years after the first operational jet. +Stayed in service till it was too rusty to fly, taken out of service. +We retreated in '98 back to something that was developed in '56. What? +The most impressive spaceship ever, I believe, was a Grumman Lunar Lander. It was a -- you know, it landed on the moon, take off of the moon, didn't need any maintenance guys -- that's kind of cool. +We've lost that capability. We abandoned it in '72. +This thing was designed three years after Gagarin first flew in space in 1961. +Three years, and we can't do that now. Crazy. +Talk very briefly about innovation cycles, things that grow, have a lot of activity; they die out when they're replaced by something else. +These things tend to happen every 25 years. +40 years long, with an overlap. You can put that statement on all kinds of different technologies. The interesting thing -- by the way, the speed here, excuse me, higher-speed travel is the title of these innovation cycles. There is none here. +These two new airplanes are the same speed as the DC8 that was done in 1958. +Here's the biggie, and that is, you don't have innovation cycles if the government develops and the government uses it. +You know, a good example, of course, is the DARPA net. +Computers were used for artillery first, then IRS. +But when we got it, now you have all the level of activity, all the benefit from it. Private sector has to do it. +Keep that in mind. I put down innovation -- I've looked for innovation cycles in space; I found none. +The very first year, starting when Gagarin went in space, and a few weeks later Alan Shepherd, there were five manned space flights in the world -- the very first year. +In 2003, everyone that the United States sent to space was killed. +There were only three or four flights in 2003. +In 2004, there were only two flights: two Russian Soyuz flights to the international manned station. And I had to fly three in Mojave with my little group of a couple dozen people in order to get to a total of five, which was the number the same year back in 1961. +There is no growth. There's no activity. There's no nothing. +This is a picture here taken from SpaceShipOne. +This is a picture here taken from orbit. +Our goal is to make it so that you can see this picture and really enjoy that. +We know how to do it for sub-orbital flying now, do it safe enough -- at least as safe as the early airlines -- so that can be done. +And I think I want to talk a little bit about why we had the courage to go out and try that as a small company. +Well, first of all, what's going to happen next? +The first industry will be a high volume, a lot of players. +There's another one announced just last week. +That's -- You don't want to run a business with that kind of a safety record. +It'll be very high volume; we think 100,000 people will fly by 2020. +I can't tell you when this will start, because I don't want my competition to know my schedule. +But I think once it does, we will find solutions, and very quickly, you'll see those resort hotels in orbit. +And that real easy thing to do, which is a swing around the moon so you have this cool view. And that will be really cool. +Because the moon doesn't have an atmosphere -- you can do an elliptical orbit and miss it by 10 feet if you want. +Oh, it's going to be so much fun. +OK. My critics say, "Hey, Rutan's just spending a lot of these billionaires' money for joyrides for billionaires. +What's this? This is not a transportation system; it's just for fun." +And I used to be bothered by that, and then I got to thinking, well, wait a minute. I bought my first Apple computer in 1978 and I bought it because I could say, "I got a computer at my house and you don't. +'What do you use it for?' Come over. It does Frogger." OK. +Not the bank's computer or Lockheed's computer, but the home computer was for games. +For a whole decade it was for fun -- we didn't even know what it was for. +But what happened, the fact that we had this big industry, big development, big improvement and capability and so on, and they get out there in enough homes -- we were ripe for a new invention. +And the inventor is in this audience. +So fun is defendable. +OK, I want to show you kind of a busy chart, but in it is my prediction with what's going to happen. +And in it also brings up another point, right here. +There's a group of people that have come forward -- and you don't know all of them -- but the ones that have come forward were inspired as young children, this little three- to 15-year-old age, by us going to orbit and going to the moon here, right in this time period. +Paul Allen, Elan Musk, Richard Branson, Jeff Bezos, the Ansari family, which is now funding the Russians' sub-orbital thing, Bob Bigelow, a private space station, and Carmack. +They were inspired by big progress. But look at the progress that's going on after that. +There were a couple of examples here. +The military fighters had a -- highest-performance military airplane was the SR71. It went a whole life cycle, got too rusty to fly, and was taken out of service. The Concorde doubled the speed for airline travel. +It went a whole life cycle without competition, took out of service. And we're stuck back here with the same kind of capability for military fighters and commercial airline travel that we had back in the late '50s. +But something is out there to inspire our kids now. +And I'm talking about if you've got a baby now, or if you've got a 10-year-old now. +What's out there is there's something really interesting going to happen here. +Relatively soon, you'll be able to buy a ticket and fly higher and faster than the highest-performance military operational airplane. It's never happened before. +The fact that they have stuck here with this kind of performance has been, well, you know, you win the war in 12 minutes; why do you need something better? +But I think when you guys start buying tickets and flying sub-orbital flights to space, very soon -- wait a minute, what's happening here, we'll have military fighters with sub-orbital capability, and I think very soon this. +But the interesting thing about it is the commercial guys are going to go first. +OK, I look forward to a new "capitalist's space race," let's call it. +You remember the space race in the '60s was for national prestige, because we lost the first two milestones. +We didn't lose them technically. The fact that we had the hardware to put something in orbit when we let Von Braun fly it -- you can argue that's not a technical loss. +Sputnik wasn't a technical loss, but it was a prestige loss. +America -- the world saw America as not being the leader in technology, and that was a very strong thing. +And then we flew Alan Shepherd weeks after Gagarin, not months or decades, or whatever. So we had the capability. +But America lost. We lost. And because of that, we made a big jump to recover it. +Well, again, what's interesting here is we've lost to the Russians on the first couple of milestones already. +You cannot buy a ticket commercially to fly into space in America -- can't do it. You can buy it in Russia. +You can fly with Russian hardware. This is available because a Russian space program is starving, and it's nice for them to get 20 million here and there to take one of the seats. +It's commercial. It can be defined as space tourism. They are also offering a trip to go on this whip around the moon, like Apollo 8 was done. +100 million bucks -- hey, I can go to the moon. +But, you know, would you have thought back in the '60s, when the space race was going on, that the first commercial capitalist-like thing to do to buy a ticket to go to the moon would be in Russian hardware? +And would you have thought, would the Russians have thought, that when they first go to the moon in their developed hardware, the guys inside won't be Russians? Maybe it'll probably be a Japanese or an American billionaire? Well, that's weird: you know, it really is. +But anyway, I think we need to beat them again. +I think what we'll do is we'll see a successful, very successful, private space flight industry. Whether we're first or not really doesn't matter. +The Russians actually flew a supersonic transport before the Concorde. +And then they flew a few cargo flights, and took it out of service. +I think you kind of see the same kind of parallel when the commercial stuff is offered. +OK, we'll talk just a little bit about commercial development for human space flight. +I'm predicting, though, as profitable as this industry is going to be -- and it certainly is profitable when you fly people at 200,000 dollars on something that you can actually operate at a tenth of that cost, or less -- this is going to be very profitable. +I predict, also, that the investment that will flow into this will be somewhere around half of what the U.S. taxpayer spends for NASA's manned spacecraft work. +And every dollar that flows into that will be spent more efficiently by a factor of 10 to 15. And what that means is before we know it, the progress in human space flight, with no taxpayer dollars, will be at a level of about five times as much as the current NASA budgets for human space flight. +And that is because it's us. It's private industry. +You should never depend on the government to do this sort of stuff -- and we've done it for a long time. The NACA, before NASA, never developed an airliner and never ran an airline. +But NASA is developing the space liner, always has, and runs the only space line, OK. And we've shied away from it because we're afraid of it. But starting back in June of 2004, when I showed that a little group out there actually can do it, can get a start with it, everything changed after that time. +OK, thank you very much. +What I want to talk about is, as background, is the idea that cars are art. +And so cars, as art, brings it into an emotional plane -- if you accept that -- that you have to deal with on the same level you would with art with a capital A. +Now at this point you're going to see a picture of Michelangelo. +This is completely different than automobiles. +Automobiles are self-moving things, right? Elevators are automobiles. +And they're not very emotional; they solve a purpose; and certainly automobiles have been around for 100 years and have made our lives functionally a lot better in many ways; they've also been a real pain in the ass, because automobiles are really the thing we have to solve. +We have to solve the pollution, we have to solve the congestion -- but that's not what interests me in this speech. +What interests me in this speech is cars. Automobiles may be what you use, but cars are what we are, in many ways. +That's what I want to get to. Cars are not a suit of clothes; cars are an avatar. Cars are an expansion of yourself: they take your thoughts, your ideas, your emotions, and they multiply it -- your anger, whatever. It's an avatar. +It's a super-waldo that you happen to be inside of, and if you feel sexy, the car is sexy. And if you're full of road rage, you've got a "Chevy: Like a Rock," right? +Cars are a sculpture -- did you know this? +That every car you see out there is sculpted by hand. +Many people think, "Well, it's computers, and it's done by machines and stuff like that." +Well, they reproduce it, but the originals are all done by hand. +It's done by men and women who believe a lot in their craft. +And they put that same kind of tension into the sculpting of a car that you do in a great sculpture that you would go and look at in a museum. +That tension between the need to express, the need to discover, then you put something new into it, and at the same time you have bounds of craftsmanship. +Rules that say, this is how you handle surfaces; this is what control is all about; this is how you show you're a master of your craft. +And that tension, that discovery, that push for something new -- and at the same time, that sense of obligation to the regards of craftsmanship -- that's as strong in cars as it is in anything. +We work in clay, which hasn't changed much since Michelangelo started screwing around with it, and there's a very interesting analogy to that too. +Real quickly -- Michelangelo once said he's there to "discover the figure within," OK? +There we go, the automobile. +That was 100 years right there -- did you catch that? +Between that one there, and that one there, it changed a lot didn't it? +OK, it's not marketing; there's a very interesting car concept here, but the marketing part is not what I want to talk about here. +I want to talk about this. +Why it means you have to wash a car, what is it, that sensuality you have to touch about it? That's the sculpture that goes into it. That sensuality. +And it's done by men and women working just like this, making cars. +Now this little quote about sculpture from Henry Moore, I believe that that "pressure within" that Moore's talking about -- at least when it comes to cars -- comes right back to this idea of the mean. +It's that will to live, that need to survive, to express itself, that comes in a car, and takes over people like me. +And we tell other people, "Do this, do this, do this," until this thing comes alive. +We are completely infected. And beauty can be the result of this infectiousness; it's quite wonderful. +This sculpture is, of course, at the heart of all of it, and it's really what puts the craftsmanship into our cars. +And it's not a whole lot different, really, when they're working like this, or when somebody works like this. +It's that same kind of commitment, that same kind of beauty. +Now, now I get to the point. I want to talk about cars as art. +Art, in the Platonic sense, is truth; it's beauty, and love. +Now this is really where designers in car business diverge from the engineers. +We don't really have a problem talking about love. +We don't have a problem talking about truth or beauty in that sense. +That's what we're searching for -- when we're working our craft, we are really trying to find that truth out there. +We're not trying to find vanity and beauty. +We're trying to find the beauty in the truth. +However, engineers tend to look at things a little bit more Newtonian, instead of this quantum approach. +We're dealing with irrationalisms, and we're dealing with paradoxes that we admit exist, and the engineers tend to look things a little bit more like two and two is four, and if you get 4.0 it's better, and 4.000 is even better. +And that sometimes leads to bit of a divergence in why we're doing what we're doing. +We've pretty much accepted the fact, though, that we are the women in the organization at BMW -- BMW is a very manly type business, -- men, men, men; it's engineers. +And we're kind of the female side to that. That's OK, that's cool. You go off and be manly. We're going to be a little bit more female. +Because what we're interested in is finding form that's more than just a function. +We're interested in finding beauty that's more than just an aesthetic; it's really a truth. +And I think this idea of soul, as being at the heart of great cars, is very applicable. You all know it. You know a car when you've seen it, with soul. You know how strong this is. +Well, this experience of love, and the experience of design, to me, are interchangeable. And now I'm coming to my story. +I discovered something about love and design through a project called Deep Blue. +And first of all, you have to go with me for a second, and say, you know, you could take the word "love" out of a lot of things in our society, put the word "design" in, and it still works, like this quote here, you know. It kind of works, you know? +You can understand that. It works in truisms. +"All is fair in design and war." +Certainly we live in a competitive society. +I think this one here, there's a pop song that really describes Philippe Starck for me, you know, this is like you know, this is like puppy love, you know, this is cool right? +Toothbrush, cool. +It really only gets serious when you look at something like this. OK? +This is one substitution that I believe all of us, in design management, are guilty of. +And this idea that there is more to love, more to design, when it gets down to your neighbor, your other, it can be physical like this, and maybe in the future it will be. +But right now it's in dealing with our own people, our own teams who are doing the creating. So, to my story. +The idea of people-work is what we work with here, and I have to make a bond with my designers when we're creating BMWs. +We have to have a shared intimacy, a shared vision -- that means we have to work as one family; we have to understand ourselves that way. +There's good times; there's interesting times; and there's some stress times too. +You want to do cars, you've got to go outside. +You've got to do cars in the rain; you've got to do cars in the snow. +That's, by the way, is a presentation we made to our board of directors. +We haul their butts out in the snow, too. You want to know cars outside? +Well, you've got to stand outside to do this. +And because these are artists, they have very artistic temperaments. +All right? Now one thing about art is, art is discovery, and art is discovering yourself through your art. Right? +And one thing about cars is we're all a little bit like Pygmalion, we are completely in love with our own creations. +This is one of my favorite paintings, it really describes our relationship with cars. +This is sick beyond belief. +But because of this, the intimacy with which we work together as a team takes on a new dimension, a new meaning. +We have a shared center; we have a shared focus -- that car stays at the middle of all our relationships. +And it's my job, in the competitive process, to narrow this down. +I heard today about Joseph's death genes that have to go in and kill cell reproduction. +You know, that's what I have to do sometimes. +We start out with 10 cars; we narrow it down to five cars, down to three cars, down to two cars, down to one car, and I'm in the middle of that killing, basically. +Someone's love, someone's baby. +This is very difficult, and you have to have a bond with your team that permits you to do this, because their life is wrapped up in that too. +They've got that gene infected in them as well, and they want that to live, more than anything else. +Well, this project, Deep Blue, put me in contact with my team in a way that I never expected, and I want to pass it on to you, because I want you to reflect on this, perhaps in your own relationships. +We wanted to a do a car which was a complete leap of faith for BMW. +We wanted to do a team which was so removed from the way we'd done it, that I only had a phone number that connected me to them. +So, what we did was: instead of having a staff of artists that are just your wrist, we decided to free up a team of creative designers and engineers to find out what's the successor to the SUV phenomenon in America. +This is 1996 we did this project. And so we sent them off with this team name, Deep Blue. Now many people know Deep Blue from IBM -- we actually stole it from them because we figured if anybody read our faxes they'd think we're talking about computers. +It turned out it was quite clever because Deep Blue, in a company like BMW, has a hook -- "Deep Blue," wow, cool name. +So people get wrapped up in it. And we took a team of designers, and we sent them off to America. And we gave them a budget, what we thought was a set of deliverables, a timetable, and nothing else. +Like I said, I just had a phone number that connected me to them. +And a group of engineers worked in Germany, and the idea was they would work separately on this problem of what's the successor to the SUV. +They would come together, compare notes. Then they would work apart, come together, and they would produce together a monumental set of diverse opinions that didn't pollute each other's ideas -- but at the same time came together and resolved the problems. +Hopefully, really understand the customer at its heart, where the customer is, live with them in America. So -- sent the team off, and actually something different happened. They went other places. +They disappeared, quite honestly, and all I got was postcards. +Now, I got some postcards of these guys in Las Vegas, and I got some postcards of these guys in the Grand Canyon, and I got these postcards of Niagara Falls, and pretty soon they're in New York, and I don't know where else. +And I'm telling myself, "This is going to be a great car, they're doing research that I've never even thought about before." +Right? And they decided that instead of, like, having a studio, and six or seven apartments, it was cheaper to rent Elizabeth Taylor's ex-house in Malibu. +And -- at least they told me it was her house, I guess it was at one time, she had a party there or something. +But anyway, this was the house, and they all lived there. +Now this is 24/7 living, half-a-dozen people who'd left their -- some had left their wives behind and families behind, and they literally lived in this house for the entire six months the project was in America, but the first three months were the most intensive. +And one of the young women in the project, she was a fantastic lady, she actually built her room in the bathroom. +The bathroom was so big, she built the bed over the bathtub -- it's quite fascinating. +On the other hand, I didn't know anything about this. OK? +Nothing. This is all going on, and all I'm getting is postcards of these guys in Las Vegas, or whatever, saying, "Don't worry Chris, this is really going to be good." OK? +So my concept of what a design studio was probably -- I wasn't up to speed on where these guys were. +However, the engineers back in Munich had taken on this kind of Newtonian solution, and they were trying to find how many cup holders can dance on the head of a pin, and, you know, these really serious questions that are confronting the modern consumer. +And one was hoping that these two teams would get together, and this collusion of incredible creativity, under these incredible surroundings, and these incredibly stressed-out engineers, would create some incredible solutions. +Well, what I didn't know was, and what we found out was -- these guys, they can't even like talk to each other under those conditions. +You get a divergence of Newtonian and quantum thinking at that point, you have a split in your dialog that is so deep, and so far, that they cannot bring this together at all. +And so we had our first meeting, after three months, in Tiburon, which is just up the road from here -- you know Tiburon? +And the idea was after the first three months of this independent research they would present it all to Dr. Goschel -- who is now my boss, and at that time he was co-mentor on the project -- and they would present their results. +We would see where we were going, we would see the first indication of what could be the successive phenomenon to the SUV in America. +And so I had these ideas in my head, that this is going to be great. +I mean, I'm going to see so much work, it's so intense -- I know probably Las Vegas meant a lot about it, and I'm not really sure where the Grand Canyon came in either -- but somehow all this is going to come together, and I'm going to see some really great product. +So we went to Tiburon, after three months, and the team had gotten together the week before, many days ahead of time. +The engineers flew over, and designers got together with them, and they put their presentation together. +Well, it turns out that the engineers hadn't done anything. +And they hadn't done anything because -- kind of, like in car business, engineers are there to solve problems, and we were asking them to create a problem. +And the engineers were waiting for the designers to say, "This is the problem that we've created, now help us solve it." +And they couldn't talk about it. So what happened was, the engineers showed up with nothing. +And the engineers told the designers, "If you go in with all your stuff, we'll walk out, we'll walk right out of the project." +So I didn't know any of this, and we got a presentation that had an agenda, looked like this. +There was a whole lot of dialog. +We spent four hours being told all about vocabulary that needs to be built between engineers and designers. +And here I'm expecting at any moment, "OK, they're going to turn the page, and I'm going to see the cars, I'm going to see the sketches, I'm going to see maybe some idea of where it's going." +Dialog kept on going, with mental maps of words, and pretty soon it was becoming obvious that instead of being dazzled with brilliance, I was seriously being baffled with bullshit. +And if you can imagine what this is like, to have these months of postcard indication of how great this team is working, and they're out there spending all this money, and they're learning, and they're doing all this stuff. +I went fucking ballistic, right? I went nuts. +You can probably remember Tiburon, it used to look like this. +After four hours of this, I stood up, and I took this team apart. +I screamed at them, I yelled at them, "What the hell are you doing? +You're letting me down, you're my designers, you're supposed to be the creative ones, what the hell is going on around here?" +It was probably one of my better tirades, I have some good ones, but this was probably one of my better ones. And I went into these people; how could they take BMW's money, how could they have a holiday for three months and produce nothing, nothing? +So we went to lunch -- And I've got to tell you, this was one seriously quiet lunch. +The engineers all sat at one end of the table, the designers and I sat at the other end of the table, really quiet. +And I was just fucking furious, furious. OK? +Probably because they had all the fun and I didn't, you know. +That's what you get furious about right? +And somebody asked me about Catherine, my wife, you know, did she fly out with me or something? +I said, "No," and it triggered a set of thoughts about my wife. +And I recalled that when Catherine and I were married, the priest gave a very nice sermon, and he said something very important. +He said, "Love is not selfish," he said, "Love does not mean counting how many times I say, 'I love you.' It doesn't mean you had sex this many times this month, and it's two times less than last month, so that means you don't love me as much. +Love is not selfish." And I thought about this, and I thought, "You know, I'm not showing love here. I'm seriously not showing love. +I'm in the air, I'm in the air without trust. +This cannot be. This cannot be that I'm expecting a certain number of sketches, and to me that's my quantification method for qualifying a team. +This cannot be." +So I told them this story. I said, "Guys, I'm thinking about something here, this isn't right. I can't have a relationship with you guys based on a premise that is a quantifiable one. +Based on a dictate premise that says, 'I'm a boss, you do what I say, without trust.'" I said "This can't be." +Actually, we all broke down into tears, to be quite honest about it, because they still could not tell me how much frustration they had built up inside of them, not being able to show me what I wanted, and merely having to ask me to trust them that it would come. +And I think we felt much closer that day, we cut a lot of strings that didn't need to be there, and we forged the concept for what real team and creativity is all about. +We put the car back at the center of our thoughts, and we put love, I think, truly back into the center of the process. +By the way, that team went on to create six different concepts for the next model of what would be the proposal for the next generation after SUVs in America. +One of those was the idea of a crossover coupes -- you see it downstairs, the X Coupe -- they had a lot of fun with that. +It was the rendition of our motorcycle, the GS, as Carl Magnusson says, "brute-iful," as the idea of what could be a motorcycle, if you add two more wheels. +And so, in conclusion, my lesson that I wanted to pass on to you, was this one here. I'm also going to steal a little quote out of "Little Prince." +There's a lot to be said about trust and love, if you know that those two words are synonymous for design. +I had a very, very meaningful relationship with my team that day, and it's stayed that way ever since. +And I hope that you too find that there's more to design, and more towards the art of the design, than doing it yourself. +It's true that the trust and the love, that makes it worthwhile. +Thanks so much. +At the break, I was asked by several people about my comments about the aging debate. +And this will be my only cofimment on it. +And that is, I understand that optimists greatly outlive pessimists. +What I'm going to tell you about in my 18 minutes is how we're about to switch from reading the genetic code to the first stages of beginning to write the code ourselves. +It's only 10 years ago this month when we published the first sequence of a free-living organism, that of haemophilus influenzae. +That took a genome project from 13 years down to four months. +We can now do that same genome project in the order of two to eight hours. +So in the last decade, a large number of genomes have been added: most human pathogens, a couple of plants, several insects and several mammals, including the human genome. +Genomics at this stage of the thinking from a little over 10 years ago was, by the end of this year, we might have between three and five genomes sequenced; it's on the order of several hundred. +We just got a grant from the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation to sequence 130 genomes this year, as a side project from environmental organisms. +So the rate of reading the genetic code has changed. +But as we look, what's out there, we've barely scratched the surface on what is available on this planet. +Most people don't realize it, because they're invisible, but microbes make up about a half of the Earth's biomass, whereas all animals only make up about one one-thousandth of all the biomass. +And maybe it's something that people in Oxford don't do very often, but if you ever make it to the sea, and you swallow a mouthful of seawater, keep in mind that each milliliter has about a million bacteria and on the order of 10 million viruses. +Less than 5,000 microbial species have been characterized as of two years ago, and so we decided to do something about it. +And we started the Sorcerer II Expedition, where we were, as with great oceanographic expeditions, trying to sample the ocean every 200 miles. +We started in Bermuda for our test project, then moved up to Halifax, working down the U.S. East Coast, the Caribbean Sea, the Panama Canal, through to the Galapagos, then across the Pacific, and we're in the process now of working our way across the Indian Ocean. +It's very tough duty; we're doing this on a sailing vessel, in part to help excite young people about going into science. +The experiments are incredibly simple. +We just take seawater and we filter it, and we collect different size organisms on different filters, and then take their DNA back to our lab in Rockville, where we can sequence a hundred million letters of the genetic code every 24 hours. +And with doing this, we've made some amazing discoveries. +For example, it was thought that the visual pigments that are in our eyes -- there was only one or two organisms in the environment that had these same pigments. +It turns out, almost every species in the upper parts of the ocean in warm parts of the world have these same photoreceptors, and use sunlight as the source of their energy and communication. +From one site, from one barrel of seawater, we discovered 1.3 million new genes and as many as 50,000 new species. +We've extended this to the air now with a grant from the Sloan Foundation. +We're measuring how many viruses and bacteria all of us are breathing in and out every day, particularly on airplanes or closed auditoriums. +We filter through some simple apparatuses; we collect on the order of a billion microbes from just a day filtering on top of a building in New York City. +And we're in the process of sequencing all that at the present time. +Just on the data collection side, just where we are through the Galapagos, we're finding that almost every 200 miles, we see tremendous diversity in the samples in the ocean. +Some of these make logical sense, in terms of different temperature gradients. +So this is a satellite photograph based on temperatures -- red being warm, blue being cold -- and we found there's a tremendous difference between the warm water samples and the cold water samples, in terms of abundant species. +The other thing that surprised us quite a bit is these photoreceptors detect different wavelengths of light, and we can predict that based on their amino acid sequence. +And these vary tremendously from region to region. +Maybe not surprisingly, in the deep ocean, where it's mostly blue, the photoreceptors tend to see blue light. +When there's a lot of chlorophyll around, they see a lot of green light. +But they vary even more, possibly moving towards infrared and ultraviolet in the extremes. +Just to try and get an assessment of what our gene repertoire was, we assembled all the data -- including all of ours thus far from the expedition, which represents more than half of all the gene data on the planet -- and it totaled around 29 million genes. +And we tried to put these into gene families to see what these discoveries are: Are we just discovering new members of known families, or are we discovering new families? +And it turns out we have about 50,000 major gene families, but every new sample we take in the environment adds in a linear fashion to these new families. +So we're at the earliest stages of discovery about basic genes, components and life on this planet. +When we look at the so-called evolutionary tree, we're up on the upper right-hand corner with the animals. +Of those roughly 29 million genes, we only have around 24,000 in our genome. +And if you take all animals together, we probably share less than 30,000 and probably maybe a dozen or more thousand different gene families. +I view that these genes are now not only the design components of evolution. +And we think in a gene-centric view -- maybe going back to Richard Dawkins' ideas -- than in a genome-centric view, which are different constructs of these gene components. +Synthetic DNA, the ability to synthesize DNA, has changed at sort of the same pace that DNA sequencing has over the last decade or two, and is getting very rapid and very cheap. +Our first thought about synthetic genomics came when we sequenced the second genome back in 1995, and that from mycoplasma genitalium. +And we have really nice T-shirts that say, you know, "I heart my genitalium." +This is actually just a microorganism. +But it has roughly 500 genes. +Haemophilus had 1,800 genes. +And we simply asked the question, if one species needs 800, another 500, is there a smaller set of genes that might comprise a minimal operating system? +So we started doing transposon mutagenesis. +Transposons are just small pieces of DNA that randomly insert in the genetic code. +And if they insert in the middle of the gene, they disrupt its function. +So we made a map of all the genes that could take transposon insertions and we called those "non-essential genes." +But it turns out the environment is very critical for this, and you can only define an essential or non-essential gene based on exactly what's in the environment. +We also tried to take a more directly intellectual approach with the genomes of 13 related organisms, and we tried to compare all of those, to see what they had in common. +And we got these overlapping circles. And we found only 173 genes common to all 13 organisms. +The pool expanded a little bit if we ignored one intracellular parasite; it expanded even more when we looked at core sets of genes of around 310 or so. +So we think that we can expand or contract genomes, depending on your point of view here, to maybe 300 to 400 genes from the minimal of 500. +The only way to prove these ideas was to construct an artificial chromosome with those genes in them, and we had to do this in a cassette-based fashion. +We found that synthesizing accurate DNA in large pieces was extremely difficult. +Ham Smith and Clyde Hutchison, my colleagues on this, developed an exciting new method that allowed us to synthesize a 5,000-base pair virus in only a two-week period that was 100 percent accurate, in terms of its sequence and its biology. +It was a quite exciting experiment -- when we just took the synthetic piece of DNA, injected it in the bacteria and all of a sudden, that DNA started driving the production of the virus particles that turned around and then killed the bacteria. +This was not the first synthetic virus -- a polio virus had been made a year before -- but it was only one ten-thousandth as active and it took three years to do. +This is a cartoon of the structure of phi X 174. +This is a case where the software now builds its own hardware, and that's the notions that we have with biology. +People immediately jump to concerns about biological warfare, and I had recent testimony before a Senate committee, and a special committee the U.S. government has set up to review this area. +And I think it's important to keep reality in mind, versus what happens with people's imaginations. +Basically, any virus that's been sequenced today -- that genome can be made. +And people immediately freak out about things about Ebola or smallpox, but the DNA from this organism is not infective. +So even if somebody made the smallpox genome, that DNA itself would not cause infections. +The real concern that security departments have is designer viruses. +And there's only two countries, the U.S. and the former Soviet Union, that had major efforts on trying to create biological warfare agents. +If that research is truly discontinued, there should be very little activity on the know-how to make designer viruses in the future. +I think single-cell organisms are possible within two years. +And possibly eukaryotic cells, those that we have, are possible within a decade. +So we're now making several dozen different constructs, because we can vary the cassettes and the genes that go into this artificial chromosome. +The key is, how do you put all of the others? +We start with these fragments, and then we have a homologous recombination system that reassembles those into a chromosome. +This is derived from an organism, deinococcus radiodurans, that can take three million rads of radiation and not be killed. +It reassembles its genome after this radiation burst in about 12 to 24 hours, after its chromosomes are literally blown apart. +This organism is ubiquitous on the planet, and exists perhaps now in outer space due to all our travel there. +This is a glass beaker after about half a million rads of radiation. +The glass started to burn and crack, while the microbes sitting in the bottom just got happier and happier. +Here's an actual picture of what happens: the top of this shows the genome after 1.7 million rads of radiation. +The chromosome is literally blown apart. +And here's that same DNA automatically reassembled 24 hours later. +It's truly stunning that these organisms can do that, and we probably have thousands, if not tens of thousands, of different species on this planet that are capable of doing that. +After these genomes are synthesized, the first step is just transplanting them into a cell without a genome. +So we think synthetic cells are going to have tremendous potential, not only for understanding the basis of biology but for hopefully environmental and society issues. +For example, from the third organism we sequenced, Methanococcus jannaschii -- it lives in boiling water temperatures; its energy source is hydrogen and all its carbon comes from CO2 it captures back from the environment. +So we know lots of different pathways, thousands of different organisms now that live off of CO2, and can capture that back. +So instead of using carbon from oil for synthetic processes, we have the chance of using carbon and capturing it back from the atmosphere, converting that into biopolymers or other products. +We have one organism that lives off of carbon monoxide, and we use as a reducing power to split water to produce hydrogen and oxygen. +Also, there's numerous pathways that can be engineered metabolizing methane. +And DuPont has a major program with Statoil in Norway to capture and convert the methane from the gas fields there into useful products. +Within a short while, I think there's going to be a new field called "Combinatorial Genomics," because with these new synthesis capabilities, these vast gene array repertoires and the homologous recombination, we think we can design a robot to make maybe a million different chromosomes a day. +And therefore, as with all biology, you get selection through screening, whether you're screening for hydrogen production, or chemical production, or just viability. +To understand the role of these genes is going to be well within reach. +We're trying to modify photosynthesis to produce hydrogen directly from sunlight. +Photosynthesis is modulated by oxygen, and we have an oxygen-insensitive hydrogenase that we think will totally change this process. +We're also combining cellulases, the enzymes that break down complex sugars into simple sugars and fermentation in the same cell for producing ethanol. +Pharmaceutical production is already under way in major laboratories using microbes. +The chemistry from compounds in the environment is orders of magnitude more complex than our best chemists can produce. +I think future engineered species could be the source of food, hopefully a source of energy, environmental remediation and perhaps replacing the petrochemical industry. +Let me just close with ethical and policy studies. +We delayed the start of our experiments in 1999 until we completed a year-and-a-half bioethical review as to whether we should try and make an artificial species. +Every major religion participated in this. +Right now the Sloan Foundation has just funded a multi-institutional study on this, to work out what the risk and benefits to society are, and the rules that scientific teams such as my own should be using in this area, and we're trying to set good examples as we go forward. +These are complex issues. +Except for the threat of bio-terrorism, they're very simple issues in terms of, can we design things to produce clean energy, perhaps revolutionizing what developing countries can do and provide through various simple processes. +Thank you very much. +Hello voice mail, my old friend. +I've called for tech support again. +I ignored my boss's warning. I called on a Monday morning. +Now it's evening, and my dinner first grew cold, and then grew mold. +I'm still on hold. I'm listening to the sounds of silence. +I don't think you understand. I think your phone lines are unmanned. +I punched every touch tone I was told, but I've still spent 18 hours on hold. +It's not enough your software crashed my Mac, Now the Mac makes the sounds of silence. +In my dreams I fantasize of wreaking vengeance on you guys. +Say your motorcycle crashes. +Blood comes gushing from your gashes. +With your fading strength, you call 9-1-1 and you pray for a trained MD. But you get me. +And you listen to the sounds of silence. +Thank you. Good evening and welcome to: "Spot the TED Presenter Who Used to Be a Broadway Accompanist." +When I was offered the Times column six years ago, the deal was like this: you'll be sent the coolest, hottest, slickest new gadgets. +Every week, it'll arrive at your door. +You get to try them out, play with them, evaluate them until the novelty wears out, before you have to send them back, and you'll get paid for it. You can think about it, if you want. +So, I've always been a technology nut, and I absolutely love it. +The job, though, came with one small downside, and that is, they intended to publish my email address at the end of every column. +And what I've noticed is -- first of all, you get an incredible amount of email. +If you ever are feeling lonely, get a New York Times column, because you will get hundreds and hundreds and hundreds of emails. +And the email I'm getting a lot today is about frustration. +People are feeling like things -- Ok, I just had an alarm come up on my screen. Lucky you can't see it. +People are feeling overwhelmed. They're feeling like it's too much technology, too fast. +It may be good technology, but I feel like there's not enough of a support structure. +There's not enough help. +There's not enough thought put into the design of it to make it easy and enjoyable to use. +One time I wrote a column about my efforts to reach Dell Technical Support, and within 12 hours, there were 700 messages from readers on the feedback boards on the Times website, from users saying, ""Me too, and here's my tale of woe." +I call it "software rage." +And man, let me tell you, Oh, how did that get up there? Just kidding. +Ok, so why is the problem accelerating? And part of the problem is, ironically, because the industry has put so much thought into making things easier to use. +I'll show you what I mean. +This is what the computer interface used to look like, DOS. +Over the years, it's gotten easier to use. +This is the original Mac operating system. +Reagan was President. Madonna was still a brunette. +And the entire operating system -- this is the good part -- the entire operating system fit in 211 k. +You couldn't put the Mac OS X logo in 211 k! +So the irony is, that as these things became easier to use, a less technical, broader audience was coming into contact with this equipment for the first time. +I once had the distinct privilege of sitting in on the Apple call center for a day. +The guy had a duplicate headset for me to listen to. +And the calls that -- you know how they say, "Your call may be recorded for quality assurance?" +Uh-uh. Your call may be recorded so that they can collect the funniest dumb user stories and pass them around on a CD. +Which they do. +And I have a copy. +It's in your gift bag. No, no. +With your voices on it! +So, some of the stories are just so classic, and yet so understandable. +A woman called Apple to complain that her mouse was squeaking. +Making a squeaking noise. +And the technician said, "Well, ma'am, what do you mean your mouse is squeaking?" +She says, "All I can tell you is that it squeaks louder, the faster I move it across the screen." +And the technician's like, "Ma'am, you've got the mouse up against the screen?" +She goes, "Well, the message said, 'Click here to continue.'" Well, if you like that one -- how much time have we got? +Another one, a guy called -- this is absolutely true -- his computer had crashed, and he told the technician he couldn't restart it, no matter how many times he typed "11." +And the technician said, "What? Why are you typing 11?" +He said, "The message says, 'Error Type 11.'" So, we must admit that some of the blame falls squarely at the feet of the users. +But why is the technical overload crisis, the complexity crisis, accelerating now? In the hardware world, it's because we the consumers want everything to be smaller, smaller, smaller. +So the gadgets are getting tinier and tinier, but our fingers are essentially staying the same size. +So it gets to be more and more of a challenge. +Software is subject to another primal force: the mandate to release more and more versions. +When you buy a piece of software, it's not like buying a vase or a candy bar, where you own it. +It's more like joining a club, where you pay dues every year, and every year, they say, "We've added more features, and we'll sell it to you for $99." +I know one guy who's spent $4,000 just on Photoshop over the years. +And software companies make 35 percent of their revenue from just these software upgrades. +I call it the Software Upgrade Paradox -- which is that if you improve a piece of software enough times, you eventually ruin it. +I mean, Microsoft Word was last just a word processor in, you know, the Eisenhower administration. +But what's the alternative? Microsoft actually did this experiment. +They said, "Well, wait a minute. Everyone complains that we're adding so many features. +Let's create a word processor that's just a word processor: Simple, pure; does not do web pages, is not a database." +And it came out, and it was called Microsoft Write. +And none of you are nodding in acknowledgment, because it died. +It tanked. No one ever bought it. +I call this the Sport Utility Principle. +People like to surround themselves with unnecessary power, right? +They don't need the database and the website, but they're like, "Well, I'll upgrade, because, I might, you know, I might need that someday." +So the problem is: as you add more features, where are they going to go? +Where are you going to stick them? You only have so many design tools. +You can do buttons, you can do sliders, pop-up menus, sub-menus. +But if you're not careful about how you choose, you wind up with this. +This is an un-retouched -- this is not a joke -- un-retouched photo of Microsoft Word, the copy that you have, with all the toolbars open. +You've obviously never opened all the toolbars, but all you have to type in is this little, teeny window down here. +And we've arrived at the age of interface matrices, where there are so many features and options, you have to do two dimensions, you know: a vertical and a horizontal. You guys all complain about how Microsoft Word is always bulleting your lists and underlining your links automatically. +The off switch is in there somewhere. +I'm telling you -- it's there. +Part of the art of designing a simple, good interface, is knowing when to use which one of these features. +So, here is the log-off dialogue box for Windows 2000. +There are only four choices, so why are they in a pop-up menu? +It's not like the rest of the screen is so full of other components that you need to collapse the choices. +They could have put them all out in view. +Here's Apple's take on the exact same dialogue box. +Thank you -- yes, I designed the dialogue box. No, no. +Already, we can see that Apple and Microsoft have a severely divergent approach to software design. +Microsoft's approach to simplicity tends to be: let's break it down; let's just make it more steps. +There are these "wizards" everywhere. +And you know, there's a new version of Windows coming out this fall. +If they continue at this pace, there's absolutely no telling where they might wind up. +"Welcome to the Type a Word Wizard." Ok, I'll bite. +From the drop-down menu, choose the first letter you want to type. Ok. +So there is a limit that we don't want to cross. So what is the answer? +How do you pack in all these features in a simple, intelligent way? +I believe in consistency, when possible, real-world equivalents, trash can folder, when possible, label things, mostly. +But I beg of the designers here to break all those rules if they violate the biggest rule of all, which is intelligence. Now what do I mean by that? +I'm going to give you some examples where intelligence makes something not consistent, but it's better. +If you are buying something on the web, you're supposed to put in your address, and you're supposed to choose what country you're from, ok? +There are 200 countries in the world. We like to think of the Internet as a global village. +I'm sorry; it's not one yet. +It's mainly like, the United States, Europe, and Japan. +So why is "United States" in the "U"s? +You have to scroll, like, seven screensful to get to it. +Now, it would be inconsistent to put "United States" first, but it would be intelligent. This one's been touched on before, but why in God's name do you shut down a Windows PC by clicking a button called "Start?" +Here's another pet one of mine: you have a printer. +Most of the time, you want to print one copy of your document, in page order, on that printer. +So why in God's name do you see this every time you print? +It's like a 747 shuttle cockpit. +And one of the buttons at the bottom, you'll notice, is not "Print." +Now, I'm not saying that Apple is the only company who has embraced the cult of simplicity. +Palm is also, especially in the old days, wonderful about this. +I actually got to speak to Palm when they were flying high in the '90s, and after the talk, I met one of the employees. +He says, "Nice talk." And I said, "Thank you. What do you do here?" +He said, "I'm a tap counter." I'm like, "You're a what?" +He goes, "Well Jeff Hawkins, the CEO, says, 'If any task on the Palm Pilot takes more than three taps of the stylus, it's too long, and it has to be redesigned.' So I'm the tap counter." +So, I'm going to show you an example of a company that does not have a tap counter. +This is Microsoft Word. +Ok, when you want to create a new blank document in Word -- it could happen. +You go up to the "File" menu and you choose "New." +Now, what happens when you choose "New?" Do you get a new blank document? +You do not. +On the opposite side of the monitor, a task bar appears, and somewhere in those links -- by the way, not at the top -- somewhere in those links is a button that makes you a new document. +Ok, so that is a company not counting taps. +You know, I don't want to just stand here and make fun of Microsoft ... +Yes, I do. +The Bill Gates song! (Piano music) I've been a geek forever and I wrote the very first DOS. +I put my software and IBM together; I got profit and they got the loss. +I write the code that makes the whole world run. +I'm getting royalties from everyone. +Sometimes it's garbage, but the press is snowed. +You buy the box; I'll sell the code. +Every software company is doing Microsoft's R&D. +You can't keep a good idea down these days. +Even Windows is a hack. We're kind of based loosely on the Mac. +So it's big, so it's slow. You've got nowhere to go. I'm not doing this for praise. +I write the code that fits the world today. +Big mediocrity in every way. +We've entered planet domination mode. +You'll have no choice; you'll buy my code. +I am Bill Gates and I write the code. +But actually, I believe there are really two Microsofts. +There's the old one, responsible for Windows and Office. +They're dying to throw the whole thing out and start fresh, but they can't. +They're locked in, because so many add-ons and other company stuff locks into the old 1982 chassis. +But there's also a new Microsoft, that's really doing good, simple interface designs. +I liked the Media Center PC. I liked the Microsoft SPOT Watch. +The Wireless Watch flopped miserably in the market, but it wasn't because it wasn't simply and beautifully designed. +But let's put it this way: would you pay $10 a month to have a watch that has to be recharged every night like your cell phone, and stops working when you leave your area code? +So, the signs might indicate that the complexity crunch is only going to get worse. +So is there any hope? The screens are getting smaller, people are illuminating, putting manuals in the boxes, things are coming out at a faster pace. +It won't be easy. You'll think I'm strange. +When I try to explain why I'm back, after telling the press Apple's future is black. +You won't believe me. +All that you see is a kid in his teens who started out in a garage with only a buddy named Woz. +You try rhyming with garage! +Don't cry for me, Cupertino. +The truth is, I never left you. +I know the ropes now, know what the tricks are. +I made a fortune over at Pixar. +Don't cry for me, Cupertino. I've still got the drive and vision. +I still wear sandals in any weather. It's just that these days, they're Gucci leather. +Thank you. So Steve Jobs had always believed in simplicity and elegance and beauty. +And the truth is, for years I was a little depressed, because Americans obviously did not value it, because the Mac had three percent market share, Windows had 95 percent market share -- people did not think it was worth putting a price on it. +So I was a little depressed. And then I heard Al Gore's talk, and I realized I didn't know the meaning of depressed. +But it turns out I was wrong, right? Because the iPod came out, and it violated every bit of common wisdom. +Other products cost less; other products had more features, they had voice recorders and FM transmitters. +The other products were backed by Microsoft, with an open standard, not Apple's propriety standard. +But the iPod won -- this is the one they wanted. +The lesson was: simplicity sells. +And there are signs that the industry is getting the message. +This is a little company that's done very well with simplicity and elegance. +The Sonos thing -- it's catching on. +I've got just a couple examples. +Physically, a really cool, elegant thinking coming along lately. +When you have a digital camera, how do you get the pictures back to your computer? +Well, you either haul around a USB cable, or you buy a card reader and haul that around. Either one, you're going to lose. +What I do is, I take out the memory card, and I fold it in half, revealing USB contacts. +I just stick it in the computer, offload the pictures, put it right back in the camera. I never have to lose anything. +Here's another example. +Chris, you're the source of all power. Will you be my power plug? +Chris Anderson: Oh yeah. DP: Hold that and don't let go. +You might've seen this, this is Apple's new laptop. +This the power cord. It hooks on like this. +And I'm sure every one of you has done this at some point in your lives, or one of your children. +You walk along -- and I'm about to pull this onto the floor. I don't care. It's a loaner. +Here we go. Whoa! It's magnetic -- it doesn't pull the laptop onto the floor. +In my very last example -- I do a lot of my work using speech recognition software. +And I'll just -- you have to be kind of quiet because the software is nervous. +Speech recognition software is really great for doing emails very quickly; period. +Like, I get hundreds of them a day; period. +And it's not just what I dictate that it writes down; period. +I also use this feature called voice macros; period. +Correct "dissuade." Not "just." +Ok, this is not an ideal situation, because it's getting the echo from the hall and stuff. +The point is, I can respond to people very quickly by saying a short word, and having it write out a much longer thing. +So if somebody sends me a fan letter, I'll say, "Thanks for that." +And conversely, if somebody sends me hate mail -- which happens daily -- I say, "Piss off." +So that's my dirty little secret. Don't tell anyone. +So the point is -- this is a really interesting story. +This is version eight of this software, and do you know what they put in version eight? +No new features. It's never happened before in software! +The company put no new features. +They just said, "We'll make this software work right." Right? +Because for years, people had bought this software, tried it out -- 95 percent accuracy was all they got, which means one in 20 words is wrong -- and they'd put it in their drawer. And the company got sick of that, so they said, "This version, we're not going to do anything, but make sure it's darned accurate." +And so that's what they did. This cult of doing things right is starting to spread. +So, my final advice for those of you who are consumers of this technology: remember, if it doesn't work, it's not necessarily you, ok? +It could be the design of the thing you're using. +Be aware in life of good design and bad design. +And if you're among the people who create this stuff: Easy is hard. +Pre-sweat the details for your audience. Count the taps. +Remember, the hard part is not deciding what features to add, it's deciding what to leave out. +And best of all, your motivation is: simplicity sells. +CA: Bravo. DP: Thank you very much. +CA: Hear, hear! +Kurt Andersen: Like many architects, David is a hog for the limelight but is sufficiently reticent -- or at least pretends to be -- that he asked me to question him rather than speaking. +In fact what we're going to talk about, I think, is in fact a subject that is probably better served by a conversation than an address. +And I guess we have a bit of news clip to precede. +Dan Rather: Since the September 11th attack on the World Trade Center, many people have flocked to downtown New York to see and pay respects at what amounts to the 16-acre burial ground. +Now, as CBS's Jim Axelrod reports, they're putting the finishing touches on a new way for people to visit and view the scene. +Jim Axelrod: Forget the Empire State Building or the Statue of Liberty. +There's a new place in New York where the crowds are thickest -- Ground Zero. +Tourist: I've taken my step-daughter here from Indianapolis. +This was -- out of all the tourist sites in New York City -- this was her number-one pick. +JA: Thousands now line up on lower Broadway. +Tourist: I've been wanting to come down here since this happened. +JA: Even on the coldest winter days. +To honor and remember. +Tourist: It's reality, it's us. It happened here. +This is ours. +JA: So many, in fact, that seeing has become a bit of a problem. +Tourist: I think that people are very frustrated that they're not able to get closer to see what's going on. +JA: But that is about to change. +In record time, a team of architects and construction workers designed and built a viewing platform to ease the frustration and bring people closer. +Man: They'll get an incredible panorama and understand, I think more completely, the sheer totality of the destruction of the place. +JA: If you think about it, Ground Zero is unlike most any other tourist site in America. +Unlike the Grand Canyon or the Washington Monument, people come here to see what's no longer there. +David Rockwell: The first experience people will have here when they see this is not as a construction site but as this incredibly moving burial ground. +JA: The walls are bare by design, so people can fill them with their own memorials the way they already have along the current perimeter. +Tourist: From our hearts, it affected us just as much. +JA: The ramps are made of simple material -- the kind of plywood you see at construction sites -- which is really the whole point. +In the face of America's worst destruction people are building again. +Jim Axelrod, CBS News, New York. +KA: This is not an obvious subject to be in the sensuality segment, but certainly David you are known as -- I know, a phrase you hate -- an entertainment architect. +Your work is highly sensual, even hedonistic. +DR: I like that word. +KA: It's about pleasure -- casinos and hotels and restaurants. +How did the shock that all of us -- and especially all of us in New York -- felt on the 11th of September transmute into your desire to do this thing? +In fact we're finishing a book which is called "Pleasure," which is about sensual pleasure in spaces. +But I've got to tell you -- it became impossible to do that. +We were really paralyzed. +And I found myself the Friday after September 11th -- two days afterwards -- literally unable to motivate anyone to do anything. +We gave the office a few days off. +And in discussing this with other architects, we had seen people saying in the press that they should rebuild the towers as they were -- they should rebuild them 50 stories taller. +And I thought it was astonishing to speculate, as if this were a competition, on something that was such a fresh wound. +And I had a series of discussions -- first with Rick Scofidio and Liz Diller, who collaborated with us on this, and several other people -- and really felt like we had to find relevance in doing something. +And that as people who create places, the ultimate way to help wasn't to pontificate or to make up scenarios, but to help right now. +So we tried to come up with a way, as a group, to have a kind of design SWAT team. +And that was the mission that we came up with. +KA: Were you conscious of suddenly -- as a designer whose work is all about fulfilling wants -- suddenly fulfilling needs? +DR: Well what I was aware of was, there was this overwhelming need to act now. +And we were asked to participate in a few projects before this. +There was a school, PS 234, that had been evacuated down at Ground Zero. +They moved to an abandoned school. +We took about 20 or 30 architects and designers and artists, and over four days -- it was like this urban barn-raising -- to renovate it, and everyone wanted to help. +It was just extraordinary. +Tom Otterness contributed, Maira Kalman contributed and it became this cathartic experience for us. +KA: And that was done, effectively, by October 8 or something? +DR: Yeah. +KA: Obviously, what you faced in trying to do something as substantial as this project -- and this is only one of four that you've designed to surround the site -- you must have run up against the incredibly byzantine, entrenched bureaucracy and powers that be in New York real estate and New York politics. +DR: Well, it's a funny thing. +We finished PS 234, and had dinner with a small group. +I was actually asked to be a committee chair on an AIA committee to rebuild. +And I sat in on several meetings. +And there were the most circuitous grand plans that had to do with long-term infrastructure and rebuilding the entire city. +And the fact is that there were immediate wounds and needs that needed to be filled, and there was talk about inclusion and wanting it to be an inclusive process. +And it wasn't an inclusive group. +So we said, what is -- KA: It was not an inclusive group? +DR: It was not an inclusive group. +It was predominantly a white, rich, corporate group that was not representative of the city. +KA: Shocking. +DR: Yeah, surprising. +So Rick and Liz and Kevin and I came up with the idea. +The city actually approached us. +We first approached the city about Pier 94. +We saw how PS 234 worked. +The families -- the victims of the families -- were going to this pier that was incredibly dehumanizing. +KA: On the Hudson River? +So I went down there with Rick and Liz and Kevin, and I've got to say, it was the most moving experience of my life. +It was devastating to see the simple plywood platform with a rail around it, where the families of the victims had left notes to them. +And there was no mediation between us and the experience. +There was no filter. +And I remembered on September 11th, on 14th Street, the roof of our building -- we can see the World Trade Towers prominently -- and I saw the first building collapse from a conference room on the eighth floor on a TV that we had set up. +And then everyone was up on the roof, so I ran up there. +And it was amazing how much harder it was to believe in real life than it was on TV. +There was something about the comfort of the filter and how much information was between us and the experience. +So seeing this in a very simple, dignified way was a very powerful experience. +So we went back to the city and said we're not particularly interested in the upgrade of this as a VIP platform, but we've spent some time down there. +At the same time the city had this need. +They were looking for a solution to deal with 30 or 40 thousand people a day who were going down there, that had nowhere to go. +And there was no way to deal with the traffic around the site. +So dealing with it is just an immediate master plan. +There was a way -- there had to be a way -- to get people to move around the site. +KA: But then you've got to figure out a way -- we will skip over the insanely tedious process of getting permits and getting everybody on board -- but simply funding this thing. +It looks like a fairly simple thing, but this was a half a million dollar project? +DR: Well, we knew that if it wasn't privately funded, it wasn't going to happen. +This incredible act on their part, because they really wanted this, and they sensed that this needed to happen. +KA: And there was therefore this ticking clock, because Giuliani was obviously out three months after that. +DR: Yeah. So the first thing we had to do was find a way to get this -- we had to work with the families of the victims, through the city, to make sure that they knew this was happening. +Because this didn't want to be a surprise. +And we also had to be as under the radar screen as we could be in New York, because the key was not raising a lot of objection and sort of working as quietly as possible. +We came up with the idea of setting up a foundation, mainly because when we found a contractor who would build this, he would not agree to do this, even if we would pay him the money. +There needed to be a foundation in place. +So we came up with a foundation, and actually what happened was one major developer in New York -- KA: Who shall remain nameless, I guess? +DR: Yeah. His initials are JS, and he owns Rockefeller Center, if that helps anyone -- volunteered to help. +And we met with him. +The prices from the contractors were between five to 700,000 dollars. +And Atlantic-Heydt, who's the largest scaffolding contractor in the country, volunteered to do it at cost. +So this developer said, "You know what, we'll underwrite the entire expense." +And we said, "That's incredible!" +And I think this was the 21st, and we knew this had to be built and up by the 28th. +And we had to start construction the next day. +We had a meeting that evening with his contractor of choice, and the contractor showed up with the drawings of the platform about half the size that we had drawn it. +KA: Sort of like the Spinal Tap scene where you get the tiny little Stonehenge, I guess? +DR: In fact, it was as if this was going to be window-washing scaffolding. +There was no sense of the fact that this is next to Saint Paul -- that this is really a place that needs to be kind of dignified, and a place to reflect and remember. +And I've got to say that we spent a lot of time in putting this together, watching the crowds that gathered at Saint Paul -- which is just to the right -- and moving around the site. +And I live down there, so we spent a lot of time looking at the need. +And I think people were amazed at two things -- I think they were amazed at the destruction, but I think there was a sense of disbelief about the heroics of New Yorkers that I found very moving. +Just the sort of everyday heroics of New Yorkers. +So we were in this meeting and the contractor literally said, "I'm going to lock the door, because this developer will not agree to have you leave till you've signed off on this." +And we said, "Well, this is half the size, it doesn't have any of the design features that have been agreed upon by everyone -- everyone in the city. +We'd have to go back to the beginning to do this." +And I convinced him that we should leave the room with the agreement to build it as designed. +The next day I got an email from the developer saying that he was withdrawing all funding. +So we didn't know what to do, but we decided to cast a very wide net. +We emailed out letters to as many people as we could -- several people in the audience here -- who were very helpful. +KA: There was no thought of abandoning ship at that point? +DR: No. In fact I told the contractor to go ahead. +He had already ordered materials based on my go-ahead. +We knew that one way or another this was going to happen. +And we just felt it had to happen. +KA: You were funding it yourself and with contributions and this foundation. +Richard, I think very correctly, made the point at the beginning -- before all the chair designers came out -- about the history of chair designers imposing aesthetic solutions on this kind of universal, banal, common problem of sitting. +It seems to me with this, that it was the opposite of that. +This was an unprecedented, singular design problem. +DR: Well here's the issue: we knew that this was not in the sense of -- we think about the site, and think about the need for a memorial. +It was important that this not be categorized as a memorial. +That this was a place for people to reflect, to remember -- a kind of quiet place. +So it led us to using design solutions that created as few filters between the viewer -- as we said about the families' platform -- and the experience as possible. +It's all incredibly humble material. +It's scaffolding and plywood. +And it allows -- by sort of the procession of the movement, up by Saint Paul's and down the other side -- it gives you about 300 feet to go up 13 feet from the ground to where you get the 360 degree view. +But the design was driven by a need to be quick, cheap, safe, respectful, flexible. +One of the other things is this is designed to be moveable. +Because when we looked at the four platforms around the site, one of which is an upgrade of the families' platform, we knew that these had to be moveable to respond to changing conditions, and the changing definition of what Ground Zero is. +KA: Your work -- I mean, we've talked about this before -- a lot of your work, I think, is informed by your belief in, or your focus on the temporariness of all things and the evanescence of things, and a kind of "Eat, drink, and be merry, for tomorrow we die," sort of sense of existence. +This is clearly not a work for the ages. +You know, a couple of years this thing isn't going to be here. +Did that require, as an architect, a new way of thinking about what you were doing? +To think of it as this purely temporary installation? +DR: No, I don't think so. +I think this is, obviously, substantially different from anything we'd ever thought about doing before, just by the nature of it. +Where it overlaps with thoughts about our work in general is, number one -- the notion of collaboration as a sort of way to get things done. +And Kevin Kennon, Rick Scofidio, Liz Diller and all the people within the city -- Norman Lear, who I spoke to four hours before our deadline for funding, offered to give us a bridge loan to help us get through it. +So the notion of collaboration -- I think this reinforces how important that is. +And in terms of the temporary nature of it, our goal was not to create something that would be there longer than it needed to be. +I think what we were most interested in was promoting a kind of dialogue that we felt may not have been happening enough in this city, about what's really happening there. +And a day or two before it opened was Giuliani's farewell address, where he proposed the idea of all of Ground Zero being a memorial. +Which was very controversial, but it resonated with a lot of people. +And I think regardless of what the position is about how this sacred piece of land is to be used, having it come out of actually seeing it in a real encounter, I think makes it a more powerful dialogue. +And that's what we were interested in. +So that, very much, is in the realm of things I've been interested in before. +KA: It seems to me, among other things, a lovely piece of civic infrastructure. +It enables that conversation to get serious. +And six months after the fact -- and only a few months away from the site being cleaned -- we are very quickly, now, getting to the point where those conversations about what should go there are getting serious. +Do you have -- having been as physically involved in the site as you have been doing this project -- have any ideas about what should or shouldn't be done? +DR: Well, I think one thing that shouldn't be done is evaluate -- I think right now the discussion is a very closed discussion on the master plan. +The Protetch Gallery recently had a show on ideas for buildings, which had some sort of inventive ideas of buildings. +KA: But it had some really terrible ideas. +DR: And it also felt a little bit like a kind of competition of ideas, where I think the focus of ideas should be on master planning and uses. +And I think there should be a broader -- which there's starting to be -- the dialogue is really opening up to, what does this site really want to be? +And I truly believe until the issue of memorial is sorted out, that it's going to be very hard to have an intelligent discussion. +There's a few discussions right now that I think are very positive, about depressing the West Side Highway and connecting this over, so that there's one uninterrupted piece of land. +KA: Well, I think that's interesting. +And it gets to another issue that was probably inappropriate to discuss six months ago, but perhaps isn't now, which is, not many of us love the World Trade Center as a piece of architecture, as what it had done to this city and that huge plaza. +Is this an opportunity, is the silver lining -- a silver lining, here -- to rebuild some more traditional city grid, or not? +DR: I think there's a real opportunity to engage in a discussion of why we live in cities. +And why do we live in places where such dissimilar people collide up against us each day? +I don't think it has much to do with 50 or 60 or 70 or 80 thousand new office spaces, regardless of what the number is. +So yeah, I think there is a chance to re-look at how we think about cities. +And in fact, there's a proposal on the table now for building number seven. +KA: Which was the building just north of the Towers? +DR: Right, which the towers fell into. +And the reason that's been held up is essentially by community outrage that they're not re-opening the street to connect that back to the rest of the city. +I think a public dialogue -- I think, you know, I'd like to see an international competition, and a call for ideas for uses. +KA: Whether it's arts, whether it's housing, whether it's what amount of shopping? +DR: Right. And we're looking for other things. +This small foundation we put together is looking for other ways to help. +Including taking a small piece adjacent to the site and inviting 10 architects who currently don't have a voice in New York to do artist housing. +And find other ways to encourage the discussion to be against sort of monolithic, single solutions, and more about a multiplicity of things. +KA: Before we end, I know you have a piece of digital video of the experience of being on this platform? +DR: John Kamen -- who's here, actually -- put together a two and a half minute piece that shows the platform in use. +So I thought that would be good to end with. +DR: We're looking from Fulton Street, west. +One of the tricky issues we had with the Giuliani administration was I had forgotten how anti-graffiti he was. +And essentially our structure was designed to be written on. +KA: As you say, it's not a memorial. +But were you conscious of memorials? The Vietnam Memorial? +Those kinds of forms? +DR: We certainly did as much research as we could, and we were conscious of other memorials. +And also the complexity and length of time they really take to do. +It's 350 people on the committee for Oklahoma City, which is why we thought of this as a sort of ad-hoc, spontaneous solution that expanded on Union Square and the places that were ad-hoc memorials in the city already. +The scaffolding you can see built up over the street is de-mountable. +What's interesting now is the nature of the site has totally changed, so that what you're aware of is not just the destruction of the buildings in Ground Zero, but all of the buildings around it -- and the scars on the building around it, which are enormous. +This shows Saint Paul's on the left. +KA: I just want to thank you on behalf of New Yorkers for making this happen and getting this done. +But the kind of virtually instantaneous nature of its erection, and its being there, almost before you could believe that a response of this magnitude could be accomplished, is part of its extraordinary -- I don't know if beauty is the word -- but presence. +DR: It was an honor to do. +And we were thrilled to be able to show it here. +As you pointed out, every time you come here, you learn something. +This morning, the world's experts from I guess three or four different companies on building seats, I think concluded that ultimately, the solution is, people shouldn't sit down. +I could have told them that. +Yesterday, the automotive guys gave us some new insights. +They pointed out that, I believe it was between 30 and 50 years from today, they will be steering cars by wire, without all that mechanical stuff. +That's reassuring. +They then pointed out that there'd be, sort of, the other controls by wire, to get rid of all that mechanical stuff. +That's pretty good, but why not get rid of the wires? +Then you don't need anything to control the car, except thinking about it. +I would love to talk about the technology, and sometime, in what's past the 15 minutes, I'll be happy to talk to all the techno-geeks around here about what's in here. +But if I had one thing to say about this, before we get to first, it would be that from the time we started building this, the big idea wasn't the technology. +It really was a big idea in technology when we started applying it in the iBOT for the disabled community. +The big idea here is, I think, a new piece of a solution to a fairly big problem in transportation. +And maybe to put that in perspective: there's so much data on this, I'll be happy to give it to you in different forms. +You never know what strikes the fancy of whom, but everybody is perfectly willing to believe the car changed the world. +And Henry Ford, just about 100 years ago, started cranking out Model Ts. +What I don't think most people think about is the context of how technology is applied. +For instance, in that time, 91 percent of America lived either on farms or in small towns. +So, the car -- the horseless carriage that replaced the horse and carriage -- was a big deal; it went twice as fast as a horse and carriage. +It was half as long. +And it was an environmental improvement, because, for instance, in 1903 they outlawed horses and buggies in downtown Manhattan, because you can imagine what the roads look like when you have a million horses, and a million of them urinating and doing other things, and the typhoid and other problems created were almost unimaginable. +So the car was the clean environmental alternative to a horse and buggy. +It also was a way for people to get from their farm to a farm, or their farm to a town, or from a town to a city. +It all made sense, with 91 percent of the people living there. +By the 1950s, we started connecting all the towns together with what a lot of people claim is the eighth wonder of the world, the highway system. +And it is certainly a wonder. +And by the way, as I take shots at old technologies, I want to assure everybody, and particularly the automotive industry -- who's been very supportive of us -- that I don't think this in any way competes with airplanes, or cars. +But think about where the world is today. +50 percent of the global population now lives in cities. +That's 3.2 billion people. +We've solved all the transportation problems that have changed the world to get it to where we are today. +500 years ago, sailing ships started getting reliable enough; we found a new continent. +150 years ago, locomotives got efficient enough, steam power, that we turned the continent into a country. +Over the last hundred years, we started building cars, and then over the 50 years we've connected every city to every other city in an extraordinarily efficient way, and we have a very high standard of living as a consequence of that. +But during that entire process, more and more people have been born, and more and more people are moving to cities. +China alone is going to move four to six hundred million people into cities in the next decade and a half. +And so, nobody, I think, would argue that airplanes, in the last 50 years, have turned the continent and the country now into a neighborhood. +And if you just look at how technology has been applied, we've solved all the long-range, high-speed, high-volume, large-weight problems of moving things around. +Nobody would want to give them up. +And I certainly wouldn't want to give up my airplane, or my helicopter, or my Humvee, or my Porsche. +I love them all. I don't keep any of them in my living room. +The fact is, the last mile is the problem, and half the world now lives in dense cities. +And people spend, depending on who they are, between 90 and 95 percent of their energy getting around on foot. +I think there's -- I don't know what data would impress you, but how about, 43 percent of the refined fuel produced in the world is consumed by cars in metropolitan areas in the United States. +Three million people die every year in cities due to bad air, and almost all particulate pollution on this planet is produced by transportation devices, particularly sitting in cities. +And again, I say that not to attack any industry, I think -- I really do -- I love my airplane, and cars on highways moving 60 miles an hour are extraordinarily efficient, both from an engineering point of view, an energy consumption point of view, and a utility point of view. +And we all love our cars, and I do. +The problem is, you get into the city and you want to go four blocks, it's neither fun nor efficient nor productive. +It's not sustainable. +If -- in China, in the year 1998, 417 million people used bicycles; 1.7 million people used cars. +I mean, what are we fighting over right now? +We can make it complicated, but what's the world fighting over right now? +So it seemed to me that somebody had to work on that last mile, and it was dumb luck. We were working on iBOTs, but once we made this, we instantly decided it could be a great alternative to jet skis. You don't need the water. +Or snowmobiles. You don't need the snow. +Or skiing. It's just fun, and people love to move around doing fun things. +And every one of those industries, by the way -- just golf carts alone is a multi-billion-dollar industry. +I mean, look at the time it took to cross a continent in a Conestoga wagon, then on a railroad, then an airplane. +Every other form of transportation's been improved. +In 5,000 years, we've gone backwards in getting around cities. +They've gotten bigger; they're spread out. +The most expensive real estate on this planet in every city -- Wilshire Boulevard, or Fifth Avenue, or Tokyo, or Paris -- the most expensive real estate is their downtowns. +65 percent of the landmass of our cities are parked cars. +The 20 largest cities in the world. +So you wonder, what if cities could give to their pedestrians what we take for granted as we now go between cities? +What if you could make them fun, attractive, clean, environmentally friendly? +to have access via this, as that last link to mass transit, to get out to your cars so we can all live in the suburbs and use our cars the way we want, and then have our cities energized again? +We thought it would be really neat to do that, and one of the problems we really were worried about is: how do we get legal on the sidewalk? +Because technically I've got motors; I've got wheels -- I'm a motor vehicle. +I don't look like a motor vehicle. +I have the same footprint as a pedestrian; I have the same unique capability to deal with other pedestrians in a crowded space. +I took this down to Ground Zero, and knocked my way through crowds for an hour. +I'm a pedestrian. But the law typically lags technology by a generation or two, and if we get told we don't belong on the sidewalk, we have two choices. +We're a recreational vehicle that doesn't really matter, and I don't spend my time doing that kind of stuff. +Or maybe we should be out in the street in front of a Greyhound bus or a vehicle. +We've been so concerned about that, we went to the Postmaster General of the United States, as the first person we ever showed on the outside, and said, "Put your people on it. Everybody trusts their postman. +And they belong on the sidewalks, and they'll use it seriously." +He agreed. We went to a number of police departments that want their police officers back in the neighborhood on the beat, carrying 70 pounds of stuff. They love it. +And I can't believe a policeman is going to give themselves a ticket. +So we've been working really, really hard, but we knew that the technology would not be as hard to develop as an attitude about what's important, and how to apply the technology. +We went out and we found some visionary people with enough money to let us design and build these things, and in hopefully enough time to get them accepted. +So, I'm happy, really, I am happy to talk about this technology as much as you want. +And yes, it's really fun, and yes, you should all go out and try it. +One of the more exciting things that occurred to us about why it might get accepted, happened out here in California. +And what was I -- you know, how are you going to say anything? +And so I said, "Sure." +So I get off, and she gets on, and with a little bit of the usual, ah, then she turns around, and she goes about 20 feet, and she turns back around, and she's all smiles. +And she comes back to me and she stops, and she says, "Finally, they made something for us." +And the camera is looking down at her. +I'm thinking, "Wow, that was great -- -- please lady, don't say another word." +And the camera is down at her, and this guy has to put the microphone in her face, said, "What do you mean by that?" +And I figured, "It's all over now," and she looks up and she says, "Well," she's still watching these guys go; she says, "I can't ride a bike," no, she says, "I can't use a skateboard, and I've never used roller blades," she knew them by name; she says, "And it's been 50 years since I rode a bicycle." +Then she looks up, she's looking up, and she says, "And I'm 81 years old, and I don't drive a car anymore. +I still have to get to the store, and I can't carry a lot of things." +And it suddenly occurred to me, that among my many fears, were not just that the bureaucracy and the regulators and the legislators might not get it -- it was that, fundamentally, you believe there's pressure among the people not to invade the most precious little bit of space left, the sidewalks in these cities. +When you look at the 36 inches of legal requirement for sidewalk, then the eight foot for the parked car, then the three lanes, and then the other eight feet -- it's -- that little piece is all that's there. +So, having seen this, and having worried about it for eight years, the first thing I do is pick up my phone and ask our marketing and regulatory guys, call AARP, get an appointment right away. +We've got to show them this thing. +And they took it to Washington; they showed them; and they're going to be involved now, watching how these things get absorbed in a number of cities, like Atlanta, where we're doing trials to see if it really can, in fact, help re-energize their downtown. +The bottom line is, whether you believe the United Nations, or any of the other think tanks -- in the next 20 years, all human population growth on this planet will be in cities. +In Asia alone, it will be over a billion people. +They learned to start with cell phones. +They didn't have to take the 100-year trip we took. +They start at the top of the technology food chain. +We've got to start building cities and human environments where a 150-pound person can go a couple of miles in a dense, rich, green-space environment, without being in a 4,000-pound machine to do it. +Cars were not meant for parallel parking; they're wonderful machines to go between cities, but just think about it: we've solved all the long-range, high-speed problems. +The Greeks went from the theater of Dionysus to the Parthenon in their sandals. +You do it in your sneakers. +Not much has changed. +If this thing goes only three times as fast as walking -- three times -- a 30-minute walk becomes 10 minutes. +Your choice, when living in a city, if it's now 10 minutes -- because at 30 minutes you want an alternative, whether it's a bus, a train -- we've got to build an infrastructure -- a light rail -- or you're going to keep parking those cars. +But if you could put a pin in most cities, and imagine how far you could, if you had the time, walk in one half-hour, it's the city. +If you could make it fun, and make it eight or 10 minutes, you can't find your car, un-park your car, move your car, re-park your car and go somewhere; you can't get to a cab or a subway. +We could change the way people allocate their resources, the way this planet uses its energy, make it more fun. +And we're hoping to some extent history will say we were right. +That's Segway. This is a Stirling cycle engine; this had been confused by a lot of things we're doing. +This little beast, right now, is producing a few hundred watts of electricity. +Yes, it could be attached to this, and yes, on a kilogram of propane, you could drive from New York to Boston if you so choose. +Perhaps more interesting about this little engine is it'll burn any fuel, because some of you might be skeptical about the capability of this to have an impact, where most of the world you can't simply plug into your 120-volt outlet. +But, in any event, if you can burn it with the same efficiency -- because it's external combustion -- as your kitchen stove, if you can burn any fuel, it turns out to be pretty neat. +It makes just enough electricity to, for instance, do this, which at night is enough electricity, in the rest of the world, as Mr. Holly -- Dr. Holly -- pointed out, can run computers and a light bulb. +But more interestingly, the thermodynamics of this say, you're never going to get more than 20 percent efficiency. +It doesn't matter much -- it says if you get 200 watts of electricity, you'll get 700 or 800 watts of heat. +If you wanted to boil water and re-condense it at a rate of 10 gallons an hour, it takes about 25, a little over 25.3 kilowatt -- 25,000 watts of continuous power -- to do it. +That's so much energy, you couldn't afford to desalinate or clean water in this country that way. +Certainly, in the rest of the world, your choice is to devastate the place, turning everything that will burn into heat, or drink the water that's available. +The number one cause of death on this planet among humans is bad water. +Depending on whose numbers you believe, it's between 60 and 85,000 people per day. +We don't need sophisticated heart transplants around the world. +We need water. +And women shouldn't have to spend four hours a day looking for it, or watching their kids die. +So if we put this box on here in a few years, could we have a solution to transportation, electricity, and communication, and maybe drinkable water in a sustainable package that weighs 60 pounds? +I don't know, but we'll try it. +I better shut up. +Heart and blood vessel diseases still kill more people -- not only in this country, but also worldwide -- than everything else combined, and yet it's completely preventable for almost everybody. +We showed a few months ago -- we published the first study showing you can actually stop or reverse the progression of prostate cancer by making changes in diet and lifestyle, and 70 percent regression in the tumor growth, or inhibition of the tumor growth, compared to only nine percent in the control group. +And in the MRI and MR spectroscopy here, the prostate tumor activity is shown in red -- you can see it diminishing after a year. +But the people in Asia are starting to eat like we are, which is why they're starting to get sick like we are. +So I've been working with a lot of the big food companies. They can make it fun and sexy and hip and crunchy and convenient to eat healthier foods, like -- I chair the advisory boards to McDonald's, and PepsiCo, and ConAgra, and Safeway, and soon Del Monte, and they're finding that it's good business. +The salads that you see at McDonald's came from the work -- they're going to have an Asian salad. At Pepsi, two-thirds of their revenue growth came from their better foods. +And so if we can do that, then we can free up resources for buying drugs that you really do need for treating AIDS and HIV and malaria and for preventing avian flu. Thank you. +Good morning everyone. First of all, it's been fantastic being here over these past few days. +And secondly, I feel it's a great honor to kind of wind up this extraordinary gathering of people, these amazing talks that we've had. +I feel that I've fitted in, in many ways, to some of the things that I've heard. +They're fighting to develop their own way of living within the forest in a world that's clean, a world that isn't contaminated, a world that isn't polluted. +The water was cleaned, but because they got a lot of batteries, they were able to store a lot of electricity. +So every house -- and there were, I think, eight houses in this little community -- could have light for, I think it was about half an hour each evening. +And there is the Chief, in all his regal finery, with a laptop computer. +And this man, he has been outside, but he's gone back, and he was saying, "You know, we have suddenly jumped into a whole new era, and we didn't even know about the white man 50 years ago, and now here we are with laptop computers, and there are some things we want to learn from the modern world. +We want to know about health care. +We want to know about what other people do -- we're interested in it. +And we want to learn other languages. +We want to know English and French and perhaps Chinese, and we're good at languages." +So there he is with his little laptop computer, but fighting against the might of the pressures -- because of the debt, the foreign debt of Ecuador -- fighting the pressure of World Bank, IMF, and of course the people who want to exploit the forests and take out the oil. +And so, coming directly from there to here. +But, of course, my real field of expertise lies in an even different kind of civilization -- I can't really call it a civilization. +A different way of life, a different being. +We've talked earlier -- this wonderful talk by Wade Davis about the different cultures of the humans around the world -- but the world is not composed only of human beings; there are also other animal beings. +And I propose to bring into this TED conference, as I always do around the world, the voice of the animal kingdom. +Too often we just see a few slides, or a bit of film, but these beings have voices that mean something. +And so, I want to give you a greeting, as from a chimpanzee in the forests of Tanzania -- Ooh, ooh, ooh, ooh, ooh, ooh, ooh, ooh, ooh, ooh, ooh, ooh, ooh, ooh, ooh! +I've been studying chimpanzees in Tanzania since 1960. +During that time, there have been modern technologies that have really transformed the way that field biologists do their work. +For example, for the first time, a few years ago, by simply collecting little fecal samples we were able to have them analyzed -- to have DNA profiling done -- so for the first time, we actually know which male chimps are the fathers of each individual infant. +Because the chimps have a very promiscuous mating society. +So this opens up a whole new avenue of research. +And we use GSI -- geographic whatever it is, GSI -- to determine the range of the chimps. +And we're using -- you can see that I'm not really into this kind of stuff -- but we're using satellite imagery to look at the deforestation in the area. +And of course, there's developments in infrared, so you can watch animals at night, and equipment for recording by video, and tape recording is getting lighter and better. +So in many, many ways, we can do things today that we couldn't do when I began in 1960. +Especially when chimpanzees, and other animals with large brains, are studied in captivity, modern technology is helping us to search for the upper levels of cognition in some of these non-human animals. +So that we know today, they're capable of performances that would have been thought absolutely impossible by science when I began. +I think the chimpanzee in captivity who is the most skilled in intellectual performance is one called Ai in Japan -- her name means love -- and she has a wonderfully sensitive partner working with her. +She loves her computer -- she'll leave her big group, and her running water, and her trees and everything. +And she'll come in to sit at this computer -- it's like a video game for a kid; she's hooked. +She's 28, by the way, and she does things with her computer screen and a touch pad that she can do faster than most humans. +She does very complex tasks, and I haven't got time to go into them, but the amazing thing about this female is she doesn't like making mistakes. +If she has a bad run, and her score isn't good, she'll come and reach up and tap on the glass -- because she can't see the experimenter -- which is asking to have another go. +And her concentration -- she's already concentrated hard for 20 minutes or so, and now she wants to do it all over again, just for the satisfaction of having done it better. +And the food is not important -- she does get a tiny reward, like one raisin for a correct response -- but she will do it for nothing, if you tell her beforehand. +So here we are, a chimpanzee using a computer. +Chimpanzees, gorillas, orangutans also learn human sign language. +It was, fortunately, one adult male whom I'd named David Greybeard -- and by the way, science at that time was telling me that I shouldn't name the chimps; they should all have numbers; that was more scientific. +Anyway, David Greybeard -- and I saw that he was picking little pieces of grass and using them to fish termites from their underground nest. +And not only that -- he would sometimes pick a leafy twig and strip the leaves -- modifying an object to make it suitable for a specific purpose -- the beginning of tool-making. +The reason this was so exciting and such a breakthrough is at that time, it was thought that humans, and only humans, used and made tools. +When I was at school, we were defined as man, the toolmaker. +So that when Louis Leakey, my mentor, heard this news, he said, "Ah, we must now redefine 'man,' redefine 'tool,' or accept chimpanzees as humans." +We now know that at Gombe alone, there are nine different ways in which chimpanzees use different objects for different purposes. +Moreover, we know that in different parts of Africa, wherever chimps have been studied, there are completely different tool-using behaviors. +And because it seems that these patterns are passed from one generation to the next, through observation, imitation and practice -- that is a definition of human culture. +What we find is that over these 40-odd years that I and others have been studying chimpanzees and the other great apes, and, as I say, other mammals with complex brains and social systems, we have found that after all, there isn't a sharp line dividing humans from the rest of the animal kingdom. +It's a very wuzzy line. +It's getting wuzzier all the time as we find animals doing things that we, in our arrogance, used to think was just human. +The chimps -- there's no time to discuss their fascinating lives -- but they have this long childhood, five years of suckling and sleeping with the mother, and then another three, four or five years of emotional dependence on her, even when the next child is born. +The importance of learning in that time, when behavior is flexible -- and there's an awful lot to learn in chimpanzee society. +The long-term affectionate supportive bonds that develop throughout this long childhood with the mother, with the brothers and sisters, and which can last through a lifetime, which may be up to 60 years. +They can actually live longer than 60 in captivity, so we've only done 40 years in the wild so far. +And we find chimps are capable of true compassion and altruism. +We find in their non-verbal communication -- this is very rich -- they have a lot of sounds, which they use in different circumstances, but they also use touch, posture, gesture, and what do they do? +They kiss; they embrace; they hold hands. +They pat one another on the back; they swagger; they shake their fist -- the kind of things that we do, and they do them in the same kind of context. +They have very sophisticated cooperation. +Sometimes they hunt -- not that often, but when they hunt, they show sophisticated cooperation, and they share the prey. +We find that they show emotions, similar to -- maybe sometimes the same -- as those that we describe in ourselves as happiness, sadness, fear, despair. +They know mental as well as physical suffering. +And I don't have time to go into the information that will prove some of these things to you, save to say that there are very bright students, in the best universities, studying emotions in animals, studying personalities in animals. +We know that chimpanzees and some other creatures can recognize themselves in mirrors -- "self" as opposed to "other." +They have a sense of humor, and these are the kind of things which traditionally have been thought of as human prerogatives. +But this teaches us a new respect -- and it's a new respect not only for the chimpanzees, I suggest, but some of the other amazing animals with whom we share this planet. +Once we're prepared to admit that after all, we're not the only beings with personalities, minds and above all feelings, and then we start to think about ways we use and abuse so many other sentient, sapient creatures on this planet, it really gives cause for deep shame, at least for me. +So, the sad thing is that these chimpanzees -- who've perhaps taught us, more than any other creature, a little humility -- are in the wild, disappearing very fast. +They're disappearing for the reasons that all of you in this room know only too well. +The deforestation, the growth of human populations, needing more land. +They're disappearing because some timber companies go in with clear-cutting. +They're disappearing in the heart of their range in Africa because the big multinational logging companies have come in and made roads -- as they want to do in Ecuador and other parts where the forests remain untouched -- to take out oil or timber. +And this has led in Congo basin, and other parts of the world, to what is known as the bush-meat trade. +This means that although for hundreds, perhaps thousands of years, people have lived in those forests, or whatever habitat it is, in harmony with their world, just killing the animals they need for themselves and their families -- now, suddenly, because of the roads, the hunters can go in from the towns. +They shoot everything, every single thing that moves that's bigger than a small rat; they sun-dry it or smoke it. +And now they've got transport; they take it on the logging trucks or the mining trucks into the towns where they sell it. +And people will pay more for bush-meat, as it's called, than for domestic meat -- it's culturally preferred. +And it's not sustainable, and the huge logging camps in the forest are now demanding meat, so the Pygmy hunters in the Congo basin who've lived there with their wonderful way of living for so many hundreds of years are now corrupted. +They're given weapons; they shoot for the logging camps; they get money. +Their culture is being destroyed, along with the animals upon whom they depend. +So, when the logging camp moves, there's nothing left. +We talked already about the loss of human cultural diversity, and I've seen it happening with my own eyes. +And the grim picture in Africa -- I love Africa, and what do we see in Africa? +We see deforestation; we see the desert spreading; we see massive hunger; we see disease and we see population growth in areas where there are more people living on a certain piece of land than the land can possibly support, and they're too poor to buy food from elsewhere. +Were the people that we heard about yesterday, on the Easter Island, who cut down their last tree -- were they stupid? +Didn't they know what was happening? +Of course, but if you've seen the crippling poverty in some of these parts of the world it isn't a question of "Let's leave the tree for tomorrow." +"How am I going to feed my family today? +Maybe I can get just a few dollars from this last tree which will keep us going a little bit longer, and then we'll pray that something will happen to save us from the inevitable end." +So, this is a pretty grim picture. +The one thing we have, which makes us so different from chimpanzees or other living creatures, is this sophisticated spoken language -- a language with which we can tell children about things that aren't here. +We can talk about the distant past, plan for the distant future, discuss ideas with each other, so that the ideas can grow from the accumulated wisdom of a group. +We can do it by talking to each other; we can do it through video; we can do it through the written word. +And we are abusing this great power we have to be wise stewards, and we're destroying the world. +In the developed world, in a way, it's worse, because we have so much access to knowledge of the stupidity of what we're doing. +Do you know, we're bringing little babies into a world where, in many places, the water is poisoning them? +And the air is harming them, and the food that's grown from the contaminated land is poisoning them. +And that's not just in the far-away developing world; that's everywhere. +Do you know we all have about 50 chemicals in our bodies we didn't have about 50 years ago? +And so many of these diseases, like asthma and certain kinds of cancers, are on the increase around places where our filthy toxic waste is dumped. +We're harming ourselves around the world, as well as harming the animals, as well as harming nature herself -- Mother Nature, that brought us into being; Mother Nature, where I believe we need to spend time, where there's trees and flowers and birds for our good psychological development. +And yet, there are hundreds and hundreds of children in the developed world who never see nature, because they're growing up in concrete and all they know is virtual reality, with no opportunity to go and lie in the sun, or in the forest, with the dappled sun-specks coming down from the canopy above. +As I was traveling around the world, you know, I had to leave the forest -- that's where I love to be. +I had to leave these fascinating chimpanzees for my students and field staff to continue studying because, finding they dwindled from about two million 100 years ago to about 150,000 now, I knew I had to leave the forest to do what I could to raise awareness around the world. +How can we do it? +Somebody said that yesterday. +And as I was traveling around, I kept meeting young people who'd lost hope. +They were feeling despair, they were feeling, "Well, it doesn't matter what we do; eat, drink and be merry, for tomorrow we die. +Everything is hopeless -- we're always being told so by the media." +And then I met some who were angry, and anger that can turn to violence, and we're all familiar with that. +And I have three little grandchildren, and when some of these students would say to me at high school or university, they'd say, "We're angry," or "We're filled with despair, because we feel you've compromised our future, and there's nothing we can do about it." +And I looked in the eyes of my little grandchildren, and think how much we've harmed this planet since I was their age. +I feel this deep shame, and that's why in 1991 in Tanzania, I started a program that's called Roots and Shoots. +There's little brochures all around outside, and if any of you have anything to do with children and care about their future, I beg that you pick up that brochure. +And Roots and Shoots is a program for hope. +Roots make a firm foundation. +Shoots seem tiny, but to reach the sun they can break through brick walls. +See the brick walls as all the problems that we've inflicted on this planet. +Then, you see, it is a message of hope. +Hundreds and thousands of young people around the world can break through, and can make this a better world. +And the most important message of Roots and Shoots is that every single individual makes a difference. +Every individual has a role to play. +Every one of us impacts the world around us everyday, and you scientists know that you can't actually -- even if you stay in bed all day, you're breathing oxygen and giving out CO2, and probably going to the loo, and things like that -- you're making a difference in the world. +So, the Roots and Shoots program involves youth in three kinds of projects. +And these are projects to make the world around them a better place. +One project to show care and concern for your own human community. +One for animals, including domestic animals -- and I have to say, I learned everything I know about animal behavior even before I got to Gombe and the chimps from my dog, Rusty, who was my childhood companion. +And the third kind of project: something for the local environment. +So what the kids do depends first of all, how old are they -- and we go now from pre-school right through university. +It's going to depend whether they're inner-city or rural. +It's going to depend if they're wealthy or impoverished. +It's going to depend which part, say, of America they're in. +We're in every state now, and the problems in Florida are different from the problems in New York. +It's going to depend on which country they're in -- and we're already in 60-plus countries, with about 5,000 active groups -- and there are groups all over the place that I keep hearing about that I've never even heard of, because the kids are taking the program and spreading it themselves. +Why? +Because they're buying into it, and they're the ones who get to decide what they're going to do. +It isn't something that their parents tell them, or their teachers tell them. +That's effective, but if they decide themselves, "We want to clean this river and put the fish back that used to be there. +We want to clear away the toxic soil from this area and have an organic garden. +We want to go and spend time with the old people and hear their stories and record their oral histories. +We want to go and work in a dog shelter. +We want to learn about animals. We want ... " You know, it goes on and on, and this is very hopeful for me. +As I travel around the world 300 days a year, everywhere there's a group of Roots and Shoots of different ages. +Everywhere there are children with shining eyes saying, "Look at the difference we've made." +And now comes the technology into it, because with this new way of communicating electronically these kids can communicate with each other around the world. +And if anyone is interested to help us, we've got so many ideas but we need help -- we need help to create the right kind of system that will help these young people to communicate their excitement. +But also -- and this is so important -- to communicate their despair, to say, "We've tried this and it doesn't work, and what shall we do?" +And then, lo and behold, there's another group answering these kids who may be in America, or maybe this is a group in Israel, saying, "Yeah, you did it a little bit wrong. This is how you should do it." +The philosophy is very simple. +We do not believe in violence. +No violence, no bombs, no guns. +That's not the way to solve problems. +Violence leads to violence, at least in my view. +So how do we solve? +The tools for solving the problems are knowledge and understanding. +Know the facts, but see how they fit in the big picture. +Hard work and persistence --don't give up -- and love and compassion leading to respect for all life. +How many more minutes? Two, one? +Chris Anderson: One -- one to two. +Jane Goodall: Two, two, I'm going to take two. +Are you going to come and drag me off? +Anyway -- so basically, Roots and Shoots is beginning to change young people's lives. +It's what I'm devoting most of my energy to. +And I believe that a group like this can have a very major impact, not just because you can share technology with us, but because so many of you have children. +And if you take this program out, and give it to your children, they have such a good opportunity to go out and do good, because they've got parents like you. +And it's been so clear how much you all care about trying to make this world a better place. +It's very encouraging. +But the kids do ask me -- and this won't take more than two minutes, I promise -- the kids say, "Dr. Jane, do you really have hope for the future? +You travel, you see all these horrible things happening." +Firstly, the human brain -- I don't need to say anything about that. +Now that we know what the problems are around the world, human brains like yours are rising to solve those problems. +And we've talked a lot about that. +Secondly, the resilience of nature. +We can destroy a river, and we can bring it back to life. +We can see a whole area desolated, and it can be brought back to bloom again, with time or a little help. +And thirdly, the last speaker talked about -- or the speaker before last, talked about the indomitable human spirit. +We are surrounded by the most amazing people who do things that seem to be absolutely impossible. +Nelson Mandela -- I take a little piece of limestone from Robben Island Prison, where he labored for 27 years, and came out with so little bitterness, he could lead his people from the horror of apartheid without a bloodbath. +Even after the 11th of September -- and I was in New York and I felt the fear -- nevertheless, there was so much human courage, so much love and so much compassion. +And just after that a woman brought me this little bell, and I want to end on this note. +She said, "If you're talking about hope and peace, ring this. +This bell is made from metal from a defused landmine, from the killing fields of Pol Pot -- one of the most evil regimes in human history -- where people are now beginning to put their lives back together after the regime has crumbled. +So, yes, there is hope, and where is the hope? +Is it out there with the politicians? +It's in our hands. +It's in your hands and my hands and those of our children. +It's really up to us. +We're the ones who can make a difference. +If we lead lives where we consciously leave the lightest possible ecological footprints, if we buy the things that are ethical for us to buy and don't buy the things that are not, we can change the world overnight. +Thank you. +Thank you. It's really an honor and a privilege to be here spending my last day as a teenager. +Today I want to talk to you about the future, but first I'm going to tell you a bit about the past. +My story starts way before I was born. +My grandmother was on a train to Auschwitz, the death camp. +And she was going along the tracks, and the tracks split. +And somehow -- we don't really know exactly the whole story -- but the train took the wrong track and went to a work camp rather than the death camp. +My grandmother survived and married my grandfather. +They were living in Hungary, and my mother was born. +And when my mother was two years old, the Hungarian revolution was raging, and they decided to escape Hungary. +They got on a boat, and yet another divergence -- the boat was either going to Canada or to Australia. +They got on and didn't know where they were going, and ended up in Canada. +So, to make a long story short, they came to Canada. +My grandmother was a chemist. She worked at the Banting Institute in Toronto, and at 44 she died of stomach cancer. I never met my grandmother, but I carry on her name -- her exact name, Eva Vertes -- and I like to think I carry on her scientific passion, too. +I found this passion not far from here, actually, when I was nine years old. +My family was on a road trip and we were in the Grand Canyon. +And I had never been a reader when I was young -- my dad had tried me with the Hardy Boys; I tried Nancy Drew; I tried all that -- and I just didn't like reading books. +And my mother bought this book when we were at the Grand Canyon called "The Hot Zone." It was all about the outbreak of the Ebola virus. +And something about it just kind of drew me towards it. +I wanted to be like the explorers I'd read about in the book, who went into the jungles of Africa, went into the research labs and just tried to figure out what this deadly virus was. So from that moment on, I read every medical book I could get my hands on, and I just loved it so much. +I was a passive observer of the medical world. +It wasn't until I entered high school that I thought, "Maybe now, you know -- being a big high school kid -- I can maybe become an active part of this big medical world." +I was 14, and I emailed professors at the local university to see if maybe I could go work in their lab. And hardly anyone responded. +But I mean, why would they respond to a 14-year-old, anyway? +And I got to go talk to one professor, Dr. Jacobs, who accepted me into the lab. +At that time, I was really interested in neuroscience and wanted to do a research project in neurology -- specifically looking at the effects of heavy metals on the developing nervous system. +So I started that, and worked in his lab for a year, and found the results that I guess you'd expect to find when you feed fruit flies heavy metals -- that it really, really impaired the nervous system. +The spinal cord had breaks. The neurons were crossing in every which way. +And from then I wanted to look not at impairment, but at prevention of impairment. +So that's what led me to Alzheimer's. I started reading about Alzheimer's and tried to familiarize myself with the research, and at the same time when I was in the -- I was reading in the medical library one day, and I read this article about something called "purine derivatives." +And they seemed to have cell growth-promoting properties. +And being naive about the whole field, I kind of thought, "Oh, you have cell death in Alzheimer's which is causing the memory deficit, and then you have this compound -- purine derivatives -- that are promoting cell growth." +And so I thought, "Maybe if it can promote cell growth, it can inhibit cell death, too." +And so that's the project that I pursued for that year, and it's continuing now as well, and found that a specific purine derivative called "guanidine" had inhibited the cell growth by approximately 60 percent. +So I presented those results at the International Science Fair, which was just one of the most amazing experiences of my life. +And there I was awarded "Best in the World in Medicine," which allowed me to get in, or at least get a foot in the door of the big medical world. +And from then on, since I was now in this huge exciting world, I wanted to explore it all. I wanted it all at once, but knew I couldn't really get that. +And I stumbled across something called "cancer stem cells." +And this is really what I want to talk to you about today -- about cancer. +At first when I heard of cancer stem cells, I didn't really know how to put the two together. I'd heard of stem cells, and I'd heard of them as the panacea of the future -- the therapy of many diseases to come in the future, perhaps. +But I'd heard of cancer as the most feared disease of our time, so how did the good and bad go together? +Last summer I worked at Stanford University, doing some research on cancer stem cells. +And while I was doing this, I was reading the cancer literature, trying to -- again -- familiarize myself with this new medical field. +And it seemed that tumors actually begin from a stem cell. +This fascinated me. The more I read, the more I looked at cancer differently and almost became less fearful of it. +It seems that cancer is a direct result to injury. +If you smoke, you damage your lung tissue, and then lung cancer arises. +If you drink, you damage your liver, and then liver cancer occurs. +And it was really interesting -- there were articles correlating if you have a bone fracture, and then bone cancer arises. +Because what stem cells are -- they're these phenomenal cells that really have the ability to differentiate into any type of tissue. +So, if the body is sensing that you have damage to an organ and then it's initiating cancer, it's almost as if this is a repair response. +And the cancer, the body is saying the lung tissue is damaged, we need to repair the lung. And cancer is originating in the lung trying to repair -- because you have this excessive proliferation of these remarkable cells that really have the potential to become lung tissue. +But it's almost as if the body has originated this ingenious response, but can't quite control it. +It hasn't yet become fine-tuned enough to finish what has been initiated. +So this really, really fascinated me. +And I really think that we can't think about cancer -- let alone any disease -- in such black-and-white terms. +If we eliminate cancer the way we're trying to do now, with chemotherapy and radiation, we're bombarding the body or the cancer with toxins, or with radiation, trying to kill it. +It's almost as if we're getting back to this starting point. +We're removing the cancer cells, but we're revealing the previous damage that the body has tried to fix. +Shouldn't we think about manipulation, rather than elimination? +If somehow we can cause these cells to differentiate -- to become bone tissue, lung tissue, liver tissue, whatever that cancer has been put there to do -- it would be a repair process. We'd end up better than we were before cancer. +So, this really changed my view of looking at cancer. +And while I was reading all these articles about cancer, it seemed that the articles -- a lot of them -- focused on, you know, the genetics of breast cancer, and the genesis and the progression of breast cancer -- tracking the cancer through the body, tracing where it is, where it goes. +But it struck me that I'd never heard of cancer of the heart, or cancer of any skeletal muscle for that matter. +And skeletal muscle constitutes 50 percent of our body, or over 50 percent of our body. And so at first I kind of thought, "Well, maybe there's some obvious explanation why skeletal muscle doesn't get cancer -- at least not that I know of." +So, I looked further into it, found as many articles as I could, and it was amazing -- because it turned out that it was very rare. +Some articles even went as far as to say that skeletal muscle tissue is resistant to cancer, and furthermore, not only to cancer, but of metastases going to skeletal muscle. +And what metastases are is when the tumor -- when a piece -- breaks off and travels through the blood stream and goes to a different organ. That's what a metastasis is. +It's the part of cancer that is the most dangerous. +If cancer was localized, we could likely remove it, or somehow -- you know, it's contained. It's very contained. +But once it starts moving throughout the body, that's when it becomes deadly. +So the fact that not only did cancer not seem to originate in skeletal muscles, but cancer didn't seem to go to skeletal muscle -- there seemed to be something here. +So these articles were saying, you know, "Skeletal -- metastasis to skeletal muscle -- is very rare." +But it was left at that. No one seemed to be asking why. +So I decided to ask why. At first -- the first thing I did was I emailed some professors who specialized in skeletal muscle physiology, and pretty much said, "Hey, it seems like cancer doesn't really go to skeletal muscle. +Is there a reason for this?" And a lot of the replies I got were that muscle is terminally differentiated tissue. +Meaning that you have muscle cells, but they're not dividing, so it doesn't seem like a good target for cancer to hijack. +But then again, this fact that the metastases didn't go to skeletal muscle made that seem unlikely. +And furthermore, that nervous tissue -- brain -- gets cancer, and brain cells are also terminally differentiated. +So I decided to ask why. And here's some of, I guess, my hypotheses that I'll be starting to investigate this May at the Sylvester Cancer Institute in Miami. +And I guess I'll keep investigating until I get the answers. +But I know that in science, once you get the answers, inevitably you're going to have more questions. +So I guess you could say that I'll probably be doing this for the rest of my life. +Some of my hypotheses are that when you first think about skeletal muscle, there's a lot of blood vessels going to skeletal muscle. +And the first thing that makes me think is that blood vessels are like highways for the tumor cells. +Tumor cells can travel through the blood vessels. +And you think, the more highways there are in a tissue, the more likely it is to get cancer or to get metastases. +So first of all I thought, you know, "Wouldn't it be favorable to cancer getting to skeletal muscle?" And as well, cancer tumors require a process called angiogenesis, which is really, the tumor recruits the blood vessels to itself to supply itself with nutrients so it can grow. +Without angiogenesis, the tumor remains the size of a pinpoint and it's not harmful. +So angiogenesis is really a central process to the pathogenesis of cancer. +And one article that really stood out to me when I was just reading about this, trying to figure out why cancer doesn't go to skeletal muscle, was that it had reported 16 percent of micro-metastases to skeletal muscle upon autopsy. +16 percent! Meaning that there were these pinpoint tumors in skeletal muscle, but only .16 percent of actual metastases -- suggesting that maybe skeletal muscle is able to control the angiogenesis, is able to control the tumors recruiting these blood vessels. +We use skeletal muscles so much. It's the one portion of our body -- our heart's always beating. We're always moving our muscles. +Is it possible that muscle somehow intuitively knows that it needs this blood supply? It needs to be constantly contracting, so therefore it's almost selfish. It's grabbing its blood vessels for itself. +Therefore, when a tumor comes into skeletal muscle tissue, it can't get a blood supply, and can't grow. +So this suggests that maybe if there is an anti-angiogenic factor in skeletal muscle -- or perhaps even more, an angiogenic routing factor, so it can actually direct where the blood vessels grow -- this could be a potential future therapy for cancer. +And another thing that's really interesting is that there's this whole -- the way tumors move throughout the body, it's a very complex system -- and there's something called the chemokine network. +And chemokines are essentially chemical attractants, and they're the stop and go signals for cancer. +So a tumor expresses chemokine receptors, and another organ -- a distant organ somewhere in the body -- will have the corresponding chemokines, and the tumor will see these chemokines and migrate towards it. +Is it possible that skeletal muscle doesn't express this type of molecules? +And the other really interesting thing is that when skeletal muscle -- there's been several reports that when skeletal muscle is injured, that's what correlates with metastases going to skeletal muscle. +And, furthermore, when skeletal muscle is injured, that's what causes chemokines -- these signals saying, "Cancer, you can come to me," the "go signs" for the tumors -- it causes them to highly express these chemokines. +So, there's so much interplay here. +I mean, there are so many possibilities for why tumors don't go to skeletal muscle. +But it seems like by investigating, by attacking cancer, by searching where cancer is not, there has got to be something -- there's got to be something -- that's making this tissue resistant to tumors. +And can we utilize -- can we take this property, this compound, this receptor, whatever it is that's controlling these anti-tumor properties and apply it to cancer therapy in general? +Now, one thing that kind of ties the resistance of skeletal muscle to cancer -- to the cancer as a repair response gone out of control in the body -- is that skeletal muscle has a factor in it called "MyoD." +And what MyoD essentially does is, it causes cells to differentiate into muscle cells. So this compound, MyoD, has been tested on a lot of different cell types and been shown to actually convert this variety of cell types into skeletal muscle cells. +So, is it possible that the tumor cells are going to the skeletal muscle tissue, but once in contact inside the skeletal muscle tissue, MyoD acts upon these tumor cells and causes them to become skeletal muscle cells? +Maybe tumor cells are being disguised as skeletal muscle cells, and this is why it seems as if it is so rare. +It's not harmful; it has just repaired the muscle. +Muscle is constantly being used -- constantly being damaged. +If every time we tore a muscle or every time we stretched a muscle or moved in a wrong way, cancer occurred -- I mean, everybody would have cancer almost. +It's different when a bacteria comes into the body -- that's a foreign object -- we want that out. +But when the body is actually initiating a process and we're calling it a disease, it doesn't seem as though elimination is the right solution. So even to go from there, it's possible, although far-fetched, that in the future we could almost think of cancer being used as a therapy. +If those diseases where tissues are deteriorating -- for example Alzheimer's, where the brain, the brain cells, die and we need to restore new brain cells, new functional brain cells -- what if we could, in the future, use cancer? A tumor -- put it in the brain and cause it to differentiate into brain cells? +That's a very far-fetched idea, but I really believe that it may be possible. +These cells are so versatile, these cancer cells are so versatile -- we just have to manipulate them in the right way. +And again, some of these may be far-fetched, but I figured if there's anywhere to present far-fetched ideas, it's here at TED, so thank you very much. +Frank Gehry: I listened to this scientist this morning. +Dr. Mullis was talking about his experiments, and I realized that I almost became a scientist. +When I was 14 my parents bought me a chemistry set and I decided to make water. +So, I made a hydrogen generator and I made an oxygen generator, and I had the two pipes leading into a beaker and I threw a match in. +And the glass -- luckily I turned around -- I had it all in my back and I was about 15 feet away. +The wall was covered with ... +I had an explosion. +Richard Saul Wurman: Really? +FG: People on the street came and knocked on the door to see if I was okay. +RSW: ... huh. I'd like to start this session again. +The gentleman to my left is the very famous, perhaps overly famous, Frank Gehry. +And Frank, you've come to a place in your life, which is astonishing. +I mean it is astonishing for an artist, for an architect, to become actually an icon and a legend in their own time. +And I know the road was extremely difficult. +And it didn't seem, at least, that your sell outs, whatever they were, were very big. +You kept moving ahead in a life where you're dependent on working for somebody. +But that's an interesting thing for a creative person. +A lot of us work for people; we're in the hands of other people. +And that's one of the great dilemmas -- we're in a creativity session -- it's one of the great dilemmas in creativity: how to do work that's big enough and not sell out. +And you've achieved that and that makes your win doubly big, triply big. +It's not quite a question but you can comment on it. +It's a big issue. +FG: Well, I've always just ... +I've never really gone out looking for work. +I always waited for it to sort of hit me on the head. +And when I started out, I thought that architecture was a service business and that you had to please the clients and stuff. +And I realized when I'd come into the meetings with these corrugated metal and chain link stuff, and people would just look at me like I'd just landed from Mars. +But I couldn't do anything else. +That was my response to the people in the time. +And actually, it was responding to clients that I had who didn't have very much money, so they couldn't afford very much. +I think it was circumstantial. +Until I got to my house, where the client was my wife. +We bought this tiny little bungalow in Santa Monica and for like 50 grand I built a house around it. +And a few people got excited about it. +I was visiting with an artist, Michael Heizer, out in the desert near Las Vegas somewhere. +He's building this huge concrete place. +And it was late in the evening. We'd had a lot to drink. +We were standing out in the desert all alone and, thinking about my house, he said, "Did it ever occur to you if you built stuff more permanent, somewhere in 2000 years somebody's going to like it?" +So, I thought, "Yeah, that's probably a good idea." +Luckily I started to get some clients that had a little more money, so the stuff was a little more permanent. +But I just found out the world ain't going to last that long, this guy was telling us the other day. +So where do we go now? +Back to -- everything's so temporary. +I don't see it the way you characterized it. +For me, every day is a new thing. +I approach each project with a new insecurity, almost like the first project I ever did, and I get the sweats, I go in and start working, I'm not sure where I'm going -- if I knew where I was going, I wouldn't do it. +When I can predict or plan it, I don't do it. +I discard it. +So I approach it with the same trepidation. +Obviously, over time I have a lot more confidence that it's going to be OK. +I do run a kind of a business -- I've got 120 people and you've got to pay them, so there's a lot of responsibility involved -- but the actual work on the project is with, I think, a healthy insecurity. +And like the playwright said the other day -- I could relate to him: you're not sure. +When Bilbao was finished and I looked at it, I saw all the mistakes, I saw ... +They weren't mistakes; I saw everything that I would have changed and I was embarrassed by it. +I felt an embarrassment -- "How could I have done that? +How could I have made shapes like that or done stuff like that?" +It's taken several years to now look at it detached and say -- as you walk around the corner and a piece of it works with the road and the street, and it appears to have a relationship -- that I started to like it. +RSW: What's the status of the New York project? +FG: I don't really know. +Tom Krens came to me with Bilbao and explained it all to me, and I thought he was nuts. +I didn't think he knew what he was doing, and he pulled it off. +So, I think he's Icarus and Phoenix all in one guy. +He gets up there and then he ... comes back up. +They're still talking about it. +September 11 generated some interest in moving it over to Ground Zero, and I'm totally against that. +I just feel uncomfortable talking about or building anything on Ground Zero I think for a long time. +RSW: The picture on the screen, is that Disney? +FG: Yeah. +RSW: How much further along is it than that, and when will that be finished? +FG: That will be finished in 2003 -- September, October -- and I'm hoping Kyu, and Herbie, and Yo-Yo and all those guys come play with us at that place. +Luckily, today most of the people I'm working with are people I really like. +Richard Koshalek is probably one of the main reasons that Disney Hall came to me. +He's been a cheerleader for quite a long time. +There aren't many people around that are really involved with architecture as clients. +If you think about the world, and even just in this audience, most of us are involved with buildings. +Nothing that you would call architecture, right? +And so to find one, a guy like that, you hang on to him. +He's become the head of Art Center, and there's a building by Craig Ellwood there. +I knew Craig and respected him. +They want to add to it and it's hard to add to a building like that -- it's a beautiful, minimalist, black steel building -- and Richard wants to add a library and more student stuff and it's a lot of acreage. +I convinced him to let me bring in another architect from Portugal: Alvaro Siza. +RSW: Why did you want that? +FG: I knew you'd ask that question. +It was intuitive. +Alvaro Siza grew up and lived in Portugal and is probably considered the Portuguese main guy in architecture. +I visited with him a few years ago and he showed me his early work, and his early work had a resemblance to my early work. +When I came out of college, I started to try to do things contextually in Southern California, and you got into the logic of Spanish colonial tile roofs and things like that. +I tried to understand that language as a beginning, as a place to jump off, and there was so much of it being done by spec builders and it was trivialized so much that it wasn't ... +I just stopped. +I mean, Charlie Moore did a bunch of it, but it didn't feel good to me. +Siza, on the other hand, continued in Portugal where the real stuff was and evolved a modern language that relates to that historic language. +And I always felt that he should come to Southern California and do a building. +I tried to get him a couple of jobs and they didn't pan out. +I like the idea of collaboration with people like that because it pushes you. +I've done it with Claes Oldenburg and with Richard Serra, who doesn't think architecture is art. +Did you see that thing? +RSW: No. What did he say? +FG: He calls architecture "plumbing." +FG: Anyway, the Siza thing. +It's a richer experience. +It must be like that for Kyu doing things with musicians -- it's similar to that I would imagine -- where you ... huh? +Audience: Liquid architecture. +FG: Liquid architecture. +Where you ... It's like jazz: you improvise, you work together, you play off each other, you make something, they make something. +And I think for me, it's a way of trying to understand the city and what might happen in the city. +RSW: Is it going to be near the current campus? +Or is it going to be down near ... +FG: No, it's near the current campus. +Anyway, he's that kind of patron. +It's not his money, of course. +RSW: What's his schedule on that? +FG: I don't know. +What's the schedule, Richard? +Richard Koshalek: [Unclear] starts from 2004. +FG: 2004. +You can come to the opening. I'll invite you. +No, but the issue of city building in democracy is interesting because it creates chaos, right? +Like the Rockefeller Center model, which is kind of from another era. +RSW: I found the most remarkable thing. +My preconception of Bilbao was this wonderful building, you go inside and there'd be extraordinary spaces. +I'd seen drawings you had presented here at TED. +The surprise of Bilbao was in its context to the city. +That was the surprise of going across the river, of going on the highway around it, of walking down the street and finding it. +That was the real surprise of Bilbao. +Blah, blah, blah and all that stuff. +And it's like cleansing yourself so that you can ... +by saying all that, it means your work is good somehow. +And I think everybody -- I mean that should be a matter of fact, like gravity. +You're not going to defy gravity. +You've got to work with the building department. +If you don't meet the budgets, you're not going to get much work. +If it leaks -- Bilbao did not leak. +I was so proud. +The MIT project -- they were interviewing me for MIT and they sent their facilities people to Bilbao. +I met them in Bilbao. +They came for three days. +RSW: This is the computer building? +FG: Yeah, the computer building. +They were there three days and it rained every day and they kept walking around -- I noticed they were looking under things and looking for things, and they wanted to know where the buckets were hidden, you know? +People put buckets out ... +I was clean. There wasn't a bloody leak in the place, it was just fantastic. +But you've got to -- yeah, well up until then every building leaked, so this ... +RSW: Frank had a sort of ... +FG: Ask Miriam! +RW: ... sort of had a fame. His fame was built on that in L.A. for a while. +FG: You've all heard the Frank Lloyd Wright story, when the woman called and said, "Mr. Wright, I'm sitting on the couch and the water's pouring in on my head." +And he said, "Madam, move your chair." +So, some years later I was doing a building, a little house on the beach for Norton Simon, and his secretary, who was kind of a hell on wheels type lady, called me and said, "Mr. Simon's sitting at his desk and the water's coming in on his head." +And I told her the Frank Lloyd Wright story. +RSW: Didn't get a laugh. +FG: No. Not now either. +But my point is that ... and I call it the "then what?" +OK, you solved all the problems, you did all the stuff, you made nice, you loved your clients, you loved the city, you're a good guy, you're a good person ... +and then what? +What do you bring to it? +And I think that's what I've always been interested in, is that -- which is a personal kind of expression. +Bilbao, I think, shows that you can have that kind of personal expression and still touch all the bases that are necessary of fitting into the city. +That's what reminded me of it. +And I think that's the issue, you know; it's the "then what" that most clients who hire architects -- most clients aren't hiring architects for that. +They're hiring them to get it done, get it on budget, be polite, and they're missing out on the real value of an architect. +RSW: At a certain point a number of years ago, people -- when Michael Graves was a fashion, before teapots ... +FG: I did a teapot and nobody bought it. +RSW: Did it leak? +FG: No. +RSW: ... people wanted a Michael Graves building. +Is that a curse, that people want a Bilbao building? +FG: Yeah. +Since Bilbao opened, which is now four, five years, both Krens and I have been called with at least 100 opportunities -- China, Brazil, other parts of Spain -- to come in and do the Bilbao effect. +And I've met with some of these people. +Usually I say no right away, but some of them come with pedigree and they sound well-intentioned and they get you for at least one or two meetings. +In one case, I flew all the way to Malaga with a team because the thing was signed with seals and various very official seals from the city, and that they wanted me to come and do a building in their port. +I asked them what kind of building it was. +"When you get here we'll explain it." Blah, blah, blah. +So four of us went. +And they took us -- they put us up in a great hotel and we were looking over the bay, and then they took us in a boat out in the water and showed us all these sights in the harbor. +Each one was more beautiful than the other. +And then we were going to have lunch with the mayor and we were going to have dinner with the most important people in Malaga. +Just before going to lunch with the mayor, we went to the harbor commissioner. +It was a table as long as this carpet and the harbor commissioner was here, and I was here, and my guys. +We sat down, and we had a drink of water and everybody was quiet. +And the guy looked at me and said, "Now what can I do for you, Mr. Gehry?" +RSW: Oh, my God. +FG: So, I got up. +I said to my team, "Let's get out of here." +We stood up, we walked out. +They followed -- the guy that dragged us there followed us and he said, "You mean you're not going to have lunch with the mayor?" +I said, "Nope." +"You're not going to have dinner at all?" +They just brought us there to hustle this group, you know, to create a project. +And we get a lot of that. +Luckily, I'm old enough that I can complain I can't travel. +I don't have my own plane yet. +RSW: Well, I'm going to wind this up and wind up the meeting because it's been very long. +But let me just say a couple words. +FG: Can I say something? +Are you going to talk about me or you? +RSW: Once a shit, always a shit! +FG: Because I want to get a standing ovation like everybody, so ... +RSW: You're going to get one! You're going to get one! +I'm going to make it for you! +FG: No, no. Wait a minute! +Imagine spending seven years at MIT and research laboratories, only to find out that you're a performance artist. +I'm also a software engineer, and I make lots of different kinds of art with the computer. +And I think the main thing that I'm interested in is trying to find a way of making the computer into a personal mode of expression. +And many of you out there are the heads of Macromedia and Microsoft, and in a way those are my bane: I think there's a great homogenizing force that software imposes on people and limits the way they think about what's possible on the computer. +Of course, it's also a great liberating force that makes possible, you know, publishing and so forth, and standards, and so on. +But, in a way, the computer makes possible much more than what most people think, and my art has just been about trying to find a personal way of using the computer, and so I end up writing software to do that. +Chris has asked me to do a short performance, and so I'm going to take just this time -- maybe 10 minutes -- to do that, and hopefully at the end have just a moment to show you a couple of my other projects in video form. +Thank you. +We've got about a minute left. +I'd just like to show a clip from a most recent project. +I did a performance with two singers who specialize in making strange noises with their mouths. +And this just came off last September at ARS Electronica; we repeated it in England. +And the idea is to visualize their speech and song behind them with a large screen. +We used a computer vision tracking system in order to know where they were. +And since we know where their heads are, and we have a wireless mic on them that we're processing the sound from, we're able to create visualizations which are linked very tightly to what they're doing with their speech. +This will take about 30 seconds or so. +He's making a, kind of, cheek-flapping sound. +Well, suffice it to say it's not all like that, but that's part of it. +Thanks very much. There's always lots more. +I'm overtime, so I just wanted to say you can, if you're in New York, you can check out my work at the Whitney Biennial next week, and also at Bitforms Gallery in Chelsea. +And with that, I think I should give up the stage, so, thank you so much. +I'd like to talk today about the two biggest social trends in the coming century, and perhaps in the next 10,000 years. +But I want to start with my work on romantic love, because that's my most recent work. +What I and my colleagues did was put 32 people, who were madly in love, into a functional MRI brain scanner. +17 who were madly in love and their love was accepted; and 15 who were madly in love and they had just been dumped. +And so I want to tell you about that first, and then go on into where I think love is going. +"What 'tis to love?" Shakespeare said. +I think our ancestors -- I think human beings have been wondering about this question since they sat around their campfires or lay and watched the stars a million years ago. +I started out by trying to figure out what romantic love was by looking at the last 45 years of the psychological research and as it turns out, there's a very specific group of things that happen when you fall in love. +The first thing that happens is, a person begins to take on what I call, "special meaning." +As a truck driver once said to me, "The world had a new center, and that center was Mary Anne." +George Bernard Shaw said it differently. +"Love consists of overestimating the differences between one woman and another." +And indeed, that's what we do. And then you just focus on this person. +You can list what you don't like about them, but then you sweep that aside and focus on what you do. +As Chaucer said, "Love is blind." +In trying to understand romantic love, I decided I would read poetry from all over the world, and I just want to give you one very short poem from eighth-century China, because it's an almost perfect example of a man who is focused totally on a particular woman. +It's a little bit like when you are madly in love with somebody and you walk into a parking lot -- their car is different from every other car in the parking lot. +Their wine glass at dinner is different from every other wine glass at the dinner party. +And in this case, a man got hooked on a bamboo sleeping mat. +And it goes like this. It's by a guy called Yuan Zhen. +"I cannot bear to put away the bamboo sleeping mat. +The night I brought you home, I watched you roll it out." +He became hooked on a sleeping mat, probably because of elevated activity of dopamine in his brain, just like with you and me. +But anyway, not only does this person take on special meaning, you focus your attention on them. +But you have intense energy. +As one Polynesian said, "I felt like jumping in the sky." +You're up all night. You're walking till dawn. +You feel intense elation when things are going well; mood swings into horrible despair when things are going poorly. +Real dependence on this person. +As one businessman in New York said to me, "Anything she liked, I liked." +Simple. Romantic love is very simple. +You become extremely sexually possessive. +You know, if you're just sleeping with somebody casually, you don't really care if they're sleeping with somebody else. +But the moment you fall in love, you become extremely sexually possessive of them. +I think there's a Darwinian purpose to this. +The whole point of this is to pull two people together strongly enough to begin to rear babies as a team. +But the main characteristics of romantic love are craving: an intense craving to be with a particular person, not just sexually, but emotionally. +It would be nice to go to bed with them, but you want them to call you on the telephone, to invite you out, etc., to tell you that they love you. +The other main characteristic is motivation. +The motor in the brain begins to crank, and you want this person. +And last but not least, it is an obsession. +Before I put these people in the MRI machine, I would ask them all kinds of questions. +But my most important question was always the same. +It was: "What percentage of the day and night do you think about this person?" +And indeed, they would say, "All day. All night. I can never stop thinking about him or her." +And then, the very last question -- I would always have to work myself up to this question, because I'm not a psychologist. +I don't work with people in any kind of traumatic situation. +My final question was always the same. +I would say, "Would you die for him or her?" +And, indeed, these people would say "Yes!" +as if I had asked them to pass the salt. I was just staggered by it. +So we scanned their brains, looking at a photograph of their sweetheart and looking at a neutral photograph, with a distraction task in between. +So we could look at the same brain when it was in that heightened state and when it was in a resting state. +And we found activity in a lot of brain regions. +In fact, one of the most important was a brain region that becomes active when you feel the rush of cocaine. +And indeed, that's exactly what happens. +I began to realize that romantic love is not an emotion. +In fact, I had always thought it was a series of emotions, from very high to very low. +But actually, it's a drive. It comes from the motor of the mind, the wanting part of the mind, the craving part of the mind. +The kind of part of the mind when you're reaching for that piece of chocolate, when you want to win that promotion at work. +The motor of the brain. It's a drive. +And in fact, I think it's more powerful than the sex drive. +You know, if you ask somebody to go to bed with you, and they say, "No, thank you," you certainly don't kill yourself or slip into a clinical depression. +But certainly, around the world, people who are rejected in love will kill for it. +People live for love. They kill for love. +They have songs, poems, novels, sculptures, paintings, myths, legends. +In over 175 societies, people have left their evidence of this powerful brain system. +I have come to think it's one of the most powerful brain systems on Earth for both great joy and great sorrow. +And I've also come to think that it's one of three basically different brain systems that evolved from mating and reproduction. +One is the sex drive: the craving for sexual gratification. +W.H. Auden called it an "intolerable neural itch," and indeed, that's what it is. +It keeps bothering you a little bit, like being hungry. +The second of these three brain systems is romantic love: that elation, obsession of early love. +And the third brain system is attachment: that sense of calm and security you can feel for a long-term partner. +And I think that the sex drive evolved to get you out there, looking for a whole range of partners. +You can feel it when you're just driving along in your car. +It can be focused on nobody. +I think romantic love evolved to enable you to focus your mating energy on just one individual at a time, thereby conserving mating time and energy. +And I think that attachment, the third brain system, evolved to enable you to tolerate this human being at least long enough to raise a child together as a team. +So with that preamble, I want to go into discussing the two most profound social trends. +One of the last 10,000 years and the other, certainly of the last 25 years, that are going to have an impact on these three different brain systems: lust, romantic love and deep attachment to a partner. +The first is women working, moving into the workforce. +I've looked at 130 societies through the demographic yearbooks of the United Nations. +Everywhere in the world, 129 out of 130 of them, women are not only moving into the job market -- sometimes very, very slowly, but they are moving into the job market -- and they are very slowly closing that gap between men and women in terms of economic power, health and education. +It's very slow. +For every trend on this planet, there's a counter-trend. +We all know of them, but nevertheless -- the Arabs say, "The dogs may bark, but the caravan moves on." +And, indeed, that caravan is moving on. +Women are moving back into the job market. +And I say back into the job market, because this is not new. +For millions of years, on the grasslands of Africa, women commuted to work to gather their vegetables. +They came home with 60 to 80 percent of the evening meal. +The double income family was the standard. +And women were regarded as just as economically, socially and sexually powerful as men. +In short, we're really moving forward to the past. +Then, women's worst invention was the plow. +With the beginning of plow agriculture, men's roles became extremely powerful. +Women lost their ancient jobs as collectors, but then with the industrial revolution and the post-industrial revolution they're moving back into the job market. +In short, they are acquiring the status that they had a million years ago, 10,000 years ago, 100,000 years ago. +We are seeing now one of the most remarkable traditions in the history of the human animal. +And it's going to have an impact. +I generally give a whole lecture on the impact of women on the business community. +I'll say just a couple of things, and then go on to sex and love. +There's a lot of gender differences; anybody who thinks men and women are alike simply never had a boy and a girl child. +I don't know why they want to think that men and women are alike. +There's much we have in common, but there's a whole lot that we do not have in common. +We are -- in the words of Ted Hughes, "I think that we are like two feet. We need each other to get ahead." +But we did not evolve to have the same brain. +And we're finding more and more gender differences in the brain. +I'll only just use a couple and then move on to sex and love. +One of them is women's verbal ability. Women can talk. +Women's ability to find the right word rapidly, basic articulation goes up in the middle of the menstrual cycle, when estrogen levels peak. +But even at menstruation, they're better than the average man. +Women can talk. +They've been doing it for a million years; words were women's tools. +They held that baby in front of their face, cajoling it, reprimanding it, educating it with words. +And, indeed, they're becoming a very powerful force. +Even in places like India and Japan, where women are not moving rapidly into the regular job market, they're moving into journalism. +And I think that the television is like the global campfire. +We sit around it and it shapes our minds. +Almost always, when I'm on TV, the producer who calls me, who negotiates what we're going to say, is a woman. +In fact, Solzhenitsyn once said, "To have a great writer is to have another government." +Today 54 percent of people who are writers in America are women. +It's one of many, many characteristics that women have that they will bring into the job market. +They've got incredible people skills, negotiating skills. +They're highly imaginative. +We now know the brain circuitry of imagination, of long-term planning. +They tend to be web thinkers. +Because the female parts of the brain are better connected, they tend to collect more pieces of data when they think, put them into more complex patterns, see more options and outcomes. +They tend to be contextual, holistic thinkers, what I call web thinkers. +Men tend to -- and these are averages -- tend to get rid of what they regard as extraneous, focus on what they do, and move in a more step-by-step thinking pattern. +They're both perfectly good ways of thinking. +We need both of them to get ahead. +In fact, there's many more male geniuses in the world. +And there's also many more male idiots in the world. When the male brain works well, it works extremely well. +And what I really think that we're doing is, we're moving towards a collaborative society, a society in which the talents of both men and women are becoming understood and valued and employed. +But in fact, women moving into the job market is having a huge impact on sex and romance and family life. +Foremost, women are starting to express their sexuality. +I'm always astonished when people come to me and say, "Why is it that men are so adulterous?" +"Why do you think more men are adulterous than women?" +"Well, men are more adulterous!" +And I say, "Who do you think these men are sleeping with?" +And -- basic math! +Anyway. +In the Western world, women start sooner at sex, have more partners, express less remorse for the partners that they do, marry later, have fewer children, leave bad marriages in order to get good ones. +We are seeing the rise of female sexual expression. +And, indeed, once again we're moving forward to the kind of sexual expression that we probably saw on the grasslands of Africa a million years ago, because this is the kind of sexual expression that we see in hunting and gathering societies today. +We're also returning to an ancient form of marriage equality. +They're now saying that the 21st century is going to be the century of what they call the "symmetrical marriage," or the "pure marriage," or the "companionate marriage." +This is a marriage between equals, moving forward to a pattern that is highly compatible with the ancient human spirit. +We're also seeing a rise of romantic love. +91 percent of American women and 86 percent of American men would not marry somebody who had every single quality they were looking for in a partner, if they were not in love with that person. +People around the world, in a study of 37 societies, want to be in love with the person that they marry. +Indeed, arranged marriages are on their way off this braid of human life. +I even think that marriages might even become more stable because of the second great world trend. +The first one being women moving into the job market, the second one being the aging world population. +They're now saying that in America, that middle age should be regarded as up to age 85. +Because in that highest age category of 76 to 85, as much as 40 percent of people have nothing really wrong with them. +So we're seeing there's a real extension of middle age. +For one of my books, I looked at divorce data in 58 societies. +And as it turns out, the older you get, the less likely you are to divorce. +So the divorce rate right now is stable in America, and it's actually beginning to decline. +It may decline some more. +I would even say that with Viagra, estrogen replacement, hip replacements and the incredibly interesting women -- women have never been as interesting as they are now. +Not at any time on this planet have women been so educated, so interesting, so capable. +And so I honestly think that if there really was ever a time in human evolution when we have the opportunity to make good marriages, that time is now. +However, there's always kinds of complications in this. +These three brain systems -- lust, romantic love and attachment -- don't always go together. +They can go together, by the way. +That's why casual sex isn't so casual. +With orgasm you get a spike of dopamine. +Dopamine's associated with romantic love, and you can just fall in love with somebody who you're just having casual sex with. +With orgasm, then you get a real rush of oxytocin and vasopressin -- those are associated with attachment. +This is why you can feel such a sense of cosmic union with somebody after you've made love to them. +But these three brain systems: lust, romantic love and attachment, aren't always connected to each other. +You can feel deep attachment to a long-term partner while you feel intense romantic love for somebody else, while you feel the sex drive for people unrelated to these other partners. +In short, we're capable of loving more than one person at a time. +In fact, you can lie in bed at night and swing from deep feelings of attachment for one person to deep feelings of romantic love for somebody else. +It's as if there's a committee meeting going on in your head as you are trying to decide what to do. +So I don't think, honestly, we're an animal that was built to be happy; we are an animal that was built to reproduce. +I think the happiness we find, we make. +And I think, however, we can make good relationships with each other. +So I want to conclude with two things. +I want to conclude with a worry, and with a wonderful story. +The worry is about antidepressants. +Over 100 million prescriptions of antidepressants are written every year in the United States. +And these drugs are going generic. +They are seeping around the world. +I know one girl who's been on these antidepressants, SSRIs, serotonin-enhancing antidepressants -- since she was 13. +She's 23. She's been on them ever since she was 13. +I've got nothing against people who take them short term, when they're going through something horrible. +They want to commit suicide or kill somebody else. +I would recommend it. +But more and more people in the United States are taking them long term. +And indeed, what these drugs do is raise levels of serotonin. +And by raising levels of serotonin, you suppress the dopamine circuit. +Everybody knows that. +Dopamine is associated with romantic love. +Not only do they suppress the dopamine circuit, but they kill the sex drive. +And when you kill the sex drive, you kill orgasm. +And when you kill orgasm, you kill that flood of drugs associated with attachment. +The things are connected in the brain. +And when you tamper with one brain system, you're going to tamper with another. +I'm just simply saying that a world without love is a deadly place. +So now -- Thank you. +I want to end with a story. And then, just a comment. +I've been studying romantic love and sex and attachment for 30 years. +I'm an identical twin; I am interested in why we're all alike. +Why you and I are alike, why the Iraqis and the Japanese and the Australian Aborigines and the people of the Amazon River are all alike. +And about a year ago, an Internet dating service, Match.com, came to me and asked me if I would design a new dating site for them. +I said, "I don't know anything about personality. You know? +I don't know. Do you think you've got the right person?" +They said, "Yes." +It got me thinking about why it is that you fall in love with one person rather than another. +That's my current project; it will be my next book. +There's all kinds of reasons that you fall in love with one person rather than another. +Timing is important. Proximity is important. +Mystery is important. You fall in love with somebody who's somewhat mysterious, in part because mystery elevates dopamine in the brain, probably pushes you over that threshold to fall in love. +You fall in love with somebody who fits within what I call your "love map," an unconscious list of traits that you build in childhood as you grow up. +And I also think that you gravitate to certain people, actually, with somewhat complementary brain systems. +And that's what I'm now contributing to this. +But I want to tell you a story, to illustrate. +I've been carrying on here about the biology of love. +I wanted to show you a little bit about the culture of it, too, the magic of it. +It's a story that was told to me by somebody who had heard it just from one -- probably a true story. +It was a graduate student -- I'm at Rutgers and my two colleagues -- Art Aron is at SUNY Stony Brook. +That's where we put our people in the MRI machine. +And this graduate student was madly in love with another graduate student, and she was not in love with him. +And they were all at a conference in Beijing. +And he knew from our work that if you go and do something very novel with somebody, you can drive up the dopamine in the brain, and perhaps trigger this brain system for romantic love. So he decided he'd put science to work. +And he invited this girl to go off on a rickshaw ride with him. +And sure enough -- I've never been in one, but apparently they go all around the buses and the trucks and it's crazy and it's noisy and it's exciting. +He figured that this would drive up the dopamine, and she'd fall in love with him. +So off they go and she's squealing and squeezing him and laughing and having a wonderful time. +An hour later they get down off of the rickshaw, and she throws her hands up and she says, "Wasn't that wonderful?" +And, "Wasn't that rickshaw driver handsome!" +There's magic to love! +But I will end by saying that millions of years ago, we evolved three basic drives: the sex drive, romantic love and attachment to a long-term partner. +These circuits are deeply embedded in the human brain. +They're going to survive as long as our species survives on what Shakespeare called "this mortal coil." +Thank you. Chris Anderson: Helen Fisher! +It is a thrill to be here at a conference that's devoted to "Inspired by Nature" -- you can imagine. +And I'm also thrilled to be in the foreplay section. +Did you notice this section is foreplay? +Because I get to talk about one of my favorite critters, which is the Western Grebe. You haven't lived until you've seen these guys do their courtship dance. +I was on Bowman Lake in Glacier National Park, which is a long, skinny lake with sort of mountains upside down in it, and my partner and I have a rowing shell. +And so we were rowing, and one of these Western Grebes came along. +And what they do for their courtship dance is, they go together, the two of them, the two mates, and they begin to run underwater. +They paddle faster, and faster, and faster, until they're going so fast that they literally lift up out of the water, and they're standing upright, sort of paddling the top of the water. +And one of these Grebes came along while we were rowing. +And so we're in a skull, and we're moving really, really quickly. +And this Grebe, I think, sort of, mistaked us for a prospect, and started to run along the water next to us, in a courtship dance -- for miles. +It would stop, and then start, and then stop, and then start. +Now that is foreplay. +I came this close to changing species at that moment. +Obviously, life can teach us something in the entertainment section. Life has a lot to teach us. +But what I'd like to talk about today is what life might teach us in technology and in design. +Or -- and this is the fun part for me -- we want you to take us out into the natural world. We'll come with a design challenge and we find the champion adapters in the natural world, who might inspire us. +So this is a picture from a Galapagos trip that we took with some wastewater treatment engineers; they purify wastewater. +And some of them were very resistant, actually, to being there. +What they said to us at first was, you know, we already do biomimicry. +We use bacteria to clean our water. And we said, well, that's not exactly being inspired by nature. +That's bioprocessing, you know; that's bio-assisted technology: using an organism to do your wastewater treatment is an old, old technology called "domestication." +This is learning something, learning an idea, from an organism and then applying it. +And so they still weren't getting it. +So we went for a walk on the beach and I said, well, give me one of your big problems. Give me a design challenge, sustainability speed bump, that's keeping you from being sustainable. +And they said scaling, which is the build-up of minerals inside of pipes. +And they said, you know what happens is, mineral -- just like at your house -- mineral builds up. +And then the aperture closes, and we have to flush the pipes with toxins, or we have to dig them up. +So if we had some way to stop this scaling -- and so I picked up some shells on the beach. And I asked them, what is scaling? What's inside your pipes? +And they said, calcium carbonate. +And I said, that's what this is; this is calcium carbonate. +And they didn't know that. +They didn't know that what a seashell is, it's templated by proteins, and then ions from the seawater crystallize in place to create a shell. +So the same sort of a process, without the proteins, is happening on the inside of their pipes. They didn't know. +This is not for lack of information; it's a lack of integration. +You know, it's a silo, people in silos. They didn't know that the same thing was happening. So one of them thought about it and said, OK, well, if this is just crystallization that happens automatically out of seawater -- self-assembly -- then why aren't shells infinite in size? What stops the scaling? +Why don't they just keep on going? +And I said, well, in the same way that they exude a protein and it starts the crystallization -- and then they all sort of leaned in -- they let go of a protein that stops the crystallization. +It literally adheres to the growing face of the crystal. +And, in fact, there is a product called TPA that's mimicked that protein -- that stop-protein -- and it's an environmentally friendly way to stop scaling in pipes. +That changed everything. From then on, you could not get these engineers back in the boat. +The first day they would take a hike, and it was, click, click, click, click. Five minutes later they were back in the boat. +We're done. You know, I've seen that island. +After this, they were crawling all over. They would snorkel for as long as we would let them snorkel. +What had happened was that they realized that there were organisms out there that had already solved the problems that they had spent their careers trying to solve. +Learning about the natural world is one thing; learning from the natural world -- that's the switch. +That's the profound switch. +What they realized was that the answers to their questions are everywhere; they just needed to change the lenses with which they saw the world. +3.8 billion years of field-testing. +10 to 30 -- Craig Venter will probably tell you; I think there's a lot more than 30 million -- well-adapted solutions. +The important thing for me is that these are solutions solved in context. +And the context is the Earth -- the same context that we're trying to solve our problems in. +So it's the conscious emulation of life's genius. +It's not slavishly mimicking -- although Al is trying to get the hairdo going -- it's not a slavish mimicry; it's taking the design principles, the genius of the natural world, and learning something from it. +That's on the software side. But what's interesting to me is that we haven't looked at this, as much. I mean, these machines are really not very high tech in my estimation in the sense that there's dozens and dozens of carcinogens in the water in Silicon Valley. +So the hardware is not at all up to snuff in terms of what life would call a success. +So what can we learn about making -- not just computers, but everything? +The plane you came in, cars, the seats that you're sitting on. +How do we redesign the world that we make, the human-made world? +More importantly, what should we ask in the next 10 years? +And there's a lot of cool technologies out there that life has. +What's the syllabus? +Three questions, for me, are key. +How does life make things? +This is the opposite; this is how we make things. +It's called heat, beat and treat -- that's what material scientists call it. +And it's carving things down from the top, with 96 percent waste left over and only 4 percent product. You heat it up; you beat it with high pressures; you use chemicals. OK. Heat, beat and treat. +Life can't afford to do that. How does life make things? +How does life make the most of things? +That's a geranium pollen. +And its shape is what gives it the function of being able to tumble through air so easily. Look at that shape. +Life adds information to matter. +In other words: structure. +It gives it information. By adding information to matter, it gives it a function that's different than without that structure. +And thirdly, how does life make things disappear into systems? +Because life doesn't really deal in things; there are no things in the natural world divorced from their systems. +Really quick syllabus. +As I'm reading more and more now, and following the story, there are some amazing things coming up in the biological sciences. +And at the same time, I'm listening to a lot of businesses and finding what their sort of grand challenges are. +The two groups are not talking to each other. +At all. +What in the world of biology might be helpful at this juncture, to get us through this sort of evolutionary knothole that we're in? +I'm going to try to go through 12, really quickly. +One that's exciting to me is self-assembly. +Now, you've heard about this in terms of nanotechnology. +Back to that shell: the shell is a self-assembling material. +On the lower left there is a picture of mother of pearl forming out of seawater. It's a layered structure that's mineral and then polymer, and it makes it very, very tough. +It's twice as tough as our high-tech ceramics. +But what's really interesting: unlike our ceramics that are in kilns, it happens in seawater. It happens near, in and near, the organism's body. +This is Sandia National Labs. +A guy named Jeff Brinker has found a way to have a self-assembling coding process. +Imagine being able to make ceramics at room temperature by simply dipping something into a liquid, lifting it out of the liquid, and having evaporation force the molecules in the liquid together, so that they jigsaw together in the same way as this crystallization works. +Imagine making all of our hard materials that way. +Imagine spraying the precursors to a PV cell, to a solar cell, onto a roof, and having it self-assemble into a layered structure that harvests light. +Here's an interesting one for the IT world: bio-silicon. This is a diatom, which is made of silicates. +And so silicon, which we make right now -- it's part of our carcinogenic problem in the manufacture of our chips -- this is a bio-mineralization process that's now being mimicked. +This is at UC Santa Barbara. Look at these diatoms. +This is from Ernst Haeckel's work. +Imagine being able to -- and, again, it's a templated process, and it solidifies out of a liquid process -- imagine being able to have that sort of structure coming out at room temperature. +Imagine being able to make perfect lenses. +On the left, this is a brittle star; it's covered with lenses that the people at Lucent Technologies have found have no distortion whatsoever. +It's one of the most distortion-free lenses we know of. +And there's many of them, all over its entire body. +What's interesting, again, is that it self-assembles. +A woman named Joanna Aizenberg, at Lucent, is now learning to do this in a low-temperature process to create these sort of lenses. She's also looking at fiber optics. +That's a sea sponge that has a fiber optic. +Down at the very base of it, there's fiber optics that work better than ours, actually, to move light, but you can tie them in a knot; they're incredibly flexible. +Here's another big idea: CO2 as a feedstock. +A guy named Geoff Coates, at Cornell, said to himself, you know, plants do not see CO2 as the biggest poison of our time. +We see it that way. Plants are busy making long chains of starches and glucose, right, out of CO2. He's found a way -- he's found a catalyst -- and he's found a way to take CO2 and make it into polycarbonates. Biodegradable plastics out of CO2 -- how plant-like. +Solar transformations: the most exciting one. +In our fuel cells, we do it with platinum; life does it with a very, very common iron. +And a team has now just been able to mimic that hydrogen-juggling hydrogenase. +That's very exciting for fuel cells -- to be able to do that without platinum. +Power of shape: here's a whale. We've seen that the fins of this whale have tubercles on them. And those little bumps actually increase efficiency in, for instance, the edge of an airplane -- increase efficiency by about 32 percent. +Which is an amazing fossil fuel savings, if we were to just put that on the edge of a wing. +Color without pigments: this peacock is creating color with shape. +Light comes through, it bounces back off the layers; it's called thin-film interference. Imagine being able to self-assemble products with the last few layers playing with light to create color. +Imagine being able to create a shape on the outside of a surface, so that it's self-cleaning with just water. That's what a leaf does. +See that up-close picture? +That's a ball of water, and those are dirt particles. +And that's an up-close picture of a lotus leaf. +There's a company making a product called Lotusan, which mimics -- when the building facade paint dries, it mimics the bumps in a self-cleaning leaf, and rainwater cleans the building. +Water is going to be our big, grand challenge: quenching thirst. +Here are two organisms that pull water. +The one on the left is the Namibian beetle pulling water out of fog. +The one on the right is a pill bug -- pulls water out of air, does not drink fresh water. +Pulling water out of Monterey fog and out of the sweaty air in Atlanta, before it gets into a building, are key technologies. +Separation technologies are going to be extremely important. +What if we were to say, no more hard rock mining? +What if we were to separate out metals from waste streams, small amounts of metals in water? That's what microbes do; they chelate metals out of water. +There's a company here in San Francisco called MR3 that is embedding mimics of the microbes' molecules on filters to mine waste streams. +Green chemistry is chemistry in water. +We do chemistry in organic solvents. +This is a picture of the spinnerets coming out of a spider and the silk being formed from a spider. Isn't that beautiful? +Green chemistry is replacing our industrial chemistry with nature's recipe book. +It's not easy, because life uses only a subset of the elements in the periodic table. +And we use all of them, even the toxic ones. +To figure out the elegant recipes that would take the small subset of the periodic table, and create miracle materials like that cell, is the task of green chemistry. +Timed degradation: packaging that is good until you don't want it to be good anymore, and dissolves on cue. +That's a mussel you can find in the waters out here, and the threads holding it to a rock are timed; at exactly two years, they begin to dissolve. +Healing: this is a good one. +That little guy over there is a tardigrade. +There is a problem with vaccines around the world not getting to patients. And the reason is that the refrigeration somehow gets broken; what's called the "cold chain" gets broken. +A guy named Bruce Rosner looked at the tardigrade -- which dries out completely, and yet stays alive for months and months and months, and is able to regenerate itself. +And he found a way to dry out vaccines -- encase them in the same sort of sugar capsules as the tardigrade has within its cells -- meaning that vaccines no longer need to be refrigerated. +They can be put in a glove compartment, OK. +Learning from organisms. This is a session about water -- learning about organisms that can do without water, in order to create a vaccine that lasts and lasts and lasts without refrigeration. +I'm not going to get to 12. +But what I am going to do is tell you that the most important thing, besides all of these adaptations, is the fact that these organisms have figured out a way to do the amazing things they do while taking care of the place that's going to take care of their offspring. +When they're involved in foreplay, they're thinking about something very, very important -- and that's having their genetic material remain, 10,000 generations from now. +And that means finding a way to do what they do without destroying the place that'll take care of their offspring. +That's the biggest design challenge. +Luckily, there are millions and millions of geniuses willing to gift us with their best ideas. +Good luck having a conversation with them. +Thank you. +Chris Anderson: Talk about foreplay, I -- we need to get to 12, but really quickly. +Janine Benyus: Oh really? +CA: Yeah. Just like, you know, like the 10-second version of 10, 11 and 12. Because we just -- your slides are so gorgeous, and the ideas are so big, I can't stand to let you go down without seeing 10, 11 and 12. +JB: OK, put this -- OK, I'll just hold this thing. OK, great. +OK, so that's the healing one. +Sensing and responding: feedback is a huge thing. +This is a locust. There can be 80 million of them in a square kilometer, and yet they don't collide with one another. +And yet we have 3.6 million car collisions a year. +Right. There's a person at Newcastle who has figured out that it's a very large neuron. +And she's actually figuring out how to make a collision-avoidance circuitry based on this very large neuron in the locust. +This is a huge and important one, number 11. +And that's the growing fertility. +That means, you know, net fertility farming. +We should be growing fertility. And, oh yes -- we get food, too. +Because we have to grow the capacity of this planet to create more and more opportunities for life. +And really, that's what other organisms do as well. +In ensemble, that's what whole ecosystems do: they create more and more opportunities for life. +Our farming has done the opposite. +So, farming based on how a prairie builds soil, ranching based on how a native ungulate herd actually increases the health of the range, even wastewater treatment based on how a marsh not only cleans the water, but creates incredibly sparkling productivity. +This is the simple design brief. I mean, it looks simple because the system, over 3.8 billion years, has worked this out. +That is, those organisms that have not been able to figure out how to enhance or sweeten their places, are not around to tell us about it. +That's the twelfth one. +Life -- and this is the secret trick; this is the magic trick -- life creates conditions conducive to life. +It builds soil; it cleans air; it cleans water; it mixes the cocktail of gases that you and I need to live. +And it does that in the middle of having great foreplay and meeting their needs. So it's not mutually exclusive. +We have to find a way to meet our needs, while making of this place an Eden. +CA: Janine, thank you so much. +I don't know about you, but I haven't quite figured out exactly what technology means in my life. +I've spent the past year thinking about what it really should be about. +Should I be pro-technology? Should I embrace it full arms? +Should I be wary? Like you, I'm very tempted by the latest thing. +But at the other hand, a couple of years ago I gave up all of my possessions, sold all my technology -- except for a bicycle -- and rode across 3,000 miles on the U.S. back roads under the power of my one body, fuelled mostly by Twinkies and junk food. +And I've since then tried to keep technology at arm's length in many ways, so it doesn't master my life. +At the same time, I run a website on cool tools, where I issue a daily obsession of the latest things in technology. +So I'm still perplexed about what the true meaning of technology is as it relates to humanity, as it relates to nature, as it relates to the spiritual. +And I'm not even sure we know what technology is. +And one definition of technology is that which is first recorded. +This is the first example of the modern use of technology that I can find. +It was the suggested syllabus for dealing with the Applied Arts and Science at Cambridge University in 1829. +Before that, obviously, technology didn't exist. But obviously it did. +I like one of the definitions that Alan Kay has for technology. +He says technology is anything that was invented after you were born. +So it sums up a lot of what we're talking about. +Danny Hillis actually has an update on that -- he says technology is anything that doesn't quite work yet. +Which also, I think, gets into a little bit of our current idea. +But I was interested in another definition of technology. +Something, again, that went back to something more fundamental. +Something that was deeper. And as I struggled to understand that, I came up with a way of framing the question that seemed to work for me in my investigations. +And I'm, this morning, going to talk about this for the first time. +So this is a very rough attempt to think out loud. +The question that I came up with was this question: what does technology want? And by that, I don't mean, does it want chocolate or vanilla? By what it wants, I mean, what are its inherent trends and biases? +What are its tendencies over time? One way to think about this is thinking about biological organisms, which we've heard a lot about. +And the trick that Richard Dawkins does, which is to say, to look at them as simply as genes, as vehicles for genes. +So he's saying, what do genes want? The selfish gene. +And I'm applying a similar trick to say, what if we looked at the universe in our culture through the eyes of technology? What does technology want? +Obviously, this in an incomplete question, just as looking at an organism as only a gene is an incomplete way of looking at it. +But it's still very, very productive. So I'm attempting to say, if we take technology's view of the world, what does it want? +And I think once we ask that question we have to go back, actually, to life. Because obviously, if we keep extending the origins of technology far back, I think we come back to life at some point. +So that's where I want to begin my little exploration, is in life. +And like you heard from the previous speakers, we don't really know what life there is on Earth right now. +We have really no idea. +Craig Venter's tremendous and brilliant attempt to DNA sequence things in the ocean is great. +Brian Farrell's work is all part of this agenda to try and actually discover all the species on Earth. +This is not on another planet. These are things that are hidden away on our planet. +This is an ant that stores its colleagues' honey in its abdomen. +Each one of these organisms that we've described -- that you've seen from Jamie and others, these magnificent things -- what they're doing, each one of them, is they're hacking the rules of life. +I can't think of a single general principle of biology that does not have an exception somewhere by some organism. +Every single thing that we can think of -- and if you heard Olivia's talk about the sexual habits, you'll realize that there isn't anything we can say that's true for all life, because every single one of them is hacking something about it. +This is a solar-powered sea slug. It's a nudibranch that has incorporated chloroplast inside it to drive its energy. +This is another version of that. This is a sea dragon, and the one on the bottom, the blue one, is a juvenile that has not yet swallowed the acid, has not yet taken in the brown-green algae pond scum into its body to give it energy. +These are hacks, and if we looked at the general shape of the approaches to hacking life there are, current consensus, six kingdoms. Six different broad approaches: the plants, the animals, the fungi, the protests -- the little things -- the bacteria and the Archaea bacteria. The Archaeas. +Those are the general approaches to life. That's one way to look at life on Earth today. +But a more interesting way, the current way to take the long view, is to look at it in an evolutionary perspective. +And here we have a view of evolution where rather than having evolution go over the linear time, we have it coming out from the center. +So in the center is the most primitive, and this is a genealogical chart of all life on earth. This is all the same six kingdoms. +You see 4,000 representative species, and you can see where we are. +But what I like about this is it shows that every living organism on Earth today is equally evolved. +Those fungi and bacteria are as highly evolved as humans. +They've been around just as long and gone through just the same kind of trial and error to get here. +But we see that each one of these is actually hacking, and has a different way of finding out how to do life. +And if we take the long-term trends of life, if we begin to say, what does evolution want? There's several things that we see. +One of the things about evolution is that nowhere on Earth have we ever been where we don't find life. +We find life at the bottom of every long-term, long-distance drilling core into the center of rock that we bring up -- and there's bacteria in the pores of that rock. +And wherever life is, it never retreats. It's ubiquitous and it wants to be more. +More and more of the inert matter of the globe is being touched and animated by life. +The second thing is is we see diversity. We also see specialization. +We see the movement from a general-purpose cell to the more specific and specialized. +And we see a drift towards complexity that's very intuitive. +And actually, we have current data that does show that there is an actual drift towards complexity over time. +And the last thing, I bring back this nudibranch. +One of the things we see about life is that it moves from the inner to increasing sociability. And by that it means that there is more and more of life whose entire environment is other life. +Like those chloroplast cells -- they're completely surrounded by other life. +They never touch the inner matter. There is more and more co-evolution. +And so the general, long-term trends of evolution are roughly these five: ubiquity, diversity, specialization, complexity and socialization. Now, I took that and said, OK, what are the long-term trends in technology? +And again, my question is, what does technology want? +And so, remarkably, I discovered that there's also a drift toward specialization. +That we see there's a general hammer, and hammers become more and more specific over time. +There's obviously diversity. Huge numbers of things. +This is all the contents of a Japanese home. +I actually had my daughter -- gave her a tally counter, and I gave her an assignment last summer to go around and count the number of species of technology in our household. +And it came up with 6,000 different species of products. +I did some research and found out that the King of England, Henry VIII, had only about 7,000 items in his household. +And he was the King of England, and that was the entire wealth of England at the time. +So we're seeing huge numbers of diversity in the kinds of things. +This is a scene from Star Wars where the 3PO comes out and he sees machines making machines. How depraved! +Well, this is actually what we're headed towards: world machines. +And the technology is only being thrown out by other technologies. +Most machines will only ever be in contact with other technology and not non-technology, or even life. +And thirdly, the idea that machines are becoming biological and complex is at this point a cliche. And I'm happy to say, I was partly responsible for that cliche that machines are becoming biological, but that's pretty evident. +I suggest that, in fact, technology is the seventh kingdom of life. +That its operations and how it works is so similar that we can think of it as the seventh kingdom. +And so it would be sort of approximately up there, coming out of the animal kingdom. And if we were to do that, we would find out -- we could actually approach technology in this way. +This is Niles Eldredge. He was the co-developer with Stephen Jay Gould of the theory of punctuated equilibrium. +But as a sideline, he happens to collect cornets. +He has one of the world's largest collections -- about 500 of them. +And he has decided to treat them as if they were trilobites, or snails, and to do a morphological analysis, and try to derive their genealogical history over time. +This is his chart, which is not quite published yet. +But the most interesting aspect about this is that if you look at those red lines at the bottom, those indicate basically a parentage of a type of cornet that was no longer made. That does not happen in biology. +When something is extinct, you can't have it as your parent. +But that does happen in technology. And it turns out that that's so distinctive that you can actually look at this tree, and you can actually use it to determine that this is a technological system versus a biological system. +In fact, this idea of resurrecting the whole idea is so important that I began to think about what happens with old technology. +And it turns out that, in fact, technologies don't die. +So I suggested this to an historian of science, and he said, "Well, what about, you know, come on, what about steam cars? +They're not around anymore." Well actually, they are. +In fact, they're so around that you can buy new parts for a Stanley steam automobile. +And this is a website of a guy who's selling brand new parts for the Stanley automobile. And the thing that I liked is sort of this one-click, add-to-your-cart button -- -- for buying steam valves. I mean, it was just -- it was really there. +And so, I began to think about, well, maybe that's just a random sample. +Maybe I should do this sort of in a more conservative way. +And not antiques. I want to know how many of these things are still in production. +And the answer is: all of them. +All of them are still being produced. So you've got corn shellers. +I don't know who needs a corn sheller. +Be it corn shellers -- you've got ploughs; you've got fan mills; all these things -- and these are not, again, antiques. These are -- you can order these. You can go to the web and you can buy them now, brand-new made. So in a certain sense, technologies don't die. +In fact, you can buy, for 50 bucks, a stone-age knife made exactly the same way that they were made 10,000 years ago. +It's short, bone handle, 50 bucks. And in fact, what's important is that this information actually never died out. +It's not just that it was resurrected. It's continued all along. +And in Papua New Guinea, they were making stone axes until two decades ago, just as a course of practical matters. +Even when we try to get rid of a technology, it's actually very hard. +So we've all heard about the Amish giving up cars. +We've heard about the Japanese giving up guns. +That's what it's for. It's so that ideas don't die out. +They're actually changing the way in which ideas are generated. +So all these steps in evolution are increasing, basically, the evolution of evolvability. +So what's happening over time in life is that the ways in which you generate these new ideas, these new hacks, are increasing. And the real tricks are ways in which you kind of explore the way of exploring. +And then what we see in the singularity, that prophesized by Kurzweil and others -- his idea that technology is accelerating evolution. +It's accelerating the way in which we search for ideas. +So if you have life hacking -- life means hacking, the game of survival -- then evolution is a way to extend the game by changing the rules of the game. +And what technology is really about is better ways to evolve. +That is what we call an "infinite game." +That's the definition of "infinite game." A finite game is play to win, and an infinite game is played to keep playing. +And I believe that technology is actually a cosmic force. +The origins of technology was not in 1829, but was actually at the beginning of the Big Bang, and at that moment the entire huge billions of stars in the universe were compressed. The entire universe was compressed into a little quantum dot, and it was so tight in there, there was no room for any difference at all. +That's the definition. There was no temperature. +There was no difference whatsoever. And at the Big Bang, what it expanded was the potential for difference. +So as it expands and as things expand what we have is the potential for differences, diversity, options, choices, opportunities, possibilities and freedoms. +Those are all basically the same thing. +And those are the things that technology brings us. +That's what technology is bringing us: choices, possibilities, freedoms. +That's what it's about. It's this expansion of room to make differences. +And so a hammer, when we grab a hammer, that's what we're grabbing. +And that's why we continue to grab technology -- because we want those things. Those things are good. +Differences, freedom, choices, possibilities. +And each time we make a new opportunity place, we're allowing a platform to make new ones. +And I think it's really important. Because if you can imagine Mozart before the technology of the piano was invented -- what a loss to society there would be. +Imagine Van Gogh being born before the technologies of cheap oil paints. +Imagine Hitchcock before the technologies of film. +Somewhere, today, there are millions of young children being born whose technology of self-expression has not yet been invented. +We have a moral obligation to invent technology so that every person on the globe has the potential to realize their true difference. +We want a trillion zillion species of one individuals. +That's what technology really wants. +I'm going to skip through some of the objections because I don't have answers to why there's deforestation. +I don't have an answer to the fact that there seem to be bad technologies. I don't have an answer to how this impacts on our dignity, other than to suggest that maybe the seventh kingdom, because it's so close to what life is about, maybe we can bring it back and have it help us monitor life. +Maybe in some ways the fact that what we're trying to do with technology is find a good home for it. +It's a terrible thing to spray DDT on cotton fields, but it's a really good thing to use to eliminate millions of cases of death due to malaria in a small village. +Our humanity is actually defined by technology. +All the things that we think that we really like about humanity is being driven by technology. This is the infinite game. +That's what we're talking about. +You see, technology is a way to evolve the evolution. +It's a way to explore possibilities and opportunities and create more. +And it's actually a way of playing the game, of playing all the games. +That's what technology wants. +And so when I think about what technology wants, I think that it has to do with the fact that every person here -- and I really believe this -- every person here has an assignment. And your assignment is to spend your life discovering what your assignment is. +That recursive nature is the infinite game. +And if you play that well, you'll have other people involved, so even that game extends and continues even when you're gone. +That is the infinite game. And what technology is is the medium in which we play that infinite game. +And so I think that we should embrace technology because it is an essential part of our journey in finding out who we are. +Thank you. +I think I was supposed to talk about my new book, which is called "Blink," and it's about snap judgments and first impressions. +And it comes out in January, and I hope you all buy it in triplicate. +But I was thinking about this, and I realized that although my new book makes me happy, and I think would make my mother happy, it's not really about happiness. +So I decided instead, I would talk about someone who I think has done as much to make Americans happy as perhaps anyone over the last 20 years, a man who is a great personal hero of mine: someone by the name of Howard Moskowitz, who is most famous for reinventing spaghetti sauce. +Howard's about this high, and he's round, and he's in his 60s, and he has big huge glasses and thinning gray hair, and he has a kind of wonderful exuberance and vitality, and he has a parrot, and he loves the opera, and he's a great aficionado of medieval history. +And by profession, he's a psychophysicist. +Now, I should tell you that I have no idea what psychophysics is, although at some point in my life, I dated a girl for two years who was getting her doctorate in psychophysics. +Which should tell you something about that relationship. As far as I know, psychophysics is about measuring things. +And Howard is very interested in measuring things. +And he graduated with his doctorate from Harvard, and he set up a little consulting shop in White Plains, New York. +And one of his first clients was Pepsi. This is many years ago, back in the early 70s. +And Pepsi came to Howard and they said, "You know, there's this new thing called aspartame, and we would like to make Diet Pepsi. +how much aspartame we should put in each can of Diet Pepsi in order to have the perfect drink." +Now that sounds like an incredibly straightforward question to answer, and that's what Howard thought. Because Pepsi told him, "We're working with a band between eight and 12 percent. +Anything below eight percent sweetness is not sweet enough; anything above 12 percent sweetness is too sweet. +We want to know: what's the sweet spot between 8 and 12?" +Now, if I gave you this problem to do, you would all say, it's very simple. +What we do is you make up a big experimental batch of Pepsi, at every degree of sweetness -- eight percent, 8.1, 8.2, 8.3, all the way up to 12 -- and we try this out with thousands of people, and we plot the results on a curve, and we take the most popular concentration, right? Really simple. +Howard does the experiment, and he gets the data back, and he plots it on a curve, and all of a sudden he realizes it's not a nice bell curve. +In fact, the data doesn't make any sense. +It's a mess. It's all over the place. +Now, most people in that business, in the world of testing food and such, are not dismayed when the data comes back a mess. +They think, "Well, you know, figuring out what people think about cola's not that easy." +"You know, maybe we made an error somewhere along the way." +"You know, let's just make an educated guess," and they simply point and they go for 10 percent, right in the middle. +Howard is not so easily placated. +Howard is a man of a certain degree of intellectual standards. +And this was not good enough for him, and this question bedeviled him for years. +And he would think it through and say, "What was wrong? +Why could we not make sense of this experiment with Diet Pepsi?" +And one day, he was sitting in a diner in White Plains, about to go trying to dream up some work for Nescaf. +And suddenly, like a bolt of lightning, the answer came to him. +And that is, that when they analyzed the Diet Pepsi data, they were asking the wrong question. +They were looking for the perfect Pepsi, and they should have been looking for the perfect Pepsis. Trust me. +This was an enormous revelation. +This was one of the most brilliant breakthroughs in all of food science. +Howard immediately went on the road, and he would go to conferences around the country, and he would stand up and say, "You had been looking for the perfect Pepsi. You're wrong. +You should be looking for the perfect Pepsis." +And people would look at him blankly and say, "What are you talking about? Craziness." +And they would say, "Move! Next!" +Tried to get business, nobody would hire him -- he was obsessed, though, and he talked about it and talked about it. +Howard loves the Yiddish expression "To a worm in horseradish, the world is horseradish." +This was his horseradish. He was obsessed with it! +And finally, he had a breakthrough. +Vlasic Pickles came to him, and they said, "Doctor Moskowitz, we want to make the perfect pickle." And he said, "There is no perfect pickle; there are only perfect pickles." +And he came back to them and he said, "You don't just need to improve your regular; you need to create zesty." +And that's where we got zesty pickles. +Then the next person came to him: Campbell's Soup. +And this was even more important. +In fact, Campbell's Soup is where Howard made his reputation. +Campbell's made Prego, and Prego, in the early 80s, was struggling next to Rag, which was the dominant spaghetti sauce of the 70s and 80s. +In the industry -- I don't know whether you care about this, or how much time I have to go into this. +But it was, technically speaking -- this is an aside -- Prego is a better tomato sauce than Rag. +The quality of the tomato paste is much better; the spice mix is far superior; it adheres to the pasta in a much more pleasing way. +In fact, they would do the famous bowl test back in the 70s with Rag and Prego. +You'd have a plate of spaghetti, and you would pour it on, right? +And the Rag would all go to the bottom, and the Prego would sit on top. +That's called "adherence." +And, anyway, despite the fact that they were far superior in adherence, and the quality of their tomato paste, Prego was struggling. +So they came to Howard, and they said, fix us. +And Howard looked at their product line, and he said, what you have is a dead tomato society. +So he said, this is what I want to do. +And he got together with the Campbell's soup kitchen, and he made 45 varieties of spaghetti sauce. +And then he took this whole raft of 45 spaghetti sauces, and he went on the road. +He went to New York, to Chicago, he went to Jacksonville, to Los Angeles. And he brought in people by the truckload into big halls. +And he sat them down for two hours, and over the course of that two hours, he gave them ten bowls. +Ten small bowls of pasta, with a different spaghetti sauce on each one. +And after they ate each bowl, they had to rate, from 0 to 100, how good they thought the spaghetti sauce was. +At the end of that process, after doing it for months and months, he had a mountain of data about how the American people feel about spaghetti sauce. +And then he analyzed the data. +Did he look for the most popular variety of spaghetti sauce? +No! Howard doesn't believe that there is such a thing. +Instead, he looked at the data, and he said, let's see if we can group all these different data points into clusters. +Let's see if they congregate around certain ideas. +And sure enough, if you sit down, and you analyze all this data on spaghetti sauce, you realize that all Americans fall into one of three groups. +There are people who like their spaghetti sauce plain; there are people who like their spaghetti sauce spicy; and there are people who like it extra chunky. +And of those three facts, the third one was the most significant, because at the time, in the early 1980s, if you went to a supermarket, you would not find extra-chunky spaghetti sauce. +And over the next 10 years, they made 600 million dollars off their line of extra-chunky sauces. +Everyone else in the industry looked at what Howard had done, and they said, "Oh my god! We've been thinking all wrong!" +And that's when you started to get seven different kinds of vinegar, and 14 different kinds of mustard, and 71 different kinds of olive oil. +And then eventually even Rag hired Howard, and Howard did the exact same thing for Rag that he did for Prego. +And today, if you go to a really good supermarket, do you know how many Rags there are? +36! +In six varieties: Cheese, Light, Old World Traditional -- Extra-Chunky Garden. That's Howard's doing. That is Howard's gift to the American people. +Now why is that important? It is, in fact, enormously important. I'll explain to you why. +What Howard did is he fundamentally changed the way the food industry thinks about making you happy. +Assumption number one in the food industry used to be that the way to find out what people want to eat, what will make people happy, is to ask them. +And for years and years and years, Rag and Prego would have focus groups, and they would sit you down, and they would say, "What do you want in a spaghetti sauce? Tell us what you want in a spaghetti sauce." +And for all those years -- 20, 30 years -- through all those focus group sessions, no one ever said they wanted extra-chunky. +Even though at least a third of them, deep in their hearts, actually did. +People don't know what they want! +As Howard loves to say, "The mind knows not what the tongue wants." +It's a mystery! +And a critically important step in understanding our own desires and tastes is to realize that we cannot always explain what we want, deep down. +If I asked all of you, for example, in this room, what you want in a coffee, you know what you'd say? Every one of you would say, "I want a dark, rich, hearty roast." +It's what people always say when you ask them. +"What do you like?" "Dark, rich, hearty roast!" +What percentage of you actually like a dark, rich, hearty roast? +According to Howard, somewhere between 25 and 27 percent of you. +Most of you like milky, weak coffee. But you will never, ever say to someone who asks you what you want that "I want a milky, weak coffee." +So that's number one thing that Howard did. +Number two thing that Howard did is he made us realize -- it's another very critical point -- he made us realize the importance of what he likes to call "horizontal segmentation." +Why is this critical? +Because this is the way the food industry thought before Howard. +What were they obsessed with in the early 80s? They were obsessed with mustard. +In particular, they were obsessed with the story of Grey Poupon. +Used to be, there were two mustards: French's and Gulden's. +What were they? Yellow mustard. What's in it? +Yellow mustard seeds, turmeric, and paprika. That was mustard. +Grey Poupon came along, with a Dijon. Right? +Much more volatile brown mustard seed, some white wine, a nose hit, much more delicate aromatics. And what do they do? +They put it in a little tiny glass jar, with a wonderful enameled label on it, made it look French, even though it's made in Oxnard, California. +And instead of charging a dollar fifty for the eight-ounce bottle, the way that French's and Gulden's did, they decided to charge four dollars. +And they had those ads. +With the guy in the Rolls Royce, eating the Grey Poupon. +Another pulls up, and says, "Do you have any Grey Poupon?" +And the whole thing, after they did that, Grey Poupon takes off! +Takes over the mustard business! +And everyone's take-home lesson from that was that the way to make people happy is to give them something that is more expensive, something to aspire to. +It's to make them turn their back on what they think they like now, and reach out for something higher up the mustard hierarchy. +A better mustard! A more expensive mustard! +A mustard of more sophistication and culture and meaning. +And Howard looked to that and said, "That's wrong!" +Mustard does not exist on a hierarchy. +Mustard exists, just like tomato sauce, on a horizontal plane. +There is no good mustard or bad mustard. +There is no perfect mustard or imperfect mustard. +There are only different kinds of mustards that suit different kinds of people. +He fundamentally democratized the way we think about taste. +And for that, as well, we owe Howard Moskowitz a huge vote of thanks. +Third thing that Howard did, and perhaps the most important, is Howard confronted the notion of the Platonic dish. What do I mean by that? +For the longest time in the food industry, there was a sense that there was one way, a perfect way, to make a dish. +You go to Chez Panisse, they give you the red-tail sashimi with roasted pumpkin seeds in a something something reduction. +They don't give you five options on the reduction. +They don't say, "Do you want the extra-chunky reduction, or ...?" No! +You just get the reduction. Why? Because the chef at Chez Panisse has a Platonic notion about red-tail sashimi. +"This is the way it ought to be." +And she serves it that way time and time again, and if you quarrel with her, she will say, "You know what? You're wrong! This is the best way it ought to be in this restaurant." +Now that same idea fueled the commercial food industry as well. +They had a Platonic notion of what tomato sauce was. +And where did that come from? It came from Italy. +Italian tomato sauce is what? It's blended; it's thin. +The culture of tomato sauce was thin. +When we talked about "authentic tomato sauce" in the 1970s, we talked about Italian tomato sauce, we talked about the earliest Rags, which had no visible solids, right? +Which were thin, you just put a little bit and it sunk down to the bottom of the pasta. +That's what it was. And why were we attached to that? +Because we thought that what it took to make people happy was to provide them with the most culturally authentic tomato sauce, A. +And B, we thought that if we gave them the culturally authentic tomato sauce, then they would embrace it. +And that's what would please the maximum number of people. +In other words, people in the cooking world were looking for cooking universals. +They were looking for one way to treat all of us. +And it's good reason for them to be obsessed with the idea of universals, because all of science, through the 19th century and much of the 20th, was obsessed with universals. +Psychologists, medical scientists, economists were all interested in finding out the rules that govern the way all of us behave. +But that changed, right? +What is the great revolution in science of the last 10, 15 years? +It is the movement from the search for universals to the understanding of variability. +Now in medical science, we don't want to know, necessarily, just how cancer works, we want to know how your cancer is different from my cancer. +I guess my cancer different from your cancer. +Genetics has opened the door to the study of human variability. +What Howard Moskowitz was doing was saying, "This same revolution needs to happen in the world of tomato sauce." +And for that, we owe him a great vote of thanks. +I'll give you one last illustration of variability, and that is -- oh, I'm sorry. +Howard not only believed that, but he took it a second step, which was to say that when we pursue universal principles in food, we aren't just making an error; we are actually doing ourselves a massive disservice. +And the example he used was coffee. +And coffee is something he did a lot of work with, with Nescaf. +If, however, you allowed me to break you into coffee clusters, maybe three or four coffee clusters, and I could make coffee just for each of those individual clusters, your scores would go from 60 to 75 or 78. +The difference between coffee at 60 and coffee at 78 is a difference between coffee that makes you wince, and coffee that makes you deliriously happy. +That is the final, and I think most beautiful lesson, of Howard Moskowitz: that in embracing the diversity of human beings, we will find a surer way to true happiness. +Thank you. +Over the past couple of days, as I've been preparing for my speech, I've become more and more nervous about what I'm going to say and about being on the same stage as all these fascinating people. +Being on the same stage as Al Gore, who was the first person I ever voted for. +And -- So I was getting pretty nervous and, you know, I didn't know that Chris sits on the stage, and that's more nerve-racking. +But then I started thinking about my family. +I started thinking about my father and my grandfather and my great-grandfather, and I realized that I had all of these Teds going through my bloodstream -- that I had to consider this "my element." +So, who am I? +Chris kind of mentioned I started a company with my husband. +We have about 125 people internationally. +If you looked in the book, you saw this ... +which I really was appalled by. +And because I wanted to impress you all with slides, since I saw the great presentations yesterday with graphs, I made a graph that moves, and I talk about the makeup of me. +So, besides this freakish thing, this is my science slide. +This is math, and this is science, this is genetics. +This is my grandmother, and this is where I get this mouth. +So -- I'm a blogger, which, probably, to a lot of you, means different things. +You may have heard about the Kryptonite lock brouhaha, where a blogger talked about how you hack or break into a Kryptonite lock using a ballpoint pen, and it spread all over. +Kryptonite had to adjust the lock, and they had to address it to avoid too many customer concerns. +You may have heard about Rathergate, which was basically the result of bloggers realizing that the "th" in 111 is not typeset on an old typewriter; it's on Word. +Bloggers exposed this, or they worked hard to expose this. +You know, blogs are scary. This is what you see. +I see this, and I'm sure scared -- I swear on stage -- shitless about blogs, because this is not something that's friendly. +But there are blogs that are changing the way we read news and consume media, and these are great examples. +These people are reaching thousands, if not millions, of readers, and that's incredibly important. +During the hurricane, you had MSNBC posting about the hurricane on their blog, updating it frequently. +This was possible because of the easy nature of blogging tools. +You have my friend, who has a blog on PVRs, personal recorders. +He makes enough money just by running ads, to support his family up in Oregon. +That's all he does now, and this is something that blogs have made possible. +And then you have something like this, which is Interplast. +It's a wonderful organization of people and doctors who go to developing nations to offer plastic surgery to those who need it. +Children with cleft palates get it, and they document their story. +This is wonderful. +I am not that caring. +I talk about myself. That's what I am. I'm a blogger. +I have always decided that I was going to be an expert on one thing, and I am an expert on this person, and so I write about it. +So, the short story about my blog: it started in 2001, I was 23. +I wasn't happy with my job, because I was a designer, but I wasn't being really stimulated. +I was an English major in college. +I didn't have any use for it, but I missed writing. So, I started to write a blog and I started to create things like these little stories. +You can laugh, this is OK. +This is me. +This is what happened to me. +And when I started my blog, it was really this one goal -- I said, "I am not going to be famous to the world, but I could be famous to people on the Internet." +And I set a goal. I said, "I'm going to win an award," because I had never won an award in my entire life. +And I said, "I'm going to win the South by Southwest Weblog award." +And I won it -- I reached all of these people, and I had tens of thousands of people reading about my life every day. +And then I wrote a post about a banjo. +I wrote a post about wanting to buy a banjo -- a $300 banjo, which is a lot of money. +And I don't play instruments; I don't know anything about music. +I like music, and I like banjos, and I think I probably heard Steve Martin playing, and I said, "I could do that." +And I said to my husband, "Ben, can I buy a banjo?" And he's like, "No." +And my husband -- this is my husband, who is very hot -- he won an award for being hot. +He told me, "You cannot buy a banjo. +You're just like your dad," who collects instruments. +And I wrote a post about how I was so mad at him, he was such a tyrant -- he would not let me buy this banjo. +And those people who know me understood my joke -- this is Mena, this is how I make a joke at people. +Because the joke in this is that this person is not a tyrant, this person is so loving and so sweet that he lets me dress him up and post pictures of him to my blog. +And if he knew I was showing this right now -- I put this in today -- he would kill me. +But the thing was, my friends read it, and they're like, "Oh, that Mena, she wrote a post about wanting a stupid thing and being stupid." +But I got emails from people that said, "Oh my God, your husband is such an asshole. +How much money does he spend on beer in a year? +You could take that money and buy your banjo. +Why don't you open a separate account?" +I've been with him since I was 17, we've never had a separate bank account. +They said, "Separate your bank account. +Spend your money; spend his money, that's it." +And then I got people saying, "Leave him." +I was like, "OK, what? Who are these people? +And why are they reading this?" +And I realized: I don't want to reach these people. +I don't want to write for this public audience. +And I started to kill my blog slowly. +I'm like, I don't want to write this anymore. +Slowly and slowly -- And I did tell personal stories from time to time. +I wrote this one, and I put this up because of Einstein today. +I'm going to get choked up, because this is my first pet, and she passed away two years ago. +And I decided to break from, "I don't really write about my public life," because I wanted to give her a little memorial. +But anyways, it's these sorts of personal stories -- You know, you read the blogs about politics or about media, and gossip and all these things. These are out there, but it's more of the personal that interests me, and this is who I am. +You see Norman Rockwell, and you have art critics say, "Norman Rockwell is not art. +Norman Rockwell hangs in living rooms and bathrooms, and this is not something to be considered high art." +And I think this is one of the most important things to us as humans. +These things resonate with us, and, if you think about blogs, you think of high art blogs, the history paintings about, you know, all the biblical stories, and then you have this. +These are the blogs that interest me: the people that just tell stories. +One story is about this baby, and his name is Odin. +His father was a blogger. +And he was writing his blog one day, and his wife gave birth to her baby at 25 weeks. +And he never expected this. +One day, it was normal; the next day, it was hell. +And this is a one-pound baby. +So Odin was documented every single day. +Pictures were taken every day: day one, day two ... +You have day nine -- they're talking about his apnea; day 39 -- he gets pneumonia. +His baby is so small, and I've never encountered such a -- just -- a disturbing image, but just so heartfelt. +And you're reading this as it happens, so on day 55, everybody reads that he's having failures: breathing failures and heart failures, and it's slowing down, and you don't know what to expect. +But then it gets better. Day 96, he goes home. +And you see this post. +That's not something you're going to see in a paper or magazine but this is something this person feels, and people are excited about it -- 28 comments. +That's not a huge amount of people reading, but 28 people matter. +And today, he is a healthy baby, who, if you read his blog -- it's snowdeal.org, his father's blog -- he is taking pictures of him still, because he is still his son and he is, I think, at his age level right now because he had received such great treatment from the hospital. +So, blogs. +So what? You've probably heard these things before. +We talked about the WELL, and about all these sorts of things throughout our online history. +But I think blogs are basically just an evolution, and that's where we are today. +It's this record of who you are, your persona. +You have your Google search, where you say, "What is Mena Trott?" +And then you find these things and you're happy or unhappy. +But then you also find people's blogs, and those are the records of people that are writing daily -- not necessarily about the same topic, but things that interest them. +And we talk about the world flattens, being in this panel, and I am very optimistic -- whenever I think about blogs, I'm like, "We've got to reach all these people." +Hundreds of millions and billions of people. +We're getting into China, we want to be there, but there are so many people that won't have the access to write a blog. +But to see something like the $100 computer is amazing, because blogging software is simple. +We have a successful company because of timing, and because of perseverance, but it's simple stuff -- it's not rocket science. +And so, that's an amazing thing to consider. +So -- the life record of a blog is something that I find incredibly important. +And we started with a slide of my Teds, and I had to add this slide, because I knew the minute I showed this, my mom -- my mom will see this, because she does read my blog and she'll say, "Why wasn't there a picture of me?" +This is my mom. +So, I have all the people that I know of. +But this is basically the extent of the family that I know in terms of my direct line. +I showed a Norman Rockwell painting before, and this one, I grew up with, looking at constantly. +I would spend hours looking at the connections, saying, "Oh, the little kid up at the top has red hair; so does that first generation up there." +And it's just these little things. +This is not science, but this was enough for me to be really interested in how we have evolved and how we can trace our line. +So that has always influenced me. +I have this record, this 1910 census, of another Grabowski -- that's my maiden name -- and there's a Theodore, because there's always a Theodore. +This is all I have, a couple of facts about somebody. +I have their date of birth, their age, what they did in their household, if they spoke English, and that's it, that's all I know of these people. +And it's pretty sad, because I only go back five generations, and that's it. +I don't even know what happens on my mom's side, because she's from Cuba and I don't have that many things. +Just doing this, I spent time in the archives -- that's why my husband's a saint -- I spent time in the Washington archives, just sitting there, looking for these things. +Now it's online, but he sat through that. +And so you have this record and -- This is my great-great-grandmother. +This is the only picture I have. +And to think of what we have the ability to do with our blogs; to think about the people that are on those $100 computers, talking about who they are, sharing these personal stories -- this is an amazing thing. +Another photo that has greatly influenced me, or a series of photos, is this project that's done by an Argentinean man and his wife. +And he's basically taking a picture of his family every day for the past, what is '76? -- 20 ... Oh my God, I'm '77 -- 29 years? +Twenty-nine years. +There was a joke, originally, about my graph that I left out, which is: You see all this math? I'm just happy I was able to add it up to 100, because that's my skill set. +So you have these people aging, and now this is them today, or last year. +And that's a powerful thing to have, to be able to track this. +I wish that I would have this of my family. +I know that one day my children will be wondering -- or my grandchildren, or my great-grandchildren, if I ever have children -- what I am going to -- who I was. +So I do something that's very narcissistic -- I am a blogger -- that is an amazing thing for me, because it captures a moment in time every day. +I take a picture of myself -- I've been doing this since last year -- every single day. +And, you know, it's the same picture; it's basically the same person. +Only a couple of people read it. +I don't write this for this audience; I'm showing it now, but I would go insane if this was really public. +About four people probably read it, and they tell me, "You haven't updated." +I'm probably going to get people telling me I haven't updated. +But this is amazing, because I can go back to a day -- to April 2005, and say, what was I doing this day? +I look at it, I know exactly. +It's this visual cue that is so important to what we do. +I put the bad pictures up too, because there are bad pictures. +And I remember instantly: I am in Germany in this -- I had to go for a one-day trip. +I was sick, and I was in a hotel room, and I wanted not to be there. And so you see these things, it's not just always smiling. +Now I've kind of evolved it, so I have this look. +If you look at my driver's license, I have the same look, and it's a pretty disturbing thing, but it's something that is really important. +And the last story I really want to tell is this story, because this is probably the one that means the most to me in all of what I'm doing. +I'll probably get choked up, because I tend to when I talk about this. +So, this woman, her name was Emma, and she was a blogger on our service, TypePad. +And she was a beta tester, so she was there right when we opened -- you know, there was 100 people. +And she wrote about her life dealing with cancer. +She was writing and writing, and we all started reading it, because we had so few blogs on the service, we could keep track of everyone. +And she was writing one day, and then she disappeared for a little bit. +And her sister came on, and she said that Emma had passed away. +And all of our support staff who had talked to her were really emotional, and it was a very hard day at the company. +And this was one of those instances where I realized how much blogging affects our relationship, and flattening this sort of world. +That this woman is in England, and she lives -- she lived -- a life where she was talking about what she was doing. +That was an amazing thing. +And so I printed out and sent a PDF of her blog to her family, and they passed it out at her memorial service, and even in her obituary, they mentioned her blog, because it was such a big part of her life. +And that's a huge thing. +So, this is her legacy, and I think that my call to action to all of you is: think about blogs, think about what they are, think about what you've thought of them, and then actually do it, because it's something that's really going to change our lives. +So, thank you. +I'm Michael Shermer, director of the Skeptics Society, publisher of "Skeptic" magazine. +We investigate claims of the paranormal, pseudo-science, fringe groups and cults, and claims of all kinds between, science and pseudo-science and non-science and junk science, voodoo science, pathological science, bad science, non-science, and plain old non-sense. +And unless you've been on Mars recently, you know there's a lot of that out there. +Some people call us debunkers, which is kind of a negative term. +But let's face it, there's a lot of bunk. +We are like the bunko squads of the police departments out there -- well, we're sort of like the Ralph Naders of bad ideas, trying to replace bad ideas with good ideas. +I'll show you an example of a bad idea. +I brought this with me, this was given to us by NBC Dateline to test. +It's produced by the Quadro Corporation of West Virginia. +It's called the Quadro 2000 Dowser Rod. +This was being sold to high-school administrators for $900 apiece. +It's a piece of plastic with a Radio Shack antenna attached to it. +You could dowse for all sorts of things, but this particular one was built to dowse for marijuana in students' lockers. +So the way it works is you go down the hallway, and you see if it tilts toward a particular locker, and then you open the locker. +So it looks something like this. +I'll show you. +Well, it has kind of a right-leaning bias. +Well, this is science, so we'll do a controlled experiment. +It'll go this way for sure. +Sir, do you want to empty your pockets, please, sir? +So the question was, can it actually find marijuana in students' lockers? +And the answer is, if you open enough of them, yes. +But in science, we have to keep track of the misses, not just the hits. +And that's probably the key lesson to my short talk here: This is how psychics work, astrologers, tarot card readers and so on. +People remember the hits and forget the misses. +In science, we keep the whole database, and look to see if the number of hits somehow stands out from the total number you'd expect by chance. +In this case, we tested it. +We had two opaque boxes: one with government-approved THC marijuana, and one with nothing. +And it got it 50 percent of the time -- which is exactly what you'd expect with a coin-flip model. +So that's just a fun little example here of the sorts of things we do. +"Skeptic" is the quarterly publication. Each one has a particular theme. +This one is on the future of intelligence. +Are people getting smarter or dumber? +I have an opinion of this myself because of the business I'm in, but in fact, people, it turns out, are getting smarter. +Three IQ points per 10 years, going up. +Sort of an interesting thing. +With science, don't think of skepticism as a thing, or science as a thing. +Are science and religion compatible? +It's like, are science and plumbing compatible? +They're just two different things. +Science is not a thing. It's a verb. +It's a way of thinking about things. +It's a way of looking for natural explanations for all phenomena. +I mean, what's more likely: that extraterrestrial intelligences or multi-dimensional beings travel across vast distances of interstellar space to leave a crop circle in Farmer Bob's field in Puckerbrush, Kansas to promote skeptic.com, our web page? +Or is it more likely that a reader of "Skeptic" did this with Photoshop? +And in all cases we have to ask -- What's the more likely explanation? +Before we say something is out of this world, we should first make sure that it's not in this world. +What's more likely: that Arnold had extraterrestrial help in his run for the governorship, or that the "World Weekly News" makes stuff up? +The same theme is expressed nicely here in this Sidney Harris cartoon. +For those of you in the back, it says here: "Then a miracle occurs. +I think you need to be more explicit here in step two." +This single slide completely dismantles the intelligent design arguments. +There's nothing more to it than that. +You can say a miracle occurs, it's just that it doesn't explain anything or offer anything. +There's nothing to test. +It's the end of the conversation for intelligent design creationists. +And it's true, scientists sometimes throw terms out as linguistic place fillers -- dark energy or dark matter, something like that -- until we figure out what it is, we'll call it this. +It's the beginning of the causal chain for science. +For intelligent design creationists, it's the end of the chain. +So again, we can ask this: what's more likely? +Are UFOs alien spaceships, or perceptual cognitive mistakes, or even fakes? +This is a UFO shot from my house in Altadena, California, looking down over Pasadena. +And if it looks a lot like a Buick hubcap, it's because it is. +You don't even need Photoshop or high-tech equipment, you don't need computers. +This was shot with a throwaway Kodak Instamatic camera. +You just have somebody off on the side with a hubcap ready to go. +Camera's ready -- that's it. +So, although it's possible that most of these things are fake or illusions or so on, and that some of them are real, it's more likely that all of them are fake, like the crop circles. +On a more serious note, in all of science we're looking for a balance between data and theory. +In the case of Galileo, he had two problems when he turned his telescope to Saturn. +First of all, there was no theory of planetary rings. +Second of all, his data was grainy and fuzzy, and he couldn't quite make out what he was looking at. +So he wrote that he had seen -- "I have observed that the furthest planet has three bodies." +And this is what he ended up concluding that he saw. +So without a theory of planetary rings and with only grainy data, you can't have a good theory. +It wasn't solved until 1655. +This is Christiaan Huygens's book that catalogs all the mistakes people made trying to figure out what was going on with Saturn. +It wasn't till Huygens had two things: He had a good theory of planetary rings and how the solar system operated, and he had better telescopic, more fine-grain data in which he could figure out that as the Earth is going around faster -- according to Kepler's Laws -- than Saturn, then we catch up with it. +And we see the angles of the rings at different angles, there. +And that, in fact, turns out to be true. +The problem with having a theory is that it may be loaded with cognitive biases. +So one of the problems of explaining why people believe weird things is that we have things, on a simple level, and then I'll go to more serious ones. +Like, we have a tendency to see faces. +This is the face on Mars. +In 1976, where there was a whole movement to get NASA to photograph that area because people thought this was monumental architecture made by Martians. +Here's the close-up of it from 2001. +If you squint, you can still see the face. +And when you're squinting, you're turning that from fine-grain to coarse-grain, so you're reducing the quality of your data. +And if I didn't tell you what to look for, you'd still see the face, because we're programmed by evolution to see faces. +Faces are important for us socially. +And of course, happy faces, faces of all kinds are easy to see. +You see the happy face on Mars, there. +If astronomers were frogs, perhaps they'd see Kermit the Frog. +Do you see him there? Little froggy legs. +Or if geologists were elephants? +Religious iconography. +Discovered by a Tennessee baker in 1996. +He charged five bucks a head to come see the nun bun till he got a cease-and-desist from Mother Teresa's lawyer. +Here's Our Lady of Guadalupe and Our Lady of Watsonville, just down the street, or is it up the street from here? +Tree bark is particularly good because it's nice and grainy, branchy, black-and-white splotchy and you can get the pattern-seeking -- humans are pattern-seeking animals. +Here's the Virgin Mary on the side of a glass window in Sao Paulo. +Here's when the Virgin Mary made her appearance on a cheese sandwich -- which I got to actually hold in a Las Vegas casino -- of course, this being America. +This casino paid $28,500 on eBay for the cheese sandwich. +But who does it really look like? The Virgin Mary? +It has that sort of puckered lips, 1940s-era look. +Virgin Mary in Clearwater, Florida. +I actually went to see this one. +There was a lot of people there. +The faithful come in their wheelchairs and crutches, and so on. +We went down and investigated. +Just to give you a size, that's Dawkins, me and The Amazing Randi, next to this two, two and a half story-sized image. +All these candles, thousands of candles people had lit in tribute to this. +So we walked around the backside, to see what was going on. +It turns out wherever there's a sprinkler head and a palm tree, you get the effect. +Here's the Virgin Mary on the backside, which they started to wipe off. +I guess you can only have one miracle per building. +So is it really a miracle of Mary, or is it a miracle of Marge? +And now I'm going to finish up with another example of this, with auditory illusions. +There's this film, "White Noise," with Michael Keaton, about the dead talking back to us. +By the way, the whole business of talking to the dead is not that big a deal. +Anybody can do it, turns out. +It's getting the dead to talk back that's the really hard part. +In this case, supposedly, these messages are hidden in electronic phenomena. +There's a ReverseSpeech.com web page where I downloaded this stuff. +This is the most famous one of all of these. +Here's the forward version of the very famous song. +Couldn't you just listen to that all day? +All right, here it is backwards, and see if you can hear the hidden messages that are supposedly in there. +(Music with unintelligible lyrics) Satan! +What did you get? Audience: Satan! Satan. OK, at least we got "Satan". +Now, I'll prime the auditory part of your brain to tell you what you're supposed to hear, and then hear it again. +You can't miss it when I tell you what's there. +I'm going to just end with a positive, nice little story. +The Skeptics is a nonprofit educational organization. +We're always looking for little good things that people do. +And in England, there's a pop singer. +One of the top popular singers in England today, Katie Melua. +And she wrote a beautiful song. +It was in the top five in 2005, called, "Nine Million Bicycles in Beijing." +It's a love story -- she's sort of the Norah Jones of the UK -- about how she much loves her guy, and compared to nine million bicycles, and so forth. +And she has this one passage here. +No one can ever say it's true, Michael Shermer: Well, that's nice. At least she got it close. +In America it'd be, "We're 6,000 light years from the edge." +But my friend, Simon Singh, the particle physicist now turned science educator, who wrote the book "The Big Bang," and so on, uses every chance he gets to promote good science. +And so he wrote an op-ed piece in "The Guardian" about Katie's song, in which he said, well, we know exactly how far from the edge. +You know, it's 13.7 billion light years, and it's not a guess. +We know within precise error bars how close it is. +So we can say, although not absolutely true, it's pretty close to being true. +And, to his credit, Katie called him up after this op-ed piece came out, and said, "I'm so embarrassed. I was in the astronomy club. +I should've known better." +And she re-cut the song. +So I will end with the new version. +How cool is that? +I love trees, and I'm very lucky, because we live near a wonderful arboretum, and Sundays, usually, I'd go there with my wife and now, with my four-year-old, and we'd climb in the trees, we'd play hide and seek. +The second school I was at had big trees too, had a fantastic tulip tree, I think it was the biggest in the country, and it also had a lot of wonderful bushes and vegetation around it, around the playing fields. +One day I was grabbed by some of my classmates, and taken in the bushes -- I was stripped; I was attacked; I was abused; and this came out of the blue. +Now, the reason I say that, because, afterwards, I was thinking -- well, I went back into the school -- I felt dirty; I felt betrayed; I felt ashamed, but mainly -- mainly, I felt powerless. +And 30 years later I was sitting in an airplane, next to a lady called Veronica, who came from Chile, and we were on a human rights tour, and she was starting to tell me what it was like to be tortured, and, from my very privileged position, this was the only reference point that I had. +And it was an amazing learning experience because, for me, human rights have been something in which I had, you know, a part-time interest, but, mainly, it was something that happened to other people over there. +So I got involved with this tour, which was for Amnesty, and then in '88 I took over Bono's job trying to learn how to hustle. +I didn't do it as well, but we managed to get Youssou N'Dour, Sting, Tracy Chapman, and Bruce Springsteen to go 'round the world for Amnesty, and it was an amazing experience. +And, once again, I got an extraordinary education, and it was the first time, really, that I'd met a lot of these people in the different countries, and these human rights stories became very physical, and, again, I couldn't really walk away quite so comfortably. +But the thing that really amazed me, that I had no idea, was that you could suffer in this way and then have your whole experience, your story, denied, buried and forgotten. +And it seemed that whenever there was a camera around, or a video or film camera, it was a great deal harder to do -- for those in power to bury the story. +And Reebok set up a foundation after these Human Rights Now tours and there was a decision then -- well, we made a proposal, for a couple of years, about trying to set up a division that was going to give cameras to human rights activists. +So, WITNESS was started in '92 and it's since given cameras out in over 60 countries. +And we campaign with activist groups and help them tell their story and, in fact, I will show you in a moment one of the most recent campaigns, and I'm afraid it's a story from Uganda, and, although we had a wonderful story from Uganda yesterday, this one isn't quite so good. +In the north of Uganda, there are something like 1.5 million internally displaced people, people who are not refugees in another country, but because of the civil war, which has been going on for about 20 years, they have nowhere to live. +And 20,000 kids have been taken away to become child soldiers, and the International Criminal Court is going after five of the leaders of the -- now, what's it called? +I forget the name of the of the army -- it's Lord's Resistance Army, I believe -- but the government, also, doesn't have a clean sheet, so if we could run the first video. +Woman: Life in the camp is never simple. Even today life is difficult. +We stay because of the fear that what pushed us into the camp ... +still exists back home. +Man: When we were at home, it was Kony's [rebel] soldiers disturbing us. +At first, we were safe in the camp. +But later the government soldiers began mistreating us a lot. +Jennifer: A soldier walked onto the road, asking where we'd been. +Evelyn and I hid behind my mother. +Evelyn: He ordered us to sit down, so we sat down. +The other soldier also came. +Jennifer: The man came and started undressing me. +The other one carried Evelyn aside. +The one who was defiling me then left me and went to rape Evelyn. +And the one who was raping Evelyn came and defiled me also. +Man: The soldiers with clubs this long beat us to get a confession. +They kept telling us, "Tell the truth!" as they beat us. +Woman: They insisted that I was lying. +At that moment, they fired and shot off my fingers. +I fell. They ran to join the others ... leaving me for dead. +Peter Gabriel: So torture is not something that always happens on other soil. +In my country, it was -- we had been looking at pictures of British soldiers beating up young Iraqis; we've got Abu Ghraib; we've got Guantanamo Bay. +And, I think, if we look around the world, as well as the polar ice caps melting, human rights, which have been fought for, for many hundreds of years in some cases, are, also, eroding very fast, and that is something that we need to take a look at and, maybe, start campaigning for. +And as the story of Mr. Morales, just down the road, excuse me, Mr. Gabriel, would you mind if we delayed your execution a little bit? +No, not at all, no problem, take your time. +But this, surely, whoever that man is, whatever he's done, this is cruel and unusual punishment. +Anyway, WITNESS has been trying to arm the brave people who often put their lives at risk around the world, with cameras, and I'd like to show you just a little more of that. Thank you. +PG: WITNESS was born of technological innovation -- in a sense the small, portable, DV cam was really what allowed it to come into being. +There could be a new movement growing up, rising from the ground, reaching for the light, and growing strong, just like a tree. Thank you. +I'm Rich Baraniuk and what I'd like to talk a little bit about today are some ideas that I think have just tremendous resonance with all the things that have been talked about the last two days. +So many different points of resonance that it's going to be difficult to bring them all up, but I'll try to do my best. +Does anybody remember these? +OK, so these are LP records and they've been replaced, right? +They've been swept away over the last two decades by these types of world-flattening digitization technologies, right? +And I think it was best witnessed when Thomas was playing the music as we came in the room today. +What's happened in the music world is there's a culture, or an ecosystem that's been created that, if you take some words from Apple, the catchphrase -- that we create, rip, mix and burn. +What I mean by that is that anyone in the world is free and allowed to create new music and musical ideas. +Anyone in the world is allowed to rip or copy musical ideas, use them in innovative ways. +Anyone is allowed to mix them in different types of ways, draw connections between musical ideas, and people can burn them or create final products and continue the circle. +And what that's done is it's created, like I said, a vibrant community that's very inclusive, with people continually working to connect musical ideas, innovate them and keep things constantly up to date. +Today's hit single is not last year's hit single. +But I'm not here to talk about music today. +I'm here to talk about books. +In particular, textbooks and the kind of educational materials that we use every day in school. +Has anyone here ever been to school? +OK, does anybody realize there's a crisis in our schools, around the world? +I'm not going to spend too much time on that, but what I want to talk about is some of the disconnects that appear when an author publishes a book. +That in fact, the publishing process -- just because of the fact that it's complicated, it's heavy, books are expensive -- creates a sort of a wall between authors of books and the ultimate users of books, be they teachers, students or just general readers. +And this is even more true if you happen to speak a language other than one of the world's major languages, and especially English. +I'm going to call these people below the barrier "shutouts" because they're really shut out of the process of being able to share their knowledge with the world. +And so what I want to talk about today is trying to take these ideas that we've seen in the musical culture and try to bring these towards reinventing the way we think about writing books, using them and teaching from them. +So, that's what I'd like to talk about and, really, how we get from where we are now to where we need to go. +The first thing I'd like you to do is a little thought experiment. +Imagine taking all the world's books. +OK, everybody imagine books and imagine just tearing out the pages. +So, liberating these pages and imagine digitizing them and then storing them in a vast, interconnected, global repository. +Think of it as a massive iTunes for book-type content. +And then take that material and imagine making it all open, so that people can modify it, play with it, improve it. +Imagine making it free, so that anyone in the world can have access to all of this knowledge, and imagine using information technology so that you can update this content, improve it, play with it, on a timescale that's more on the order of seconds instead of years. +Instead of editions of a book coming out every two years, imagine them coming out every 25 seconds. +So, imagine we could do that and imagine we could put people into this. +So that we could truly build an ecosystem with not just authors, but all the people who could be or want to be authors in all the different languages of the world, and I think if you could do this, it would be called -- I'm just going to refer to it as a knowledge ecosystem. +In fact, this dream is actually being realized. +We're working on the open-source tools and the content. +So, that's sort of to put it in perspective here. +So, create. What are some of the people that are using these kind of tools? +Well, the first thing is, there's a community of engineering professors, from Cambridge to Kyoto, who are developing engineering content in electrical engineering to develop what you can think of as a massive, super textbook that covers the entire area of electrical engineering. +And not only that -- it can be customized for use in each of their own individual institutions. +If people like Kitty Jones, a shut-out -- a private music teacher and mom from Champagne, Illinois, who wanted to share her fantastic music content with the world, on how to teach kids how to play music -- Her material is now used over 600,000 times per month. +Tremendous use. +In fact, a lot of this use coming from United States K-12 schools, because anyone who's involved in a school scale back, the first thing that's cut is the music curriculum. +And so this is just indicating the tremendous thirst for this kind of open, free content. +A lot of teachers are using this stuff. +What about ripping? What about copying, reusing? +A team of volunteers at the University of Texas at El Paso -- graduate students translating this engineering super textbook ideas. +And within about a week, having this be some of our most popular material in widespread use all over Latin America, and in particular in Mexico, because of the open, extensible nature of this. +People, volunteers and even companies that are translating materials into Asian languages like Chinese, Japanese and Thai, to spread the knowledge even further. +OK, what about people who are mixing? What does "mixing" mean? +"Mixing" means building customized courses, means building customized books. +Companies like National Instruments, who are embedding very powerful, interactive simulations into the materials, so that we can go way beyond our regular kind of textbook to an experience that all the teaching materials are things you can actually interact with and play around with and actually learn as you do. +We've been working with Teachers Without Borders, who are very interested in mixing our materials. +They're going to be using Connexions as their platform to develop and deliver teaching materials for teaching teachers how to teach in 84 countries around the world. +TWB is currently in Iraq, training 20,000 teachers supported by USAID. +OK, other organizations we've been working with, UC Merced -- people know about UC Merced. +It's a new university in California, in the Central Valley, working very closely with community colleges. +They're actually developing a lot of their science and engineering curriculum to spread widely around the world in our system. +And they're also trying to develop all of their software tools completely open-source. +We've been working with AMD, which has a project called 50x15, which is trying to bring Internet connectivity to 50 percent of the world's population by 2015. +We're going to be providing content to them in a whole range of different languages. +And we've also been working with a number of other organizations. +In particular, a bunch of the projects that are funded by Hewlett Foundation, who have taken a real leadership role in this area of open content. +OK, burn -- I think this is, sort of, quite interesting. +"Burn" is the idea of trying to create the physical instantiation of one of these courses. +And I think a lot of you received -- I think all of you received one of these music books in your gift pack. +A little present for you. +Just to tell you quickly about it: this is an engineering textbook. +It's about 300 pages long, hardbound. +This costs -- anybody guess? +How much would it cost in a bookstore? +65 dollars. +Richard Baraniuk: OK. This costs 22 dollars to the student. +Why does it cost 22 dollars? +Because it's published on demand and it's developed from this repository of open materials. +If this book were to be published by a regular publisher, it would cost at least 122 dollars. +And I think that this is an extraordinarily interesting area because there is tremendous area under this long tail in publishing. +We're not talking about the Harry Potter end, right at the left side. +We're talking about books on hypergeometric partial differential equations. +Books that might sell 100 copies a year, 1,000 copies a year. +There is tremendous sustaining revenue under this long tail to sustain open projects like ours, but also to sustain this new emergence of on-demand publishers, like QOOP, who produced these two books. +And I think one of the things that you should take away from this talk is that there's an impending cut-out-the-middle-man disintermediation, that's going to be happening in the publishing industry. +And it's going to reach a crescendo over the next few years, and I think that it's for our benefit, really, and for the world's benefit. +OK, so what are the enablers? +What's really making all of this happen? +There's tons of technology, and the only piece of technology that I really want to talk about is XML. +How many people know about XML? +Oh, great. So it's the future of the web, right? +It's semantic representation of content. +And what you can really think of XML in this case is it's the packaging that we're putting around these pages. +Remember we took the book, tore the pages out? +Well, what the XML is going to do is it's going to turn those pages into Lego blocks. +XML are the nubs on the Lego that allow us to combine the content together in a myriad different ways, and it provides us a framework to share content. +So, it lets you take this ecosystem in its primordial state of all this content, all the pages you've torn out of books, and create highly sophisticated learning machines: books, courses, course packs. +It gives you the ability to personalize the learning experience to each individual student, so that every student can have a book or a course that's customized to their learning style, their context, their language and the things that excite them. +It lets you reuse the same materials in multiple different ways, and surprising new ways. +It lets you interconnect ideas, indicating how fields relate to each other. +And I'll just give you my personal story. +We came up with this six-and-a-half years ago because I teach the stuff in the red box. +And my day job, as Chris said -- I'm an electrical engineering professor. +I teach signal processing and my challenge was to show that this math -- Wow, about half of you have already fallen asleep just looking at the equation. +But this seemingly dry math is actually the center of this tremendously powerful web that links technology -- that links really cool applications like music synthesizers to tremendous economic opportunities, but also governed by intellectual property. +And the thing that I realized is there was no way that I, as an engineer, could write this book that would get all of this across. +We needed a community to do it and we needed new tools to be able to interconnect these ideas. +And I think that really, in a sense, what we're trying to do is make Minsky's dream come to a reality, where you can imagine all the books in a library actually starting to talk to each other. +And people who are teachers out here -- whoever taught, you know this -- it's the interconnections between ideas that teaching is really all about. +OK, back to math. Imagine -- this is possible: that every single equation that you click on in one of your new e-texts is something that you're going to be able to explore and experiment with. +So imagine your kid's algebra textbook in seventh grade. +You can click on every single equation and bring up a little tool to be able to experiment with it, tinker with it, understand it. +Because we really don't understand until we do. +The same type of mark-up, like MathML, for chemistry. +Imagine chemistry textbooks that actually understand the structure of how molecules are formed. +Imagine Music XML that actually lets you delve into the semantic structure of music, play with it, understand it. +It's no wonder that everybody's getting into it, right? +Even the three wise men. +OK, the second big enabler, and this is where I told a big lie. +The second big enabler is intellectual property. +Because, in fact, I got up here and I talked about how great the music culture is. +We can share and rip, mix and burn, but in fact, that's all illegal. +And we would be accused of [piracy] for doing that, because this music has been propertized. +It's now owned, much of it by big industries. +So, really, the key thing here is we can't let this happen. +We can't let this Napster thing happen here. +So, what we have to do is get it right from the very beginning. +And what we have to do is find an intellectual property framework that makes sharing safe and makes it easily understandable. +And the inspiration here is taken from open-source software. +Things like Linux and the GPL. +The Creative Commons licenses. +How many people have heard of creative commons? +If you have not, you must learn about it. +At the bottom of every piece of material in Connexions and in lots of other projects, you can find their logo. +Clicking on that logo takes you to an absolute no-nonsense, human-readable document, a deed, that tells you exactly what you can do with this content. +In fact, you're free to share it, to do all of these things: to copy it, to change it, even to make commercial use of it, as long as you attribute the author. +Because in academic publishing and much of educational publishing, it's really this idea of sharing knowledge and making impact. +That's why people write, not necessarily making bucks. +We're not talking about Harry Potter, right? +We're at the long tail end here. +Behind that is the legal code, very carefully constructed. +And Creative Commons is taking off -- over 43 million things out there, licensed with a Creative Commons license. +Not just text, but music, images, video. +And there's actually a tremendous uptake of the number of people that are actually licensing music to make it free for people who do this whole idea of re-sampling, ripping, mixing, burning and sharing. +OK, I'd like to conclude with just the last few points. +So, we've built this idea of a commons. People are using it. +We get over 500,000 unique visitors per month, just to our particular site. +MIT OpenCourseWare, which is another large open-content site, gets a similar number of hits. But how do we protect this? +How do we protect it into the future? +And the first thing that people are probably thinking is quality control, right? +Because we're saying that anybody can contribute things to this commons. +Anybody can contribute anything. +So that could be a problem. +It didn't take long until people started contributing materials, for example, on lingerie, which is actually a pretty good module. +The only problem is it's plagiarized from a major French feminist journal, and when you go to the supposed course website, it points to a lingerie-selling website. +So this is a little bit of a problem. +So we clearly need some kind of idea of quality control and this is really where the idea of review and peer review comes in. +You come to TED. Why do you come to TED? +Because Chris and his team have ensured that things are very, very high quality, right? +And so we need to be able to do the same thing. +And we need to be able to design structures, and what we're doing is designing social software to enable anyone to build their own peer review process, and we call these things "lenses." +And basically what they allow is anyone out there can develop their own peer-review process, so that they can focus on the content in the repository that they think is really important. +And you can think of TED as a potential lens. +So I'd just like to end by saying: you can really view this as a call to action. +Connexions and open content is all about sharing knowledge. +All of you here are tremendously imbued with tremendous amounts of knowledge, and what I'd like to do is invite each and every one of you to contribute to this project and other projects of its type, because I think together we can truly change the landscape of education and educational publishing. +So, thanks very much. +I wrote this poem after hearing a pretty well known actress tell a very well known interviewer on television, "I'm really getting into the Internet lately. +I just wish it were more organized." +So ... +If I controlled the Internet, you could auction your broken heart on eBay. +Take the money; go to Amazon; buy a phonebook for a country you've never been to -- call folks at random until you find someone who flirts really well in a foreign language. +If I were in charge of the Internet, you could Mapquest your lover's mood swings. +Hang left at cranky, right at preoccupied, U-turn on silent treatment, all the way back to tongue kissing and good lovin'. +You could navigate and understand every emotional intersection. +Some days, I'm as shallow as a baking pan, but I still stretch miles in all directions. +If I owned the Internet, Napster, Monster and Friendster.com would be one big website. +That way you could listen to cool music while you pretend to look for a job and you're really just chattin' with your pals. +Heck, if I ran the Web, you could email dead people. +They would not email you back -- but you'd get an automated reply. +Their name in your inbox -- it's all you wanted anyway. +And a message saying, "Hey, it's me. I miss you. +Listen, you'll see being dead is dandy. +Now you go back to raising kids and waging peace and craving candy." +If I designed the Internet, childhood.com would be a loop of a boy in an orchard, with a ski pole for a sword, trashcan lid for a shield, shouting, "I am the emperor of oranges. +I am the emperor of oranges. I am the emperor of oranges." +Now follow me, OK? +Grandma.com would be a recipe for biscuits and spit-bath instructions. +One, two, three. +That links with hotdiggitydog.com. +That is my grandfather. +They take you to gruff-ex-cop-on-his-fourth-marriage.dad. +He forms an attachment to kind-of-ditzy-but-still-sends-ginger-snaps-for-Christmas.mom, who downloads the boy in the orchard, the emperor of oranges, who grows up to be me -- the guy who usually goes too far. +So if I were emperor of the Internet, I guess I'd still be mortal, huh? +But at that point, I would probably already have the lowest possible mortgage and the most enlarged possible penis -- so I would outlaw spam on my first day in office. +I wouldn't need it. +I'd be like some kind of Internet genius, and me, I'd like to upgrade to deity and maybe just like that -- pop! -- I'd go wireless. +Huh? Maybe Google would hire this. +I could zip through your servers and firewalls like a virus until the World Wide Web is as wise, as wild and as organized as I think a modern-day miracle/oracle can get, but, ooh-eee, you want to bet just how whack and un-PC your Mac or PC is going to be when I'm rocking hot-shit-hot-shot-god.net? +I guess it's just like life. +It is not a question of if you can -- it's: do ya? +We can interfere with the interface. +We can make "You've got Hallelujah" the national anthem of cyberspace every lucky time we log on. +You don't say a prayer. +You don't write a psalm. +You don't chant an "om." +You send one blessed email to whomever you're thinking of Thank you, TED. +My name is Lovegrove. +I only know nine Lovegroves, two of which are my parents. +They are first cousins, and you know what happens when, you know -- So there's a terribly weird freaky side to me, which I'm fighting with all the time. So to try and get through today, I've kind of disciplined myself with an 18-minute talk. +I was hanging on to have a pee. +I thought perhaps if I was hanging on long enough, that would guide me through the 18 minutes. +OK. I am known as Captain Organic and that's a philosophical position as well as an aesthetic position. +But today what I'd like to talk to you about is that love of form and how form can touch people's soul and emotion. +Not very long ago, not many thousands of years ago, we actually lived in caves, and I don't think we've lost that coding system. +We respond so well to form. +But I'm interested in creating intelligent form. +I'm not interested at all in blobism or any of that superficial rubbish that you see coming out as design. +This artificially induced consumerism -- I think it's atrocious. +My world is the world of people like Amory Lovins, Janine Benyus, James Watson. +I'm in that world, but I work purely instinctively. +I'm not a scientist. I could have been, perhaps, but I work in this world where I trust my instincts. +So I am a 21st-century translator of technology into products that we use everyday and relate beautifully and naturally with. +And we should be developing things -- we should be developing packaging for ideas which elevate people's perceptions and respect for the things that we dig out of the earth and translate into products for everyday use. +So, the water bottle. +I'll begin with this concept of what I call DNA. +DNA: Design, Nature, Art. These are the three things that condition my world. +Here is a drawing by Leonardo da Vinci, 500 years ago, before photography. +It shows how observation, curiosity and instinct work to create amazing art. +Industrial design is the art form of the 21st century. +People like Leonardo -- there have not been many -- had this amazingly instinctive curiosity. +I work from a similar position. +I don't want to sound pretentious saying that, but this is my drawing made on a digital pad a couple of years ago -- well into the 21st century, 500 years later. +It's my impression of water. +Impressionism being the most valuable art form on the planet as we know it: 100 million dollars, easily, for a Monet. +I use, now, a whole new process. +A few years ago I reinvented my process to keep up with people like Greg Lynn, Thom Mayne, Zaha Hadid, Rem Koolhaas -- all these people that I think are persevering and pioneering with fantastic new ideas of how to create form. +This is all created digitally. +Here you see the machining, the milling of a block of acrylic. +This is what I show to the client to say, "That's what I want to do." +At that point, I don't know if that's possible at all. +It's a seductor, but I just feel in my bones that that's possible. +So we go, we look at the tooling. We look at how that is produced. +These are the invisible things that you never see in your life. +This is the background noise of industrial design. +That is like an Anish Kapoor flowing through a Richard Serra. +It is more valuable than the product in my eyes. I don't have one. +When I do make some money, I'll have one machined for myself. +This is the final product. When they sent it to me, I thought I'd failed. +It felt like nothing. It has to feel like nothing. +It was when I put the water in that I realized that I'd put a skin on water itself. +It's an icon of water itself, and it elevates people's perception of contemporary design. +Each bottle is different, meaning the water level will give you a different shape. +It's mass individualism from a single product. It fits the hand. +It fits arthritic hands. It fits children's hands. +It makes the product strong, the tessellation. +It's a millefiori of ideas. +In the future, they will look like that, because we need to move away from those type of polymers and use that for medical equipment and more important things, perhaps, in life. +Biopolymers, these new ideas for materials, will come into play in probably a decade. +It doesn't look as cool, does it? +But I can live up to that. I don't have a problem with that. +I design for that condition, biopolymers. It's the future. +I took this video in Cape Town last year. +This is the freaky side coming out. +I have this special interest in things like this, which blow my mind. +I don't know whether to, you know, drop to my knees, cry; I don't know what I think. But I just know that nature -- nature improves with ever-greater purpose that which once existed, and that strangeness is a consequence of innovative thinking. +When I look at these things, they look pretty normal to me. +But these things evolved over many years, and what we're trying to do -- I get three weeks to design a telephone. How the hell do I do that, when you get these things that take hundreds of millions of years to evolve? +How do you condense that? +It comes back to instinct. +I'm not talking about designing telephones that look like that and I'm not looking at designing architecture like that. +I'm just interested in natural growth patterns and the beautiful forms that only nature really creates. +How that flows through me and how that comes out is what I'm trying to understand. +This is a scan through the human forearm. +It's then blown up through rapid prototyping to reveal its cellular structure. I have these in my office. +My office is a mixture of the Natural History Museum and a NASA space lab. +It's a weird, kind of freaky place. +This is one of my specimens. +This is made -- bone is made from a mixture of inorganic minerals and polymers. +I studied cooking in school for four years, and in that experience, which was called "domestic science," it was a bit of a cheap trick for me to try and get a science qualification. +Actually, I put marijuana in everything I cooked -- And I had access to all the best girls. It was fabulous. +All the guys in the rugby team couldn't understand. Anyway -- this is a meringue. +This is another sample I have. +A meringue is made exactly the same way, in my estimation, as a bone. +It's made from polysaccharides and proteins. +If you pour water on that, it dissolves. +Could we be manufacturing from foodstuffs in the future? +Not a bad idea. I don't know. +I need to talk to Janine and a few other people about that, but I believe instinctively that that meringue can become something, a car -- I don't know. +I'm also interested in growth patterns: the unbridled way that nature grows things so you're not restricted by form at all. +These interrelated forms, they do inspire everything I do, although I might end up making something incredibly simple. +This is a detail of a chair that I've designed in magnesium. +It shows this interlocution of elements and the beauty of, kind of, engineering and biological thinking, shown pretty much as a bone structure. +Any one of those elements you could sort of hang on the wall as some kind of art object. +It's the world's first chair made in magnesium. +It cost 1.7 million dollars to develop. +It went into Time magazine in 2001 as the new language of the 21st century. +Boy. For somebody growing up in Wales in a little village, that's enough. +It shows how you make one holistic form, like the car industry, and then you break up what you need. +This is an absolutely beautiful way of working. +It's a godly way of working. +It's organic and it's essential. +It's an absolutely fat-free design, and when you look at it, you see human beings. +When that moves into polymers, you can change the elasticity, the fluidity of the form. +This is an idea for a gas-injected, one-piece polymer chair. +What nature does is it drills holes in things. It liberates form. +It takes away anything extraneous. That's what I do. +I make organic things which are essential. +And they look funky, too -- but I don't set out to make funky things because I think that's an absolute disgrace. +I set out to look at natural forms. +If you took the idea of fractal technology further, take a membrane, shrinking it down constantly like nature does -- that could be a seat for a chair. +It could be a sole for a sports shoe. +It could be a car blending into seats. +Wow. Let's go for it. That's the kind of stuff. +This is what exists in nature. Observation now allows us to bring that natural process into the design process every day. That's what I do. +This is a show that's currently on in Tokyo. +It's called "Superliquidity." It's my sculptural investigation. +It's like 21st-century Henry Moore. +When you see a Henry Moore, still, your hair stands up. There's some amazing spiritual connect. +If he was a car designer, phew, we'd all be driving one. +In his day, he was the highest taxpayer in Britain. +That is the power of organic design. +It contributes immensely to our -- sense of being, our sense of relationships with things, our sensuality and, you know, the sort of -- even the sort of socio-erotic side, which is very important. +This is my artwork. This is all my process. +These actually are sold as artwork. They're very big prints. +But this is how I get to that object. +Ironically, that object was made by the Killarney process, which is a brand-new process here for the 21st century, and I can hear Greg Lynn laughing his socks off as I say that. +I'll tell you about that later. +When I look into these data images, I see new things. +It's self-inspired. Diatomic structures, radiolaria, the things that we couldn't see but we can do now -- these, again, are cored out. +They're made virtually from nothing. They're made from silica. Why not structures from cars like that? +Coral, all these natural forces, take away what they don't need and they deliver maximum beauty. +We need to be in that realm. I want to do stuff like that. +This is a new chair which should come on the market in September. +It's for a company called Moroso in Italy. It's a gas-injected polymer chair. +Those holes you see there are very filtered-down, watered-down versions of the extremity of the diatomic structures. +It goes with the flow of the polymer and you'll see -- there's an image coming up right now that shows the full thing. +It's great to have companies in Italy who support this way of dreaming. +If you see the shadows that come through that, they're actually probably more important than the product, but it's the minimum it takes. +The coring out of the back lets you breathe. +It takes away any material you don't need and it actually garners flexure too. +I was going to break into a dance then. +This is some current work I'm doing. +I'm looking at single-surface structures and how they stretch and flow. +It's based on furniture typologies, but that's not the end motivation. It's made from aluminum ... +as opposed to aluminium, and it's grown. +It's grown in my mind, and then it's grown in terms of the whole process that I go through. +This is two weeks ago in CCP in Coventry, who build parts for Bentleys and so on. +It's being built as we speak and it will be on show in Phillips next year in New York. +I have a big show with Phillips Auctioneers. +When I see these animations, oh Jesus, I'm blown away. +This is what goes on in my studio everyday. I walk -- I'm traveling. I come back. +Some guy's got that on a computer -- there's this like, oh my goodness. +So I try to create this energy of invention every day in my studio. +This kind of effervescent -- fully charged sense of soup that delivers ideas. +Single-surface products. Furniture's a good one. +How you grow legs out of a surface. I would love to build this one day and perhaps I'd like to build it also out of flour, sugar, polymer, wood chips -- I don't know, human hair. +I don't know. I'd love a go at that. I don't know. If I just got some time. +That's the weird side coming out again. A lot of companies don't understand that. +Three weeks ago I was with Sony in Tokyo. +They said, "Give us the dream. What is our dream? How do we beat Apple?" +I said, "You don't copy Apple, that's for sure. +You get into biopolymers." They looked straight through me. +What a waste. Anyway. No, it's true. Fuck them. You know, I mean -- I'm delivering; they're not taking. I've had this image 20 years. +I've had this image of a water droplet for 20 years, sitting on a hot bed. +That is an image of a car for me. +That's the car of the future. It's a water droplet. +I've been banging on about this like I can't believe. +Cars are all wrong. +I'm going to show you something a bit weird now. +They laughed everywhere over the world I showed this. +The only place that didn't laugh was Moscow. +Cars are made from 30,000 components. +How ridiculous is that? Couldn't you make that from 300? +It's got a vacuum-formed, carbon-nylon pan. +Everything's holistically integrated. It opens and closes like a bread bin. +There is no engine. There's a solar panel on the back and there are batteries in the wheels; they're fitted like Formula 1. +You take them off your wall, you plug them in. Off you go. +A three-wheeled car: slow, feminine, transparent, so you can see the people in there. +You see that thing. You do. You do. +And not anesthetized, separated from life. +There's a hole at the front and there's a reason for that. +It's a city car. You drive along. You get out. +You drive on to a proboscis. You get out. +It lifts you up. +It presents the solar panel to the sun, and at night, it's a street lamp. +That's what happens if you get inspired by the street lamp first, and do the car second. +I can see these bubbles with these hydrogen packages, floating around on the ground, driven by AI. +When I showed this in South Africa, everybody afterwards was going, "Hey, car on a stick. Like this." +Can you imagine? A car on a stick. +If you put it next to contemporary architecture, it feels totally natural to me. +And that's what I do with my furniture. +I'm not putting Charles Eames' furniture in buildings anymore. +I'm trying to build furniture which fits architecture. +I'm trying to build transportation systems. +I work on aircraft for Airbus, I do all this sort of stuff trying to force these natural, inspired-by-nature dreams home. +I'm going to finish on two things. +This is the stereolithography of a staircase. +It's a little bit of a dedication to James, James Watson. +I built this thing for my studio. +It cost me 250,000 dollars to build this. +Most people go and buy the Aston Martin. I built this. +This is the data that goes with that. Incredibly complex. +Took about two years, because I'm looking for fat-free design. +Lean, efficient things. Healthy products. +This is built by composites. +It's a single element which rotates around to create a holistic element, and this is a carbon-fiber handrail which is only supported in two places. +Modern materials allow us to do modern things. +This is a shot in the studio. +This is how it looks pretty much every day. +You wouldn't want to have a fear of heights coming down it. +There is virtually no handrail. It doesn't pass any standards. +Who cares? +And it has an internal handrail which gives it its strength. +It's this holistic integration. That's my studio. It's subterranean. +It's in Notting Hill, next to all the crap -- the prostitutes and all that stuff. +It's next to David Hockney's original studio. +It has a lighting system that changes throughout the day. +My guys go out for lunch. The door's open. They come back in, because it's normally raining and they prefer to stay in. +This is my studio. Elephant skull from Oxford University, 1988. +I bought that last year. They're very difficult to find. +If anybody's got a whale skeleton they want to sell me, I'll put it in the studio. +So I'm just going to interject a little bit with some of the things that you'll see in the video. +It's a homemade video, made it myself at three o'clock in the morning just to show you how my real world is. You never see that. +You never see architects or designers showing you their real world. +This is called a "Plasnet." +It's a new bio-polycarbonate chair I'm doing in Italy. +World's first bamboo bike with folding handlebars. +We should all be riding one of these. +As China buys all these crappy cars, we should be riding things like this. +Counterbalance. Like I say, it's a cross between Natural History Museum and a NASA laboratory. +It's full of prototypes and objects. +It's self-inspirational, again. I mean, the rare times when I'm there, I do enjoy it. +And I get lots and lots of kids coming. +I'm a contaminator for all those children of investment bankers -- wankers. +Sorry. That's a solar seed. It's a concept for new architecture. +That thing on the top is the world's first solar-powered garden lamp -- the first produced. Giles Revell should be talking here today -- amazing photography of things you can't see. +The first sculptural model I made for that thing in Tokyo. +Lots of stuff. There's a little leaf chair -- that golden looking thing is called "Leaf." +It's made from Kevlar. +On the wall is my book called "Supernatural," which allows me to remember what I've done, because I forget. +There's an aerated brick I did in Limoges last year, in Concepts for New Ceramics in Architecture. +Gernot Oberfell, working at three o'clock in the morning -- and I don't pay overtime. +Overtime is the passion of design, so join the club or don't. +No, it's true. People like Tom and Greg -- we're traveling like you can't -- we fit it all in. +I don't know how we do it. +Next week I'm at Electrolux in Sweden, then I'm in Beijing on Friday. You work that one out. +And when I see Ed's photographs, I think, why the hell am I going to China? +It's true. It's true. +Because there's a soul in this whole thing. +We need to have a new instinct for the 21st century. +We need to combine all this stuff. +If all the people who were talking over this period worked on a car together, it would be a joy, absolute joy. +So there's a new X-light system I'm doing in Japan. +There's Tuareg shoes from North Africa. There's a Kifwebe mask. +These are my sculptures. +A copper jelly mold. +It sounds like some quiz show or something, doesn't it? +So, it's going to end. +Thank you, James, for your great inspiration. +Thank you very much. +And one of my biggest failures as a marketer in the last few years -- a record label I started that had a CD called "Sauce." +Before I can do that I've got to tell you about sliced bread, and a guy named Otto Rohwedder. +Now, before sliced bread was invented in the 1910s I wonder what they said? +Like the greatest invention since the telegraph or something. +But this guy named Otto Rohwedder invented sliced bread, and he focused, like most inventors did, on the patent part and the making part. +And the thing about the invention of sliced bread is this -- that for the first 15 years after sliced bread was available no one bought it; no one knew about it; it was a complete and total failure. +And the reason is that until Wonder came along and figured out how to spread the idea of sliced bread, no one wanted it. +That the success of sliced bread, like the success of almost everything we've talked about at this conference, is not always about what the patent is like, or what the factory is like -- it's about can you get your idea to spread, or not. +And I think that the way you're going to get what you want, or cause the change that you want to change, to happen, is to figure out a way to get your ideas to spread. +And it doesn't matter to me whether you're running a coffee shop or you're an intellectual, or you're in business, or you're flying hot air balloons. +I think that all this stuff applies to everybody regardless of what we do. +That what we are living in is a century of idea diffusion. +That people who can spread ideas, regardless of what those ideas are, win. +When I talk about it I usually pick business, because they make the best pictures that you can put in your presentation, and because it's the easiest sort of way to keep score. +But I want you to forgive me when I use these examples because I'm talking about anything that you decide to spend your time to do. +At the heart of spreading ideas is TV and stuff like TV. +TV and mass media made it really easy to spread ideas in a certain way. +I call it the "TV-industrial complex." +The way the TV-industrial complex works, is you buy some ads, interrupt some people, that gets you distribution. +You use the distribution you get to sell more products. +You take the profit from that to buy more ads. +And it goes around and around and around, the same way that the military-industrial complex worked a long time ago. +That model of, and we heard it yesterday -- if we could only get onto the homepage of Google, if we could only figure out how to get promoted there, or grab that person by the throat, and tell them about what we want to do. +If we did that then everyone would pay attention, and we would win. +Well, this TV-industrial complex informed my entire childhood and probably yours. +I mean, all of these products succeeded because someone figured out how to touch people in a way they weren't expecting, in a way they didn't necessarily want, with an ad, over and over again until they bought it. +And the thing that's happened is, they canceled the TV-industrial complex. +That just over the last few years, what anybody who markets anything has discovered is that it's not working the way that it used to. +This picture is really fuzzy, I apologize; I had a bad cold when I took it. +But the product in the blue box in the center is my poster child. +I go to the deli; I'm sick; I need to buy some medicine. +The brand manager for that blue product spent 100 million dollars trying to interrupt me in one year. +100 million dollars interrupting me with TV commercials and magazine ads and Spam and coupons and shelving allowances and spiff -- all so I could ignore every single message. +And I ignored every message because I don't have a pain reliever problem. +I buy the stuff in the yellow box because I always have. +And I'm not going to invest a minute of my time to solve her problem, because I don't care. +Here's a magazine called "Hydrate." It's 180 pages about water. +Articles about water, ads about water. +Imagine what the world was like 40 years ago, with just the Saturday Evening Post and Time and Newsweek. +Now there are magazines about water. +New product from Coke Japan: water salad. +Coke Japan comes out with a new product every three weeks, because they have no idea what's going to work and what's not. +I couldn't have written this better myself. It came out four days ago -- I circled the important parts so you can see them here. +Arby's is going to spend 85 million dollars promoting an oven mitt with the voice of Tom Arnold, hoping that that will get people to go to Arby's and buy a roast beef sandwich. +Now, I had tried to imagine what could possibly be in an animated TV commercial featuring Tom Arnold, that would get you to get in your car, drive across town and buy a roast beef sandwich. +Now, this is Copernicus, and he was right, when he was talking to anyone who needs to hear your idea. +"The world revolves around me." Me, me, me, me. My favorite person -- me. +I don't want to get email from anybody; I want to get "memail." +So consumers, and I don't just mean people who buy stuff at the Safeway; I mean people at the Defense Department who might buy something, or people at, you know, the New Yorker who might print your article. +Consumers don't care about you at all; they just don't care. +Part of the reason is -- they've got way more choices than they used to, and way less time. +And in a world where we have too many choices and too little time, the obvious thing to do is just ignore stuff. +And my parable here is you're driving down the road and you see a cow, and you keep driving because you've seen cows before. +Cows are invisible. Cows are boring. +Who's going to stop and pull over and say -- "Oh, look, a cow." Nobody. +But if the cow was purple -- isn't that a great special effect? +I could do that again if you want. +If the cow was purple, you'd notice it for a while. +I mean, if all cows were purple you'd get bored with those, too. +The thing that's going to decide what gets talked about, what gets done, what gets changed, what gets purchased, what gets built, is: "Is it remarkable?" +And "remarkable" is a really cool word, because we think it just means "neat," but it also means "worth making a remark about." +And that is the essence of where idea diffusion is going. +That two of the hottest cars in the United States is a 55,000-dollar giant car, big enough to hold a Mini in its trunk. +People are paying full price for both, and the only thing they have in common is that they don't have anything in common. +Every week, the number one best-selling DVD in America changes. +It's never "The Godfather," it's never "Citizen Kane," it's always some third-rate movie with some second-rate star. +But the reason it's number one is because that's the week it came out. +Because it's new, because it's fresh. +People saw it and said "I didn't know that was there" and they noticed it. +Two of the big success stories of the last 20 years in retail -- one sells things that are super-expensive in a blue box, and one sells things that are as cheap as they can make them. +The only thing they have in common is that they're different. +We're now in the fashion business, no matter what we do for a living, we're in the fashion business. +And people in the fashion business know what it's like to be in the fashion business -- they're used to it. +The rest of us have to figure out how to think that way. +How to understand that it's not about interrupting people with big full-page ads, or insisting on meetings with people. +But it's a totally different sort of process that determines which ideas spread, and which ones don't. +They sold a billion dollars' worth of Aeron chairs by reinventing what it meant to sell a chair. +They turned a chair from something the purchasing department bought, to something that was a status symbol about where you sat at work. +This guy, Lionel Poilne, the most famous baker in the world -- he died two and a half months ago, and he was a hero of mine and a dear friend. +He lived in Paris. Last year, he sold 10 million dollars' worth of French bread. +Every loaf baked in a bakery he owned, by one baker at a time, in a wood-fired oven. +And when Lionel started his bakery, the French pooh-pooh-ed it. +They didn't want to buy his bread. It didn't look like "French bread." +It wasn't what they expected. +It was neat; it was remarkable; and slowly, it spread from one person to another person until finally, it became the official bread of three-star restaurants in Paris. +Now he's in London, and he ships by FedEx all around the world. +What marketers used to do is make average products for average people. +That's what mass marketing is. +Smooth out the edges; go for the center; that's the big market. +They would ignore the geeks, and God forbid, the laggards. +It was all about going for the center. +But in a world where the TV-industrial complex is broken, I don't think that's a strategy we want to use any more. +I think the strategy we want to use is to not market to these people because they're really good at ignoring you. +But market to these people because they care. +These are the people who are obsessed with something. +And when you talk to them, they'll listen, because they like listening -- it's about them. +And if you're lucky, they'll tell their friends on the rest of the curve, and it'll spread. +It'll spread to the entire curve. +They have something I call "otaku" -- it's a great Japanese word. +It describes the desire of someone who's obsessed to say, drive across Tokyo to try a new ramen noodle place, because that's what they do: they get obsessed with it. +To make a product, to market an idea, to come up with any problem you want to solve that doesn't have a constituency with an otaku, is almost impossible. +Instead, you have to find a group that really, desperately cares about what it is you have to say. +Talk to them and make it easy for them to tell their friends. +There's a hot sauce otaku, but there's no mustard otaku. +That's why there's lots and lots of kinds of hot sauces, and not so many kinds of mustard. +Not because it's hard to make interesting mustard -- you could make interesting mustard -- but people don't, because no one's obsessed with it, and thus no one tells their friends. +Krispy Kreme has figured this whole thing out. +It has a strategy, and what they do is, they enter a city, they talk to the people, with the otaku, and then they spread through the city to the people who've just crossed the street. +This yoyo right here cost 112 dollars, but it sleeps for 12 minutes. +Not everybody wants it but they don't care. +They want to talk to the people who do, and maybe it'll spread. +These guys make the loudest car stereo in the world. +It's as loud as a 747 jet. +You can't get in, the car's got bulletproof glass, because it'll blow out the windshield otherwise. +But the fact remains that when someone wants to put a couple of speakers in their car, if they've got the otaku or they've heard from someone who does, they go ahead and they pick this. +It's really simple -- you sell to the people who are listening, and just maybe, those people tell their friends. +Pearl Jam, 96 albums released in the last two years. +Every one made a profit. How? +They only sell them on their website. +Those people who buy them have the otaku, and then they tell their friends, and it spreads and it spreads. +This hospital crib cost 10,000 dollars, 10 times the standard. +But hospitals are buying it faster than any other model. +Hard Candy nail polish, doesn't appeal to everybody, but to the people who love it, they talk about it like crazy. +This paint can right here saved the Dutch Boy paint company, making them a fortune. It costs 35 percent more than regular paint because Dutch Boy made a can that people talk about, because it's remarkable. +They didn't just slap a new ad on the product; they changed what it meant to build a paint product. +AmIhotornot.com -- everyday 250,000 people go to this site, run by two volunteers, and I can tell you they are hard graders -- They didn't get this way by advertising a lot. +They got this way by being remarkable, sometimes a little too remarkable. +And this picture frame has a cord going out the back, and you plug it into the wall. +My father has this on his desk, and he sees his grandchildren everyday, changing constantly. +And every single person who walks into his office hears the whole story of how this thing ended up on his desk. +And one person at a time, the idea spreads. +These are not diamonds, not really. +They're made from "cremains." +After you're cremated you can have yourself made into a gem. +Oh, you like my ring? It's my grandmother. +Fastest-growing business in the whole mortuary industry. +But you don't have to be Ozzie Osborne -- you don't have to be super-outrageous to do this. +What you have to do is figure out what people really want and give it to them. +A couple of quick rules to wrap up. +The first one is: Design is free when you get to scale. +The people who come up with stuff that's remarkable more often than not figure out how to put design to work for them. +Number two: The riskiest thing you can do now is be safe. +Proctor and Gamble knows this, right? +The whole model of being Proctor and Gamble is always about average products for average people. +That's risky. The safe thing to do now is to be at the fringes, be remarkable. +And being very good is one of the worst things you can possibly do. +Very good is boring. Very good is average. +It doesn't matter whether you're making a record album, or you're an architect, or you have a tract on sociology. +If it's very good, it's not going to work, because no one's going to notice it. +So my three stories. +Silk put a product that does not need to be in the refrigerated section next to the milk in the refrigerated section. +Sales tripled. Why? +Milk, milk, milk, milk, milk -- not milk. +For the people who were there and looking at that section, it was remarkable. +They didn't triple their sales with advertising; they tripled it by doing something remarkable. +That is a remarkable piece of art. You don't have to like it, but a 40-foot tall dog made out of bushes in the middle of New York City is remarkable. Frank Gehry didn't just change a museum; he changed an entire city's economy by designing one building that people from all over the world went to see. +Now, at countless meetings at, you know, the Portland City Council, or who knows where, they said, we need an architect -- can we get Frank Gehry? +Because he did something that was at the fringes. +And my big failure? I came out with an entire -- A record album and hopefully a whole bunch of record albums in SACD, this remarkable new format -- and I marketed it straight to people with 20,000-dollar stereos. +People with 20,000-dollar stereos don't like new music. +So what you need to do is figure out who does care. +Who is going to raise their hand and say, "I want to hear what you're doing next," and sell something to them. +The last example I want to give you. +This is a map of Soap Lake, Washington. +As you can see, if that's nowhere, it's in the middle of it. +But they do have a lake. +And people used to come from miles around to swim in the lake. +They don't anymore. So the founding fathers said, "We've got some money to spend. +What can we build here?" And like most committees, they were going to build something pretty safe. +And then an artist came to them -- this is a true artist's rendering -- he wants to build a 55-foot tall lava lamp in the center of town. +That's a purple cow; that's something worth noticing. +I don't know about you, but if they build it, that's where I'm going to go. +Thank you very much for your attention. +You'll be happy to know that I'll be talking not about my own tragedy, but other people's tragedy. +It's a lot easier to be lighthearted about other people's tragedy than your own, and I want to keep it in the spirit of the conference. +So, if you believe the media accounts, being a drug dealer in the height of the crack cocaine epidemic was a very glamorous life, in the words of Virginia Postrel. +There was money, there was drugs, guns, women, you know, you name it -- jewelry, bling-bling -- it had it all. +What I'm going to tell you today is that, in fact, based on 10 years of research, a unique opportunity to go inside a gang -- to see the actual books, the financial records of the gang -- that the answer turns out not to be that being in the gang was a glamorous life. +But I think, more realistically, that being in a gang -- selling drugs for a gang -- is perhaps the worst job in all of America. +And that's what I'd like to convince you of today. +So there are three things I want to do. +First, I want to explain how and why crack cocaine had such a profound influence on inner-city gangs. +Secondly, I want to tell you how somebody like me came to be able to see the inner workings of a gang -- an interesting story, I think. +And then third, I want to tell you, in a very superficial way, about some of the things we found when we actually got to look at the financial records, the books, of the gang. +So before I do that, just one warning, which is that this presentation has been rated 'R' by the Motion Picture Association of America. +It contains adult themes, adult language. +Given who is up on the stage, you'll be delighted to know that, in fact, there'll be no nudity -- Unexpected wardrobe malfunctions aside. +So let me start by talking about crack cocaine, and how it transformed the gang. +To do that, you have to actually go back to a time before crack cocaine, in the early '80s, and look at it from the perspective of a gang leader. +Being a gang leader in the inner city wasn't such a bad deal in the mid-'80s -- the early '80s, let me say. +Now, you had a lot of power, and you got to beat people up -- you got a lot of prestige, a lot of respect. +But the thing is, there was no money in it. +The gang had no way to make money. +You couldn't charge dues to the people in the gang, because the people in the gang didn't have any money. +You couldn't really make any money selling marijuana -- marijuana's too cheap, it turns out. +You can't get rich selling marijuana. +You couldn't sell cocaine; cocaine's a great product -- powdered cocaine -- but you've got to know rich white people. +And most of the inner-city gang members didn't know any rich white people, so couldn't sell to that market. +You couldn't really do petty crime, either. +Turns out, petty crime's a terrible way to make a living. +As a result, as a gang leader, you had, you know, power -- it's a pretty good life -- but the thing was, in the end, you were living at home with your mother. +And so it wasn't really a career. +There were limits to how powerful and important you could be if you had to live at home with your mother. +Then along comes crack cocaine. +And in the words of Malcolm Gladwell, crack cocaine was the extra-chunky version of tomato sauce Because crack cocaine was an unbelievable innovation. +I don't have time to talk about it today, but if you think about it, I would say that in the last 25 years, of every invention or innovation that's occurred in this country, the biggest one in terms of impact on the well-being of people who live in the inner city, was crack cocaine. +And for the worse -- not for the better, but for the worse. +It had a huge impact on life. +So what was it about crack cocaine? +It was a brilliant way of getting the brain high. +Because you could smoke crack cocaine -- you can't smoke powdered cocaine -- and smoking is a much more efficient mechanism of delivering a high than snorting it. +And it turned out there was this audience that didn't know it wanted crack cocaine, but when it came, it really did. +And it was a perfect drug; you could buy the cocaine that went into it for a dollar, sell it for five dollars. +Highly addictive -- the high was very short. +So for fifteen minutes, you get this great high, and then when you come down, all you want to do is get high again. +It created a wonderful market. +And for the people who were there running the gang, it was a great way, seemingly, to make a lot of money. +At least for the people on the top. +So this is where we enter the picture. +Not really me -- I'm really a bit player in all this. +My co-author, Sudhir Venkatesh, is the main character. +He was a math major in college who had a good heart, and decided he wanted to get a sociology PhD, came to the University of Chicago. +Now, the three months before he came to Chicago, he had spent following the Grateful Dead. +And in his own words, he "looked like a freak." +He's a South Asian -- very dark-skinned South Asian. +Big man, and he had hair, in his words, "down to his ass." +Was he black or white? Was he man or woman? +He was really a curious sight to be seen. +So he showed up at the University of Chicago, and the famous sociologist William Julius Wilson was doing a book that involved surveying people all across Chicago. +He took one look at Sudhir, who was going to go do some surveys for him, and decided he knew exactly the place to send him, which was to one of the toughest, most notorious housing projects not just in Chicago, but in the entire United States. +So Sudhir, the suburban boy who had never really been in the inner city, dutifully took his clipboard and walked down to this housing project, gets to the first building. +The first building? Well, there's nobody there. +But he hears some voices up in the stairwell, so he climbs up the stairwell, comes around the corner, and finds a group of young African-American men playing dice. +This is about 1990, peak of the crack epidemic. +This is a very dangerous job, being in a gang. You don't like to be surprised. +You don't like to be surprised by people who come around the corner. +And the mantra was: shoot first; ask questions later. +Now, Sudhir was lucky -- he was such a freak, and that clipboard probably saved his life, because they figured no other rival gang member would be coming up to shoot at them with a clipboard. +So his greeting was not particularly warm, but they did say, well, OK -- let's hear your questions on your survey. +So -- I kid you not -- the first question on the survey that he was sent to ask was: "How do you feel about being poor and Black in America?" +Makes you wonder about academics. +He was held hostage overnight in the stairwell. +There was a lot of gunfire, there were a lot of philosophical discussions he had with the gang members. +By morning, the gang leader arrived, checked out Sudhir, decided he was no threat, and they let him go home. +So Sudhir went home, took a shower, took a nap. +And you and I, probably, faced with the situation, would think, "I guess I'm going to write my dissertation on The Grateful Dead, I've been following them for the last three months." +Sudhir, on the other hand, got right back, walked down to the housing project, went up to the second floor, and said: "Hey, guys, I had so much fun hanging out with you last night, I wonder if I could do it again tonight." +But ultimately, the story has a happy ending for Sudhir, who became one of the most respected sociologists in the country. +And especially for me, as I sat in my office with my Excel spreadsheet open, waiting for Sudhir to come and deliver to me the latest load of data that he would get from the gang. +It was one of the most unequal co-authoring relationships ever -- But I was glad to be the beneficiary of it. +What did we find in the gang? Well, let me say one thing: We really got access to everybody in the gang. +We got an inside look at the gang, from the very bottom up to the very top. +They trusted Sudhir, in ways that really no academic has ever -- or really anybody, any outsider -- has ever earned the trust of these gangs, to the point where they actually opened up what was most interesting for me -- their books, the financial records they kept. +They made them available to us, and we not only could study them, but we could ask them questions about what was in them. +So first, in one way, which isn't maybe the most interesting way, but it's a good way to start -- is in the way it's organized, the hierarchy of the gang, the way it looks. +So here's what the org chart of the gang looks like. +I don't know if you know much about org charts, but if you were to assign a stripped-down and simplified McDonald's org chart, this is exactly what it would look like. +It's amazing, but the top level of the gang, they actually call themselves the "Board of Directors." +And Sudhir says it's not like these guys had a very sophisticated view of what happened in American corporate life, but they had seen movies like "Wall Street," and they had learned a little bit about what it was like to be in the real world. +Now, below that board of directors, you've got essentially what are regional VPs -- people who control, say, the South Side of Chicago, or the West Side of Chicago. +Sudhir got to know very well the guy who had the unfortunate assignment of trying to take the Iowa franchise, which, it turned out, for this black gang, was not one of the more brilliant financial endeavors they undertook. +But the thing that really makes the gang seem like McDonald's is its franchisees. +The guys who are running the local gangs -- the four-square-block by four-square-block areas -- they're just like the guys, in some sense, who are running the McDonald's. +They are the entrepreneurs. +They get the exclusive property rights to control the drug-selling. +They get the name of the gang behind them, for merchandising and marketing. +And they're the ones who basically make the profit or lose a profit, depending on how good they are at running the business. +Now, the group I really want you to think about, though, are the ones at the bottom -- the foot soldiers. +These are the teenagers, typically, who'd be standing out on the street corner, selling the drugs. +Extremely dangerous work. +And important to note is that almost all of the weight, all of the people in this organization are at the bottom -- just like McDonald's. +So in some sense, the foot soldiers are a lot like the people who are taking your order at McDonald's, and it's not just by chance that they're like them. +In fact, in these neighborhoods, they'd be the same people. +So the same kids who are working in the gang were actually, at the very same time, typically working part-time at a place like McDonald's. +Which already foreshadows the main result that I've talked about, about what a crappy job it was, being in the gang. +Because obviously, if being in the gang were such a wonderful, lucrative job, why in the world would these guys moonlight at McDonald's? +So what do the wages look like? You might be surprised. +But based on being able to talk to them and to see their records, this is what it looks like in terms of the wages. +The hourly wage the foot soldiers were earning was $3.50 an hour. +It was below the minimum wage. And this is well-documented. +It's easy to see by the patterns of consumption they have. +It really is not fiction -- it's fact. +There was very little money in the gang, especially at the bottom. +Now if you managed to rise up, say, and be that local leader, the guy who's the equivalent of the McDonald's franchisee, you'd be making 100,000 dollars a year. +And that, in some ways, was the best job you could hope to get if you were growing up in one of these neighborhoods as a young black male. +If you managed to rise to the very top, 200,000 or 400,000 dollars a year is what you'd hope to make. +Truly, you would be a great success story. +And one of the sad parts of this is that, indeed, among the many other ramifications of crack cocaine is that the most talented individuals in these communities -- this is what they were striving for. +They weren't trying to make it in legitimate ways, because there were no legitimate channels out. +This was the best way out. +And it actually was the right choice, probably, to try to make it out this way. +You look at this, the relationship to McDonald's breaks down here. +The money looks about the same. +Why is it such a bad job? +Well, the reason it's such a bad job is that there's somebody shooting at you a lot of the time. +So, with shooting at you, what are the death rates? +We found, in our gang -- and admittedly, this was not really a standard situation; this was a time of intense violence, of a lot of gang wars, as this gang actually became quite successful. But there were costs. +And so the death rate -- not to mention the rate of being arrested, sent to prison, being wounded -- the death rate in our sample was seven percent per person per year. +You're in the gang for four years, you expect to die with about a 25 percent likelihood. +That is about as high as you can get. +So for comparison's purposes, let's think about some other walk of life you may expect might be extremely risky. +Let's say that you were a murderer and you were convicted of murder, and you're sent to death row. +It turns out, the death rates on death row from all causes, including execution: two percent a year. +So it's a lot safer being on death row than it is selling drugs out on the street. +That gives you some pause, for those of you who believe that a death penalty's going to have an enormous deterrent effect on crime. +That's extremely high. +And this is violent death -- it's unbelievable, in some sense. +To put it into perspective: if you compare this to the soldiers in Iraq, for instance, right now fighting the war: 0.5 percent. +So in some very literal way, the young black men who were growing up in this country were living in a war zone, very much in the sense that the soldiers over in Iraq are fighting in a war. +So why in the world, you might ask, would anybody be willing to stand out on a street corner selling drugs for $3.50 an hour, with a 25 percent chance of dying over the next four years? +Why would they do that? And I think there are a couple answers. +I think the first one is that they got fooled by history. +It used to be the gang was a rite of passage; that the young people controlled the gang; that as you got older, you dropped out of the gang. +So what happened was, the people who happened to be in the right place at the right time -- the people who happened to be leading the gang in the mid-to-late-'80s -- became very, very wealthy. +And so the logical thing to think was that they are going to age out of the gang like everybody else has, and the next generation is going to take over and get the wealth. +There are striking similarities, I think, to the Internet boom. +The first set of people in Silicon Valley got very, very rich. +And then all of my friends said, "Maybe I should go do that, too." +And they were willing to work very cheap for stock options that never came. +In some sense, that's what happened, exactly, to the set of people we were looking at. +They were willing to start at the bottom, just like, say, a first-year lawyer at a law firm is willing to start at the bottom, work 80-hour weeks for not that much money, because they think they're going to make partner. +But the rules changed, and they never got to make partner. +Indeed, the same people who were running all of the major gangs in the late 1980s are still running the major gangs in Chicago today. +They never passed on any of the wealth, So everybody got stuck at that $3.50-an-hour job, and it turned out to be a disaster. +The other thing the gang was very good at was marketing and trickery. +And so for instance, one thing the gang would do is -- the gang leaders would have big entourages, and they'd drive fancy cars and have fancy jewelry. +So what Sudhir eventually realized as he hung out with them more, is that, really, they didn't own those cars -- they just leased them, because they couldn't afford to own the fancy cars. +And they didn't really have gold jewelry, they had gold-plated jewelry. +It goes back to, you know, the real-real versus the fake-real. +And really, they did all sorts of things to trick the young people into thinking what a great deal the gang was going to be. +So for instance, they would give a 14-year-old kid a whole roll of bills to hold. +That 14-year-old kid would say to his friends, "Hey, look at all the money I got in the gang." +It wasn't his money -- until he spent it, and then he was in debt to the gang, and was sort of an indentured servant for a while. +So I have a couple minutes. +Let me do one last thing I hadn't thought I'd have time to do, which is to talk about what we learned more generally about economics, from the study of the gang. +So, economists tend to talk in technical words. +Often, our theories fail quite miserably when we over the data, but what's kind of interesting is that in this setting, it turned out that some of the economic theories that worked not so well in the real economy worked very well in the drug economy, in some sense, because it's unfettered capitalism. +Here's an economic principle. +This is one of the basic ideas in labor economics, called a "compensating differential." +It's the idea that the increment to wages that a worker requires to leave him indifferent between performing two tasks, one which is more unpleasant than the other. +Compensating differential -- it's why we think garbagemen might be paid more than people who work in parks. +The words of one of the members of the gang, I think, make this clear. +So it turns out -- I'm sort of getting ahead of myself -- it turns out, in the gang, when there's a war going on, they actually pay the foot soldiers twice as much money. +It's exactly this concept. +Because they're not willing to be at risk. +And the words of a gang member capture it quite nicely, he says: "Would you stand around here when all this shit ..." -- the shooting -- "... if all this shit's going on? No, right? +So if I gonna be asked to put my life on the line, then front me the cash, man." +I think the gang member says it much more articulately than the economist, about what's going on. +Here's another one. +Economists talk about game theory, that every two-person game has a Nash equilibrium. +Here's the translation you get from the gang member. +They're talking about the decision of why they don't go shoot -- One thing that turns out to be a great business tactic in the gang: if you go and just shoot guns in the air in the other gang's territory -- people are afraid to go buy drugs there, they're going to come into your neighborhood. +Here's what he says about why they don't do that: "If we start shooting around there, the other gang's territory, nobody, I mean, you dig it, nobody gonna step on their turf. +But we gotta be careful, 'cause they can shoot around here too and then we all fucked." +So that's the same concept. +Then again, sometimes economists get it wrong. +One thing we observed in the data is that it looked like -- the gang leader always got paid. +No matter how bad it was economically, he always got himself paid. +We had some theories related to cash flow, and lack of access to capital markets, and things like that. +Then we asked the gang member, "Why is it you always get paid and your workers don't always get paid?" +"You got all these niggers below you who want your job, you dig? +If you start taking losses, they see you as weak and shit." +And I thought about it and said, "CEOs often pay themselves million-dollar bonuses, even when companies are losing a lot of money. +And it never would really occur to an economist that this idea of 'weak and shit' could really be important." +Maybe "weak and shit" is an important hypothesis that needs more analysis. +Thank you very much. +Once upon a time, there was a dread disease that afflicted children. +And in fact, among all the diseases that existed in this land, it was the worst. It killed the most children. +And along came a brilliant inventor, a scientist, who came up with a partial cure for that disease. +And it wasn't perfect. Many children still died, but it was certainly better than what they had before. +And one of the good things about this cure was that it was free, virtually free, and was very easy to use. +But the worst thing about it was that you couldn't use it on the youngest children, on infants, and on one-year-olds. +And so, as a consequence, a few years later, another scientist -- perhaps maybe this scientist not quite as brilliant as the one who had preceded him, but building on the invention of the first one -- came up with a second cure. +And the beauty of the second cure for this disease was that it could be used on infants and one-year-olds. +And the problem with this cure was it was very expensive, and it was very complicated to use. +And although parents tried as hard as they could to use it properly, almost all of them ended up using it wrong in the end. +But what they did, of course, since it was so complicated and expensive, they only used it on the zero-year-olds and the one-year-olds. +And they kept on using the existing cure that they had on the two-year-olds and up. +And this went on for quite some time. People were happy. +They had their two cures. Until a particular mother, whose child had just turned two, died of this disease. +And she thought to herself, "My child just turned two, and until the child turned two, I had always used this complicated, expensive cure, you know, this treatment. +And then the child turned two, and I started using the cheap and easy treatment, and I wonder" -- and she wondered, like all parents who lose children wonder -- "if there isn't something that I could have done, like keep on using that complicated, expensive cure." +And she told all the other people, and she said, "How could it possibly be that something that's cheap and simple works as well as something that's complicated and expensive?" +And the people thought, "You know, you're right. +It probably is the wrong thing to do to switch and use the cheap and simple solution." +And the government, they heard her story and the other people, and they said, "Yeah, you're right, we should make a law. +We should outlaw this cheap and simple treatment and not let anybody use this on their children." +And the people were happy. They were satisfied. +For many years this went along, and everything was fine. +But then along came a lowly economist, who had children himself, and he used the expensive and complicated treatment. +But he knew about the cheap and simple one. +And he thought about it, and the expensive one didn't seem that great to him. So he thought, "I don't know anything about science, but I do know something about data, so maybe I should go and look at the data and see whether this expensive and complicated treatment actually works any better than the cheap and simple one." +And lo and behold, when he went through the data, he found that it didn't look like the expensive, complicated solution was any better than the cheap one, at least for the children who were two and older -- the cheap one still didn't work on the kids who were younger. +And so, he went forth to the people and he said, "I've made this wonderful finding: it looks as if we could just use the cheap and simple solution, and by doing so we could save ourselves 300 million dollars a year, and we could spend that on our children in other ways." +And the parents were very unhappy, and they said, "This is a terrible thing, because how can the cheap and easy thing be as good as the hard thing?" And the government was very upset. +And in particular, the people who made this expensive solution were very upset because they thought, "How can we hope to compete with something that's essentially free? +We would lose all of our market." +And people were very angry, and they called him horrible names. +And he decided that maybe he should leave the country for a few days, and seek out some more intelligent, open-minded people in a place called Oxford, and come and try and tell the story at that place. +And so, anyway, here I am. It's not a fairy tale. +It's a true story about the United States today, and the disease I'm referring to is actually motor vehicle accidents for children. +And the free cure is adult seatbelts, and the expensive cure -- the 300-million-dollar-a-year cure -- is child car seats. +And then, finally talk a little bit about a third way, about another technology, which is probably better than anything we have, but which -- there hasn't been any enthusiasm for adoption precisely because people are so enamored with the current car seat solution. OK. +So, many times when you try to do research on data, it records complicated stories -- it's hard to find in the data. +It doesn't turn out to be the case when you look at seatbelts versus car seats. +So the United States keeps a data set of every fatal accident that's happened since 1975. +So in every car crash in which at least one person dies, they have information on all of the people. +So if you look at that data -- it's right up on the National Highway Transportation Safety Administration's website -- you can just look at the raw data, and begin to get a sense of the limited amount of evidence that's in favor of car seats for children aged two and up. +So, here is the data. Here I have, among two- to six-year-olds -- anyone above six, basically no one uses car seats, so you can't compare -- 29.3 percent of the children who are unrestrained in a crash in which at least one person dies, themselves die. +If you put a child in a car seat, 18.2 percent of the children die. +So what we do in the study is -- and this is just presenting the same information, but turned into a figure to make it easier. +So the yellow bar represents car seats, the orange bar lap-and-shoulder, and the red bar lap-only seatbelts. +And this is all relative to unrestrained -- the bigger the bar, the better. Okay. +So, this is the data I just showed, OK? +So the highest bar is what you're striving to beat. +So you can control for the basic things, like how hard the crash was, what seat the child was sitting in, etc., the age of the child. +And that's that middle set of bars. +And so, you can see that the lap-only seatbelts start to look worse once you do that. +And then finally, the last set of bars, which are really controlling for everything you could possibly imagine about the crash, 50, 75, 100 different characteristics of the crash. +And what you find is that the car seats and the lap-and-shoulder belts, when it comes to saving lives, fatalities look exactly identical. +And the standard error bands are relatively small around these estimates as well. +And it's not just overall. It's very robust to anything you want to look at. +One thing that's interesting: if you look at frontal-impact crashes -- when the car crashes, the front hits into something -- indeed, what you see is that the car seats look a little bit better. +And I think this isn't just chance. +In order to have the car seat approved, you need to pass certain federal standards, all of which involve slamming your car into a direct frontal crash. +But when you look at other types of crashes, like rear-impact crashes, indeed, the car seats don't perform as well. +And I think that's because they've been optimized to pass, as we always expect people to do, to optimize relative to bright-line rules about how affected the car will be. +And the other thing you might argue is, "Well, car seats have got a lot better over time. +And so if we look at recent crashes -- the whole data set is almost 30 years' worth of data -- you won't see it in the recent crashes. The new car seats are far, far better." +But indeed, in recent crashes the lap-and-shoulder seatbelts, actually, are doing even better than the car seats. +They say, "Well, that's impossible, that can't be." +And the line of argument, if you ask parents, is, "But car seats are so expensive and complicated, and they have this big tangle of latches, how could they possibly not work better than seatbelts because they are so expensive and complicated?" +It's kind of an interesting logic, I think, that people use. And the other logic, they say, "Well, the government wouldn't have told us [to] use them if they weren't much better." +But what's interesting is the government telling us to use them is not actually based on very much. +It really is based on some impassioned pleas of parents whose children died after they turned two, which has led to the passage of all these laws -- not very much on data. +So you can only get so far, I think, in telling your story by using these abstract statistics. +And so I had some friends over to dinner, and I was asking -- we had a cookout -- I was asking them what advice they might have for me about proving my point. They said, "Why don't you run some crash tests?" +And I said, "That's a great idea." +So we actually tried to commission some crash tests. +And it turns out that as we called around to the independent crash test companies around the country, none of them wanted to do our crash test because they said, some explicitly, some not so explicitly, "All of our business comes from car seat manufacturers. +We can't risk alienating them by testing seatbelts relative to car seats." +Now, eventually, one did. Under the conditions of anonymity, they said they would be happy to do this test for us -- so anonymity, and 1,500 dollars per seat that we crashed. +And so, we went to Buffalo, New York, and here is the precursor to it. +These are the crash test dummies, waiting for their chance to take the center stage. +And then, here's how the crash test works. +Here, they don't actually crash the entire car, you know -- it's not worth ruining a whole car to do it. +So they just have these bench seats, and they strap the car seat and the seatbelt onto it. +So I just wanted you to look at this. +And I think this gives you a good idea of why parents think car seats are so great. Look at the kid in the car seat. +Does he not look content, ready to go, like he could survive anything? And then, if you look at the kid in back, it looks like he's already choking before the crash even happens. +It's hard to believe, when you look at this, that that kid in back is going to do very well when you get in a crash. +So this is going to be a crash where they're going to slam this thing forward into a wall at 30 miles an hour, and see what happens. OK? +So, let me show you what happens. +These are three-year-old dummies, by the way. +So here -- this is the car seat. Now watch two things: watch how the head goes forward, and basically hits the knees -- and this is in the car seat -- and watch how the car seat flies around, in the rebound, up in the air. +The car seat's moving all over the place. +Bear in mind there are two things about this. +This is a car seat that was installed by someone who has installed 1,000 car seats, who knew exactly how to do it. +And also it turned out these bench seats are the very best way to install car seats. +Having a flat back makes it much easier to install them. +And so this is a test that's very much rigged in favor of the car seat, OK? So, that kid in this crash fared very well. +The federal standards are that you have to score below a 1,000 to be an approved car seat on this crash, in some metric of units which are not important. +And this crash would have been about a 450. +So this car seat was actually an above-average car seat from Consumer Reports, and did quite well. +Anyway, it turns out that those two crashes, that actually the three-year-old did slightly worse. So, he gets about a 500 out of -- you know, on this range -- relative to a 400 and something. +But still, if you just took that data from that crash to the federal government, and said, "I have invented a new car seat. +I would like you to approve it for selling," then they would say, "This is a fantastic new car seat, it works great. +It only got a 500, it could have gotten as high up as a 1,000." +And this seatbelt would have passed with flying colors into being approved as a car seat. +So, in some sense, what this is suggesting is that it's not just that people are setting up their car seats wrong, which is putting children at risk. It's just that, fundamentally, the car seats aren't doing much. +So here's the crash. So these are timed at the same time, so you can see that it takes much longer with the car seat -- at rebound, it takes a lot longer -- but there's just a lot less movement for child who's in the seatbelt. +So, I'll show you the six-year-old crashes as well. +The six-year-old is in a car seat, and it turns out that looks terrible, but that's great. That's like a 400, OK? +So that kid would do fine in the crash. +Nothing about that would have been problematic to the child at all. +And then here's the six-year-old in the seatbelt, and in fact, they get exactly within, you know, within one or two points of the same. So really, for the six-year-old, the car seat did absolutely nothing whatsoever. +That's some more evidence, so in some sense -- I was criticized by a scientist, who said, "You could never publish a study with an n of 4," meaning those four crashes. +So I wrote him back and I said, "What about an n of 45,004?" +Because I had the other 45,000 other real-world crashes. +And so I think the answer to this puzzle is that there's a much better solution out there, that's gotten nobody excited because everyone is so delighted with the way car seats are presumably working. +And if you think from a design perspective, about going back to square one, and say, "I just want to protect kids in the back seat." +I don't there's anyone in this room who'd say, "Well, the right way to start would be, let's make a great seat belt for adults. +And then, let's make this really big contraption that you have to rig up to it in this daisy chain." +I mean, why not start -- who's sitting in the back seat anyway except for kids? +But essentially, do something like this, which I don't know exactly how much it would cost to do, but there's no reason I could see why this should be much more expensive than a regular car seat. +It's just actually -- you see, this is folding up -- it's behind the seat. +You've got a regular seat for adults, and then you fold it down, and the kid sits on top, and it's integrated. +It seems to me that this can't be a very expensive solution, and it's got to work better than what we already have. +So the question is, is there any hope for adoption of something like this, which would presumably save a lot of lives? +And I think the answer, perhaps, lies in a story. +So, my father would have patients come in who he thought were not really sick. +And he had a big jar full of placebo pills that he would give them, and he'd say, "Come back in a week, if you still feel lousy." +OK, and most of them would not come back, but some of them would come back. +And when they came back, he, still convinced they were not sick, had another jar of pills. In this jar were huge horse pills. +They were almost impossible to swallow. +And these, to me, are the analogy for the car seats. +People would look at these and say, "Man, this thing is so big and so hard to swallow. If this doesn't make me feel better, you know, what possibly could?" +And it turned out that most people wouldn't come back, because it worked. But every once in a while, there was still a patient convinced that he was sick, and he'd come back. And my dad had a third jar of pills. +And the jar of pills he had, he said, were the tiniest little pills he could find, so small you could barely see them. +And he would say, listen, I know I gave you that huge pill, that complicated, hard-to-swallow pill before, but now I've got one that's so potent, that is really tiny and small and almost invisible. +It's almost like this thing here, which you can't even see." +And it turned out that never, in all the times my dad gave out this pill, the really tiny pill, did anyone ever come back still complaining of sickness. +And that's completely possible. And if that's the case, then I think we're stuck with conventional car seats for a long time to come. +Thank you very much. +(Audience: I just wanted to ask you, when we wear seatbelts we don't necessarily wear them just to prevent loss of life, it's also to prevent lots of serious injury. +Your data looks at fatalities. It doesn't look at serious injury. +Is there any data to show that child seats are actually less effective, or just as effective as seatbelts for serious injury? Because that would prove your case.) Steven Levitt: Yeah, that's a great question. In my data, and in another data set I've looked at for New Jersey crashes, I find very small differences in injury. +So in this data, it's statistically insignificant differences in injury between car seats and lap-and-shoulder belts. +In the New Jersey data, which is different, because it's not just fatal crashes, but all crashes in New Jersey that are reported, it turns out that there is a 10 percent difference in injuries, but generally they're the minor injuries. +Now, what's interesting, I should say this as a disclaimer, there is medical literature that is very difficult to resolve with this other data, which suggests that car seats are dramatically better. +And they use a completely different methodology that involves -- after the crash occurs, they get from the insurance companies the names of the people who were in the crash, and they call them on the phone, and they asked them what happened. +And I really can't resolve, yet, and I'd like to work with these medical researchers to try to understand how there can be these differences, which are completely at odds with one another. +But it's obviously a critical question. +The question is even if -- are there enough serious injuries to make these cost-effective? It's kind of tricky. +Even if they're right, it's not so clear that they're so cost-effective. +I don't know your name. Audience Member: Howard. Howard. +Thom Mayne: Howard? I'm sitting next to Howard. I don't know Howard, obviously, and he's going, I hope you're not next. +Amazing. Amazing performance. +I kind of erased everything in my brain to follow that. +Let me start some place. I'm interested -- I kind of do the same thing, but I don't move my body. And instead of using human figures to develop ideas of time and space, I work in the mineral world. I work with more or less inert matter. +And I organize it. And, well, it's also a bit different because an architect versus, let's say, a dance company finally is a negotiation between one's private world, one's conceptual world, the world of ideas, the world of aspirations, of inventions, with the relationship of the exterior world and all the limitations, the naysayers. +Because I have to say, for my whole career, if there's anything that's been consistent, it's been that you can't do it. +No matter what I've done, what I've tried to do, everybody says it can't be done. +And it's continuous across the complete spectrum of the various kind of realities that you confront with your ideas. +And to be an architect, somehow you have to negotiate between left and right, and you have to negotiate between this very private place where ideas take place and the outside world, and then make it understood. +It's Calvino's idea of the quickest way between two points is the circuitous line, not the straight line. +And definitely my life has been part of that. +I'm going to start with some simple kind of notions of how we organize things. +But basically, what we do is, we try to give coherence to the world. +We make physical things, buildings that become a part in an accretional process; they make cities. +And those things are the reflection of the processes, and the time that they are made. +And what I'm doing is attempting to synthesize the way one sees the world and the territories which are useful as generative material. +Because, really, all I'm interested in, always, as an architect, is the way things are produced because that's what I do. Right? +And it's not based on an a priori notion. +It doesn't work that way for me at all. +I have no interest in that whatsoever. +Architecture is the beginning of something, because it's -- if you're not involved in first principles, if you're not involved in the absolute, the beginning of that generative process, it's cake decoration. +And I've nothing wrong with cake decoration and cake decorators, if anybody's involved in cake decorations -- it's not what I'm interested in doing. And so, in the formation of things, in giving it form, in concretizing these things, it starts with some notion of how one organizes. +And I've had for 30 years an interest in a series of complexities where a series of forces are brought to bear, and to understand the nature of the final result of that, representing the building itself. +There's been a continual relationship between inventions, which are private, and reality, which has been important to me. +A project which is part of an exhibition in Copenhagen 10 years ago, which was the modeling of a hippocampus -- the territory of the brain that records short-term memory -- and the documentation of that, the imaginative and documentation of that through a series of drawings which literally attempt to organize that experience. +And it had to do with the notion of walking a kilometer, observing every kilometer a particular object of desire, and then placing that within this. +And the notion was that I could make an organization not built on normal coherencies, but built on non-sequiturs, built on randomness. +And I'd been extremely interested in this notion of randomness as it produces architectural work and as it definitely connects to the notion of the city, an accretional notion of the city, and that led to various ideas of organization. +And then this led to broader ideas of buildings that come together through the multiplicity of systems. +And it's not any single system that makes the work. +It's the relationship -- it's the dynamics between the systems -- which have the power to transform and invent and produce an architecture that is -- that would otherwise not exist. +And those systems could be identified, and they could be grouped together. +And of course, today, with the technology of the computer and with the rapid prototyping, etc., we have the mechanisms to understand and to respond to these systems, and to allow them to adjust to the various accommodations of functionalities because that's all we do. +We're producing spaces that accommodate human activity. +And what I'm interested in is not the styling of that, but the relationship of that as it enhances that activity. +And that directly connects to ideas of city-making. +This is a project that we just finished in Penang for a very, very large city project that came directly out of this process, which is the result of the multiplicity of forces that produce it. +And the project -- again, enormous, enormous competition -- on the Hudson River and in New York that we were asked to do three years ago, which uses these processes. +And what you're looking at are possibilities that have to do with the generation of the city as one applies a methodology that uses notions of these multiple forces, that deals with the enormity of the problem, the complexity of the problem, when we're designing cities at larger and larger aggregates. +Because one of the issues today is that the economic aggregate is driving the development aggregate, and as the aggregates get larger we require more and more complex investigation processes to solve these problems. +And that led us directly to the Olympic Village. +I was in New York on Monday presenting it to the IOC. +We won the competition -- what was it, nine months ago? +Again, a direct reflection from using these processes to develop extremely complicated, very large-scale organisms. +And then, also, was working with broad strategies. +In this case, we only used 15 of the 60 acres of land, and the 45 acres was a park and would become the legacy of the Olympic Village. +And it would become the second largest park in the boroughs, etc. +Its position, of course, in the middle of Manhattan -- it's on Hunter's Point. +And then the broader ideas of city-making start having direct influences on architecture, on the elements that make up the broader scheme, the buildings themselves, and start guiding us. +Architecture for me has been an investigation of a multiplicity of forces that could come from literally any place. +And so I can start this discussion in any number of places, and I've chosen three or four to talk about. +And it has also to do with an interest in the vast kind of territory that architecture touches. +It literally is connected to anything in terms of knowledge base. +There's just no place that it doesn't somehow have a connective tissue to. +This is Jim Dine, and it's the absence of presence, etc. +It's the clothing, the skin, without the presence of the character. +It became kind of an idea for the notion of the surface of a work, and it was used in a project where we could unravel that surface, and it was a figurative idea that was going to be folded and made into a very, kind of complex space. +And the idea was the relationship of the space, which was made up of the fold of the image, and the dialectic or the conflict between the figuration, and the clarity of the image and the complexity of the space, which were in dialog. +And it made us rethink the whole notion of how we work and how we make things, and it led us to ideas that were closer to fashion design as we flattened out surfaces, and then brought them back together as they could make spatial combinations. +And this was the first prototype in Korea, as we're dealing with a dynamic envelope, and then the same characteristic of the fabric. +It has a material identity and it's translucent and it's porous, and it allows us for a very different notion of what a skin of a building is. +And that turned right away into another project. +This is the Caltrans building in Los Angeles. +And now we're seeing as the skin and the body is differentiated. +Again, it's a very, very simple notion. +If you look at most buildings, what you look at is the building, the facade, and it is the building. +And all of a sudden we're kind of moving away, and we're separating the skin from the body, and that's going to lead to broader performance criteria, which I'm going to talk about in a minute. +And you're looking at how it drapes over and differentiates from the body. +And then, again, the building itself, middle of Los Angeles, right across from City Hall. +And as it moves, it takes pieces of the earth with it. It bends up. +It's part of a sign system, which was part of the kind of legacy of Los Angeles -- the two-dimension, three-dimension signing, etc. +And then it allows one to penetrate the work itself. +It's transparent, and it allows you to understand, I think, what is always the most interesting thing in any building, which is the actual constructional processes that make it. +And it's probably the most intense kind of territory of the work, which is not occupied, because architecture is always the most interesting in some mechanism when it's separated from function, and this is an area that allows for that. +And then the skin starts transforming into other materials. +We're using light as a building material in this case. +And that was very much part of the notion of the urban objective of this project in Los Angeles. +And, again, all of it promoting transparency. +And an image which may be closest talks about the use of light as a medium, that light becomes literally a building material. +Well, that immediately turned into something much broader, and as a scope. +And again, we're looking at an early sketch where I'm understanding now that the skin can be a transition between the ground and the tower. +This is a building in San Francisco which is under construction. +And now it turned into something much, much broader as a problem, and it has to do with performance. +This will be the first building in the United States that took -- well, I can't say it took the air conditioning out. It's a hybrid. +I wanted a pure thing, and I can't get it. +It's a wrong attitude, actually, because the hybrid is probably more interesting. +But we took the air conditioning out of the tower. +There's some air conditioning left in the base, but the skin now moves on hydraulics. +It forces air through a Venturi force if there's no wind. +It adjusts continually. And we removed the air conditioning. +Huge, huge thing. Half a million dollars a year delta. +10 of these -- it's just under a million square feet -- 800 and some thousand square feet -- 10 of these would power Sausalito -- the delta on this. +And so now what we're looking at, as the projects get larger in scale, as they interface with broader problems, that they expand the capabilities in terms of their performance. +Well, I could also start here. +We could talk about the relationship at a more biological sense of the relationship of building and ground. +Well, our research -- my generation for sure, people who were going to school in the late '60s -- made very much a shift out of the internal focus of architecture, looking at architecture within its own territory, and we were much more affected by film, by what was going on in the art world, etc. +This is, of course, Michael Heizer. +And when I saw this, first an image and then visited, it completely changed the way I thought after that point. +And I understood that building really could be the augmentation of the Earth's surface, and it completely shifted the notion of building ground in the most basic sense. +And then -- well, he was probably looking at this -- this is Nazca; this is 700 years ago -- the most amazing four-kilometer land sculptures. +They're just totally incredible. +And that led us to then completely rethinking how we draw, how we work. +This is the first sketch of a high school in Pomona -- well, whatever it is, a model, a conceptual, kind of idea. +And it's the reshaping of the Earth to make it occupiable. +So it puts 200,000 square feet of stuff that make a high school work in the surface of that Earth. +There it is modeled as it was developing into a piece of work. +And there it is, again, as it's starting to get resolved tectonically, and then there's the school. +And, of course, we're interested in participating with education. +I have absolutely no interest in producing a building that just accommodates X, Y and Z function. +What I'm interested in are how these ideas participate in the educational process of young people. +It demands some sort of notion of inquiry because it's a system that's developed not sculpturally. +It's an idea that started from my first discussion. +It has to do with a broad, consistent logic, and that logic could be understood as one occupies the building. +And there's an overt -- at least, there's an attempt to make a very overt notion of a building that connects to the land in a very different way because I was interested in a very didactic approach to the problem, as one would understand that. +And the second project that was just finished in Los Angeles that uses some of the same ideas. It uses landscape as a major idea. +Then, again, we're doing the headquarters for NOAA -- National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Agency -- outside of Washington in Maryland. +And this is how they see the world. +They have 22 satellites zipping around at plus or minus 100 miles, and the site's in red. +There's actually three baseball fields on it right now, and they're going to stay there. +We put one piece directly north-south, and it holds the dishes at the ears, right? +And then right below that the processing, and the mission lift, and the mission control room, and all the other spaces are underground. +And what you look at is an aircraft carrier that's performance-driven by the cone vision of these satellite dishes. +And that the building itself is occupied in the lower portion, broken up by a series of courts, and it's five acres of uninterrupted, horizontal space for their administrative offices. +And then that, in turn, propelled us to look at larger-scale projects where this notion of landscape building interface becomes a connective tissue. +The new capital competition for Berlin, four years ago. +And the building is no longer seen as an autonomous thing, but something that's only inextricably connected to this city and this place at this time. +And talk about that intensity in terms of the collisions of the kind of events they make that have to do with putting a series of systems together, and then where part of it is in the ground, part of it is oppositional lifts. +One enters the building as it lifts off the ground, and it becomes part of the idea. +And then the skin -- the edges of this -- all promote the dynamic, the movement of the building as a series of seismic shifts, geologic shifts. Right? +And it makes for event space and then it breaks in places that allow you to peer into the interior, and those interiors, again, are promoting transparency for the workplace, which has been a continual interest of ours. +And then, again, in a more, kind of traditional setting, this is a graduate student housing in Toronto, and it's very much about the relationship of a building as it makes a connective tissue to the city. +The main idea was the gateway, where it breaks the site, and the building occupies both the public space and the private space. +And it's that territory of -- it's this thing. +I visited the site many times, and everybody, kind of -- you can see this from two kilometers away; it's an exact center of the street, and the whole notion is to engage the public, to engage buildings as part of the public tissue of the city. +And finally, one of the most interesting projects -- it's a courthouse. +And what I want to talk about -- this is the Supreme Court, of course -- and, well, I'm dealing with Michael Hogan, the Chief Justice of Oregon. +You could not proceed without making this negotiation between one's own values and the relationship of the character you're working with and how he understands the court, because I'm showing him, of course, Corbusier at Savoy, which is 1928, which is the beginning of modern architecture. +Well, then we get to this image. +And this is where the project started. Because I'm going, I'm interested in the phenomenon that's taking place in here. +And really what we're talking about is constructing reality. +And I'm a character that's extremely interested in understanding the nature of that constructed reality because there's no such thing as nature any more. Nature is gone. +Nature in the 19th-century sense, alright? +Nature is only a cultural edifice today, right? +We construct it and we construct those ideas. +And then of course, this one, our governor at the moment. +And we spent some time with Conan, believe it or not, and then that led us to, kind of, the very differences of our worlds from a legal and an artistic, architectural. +And it forced us to talk about notions of how we work, and the dynamics of that, and what other sources of the work is. +And it led us to the project, the courthouse, which is absolutely a part of a negotiation between tradition and pieces of the traditional courthouse. +You'll find a stair that's the same length as the Supreme Court. +Here's a piano nobile, which is a device used in the Renaissance. +The courts were made of that. The skin is this series of layers that reflect even rusticated stonework, but which were embedded with fragments of the Constitution, which were part of the little process, all set on a plinth that defined it from the community. +Thank you so much. +I was asked to come here and speak about creation. +And I only have 15 minutes, and I see they're counting already. +And I can -- in 15 minutes, I think I can touch only a very rather janitorial branch of creation, which I call "creativity." +Creativity is how we cope with creation. +While creation sometimes seems a bit un-graspable, or even pointless, creativity is always meaningful. +See, for instance, in this picture. +You know, creation is what put that dog in that picture, and creativity is what makes us see a chicken on his hindquarters. +When you think about -- you know, creativity has a lot to do with causality too. +You know, when I was a teenager, I was a creator. +I just did things. +Then I became an adult and started knowing who I was, and tried to maintain that persona -- I became creative. +It wasn't until I actually did a book and a retrospective exhibition, that I could track exactly -- looks like all the craziest things that I had done, all my drinking, all my parties -- they followed a straight line that brings me to the point that actually I'm talking to you at this moment. +Though it's actually true, you know, the reason I'm talking to you right now is because I was born in Brazil. +If I was born in Monterey, probably would be in Brazil. +You know, I was born in Brazil and grew up in the '70s under a climate of political distress, and I was forced to learn to communicate in a very specific way -- in a sort of a semiotic black market. +You couldn't really say what you wanted to say; you had to invent ways of doing it. +You didn't trust information very much. +That led me to another step of why I'm here today, is because I really liked media of all kinds. +I was a media junkie, and eventually got involved with advertising. +My first job in Brazil was actually to develop a way to improve the readability of billboards, and based on speed, angle of approach and actually blocks of text. +It was very -- actually, it was a very good study, and got me a job in an ad agency. +And they also decided that I had to -- to give me a very ugly Plexiglas trophy for it. +And another point -- why I'm here -- is that the day I went to pick up the Plexiglas trophy, I rented a tuxedo for the first time in my life, picked the thing -- didn't have any friends. +On my way out, I had to break a fight apart. +Somebody was hitting somebody else with brass knuckles. +They were in tuxedos, and fighting. It was very ugly. +The first person was wearing a black tie, a tuxedo. It was me. +Luckily, it wasn't fatal, as you can all see. +And, even more luckily, the guy said that he was sorry and I bribed him for compensation money, otherwise I press charges. +And that's how -- with this money I paid for a ticket to come to the United States in 1983, and that's very -- the basic reason I'm talking to you here today: because I got shot. Well, when I started working with my own work, I decided that I shouldn't do images. +You know, I became -- I took this very iconoclastic approach. +Because when I decided to go into advertising, I wanted to do -- I wanted to airbrush naked people on ice, for whiskey commercials, that's what I really wanted to do. But I -- they didn't let me do it, so I just -- you know, they would only let me do other things. +But I wasn't into selling whiskey; I was into selling ice. +The first works were actually objects. +It was kind of a mixture of found object, product design and advertising. +And I called them relics. +They were displayed first at Stux Gallery in 1983. +This is the clown skull. +Is a remnant of a race of -- a very evolved race of entertainers. +They lived in Brazil, long time ago. This is the Ashanti joystick. +Unfortunately, it has become obsolete because it was designed for Atari platform. +A Playstation II is in the works, maybe for the next TED I'll bring it. +The rocking podium. This is the pre-Columbian coffeemaker. Actually, the idea came out of an argument that I had at Starbucks, that I insisted that I wasn't having Colombian coffee; the coffee was actually pre-Columbian. +The Bonsai table. +The entire Encyclopedia Britannica bound in a single volume, for travel purposes. +And the half tombstone, for people who are not dead yet. +I wanted to take that into the realm of images, and I decided to make things that had the same identity conflicts. +So I decided to do work with clouds. +Because clouds can mean anything you want. +But now I wanted to work in a very low-tech way, so something that would mean at the same time a lump of cotton, a cloud and Durer's praying hands -- although this looks a lot more like Mickey Mouse's praying hands. +But I was still, you know -- this is a kitty cloud. +They're called "Equivalents," after Alfred Stieglitz's work. +"The Snail." +But I was still working with sculpture, and I was really trying to go flatter and flatter. +"The Teapot." +I had a chance to go to Florence, in -- I think it was '94, and I saw Ghiberti's "Door of Paradise." +And he did something that was very tricky. +He put together two different media from different periods of time. +First, he got an age-old way of making it, which was relief, and he worked this with three-point perspective, which was brand-new technology at the time. +And it's totally overkill. +And your eye doesn't know which level to read. +And you become trapped into this kind of representation. +So I decided to make these very simple renderings, that at first they are taken as a line drawing -- you know, something that's very -- and then I did it with wire. +The idea was to -- because everybody overlooks white -- like pencil drawings, you know? +And they would look at it -- "Ah, it's a pencil drawing." +Then you have this double take and see that it's actually something that existed in time. +It had a physicality, and you start going deeper and deeper into sort of narrative that goes this way, towards the image. So this is "Monkey with Leica." +"Relaxation." +"Fiat Lux." +And the same way the history of representation evolved from line drawings to shaded drawings. +And I wanted to deal with other subjects. +I started taking that into the realm of landscape, which is something that's almost a picture of nothing. +I made these pictures called "Pictures of Thread," and I named them after the amount of yards that I used to represent each picture. +These always end up being a photograph at the end, or more like an etching in this case. +So this is a lighthouse. +This is "6,500 Yards," after Corot. "9,000 Yards," after Gerhard Richter. +And I don't know how many yards, after John Constable. +Departing from the lines, I decided to tackle the idea of points, like which is more similar to the type of representation that we find in photographs themselves. +I had met a group of children in the Caribbean island of Saint Kitts, and I did work and play with them. +I got some photographs from them. +Upon my arrival in New York, I decided -- they were children of sugar plantation workers. +And by manipulating sugar over a black paper, I made portraits of them. +These are -- -- Thank you. This is "Valentina, the Fastest." +It was just the name of the child, with the little thing you get to know of somebody that you meet very briefly. +"Valicia." +"Jacynthe." +But another layer of representation was still introduced. +Because I was doing this while I was making these pictures, I realized that I could add still another thing I was trying to make a subject -- something that would interfere with the themes, so chocolate is very good, because it has -- it brings to mind ideas that go from scatology to romance. +And so I decided to make these pictures, and they were very large, so you had to walk away from it to be able to see them. +So they're called "Pictures of Chocolate." +Freud probably could explain chocolate better than I. He was the first subject. +And Jackson Pollock also. +Pictures of crowds are particularly interesting, because, you know, you go to that -- you try to figure out the threshold with something you can define very easily, like a face, goes into becoming just a texture. +"Paparazzi." +I used the dust at the Whitney Museum to render some pieces of their collection. +And I picked minimalist pieces because they're about specificity. +And you render this with the most non-specific material, which is dust itself. +Like, you know, you have the skin particles of every single museum visitor. +They do a DNA scan of this, they will come up with a great mailing list. +This is Richard Serra. +I bought a computer, and [they] told me it had millions of colors in it. +You know an artist's first response to this is, who counted it? You know? +And I realized that I never worked with color, because I had a hard time controlling the idea of single colors. +But once they're applied to numeric structure, then you can feel more comfortable. +So the first time I worked with colors was by making these mosaics of Pantone swatches. +They end up being very large pictures, and I photographed with a very large camera -- an 8x10 camera. +So you can see the surface of every single swatch -- like in this picture of Chuck Close. +And you have to walk very far to be able to see it. +Also, the reference to Gerhard Richter's use of color charts -- and the idea also entering another realm of representation that's very common to us today, which is the bit map. +I ended up narrowing the subject to Monet's "Haystacks." +This is something I used to do as a joke -- you know, make -- the same like -- Robert Smithson's "Spiral Jetty" -- and then leaving traces, as if it was done on a tabletop. +I tried to prove that he didn't do that thing in the Salt Lake. +But then, just doing the models, I was trying to explore the relationship between the model and the original. +And I felt that I would have to actually go there and make some earthworks myself. +I opt for very simple line drawings -- kind of stupid looking. +And at the same time, I was doing these very large constructions, being 150 meters away. +Now I would do very small ones, which would be like -- but under the same light, and I would show them together, so the viewer would have to really figure it out what one he was looking. +I wasn't interested in the very large things, or in the small things. +I was more interested in the things in between, you know, because you can leave an enormous range for ambiguity there. +This is like you see -- the size of a person over there. +This is a pipe. +A hanger. +And this is another thing that I did -- you know working -- everybody loves to watch somebody draw, but not many people have a chance to watch somebody draw in -- a lot of people at the same time, to evidence a single drawing. +And I love this work, because I did these cartoonish clouds over Manhattan for a period of two months. +And it was quite wonderful, because I had an interest -- an early interest -- in theater, that's justified on this thing. +In theater, you have the character and the actor in the same place, trying to negotiate each other in front of an audience. +And in this, you'd have like a -- something that looks like a cloud, and it is a cloud at the same time. +So they're like perfect actors. +My interest in acting, especially bad acting, goes a long way. +Actually, I once paid like 60 dollars to see a very great actor to do a version of "King Lear," and I felt really robbed, because by the time the actor started being King Lear, he stopped being the great actor that I had paid money to see. +On the other hand, you know, I paid like three dollars, I think -- and I went to a warehouse in Queens to see a version of "Othello" by an amateur group. +See, I think it's not really about impression, making people fall for a really perfect illusion, as much as it is to make -- I usually work at the lowest threshold of visual illusion. +Because it's not about fooling somebody, it's actually giving somebody a measure of their own belief: how much you want to be fooled. +That's why we pay to go to magic shows and things like that. +Well, I think that's it. +My time is nearly up. +Thank you very much. +I get asked a lot what the difference between my work is and typical Pentagon long-range strategic planners. +And the answer I like to offer is what they typically do is they think about the future of wars in the context of war. +And what I've spent 15 years doing in this business -- and it's taken me almost 14 to figure it out -- is I think about the future of wars in the context of everything else. +So I tend to specialize on the scene between war and peace. +The material I'm going to show you is one idea from a book with a lot of ideas. +It's the one that takes me around the world right now interacting with foreign militaries quite a bit. +The material was generated in two years of work I did for the Secretary of Defense, thinking about a new national grand strategy for the United States. +I'm going to present a problem and try to give you an answer. +Here's my favorite bonehead concept from the 1990s in the Pentagon: the theory of anti-access, area-denial asymmetrical strategies. +Why do we call it that? +Because it's got all those A's lined up I guess. +This is gobbledygook for if the United States fights somebody we're going to be huge. +They're going to be small. +And if they try to fight us in the traditional, straight-up manner we're going to kick their ass, which is why people don't try to do that any more. +I met the last Air Force General who had actually shot down an enemy plane in combat. +He's now a one star General. +That's how distant we are from even meeting an air force willing to fly against ours. +So that overmatched capability creates problems -- catastrophic successes the White House calls them. +And we're trying to figure that out, because it is an amazing capability. +The question is, what's the good you can do with it? +OK? +The theory of anti-access, area-denial asymmetrical strategies -- gobbledygook that we sell to Congress, because if we just told them we can kick anybody's asses they wouldn't buy us all the stuff we want. +So we say, area-denial, anti-access asymmetrical strategies and their eyes glaze over. +And they say, "Will you build it in my district?" +Here's my parody and it ain't much of one. +Let's talk about a battle space. +I don't know, Taiwan Straits 2025. +Let's talk about an enemy embedded within that battle space. +I don't know, the Million Man Swim. +The United States has to access that battle space instantaneously. +They throw up anti-access, area-denial asymmetrical strategies. +A banana peel on the tarmac. +Trojan horses on our computer networks reveal all our Achilles' heels instantly. +We say, "China, it's yours." +Prometheus approach, largely a geographic definition, focuses almost exclusively on the start of conflict. +We field the first-half team in a league that insists on keeping score until the end of the game. +That's the problem. +We can run the score up against anybody, and then get our asses kicked in the second half -- what they call fourth generation warfare. +Here's the way I like to describe it instead. +There is no battle space the U.S. Military cannot access. +They said we couldn't do Afghanistan. We did it with ease. +They said we couldn't do Iraq. +We did it with 150 combat casualties in six weeks. +We did it so fast we weren't prepared for their collapse. +There is nobody we can't take down. +The question is, what do you do with the power? +So there's no trouble accessing battle spaces. +What we have trouble accessing is the transition space that must naturally follow, and creating the peace space that allows us to move on. +Problem is, the Defense Department over here beats the hell out of you. +The State Department over here says, "Come on boy, I know you can make it." +And that poor country runs off that ledge, does that cartoon thing and then drops. +This is not about overwhelming force, but proportional force. +It's about non-lethal technologies, because if you fire real ammo into a crowd of women and children rioting you're going to lose friends very quickly. +This is not about projecting power, but about staying power, which is about legitimacy with the locals. +Who do you access in this transition space? +You have to create internal partners. You have to access coalition partners. +We asked the Indians for 17,000 peace keepers. +I know their senior leadership, they wanted to give it to us. +But they said to us, "You know what? +In that transition space you're mostly hat not enough cattle. +We don't think you can pull it off, we're not going to give you our 17,000 peace keepers for fodder." +We asked the Russians for 40,000. +They said no. +I was in China in August, I said, "You should have 50,000 peace keepers in Iraq. +It's your oil, not ours." +Which is the truth. It's their oil. +And the Chinese said to me, "Dr. Barnett, you're absolutely right. +In a perfect world we'd have 50,000 there. +But it's not a perfect world, and your administration isn't getting us any closer." +But we have trouble accessing our outcomes. +We lucked out, frankly, on the selection. +We face different opponents across these three. +And it's time to start admitting you can't ask the same 19-year-old to do it all, day in and day out. +It's just too damn hard. +We have an unparalleled capacity to wage war. +We don't do the everything else so well. +Frankly, we do it better than anybody and we still suck at it. +We have a brilliant Secretary of War. +We don't have a Secretary of Everything Else. +Because if we did, that guy would be in front of the Senate, still testifying over Abu Ghraib. +The problem is he doesn't exist. +There is no Secretary of Everything Else. +I think we have an unparalleled capacity to wage war. +I call that the Leviathan Force. +What we need to build is a force for the Everything Else. +I call them the System Administrators. +What I think this really represents is lack of an A to Z rule set for the world as a whole for processing politically bankrupt states. +We have one for processing economically bankrupt states. +It's the IMF Sovereign Bankruptcy Plan, OK? +We argue about it every time we use it. +Argentina just went through it, broke a lot of rules. +They got out on the far end, we said, "Fine, don't worry about it." +It's transparent. A certain amount of certainty gives the sense of a non-zero outcome. +We don't have one for processing politically bankrupt states that, frankly, everybody wants gone. +Like Saddam, like Mugabe, like Kim Jong-Il -- people who kill in hundreds of thousands or millions. +Like the 250,000 dead so far in Sudan. +What would an A to Z system look like? +I'm going to distinguish between what I call front half and back half. +And let's call this red line, I don't know, mission accomplished. +What we have extant right now, at the beginning of this system, is the U.N. Security Council as a grand jury. +What can they do? +They can indict your ass. +They can debate it. They can write it on a piece of paper. +They can put it in an envelope and mail it to you, and then say in no uncertain terms, "Please cut that out." +That gets you about four million dead in Central Africa over the 1990s. +That gets you 250,000 dead in the Sudan in the last 15 months. +Everybody's got to answer their grandchildren some day what you did about the holocaust in Africa, and you better have an answer. +We don't have anything to translate that will into action. +What we do have is the U.S.-enabled Leviathan Force that says, "You want me to take that guy down? I'll take that guy down. +I'll do it on Tuesday. It will cost you 20 billion dollars." +But here's the deal. +As soon as I can't find anybody else to air out, I leave the scene immediately. +That's called the Powell Doctrine. +Way downstream we have the International Criminal Court. +They love to put them on trial. They've got Milosevi right now. +What are we missing? +A functioning executive that will translate will into action, because we don't have it. +Every time we lead one of these efforts we have to whip ourselves into this imminent threat thing. +We haven't faced an imminent threat since the Cuban missile crisis in 1962. +But we use this language from a bygone era to scare ourselves into doing something because we're a democracy and that's what it takes. +And if that doesn't work we scream, "He's got a gun!" +just as we rush in. +And then we look over the body and we find an old cigarette lighter and we say, "Jesus, it was dark." +Do you want to do it, France? +France says, "No, but I do like to criticize you after the fact." +What we need downstream is a great power enabled -- what I call that Sys Admin Force. +We should have had 250,000 troops streaming into Iraq on the heels of that Leviathan sweeping towards Baghdad. +What do you get then? +No looting, no military disappearing, no arms disappearing, no ammo disappearing, no Muqtada Al-Sadr -- I'm wrecking his bones -- no insurgency. +Talk to anybody who was over there in the first six months. +We had six months to feel the lob, to get the job done, and we dicked around for six months. +And then they turned on us. +Why? Because they just got fed up. +They saw what we did to Saddam. +They said, "You're that powerful, you can resurrect this country. +You're America." +What we need is an international reconstruction fund -- Sebastian Mallaby, Washington Post, great idea. +Model on the IMF. +Instead of passing the hat each time, OK? +Where are we going to find this guy? G20, that's easy. +Check out their agenda since 9/11. +All security dominated. +They're going to decide up front how the money gets spent just like in the IMF. +You vote according to how much money you put in the kitty. +Here's my challenge to the Defense Department. +You've got to build this force. You've got to seed this force. +You've got to track coalition partners. Create a record of success. +You will get this model. +You tell me it's too hard to do. +I'll walk this dog right through that six part series on the Balkans. +We did it just like that. +I'm talking about regularizing it, making it transparent. +Would you like Mugabe gone? +Would you like Kim Jong-Il, who's killed about two million people, would you like him gone? +Would you like a better system? +This is why it matters to the military. +They've been experiencing an identity crisis since the end of the Cold War. +I'm not talking about the difference between reality and desire, which I can do because I'm not inside the beltway. +I'm talking about the 1990s. +The Berlin Wall falls. We do Desert Storm. +The split starts to emerge between those in the military who see a future they can live with, and those who see a future that starts to scare them, like the U.S. submarine community, which watches the Soviet Navy disappear overnight. +Ah! +So they start moving from reality towards desire and they create their own special language to describe their voyage of self-discovery and self-actualization. +The problem is you need a big, sexy opponent to fight against. +And if you can't find one you've got to make one up. +China, all grown up, going to be a looker! +The rest of the military got dragged down into the muck across the 1990s and they developed this very derisive term to describe it: military operations other than war. +I ask you, who joins the military to do things other than war? +Actually, most of them. +Jessica Lynch never planned on shooting back. +Most of them don't pick up a rifle. +I maintain this is code inside the Army for, "We don't want to do this." +They spent the 1990s working the messy scene between globalized parts of the world What I call the core and the gap. +The Clinton administration wasn't interested in running this. +For eight years, after screwing up the relationship on day one -- inauguration day with gays in the military -- which was deft. +So we were home alone for eight years. +And what did we do home alone? +We bought one military and we operated another. +It's like the guy who goes to the doctor and says, "Doctor, it hurts when I do this." +The doctor says, "Stop doing that you idiot." +I used to give this brief inside the Pentagon in the early 1990s. +I'd say, "You're buying one military and you're operating another, and eventually it's going to hurt. It's wrong. +Bad Pentagon, bad!" +And they'd say, "Dr. Barnett, you are so right. +Can you come back next year and remind us again?" +Some people say 9/11 heals the rift -- jerks the long-term transformation gurus out of their 30,000 foot view of history, drags them down in to the muck and says, "You want a networked opponent? +I've got one, he's everywhere, go find him." +It elevates MOOTW -- how we pronounce that acronym -- from crap to grand strategy, because that's how you're going to shrink that gap. +Some people put these two things together and they call it empire, which I think is a boneheaded concept. +Empire is about the enforcement of not just minimal rule sets, which you cannot do, but maximum rule sets which you must do. +It's not our system of governance. +Never how we've sought to interact with the outside world. +I prefer that phrase System Administration. +We enforce the minimal rule sets for maintaining connectivity to the global economy. +Certain bad things you cannot do. +How this impacts the way we think about the future of war. +This is a concept which gets me vilified throughout the Pentagon. +It makes me very popular as well. +Everybody's got an opinion. +Going back to the beginning of our country -- historically, defenses meant protection of the homeland. +Security has meant everything else. +Written into our constitution, two different forces, two different functions. +Raise an army when you need it, and maintain a navy for day-to-day connectivity. +A Department of War, a Department of Everything Else. +A big stick, a baton stick. +Can of whup ass, the networking force. +In 1947 we merged these two things together in the Defense Department. +Our long-term rationale becomes, we're involved in a hair trigger stand off with the Soviets. +To attack America is to risk blowing up the world. +We connected national security to international security with about a seven minute time delay. +That's not our problem now. +They can kill three million in Chicago tomorrow and we don't go to the mattresses with nukes. +That's the scary part. +The question is how do we reconnect American national security with global security to make the world a lot more comfortable, and to embed and contextualize our employment of force around the planet? +What's happened since is that bifurcation I described. +We talked about this going all the way back to the end of the Cold War. +Let's have a Department of War, and a Department of Something Else. +Some people say, "Hell, 9/11 did it for you." +Now we've got a home game and an away game. +The Department of Homeland Security is a strategic feel good measure. +It's going to be the Department of Agriculture for the 21st century. +TSA -- thousands standing around. +I supported the war in Iraq. +He was a bad guy with multiple priors. +It's not like we had to find him actually killing somebody live to arrest him. +I knew we'd kick ass in the war with the Leviathan Force. +I knew we'd have a hard time with what followed. +But I know this organization doesn't change until it experiences failure. +What do I mean by these two different forces? +This is the Hobbesian Force. +I love this force. I don't want to see it go. +That plus nukes rules out great power war. +This is the military the rest of the world wants us to build. +It's why I travel all over the world talking to foreign militaries. +What does this mean? +It means you've got to stop pretending you can do these two very disparate skill sets with the same 19-year-old. +Switching back, morning, afternoon, evening, morning, afternoon, evening. +Handing out aid, shooting back, handing out aid, shooting back. +It's too much. +The 19-year-olds get tired from the switching, OK? +That force on the left, you can train a 19-year-old to do that. +That force on the right is more like a 40-year-old cop. +You need the experience. +What does this mean in terms of operations? +The rule is going to be this. +That Sys Admin force is the force that never comes home, does most of your work. +You break out that Leviathan Force only every so often. +But here's the promise you make to the American public, to your own people, to the world. +You break out that Leviathan Force, you promise, you guarantee that you're going to mount one hell of a -- immediately -- follow-on Sys Admin effort. +Don't plan for the war unless you plan to win the peace. +Other differences. Leviathan traditional partners, they all look like the Brits and their former colonies. +Including us, I would remind you. +The rest -- wider array of partners. +International organizations, non-governmental organizations, private voluntary organizations, contractors. +You're not going to get away from that. +Leviathan Force, it's all about joint operations between the military services. +We're done with that. +What we need to do is inter-agency operations, which frankly Condi Rice was in charge of. +And I'm amazed nobody asked her that question when she was confirmed. +I call the Leviathan Force your dad's military. +I like them young, male, unmarried, slightly pissed off. +I call the Sys Admin Force your mom's military. +It's everything the man's military hates. +Gender balanced much more, older, educated, married with children. +The force on the left, up or out. +The force on the right, in and out. +The force on the left respects Posse Comitatus restrictions on the use of force inside the U.S. +The force on the right's going to obliterate it. +That's where the National Guard's going to be. +The force on the left is never coming under the purview of the International Criminal Court. +Sys Admin Force has to. +Different definitions of network centricity. +One takes down networks, one puts them up. +And you've got to wage war here in such a way to facilitate that. +Do we need a bigger budget? +Do we need a draft to pull this off? +Absolutely not. +I've been told by the Revolution of Military Affairs crowd for years, we can do it faster, cheaper, smaller, just as lethal. +I say, "Great, I'm going to take the Sys Admin budget out of your hide." +Here's the larger point. +You're going to build the Sys Admin Force inside the U.S. Military first. +But ultimately you're going to civilianize it, probably two thirds. +Inter agency-ize it, internationalize it. +So yes, it begins inside the Pentagon, but over time it's going to cross that river. +I have been to the mountain top. I can see the future. +I may not live long enough to get you there, but it's going to happen. +We're going to have a Department of Something Else between war and peace. +Last slide. +Who gets custody of the kids? +This is where the Marines in the audience get kind of tense. +And this is when they think about beating the crap out of me after the talk. +Read Max Boon. +This is the history of the marines -- small wars, small arms. +The Marines are like my West Highland Terrier. +They get up every morning, they want to dig a hole and they want to kill something. +I don't want my Marines handing out aid. +I want them to be Marines. +That's what keeps the Sys Admin Force from being a pussy force. +It keeps it from being the U.N. +You shoot at these people the Marines are going to come over and kill you. +Department of Navy, strategic subs go this way, surface combatants are over there, and the news is they may actually be that small. +I call it the Smart Dust Navy. +I tell young officers, "You may command 500 ships in your career. +Bad news is they may not have anybody on them." +Carriers go both ways because they're a swing asset. +You'll see the pattern -- airborne, just like carriers. +Armor goes this way. +Here's the dirty secret of the Air Force, you can win by bombing. +But you need lots of these guys on the ground to win the peace. +Shinseki was right with the argument. +Air force, strategic airlift goes both ways. +Bombers, fighters go over here. +Special Operations Command down at Tampa. +Trigger-pullers go this way. +Civil Affairs, that bastard child, comes over here. +Return to the Army. +The point about the trigger-pullers and Special Operations Command. +No off season, these guys are always active. +They drop in, do their business, disappear. +See me now. Don't talk about it later. +I was never here. +The world is my playground. +I want to keep trigger-pullers trigger-happy. +I want the rules to be as loose as possible. +Because when the thing gets prevented in Chicago with the three million dead that perverts our political system beyond all recognition, these are the guys who are going to kill them first. +So it's better off to have them make some mistakes along the way than to see that. +Reserve component -- National Guard reserves overwhelmingly Sys Admin. +How are you going to get them to work for this force? +Most firemen in this country do it for free. +This is not about money. +This is about being up front with these guys and gals. +Last point, intelligence community -- the muscle and the defense agencies go this way. +What should be the CIA, open, analytical, open source should come over here. +The information you need to do this is not secret. +It's not secret. +Read that great piece in the New Yorker about how our echo boomers, 19 to 25, over in Iraq taught each other how to do Sys Admin work, over the Internet in chat rooms. +They said, "Al Qaeda could be listening." +They said, "Well, Jesus, they already know this stuff." +Take a gift in the left hand. +These are the sunglasses that don't scare people, simple stuff. +Censors and transparency, the overheads go in both directions. +Thanks. +A fact came out of MIT, couple of years ago. Ken Hale, who's a linguist, said that of the 6,000 languages spoken on Earth right now, 3,000 aren't spoken by the children. +So that in one generation, we're going to halve our cultural diversity. +He went on to say that every two weeks, an elder goes to the grave carrying the last spoken word of that culture. +So an entire philosophy, a body of knowledge about the natural world that had been empirically gleaned over centuries, goes away. +And this happens every two weeks. +So for the last 20 years, since my dental experience, I have been traveling the world and coming back with stories about some of these people. +What I'd like to do right now is share some of those stories with you. +This is Tamdin. +She is a 69-year-old nun. +She was thrown in prison in Tibet for two years for putting up a little tiny placard protesting the occupation of her country. +And when I met her, she had just taken a walk over the Himalayas from Lhasa, the capital of Tibet, into Nepal, across to India -- 30 days -- to meet her leader, the Dalai Lama. +The Dalai Lama lives in Dharamsala, India. +So I took this picture three days after she arrived, and she had this beat-up pair of tennis shoes on, with her toes sticking out. +And she crossed in March, and there's a lot of snow at 18,500 feet in March. +This is Paldin. +Paldin is a 62-year-old monk. +And he spent 33 years in prison. +His whole monastery was thrown into prison at the time of the uprising, when the Dalai Lama had to leave Tibet. +And he was beaten, starved, tortured -- lost all his teeth while in prison. +And when I met him, he was a kind gentle old man. +And it really impressed me -- I met him two weeks after he got out of prison -- that he went through that experience, and ended up with the demeanor that he had. +So I was in Dharamsala meeting these people, and I'd spent about five weeks there, and I was hearing these similar stories of these refugees that had poured out of Tibet into Dharamsala. +And it just so happened, on the fifth week, there was a public teaching by the Dalai Lama. +And I was watching this crowd of monks and nuns, many of which I had just interviewed, and heard their stories, and I watched their faces, and they gave us a little FM radio, and we could listen to the translation of his teachings. +And what he said was: treat your enemies as if they were precious jewels, because it's your enemies that build your tolerance and patience on the road to your enlightenment. +That hit me so hard, telling these people that had been through this experience. +So, two months later, I went into Tibet, and I started interviewing the people there, taking my photographs. That's what I do. +I interview and do portraits. +And this is a little girl. +I took her portrait up on top of the Jokhang Temple. +And I'd snuck in -- because it's totally illegal to have a picture of the Dalai Lama in Tibet -- it's the quickest way you can get arrested. +So I snuck in a bunch of little wallet-sized pictures of the Dalai Lama, and I would hand them out. +And when I gave them to the people, they'd either hold them to their heart, or they'd hold them up to their head and just stay there. +And this is -- well, at the time -- I did this 10 years ago -- that was 36 years after the Dalai Lama had left. +So I was going in, interviewing these people and doing their portraits. +This is Jigme and her sister, Sonam. +And they live up on the Chang Tang, the Tibetan Plateau, way in the western part of the country. +This is at 17,000 feet. +And they had just come down from the high pastures, at 18,000 feet. +Same thing: gave her a picture, she held it up to her forehead. +And I usually hand out Polaroids when I do these, because I'm setting up lights, and checking my lights, and when I showed her her Polaroid, she screamed and ran into her tent. +This is Tenzin Gyatso; he was found to be the Buddha of Compassion at the age of two, out in a peasant's house, way out in the middle of nowhere. +At the age of four, he was installed as the 14th Dalai Lama. +As a teenager, he faced the invasion of his country, and had to deal with it -- he was the leader of the country. +Eight years later, when they discovered there was a plot to kill him, they dressed him up like a beggar and snuck him out of the country on horseback, and took the same trip that Tamdin did. +And he's never been back to his country since. +And if you think about this man, 46 years later, still sticking to this non-violent response to a severe political and human rights issue. +And the young people, young Tibetans, are starting to say, listen, this doesn't work. +You know, violence as a political tool is all the rage right now. +And he still is holding this line. +So this is our icon to non-violence in our world -- one of our living icons. +This is another leader of his people. +This is Moi. This is in the Ecuadorian Amazon. +And Moi is 35 years old. +And this area of the Ecuadorian Amazon -- oil was discovered in 1972. +And in this period of time -- since that time -- as much oil, or twice as much oil as was spilled in the Exxon Valdez accident, was spilled in this little area of the Amazon, and the tribes in this area have constantly had to move. +And Moi belongs to the Huaorani tribe, and they're known as very fierce, they're known as "auca." +And they've managed to keep out the seismologists and the oil workers with spears and blowguns. +And we spent -- I was with a team -- two weeks with these guys out in the jungle watching them hunt. +This was on a monkey hunt, hunting with curare-tipped darts. +And the knowledge that these people have about the natural environment is incredible. +They could hear things, smell things, see things I couldn't see. +And I couldn't even see the monkeys that they were getting with these darts. +This is Yadira, and Yadira is five years old. She's in a tribe that's neighboring the Huaorani. +And her tribe has had to move three times in the last 10 years because of the oil spills. +And we never hear about that. And the latest infraction against these people is, as part of Plan Colombia, we're spraying Paraquat or Round Up, whatever it is -- we're defoliating thousands of acres of the Ecuadorian Amazon in our war on drugs. +And these people are the people who take the brunt of it. +This is Mengatoue. +He's the shaman of the Huaorani, and he said to us, you know, I'm an older man now; I'm getting tired, you know; I'm tired of spearing these oil workers. +I wish they would just go away. +And I was -- I usually travel alone when I do my work, but I did this -- I hosted a program for Discovery, and when I went down with the team, I was quite concerned about going in with a whole bunch of people, especially into the Huaorani, deep into the Huaorani tribe. +And as it turned out, these guys really taught me a thing or two about blending in with the locals. +One of the things I did just before 9/11 -- August of 2001 -- I took my son, Dax, who was 16 at the time, and I took him to Pakistan. +Because at first I wanted -- you know, I've taken him on a couple of trips, but I wanted him to see people that live on a dollar a day or less. +So it was a great experience for him. He stayed up all night with them, drumming and dancing. +And he brought a soccer ball, and we had soccer every night in this little village. +And then we went up and met their shaman. +By the way, Mengatoue was the shaman of his tribe as well. +And this is John Doolikahn, who's the shaman of the Kalash. +And he's up in the mountains, right on the border with Afghanistan. +In fact, on that other side is the area, Tora Bora, the area where Osama bin Laden's supposed to be. This is the tribal area. +And we watched and stayed with John Doolikahn. +And the shaman -- I did a whole series on shamanism, which is an interesting phenomenon. +But around the world, they go into trance in different ways, and in Pakistan, the way they do it is they burn juniper leaves and they sacrifice an animal, pour the blood of the animal on the leaves and then inhale the smoke. +And they're all praying to the mountain gods as they go into trance. +And all the security issues they cause us. +So, one thing we did five years ago: we started a program that links kids in indigenous communities with kids in the United States. +So we first hooked up a spot in the Navajo Nation with a classroom in Seattle. +We now have 15 sites. +We have one in Kathmandu, Nepal; Dharamsala, India; Takaungu, Kenya -- Takaungu is one-third Christian, one-third Muslim and one-third animist, the community is -- Ollantaytambo, Peru, and Arctic Village, Alaska. +This is Daniel; he's one of our students in Arctic Village, Alaska. +He lives in this log cabin -- no running water, no heat other than -- no windows and high-speed Internet connection. +And this is -- I see this rolling out all over -- this is our site in Ollantaytambo, Peru, four years ago, where they first saw their first computers; now they have computers in their classrooms. +And the way we've done this -- we teach digital storytelling to these kids. +And we have them tell stories about issues in their community in their community that they care about. +And this is in Peru, where the kids told the story about a river that they cleaned up. +And the way we do it is, we do it in workshops, and we bring people who want to learn digital workflow and storytelling, and have them work with the kids. +And just this last year we've taken a group of teenagers in, and this has worked the best. +So our dream is to bring teenagers together, so they'll have a community service experience as well as a cross-cultural experience, as they teach kids in these areas and help them build their communication infrastructure. +This is teaching Photoshop in the Tibetan children's village in Dharamsala. +We have the website, where the kids all get their homepage. +This is all their movies. We've got about 60 movies that these kids have made, and they're quite incredible. +The one I want to show you -- after we get them to make the movies, we have a night where we show the movies to the community. +And this is in Takaungu -- we've got a generator and a digital projector, and we're projecting it up against a barn, and showing one of the movies that they made. +And if you get a chance, you can go to our website, and you'll see the incredible work these kids do. +The other thing: I wanted to give indigenous people a voice. +That was one of the big motivating factors. +But the other motivating factor is the insular nature of our country. +National Geographic just did a Roper Study of 18 to 26 year olds in our country and in nine other industrialized countries. +It was a two million dollar study. +United States came in second to last in geographic knowledge. +70 percent of the kids couldn't find Afghanistan or Iraq on a map; 60 percent couldn't find India; 30 percent couldn't find the Pacific Ocean. +And this is a study that was just done a couple of years ago. +So what I'd like to show you now, in the couple of minutes I have left, is a film that a student made in Guatemala. +We just had a workshop in Guatemala. +A week before we got to the workshop, a massive landslide, caused by Hurricane Stan, last October, came in and buried 600 people alive in their village. +And this kid lived in the village -- he wasn't there at the time -- and this is the little movie he put together about that. +And he hadn't seen a computer before we did this movie. We taught him Photoshop and -- yeah, we can play it. +This is an old Mayan funeral chant that he got from his grandfather. +Thank you very much. +Well, I thought there would be a podium, so I'm a bit scared. +Chris asked me to tell again how we found the structure of DNA. +And since, you know, I follow his orders, I'll do it. +But it slightly bores me. +And, you know, I wrote a book. So I'll say something -- -- I'll say a little about, you know, how the discovery was made, and why Francis and I found it. +And then, I hope maybe I have at least five minutes to say what makes me tick now. +In back of me is a picture of me when I was 17. +I was at the University of Chicago, in my third year, and I was in my third year because the University of Chicago let you in after two years of high school. +So you -- it was fun to get away from high school -- -- because I was very small, and I was no good in sports, or anything like that. +But I should say that my background -- my father was, you know, raised to be an Episcopalian and Republican, but after one year of college, he became an atheist and a Democrat. +And my mother was Irish Catholic, and -- but she didn't take religion too seriously. +And by the age of 11, I was no longer going to Sunday Mass, and going on birdwatching walks with my father. +So early on, I heard of Charles Darwin. +I guess, you know, he was the big hero. +And, you know, you understand life as it now exists through evolution. +And at the University of Chicago I was a zoology major, and thought I would end up, you know, if I was bright enough, maybe getting a Ph.D. from Cornell in ornithology. +Then, in the Chicago paper, there was a review of a book called "What is Life?" by the great physicist, Schrodinger. +And that, of course, had been a question I wanted to know. +You know, Darwin explained life after it got started, but what was the essence of life? +And Schrodinger said the essence was information present in our chromosomes, and it had to be present on a molecule. I'd never really thought of molecules before. +You know chromosomes, but this was a molecule, and somehow all the information was probably present in some digital form. And there was the big question of, how did you copy the information? +So that was the book. And so, from that moment on, I wanted to be a geneticist -- understand the gene and, through that, understand life. +So I had, you know, a hero at a distance. +It wasn't a baseball player; it was Linus Pauling. +And so I applied to Caltech and they turned me down. +So I went to Indiana, which was actually as good as Caltech in genetics, and besides, they had a really good basketball team. So I had a really quite happy life at Indiana. +And it was at Indiana I got the impression that, you know, the gene was likely to be DNA. +And so when I got my Ph.D., I should go and search for DNA. +So I first went to Copenhagen because I thought, well, maybe I could become a biochemist, but I discovered biochemistry was very boring. +It wasn't going anywhere toward, you know, saying what the gene was; it was just nuclear science. And oh, that's the book, little book. +You can read it in about two hours. +And -- but then I went to a meeting in Italy. +And there was an unexpected speaker who wasn't on the program, and he talked about DNA. +And this was Maurice Wilkins. He was trained as a physicist, and after the war he wanted to do biophysics, and he picked DNA because DNA had been determined at the Rockefeller Institute to possibly be the genetic molecules on the chromosomes. +Most people believed it was proteins. +But Wilkins, you know, thought DNA was the best bet, and he showed this x-ray photograph. +Sort of crystalline. So DNA had a structure, even though it owed it to probably different molecules carrying different sets of instructions. +So there was something universal about the DNA molecule. +So I wanted to work with him, but he didn't want a former birdwatcher, and I ended up in Cambridge, England. +So I went to Cambridge, because it was really the best place in the world then for x-ray crystallography. And x-ray crystallography is now a subject in, you know, chemistry departments. +I mean, in those days it was the domain of the physicists. +So the best place for x-ray crystallography was at the Cavendish Laboratory at Cambridge. +And there I met Francis Crick. +I went there without knowing him. He was 35. I was 23. +And within a day, we had decided that maybe we could take a shortcut to finding the structure of DNA. +Not solve it like, you know, in rigorous fashion, but build a model, an electro-model, using some coordinates of, you know, length, all that sort of stuff from x-ray photographs. +But just ask what the molecule -- how should it fold up? +And the reason for doing so, at the center of this photograph, is Linus Pauling. About six months before, he proposed the alpha helical structure for proteins. And in doing so, he banished the man out on the right, Sir Lawrence Bragg, who was the Cavendish professor. +This is a photograph several years later, when Bragg had cause to smile. +He certainly wasn't smiling when I got there, because he was somewhat humiliated by Pauling getting the alpha helix, and the Cambridge people failing because they weren't chemists. +And certainly, neither Crick or I were chemists, so we tried to build a model. And he knew, Francis knew Wilkins. +So Wilkins said he thought it was the helix. +X-ray diagram, he thought was comparable with the helix. +So we built a three-stranded model. +The people from London came up. +Wilkins and this collaborator, or possible collaborator, Rosalind Franklin, came up and sort of laughed at our model. +They said it was lousy, and it was. +So we were told to build no more models; we were incompetent. +And so we didn't build any models, and Francis sort of continued to work on proteins. +And basically, I did nothing. And -- except read. +You know, basically, reading is a good thing; you get facts. +And we kept telling the people in London that Linus Pauling's going to move on to DNA. +If DNA is that important, Linus will know it. +He'll build a model, and then we're going to be scooped. +And, in fact, he'd written the people in London: Could he see their x-ray photograph? +And they had the wisdom to say "no." So he didn't have it. +But there was ones in the literature. +Actually, Linus didn't look at them that carefully. +But about, oh, 15 months after I got to Cambridge, a rumor began to appear from Linus Pauling's son, who was in Cambridge, that his father was now working on DNA. +And so, one day Peter came in and he said he was Peter Pauling, and he gave me a copy of his father's manuscripts. +And boy, I was scared because I thought, you know, we may be scooped. +I have nothing to do, no qualifications for anything. +And so there was the paper, and he proposed a three-stranded structure. +And I read it, and it was just -- it was crap. +So this was, you know, unexpected from the world's -- -- and so, it was held together by hydrogen bonds between phosphate groups. +Well, if the peak pH that cells have is around seven, those hydrogen bonds couldn't exist. +We rushed over to the chemistry department and said, "Could Pauling be right?" And Alex Hust said, "No." So we were happy. +And, you know, we were still in the game, but we were frightened that somebody at Caltech would tell Linus that he was wrong. +And so Bragg said, "Build models." +And a month after we got the Pauling manuscript -- I should say I took the manuscript to London, and showed the people. +Well, I said, Linus was wrong and that we're still in the game and that they should immediately start building models. +But Wilkins said "no." Rosalind Franklin was leaving in about two months, and after she left he would start building models. +And so I came back with that news to Cambridge, and Bragg said, "Build models." +Well, of course, I wanted to build models. +And there's a picture of Rosalind. She really, you know, in one sense she was a chemist, but really she would have been trained -- she didn't know any organic chemistry or quantum chemistry. +She was a crystallographer. +And I think part of the reason she didn't want to build models was, she wasn't a chemist, whereas Pauling was a chemist. +And so Crick and I, you know, started building models, and I'd learned a little chemistry, but not enough. +Well, we got the answer on the 28th February '53. +And it was because of a rule, which, to me, is a very good rule: Never be the brightest person in a room, and we weren't. +We weren't the best chemists in the room. +I went in and showed them a pairing I'd done, and Jerry Donohue -- he was a chemist -- he said, it's wrong. +You've got -- the hydrogen atoms are in the wrong place. +I just put them down like they were in the books. +He said they were wrong. +So the next day, you know, after I thought, "Well, he might be right." +So I changed the locations, and then we found the base pairing, and Francis immediately said the chains run in absolute directions. +And we knew we were right. +So it was a pretty, you know, it all happened in about two hours. +From nothing to thing. +And we knew it was big because, you know, if you just put A next to T and G next to C, you have a copying mechanism. +So we saw how genetic information is carried. +It's the order of the four bases. +So in a sense, it is a sort of digital-type information. +And you copy it by going from strand-separating. +So, you know, if it didn't work this way, you might as well believe it, because you didn't have any other scheme. +But that's not the way most scientists think. +Most scientists are really rather dull. +They said, we won't think about it until we know it's right. +But, you know, we thought, well, it's at least 95 percent right or 99 percent right. +So think about it. The next five years, there were essentially something like five references to our work in "Nature" -- none. +And so we were left by ourselves, and trying to do the last part of the trio: how do you -- what does this genetic information do? +It was pretty obvious that it provided the information to an RNA molecule, and then how do you go from RNA to protein? +For about three years we just -- I tried to solve the structure of RNA. +It didn't yield. It didn't give good x-ray photographs. +I was decidedly unhappy; a girl didn't marry me. +It was really, you know, sort of a shitty time. +So there's a picture of Francis and I before I met the girl, so I'm still looking happy. +But there is what we did when we didn't know where to go forward: we formed a club and called it the RNA Tie Club. +George Gamow, also a great physicist, he designed the tie. +He was one of the members. The question was: How do you go from a four-letter code to the 20-letter code of proteins? +Feynman was a member, and Teller, and friends of Gamow. +But that's the only -- no, we were only photographed twice. +And on both occasions, you know, one of us was missing the tie. +There's Francis up on the upper right, and Alex Rich -- the M.D.-turned-crystallographer -- is next to me. +This was taken in Cambridge in September of 1955. +And I'm smiling, sort of forced, I think, because the girl I had, boy, she was gone. +And so I didn't really get happy until 1960, because then we found out, basically, you know, that there are three forms of RNA. +And we knew, basically, DNA provides the information for RNA. +RNA provides the information for protein. +And that let Marshall Nirenberg, you know, take RNA -- synthetic RNA -- put it in a system making protein. He made polyphenylalanine, polyphenylalanine. So that's the first cracking of the genetic code, and it was all over by 1966. +So there, that's what Chris wanted me to do, it was -- so what happened since then? +Well, at that time -- I should go back. +When we found the structure of DNA, I gave my first talk at Cold Spring Harbor. The physicist, Leo Szilard, he looked at me and said, "Are you going to patent this?" +And -- but he knew patent law, and that we couldn't patent it, because you couldn't. No use for it. +And so DNA didn't become a useful molecule, and the lawyers didn't enter into the equation until 1973, 20 years later, when Boyer and Cohen in San Francisco and Stanford came up with their method of recombinant DNA, and Stanford patented it and made a lot of money. +At least they patented something which, you know, could do useful things. +And then, they learned how to read the letters for the code. +And, boom, we've, you know, had a biotech industry. And, but we were still a long ways from, you know, answering a question which sort of dominated my childhood, which is: How do you nature-nurture? +And so I'll go on. I'm already out of time, but this is Michael Wigler, a very, very clever mathematician turned physicist. And he developed a technique which essentially will let us look at sample DNA and, eventually, a million spots along it. +There's a chip there, a conventional one. Then there's one made by a photolithography by a company in Madison called NimbleGen, which is way ahead of Affymetrix. +And we use their technique. +And what you can do is sort of compare DNA of normal segs versus cancer. +And you can see on the top that cancers which are bad show insertions or deletions. +So the DNA is really badly mucked up, whereas if you have a chance of surviving, the DNA isn't so mucked up. +So we think that this will eventually lead to what we call "DNA biopsies." Before you get treated for cancer, you should really look at this technique, and get a feeling of the face of the enemy. +It's not a -- it's only a partial look, but it's a -- I think it's going to be very, very useful. +So, we started with breast cancer because there's lots of money for it, no government money. +And now I have a sort of vested interest: I want to do it for prostate cancer. So, you know, you aren't treated if it's not dangerous. +But Wigler, besides looking at cancer cells, looked at normal cells, and made a really sort of surprising observation. +Which is, all of us have about 10 places in our genome where we've lost a gene or gained another one. +So we're sort of all imperfect. And the question is well, if we're around here, you know, these little losses or gains might not be too bad. +But if these deletions or amplifications occurred in the wrong gene, maybe we'll feel sick. +So the first disease he looked at is autism. +And the reason we looked at autism is we had the money to do it. +Looking at an individual is about 3,000 dollars. And the parent of a child with Asperger's disease, the high-intelligence autism, had sent his thing to a conventional company; they didn't do it. +Couldn't do it by conventional genetics, but just scanning it we began to find genes for autism. +And you can see here, there are a lot of them. +So a lot of autistic kids are autistic because they just lost a big piece of DNA. +I mean, big piece at the molecular level. +We saw one autistic kid, about five million bases just missing from one of his chromosomes. +We haven't yet looked at the parents, but the parents probably don't have that loss, or they wouldn't be parents. +Now, so, our autism study is just beginning. We got three million dollars. +I think it will cost at least 10 to 20 before you'd be in a position to help parents who've had an autistic child, or think they may have an autistic child, and can we spot the difference? +So this same technique should probably look at all. +It's a wonderful way to find genes. +And so, I'll conclude by saying we've looked at 20 people with schizophrenia. +And we thought we'd probably have to look at several hundred before we got the picture. But as you can see, there's seven out of 20 had a change which was very high. +And yet, in the controls there were three. +So what's the meaning of the controls? +Were they crazy also, and we didn't know it? +Or, you know, were they normal? I would guess they're normal. +And what we think in schizophrenia is there are genes of predisposure, and whether this is one that predisposes -- and then there's only a sub-segment of the population that's capable of being schizophrenic. +Now, we don't have really any evidence of it, but I think, to give you a hypothesis, the best guess is that if you're left-handed, you're prone to schizophrenia. +30 percent of schizophrenic people are left-handed, and schizophrenia has a very funny genetics, which means 60 percent of the people are genetically left-handed, but only half of it showed. I don't have the time to say. +Now, some people who think they're right-handed are genetically left-handed. OK. I'm just saying that, if you think, oh, I don't carry a left-handed gene so therefore my, you know, children won't be at risk of schizophrenia. You might. OK? +So it's, to me, an extraordinarily exciting time. +We ought to be able to find the gene for bipolar; there's a relationship. +And if I had enough money, we'd find them all this year. +I thank you. +Let me show you some images of what I consider to be the cities of tomorrow. +So, that's Kibera, the largest squatter community in Nairobi. +This is the squatter community in Sanjay Gandhi National Park in Bombay, India, what's called Mumbai these days. +This is Hosinia, the largest and most urbanized favela in Rio de Janeiro. +And this is Sultanbelyi, which is one of the largest squatter communities in Istanbul. +They are what I consider to be the cities of tomorrow, the new urban world. +Now, why do I say that? +To tell you about that I have to talk about this fellow here, his name is Julius. +And I met Julius the last week that I was living in Kibera. +So, I had been there almost three months, and I was touring around the city going to different squatter areas and Julius was tagging along, and he was bug eyed and at certain points we were walking around, he grabbed my hand for support, which is something most Kenyans would never consider doing. +They're very polite and they don't get so forward so quickly. +And I found out later that it was Julius' first day in Nairobi, and he's one of many. +So, close to 200,000 people a day migrate from the rural to the urban areas. +That's, and I'm going to be fair to the statisticians who talked this morning, not almost 1.5 million people a week, but almost 1.4 million people a week but I'm a journalist, and we exaggerate, so almost 1.5 million people a week, close to 70 million people a year. +And if you do the math, that's 130 people every minute. +So, that'll be -- in the 18 minutes that I'm given to talk here, between two and three thousand people will have journeyed to the cities. +And here are the statistics. +Today -- a billion squatters, one in six people on the planet. +2030 -- two billion squatters, one in four people on the planet. +And the estimate is that in 2050, there'll be three billion squatters, better than one in three people on earth. +So, these are the cities of the future, and we have to engage them. +And I was thinking this morning of the good life, and before I show you the rest of my presentation, I'm going to violate TED rules here, and I'm going to read you something from my book as quickly as I can. +Because I think it says something about reversing our perception of what we think the good life is. +So -- "The hut was made of corrugated metal, set on a concrete pad. +It was a 10 by 10 cell. +Armstrong O'Brian, Jr. shared it with three other men. +Armstrong and his friends had no water -- they bought it from a nearby tap owner -- no toilet -- the families in this compound shared a single pit-latrine -- and no sewers or sanitation. +They did have electricity, but it was illegal service tapped from someone else's wires, and could only power one feeble bulb. +This was Southland, a small shanty community on the western side of Nairobi, Kenya. +But it could've been anywhere in the city, because more than half the city of Nairobi lives like this. +1.5 million people stuffed into mud or metal huts with no services, no toilets, no rights. +"Armstrong explained the brutal reality of their situation: they paid 1,500 shillings in rent, about 20 bucks a month, a relatively high price for a Kenyan shantytown, and they could not afford to be late with the money. +'In case you owe one month, the landlord will come with his henchmen and bundle you out. He will confiscate your things,' Armstrong said. +'Not one month, one day,' his roommate Hilary Kibagendi Onsomu, who was cooking ugali, the spongy white cornmeal concoction that is the staple food in the country, cut into the conversation. +They called their landlord a Wabenzi, meaning that he is a person who has enough money to drive a Mercedes-Benz. +Hilary served the ugali with a fry of meat and tomatoes; the sun slammed down on the thin steel roof; and we perspired as we ate. +"After we finished, Armstrong straightened his tie, put on a wool sports jacket, and we headed out into the glare. +Outside a mound of garbage formed the border between Southland and the adjacent legal neighborhood of Langata. +It was perhaps eight feet tall, 40 feet long, and 10 feet wide. +And it was set in a wider watery ooze. +As we passed, two boys were climbing the mount Kenya of trash. +They couldn't have been more than five or six years old. +They were barefoot, and with each step their toes sank into the muck sending hundreds of flies scattering from the rancid pile. +I thought they might be playing King of the Hill, but I was wrong. +Once atop the pile, one of the boys lowered his shorts, squatted, and defecated. +The flies buzzed hungrily around his legs. +When 20 families -- 100 people or so -- share a single latrine, a boy pooping on a garbage pile is perhaps no big thing. +But it stood in jarring contrast to something Armstrong had said as we were eating -- that he treasured the quality of life in his neighborhood. +"For Armstrong, Southland wasn't constrained by its material conditions. +Instead, the human spirit radiated out from the metal walls and garbage heaps to offer something no legal neighborhood could: freedom. +'This place is very addictive,' he had said. +'It's a simple life, but nobody is restricting you. +Nobody is controlling what you do. +Once you have stayed here, you cannot go back.' He meant back beyond that mountain of trash, back in the legal city, of legal buildings, with legal leases and legal rights. +'Once you have stayed here,' he said, 'you can stay for the rest of your life.'" So, he has hope, and this is where these communities start. +This is perhaps the most primitive shanty that you can find in Kibera, little more than a stick-and-mud hut next to a garbage heap. +This is getting ready for the monsoon in Bombay, India. +This is home improvement: putting plastic tarps on your roof. +This is in Rio de Janeiro, and it's getting a bit better, right? +We're seeing scavenged terra cotta tile and little pieces of signs, and plaster over the brick, some color, and this is Sulay Montakaya's house in Sultanbelyi, and it's getting even better. +He's got a fence; he scavenged a door; he's got new tile on the roof. +And then you get Rocinha and you can see that it's getting even better. +The buildings here are multi-story. +They develop -- you can see on the far right one where it seems to just stack on top of each other, room, after room, after room. +And what people do is they develop their home on one or two stories, and they sell their loggia or roof rights, and someone else builds on top of their building, and then that person sells the roof rights, and someone else builds on top of their building. +All of these buildings are made out of reinforced concrete and brick. +And then you get Sultanbelyi, in Turkey, where it's even built to a higher level of design. +The crud in the front is mattress stuffing, and you see that all over Turkey. +People dry out or air out their mattress stuffing on their roofs. +But the green building, on behind, you can see that the top floor is not occupied, so people are building with the possibility of expansion. +And it's built to a pretty high standard of design. +And then you finally get squatter homes like this, which is built on the suburban model. +Hey, that's a single family home in the squatter community. +That's also in Istanbul, Turkey. +They're quite vital places, these communities. +This is the main drag of Rocinha, the Estrada da Gavea, and there's a bus route that runs through it, lots of people out on the street. +These communities in these cities are actually more vital than the illegal communities. +They have more things going on in them. +This is a typical pathway in Rocinha called a "beco" -- these are how you get around the community. +It's on very steep ground. +They're built on the hills, inland from the beaches in Rio, and you can see that the houses are just cantilevered over the natural obstructions. +So, that's just a rock in the hillside. +And these becos are normally very crowded, and people hump furniture up them, or refrigerators up them, all sorts of things. +Beer is all carried in on your shoulders. +Beer is a very important thing in Brazil. +This is commerce in Kenya, right along the train tracks, so close to the train tracks that the merchants sometimes have to pull the merchandise out of the way. +This is a marketplace, also in Kenya, Toi Market, lots of dealers, in almost everything you want to buy. +Those green things in the foreground are mangoes. +This is a shopping street in Kibera, and you can see that there's a soda dealer, a health clinic, two beauty salons, a bar, two grocery stores, and a church, and more. +It's a typical downtown street; it just happens to be self-built. +This here, on the right-hand side, is what's called a -- if you look at the fine print under the awning -- it's a hotel. +And what hotel means, in Kenya and India, is an eating-place. +So, that's a restaurant. +People steal electrical power -- this is Rio. +People tap in and they have thieves who are called "grillos" or "crickets," and they steal the electrical power and wire the neighborhood. +People burn trash to get rid of the garbage, and they dig their own sewer channels. +Talk about more plastic bags than plankton. +And sometimes they have natural trash-disposal. +And when they have more money they cement their streets, and they put in sewers and good water pipes, and stuff like that. +This is water going to Rio. People run their water pipes all over the place, and that little hut right there has a pump in it, and that's what people do: they steal electricity; they install a pump and they tap into the water main, and pump water up to their houses. +So, the question is how do you go from the mud-hut village, to the more developed city, to the even highly developed Sultanbelyi? +I say there are two things. +One is people need a guarantee they won't be evicted. +That does not necessarily mean property rights, and I would disagree with Hernando de Soto on that question, because property rights create a lot of complications. +They're most often sold to people, and people then wind up in debt and have to pay back the debt, and sometimes have to sell their property in order to pay back the debt. +There's a whole variety of other reasons why property rights sometimes don't work in these cases, but they do need security of tenure. +And they need access to politics, and that can mean two things. +That can mean community organizing from below, but it can also mean possibilities from above. +And I say that because the system in Turkey is notable. +Turkey has two great laws that protect squatters. +One is that -- it's called "gecekondu" in Turkish, which means "built overnight," and if you build your house overnight in Turkey, you can't be evicted without due process of law, if they don't catch you during the night. +And the second aspect is that once you have 2,000 people in the community, you can petition the government to be recognized as a legal sub-municipality. +And when you're a legal sub-municipality, you suddenly have politics. +You're allowed to have an elected government, collect taxes, provide municipal services, and that's exactly what they do. +So, these are the civic leaders of the future. +The woman in the center is Geeta Jiwa. +She lives in one of those tents on the highway median in Mumbai. +That's Sureka Gundi; she also lives with her family on the tent along the same highway median. +They're very outspoken. They're very active. +They can be community leaders. +This woman is Nine, which means "grandma" in Turkish. +And there were three old ladies who lived in -- that's her self-built house behind her -- and they've lived there for 30 or 40 years, and they are the backbone of the community there. +This is Richard Muthama Peter, and he is an itinerant street photographer in Kibera. +He makes money taking pictures of the neighborhood, and the people in the neighborhood, and is a great resource in the community. +And finally my choice to run for mayor of Rio is Cezinio, the fruit merchant with his two kids here, and a more honest and giving and caring man I don't know. +The future of these communities is in the people and in our ability to work with those people. +So, I think the message I take, from what I read from the book, from what Armstrong said, and from all these people, is that these are neighborhoods. +The issue is not urban poverty. +The issue is not the larger, over-arching thing. +The issue is for us to recognize that these are neighborhoods -- this is a legitimate form of urban development -- and that cities have to engage these residents, because they are building the cities of the future. +Thank you very much. +Charles Van Doren, who was later a senior editor of Britannica, said the ideal encyclopedia should be radical -- it should stop being safe. +But if you know anything about the history of Britannica since 1962, it was anything but radical: still a very completely safe, stodgy type of encyclopedia. +Wikipedia, on the other hand, begins with a very radical idea, and that's for all of us to imagine a world in which every single person on the planet is given free access to the sum of all human knowledge. +And that's what we're doing. So Wikipedia -- you just saw the little demonstration of it -- it's a freely licensed encyclopedia. It's written by thousands of volunteers all over the world in many, many languages. +It's written using wiki software -- which is the type of software he just demonstrated -- so anyone can quickly edit and save, and it goes live on the Internet immediately. +And everything about Wikipedia is managed by virtually an all-volunteer staff. +So when Yochai is talking about new methods of organization, he's exactly describing Wikipedia. And what I'm going to do today is tell you a little bit more about how it really works on the inside. +So Wikipedia's owned by the Wikimedia Foundation, which I founded, a nonprofit organization. And our goal, the core aim of the Wikimedia Foundation, is to get a free encyclopedia to every single person on the planet. +And so, if you think about what that means, it means a lot more than just building a cool website. +We're really interested in all the issues of the digital divide, poverty worldwide, empowering people everywhere to have the information that they need to make good decisions. +And so we're going to have to do a lot of work that goes beyond just the Internet. +And so that's a big part of why we've chosen the free licensing model, because that empowers local entrepreneurs or anyone who wants to -- they can take our content and do anything they like with it -- you can copy it, redistribute it -- and you can do it commercially or non-commercially. +So there's a lot of opportunities that are going to arise around Wikipedia all over the world. +We're funded by donations from the public, and one of the more interesting things about that is how little money it actually takes to run Wikipedia. +So Yochai showed you the graph of what the cost of a printing press was. +And I'm going to tell you what the cost of Wikipedia is. +But first, I'll show you how big it is. +So we've got over 600,000 articles in English. +We've got two million total articles across many, many different languages. +The biggest languages are German, Japanese, French -- all the Western-European languages are quite big. +But only around one-third of all of our traffic to our web clusters to the English Wikipedia, which is surprising to a lot of people. +A lot of people think in a very English-centric way on the Internet, but for us, we're truly global. We're in many, many languages. +How popular we've gotten to be -- we're a top-50 website and we're more popular than the New York Times. +So this is where we get to Yochai's discussion. +This shows the growth of Wikipedia -- we're the blue line there -- and this is the New York Times over there. +And what's interesting about this is the New York Times website is a huge, enormous corporate operation with I have no idea how many hundreds of employees. +We have exactly one employee, and that employee is our lead software developer. +And he's only been our employee since January 2005, all the other growth before that ... +So the servers are managed by a ragtag band of volunteers. +All the editing is done by volunteers. +And the way that we're organized is not like any traditional organization you can imagine. +People are always asking, "Well, who's in charge of this?" +or "Who does that?" And the answer is: anybody who wants to pitch in. +It's a very unusual and chaotic thing. +We've got over 90 servers now in three locations. +These are managed by volunteer system administrators who are online. +I can go online any time of the day or night and see eight to 10 people waiting for me to ask a question or something, anything about the servers. +You could never afford to do this in a company. +You could never afford to have a standby crew of people 24 hours a day and do what we're doing at Wikipedia. +So we're doing around 1.4 billion page views monthly, so it's really gotten to be a huge thing. +And everything is managed by the volunteers. +And the total monthly cost for our bandwidth is about 5,000 dollars. +And that's essentially our main cost. +We could actually do without the employee. +We hired Brian because he was working part-time for two years and full-time at Wikipedia, so we actually hired him, so he could get a life and go to the movies sometimes. +So the big question when you've got this really chaotic organization is, why isn't it all rubbish? Why is the website as good as it is? +First of all, how good is it? Well, it's pretty good. It isn't perfect, but it's much better than you would expect, given our completely chaotic model. +So when you saw him make a ridiculous edit to the page about me, you think, "Oh, this is obviously just going to degenerate into rubbish." +But when we've seen quality tests -- and there haven't been enough of these yet and I'm really encouraging people to do more, comparing Wikipedia to traditional things -- we win hands down. +So a German magazine compared German Wikipedia, which is much, much smaller than English, to Microsoft Encarta and to Brockhaus multimedial, and we won across the board. +They hired experts to come and look at articles and compare the quality, and we were very pleased with that result. +So a lot of people have heard about the Wikipedia Bush-Kerry controversy. +The media has covered this somewhat extensively. +It started out with an article in Red Herring. +The reporters called me up and they -- I mean, I have to say they spelled my name right, but they really wanted to say the Bush-Kerry election is so contentious, it's tearing apart the Wikipedia community. And so they quote me as saying, "They're the most contentious in the history of Wikipedia." +What I actually said is they're not contentious at all. +So it's a slight misquote. The articles were edited quite heavily. +And it is true that we did have to lock the articles on a couple of occasions. +Time magazine recently reported that "Extreme action sometimes has to be taken, and Wales locked the entries on Kerry and Bush for most of 2004." +This came after I told the reporter that we had to lock it for -- occasionally a little bit here and there. +So the truth in general is that the kinds of controversies that you would probably think we have within the Wikipedia community are not really controversies at all. +Articles on controversial topics are edited a lot, but they don't cause much controversy within the community. +And the reason for this is that most people understand the need for neutrality. +The real struggle is not between the right and the left -- that's where most people assume -- but it's between the party of the thoughtful and the party of the jerks. +And no side of the political spectrum has a monopoly on either of those qualities. +The actual truth about the specific Bush-Kerry incident is that the Bush-Kerry articles were locked less than one percent of the time in 2004, and it wasn't because they were contentious; it was just because there was routine vandalism -- which happens sometimes even on stage ... +Sometimes even reporters have reported to me that they vandalized Wikipedia and were amazed that it was fixed so quickly. +And I said -- you know, I always say, please don't do that. That's not a good thing. +So how do we do this? +How do we manage the quality control? +How does it work? +So there's a few elements, mostly social policies and some elements of the software. +So the biggest and the most important thing is our neutral point of view policy. +This is something that I set down, from the very beginning, as a core principle of the community that's completely not debatable. +It's a social concept of cooperation, so we don't talk a lot about truth and objectivity. +The reason for this is if we say we're only going to write the "truth" about some topic, that doesn't do us a damn bit of good of figuring out what to write, because I don't agree with you about what's the truth. +But we have this jargon term of neutrality, which has its own long history within the community, which basically says, any time there's a controversial issue, Wikipedia itself should not take a stand on the issue. +We should merely report on what reputable parties have said about it. +So this neutrality policy is really important for us because it empowers a community that is very diverse to come together and actually get some work done. +So we have very diverse contributors in terms of political, religious, cultural backgrounds. +By having this firm neutrality policy, which is non-negotiable from the beginning, we ensure that people can work together and that the entries don't become simply a war back and forth between the left and the right. +If you engage in that type of behavior, you'll be asked to leave the community. +So, real-time peer review. +Every single change on the site goes to the "Recent changes" page. +So as soon as he made his change, it went to the "Recent changes" page. +That recent changes page was also fed into an IRC channel, which is an Internet chat channel that people are monitoring with various software tools. +And people can get RSS feeds -- they can get email notifications of changes. +And then users can set up their own personal watch list. +So my page is on quite a few volunteers' watch lists, because it is sometimes vandalized. +And therefore, what happens is someone will notice the change very quickly, and then they'll just simply revert the change. +There's a "new pages feed," for example, so you can go to a certain page of Wikipedia and see every new page as it's created. +This is really important because a lot of new pages are just garbage that has to be deleted, you know, "ASDFASDF." +But also, that's some of the most interesting and fun things, some of the new articles. +People will start an article on some interesting topic, other people will find that intriguing and jump in and help and make it much better. +So we do have edits by anonymous users, which is one of the most controversial and intriguing things about Wikipedia. +So, Chris was able to do his change -- he didn't have to log in or anything; he just went on the website and made a change. +But it turns out that only about 18 percent of all the edits to the website are done by anonymous users. +And that's a really important thing to understand: the vast majority of the edits that go on on the website are from a very close-knit community of maybe 600 to 1,000 people who are in constant communication. +And we have over 40 IRC channels, 40 mailing lists. +All these people know each other. They communicate. We have off-line meetings. +These are the people who are doing the bulk of the site, and they are, in a sense, semi-professionals at what they're doing. +The standards we set for ourselves are equal to or higher than professional standards of quality. +We don't always meet those standards, but that's what we're striving for. +And so that tight community is who really cares for the site, and these are some of the smartest people I've ever met. +It's my job to say that, but it's actually true. +The type of people who were drawn to writing an encyclopedia for fun tend to be pretty smart people. +The tools and the software: there's lots of tools that allow us -- allow us, meaning the community -- to self-monitor and to monitor all the work. +This is an example of a page history on "flat Earth," and you can see some changes that were made. +What's nice about this page is you can immediately take a look at this and see, "OK, I understand now." +When somebody goes and looks at -- they see that someone, an anonymous IP number, made an edit to my page. +That sounds suspicious. Who is this person? Somebody looks at it -- they can immediately see highlighted in red all of the changes that took place -- to see, OK, well, these words have changed, things like this. +So that's one tool that we can use to very quickly monitor the history of a page. +Another thing that we do within the community is we leave everything very open-ended. +Most of the social rules and the methods of work are left completely open-ended in the software. +All of that stuff is just on Wiki pages. +And so there's nothing in the software that enforces the rules. +The example I've got up here is the Votes for Deletion page. +So, I mentioned earlier, people type "ASDFASDF" -- it needs to be deleted. Cases like that, the administrators just delete it. +There's no reason to have a big argument about it. +But you can imagine there's a lot of other areas where the question is, is this notable enough to go in an encyclopedia? +Is the information verifiable? Is it a hoax? Is it true? Is it what? +So we needed a social method for figuring out the answer to this. +And so the method that arose organically within the community is the Votes For Deletion page. +And in the particular example we have here, it's a film, "Twisted Issues," and the first person says, "Now this is supposedly a film. It fails the Google test miserably." +The Google test is you look in Google and see if it's there, because if something's not even in Google, it probably doesn't exist at all. +It's not a perfect rule, but it's a nice starting point for quick research. +So somebody says, "Delete it, please. Delete it -- it's not notable." +And then somebody says, "Wait, I found it. I found it in a book, 'Film Threat Video Guide: the 20 Underground Films You Must See.'" So the next persons says, "Clean it up." +Somebody says, "I've found it on IMDB. Keep, keep, keep." +And what's interesting about this is that the software is -- these votes are just text typed into a page. +This is not really a vote so much as it is a dialogue. +Now it is true that at the end of the day, an administrator can go through here and take a look at this and say, "OK, 18 deletes, two keeps: we'll delete it." +And it also matters who the people are who are voting. +Like I say, it's a tight-knit community. +Down here at the bottom, "Keep, real movie," RickK. +RickK is a very famous Wikipedian who does an enormous amount of work with vandalism, hoaxes and votes for deletion. +His voice carries a lot of weight within the community because he knows what he's doing. +So how is all this governed? +People really want to know about administrators, things like that. +That doesn't mean that they have the right to delete pages. +They still have to follow all the rules -- but they're elected by the community. +Sometimes people -- random trolls on the Internet -- like to accuse me of handpicking the administrators to bias the content of the encyclopedia. +I always laugh at this, because I have no idea how they're elected, actually. +There's a certain amount of aristocracy. +You got a hint of that when I mentioned, like, RickK's voice would carry a lot more weight than someone we don't know. +I give this talk sometimes with Angela, who was just re-elected to the board from the community -- to the Board of the Foundation, with more than twice the votes of the person who didn't make it. +And I always embarrass her because I say, "Well, Angela, for example, could get away with doing absolutely anything within Wikipedia, because she's so admired and so powerful." +But the irony is, of course, that Angela can do this because she's the one person who you know would never, ever break any rules of Wikipedia. +And I also like to say she's the only person who actually knows all the rules of Wikipedia, so ... +And then there's monarchy, and that's my role on the community, so ... +I was describing this in Berlin once, and the next day in the newspaper the headline said, "I am the Queen of England." +And that's not exactly what I said, but -- the point is my role in the community -- Within the free software world, there's been a long-standing tradition of the "benevolent dictator" model. +So if you look at most of the major free software projects, they have one single person in charge who everyone agrees is the benevolent dictator. +Well, I don't like the term "benevolent dictator," and I don't think that it's my job or my role in the world of ideas to be the dictator of the future of all human knowledge compiled by the world. +It just isn't appropriate. +But there is a need still for a certain amount of monarchy, a certain amount of -- sometimes we have to make a decision and we don't want to get bogged down too heavily in formal decision-making processes. +So as an example of how this can be important: we recently had a situation where a neo-Nazi website discovered Wikipedia, and they said, "Oh, well, this is horrible, this Jewish conspiracy of a website, and we're going to get certain articles deleted that we don't like. +And we see they have a voting process, so we're going to send -- we have 40,000 members and we're going to send them over and they're all going to vote and get these pages deleted." +Well, they managed to get 18 people to show up. +That's neo-Nazi math for you. +They always think they've got 40,000 members when they've got 18. +But they managed to get 18 people to come and vote in a fairly absurd way to delete a perfectly valid article. +Of course, the vote ended up being about 85 to 18, so there was no real danger to our democratic processes. +On the other hand, people said, "But what are we going to do? +I mean, this could happen. What if some group gets really seriously organized and comes in and wants to vote?" +Then I said, "Well, fuck it, we'll just change the rules." +That's my job in the community: to say we won't allow our openness and freedom to undermine the quality of the content. +And so, as long as people trust me in my role, then that's a valid place for me. +Of course, because of the free licensing, if I do a bad job, the volunteers are more than happy to take and leave -- I can't tell anyone what to do. +So the final point here is that to understand how Wikipedia works, it's important to understand that our wiki model is the way we work, but we are not fanatical web anarchists. +In fact, we're very flexible about the social methodology, because ultimately, the passion of the community is for the quality of the work, not necessarily for the process that we use to generate it. +Thank you. +Ben Saunders: Yeah, hi, Ben Saunders. +Jimmy, you mentioned impartiality being a key to Wikipedia's success. +It strikes me that much of the textbooks that are used to educate our children are inherently biased. +Have you found Wikipedia being used by teachers and how do you see Wikipedia changing education? +Jimmy Wales: Yeah, so, a lot of teachers are beginning to use Wikipedia. +There's a media storyline about Wikipedia, which I think is false. +It builds on the storyline of bloggers versus newspapers. +And the storyline is, there's this crazy thing, Wikipedia, but academics hate it and teachers hate it. And that turns out to not be true. +The last time I got an email from a journalist saying, "Why do academics hate Wikipedia?" +I sent it from my Harvard email address because I was recently appointed a fellow there. +And I said, "Well, they don't all hate it." +But I think there's going to be huge impacts. +And we actually have a project that I'm personally really excited about, which is the Wikibooks project, which is an effort to create textbooks in all the languages. +And that's a much bigger project. +It's going to take 20 years or so to come to fruition. +But part of that is to fulfill our mission of giving an encyclopedia to every single person on the planet. +We don't mean we're going to Spam them with AOL-style CDs. +We mean we're going to give them a tool that they can use. +And for a lot of people in the world, if I give you an encyclopedia that's written at a university level, it doesn't do you any good without a whole host of literacy materials to build you up to the point where you can actually use it. +The Wikibooks project is an effort to do that. +And I think that we're going to see -- it may not even come from us; there's all kinds of innovation going on. +But freely licensed textbooks are the next big thing in education. +Well, it's great to be here. +We've heard a lot about the promise of technology, and the peril. +I've been quite interested in both. +If we could convert 0.03 percent of the sunlight that falls on the earth into energy, we could meet all of our projected needs for 2030. +We can't do that today because solar panels are heavy, expensive and very inefficient. +There are nano-engineered designs, which at least have been analyzed theoretically, that show the potential to be very lightweight, very inexpensive, very efficient, and we'd be able to actually provide all of our energy needs in this renewable way. +Nano-engineered fuel cells could provide the energy where it's needed. +That's a key trend, which is decentralization, moving from centralized nuclear power plants and liquid natural gas tankers to decentralized resources that are environmentally more friendly, a lot more efficient and capable and safe from disruption. +Bono spoke very eloquently, that we have the tools, for the first time, to address age-old problems of disease and poverty. +Most regions of the world are moving in that direction. +In 1990, in East Asia and the Pacific region, there were 500 million people living in poverty -- that number now is under 200 million. +The World Bank projects by 2011, it will be under 20 million, which is a reduction of 95 percent. +I did enjoy Bono's comment linking Haight-Ashbury to Silicon Valley. +Being from the Massachusetts high-tech community myself, I'd point out that we were hippies also in the 1960s, although we hung around Harvard Square. +But we do have the potential to overcome disease and poverty, and I'm going to talk about those issues, if we have the will. +Kevin Kelly talked about the acceleration of technology. +That's been a strong interest of mine, and a theme that I've developed for some 30 years. +I realized that my technologies had to make sense when I finished a project. +That invariably, the world was a different place when I would introduce a technology. +So I began to be an ardent student of technology trends, and track where technology would be at different points in time, and began to build the mathematical models of that. +It's kind of taken on a life of its own. +I've got a group of 10 people that work with me to gather data on key measures of technology in many different areas, and we build models. +And you'll hear people say, well, we can't predict the future. +And if you ask me, will the price of Google be higher or lower than it is today three years from now, that's very hard to say. +Will WiMax CDMA G3 be the wireless standard three years from now? That's hard to say. +But if you ask me, what will it cost for one MIPS of computing in 2010, or the cost to sequence a base pair of DNA in 2012, or the cost of sending a megabyte of data wirelessly in 2014, it turns out that those are very predictable. +There are remarkably smooth exponential curves that govern price performance, capacity, bandwidth. +And I'm going to show you a small sample of this, but there's really a theoretical reason why technology develops in an exponential fashion. +And a lot of people, when they think about the future, think about it linearly. +They think they're going to continue to develop a problem or address a problem using today's tools, at today's pace of progress, and fail to take into consideration this exponential growth. +The Genome Project was a controversial project in 1990. +We had our best Ph.D. students, our most advanced equipment around the world, we got 1/10,000th of the project done, so how're we going to get this done in 15 years? +And 10 years into the project, the skeptics were still going strong -- says, "You're two-thirds through this project, and you've managed to only sequence a very tiny percentage of the whole genome." +But it's the nature of exponential growth that once it reaches the knee of the curve, it explodes. +Most of the project was done in the last few years of the project. +It took us 15 years to sequence HIV -- we sequenced SARS in 31 days. +So we are gaining the potential to overcome these problems. +I'm going to show you just a few examples of how pervasive this phenomena is. +The actual paradigm-shift rate, the rate of adopting new ideas, is doubling every decade, according to our models. +These are all logarithmic graphs, so as you go up the levels it represents, generally multiplying by factor of 10 or 100. +It took us half a century to adopt the telephone, the first virtual-reality technology. +Cell phones were adopted in about eight years. +If you put different communication technologies on this logarithmic graph, television, radio, telephone were adopted in decades. +Recent technologies -- like the PC, the web, cell phones -- were under a decade. +Now this is an interesting chart, and this really gets at the fundamental reason why an evolutionary process -- and both biology and technology are evolutionary processes -- accelerate. +They work through interaction -- they create a capability, and then it uses that capability to bring on the next stage. +So the first step in biological evolution, the evolution of DNA -- actually it was RNA came first -- took billions of years, but then evolution used that information-processing backbone to bring on the next stage. +So the Cambrian Explosion, when all the body plans of the animals were evolved, took only 10 million years. It was 200 times faster. +And then evolution used those body plans to evolve higher cognitive functions, and biological evolution kept accelerating. +It's an inherent nature of an evolutionary process. +But anyway, the evolution of our species took hundreds of thousands of years, and then working through interaction, evolution used, essentially, the technology-creating species to bring on the next stage, which were the first steps in technological evolution. +And the first step took tens of thousands of years -- stone tools, fire, the wheel -- kept accelerating. +We always used then the latest generation of technology to create the next generation. +Printing press took a century to be adopted; the first computers were designed pen-on-paper -- now we use computers. +And we've had a continual acceleration of this process. +Now by the way, if you look at this on a linear graph, it looks like everything has just happened, but some observer says, "Well, Kurzweil just put points on this graph that fall on that straight line." +And again, it forms the same straight line. You have a little bit of thickening in the line because people do have disagreements, what the key points are, there's differences of opinion when agriculture started, or how long the Cambrian Explosion took. +But you see a very clear trend. +There's a basic, profound acceleration of this evolutionary process. +Information technologies double their capacity, price performance, bandwidth, every year. +And that's a very profound explosion of exponential growth. +A personal experience, when I was at MIT -- computer taking up about the size of this room, less powerful than the computer in your cell phone. +But Moore's Law, which is very often identified with this exponential growth, is just one example of many, because it's basically a property of the evolutionary process of technology. +I put 49 famous computers on this logarithmic graph -- by the way, a straight line on a logarithmic graph is exponential growth -- that's another exponential. +It took us three years to double our price performance of computing in 1900, two years in the middle; we're now doubling it every one year. +And that's exponential growth through five different paradigms. +Moore's Law was just the last part of that, where we were shrinking transistors on an integrated circuit, but we had electro-mechanical calculators, relay-based computers that cracked the German Enigma Code, vacuum tubes in the 1950s predicted the election of Eisenhower, discreet transistors used in the first space flights and then Moore's Law. +Every time one paradigm ran out of steam, another paradigm came out of left field to continue the exponential growth. +They were shrinking vacuum tubes, making them smaller and smaller. +That hit a wall. They couldn't shrink them and keep the vacuum. +Whole different paradigm -- transistors came out of the woodwork. +In fact, when we see the end of the line for a particular paradigm, it creates research pressure to create the next paradigm. +And because we've been predicting the end of Moore's Law for quite a long time -- the first prediction said 2002, until now it says 2022. +But by the teen years, the features of transistors will be a few atoms in width, and we won't be able to shrink them any more. +That'll be the end of Moore's Law, but it won't be the end of the exponential growth of computing, because chips are flat. +We live in a three-dimensional world; we might as well use the third dimension. +We will go into the third dimension and there's been tremendous progress, just in the last few years, of getting three-dimensional, self-organizing molecular circuits to work. +We'll have those ready well before Moore's Law runs out of steam. +Supercomputers -- same thing. +Processor performance on Intel chips, the average price of a transistor -- 1968, you could buy one transistor for a dollar. +You could buy 10 million in 2002. +It's pretty remarkable how smooth an exponential process that is. +I mean, you'd think this is the result of some tabletop experiment, but this is the result of worldwide chaotic behavior -- countries accusing each other of dumping products, IPOs, bankruptcies, marketing programs. +You would think it would be a very erratic process, and you have a very smooth outcome of this chaotic process. +Just as we can't predict what one molecule in a gas will do -- it's hopeless to predict a single molecule -- yet we can predict the properties of the whole gas, using thermodynamics, very accurately. +It's the same thing here. We can't predict any particular project, but the result of this whole worldwide, chaotic, unpredictable activity of competition and the evolutionary process of technology is very predictable. +And we can predict these trends far into the future. +Unlike Gertrude Stein's roses, it's not the case that a transistor is a transistor. +As we make them smaller and less expensive, the electrons have less distance to travel. +They're faster, so you've got exponential growth in the speed of transistors, so the cost of a cycle of one transistor has been coming down with a halving rate of 1.1 years. +You add other forms of innovation and processor design, you get a doubling of price performance of computing every one year. +And that's basically deflation -- 50 percent deflation. +In terms of price performance, that's a 40 to 50 percent deflation rate. +And economists have actually started worrying about that. +We had deflation during the Depression, but that was collapse of the money supply, collapse of consumer confidence, a completely different phenomena. +This is due to greater productivity, but the economist says, "But there's no way you're going to be able to keep up with that. +If you have 50 percent deflation, people may increase their volume 30, 40 percent, but they won't keep up with it." +But what we're actually seeing is that we actually more than keep up with it. +We've had 28 percent per year compounded growth in dollars in information technology over the last 50 years. +I mean, people didn't build iPods for 10,000 dollars 10 years ago. +As the price performance makes new applications feasible, new applications come to the market. +And this is a very widespread phenomena. +Magnetic data storage -- that's not Moore's Law, it's shrinking magnetic spots, different engineers, different companies, same exponential process. +A key revolution is that we're understanding our own biology in these information terms. +We're understanding the software programs that make our body run. +These were evolved in very different times -- we'd like to actually change those programs. +One little software program, called the fat insulin receptor gene, basically says, "Hold onto every calorie, because the next hunting season may not work out so well." +That was in the interests of the species tens of thousands of years ago. +We'd like to actually turn that program off. +They tried that in animals, and these mice ate ravenously and remained slim and got the health benefits of being slim. +They didn't get diabetes; they didn't get heart disease; they lived 20 percent longer; they got the health benefits of caloric restriction without the restriction. +Four or five pharmaceutical companies have noticed this, felt that would be interesting drug for the human market, and that's just one of the 30,000 genes that affect our biochemistry. +We were evolved in an era where it wasn't in the interests of people at the age of most people at this conference, like myself, to live much longer, because we were using up the precious resources which were better deployed towards the children and those caring for them. +So, life -- long lifespans -- like, that is to say, much more than 30 -- weren't selected for, but we are learning to actually manipulate and change these software programs through the biotechnology revolution. +For example, we can inhibit genes now with RNA interference. +There are exciting new forms of gene therapy that overcome the problem of placing the genetic material in the right place on the chromosome. +There's actually a -- for the first time now, something going to human trials, that actually cures pulmonary hypertension -- a fatal disease -- using gene therapy. +So we'll have not just designer babies, but designer baby boomers. +And this technology is also accelerating. +It cost 10 dollars per base pair in 1990, then a penny in 2000. +It's now under a 10th of a cent. +The amount of genetic data -- basically this shows that smooth exponential growth doubled every year, enabling the genome project to be completed. +Another major revolution: the communications revolution. +The price performance, bandwidth, capacity of communications measured many different ways; wired, wireless is growing exponentially. +The Internet has been doubling in power and continues to, measured many different ways. +This is based on the number of hosts. +Miniaturization -- we're shrinking the size of technology at an exponential rate, both wired and wireless. +These are some designs from Eric Drexler's book -- which we're now showing are feasible with super-computing simulations, where actually there are scientists building molecule-scale robots. +One has one that actually walks with a surprisingly human-like gait, that's built out of molecules. +There are little machines doing things in experimental bases. +The most exciting opportunity is actually to go inside the human body and perform therapeutic and diagnostic functions. +And this is less futuristic than it may sound. +These things have already been done in animals. +There's one nano-engineered device that cures type 1 diabetes. It's blood cell-sized. +They put tens of thousands of these in the blood cell -- they tried this in rats -- it lets insulin out in a controlled fashion, and actually cures type 1 diabetes. +What you're watching is a design of a robotic red blood cell, and it does bring up the issue that our biology is actually very sub-optimal, even though it's remarkable in its intricacy. +Once we understand its principles of operation, and the pace with which we are reverse-engineering biology is accelerating, we can actually design these things to be thousands of times more capable. +An analysis of this respirocyte, designed by Rob Freitas, indicates if you replace 10 percent of your red blood cells with these robotic versions, you could do an Olympic sprint for 15 minutes without taking a breath. +You could sit at the bottom of your pool for four hours -- so, "Honey, I'm in the pool," will take on a whole new meaning. +It will be interesting to see what we do in our Olympic trials. +Presumably we'll ban them, but then we'll have the specter of teenagers in their high schools gyms routinely out-performing the Olympic athletes. +Freitas has a design for a robotic white blood cell. +These are 2020-circa scenarios, but they're not as futuristic as it may sound. +There are four major conferences on building blood cell-sized devices; there are many experiments in animals. +There's actually one going into human trial, so this is feasible technology. +If we come back to our exponential growth of computing, 1,000 dollars of computing is now somewhere between an insect and a mouse brain. +It will intersect human intelligence in terms of capacity in the 2020s, but that'll be the hardware side of the equation. +Where will we get the software? +Well, it turns out we can see inside the human brain, and in fact not surprisingly, the spatial and temporal resolution of brain scanning is doubling every year. +And with the new generation of scanning tools, for the first time we can actually see individual inter-neural fibers and see them processing and signaling in real time -- but then the question is, OK, we can get this data now, but can we understand it? +Doug Hofstadter wonders, well, maybe our intelligence just isn't great enough to understand our intelligence, and if we were smarter, well, then our brains would be that much more complicated, and we'd never catch up to it. +It turns out that we can understand it. +This is a block diagram of a model and simulation of the human auditory cortex that actually works quite well -- in applying psychoacoustic tests, gets very similar results to human auditory perception. +There's another simulation of the cerebellum -- that's more than half the neurons in the brain -- again, works very similarly to human skill formation. +This is at an early stage, but you can show with the exponential growth of the amount of information about the brain and the exponential improvement in the resolution of brain scanning, we will succeed in reverse-engineering the human brain by the 2020s. +We've already had very good models and simulation of about 15 regions out of the several hundred. +All of this is driving exponentially growing economic progress. +We've had productivity go from 30 dollars to 150 dollars per hour of labor in the last 50 years. +E-commerce has been growing exponentially. It's now a trillion dollars. +You might wonder, well, wasn't there a boom and a bust? +That was strictly a capital-markets phenomena. +Wall Street noticed that this was a revolutionary technology, which it was, but then six months later, when it hadn't revolutionized all business models, they figured, well, that was wrong, and then we had this bust. +All right, this is a technology that we put together using some of the technologies we're involved in. +This will be a routine feature in a cell phone. +It would be able to translate from one language to another. +So let me just end with a couple of scenarios. +By 2010 computers will disappear. +They'll be so small, they'll be embedded in our clothing, in our environment. +Images will be written directly to our retina, providing full-immersion virtual reality, augmented real reality. We'll be interacting with virtual personalities. +But if we go to 2029, we really have the full maturity of these trends, and you have to appreciate how many turns of the screw in terms of generations of technology, which are getting faster and faster, we'll have at that point. +I mean, we will have two-to-the-25th-power greater price performance, capacity and bandwidth of these technologies, which is pretty phenomenal. +It'll be millions of times more powerful than it is today. +We'll have completed the reverse-engineering of the human brain, 1,000 dollars of computing will be far more powerful than the human brain in terms of basic raw capacity. +Computers will combine the subtle pan-recognition powers of human intelligence with ways in which machines are already superior, in terms of doing analytic thinking, remembering billions of facts accurately. +Machines can share their knowledge very quickly. +But it's not just an alien invasion of intelligent machines. +We are going to merge with our technology. +These nano-bots I mentioned will first be used for medical and health applications: cleaning up the environment, providing powerful fuel cells and widely distributed decentralized solar panels and so on in the environment. +But they'll also go inside our brain, interact with our biological neurons. +We've demonstrated the key principles of being able to do this. +So, for example, full-immersion virtual reality from within the nervous system, the nano-bots shut down the signals coming from your real senses, replace them with the signals that your brain would be receiving if you were in the virtual environment, and then it'll feel like you're in that virtual environment. +You can go there with other people, have any kind of experience with anyone involving all of the senses. +"Experience beamers," I call them, will put their whole flow of sensory experiences in the neurological correlates of their emotions out on the Internet. +You can plug in and experience what it's like to be someone else. +But most importantly, it'll be a tremendous expansion of human intelligence through this direct merger with our technology, which in some sense we're doing already. +We routinely do intellectual feats that would be impossible without our technology. +Human life expectancy is expanding. It was 37 in 1800, and with this sort of biotechnology, nano-technology revolutions, this will move up very rapidly in the years ahead. +My main message is that progress in technology is exponential, not linear. +Many -- even scientists -- assume a linear model, so they'll say, "Oh, it'll be hundreds of years before we have self-replicating nano-technology assembly or artificial intelligence." +If you really look at the power of exponential growth, you'll see that these things are pretty soon at hand. +And information technology is increasingly encompassing all of our lives, from our music to our manufacturing to our biology to our energy to materials. +We'll be able to manufacture almost anything we need in the 2020s, from information, in very inexpensive raw materials, using nano-technology. +These are very powerful technologies. +They both empower our promise and our peril. +So we have to have the will to apply them to the right problems. +Thank you very much. +18 minutes is an absolutely brutal time limit, so I'm going to dive straight in, right at the point where I get this thing to work. +Here we go. I'm going to talk about five different things. +I'm going to talk about why defeating aging is desirable. +I'm going to talk about why we have to get our shit together, and actually talk about this a bit more than we do. +I'm going to talk about feasibility as well, of course. +I'm going to talk about why we are so fatalistic about doing anything about aging. +And then I'm going spend perhaps the second half of the talk talking about, you know, how we might actually be able to prove that fatalism is wrong, namely, by actually doing something about it. +I'm going to do that in two steps. +The first one I'm going to talk about is how to get from a relatively modest amount of life extension -- which I'm going to define as 30 years, applied to people who are already in middle-age when you start -- to a point which can genuinely be called defeating aging. +Namely, essentially an elimination of the relationship between how old you are and how likely you are to die in the next year -- or indeed, to get sick in the first place. +And of course, the last thing I'm going to talk about is how to reach that intermediate step, that point of maybe 30 years life extension. +So I'm going to start with why we should. +Now, I want to ask a question. +Hands up: anyone in the audience who is in favor of malaria? +That was easy. OK. +OK. Hands up: anyone in the audience who's not sure whether malaria is a good thing or a bad thing? +OK. So we all think malaria is a bad thing. +That's very good news, because I thought that was what the answer would be. +Now the thing is, I would like to put it to you that the main reason why we think that malaria is a bad thing is because of a characteristic of malaria that it shares with aging. +And here is that characteristic. +The only real difference is that aging kills considerably more people than malaria does. +Now, I like in an audience, in Britain especially, to talk about the comparison with foxhunting, which is something that was banned after a long struggle, by the government not very many months ago. +I mean, I know I'm with a sympathetic audience here, but, as we know, a lot of people are not entirely persuaded by this logic. +And this is actually a rather good comparison, it seems to me. +You know, a lot of people said, "Well, you know, city boys have no business telling us rural types what to do with our time. +It's a traditional part of the way of life, and we should be allowed to carry on doing it. +It's ecologically sound; it stops the population explosion of foxes." +But ultimately, the government prevailed in the end, because the majority of the British public, and certainly the majority of members of Parliament, came to the conclusion that it was really something that should not be tolerated in a civilized society. +And I think that human aging shares all of these characteristics in spades. +What part of this do people not understand? +It's not just about life, of course -- -- it's about healthy life, you know -- getting frail and miserable and dependent is no fun, whether or not dying may be fun. +So really, this is how I would like to describe it. +It's a global trance. +These are the sorts of unbelievable excuses that people give for aging. +And, I mean, OK, I'm not actually saying that these excuses are completely valueless. +There are some good points to be made here, things that we ought to be thinking about, forward planning so that nothing goes too -- well, so that we minimize the turbulence when we actually figure out how to fix aging. +But these are completely crazy, when you actually remember your sense of proportion. +You know, these are arguments; these are things that would be legitimate to be concerned about. +But the question is, are they so dangerous -- these risks of doing something about aging -- that they outweigh the downside of doing the opposite, namely, leaving aging as it is? +Are these so bad that they outweigh condemning 100,000 people a day to an unnecessarily early death? +You know, if you haven't got an argument that's that strong, then just don't waste my time, is what I say. +Now, there is one argument that some people do think really is that strong, and here it is. +People worry about overpopulation; they say, "Well, if we fix aging, no one's going to die to speak of, or at least the death toll is going to be much lower, only from crossing St. Giles carelessly. +And therefore, we're not going to be able to have many kids, and kids are really important to most people." +And that's true. +And you know, a lot of people try to fudge this question, and give answers like this. +I don't agree with those answers. I think they basically don't work. +I think it's true, that we will face a dilemma in this respect. +We will have to decide whether to have a low birth rate, or a high death rate. +A high death rate will, of course, arise from simply rejecting these therapies, in favor of carrying on having a lot of kids. +And, I say that that's fine -- the future of humanity is entitled to make that choice. +What's not fine is for us to make that choice on behalf of the future. +That's my answer to the overpopulation question. +Right. So the next thing is, now why should we get a little bit more active on this? +And the fundamental answer is that the pro-aging trance is not as dumb as it looks. +It's actually a sensible way of coping with the inevitability of aging. +Aging is ghastly, but it's inevitable, so, you know, we've got to find some way to put it out of our minds, and it's rational to do anything that we might want to do, to do that. +Like, for example, making up these ridiculous reasons why aging is actually a good thing after all. +But of course, that only works when we have both of these components. +And as soon as the inevitability bit becomes a little bit unclear -- and we might be in range of doing something about aging -- this becomes part of the problem. +This pro-aging trance is what stops us from agitating about these things. +And that's why we have to really talk about this a lot -- evangelize, I will go so far as to say, quite a lot -- in order to get people's attention, and make people realize that they are in a trance in this regard. +So that's all I'm going to say about that. +I'm now going to talk about feasibility. +And the fundamental reason, I think, why we feel that aging is inevitable is summed up in a definition of aging that I'm giving here. +A very simple definition. +Aging is a side effect of being alive in the first place, which is to say, metabolism. +This is not a completely tautological statement; it's a reasonable statement. +Aging is basically a process that happens to inanimate objects like cars, and it also happens to us, despite the fact that we have a lot of clever self-repair mechanisms, because those self-repair mechanisms are not perfect. +So basically, metabolism, which is defined as basically everything that keeps us alive from one day to the next, has side effects. +Those side effects accumulate and eventually cause pathology. +That's a fine definition. So we can put it this way: we can say that, you know, we have this chain of events. +And there are really two games in town, according to most people, with regard to postponing aging. +They're what I'm calling here the "gerontology approach" and the "geriatrics approach." +The geriatrician will intervene late in the day, when pathology is becoming evident, and the geriatrician will try and hold back the sands of time, and stop the accumulation of side effects from causing the pathology quite so soon. +Of course, it's a very short-term-ist strategy; it's a losing battle, because the things that are causing the pathology are becoming more abundant as time goes on. +The gerontology approach looks much more promising on the surface, because, you know, prevention is better than cure. +But unfortunately the thing is that we don't understand metabolism very well. +In fact, we have a pitifully poor understanding of how organisms work -- even cells we're not really too good on yet. +We've discovered things like, for example, RNA interference only a few years ago, and this is a really fundamental component of how cells work. +Basically, gerontology is a fine approach in the end, but it is not an approach whose time has come when we're talking about intervention. +So then, what do we do about that? +I mean, that's a fine logic, that sounds pretty convincing, pretty ironclad, doesn't it? +But it isn't. +Before I tell you why it isn't, I'm going to go a little bit into what I'm calling step two. +Just suppose, as I said, that we do acquire -- let's say we do it today for the sake of argument -- the ability to confer 30 extra years of healthy life on people who are already in middle age, let's say 55. +I'm going to call that "robust human rejuvenation." OK. +What would that actually mean for how long people of various ages today -- or equivalently, of various ages at the time that these therapies arrive -- would actually live? +In order to answer that question -- you might think it's simple, but it's not simple. +We can't just say, "Well, if they're young enough to benefit from these therapies, then they'll live 30 years longer." +That's the wrong answer. +And the reason it's the wrong answer is because of progress. +There are two sorts of technological progress really, for this purpose. +There are fundamental, major breakthroughs, and there are incremental refinements of those breakthroughs. +Now, they differ a great deal in terms of the predictability of time frames. +Fundamental breakthroughs: very hard to predict how long it's going to take to make a fundamental breakthrough. +It was a very long time ago that we decided that flying would be fun, and it took us until 1903 to actually work out how to do it. +But after that, things were pretty steady and pretty uniform. +I think this is a reasonable sequence of events that happened in the progression of the technology of powered flight. +We can think, really, that each one is sort of beyond the imagination of the inventor of the previous one, if you like. +The incremental advances have added up to something which is not incremental anymore. +This is the sort of thing you see after a fundamental breakthrough. +And you see it in all sorts of technologies. +Computers: you can look at a more or less parallel time line, happening of course a bit later. +You can look at medical care. I mean, hygiene, vaccines, antibiotics -- you know, the same sort of time frame. +So I think that actually step two, that I called a step a moment ago, isn't a step at all. +That in fact, the people who are young enough to benefit from these first therapies that give this moderate amount of life extension, even though those people are already middle-aged when the therapies arrive, will be at some sort of cusp. +They will mostly survive long enough to receive improved treatments that will give them a further 30 or maybe 50 years. +In other words, they will be staying ahead of the game. +The therapies will be improving faster than the remaining imperfections in the therapies are catching up with us. +This is a very important point for me to get across. +Because, you know, most people, when they hear that I predict that a lot of people alive today are going to live to 1,000 or more, they think that I'm saying that we're going to invent therapies in the next few decades that are so thoroughly eliminating aging that those therapies will let us live to 1,000 or more. +I'm not saying that at all. +I'm saying that the rate of improvement of those therapies will be enough. +They'll never be perfect, but we'll be able to fix the things that 200-year-olds die of, before we have any 200-year-olds. +And the same for 300 and 400 and so on. +I decided to give this a little name, which is "longevity escape velocity." +Well, it seems to get the point across. +So, these trajectories here are basically how we would expect people to live, in terms of remaining life expectancy, as measured by their health, for given ages that they were at the time that these therapies arrive. +If you're already 100, or even if you're 80 -- and an average 80-year-old, we probably can't do a lot for you with these therapies, because you're too close to death's door for the really initial, experimental therapies to be good enough for you. +You won't be able to withstand them. +But if you're only 50, then there's a chance that you might be able to pull out of the dive and, you know -- -- eventually get through this and start becoming biologically younger in a meaningful sense, in terms of your youthfulness, both physical and mental, and in terms of your risk of death from age-related causes. +And of course, if you're a bit younger than that, then you're never really even going to get near to being fragile enough to die of age-related causes. +So this is a genuine conclusion that I come to, that the first 150-year-old -- we don't know how old that person is today, because we don't know how long it's going to take to get these first-generation therapies. +But irrespective of that age, I'm claiming that the first person to live to 1,000 -- subject of course, to, you know, global catastrophes -- is actually, probably, only about 10 years younger than the first 150-year-old. +And that's quite a thought. +Alright, so finally I'm going to spend the rest of the talk, my last seven-and-a-half minutes, on step one; namely, how do we actually get to this moderate amount of life extension that will allow us to get to escape velocity? +And in order to do that, I need to talk about mice a little bit. +I have a corresponding milestone to robust human rejuvenation. +I'm calling it "robust mouse rejuvenation," not very imaginatively. +And this is what it is. +I say we're going to take a long-lived strain of mouse, which basically means mice that live about three years on average. +We do exactly nothing to them until they're already two years old. +And then we do a whole bunch of stuff to them, and with those therapies, we get them to live, on average, to their fifth birthday. +So, in other words, we add two years -- we treble their remaining lifespan, starting from the point that we started the therapies. +The question then is, what would that actually mean for the time frame until we get to the milestone I talked about earlier for humans? +Which we can now, as I've explained, equivalently call either robust human rejuvenation or longevity escape velocity. +Secondly, what does it mean for the public's perception of how long it's going to take for us to get to those things, starting from the time we get the mice? +And thirdly, the question is, what will it do to actually how much people want it? +And it seems to me that the first question is entirely a biology question, and it's extremely hard to answer. +One has to be very speculative, and many of my colleagues would say that we should not do this speculation, that we should simply keep our counsel until we know more. +I say that's nonsense. +I say we absolutely are irresponsible if we stay silent on this. +We need to give our best guess as to the time frame, in order to give people a sense of proportion so that they can assess their priorities. +So, I say that we have a 50/50 chance of reaching this RHR milestone, robust human rejuvenation, within 15 years from the point that we get to robust mouse rejuvenation. +15 years from the robust mouse. +The public's perception will probably be somewhat better than that. +The public tends to underestimate how difficult scientific things are. +So they'll probably think it's five years away. +They'll be wrong, but that actually won't matter too much. +And finally, of course, I think it's fair to say that a large part of the reason why the public is so ambivalent about aging now is the global trance I spoke about earlier, the coping strategy. +That will be history at this point, because it will no longer be possible to believe that aging is inevitable in humans, since it's been postponed so very effectively in mice. +So we're likely to end up with a very strong change in people's attitudes, and of course that has enormous implications. +So in order to tell you now how we're going to get these mice, I'm going to add a little bit to my description of aging. +I'm going to use this word "damage" to denote these intermediate things that are caused by metabolism and that eventually cause pathology. +Because the critical thing about this is that even though the damage only eventually causes pathology, the damage itself is caused ongoing-ly throughout life, starting before we're born. +But it is not part of metabolism itself. +And this turns out to be useful. +Because we can re-draw our original diagram this way. +We can say that, fundamentally, the difference between gerontology and geriatrics is that gerontology tries to inhibit the rate at which metabolism lays down this damage. +And I'm going to explain exactly what damage is in concrete biological terms in a moment. +And geriatricians try to hold back the sands of time by stopping the damage converting into pathology. +And the reason it's a losing battle is because the damage is continuing to accumulate. +So there's a third approach, if we look at it this way. +We can call it the "engineering approach," and I claim that the engineering approach is within range. +The engineering approach does not intervene in any processes. +It does not intervene in this process or this one. +And that's good because it means that it's not a losing battle, and it's something that we are within range of being able to do, because it doesn't involve improving on evolution. +The engineering approach simply says, "Let's go and periodically repair all of these various types of damage -- not necessarily repair them completely, but repair them quite a lot, so that we keep the level of damage down below the threshold that must exist, that causes it to be pathogenic." +We know that this threshold exists, because we don't get age-related diseases until we're in middle age, even though the damage has been accumulating since before we were born. +Why do I say that we're in range? Well, this is basically it. +The point about this slide is actually the bottom. +If we try to say which bits of metabolism are important for aging, we will be here all night, because basically all of metabolism is important for aging in one way or another. +This list is just for illustration; it is incomplete. +The list on the right is also incomplete. +It's a list of types of pathology that are age-related, and it's just an incomplete list. +But I would like to claim to you that this list in the middle is actually complete -- this is the list of types of thing that qualify as damage, side effects of metabolism that cause pathology in the end, or that might cause pathology. +And there are only seven of them. +They're categories of things, of course, but there's only seven of them. +Cell loss, mutations in chromosomes, mutations in the mitochondria and so on. +First of all, I'd like to give you an argument for why that list is complete. +Of course one can make a biological argument. +One can say, "OK, what are we made of?" +We're made of cells and stuff between cells. +What can damage accumulate in? +The answer is: long-lived molecules, because if a short-lived molecule undergoes damage, but then the molecule is destroyed -- like by a protein being destroyed by proteolysis -- then the damage is gone, too. +It's got to be long-lived molecules. +So, these seven things were all under discussion in gerontology a long time ago and that is pretty good news, because it means that, you know, we've come a long way in biology in these 20 years, so the fact that we haven't extended this list is a pretty good indication that there's no extension to be done. +However, it's better than that; we actually know how to fix them all, in mice, in principle -- and what I mean by in principle is, we probably can actually implement these fixes within a decade. +Some of them are partially implemented already, the ones at the top. +I haven't got time to go through them at all, but my conclusion is that, if we can actually get suitable funding for this, then we can probably develop robust mouse rejuvenation in only 10 years, but we do need to get serious about it. +We do need to really start trying. +So of course, there are some biologists in the audience, and I want to give some answers to some of the questions that you may have. +You may have been dissatisfied with this talk, but fundamentally you have to go and read this stuff. +I've published a great deal on this; I cite the experimental work on which my optimism is based, and there's quite a lot of detail there. +The detail is what makes me confident of my rather aggressive time frames that I'm predicting here. +So if you think that I'm wrong, you'd better damn well go and find out why you think I'm wrong. +And of course the main thing is that you shouldn't trust people who call themselves gerontologists because, as with any radical departure from previous thinking within a particular field, you know, you expect people in the mainstream to be a bit resistant and not really to take it seriously. +So, you know, you've got to actually do your homework, in order to understand whether this is true. +And we'll just end with a few things. +One thing is, you know, you'll be hearing from a guy in the next session who said some time ago that he could sequence the human genome in half no time, and everyone said, "Well, it's obviously impossible." +And you know what happened. +So, you know, this does happen. +We have various strategies -- there's the Methuselah Mouse Prize, which is basically an incentive to innovate, and to do what you think is going to work, and you get money for it if you win. +There's a proposal to actually put together an institute. +This is what's going to take a bit of money. +But, I mean, look -- how long does it take to spend that on the war in Iraq? +Not very long. OK. +It's got to be philanthropic, because profits distract biotech, but it's basically got a 90 percent chance, I think, of succeeding in this. +And I think we know how to do it. And I'll stop there. +Thank you. +Chris Anderson: OK. I don't know if there's going to be any questions but I thought I would give people the chance. +Audience: Since you've been talking about aging and trying to defeat it, why is it that you make yourself appear like an old man? +AG: Because I am an old man. I am actually 158. +Audience: Species on this planet have evolved with immune systems to fight off all the diseases so that individuals live long enough to procreate. +However, as far as I know, all the species have evolved to actually die, so when cells divide, the telomerase get shorter, and eventually species die. +So, why does -- evolution has -- seems to have selected against immortality, when it is so advantageous, or is evolution just incomplete? +AG: Brilliant. Thank you for asking a question that I can answer with an uncontroversial answer. +I'm going to tell you the genuine mainstream answer to your question, which I happen to agree with, which is that, no, aging is not a product of selection, evolution; [aging] is simply a product of evolutionary neglect. +In other words, we have aging because it's hard work not to have aging; you need more genetic pathways, more sophistication in your genes in order to age more slowly, and that carries on being true the longer you push it out. +So, to the extent that evolution doesn't matter, doesn't care whether genes are passed on by individuals, living a long time or by procreation, there's a certain amount of modulation of that, which is why different species have different lifespans, but that's why there are no immortal species. +CA: The genes don't care but we do? +AG: That's right. +Audience: Hello. I read somewhere that in the last 20 years, the average lifespan of basically anyone on the planet has grown by 10 years. +If I project that, that would make me think that I would live until 120 if I don't crash on my motorbike. +That means that I'm one of your subjects to become a 1,000-year-old? +AG: If you lose a bit of weight. +Your numbers are a bit out. +The standard numbers are that lifespans have been growing at between one and two years per decade. +So, it's not quite as good as you might think, you might hope. +But I intend to move it up to one year per year as soon as possible. +Audience: I was told that many of the brain cells we have as adults are actually in the human embryo, and that the brain cells last 80 years or so. +If that is indeed true, biologically are there implications in the world of rejuvenation? +If there are cells in my body that live all 80 years, as opposed to a typical, you know, couple of months? +AG: There are technical implications certainly. +Basically what we need to do is replace cells in those few areas of the brain that lose cells at a respectable rate, especially neurons, but we don't want to replace them any faster than that -- or not much faster anyway, because replacing them too fast would degrade cognitive function. +What I said about there being no non-aging species earlier on was a little bit of an oversimplification. +There are species that have no aging -- Hydra for example -- but they do it by not having a nervous system -- and not having any tissues in fact that rely for their function on very long-lived cells. +Nature's my muse and it's been my passion. +As a photographer for National Geographic, I've portrayed it for many. +But five years ago, I went on a personal journey. +I wanted to visualize the story of life. +It's the hardest thing I've ever attempted, and there have been plenty of times when I felt like backing out. +But there were also revelations. +And one of those I'd like to share with you today. +I went down to a remote lagoon in Australia, hoping to see the Earth the way it was three billion years ago, back before the sky turned blue. +There's stromatolites down there -- the first living things to capture photosynthesis -- and it's the only place they still occur today. +Going down there was like entering a time capsule, and I came out with a different sense of myself in time. +The oxygen exhaled by those stromatolites is what we all breathe today. +Stromatolites are the heroes in my story. +I hope it's a story that has some resonance for our time. +It's a story about you and me, nature and science. +And with that said, I'd like to invite you for a short, brief journey of life through time. +Our journey starts in space, where matter condenses into spheres over time ... +solidifying into surface, molded by fire. +The fire gave way, Earth emerged -- but this was an alien planet. +The moon was closer; things were different. +Heat from within made geysers erupt -- that is how the oceans were born. +Water froze around the poles and shaped the edges of the Earth. +Water is the key to life, but in frozen form, it is a latent force. +And when it vanishes, Earth becomes Mars. +But this planet is different -- it's roiling inside. +And where that energy touches water, something new emerges: life. +It arises around cracks in the Earth. +Mud and minerals become substrate; there are bacteria. +Learn to multiply, thickening in places ... +Growing living structures under an alien sky ... +Stromatolites were the first to exhale oxygen. +And they changed the atmosphere. +A breath that's fossilized now as iron. +Meteorites delivered chemistry, and perhaps membranes, too. +Life needs a membrane to contain itself so it can replicate and mutate. +These are diatoms, single-celled phytoplankton with skeletons of silicon ... +circuit boards of the future. +Shallow seas nurtured life early on, and that's where it morphed into more complex forms. +It grew as light and oxygen increased. +Life hardened and became defensive. +It learned to move and began to see. The first eyes grew on trilobites. +Vision was refined in horseshoe crabs, among the first to leave the sea. +They still do what they've done for ages, their enemies long gone. +Scorpions follow prey out of the sea. Slugs became snails. +Fish tried amphibian life. Frogs adapted to deserts. +Lichens arose as a co-op. Fungi married algae ... +clinging to rock, and eating it too ... transforming barren land. +True land plants arose, leafless at first. +Once they learn how to stay upright, they grew in size and shape. +The fundamental forms of ferns followed, to bear spores that foreshadowed seeds. +Life flourished in swamps. +On land, life turned a corner. Jaws formed first; teeth came later. +Leatherbacks and tuataras are echoes from that era. +It took time for life to break away from water, and it still beckons all the time. +Life turned hard so it could venture inland. +And the dragons that arose are still among us today. +Jurassic Park still shimmers in part of Madagascar, and the center of Brazil, where plants called "cycads" remain rock hard. +Forests arose and nurtured things with wings. +One early form left an imprint, like it died only yesterday. +And others fly today like echoes of the past. +In birds, life gained new mobility. +Flamingos covered continents. Migrations got underway. +Birds witnessed the emergence of flowering plants. +Water lilies were among the first. +Plants began to diversify and grew, turning into trees. +In Australia, a lily turned into a grass tree, and in Hawaii, a daisy became a silver sword. +In Africa, Gondwana molded Proteas. +But when that ancient continent broke up, life got lusher. +Tropical rainforests arose, sparking new layers of interdependence. +Fungi multiplied. Orchids emerged, genitalia shaped to lure insects ... +a trick shared by the largest flower on Earth. +Co-evolution entwined insects and birds and plants forever. +When birds can't fly, they become vulnerable. +Kiwis are, and so are these hawks trapped near Antarctica. +Extinction can come slowly, but sometimes it arrives fast. +An asteroid hits, and the world went down in flames. +But there were witnesses, survivors in the dark. +When the skies cleared, a new world was born. +A world fit for mammals. From tiny shrews [came] tenrecs, accustomed to the dark. +New forms became bats. Civets. +New predators, hyenas, getting faster and faster still. +Grasslands created opportunities. +Herd safety came with sharpened senses. +Growing big was another answer, but size always comes at a price. +Some mammals turned back to water. +Walruses adapted with layers of fat. Sea lions got sleek. +And cetaceans moved into a world without bounds. +There are many ways to be a mammal. A 'roo hops in Oz; a horse runs in Asia; and a wolf evolves stilt legs in Brazil. +Primates emerge from jungles, as tarsiers first, becoming lemurs not much later. +Learning became reinforced. Bands of apes ventured into the open. +And forests dried out once more. Going upright became a lifestyle. +So who are we? Brothers of masculine chimps, sisters of feminine bonobos? We are all of them, and more. +We're molded by the same life force. +The blood veins in our hands echoed a course of water traces on the Earth. +And our brains -- our celebrated brains -- reflect a drainage of a tidal marsh. +Life is a force in its own right. It is a new element. +And it has altered the Earth. It covers Earth like a skin. +And where it doesn't, as in Greenland in winter, Mars is still not very far. +But that likelihood fades as long as ice melts again. +And where water is liquid, it becomes a womb for cells green with chlorophyll -- and that molecular marvel is what's made a difference -- it powers everything. +The whole animal world today lives on a stockpile of bacterial oxygen that is cycled constantly through plants and algae, and their waste is our breath, and vice versa. +This Earth is alive, and it's made its own membrane. +We call it "atmosphere." This is the icon of our journey. +And you all here today can imagine and will shape where we go next. +Thank you. Thank you. +I've been at MIT for 44 years. I went to TED I. +There's only one other person here, I think, who did that. +All the other TEDs -- and I went to them all, under Ricky's regime -- I talked about what the Media Lab was doing, which today has almost 500 people in it. +And if you read the press, last week it actually said I quit the Media Lab. +I didn't quit the Media Lab, I stepped down as chairman -- which was a kind of ridiculous title, but someone else has taken it on -- and one of the things you can do as a professor is you stay on as a professor. +And I will now do for the rest of my life the One Laptop Per Child, which I've sort of been doing for a year and a half, anyway. +So I'm going to tell you about this, use my 18 minutes to tell you why we're doing it, how we're doing it and then what we're doing. +And at some point I'll even pass around what the $100 laptop might be like. +I was asked by Chris to talk about some of the big issues, and so I figured I'd start with the three that at least drove me to do this. +And the first is pretty obvious. +It's amazing when you meet a head of state, and you say, "What is your most precious natural resource?" +They will not say "children" at first, and then when you say, "children," they will pretty quickly agree with you. +And so that isn't very hard. +Everybody agrees that whatever the solutions are to the big problems, they include education, sometimes can be just education and can never be without some element of education. +So that's certainly part of it. +And the third is a little bit less obvious. +And that is that we all in this room learned how to walk, how to talk, not by being taught how to talk, or taught how to walk, but by interacting with the world, by having certain results as a consequence of being able to ask for something, or being able to stand up and reach it. +Whereas at about the age six, we were told to stop learning that way, and that all learning from then on would happen through teaching, whether it's people standing up, like I'm doing now, or a book, or something. +But it was really through teaching. +And one of the things in general that computers have provided to learning is that it now includes a kind of learning which is a little bit more like walking and talking, in the sense that a lot of it is driven by the learner himself or herself. +So with those as the principles -- some of you may know Seymour Papert. +This is back in 1982, when we were working in Senegal. +Because some people think that the $100 laptop just happened a year ago, or two years ago, or we were struck by lightning -- this actually has gone back a long time, and in fact, back to the '60s. +Here we're in the '80s. +Steve Jobs had given us some laptops. We were in Senegal. +It didn't scale but it at least was bringing computers to developing countries and learning pretty quickly that these kids, even though English wasn't their language, the Latin alphabet barely was their language, but they could just swim like fish. +They could play these like pianos. +A little bit more recently, I got involved personally. +And these are two anecdotes -- one was in Cambodia, in a village that has no electricity, no water, no television, no telephone, but has broadband Internet now. +And these kids, their first English word is "Google" and they only know Skype. They've never heard of telephony. +They just use Skype. +And they go home at night -- they've got a broadband connection in a hut that doesn't have electricity. +The parents love it, because when they open up the laptops, it's the brightest light source in the house. +And talk about where metaphors and reality mix -- this is the actual school. +In parallel with this, Seymour Papert got the governor of Maine to legislate one laptop per child in the year 2002. +Now at the time, I think it's fair to say that 80 percent of the teachers were -- let me say, apprehensive. +Really, they were actually against it. +And they really preferred that the money would be used for higher salaries, more schools, whatever. +And now, three and a half years later, guess what? +They're reporting five things: drop of truancy to almost zero, attending parent-teacher meetings -- which nobody did and now almost everybody does -- drop in discipline problems, increase in student participation. +Teachers are now saying it's kind of fun to teach. +Kids are engaged -- they have laptops! -- and then the fifth, which interests me the most, is that the servers have to be turned off at certain times at night because the teachers are getting too much email from the kids asking them for help. +So when you see that kind of thing -- this is not something that you have to test. +The days of pilot projects are over, when people say, "We'd like to do three or four thousand in our country to see how it works." +Screw you. Go to the back of the line and someone else will do it, and then when you figure out that this works, you can join as well. +And this is what we're doing. +So, One Laptop Per Child was formed about a year and a half ago. +It's a nonprofit association. It raised about 20 million dollars to do the engineering to just get this built, and then have it produced afterwards. +Scale is truly important. +And it's not important because you can buy components at a lower price, OK? +It's because you can go to a manufacturer -- but we wanted a small display, doesn't have to have perfect color uniformity. +It can even have a pixel or two missing. It doesn't have to be that bright. +And this particular manufacturer said, "We're not interested in that. We're interested in the living room. +We're interested in perfect color uniformity. +We're interested in big displays, bright displays. +You're not part of our strategic plan." +And I said, "That's kind of too bad, because we need 100 million units a year." +And they said, "Oh, well, maybe we could become part of your strategic plan." +And that's why scale counts. +And that's why we will not launch this without five to 10 million units in the first run. +And the idea is to launch with enough scale that the scale itself helps bring the price down, and that's why I said seven to 10 million there. +And we're doing it without a sales-and-marketing team. +I mean, you're looking at the sales-and-marketing team. +We will do it by going to seven large countries and getting them to agree and launch it, and then the others can follow. +We have partners. It's not hard to guess Google would be one. +The others are all playing to pending. +And this has been in the press a great deal. +It's the so-called Green Machine that we introduced with Kofi Annan in November at the World Summit that was held in Tunisia. +Now once people start looking at this, they say, "Ah, this is a laptop project." +Well, no, it's not a laptop project. It's an education project. +And the fun part -- and I'm quite focused on it -- I tell people I used to be a light bulb, but now I'm a laser -- I'm just going to get that thing built, and it turns out it's not so hard. +Because laptop economics are the following: I say 50 percent here -- it's more like 60, 60 percent of the cost of your laptop is sales, marketing, distribution and profit. +Now we have none of those, OK? +None of those figure into our cost, because first of all, we sell it at cost, and the governments distribute it. +It gets distributed to the school system like a textbook. +So that piece disappears. Then you have display and everything else. +Now the display on your laptop costs, in rough numbers, 10 dollars a diagonal inch. +That can drop to eight; it can drop to seven but it's not going to drop to two, or to one and a half, unless we do some pretty clever things. +It's the rest -- that little brown box -- that is pretty fascinating, because the rest of your laptop is devoted to itself. +It's a little bit like an obese person having to use most of their energy to move their obesity. +And we have a situation today which is incredible. +I've been using laptops since their inception. +And my laptop runs slower, less reliably and less pleasantly than it ever has before. +And this year is worse. +People clap, sometimes you even get standing ovations, and I say, "What the hell's wrong with you? Why are we all sitting there?" +And somebody -- to remain nameless -- called our laptop a "gadget" recently. +And I said, "God, our laptop's going to go like a bat out of hell. +When you open it up, it's going to go 'bing.'" It'll be on. +It'll be just like it was in 1985, when you bought an Apple Macintosh 512. +It worked really well. +And we've been going steadily downhill. +Now, people ask all the time what it is. +That's what it is. +The two pieces that are probably notable: it'll be a mesh network, so when the kids open up their laptops, they all become a network, and then just need one or two points of backhaul. +You can serve a couple of thousand kids with two megabits. +So you really can bring into a village, and then the villages can connect themselves, and you really can do it quite well. +the idea is to have a display that both works outdoors -- isn't it fun using your cell phone outdoors in the sunlight? +Well, you can't see it. +And one of the reasons you can't see it is because it's backlighting most of the time, most cell phones. +Now, what we're doing is, we're doing one that will be both frontlit and backlit. +And whether you manually switch it or you do it in the software is to be seen. But when it's backlit, it's color. +And when it's frontlit, it's black and white at three times the resolution. +Is it all worked out? No. +That's why a lot of our people are more or less living in Taiwan right now. +And in about 30 days, we'll know for sure whether this works. +Probably the most important piece there is that the kids really can do the maintenance. +And this is again something that people don't believe, but I really think it's quite true. +That's the machine we showed in Tunis. +This is more the direction that we're going to go. +And it's something that we didn't think was possible. +Now, I'm going to pass this around. +This isn't a design, OK? +So this is just a mechanical engineering sort of embodiment of it for you to play with. +And it's clearly just a model. +The working one is at MIT. +I'm going to pass it to this handsome gentleman. +At least you can decide whether it goes left or -- Chris Anderson: Before you do it, for the people down in simulcast -- Nicholas Negroponte: Sorry! I forgot. CA: Just show it off a bit. +So wherever the camera is -- OK, good point. Thank you, Chris. +The idea was that it would be not only a laptop, but that it could transform into an electronic book. +So it's sort of an electronic book. +This is where when you go outside, it's in black and white. +The games buttons are missing, but it'll also be a games machine, book machine. +Set it up this way, and it's a television set. +Etc., etc. -- is that enough for simulcast? OK, sorry. +I'll let Jim decide which way to send it afterwards. +OK. Seven countries. I say "maybe" for Massachusetts, because they actually have to do a bid. +By law you've got to bid, and so on and so forth. +So I can't quite name them. +In the other cases, they don't have to do bids. They can decide -- it's the federal government in each case. +It's kind of agonizing, because a lot of people say, "Let's do it at the state level," because states are more nimble than the feds, just because of size. +And yet we count. +We're really dealing with the federal government. +We're really dealing with ministries of education. +And if you look at governments around the world, ministries of education tend to be the most conservative, and also the ones that have huge payrolls. +Everybody thinks they know about education, a lot of culture is built into it as well. +It's really hard. And so it's certainly the hard road. +If you look at the countries, they're pretty geoculturally distributed. +Have they all agreed? No, not completely. +Probably Thailand, Brazil and Nigeria are the three that are the most active and most agreed. +We're purposely not signing anything with anybody until we actually have the working ones. +And since I visit each one of those countries within at least every three months, I'm just going around the world every three weeks. +Here's sort of the schedule and I put at the bottom we might give some away free in two years at this meeting. +Everybody says it's a $100 laptop -- you can't do it. +Well, guess what, we're not. +We're coming in probably at 135, to start, then drift down. +And that's very important, because so many things hit the market at a price and then drift up. +It's kind of the loss leader, and then as soon as it looks interesting, it can't be afforded, or it can't be scaled out. +So we're targeting 50 dollars in 2010. +Not one single post-office truck is stolen. And why? +Because there's no market for post-office trucks. +It looks like a post-office truck. +You can spray paint it. You can do anything you want. +I just learned recently: in South Africa, no white Volvos are stolen. +Period. None. Zero. +So we want to make it very much like a white Volvo. +Each government has a task force. This perhaps is less interesting, but we're trying to get the governments to all work together and it's not easy. +The economics of this is to start with the federal governments and then later, to subsequently go to other -- whether it's child-to-child funding, so a child in this country buys one for a child in the developing world, maybe of the same gender, maybe of the same age. +An uncle gives a niece or a nephew that as a birthday present. +I mean, there are all sorts of things that will happen, and they'll be very, very exciting. +And everybody says -- I say -- it's an education project. +Are we providing the software? +The answer is: The system certainly has software, but no, we're not providing the education content. +That is really done in the countries. +But we are certainly constructionists. +And we certainly believe in learning by doing and everything from Logo, which was started in 1968, to more modern things, like Scratch, if you've ever even heard of it, are very, very much part of it. +And that's the rollout. +Are we dreaming? Is this real? It actually is real. +The only criticism, and people really don't want to criticize this, because it is a humanitarian effort, a nonprofit effort and to criticize it is a little bit stupid, actually. +But the one thing that people could criticize was, "Great idea, but these guys can't do it." +And that could either mean these guys, professors and so on couldn't do it, or that it's not possible. +Well, on December 12, a company called Quanta agreed to build it, and since they make about one-third of all the laptops on the planet today, that question disappeared. +So it's not a matter of whether it's going to happen. +And if it comes out at 138 dollars, so what? +If it comes out six months late, so what? +That's a pretty soft landing. Thank you. +If you take 10,000 people at random, 9,999 have something in common: their interests in business lie on or near the Earth's surface. +The odd one out is an astronomer, and I am one of that strange breed. +My talk will be in two parts. I'll talk first as an astronomer, and then as a worried member of the human race. +But let's start off by remembering that Darwin showed how we're the outcome of four billion years of evolution. +And what we try to do in astronomy and cosmology is to go back before Darwin's simple beginning, to set our Earth in a cosmic context. +And let me just run through a few slides. +This was the impact that happened last week on a comet. +If they'd sent a nuke, it would have been rather more spectacular than what actually happened last Monday. +So that's another project for NASA. +That's Mars from the European Mars Express, and at New Year. +This artist's impression turned into reality when a parachute landed on Titan, Saturn's giant moon. +It landed on the surface. This is pictures taken on the way down. +That looks like a coastline. +It is indeed, but the ocean is liquid methane -- the temperature minus 170 degrees centigrade. +If we go beyond our solar system, we've learned that the stars aren't twinkly points of light. +Each one is like a sun with a retinue of planets orbiting around it. +And we can see places where stars are forming, like the Eagle Nebula. We see stars dying. +In six billion years, the sun will look like that. +And some stars die spectacularly in a supernova explosion, leaving remnants like that. +On a still bigger scale, we see entire galaxies of stars. +We see entire ecosystems where gas is being recycled. +And to the cosmologist, these galaxies are just the atoms, as it were, of the large-scale universe. +This picture shows a patch of sky so small that it would take about 100 patches like it to cover the full moon in the sky. +Through a small telescope, this would look quite blank, but you see here hundreds of little, faint smudges. +Each is a galaxy, fully like ours or Andromeda, which looks so small and faint because its light has taken 10 billion light-years to get to us. +The stars in those galaxies probably don't have planets around them. +There's scant chance of life there -- that's because there's been no time for the nuclear fusion in stars to make silicon and carbon and iron, the building blocks of planets and of life. +We believe that all of this emerged from a Big Bang -- a hot, dense state. So how did that amorphous Big Bang turn into our complex cosmos? +I'm going to show you a movie simulation 16 powers of 10 faster than real time, which shows a patch of the universe where the expansions have subtracted out. +But you see, as time goes on in gigayears at the bottom, you will see structures evolve as gravity feeds on small, dense irregularities, and structures develop. +And we'll end up after 13 billion years with something looking rather like our own universe. +And we compare simulated universes like that -- I'll show you a better simulation at the end of my talk -- with what we actually see in the sky. +Well, we can trace things back to the earlier stages of the Big Bang, but we still don't know what banged and why it banged. +That's a challenge for 21st-century science. +If my research group had a logo, it would be this picture here: an ouroboros, where you see the micro-world on the left -- the world of the quantum -- and on the right the large-scale universe of planets, stars and galaxies. +We know our universes are united though -- links between left and right. +The everyday world is determined by atoms, how they stick together to make molecules. +Stars are fueled by how the nuclei in those atoms react together. +And, as we've learned in the last few years, galaxies are held together by the gravitational pull of so-called dark matter: particles in huge swarms, far smaller even than atomic nuclei. +But we'd like to know the synthesis symbolized at the very top. +The micro-world of the quantum is understood. +On the right hand side, gravity holds sway. Einstein explained that. +And so we need a theory that unifies the very large and the very small, which we don't yet have. +One idea, incidentally -- and I had this hazard sign to say I'm going to speculate from now on -- is that our Big Bang was not the only one. +One idea is that our three-dimensional universe may be embedded in a high-dimensional space, just as you can imagine on these sheets of paper. +You can imagine ants on one of them thinking it's a two-dimensional universe, not being aware of another population of ants on the other. +So there could be another universe just a millimeter away from ours, but we're not aware of it because that millimeter is measured in some fourth spatial dimension, and we're imprisoned in our three. +And so we believe that there may be a lot more to physical reality than what we've normally called our universe -- the aftermath of our Big Bang. And here's another picture. +Bottom right depicts our universe, which on the horizon is not beyond that, but even that is just one bubble, as it were, in some vaster reality. +Many people suspect that just as we've gone from believing in one solar system to zillions of solar systems, one galaxy to many galaxies, we have to go to many Big Bangs from one Big Bang, perhaps these many Big Bangs displaying an immense variety of properties. +Well, let's go back to this picture. +There's one challenge symbolized at the top, but there's another challenge to science symbolized at the bottom. +You want to not only synthesize the very large and the very small, but we want to understand the very complex. +And the most complex things are ourselves, midway between atoms and stars. +We depend on stars to make the atoms we're made of. +We depend on chemistry to determine our complex structure. +We clearly have to be large, compared to atoms, to have layer upon layer of complex structure. +We clearly have to be small, compared to stars and planets -- otherwise we'd be crushed by gravity. And in fact, we are midway. +It would take as many human bodies to make up the sun as there are atoms in each of us. +The geometric mean of the mass of a proton and the mass of the sun is 50 kilograms, within a factor of two of the mass of each person here. +Well, most of you anyway. +The science of complexity is probably the greatest challenge of all, greater than that of the very small on the left and the very large on the right. +And it's this science, which is not only enlightening our understanding of the biological world, but also transforming our world faster than ever. +And more than that, it's engendering new kinds of change. +And I now move on to the second part of my talk, and the book "Our Final Century" was mentioned. +If I was not a self-effacing Brit, I would mention the book myself, and I would add that it's available in paperback. +And in America it was called "Our Final Hour" because Americans like instant gratification. +But my theme is that in this century, not only has science changed the world faster than ever, but in new and different ways. +Targeted drugs, genetic modification, artificial intelligence, perhaps even implants into our brains, may change human beings themselves. And human beings, their physique and character, has not changed for thousands of years. +It may change this century. +It's new in our history. +And the human impact on the global environment -- greenhouse warming, mass extinctions and so forth -- is unprecedented, too. +And so, this makes this coming century a challenge. +Bio- and cybertechnologies are environmentally benign in that they offer marvelous prospects, while, nonetheless, reducing pressure on energy and resources. +But they will have a dark side. +In our interconnected world, novel technology could empower just one fanatic, or some weirdo with a mindset of those who now design computer viruses, to trigger some kind on disaster. +Indeed, catastrophe could arise simply from technical misadventure -- error rather than terror. +And even a tiny probability of catastrophe is unacceptable when the downside could be of global consequence. +In fact, some years ago, Bill Joy wrote an article expressing tremendous concern about robots taking us over, etc. +I don't go along with all that, but it's interesting that he had a simple solution. +It was what he called "fine-grained relinquishment." +He wanted to give up the dangerous kind of science and keep the good bits. Now, that's absurdly naive for two reasons. +First, any scientific discovery has benign consequences as well as dangerous ones. +And also, when a scientist makes a discovery, he or she normally has no clue what the applications are going to be. +And so what this means is that we have to accept the risks if we are going to enjoy the benefits of science. +We have to accept that there will be hazards. +And I think we have to go back to what happened in the post-War era, post-World War II, when the nuclear scientists who'd been involved in making the atomic bomb, in many cases were concerned that they should do all they could to alert the world to the dangers. +And they were inspired not by the young Einstein, who did the great work in relativity, but by the old Einstein, the icon of poster and t-shirt, who failed in his scientific efforts to unify the physical laws. +He was premature. But he was a moral compass -- an inspiration to scientists who were concerned with arms control. +And perhaps the greatest living person is someone I'm privileged to know, Joe Rothblatt. +Equally untidy office there, as you can see. +He's 96 years old, and he founded the Pugwash movement. +He persuaded Einstein, as his last act, to sign the famous memorandum of Bertrand Russell. +And he sets an example of the concerned scientist. +And I think to harness science optimally, to choose which doors to open and which to leave closed, we need latter-day counterparts of people like Joseph Rothblatt. +We need not just campaigning physicists, but we need biologists, computer experts and environmentalists as well. +And I think academics and independent entrepreneurs have a special obligation because they have more freedom than those in government service, or company employees subject to commercial pressure. +I wrote my book, "Our Final Century," as a scientist, just a general scientist. But there's one respect, I think, in which being a cosmologist offered a special perspective, and that's that it offers an awareness of the immense future. +The stupendous time spans of the evolutionary past are now part of common culture -- outside the American Bible Belt, anyway -- but most people, even those who are familiar with evolution, aren't mindful that even more time lies ahead. +The sun has been shining for four and a half billion years, but it'll be another six billion years before its fuel runs out. +On that schematic picture, a sort of time-lapse picture, we're halfway. +And it'll be another six billion before that happens, and any remaining life on Earth is vaporized. +There's an unthinking tendency to imagine that humans will be there, experiencing the sun's demise, but any life and intelligence that exists then will be as different from us as we are from bacteria. +The unfolding of intelligence and complexity still has immensely far to go, here on Earth and probably far beyond. +So we are still at the beginning of the emergence of complexity in our Earth and beyond. +If you represent the Earth's lifetime by a single year, say from January when it was made to December, the 21st-century would be a quarter of a second in June -- a tiny fraction of the year. +But even in this concertinaed cosmic perspective, our century is very, very special, the first when humans can change themselves and their home planet. +As I should have shown this earlier, it will not be humans who witness the end point of the sun; it will be creatures as different from us as we are from bacteria. +When Einstein died in 1955, one striking tribute to his global status was this cartoon by Herblock in the Washington Post. +The plaque reads, "Albert Einstein lived here." +And I'd like to end with a vignette, as it were, inspired by this image. +We've been familiar for 40 years with this image: the fragile beauty of land, ocean and clouds, contrasted with the sterile moonscape on which the astronauts left their footprints. +But let's suppose some aliens had been watching our pale blue dot in the cosmos from afar, not just for 40 years, but for the entire 4.5 billion-year history of our Earth. +What would they have seen? +Over nearly all that immense time, Earth's appearance would have changed very gradually. +The only abrupt worldwide change would have been major asteroid impacts or volcanic super-eruptions. +Apart from those brief traumas, nothing happens suddenly. +The continental landmasses drifted around. +Ice cover waxed and waned. +Successions of new species emerged, evolved and became extinct. +But in just a tiny sliver of the Earth's history, the last one-millionth part, a few thousand years, the patterns of vegetation altered much faster than before. +This signaled the start of agriculture. +Change has accelerated as human populations rose. +Then other things happened even more abruptly. +Within just 50 years -- that's one hundredth of one millionth of the Earth's age -- the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere started to rise, and ominously fast. +The planet became an intense emitter of radio waves -- the total output from all TV and cell phones and radar transmissions. And something else happened. +Metallic objects -- albeit very small ones, a few tons at most -- escaped into orbit around the Earth. +Some journeyed to the moons and planets. +A race of advanced extraterrestrials watching our solar system from afar could confidently predict Earth's final doom in another six billion years. +But could they have predicted this unprecedented spike less than halfway through the Earth's life? +These human-induced alterations occupying overall less than a millionth of the elapsed lifetime and seemingly occurring with runaway speed? +If they continued their vigil, what might these hypothetical aliens witness in the next hundred years? +Will some spasm foreclose Earth's future? +Or will the biosphere stabilize? +Or will some of the metallic objects launched from the Earth spawn new oases, a post-human life elsewhere? +The science done by the young Einstein will continue as long as our civilization, but for civilization to survive, we'll need the wisdom of the old Einstein -- humane, global and farseeing. +And whatever happens in this uniquely crucial century will resonate into the remote future and perhaps far beyond the Earth, far beyond the Earth as depicted here. +Thank you very much. +Hello. Actually, that's "hello" in Bauer Bodoni for the typographically hysterical amongst us. +One of the threads that seems to have come through loud and clear in the last couple of days is this need to reconcile what the Big wants -- the "Big" being the organization, the system, the country -- and what the "Small" wants -- the individual, the person. +And how do you bring those two things together? +Charlie Ledbetter, yesterday, I thought, talked very articulately about this need to bring consumers, to bring people into the process of creating things. +And that's what I want to talk about today. +So, bringing together the Small to help facilitate and create the Big, I think, is something that we believe in -- something I believe in, and something that we kind of bring to life through what we do at Ideo. +I call this first chapter -- for the Brits in the room -- the "Blinding Glimpse of the Bleeding Obvious." +Often, the good ideas are so staring-at-you-right-in-the-face that you kind of miss them. And I think, a lot of times, what we do is just, sort of, hold the mirror up to our clients, and sort of go, "Duh! You know, look what's really going on." +And rather than talk about it in the theory, I think I'm just going to show you an example. +We were asked by a large healthcare system in Minnesota to describe to them what their patient experience was. +And I think they were expecting -- they'd worked with lots of consultants before -- I think they were expecting some kind of hideous org chart with thousands of bubbles and systemic this, that and the other, and all kinds of mappy stuff. +Or even worse, some kind of ghastly death-by-Powerpoint thing with WowCharts and all kinds of, you know, God knows, whatever. +The first thing we actually shared with them was this. +I'll play this until your eyeballs completely dissolve. +This is 59 seconds into the film. +This is a minute 59. +3:19. +I think something happens. I think a head may appear in a second. +5:10. +5:58. +6:20. +We showed them the whole cut, and they were all completely, what is this? +And the point is when you lie in a hospital bed all day, all you do is look at the roof, and it's a really shitty experience. +And just putting yourself in the position of the patient -- this is Christian, who works with us at Ideo. +He just lay in the hospital bed, and, kind of, stared at the polystyrene ceiling tiles for a really long time. +That's what it's like to be a patient in the hospital. +And they were sort, you know, blinding glimpse of bleeding obvious. +Oh, my goodness. So, looking at the situation from the point of view of the person out -- as opposed to the traditional position of the organization in -- was, for these guys, quite a revelation. +And so, that was a really catalytic thing for them. +So they snapped into action. +They said, OK, it's not about systemic change. +It's not about huge, ridiculous things that we need to do. +It's about tiny things that can make a huge amount of difference. +So we started with them prototyping some really little things that we could do to have a huge amount of impact. +The first thing we did was we took a little bicycle mirror and we Band-Aided it here, onto a gurney, a hospital trolley, so that when you were wheeled around by a nurse or by a doctor, you could actually have a conversation with them. +You could, kind of, see them in your rear-view mirror, so it created a tiny human interaction. +Very small example of something that they could do. +Interestingly, the nurses themselves, sort of, snapped into action -- said, OK, we embrace this. What can we do? +The first thing they do is they decorated the ceiling. +Which I thought was really -- I showed this to my mother recently. +I think my mother now thinks that I'm some sort of interior decorator. +It's what I do for a living, sort of Laurence Llewelyn-Bowen. +Not particularly the world's best design solution for those of us who are real, sort of, hard-core designers, but nonetheless, a fabulous empathic solution for people. +Things that they started doing themselves -- like changing the floor going into the patient's room so that it signified, "This is my room. This is my personal space" -- was a really interesting sort of design solution to the problem. +So you went from public space to private space. +And another idea, again, that came from one of the nurses -- which I love -- was they took traditional, sort of, corporate white boards, then they put them on one wall of the patient's room, and they put this sticker there. +So that what you could actually do was go into the room and write messages to the person who was sick in that room, which was lovely. +So, tiny, tiny, tiny solutions that made a huge amount of impact. +I thought that was a really, really nice example. +So this is not particularly a new idea, kind of, seeing opportunities in things that are around you and snapping and turning them into a solution. +It's a history of invention based around this. +I'm going to read this because I want to get these names right. +Joan Ganz Cooney saw her daughter -- came down on a Saturday morning, saw her daughter watching the test card, waiting for programs to come on one morning and from that came Sesame Street. +Malcolm McLean was moving from one country to another and was wondering why it took these guys so long to get the boxes onto the ship. +And he invented the shipping container. +George de Mestral -- this is not bugs all over a Birkenstock -- was walking his dog in a field and got covered in burrs, sort of little prickly things, and from that came Velcro. +And finally, for the Brits, Percy Shaw -- this is a big British invention -- saw the cat's eyes at the side of the road, when he was driving home one night and from that came the Catseye. +So there's a whole series of just using your eyes, seeing things for the first time, seeing things afresh and using them as an opportunity to create new possibilities. +Second one, without sounding overly Zen, and this is a quote from the Buddha: "Finding yourself in the margins, looking to the edges of things, is often a really interesting place to start." +Blinkered vision tends to produce, I think, blinkered solutions. +So, looking wide, using your peripheral vision, is a really interesting place to look for opportunity. +Again, another medical example here. +We were asked by a device producer -- we did the Palm Pilot and the Treo. +We did a lot of sexy tech at Ideo -- they'd seen this and they wanted a sexy piece of technology for medical diagnostics. +This was a device that a nurse uses when they're doing a spinal procedure in hospital. +They'll ask the nurses to input data. +And they had this vision of the nurse, kind of, clicking away on this aluminum device and it all being incredibly, sort of, gadget-lustish. +When we actually went and watched this procedure taking place -- and I'll explain this in a second -- it became very obvious that there was a human dimension to this that they really weren't recognizing. +When you're having a four-inch needle inserted into your spine -- which was the procedure that this device's data was about; it was for pain management -- you're shit scared; you're freaking out. +And so the first thing that pretty much every nurse did, was hold the patient's hand to comfort them. Human gesture -- which made the fabulous two-handed data input completely impossible. +So, the thing that we designed, much less sexy but much more human and practical, was this. +So, it's not a Palm Pilot by any stretch of the imagination, but it has a thumb-scroll so you can do everything with one hand. +So, again, going back to this -- the idea that a tiny human gesture dictated the design of this product. +And I think that's really, really important. +So, again, this idea of workarounds. +We use this phrase "workarounds" a lot, sort of, looking around us. I was actually looking around the TED and just watching all of these kind of things happen while I've been here. +This idea of the way that people cobble together solutions in our life -- and the things we kind of do in our environment that are somewhat subconscious but have huge potential -- is something that we look at a lot. +We wrote a book recently, I think you might have received it, called "Thoughtless Acts?" +It's been all about these kind of thoughtless things that people do, which have huge intention and huge opportunity. +Why do we all follow the line in the street? +This is a picture in a Japanese subway. +People consciously follow things even though, why, we don't know. +Why do we line up the square milk carton with the square fence? +Because we kind of have to -- we're just compelled to. +We don't know why, but we do. +Why do we wrap the teabag string around the cup handle? +Again, we're sort of using the world around us to create our own design solutions. +And we're always saying to our clients: "You should look at this stuff. +This stuff is really important. This stuff is really vital." +This is people designing their own experiences. +You can draw from this. +We sort of assume that because there's a pole in the street, that it's okay to use it, so we park our shopping cart there. +It's there for our use, on some level. +So, again, we sort of co-opt our environment to do all these different things. +We co-opt other experiences -- we take one item and transfer it to another. +And this is my favorite one. My mother used to say to me, "Just because your sister jumps in the lake doesn't mean you have to." +But, of course, we all do. We all follow each other every day. +So somebody assumes that because somebody else has done something, that's permission for them to do the same thing. +And there's almost this sort of semaphore around us all the time. +I mean, shopping bag equals "parking meter out of order." +And we all, kind of, know how to read these signals now. +We all talk to one another in this highly visual way without realizing what we're doing. +Third section is this idea of not knowing, of consciously putting yourself backwards. +I talk about unthinking situations all the time. +Sort of having beginner's mind, scraping your mind clean and looking at things afresh. +A friend of mine was a designer at IKEA, and he was asked by his boss to help design a storage system for children. +This is the Billy bookcase -- it's IKEA's biggest selling product. +Hammer it together. Hammer it together with a shoe, if you're me, because they're impossible to assemble. +But big selling bookcase. How do we replicate this for children? +The reality is when you actually watch children, children don't think about things like storage in linear terms. +Children assume permission in a very different way. +Children live on things. They live under things. +They live around things, and so their spatial awareness relationship, and their thinking around storage is totally different. +So the first thing you have to do -- this is Graham, the designer -- is, sort of, put yourself in their shoes. And so, here he is sitting under the table. +So, what came out of this? +This is the storage system that he designed. +So what is this? I hear you all ask. No, I don't. +It's this, and I think this is a particularly lovely solution. +So, you know, it's a totally different way of looking at the situation. +It's a completely empathic solution -- apart from the fact that teddy's probably not loving it. +But a really nice way of re-framing the ordinary, and I think that's one of the things. +And putting yourself in the position of the person, and I think that's one of the threads that I've heard again from this conference is how do we put ourselves in other peoples' shoes and really feel what they feel? +And then use that information to fuel solutions? +And I think that's what this is very much about. +Last section: green armband. We've all got them. +It's about this really. +I mean, it's about picking battles big enough to matter but small enough to win. +Again, that's one of the themes that I think has come through loud and clear in this conference is: Where do we start? How do we start? What do we do to start? +So, again, we were asked to design a water pump for a company called ApproTEC, in Kenya. +They're now called KickStart. +And, again, as designers, we wanted to make this thing incredibly beautiful and spend a lot of time thinking of the form. +And that was completely irrelevant. +When you put yourself in the position of these people, things like the fact that this has to be able to fold up and fit on a bicycle, become much more relevant than the form of it. The way it's produced, it has to be produced with indigenous manufacturing methods and indigenous materials. +So it had to be looked at completely from the point of view of the user. +We had to completely transfer ourselves over to their world. +So what seems like a very clunky product is, in fact, incredibly useful. +It's powered a bit like a Stairmaster -- you pump up and down on it. +Children can use it. Adults can use it. Everybody uses it. +It's turning these guys -- again, one of the themes -- it's turning them into entrepreneurs. +These guys are using this very successfully. +And for us, it's been great because it's won loads of design awards. +So we actually managed to reconcile the needs of the design company, the needs of the individuals in the company, to feel good about a product we were actually designing, and the needs of the individuals we were designing it for. +There it is, pumping water from 30 feet. +So as a final gesture we handed out these bracelets to all of you this morning. +We've made a donation on everybody's behalf here to kick start, no pun intended, their next project. +Because, again, I think, sort of, putting our money where our mouth is, here. +We feel that this is an important gesture. +So we've handed out bracelets. Small is the new big. +I hope you'll all wear them. +So that's it. Thank you. +I want to talk today about -- I've been asked to take the long view, and I'm going to tell you what I think are the three biggest problems for humanity from this long point of view. +Some of these have already been touched upon by other speakers, which is encouraging. +It seems that there's not just one person who thinks that these problems are important. +The first is -- death is a big problem. +If you look at the statistics, the odds are not very favorable to us. +So far, most people who have lived have also died. +Roughly 90 percent of everybody who has been alive has died by now. +So the annual death rate adds up to 150,000 -- sorry, the daily death rate -- 150,000 people per day, which is a huge number by any standard. +The annual death rate, then, becomes 56 million. +If we just look at the single, biggest cause of death -- aging -- it accounts for roughly two-thirds of all human people who die. +That adds up to an annual death toll of greater than the population of Canada. +Sometimes, we don't see a problem because either it's too familiar or it's too big. +Can't see it because it's too big. +I think death might be both too familiar and too big for most people to see it as a problem. +Once you think about it, you see this is not statistical points; these are -- let's see, how far have I talked? +I've talked for three minutes. +So that would be, roughly, 324 people have died since I've begun speaking. +People like -- it's roughly the population in this room has just died. +Now, the human cost of that is obvious, once you start to think about it -- the suffering, the loss -- it's also, economically, enormously wasteful. +I just look at the information, and knowledge, and experience that is lost due to natural causes of death in general, and aging, in particular. +Suppose we approximated one person with one book? +Now, of course, this is an underestimation. +A person's lifetime of learning and experience is a lot more than you could put into a single book. +But let's suppose we did this. +52 million people die of natural causes each year corresponds, then, to 52 million volumes destroyed. +Library of Congress holds 18 million volumes. +We are upset about the burning of the Library of Alexandria. +It's one of the great cultural tragedies that we remember, even today. +But this is the equivalent of three Libraries of Congress -- burnt down, forever lost -- each year. +So that's the first big problem. +And I wish Godspeed to Aubrey de Grey, and other people like him, to try to do something about this as soon as possible. +Existential risk -- the second big problem. +Existential risk is a threat to human survival, or to the long-term potential of our species. +Now, why do I say that this is a big problem? +Well, let's first look at the probability -- and this is very, very difficult to estimate -- but there have been only four studies on this in recent years, which is surprising. +You would think that it would be of some interest to try to find out more about this given that the stakes are so big, but it's a very neglected area. +But there have been four studies -- one by John Lesley, wrote a book on this. +He estimated a probability that we will fail to survive the current century: 50 percent. +Similarly, the Astronomer Royal, whom we heard speak yesterday, also has a 50 percent probability estimate. +Another author doesn't give any numerical estimate, but says the probability is significant that it will fail. +I wrote a long paper on this. +I said assigning a less than 20 percent probability would be a mistake in light of the current evidence we have. +Now, the exact figures here, we should take with a big grain of salt, but there seems to be a consensus that the risk is substantial. +Everybody who has looked at this and studied it agrees. +Now, if we think about what just reducing the probability of human extinction by just one percentage point -- not very much -- so that's equivalent to 60 million lives saved, if we just count the currently living people, the current generation. +Now one percent of six billion people is equivalent to 60 million. +So that's a large number. +If we were to take into account future generations that will never come into existence if we blow ourselves up, then the figure becomes astronomical. +If we could eventually colonize a chunk of the universe -- the Virgo supercluster -- maybe it will take us 100 million years to get there, but if we go extinct we never will. +Then, even a one percentage point reduction in the extinction risk could be equivalent to this astronomical number -- 10 to the power of 32. +So if you take into account future generations as much as our own, every other moral imperative of philanthropic cost just becomes irrelevant. +The only thing you should focus on would be to reduce existential risk because even the tiniest decrease in existential risk would just overwhelm any other benefit you could hope to achieve. +And even if you just look at the current people, and ignore the potential that would be lost if we went extinct, it should still have a high priority. +Now, let me spend the rest of my time on the third big problem, because it's more subtle and perhaps difficult to grasp. +Think about some time in your life -- some people might never have experienced it -- but some people, there are just those moments that you have experienced where life was fantastic. +It might have been at the moment of some great, creative inspiration you might have had when you just entered this flow stage. +Or when you understood something you had never done before. +Or perhaps in the ecstasy of romantic love. +Or an aesthetic experience -- a sunset or a great piece of art. +Every once in a while we have these moments, and we realize just how good life can be when it's at its best. +And you wonder, why can't it be like that all the time? +You just want to cling onto this. +And then, of course, it drifts back into ordinary life and the memory fades. +And it's really difficult to recall, in a normal frame of mind, just how good life can be at its best. +Or how bad it can be at its worst. +The third big problem is that life isn't usually as wonderful as it could be. +I think that's a big, big problem. +It's easy to say what we don't want. +Here are a number of things that we don't want -- illness, involuntary death, unnecessary suffering, cruelty, stunted growth, memory loss, ignorance, absence of creativity. +Suppose we fixed these things -- we did something about all of these. +We were very successful. +We got rid of all of these things. +We might end up with something like this, which is -- I mean, it's a heck of a lot better than that. +But is this really the best we can dream of? +Is this the best we can do? +Or is it possible to find something a little bit more inspiring to work towards? +And if we think about this, I think it's very clear that there are ways in which we could change things, not just by eliminating negatives, but adding positives. +On my wish list, at least, would be: much longer, healthier lives, greater subjective well-being, enhanced cognitive capacities, more knowledge and understanding, unlimited opportunity for personal growth beyond our current biological limits, better relationships, an unbounded potential for spiritual, moral and intellectual development. +If we want to achieve this, what, in the world, would have to change? +And this is the answer -- we would have to change. +Not just the world around us, but we, ourselves. +Not just the way we think about the world, but the way we are -- our very biology. +Human nature would have to change. +Now, when we think about changing human nature, the first thing that comes to mind are these human modification technologies -- growth hormone therapy, cosmetic surgery, stimulants like Ritalin, Adderall, anti-depressants, anabolic steroids, artificial hearts. +It's a pretty pathetic list. +They do great things for a few people who suffer from some specific condition, but for most people, they don't really transform what it is to be human. +And they also all seem a little bit -- most people have this instinct that, well, sure, there needs to be anti-depressants for the really depressed people. +But there's a kind of queasiness that these are unnatural in some way. +It's worth recalling that there are a lot of other modification technologies and enhancement technologies that we use. +We have skin enhancements, clothing. +As far as I can see, all of you are users of this enhancement technology in this room, so that's a great thing. +Mood modifiers have been used from time immemorial -- caffeine, alcohol, nicotine, immune system enhancement, vision enhancement, anesthetics -- we take that very much for granted, but just think about how great progress that is -- like, having an operation before anesthetics was not fun. +Contraceptives, cosmetics and brain reprogramming techniques -- that sounds ominous, but the distinction between what is a technology -- a gadget would be the archetype -- and other ways of changing and rewriting human nature is quite subtle. +So if you think about what it means to learn arithmetic or to learn to read, you're actually, literally rewriting your own brain. +You're changing the microstructure of your brain as you go along. +So in a broad sense, we don't need to think about technology as only little gadgets, like these things here, but even institutions and techniques, psychological methods and so forth. +Forms of organization can have a profound impact on human nature. +Looking ahead, there is a range of technologies that are almost certain to be developed sooner or later. +We are very ignorant about what the time scale for these things are, but they all are consistent with everything we know about physical laws, laws of chemistry, etc. +It's possible to assume, setting aside a possibility of catastrophe, that sooner or later we will develop all of these. +And even just a couple of these would be enough to transform the human condition. +So let's look at some of the dimensions of human nature that seem to leave room for improvement. +Health span is a big and urgent thing, because if you're not alive, then all the other things will be to little avail. +Intellectual capacity -- let's take that box, which falls into a lot of different sub-categories: memory, concentration, mental energy, intelligence, empathy. +These are really great things. +Part of the reason why we value these traits is that they make us better at competing with other people -- they're positional goods. +But part of the reason -- and that's the reason why we have ethical ground for pursuing these -- is that they're also intrinsically valuable. +It's just better to be able to understand more of the world around you and the people that you are communicating with, and to remember what you have learned. +Modalities and special faculties. +Now, the human mind is not a single unitary information processor, but it has a lot of different, special, evolved modules that do specific things for us. +If you think about what we normally take as giving life a lot of its meaning -- music, humor, eroticism, spirituality, aesthetics, nurturing and caring, gossip, chatting with people -- all of these, very likely, are enabled by a special circuitry that we humans have, but that you could have another intelligent life form that lacks these. +We're just lucky that we have the requisite neural machinery to process music and to appreciate it and enjoy it. +All of these would enable, in principle -- be amenable to enhancement. +Some people have a better musical ability and ability to appreciate music than others have. +It's also interesting to think about what other things are -- so if these all enabled great values, why should we think that evolution has happened to provide us with all the modalities we would need to engage with other values that there might be? +Imagine a species that just didn't have this neural machinery for processing music. +And they would just stare at us with bafflement when we spend time listening to a beautiful performance, like the one we just heard -- because of people making stupid movements, and they would be really irritated and wouldn't see what we were up to. +But maybe they have another faculty, something else that would seem equally irrational to us, but they actually tap into some great possible value there. +But we are just literally deaf to that kind of value. +So we could think of adding on different, new sensory capacities and mental faculties. +Bodily functionality and morphology and affective self-control. +Greater subjective well-being. +Be able to switch between relaxation and activity -- being able to go slow when you need to do that, and to speed up. +Able to switch back and forth more easily would be a neat thing to be able to do -- easier to achieve the flow state, when you're totally immersed in something you are doing. +Conscientiousness and sympathy. +The ability to -- it's another interesting application that would have large social ramification, perhaps. +If you could actually choose to preserve your romantic attachments to one person, undiminished through time, so that wouldn't have to -- love would never have to fade if you didn't want it to. +That's probably not all that difficult. +It might just be a simple hormone or something that could do this. +It's been done in voles. +You can engineer a prairie vole to become monogamous when it's naturally polygamous. +It's just a single gene. +Might be more complicated in humans, but perhaps not that much. +This is the last picture that I want to -- now we've got to use the laser pointer. +A possible mode of being here would be a way of life -- a way of being, experiencing, thinking, seeing, interacting with the world. +Down here in this little corner, here, we have the little sub-space of this larger space that is accessible to human beings -- beings with our biological capacities. +It's a part of the space that's accessible to animals; since we are animals, we are a subset of that. +And then you can imagine some enhancements of human capacities. +There would be different modes of being you could experience if you were able to stay alive for, say, 200 years. +Then you could live sorts of lives and accumulate wisdoms that are just not possible for humans as we currently are. +So then, you move off to this larger sphere of "human +," and you could continue that process and eventually explore a lot of this larger space of possible modes of being. +Now, why is that a good thing to do? +Well, we know already that in this little human circle there, there are these enormously wonderful and worthwhile modes of being -- human life at its best is wonderful. +We have no reason to believe that within this much, much larger space there would not also be extremely worthwhile modes of being, perhaps ones that would be way beyond our wildest ability even to imagine or dream about. +And so, to fix this third problem, I think we need -- slowly, carefully, with ethical wisdom and constraint -- develop the means that enable us to go out in this larger space and explore it and find the great values that might hide there. +Thanks. +Hi, everyone. I'm Sirena. +I'm 11 years old and from Connecticut. +Well, I'm not really sure why I'm here. +I mean, what does this have to do with technology, entertainment and design? +Well, I count my iPod, cellphone and computer as technology, but this has nothing to do with that. +So I did a little research on it. +Well, this is what I found. +Of course, I hope I can memorize it. +(Clears throat) The violin is made of a wood box and four metal strings. +By pulling a string, it vibrates and produces a sound wave, which passes through a piece of wood called a bridge, and goes down to the wood box and gets amplified, but ... let me think. +Placing your finger at different places on the fingerboard changes the string length, and that changes the frequency of the sound wave. +Oh, my gosh! +OK, this is sort of technology, but I can call it a 16th-century technology. +But actually, the most fascinating thing that I found was that even the audio system or wave transmission nowadays are still based on the same principle of producing and projecting sound. +Isn't that cool? +Design -- I love its design. +I remember when I was little, my mom asked me, "Would you like to play the violin or the piano?" +I looked at that giant monster and said to myself -- "I am not going to lock myself on that bench the whole day!" +This is small and lightweight. +I can play from standing, sitting or walking. +And, you know what? +The best of all is that if I don't want to practice, I can hide it. +The violin is very beautiful. +Some people relate it as the shape of a lady. +But whether you like it or not, it's been so for more than 400 years, unlike modern stuff [that] easily looks dated. +But I think it's very personal and unique that, although each violin looks pretty similar, no two violins sound the same -- even from the same maker or based on the same model. +Entertainment -- I love the entertainment. +But actually, the instrument itself isn't very entertaining. +I mean, when I first got my violin and tried to play around on it, it was actually really bad, because it didn't sound the way I'd heard from other kids -- it was so horrible and so scratchy. +So, it wasn't entertaining at all. +But besides, my brother found this very funny: Yuk! Yuk! Yuk! +A few years later, I heard a joke about the greatest violinist, Jascha Heifetz. +After Mr. Heifetz's concert, a lady came over and complimented him: "Oh, Mr. Heifetz, your violin sounded so great tonight!" +And Mr. Heifetz was a very cool person, so he picked up his violin and said, "Funny -- I don't hear anything." +Now I realize that as the musician, we human beings, with our great mind, artistic heart and skill, can change this 16th-century technology and a legendary design to a wonderful entertainment. +Now I know why I'm here. +At first, I thought I was just going to be here to perform, but unexpectedly, I learned and enjoyed much more. +But ... although some of the talks were quite up there for me. +Like the multi-dimension stuff. +I mean, honestly, I'd be happy enough if I could actually get my two dimensions correct in school. +But actually, the most impressive thing to me is that -- well, actually, I would also like to say this for all children is to say thank you to all adults, for actually caring for us a lot, and to make our future world much better. +Thank you. +Thank you! +Thank you very much. +Like the speaker before me -- I am a TED virgin, I guess. +I'm also the first time here, and ... I don't know what to say! +I'm really happy that Mr. Anderson invited me. +I'm really grateful that I get a chance to play for everyone. +And the song that I just played was by Josef Hofmann. +It's called "Kaleidoscope." +And Hofmann is a Polish pianist and composer of the late 19th century, and he's widely considered one of the greatest pianists of all time. +I have another piece that I'd like to play for you. +It's called "Abegg Variations," by Robert Schumann, a German 19th-century composer. +The name "Abegg" is actually A-B-E-G-G, and that's the main theme in the melody. +That comes from the last name of one of Schumann's female friends. +But he wrote that for his wife. +So actually, if you listen carefully, there are supposed to be five variations on this Abegg theme. +It's written around 1834, so even though it's old, I hope you'll like it. +Now comes the part that I hate. +Well, because Mr. Anderson told me that this session is called "Sync and Flow," I was wondering, "What do I know that these geniuses don't?" +So, I'll talk about musical composition, even though I don't know where to start. +How do I compose? +I think Yamaha does a really good job of teaching us how to compose. +What I do first is, I make a lot of little musical ideas you can just improvise here at the piano -- and I choose one of those to become my main theme, my main melody, like the Abegg that you just heard. +And once I choose my main theme, I have to decide: Out of all the styles in music, what kind of style do I want? +And this year, I composed a Romantic style. +So for inspiration, I listened to Liszt and Tchaikovsky and all the great Romantic composers. +Next, I make the structure of the entire piece with my teachers. +They help me plan out the whole piece. +And then the hard part is filling it in with musical ideas, because then you have to think. +And then, when the piece takes somewhat of a solified form -- solidified, excuse me -- solidified form, you're supposed to actually polish the piece, polish the details, and then polish the overall performance of the composition. +And another thing that I enjoy doing is drawing. +Drawing, because I like to draw, you know, Japanese anime art. +I think that's a craze among teens right now. +And once I realized it, there's a parallel between creating music and creating art, because for your motive, or your little initial idea for your drawing, it's your character -- you want to decide who you want to draw, or if you want to draw an original character. +And then you want to decide: How are you going to draw the character? +Like, am I going to use one page? Am I going to draw it on the computer? +Am I going to use a two-page spread like a comic book? +For a more grandiose effect, I guess. +And then you have to do the initial sketch of the character, which is like your structure of a piece, and then you add pen and pencil, and whatever details that you need -- that's polishing the drawing. +And another thing that both of these have in common is your state of mind, because I know I'm one of those teenagers that are really easily distracted. +So if I'm trying to do homework and I don't feel like it, I'll try to draw or, you know, waste my time. +And then what happens is, sometimes I absolutely can't draw or I can't compose at all, and then it's like there's too much on your mind. +You can't focus on what you're supposed to do. +And sometimes, if you manage to use your time wisely and work on it, you'll get something out of it, but it doesn't come naturally. +What happens is, if something magical happens, if something natural happens to you, you're able to produce all this beautiful stuff instantly, and then that's what I consider "flow," because that's when everything clicks and you're able to do anything. +You feel like you're on top of your game and you can do anything you want. +I'm not going to play my own composition today because, although I did finish it, it's way too long. +Instead, I'd like to try something called "improvisation." +I have here seven note cards, one with each note of the musical alphabet. +And I'd like someone to come up here and choose five -- anyone to come up here and choose five -- and then I can make it into some sort of melody, Wow. A volunteer, yay! +Jennifer Lin: Nice to meet you. +Goldie Hawn: Thank you. Choose five? +JL: Yes, five cards. Any five cards. +GH: OK, one. JL: OK. GH: Two. JL: Yes. +GH: Three. GH: Oh, D and F -- too familiar. +JL: One more. GH: OK. "E" for "effort." +JL: Would you mind reading them out in the order that you chose them? +GH: OK -- C, G, B, A and E. +JL: Thank you very much! +GH: You're welcome. And what about these? +JL: I won't use them. Thank you! +Now, she chose C, G, B, A, E. +I'm going to try to put that in some sort of order. +OK, that's nice. +So, I'm going to have a moment to think, and I'll try to make something out of it. +The next song, or the encore that I'm going to play is called "Bumble Boogie," by Jack Fina. +We've been told to go out on a limb and say something surprising. +So I'll try and do that, but I want to start with two things that everyone already knows. +Nowadays, this idea has a dramatic name: Spaceship Earth. +And the idea there is that outside the spaceship, the universe is implacably hostile, and inside is all we have, all we depend on, and we only get the one chance: if we mess up our spaceship, we've got nowhere else to go. +Now, the second thing that everyone already knows is that, contrary to what was believed for most of human history, human beings are not, in fact, the hub of existence. +As Stephen Hawking famously said, we're just a chemical scum on the surface of a typical planet that's in orbit around a typical star, which is on the outskirts of a typical galaxy, and so on. +Now, the first of those two things that everyone knows is kind of saying that we're at a very un-typical place, uniquely suited and so on, and the second one is saying that we're at a typical place. +And, especially if you regard these two as deep truths to live by and to inform your life decisions, then they seem a little bit to conflict with each other. +But that doesn't prevent them from both being completely false. And they are. So let me start with the second one: "Typical." Well, is this a typical place? +Well, let's look around, you know, look in a random direction, and we see a wall, and chemical scum -- and that's not typical of the universe at all. +And most places in the universe, a typical place in the universe, is nowhere near any galaxies. +So let's go out further, till we're outside the galaxy, and look back, and yeah, there's the huge galaxy with spiral arms laid out in front of us. +And at this point, we've come 100,000 light-years from here. +But we're still nowhere near a typical place in the universe. +To get to a typical place, you've got to go 1,000 times as far as that, into intergalactic space. +And so, what does that look like -- "typical?" +What does a "typical" place in the universe look like? +Well, at enormous expense, TED has arranged a high-resolution immersion virtual reality rendering of the view from intergalactic space. +Can we have the lights off, please, so we can see it? +Well, not quite, not quite perfect. +You see, intergalactic space is completely dark, pitch dark. +It's so dark, that if you were to be looking at the nearest star to you, and that star were to explode as a supernova, and you were to be staring directly at it at the moment when its light reached you, you still wouldn't be able to see even a glimmer. +That's how big and how dark the universe is. +And that's despite the fact that a supernova is so bright, so brilliant an event, that it would kill you stone dead at a range of several light-years. +And yet, from intergalactic space, it's so far away you wouldn't even see it. +It's also very cold out there -- less than three degrees above absolute zero. +And it's very empty. The vacuum there is one million times less dense than the highest vacuum that our best technology on Earth can currently create. +So that's how different a typical place is from this place. +And that is how un-typical this place is. +So can we have the lights back on please? Thank you. +Now, how do we know about an environment that's so far away and so different and so alien from anything we're used to? +Well, the Earth -- our environment, in the form of us -- is creating knowledge. +Well, what does that mean? Well, look out even further than we've just been -- I mean from here, with a telescope -- and you'll see things that look like stars, they're called quasars. +"Quasars" originally meant "quasi-stellar object," which means "things that look a bit like stars." And we know what they are. Billions of years ago and billions of light-years away, the material at the center of a galaxy collapsed towards a super-massive black hole. +And then intense magnetic fields directed some of the energy of that gravitational collapse and some of the matter back out in the form of tremendous jets, which illuminated lobes with the brilliance of -- I think it's a trillion -- suns. +Now, the physics of the human brain could hardly be more unlike the physics of such a jet. +We couldn't survive for an instant in it. Language breaks down when trying to describe what it would be like in one of those jets. +The one physical system, the brain, contains an accurate working model of the other, the quasar. +Not just a superficial image of it, though it contains that as well, but an explanatory model, embodying the same mathematical relationships and the same causal structure. +Now, that is knowledge. And if that weren't amazing enough, the faithfulness with which the one structure resembles the other is increasing with time. That is the growth of knowledge. +So, the laws of physics have this special property, that physical objects as unlike each other as they could possibly be, can nevertheless embody the same mathematical and causal structure and to do it more and more so over time. +So we are a chemical scum that is different. This chemical scum has universality. +Now how does the solar system -- our environment, in the form of us -- acquire this special relationship with the rest of the universe? +Well, one thing that's true about Stephen Hawking's remark -- I mean, it is true, but it's the wrong emphasis. +One thing that's true about it is that it doesn't do it with any special physics, there's no special dispensation, no miracles involved. It does it simply with three things that we have here in abundance. +One of them is matter, because the growth of knowledge is a form of information processing. +Information processing is computation, computation requires a computer -- there's no known way of making a computer without matter. +We also need energy to make the computer, and most important, to make the media, in effect, onto which we record the knowledge that we discover. +And then thirdly, less tangible but just as essential for the open-ended creation of knowledge, of explanations, is evidence. +Now, our environment is inundated with evidence. +We happen to get round to testing, let's say, Newton's Law of Gravity, about 300 years ago. +But the evidence that we used to do that was falling down on every square meter of the Earth for billions of years before that, and will continue to fall for billions of years afterwards. +And the same is true for all the other sciences. +As far as we know, evidence to discover the most fundamental truths of all the sciences is here just for the taking, on our planet. +Our location is saturated with evidence and also with matter and energy. +Out in intergalactic space, those three prerequisites for the open-ended creation of knowledge are at their lowest possible supply -- as I said, it's empty, it's cold and it's dark out there. Or is it? +Now actually, that's just another parochial misconception. Because imagine a cube out there in intergalactic space, the same size as our home, the solar system. Now that cube is very empty by human standards, but that still means that it contains over a million tons of matter. +And a million tons is enough to make, say, a self-contained space station, on which there's a colony of scientists that are devoted to creating an open-ended stream of knowledge, and so on. +Now, it's way beyond present technology to even gather the hydrogen from intergalactic space and form it into other elements and so on. +But the thing is, in a comprehensible universe, if something isn't forbidden by the laws of physics, then what could possibly prevent us from doing it, other than knowing how? +In other words, it's a matter of knowledge, not resources. +If we could do that, we'd automatically have an energy supply, because this transmutation would be a fusion reactor. And evidence? +Well, again, it's dark out there to human senses, but all you've got to do is take a telescope, even one of present-day design, look out, and you'll see the same galaxies as we do from here. +And with a more powerful telescope, you'll be able to see stars and planets in those galaxies, you'll be able to do astrophysics and learn the laws of physics. +And locally there you could build particle accelerators, and learn elementary particle physics and chemistry, and so on. +Probably the hardest science to do would be biology field trips -- because it would take several hundred million years to get to the nearest life-bearing planet and back. +But I have to tell you -- and sorry, Richard -- but I never did like biology field trips much, and I think we can just about make do with one every few hundred million years. +So in fact, intergalactic space does contain all the prerequisites for the open-ended creation of knowledge. Any such cube anywhere in the universe could become the same kind of hub that we are, if the knowledge of how to do so were present there. +So, we're not in a uniquely hospitable place. +If intergalactic space is capable of creating an open-ended stream of explanations, so is the Earth. So is a polluted Earth. +And the limiting factor, there and here, is not resources, because they're plentiful, but knowledge, which is scarce. +Now this cosmic knowledge-based view may -- and I think ought to -- make us feel very special. But it should also make us feel vulnerable, because it means that without the specific knowledge that's needed to survive the ongoing challenges of the universe, we won't survive them. +All it takes is for a supernova to go off a few light-years away, and we'll all be dead! +Martin Rees has recently written a book about our vulnerability to all sorts of things, from astrophysics, to scientific experiments gone wrong, and most importantly, to terrorism with weapons of mass destruction. +And he thinks that civilization has only a 50 percent chance of surviving this century. +I think he's going to talk about that later in the conference. +Now, I don't think that probability is the right category to discuss this issue in, but I do agree with him about this: We can survive and we can fail to survive. +But it depends not on chance, but on whether we create the relevant knowledge in time. +The danger is not at all unprecedented. Species go extinct all the time. +Civilizations end. The overwhelming majority of all species and all civilizations that have ever existed are now history. +And if we want to be the exception to that, then logically, our only hope is to make use of the one feature that distinguishes our species and civilization from all the others -- namely, our special relationship with the laws of physics, our ability to create new explanations, new knowledge -- to be a hub of existence. +So let me now apply this to a current controversy, not because I want to advocate any particular solution, but just to illustrate the kind of thing I mean. +And the controversy is global warming. +Now, I'm a physicist, but I'm not the right kind of physicist. +In regard to global warming, I'm just a layman. +And the rational thing for a layman to do is to take seriously the prevailing scientific theory. +And the actions that are advocated are not even purported to solve the problem, merely to postpone it by a little. So it's already too late to avoid it, and it probably has been too late to avoid it ever since before anyone realized the danger. +It was probably already too late in the 1970s, when the best available scientific theory was telling us that industrial emissions were about to precipitate a new ice age, in which billions would die. +Now, the lesson of that seems clear to me, and I don't know why it isn't informing public debate. +It is that we can't always know. When we know of an impending disaster, and how to solve it at a cost less than the cost of the disaster itself, then there's not going to be much argument, really. +But no precautions and no precautionary principle can avoid problems that we do not yet foresee. +Hence, we need a stance of problem-fixing, not just problem-avoidance. +And it's true that an ounce of prevention equals a pound of cure, but that's only if we know what to prevent. +If you've been punched on the nose, then the science of medicine does not consist of teaching you how to avoid punches. +If medical science stopped seeking cures and concentrated on prevention only, then it would achieve very little of either. +The world is buzzing at the moment with plans to force reductions in gas emissions at all costs. +It ought to be buzzing with plans to reduce the temperature, and with plans to live at the higher temperature -- and not at all costs, but efficiently and cheaply. And some such plans exist, things like swarms of mirrors in space to deflect the sunlight away, and encouraging aquatic organisms to eat more carbon dioxide. +At the moment, these things are fringe research; they're not central to the human effort to face this problem, or problems in general. +And with problems that we are not aware of yet, the ability to put right -- not the sheer good luck of avoiding indefinitely -- is our only hope, not just of solving problems, but of survival. +So take two stone tablets, and carve on them. +On one of them, carve: "Problems are soluble." +And on the other one, carve: "Problems are inevitable." +Thank you. +So anyway, who am I? +I usually say to people, when they say, "What do you do?" +I say, "I do hardware," because it sort of conveniently encompasses everything I do. +And I recently said that to a venture capitalist casually at some Valley event, to which he replied, "How quaint." +And I sort of really was dumbstruck. +And I really should have said something smart. +This doesn't mean we should ignore software, or information, or computation." +And that's in fact probably what I'm going to try and tell you about. +So, this talk is going to be about how do we make things and what are the new ways that we're going to make things in the future. +Now, TED sends you a lot of spam if you're a speaker about "do this, do that" and you fill out all these forms, and you don't actually know how they're going to describe you, and it flashed across my desk that they were going to introduce me as a futurist. +And I've always been nervous about the term "futurist," because you seem doomed to failure because you can't really predict it. +And I was laughing about this with the very smart colleagues I have, and said, "You know, well, if I have to talk about the future, what is it?" +And George Homsey, a great guy, said, "Oh, the future is amazing. +It is so much stranger than you think. +We're going to reprogram the bacteria in your gut, and we're going to make your poo smell like peppermint." +So, you may think that's sort of really crazy, but there are some pretty amazing things that are happening that make this possible. +So, this isn't my work, but it's work of good friends of mine at MIT. +This is called the registry of standard biological parts. +This is headed by Drew Endy and Tom Knight and a few other very, very bright individuals. +Basically, what they're doing is looking at biology as a programmable system. +Literally, think of proteins as subroutines that you can string together to execute a program. +Now, this is actually becoming such an interesting idea. +This is a state diagram. That's an extremely simple computer. +This one is a two-bit counter. +So that's essentially the computational equivalent of two light switches. +And this is being built by a group of students at Zurich for a design competition in biology. +And from the results of the same competition last year, a University of Texas team of students programmed bacteria so that they can detect light and switch on and off. +So this is interesting in the sense that you can now do "if-then-for" statements in materials, in structure. +This is a pretty interesting trend, because we used to live in a world where everyone's said glibly, "Form follows function," but I think I've sort of grown up in a world -- you listened to Neil Gershenfeld yesterday; I was in a lab associated with his -- where it's really a world where information defines form and function. +I spent six years thinking about that, but to show you the power of art over science -- this is actually one of the cartoons I write. These are called "HowToons." +I work with a fabulous illustrator called Nick Dragotta. +Took me six years at MIT, and about that many pages to describe what I was doing, and it took him one page. And so this is our muse Tucker. +He's an interesting little kid -- and his sister, Celine -- and what he's doing here is observing the self-assembly of his Cheerios in his cereal bowl. +And in fact you can program the self-assembly of things, so he starts chocolate-dipping edges, changing the hydrophobicity and the hydrophylicity. +In theory, if you program those sufficiently, you should be able to do something pretty interesting and make a very complex structure. +In this case, he's done self-replication of a complex 3D structure. +And that's what I thought about for a long time, because this is how we currently make things. +This is a silicon wafer, and essentially that's just a whole bunch of layers of two-dimensional stuff, sort of layered up. +The feature side is -- you know, people will say, [unclear] down around about 65 nanometers now. +On the right, that's a radiolara. +That's a unicellular organism ubiquitous in the oceans. +And that has feature sizes down to about 20 nanometers, and it's a complex 3D structure. +We could do a lot more with computers and things generally if we knew how to build things this way. +The secret to biology is, it builds computation into the way it makes things. So this little thing here, polymerase, is essentially a supercomputer designed for replicating DNA. +And the ribosome here is another little computer that helps in the translation of the proteins. +I thought about this in the sense that it's great to build in biological materials, but can we do similar things? +Can we get self-replicating-type behavior? +Can we get complex 3D structure automatically assembling in inorganic systems? +Because there are some advantages to inorganic systems, like higher speed semiconductors, etc. +So, this is some of my work on how do you do an autonomously self-replicating system. +And this is sort of Babbage's revenge. +These are little mechanical computers. +These are five-state state machines. +So, that's about three light switches lined up. +In a neutral state, they won't bind at all. +Now, if I make a string of these, a bit string, they will be able to replicate. +So we start with white, blue, blue, white. +That encodes; that will now copy. From one comes two, and then from two comes three. +And so you've got this sort of replicating system. +It was work actually by Lionel Penrose, father of Roger Penrose, the tiles guy. +He did a lot of this work in the '60s, and so a lot of this logic theory lay fallow as we went down the digital computer revolution, but it's now coming back. +So now I'm going to show you the hands-free, autonomous self-replication. +So we've tracked in the video the input string, which was green, green, yellow, yellow, green. +We set them off on this air hockey table. +You know, high science uses air hockey tables -- -- and if you watch this thing long enough you get dizzy, but what you're actually seeing is copies of that original string emerging from the parts bin that you have here. +So we've got autonomous replication of bit strings. +So, why would you want to replicate bit strings? +Well, it turns out biology has this other very interesting meme, that you can take a linear string, which is a convenient thing to copy, and you can fold that into an arbitrarily complex 3D structure. +So I was trying to, you know, take the engineer's version: Can we build a mechanical system in inorganic materials that will do the same thing? +So what I'm showing you here is that we can make a 2D shape -- the B -- assemble from a string of components that follow extremely simple rules. +And the whole point of going with the extremely simple rules here, and the incredibly simple state machines in the previous design, was that you don't need digital logic to do computation. +And that way you can scale things much smaller than microchips. +So you can literally use these as the tiny components in the assembly process. +So, Neil Gershenfeld showed you this video on Wednesday, I believe, but I'll show you again. +This is literally the colored sequence of those tiles. +Each different color has a different magnetic polarity, and the sequence is uniquely specifying the structure that is coming out. +So, you know, it's a pretty interesting world when you start looking at the world a little bit differently. +And the universe is now a compiler. +And so I'm thinking about, you know, what are the programs for programming the physical universe? +And how do we think about materials and structure, sort of as an information and computation problem? +Not just where you attach a micro-controller to the end point, but that the structure and the mechanisms are the logic, are the computers. +Having totally absorbed this philosophy, I started looking at a lot of problems a little differently. +With the universe as a computer, you can look at this droplet of water as having performed the computations. +You set a couple of boundary conditions, like gravity, the surface tension, density, etc., and then you press "execute," and magically, the universe produces you a perfect ball lens. +So, this actually applied to the problem of -- so there's a half a billion to a billion people in the world don't have access to cheap eyeglasses. +So can you make a machine that could make any prescription lens very quickly on site? +This is a machine where you literally define a boundary condition. +If it's circular, you make a spherical lens. +If it's elliptical, you can make an astigmatic lens. +You then put a membrane on that and you apply pressure -- so that's part of the extra program. +And literally with only those two inputs -- so, the shape of your boundary condition and the pressure -- you can define an infinite number of lenses that cover the range of human refractive error, from minus 12 to plus eight diopters, up to four diopters of cylinder. +And then literally, you now pour on a monomer. +You know, I'll do a Julia Childs here. +This is three minutes of UV light. +And you reverse the pressure on your membrane once you've cooked it. Pop it out. +I've seen this video, but I still don't know if it's going to end right. +So you reverse this. This is a very old movie, so with the new prototypes, actually both surfaces are flexible, but this will show you the point. +Now you've finished the lens, you literally pop it out. +That's next year's Yves Klein, you know, eyeglasses shape. +And you can see that that has a mild prescription of about minus two diopters. +And as I rotate it against this side shot, you'll see that that has cylinder, and that was programmed in -- literally into the physics of the system. +So, this sort of thinking about structure as computation and structure as information leads to other things, like this. +This is something that my people at SQUID Labs are working on at the moment, called "electronic rope." +So literally, you think about a rope. It has very complex structure in the weave. +And under no load, it's one structure. +Under a different load, it's a different structure. And you can actually exploit that by putting in a very small number of conducting fibers to actually make it a sensor. +So this is now a rope that knows the load on the rope at any particular point in the rope. +Just by thinking about the physics of the world, materials as the computer, you can start to do things like this. +I'm going to segue a little here. +I guess I'm just going to casually tell you the types of things that I think about with this. +And a lot of talks here have espoused the benefits of having lots of people look at problems, share the information and work on those things together. +So, a convenient thing about being a human is you move in linear time, and unless Lisa Randall changes that, we'll continue to move in linear time. +So that means anything you do, or anything you make, you produce a sequence of steps -- and I think Lego in the '70s nailed this, and they did it most elegantly. +But they can show you how to build things in sequence. +So, I'm thinking about, how can we generalize the way we make all sorts of things, so you end up with this sort of guy, right? +And I think this applies across a very broad -- sort of, a lot of concepts. +You know, Cameron Sinclair yesterday said, "How do I get everyone to collaborate on design globally to do housing for humanity?" +And if you've seen Amy Smith, she talks about how you get students at MIT to work with communities in Haiti. +And I think we have to sort of redefine and rethink how we define structure and materials and assembly things, so that we can really share the information on how you do those things in a more profound way and build on each other's source code for structure. +I don't know exactly how to do this yet, but, you know, it's something being actively thought about. +So, you know, that leads to questions like, is this a compiler? Is this a sub-routine? +Interesting things like that. +Maybe I'm getting a little too abstract, but you know, this is the sort of -- returning to our comic characters -- this is sort of the universe, or a different universe view, that I think is going to be very prevalent in the future -- from biotech to materials assembly. It was great to hear Bill Joy. +They're starting to invest in materials science, but these are the new things in materials science. +How do we put real information and real structure into new ideas, and see the world in a different way? And it's not going to be binary code that defines the computers of the universe -- it's sort of an analog computer. +But it's definitely an interesting new worldview. +I've gone too far. So that sounds like it's it. +I've probably got a couple of minutes of questions, or I can show -- I think they also said that I do extreme stuff in the introduction, so I may have to explain that. +So maybe I'll do that with this short video. +So this is actually a 3,000-square-foot kite, which also happens to be a minimal energy surface. +So returning to the droplet, again, thinking about the universe in a new way. +This is a kite designed by a guy called Dave Kulp. +And why do you want a 3,000-square-foot kite? +So that's a kite the size of your house. +And so you want that to tow boats very fast. +So I've been working on this a little, also, with a couple of other guys. +But, you know, this is another way to look at the -- if you abstract again, this is a structure that is defined by the physics of the universe. +You could just hang it as a bed sheet, but again, the computation of all the physics gives you the aerodynamic shape. +And so you can actually sort of almost double your boat speed with systems like that. So that's sort of another interesting aspect of the future. +I'm going to present three projects in rapid fire. +I don't have much time to do it. +And I want to reinforce three ideas with that rapid-fire presentation. +The first is what I like to call a hyper-rational process. +It's a process that takes rationality almost to an absurd level, and it transcends all the baggage that normally comes with what people would call, sort of a rational conclusion to something. +And it concludes in something that you see here, that you actually wouldn't expect as being the result of rationality. +The second -- the second is that this process does not have a signature. +There is no authorship. +Architects are obsessed with authorship. +This is something that has editing and it has teams, but in fact, we no longer see within this process, the traditional master architect creating a sketch that his minions carry out. +And the third is that it challenges -- and this is, in the length of this, very hard to support why, connect all these things -- but it challenges the high modernist notion of flexibility. +High modernists said we will create sort of singular spaces that are generic, almost anything can happen within them. +I call it sort of "shotgun flexibility" -- turn your head this way; shoot; and you're bound to kill something. +So, this is the promise of high modernism: within a single space, actually, any kind of activity can happen. +But as we're seeing, operational costs are starting to dwarf capital costs in terms of design parameters. +And so, with this sort of idea, what happens is, whatever actually is in the building on opening day, or whatever seems to be the most immediate need, starts to dwarf the possibility and sort of subsume it, of anything else could ever happen. +And so we're proposing a different kind of flexibility, something that we call "compartmentalized flexibility." +And the idea is that you, within that continuum, identify a series of points, and you design specifically to them. +They can be pushed off-center a little bit, but in the end you actually still get as much of that original spectrum as you originally had hoped. +With high modernist flexibility, that doesn't really work. +Now I'm going to talk about -- I'm going to build up the Seattle Central Library in this way before your eyes in about five or six diagrams, and I truly mean this is the design process that you'll see. +With the library staff and the library board, we settled on two core positions. +This is the first one, and this is showing, over the last 900 years, the evolution of the book, and other technologies. +This diagram was our sort of position piece about the book, and our position was, books are technology -- that's something people forget -- but it's a form of technology that will have to share its dominance with any other form of truly potent technology or media. +The second premise -- and this was something that was very difficult for us to convince the librarians of at first -- is that libraries, since the inception of Carnegie Library tradition in America, had a second responsibility, and that was for social roles. +Ok, now, this I'll come back to later, but something -- actually, the librarians at first said, "No, this isn't our mandate. +Our mandate is media, and particularly the book." +So what you're seeing now is actually the design of the building. +The upper diagram is what we had seen in a whole host of contemporary libraries that used high modernist flexibility. +Sort of, any activity could happen anywhere. +We don't know the future of the library; we don't know the future of the book; and so, we'll use this approach. +And in this case, what was getting engulfed were these social responsibilities by the expansion of the book. +And so we proposed what's at the lower diagram. +Very dumb approach: simply compartmentalize. +Put those things whose evolution we could predict -- and I don't mean that we could say what would actually happen in the future, but we have some certainty of the spectrum of what would happen in the future -- put those in boxes designed specifically for it, and put the things that we can't predict on the rooftops. +So that was the core idea. +Now, we had to convince the library that social roles were equally important to media, in order to get them to accept this. +What you're seeing here is actually their program on the left. +That's as it was given to us in all of its clarity and glory. +Our first operation was to re-digest it back to them, show it to them and say, "You know what? We haven't touched it, but only one-third of your own program is dedicated to media and books. +Two-thirds of it is already dedicated -- that's the white band below, the thing you said isn't important -- is already dedicated to social functions." +So once we had presented that back to them, they agreed that this sort of core concept could work. +We got the right to go back to first principles -- that's the third diagram. We recombined everything. +And then we started making new decisions. +What you're seeing on the right is the design of the library, specifically in terms of square footage. +On the left of that diagram, here, you'll see a series of five platforms -- sort of combs, collective programs. +And on the right are the more indeterminate spaces; things like reading rooms, whose evolution in 20, 30, 40 years we can't predict. +So that literally was the design of the building. +They signed it, and to their chagrin, we came back a week later, and we presented them this. +And as you can see, it is literally the diagram on the right. +We just sized -- no, really, I mean that, literally. +The things on the left-hand side of the diagram, those are the boxes. +We sized them into five compartments. They're super-efficient. +We had a very low budget to work with. +We pushed them around on the site to make very literal contextual relationships. +The reading room should be able to see the water. +The main entrance should have a public plaza in front of it to abide by the zoning code, and so forth. +So, you see the five platforms, those are the boxes. +within each one, a very discrete thing is happening. +The area in between is sort of an urban continuum, these things that we can't predict their evolution to the same degree. +To give you some sense of the power of this idea, the biggest block is what we call the book spiral. +It's literally built in a very inexpensive way -- it is a parking garage for books. +It just so happens to be on the 6th through 10th floors of the building, but that is not necessarily an expensive approach. +And it allows us to organize the entire Dewey Decimal System on one continuous run; no matter how it grows or contracts within the building, it will always have its clarity to end the sort of trail of tears that we've all experienced in public libraries. +And so this was the final operation, which was to take these blocks as they were all pushed off kilter, and to hold onto them with a skin. +That skin serves double duty, again, for economics. +One, it is the lateral stability for the entire building; it's a structural element. But its dimensions were designed not only for structure, but also for holding on every piece of glass. +The glass was then -- I'll use the word impregnated -- but it had a layer of metal that was called "stretched metal." +That metal acts as a microlouver, so from the exterior of the building, the sun sees it as totally opaque, but from the interior, it's entirely transparent. +So now I'm going to take you on a tour of the building. +Let me see if I can find it. +For anyone who gets motion sickness, I apologize. +So, this is the building. +And I think what's important is, when we first unveiled the building, the public saw it as being totally about our whim and ego. +And it was defended, believe it or not, by the librarians. +They said, "Look, we don't know what it is, based on the observations that we've done about the program." +This is going into one of the entries. +So, it's an unusual building for a public library, obviously. +So now we're going into what we call the living room. +This is actually a program that we invented with the library. +It was recognizing that public libraries are the last vestige of public free space. +There are plenty of shopping malls that allow you to get out of the rain in downtown Seattle, but there are not so many free places that allow you to get out of the rain. +So this was an unprogrammed area where people could pretty much do anything, including eat, yell, play chess and so forth. +Now we're moving up into what we call the mixing chamber. +That was the main technology area in the building. +You'll have to tell me if I'm going too fast for you. +And now up. +This is actually the place that we put into the building so I could propose to my wife, right there. +She said yes. +I'm running out of time, so I'm actually going to stop. +I can show this to you later. +But let's see if I can very quickly get into the book spiral, because I think it's, as I said, the most -- this is the main reading room -- the most unique part of the building. +You dizzy yet? +Ok, so here, this is the book spiral. +So, it's very indiscernible, but it's actually a continuous stair-stepping. +It allows you to, on one city block, go up one full floor, so that it's on a continuum. +Ok, now I'm going to go back, and I'm going to hit a second project. +I'm going to go very, very quickly through this. +Now this is the Dallas Theater. +It was an unusual client for us, because they came to us and they said, "We need you to do a new building. +We've been working in a temporary space for 30 years, but because of that temporary space, we've become an infamous theater company. +Theater is really focused in New York, Chicago and Seattle, with the exception of the Dallas Theater Company." +And the very fact that they worked in a provisional space meant that for Beckett, they could blow out a wall; they could do "Cherry Orchard" and blow a hole through the floor, and so forth. +So it was a very daunting task for us to do a brand-new building that could be a pristine building, but keep this kind of experimental nature. +And the second is, they were what we call a multi-form theater, they do different kinds of performances in repertory. +So they in the morning will do something in arena, then they'll do something in proscenium and so forth. +And so they needed to be able to quickly transform between different theater organizations, and for operational budget reasons, this actually no longer happens in pretty much any multi-form theater in the United States, so we needed to figure out a way to overcome that. +So our thought was to literally put the theater on its head: to take those things that were previously defined as front-of-house and back-of-house and stack them above house and below house, and to create what we called a theater machine. +We invest the money in the operation of the building. +It's almost as though the building could be placed anywhere, wherever you place it, the area under it is charged for theatrical performances. +And it allowed us to go back to first principles, and redefine fly tower, acoustic enclosure, light enclosure and so forth. +And at the push of a button, it allows the artistic director to move between proscenium, thrust, and in fact, arena and traverse and flat floor, in a very quick transfiguration. +So in fact, using operational budget, we can -- sorry, capital cost -- we can actually achieve what was no longer achievable in operational cost. +And that means that the artistic director now has a palette that he or she can choose from, between a series of forms and a series of processions, because that enclosure around the theater that is normally trapped with front-of-house and back-of-house spaces has been liberated. +So an artistic director has the ability to have a performance that enters in a Wagnerian procession, shows the first act in thrust, the intermission in a Greek procession, second act in arena, and so forth. +So I'm going to show you what this actually means. +This is the theater up close. +Any portion around the theater actually can be opened discretely. +The light enclosure can be lifted separate to the acoustic enclosure, so you can do Beckett with Dallas as the backdrop. +Portions can be opened, so you can now actually have motorcycles drive directly into the performance, or you can even just have an open-air performance, or for intermissions. +The balconies all move to go between those configurations, but they also disappear. +The proscenium line can also disappear. +You can bring enormous objects in, so in fact, the Dallas Theater Company -- their first show will be a play about Charles Lindbergh, and they'll want to bring in a real aircraft. +And then it also provides them, in the off-season, the ability to actually rent out their space for entirely different things. +This is it from a distance. +Open up entire portions for different kinds of events. +And at night. +Again, remove the light enclosure; keep the acoustic enclosure. +This is a monster truck show. +I'm going to show now the last project. +This also is an unusual client. +They inverted the whole idea of development. +They came to us and they said -- unlike normal developers -- they said, "We want to start out by providing a contemporary art museum in Louisville. +That's our main goal." +And so instead of being a developer that sees an opportunity to make money, they saw an ability to be a catalyst in their downtown. +And the fact that they wanted to support the contemporary art museum actually built their pro forma, so they worked in reverse. +And that pro forma led us to a mixed-use building that was very large, in order to support their aspirations of the art, but it also opened up opportunities for the art itself to collaborate, interact with commercial spaces that actually artists more and more want to work within. +And it also charged us with thinking about how to have something that was both a single building and a credible sort of sub-building. +So this is Louisville's skyline, and I'm going to take you through the various constraints that led to the project. First: the physical constraints. +We actually had to operate on three discrete sites, all of them well smaller than the size of the building. +We had to operate next to the new Muhammad Ali Center, and respect it. +We had to operate within the 100-year floodplain. +Now, this area floods three to four times a year, and there's a levee behind our site, similar to the ones that broke in New Orleans. +Had to operate behind the I-64 corridor, a street that cuts through the middle of these separate sites. +So we're starting to build a sort of nightmare of constraints in a bathtub. +Underneath the bathtub are the city's main power lines. +And there is a pedestrian corridor that they wanted to add, that would link a series of cultural buildings, and a view corridor -- because this is the historic district -- that they didn't want to obstruct with a new building. +And now we're going to add 1.1 million square feet. +And if we did the traditional thing, that 1.1 million square feet -- these are the different programs -- the traditional thing would be to identify the public elements, place them on sites, and now we'd have a really terrible situation: a public thing in the middle of a bathtub that floods. +And then we would size all the other elements -- the different commercial elements: hotel, luxury housing, offices and so forth -- and dump it on top. +And we would create something that was unviable. +In fact -- and you know this -- this is called the Time Warner Building. +So our strategy was very simple. +Just lift the entire block, flip some of the elements over, reposition them so they have appropriate views and relationships to downtown, and make circulation connections and reroute the road. +So that's the basic concept, and now I'm going to show you what it leads to. +Ok, it seems a very formal, willful gesture, but something derived entirely out of the constraints. +And again, when we unveiled it, there was a sort of nervousness that this was about an architect making a statement, not an architect who was attempting to solve a series of problems. +Now, within that center zone, as I said, we have the ability to mix a series of things. +So here, this is sort of an x-ray -- the towers are totally developer-driven. +So it creates a situation like this, where you have artists who can operate within an art space that also has an amazing view on the 22nd floor, but it also has proximity that the curator can either open or close. +It allows people on exercise bicycles to be seen, or to see the art, and so forth. +It also means that if an artist wants to invade something like a swimming pool, they can begin to do their exhibition in a swimming pool, so they're not forced to always work within the confines of a contemporary gallery space. +So, how to build this. +It's very simple: it's a chair. +So, we begin by building the cores. +As we're building the cores, we build the contemporary art museum at grade. +That allows us to have incredible efficiency and cost efficiency. +This is not a high-budget building. +The moment the cores get to mid level, we finish the art museum; we put all the mechanical equipment in it; and then we jack it up into the air. +This is how they build really large aircraft hangars, for instance, the ones that they did for the A380. +Finish the cores, finish the meat and you get something that looks like this. +Now I only have about 30 seconds, so I want to start an animation, and we'll conclude with that. +Chris asked me to add -- the theater is under construction, and this project will start construction in about a year, and finish in 2010. +About 15 years ago, I went to visit a friend in Hong Kong. +And at the time I was very superstitious. +So, upon landing -- this was still at the old Hong Kong airport that's Kai Tak, when it was smack in the middle of the city -- I thought, "If I see something good, I'm going to have a great time here in my two weeks. And if I see something negative, I'm going to be miserable, indeed." +So the plane landed in between the buildings and got to a full stop in front of this little billboard. +And I actually went to see some of the design companies in Hong Kong in my stay there. +And it turned out that -- I just went to see, you know, what they are doing in Hong Kong. +But I actually walked away with a great job offer. +And I flew back to Austria, packed my bags, and, another week later, I was again on my way to Hong Kong still superstitions and thinking, "Well, if that 'Winner' billboard is still up, I'm going to have a good time working here. +But if it's gone, it's going to be really miserable and stressful." +So it turned out that not only was the billboard still up but they had put this one right next to it. +On the other hand, it also taught me where superstition gets me because I really had a terrible time in Hong Kong. +However, I did have a number of real moments of happiness in my life -- of, you know, I think what the conference brochure refers to as "moments that take your breath away." +And since I'm a big list maker, I actually listed them all. +Now, you don't have to go through the trouble of reading them and I won't read them for you. +I know that it's incredibly boring to hear about other people's happinesses. +What I did do, though is, I actually looked at them from a design standpoint and just eliminated all the ones that had nothing to do with design. +And, very surprisingly, over half of them had, actually, something to do with design. +So there are, of course, two different possibilities. +There's one from a consumer's point of view -- where I was happy while experiencing design. +And I'll just give you one example. I had gotten my first Walkman. +This is 1983. +My brother had this great Yamaha motorcycle that he was willing to borrow to me freely. +And The Police's "Synchronicity" cassette had just been released and there was no helmet law in my hometown of Bregenz. +So you could drive up into the mountains freely blasting The Police on the new Sony Walkman. +And I remember it as a true moment of happiness. +You know, of course, they are related to this combination of at least two of them being, you know, design objects. +And, you know, there's a scale of happiness when you talk about in design but the motorcycle incident would definitely be, you know, situated somewhere here -- right in there between Delight and Bliss. +Now, there is the other part, from a designer's standpoint -- if you're happy while actually doing it. +And one way to see how happy designers are when they're designing could be to look at the authors' photos on the back of their monographs? +So, according to this, the Australians and the Japanese as well as the Mexicans are very happy. +While, somewhat, the Spaniards ... +and, I think, particularly, the Swiss , don't seem to be doing all that well. +Last November, a museum opened in Tokyo called The Mori Museum, in a skyscraper, up on the 56th floor. +And their inaugural exhibit was called "Happiness." +And I went, very eagerly, to see it, because -- well, also, with an eye on this conference. +And they interestingly sectioned the exhibit off into four different areas. +Under "Arcadia," they showed things like this, from the Edo period -- a hundred ways to write "happiness" in different forms. +Or they had this apple by Yoko Ono -- that, of course, later on was, you know, made into the label for The Beatles. +Under "Nirvana" they showed this Constable painting. +And there was a little -- an interesting theory about abstraction. +This is a blue field -- it's actually an Yves Klein painting. +And the theory was that if you abstract an image, you really, you know open as much room for the un-representable -- and, therefore, you know, are able to involve the viewer more. +Then, under "Desire," they showed these Shunsho paintings -- also from the Edo period -- ink on silk. +And, lastly, under "Harmony," they had this 13th-century mandala from Tibet. +Now, what I took away from the exhibit was that maybe with the exception of the mandala most of the pieces in there were actually about the visualization of happiness and not about happiness. +And I felt a little bit cheated, because the visualization -- that's a really easy thing to do. +And, you know, my studio -- we've done it all the time. +This is, you know, a book. +A happy dog -- and you take it out, it's an aggressive dog. +It's a happy David Byrne and an angry David Byrne. +Or a jazz poster with a happy face and a more aggressive face. +You know, that's not a big deal to accomplish. +It has gotten to the point where, you know, within advertising or within the movie industry, "happy" has gotten such a bad reputation that if you actually want to do something with the subject and still appear authentic, you almost would have to, you know, do it from a cynical point of view. +This is, you know, the movie poster. +Or we, a couple of weeks ago, designed a box set for The Talking Heads where the happiness visualized on the cover definitely has, very much, a dark side to it. +Much, much more difficult is this, where the designs actually can evoke happiness -- and I'm going to just show you three that actually did this for me. +This is a campaign done by a young artist in New York, who calls himself "True." +Everybody who has ridden the New York subway system will be familiar with these signs? +True printed his own version of these signs. +Met every Wednesday at a subway stop with 20 of his friends. +They divided up the different subway lines and added their own version. +So this is one. +Now, the way this works in the system is that nobody ever looks at these signs. +So you're you're really bored in the subway, and you kind of stare at something. +And it takes you a while until it actually -- you realize that this says something different than what it normally says. +I mean, that's, at least, how it made me happy. +Now, True is a real humanitarian. +He didn't want any of his friends to be arrested, so he supplied everybody with this fake volunteer card. +And also gave this fake letter from the MTA to everybody -- sort of like pretending that it's an art project financed by The Metropolitan Transit Authority. +Another New York project. +This is at P.S. 1 -- a sculpture that's basically a square room by James Turrell, that has a retractable ceiling. +Opens up at dusk and dawn every day. +You don't see the horizon. +You're just in there, watching the incredible, subtle changes of color in the sky. +And the room is truly something to be seen. +People's demeanor changes when they go in there. +And, for sure, I haven't looked at the sky in the same way after spending an hour in there. +There are, of course, more than those three projects that I'm showing here. +I would definitely say that observing Vik Muniz' "Cloud" a couple of years ago in Manhattan for sure made me happy, as well. +But my last project is, again, from a young designer in New York. +He's from Korea originally. +And he took it upon himself to print 55,000 speech bubbles -- empty speech bubbles stickers, large ones and small ones. +And he goes around New York and just puts them, empty as they are, on posters. +And other people go and fill them in. +This one says, "Please let me die in peace." +I think that was -- the most surprising to myself was that the writing was actually so good. +This is on a musician poster, that says: "I am concerned that my CD will not sell more than 200,000 units and that, as a result, my recoupable advance from my label will be taken from me, after which, my contract will be cancelled, and I'll be back doing Journey covers on Bleecker Street." +I think the reason this works so well is because everybody involved wins. +Jee gets to have his project; the public gets a sweeter environment; and different public gets a place to express itself; and the advertisers finally get somebody to look at their ads. +Well, there was a question, of course, that was on my mind for a while: You know, can I do more of the things that I like doing in design and less of the ones that I don't like to be doing? +Which brought me back to my list making -- you know, just to see what I actually like about my job. +You know, one is: just working without pressure. +Then: working concentrated, without being frazzled. +Or, as Nancy said before, like really immerse oneself into it. +Try not to get stuck doing the same thing -- or try not get stuck behind the computer all day. +This is, you know, related to it: getting out of the studio. +Then, of course, trying to, you know, work on things where the content is actually important for me. +And being able to enjoy the end results. +And then I found another list in one of my diaries that actually contained all the things that I thought I learned in my life so far. +And, just about at that time, an Austrian magazine called and asked if we would want to do six spreads -- design six spreads that work like dividing pages between the different chapters in the magazine? +And the whole thing just fell together. +So I just picked one of the things that I thought I learned -- in this case, "Everything I do always comes back to me" -- and we made these spreads right out of this. +So it was: "Everything I do always comes back to me." +A couple of weeks ago, a French company asked us to design five billboards for them. +Again, we could supply the content for it. +So I just picked another one. +And this was two weeks ago. +We flew to Arizona -- the designer who works with me, and myself -- and photographed this one. +So it's: "Trying to look good limits my life." +And then we did one more of these. +This is, again, for a magazine, dividing pages. +This is: "Having" -- this is the same thing; it's just, you know, photographed from the side. +This is from the front. +Then it's: "guts." +Again, it's the same thing -- "guts" is just the same room, reworked. +Then it's: "always works out." +Then it's "for," with the light on. +And it's "me." +Thank you so much. +The old story about climate protection is that it's costly, or it would have been done already. +So government needs to make us do something painful to fix it. +The new story about climate protection is that it's not costly, but profitable. +This was a simple sign error, because it's cheaper to save fuel than to buy fuel, as is well known to companies that do it all the time -- for example, Dupont, SD micro electronics. +Many other firms -- IBM -- are reducing their energy intensity routinely six percent a year by fixing up their plants, and they get their money back in two or three years. +That's called a profit. +Now, similarly, the old story about oil is that if we wanted to save very much of it, it would be expensive, or we would have done it already, because markets are essentially perfect. +If, of course, that were true, there would be no innovation, and nobody could make any money. +This process will also be catalyzed by the military for its own reasons of combat effectiveness and preventing conflict, particularly over oil. +This thesis is set out in a book called "Winning the Oil Endgame" that four colleagues and I wrote and have posted for free at Oilendgame.com -- about 170,000 downloads so far. +And it was co-sponsored by the Pentagon -- it's independent, it's peer-reviewed and all of the backup calculations are transparently posted for your perusal. +Now, a bit of economic history, I think, may be helpful here. +Around 1850, one of the biggest U.S. industries was whaling. +And whale oil lit practically every building. +But in the nine years before Drake struck oil, in 1859, at least five-sixths of that whale oil-illuminating market disappeared, thanks to fatal competitors, chiefly oil and gas made from coal, to which the whalers had not been paying attention. +So, very unexpectedly, they ran out of customers before they ran out of whales. +The remnant whale populations were saved by technological innovators and profit-maximizing capitalists. +And it's funny -- it feels a bit like this now for oil. +We've been spending the last few decades accumulating a very powerful backlog of technologies for saving and substituting for oil, and no one had bothered to add them up before. +So when we did, we found some very surprising things. +Now, there are two big reasons to be concerned about oil. +Both national competitiveness and national security are at risk. +On the competitiveness front, we all know that Toyota has more market cap than the big three put together. +And serious competition from Europe, from Korea, and next is China, which will soon be a major net exporter of cars. +How long do you think it will take before you can drive home your new wally-badged Shanghai automotive super-efficient car? +Maybe a decade, according to my friends in Detroit. +China has an energy policy based on radical energy efficiency and leap-frog technology. +They're not going to export your uncle's Buick. +And after that comes India. +The point here is, these cars are going to be made super efficient. +The question is, who will make them? +Will we in the United States continue to import efficient cars to replace foreign oil, or will we make efficient cars and import neither the oil nor the cars? +That seems to make more sense. +The more we keep on using the oil, particularly the imported oil, the more we face a very obvious array of problems. +Our analysis assumes that they all cost nothing, but nothing is not the right number. +It could well be enough to double the oil price, for example. +And one of the worst of these is what it does to our standing in the world if other countries think that everything we do is about oil, if we have to treat countries that have oil differently than countries that don't have oil. +And our military get quite unhappy with having to stand guard on pipelines in Far-off-istan when what they actually signed up for was to protect American citizens. +They don't like fighting over oil, they don't like being in the sands and they don't like where the oil money goes and what sort of instability it creates. +Now, in order to avoid these problems, whatever you think they're worth, it's actually not that complicated. +We can save half the oil by using it more efficiently, at a cost of 12 dollars per saved barrel. +And then we can replace the other half with a combination of advanced bio-fuels and safe natural gas. +And that costs on average under 18 dollars a barrel. +And compared with the official forecast, that oil will cost 26 dollars a barrel in 2025, which is half of what we've been paying lately, that will save 70 billion dollars a year, starting quite soon. +Now, in order to do this we need to invest about 180 billion dollars: half of it to retool the car, truck and plane industries; half of it to build the advanced bio-fuel industry. +In the process, we will gain about a million good jobs, mainly rural. +And protect another million jobs now at risk, mainly in auto-making. +And we'll also get returns over 150 billion dollars a year. +So that's a very handsome return. +It's financeable in the private capital market. +But if you want it for the reasons I just mentioned, to happen sooner and with higher confidence, then -- and also to expand choice and manage risk -- then you might like some light-handed public policies that support rather than distorting or opposing the business logic. +And these policies work fine without taxes, subsidies or mandates. +They make a little net money for the treasury. +They have a broad trans-ideological appeal, and because we want them actually to happen, we figured out ways to do them that do not require much, if any, federal legislation, and can, indeed, be done administratively or at a state level. +Just to illustrate what to do about the nub of the problem, namely, light vehicles, here are four ultra-light carbon-composite concept cars with low drag, and all but the one at the upper left have hybrid drive. +You can sort of have it all with these things. +For example, this Opel two-seater does 155 miles an hour at 94 miles a gallon. +This muscle car from Toyota: 408 horsepower in an ultra-light that does zero to 60 in well under four seconds, and still gets 32 miles a gallon. I'll say more later about this. +And in the upper left, a pioneering effort 14 years ago by GM -- 84 miles a gallon without even using a hybrid, in a four-seater. +Well, saving that fuel, 69 percent of the fuel in light vehicles costs about 57 cents per saved gallon. +But it's even a better deal for heavy trucks, where you save a similar amount at 25 cents a gallon, with better aerodynamics and tires and engines, and so on, and taking out weight so you can put it into payload. +So you can double efficiency with a 60 percent internal rate of return. +Then you can go even further, almost tripling efficiency with some operational improvements, double the big haulers' margins. +And we intend to use those numbers to create demand pull, and flip the market. +In the airplane business, it's again a similar story where the first 20 percent fuel saving is free, as Boeing is now demonstrating in its new Dreamliner. +But then the next generation of planes saves about half. +Again, much cheaper than buying the fuel. +And if you go over the next 15 years or so to a blended-wing body, kind of a flying wing with internal engines, then you get about a factor three efficiency improvement at comparable or lower cost. +Let me focus a minute on the light vehicles, the cars and light trucks, because we all know the most about those; probably everybody here drives one. +And yet we may not realize that in a standard sedan, of all the fuel energy you feed into the car, seven-eighths never gets to the wheels; it's lost first in the engine, idling at zero miles a gallon, the power train and accessories. +So then of the energy that does get to the wheels, only an eighth of it, half of that, goes to heat the tires on the road, or to heat the air the car pushes aside. +And only this little bit, only six percent actually ends up accelerating the car and then heating the brakes when you stop. +In fact, since 95 percent of the weight you're moving is the car not the driver, less than one percent of the fuel energy ends up moving the driver. +This is not very gratifying after more than a century of devoted engineering effort. +Moreover, three-fourths of the fuel use is caused by the weight of the car. +And it's obvious from the diagram that every unit of energy you save at the wheels is going to avoid wasting another seven units of energy getting that energy to the wheels. +So there's huge leverage for making the car a lot lighter. +But these objections are now vanishing through advances in materials. +For example, we use a lot of carbon-fiber composites in sporting goods. +And it turns out that these are quite remarkable for safety. +Here's a handmade McLaren SLR carbon car that got t-boned by a Golf. +The Golf was totaled. +The McLaren just popped off and scratched the side panel. +They'll pop it back on and fix the scratch later. +But if this McLaren were to run into a wall at 65 miles an hour, the entire crash energy would be absorbed by a couple of woven carbon-fiber composite cones, weighing a total of 15 pounds, hidden in the front end. +Because these materials could actually absorb six to 12 times as much energy per pound as steel, and do so a lot more smoothly. +And this means we've just cracked the conundrum of safety and weight. +We could make cars bigger, which is protective, but make them light. +Whereas if we made them heavy, they'd be both hostile and inefficient. +And when you make them light in the right way, that can be simpler and cheaper to make. +You can end up saving money, and lives, and oil, all at the same time. +I showed here two years ago a little bit about a design of your basic, uncompromised, quintupled-efficiency suburban-assault vehicle -- -- and this is a complete virtual design that is production-costed manufacturable. +And the process needed to make it is actually coming toward the market quite nicely. +And the manufacturing you can do this way gets radically simplified. +Because the auto body has only, say, 14 parts, instead of 100, 150. +Each one is formed by one fairly cheap die set, instead of four expensive ones for stamping steel. +Each of the parts can be easily lifted with no hoist. +They snap together like a kid's toy. +So you got rid of the body shop. +And if you want, you can lay color in the mold, and get rid of the paint shop. +Those are the two hardest and costliest parts of making a car. +So you end up with at least two-fifths lower capital intensity than the leanest plant in the industry, which GM has in Lansing. +The plant also gets smaller. +And then another six can be made robustly, competitively, from cellulosic ethanol and a little bio-diesel, without interfering at all with the water or land needs of crop production. +There is a huge amount of gas to be saved, about half the projected gas at about an eighth of its price. +And here are some no-brainer substitutions of it, with lots left over. +So much, in fact, that after you've handled the domestic oil forecast from areas already approved, you have only this little bit left, and let's see how we can meet that, because there's a pretty flexible menu of ways. +We could, of course, buy more efficiency. +Maybe you ought to buy efficiency at 26 bucks instead of 12. +Or wait to capture the second half of it. +Or we could, of course, just get this little bit by continuing to import some Canadian and Mexican oil, or the ethanol the Brazilians would love to sell us. +But they'll sell it to Japan and China instead, because we have tariff barriers to protect our corn farmers, and they don't. +Or we could use the saved gas directly to cover all of this balance, or if we used it as hydrogen, which is more profitable and efficient, we'd get rid of the domestic oil too. +And that doesn't even count, for example, that available land in the Dakotas can cost effectively make enough wind power to run every highway vehicle in the country. +So we have lots of options. +And the choice of menu and timing is quite flexible. +Now, to make this happen quicker and with higher confidence, there is a few ways government could help. +For example, fee-bates, a combination of a fee and a rebate in any size class of vehicle you want, can increase the price of inefficient vehicles and correspondingly pay you a rebate for efficient vehicles. +You're not paid to change size class. +You are paid to pick efficiency within a size class, in a way equivalent to looking at all fourteen years of life-cycle fuel savings rather than just the first two or three. +This expands choice rapidly in the market, and actually makes more money for automakers as well. +I'd like to deal with the lack of affordable personal mobility in this country by making it very cheaply possible for low-income families to get efficient, reliable, warranted new cars that they could otherwise never get. +And for each car so financed, scrap almost one clunker, preferably the dirtiest ones. +This creates a new million-car-a-year market for Detroit from customers they weren't going to get otherwise, because they weren't creditworthy and could never afford a new car. +And Detroit will make money on every unit. +It turns out that if, say, African-American and white households had the same car ownership, it would cut employment disparity about in half by providing better access to job opportunities. +So this is a huge social win, too. +Governments buy hundreds of thousands of cars a year. +There are smart ways to buy them and to aggregate that purchasing power to bring very efficient vehicles into the market faster. +And we could even do an X Prize-style golden carrot that's worth stretching further for. +For example, a billion-dollar prize for the first U.S. automaker to sell 200,000 really advanced vehicles, like some you saw earlier. +Then the legacy airlines can't afford to buy the efficient new planes they desperately need to cut their fuel bills, but if you felt philosophically you wanted to do anything about that, there are ways to finance it. +And at the same time to scrap inefficient old planes, so that if they were otherwise to come back in the air, they would waste more oil, and block the uptake of efficient, new planes. +Those part inefficient planes are worth more to society dead than alive. +We ought to take them out back and shoot them, and put bounty hunters after them. +Then there's an important military role. +That in creating the move to high-volume, low-cost commercial production of these kinds of materials, or for that matter, ultra-light steels that are a good backup technology, the military can do the trick it did in turning DARPAnet into the Internet. +Just turn it over to the private sector, and we have an Internet. +The same for GPS. +The same for the modern semi-conductor industry. +That is, military science and technology that they need can create the advanced materials-industrial cluster that transforms its civilian economy and gets the country off oil, which would be a huge contribution to eliminating conflict over oil and advancing national and global security. +Then we need to retool the car industry and do retraining, and shift the convergence of the energy and ag-value chains to shift faster from hydrocarbons to carbohydrates, and get out of our own way in other ways. +And make the transition to more efficient vehicles go faster. +But here's how the whole thing fits together. +Instead of official forecasts of oil use and oil imports going forever up, they can turn down with the 12 dollars a barrel efficiency, down steeply by adding the supply-side substitutions at 18 bucks, all implemented at slower rates than we've done before when we paid attention. +And if we start adding tranches of hydrogen in there, we are rapidly off imports and completely off oil in the 2040s. +And the one thing I'd like to point out here is that we've done this before. +In this eight-year period, 1977 to 85, when we last paid attention, the economy grew 27 percent, oil use fell 17 percent, oil imports fell 50 percent, oil imports from the Persian Gulf fell 87 percent. +They would have been gone if we'd kept that up one more year. +Well, that was with very old technologies and delivery methods. +We could rerun that play a lot better now. +And yet what we proved then is the U.S. has more market power than OPEC. +Ours is on the demand side. +We are the Saudi Arabia of "nega-barrels." We can use less oil faster than they can conveniently sell less oil. +Whatever your reason for wanting to do this, whether you're concerned about national security or price volatility -- -- or jobs, or the planet, or your grand-kids, it seems to me that this is an oil endgame that we should all be playing to win. +Please download your copy, and thank you very much. +If you're here today -- and I'm very happy that you are -- you've all heard about how sustainable development will save us from ourselves. However, when we're not at TED, we are often told that a real sustainability policy agenda is just not feasible, especially in large urban areas like New York City. +And that's because most people with decision-making powers, in both the public and the private sector, really don't feel as though they're in danger. +The reason why I'm here today, in part, is because of a dog -- an abandoned puppy I found back in the rain, back in 1998. +She turned out to be a much bigger dog than I'd anticipated. +The area also has one of the lowest ratios of parks to people in the city. +So when I was contacted by the Parks Department about a $10,000 seed-grant initiative to help develop waterfront projects, I thought they were really well-meaning, but a bit naive. +I'd lived in this area all my life, and you could not get to the river, because of all the lovely facilities that I mentioned earlier. +Then, while jogging with my dog one morning, she pulled me into what I thought was just another illegal dump. +There were weeds and piles of garbage and other stuff that I won't mention here, but she kept dragging me, and lo and behold, at the end of that lot was the river. I knew that this forgotten little street-end, abandoned like the dog that brought me there, was worth saving. +And I knew it would grow to become the proud beginnings of the community-led revitalization of the new South Bronx. +And just like my new dog, it was an idea that got bigger than I'd imagined. +We garnered much support along the way, and the Hunts Point Riverside Park became the first waterfront park that the South Bronx had had in more than 60 years. +We leveraged that $10,000 seed grant more than 300 times, into a $3 million park. +And in the fall, I'm going to exchange marriage vows with my beloved. (Audience whistles) That's him pressing my buttons back there, which he does all the time. +But those of us living in environmental justice communities are the canary in the coal mine. We feel the problems right now, and have for some time. +Environmental justice, for those of you who may not be familiar with the term, goes something like this: no community should be saddled with more environmental burdens and less environmental benefits than any other. +Unfortunately, race and class are extremely reliable indicators as to where one might find the good stuff, like parks and trees, and where one might find the bad stuff, like power plants and waste facilities. +As a black person in America, I am twice as likely as a white person to live in an area where air pollution poses the greatest risk to my health. +I am five times more likely to live within walking distance of a power plant or chemical facility, which I do. These land-use decisions created the hostile conditions that lead to problems like obesity, diabetes and asthma. +Why would someone leave their home to go for a brisk walk in a toxic neighborhood? +Our 27 percent obesity rate is high even for this country, and diabetes comes with it. +One out of four South Bronx children has asthma. +Our asthma hospitalization rate is seven times higher than the national average. +These impacts are coming everyone's way. +And we all pay dearly for solid waste costs, health problems associated with pollution and more odiously, the cost of imprisoning our young black and Latino men, who possess untold amounts of untapped potential. +Fifty percent of our residents live at or below the poverty line; 25 percent of us are unemployed. +Low-income citizens often use emergency-room visits as primary care. +This comes at a high cost to taxpayers and produces no proportional benefits. +Poor people are not only still poor, they are still unhealthy. +Fortunately, there are many people like me who are striving for solutions that won't compromise the lives of low-income communities of color in the short term, and won't destroy us all in the long term. +None of us want that, and we all have that in common. So what else do we have in common? +Well, first of all, we're all incredibly good-looking. +Graduated high school, college, post-graduate degrees, traveled to interesting places, didn't have kids in your early teens, financially stable, never been imprisoned. +OK. Good. But, besides being a black woman, I am different from most of you in some other ways. +I watched nearly half of the buildings in my neighborhood burn down. +My big brother Lenny fought in Vietnam, only to be gunned down a few blocks from our home. +Jesus. I grew up with a crack house across the street. +Yeah, I'm a poor black child from the ghetto. +These things make me different from you. +But the things we have in common set me apart from most of the people in my community, and I am in between these two worlds with enough of my heart to fight for justice in the other. +So how did things get so different for us? +In the late '40s, my dad -- a Pullman porter, son of a slave -- bought a house in the Hunts Point section of the South Bronx, and a few years later, he married my mom. +At the time, the community was a mostly white, working-class neighborhood. +My dad was not alone. +And as others like him pursued their own version of the American dream, white flight became common in the South Bronx and in many cities around the country. +Red-lining was used by banks, wherein certain sections of the city, including ours, were deemed off-limits to any sort of investment. +Many landlords believed it was more profitable to torch their buildings and collect insurance money rather than to sell under those conditions -- dead or injured former tenants notwithstanding. +Hunts Point was formerly a walk-to-work community, but now residents had neither work nor home to walk to. +A national highway construction boom was added to our problems. +In New York State, Robert Moses spearheaded an aggressive highway-expansion campaign. +One of its primary goals was to make it easier for residents of wealthy communities in Westchester County to go to Manhattan. +The South Bronx, which lies in between, did not stand a chance. +Residents were often given less than a month's notice before their buildings were razed. 600,000 people were displaced. +The common perception was that only pimps and pushers and prostitutes were from the South Bronx. +And if you are told from your earliest days that nothing good is going to come from your community, that it's bad and ugly, how could it not reflect on you? +So now, my family's property was worthless, save for that it was our home, and all we had. +And luckily for me, that home and the love inside of it, along with help from teachers, mentors and friends along the way, was enough. +Now, why is this story important? +Because from a planning perspective, economic degradation begets environmental degradation, which begets social degradation. +The disinvestment that began in the 1960s set the stage for all the environmental injustices that were to come. +Antiquated zoning and land-use regulations are still used to this day to continue putting polluting facilities in my neighborhood. +Are these factors taken into consideration when land-use policy is decided? +What costs are associated with these decisions? And who pays? Who profits? +Does anything justify what the local community goes through? +This was "planning" -- in quotes -- that did not have our best interests in mind. +Once we realized that, we decided it was time to do our own planning. +That small park I told you about earlier was the first stage of building a Greenway movement in the South Bronx. +I wrote a one-and-a-quarter-million dollar federal transportation grant to design the plan for a waterfront esplanade with dedicated on-street bike paths. +Physical improvements help inform public policy regarding traffic safety, the placement of the waste and other facilities, which, if done properly, don't compromise a community's quality of life. +They provide opportunities to be more physically active, as well as local economic development. +Think bike shops, juice stands. +We secured 20 million dollars to build first-phase projects. +This is Lafayette Avenue -- and that's redesigned by Mathews Nielsen Landscape Architects. +And once this path is constructed, it'll connect the South Bronx with more than 400 acres of Randall's Island Park. +Right now we're separated by about 25 feet of water, but this link will change that. +As we nurture the natural environment, its abundance will give us back even more. +We run a project called the Bronx [Environmental] Stewardship Training, which provides job training in the fields of ecological restoration, so that folks from our community have the skills to compete for these well-paying jobs. +Little by little, we're seeding the area with green-collar jobs -- and with people that have both a financial and personal stake in their environment. +The Sheridan Expressway is an underutilized relic of the Robert Moses era, built with no regard for the neighborhoods that were divided by it. +Even during rush hour, it goes virtually unused. +The community created an alternative transportation plan that allows for the removal of the highway. +We have the opportunity now to bring together all the stakeholders to re-envision how this 28 acres can be better utilized for parkland, affordable housing and local economic development. +We also built New York City's first green and cool roof demonstration project on top of our offices. +Cool roofs are highly-reflective surfaces that don't absorb solar heat, and pass it on to the building or atmosphere. +Green roofs are soil and living plants. +And they provide habitats for our little friends! +So cool! +Anyway, the demonstration project is a springboard for our own green roof installation business, bringing jobs and sustainable economic activity to the South Bronx. +I like that, too. +Anyway, I know Chris told us not to do pitches up here, but since I have all of your attention: We need investors. End of pitch. +It's better to ask for forgiveness than permission. +OK. Katrina. +Prior to Katrina, the South Bronx and New Orleans' Ninth Ward had a lot in common. +Both were largely populated by poor people of color, both hotbeds of cultural innovation: think hip-hop and jazz. +Both are waterfront communities that host both industries and residents in close proximity of one another. +In the post-Katrina era, we have still more in common. +We're at best ignored, and maligned and abused, at worst, by negligent regulatory agencies, pernicious zoning and lax governmental accountability. +Neither the destruction of the Ninth Ward nor the South Bronx was inevitable. +But we have emerged with valuable lessons about how to dig ourselves out. +We are more than simply national symbols of urban blight or problems to be solved by empty campaign promises of presidents come and gone. +Now will we let the Gulf Coast languish for a decade or two, like the South Bronx did? +Or will we take proactive steps and learn from the homegrown resource of grassroots activists that have been born of desperation in communities like mine? +Now listen, I do not expect individuals, corporations or government to make the world a better place because it is right or moral. +This presentation today only represents some of what I've been through. +Like a tiny little bit. You've no clue. +But I'll tell you later, if you want to know. +But -- I know it's the bottom line, or one's perception of it, that motivates people in the end. +I'm interested in what I like to call the "triple bottom line" that sustainable development can produce. +Developments that have the potential to create positive returns for all concerned: the developers, government and the community where these projects go up. +At present, that's not happening in New York City. +And we are operating with a comprehensive urban-planning deficit. +A parade of government subsidies is going to propose big-box and stadium developments in the South Bronx, but there is scant coordination between city agencies on how to deal with the cumulative effects of increased traffic, pollution, solid waste and the impacts on open space. +And their approaches to local economic and job development are so lame it's not even funny. +Because on top of that, the world's richest sports team is replacing the House That Ruth Built by destroying two well-loved community parks. +Now, we'll have even less than that stat I told you about earlier. +And although less than 25 percent of South Bronx residents own cars, these projects include thousands of new parking spaces, yet zip in terms of mass public transit. +Now, what's missing from the larger debate is a comprehensive cost-benefit analysis between not fixing an unhealthy, environmentally-challenged community, versus incorporating structural, sustainable changes. +My agency is working closely with Columbia University and others to shine a light on these issues. +Now let's get this straight: I am not anti-development. +Ours is a city, not a wilderness preserve. And I've embraced my inner capitalist. +You probably all have, and if you haven't, you need to. +So I don't have a problem with developers making money. +There's enough precedent out there to show that a sustainable, Fellow TEDsters Bill McDonough and Amory Lovins -- both heroes of mine by the way -- have shown that you can actually do that. +I do have a problem with developments that hyper-exploit politically vulnerable communities for profit. +That it continues is a shame upon us all, because we are all responsible for the future that we create. +But one of the things I do to remind myself of greater possibilities, is to learn from visionaries in other cities. +This is my version of globalization. +Let's take Bogota. Poor, Latino, surrounded by runaway gun violence and drug trafficking; a reputation not unlike that of the South Bronx. +However, this city was blessed in the late 1990s with a highly-influential mayor named Enrique Pealosa. +He looked at the demographics. +Few Bogotanos own cars, yet a huge portion of the city's resources was dedicated to serving them. +If you're a mayor, you can do something about that. +His administration narrowed key municipal thoroughfares from five lanes to three, outlawed parking on those streets, expanded pedestrian walkways and bike lanes, created public plazas, created one of the most efficient bus mass-transit systems in the entire world. +For his brilliant efforts, he was nearly impeached. +But as people began to see that they were being put first on issues reflecting their day-to-day lives, incredible things happened. +People stopped littering. +Crime rates dropped, because the streets were alive with people. +His administration attacked several typical urban problems at one time, and on a third-world budget, at that. +We have no excuse in this country, I'm sorry. +But Bogota's example has the power to change that. +You, however, are blessed with the gift of influence. +That's why you're here and why you value the information we exchange. +Use your influence in support of comprehensive, sustainable change everywhere. +Don't just talk about it at TED. This is a nationwide policy agenda I'm trying to build, and as you all know, politics are personal. +Help me make green the new black. Help me make sustainability sexy. +Make it a part of your dinner and cocktail conversations. +Help me fight for environmental and economic justice. +Support investments with a triple-bottom-line return. +Help me democratize sustainability by bringing everyone to the table, and insisting that comprehensive planning can be addressed everywhere. +Oh good, glad I have a little more time! +Listen -- when I spoke to Mr. Gore the other day after breakfast, I asked him how environmental justice activists were going to be included in his new marketing strategy. +His response was a grant program. +I don't think he understood that I wasn't asking for funding. +I was making him an offer. What troubled me was that this top-down approach is still around. +Now, don't get me wrong, we need money. But grassroots groups are needed at the table during the decision-making process. +Of the 90 percent of the energy that Mr. Gore reminded us that we waste every day, don't add wasting our energy, intelligence and hard-earned experience to that count. I have come from so far to meet you like this. +Please don't waste me. By working together, we can become one of those small, rapidly-growing groups of individuals who actually have the audacity and courage to believe that we actually can change the world. +We might have come to this conference from very, very different stations in life, but believe me, we all share one incredibly powerful thing. +We have nothing to lose and everything to gain. +Ciao, bellos! +I'm going to take you on a journey very quickly. +To explain the wish, I'm going to have to take you somewhere where many people haven't been, and that's around the world. +When I was about 24 years old, Kate Stohr and myself started an organization to get architects and designers involved in humanitarian work, not only about responding to natural disasters, but involved in systemic issues. +We believe that where the resources and expertise are scarce, innovative, sustainable design can really make a difference in people's lives. +So I started my life as an architect, or training as an architect, and I was always interested in socially responsible design, and how you can really make an impact. +But when I went to architecture school, it seemed that I was a black sheep in the family. +Many architects seemed to think that when you design, you design a jewel, and it's a jewel that you try and crave for; whereas I felt that when you design, you either improve or you create a detriment to the community in which you're designing. +So you're not just doing a building for the residents or for the people who are going to use it, but for the community as a whole. +And in 1999, we started by responding to the issue of the housing crisis for returning refugees in Kosovo. +And I didn't know what I was doing -- like I said, mid-20s -- and I'm the Internet generation, so we started a website. +We put a call out there, and to my surprise, in a couple of months, we had hundreds of entries from around the world. +That led to a number of prototypes being built and really experimenting with some ideas. +Two years later we started doing a project on developing mobile health clinics in sub-Saharan Africa, responding to the HIV/AIDS pandemic. +That led to 550 entries from 53 countries. +We also have designers from around the world that participate. +And we had an exhibit of work that followed that. +2004 was the tipping point for us. +We started responding to natural disasters and getting involved in Iran, in Bam, also following up on our work in Africa. +Working within the United States -- most people look at poverty and they see the face of a foreigner. +But I live in Bozeman, Montana -- go up to the north plains on the reservations, or go down to Alabama or Mississippi, pre-Katrina, and I could have shown you places that have far worse conditions than many developing countries that I've been to. +So we got involved in and worked in inner cities and elsewhere; and also, I will go into some more projects. +2005: Mother Nature kicked our ass. +I think we can pretty much assume that 2005 was a horrific year when it comes to natural disasters. +And because of the Internet, and because of connections to blogs and so forth, within literally hours of the tsunami, we were already raising funds, getting involved, working with people on the ground. +We run from a couple of laptops, and in the first couple of days, I had 4,000 emails from people needing help. +So we began to get involved in projects there, and I'll talk about some others. +And then of course, this year we've been responding to Katrina, as well as following up on our reconstruction work. +So this is a brief overview. +In 2004, I really couldn't manage the number of people who wanted to help, or the number of requests that I was getting. +It was all coming into my laptop and cell phone. +So we decided to embrace an open-source model of business -- so that anyone, anywhere in the world, could start a local chapter, and they can get involved in local problems. +Because I believe there is no such thing as Utopia. +All problems are local. All solutions are local. +So that means, you know, somebody who's based in Mississippi knows more about Mississippi than I do. +So what happened is, we used Meetup and all these other Internet tools, and we ended up having 40 chapters starting up, thousands of architects in 104 countries. +So the bullet point -- sorry, I never do a suit, so I knew that I was going to take this off. +OK, because I'm going to do it very quick. +This isn't just about nonprofit. +What it showed me is that there's a grassroots movement going on, of socially responsible designers who really believe that this world has got a lot smaller, and that we have the opportunity -- not the responsibility, but the opportunity -- to really get involved in making change. +I'm adding that to my time. +So what you don't know is, we've got these thousands of designers working around the world, connected basically by a website, and we have a staff of three. +The fact that nobody told us we couldn't do it, we did it. +And so there's something to be said about navet. So seven years later, we've developed so that we've got advocacy, instigation and implementation. +We advocate for good design, not only through student workshops and lectures and public forums, op-eds; we have a book on humanitarian work; but also disaster mitigation and dealing with public policy. +We can talk about FEMA, but that's another talk. +Instigation, developing ideas with communities and NGOs, doing open-source design competitions. +Referring, matchmaking with communities. +And then implementing -- actually going out there and doing the work, because when you invent, it's never a reality until it's built. +So it's really important that if we're designing and trying to create change, we build that change. +So here's a select number of projects. +Kosovo. This is Kosovo in '99. +We did an open design competition, like I said. It led to a whole variety of ideas. +And this wasn't about emergency shelter, but transitional shelter that would last five to 10 years, that would be placed next to the land the resident lived in, and that they would rebuild their own home. +This wasn't imposing an architecture on a community; this was giving them the tools and the space to allow them to rebuild and regrow the way they want to. +We had from the sublime to the ridiculous, but they worked. +This is an inflatable hemp house. It was built; it works. +This is a shipping container. Built and works. +And a whole variety of ideas that not only dealt with architectural building, but also the issues of governance, and the idea of creating communities through complex networks. +So we've engaged not just designers, but also a whole variety of technology-based professionals. +Using rubble from destroyed homes to create new homes. +Using straw bale construction, creating heat walls. +And then something remarkable happened in '99. +We went to Africa originally to look at the housing issue. +Within three days, we realized the problem was not housing; it was the growing pandemic of HIV/AIDS. +And it wasn't doctors telling us this; it was actual villagers that we were staying with. +And so we came up with the bright idea that instead of getting people to walk 10, 15 kilometers to see doctors, you get the doctors to the people. +And we started engaging the medical community, and you know, we thought we were real bright sparks -- "We've come up with this great idea: mobile health clinics, widely distributed throughout sub-Saharan Africa." +And the medical community there said, "We've said this for the last decade. +We know this. We just don't know how to show this." +So in a way, we had taken pre-existing needs and shown solutions. +And so again, we had a whole variety of ideas that came in. +This one I personally love, because the idea is that architecture is not just about solutions, but about raising awareness. +This is a kenaf clinic. You get seed and you grow it in a plot of land, and it grows 14 feet in a month. +And on the fourth week, the doctors come and they mow out an area, put a tensile structure on the top, and when the doctors have finished treating and seeing patients and villagers, you cut down the clinic and you eat it. +So it's dealing with the fact that if you have AIDS, you also need to have nutrition rates, and the idea of nutrition is as important as getting antiretrovirals out there. +So you know, this is a serious solution. +This one I love. The idea is it's not just a clinic, it's a community center. +This looked at setting up trade routes and economic engines within the community, so it can be a self-sustaining project. +Every one of these projects is sustainable. +That's not because I'm a tree-hugging green person. +It's because when you live on four dollars a day, you're living on survival and you have to be sustainable. +You have to know where your energy is coming from, you have to know where your resource is coming from, and you have to keep the maintenance down. +So this is about getting an economic engine, and then at night, it turns into a movie theater. +So it's not an AIDS clinic. It's a community center. +So you can see ideas. And these ideas developed into prototypes, and they were eventually built. And currently, as of this year, there are clinics rolling out in Nigeria and Kenya. +From that, we also developed Siyathemba. +The community came to us and said, "The problem is that the girls don't have education." +And we're working in an area where young women between the ages of 16 and 24 have a 50 percent HIV/AIDS rate. +And that's not because they're promiscuous, it's because there's no knowledge. +And so we decided to look at the idea of sports, and create a youth sports center that doubled as an HIV/AIDS outreach center, and the coaches of the girls' team were also trained doctors. +So that there would be a very slow way of developing confidence in health care. +And we picked nine finalists, and then those nine finalists were distributed throughout the entire region, and then the community picked their design. +They said, this is our design, because it's not only about engaging a community; it's about empowering a community, and about getting them to be a part of the rebuilding process. +So, the winning design is here. +And then, of course, we actually go and work with the community and the clients. +So this is the designer. +He's out there working with the first ever women's soccer team in KwaZulu-Natal, Siyathemba. +And they can tell it better. +(A cappella singing in a South African language) Video: Well, my name is Cee Cee Mkhonza. +I work at the Africa Centre, I'm an IT user consultant. +I'm also the national football player for South Africa, Banyana Banyana. +And I also play in the Vodacom League, for the team called Tembisa, which has now changed to Siyathemba. +This is our home ground. +Cameron Sinclair: I'm going to show that later because I'm running out of time. +I can see Chris looking at me slyly. +This was a connection, just a meeting with somebody who wanted to develop Africa's first telemedicine center, in Tanzania. +And we met, literally, a couple of months ago. We've already developed a design. +The team is over there, working in partnership. +This was a matchmaking, thanks to a couple of TEDsters -- Sun [Microsystems], Cheryl Heller and Andrew Zolli, who connected me with this amazing African woman. +And we start construction in June, and it will be opened by TEDGlobal. +So when you come to TEDGlobal, you can check it out. +But what we're known probably most for is dealing with disasters and development, and we've been involved in a lot of issues, such as the tsunami and also things like Hurricane Katrina. +This is a 370-dollar shelter that can be easily assembled. +This is a community-designed community center. +And what that means is we actually live and work with the community, and they're part of the design process. +The kids actually get involved in mapping out where the community center should be. +And then eventually, the community, through skills training, end up building the building with us. +Here is another school. +This is what the UN gave these guys for six months -- 12 plastic tarps. +This was in August. +This was the replacement; that's supposed to last for two years. +When the rain comes down, you can't hear a thing, and in the summer, it's about 140 degrees inside. +So we said, if the rain's coming down, let's get fresh water. +So every one of our schools has a rainwater collection system. +Very low cost: three classrooms and rainwater collection is 5,000 dollars. +This was raised by hot chocolate sales in Atlanta. +It's built by the parents of the kids. +The kids are out there on-site, building the buildings. +And it opened a couple of weeks ago, and there's 600 kids that are now using the schools. +So, disaster hits home. +We see the bad stories on CNN and Fox and all that, but we don't see the good stories. +Here is a community that got together, and they said "no" to waiting. +They formed a partnership, a diverse partnership of players, to actually map out East Biloxi, to figure out who's getting involved. +We've had over 1,500 volunteers rebuilding, rehabbing homes. +Figuring out what FEMA regulations are, not waiting for them to dictate to us how you should rebuild. +Working with residents, getting them out of their homes, so they don't get ill. +This is what they're cleaning up on their own. +Designing housing. This house is going in in a couple of weeks. +This is a rehabbed home, done in four days. +This is a utility room for a woman who is on a walker. +She's 70 years old. This is what FEMA gave her. +600 bucks, happened two days ago. +We put together, very quickly, a washroom. +It's built, it's running and she just started a business today, where she's washing other people's clothes. +These are the Calhouns. +They're photographers who had documented the Lower Ninth for the last 40 years. +That was their home, and these are the photographs they took. +And we're helping, working with them to create a new building. +Projects we've done. Projects we've been a part of, support. +Why don't aid agencies do this? This is the UN tent. +This is the new UN tent, just introduced this year. +Quick to assemble. It's got a flap -- that's the invention. +It took 20 years to design this and get it implemented in the field. +I was 12 years old. There's a problem here. +Luckily, we're not alone. +There are hundreds and hundreds and hundreds and hundreds and hundreds of architects and designers and inventors around the world that are getting involved in humanitarian work. +More hemp houses -- it's a theme in Japan, apparently. +I'm not sure what they're smoking. +This is a Grip Clip, designed by somebody who said, "All you need is some way to attach membrane structures to physical support beams." +This guy designed for NASA, is now doing housing. +I'm going to whip through this quickly, because I know I've got only a couple of minutes. +So this is all done in the last two years. +I showed you something that took 20 years to do. +And this is just a selection of things that were built in the last couple of years. +From Brazil to India, Mexico, China, Israel, Palestine, Vietnam. +The average age of a designer who gets involved in this project is 32 -- I just have to stop here, because Arup is in the room, and this is the best-designed toilet in the world. +If you're ever, ever in India, go use this toilet. +Chris Luebkeman will tell you why. +I'm sure that's how he wanted to spend the party. +But the future is not going to be the sky-scraping cities of New York, And when you look at this, you see crisis. +What I see is many, many inventors. +One billion people live in abject poverty. +We hear about them all the time. +Four billion live in growing but fragile economies. +One in seven live in unplanned settlements. +If we do nothing about the housing crisis that's about to happen, in 20 years, one in three people will live in an unplanned settlement or a refugee camp. Look left, look right: one of you will be there. +How do we improve the living standards of five billion people? +With 10 million solutions. +So I wish to develop a community that actively embraces innovative and sustainable design to improve the living conditions for everyone. +Chris Anderson: Wait a sec -- that's your wish? +CS: That's my wish. +CA: That's his wish! +CS: We started Architecture for Humanity with 700 dollars and a website. +So Chris somehow decided to give me 100,000. +So why not this many people? +Open-source architecture is the way to go. +You have a diverse community of participants -- and we're not just talking about inventors and designers, but we're talking about the funding model. +My role is not as a designer; it's as a conduit between the design world and the humanitarian world. +And what we need is something that replicates me globally, because I haven't slept in seven years. +Secondly, what will this thing be? +Designers want to respond to issues of humanitarian crisis, but they don't want some company in the West taking their idea and basically profiting from it. +So Creative Commons has developed the Developing Nations license. +And what that means is that a designer can -- The Siyathemba project I showed was the first ever building to have a Creative Commons license on it. +As soon as that is built, anyone in Africa or any developing nation can take the construction documents and replicate it for free. +So why not allow designers the opportunity to do this, but still protect their rights here? +We want to have a community where you can upload ideas, and those ideas can be tested in an earthquake, in flood, in all sorts of austere environments. The reason that's important is I don't want to wait for the next Katrina to find out if my house works. +That's too late, we need to do it now. +So doing that globally -- and I want this whole thing to work multi-lingually. +When you look at the face of an architect, most people think a gray-haired white guy. +I don't see that; I see the face of the world. +So I want everyone from all over the planet to be able to be a part of this design and development. +The idea of needs-based competitions -- XPRIZE for the other 98 percent, if you want to call it that. +and putting funding partners together, and the idea of integrating manufacturers -- fab labs in every country. +When I hear about the $100 laptop and it's going to educate every child -- educate every designer in the world. +Put one in every favela, every slum settlement. +Because you know what? Innovation will happen. +And I need to know that. It's called the leap-back. +We talk about leapfrog technologies. I write with Worldchanging, and the one thing we've been talking about is, I learn more on the ground than I've ever learned here. +So let's take those ideas, adapt them, and we can use them. +These ideas are supposed to be adaptable; they should have the potential for evolution; they should be developed by every nation in the world and useful for every nation in the world. What will it take? +There should be a sheet. +I don't have time to read this, because I'm going to be yanked off. +CA: Let's just leave it up for a sec. +CS: Well, what will it take? You guys are smart. +So it's going to take a lot of computing power, because I want the idea that any laptop anywhere in the world can plug into the system and be able to not only participate in developing these designs, but utilize the designs. Also, a process of reviewing the designs. +I want every Arup engineer in the world to check and make sure that we're doing stuff that's standing, because those guys are the best in the world. Plug. +And so, you know, I want these -- I just should note: I have two laptops and one of them is there, and that has 3000 designs on it. If I drop that laptop ... What happens? +So it's important to have these proven ideas put up there, easy to use, easy to get ahold of. +My mom once said, "There's nothing worse than being all mouth and no trousers." +I'm fed up of talking about making change. +You only make it by doing it. +We've changed FEMA guidelines; we've changed public policy; we've changed international response -- based on building things. +So for me, it's important that we create a real conduit for innovation, and that it's free innovation. +Think of free culture -- this is free innovation. +Somebody said this a couple of years back. +I will give points for those who know it. +But I think the man was maybe 25 years too early. So let's do it. +Thank you. +I can't help but this wish: to think about when you're a little kid, and all your friends ask you, "If a genie could give you one wish in the world, what would it be?" +And I always answered, "Well, I'd want the wish to have the wisdom to know exactly what to wish for." +Well, then you'd be screwed, because you'd know what to wish for, and you'd use up your wish, and now, since we only have one wish -- unlike last year they had three wishes -- I'm not going to wish for that. +So let's get to what I would like, which is world peace. +And I know what you're thinking: You're thinking, "The poor girl up there, she thinks she's at a beauty pageant. +She's not. She's at the TED Prize." +But I really do think it makes sense. +And I think that the first step to world peace is for people to meet each other. +I've met a lot of different people over the years, and I've filmed some of them, from a dotcom executive in New York who wanted to take over the world, to a military press officer in Qatar, who would rather not take over the world. +If you've seen the film "Control Room" that was sent out, you'd understand a little bit why. +Wow! Some of you watched it. That's great. That's great. +So basically what I'd like to talk about today is a way for people to travel, to meet people in a different way than -- because you can't travel all over the world at the same time. +And a long time ago -- well, about 40 years ago -- my mom had an exchange student. +And I'm going to show you slides of the exchange student. +This is Donna. +This is Donna at the Statue of Liberty. +This is my mother and aunt teaching Donna how to ride a bike. +This is Donna eating ice cream. +And this is Donna teaching my aunt how to do a Filipino dance. +And I know that we can't all do exchange programs, and I can't force everybody to travel; I've already talked about that to Chris and Amy, and they said that there's a problem with this: You can't force people, free will. +And I totally support that, so we're not forcing people to travel. +But I'd like to talk about another way to travel that doesn't require a ship or an airplane, and just requires a movie camera, a projector and a screen. +And that's what I'm going to talk to you about today. +I was asked that I speak a little bit about where I personally come from, and Cameron, I don't know how you managed to get out of that one, but I think that building bridges is important to me because of where I come from. +I'm the daughter of an American mother and an Egyptian-Lebanese-Syrian father. +So I'm the living product of two cultures coming together. +No pun intended. +And I've also been called, as an Egyptian-Lebanese-Syrian American with a Persian name, the "Middle East Peace Crisis." +So maybe me starting to take pictures was some kind of way to bring both sides of my family together -- a way to take the worlds with me, a way to tell stories visually. +It all kind of started that way, but I think that I really realized the power of the image when I first went to the garbage-collecting village in Egypt, when I was about 16. My mother took me there. +She's somebody who believes strongly in community service, and decided that this was something that I needed to do. +And so I went there and I met some amazing women there. +There was a center there, where they were teaching people how to read and write, and get vaccinations against the many diseases you can get from sorting through garbage. +And I began teaching there. +I taught English, and I met some incredible women there. +I met people that live seven people to a room, barely can afford their evening meal, yet lived with this strength of spirit and sense of humor and just incredible qualities. +I got drawn into this community and I began to take pictures there. +I took pictures of weddings and older family members -- things that they wanted memories of. +About two years after I started taking these pictures, the UN Conference on Population and Development asked me to show them at the conference. +So I was 18; I was very excited. +It was my first exhibit of photographs and they were all put up there, and after about two days, they all came down except for three. +People were very upset, very angry that I was showing these dirty sides of Cairo, and why didn't I cut the dead donkey out of the frame? +And as I sat there, I got very depressed. +I looked at this big empty wall with three lonely photographs that were, you know, very pretty photographs and I was like, "I failed at this." +But I was looking at this intense emotion and intense feeling that had come out of people just seeing these photographs. +Here I was, this 18-year-old pipsqueak that nobody listened to, and all of a sudden, I put these photographs on the wall, and there were arguments, and they had to be taken down. +And I saw the power of the image, and it was incredible. +And I think the most important reaction that I saw there was actually from people that would never have gone to the garbage village themselves, that would never have seen that the human spirit could thrive in such difficult circumstances. +And I think it was at that point that I decided I wanted to use photography and film to somehow bridge gaps, to bridge cultures, bring people together, cross borders. +And so that's what really kind of started me off. +Did a stint at MTV, made a film called "Startup.com," and I've done a couple of music films. +But in 2003, when the war in Iraq was about to start, it was a very surreal feeling for me, because before the war started, there was kind of this media war that was going on. +And I was watching television in New York, and there seemed to be just one point of view that was coming across, and the coverage went from the US State Department to embedded troops. +And what was coming across on the news was that there was going to be this clean war and precision bombings, and the Iraqis would be greeting the Americans as liberators, and throwing flowers at their feet in the streets of Baghdad. +And I knew that there was a completely other story that was taking place in the Middle East, where my parents were. +I knew that there was a completely other story being told, and I was thinking, "How are people supposed to communicate with each other when they're getting completely different messages, and nobody knows what the other's being told? +How are people supposed to have any kind of common understanding or know how to move together into the future? +So I knew that I had to go there. +I just wanted to be in the center. +I had no plan. I had no funding. +So I was thinking, this station that's hated by so many people has to be doing something right. +I've got to go see what this is all about. +And I also wanted to go see Central Command, which was 10 minutes away. +And that way, I could get access to how this news was being created -- on the Arab side, reaching the Arab world, and on the US and Western side, reaching the US. +And when I went there and sat there, and met these people that were in the center of it, and sat with these characters, I met some surprising, very complex people. +And I'd like to share with you a little bit of that experience of when you sit with somebody and you film them, and you listen to them, and you allow them more than a five-second sound bite. +The amazing complexity of people emerges. +Samir Khader: Business as usual. +Iraq, and then Iraq, and then Iraq. +But between us, if I'm offered a job with Fox, I'll take it. +To change the Arab nightmare into the American dream. +I still have that dream. +Maybe I will never be able to do it, but I have plans for my children. +When they finish high school, I will send them to America to study there. +I will pay for their study. +And they will stay there. +Josh Rushing: The night they showed the POWs and the dead soldiers -- Al Jazeera showed them -- it was powerful, because America doesn't show those kinds of images. +Most of the news in America won't show really gory images and this showed American soldiers in uniform, strewn about a floor, a cold tile floor. +And it was revolting. +It was absolutely revolting. +It made me sick at my stomach. +And then what hit me was, the night before, there had been some kind of bombing in Basra, and Al Jazeera had shown images of the people. +And they were equally, if not more, horrifying -- the images were. +And I remember having seen it in the Al Jazeera office, and thought to myself, "Wow, that's gross. +That's bad." +And then going away, and probably eating dinner or something. +And it didn't affect me as much. +So, the impact that had on me -- me realizing that I just saw people on the other side, and those people in the Al Jazeera office must have felt the way I was feeling that night, and it upset me on a profound level that I wasn't as bothered as much the night before. +It makes me hate war. +But it doesn't make me believe that we're in a world that can live without war yet. +Jehane Noujaim: I was overwhelmed by the response of the film. +We didn't know whether it would be able to get out there. +We had no funding for it. +We were incredibly lucky that it got picked up. +And when we showed the film in both the United States and the Arab world, we had such incredible reactions. +It was amazing to see how people were moved by this film. +In the Arab world -- and it's not really by the film, it's by the characters -- I mean, Josh Rushing was this incredibly complex person who was thinking about things. +And when I showed the film in the Middle East, people wanted to meet Josh. +He kind of redefined us as an American population. +People started to ask me, "Where is this guy now?" +Al Jazeera offered him a job. +And Samir, on the other hand, was also quite an interesting character for the Arab world to see, because it brought out the complexities of this love-hate relationship that the Arab world has with the West. +In the United States, I was blown away by the motivations, the positive motivations of the American people when they'd see this film. +And I saw this with audiences. +How do we understand what the other person is thinking?" +Now, I don't know whether a film can change the world. +But I know the power of it, I know that it starts people thinking about how to change the world. +Now, I'm not a philosopher, so I feel like I shouldn't go into great depth on this, but let film speak for itself and take you to this other world. +Because I believe that film has the ability to take you across borders, I'd like you to just sit back and experience for a couple of minutes being taken into another world. +You could give them a long political speech, they would still not understand. +But I tell you, when you finish that song, people will be like, "Damn, I know where you niggas are coming from. +I know where you guys are coming from. +Death unto apartheid!" +Narrator: It's about the liberation struggle. +It's about those children who took to the streets -- fighting, screaming, "Free Nelson Mandela!" +It's about those unions who put down their tools and demanded freedom. +Yes. Yes! +Freedom! +Jehane Noujaim: I think everybody's had that feeling of sitting in a theater, in a dark room, with other strangers, watching a very powerful film, and they felt that feeling of transformation. +And what I'd like to talk about is how can we use that feeling to actually create a movement through film? +I've been listening to the talks in the conference, and Robert Wright said yesterday that if we have an appreciation for another person's humanity, then they will have an appreciation for ours. +And that's what this is about. +It's about connecting people through film, getting these independent voices out there. +Now, Josh Rushing actually ended up leaving the military and taking a job with Al Jazeera. +So his feeling is that he's at Al Jazeera International because he feels like he can actually use media to bridge the gap between East and West. +And that's an amazing thing. +But I've been trying to think about ways to give power to these independent voices, to give power to the filmmakers, to give power to people who are trying to use film for change. +And there are incredible organizations that are out there doing this already. +There's Witness, that you heard from earlier. +There's Working Films and there's Current TV, which is an incredible platform for people around the world to be able to put their -- Yeah, it's amazing. +I've watched it and I'm blown away by it and its potential to bring voices from around the world -- independent voices from around the world -- and create a truly democratic, global television. +So what can we do to create a platform for these organizations, to create some momentum, to get everybody in the world involved in this movement? +I'd like for us to imagine for a second. +Imagine a day when you have everyone coming together from around the world. +You have towns and villages and theaters -- all from around the world, getting together, and sitting in the dark, and sharing a communal experience of watching a film, or a couple of films, together. +Watching a film which maybe highlights a character that is fighting to live, or just a character that defies stereotypes, makes a joke, sings a song. +Comedies, documentaries, shorts. +This amazing power can be used to change people and to bond people together; to cross borders, and have people feel like they're having a communal experience. +So if you imagine this day when all around the world, you have theaters and places where we project films. +If you imagine projecting from Times Square to Tahrir Square in Cairo, the same film in Ramallah, the same film in Jerusalem. +You know, we've been talking to a friend of mine about using the side of the Great Pyramid and the Great Wall of China. +It's endless what you can imagine, in terms of where you can project films and where you can have this communal experience. +And I believe that this one day, if we can create it, this one day can create momentum for all of these independent voices. +There isn't an organization which is connecting the independent voices of the world to get out there, and yet I'm hearing throughout this conference that the biggest challenge in our future is understanding the other, and having mutual respect for the other and crossing borders. +And if film can do that, and if we can get all of these different locations in the world to watch these films together -- this could be an incredible day. +So we've already made a partnership, set up through somebody from the TED community, John Camen, who introduced me to Steven Apkon, from the Jacob Burns Film Center. +And we started calling up everybody. +And in the last week, there have been so many people that have responded to us, from as close as Palo Alto, to Mongolia and to India. +There are people that want to be a part of this global day of film; to be able to provide a platform for independent voices and independent films to get out there. +Now, we've thought about a name for this day, and I'd like to share this with you. +Now, the most amazing part of this whole process has been sharing ideas and wishes, and so I invite you to give brainstorms onto how does this day echo into the future? +How do we use technology to make this day echo into the future, so that we can build community and have these communities working together, through the Internet? +There was a time, many, many years ago, when all of the continents were stuck together. +And we call that landmass Pangea. +So what we'd like to call this day of film is Pangea Cinema Day. +And if you just imagine that all of these people in these towns would be watching, then I think that we can actually really make a movement towards people understanding each other better. +I know that it's very intangible, touching people's hearts and souls, but the only way that I know how to do it, the only way that I know how to reach out to somebody's heart and soul all across the world, is by showing them a film. +And I know that there are independent filmmakers and films out there that can really make this happen. +And that's my wish. +I guess I'm supposed to give you my one-sentence wish, but we're way out of time. +Chris Anderson: That is an incredible wish. +Pangea Cinema: The day the world comes together. +JN: It's more tangible than world peace, and it's certainly more immediate. +But it would be the day that the world comes together through film, the power of film. +CA: Ladies and gentlemen, Jehane Noujaim. +Walk around for four months with three wishes, and all the ideas will start to percolate up. +I think everybody should do it -- think that you've got three wishes. +And what would you do? It's actually a great exercise to really drill down to the things that you feel are important, and really reflect on the world around us. +And thinking that, can an individual actually do something, or come up with something, that may actually get some traction out there and make a difference? +Inspired by nature -- that's the theme here. +And I think, quite frankly, that's where I started. +I became very interested in the landscape as a Canadian. +We have this Great North. And there was a pretty small population, and my father was an avid outdoorsman. +So I really had a chance to experience that. +And I could never really understand exactly what it was, or how it was informing me. +And that, to me, was a reference point that I think I needed to have to be able to make the work that I did. +And I did go out, and I did this picture of grasses coming through in the spring, along a roadside. +This rebirth of grass. And then I went out for years trying to photograph the pristine landscape. +But as a fine-art photographer I somehow felt that it wouldn't catch on out there, that there would be a problem with trying to make this as a fine-art career. +And I kept being sucked into this genre of the calendar picture, or something of that nature, and I couldn't get away from it. +So I started to think of, how can I rethink the landscape? +I decided to rethink the landscape as the landscape that we've transformed. +I had a bit of an epiphany being lost in Pennsylvania, and I took a left turn trying to get back to the highway. +And I ended up in a town called Frackville. +I got out of the car, and I stood up, and it was a coal-mining town. I did a 360 turnaround, and that became one of the most surreal landscapes I've ever seen. +Totally transformed by man. +And that got me to go out and look at mines like this, and go out and look at the largest industrial incursions in the landscape that I could find. +And that became the baseline of what I was doing. +And it also became the theme that I felt that I could hold onto, and not have to re-invent myself -- that this theme was large enough to become a life's work, to become something that I could sink my teeth into and just research and find out where these industries are. +And I think one of the things I also wanted to say in my thanks, which I kind of missed, was to thank all the corporations who helped me get in. +Because it took negotiation for almost every one of these photographs -- to get into that place to make those photographs, and if it wasn't for those people letting me in at the heads of those corporations, I would have never made this body of work. +So in that respect, to me, I'm not against the corporation. +I own a corporation. I work with them, and I feel that we all need them and they're important. +But I am also for sustainability. +So there's this thing that is pulling me in both directions. +And I'm not making an indictment towards what's happening here, but it is a slow progression. +So I started thinking, well, we live in all these ages of man: the Stone Age, and the Iron Age, and the Copper Age. +And these ages of man are still at work today. +But we've become totally disconnected from them. +There's something that we're not seeing there. +And it's a scary thing as well. Because when we start looking at the collective appetite for our lifestyles, and what we're doing to that landscape -- that, to me, is something that is a very sobering moment for me to contemplate. +And through my photographs, I'm hoping to be able to engage the audiences of my work, and to come up to it and not immediately be rejected by the image. +Not to say, "Oh my God, what is it?" but to be challenged by it -- to say, "Wow, this is beautiful," on one level, but on the other level, "This is scary. I shouldn't be enjoying it." +Like a forbidden pleasure. And it's that forbidden pleasure that I think is what resonates out there, and it gets people to look at these things, and it gets people to enter it. And it also, in a way, defines kind of what I feel, too -- that I'm drawn to have a good life. +I want a house, and I want a car. +But there's this consequence out there. +And how do I begin to have that attraction, repulsion? +It's even in my own conscience I'm having it, and here in my work, I'm trying to build that same toggle. +These things that I photographed -- this tire pile here had 45 million tires in it. It was the largest one. +It was only about an hour-and-a-half away from me, and it caught fire about four years ago. It's around Westley, California, around Modesto. +And I decided to start looking at something that, to me, had -- if the earlier work of looking at the landscape had a sense of lament to what we were doing to nature, in the recycling work that you're seeing here was starting to point to a direction. To me, it was our redemption. +That in the recycling work that I was doing, I'm looking for a practice, a human activity that is sustainable. +That if we keep putting things, through industrial and urban existence, back into the system -- if we keep doing that -- we can continue on. +Of course, listening at the conference, there's many, many things that are coming. Bio-mimicry, and there's many other things that are coming on stream -- nanotechnology that may also prevent us from having to go into that landscape and tear it apart. +And we all look forward to those things. +But in the meantime, these things are scaling up. +These things are continuing to happen. +What you're looking at here -- I went to Bangladesh, so I started to move away from North America; I started to look at our world globally. +These images of Bangladesh came out of a radio program I was listening to. +They were talking about Exxon Valdez, and that there was going to be a glut of oil tankers because of the insurance industries. +And that those oil tankers needed to be decommissioned, and 2004 was going to be the pinnacle. +And I thought, "My God, wouldn't that be something?" +To see the largest vessels of man being deconstructed by hand, literally, in third-world countries. +So originally I was going to go to India. +And I was shut out of India because of a Greenpeace situation there, and then I was able to get into Bangladesh, and saw for the first time a third world, a view of it, that I had never actually thought was possible. +130 million people living in an area the size of Wisconsin -- people everywhere -- the pollution was intense, and the working conditions were horrible. +Here you're looking at some oil fields in California, some of the biggest oil fields. And again, I started to think that -- there was another epiphany -- that the whole world I was living in was a result of having plentiful oil. +And that, to me, was again something that I started building on, and I continued to build on. +So this is a series I'm hoping to have ready in about two or three years, under the heading of "The Oil Party." +Because I think everything that we're involved in -- our clothing, our cars, our roads, and everything -- are directly a result. +I'm going to move to some pictures of China. +And for me China -- I started photographing it four years ago, and China truly is a question of sustainability in my mind, not to mention that China, as well, has a great effect on the industries that I grew up around. +I came out of a blue-collar town, a GM town, and my father worked at GM, so I was very familiar with that kind of industry and that also informed my work. But you know, to see China and the scale at which it's evolving, is quite something. +So what you see here is the Three Gorges Dam, and this is the largest dam by 50 percent ever attempted by man. +Most of the engineers around the world left the project because they said, "It's just too big." +In fact, when it did actually fill with water a year and a half ago, they were able to measure a wobble within the earth as it was spinning. +It took fifteen days to fill it. +So this created a reservoir 600 kilometers long, one of the largest reservoirs ever created. +And what was also one of the bigger projects around that was moving 13 full-size cities up out of the reservoir, and flattening all the buildings so they could make way for the ships. +This is a "before and after." So that was before. +And this is like 10 weeks later, demolished by hand. +I think 11 of the buildings they used dynamite, everything else was by hand. That was 10 weeks later. +And this gives you an idea. +And it was all the people who lived in those homes, were the ones that were actually taking it apart and working, and getting paid per brick to take their cities apart. +And these are some of the images from that. +So I spent about three trips to the Three Gorges Dam, looking at that massive transformation of a landscape. +And it looks like a bombed-out landscape, but it isn't. +What it is, it's a landscape that is an intentional one. +This is a need for power, and they're willing to go through this massive transformation, on this scale, to get that power. +And again, it's actually a relief for what's going on in China because I think on the table right now, there's 27 nuclear power stations to be built. +There hasn't been one built in North America for 20 years because of the "NIMBY" problem -- "Not In My BackYard." +But in China they're saying, "No, we're putting in 27 in the next 10 years." +And coal-burning furnaces are going in there for hydroelectric power literally weekly. +So coal itself is probably one of the largest problems. +And one of the other things that happened in the Three Gorges -- a lot of the agricultural land that you see there on the left was also lost; some of the most fertile agricultural land was lost in that. +And 1.2 to 2 million people were relocated, depending on whose statistics you're looking at. +And this is what they were building. +This is Wushan, one of the largest cities that was relocated. +This is the town hall for the city. +And again, the rebuilding of the city -- to me, it was sad to see that they didn't really grab a lot of, I guess, what we know here, in terms of urban planning. +There were no parks; there were no green spaces. +Very high-density living on the side of a hill. +And here they had a chance to rebuild cities from the bottom up, but somehow were not connecting with them. +Here is a sign that, translated, says, "Obey the birth control law. +Build our science, civilized and advanced idea of marriage and giving birth." +So here, if you look at this poster, it has all the trappings of Western culture. +You're seeing the tuxedos, the bouquets. +But what's really, to me, frightening about the picture and about this billboard is the refinery in the background. +So it's like marrying up all the things that we have and it's an adaptation of our way of life, full stop. +And again, when you start seeing that kind of embrace, and you start looking at them leading their rural lifestyle with a very, very small footprint and moving into an urban lifestyle with a much higher footprint, it starts to become very sobering. +This is a shot in one of the biggest squares in Guangdong -- and this is where a lot of migrant workers are coming in from the country. +And there's about 130 million people in migration trying to get into urban centers at all times, and in the next 10 to 15 years, are expecting another 400 to 500 million people to migrate into the urban centers like Shanghai and the manufacturing centers. +The manufacturers are -- the domestics are usually -- you can tell a domestic factory by the fact that they all use the same color uniforms. +So this is a pink uniform at this factory. It's a shoe factory. +And they have dorms for the workers. +So they bring them in from the country and put them up in the dorms. +This is one of the biggest shoe factories, the Yuyuan shoe factory near Shenzhen. It has 90,000 employees making shoes. +This is a shift change, one of three. +There's two factories of this scale in the same town. +This is one with 45,000, so every lunch, there's about 12,000 coming through for lunch. +They sit down; they have about 20 minutes. +The next round comes in. It's an incredible workforce that's building there. Shanghai -- I'm looking at the urban renewal in Shanghai, and this is a whole area that will be flattened and turned into skyscrapers in the next five years. +What's also happening in Shanghai is -- China is changing because this wouldn't have happened five years ago, for instance. This is a holdout. +They're called dengzahoos -- they're like pin tacks to the ground. +They won't move. They're not negotiating. +They're not getting enough, so they're not going to move. +And so they're holding off until they get a deal with them. +And they've been actually quite successful in getting better deals because most of them are getting a raw deal. +They're being put out about two hours -- the communities that have been around for literally hundreds of years, or maybe even thousands of years, are being broken up and spread across in the suburban areas outside of Shanghai. But these are a whole series of guys holding out in this reconstruction of Shanghai. +Probably the largest urban-renewal project, I think, ever attempted on the planet. +And then the embrace of the things that they're replacing it with -- again, one of my wishes, and I never ended up going there, was to somehow tell them that there were better ways to build a house. +The kinds of collisions of styles and things were quite something, and these are called the villas. +And also, like right now, they're just moving. +The scaffolding is still on, and this is an e-waste area, and if you looked in the foreground on the big print, you'd see that the industry -- their industry -- they're all recycling. +So the industry's already growing around these new developments. +This is a five-level bridge in Shanghai. +Shanghai was a very intriguing city -- it's exploding on a level that I don't think any city has experienced. +In fact, even Shenzhen, the economic zone -- one of the first ones -- 15 years ago was about 100,000 people, and today it boasts about 10 to 11 million. +So that gives you an idea of the kinds of migrations and the speed with which -- this is just the taxis being built by Volkswagen. +There's 9,000 of them here, and they're being built for most of the big cities, Beijing and Shanghai, Shenzhen. +And this isn't even the domestic car market; this is the taxi market. +And what we would see here as a suburban development -- a similar thing, but they're all high-rises. +So they'll put 20 or 40 up at a time, and they just go up in the same way as a single-family dwelling would go up here in an area. +And the density is quite incredible. +And one of the things in this picture that I wanted to point out is that when I saw these kinds of buildings, I was shocked to see that they're not using a central air-conditioning system; every window has an air conditioner in it. +And I'm sure there are people here who probably know better than I do about efficiencies, but I can't imagine that every apartment having its own air conditioner is a very efficient way to cool a building on this scale. +And when you start looking at that, and then you start factoring up into a city the size of Shanghai, it's literally a forest of skyscrapers. +It's breathtaking, in terms of the speed at which this city is transforming. +And you can see in the foreground of this picture, it's still one of the last areas that was being held up. +Right now that's all cleared out -- this was done about eight months ago -- and high-rises are now going up into that central spot. +So a skyscraper is built, literally, overnight in Shanghai. +Most recently I went in, and I started looking at some of the biggest industries in China. +And this is Baosteel, right outside of Shanghai. +This is the coal supply for the steel factory -- 18 square kilometers. +It's an incredibly massive operation, I think 15,000 workers, five cupolas, and the sixth one's coming in here. +So they're building very large blast furnaces to try to deal with the demand for steel in China. +So this is three of the visible blast furnaces within that shot. +And again, looking at these images, there's this constant, like, haze that you're seeing. +This is going to show you, real time, an assembler. It's a circuit breaker. +10 hours a day at this speed. +I think one of the issues that we here are facing with China, is that they're using a lot of the latest production technology. +In that one, there were 400 people that worked on the floor. +And I asked the manager to point out five of your fastest producers, and then I went and looked at each one of them for about 15 or 20 minutes, and picked this one woman. +And it was just lightning fast; the way she was working was almost unbelievable. +But that is the trick that they've got right now, that they're winning with, is that they're using all the latest technologies and extrusion machines, and bringing all the components into play, but the assembly is where they're actually bringing in -- the country workers are very willing to work. They want to work. +There's a massive backlog of people wanting their jobs. +That condition's going to be there for the next 10 to 15 years if they realize what they want, which is, you know, 400 to 500 million more people coming into the cities. +In this particular case -- this is the assembly line that you saw; this is a shot of it. +I had to use a very small aperture to get the depth of field. +I had to have them freeze for 10 seconds to get this shot. +It took me five fake tries because they were just going. To slow them down was literally impossible. +They were just wound up doing these things all day long, until the manager had to, with a stern voice, say, "Okay, everybody freeze." +It wasn't too bad, but they're driven to produce these things at an incredible rate. +This is a textile mill doing synthetic silk, an oil byproduct. +And what you're seeing here is, again, one of the most state-of-the-art textile mills. +There are 500 of these machines; they're worth about 200,000 dollars each. +So you have about 12 people running this, and they're just inspecting it -- and they're just walking the lines. +The machines are all running, absolutely incredible to see what the scale of industries are. +And I started getting in further and further into the factories. +And that's a diptych. I do a lot of pairings to try and get the sense of scale in these places. +This is a line where they get the threads and they wind the threads together, pre-going into the textile mills. +Here's something that's far more labor-intensive, which is the making of shoes. +This floor has about 1,500 workers on this floor. +The company itself had about 10,000 employees, and they're doing domestic shoes. +It was very hard to get into the international companies because I had to get permission from companies like Nike and Adidas, and that's very hard to get. +And they don't want to let me in. +But the domestic was much easier to do. +It just gives you a sense of, again -- and that's where, really, the whole migration of jobs started going over to China and making the shoes. Nike was one of the early ones. +It was such a high labor component to it that it made a lot of sense to go after that labor market. +This is a high-tech mobile phone: Bird mobile phone, one of the largest mobile makers in China. +I think mobile phone companies are popping up, literally, on a weekly basis, and they have an explosive growth in mobile phones. +This is a textile where they're doing shirts -- Youngor, the biggest shirt factory and clothing factory in China. +And this next shot here is one of the lunchrooms. +Everything is very efficient. +While setting up this shot, people on average would spend eight to 10 minutes having a lunch. +This was one of the biggest factories I've ever seen. +They make coffeemakers here, the biggest coffeemaker and the biggest iron makers -- they make 20 million of them in the world. +There's 21,000 employees. This one factory -- and they had several of them -- is half a kilometer long. +These are just recently shot -- I just came back about a month ago, so you're the first ones to be seeing these, these new factory pictures I've taken. +So it's taken me almost a year to gain access into these places. +The other aspect of what's happening in China is that there's a real need for materials there. +So a lot of the recycled materials that are collected here are being recycled and taken to China by ships. +That's cubed metal. This is armatures, electrical armatures, where they're getting the copper and the high-end steel from electrical motors out, and recycling them. +This is certainly connected to California and Silicon Valley. +But this is what happens to most of the computers. +Fifty percent of the world's computers end up in China to be recycled. +It's referred to as "e-waste" there. +And it is a bit of a problem. The way they recycle the boards is that they actually use the coal briquettes, which are used all through China, but they heat up the boards, and with pairs of pliers they pull off all the components. +They're trying to get all the valued metals out of those components. +But the toxic smells -- when you come into a town that's actually doing this kind of burning of the boards, you can smell it a good five or 10 kilometers before you get there. +Here's another operation. It's all cottage industries, so it's not big places -- it's all in people's front porches, in their backyards, even in their homes they're burning boards, if there's a concern for somebody coming by -- because it is considered in China to be illegal, doing it, but they can't stop the product from coming in. +This portrait -- I'm not usually known for portraits, but I couldn't resist this one, where she's been through Mao, and she's been through the Great Leap Forward, and the Cultural Revolution, and now she's sitting on her porch with this e-waste beside her. It's quite something. +This is a road where it's been shored up by computer boards in one of the biggest towns where they're recycling. +So that's the photographs that I wanted to show you. +I want to dedicate my wishes to my two girls. +They've been sitting on my shoulder the whole time while I've been thinking. +One's Megan, the one of the right, and Katja there. +And to me the whole notion -- the things I'm photographing are out of a great concern about the scale of our progress and what we call progress. +And as much as there are great things around the corner -- and it's palpable in this room -- of all of the things that are just about to break that can solve so many problems, I'm really hoping that those things will spread around the world and will start to have a positive effect. +So part of my thinking, and part of my wishes, is sitting with these thoughts in mind, and thinking about, "How is their life going to be when they want to have children, or when they're ready to get married 20 years from now -- or whatever, 15 years from now?" +And to me that has been the core behind most of my thinking -- in my work, and also for this incredible chance to have some wishes. +Wish one: world-changing. I want to use my images to persuade millions of people to join in the global conversation on sustainability. +And it is through communications today that I believe that that is not an unreal idea. +Oh, and I went in search -- I wanted to put what I had in mind, hitch it onto something. I didn't want a wish just to start from nowhere. +One of them I'm starting from almost nothing, but the other one, I wanted to find out what's going on that's working right now. +And Worldchanging.com is a fantastic blog, and that blog is now being visited by close to half-a-million people a month. +And it just started about 14 months ago. +And the beauty of what's going on there is that the tone of the conversation is the tone that I like. +What they're doing there is that they're not -- I think the environmental movement has failed in that it's used the stick too much; it's used the apocalyptic tone too much; it hasn't sold the positive aspects of being environmentally concerned and trying to pull us out. +Whereas this conversation that is going on in this blog is about positive movements, about how to change our world in a better way, quickly. +And it's looking at technology, and it's looking at new energy-saving devices, and it's looking at how to rethink and how to re-strategize the movement towards sustainability. +And so for me, one of the things that I thought would be to put some of my work in the service of promoting the Worldchanging.com website. +Some of you might know, he's a TEDster -- Stephen Sagmeister and I are working on some layouts. And this is still in preliminary stages; these aren't the finals. But these images, with Worldchanging.com, can be placed into any kind of media. +They could be posted through the Web; they could be used as a billboard or a bus shelter, or anything of that nature. +So we're looking at this as trying to build out. +And what we ended up discussing was that in most media you get mostly an image with a lot of text, and the text is blasted all over. +What was unusual, according to Stephen, is less than five percent of ads are actually leading with image. +And so in this case, because it's about a lot of these images and what they represent, and the kinds of questions they bring up, that we thought letting the images play out and bring someone to say, "Well, what's Worldchanging.com, with these images, have to do?" +And hopefully inspire people to go to that website. +So Worldchanging.com, and building that blog, and it is a blog, and I'm hoping that it isn't -- I don't see it as the kind of blog where we're all going to follow each other to death. +This one is one that will spoke out, and will go out, and to start reaching. Because right now there's conversations in India, in China, in South America -- there's entries coming from all around the world. +I think there's a chance to have a dialogue, a conversation about sustainability at Worldchanging.com. +And anything that you can do to promote that would be fantastic. +Wish two is more of the bottom-up, ground-up one that I'm trying to work with. +And this one is: I wish to launch a groundbreaking competition that motivates kids to invest ideas on, and invent ideas on, sustainability. +And one of the things that came out -- Allison, who actually nominated me, said something earlier on in a brainstorming. She said that recycling in Canada had a fantastic entry into our psyche through kids between grade four and six. +And you think about it, you know, grade four -- my wife and I, we say age seven is the age of reason, so they're into the age of reason. And they're pre-puberty. +So it's this great window where they actually are -- you can influence them. You know what happens at puberty? +You know, we know that from earlier presentations. +So my thinking here is that we try to motivate those kids to start driving home ideas. Let them understand what sustainability is, and that they have a vested interest in it to happen. +And one of the ways I thought of doing it is to use my prize, so I would take 30,000 or 40,000 dollars of the winnings, and the rest is going to be to manage this project, but to use that as prizes for kids to get into their hands. +But the other thing that I thought would be fantastic was to create these -- call them "prize targets." +And so one could be for the best sustainable idea for an in-school project, the best one for a household project, or it could be the best community project for sustainability. +And the prize has to be a verifiable thing, so it's not about just ideas. +The art pieces are about the ideas and how they present them and do them, but the actual things have to be verifiable. +In that way, what's happening is that we're motivating a certain age group to start thinking. +And they're going to push that up, from the bottom -- up into, I believe, into the households. And parents will be reacting to it, and trying to help them with the projects. +And I think it starts to motivate the whole idea towards sustainability in a very positive way, and starts to teach them. They know about recycling now, but they don't really, I think, get sustainability in all the things, and the energy footprint, and how that matters. +And to teach them, to me, would be a fantastic wish, and it would be something that I would certainly put my shoulder into. +And again, in "In My World," the competition -- we would use the artwork that comes in from that competition to promote it. +And I like the words, "in my world," because it gives possession of the world to the person who's doing it. +It is my world; it's not someone else's. I want to help it; I want to do something with it. So I think it has a great opportunity to engage the imaginations -- and great ideas, I think, come from kids -- and engage their imagination into a project, and do something for schools. +I think all schools could use extra equipment, extra cash -- it's going to be an incentive for them to do that. +And these are some of the ideas in terms of where we could possibly put in some promotion for "In My World." +And wish three is: Imax film. So I was told I should do one for myself, and I've always wanted to actually get involved with doing something. +And the scale of my work, and the kinds of ideas I'm playing with -- when I first saw an Imax film, I almost immediately thought, "There's a real resonance between what I'm trying to do and the scale of what I try to do as a photographer." +And I think there's a real possibility to reach new audiences if I had a chance. +So I'm looking, really, for a mentor, because I just had my birthday. +I'm 50, and I don't have time to go back to school right now -- I'm too busy. So I need somebody who can put me on a quick catch-up course on how to do something like that, and lead me through the maze of how one does something like this. +That would be fantastic. So those are my three wishes. +I'm going to discuss with you three of my inventions that can have an effect on 10 to a 100 million people, which we will hope to see happen. +We discussed, in the prior film, some of the old things that we did, like stents and insulin pumps for the diabetic. +And I'd like to talk very briefly about three new inventions that will change the lives of many people. +At the present time, it takes an average of three hours after the first symptoms of a heart attack are recognized by the patient, before that patient arrives at an emergency room. +And people with silent ischemia -- which, translated into English, means they don't have any symptoms -- it takes even longer for them to get to the hospital. +The AMI, Acute Myocardial Infarction, which is a doctor's big word so they can charge you more money -- -- means a heart attack. Annual incidence: 1.2 million Americans. +Mortality: 300,000 people dying each year. +About half of them, 600,000, have permanent damage to their heart that will cause them to have very bad problems later on. +Thus 900,000 people either have died or have significant damage to their heart muscle. +Symptoms are often denied by the patient, particularly us men, because we are very brave. We are very brave, and we don't want to admit that I'm having a hell of a chest pain. +Then, approximately 25 percent of all patients never have any symptoms. +What are we going to do about them? How can we save their lives? +It's particularly true of diabetics and elderly women. +Well, what is needed for the earliest possible warning of a heart attack? +A means to determine if there's a complete blockage of a coronary artery. +That, ladies and gentlemen, is a heart attack. +The means consist of noting something a little technical, ST segment elevation of the electrogram -- translated into English, that means that if there's an electrical signal in the heart, and one part of the ECG -- which we call the ST segment -- elevates, that is a sure sign of a heart attack. +And if we had a computer put into the body of a person who's at risk, we could know, before they even have symptoms, that they're having a heart attack, to save their life. +Well, the doctor can program a level of this ST elevation voltage that will trigger an emergency alarm, vibration like your cell phone, but right by your clavicle bone. +And when it goes beep, beep, beep, you better do something about it, because if you want to live you have to get to some medical treatment. +So we have to try these devices out because the FDA won't just let us use them on people unless we try it out first, and the best model for this happens to be pigs. +And what we tried with the pig was external electrodes on the skin, like you see in an emergency room, and I'm going to show you why they don't work very well. +And then we put a lead, which is a wire, in the right ventricle inside the heart, which does the electrogram, which is the signal voltage from inside the heart. +Well, with the pig, at the baseline, before we blocked the pig's artery to simulate a heart attack, that was the signal. +After 43 seconds, even an expert couldn't tell the difference, and after three minutes -- well, if you really studied it, you'd see a difference. +But what happened when we looked inside the pig's heart, to the electrogram? +There was the baseline -- first of all, a much bigger and more reliable signal. +Second of all, I'll bet even you people who are untrained can see the difference, and we see here an ST segment elevation right after this sharp line. +Look at the difference there. It doesn't take much -- every layperson could see that difference, and computers can be programmed to easily detect it. +Then, look at that after three minutes. +We see that the signal that's actually in the heart, we can use it to tell people that they're having a heart attack even before they have symptoms so we can save their life. +Then we tried it with my son, Dr. Tim Fischell, we tried it on some human patients who had to have a stent put in. +Well, he kept the balloon filled to block the artery, to simulate a blockage, which is what a heart attack is. +And it's not hard to see that -- the baseline is the first picture on the upper left. +Next to it, at 30 seconds, you see this rise here, then this rise -- that's the ST elevation. +And if we had a computer that could detect it, we could tell you you're having a heart attack so early it could save your life and prevent congestive heart failure. +And then he did it again. We filled the balloon again a few minutes later and here you see, even after 10 seconds, a great rise in this piece, which we can have computers inside, under your chest like a pacemaker, with a wire into your heart like a pacemaker. +And computers don't go to sleep. +We have a little battery and on this little battery that computer will run for five years without needing replacement. +What does the system look like? +Well, on the left is the IMD, which is Implantable Medical Device, and tonight in the tent you can see it -- they've exhibited it. +It's about this big, the size of a pacemaker. +It's implanted with very conventional techniques. +And the EXD is an External Device that you can have on your night table. +It'll wake you up and tell you to get your tail to the emergency room when the thing goes off because, if you don't, you're in deep doo-doo. +And then, finally, a programmer that will set the level of the stimulation, which is the level which says you are having a heart attack. +The FDA says, OK, test this final device after it's built in some animal, which we said is a pig, so we had to get this pig to have a heart attack. +And when you go to the farmyard, you can't easily get pigs to have heart attacks, so we said, well, we're experts in stents. +Tonight you'll see some of our invented stents. +We said, so we'll put in a stent, but we're not going to put in a stent that we'd put in people. +We're putting in a copper stent, and this copper stent erodes the artery and causes heart attacks. +That's not very nice, but, after all, we had to find out what the answer is. +So we took two copper stents and we put it in the artery of this pig, and let me show you the result that's very gratifying as far as people who have heart disease are concerned. +So there it was, Thursday morning we stopped the pig's medication and there is his electrogram, the signal from inside the pig's heart coming out by radio telemetry. +Then, on Friday at 6:43, he began to get certain signs, which later we had the pig run around -- I'm not going to go into this early stage. +But look what happened at 10:06 after we removed this pig's medication that kept him from having a heart attack. +Any one of you now is an expert on ST elevation. Can you see it there? +Can you see it in the picture after the big rise of the QRS -- you see ST elevation? +This pig at 10:06 was having a heart attack. +What happens after you have the heart attack, this blockage? +Your rhythm becomes irregular, and that's what happened 45 minutes later. +Then, ventricular fibrillation, the heart quivers instead of beats -- this is just before death of the pig -- and then the pig died; it went flat-line. +But we had a little bit over an hour where we could've saved this pig's life. +Well, because of the FDA, we didn't save the pig's life, because we need to do this type of animal research for humans. +But when it comes to the sake of a human, we can save their life. +We can save the lives of people who are at high risk for a heart attack. +What is the response to acute myocardial infarction, a heart attack, today? +Well, you feel some chest pain or indigestion. +It's not all that bad; you decide not to do anything. +Several hours pass and it gets worse, and even the man won't ignore it. +Finally, you go to the emergency room. +You wait as burns and other critical patients are treated, because 75 percent of the patients who go to an emergency room with chest pains don't have AMI, so you're not taken very seriously. +They finally see you. It takes more time to get your electrocardiogram on your skin and diagnose it, and it's hard to do because they don't have the baseline data, which the computer we put in you gets. +Finally, if you're lucky, you are treated in three or four hours after the incident, but the heart muscle has died. +And that is the typical treatment in the advanced world -- not Africa -- that's the typical treatment in the advanced world today. +So we developed the AngelMed Guardian System and we have a device inside this patient, called the Implanted AngelMed Guardian. +And when you have a blockage, the alarm goes off and it sends the alarm and the electrogram to an external device, which gets your baseline electrogram from 24 hours ago and the one that caused the alarm, so you can take it to the emergency room and show them, and say, take care of me right away. +Then it goes to a network operations center, where they get your data from your patient database that's been put in at some central location, say, in the United States. +Then it goes to a diagnostic center, and within one minute of your heart attack, your signal appears on the screen of a computer and the computer analyzes what your problem is. +And the person who's there, the medical practitioner, calls you -- this is also a cell phone -- and says, "Mr. Smith, you're in deep doo-doo; you have a problem. +We've called the ambulance. The ambulance is on the way. +It'll pick you up, and then we're going to call your doctor, tell him about it. +We're going to send him the signal that we have, that says you have a heart attack, and we're going to send the signal to the hospital and we're going to have it analyzed there, and there you're going to be with your doctor and you'll be taken care of so you won't die of a heart attack." +That's the first invention that I wanted to describe. +And now I want to talk about something entirely different. +At first I didn't think migraine headaches were a big problem because I'd never had a migraine headache, but then I spoke to some people who have three or four every week of their life, and their lives are being totally ruined by it. +We have a mission statement for our company doing migraine, which is, "Prevent or ameliorate migraine headaches by the application of a safe, controlled magnetic pulse applied, as needed, by the patient." +Now, you're probably very few physicists here. +If you're a physicist you'd know there's a certain Faraday's Law, which says if I apply a magnetic pulse on salt water -- that's your brains by the way -- it'll generate electric currents, and the electric current in the brain can erase a migraine headache. +That's what we have discovered. +So here's a picture of what we're doing. +The patients who have a migraine preceded by an aura have a band of excited neurons -- that's shown in red -- that moves at three to five millimeters a minute towards the mid-brain. +And when it hits the mid-brain, that's when the headache begins. +There's this migraine that is preceded by a visual aura, and this visual aura, by the way -- and I'll show you a picture -- but it sort of begins with little dancing lights, gets bigger and bigger until it fills your whole visual field. +And what we tried was this; here is a device called the Cadwell Model MES10. +Weighs about 70 pounds, has a wire about an inch in diameter. +And here's one of the patients who has an aura and always has a headache, bad one, after the aura. What do we do? +This is what an aura looks like. +It's sort of funny dancing lights, shown there on the left and right side. +And that's a fully developed visual aura, as we see on top. +In the middle, our experimentalist, the neurologist, who said, "I'm going to move this down a little and I'm going to erase half your aura." +And, by God, the neurologist did erase it, and that's the middle picture: half of the aura erased by a short magnetic pulse. +What does that mean? +That means that the magnetic pulse is generating an electric current that's interfering with the erroneous electrical activity in the brain. +And finally he says, "OK, now I'm going to -- " all of the aura get erased with an appropriately placed magnetic pulse. +What is the result? We designed a magnetic depolarizer that looks like this, that you could have -- a lady, in her pocket book -- and when you get an aura you can try it and see how it works. +Well, the next thing they have to show is what was on ABC News, Channel 7, last week in New York City, in the 11 o'clock news. +Anchor: For anyone who suffers from migraine headaches -- and there are 30 million Americans who do -- tonight: a possible answer. +Eyewitness news reporter Stacy Sager tonight, with a small and portable machine that literally zaps your migraines away. +Christina Sidebottom: Well, my first reaction was that it was -- looked awfully gun-like, and it was very strange. +Stacy Sager: But for Christina Sidebottom, almost anything was worth trying if it could stop a migraine. +It may look silly or even frightening as you walk around with it in your purse, but researchers here in Ohio organizing clinical trials for this migraine zapper, say it is scientifically sound -- that, in fact, when the average person gets a migraine, it's caused by something similar to an electrical impulse. +The zapper creates a magnetic field to counteract that. +Yousef Mohammed: In other words, we're treating electricity with electricity, rather than treating electricity with the chemicals that we're using nowadays. +SS: But is it safe to use everyday? +Experts say the research has actually been around for more than a decade, and more long-term studies need to be done. Christina now swears by it. +CS: It's been the most wonderful thing for my migraine. +SS: Researchers are hoping to present their studies to the FDA this summer. +Robert Fischell: And that is the invention to treat migraines. +You see, the problem is, 30 million Americans have migraine headaches, and we need a means to treat it, and I think that we now have it. +And this is the first device that we did, and I'm going to talk about my second wish, which has something to do with this. +Our conclusions from our studies so far, at three research centers, is there is a marked improvement in pain levels after using it just once. +The most severe headaches responded better after we did it several times, and the unexpected finding indicates that even established headaches, not only those with aura, get treated and get diminished. +And auras can be erased and the migraine, then, does not occur. +And that is the migraine invention that we are talking about and that we are working on. +The third and last invention began with an idea. +Epilepsy can best be treated by responsive electrical stimulation. +Now, why do we use -- add on, nearly, an epileptic focus? +Now, unfortunately, us technical people, unlike Mr. Bono, have to get into all these technical words. +We use current pacemaker defibrillator technology that's used for the heart. +We thought we could adapt it for the brain. +The device could be implanted under the scalp to be totally hidden and avoid wire breakage, which occurs if you put it in the chest and you try to move your neck around. +Form a company to develop a neuro-pacemaker for epilepsy, as well as other diseases of the brain, because all diseases of the brain are a result of some electrical malfunction in it, that causes many, if not all, of brain disorders. +We formed a company called NeuroPace and we started work on responsive neurostimulation, and this is a picture of what the device looked like, that's placed into the cranial bone. +This is probably a better picture. +Here we have our device in which we put in a frame. +There's a cut made in the scalp; it's opened; the neurosurgeon has a template; he marks it around, and uses a dental burr to remove a piece of the cranial bone exactly the size of our device. +And tonight, you'll be able to see the device in the tent. +In the blue wire, we see what's called a deep brain electrode. +If that's the source of the epilepsy, we can attack that as well. +The comprehensive solution: this is the device; it's about one inches by two inches and, oddly enough, just the thickness of most cranial bones. +And this shows what an electroencephalogram is, and on the left is the signal of a spontaneous seizure of one of the patients. +Then we stimulated, and you see how that heavy black line and then you see the electroencephalogram signal going to normal, which means they did not get the epileptic seizure. +That concludes my discussion of epilepsy, which is the third invention that I want to discuss here this afternoon. +I have three wishes. Well, I can't do much about Africa. +I'm a tech; I'm into medical gadgetry, which is mostly high-tech stuff like Mr. Bono talked about. +The first wish is to use the epilepsy responsive neurostimulator, called RNS, for Responsive NeuroStimulator -- that's a brilliant acronym -- for the treatment of other brain disorders. +Well, if we're going to do it for epilepsy, why the hell not try it for something else? +Then you saw what that device looked like, that the woman was using to fix her migraines? +I tell you this: that's something which some research engineer like me would concoct, not a real designer of good equipment. +We want to have some people, who really know how to do this, perform human engineering studies to develop the optimum design for the portable device for treating migraine headaches. +And some of the sponsors of this TED meeting are such organizations. +Then we're going to challenge the TED attendees to come up with a way to improve health care in the USA, where we have problems that Africa doesn't have. +And by reducing malpractice litigation -- malpractice litigation is not an African problem; it's an American problem. +So, to get quickly to my first wish -- the brain operates by electrical signals. +If the electrical signals create a brain disorder, electro-stimulation can overcome that disorder by acting on the brain's neurons. +In other words, if you've screwed up electrical signals, maybe, by putting other electrical signals from a computer in the brain, we can counteract that. +A signal in the brain that triggers brain dysfunction might be sensed as a trigger for electro-stimulation like we're doing with epilepsy. +But even if there is no signal, electro-stimulation of an appropriate part of the brain can turn off a brain disorder. +And consider treating psychotic disorders -- and I want this involved with the TED group -- such as obsessive-compulsive disorder that, presently, is not well treated with drugs, and includes five million Americans. +And Mr. Fischer, and his group at NeuroPace, and myself believe that we can have a dramatic effect in improving OCD in America and in the world. +That is the first wish. +The second wish is, at the present time, the clinical trials of transcranial magnetic stimulators -- that's what TMS means, device to treat migraine headaches -- appears to be quite successful. +Well, that's the good news. +The present portable device is far from optimally designed, both as to human factors as appearance. +I think she said it looks like a gun. A lot of people don't like guns. +Engage a company having prior successes for human factors engineering and industrial design to optimize the design of the first portable TMS device that will be sold to the patients who have migraine headaches. +And that is the second wish. +And, of the 100,000-dollar prize money, that TED was so generous to give me, I am donating 50,000 dollars to the NeuroPace people to get on with the treatment of OCD, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and I'm making another 50,000 available for a company to optimize the design of the device for migraines. +And that's how I'll use my 100,000-dollar prize money. +Well, the third and final wish is somewhat -- unfortunately, it's much more complicated because it involves lawyers. +Well, medical malpractice litigation in the US has escalated the cost of malpractice insurance, so that competent physicians are leaving their practice. +Lawyers take cases on contingency with the hope of a big share of a big settlement by a sympathetic jury, because this patient really ended up badly. +The high cost of health care in the US is partly due to litigation and insurance costs. +I've seen pictures, graphs in today's USA Today showing it skyrocketing out of control, and this is one factor. +Well, how can the TED community help with this situation? +I have a couple of ideas to begin with. +As a starting point for discussion with the TED group, a major part of the problem is the nature of the written extent of informed consent that the patient or spouse must read and sign. +For example, I asked the epilepsy people what are they using for informed consent. +Would you believe, 12 pages, single space, the patient has to read before they're in our trial to cure their epilepsy? +What do you think someone has at the end of reading 12 single-spaced pages? +They don't understand what the hell it's about. +That's the present system. How about making a video? +We have entertainment people here; we have people who know how to do videos, with visual presentation of the anatomy and procedure done with animation. +Everybody knows that we can do better with a visual thing that can be interactive with the patient, where they see the video and they're being videoed and they press, do you understand this? No, I don't. +Well, then let's go to a simpler explanation. +Then there's a simpler one and, oh yes, I understand that. +Well, press the button and you're on record, you understand. +And that is one of the ideas. +Now, also a video is done of the patient or spouse and medical presenter, with the patient agreeing that he understands the procedure to be done, including all the possible failure modes. +The patient or spouse agrees not to file a lawsuit if one of the known procedure failures occurs. +Now, in America, in fact, you cannot give up your right to trial by jury. +However, if a video is there that everything was explained to you, and you have it all in the video file, it'll be much less likely that some hotshot lawyer will take this case on contingency, because it won't be nearly as good a case. +If a medical error occurs, the patient or spouse agrees to a settlement for fair compensation by arbitration instead of going to court. +That would save hundreds of millions of dollars in legal costs in the United States and would decrease the cost of medicine for everyone. +These are just some starting points. +And, so there, that's the end of all my wishes. +I wish I had more wishes but three is what I've got and there they are. +I'm the luckiest guy in the world. +I got to see the last case of killer smallpox in the world. +I was in India this past year, and I may have seen the last cases of polio in the world. +There's nothing that makes you feel more -- the blessing and the honor of working in a program like that -- than to know that something that horrible no longer exists. +So I'm going to tell you -- so I'm going to show you some dirty pictures. +They are difficult to watch, but you should look at them with optimism, because the horror of these pictures will be matched by the uplifting quality of knowing that they no longer exist. +But first, I'm going to tell you a little bit about my own journey. +My background is not exactly the conventional medical education that you might expect. +When I was an intern in San Francisco, I heard about a group of Native Americans who had taken over Alcatraz Island, and a Native American who wanted to give birth on that island, and no other doctor wanted to go and help her give birth. +I went out to Alcatraz, and I lived on the island for several weeks. +She gave birth; I caught the baby; I got off the island; I landed in San Francisco; and all the press wanted to talk to me, because my three weeks on the island made me an expert in Indian affairs. +I wound up on every television show. +Now, you know from the '60s, you're either on the bus or you're off the bus; I was on the bus. +My wife of 37 years and I joined the bus. +Our bus ride took us from San Francisco to London, then we switched buses at the big pond. We then got on two more buses and we drove through Turkey and Iran, Afghanistan, over the Khyber Pass into Pakistan, like every other young doctor. +This is us at the Khyber Pass, and that's our bus. +We had some difficulty getting over the Khyber Pass. +But we wound up in India. +And then, like everyone else in our generation, we went to live in a Himalayan monastery. +This is just like a residency program, for those of you that are in medical school. +And we studied with a wise man, a guru named Karoli Baba, who then told me to get rid of the dress, put on a three-piece suit, go join the United Nations as a diplomat and work for the World Health Organization. +And he made an outrageous prediction that smallpox would be eradicated, and that this was God's gift to humanity, because of the hard work of dedicated scientists. +And that prediction came true. This little girl is Rahima Banu, and she was the last case of killer smallpox in the world. +And this document is the certificate that the global commission signed, certifying the world to have eradicated the first disease in history. +The key to eradicating smallpox was early detection, early response. +I'm going to ask you to repeat that: early detection, early response. +Can you say that? +Audience: Early detection, early response. +Larry Brilliant: Smallpox was the worst disease in history. +It killed more people than all the wars in history. +In the last century, it killed 500 million people. +You're reading about Larry Page already. +Somebody reads very fast. In the year that Larry Page and Sergey Brin -- with whom I have a certain affection and a new affiliation -- in the year in which they were born, two million people died of smallpox. +We declared smallpox eradicated in 1980. +This is the most important slide that I've ever seen in public health, [Sovereigns killed by smallpox] because it shows you to be the richest and the strongest, and to be kings and queens of the world, did not protect you from dying of smallpox. +Never can you doubt that we are all in this together. +But to see smallpox from the perspective of a sovereign is the wrong perspective. +You should see it from the perspective of a mother, watching her child develop this disease and standing by helplessly. +Day one, day two, day three, day four, day five, day six. +You're a mother and you're watching your child, and on day six, you see pustules that become hard. +Day seven, they show the classic scars of smallpox umbilication. +Day eight. +By day nine -- you look at this picture and you're horrified; I look at this picture and I say, "Thank God," because it's clear that this is only an ordinary case of smallpox, and I know this child will live. +And by day 13, the lesions are scabbing, his eyelids are swollen, but you know this child has no other secondary infection. +And by day 20, while he will be scarred for life, he will live. +There are other kinds of smallpox that are not like that. +This is confluent smallpox, in which there isn't a single place on the body where you could put a finger and not be covered by lesions. +Flat smallpox, which killed 100 percent of people who got it. +And hemorrhagic smallpox, the most cruel of all, which had a predilection for pregnant women. +I've probably had 50 women die. They all had hemorrhagic smallpox. +I've never seen anybody die from it who wasn't a pregnant woman. +In 1967, the WHO embarked on what was an outrageous program to eradicate a disease. +In that year, there were 34 countries affected with smallpox. +By 1970, we were down to 18 countries. +1974, we were down to five countries. +But in that year, smallpox exploded throughout India. +And India was the place where smallpox made its last stand. +In 1974, India had a population of 600 million. +There are 21 linguistic states in India, which is like saying 21 different countries. +It wasn't just India that had smallpox deities; smallpox deities were prevalent all over the world. +So, how we eradicated smallpox was -- max vaccination wouldn't work. +You could vaccinate everybody in India, but one year later there'd be 21 million new babies, which was then the population of Canada. +It wouldn't do just to vaccinate everyone. +You had to find every single case of smallpox in the world at the same time, and draw a circle of immunity around it. +And that's what we did. +In India alone, my 150,000 best friends and I went door to door, with that same picture, to every single house in India. We made over one billion house calls. +And in the process, I learned something very important. +Every time we did a house-to-house search, we had a spike in the number of reports of smallpox. +When we didn't search, we had the illusion that there was no disease. +When we did search, we had the illusion that there was more disease. +A surveillance system was necessary, because what we needed was early detection, early response. +So we searched and we searched, and we found every case of smallpox in India. We had a reward. We raised the reward. +We continued to increase the reward. +We had a scorecard that we wrote on every house. +And as we did that, the number of reported cases in the world dropped to zero. +And in 1980, we declared the globe free of smallpox. +It was the largest campaign in United Nations history, until the Iraq war. +150,000 people from all over the world -- doctors of every race, religion, culture and nation, who fought side by side, brothers and sisters, with each other, not against each other, in a common cause to make the world better. +But smallpox was the fourth disease that was intended for eradication. +We failed three other times. +We failed against malaria, yellow fever and yaws. +But soon we may see polio eradicated. +But the key to eradicating polio is early detection, early response. +This may be the year we eradicate polio. +That will make it the second disease in history. +And David Heymann, who's watching this on the webcast -- David, keep on going. We're close! We're down to four countries. +I feel like Hank Aaron. Barry Bonds can replace me any time. +Let's get another disease off the list of terrible things to worry about. +I was just in India working on the polio program. +The polio surveillance program is four million people going door to door. +That is the surveillance system. +But we need to have early detection, early response. +Blindness, the same thing. The key to discovering blindness is doing epidemiological surveys and finding out the causes of blindness, so you can mount the correct response. +The Seva Foundation was started by a group of alumni of the Smallpox Eradication Programme, who, having climbed the highest mountain, tasted the elixir of the success of eradicating a disease, wanted to do it again. +And over the last 27 years, Seva's programs in 15 countries have given back sight to more than two million blind people. +Seva got started because we wanted to apply these lessons of surveillance and epidemiology to something which nobody else was looking at as a public health issue: blindness, which heretofore had been thought of only as a clinical disease. +In 1980, Steve Jobs gave me that computer, which is Apple number 12, and it's still in Kathmandu, and it's still working, and we ought to go get it and auction it off and make more money for Seva. +And we conducted the first Nepal survey ever done for health, and the first nationwide blindness survey ever done, and we had astonishing results. +Instead of finding out what we thought was the case -- that blindness was caused mostly by glaucoma and trachoma -- we were astounded to find out that blindness was caused instead by cataract. +You can't cure or prevent what you don't know is there. +In your TED packages there's a DVD, "Infinite Vision," about Dr. V and the Aravind Eye Hospital. +I hope that you will take a look at it. +Aravind, which started as a Seva project, is now the world's largest and best eye hospital. +This year, that one hospital will give back sight to more than 300,000 people in Tamil Nadu, India. +Bird flu. I stand here as a representative of all terrible things -- this might be the worst. +The key to preventing or mitigating pandemic bird flu is early detection and rapid response. +We will not have a vaccine or adequate supplies of an antiviral to combat bird flu if it occurs in the next three years. +WHO stages the progress of a pandemic. +We are now at stage three on the pandemic alert stage, with just a little bit of human-to-human transmission, but no human-to-human-to-human sustained transmission. +The moment WHO says we've moved to category four -- this will not be like Katrina. The world as we know it will stop. +There'll be no airplanes flying. +Would you get in an airplane with 250 people you didn't know, coughing and sneezing, when you knew that some of them might carry a disease that could kill you, for which you had no antivirals or vaccine? +I did a study of the top epidemiologists in the world in October. +I asked them -- these are all fluologists and specialists in influenza -- and I asked them the questions you'd like to ask them: What do you think the likelihood is that there'll be a pandemic? +If it happens, how bad do you think it will be? +Fifteen percent said they thought there'd be a pandemic within three years. +But much worse than that, 90 percent said they thought there'd be a pandemic within your children or your grandchildren's lifetime. +And they thought that if there was a pandemic, a billion people would get sick. +As many as 165 million people would die. +And it's getting worse, because travel is getting so much better. +Let me show you a simulation of what a pandemic looks like. +So we know what we're talking about. +Let's assume, for example, that the first case occurs in South Asia. +It initially goes quite slowly. +You get two or three discrete locations. +Then there'll be secondary outbreaks, and the disease will spread from country to country so fast that you won't know what hit you. +Within three weeks it will be everywhere in the world. +And let me show you why that is. +We have a joke. This is an epidemic curve, and everyone in medicine, I think, ultimately gets to know what it is. +But the joke is, an epidemiologist likes to arrive at an epidemic right here and ride to glory on the downhill curve. +But you don't get to do that usually. +You usually arrive right about here. +What we really want is to arrive right here, so we can stop the epidemic. +But you can't always do that. +But there's an organization that has been able to find a way to learn when the first cases occur, and that is called GPHIN; it's the Global Public Health Information Network. +And that simulation that I showed you that you thought was bird flu -- that was SARS. +And SARS is the pandemic that did not occur. +And it didn't occur because GPHIN found the pandemic-to-be of SARS three months before WHO actually announced it, and because of that, we were able to stop the SARS pandemic. +And I think we owe a great debt of gratitude to GPHIN and to Ron St. John, who I hope is in the audience some place -- over there -- who's the founder of GPHIN. +Hello, Ron! +And TED has flown Ron here from Ottawa, where GPHIN is located, because not only did GPHIN find SARS early, but you may have seen last week that Iran announced that they had bird flu in Iran, but GPHIN found the bird flu in Iran not February 14 -- but last September. +We need an early-warning system to protect us against the things that are humanity's worst nightmare. +And so my TED wish is based on the common denominator of these experiences. +Smallpox -- early detection, early response. +Blindness, polio -- early detection, early response. +Pandemic bird flu -- early detection, early response. It is a litany. +It is so obvious that our only way of dealing with these new diseases is to find them early and to kill them before they spread. +So, my TED wish is for you to help build a global system -- an early-warning system -- to protect us against humanity's worst nightmares. +So instead of a hidden pandemic of bird flu, we find it and immediately contain it. +Instead of a novel virus caused by bio-terror or bio-error, or shift or drift, we find it and we contain it. +Instead of industrial accidents like oil spills or the catastrophe in Bhopal, we find them, and we respond to them. +Instead of famine, hidden until it is too late, we detect it, and we respond. +And instead of a system which is owned by a government, and hidden in the bowels of government, let's build an early detection system that's freely available to anyone in the world in their own language. +Let's make it transparent, non-governmental, not owned by any single country or company, housed in a neutral country, with redundant backup in a different time zone and a different continent. +And let's build it on GPHIN. Let's start with GPHIN. +Let's increase the websites that they crawl from 20,000 to 20 million. +Let's increase the languages they crawl from seven to 70, or more. +Let's build in outbound confirmation messages, using text messages or SMS or instant messaging to find out from people who are within 100 meters of the rumor that you hear, if it is, in fact, valid. +And let's add satellite confirmation. +And we'll add Gapminder's amazing graphics to the front end. +Chris Anderson: An amazing presentation. +First of all, just so everyone understands: you're saying that by creating web crawlers, looking on the Internet for patterns, they can detect something suspicious before WHO, before anyone else can see it? +Give an example of how that could possibly be true. +Larry Brilliant: You're not mad about the copyright violation? +CA: No. I love it. +LB: Well, as Ron St. John -- I hope you'll go and meet him in the dinner afterwards and talk to him. +When he started GPHIN -- In 1997, there was an outbreak of bird flu -- H5N1. +It was in Hong Kong. And a remarkable doctor in Hong Kong responded immediately, by slaughtering 1.5 million chickens and birds, and they stopped that outbreak in its tracks. +Immediate detection, immediate response. +Then a number of years went by, and there were a lot of rumors about bird flu. +Ron and his team in Ottawa began to crawl the web -- only crawling 20,000 different websites, mostly periodicals -- and they read about and heard about a concern, of a lot of children who had high fever and symptoms of bird flu. +They reported this to WHO. WHO took a little while taking action, because WHO will only receive a report from a government, because it's the United Nations. +But they were able to point to WHO and let them know that there was this surprising and unexplained cluster of illnesses that looked like bird flu. +That turned out to be SARS. +That's how the world found out about SARS. +And because of that, we were able to stop SARS. +Now, what's really important is that, before there was GPHIN, 100 percent of all the world's reports of bad things -- whether you're talking about famine or you're talking about bird flu or you're talking about Ebola -- 100 percent of all those reports came from nations. +The moment these guys in Ottawa -- on a budget of 800,000 dollars a year -- got cracking, 75 percent of all the reports in the world came from GPHIN, 25 percent of all the reports in the world came from all the other 180 nations. +Now, here's what's really interesting: after they'd been working for a couple years, what do you think happened to those nations? +They felt pretty stupid. So they started sending in their reports early. +And now, their reporting percentage is down to 50 percent, because other nations have started to report. +So, can you find diseases early by crawling the web? +Of course you can. Can you find it even earlier than GPHIN does now? +Of course you can. +You saw that they found SARS using their Chinese web crawler a full six weeks before they found it using their English web crawler. +Well, they're only crawling in seven languages. +These bad viruses really don't have any intention of showing up first in English or Spanish or French. +So yes, I want to take GPHIN, I want to build on it. +I want to add all the languages of the world that we possibly can. +I want to make this open to everybody, so that the health officer in Nairobi or in Patna, Bihar will have as much access to it as the folks in Ottawa or in CDC. +And I want to make it part of our culture that there is a community of people who are watching out for the worst nightmares of humanity, and that it's accessible to everyone. +Well, as Alexander Graham Bell famously said on his first successful telephone call, "Hello, is that Domino's Pizza?" +I just really want to thank you very much. +As another famous man, Jerry Garcia, said, "What a strange, long trip." +And he should have said, "What a strange, long trip it's about to become." +At this very moment, you are viewing my upper half. +My lower half is appearing at a different conference in a different country. +You can, it turns out, be in two places at once. +But still, I'm sorry I can't be with you in person. +I'll explain at another time. +And though I'm a rock star, I just want to assure you that none of my wishes will include a hot tub. +But what really turns me on about technology is not just the ability to get more songs on MP3 players. +The revolution -- this revolution -- is much bigger than that. +I hope, I believe. +What turns me on about the digital age, what excites me personally, is that you have closed the gap between dreaming and doing. +You see, it used to be that if you wanted to make a record of a song, you needed a studio and a producer. +Now, you need a laptop. +If you wanted to make a film, you needed a mass of equipment and a Hollywood budget. +Now, you need a camera that fits in your palm, and a couple of bucks for a blank DVD. +Imagination has been decoupled from the old constraints. +And that really, really excites me. +I'm excited when I glimpse that kind of thinking writ large. +What I would like to see is idealism decoupled from all constraints. +Political, economic, psychological, whatever. +The geopolitical world has got a lot to learn from the digital world. +From the ease with which you swept away obstacles that no one knew could even be budged. +And that's actually what I'd like to talk about today. +First, though, I should probably explain why, and how, I got to this place. +It's a journey that started 20 years ago. +You may remember that song, "We Are the World," or, "Do They Know It's Christmas?" +Band Aid, Live Aid. +Another very tall, grizzled rock star, my friend Sir Bob Geldof, issued a challenge to "feed the world." +It was a great moment, and it utterly changed my life. +That summer, my wife, Ali, and myself went to Ethiopia. +We went on the quiet to see for ourselves what was going on. +We lived in Ethiopia for a month, working at an orphanage. +The children had a name for me. +They called me, "The girl with the beard." +Don't ask. +Anyway, we found Africa to be a magical place. +Big skies, big hearts, big, shining continent. +Beautiful, royal people. +Anybody who ever gave anything to Africa got a lot more back. +Ethiopia didn't just blow my mind; it opened my mind. +Anyway, on our last day at this orphanage a man handed me his baby and said, "Would you take my son with you?" +He knew, in Ireland, that his son would live, and that in Ethiopia, his son would die. +It was the middle of that awful famine. +Well, I turned him down. +And it was a funny kind of sick feeling, but I turned him down. +And it's a feeling I can't ever quite forget. +And in that moment, I started this journey. +In that moment, I became the worst thing of all: I became a rock star with a cause. Except this isn't the cause, is it? +Six-and-a-half thousand Africans dying every single day from AIDS -- a preventable, treatable disease -- for lack of drugs we can get in any pharmacy. +That's not a cause. That's an emergency. +11 million AIDS orphans in Africa, 20 million by the end of the decade. +That's not a cause. That's an emergency. +Today, every day, 9,000 more Africans will catch HIV because of stigmatization and lack of education. +That's not a cause. That's an emergency. +So what we're talking about here is human rights. +The right to live like a human. +The right to live, period. +And what we're facing in Africa is an unprecedented threat to human dignity and equality. +The next thing I'd like to be clear about is what this problem is, and what this problem isn't. +Because this is not all about charity. +This is about justice. Really. +This is not about charity. This is about justice. +That's right. +And that's too bad, because we're very good at charity. +Americans, like Irish people, are good at it. +Even the poorest neighborhoods give more than they can afford. +We like to give, and we give a lot. +Look at the response to the tsunami -- it's inspiring. +But justice is a tougher standard than charity. +You see, Africa makes a fool of our idea of justice. +It makes a farce of our idea of equality. +It mocks our pieties. It doubts our concern. +It questions our commitment. +Because there is no way we can look at what's happening in Africa, and if we're honest, conclude that it would ever be allowed to happen anywhere else. +As you heard in the film, anywhere else, not here. +Not here, not in America, not in Europe. +In fact, a head of state that you're all familiar with admitted this to me. And it's really true. +There is no chance this kind of hemorrhaging of human life would be accepted anywhere else other than Africa. +Africa is a continent in flames. +And deep down, if we really accepted that Africans were equal to us, we would all do more to put the fire out. +We're standing around with watering cans, when what we really need is the fire brigade. +You see, it's not as dramatic as the tsunami. +It's crazy, really, when you think about it. +Does stuff have to look like an action movie these days to exist in the front of our brain? +The slow extinguishing of countless lives is just not dramatic enough, it would appear. +Catastrophes that we can avert are not as interesting as ones we could avert. +Funny, that. +Anyway, I believe that that kind of thinking offends the intellectual rigor in this room. +Six-and-a-half thousand people dying a day in Africa may be Africa's crisis, but the fact that it's not on the nightly news, that we in Europe, or you in America, are not treating it like an emergency -- I want to argue with you tonight that that's our crisis. +I want to argue that though Africa is not the front line in the war against terror, it could be soon. +Every week, religious extremists take another African village. +They're attempting to bring order to chaos. +Well, why aren't we? +Poverty breeds despair. We know this. +Despair breeds violence. We know this. +In turbulent times, isn't it cheaper, and smarter, to make friends out of potential enemies than to defend yourself against them later? +"The war against terror is bound up in the war against poverty." +And I didn't say that. Colin Powell said that. +Now when the military are telling us that this is a war that cannot be won by military might alone, maybe we should listen. +There's an opportunity here, and it's real. +It's not spin. It's not wishful thinking. +The problems facing the developing world afford us in the developed world a chance to re-describe ourselves to the world. +We will not only transform other people's lives, but we will also transform the way those other lives see us. +And that might be smart in these nervous, dangerous times. +Don't you think that on a purely commercial level, that anti-retroviral drugs are great advertisements for Western ingenuity and technology? +Doesn't compassion look well on us? +And let's cut the crap for a second. +In certain quarters of the world, brand EU, brand USA, is not at its shiniest. +The neon sign is fizzing and cracking. +Someone's put a brick through the window. +The regional branch managers are getting nervous. +Never before have we in the west been so scrutinized. +Our values: do we have any? +Our credibility? +These things are under attack around the world. +Brand USA could use some polishing. +And I say that as a fan, you know? +As a person who buys the products. +But think about it. +More anti-retrovirals make sense. +But that's just the easy part, or ought to be. +But equality for Africa -- that's a big, expensive idea. +You see, the scale of the suffering numbs us into a kind of indifference. +What on earth can we all do about this? +Well, much more than we think. +We can't fix every problem, but the ones we can, I want to argue, we must. +And because we can, we must. +This is the straight truth, the righteous truth. +It is not a theory. +The fact is that ours is the first generation that can look disease and extreme poverty in the eye, look across the ocean to Africa, and say this, and mean it: we do not have to stand for this. +A whole continent written off -- we do not have to stand for this. +And let me say this without a trace of irony -- before I back it up to a bunch of ex-hippies. +Forget the '60s. We can change the world. +I can't; you can't, as individuals; but we can change the world. +I really believe that, the people in this room. +Look at the Gates Foundation. +They've done incredible stuff, unbelievable stuff. +But working together, we can actually change the world. +We can turn the inevitable outcomes, and transform the quality of life for millions of lives who look and feel rather like us, when you're up close. +I'm sorry to laugh here, but you do look so different than you did in Haight-Ashbury in the '60s. +But I want to argue that this is the moment that you are designed for. +It is the flowering of the seeds you planted in earlier, headier days. +Ideas that you gestated in your youth. +This is what excites me. +This room was born for this moment, is really what I want to say to you tonight. +Most of you started out wanting to change the world, didn't you? +Most of you did, the digital world. +Well, now, actually because of you, it is possible to change the physical world. +It's a fact. +Economists confirm it, and they know much more than I do. +So why, then, are we not pumping our fists into the air? +Probably because when we admit we can do something about it, we've got to do something about it. +It is a pain in the arse. +This equality business is actually a pain in the arse. +But for the first time in history, we have the technology; we have the know-how; we have the cash; we have the life-saving drugs. +Do we have the will? +I hope this is obvious, but I'm not a hippie. +And I'm not really one for the warm, fuzzy feeling. +I do not have flowers in my hair. +Actually, I come from punk rock. +The Clash wore big army boots, not sandals. +But I know toughness when I see it. +And for all the talk of peace and love on the West Coast, there was muscle to the movement that started out here. +You see, idealism detached from action is just a dream. +But idealism allied with pragmatism, with rolling up your sleeves and making the world bend a bit, is very exciting. It's very real. It's very strong. +And it's very present in a crowd like you. +Last year at DATA, this organization I helped set up, we launched a campaign to summon this spirit in the fight against AIDS and extreme poverty. +We're calling it the ONE Campaign. +It's based on our belief that the action of one person can change a lot, but the actions of many coming together as one can change the world. +Well, we feel that now is the time to prove we're right. +There are moments in history when civilization redefines itself. +We believe this is one. +We believe that this could be the time when the world finally decides that the wanton loss of life in Africa is just no longer acceptable. +This could be the time that we finally get serious about changing the future for most people who live on planet Earth. +Momentum has been building. +Lurching a little, but it's building. +This year is a test for us all, especially the leaders of the G8 nations, who really are on the line here, with all the world in history watching. +I have been, of late, disappointed with the Bush Administration. +They started out with such promise on Africa. +They made some really great promises, and actually have fulfilled a lot of them. +But some of them they haven't. +They don't feel the push from the ground, is the truth. +But my disappointment has much more perspective when I talk to American people, and I hear their worries about the deficit, and the fiscal well being of their country. +I understand that. +But there's much more push from the ground than you'd think, if we got organized. +What I try to communicate, and you can help me if you agree, is that aid for Africa is just great value for money at a time when America really needs it. +Putting it in the crassest possible terms, the investment reaps huge returns. +Not only in lives saved, but in goodwill, stability and security that we'll gain. +So this is what I hope that you will do, if I could be so bold, and not have it deducted from my number of wishes. +What I hope is that beyond individual merciful acts, that you will tell the politicians to do right by Africa, by America and by the world. +Give them permission, if you like, to spend their political capital and your financial capital, your national purse on saving the lives of millions of people. +That's really what I would like you to do. +Because we also need your intellectual capital: your ideas, your skills, your ingenuity. +And you, at this conference, are in a unique position. +Some of the technologies we've been talking about, you invented them, or at least revolutionized the way that they're used. +Together you have changed the zeitgeist from analog to digital, and pushed the boundaries. +And we'd like you to give us that energy. +Give us that kind of dreaming, that kind of doing. +As I say, there're two things on the line here. +There's the continent Africa. +But there's also our sense of ourselves. +People are starting to figure this out. +Movements are springing up. +Artists, politicians, pop stars, priests, CEOs, NGOs, mothers' unions, student unions. +A lot of people are getting together, and working under this umbrella I told you about earlier, the ONE Campaign. +I think they just have one idea in their mind, which is, where you live in the world should not determine whether you live in the world. +History, like God, is watching what we do. +When the history books get written, I think our age will be remembered for three things. +Really, it's just three things this whole age will be remembered for. +The digital revolution, yes. +The war against terror, yes. +And what we did or did not do to put out the fires in Africa. +Some say we can't afford to. I say we can't afford not to. +Thank you, thank you very much. +Okay, my three wishes. +The ones that TED has offered to grant. +You see, if this is true, and I believe it is, that the digital world you all created has uncoupled the creative imagination from the physical constraints of matter, this should be a piece of piss. +I should add that this started out as a much longer list of wishes. +Most of them impossible, some of them impractical and one or two of them certainly immoral. +This business, it gets to be addictive, you know what I mean, when somebody else is picking up the tab. +Anyway, here's number one. +I wish for you to help build a social movement of more than one million American activists for Africa. +That is my first wish. +I believe it's possible. +A few minutes ago, I talked about all the citizens' campaigns that are springing up. +You know, there's lots out there. +And with this one campaign as our umbrella, my organization, DATA, and other groups, have been tapping into the energy and the enthusiasm that's out there from Hollywood into the heartland of America. +We know there's more than enough energy to power this movement. +We just need your help in making it happen. +We want all of you here, church America, corporate America, Microsoft America, Apple America, Coke America, Pepsi America, nerd America, noisy America. +We can't afford to be cool and sit this one out. +I do believe if we build a movement that's one million Americans strong, we're not going to be denied. +We will have the ear of Congress. +We'll be the first page in Condi Rice's briefing book, and right into the Oval Office. +If there's one million Americans -- and I really know this -- who are ready to make phone calls, who are ready to be on email, I am absolutely sure that we can actually change the course of history, literally, for the continent of Africa. +Anyway, so I'd like your help in getting that signed up. +I know John Gage and Sun Microsystems are already on board for this, but there's lots of you we'd like to talk to. +Right, my second wish, number two. +I would like one media hit for every person on the planet who is living on less than one dollar a day. +That's one billion media hits. +Could be on Google, could be on AOL. +Steve Case, Larry, Sergey -- they've done a lot already. +It could be NBC. It could be ABC. +Actually we're talking to ABC today about the Oscars. +We have a film, produced by Jon Kamen at Radical Media. +But you know, we want, we need some airtime for our ideas. +We need to get the math; we need to get the statistics out to the American people. +I really believe that old Truman line, that if you give the American people the facts, they'll do the right thing. +And, the other thing that's important is that this is not Sally Struthers. +This has to be described as an adventure, not a burden. +: One by one they step forward, a nurse, a teacher, a homemaker, and lives are saved. +The problem is enormous. +Every three seconds one person dies. +Another three seconds, one more. +The situation is so desperate in parts of Africa, Asia, even America, that aid groups, just as they did for the tsunami, are uniting as one, acting as one. +We can beat extreme poverty, starvation, AIDS. +But we need your help. +One more person, letter, voice will mean the difference between life and death for millions of people. +Please join us by working together. +Americans have an unprecedented opportunity. +We can make history. +We can start to make poverty history. +One, by one, by one. +Please visit ONE at this address. +We're not asking for your money. We're asking for your voice. +Bono: All right. I wish for TED to truly show the power of information, its power to rewrite the rules and transform lives, by connecting every hospital, health clinic and school in one African country. +And I would like it to be Ethiopia. +I believe we can connect every school in Ethiopia, every health clinic, every hospital -- we can connect to the Internet. +That is my wish, my third wish. +I think it's possible. +I think we have the money and brains in the room to do that. +And that would be a mind-blowing wish to come true. +I've been to Ethiopia, as I said earlier. +It's actually where it all started for me. +The idea that the Internet, which changed all of our lives, can transform a country -- and a continent that has hardly made it to analog, let alone digital -- blows my mind. +But it didn't start out that way. +The first long-distance line from Boston to New York was used in 1885 on the phone. +It was just nine years later that Addis Ababa was connected by phone to Harare, which is 500 kilometers away. +Since then, not that much has changed. +The average waiting time to get a landline in Ethiopia is actually about seven or eight years. +But wireless technology wasn't dreamt up then. +Anyway, I'm Irish, and as you can see, I know how important talking is. +Communication is very important for Ethiopia -- will transform the country. +Nurses getting better training, pharmacists being able to order supplies, doctors sharing their expertise in all aspects of medicine. +It's a very, very good idea to get them wired. +And that is my third and final wish for you at the TED conference. +Thank you very much once again. +So my grandfather told me when I was a little girl, "If you say a word often enough, it becomes you." +I was also inspired by Walt Whitman, who wanted to absorb America and have it absorb him. +So these four characters are going to be from that work that I've been doing for many years now, and well over, I don't know, a couple of thousand people I've interviewed. +Anybody out here old enough to know Studs Terkel, that old radio man? +So I thought he would be the perfect person to go to to ask about a defining moment in American history. +You know, he was "born in 1912, the year the Titanic sank, greatest ship every built. Hits the tip of an iceberg, and bam, it went down. It went down and I came up. Wow, some century." +So this is his answer about a defining moment in American history. +"Defining moment in American history, I don't think there's one; you can't say Hiroshima, that's a big one -- I can't think of any one moment I would say is a defining moment. +The gradual slippage -- 'slippage' is the word used by the people in Watergate, moral slippage -- it's a gradual kind of thing, combination of things. +You see, we also have the technology. +I say, less and less the human touch. +"Oh, let me kind of tell you a funny little play bit. +The Atlanta airport is a modern airport, and they should leave the gate there. +These trains that take you out to a concourse and on to a destination. +And these trains are smooth, and they're quiet and they're efficient. +And there's a voice on the train, you know the voice was a human voice. +You see in the old days we had robots, robots imitated humans. +Now we have humans imitating robots. +So we got this voice on this train: Concourse One: Omaha, Lincoln. +Concourse Two: Dallas, Fort Worth. Same voice. +Just as a train is about to go, a young couple rush in and they're just about to close the pneumatic doors. +And that voice, without losing a beat, says, 'Because of late entry, we're delayed 30 seconds.' Just then, everybody's looking at this couple with hateful eyes and the couple's going like this, you know, shrinking. +Well, I'd happened to have had a couple of drinks before boarding -- I do that to steel my nerves -- and so I imitate a train call, holding my hand on my -- 'George Orwell, your time has come,' you see. +Well, some of you are laughing. Everybody laughs when I say that, but not on this train. Silence. +And so suddenly they're looking at me. +So here I am with the couple, the three of us shrinking at the foot of Calvary about to be up, you know. +"Just then I see a baby, a little baby in the lap of a mother. +I know it's Hispanic because she's speaking Spanish to her companion. +I say, 'Thank God for a human reaction, we haven't lost yet.' "But you see, the human touch, you see, it's disappearing. +You know, you see, you've got to question the official truth. +You know the thing that was so great about Mark Twain -- you know we honor Mark Twain, but we don't read him. +We read 'Huck Finn,' of course, we read 'Huck Finn' of course. +I mean, Huck, of course, was tremendous. +Remember that great scene on the raft, remember what Huck did? +You see, here's Huck; he's an illiterate kid; he's had no schooling, but there's something in him. +And the official truth, the truth was, the law was, that a black man was a property, was a thing, you see. +And Huck gets on the raft with a property named Jim, a slave, see. +And he hears that Jim is going to go and take his wife and kids and steal them from the woman who owns them, and Huck says, 'Ooh, oh my God, ooh, ooh -- that woman, that woman never did anybody any harm. +Ooh, he's going to steal; he's going to steal; he's going to do a terrible thing.' Just then, two slavers caught up, guys chasing slaves, looking for Jim. +'Anybody up on that raft with you?' Huck says, 'Yeah.' 'Is he black or white?' 'White.' And they go off. +And Huck said, 'Oh my God, oh my God, I lied, I lied, ooh, I did a terrible thing, did a terrible thing -- why do I feel so good?' "But it's the goodness of Huck, that stuff that Huck's been made of, you see, all been buried; it's all been buried. +So the human touch, you see, it's disappearing. +So you ask about a defining moment -- ain't no defining moment in American history for me. +It's an accretion of moments that add up to where we are now, where trivia becomes news. +And more and more, less and less awareness of the pain of the other. +Huh. You know, I don't know if you could use this or not, but I was quoting Wright Morris, a writer from Nebraska, who says, 'We're more and more into communications and less and less into communication.' Okay, kids, I got to scram, got to go see my cardiologist." +And that's Studs Terkel. +So, talk about risk taking. I'm going to do somebody that nobody likes. +You know, most actors want to do characters that are likeable -- well, not always, but the notion, especially at a conference like this, I like to inspire people. +But since this was called "risk taking," I'm doing somebody who I never do, because she's so unlikeable that one person actually came backstage and told me to take her out of the show she was in. +And I'm doing her because I think we think of risk, at a conference like this, as a good thing. +But there are certain other connotations to the word "risk," and the same thing about the word "nature." What is nature? +Maxine Greene, who's a wonderful philosopher who's as old as Studs, and was the head of a philosophy -- great, big philosophy kind of an organization -- I went to her and asked her what are the two things that she doesn't know, that she still wants to know. +And she said, "Well, personally, I still feel like I have to curtsey when I see the president of my university. +And I still feel as though I've got to get coffee for my male colleagues, even though I've outlived most of them." +And she said, "And then intellectually, I don't know enough about the negative imagination. +And September 11th certainly taught us that that's a whole area we don't investigate." +So this piece is about a negative imagination. +It raises questions about what nature is, what Mother Nature is, and about what a risk can be. +And I got this in the Maryland Correctional Institute for Women. +Everything I do is word for word off a tape. +And I title things because I think people speak in organic poems, and this is called "A Mirror to Her Mouth." +And this is an inmate named Paulette Jenkins. +"I began to learn how to cover it up, because I didn't want nobody to know that this was happening in my home. +I want everybody to think we were a normal family. +I mean we had all the materialistic things, but that didn't make my children pain any less; that didn't make their fears subside. +I ran out of excuses about how we got black eyes and busted lips and bruises. I didn't had no more excuses. +And he beat me too. But that didn't change the fact that it was a nightmare for my family; it was a nightmare. +And I failed them dramatically, because I allowed it to go on and on and on. +"But the night that Myesha got killed -- and the intensity just grew and grew and grew, until one night we came home from getting drugs, and he got angry with Myesha, and he started beating her, and he put her in a bathtub. Oh, he would use a belt. +He had a belt because he had this warped perverted thing that Myesha was having sex with her little brother and they was fondling each other -- that would be his reason. +I'm just talking about the particular night that she died. +And so he put her in the bathtub, and I was in the bedroom with the baby. +"And four months before this happened, four months before Myesha died, I thought I could really fix this man. So I had a baby by him -- insane -- thinking that if I gave him his own kid, he would leave mine alone. +And it didn't work, didn't work. +And I ended up with three children, Houston, Myesha and Dominic, who was four months old when I came to jail. +"And I was in the bedroom. Like I said, he had her in the bathroom and he -- he -- every time he hit her, she would fall. +And she would hit her head on the tub. It happened continuously, repeatedly. +I could hear it, but I dared not to move. I didn't move. +I didn't even go and see what was happening. +I just sat there and listened. +And then he put her in the hallway. +He told her, just set there. And so she set there for about four or five hours. +And then he told her, get up. +And when she got up, she says she couldn't see. +Her face was bruised. She had a black eye. +All around her head was just swollen; her head was about two sizes of its own size. +I told him, 'Let her go to sleep.' He let her go to sleep. +"The next morning she was dead. +He went in to check on her for school, and he got very excited. +He says, 'She won't breathe.' I knew immediately that she was dead. +I didn't even want to accept the fact that she was dead, so I went in and I put a mirror to her mouth -- there was no thing, nothing, coming out of her mouth. +He said, he said, he said, 'We can't, we can't let nobody find out about this.' He say, 'You've got to help me.' I agree. I agree. +"I mean, I've been keeping a secret for years and years and years, so it just seemed like second hand to me, just to keep on keeping it a secret. +So we went to the mall and we told a police that we had, like, lost her, that she was missing. +We told a security guard that she was missing, though she wasn't missing. +And we told the security guard what we had put on her and we went home and we dressed her in exactly the same thing that we had told the security guard that we had put on her. +"And then we got the baby and my other child, and we drove out to, like, I-95. +I was so petrified and so numb, all I could look was in the rear-view mirror. +And he just laid her right on the shoulder of the highway. +My own child, I let that happen to." +So that's an investigation of the negative imagination. +And so I went to both -- two race riots, one of which was the Los Angeles riot. And this next piece is from that. +Because this is what I would say I've learned the most about race relations, from this piece. +It's a kind of an aria, I would say, and in many tapes that I have. +Everybody knows that the Los Angeles riots happened because four cops beat up a black man named Rodney King. +It was captured on videotape -- technology -- and it was played all over the world. +Everybody thought the four cops would go to jail. +They did not, so there were riots. +And what a lot of people forget, is there was a second trial, ordered by George Bush, Sr. +And that trial came back with two cops going to jail and two cops declared innocent. I was at that trial. +And I mean, the people just danced in the streets because they were afraid there was going to be another riot. +Explosion of joy that this verdict had come back this way. +So there was a community that didn't -- the Korean-Americans, whose stores had been burned to the ground. +And so this woman, Mrs. Young-Soon Han, I suppose will have taught me the most that I have learned about race. +And she asks also a question that Studs talks about: this notion of the "official truth," to question the "official truth." +So what she's questioning here, she's taking a chance and questioning what justice is in society. +And this is called, "Swallowing the Bitterness." +"I used to believe America was the best. +I watched in Korea many luxurious Hollywood lifestyle movie. +I never saw any poor man, any black. +Until 1992, I used to believe America was the best -- I still do; I don't deny that because I am a victim. +But at the end of '92, when we were in such turmoil, and having all the financial problems, and all the mental problems, I began to really realize that Koreans are completely left out of this society and we are nothing. +Why? Why do we have to be left out? +We didn't qualify for medical treatment, no food stamp, no GR, no welfare, anything. Many African-Americans who never work got minimum amount of money to survive. +We didn't get any because we have a car and a house. +And we are high taxpayer. Where do I find justice? +"OK. OK? OK. OK. +Many African-Americans probably think that they won by the trial. +I was sitting here watching them the morning after the verdict, and all the day they were having a party, they celebrated, all of South Central, all the churches. And they say, 'Well, finally justice has been done in this society.' Well, what about victims' rights? +They got their rights by destroying innocent Korean merchants. +They have a lot of respect, as I do, for Dr. Martin King. +He is the only model for black community; I don't care Jesse Jackson. +He is the model of non-violence, non-violence -- and they would all like to be in his spirit. +"But what about 1992? They destroyed innocent people. +And I wonder if that is really justice for them, to get their rights in that way. +I was swallowing the bitterness, sitting here alone and watching them. +They became so hilarious, but I was happy for them. +I was glad for them. At least they got something back, OK. +Let's just forget about Korean victims and other victims who were destroyed by them. +They fought for their rights for over two centuries, and maybe because they sacrifice other minorities, Hispanic, Asian, we would suffer more in the mainstream. +That's why I understand; that's why I have a mixed feeling about the verdict. +"But I wish that, I wish that, I wish that I could be part of the enjoyment. +I wish that I could live together with black people. +But after the riot, it's too much difference. +The fire is still there. How do you say it? [Unclear]. +Igniting, igniting, igniting fire. Igniting fire. +It's still there; it can burst out anytime." +Mrs. Young-Soon Han. +The other reason that I don't wear shoes is just in case I really feel like I have to cuddle up and get into the feet of somebody, walking really in somebody else's shoes. +And I told you that in -- you know, I didn't give you the year, but in '79 I thought that I was going to go around and find bull riders and pig farmers and people like that, and I got sidetracked on race relations. +Finally, I did find a bull rider, two years ago. +And I've been going to the rodeos with him, and we've bonded. +And he's the lead in an op-ed I did about the Republican Convention. +He's a Republican -- I won't say anything about my party affiliation, but anyway -- so this is my dear, dear Brent Williams, and this is on toughness, in case anybody needs to know about being tough for the work that you do. I think there's a real lesson in this. +And this is called "Toughness." +"Well, I'm an optimist. I mean basically I'm an optimist. +I mean, you know, I mean, it's like my wife, Jolene, her family's always saying, you know, you ever think he's just a born loser? +It seems like he has so much bad luck, you know. +But then when that bull stepped on my kidney, you know, I didn't lose my kidney -- I could have lost my kidney, I kept my kidney, so I don't think I'm a born loser. +I think that's good luck. +"And, I mean, funny things like this happen. +I was in a doctor's office last CAT scan, and there was a Reader's Digest, October 2002. +It was like, 'seven ways to get lucky.' And it says if you want to get lucky, you know, you've got to be around positive people. +She said, 'Look who she is. +You're not even going to be able to answer her questions.' And she was saying you're going to make me look like an idiot because I've never been to college, and I wouldn't be talking professional or anything. +I said, 'Well look, the woman talked to me for four hours. +You know, if I wasn't talking -- you know, like, you know, she wanted me to talk, I don't think she would even come out here.' "Confidence? Well, I think I ride more out of determination than confidence. +I mean, confidence is like, you know, you've been on that bull before; you know you can ride him. +I mean, confidence is kind of like being cocky, but in a good way. +But determination, you know, it's like just, you know, 'Fuck the form, get the horn.' That's Tuff Hedeman, in the movie '8 Seconds.' I mean, like, Pat O'Mealey always said when I was a boy, he say, 'You know, you got more try than any kid I ever seen.' And try and determination is the same thing. +Determination is, like, you're going to hang on that bull, even if you're riding upside down. +Determination's like, you're going to ride till your head hits the back of the dirt. +"Freedom? It would have to be the rodeo. +"Beauty? I don't think I know what beauty is. +Well, you know, I guess that'd have to be the rodeo too. +I mean, look how we are, the roughy family, palling around and shaking hands and wrestling around me. +It's like, you know, racking up our credit cards on entry fees and gas. +We ride together, we, you know, we, we eat together and we sleep together. +I mean, I can't even imagine what it's going to be like the last day I rodeo. I mean, I'll be alright. +I mean, I have my ranch and everything, but I actually don't even want to think the day that comes. +I mean, I guess it just be like -- I guess it be like the day my brother died. +"Toughness? Well, we was in West Jordan, Utah, and this bull shoved my face right through the metal shoots in a -- you know, busted my face all up and had to go to the hospital. +And they had to sew me up and straighten my nose out. +And I had to go and ride in the rodeo that night, so I didn't want them to put me under anesthesia, or whatever you call it. And so they sewed my face up. +But the good thing was, once they shoved those rods up there and straightened my nose out, I could breathe, and I hadn't been able to breathe since I broke my nose in the high school rodeo." +Thank you. +If you haven't ordered yet, I generally find the rigatoni with the spicy tomato sauce goes best with diseases of the small intestine. +So, sorry -- it just feels like I should be doing stand-up up here because of the setting. +No, what I want to do is take you back to 1854 in London for the next few minutes, and tell the story -- in brief -- of this outbreak, which in many ways, I think, helped create the world that we live in today, and particularly the kind of city that we live in today. +This period in 1854, in the middle part of the 19th century, in London's history, is incredibly interesting for a number of reasons. +But I think the most important one is that London was this city of 2.5 million people, and it was the largest city on the face of the planet at that point. +But it was also the largest city that had ever been built. +And so the Victorians were trying to live through and simultaneously invent a whole new scale of living: this scale of living that we, you know, now call "metropolitan living." +And it was in many ways, at this point in the mid-1850s, a complete disaster. +They were basically a city living with a modern kind of industrial metropolis with an Elizabethan public infrastructure. +So people, for instance, just to gross you out for a second, had cesspools of human waste in their basement. Like, a foot to two feet deep. +And they would just kind of throw the buckets down there and hope that it would somehow go away, and of course it never really would go away. +And all of this stuff, basically, had accumulated to the point where the city was incredibly offensive to just walk around in. +It was an amazingly smelly city. Not just because of the cesspools, but also the sheer number of livestock in the city would shock people. +Not just the horses, but people had cows in their attics that they would use for milk, that they would hoist up there and keep them in the attic until literally their milk ran out and they died, and then they would drag them off to the bone boilers down the street. +So, you would just walk around London at this point and just be overwhelmed with this stench. +And what ended up happening is that an entire emerging public health system became convinced that it was the smell that was killing everybody, that was creating these diseases that would wipe through the city every three or four years. +And cholera was really the great killer of this period. +It arrived in London in 1832, and every four or five years another epidemic would take 10,000, 20,000 people in London and throughout the U.K. +And so the authorities became convinced that this smell was this problem. +We had to get rid of the smell. +And so, in fact, they concocted a couple of early, you know, founding public-health interventions in the system of the city, one of which was called the "Nuisances Act," which they got everybody as far as they could to empty out their cesspools and just pour all that waste into the river. +Because if we get it out of the streets, it'll smell much better, and -- oh right, we drink from the river. +So what ended up happening, actually, is they ended up increasing the outbreaks of cholera because, as we now know, cholera is actually in the water. +It's a waterborne disease, not something that's in the air. +It's not something you smell or inhale; it's something you ingest. +And so one of the founding moments of public health in the 19th century effectively poisoned the water supply of London much more effectively than any modern day bioterrorist could have ever dreamed of doing. +The public health authorities had largely ignored what he had to say. +And he'd made the case in a number of papers and done a number of studies, but nothing had really stuck. +And part of -- what's so interesting about this story to me is that in some ways, it's a great case study in how cultural change happens, how a good idea eventually comes to win out over much worse ideas. +And Snow labored for a long time with this great insight that everybody ignored. +And then on one day, August 28th of 1854, a young child, a five-month-old girl whose first name we don't know, we know her only as Baby Lewis, somehow contracted cholera, came down with cholera at 40 Broad Street. +You can't really see it in this map, but this is the map that becomes the central focus in the second half of my book. +And so this little girl inadvertently ended up contaminating the water in this popular pump, and one of the most terrifying outbreaks in the history of England erupted about two or three days later. +Literally, 10 percent of the neighborhood died in seven days, and much more would have died if people hadn't fled after the initial outbreak kicked in. +So it was this incredibly terrifying event. +You had these scenes of entire families dying over the course of 48 hours of cholera, alone in their one-room apartments, in their little flats. +Just an extraordinary, terrifying scene. +Snow lived near there, heard about the outbreak, and in this amazing act of courage went directly into the belly of the beast because he thought an outbreak that concentrated could actually potentially end up convincing people that, in fact, the real menace of cholera was in the water supply and not in the air. +He suspected an outbreak that concentrated would probably involve a single point source. +One single thing that everybody was going to because it didn't have the traditional slower path of infections that you might expect. +And so he went right in there and started interviewing people. +He eventually enlisted the help of this amazing other figure, who's kind of the other protagonist of the book -- this guy, Henry Whitehead, who was a local minister, who was not at all a man of science, but was incredibly socially connected; he knew everybody in the neighborhood. +And he managed to track down, Whitehead did, many of the cases of people who had drunk water from the pump, or who hadn't drunk water from the pump. +And eventually Snow made a map of the outbreak. +He found increasingly that people who drank from the pump were getting sick. +People who hadn't drunk from the pump were not getting sick. +And he thought about representing that as a kind of a table of statistics of people living in different neighborhoods, people who hadn't, you know, percentages of people who hadn't, but eventually he hit upon the idea that what he needed was something that you could see. +Something that would take in a sense a higher-level view of all this activity that had been happening in the neighborhood. +And so he created this map, which basically ended up representing all the deaths in the neighborhoods as black bars at each address. +And you can see in this map, the pump right at the center of it and you can see that one of the residences down the way had about 15 people dead. +And the map is actually a little bit bigger. +As you get further and further away from the pump, the deaths begin to grow less and less frequent. +And so you can see this something poisonous emanating out of this pump that you could see in a glance. +And so, with the help of this map, and with the help of more evangelizing that he did over the next few years and that Whitehead did, eventually, actually, the authorities slowly started to come around. +It took much longer than sometimes we like to think in this story, but by 1866, when the next big cholera outbreak came to London, the authorities had been convinced -- in part because of this story, in part because of this map -- that in fact the water was the problem. +And they had already started building the sewers in London, and they immediately went to this outbreak and they told everybody to start boiling their water. +And that was the last time that London has seen a cholera outbreak since. +So, part of this story, I think -- well, it's a terrifying story, it's a very dark story and it's a story that continues on in many of the developing cities of the world. +And what it ended up doing is making the idea of large-scale metropolitan living a sustainable one. +When people were looking at 10 percent of their neighborhoods dying in the space of seven days, there was a widespread consensus that this couldn't go on, that people weren't meant to live in cities of 2.5 million people. +But because of what Snow did, because of this map, because of the whole series of reforms that happened in the wake of this map, we now take for granted that cities have 10 million people, cities like this one are in fact sustainable things. +We don't worry that New York City is going to collapse in on itself quite the way that, you know, Rome did, and be 10 percent of its size in 100 years or 200 years. +And so that in a way is the ultimate legacy of this map. +It's a map of deaths that ended up creating a whole new way of life, the life that we're enjoying here today. Thank you very much. +What I'd like to talk about is really the biggest problems in the world. +I'm not going to talk about "The Skeptical Environmentalist" -- probably that's also a good choice. +But I am going talk about: what are the big problems in the world? +And I must say, before I go on, I should ask every one of you to try and get out pen and paper because I'm actually going to ask you to help me to look at how we do that. +So get out your pen and paper. +Bottom line is, there is a lot of problems out there in the world. +I'm just going to list some of them. +There are 800 million people starving. +There's a billion people without clean drinking water. +Two billion people without sanitation. +There are several million people dying of HIV and AIDS. +The lists go on and on. +There's two billions of people who will be severely affected by climate change -- so on. +There are many, many problems out there. +In an ideal world, we would solve them all, but we don't. +We don't actually solve all problems. +And if we do not, the question I think we need to ask ourselves -- and that's why it's on the economy session -- is to say, if we don't do all things, we really have to start asking ourselves, which ones should we solve first? +And that's the question I'd like to ask you. +If we had say, 50 billion dollars over the next four years to spend to do good in this world, where should we spend it? +We identified 10 of the biggest challenges in the world, and I will just briefly read them: climate change, communicable diseases, conflicts, education, financial instability, governance and corruption, malnutrition and hunger, population migration, sanitation and water, and subsidies and trade barriers. +We believe that these in many ways encompass the biggest problems in the world. +The obvious question would be to ask, what do you think are the biggest things? +Where should we start on solving these problems? +But that's a wrong problem to ask. +That was actually the problem that was asked in Davos in January. +But of course, there's a problem in asking people to focus on problems. +Because we can't solve problems. +Surely the biggest problem we have in the world is that we all die. +But we don't have a technology to solve that, right? +So the point is not to prioritize problems, but the point is to prioritize solutions to problems. +And that would be -- of course that gets a little more complicated. +To climate change that would be like Kyoto. +To communicable diseases, it might be health clinics or mosquito nets. +To conflicts, it would be U.N.'s peacekeeping forces, and so on. +The point that I would like to ask you to try to do, is just in 30 seconds -- and I know this is in a sense an impossible task -- write down what you think is probably some of the top priorities. +And also -- and that's, of course, where economics gets evil -- to put down what are the things we should not do, first. +What should be at the bottom of the list? +Please, just take 30 seconds, perhaps talk to your neighbor, and just figure out what should be the top priorities and the bottom priorities of the solutions that we have to the world's biggest issues. +The amazing part of this process -- and of course, I mean, I would love to -- I only have 18 minutes, I've already given you quite a substantial amount of my time, right? +I'd love to go into, and get you to think about this process, and that's actually what we did. +And I also strongly encourage you, and I'm sure we'll also have these discussions afterwards, to think about, how do we actually prioritize? +Of course, you have to ask yourself, why on Earth was such a list never done before? +And one reason is that prioritization is incredibly uncomfortable. +Nobody wants to do this. +Of course, every organization would love to be on the top of such a list. +But every organization would also hate to be not on the top of the list. +And since there are many more not-number-one spots on the list than there is number ones, it makes perfect sense not to want to do such a list. +We've had the U.N. for almost 60 years, yet we've never actually made a fundamental list of all the big things that we can do in the world, and said, which of them should we do first? +So it doesn't mean that we are not prioritizing -- any decision is a prioritization, so of course we are still prioritizing, if only implicitly -- and that's unlikely to be as good as if we actually did the prioritization, and went in and talked about it. +So what I'm proposing is really to say that we have, for a very long time, had a situation when we've had a menu of choices. +There are many, many things we can do out there, but we've not had the prices, nor the sizes. +We have not had an idea. +Imagine going into a restaurant and getting this big menu card, but you have no idea what the price is. +You know, you have a pizza; you've no idea what the price is. +It could be at one dollar; it could be 1,000 dollars. +It could be a family-size pizza; it could be a very individual-size pizza, right? +We'd like to know these things. +And that is what the Copenhagen Consensus is really trying to do -- to try to put prices on these issues. +And so basically, this has been the Copenhagen Consensus' process. +We got 30 of the world's best economists, three in each area. +So we have three of world's top economists write about climate change. +What can we do? What will be the cost and what will be the benefit of that? +Likewise in communicable diseases. +Three of the world's top experts saying, what can we do? +What would be the price? +What should we do about it, and what will be the outcome? +And so on. +Then we had some of the world's top economists, eight of the world's top economists, including three Nobel Laureates, meet in Copenhagen in May 2004. +We called them the "dream team." +The Cambridge University prefects decided to call them the Real Madrid of economics. +That works very well in Europe, but it doesn't really work over here. +And what they basically did was come out with a prioritized list. +And then you ask, why economists? +And of course, I'm very happy you asked that question -- -- because that's a very good question. +The point is, of course, if you want to know about malaria, you ask a malaria expert. +If you want to know about climate, you ask a climatologist. +But if you want to know which of the two you should deal with first, you can't ask either of them, because that's not what they do. +That is what economists do. +They prioritize. +They make that in some ways disgusting task of saying, which one should we do first, and which one should we do afterwards? +So this is the list, and this is the one I'd like to share with you. +Of course, you can also see it on the website, and we'll also talk about it more, I'm sure, as the day goes on. +They basically came up with a list where they said there were bad projects -- basically, projects where if you invest a dollar, you get less than a dollar back. +Then there's fair projects, good projects and very good projects. +And of course, it's the very good projects we should start doing. +I'm going to go from backwards so that we end up with the best projects. +These were the bad projects. +As you might see the bottom of the list was climate change. +This offends a lot of people, and that's probably one of the things where people will say I shouldn't come back, either. +And I'd like to talk about that, because that's really curious. +Why is it it came up? +And I'll actually also try to get back to this because it's probably one of the things that we'll disagree with on the list that you wrote down. +The reason why they came up with saying that Kyoto -- or doing something more than Kyoto -- is a bad deal is simply because it's very inefficient. +It's not saying that global warming is not happening. +It's not saying that it's not a big problem. +But it's saying that what we can do about it is very little, at a very high cost. +What they basically show us, the average of all macroeconomic models, is that Kyoto, if everyone agreed, would cost about 150 billion dollars a year. +That's a substantial amount of money. +That's two to three times the global development aid that we give the Third World every year. +Yet it would do very little good. +All models show it will postpone warming for about six years in 2100. +So the guy in Bangladesh who gets a flood in 2100 can wait until 2106. +Which is a little good, but not very much good. +So the idea here really is to say, well, we've spent a lot of money doing a little good. +And just to give you a sense of reference, the U.N. actually estimate that for half that amount, for about 75 billion dollars a year, we could solve all major basic problems in the world. +We could give clean drinking water, sanitation, basic healthcare and education to every single human being on the planet. +So we have to ask ourselves, do we want to spend twice the amount on doing very little good? +Or half the amount on doing an amazing amount of good? +And that is really why it becomes a bad project. +It's not to say that if we had all the money in the world, we wouldn't want to do it. +But it's to say, when we don't, it's just simply not our first priority. +The fair projects -- notice I'm not going to comment on all these -- but communicable diseases, scale of basic health services -- just made it, simply because, yes, scale of basic health services is a great thing. +It would do a lot of good, but it's also very, very costly. +Again, what it tells us is suddenly we start thinking about both sides of the equation. +If you look at the good projects, a lot of sanitation and water projects came in. +Again, sanitation and water is incredibly important, but it also costs a lot of infrastructure. +So I'd like to show you the top four priorities which should be at least the first ones that we deal with when we talk about how we should deal with the problems in the world. +The fourth best problem is malaria -- dealing with malaria. +The incidence of malaria is about a couple of [million] people get infected every year. +It might even cost up towards a percentage point of GDP every year for affected nations. +If we invested about 13 billion dollars over the next four years, we could bring that incidence down to half. +We could avoid about 500,000 people dying, but perhaps more importantly, we could avoid about a [million] people getting infected every year. +We would significantly increase their ability to deal with many of the other problems that they have to deal with -- of course, in the long run, also to deal with global warming. +This third best one was free trade. +Basically, the model showed that if we could get free trade, and especially cut subsidies in the U.S. and Europe, we could basically enliven the global economy to an astounding number of about 2,400 billion dollars a year, half of which would accrue to the Third World. +Again, the point is to say that we could actually pull two to three hundred million people out of poverty, very radically fast, in about two to five years. +That would be the third best thing we could do. +The second best thing would be to focus on malnutrition. +Not just malnutrition in general, but there's a very cheap way of dealing with malnutrition, namely, the lack of micronutrients. +Basically, about half of the world's population is lacking in iron, zinc, iodine and vitamin A. +If we invest about 12 billion dollars, we could make a severe inroad into that problem. +That would be the second best investment that we could do. +And the very best project would be to focus on HIV/AIDS. +Basically, if we invest 27 billion dollars over the next eight years, we could avoid 28 new million cases of HIV/AIDS. +Again, what this does and what it focuses on is saying there are two very different ways that we can deal with HIV/AIDS. +One is treatment; the other one is prevention. +And again, in an ideal world, we would do both. +But in a world where we don't do either, or don't do it very well, we have to at least ask ourselves where should we invest first. +And treatment is much, much more expensive than prevention. +So basically, what this focuses on is saying, we can do a lot more by investing in prevention. +Basically for the amount of money that we spend, we can do X amount of good in treatment, and 10 times as much good in prevention. +So again, what we focus on is prevention rather than treatment, at first rate. +What this really does is that it makes us think about our priorities. +I'd like to have you look at your priority list and say, did you get it right? +Or did you get close to what we came up with here? +Well, of course, one of the things is climate change again. +I find a lot of people find it very, very unlikely that we should do that. +We should also do climate change, if for no other reason, simply because it's such a big problem. +But of course, we don't do all problems. +There are many problems out there in the world. +And what I want to make sure of is, if we actually focus on problems, that we focus on the right ones. +The ones where we can do a lot of good rather than a little good. +And I think, actually -- Thomas Schelling, one of the participants in the dream team, he put it very, very well. +One of things that people forget, is that in 100 years, when we're talking about most of the climate change impacts will be, people will be much, much richer. +Even the most pessimistic impact scenarios of the U.N. +estimate that the average person in the developing world in 2100 will be about as rich as we are today. +Much more likely, they will be two to four times richer than we are. +And of course, we'll be even richer than that. +But the point is to say, when we talk about saving people, or helping people in Bangladesh in 2100, we're not talking about a poor Bangladeshi. +We're actually talking about a fairly rich Dutch guy. +And so the real point, of course, is to say, do we want to spend a lot of money helping a little, 100 years from now, a fairly rich Dutch guy? +Or do we want to help real poor people, right now, in Bangladesh, who really need the help, and whom we can help very, very cheaply? +So I think that really does tell us why it is we need to get our priorities straight. +Even if it doesn't accord to the typical way we see this problem. +Of course, that's mainly because climate change has good pictures. +We have, you know, "The Day After Tomorrow" -- it looks great, right? +It's a good film in the sense that I certainly want to see it, right, but don't expect Emmerich to cast Brad Pitt in his next movie digging latrines in Tanzania or something. It just doesn't make for as much of a movie. +So in many ways, I think of the Copenhagen Consensus and the whole discussion of priorities as a defense for boring problems. +To make sure that we realize it's not about making us feel good. +It's not about making things that have the most media attention, but it's about making places where we can actually do the most good. +The other objections, I think, that are important to say, is that I'm somehow -- or we are somehow -- positing a false choice. +Of course, we should do all things, in an ideal world -- I would certainly agree. +I think we should do all things, but we don't. +In 1970, the developed world decided we were going to spend twice as much as we did, right now, than in 1970, on the developing world. +Since then our aid has halved. +So it doesn't look like we're actually on the path of suddenly solving all big problems. +Likewise, people are also saying, but what about the Iraq war? +You know, we spend 100 billion dollars -- why don't we spend that on doing good in the world? +I'm all for that. +If any one of you guys can talk Bush into doing that, that's fine. +But the point, of course, is still to say, if you get another 100 billion dollars, we still want to spend that in the best possible way, don't we? +So the real issue here is to get ourselves back and think about what are the right priorities. +I should just mention briefly, is this really the right list that we got out? +You know, when you ask the world's best economists, you inevitably end up asking old, white American men. +And they're not necessarily, you know, great ways of looking at the entire world. +So we actually invited 80 young people from all over the world to come and solve the same problem. +The only two requirements were that they were studying at the university, and they spoke English. +The majority of them were, first, from developing countries. +They had all the same material but they could go vastly outside the scope of discussion, and they certainly did, to come up with their own lists. +And the surprising thing was that the list was very similar -- with malnutrition and diseases at the top and climate change at the bottom. +We've done this many other times. +There's been many other seminars and university students, and different things. +They all come out with very much the same list. +And that gives me great hope, really, in saying that I do believe that there is a path ahead to get us to start thinking about priorities, and saying, what is the important thing in the world? +Of course, in an ideal world, again we'd love to do everything. +But if we don't do it, then we can start thinking about where should we start? +I see the Copenhagen Consensus as a process. +We did it in 2004, and we hope to assemble many more people, getting much better information for 2008, 2012. +Map out the right path for the world -- but also to start thinking about political triage. +To start thinking about saying, "Let's do not the things where we can do very little at a very high cost, not the things that we don't know how to do, but let's do the great things where we can do an enormous amount of good, at very low cost, right now." +At the end of the day, you can disagree with the discussion of how we actually prioritize these, but we have to be honest and frank about saying, if there's some things we do, there are other things we don't do. +If we worry too much about some things, we end by not worrying about other things. +So I hope this will help us make better priorities, and think about how we better work for the world. +Thank you. +Let me just ask you, to start with, this simple question: who invented the mountain bike? +Because traditional economic theory would say, well, the mountain bike was probably invented by some big bike corporation that had a big R&D lab where they were thinking up new projects, and it came out of there. It didn't come from there. +Another answer might be, well, it came from a sort of lone genius working in his garage, who, working away on different kinds of bikes, comes up with a bike out of thin air. +It didn't come from there. The mountain bike came from users, came from young users, particularly a group in Northern California, who were frustrated with traditional racing bikes, which were those sort of bikes that Eddy Merckx rode, or your big brother, and they're very glamorous. +But also frustrated with the bikes that your dad rode, which sort of had big handlebars like that, and they were too heavy. +So, they got the frames from these big bikes, put them together with the gears from the racing bikes, got the brakes from motorcycles, and sort of mixed and matched various ingredients. +And for the first, I don't know, three to five years of their life, mountain bikes were known as "clunkers." +And they were just made in a community of bikers, mainly in Northern California. +And then one of these companies that was importing parts for the clunkers decided to set up in business, start selling them to other people, and gradually another company emerged out of that, Marin, and it probably was, I don't know, 10, maybe even 15, years, before the big bike companies realized there was a market. +Thirty years later, mountain bike sales and mountain bike equipment account for 65 percent of bike sales in America. +That's 58 billion dollars. +This is a category entirely created by consumers that would not have been created by the mainstream bike market because they couldn't see the need, the opportunity; they didn't have the incentive to innovate. +The one thing I think I disagree with about Yochai's presentation is when he said the Internet causes this distributive capacity for innovation to come alive. +It's when the Internet combines with these kinds of passionate pro-am consumers -- who are knowledgeable; they've got the incentive to innovate; they've got the tools; they want to -- that you get this kind of explosion of creative collaboration. +And out of that, you get the need for the kind of things that Jimmy was talking about, which is our new kinds of organization, or a better way to put it: how do we organize ourselves without organizations? +That's now possible; you don't need an organization to be organized, to achieve large and complex tasks, like innovating new software programs. +So this is a huge challenge to the way we think creativity comes about. +Special people, special places, think up special ideas, then you have a pipeline that takes the ideas down to the waiting consumers, who are passive. +They can say "yes" or "no" to the invention. +That's the idea of creativity. +What's the policy recommendation out of that if you're in government, or you're running a large company? +More special people, more special places. +Build creative clusters in cities; create more R&D parks, so on and so forth. +Expand the pipeline down to the consumers. +Well this view, I think, is increasingly wrong. +I think it's always been wrong, because I think always creativity has been highly collaborative, and it's probably been largely interactive. +But it's increasingly wrong, and one of the reasons it's wrong is that the ideas are flowing back up the pipeline. +The ideas are coming back from the consumers, and they're often ahead of the producers. +Why is that? +Well, one issue is that radical innovation, when you've got ideas that affect a large number of technologies or people, have a great deal of uncertainty attached to them. +The payoffs to innovation are greatest where the uncertainty is highest. +And when you get a radical innovation, it's often very uncertain how it can be applied. +The whole history of telephony is a story of dealing with that uncertainty. +The very first landline telephones, the inventors thought that they would be used for people to listen in to live performances from West End theaters. +When the mobile telephone companies invented SMS, they had no idea what it was for; it was only when that technology got into the hands of teenage users that they invented the use. +So the more radical the innovation, the more the uncertainty, the more you need innovation in use to work out what a technology is for. +All of our patents, our entire approach to patents and invention, is based on the idea that the inventor knows what the invention is for; we can say what it's for. +More and more, the inventors of things will not be able to say that in advance. +It will be worked out in use, in collaboration with users. +We like to think that invention is a sort of moment of creation: there is a moment of birth when someone comes up with an idea. +The truth is that most creativity is cumulative and collaborative; like Wikipedia, it develops over a long period of time. +The second reason why users are more and more important is that they are the source of big, disruptive innovations. +If you want to find the big new ideas, it's often difficult to find them in mainstream markets, in big organizations. +And just look inside large organizations and you'll see why that is so. +So, you're in a big corporation. +You're obviously keen to go up the corporate ladder. +Do you go into your board and say, "Look, I've got a fantastic idea for an embryonic product in a marginal market, with consumers we've never dealt with before, and I'm not sure it's going to have a big payoff, but it could be really, really big in the future?" +No, what you do, is you go in and you say, "I've got a fantastic idea for an incremental innovation to an existing product we sell through existing channels to existing users, and I can guarantee you get this much return out of it over the next three years." +Big corporations have an in-built tendency to reinforce past success. +They've got so much sunk in it that it's very difficult for them to spot emerging new markets. Emerging new markets, then, are the breeding grounds for passionate users. +Best example: who in the music industry, 30 years ago, would have said, "Yes, let's invent a musical form which is all about dispossessed black men in ghettos expressing their frustration with the world through a form of music that many people find initially quite difficult to listen to. +That sounds like a winner; we'll go with it." +. +So what happens? Rap music is created by the users. +They do it on their own tapes, with their own recording equipment; they distribute it themselves. +30 years later, rap music is the dominant musical form of popular culture -- would never have come from the big companies. +Had to start -- this is the third point -- with these pro-ams. +This is the phrase that I've used in some stuff which I've done with a think tank in London called Demos, where we've been looking at these people who are amateurs -- i.e., they do it for the love of it -- but they want to do it to very high standards. +And across a whole range of fields -- from software, astronomy, natural sciences, vast areas of leisure and culture like kite-surfing, so on and so forth -- you find people who want to do things because they love it, but they want to do these things to very high standards. +They work at their leisure, if you like. +They take their leisure very seriously: they acquire skills; they invest time; they use technology that's getting cheaper -- it's not just the Internet: cameras, design technology, leisure technology, surfboards, so on and so forth. +Largely through globalization, a lot of this equipment has got a lot cheaper. +More knowledgeable consumers, more educated, more able to connect with one another, more able to do things together. +Consumption, in that sense, is an expression of their productive potential. +Why, we found, people were interested in this, is that at work they don't feel very expressed. +They don't feel as if they're doing something that really matters to them, so they pick up these kinds of activities. +This has huge organizational implications for very large areas of life. +Take astronomy as an example, which Yochai has already mentioned. +Twenty years ago, 30 years ago, only big professional astronomers with very big telescopes could see far into space. +And there's a big telescope in Northern England called Jodrell Bank, and when I was a kid, it was amazing, because the moon shots would take off, and this thing would move on rails. +And it was huge -- it was absolutely enormous. +Now, six amateur astronomers, working with the Internet, with Dobsonian digital telescopes -- which are pretty much open source -- with some light sensors developed over the last 10 years, the Internet -- they can do what Jodrell Bank could only do 30 years ago. +So here in astronomy, you have this vast explosion of new productive resources. +The users can be producers. +What does this mean, then, for our organizational landscape? +Well, just imagine a world, for the moment, divided into two camps. +Over here, you've got the old, traditional corporate model: special people, special places; patent it, push it down the pipeline to largely waiting, passive consumers. +Over here, let's imagine we've got Wikipedia, Linux, and beyond -- open source. +This is open; this is closed. +This is new; this is traditional. +Well, the first thing you can say, I think with certainty, is what Yochai has said already -- is there is a great big struggle between those two organizational forms. +These people over there will do everything they can to stop these kinds of organizations succeeding, because they're threatened by them. +And so the debates about copyright, digital rights, so on and so forth -- these are all about trying to stifle, in my view, these kinds of organizations. +What we're seeing is a complete corruption of the idea of patents and copyright. +Meant to be a way to incentivize invention, meant to be a way to orchestrate the dissemination of knowledge, they are increasingly being used by large companies to create thickets of patents to prevent innovation taking place. +Let me just give you two examples. +The first is: imagine yourself going to a venture capitalist and saying, "I've got a fantastic idea. +I've invented this brilliant new program that is much, much better than Microsoft Outlook." +Which venture capitalist in their right mind is going to give you any money to set up a venture competing with Microsoft, with Microsoft Outlook? No one. +That is why the competition with Microsoft is bound to come -- will only come -- from an open-source kind of project. +So, there is a huge competitive argument about sustaining the capacity for open-source and consumer-driven innovation, because it's one of the greatest competitive levers against monopoly. +There'll be huge professional arguments as well. +Because the professionals, over here in these closed organizations -- they might be academics; they might be programmers; they might be doctors; they might be journalists -- my former profession -- say, "No, no -- you can't trust these people over here." +When I started in journalism -- Financial Times, 20 years ago -- it was very, very exciting to see someone reading the newspaper. +And you'd kind of look over their shoulder on the Tube to see if they were reading your article. +Usually they were reading the share prices, and the bit of the paper with your article on was on the floor, or something like that, and you know, "For heaven's sake, what are they doing! +They're not reading my brilliant article!" +And we allowed users, readers, two places where they could contribute to the paper: the letters page, where they could write a letter in, and we would condescend to them, cut it in half, and print it three days later. +Or the op-ed page, where if they knew the editor -- had been to school with him, slept with his wife -- they could write an article for the op-ed page. +Those were the two places. +Shock, horror: now, the readers want to be writers and publishers. +That's not their role; they're supposed to read what we write. +But they don't want to be journalists. The journalists think that the bloggers want to be journalists; they don't want to be journalists; they just want to have a voice. +They want to, as Jimmy said, they want to have a dialogue, a conversation. +They want to be part of that flow of information. +What's happening there is that the whole domain of creativity is expanding. +So, there's going to be a tremendous struggle. +But, also, there's going to be tremendous movement from the open to the closed. +What you'll see, I think, is two things that are critical, and these, I think, are two challenges for the open movement. +The first is: can we really survive on volunteers? +If this is so critical, do we not need it funded, organized, supported in much more structured ways? +I think the idea of creating the Red Cross for information and knowledge is a fantastic idea, but can we really organize that, just on volunteers? +What kind of changes do we need in public policy and funding to make that possible? +What's the role of the BBC, for instance, in that world? +What should be the role of public policy? +And finally, what I think you will see is the intelligent, closed organizations moving increasingly in the open direction. +So it's not going to be a contest between two camps, but, in between them, you'll find all sorts of interesting places that people will occupy. +New organizational models coming about, mixing closed and open in tricky ways. +It won't be so clear-cut; it won't be Microsoft versus Linux -- there'll be all sorts of things in between. +And those organizational models, it turns out, are incredibly powerful, and the people who can understand them will be very, very successful. +Let me just give you one final example of what that means. +I was in Shanghai, in an office block built on what was a rice paddy five years ago -- one of the 2,500 skyscrapers they've built in Shanghai in the last 10 years. +And I was having dinner with this guy called Timothy Chan. +Timothy Chan set up an Internet business in 2000. +Didn't go into the Internet, kept his money, decided to go into computer games. +He runs a company called Shanda, which is the largest computer games company in China. +Nine thousand servers all over China, has 250 million subscribers. +At any one time, there are four million people playing one of his games. +How many people does he employ to service that population? +500 people. +Well, how can he service 250 million people from 500 employees? +Because basically, he doesn't service them. +He gives them a platform; he gives them some rules; he gives them the tools and then he kind of orchestrates the conversation; he orchestrates the action. +But actually, a lot of the content is created by the users themselves. +And it creates a kind of stickiness between the community and the company which is really, really powerful. +The best measure of that: so you go into one of his games, you create a character that you develop in the course of the game. +If, for some reason, your credit card bounces, or there's some other problem, you lose your character. +You've got two options. +One option: you can create a new character, right from scratch, but with none of the history of your player. +That costs about 100 dollars. +Or you can get on a plane, fly to Shanghai, queue up outside Shanda's offices -- cost probably 600, 700 dollars -- and reclaim your character, get your history back. +Every morning, there are 600 people queuing outside their offices to reclaim these characters. So this is about companies built on communities, that provide communities with tools, resources, platforms in which they can share. +He's not open source, but it's very, very powerful. +So here is one of the challenges, I think, for people like me, who do a lot of work with government. +If you're a games company, and you've got a million players in your game, you only need one percent of them to be co-developers, contributing ideas, and you've got a development workforce of 10,000 people. +Imagine you could take all the children in education in Britain, and one percent of them were co-developers of education. +What would that do to the resources available to the education system? +Or if you got one percent of the patients in the NHS to, in some sense, be co-producers of health. +The reason why -- despite all the efforts to cut it down, to constrain it, to hold it back -- why these open models will still start emerging with tremendous force, is that they multiply our productive resources. +And one of the reasons they do that is that they turn users into producers, consumers into designers. +Thank you very much. +I bet you're worried. +I was worried. That's why I began this piece. +I was worried about vaginas. I was worried what we think about vaginas and even more worried that we don't think about them. +I was worried about my own vagina. +It needed a context, a culture, a community of other vaginas. +There is so much darkness and secrecy surrounding them. +Like the Bermuda Triangle, nobody ever reports back from there. +In the first place, it's not so easy to even find your vagina. +Women go days, weeks, months, without looking at it. +I interviewed a high-powered businesswoman; she told me she didn't have time. +"Looking at your vagina," she said, "is a full day's work." +"You've got to get down there on your back, in front of a mirror, full-length preferred. You've got to get in the perfect position with the perfect light, which then becomes shadowed by the angle you're at. +You're twisting your head up, arching your back, it's exhausting." +She was busy; she didn't have time. +So I decided to talk to women about their vaginas. +They began as casual vagina interviews, and they turned into vagina monologues. +I talked with over 200 women. I talked to older women, younger women, married women, lesbians, single women. +I talked to corporate professionals, college professors, actors, sex workers. +I talked to African-American women, Asian-American women, Native-American women, Caucasian women, Jewish women. +OK, at first women were a little shy, a little reluctant to talk. +Once they got going, you couldn't stop them. +Women love to talk about their vaginas, they do. +Mainly because no one's ever asked them before. +Let's just start with the word "vagina" -- vagina, vagina. +It sounds like an infection, at best. Maybe a medical instrument. +"Hurry, nurse, bring the vagina!" +Vagina, vagina, vagina. It doesn't matter how many times you say the word, it never sounds like a word you want to say. +It's a completely ridiculous, totally un-sexy word. +If you use it during sex, trying to be politically correct, "Darling, would you stroke my vagina," you kill the act right there. +I'm worried what we call them and don't call them. +In Great Neck, New York, they call it a Pussycat. +A woman told me there her mother used to tell her, "Don't wear panties, dear, underneath your pajamas. +You need to air out your Pussycat." +In Westchester, they call it a Pooki, in New Jersey, a twat. +There's Powderbox, derriere, a Pooky, a Poochi, a Poopi, a Poopelu, a Pooninana, a Padepachetchki, a Pal, and a Piche. +There's Toadie, Dee Dee, Nishi, Dignity, Coochi Snorcher, Cooter, Labbe, Gladys Seagelman, VA, Wee wee, Horsespot, Nappy Dugout, Mongo, Ghoulie, Powderbox, a Mimi in Miami, a Split Knish in Philadelphia ... and a Schmende in the Bronx. +I am worried about vaginas. +This is how the "Vagina Monologues" begins. +But it really didn't begin there. It began with a conversation with a woman. +We were having a conversation about menopause, and we got onto the subject of her vagina, which you'll do if you're talking about menopause. +And she said things that really shocked me about her vagina -- that it was dried-up and finished and dead -- and I was kind of shocked. +So I said to a friend casually, "Well, what do you think about your vagina?" +And that woman said something more amazing, and then the next woman said something more amazing, and before I knew it, every woman was telling me I had to talk to somebody about their vagina because they had an amazing story, and I was sucked down the vagina trail. +And I really haven't gotten off of it. I think if you had told me when I was younger that I was going to grow up, and be in shoe stores, and people would scream out, "There she is, the Vagina Lady!" +I don't know that that would have been my life ambition. +But I want to talk a little bit about happiness, and the relationship to this whole vagina journey, because it has been an extraordinary journey that began eight years ago. +I think before I did the "Vagina Monologues," I didn't really believe in happiness. +I thought that only idiots were happy, to be honest. +And what happened through the course of the "Vagina Monologues" and this journey is, I think I have come to understand a little bit more about happiness. +There are three qualities I want to talk about. +One is seeing what's right in front of you, and talking about it, and stating it. +I think what I learned from talking about the vagina and speaking about the vagina, is it was the most obvious thing -- it was right in the center of my body and the center of the world -- and yet it was the one thing nobody talked about. +The second thing is that what talking about the vagina did is it opened this door which allowed me to see that there was a way to serve the world to make it better. +And that's where the deepest happiness has actually come from. +And the third principle of happiness, which I've realized recently: Eight years ago, this momentum and this energy, this "V-wave" started -- and I can only describe it as a "V-wave" because, to be honest, I really don't understand it completely; I feel at the service of it. +And I started this piece, particularly with stories and narratives, and I was talking to one woman and that led to another woman and that led to another woman. And then I wrote those stories down, and I put them out in front of other people. +And every single time I did the show at the beginning, women would literally line up after the show, because they wanted to tell me their stories. +And at first I thought, "Oh great, I'll hear about wonderful orgasms, and great sex lives, and how women love their vaginas." +But in fact, that's not what women lined up to tell me. +What women lined up to tell me was how they were raped, and how they were battered, and how they were beaten, and how they were gang-raped in parking lots, and how they were incested by their uncles. +And I wanted to stop doing the "Vagina Monologues," because it felt too daunting. I felt like a war photographer who takes pictures of terrible events, but doesn't intervene on their behalf. +And so in 1997, I said, "Let's get women together. +What could we do with this information that all these women are being violated?" +And it turned out, after thinking and investigating, that I discovered -- and the UN has actually said this recently -- that one out of every three women on this planet will be beaten or raped in her lifetime. +That's essentially a gender; that's essentially the resource of the planet, which is women. +So in 1997 we got all these incredible women together and we said, "How can we use the play, this energy, to stop violence against women?" +And we put on one event in New York City, in the theater, and all these great actors came -- from Susan Sarandon, to Glenn Close, to Whoopi Goldberg -- and we did one performance on one evening, and that catalyzed this wave, this energy. +And within five years, this extraordinary thing began to happen. +One woman took that energy and she said, "I want to bring this wave, this energy, to college campuses," and so she took the play and she said, "Let's use the play and have performances once a year, where we can raise money to stop violence against women in local communities all around the world." +And in one year, it went to 50 colleges, and then it expanded. +And over the course of the last six years, it's spread and it's spread and it's spread around the world. +I was dressed in a burqa and I went in with an extraordinary group, called the Revolutionary Association of the Women of Afghanistan. +And I saw firsthand how women had been stripped of every single right that was possible to strip women of -- from being educated, to being employed, to being actually allowed to eat ice cream. +For those of you who don't know, it was illegal to eat ice cream under the Taliban. +And I actually saw and met women who had been flogged for being caught eating vanilla ice cream. +I was taken to the secret ice cream-eating place in a little town, where we went to a back room, and women were seated and a curtain was pulled around us, and they were served vanilla ice cream. +And women lifted their burqas and ate this ice cream. +And I don't think I ever understood pleasure until that moment, and how women have found a way to keep their pleasure alive. +It has taken me, this journey, to Islamabad, where I have witnessed and met women with their faces melted off. +It has taken me to Juarez, Mexico, where I was a week ago, where I have literally been there in parking lots, where bones of women have washed up and been dumped next to Coca-Cola bottles. +It has taken me to universities all over this country, where girls are date-raped and drugged. +I have seen terrible, terrible, terrible violence. +But I have also recognized, in the course of seeing that violence, that being in the face of things and seeing actually what's in front of us is the antidote to depression, and to a feeling that one is worthless and has no value. +Because before the "Vagina Monologues," I will say that 80 percent of my consciousness was closed off to what was really going on in this reality, and that closing-off closed off my vitality and my life energy. +What has also happened is in the course of these travels -- and it's been an extraordinary thing -- is that every single place that I have gone to in the world, I have met a new species. +And I really love hearing about all these species at the bottom of the sea. +And I was thinking about how being with these extraordinary people on this particular panel, that it's beneath, beyond and between, and the vagina kind of fits into all those categories. +But every single country I have been to -- and in the last six years, I've been to about 45 countries, and many tiny little villages and cities and towns -- I have seen something what I've come to call "vagina warriors." +I have met these women everywhere on the planet, and I want to tell a few stories, because I believe that stories are the way that we transmit information, where it goes into our bodies. +And I think one of the things about being at TED that's been very interesting is that I live in my body a lot, and I don't live in my head very much anymore. +And this is a very heady place. +And it's been really interesting to be in my head for the last two days; I've been very disoriented -- because I think the world, the V-world, is very much in your body. +It's a body world, and the species really exists in the body. +And I think there's a real significance in us attaching our bodies to our heads, that is often separating purpose from intent. +And the connection between body and head often brings those things into union. +I want to talk about three particular people that I've met, vagina warriors, who really transformed my understanding of this whole principle and species, and one is a woman named Marsha Lopez. +Marsha Lopez was a woman I met in Guatemala. +She was 14 years old, and she was in a marriage and her husband was beating her on a regular basis. +And she couldn't get out, because she was addicted to the relationship, and she had no money. Her sister was younger than her, and she applied -- we had a "Stop Rape" contest a few years ago in New York -- and she applied, hoping that she would become a finalist and she could bring her sister. +She did become a finalist; she brought Marsha to New York. And at that time, we did this extraordinary V-Day at Madison Square Garden, where we sold out the entire testosterone-filled dome -- 18,000 people standing up to say "Yes" to vaginas, which was really a pretty incredible transformation. +And she came, and she witnessed this, and she decided that she would go back and leave her husband, and that she would bring V-Day to Guatemala. +She was 21 years old. +I went to Guatemala and she had sold out the National Theater of Guatemala. +And I watched her walk up on stage in her red short dress and high heels, and she stood there and said, "My name is Marsha. +I was beaten by my husband for five years. He almost murdered me. +I left and you can, too." +And the entire 2,000 people went absolutely crazy. +There's a woman named Esther Chvez who I met in Juarez, Mexico. +And Esther Chvez was a brilliant accountant in Mexico City. +She was 72 years old and she was planning to retire. +She went to Juarez to take care of an ailing aunt, and in the course of it, she began to discover what was happening to the murdered and disappeared women of Juarez. +She gave up her life; she moved to Juarez. +She started to write the stories which documented the disappeared women. +300 women have disappeared in a border town because they're brown and poor. +There has been no response to the disappearance, and not one person has been held accountable. +She began to document it. She opened a center called Casa Amiga, and in six years, she has literally brought this to the consciousness of the world. +We were there a week ago, when there were 7,000 people in the street, and it was truly a miracle. +And as we walked through the streets, the people of Juarez, who normally don't even come into the streets, because the streets are so dangerous, literally stood there and wept, to see that other people from the world had showed up for that particular community. +There's another woman, named Agnes. +And Agnes, for me, epitomizes what a vagina warrior is. +I met her three years ago in Kenya. And Agnes was mutilated as a little girl; she was circumcised against her will when she was 10 years old, and she really made a decision that she didn't want this practice to continue anymore in her community. +So when she got older, she created this incredible thing: it's an anatomical sculpture of a woman's body, half a woman's body. +And in that time, she created an alternative ritual, which involved girls coming of age without the cut. +When we met her three years ago, we said, "What could V-Day do for you?" +And she said, "Well, if you got me a jeep, I could get around a lot faster." +So we bought her a jeep. +And in the year that she had the jeep, she saved 4,500 girls from being cut. +So we said to her, "What else could we do for you?" +She said, "Well, Eve, if you gave me some money, I could open a house and girls could run away, and they could be saved." +And I want to tell this little story about my own beginnings, because it's very interrelated to happiness and Agnes. +When I was a little girl -- I grew up in a wealthy community; it was an upper-middle class white community, and it had all the trappings and the looks of a perfectly nice, wonderful, great life. +And everyone was supposed to be happy in that community, and, in fact, my life was hell. I lived with an alcoholic father who beat me and molested me, and it was all inside that. +And always as a child I had this fantasy that somebody would come and rescue me. +And I actually made up a little character whose name was Mr. Alligator. +I would call him up when things got really bad, and say it was time to come and pick me up. +And I would pack a little bag and wait for Mr. Alligator to come. +Now, Mr. Alligator never did come, but the idea of Mr. Alligator coming actually saved my sanity because I believed, in the distance, there would be someone coming to rescue me. +Cut to 40-some odd years later, we go to Kenya, and we're walking, we arrive at the opening of this house. +And Agnes hadn't let me come to the house for days, because they were preparing this whole ritual. +I want to tell you a great story. When Agnes first started fighting to stop female genital mutilation in her community, she had become an outcast, and she was exiled and slandered, and the whole community turned against her. +But being a vagina warrior, she kept going, and she kept committing herself to transforming consciousness. +And in the Maasai community, goats and cows are the most valued possession. +They're like the Mercedes-Benz of the Rift Valley. +And she said two days before the house opened, two different people arrived to give her a goat each, and she said to me, "I knew then that female genital mutilation would end one day in Africa." +It was a gorgeous day in the African sun, and the dust was flying and the girls were dancing, and there was this house, and it said, "V-Day Safe House for the Girls." +And it hit me in that moment that it had taken 47 years, but that Mr. Alligator had finally shown up. +And he had shown up, obviously, in a form that it took me a long time to understand, which is that when we give in the world what we want the most, we heal the broken part inside each of us. +And I feel, in the last eight years, that this journey -- this miraculous vagina journey -- has taught me this really simple thing, which is that happiness exists in action; it exists in telling the truth and saying what your truth is; and it exists in giving away what you want the most. +And I feel that knowledge and that journey has been an extraordinary privilege, and I feel really blessed to have been here today to communicate that to you. +Thank you very much. +I'm really excited to be here today. +I'll show you some stuff that's just ready to come out of the lab, literally, and I'm really glad that you guys are going to be among the first to see it in person, because I really think this is going to really change the way we interact with machines from this point on. +Now, this is a rear-projected drafting table. It's about 36 inches wide and it's equipped with a multi-touch sensor. Normal touch sensors that you see, like on a kiosk or interactive whiteboards, can only register one point of contact at a time. +This thing allows you to have multiple points at the same time. +They can use both my hands; I can use chording actions; I can just go right up and use all 10 fingers if I wanted to. +You know, like that. +Now, multi-touch sensing isn't completely new. +People like Bill Buxton have been playing around with it in the '80s. +However, the approach I built here is actually high-resolution, low-cost, and probably most importantly, very scalable. +So, the technology, you know, isn't the most exciting thing here right now, other than probably its newfound accessibility. +What's really interesting here is what you can do with it and the kind of interfaces you can build on top of it. So let's see. +So, for instance, we have a lava lamp application here. Now, you can see, I can use both of my hands to kind of squeeze and put the blobs together. +I can inject heat into the system here, or I can pull it apart with two of my fingers. +It's completely intuitive; there's no instruction manual. +The interface just kind of disappears. +This started out as a screensaver app that one of the Ph.D. students in our lab, Ilya Rosenberg, made. +But I think its true identity comes out here. +Now what's great about a multi-touch sensor is that, you know, I could be doing this with as many fingers here, but of course multi-touch also inherently means multi-user. +Chris could be interacting with another part of Lava, while I play around with it here. You can imagine a new kind of sculpting tool, where I'm kind of warming something up, making it malleable, and then letting it cool down and solidifying in a certain state. +Google should have something like this in their lobby. I'll show you a little more of a concrete example here, as this thing loads. +This is a photographer's light-box application. +Again, I can use both of my hands to interact and move photos around. +But what's even cooler is that if I have two fingers, I can actually grab a photo and then stretch it out like that really easily. +I can pan, zoom and rotate it effortlessly. +I can do that grossly with both of my hands, or I can do it just with two fingers on each of my hands together. +If I grab the canvas, I can do the same thing -- stretch it out. +I can do it simultaneously, holding this down, and gripping on another one, stretching this out. +Again, the interface just disappears here. +There's no manual. This is exactly what you expect, especially if you haven't interacted with a computer before. +Now, when you have initiatives like the $100 laptop, I kind of cringe at the idea of introducing a whole new generation to computing with this standard mouse-and-windows-pointer interface. +This is something that I think is really the way we should be interacting with machines from now on. +Now, of course, I can bring up a keyboard. +And I can bring that around, put that up there. +Obviously, this is a standard keyboard, but of course I can rescale it to make it work well for my hands. +That's really important, because there's no reason in this day and age that we should be conforming to a physical device. +That leads to bad things, like RSI. +We have so much technology nowadays that these interfaces should start conforming to us. +There's so little applied now to actually improving the way we interact with interfaces from this point on. +This keyboard is probably actually the really wrong direction to go. +You can imagine, in the future, as we develop this kind of technology, a keyboard that kind of automatically drifts as your hand moves away, and really intelligently anticipates which key you're trying to stroke. +So -- again, isn't this great? +Audience: Where's your lab? +Jeff Han: I'm a research scientist at NYU in New York. +Here's an example of another kind of app. I can make these little fuzz balls. +It'll remember the strokes I'm making. Of course I can do it with all my hands. +It's pressure-sensitive. +What's neat about that is, I showed that two-finger gesture that zooms in really quickly. +Because you don't have to switch to a hand tool or the magnifying glass tool, you can just continuously make things in real multiple scales, all at the same time. +I can create big things out here, but I can go back and really quickly go back to where I started, and make even smaller things here. +This is going to be really important as we start getting to things like data visualization. +For instance, I think we all enjoyed Hans Rosling's talk, and he really emphasized the fact I've been thinking about for a long time: We have all this great data, but for some reason, it's just sitting there. +Let me show you another app here. This is called WorldWind. +It's done by NASA. We've all seen Google Earth; this is an open-source version of that. +There are plug-ins to be able to load in different data sets that NASA's collected over the years. +As you can see, I can use the same two-fingered gestures to go down and go in really seamlessly. There's no interface, again. +It really allows anybody to kind of go in -- and it just does what you'd expect, you know? +Again, there's just no interface here. The interface just disappears. +I can switch to different data views. That's what's neat about this app here. +NASA's really cool. These hyper-spectral images are false-colored so you can -- it's really good for determining vegetative use. Well, let's go back to this. +The great thing about mapping applications -- it's not really 2D, it's 3D. +So, again, with a multi-point interface, you can do a gesture like this -- so you can be able to tilt around like that -- It's not just simply relegated to a kind of 2D panning and motion. +This gesture is just putting two fingers down -- it's defining an axis of tilt -- and I can tilt up and down that way. +We just came up with that on the spot, it's probably not the right thing to do, but there's such interesting things you can do with this interface. +It's just so much fun playing around with it, too. And so the last thing I want to show you is -- I'm sure we can all think of a lot of entertainment apps that you can do with this thing. +I'm more interested in the creative applications we can do with this. +Now, here's a simple application here -- I can draw out a curve. +And when I close it, it becomes a character. +But the neat thing about it is I can add control points. +And then what I can do is manipulate them with both of my fingers at the same time. +And you notice what it does. +It's kind of a puppeteering thing, where I can use as many fingers as I have to draw and make -- Now, there's a lot of actual math going on under here for this to control this mesh and do the right thing. +This technique of being able to manipulate a mesh here, with multiple control points, is actually state of the art. +It was released at SIGGRAPH last year. +It's a great example of the kind of research I really love: all this compute power to make things do the right things, intuitive things, to do exactly what you expect. +So, multi-touch interaction research is a very active field right now in HCI. +I'm not the only one doing it, a lot of other people are getting into it. +This kind of technology is going to let even more people get into it, I'm looking forward to interacting with all of you over the next few days and seeing how it can apply to your respective fields. +Thank you. +Good morning. How are you? It's been great, hasn't it? I've been blown away by the whole thing. +In fact, I'm leaving. There have been three themes running through the conference which are relevant to what I want to talk about. +One is the extraordinary evidence of human creativity in all of the presentations that we've had and in all of the people here. +Just the variety of it and the range of it. The second is that it's put us in a place where we have no idea what's going to happen, in terms of the future. +No idea how this may play out. +I have an interest in education. +Actually, what I find is everybody has an interest in education. +Don't you? I find this very interesting. +If you're at a dinner party, and you say you work in education -- Actually, you're not often at dinner parties, frankly. +If you work in education, you're not asked. +And you're never asked back, curiously. That's strange to me. +But if you are, and you say to somebody, you know, they say, "What do you do?" +and you say you work in education, you can see the blood run from their face. They're like, "Oh my God," you know, "Why me?" +"My one night out all week." But if you ask about their education, they pin you to the wall. +Because it's one of those things that goes deep with people, am I right? +Like religion, and money and other things. +So I have a big interest in education, and I think we all do. +We have a huge vested interest in it, partly because it's education that's meant to take us into this future that we can't grasp. +If you think of it, children starting school this year will be retiring in 2065. Nobody has a clue, despite all the expertise that's been on parade for the past four days, what the world will look like in five years' time. +And yet we're meant to be educating them for it. +So the unpredictability, I think, is extraordinary. +And the third part of this is that we've all agreed, nonetheless, on the really extraordinary capacities that children have -- their capacities for innovation. +I mean, Sirena last night was a marvel, wasn't she? +Just seeing what she could do. +And she's exceptional, but I think she's not, so to speak, exceptional in the whole of childhood. +What you have there is a person of extraordinary dedication who found a talent. +And my contention is, all kids have tremendous talents. +And we squander them, pretty ruthlessly. +So I want to talk about education and I want to talk about creativity. +My contention is that creativity now is as important in education as literacy, and we should treat it with the same status. +Thank you. That was it, by the way. +Thank you very much. Well, I was born... no. I heard a great story recently -- I love telling it -- of a little girl who was in a drawing lesson. +She was six, and she was at the back, drawing, and the teacher said this girl hardly ever paid attention, and in this drawing lesson, she did. +The teacher was fascinated. +She went over to her, and she said, "What are you drawing?" +And the girl said, "I'm drawing a picture of God." +And the teacher said, "But nobody knows what God looks like." +And the girl said, "They will, in a minute." +When my son was four in England -- Actually, he was four everywhere, to be honest. If we're being strict about it, wherever he went, he was four that year. +He was in the Nativity play. Do you remember the story? +No, it was big, it was a big story. +Mel Gibson did the sequel, you may have seen it. +"Nativity II." +But James got the part of Joseph, which we were thrilled about. +We considered this to be one of the lead parts. +We had the place crammed full of agents in T-shirts: "James Robinson IS Joseph!" He didn't have to speak, but you know the bit where the three kings come in? +They come in bearing gifts, gold, frankincense and myrrh. +This really happened. +We were sitting there and I think they just went out of sequence, because we talked to the little boy afterward and we said, "You OK with that?" And he said, "Yeah, why? Was that wrong?" +They just switched. +The three boys came in, four-year-olds with tea towels on their heads, and they put these boxes down, and the first boy said, "I bring you gold." +And the second boy said, "I bring you myrrh." +And the third boy said, "Frank sent this." What these things have in common is that kids will take a chance. +If they don't know, they'll have a go. +Am I right? They're not frightened of being wrong. +I don't mean to say that being wrong is the same thing as being creative. +What we do know is, if you're not prepared to be wrong, you'll never come up with anything original -- if you're not prepared to be wrong. +And by the time they get to be adults, most kids have lost that capacity. +They have become frightened of being wrong. +And we run our companies like this. +We stigmatize mistakes. +And we're now running national education systems where mistakes are the worst thing you can make. +And the result is that we are educating people out of their creative capacities. +Picasso once said this, he said that all children are born artists. +The problem is to remain an artist as we grow up. +I believe this passionately, that we don't grow into creativity, Or rather, we get educated out of it. +So why is this? +I lived in Stratford-on-Avon until about five years ago. +In fact, we moved from Stratford to Los Angeles. +So you can imagine what a seamless transition that was. +Actually, we lived in a place called Snitterfield, just outside Stratford, which is where Shakespeare's father was born. Are you struck by a new thought? I was. +You don't think of Shakespeare having a father, do you? +Do you? Because you don't think of Shakespeare being a child, do you? +Shakespeare being seven? +I never thought of it. +I mean, he was seven at some point. +He was in somebody's English class, wasn't he? "Must try harder." Being sent to bed by his dad, you know, to Shakespeare, "Go to bed, now! +And put the pencil down." +"And stop speaking like that." "It's confusing everybody." +Anyway, we moved from Stratford to Los Angeles, and I just want to say a word about the transition. +My son didn't want to come. +I've got two kids; he's 21 now, my daughter's 16. +He didn't want to come to Los Angeles. +He loved it, but he had a girlfriend in England. +This was the love of his life, Sarah. He'd known her for a month. +Mind you, they'd had their fourth anniversary, because it's a long time when you're 16. +He was really upset on the plane, he said, "I'll never find another girl like Sarah." +And we were rather pleased about that, frankly -- Because she was the main reason we were leaving the country. +But something strikes you when you move to America and travel around the world: Every education system on Earth has the same hierarchy of subjects. +Every one. Doesn't matter where you go. +You'd think it would be otherwise, but it isn't. +At the top are mathematics and languages, then the humanities, and at the bottom are the arts. +Everywhere on Earth. +And in pretty much every system too, there's a hierarchy within the arts. +Art and music are normally given a higher status in schools than drama and dance. There isn't an education system on the planet that teaches dance everyday to children the way we teach them mathematics. Why? +Why not? I think this is rather important. +I think math is very important, but so is dance. +Children dance all the time if they're allowed to, we all do. +We all have bodies, don't we? Did I miss a meeting? +Truthfully, what happens is, as children grow up, we start to educate them progressively from the waist up. +And then we focus on their heads. +And slightly to one side. +If you were to visit education, as an alien, and say "What's it for, public education?" +I think you'd have to conclude, if you look at the output, who really succeeds by this, who does everything that they should, who gets all the brownie points, who are the winners -- I think you'd have to conclude the whole purpose of public education throughout the world is to produce university professors. Isn't it? +They're the people who come out the top. +And I used to be one, so there. And I like university professors, but you know, we shouldn't hold them up as the high-water mark of all human achievement. +They're just a form of life, another form of life. +But they're rather curious, and I say this out of affection for them. +There's something curious about professors in my experience -- not all of them, but typically, they live in their heads. +They live up there, and slightly to one side. +They're disembodied, you know, in a kind of literal way. +They look upon their body as a form of transport for their heads. +It's a way of getting their head to meetings. If you want real evidence of out-of-body experiences, get yourself along to a residential conference of senior academics, and pop into the discotheque on the final night. +And there, you will see it. +Grown men and women writhing uncontrollably, off the beat. +Waiting until it ends so they can go home and write a paper about it. +Our education system is predicated on the idea of academic ability. +And there's a reason. +Around the world, there were no public systems of education, really, before the 19th century. +They all came into being to meet the needs of industrialism. +So the hierarchy is rooted on two ideas. +Number one, that the most useful subjects for work are at the top. +So you were probably steered benignly away from things at school when you were a kid, things you liked, on the grounds that you would never get a job doing that. Is that right? +Don't do music, you're not going to be a musician; don't do art, you won't be an artist. +Benign advice -- now, profoundly mistaken. +The whole world is engulfed in a revolution. +And the second is academic ability, which has really come to dominate our view of intelligence, because the universities designed the system in their image. +If you think of it, the whole system of public education around the world is a protracted process of university entrance. +And the consequence is that many highly-talented, brilliant, creative people think they're not, because the thing they were good at at school wasn't valued, or was actually stigmatized. +And I think we can't afford to go on that way. +In the next 30 years, according to UNESCO, more people worldwide will be graduating through education than since the beginning of history. +More people, and it's the combination of all the things we've talked about -- technology and its transformation effect on work, and demography and the huge explosion in population. +Suddenly, degrees aren't worth anything. +When I was a student, if you had a degree, you had a job. +If you didn't have a job, it's because you didn't want one. +And I didn't want one, frankly. But now kids with degrees are often heading home to carry on playing video games, because you need an MA where the previous job required a BA, and now you need a PhD for the other. +It's a process of academic inflation. +And it indicates the whole structure of education is shifting beneath our feet. +We need to radically rethink our view of intelligence. +We know three things about intelligence. +One, it's diverse. +We think about the world in all the ways that we experience it. +We think visually, we think in sound, we think kinesthetically. +We think in abstract terms, we think in movement. +Secondly, intelligence is dynamic. +If you look at the interactions of a human brain, as we heard yesterday from a number of presentations, intelligence is wonderfully interactive. +The brain isn't divided into compartments. +In fact, creativity -- which I define as the process of having original ideas that have value -- more often than not comes about through the interaction of different disciplinary ways of seeing things. +By the way, there's a shaft of nerves that joins the two halves of the brain called the corpus callosum. It's thicker in women. +Following off from Helen yesterday, this is probably why women are better at multi-tasking. +Because you are, aren't you? +There's a raft of research, but I know it from my personal life. +If my wife is cooking a meal at home -- which is not often, thankfully. +No, she's good at some things, but if she's cooking, she's dealing with people on the phone, she's talking to the kids, she's painting the ceiling, she's doing open-heart surgery over here. +If I'm cooking, the door is shut, the kids are out, the phone's on the hook, if she comes in I get annoyed. +I say, "Terry, please, I'm trying to fry an egg in here." Actually, do you know that old philosophical thing, if a tree falls in a forest and nobody hears it, did it happen? +Remember that old chestnut? +I'm fascinated by how people got to be there. +It's really prompted by a conversation I had with a wonderful woman who maybe most people have never heard of, Gillian Lynne. +Have you heard of her? Some have. +She's a choreographer, and everybody knows her work. +She did "Cats" and "Phantom of the Opera." +She's wonderful. I used to be on the board of The Royal Ballet, as you can see. +Anyway, Gillian and I had lunch one day and I said, "How did you get to be a dancer?" +It was interesting. When she was at school, she was really hopeless. +And the school, in the '30s, wrote to her parents and said, "We think Gillian has a learning disorder." +She couldn't concentrate; she was fidgeting. +I think now they'd say she had ADHD. Wouldn't you? +But this was the 1930s, and ADHD hadn't been invented at this point. +It wasn't an available condition. People weren't aware they could have that. +Anyway, she went to see this specialist. +So, this oak-paneled room, and she was there with her mother, and she was led and sat on this chair at the end, and she sat on her hands for 20 minutes while this man talked to her mother about the problems Gillian was having at school. +Because she was disturbing people; her homework was always late; and so on, little kid of eight. +In the end, the doctor went and sat next to Gillian, and said, "I've listened to all these things your mother's told me, I need to speak to her privately. +Wait here. We'll be back; we won't be very long," and they went and left her. +But as they went out of the room, he turned on the radio that was sitting on his desk. +And when they got out, he said to her mother, "Just stand and watch her." +And the minute they left the room, she was on her feet, moving to the music. +And they watched for a few minutes and he turned to her mother and said, "Mrs. Lynne, Gillian isn't sick; she's a dancer. +Take her to a dance school." +I said, "What happened?" +She said, "She did. I can't tell you how wonderful it was. +We walked in this room and it was full of people like me. +People who couldn't sit still. +People who had to move to think." Who had to move to think. +They did ballet, they did tap, jazz; they did modern; they did contemporary. +She was eventually auditioned for the Royal Ballet School; she became a soloist; she had a wonderful career at the Royal Ballet. +She eventually graduated from the Royal Ballet School, founded the Gillian Lynne Dance Company, met Andrew Lloyd Webber. She's been responsible for some of the most successful musical theater productions in history, she's given pleasure to millions, and she's a multi-millionaire. +Somebody else might have put her on medication and told her to calm down. +What I think it comes to is this: Al Gore spoke the other night about ecology and the revolution that was triggered by Rachel Carson. +I believe our only hope for the future is to adopt a new conception of human ecology, one in which we start to reconstitute our conception of the richness of human capacity. +Our education system has mined our minds in the way that we strip-mine the earth: for a particular commodity. +And for the future, it won't serve us. +We have to rethink the fundamental principles on which we're educating our children. +There was a wonderful quote by Jonas Salk, who said, "If all the insects were to disappear from the Earth, within 50 years all life on Earth would end. +If all human beings disappeared from the Earth, within 50 years all forms of life would flourish." +And he's right. +What TED celebrates is the gift of the human imagination. +We have to be careful now that we use this gift wisely and that we avert some of the scenarios that we've talked about. +And the only way we'll do it is by seeing our creative capacities for the richness they are and seeing our children for the hope that they are. +And our task is to educate their whole being, so they can face this future. +By the way -- we may not see this future, but they will. +And our job is to help them make something of it. Thank you very much. +As other speakers have said, it's a rather daunting experience -- a particularly daunting experience -- to be speaking in front of this audience. +But unlike the other speakers, I'm not going to tell you about the mysteries of the universe, or the wonders of evolution, or the really clever, innovative ways people are attacking the major inequalities in our world. +Or even the challenges of nation-states in the modern global economy. +My brief, as you've just heard, is to tell you about statistics -- and, to be more precise, to tell you some exciting things about statistics. +And that's -- -- that's rather more challenging than all the speakers before me and all the ones coming after me. +One of my senior colleagues told me, when I was a youngster in this profession, rather proudly, that statisticians were people who liked figures but didn't have the personality skills to become accountants. +And there's another in-joke among statisticians, and that's, "How do you tell the introverted statistician from the extroverted statistician?" +To which the answer is, "The extroverted statistician's the one who looks at the other person's shoes." +But I want to tell you something useful -- and here it is, so concentrate now. +This evening, there's a reception in the University's Museum of Natural History. +And it's a wonderful setting, as I hope you'll find, and a great icon to the best of the Victorian tradition. +It's very unlikely -- in this special setting, and this collection of people -- but you might just find yourself talking to someone you'd rather wish that you weren't. +So here's what you do. +When they say to you, "What do you do?" -- you say, "I'm a statistician." +Well, except they've been pre-warned now, and they'll know you're making it up. +And then one of two things will happen. +They'll either discover their long-lost cousin in the other corner of the room and run over and talk to them. +Or they'll suddenly become parched and/or hungry -- and often both -- and sprint off for a drink and some food. +And you'll be left in peace to talk to the person you really want to talk to. +It's one of the challenges in our profession to try and explain what we do. +We're not top on people's lists for dinner party guests and conversations and so on. +And it's something I've never really found a good way of doing. +But my wife -- who was then my girlfriend -- managed it much better than I've ever been able to. +Many years ago, when we first started going out, she was working for the BBC in Britain, and I was, at that stage, working in America. +I was coming back to visit her. +She told this to one of her colleagues, who said, "Well, what does your boyfriend do?" +Sarah thought quite hard about the things I'd explained -- and she concentrated, in those days, on listening. +Don't tell her I said that. +And she was thinking about the work I did developing mathematical models for understanding evolution and modern genetics. +So when her colleague said, "What does he do?" +She paused and said, "He models things." +Well, her colleague suddenly got much more interested than I had any right to expect and went on and said, "What does he model?" +Well, Sarah thought a little bit more about my work and said, "Genes." +"He models genes." +That is my first love, and that's what I'll tell you a little bit about. +What I want to do more generally is to get you thinking about the place of uncertainty and randomness and chance in our world, and how we react to that, and how well we do or don't think about it. +So you've had a pretty easy time up till now -- a few laughs, and all that kind of thing -- in the talks to date. +You've got to think, and I'm going to ask you some questions. +So here's the scene for the first question I'm going to ask you. +Can you imagine tossing a coin successively? +And for some reason -- which shall remain rather vague -- we're interested in a particular pattern. +Here's one -- a head, followed by a tail, followed by a tail. +So suppose we toss a coin repeatedly. +Then the pattern, head-tail-tail, that we've suddenly become fixated with happens here. +And you can count: one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, 10 -- it happens after the 10th toss. +So you might think there are more interesting things to do, but humor me for the moment. +Imagine this half of the audience each get out coins, and they toss them until they first see the pattern head-tail-tail. +The first time they do it, maybe it happens after the 10th toss, as here. +The second time, maybe it's after the fourth toss. +The next time, after the 15th toss. +So you do that lots and lots of times, and you average those numbers. +That's what I want this side to think about. +The other half of the audience doesn't like head-tail-tail -- they think, for deep cultural reasons, that's boring -- and they're much more interested in a different pattern -- head-tail-head. +So, on this side, you get out your coins, and you toss and toss and toss. +And you count the number of times until the pattern head-tail-head appears and you average them. OK? +So on this side, you've got a number -- you've done it lots of times, so you get it accurately -- which is the average number of tosses until head-tail-tail. +On this side, you've got a number -- the average number of tosses until head-tail-head. +So here's a deep mathematical fact -- if you've got two numbers, one of three things must be true. +Either they're the same, or this one's bigger than this one, or this one's bigger than that one. +So what's going on here? +So you've all got to think about this, and you've all got to vote -- and we're not moving on. +And I don't want to end up in the two-minute silence to give you more time to think about it, until everyone's expressed a view. OK. +So what you want to do is compare the average number of tosses until we first see head-tail-head with the average number of tosses until we first see head-tail-tail. +Who thinks that A is true -- that, on average, it'll take longer to see head-tail-head than head-tail-tail? +Who thinks that B is true -- that on average, they're the same? +Who thinks that C is true -- that, on average, it'll take less time to see head-tail-head than head-tail-tail? +OK, who hasn't voted yet? Because that's really naughty -- I said you had to. +OK. So most people think B is true. +And you might be relieved to know even rather distinguished mathematicians think that. +It's not. A is true here. +It takes longer, on average. +In fact, the average number of tosses till head-tail-head is 10 and the average number of tosses until head-tail-tail is eight. +How could that be? +Anything different about the two patterns? +There is. Head-tail-head overlaps itself. +If you went head-tail-head-tail-head, you can cunningly get two occurrences of the pattern in only five tosses. +You can't do that with head-tail-tail. +That turns out to be important. +There are two ways of thinking about this. +I'll give you one of them. +So imagine -- let's suppose we're doing it. +On this side -- remember, you're excited about head-tail-tail; you're excited about head-tail-head. +We start tossing a coin, and we get a head -- and you start sitting on the edge of your seat because something great and wonderful, or awesome, might be about to happen. +The next toss is a tail -- you get really excited. +The champagne's on ice just next to you; you've got the glasses chilled to celebrate. +You're waiting with bated breath for the final toss. +And if it comes down a head, that's great. +You're done, and you celebrate. +If it's a tail -- well, rather disappointedly, you put the glasses away and put the champagne back. +And you keep tossing, to wait for the next head, to get excited. +On this side, there's a different experience. +It's the same for the first two parts of the sequence. +You're a little bit excited with the first head -- you get rather more excited with the next tail. +Then you toss the coin. +If it's a tail, you crack open the champagne. +If it's a head you're disappointed, but you're still a third of the way to your pattern again. +And that's an informal way of presenting it -- that's why there's a difference. +Another way of thinking about it -- if we tossed a coin eight million times, then we'd expect a million head-tail-heads and a million head-tail-tails -- but the head-tail-heads could occur in clumps. +So if you want to put a million things down amongst eight million positions and you can have some of them overlapping, the clumps will be further apart. +It's another way of getting the intuition. +What's the point I want to make? +It's a very, very simple example, an easily stated question in probability, which every -- you're in good company -- everybody gets wrong. +This is my little diversion into my real passion, which is genetics. +There's a connection between head-tail-heads and head-tail-tails in genetics, and it's the following. +When you toss a coin, you get a sequence of heads and tails. +When you look at DNA, there's a sequence of not two things -- heads and tails -- but four letters -- As, Gs, Cs and Ts. +And there are little chemical scissors, called restriction enzymes which cut DNA whenever they see particular patterns. +And they're an enormously useful tool in modern molecular biology. +And instead of asking the question, "How long until I see a head-tail-head?" -- you can ask, "How big will the chunks be when I use a restriction enzyme which cuts whenever it sees G-A-A-G, for example? +How long will those chunks be?" +That's a rather trivial connection between probability and genetics. +There's a much deeper connection, which I don't have time to go into and that is that modern genetics is a really exciting area of science. +And we'll hear some talks later in the conference specifically about that. +And I will give you two little snippets -- two examples -- of projects we're involved in in my group in Oxford, both of which I think are rather exciting. +You know about the Human Genome Project. +That was a project which aimed to read one copy of the human genome. +The natural thing to do after you've done that -- and that's what this project, the International HapMap Project, which is a collaboration between labs in five or six different countries. +Think of the Human Genome Project as learning what we've got in common, and the HapMap Project is trying to understand where there are differences between different people. +Why do we care about that? +Well, there are lots of reasons. +The most pressing one is that we want to understand how some differences make some people susceptible to one disease -- type-2 diabetes, for example -- and other differences make people more susceptible to heart disease, or stroke, or autism and so on. +That's one big project. +There's a second big project, recently funded by the Wellcome Trust in this country, involving very large studies -- thousands of individuals, with each of eight different diseases, common diseases like type-1 and type-2 diabetes, and coronary heart disease, bipolar disease and so on -- to try and understand the genetics. +To try and understand what it is about genetic differences that causes the diseases. +Why do we want to do that? +Because we understand very little about most human diseases. +We don't know what causes them. +And if we can get in at the bottom and understand the genetics, we'll have a window on the way the disease works, and a whole new way about thinking about disease therapies and preventative treatment and so on. +So that's, as I said, the little diversion on my main love. +Back to some of the more mundane issues of thinking about uncertainty. +Here's another quiz for you -- now suppose we've got a test for a disease which isn't infallible, but it's pretty good. +It gets it right 99 percent of the time. +And I take one of you, or I take someone off the street, and I test them for the disease in question. +Let's suppose there's a test for HIV -- the virus that causes AIDS -- and the test says the person has the disease. +What's the chance that they do? +The test gets it right 99 percent of the time. +So a natural answer is 99 percent. +Who likes that answer? +Come on -- everyone's got to get involved. +Don't think you don't trust me anymore. +Well, you're right to be a bit skeptical, because that's not the answer. +That's what you might think. +It's not the answer, and it's not because it's only part of the story. +It actually depends on how common or how rare the disease is. +So let me try and illustrate that. +Here's a little caricature of a million individuals. +So let's think about a disease that affects -- it's pretty rare, it affects one person in 10,000. +Amongst these million individuals, most of them are healthy and some of them will have the disease. +And in fact, if this is the prevalence of the disease, about 100 will have the disease and the rest won't. +So now suppose we test them all. +What happens? +Well, amongst the 100 who do have the disease, the test will get it right 99 percent of the time, and 99 will test positive. +Amongst all these other people who don't have the disease, the test will get it right 99 percent of the time. +It'll only get it wrong one percent of the time. +But there are so many of them that there'll be an enormous number of false positives. +Put that another way -- of all of them who test positive -- so here they are, the individuals involved -- less than one in 100 actually have the disease. +So even though we think the test is accurate, the important part of the story is there's another bit of information we need. +Here's the key intuition. +What we have to do, once we know the test is positive, is to weigh up the plausibility, or the likelihood, of two competing explanations. +Each of those explanations has a likely bit and an unlikely bit. +One explanation is that the person doesn't have the disease -- that's overwhelmingly likely, if you pick someone at random -- but the test gets it wrong, which is unlikely. +The other explanation is that the person does have the disease -- that's unlikely -- but the test gets it right, which is likely. +And the number we end up with -- that number which is a little bit less than one in 100 -- is to do with how likely one of those explanations is relative to the other. +Each of them taken together is unlikely. +Here's a more topical example of exactly the same thing. +Those of you in Britain will know about what's become rather a celebrated case of a woman called Sally Clark, who had two babies who died suddenly. +And initially, it was thought that they died of what's known informally as "cot death," and more formally as "Sudden Infant Death Syndrome." +For various reasons, she was later charged with murder. +And at the trial, her trial, a very distinguished pediatrician gave evidence that the chance of two cot deaths, innocent deaths, in a family like hers -- which was professional and non-smoking -- was one in 73 million. +To cut a long story short, she was convicted at the time. +Later, and fairly recently, acquitted on appeal -- in fact, on the second appeal. +And just to set it in context, you can imagine how awful it is for someone to have lost one child, and then two, if they're innocent, to be convicted of murdering them. +To be put through the stress of the trial, convicted of murdering them -- and to spend time in a women's prison, where all the other prisoners think you killed your children -- is a really awful thing to happen to someone. +And it happened in large part here because the expert got the statistics horribly wrong, in two different ways. +So where did he get the one in 73 million number? +He looked at some research, which said the chance of one cot death in a family like Sally Clark's is about one in 8,500. +So he said, "I'll assume that if you have one cot death in a family, the chance of a second child dying from cot death aren't changed." +So that's what statisticians would call an assumption of independence. +It's like saying, "If you toss a coin and get a head the first time, that won't affect the chance of getting a head the second time." +So if you toss a coin twice, the chance of getting a head twice are a half -- that's the chance the first time -- times a half -- the chance a second time. +So he said, "Here, I'll assume that these events are independent. +When you multiply 8,500 together twice, you get about 73 million." +And none of this was stated to the court as an assumption or presented to the jury that way. +Unfortunately here -- and, really, regrettably -- first of all, in a situation like this you'd have to verify it empirically. +And secondly, it's palpably false. +There are lots and lots of things that we don't know about sudden infant deaths. +It might well be that there are environmental factors that we're not aware of, and it's pretty likely to be the case that there are genetic factors we're not aware of. +So if a family suffers from one cot death, you'd put them in a high-risk group. +They've probably got these environmental risk factors and/or genetic risk factors we don't know about. +And to argue, then, that the chance of a second death is as if you didn't know that information is really silly. +It's worse than silly -- it's really bad science. +Nonetheless, that's how it was presented, and at trial nobody even argued it. +That's the first problem. +The second problem is, what does the number of one in 73 million mean? +So after Sally Clark was convicted -- you can imagine, it made rather a splash in the press -- one of the journalists from one of Britain's more reputable newspapers wrote that what the expert had said was, "The chance that she was innocent was one in 73 million." +Now, that's a logical error. +It's exactly the same logical error as the logical error of thinking that after the disease test, which is 99 percent accurate, the chance of having the disease is 99 percent. +In the disease example, we had to bear in mind two things, one of which was the possibility that the test got it right or not. +And the other one was the chance, a priori, that the person had the disease or not. +It's exactly the same in this context. +There are two things involved -- two parts to the explanation. +We want to know how likely, or relatively how likely, two different explanations are. +One of them is that Sally Clark was innocent -- which is, a priori, overwhelmingly likely -- most mothers don't kill their children. +And the second part of the explanation is that she suffered an incredibly unlikely event. +Not as unlikely as one in 73 million, but nonetheless rather unlikely. +The other explanation is that she was guilty. +Now, we probably think a priori that's unlikely. +And we certainly should think in the context of a criminal trial that that's unlikely, because of the presumption of innocence. +And then if she were trying to kill the children, she succeeded. +So the chance that she's innocent isn't one in 73 million. +We don't know what it is. +It has to do with weighing up the strength of the other evidence against her and the statistical evidence. +We know the children died. +What matters is how likely or unlikely, relative to each other, the two explanations are. +And they're both implausible. +There's a situation where errors in statistics had really profound and really unfortunate consequences. +In fact, there are two other women who were convicted on the basis of the evidence of this pediatrician, who have subsequently been released on appeal. +Many cases were reviewed. +And it's particularly topical because he's currently facing a disrepute charge at Britain's General Medical Council. +So just to conclude -- what are the take-home messages from this? +Well, we know that randomness and uncertainty and chance are very much a part of our everyday life. +It's also true -- and, although, you, as a collective, are very special in many ways, you're completely typical in not getting the examples I gave right. +It's very well documented that people get things wrong. +They make errors of logic in reasoning with uncertainty. +We can cope with the subtleties of language brilliantly -- and there are interesting evolutionary questions about how we got here. +We are not good at reasoning with uncertainty. +That's an issue in our everyday lives. +As you've heard from many of the talks, statistics underpins an enormous amount of research in science -- in social science, in medicine and indeed, quite a lot of industry. +All of quality control, which has had a major impact on industrial processing, is underpinned by statistics. +It's something we're bad at doing. +At the very least, we should recognize that, and we tend not to. +To go back to the legal context, at the Sally Clark trial all of the lawyers just accepted what the expert said. +So if a pediatrician had come out and said to a jury, "I know how to build bridges. I've built one down the road. +Please drive your car home over it," they would have said, "Well, pediatricians don't know how to build bridges. +That's what engineers do." +On the other hand, he came out and effectively said, or implied, "I know how to reason with uncertainty. I know how to do statistics." +And everyone said, "Well, that's fine. He's an expert." +So we need to understand where our competence is and isn't. +Exactly the same kinds of issues arose in the early days of DNA profiling, when scientists, and lawyers and in some cases judges, routinely misrepresented evidence. +Usually -- one hopes -- innocently, but misrepresented evidence. +Forensic scientists said, "The chance that this guy's innocent is one in three million." +Even if you believe the number, just like the 73 million to one, that's not what it meant. +And there have been celebrated appeal cases in Britain and elsewhere because of that. +And just to finish in the context of the legal system. +It's all very well to say, "Let's do our best to present the evidence." +But more and more, in cases of DNA profiling -- this is another one -- we expect juries, who are ordinary people -- and it's documented they're very bad at this -- we expect juries to be able to cope with the sorts of reasoning that goes on. +In other spheres of life, if people argued -- well, except possibly for politics -- but in other spheres of life, if people argued illogically, we'd say that's not a good thing. +We sort of expect it of politicians and don't hope for much more. +In the case of uncertainty, we get it wrong all the time -- and at the very least, we should be aware of that, and ideally, we might try and do something about it. +Thanks very much. +I've got apparently 18 minutes to convince you that history has a direction, an arrow; that in some fundamental sense, it's good; that the arrow points to something positive. +Now, when the TED people first approached me about giving this upbeat talk -- -- that was before the cartoon of Muhammad had triggered global rioting. +It was before the avian flu had reached Europe. +It was before Hamas had won the Palestinian election, eliciting various counter-measures by Israel. +And to be honest, if I had known when I was asked to give this upbeat talk that even as I was giving the upbeat talk, the apocalypse would be unfolding -- -- I might have said, "Is it okay if I talk about something else?" +But I didn't, OK. So we're here. I'll do what I can. I'll do what I can. +I've got to warn you: the sense in which my worldview is upbeat has always been kind of subtle, sometimes even elusive. +I'll see what I can do. OK? +Now, in one sense, the claim that history has a direction is not that controversial. +If you're just talking about social structure, OK, clearly that's gotten more complex a little over the last 10,000 years -- has reached higher and higher levels. +And in fact, that's actually sustaining a long-standing trend that predates human beings, OK, that biological evolution was doing for us. +Because what happened in the beginning, this stuff encases itself in a cell, then cells start hanging out together in societies. +Eventually they get so close, they form multicellular organisms, then you get complex multicellular organisms; they form societies. +But then at some point, one of these multicellular organisms does something completely amazing with this stuff, which is it launches a whole second kind of evolution: cultural evolution. +And amazingly, that evolution sustains the trajectory that biological evolution had established toward greater complexity. +By cultural evolution we mean the evolution of ideas. +A lot of you have heard the term "memes." The evolution of technology, I pay a lot of attention to, so, you know, one of the first things you got was a little hand axe. +Generations go by, somebody says, hey, why don't we put it on a stick? +Just absolutely delights the little ones. +Next best thing to a video game. +This may not seem to impress, but technological evolution is progressive, so another 10, 20,000 years, and armaments technology takes you here. +Impressive. And the rate of technological evolution speeds up, so a mere quarter of a century after this, you get this, OK. +And this. +I'm sorry -- it was a cheap laugh, but I wanted to find a way to transition back to this idea of the unfolding apocalypse, and I thought that might do it. +So, what threatens to happen with this unfolding apocalypse is the collapse of global social organization. +Now, first let me remind you how much work it took to get us where we are, to be on the brink of true global social organization. +Originally, you had the most complex societies, the hunter-gatherer village. +Stonehenge is the remnant of a chiefdom, which is what you get with the invention of agriculture: multi-village polity with centralized rule. +With the invention of writing, you start getting cities. This is blurry. I kind of like that because it makes it look like a one-celled organism and reminds you how many levels organic organization has already moved through to get to this point. And then you get to, you know, you get empires. +I want to stress, you know, social organization can transcend political bounds. +This is the Silk Road connecting the Chinese Empire and the Roman Empire. +So you had social complexity spanning the whole continent, even if no polity did similarly. Today, you've got nation states. +Point is: there's obviously collaboration and organization going on beyond national bounds. +This is actually just a picture of the earth at night, and I'm just putting it up because I think it's pretty. +Does kind of convey the sense that this is an integrated system. +Now, I explained this growth of complexity by reference to something called "non-zero sumness." +Assuming that a few of you did not do the assigned reading, very quickly, the key idea is the distinction between zero-sum games, in which correlations are inverse: always a winner and a loser. +Non-zero-sum games in which correlations can be positive, OK. +So like in tennis, usually it's win-lose; it always adds up to zero-zero-sum. But if you're playing doubles, the person on your side of the net, they're in the same boat as you, so you're playing a non-zero-sum game with them. +It's either for the better or for the worse, OK. +A lot of forms of non-zero-sum behavior in the realm of economics and so on in everyday life often leads to cooperation. +The argument I make is basically that, well, non-zero-sum games have always been part of life. +You have them in hunter-gatherer societies, but then through technological evolution, new forms of technology arise that facilitate or encourage the playing of non-zero-sum games, involving more people over larger territory. +Social structure adapts to accommodate this possibility and to harness this productive potential, so you get cities, you know, and you get all the non-zero-sum games you don't think about that are being played across the world. +Like, have you ever thought when you buy a car, how many people on how many different continents contributed to the manufacture of that car? Those are people in effect you're playing a non-zero-sum game with. +I mean, there are certainly plenty of them around. +Now, this sounds like an intrinsically upbeat worldview in a way, because when you think of non-zero, you think win-win, you know, that's good. Well, there are a few reasons that actually it's not intrinsically upbeat. +First of all, it can accommodate; it doesn't deny the existence of inequality exploitation war. +But there's a more fundamental reason that it's not intrinsically upbeat, because a non-zero-sum game, all it tells you for sure is that the fortunes will be correlated for better or worse. +It doesn't necessarily predict a win-win outcome. +And a testament to this is the thing that most amazes me, most impresses me, and most uplifts me, which is that there is a moral dimension to history; there is a moral arrow. We have seen moral progress over time. +2,500 years ago, members of one Greek city-state considered members of another Greek city-state subhuman and treated them that way. And then this moral revolution arrived, and they decided that actually, no, Greeks are human beings. +It's just the Persians who aren't fully human and don't deserve to be treated very nicely. +But this was progress -- you know, give them credit. And now today, we've seen more progress. I think -- I hope -- most people here would say that all people everywhere are human beings, deserve to be treated decently, unless they do something horrendous, regardless of race or religion. +And you have to read your ancient history to realize what a revolution that has been, OK. This was not a prevalent view, few thousand years ago, and I attribute it to this non-zero-sum dynamic. +I think that's the reason there is as much tolerance toward nationalities, ethnicities, religions as there is today. If you asked me, you know, why am I not in favor of bombing Japan, well, I'm only half-joking when I say they built my car. +We have this non-zero-sum relationship, and I think that does lead to a kind of a tolerance to the extent that you realize that someone else's welfare is positively correlated with yours -- you're more likely to cut them a break. +I kind of think this is a kind of a business-class morality. +As it has moved global, moved us toward a global level of social organization, it has driven us toward moral truth. +I think that's wonderful. +Now, back to the unfolding apocalypse. +So that is a non-zero-sum dynamic. +And I would say the non-zero-sum dynamic is only going to grow more intense over time because of technological trends, but more intense in a kind of negative way. +It's the downside correlation of their fortunes that will become more and more possible. +And one reason is because of something I call the "growing lethality of hatred." +More and more, it's possible for grassroots hatred abroad to manifest itself in the form of organized violence on American soil. +And that's pretty new, and I think it's probably going to get a lot worse -- this capacity -- because of trends in information technology, in technologies that can be used for purposes of munitions like biotechnology and nanotechnology. +We may be hearing more about that today. +And there's something I worry about especially, which is that this dynamic will lead to a kind of a feedback cycle that puts us on a slippery slope. +What I have in mind is: terrorism happens here; we overreact to it. +That, you know, we're not sufficiently surgical in our retaliation leads to more hatred abroad, more terrorism. +We overreact because being human, we feel like retaliating, and it gets worse and worse and worse. +You could call this the positive feedback of negative vibes, but I think in something so spooky, we really shouldn't have the word positive there at all, even in a technical sense. +So let's call it the death spiral of negativity. +I assure you if it happens, at the end, both the West and the Muslim world will have suffered. +So, what do we do? Well, first of all, we can do a lot more with arms control, the international regulation of dangerous technologies. +I have a whole global governance sermon that I will spare you right now, because I don't think that's going to be enough anyway, although it's essential. +I think we're going to have to have a major round of moral progress in the world. +I think you're just going to have to see less hatred among groups, less bigotry, and, you know, racial groups, religious groups, whatever. +I've got to admit I feel silly saying that. +It sounds so kind of Pollyannaish. I feel like Rodney King, you know, saying, why can't we all just get along? +But hey, I don't really see any alternative, given the way I read the situation. +There's going to have to be moral progress. +There's going to have to be a lessening of the amount of hatred in the world, given how dangerous it's becoming. +In my defense, I'd say, as naive as this may sound, it's ultimately grounded in cynicism. +That is to say -- -- thank you, thank you. That is to say, remember: my whole view of morality is that it boils down to self-interest. +It's when people's fortunes are correlated. +We will see the further evolution of this kind of business-class morality. +So, these two things, you know, if they get people's attention and drive home the positive correlation and people do what's in their self-interests, which is further the moral evolution, then they could actually have a constructive effect. +And that's why I lump growing lethality of hatred and death spiral of negativity under the general rubric, reasons to be cheerful. +Doing the best I can, OK. +I never called myself Mr. Uplift. +I'm just doing what I can here. +Now, launching a moral revolution has got to be hard, right? +I mean, what do you do? +And I think the answer is a lot of different people are going to have to do a lot of different things. +We all start where we are. Speaking as an American who has children whose security 10, 20, 30 years down the road I worry about -- what I personally want to start out doing is figuring out why so many people around the world hate us, OK. +I think that's a worthy research project myself. +I also like it because it's an intrinsically kind of morally redeeming exercise. +Because to understand why somebody in a very different culture does something -- somebody you're kind of viewing as alien, who's doing things you consider strange in a culture you consider strange -- to really understand why they do the things they do is a morally redeeming accomplishment, because you've got to relate their experience to yours. +To really understand it, you've got to say, "Oh, I get it. +So when they feel resentful, it's kind of like the way I feel resentful when this happens, and for somewhat the same reasons." That's true understanding. +And I think that is an expansion of your moral compass when you manage to do that. +It's especially hard to do when people hate you, OK, because you don't really, in a sense, want to completely understand why people hate you. +I mean, you want to hear the reason, but you don't want to be able to relate to it. +The reason you're trying to understand why they hate us, is to get them to quit hating us. The idea when you go through this moral exercise of really coming to appreciate their humanity and better understand them, is part of an effort to get them to appreciate your humanity in the long run. +I think it's the first step toward that. That's the long-term goal. +There are people who worry about this, and in fact, I, myself, apparently, was denounced on national TV a couple of nights ago because of an op-ed I'd written. +It was kind of along these lines, and the allegation was that I have, quote, "affection for terrorists." +Now, the good news is that the person who said it was Ann Coulter. +I mean, if you've got to have an enemy, do make it Ann Coulter. +But it's not a crazy concern, OK, because understanding behavior can lead to a kind of empathy, and it can make it a little harder to deliver tough love, and so on. +But I think we're a lot closer to erring on the side of not comprehending the situation clearly enough, than in comprehending it so clearly that we just can't, you know, get the army out to kill terrorists. +So I'm not really worried about it. So -- -- I mean, we're going to have to work on a lot of fronts, but if we succeed -- if we succeed -- then once again, non-zero-sumness and the recognition of non-zero-sum dynamics will have forced us to a higher moral level. +And a kind of saving higher moral level, something that kind of literally saves the world. +If you look at the word "salvation" in the Bible -- the Christian usage that we're familiar with -- saving souls, that people go to heaven -- that's actually a latecomer. +The original meaning of the word "salvation" in the Bible is about saving the social system. +"Yahweh is our Savior" means "He has saved the nation of Israel," which at the time, was a pretty high-level social organization. +Now, social organization has reached the global level, and I guess, if there's good news I can say I'm bringing you, it's just that all the salvation of the world requires is the intelligent pursuit of self-interests in a disciplined and careful way. +It's going to be hard. I say we give it a shot anyway because we've just come too far to screw it up now. +Thanks. +This is really a two-hour presentation I give to high school students, cut down to three minutes. +And it all started one day on a plane, on my way to TED, seven years ago. +And in the seat next to me was a high school student, a teenager, and she came from a really poor family. +And she wanted to make something of her life, and she asked me a simple little question. +She said, "What leads to success?" +And I felt really badly, because I couldn't give her a good answer. +So I get off the plane, and I come to TED. +And I think, jeez, I'm in the middle of a room of successful people! +So why don't I ask them what helped them succeed, and pass it on to kids? +So here we are, seven years, 500 interviews later, and I'm going to tell you what really leads to success and makes TEDsters tick. +And the first thing is passion. +Freeman Thomas says, "I'm driven by my passion." +TEDsters do it for love; they don't do it for money. +Carol Coletta says, "I would pay someone to do what I do." +And the interesting thing is: if you do it for love, the money comes anyway. +Work! Rupert Murdoch said to me, "It's all hard work. +Nothing comes easily. But I have a lot of fun." +Did he say fun? Rupert? Yes! +TEDsters do have fun working. And they work hard. +I figured, they're not workaholics. They're workafrolics. +Alex Garden says, "To be successful, put your nose down in something and get damn good at it." +There's no magic; it's practice, practice, practice. +And it's focus. Norman Jewison said to me, "I think it all has to do with focusing yourself on one thing." +David Gallo says, "Push yourself. +Physically, mentally, you've got to push, push, push." +You've got to push through shyness and self-doubt. +Goldie Hawn says, "I always had self-doubts. +I wasn't good enough; I wasn't smart enough. +I didn't think I'd make it." +Now it's not always easy to push yourself, and that's why they invented mothers. Frank Gehry said to me, "My mother pushed me." +Serve! Sherwin Nuland says, "It was a privilege to serve as a doctor." +A lot of kids want to be millionaires. +The first thing I say is: "OK, well you can't serve yourself; you've got to serve others something of value. +Because that's the way people really get rich." +Ideas! TEDster Bill Gates says, "I had an idea: founding the first micro-computer software company." +I'd say it was a pretty good idea. +And there's no magic to creativity in coming up with ideas -- it's just doing some very simple things. +And I give lots of evidence. +Joe Kraus says, "Persistence is the number one reason for our success." +You've got to persist through failure. You've got to persist through crap! +Which of course means "Criticism, Rejection, Assholes and Pressure." +So, the answer to this question is simple: Pay 4,000 bucks and come to TED. +Or failing that, do the eight things -- and trust me, these are the big eight things that lead to success. +Thank you TEDsters for all your interviews! +I'm often asked, "What surprised you about the book?" +And I say, "That I got to write it." +I would have never imagined that. +Not in my wildest dreams did I think -- I don't even consider myself to be an author. +And I'm often asked, "Why do you think so many people have read this? +This thing's selling still about a million copies a month." +And I think it's because spiritual emptiness is a universal disease. +I think inside at some point, we put our heads down on the pillow and we go, "There's got to be more to life than this." +Get up in the morning, go to work, come home and watch TV, go to bed, get up in the morning, go to work, come home, watch TV, go to bed, go to parties on weekends. +A lot of people say, "I'm living." No, you're not living -- that's just existing. +Just existing. +I really think that there's this inner desire. +I do believe what Chris said; I believe that you're not an accident. +Your parents may not have planned you, but I believe God did. +I think there are accidental parents; there's no doubt about that. +I don't think there are accidental kids. +And I think you matter. +I think you matter to God; I think you matter to history; I think you matter to this universe. +And I think that the difference between what I call the survival level of living, the success level of living, and the significance level of living is: Do you figure out, "What on Earth am I here for?" +I meet a lot of people who are very smart, and say, "But why can't I figure out my problems?" +And I meet a lot of people who are very successful, who say, "Why don't I feel more fulfilled? +Why do I feel like a fake? +Why do I feel like I've got to pretend that I'm more than I really am?" +I think that comes down to this issue of meaning, of significance, of purpose. +I think it comes down to this issue of: "Why am I here? What am I here for? Where am I going?" +These are not religious issues. +They're human issues. +I wanted to tell Michael before he spoke that I really appreciate what he does, because it makes my life work a whole lot easier. +As a pastor, I do see a lot of kooks. +And I have learned that there are kooks in every area of life. +Religion doesn't have a monopoly on that, but there are plenty of religious kooks. +There are secular kooks; there are smart kooks, dumb kooks. +There are people -- a lady came up to me the other day, and she had a white piece of paper -- Michael, you'll like this one -- and she said, "What do you see in it?" +And I looked at it and I said, "Oh, I don't see anything." +And she goes, "Well, I see Jesus," and started crying and left. +I'm going, "OK," you know? "Fine." +Good for you. +When the book became the best-selling book in the world for the last three years, I kind of had my little crisis. +And that was: What is the purpose of this? +Because it brought in enormous amounts of money. +When you write the best-selling book in the world, it's tons and tons of money. +And it brought in a lot of attention, neither of which I wanted. +When I started Saddleback Church, I was 25 years old. +I started it with one other family in 1980. +And I decided that I was never going to go on TV, because I didn't want to be a celebrity. +I didn't want to be a, quote, "evangelist, televangelist" -- that's not my thing. +And all of the sudden, it brought a lot of money and a lot of attention. +I don't think -- now, this is a worldview, and I will tell you, everybody's got a worldview. +Everybody's betting their life on something. +You're betting your life on something, you just better know why you're betting what you're betting on. +So, everybody's betting their life on something. +And when I, you know, made a bet, I happened to believe that Jesus was who he said he was. +And I believe in a pluralistic society, everybody's betting on something. +And when I started the church, you know, I had no plans to do what it's doing now. +And then when I wrote this book, and all of a sudden, it just took off, and I started saying, now, what's the purpose of this? +Because as I started to say, I don't think you're given money or fame for your own ego, ever. +I just don't believe that. +And when you write a book that the first sentence of the book is, "It's not about you," then, when all of a sudden it becomes the best-selling book in history, you've got to figure, well, I guess it's not about me. +That's kind of a no-brainer. +So, what is it for? +And I began to think about what I call the "stewardship of affluence" and the "stewardship of influence." +So I believe, essentially, leadership is stewardship. +That if you are a leader in any area -- in business, in politics, in sports, in art, in academics, in any area -- you don't own it. +You are a steward of it. +For instance, that's why I believe in protecting the environment. +This is not my planet. +It wasn't mine before I was born, it's not going to be mine after I die, I'm just here for 80 years and then that's it. +I was debating the other day on a talk show, and the guy was challenging me and he'd go, "What's a pastor doing on protecting the environment?" +And I asked this guy, I said, "Well, do you believe that human beings are responsible to make the world a little bit better place for the next generation? +Do you think we have a stewardship here, to take the environment seriously?" +And he said, "No." +I said, "Oh, you don't?" I said, "Let me make this clear again: Do you believe that as human beings -- I'm not talking about religion -- do you believe that as human beings, it is our responsibility to take care of this planet, and make it just a little bit better for the next generation?" +And he said, "No. Not any more than any other species." +When he said the word "species," he was revealing his worldview. +"I'm no more responsible to take care of this environment than a duck is." +Well now, I know a lot of times we act like ducks, but you're not a duck. +You're not a duck. +And you are responsible -- that's my worldview. +And so, you need to understand what your worldview is. +The problem is most people never really think it through. +They never really ... +codify it or qualify it or quantify it, and say, "This is what I believe in. This is why I believe what I believe." +I don't personally have enough faith to be an atheist. +But you may, you may. +Your worldview, though, does determine everything else in your life, because it determines your decisions; it determines your relationships; it determines your level of confidence. +It determines, really, everything in your life. +What we believe, obviously -- and you know this -- determines our behavior, and our behavior determines what we become in life. +So all of this money started pouring in, and all of this fame started pouring in. +And I'm going, what do I do with this? +My wife and I first made five decisions on what to do with the money. +We said, "First, we're not going to use it on ourselves." +I didn't go out and buy a bigger house. +I don't own a guesthouse. +I still drive the same four year-old Ford that I've driven. +We just said, we're not going to use it on us. +The second thing was, I stopped taking a salary from the church that I pastor. +Third thing is, I added up all that the church had paid me over the last 25 years, and I gave it back. +And I gave it back because I didn't want anybody thinking that I do what I do for money -- I don't. +In fact, personally, I've never met a priest or a pastor or a minister who does it for money. +I know that's the stereotype; I've never met one of them. +Believe me, there's a whole lot easier ways to make money. +Pastors are like on 24 hours-a-day call, they're like doctors. +I left late today -- I'd hoped to be here yesterday -- because my father-in-law is in his last, probably, 48 hours before he dies of cancer. +And I'm watching a guy who's lived his life -- he's now in his mid-80s -- and he's dying with peace. +You know, the test of your worldview is not how you act in the good times. +The test of your worldview is how you act at the funeral. +And having been through literally hundreds if not thousands of funerals, it makes a difference. +It makes a difference what you believe. +So, we gave it all back, and then we set up three foundations, working on some of the major problems of the world: illiteracy, poverty, pandemic diseases -- particularly HIV/AIDS -- and set up these three foundations, and put the money into that. +The last thing we did is we became what I call "reverse tithers." +And that is, when my wife and I got married 30 years ago, we started tithing. +Now, that's a principle in the Bible that says give 10 percent of what you get back to charity, give it away to help other people. +So, we started doing that, and each year we would raise our tithe one percent. +So, our first year of marriage we went to 11 percent, second year we went to 12 percent, and the third year we went to 13 percent, and on and on and on. Why did I do that? +Because every time I give, it breaks the grip of materialism in my life. +Materialism is all about getting -- get, get, get, get all you can, can all you get, sit on the can and spoil the rest. +It's all about more, having more. +And we think that the good life is actually looking good -- that's most important of all -- looking good, feeling good and having the goods. +But that's not the good life. +I meet people all the time who have those, and they're not necessarily happy. +If money actually made you happy, then the wealthiest people in the world would be the happiest. +And that I know, personally, I know, is not true. +It's just not true. +So, the good life is not about looking good, feeling good or having the goods, it's about being good and doing good. +Giving your life away. +Significance in life doesn't come from status, because you can always find somebody who's got more than you. +It doesn't come from sex. +It doesn't come from salary. +It comes from serving. +It is in giving our lives away that we find meaning, we find significance. +That's the way we were wired, I believe, by God. +And so we began to give away, and now after 30 years, my wife and I are reverse tithers -- we give away 90 percent and live on 10. +That, actually, was the easy part. +The hard part is, what do I do with all this attention? +Because I started getting all kinds of invitations. +I just came off a nearly month-long speaking tour on three different continents, and I won't go into that, but it was an amazing thing. +And I'm going, what do I do with this notoriety that the book has brought? +And, being a pastor, I started reading the Bible. +There's a chapter in the Bible called Psalm 72, and it's Solomon's prayer for more influence. +When you read this prayer, it sounds incredibly selfish, self-centered. +He says, "God, I want you to make me famous." +That's what he prays. +He said, "I want you to make me famous. +I want you to spread the fame of my name through every land, I want you to give me power. +I want you to make me famous, I want you to give me influence." +And it just sounds like the most egotistical request you could make, if you were going to pray. +Until you read the whole psalm, the whole chapter. +And then he says, "So that the king ..." -- he was the king of Israel at that time, at its apex in power -- "... so that the king may care for the widow and orphan, support the oppressed, defend the defenseless, care for the sick, assist the poor, speak up for the foreigner, those in prison." +Basically, he's talking about all the marginalized in society. +And as I read that, I looked at it, and I thought, you know, what this is saying is that the purpose of influence is to speak up for those who have no influence. +The purpose of influence is not to build your ego. +Or your net worth. +And, by the way, your net worth is not the same thing as your self-worth. +Your value is not based on your valuables. +It's based on a whole different set of things. +And so the purpose of influence is to speak up for those who have no influence. +And I had to admit: I can't think of the last time I thought of widows and orphans. +They're not on my radar. +I pastor a church in one of the most affluent areas of America -- a bunch of gated communities. +I have a church full of CEOs and scientists. +And I could go five years and never, ever see a homeless person. +They're just not in my pathway. +Now, they're 13 miles up the road in Santa Ana. +So I had to say, ok, I would use whatever affluence and whatever influence I've got to help those who don't have either of those. +You know, there's a story in the Bible about Moses, whether you believe it's true or not, it really doesn't matter to me. +But Moses, if you saw the movie, "The Ten Commandments," Moses goes out, and there's this burning bush, and God talks to him, and God says, "Moses, what's in your hand?" +I think that's one of the most important questions you'll ever be asked: What's in your hand? +Moses says, "It's a staff. It's a shepherd's staff." +And God says, "Throw it down." +And if you saw the movie, you know, he throws it down and it becomes a snake. +And then God says, "Pick it up." +And he picks it back up again, and it becomes a staff again. +Now, I'm reading this thing, and I'm going, what is that all about? +OK. What's that all about? Well, I do know a couple of things. +Number one, God never does a miracle to show off. +It's not just, "Wow, isn't that cool?" +And, by the way, my God doesn't have to show up on cheese bread. +You know, if God's going to show up, he's not going to show up on cheese bread. +Ok? I just, this is why I love what Michael does, because it's like, if he's debunking it, then I don't have to. +But God -- my God -- doesn't show up on sprinkler images. +He's got a few more powerful ways than that to do whatever he wants to do. +But he doesn't do miracles just to show off. +Second thing is, if God ever asks you a question, he already knows the answer. +Obviously, if he's God, then that would mean that when he asks the question, it's for your benefit, not his. +So he's going, "What's in your hand?" +Now, what was in Moses' hand? +Well, it was a shepherd's staff. Now, follow me on this. +This staff represented three things about Moses' life. +First, it represented his identity; he was a shepherd. +It's the symbol of his own occupation: I am a shepherd. It's a symbol of his identity, his career, his job. +Second, it's a symbol of not only his identity, it's a symbol of his income, because all of his assets are tied up in sheep. +In those days, nobody had bank accounts, or American Express cards, or hedge funds. +Your assets are tied up in your flocks. +So it's a symbol of his identity, and it's a symbol of his income. +And the third thing: it's a symbol of his influence. +What do you do with a shepherd's staff? +Well, you know, you move sheep from point A to point B with it, by hook or by crook. +You pull them or you poke them. One or the other. +So, he's saying, "You're going to lay down your identity. +What's in your hand? You've got identity, you've got income, you've got influence. +What's in your hand?" +And he's saying, "If you lay it down, I'll make it come alive. +I'll do some things you could never imagine possible." +And if you've watched that movie, "Ten Commandments," all of those big miracles that happen in Egypt are done through this staff. +Last year, I was invited to speak at the NBA All-Stars game. +And so, I'm talking to the players, because most of the NBA teams, NFL teams and all the other teams have done this 40 Days of Purpose, based on the book. +And I asked them, I said, "What's in your hand? +So, what's in your hand?" I said, "It's a basketball. +And that basketball represents your identity, who you are: you're an NBA player. It represents your income: you're making a lot of money off that little ball. +And it represents your influence. +And even though you're only going to be in the NBA for a few years, you're going to be an NBA player for the rest of your life. +And that gives you enormous influence. +So, what are you going to do with what you've been given?" +And I guess that's the main reason I came up here today, to all of you very bright people at TED -- it is to say, "What's in your hand?" +What do you have that you've been given? +Talent, background, education, freedom, networks, opportunities, wealth, ideas, creativity. +What are you doing with what you've been given? +That, to me, is the primary question about life. +That, to me, is what being purpose-driven is all about. +In the book, I talk about how you're wired to do certain things, you're "SHAPED" with -- a little acrostic: Spiritual gifts, Heart, Ability, Personality and Experiences. +These things shape you. +And if you want to know what you ought to be doing with your life, you need to look at your shape -- "What am I wired to do?" +Why would God wire you to do something and then not have you do it? +If you're wired to be an anthropologist, you'll be an anthropologist. +If you're wired to be an undersea explorer, you'll be an undersea explorer. +If you're wired to make deals, you make deals. +If you're wired to paint, you paint. +Did you know that God smiles when you be you? +When my little kids -- when my kids were little -- they're all grown now, I have grandkids -- I used to go in and sit on the side of their bed, and I used to watch my kids sleep. +And I just watched their little bodies rise and lower, rise and lower. +And I would look at them: "This is not an accident." +Rise and lower. +And I got joy out of just watching them sleep. +Some people have the misguided idea that God only gets excited when you're doing, quote, "spiritual things," like going to church or helping the poor, or, you know, confessing or doing something like that. +The bottom line is, God gets pleasure watching you be you. Why? He made you. +And when you do what you were made to do, he goes, "That's my boy! That's my girl! +You're using the talent and ability that I gave you." +So my advice to you is: look at what's in your hand -- your identity, your influence, your income -- and say, "It's not about me. +It's about making the world a better place." +Thank you. +I'd like to speak about technology trends, which is something that many of you follow -- but we also follow, for related reasons. +Obviously, being a technology magazine, technology trends are something that we write about and need to know about. +But also it's part of being any monthly magazine -- you live in the future. And we have a long lead-time. +We have to plan issues many months in advance; we have to guess at what public appetites are going to be six months, nine months down the road. So we're in the forecasting business. +We also, like a lot of companies, create a product that's based on technology trends. +In this case, ours is about ideas and information, and, if we're lucky, some entertainment. But the concept's quite the same. +And so we have to understand not only why tech's important, where it's going, but also, very importantly, when -- the timing is everything. +And it's interesting, when you look at the predictions made during the peak of the boom in the 1990s, about e-commerce, or Internet traffic, or broadband adoption, or Internet advertising, they were all right -- they were just wrong in time. +Almost every one of those has come true just a few years later. +But the difference of a few years on stock-market valuations is obviously extreme. And that's why timing is everything. +You've probably seen something like this before. +This is the classic Gartner Hype Curve, which talks about kind of the trajectory of a technology's lifespan. +And just for fun, we put a bunch of technologies on it, to show whether they were kind of rising for the first high peak, or whether they were about to crash into the trough of disillusionment, or rise back in the slope of enlightenment, etc. +And this is one way to do technology forecasting: get a sense of where technology is and then anticipate the next upturn. +We tend to do any technology that we think is sufficiently important; we'll typically do it twice. Once, we want to do it first. +We want to be the first to do it, for the geeks who appreciate that, we'll catch it right there at the technology-trigger. +You can see in 1997, we put Linux on the cover. +But then it comes back. And sufficiently big technologies are going to hit the mainstream, and they're going to burst out. +And then it's time to do it again. Last year. +And that's one way that we try to time technology trends. +I'd like to talk about a way of thinking about technology trends that I call my "grand unified theory of predicting the future," but it's closer to a petite unified theory of predicting the future. +It's based on the presumption, the observation even, that all important technologies go through four stages in their life -- at least one of the four stages, sometimes all four of the stages. +And at each one of these stages, can be seen as a collision -- a collision with something else -- for example, a critical price-line that changes both the technology and also changes its effect on the world. It's an inflection point. +And these are the inflection points that tell you what the next chapter in that technology's life is going to be, and maybe how you can do something about it. +The first is the critical price. +The first stage in a technology's advance is that it'll fall below a critical price. +After it falls below a critical price, it will tend, if it's successful, to rise above a critical mass, a penetration. +Many technologies, at that point, displace another technology, and that's another important point. +And then finally, a lot of technologies commoditize. +Towards the end of their life, they become nearly free. +Each one of those is an opportunity to do something about it; it's an opportunity for the technology to change. +And even if you missed, you know, the first boom of Wi-Fi -- you know, Wi-Fi did the critical price, it did the critical mass, but hasn't done displacement yet, and hasn't done free yet -- there's still more opportunity in that. +I'd like to demonstrate what I mean by this by telling the story of the DVD, which is a technology which has done all of these. +The DVD, as you know, was introduced in the mid-1990s and it was quite expensive. But you can see that by 1998, it had fallen below 400 dollars, and 400 dollars was a psychological threshold. +And it started to take off. And you can see that the units started to trend up, the hidden inflection point -- it was taking off. +The next thing it hit, a year later, was critical mass. In this case, 20 percent is often a good proxy for critical mass in a household. +And what's interesting here is that something else took off along with it: home-theater units. +Suddenly you have a DVD in the house; you've got high-quality digital video; you have a reason to have a big-screen television; you have a reason for Dolby 5.1 surround-sound. +And maybe you have reasons for starting to connect them, and bring the rest of your entertainment in. +What's interesting also is -- note that Netflix was founded in 1999. +Reed Hastings is here. He clearly saw that that was a moment, that was an inflection point that he could do something with. +The next phase it hit was displacement. +You can see around 2001 it finally out-sold the VCR. +And here too, you can see the implications in the world at large. +Netflix was right -- the Netflix model could capitalize on the DVD in a way that the video-rental stores couldn't. +Among the DVD's many assets is that it's very small; you can stick it in the mailer and post it cheaply. +That gave an advantage; that was an implication of the technology's rise that wasn't obvious to everybody. +And then finally, DVDs are approaching free. +There's a company called Apex, a no-name Chinese firm, who has, several times in the past year, been the number-one DVD seller in America. Their average price, for last year, was 48 dollars. +You're aware of the perhaps apocryphal Wal-Mart stampede over the 30-dollar DVD. +But they're getting very, very cheap, and look at the interesting implication of it. As they get cheaper, the premium brands, the Sonys and such, are losing market share, and the no-names, the Apexes, are gaining them. +They're being commodified, and that's what happens when things go to zero. It's a tough market out there. +Now they've introduced these four ways of looking at technology, these four stages of technology's life. +I'd like to talk about some other technologies out there, just technologies on our radar -- and I'll use this lens, these four, as a way to kind of tell you where each one of those technologies is in its development. +They're not necessarily the top-10 technologies out there -- they're just examples of technologies that are in each one of these periods. +But I think that the implications of them approaching these crossovers, these intersections, are interesting to think about. +Start with gene sequencing. +As you probably know, gene sequencing -- in a large part, because it's built on computers -- is falling in price at a kind of a Moore's Law-like level. +It is now possible -- will be possible, and if Craig Venter indeed comes today, he may tell you something about this -- to sequence the human genome for 40 million dollars by the end of this year. +That's as opposed to billions just a few years ago. +You know, our ability to capture the tools of creation is getting closer and closer. +What's interesting is that at the same time, the number of genes that we're discovering is rising very quickly. +Each one of these genes has potential diagnostic test. +There will come a day when you can have hundreds of thousands of tests done, very cheaply, if you want to know. You can learn about your own mosaic. +Here's another technology that's approaching a critical price. +This is a fascinating research from WHO that shows the effect of generic drugs on anti-retroviral drug compounds and cocktails. +In January 2000, the price was 10,000 dollars, or 27 dollars a day. +The generics came in, first in Brazil and elsewhere, and the effect was just dramatic on pricing. +Today it's less than 50 cents a day. +And the falling price of drugs has a lot to do with that. +Linux is another good example. +Now we've switched to critical mass. +These are now technologies that are hitting critical mass. +If you look here, here's Linux in red, and it's hit 20 percent. +Interestingly, it's done a crossover before, but not the crossovers that matter. +The crossover that's going to matter is the one with the blue. +But you can look and see the direction those lines are going, you can see that at the 20 percent, it's now taken seriously. +It's not just for the geeks any more. +That is, I imagine, what people in Redmond wake up in the middle of the night thinking about. +Another technology that we see all around us out here is hybrid cars. +I don't know whether anybody has a Prius 2004, but they're fantastic. +And if you look at the trends here, by about 2008 -- and I don't think this is a crazy forecast -- they'll be two percent of auto sales. +Two percent isn't 20 percent, but in the car business, which is slow moving, that's huge; that's arrival. +At two percent, you start seeing them on the roads everywhere. +And what's interesting about the hybrids taking off is you've now introduced electric motors to the automobile industry. +It's the first radical change in automobile technology in 100 years. +And once you have electric motors, you can do anything: you can change the structure of the car in any way you want. +You can have regenerative braking; you can have drive-by-wire; you can have replaceable body shapes -- it's a little thing that starts with a hybrid, but it can lead to a whole new era of the car. +Voice Over IP is something you may have heard something about. +Again, it's kind of coming out of nowhere; it's a little hard to use right now. +There's a company created by the Kazaa founders called Skype. +Look at these numbers. They launched it in August of last year; they already have nearly four million registered users -- that's critical mass. +And the same thing's happening on the carrier side. +You're looking at IP taking over from some of the traditional telecom standards. This is a tipping point -- if Malcolm's here, forgive me -- and it's going to change the economics, and the speed, and the players in the industry. +It's going to look a little bit like that. +And finally, free. Free is really, really interesting. +Free is something that comes with digital, because the reproduction costs are essentially free. It comes with IP, because it's such an efficient protocol. It comes with fiber optics, because there's so much bandwidth. +Free is really, you know, the gift of Silicon Valley to the world. +It's an economic force; it's a technical force. +It's a deflationary force, if not handled right. +It is abundance, as opposed to scarcity. +Free is probably the most interesting thing. +And here you have just the number of songs that can be stored on a hard drive. +You know, there could be a film's [unclear] there, but it's basically, every song ever made could be stored on 400 dollars worth of storage by 2008. It takes that entire element, the physical element, of songs off the table. +And you've seen the numbers. +I mean, you know, the music industry is imploding in front of our very eyes, and Hollywood's worried as well. +They're facing a force that they haven't faced before. +And their response is draconian, and not necessarily the one that's going to get them out of this. +And finally, I'll give you one last example of free -- perhaps the most powerful of all. I mentioned fiber optics -- their abundance tends to make things free. +This is the price of a phone call to India per minute. +And what's interesting is that it was just 1990 when it was more than two dollars a minute. +India had, still has, a regulated phone system and so did we. +It was surprisingly non-innovative, moved very slowly, but then there was just so much fiber out there, you couldn't hold back, and look how quickly the price fell. +It's seven cents a minute, in many cases. +And the consequence of cheap phone calling, free phone calling, to India, is the pissed-off programmer, is the outsourcing. +It is probably one of the most dramatic shifts in globalization and one of the most powerful economic tools that we're seeing in our world today. +The force of India, and then China, and any other country that can contact our markets and will work with our companies -- because the communications are free -- is just beginning to be felt. +And I think that's probably one of the most important technology trends that we're looking at today. +Thank you. +What I'd like to start off with is an observation, which is that if I've learned anything over the last year, it's that the supreme irony of publishing a book about slowness is that you have to go around promoting it really fast. +I seem to spend most of my time these days zipping from city to city, studio to studio, interview to interview, serving up the book in really tiny bite-size chunks. +Because everyone these days wants to know how to slow down, but they want to know how to slow down really quickly. So ... +so I did a spot on CNN the other day where I actually spent more time in makeup than I did talking on air. +And I think that -- that's not really surprising though, is it? +Because that's kind of the world that we live in now, a world stuck in fast-forward. +A world obsessed with speed, with doing everything faster, with cramming more and more into less and less time. +Every moment of the day feels like a race against the clock. +To borrow a phrase from Carrie Fisher, which is in my bio there; I'll just toss it out again -- "These days even instant gratification takes too long." And if you think about how we to try to make things better, what do we do? +No, we speed them up, don't we? So we used to dial; now we speed dial. +We used to read; now we speed read. We used to walk; now we speed walk. +And of course, we used to date and now we speed date. +And even things that are by their very nature slow -- we try and speed them up too. +So I was in New York recently, and I walked past a gym that had an advertisement in the window for a new course, a new evening course. +And it was for, you guessed it, speed yoga. +So this -- the perfect solution for time-starved professionals who want to, you know, salute the sun, but only want to give over about 20 minutes to it. +I mean, these are sort of the extreme examples, and they're amusing and good to laugh at. +But there's a very serious point, and I think that in the headlong dash of daily life, we often lose sight of the damage that this roadrunner form of living does to us. +We're so marinated in the culture of speed that we almost fail to notice the toll it takes on every aspect of our lives -- on our health, our diet, our work, our relationships, the environment and our community. +And sometimes it takes a wake-up call, doesn't it, to alert us to the fact that we're hurrying through our lives, instead of actually living them; that we're living the fast life, instead of the good life. +And I think for many people, that wake-up call takes the form of an illness. +You know, a burnout, or eventually the body says, "I can't take it anymore," and throws in the towel. +Or maybe a relationship goes up in smoke because we haven't had the time, or the patience, or the tranquility, to be with the other person, to listen to them. +And my wake-up call came when I started reading bedtime stories to my son, and I found that at the end of day, I would go into his room and I just couldn't slow down -- you know, I'd be speed reading "The Cat In The Hat." +I'd be -- you know, I'd be skipping lines here, paragraphs there, sometimes a whole page, and of course, my little boy knew the book inside out, so we would quarrel. +And what should have been the most relaxing, the most intimate, the most tender moment of the day, when a dad sits down to read to his son, became instead this kind of gladiatorial battle of wills, a clash between my speed and his slowness. +And this went on for some time, until I caught myself scanning a newspaper article with timesaving tips for fast people. +And one of them made reference to a series of books called "The One-Minute Bedtime Story." +And I wince saying those words now, but my first reaction at the time was very different. +My first reflex was to say, "Hallelujah -- what a great idea! +This is exactly what I'm looking for to speed up bedtime even more." +But thankfully, a light bulb went on over my head, and my next reaction was very different, and I took a step back, and I thought, "Whoa -- you know, has it really come to this? +Am I really in such a hurry that I'm prepared to fob off my son with a sound byte at the end of the day?" +And I put away the newspaper -- and I was getting on a plane -- and I sat there, and I did something I hadn't done for a long time -- which is I did nothing. +I just thought, and I thought long and hard. +And by the time I got off that plane, I'd decided I wanted to do something about it. +I wanted to investigate this whole roadrunner culture, and what it was doing to me and to everyone else. +And I had two questions in my head. +The first was, how did we get so fast? +And the second is, is it possible, or even desirable, to slow down? +Now, if you think about how our world got so accelerated, the usual suspects rear their heads. +You think of, you know, urbanization, consumerism, the workplace, technology. +But I think if you cut through those forces, you get to what might be the deeper driver, the nub of the question, which is how we think about time itself. +In other cultures, time is cyclical. +It's seen as moving in great, unhurried circles. +It's always renewing and refreshing itself. +Whereas in the West, time is linear. +It's a finite resource; it's always draining away. +You either use it, or lose it. +"Time is money," as Benjamin Franklin said. +And I think what that does to us psychologically is it creates an equation. +Time is scarce, so what do we do? +Well -- well, we speed up, don't we? +We try and do more and more with less and less time. +We turn every moment of every day into a race to the finish line -- a finish line, incidentally, that we never reach, but a finish line nonetheless. +And I guess that the question is, is it possible to break free from that mindset? +And thankfully, the answer is yes, because what I discovered, when I began looking around, that there is a global backlash against this culture that tells us that faster is always better, and that busier is best. +Right across the world, people are doing the unthinkable: they're slowing down, and finding that, although conventional wisdom tells you that if you slow down, you're road kill, the opposite turns out to be true: that by slowing down at the right moments, people find that they do everything better. +They eat better; they make love better; they exercise better; they work better; they live better. +And, in this kind of cauldron of moments and places and acts of deceleration, lie what a lot of people now refer to as the "International Slow Movement." +Now if you'll permit me a small act of hypocrisy, I'll just give you a very quick overview of what's going on inside the Slow Movement. If you think of food, many of you will have heard of the Slow Food movement. +Started in Italy, but has spread across the world, and now has 100,000 members in 50 countries. +And it's driven by a very simple and sensible message, which is that we get more pleasure and more health from our food when we cultivate, cook and consume it at a reasonable pace. +I think also the explosion of the organic farming movement, and the renaissance of farmers' markets, are other illustrations of the fact that people are desperate to get away from eating and cooking and cultivating their food on an industrial timetable. +They want to get back to slower rhythms. +And out of the Slow Food movement has grown something called the Slow Cities movement, which has started in Italy, but has spread right across Europe and beyond. +And in this, towns begin to rethink how they organize the urban landscape, so that people are encouraged to slow down and smell the roses and connect with one another. +So they might curb traffic, or put in a park bench, or some green space. +And in some ways, these changes add up to more than the sum of their parts, because I think when a Slow City becomes officially a Slow City, it's kind of like a philosophical declaration. +It's saying to the rest of world, and to the people in that town, that we believe that in the 21st century, slowness has a role to play. +In medicine, I think a lot of people are deeply disillusioned with the kind of quick-fix mentality you find in conventional medicine. +And millions of them around the world are turning to complementary and alternative forms of medicine, which tend to tap into sort of slower, gentler, more holistic forms of healing. +Now, obviously the jury is out on many of these complementary therapies, and I personally doubt that the coffee enema will ever, you know, gain mainstream approval. +But other treatments such as acupuncture and massage, and even just relaxation, clearly have some kind of benefit. +And blue-chip medical colleges everywhere are starting to study these things to find out how they work, and what we might learn from them. +Sex. There's an awful lot of fast sex around, isn't there? +I was coming to -- well -- no pun intended there. +I was making my way, let's say, slowly to Oxford, and I went through a news agent, and I saw a magazine, a men's magazine, and it said on the front, "How to bring your partner to orgasm in 30 seconds." +So, you know, even sex is on a stopwatch these days. +Now, you know, I like a quickie as much as the next person, but I think that there's an awful lot to be gained from slow sex -- from slowing down in the bedroom. +You know, you tap into that -- those deeper, sort of, psychological, emotional, spiritual currents, and you get a better orgasm with the buildup. +You can get more bang for your buck, let's say. +I mean, the Pointer Sisters said it most eloquently, didn't they, when they sang the praises of "a lover with a slow hand." +Now, we all laughed at Sting a few years ago when he went Tantric, but you fast-forward a few years, and now you find couples of all ages flocking to workshops, or maybe just on their own in their own bedrooms, finding ways to put on the brakes and have better sex. +And of course, in Italy where -- I mean, Italians always seem to know where to find their pleasure -- they've launched an official Slow Sex movement. +The workplace. +Right across much of the world -- North America being a notable exception -- working hours have been coming down. +And Europe is an example of that, and people finding that their quality of life improves as they're working less, and also that their hourly productivity goes up. +Now, clearly there are problems with the 35-hour workweek in France -- too much, too soon, too rigid. +But other countries in Europe, notably the Nordic countries, are showing that it's possible to have a kick-ass economy without being a workaholic. +And Norway, Sweden, Denmark and Finland now rank among the top six most competitive nations on Earth, and they work the kind of hours that would make the average American weep with envy. +It's not just, though, these days, adults who overwork, though, is it? It's children, too. +I'm 37, and my childhood ended in the mid-'80s, and I look at kids now, and I'm just amazed by the way they race around with more homework, more tutoring, more extracurriculars than we would ever have conceived of a generation ago. +And some of the most heartrending emails that I get on my website are actually from adolescents hovering on the edge of burnout, pleading with me to write to their parents, to help them slow down, to help them get off this full-throttle treadmill. +But thankfully, there is a backlash there in parenting as well, and you're finding that, you know, towns in the United States are now banding together and banning extracurriculars on a particular day of the month, so that people can, you know, decompress and have some family time, and slow down. +Homework is another thing. There are homework bans springing up all over the developed world in schools which had been piling on the homework for years, and now they're discovering that less can be more. +And just this last month, the exam results came in, and in math, science, marks went up 20 percent on average last year. +But they lack spark; they lack the ability to think creatively and think outside -- they don't know how to dream. And so what these Ivy League schools, and Oxford and Cambridge and so on, are starting to send a message to parents and students that they need to put on the brakes a little bit. +And in Harvard, for instance, they send out a letter to undergraduates -- freshmen -- telling them that they'll get more out of life, and more out of Harvard, if they put on the brakes, if they do less, but give time to things, the time that things need, to enjoy them, to savor them. +And even if they sometimes do nothing at all. +And that letter is called -- very revealing, I think -- "Slow Down!" -- with an exclamation mark on the end. +So wherever you look, the message, it seems to me, is the same: that less is very often more, that slower is very often better. But that said, of course, it's not that easy to slow down, is it? +I mean, you heard that I got a speeding ticket while I was researching my book on the benefits of slowness, and that's true, but that's not all of it. +I was actually en route to a dinner held by Slow Food at the time. +And if that's not shaming enough, I got that ticket in Italy. +And if any of you have ever driven on an Italian highway, you'll have a pretty good idea of how fast I was going. +But why is it so hard to slow down? +I think there are various reasons. +One is that speed is fun, you know, speed is sexy. +It's all that adrenaline rush. It's hard to give it up. +I think there's a kind of metaphysical dimension -- that speed becomes a way of walling ourselves off from the bigger, deeper questions. +We fill our head with distraction, with busyness, so that we don't have to ask, am I well? Am I happy? Are my children growing up right? +Are politicians making good decisions on my behalf? +Another reason -- although I think, perhaps, the most powerful reason -- why we find it hard to slow down is the cultural taboo that we've erected against slowing down. +"Slow" is a dirty word in our culture. +It's a byword for "lazy," "slacker," for being somebody who gives up. +You know, "he's a bit slow." It's actually synonymous with being stupid. +I guess what the Slow Movement -- the purpose of the Slow Movement, or its main goal, really, is to tackle that taboo, and to say that yes, sometimes slow is not the answer, that there is such a thing as "bad slow." +You know, I got stuck on the M25, which is a ring road around London, recently, and spent three-and-a-half hours there. And I can tell you, that's really bad slow. +But the new idea, the sort of revolutionary idea, of the Slow Movement, is that there is such a thing as "good slow," too. +And good slow is, you know, taking the time to eat a meal with your family, with the TV switched off. +Or taking the time to look at a problem from all angles in the office to make the best decision at work. +Or even simply just taking the time to slow down and savor your life. +Now, one of the things that I found most uplifting about all of this stuff that's happened around the book since it came out, is the reaction to it. +And I knew that when my book on slowness came out, it would be welcomed by the New Age brigade, but it's also been taken up, with great gusto, by the corporate world -- you know, business press, but also big companies and leadership organizations. +Because people at the top of the chain, people like you, I think, are starting to realize that there's too much speed in the system, there's too much busyness, and it's time to find, or get back to that lost art of shifting gears. +Because I think they're looking at the West, and they're saying, "Well, we like that aspect of what you've got, but we're not so sure about that." +So all of that said, is it, I guess, is it possible? +That's really the main question before us today. Is it possible to slow down? And I'm happy to be able to say to you that the answer is a resounding yes. +And I present myself as Exhibit A, a kind of reformed and rehabilitated speed-aholic. +I still love speed. You know, I live in London, and I work as a journalist, and I enjoy the buzz and the busyness, and the adrenaline rush that comes from both of those things. +I play squash and ice hockey, two very fast sports, and I wouldn't give them up for the world. +But I've also, over the last year or so, got in touch with my inner tortoise. +And what that means is that I no longer overload myself gratuitously. +My default mode is no longer to be a rush-aholic. +I no longer hear time's winged chariot drawing near, or at least not as much as I did before. +I can actually hear it now, because I see my time is ticking off. +And the upshot of all of that is that I actually feel a lot happier, healthier, more productive than I ever have. +I feel like I'm living my life rather than actually just racing through it. +And perhaps, the most important measure of the success of this is that I feel that my relationships are a lot deeper, richer, stronger. +And for me, I guess, the litmus test for whether this would work, and what it would mean, was always going to be bedtime stories, because that's sort of where the journey began. And there too the news is rosy. You know, at the end of the day, I go into my son's room. +I don't wear a watch. I switch off my computer, so I can't hear the email pinging into the basket, and I just slow down to his pace and we read. +And because children have their own tempo and internal clock, they don't do quality time, where you schedule 10 minutes for them to open up to you. +They need you to move at their rhythm. +I find that 10 minutes into a story, you know, my son will suddenly say, "You know, something happened in the playground today that really bothered me." +And we'll go off and have a conversation on that. +And I now find that bedtime stories used to be a box on my to-do list, something that I dreaded, because it was so slow and I had to get through it quickly. +It's become my reward at the end of the day, something I really cherish. +And I have a kind of Hollywood ending to my talk this afternoon, which goes a little bit like this: a few months ago, I was getting ready to go on another book tour, and I had my bags packed. +I was downstairs by the front door, and I was waiting for a taxi, and my son came down the stairs and he'd made a card for me. And he was carrying it. +He'd gone and stapled two cards, very like these, together, and put a sticker of his favorite character, Tintin, on the front. +And he said to me, or he handed this to me, and I read it, and it said, "To Daddy, love Benjamin." +And I thought, "Aw, that's really sweet. +Is that a good luck on the book tour card?" +And he said, "No, no, no, Daddy -- this is a card for being the best story reader in the world." +And I thought, "Yeah, you know, this slowing down thing really does work." +Thank you very much. +When I'm starting talks like this, I usually do a whole spiel about sustainability because a lot of people out there don't know what that is. +This is a crowd that does know what it is, so I'll like just do like the 60-second crib-note version. Right? +So just bear with me. We'll go real fast, you know? +Fill in the blanks. +So, you know, sustainability, small planet. +Right? Picture a little Earth, circling around the sun. +You know, about a million years ago, a bunch of monkeys fell out of trees, got a little clever, harnessed fire, invented the printing press, made, you know, luggage with wheels on it. +And, you know, built the society that we now live in. +Unfortunately, while this society is, without a doubt, the most prosperous and dynamic the world has ever created, it's got some major, major flaws. +One of them is that every society has an ecological footprint. +It has an amount of impact on the planet that's measurable. +How much stuff goes through your life, how much waste is left behind you. +And we, at the moment, in our society, have a really dramatically unsustainable level of this. +We're using up about five planets. +If everybody on the planet lived the way we did, we'd need between five, six, seven, some people even say 10 planets to make it. +Clearly we don't have 10 planets. +Again, you know, mental, visual, 10 planets, one planet, 10 planets, one planet. Right? +We don't have that. So that's one problem. +The second problem is that the planet that we have is being used in wildly unfair ways. Right? +North Americans, such as myself, you know, we're basically sort of wallowing, gluttonous hogs, and we're eating all sorts of stuff. +And, you know, then you get all the way down to people who live in the Asia-Pacific region, or even more, Africa. +And people simply do not have enough to survive. +This is producing all sorts of tensions, all sorts of dynamics that are deeply disturbing. +And there's more and more people on the way. Right? +So, this is what the planet's going to look like in 20 years. +It's going to be a pretty crowded place, at least eight billion people. +So to make matters even more difficult, it's a very young planet. +A third of the people on this planet are kids. +And those kids are growing up in a completely different way than their parents did, no matter where they live. +They've been exposed to this idea of our society, of our prosperity. +And they may not want to live exactly like us. +They may not want to be Americans, or Brits, or Germans, or South Africans, but they want their own version of a life which is more prosperous, and more dynamic, and more, you know, enjoyable. +And all of these things combine to create an enormous amount of torque on the planet. +And if we cannot figure out a way to deal with that torque, we are going to find ourselves more and more and more quickly facing situations which are simply unthinkable. +Everybody in this room has heard the worst-case scenarios. +I don't need to go into that. +But I will ask the question, what's the alternative? +And I would say that, at the moment, the alternative is unimaginable. +You know, so on the one hand we have the unthinkable; on the other hand we have the unimaginable. +We don't know yet how to build a society which is environmentally sustainable, which is shareable with everybody on the planet, which promotes stability and democracy and human rights, and which is achievable in the time-frame necessary to make it through the challenges we face. +We don't know how to do this yet. +So what's Worldchanging? +Well, Worldchanging you might think of as being a bit of a news service for the unimaginable future. +You know, what we're out there doing is looking for examples of tools, models and ideas, which, if widely adopted, would change the game. +A lot of times, when I do a talk like this, I talk about things that everybody in this room I'm sure has already heard of, but most people haven't. +So I thought today I'd do something a little different, and talk about what we're looking for, rather than saying, you know, rather than giving you tried-and-true examples. +Talk about the kinds of things we're scoping out. +Give you a little peek into our editorial notebook. +And given that I have 13 minutes to do this, this is going to go kind of quick. +So, I don't know, just stick with me. Right? +So, first of all, what are we looking for? Bright Green city. +One of the biggest levers that we have in the developed world for changing the impact that we have on the planet is changing the way that we live in cities. +We're already an urban planet; that's especially true in the developed world. +And people who live in cities in the developed world tend to be very prosperous, and thus use a lot of stuff. +If we can change the dynamic, by first of all creating cities that are denser and more livable ... +Here, for example, is Vancouver, which if you haven't been there, you ought to go for a visit. It's a fabulous city. +And they are doing density, new density, better than probably anybody else on the planet right now. +They're actually managing to talk North Americans out of driving cars, which is a pretty great thing. +So you have density. You also have growth management. +You leave aside what is natural to be natural. +This is in Portland. That is an actual development. +That land there will remain pasture in perpetuity. +They've bounded the city with a line. +Nature, city. Nothing changes. +Once you do those things, you can start making all sorts of investments. +You can start doing things like, you know, transit systems that actually work to transport people, in effective and reasonably comfortable manners. +You can also start to change what you build. +This is the Beddington Zero Energy Development in London, which is one of the greenest buildings in the world. It's a fabulous place. +We're able to now build buildings that generate all their own electricity, that recycle much of their water, that are much more comfortable than standard buildings, use all-natural light, etc., and, over time, cost less. +Green roofs. Bill McDonough covered that last night, so I won't dwell on that too much. +But once you also have people living in close proximity to each other, one of the things you can do is -- as information technologies develop -- you can start to have smart places. +You can start to know where things are. +When you know where things are, it becomes easier to share them. +When you share them, you end up using less. +So one great example is car-share clubs, which are really starting to take off in the U.S., have already taken off in many places in Europe, and are a great example. +If you're somebody who drives, you know, one day a week, do you really need your own car? +Another thing that information technology lets us do is start figuring out how to use less stuff by knowing, and by monitoring, the amount we're actually using. +So, here's a power cord which glows brighter the more energy that you use, which I think is a pretty cool concept, although I think it ought to work the other way around, that it gets brighter the more you don't use. +But, you know, there may even be a simpler approach. +We could just re-label things. +This light switch that reads, on the one hand, flashfloods, and on the other hand, off. +How we build things can change as well. +This is a bio-morphic building. +It takes its inspiration in form from life. +Many of these buildings are incredibly beautiful, and also much more effective. +This is an example of bio-mimicry, which is something we're really starting to look a lot more for. +In this case, you have a shell design which was used to create a new kind of exhaust fan, which is greatly more effective. +There's a lot of this stuff happening; it's really pretty remarkable. +I encourage you to look on Worldchanging if you're into it. +We're starting to cover this more and more. +There's also neo-biological design, where more and more we're actually using life itself and the processes of life to become part of our industry. +So this, for example, is hydrogen-generating algae. +So we have a model in potential, an emerging model that we're looking for of how to take the cities most of us live in, and turn them into Bright Green cities. +But unfortunately, most of the people on the planet don't live in the cites we live in. +They live in the emerging megacities of the developing world. +And there's a statistic I often like to use, which is that we're adding a city of Seattle every four days, a city the size of Seattle to the planet every four days. +I was giving a talk about two months ago, and this guy, who'd done some work with the U.N., came up to me and was really flustered, and he said, look, you've got that totally wrong; it's totally wrong. +It's every seven days. +So, we're adding a city the size of Seattle every seven days, and most of those cities look more like this than the city that you or I live in. +Most of those cites are growing incredibly quickly. +They don't have existing infrastructure; they have enormous numbers of people who are struggling with poverty, and enormous numbers of people are trying to figure out how to do things in new ways. +So what do we need in order to make developing nation megacities into Bright Green megacities? +Well, the first thing we need is, we need leapfrogging. +And this is one of the things that we are looking for everywhere. +The idea behind leapfrogging is that if you are a person, or a country, who is stuck in a situation where you don't have the tools and technologies that you need, there's no reason for you to invest in last generation's technologies. Right? +That you're much better off, almost universally, looking for a low-cost or locally applicable version of the newest technology. +One place we're all familiar with seeing this is with cell phones. Right? +All throughout the developing world, people are going directly to cell phones, skipping the whole landline stage. +If there are landlines in many developing world cities, they're usually pretty crappy systems that break down a lot and cost enormous amounts of money. +So I rather like this picture here. +I particularly like the Ganesh in the background, talking on the cell phone. +So what we have, increasingly, is cell phones just permeating out through society. +We've heard all about this here this week, so I won't say too much more than that, other than to say what is true for cell phones is true for all sorts of technologies. +The second thing is tools for collaboration, be they systems of collaboration, or intellectual property systems which encourage collaboration. Right? +When you have free ability for people to freely work together and innovate, you get different kinds of solutions. +And those solutions are accessible in a different way to people who don't have capital. Right? +So, you know, we have open source software, we have Creative Commons and other kinds of Copyleft solutions. +And those things lead to things like this. +This is a Telecentro in Sao Paulo. +This is a pretty remarkable program using free and open source software, cheap, sort of hacked-together machines, and basically sort of abandoned buildings -- has put together a bunch of community centers where people can come in, get high-speed internet access, learn computer programming skills for free. +And a quarter-million people every year use these now in Sao Paulo. +And those quarter-million people are some of the poorest people in Sao Paolo. +I particularly like the little Linux penguin in the back. So one of the things that that's leading to is a sort of southern cultural explosion. +And one of the things we're really, really interested in at Worldchanging is the ways in which the south is re-identifying itself, and re-categorizing itself in ways that have less and less to do with most of us in this room. +So it's not, you know, Bollywood isn't just answering Hollywood. Right? +You know, Brazilian music scene isn't just answering the major labels. +It's doing something new. There's new things happening. +There's interplay between them. And, you know, you get amazing things. +Like, I don't know if any of you have seen the movie "City of God?" +Yeah, it's a fabulous movie if you haven't seen it. +And it's all about this question, in a very artistic and indirect kind of way. +You have other radical examples where the ability to use cultural tools is spreading out. +These are people who have just been visited by the Internet bookmobile in Uganda. +And who are waving their first books in the air, which, I just think that's a pretty cool picture. You know? +So you also have the ability for people to start coming together and acting on their own behalf in political and civic ways, in ways that haven't happened before. +And as we heard last night, as we've heard earlier this week, are absolutely, fundamentally vital to the ability to craft new solutions, is we've got to craft new political realities. +And I would personally say that we have to craft new political realities, not only in places like India, Afghanistan, Kenya, Pakistan, what have you, but here at home as well. +Another world is possible. +And sort of the big motto of the anti-globalization movement. Right? +We tweak that a lot. +We talk about how another world isn't just possible; another world's here. +That it's not just that we have to sort of imagine there being a different, vague possibility out there, but we need to start acting a little bit more on that possibility. +We need to start doing things like Lula, President of Brazil. +How many people knew of Lula before today? +OK, so, much, much better than the average crowd, I can tell you that. +So Lula, he's full of problems, full of contradictions, but one of the things that he's doing is, he is putting forward an idea of how we engage in international relations that completely shifts the balance from the standard sort of north-south dialogue into a whole new way of global collaboration. +I would keep your eye on this fellow. +Another example of this sort of second superpower thing is the rise of these games that are what we call "serious play." +We're looking a lot at this. This is spreading everywhere. +This is from "A Force More Powerful." It's a little screenshot. +"A Force More Powerful" is a video game that, while you're playing it, it teaches you how to engage in non-violent insurrection and regime change. Here's another one. This is from a game called "Food Force," which is a game that teaches children how to run a refugee camp. +These things are all contributing in a very dynamic way to a huge rise in, especially in the developing world, in people's interest in and passion for democracy. +We get so little news about the developing world that we often forget that there are literally millions of people out there struggling to change things to be fairer, freer, more democratic, less corrupt. +And, you know, we don't hear those stories enough. +But it's happening all over the place, and these tools are part of what's making it possible. +Now when you add all those things together, when you add together leapfrogging and new kinds of tools, you know, second superpower stuff, etc., what do you get? +Well, very quickly, you get a Bright Green future for the developing world. +You get, for example, green power spread throughout the world. +You get -- this is a building in Hyderabad, India. +It's the greenest building in the world. +You get grassroots solutions, things that work for people who have no capital or limited access. +You get barefoot solar engineers carrying solar panels into the remote mountains. +You get access to distance medicine. +These are Indian nurses learning how to use PDAs to access databases that have information that they don't have access to at home in a distant manner. +You get new tools for people in the developing world. +These are LED lights that help the roughly billion people out there, for whom nightfall means darkness, to have a new means of operating. +These are refrigerators that require no electricity; they're pot within a pot design. +And you get water solutions. Water's one of the most pressing problems. +Here's a design for harvesting rainwater that's super cheap and available to people in the developing world. +Here's a design for distilling water using sunlight. +Here's a fog-catcher, which, if you live in a moist, jungle-like area, will distill water from the air that's clean and drinkable. +Here's a way of transporting water. +I just love this, you know -- I mean carrying water is such a drag, and somebody just came up with the idea of well, what if you rolled it. Right? +I mean, that's a great design. +This is a fabulous invention, LifeStraw. +Basically you can suck any water through this and it will become drinkable by the time it hits your lips. +So, you know, people who are in desperate straits can get this. +This is one of my favorite Worldchanging kinds of things ever. +This is a merry-go-round invented by the company Roundabout, which pumps water as kids play. You know? +Seriously -- give that one a hand, it's pretty great. +And the same thing is true for people who are in absolute crisis. Right? +We're expecting to have upwards of 200 million refugees by the year 2020 because of climate change and political instability. +How do we help people like that? +Well, there's all sorts of amazing new humanitarian designs that are being developed in collaborative ways all across the planet. +Some of those designs include models for acting, such as new models for village instruction in the middle of refugee camps. +New models for pedagogy for the displaced. +And we have new tools. +This is one of my absolute favorite things anywhere. +Does anyone know what this is? +Audience: It detects landmines. +Alex Steffen: Exactly, this is a landmine-detecting flower. +If you are living in one of the places where the roughly half-billion unaccounted for mines are scattered, you can fling these seeds out into the field. +And as they grow up, they will grow up around the mines, their roots will detect the chemicals in them, and where the flowers turn red you don't step. +Yeah, so seeds that could save your life. You know? +I also love it because it seems to me that the example, the tools we use to change the world, ought to be beautiful in themselves. +You know, that it's not just enough to survive. +We've got to make something better than what we've got. +And I think that we will. +Just to wrap up, in the immortal words of H.G. Wells, I think that better things are on the way. +I think that, in fact, that "all of the past is but the beginning of a beginning. +All that the human mind has accomplished is but the dream before the awakening." +I hope that that turns out to be true. +The people in this room have given me more confidence than ever that it will. +Thank you very much. +Video: Narrator: An event seen from one point of view gives one impression. +Seen from another point of view, it gives quite a different impression. +But it's only when you get the whole picture you can fully understand what's going on. +Sasha Vucinic: It's a great clip, isn't it? +And I found that in 29 seconds, it tells more about the power of, and importance of, independent media than I could say in an hour. +So I thought that it will be good to start with it. +And also start with a little bit of statistics. +According to relevant researchers, 83 percent of the population of this planet lives in the societies without independent press. +Think about that number: 83 percent of the population on the whole planet does not really know what is going on in their countries. +The information they get gets filtered through somebody who either twists that information, or colors that information, does something with it. +So they're deprived of understanding their reality. +That is just to understand how big and important this problem is. +Now those of you who are lucky enough to live in those societies that represent 17 percent, I think should enjoy it until it lasts. +You know, Sunday morning, you flick the paper, get your cappuccino. +Enjoy it while it lasts. +Because as we heard yesterday, countries can lose stars from their flags, but they can also lose press freedom, as I guess Americans among us can tell us more about. +But that's totally another and separate topic. +So I can go back to my story. +My story starts -- the story I want to share -- starts in 1991. +At that time I was running B92, the only independent, for that matter the only electronic media, in the country. +And I guess we were sharing -- we had that regular life of the only independent media in the country, operating in hostile environment, where government really wants to make your life miserable. +And there are different ways. +Yeah, it was the usual cocktail: a little bit of threats, a little bit of friendly advice, a little bit of financial police, a little bit of text control, so you always have somebody who never leaves your office. +But what they really do, which is very powerful, and that is what governments in the late '90s started doing if they don't like independent media companies -- you know, they threaten your advertisers. +Once they threaten your advertisers, market forces are actually, you know, destroyed, and the advertisers do not want to come -- no matter how much does it make sense for them -- do not want to come and advertise. +And you have a problem making ends meet. +At that time at the beginning of the '90s, we had that problem, which was, you know, survival below one side, but what was really painful for me was, remember, the beginning of the '90s, Yugoslavia is falling apart. +We were sitting over there with a country in a downfall, in a slow-motion downfall. +And we all had all of that on tapes. +We had the ability to understand what was going on. +We were actually recording history. +The problem was that we had to re-tape that history a week later; because if we did not, we could not afford enough tapes to keep archives of that history. +So if I gave you that picture, I don't want to go too long on that. +In that context a gentleman came to my office at that time. +It was still 1991. +He was running a media systems organization which is still in business, the gentleman is still in business. +And what did I know at that time about media systems? +I would think media systems were organizations, which means they should help you. +So I prepared two plans for that meeting, two strategic plans: the small one and the big one. +The small one was, I just wanted him to help us get those damn tapes, so we can keep that archive for the next 50 years. +The big plan was to ask him for a 1,000,000-dollar loan. +Because I thought, I still maintain, that serious and independent media companies are great business. +And I thought that B92 will survive and be a great company once Milosevic is gone, which turned out to be true. +It's now probably either the biggest or the second biggest media company in the country. +And I thought that the only thing that we needed at that time was 1,000,000-dollar loan to take us through those hard times. +To make a long story short, the gentleman comes into the office, great suit and tie. +I gave him what I thought was a brilliant explanation of the political situation and explained how hard and difficult the war will be. +Actually, I underestimated the atrocities, I have to admit. +Anyway, after that whole, big, long explanation, the only question he had for me -- and this is not a joke -- is, are we paying royalties after we broadcast music of Michael Jackson? +That was really the only question he had. +He left, and I remember being actually very angry at myself because I thought there must be an institution in the world that is providing loans to media companies. +It's so obvious, straight in your face, and somebody must have thought of it. +Somebody must have started something like that. +And I thought, I'm just dumb and I cannot find it. +You know, in my defense, there was no Google at that time; you could not just Google in '91. +So I thought that that's actually my problem. +Now we go from here, fast forward to 1995. +I have -- I left the country, I have a meeting with George Soros, trying for the third time to convince him that his foundation should invest in something that should operate like a media bank. +And basically what I was saying is very simple. +You know, forget about charity; it doesn't work. +Forget about handouts; 20,000 dollars do not help anybody. +What you should do is you should treat media companies as a business. +It's business anywhere. +Media business, or any other business, it needs to be capitalized. +And what these guys need, actually, is access to capital. +So third meeting, arguments are pretty well exercised. +At the end of the meeting he says, look, it is not going to work; you will never see your money back; but my foundations will put 500,000 dollars so you can test the idea. +See that it will not work. +He said, I'll give you a rope to hang yourself. +I knew two things after that meeting. +First, under no circumstances I want to hang myself. +And second, that I have no idea how to make it work. +You see, at the level of a concept, it was a great concept. +But it's one thing to have a concept; it's a totally separate thing to actually make it work. +So I had absolutely no idea how that could actually work. +Had the wrong idea; I thought that we can be a bank. +You see banks -- I don't know if there are any bankers over here; I apologize in advance -- but it's the best job in the world. +You know, you find somebody who is respectable and has a lot of money. +You give them more money; they repay you that over a time. +You collect interest and do nothing in between. +So I thought, why don't we get into that business? +So here we are having our first client, brilliant. +First independent newspaper in Slovakia. +The government cutting them off from all the printing facilities in Bratislava. +So here's the daily newspaper that has to be printed 400 kilometers away from the capital. +It's a daily newspaper with a deadline of 4 p.m. +That means that they have no sports; they have no latest news; circulation goes down. +It's a kind of very nice, sophisticated way how to economically strangle a daily newspaper. +They come to us with a request for a loan. +They want to -- the only way for them to survive is to get a printing press. +And we said, that's fine; let's meet; you'll bring us your business plan, which eventually they did. +We start the meeting. +I get these two pieces of paper, not like this, A4 format, so it's much bigger. +A lot of numbers there. A lot of numbers. +But however you put it, you know, the numbers do not make any sense. +And that's the best they could do. +We were the best that they could do. +So that is how we understood what our method is. +It's not a bank. We had to actually go into these companies and earn our return by fixing them -- by establishing management systems, by providing all that knowledge, how do you run a business on one side -- while they all know how to run, how to create content. +Just quickly on the results. +Over these 10 years, 40 million dollars in affordable financing, average interest rate five percent to six percent. +Lately we are going wild, charging seven percent from time to time. +We do it in 17 countries of the developing world. +And here is the most stunning number. +Return rate -- the one that Soros was so worried about -- 97 percent. +97 percent of all the scheduled repayments came back to us on time. +What do we typically finance? +We finance anything that a media company would need, from printing presses to transmitters. +What is most important is we do it either in form of loans, equities, lease -- whatever is appropriate for, you know, supporting anybody. +But what is most important here is, who do we finance? +We believe that in the last 10 years companies that we've financed are actually the best media companies in the developing world. +That is a "Who is Who" list. +And I could spend hours talking about them, because they're all kind of heroes. +And I can, but I'll give you just, maybe one, and depending on time I may give you two examples who we work with. +You see we started working in Eastern and Central Europe, and moved to Russia. +Our first loan in Russia was in Chelyabinsk. +I'll bet half of you have never heard of that place. +In the south of Russia there's a guy called Boris Nikolayevich Kirshin, who is running an independent newspaper there. +The city was closed until early '90s because, of all things, they were producing glass for Tupolev planes. +Anyway, he's running independent newspaper there. +After two years working with us, he becomes the most respected newspaper in that small place. +Governor comes to him one day, actually invites him to come to his office. +He goes and sees the governor. The governor says, Boris Nikolayevich, I understand you are doing a great job, and you are the most respected newspaper in our district. +And I want to offer you a deal. +Can you please give me your newspaper for the next nine months, because I have elections -- there are elections coming up in nine months. +I will not run, but it's very important for me who is going to succeed me. +So give me the paper for nine months. I'll give it back to you. +I have no interest in being in media business. +How much would that cost? +Boris Nikolayevich says, "It's not for sale." +The governor says, "We will close you." +Boris Nikolayevich says, "No, you cannot do it." +Six months later the newspaper was closed. +Luckily, we had enough time to help Boris Nikolayevich take all the assets out of that company and bring him into a new one, to get all the subscription lists, rehire staff. +So what the governor got was an empty shell. +But that is what happens if you're in business of independent media, and if you are a banker for independent media. +So it sounds like a great story. +Somewhere down the road we opened a media management center. +We started our media lab, sounds like a real great story. +But there is a second angle to that. +The second angle, like in this clip. +If you take the camera above, you start thinking about these numbers again. +40 million dollars over 10 years spread over 17 countries. +That is not too much, is it? +It's actually just a drop in the sea. +Because when you think about the importance, some of the issues that we were talking about last night -- this last session we had about Africa and his hypothetical 50 billion dollars destined for Africa. +All of those, not all, half of those problems mentioned last night -- government accountability, corruption, how do you fight corruption, giving voice to unheard, to poor -- it's why independent media is in business. +And it's why it was invented. +So from that perspective, what we did is just really one drop in the sea of that need that we can identify. +Now ours is just one story. +I'm sure that in this room there are, like, 15 other wonderful stories of nonprofits doing spectacular work. +Here is where the problem is, and I'll explain to you as well as I can what the problem is. +And it's called fundraising. +Imagine that this third of this room is filled with people who represent different foundations. +Imagine two thirds over here running excellent organizations, doing very important work. +Now imagine that every second person over here is deaf, does not hear, and switch the lights off. +Now that is how difficult it is to match people from this side of the room with people of that side of the room. +So we thought that some kind of a big idea is needed to reform, to totally rethink fundraising. +You know, instead of people running in this dark, trying to find their own match, who will be willing, who has the same goals. +Instead of all of that we thought there is -- something new needs to be invented. +And we came up with this idea of issuing bonds, press freedom bonds. +If there are investors willing to finance U.S. government budget deficit, why wouldn't we find investors willing to finance press freedom deficit? +We've decided to do it this fall; we will issue them, probably in denominations of 1,000 dollars. +I don't want to advertise them too much; that's not the point. +But the point is, if we ever survive to actually issue them, find enough investors that this can be considered a success, there's nothing stopping the next organization to start to issue bonds next spring. +And those can be environmental bonds. +And then two weeks later, Iqbal Quadir can issue his electricity in Bangladesh bonds. +And before you know it, any social cause can be actually financed in this way. +Now we do daydreaming in 11:30 with 55 seconds left. +But let's take the idea further. +You do it, you start it in the States, because it's, you know, concepts are very, very close to American minds. +But you can actually bring it to Europe, too. +You can bring it to Asia. +You can, once you have all of those different points, you can make it easy for investors. +Put all of those bonds at one place and they sit down and click. +Once you have more than 10 of them you have to develop some kind of a matrix. +What do investors get? +On one side financial, on the other side social. +So that brings the idea of some kind of rating agency, Morningstar type. +It says, you know, social impact over here is spectacular, five stars. +Financial, they give you one percent, only one star. +Now take it to the last step. +Once you have all of that put together, there's not one reason why you couldn't actually have a marketplace for all of that, where you cannot dispose of all of those bonds in a pretty quick way. +And in that way you organize the financing so there are no dark rooms, no blind people running around to find each other. +Thank you. +I work with a species called "Bonobo." +And I'm happy most of the time, because I think this is the happiest species on the planet. +It's kind of a well-kept secret. +This species lives only in the Congo. +And they're not in too many zoos, because of their sexual behavior. +Their sexual behavior is too human-like for most of us to be comfortable with. +But -- actually, we have a lot to learn from them, because they're a very egalitarian society and they're a very empathetic society. +And sexual behavior is not confined to one aspect of their life that they sort of set aside. +It permeates their entire life. +And it's used for communication. +And it's used for conflict resolution. +And I think perhaps somewhere in our history we sort of, divided our lives up into lots of parts. +We divided our world up with lots of categories. +And so everything sort of has a place that it has to fit. +But I don't think that we were that way initially. +There are many people who think that the animal world is hard-wired and that there's something very, very special about man. +Maybe it's his ability to have causal thought. +Maybe it's something special in his brain that allows him to have language. +Maybe it's something special in his brain that allows him to make tools or to have mathematics. +Well, I don't know. There were Tasmanians who were discovered around the 1600s and they had no fire. +They had no stone tools. +To our knowledge they had no music. +So when you compare them to the Bonobo, the Bonobo is a little hairier. +He doesn't stand quite as upright. +But there are a lot of similarities. +And I think that as we look at culture, we kind of come to understand how we got to where we are. +And I don't really think it's in our biology; I think we've attributed it to our biology, but I don't really think it's there. +So what I want to do now is introduce you to a species called the Bonobo. +This is Kanzi. +He's a Bonobo. +Right now, he's in a forest in Georgia. +His mother originally came from a forest in Africa. +And she came to us when she was just at puberty, about six or seven years of age. +Now this shows a Bonobo on your right, and a chimpanzee on your left. +Clearly, the chimpanzee has a little bit harder time of walking. +The Bonobo, although shorter than us and their arms still longer, is more upright, just as we are. +This shows the Bonobo compared to an australopithecine like Lucy. +As you can see, there's not a lot of difference between the way a Bonobo walks and the way an early australopithecine would have walked. +As they turn toward us you'll see that the pelvic area of early australopithecines is a little flatter and doesn't have to rotate quite so much from side to side. +So the -- the bipedal gait is a little easier. +And now we see all four. +Video: Narrator: The wild Bonobo lives in central Africa, in the jungle encircled by the Congo River. +Canopied trees as tall as 40 meters, 130 feet, grow densely in the area. +It was a Japanese scientist who first undertook serious field studies of the Bonobo, almost three decades ago. +Bonobos are built slightly smaller than the chimpanzee. +Slim-bodied, Bonobos are by nature very gentle creatures. +Long and careful studies have reported many new findings on them. +One discovery was that wild Bonobos often walk bidpedally. +What's more, they are able to walk upright for long distances. +Susan Savage-Rumbaugh : Let's go say hello to Austin first and then go to the A frame. +SS: This is Kanzi and I, in the forest. +None of the things you will see in this particular video are trained. +None of them are tricks. +They all happened to be captured on film spontaneously, by NHK of Japan. +We have eight Bonobos. +Video: Look at all this stuff that's here for our campfire. +SS: An entire family at our research centre. +Video: You going to help get some sticks? +Good. +We need more sticks, too. +I have a lighter in my pocket if you need one. +That's a wasps' nest. +You can get it out. +I hope I have a lighter. +You can use the lighter to start the fire. +SS: So Kanzi is very interested in fire. +He doesn't do it yet without a lighter, but I think if he saw someone do it, he might be able to do -- make a fire without a lighter. +He's learning about how to keep a fire going. +He's learning the uses for a fire, just by watching what we do with fire. +This is a smile on the face of a Bonobo. +These are happy vocalizations. +Video: You're happy. +You're very happy about this part. +You've got to put some water on the fire. You see the water? +Good job. +SS: Forgot to zip up the back half of his backpack. +But he likes to carry things from place to place. +Video: Austin, I hear you saying "Austin." +SS: He talks to other Bonobos at the lab, long-distance, farther than we can hear. +This is his sister. +This is her first time to try to drive a golf cart. +Video: Goodbye. +SS: She's got the pedals down, but not the wheel. +She switches from reverse to forward and she holds onto the wheel, rather than turns it. +Like us, she knows that that individual in the mirror is her. +Video: Narrator: By raising Bonobos in a culture that is both Bonobo and human, and documenting their development across two decades, scientists are exploring how cultural forces may have operated during human evolution. +His name is Nyota. +It means "star" in Swahili. +Panbanisha is trying to give Nyota a haircut with a pair of scissors. +In the wild, the parent Bonobo is known to groom its offspring. +Here Panbanisha uses scissors, instead of her hands, to groom Nyota. +Very impressive. +Subtle maneuvering of the hands is required to perform delicate tasks like this. +Nyota tries to imitate Panbanisha by using the scissors himself. +Realizing that Nyota might get hurt, Panbanisha, like any human mother, carefully tugs to get the scissors back. +He can now cut through tough animal hide. +SS: Kanzi's learned to make stone tools. +Video: Kanzi now makes his tools, just as our ancestors may have made them, two-and-a-half million years ago -- by holding the rocks in both hands, to strike one against the other. +He has learned that by using both hands and aiming his glancing blows, he can make much larger, sharper flakes. +Kanzi chooses a flake he thinks is sharp enough. +The tough hide is difficult to cut, even with a knife. +The rock that Kanzi is using is extremely hard and ideal for stone tool making, but difficult to handle, requiring great skill. +Kanzi's rock is from Gona, Ethiopia and is identical to that used by our African ancestors two-and-a-half million years ago. +These are the rocks Kanzi used and these are the flakes he made. +The flat sharp edges are like knife blades. +Compare them to the tools our ancestors used; they bear a striking resemblance to Kanzi's. +Panbanisha is longing to go for a walk in the woods. +She keeps staring out the window. +SS: This is -- let me show you something we didn't think they would do. +Video: For several days now, Panbanisha has not been outside. +SS: I normally talk about language. +Video: Then Panbanisha does something unexpected. +SS: But since I'm advised not to do what I normally do, I haven't told you that these apes have language. +It's a geometric language. +Video: She takes a piece of chalk and begins writing something on the floor. +What is she writing? +SS: She's also saying the name of that, with her voice. +Video: Now she comes up to Dr. Sue and starts writing again. +SS: These are her symbols on her keyboard. +They speak when she touches them. +Video: Panbanisha is communicating to Dr. Sue where she wants to go. +"A frame" represents a hut in the woods. +Compare the chalk writing with the lexigram on the keyboard. +Panbanisha began writing the lexigrams on the forest floor. +SS : Very nice. Beautiful, Panbanisha. +SS: At first we didn't really realize what she was doing, until we stood back and looked at it and rotated it. +Video: This lexigram also refers to a place in the woods. +The curved line is very similar to the lexigram. +The next symbol Panbanisha writes represents "collar." +It indicates the collar that Panbanisha must wear when she goes out. +SS: That's an institutional requirement. +Video: This symbol is not as clear as the others, but one can see Panbanisha is trying to produce a curved line and several straight lines. +Researchers began to record what Panbanisha said, by writing lexigrams on the floor with chalk. +Panbanisha watched. +Soon she began to write as well. +The Bonobo's abilities have stunned scientists around the world. +How did they develop? +SS : We found that the most important thing for permitting Bonobos to acquire language is not to teach them. +It's simply to use language around them, because the driving force in language acquisition is to understand what others, that are important to you, are saying to you. +Once you have that capacity, the ability to produce language comes rather naturally and rather freely. +So we want to create an environment in which Bonobos, like all of the individuals with whom they are interacting -- we want to create an environment in which they have fun, and an environment in which the others are meaningful individuals for them. +Narrator: This environment brings out unexpected potential in Kanzi and Panbanisha. +Panbanisha is enjoying playing her harmonica, until Nyota, now one year old, steals it. +Then he peers eagerly into his mother's mouth. +Is he looking for where the sound came from? +Dr. Sue thinks it's important to allow such curiosity to flourish. +This time Panbanisha is playing the electric piano. +She wasn't forced to learn the piano; she saw a researcher play the instrument and took an interest. +Researcher: Go ahead. Go ahead. I'm listening. +Do that real fast part that you did. Yeah, that part. +Narrator: Kanzi plays the xylophone; using both hands he enthusiastically accompanies Dr. Sue's singing. +Kanzi and Panbanisha are stimulated by this fun-filled environment, which promotes the emergence of these cultural capabilities. +Researcher: OK, now get the monsters. Get them. +Take the cherries too. +Now watch out, stay away from them now. +Now you can chase them again. Time to chase them. +Now you have to stay away. Get away. +Run away. Run. +Now we can chase them again. Go get them. +Oh no! +Good Kanzi. Very good. Thank you so much. +Narrator: None of us, Bonobo or human, can possibly even imagine? +SS: So we have a bi-species environment, we call it a "panhomoculture." +We're learning how to become like them. +We're learning how to communicate with them, in really high-pitched tones. +We're learning that they probably have a language in the wild. +And they're learning to become like us. +Because we believe that it's not biology; it's culture. +So we're sharing tools and technology and language with another species. +Thank you. +If you'd like to learn how to play the lobster, we have some here. +And that's not a joke, we really do. +So come up afterwards and I'll show you how to play a lobster. +So, actually, I started working on what's called the mantis shrimp a few years ago because they make sound. +This is a recording I made of a mantis shrimp that's found off the coast of California. +And while that's an absolutely fascinating sound, it actually turns out to be a very difficult project. +And while I was struggling to figure out how and why mantis shrimp, or stomatopods, make sound, I started to think about their appendages. +And mantis shrimp are called "mantis shrimp" after the praying mantises, which also have a fast feeding appendage. And I started to think, well, maybe it will be interesting, while listening to their sounds, to figure out how these animals generate very fast feeding strikes. +And so today I'll talk about the extreme stomatopod strike, work that I've done in collaboration with Wyatt Korff and Roy Caldwell. +So, mantis shrimp come in two varieties: there are spearers and smashers. +And this is a spearing mantis shrimp, or stomatopod. +And he lives in the sand, and he catches things that go by overhead. +So, a quick strike like that. And if we slow it down a bit, this is the mantis shrimp -- the same species -- recorded at 1,000 frames a second, played back at 15 frames per second. +And you can see it's just a really spectacular extension of the limbs, exploding upward to actually just catch a dead piece of shrimp that I had offered it. +Now, the other type of mantis shrimp is the smasher stomatopod, and these guys open up snails for a living. +And so this guy gets the snail all set up and gives it a good whack. +So, I'll play it one more time. +He wiggles it in place, tugs it with his nose, and smash. +And a few smashes later, the snail is broken open, and he's got a good dinner. +So, the smasher raptorial appendage can stab with a point at the end, or it can smash with the heel. +And today I'll talk about the smashing type of strike. +And so the first question that came to mind was, well, how fast does this limb move? +Because it's moving pretty darn fast on that video. +And I immediately came upon a problem. +Every single high-speed video system in the biology department at Berkeley wasn't fast enough to catch this movement. +We simply couldn't capture it on video. +And so this had me stymied for quite a long period of time. +And then a BBC crew came cruising through the biology department, looking for a story to do about new technologies in biology. +And so we struck up a deal. +I said, "Well, if you guys rent the high-speed video system that could capture these movements, you guys can film us collecting the data." +And believe it or not, they went for it. So we got this incredible video system. It's very new technology -- it just came out about a year ago -- that allows you to film at extremely high speeds in low light. +And low light is a critical issue with filming animals, because if it's too high, you fry them. So this is a mantis shrimp. There are the eyes up here, and there's that raptorial appendage, and there's the heel. +And that thing's going to swing around and smash the snail. +And the snail's wired to a stick, so he's a little bit easier to set up the shot. And -- yeah. +I hope there aren't any snail rights activists around here. +So this was filmed at 5,000 frames per second, and I'm playing it back at 15. And so this is slowed down 333 times. +And as you'll notice, it's still pretty gosh darn fast slowed down 333 times. It's an incredibly powerful movement. +The whole limb extends out. The body flexes backwards -- just a spectacular movement. +And so what we did is, we took a look at these videos, and we measured how fast the limb was moving to get back to that original question. +And we were in for our first surprise. +So what we calculated was that the limbs were moving at the peak speed ranging from 10 meters per second all the way up to 23 meters per second. +And for those of you who prefer miles per hour, that's over 45 miles per hour in water. And this is really darn fast. +In fact, it's so fast we were able to add a new point on the extreme animal movement spectrum. +And mantis shrimp are officially the fastest measured feeding strike of any animal system. So our first surprise. +So that was really cool and very unexpected. +So, you might be wondering, well, how do they do it? +And actually, this work was done in the 1960s by a famous biologist named Malcolm Burrows. +And what he showed in mantis shrimp is that they use what's called a "catch mechanism," or "click mechanism." +And what this basically consists of is a large muscle that takes a good long time to contract, and a latch that prevents anything from moving. +So the muscle contracts, and nothing happens. +And once the muscle's contracted completely, everything's stored up -- the latch flies upward, and you've got the movement. +And that's basically what's called a "power amplification system." +It takes a long time for the muscle to contract, and a very short time for the limb to fly out. +And so I thought that this was sort of the end of the story. +This was how mantis shrimps make these very fast strikes. +But then I took a trip to the National Museum of Natural History. +And if any of you ever have a chance, backstage of the National Museum of Natural History is one of the world's best collections of preserved mantis shrimp. And what -- this is serious business for me. +So, this -- what I saw, on every single mantis shrimp limb, whether it's a spearer or a smasher, is a beautiful saddle-shaped structure right on the top surface of the limb. And you can see it right here. +It just looks like a saddle you'd put on a horse. +It's a very beautiful structure. +And it's surrounded by membranous areas. And those membranous areas suggested to me that maybe this is some kind of dynamically flexible structure. +And this really sort of had me scratching my head for a while. +And then we did a series of calculations, and what we were able to show is that these mantis shrimp have to have a spring. +There needs to be some kind of spring-loaded mechanism in order to generate the amount of force that we observe, and the speed that we observe, and the output of the system. +So we thought, OK, this must be a spring -- the saddle could very well be a spring. +And we went back to those high-speed videos again, and we could actually visualize the saddle compressing and extending. +And I'll just do that one more time. +And then if you take a look at the video -- it's a little bit hard to see -- it's outlined in yellow. +The saddle is outlined in yellow. You can actually see it extending over the course of the strike, and actually hyperextending. +So, we've had very solid evidence showing that that saddle-shaped structure actually compresses and extends, and does, in fact, function as a spring. +The saddle-shaped structure is also known as a "hyperbolic paraboloid surface," or an "anticlastic surface." +And this is very well known to engineers and architects, because it's a very strong surface in compression. +It has curves in two directions, one curve upward and opposite transverse curve down the other, so any kind of perturbation spreads the forces over the surface of this type of shape. +So it's very well known to engineers, not as well known to biologists. +It's also known to quite a few people who make jewelry, because it requires very little material to build this type of surface, and it's very strong. +So if you're going to build a thin gold structure, it's very nice to have it in a shape that's strong. +Now, it's also known to architects. One of the most famous architects is Eduardo Catalano, who popularized this structure. +And what's shown here is a saddle-shaped roof that he built that's 87 and a half feet spanwise. +It's two and a half inches thick, and supported at two points. +And one of the reasons why he designed roofs this way is because it's -- he found it fascinating that you could build such a strong structure that's made of so few materials and can be supported by so few points. +And all of these are the same principles that apply to the saddle-shaped spring in stomatopods. +In biological systems it's important not to have a whole lot of extra material requirements for building it. +So, very interesting parallels between the biological and the engineering worlds. And interestingly, this turns out -- the stomatopod saddle turns out to be the first described biological hyperbolic paraboloid spring. +That's a bit long, but it is sort of interesting. +So the next and final question was, well, how much force does a mantis shrimp produce if they're able to break open snails? +And so I wired up what's called a load cell. +A load cell measures forces, and this is actually a piezoelectronic load cell that has a little crystal in it. +And when this crystal is squeezed, the electrical properties change and it -- which -- in proportion to the forces that go in. +So these animals are wonderfully aggressive, and are really hungry all the time. And so all I had to do was actually put a little shrimp paste on the front of the load cell, and they'd smash away at it. +And so this is just a regular video of the animal just smashing the heck out of this load cell. +And we were able to get some force measurements out. +And again, we were in for a surprise. +I purchased a 100-pound load cell, thinking, no animal could produce more than 100 pounds at this size of an animal. +And what do you know? They immediately overloaded the load cell. +So these are actually some old data where I had to find the smallest animals in the lab, and we were able to measure forces of well over 100 pounds generated by an animal about this big. +And actually, just last week I got a 300-pound load cell up and running, and I've clocked these animals generating well over 200 pounds of force. +And again, I think this will be a world record. +I have to do a little bit more background reading, but I think this will be the largest amount of force produced by an animal of a given -- per body mass. So, really incredible forces. +And again, that brings us back to the importance of that spring in storing up and releasing so much energy in this system. +But that was not the end of the story. +Now, things -- I'm making this sound very easy, this is actually a lot of work. +And I got all these force measurements, and then I went and looked at the force output of the system. +And this is just very simple -- time is on the X-axis and the force is on the Y-axis. And you can see two peaks. +And that was what really got me puzzled. +The first peak, obviously, is the limb hitting the load cell. +But there's a really large second peak half a millisecond later, and I didn't know what that was. +So now, you'd expect a second peak for other reasons, but not half a millisecond later. +Again, going back to those high-speed videos, there's a pretty good hint of what might be going on. +Here's that same orientation that we saw earlier. +There's that raptorial appendage -- there's the heel, and it's going to swing around and hit the load cell. +And what I'd like you to do in this shot is keep your eye on this, on the surface of the load cell, as the limb comes flying through. +And I hope what you are able to see is actually a flash of light. +Audience: Wow. +Sheila Patek: And so if we just take that one frame, what you can actually see there at the end of that yellow arrow is a vapor bubble. +And what that is, is cavitation. +And cavitation is an extremely potent fluid dynamic phenomenon which occurs when you have areas of water moving at extremely different speeds. +And when this happens, it can cause areas of very low pressure, which results in the water literally vaporizing. +And when that vapor bubble collapses, it emits sound, light and heat, and it's a very destructive process. +And so here it is in the stomatopod. And again, this is a situation where engineers are very familiar with this phenomenon, because it destroys boat propellers. +People have been struggling for years to try and design a very fast rotating boat propeller that doesn't cavitate and literally wear away the metal and put holes in it, just like these pictures show. +So this is a potent force in fluid systems, and just to sort of take it one step further, I'm going to show you the mantis shrimp approaching the snail. +This is taken at 20,000 frames per second, and I have to give full credit to the BBC cameraman, Tim Green, for setting this shot up, because I could never have done this in a million years -- one of the benefits of working with professional cameramen. +You can see it coming in, and an incredible flash of light, and all this cavitation spreading over the surface of the snail. +So really, just an amazing image, slowed down extremely, to extremely slow speeds. +And again, we can see it in slightly different form there, with the bubble forming and collapsing between those two surfaces. +In fact, you might have even seen some cavitation going up the edge of the limb. +So to solve this quandary of the two force peaks: what I think was going on is: that first impact is actually the limb hitting the load cell, and the second impact is actually the collapse of the cavitation bubble. +And these animals may very well be making use of not only the force and the energy stored with that specialized spring, but the extremes of the fluid dynamics. And they might actually be making use of fluid dynamics as a second force for breaking the snail. +So, really fascinating double whammy, so to speak, from these animals. +So, one question I often get after this talk -- so I figured I'd answer it now -- is, well, what happens to the animal? +Because obviously, if it's breaking snails, the poor limb must be disintegrating. And indeed it does. +That's the smashing part of the heel on both these images, and it gets worn away. In fact, I've seen them wear away their heel all the way to the flesh. +But one of the convenient things about being an arthropod is that you have to molt. And every three months or so these animals molt, and they build a new limb and it's no problem. +Very, very convenient solution to that particular problem. +So, I'd like to end on sort of a wacky note. +Maybe this is all wacky to folks like you, I don't know. +So, the saddles -- that saddle-shaped spring -- has actually been well known to biologists for a long time, not as a spring but as a visual signal. +And there's actually a spectacular colored dot in the center of the saddles of many species of stomatopods. +And this is quite interesting, to find evolutionary origins of visual signals on what's really, in all species, their spring. +And I think one explanation for this could be going back to the molting phenomenon. +So these animals go into a molting period where they're unable to strike -- their bodies become very soft. +And they're literally unable to strike or they will self-destruct. +This is for real. And what they do is, up until that time period when they can't strike, they become really obnoxious and awful, and they strike everything in sight; it doesn't matter who or what. +And the second they get into that time point when they can't strike any more, they just signal. They wave their legs around. +And it's one of the classic examples in animal behavior of bluffing. +It's a well-established fact of these animals that they actually bluff. They can't actually strike, but they pretend to. +And so I'm very curious about whether those colored dots in the center of the saddles are conveying some kind of information about their ability to strike, or their strike force, and something about the time period in the molting cycle. +So sort of an interesting strange fact to find a visual structure right in the middle of their spring. +So to conclude, I mostly want to acknowledge my two collaborators, Wyatt Korff and Roy Caldwell, who worked closely with me on this. +And also the Miller Institute for Basic Research in Science, which gave me three years of funding to just do science all the time, and for that I'm very grateful. Thank you very much. +Again, this is not an optical trick. This is what you would see. In other words, it's not a camera cut. It's a perceptual trick. +OK. We can violate your expectations about shape. +We can violate your expectations on representation -- what an image represents. What do you see here? +How many of you here see dolphins? Raise your hand if you see dolphins. OK, those people who raised their hands, afterwards, the rest of the audience, go talk to them, all right? Actually, this is the best example of priming by experience that I know. +If you are a child under the age of 10 who haven't been ruined yet, you will look at this image and see dolphins. Now, some of you adults here are saying, "What dolphins? What dolphins?" +Remember that sort of, um. This is the joke I did when the Florida ballot was going around. You know, count the dots for Gore; count the dots for Bush; count 'em again ... +You can violate your expectations about experience. Here is an outside water fountain that I created with some friends of mine, but you can stop the water in drops and -- actually make all the drops levitate. This is something we're building for, you know, amusement parks and that kind of stuff. +Now let's take a static image. Can you see this? +Do you see the middle section moving down and the outer sections moving up? It's completely static. +It's a static image. How many people see this illusion? It's completely static. +Right. Now, when -- it's interesting that when we look at an image we see, you know, color, depth, texture. And you can look at this whole scene and analyze it. You can see the woman is in closer than the wall and so forth. But the whole thing is actually flat. It's painted. It's trompe l'oeil. +And it was such a good trompe l'oeil that people got irritated when they tried to talk to the woman and she wouldn't respond. +Now, you can make design mistakes. Like this building in New York. So that when you see it from this side, it looks like the balconies tilt up, and when you walk around to the other side it looks like the balconies go down. So there are cases where you have mistakes in design that incorporate illusions. +Or, you take this particular un-retouched photograph. Now, interestingly enough, I get a lot of emails from people who say, "Is there any perceptual difference between males and females?" +And I really say, "No." I mean, women can navigate through the world just as well as males can -- and why wouldn't they? However, this is the one illusion that women can consistently do better than males: in matching which head because they rely on fashion cues. They can match the hat. +But these are early incorporations of illusions brought to -- sort of high point with Hans Holbein's "Ambassadors." And Hans Holbein worked for Henry VIII. This was hung on a wall where you could walk down from the stair and you can see this hidden skull. +All right, now I'm going to show you some designers who work with illusions to give that element of surprise. One of my favorites is Scott Kim. I worked with Scott to create some illusions for TED that I hope you will enjoy. We have one here on TED and happiness. +OK now. Arthur [Ganson] hasn't talked yet, but his is going to be a delightful talk and he has some of his really fantastic machines outside. And so, we -- Scott created this wonderful tribute to Arthur Ganson. +Well, there's analog and digital. Thought that was appropriate here. +And figure goes to ground. +And for the musicians. +And of course, since happiness -- we want "joy to the world." +Now, another great designer -- he's very well known in Japan -- Shigeo Fukuda. And he just builds some fantastic things. This is simply amazing. This is a pile of junk that when you view it from one particular angle, you see its reflection in the mirror as a perfect piano. +Pianist transforms to violinist. +This is really wild. This assemblage of forks, knives and spoons and various cutlery, welded together. It gives a shadow of a motorcycle. You learn something in the sort of thing that I do, which is there are people out there with a lot of time on their hands. +Now, I'm going to skip ahead since I'm sort of running [behind]. I want to show you quickly what I've created, some new type of illusions. I've done something with taking the Pixar-type illusions. So you see these kids the same size here, running down the hall. The two table tops of the same size. +So, if you measured them, they would be. And as I say, those two figures are identical in size and shape. +And it's interesting, by doing this in this sort of rendered fashion, how much stronger the illusions are. Any case, I hope this has brought you a little joy and happiness, and if you're interested in seeing more cool effects, see me outside. I'd be happy to show you lots of things. +I'll just take you to Bangladesh for a minute. +Before I tell that story, we should ask ourselves the question: Why does poverty exist? +I mean, there is plenty of knowledge and scientific breakthroughs. +We all live in the same planet, but there's still a great deal of poverty in the world. +And I think -- so I want to throw a perspective that I have, so that we can assess this project, or any other project, for that matter, to see whether it's contributing or -- contributing to poverty or trying to alleviate it. +Rich countries have been sending aid to poor countries for the last 60 years. +And by and large, this has failed. +And you can see this book, written by someone who worked in the World Bank for 20 years, and he finds economic growth in this country to be elusive. +By and large, it did not work. +So the question is, why is that? +In my mind, there is something to learn from the history of Europe. +I mean, even here, yesterday I was walking across the street, and they showed three bishops were executed 500 years ago, right across the street from here. +So my point is, there's a lot of struggle has gone in Europe, where citizens were empowered by technologies. +And they demanded authorities from -- to come down from their high horses. +And in the end, there's better bargaining between the authorities and citizens, and democracies, capitalism -- everything else flourished. +And so you can see, the real process of -- and this is backed up by this 500-page book -- that the authorities came down and citizens got up. +But if you look, if you have that perspective, then you can see what happened in the last 60 years. +Aid actually did the opposite. +It empowered authorities, and, as a result, marginalized citizens. +The authorities did not have the reason to make economic growth happen so that they could tax people and make more money for to run their business. +Because they were getting it from abroad. +And in fact, if you see oil-rich countries, where citizens are not yet empowered, the same thing goes -- Nigeria, Saudi Arabia, all sorts of countries. +Because the aid and oil or mineral money acts the same way. +It empowers authorities, without activating the citizens -- their hands, legs, brains, what have you. +And if you agree with that, then I think the best way to improve these countries is to recognize that economic development is of the people, by the people, for the people. +And that is the real network effect. +If citizens can network and make themselves more organized and productive, so that their voices are heard, so then things would improve. +And to contrast that, you can see the most important institution in the world, the World Bank, is an organization of the government, by the government, for the governments. +Just see the contrast. +And that is the perspective I have, and then I can start my story. +Of course, how would you empower citizens? +There could be all sorts of technologies. And one is cell phones. +Recently "The Economist" recognized this, but I stumbled upon the idea 12 years ago, and that's what I've been working on. +So 12 years ago, I was trying to be an investment banker in New York. +We had -- quite a few our colleagues were connected by a computer network. +And we got more productive because we didn't have to exchange floppy disks; we could update each other more often. +But one time it broke down. +And it reminded me of a day in 1971. +There was a war going on in my country. +And my family moved out of an urban place, where we used to live, to a remote rural area where it was safer. +And one time my mother asked me to get some medicine for a younger sibling. +And I walked 10 miles or so, all morning, to get there, to the medicine man. +And he wasn't there, so I walked all afternoon back. +So I had another unproductive day. +So while I was sitting in a tall building in New York, I put those two experiences together side by side, and basically concluded that connectivity is productivity -- whether it's in a modern office or an underdeveloped village. +So naturally, I -- the implication of that is that the telephone is a weapon against poverty. +And if that's the case, then the question is how many telephones did we have at that time? +And it turns out, that there was one telephone in Bangladesh for every 500 people. +And all those phones were in the few urban places. +The vast rural areas, where 100 million people lived, there were no telephones. +So just imagine how many man-months or man-years are wasted, just like I wasted a day. +If you just multiply by 100 million people, let's say losing one day a month, whatever, and you see a vast amount of resource wasted. +And after all, poor countries, like rich countries, one thing we've got equal, is their days are the same length: 24 hours. +So if you lose that precious resource, where you are somewhat equal to the richer countries, that's a huge waste. +So I started looking for any evidence that -- does connectivity really increase productivity? +And I couldn't find much, really, but I found this graph produced by the ITU, which is the International Telecommunication Union, based in Geneva. +They show an interesting thing. +That you see, the horizontal axis is where you place your country. +So the United States or the UK would be here, outside. +And so the impact of one new telephone, which is on the vertical axis, is very little. +But if you come back to a poorer country, where the GNP per capita is, let's say, 500 dollars, or 300 dollars, then the impact is huge: 6,000 dollars. Or 5,000 dollars. +The question was, how much did it cost to install a new telephone in Bangladesh? +It turns out: 2,000 dollars. +So if you spend 2,000 dollars, and let's say the telephone lasts 10 years, and if 5,000 dollars every year -- so that's 50,000 dollars. +So obviously this was a gadget to have. +And of course, if the cost of installing a telephone is going down, because there's a digital revolution going on, then it would be even more dramatic. +And I knew a little economics by then -- it says Adam Smith taught us that specialization leads to productivity. +But how would you specialize? +Let's say I'm a fisherman and a farmer. +And Chris is a fisherman farmer. Both are generalists. +So the point is that we could only -- the only way we could depend on each other, is if we can connect with each other. +And if we are neighbors, I could just walk over to his house. +But then we are limiting our economic sphere to something very small area. +But in order to expand that, you need a river, or you need a highway, or you need telephone lines. +But in any event, it's connectivity that leads to dependability. +And that leads to specialization. +That leads to productivity. +So the question was, I started looking at this issue, and going back and forth between Bangladesh and New York. +There were a lot of reasons people told me why we don't have enough telephones. +And one of them is the lacking buying power. +Poor people apparently don't have the power to buy. +But the point is, if it's a production tool, why do we have to worry about that? +I mean, in America, people buy cars, and they put very little money down. +They get a car, and they go to work. +The work pays them a salary; the salary allows them to pay for the car over time. +The car pays for itself. +So if the telephone is a production tool, then we don't quite have to worry about the purchasing power. +And of course, even if that's true, then what about initial buying power? +So then the question is, why can't we have some kind of shared access? +In the United States, we have -- everybody needs a banking service, but very few of us are trying to buy a bank. +So it's -- a bank tends to serve a whole community. +So we could do that for telephones. +And also people told me that we have a lot of important primary needs to meet: food, clothing, shelter, whatever. +But again, it's very paternalistic. +You should be raising income and let people decide what they want to do with their money. +But the real problem is the lack of other infrastructures. +See, you need some kind of infrastructure to bring a new thing. +For instance, the Internet was booming in the U.S. +because there were -- there were people who had computers. +They had modems. +They had telephone lines, so it's very easy to bring in a new idea, like the Internet. +But that's what's lacking in a poor country. +So for example, we didn't have ways to have credit checks, few banks to collect bills, etc. +But that's why I noticed Grameen Bank, which is a bank for poor people, and had 1,100 branches, 12,000 employees, 2.3 million borrowers. +And they had these branches. +I thought I could put cell towers and create a network. +And anyway, to cut the time short -- so I started -- I first went to them and said, "You know, perhaps I could connect all your branches and make you more efficient." +But you know, they have, after all, evolved in a country without telephones, so they are decentralized. I mean, of course there might be other good reasons, but this was one of the reasons -- they had to be. +And so they were not that interested to connect all their branches, and then to be -- and rock the boat. +So I started focusing. What is it that they really do? +So what happens is that somebody borrows money from the bank. +She typically buys a cow. The cow gives milk. +And she sells the milk to the villagers, and pays off the loan. +And this is a business for her, but it's milk for everybody else. +And suddenly I realized that a cell phone could be a cow. +Because some way she could borrow 200 dollars from the bank, get a phone and have the phone for everybody. +And it's a business for her. +So I wrote to the bank, and they thought for a while, and they said, "It's a little crazy, but logical. +If you think it can be done, come and make it happen." +So I quit my job; I went back to Bangladesh. +I created a company in America called Gonofone, which in Bengali means "people's phone." +And angel investors in America put in money into that. +I flew around the world. +After about a million -- I mean, I got rejected from lots of places, because I was not only trying to go to a poor country, I was trying to go to the poor of the poor country. +After about a million miles, and a meaningful -- a substantial loss of hair, I eventually put together a consortium, and -- which involved the Norwegian telephone company, which provided the know-how, and the Grameen Bank provided the infrastructure to spread the service. +To make the story short, here is the coverage of the country. +You can see it's pretty much covered. +Even in Bangladesh, there are some empty places. +But we are also investing around another 300 million dollars this year to extend that coverage. +Now, about that cow model I talked about. +There are about 115,000 people who are retailing telephone services in their neighborhoods. +And it's serving 52,000 villages, which represent about 80 million people. +And these phones are generating about 100 million dollars for the company. +And two dollars profit per entrepreneur per day, which is like 700 dollars per year. +And of course, it's very beneficial in a lot of ways. +It increases income, improves welfare, etc. +And the result is, right now, this company is the largest telephone company, with 3.5 million subscribers, 115,000 of these phones I talked about -- that produces about a third of the traffic in the network. +And 2004, the net profit, after taxes -- very serious taxes -- was 120 million dollars. +And the company contributed about 190 million dollars to the government coffers. +And again, here are some of the lessons. +"The government needs to provide economically viable services." +Actually, this is an instance where private companies can provide that. +"Governments need to subsidize private companies." +This is what some people think. +And actually, private companies help governments with taxes. +"Poor people are recipients." +Poor people are a resource. +"Services cost too much for the poor." +Their involvement reduces the cost. +"The poor are uneducated and cannot do much." +They are very eager learners and very capable survivors. +I've been very surprised. +Most of them learn how to operate a telephone within a day. +"Poor countries need aid." +Businesses -- this one company has raised the -- if the ideal figures are even five percent true, this one company is raising the GNP of the country much more than the aid the country receives. +And as I was trying to show you, as far as I'm concerned, aid does damages because it removes the government from its citizens. +And this is a new project I have with Dean Kamen, the famous inventor in America. +He has produced some power generators, which we are now doing an experiment in Bangladesh, in two villages where cow manure is producing biogas, which is running these generators. +And each of these generators is selling electricity to 20 houses each. +It's just an experiment. +We don't know how far it will go, but it's going on. +Thank you. +I'm supposed to scare you, because it's about fear, right? +And you should be really afraid, but not for the reasons why you think you should be. +You should be really afraid that -- if we stick up the first slide on this thing -- there we go -- that you're missing out. +Because if you spend this week thinking about Iraq and thinking about Bush and thinking about the stock market, you're going to miss one of the greatest adventures that we've ever been on. +And this is what this adventure's really about. +This is crystallized DNA. +Every life form on this planet -- every insect, every bacteria, every plant, every animal, every human, every politician -- is coded in that stuff. +And if you want to take a single crystal of DNA, it looks like that. +And we're just beginning to understand this stuff. +And this is the single most exciting adventure that we have ever been on. +It's the single greatest mapping project we've ever been on. +If you think that the mapping of America's made a difference, or landing on the moon, or this other stuff, it's the map of ourselves and the map of every plant and every insect and every bacteria that really makes a difference. +And it's beginning to tell us a lot about evolution. +It turns out that what this stuff is -- and Richard Dawkins has written about this -- is, this is really a river out of Eden. +So, the 3.2 billion base pairs inside each of your cells is really a history of where you've been for the past billion years. +And we could start dating things, and we could start changing medicine and archeology. +It turns out that if you take the human species about 700 years ago, white Europeans diverged from black Africans in a very significant way. +White Europeans were subject to the plague. +And when they were subject to the plague, most people didn't survive, but those who survived had a mutation on the CCR5 receptor. +And that mutation was passed on to their kids because they're the ones that survived, so there was a great deal of population pressure. +In Africa, because you didn't have these cities, you didn't have that CCR5 population pressure mutation. +We can date it to 700 years ago. +That is one of the reasons why AIDS is raging across Africa as fast as it is, and not as fast across Europe. +And we're beginning to find these little things for malaria, for sickle cell, for cancers. +And in the measure that we map ourselves, this is the single greatest adventure that we'll ever be on. +And this Friday, I want you to pull out a really good bottle of wine, and I want you to toast these two people. +Because this Friday, 50 years ago, Watson and Crick found the structure of DNA, and that is almost as important a date as the 12th of February when we first mapped ourselves, but anyway, we'll get to that. +I thought we'd talk about the new zoo. +So, all you guys have heard about DNA, all the stuff that DNA does, but some of the stuff we're discovering is kind of nifty because this turns out to be the single most abundant species on the planet. +If you think you're successful or cockroaches are successful, it turns out that there's ten trillion trillion Pleurococcus sitting out there. +And we didn't know that Pleurococcus was out there, which is part of the reason why this whole species-mapping project is so important. +Because we're just beginning to learn where we came from and what we are. +And we're finding amoebas like this. This is the amoeba dubia. +So, this little thingamajig has a genome that's 200 times the size of yours. +And if you're thinking of efficient information storage mechanisms, it may not turn out to be chips. +It may turn out to be something that looks a little like that amoeba. +And, again, we're learning from life and how life works. +This funky little thing: people didn't used to think that it was worth taking samples out of nuclear reactors because it was dangerous and, of course, nothing lived there. +And then finally somebody picked up a microscope and looked at the water that was sitting next to the cores. +And sitting next to that water in the cores was this little Deinococcus radiodurans, doing a backstroke, having its chromosomes blown apart every day, six, seven times, restitching them, living in about 200 times the radiation that would kill you. +And by now you should be getting a hint as to how diverse and how important and how interesting this journey into life is, and how many different life forms there are, and how there can be different life forms living in very different places, maybe even outside of this planet. +Because if you can live in radiation that looks like this, that brings up a whole series of interesting questions. +This little thingamajig: we didn't know this thingamajig existed. +We should have known that this existed because this is the only bacteria that you can see to the naked eye. +So, this thing is 0.75 millimeters. +It lives in a deep trench off the coast of Namibia. +And what you're looking at with this namibiensis is the biggest bacteria we've ever seen. +So, it's about the size of a little period on a sentence. +Again, we didn't know this thing was there three years ago. +We're just beginning this journey of life in the new zoo. +This is a really odd one. This is Ferroplasma. +The reason why Ferroplasma is interesting is because it eats iron, lives inside the equivalent of battery acid, and excretes sulfuric acid. +So, when you think of odd life forms, when you think of what it takes to live, it turns out this is a very efficient life form, and they call it an archaea. Archaea means "the ancient ones." +And the reason why they're ancient is because this thing came up when this planet was covered by things like sulfuric acid in batteries, and it was eating iron when the earth was part of a melted core. +So, it's not just dogs and cats and whales and dolphins that you should be aware of and interested in on this little journey. +Your fear should be that you are not, that you're paying attention to stuff which is temporal. +I mean, George Bush -- he's going to be gone, alright? Life isn't. +Whether the humans survive or don't survive, these things are going to be living on this planet or other planets. +And it's just beginning to understand this code of DNA that's really the most exciting intellectual adventure that we've ever been on. +And you can do strange things with this stuff. This is a baby gaur. +Conservation group gets together, tries to figure out how to breed an animal that's almost extinct. +They can't do it naturally, so what they do with this thing is they take a spoon, take some cells out of an adult gaur's mouth, code, take the cells from that and insert it into a fertilized cow's egg, reprogram cow's egg -- different gene code. +When you do that, the cow gives birth to a gaur. +We are now experimenting with bongos, pandas, elands, Sumatran tigers, and the Australians -- bless their hearts -- are playing with these things. +Now, the last of these things died in September 1936. +These are Tasmanian tigers. The last known one died at the Hobart Zoo. +But it turns out that as we learn more about gene code and how to reprogram species, we may be able to close the gene gaps in deteriorate DNA. +And when we learn how to close the gene gaps, then we can put a full string of DNA together. +And if we do that, and insert this into a fertilized wolf's egg, we may give birth to an animal that hasn't walked the earth since 1936. +And then you can start going back further, and you can start thinking about dodos, and you can think about other species. +And in other places, like Maryland, they're trying to figure out what the primordial ancestor is. +Because each of us contains our entire gene code of where we've been for the past billion years, because we've evolved from that stuff, you can take that tree of life and collapse it back, and in the measure that you learn to reprogram, maybe we'll give birth to something that is very close to the first primordial ooze. +And it's all coming out of things that look like this. +These are companies that didn't exist five years ago. +Huge gene sequencing facilities the size of football fields. +Some are public. Some are private. +It takes about 5 billion dollars to sequence a human being the first time. +Takes about 3 million dollars the second time. +We will have a 1,000-dollar genome within the next five to eight years. +That means each of you will contain on a CD your entire gene code. +And it will be really boring. It will read like this. +The really neat thing about this stuff is that's life. +And Laurie's going to talk about this one a little bit. +Because if you happen to find this one inside your body, you're in big trouble, because that's the source code for Ebola. +That's one of the deadliest diseases known to humans. +But plants work the same way and insects work the same way, and this apple works the same way. +This apple is the same thing as this floppy disk. +Because this thing codes ones and zeros, and this thing codes A, T, C, Gs, and it sits up there, absorbing energy on a tree, and one fine day it has enough energy to say, execute, and it goes [thump]. Right? +And when it does that, pushes a .EXE, what it does is, it executes the first line of code, which reads just like that, AATCAGGGACCC, and that means: make a root. +Next line of code: make a stem. +Next line of code, TACGGGG: make a flower that's white, that blooms in the spring, that smells like this. +In the measure that you have the code and the measure that you read it -- and, by the way, the first plant was read two years ago; the first human was read two years ago; the first insect was read two years ago. +The first thing that we ever read was in 1995: a little bacteria called Haemophilus influenzae. +This changes all rules. This is life, but we're reprogramming it. +This is what you look like. This is one of your chromosomes. +And what you can do now is, you can outlay exactly what your chromosome is, and what the gene code on that chromosome is right here, and what those genes code for, and what animals they code against, and then you can tie it to the literature. +And in the measure that you can do that, you can go home today, and get on the Internet, and access the world's biggest public library, which is a library of life. +And you can do some pretty strange things because in the same way as you can reprogram this apple, if you go to Cliff Tabin's lab at the Harvard Medical School, he's reprogramming chicken embryos to grow more wings. +Why would Cliff be doing that? He doesn't have a restaurant. +The reason why he's reprogramming that animal to have more wings is because when you used to play with lizards as a little child, and you picked up the lizard, sometimes the tail fell off, but it regrew. +Not so in human beings: you cut off an arm, you cut off a leg -- it doesn't regrow. +But because each of your cells contains your entire gene code, each cell can be reprogrammed, if we don't stop stem cell research and if we don't stop genomic research, to express different body functions. +And you are likely to be wandering around -- and your children -- on regrown body parts in a reasonable period of time, in some places in the world where they don't stop the research. +How's this stuff work? If each of you differs from the person next to you by one in a thousand, but only three percent codes, which means it's only one in a thousand times three percent, very small differences in expression and punctuation can make a significant difference. Take a simple declarative sentence. +Right? +That's perfectly clear. So, men read that sentence, and they look at that sentence, and they read this. +Okay? +Now, women look at that sentence and they say, uh-uh, wrong. +This is the way it should be seen. +That's what your genes are doing. +That's why you differ from this person over here by one in a thousand. +Right? But, you know, he's reasonably good looking, but... +I won't go there. +You can do this stuff even without changing the punctuation. +You can look at this, right? +And they look at the world a little differently. +They look at the same world and they say... +That's how the same gene code -- that's why you have 30,000 genes, mice have 30,000 genes, husbands have 30,000 genes. +Mice and men are the same. Wives know that, but anyway. +You can make very small changes in gene code and get really different outcomes, even with the same string of letters. +That's what your genes are doing every day. +That's why sometimes a person's genes don't have to change a lot to get cancer. +These little chippies, these things are the size of a credit card. +They will test any one of you for 60,000 genetic conditions. +That brings up questions of privacy and insurability and all kinds of stuff, but it also allows us to start going after diseases, because if you run a person who has leukemia through something like this, it turns out that three diseases with completely similar clinical syndromes are completely different diseases. +Because in ALL leukemia, that set of genes over there over-expresses. +In MLL, it's the middle set of genes, and in AML, it's the bottom set of genes. +And if one of those particular things is expressing in your body, then you take Gleevec and you're cured. +If it is not expressing in your body, if you don't have one of those types -- a particular one of those types -- don't take Gleevec. +It won't do anything for you. +Same thing with Receptin if you've got breast cancer. +Don't have an HER-2 receptor? Don't take Receptin. +Changes the nature of medicine. Changes the predictions of medicine. +Changes the way medicine works. +The greatest repository of knowledge when most of us went to college was this thing, and it turns out that this is not so important any more. +The U.S. Library of Congress, in terms of its printed volume of data, contains less data than is coming out of a good genomics company every month on a compound basis. +Let me say that again: A single genomics company generates more data in a month, on a compound basis, than is in the printed collections of the Library of Congress. +This is what's been powering the U.S. economy. It's Moore's Law. +So, all of you know that the price of computers halves every 18 months and the power doubles, right? +Except that when you lay that side by side with the speed with which gene data's being deposited in GenBank, Moore's Law is right here: it's the blue line. +This is on a log scale, and that's what superexponential growth means. +This is going to push computers to have to grow faster than they've been growing, because so far, there haven't been applications that have been required that need to go faster than Moore's Law. This stuff does. +And here's an interesting map. +This is a map which was finished at the Harvard Business School. +One of the really interesting questions is, if all this data's free, who's using it? This is the greatest public library in the world. +Well, it turns out that there's about 27 trillion bits moving inside from the United States to the United States; about 4.6 trillion is going over to those European countries; about 5.5's going to Japan; there's almost no communication between Japan, and nobody else is literate in this stuff. +It's free. No one's reading it. They're focusing on the war; they're focusing on Bush; they're not interested in life. +So, this is what a new map of the world looks like. +That is the genomically literate world. And that is a problem. +In fact, it's not a genomically literate world. +You can break this out by states. +And you can watch states rise and fall depending on their ability to speak a language of life, and you can watch New York fall off a cliff, and you can watch New Jersey fall off a cliff, and you can watch the rise of the new empires of intelligence. +And you can break it out by counties, because it's specific counties. +And if you want to get more specific, it's actually specific zip codes. +So, you want to know where life is happening? +Well, in Southern California it's happening in 92121. And that's it. +And that's the triangle between Salk, Scripps, UCSD, and it's called Torrey Pines Road. +That means you don't need to be a big nation to be successful; it means you don't need a lot of people to be successful; and it means you can move most of the wealth of a country in about three or four carefully picked 747s. +Same thing in Massachusetts. Looks more spread out but -- oh, by the way, the ones that are the same color are contiguous. +What's the net effect of this? +In an agricultural society, the difference between the richest and the poorest, the most productive and the least productive, was five to one. Why? +Because in agriculture, if you had 10 kids and you grow up a little bit earlier and you work a little bit harder, you could produce about five times more wealth, on average, than your neighbor. +In a knowledge society, that number is now 427 to 1. +It really matters if you're literate, not just in reading and writing in English and French and German, but in Microsoft and Linux and Apple. +And very soon it's going to matter if you're literate in life code. +So, if there is something you should fear, it's that you're not keeping your eye on the ball. +Because it really matters who speaks life. +That's why nations rise and fall. +And it turns out that if you went back to the 1870s, the most productive nation on earth was Australia, per person. +And New Zealand was way up there. And then the U.S. came in about 1950, and then Switzerland about 1973, and then the U.S. got back on top -- beat up their chocolates and cuckoo clocks. +And today, of course, you all know that the most productive nation on earth is Luxembourg, producing about one third more wealth per person per year than America. +Tiny landlocked state. No oil. No diamonds. No natural resources. +Just smart people moving bits. Different rules. +Here's differential productivity rates. +Here's how many people it takes to produce a single U.S. patent. +So, about 3,000 Americans, 6,000 Koreans, 14,000 Brits, 790,000 Argentines. You want to know why Argentina's crashing? +It's got nothing to do with inflation. +It's got nothing to do with privatization. +You can take a Harvard-educated Ivy League economist, stick him in charge of Argentina. He still crashes the country because he doesn't understand how the rules have changed. +Oh, yeah, and it takes about 5.6 million Indians. +Well, watch what happens to India. +India and China used to be 40 percent of the global economy just at the Industrial Revolution, and they are now about 4.8 percent. +Two billion people. One third of the global population producing 5 percent of the wealth because they didn't get this change, because they kept treating their people like serfs instead of like shareholders of a common project. +They didn't keep the people who were educated. +They didn't foment the businesses. They didn't do the IPOs. +Silicon Valley did. And that's why they say that Silicon Valley has been powered by ICs. +Not integrated circuits: Indians and Chinese. +Here's what's happening in the world. +It turns out that if you'd gone to the U.N. in 1950, when it was founded, there were 50 countries in this world. +It turns out there's now about 192. +Country after country is splitting, seceding, succeeding, failing -- and it's all getting very fragmented. And this has not stopped. +In the 1990s, these are sovereign states that did not exist before 1990. +And this doesn't include fusions or name changes or changes in flags. +We're generating about 3.12 states per year. +People are taking control of their own states, sometimes for the better and sometimes for the worse. +And the really interesting thing is, you and your kids are empowered to build great empires, and you don't need a lot to do it. +And, given that the music is over, I was going to talk about how you can use this to generate a lot of wealth, and how code works. +Moderator: Two minutes. +Juan Enriquez: No, I'm going to stop there and we'll do it next year because I don't want to take any of Laurie's time. +But thank you very much. +I got a visit almost exactly a year ago, a little over a year ago, from a very senior person at the Department of Defense. +Came to see me and said, "1,600 of the kids that we've sent out have come back missing at least one full arm. +Whole arm. Shoulder disarticulation. +And we're doing the same thing we did for -- more or less, that we've done since the Civil War, a stick and a hook. +And they deserve more than that." +You know, had efferent, afferent, and haptic response. +He finishes explaining that, and I'm waiting for the big 300 pound paper proposal, and he said, "That's what I want from you." +I said, "Look, you're nuts. That technology's just not available right now. +And it can't be done. +Not in an envelope of a human arm, with 21 degrees of freedom, from your shoulder to your fingertips." +He said, "About two dozen of these 1,600 kids have come back bilateral. +You think it's bad to lose one arm? +That's an inconvenience compared to having both of them gone." +I got a day job, and my nights and weekends are already filled up with things like, let's supply water to the world, and power to the world, and educate all the kids, which, Chris, I will not talk about. I don't need another mission. +I keep thinking about these kids with no arms. +He says to me, "We've done some work around the country. +We've got some pretty amazing neurology and other people." +I said, "I'll take a field trip, I'll go see what you got." +Over the next month I visited lots of places, some out here, around the country, found the best of the best. +I went down to Washington. I saw these guys, and said, "I did what you asked me. I looked at what's out there. +I still think you're nuts. But not as nuts as I thought." +I put a team together, a little over 13 months ago, got up to 20 some-odd people. +We said, we're going to build a device that does what he wants. +We have 14 out of the 21 degrees of freedom; you don't need the ones in the last two fingers. +We put this thing together. +A couple of weeks ago we took it down to Walter Reed, which is unfortunately more in the news these days. +We showed it to a bunch of guys. +One guy who described himself as being lucky, because he lost his left arm, and he's a righty. +He sat at a table with seven or eight of these other guys. +Said he was lucky, because he had his good arm, and then he pushed himself back from the table. He had no legs. +These kids have attitudes that you just can't believe. +So I'm going to show you now, without the skin on it, a 30-second piece, and then I'm done. +But understand what you're looking at we made small enough to fit on a 50th percentile female, so that we could put it in any of these people. +It's going to go inside something that we use in CAT scans and MRIs of whatever is their good arm, to make silicon rubber, then coat it, and paint it in 3D -- exact mirror image of their other limb. +So, you won't see all the really cool stuff that's in this series elastic set of 14 actuators, each one which has its own capability to sense temperature and pressure. +It also has a pneumatic cuff that holds it on, so the more they put themselves under load, the more it attaches. +They take the load off, and it becomes, again, compliant. +I'm going to show you a guy doing a couple of simple things with this that we demonstrated in Washington. Can we look at this thing? +Watch the fingers grab. The thumb comes up. Wrist. +This weighs 6.9 pounds. +Going to scratch his nose. +It's got 14 active degrees of freedom. +Now he's going to pick up a pen with his opposed thumb and index finger. +Now he's going to put that down, pick up a piece of paper, rotate all the degrees of freedom in his hand and wrist, and read it. +I have all my life wondered what "mind-boggling" meant. +After two days here, I declare myself boggled, and enormously impressed, and feel that you are one of the great hopes -- not just for American achievement in science and technology, but for the whole world. +I've come, however, on a special mission on behalf of my constituency, which are the 10-to-the-18th-power -- that's a million trillion -- insects and other small creatures, and to make a plea for them. +If we were to wipe out insects alone, just that group alone, on this planet -- which we are trying hard to do -- the rest of life and humanity with it would mostly disappear from the land. +And within a few months. +Now, how did I come to this particular position of advocacy? +As a little boy, and through my teenage years, I became increasingly fascinated by the diversity of life. +I had a butterfly period, a snake period, a bird period, a fish period, a cave period and finally and definitively, an ant period. +Out of that broader study has emerged a concern and an ambition, crystallized in the wish that I'm about to make to you. +My choice is the culmination of a lifetime commitment that began with growing up on the Gulf Coast of Alabama, on the Florida peninsula. +As far back as I can remember, I was enchanted by the natural beauty of that region and the almost tropical exuberance of the plants and animals that grow there. +One day when I was only seven years old and fishing, I pulled a "pinfish," they're called, with sharp dorsal spines, up too hard and fast, and I blinded myself in one eye. +I later discovered I was also hard of hearing, possibly congenitally, in the upper registers. +So in planning to be a professional naturalist -- I never considered anything else in my entire life -- I found that I was lousy at bird watching and couldn't track frog calls either. +So I turned to the teeming small creatures that can be held between the thumb and forefinger: the little things that compose the foundation of our ecosystems, the little things, as I like to say, who run the world. +In so doing, I reached a frontier of biology so strange, so rich, that it seemed as though it exists on another planet. +In fact, we live on a mostly unexplored planet. +The great majority of organisms on Earth remain unknown to science. +In the last 30 years, thanks to explorations in remote parts of the world and advances in technology, biologists have, for example, added a full one-third of the known frog and other amphibian species, to bring the current total to 5,400, and more continue to pour in. +Two new kinds of whales have been discovered, along with two new antelopes, dozens of monkey species and a new kind of elephant -- and even a distinct kind of gorilla. +At the extreme opposite end of the size scale, the class of marine bacteria, the Prochlorococci -- that will be on the final exam -- although discovered only in 1988, are now recognized as likely the most abundant organisms on Earth, and moreover, responsible for a large part of the photosynthesis that occurs in the ocean. +These bacteria were not uncovered sooner because they are also among the smallest of all Earth's organisms -- so minute that they cannot be seen with conventional optical microscopy. +Yet life in the sea may depend on these tiny creatures. +These examples are just the first glimpse of our ignorance of life on this planet. +Consider the fungi -- including mushrooms, rusts, molds and many disease-causing organisms. +60,000 species are known to science, but more than 1.5 million have been estimated to exist. +Consider the nematode roundworm, the most abundant of all animals. +Four out of five animals on Earth are nematode worms -- if all solid materials except nematode worms were to be eliminated, you could still see the ghostly outline of most of it in nematode worms. +About 16,000 species of nematode worms have been discovered and diagnosed by scientists; there could be hundreds of thousands of them, even millions, still unknown. +This vast domain of hidden biodiversity is increased still further by the dark matter of the biological world of bacteria, which within just the last several years still were known from only about 6,000 species of bacteria worldwide. +But that number of bacteria species can be found in one gram of soil, just a little handful of soil, in the 10 billion bacteria that would be there. +It's been estimated that a single ton of soil -- fertile soil -- contains approximately four million species of bacteria, all unknown. +So the question is: what are they all doing? +The fact is, we don't know. +We are living on a planet with a lot of activities, with reference to our living environment, done by faith and guess alone. +Our lives depend upon these creatures. +To take an example close to home: there are over 500 species of bacteria now known -- friendly bacteria -- living symbiotically in your mouth and throat probably necessary to your health for holding off pathogenic bacteria. +At this point I think we have a little impressionistic film that was made especially for this occasion. +And I'd like to show it. +Assisted in this by Billie Holiday. +And that may be just the beginning! +The viruses, those quasi-organisms among which are the prophages, the gene weavers that promote the continued evolution in the lives of the bacteria, are a virtually unknown frontier of modern biology, a world unto themselves. +What constitutes a viral species is still unresolved, although they're obviously of enormous importance to us. +But this much we can say: the variety of genes on the planet in viruses exceeds, or is likely to exceed, that in all of the rest of life combined. +Nowadays, in addressing microbial biodiversity, scientists are like explorers in a rowboat launched onto the Pacific Ocean. +But that is changing rapidly with the aid of new genomic technology. +Already it is possible to sequence the entire genetic code of a bacterium in under four hours. +Soon we will be in a position to go forth in the field with sequencers on our backs -- to hunt bacteria in tiny crevices of the habitat's surface in the way you go watching for birds with binoculars. +What will we find as we map the living world, as, finally, we get this underway seriously? +As we move past the relatively gigantic mammals, birds, frogs and plants to the more elusive insects and other small invertebrates and then beyond to the countless millions of organisms in the invisible living world enveloped and living within humanity? +Already what were thought to be bacteria for generations have been found to compose, instead, two great domains of microorganisms: true bacteria and one-celled organisms the archaea, which are closer than other bacteria to the eukaryota, the group that we belong to. +Some serious biologists, and I count myself among them, have begun to wonder that among the enormous and still unknown diversity of microorganisms, one might -- just might -- find aliens among them. +True aliens, stocks that arrived from outer space. +They've had billions of years to do it, but especially during the earliest period of biological evolution on this planet. +We do know that some bacterial species that have earthly origin are capable of almost unimaginable extremes of temperature and other harsh changes in environment, including hard radiation strong enough and maintained long enough to crack the Pyrex vessels around the growing population of bacteria. +There may be a temptation to treat the biosphere holistically and the species that compose it as a great flux of entities hardly worth distinguishing one from the other. +But each of these species, even the tiniest Prochlorococci, are masterpieces of evolution. +Each has persisted for thousands to millions of years. +Each is exquisitely adapted to the environment in which it lives, interlocked with other species to form ecosystems upon which our own lives depend in ways we have not begun even to imagine. +We will destroy these ecosystems and the species composing them at the peril of our own existence -- and unfortunately we are destroying them with ingenuity and ceaseless energy. +My own epiphany as a conservationist came in 1953, while a Harvard graduate student, searching for rare ants found in the mountain forests of Cuba, ants that shine in the sunlight -- metallic green or metallic blue, according to species, and one species, I discovered, metallic gold. +I found my magical ants, but only after a tough climb into the mountains where the last of the native Cuban forests hung on, and were then -- and still are -- being cut back. +I realized then that these species and a large part of the other unique, marvelous animals and plants on that island -- and this is true of practically every part of the world -- which took millions of years to evolve, are in the process of disappearing forever. +And so it is everywhere one looks. +The human juggernaut is permanently eroding Earth's ancient biosphere by a combination of forces that can be summarized by the acronym "HIPPO," the animal hippo. +H is for habitat destruction, including climate change forced by greenhouse gases. +I is for the invasive species like the fire ants, the zebra mussels, broom grasses and pathogenic bacteria and viruses that are flooding every country, and at an exponential rate -- that's the I. +The P, the first one in "HIPPO," is for pollution. +The second is for continued population, human population expansion. +And the final letter is O, for over-harvesting -- driving species into extinction by excessive hunting and fishing. +The HIPPO juggernaut we have created, if unabated, is destined -- according to the best estimates of ongoing biodiversity research -- to reduce half of Earth's still surviving animal and plant species to extinction or critical endangerment by the end of the century. +Human-forced climate change alone -- again, if unabated -- could eliminate a quarter of surviving species during the next five decades. +What will we and all future generations lose if much of the living environment is thus degraded? +Huge potential sources of scientific information yet to be gathered, much of our environmental stability and new kinds of pharmaceuticals and new products of unimaginable strength and value -- all thrown away. +The loss will inflict a heavy price in wealth, security and yes, spirituality for all time to come, because previous cataclysms of this kind -- the last one, that ended the age of dinosaurs -- took, normally, five to 10 million years to repair. +Sadly, our knowledge of biodiversity is so incomplete that we are at risk of losing a great deal of it before it is even discovered. +For example, even in the United States, the 200,000 species known currently actually has been found to be only partial in coverage; it is mostly unknown to us in basic biology. +Only about 15 percent of the known species have been studied well enough to evaluate their status. +Of the 15 percent evaluated, 20 percent are classified as "in peril," that is, in danger of extinction. +That's in the United States. +We are, in short, flying blind into our environmental future. +We urgently need to change this. +We need to have the biosphere properly explored so that we can understand and competently manage it. +We need to settle down before we wreck the planet. +And we need that knowledge. +This should be a big science project equivalent to the Human Genome Project. +It should be thought of as a biological moonshot with a timetable. +So this brings me to my wish for TEDsters, and to anyone else around the world who hears this talk. +I wish we will work together to help create the key tools that we need to inspire preservation of Earth's biodiversity. +And let us call it the "Encyclopedia of Life." +What is the "Encyclopedia of Life?" A concept that has already taken hold and is beginning to spread and be looked at seriously? +It is an encyclopedia that lives on the Internet and is contributed to by thousands of scientists around the world. +Amateurs can do it also. +It has an indefinitely expandable page for each species. +It makes all key information about life on Earth accessible to anyone, on demand, anywhere in the world. +I've written about this idea before, and I know there are people in this room who have expended significant effort on it in the past. +But what excites me is that since I first put forward this particular idea in that form, science has advanced. +Technology has moved forward. +Today, the practicalities of making such an encyclopedia, regardless of the magnitude of the information put into it, are within reach. +Indeed, in the past year, a group of influential scientific institutions have begun mobilizing to realize this dream. +I wish you would help them. +Working together, we can make this real. +The encyclopedia will quickly pay for itself in practical applications. +It will address transcendent qualities in the human consciousness, and sense of human need. +It will transform the science of biology in ways of obvious benefit to humanity. +And most of all, it can inspire a new generation of biologists to continue the quest that started, for me personally, 60 years ago: to search for life, to understand it and finally, above all, to preserve it. +That is my wish. Thank you. +I'd like to begin by talking about some of the ideas that motivated me to become a documentary photographer. +I was a student in the '60s, a time of social upheaval and questioning, and on a personal level, an awakening sense of idealism. +The war in Vietnam was raging; the Civil Rights Movement was under way; and pictures had a powerful influence on me. +Our political and military leaders were telling us one thing, and photographers were telling us another. +I believed the photographers, and so did millions of other Americans. +Their images fueled resistance to the war and to racism. +They not only recorded history; they helped change the course of history. +Their pictures became part of our collective consciousness and, as consciousness evolved into a shared sense of conscience, change became not only possible, but inevitable. +I saw that the free flow of information represented by journalism, specifically visual journalism, can bring into focus both the benefits and the cost of political policies. +It can give credit to sound decision-making, adding momentum to success. +In the face of poor political judgment or political inaction, it becomes a kind of intervention, assessing the damage and asking us to reassess our behavior. +It puts a human face on issues which from afar can appear abstract or ideological or monumental in their global impact. +What happens at ground level, far from the halls of power, happens to ordinary citizens one by one. +And I understood that documentary photography has the ability to interpret events from their point of view. +It gives a voice to those who otherwise would not have a voice. +And as a reaction, it stimulates public opinion and gives impetus to public debate, thereby preventing the interested parties from totally controlling the agenda, much as they would like to. +Coming of age in those days made real the concept that the free flow of information is absolutely vital for a free and dynamic society to function properly. +The press is certainly a business, and in order to survive it must be a successful business, but the right balance must be found between marketing considerations and journalistic responsibility. +Society's problems can't be solved until they're identified. +On a higher plane, the press is a service industry, and the service it provides is awareness. +Every story does not have to sell something. +There's also a time to give. +That was a tradition I wanted to follow. +Seeing the war created such incredibly high stakes for everyone involved and that visual journalism could actually become a factor in conflict resolution -- I wanted to be a photographer in order to be a war photographer. +But I was driven by an inherent sense that a picture that revealed the true face of war would almost by definition be an anti-war photograph. +I'd like to take you on a visual journey through some of the events and issues I've been involved in over the past 25 years. +In 1981, I went to Northern Ireland. +10 IRA prisoners were in the process of starving themselves to death in protest against conditions in jail. +The reaction on the streets was violent confrontation. +I saw that the front lines of contemporary wars are not on isolated battlefields, but right where people live. +During the early '80s, I spent a lot of time in Central America, which was engulfed by civil wars that straddled the ideological divide of the Cold War. +In Guatemala, the central government -- controlled by a oligarchy of European decent -- was waging a scorched Earth campaign against an indigenous rebellion, and I saw an image that reflected the history of Latin America: conquest through a combination of the Bible and the sword. +An anti-Sandinista guerrilla was mortally wounded as Commander Zero attacked a town in Southern Nicaragua. +A destroyed tank belonging to Somoza's national guard was left as a monument in a park in Managua, and was transformed by the energy and spirit of a child. +At the same time, a civil war was taking place in El Salvador, and again, the civilian population was caught up in the conflict. +I've been covering the Palestinian-Israeli conflict since 1981. +This is a moment from the beginning of the second intifada, in 2000, when it was still stones and Molotovs against an army. +In 2001, the uprising escalated into an armed conflict, and one of the major incidents was the destruction of the Palestinian refugee camp in the West Bank town of Jenin. +Without the political will to find common ground, the continual friction of tactic and counter-tactic only creates suspicion and hatred and vengeance, and perpetuates the cycle of violence. +In the '90s, after the breakup of the Soviet Union, Yugoslavia fractured along ethnic fault lines, and civil war broke out between Bosnia, Croatia and Serbia. +This is a scene of house-to-house fighting in Mostar, neighbor against neighbor. +A bedroom, the place where people share intimacy, where life itself is conceived, became a battlefield. +A mosque in northern Bosnia was destroyed by Serbian artillery and was used as a makeshift morgue. +Dead Serbian soldiers were collected after a battle and used as barter for the return of prisoners or Bosnian soldiers killed in action. +This was once a park. +The Bosnian soldier who guided me told me that all of his friends were there now. +At the same time in South Africa, after Nelson Mandela had been released from prison, the black population commenced the final phase of liberation from apartheid. +One of the things I had to learn as a journalist was what to do with my anger. +I had to use it, channel its energy, turn it into something that would clarify my vision, instead of clouding it. +In Transkei, I witnessed a rite of passage into manhood, of the Xhosa tribe. +Teenage boys lived in isolation, their bodies covered with white clay. +After several weeks, they washed off the white and took on the full responsibilities of men. +It was a very old ritual that seemed symbolic of the political struggle that was changing the face of South Africa. +Children in Soweto playing on a trampoline. +Elsewhere in Africa there was famine. +In Somalia, the central government collapsed and clan warfare broke out. +Farmers were driven off their land, and crops and livestock were destroyed or stolen. +Starvation was being used as a weapon of mass destruction -- primitive but extremely effective. +Hundreds of thousands of people were exterminated, slowly and painfully. +The international community responded with massive humanitarian relief, and hundreds of thousands of more lives were saved. +American troops were sent to protect the relief shipments, but they were eventually drawn into the conflict, and after the tragic battle in Mogadishu, they were withdrawn. +In southern Sudan, another civil war saw similar use of starvation as a means of genocide. +Again, international NGOs, united under the umbrella of the U.N., staged a massive relief operation and thousands of lives were saved. +I'm a witness, and I want my testimony to be honest and uncensored. +I also want it to be powerful and eloquent, and to do as much justice as possible to the experience of the people I'm photographing. +This man was in an NGO feeding center, being helped as much as he could be helped. +He literally had nothing. He was a virtual skeleton, yet he could still summon the courage and the will to move. +He had not given up, and if he didn't give up, how could anyone in the outside world ever dream of losing hope? +In 1994, after three months of covering the South African election, I saw the inauguration of Nelson Mandela, and it was the most uplifting thing I've ever seen. +It exemplified the best that humanity has to offer. +The next day I left for Rwanda, and it was like taking the express elevator to hell. +This man had just been liberated from a Hutu death camp. +He allowed me to photograph him for quite a long time, and he even turned his face toward the light, as if he wanted me to see him better. +I think he knew what the scars on his face would say to the rest of the world. +This time, maybe confused or discouraged by the military disaster in Somalia, the international community remained silent, and somewhere around 800,000 people were slaughtered by their own countrymen -- sometimes their own neighbors -- using farm implements as weapons. +Perhaps because a lesson had been learned by the weak response to the war in Bosnia and the failure in Rwanda, when Serbia attacked Kosovo, international action was taken much more decisively. +NATO forces went in, and the Serbian army withdrew. +Ethnic Albanians had been murdered, their farms destroyed and a huge number of people forcibly deported. +They were received in refugee camps set up by NGOs in Albania and Macedonia. +The imprint of a man who had been burned inside his own home. +The image reminded me of a cave painting, and echoed how primitive we still are in so many ways. +Between 1995 and '96, I covered the first two wars in Chechnya from inside Grozny. +This is a Chechen rebel on the front line against the Russian army. +The Russians bombarded Grozny constantly for weeks, killing mainly the civilians who were still trapped inside. +I found a boy from the local orphanage wandering around the front line. +My work has evolved from being concerned mainly with war to a focus on critical social issues as well. +After the fall of Ceausescu, I went to Romania and discovered a kind of gulag of children, where thousands of orphans were being kept in medieval conditions. +Ceausescu had imposed a quota on the number of children to be produced by each family, thereby making women's bodies an instrument of state economic policy. +Children who couldn't be supported by their families were raised in government orphanages. +Children with birth defects were labeled incurables, and confined for life to inhuman conditions. +As reports began to surface, again international aid went in. +Going deeper into the legacy of the Eastern European regimes, I worked for several months on a story about the effects of industrial pollution, where there had been no regard for the environment or the health of either workers or the general population. +An aluminum factory in Czechoslovakia was filled with carcinogenic smoke and dust, and four out of five workers came down with cancer. +After the fall of Suharto in Indonesia, I began to explore conditions of poverty in a country that was on its way towards modernization. +I spent a good deal of time with a man who lived with his family on a railway embankment and had lost an arm and a leg in a train accident. +When the story was published, unsolicited donations poured in. +A trust fund was established, and the family now lives in a house in the countryside and all their basic necessities are taken care of. +It was a story that wasn't trying to sell anything. +Journalism had provided a channel for people's natural sense of generosity, and the readers responded. +I met a band of homeless children who'd come to Jakarta from the countryside, and ended up living in a train station. +By the age of 12 or 14, they'd become beggars and drug addicts. +The rural poor had become the urban poor, and in the process, they'd become invisible. +These heroin addicts in detox in Pakistan reminded me of figures in a play by Beckett: isolated, waiting in the dark, but drawn to the light. +Agent Orange was a defoliant used during the Vietnam War to deny cover to the Vietcong and the North Vietnamese army. +The active ingredient was dioxin, an extremely toxic chemical that was sprayed in vast quantities, and whose effects passed through the genes to the next generation. +In 2000, I began documenting global health issues, concentrating first on AIDS in Africa. +I tried to tell the story through the work of caregivers. +I thought it was important to emphasize that people were being helped, whether by international NGOs or by local grassroots organizations. +So many children have been orphaned by the epidemic that grandmothers have taken the place of parents, and a lot of children had been born with HIV. +A hospital in Zambia. +I began documenting the close connection between HIV/AIDS and tuberculosis. +This is an MSF hospital in Cambodia. +My pictures can play a supporting role to the work of NGOs by shedding light on the critical social problems they're trying to deal with. +I went to Congo with MSF, and contributed to a book and an exhibition that focused attention on a forgotten war in which millions of people have died, and exposure to disease without treatment is used as a weapon. +A malnourished child being measured as part of the supplemental feeding program. +In the fall of 2004 I went to Darfur. +This time I was on assignment for a magazine, but again worked closely with MSF. +The international community still hasn't found a way to create the pressure necessary to stop this genocide. +An MSF hospital in a camp for displaced people. +I've been working on a long project on crime and punishment in America. +This is a scene from New Orleans. +A prisoner on a chain gang in Alabama was punished by being handcuffed to a post in the midday sun. +This experience raised a lot of questions, among them questions about race and equality and for whom in our country opportunities and options are available. +In the yard of a chain gang in Alabama. +I didn't see either of the planes hit, and when I glanced out my window, I saw the first tower burning, and I thought it might have been an accident. +A few minutes later when I looked again and saw the second tower burning, I knew we were at war. +In the midst of the wreckage at Ground Zero, I had a realization. +I'd been photographing in the Islamic world since 1981 -- not only in the Middle East, but also in Africa, Asia and Europe. +At the time I was photographing in these different places, I thought I was covering separate stories, but on 9/11 history crystallized, and I understood I'd actually been covering a single story for more than 20 years, and the attack on New York was its latest manifestation. +The central commercial district of Kabul, Afghanistan at the end of the civil war, shortly before the city fell to the Taliban. +Land mine victims being helped at the Red Cross rehab center being run by Alberto Cairo. +A boy who lost a leg to a leftover mine. +I'd witnessed immense suffering in the Islamic world from political oppression, civil war, foreign invasions, poverty, famine. +I understood that in its suffering, the Islamic world had been crying out. Why weren't we listening? +A Taliban fighter shot during a battle as the Northern Alliance entered the city of Kunduz. +When war with Iraq was imminent, I realized the American troops would be very well covered, so I decided to cover the invasion from inside Baghdad. +A marketplace was hit by a mortar shell that killed several members of a single family. +A day after American forces entered Baghdad, a company of Marines began rounding up bank robbers and were cheered on by the crowds -- a hopeful moment that was short lived. +For the first time in years, Shi'ites were allowed to make the pilgrimage to Karbala to observe Ashura, and I was amazed by the sheer number of people and how fervently they practiced their religion. +A group of men march through the streets cutting themselves with knives. +It was obvious that the Shi'ites were a force to be reckoned with, and we would do well to understand them and learn how to deal with them. +Last year I spent several months documenting our wounded troops, from the battlefield in Iraq all the way home. +This is a helicopter medic giving CPR to a soldier who had been shot in the head. +Military medicine has become so efficient that the percentage of troops who survive after being wounded is much higher in this war than in any other war in our history. +The signature weapon of the war is the IED, and the signature wound is severe leg damage. +After enduring extreme pain and trauma, the wounded face a grueling physical and psychological struggle in rehab. +The spirit they displayed was absolutely remarkable. +I tried to imagine myself in their place, and I was totally humbled by their courage and determination in the face of such catastrophic loss. +Good people had been put in a very bad situation for questionable results. +One day in rehab someone, started talking about surfing and all these guys who'd never surfed before said, "Hey, let's go." +And they went surfing. +Photographers go to the extreme edges of human experience to show people what's going on. +Sometimes they put their lives on the line, because they believe your opinions and your influence matter. +They aim their pictures at your best instincts, generosity, a sense of right and wrong, the ability and the willingness to identify with others, the refusal to accept the unacceptable. +My TED wish: there's a vital story that needs to be told, and I wish for TED to help me gain access to it and then to help me come up with innovative and exciting ways to use news photography in the digital era. +Thank you very much. +I thought in getting up to my TED wish I would try to begin by putting in perspective what I try to do and how it fits with what they try to do. +We live in a world that everyone knows is interdependent, but insufficient in three major ways. +Even in wealthy countries it is common now to see inequality growing. +In the United States, since 2001 we've had five years of economic growth, five years of productivity growth in the workplace, but median wages are stagnant and the percentage of working families dropping below the poverty line is up by four percent. +The percentage of working families without health care up by four percent. +So this interdependent world which has been pretty good to most of us -- which is why we're all here in Northern California doing what we do for a living, enjoying this evening -- is profoundly unequal. +It is also unstable. +Unstable because of the threats of terror, weapons of mass destruction, the spread of global disease and a sense that we are vulnerable to it in a way that we weren't not so many years ago. +And perhaps most important of all, it is unsustainable because of climate change, resource depletion and species destruction. +All easier said than done. +In other words, they thought their differences were more important than their common humanity. +It is the central psychological plague of humankind in the 21st century. +Into this mix, people like us, who are not in public office, have more power to do good than at any time in history, because more than half the world's people live under governments they voted in and can vote out. +And even non-democratic governments are more sensitive to public opinion. +Because primarily of the power of the Internet, people of modest means can band together and amass vast sums of money that can change the world for some public good if they all agree. +When the tsunami hit South Asia, the United States contributed 1.2 billion dollars. +30 percent of our households gave. +Half of them gave over the Internet. +The median contribution was somewhere around 57 dollars. +And thirdly, because of the rise of non-governmental organizations. +They, businesses, other citizens' groups, have enormous power to affect the lives of our fellow human beings. +When I became president in 1993, there were none of these organizations in Russia. +There are now a couple of hundred thousand. +None in India. There are now at least a half a million active. +None in China. There are now 250,000 registered with the government, probably twice again that many who are not registered for political reasons. +When I organized my foundation, and I thought about the world as it is and the world that I hope to leave to the next generation, and I tried to be realistic about what I had cared about all my life that I could still have an impact on. +You saw one reference to that in what we were able to do with AIDS drugs. +And I want to say that the head of our AIDS effort, and the person who also is primarily active in the wish I'll make tonight, Ira Magaziner, is here with me and I want to thank him for everything he's done. +He's over there. +When I got out of office and was asked to work, first in the Caribbean, to try to help deal with the AIDS crisis, generic drugs were available for about 500 dollars a person a year. +If you bought them in vast bulks, you could get them at a little under 400 dollars. +The first country we went to work in, the Bahamas, was paying 3,500 dollars for these drugs. +The market was so terribly disorganized that they were buying this medicine through two agents who were gigging them sevenfold. +So the very first week we were working, we got the price down to 500 dollars. +And all of a sudden, they could save seven times as many lives for the same amount of money. +Then we went to work with the manufacturers of AIDS medicines, one of whom was cited in the film, and negotiated a whole different change in business strategy, because even at 500 dollars, these drugs were being sold on a high-margin, low-volume, uncertain-payment basis. +So we worked on improving the productivity of the operations and the supply chain, and went to a low-margin, high-volume, absolutely certain-payment business. +I joked that the main contribution we made to the battle against AIDS was to get the manufacturers to change from a jewelry store to a grocery store strategy. +But the price went to 140 dollars from 500. +And pretty soon, the average price was 192 dollars. +Now we can get it for about 100 dollars. +Children's medicine was 600 dollars, because nobody could afford to buy any of it. +We negotiated it down to 190. +Then, the French imposed their brilliantly conceived airline tax to create a something called UNITAID, got a bunch of other countries to help. +That children's medicine is now 60 dollars a person a year. +The only thing that is keeping us from basically saving the lives of everybody who needs the medicine to stay alive are the absence of systems necessary to diagnose, treat and care for people and deliver this medicine. +We started a childhood obesity initiative with the Heart Association in America. +We tried to do the same thing by negotiating industry-right deals with the soft drink and the snack food industry to cut the caloric and other dangerous content of food going to our children in the schools. +We just reorganized the markets. +And it occurred to me that in this whole non-governmental world, somebody needs to be thinking about organizing public goods markets. +And this whole discussion as if it's some sort of economic burden, is a mystery to me. +I think it's a bird's nest on the ground. +When Al Gore won his well-deserved Oscar for the "Inconvenient Truth" movie, I was thrilled, but I had urged him to make a second movie quickly. +For those of you who saw "An Inconvenient Truth," the most important slide in the Gore lecture is the last one, which shows here's where greenhouse gases are going if we don't do anything, here's where they could go. +And then there are six different categories of things we can do to change the trajectory. +We need a movie on those six categories. +And all of you need to have it embedded in your brains and to organize yourselves around it. +So we're trying to do that. +So organizing these markets is one thing we try to do. +Now we have taken on a second thing, and this gets to my wish. +It has been my experience in working in developing countries that while the headlines may all be -- the pessimistic headlines may say, well, we can't do this, that or the other thing because of corruption -- I think incapacity is a far bigger problem in poor countries than corruption, and feeds corruption. +We now have the money, given these low prices, to distribute AIDS drugs all over the world to people we cannot presently reach. +Today these low prices are available in the 25 countries where we work, and in a total of 62 countries, and about 550,000 people are getting the benefits of them. +But the money is there to reach others. +The systems are not there to reach the people. +And the test is: one, will it do the job? +Will it provide high quality care? +And two, will it do it at a price that will enable the country to sustain a health care system without foreign donors after five to 10 years? +Because the longer I deal with these problems, the more convinced I am that we have to -- whether it's economics, health, education, whatever -- we have to build systems. +And the absence of systems that function break the connection which got you all in this seat tonight. +You think about whatever your life has been, however many obstacles you have faced in your life, at critical junctures you always knew there was a predictable connection between the effort you exerted and the result you achieved. +In a world with no systems, with chaos, everything becomes a guerilla struggle, and this predictability is not there. +And it becomes almost impossible to save lives, educate kids, develop economies, whatever. +As poor as Haiti is, in the area where Farmer's clinic is active -- and they serve a catchment area far greater than the medical professionals they have would indicate they could serve -- since 1988, they have not lost one person to tuberculosis, not one. +And they've achieved a lot of other amazing health results. +So when we decided to work in Rwanda on trying to dramatically increase the income of the country and fight the AIDS problem, we wanted to build a healthcare network, because it had been totally destroyed during the genocide in 1994, and the per capita income was still under a dollar a day. +So I rang up, asked Paul Farmer if he would help. +And so we have set about doing that. +Now, we started working together 18 months ago. +And we're working in an area called Southern Kayonza, which is one of the poorest areas in Rwanda, with a group that originally includes about 400,000 people. +The procedures that make this work have been perfected, as I said, by Paul Farmer and his team in their work in rural Haiti over the last 20 years. +Recently we did an evaluation of the first 18 months of our efforts in Rwanda. +And the results were so good that the Rwandan government has now agreed to adopt the model for the entire country, and has strongly supported and put the full resources of the government behind it. +I'll tell you a little bit about our team because it's indicative of what we do. +We have about 500 people around the world working in our AIDS program, some of them for nothing -- just for transportation, room and board. +And then we have others working in these other related programs. +Our business plan in Rwanda was put together under the leadership of Diana Noble, who is an unusually gifted woman, but not unusual in the type of people who have been willing to do this kind of work. +She was the youngest partner at Schroder Ventures in London in her 20s. +She was CEO of a successful e-venture -- she started and built Reed Elsevier Ventures -- and at 45 she decided she wanted to do something different with her life. +So she now works full-time on this for very little pay. +She and her team of former business people have created a business plan that will enable us to scale this health system up for the whole country. +And it would be worthy of the kind of private equity work she used to do when she was making a lot more money for it. +When we came to this rural area, 45 percent of the children under the age of five had stunted growth due to malnutrition. +23 percent of them died before they reached the age of five. +Mortality at birth was over two-and-a-half percent. +Over 15 percent of the deaths among adults and children occurred because of intestinal parasites and diarrhea from dirty water and inadequate sanitation -- all entirely preventable and treatable. +Over 13 percent of the deaths were from respiratory illnesses -- again, all preventable and treatable. +And not a single soul in this area was being treated for AIDS or tuberculosis. +Within the first 18 months, the following things happened: we went from zero to about 2,000 people being treated for AIDS. +That's 80 percent of the people who need treatment in this area. +Listen to this: less than four-tenths of one percent of those being treated stopped taking their medicine or otherwise defaulted on treatment. +That's lower than the figure in the United States. +Less than three-tenths of one percent had to transfer to the more expensive second-line drugs. +400,000 pregnant women were brought into counseling and will give birth for the first time within an organized healthcare system. +That's about 43 percent of all the pregnancies. +About 40 percent of all the people -- I said 400,000. I meant 40,000. +About 40 percent of all the people who need TB treatment are now getting it -- in just 18 months, up from zero when we started. +43 percent of the children in need of an infant feeding program to prevent malnutrition and early death are now getting the food supplements they need to stay alive and to grow. +We've started the first malaria treatment programs they've ever had there. +Patients admitted to a hospital that was destroyed during the genocide that we have renovated along with four other clinics, complete with solar power generators, good lab technology. +We now are treating 325 people a month, despite the fact that almost 100 percent of the AIDS patients are now treated at home. +And for those of you who understand healthcare economics you know that all wealthy countries spend between nine and 11 percent of GDP on health care, except for the United States, we spend 16 -- but that's a story for another day. +We're now working with Partners in Health and the Ministry of Health in Rwanda and our Foundation folks to scale this system up. +We're also beginning to do this in Malawi and Lesotho. +And we have similar projects in Tanzania, Mozambique, Kenya and Ethiopia with other partners trying to achieve the same thing: to save as many lives as quickly as we can, but to do it in a systematic way that can be implemented nationwide and then with a model that can be implemented in any country in the world. +We need initial upfront investment to train doctors, nurses, health administration and community health workers throughout the country, to set up the information technology, the solar energy, the water and sanitation, the transportation infrastructure. +But over a five- to 10-year period, we will take down the need for outside assistance and eventually it will be phased out. +My wish is that TED assist us in our work and help us to build a high-quality rural health system in a poor country, Rwanda, that can be a model for Africa, and indeed, for any poor country anywhere in the world. +My belief is that this will help us to build a more integrated world with more partners and fewer terrorists, with more productive citizens and fewer haters, a place we'd all want our kids and our grandchildren to grow up in. +These people have been through a lot and none of us, most of all me, helped them when they were on the verge of destroying each other. +We're undoing that now, and they are so over it and so into their future. +We're doing this in an environmentally responsible way. +I'm doing my best to convince them not to run the electric grid to the 35 percent of the people that have no access, but to do it with clean energy. To have responsible reforestation projects, the Rwandans, interestingly enough, have been quite good, Mr. Wilson, in preserving their topsoil. +There's a couple of guys from southern farming families -- the first thing I did when I went out to this place was to get down on my hands and knees and dig in the dirt and see what they'd done with it. +We have a chance here to prove that a country that almost slaughtered itself out of existence can practice reconciliation, reorganize itself, focus on tomorrow and provide comprehensive, quality health care with minimal outside help. +I am grateful for this prize, and I will use it to that end. +It's worth a try and I believe it would succeed. +Thank you and God bless you. +On September 10, the morning of my seventh birthday, I came downstairs to the kitchen, where my mother was washing the dishes and my father was reading the paper or something, and I sort of presented myself to them in the doorway, and they said, "Hey, happy birthday!" And I said, "I'm seven." +And my father smiled and said, "Well, you know what that means, don't you?" +And I said, "Yeah, that I'm going to have a party and a cake and get a lot of presents?" And my dad said, "Well, yes. +But more importantly, being seven means that you've reached the age of reason, and you're now capable of committing any and all sins against God and man." +Now, I had heard this phrase, "age of reason," before. +Sister Mary Kevin had been bandying it about my second-grade class at school. But when she said it, the phrase seemed all caught up in the excitement of preparations for our first communion and our first confession, and everybody knew that was really all about the white dress and the white veil. +And anyway, I hadn't really paid all that much attention to that phrase, "age of reason." +So, I said, "Yeah, yeah, age of reason. What does that mean again?" +And my dad said, "Well, we believe, in the Catholic Church, that God knows that little kids don't know the difference between right and wrong, but when you're seven, you're old enough to know better. +So, you've grown up and reached the age of reason, and now God will start keeping notes on you, and begin your permanent record." +And I said, "Oh ... Wait a minute. You mean all that time, up till today, all that time I was so good, God didn't notice it?" +And my mom said, "Well, I noticed it." +And I thought, "How could I not have known this before? +How could it not have sunk in when they'd been telling me? +All that being good and no real credit for it. +And worst of all, how could I not have realized this very important information until the very day that it was basically useless to me?" +So I said, "Well, Mom and Dad, what about Santa Claus? +I mean, Santa Claus knows if you're naughty or nice, right?" +And my dad said, "Yeah, but, honey, I think that's technically just between Thanksgiving and Christmas." +And my mother said, "Oh, Bob, stop it. Let's just tell her. I mean, she's seven. +Julie, there is no Santa Claus." +Now, this was actually not that upsetting to me. +Santa would come to our house while we were at nine o'clock high mass on Christmas morning, but only if all of us kids did not make a fuss. +Which made me very suspicious. +It was pretty obvious that it was really our parents giving us the presents. +I mean, my dad had a very distinctive wrapping style, and my mother's handwriting was so close to Santa's. +Plus, why would Santa save time by having to loop back to our house after he'd gone to everybody else's? +There was only one obvious conclusion to reach from this mountain of evidence: our family was too strange and weird for even Santa Claus to come visit, and my poor parents were trying to protect us from the embarrassment, this humiliation of rejection by Santa, who was jolly -- but let's face it, he was also very judgmental. +So to find out that there was no Santa Claus at all was actually sort of a relief. +I left the kitchen not really in shock about Santa, but rather, I was just dumbfounded about how I could have missed this whole age of reason thing. +It was too late for me, but maybe I could help someone else, someone who could use the information. +They had to fit two criteria: they had to be old enough to be able to understand the whole concept of the age of reason, and not yet seven. +The answer was clear: my brother Bill. He was six. +Well, I finally found Bill about a block away from our house at this public school playground. +It was a Saturday, and he was all by himself, just kicking a ball against the side of a wall. +I ran up to him and said, "Bill! +I just realized that the age of reason starts when you turn seven, and then you're capable of committing any and all sins against God and man." And Bill said, "So?" +And I said, "So, you're six. You have a whole year to do anything you want to and God won't notice it." +And he said, "So?" +And I said, "So? So everything!" And I turned to run. I was so angry with him. +But when I got to the top of the steps, I turned around dramatically and said, "Oh, by the way, Bill -- there is no Santa Claus." +Now, I didn't know it at the time, but I really wasn't turning seven on September 10th. +For my 13th birthday, I planned a slumber party with all of my girlfriends, but a couple of weeks beforehand my mother took me aside and said, "I need to speak to you privately. +September 10th is not your birthday. It's October 10th." And I said, "What?" +"Listen. The cut-off date to start kindergarten was September 15th." +"So I told them that your birthday was September 10th, and then I wasn't sure that you weren't just going to go blab it all over the place, so I started to tell you your birthday was September 10th. +But, Julie, you were so ready to start school, honey. You were so ready." +I thought about it, and when I was four, I was already the oldest of four children, and my mother even had another child to come, so what I think she -- understandably -- really meant was that she was so ready, she was so ready. +Then she said, "Don't worry, Julie. Every year on October 10th, when it was your birthday but you didn't realize it, I made sure that you ate a piece of cake that day." +Which was comforting, but troubling. +My mother had been celebrating my birthday with me, without me. +What was so upsetting about this new piece of information was not that I had to change the date of my slumber party with all of my girlfriends. +What was most upsetting was that this meant I was not a Virgo. +I had a huge Virgo poster in my bedroom. +And I read my horoscope every single day, and it was so totally me. +And this meant that I was a Libra? +So, I took the bus downtown to get the new Libra poster. +The Virgo poster is a picture of a beautiful woman with long hair, sort of lounging by some water, but the Libra poster is just a huge scale. +This was around the time that I started filling out physically, and I was filling out a lot more than a lot of the other girls, and frankly, the whole idea that my astrological sign was a scale just seemed ominous and depressing. +But I got the new Libra poster, and I started to read my new Libra horoscope, and I was astonished to find that it was also totally me. +It wasn't until years later, looking back on this whole age-of-reason, change-of-birthday thing, that it dawned on me: I wasn't turning seven when I thought I turned seven. I had a whole other month to do anything I wanted to before God started keeping tabs on me. +Oh, life can be so cruel. +One day, two Mormon missionaries came to my door. +Now, I just live off a main thoroughfare in Los Angeles, and my block is -- well, it's a natural beginning for people who are peddling things door to door. +Sometimes I get little old ladies from the Seventh Day Adventist Church showing me these cartoon pictures of heaven. +And sometimes I get teenagers who promise me that they won't join a gang and just start robbing people, if I only buy some magazine subscriptions from them. +So normally, I just ignore the doorbell, but on this day, I answered. +And there stood two boys, each about 19, in white, starched short-sleeved shirts, and they had little name tags that identified them as official representatives of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, and they said they had a message for me, from God. +I said, "A message for me? From God?" And they said, "Yes." +And I sat them down, and I got them glasses of water -- Ok, I got it, I got it. I got them glasses of water. +Don't touch my hair, that's the thing. +You can't put a video of myself in front of me and expect me not to fix my hair. +So I sat them down and I got them glasses of water, and after niceties, they said, "Do you believe that God loves you with all his heart?" +And I thought, "Well, of course I believe in God, but you know, I don't like that word 'heart,' because it anthropomorphizes God, and I don't like the word, 'his,' either, because that sexualizes God." +But I didn't want to argue semantics with these boys, so after a very long, uncomfortable pause, I said, "Yes, yes, I do. I feel very loved." +And they looked at each other and smiled, like that was the right answer. And then they said, "Do you believe that we're all brothers and sisters on this planet?" +And I said, "Yes, I do." +And I was so relieved that it was a question I could answer so quickly. +And they said, "Well, then we have a story to tell you." +And they told me this story all about this guy named Lehi, who lived in Jerusalem in 600 BC. +Now, apparently in Jerusalem in 600 BC, everyone was completely bad and evil. +Every single one of them: man, woman, child, infant, fetus. +And God came to Lehi and said to him, "Put your family on a boat and I will lead you out of here." +And God did lead them. +He led them to America. +I said, "America? From Jerusalem to America by boat in 600 BC?" +And they said, "Yes." +Then, after Jesus died on the cross for our sins, on his way up to heaven, he stopped by America and visited the Nephites. +And he told them that if they all remained totally, totally good -- each and every one of them -- they would win the war against the evil Lamanites. +But apparently somebody blew it, because the Lamanites were able to kill all the Nephites. +All but one guy, this guy named Mormon, who managed to survive by hiding in the woods. +And he made sure this whole story was written down in reformed Egyptian hieroglyphics chiseled onto gold plates, which he then buried near Palmyra, New York. +Well, I was just on the edge of my seat. +I said, "What happened to the Lamanites?" +And they said, "Well, they became our Native Americans, here in the U.S." +And I said, "So, you believe the Native Americans are descended from a people who were totally evil?" And they said, "Yes." +Then they told me how this guy named Joseph Smith found those buried gold plates right in his backyard, and he also found this magic stone back there that he put into his hat and then buried his face into, and this allowed him to translate the gold plates from the reformed Egyptian into English. +Well, at this point I just wanted to give these two boys some advice about their pitch. +I wanted to say -- "Ok, don't start with this story." +I mean, even the Scientologists know to start with a personality test before they start -- telling people all about Xenu, the evil intergalactic overlord. +And what do you mean by prophets? Like, could the prophets be women?" +And they said, "No." And I said, "Why?" +And they said, "Well, it's because God gave women a gift that is so spectacular, it is so wonderful, that the only gift he had left over to give men was the gift of prophecy." +What is this wonderful gift God gave women, I wondered? +Maybe their greater ability to cooperate and adapt? +Women's longer lifespan? The fact that women tend to be much less violent than men? +But no -- it wasn't any of these gifts. +They said, "Well, it's her ability to bear children." +I said, "Oh, come on. I mean, even if women tried to have a baby every single year from the time they were 15 to the time they were 45, assuming they didn't die from exhaustion, it still seems like some women would have some time left over to hear the word of God." And they said, "No." +Well, then they didn't look so fresh-faced and cute to me any more, but they had more to say. +They said, "Well, we also believe that if you're a Mormon, and if you're in good standing with the church, when you die, you get to go to heaven and be with your family for all eternity." +And I said, "Oh, dear. +That wouldn't be such a good incentive for me." +And they said, "Oh. +Hey! Well, we also believe that when you go to heaven, you get your body restored to you in its best original state. +Like, if you'd lost a leg, well, you get it back. +Or, if you'd gone blind, you could see." +I said, "Oh. Now, I don't have a uterus, because I had cancer a few years ago. So does this mean that if I went to heaven, I would get my old uterus back?" And they said, "Sure." +And I said, "I don't want it back. I'm happy without it." Gosh. +What if you had a nose job and you liked it? +Would God force you to get your old nose back? +Then they gave me this Book of Mormon, told me to read this chapter and that chapter, and said they'd come back and check in on me, and I think I said something like, "Please don't hurry," or maybe just, "Please don't," and they were gone. +Ok, so I initially felt really superior to these boys, and smug in my more conventional faith. +But then the more I thought about it, the more I had to be honest with myself. +If someone came to my door and I was hearing Catholic theology and dogma for the very first time, and they said, "We believe that God impregnated a very young girl without the use of intercourse, and the fact that she was a virgin is maniacally important to us." +"And she had a baby, and that's the son of God," I mean, I would think that's equally ridiculous. +I'm just so used to that story. +So, I couldn't let myself feel condescending towards these boys. +But the question they asked me when they first arrived really stuck in my head: Did I believe that God loved me with all his heart? +Because I wasn't exactly sure how I felt about that question. +Now, if they had asked me, "Do you feel that God loves you with all his heart?" +Well, that would have been much different, I think I would have instantly answered, "Yes, yes, I feel it all the time. I feel God's love when I'm hurt and confused, and I feel consoled and cared for. +I take shelter in God's love when I don't understand why tragedy hits, and I feel God's love when I look with gratitude at all the beauty I see." +But since they asked me that question with the word "believe" in it, somehow it was all different, because I wasn't exactly sure if I believed what I so clearly felt. +You know, when Chris first approached me to speak at TED, I said no, because I felt like I wasn't going to be able to make that personal connection, you know, that I wanted to. +It's such a large conference. +But he explained to me that he was in a bind, and that he was having trouble finding the kind of sex appeal and star power that the conference was known for. +So I said fine, Ted -- I mean Chris. I'll come on two conditions. +One: I want to speak as early in the morning as possible. +And two: I want to pick the theme for TED 2006. +And luckily he agreed. +And the theme, in two years, is going to be "Cute Pictures Of Puppies." +I invented the Placebo Camera. +It doesn't actually take pictures, but it's a hell of a lot cheaper, and you still feel like you were there. +"Dear Sir, good day, compliments of the day, and my best wishes to you and family. +I know this letter will come to you surprisingly, but let it not be a surprise to you, for nature has a way of arriving unannounced, and, as an adage says, originals are very hard to find, but their echoes sound ouder. +So I decided to contact you myself, for you to assure me of safety and honesty, if I have to entrust any amount of money under your custody. +I am Mr Micheal Bangura, the son of late Mr Thaimu Bangura who was the Minister of Finance in Sierra Leone but was killed during the civil war. +Knowing your country to be economical conducive for investment, and your people as transparent and trustworthy to engage in business, on which premise I write you. +Before my father death, he had the sum of 23 million United States dollars, which he kept away from the rebel leaders during the course of the war. +This fund was supposed to be used for the rehabilitation of water reserves all over the country, before the outbreak of war. When the war broke out, the rebel leader demanded the fund be given to him, my father insisted it was not in his possession, and he was killed because of his refusal to release the fund. +Meanwhile, my mother and I is the only person who knows about it because my father always confide in me. +I made an arrangement with a Red Cross relief worker, who used his official van to transport the money to Lungi Airport, Freetown, although he did not know the real contents of the box. +The fund was deposited as a family reasure, in a safe, reliable security company in Dakar, Senegal, where I was only given temporary asylum. +I do not wish to invest the money in Senegal due to unfavorable economic climate, and so close to my country. +Sincerely, Mr Micheal Bangura." +This is really embarrassing. +I was told backstage that I have 18 minutes. +I only prepared 15. +So if it's cool, I'd like to just wait for three. +I'm really sorry. +What's your name? +Mark Surfas. It's pretty cool, huh? Pursuing happiness. +Are you a virgin? Virgin? +I mean -- no, I mean like in the TED sense? +Are you? Oh, yeah? So what are you, like, a thousand, two thousand, somewhere in there? +Huh? Oh? +You don't know what I'm talking about? +Ah, Mark -- Surfas. +1,860 -- am I good? +And that's nothing to be ashamed of. +That's nothing to be ashamed of. +Yeah, I was hanging out with some Google guys last night. +Really cool, we were getting wasted. +And they were telling me that Google software has gotten so advanced that, based on your interaction with Google over your lifetime, they can actually predict what you are going to say -- And I was like, "Get the fuck out of here. That's crazy." +But they said, "No, but don't show anyone." But they slipped up. +And they said that I could just type in "What was I going to say next?" +and my name, and it would tell me. +And I have to tell you, this is an unadulterated piece of software, this is a real Internet browser and this is the actual Google site, and we're going to test it out live today. +What was I going to say next? And "Ze Frank" -- that's me. +Am I feeling lucky? +Am I feeling lucky? +Audience: Yes! Yeah! +Ze Frank: Oh! Amazing. +In March of 2001 -- I filmed myself dancing to Madonna's "Justify My Love." +On a Thursday, I sent out a link to a website that featured those clips to 17 of my closest friends, as part of an invitation to my -- an invitation to my th -- th -- 26th birthday party. +By Monday, over a million people were coming to this site a day. +Within a week, I received a call from Earthlink that said, due to a 10 cents per megabyte overage charge, I owed them 30,000 dollars. +Needless to say, I was able to leave my job. [WAS LAID OFF] And, finally, you know, become freelance. +[UNEMPLOYED] But some people refer to me more as, like, an Internet guru or -- [JACKASS] swami. +I knew I had something. +I'd basically distilled a very difficult-to-explain and complex philosophy, which I won't get into here, because it's a little too deep for all of you, but -- It's about what makes websites popular, and, you know, it's -- [DANCE LIKE AN IDIOT AND DON'T SELL ANYTHING] It's unfortunate that I don't have more time. +Maybe I can come back next year, or something like that. +I'm obsessed with email. I get a lot of it. +Four years later, I still get probably two or three hundred emails a day from people I don't know, and it's been an amazing opportunity to kind of get to know different cultures, you know? +It's like a microscope to the rest of the world. +You can kind of peer into other people's lives. +And I also feel like I get a lot of inspiration from the average user. +For example, somebody wrote, "Hey Ze, if you ever come to Boulder, you should rock out with us," and I said, "Why wait?" [rocking out] And they said, "Hey Ze, thanks for rocking out, but I meant the kind of rocking out where we'd be naked." +And that was embarrassing. +But you know, it's kind of a collaboration between me and the fans, so I said, "Sure." [rocking out naked] I hear a lot of you whispering. +And I know what you're saying, "Holy crap! +How is his presentation so smooth?" +And I have to say that it's not all me this year. +I guess Chris has to take some credit here, because in years past, I guess there's been some sort of subpar speakers at TED. +And so, this year, Chris sent us a TED conference simulator. +Which really allowed us as speakers to get there, in the trenches, and practice at home so that we would be ready for this experience. +And I've got to say that, you know, it's really, really great to be here. +(Pre-recorded applause) I'd like to tell all of you a little joke. (Pre-recorded applause and cheering) Not just the good stuff, though. +You can do heckler mode. +Voice: Hey, moron, get off the stage! +ZF: You get off the stage. +Voice: We want Malcolm Gladwell. +(Huge crowd applauding) In case you run over time. +Just one last thing I'd like to say, I'd, really -- I'd like to thank all of you for being here. +And frog mode. +"Ah, the first time that I made love to a rock shrimp --" [Spam jokes are the new airplane jokes] It's true. Some people say to me, "Ze, you're doing all this stuff, this Internet stuff, and you're not making any money." +"Why?" And I say, "Mom, Dad -- I'm trying." I don't know if you're all aware of this, but the video game market, kids are playing these video games, but, supposedly, there's tons of money. +I mean, like, I think, 100,000 dollars or so a year is being spent on these things. So I decided to try my hand. +I came up with a few games. +This is called "Atheist." +I figured it would be popular with the young kids. +Look, I'll move around and say some things. +So that didn't go over so well. +I don't really understand why you're laughing. +Should have done this before I tried to pitch it. +"Buddhist," of course, looks very, very similar to "Atheist." +But you come back as a duck. +And this is great because, you know, for a quarter, you can play this for a long time. +And Chris had said in an email that we should really bring something new to TED, something that we haven't shown anyone. +So, I made this for TED. It's "Christian." +It's the third in the series. +I'm hoping it's going to do well this year. +Do you have a preference? +Good choice. +which is a random number between one and 500 million. +So really, what are we talking about here? Oh, tech joy. +Tech joy, to me, means something, because I get a lot of joy out of tech. +And in fact, making things using technology -- and I'm being serious here, even though I'm using my sarcastic voice -- I won't -- hold on. +Making things, you know -- making things actually does give me a lot of joy. +And so, what I've done is, I started getting interested in creating online social spaces to share that feeling with people who don't consider themselves artists. +We're in a culture of guru-ship. It's so hard to use some software because, you know, it's unapproachable, people feel like they have to read the manual. +So I try to create these very minimal activities that allow people to express themselves, and, hopefully -- Whoa! I'm like -- on the page, but it doesn't exist. +It's, like -- seriously, though -- I try to create meaningful environments for people to express themselves. +Here I created a contest called, "When Office Supplies Attack," which, I think, really resonated with the working population. +Over 500 entries in three weeks. +Again, people from all over the country. +The watch is particularly incredible. +Online drawing tools -- you've probably seen a lot of them. +I think they're wonderful. +It's a chance for people to get to play with crayons and all that kind of stuff. But I'm interested in the process of creating, as the real event that I'm interested in. +And the problem is that a lot of people suck at drawing, and they get bummed out at this, sort of, you know, stick figure, awful little thing that they created. +And eventually, it just makes them stop playing with it, or they draw penises and things like that. +So, the Scribbler is an attempt to create a generative tool. +In other words, it's a helping tool. +You can draw your simple stick figure, and it collaborates with you to create sort of a post-war German etching. +In fact, it's tuned to be better at drawing things that look worse. +So, we go ahead, and we start scribbling. +So the idea is that you can really, you know, partake in this process, but watch something really crappy look beautiful. +And here are some of my favorites. +This is the little trap marionette that was submitted to me. Very cool. +Beautiful stuff. +I mean this is incredible. An 11-year-old girl drew this and submitted it. +It's just gorgeous. +I'm dead serious here. This is not a joke. +But, I think it's a really fun and wonderful thing. +So this is called the "Fiction Project." +This is an online space, which is basically a refurbished message board that encourages collaborative fiction writing. +These are haikus. +None of the haikus were written by the same person. +In fact, each line is contributed by a different person at a different time. +I think that the "now tied up, tied down, mistress cruel approaches me, now tied down, it's up." +It's an amazing way, and I'll tell you, if you come home, and your spouse, or whoever it is, says, "Let's talk" -- That, like, chills you to the very core. +But it's peripheral activities like these that allow people to get together, doing fun things. +They actually get to know each other, and it's sort of like low-threshold peripheral activities that I think are the key to bringing up some of our bonding social capital that we're lacking. +And very, very quickly -- I love puppets. +Here's a puppet. +It dances to music. +Lotte Reiniger, an amazing shadow puppeteer in the 20s, that started doing more elaborate things. +I became interested in puppets, and I just want to show one last thing to you. +Oh, this is how you make puppets. +Chris Anderson: Ladies and gentlemen, Mr. Ze Frank. +This is me. My name is Ben Saunders. +I specialize in dragging heavy things around cold places. +On May 11th last year, I stood alone at the North geographic Pole. +I was the only human being in an area one-and-a-half times the size of America, five-and-a-half thousand square miles. +More than 2,000 people have climbed Everest. +12 people have stood on the moon. +Including me, only four people have skied solo to the North Pole. +And I think the reason for that -- -- thank you -- I think the reason for that is that it's -- it's -- well, it's as Chris said, bonkers. +It's a journey that is right at the limit of human capability. +I skied the equivalent of 31 marathons back to back. 800 miles in 10 weeks. +And I was dragging all the food I needed, the supplies, the equipment, sleeping bag, one change of underwear -- everything I needed for nearly three months. +What we're going to try and do today, in the 16 and a bit minutes I've got left, is to try and answer three questions. The first one is, why? +The second one is, how do you go to the loo at minus 40? +"Ben, I've read somewhere that at minus 40, exposed skin becomes frostbitten in less than a minute, so how do you answer the call of nature?" +I don't want to answer these now. I'll come on to them at the end. +Third one: how do you top that? What's next? +It all started back in 2001. +My first expedition was with a guy called Pen Hadow -- enormously experienced chap. +This was like my polar apprenticeship. +We were trying to ski from this group of islands up here, Severnaya Zemlya, to the North Pole. +And the thing that fascinates me about the North Pole, geographic North Pole, is that it's slap bang in the middle of the sea. +This is about as good as maps get, and to reach it you've got to ski literally over the frozen crust, the floating skin of ice on the Artic Ocean. +I'd spoken to all the experts. +I'd read lots of books. I studied maps and charts. +But I realized on the morning of day one that I had no idea exactly what I'd let myself in for. +I was 23 years old. No one my age had attempted anything like this, and pretty quickly, almost everything that could have gone wrong did go wrong. +We were attacked by a polar bear on day two. +I had frostbite in my left big toe. +We started running very low on food. We were both pretty hungry, losing lots of weight. +Some very unusual weather conditions, very difficult ice conditions. +We had decidedly low-tech communications. +We couldn't afford a satellite phone, so we had HF radio. +You can see two ski poles sticking out of the roof of the tent. +There's a wire dangling down either side. +That was our HF radio antenna. +We had less than two hours two-way communication with the outside world in two months. +Ultimately, we ran out of time. +We'd skied 400 miles. We were just over 200 miles left to go to the Pole, and we'd run out of time. +We were too late into the summer; the ice was starting to melt; we spoke to the Russian helicopter pilots on the radio, and they said, "Look boys, you've run out of time. +We've got to pick you up." +And I felt that I had failed, wholeheartedly. +I was a failure. +The one goal, the one dream I'd had for as long as I could remember -- I hadn't even come close. +And skiing along that first trip, I had two imaginary video clips that I'd replay over and over again in my mind when the going got tough, just to keep my motivation going. +The first one was reaching the Pole itself. +I could see vividly, I suppose, being filmed out of the door of a helicopter, there was, kind of, rock music playing in the background, and I had a ski pole with a Union Jack, you know, flying in the wind. +I could see myself sticking the flag in a pole, you know -- ah, glorious moment -- the music kind of reaching a crescendo. +The second video clip that I imagined was getting back to Heathrow airport, and I could see again, vividly, the camera flashbulbs going off, the paparazzi, the autograph hunters, the book agents coming to sign me up for a deal. +And of course, neither of these things happened. +We didn't get to the Pole, and we didn't have any money to pay anyone to do the PR, so no one had heard of this expedition. +And I got back to Heathrow. My mum was there; my brother was there; my granddad was there -- had a little Union Jack -- -- and that was about it. I went back to live with my mum. +I was physically exhausted, mentally an absolute wreck, considered myself a failure. +In a huge amount of debt personally to this expedition, and lying on my mum's sofa, day in day out, watching daytime TV. +My brother sent me a text message, an SMS -- it was a quote from the "Simpsons." It said, "You tried your hardest and failed miserably. +The lesson is: don't even try." +Fast forward three years. I did eventually get off the sofa, and start planning another expedition. This time, I wanted to go right across, on my own this time, from Russia, at the top of the map, to the North Pole, where the sort of kink in the middle is, and then on to Canada. +No one has made a complete crossing of the Arctic Ocean on their own. +Two Norwegians did it as a team in 2000. No one's done it solo. +Very famous, very accomplished Italian mountaineer, Reinhold Messner, tried it in 1995, and he was rescued after a week. +He described this expedition as 10 times as dangerous as Everest. +So for some reason, this was what I wanted to have a crack at, but I knew that even to stand a chance of getting home in one piece, let alone make it across to Canada, I had to take a radical approach. +This meant everything from perfecting the sawn-off, sub-two-gram toothbrush, to working with one of the world's leading nutritionists in developing a completely new, revolutionary nutritional strategy from scratch: 6,000 calories a day. +And the expedition started in February last year. +Big support team. We had a film crew, a couple of logistics people with us, my girlfriend, a photographer. +At first it was pretty sensible. We flew British Airways to Moscow. +The next bit in Siberia to Krasnoyarsk, on a Russian internal airline called KrasAir, spelled K-R-A-S. +The next bit, we'd chartered a pretty elderly Russian plane to fly us up to a town called Khatanga, which was the sort of last bit of civilization. +Our cameraman, who it turned out was a pretty nervous flier at the best of times, actually asked the pilot, before we got on the plane, how long this flight would take, and the pilot -- Russian pilot -- completely deadpan, replied, "Six hours -- if we live." +We got to Khatanga. +I think the joke is that Khatanga isn't the end of the world, but you can see it from there. +It was supposed to be an overnight stay. We were stuck there for 10 days. +There was a kind of vodka-fueled pay dispute between the helicopter pilots and the people that owned the helicopter, so we were stuck. We couldn't move. +Finally, morning of day 11, we got the all-clear, loaded up the helicopters -- two helicopters flying in tandem -- dropped me off at the edge of the pack ice. +We had a frantic sort of 45 minutes of filming, photography; while the helicopter was still there, I did an interview on the satellite phone; and then everyone else climbed back into the helicopter, wham, the door closed, and I was alone. +And I don't know if words will ever quite do that moment justice. +All I could think about was running back up to the door, banging on the door, and saying, "Look guys, I haven't quite thought this through." +To make things worse, you can just see the white dot up at the top right hand side of the screen; that's a full moon. +Because we'd been held up in Russia, of course, the full moon brings the highest and lowest tides; when you're standing on the frozen surface of the sea, high and low tides generally mean that interesting things are going to happen -- the ice is going to start moving around a bit. +I was, you can see there, pulling two sledges. +Grand total in all, 95 days of food and fuel, 180 kilos -- that's almost exactly 400 pounds. +When the ice was flat or flattish, I could just about pull both. +When the ice wasn't flat, I didn't have a hope in hell. +I had to pull one, leave it, and go back and get the other one. +Literally scrambling through what's called pressure ice -- the ice had been smashed up under the pressure of the currents of the ocean, the wind and the tides. +NASA described the ice conditions last year as the worst since records began. +And it's always drifting. The pack ice is always drifting. +I was skiing into headwinds for nine out of the 10 weeks I was alone last year, and I was drifting backwards most of the time. +My record was minus 2.5 miles. +I got up in the morning, took the tent down, skied north for seven-and-a-half hours, put the tent up, and I was two and a half miles further back than when I'd started. +I literally couldn't keep up with the drift of the ice. +: So it's day 22. +I'm lying in the tent, getting ready to go. +The weather is just appalling -- oh, drifted back about five miles in the last -- last night. +Later in the expedition, the problem was no longer the ice. +It was a lack of ice -- open water. +I knew this was happening. I knew the Artic was warming. +I knew there was more open water. And I had a secret weapon up my sleeve. +This was my little bit of bio-mimicry. +Polar bears on the Artic Ocean move in dead straight lines. +If they come to water, they'll climb in, swim across it. +And this meant I could ski over very thin ice, and if I fell through, it wasn't the end of the world. +It also meant, if the worst came to the worst, I could actually jump in and swim across and drag the sledge over after me. +Some pretty radical technology, a radical approach --but it worked perfectly. +Another exciting thing we did last year was with communications technology. +In 1912, Shackleton's Endurance expedition -- there was -- one of his crew, a guy called Thomas Orde-Lees. +He said, "The explorers of 2012, if there is anything left to explore, will no doubt carry pocket wireless telephones fitted with wireless telescopes." +Well, Orde-Lees guessed wrong by about eight years. This is my pocket wireless telephone, Iridium satellite phone. +The wireless telescope was a digital camera I had tucked in my pocket. +And every single day of the 72 days I was alone on the ice, I was blogging live from my tent, sending back a little diary piece, sending back information on the distance I'd covered -- the ice conditions, the temperature -- and a daily photo. +Remember, 2001, we had less than two hours radio contact with the outside world. +Last year, blogging live from an expedition that's been described as 10 times as dangerous as Everest. +It wasn't all high-tech. This is navigating in what's called a whiteout. +When you get lots of mist, low cloud, the wind starts blowing the snow up. +You can't see an awful lot. You can just see, there's a yellow ribbon tied to one of my ski poles. +I'd navigate using the direction of the wind. +So, kind of a weird combination of high-tech and low-tech. +I got to the Pole on the 11th of May. +It took me 68 days to get there from Russia, and there is nothing there. +There isn't even a pole at the Pole. There's nothing there, purely because it's sea ice. It's drifting. +Stick a flag there, leave it there, pretty soon it will drift off, usually towards Canada or Greenland. +I knew this, but I was expecting something. +Strange mixture of feelings: it was extremely warm by this stage, a lot of open water around, and of course, elated that I'd got there under my own steam, but starting to really realize that my chances of making it all the way across to Canada, which was still 400 miles away, were slim at best. +The only proof I've got that I was there is a blurry photo of my GPS, the little satellite navigation gadget. +You can just see -- there's a nine and a string of zeros here. +Ninety degrees north -- that is slap bang in the North Pole. +I took a photo of that. Sat down on my sledge. Did a sort of video diary piece. +Took a few photos. I got my satellite phone out. +I warmed the battery up in my armpit. +I dialed three numbers. I dialed my mum. +I dialed my girlfriend. I dialed the CEO of my sponsor. +And I got three voicemails. +: Ninety. +It's a special feeling. +The entire planet is rotating beneath my feet. +The -- the whole world underneath me. +I finally got through to my mum. She was at the queue of the supermarket. +She started crying. She asked me to call her back. +I skied on for a week past the Pole. +I wanted to get as close to Canada as I could before conditions just got too dangerous to continue. +This was the last day I had on the ice. +When I spoke to the -- my project management team, they said, "Look, Ben, conditions are getting too dangerous. +There are huge areas of open water just south of your position. +We'd like to pick you up. +Ben, could you please look for an airstrip?" +This was the view outside my tent when I had this fateful phone call. +I'd never tried to build an airstrip before. Tony, the expedition manager, he said, "Look Ben, you've got to find 500 meters of flat, thick safe ice." +The only bit of ice I could find -- it took me 36 hours of skiing around trying to find an airstrip -- was exactly 473 meters. I could measure it with my skis. +I didn't tell Tony that. I didn't tell the pilots that. +I thought, it'll have to do. +: Oh, oh, oh, oh, oh, oh. +It just about worked. A pretty dramatic landing -- the plane actually passed over four times, and I was a bit worried it wasn't going to land at all. +The pilot, I knew, was called Troy. I was expecting someone called Troy that did this for a living to be a pretty tough kind of guy. +I was bawling my eyes out by the time the plane landed -- a pretty emotional moment. +So I thought, I've got to compose myself for Troy. +I'm supposed to be the roughty toughty explorer type. +The plane taxied up to where I was standing. +The door opened. This guy jumped out. He's about that tall. He said, "Hi, my name is Troy." +The co-pilot was a lady called Monica. +She sat there in a sort of hand-knitted jumper. +They were the least macho people I've ever met, but they made my day. +Troy was smoking a cigarette on the ice; we took a few photos. He climbed up the ladder. He said, "Just -- just get in the back." +He threw his cigarette out as he got on the front, and I climbed in the back. +Taxied up and down the runway a few times, just to flatten it out a bit, and he said, "Right, I'm going to -- I'm going to give it a go." And he -- I've now learned that this is standard practice, but it had me worried at the time. +He put his hand on the throttle. +You can see the control for the engines is actually on the roof of the cockpit. +It's that little bar there. He put his hand on the throttle. +Monica very gently put her hand sort of on top of his. +I thought, "God, here we go. We're, we're -- this is all or nothing." +Rammed it forwards. Bounced down the runway. Just took off. +And only from the air did I see the big picture. +Of course, when you're on the ice, you only ever see one obstacle at a time, whether it's a pressure ridge or there's a bit of water. +This is probably why I didn't get into trouble about the length of my airstrip. +I mean, it really was starting to break up. +Why? I'm not an explorer in the traditional sense. +I'm not skiing along drawing maps; everyone knows where the North Pole is. +At the South Pole there's a big scientific base. There's an airstrip. +There's a cafe and there's a tourist shop. +For me, this is about exploring human limits, about exploring the limits of physiology, of psychology and of technology. They're the things that excite me. +And it's also about potential, on a personal level. +This, for me, is a chance to explore the limits -- really push the limits of my own potential, see how far they stretch. +That's as close as I can come to summing that up. +The next question is, how do you answer the call of nature at minus 40? +The answer, of course, to which is a trade secret -- and the last question, what's next? As quickly as possible, if I have a minute left at the end, I'll go into more detail. +What's next: Antarctica. +It's the coldest, highest, windiest and driest continent on Earth. +Late 1911, early 1912, there was a race to be the first to the South Pole: the heart of the Antarctic continent. +If you include the coastal ice shelves, you can see that the Ross Ice Shelf -- it's the big one down here -- the Ross Ice Shelf is the size of France. +Antarctica, if you include the ice shelves, is twice the size of Australia -- it's a big place. +And there's a race to get to the Pole between Amundsen, the Norwegian -- Amundsen had dog sleds and huskies -- and Scott, the British guy, Captain Scott. +Scott had sort of ponies and some tractors and a few dogs, all of which went wrong, and Scott and his team of four people ended up on foot. +They got to the Pole late January 1912 to find a Norwegian flag already there. +There was a tent, a letter to the Norwegian king. +And they turned around, headed back to the coast, and all five of them died on the return journey. +Since then, no one has ever skied -- this was 93 years ago -- since then, no one has ever skied from the coast of Antarctica to the Pole and back. +Every South Pole expedition you may have heard about is either flown out from the Pole or has used vehicles or dogs or kites to do some kind of crossing -- no one has ever made a return journey. So that's the plan. +Two of us are doing it. +That's pretty much it. +I think if I've learned anything, it's this: that no one else is the authority on your potential. +You're the only person that decides how far you go and what you're capable of. +Ladies and gentlemen, that's my story. +Thank you very much. +This meeting has really been about a digital revolution, but I'd like to argue that it's done; we won. +We've had a digital revolution but we don't need to keep having it. +And I'd like to look after that, to look what comes after the digital revolution. +So, let me start projecting forward. +These are some projects I'm involved in today at MIT, looking what comes after computers. +This first one, Internet Zero, up here -- this is a web server that has the cost and complexity of an RFID tag -- about a dollar -- that can go in every light bulb and doorknob, and this is getting commercialized very quickly. +And what's interesting about it isn't the cost; it's the way it encodes the Internet. +It uses a kind of a Morse code for the Internet so you could send it optically; you can communicate acoustically through a power line, through RF. +It takes the original principle of the Internet, which is inter-networking computers, and now lets devices inter-network. +That we can take the whole idea that gave birth to the Internet and bring it down to the physical world in this Internet Zero, this internet of devices. +So this is the next step from there to here, and this is getting commercialized today. +A step after that is a project on fungible computers. +Fungible goods in economics can be extended and traded. +So, half as much grain is half as much useful, but half a baby or half a computer is less useful than a whole baby or a whole computer, and we've been trying to make computers that work that way. +So, what you see in the background is a prototype. +This was from a thesis of a student, Bill Butow, now at Intel, who wondered why, instead of making bigger and bigger chips, you don't make small chips, put them in a viscous medium, and pour out computing by the pound or by the square inch. +And that's what you see here. +On the left was postscript being rendered by a conventional computer; on the right is postscript being rendered from the first prototype we made, but there's no frame buffer, IO processor, any of that stuff -- it's just this material. +Unlike this screen where the dots are placed carefully, this is a raw material. +If you add twice as much of it, you have twice as much display. +If you shoot a gun through the middle, nothing happens. +If you need more resource, you just apply more computer. +So, that's the step after this -- of computing as a raw material. +That's still conventional bits, the step after that is -- this is an earlier prototype in the lab; this is high-speed video slowed down. +Now, integrating chemistry in computation, where the bits are bubbles. +This is showing making bits, this is showing -- once again, slowed down so you can see it, bits interacting to do logic and multiplexing and de-multiplexing. +So, now we can compute that the output arranges material as well as information. And, ultimately, these are some slides from an early project I did, computing where the bits are stored quantum-mechanically in the nuclei of atoms, so programs rearrange the nuclear structure of molecules. +All of these are in the lab pushing further and further and further, not as metaphor but literally integrating bits and atoms, and they lead to the following recognition. +We all know we've had a digital revolution, but what is that? +Well, Shannon took us, in the '40s, from here to here: from a telephone being a speaker wire that degraded with distance to the Internet. And he proved the first threshold theorem, that shows if you add information and remove it to a signal, you can compute perfectly with an imperfect device. +And that's when we got the Internet. +Von Neumann, in the '50s, did the same thing for computing; he showed you can have an unreliable computer but restore its state to make it perfect. This was the last great analog computer at MIT: a differential analyzer, and the more you ran it, the worse the answer got. +After Von Neumann, we have the Pentium, where the billionth transistor is as reliable as the first one. +But all our fabrication is down in this lower left corner. +A state-of-the-art airplane factory rotating metal wax at fixed metal, or you maybe melt some plastic. A 10-billion-dollar chip fab uses a process a village artisan would recognize -- you spread stuff around and bake it. +All the intelligence is external to the system; the materials don't have information. +Yesterday you heard about molecular biology, which fundamentally computes to build. +It's an information processing system. +So, you'll hear, tomorrow, from Saul Griffith. He was one of the first students to emerge from this program. +We started to figure out how you can compute to fabricate. +This was just a proof of principle he did of tiles that interact magnetically, where you write a code, much like protein folding, that specifies their structure. +So, there's no feedback to a tool metrology; the material itself codes for its structure in just the same ways that protein are fabricated. So, you can, for example, do that. +You can do other things. That's in 2D. It works in 3D. +Laser micro-machining: essentially 3D printers that digitally fabricate functional systems, all the way up to building buildings, not by having blueprints, but having the parts code for the structure of the building. +So, these are early examples in the lab of emerging technologies to digitize fabrication. Computers that don't control tools but computers that are tools, where the output of a program rearranges atoms as well as bits. +Now, to do that -- with your tax dollars, thank you -- I bought all these machines. We made a modest proposal to the NSF. We wanted to be able to make anything on any length scale, all in one place, because you can't segregate digital fabrication by a discipline or a length scale. +So we put together focused nano beam writers and supersonic water jet cutters and excimer micro-machining systems. +But I had a problem. Once I had all these machines, I was spending too much time teaching students to use them. +So I started teaching a class, modestly called, "How To Make Almost Anything." And that wasn't meant to be provocative; it was just for a few research students. +But the first day of class looked like this. +You know, hundreds of people came in begging, all my life I've been waiting for this class; I'll do anything to do it. +Then they'd ask, can you teach it at MIT? It seems too useful? +And then the next -- -- surprising thing was they weren't there to do research. +They were there because they wanted to make stuff. +They had no conventional technical background. +At the end of a semester they integrated their skills. +I'll show an old video. Kelly was a sculptor, and this is what she did with her semester project. +: Kelly: Hi, I'm Kelly and this is my scream buddy. +Do you ever find yourself in a situation where you really have to scream, but you can't because you're at work, or you're in a classroom, or you're watching your children, or you're in any number of situations where it's just not permitted? +Well, scream buddy is a portable space for screaming. +When a user screams into scream buddy, their scream is silenced. +It is also recorded for later release where, when and how the user chooses. +So, Einstein would like this. +This student made a web browser for parrots -- lets parrots surf the Net and talk to other parrots. +This student's made an alarm clock you wrestle to prove you're awake; this is one that defends -- a dress that defends your personal space. +This isn't technology for communication; it's technology to prevent it. +This is a device that lets you see your music. +This is a student who made a machine that makes machines, and he made it by making Lego bricks that do the computing. +Just year after year -- and I finally realized the students were showing the killer app of personal fabrication is products for a market of one person. +You don't need this for what you can get in Wal-Mart; you need this for what makes you unique. +Ken Olsen famously said, nobody needs a computer in the home. +But you don't use it for inventory and payroll; DEC is now twice bankrupt. You don't need personal fabrication in the home to buy what you can buy because you can buy it. +You need it for what makes you unique, just like personalization. +So, with that, in turn, 20 million dollars today does this; 20 years from now we'll make Star Trek replicators that make anything. +The students hijacked all the machines I bought to do personal fabrication. +Today, when you spend that much of your money, there's a government requirement to do outreach, which often means classes at a local school, a website -- stuff that's just not that exciting. +So, I made a deal with my NSF program managers that instead of talking about it, I'd give people the tools. +This wasn't meant to be provocative or important, but we put together these Fab Labs. It's about 20,000 dollars in equipment that approximate both what the 20 million dollars does and where it's going. +This wasn't scheduled, but they went from inner-city Boston to Pobal in India, to Secondi-Takoradi on Ghana's coast to Soshanguve in a township in South Africa, to the far north of Norway, uncovering, or helping uncover, for all the attention to the digital divide, we would find unused computers in all these places. +A farmer in a rural village -- a kid needs to measure and modify the world, not just get information about it on a screen. +That there's really a fabrication and an instrumentation divide bigger than the digital divide. +And the way you close it is not IT for the masses but IT development for the masses. +So, in place after place we saw this same progression: that we'd open one of these Fab Labs, where we didn't -- this is too crazy to think of. +We didn't think this up, that we would get pulled to these places; we'd open it. The first step was just empowerment. +You can see it in their face, just this joy of, I can do it. +This is a girl in inner-city Boston who had just done a high-tech on-demand craft sale in the inner city community center. +It goes on from there to serious hands-on technical education informally, out of schools. In Ghana we had set up one of these labs. +We designed a network sensor, and kids would show up and refuse to leave the lab. +There was a girl who insisted we stay late at night -- : Kids: I love the Fab Lab. +-- her first night in the lab because she was going to make the sensor. +So she insisted on fabbing the board, learning how to stuff it, learning how to program it. She didn't really know what she was doing or why she was doing it, but she knew she just had to do it. There was something electric about it. +This is late at, you know, 11 o'clock at night and I think I was the only person surprised when what she built worked the first time. +And I've shown this to engineers at big companies, and they say they can't do this. Any one thing she's doing, they can do better, but it's distributed over many people and many sites and they can't do in an afternoon what this little girl in rural Ghana is doing. +: Girl: My name is Valentina Kofi; I am eight years old. +I made a stacking board. +And, again, that was just for the joy of it. +Then these labs started doing serious problem solving -- instrumentation for agriculture in India, steam turbines for energy conversion in Ghana, high-gain antennas in thin client computers. +And then, in turn, businesses started to grow, like making these antennas. +And finally, the lab started doing invention. +We're learning more from them than we're giving them. +I was showing my kids in a Fab Lab how to use it. +Real invention is happening in these labs. +And I still kept -- so, in the last year I've been spending time with heads of state and generals and tribal chiefs who all want this, and I keep saying, but this isn't the real thing. +Wait, like, 20 years and then we'll be done. +And I finally got what's been going on. This is Kernigan and Ritchie inventing UNIX on a PDP. +PDPs came between mainframes and minicomputers. +They were tens of thousands of dollars, hard to use, but they brought computing down to work groups, and everything we do today happened there. +These Fab Labs are the cost and complexity of a PDP. +The projection of digital fabrication isn't a projection for the future; we are now in the PDP era. +We talked in hushed tones about the great discoveries then. +It was very chaotic, it wasn't, sort of, clear what was going on. +In the same sense we are now, today, in the minicomputer era of digital fabrication. +The only problem with that is it breaks everybody's boundaries. +It was there because they wanted to find animals in the mountains but it outgrew it, so they built this extraordinary village for the lab. +This isn't a university; it's not a company. It's essentially a village for invention; it's a village for the outliers in society, and those have been growing up around these Fab Labs all around the world. +So this program has split into an NGO foundation, a Fab Foundation to support the scaling, a micro VC fund. +The person who runs it nicely describes it as "machines that make machines need businesses that make businesses:" it's a cross between micro-finance and VC to do fan-out, and then the research partnerships back at MIT for what's making it possible. +So I'd like to leave you with two thoughts. +There's been a sea change in aid, from top-down mega-projects to bottom-up, grassroots, micro-finance investing in the roots, so that everybody's got that that's what works. +But we still look at technology as top-down mega-projects. +Computing, communication, energy for the rest of the planet are these top-down mega-projects. +If this room full of heroes is just clever enough, you can solve the problems. +The message coming from the Fab Labs is that the other five billion people on the planet aren't just technical sinks; they're sources. +The real opportunity is to harness the inventive power of the world to locally design and produce solutions to local problems. +I thought that's the projection 20 years hence into the future, but it's where we are today. +It breaks every organizational boundary we can think of. +The hardest thing at this point is the social engineering and the organizational engineering, but it's here today. +But we're coming to appreciate, is the transition from 2D to 3D, from programming bits to programming atoms, turns the ends of Moore's law scaling from the ultimate bug to the ultimate feature. +So, we're just at the edge of this digital revolution in fabrication, where the output of computation programs the physical world. +And the killer app for the rest of the planet is the instrumentation and the fabrication divide: people locally developing solutions to local problems. Thank you. +I want to start with a story, a la Seth Godin, from when I was 12 years old. +My uncle Ed gave me a beautiful blue sweater -- at least I thought it was beautiful. +And it had fuzzy zebras walking across the stomach, and Mount Kilimanjaro and Mount Meru were kind of right across the chest, that were also fuzzy. +And I wore it whenever I could, thinking it was the most fabulous thing I owned. +Until one day in ninth grade, when I was standing with a number of the football players. +And my body had clearly changed, and Matt, who was undeniably my nemesis in high school, said in a booming voice that we no longer had to go far away to go on ski trips, but we could all ski on Mount Novogratz. +And I was so humiliated and mortified that I immediately ran home to my mother and chastised her for ever letting me wear the hideous sweater. +We drove to the Goodwill and we threw the sweater away somewhat ceremoniously, my idea being that I would never have to think about the sweater nor see it ever again. +Fast forward -- 11 years later, I'm a 25-year-old kid. +I'm working in Kigali, Rwanda, jogging through the steep slopes, when I see, 10 feet in front of me, a little boy -- 11 years old -- running toward me, wearing my sweater. +And I'm thinking, no, this is not possible. +But so, curious, I run up to the child -- of course scaring the living bejesus out of him -- grab him by the collar, turn it over, and there is my name written on the collar of this sweater. +I tell that story, because it has served and continues to serve as a metaphor to me about the level of connectedness that we all have on this Earth. +We so often don't realize what our action and our inaction does to people we think we will never see and never know. +I also tell it because it tells a larger contextual story of what aid is and can be. +That this traveled into the Goodwill in Virginia, and moved its way into the larger industry, which at that point was giving millions of tons of secondhand clothing to Africa and Asia. +Which was a very good thing, providing low cost clothing. +And at the same time, certainly in Rwanda, it destroyed the local retailing industry. +Not to say that it shouldn't have, but that we have to get better at answering the questions that need to be considered when we think about consequences and responses. +So, I'm going to stick in Rwanda, circa 1985, 1986, where I was doing two things. +I had started a bakery with 20 unwed mothers. +We were called the "Bad News Bears," and our notion was we were going to corner the snack food business in Kigali, which was not hard because there were no snacks before us. +And because we had a good business model, we actually did it, and I watched these women transform on a micro-level. +But at the same time, I started a micro-finance bank, and tomorrow Iqbal Quadir is going to talk about Grameen, which is the grandfather of all micro-finance banks, which now is a worldwide movement -- you talk about a meme -- but then it was quite new, especially in an economy that was moving from barter into trade. +We got a lot of things right. +We focused on a business model; we insisted on skin in the game. +The women made their own decisions at the end of the day as to how they would use this access to credit to build their little businesses, earn more income so they could take care of their families better. +What we didn't understand, what was happening all around us, with the confluence of fear, ethnic strife and certainly an aid game, if you will, that was playing into this invisible but certainly palpable movement inside Rwanda, that at that time, 30 percent of the budget was all foreign aid. +The genocide happened in 1994, seven years after these women all worked together to build this dream. +And the good news was that the institution, the banking institution, lasted. +In fact, it became the largest rehabilitation lender in the country. +The bakery was completely wiped out, but the lessons for me were that accountability counts -- got to build things with people on the ground, using business models where, as Steven Levitt would say, the incentives matter. +Understand, however complex we may be, incentives matter. +It's thrilling. +And at the same time, what keeps me up at night is a fear that we'll look at the victories of the G8 -- 50 billion dollars in increased aid to Africa, 40 billion in reduced debt -- as the victory, as more than chapter one, as our moral absolution. +And in fact, what we need to do is see that as chapter one, celebrate it, close it, and recognize that we need a chapter two that is all about execution, all about the how-to. +And if you remember one thing from what I want to talk about today, it's that the only way to end poverty, to make it history, is to build viable systems on the ground that deliver critical and affordable goods and services to the poor, in ways that are financially sustainable and scaleable. +If we do that, we really can make poverty history. +And it was that -- that whole philosophy -- that encouraged me to start my current endeavor called "Acumen Fund," which is trying to build some mini-blueprints for how we might do that in water, health and housing in Pakistan, India, Kenya, Tanzania and Egypt. +And I want to talk a little bit about that, and some of the examples, so you can see what it is that we're doing. +But before I do this -- and this is another one of my pet peeves -- I want to talk a little bit about who the poor are. +Because we too often talk about them as these strong, huge masses of people yearning to be free, when in fact, it's quite an amazing story. +On a macro level, four billion people on Earth make less than four dollars a day. +That's who we talk about when we think about "the poor." +If you aggregate it, it's the third largest economy on Earth, and yet most of these people go invisible. +Where we typically work, there's people making between one and three dollars a day. +Who are these people? +They are farmers and factory workers. +They work in government offices. They're drivers. +They are domestics. +They typically pay for critical goods and services like water, like healthcare, like housing, and they pay 30 to 40 times what their middleclass counterparts pay -- certainly where we work in Karachi and Nairobi. +The poor also are willing to make, and do make, smart decisions, if you give them that opportunity. +So, two examples. +One is in India, where there are 240 million farmers, most of whom make less than two dollars a day. +Where we work in Aurangabad, the land is extraordinarily parched. +You see people on average making 60 cents to a dollar. +This guy in pink is a social entrepreneur named Ami Tabar. +What he did was see what was happening in Israel, larger approaches, and figure out how to do a drip irrigation, which is a way of bringing water directly to the plant stock. +But previously it's only been created for large-scale farms, so Ami Tabar took this and modularized it down to an eighth of an acre. +A couple of principles: build small. +Make it infinitely expandable and affordable to the poor. +This family, Sarita and her husband, bought a 15-dollar unit when they were living in a -- literally a three-walled lean-to with a corrugated iron roof. +After one harvest, they had increased their income enough to buy a second system to do their full quarter-acre. +A couple of years later, I meet them. +They now make four dollars a day, which is pretty much middle class for India, and they showed me the concrete foundation they had just laid to build their house. +And I swear, you could see the future in that woman's eyes. +Something I truly believe. +You can't talk about poverty today without talking about malaria bed nets, and I again give Jeffrey Sachs of Harvard huge kudos for bringing to the world this notion of his rage -- for five dollars you can save a life. +Malaria is a disease that kills one to three million people a year. +300 to 500 million cases are reported. +It's estimated that Africa loses about 13 billion dollars a year to the disease. +Five dollars can save a life. +We can send people to the moon; we can see if there's life on Mars -- why can't we get five-dollar nets to 500 million people? +The question, though, is not "Why can't we?" +The question is how can we help Africans do this for themselves? +A lot of hurdles. +One: production is too low. Two: price is too high. +Three: this is a good road in -- right near where our factory is located. +Distribution is a nightmare, but not impossible. +We started by making a 350,000-dollar loan to the largest traditional bed net manufacturer in Africa so that they could transfer technology from Japan and build these long-lasting, five-year nets. +Here are just some pictures of the factory. +Today, three years later, the company has employed another thousand women. +It contributes about 600,000 dollars in wages to the economy of Tanzania. +It's the largest company in Tanzania. +The throughput rate right now is 1.5 million nets, three million by the end of the year. +We hope to have seven million at the end of next year. +So the production side is working. +On the distribution side, though, as a world, we have a lot of work to do. +Right now, 95 percent of these nets are being bought by the U.N., and then given primarily to people around Africa. +We're looking at building on some of the most precious resources of Africa: people. +Their women. +And so I want you to meet Jacqueline, my namesake, 21 years old. +If she were born anywhere else but Tanzania, I'm telling you, she could run Wall Street. +She runs two of the lines, and has already saved enough money to put a down payment on her house. +She makes about two dollars a day, is creating an education fund, and told me she is not marrying nor having children until these things are completed. +And so, when I told her about our idea -- that maybe we could take a Tupperware model from the United States, and find a way for the women themselves to go out and sell these nets to others -- she quickly started calculating what she herself could make and signed up. +We took a lesson from IDEO, one of our favorite companies, and quickly did a prototyping on this, and took Jacqueline into the area where she lives. +She brought 10 of the women with whom she interacts together to see if she could sell these nets, five dollars apiece, despite the fact that people say nobody will buy one, and we learned a lot about how you sell things. +Not coming in with our own notions, because she didn't even talk about malaria until the very end. +First, she talked about comfort, status, beauty. +These nets, she said, you put them on the floor, bugs leave your house. +Children can sleep through the night; the house looks beautiful; you hang them in the window. +And we've started making curtains, and not only is it beautiful, but people can see status -- that you care about your children. +Only then did she talk about saving your children's lives. +A lot of lessons to be learned in terms of how we sell goods and services to the poor. +I want to end just by saying that there's enormous opportunity to make poverty history. +To do it right, we have to build business models that matter, that are scaleable and that work with Africans, Indians, people all over the developing world who fit in this category, to do it themselves. +Because at the end of the day, it's about engagement. +It's about understanding that people really don't want handouts, that they want to make their own decisions; they want to solve their own problems; and that by engaging with them, not only do we create much more dignity for them, but for us as well. +Thank you. +About 10 years ago, I took on the task to teach global development to Swedish undergraduate students. That was after having spent about 20 years together with African institutions studying hunger in Africa, so I was sort of expected to know a little about the world. +And I started in our medical university, Karolinska Institute, an undergraduate course called Global Health. +But when you get that opportunity, you get a little nervous. +I thought, these students coming to us actually have the highest grade you can get in Swedish college systems -- so I thought, maybe they know everything I'm going to teach them about. So I did a pre-test when they came. +And one of the questions from which I learned a lot was this one: "Which country has the highest child mortality of these five pairs?" +I put them together, so that in each pair of country, one has twice the child mortality of the other. +And this means that it's much bigger a difference than the uncertainty of the data. +I won't put you at a test here, but it's Turkey, which is highest there, Poland, Russia, Pakistan and South Africa. +And these were the results of the Swedish students. +I did it so I got the confidence interval, which is pretty narrow, and I got happy, of course: a 1.8 right answer out of five possible. +That means that there was a place for a professor of international health and for my course. But one late night, when I was compiling the report, I really realized my discovery. +I have shown that Swedish top students know statistically significantly less about the world than the chimpanzees. +Because the chimpanzee would score half right if I gave them two bananas with Sri Lanka and Turkey. +They would be right half of the cases. But the students are not there. +The problem for me was not ignorance; it was preconceived ideas. +I did also an unethical study of the professors of the Karolinska Institute, that hands out the Nobel Prize in Medicine, and they are on par with the chimpanzee there. +This is where I realized that there was really a need to communicate, because the data of what's happening in the world and the child health of every country is very well aware. +We did this software which displays it like this: every bubble here is a country. +This country over here is China. This is India. +The size of the bubble is the population, and on this axis here, I put fertility rate. +Because my students, what they said when they looked upon the world, and I asked them, "What do you really think about the world?" +Well, I first discovered that the textbook was Tintin, mainly. +And they said, "The world is still 'we' and 'them.' And 'we' is Western world and 'them' is Third World." +"And what do you mean with Western world?" I said. +"Well, that's long life and small family, and Third World is short life and large family." +So this is what I could display here. I put fertility rate here: number of children per woman: one, two, three, four, up to about eight children per woman. +We have very good data since 1962 -- 1960 about -- on the size of families in all countries. +The error margin is narrow. Here, I put life expectancy at birth, from 30 years in some countries up to about 70 years. +And 1962, there was really a group of countries here that was industrialized countries, and they had small families and long lives. +And these were the developing countries: they had large families and they had relatively short lives. +Now, what has happened since 1962? We want to see the change. +Are the students right? Is it still two types of countries? +Or have these developing countries got smaller families and they live here? +Or have they got longer lives and live up there? +Let's see. We stopped the world then. This is all U.N. statistics that have been available. +Here we go. Can you see there? +It's China there, moving against better health there, improving there. +All the green Latin American countries are moving towards smaller families. +Your yellow ones here are the Arabic countries, and they get longer life, but not larger families. +The Africans are the green here. They still remain here. +This is India; Indonesia is moving on pretty fast. +In the '80s here, you have Bangladesh still among the African countries. +But now, Bangladesh -- it's a miracle that happens in the '80s: the imams start to promote family planning. +They move up into that corner. And in the '90s, we have the terrible HIV epidemic that takes down the life expectancy of the African countries and all the rest of them move up into the corner, where we have long lives and small family, and we have a completely new world. +(Applause ends) Let me make a comparison directly between the United States of America and Vietnam. +1964. America had small families and long life; Vietnam had large families and short lives. And this is what happens: the data during the war indicate that even with all the death, there was an improvement of life expectancy. +By the end of the year, the family planning started in Vietnam; they went for smaller families. +And the United States up there is getting for longer life, keeping family size. +And in the '80s now, they give up Communist planning and they go for market economy, and it moves faster even than social life. +And today, we have in Vietnam the same life expectancy and the same family size here in Vietnam, 2003, as in United States, 1974, by the end of the war. +If we don't look in the data, I think we all underestimate the tremendous change in Asia, which was in social change before we saw the economical change. +Let's move over to another way here in which we could display the distribution in the world of the income. This is the world distribution of income of people. +One dollar, 10 dollars or 100 dollars per day. +There's no gap between rich and poor any longer. This is a myth. +There's a little hump here. But there are people all the way. +And if we look where the income ends up, this is 100 percent the world's annual income. And the richest 20 percent, they take out of that about 74 percent. +And the poorest 20 percent, they take about two percent. +And this shows that the concept of developing countries is extremely doubtful. We think about aid, like these people here giving aid to these people here. +But in the middle, we have most of the world population, and they have now 24 percent of the income. +We heard it in other forms. And who are these? +Where are the different countries? I can show you Africa. +This is Africa. 10% the world population, most in poverty. +This is OECD. The rich country. The country club of the U.N. +And they are over here on this side. Quite an overlap between Africa and OECD. +And this is Latin America. +It has everything on this Earth, from the poorest to the richest in Latin America. +And on top of that, we can put East Europe, we can put East Asia, and we put South Asia. And how did it look like if we go back in time, to about 1970? Then there was more of a hump. +And we have most who lived in absolute poverty were Asians. +The problem in the world was the poverty in Asia. And if I now let the world move forward, you will see that while population increases, there are hundreds of millions in Asia getting out of poverty and some others getting into poverty, and this is the pattern we have today. +And the best projection from the World Bank is that this will happen, and we will not have a divided world. We'll have most people in the middle. +Of course it's a logarithmic scale here, but our concept of economy is growth with percent. +We look upon it as a possibility of percentile increase. +If I change this, and take GDP per capita instead of family income, and I turn these individual data into regional data of gross domestic product, and I take the regions down here, the size of the bubble is still the population. +And you have the OECD there, and you have sub-Saharan Africa there, and we take off the Arab states there, coming both from Africa and from Asia, and we put them separately, and we can expand this axis, and I can give it a new dimension here, by adding the social values there, child survival. +Now I have money on that axis, and I have the possibility of children to survive there. +In some countries, 99.7% of children survive to five years of age; others, only 70. And here, it seems, there is a gap between OECD, Latin America, East Europe, East Asia, Arab states, South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. +The linearity is very strong between child survival and money. +But let me split sub-Saharan Africa. Health is there and better health is up there. +I can go here and I can split sub-Saharan Africa into its countries. +And when it burst, the size of its country bubble is the size of the population. +Sierra Leone down there. Mauritius is up there. Mauritius was the first country to get away with trade barriers, and they could sell their sugar -- they could sell their textiles -- on equal terms as the people in Europe and North America. +There's a huge difference between Africa. And Ghana is here in the middle. +In Sierra Leone, humanitarian aid. +Here in Uganda, development aid. Here, time to invest; there, you can go for a holiday. +It's a tremendous variation within Africa which we rarely often make -- that it's equal everything. +I can split South Asia here. India's the big bubble in the middle. +But a huge difference between Afghanistan and Sri Lanka. +I can split Arab states. How are they? +Same climate, same culture, same religion -- huge difference. Even between neighbors. +Yemen, civil war. United Arab Emirates, money, which was quite equally and well used. +Not as the myth is. And that includes all the children of the foreign workers who are in the country. +Data is often better than you think. Many people say data is bad. +There is an uncertainty margin, but we can see the difference here: Cambodia, Singapore. The differences are much bigger than the weakness of the data. +East Europe: Soviet economy for a long time, but they come out after 10 years very, very differently. +And there is Latin America. +Today, we don't have to go to Cuba to find a healthy country in Latin America. +Chile will have a lower child mortality than Cuba within some few years from now. +Here, we have high-income countries in the OECD. +And we get the whole pattern here of the world, which is more or less like this. +And if we look at it, how the world looks, in 1960, it starts to move. +This is Mao Tse-tung. He brought health to China. And then he died. +And then Deng Xiaoping came and brought money to China, and brought them into the mainstream again. +And we have seen how countries move in different directions like this, so it's sort of difficult to get an example country which shows the pattern of the world. +But I would like to bring you back to about here, at 1960. +I would like to compare South Korea, which is this one, with Brazil, which is this one. +The label went away for me here. And I would like to compare Uganda, which is there. +And I can run it forward, like this. +And you can see how South Korea is making a very, very fast advancement, whereas Brazil is much slower. +And to show that, you can put on the way of United Arab Emirates. +They came from here, a mineral country. +They cached all the oil; they got all the money; but health cannot be bought at the supermarket. +You have to invest in health. You have to get kids into schooling. +You have to train health staff. You have to educate the population. +And Sheikh Zayed did that in a fairly good way. +In spite of falling oil prices, he brought this country up here. +So we've got a much more mainstream appearance of the world, where all countries tend to use their money better than they used in the past. +Now, this is, more or less, if you look at the average data of the countries -- they are like this. +Now that's dangerous, to use average data, because there is such a lot of difference within countries. So if I go and look here, we can see that Uganda today is where South Korea was in 1960. +If I split Uganda, there's quite a difference within Uganda. These are the quintiles of Uganda. +The richest 20 percent of Ugandans are there. +The poorest are down there. If I split South Africa, it's like this. And if I go down and look at Niger, where there was such a terrible famine, lastly, it's like this. +The 20 percent poorest of Niger is out here, and the 20 percent richest of South Africa is there, and yet we tend to discuss on what solutions there should be in Africa. +Everything in this world exists in Africa. +And you can't discuss universal access to HIV [medicine] for that quintile up here with the same strategy as down here. The improvement of the world must be highly contextualized, and it's not relevant to have it on regional level. +We must be much more detailed. +We find that students get very excited when they can use this. +And even more, policy makers and the corporate sectors would like to see how the world is changing. Now, why doesn't this take place? +Why are we not using the data we have? +We have data in the United Nations, in the national statistical agencies and in universities and other non-governmental organizations. +Because the data is hidden down in the databases. +And the public is there, and the Internet is there, but we have still not used it effectively. +All that information we saw changing in the world does not include publicly-funded statistics. There are some web pages like this, you know, but they take some nourishment down from the databases, but people put prices on them, stupid passwords and boring statistics. +And this won't work. So what is needed? We have the databases. +It's not the new database you need. +We have wonderful design tools, and more and more are added up here. +So we started a nonprofit venture which, linking data to design, we called Gapminder, from the London Underground, where they warn you, "mind the gap." So we thought Gapminder was appropriate. +And we started to write software which could link the data like this. +And it wasn't that difficult. It took some person years, and we have produced animations. +You can take a data set and put it there. +We are liberating U.N. data, some few U.N. organization. +Some countries accept that their databases can go out on the world, but what we really need is, of course, a search function. +A search function where we can copy the data up to a searchable format and get it out in the world. And what do we hear when we go around? +I've done anthropology on the main statistical units. +Everyone says, "It's impossible. This can't be done. Our information is so peculiar in detail, so that cannot be searched as others can be searched. +We cannot give the data free to the students, free to the entrepreneurs of the world." +But this is what we would like to see, isn't it? +The publicly-funded data is down here. And we would like flowers to grow out on the Net. +And one of the crucial points is to make them searchable, and then people can use the different design tool to animate it there. +And I have pretty good news for you. +I have good news that the present, new Head of U.N. Statistics, he doesn't say it's impossible. +He only says, "We can't do it." +And that's a quite clever guy, huh? +So we can see a lot happening in data in the coming years. +We will be able to look at income distributions in completely new ways. +This is the income distribution of China, 1970. +This is the income distribution of the United States, 1970. +Almost no overlap. And what has happened? +What has happened is this: that China is growing, it's not so equal any longer, and it's appearing here, overlooking the United States. +Almost like a ghost, isn't it? +It's pretty scary. But I think it's very important to have all this information. +We need really to see it. And instead of looking at this, I would like to end up by showing the Internet users per 1,000. +In this software, we access about 500 variables from all the countries quite easily. +It takes some time to change for this, but on the axises, you can quite easily get any variable you would like to have. +And the thing would be to get up the databases free, to get them searchable, and with a second click, to get them into the graphic formats, where you can instantly understand them. +Now, statisticians don't like it, because they say that this will not show the reality; we have to have statistical, analytical methods. +But this is hypothesis-generating. +I end now with the world. There, the Internet is coming. +The number of Internet users are going up like this. This is the GDP per capita. +And it's a new technology coming in, but then amazingly, how well it fits to the economy of the countries. +That's why the $100 computer will be so important. But it's a nice tendency. +It's as if the world is flattening off, isn't it? +These countries are lifting more than the economy and will be very interesting to follow this over the year, as I would like you to be able to do with all the publicly funded data. Thank you very much. +It's wonderful to be back. +I love this wonderful gathering. +And you must be wondering, "What on earth? +Have they put up the wrong slide?" +No, no. +Look at this magnificent beast, and ask the question: Who designed it? +This is TED; this is Technology, Entertainment, Design, and there's a dairy cow. +It's a quite wonderfully designed animal. +And I was thinking, how do I introduce this? +And I thought, well, maybe that old doggerel by Joyce Kilmer, you know: "Poems are made by fools like me, but only God can make a tree." +And you might say, "Well, God designed the cow." +But, of course, God got a lot of help. +This is the ancestor of cattle. +This is the aurochs. +And it was designed by natural selection, the process of natural selection, over many millions of years. +And then it became domesticated, thousands of years ago. +And human beings became its stewards, and, without even knowing what they were doing, they gradually redesigned it and redesigned it and redesigned it. +And then more recently, they really began to do reverse engineering on this beast and figure out just what the parts were, how they worked and how they might be optimized -- how they might be made better. +Now, why am I talking about cows? +Because I want to say that much the same thing is true of religions. +Religions are natural phenomena -- they're just as natural as cows. +They have evolved over millennia. +They have a biological base, just like the aurochs. +They have become domesticated, and human beings have been redesigning their religions for thousands of years. +This is TED, and I want to talk about design. +Because what I've been doing for the last four years -- really since the first time you saw me -- some of you saw me at TED when I was talking about religion -- and in the last four years, I've been working just about non-stop on this topic. +And you might say it's about the reverse engineering of religions. +Now that very idea, I think, strikes terror in many people, or anger, or anxiety of one sort or another. +And that is the spell that I want to break. +I want to say, no, religions are an important natural phenomenon. +We should study them with the same intensity that we study all the other important natural phenomena, like global warming, as we heard so eloquently last night from Al Gore. +Today's religions are brilliantly designed -- brilliantly designed. +They are immensely powerful social institutions and many of their features can be traced back to earlier features that we can really make sense of by reverse engineering. +And, as with the cow, there's a mixture of evolutionary design -- designed by natural selection itself -- and intelligent design -- more or less intelligent design -- and redesigned by human beings who are trying to redesign their religions. +You don't do book talks at TED, but I'm going to have just one slide about my book, because there is one message in it which I think this group really needs to hear. +And I would be very interested to get your responses to this. +It's the one policy proposal that I make in the book, at this time, when I claim not to know enough about religion to know what other policy proposals to make. +And it's one that echoes remarks that you've heard already today. +Here's my proposal, I'm going to just take a couple of minutes to explain it: Education on world religions for all of our children -- in primary school, in high school, in public schools, in private schools and in home schooling. +So what I'm proposing is, just as we require reading, writing, arithmetic, American history, so we should have a curriculum on facts about all the religions of the world -- about their history, about their creeds, about their texts, their music, their symbolisms, their prohibitions, their requirements. +And this should be presented factually, straightforwardly, with no particular spin, to all of the children in the country. +And as long as you teach them that, you can teach them anything else you like. +That, I think, is maximal tolerance for religious freedom. +As long as you inform your children about other religions, then you may -- and as early as you like and whatever you like -- teach them whatever creed you want them to learn. +But also let them know about other religions. +Now, why do I say that? +Because democracy depends on an informed citizenship. +Informed consent is the very bedrock of our understanding of democracy. +Misinformed consent is not worth it. +It's like a coin flip; it doesn't count, really. +Democracy depends on informed consent. +This is the way we treat people as responsible adults. +Now, children below the age of consent are a special case. +Parents -- I'm going to use a word that Pastor Rick just used -- parents are stewards of their children. +They don't own them. +You can't own your children. +You have a responsibility to the world, to the state, to them, to take care of them right. +You may teach them whatever creed you think is most important, but I say you have a responsibility to let them be informed about all the other creeds in the world, too. +The reason I've taken this time is I've been fascinated to hear some of the reactions to this. +One reviewer for a Roman Catholic newspaper called it "totalitarian." +It strikes me as practically libertarian. +Is it totalitarian to require reading, writing and arithmetic? +I don't think so. +All I'm saying is -- and facts, facts only; no values, just facts -- about all the world's religions. +Another reviewer called it "hilarious." +Well, I'm really bothered by the fact that anybody would think that was hilarious. +It seems to me to be such a plausible, natural extension of the democratic principles we already have that I'm shocked to think anybody would find that just ridiculous. +I know many religions are so anxious about preserving the purity of their faith among their children that they are intent on keeping their children ignorant of other faiths. +I don't think that's defensible. But I'd really be pleased to get your answers on that -- any reactions to that -- later. +But now I'm going to move on. +Back to the cow. +This picture, which I pulled off the web -- the fellow on the left is really an important part of this picture. +That's the steward. +Cows couldn't live without human stewards -- they're domesticated. +They're a sort of ectosymbiont. +They depend on us for their survival. +And Pastor Rick was just talking about sheep. +I'm going to talk about sheep, too. +There's a lot of serendipitous convergence here. +How clever it was of sheep to acquire shepherds! +Think of what this got them. +They could outsource all their problems: protection from predators, food-finding ... The only cost in most flocks -- not even this -- a loss of free mating. +What a deal! +"How clever of sheep!" you might say. +Except, of course, it wasn't the sheep's cleverness. +We all know sheep are not exactly rocket scientists -- they're not very smart. +It wasn't the cleverness of the sheep at all. +They were clueless. +But it was a very clever move. +Whose clever move was it? +It was the clever move of natural selection itself. +Francis Crick, the co-discoverer of the structure of DNA with Jim Watson, once joked about what he called Orgel's Second Rule. +Leslie Orgel is a molecular biologist, brilliant guy, and Orgel's Second Rule is: Evolution is cleverer than you are. +Now, that is not Intelligent Design -- not from Francis Crick. +Evolution is cleverer than you are. +If you understand Orgel's Second Rule, then you understand why the Intelligent Design movement is basically a hoax. +The designs discovered by the process of natural selection are brilliant, unbelievably brilliant. +Again and again biologists are fascinated with the brilliance of what's discovered. +But the process itself is without purpose, without foresight, without design. +When I was here four years ago, I told the story about an ant climbing a blade of grass. +And why the ant was doing it was because its brain had been infected with a lancet fluke that was needed to get into the belly of a sheep or a cow in order to reproduce. +So it was sort of a spooky story. +And I think some people may have misunderstood. +Lancet flukes aren't smart. +I submit that the intelligence of a lancet fluke is down there, somewhere between petunia and carrot. +They're not really bright. They don't have to be. +The lesson we learn from this is: you don't have to have a mind to be a beneficiary. +The design is there in nature, but it's not in anybody's head. +It doesn't have to be. +That's the way evolution works. +Question: Was domestication good for sheep? +It was great for their genetic fitness. +And here I want to remind you of a wonderful point that Paul MacCready made at TED three years ago. +Here's what he said: "Ten thousand years ago, at the dawn of agriculture, human population, plus livestock and pets, was approximately a tenth of one percent of the terrestrial vertebrate landmass." +That was just 10,000 years ago. +Yesterday, in biological terms. +What is it today? Does anybody remember what he told us? +98 percent. +That is what we have done on this planet. +Now, I talked to Paul afterwards -- I wanted to check to find out how he'd calculated this, and get the sources and so forth -- and he also gave me a paper that he had written on this. +And there was a passage in it which he did not present here and I think it is so good, I'm going to read it to you: "Over billions of years on a unique sphere, chance has painted a thin covering of life: complex, improbable, wonderful and fragile. +Suddenly, we humans -- a recently arrived species no longer subject to the checks and balances inherent in nature -- have grown in population, technology and intelligence to a position of terrible power. +We now wield the paintbrush." +We heard about the atmosphere as a thin layer of varnish. +Life itself is just a thin coat of paint on this planet. +And we're the ones that hold the paintbrush. +And how can we do that? +The key to our domination of the planet is culture. +And the key to culture is religion. +Suppose Martian scientists came to Earth. +They would be puzzled by many things. +Anybody know what this is? I'll tell you what it is. +This is a million people gathering on the banks of the Ganges in 2001, perhaps the largest single gathering of human beings ever, as seen from satellite photograph. +Here's a big crowd. +Here's another crowd in Mecca. +Martians would be amazed by this. +They'd want to know how it originated, what it was for and how it perpetuates itself. +Actually, I'm going to pass over this. +The ant isn't alone. +There's all sorts of wonderful cases of species which -- in that case -- A parasite gets into a mouse and needs to get into the belly of a cat. +And it turns the mouse into Mighty Mouse, makes it fearless, so it runs out in the open, where it'll be eaten by a cat. +True story. +In other words, we have these hijackers -- you've seen this slide before, from four years ago -- a parasite that infects the brain and induces even suicidal behavior, on behalf of a cause other than one's own genetic fitness. +Does that ever happen to us? +Yes, it does -- quite wonderfully. +The Arabic word "Islam" means "submission." +It means "surrender of self-interest to the will of Allah." +But I'm not just talking about Islam. +I'm talking also about Christianity. +This is a parchment music page that I found in a Paris bookstall 50 years ago. +And on it, it says, in Latin: "Semen est verbum Dei. Sator autem Christus." +The word of God is the seed and the sower of the seed is Christ. +Same idea. Well, not quite. +But in fact, Christians, too ... glory in the fact that they have surrendered to God. +I'll give you a few quotes. +"The heart of worship is surrender. +Surrendered people obey God's words, even if it doesn't make sense." +Those words are by Rick Warren. +Those are from "The Purpose Driven Life." +And I want to turn now, briefly, to talk about that book, which I've read. +You've all got a copy, and you've just heard the man. +And what I want to do now is say a bit about this book from the design standpoint, because I think it's actually a brilliant book. +First of all, the goal -- and you heard just now what the goal is -- it's to bring purpose to the lives of millions, and he has succeeded. +Is it a good goal? In itself, I'm sure we all agree, it is a wonderful goal. +He's absolutely right. +There are lots of people out there who don't have purpose in their life, and bringing purpose to their life is a wonderful goal. +I give him an A+ on this. +Is the goal achieved? +Yes. +Thirty million copies of this book. +Al Gore, eat your heart out. +Just exactly what Al is trying to do, Rick is doing. +This is a fantastic achievement. +And the means -- how does he do it? +It's a brilliant redesign of traditional religious themes -- updating them, quietly dropping obsolete features, putting new interpretations on other features. +This is the evolution of religion that's been going on for thousands of years, and he's just the latest brilliant practitioner of it. +I don't have to tell you this; you just heard the man. +Excellent insights into human psychology, wise advice on every page. +Moreover, he invites us to look under the hood. +I really appreciated that. +For instance, he has an appendix where he explains his choice of translations of different Bible verses. +The book is clear, vivid, accessible, beautifully formatted. +Just enough repetition. +That's really important. +Every time you read it or say it, you make another copy in your brain. +Every time you read it or say it, you make another copy in your brain. +(Audience and Dan Dennett) Every time you read it or say it, you make another copy in your brain. +Thank you. +And now we come to my problem. +Because I'm absolutely sincere in my appreciation of all that I said about this book. +But I wish it were better. +I have some problems with the book. +And it would just be insincere of me not to address those problems. +I wish he could do this with a revision, a Mark 2 version of his book. +"The truth will set you free." +That's what it says in the Bible, and it's something that I want to live by, too. +My problem is, some of the bits in it I don't think are true. +Now some of this is a difference of opinion. +And that's not my main complaint, that's worth mentioning. +Here's a passage -- it's very much what he said, anyway: "If there was no God we would all be accidents, the result of astronomical random chance in the Universe. +You could stop reading this book because life would have no purpose or meaning or significance. +There would be no right or wrong and no hope beyond your brief years on Earth." +Now, I just do not believe that. +By the way, I find -- Homer Groening's film presented a beautiful alternative Yes, there is meaning and a reason for right or wrong. +We don't need a belief in God to be good or to have meaning in us. +But that, as I said, is just a difference of opinion. +That's not what I'm really worried about. +How about this: "God designed this planet's environment just so we could live in it." +I'm afraid that a lot of people take that sentiment to mean that we don't have to do the sorts of things that Al Gore is trying so hard to get us to do. +I am not happy with that sentiment at all. +And then I find this: "All the evidence available in the biological sciences supports the core proposition that the cosmos is a specially designed whole with life and mankind as its fundamental goal and purpose, a whole in which all facets of reality have their meaning and explanation in this central fact." +Well, that's Michael Denton. He's a creationist. +And here, I think, "Wait a minute." I read this again. +I read it three or four times and I think, "Is he really endorsing Intelligent Design? +Is he endorsing creationism here?" +And you can't tell. +So I'm sort of thinking, "Well, I don't know, I don't know if I want to get upset with this yet." +But then I read on, and I read this: "First, Noah had never seen rain, because prior to the Flood, God irrigated the earth from the ground up." +I wish that sentence weren't in there, because I think it is false. +And I think that thinking this way about the history of the planet, after we've just been hearing about the history of the planet over millions of years, discourages people from scientific understanding. +Now, Rick Warren uses scientific terms and scientific factoids and information in a very interesting way. +Here's one: "God deliberately shaped and formed you to serve him in a way that makes your ministry unique. +He carefully mixed the DNA cocktail that created you." +I think that's false. +Now, maybe we want to treat it as metaphorical. +Here's another one: "For instance, your brain can store 100 trillion facts. +Your mind can handle 15,000 decisions a second." +Well, it would be interesting to find the interpretation where I would accept that. +There might be some way of treating that as true. +"Anthropologists have noted that worship is a universal urge, hardwired by God into the very fiber of our being -- an inbuilt need to connect with God." +Well, the sense of which I agree with him, except I think it has an evolutionary explanation. +And what I find deeply troubling in this book is that he seems to be arguing that if you want to be moral, if you want to have meaning in your life, you have to be an Intelligent Designer, you have to deny the theory of evolution by natural selection. +And I think, on the contrary, that it is very important to solving the world's problems that we take evolutionary biology seriously. +Whose truth are we going to listen to? +Well, this is from "The Purpose Driven Life": "The Bible must become the authoritative standard for my life: the compass I rely on for direction, the counsel I listen to for making wise decisions, and the benchmark I use for evaluating everything." +Well maybe, OK, but what's going to follow from this? +And here's one that does concern me. +Remember I quoted him before with this line: "Surrendered people obey God's word, even if it doesn't make sense." +And that's a problem. +"Don't ever argue with the Devil. +He's better at arguing than you are, having had thousands of years to practice." +Now, Rick Warren didn't invent this clever move. +It's an old move. +It's a very clever adaptation of religions. +It's a wild card for disarming any reasonable criticism. +"You don't like my interpretation? +You've got a reasonable objection to it? +Don't listen, don't listen! +That's the Devil speaking." +This discourages the sort of reasoning citizenship it seems to me that we want to have. +I've got one more problem, then I'm through. +And I'd really like to get a response if Rick is able to do it. +"In the Great Commission, Jesus said, 'Go to all people of all nations and make them my disciples. +Baptize them in the name of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit, and teach them to do everything I've told you.'" The Bible says Jesus is the only one who can save the world. +We've seen many wonderful maps of the world in the last day or so. +Here's one, not as beautiful as the others; it simply shows the religions of the world. +Here's one that shows the sort of current breakdown of the different religions. +Do we really want to commit ourselves to engulfing all the other religions, when their holy books are telling them, "Don't listen to the other side, that's just Satan talking!"? +It seems to me that that's a very problematic ship to get on for the future. +I found this sign as I was driving to Maine recently, in front of a church: "Good without God becomes zero." +Sort of cute. +A very clever little meme. +I don't believe it and I think this idea, popular as it is -- not in this guise, but in general -- is itself one of the main problems that we face. +If you are like me, you know many wonderful, committed, engaged atheists, agnostics, who are being very good without God. +And you also know many religious people who hide behind their sanctity instead of doing good works. +So, I wish we could drop this meme. +I wish this meme would go extinct. +Thanks very much for your attention. +Thank you. I have to tell you I'm both challenged and excited. +My excitement is: I get a chance to give something back. +My challenge is: the shortest seminar I usually do is 50 hours. +I'm not exaggerating. I do weekends -- I do more, obviously, I also coach people -- but I'm into immersion, because how did you learn language? +Not just by learning principles, you got in it and you did it so often that it became real. +The bottom line of why I'm here, besides being a crazy mofo, is that -- I'm not here to motivate you, you don't need that, obviously. +Often that's what people think I do, and it's the furthest thing from it. +What happens, though, is people say to me, "I don't need any motivation." +But that's not what I do. +I'm the "why" guy. I want to know why you do what you do. +What is your motive for action? +What is it that drives you in your life today? Not 10 years ago. +Are you running the same pattern? +Because I believe that the invisible force of internal drive, activated, is the most important thing. +I'm here because I believe emotion is the force of life. +All of us here have great minds. +Most of us here have great minds, right? +We all know how to think. +With our minds we can rationalize anything. +We can make anything happen. +I agree with what was described a few days ago, that people work in their self-interest. +But we know that that's bullshit at times. +You don't work in your self-interest all the time, because when emotion comes into it, the wiring changes in the way it functions. +So it's wonderful to think intellectually about how the life of the world is, especially those who are very smart can play this game in our head. +But I really want to know what's driving you. +What I would like to invite you to do by the end of this talk is explore where you are today, for two reasons. +One: so that you can contribute more. +And two: that hopefully we can not just understand other people more, but appreciate them more, and create the kinds of connections that can stop some of the challenges that we face today. +They're only going to get magnified by the very technology that connects us, because it's making us intersect. +That intersection doesn't always create a view of "everybody now understands everybody, and everybody appreciates everybody." +I've had an obsession basically for 30 years, "What makes the difference in the quality of people's lives? +What in their performance?" +I got hired to produce the result now. +I've done it for 30 years. I get the phone call when the athlete is burning down on national television, and they were ahead by five strokes and now they can't get back on the course. +I've got to do something right now or nothing matters. +I get the phone call when the child is going to commit suicide, I've got to do something. +In 29 years, I'm very grateful to tell you I've never lost one. +It doesn't mean I won't some day, but I haven't yet. +The reason is an understanding of these human needs. +When I get those calls about performance, that's one thing. +How do you make a change? +I'm also looking to see what is shaping the person's ability to contribute, to do something beyond themselves. Maybe the real question is, I look at life and say there's two master lessons. +One is: there's the science of achievement, which almost everyone here has mastered amazingly. +"How do you take the invisible and make it visible," How do you make your dreams happen? +Your business, your contribution to society, money -- whatever, your body, your family. +The other lesson that is rarely mastered is the art of fulfillment. +Because science is easy, right? +We know the rules, you write the code and you get the results. +Once you know the game, you just up the ante, don't you? +But when it comes to fulfillment -- that's an art. +The reason is, it's about appreciation and contribution. +You can only feel so much by yourself. +I've had an interesting laboratory to try to answer the real question how somebody's life changes if you look at them like those people that you've given everything to? +Like all the resources they say they need. +You gave not a 100-dollar computer, but the best computer. +You gave them love, joy, were there to comfort them. +Those people very often -- you know some of them -- end up the rest of their life with all this love, education, money and background going in and out of rehab. +Some people have been through ultimate pain, psychologically, sexually, spiritually, emotionally abused -- and not always, but often, they become some of the people that contribute the most to society. +The question we've got to ask ourselves really is, what is it? +What is it that shapes us? We live in a therapy culture. +Most of us don't do that, but the culture's a therapy culture, the mindset that we are our past. +And you wouldn't be in this room if you bought that, but most of society thinks biography is destiny. +The past equals the future. +Of course it does if you live there. +But what we know and what we have to remind ourselves -- because you can know something intellectually and then not use it, not apply it. +We've got to remind ourselves that decision is the ultimate power. +When you ask people, have you failed to achieve something significant in your life? +Say, "Aye." Audience: Aye. +TR: Thanks for the interaction on a high level there. +But if you ask people, why didn't you achieve something? +Somebody who's working for you, or a partner, or even yourself. +When you fail to achieve, what's the reason people say? +What do they tell you? +Didn't have the knowledge, didn't have the money, didn't have the time, didn't have the technology. +I didn't have the right manager. +Al Gore: Supreme Court. TR: The Supreme Court. +(Applause continues) TR: And -- What do all those, including the Supreme Court, have in common? +They are a claim to you missing resources, and they may be accurate. +You may not have the money, or the Supreme Court, but that is not the defining factor. +And you correct me if I'm wrong. +The defining factor is never resources; it's resourcefulness. +And what I mean specifically, rather than just some phrase, is if you have emotion, human emotion, something that I experienced from you the day before yesterday at a level that is as profound as I've ever experienced and I believe with that emotion you would have beat his ass and won. +How easy for me to tell him what he should do. +Idiot, Robbins. But I know when we watched the debate at that time, there were emotions that blocked people's ability to get this man's intellect and capacity. +And the way that it came across to some people on that day -- because I know people that wanted to vote in your direction and didn't, and I was upset. But there was emotion there. +Do you know what I'm talking about? +Say, "Aye." Audience: Aye. +TR: So, emotion is it. +And if we get the right emotion, we can get ourselves to do anything. +If you're creative, playful, fun enough, can you get through to anybody, yes or no? +If you don't have the money, but you're creative and determined, you find the way. +This is the ultimate resource. +But this is not the story that people tell us. +They tell us a bunch of different stories. +They tell us we don't have the resources, but ultimately, if you take a look here, they say, what are all the reasons they haven't accomplished that? +He's broken my pattern, that son-of-a-bitch. +But I appreciated the energy, I'll tell you that. +What determines your resources? We've said decisions shape destiny, which is my focus here. +If decisions shape destiny, what determines it is three decisions. +What will you focus on? +You have to decide what you're going to focus on. +Consciously or unconsciously. +the minute you decide to focus, you must give it a meaning, and that meaning produces emotion. +Is this the end or the beginning? +Is God punishing me or rewarding me, or is this the roll of the dice? +An emotion creates what we're going to do, or the action. +So, think about your own life, the decisions that have shaped your destiny. +And that sounds really heavy, but in the last five or 10 years, have there been some decisions that if you'd made a different decision, your life would be completely different? +How many can think about it? Better or worse. Say, "Aye." +Audience: Aye. +So the bottom line is, maybe it was where to go to work, and you met the love of your life there, a career decision. +I know the Google geniuses I saw here -- I mean, I understand that their decision was to sell their technology. +What if they made that decision versus to build their own culture? +How would the world or their lives be different, their impact? +The history of our world is these decisions. +When a woman stands up and says, "No, I won't go to the back of the bus." +She didn't just affect her life. That decision shaped our culture. +Or someone standing in front of a tank. +Or being in a position like Lance Armstrong, "You've got testicular cancer." +That's pretty tough for any male, especially if you ride a bike. +You've got it in your brain; you've got it in your lungs. +But what was his decision of what to focus on? +Different than most people. What did it mean? +It wasn't the end; it was the beginning. +He goes off and wins seven championships he never once won before the cancer, because he got emotional fitness, psychological strength. +That's the difference in human beings that I've seen of the three million I've been around. +In my lab, I've had three million people from 80 countries over the last 29 years. +And after a while, patterns become obvious. +You see that South America and Africa may be connected in a certain way, right? +Others say, "Oh, that sounds ridiculous." It's simple. So, what shaped Lance? What shapes you? +Two invisible forces. Very quickly. One: state. +We all have had times, you did something, and after, you thought to yourself, "I can't believe I said or did that, that was so stupid." +Who's been there? Say, "Aye." Audience: Aye. +Or after you did something, you go, "That was me!" +It wasn't your ability; it was your state. +Your model of the world is what shapes you long term. +Your model of the world is the filter. That's what's shaping us. +It makes people make decisions. +To influence somebody, we need to know what already influences them. +It's made up of three parts. +First, what's your target? What are you after? +It's not your desires. +You can get your desires or goals. +Who has ever got a goal or desire and thought, is this all there is? +Say, "Aye." Audience: Aye. +It's needs we have. I believe there are six human needs. +Second, once you know what the target that's driving you is and you uncover it for the truth -- you don't form it -- then you find out what's your map, what's the belief systems that tell you how to get those needs. +Some people think the way to get them is to destroy the world, some people, to build, create something, love someone. +There's the fuel you pick. So very quickly, six needs. +Let me tell you what they are. First one: certainty. +These are not goals or desires, these are universal. +Everyone needs certainty they can avoid pain and at least be comfortable. Now, how do you get it? +Control everybody? Develop a skill? Give up? Smoke a cigarette? +And if you got totally certain, ironically, even though we need that -- you're not certain about your health, or your children, or money. +If you're not sure the ceiling will hold up, you won't listen to any speaker. +While we go for certainty differently, if we get total certainty, we get what? +What do you feel if you're certain? +You know what will happen, when and how it will happen, what would you feel? +Bored out of your minds. So, God, in Her infinite wisdom, gave us a second human need, which is uncertainty. +We need variety. We need surprise. +How many of you here love surprises? Say, "Aye." +Audience: Aye. +TR: Bullshit. You like the surprises you want. +The ones you don't want, you call problems, but you need them. +So, variety is important. Have you ever rented a video or a film that you've already seen? +Who's done this? Get a fucking life. +Why are you doing it? +You're certain it's good because you read or saw it before, but you're hoping it's been long enough you've forgotten, and there's variety. +Third human need, critical: significance. +We all need to feel important, special, unique. +You can get it by making more money or being more spiritual. +You can do it by getting yourself in a situation where you put more tattoos and earrings in places humans don't want to know. +Whatever it takes. The fastest way to do this, if you have no background, no culture, no belief and resources or resourcefulness, is violence. +If I put a gun to your head and I live in the 'hood, instantly I'm significant. +Zero to 10. How high? 10. +How certain am I that you're going to respond to me? 10. How much uncertainty? +Who knows what's going to happen next? Kind of exciting. +Like climbing up into a cave and doing that stuff all the way down there. Total variety and uncertainty. +And it's significant, isn't it? So you want to risk your life for it. +So that's why violence has always been around and will be around unless we have a consciousness change as a species. +You can get significance a million ways, but to be significant, you've got to be unique and different. +Here's what we really need: connection and love, fourth need. +We all want it; most settle for connection, love's too scary. +Who here has been hurt in an intimate relationship? +If you don't raise your hand, you've had other shit, too. +And you're going to get hurt again. +Aren't you glad you came to this positive visit? +We can do it through intimacy, friendship, prayer, through walking in nature. +If nothing else works for you, don't get a cat, get a dog, because if you leave for two minutes, it's like you've been gone six months, when you come back 5 minutes later. +These first four needs, every human finds a way to meet. +Even if you lie to yourself, you need to have split personalities. +I call the first four needs the needs of the personality. +The last two are the needs of the spirit. +And this is where fulfillment comes. You won't get it from the first four. +You'll figure a way, smoke, drink, do whatever, meet the first four. +But number five, you must grow. +We all know the answer. +If you don't grow, you're what? +If a relationship or business is not growing, if you're not growing, doesn't matter how much money or friends you have, how many love you, you feel like hell. And I believe the reason we grow is so we have something to give of value. +Because the sixth need is to contribute beyond ourselves. +Because we all know, corny as that sounds, the secret to living is giving. We all know life is not about me, it's about we. +This culture knows that, this room knows that. +It's exciting. +When you see Nicholas talking about his $100 computer, the most exciting thing is: here's a genius, but he's got a calling now. +You can feel the difference in him, and it's beautiful. +And that calling can touch other people. +My life was touched because when I was 11 years old, Thanksgiving, no money, no food, we were not going to starve, but my father was totally messed up, my mom was letting him know how bad he messed up, and somebody came to the door and delivered food. +My father made three decisions, I know what they were, briefly. +His focus was "This is charity. +What does it mean? I'm worthless. +What do I have to do? Leave my family," which he did. It was one of the most painful experiences of life. +My three decisions gave me a different path. +I set focus on "There's food." What a concept! +But this is what changed my life, shaped me as a human being. +Somebody's gift, I don't even know who it is. +My father always said, "No one gives a shit." +And now somebody I don't know, they're not asking for anything, just giving us food, It made me believe this: that strangers care. +And that made me decide, if strangers care about me and my family, I care about them. +I'm going to do something to make a difference. +So when I was 17, I went out on Thanksgiving, it was my target for years to have enough money to feed two families. +The most fun and moving thing I ever did in my life. +Next year, I did four, then eight. +I didn't tell anybody what I was doing, I wasn't doing it for brownie points. +But after eight, I thought I could use some help. +So I went out, got my friends involved, then I grew companies, got 11, and I built the foundation. +18 years later, I'm proud to tell you last year we fed 2 million people in 35 countries through our foundation. +All during the holidays, Thanksgiving, Christmas, in different countries around the world. +Thank you. +I don't tell you that to brag, but because I'm proud of human beings because they get excited to contribute once they've had the chance to experience it, not talk about it. +So, finally -- I'm about out of time. The target that shapes you -- Here's what's different about people. We have the same needs. +But are you a certainty freak, is that what you value most, or uncertainty? This man couldn't be a certainty freak if he climbed through those caves. +Are you driven by significance or love? +We all need all six, but what your lead system is tilts you in a different direction. +And as you move in a direction, you have a destination or destiny. +The second piece is the map. +The operating system tells you how to get there, and some people's map is, "I'm going to save lives even if I die for other people," and they're a fireman, and somebody else says, "I'm going to kill people to do it." +They're trying to meet the same needs of significance. They want to honor God or honor their family. +But they have a different map. +And there are seven different beliefs; I can't go through them, because I'm done. +The last piece is emotion. +One of the parts of the map is like time. +Some people's idea of a long time is 100 years. +Somebody else's is three seconds, which is what I have. +And the last one I've already mentioned that fell to you. +If you've got a target and a map -- I can't use Google because I love Macs, and they haven't made it good for Macs yet. So if you use MapQuest -- how many have made this fatal mistake of using it? +You use this thing and you don't get there. +Imagine if your beliefs guarantee you can never get to where you want to go. +The last thing is emotion. +Here's what I'll tell you about emotion. There are 6,000 emotions that we have words for in the English language, which is just a linguistic representation that changes by language. +And half of those make them feel like shit. They have six good feelings. +Happy, happy, excited, oh shit, frustrated, frustrated, overwhelmed, depressed. +How many of you know somebody who, no matter what happens, finds a way to get pissed off? +Or no matter what happens, they find a way to be happy or excited. +How many of you know somebody like this? +When 9/11 happened, I'll finish with this, I was in Hawaii. +I was with 2,000 people from 45 countries, we were translating four languages simultaneously for a program I was conducting, for a week. The night before was called Emotional Mastery. +I got up, had no plan for this, and I said -- we had fireworks, I do crazy shit, fun stuff, and at the end, I stopped. +I had this plan, but I never know what I'm going to say. And all of a sudden, I said, "When do people really start to live? When they face death." +And I went through this whole thing about, if you weren't going to get off this island, if nine days from now, you were going to die, who would you call, what would you say, what would you do? +That night is when 9/11 happened. +One woman had come to the seminar, and when she came there, her previous boyfriend had been kidnapped and murdered. +Her new boyfriend wanted to marry her, and she said no. +He said, "If you go to that Hawaii thing, it's over with us." +She said, "It's over." When I finished that night, she called him and left a message at the top of the World Trade Center where he worked, saying, "I love you, I want you to know I want to marry you. +It was stupid of me." +She was asleep, because it was 3 a.m. for us, when he called her back, and said, "Honey, I can't tell you what this means. +I don't know how to tell you this, but you gave me the greatest gift, because I'm going to die." +And she played the recording for us in the room. +She was on Larry King later. And he said, "You're probably wondering how on Earth this could happen to you twice. +All I can say is this must be God's message to you. +From now on, every day, give your all, love your all. +Don't let anything ever stop you." She finishes, and a man stands up, and he says, "I'm from Pakistan, I'm a Muslim. +I'd love to hold your hand and say I'm sorry, but frankly, this is retribution." +I can't tell you the rest, because I'm out of time. +10 seconds! +(Laughter and applause) 10 seconds, I want to be respectful. +All I can tell you is, I brought this man on stage with a man from New York who worked in the World Trade Center, because I had about 200 New Yorkers there. +More than 50 lost their entire companies, friends, marking off their Palm Pilots. One financial trader, woman made of steel, bawling -- 30 friends crossing off that all died. +And I said, "What are we going to focus on? +What does this mean and what are we going to do?" +And I got the group to focus on: if you didn't lose somebody today, your focus is going to be how to serve somebody else. +Then one woman stood up and was so angry, screaming and yelling. +I found out she wasn't from New York, she's not an American, doesn't know anybody here. I asked, "Do you always get angry?" +She said, "Yes." Guilty people got guilty, sad people got sad. +I took these two men and I did an indirect negotiation. +Jewish man with family in the occupied territory, someone in New York who would have died if he was at work that day, and this man who wanted to be a terrorist, and I made it very clear. +This integration is on a film, which I'd be happy to send you, instead of my verbalization, but the two of them not only came together and changed their beliefs and models of the world, but worked together to bring, for almost four years now, through various mosques and synagogues, the idea of how to create peace. +And he wrote a book, called "My Jihad, My Way of Peace." +So, transformation can happen. +It's the only way our world's going to change. +God bless you, thank you. I hope this was of service. +My title: "Queerer than we can suppose: the strangeness of science." +"Queerer than we can suppose" comes from J.B.S. Haldane, the famous biologist, who said, "Now, my own suspicion is that the universe is not only queerer than we suppose, but queerer than we can suppose. +I suspect that there are more things in heaven and earth than are dreamed of, or can be dreamed of, in any philosophy." +Richard Feynman compared the accuracy of quantum theories -- experimental predictions -- to specifying the width of North America to within one hair's breadth of accuracy. +This means that quantum theory has got to be, in some sense, true. +Yet the assumptions that quantum theory needs to make in order to deliver those predictions are so mysterious that even Feynman himself was moved to remark, "If you think you understand quantum theory, you don't understand quantum theory." +It's so queer that physicists resort to one or another paradoxical interpretation of it. +David Deutsch, who's talking here, in "The Fabric of Reality," embraces the many-worlds interpretation of quantum theory, because the worst that you can say about it is that it's preposterously wasteful. +It postulates a vast and rapidly growing number of universes existing in parallel, mutually undetectable, except through the narrow porthole of quantum mechanical experiments. +And that's Richard Feynman. +The biologist Lewis Wolpert believes that the queerness of modern physics is just an extreme example. Science, as opposed to technology, does violence to common sense. +Every time you drink a glass of water, he points out, the odds are that you will imbibe at least one molecule that passed through the bladder of Oliver Cromwell. It's just elementary probability theory. +The number of molecules per glassful is hugely greater than the number of glassfuls, or bladdersful, in the world. +And of course, there's nothing special about Cromwell or bladders -- you have just breathed in a nitrogen atom that passed through the right lung of the third iguanodon to the left of the tall cycad tree. +"Queerer than we can suppose." +What is it that makes us capable of supposing anything, and does this tell us anything about what we can suppose? +Are there things about the universe that will be forever beyond our grasp, but not beyond the grasp of some superior intelligence? +Are there things about the universe that are, in principle, ungraspable by any mind, however superior? +The history of science has been one long series of violent brainstorms, as successive generations have come to terms with increasing levels of queerness in the universe. +We're now so used to the idea that the Earth spins, rather than the Sun moves across the sky, it's hard for us to realize what a shattering mental revolution that must have been. +After all, it seems obvious that the Earth is large and motionless, the Sun, small and mobile. +But it's worth recalling Wittgenstein's remark on the subject: "Tell me," he asked a friend, "why do people always say it was natural for man to assume that the Sun went 'round the Earth, rather than that the Earth was rotating?" +And his friend replied, "Well, obviously, because it just looks as though the Sun is going round the Earth." +Wittgenstein replied, "Well, what would it have looked like if it had looked as though the Earth was rotating?" Science has taught us, against all intuition, that apparently solid things, like crystals and rocks, are really almost entirely composed of empty space. +And the familiar illustration is the nucleus of an atom is a fly in the middle of a sports stadium, and the next atom is in the next sports stadium. +So it would seem the hardest, solidest, densest rock is really almost entirely empty space, broken only by tiny particles so widely spaced they shouldn't count. +Why, then, do rocks look and feel solid and hard and impenetrable? +As an evolutionary biologist, I'd say this: our brains have evolved to help us survive within the orders of magnitude, of size and speed which our bodies operate at. +We never evolved to navigate in the world of atoms. +Moving to the other end of the scale, our ancestors never had to navigate through the cosmos at speeds close to the speed of light. +If they had, our brains would be much better at understanding Einstein. +I want to give the name "Middle World" to the medium-scaled environment in which we've evolved the ability to take act -- nothing to do with "Middle Earth" -- Middle World. We are evolved denizens of Middle World, and that limits what we are capable of imagining. +We find it intuitively easy to grasp ideas like, when a rabbit moves at the sort of medium velocity at which rabbits and other Middle World objects move, and hits another Middle World object like a rock, it knocks itself out. +May I introduce Major General Albert Stubblebine III, commander of military intelligence in 1983. +"...[He] stared at his wall in Arlington, Virginia, and decided to do it. +As frightening as the prospect was, he was going into the next office. +He stood up and moved out from behind his desk. +'What is the atom mostly made of?' he thought, 'Space.' He started walking. 'What am I mostly made of? Atoms.' He quickened his pace, almost to a jog now. +'What is the wall mostly made of?' 'Atoms!' All I have to do is merge the spaces. +Then, General Stubblebine banged his nose hard on the wall of his office. +Stubblebine, who commanded 16,000 soldiers, was confounded by his continual failure to walk through the wall. +He has no doubt that this ability will one day be a common tool in the military arsenal. Who would screw around with an army that could do that?" +And that's because in Middle World, air friction is always there. +If we'd evolved in a vacuum, we would expect them to hit the ground simultaneously. If we were bacteria, constantly buffeted by thermal movements of molecules, it would be different. +But we Middle-Worlders are too big to notice Brownian motion. +In the same way, our lives are dominated by gravity, but are almost oblivious to the force of surface tension. +A small insect would reverse these priorities. +Steve Grand -- he's the one on the left, Douglas Adams is on the right. +Steve Grand, in his book, "Creation: Life and How to Make It," is positively scathing about our preoccupation with matter itself. +We have this tendency to think that only solid, material things are really things at all. +Waves of electromagnetic fluctuation in a vacuum seem unreal. +Victorians thought the waves had to be waves in some material medium: the ether. But we find real matter comforting only because we've evolved to survive in Middle World, where matter is a useful fiction. +A whirlpool, for Steve Grand, is a thing with just as much reality as a rock. +In a desert plain in Tanzania, in the shadow of the volcano Ol Doinyo Lengai, there's a dune made of volcanic ash. +The beautiful thing is that it moves bodily. +It's what's technically known as a "barchan," and the entire dune walks across the desert in a westerly direction at a speed of about 17 meters per year. +It retains its crescent shape and moves in the direction of the horns. +What happens is that the wind blows the sand up the shallow slope on the other side, and then, as each sand grain hits the top of the ridge, it cascades down on the inside of the crescent, and so the whole horn-shaped dune moves. +Steve Grand points out that you and I are, ourselves, more like a wave than a permanent thing. +He invites us, the reader, to think of an experience from your childhood, something you remember clearly, something you can see, feel, maybe even smell, as if you were really there. +After all, you really were there at the time, weren't you? +How else would you remember it? +But here is the bombshell: You weren't there. +Not a single atom that is in your body today was there when that event took place. Matter flows from place to place and momentarily comes together to be you. +Whatever you are, therefore, you are not the stuff of which you are made. +If that doesn't make the hair stand up on the back of your neck, read it again until it does, because it is important. +So "really" isn't a word that we should use with simple confidence. +If a neutrino had a brain, which it evolved in neutrino-sized ancestors, it would say that rocks really do consist of empty space. +We have brains that evolved in medium-sized ancestors which couldn't walk through rocks. +"Really," for an animal, is whatever its brain needs it to be in order to assist its survival. +And because different species live in different worlds, there will be a discomforting variety of "reallys." +What we see of the real world is not the unvarnished world, but a model of the world, regulated and adjusted by sense data, but constructed so it's useful for dealing with the real world. +The nature of the model depends on the kind of animal we are. +A flying animal needs a different kind of model from a walking, climbing or swimming animal. +A monkey's brain must have software capable of simulating a three-dimensional world of branches and trunks. +A mole's software for constructing models of its world will be customized for underground use. +A water strider's brain doesn't need 3D software at all, since it lives on the surface of the pond, in an Edwin Abbott flatland. +I've speculated that bats may see color with their ears. +The world model that a bat needs in order to navigate through three dimensions catching insects must be pretty similar to the world model that any flying bird -- a day-flying bird like a swallow -- needs to perform the same kind of tasks. +The fact that the bat uses echoes in pitch darkness to input the current variables to its model, while the swallow uses light, is incidental. +There's nothing inherent about red that makes it long wavelength. +The point is that the nature of the model is governed by how it is to be used, rather than by the sensory modality involved. +J.B.S. Haldane himself had something to say about animals whose world is dominated by smell. +Dogs can distinguish two very similar fatty acids, extremely diluted: caprylic acid and caproic acid. +The only difference, you see, is that one has an extra pair of carbon atoms in the chain. +Haldane guesses that a dog would probably be able to place the acids in the order of their molecular weights by their smells, just as a man could place a number of piano wires in the order of their lengths by means of their notes. +Now, there's another fatty acid, capric acid, which is just like the other two, except that it has two more carbon atoms. +A dog that had never met capric acid would, perhaps, have no more trouble imagining its smell than we would have trouble imagining a trumpet, say, playing one note higher than we've heard a trumpet play before. +Perhaps dogs and rhinos and other smell-oriented animals smell in color. +And the argument would be exactly the same as for the bats. +Middle World -- the range of sizes and speeds which we have evolved to feel intuitively comfortable with -- is a bit like the narrow range of the electromagnetic spectrum that we see as light of various colors. +We're blind to all frequencies outside that, unless we use instruments to help us. +Middle World is the narrow range of reality which we judge to be normal, as opposed to the queerness of the very small, the very large and the very fast. +We could make a similar scale of improbabilities; nothing is totally impossible. +Miracles are just events that are extremely improbable. +A marble statue could wave its hand at us; the atoms that make up its crystalline structure are all vibrating back and forth anyway. +Because there are so many of them, and because there's no agreement among them in their preferred direction of movement, the marble, as we see it in Middle World, stays rock steady. +But the atoms in the hand could all just happen to move the same way at the same time, and again and again. +In this case, the hand would move, and we'd see it waving at us in Middle World. +The odds against it, of course, are so great that if you set out writing zeros at the time of the origin of the universe, you still would not have written enough zeros to this day. +Evolution in Middle World has not equipped us to handle very improbable events; we don't live long enough. +In the vastness of astronomical space and geological time, that which seems impossible in Middle World might turn out to be inevitable. +One way to think about that is by counting planets. +We don't know how many planets there are in the universe, but a good estimate is about 10 to the 20, or 100 billion billion. +And that gives us a nice way to express our estimate of life's improbability. +We could make some sort of landmark points along a spectrum of improbability, which might look like the electromagnetic spectrum we just looked at. +If life has arisen on only one planet in the entire universe, that planet has to be our planet, because here we are talking about it. +And that means that if we want to avail ourselves of it, we're allowed to postulate chemical events in the origin of life which have a probability as low as one in 100 billion billion. +I don't think we shall have to avail ourselves of that, because I suspect that life is quite common in the universe. +And when I say quite common, it could still be so rare that no one island of life ever encounters another, which is a sad thought. +How shall we interpret "queerer than we can suppose?" +Queerer than can in principle be supposed, or just queerer than we can suppose, given the limitations of our brain's evolutionary apprenticeship in Middle World? +Could we, by training and practice, emancipate ourselves from Middle World and achieve some sort of intuitive as well as mathematical understanding of the very small and the very large? +I genuinely don't know the answer. +And similarly, a relativistic computer game, in which objects on the screen manifest the Lorentz contraction, and so on, to try to get ourselves -- to get children into the way of thinking about it. +I want to end by applying the idea of Middle World to our perceptions of each other. +Most scientists today subscribe to a mechanistic view of the mind: we're the way we are because our brains are wired up as they are, our hormones are the way they are. +We'd be different, our characters would be different, if our neuro-anatomy and our physiological chemistry were different. +But we scientists are inconsistent. If we were consistent, our response to a misbehaving person, like a child-murderer, should be something like: this unit has a faulty component; it needs repairing. +That's not what we say. +What we say -- and I include the most austerely mechanistic among us, which is probably me -- what we say is, "Vile monster, prison is too good for you." +Or worse, we seek revenge, in all probability thereby triggering the next phase in an escalating cycle of counter-revenge, which we see, of course, all over the world today. +We are evolved to second-guess the behavior of others by becoming brilliant, intuitive psychologists. +Treating people as machines may be scientifically and philosophically accurate, but it's a cumbersome waste of time if you want to guess what this person is going to do next. +The economically useful way to model a person is to treat him as a purposeful, goal-seeking agent with pleasures and pains, desires and intentions, guilt, blame-worthiness. +Or are our brains so versatile and expandable that we can train ourselves to break out of the box of our evolution? +Or finally, are there some things in the universe so queer that no philosophy of beings, however godlike, could dream them? +Thank you very much. +Okay. +Thank you very much. +Now, I've got a story for you. +When I arrived off the plane, after a very long journey from the West of England, my computer, my beloved laptop, had gone mad, and had -- oh! -- a bit like that! -- and the display on it -- anyway, the whole thing had burst. +And I went to the IT guys here and a gentleman mended my computer, and then he said, "What are you doing here?" +and I said "I'm playing the cello and I'm doing a bit of singing," and he said, "Oh, I sort of play the cello as well." +And I said, "Do you really?" +Anyway, so you're in for a treat, because he's fantastic, and his name's Mark. +I am also joined by my partner in crime, Thomas Dolby. +This song is called "Farther than the Sun." +So I'm going to speak about a problem that I have and that's that I'm a philosopher. +When I go to a party and people ask me what do I do and I say, "I'm a professor," their eyes glaze over. +When I go to an academic cocktail party and there are all the professors around, they ask me what field I'm in and I say, "philosophy" -- their eyes glaze over. +When I go to a philosopher's party and they ask me what I work on and I say, "consciousness," their eyes don't glaze over -- their lips curl into a snarl. +And I get hoots of derision and cackles and growls because they think, "That's impossible! You can't explain consciousness." +The very chutzpah of somebody thinking that you could explain consciousness is just out of the question. +My late, lamented friend Bob Nozick, a fine philosopher, in one of his books, "Philosophical Explanations," is commenting on the ethos of philosophy -- the way philosophers go about their business. +And he says, you know, "Philosophers love rational argument." +And he says, "It seems as if the ideal argument for most philosophers is you give your audience the premises and then you give them the inferences and the conclusion, and if they don't accept the conclusion, they die. +Their heads explode." The idea is to have an argument that is so powerful that it knocks out your opponents. +But in fact that doesn't change people's minds at all. +It's very hard to change people's minds about something like consciousness, and I finally figured out the reason for that. +The reason for that is that everybody's an expert on consciousness. +We heard the other day that everybody's got a strong opinion about video games. +They all have an idea for a video game, even if they're not experts. +But they don't consider themselves experts on video games; they've just got strong opinions. +I'm sure that people here who work on, say, climate change and global warming, or on the future of the Internet, encounter people who have very strong opinions about what's going to happen next. +But they probably don't think of these opinions as expertise. +They're just strongly held opinions. +But with regard to consciousness, people seem to think, each of us seems to think, "I am an expert. +Simply by being conscious, I know all about this." +And so, you tell them your theory and they say, "No, no, that's not the way consciousness is! +No, you've got it all wrong." +And they say this with an amazing confidence. +And so what I'm going to try to do today is to shake your confidence. Because I know the feeling -- I can feel it myself. +I want to shake your confidence that you know your own innermost minds -- that you are, yourselves, authoritative about your own consciousness. +That's the order of the day here. +Now, this nice picture shows a thought-balloon, a thought-bubble. +I think everybody understands what that means. +That's supposed to exhibit the stream of consciousness. +This is my favorite picture of consciousness that's ever been done. +It's a Saul Steinberg of course -- it was a New Yorker cover. +And this fellow here is looking at the painting by Braque. +That reminds him of the word baroque, barrack, bark, poodle, Suzanne R. -- he's off to the races. +There's a wonderful stream of consciousness here and if you follow it along, you learn a lot about this man. +What I particularly like about this picture, too, is that Steinberg has rendered the guy in this sort of pointillist style. +Which reminds us, as Rod Brooks was saying yesterday: what we are, what each of us is -- what you are, what I am -- is approximately 100 trillion little cellular robots. +That's what we're made of. +No other ingredients at all. We're just made of cells, about 100 trillion of them. +Not a single one of those cells is conscious; not a single one of those cells knows who you are, or cares. +Somehow, we have to explain how when you put together teams, armies, battalions of hundreds of millions of little robotic unconscious cells -- not so different really from a bacterium, each one of them -- the result is this. I mean, just look at it. +The content -- there's color, there's ideas, there's memories, there's history. And somehow all that content of consciousness is accomplished by the busy activity of those hoards of neurons. +How is that possible? Many people just think it isn't possible at all. +They think, "No, there can't be any sort of naturalistic explanation of consciousness." +This is a lovely book by a friend of mine named Lee Siegel, who's a professor of religion, actually, at the University of Hawaii, and he's an expert magician, and an expert on the street magic of India, which is what this book is about, "Net of Magic." +And there's a passage in it which I would love to share with you. +It speaks so eloquently to the problem. +"'I'm writing a book on magic,' I explain, and I'm asked, 'Real magic?' By 'real magic,' people mean miracles, thaumaturgical acts, and supernatural powers. +'No,' I answer. 'Conjuring tricks, not real magic.' 'Real magic,' in other words, refers to the magic that is not real; while the magic that is real, that can actually be done, is not real magic." +Now, that's the way a lot of people feel about consciousness. +Real consciousness is not a bag of tricks. +If you're going to explain this as a bag of tricks, then it's not real consciousness, whatever it is. +And, as Marvin said, and as other people have said, "Consciousness is a bag of tricks." +This means that a lot of people are just left completely dissatisfied and incredulous when I attempt to explain consciousness. +So this is the problem. So I have to do a little bit of the sort of work that a lot of you won't like, for the same reason that you don't like to see a magic trick explained to you. +How many of you here, if somebody -- some smart aleck -- starts telling you how a particular magic trick is done, you sort of want to block your ears and say, "No, no, I don't want to know! +Don't take the thrill of it away. I'd rather be mystified. +Don't tell me the answer." +A lot of people feel that way about consciousness, I've discovered. +And I'm sorry if I impose some clarity, some understanding on you. +You'd better leave now if you don't want to know some of these tricks. +But I'm not going to explain it all to you. +I'm going to do what philosophers do. +Here's how a philosopher explains the sawing-the-lady-in-half trick. +You know the sawing-the-lady-in-half trick? +The philosopher says, "I'm going to explain to you how that's done. +You see, the magician doesn't really saw the lady in half." +"He merely makes you think that he does." +And you say, "Yes, and how does he do that?" +He says, "Oh, that's not my department, I'm sorry." +So now I'm going to illustrate how philosophers explain consciousness. +But I'm going to try to also show you that consciousness isn't quite as marvelous -- your own consciousness isn't quite as wonderful -- as you may have thought it is. +This is something, by the way, that Lee Siegel talks about in his book. +He marvels at how he'll do a magic show, and afterwards people will swear they saw him do X, Y, and Z. He never did those things. +He didn't even try to do those things. +People's memories inflate what they think they saw. +And the same is true of consciousness. +Now, let's see if this will work. All right. Let's just watch this. +Watch it carefully. +I'm working with a young computer-animator documentarian named Nick Deamer, and this is a little demo that he's done for me, part of a larger project some of you may be interested in. +We're looking for a backer. +It's a feature-length documentary on consciousness. +OK, now, you all saw what changed, right? +How many of you noticed that every one of those squares changed color? +Every one. I'll just show you by running it again. +Even when you know that they're all going to change color, it's very hard to notice. You have to really concentrate to pick up any of the changes at all. +Now, this is an example -- one of many -- of a phenomenon that's now being studied quite a bit. +It's one that I predicted in the last page or two of my 1991 book, "Consciousness Explained," where I said if you did experiments of this sort, you'd find that people were unable to pick up really large changes. +If there's time at the end, I'll show you the much more dramatic case. +Now, how can it be that there are all those changes going on, and that we're not aware of them? +Well, earlier today, Jeff Hawkins mentioned the way your eye saccades, the way your eye moves around three or four times a second. +He didn't mention the speed. Your eye is constantly in motion, moving around, looking at eyes, noses, elbows, looking at interesting things in the world. +And where your eye isn't looking, you're remarkably impoverished in your vision. +That's because the foveal part of your eye, which is the high-resolution part, is only about the size of your thumbnail held at arms length. +That's the detail part. +It doesn't seem that way, does it? +It doesn't seem that way, but that's the way it is. +You're getting in a lot less information than you think. +Here's a completely different effect. This is a painting by Bellotto. +It's in the museum in North Carolina. +Bellotto was a student of Canaletto's. +And I love paintings like that -- the painting is actually about as big as it is right here. +And I love Canalettos, because Canaletto has this fantastic detail, and you can get right up and see all the details on the painting. +And I started across the hall in North Carolina, because I thought it was probably a Canaletto, and would have all that in detail. +And I noticed that on the bridge there, there's a lot of people -- you can just barely see them walking across the bridge. +And I thought as I got closer I would be able to see all the detail of most people, see their clothes, and so forth. +And as I got closer and closer, I actually screamed. +I yelled out because when I got closer, I found the detail wasn't there at all. +There were just little artfully placed blobs of paint. +And as I walked towards the picture, I was expecting detail that wasn't there. +The artist had very cleverly suggested people and clothes and wagons and all sorts of things, and my brain had taken the suggestion. +You're familiar with a more recent technology, which is -- There, you can get a better view of the blobs. +See, when you get close they're really just blobs of paint. +You will have seen something like this -- this is the reverse effect. +I'll just give that to you one more time. +Now, what does your brain do when it takes the suggestion? +When an artful blob of paint or two, by an artist, suggests a person -- say, one of Marvin Minsky's little society of mind -- do they send little painters out to fill in all the details in your brain somewhere? +I don't think so. Not a chance. But then, how on Earth is it done? +Well, remember the philosopher's explanation of the lady? +It's the same thing. +The brain just makes you think that it's got the detail there. +You think the detail's there, but it isn't there. +The brain isn't actually putting the detail in your head at all. +It's just making you expect the detail. +Let's just do this experiment very quickly. +Is the shape on the left the same as the shape on the right, rotated? +Yes. +How many of you did it by rotating the one on the left in your mind's eye, to see if it matched up with the one on the right? +How many of you rotated the one on the right? OK. +How do you know that's what you did? +There's in fact been a very interesting debate raging for over 20 years in cognitive science -- various experiments started by Roger Shepherd, who measured the angular velocity of rotation of mental images. +Yes, it's possible to do that. +But the details of the process are still in significant controversy. +And if you read that literature, one of the things that you really have to come to terms with is even when you're the subject in the experiment, you don't know. +You don't know how you do it. +You just know that you have certain beliefs. +And they come in a certain order, at a certain time. +And what explains the fact that that's what you think? +Well, that's where you have to go backstage and ask the magician. +This is a figure that I love: Bradley, Petrie, and Dumais. +You may think that I've cheated, that I've put a little whiter-than-white boundary there. +How many of you see that sort of boundary, with the Necker cube floating in front of the circles? +Can you see it? +Well, you know, in effect, the boundary's really there, in a certain sense. +Your brain is actually computing that boundary, the boundary that goes right there. +But now, notice there are two ways of seeing the cube, right? +It's a Necker cube. +Everybody can see the two ways of seeing the cube? OK. +Can you see the four ways of seeing the cube? +Because there's another way of seeing it. +If you're seeing it as a cube floating in front of some circles, some black circles, there's another way of seeing it. +As a cube, on a black background, as seen through a piece of Swiss cheese. +Can you get it? How many of you can't get it? That'll help. +Now you can get it. These are two very different phenomena. +When you see the cube one way, behind the screen, those boundaries go away. +But there's still a sort of filling in, as we can tell if we look at this. +We don't have any trouble seeing the cube, but where does the color change? +Does your brain have to send little painters in there? +The purple-painters and the green-painters fight over who's going to paint that bit behind the curtain? No. +Your brain just lets it go. The brain doesn't need to fill that in. +When I first started talking about the Bradley, Petrie, Dumais example that you just saw -- I'll go back to it, this one -- I said that there was no filling-in behind there. +And I supposed that that was just a flat truth, always true. +But Rob Van Lier has recently shown that it isn't. +Now, if you think you see some pale yellow -- I'll run this a few more times. +Look in the gray areas, and see if you seem to see something sort of shadowy moving in there -- yeah, it's amazing. There's nothing there. It's no trick. +["Failure to Detect Changes in Scenes" slide] This is Ron Rensink's work, which was in some degree inspired by that suggestion right at the end of the book. +Let me just pause this for a second if I can. +This is change-blindness. +What you're going to see is two pictures, one of which is slightly different from the other. +You see here the red roof and the gray roof, and in between them there will be a mask, which is just a blank screen, for about a quarter of a second. +So you'll see the first picture, then a mask, then the second picture, then a mask. +And this will just continue, and your job as the subject is to press the button when you see the change. +So, show the original picture for 240 milliseconds. Blank. +Show the next picture for 240 milliseconds. Blank. +And keep going, until the subject presses the button, saying, "I see the change." +So now we're going to be subjects in the experiment. +We're going to start easy. Some examples. +No trouble there. +Can everybody see? All right. +Indeed, Rensink's subjects took only a little bit more than a second to press the button. +Can you see that one? +2.9 seconds. +How many don't see it still? +What's on the roof of that barn? +It's easy. +Is it a bridge or a dock? +There are a few more really dramatic ones, and then I'll close. +I want you to see a few that are particularly striking. +This one because it's so large and yet it's pretty hard to see. +Can you see it? +Audience: Yes. +Dan Dennett: See the shadows going back and forth? Pretty big. +So 15.5 seconds is the median time for subjects in his experiment there. +I love this one. I'll end with this one, just because it's such an obvious and important thing. +How many still don't see it? How many still don't see it? +How many engines on the wing of that Boeing? +Right in the middle of the picture! +Thanks very much for your attention. +What I wanted to show you is that scientists, using their from-the-outside, third-person methods, can tell you things about your own consciousness that you would never dream of, and that, in fact, you're not the authority on your own consciousness that you think you are. +And we're really making a lot of progress on coming up with a theory of mind. +Jeff Hawkins, this morning, was describing his attempt to get theory, and a good, big theory, into the neuroscience. +And he's right. This is a problem. +Harvard Medical School once -- I was at a talk -- director of the lab said, "In our lab, we have a saying. +If you work on one neuron, that's neuroscience. +If you work on two neurons, that's psychology." +We have to have more theory, and it can come as much from the top down. +Thank you very much. +I'm not quite sure whether I really want to see a snare drum at nine o'clock or so in the morning. +But anyway, it's just great to see such a full theater, and really I must thank Herbie Hancock and his colleagues for such a great presentation. One of the interesting things, of course, is the combination of that raw hand on the instrument and technology, and of course what he said about listening to our young people. +Of course, my job is all about listening, and my aim, really, is to teach the world to listen. +That's my only real aim in life. +And it sounds quite simple, but actually it's quite a big, big job. +Because you know, when you look at a piece of music -- for example, if I just open my little motorbike bag -- we have here, hopefully, a piece of music that is full of little black dots on the page. +And, you know, we open it up and I read the music. +So technically, I can actually read this. +I will follow the instructions, the tempo markings, the dynamics. +I will do exactly as I'm told. +And so therefore, because time is short, if I just play you literally the first maybe two lines or so. It's very straightforward. +There's nothing too difficult about the piece. +But here I'm being told that the piece of music is very quick. +I'm being told where to play on the drum. +I'm being told which part of the stick to use. +And I'm being told the dynamic. +And I'm also being told that the drum is without snares. +Snares on, snares off. +So therefore, if I translate this piece of music, we have this idea. And so on. My career would probably last about five years. +However, what I have to do as a musician is do everything that is not on the music. +Everything that there isn't time to learn from a teacher, or to talk about, even, from a teacher. +But it's the things that you notice when you're not actually with your instrument that in fact become so interesting, and that you want to explore through this tiny, tiny surface of a drum. +So there, we experience the translation. Now we'll experience the interpretation. Now my career may last a little longer! +But in a way, you know, it's the same if I look at you and I see a nice bright young lady with a pink top on. +I see that you're clutching a teddy bear, etc., etc. +So I get a basic idea as to what you might be about, what you might like, what you might do as a profession, etc., etc. +However, that's just, you know, the initial idea I may have that we all get when we actually look, and we try to interpret, but actually it's so unbelievably shallow. +In the same way, I look at the music; I get a basic idea; I wonder what technically might be hard, or, you know, what I want to do. +Just the basic feeling. +However, that is simply not enough. +And I think what Herbie said -- please listen, listen. +We have to listen to ourselves, first of all. +If I play, for example, holding the stick -- where literally I do not let go of the stick -- you'll experience quite a lot of shock coming up through the arm. +And you feel really quite -- believe it or not -- detached from the instrument and from the stick, even though I'm actually holding the stick quite tightly. +By holding it tightly, I feel strangely more detached. +If I just simply let go and allow my hand, my arm, to be more of a support system, suddenly I have more dynamic with less effort. Much more. +And I just feel, at last, one with the stick and one with the drum. +And I'm doing far, far less. +So in the same way that I need time with this instrument, I need time with people in order to interpret them. +Not just translate them, but interpret them. +And I remember when I was 12 years old, and I started playing tympani and percussion, and my teacher said, "Well, how are we going to do this? You know, music is about listening." +And I said, "Yes, I agree with that. So what's the problem?" +And he said, "Well, how are you going to hear this? How are you going to hear that?" +And I said, "Well, how do you hear it?" +He said, "Well, I think I hear it through here." +And I said, "Well, I think I do too -- but I also hear it through my hands, through my arms, cheekbones, my scalp, my tummy, my chest, my legs and so on." +And so we began our lessons every single time tuning drums -- in particular, the kettle drums, or tympani -- to such a narrow pitch interval, so something like ... +that of a difference. Then gradually ... and gradually ... +and it's amazing that when you do open your body up, and open your hand up to allow the vibration to come through, that in fact the tiny, tiny difference ... +can be felt with just the tiniest part of your finger, there. +And so what we would do is that I would put my hands on the wall of the music room, and together we would "listen" to the sounds of the instruments, and really try to connect with those sounds far, far more broadly than simply depending on the ear. +Because of course, the ear is, I mean, subject to all sorts of things. +The room we happen to be in, the amplification, the quality of the instrument, the type of sticks ... etc., etc. +They're all different. +Same amount of weight, but different sound colors. +And that's basically what we are. We're just human beings, but we all have our own little sound colors, as it were, that make up these extraordinary personalities and characters and interests and things. +And as I grew older, I then auditioned for the Royal Academy of Music in London, and they said, "Well, no, we won't accept you, because we haven't a clue, you know, of the future of a so-called 'deaf' musician." +And I just couldn't quite accept that. +And so therefore, I said to them, "Well, look, if you refuse -- if you refuse me through those reasons, as opposed to the ability to perform and to understand and love the art of creating sound -- then we have to think very, very hard about the people you do actually accept." +And as a result -- once we got over a little hurdle, and having to audition twice -- they accepted me. And not only that -- what had happened was that it changed the whole role of the music institutions throughout the United Kingdom. +Under no circumstances were they to refuse any application whatsoever on the basis of whether someone had no arms, no legs -- they could still perhaps play a wind instrument if it was supported on a stand. +No circumstances at all were used to refuse any entry. +And every single entry had to be listened to, experienced and then based on the musical ability -- then that person could either enter or not. +So therefore, this in turn meant that there was an extremely interesting bunch of students who arrived in these various music institutions. +And I have to say, many of them now in the professional orchestras throughout the world. +The interesting thing about this as well, though -- -- is quite simply that not only were people connected with sound -- which is basically all of us, and we well know that music really is our daily medicine. +I say "music," but actually I mean "sound." +I have the sound coming this way. +He would have the sound coming through the resonators. +If there were no resonators on here, we would have ... So he would have a fullness of sound that those of you in the front few rows wouldn't experience, those of you in the back few rows wouldn't experience either. +Every single one of us, depending on where we're sitting, will experience this sound quite, quite differently. +And of course, being the participator of the sound, and that is starting from the idea of what type of sound I want to produce -- for example, this sound. +Can you hear anything? +Exactly. Because I'm not even touching it. +But yet, we get the sensation of something happening. +In the same way that when I see tree moves, then I imagine that tree making a rustling sound. +Do you see what I mean? +Whatever the eye sees, then there's always sound happening. +So there's always, always that huge -- I mean, just this kaleidoscope of things to draw from. +So all of my performances are based on entirely what I experience, and not by learning a piece of music, putting on someone else's interpretation of it, buying all the CDs possible of that particular piece of music, and so on and so forth. +Because that isn't giving me enough of something that is so raw and so basic, and something that I can fully experience the journey of. +But it's meant that acousticians have had to really think about the types of halls they put together. There are so few halls in this world that actually have very good acoustics, dare I say. But by that I mean where you can absolutely do anything you imagine. +The tiniest, softest, softest sound to something that is so broad, so huge, so incredible! There's always something -- it may sound good up there, may not be so good there. +May be great there, but terrible up there. +Maybe terrible over there, but not too bad there, etc., etc. +So to find an actual hall is incredible -- for which you can play exactly what you imagine, without it being cosmetically enhanced. +And so therefore, acousticians are actually in conversation with people who are hearing impaired, and who are participators of sound. +And this is quite interesting. +I cannot, you know, give you any detail as far as what is actually happening with those halls, but it's just the fact that they are going to a group of people for whom so many years we've been saying, "Well, how on Earth can they experience music? You know, they're deaf." +We just -- we go like that, and we imagine that that's what deafness is about. +Or we go like that, and we imagine that's what blindness is about. +If we see someone in a wheelchair, we assume they cannot walk. +It may be that they can walk three, four, five steps. That, to them, means they can walk. +In a year's time, it could be two extra steps. +In another year's time, three extra steps. +Those are hugely important aspects to think about. +So when we do listen to each other, it's unbelievably important for us to really test our listening skills, to really use our bodies as a resonating chamber, to stop the judgment. +For me, as a musician who deals with 99 percent of new music, it's very easy for me to say, "Oh yes, I like that piece. +Oh no, I don't like that piece." And so on. +And you know, I just find that I have to give those pieces of music real time. +It may be that the chemistry isn't quite right between myself and that particular piece of music, but that doesn't mean I have the right to say it's a bad piece of music. +And you know, it's just one of the great things about being a musician, is that it is so unbelievably fluid. +So there are no rules, no right, no wrong, this way, that way. +If I asked you to clap -- maybe I can do this. +If I can just say, "Please clap and create the sound of thunder." +I'm assuming we've all experienced thunder. +Now, I don't mean just the sound; I mean really listen to that thunder within yourselves. +And please try to create that through your clapping. Try. Just -- please try. +Very good! Snow. Snow. Have you ever heard snow? +Audience: No. +Evelyn Glennie: Well then, stop clapping. Try again. +Try again. Snow. +See, you're awake. +Rain. Not bad. Not bad. +You know, the interesting thing here, though, is that I asked a group of kids not so long ago exactly the same question. +Now -- great imagination, thank you very much. +However, not one of you got out of your seats to think, "Right! How can I clap? OK, maybe ... Maybe I can use my jewelry to create extra sounds. +Maybe I can use the other parts of my body to create extra sounds." +Not a single one of you thought about clapping in a slightly different way other than sitting in your seats there and using two hands. +In the same way that when we listen to music, we assume that it's all being fed through here. +This is how we experience music. Of course it's not. +We experience thunder -- thunder, thunder. Think, think, think. +Listen, listen, listen. Now -- what can we do with thunder? +I remember my teacher. When I first started, my very first lesson, I was all prepared with sticks, ready to go. +And instead of him saying, "OK, Evelyn, please, feet slightly apart, arms at a more-or-less 90 degree angle, sticks in a more-or-less V shape, keep this amount of space here, etc. +Please keep your back straight, etc., etc., etc." -- where I was probably just going to end up absolutely rigid, frozen, and I would not be able to strike the drum, because I was thinking of so many other things -- he said, "Evelyn, take this drum away for seven days, and I'll see you next week." +So, heavens! What was I to do? I no longer required the sticks; I wasn't allowed to have these sticks. +I had to basically look at this particular drum, see how it was made, what these little lugs did, what the snares did. +Turned it upside down, experimented with the shell, experimented with the head. +Experimented with my body, experimented with jewelry, experimented with all sorts of things. +And of course, I returned with all sorts of bruises and things like that -- but nevertheless, it was such an unbelievable experience, because then, where on Earth are you going to experience that in a piece of music? +Where on Earth are you going to experience that in a study book? +So we never, ever dealt with actual study books. +So for example, one of the things that we learn when we are dealing with being a percussion player, as opposed to a musician, is basically straightforward single stroke rolls. +Like that. And then we get a little faster and a little faster and a little faster. +And so on and so forth. What does this piece require? +Single stroke rolls. So why can't I then do that whilst learning a piece of music? +And that's exactly what he did. +And interestingly, the older I became, and when I became a full-time student at a so called "music institution," all of that went out of the window. +We had to study from study books. +And constantly, the question, "Well, why? Why? What is this relating to? +I need to play a piece of music." "Oh, well, this will help your control!" +"Well, how? Why do I need to learn that? I need to relate it to a piece of music. +You know. I need to say something. +"Why am I practicing paradiddles? +Is it just literally for control, for hand-stick control? Why am I doing that? +I need to have the reason, and the reason has to be by saying something through the music." +And by saying something through music, which basically is sound, we then can reach all sorts of things to all sorts of people. +But I don't want to take responsibility of your emotional baggage. +That's up to you, when you walk through a hall. +Because that then determines what and how we listen to certain things. +I may feel sorrowful, or happy, or exhilarated, or angry when I play certain pieces of music, but I'm not necessarily wanting you to feel exactly the same thing. +So please, the next time you go to a concert, just allow your body to open up, allow your body to be this resonating chamber. +Be aware that you're not going to experience the same thing as the performer is. +The performer is in the worst possible position for the actual sound, because they're hearing the contact of the stick on the drum, or the mallet on the bit of wood, or the bow on the string, etc., or the breath that's creating the sound from wind and brass. +They're experiencing that rawness there. +But yet they're experiencing something so unbelievably pure, which is before the sound is actually happening. +Please take note of the life of the sound after the actual initial strike, or breath, is being pulled. Just experience the whole journey of that sound in the same way that I wished I'd experienced the whole journey of this particular conference, rather than just arriving last night. +But I hope maybe we can share one or two things as the day progresses. +But thank you very much for having me! +In 1962, with Rachel Carson's "Silent Spring," I think for people like me in the world of the making of things, the canary in the mine wasn't singing. +And so the question that we might not have birds became kind of fundamental to those of us wandering around looking for the meadowlarks that seemed to have all disappeared. +And the question was, were the birds singing? +Now, I'm not a scientist, that'll be really clear. +But, you know, we've just come from this discussion of what a bird might be. +What is a bird? +Well, in my world, this is a rubber duck. +It comes in California with a warning -- "This product contains chemicals known by the State of California to cause cancer and birth defects or other reproductive harm." +This is a bird. +What kind of culture would produce a product of this kind and then label it and sell it to children? +I think we have a design problem. +That was a nice thing to get. +That was one sentence. +Henry James would be proud. +This is -- I put it down at the bottom, but that was extemporaneous, obviously. +The fundamental issue is that, for me, design is the first signal of human intentions. +So what are our intentions, and what would our intentions be -- if we wake up in the morning, we have designs on the world -- well, what would our intention be as a species now that we're the dominant species? +And it's not just stewardship and dominion debate, because really, dominion is implicit in stewardship -- because how could you dominate something you had killed? +And stewardship's implicit in dominion, because you can't be steward of something if you can't dominate it. +So the question is, what is the first question for designers? +Now, as guardians -- let's say the state, for example, which reserves the right to kill, the right to be duplicitous and so on -- the question we're asking the guardian at this point is are we meant, how are we meant, to secure local societies, create world peace and save the environment? +But I don't know that that's the common debate. +Commerce, on the other hand, is relatively quick, essentially creative, highly effective and efficient, and fundamentally honest, because we can't exchange value for very long if we don't trust each other. +So we use the tools of commerce primarily for our work, but the question we bring to it is, how do we love all the children of all species for all time? +And so we start our designs with that question. +Because what we realize today is that modern culture appears to have adopted a strategy of tragedy. +If we come here and say, "Well, I didn't intend to cause global warming on the way here," and we say, "That's not part of my plan," then we realize it's part of our de facto plan. +Because it's the thing that's happening because we have no other plan. +And I was at the White House for President Bush, meeting with every federal department and agency, and I pointed out that they appear to have no plan. +If the end game is global warming, they're doing great. +If the end game is mercury toxification of our children downwind of coal fire plants as they scuttled the Clean Air Act, then I see that our education programs should be explicitly defined as, "Brain death for all children. No child left behind." +So, the question is, how many federal officials are ready to move to Ohio and Pennsylvania with their families? +So if you don't have an endgame of something delightful, then you're just moving chess pieces around, if you don't know you're taking the king. +So perhaps we could develop a strategy of change, which requires humility. And in my business as an architect, it's unfortunate the word "humility" and the word "architect" have not appeared in the same paragraph since "The Fountainhead." +So if anybody here has trouble with the concept of design humility, reflect on this -- it took us 5,000 years to put wheels on our luggage. +So, as Kevin Kelly pointed out, there is no endgame. +There is an infinite game, and we're playing in that infinite game. +And so we call it "cradle to cradle," and our goal is very simple. +This is what I presented to the White House. +Our goal is a delightfully diverse, safe, healthy and just world, with clean air, clean water, soil and power -- economically, equitably, ecologically and elegantly enjoyed, period. +What don't you like about this? +Which part of this don't you like? +So we realized we want full diversity, even though it can be difficult to remember what De Gaulle said when asked what it was like to be President of France. +He said, "What do you think it's like trying to run a country with 400 kinds of cheese?" +But at the same time, we realize that our products are not safe and healthy. +So we've designed products and we analyzed chemicals down to the parts per million. +This is a baby blanket by Pendleton that will give your child nutrition instead of Alzheimer's later in life. +We can ask ourselves, what is justice, and is justice blind, or is justice blindness? +And at what point did that uniform turn from white to black? +Water has been declared a human right by the United Nations. +Air quality is an obvious thing to anyone who breathes. +Is there anybody here who doesn't breathe? +Clean soil is a critical problem -- the nitrification, the dead zones in the Gulf of Mexico. +A fundamental issue that's not being addressed. +We've seen the first form of solar energy that's beat the hegemony of fossil fuels in the form of wind here in the Great Plains, and so that hegemony is leaving. +And if we remember Sheikh Yamani when he formed OPEC, they asked him, "When will we see the end of the age of oil?" +I don't know if you remember his answer, but it was, "The Stone Age didn't end because we ran out of stones." +We see that companies acting ethically in this world are outperforming those that don't. +We see the flows of materials in a rather terrifying prospect. +This is a hospital monitor from Los Angeles, sent to China. +This woman will expose herself to toxic phosphorous, release four pounds of toxic lead into her childrens' environment, which is from copper. +On the other hand, we see great signs of hope. +Here's Dr. Venkataswamy in India, who's figured out how to do mass-produced health. +He has given eyesight to two million people for free. +We see in our material flows that car steels don't become car steel again because of the contaminants of the coatings -- bismuth, antimony, copper and so on. +They become building steel. +On the other hand, we're working with Berkshire Hathaway, Warren Buffett and Shaw Carpet, the largest carpet company in the world. +We've developed a carpet that is continuously recyclable, down to the parts per million. +The upper is Nylon 6 that can go back to caprolactam, the bottom, a polyolephine -- infinitely recyclable thermoplastic. +Now if I was a bird, the building on my left is a liability. +The building on my right, which is our corporate campus for The Gap with an ancient meadow, is an asset -- its nesting grounds. +Here's where I come from. I grew up in Hong Kong, with six million people in 40 square miles. +During the dry season, we had four hours of water every fourth day. +And the relationship to landscape was that of farmers who have been farming the same piece of ground for 40 centuries. +You can't farm the same piece of ground for 40 centuries without understanding nutrient flow. +My childhood summers were in the Puget Sound of Washington, among the first growth and big growth. +My grandfather had been a lumberjack in the Olympics, so I have a lot of tree karma I am working off. +I went to Yale for graduate school, studied in a building of this style by Le Corbusier, affectionately known in our business as Brutalism. +If we look at the world of architecture, we see with Mies' 1928 tower for Berlin, the question might be, "Well, where's the sun?" +And this might have worked in Berlin, but we built it in Houston, and the windows are all closed. And with most products appearing not to have been designed for indoor use, this is actually a vertical gas chamber. +When I went to Yale, we had the first energy crisis, and I was designing the first solar-heated house in Ireland as a student, which I then built -- which would give you a sense of my ambition. +And Richard Meier, who was one of my teachers, kept coming over to my desk to give me criticism, and he would say, "Bill, you've got to understand- -- solar energy has nothing to do with architecture." +I guess he didn't read Vitruvius. +In 1984, we did the first so-called "green office" in America for Environmental Defense. +We started asking manufacturers what were in their materials. +They said, "They're proprietary, they're legal, go away." +The only indoor quality work done in this country at that time was sponsored by R.J. Reynolds Tobacco Company, and it was to prove there was no danger from secondhand smoke in the workplace. +So, all of a sudden, here I am, graduating from high school in 1969, and this happens, and we realize that "away" went away. +Remember we used to throw things away, and we'd point to away? +And yet, NOAA has now shown us, for example -- you see that little blue thing above Hawaii? +That's the Pacific Gyre. +It was recently dragged for plankton by scientists, and they found six times as much plastic as plankton. +When asked, they said, "It's kind of like a giant toilet that doesn't flush." +Perhaps that's away. +So we're looking for the design rules of this -- this is the highest biodiversity of trees in the world, Irian Jaya, 259 species of tree, and we described this in the book, "Cradle to Cradle." +The book itself is a polymer. It is not a tree. +That's the name of the first chapter -- "This Book is Not a Tree." +Because in poetics, as Margaret Atwood pointed out, "we write our history on the skin of fish with the blood of bears." +Well, why don't we knock that down and write on it? +So, we're looking at the same criteria as most people -- you know, can I afford it? +Does it work? Do I like it? +We're adding the Jeffersonian agenda, and I come from Charlottesville, where I've had the privilege of living in a house designed by Thomas Jefferson. +We're adding life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. +Now if we look at the word "competition," I'm sure most of you've used it. +You know, most people don't realize it comes from the Latin competere, which means strive together. +It means the way Olympic athletes train with each other. +They get fit together, and then they compete. +The Williams sisters compete -- one wins Wimbledon. +So we've been looking at the idea of competition as a way of cooperating in order to get fit together. +And the Chinese government has now -- I work with the Chinese government now -- has taken this up. +We're also looking at survival of the fittest, not in just competition terms in our modern context of destroy the other or beat them to the ground, but really to fit together and build niches and have growth that is good. +Now most environmentalists don't say growth is good, because, in our lexicon, asphalt is two words: assigning blame. +But if we look at asphalt as our growth, then we realize that all we're doing is destroying the planetary's fundamental underlying operating system. +So when we see E equals mc squared come along, from a poet's perspective, we see energy as physics, chemistry as mass, and all of a sudden, you get this biology. +And we have plenty of energy, so we'll solve that problem, but the biology problem's tricky, because as we put through all these toxic materials that we disgorge, we will never be able to recover that. +And as Francis Crick pointed out, nine years after discovering DNA with Mr. Watson, that life itself has to have growth as a precondition -- it has to have free energy, sunlight and it needs to be an open system of chemicals. +So we're asking for human artifice to become a living thing, and we want growth, we want free energy from sunlight and we want an open metabolism for chemicals. +Then, the question becomes not growth or no growth, but what do you want to grow? +So instead of just growing destruction, we want to grow the things that we might enjoy, and someday the FDA will allow us to make French cheese. +So therefore, we have these two metabolisms, and I worked with a German chemist, Michael Braungart, and we've identified the two fundamental metabolisms. +The biological one I'm sure you understand, but also the technical one, where we take materials and put them into closed cycles. +We call them biological nutrition and technical nutrition. +Technical nutrition will be in an order of magnitude of biological nutrition. +Biological nutrition can supply about 500 million humans, which means that if we all wore Birkenstocks and cotton, the world would run out of cork and dry up. +So we need materials in closed cycles, but we need to analyze them down to the parts per million for cancer, birth defects, mutagenic effects, disruption of our immune systems, biodegradation, persistence, heavy metal content, knowledge of how we're making them and their production and so on. +Our first product was a textile where we analyzed 8,000 chemicals in the textile industry. +Using those intellectual filters, we eliminated [7,962.] We were left with 38 chemicals. +We have since databased the 4000 most commonly used chemicals in human manufacturing, and we're releasing this database into the public in six weeks. +So designers all over the world can analyze their products down to the parts per million for human and ecological health. +We've developed a protocol so that companies can send these same messages all the way through their supply chains, because when we asked most companies we work with -- about a trillion dollars -- and say, "Where does your stuff come from?" They say, "Suppliers." +"And where does it go?" +"Customers." +So we need some help there. +So the biological nutrients, the first fabrics -- the water coming out was clean enough to drink. +Technical nutrients -- this is for Shaw Carpet, infinitely reusable carpet. +Here's nylon going back to caprolactam back to carpet. +Biotechnical nutrients -- the Model U for Ford Motor, a cradle to cradle car -- concept car. +Shoes for Nike, where the uppers are polyesters, infinitely recyclable, the bottoms are biodegradable soles. +Wear your old shoes in, your new shoes out. +There is no finish line. +The idea here of the car is that some of the materials go back to the industry forever, some of the materials go back to soil -- it's all solar-powered. +Here's a building at Oberlin College we designed that makes more energy than it needs to operate and purifies its own water. +Here's a building for The Gap, where the ancient grasses of San Bruno, California, are on the roof. +And this is our project for Ford Motor Company. +It's the revitalization of the River Rouge in Dearborn. +This is obviously a color photograph. +These are our tools. These are how we sold it to Ford. +We saved Ford 35 million dollars doing it this way, day one, which is the equivalent of the Ford Taurus at a four percent margin of an order for 900 million dollars worth of cars. +Here it is. It's the world's largest green roof, 10 and a half acres. +This is the roof, saving money, and this is the first species to arrive here. These are killdeer. +They showed up in five days. +And we now have 350-pound auto workers learning bird songs on the Internet. +We're developing now protocols for cities -- that's the home of technical nutrients. +The country -- the home of biological. And putting them together. +And so I will finish by showing you a new city we're designing for the Chinese government. +We're doing 12 cities for China right now, based on cradle to cradle as templates. +Our assignment is to develop protocols for the housing for 400 million people in 12 years. +We did a mass energy balance -- if they use brick, they will lose all their soil and burn all their coal. +They'll have cities with no energy and no food. +We signed a Memorandum of Understanding -- here's Madam Deng Nan, Deng Xiaoping's daughter -- for China to adopt cradle to cradle. +Because if they toxify themselves, being the lowest-cost producer, send it to the lowest-cost distribution -- Wal-Mart -- and then we send them all our money, what we'll discover is that we have what, effectively, when I was a student, was called mutually assured destruction. +Now we do it by molecule. These are our cities. +We're building a new city next to this city; look at that landscape. +This is the site. +We don't normally do green fields, but this one is about to be built, so they brought us in to intercede. +This is their plan. +It's a rubber stamp grid that they laid right on that landscape. +And they brought us in and said, "What would you do?" +This is what they would end up with, which is another color photograph. +So this is the existing site, so this is what it looks like now, and here's our proposal. +So the way we approached this is we studied the hydrology very carefully. +We studied the biota, the ancient biota, the current farming and the protocols. +We studied the winds and the sun to make sure everybody in the city will have fresh air, fresh water and direct sunlight in every single apartment at some point during the day. +We then take the parks and lay them out as ecological infrastructure. +We lay out the building areas. +We start to integrate commercial and mixed use so the people all have centers and places to be. +The transportation is all very simple, everybody's within a five-minute walk of mobility. +We have a 24-hour street, so that there's always a place that's alive. +The waste systems all connect. +If you flush a toilet, your feces will go to the sewage treatment plants, which are sold as assets, not liabilities. +Because who wants the fertilizer factory that makes natural gas? +The waters are all taken in to construct the wetlands for habitat restorations. +And then it makes natural gas, which then goes back into the city to power the fuel for the cooking for the city. +So this is -- these are fertilizer gas plants. +And then the compost is all taken back to the roofs of the city, where we've got farming, because what we've done is lifted up the city, the landscape, into the air to -- to restore the native landscape on the roofs of the buildings. +The solar power of all the factory centers and all the industrial zones with their light roofs powers the city. +And this is the concept for the top of the city. +We've lifted the earth up onto the roofs. +The farmers have little bridges to get from one roof to the next. +We inhabit the city with work/live space on all the ground floors. +And so this is the existing city, and this is the new city. +When you think about resilience and technology it's actually much easier. +You're going to see some other speakers today, I already know, who are going to talk about breaking-bones stuff, and, of course, with technology it never is. +So it's very easy, comparatively speaking, to be resilient. +I think that, if we look at what happened on the Internet, with such an incredible last half a dozen years, that it's hard to even get the right analogy for it. +A lot of how we decide, how we're supposed to react to things and what we're supposed to expect about the future depends on how we bucket things and how we categorize them. +And so I think the tempting analogy for the boom-bust that we just went through with the Internet is a gold rush. +It's easy to think of this analogy as very different from some of the other things you might pick. +For one thing, both were very real. +In 1849, in that Gold Rush, they took over $700 million worth of gold out of California. It was very real. +The Internet was also very real. This is a real way for humans to communicate with each other. It's a big deal. +Huge boom. Huge boom. Huge bust. Huge bust. +You keep going, and both things are lots of hype. +I don't have to remind you of all the hype that was involved with the Internet -- like GetRich.com. +But you had the same thing with the Gold Rush. "Gold. Gold. Gold." +Sixty-eight rich men on the Steamer Portland. Stacks of yellow metal. +Some have 5,000. Many have more. +A few bring out 100,000 dollars each. +People would get very excited about this when they read these articles. +"The Eldorado of the United States of America: the discovery of inexhaustible gold mines in California." +And the parallels between the Gold Rush and the Internet Rush continue very strongly. +So many people left what they were doing. +And what would happen is -- and the Gold Rush went on for years. +People on the East Coast in 1849, when they first started to get the news, they thought, "Ah, this isn't real." +But they keep hearing about people getting rich, and then in 1850 they still hear that. And they think it's not real. +By about 1852, they're thinking, "Am I the stupidest person on Earth by not rushing to California?" And they start to decide they are. +These are community affairs, by the way. +Local communities on the East Coast would get together and whole teams of 10, 20 people would caravan across the United States, and they would form companies. +These were typically not solitary efforts. But no matter what, if you were a lawyer or a banker, people dropped what they were doing, no matter what skill set they had, to go pan for gold. +This guy on the left, Dr. Richard Beverley Cole, he lived in Philadelphia and he took the Panama route. +They would take a ship down to Panama, across the isthmus, and then take another ship north. +This guy, Dr. Toland, went by covered wagon to California. +This has its parallels, too. Doctors leaving their practices. +These are both very successful -- a physician in one case, a surgeon in the other. +Same thing happened on the Internet. You get DrKoop.com. +In the Gold Rush, people literally jumped ship. +The San Francisco harbor was clogged with 600 ships at the peak because the ships would get there and the crews would abandon to go search for gold. +So there were literally 600 captains and 600 ships. +They turned the ships into hotels, because they couldn't sail them anywhere. +You had dotcom fever. And you had gold fever. +And you saw some of the excesses that the dotcom fever created and the same thing happened. +The fort in San Francisco at the time had about 1,300 soldiers. +Half of them deserted to go look for gold. +And they wouldn't let the other half out to go look for the first half because they were afraid they wouldn't come back. +And one of the soldiers wrote home, and this is the sentence that he put: "The struggle between right and six dollars a month and wrong and 75 dollars a day is a rather severe one." +They had bad burn rate in the Gold Rush. A very bad burn rate. +This is actually from the Klondike Gold Rush. This is the White Pass Trail. +They loaded up their mules and their horses. +And they didn't plan right. +And they didn't know how far they would really have to go, and they overloaded the horses with hundreds and hundreds of pounds of stuff. +In fact it was so bad that most of the horses died before they could get where they were going. +It got renamed the "Dead Horse Trail." +The eyeless sockets of the pack animals everywhere account for the myriads of ravens along the road. +The inhumanity which this trail has been witness to, the heartbreak and suffering which so many have undergone, cannot be imagined. They certainly cannot be described." +And you know, without the smell that would have accompanied that, we had the same thing on the Internet: very bad burn rate calculations. +I'll just play one of these and you'll remember it. +This is a commercial that was played on the Super Bowl in the year 2000. +: Bride #1: You said you had a large selection of invitations. Clerk: But we do. +Bride #2: Then why does she have my invitation? +Announcer: What may be a little thing to some ... Bride #3: You are mine, little man. +Announcer: Could be a really big deal to you. Husband #1: Is that your wife? +Husband #2: Not for another 15 minutes. Announcer: After all, it's your special day. +OurBeginning.com. Life's an event. Announce it to the world. +Jeff Bezos: It's very difficult to figure out what that ad is for. +But they spent three and a half million dollars in the 2000 Super Bowl to air that ad, even though, at the time, they only had a million dollars in annual revenue. +Now, here's where our analogy with the Gold Rush starts to diverge, and I think rather severely. +And that is, in a gold rush, when it's over, it's over. +Here's this guy: "There are many men in Dawson at the present time who feel keenly disappointed. +They've come thousands of miles on a perilous trip, risked life, health and property, spent months of the most arduous labor a man can perform and at length with expectations raised to the highest pitch have reached the coveted goal only to discover the fact that there is nothing here for them." +And that was, of course, the very common story. +So there's a much better analogy that allows you to be incredibly optimistic and that analogy is the electric industry. +And there are a lot of similarities between the Internet and the electric industry. +With the electric industry you actually have to -- one of them is that they're both sort of thin, horizontal, enabling layers that go across lots of different industries. +It's not a specific thing. +But electricity is also very, very broad, so you have to sort of narrow it down. +You know, it can be used as an incredible means of transmitting power. +It's an incredible means of coordinating, in a very fine-grained way, information flows. +There's a bunch of things that are interesting about electricity. +And the part of the electric revolution that I want to focus on is sort of the golden age of appliances. +The killer app that got the world ready for appliances was the light bulb. +So the light bulb is what wired the world. +And they weren't thinking about appliances when they wired the world. +They were really thinking about -- they weren't putting electricity into the home; they were putting lighting into the home. +And, but it really -- it got the electricity. It took a long time. +This was a huge -- as you would expect -- a huge capital build out. +All the streets had to be torn up. +This is work going on down in lower Manhattan where they built some of the first electric power generating stations. +And they're tearing up all the streets. +The Edison Electric Company, which became Edison General Electric, which became General Electric, paid for all of this digging up of the streets. It was incredibly expensive. +But that is not the -- and that's not the part that's really most similar to the Web. +Because, remember, the Web got to stand on top of all this heavy infrastructure that had been put in place because of the long-distance phone network. +So all of the cabling and all of the heavy infrastructure -- I'm going back now to, sort of, the explosive part of the Web in 1994, when it was growing 2,300 percent a year. +How could it grow at 2,300 percent a year in 1994 when people weren't really investing in the Web? +Well, it was because that heavy infrastructure had already been laid down. +So the light bulb laid down the heavy infrastructure, and then home appliances started coming into being. +And this was huge. The first one was the electric fan -- this was the 1890 electric fan. +And the appliances, the golden age of appliances really lasted -- it depends how you want to measure it -- but it's anywhere from 40 to 60 years. It goes on a long time. +It starts about 1890. And the electric fan was a big success. +The electric iron, also very big. +By the way, this is the beginning of the asbestos lawsuit. +There's asbestos under that handle there. +This is the first vacuum cleaner, the 1905 Skinner Vacuum, from the Hoover Company. And this one weighed 92 pounds and took two people to operate and cost a quarter of a car. +So it wasn't a big seller. +This was truly, truly an early-adopter product -- the 1905 Skinner Vacuum. +But three years later, by 1908, it weighed 40 pounds. +Now, not all these things were highly successful. +This is the electric tie press, which never really did catch on. +People, I guess, decided that they would not wrinkle their ties. +These never really caught on either: the electric shoe warmer and drier. Never a big seller. +This came in, like, six different colors. +I don't know why. But I thought, you know, sometimes it's just not the right time for an invention; maybe it's time to give this one another shot. +So I thought we could build a Super Bowl ad for this. +We'd need the right partner. And I thought that really -- I thought that would really work, to give that another shot. +Now, the toaster was huge because they used to make toast on open fires, and it took a lot of time and attention. +I want to point out one thing. This is -- you guys know what this is. +They hadn't invented the electric socket yet. +So this was -- remember, they didn't wire the houses for electricity. +They wired them for lighting. So your -- your appliances would plug in. +They would -- each room typically had a light bulb socket at the top. +And you'd plug it in there. +In fact, if you've seen the Carousel of Progress at Disney World, you've seen this. Here are the cables coming up into this light fixture. +All the appliances plug in there. And you would just unscrew your light bulb if you wanted to plug in an appliance. +The next thing that really was a big, big deal was the washing machine. +Now, this was an object of much envy and lust. +Everybody wanted one of these electric washing machines. +On the left-hand side, this was the soapy water. +And there's a rotor there -- that this motor is spinning. +And it would clean your clothes. +This is the clean rinse-water. So you'd take the clothes out of here, put them in here, and then you'd run the clothes through this electric ringer. +And this was a big deal. +You'd keep this on your porch. It was a little bit messy and kind of a pain. +And you'd run a long cord into the house where you could screw it into your light socket. +And that's actually kind of an important point in my presentation, because they hadn't invented the off switch. +That was to come much later -- the off switch on appliances -- because it didn't make any sense. +I mean, you didn't want this thing clogging up a light socket. +So you know, when you were done with it, you unscrewed it. +That's what you did. You didn't turn it off. +And as I said before, they hadn't invented the electric outlet either, so the washing machine was a particularly dangerous device. +And there are -- when you research this, there are gruesome descriptions of people getting their hair and clothes caught in these devices. +And they couldn't yank the cord out because it was screwed into a light socket inside the house. +And there was no off switch, so it wasn't very good. +And you might think that that was incredibly stupid of our ancestors to be plugging things into a light socket like this. +But, you know, before I get too far into condemning our ancestors, I thought I'd show you: this is my conference room. +This is a total kludge, if you ask me. +First of all, this got installed upside down. This light socket -- and so the cord keeps falling out, so I taped it in. +This is supposed -- don't even get me started. But that's not the worst one. +This is what it looks like under my desk. +I took this picture just two days ago. +So we really haven't progressed that much since 1908. +It's a total, total mess. +And, you know, we think it's getting better, but have you tried to install 802.11 yourself? +I challenge you to try. It's very hard. +I know Ph.D.s in Computer Science -- this process has brought them to tears, absolute tears. And that's assuming you already have DSL in your house. +Try to get DSL installed in your house. +The engineers who do it everyday can't do it. +They have to -- typically, they come three times. +And one friend of mine was telling me a story: not only did they get there and have to wait, but then the engineers, when they finally did get there, for the third time, they had to call somebody. +And they were really happy that the guy had a speakerphone because then they had to wait on hold for an hour to talk to somebody to give them an access code after they got there. +So we're not -- we're pretty kludge-y ourselves. +By the way, DSL is a kludge. +I mean, this is a twisted pair of copper that was never designed for the purpose it's being put to -- you know it's the whole thing -- we're very, very primitive. And that's kind of the point. +Because, you know, resilience -- if you think of it in terms of the Gold Rush, then you'd be pretty depressed right now because the last nugget of gold would be gone. +But the good thing is, with innovation, there isn't a last nugget. +Every new thing creates two new questions and two new opportunities. +That's where we are. We don't get our hair caught in it, but that's the level of primitiveness of where we are. +We're in 1908. +And if you believe that, then stuff like this doesn't bother you. This is 1996: "All the negatives add up to making the online experience not worth the trouble." +1998: "Amazon.toast." In 1999: "Amazon.bomb." +My mom hates this picture. +She -- but you know, if you really do believe that it's the very, very beginning, if you believe it's the 1908 Hurley washing machine, then you're incredibly optimistic. And I do think that that's where we are. +And I do think there's more innovation ahead of us than there is behind us. +And in 1917, Sears -- I want to get this exactly right. +This was the advertisement that they ran in 1917. +It says: "Use your electricity for more than light." +And I think that's where we are. +We're very, very early. Thank you very much. +Mockingbirds are badass. +They are. +Mockingbirds -- that's Mimus polyglottos -- are the emcees of the animal kingdom. +They listen and mimic and remix what they like. +They rock the mic outside my window every morning. +I can hear them sing the sounds of the car alarms like they were songs of spring. +I mean, if you can talk it, a mockingbird can squawk it. +So check it, I'm gonna to catch mockingbirds. +I'm going to trap mockingbirds all across the nation and put them gently into mason jars like mockingbird Molotov cocktails. +Yeah. And as I drive through a neighborhood, say, where people got-a-lotta, I'll take a mockingbird I caught in a neighborhood where folks ain't got nada and just let it go, you know. +Up goes the bird, out come the words, "Juanito, Juanito, vente a comer mi hijo!" +Oh, I'm going to be the Johnny Appleseed of sound. +Cruising random city streets, rocking a drop-top Cadillac with a big backseat, packing like 13 brown paper Walmart bags full of loaded mockingbirds, and I'll get everybody. +I'll get the nitwit on the network news saying, "We'll be back in a moment with more on the crisis." +I'll get some asshole at a watering hole asking what brand the ice is. +I'll get that lady at the laundromat who always seems to know what being nice is. +I'll get your postman making dinner plans. +I'll get the last time you lied. +I'll get, "Baby, just give me the frickin' TV guide." +I'll get a lonely, little sentence with real error in it, "Yeah, I guess I could come inside, but only for a minute." +I'll get an ESL class in Chinatown learning "It's Raining, It's Pouring." +I'll put a mockingbird on a late-night train just to get an old man snoring. +I'll get your ex-lover telling someone else, "Good morning." +I'll get everyone's good mornings. +I don't care how you make 'em. +Aloha. Konichiwa. Shalom. Ah-Salam Alaikum. +Everybody means everybody, means everybody here. +And so maybe I'll build a gilded cage. +I'll line the bottom with old notebook pages. +Inside it, I will place a mockingbird for -- short explanation, hippie parents. +What does a violin have to do with technology? +Where in the world is this world heading? +On one end, gold bars -- on the other, an entire planet. +We are 12 billion light years from the edge. +That's a guess. +Space is length and breadth continued indefinitely, but you cannot buy a ticket to travel commercially to space in America because countries are beginning to eat like us, live like us and die like us. +You might wanna avert your gaze, because that is a newt about to regenerate its limb, and shaking hands spreads more germs than kissing. +There's about 10 million phage per job. +It's a very strange world inside a nanotube. +Women can talk; black men ski; white men build strong buildings; we build strong suns. +The surface of the Earth is absolutely riddled with holes, and here we are, right in the middle. +It is the voice of life that calls us to come and learn. +When all the little mockingbirds fly away, they're going to sound like the last four days. +I will get uptown gurus, downtown teachers, broke-ass artists and dealers, and Filipino preachers, leaf blowers, bartenders, boob-job doctors, hooligans, garbage men, your local Congressmen in the spotlight, guys in the overhead helicopters. +Everybody gets heard. +Everybody gets this one, honest mockingbird as a witness. +And I'm on this. +I'm on this 'til the whole thing spreads, with chat rooms and copycats and moms maybe tucking kids into bed singing, "Hush, little baby, don't say a word. +Wait for the man with the mockingbird." +Yeah. And then come the news crews, and the man-in-the-street interviews, and the letters to the editor. +Everybody asking, just who is responsible for this citywide, nationwide mockingbird cacophony, and somebody finally is going to tip the City Council of Monterey, California off to me, and they'll offer me a key to the city. +A gold-plated, oversized key to the city and that is all I need, 'cause if I get that, I can unlock the air. +I'll listen for what's missing, and I'll put it there. +Thank you, TED. +Chris Anderson: Wow. +Wow. +This song is one of Thomas' favorites, called "What You Do with What You've Got." +This is about a place in London called Kiteflyer's Hill where I used to go and spend hours going "When is he coming back? When is he coming back?" +So this is another one dedicated to that guy ... +who I've got over. +But this is "Kiteflyer's Hill." +It's a beautiful song written by a guy called Martin Evan, actually, for me. +Boo Hewerdine, Thomas Dolby, thank you very much for inviting me. It's been a blessing singing for you. +Thank you very much. +I am a vicar in the Church of England. +I've been a priest in the Church for 20 years. +For most of that time, I've been struggling and grappling with questions about the nature of God. Who is God? +And I'm very aware that when you say the word "God," many people will turn off immediately. +And most people, both within and outside the organized church, still have a picture of a celestial controller, a rule maker, a policeman in the sky who orders everything, and causes everything to happen. +He will protect his own people, and answer the prayers of the faithful. +And in the worship of my church, the most frequently used adjective about God is "almighty." +But I have a problem with that. +I have become more and more uncomfortable with this perception of God over the years. +Do we really believe that God is the kind of male boss that we've been presenting in our worship and in our liturgies over all these years? +Of course, there have been thinkers who have suggested different ways of looking at God. +Exploring the feminine, nurturing side of divinity. +Suggesting that God expresses Himself or Herself through powerlessness, rather than power. +Acknowledging that God is unknown and unknowable by definition. +Finding deep resonances with other religions and philosophies and ways of looking at life as part of what is a universal and global search for meaning. +These ideas are well known in liberal academic circles, but clergy like myself have been reluctant to air them, for fear of creating tension and division in our church communities, for fear of upsetting the simple faith of more traditional believers. +I have chosen not to rock the boat. +Then, on December 26th last year, just two months ago, that underwater earthquake triggered the tsunami. +And two weeks later, Sunday morning, 9th of January, I found myself standing in front of my congregation -- intelligent, well meaning, mostly thoughtful Christian people -- and I needed to express, on their behalf, our feelings and our questions. +I had my own personal responses, but I also have a public role, and something needed to be said. +And this is what I said. +Shortly after the tsunami I read a newspaper article written by the Archbishop of Canterbury -- fine title -- about the tragedy in Southern Asia. +The essence of what he said was this: the people most affected by the devastation and loss of life do not want intellectual theories about how God let this happen. +He wrote, "If some religious genius did come up with an explanation of exactly why all these deaths made sense, would we feel happier, or safer, or more confident in God?" +If the man in the photograph that appeared in the newspapers, holding the hand of his dead child was standing in front of us now, there are no words that we could say to him. +A verbal response would not be appropriate. +The only appropriate response would be a compassionate silence and some kind of practical help. +It isn't a time for explanation, or preaching, or theology; it's a time for tears. +This is true. And yet here we are, my church in Oxford, semi-detached from events that happened a long way away, but with our faith bruised. +And we want an explanation from God. +We demand an explanation from God. +Some have concluded that we can only believe in a God who shares our pain. +In some way, God must feel the anguish, and grief, and physical pain that we feel. +In some way the eternal God must be able to enter into the souls of human beings and experience the torment within. +And if this is true, it must also be that God knows the joy and exaltation of the human spirit, as well. +We want a God who can weep with those who weep, and rejoice with those who rejoice. +This seems to me both a deeply moving and a convincing re-statement of Christian belief about God. +For hundreds of years, the prevailing orthodoxy, the accepted truth, was that God the Father, the Creator, is unchanging and therefore by definition cannot feel pain or sadness. +Now the unchanging God feels a bit cold and indifferent to me. +And the devastating events of the 20th century have forced people to question the cold, unfeeling God. +The slaughter of millions in the trenches and in the death camps have caused people to ask, "Where is God in all this? +Who is God in all this?" +And the answer was, "God is in this with us, or God doesn't deserve our allegiance anymore." +If God is a bystander, observing but not involved, then God may well exist, but we don't want to know about Him. +Many Jews and Christians now feel like this, I know. +And I am among them. +So we have a suffering God -- a God who is intimately connected with this world and with every living soul. +I very much relate to this idea of God. +But it isn't enough. I need to ask some more questions, and I hope they are questions that you will want to ask, as well, some of you. +Over the last few weeks I have been struck by the number of times that words in our worship have felt a bit inappropriate, a bit dodgy. +We have a pram service on Tuesday mornings for mums and their pre-school children. +And last week we sang with the children one of their favorite songs, "The Wise Man Built His House Upon the Rock." +Perhaps some of you know it. Some of the words go like this: "The foolish man built his house upon the sand / And the floods came up / And the house on the sand went crash." +Then in the same week, at a funeral, we sang the familiar hymn "We Plow the Fields and Scatter," a very English hymn. +In the second verse comes the line, "The wind and waves obey Him." +Do they? I don't feel we can sing that song again in church, after what's happened. +So the first big question is about control. +Does God have a plan for each of us? Is God in control? +Does God order each moment? Does the wind and the waves obey Him? +From time to time, one hears Christians telling the story of how God organized things for them, so that everything worked out all right -- some difficulty overcome, some illness cured, some trouble averted, a parking space found at a crucial time. +I can remember someone saying this to me, with her eyes shining with enthusiasm at this wonderful confirmation of her faith and the goodness of God. +But if God can or will do these things -- intervene to change the flow of events -- then surely he could have stopped the tsunami. +Do we have a local God who can do little things like parking spaces, but not big things like 500 mile-per-hour waves? +That's just not acceptable to intelligent Christians, and we must acknowledge it. +Either God is responsible for the tsunami, or God is not in control. +After the tragedy, survival stories began to emerge. +You probably heard some of them: the man who surfed the wave, the teenage girl who recognized the danger because she had just been learning about tsunamis at school. +Then there was the congregation who had left their usual church building on the shore to hold a service in the hills. +The preacher delivered an extra long sermon, so that they were still out of harm's way when the wave struck. +Afterwards someone said that God must have been looking after them. +So the next question is about partiality. +Can we earn God's favor by worshipping Him or believing in Him? +Does God demand loyalty, like any medieval tyrant? +A God who looks after His own, so that Christians are OK, while everyone else perishes? +A cosmic us and them, and a God who is guilty of the worst kind of favoritism? +That would be appalling, and that would be the point at which I would hand in my membership. +Such a God would be morally inferior to the highest ideals of humanity. +So who is God, if not the great puppet-master or the tribal protector? +Perhaps God allows or permits terrible things to happen, so that heroism and compassion can be shown. +Perhaps God is testing us: testing our charity, or our faith. +Perhaps there is a great, cosmic plan that allows for horrible suffering so that everything will work out OK in the end. +Perhaps, but these ideas are all just variations on God controlling everything, the supreme commander toying with expendable units in a great campaign. +We are still left with a God who can do the tsunami and allow Auschwitz. +In his great novel, "The Brothers Karamazov," Dostoevsky gives these words to Ivan, addressed to his naive and devout younger brother, Alyosha: "If the sufferings of children go to make up the sum of sufferings which is necessary for the purchase of truth, then I say beforehand that the entire truth is not worth such a price. +We cannot afford to pay so much for admission. +It is not God that I do not accept. +I merely, most respectfully, return Him the ticket." +Or perhaps God set the whole universe going at the beginning and then relinquished control forever, so that natural processes could occur, and evolution run its course. +This seems more acceptable, but it still leaves God with the ultimate moral responsibility. +Is God a cold, unfeeling spectator? +Or a powerless lover, watching with infinite compassion things God is unable to control or change? +Is God intimately involved in our suffering, so that He feels it in His own being? +If we believe something like this, we must let go of the puppet-master completely, take our leave of the almighty controller, abandon traditional models. +We must think again about God. +Maybe God doesn't do things at all. +Maybe God isn't an agent like all of us are agents. +Early religious thought conceived God as a sort of superhuman person, doing things all over the place. +Beating up the Egyptians, drowning them in the Red Sea, wasting cities, getting angry. +The people knew their God by His mighty acts. +But what if God doesn't act? What if God doesn't do things at all? +What if God is in things? +The loving soul of the universe. +An in-dwelling compassionate presence, underpinning and sustaining all things. +What if God is in things? +In the infinitely complex network of relationships and connections that make up life. +In the natural cycle of life and death, the creation and destruction that must happen continuously. +In the process of evolution. +In the incredible intricacy and magnificence of the natural world. +In the collective unconscious, the soul of the human race. +In you, in me, mind and body and spirit. +In the tsunami, in the victims. In the depth of things. +In presence and in absence. In simplicity and complexity. +In change and development and growth. +How does this in-ness, this innerness, this interiority of God work? +It's hard to conceive, and begs more questions. +Is God just another name for the universe, with no independent existence at all? +I don't know. +To what extent can we ascribe personality to God? +I don't know. +In the end, we have to say, "I don't know." +If we knew, God would not be God. +To have faith in this God would be more like trusting an essential benevolence in the universe, and less like believing a system of doctrinal statements. +Isn't it ironic that Christians who claim to believe in an infinite, unknowable being then tie God down in closed systems and rigid doctrines? +How could one practice such a faith? +By seeking the God within. By cultivating my own inwardness. +In silence, in meditation, in my inner space, in the me that remains when I gently put aside my passing emotions and ideas and preoccupations. +In awareness of the inner conversation. +And how would we live such a faith? How would I live such a faith? +By seeking intimate connection with your inwardness. +The kind of relationships when deep speaks to deep. +If God is in all people, then there is a meeting place where my relationship with you becomes a three-way encounter. +There is an Indian greeting, which I'm sure some of you know: "Namaste," accompanied by a respectful bow, which, roughly translated means, "That which is of God in me greets that which of God is in you." +Namaste. +And how would one deepen such a faith? +By seeking the inwardness which is in all things. +In music and poetry, in the natural world of beauty and in the small ordinary things of life, there is a deep, indwelling presence that makes them extraordinary. +It needs a profound attentiveness and a patient waiting, a contemplative attitude and a generosity and openness to those whose experience is different from my own. +When I stood up to speak to my people about God and the tsunami, I had no answers to offer them. +No neat packages of faith, with Bible references to prove them. +Only doubts and questioning and uncertainty. +I had some suggestions to make -- possible new ways of thinking about God. +Ways that might allow us to go on, down a new and uncharted road. +But in the end, the only thing I could say for sure was, "I don't know," and that just might be the most profoundly religious statement of all. +Thank you. +That splendid music, the coming-in music, "The Elephant March" from "Aida," is the music I've chosen for my funeral. +And you can see why. It's triumphal. +I won't feel anything, but if I could, I would feel triumphal at having lived at all, and at having lived on this splendid planet, and having been given the opportunity to understand something about why I was here in the first place, before not being here. +Can you understand my quaint English accent? +Like everybody else, I was entranced yesterday by the animal session. +Robert Full and Frans Lanting and others; the beauty of the things that they showed. +The only slight jarring note was when Jeffrey Katzenberg said of the mustang, "the most splendid creatures that God put on this earth." +Now of course, we know that he didn't really mean that, but in this country at the moment, you can't be too careful. +I'm a biologist, and the central theorem of our subject: the theory of design, Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection. +In professional circles everywhere, it's of course universally accepted. +In non-professional circles outside America, it's largely ignored. +But in non-professional circles within America, it arouses so much hostility -- it's fair to say that American biologists are in a state of war. +The war is so worrying at present, with court cases coming up in one state after another, that I felt I had to say something about it. +If you want to know what I have to say about Darwinism itself, I'm afraid you're going to have to look at my books, which you won't find in the bookstore outside. +Contemporary court cases often concern an allegedly new version of creationism, called "Intelligent Design," or ID. +Don't be fooled. There's nothing new about ID. +It's just creationism under another name, rechristened -- I choose the word advisedly -- for tactical, political reasons. +The arguments of so-called ID theorists are the same old arguments that had been refuted again and again, since Darwin down to the present day. +There is an effective evolution lobby coordinating the fight on behalf of science, and I try to do all I can to help them, but they get quite upset when people like me dare to mention that we happen to be atheists as well as evolutionists. +They see us as rocking the boat, and you can understand why. +Creationists, lacking any coherent scientific argument for their case, fall back on the popular phobia against atheism: Teach your children evolution in biology class, and they'll soon move on to drugs, grand larceny and sexual "pre-version." +In fact, of course, educated theologians from the Pope down are firm in their support of evolution. +This book, "Finding Darwin's God," by Kenneth Miller, is one of the most effective attacks on Intelligent Design that I know and it's all the more effective because it's written by a devout Christian. +People like Kenneth Miller could be called a "godsend" to the evolution lobby, because they expose the lie that evolutionism is, as a matter of fact, tantamount to atheism. +People like me, on the other hand, rock the boat. +But here, I want to say something nice about creationists. +It's not a thing I often do, so listen carefully. +I think they're right about one thing. +I think they're right that evolution is fundamentally hostile to religion. +I've already said that many individual evolutionists, like the Pope, are also religious, but I think they're deluding themselves. +I believe a true understanding of Darwinism is deeply corrosive to religious faith. +Now, it may sound as though I'm about to preach atheism, and I want to reassure you that that's not what I'm going to do. +In an audience as sophisticated as this one, that would be preaching to the choir. +No, what I want to urge upon you -- Instead, what I want to urge upon you is militant atheism. +But that's putting it too negatively. +If I was a person who were interested in preserving religious faith, I would be very afraid of the positive power of evolutionary science, and indeed science generally, but evolution in particular, to inspire and enthrall, precisely because it is atheistic. +Now, the difficult problem for any theory of biological design is to explain the massive statistical improbability of living things. +Statistical improbability in the direction of good design -- "complexity" is another word for this. +The standard creationist argument -- there is only one; they're all reduced to this one -- takes off from a statistical improbability. +Living creatures are too complex to have come about by chance; therefore, they must have had a designer. +This argument of course, shoots itself in the foot. +Any designer capable of designing something really complex has to be even more complex himself, and that's before we even start on the other things he's expected to do, like forgive sins, bless marriages, listen to prayers -- favor our side in a war -- disapprove of our sex lives, and so on. +Complexity is the problem that any theory of biology has to solve, and you can't solve it by postulating an agent that is even more complex, thereby simply compounding the problem. +Darwinian natural selection is so stunningly elegant because it solves the problem of explaining complexity in terms of nothing but simplicity. +Essentially, it does it by providing a smooth ramp of gradual, step-by-step increment. +But here, I only want to make the point that the elegance of Darwinism is corrosive to religion, precisely because it is so elegant, so parsimonious, so powerful, so economically powerful. +It has the sinewy economy of a beautiful suspension bridge. +The God theory is not just a bad theory. +It turns out to be -- in principle -- incapable of doing the job required of it. +So, returning to tactics and the evolution lobby, I want to argue that rocking the boat may be just the right thing to do. +My approach to attacking creationism is -- unlike the evolution lobby -- my approach to attacking creationism is to attack religion as a whole. +And at this point I need to acknowledge the remarkable taboo against speaking ill of religion, and I'm going to do so in the words of the late Douglas Adams, a dear friend who, if he never came to TED, certainly should have been invited. +(Richard Saul Wurman: He was.) Richard Dawkins: He was. Good. I thought he must have been. +He begins this speech, which was tape recorded in Cambridge shortly before he died -- he begins by explaining how science works through the testing of hypotheses that are framed to be vulnerable to disproof, and then he goes on. +I quote, "Religion doesn't seem to work like that. +It has certain ideas at the heart of it, which we call 'sacred' or 'holy.' What it means is: here is an idea or a notion that you're not allowed to say anything bad about. +You're just not. Why not? Because you're not." +"Why should it be that it's perfectly legitimate to support the Republicans or Democrats, this model of economics versus that, Macintosh instead of Windows, but to have an opinion about how the universe began, about who created the universe -- no, that's holy. +So, we're used to not challenging religious ideas, and it's very interesting how much of a furor Richard creates when he does it." -- He meant me, not that one. +"Everybody gets absolutely frantic about it, because you're not allowed to say these things. Yet when you look at it rationally, there's no reason why those ideas shouldn't be as open to debate as any other, except that we've agreed somehow between us that they shouldn't be." And that's the end of the quote from Douglas. +In my view, not only is science corrosive to religion; religion is corrosive to science. +It teaches people to be satisfied with trivial, and blinds them to the wonderful, real explanations that we have within our grasp. +It teaches them to accept authority, revelation and faith, instead of always insisting on evidence. +There's Douglas Adams, magnificent picture from his book, "Last Chance to See." +Now, there's a typical scientific journal, The Quarterly Review of Biology. +And I'm going to put together, as guest editor, a special issue on the question, "Did an asteroid kill the dinosaurs?" +And the first paper is a standard scientific paper, presenting evidence, "Iridium layer at the K-T boundary, and potassium argon dated crater in Yucatan, indicate that an asteroid killed the dinosaurs." +Perfectly ordinary scientific paper. +Now, the next one. "The President of the Royal Society has been vouchsafed a strong inner conviction that an asteroid killed the dinosaurs." +"It has been privately revealed to Professor Huxtane that an asteroid killed the dinosaurs." +"Professor Hordley was brought up to have total and unquestioning faith" -- -- "that an asteroid killed the dinosaurs." +"Professor Hawkins has promulgated an official dogma binding on all loyal Hawkinsians that an asteroid killed the dinosaurs." +That's inconceivable, of course. +But suppose -- In 1987, a reporter asked George Bush, Sr. +whether he recognized the equal citizenship and patriotism of Americans who are atheists. +Mr. Bush's reply has become infamous. +"No, I don't know that atheists should be considered citizens, nor should they be considered patriots. +This is one nation under God." +Bush's bigotry was not an isolated mistake, blurted out in the heat of the moment and later retracted. +He stood by it in the face of repeated calls for clarification or withdrawal. +He really meant it. +More to the point, he knew it posed no threat to his election -- quite the contrary. +Democrats as well as Republicans parade their religiousness if they want to get elected. Both parties invoke "one nation under God." +What would Thomas Jefferson have said? +Incidentally, I'm not usually very proud of being British, but you can't help making the comparison. +In practice, what is an atheist? +An atheist is just somebody who feels about Yahweh the way any decent Christian feels about Thor or Baal or the golden calf. +As has been said before, we are all atheists about most of the gods that humanity has ever believed in. Some of us just go one god further. +And that all stems from the perception of atheists as some kind of weird, way-out minority. +Natalie Angier wrote a rather sad piece in the New Yorker, saying how lonely she felt as an atheist. +She clearly feels in a beleaguered minority. +But actually, how do American atheists stack up numerically? +The latest survey makes surprisingly encouraging reading. +Christianity, of course, takes a massive lion's share of the population, with nearly 160 million. +But what would you think was the second largest group, convincingly outnumbering Jews with 2.8 million, Muslims at 1.1 million, Hindus, Buddhists and all other religions put together? +The second largest group, with nearly 30 million, is the one described as non-religious or secular. +You can't help wondering why vote-seeking politicians are so proverbially overawed by the power of, for example, the Jewish lobby -- the state of Israel seems to owe its very existence to the American Jewish vote -- while at the same time, consigning the non-religious to political oblivion. +This secular non-religious vote, if properly mobilized, is nine times as numerous as the Jewish vote. +Why does this far more substantial minority not make a move to exercise its political muscle? +Well, so much for quantity. How about quality? +Is there any correlation, positive or negative, between intelligence and tendency to be religious? +The survey that I quoted, which is the ARIS survey, didn't break down its data by socio-economic class or education, IQ or anything else. +But a recent article by Paul G. Bell in the Mensa magazine provides some straws in the wind. +Mensa, as you know, is an international organization for people with very high IQ. +And from a meta-analysis of the literature, Bell concludes that, I quote -- "Of 43 studies carried out since 1927 on the relationship between religious belief, and one's intelligence or educational level, all but four found an inverse connection. +That is, the higher one's intelligence or educational level, the less one is likely to be religious." +Well, I haven't seen the original 42 studies, and I can't comment on that meta-analysis, but I would like to see more studies done along those lines. +And I know that there are -- if I could put a little plug here -- there are people in this audience easily capable of financing a massive research survey to settle the question, and I put the suggestion up, for what it's worth. +But let me know show you some data that have been properly published and analyzed, on one special group -- namely, top scientists. +In 1998, Larson and Witham polled the cream of American scientists, those who'd been honored by election to the National Academy of Sciences, and among this select group, belief in a personal God dropped to a shattering seven percent. +About 20 percent are agnostic; the rest could fairly be called atheists. +Similar figures obtained for belief in personal immortality. +Among biological scientists, the figure is even lower: 5.5 percent, only, believe in God. Physical scientists, it's 7.5 percent. +I've not seen corresponding figures for elite scholars in other fields, such as history or philosophy, but I'd be surprised if they were different. +So, we've reached a truly remarkable situation, a grotesque mismatch between the American intelligentsia and the American electorate. +A philosophical opinion about the nature of the universe, which is held by the vast majority of top American scientists and probably the majority of the intelligentsia generally, is so abhorrent to the American electorate that no candidate for popular election dare affirm it in public. +If I'm right, this means that high office in the greatest country in the world is barred to the very people best qualified to hold it -- unless they are prepared to lie about their beliefs. +To put it bluntly: American political opportunities are heavily loaded against those who are simultaneously intelligent and honest. +I'm not a citizen of this country, so I hope it won't be thought unbecoming if I suggest that something needs to be done. +And I've already hinted what that something is. +From what I've seen of TED, I think this may be the ideal place to launch it. +Again, I fear it will cost money. +We need a consciousness-raising, coming-out campaign for American atheists. +This could be similar to the campaign organized by homosexuals a few years ago, although heaven forbid that we should stoop to public outing of people against their will. +In most cases, people who out themselves will help to destroy the myth that there is something wrong with atheists. +On the contrary, they'll demonstrate that atheists are often the kinds of people who could serve as decent role models for your children, the kinds of people an advertising agent could use to recommend a product, the kinds of people who are sitting in this room. +There should be a snowball effect, a positive feedback, such that the more names we have, the more we get. +There could be non-linearities, threshold effects. +When a critical mass has been obtained, there's an abrupt acceleration in recruitment. +And again, it will need money. +I suspect that the word "atheist" itself contains or remains a stumbling block far out of proportion to what it actually means, and a stumbling block to people who otherwise might be happy to out themselves. +So, what other words might be used to smooth the path, oil the wheels, sugar the pill? Darwin himself preferred "agnostic" -- and not only out of loyalty to his friend Huxley, who coined the term. +Darwin said, "I have never been an atheist in the same sense of denying the existence of a God. +I think that generally an 'agnostic' would be the most correct description of my state of mind." +He even became uncharacteristically tetchy with Edward Aveling. +Aveling was a militant atheist who failed to persuade Darwin to accept the dedication of his book on atheism -- incidentally, giving rise to a fascinating myth that Karl Marx tried to dedicate "Das Kapital" to Darwin, which he didn't, it was actually Edward Aveling. +It's a sort of urban myth, that Marx tried to dedicate "Kapital" to Darwin. +Anyway, it was Aveling, and when they met, Darwin challenged Aveling. +"Why do you call yourselves atheists?" +"'Agnostic, '" retorted Aveling, "was simply 'atheist' writ respectable, and 'atheist' was simply 'agnostic' writ aggressive." +Darwin complained, "But why should you be so aggressive?" +Darwin thought that atheism might be well and good for the intelligentsia, but that ordinary people were not, quote, "ripe for it." +Which is, of course, our old friend, the "don't rock the boat" argument. +It's not recorded whether Aveling told Darwin to come down off his high horse. +But in any case, that was more than 100 years ago. +You'd think we might have grown up since then. +Now, a friend, an intelligent lapsed Jew, who, incidentally, observes the Sabbath for reasons of cultural solidarity, describes himself as a "tooth-fairy agnostic." +He won't call himself an atheist because it's, in principle, impossible to prove a negative, but "agnostic" on its own might suggest that God's existence was therefore on equal terms of likelihood as his non-existence. +So, my friend is strictly agnostic about the tooth fairy, but it isn't very likely, is it? Like God. +Hence the phrase, "tooth-fairy agnostic." +Bertrand Russell made the same point using a hypothetical teapot in orbit about Mars. +You would strictly have to be agnostic about whether there is a teapot in orbit about Mars, but that doesn't mean you treat the likelihood of its existence as on all fours with its non-existence. +The list of things which we strictly have to be agnostic about doesn't stop at tooth fairies and teapots; it's infinite. +If you want to believe one particular one of them -- unicorns or tooth fairies or teapots or Yahweh -- the onus is on you to say why. +The onus is not on the rest of us to say why not. +We, who are atheists, are also a-fairyists and a-teapotists. +But we don't bother to say so. +And this is why my friend uses "tooth-fairy agnostic" as a label for what most people would call atheist. +Nonetheless, if we want to attract deep-down atheists to come out publicly, we're going to have find something better to stick on our banner than "tooth-fairy" or "teapot agnostic." +So, how about "humanist"? +This has the advantage of a worldwide network of well-organized associations and journals and things already in place. +My problem with it is only its apparent anthropocentrism. +One of the things we've learned from Darwin is that the human species is only one among millions of cousins, some close, some distant. +Such people might be those belonging to the British lynch mob, which last year attacked a pediatrician in mistake for a pedophile. +I think the best of the available alternatives for "atheist" is simply "non-theist." +It lacks the strong connotation that there's definitely no God, and it could therefore easily be embraced by teapot or tooth-fairy agnostics. +It's completely compatible with the God of the physicists. +When atheists like Stephen Hawking and Albert Einstein use the word "God," they use it of course as a metaphorical shorthand for that deep, mysterious part of physics which we don't yet understand. +"Non-theist" will do for all that, yet unlike "atheist," it doesn't have the same phobic, hysterical responses. +But I think, actually, the alternative is to grasp the nettle of the word "atheism" itself, precisely because it is a taboo word, carrying frissons of hysterical phobia. +Critical mass may be harder to achieve with the word "atheist" than with the word "non-theist," or some other non-confrontational word. +But if we did achieve it with that dread word "atheist" itself, the political impact would be even greater. +Now, I said that if I were religious, I'd be very afraid of evolution -- I'd go further: I would fear science in general, if properly understood. +And this is because the scientific worldview is so much more exciting, more poetic, more filled with sheer wonder than anything in the poverty-stricken arsenals of the religious imagination. +As Carl Sagan, another recently dead hero, put it, "How is it that hardly any major religion has looked at science and concluded, 'This is better than we thought! +The universe is much bigger than our prophet said, grander, more subtle, more elegant'? Instead they say, 'No, no, no! +My god is a little god, and I want him to stay that way.' A religion, old or new, that stressed the magnificence of the universe as revealed by modern science, might be able to draw forth reserves of reverence and awe hardly tapped by the conventional faiths." +Now, this is an elite audience, and I would therefore expect about 10 percent of you to be religious. +Many of you probably subscribe to our polite cultural belief that we should respect religion. +But I also suspect that a fair number of those secretly despise religion as much as I do. +If you're one of them, and of course many of you may not be, but if you are one of them, I'm asking you to stop being polite, come out, and say so. And if you happen to be rich, give some thought to ways in which you might make a difference. +The religious lobby in this country is massively financed by foundations -- to say nothing of all the tax benefits -- by foundations, such as the Templeton Foundation and the Discovery Institute. +We need an anti-Templeton to step forward. +If my books sold as well as Stephen Hawking's books, instead of only as well as Richard Dawkins' books, I'd do it myself. +People are always going on about, "How did September the 11th change you?" +Well, here's how it changed me. +Let's all stop being so damned respectful. +Thank you very much. +I just want to say, over the last few years I've been -- had the opportunity to do this closing conference. +And I've had some incredible warm-up acts. +About eight years ago, Billy Graham opened for me. +And I thought that there was -- I thought that there was absolutely no way in hell to top that. +But I just wanted to say -- and I mean this without irony -- I think I can speak for everybody in the audience when I say that I wish to God that you were the President of the United States. +OK, this is the title of my talk today. +I just want to give you a quick overview. +First of all, please remember I'm completely politically correct, and I mean everything with great affection. +If any of you have sensitive stomachs or are feeling queasy, now is the time to check your Blackberry. +Just to review, this is my TEDTalk. +We're going to do some jokes, some gags, some little skits -- and then we're going to talk about the L1 point. +So, one of the questions I ask myself is, was this the most distressing TED ever? +Let's try and sum things up, shall we? +Images of limb regeneration and faces filled with smallpox: 21 percent of the conference. +Mentions of polar bears drowning: four percent. +Images of the earth being wiped out by flood or bird flu: 64 percent. +And David Pogue singing show tunes. +Because this is the most distressing TED ever, I've been working with Neil Gershenfeld on next year's TED Bag. +And if the -- if the conference is anywhere near this distressing, then we're going to have a scream bag next year. +It's going to be a cradle-to-cradle scream bag, of course. +So you're going to be able to go like this. +Bring it over here and open it up. Aaaah! +Meanwhile, back at TED University, this wonderful woman is teaching you how to chop Sun Chips. +So Robert Wright -- I don't know, I felt like if there was anyone that Helen needed to give antidepressants to, it might have been him. +I want to deliberately interfere with his dopamine levels. +He was talking about morality. +Economy class morality is, we want to bomb you back to the Stone Age. +Business class morality is, don't bomb Japan -- they built my car. +And first-class morality is, don't bomb Mexico -- they clean my house. +Yes, it is politically incorrect. +All right, now I want to do a little bit of a thing for you ... +All right, now these are the wha -- I'd say, [mumble, mumble -- mumble, mumble, mumble, mumble, mumble] -- ahh! +So I wanted to show you guys -- I wanted to talk about a revolutionary new computer interface that lets you work with images just as easily as you -- as a completely natural user interface. +And you can -- you can use really natural hand gestures to like, go like this. +Now we had a Harvard professor here -- she was from Harvard, I just wanted to mention and -- and she was actually a professor from Harvard. +And she was talking about seven-dimensional, inverted universes. +With, you know, of course, there's the gravity brain. +There's the weak brain. And then there's my weak brain, which is too -- too -- absolutely too weak to understand what the fuck she was talking about. +Now -- one of the things that is very important to me is to try and figure out what on Earth am I here for. +And that's why I went out and I picked up a best-selling business book. +You know, it basically uses as its central premise Greek mythology. +And it's by a guy named Pastor Rick Warren, and it's called "The Porpoise Driven Life." +And Rick is as a pagan god, which I thought was kind of appropriate, in a certain way. +And now we're going to have kind of a little more visualization about Rick Warren. +OK. +All right. +Now, red is Rick Warren, and green is Daniel Dennett, OK? +The scales here are religiosity from zero percent, or atheist, to 100 percent, Bible literally true. +And then this is books sold -- the logarithmic scale. +30,000, 300,000, three million, 30 million, 300 million. +OK, now they're duking it out. Now they're duking it out. +And Rick Warren's kind of pulling ahead, kind of pulling ahead. +Yup, and his installed base is getting a little bigger. +But Darwin's dangerous idea is coming back. It's coming back. +Let me turn the trails on, so you can see that a little bit better. +Now, one of the things that's very important is, Nicholas Negroponte talked to us about one lap dance per -- I'm sorry -- about One Laptop Per Child. +Now let's talk about some of the characteristics that are important for this revolutionary device. +I'll tell you a little bit about the design parameters, and then I'll show it to you in person. +First of all, it needs to be small. +It needs to be flat, so it's transportable. +Lightweight. Portable. +Uses very, very little power. +Very, very high resolution. +Has to be visible in bright daylight. Will work anywhere. +And broadly applicable across many platforms. +Now, we've actually done some research -- Neil Gershenfeld and the Fab Labs went out into the market. +They did some research; we came back; and we think we have the perfect prototype of what the students in the field are actually asking for. +And here it is, the $100 computer. +OK, OK, OK, OK -- excellent, excellent. +Now, I bought this device from Clifford Stoll for about 900 bucks. +And he and his team of junior-high school students were doing real science. +So we're trying to check and trying to douse here, and see who uses marijuana. +See who uses marijuana. +Are we going to be able to find any marijuana, Jim Young? +Only if we open enough locker doors. +OK, now smallpox is an extremely distressing illness. +We had Dr. Larry Brilliant talking about how we eradicated smallpox. +I wanted to show you the stages of smallpox. +We start. This is day one. +Day two. +Day three, she gets a massively big pox on her shoulder. +Day three. +Day four. +Day five and day six. +Now the good news is, because I'm a trained medical professional, I know that even though she'll be scarred for life, she's going to make a full recovery. +Now the good news about Architects for Humanity is they're really kind of the most amazing group. +They've been sponsoring a design competition to come up with innovative medical housing solutions, clinic solutions, in Africa, and they've had a design competition. +Now the wonderful thing is, Larry Brilliant was just appointed the head of the Google Foundation, and so he decided that he would support -- he would support Cameron's work. +And the way he decided to support that work was by shipping over 50,000 shipping containers of Google snacks. +So I want to show you some prototypes. +The U.N. -- you know, they took 20 years just to add a flap to a tent, but I think we have some more exciting things. +This is a home made entirely out of Fruit Roll-Ups. +And those roll-up cookies coated with white chocolate. +And the really wonderful thing about this is, when you're done, well -- you can eat it. +But the thing that I'm really, really excited about is this incredible granola house. +And the granola house has a special Sun Chip roof to collect water and recycle it. +And it's -- well, on this side it has regular Sour Patch Kids and Gummy Bears to let in the light. +But on this side, it has sugary Gummy Bears, to diffuse the light more slightly. +And we -- we wanted just to show you what this might look like in situ. +So, Einstein -- Einstein, tell me -- what's your favorite song? +No, I said what's your favorite song? +No, I said what's your favorite song? +"Free Bird." +OK, so, Einstein, what's your favorite singing group? +Could you say that again? What's your favorite singing group? +OK, one more time -- I'm just going to give you a little help. +Your favorite singing group -- it's Diana Ross and the -- Audience: Supremes! +Tom Reilly: Exactly. +Could we have the sound up on the laptop, please? +"Free Bird" kind of reminds me that if you -- if you listen to "Free Bird" backwards, this is what you might hear. +Computer: Satan. Satan. Satan. Satan. +Satan. Satan. Satan. +TR: Now it's a little hard to hear the whole message, so I wanted to -- so I wanted to help you a little bit. +Computer: My sweet Satan. Dan Dennett worships Satan. +Buy "The Purpose-Driven Life," or Satan will take your soul. +TR: So, we've talked a lot about global warming, but, you know, as Jill said, it sounds kind of nice -- good weather in the wintertime, and New York City. +And as Jay Walker pointed out, that is just not scary enough. +So Al, I actually think I'm rather good at branding. +So I've tried to figure out a good design process to come up with a new term to replace "global warming." +So we started with Babel Fish. We put in global warming. +And then we decided that we'd change it from English to Dutch -- into "Het globale Verwarmen." +From Dutch to [Korean], into "Hordahordaneecheewa." +[Korean] to Portuguese: Aquecer-se Global. +Then Portuguese to Pig Latin. +Aquecer-se ucked-fay. +And then finally back into the English, which is, we're totally fucked. +Now I don't know about you, but Michael Shermer talked about the willingness for human beings -- evolutionarily, they're designed to see patterns in things. +For example, in cheese sandwiches. +Now can you look at that carefully and see if you see the Virgin Mary? +I tried to make it a little bit clearer. +Is it the Virgin Mary? +Or is it Mena Trott? +So, I talked to Josh Prince-Ramus about the convention center and the conferences. It's getting awfully big. +It's getting just a little bit too big. It's bursting at the seams here a little bit. +So we tried to come up with a program -- how we could remake this structure to better accommodate TED. +So first of all we decided -- that we needed about one-third bookstore, one-third Google cafe, about 20 percent registration, 80 percent luxury hotel, about five percent for restrooms. +And then of course, we wanted to have the simulcast lounge, the lobby and the Steinbeck forum. +Now let me show you how that literally translated into the design program. +So first, one of the problems with Monterey is that if there is global warming and Greenland melts as you say, the ocean level is going to rise 20 feet and flood the hell out of the convention center. +So we're going to build this new building on stilts. +So we build this building on stilts, then up here -- is where we're going to put the new Steinbeck auditorium. +And the wonderful thing about the new bookstore is, it's going to be shaped in a spiral that's organized by the Dewey Decimal System. +Then we're going to make an escalator that helps you get up there. +And finally, we're going to put the Marriott Hotel and the Portola Plaza on the top. +Now I don't know about you, but sometimes I have these images in my head of separated at birth. +I don't know about you, but when I see Aubrey de Grey, I immediately go to Gandalf the Grey. +OK. Now, we've heard, of course, that we're all soldiers here. +So what I'd really, really like you to do now is, pick up your white piece of paper. Does everybody have their white piece of paper? +And I want you to get out a pen, and I want you to write a terrorist note. +If we put up the ELMO for a moment -- if we put up the ELMO, then we'll get, you know, I'll give you a model that you can work from, OK? +And then I want you to fold that note into a paper airplane. +And once you've folded it into a paper airplane, I want you to take some anthrax -- and I want you to put that in the paper airplane. +And then I want you to throw it on Jim Young. +Luckily, I was the recipient of the TED Prize this year. +And I wanted to see -- I want to dedicate this film to my father, Homer. +OK. +Now this film isn't really hard enough, so I wanted to make it a little bit harder. +So I'm going to try and do this while reciting pi. +3.1415, 2657, 753, 8567, 24972 -- -- 85871, 25871, 3928, 5657, 2592, 5624. +Can we cue the music please? +Now I wanted to use this talk to talk about global warming a little bit. +Back in 1968, you can see that the mountain range of Brokeback Mountain was covered in 151 inches of snow pack. +Parenthetically, over there on the slopes, I did want to show you that black men ski. +But over the years, 10 years later, the snow packs eroded, and, if you notice, the trees have started turning yellow. +The water level of the lake has started drying up. +A few years later, there's no snow left at all. +And all the trees have turned brown. +This year, unfortunately the lakebed's turned into an absolute cracked dry bed. +And I fear, if we do nothing for our planet, in 20 years, it's going to look like this. +Mr. Vice President, I wish I knew how to quit you. +Thank you very much. +Thomas Dolby: For pure pleasure please welcome the lovely, the delectable, and the bilingual Rachelle Garniez. +How many Creationists do we have in the room? +Probably none. I think we're all Darwinians. +And yet many Darwinians are anxious, a little uneasy -- would like to see some limits on just how far the Darwinism goes. +It's all right. +You know spiderwebs? Sure, they are products of evolution. +The World Wide Web? Not so sure. +Beaver dams, yes. Hoover Dam, no. +What do they think it is that prevents the products of human ingenuity from being themselves, fruits of the tree of life, and hence, in some sense, obeying evolutionary rules? +And yet people are interestingly resistant to the idea of applying evolutionary thinking to thinking -- to our thinking. +And so I'm going to talk a little bit about that, keeping in mind that we have a lot on the program here. +So you're out in the woods, or you're out in the pasture, and you see this ant crawling up this blade of grass. +It climbs up to the top, and it falls, and it climbs, and it falls, and it climbs -- trying to stay at the very top of the blade of grass. +What is this ant doing? What is this in aid of? +What goals is this ant trying to achieve by climbing this blade of grass? +What's in it for the ant? +And the answer is: nothing. There's nothing in it for the ant. +Well then, why is it doing this? +Is it just a fluke? +Yeah, it's just a fluke. It's a lancet fluke. +It's a little brain worm. +It's a parasitic brain worm that has to get into the stomach of a sheep or a cow in order to continue its life cycle. +Salmon swim upstream to get to their spawning grounds, and lancet flukes commandeer a passing ant, crawl into its brain, and drive it up a blade of grass like an all-terrain vehicle. +So there's nothing in it for the ant. +The ant's brain has been hijacked by a parasite that infects the brain, inducing suicidal behavior. +Pretty scary. +Well, does anything like that happen with human beings? +This is all on behalf of a cause other than one's own genetic fitness, of course. +Well, it may already have occurred to you that Islam means "surrender," or "submission of self-interest to the will of Allah." +Well, it's ideas -- not worms -- that hijack our brains. +Now, am I saying that a sizable minority of the world's population has had their brain hijacked by parasitic ideas? +No, it's worse than that. +Most people have. +There are a lot of ideas to die for. +Freedom, if you're from New Hampshire. +Justice. Truth. Communism. +Many people have laid down their lives for communism, and many have laid down their lives for capitalism. +And many for Catholicism. And many for Islam. +These are just a few of the ideas that are to die for. +They're infectious. +Yesterday, Amory Lovins spoke about "infectious repititis." +It was a term of abuse, in effect. +This is unthinking engineering. +Well, most of the cultural spread that goes on is not brilliant, new, out-of-the-box thinking. +It's "infectious repetitis," and we might as well try to have a theory of what's going on when that happens so that we can understand the conditions of infection. +Hosts work hard to spread these ideas to others. +I myself am a philosopher, and one of our occupational hazards is that people ask us what the meaning of life is. +And you have to have a bumper sticker, you know. You have to have a statement. +So, this is mine. +The secret of happiness is: Find something more important than you are and dedicate your life to it. +Most of us -- now that the "Me Decade" is well in the past -- now we actually do this. +One set of ideas or another have simply replaced our biological imperatives in our own lives. +This is what our summum bonum is. +It's not maximizing the number of grandchildren we have. +Now, this is a profound biological effect. +It's the subordination of genetic interest to other interests. +And no other species does anything at all like it. +Well, how are we going to think about this? +It is, on the one hand, a biological effect, and a very large one. +Unmistakable. +Now, what theories do we want to use to look at this? +Well, many theories. But how could something tie them together? +The idea of replicating ideas; ideas that replicate by passing from brain to brain. +Richard Dawkins, whom you'll be hearing later in the day, invented the term "memes," and put forward the first really clear and vivid version of this idea in his book "The Selfish Gene." +Now here am I talking about his idea. +Well, you see, it's not his. Yes -- he started it. +But it's everybody's idea now. +And he's not responsible for what I say about memes. +I'm responsible for what I say about memes. +Actually, I think we're all responsible for not just the intended effects of our ideas, but for their likely misuses. +So it is important, I think, to Richard, and to me, that these ideas not be abused and misused. +They're very easy to misuse. That's why they're dangerous. +And it's just about a full-time job trying to prevent people who are scared of these ideas from caricaturing them and then running off to one dire purpose or another. +So we have to keep plugging away, trying to correct the misapprehensions so that only the benign and useful variants of our ideas continue to spread. +But it is a problem. +We don't have much time, and I'm going to go over just a little bit of this and cut out, because there's a lot of other things that are going to be said. +So let me just point out: memes are like viruses. +That's what Richard said, back in '93. +And you might think, "Well, how can that be? +I mean, a virus is -- you know, it's stuff! What's a meme made of?" +Yesterday, Negroponte was talking about viral telecommunications but -- what's a virus? +A virus is a string of nucleic acid with attitude. +That is, there is something about it that tends to make it replicate better than the competition does. +And that's what a meme is. It's an information packet with attitude. +What's a meme made of? What are bits made of, Mom? +Not silicon. +They're made of information, and can be carried in any physical medium. +What's a word made of? +Sometimes when people say, "Do memes exist?" +I say, "Well, do words exist? Are they in your ontology?" +If they are, words are memes that can be pronounced. +Then there's all the other memes that can't be pronounced. +There are different species of memes. +Remember the Shakers? Gift to be simple? +Simple, beautiful furniture? +And, of course, they're basically extinct now. +And one of the reasons is that among the creed of Shaker-dom is that one should be celibate. +Not just the priests. Everybody. +Well, it's not so surprising that they've gone extinct. But in fact that's not why they went extinct. +They survived as long as they did at a time when the social safety nets weren't there. +And there were lots of widows and orphans, people like that, who needed a foster home. +And so they had a ready supply of converts. +And they could keep it going. +And, in principle, it could've gone on forever, with perfect celibacy on the part of the hosts. +The idea being passed on through proselytizing, instead of through the gene line. +So the ideas can live on in spite of the fact that they're not being passed on genetically. +A meme can flourish in spite of having a negative impact on genetic fitness. +After all, the meme for Shaker-dom was essentially a sterilizing parasite. +There are other parasites that do this -- which render the host sterile. +It's part of their plan. +They don't have to have minds to have a plan. +I'm just going to draw your attention to just one of the many implications of the memetic perspective, which I recommend. +I've not time to go into more of it. +In Jared Diamond's wonderful book, "Guns, Germs and Steel," he talks about how it was germs, more than guns and steel, that conquered the new hemisphere -- the Western hemisphere -- that conquered the rest of the world. +When European explorers and travelers spread out, they brought with them the germs that they had become essentially immune to, that they had learned how to tolerate over hundreds and hundreds of years, thousands of years, of living with domesticated animals who were the sources of those pathogens. +And they just wiped out -- these pathogens just wiped out the native people, who had no immunity to them at all. +And we're doing it again. +We're doing it this time with toxic ideas. +Yesterday, a number of people -- Nicholas Negroponte and others -- spoke about all the wonderful things that are happening when our ideas get spread out, thanks to all the new technology all over the world. +And I agree. It is largely wonderful. Largely wonderful. +But among all those ideas that inevitably flow out into the whole world thanks to our technology, are a lot of toxic ideas. +Now, this has been realized for some time. +Sayyid Qutb is one of the founding fathers of fanatical Islam, one of the ideologues that inspired Osama bin Laden. +"One has only to glance at its press films, fashion shows, beauty contests, ballrooms, wine bars and broadcasting stations." Memes. +These memes are spreading around the world and they are wiping out whole cultures. +They are wiping out languages. +They are wiping out traditions and practices. +And it's not our fault, anymore than it's our fault when our germs lay waste to people that haven't developed the immunity. +We have an immunity to all of the junk that lies around the edges of our culture. +We're a free society, so we let pornography and all these things -- we shrug them off. +They're like a mild cold. +They're not a big deal for us. +But we should recognize that for many people in the world, they are a big deal. +And we should be very alert to this. +As we spread our education and our technology, one of the things that we are doing is we're the vectors of memes that are correctly viewed by the hosts of many other memes as a dire threat to their favorite memes -- the memes that they are prepared to die for. +Well now, how are we going to tell the good memes from the bad memes? +That is not the job of the science of memetics. +Memetics is morally neutral. And so it should be. +This is not the place for hate and anger. +If you've had a friend who's died of AIDS, then you hate HIV. +But the way to deal with that is to do science, and understand how it spreads and why in a morally neutral perspective. +Get the facts. +Work out the implications. +There's plenty of room for moral passion once we've got the facts and can figure out the best thing to do. +And, as with germs, the trick is not to try to annihilate them. +You will never annihilate the germs. +What you can do, however, is foster public health measures and the like that will encourage the evolution of avirulence. +That will encourage the spread of relatively benign mutations of the most toxic varieties. +That's all the time I have, so thank you very much for your attention. +Sergey Brin: I want to discuss a question I know that's been pressing on many of your minds. +We spoke to you last several years ago. +And before I get started today, since many of you are wondering, I just wanted to get it out of the way. +The answer is boxers. +Now I hope all of you feel better. +Do you know what this might be? Does anyone know what that is? +Audience: Yes. +SB: What is it? +Audience: It's people logging on to Google around the world. +SB: Wow, OK. I didn't really realize what it was when I first saw it. +But this is what helped me see it. +This is what we run at the office, that actually runs real time. +Here it's slightly logged. +But here you can see around the world how people are using Google. +And every one of those rising dots represents probably about 20, 30 searches, or something like that. +And they're labeled by color right now, by language. +So you can see: here we are in the U.S., and they're all coming up red. +There we are in Monterey -- hopefully I can get it right. +You can see that Japan is busy at night, right there. +We have Tokyo coming in in Japanese. +There's a lot of activity in China. +There's a lot of activity in India. +There's some in the Middle East, the little pockets. +And Europe, which is right now in the middle of the day, is going really strong with a whole wide variety of languages. +Now you can also see, if I turn this around here -- hopefully I won't shake the world too much. +But you can also see, there are places where there's not so much. +Australia, because there just aren't very many people there. +And this is something that we should really work on, which is Africa, which is just a few trickles, basically in South Africa and a few other urban cities. +But basically, what we've noticed is these queries, which come in at thousands per second, are available everywhere there is power. +And pretty much everywhere there is power, there is the Internet. +And even in Antarctica -- well, at least this time of year -- we from time to time will see a query rising up. +And if we had it plotted correctly, I think the International Space Station would have it, too. +So this is some of the challenge that we have here, is you can see that it's actually kind of hard to get the -- there we go. +This is how we have to move the bits around to actually get the people the answers to their questions. +You can see that there's a lot of data running around. +It has to go all over the world: through fibers, through satellites, through all kinds of connections. +And it's pretty tricky for us to maintain the latencies as low as we try to. Hopefully your experience is good. +But you can see also, once again -- so some places are much more wired than others, and you can see all the bandwidth across the U.S., going up over to Asia, Europe in the other direction, and so forth. +Now what I would like to do is just to show you what one second of this activity would look like. +And if we can switch to slides -- all right, here we go. +So this is slowed down. +This is what one second looks like. +And this is what we spend a lot of our time doing, is just making sure that we can keep up with this kind of traffic load. +Now, each one of those queries has an interesting life and tale of its own. +I mean, it could be somebody's health, it could be somebody's career, something important to them. +And it could potentially be something as important as tomato sauce, or in this case, ketchup. +So this is a query that we had -- I guess it's a popular band that was more popular in some parts of the world than others. +You can see that it got started right here. +In the U.S. and Spain, it was popular at the same time. +But it didn't have quite the same pickup in the U.S. +as it did in Spain. +And then from Spain, it went to Italy, and then Germany got excited, and maybe right now the U.K. is enjoying it. +And so I guess the U.S. finally, finally started to like it, too. +And I just wanted to play it for you. +Anyway, you can all enjoy it for yourselves -- hopefully that search will work. +As a part of -- you know, part of what we want to do to grow our company is to have more searches. +And what that means is we want to have more people who are healthy and educated. +More animals, if they start doing searches as well. +But partly, we want to make the world a better place, and so one thing that we're embarking upon is the Google Foundation, and we're in the process of setting that up. +We also have a program already called Google Grants that now serves over 150 different charities around the world, and these are some of the charities that are on there. +And it's something I'm very excited to be a part of. +In fact, many of the organizations that are here -- the Acumen Fund, I think ApproTEC we have running, I'm not sure if that one's up yet -- and many of the people who have presented here are running through Google Grants. +They run Google ads, and we just give them the ad credit so they can let organizations know. +Now does anybody know who this is? +A-ha! +Audience: Orkut. +SB: Yes! Somebody got it. +This is Orkut. Is anybody here on Orkut? +Do we have any? +Okay, not very many people know about it. +I'll explain it in a second. +This is one of our engineers. +We find that they work better when they're submerged and covered with leaves. +That's how we churn those products out. +Orkut had a vision to create a social network. +I know all of you are thinking, "Yet another social network." +But it was a dream of his, and we, basically, when people really want to do something, well, we generally let them. +So this is what he built. +We just released it in a test phase last month, and it's been taking off. +This is our VP of Engineering. +You can see the red hair, and I don't know if you can see the nose ring there. +And these are all of his friends. +So this is how -- we just deployed it -- we just decided that people would send each other invitations to get into the service, and so we just had the people in our company initially send them out. +And now we've grown to over 100,000 members. +And they spread, actually, very quickly, even outside the U.S. +You can see, even though the U.S. is still the majority here -- though, by the way, search-wise, it's only about 30 percent of our traffic -- but it's already going to Japan, and the U.K., and Europe, and all the rest of the countries. +So it's a fun little project. +There are a variety of demographics. I won't bore you with these. +But it's just the kind of thing that we just try out for fun and see where it goes. +And -- well, I'll leave you in suspense. +Larry, you can explain this one. +Larry Page: Thank you, Sergey. +So one of the things -- both Sergey and I went to a Montessori school, and I think, for some reason, this has been incorporated in Google. +And Sergey mentioned Orkut, which is something that, you know, Orkut wanted to do in his time, and we call this -- at Google, we've embodied this as "the 20 percent time," and the idea is, for 20 percent of your time, if you're working at Google, you can do what you think is the best thing to do. +And many, many things at Google have come out of that, such as Orkut and also Google News. +And I think many other things in the world also have come out of this. +Mendel, who was supposed to be teaching high-school students, actually, you know, discovered the laws of genetics -- as a hobby, basically. +So many, many useful things come out of this. +And News, which I just mentioned, was started by a researcher. +And he just -- he -- after 9/11, he got really interested in the news. +And he said, "Why don't I look at the news better?" +And so he started clustering it by category, and then he started using it, and then his friends started using it. +And then, besides just looking cute on a baby's bottom, we made it a Googlette, which is basically a small project at Google. +So it'd be like three people, or something like that, and they would try to make a product. +And we wouldn't really be sure if it's going to work or not. +And in News' case, you know, they had a couple of people working on it for a while, and then more and more people started using it, and then we put it out on the Internet, and more and more people started using it. +And now it's a real, full-blown project with more people on it. +And this is how we keep our innovation running. +I think usually, as companies get bigger, they find it really hard to have small, innovative projects. +And we had this problem, too, for a while, and we said, "Oh, we really need a new concept." +You know, the Googlettes -- that's a small project that we're not quite sure if it's going to work or not, but we hope it will, and if we do enough of them, some of them will really work and turn out, such as News. +But then we had a problem because then we had over 100 projects. +And I don't know about all of you, but I have trouble keeping 100 things in my head at once. +And we found that if we just wrote all of them down and ordered them -- and these are kind of made up. +Don't really pay attention to them. +For example, the "Buy Iceland" was from a media article. +We would never do such a crazy thing, but -- in any case, we found if we just basically wrote them all down and ordered them, that most people would actually agree what the ordering should be. +And this was kind of a surprise to me, but we found that as long as you keep the 100 things in your head, which you did by writing them down, that you could do a pretty good job deciding what to do and where to put your resources. +And so that's basically what we've done since we instituted that a few years ago, and I think it has really allowed us to be innovative and still stay reasonably well-organized. +The other thing we discovered is that people like to work on things that are important, and so naturally, people sort of migrate to the things that are high priorities. +I just wanted to highlight a couple of things that are new, or you might not know about. +And the top thing, actually, is the Deskbar. +So this is a new -- how many of you use the Google Toolbar? +Raise your hands. +How many of you use the Deskbar? +All right, see? You guys should try it out. +But if you go to our site and search for "Deskbar," you'll get this. +And the idea is, instead of a toolbar, it's just present all the time on your screen on the bottom, and you can do searches really easily. +And it's sort of like a better version of the toolbar. +Thank you, Sergey. +This is another example of a project that somebody at Google was really passionate about, and they just, they got going, and it's really, really a great product, and really taking off. +Froogle lets you search shopping information, and Blogger lets you publish things. +But all of these -- well, these were all sort of innovative things that we did that -- you know, we try many, many different things in our company. +We also like to innovate in our physical space, and we noticed in meetings, you know, you have to wait a long time for projectors to turn on and off, and they're noisy, so people shut them off. +And we didn't like that, so we actually, in maybe a couple of weeks, we built these little enclosures that enclosed the projectors, and so we can leave them on all the time and they're completely silent. +And as a result, we were able to build some software that also lets us manage a meeting, so when you walk into a meeting room now, it lists all the meetings that are happening, you can very easily take notes, and they just get emailed automatically to all the people that were present in the meeting. +And as we become more of a global company, we find these things really affect us -- you know, can we work effectively with people who aren't in the room? +And things like that. And simple things like this can really make a big difference. +We also have a lot of engineers in those meetings, and they don't always do their laundry as much as they should. +And so we found it was pretty helpful to have laundry machines, for our younger employees especially, and ... +we also allow dogs and things like that, and we've had, I think, a really fun culture at our company, which helps people work and enjoy what they're doing. +This is actually our "cult picture." +I just wanted to show quickly. +We had this on our website for a while, but we found that after we put it on our website, we didn't get any job applications anymore. +But anyway, every year we've taken the whole company on a ski trip. +A lot of work happens in companies from people knowing each other, and informally. +And I think we've done a good job encouraging that. +It makes it a really fun place to work. +Along with our logos, too, which I think really embody our culture when we change things. +In the early days, we were actually advised we should never change our logo because we should establish our brand, you know, because, you know, you'd never want to change your logo. +You want it to be consistent. +And we said, "Well, that doesn't sound so much fun. +Why don't we try changing it every day?" +One of the things that really excites me about what we're doing now is we have this thing called AdSense, and this is a little bit foreshadowing -- this is from before Dean dropped out. +But the idea is, like, on a newspaper, for example, we show you relevant ads. +And this is hard to read, but this says "Battle for New Hampshire: Howard Dean for President" -- articles on Howard Dean. +And these ads are generated automatically -- like in this case, on the Washington Post -- from the content on the site. +And so we use our over 150,000 advertisers and millions of advertisements, so we pick the one that's most relevant to what you're actually looking at, much as we do on search. +So the idea is we can make advertising useful, not just annoying, right? +I just put this thing on my site and I'm making 10,000 dollars a month. +And, you know, thank you. +I don't have to do my other job now." +And I think this is really important for us, because it makes the Internet work better. +It makes content get better, it makes searching work better, when people can really make their livelihood from producing great content. +So this session is supposed to be about the future, so I'd thought I'd talk at least briefly about it. +And the idea behind this is to do the perfect job doing search, you really have to be smart. +Because you can type, you know, any kind of thing into Google, and you expect an answer back, right? +But finding things is tricky, and so you really want intelligence. +And in fact, the ultimate search engine would be smart. +It would be artificial intelligence. +And so that's something we work on, and we even have some people who are excited enough and crazy enough to work on it now, and that's really their goal. +So we always hope that Google will be smart, but we're always surprised when other people think that it is. +And so I just wanted to give a funny example of this. +This is a blog from Iraq, and it's not really what I'm going to talk about, but I just wanted to show you an example. +Maybe, Sergey, you can highlight this. +So we decided -- actually, the highlight's right there. Oh, thank you. +So, "related searches," right there. You can't see it that well, but we decided we should put in this feature into our AdSense ads, called "related searches." +And so we'd say, you know, "Did you mean 'search for'" -- what is this, in this case, "Saddam Hussein," because this blog is about Iraq -- and you know, in addition to the ads, and we thought this would be a great idea. +And so there is this blog of a young person who was kind of depressed, and he said, "You know, I'm sleeping a lot." +He was just kind of writing about his life. +And our algorithms -- not a person, of course, but our algorithms, our computers -- read his blog and decided that the related search was, "I am bored." +And he read this, and he thought a person had decided that he was boring, and it was very unfortunate, and he said, "You know, what are these, you know, bastards at Google doing? +Why don't they like my blog?" +And so then we read his blog, which was getting -- you know, sort of going from bad to worse, and we said the related search was, "Retards." +And then, you know, he got even more mad, and he wrote -- like, started swearing and so on. +And then we produced "You suck." +And finally, it ended with "Kiss my ass." +And so basically, he thought he was dealing with something smart, and of course, you know, we just sort of wrote this program and we tried it out, and it didn't quite work, and we don't have this feature anymore. +So with that, maybe I can switch back to the world. +So we don't have to worry about our products being sold, for example, for less money in places that are poor, and then they get re-imported into the U.S. -- for example, with the drug industry. +And I think we're really lucky to have that kind of business model because everyone in the world has access to our search, and I think that's a tremendous, tremendous benefit. +The other thing I wanted to mention just briefly is that we have a tremendous ability and responsibility to provide people the right information, and we view ourselves like a newspaper or a magazine -- that we should provide very objective information. +And so in our search results, we never accept payment for our search results. +We accept payment for advertising, and we mark it as such. +And that's unlike many of our competitors. +And I think decisions we're able to make like that have a tremendous impact on the world, and it makes me really proud to be involved with Google. +So thank you. +Has anyone ever been to Aspen, Colorado? +It's not a joke yet; those aren't the jokes. +Is this thing off? +I went to Aspen recently and stumbled into this song. + Black men go to Aspen and rent colorful chalets. Giggle at the questions their mere presence seems to raise. Get taken for men we don't resemble in the least. "Are you ... ?" +"No." + Black men ski. Black men ski. +The immersive ugliness of our everyday environments in America is entropy made visible. +We can't overestimate the amount of despair that we are generating with places like this. +And mostly, I want to persuade you that we have to do better if we're going to continue the project of civilization in America. +By the way, this doesn't help. +Nobody's having a better day down here because of that. +There are a lot of ways you can describe this. +You know, I like to call it "the national automobile slum." +You can call it suburban sprawl. +I think it's appropriate to call it the greatest misallocation of resources in the history of the world. +You can call it a technosis externality clusterfuck. +And it's a tremendous problem for us. +The outstanding -- the salient problem about this for us is that these are places that are not worth caring about. +We're going to talk about that some more. +A sense of place: your ability to create places that are meaningful and places of quality and character depends entirely on your ability to define space with buildings, and to employ the vocabularies, grammars, syntaxes, rhythms and patterns of architecture in order to inform us who we are. +The public realm in America has two roles: it is the dwelling place of our civilization and our civic life, and it is the physical manifestation of the common good. +And when you degrade the public realm, you will automatically degrade the quality of your civic life and the character of all the enactments of your public life and communal life that take place there. +The public realm comes mostly in the form of the street in America because we don't have the 1,000-year-old cathedral plazas and market squares of older cultures. +And your ability to define space and to create places that are worth caring about all comes from a body of culture that we call the culture of civic design. +This is a body of knowledge, method, skill and principle that we threw in the garbage after World War II and decided we don't need that anymore; we're not going to use it. +And consequently, we can see the result all around us. +The public realm has to inform us not only where we are geographically, but it has to inform us where we are in our culture. +Where we've come from, what kind of people we are, and it needs to, by doing that, it needs to afford us a glimpse to where we're going in order to allow us to dwell in a hopeful present. +And if there is one tremendous -- if there is one great catastrophe about the places that we've built, the human environments we've made for ourselves in the last 50 years, it is that it has deprived us of the ability to live in a hopeful present. +The environments we are living in, more typically, are like these. +You know, this happens to be the asteroid belt of architectural garbage two miles north of my town. +And remember, to create a place of character and quality, you have to be able to define space. +So how is that being accomplished here? +If you stand on the apron of the Wal-Mart over here and try to look at the Target store over here, you can't see it because of the curvature of the Earth. That's nature's way of telling you that you're doing a poor job of defining space. +Consequently, these will be places that nobody wants to be in. +These will be places that are not worth caring about. +We have about, you know, 38,000 places that are not worth caring about in the United States today. +When we have enough of them, we're going to have a nation that's not worth defending. +And I want you to think about that when you think about those young men and women who are over in places like Iraq, spilling their blood in the sand, and ask yourself, "What is their last thought of home?" +I hope it's not the curb cut between the Chuck E. Cheese and the Target store because that's not good enough for Americans to be spilling their blood for. We need better places in this country. +Public space. This is a good public space. +It's a place worth caring about. It's well defined. +It is emphatically an outdoor public room. +It has something that is terribly important -- it has what's called an active and permeable membrane around the edge. +That's a fancy way of saying it's got shops, bars, bistros, destinations -- things go in and out of it. It's permeable. +The beer goes in and out, the waitresses go in and out, and that activates the center of this place and makes it a place that people want to hang out in. +You know, in these places in other cultures, people just go there voluntarily because they like them. +We don't have to have a craft fair here to get people to come here. You know, you don't have to have a Kwanzaa festival. +People just go because it's pleasurable to be there. +But this is how we do it in the United States. +Probably the most significant public space failure in America, designed by the leading architects of the day, Harry Cobb and I.M. Pei: Boston City Hall Plaza. +A public place so dismal that the winos don't even want to go there. And we can't fix it because I.M. Pei's still alive, and every year Harvard and M.I.T. have a joint committee to repair it. +And every year they fail to because they don't want to hurt I.M. Pei's feelings. +This is the other side of the building. +This was the winner of an international design award in, I think, 1966, something like that. +It wasn't Pei and Cobb, another firm designed this, but there's not enough Prozac in the world to make people feel OK about going down this block. +This is the back of Boston City Hall, the most important, you know, significant civic building in Albany -- excuse me -- in Boston. +And what is the message that is coming, what are the vocabularies and grammars that are coming, from this building and how is it informing us about who we are? +This, in fact, would be a better building if we put mosaic portraits of Josef Stalin, Pol Pot, Saddam Hussein, and all the other great despots of the 20th century on the side of the building, because then we'd honestly be saying what the building is really communicating to us. +You know, that it's a despotic building; it wants us to feel like termites. This is it on a smaller scale: the back of the civic center in my town, Saratoga Springs, New York. +By the way, when I showed this slide to a group of Kiwanians in my town, they all rose in indignation from their creamed chicken, and they shouted at me and said, "It was raining that day when you took that picture!" +Because this was perceived to be a weather problem. You know, this is a building designed like a DVD player. Audio jack, power supply -- and look, you know these things are important architectural jobs for firms, right? +You know, we hire firms to design these things. +You can see exactly what went on, three o'clock in the morning at the design meeting. +You know, eight hours before deadline, four architects trying to get this building in on time, right? +And they're sitting there at the long boardroom table with all the drawings, and the renderings, and all the Chinese food caskets are lying on the table, and -- I mean, what was the conversation that was going on there? Because you know what the last word was, what the last sentence was of that meeting. +It was: "Fuck it." That -- that is the message of this form of architecture. +The message is: We don't give a fuck! We don't give a fuck. +So I went back on the nicest day of the year, just to -- you know -- do some reality testing, and in fact, he will not even go down there because it's not interesting enough for his clients, you know, the burglars, the muggers. +It's not civically rich enough for them to go down there. +OK. +The pattern of Main Street USA -- in fact, this pattern of building downtown blocks, all over the world, is fairly universal. +It's not that complicated: buildings more than one story high, built out to the sidewalk edge, so that people who are, you know, all kinds of people can get into the building. +Other activities are allowed to occur upstairs, you know, apartments, offices, and so on. +You make provision for this activity called shopping on the ground floor. +They haven't learned that in Monterey. +If you go out to the corner right at the main intersection right in front of this conference center, you'll see an intersection with four blank walls on every corner. +It's really incredible. +Anyway, this is how you compose and assemble a downtown business building, and this is what happened when in Glens Falls, New York, when we tried to do it again, where it was missing, right? +So the first thing they do is they pop up the retail a half a story above grade to make it sporty. +OK. That completely destroys the relationship between the business and the sidewalk, where the theoretical pedestrians are. Of course, they'll never be there, as long as this is in that condition. +Then because the relationship between the retail is destroyed, we pop a handicapped ramp on that, and then to make ourselves feel better, we put a nature Band-Aid in front of it. +And that's how we do it. +I call them "nature Band-Aids" because there's a general idea in America that the remedy for mutilated urbanism is nature. +And in fact, the remedy for wounded and mutilated urbanism is good urbanism, good buildings. +Not just flower beds, not just cartoons of the Sierra Nevada Mountains. +You know, that's not good enough. +We have to do good buildings. +The street trees have really four jobs to do and that's it: To spatially denote the pedestrian realm, to protect the pedestrians from the vehicles in the carriageway, to filter the sunlight onto the sidewalk, and to soften the hardscape of the buildings and to create a ceiling -- a vaulted ceiling -- over the street, at its best. +And that's it. Those are the four jobs of the street trees. +They're not supposed to be a cartoon of the North Woods; they're not supposed to be a set for "The Last of the Mohicans." +You know, one of the problems with the fiasco of suburbia is that it destroyed our understanding of the distinction between the country and the town, between the urban and the rural. +They're not the same thing. +And we're not going to cure the problems of the urban by dragging the country into the city, which is what a lot of us are trying to do all the time. +And so what you see fairly early, in the mid-19th century, is this idea that we now have to have an antidote to the industrial city, which is going to be life in the country for everybody. +And that starts to be delivered in the form of the railroad suburb: the country villa along the railroad line, which allows people to enjoy the amenity of the city, but to return to the countryside every night. +And believe me, there were no Wal-Marts or convenience stores out there then, so it really was a form of country living. +But what happens is, of course, it mutates over the next 80 years and it turns into something rather insidious. +It becomes a cartoon of a country house, in a cartoon of the country. +And that's the great non-articulated agony of suburbia and one of the reasons that it lends itself to ridicule. +Because it hasn't delivered what it's been promising for half a century now. +And these are typically the kind of dwellings we find there, you know. +Basically, a house with nothing on the side because this house wants to state, emphatically, "I'm a little cabin in the woods. There's nothing on either side of me. +I don't have any eyes on the side of my head. I can't see." +So you have this one last facade of the house, the front, which is really a cartoon of a facade of a house. +Because -- notice the porch here. +Unless the people that live here are Munchkins, nobody's going to be using that. +This is really, in fact, a television broadcasting a show 24/7 called "We're Normal." +We're normal, we're normal, we're normal, we're normal, we're normal. +Please respect us, we're normal, we're normal, we're normal. +But we know what's going on in these houses, you know. +We know that little Skippy is loading his Uzi down here, getting ready for homeroom. We know that Heather, his sister Heather, 14 years old, is turning tricks up here to support her drug habit. +Because these places, these habitats, are inducing immense amounts of anxiety and depression in children, and they don't have a lot of experience with medication. +So they take the first one that comes along, often. +These are not good enough for Americans. +These are the schools we are sending them to: The Hannibal Lecter Central School, Las Vegas, Nevada. +This is a real school! +You know, but there's obviously a notion that if you let the inmates of this thing out, that they would snatch a motorist off the street and eat his liver. +So every effort is made to keep them within the building. +Notice that nature is present. We're going to have to change this behavior whether we like it or not. +We are entering an epochal period of change in the world, and -- certainly in America -- the period that will be characterized by the end of the cheap oil era. +It is going to change absolutely everything. +Chris asked me not to go on too long about this, and I won't, except to say there's not going to be a hydrogen economy. +Forget it. It's not going to happen. +We're going to have to do something else instead. +We're going to have to down-scale, re-scale, and re-size virtually everything we do in this country and we can't start soon enough to do it. +We're going to have -- -- we're going to have to live closer to where we work. +We're going to have to live closer to each other. +We're going have to grow more food closer to where we live. +The age of the 3,000 mile Caesar salad is coming to an end. +We're going to have to -- we have a railroad system that the Bulgarians would be ashamed of! +We gotta do better than that! +And we should have started two days before yesterday. +We are fortunate that the new urbanists were there, for the last 10 years, excavating all that information that was thrown in the garbage by our parents' generation after World War II. +Because we're going to need it if we're going to learn how to reconstruct towns. +We're going to need to get back this body of methodology and principle and skill in order to re-learn how to compose meaningful places, places that are integral, that allow -- that are living organisms in the sense that they contain all the organs of our civic life and our communal life, deployed in an integral fashion. +So that, you know, the residences make sense deployed in relation to the places of business, of culture and of governance. +We're going to have to re-learn what the building blocks of these things are: the street, the block, how to compose public space that's both large and small, the courtyard, the civic square and how to really make use of this property. +We can see some of the first ideas for retro-fitting some of the catastrophic property that we have in America. +The dead malls: what are we going to do with them? +Well, in point of fact, most of them are not going to make it. +They're not going to be retro-fitted; they're going to be the salvage yards of the future. +Some of them we're going to fix, though. +And we're going to fix them by imposing back on them street and block systems and returning to the building lot as the normal increment of development. +And if we're lucky, the result will be revivified town centers and neighborhood centers in our existing towns and cities. +And by the way, our towns and cities are where they are, and grew where they were because they occupy all the important sites. +And most of them are still going to be there, although the scale of them is probably going to be diminished. +We've got a lot of work to do. +We're not going to be rescued by the hyper-car; we're not going to be rescued by alternative fuels. +No amount or combination of alternative fuels is going to allow us to continue running what we're running, the way we're running it. +We're going to have to do everything very differently. +And America's not prepared. +We are sleepwalking into the future. +We're not ready for what's coming at us. +So I urge you all to do what you can. +Life in the mid-21st century is going to be about living locally. +Be prepared to be good neighbors. +Be prepared to find vocations that make you useful to your neighbors and to your fellow citizens. +One final thing -- I've been very disturbed about this for years, but I think it's particularly important for this audience. +Please, please, stop referring to yourselves as "consumers." OK? +Consumers are different than citizens. +Consumers do not have obligations, responsibilities and duties to their fellow human beings. +And as long as you're using that word consumer in the public discussion, you will be degrading the quality of the discussion we're having. +And we're going to continue being clueless going into this very difficult future that we face. +So thank you very much. +Please go out and do what you can to make this a land full of places that are worth caring about and a nation that will be worth defending. +There's a lot of exciting things happening in the design world and at IDEO this past year, and I'm pleased to get a chance to share some of those with you. +I didn't attend the first TED back in 1984 but I've been to a lot of them since that time. +I thought it [would] kind of be interesting to think back to that time when Richard got the whole thing started. Thank you very much, Richard; it's been a big, enjoyable part of my life, coming here. +And so thinking back, I was thinking those of us in Silicon Valley were really focused on products or objects -- certainly technological objects. +And so it was great fun in those days, and some of those of you who are in the audience were my clients. +We'd come in with some prototype underneath a black cloth and we'd put it on the conference table, and we'd pull off the black cloth and everybody would "ooh" and "ah." +That was a really good time. +And so we'll continue to focus on products, as we always have. +And if you were here last year, I probably wrestled you to the floor and tried to show you my new EyeModule 2, which was a camera that plugged into the Handspring. +And I took a lot of pictures last year; very few people knew what I was up to, but I took a lot of pictures. +This year -- maybe you could show the slides -- this year we're carrying this Treo, which we had a lot to do with and helped Handspring design it. +Also, though we designed it a few years ago -- it's just become ubiquitous in the last year or so -- this Heartstream defibrillator which is saving lives. +Maybe you've seen them in the airports? They seem to be everywhere now. +Lots of lives are being saved by those. +And, we're just about to announce the Zinio Reader product that I believe will make magazines even more enjoyable to read. +So, we really will continue to focus on products. +That really involves designing behaviors and personality into products. +And I think you're starting to see that, and it's making our job even more enjoyable. +Interestingly enough, we used to primarily build 3-D models -- you know, you've seen some today -- and 3-D renderings. +Then we'd go and we'd show those as communicating our ideas. +But firms like ours are having to move to a point where we get those objects that we're designing and get them in motion, showing how they'll be used. +And so in order to do that we've been forming internal video-production groups in order to make these kind of experience prototypes that show just what we mean about the man-machine relationship. +And it's a much better way to see. +It's kind of like architects who show people in their houses, as opposed to them being empty. +So I thought that I would show you a few videos to show off this new, broader definition of design in products and services and environments. +I have a few of them -- they're no more than a minute or a minute-and-a-half apiece -- but I thought you might be interested in seeing some of our work over the last year, and how it responds in video. +So, Prada New York: we were asked by Rem Koolhaas and OMA to help us conceive the technology that's in their retail store in New York. +He wanted a new kind of store -- a new one -- a store that had a cultural role as well as a retail one. +And that meant actually designing custom technology as opposed to just buying things off the shelf and putting them to use. +So, there're lots of things. Everything has RF tags: there's RF tags on the user, on the cards, there's the staff devices that are all around the store. +You pick them up, and once you see something that you're interested in, the staff person can scan them in and then they can be shown on any screen throughout the store. +You can look at color, and sizes, and how it appeared on the runway, or whatever. +And so then the object -- the merchandise that you're interested in -- can be scanned. It's taken into the dressing room, and in the dressing room there are scanners so that we know exactly what clothing you have in the dressing room. +We can put that up on a touch screen and you can play with that, and get more information about the clothing that you're interested in as you're trying it on. +It's been used a lot of places, but I particularly like the use here of liquid crystal displays in the changing room. +The last time I went to see this store, there was a huge buzz about people standing outside and wondering, "Am I going to actually get to see the people changing clothes here?" +But if you push the button, of course, the whole wall goes dark. +So you can try to get approval, or not, for whatever you're wearing. +And then one of my favorite features of the technology is the magic mirror, where you put on the clothes. +There's a big display in the mirror, and you can turn around -- but there's a three second delay. +So you can see what you look like from the back or all the way around, as you look. +About a year and a half ago we were asked to design an installation in the museum -- this is a new wing of the Science Museum in London, and it's primarily about digital and biomedical issues. +And a group at Itch, which is now part of IDEO, designed this interactive wall that's about four stories tall. +I don't know if anybody's seen this -- it's pretty spectacular in the room. +Anyway, it's based on the London subway system. +And so you can see that the goal is to bring some of the feedback that the people who had gone to the museum were giving, and get it up on the wall so everybody could see. Just for everybody to see. +So you enter your information. Then, like the London tube system, the little trains go around with what you're thinking about. +And then when you get to a station, it's expanded so that you can actually read it. +Then when you exit the IMAX theatre on the fourth floor -- mostly teenagers coming out of there -- there's this big open space that has these tables in it that have interactive games which are quite fun, also designed by Durrell [Bishop] and Andrew [Hirniak] of Itch. +And the topics include things that the museum is about: male fertility, choosing the sex of your baby or what a driverless car might be like. +There's lots of room, so people can come up and understand what it is before they get involved. +And also, it's not shown in the video, but these are very beautiful. +They go to the top of the wall and when they reach all the way to the top, after they've bounced around, they disperse into bits and go off into the atmosphere. +The next video is not done by us. +This is CBS Sunday Morning that aired about two weeks ago. +Scott Adams ran into us and asked us if we wouldn't help to design the ultimate cubicle for Dilbert, which sounded like a fun thing and so we couldn't pass it up. +He's always been interested in technology in the future. +(Video: Scott Adams: I realized that at some point I might be the world's expert on what's wrong with cubicles. +So we thought, well, wouldn't it be fun to get together with some of the smartest design guys in the world and try to figure out if we could make the cubicle better? +Narrator: Though they work in a wide-open office space spectacularly set under San Francisco's Oakland Bay Bridge, the team built their own little cubicles to fully experience the problems. +Woman: A one-way mirror. I can look out; you can look at yourself. +Narrator: They took pictures. +Woman: You feel so trapped, when someone kind of leans over and you're sort of held captive there for a minute. +SA: So far it's chaos, but a lot of people are doing stuff, so that's good. +We'll see what happens. +Narrator: The first group builds a cubicle in which the walls are screens for the computer and for family photos. +In the second group's scenario, the walls are alive and actually give Dilbert a group hug. +Behind the humor is the idea of making the cubicle more human.) David Kelley: So here's the final thing, complete with orange lighting that follows the sun across -- that follows the tracks of the sun -- across the sky. +So you feel that in your cubicle. +And my favorite feature, which is a flower in a vase that wilts when you leave in disappointment, and then when you come back, it comes up to greet you, happy to see you. +(SA: The storage is built right into the wall.) DK: You know, it has homey touches like a built-in fish tank in the walls, or something to be aggressive with to release tension. +(SA: Customizable for the boss of your choice.) DK: And of course: a hammock for your afternoon nap that stretches across your cubicle. +(SA: Life would be sweet in a cubicle like this.) DK: This next project, we were asked to design a pavilion to celebrate the recycling of the water on the Millennium Dome in London. +The dome has an incredible amount of water that washes off of it, as well as wastewater. +So this building actually celebrates the water as it comes out of the recycling plant and goes into the reed bed so that it can be filtered for the final time. +The pavilion's design goal was to be kind of quiet and peaceful. +In contrast to if you went inside the dome, where it's kind of wild and crazy and everybody's learning all kinds of things, or fooling around, or whatever they're doing. +But it was intended to be quite quiet. +And then you would wander around and gather information, in a straightforward fashion, about the recycling process and what's being done, and how they're going to reuse the water once it comes through the plant. +And then, if you saw, the panels actually rotate. So you can get the information on the front side, but as they rotate, you can see the actual recycling plant behind, with all the machines as they actually process the water. +You can see: there's the plant. +These are all very low-budget videos, like quick prototypes. +And we're announcing a new product here tonight, which is the first time this has ever been shown in public. +It's called Spyfish, and it's a company called H2Eye, started by Nigel Jagger in London. +And it's a company that's trying to bring the experience -- many people have boats, or enjoy being on boats, but a very small percentage of people actually have the capability or the interest in going under the water and actually seeing what's there, and enjoying what scuba divers do. +This product, it has two cameras. +You throw it over the side of your boat and you basically scuba dive without getting wet. +For us -- there's the object -- for us, it was two projects. One, to design the interface so that the interface doesn't get in your way. +You could have that kind of immersive experience of being underwater -- of feeling like you're underwater -- seeing what's going on. +And the other one was to design the object and make sure that it was a consumer product and not a research tool. +And so we spent a lot of time -- this has been going on for about seven or eight years, this project -- and [we're] just ready to start building them. +(Narrator: The Spyfish is a revolutionary subaquatic video camera. +It can dive to 500 feet, to where sunlight does not penetrate, and is equipped with powerful lights. +It becomes your eyes and ears as you venture into the deep. +The battery-powered Spyfish sends the live video-feed through a slender cable.) DK: This slender cable was a huge technological advancement and it allowed the whole thing to be the size that it is. +(Narrator: And this central box connects the whole system together. +Maneuvering the Spyfish is simple with the wireless remote control. +You watch the video with superimposed graphics that indicate your depth and compass heading. +The fluid graphics and ambient sounds combine to help you completely lose yourself underwater.) DK: And the last thing I'll talk about is ApproTEC, which is a project that I'm very excited about. +ApproTEC is a company started by Dr. Martin Fisher, who's a good friend of mine. He's a Ph.D. from Stanford. +He found himself in Kenya on a Fulbright and he had a very interesting insight, which is that he said, "There must be entrepreneurs in Kenya; there must be entrepreneurs everywhere." +And he noticed that for weddings and funerals there they could find enough money to put something together. +So he decided to start manufacturing products in Kenya with Kenyan manufacturers -- designed by people like us, but taken there. +And to this date -- he's been gone for only a few years -- he's started 19,000 companies. +He's made 30,000 new jobs. +And just the sales of the products -- this is a non-profit -- the sales of these products is now .6% of the GDP of Kenya. +This is one guy doing this. This is a pretty spectacular thing. +So we're in the process of helping them design deep-well, low-cost manual pumps in order for these people who have a quarter acre of land to be able to grow crops in the off-season. +What they do now is: they can grow crops in the rainy season but they can't grow them in the off-season. +And so by doing that, the woman that you saw in the first thing -- she's a school teacher -- always wanted to send her kids to college and she's going to be able to do it because of these things. +So with seed-squeezers, and pumps, and hay-balers and very straightforward things that we're designing -- my students are doing this as class projects and IDEO has donated their time to do this kind of work -- it's really amazing to see his success, Martin's. +We also were thinking about the experience of Richard, and so -- -- we designed this hat, because I knew I'd be the last one in the day and I needed to deal with him. So I just have one more thing to say. +Can you read it? +Well, it's always kind of funny when he comes up and hovers. +You know, you don't want to be rude to him and you don't want to feel guilty, and so I thought this would do it, where I just sit here. +So we saw a lot of interesting things being designed today in this session, and from all the different presenters. +And in my own practice, from product to ApproTEC, it's really exciting that we're taking a more human-centered approach to design, that we're including behaviors and personalities in the things we do, and I think this is great. +Designers are more trusted and more integrated into the business strategy of companies, and I have to say, for one, I feel very lucky at the progress that design has made since the first TED. Thanks a lot. +Basically, there's a major demographic event going on. +And it may be that passing the 50 percent urban point is an economic tipping point. So the world now is a map of connectivity. +It used to be that Paris and London and New York were the largest cities. +What we have now is the end of the rise of the West. That's over. +The aggregate numbers are overwhelming. +So what's really going on? Well, villages of the world are emptying out. +The question is, why? +And here's the unromantic truth -- and the city air makes you free, they said in Renaissance Germany. So some people go to places like Shanghai but most go to the squatter cities where aesthetics rule. +And these are not really a people oppressed by poverty. +They're people getting out of poverty as fast as they can. +They're the dominant builders and to a large extent, the dominant designers. +They have home-brewed infrastructure and vibrant urban life. +One-sixth of the GDP in India is coming out of Mumbai. +They are constantly upgrading, and in a few cases, the government helps. +Education is the main event that can happen in cities. +What's going on in the street in Mumbai? +Al Gore knows. It's basically everything. +There's no unemployment in squatter cities. Everyone works. +One-sixth of humanity is there. It's soon going to be more than that. +So here's the first punch line: cities have defused the population bomb. +And here's the second punch line. +That's the news from downtown. Here it is in perspective. +Stars have shined down on earth's life for billions of years. +Now we're shining right back up. +Thank you. +I do two things: I design mobile computers and I study brains. +And today's talk is about brains and, yay, somewhere I have a brain fan out there. +I'm going to, if I can have my first slide up here, and you'll see the title of my talk and my two affiliations. +So what I'm going to talk about is why we don't have a good brain theory, why it is important that we should develop one and what we can do about it. +And I'll try to do all that in 20 minutes. I have two affiliations. +Most of you know me from my Palm and Handspring days, but I also run a nonprofit scientific research institute called the Redwood Neuroscience Institute in Menlo Park, and we study theoretical neuroscience, and we study how the neocortex works. +I'm going to talk all about that. +I have one slide on my other life, the computer life, and that's the slide here. +These are some of the products I've worked on over the last 20 years, starting back from the very original laptop to some of the first tablet computers and so on, and ending up most recently with the Treo, and we're continuing to do this. +And I've done this because I really believe that mobile computing is the future of personal computing, and I'm trying to make the world a little bit better by working on these things. +But this was, I have to admit, all an accident. +I really didn't want to do any of these products and very early in my career I decided I was not going to be in the computer industry. +And before I tell you about that, I just have to tell you this one little picture of graffiti there I picked off the web the other day. +I was looking for a picture of graffiti, little text input language, and I found the website dedicated to teachers who want to make these, you know, the script writing things across the top of their blackboard, and they had added graffiti to it, and I'm sorry about that. +This is not a real brain. This is a picture of one, a line drawing. +But I don't remember exactly how it happened, but I have one recollection, which was pretty strong in my mind. +In September 1979, Scientific American came out with a single topic issue about the brain. And it was quite good. +It was one of the best issues ever. And they talked about the neuron and development and disease and vision and all the things you might want to know about brains. It was really quite impressive. +And one might have the impression that we really knew a lot about brains. +But the last article in that issue was written by Francis Crick of DNA fame. +Today is, I think, the 50th anniversary of the discovery of DNA. +And he wrote a story basically saying, well, this is all well and good, but you know what, we don't know diddley squat about brains and no one has a clue how these things work, so don't believe what anyone tells you. +This is a quote from that article. He said, "What is conspicuously lacking," he's a very proper British gentleman so, "What is conspicuously lacking is a broad framework of ideas in which to interpret these different approaches." +I thought the word framework was great. +He didn't say we didn't even have a theory. He says, we don't even know how to begin to think about it -- we don't even have a framework. +We are in the pre-paradigm days, if you want to use Thomas Kuhn. +And so I fell in love with this, and said look, we have all this knowledge about brains. How hard can it be? +And this is something we can work on my lifetime. I felt I could make a difference, and so I tried to get out of the computer business, into the brain business. +First, I went to MIT, the AI lab was there, and I said, well, I want to build intelligent machines, too, but the way I want to do it is to study how brains work first. +And they said, oh, you don't need to do that. +We're just going to program computers; that's all we need to do. +And I said, no, you really ought to study brains. They said, oh, you know, you're wrong. And I said, no, you're wrong, and I didn't get in. +But I was a little disappointed -- pretty young -- but I went back again a few years later and this time was in California, and I went to Berkeley. +And I said, I'll go in from the biological side. +So I got in -- in the Ph.D. program in biophysics, and I was, all right, I'm studying brains now, and I said, well, I want to study theory. +And they said, oh no, you can't study theory about brains. +That's not something you do. You can't get funded for that. +And as a graduate student, you can't do that. So I said, oh my gosh. +I was very depressed. I said, but I can make a difference in this field. +So what I did is I went back in the computer industry and said, well, I'll have to work here for a while, do something. +That's when I designed all those computer products. +And I said, I want to do this for four years, make some money, like I was having a family, and I would mature a bit, and maybe the business of neuroscience would mature a bit. +Well, it took longer than four years. It's been about 16 years. +But I'm doing it now, and I'm going to tell you about it. +So why should we have a good brain theory? +Well, there's lots of reasons people do science. +One is -- the most basic one is -- people like to know things. +We're curious, and we just go out and get knowledge, you know? +Why do we study ants? Well, it's interesting. +Maybe we'll learn something really useful about it, but it's interesting and fascinating. +But sometimes, a science has some other attributes which makes it really, really interesting. +Sometimes a science will tell something about ourselves, it'll tell us who we are. +Rarely, you know: evolution did this and Copernicus did this, where we have a new understanding of who we are. +And after all, we are our brains. My brain is talking to your brain. +Our bodies are hanging along for the ride, but my brain is talking to your brain. +And if we want to understand who we are and how we feel and perceive, we really understand what brains are. +So why don't we have a good theory of brains? +And people have been working on it for 100 years. +Well, let's first take a look at what normal science looks like. +This is normal science. +Normal science is a nice balance between theory and experimentalists. +And so the theorist guys say, well, I think this is what's going on, and the experimentalist says, no, you're wrong. +And it goes back and forth, you know? +This works in physics. This works in geology. But if this is normal science, what does neuroscience look like? This is what neuroscience looks like. +We have this mountain of data, which is anatomy, physiology and behavior. +You can't imagine how much detail we know about brains. +There were 28,000 people who went to the neuroscience conference this year, and every one of them is doing research in brains. +A lot of data. But there's no theory. There's a little, wimpy box on top there. +And theory has not played a role in any sort of grand way in the neurosciences. +And it's a real shame. Now why has this come about? +If you ask neuroscientists, why is this the state of affair, they'll first of all admit it. But if you ask them, they'll say, well, there's various reasons we don't have a good brain theory. +Some people say, well, we don't still have enough data, we need to get more information, there's all these things we don't know. +Well, I just told you there's so much data coming out your ears. +We have so much information, we don't even know how to begin to organize it. +What good is more going to do? +Maybe we'll be lucky and discover some magic thing, but I don't think so. +This is actually a symptom of the fact that we just don't have a theory. +We don't need more data -- we need a good theory about it. +Another one is sometimes people say, well, brains are so complex, it'll take another 50 years. +I even think Chris said something like this yesterday. +I'm not sure what you said, Chris, but something like, well, it's one of the most complicated things in the universe. That's not true. +You're more complicated than your brain. You've got a brain. +And it's also, although the brain looks very complicated, things look complicated until you understand them. +That's always been the case. And so all we can say, well, my neocortex, which is the part of the brain I'm interested in, has 30 billion cells. +But, you know what? It's very, very regular. +In fact, it looks like it's the same thing repeated over and over and over again. +It's not as complex as it looks. That's not the issue. +Some people say, brains can't understand brains. +Very Zen-like. Whoo. You know, it sounds good, but why? I mean, what's the point? +It's just a bunch of cells. You understand your liver. +It's got a lot of cells in it too, right? +So, you know, I don't think there's anything to that. +And finally, some people say, well, you know, I don't feel like a bunch of cells, you know. I'm conscious. +I've got this experience, I'm in the world, you know. +I can't be just a bunch of cells. Well, you know, people used to believe there was a life force to be living, and we now know that's really not true at all. +And there's really no evidence that says -- well, other than people just have disbelief that cells can do what they do. +And so, if some people have fallen into the pit of metaphysical dualism, some really smart people, too, but we can reject all that. +No, I'm going to tell you there's something else, and it's really fundamental, and this is what it is: there's another reason why we don't have a good brain theory, and it's because we have an intuitive, strongly-held, but incorrect assumption that has prevented us from seeing the answer. +There's something we believe that just, it's obvious, but it's wrong. +Now, there's a history of this in science and before I tell you what it is, I'm going to tell you a bit about the history of it in science. +You look at some other scientific revolutions, and this case, I'm talking about the solar system, that's Copernicus, Darwin's evolution, and tectonic plates, that's Wegener. +They all have a lot in common with brain science. +First of all, they had a lot of unexplained data. A lot of it. +But it got more manageable once they had a theory. +The best minds were stumped -- really, really smart people. +We're not smarter now than they were then. +It just turns out it's really hard to think of things, but once you've thought of them, it's kind of easy to understand it. +My daughters understood these three theories in their basic framework by the time they were in kindergarten. +And now it's not that hard, you know, here's the apple, here's the orange, you know, the Earth goes around, that kind of stuff. +Finally, another thing is the answer was there all along, but we kind of ignored it because of this obvious thing, and that's the thing. +It was an intuitive, strong-held belief that was wrong. +In the case of the solar system, the idea that the Earth is spinning and the surface of the Earth is going like a thousand miles an hour, and the Earth is going through the solar system about a million miles an hour. +This is lunacy. We all know the Earth isn't moving. +Do you feel like you're moving a thousand miles an hour? +Of course not. You know, and someone who said, well, it was spinning around in space and it's so huge, they would lock you up, and that's what they did back then. +So it was intuitive and obvious. Now what about evolution? +Evolution's the same thing. We taught our kids, well, the Bible says, you know, God created all these species, cats are cats, dogs are dogs, people are people, plants are plants, they don't change. +Noah put them on the Ark in that order, blah, blah, blah. And, you know, the fact is, if you believe in evolution, we all have a common ancestor, and we all have a common ancestry with the plant in the lobby. +This is what evolution tells us. And, it's true. It's kind of unbelievable. +And the same thing about tectonic plates, you know? +All the mountains and the continents are kind of floating around on top of the Earth, you know? It's like, it doesn't make any sense. +So what is the intuitive, but incorrect assumption, that's kept us from understanding brains? +Now I'm going to tell it to you, and it's going to seem obvious that that is correct, and that's the point, right? Then I'm going to have to make an argument why you're incorrect about the other assumption. +The intuitive but obvious thing is that somehow intelligence is defined by behavior, that we are intelligent because of the way that we do things and the way we behave intelligently, and I'm going to tell you that's wrong. +What it is is intelligence is defined by prediction. +And I'm going to work you through this in a few slides here, give you an example of what this means. Here's a system. +Engineers like to look at systems like this. Scientists like to look at systems like this. +They say, well, we have a thing in a box, and we have its inputs and its outputs. +The AI people said, well, the thing in the box is a programmable computer because that's equivalent to a brain, and we'll feed it some inputs and we'll get it to do something, have some behavior. +And Alan Turing defined the Turing test, which is essentially saying, we'll know if something's intelligent if it behaves identical to a human. +A behavioral metric of what intelligence is, and this has stuck in our minds for a long period of time. +Reality though, I call it real intelligence. +Real intelligence is built on something else. +We experience the world through a sequence of patterns, and we store them, and we recall them. And when we recall them, we match them up against reality, and we're making predictions all the time. +It's an eternal metric. There's an eternal metric about us sort of saying, do we understand the world? Am I making predictions? And so on. +You're all being intelligent right now, but you're not doing anything. +Maybe you're scratching yourself, or picking your nose, I don't know, but you're not doing anything right now, but you're being intelligent; you're understanding what I'm saying. +Because you're intelligent and you speak English, you know what word is at the end of this -- sentence. +The word came into you, and you're making these predictions all the time. +And then, what I'm saying is, is that the eternal prediction is the output in the neocortex. +And that somehow, prediction leads to intelligent behavior. +And here's how that happens. Let's start with a non-intelligent brain. +Well I'll argue a non-intelligent brain, we got hold of an old brain, and we're going to say it's like a non-mammal, like a reptile, so I'll say, an alligator; we have an alligator. +And the alligator has some very sophisticated senses. +It's got good eyes and ears and touch senses and so on, a mouth and a nose. It has very complex behavior. +It can run and hide. It has fears and emotions. It can eat you, you know. +It can attack. It can do all kinds of stuff. +But we don't consider the alligator very intelligent, not like in a human sort of way. +But it has all this complex behavior already. +Now, in evolution, what happened? +First thing that happened in evolution with mammals, we started to develop a thing called the neocortex. +And I'm going to represent the neocortex here, by this box that's sticking on top of the old brain. +Neocortex means new layer. It is a new layer on top of your brain. +If you don't know it, it's the wrinkly thing on the top of your head that, it's got wrinkly because it got shoved in there and doesn't fit. +No, really, that's what it is. It's about the size of a table napkin. +And it doesn't fit, so it gets all wrinkly. Now look at how I've drawn this here. +The old brain is still there. You still have that alligator brain. +You do. It's your emotional brain. +It's all those things, and all those gut reactions you have. +And on top of it, we have this memory system called the neocortex. +And the memory system is sitting over the sensory part of the brain. +And so as the sensory input comes in and feeds from the old brain, it also goes up into the neocortex. And the neocortex is just memorizing. +It's sitting there saying, ah, I'm going to memorize all the things that are going on: where I've been, people I've seen, things I've heard, and so on. +And in the future, when it sees something similar to that again, so in a similar environment, or the exact same environment, it'll play it back. It'll start playing it back. +Oh, I've been here before. And when you've been here before, this happened next. It allows you to predict the future. +It allows you to, literally it feeds back the signals into your brain; they'll let you see what's going to happen next, will let you hear the word "sentence" before I said it. +And it's this feeding back into the old brain that'll allow you to make very more intelligent decisions. +This is the most important slide of my talk, so I'll dwell on it a little bit. +And so, all the time you say, oh, I can predict the things. +In humans -- by the way, this is true for all mammals; it's true for other mammals -- and in humans, it got a lot worse. +In humans, we actually developed the front part of the neocortex called the anterior part of the neocortex. And nature did a little trick. +It copied the posterior part, the back part, which is sensory, and put it in the front part. +And humans uniquely have the same mechanism on the front, but we use it for motor control. +So we are now able to make very sophisticated motor planning, things like that. +I don't have time to get into all this, but if you want to understand how a brain works, you have to understand how the first part of the mammalian neocortex works, how it is we store patterns and make predictions. +So let me give you a few examples of predictions. +And these things happen all the time. You're making these predictions. +I have this thing called the altered door thought experiment. +And the altered door thought experiment says, you have a door at home, and when you're here, I'm changing it, I've got a guy back at your house right now, moving the door around, and they're going to take your doorknob and move it over two inches. +And when you go home tonight, you're going to put your hand out there, and you're going to reach for the doorknob and you're going to notice it's in the wrong spot, and you'll go, whoa, something happened. +It may take a second to figure out what it was, but something happened. +Now I could change your doorknob in other ways. +Now, the engineering approach to this, the AI approach to this, is to build a door database. It has all the door attributes. +And as you go up to the door, you know, let's check them off one at time. +Door, door, door, you know, color, you know what I'm saying. +We don't do that. Your brain doesn't do that. +What your brain is doing is making constant predictions all the time about what is going to happen in your environment. +As I put my hand on this table, I expect to feel it stop. +When I walk, every step, if I missed it by an eighth of an inch, I'll know something has changed. +You're constantly making predictions about your environment. +I'll talk about vision here briefly. This is a picture of a woman. +And when you look at people, your eyes are caught over at two to three times a second. +You're not aware of this, but your eyes are always moving. +And so when you look at someone's face, you'd typically go from eye to eye to eye to nose to mouth. +Now, when your eye moves from eye to eye, if there was something else there like, a nose, you'd see a nose where an eye is supposed to be, and you'd go, oh shit, you know -- There's something wrong about this person. +And that's because you're making a prediction. +It's not like you just look over there and say, what am I seeing now? +A nose, that's okay. No, you have an expectation of what you're going to see. +Every single moment. And finally, let's think about how we test intelligence. +We test it by prediction. What is the next word in this, you know? +This is to this as this is to this. What is the next number in this sentence? +Here's three visions of an object. +What's the fourth one? That's how we test it. It's all about prediction. +So what is the recipe for brain theory? +First of all, we have to have the right framework. +And the framework is a memory framework, not a computation or behavior framework. It's a memory framework. +How do you store and recall these sequences or patterns? It's spatio-temporal patterns. +Then, if in that framework, you take a bunch of theoreticians. +Now biologists generally are not good theoreticians. +It's not always true, but in general, there's not a good history of theory in biology. +So I found the best people to work with are physicists, engineers and mathematicians, who tend to think algorithmically. +Then they have to learn the anatomy, and they've got to learn the physiology. +You have to make these theories very realistic in anatomical terms. +Anyone who gets up and tells you their theory about how the brain works and doesn't tell you exactly how it's working in the brain and how the wiring works in the brain, it is not a theory. +And that's what we're doing at the Redwood Neuroscience Institute. +I would love to have more time to tell you we're making fantastic progress in this thing, and I expect to be back up on this stage, maybe this will be some other time in the not too distant future and tell you about it. +I'm really, really excited. This is not going to take 50 years at all. +So what will brain theory look like? +First of all, it's going to be a theory about memory. +Not like computer memory. It's not at all like computer memory. +It's very, very different. And it's a memory of these very high-dimensional patterns, like the things that come from your eyes. +It's also memory of sequences. +You cannot learn or recall anything outside of a sequence. +A song must be heard in sequence over time, and you must play it back in sequence over time. +And these sequences are auto-associatively recalled, so if I see something, I hear something, it reminds me of it, and then it plays back automatically. +It's an automatic playback. And prediction of future inputs is the desired output. +And as I said, the theory must be biologically accurate, it must be testable, and you must be able to build it. +If you don't build it, you don't understand it. So, one more slide here. +What is this going to result in? Are we going to really build intelligent machines? +Absolutely. And it's going to be different than people think. +No doubt that it's going to happen, in my mind. +First of all, it's going to be built up, we're going to build the stuff out of silicon. +The same techniques we use for building silicon computer memories, we can use for here. +But they're very different types of memories. +And we're going to attach these memories to sensors, and the sensors will experience real-live, real-world data, and these things are going to learn about their environment. +Now it's very unlikely the first things you're going to see are like robots. +Not that robots aren't useful and people can build robots. +But the robotics part is the hardest part. That's the old brain. That's really hard. +The new brain is actually kind of easier than the old brain. +So the first thing we're going to do are the things that don't require a lot of robotics. +So you're not going to see C-3PO. +You're going to more see things like, you know, intelligent cars that really understand what traffic is and what driving is and have learned that certain types of cars with the blinkers on for half a minute probably aren't going to turn, things like that. +We can also do intelligent security systems. +Anywhere where we're basically using our brain, but not doing a lot of mechanics. +Those are the things that are going to happen first. +But ultimately, the world's the limit here. +I don't know how this is going to turn out. +I know a lot of people who invented the microprocessor and if you talk to them, they knew what they were doing was really significant, but they didn't really know what was going to happen. +They couldn't anticipate cell phones and the Internet and all this kind of stuff. +They just knew like, hey, they were going to build calculators and traffic light controllers. But it's going to be big. +In the same way, this is like brain science and these memories are going to be a very fundamental technology, and it's going to lead to very unbelievable changes in the next 100 years. +And I'm most excited about how we're going to use them in science. +So I think that's all my time, I'm over it, and I'm going to end my talk right there. +I'd like to start tonight by something completely different, asking you to join me by stepping off the land and jumping into the open ocean for a moment. +90 percent of the living space on the planet is in the open ocean, and it's where life -- the title of our seminar tonight -- it's where life began. +And it's a lively and a lovely place, but we're rapidly changing the oceans with our -- not only with our overfishing, our irresponsible fishing, our adding of pollutants like fertilizer from our cropland, but also, most recently, with climate change, and Steve Schneider, I'm sure, will be going into greater detail on this. +Now, as we continue to tinker with the oceans, more and more reports are predicting that the kinds of seas that we're creating will be conducive to low-energy type of animals, like jellyfish and bacteria. +And this might be the kind of seas we're headed for. +Now jellyfish are strangely hypnotic and beautiful, and you'll see lots of gorgeous ones at the aquarium on Friday, but they sting like hell, and jellyfish sushi and sashimi is just not going to fill you up. +About 100 grams of jellyfish equals four calories. +So it may be good for the waistline, but it probably won't keep you satiated for very long. +And a sea that's just filled and teeming with jellyfish isn't very good for all the other creatures that live in the oceans, that is, unless you eat jellyfish. +And this is this voracious predator launching a sneak attack on this poor little unsuspecting jellyfish there, a by-the-wind sailor. +And that predator is the giant ocean sunfish, the Mola mola, whose primary prey are jellyfish. +This animal is in "The Guinness World Book of Records" for being the world's heaviest bony fish. +It reaches up to almost 5,000 pounds -- on a diet of jellyfish, primarily. +And I think it's kind of a nice little cosmological convergence here that the Mola mola -- its common name is sunfish -- that its favorite food is the moon jelly. +So it's kind of nice, the sun and the moon getting together this way, even if one is eating the other. +Now this is typically how you see sunfish, this is where they get their common name. +They like to sunbathe, can't blame them. +They just lay out on the surface of the sea and most people think they're sick or lazy, but that's a typical behavior, they lie out and bask on the surface. +Their other name, Mola mola, is -- it sounds Hawaiian, but it's actually Latin for millstone, and that's attributable to their roundish, very bizarre, cut-off shape. +It's as if, as they were growing, they just forgot the tail part. +And that's actually what drew me to the Mola in the first place, was this terribly bizarre shape. +You know, you look at sharks, and they're streamlined, and they're sleek, and you look at tuna, and they're like torpedoes -- they just give away their agenda. They're about migration and strength, and then you look at the sunfish. +And this is just so elegantly mysterious, it's just -- it really kind of holds its cards a lot tighter than say, a tuna. +So I was just intrigued with what -- you know, what is this animal's story? +Well, as with anything in biology, nothing really makes sense except in the light of evolution. +The Mola's no exception. +They appeared shortly after the dinosaurs disappeared, 65 million years ago, at a time when whales still had legs, and they come from a rebellious little puffer fish faction -- oblige me a little Kipling-esque storytelling here. +Of course evolution is somewhat random, and you know, about 55 million years ago there was this rebellious little puffer fish faction that said, oh, the heck with the coral reefs -- we're going to head to the high seas. +And lots of generations, lots of tweaking and torquing, and we turn our puffer into the Mola. +You know, if you give Mother Nature enough time, that is what she will produce. +They look -- maybe they look kind of prehistoric and unfinished, abridged perhaps, but in fact, in fact they are the -- they vie for the top position of the most evolutionarily-derived fish in the sea, right up there with flat fish. +They're -- every single thing about that fish has been changed. +And in terms of fishes -- fishes appeared 500 million years ago, and they're pretty modern, just 50 million years ago, so -- so interestingly, they give away their ancestry as they develop. +They start as little eggs, and they're in "The Guinness World Book of Records" again for having the most number of eggs of any vertebrate on the planet. +A single four-foot female had 300 million eggs, can carry 300 million eggs in her ovaries -- imagine -- and they get to be over 10 feet long. Imagine what a 10 foot one has. +And from that little egg, they pass through this spiky little porcupine fish stage, reminiscent of their ancestry, and develop -- this is their little adolescent stage. +They school as adolescents, and become behemoth loners as adults. +That's a little diver up there in the corner. +They're in "The Guinness World Book of Records" again for being the vertebrate growth champion of the world. +From their little hatching size of their egg, into their little larval stage till they reach adulthood, they put on 600 million times an increase in weight. +600 million. Now imagine if you gave birth to a little baby, and you had to feed this thing. +That would mean that your child, you would expect it to gain the weight of six Titanics. +Now I don't know how you'd feed a child like that but -- we don't know how fast the Molas grow in the wild, but captive growth studies at the Monterey Bay Aquarium -- one of the first places to have them in captivity -- they had one that gained 800 lbs in 14 months. +I said, now, that's a true American. +So being a loner is a great thing, especially in today's seas, because schooling used to be salvation for fishes, but it's suicide for fishes now. +But unfortunately Molas, even though they don't school, they still get caught in nets as by-catch. +If we're going to save the world from total jellyfish domination, then we've got to figure out what the jellyfish predators -- how they live their lives, like the Mola. +And unfortunately, they make up a large portion of the California by-catch -- up to 26 percent of the drift net. +And in the Mediterranean, in the swordfish net fisheries, they make up up to 90 percent. +So we've got to figure out how they're living their lives. +And how do you do that? +How do you do that with an animal -- very few places in the world. +This is an open ocean creature. It knows no boundaries -- it doesn't go to land. +How do you get insight? +How do you seduce an open ocean creature like that to spill its secrets? +Well, there's some great new technology that has just recently become available, and it's just a boon for getting insight into open ocean animals. +And it's pictured right here, that little tag up there. +That little tag can record temperature, depth and light intensity, which is correlated with time, and from that we can get locations. +So the great thing about the Mola is that when we put the tag on them -- if you look up here -- that's streaming off, that's right where we put the tag. +And it just so happens that's a parasite hanging off the Mola. +Molas are infamous for carrying tons of parasites. +They're just parasite hotels; even their parasites have parasites. +I think Donne wrote a poem about that. +But they have 40 genera of parasites, and so we figured just one more parasite won't be too much of a problem. +And they happen to be a very good vehicle for carrying oceanographic equipment. +They don't seem to mind, so far. +So what are we trying to find out? We're focusing on the Pacific. +We're tagging on the California coast, and we're tagging over in Taiwan and Japan. +And we're interested in how these animals are using the currents, using temperature, using the open ocean, to live their lives. +We'd love to tag in Monterey. +Monterey is one of the few places in the world where Molas come in large numbers. +Not this time of year -- it's more around October. +And we'd love to tag here -- this is an aerial shot of Monterey -- but unfortunately, the Molas here end up looking like this because another one of our locals really likes Molas but in the wrong way. +The California sea lion takes the Molas as soon as they come into the bay, rips off their fins, fashions them into the ultimate Frisbee, Mola style, and then tosses them back and forth. +And I'm not exaggerating, it is just -- and sometimes they don't eat them, it's just spiteful. +And you know, the locals think it's terrible behavior, it's just horrible watching this happen, day after day. +The poor little Molas coming in, getting ripped to shreds, so we head down south, to San Diego. +Not so many California sea lions down there. +And the Molas there, you can find them with a spotter plane very easily, and they like to hang out under floating rafts of kelp. +And under those kelps -- this is why the Molas come there because it's spa time for the Molas there. +As soon as they get under those rafts of kelp, the exfoliating cleaner fish come. +And they come and give the Molas -- you can see they strike this funny little position that says, "I'm not threatening, but I need a massage." +And they'll put their fins out and their eyes go in the back of their head, and the fish come up and they just clean, clean, clean -- because the Molas, you know, there's just a smorgasbord of parasites. +And it's also a great place to go down south because the water's warmer, and the Molas are kind of friendly down there. +I mean what other kind of fish, if you approach it right, will say, "Okay, scratch me right there." +You truly can swim up to a Mola -- they're very gentle -- and if you approach them right, you can give them a scratch and they enjoy it. +So we've also tagged one part of the Pacific; we've gone over to another part of the Pacific, and we've tagged in Taiwan, and we tagged in Japan. +And over in these places, the Molas are caught in set nets that line these countries. +And they're not thrown back as by-catch, they're eaten. +We were served a nine-course meal of Mola after we tagged. +Well, not the one we tagged! +And everything from the kidney, to the testes, to the back bone, to the fin muscle to -- I think that s pretty much the whole fish -- is eaten. +So the hardest part of tagging, now, is after you put that tag on, you have to wait, months. +And you're just wondering, oh, I hope the fish is safe, I hope, I hope it's going to be able to actually live its life out during the course that the tag is recording. +The tags cost 3500 dollars each, and then satellite time is another 500 dollars, so you're like, oh, I hope the tag is okay. +And so the waiting is really the hardest part. +I'm going to show you our latest dataset. +And it hasn't been published, so it's totally privy information just for TED. +And in showing you this, you know, when we're looking at this data, we're thinking, oh do these animals, do they cross the equator? +Do they go from one side of the Pacific to the other? +And we found that they kind of are homebodies. +They're not big migrators. This is their track: we deployed the tag off of Tokyo, and the Mola in one month kind of got into the Kuroshio Current off of Japan and foraged there. +And after four months, went up, you know, off of the north part of Japan. +And that's kind of their home range. +Now that's important, though, because if there's a lot of fishing pressure, that population doesn't get replenished. +So that's a very important piece of data. +But also what's important is that they're not slacker, lazy fish. +They're super industrious. +And this is a day in the life of a Mola, and if we -- they're up and down, and up and down, and up and down, and up and up and down, up to 40 times a day. +As the sun comes up, you see in the blue, they start their dive. +Down -- and as the sun gets brighter they go a little deeper, little deeper. +They plumb the depths down to 600 meters, in temperatures to one degree centigrade, and this is why you see them on the surface -- it's so cold down there. +They've got to come up, warm, get that solar power, and then plunge back into the depths, and go up and down and up and down. +And they're hitting a layer down there; it's called the deep scattering layer -- which a whole variety of food's in that layer. +So rather than just being some sunbathing slacker, they're really very industrious fish that dance this wild dance between the surface and the bottom and through temperature. +We see the same pattern -- now with these tags we're seeing a similar pattern for swordfishes, manta rays, tunas, a real three-dimensional play. +This is part of a much larger program called the Census of Marine Life, where they're going to be tagging all over the world and the Mola's going to enter into that. +And what's exciting -- you all travel, and you know the best thing about traveling is to be able to find the locals, and to find the great places by getting the local knowledge. +Well now with the Census of Marine Life, we'll be able to sidle up to all the locals and explore 90 percent of our living space, with local knowledge. +It's never -- it's really never been a more exciting, or a vital time, to be a biologist. +Which brings me to my last point, and what I think is kind of the most fun. +I set up a website because I was getting so many questions about Molas and sunfish. +And so I just figured I'd have the questions answered, and I'd be able to thank my funders, like National Geographic and Lindbergh. +But people would write into the site with all sorts of, all sorts of stories about these animals and wanting to help me get samples for genetic analysis. +And what I found most exciting is that everyone had a shared -- a shared love and an interest in the oceans. +I was getting reports from Catholic nuns, Jewish Rabbis, Muslims, Christians -- everybody writing in, united by their love of life. +And to me that -- I don't think I could say it any better than the immortal Bard himself: "One touch of nature makes the whole world kin." +And sure, it may be just one big old silly fish, but it's helping. +If it's helping to unite the world, I think it's definitely the fish of the future. +Thank you very much, Chris. Everybody who came up here said they were scared. I don't know if I'm scared, but this is my first time of addressing an audience like this. +And I don't have any smart technology for you to look at. +There are no slides, so you'll just have to be content with me. +What I want to do this morning is share with you a couple of stories and talk about a different Africa. +Already this morning there were some allusions to the Africa that you hear about all the time: the Africa of HIV/AIDS, the Africa of malaria, the Africa of poverty, the Africa of conflict, and the Africa of disasters. +While it is true that those things are going on, there's an Africa that you don't hear about very much. +And sometimes I'm puzzled, and I ask myself why. +This is the Africa that is changing, that Chris alluded to. +This is the Africa of opportunity. +This is the Africa where people want to take charge of their own futures and their own destinies. +And this is the Africa where people are looking for partnerships to do this. That's what I want to talk about today. +And I want to start by telling you a story about that change in Africa. +On 15th of September 2005, Mr. Diepreye Alamieyeseigha, a governor of one of the oil-rich states of Nigeria, was arrested by the London Metropolitan Police on a visit to London. +He was arrested because there were transfers of eight million dollars that went into some dormant accounts that belonged to him and his family. +This arrest occurred because there was cooperation between the London Metropolitan Police and the Economic and Financial Crimes Commission of Nigeria -- led by one of our most able and courageous people: Mr. Nuhu Ribadu. +Alamieyeseigha was arraigned in London. +Today, Alams -- as we call him for short -- is in jail. +This is a story about the fact that people in Africa are no longer willing to tolerate corruption from their leaders. +This is a story about the fact that people want their resources managed properly for their good, and not taken out to places where they'll benefit just a few of the elite. +And therefore, when you hear about the corrupt Africa -- corruption all the time -- I want you to know that the people and the governments are trying hard to fight this in some of the countries, and that some successes are emerging. +Does it mean the problem is over? The answer is no. +There's still a long way to go, but that there's a will there. +And that successes are being chalked up on this very important fight. +So when you hear about corruption, don't just feel that nothing is being done about this -- that you can't operate in any African country because of the overwhelming corruption. That is not the case. +There's a will to fight, and in many countries, that fight is ongoing and is being won. In others, like mine, where there has been a long history of dictatorship in Nigeria, the fight is ongoing and we have a long way to go. +But the truth of the matter is that this is going on. +The results are showing: independent monitoring by the World Bank and other organizations show that in many instances the trend is downwards in terms of corruption, and governance is improving. +A study by the Economic Commission for Africa showed a clear trend upwards in governance in 28 African countries. +And let me say just one more thing before I leave this area of governance. +That is that people talk about corruption, corruption. +All the time when they talk about it you immediately think about Africa. +In this country, if you receive stolen goods, are you not prosecuted? +So when we talk about this kind of corruption, let us also think about what is happening on the other side of the globe -- where the money's going and what can be done to stop it. +I'm working on an initiative now, along with the World Bank, on asset recovery, trying to do what we can to get the monies that have been taken abroad -- developing countries' moneys -- to get that sent back. +Because if we can get the 20 billion dollars sitting out there back, it may be far more for some of these countries than all the aid that is being put together. +The second thing I want to talk about is the will for reform. +Africans, after -- they're tired, we're tired of being the subject of everybody's charity and care. +We are grateful, but we know that we can take charge of our own destinies if we have the will to reform. +And what is happening in many African countries now is a realization that no one can do it but us. We have to do it. +We can invite partners who can support us, but we have to start. +We have to reform our economies, change our leadership, become more democratic, be more open to change and to information. +And this is what we started to do in one of the largest countries on the continent, Nigeria. +In fact, if you're not in Nigeria, you're not in Africa. +I want to tell you that. +One in four sub-Saharan Africans is Nigerian, and it has 140 million dynamic people -- chaotic people -- but very interesting people. You'll never be bored. +What we started to do was to realize that we had to take charge and reform ourselves. +And with the support of a leader who was willing, at the time, to do the reforms, we put forward a comprehensive reform program, which we developed ourselves. +Not the International Monetary Fund. Not the World Bank, where I worked for 21 years and rose to be a vice president. +No one can do it for you. You have to do it for yourself. +We put together a program that would, one: get the state out of businesses it had nothing -- it had no business being in. +The state should not be in the business of producing goods and services because it's inefficient and incompetent. +So we decided to privatize many of our enterprises. +We -- as a result, we decided to liberalize many of our markets. +Can you believe that prior to this reform -- which started at the end of 2003, when I left Washington to go and take up the post of Finance Minister -- we had a telecommunications company that was only able to develop 4,500 landlines in its entire 30-year history? +Having a telephone in my country was a huge luxury. +You couldn't get it. You had to bribe. +You had to do everything to get your phone. +When President Obasanjo supported and launched the liberalization of the telecommunications sector, we went from 4,500 landlines to 32 million GSM lines, and counting. +Nigeria's telecoms market is the second-fastest growing in the world, after China. We are getting investments of about a billion dollars a year in telecoms. And nobody knows, except a few smart people. +The smartest one, first to come in, was the MTN company of South Africa. +And in the three years that I was Finance Minister, they made an average of 360 million dollars profit per year. +360 million in a market -- in a country that is a poor country, with an average per capita income just under 500 dollars per capita. +So the market is there. +When they kept this under wraps, but soon others got to know. +Nigerians themselves began to develop some wireless telecommunications companies, and three or four others have come in. +But there's a huge market out there, and people don't know about it, or they don't want to know. +So privatization is one of the things we've done. +The other thing we've also done is to manage our finances better. +Because nobody's going to help you and support you if you're not managing your own finances well. +And Nigeria, with the oil sector, had the reputation of being corrupt and not managing its own public finances well. +So what did we try to do? We introduced a fiscal rule that de-linked our budget from the oil price. +Before we used to just budget on whatever oil we bring in, because oil is the biggest, most revenue-earning sector in the economy: 70 percent of our revenues come from oil. +We de-linked that, and once we did it, we began to budget at a price slightly lower than the oil price and save whatever was above that price. +We didn't know we could pull it off; it was very controversial. +But what it immediately did was that the volatility that had been present in terms of our economic development -- where, even if oil prices were high, we would grow very fast. +When they crashed, we crashed. +And we could hardly even pay anything, any salaries, in the economy. +That smoothened out. We were able to save, just before I left, 27 billion dollars. Whereas -- and this went to our reserves -- when I arrived in 2003, we had seven billion dollars in reserves. +By the time I left, we had gone up to almost 30 billion dollars. And as we speak now, we have about 40 billion dollars in reserves due to proper management of our finances. +And that shores up our economy, makes it stable. +Our exchange rate that used to fluctuate all the time is now fairly stable and being managed so that business people have a predictability of prices in the economy. +We brought inflation down from 28 percent to about 11 percent. +And we had GDP grow from an average of 2.3 percent the previous decade to about 6.5 percent now. +So all the changes and reforms we were able to make have shown up in results that are measurable in the economy. +And what is more important, because we want to get away from oil and diversify -- and there are so many opportunities in this one big country, as in many countries in Africa -- what was remarkable is that much of this growth came not from the oil sector alone, but from non-oil. +Agriculture grew at better than eight percent. +As telecoms sector grew, housing and construction, and I could go on and on. And this is to illustrate to you that once you get the macro-economy straightened out, the opportunities in various other sectors are enormous. +We have opportunities in agriculture, like I said. +We have opportunities in solid minerals. We have a lot of minerals that no one has even invested in or explored. And we realized that without the proper legislation to make that possible, that wouldn't happen. So we've now got a mining code that is comparable with some of the best in the world. +We have opportunities in housing and real estate. +There was nothing in a country of 140 million people -- no shopping malls as you know them here. +This was an investment opportunity for someone that excited the imagination of people. +And now, we have a situation in which the businesses in this mall are doing four times the turnover that they had projected. +So, huge things in construction, real estate, mortgage markets. Financial services: we had 89 banks. Too many not doing their real business. +We consolidated them from 89 to 25 banks by requiring that they increase their capital -- share capital. +And it went from about 25 million dollars to 150 million dollars. +The banks -- these banks are now consolidated, and that strengthening of the banking system has attracted a lot of investment from outside. +Barclays Bank of the U.K. is bringing in 500 million. +Standard Chartered has brought in 140 million. +And I can go on. Dollars, on and on, into the system. +We are doing the same with the insurance sector. +So in financial services, a great deal of opportunity. +In tourism, in many African countries, a great opportunity. +And that's what many people know East Africa for: the wildlife, the elephants, and so on. +But managing the tourism market in a way that can really benefit the people is very important. +So what am I trying to say? I'm trying to tell you that there's a new wave on the continent. +A new wave of openness and democratization in which, since 2000, more than two-thirds of African countries have had multi-party democratic elections. +Not all of them have been perfect, or will be, but the trend is very clear. +I'm trying to tell you that since the past three years, the average rate of growth on the continent has moved from about 2.5 percent to about five percent per annum. +This is better than the performance of many OECD countries. +So it's clear that things are changing. +Conflicts are down on the continent; from about 12 conflicts a decade ago, we are down to three or four conflicts -- one of the most terrible, of course, of which is Darfur. +And, you know, you have the neighborhood effect where if something is going on in one part of the continent, it looks like the entire continent is affected. +But you should know that this continent is not -- is a continent of many countries, not one country. +And if we are down to three or four conflicts, it means that there are plenty of opportunities to invest in stable, growing, exciting economies where there's plenty of opportunity. +And I want to just make one point about this investment. +The best way to help Africans today is to help them to stand on their own feet. +And the best way to do that is by helping create jobs. +There's no issue with fighting malaria and putting money in that and saving children's lives. That's not what I'm saying. That is fine. +But imagine the impact on a family: if the parents can be employed and make sure that their children go to school, that they can buy the drugs to fight the disease themselves. +If we can invest in places where you yourselves make money whilst creating jobs and helping people stand on their own feet, isn't that a wonderful opportunity? Isn't that the way to go? +And I want to say that some of the best people to invest in on the continent are the women. +I have a CD here. I'm sorry that I didn't say anything on time. +Otherwise, I would have liked you to have seen this. +It says, "Africa: Open for Business." +And this is a video that has actually won an award as the best documentary of the year. +Understand that the woman who made it is going to be in Tanzania, where they're having the session in June. +But it shows you Africans, and particularly African women, who against all odds have developed businesses, some of them world-class. +One of the women in this video, Adenike Ogunlesi, making children's clothes -- which she started as a hobby and grew into a business. +Mixing African materials, such as we have, with materials from elsewhere. +So, she'll make a little pair of dungarees with corduroys, with African material mixed in. Very creative designs, has reached a stage where she even had an order from Wal-Mart. +For 10,000 pieces. +So that shows you that we have people who are capable of doing. +And the women are diligent. They are focused; they work hard. +I could go on giving examples: Beatrice Gakuba of Rwanda, who opened up a flower business and is now exporting to the Dutch auction in Amsterdam each morning and is employing 200 other women and men to work with her. +However, many of these are starved for capital to expand, because nobody believes outside of our countries that we can do what is necessary. Nobody thinks in terms of a market. +Nobody thinks there's opportunity. +But I'm standing here saying that those who miss the boat now, will miss it forever. +So if you want to be in Africa, think about investing. +Think about the Beatrices, think about the Adenikes of this world, who are doing incredible things, that are bringing them into the global economy, whilst at the same time making sure that their fellow men and women are employed, and that the children in those households get educated because their parents are earning adequate income. +So I invite you to explore the opportunities. +When you go to Tanzania, listen carefully, because I'm sure you will hear of the various openings that there will be for you to get involved in something that will do good for the continent, for the people and for yourselves. +Thank you very much. +I'm really scared. I don't think we're going to make it. +Probably by now most of you have seen Al Gore's amazing talk. +Shortly after I saw that, we had some friends over for dinner with the family. The conversation turned to global warming, and everybody agreed, there's a real problem. +We've got a climate crisis. +So, we went around the table to talk about what we should do. +The conversation came to my 15-year-old daughter, Mary. +She said, "I agree with everything that's been said. +I'm scared and I'm angry." And then she turned to me and said, "Dad, your generation created this problem; you'd better fix it." Wow. +All the conversation stopped. All the eyes turned to me. +I didn't know what to say. Kleiner's second law is, "There is a time when panic is the appropriate response." +And we've reached that time. We cannot afford to underestimate this problem. If we face irreversible and catastrophic consequences, we must act, and we must act decisively. +I've got to tell you, for me, everything changed that evening. +And so, my partners and I, we set off on this mission to learn more, to try to do much more. So, we mobilized. We got on airplanes. +We went to Brazil. We went to China and to India, to Bentonville, Arkansas, to Washington, D.C. and to Sacramento. +And so, what I'd like to do now is to tell you about what we've learned in those journeys. +Because the more we learned, the more concerned we grew. +You know, my partners at Kleiner and I were compulsive networkers, and so when we see a big problem or an opportunity like avian flu or personalized medicine, we just get together the smartest people we know. +For this climate crisis, we assembled a network, really, of superstars, from policy activists to scientists and entrepreneurs and business leaders. Fifty or so of them. +And so, I want to tell you about what we've learned in doing that and four lessons I've learned in the last year. +The first lesson is that companies are really powerful, and that matters a lot. This is a story about how Wal-Mart went green, and what that means. +Two years ago, the CEO, Lee Scott, believed that green is the next big thing, and so Wal-Mart made going green a top priority. +They committed that they're going to take their existing stores and reduce their energy consumption by 20 percent, and their new stores by 30 percent, and do all that in seven years. +The three biggest uses of energy in a store are heating and air conditioning, then lighting, and then refrigeration. +So, look what they did. +They painted the roofs of all their stores white. +They put smart skylights through their stores so they could harvest the daylight and reduce the lighting demands. +And, third, they put the refrigerated goods behind closed doors with LED lighting. +I mean, why would you try to refrigerate a whole store? +These are really simple, smart solutions based on existing technology. +Why does Wal-Mart matter? Well, it's massive. +They're the largest private employer in America. +They're the largest private user of electricity. +They have the second-largest vehicle fleet on the road. +And they have one of the world's most amazing supply chains, 60,000 suppliers. If Wal-Mart were a country, it would be the sixth-largest trading partner with China. +And maybe most important, they have a big effect on other companies. +When Wal-Mart declares it's going to go green and be profitable, it has a powerful impact on other great institutions. +So, let me tell you this: when Wal-Mart achieves 20 percent energy reductions, that's going to be a very big deal. But I'm afraid it's not enough. +We need Wal-Mart and every other company to do the same. +The second thing that we learned is that individuals matter, and they matter enormously. +I've got another Wal-Mart story for you, OK? +Wal-Mart has over 125 million U.S. customers. +That's a third of the U.S. population. +65 million compact fluorescent light bulbs were sold last year. +And Wal-Mart has committed they're going to sell another 100 million light bulbs in the coming year. But it's not easy. +Consumers don't really like these light bulbs. +The light's kind of funny, they won't dim, takes a while for them to start up. +But the pay-off is really enormous. +100 million compact fluorescent light bulbs means that we'll save 600 million dollars in energy bills, and 20 million tons of CO2 every year, year in and year out. +It does seem really hard to get consumers to do the right thing. +It is stupid that we use two tons of steel, glass and plastic to haul our sorry selves to the shopping mall. +It's stupid that we put water in plastic bottles in Fiji and ship it here. +It's hard to change consumer behavior because consumers don't know how much this stuff costs. Do you know? +Do you know how much CO2 you generated to drive here or fly here? +I don't know, and I should. +Those of us who care about all this would act better if we knew what the real costs were. +But as long as we pretend that CO2 is free, as long as these uses are nearly invisible, how can we expect change? +I'm really afraid, because I think the kinds of changes we can reasonably expect from individuals are going to be clearly not enough. +The third lesson we learned is that policy matters. It really matters. +In fact, policy is paramount. +I've got a behind-the-scenes story for you about that green tech network I described. +At the end of our first meeting, we got together to talk about what the action items would be, how we'd follow up. +And Bob Epstein raised a hand. He stood up. +You know, Bob's that Berkeley techie type who started Sybase. +Well, Bob said the most important thing we could do right now is to make it clear in Sacramento, California that we need a market-based system of mandates that's going to cap and reduce greenhouse gases in California. +It's necessary and, just as important, it's good for the California economy. +So, eight of us went to Sacramento in August and we met with the seven undecided legislators and we lobbied for AB32. +You know what? Six of those seven voted yes in favor of the bill, so it passed, and it passed by a vote of 47 to 32. +Please. Thank you. +I think it's the most important legislation of 2006. Why? +Because California was the first state in this country to mandate 25 percent reduction of greenhouse gases by 2020. +And the result of that is, we're going to generate 83,000 new jobs, four billion dollars a year in annual income, and reduce the CO2 emissions by 174 million tons a year. +California emits only seven percent of U.S. CO2 emissions. +It's only a percent and a half of the country's CO2 emissions. It's a great start, but I've got to tell you -- where I started -- I'm really afraid. +In fact, I'm certain California's not enough. +Here's a story about national policy that we could all learn from. +You know Tom Friedman says, "If you don't go, you don't know"? +Well, we went to Brazil to meet Dr. Jose Goldemberg. +He's the father of the ethanol revolution. +He told us that Brazil's government mandated that every gasoline station in the country would carry ethanol. +And they mandated that their new vehicles would be flex-fuel compatible, right? +They'd run ethanol or ordinary gasoline. +And so, here's what's happened in Brazil. +They now have 29,000 ethanol pumps -- this versus 700 in the U.S., and a paltry two in California -- and in three years their new car fleet has gone from four percent to 85 percent flex-fuel. +Compare that to the U.S.: five percent are flex-fuel. +And you know what? Most consumers who have them don't even know it. +So, what's happened in Brazil is, they've replaced 40 percent of the gasoline consumed by their automotive fleet with ethanol. +That's 59 billion dollars since 1975 that they didn't ship to the Middle East. +It's created a million jobs inside that country, and it's saved 32 million tons of CO2. It's really substantial. +That's 10 percent of the CO2 emissions across their entire country. +But Brazil's only 1.3 percent of the world's CO2 emission. +So, Brazil's ethanol miracle, I'm really afraid, is not enough. +In fact, I'm afraid all of the best policies we have are not going to be enough. +The fourth and final lesson we've learned is about the potential of radical innovation. +So, I want to tell you about a tragic problem and a breakthrough technology. +Every year a million and a half people die of a completely preventable disease. That's malaria. 6,000 people a day. +All for want of two dollars' worth of medications that we can buy at the corner drugstore. +Well, two dollars, two dollars is too much for Africa. +So, a team of Berkeley researchers with 15 million dollars from the Gates Foundation is engineering, designing a radical new way to make the key ingredient, called artemisinin, and they're going to make that drug 10 times cheaper. +And in doing so, they'll save a million lives -- at least a million lives a year. A million lives. +Their breakthrough technology is synthetic biology. +This leverages millions of years of evolution by redesigning bugs to make really useful products. +Now, what you do is, you get inside the microbe, you change its metabolic pathways, and you end up with a living chemical factory. +Now, you may ask, John, what has this got to go with green and with climate crisis? +Well, I'll tell you -- a lot. +We've now formed a company called Amyris, and this technology that they're using can be used to make better biofuels. +Don't let me skip over that. Better biofuels are a really big deal. +That means we can precisely engineer the molecules in the fuel chain and optimize them along the way. +So, if all goes well, they're going to have designer bugs in warm vats that are eating and digesting sugars to excrete better biofuels. +I guess that's better living through bugs. +Alan Kay is famous for saying the best way to predict the future is to invent it. +And, of course, at Kleiner we, kind of, apologize and say the second best way is to finance it. +And that's why we're investing 200 million dollars in a wide range of really disruptive new technologies for innovation in green technologies. +And we're encouraging others to do it as well. +We're talking a lot about this. +In 2005, there were 600 million dollars invested in new technologies of the sort you see here. It doubled in 2006 to 1.2 billion dollars. +But I'm really afraid we need much, much more. +For reference, fact one: Exxon's revenues in 2005 were a billion dollars a day. +Do you know, they only invested 0.2 percent of revenues in R&D? +Second fact: the President's new budget for renewable energy is barely a billion dollars in total. +Less than one day of Exxon's revenues. +Third fact: I bet you didn't know that there's enough energy in hot rocks under the country to supply America's energy needs for the next thousand years. And the federal budget calls for a measly 20 million dollars of R&D in geothermal energy. +It is almost criminal that we are not investing more in energy research in this country. +And I am really afraid that it's absolutely not enough. +So, in a year's worth of learning we found a bunch of surprises. +Who would have thought that a mass retailer could make money by going green? Who would have thought that a database entrepreneur could transform California with legislation? +Who would have thought that the ethanol biofuel miracle would come from a developing country in South America? +And who would have thought that scientists trying to cure malaria could come up with breakthroughs in biofuels? +And who would have thought that all that is not enough? +Not enough to stabilize the climate. +Not enough to keep the ice in Greenland from crashing into the ocean. +The scientists tell us -- and they're only guessing -- that we've got to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by one half, and do it as fast as possible. +Now, we may have the political will to do this in the U.S., but I've got to tell you, we've got only one atmosphere, and so somehow we're going to have to find the political will to do this all around the world. The wild card in this deck is China. +To size the problem, China's CO2 emissions today are 3.3 gigatons; the U.S. is 5.8. Business as usual means we'll have 23 gigatons from China by 2050. +That's about as much CO2 as there is in the whole world. +And if it's business as usual, we're going out of business. +When I was in Davos, China's Mayor of Dalian was pressed about their CO2 strategy, and he said the following, "You know, Americans use seven times the CO2 per capita as Chinese." +Then he asked, "Why should China sacrifice our growth so that the West can continue to be profligate and stupid?" +Does anybody here have an answer for him? I don't. +We've got to make this economic so that all people and all nations make the right outcome, the profitable outcome, and therefore the likely outcome. +Energy's a six-trillion-dollar business worldwide. +It is the mother of all markets. You remember that Internet? +Well, I'll tell you what. Green technologies -- going green -- is bigger than the Internet. +It could be the biggest economic opportunity of the 21st century. +Moreover, if we succeed, it's going to be the most important transformation for life on the planet since, as Bill Joy says, we went from methane to oxygen in the atmosphere. +Now, here's the hard question, if the trajectory of all the world's companies and individuals and policies and innovation is not going to be enough, what are we going to do? I don't know. +Everyone here cares about changing the world and has made a difference in that one way or another. +So, our call to action -- my call to you -- is for you to make going green your next big thing, your gig. +What can you do? You can personally get carbon neutral. +Go to ClimateCrisis.org or CarbonCalculator.com and buy carbon credits. You could join other leaders in mandating, lobbying for mandated cap and trade in U.S. greenhouse gas reductions. +There's six bills right now in Congress. Let's get one of them passed. +And the most important thing you can do, I think, is to use your personal power and your Rolodex to lead your business, your institution, in going green. +Do it like Wal-Mart, get it to go green for its customers and its suppliers and for itself. +Really think outside the box. +Can you imagine what it would be like if Amazon or eBay or Google or Microsoft or Apple really went green and you caused that to happen? +It could be bigger than Wal-Mart. +I can't wait to see what we TEDsters do about this crisis. +And I really, really hope that we multiply all of our energy, all of our talent and all of our influence to solve this problem. +Because if we do, I can look forward to the conversation I'm going to have with my daughter in 20 years. +Thank you. +And I feel like this whole evening has been very amazing to me. +I feel it's sort of like the Vimalakirti Sutra, an ancient work from ancient India in which the Buddha appears at the beginning and a whole bunch of people come to see him from the biggest city in the area, Vaishali, and they bring some sort of jeweled parasols to make an offering to him. +All the young people, actually, from the city. +The old fogeys don't come because they're mad at Buddha, because when he came to their city he accepted -- he always accepts the first invitation that comes to him, from whoever it is, and the local geisha, a movie-star sort of person, raced the elders of the city in a chariot and invited him first. +So he was hanging out with the movie star, and of course they were grumbling: "He's supposed to be religious and all this. +What's he doing over there at Amrapali's house with all his 500 monks," and so on. They were all grumbling, and so they boycotted him. +They wouldn't go listen to him. +But the young people all came. +And they brought this kind of a jeweled parasol, and they put it on the ground. +And of course, in the Buddhist cosmos there are millions and billions of planets with human life on it, and enlightened beings can see the life on all the other planets. +So they don't -- when they look out and they see those lights that you showed in the sky -- they don't just see sort of pieces of matter burning or rocks or flames or gases exploding. +They actually see landscapes and human beings and gods and dragons and serpent beings and goddesses and things like that. +He made that special effect at the beginning to get everyone to think about interconnection and interconnectedness and how everything in life was totally interconnected. +And then Leilei -- I know his other name -- told us about interconnection, and how we're all totally interconnected here, and how we've all known each other. And of course in the Buddhist universe, we've already done this already billions of times in many, many lifetimes in the past. +And I didn't give the talk always. You did, and we had to watch you, and so forth. +And we're all still trying to, I guess we're all trying to become TEDsters, if that's a modern form of enlightenment. +I guess so. Because in a way, if a TEDster relates to all the interconnectedness of all the computers and everything, it's the forging of a mass awareness, of where everybody can really know everything that's going on everywhere in the planet. +It just becomes intolerable. +With all of us knowing everything, we're kind of forced by technology to become Buddhas or something, to become enlightened. +And of course, we all will be deeply disappointed when we do. +Because we think that because we are kind of tired of what we do, a little bit tired, we do suffer. +We do enjoy our misery in a certain way. +We distract ourselves from our misery by running around somewhere, but basically we all have this common misery that we are sort of stuck inside our skins and everyone else is out there. +And occasionally we get together with another person stuck in their skin and the two of us enjoy each other, and each one tries to get out of their own, and ultimately it fails of course, and then we're back into this thing. +Because our egocentric perception -- from the Buddha's point of view, misperception -- is that all we are is what is inside our skin. +And it's inside and outside, self and other, and other is all very different. +And everyone here is unfortunately carrying that habitual perception, a little bit, right? +You know, someone sitting next to you in a seat -- that's OK because you're in a theater, but if you were sitting on a park bench and someone came up and sat that close to you, you'd freak out. +What do they want from me? Like, who's that? +And so you wouldn't sit that close to another person because of your notion that it's you versus the universe -- that's all Buddha discovered. +Because that cosmic basic idea that it is us all alone, each of us, and everyone else is different, then that puts us in an impossible situation, doesn't it? +Who is it who's going to get enough attention from the world? +Who's going to get enough out of the world? +Who's not going to be overrun by an infinite number of other beings -- if you're different from all the other beings? +So where compassion comes is where you surprisingly discover you lose yourself in some way: through art, through meditation, through understanding, through knowledge actually, knowing that you have no such boundary, knowing your interconnectedness with other beings. +You can experience yourself as the other beings when you see through the delusion of being separated from them. +When you do that, you're forced to feel what they feel. +Luckily, they say -- I still am not sure -- but luckily, they say that when you reach that point because some people have said in the Buddhist literature, they say, "Oh who would really want to be compassionate? +How awful! I'm so miserable on my own. My head is aching. +My bones are aching. I go from birth to death. I'm never satisfied. +I never have enough, even if I'm a billionaire, I don't have enough. +I need a hundred billion." So I'm like that. +Imagine if I had to feel even a hundred other people's suffering. +It would be terrible. +But apparently, this is a strange paradox of life. +You know, we really learned everything in the '60s. +Too bad nobody ever woke up to it, and they've been trying to suppress it since then. +I, me, me, mine. It's like a perfect song, that song. A perfect teaching. +But when we're relieved from that, we somehow then become interested in all the other beings. +And we feel ourselves differently. It's totally strange. +It's totally strange. +The Dalai Lama always likes to say -- he says that when you give birth in your mind to the idea of compassion, it's because you realize that you yourself and your pains and pleasures are finally too small a theater for your intelligence. +It's really too boring whether you feel like this or like that, or what, you know -- and the more you focus on how you feel, by the way, the worse it gets. +Like, even when you're having a good time, when is the good time over? +The good time is over when you think, how good is it? +And then it's never good enough. +I love that Leilei said that the way of helping those who are suffering badly on the physical plane or on other planes is having a good time, doing it by having a good time. +I think the Dalai Lama should have heard that. I wish he'd been there to hear that. +He once told me -- he looked kind of sad; he worries very much about the haves and have-nots. +He looked a little sad, because he said, well, a hundred years ago, they went and took everything away from the haves. +You know, the big communist revolutions, Russia and China and so forth. +They took it all away by violence, saying they were going to give it to everyone, and then they were even worse. +They didn't help at all. +So what could possibly change this terrible gap that has opened up in the world today? +And so then he looks at me. +So I said, "Well, you know, you're all in this yourself. You teach: it's generosity," was all I could think of. What is virtue? +But of course, what you said, I think the key to saving the world, the key to compassion is that it is more fun. +It should be done by fun. Generosity is more fun. That's the key. +Everybody has the wrong idea. They think Buddha was so boring, and they're so surprised when they meet Dalai Lama and he's fairly jolly. +Even though his people are being genocided -- and believe me, he feels every blow on every old nun's head, in every Chinese prison. He feels it. +He feels the way they are harvesting yaks nowadays. +I won't even say what they do. But he feels it. +And yet he's very jolly. He's extremely jolly. +Because when you open up like that, then you can't just -- what good does it do to add being miserable with others' misery? +You have to find some vision where you see how hopeful it is, how it can be changed. +Look at that beautiful thing Chiho showed us. She scared us with the lava man. +She scared us with the lava man is coming, then the tsunami is coming, but then finally there were flowers and trees, and it was very beautiful. +It's really lovely. +So, compassion means to feel the feelings of others, and the human being actually is compassion. +The human being is almost out of time. +The human being is compassion because what is our brain for? +Now, Jim's brain is memorizing the almanac. +But he could memorize all the needs of all the beings that he is, he will, he did. +He could memorize all kinds of fantastic things to help many beings. +And he would have tremendous fun doing that. +So the first person who gets happy, when you stop focusing on the self-centered situation of, how happy am I, where you're always dissatisfied -- as Mick Jagger told us. You never get any satisfaction that way. +So then you decide, "Well, I'm sick of myself. +I'm going to think of how other people can be happy. +I'm going to get up in the morning and think, what can I do for even one other person, even a dog, my dog, my cat, my pet, my butterfly?" +And the first person who gets happy when you do that, you don't do anything for anybody else, but you get happier, you yourself, because your whole perception broadens and you suddenly see the whole world and all of the people in it. +And you realize that this -- being with these people -- is the flower garden that Chiho showed us. +It is Nirvana. +And my time is up. And I know the TED commandments. +Thank you. +So, I kind of believe that we're in like the "cave-painting" era of computer interfaces. +Like, they're very kind of -- they don't go as deep or as emotionally engaging as they possibly could be and I'd like to change all that. +Hit me. +OK. So I mean, this is the kind of status quo interface, right? +It's very flat, kind of rigid. +And OK, so you could sex it up and like go to a much more lickable Mac, you know, but really it's the kind of same old crap we've had for the last, you know, 30 years. +Like I think we really put up with a lot of crap with our computers. +I mean it's point and click, it's like the menus, icons, it's all the kind of same thing. +And so one kind of information space that I take inspiration from is my real desk. +It's so much more subtle, so much more visceral -- you know, what's visible, what's not. +And I'd like to bring that experience to the desktop. +So I kind of have a -- this is BumpTop. +It's kind of like a new approach to desktop computing. +So you can bump things -- they're all physically, you know, manipulable and stuff. +And instead of that point and click, it's like a push and pull, things collide as you'd expect them. Just like on my real desk, I can -- let me just grab these guys -- I can turn things into piles instead of just the folders that we have. +And once things are in a pile I can browse them by throwing them into a grid, or you know, flip through them like a book or I can lay them out like a deck of cards. +When they're laid out, I can pull things to new locations or delete things or just quickly sort a whole pile, you know, just immediately, right? +And then, it's all smoothly animated, instead of these jarring changes you see in today's interfaces. +Also, if I want to add something to a pile, well, how do I do that? +I just toss it to the pile, and it's added right to the top. It's a kind of nice way. +Also some of the stuff we can do is, for these individual icons we thought -- I mean, how can we play with the idea of an icon, and push that further? +And one of the things I can do is make it bigger if I want to emphasize it and make it more important. +But what's really cool is that since there's a physics simulation running under this, it's actually heavier. So the lighter stuff doesn't really move but if I throw it at the lighter guys, right? +So it's cute, but it's also like a subtle channel of conveying information, right? +This is heavy so it feels more important. So it's kind of cool. +Despite computers everywhere paper really hasn't disappeared, because it has a lot of, I think, valuable properties. +And some of those we wanted to transfer to the icons in our system. +So one of the things you can do to our icons, just like paper, is crease them and fold them, just like paper. Remember, you know, something for later. +Or if you want to be destructive, you can just crumple it up and, you know, toss it to the corner. +Also just like paper, around our workspace we'll pin things up to the wall to remember them later, and I can do the same thing here, and you know, you'll see post-it notes and things like that around people's offices. +And I can pull them off when I want to work with them. +So, one of the criticisms of this kind of approach to organization is that, you know, "Okay, well my real desk is really messy. I don't want that mess on my computer." +So one thing we have for that is like a grid align, kind of -- so you get that more traditional desktop. Things are kind of grid aligned. +More boring, but you still have that kind of colliding and bumping. +And you can still do fun things like make shelves on your desktop. +Let's just break this shelf. Okay, that shelf broke. +I think beyond the icons, I think another really cool domain for this software -- I think it applies to more than just icons and your desktop -- but browsing photographs. +I think you can really enrich the way we browse our photographs and bring it to that kind of shoebox of, you know, photos with your family on the kitchen table kind of thing. +I can toss these things around. They're so much more tangible and touchable -- and you know I can double-click on something to take a look at it. +And I can do all that kind of same stuff I showed you before. +So I can pile things up, I can flip through it, I can, you know -- okay, let's move this photo to the back, let's delete this guy here, and I think it's just a much more rich kind of way of interacting with your information. +And that's BumpTop. Thanks! +What I want to talk to you about today is virtual worlds, digital globes, the 3-D Web, the Metaverse. +What does this all mean for us? +What it means is the Web is going to become an exciting place again. +It's going to become super exciting as we transform to this highly immersive and interactive world. +With graphics, computing power, low latencies, these types of applications and possibilities are going to stream rich data into your lives. +So the Virtual Earth initiative, and other types of these initiatives, are all about extending our current search metaphor. +When you think about it, we're so constrained by browsing the Web, remembering URLs, saving favorites. +As we move to search, we rely on the relevance rankings, the Web matching, the index crawling. +But we want to use our brain! +We want to navigate, explore, discover information. +In order to do that, we have to put you as a user back in the driver's seat. +We need cooperation between you and the computing network and the computer. +So what better way to put you back in the driver's seat than to put you in the real world that you interact in every day? +Why not leverage the learnings that you've been learning your entire life? +So Virtual Earth is about starting off creating the first digital representation, comprehensive, of the entire world. +What we want to do is mix in all types of data. +Tag it. Attribute it. Metadata. Get the community to add local depth, global perspective, local knowledge. +So when you think about this problem, what an enormous undertaking. Where do you begin? +Well, we collect data from satellites, from airplanes, from ground vehicles, from people. +This process is an engineering problem, a mechanical problem, a logistical problem, an operational problem. +Here is an example of our aerial camera. +This is panchromatic. It's actually four color cones. +In addition, it's multi-spectral. +We collect four gigabits per second of data, if you can imagine that kind of data stream coming down. +That's equivalent to a constellation of 12 satellites at highest res capacity. +We fly these airplanes at 5,000 feet in the air. +You can see the camera on the front. We collect multiple viewpoints, vantage points, angles, textures. We bring all that data back in. +We sit here -- you know, think about the ground vehicles, the human scale -- what do you see in person? We need to capture that up close to establish that what it's like-type experience. +I bet many of you have seen the Apple commercials, kind of poking at the PC for their brilliance and simplicity. +So a little unknown secret is -- did you see the one with the guy, he's got the Web cam? +The poor PC guy. They're duct taping his head. They're just wrapping it on him. +Well, a little unknown secret is his brother actually works on the Virtual Earth team. +. So they've got a little bit of a sibling rivalry thing going on here. +But let me tell you -- it doesn't affect his day job. +We think a lot of good can come from this technology. +This was after Katrina. We were the first commercial fleet of airplanes to be cleared into the disaster impact zone. +We flew the area. We imaged it. We sent in people. We took pictures of interiors, disaster areas. We helped with the first responders, the search and rescue. +Often the first time anyone saw what happened to their house was on Virtual Earth. +We made it all freely available on the Web, just to -- it was obviously our chance of helping out with the cause. +When we think about how all this comes together, it's all about software, algorithms and math. +You know, we capture this imagery but to build the 3-D models we need to do geo-positioning. We need to do geo-registering of the images. +We have to bundle adjust them. Find tie points. +Extract geometry from the images. +This process is a very calculated process. +In fact, it was always done manual. +Hollywood would spend millions of dollars to do a small urban corridor for a movie because they'd have to do it manually. +They'd drive the streets with lasers called LIDAR. +They'd collected information with photos. They'd manually build each building. +We do this all through software, algorithms and math -- a highly automated pipeline creating these cities. +We took a decimal point off what it cost to build these cities, and that's how we're going to be able to scale this out and make this reality a dream. +We think about the user interface. +What does it mean to look at it from multiple perspectives? +An ortho-view, a nadir-view. How do you keep the precision of the fidelity of the imagery while maintaining the fluidity of the model? +I'll wrap up by showing you the -- this is a brand-new peek I haven't really shown into the lab area of Virtual Earth. +What we're doing is -- people like this a lot, this bird's eye imagery we work with. It's this high resolution data. +But what we've found is they like the fluidity of the 3-D model. +A child can navigate with an Xbox controller or a game controller. +So here what we're trying to do is we bring the picture and project it into the 3-D model space. +You can see all types of resolution. From here, I can slowly pan the image over. +I can get the next image. I can blend and transition. +By doing this I don't lose the original detail. In fact, I might be recording history. +The freshness, the capacity. I can turn this image. +I can look at it from multiple viewpoints and angles. +What we're trying to do is build a virtual world. +We hope that we can make computing a user model you're familiar with, and really derive insights from you, from all different directions. +I thank you very much for your time. +I told you three things last year. +I told you that the statistics of the world have not been made properly available. +Because of that, we still have the old mindset of developing in industrialized countries, which is wrong. +And that animated graphics can make a difference. +Things are changing and today, on the United Nations Statistic Division Home Page, it says, by first of May, full access to the databases. +And if I could share the image with you on the screen. +So three things have happened. +U.N. opened their statistic databases, and we have a new version of the software up working as a beta on the net, so you don't have to download it any longer. +And let me repeat what you saw last year. +The bubbles are the countries. +Here you have the fertility rate -- the number of children per woman -- and there you have the length of life in years. +This is 1950 -- those were the industrialized countries, those were developing countries. +At that time there was a "we" and "them." +There was a huge difference in the world. +But then it changed, and it went on quite well. +And this is what happens. +You can see how China is the red, big bubble. +The blue there is India. +And they go over all this -- I'm going to try to be a little more serious this year in showing you how things really changed. +And it's Africa that stands out as the problem down here, doesn't it? +Large families still, and the HIV epidemic brought down the countries like this. +This is more or less what we saw last year, and this is how it will go on into the future. +And I will talk on, is this possible? +Because you see now, I presented statistics that don't exist. +Because this is where we are. +Will it be possible that this will happen? +I cover my lifetime here, you know? +I expect to live 100 years. +And this is where we are today. +Now could we look here instead at the economic situation in the world? +And I would like to show that against child survival. +We'll swap the axis. +Here you have child mortality -- that is, survival -- four kids dying there, 200 dying there. +And this is GDP per capita on this axis. +And this was 2007. +And if I go back in time, I've added some historical statistics -- here we go, here we go, here we go -- not so much statistics 100 years ago. +Some countries still had statistics. +We are looking down in the archive, and when we are down into 1820, there is only Austria and Sweden that can produce numbers. +But they were down here. They had 1,000 dollars per person per year. +And they lost one-fifth of their kids before their first birthday. +So this is what happens in the world, if we play the entire world. +How they got slowly richer and richer, and they add statistics. +Isn't it beautiful when they get statistics? +You see the importance of that? +And here, children don't live longer. +The last century, 1870, was bad for the kids in Europe, because most of this statistics is Europe. +It was only by the turn of the century that more than 90 percent of the children survived their first year. +This is India coming up, with the first data from India. +And this is the United States moving away here, earning more money. +And we will soon see China coming up in the very far end corner here. +And it moves up with Mao Tse-Tung getting health, not getting so rich. +There he died, then Deng Xiaoping brings money. +It moves this way over here. +And the bubbles keep moving up there, and this is what the world looks like today. +Let us have a look at the United States. +We have a function here -- I can tell the world, "Stay where you are." +And I take the United States -- we still want to see the background -- I put them up like this, and now we go backwards. +And we can see that the United States goes to the right of the mainstream. +They are on the money side all the time. +And down in 1915, the United States was a neighbor of India -- present, contemporary India. +And that means United States was richer, but lost more kids than India is doing today, proportionally. +And look here -- compare to the Philippines of today. +The Philippines of today has almost the same economy as the United States during the First World War. +But we have to bring United States forward quite a while to find the same health of the United States as we have in the Philippines. +About 1957 here, the health of the United States is the same as the Philippines. +And this is the drama of this world which many call globalized, is that Asia, Arabic countries, Latin America, are much more ahead in being healthy, educated, having human resources than they are economically. +There's a discrepancy in what's happening today in the emerging economies. +There now, social benefits, social progress, are going ahead of economical progress. +And 1957 -- the United States had the same economy as Chile has today. +And how long do we have to bring United States to get the same health as Chile has today? +I think we have to go, there -- we have 2001, or 2002 -- the United States has the same health as Chile. +Chile's catching up! +Within some years Chile may have better child survival than the United States. +This is really a change, that you have this lag of more or less 30, 40 years' difference on the health. +And behind the health is the educational level. +And there's a lot of infrastructure things, and general human resources are there. +Now we can take away this -- and I would like to show you the rate of speed, the rate of change, how fast they have gone. +And we go back to 1920, and I want to look at Japan. +And I want to look at Sweden and the United States. +And I'm going to stage a race here between this sort of yellowish Ford here and the red Toyota down there, and the brownish Volvo. +And here we go. Here we go. +The Toyota has a very bad start down here, you can see, and the United States Ford is going off-road there. +And the Volvo is doing quite fine. +This is the war. The Toyota got off track, and now the Toyota is coming on the healthier side of Sweden -- can you see that? +And they are taking over Sweden, and they are now healthier than Sweden. +That's the part where I sold the Volvo and bought the Toyota. +And now we can see that the rate of change was enormous in Japan. +They really caught up. +And this changes gradually. +We have to look over generations to understand it. +And let me show you my own sort of family history -- we made these graphs here. +And this is the same thing, money down there, and health, you know? +And this is my family. +This is Sweden, 1830, when my great-great-grandma was born. +Sweden was like Sierra Leone today. +And this is when great-grandma was born, 1863. +And Sweden was like Mozambique. +And this is when my grandma was born, 1891. +She took care of me as a child, so I'm not talking about statistic now -- now it's oral history in my family. +That's when I believe statistics, when it's grandma-verified statistics. +I think it's the best way of verifying historical statistics. +Sweden was like Ghana. +It's interesting to see the enormous diversity within sub-Saharan Africa. +I told you last year, I'll tell you again, my mother was born in Egypt, and I -- who am I? +I'm the Mexican in the family. +And my daughter, she was born in Chile, and the grand-daughter was born in Singapore, now the healthiest country on this Earth. +It bypassed Sweden about two to three years ago, with better child survival. +But they're very small, you know? +They're so close to the hospital we can never beat them out in these forests. +But homage to Singapore. +Singapore is the best one. +Now this looks also like a very good story. +But it's not really that easy, that it's all a good story. +Because I have to show you one of the other facilities. +We can also make the color here represent the variable -- and what am I choosing here? +Carbon-dioxide emission, metric ton per capita. +This is 1962, and United States was emitting 16 tons per person. +And China was emitting 0.6, and India was emitting 0.32 tons per capita. +And what happens when we moved on? +Well, you see the nice story of getting richer and getting healthier -- everyone did it at the cost of emission of carbon dioxide. +There is no one who has done it so far. +And we don't have all the updated data any longer, because this is really hot data today. +And there we are, 2001. +And in the discussion I attended with global leaders, you know, many say now the problem is that the emerging economies, they are getting out too much carbon dioxide. +The Minister of the Environment of India said, "Well, you were the one who caused the problem." +The OECD countries -- the high-income countries -- they were the ones who caused the climate change. +"But we forgive you, because you didn't know it. +But from now on, we count per capita. +From now on we count per capita. +And everyone is responsible for the per capita emission." +This really shows you, we have not seen good economic and health progress anywhere in the world without destroying the climate. +And this is really what has to be changed. +I've been criticized for showing you a too positive image of the world, but I don't think it's like this. +The world is quite a messy place. +This we can call Dollar Street. +Everyone lives on this street here. +What they earn here -- what number they live on -- is how much they earn per day. +This family earns about one dollar per day. +We drive up the street here, we find a family here which earns about two to three dollars a day. +And we drive away here -- we find the first garden in the street, and they earn 10 to 50 dollars a day. +And how do they live? +If we look at the bed here, we can see that they sleep on a rug on the floor. +This is what poverty line is -- 80 percent of the family income is just to cover the energy needs, the food for the day. +This is two to five dollars. You have a bed. +And here it's a much nicer bedroom, you can see. +I lectured on this for Ikea, and they wanted to see the sofa immediately here. +And this is the sofa, how it will emerge from there. +And the interesting thing, when you go around here in the photo panorama, you see the family still sitting on the floor there. +Although there is a sofa, if you watch in the kitchen, you can see that the great difference for women does not come between one to 10 dollars. +It comes beyond here, when you really can get good working conditions in the family. +And if you really want to see the difference, you look at the toilet over here. +This can change. This can change. +These are all pictures and images from Africa, and it can become much better. +We can get out of poverty. +My own research has not been in IT or anything like this. +I spent 20 years in interviews with African farmers who were on the verge of famine. +And this is the result of the farmers-needs research. +The nice thing here is that you can't see who are the researchers in this picture. +That's when research functions in poor societies -- you must really live with the people. +When you're in poverty, everything is about survival. +It's about having food. +And these two young farmers, they are girls now -- because the parents are dead from HIV and AIDS -- they discuss with a trained agronomist. +This is one of the best agronomists in Malawi, Junatambe Kumbira, and he's discussing what sort of cassava they will plant -- the best converter of sunshine to food that man has found. +And they are very, very eagerly interested to get advice, and that's to survive in poverty. +That's one context. +Getting out of poverty. +The women told us one thing. "Get us technology. +We hate this mortar, to stand hours and hours. +Get us a mill so that we can mill our flour, then we will be able to pay for the rest ourselves." +Technology will bring you out of poverty, but there's a need for a market to get away from poverty. +And this woman is very happy now, bringing her products to the market. +But she's very thankful for the public investment in schooling so she can count, and won't be cheated when she reaches the market. +She wants her kid to be healthy, so she can go to the market and doesn't have to stay home. +And she wants the infrastructure -- it is nice with a paved road. +It's also good with credit. +Micro-credits gave her the bicycle, you know. +And information will tell her when to go to market with which product. +You can do this. +I find my experience from 20 years of Africa is that the seemingly impossible is possible. +Africa has not done bad. +In 50 years they've gone from a pre-Medieval situation to a very decent 100-year-ago Europe, with a functioning nation and state. +I would say that sub-Saharan Africa has done best in the world during the last 50 years. +Because we don't consider where they came from. +It's this stupid concept of developing countries that puts us, Argentina and Mozambique together 50 years ago, and says that Mozambique did worse. +We have to know a little more about the world. +I have a neighbor who knows 200 types of wine. +He knows everything. +He knows the name of the grape, the temperature and everything. +I only know two types of wine -- red and white. +But my neighbor only knows two types of countries -- industrialized and developing. +And I know 200, I know about the small data. +But you can do that. +But I have to get serious. And how do you get serious? +You make a PowerPoint, you know? +Homage to the Office package, no? +What is this, what is this, what am I telling? +I'm telling you that there are many dimensions of development. +Everyone wants your pet thing. +If you are in the corporate sector, you love micro-credit. +If you are fighting in a non-governmental organization, you love equity between gender. +Or if you are a teacher, you'll love UNESCO, and so on. +On the global level, we have to have more than our own thing. +We need everything. +All these things are important for development, especially when you just get out of poverty and you should go towards welfare. +Now, what we need to think about is, what is a goal for development, and what are the means for development? +Let me first grade what are the most important means. +Economic growth to me, as a public-health professor, is the most important thing for development because it explains 80 percent of survival. +Governance. To have a government which functions -- that's what brought California out of the misery of 1850. +It was the government that made law function finally. +Education, human resources are important. +Health is also important, but not that much as a mean. +Environment is important. +Human rights is also important, but it just gets one cross. +Now what about goals? Where are we going toward? +We are not interested in money. +Money is not a goal. +It's the best mean, but I give it zero as a goal. +Governance, well it's fun to vote in a little thing, but it's not a goal. +And going to school, that's not a goal, it's a mean. +Health I give two points. I mean it's nice to be healthy -- at my age especially -- you can stand here, you're healthy. +And that's good, it gets two plusses. +Environment is very, very crucial. +There's nothing for the grandkid if you don't save up. +But where are the important goals? +Of course, it's human rights. +Human rights is the goal, but it's not that strong of a mean for achieving development. +And culture. Culture is the most important thing, I would say, because that's what brings joy to life. +That's the value of living. +So the seemingly impossible is possible. +Even African countries can achieve this. +And I've shown you the shot where the seemingly impossible is possible. +And remember, please remember my main message, which is this: the seemingly impossible is possible. +We can have a good world. +I showed you the shots, I proved it in the PowerPoint, and I think I will convince you also by culture. +Bring me my sword! +Sword swallowing is from ancient India. +It's a cultural expression that for thousands of years has inspired human beings to think beyond the obvious. +And I will now prove to you that the seemingly impossible is possible by taking this piece of steel -- solid steel -- this is the army bayonet from the Swedish Army, 1850, in the last year we had war. +And it's all solid steel -- you can hear here. +And I'm going to take this blade of steel, and push it down through my body of blood and flesh, and prove to you that the seemingly impossible is possible. +Can I request a moment of absolute silence? +First place I'd like to take you is what many believe will be the world's deepest natural abyss. +And I say believe because this process is still ongoing. +Right now there are major expeditions being planned for next year that I'll talk a little bit about. +One of the things that's changed here, in the last 150 years since Jules Verne had great science-fiction concepts of what the underworld was like, is that technology has enabled us to go to these places that were previously completely unknown and speculated about. +We can now descend thousands of meters into the Earth with relative impunity. +Along the way we've discovered fantastic abysses and chambers so large that you can see for hundreds of meters without a break in the line of sight. +When you go on a thing like this, we can usually be in the field for anywhere from two to four months, with a team as small as 20 or 30, to as big as 150. +And a lot of people ask me, you know, what kind of people do you get for a project like this? +While our selection process is not as rigorous as NASA, it's nonetheless thorough. +We're looking for competence, discipline, endurance, and strength. +In case you're wondering, this is our strength test. +But we also value esprit de corps and the ability to diplomatically resolve inter-personal conflict while under great stress in remote locations. +We have already gone far beyond the limits of human endurance. +From the entrance, this is nothing like a commercial cave. +You're looking at Camp Two in a place called J2, not K2, but J2. +We're roughly two days from the entrance at that point. +And it's kind of like a high altitude mountaineering trip in reverse, except that you're now running a string of these things down. +The idea is to try to provide some measure of physical comfort while you're down there, otherwise in damp, moist, cold conditions in utterly dark places. +I should mention that everything you're seeing here, by the way, is artificially illuminated at great effort. +Otherwise it is completely dark in these places. +The deeper you go, the more you run into a conflict with water. +It's basically like a tree collecting water coming down. +And eventually you get to places where it is formidable and dangerous and unfortunately slides just don't do justice. +So I've got a very brief clip here that was taken in the late 1980s. +So descend into Huautla Plateau in Mexico. +Now I have to tell you that the techniques being shown here are obsolete and dangerous. +We would not do this today unless we were doing it for film. +Along that same line, I have to tell you that with the spate of Hollywood movies that came out last year, we have never seen monsters underground -- at least the kind that eat you. +If there is a monster underground, it is the crushing psychological remoteness that begins to hit every member of the team once you cross about three days inbound from the nearest entrance. +Next year I'll be leading an international team to J2. +We're going to be shooting from minus 2,600 meters -- that's a little over 8,600 feet down -- at 30 kilometers from the entrance. +The lead crews will be underground for pushing 30 days straight. +I don't think there's been a mission like that in a long time. +Eventually, if you keep going down in these things, probability says that you're going to run into a place like this. +It's a place where there's a fold in the geologic stratum that collects water and fills to the roof. +And when you used to find these things, they would put a label on a map that said terminal siphon. +Now I remember that term really well for two reasons. +Number one, it's the name of my rock band, and second, is because the confrontation of these things forced me to become an inventor. +And we've since gone on to develop many generations of gadgets for exploring places like this. +This is some life-support equipment closed-cycle. +And you can use that now to go for many kilometers horizontally underwater and to depths of 200 meters straight down underwater. +When you do this kind of stuff it's like doing EVA. +It's like doing extra-vehicular activity in space, but at much greater distances, and at much greater physical peril. +So it makes you think about how to design your equipment for long range, away from a safe haven. +Here's a clip from a National Geographic movie that came out in 1999. +Narrator: Exploration is a physical process of putting your foot in places where humans have never stepped before. +This is where the last little nugget of totally unknown territory remains on this planet. +To experience it is a privilege. +Bill Stone: That was taken in Wakulla Springs, Florida. +Couple of things to note about that movie. Every piece of equipment that you saw in there did not exist before 1999. +It was developed within a two-year period and used on actual exploratory projects. +This gadget you see right here was called the digital wall mapper, and it produced the first three-dimensional map anybody has ever done of a cave, and it happened to be underwater in Wakulla Springs. +It was that gadget that serendipitously opened a door to another unexplored world. +This is Europa. +Carolyn Porco mentioned another one called Enceladus the other day. +This is one of the places where planetary scientists believe there is a highest probability of the detection of the first life off earth in the ocean that exists below there. +For those who have never seen this story, Jim Cameron produced a really wonderful IMAX movie couple of years ago, called "Aliens of the Deep." +There was a brief clip -- Narrator: A mission to explore under the ice of Europa would be the ultimate robotic challenge. +Europa is so far away that even at the speed of light, it would take more than an hour for the command just to reach the vehicle. +It has to be smart enough to avoid terrain hazards and to find a good landing site on the ice. +Now we have to get through the ice. +You need a melt probe. +It's basically a nuclear-heated torpedo. +The ice could be anywhere from three to 16 miles deep. +Week after week, the melt probe will sink of its own weight through the ancient ice, until finally -- Now, what are you going to do when you reach the surface of that ocean? +You need an AUV, an autonomous underwater vehicle. +It needs to be one smart puppy, able to navigate and make decisions on its own in an alien ocean. +BS: What Jim didn't know when he released that movie was that six months earlier NASA had funded a team I assembled to develop a prototype for the Europa AUV. +I mean, I cut through three years of engineering meetings, design and system integration, and introduced DEPTHX -- Deep Phreatic Thermal Explorer. +And as the movie says, this is one smart puppy. +It's got 96 sensors, 36 onboard computers, 100,000 lines of behavioral autonomy code, packs more than 10 kilos of TNT in electrical onboard equivalent. +This is the target site, the world's deepest hydrothermal spring at Cenote Zacaton in northern Mexico. +It's been explored to a depth of 292 meters and beyond that nobody knows anything. +This is part of DEPTHX's mission. +There are two primary targets we're doing here. +One is, how do you do science autonomy underground? +How do you take a robot and turn it into a field microbiologist? +There are more stages involved here than I've got time to tell you about, but basically we drive through the space, we populate it with environmental variables -- sulphide, halide, things like that. +We calculate gradient surfaces, and drive the bot over to a wall where there's a high probability of life. +We move along the wall, in what's called proximity operations, looking for changes in color. +If we see something that looks interesting, we pull it into a microscope. +If it passes the microscopic test, we go for a collection. +We either draw in a liquid sample, or we can actually take a solid core from the wall. +No hands at the wheel. +This is all behavioral autonomy here that's being conducted by the robot on its own. +The real hat trick for this vehicle, though, is a disruptive new navigation system we've developed, known as 3D SLAM, for simultaneous localization and mapping. +DEPTHX is an all-seeing eyeball. +Its sensor beams look both forward and backward at the same time, allowing it to do new exploration while it's still achieving geometric sensor-lock on what it's gone through already. +What I'm going to show you next is the first fully autonomous robotic exploration underground that's ever been done. +This May, we're going to go from minus 1,000 meters in Zacaton, and if we're very lucky, DEPTHX will bring back the first robotically-discovered division of bacteria. +The next step after that is to test it in Antartica and then, if the funding continues and NASA has the resolution to go, we could potentially launch by 2016, and by 2019 we may have the first evidence of life off this planet. +What then of manned space exploration? +The government recently announced plans to return to the moon by 2024. +The successful conclusion of that mission will result in infrequent visitation of the moon by a small number of government scientists and pilots. +It will leave us no further along in the general expansion of humanity into space than we were 50 years ago. +Something fundamental has to change if we are to see common access to space in our lifetime. +What I'm going to show you next are a couple of controversial ideas. +And I hope you'll bear with me and have some faith that there's credibility behind what we're going to say here. +There are three underpinnings of working in space privately. +One of them is the requirement for economical earth-to-space transport. +The Bert Rutans and Richard Bransons of this world have got this in their sights and I salute them. +Go, go, go. +The next thing we need are places to stay on orbit. +Orbital hotels to start with, but workshops for the rest of us later on. +The final missing piece, the real paradigm-buster, is this: a gas station on orbit. +It's not going to look like that. +If it existed, it would change all future spacecraft design and space mission planning. +Now, to give you a chance to understand why there is power in that statement, I've got to give you the basics of Space 101. +And the first thing is everything you do in space you pay by the kilogram. +Anybody drink one of these here this week? +You'd pay 10,000 dollars for that in orbit. +That's more than you pay for TED, if Google dropped their sponsorship. +The second is more than 90 percent of the weight of a vehicle is in propellant. +Thus, every time you'd want to do anything in space, you are literally blowing away enormous sums of money every time you hit the accelerator. +Not even the guys at Tesla can fight that physics. +So, what if you could get your gas at a 10th the price? +There is a place where you can. +In fact, you can get it better -- you can get it at 14 times lower if you can find propellant on the moon. +There is a little-known mission that was launched by the Pentagon, 13 years ago now, called Clementine. +And the most amazing thing that came out of that mission was a strong hydrogen signature at Shackleton crater on the south pole of the moon. +That signal was so strong, it could only have been produced by 10 trillion tons of water buried in the sediment, collected over millions and billions of years by the impact of asteroids and comet material. +If we're going to get that, and make that gas station possible, we have to figure out ways to move large volumes of payload through space. +We can't do that right now. +The way you normally build a system right now is you have a tube stack that has to be launched from the ground, and resist all kinds of aerodynamic forces. +We have to beat that. +We can do it because in space there are no aerodynamics. +We can go and use inflatable systems for almost everything. +This is an idea that, again, came out of Livermore back in 1989, with Dr. Lowell Wood's group. +And we can extend that now to just about everything. +Bob Bigelow currently has a test article in the orbit. +We can go much further. +We can build space tugs, orbiting platforms for holding cryogens and water. +There's another thing. +When you're coming back from the moon, you have to deal with orbital mechanics. +It says you're moving 10,000 feet per second faster than you really want to be to get back to your gas station. +You got two choices. +You can burn rocket fuel to get there, or you can do something really incredible. +You can dive into the stratosphere, and precisely dissipate that velocity, and come back out to the space station. +It has never been done. +It's risky and it's going to be one hell of a ride -- better than Disney. +The traditional approach to space exploration has been that you carry all the fuel you need to get everybody back in case of an emergency. +If you try to do that for the moon, you're going to burn a billion dollars in fuel alone sending a crew out there. +But if you send a mining team there, without the return propellant, first -- Did any of you guys hear the story of Cortez? +This is not like that. I'm much more like Scotty. +I like this equipment, you know, and I really value it so we're not going to burn the gear. +But, if you were truly bold you could get it there, manufacture it, and it would be the most dramatic demonstration that you could do something worthwhile off this planet that has ever been done. +There's a myth that you can't do anything in space for less than a trillion dollars and 20 years. +That's not true. +In seven years, we could pull off an industrial mission to Shackleton and demonstrate that you could provide commercial reality out of this in low-earth orbit. +We're living in one of the most exciting times in history. +We're at a magical confluence where private wealth and imagination are driving the demand for access to space. +The orbital refueling stations I've just described could create an entirely new industry and provide the final key for opening space to the general exploration. +To bust the paradigm a radically different approach is needed. +We can do it by jump-starting with an industrial Lewis and Clark expedition to Shackleton crater, to mine the moon for resources, and demonstrate they can form the basis for a profitable business on orbit. +Talk about space always seems to be hung on ambiguities of purpose and timing. +I would like to close here by putting a stake in the sand at TED. +I intend to lead that expedition. +It can be done in seven years with the right backing. +Those who join me in making it happen will become a part of history and join other bold individuals from time past who, had they been here today, would have heartily approved. +There was once a time when people did bold things to open the frontier. +We have collectively forgotten that lesson. +Now we're at a time when boldness is required to move forward. +100 years after Sir Ernest Shackleton wrote these words, I intend to plant an industrial flag on the moon and complete the final piece that will open the space frontier, in our time, for all of us. +Thank you. +I'm going to talk to you today about hopefully converting fear into hope. +When we go to the physician today -- when we go to the doctor's office and we walk in, there are words that we just don't want to hear. +There are words that we're truly afraid of. +Diabetes, cancer, Parkinson's, Alzheimer's, heart failure, lung failure -- things that we know are debilitating diseases, for which there's relatively little that can be done. +And we're going to do all of that in 18 minutes, I promise. +I want to start with this slide, because this slide sort of tells the story the way Science Magazine thinks of it. +This was an issue from 2002 that they published with a lot of different articles on the bionic human. +It was basically a regenerative medicine issue. +Regenerative medicine is an extraordinarily simple concept that everybody can understand. +It's simply accelerating the pace at which the body heals itself to a clinically relevant timescale. +So we know how to do this in many of the ways that are up there. +We know that if we have a damaged hip, you can put an artificial hip in. +And this is the idea that Science Magazine used on their front cover. +This is the complete antithesis of regenerative medicine. +This is not regenerative medicine. +Regenerative medicine is what Business Week put up when they did a story about regenerative medicine not too long ago. +The idea is that instead of figuring out how to ameliorate symptoms with devices and drugs and the like -- and I'll come back to that theme a few times -- instead of doing that, we will regenerate lost function of the body by regenerating the function of organs and damaged tissue. +So that at the end of the treatment, you are the same as you were at the beginning of the treatment. +Very few good ideas -- if you agree that this is a good idea -- very few good ideas are truly novel. +And this is just the same. +If you look back in history, Charles Lindbergh, who was better known for flying airplanes, was actually one of the first people along with Alexis Carrel, one of the Nobel Laureates from Rockefeller, to begin to think about, could you culture organs? +And they published this book in 1937, where they actually began to think about, what could you do in bio-reactors to grow whole organs? +We've come a long way since then. +I'm going to share with you some of the exciting work that's going on. +But before doing that, what I'd like to do is share my depression about the health care system and the need for this with you. +Many of the talks yesterday talked about improving the quality of life, and reducing poverty, and essentially increasing life expectancy all around the globe. +One of the challenges is that the richer we are, the longer we live. +And the longer we live, the more expensive it is to take care of our diseases as we get older. +This is simply the wealth of a country versus the percent of population over the age of 65. +And you can basically see that the richer a country is, the older the people are within it. +Why is this important? +And why is this a particularly dramatic challenge right now? +If the average age of your population is 30, then the average kind of disease that you have to treat is maybe a broken ankle every now and again, maybe a little bit of asthma. +If the average age in your country is 45 to 55, now the average person is looking at diabetes, early-onset diabetes, heart failure, coronary artery disease -- things that are inherently more difficult to treat, and much more expensive to treat. +Just have a look at the demographics in the U.S. here. +This is from "The Untied States of America." +In 1930, there were 41 workers per retiree. +41 people who were basically outside of being really sick, paying for the one retiree who was experiencing debilitating disease. +In 2010, two workers per retiree in the U.S. +And this is matched in every industrialized, wealthy country in the world. +How can you actually afford to treat patients when the reality of getting old looks like this? +This is age versus cost of health care. +And you can see that right around age 45, 40 to 45, there's a sudden spike in the cost of health care. +It's actually quite interesting. If you do the right studies, you can look at how much you as an individual spend on your own health care, plotted over your lifetime. +And about seven years before you're about to die, there's a spike. +And you can actually -- -- we won't get into that. +There are very few things, very few things that you can really do that will change the way that you can treat these kinds of diseases and experience what I would call healthy aging. +I'd suggest there are four things, and none of these things include an insurance system or a legal system. +All those things do is change who pays. +They don't actually change what the actual cost of the treatment is. +One thing you can do is not treat. You can ration health care. +We won't talk about that anymore. It's too depressing. +You can prevent. +Obviously a lot of monies should be put into prevention. +But perhaps most interesting, to me anyway, and most important, is the idea of diagnosing a disease much earlier on in the progression, and then treating the disease to cure the disease instead of treating a symptom. +Think of it in terms of diabetes, for instance. +Today, with diabetes, what do we do? +We diagnose the disease eventually, once it becomes symptomatic, and then we treat the symptom for 10, 20, 30, 40 years. +And we do OK. Insulin's a pretty good therapy. +But eventually it stops working, and diabetes leads to a predictable onset of debilitating disease. +Why couldn't we just inject the pancreas with something to regenerate the pancreas early on in the disease, perhaps even before it was symptomatic? +And it might be a little bit expensive at the time that we did it, but if it worked, we would truly be able to do something different. +This video, I think, gets across the concept that I'm talking about quite dramatically. +This is a newt re-growing its limb. +If a newt can do this kind of thing, why can't we? +I'll actually show you some more important features about limb regeneration in a moment. +But what we're talking about in regenerative medicine is doing this in every organ system of the body, for tissues and for organs themselves. +So today's reality is that if we get sick, the message is we will treat your symptoms, and you need to adjust to a new way of life. +I would pose to you that tomorrow -- and when tomorrow is we could debate, but it's within the foreseeable future -- we will talk about regenerative rehabilitation. +There's a limb prosthetic up here, similar actually one on the soldier that's come back from Iraq. +There are 370 soldiers that have come back from Iraq that have lost limbs. +Imagine if instead of facing that, they could actually face the regeneration of that limb. +It's a wild concept. +I'll show you where we are at the moment in working towards that concept. +But it's applicable, again, to every organ system. +How can we do that? +The way to do that is to develop a conversation with the body. +We need to learn to speak the body's language. +And to switch on processes that we knew how to do when we were a fetus. +A mammalian fetus, if it loses a limb during the first trimester of pregnancy, will re-grow that limb. +So our DNA has the capacity to do these kinds of wound-healing mechanisms. +It's a natural process, but it is lost as we age. +In a child, before the age of about six months, if they lose their fingertip in an accident, they'll re-grow their fingertip. +By the time they're five, they won't be able to do that anymore. +So to engage in that conversation with the body, we need to speak the body's language. +And there are certain tools in our toolbox that allow us to do this today. +I'm going to give you an example of three of these tools through which to converse with the body. +The first is cellular therapies. +Clearly, we heal ourselves in a natural process, using cells to do most of the work. +Therefore, if we can find the right cells and implant them in the body, they may do the healing. +Secondly, we can use materials. +We heard yesterday about the importance of new materials. +If we can invent materials, design materials, or extract materials from a natural environment, then we might be able to have those materials induce the body to heal itself. +And finally, we may be able to use smart devices that will offload the work of the body and allow it to heal. +I'm going to show you an example of each of these, and I'm going to start with materials. +Steve Badylak -- who's at the University of Pittsburgh -- about a decade ago had a remarkable idea. +And that idea was that the small intestine of a pig, if you threw away all the cells, and if you did that in a way that allowed it to remain biologically active, may contain all of the necessary factors and signals that would signal the body to heal itself. +And he asked a very important question. +He asked the question, if I take that material, which is a natural material that usually induces healing in the small intestine, and I place it somewhere else on a person's body, would it give a tissue-specific response, or would it make small intestine if I tried to make a new ear? +I wouldn't be telling you this story if it weren't compelling. +What I'm about to show you is a diabetic ulcer. +And although -- it's good to laugh before we look at this. +This is the reality of diabetes. +I think a lot of times we hear about diabetics, diabetic ulcers, we just don't connect the ulcer with the eventual treatment, which is amputation, if you can't heal it. +So I'm going to put the slide up now. It won't be up for long. +This is a diabetic ulcer. It's tragic. +The treatment for this is amputation. +This is an older lady. She has cancer of the liver as well as diabetes, and has decided to die with what' s left of her body intact. +And this lady decided, after a year of attempted treatment of that ulcer, that she would try this new therapy that Steve invented. +That's what the wound looked like 11 weeks later. +That material contained only natural signals. +And that material induced the body to switch back on a healing response that it didn't have before. +There's going to be a couple more distressing slides for those of you -- I'll let you know when you can look again. +This is a horse. The horse is not in pain. +If the horse was in pain, I wouldn't show you this slide. +The horse just has another nostril that's developed because of a riding accident. +Just a few weeks after treatment -- in this case, taking that material, turning it into a gel, and packing that area, and then repeating the treatment a few times -- and the horse heals up. +And if you took an ultrasound of that area, it would look great. +Here's a dolphin where the fin's been re-attached. +There are now 400,000 patients around the world who have used that material to heal their wounds. +Could you regenerate a limb? +DARPA just gave Steve 15 million dollars to lead an eight-institution project to begin the process of asking that question. +And I'll show you the 15 million dollar picture. +This is a 78 year-old man who's lost the end of his fingertip. +Remember that I mentioned before the children who lose their fingertips. +After treatment that's what it looks like. +This is happening today. +This is clinically relevant today. +There are materials that do this. Here are the heart patches. +But could you go a little further? +Could you, say, instead of using material, can I take some cells along with the material, and remove a damaged piece of tissue, put a bio-degradable material on there? +You can see here a little bit of heart muscle beating in a dish. +This was done by Teruo Okano at Tokyo Women's Hospital. +He can actually grow beating tissue in a dish. +He chills the dish, it changes its properties and he peels it right out of the dish. +It's the coolest stuff. +Now I'm going to show you cell-based regeneration. +And what I'm going to show you here is stem cells being removed from the hip of a patient. +Again, if you're squeamish, you don't want to watch. +But this one's kind of cool. +So this is a bypass operation, just like what Al Gore had, with a difference. +In this case, at the end of the bypass operation, you're going to see the stem cells from the patient that were removed at the beginning of the procedure being injected directly into the heart of the patient. +And I'm standing up here because at one point I'm going to show you just how early this technology is. +Here go the stem cells, right into the beating heart of the patient. +And if you look really carefully, it's going to be right around this point you'll actually see a back-flush. +You see the cells coming back out. +We need all sorts of new technology, new devices, to get the cells to the right place at the right time. +Just a little bit of data, a tiny bit of data. +This was a randomized trial. +At this time this was an N of 20. Now there's an N of about 100. +Basically, if you take an extremely sick patient and you give them a bypass, they get a little bit better. +If you give them stem cells as well as their bypass, for these particular patients, they became asymptomatic. +These are now two years out. +The coolest thing would be is if you could diagnose the disease early, and prevent the onset of the disease to a bad state. +This is the same procedure, but now done minimally invasively, with only three holes in the body where they're taking the heart and simply injecting stem cells through a laparoscopic procedure. +There go the cells. +We don't have time to go into all of those details, but basically, that works too. +You can take patients who are less sick, and bring them back to an almost asymptomatic state through that kind of therapy. +Here's another example of stem-cell therapy that isn't quite clinical yet, but I think very soon will be. +This is the work of Kacey Marra from Pittsburgh, along with a number of colleagues around the world. +They've decided that liposuction fluid, which -- in the United States, we have a lot of liposuction fluid. +It's a great source of stem cells. +Stem cells are packed in that liposuction fluid. +So you could go in, you could get your tummy-tuck. +Out comes the liposuction fluid, and in this case, the stem cells are isolated and turned into neurons. +All done in the lab. +And I think fairly soon, you will see patients being treated with their own fat-derived, or adipose-derived, stem cells. +I talked before about the use of devices to dramatically change the way we treat disease. +Here's just one example before I close up. +This is equally tragic. +We have a very abiding and heartbreaking partnership with our colleagues at the Institute for Surgical Research in the US Army, who have to treat the now 11,000 kids that have come back from Iraq. +Many of those patients are very severely burned. +And if there's anything that's been learned about burn, it's that we don't know how to treat it. +Everything that is done to treat burn -- basically we do a sodding approach. +We make something over here, and then we transplant it onto the site of the wound, and we try and get the two to take. +In this case here, a new, wearable bio-reactor has been designed -- it should be tested clinically later this year at ISR -- by Joerg Gerlach in Pittsburgh. +And that bio-reactor will lay down in the wound bed. +The gun that you see there sprays cells. +That's going to spray cells over that area. +The reactor will serve to fertilize the environment, deliver other things as well at the same time, and therefore we will seed that lawn, as opposed to try the sodding approach. +It's a completely different way of doing it. +So my 18 minutes is up. +So let me finish up with some good news, and maybe a little bit of bad news. +The good news is that this is happening today. +It's very powerful work. +Clearly the images kind of get that across. +It's incredibly difficult because it's highly inter-disciplinary. +Almost every field of science engineering and clinical practice is involved in trying to get this to happen. +A number of governments, and a number of regions, have recognized that this is a new way to treat disease. +The Japanese government were perhaps the first, when they decided to invest first 3 billion, later another 2 billion in this field. +It's no coincidence. +Japan is the oldest country on earth in terms of its average age. +They need this to work or their health system dies. +So they're putting a lot of strategic investment focused in this area. +The European Union, same thing. +China, the same thing. +China just launched a national tissue-engineering center. +The first year budget was 250 million US dollars. +In the United States we've had a somewhat different approach. +Oh, for Al Gore to come and be in the real world as president. +We've had a different approach. +And the approach has basically been to just sort of fund things as they come along. +But there's been no strategic investment to bring all of the necessary things to bear and focus them in a careful way. +And I'm going to finish up with a quote, maybe a little cheap shot, at the director of the NIH, who's a very charming man. +And at the end of a very testy meeting, what the NIH director said was, "Your vision is larger than our appetite." +I'd like to close by saying that no one's going to change our vision, but together we can change his appetite. +Thank you. +So I want to talk to you today about AIDS in sub-Saharan Africa. +And this is a pretty well-educated audience, so I imagine you all know something about AIDS. +You probably know that roughly 25 million people in Africa are infected with the virus, that AIDS is a disease of poverty, and that if we can bring Africa out of poverty, we would decrease AIDS as well. +If you know something more, you probably know that Uganda, to date, is the only country in sub-Saharan Africa that has had success in combating the epidemic. +Using a campaign that encouraged people to abstain, be faithful, and use condoms -- the ABC campaign -- they decreased their prevalence in the 1990s from about 15 percent to 6 percent over just a few years. +So today I'm going to talk about some things that you might not know about the epidemic, and I'm actually also going to challenge some of these things that you think that you do know. +To do that I'm going to talk about my research as an economist on the epidemic. +And I'm not really going to talk much about the economy. +I'm not going to tell you about exports and prices. +But I'm going to use tools and ideas that are familiar to economists to think about a problem that's more traditionally part of public health and epidemiology. +And I think in that sense, this fits really nicely with this lateral thinking idea. +Here I'm really using the tools of one academic discipline to think about problems of another. +So we think, first and foremost, AIDS is a policy issue. +And probably for most people in this room, that's how you think about it. +But this talk is going to be about understanding facts about the epidemic. +It's going to be about thinking about how it evolves, and how people respond to it. +I think it may seem like I'm ignoring the policy stuff, which is really the most important, but I'm hoping that at the end of this talk you will conclude that we actually cannot develop effective policy unless we really understand how the epidemic works. +And the first thing that I want to talk about, the first thing I think we need to understand is: how do people respond to the epidemic? +So AIDS is a sexually transmitted infection, and it kills you. +So this means that in a place with a lot of AIDS, there's a really significant cost of sex. +If you're an uninfected man living in Botswana, where the HIV rate is 30 percent, if you have one more partner this year -- a long-term partner, girlfriend, mistress -- your chance of dying in 10 years increases by three percentage points. +That is a huge effect. +And so I think that we really feel like then people should have less sex. +And in fact among gay men in the US we did see that kind of change in the 1980s. +So if we look in this particularly high-risk sample, they're being asked, "Did you have more than one unprotected sexual partner in the last two months?" +Over a period from '84 to '88, that share drops from about 85 percent to 55 percent. +It's a huge change in a very short period of time. +We didn't see anything like that in Africa. +So we don't have quite as good data, but you can see here the share of single men having pre-marital sex, or married men having extra-marital sex, and how that changes from the early '90s to late '90s, and late '90s to early 2000s. The epidemic is getting worse. +People are learning more things about it. +We see almost no change in sexual behavior. +These are just tiny decreases -- two percentage points -- not significant. +This seems puzzling. But I'm going to argue that you shouldn't be surprised by this, and that to understand this you need to think about health the way than an economist does -- as an investment. +So if you're a software engineer and you're trying to think about whether to add some new functionality to your program, it's important to think about how much it costs. +It's also important to think about what the benefit is. +And one part of that benefit is how much longer you think this program is going to be active. +If version 10 is coming out next week, there's no point in adding more functionality into version nine. +But your health decisions are the same. +Every time you have a carrot instead of a cookie, every time you go to the gym instead of going to the movies, that's a costly investment in your health. +But how much you want to invest is going to depend on how much longer you expect to live in the future, even if you don't make those investments. +AIDS is the same kind of thing. It's costly to avoid AIDS. +People really like to have sex. +But, you know, it has a benefit in terms of future longevity. +But life expectancy in Africa, even without AIDS, is really, really low: 40 or 50 years in a lot of places. +I think it's possible, if we think about that intuition, and think about that fact, that maybe that explains some of this low behavior change. +But we really need to test that. +And a great way to test that is to look across areas in Africa and see: do people with more life expectancy change their sexual behavior more? +And the way that I'm going to do that is, I'm going to look across areas with different levels of malaria. +So malaria is a disease that kills you. +It's a disease that kills a lot of adults in Africa, in addition to a lot of children. +And so people who live in areas with a lot of malaria are going to have lower life expectancy than people who live in areas with limited malaria. +So one way to test to see whether we can explain some of this behavior change by differences in life expectancy is to look and see is there more behavior change in areas where there's less malaria. +So that's what this figure shows you. +This shows you -- in areas with low malaria, medium malaria, high malaria -- what happens to the number of sexual partners as you increase HIV prevalence. +If you look at the blue line, the areas with low levels of malaria, you can see in those areas, actually, the number of sexual partners is decreasing a lot as HIV prevalence goes up. +Areas with medium levels of malaria it decreases some -- it doesn't decrease as much. And areas with high levels of malaria -- actually, it's increasing a little bit, although that's not significant. +This is not just through malaria. +Young women who live in areas with high maternal mortality change their behavior less in response to HIV than young women who live in areas with low maternal mortality. +There's another risk, and they respond less to this existing risk. +So by itself, I think this tells a lot about how people behave. +It tells us something about why we see limited behavior change in Africa. +But it also tells us something about policy. +Even if you only cared about AIDS in Africa, it might still be a good idea to invest in malaria, in combating poor indoor air quality, in improving maternal mortality rates. +Because if you improve those things, then people are going to have an incentive to avoid AIDS on their own. +But it also tells us something about one of these facts that we talked about before. +Education campaigns, like the one that the president is focusing on in his funding, may not be enough, at least not alone. +If people have no incentive to avoid AIDS on their own, even if they know everything about the disease, they still may not change their behavior. +So the other thing that I think we learn here is that AIDS is not going to fix itself. +People aren't changing their behavior enough to decrease the growth in the epidemic. +So we're going to need to think about policy and what kind of policies might be effective. +And a great way to learn about policy is to look at what worked in the past. +The reason that we know that the ABC campaign was effective in Uganda is we have good data on prevalence over time. +In Uganda we see the prevalence went down. +We know they had this campaign. That's how we learn about what works. +It's not the only place we had any interventions. +Other places have tried things, so why don't we look at those places and see what happened to their prevalence? +Unfortunately, there's almost no good data on HIV prevalence in the general population in Africa until about 2003. +So if I asked you, "Why don't you go and find me the prevalence in Burkina Faso in 1991?" +You get on Google, you Google, and you find, actually the only people tested in Burkina Faso in 1991 are STD patients and pregnant women, which is not a terribly representative group of people. +Then if you poked a little more, you looked a little more at what was going on, you'd find that actually that was a pretty good year, because in some years the only people tested are IV drug users. +But even worse -- some years it's only IV drug users, some years it's only pregnant women. +We have no way to figure out what happened over time. +We have no consistent testing. +Now in the last few years, we actually have done some good testing. +In Kenya, in Zambia, and a bunch of countries, there's been testing in random samples of the population. +But this leaves us with a big gap in our knowledge. +So I can tell you what the prevalence was in Kenya in 2003, but I can't tell you anything about 1993 or 1983. +So this is a problem for policy. It was a problem for my research. +And I started thinking about how else might we figure out what the prevalence of HIV was in Africa in the past. +And I think that the answer is, we can look at mortality data, and we can use mortality data to figure out what the prevalence was in the past. +To do this, we're going to have to rely on the fact that AIDS is a very specific kind of disease. +It kills people in the prime of their lives. +Not a lot of other diseases have that profile. And you can see here -- this is a graph of death rates by age in Botswana and Egypt. +Botswana is a place with a lot of AIDS, Egypt is a place without a lot of AIDS. +And you see they have pretty similar death rates among young kids and old people. +That suggests it's pretty similar levels of development. +But in this middle region, between 20 and 45, the death rates in Botswana are much, much, much higher than in Egypt. +But since there are very few other diseases that kill people, we can really attribute that mortality to HIV. +But because people who died this year of AIDS got it a few years ago, we can use this data on mortality to figure out what HIV prevalence was in the past. +So it turns out, if you use this technique, actually your estimates of prevalence are very close to what we get from testing random samples in the population, but they're very, very different than what UNAIDS tells us the prevalences are. +So this is a graph of prevalence estimated by UNAIDS, and prevalence based on the mortality data for the years in the late 1990s in nine countries in Africa. +You can see, almost without exception, the UNAIDS estimates are much higher than the mortality-based estimates. +UNAIDS tell us that the HIV rate in Zambia is 20 percent, and mortality estimates suggest it's only about 5 percent. +And these are not trivial differences in mortality rates. +So this is another way to see this. +You can see that for the prevalence to be as high as UNAIDS says, we have to really see 60 deaths per 10,000 rather than 20 deaths per 10,000 in this age group. +I'm going to talk a little bit in a minute about how we can use this kind of information to learn something that's going to help us think about the world. +But this also tells us that one of these facts that I mentioned in the beginning may not be quite right. +If you think that 25 million people are infected, if you think that the UNAIDS numbers are much too high, maybe that's more like 10 or 15 million. +It doesn't mean that AIDS isn't a problem. It's a gigantic problem. +But it does suggest that that number might be a little big. +What I really want to do, is I want to use this new data to try to figure out what makes the HIV epidemic grow faster or slower. +And I said in the beginning, I wasn't going to tell you about exports. +When I started working on these projects, I was not thinking at all about economics, but eventually it kind of sucks you back in. +So I am going to talk about exports and prices. +And I want to talk about the relationship between economic activity, in particular export volume, and HIV infections. +So obviously, as an economist, I'm deeply familiar with the fact that development, that openness to trade, is really good for developing countries. +It's good for improving people's lives. +But openness and inter-connectedness, it comes with a cost when we think about disease. I don't think this should be a surprise. +On Wednesday, I learned from Laurie Garrett that I'm definitely going to get the bird flu, and I wouldn't be at all worried about that if we never had any contact with Asia. +And HIV is actually particularly closely linked to transit. +The epidemic was introduced to the US by actually one male steward on an airline flight, who got the disease in Africa and brought it back. +And that was the genesis of the entire epidemic in the US. +In Africa, epidemiologists have noted for a long time that truck drivers and migrants are more likely to be infected than other people. +Areas with a lot of economic activity -- with a lot of roads, with a lot of urbanization -- those areas have higher prevalence than others. +But that actually doesn't mean at all that if we gave people more exports, more trade, that that would increase prevalence. +By using this new data, using this information about prevalence over time, we can actually test that. And so it seems to be -- fortunately, I think -- it seems to be the case that these things are positively related. +More exports means more AIDS. And that effect is really big. +So the data that I have suggests that if you double export volume, it will lead to a quadrupling of new HIV infections. +So this has important implications both for forecasting and for policy. +From a forecasting perspective, if we know where trade is likely to change, for example, because of the African Growth and Opportunities Act or other policies that encourage trade, we can actually think about which areas are likely to be heavily infected with HIV. +And we can go and we can try to have pre-emptive preventive measures there. +Likewise, as we're developing policies to try to encourage exports, if we know there's this externality -- this extra thing that's going to happen as we increase exports -- we can think about what the right kinds of policies are. +But it also tells us something about one of these things that we think that we know. +So throughout this talk I've mentioned a few times the special case of Uganda, and the fact that it's the only country in sub-Saharan Africa with successful prevention. +It's been widely heralded. +It's been replicated in Kenya, and Tanzania, and South Africa and many other places. +But now I want to actually also question that. +Because it is true that there was a decline in prevalence in Uganda in the 1990s. It's true that they had an education campaign. +But there was actually something else that happened in Uganda in this period. +There was a big decline in coffee prices. +Coffee is Uganda's major export. +Their exports went down a lot in the early 1990s -- and actually that decline lines up really, really closely with this decline in new HIV infections. +So you can see that both of these series -- the black line is export value, the red line is new HIV infections -- you can see they're both increasing. +Starting about 1987 they're both going down a lot. +And then actually they track each other a little bit on the increase later in the decade. +So if you combine the intuition in this figure with some of the data that I talked about before, it suggests that somewhere between 25 percent and 50 percent of the decline in prevalence in Uganda actually would have happened even without any education campaign. +But that's enormously important for policy. +We're spending so much money to try to replicate this campaign. +And if it was only 50 percent as effective as we think that it was, then there are all sorts of other things maybe we should be spending our money on instead. +Trying to change transmission rates by treating other sexually transmitted diseases. +Trying to change them by engaging in male circumcision. +There are tons of other things that we should think about doing. +And maybe this tells us that we should be thinking more about those things. +I hope that in the last 16 minutes I've told you something that you didn't know about AIDS, and I hope that I've gotten you questioning a little bit some of the things that you did know. +And I hope that I've convinced you maybe that it's important to understand things about the epidemic in order to think about policy. +But more than anything, you know, I'm an academic. +And when I leave here, I'm going to go back and sit in my tiny office, and my computer, and my data. +And the thing that's most exciting about that is every time I think about research, there are more questions. +There are more things that I think that I want to do. +And what's really, really great about being here is I'm sure that the questions that you guys have are very, very different than the questions that I think up myself. +And I can't wait to hear about what they are. +So thank you very much. +So I really consider myself a storyteller. +But I don't really tell stories in the usual way, in the sense that I don't usually tell my own stories. +Instead, I'm really interested in building tools that allow large numbers of other people to tell their stories, people all around the world. +I do this because I think that people actually have a lot in common. +I think people are very similar, but I also think that we have trouble seeing that. +You know, as I look around the world I see a lot of gaps, and I think we all see a lot of gaps. +And we define ourselves by our gaps. +There's language gaps, there's ethnicity and racial gaps, there's age gaps, there's gender gaps, there's sexuality gaps, there's wealth and money gaps, there's education gaps, there's also religious gaps. +You know, we have all these gaps and I think we like our gaps because they make us feel like we identify with something, some smaller community. +But I think that actually, despite our gaps, we really have a lot in common. +And I think one thing we have in common is a very deep need to express ourselves. +I think this is a very old human desire. It's nothing new. +But the thing about self-expression is that there's traditionally been this imbalance between the desire that we have to express ourselves and the number of sympathetic friends who are willing to stand around and listen. +This, also, is nothing new. +Since the dawn of human history, we've tried to rectify this imbalance by making art, writing poems, singing songs, scripting editorials and sending them in to a newspaper, gossiping with friends. This is nothing new. +What's new is that in the last several years a lot of these very traditional physical human activities, these acts of self-expression, have been moving onto the Internet. +And as that's happened, people have been leaving behind footprints, footprints that tell stories of their moments of self-expression. +And so what I do is, I write computer programs that study very large sets of these footprints, and then try to draw conclusions about the people who left them -- what they feel, what they think, what's different in the world today than usual, these sorts of questions. +One project that explores these ideas, which was made about a year ago, is a piece called We Feel Fine. +This is a piece that every two or three minutes scans the world's newly-posted blog entries for occurrences of the phrases "I feel" or "I am feeling." +And when it finds one of those phrases, it grabs the sentence up to the period, and then automatically tries to deduce the age, gender and geographical location of the person that wrote that sentence. +Then, knowing the geographical location and the time, we can also then figure out the weather when that person wrote the sentence. +All of this information is saved in a database that collects about 20,000 feelings a day. +It's been running for about a year and a half. +It's reached about seven-and-a-half million human feelings now. +And I'll show you a glimpse of how this information is then visualized. So this is We Feel Fine. +What you see here is a madly swarming mass of particles, each of which represents a single human feeling that was stated in the last few hours. +The color of each particle corresponds to the type of feeling inside -- so that happy, positive feelings are brightly colored. +And sad, negative feelings are darkly colored. +The diameter of each dot represents the length of the sentence inside, so that the large dots contain large sentences, and the small dots contain small sentences. +Any dot can be clicked and expanded. And we see here, "I would just feel so much better if I could curl up in his arms right now and feel his affection for me in the embrace of his body and the tenderness of his lips." +So it gets pretty hot and steamy sometimes in the world of human emotions. +And all of these are stated by people: "I know that objectively it really doesn't mean much, but after spending so many years as a small fish in a big pond, it's nice to feel bigger again." +The dots exhibit human qualities. They kind of have their own physics, and they swarm wildly around, kind of exploring the world of life. +And then they also exhibit curiosity. +You can see a few of them are swarming around the cursor right now. +You can see some other ones are swarming around the bottom left corner of the screen around six words. Those six words represent the six movements of We Feel Fine. We're currently seeing Madness. +There's also Murmurs, Montage, Mobs, Metrics and Mounds. +And I'll walk you through a few of those now. +Murmurs causes all of the feelings to fly to the ceiling. +And then, one by one, in reverse chronological order, they excuse themselves, entering the scrolling list of feelings. +"I feel a bit better now." +"I feel confused and unsure of what the hell I want to do." +"I feel gypped out of something awesome here." +"I feel so free; I feel so good." +"I feel like I'm in this fog of depression that I can't get out of." +And you can click any of these to go out and visit the blog from which it was collected. And in that way, you can connect with the authors of these statements if you feel some degree of empathy. +The next movement is called Montage. +Montage causes all of the feelings that contain photographs to become extracted and display themselves in a grid. +This grid is then said to represent the picture of the world's feelings in the last few hours, if you will. +Each of these can be clicked and we can blow it up. +We see, "I just feel like I'm not going to have fun if it's not the both of us." That was from someone in Michigan. +We see, "I feel like I have been at a computer all day." +These are automatically constructed using the found objects: "I think I feel a little full." +The next movement is called mobs. +Mobs provides different statistical breakdowns of the population of the world's feelings in the last few hours. +We see that "better" is the most frequent feeling right now, followed by "good," "bad," "guilty," "right," "down," "sick" and so on. +We can also get a gender breakdown. +And we see that women are slightly more prolific talking about their emotions in the last few hours than men. +We can do an age breakdown, which gives us a histogram of the world's emotional distribution by age. +We see people in their twenties are the most prolific, followed by teenagers, and then people in their thirties, and it dies out very quickly from there. +In weather, the feelings assume the physical characteristics of the weather that they represent, so that the ones collected on a sunny day swirl around as if they're part of the sun. +The cloudy ones float along as if they're on a breeze. +The rainy ones fall down as if they're in a rainstorm, and the snowy ones kind of flutter to the ground. +Finally, location causes the feelings to move to their positions on a world map showing the geographical distribution of feelings. +Metrics provides more numerical views on the data. +We see that the world is feeling "used" at 3.3 times the normal level right now. +They're feeling "warm" at 2.9 times the normal level, and so on. +Other views are also available. +Here are gender, age, weather, location. +The final movement is called Mounds. +It's a bit different from the others. +Mounds visualizes the entire dataset as large, gelatinous blobs which kind of jiggle. +And if I hold down my cursor, they do a little dance. +We see "better" is the most frequent feeling, followed by "bad." +And then if I go over here, the list begins to scroll, and there are actually thousands of feelings that have been collected. +You can see the little pink cursor moving along, representing our position. +Here we see people that feel "slipping," "nauseous," "responsible." +There's also a search capability, if you're interested in finding out about a certain population. +For instance, you could find women who feel "addicted" in their 20s when it was cloudy in Bangladesh. +But I'll spare you that. +So here are some of my favorite montages that have been collected: "I feel so much of my dad alive in me that there isn't even room for me." +"I feel very lonely." +"I need to be in some backwoods redneck town so that I can feel beautiful." +"I feel invisible to you." +"I wouldn't hide it if society didn't make me feel like I needed to." +"I feel in love with Carolyn." "I feel so naughty." +"I feel these weirdoes are actually an asset to college life." +"I love how I feel today." +So as you can see, We Feel Fine uses a technique that I call "passive observation." +What I mean by that is that it passively observes people as they live their lives. It scans the world's blogs and looks at what people are writing, and these people don't know they're being watched or interviewed. +And because of that, you end up getting very honest, candid, sincere responses that are often very moving. +And this is a technique that I usually prefer in my work because people don't know they're being interviewed. +They're just living life, and they end up just acting like that. +Another technique is directly questioning people. +And this is a technique that I explored in a different project, the Yahoo! Time Capsule, which was designed to take a fingerprint of the world in 2006. +It was divided into ten very simple themes -- love, anger, sadness and so on -- each of which contained a single, very open-ended question put to the world: What do you love? What makes you angry? +What makes you sad? What do you believe in? And so on. +The time capsule was available for one month online, translated into 10 languages, and this is what it looked like. +It's a spinning globe, the surface of which is entirely composed of the pictures and words and drawings of people that submitted to the time capsule. +The ten themes radiate out and orbit the time capsule. +You can sift through this data and see what people have submitted. +This is in response to, What's beautiful? "Miss World." +There are two modes to the time capsule. +There's One World, which presents the spinning globe, and Many Voices, which splits the data out into film strips and lets you sift through them one by one. +And we also projected the contents of the time capsule as binary code using a 35-watt laser into outer space. +You can see the orange line leaving the desert floor at about a 45 degree angle there. This was amazing because the first night I looked at all this information and really started seeing the gaps that I talked about earlier -- the differences in age, gender and wealth and so on. +But, you know, as I looked at this more and more and more, and saw these images go across the rocks, I realized I was seeing the same archetypal events depicted again and again and again. +You know: weddings, births, funerals, the first car, the first kiss, the first camel or horse -- depending on the culture. +And it was really moving. And this picture here was taken the final night from a distant cliff about two miles away, where the contents of the capsule were being beamed into space. +And there was something very moving about all of this human expression being shot off into the night sky. +And it started to make me think a lot about the night sky, and how humans have always used the night sky to project their great stories. +You know, as a child in Vermont, on a farm where I grew up, I would often look up into the dark sky and see the three star belt of Orion, the Hunter. +And as an adult, I've been more aware of the great Greek myths playing out in the sky overhead every night. +You know, Orion facing the roaring bull. +Perseus flying to the rescue of Andromeda. +Zeus battling Chronos for control of Mount Olympus. +I mean, these are the great tales of the Greeks. +And it caused me to wonder about our world today. +And it caused me to wonder specifically, if we could make new constellations today, what would those look like? What would those be? +If we could make new pictures in the sky, what would we draw? +What are the great stories of today? +And those are the questions that inspired my new project, which is debuting here today at TED. +Nobody's seen this yet, publicly. +It's called Universe: Revealing Our Modern Mythology. +And it uses this metaphor of an interactive night sky. +So, it's my great pleasure now to show this to you. +So, Universe will open here. +And you'll see that it leads with a shifting star field, and there's an Aurora Borealis in the background, kind of morphing with color. The color of the Aurora Borealis can be controlled using this single bar of color at the bottom, and we'll put it down here to red. +So you see this kind of -- these stars moving along. +Now, these aren't just little points of light, little pixels. +Each of those stars actually represents a specific event in the real world -- a quote that was stated by somebody, an image, a news story, a person, a company. You know, some kind of heroic personality. +And you might notice that as the cursor begins to touch some of these stars, that shapes begin to emerge. +We see here there's a little man walking along, or maybe a woman. +And we see here a photograph with a head. +You can start to see words emerging here. +And those are the constellations of today. +And I can turn them all on, and you can see them moving across the sky now. +This is the universe of 2007, the last two months. +The data from this is global news coverage from thousands of news sources around the world. +It's using the API of a really great company that I work with in New York, actually, called Daylife. +And it's kind of the zeitgeist view at this level of the world's current mythology over the last couple of months. +So we can see where it's emerging here, like President Ford, Iraq, Bush. And we can actually isolate just the words -- I call them secrets -- and we can cause them to form an alphabetical list. And we see Anna Nicole Smith playing a big role recently. +President Ford -- this is Gerald Ford's funeral. +We can actually click anything in Universe and have it become the center of the universe, and everything else will enter its orbit. +So, we'll click Ford, and now that becomes the center. +And the things that relate to Ford enter its orbit and swirl around it. +We can isolate just the photographs, and we now see those. +We can click on one of those and have the photograph be the center of the universe. +Now the things that relate to it are swirling around. +We can click on this and we see this iconic image of Betty Ford kissing her husband's coffin. +In Universe, there's kind of no end. It just goes infinitely, and you can just kind of click on stuff. +This is a photographic representation, called Snapshots. +But we can actually be more specific in defining our universe. +So, if we want to, let's check out what Bill Clinton's universe looks like. +And let's see, in the past week, what he's been up to. +So now, we have a new universe, which is just constrained to all things Bill Clinton. +We can have his constellations emerge here. +We can pull out his secrets, and we see that it has a lot to do with candidates, Hillary, presidential, Barack Obama. +We can see the stories that Bill Clinton is taking part in right now. +Any of those can be opened up. +So we see Obama and the Clintons meet in Alabama. +You can see that this is an important story; there are a lot of things in its orbit. If we open this up, we get different perspectives on this story. +You can click any of those to go out and read the article at the source. This one's from Al Jazeera. +We can also see the superstars. These would be the people that are kind of the looming heroes and heroines in the universe of Bill Clinton. So there's Bill Clinton, Hillary, Iraq, George Bush, Barack Obama, Scooter Libby -- these are kind of the people of Bill Clinton. +We can also see a world map, so this shows us the geographic reach of Bill Clinton in the last week or so. +We can see he's been focused in America because he's been campaigning, probably, but a little bit of action over here in the Middle East. +And then we can also see a timeline. +So we see that he was a bit quiet on Saturday, but he was back to work on Sunday morning, and actually been tapering off since then this week. +And it's not limited to just people or dates, but we can actually put in concepts also. +So if I put in climate change for all of 2006, we'll see what that universe looks like. +Here we have our star field. Here we have our shapes. +Here we have our secrets. +So we see again, climate change is large: Nairobi, global conference, environmental. +And there are also quotes that you can see, if you're interested in reading about quotes on climate change. +You know, this is really an infinite thing. +The superstars of climate change in 2006: United States, Britain, China. You know, these are the towering countries that kind of define this concept. +So this is a piece that demands exploration. +This will be online in several days, probably next Tuesday. +And you'll all be able to use it and kind of explore what your own personal mythology might be. +You'll notice that in Daylife -- rather, in Universe -- it supports both the notion of a global mythology, which is represented by something as broad as, say, 2007, and also a personal mythology. +As you search for the things that are important to you in your world, and then see what the constellations of those might look like. +So it's been a pleasure. Thank you very much. +I study ants, and that's because I like to think about how organizations work. +And in particular, how the simple parts of organizations interact to create the behavior of the whole organization. +So, ant colonies are a good example of an organization like that, and there are many others. The web is one. +There are many biological systems like that -- brains, cells, developing embryos. +There are about 10,000 species of ants. +They all live in colonies consisting of one or a few queens, and then all the ants you see walking around are sterile female workers. +And all ant colonies have in common that there's no central control. +Nobody tells anybody what to do. +The queen just lays the eggs. There's no management. +No ant directs the behavior of any other ant. +And I try to figure out how that works. +And I've been working for the past 20 years on a population of seed-eating ants in southeastern Arizona. +Here's my study site. This is really a picture of ants, and the rabbit just happens to be there. +And these ants are called harvester ants because they eat seeds. +This is the nest of the mature colony, and there's the nest entrance. +And they forage maybe for about 20 meters away, gather up the seeds and bring them back to the nest, and store them. +And every year I go there and make a map of my study site. +This is just a road. And it's not very big: it's about 250 meters on one side, 400 on the other. +And every colony has a name, which is a number, which is painted on a rock. And I go there every year and look for all the colonies that were alive the year before, and figure out which ones have died, and put all the new ones on the map. +And by doing this I know how old they all are. +And because of that, I've been able to study how their behavior changes as the colony gets older and larger. +So I want to tell you about the life cycle of a colony. +Ants never make more ants; colonies make more colonies. +And they do that by each year sending out the reproductives -- those are the ones with wings -- on a mating flight. +So every year, on the same day -- and it's a mystery exactly how that happens -- each colony sends out its virgin, unmated queens with wings, and the males, and they all fly to a common place. And they mate. +And this shows a recently virgin queen. Here's her wings. +And she's in the process of mating with this male, and there's another male on top waiting his turn. +Often the queens mate more than once. +And after that, the males all die. That's it for them. +And then the newly mated queens fly off somewhere, drop their wings, dig a hole and go into that hole and start laying eggs. +And they will live for 15 or 20 years, continuing to lay eggs using the sperm from that original mating. +So the queen goes down in there. +She lays eggs, she feeds the larvae -- so an ant starts as an egg, then it's a larva. +She feeds the larvae by regurgitating from her fat reserves. +Then, as soon as the ants -- the first group of ants -- emerge, they're larvae. Then they're pupae. Then they come out as adult ants. +They go out, they get the food, they dig the nest, and the queen never comes out again. +So this is a one-year-old colony -- this happens to be 536. +There's the nest entrance, there's a pencil for scale. +So this is the colony founded by a queen the previous summer. +This is a three-year-old colony. +There's the nest entrance, there's a pencil for scale. +They make a midden, a pile of refuse -- mostly the husks of the seeds that they eat. +This is a five-year-old colony. This is the nest entrance, here's a pencil for scale. +This is about as big as they get, about a meter across. +And then this is how colony size and numbers of worker ants changes -- so this is about 10,000 worker ants -- changes as a function of colony age, in years. +So it starts out with zero ants, just the founding queen, and it grows to a size of about 10 or 12 thousand ants when the colony is five. +And it stays that size until the queen dies and there's nobody to make more ants, when she's about 15 or 20 years old. +And it's when they reach this stable size, in numbers of ants, that they start to reproduce. +That is, to send more winged queens and males to that year's mating flight. +And I know how colony size changes as a function of colony age because I've dug up colonies of known age and counted all the ants. So that's not the most fun part of this research, although it's interesting. +Really the question that I think about with these ants is what I call task allocation. +That's not just how is the colony organized, but how does it change what it's doing? +How is it that the colony manages to adjust the numbers of workers performing each task as conditions change? +So, things happen to an ant colony. +When it rains in the summer, it floods in the desert. +There's a lot of damage to the nest, and extra ants are needed to clean up that mess. +When extra food becomes available -- and this is what everybody knows about picnics -- then extra ants are allocated to collect the food. +So, with nobody telling anybody what to do, how is it that the colony manages to adjust the numbers of workers performing each task? +And that's the process that I call task allocation. +And in harvester ants, I divide the tasks of the ants I see just outside the nest into these four categories: where an ant is foraging, when it's out along the foraging trail, searching for food or bringing food back. +The patrollers -- that's supposed to be a magnifying glass -- are an interesting group that go out early in the morning before the foragers are active. +They somehow choose the direction that the foragers will go, and by coming back -- just by making it back -- they tell the foragers that it's safe to go out. +Then the nest maintenance workers work inside the nest, and I wanted to say that the nests look a lot like Bill Lishman's house. +That is, that there are chambers inside, they line the walls of the chambers with moist soil and it dries to a kind of an adobe-like surface in it. +It also looks very similar to some of the cave dwellings of the Hopi people that are in that area. +And the nest maintenance workers do that inside the nest, and then they come out of the nest carrying bits of dry soil in their mandibles. +So you see the nest maintenance workers come out with a bit of sand, put it down, turn around, and go back in. +And finally, the midden workers put some kind of territorial chemical in the garbage. +So what you see the midden workers doing is making a pile of refuse. +On one day, it'll all be here, and then the next day they'll move it over there, and then they'll move it back. +So that's what the midden workers do. +And these four groups are just the ants outside the nest. +So that's only about 25 percent of the colony, and they're the oldest ants. +So, an ant starts out somewhere near the queen. +And when we dig up nests we find they're about as deep as the colony is wide, so about a meter deep for the big old nests. +And then there's another long tunnel and a chamber, where we often find the queen, after eight hours of hacking away at the rock with pickaxes. +I don't think that chamber has evolved because of me and my backhoe and my crew of students with pickaxes, but instead because when there's flooding, occasionally the colony has to go down deep. +So there's this whole network of chambers. +The queen's in there somewhere; she just lays eggs. +There's the larvae, and they consume most of the food. +And this is true of most ants -- that the ants you see walking around don't do much eating. +They bring it back and feed it to the larvae. +When the foragers come in with food, they just drop it into the upper chamber, and other ants come up from below, get the food, bring it back, husk the seeds, and pile them up. +There are nest maintenance workers working throughout the nest. +And curiously, and interestingly, it looks as though at any time about half the ants in the colony are just doing nothing. +So, despite what it says in the Bible, about, you know, "Look to the ant, thou sluggard," in fact, you could think of those ants as reserves. +That is to say, if something happened -- and I've never seen anything like this happen, but I've only been looking for 20 years -- if something happened, they might all come out if they were needed. +But in fact, mostly they're just hanging around in there. +And I think it's a very interesting question -- what is there about the way the colony is organized that might give some function to a reserve of ants who are doing nothing? +And they sort of stand as a buffer in between the ants working deep inside the nest and the ants working outside. +And if you mark ants that are working outside, and dig up a colony, you never see them deep down. +So what's happening is that the ants work inside the nest when they're younger. +They somehow get into this reserve. +And then eventually they get recruited to join this exterior workforce. +And once they belong to the ants that work outside, they never go back down. +Now ants -- most ants, including these, don't see very well. +They have eyes, they can distinguish between light and dark, but they mostly work by smell. +So that's one way that we know the queen isn't directing the behavior of the colony. +So when I first set out to work on task allocation, my first question was, "What's the relationship between the ants doing different tasks? +Does it matter to the foragers what the nest maintenance workers are doing? +Does it matter to the midden workers what the patrollers are doing?" +And I was working in the context of a view of ant colonies in which each ant was somehow dedicated to its task from birth and sort of performed independently of the others, knowing its place on the assembly line. +And instead I wanted to ask, "How are the different task groups interdependent?" +So I did experiments where I changed one thing. +So for example, I created more work for the nest maintenance workers by putting out a pile of toothpicks near the nest entrance, early in the morning when the nest maintenance workers are first active. +This is what it looks like about 20 minutes later. +Here it is about 40 minutes later. +And the nest maintenance workers just take all the toothpicks to the outer edge of the nest mound and leave them there. +And what I wanted to know was, "OK, here's a situation where extra nest maintenance workers were recruited -- is this going to have any effect on the workers performing other tasks?" +Then we repeated all those experiments with the ants marked. +So here's some blue nest maintenance workers. +And lately we've gotten more sophisticated and we have this three-color system. +And we can mark them individually so we know which ant is which. +We started out with model airplane paint and then we found these wonderful little Japanese markers, and they work really well. +And so just to summarize the result, well it turns out that yes, the different tasks are interdependent. +So, if I change the numbers performing one task, it changes the numbers performing another. +So for example, if I make a mess that the nest maintenance workers have to clean up, then I see fewer ants out foraging. +And this was true for all the pair-wise combinations of tasks. +And the second result, which was surprising to a lot of people, was that ants actually switch tasks. +The same ant doesn't do the same task over and over its whole life. +So for example, if I put out extra food, everybody else -- the midden workers stop doing midden work and go get the food, they become foragers. +The nest maintenance workers become foragers. +The patrollers become foragers. +But not every transition is possible. And this shows how it works. +Like I just said, if there is more food to collect, the patrollers, the midden workers, the nest maintenance workers will all change to forage. +If there's more patrolling to do -- so I created a disturbance, so extra patrollers were needed -- the nest maintenance workers will switch to patrol. +But if more nest maintenance work is needed -- for example, if I put out a bunch of toothpicks -- then nobody will ever switch back to nest maintenance, they have to get nest maintenance workers from inside the nest. +So foraging acts as a sink, and the ants inside the nest act as a source. +And finally, it looks like each ant is deciding moment to moment whether to be active or not. +So, for example, when there's extra nest maintenance work to do, it's not that the foragers switch over. I know that they don't do that. +But the foragers somehow decide not to come out. +And here was the most intriguing result: the task allocation. +This process changes with colony age, and it changes like this. +When I do these experiments with older colonies -- so ones that are five years or older -- they're much more consistent from one time to another and much more homeostatic. The worse things get, the more I hassle them, the more they act like undisturbed colonies. +Whereas the young, small colonies -- the two-year-old colonies of just 2,000 ants -- are much more variable. +And the amazing thing about this is that an ant lives only a year. +It could be this year, or this year. +So, the ants in the older colony that seem to be more stable are not any older than the ants in the younger colony. +It's not due to the experience of older, wiser ants. +Instead, something about the organization must be changing as the colony gets older. +And the obvious thing that's changing is its size. +And it would change as the colony gets larger. +And what I've found out is that ants are using a network of antennal contact. +So anybody who's ever looked at ants has seen them touch antennae. +They smell with their antennae. +When one ant touches another, it's smelling it, and it can tell, for example, whether the other ant is a nest mate because ants cover themselves and each other, through grooming, with a layer of grease, which carries a colony-specific odor. +And what we're learning is that an ant uses the pattern of its antennal contacts, the rate at which it meets ants of other tasks, in deciding what to do. +And so what the message is, is not any message that they transmit from one ant to another, but the pattern. +The pattern itself is the message. +And I'll tell you a little bit more about that. +But first you might be wondering: how is it that an ant can tell, for example, I'm a forager. +I expect to meet another forager every so often. +But if instead I start to meet a higher number of nest maintenance workers, I'm less likely to forage. +So it has to know the difference between a forager and a nest maintenance worker. +And we've learned that, in this species -- and I suspect in others as well -- these hydrocarbons, this layer of grease on the outside of ants, is different as ants perform different tasks. +And we've done experiments that show that that's because the longer an ant stays outside, the more these simple hydrocarbons on its surface change, and so they come to smell different by doing different tasks. +And they can use that task-specific odor in cuticular hydrocarbons -- they can use that in their brief antennal contacts to somehow keep track of the rate at which they're meeting ants of certain tasks. +And we've just recently demonstrated this by putting extract of hydrocarbons on little glass beads, and dropping the beads gently down into the nest entrance at the right rate. +And it turns out that ants will respond to the right rate of contact with a glass bead with hydrocarbon extract on it, as they would to contact with real ants. +So I want now to show you a bit of film -- and this will start out, first of all, showing you the nest entrance. +So the idea is that ants are coming in and out of the nest entrance. +They've gone out to do different tasks, and the rate at which they meet as they come in and out of the nest entrance determines, or influences, each ant's decision about whether to go out, and which task to perform. +This is taken through a fiber optics microscope. It's down inside the nest. +In the beginning you see the ants just kind of engaging with the fiber optics microscope. +But the idea is that the ants are in there, and each ant is experiencing a certain flow of ants past it -- a stream of contacts with other ants. +And the pattern of these interactions determines whether the ant comes back out, and what it does when it comes back out. +You can also see this in the ants just outside the nest entrance like these. +Each ant, then, as it comes back in, is contacting other ants. +And the ants that are waiting just inside the nest entrance to decide whether to go out on their next trip, are contacting the ants coming in. +So, what's interesting about this system is that it's messy. +It's variable. It's noisy. And, in particular, in two ways. +The first is that the experience of the ant -- of each ant -- can't be very predictable. +Because the rate at which ants come back depends on all the little things that happen to an ant as it goes out and does its task outside. +And the second thing is that an ant's ability to assess this pattern must be very crude because no ant can do any sophisticated counting. +So, we do a lot of simulation and modeling, and also experimental work, to try to figure out how those two kinds of noise combine to, in the aggregate, produce the predictable behavior of ant colonies. +Again, I don't want to say that this kind of haphazard pattern of interactions produces a factory that works with the precision and efficiency of clockwork. +In fact, if you watch ants at all, you end up trying to help them because they never seem to be doing anything exactly the way that you think that they ought to be doing it. +So it's not really that out of these haphazard contacts, perfection arises. +But it works pretty well. +Ants have been around for several hundred million years. +They cover the earth, except for Antarctica. +Something that they're doing is clearly successful enough that this pattern of haphazard contacts, in the aggregate, produces something that allows ants to make a lot more ants. +And one of the things that we're studying is how natural selection might be acting now to shape this use of interaction patterns -- this network of interaction patterns -- to perhaps increase the foraging efficiency of ant colonies. +So the one thing, though, that I want you to remember about this is that these patterns of interactions are something that you'd expect to be closely connected to colony size. +The simplest idea is that when an ant is in a small colony -- and an ant in a large colony can use the same rule, like "I expect to meet another forager every three seconds." +But in a small colony, it's likely to meet fewer foragers, just because there are fewer other foragers there to meet. +So this is the kind of rule that, as the colony develops and gets older and larger, will produce different behavior in an old colony and a small young one. +I've always wanted to be a cyborg. +But that's not what I want to talk about today. +I want to talk about toys, and the power that I see inherent in them. +When I was a kid, I attended Montessori school up to sixth grade in Atlanta, Georgia. +And at the time I didn't think much about it, but then later, I realized that that was the high point of my education. +From that point on, everything else was pretty much downhill. +And it wasn't until later, as I started making games, that -- I really actually think of them more as toys. +People call me a game designer, but I really think of these things more as toys. +But I started getting very interested in Maria Montessori and her methods, and the way she went about things, and the way she thought it very valuable for kids to kind of discover things on their own rather than being taught these things overtly. +And she would design these toys, where kids in playing with the toys would actually come to understand these deep principles of life and nature through play. +And since they discovered those things, it really stuck with them so much more, and also they would experience their own failures; there was a failure-based aspect to learning there. It was very important. +And so, the games that I do, I think of really more as modern Montessori toys. +And I really kind of want them to be presented in a way to where kids can kind of explore and discover their own principles. +So a few years ago, I actually started getting very interested in the SETI program. And that's the way I work. +I get interested in different kinds of subjects, I dive in, I research them, and then I try to figure out how to craft a toy around that, so that other people can kind of experience the same sense of discovery as I did as I was learning that subject. +And it kind of led me to astrobiology, which is the study of possible life in the universe. +And then Drake's Equation, which is looking at the probability of life arising on planets, how long it might last, how many planets are out there, stuff like that. +And I started looking at how interesting Drake's Equation was, because it spanned all these different subjects -- physics, chemistry, sociology, economics, astronomy. +And another thing that really impressed me a long time ago was "Powers of Ten," Charles and Ray Eames' film. +And I started putting those two together and wondering, could I build a toy where kids would kind of trip across all these interesting principles of life, as it exists and as it might go in the future. +Things where you might trip across things like the Copernican Principle, the Fermi Paradox, the Anthropic Principle, the origin of life. +And so I'm going to show you a toy today that I've been working on, that I think of more than anything else as kind of a philosophy toy. +In playing this toy, you kind of -- this will bring up philosophical questions in you. +This game's called "Spore." I've been working on it for several years. +It's getting pretty close to finished now. +It occurs at all these different scales, first of all, from very, very small to very, very large. +I'm just going to pop in at the start of the game. +And you actually start this game in a drop of water, as a very, very small single-cell creature, and right off the bat you basically just have to live, survive, reproduce. +So here we are, at a very microscopic scale, swimming around. And I actually realize that cells don't have eyes, but it helps to make it cute. +The players are going to play through every generation of this species, and as you play the game the creature is actually growing bit by bit. +And as we start growing the camera will actually start zooming out, and things that you see in the background there will actually start slowly pulling into the foreground, showing you a little bit of what you'll be interacting with as you grow. +So as we eat, the camera starts pulling out, and then we start interacting with kind of larger and larger organisms. +Now, we actually play through many generations here, at the cellular scale. +I'm going to skip ahead here. At some point we get larger, and we actually get to a macro-evolution scale. +Now at this point we're leaving the water, and one thing that's kind of important about this game is that, at every level, the player is designing their creature, and that's a fundamental aspect of this. +Now, in the evolution game here, the creature scale, basically you have to eat, survive, and then reproduce. You know, very Darwinian. +One thing we noticed with "The Sims," which is a game I did earlier, is that players love making stuff. +When they were able to make stuff in the game they had a tremendous amount of empathy in connection to it. Even if it wasn't as pretty as what other people would make it -- as a professional artist would make for games -- it really stuck with them and they really cared about what would happen to it. +So at this point, we've left the water, and now with this little creature -- we could bring up the volume a little bit -- and now we might try to eat. +We might sneak up on this little guy over here maybe, and try and eat him. +OK, well, we fight. +OK, we got him. Now we get a meal. +So really, at this part of the game, what we're doing is we're running around and surviving, and also getting to the next generation, because we're going to play through every generation of this creature. +We can mate, so I'm going to see if one of these creatures wants to mate with me. Yeah. +We didn't want to replay actual evolution with humans and all that, because it's almost more interesting to look at alternate possibilities in evolution. +Evolution is usually presented as this one path that we took through, but really it represents this huge set of possibilities. +Now once we mate, we click on the egg. +And this is where the game starts getting interesting, because one of the things we really focused on here was giving the players very high-leverage tools, so that for a very small amount of effort the player can make something very cool. And it involves a lot of intelligence on the tool side. +But basically, this is the editor where we're going to design the next generation of our creature. So it has a little spine. +I can move around here. I can extend. +I can also inflate or deflate it with the mouse wheel, so you sculpt it like clay. We have parts here that I can put on or pull off. +The idea is that the player can basically design anything they can think of in this editor, and we'll basically bring it to life. +So, for instance, I might put some limbs on the character here. +I'll inflate them kind of large. +And in this case I might decide I'm going to put -- I'll put mouths on the limbs. +So pretty much players are encouraged to be very creative in the game. +Here, I'll give it one eye in the middle, maybe scale it up a bit. Point it down. +And I'll also give it a few legs. +So in some sense we want this to feel like an amplifier for the player's imagination, so that with a very small number of clicks a player can create something that they didn't really think was possible before. +You know, this is almost like designing something like Maya that an eight-year-old can use. +But really the goal here was, within about a minute, I wanted somebody to replicate what typically takes a pictorial artist several weeks to create. +OK, now I'll put some hands on it. +OK, so here I've basically thrown together a little creature. +Let me give it a little weapon on the tail here, so it can fight. +OK, so that's the complete model. Now we can actually go to the painting phase. +Now, at this phase, the program actually has some understanding of the topology of this creature. It kind of knows where the backbone is, where the spine, the limbs are. +It kind of knows how stripes should run, how it should be shaded. +And so we're procedurally generating the texture map, and this is something a texture artist would take many, many days to work on. +And then we can test it out, once we've done that, and see how it would move around. +And so at this point the computer is procedurally animating this creature. +It's looking at whatever I've designed. It will actually bring it to life. +And I can see how it might dance. +how it might show emotions, how it might fight. +So it's acting with its two mouths there. +I can even have it pose for a photo. Snap a little photo of it. +So at any rate, then I bring this back into the game. It's born, and I play the next generation of my creature through evolution. +Now again, the empathy that the players have when they create the content is tremendous. Now, when players create content in this game, it's automatically sent up to a server and then redistributed to all the other players transparently. +So in fact, as I'm interacting in this world with other creatures, these creatures are transparently coming from other players as they play. +So the process of playing the game is a process of building up this huge database of content. And pretty much everything you're going to see in this game, there's an editor for in the game that the player can create, all the way up through civilization. This is my baby. +When I eat, I'll actually start growing. This is the next generation. +But I'm going to skip way ahead here. Now, normally what would happen is these creatures would work their way up, eventually become intelligent. +I'd start dealing with tribes, cities and civilizations of them over time. +I'm going to skip way ahead here to the space phase. +Eventually they would go out into space, and start colonizing and exploring the universe. +Now really, in some sense, I want the players to be building this world in their imagination, and then extracting it from them with the least amount of pain. +So that's kind of what these tools are about, are: how do we make the game play the player's imagination-amplifier? +And how do we make these tools, these editors, something that are just as fun as the game itself? +So this is the planet that we've been playing on up to this point in the game. +So far the entire game has been played on the surface of this little world here. +Now, at this point we're actually dealing with a very little toy planet. +Almost, again, like the Montessori toy idea. +You know, what happens if you give somebody a toy planet, and let them play with a lot of dynamics on it, what could they discover? What might they learn on this? +This world was actually extracted from the player's imagination. +So, this is the planet that the player evolved on. +Things like the buildings, and the vehicles, the architecture, civilizations were all designed by the player up to this point. +So here's a little city with some of our guys kind of walking around in it. +And most games kind of put the player in the role of Luke Skywalker, this protagonist playing through this story. +Really, this is more about putting the player in the role of George Lucas, you know? +I want them, after they've played this game, to have extracted an entire world that they're now interacting with. +Now, as we pull down here, we still have a whole set of creatures living on the surface of the planet. There are all these different dynamics going on here. +In fact, I can look over here, and this is kind of a little simplified food web that's going on with the creatures. +I can open this up and then scan what exists on the surface, and get some sense of the diversity of creatures that were brought in. +Some of these were created by the player, others by other players and automatically sent over here. +But there's a very simple little kind of calculation of what's required, how much plants are required for the herbivores to live, how many herbivores for the carnivores to eat, etc., that you actually have to balance actively. +Now also with this phase, we're getting more and more God-like powers for the player, and you can kind of experiment with this planet again as a toy. +So I can come in and I can do things, and just treat this planet as a lump of clay. +We have very simple little weather systems you see here, very simple geology. For instance, I could open one of my tools here and then carve out rivers. +So this whole thing is kind of like a big lump of clay, a sculpture. +I can also play with the dynamics of this world over time. +So one of the things I can do is start pumping more CO2 gases into the atmosphere, and so that's what I'm doing here. +There's actually a little read out down there of our planetary atmosphere, pressure and temperature. +So as I start pumping in more atmosphere, we're going to start pushing up the greenhouse gases here and if you'll start noticing, we start seeing the ocean levels rise over time. +And our cities are going to be at risk too, because a lot of these are coastal cities. +You can see the ocean levels are rising now and as they encroach upon the cities, I'll start losing cities here. +So basically, I want the players to be able to experiment and explore a huge amount of failure space. So there goes one city. +Now over time, this is actually going to heat up the planet. +So at first what we're going to see is a global ocean rise here on this little toy planet, but then over time -- I can speed it up just a little bit -- we'll actually see the heat impact of that as well. +So not only will it get hotter, but at some point it's going to get so hot the oceans will entirely evaporate. +So at first they'll go up, and then they'll evaporate, and that'll be my planet. +So basically, what we're getting here is the sequel to "An Inconvenient Truth," in about two minutes, and that actually brings up an interesting point about games. +Now here, our entire oceans are evaporating off the surface, and as it keeps getting hotter at some point the entire planet's going to melt down. +Here it goes. +So we're not only simulating biological dynamics -- food webs and all that -- but also geologic, you know, on a very simple core scale. +And what's interesting to me about games, in some sense, is that I think we can take a lot of long-term dynamics and compress them into very short-term kind of experiences. +Because it's so hard for people to think 50 or 100 years out, but when you can give them a toy, and they can experience these long-term dynamics in just a few minutes, I think it's an entirely different kind of point of view, where we're actually mapping, using the game to re-map our intuition. +It's almost in the same way that a telescope or microscope recalibrates your eyesight; I think computer simulations can recalibrate your instinct across vast scales of both space and time. +So here's our little solar system, as we pull away from our melted planet here. +We actually have a couple of other planets in this solar system. +Let's fly to another one. +So in fact, we're going to have this unlimited number of worlds you can kind of explore here. Now, as we move into the future, and we start going out in this space and doing stuff, we're drawing a lot from things like science fiction. +And all my favorite science fiction movies I want to basically play out here as different dynamics. +So this planet actually has some life on it. +Here it is, some indigenous life down here. +Now one of the tools I can eventually earn for my UFO is a monolith that I can drop down. +Now as you can see, these guys are actually starting to go up and bow to it, and over time, once they touch it, they will become intelligent. +So I can actually pick a species on a planet and then make them sentient. +You see, now they've actually gone to tribal dynamics. +And now, because I'm actually the one here, I can, if I want to, get out of the UFO and walk up, and they should be worshipping me at this point as a god. +At first they're a little freaked out. +OK, well maybe they're not worshipping me. +I think I'll leave before they get hostile. +But we basically want a diversity of activities the players can play through this. +Basically, I want to be able to play, "The Day the Earth Stood Still," "2001: A Space Odyssey," "Star Trek," "War Of the Worlds." +Now as we pull away from this world -- we're going to keep pulling away from the star now. +One of the things that always frustrated me a little bit about astronomy when I was a kid is how it was always presented so two-dimensionally and so static. As we pull away from the star here, we're actually going now out into interstellar space, and we're getting a sense of the space around our home star. +Now what I really wanted to do is to present this, basically as wonderfully 3D as it is actually is. +And not only that, but also show the dynamics, and a lot of the interesting objects that you might find, maybe like in the Hubble, at pretty much realistic frequencies and scales. +So most people have no idea of the difference between like, an emission nebula and a planetary nebula. +But these are the things that we can kind of put in this little galaxy here. +So we're flying over here to what looks like a black hole. +I want to basically have the entire zoo of Hubble objects that people can kind of interact with and play with, again, as toys. +So here's a little black hole that we probably don't want to get too close to. +But we also have stars and things as well. +This would be about one million years a second, because you have about roughly one supernova every century or so. +Chris was wondering what kind of gods that the players would become. +Because if you think about it, you're going to have 15-year-olds, 20-year-olds, whatever, flying around this universe. +And they might be a nurturing god. They might be boot-strapping life on planets, trying to terra-form and spread civilization. +You might be a vengeful god and going out and conquesting, because you actually can do that, you can go in and attack other intelligent races. +You might be a networking god, building alliances, which you can also do in the game, or just curious, going around and wanting to explore as much as you possibly can. +But basically, the reason why I make toys like this is because I think if there's one difference I could possibly make in the world, that I would choose to make, it's that I would like to somehow give people just a little bit better calibration on long-term thinking. +Because I think most of the problems that our world is facing right now is the result of short-term thinking, and the fact that it is so hard for us to think 50, 100, or 1,000 years out. +And I think by giving kids toys like this and letting them replay dynamics, very long-term dynamics over the short term, and getting some sense of what we're doing now, what it's going to be like in 100 years, I think probably is the most effective thing I can be doing to help the world. +And so that's why I think, personally, that toys can change the world. +Thank you. +I'm a medical illustrator, and I come from a slightly different point of view. +I've been watching, since I grew up, the expressions of truth and beauty in the arts and truth and beauty in the sciences. +And while these are both wonderful things in their own right -- they both have very wonderful things going for them -- truth and beauty as ideals that can be looked at by the sciences and by math are almost like the ideal conjoined twins that a scientist would want to date. +These are expressions of truth as awe-full things, by meaning they are things you can worship. +They are ideals that are powerful. They are irreducible. +They are unique. They are useful -- sometimes, often a long time after the fact. +And you can actually roll some of the pictures now, because I don't want to look at me on the screen. +Truth and beauty are things that are often opaque to people who are not in the sciences. +They are things that describe beauty in a way that is often only accessible if you understand the language and the syntax of the person who studies the subject in which truth and beauty is expressed. +If you look at the math, E=mc squared, if you look at the cosmological constant, where there's an anthropic ideal, where you see that life had to evolve from the numbers that describe the universe -- these are things that are really difficult to understand. +Students today are often immersed in an environment where what they learn is subjects that have truth and beauty embedded in them, but the way they're taught is compartmentalized and it's drawn down to the point where the truth and beauty are not always evident. +It's almost like that old recipe for chicken soup where you boil the chicken until the flavor is just gone. +We don't want to do that to our students. +So we have an opportunity to really open up education. +And I had a telephone call from Robert Lue at Harvard, in the Molecular and Cellular Biology Department, a couple of years ago. He asked me if my team and I would be interested and willing to really change how medical and scientific education is done at Harvard. +So we embarked on a project that would explore the cell -- that would explore the truth and beauty inherent in molecular and cellular biology so that students could understand a larger picture that they could hang all of these facts on. +They could have a mental image of the cell as a large, bustling, hugely complicated city that's occupied by micro-machines. +And these micro-machines really are at the heart of life. +These micro-machines, which are the envy of nanotechnologists the world over, are self-directed, powerful, precise, accurate devices that are made out of strings of amino acids. +And these micro-machines power how a cell moves. +They power how a cell replicates. They power our hearts. +They power our minds. +So we set out by looking at how these molecules are put together. +But they get the information that causes them to stop, causes them to internalize that they need to make all of the various parts that will cause them to change their shape, and try to get out of this capillary and find out what's going on. +So these molecular motors -- we had to work with the Harvard scientists and databank models of the atomically accurate molecules and figure out how they moved, and figure out what they did. +And figure out how to do this in a way that was truthful in that it imparted what was going on, but not so truthful that the compact crowding in a cell would prevent the vista from happening. +And so what I'm going to show you is a three-minute Reader's Digest version of the first aspect of this film that we produced. It's an ongoing project that's going to go another four or five years. +And I want you to look at this and see the paths that the cell manufactures -- these little walking machines, they're called kinesins -- that take these huge loads that would challenge an ant in relative size. +Run the movie, please. +But these machines that power the inside of the cells are really quite amazing, and they really are the basis of all life because all of these machines interact with each other. +They pass information to each other. +They cause different things to happen inside the cell. +And the cell will actually manufacture the parts that it needs on the fly, from information that's brought from the nucleus by molecules that read the genes. +No life, from the smallest life to everybody here, would be possible without these little micro-machines. +In fact, it would really, in the absence of these machines, have made the attendance here, Chris, really quite sparse. +This is the FedEx delivery guy of the cell. +This little guy is called the kinesin, and he pulls a sack that's full of brand new manufactured proteins to wherever it's needed in the cell -- whether it's to a membrane, whether it's to an organelle, whether it's to build something or repair something. +And each of us has about 100,000 of these things running around, right now, inside each one of your 100 trillion cells. +So no matter how lazy you feel, you're not really intrinsically doing nothing. +So what I want you to do when you go home is think about this, and think about how powerful our cells are. +And think about some of the things that we're learning about cellular mechanics. +And hopefully we'll be able to use this to discover more truth, and more beauty. +But it's really quite amazing that these cells, these micro-machines, are aware enough of what the cell needs that they do their bidding. +They work together. They make the cell do what it needs to do. +And their working together helps our bodies -- huge entities that they will never see -- function properly. +Enjoy the rest of the show. Thank you. +This is a recent comic strip from the Los Angeles Times. +The punch line? +"On the other hand, I don't have to get up at four every single morning to milk my Labrador." +This is a recent cover of New York Magazine. +Best hospitals where doctors say they would go for cancer treatment, births, strokes, heart disease, hip replacements, 4 a.m. emergencies. +And this is a song medley I put together -- Did you ever notice that four in the morning has become some sort of meme or shorthand? +It means something like you are awake at the worst possible hour. +A time for inconveniences, mishaps, yearnings. +A time for plotting to whack the chief of police, like in this classic scene from "The Godfather." +Coppola's script describes these guys as, "exhausted in shirt sleeves. +It is four in the morning." +A time for even grimmer stuff than that, like autopsies and embalmings in Isabel Allende's "The House of the Spirits." +After the breathtaking green-haired Rosa is murdered, the doctors preserve her with unguents and morticians' paste. +They worked until four o'clock in the morning. +A time for even grimmer stuff than that, like in last April's New Yorker magazine. +This short fiction piece by Martin Amis starts out, "On September 11, 2001, he opened his eyes at 4 a.m. in Portland, Maine, and Mohamed Atta's last day began." +For a time that I find to be the most placid and uneventful hour of the day, four in the morning sure gets an awful lot of bad press -- across a lot of different media from a lot of big names. +And it made me suspicious. +I figured, surely some of the most creative artistic minds in the world, really, aren't all defaulting back to this one easy trope like they invented it, right? +Could it be there is something more going on here? +Something deliberate, something secret, and who got the four in the morning bad rap ball rolling anyway? +I say this guy -- Alberto Giacometti, shown here with some of his sculptures on the Swiss 100 franc note. +He did it with this famous piece from the New York Museum of Modern Art. +Its title -- "The Palace at Four in the Morning -- 1932. +Not just the earliest cryptic reference to four in the morning I can find. +I believe that this so-called first surrealist sculpture may provide an incredible key to virtually every artistic depiction of four in the morning to follow it. +I call this The Giacometti Code, a TED exclusive. +No, feel free to follow along on your Blackberries or your iPhones if you've got them. +It works a little something like -- this is a recent Google search for four in the morning. +Results vary, of course. This is pretty typical. +The top 10 results yield you four hits for Faron Young's song, "It's Four in the Morning," three hits for Judi Dench's film, "Four in the Morning," one hit for Wislawa Szymborska's poem, "Four in the Morning." +But what, you may ask, do a Polish poet, a British Dame, a country music hall of famer all have in common besides this totally excellent Google ranking? +Well, let's start with Faron Young -- who was born incidentally in 1932. +In 1996, he shot himself in the head on December ninth -- which incidentally is Judi Dench's birthday. +But he didn't die on Dench's birthday. +He languished until the following afternoon when he finally succumbed to a supposedly self-inflicted gunshot wound at the age of 64 -- which incidentally is how old Alberto Giacometti was when he died. +Where was Wislawa Szymborska during all this? +She has the world's most absolutely watertight alibi. +On that very day, December 10, 1996 while Mr. Four in the Morning, Faron Young, was giving up the ghost in Nashville, Tennessee, Ms. Four in the Morning -- or one of them anyway -- Wislawa Szymborska was in Stockholm, Sweden, accepting the Nobel Prize for Literature. +100 years to the day after the death of Alfred Nobel himself. +Coincidence? No, it's creepy. +Coincidence to me has a much simpler metric. +That's like me telling you, "Hey, you know the Nobel Prize was established in 1901, which coincidentally is the same year Alberto Giacometti was born?" +No, not everything fits so tidily into the paradigm, but that does not mean there's not something going on at the highest possible levels. +In fact there are people in this room who may not want me to show you this clip we're about to see. +Video: Homer Simpson: We have a tennis court, a swimming pool, a screening room -- You mean if I want pork chops, even in the middle of the night, your guy will fry them up? +Herbert Powell: Sure, that's what he's paid for. +Now do you need towels, laundry, maids? +HS: Wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait -- let me see if I got this straight. +It is Christmas Day, 4 a.m. +There's a rumble in my stomach. +Marge Simpson: Homer, please. +Rives: Wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait. +Let me see if I got this straight, Matt. +When Homer Simpson needs to imagine the most remote possible moment of not just the clock, but the whole freaking calendar, he comes up with 0400 on the birthday of the Baby Jesus. +And no, I don't know how it works into the whole puzzling scheme of things, but obviously I know a coded message when I see one. +I said, I know a coded message when I see one. +And folks, you can buy a copy of Bill Clinton's "My Life" from the bookstore here at TED. +Parse it cover to cover for whatever hidden references you want. +Or you can go to the Random House website where there is this excerpt. +And how far down into it you figure we'll have to scroll to get to the golden ticket? +Would you believe about a dozen paragraphs? +This is page 474 on your paperbacks if you're following along: "Though it was getting better, I still wasn't satisfied with the inaugural address. +My speechwriters must have been tearing their hair out because as we worked between one and four in the morning on Inauguration Day, I was still changing it." +Sure you were, because you've prepared your entire life for this historic quadrennial event that just sort of sneaks up on you. +And then -- three paragraphs later we get this little beauty: "We went back to Blair House to look at the speech for the last time. +It had gotten a lot better since 4 a.m." +Well, how could it have? +By his own writing, this man was either asleep, at a prayer meeting with Al and Tipper or learning how to launch a nuclear missile out of a suitcase. +What happens to American presidents at 0400 on inauguration day? +What happened to William Jefferson Clinton? +We might not ever know. +And I noticed, he's not exactly around here today to face any tough questions. +It could get awkward, right? +I mean after all, this whole business happened on his watch. +But if he were here -- he might remind us, as he does in the wrap-up to his fine autobiography, that on this day Bill Clinton began a journey -- a journey that saw him go on to become the first Democrat president elected to two consecutive terms in decades. +In generations. +The first since this man, Franklin Delano Roosevelt, who began his own unprecedented journey way back at his own first election, way back in a simpler time, way back in 1932 -- the year Alberto Giacometti made "The Palace at Four in the Morning." +The year, let's remember, that this voice, now departed, first came a-cryin' into this big old crazy world of ours. +Allison Hunt: My three minutes hasn't started yet, has it? +Chris Anderson: No, you can't start the three minutes. +Reset the three minutes, that's just not fair. +AH: Oh my God, it's harsh up here. +I mean I'm nervous enough as it is. +But I am not as nervous as I was five weeks ago. +Five weeks ago I had total hip replacement surgery. +Do you know that surgery? +Electric saw, power drill, totally disgusting unless you're David Bolinsky, in which case it's all truth and beauty. +Sure David, if it's not your hip, it's truth and beauty. +Anyway, I did have a really big epiphany around the situation, so Chris invited me to tell you about it. +But first you need to know two things about me. +Just two things. +I'm Canadian, and I'm the youngest of seven kids. +Now, in Canada, we have that great healthcare system. +That means we get our new hips for free. +And being the youngest of seven, I have never been at the front of the line for anything. OK? +So my hip had been hurting me for years. +I finally went to the doctor, which was free. +And she referred me to an orthopedic surgeon, also free. +Finally got to see him after 10 months of waiting -- almost a year. +That is what free gets you. +I met the surgeon, and he took some free X-rays, and I got a good look at them. And you know, even I could tell my hip was bad, and I actually work in marketing. +So he said, "Allison, we've got to get you on the table. +I'm going to replace your hip -- it's about an 18-month wait." +18 more months. +I'd already waited 10 months, and I had to wait 18 more months. +You know, it's such a long wait that I actually started to even think about it in terms of TEDs. +I wouldn't have my new hip for this TED. +I wouldn't have my new hip for TEDGlobal in Africa. +I would not have my new hip for TED2008. +I would still be on my bad hip. That was so disappointing. +So, I left his office and I was walking through the hospital, and that's when I had my epiphany. +This youngest of seven had to get herself to the front of the line. +Oh yeah. +Can I tell you how un-Canadian that is? +We do not think that way. +We don't talk about it. It's not even a consideration. +In fact, when we're traveling abroad, it's how we identify fellow Canadians. +"After you." "Oh, no, no. After you." +Hey, are you from Canada? "Oh, me too! Hi!" +"Great! Excellent!" +So no, suddenly I wasn't averse to butting any geezer off the list. +Some 70-year-old who wanted his new hip so he could be back golfing, or gardening. +No, no. Front of the line. +So by now I was walking the lobby, and of course, that hurt, because of my hip, and I kind of needed a sign. +And I saw a sign. +In the window of the hospital's tiny gift shop there was a sign that said, "Volunteers Needed." Hmm. +Well, they signed me up immediately. +No reference checks. None of the usual background stuff, no. +They were desperate for volunteers because the average age of the volunteer at the hospital gift shop was 75. +Yeah. They needed some young blood. +So, next thing you know, I had my bright blue volunteer vest, I had my photo ID, and I was fully trained by my 89-year-old boss. +I worked alone. +Every Friday morning I was at the gift shop. +While ringing in hospital staff's Tic Tacs, I'd casually ask, "What do you do?" +Then I'd tell them, "Well, I'm getting my hip replaced -- in 18 months. +It's gonna be so great when the pain stops. Ow!" +All the staff got to know the plucky, young volunteer. +My next surgeon's appointment was, coincidentally, right after a shift at the gift shop. +So, naturally, I had my vest and my identification. +I draped them casually over the chair in the doctor's office. +And you know, when he walked in, I could just tell that he saw them. +Moments later, I had a surgery date just weeks away, and a big fat prescription for Percocet. +Now, word on the street was that it was actually my volunteering that got me to the front of the line. +And, you know, I'm not even ashamed of that. +Two reasons. +First of all, I am going to take such good care of this new hip. +But also I intend to stick with the volunteering, which actually leads me to the biggest epiphany of them all. +Even when a Canadian cheats the system, they do it in a way that benefits society. +Well, first of all, let me thank Emeka -- as a matter of fact, TED Global -- for putting this conference together. +This conference is going to rank as the most important in the beginning of the 21st century. +Think African governments will put together a conference like this? +You think the A.U. will put together a conference like this? +Even before they do that they will ask for foreign aid. +I would also like to pay homage and honor to the TED Fellows June Arunga, James Shikwati, Andrew, and the other TED Fellows. +I call them the Cheetah Generation. +The Cheetah Generation is a new breed of Africans who brook no nonsense about corruption. +They understand what accountability and democracy is. +They're not going to wait for government to do things for them. +That's the Cheetah Generation, and Africa's salvation rests on the backs of these Cheetahs. +In contrast, of course, we have the Hippo Generation. +The Hippo Generation are the ruling elites. +They are stuck in their intellectual patch. +Complaining about colonialism and imperialism, they wouldn't move one foot. +If you ask them to reform the economies, they're not going to reform it because they benefit from the rotten status quo. +Now, there are a lot of Africans who are very angry, angry at the condition of Africa. +Now, we're talking about a continent that is not poor. +It is rich in mineral resources, natural mineral resources. +But the mineral wealth of Africa is not being utilized to lift its people out of poverty. +That's what makes a lot of Africans very angry. +And in a way, Africa is more than a tragedy, in more ways than one. +There's another enduring tragedy, and that tragedy is that there are so many people, so many governments, so many organizations who want to help the people in Africa. +They don't understand. +Now, we're not saying don't help Africa. +Helping Africa is noble. +But helping Africa has been turned into a theater of the absurd. +It's like the blind leading the clueless. +There are certain things that we need to recognize. +Africa's begging-bowl leaks. +Did you know that 40 percent of the wealth created in Africa is not invested here in Africa? +It's taken out of Africa. +That's what the World Bank says. +Look at Africa's begging-bowl. +It leaks horribly. +There are people who think that we should pour more money, more aid into this bowl which leaks. +What are the leakages? +Corruption alone costs Africa 148 billion dollars a year. +Yes, put that aside. +Capital flight out of Africa, 80 billion a year. +Put that aside. +Let's take food imports. +Every year Africa spends 20 billion dollars to import food. +Just add that up, all these leakages. +That's far more than the 50 billion Tony Blair wants to raise for Africa. +Now, back in the 1960s Africa not only fed itself, it also exported food. +Not anymore. +We know that something has gone fundamentally wrong. +You know it, I know it, but let's not waste our time talking about these mistakes because we'll spend all day here. +Let's move on, and flip over to the next chapter, and that's what this conference is all about -- the next chapter. +The next chapter begins with first of all, asking ourselves this fundamental question, "Whom do we want to help in Africa?" +There is the people, and then there is the government or leaders. +Now, the previous speaker before me, Idris Mohammed, indicated that we've had abysmal leadership in Africa. +That characterization, in my view, is even more charitable. +I belong to an Internet discussion forum, an African Internet discussion forum, and I asked them, I said, "Since 1960, we've had exactly 204 African heads of state, since 1960." +And I asked them to name me just 20 good leaders, just 20 good leaders -- you may want to take this leadership challenge yourself. +I asked them to name me just 20. +Everybody mentioned Nelson Mandela, of course. +Kwame Nkrumah, Nyerere, Kenyatta -- somebody mentioned Idi Amin. +I let that pass. +My point is, they couldn't go beyond 15. +Even if they had been able to name me 20, what does that tell you? +20 out of 204 means that the vast majority of the African leaders failed their people. +And if you look at them, the slate of the post-colonial leaders -- an assortment of military fufu heads, Swiss-bank socialists, crocodile liberators, vampire elites, quack revolutionaries. +Now, this leadership is a far cry from the traditional leaders that Africans have known for centuries. +The second false premise that we make when we're trying to help Africa is that sometimes we think that there is something called a government in Africa that cares about its people, serves the interests of the people, and represents the people. +There is one particular quote -- a Lesotho chief once said that "Here in Lesotho, we've got two problems: rats and the government." +What you and I understand as a government doesn't exist in many African countries. +In fact, what we call our governments are vampire states. +Vampires because they suck the economic vitality out of their people. +Government is the problem in Africa. +A vampire state is the government -- -- which has been hijacked by a phalanx of bandits and crooks who use the instruments of state power to enrich themselves, their cronies, and tribesmen and exclude everybody else. +The richest people in Africa are heads-of-state and ministers, and quite often the chief bandit is the head-of-state himself. +Where do they get their money? +By creating wealth? +No. +By raking it off the backs of their suffering people. +That's not wealth creation. It's wealth redistribution. +The third fundamental issue that we have to recognize is that if we want to help the African people, we must know where the African people are. +Take any African economy. +An African economy can be broken up into three sectors. +There is the modern sector, there is the informal sector and the traditional sector. +The modern sector is the abode of the elites. +It's the seat of government. +In many African countries the modern sector is lost. +It's dysfunctional. +It is a meretricious fandango of imported systems, which the elites themselves don't understand. +That is the source of many of Africa's problems where the struggles for political power emanate and then spill over onto the informal and the traditional sector, claiming innocent lives. +Now the modern sector, of course, is where a lot of the development aid and resources went into. +More than 80 percent of Ivory Coast's development went into the modern sector. +The other sectors, the informal and the traditional sectors, are where you find the majority of the African people, the real people in Africa. That's where you find them. +Now, obviously it makes common sense that if you want to help the people, you go where the people are. +But that's not what we did. +As a matter of fact, we neglected the informal and the traditional sectors. +Now, traditional sector is where Africa produces its agriculture, which is one of the reasons why Africa can't feed itself, and that's why it must import food. +All right, you cannot develop Africa by ignoring the informal and the traditional sectors. +And you can't develop the informal and the traditional sectors without an operational understanding of how these two sectors work. +These two sectors, let me describe to you, have their own indigenous institutions. +First one is the political system. +Traditionally, Africans hate governments. They hate tyranny. +If you look into their traditional systems, Africans organize their states in two types. +The first one belongs to those ethnic societies who believe that the state was necessarily tyrannous, so they didn't want to have anything to do with any centralized authority. +These societies are the Ibo, the Somali, the Kikuyus, for example. They have no chiefs. +The other ethnic groups, which did have chiefs, made sure that they surrounded the chiefs with councils upon councils upon councils to prevent them from abusing their power. +In Ashanti tradition, for example, the chief cannot make any decision without the concurrence of the council of elders. +Without the council the chief can't pass any law, and if the chief doesn't govern according to the will of the people he will be removed. +If not, the people will abandon the chief, go somewhere else and set up a new settlement. +And even if you look in ancient African empires, they were all organized around one particular principle -- the confederacy principle, which is characterized by a great deal of devolution of authority, decentralization of power. +Now, this is what I have described to you. +This is part of Africa's indigenous political heritage. +Now, compare that to the modern systems the ruling elites established on Africa. +It is a total far cry. +In the economic system in traditional Africa, the means of production is privately owned. +It's owned by extended families. +You see, in the West, the basic economic and social unit is the individual. +The American will say, "I am because I am, and I can damn well do anything I want, anytime." +The accent is on the "I." +In Africa, the Africans say, "I am, because we are." +The "we" connotes community -- the extended family system. +The extended family system pools its resources together. +They own farms. They decide what to do, what to produce. +They don't take any orders from their chiefs. +They decide what to do. +And when they produce their crops, they sell the surplus on marketplaces. +When they make a profit it is theirs to keep, not for the chief to sequester it from them. +So, in a nutshell, what we had in traditional Africa was a free-market system. +There were markets in Africa before the colonialists stepped foot on the continent. +Timbuktu was one great big market town. +Kano, Salaga -- they were all there. +Even if you go to West Africa, you notice that market activity in West Africa has always been dominated by women. +So, it's quite appropriate that this section is called a marketplace. +The market is not alien to Africa. +What Africans practiced was a different form of capitalism, but then after independence, all of a sudden, markets, capitalism became a western institution, and the leaders said Africans were ready for socialism. +Nonsense. +And even then, what kind of socialism did they practice? +The socialism that they practiced was a peculiar form of Swiss-bank socialism, which allowed the heads of states and the ministers to rape and plunder Africa's treasuries for deposit in Switzerland. +That is not the kind of system Africans had known for centuries. +What do we do now? +Go back to Africa's indigenous institutions, and this is where we charge the Cheetahs to go into the informal sectors, the traditional sectors. +That's where you find the African people. +And I'd like to show you a quick little video about the informal sector, about the boat-building that I, myself, tried to mobilize Africans in the Diaspora to invest in. +Could you please show that? +The men are going fishing in these small boats. +Yes, it's an enterprise. +This is by a local Ghanaian entrepreneur, using his own capital. +He's getting no assistance from the government, and he's building a second, bigger boat. +A bigger boat will mean more fish will be caught and landed. +It means that he will be able to employ more Ghanaians. +It also means that he will be able to generate wealth. +And then it will have what economists call external effects on a local economy. +All that you need to do, all that the elites need to do, is to move this operation into something that is enclosed so that the operation can be made more efficient. +Now, it is not just this informal sector. +There is also traditional medicine. +80 percent of Africans still rely on traditional medicine. +The modern healthcare sector has totally collapsed. +Now, this is an area -- I mean, there is a treasure trove of wealth in the traditional medicine area. +This is where we need to mobilize Africans, in the Diaspora especially, to invest in this. +We also need to mobilize Africans in the Diaspora, not only to go into the traditional sectors, but to go into agriculture and also to instigate change from within. +We were able to mobilize Ghanaians in the Diaspora to instigate change in Ghana and bring about democracy in Ghana. +And I know that with the Cheetahs, we can take Africa back one village at a time. +Thank you very much. +It's very, very difficult to speak at the end of a conference like this, because everyone has spoken. Everything has been said. +So I thought that what may be useful is to remind us of some of the things that have gone on here, and then maybe offer some ideas which we can take away, and take forward and work on. +That's what I'd like to try and do. +We came here saying we want to talk about "Africa: the Next Chapter." +But we are talking about "Africa: the Next Chapter" because we are looking at the old and the present chapter -- that we're looking at, and saying it's not such a good thing. +The picture I showed you before, and this picture, of drought, death and disease is what we usually see. +What we want to look at is "Africa: the Next Chapter," and that's this: a healthy, smiling, beautiful African. +And I think it's worth remembering what we've heard through the conference right from the first day, where I heard that all the important statistics have been given -- about where we are now, about how the continent is doing much better. +And the importance of that is that we have a platform to build on. +So I'm not going to spend too much time -- just to show you, refresh your memories that we are here for "Africa: the Next Chapter" because for the first time there really is a platform to build on. +We really do have it going right that the continent is growing at rates that people had thought would not happen. +After decades of 2 percent, we are now at 5 percent, and it's going to -- projected -- 6 and 7 percent even. +And inflation has come down. +External debt -- something that I can tell you a long story about because I personally worked on one of the biggest debts on the continent -- has come down dramatically. +You know, as you can see, from almost 50 billion down to about 12 or 13 billion. +Now this is a huge achievement. +You know, we've built up reserves. Why is that important? +It's because it shows off our economies, shows off our currencies and gives a platform on which people can plan and build, including businesses. +We've also seen some evidence that all this is making a difference because private investment flows have increased. +I want to remind you again -- I know you saw these statistics before -- from almost 6 billion we are now at about 18 billion. +In 2005, remittances -- I just took one country, Nigeria skyrocketing -- skyrocketing is too dramatic, but increasing dramatically. +And in many other countries this is happening. +Why is this important? Because it shows confidence. +People are now confident to bring -- if your people in the diaspora bring their money back, it shows other people that, look, there is emerging confidence in your country. +And instead of an outflow, you are now getting a net inflow. +Now, why is all this important, to have to go really fast? +It's important that we build this platform, that we have the president, Kikwete, and others of our leaders who are saying, "Look, we must do something different." +Because we are confronted with a challenge. +62 percent of our population is below the age of 24. +What does this mean? +This means that we have to focus on how our youth are going to be engaged in productive endeavor in their lives. +You have to focus on how to create jobs, make sure they don't fall into disease, and that they get an education. +But most of all that they are productively engaged in life, and that they are creating the kind of productive environment in our countries that will make things happen. +And to support this, I just recently -- one of the things I've done since leaving government is to start an opinion research organization in Nigeria. +Most of our countries don't even have any opinion research. +People don't have voice. +There is no way you can know what people want. +One of the things we asked them recently was what's their top issue. +Like in every other country where this has been done, jobs is the top issue. +I want to leave this up here and come back to it. +But before I get to this slide, I just wanted to run you through this. +And to say that for me, the next stage of building this platform that now enables us to move forward -- and we mustn't make light of it. +It was only 5, 6, 7 years ago we couldn't even talk about the next chapter, because we were in the old chapter. +We were going nowhere. +The economies were not growing. +We were having negative per capita growth. +The microeconomic framework and foundation for moving forward was not even there. +So let's not forget that it's taken a lot to build this, including all those things that we tried to do in Nigeria that Dele referred to. +Creating our own program to solve problems, like fighting corruption, building institutions, stabilizing the micro economy. +So now we have this platform we can build on. +And it brings us to the debate that has been going on here: aid versus private sector, aid versus trade, etc. +And someone stood up to say that one of the frustrating things is that it's been a simplistic debate. +And that's not what the debate should be about. +That's engaging in the wrong debate. +The issue here is how do we get a partnership that involves government donors, the private sector and ordinary African people taking charge of their own lives? +How do we combine all this? +To move our continent forward, to do the things that need doing that I talked about -- getting young people employed. +Getting the creative juices flowing on this continent, much of what you have seen here. +So I'm afraid we've been engaging a little bit in the wrong debate. +We need to bring it back to say, what is the combination of all these factors that is going to yield what we want? And I want to tell you something. +For me, the issue about aid -- I don't think that Africans need to now go all the way over to the other side and feel bad about aid. +Africa has been giving the other countries aid. +Mo Ibrahim said at a debate we were at that he dreams one day when Africa will be giving aid. +And I said, "Mo, you're right. We have -- no, but we've already been doing it! +The U.K. and the U.S. could not have been built today without Africa's aid." +It is all the resources that were taken from Africa, including human, that built these countries today! +So when they try to give back, we shouldn't be on the defensive. +The issue is not that. +The issue is how are we using what has been given back. +How are we using it? +Is it being directed effectively? +I want to tell you a little story. +Why I don't mind if we get aid, but we use it well. +From 1967 to '70, Nigeria fought a war -- the Nigeria-Biafra war. +And in the middle of that war, I was 14 years old. +We spent much of our time with my mother cooking. +For the army -- my father joined the army as a brigadier -- the Biafran army. +We were on the Biafran side. +And we were down to eating one meal a day, running from place to place, but wherever we could help we did. +At a certain point in time, in 1969, things were really bad. +We were down to almost nothing in terms of a meal a day. +People, children were dying of kwashiorkor. +I'm sure some of you who are not so young will remember those pictures. +Well, I was in the middle of it. +In the midst of all this, my mother fell ill with a stomach ailment for two or three days. +We thought she was going to die. +My father was not there. +He was in the army. +So I was the oldest person in the house. +My sister fell very ill with malaria. +She was three years old and I was 15. +And she had such a high fever. We tried everything. +It didn't look like it was going to work. +Until we heard that 10 kilometers away there was a doctor, who was looking at people and giving them meds. +Now I put my sister on my back -- burning -- and I walked 10 kilometers with her strapped on my back. +It was really hot. I was very hungry. +I was scared because I knew her life depended on my getting to this woman. +We heard there was a woman doctor who was treating people. +I walked 10 kilometers, putting one foot in front of the other. +I got there and I saw huge crowds. +Almost a thousand people were there, trying to break down the door. +She was doing this in a church. How was I going to get in? +I had to crawl in between the legs of these people with my sister strapped on my back, find a way to a window. +And while they were trying to break down the door, I climbed in through the window, and jumped in. +This woman told me it was in the nick of time. +By the time we jumped into that hall, she was barely moving. +She gave a shot of her chloroquine -- what I learned was the chloroquine then -- gave her some -- it must have been a re-hydration -- and some other therapies, and put us in a corner. +In about two to three hours, she started to move. +And then they toweled her down because she started sweating, which was a good sign. +And then my sister woke up. +And about five or six hours later, she said we could go home. +I strapped her on my back. +I walked the 10 kilometers back and it was the shortest walk I ever had. +I was so happy -- -- that my sister was alive! +Today she's 41 years old, a mother of three, and she's a physician saving other lives. +Why am I telling that? I'm telling you that because -- when it is you or your person involved -- you don't care where -- whether it's aid. +You don't care what it is! You just want the person to be alive! +And now let me become less sentimental, and say that saving lives -- which some of the aid we get does on this continent -- when you save the life of anyone, a farmer, a teacher, a mother, they are contributing productively into the economy. +And as an economist, we can also look at that side of the story. +These are people who are productive agents in the economy. +So if we save people from HIV/AIDS, if we save them from malaria, it means they can form the base of production for our economy. +And by the same token -- as someone said yesterday -- if we don't and they die, their children will become a burden on the economy. +So even from an economic standpoint, if we leave the social and the humanitarian, we need to save lives now. +So that's one of the reasons, from a personal experience, that I say let's channel these resources we get into something productive. +However, I will also tell you that I'm one of those who doesn't believe that this is the sole answer. +That's why I said the debate has to get more sophisticated. +You know, we have to use it well. +What has happened in Europe? +Do you all know that Spain -- part of the EU -- got 10 billion dollars in aid from the rest of the EU? +Resources that were transferred to them -- and were the Spanish ashamed of this? No! +The EU transferred 10 billion. Where did they use it? +Have you been to southern Spain lately? There are roads everywhere. +Infrastructure everywhere. +It is on the back of this that the whole of southern Spain has developed into a services economy. +Did you know that Ireland got 3 billion dollars in aid? +Ireland is one of the fastest-growing economies in the European Union today. +For which many people, even from other parts of the world, are going there to find jobs. +What did they do with the 3 billion dollars in aid? +They used it to build an information superhighway, gain infrastructure that enables them to participate in the information technology revolution, and to create jobs in their economy. +They didn't say, "No, you know, we're not going to take this." +Today, the European Union is busy transferring aid. +Now we talk about the World Bank, IMF, and accountability, all that and the EU. +We also have private citizens now who have a lot of money -- some of them in this audience, with private foundations. +And one day, these foundations have so much money, they will overtake the official aid that is being given. +But I fear -- and I'm very grateful to all of them for what they are trying to do on the continent -- but I'm also worried. I wake up with a gnawing in my belly because I see a new set of aid entrepreneurs on the continent. +And they're also going from country to country, and many times trying to find what to do. +But I'm not really sure that their assistance is also being channeled in the right way. +And many of them are not really familiar with the continent. +They are just discovering. +And many times I don't see Africans working with them. +They are just going alone! And many times I get the impression that they are not really even interested in hearing from Africans who might know. +They want to visit us, see what's happening on the ground and make a decision. +And now I'm maybe being harsh. +But I worry because this money is so important. +Now, who are they accountable to? +Are we on their boards when they make decisions about where to channel money? Are we there? +Will we make the same mistake that we made before? +Have our presidents and our leaders -- everyone is talking about -- have they ever called these people together and said, "Look, your foundation and your foundation -- you have so much money, we are grateful. +Let's sit down and really tell you where the money should be channeled and where this aid should go." +Have we done that? The answer is no. +And each one is making their own individual effort. +And then 10 years from now, billions will again have gone into Africa, and we would still have the same problems. +This is what gives us the hopeless image. +Our inability to take charge and say to all these people bringing their money, "Sit down." +And we don't do it because there are so many of us. We don't coordinate. +We've not called the Bill Gates, and the Soros, and everybody else who is helping and say, "Sit down. Let's have a conference with you. +As a continent, here are our priorities. +Here is where we want you to channel this money." +Each one should not be an entrepreneur going out and finding what is best. +We're not trying to stop them at all! But to help them help us better. +And what is disappointing me is that we are not doing this. +Ten years from now we will have the same story, and we will be repeating the same things. +So our problem right now is, how can we leverage all this good will that is coming towards our way? +How can we get government to combine properly with these private foundations, with the international organizations, and with our private sector. +I firmly believe in that private sector thing too. +But it cannot do it alone. +So there might be a few ideas we could think of that could work. +They said this is about proliferating and sharing ideas. +So why don't we think of using some of this aid? +Well, why don't we first say to those helping us out, "Don't be shy about infrastructure. +That health that you're working on cannot be sustainable without infrastructure. +That education will work better if we've got electricity and railroads, and so on. +That agriculture will work better if there are railroads to get the goods to market. +Don't be shy of it. +Invest some of your resources in that, too." +And then we can see that this is one combination of private, international, multilateral money, private sector and the African that we can put together as a partnership, so that aid can be a facilitator. +That is all aid can be. +Aid cannot solve our problems, I'm firmly convinced about that. +But it can be catalytic. And if we fail to use it as catalytic, we would have failed. +One of the reasons why China is a bit popular with Africans now -- one of the reasons is not only just that, you know, these people are stupid and China is coming to take resources. +It's because there's a little more leverage in terms of the Chinese. +If you tell them, "We need a road here," they will help you build it. +They don't shy away from infrastructure. +In fact, the Chinese minister of finance said to me, when I asked him what are we doing wrong in Nigeria. +He said, "There are two things you need only. +Infrastructure, infrastructure, infrastructure and discipline. +You are undisciplined." And I repeat it for the continent. +It's the same. We need infrastructure, infrastructure and discipline. +So we can make a catalytic to help us provide some of that. +Now I realize -- I'm not saying -- health and education -- no, you can also provide that as well. +But I'm saying it's not either or. +Let's see how aid can be a facilitator in partnership. +One idea. +Second thing, for the private sector, people are afraid to take risks on the continent. +Why can't some of this aid be used as a kind of guarantee mechanisms, to enable people to take risk? +And finally, because they are both standing at my -- I'm out of time. +Am I out of time? +OK, so let me not forget my punchline. +One of the things I want everybody to collaborate on is to support women, to create jobs. A lot has been said here about women, I don't need to repeat it. +But there are people -- women -- creating jobs. +And we know, studies have shown that when you put resources in the hand of the woman -- in fact, there's an econometric study, the World Bank Review, done in 2000, showing that transfers into the hands of women result in healthier children, more for the household, more for the economy and all that. +So I'm saying that one of the takeaways from here -- I'm not saying the men are not important -- obviously, if you leave the husbands out, what will they do? +They'll come back home and get disgruntled, and it will result in difficulties we don't want. +We don't want men beating their wives because they don't have a job, and so on. +But at the margin, we also -- I want to push this, because the reason is the men automatically -- they get -- not automatically, but they tend to get more support. +But I want you to realize that resources in the hands of African women is a powerful tool. +There are people creating jobs. +Beatrice Gakuba has created 200 jobs from her flower business in Rwanda. +We have Ibukun Awosika in Nigeria, with the chair company. +She wants to expand. +She needs another 20 million. +She will create another 100, 200 more jobs. +So take away from here is how are you going to put together the resources to put money in the hands of women in the middle who are ready -- business people who want to expand and create more jobs. +And lastly, what are you going to do to be part of this partnership of aid, government, private sector and the African as an individual? +Thank you. +Chris Anderson: William, hi. Good to see you. +William Kamkwamba: Thanks. +CA: So, we've got a picture, I think? Where is this? +WK: This is my home. This is where I live. +CA: Where? What country? +WK: In Malawi, Kasungu. In Kasungu. Yeah, Mala. +CA: OK. Now, you're 19 now? +WK: Yeah. I'm 19 years now. +CA: Five years ago you had an idea. What was that? +WK: I wanted to make a windmill. +CA: A windmill? +WK: Yeah. +CA: What, to power -- for lighting and stuff? +WK: Yeah. +CA: So what did you do? How did you realize that? +WK: After I dropped out of school, I went to library, and I read a book that would -- "Using Energy," and I get information about doing the mill. +And I tried, and I made it. +CA: So you copied -- you exactly copied the design in the book. +WK: Ah, no. I just -- CA: What happened? +WK: In fact, a design of the windmill that was in the book, it has got four -- ah -- three blades, and mine has got four blades. +CA: The book had three, yours had four. +WK: Yeah. +CA: And you made it out of what? +WK: I made four blades, just because I want to increase power. +CA: OK. +WK: Yeah. +CA: You tested three, and found that four worked better? +WK: Yeah. I test. +CA: And what did you make the windmill out of? +What materials did you use? +WK: I use a bicycle frame, and a pulley, and plastic pipe, what then pulls -- CA: Do we have a picture of that? Can we have the next slide? +WK: Yeah. The windmill. +CA: And so, and that windmill, what -- it worked? +WK: When the wind blows, it rotates and generates. +CA: How much electricity? +WK: 12 watts. +CA: And so, that lit a light for the house? How many lights? +WK: Four bulbs and two radios. +CA: Wow. +WK: Yeah. +CA: Next slide -- so who's that? +WK: This is my parents, holding the radio. +CA: So what did they make of -- that you were 14, 15 at the time -- what did they make of this? They were impressed? +WK: Yeah. +CA: And so what's your -- what are you going to do with this? +WK: Um -- CA: What do you -- I mean -- do you want to build another one? +WK: Yeah, I want to build another one -- to pump water and irrigation for crops. +CA: So this one would have to be bigger? +WK: Yeah. +CA: How big? +WK: I think it will produce more than 20 the watts. +CA: So that would produce irrigation for the entire village? +WK: Yeah. +CA: Wow. And so you're talking to people here at TED to get people who might be able to help in some way to realize this dream? +WK: Yeah, if they can help me with materials, yeah. +CA: And as you think of your life going forward, you're 19 now, do you picture continuing with this dream of working in energy? +WK: Yeah. I'm still thinking to work on energy. +CA: Wow. William, it's a real honor to have you at the TED conference. +Thank you so much for coming. +WK: Thank you. +Welcome to Africa! Or rather, I should say, welcome home. +Because this is where it all really began, isn't it? +Looking at fossils dating back several millions of years -- it all points to evidence that life for the human species as we know it began right here. +We are on an amazing journey the next four days. +You're going to hear stories of "Africa: The Next Chapter." +Fantastic tales, anecdotes from speakers. +But I want to turn that upside down for a moment, and get something out on the table and clear the air so to say. +What's the worst thing you've ever heard about Africa? +And this is not a rhetorical question. +I actually want answers from you. +Go for it! The worst. +Famine. +Corruption. +More. +Genocide. +AIDS. +Slavery. +That's enough. +We've all heard these things. +But this is about Africa, the story we have not heard. +The stories that we want to know, and the stories that do exist about positive tales. +A part of my talk is going to be about investment opportunities that exist on this continent, to separate the rhetoric from the reality, the fact from the fiction. +To go to the actual data and statistics that exist about the actual things that are happening on the ground that make Africa a realistic investment opportunity and option for you. +So let's get going because Africa, to some degree, is on a turnaround. +A turnaround in terms of how it manages its image, and how it takes control of its own destiny. +And turnarounds are part and parcel of what I have focused on for most of my professional career. +And it all started almost a decade ago, as a young consultant at McKinsey & Company at their first African office in Johannesburg. +And there we worked with leading CEOs on African issues, and African companies on turnarounds, making the companies not just the best in Africa but the best globally. +But I really formalized this focus on turnarounds when I was completing my MBA in the United States. +It all began with a fantastic phone call. +It was from Rosabeth Moss Kanter, Harvard Business School guru and a professor of mine. +And she said, "I want to write a case, Euvin -- a case on a public-sector leader that has lessons for the corporate world." +And the leader that came to mind was Nelson Mandela. +Because Nelson Mandela, as he took over power as the first democratically-elected president of South Africa, faced a situation of a country that could have slid into the abyss of chaos. +But he started the country on a path of a positive cycle. +Now the case, "Nelson Mandela: Change Leader," became part of the research base for a chapter in Rosabeth's new book called "Confidence." +And "Confidence" became a New York Times bestseller and topped Business Week's hardcover bestseller list. +And why I tell you this story is because later, when I was interviewed on SABC Africa, on a pan-African broadcast, they asked, "What is your key lesson, or the key thing you enjoy the most?" -- because it was a huge privilege to be part of such a project. +The lesson from that was that it was Africa -- an African story -- that was used to share news with the rest of the world of what the benchmark can be for corporate turnarounds. +Africa was being used as a success story! +So I want to share with you a personal story about a turnaround or a transformation. +And that has to do with me because in 1994, I packed a few things into a backpack and headed off for a year of travel in the middle of my university career. +You should have seen my parents' reaction! +But very soon, I found myself from the southern part of Africa, in South Africa -- at the very north, in Egypt. +And I sought out the most remote places. +I went to the Siwa Oasis. That was one of my stops. +And the Siwa Oasis is famous for several things, but the key thing is that it was the place that Alexander the Great went to when he wanted to find out what his destiny had in store for him. +And legend has it that Alexander trekked through this desert. +Half his battalion was wiped out in the sandstorm. +And myth says that he had an audience with the oracle, and it foretold his destiny of greatness. +This was 300 BC. +So Africa had long been seen as a place to go to for answers. +Now, the thing I remember about Siwa was the magical view of the sky at night. +With no natural light source, Siva is one of these amazing places that when you look up you see a perfect tapestry. +Fast forward to 2002. +I'm sitting in Cambridge, Massachusetts at the Healthcare Development Conference. +And I see the same picture, but from the opposite side. +A satellite picture looking down at the earth. +And it was that picture that made such a profound impact on me because I'll never forget it. I remember the very moment. +And I wanted to share that image with you of what I saw at that point. +The first thing that I saw was North America at night -- glowing, in all its glory. A warm feeling. Light. +And then I saw it -- Africa. Quite literally the "Dark Continent." +And while Africa may be dark, the thing that brought the message home to me was that this is the challenge we are facing, but it's also the opportunity. +Because whilst Africa may be dark -- other than the few specks that exist north and in the south and other areas -- it's aglow with the light in the hearts of the millions of people that are there. +Entrepreneurs, dynamic people, people with hope. +It was George Kimble, the geographer, who said that, "The only thing dark about Africa is our ignorance of it." +So let's start shedding light on this amazing eclectic continent that has so much to offer. +Let's start unpacking it. +Africa is the second-largest continent, a landmass second from Asia. +It also is the second most populated continent, with 900 million people. +In fact -- coming back to the land mass -- Africa is so big that you could fit in the continental United States, China, and the entire Europe into Africa, and still have space. +Africa is home to over 1,000 languages -- 2,000 is another estimate that's out there -- with over 2,000 languages and dialects. +But you could say, "Invest in Africa in over 1,000 languages, and it wouldn't make a difference." +What does the data say? +As an investment banker, I'm in the cross-flow of information and the changes that are taking place in capital markets. +So I want to share with you some of these bellwether signals, or signs, and winds of change that are sweeping this continent. +So let's start on that. +And let's start at the high level, on the macro-factors. +Inflation, in general, is coming down across Africa -- that's the first sign -- in many countries reaching double-digit figures. +So let's start looking at some of those. +I call it my Z.E.N. cluster. +Zambia: from 2004 to 2006, moves from the 18 percent in inflation to the nine percent. +Egypt: from the 16 percent to about 8.4 percent. +Nigeria: a similar situation, from the 16 percent to the eight percent. Single digits. +More fascinating, you have other countries -- South Africa, Mauritius, Namibia -- all in single digits. +But that's just part of the story. You have a similar trend with currencies -- currencies going through an extreme time of stability. +But that's looking at the big picture. +And the first myth to dispel is that Africa is not a country. +It's made up -- It's made up of 53 different countries. +So the very definition -- to say "invest in Africa" is a no-go. +It's meaningless. +Each country has a unique value proposition. +You can make money, you can lose money in Africa. +But opportunities, boy oh boy, they exist. +And this is what today is about -- it's about discussing those very opportunities. +So let's start getting into the countries and into the specific material and data. +I was recently elected, as Emeka mentioned, as the President of the South African Chamber of Commerce in America. +And I'm very proud and happy to be in that role because it is a fascinating position to be in. +To hear this dialogue that's just increasing in tenor and velocity, of decisions about trade and companies wanting to come. +So the first port of call: let's talk a little bit about South Africa. +But not the South Africa we always talk about -- the gold, the minerals, the First World infrastructure -- a bit about the other side of it. +For example, South Africa was recently voted as the top destination for the top 1,000 UK companies for offshore call-centers. +Same language, timeline, et cetera. Makes sense. +Other headlines that have recently reached South Africa were Bain Capital and KKR, the big boys of private equity. +Headline in South Africa: "They have landed." Quite ominous. +But what were they there for? To acquire assets. +Bing Capital's acquisition of Edcon, a large retailer, is testimony to the confidence they are starting to place in the economy. +Because it is actually a long-term play. +Being a retailer, it is a play on the belief that this middle-class that's growing will continue to grow, that the boom and the confidence in consumer spending will continue. +But the story of Africa, and my focus, is beyond South Africa because there's so much happening. +Undoubtedly, Nigeria is clearly a hot spot. +Challenges -- and we will hear a lot about Nigeria in these four days. +But looking at Goldman Sachs' work -- we had the famous BRIC Report. +The new report, "The Next Eleven," highlights that by 2020 Nigeria is going to be amongst the top 10 economies in the world. +It's an investment opportunity. Think about that. +Is anyone -- our banks, our investors -- seriously thinking about going to Nigeria? +If you haven't, why not? +What's going on in Nigeria? A couple of things. +I want to talk about it from the perspective of capital markets. +Bellwether signs again. +Guarantee Trust Bank recently issued the first Euro Bond out of Africa, and this excludes South Africa. +But the first Eurobond, the raising of international capital offshore, off its own balance sheet, without any sovereign backing -- that is an indication of the confidence that is taking place in that economy. +Without any sovereign backing, a Nigerian company raising capital offshore. +It's just a sign of things to come. +Looking at the oil industry, Africa provides 18 percent of the U.S.'s oil supply, with the Middle East just 16 percent. +It's an important strategic partner. +Let's put Nigeria in perspective. +2.2 to 2.4 million barrels of oil a day -- the same league as Kuwait, the same league as Venezuela. +But with Africa, let's start being careful about this. +And Emeka and I have had these discussions. +We have to move away from what's called "the curse of the commodities." +Because it's not about oil, it's not about commodities. +For Africa to truly be sustainable, we have to move beyond to other industries. +So let's unpack those very quickly, and I'm going to move through these very, very, very fast because I can see that clock counting down. +What else is going on there? Egypt. +Egypt is launching a first large industrial zone -- 2.8 billion investment. +The announcement just came out the last few weeks. +Close to the Mediterranean, near Alexandria -- textiles, petrochemicals. +It's being managed by a Singaporean-based management company. +So they want to emerge as an industrial powerhouse across the industries -- away from oil. +Let's look at agriculture. Let's look at forestry. +What's going on there? +In Tanzania last week, we had the launch of the East African Organic Produce Standard. +Again, gathering together farmers, gathering together stakeholders in East Africa to get standards for organic produce. Better prices. +It ties in with small-scale farmers in terms of no pesticides, no fertilizers. +Again, opportunity to tackle markets to get that higher price. +Uganda: the New Forest Company, replanting and redeveloping their forests. Why is that important? +As the energy needs are met and electricity is needed [we will need] poles for rolling out electricity. +But here is the sweetener in the deal. +They're going to be tapping into carbon credits. +Let's go back to Nigeria. +The banking sector has undergone tremendous transformation, from over 80 banks to 25 banks. Strengthening of the system. +But what's going on there? Only 10 percent of the country is banked. +The largest population in Africa is in Nigeria. +135 million-plus people. Think about that. +There are only 700 ATMs in the country. Opportunity. +The same for telecoms across the country. +Now let's look at the continent as a whole. +People look at the roads, for example, and they'd say, "Angola: 90 percent of roads are untarred. Ah, problem!" +It's more expensive to transport goods. Prices of goods go up, inflation is affected. +Nigeria: 70 percent of roads are untarred. Zambia: 80 percent. +In general, more than 50 percent of roads are untarred. +This is an opportunity! Energy needs -- it's an opportunity. +So what are the signs that things are fundamentally changing? +Let's look at the stock markets in Africa. +If I had to ask you, "In 2005 what was the best performing stock market or stock exchange in the world?" Would Egypt come to mind? +In 2005, the Egyptian stock exchange returned over 145 percent. +What's going on in some of the other countries? +Let's look at some 2006 numbers. Kenya: over 60 percent. Nigeria: over 40 percent. +South Africa: in the 20 percents. High ones. +These are the trends that are taking place. +But in any investment decision, the key question is, "What is my alternative investment?" +Because in Africa today, we are competing globally for capital. +And global capital is agnostic -- it has no loyalties. +There's an overhang of capital in the U.S., and the key is yield pickup. +What Africa is providing is a diversification play, and also opportunities for yield pickup for the investor that's aware of what he or she is doing. +Now, when looking at Africa vis-a-vis other things, and countries in Africa vis-a-vis other things, comparisons become important. +10 years ago there, were very few countries that received sovereign ratings from the Standard & Poors, Moody's and Fitch's. +Today, 16 African countries and growing have sovereign country ratings. What does this mean? +Take Nigeria again: double B-minus -- in the league of Ukraine and Turkey. Immediately we have a comparison. +The backbone of making investment decisions for global holders of capital. +Some other figures. South Africa: triple B-plus. Botswana: A-plus. +Bakino Faso: B-minus. And so on. +In fact, one of the big agencies is setting up an office in Africa. +Why are they doing that? Because they expect investment to follow. +So one of the big bellwethers, and one of my final points I want to mention, is the interesting thing I read is that CNBC has launched their first African channel. Why is CNBC doing this? +It's the 24-hour rolling African news channel. +They're doing it because they are expecting things to happen. +Me and you, the investments we are going to be making, the investments the world is going to be making -- that's the 24-hour news channel dedicated to Africa. +So that's the change that's coming down the pipeline. +So in conclusion, I want to turn back to that very slide that made such a deep impact on me all those years ago. +This time [I'll] give you the entire picture that I saw in 2002, and ask you that when you think about what your role can be in Africa, think about your journey in terms of bringing light to this continent. +Because there are amazing opportunities available. +And think about the concept of transformation in the back of your mind because things can be turned around rather quickly. +In 1899, Joseph Conrad released "The Heart of Darkness," a tale of grim horror along the Congo River. +If one looks carefully, on the Congo River is one of those bright lights. And that's the very Congo river generating light -- the old heart of darkness now generating light with hydro-electric power. +That is a transformation in power of ideas. +So the next step, over the next four days, is us exploring more of these ideas. +And perchance, if you can always keep this picture in your mind, that when we convene maybe in the distant future, in 2020, that picture will look very different. +Thank you. +I just heard the best joke about Bond Emeruwa. +I was having lunch with him just a few minutes ago, and a Nigerian journalist comes -- and this will only make sense if you've ever watched a James Bond movie -- and a Nigerian journalist comes up to him and goes, "Aha, we meet again, Mr. Bond!" +It was great. +So, I've got a little sheet of paper here, mostly because I'm Nigerian and if you leave me alone, I'll talk for like two hours. +I just want to say good afternoon, good evening. +It's been an incredible few days. +It's downhill from now on. I wanted to thank Emeka and Chris. +But also, most importantly, all the invisible people behind TED that you just see flitting around the whole place that have made sort of this space for such a diverse and robust conversation. +It's really amazing. +I've been in the audience. +I'm a writer, and I've been watching people with the slide shows and scientists and bankers, and I've been feeling a bit like a gangsta rapper at a bar mitzvah. +Like, what have I got to say about all this? +And I was watching Jane [Goodall] yesterday, and I thought it was really great, and I was watching those incredible slides of the chimpanzees, and I thought, "Wow. What if a chimpanzee could talk, you know? What would it say?" +My first thought was, "Well, you know, there's George Bush." +But then I thought, "Why be rude to chimpanzees?" +I guess there goes my green card. +There's been a lot of talk about narrative in Africa. +And what's become increasingly clear to me is that we're talking about news stories about Africa; we're not really talking about African narratives. +So if news is anything to go by, the U.S. is right there with Zimbabwe, right? +Which it isn't really, is it? +And talking about war, my girlfriend has this great t-shirt that says, "Bombing for peace is like fucking for virginity." +It's amazing, isn't it? +The truth is, everything we know about America, everything Americans come to know about being American, isn't from the news. +I live there. +We don't go home at the end of the day and think, "Well, I really know who I am now because the Wall Street Journal says that the Stock Exchange closed at this many points." +What we know about how to be who we are comes from stories. +It comes from the novels, the movies, the fashion magazines. +It comes from popular culture. +If you want to know about Africa, read our literature -- and not just "Things Fall Apart," because that would be like saying, "I've read 'Gone with the Wind' and so I know everything about America." +That's very important. +There's a poem by Jack Gilbert called "The Forgotten Dialect of the Heart." +He says, "When the Sumerian tablets were first translated, they were thought to be business records. +But what if they were poems and psalms? +My love is like twelve Ethiopian goats standing still in the morning light. +Shiploads of thuja are what my body wants to say to your body. +Giraffes are this desire in the dark." +This is important. +It's important because misreading is really the chance for complication and opportunity. +The first Igbo Bible was translated from English in about the 1800s by Bishop Crowther, who was a Yoruba. +And it's important to know Igbo is a tonal language, and so they'll say the word "igwe" and "igwe": same spelling, one means "sky" or "heaven," and one means "bicycle" or "iron." +So "God is in heaven surrounded by His angels" was translated as -- [Igbo]. +And for some reason, in Cameroon, when they tried to translate the Bible into Cameroonian patois, they chose the Igbo version. +And I'm not going to give you the patois translation; I'm going to make it standard English. +Basically, it ends up as "God is on a bicycle with his angels." +This is good, because language complicates things. +You know, we often think that language mirrors the world in which we live, and I find that's not true. +The language actually makes the world in which we live. +Language is not -- I mean, things don't have any mutable value by themselves; we ascribe them a value. +And language can't be understood in its abstraction. +It can only be understood in the context of story, and everything, all of this is story. +And it's important to remember that, because if we don't, then we become ahistorical. +We've had a lot of -- a parade of amazing ideas here. +But these are not new to Africa. +Nigeria got its independence in 1960. +The first time the possibility for independence was discussed was in 1922, following the Aba women's market riots. +In 1967, in the middle of the Biafran-Nigerian Civil War, Dr. Njoku-Obi invented the Cholera vaccine. +So, you know, the thing is to remember that because otherwise, 10 years from now, we'll be back here trying to tell this story again. +So, what it says to me then is that it's not really -- the problem isn't really the stories that are being told or which stories are being told, the problem really is the terms of humanity that we're willing to bring to complicate every story, and that's really what it's all about. +Let me tell you a Nigerian joke. +Well, it's just a joke, anyway. +So there's Tom, Dick and Harry and they're working construction. +And Tom opens up his lunch box and there's rice in it, and he goes on this rant about, "Twenty years, my wife has been packing rice for lunch. +If she does it again tomorrow, I'm going to throw myself off this building and kill myself." +And Dick and Harry repeat this. +The next day, Tom opens his lunchbox, there's rice, so he throws himself off and kills himself, and Tom, Dick and Harry follow. +And now the inquest -- you know, Tom's wife and Dick's wife are distraught. +They wished they'd not packed rice. +But Harry's wife is confused, because she said, "You know, Harry had been packing his own lunch for 20 years." +This seemingly innocent joke, when I heard it as a child in Nigeria, was told about Igbo, Yoruba and Hausa, with the Hausa being Harry. +So what seems like an eccentric if tragic joke about Harry becomes a way to spread ethnic hatred. +My father was educated in Cork, in the University of Cork, in the '50s. +In fact, every time I read in Ireland, people get me all mistaken and they say, "Oh, this is Chris O'Barney from Cork." +But he was also in Oxford in the '50s, and yet growing up as a child in Nigeria, my father used to say to me, "You must never eat or drink in a Yoruba person's house because they will poison you." +It makes sense now when I think about it, because if you'd known my father, you would've wanted to poison him too. +So I was born in 1966, at the beginning of the Biafran-Nigerian Civil War, and the war ended after three years. +And I was growing up in school and the federal government didn't want us taught about the history of the war, because they thought it probably would make us generate a new generation of rebels. +So I had a very inventive teacher, a Pakistani Muslim, who wanted to teach us about this. +So what he did was to teach us Jewish Holocaust history, and so huddled around books with photographs of people in Auschwitz, I learned the melancholic history of my people through the melancholic history of another people. +I mean, picture this -- really picture this. +A Pakistani Muslim teaching Jewish Holocaust history to young Igbo children. +Story is powerful. +Story is fluid and it belongs to nobody. +And it should come as no surprise that my first novel at 16 was about Neo-Nazis taking over Nigeria to institute the Fourth Reich. +It makes perfect sense. +And they were to blow up strategic targets and take over the country, and they were foiled by a Nigerian James Bond called Coyote Williams, and a Jewish Nazi hunter. +And it happened over four continents. +And when the book came out, I was heralded as Africa's answer to Frederick Forsyth, which is a dubious honor at best. +But also, the book was launched in time for me to be accused of constructing the blueprint for a foiled coup attempt. +So at 18, I was bonded off to prison in Nigeria. +I grew up very privileged, and it's important to talk about privilege, because we don't talk about it here. +A lot of us are very privileged. +I grew up -- servants, cars, televisions, all that stuff. +My story of Nigeria growing up was very different from the story I encountered in prison, and I had no language for it. +I was completely terrified, completely broken, and kept trying to find a new language, a new way to make sense of all of this. +Six months after that, with no explanation, they let me go. +Now for those of you who have seen me at the buffet tables know that it was because it was costing them too much to feed me. +But I mean, I grew up with this incredible privilege, and not just me -- millions of Nigerians grew up with books and libraries. +In fact, we were talking last night about how all of the steamy novels of Harold Robbins had done more for sex education of horny teenage boys in Africa than any sex education programs ever had. +All of those are gone. +We are squandering the most valuable resource we have on this continent: the valuable resource of the imagination. +In the film, "Sometimes in April" by Raoul Peck, Idris Elba is poised in a scene with his machete raised, and he's being forced by a crowd to chop up his best friend -- fellow Rwandan Army officer, albeit a Tutsi -- played by Fraser James. +And Fraser's on his knees, arms tied behind his back, and he's crying. +He's sniveling. +It's a pitiful sight. +And as we watch it, we are ashamed. +And we want to say to Idris, "Chop him up. +Shut him up." +And as Idris moves, Fraser screams, "Stop! +Please stop!" +Idris pauses, then he moves again, and Fraser says, "Please! +Please stop!" +And it's not the look of horror and terror on Fraser's face that stops Idris or us; it's the look in Fraser's eyes. +It's one that says, "Don't do this. +And I'm not saying this to save myself, although this would be nice. I'm doing it to save you, because if you do this, you will be lost." +To be so afraid that you're standing in the face of a death you can't escape and that you're soiling yourself and crying, but to say in that moment, as Fraser says to Idris, "Tell my girlfriend I love her." +In that moment, Fraser says, "I am lost already, but not you ... not you." +This is a redemption we can all aspire to. +African narratives in the West, they proliferate. +I really don't care anymore. +I'm more interested in the stories we tell about ourselves -- how as a writer, I find that African writers have always been the curators of our humanity on this continent. +The question is, how do I balance narratives that are wonderful with narratives of wounds and self-loathing? +And this is the difficulty that I face. +I am trying to move beyond political rhetoric to a place of ethical questioning. +I am asking us to balance the idea of our complete vulnerability with the complete notion of transformation of what is possible. +As a young middle-class Nigerian activist, I launched myself along with a whole generation of us into the campaign to stop the government. +And I asked millions of people, without questioning my right to do so, to go up against the government. +And I watched them being locked up in prison and tear gassed. +I justified it, and I said, "This is the cost of revolution. +Have I not myself been imprisoned? +Have I not myself been beaten?" +It wasn't until later, when I was imprisoned again, that I understood the real meaning of torture, and how easy your humanity can be taken from you, for the time I was engaged in war, righteous, righteous war. +Excuse me. +Sometimes I can stand before the world -- and when I say this, transformation is a difficult and slow process -- sometimes I can stand before the world and say, "My name is Chris Abani. +I have been human six days, but only sometimes." +But this is a good thing. +It's never going to be easy. +There are no answers. +As I was telling Rachel from Google Earth, that I had challenged my students in America -- I said, "You don't know anything about Africa, you're all idiots." +And so they said, "Tell me about Africa, Professor Abani." +So I went to Google Earth and learned about Africa. +And the truth be told, this is it, isn't it? +There are no essential Africans, and most of us are as completely ignorant as everyone else about the continent we come from, and yet we want to make profound statements about it. +And I think if we can just admit that we're all trying to approximate the truth of our own communities, it will make for a much more nuanced and a much more interesting conversation. +I want to believe that we can be agnostic about this, that we can rise above all of this. +When I was 10, I read James Baldwin's "Another Country," and that book broke me. +Not because I was encountering homosexual sex and love for the first time, but because the way James wrote about it made it impossible for me to attach otherness to it. +"Here," Jimmy said. +"Here is love, all of it." +The fact that it happens in "Another Country" takes you quite by surprise. +My friend Ronald Gottesman says there are three kinds of people in the world: those who can count, and those who can't. +He also says that the cause of all our trouble is the belief in an essential, pure identity: religious, ethnic, historical, ideological. +I want to leave you with a poem by Yusef Komunyakaa that speaks to transformation. +It's called "Ode to the Drum," and I'll try and read it the way Yusef would be proud to hear it read. +"Gazelle, I killed you for your skin's exquisite touch, for how easy it is to be nailed to a board weathered raw as white butcher paper. +Last night I heard my daughter praying for the meat here at my feet. +You know it wasn't anger that made me stop my heart till the hammer fell. +Weeks ago, you broke me as a woman once shattered me into a song beneath her weight, before you slouched into that grassy hush. +And now I'm tightening lashes, shaped in hide as if around a ribcage, shaped like five bowstrings. +Ghosts cannot slip back inside the body's drum. +You've been seasoned by wind, dusk and sunlight. +Pressure can make everything whole again. +Brass nails tacked into the ebony wood, your face has been carved five times. +I have to drive trouble in the hills. +Trouble in the valley, and trouble by the river too. +There is no palm wine, fish, salt, or calabash. +Kadoom. Kadoom. Kadoom. +Ka-doooom. +Now I have beaten a song back into you. +Rise and walk away like a panther." +Thank you. +Like many of you here, I am trying to contribute towards a renaissance in Africa. +The question of transformation in Africa really is a question of leadership. +Africa can only be transformed by enlightened leaders. +And it is my contention that the manner in which we educate our leaders is fundamental to progress on this continent. +I want to tell you some stories that explain my view. +We all heard about the importance of stories yesterday. +An American friend of mine this year volunteered as a nurse in Ghana, and in a period of three months she came to a conclusion about the state of leadership in Africa that had taken me over a decade to reach. +Twice she was involved in surgeries where they lost power at the hospital. +The emergency generators did not start. +There was not a flashlight, not a lantern, not a candle -- pitch black. +The patient's cut open, twice. +The first time it was a C-section. +Thankfully, baby was out -- mother and child survived. +The second time was a procedure that involved local anesthesia. +Anesthetic wears off. The patient feels pain. +He's crying. He's screaming. He's praying. +Pitch black. Not a candle, not a flashlight. +And that hospital could have afforded flashlights. +They could have afforded to purchase these things, but they didn't. +And it happened twice. +Another time, she watched in horror as nurses watched a patient die because they refused to give her oxygen that they had. +And so three months later, just before she returned to the United States, nurses in Accra go on strike. +And her recommendation is take this opportunity to fire everyone, start all over again. +Start all over again. +Now what does this have to do with leadership? +You see, the folks at the ministry of health, the hospital administrators, the doctors, the nurses -- they are among just five percent of their peers who get an education after secondary school. +They are the elite. They are our leaders. +Their decisions, their actions matter. +And when they fail, a nation literally suffers. +So when I speak of leadership, I'm not talking about just political leaders. +We've heard a lot about that. +I'm talking about the elite. +Those who've been trained, whose job it is to be the guardians of their society. +The lawyers, the judges, the policemen, the doctors, the engineers, the civil servants -- those are the leaders. +And we need to train them right. +Now, my first pointed and memorable experience with leadership in Ghana occurred when I was 16 years old. +We had just had a military coup, and soldiers were pervasive in our society. +They were a pervasive presence. +And one day I go to the airport to meet my father, and as I walk up this grassy slope from the car park to the terminal building, I'm stopped by two soldiers wielding AK-47 assault weapons. +And they asked me to join a crowd of people that were running up and down this embankment. +Why? Because the path I had taken was considered out of bounds. +No sign to this effect. +Now, I was 16. I was very worried about what my peers at school might think if they saw me running up and down this hill. +I was especially concerned of what the girls might think. +And so I started to argue with these men. +It was a little reckless, but you know, I was 16. +I got lucky. +A Ghana Airways pilot falls into the same predicament. +Because of his uniform they speak to him differently, and they explain to him that they're just following orders. +So he takes their radio, talks to their boss, and gets us all released. +What lessons would you take from an experience like this? +Several, for me. +Leadership matters. Those men are following the orders of a superior officer. +I learned something about courage. +It was important not to look at those guns. +And I also learned that it can be helpful to think about girls. +So a few years after this event, I leave Ghana on a scholarship to go to Swarthmore College for my education. +It was a breath of fresh air. +You know, the faculty there didn't want us to memorize information and repeat back to them as I was used to back in Ghana. +They wanted us to think critically. +They wanted us to be analytical. +They wanted us to be concerned about social issues. +In my economics classes I got high marks for my understanding of basic economics. +But I learned something more profound than that, which is that the leaders -- the managers of Ghana's economy -- were making breathtakingly bad decisions that had brought our economy to the brink of collapse. +And so here was this lesson again -- leadership matters. +It matters a great deal. +But I didn't really fully understand what had happened to me at Swarthmore. +I had an inkling, but I didn't fully realize it until I went out into the workplace and I went to work at Microsoft Corporation. +And I was part of this team -- this thinking, learning team whose job it was to design and implement new software that created value in the world. +And it was brilliant to be part of this team. +It was brilliant. +And I realized just what had happened to me at Swarthmore, this transformation -- the ability to confront problems, complex problems, and to design solutions to those problems. +The ability to create is the most empowering thing that can happen to an individual. +And I was part of that. +Now, while I was at Microsoft, the annual revenues of that company grew larger than the GDP of the Republic of Ghana. +And by the way, it's continued to. +The gap has widened since I left. +Now, I've already spoken about one of the reasons why this has occurred. +I mean, it's the people there who are so hardworking, persistent, creative, empowered. +But there were also some external factors: free markets, the rule of law, infrastructure. +These things were provided by institutions run by the people that I call leaders. +And those leaders did not emerge spontaneously. +Somebody trained them to do the work that they do. +Now, while I was at Microsoft, this funny thing happened. +I became a parent. +And for the first time, Africa mattered more to me than ever before. +Because I realized that the state of the African continent would matter to my children and their children. +That the state of the world -- the state of the world depends on what's happening to Africa, as far as my kids would be concerned. +And at this time, when I was going through what I call my "pre-mid-life crisis," Africa was a mess. +Somalia had disintegrated into anarchy. +Rwanda was in the throes of this genocidal war. +And it seemed to me that that was the wrong direction, and I needed to be back helping. +I couldn't just stay in Seattle and raise my kids in an upper-middle class neighborhood and feel good about it. +This was not the world that I'd want my children to grow up in. +So I decided to get engaged, and the first thing that I did was to come back to Ghana and talk with a lot of people and really try to understand what the real issues were. +And three things kept coming up for every problem: corruption, weak institutions and the people who run them -- the leaders. +Now, I was a little scared because when you see those three problems, they seem really hard to deal with. +And they might say, "Look, don't even try." +But, for me, I asked the question, "Well, where are these leaders coming from? +What is it about Ghana that produces leaders that are unethical or unable to solve problems?" +So I went to look at what was happening in our educational system. +And it was the same -- learning by rote -- from primary school through graduate school. +Very little emphasis on ethics, and the typical graduate from a university in Ghana has a stronger sense of entitlement than a sense of responsibility. +This is wrong. +So I decided to engage this particular problem. +Because it seems to me that every society, every society, must be very intentional about how it trains its leaders. +And Ghana was not paying enough attention. +And this is true across sub-Saharan Africa, actually. +So this is what I'm doing now. +I'm trying to bring the experience that I had at Swarthmore to Africa. +I wish there was a liberal arts college in every African country. +I think it would make a huge difference. +And what Ashesi University is trying to do is to train a new generation of ethical, entrepreneurial leaders. +We're trying to train leaders of exceptional integrity, who have the ability to confront the complex problems, ask the right questions, and come up with workable solutions. +I'll admit that there are times when it seems like "Mission: Impossible," but we must believe that these kids are smart. +That if we involve them in their education, if we have them discuss the real issues that they confront -- that our whole society confronts -- and if we give them skills that enable them to engage the real world, that magic will happen. +Now, a month into this project, we'd just started classes. +And a month into it, I come to the office, and I have this email from one of our students. +And it said, very simply, "I am thinking now." +And he signs off, "Thank you." +It's such a simple statement. +But I was moved almost to tears because I understood what was happening to this young man. +And it is an awesome thing to be a part of empowering someone in this way. +I am thinking now. +This year we challenged our students to craft an honor code themselves. +There's a very vibrant debate going on on campus now over whether they should have an honor code, and if so, what it should look like. +One of the students asked a question that just warmed my heart. +Can we create a perfect society? +Her understanding that a student-crafted honor code constitutes a reach towards perfection is incredible. +Now, we cannot achieve perfection, but if we reach for it, then we can achieve excellence. +I don't know ultimately what they will do. +I don't know whether they will decide to have this honor code. +But the conversation they're having now -- about what their good society should look like, what their excellent society should look like, is a really good thing. +Am I out of time? OK. +Now, I just wanted to leave that slide up because it's important that we think about it. +I'm very excited about the fact that every student at Ashesi University does community service before they graduate. +That for many of them, it has been a life-altering experience. +These young future leaders are beginning to understand the real business of leadership, the real privilege of leadership, which is after all to serve humanity. +I am even more thrilled by the fact that least year our student body elected a woman to be the head of Student Government. +It's the first time in the history of Ghana that a woman has been elected head of Student Government at any university. +It says a lot about her. +It says a lot about the culture that's forming on campus. +It says a lot about her peers who elected her. +She won with 75 percent of the vote. +And it gives me a lot of hope. +It turns out that corporate West Africa also appreciates what's happening with our students. +We've graduated two classes of students to date. +And every single one of them has been placed. +And we're getting great reports back from corporate Ghana, corporate West Africa, and the things that they're most impressed about is work ethic. +You know, that passion for what they're doing. +The persistence, their ability to deal with ambiguity, their ability to tackle problems that they haven't seen before. +This is good because over the past five years, there have been times when I've felt this is "Mission: Impossible." +And it's just wonderful to see these glimmers of the promise of what can happen if we train our kids right. +I think that the current and future leaders of Africa have an incredible opportunity to drive a major renaissance on the continent. +It's an incredible opportunity. +There aren't very many more opportunities like this in the world. +I believe that Africa has reached an inflection point with a march of democracy and free markets across the continent. +We have reached a moment from which can emerge a great society within one generation. +It will depend on inspired leadership. +And it is my contention that the manner in which we train our leaders will make all the difference. +Thank you, and God bless. +I really am honored to be here, and as Chris said, it's been over 20 years since I started working in Africa. +My first introduction was at the Abidjan airport on a sweaty, Ivory Coast morning. +I had just left Wall Street, cut my hair to look like Margaret Mead, given away most everything that I owned, and arrived with all the essentials -- some poetry, a few clothes, and, of course, a guitar -- because I was going to save the world, and I thought I would just start with the African continent. +But literally within days of arriving I was told, in no uncertain terms, by a number of West African women, that Africans didn't want saving, thank you very much, least of all not by me. +I was too young, unmarried, I had no children, didn't really know Africa, and besides, my French was pitiful. +And so, it was an incredibly painful time in my life, and yet it really started to give me the humility to start listening. +I think that failure can be an incredibly motivating force as well, so I moved to Kenya and worked in Uganda, and I met a group of Rwandan women, who asked me, in 1986, to move to Kigali to help them start the first microfinance institution there. +And I did, and we ended up naming it Duterimbere, meaning "to go forward with enthusiasm." And while we were doing it, I realized that there weren't a lot of businesses that were viable and started by women, and so maybe I should try to run a business, too. +And so I started looking around, and I heard about a bakery that was run by 20 prostitutes. +And, being a little intrigued, I went to go meet this group, and what I found was 20 unwed mothers who were trying to survive. +And it was really the beginning of my understanding the power of language, and how what we call people so often distances us from them, and makes them little. +I also found out that the bakery was nothing like a business, that, in fact, it was a classic charity run by a well-intentioned person, who essentially spent 600 dollars a month to keep these 20 women busy making little crafts and baked goods, and living on 50 cents a day, still in poverty. +So, I made a deal with the women. I said, "Look, we get rid of the charity side, and we run this as a business and I'll help you." +They nervously agreed. I nervously started, and, of course, things are always harder than you think they're going to be. +First of all, I thought, well, we need a sales team, and we clearly aren't the A-Team here, so let's -- I did all this training. +And the epitome was when I literally marched into the streets of Nyamirambo, which is the popular quarter of Kigali, with a bucket, and I sold all these little doughnuts to people, and I came back, and I was like, "You see?" +And the women said, "You know, Jacqueline, who in Nyamirambo is not going to buy doughnuts out of an orange bucket from a tall American woman?" And like -- -- it's a good point. +So then I went the whole American way, with competitions, team and individual. Completely failed, but over time, the women learnt to sell on their own way. +And they started listening to the marketplace, and they came back with ideas for cassava chips, and banana chips, and sorghum bread, and before you knew it, we had cornered the Kigali market, and the women were earning three to four times the national average. +And with that confidence surge, I thought, "Well, it's time to create a real bakery, so let's paint it." And the women said, "That's a really great idea." +And I said, "Well, what color do you want to paint it?" And they said, "Well, you choose." And I said, "No, no, I'm learning to listen. +You choose. It's your bakery, your street, your country -- not mine." +But they wouldn't give me an answer. +So, one week, two weeks, three weeks went by, and finally I said, "Well, how about blue?" +And they said, "Blue, blue, we love blue. Let's do it blue." +So, blue, blue, everything became blue. +The walls were blue, the windows were blue, the sidewalk out front was painted blue. +And Aretha Franklin was shouting "R-E-S-P-E-C-T," the women's hips were swaying and little kids were trying to grab the paintbrushes, but it was their day. +And at the end of it, we stood across the street and we looked at what we had done, and I said, "It is so beautiful." +And the women said, "It really is." +And I said, "And I think the color is perfect," and they all nodded their head, except for Gaudence, and I said, "What?" +And she said, "Nothing." And I said, "What?" +And she said, "Well, it is pretty, but, you know, our color, really, it is green." And -- -- I learned then that listening isn't just about patience, but that when you've lived on charity and dependent your whole life long, it's really hard to say what you mean. +And, mostly because people never really ask you, and when they do, you don't really think they want to know the truth. +And so then I learned that listening is not only about waiting, but it's also learning how better to ask questions. +And so, I lived in Kigali for about two and a half years, doing these two things, and it was an extraordinary time in my life. +And it taught me three lessons that I think are so important for us today, and certainly in the work that I do. +The first is that dignity is more important to the human spirit than wealth. +As Eleni has said, when people gain income, they gain choice, and that is fundamental to dignity. +But as human beings, we also want to see each other, and we want to be heard by each other, and we should never forget that. +The second is that traditional charity and aid are never going to solve the problems of poverty. +I think Andrew pretty well covered that, so I will move to the third point, which is that markets alone also are not going to solve the problems of poverty. +Yes, we ran this as a business, but someone needed to pay the philanthropic support that came into the training, and the management support, the strategic advice and, maybe most important of all, the access to new contacts, networks and new markets. +And so, on a micro level, there's a real role for this combination of investment and philanthropy. +And on a macro level -- some of the speakers have inferred that even health should be privatized. +But, having had a father with heart disease, and realizing that what our family could afford was not what he should have gotten, and having a good friend step in to help, I really believe that all people deserve access to health at prices they can afford. +I think the market can help us figure that out, but there's got to be a charitable component, or I don't think we're going to create the kind of societies we want to live in. +And so, it was really those lessons that made me decide to build Acumen Fund about six years ago. +It's a nonprofit, venture capital fund for the poor, a few oxymorons in one sentence. +We've invested about 20 million dollars in 20 different enterprises, and have, in so doing, created nearly 20,000 jobs, and delivered tens of millions of services to people who otherwise would not be able to afford them. +I want to tell you two stories. Both of them are in Africa. +Both of them are about investing in entrepreneurs who are committed to service, and who really know the markets. +Both of them live at the confluence of public health and enterprise, and both of them, because they're manufacturers, create jobs directly, and create incomes indirectly, because they're in the malaria sector, and Africa loses about 13 billion dollars a year because of malaria. +And so as people get healthier, they also get wealthier. +The first one is called Advanced Bio-Extracts Limited. +It's a company built in Kenya about seven years ago by an incredible entrepreneur named Patrick Henfrey and his three colleagues. +These are old-hand farmers who've gone through all the agricultural ups and downs in Kenya over the last 30 years. +Now, this plant is an Artemisia plant; it's the basic component for artemisinin, which is the best-known treatment for malaria. +It's indigenous to China and the Far East, but given that the prevalence of malaria is here in Africa, Patrick and his colleagues said, "Let's bring it here, because it's a high value-add product." +The farmers get three to four times the yields that they would with maize. +And so, using patient capital -- money that they could raise early on, that actually got below market returns and was willing to go the long haul and be combined with management assistance, strategic assistance -- they've now created a company where they purchase from 7,500 farmers. +So that's about 50,000 people affected. +And I think some of you may have visited -- these farmers are helped by KickStart and TechnoServe, who help them become more self-sufficient. +They buy it, they dry it and they bring it to this factory, which was purchased in part by, again, patient capital from Novartis, who has a real interest in getting the powder so that they can make Coartem. +Acumen's been working with ABE for the past year, year and a half, both on looking at a new business plan, and what does expansion look like, helping with management support and helping to do term sheets and raise capital. +And I really understood what patient capital meant emotionally in the last month or so. Because the company was literally 10 days away from proving that the product they produced was at the world-quality level needed to make Coartem, when they were in the biggest cash crisis of their history. +And we called all of the social investors we know. +Now, some of these same social investors are really interested in Africa and understand the importance of agriculture, and they even helped the farmers. +And even when we explained that if ABE goes away, all those 7,500 jobs go away too, we sometimes have this bifurcation between business and the social. +And it's really time we start thinking more creatively about how they can be fused. +This is Samuel. He's a farmer. +He was actually living in the Kibera slums when his father called him and told him about Artemisia and the value-add potential. +So he moved back to the farm, and, long story short, they now have seven acres under cultivation. +Samuel's kids are in private school, and he's starting to help other farmers in the area also go into Artemisia production -- dignity being more important than wealth. +The next one, many of you know. +I talked about it a little at Oxford two years ago, and some of you visited A to Z manufacturing, which is one of the great, real companies in East Africa. +It's another one that lives at the confluence of health and enterprise. +And this is really a story about a public-private solution that has really worked. +It started in Japan. Sumitomo had developed a technology essentially to impregnate a polyethylene-based fiber with organic insecticide, so you could create a bed net, a malaria bed net, that would last five years and not need to be re-dipped. +It could alter the vector, but like Artemisia, it had been produced only in East Asia. And as part of its social responsibility, Sumitomo said, "Why don't we experiment with whether we can produce it in Africa, for Africans?" +UNICEF came forward and said, "We'll buy most of the nets, and then we'll give them away, as part of the global fund's and the U.N.'s commitment to pregnant women and children, for free." +Acumen came in with the patient capital, and we also helped to identify the entrepreneur that we would all partner with here in Africa, and Exxon provided the initial resin. +Well, in looking around for entrepreneurs, there was none better that we could find on earth than Anuj Shah, in A to Z manufacturing company. +It's a 40-year-old company, it understands manufacturing. +It's gone from socialist Tanzania into capitalist Tanzania, and continued to flourish. It had about 1,000 employees when we first found it. +And so, Anuj took the entrepreneurial risk here in Africa to produce a public good that was purchased by the aid establishment to work with malaria. +And, long story short, again, they've been so successful. +In our first year, the first net went off the line in October of 2003. +We thought the hitting-it-out-of-the-box number was 150,000 nets a year. +This year, they are now producing eight million nets a year, and they employ 5,000 people, 90 percent of whom are women, mostly unskilled. +They're in a joint venture with Sumitomo. +And so, from an enterprise perspective for Africa, and from a public health perspective, these are real successes. +But it's only half the story if we're really looking at solving problems of poverty, because it's not long-term sustainable. +It's a company with one big customer. +And if avian flu hits, or for any other reason the world decides that malaria is no longer as much of a priority, everybody loses. +And so, Anuj and Acumen have been talking about testing the private sector, because the assumption that the aid establishment has made is that, look, in a country like Tanzania, 80 percent of the population makes less than two dollars a day. +It costs, at manufacturing point, six dollars to produce these, and it costs the establishment another six dollars to distribute it, so the market price in a free market would be about 12 dollars per net. +Most people can't afford that, so let's give it away free. +And we said, "Well, there's another option. +Let's use the market as the best listening device we have, and understand at what price people would pay for this, so they get the dignity of choice. +We can start building local distribution, and actually, it can cost the public sector much less." +And so we came in with a second round of patient capital to A to Z, a loan as well as a grant, so that A to Z could play with pricing and listen to the marketplace, and found a number of things. +One, that people will pay different prices, but the overwhelming number of people will come forth at one dollar per net and make a decision to buy it. +And when you listen to them, they'll also have a lot to say about what they like and what they don't like. +And that some of the channels we thought would work didn't work. +But because of this experimentation and iteration that was allowed because of the patient capital, we've now found that it costs about a dollar in the private sector to distribute, and a dollar to buy the net. +So then, from a policy perspective, when you start with the market, we have a choice. +We've got to start having conversations like this, and I don't think there's any better way to start than using the market, but also to bring other people to the table around it. +Whenever I go to visit A to Z, I think of my grandmother, Stella. +She was very much like those women sitting behind the sewing machines. +She grew up on a farm in Austria, very poor, didn't have very much education. +She moved to the United States, where she met my grandfather, who was a cement hauler, and they had nine children. Three of them died as babies. +My grandmother had tuberculosis, and she worked in a sewing machine shop, making shirts for about 10 cents an hour. +She, like so many of the women I see at A to Z, worked hard every day, understood what suffering was, had a deep faith in God, loved her children and would never have accepted a handout. +But because she had the opportunity of the marketplace, and she lived in a society that provided the safety of having access to affordable health and education, her children and their children were able to live lives of real purpose and follow real dreams. +I look around at my siblings and my cousins -- and as I said, there are a lot of us -- and I see teachers and musicians, hedge fund managers, designers. +One sister who makes other people's wishes come true. +It shouldn't be that difficult. +But what it takes is a commitment from all of us to essentially refuse trite assumptions, get out of our ideological boxes. +It takes investing in those entrepreneurs that are committed to service as well as to success. +It takes opening your arms, both, wide, and expecting very little love in return, but demanding accountability, and bringing the accountability to the table as well. +And most of all, most of all, it requires that all of us have the courage and the patience, whether we are rich or poor, African or non-African, local or diaspora, left or right, to really start listening to each other. +Thank you. +Id like to dedicate this one to all the women in South Africa -- those women who refused to dwindle in the midst of apartheid. +And, of course, Im dedicating it also to my grandmother, whom I think really played quite a lot of important roles, especially for me when I was an activist, and being harassed by the police. +You will recall that in 1976, June 16, the students of South Africa boycotted the language of Afrikaans as the medium of the oppressor, as they were sort of like really told that they must do everything in Afrikaans -- biology, mathematics -- and what about our languages? +And the students wanted to speak to the government, and police answered with bullets. +So every year, June 16, we will commemorate all those comrades or students who died. +And I was very young then. I think I was 11 years, and I started asking questions, and thats when my political education started. +And I joined, later on, the youth organization under the African National Congress. +So as part of organizing this and whatever, this commemoration, the police will round us up as they call us leaders. +And I used to run away from home, when I know that maybe the police might be coming around the ninth or 10th of June or so. +And my grandmother one time said, "No, look, youre not going to run away. +This is your place, you stay here." +And indeed, the police came -- because theyll just arrest us and put us in jail and release us whenever they feel like, after the 20th or so. +So it was on the 10th of June, and they came, and they surrounded the house, and my grandmother switched off all the lights in the house, and opened the kitchen door. +And she said to them, "Vusi's here, and you're not going to take him tonight. +I'm tired of you having to come here, harassing us, while your children are sleeping peacefully in your homes. +He is here, and you're not going to take him. +I've got a bowl full of boiling water -- the first one who comes in here, gets it." +And they left. +I am very, very happy to be amidst some of the most -- the lights are really disturbing my eyes and they're reflecting on my glasses. +I am very happy and honored to be amidst very, very innovative and intelligent people. +I have listened to the three previous speakers, and guess what happened? +Every single thing I planned to say, they have said it here, and it looks and sounds like I have nothing else to say. +But there is a saying in my culture that if a bud leaves a tree without saying something, that bud is a young one. +So, I will -- since I am not young and am very old, I still will say something. +We are hosting this conference at a very opportune moment, because another conference is taking place in Berlin. +It is the G8 Summit. +The G8 Summit proposes that the solution to Africa's problems should be a massive increase in aid, something akin to the Marshall Plan. +Unfortunately, I personally do not believe in the Marshall Plan. +One, because the benefits of the Marshall Plan have been overstated. +Its largest recipients were Germany and France, and it was only 2.5 percent of their GDP. +An average African country receives foreign aid to the tune of 13, 15 percent of its GDP, and that is an unprecedented transfer of financial resources from rich countries to poor countries. +But I want to say that there are two things we need to connect. +How the media covers Africa in the West, and the consequences of that. +By displaying despair, helplessness and hopelessness, the media is telling the truth about Africa, and nothing but the truth. +However, the media is not telling us the whole truth. +Because despair, civil war, hunger and famine, although they're part and parcel of our African reality, they are not the only reality. +And secondly, they are the smallest reality. +Africa has 53 nations. +We have civil wars only in six countries, which means that the media are covering only six countries. +Africa has immense opportunities that never navigate through the web of despair and helplessness that the Western media largely presents to its audience. +But the effect of that presentation is, it appeals to sympathy. +It appeals to pity. It appeals to something called charity. +And, as a consequence, the Western view of Africa's economic dilemma is framed wrongly. +The wrong framing is a product of thinking that Africa is a place of despair. +What should we do with it? We should give food to the hungry. +We should deliver medicines to those who are ill. +We should send peacekeeping troops to serve those who are facing a civil war. +And in the process, Africa has been stripped of self-initiative. +I want to say that it is important to recognize that Africa has fundamental weaknesses. +But equally, it has opportunities and a lot of potential. +We need to reframe the challenge that is facing Africa, from a challenge of despair, which is called poverty reduction, to a challenge of hope. +We frame it as a challenge of hope, and that is worth creation. +The challenge facing all those who are interested in Africa is not the challenge of reducing poverty. +It should be a challenge of creating wealth. +Once we change those two things -- if you say the Africans are poor and they need poverty reduction, you have the international cartel of good intentions moving onto the continent, with what? +Medicines for the poor, food relief for those who are hungry, and peacekeepers for those who are facing civil war. +And in the process, none of these things really are productive because you are treating the symptoms, not the causes of Africa's fundamental problems. +Sending somebody to school and giving them medicines, ladies and gentlemen, does not create wealth for them. +Wealth is a function of income, and income comes from you finding a profitable trading opportunity or a well-paying job. +Now, once we begin to talk about wealth creation in Africa, our second challenge will be, who are the wealth-creating agents in any society? +They are entrepreneurs. [Unclear] told us they are always about four percent of the population, but 16 percent are imitators. +But they also succeed at the job of entrepreneurship. +So, where should we be putting the money? +We need to put money where it can productively grow. +Support private investment in Africa, both domestic and foreign. +Support research institutions, because knowledge is an important part of wealth creation. +But what is the international aid community doing with Africa today? +They are throwing large sums of money for primary health, for primary education, for food relief. +The entire continent has been turned into a place of despair, in need of charity. +Ladies and gentlemen, can any one of you tell me a neighbor, a friend, a relative that you know, who became rich by receiving charity? +By holding the begging bowl and receiving alms? +Does any one of you in the audience have that person? +Does any one of you know a country that developed because of the generosity and kindness of another? +Well, since I'm not seeing the hand, it appears that what I'm stating is true. +(Bono: Yes!) Andrew Mwenda: I can see Bono says he knows the country. +Which country is that? +(Bono: It's an Irish land.) (Bono: [unclear]) AM: Thank you very much. But let me tell you this. +External actors can only present to you an opportunity. +The ability to utilize that opportunity and turn it into an advantage depends on your internal capacity. +Africa has received many opportunities. +Many of them we haven't benefited much. +Why? Because we lack the internal, institutional framework and policy framework that can make it possible for us to benefit from our external relations. I'll give you an example. +Under the Cotonou Agreement, formerly known as the Lome Convention, African countries have been given an opportunity by Europe to export goods, duty-free, to the European Union market. +My own country, Uganda, has a quota to export 50,000 metric tons of sugar to the European Union market. +We haven't exported one kilogram yet. +We import 50,000 metric tons of sugar from Brazil and Cuba. +Secondly, under the beef protocol of that agreement, African countries that produce beef have quotas to export beef duty-free to the European Union market. +None of those countries, including Africa's most successful nation, Botswana, has ever met its quota. +So, I want to argue today that the fundamental source of Africa's inability to engage the rest of the world in a more productive relationship is because it has a poor institutional and policy framework. +And all forms of intervention need support, the evolution of the kinds of institutions that create wealth, the kinds of institutions that increase productivity. +How do we begin to do that, and why is aid the bad instrument? +Aid is the bad instrument, and do you know why? +Because all governments across the world need money to survive. +Money is needed for a simple thing like keeping law and order. +You have to pay the army and the police to show law and order. +And because many of our governments are quite dictatorial, they need really to have the army clobber the opposition. +The second thing you need to do is pay your political hangers-on. +Why should people support their government? +Well, because it gives them good, paying jobs, or, in many African countries, unofficial opportunities to profit from corruption. +The fact is no government in the world, with the exception of a few, like that of Idi Amin, can seek to depend entirely on force as an instrument of rule. +Many countries in the [unclear], they need legitimacy. +To get legitimacy, governments often need to deliver things like primary education, primary health, roads, build hospitals and clinics. +If the government's fiscal survival depends on it having to raise money from its own people, such a government is driven by self-interest to govern in a more enlightened fashion. +It will sit with those who create wealth. +Talk to them about the kind of policies and institutions that are necessary for them to expand a scale and scope of business so that it can collect more tax revenues from them. +The problem with the African continent and the problem with the aid industry is that it has distorted the structure of incentives facing the governments in Africa. +The productive margin in our governments' search for revenue does not lie in the domestic economy, it lies with international donors. +Rather than sit with Ugandan -- -- rather than sit with Ugandan entrepreneurs, Ghanaian businessmen, South African enterprising leaders, our governments find it more productive to talk to the IMF and the World Bank. +I can tell you, even if you have ten Ph.Ds., you can never beat Bill Gates in understanding the computer industry. +Why? Because the knowledge that is required for you to understand the incentives necessary to expand a business -- it requires that you listen to the people, the private sector actors in that industry. +Governments in Africa have therefore been given an opportunity, by the international community, to avoid building productive arrangements with your own citizens, and therefore allowed to begin endless negotiations with the IMF and the World Bank, and then it is the IMF and the World Bank that tell them what its citizens need. +In the process, we, the African people, have been sidelined from the policy-making, policy-orientation, and policy- implementation process in our countries. +We have limited input, because he who pays the piper calls the tune. +The IMF, the World Bank, and the cartel of good intentions in the world has taken over our rights as citizens, and therefore what our governments are doing, because they depend on aid, is to listen to international creditors rather than their own citizens. +But I want to put a caveat on my argument, and that caveat is that it is not true that aid is always destructive. +Some aid may have built a hospital, fed a hungry village. +It may have built a road, and that road may have served a very good role. +Aid increases the resources available to governments, and that makes working in a government the most profitable thing you can have, as a person in Africa seeking a career. +By increasing the political attractiveness of the state, especially in our ethnically fragmented societies in Africa, aid tends to accentuate ethnic tensions as every single ethnic group now begins struggling to enter the state in order to get access to the foreign aid pie. +Ladies and gentlemen, the most enterprising people in Africa cannot find opportunities to trade and to work in the private sector because the institutional and policy environment is hostile to business. +Governments are not changing it. Why? +Because they don't need to talk to their own citizens. +They talk to international donors. +So, the most enterprising Africans end up going to work for government, and that has increased the political tensions in our countries precisely because we depend on aid. +I also want to say that it is important for us to note that, over the last 50 years, Africa has been receiving increasing aid from the international community, in the form of technical assistance, and financial aid, and all other forms of aid. +Between 1960 and 2003, our continent received 600 billion dollars of aid, and we are still told that there is a lot of poverty in Africa. +Where has all the aid gone? +I want to use the example of my own country, called Uganda, and the kind of structure of incentives that aid has brought there. +In the 2006-2007 budget, expected revenue: 2.5 trillion shillings. +The expected foreign aid: 1.9 trillion. +Uganda's recurrent expenditure -- by recurrent what do I mean? +Hand-to-mouth is 2.6 trillion. +Why does the government of Uganda budget spend 110 percent of its own revenue? +It's because there's somebody there called foreign aid, who contributes for it. +But this shows you that the government of Uganda is not committed to spending its own revenue to invest in productive investments, but rather it devotes this revenue to paying structure of public expenditure. +Public administration, which is largely patronage, takes 690 billion. +The military, 380 billion. +Agriculture, which employs 18 percent of our poverty-stricken citizens, takes only 18 billion. +Trade and industry takes 43 billion. +And let me show you, what does public expenditure -- rather, public administration expenditure -- in Uganda constitute? +There you go. 70 cabinet ministers, 114 presidential advisers, by the way, who never see the president, except on television. +And when they see him physically, it is at public functions like this, and even there, it is him who advises them. +We have 81 units of local government. +Each local government is organized like the central government -- a bureaucracy, a cabinet, a parliament, and so many jobs for the political hangers-on. +There were 56, and when our president wanted to amend the constitution and remove term limits, he had to create 25 new districts, and now there are 81. +Three hundred thirty-three members of parliament. +You need Wembley Stadium to host our parliament. +One hundred thirty-four commissions and semi-autonomous government bodies, all of which have directors and the cars. And the final thing, this is addressed to Mr. Bono. In his work, he may help us on this. +A recent government of Uganda study found that there are 3,000 four-wheel drive motor vehicles at the Minister of Health headquarters. +Uganda has 961 sub-counties, each of them with a dispensary, none of which has an ambulance. +So, the four-wheel drive vehicles at the headquarters drive the ministers, the permanent secretaries, the bureaucrats and the international aid bureaucrats who work in aid projects, while the poor die without ambulances and medicine. +Finally, I want to say that before I came to speak here, I was told that the principle of TEDGlobal is that the good speech should be like a miniskirt. +It should be short enough to arouse interest, but long enough to cover the subject. +I hope I have achieved that. +Thank you very much. +Now, have any of y'all ever looked up this word? +You know, in a dictionary? Yeah, that's what I thought. +How about this word? +Here, I'll show it to you. +Lexicography: the practice of compiling dictionaries. +Notice -- we're very specific -- that word "compile." +The dictionary is not carved out of a piece of granite, out of a lump of rock. It's made up of lots of little bits. +It's little discrete -- that's spelled D-I-S-C-R-E-T-E -- bits. +And those bits are words. +Now one of the perks of being a lexicographer -- besides getting to come to TED -- is that you get to say really fun words, like lexicographical. +Lexicographical has this great pattern: it's called a double dactyl. And just by saying double dactyl, I've sent the geek needle all the way into the red. But "lexicographical" is the same pattern as "higgledy-piggledy." +Right? It's a fun word to say, and I get to say it a lot. +Now, one of the non-perks of being a lexicographer is that people don't usually have a kind of warm, fuzzy, snuggly image of the dictionary. +Right? Nobody hugs their dictionaries. +But what people really often think about the dictionary is, they think more like this. +Just to let you know, I do not have a lexicographical whistle. +But people think that my job is to let the good words make that difficult left-hand turn into the dictionary, and keep the bad words out. +But the thing is, I don't want to be a traffic cop. +For one thing, I just do not do uniforms. +And for another, deciding what words are good and what words are bad is actually not very easy. +And it's not very fun. And when parts of your job are not easy or fun, you kind of look for an excuse not to do them. +So if I had to think of some kind of occupation as a metaphor for my work, I would much rather be a fisherman. +I want to throw my big net into the deep, blue ocean of English and see what marvelous creatures I can drag up from the bottom. +But why do people want me to direct traffic, when I would much rather go fishing? +Well, I blame the Queen. +Why do I blame the Queen? +Well, first of all, I blame the Queen because it's funny. +But secondly, I blame the Queen because dictionaries have really not changed. +Our idea of what a dictionary is has not changed since her reign. +The only thing that Queen Victoria would not be amused by in modern dictionaries is our inclusion of the F-word, which has happened in American dictionaries since 1965. +So, there's this guy, right? Victorian era. +James Murray, first editor of the Oxford English Dictionary. +I do not have that hat. I wish I had that hat. +So he's really responsible for a lot of what we consider modern in dictionaries today. +When a guy who looks like that, in that hat, is the face of modernity, you have a problem. +And so, James Murray could get a job on any dictionary today. +There'd be virtually no learning curve. +And of course, a few of us are saying: okay, computers! +Computers! What about computers? +The thing about computers is, I love computers. +I mean, I'm a huge geek, I love computers. +I would go on a hunger strike before I let them take away Google Book Search from me. +But computers don't do much else other than speed up the process of compiling dictionaries. +They don't change the end result. +Because what a dictionary is, is it's Victorian design merged with a little bit of modern propulsion. +It's steampunk. What we have is an electric velocipede. +You know, we have Victorian design with an engine on it. That's all! +The design has not changed. +And OK, what about online dictionaries, right? +Online dictionaries must be different. +This is the Oxford English Dictionary Online, one of the best online dictionaries. +This is my favorite word, by the way. +Erinaceous: pertaining to the hedgehog family; of the nature of a hedgehog. +Very useful word. So, look at that. +Online dictionaries right now are paper thrown up on a screen. +This is flat. Look how many links there are in the actual entry: two! +Right? Those little buttons, I had them all expanded except for the date chart. +So there's not very much going on here. +There's not a lot of clickiness. +And in fact, online dictionaries replicate almost all the problems of print, except for searchability. +And when you improve searchability, you actually take away the one advantage of print, which is serendipity. +Serendipity is when you find things you weren't looking for, because finding what you are looking for is so damned difficult. +So -- -- now, when you think about this, what we have here is a ham butt problem. +Does everyone know the ham butt problem? +Woman's making a ham for a big, family dinner. +She goes to cut the butt off the ham and throw it away, and she looks at this piece of ham and she's like, "This is a perfectly good piece of ham. Why am I throwing this away?" +She thought, "Well, my mom always did this." +So she calls up mom, and she says, "Mom, why'd you cut the butt off the ham, when you're making a ham?" +She says, "I don't know, my mom always did it!" +So they call grandma, and grandma says, "My pan was too small!" So, it's not that we have good words and bad words. +We have a pan that's too small! +You know, that ham butt is delicious! There's no reason to throw it away. +The bad words -- see, when people think about a place and they don't find a place on the map, they think, "This map sucks!" +When they find a nightspot or a bar, and it's not in the guidebook, they're like, "Ooh, this place must be cool! It's not in the guidebook." +When they find a word that's not in the dictionary, they think, "This must be a bad word." Why? It's more likely to be a bad dictionary. +Why are you blaming the ham for being too big for the pan? +So, you can't get a smaller ham. +The English language is as big as it is. +So, if you have a ham butt problem, and you're thinking about the ham butt problem, the conclusion that it leads you to is inexorable and counterintuitive: paper is the enemy of words. +How can this be? I mean, I love books. I really love books. +Some of my best friends are books. +But the book is not the best shape for the dictionary. +Now they're going to think "Oh, boy. +People are going to take away my beautiful, paper dictionaries?" +No. There will still be paper dictionaries. +When we had cars -- when cars became the dominant mode of transportation, we didn't round up all the horses and shoot them. +You know, there're still going to be paper dictionaries, but it's not going to be the dominant dictionary. +The book-shaped dictionary is not going to be the only shape dictionaries come in. And it's not going to be the prototype for the shapes dictionaries come in. +So, think about it this way: if you've got an artificial constraint, artificial constraints lead to arbitrary distinctions and a skewed worldview. +What if biologists could only study animals that made people go, "Aww." Right? +What if we made aesthetic judgments about animals, and only the ones we thought were cute were the ones that we could study? +We'd know a whole lot about charismatic megafauna, and not very much about much else. +And I think this is a problem. +I think we should study all the words, because when you think about words, you can make beautiful expressions from very humble parts. +Lexicography is really more about material science. +We are studying the tolerances of the materials that you use to build the structure of your expression: your speeches and your writing. And then, often people say to me, "Well, OK, how do I know that this word is real?" +They think, "OK, if we think words are the tools that we use to build the expressions of our thoughts, how can you say that screwdrivers are better than hammers? +How can you say that a sledgehammer is better than a ball-peen hammer?" +They're just the right tools for the job. +And so people say to me, "How do I know if a word is real?" +You know, anybody who's read a children's book knows that love makes things real. +If you love a word, use it. That makes it real. +Being in the dictionary is an artificial distinction. +It doesn't make a word any more real than any other way. +If you love a word, it becomes real. +So if we're not worrying about directing traffic, if we've transcended paper, if we are worrying less about control and more about description, then we can think of the English language as being this beautiful mobile. +And any time one of those little parts of the mobile changes, is touched, any time you touch a word, you use it in a new context, you give it a new connotation, you verb it, you make the mobile move. +You didn't break it. It's just in a new position, and that new position can be just as beautiful. +Now, if you're no longer a traffic cop -- the problem with being a traffic cop is there can only be so many traffic cops in any one intersection, or the cars get confused. Right? +But if your goal is no longer to direct the traffic, but maybe to count the cars that go by, then more eyeballs are better. +You can ask for help! +If you ask for help, you get more done. And we really need help. +Library of Congress: 17 million books, of which half are in English. +If only one out of every 10 of those books had a word that's not in the dictionary in it, that would be equivalent to more than two unabridged dictionaries. +And I find an un-dictionaried word -- a word like "un-dictionaried," for example -- in almost every book I read. What about newspapers? +Newspaper archive goes back to 1759, 58.1 million newspaper pages. If only one in 100 of those pages had an un-dictionaried word on it, it would be an entire other OED. +That's 500,000 more words. So that's a lot. +And I'm not even talking about magazines. I'm not talking about blogs -- and I find more new words on BoingBoing in a given week than I do Newsweek or Time. +There's a lot going on there. +And I'm not even talking about polysemy, which is the greedy habit some words have of taking more than one meaning for themselves. +So if you think of the word "set," a set can be a badger's burrow, a set can be one of the pleats in an Elizabethan ruff, and there's one numbered definition in the OED. +The OED has 33 different numbered definitions for set. +Tiny, little word, 33 numbered definitions. +One of them is just labeled "miscellaneous technical senses." +Do you know what that says to me? +That says to me, it was Friday afternoon and somebody wanted to go down the pub. That's a lexicographical cop out, to say, "miscellaneous technical senses." +So, we have all these words, and we really need help! +And the thing is, we could ask for help -- asking for help's not that hard. +I mean, lexicography is not rocket science. +See, I just gave you a lot of words and a lot of numbers, and this is more of a visual explanation. +If we think of the dictionary as being the map of the English language, these bright spots are what we know about, and the dark spots are where we are in the dark. +If that was the map of all the words in American English, we don't know very much. +And we don't even know the shape of the language. +If this was the dictionary -- if this was the map of American English -- look, we have a kind of lumpy idea of Florida, but there's no California! +We're missing California from American English. +We just don't know enough, and we don't even know that we're missing California. +We don't even see that there's a gap on the map. +So again, lexicography is not rocket science. +But even if it were, rocket science is being done by dedicated amateurs these days. You know? +It can't be that hard to find some words! +So, enough scientists in other disciplines are really asking people to help, and they're doing a good job of it. +For instance, there's eBird, where amateur birdwatchers can upload information about their bird sightings. +And then, ornithologists can go and help track populations, migrations, etc. +And there's this guy, Mike Oates. Mike Oates lives in the U.K. +He's a director of an electroplating company. +He's found more than 140 comets. +He's found so many comets, they named a comet after him. +It's kind of out past Mars. It's a hike. +I don't think he's getting his picture taken there anytime soon. +But he found 140 comets without a telescope. +He downloaded data from the NASA SOHO satellite, and that's how he found them. +If we can find comets without a telescope, shouldn't we be able to find words? +Now, y'all know where I'm going with this. +Because I'm going to the Internet, which is where everybody goes. +And the Internet is great for collecting words, because the Internet's full of collectors. +And this is a little-known technological fact about the Internet, but the Internet is actually made up of words and enthusiasm. +And words and enthusiasm actually happen to be the recipe for lexicography. Isn't that great? +So there are a lot of really good word-collecting sites out there right now, but the problem with some of them is that they're not scientific enough. +They show the word, but they don't show any context. +Where did it come from? Who said it? +What newspaper was it in? What book? +Because a word is like an archaeological artifact. +If you don't know the provenance or the source of the artifact, it's not science, it's a pretty thing to look at. +So a word without its source is like a cut flower. +You know, it's pretty to look at for a while, but then it dies. +It dies too fast. +So, this whole time I've been saying, "The dictionary, the dictionary, the dictionary, the dictionary." +Not "a dictionary," or "dictionaries." And that's because, well, people use the dictionary to stand for the whole language. +They use it synecdochically. +And one of the problems of knowing a word like "synecdochically" is that you really want an excuse to say "synecdochically." +This whole talk has just been an excuse to get me to the point where I could say "synecdochically" to all of you. +So I'm really sorry. But when you use a part of something -- like the dictionary is a part of the language, or a flag stands for the United States, it's a symbol of the country -- then you're using it synecdochically. +But the thing is, we could make the dictionary the whole language. +If we get a bigger pan, then we can put all the words in. +We can put in all the meanings. +Doesn't everyone want more meaning in their lives? +And we can make the dictionary not just be a symbol of the language -- we can make it be the whole language. +You see, what I'm really hoping for is that my son, who turns seven this month -- I want him to barely remember that this is the form factor that dictionaries used to come in. +This is what dictionaries used to look like. +I want him to think of this kind of dictionary as an eight-track tape. +It's a format that died because it wasn't useful enough. +It wasn't really what people needed. +And the thing is, if we can put in all the words, no longer have that artificial distinction between good and bad, we can really describe the language like scientists. +We can leave the aesthetic judgments to the writers and the speakers. +If we can do that, then I can spend all my time fishing, and I don't have to be a traffic cop anymore. +Thank you very much for your kind attention. +I would like to tell you about a project which I started about 16 years ago. +It's about making new forms of life. +And these are made of this kind of tube -- electricity tube, we call it in Holland. +And we can start a film about that, and we can see a little bit backwards in time. +Narrator: Eventually, these beasts are going to live in herds on the beaches. +Theo Jansen is working hard on this evolution. +Theo Jansen: I want to put these forms of life on the beaches. +And they should survive over there, on their own, in the future. +Learning to live on their own -- and it'll take couple of more years to let them walk on their own. +Narrator: The mechanical beasts will not get their energy from food, but from the wind. +The wind will move feathers on their back, which will drive their feet. +The beast walks sideways on the wet sand of the beach, with its nose pointed into the wind. +As soon as it walks into either the rolling surf or the dry sand, it stops, and walks in the opposite direction. +Evolution has generated many species. +This is the Animaris Currens Ventosa. +TJ: This is a herd, and it is built according to genetic codes. +And it is a sort of race, and each and every animal is different, and the winning codes will multiply. +This is the wave, going from left to right. You can see this one. +Yes, and now it goes from left to right. +This is a new generation, a new family, which is able to store the wind. +So, the wings pump up air in lemonade bottles, which are on top of that. +And they can use that energy in case the wind falls away, and the tide is coming up, and there is still a little bit of energy to reach the dunes and save their lives, because they are drowned very easily. +I could show you this animal. +Thank you. So, the proportion of the tubes in this animal is very important for the walking. +There are 11 numbers, which I call The 11 Holy Numbers. +These are the distances of the tubes which make it walk that way. +In fact, it's a new invention of the wheel. +It works the same as a wheel. +The axis of a wheel stays on the same level, and this hip is staying on the same level as well. +In fact, this is better than a wheel, because when you try to drive your bicycle on the beach, you will notice it's very hard to do. +And the feet just step over the sand, and the wheel has to touch every piece of the ground in-between. +So 5,000 years after the invention of the wheel, we have a new wheel. I will show you, in the next video -- can you start it, please? -- that very heavy loads can be moved. +There's a guy pushing there, behind, but it can also walk on the wind very well. +It's 3.2 tons. +This is working on the stored wind in the bottles. +It has a feeler, where it can feel obstacles and turn around. +You see, it's going the other way. +Can I have the feeler here? +OK. Good. +So, they have to survive all the dangers of the beach, and one of the big dangers is the sea. This is the sea. +And it must feel the water of the sea. +And this is the water feeler, and what's very important is this tube. It sucks in air normally, but when it swallows water, it feels the resistance of it. +So, imagine that the animal is walking towards the sea. +As soon as it touches the water -- you should hear a sound of running air. +Yes! So if it doesn't feel, it will be drowned, OK? +Here we have the brain of the animal. +In fact, it is a step counter, and it counts the steps. +It's a binary step counter. +So as soon it has been to the sea, it changes the pattern of zeroes and ones here. +And it always knows where it is on the beach. So it's very simple brain. +It says, well, there's the sea, there are dunes, and I'm here. +So it's a sort of imagination of the simple world of the beach animal. +Thank you. +One of the biggest enemies are the storms. +This is a part of the nose of the Animaris Percipiere. +When the nose of the animal is fixed, the whole animal is fixed. +So when the storm is coming up, it drives a pin into the ground. The nose is fixed, the whole animal is fixed. +The wind may turn, but the animal will always turn its nose into the wind. +Now, another couple of years, and these animals will survive on their own. +I still have to help them a lot. +Thank you very much, ladies and gentlemen. +Images like this, from the Auschwitz concentration camp, have been seared into our consciousness during the twentieth century and have given us a new understanding of who we are, where we've come from and the times we live in. +During the twentieth century, we witnessed the atrocities of Stalin, Hitler, Mao, Pol Pot, Rwanda and other genocides, and even though the twenty-first century is only seven years old, we have already witnessed an ongoing genocide in Darfur and the daily horrors of Iraq. +This has led to a common understanding of our situation, namely that modernity has brought us terrible violence, and perhaps that native peoples lived in a state of harmony that we have departed from, to our peril. +It's especially evident in the West, beginning with England and Holland around the time of the Enlightenment. +Here is a graph that he put together showing the percentage of male deaths due to warfare in a number of foraging, or hunting and gathering societies. +The red bars correspond to the likelihood that a man will die at the hands of another man, as opposed to passing away of natural causes, in a variety of foraging societies in the New Guinea Highlands and the Amazon Rainforest. +You can find four or five passages in the Bible of this ilk. +Also in the Bible, one sees that the death penalty was the accepted punishment for crimes such as homosexuality, adultery, blasphemy, idolatry, talking back to your parents -- -- and picking up sticks on the Sabbath. +Well, let's click the zoom lens down one order of magnitude, and look at the century scale. +Although we don't have statistics for warfare throughout the Middle Ages to modern times, we know just from conventional history -- the evidence was under our nose all along that there has been a reduction in socially sanctioned forms of violence. +For example, any social history will reveal that mutilation and torture were routine forms of criminal punishment. The kind of infraction today that would give you a fine, in those days would result in your tongue being cut out, your ears being cut off, you being blinded, a hand being chopped off and so on. +There were numerous ingenious forms of sadistic capital punishment: burning at the stake, disemboweling, breaking on the wheel, being pulled apart by horses and so on. +What about one-on-one murder? Well, there, there are good statistics, because many municipalities recorded the cause of death. +The criminologist Manuel Eisner scoured all of the historical records across Europe for homicide rates in any village, hamlet, town, county that he could find, and he supplemented them with national data, when nations started keeping statistics. +But there was a decline from at least two orders of magnitude in homicide from the Middle Ages to the present, and the elbow occurred in the early sixteenth century. +Let's click down now to the decade scale. +And, as you can see, the death rate goes down from 65,000 deaths per conflict per year in the 1950s to less than 2,000 deaths per conflict per year in this decade, as horrific as it is. +Even in the year scale, one can see a decline of violence. +Since the end of the Cold War, there have been fewer civil wars, fewer genocides -- indeed, a 90 percent reduction since post-World War II highs -- and even a reversal of the 1960s uptick in homicide and violent crime. +This is from the FBI Uniform Crime Statistics. You can see that there is a fairly low rate of violence in the '50s and the '60s, then it soared upward for several decades, and began a precipitous decline, starting in the 1990s, so that it went back to the level that was last enjoyed in 1960. +President Clinton, if you're here, thank you. +So the question is, why are so many people so wrong about something so important? I think there are a number of reasons. +One of them is we have better reporting. The Associated Press is a better chronicler of wars over the surface of the Earth than sixteenth-century monks were. +There's a cognitive illusion. We cognitive psychologists know that the easier it is to recall specific instances of something, the higher the probability that you assign to it. +Things that we read about in the paper with gory footage burn into memory more than reports of a lot more people dying in their beds of old age. There are dynamics in the opinion and advocacy markets: no one ever attracted observers, advocates and donors by saying things just seem to be getting better and better. +There's guilt about our treatment of native peoples in modern intellectual life, and an unwillingness to acknowledge there could be anything good about Western culture. +And of course, our change in standards can outpace the change in behavior. One of the reasons violence went down is that people got sick of the carnage and cruelty in their time. +And what does he see but a burglar with a gun in his hand. +Now, each one of them is thinking, "I don't really want to kill that guy, but he's about to kill me. +Maybe I had better shoot him, before he shoots me, especially since, even if he doesn't want to kill me, he's probably worrying right now that I might kill him before he kills me." And so on. +Hunter-gatherer peoples explicitly go through this train of thought, and will often raid their neighbors out of fear of being raided first. +Now, one way of dealing with this problem is by deterrence. +You don't strike first, but you have a publicly announced policy that you will retaliate savagely if you are invaded. +The only thing is that it's liable to having its bluff called, and therefore can only work if it's credible. To make it credible, you must avenge all insults and settle all scores, which leads to the cycles of bloody vendetta. +So that's a bit of a support for the leviathan theory. +Also supporting it is the fact that we today see eruptions of violence in zones of anarchy, in failed states, collapsed empires, frontier regions, mafias, street gangs and so on. +The second explanation is that in many times and places, there is a widespread sentiment that life is cheap. +In earlier times, when suffering and early death were common in one's own life, one has fewer compunctions about inflicting them on others. And as technology and economic efficiency make life longer and more pleasant, one puts a higher value on life in general. +This was an argument from the political scientist James Payne. +Wright argues that technology has increased the number of positive-sum games that humans tend to be embroiled in, by allowing the trade of goods, services and ideas over longer distances and among larger groups of people. +The result is that other people become more valuable alive than dead, and violence declines for selfish reasons. As Wright put it, "Among the many reasons that I think that we should not bomb the Japanese is that they built my mini-van." +The fourth explanation is captured in the title of a book called "The Expanding Circle," by the philosopher Peter Singer, who argues that evolution bequeathed humans with a sense of empathy, an ability to treat other peoples' interests as comparable to one's own. Unfortunately, by default we apply it only to a very narrow circle of friends and family. +And there are a number of possibilities, such as increasing circles of reciprocity in the sense that Robert Wright argues for. +Whatever its causes, the decline of violence, I think, has profound implications. It should force us to ask not just, why is there war? But also, why is there peace? Not just, what are we doing wrong? But also, what have we been doing right? +Because we have been doing something right, and it sure would be good to find out what it is. +Thank you very much. +CA: Well, Steve, I would love every news media owner to hear that talk at some point in the next year. I think it's really important. Thank you so much. +SP: My pleasure. +This is a picture of Maurice Druon, the Honorary Perpetual Secretary of L'Academie francaise, the French Academy. +He is splendidly attired in his 68,000-dollar uniform, befitting the role of the French Academy as legislating the correct usage in French and perpetuating the language. +The French Academy has two main tasks: it compiles a dictionary of official French. +They're now working on their ninth edition, which they began in 1930, and they've reached the letter P. +They also legislate on correct usage, such as the proper term for what the French call "email," which ought to be "courriel." +The World Wide Web, the French are told, ought to be referred to as "la toile d'araignee mondiale" -- the Global Spider Web -- recommendations that the French gaily ignore. +Now, this is one model of how language comes to be: namely, it's legislated by an academy. +But anyone who looks at language realizes that this is a rather silly conceit, that language, rather, emerges from human minds interacting from one another. +And this is visible in the unstoppable change in language -- the fact that by the time the Academy finishes their dictionary, it will already be well out of date. +We see it in the constant appearance of slang and jargon, of the historical change in languages, in divergence of dialects and the formation of new languages. +So language is not so much a creator or shaper of human nature, so much as a window onto human nature. +In a book that I'm currently working on, I hope to use language to shed light on a number of aspects of human nature, including the cognitive machinery with which humans conceptualize the world and the relationship types that govern human interaction. +And I'm going to say a few words about each one this morning. +Let me start off with a technical problem in language that I've worried about for quite some time -- and indulge me in my passion for verbs and how they're used. +The problem is, which verbs go in which constructions? +The verb is the chassis of the sentence. +It's the framework onto which the other parts are bolted. +Let me give you a quick reminder of something that you've long forgotten. +An intransitive verb, such as "dine," for example, can't take a direct object. +You have to say, "Sam dined," not, "Sam dined the pizza." +A transitive verb mandates that there has to be an object there: "Sam devoured the pizza." You can't just say, "Sam devoured." +There are dozens or scores of verbs of this type, each of which shapes its sentence. +So, a problem in explaining how children learn language, a problem in teaching language to adults so that they don't make grammatical errors, and a problem in programming computers to use language is which verbs go in which constructions. +For example, the dative construction in English. +You can say, "Give a muffin to a mouse," the prepositional dative. +Or, "Give a mouse a muffin," the double-object dative. +"Promise anything to her," "Promise her anything," and so on. +Hundreds of verbs can go both ways. +So a tempting generalization for a child, for an adult, for a computer is that any verb that can appear in the construction, "subject-verb-thing-to-a-recipient" can also be expressed as "subject-verb-recipient-thing." +A handy thing to have, because language is infinite, and you can't just parrot back the sentences that you've heard. +You've got to extract generalizations so you can produce and understand new sentences. +This would be an example of how to do that. +Unfortunately, there appear to be idiosyncratic exceptions. +You can say, "Biff drove the car to Chicago," but not, "Biff drove Chicago the car." +You can say, "Sal gave Jason a headache," but it's a bit odd to say, "Sal gave a headache to Jason." +The solution is that these constructions, despite initial appearance, are not synonymous, that when you crank up the microscope on human cognition, you see that there's a subtle difference in meaning between them. +So, "give the X to the Y," that construction corresponds to the thought "cause X to go to Y." Whereas "give the Y the X" corresponds to the thought "cause Y to have X." +Now, many events can be subject to either construal, kind of like the classic figure-ground reversal illusions, in which you can either pay attention to the particular object, in which case the space around it recedes from attention, or you can see the faces in the empty space, in which case the object recedes out of consciousness. +How are these construals reflected in language? +Well, in both cases, the thing that is construed as being affected is expressed as the direct object, the noun after the verb. +So, when you think of the event as causing the muffin to go somewhere -- where you're doing something to the muffin -- you say, "Give the muffin to the mouse." +When you construe it as "cause the mouse to have something," you're doing something to the mouse, and therefore you express it as, "Give the mouse the muffin." +So which verbs go in which construction -- the problem with which I began -- depends on whether the verb specifies a kind of motion or a kind of possession change. +To give something involves both causing something to go and causing someone to have. +To drive the car only causes something to go, because Chicago's not the kind of thing that can possess something. +Only humans can possess things. +And to give someone a headache causes them to have the headache, but it's not as if you're taking the headache out of your head and causing it to go to the other person, and implanting it in them. +You may just be loud or obnoxious, or some other way causing them to have the headache. +So, that's an example of the kind of thing that I do in my day job. +So why should anyone care? +Well, there are a number of interesting conclusions, I think, from this and many similar kinds of analyses of hundreds of English verbs. +First, there's a level of fine-grained conceptual structure, which we automatically and unconsciously compute every time we produce or utter a sentence, that governs our use of language. +You can think of this as the language of thought, or "mentalese." +It seems to be based on a fixed set of concepts, which govern dozens of constructions and thousands of verbs -- not only in English, but in all other languages -- fundamental concepts such as space, time, causation and human intention, such as, what is the means and what is the ends? +These are reminiscent of the kinds of categories that Immanuel Kant argued are the basic framework for human thought, and it's interesting that our unconscious use of language seems to reflect these Kantian categories. +Doesn't care about perceptual qualities, such as color, texture, weight and speed, which virtually never differentiate the use of verbs in different constructions. +An additional twist is that all of the constructions in English are used not only literally, but in a quasi-metaphorical way. +For example, this construction, the dative, is used not only to transfer things, but also for the metaphorical transfer of ideas, as when we say, "She told a story to me" or "told me a story," "Max taught Spanish to the students" or "taught the students Spanish." +It's exactly the same construction, but no muffins, no mice, nothing moving at all. +It evokes the container metaphor of communication, in which we conceive of ideas as objects, sentences as containers, and communication as a kind of sending. +As when we say we "gather" our ideas, to "put" them "into" words, and if our words aren't "empty" or "hollow," we might get these ideas "across" to a listener, who can "unpack" our words to "extract" their "content." +And indeed, this kind of verbiage is not the exception, but the rule. +It's very hard to find any example of abstract language that is not based on some concrete metaphor. +For example, you can use the verb "go" and the prepositions "to" and "from" in a literal, spatial sense. +"The messenger went from Paris to Istanbul." +You can also say, "Biff went from sick to well." +He needn't go anywhere. He could have been in bed the whole time, but it's as if his health is a point in state space that you conceptualize as moving. +Or, "The meeting went from three to four," in which we conceive of time as stretched along a line. +Likewise, we use "force" to indicate not only physical force, as in, "Rose forced the door to open," but also interpersonal force, as in, "Rose forced Sadie to go," not necessarily by manhandling her, but by issuing a threat. +Or, "Rose forced herself to go," as if there were two entities inside Rose's head, engaged in a tug of a war. +Just to give you a few examples: "ending a pregnancy" versus "killing a fetus;" "a ball of cells" versus "an unborn child;" "invading Iraq" versus "liberating Iraq;" "redistributing wealth" versus "confiscating earnings." +Well, I said I'd talk about two windows on human nature -- the cognitive machinery with which we conceptualize the world, and now I'm going to say a few words about the relationship types that govern human social interaction, again, as reflected in language. +And I'll start out with a puzzle, the puzzle of indirect speech acts. +Now, I'm sure most of you have seen the movie "Fargo." +And you might remember the scene in which the kidnapper is pulled over by a police officer, is asked to show his driver's license and holds his wallet out with a 50-dollar bill extending at a slight angle out of the wallet. +And he says, "I was just thinking that maybe we could take care of it here in Fargo," which everyone, including the audience, interprets as a veiled bribe. +This kind of indirect speech is rampant in language. +For example, in polite requests, if someone says, "If you could pass the guacamole, that would be awesome," we know exactly what he means, even though that's a rather bizarre concept being expressed. +"Would you like to come up and see my etchings?" +I think most people understand the intent behind that. +And likewise, if someone says, "Nice store you've got there. It would be a real shame if something happened to it" -- -- we understand that as a veiled threat, rather than a musing of hypothetical possibilities. +So the puzzle is, why are bribes, polite requests, solicitations and threats so often veiled? +No one's fooled. +Both parties know exactly what the speaker means, and the speaker knows the listener knows that the speaker knows that the listener knows, etc., etc. +So what's going on? +I think the key idea is that language is a way of negotiating relationships, and human relationships fall into a number of types. +Now, relationship types can be negotiated. +Even though there are default situations in which one of these mindsets can be applied, they can be stretched and extended. +For example, communality applies most naturally within family or friends, but it can be used to try to transfer the mentality of sharing to groups that ordinarily would not be disposed to exercise it. +For example, in brotherhoods, fraternal organizations, sororities, locutions like "the family of man," you try to get people who are not related to use the relationship type that would ordinarily be appropriate to close kin. +Now, mismatches -- when one person assumes one relationship type, and another assumes a different one -- can be awkward. +If you went over and you helped yourself to a shrimp off your boss' plate, for example, that would be an awkward situation. +Or if a dinner guest after the meal pulled out his wallet and offered to pay you for the meal, that would be rather awkward as well. +In less blatant cases, there's still a kind of negotiation that often goes on. +In the workplace, for example, there's often a tension over whether an employee can socialize with the boss, or refer to him or her on a first-name basis. +If two friends have a reciprocal transaction, like selling a car, it's well known that this can be a source of tension or awkwardness. +In dating, the transition from friendship to sex can lead to, notoriously, various forms of awkwardness, and as can sex in the workplace, in which we call the conflict between a dominant and a sexual relationship "sexual harassment." +Well, what does this have to do with language? +Well, language, as a social interaction, has to satisfy two conditions. +You have to convey the actual content -- here we get back to the container metaphor. +You want to express the bribe, the command, the promise, the solicitation and so on, but you also have to negotiate and maintain the kind of relationship you have with the other person. +The simplest example of this is in the polite request. +If you express your request as a conditional -- "if you could open the window, that would be great" -- even though the content is an imperative, the fact that you're not using the imperative voice means that you're not acting as if you're in a relationship of dominance, where you could presuppose the compliance of the other person. +On the other hand, you want the damn guacamole. +By expressing it as an if-then statement, you can get the message across without appearing to boss another person around. +And in a more subtle way, I think, this works for all of the veiled speech acts involving plausible deniability: the bribes, threats, propositions, solicitations and so on. +One way of thinking about it is to imagine what it would be like if language -- where it could only be used literally. +And you can think of it in terms of a game-theoretic payoff matrix. +Put yourself in the position of the kidnapper wanting to bribe the officer. +There's a high stakes in the two possibilities of having a dishonest officer or an honest officer. +If you don't bribe the officer, then you will get a traffic ticket -- or, as is the case of "Fargo," worse -- whether the honest officer is honest or dishonest. +Nothing ventured, nothing gained. +In that case, the consequences are rather severe. +On the other hand, if you extend the bribe, if the officer is dishonest, you get a huge payoff of going free. +If the officer is honest, you get a huge penalty of being arrested for bribery. +So this is a rather fraught situation. +On the other hand, with indirect language, if you issue a veiled bribe, then the dishonest officer could interpret it as a bribe, in which case you get the payoff of going free. +The honest officer can't hold you to it as being a bribe, and therefore, you get the nuisance of the traffic ticket. +So you get the best of both worlds. +And a similar analysis, I think, can apply to the potential awkwardness of a sexual solicitation, and other cases where plausible deniability is an asset. +I think this affirms something that's long been known by diplomats -- namely, that the vagueness of language, far from being a bug or an imperfection, actually might be a feature of language, one that we use to our advantage in social interactions. +So to sum up: language is a collective human creation, reflecting human nature, how we conceptualize reality, how we relate to one another. +And then by analyzing the various quirks and complexities of language, I think we can get a window onto what makes us tick. +Thank you very much. +So, where are the robots? +We've been told for 40 years already that they're coming soon. +Very soon they'll be doing everything for us. +They'll be cooking, cleaning, buying things, shopping, building. But they aren't here. +Meanwhile, we have illegal immigrants doing all the work, but we don't have any robots. +So what can we do about that? What can we say? +So I want to give a little bit of a different perspective of how we can perhaps look at these things in a little bit of a different way. +And this is an x-ray picture of a real beetle, and a Swiss watch, back from '88. You look at that -- what was true then is certainly true today. +We can still make the pieces. We can make the right pieces. +We can make the circuitry of the right computational power, but we can't actually put them together to make something that will actually work and be as adaptive as these systems. +So let's try to look at it from a different perspective. +Let's summon the best designer, the mother of all designers. +Let's see what evolution can do for us. +So we threw in -- we created a primordial soup with lots of pieces of robots -- with bars, with motors, with neurons. +Put them all together, and put all this under kind of natural selection, under mutation, and rewarded things for how well they can move forward. +A very simple task, and it's interesting to see what kind of things came out of that. +So if you look, you can see a lot of different machines come out of this. They all move around. +Here's a physical robot that we actually have a population of brains, competing, or evolving on the machine. +It's like a rodeo show. They all get a ride on the machine, and they get rewarded for how fast or how far they can make the machine move forward. +And you can see these robots are not ready to take over the world yet, but they gradually learn how to move forward, and they do this autonomously. +So in these two examples, we had basically machines that learned how to walk in simulation, and also machines that learned how to walk in reality. +But I want to show you a different approach, and this is this robot over here, which has four legs. +It has eight motors, four on the knees and four on the hip. +It has also two tilt sensors that tell the machine which way it's tilting. +But this machine doesn't know what it looks like. +You look at it and you see it has four legs, the machine doesn't know if it's a snake, if it's a tree, it doesn't have any idea what it looks like, but it's going to try to find that out. +Initially, it does some random motion, and then it tries to figure out what it might look like. +This is the last cycle, and you can see it's pretty much figured out what its self looks like. And once it has a self-model, it can use that to derive a pattern of locomotion. +So what you're seeing here are a couple of machines -- a pattern of locomotion. +We were hoping that it wass going to have a kind of evil, spidery walk, but instead it created this pretty lame way of moving forward. +But when you look at that, you have to remember that this machine did not do any physical trials on how to move forward, nor did it have a model of itself. +It kind of figured out what it looks like, and how to move forward, and then actually tried that out. +So, we'll move forward to a different idea. +So that was what happened when we had a couple of -- that's what happened when you had a couple of -- OK, OK, OK -- -- they don't like each other. So there's a different robot. +That's what happened when the robots actually are rewarded for doing something. +What happens if you don't reward them for anything, you just throw them in? +So we have these cubes, like the diagram showed here. +The cube can swivel, or flip on its side, and we just throw 1,000 of these cubes into a soup -- this is in simulation --and don't reward them for anything, we just let them flip. We pump energy into this and see what happens in a couple of mutations. +So, initially nothing happens, they're just flipping around there. +But after a very short while, you can see these blue things on the right there begin to take over. +They begin to self-replicate. So in absence of any reward, the intrinsic reward is self-replication. +And we've actually built a couple of these, and this is part of a larger robot made out of these cubes. +It's an accelerated view, where you can see the robot actually carrying out some of its replication process. +So you're feeding it with more material -- cubes in this case -- and more energy, and it can make another robot. +So of course, this is a very crude machine, but we're working on a micro-scale version of these, and hopefully the cubes will be like a powder that you pour in. +OK, so what can we learn? These robots are of course not very useful in themselves, but they might teach us something about how we can build better robots, and perhaps how humans, animals, create self-models and learn. +And one of the things that I think is important is that we have to get away from this idea of designing the machines manually, but actually let them evolve and learn, like children, and perhaps that's the way we'll get there. Thank you. +The advances that have taken place in astronomy, cosmology and biology, in the last 10 years, are really extraordinary -- to the point where we know more about our universe and how it works than many of you might imagine. +But there was something else that I've noticed as those changes were taking place, as people were starting to find out that hmm ... yeah, there really is a black hole at the center of every galaxy. +The science writers and editors -- I shouldn't say science writers, I should say people who write about science -- and editors would sit down over a couple of beers, after a hard day of work, and start talking about some of these incredible perceptions about how the universe works. +And they would inevitably end up in what I thought was a very bizarre place, which is ways the world could end very suddenly. +And that's what I want to talk about today. Ah, you laugh, you fools. (Voice: Can we finish up a little early?) Yeah, we need the time! +Stephen Petranek: At first, it all seemed a little fantastical to me, but after challenging a lot of these ideas, I began to take a lot of them seriously. And then September 11 happened, and I thought, ah, God, I can't go to the TED conference and talk about how the world is going to end. +Nobody wants to hear that. Not after this! +So, we went out looking for solutions to ways that the world might end tomorrow, and lo and behold, we found them. +Which leads me to a videotape of a President Bush press conference from a couple of weeks ago. +Can we run that, Andrew? +President George W. Bush: Whatever it costs to defend our security, and whatever it costs to defend our freedom, we must pay it. +SP: I agree with the president. +He wants two trillion dollars to protect us from terrorists next year, a two-trillion-dollar federal budget, which will land us back into deficit spending real fast. +But terrorists aren't the only threat we face. +There are really serious calamities staring us in the eye that we're in the same kind of denial about that we were about terrorism, and what could've happened on September 11. +But I also hope, because I think the people in this room can literally change the world, I hope you take some of this stuff away with you, and when you have an opportunity to be influential, that you try to get some heavy-duty money spent on some of these ideas. +So let's start. Number 10: we lose the will to survive. +We live in an incredible age of modern medicine. +We are all much healthier than we were 20 years ago. +People around the world are getting better medicine -- but mentally, we're falling apart. +The World Health Organization now estimates that one out of five people on the planet is clinically depressed. +And the World Health Organization also says that depression is the biggest epidemic that humankind has ever faced. +Soon, genetic breakthroughs and even better medicine are going to allow us to think of 100 as a normal lifespan. +A female child born tomorrow, on average -- median -- will live to age 83. +Our life longevity is going up almost a year for every year that passes. +Now the problem with all of this, getting older, is that people over 65 are the most likely people to commit suicide. +So, what are the solutions? +We don't really have mental health insurance in this country, and it's -- -- it's really a crime. +Something like 98 percent of all people with depression, and I mean really severe depression -- I have a friend with stunningly severe depression -- this is a curable disease, with present medicine and present technology. +But it is often a combination of talk therapy and pills. +Pills alone don't do it, especially in clinically depressed people. +You ought to be able to go to a psychiatrist or a psychologist, and put down your 10-dollar copay, and get treated, just like you do when you got a cut on your arm. It's ridiculous. +Secondly, drug companies are not going to develop really sophisticated psychoactive drugs. We know that most mental illnesses have a biological component that can be dealt with. +And we know just an amazing amount more about the brain now than we did 10 years ago. We need a pump-push from the federal government, through NIH and National Science -- NSF -- and places like that to start helping the drug companies develop some advanced psychoactive drugs. +Moving on. Number nine -- don't laugh -- aliens invade Earth. +Ten years ago, you couldn't have found an astronomer -- well, very few astronomers -- in the world who would've told you that there are any planets anywhere outside our solar system. +1995, we found three. The count now is up to 80 -- we're finding about two or three a month. +All of the ones we've found, by the way, are in this little, teeny, tiny corner where we live, in the Milky Way. There must be millions of planets in the Milky Way, and as Carl Sagan insisted for many years, and was laughed at for it, there must be billions and billions in the universe. +In a few years, NASA is going to launch four or five telescopes out to Jupiter, where there's less dust, and start looking for Earth-like planets, which we cannot see with present technology, nor detect. +It's becoming obvious that the chance that life does not exist elsewhere in the universe, and probably fairly close to us, is a fairly remote idea. +And the chance that some of it isn't more intelligent than ours is also a remote idea. +Remember, we've only been an advanced civilization -- an industrial civilization, if you would -- for 200 years. +Although every time I go to Pompeii, I'm amazed that they had the equivalent of a McDonald's on every street corner, too. +Now, what will happen? What if they come to, you know, suck up our oceans for the hydrogen? +And swat us away like flies, the way we swat away flies when we go into the rainforest and start logging it. +We can look at our own history. The late physicist Gerard O'Neill said, "Advanced Western civilization has had a destructive effect on all primitive civilizations it has come in contact with, even in those cases where every attempt was made to protect and guard the primitive civilization." +If the aliens come visiting, we're the primitive civilization. +So, what are the solutions to this? Thank God you can all read! +It may seem ridiculous, but we have a really lousy history of anticipating things like this and actually being prepared for them. +How much energy and money does it take to actually have a plan to negotiate with an advanced species? +Secondly -- and you're going to hear more from me about this -- we have to become an outward-looking, space-faring nation. +We have got to develop the idea that the Earth doesn't last forever, our sun doesn't last forever. +If we want humanity to last forever, we have to colonize the Milky Way. +And that is not something that is beyond comprehension at this point. +It'll also help us a lot, if we meet an advanced civilization along the way, if we're trying to be an advanced civilization. Number eight -- (Voice: Steve, that's what I'm doing after TED.) SP: You've got it! You've got the job. +Number eight: the ecosystem collapses. +Last July, in Science, the journal Science, 19 oceanographers published a very, very unusual article. +It wasn't really a research report; it was a screed. +They said, we've been looking at the oceans for a long time now, and we want to tell you they're not in trouble, they're near collapse. +Many other ecosystems on Earth are in real, real danger. +We're living in a time of mass extinctions that exceeds the fossil record by a factor of 10,000. +We have lost 25 percent of the unique species in Hawaii in the last 20 years. +California is expected to lose 25 percent of its species in the next 40 years. +Somewhere in the Amazon forest is the marginal tree. +You cut down that tree, the rain forest collapses as an ecosystem. +There's really a tree like that out there. That's really what it comes to. +And when that ecosystem collapses, it could take a major ecosystem with it, like our atmosphere. So, what do we do about this? What are the solutions? +There is some modeling of ecosystems going on now. +The problem with ecosystems is that we understand them so poorly, that we don't know they're really in trouble until it's almost too late. +We need to know earlier that they're getting in trouble, and we need to be able to pump possible solutions into models. +And with the kind of computing power we have now, there is, as I say, some of this going on, but it needs money. +National Science Foundation needs to say -- you know, almost all the money that's spent on science in this country comes from the federal government, one way or another. +And they get to prioritize, you know? +There are people at the National Science Foundation who get to say, this is the most important thing. +This is one of the things they ought to be thinking more about. +Secondly, we need to create huge biodiversity reserves on the planet, and start moving them around. +There's been an experiment for the last four or five years on the Georges Bank, or the Grand Banks off of Newfoundland. It's a no-take fishing zone. +They can't fish there for a radius of 200 miles. +And an amazing thing has happened: almost all the fish have come back, and they're reproducing like crazy. We're going to have to start doing this around the globe. We're going to have to have no-take zones. +We're going to have to say, no more logging in the Amazon for 20 years. +Let it recover, before we start logging again. +Number seven: particle accelerator mishap. +You all remember Ted Kaczynski, the Unabomber? +One of the things he raved about was that a particle accelerator experiment could go haywire and set off a chain reaction that would destroy the world. +A lot of very sober-minded physicists, believe it or not, have had exactly the same thought. +This spring -- there's a collider at Brookhaven, on Long Island -- this spring, it's going to have an experiment in which it creates black holes. +They are expecting to create little, tiny black holes. +But, all around the world, in Japan, in Canada, there's talk about this, of reviving this in the United States. +We shut one down that was going to be big. +But there's talk of building very big accelerators. +What can we do about this? What are the solutions? +We've got the fox watching the henhouse here. +We need to -- we need the advice of particle physicists to talk about particle physics and what should be done in particle physics, but we need some outside thinking and watchdogging of what's going on with these experiments. +Secondly, we have a natural laboratory surrounding the Earth. +We have an electromagnetic field around the Earth, and it's constantly bombarded by high-energy particles, like protons. +And in my opinion, we don't spend enough time looking at that natural laboratory and figuring out first what's safe to do on Earth. +Number six: biotech disaster. +It's one of my favorite ones, because we've done several stories on Bt corn. +Bt corn is a corn that creates its own pesticide to kill a corn borer. +You may of heard of it -- heard it called StarLink, especially when all those taco shells were taken out of the supermarkets about a year and a half ago. +This stuff was supposed to only be feed for animals in the United States, and it got into the human food supply, and somebody should've figured out that it would get in the human food supply very easily. +But the thing that's alarming is a couple of months ago, in Mexico, where Bt corn and all genetically altered corn is totally illegal, they found Bt corn genes in wild corn plants. +Now, corn originated, we think, in Mexico. +This is the genetic biodiversity storehouse of corn. +This brings back a skepticism that has gone away recently, that superweeds and superpests could spread around the world, from biotechnology, that literally could destroy the world's food supply in very short order. +So, what do we do about that? +We treat biotechnology with the same scrutiny we apply to nuclear power plants. +It's that simple. This is an amazingly unregulated field. +When the StarLink disaster happened, there was a battle between the EPA and the FDA over who really had authority, and over what parts of this, and they didn't get it straightened out for months. That's kind of crazy. +Number five, one of my favorites: reversal of the Earth's magnetic field. +Believe it or not, this happens every few hundred thousand years, and has happened many times in our history. +North Pole goes to the South, South Pole goes to the North, and vice versa. +It's been 780,000 years since this happened. +So, it should have happened about 480,000 years ago. +Oh, and here's one other thing. +Scientists think now our magnetic field may be diminished by about five percent. +So, maybe we're in the throes of it. +One of the problems of trying to figure out how healthy the Earth is, is that we have -- you know, we don't have good weather data from 60 years ago, much less data on things like the ozone layer. +So, there's a fairly simple solution to this. +There's going to be a lot of cheap rocketry that's going to come online in about six or seven years that gets us into the low atmosphere very cheaply. +You know, we can make ozone from car tailpipes. +It's not hard: it's just three oxygen atoms. +If you brought the entire ozone layer down to the surface of the Earth, it would be the thickness of two pennies, at 14 pounds per square inch. +You don't need that much up there. +We need to learn how to repair and replenish the Earth's ozone layer. +Number four: giant solar flares. +Solar flares are enormous magnetic outbursts from the Sun that bombard the Earth with high-speed subatomic particles. +So far, our atmosphere has done, and our magnetic field has done pretty well protecting us from this. +Occasionally, we get a flare from the Sun that causes havoc with communications and so forth, and electricity. +But the alarming thing is that astronomers recently have been studying stars that are similar to our Sun, and they've found that a number of them, when they're about the age of our Sun, brighten by a factor of as much as 20. Doesn't last for very long. +And they think these are super-flares, millions of times more powerful than any flares we've had from our Sun so far. +Obviously, we don't want one of those. There's a flip side to it. In studying stars like our Sun, we've found that they go through periods of diminishment, when their total amount of energy that's expelled from them goes down by maybe one percent. +One percent doesn't sound like a lot, but it would cause one hell of an ice age here. +So, what can we do about this? +Start terraforming Mars. This is one of my favorite subjects. +I wrote a story about this in Life magazine in 1993. +This is rocket science, but it's not hard rocket science. +Everything that we need to make an atmosphere on Mars, and to make a livable planet on Mars, is probably there. +And you just, literally, have to send little nuclear factories up there that gobble up the iron oxide on the surface of Mars and spit out the oxygen. +The problem is it takes 300 years to terraform Mars, minimum. +Really more like 500 years to do it right. +There's no reason why we shouldn't start now. Number three -- isn't this stuff cool? A new global epidemic. People have been at war with germs ever since there have been people, and from time to time, the germs sure get the upper hand. +In 1918, we had a flu epidemic in the United States that killed 20 million people. +That was back when the population was around 100 million people. +The bubonic plague in Europe, in the Middle Ages, killed one out of four Europeans. +AIDS is coming back. Ebola seems to be rearing its head with much too much frequency, and old diseases like cholera are becoming resistant to antibiotics. +We've all learned what -- the kind of panic that can occur when an old disease rears its head, like anthrax. +The worst possibility is that a very simple germ, like staph, for which we have one antibiotic that still works, mutates. +And we know staph can do amazing things. +A staph cell can be next to a muscle cell in your body and borrow genes from it when antibiotics come, and change and mutate. +The danger is that some germ like staph will be -- will mutate into something that's really virulent, very contagious, and will sweep through populations before we can do anything about it. +That's happened before. About 12,000 years ago, there was a massive wave of mammal extinctions in the Americas, and that is thought to have been a virulent disease. +So, what can we do about it? +It is nuts. We give antibiotics -- -- every cow, every lamb, every chicken, they get antibiotics every day, all. +You know, you go to a restaurant, you eat fish, I got news for you, it's all farmed. You know, you gotta ask when you go to a restaurant if it's a wild fish, cause they're not going to tell you. We're giving away the code. +This is like being at war and giving somebody your secret code. +We're telling the germs out there how to fight us. +We gotta fix that. We gotta outlaw that right away. +Secondly, our public health system, as we saw with anthrax, is a real disaster. +We have a real, major outbreak of disease in the United States, we are not prepared to cope with it. +Now, there is money in the federal budget, next year, to build up the public health service. +But I don't think to any extent that it really needs to be done. +Number two -- my favorite -- we meet a rogue black hole. +You know, 10 years ago, or 15 years ago, really, you walk into an astronomy convention, and you say, "You know, there's probably a black hole at the center of every galaxy," and they're going to hoot you off the stage. +And now, if you went into one of those conventions and you said, "Well, I don't think black holes are out there," they'd hoot you off the stage. +Our comprehension of the way the universe works is really -- has just gained unbelievably in recent years. +We think that there are about 10 million dead stars in the Milky Way alone, our galaxy. +And these stars have compressed down to maybe something like 12, 15 miles wide, and they are black holes. And they are gobbling up everything around them, including light, which is why we can't see them. +Most of them should be in orbit around something. +But galaxies are very violent places, and things can be spun out of orbit. +And also, space is incredibly vast. +So even if you flung a million of these things out of orbit, the chances that one would actually hit us is fairly remote. +But it only has to get close, about a billion miles away, one of these things. +About a billion miles away, here's what happens to Earth's orbit: it becomes elliptical instead of circular. +And for three months out of the year, the surface temperatures go up to 150 to 180. +For three months out of the year, they go to 50 below zero. +That won't work too well. What can we do about this? +And this is my scariest. I don't have a good answer for this one. +Again, we gotta think about being a colonizing race. +And finally, number one: biggest danger to life as we know it, I think, a really big asteroid heads for Earth. +The important thing to remember here -- this is not a question of if, this is a question of when, and how big. +In 1908, just a 200-foot piece of a comet exploded over Siberia and flattened forests for maybe 100 miles. +It had the effect of about 1,000 Hiroshima bombs. +Astronomers estimate that little asteroids like that come about every hundred years. +In 1989, a large asteroid passed 400,000 miles away from Earth. +Nothing to worry about, right? +It passed directly through Earth's orbit. We were in that that spot six hours earlier. +A small asteroid, say a half mile wide, would touch off firestorms followed by severe global cooling from the debris kicked up -- Carl Sagan's nuclear winter thing. +An asteroid five miles wide causes major extinctions. +We think the one that got the dinosaurs was about five miles wide. +Where are they? There's something called the Kuiper belt, which -- some people think Pluto's not a planet, that's where Pluto is, it's in the Kuiper belt. +There's also something a little farther out, called the Oort cloud. +There are about 100,000 balls of ice and rock -- comets, really -- out there, that are 50 miles in diameter or more, and they regularly take a little spin, in towards the Sun and pass reasonably close to us. +Of more concern, I think, is the asteroids that exist between Mars and Jupiter. +The folks at the Sloan Digital Sky Survey told us last fall -- they're making the first map of the universe, three-dimensional map of the universe -- that there are probably 700,000 asteroids between Mars and Jupiter that are a half a mile big or bigger. +So you say, yeah, well, what are really the chances of this happening? +Andrew, can you put that chart up? +This is a chart that Dr. Clark Chapman at the Southwest Research Institute presented to Congress a few years ago. +You'll notice that the chance of an asteroid-slash-comet impact killing you is about one in 20,000, according to the work they've done. +Now look at the one right below that. +Passenger aircraft crash, one in 20,000. +We spend an awful lot of money trying to be sure that we don't die in airplane accidents, and we're not spending hardly anything on this. And yet, this is completely preventable. +We finally have, just in the last year, the technology to stop this cold. +Could we have the solutions? +NASA's spending three million dollars a year, three million bucks -- that is like pocket change -- to search for asteroids. +Because we can actually figure out every asteroid that's out there, and if it might hit Earth, and when it might hit Earth. +And they're trying to do that. +But it's going to take them 10 years, at spending three million dollars a year, and even then, they claim they'll only have about 80 percent of them catalogued. +Comets are a tougher act. +We don't really have the technology to predict comet trajectories, or when one with our name on it might arrive. +But we would have lots of time, if we see it coming. +We really need a dedicated observatory. +You'll notice that a lot of comets are named after people you never heard of, amateur astronomers? That's because nobody's looking for them, except amateurs. +We need a dedicated observatory that looks for comets. +Part two of the solutions: we need to figure out how to blow up an asteroid, or alter its trajectory. Now, a year ago, we did an amazing thing. +We sent a probe out to this asteroid belt, called NEAR, Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous. +And these guys orbited a 30 -- or no, about a 22-mile long asteroid called Eros. +And then, of course, you know, they pulled one of those sneaky NASA things, where they had extra batteries and extra gas aboard and everything, and then, at the last minute, they landed. +When the mission was over, they actually landed on the thing. +We have landed a rocket ship on an asteroid. It's not a big deal. +Now, the trouble with just sending a bomb out for this thing is that you don't have anything to push against in space, because there's no air. +A nuclear explosion is just as hot, but we don't really have anything big enough to melt a 22-mile long asteroid, or vaporize it, would be more like it. +But we can learn to land on these asteroids that have our name on them and put something like a small ion propulsion motor on it, which would gently, slowly, after a period of time, push it into a different trajectory, which, if we've done our math right, would keep it from hitting Earth. +This is just a matter of finding 'em, going there, and doing something about it. +I know your head is spinning from all this stuff. +Yikes! So many big threats! +The thing, I think, to remember, is September 11. +We don't want to get caught flat-footed again. +We know about this stuff. +Science has the power to predict the future in many cases now. +Knowledge is power. +The worst thing we can do is say, jeez, I got enough to worry about without worrying about an asteroid. That's a mistake that could literally cost us our future. +Thank you. +I have 18 minutes to tell you what happened over the past six million years. +All right. +We all have come from a long way, here in Africa, and converged in this region of Africa, which is a place where 90 percent of our evolutionary process took place. +And I say that not because I am African, but it's in Africa that you find the earliest evidence for human ancestors, upright walking traces, even the first technologies in the form of stone tools. +So we all are Africans, and welcome home. +All right. +I'm a paleoanthropologist, and my job is to define man's place in nature and explore what makes us human. +And today, I will use Selam, the earliest child ever discovered, to tell you a story of all of us. +Selam is our most complete skeleton of a three-year-old girl who lived and died 3.3 million years ago. +She belongs to the species known as Australopithecus afarensis. +You don't need to remember that. +That's the Lucy species, and was found by my research team in December of 2000 in an area called Dikika. +It's in the northeastern part of Ethiopia. +And Selam means peace in many Ethiopian languages. +We use that name to celebrate peace in the region and in the planet. +And the fact that it was the cover story of all these famous magazines gives you already an idea of her significance, I think. +After I was invited by TED, I did some digging, because that's what we do, to know about my host. +You don't just jump into an invitation. +And I learned that the first technology appeared in the form of stone tools, 2.6 million years ago. +First entertainment comes evidence from flutes that are 35,000 years old. +And evidence for first design comes 75,000 years old -- beads. +And you can do the same with your genes and track them back in time. +And DNA analysis of living humans and chimpanzees teaches us today that we diverged sometime around seven million years ago and that these two species share over 98 percent of the same genetic material. +I think knowing this is a very useful context within which we can think of our ancestry. +However, DNA analysis informs us only about the beginning and the end, telling us nothing about what happened in the middle. +So, for us, paleoanthropologists, our job is to find the hard evidence, the fossil evidence, to fill in this gap and see the different stages of development. +Because it's only when you do that, that you can talk about -- -- it's only when you do that, [that] you can talk about how we looked like and how we behaved at different times, and how those likes and looks and behaviors changed through time. +That then gives you an access to explore the biological mechanisms and forces that are responsible for this gradual change that made us what we are today. +But finding the hard evidence is a very complicated endeavor. +It's a systematic and scientific approach, which takes you to places that are remote, hot, hostile and often with no access. +Just to give you an example, when I went to Dikika, where Selam was found, in '99 -- and it's about 500 kilometers from Addis Ababa, the capital of Ethiopia. +It took us only seven hours to do the first 470 kilometers of the 500, but took four, solid hours to do the last only 30 kilometers. +With the help of the locals and using just shovels and picks, I made my way. +I was the first person to actually drive a car to the spot. +When you get there, this is what you see, and it's the vastness of the place which makes you feel helpless and vulnerable. +And once you make it there, the big question is where to start. +And you find nothing for years and years. +When I go to places like this, which are paleontological sites, it's like going to a game park, an extinct game park. +But what you find are not the human remains, such as Selam and Lucy, on a day-to-day basis. +You find elephants, rhinos, monkeys, pigs, etc. +But you could ask, how could these large mammals live in this desert environment? +Of course, they cannot, but I'm telling you already that the environment and the carrying capacity of this region was drastically different from what we have today. +A very important environmental lesson could be learned from this. +Anyway, once we made it there, then it's a game park, as I said, an extinct game park. +And our ancestors lived in that game park, but were just the minorities. They were not as successful and as widespread as the Homo sapiens that we are. +To tell you just an example, an anecdote about their rarity, I was going to this place every year and would do fieldwork here, and the assistants, of course, helped me do the surveys. +They would find a bone and tell me, "Here is what you're looking for." +I would say, "No, that's an elephant." +Again, another one, "That's a monkey." "That's a pig," etc. +So one of my assistants, who never went to school, said to me, "Listen, Zeray. +You either don't know what you're looking for, or you're looking in the wrong place," he said. +And I said, "Why?" "Because there were elephants and lions, and the people were scared and went somewhere else. +Let's go somewhere else." +Well, he was very tired, and it's really tiring. +It was then, after such hard work and many frustrating years that we found Selam, and you see the face here covered by sandstone. +And here is actually the spinal column and the whole torso encased in a sandstone block, because she was buried by a river. +What you have here seems to be nothing, but contains an incredible amount of scientific information that helps us explore what makes us human. +This is the earliest and most complete juvenile human ancestor ever found in the history of paleoanthropology, an amazing piece of our long, long history. +There were these three people and me, and I am taking the pictures, that's why I am not in. +How would you feel if you were me? You have something extraordinary in your hand, but you are in the middle of nowhere? +The feeling I had was a deep and quiet happiness and excitement, of course accompanied by a huge sense of responsibility, of making sure everything is safe. +Here is a close-up of the fossil, after five years of cleaning, preparation and description, which was very long, as I had to expose the bones from the sandstone block I just showed you in the previous slide. +It took five years. +In a way, this was like the second birth for the child, after 3.3 million years, but the labor was very long. +And here is full scale -- it's a tiny bone. +And in the middle is the minister of Ethiopian tourism, who came to visit the National Museum of Ethiopia while I was working there. +And you see me worried and trying to protect my child, because you don't leave anyone with this kind of child, even a minister. +So then, once you've done that, the next stage is to know what it is. +Once that was done, then it was possible to compare. +We were able to tell that she belonged to the human family tree because the legs, the foot, and some features clearly showed that she walked upright, and upright walking is a hallmark in humanity. +But in addition, if you compare the skull with a comparably aged chimpanzee and little George Bush here, you see that you have vertical forehead. +And you see that in humans, because of the development of the pre-frontal cortex, it's called. +You don't see that in chimpanzees, and you don't see this very projecting canine. +So she belongs to our family tree, but within that, of course, you do detailed analysis, and we know now that she belongs to the Lucy species, known as Australopithecus afarensis. +The next exciting question is, girl or boy? +And how old was she when she died? +You can determine the sex of the individual based on the size of the teeth. +How? +You know, in primates, there is this phenomenon called sexual dimorphism, which simply means males are larger than females and males have larger teeth than the females. +But to do that, you need the permanent dentition, which you don't see here, because what you have here are the baby teeth. +But using the CT scanning technology, which is normally used for medical purposes, you can go deep into the mouth and come up with this beautiful image showing you both the baby teeth here and the still-growing adult teeth here. +So when you measure those teeth, it was clear that she turned out to be a girl with very small canine teeth. +And to know how old she was when she died, what you do is you do an informed estimate, and you say, how much time would be required to form this amount of teeth, and the answer was three. +So, this girl died when she was about three, 3.3 million years ago. +So, with all that information, the big question is -- what do we actually -- what does she tell us? +To answer this question, we can phrase another question. +What do we actually know about our ancestors? +We want to know how they looked like, how they behaved, how they walked around, and how they lived and grew up. +And among the answers that you can get from this skeleton are included: first, this skeleton documents, for the first time, how infants looked over three million years ago. +And second, she tells us that she walked upright, but had some adaptation for tree climbing. +And more interesting, however, is the brain in this child was still growing. +At age three, if you have a still-growing brain, it's a human behavior. +In chimps, by age three, the brain is formed over 90 percent. +That's why they can cope with their environment very easily after birth -- faster than us, anyway. +But in humans, we continue to grow our brains. +That's why we need care from our parents. +But that care means also you learn. +You spend more time with your parents. +And that's very characteristic of humans and it's called childhood, which is this extended dependence of human children on their family or parents. +So, the still-growing brain in this individual tells us that childhood, which requires an incredible social organization, a very complex social organization, emerged over three million years ago. +So, by being at the cusp of our evolutionary history, Selam unites us all and gives us a unique account on what makes us human. +But not everything was human, and I will give you a very exciting example. +This is called the hyoid bone. It's a bone which is right here. +It supports your tongue from behind. +It's, in a way, your voice box. +It determines the type of voice you produce. +It was not known in the fossil record, and we have it in this skeleton. +When we did the analysis of this bone, it was clear that it looked very chimp-like, chimpanzee-like. +So if you were there 3.3 million years ago, to hear when this girl was crying out for her mother, she would have sounded more like a chimpanzee than a human. +Maybe you're wondering, "So, you see this ape feature, human feature, ape feature. +What does that tell us?" +You know, that is very exciting for us, because it demonstrates that things were changing slowly and progressively, and that evolution is in the making. +To summarize the significance of this fossil, we can say the following. +Up to now, the knowledge that we had about our ancestors came essentially from adult individuals because the fossils, the baby fossils, were missing. +They don't preserve well, as you know. +So the knowledge that we had about our ancestors, on how they looked like, how they behaved, was kind of biased toward adults. +Imagine somebody coming from Mars and his job is to report on the type of people occupying our planet Earth, and you hide all the babies, the children, and he goes back and reports. +Can you imagine how much biased his report would be? +That's what somehow we were doing so far in the absence of the fossil children, so I think the new fossil fixes this problem. +So, I think the most important question at the end is, what do we actually learn from specimens like this and from our past in general? +Of course, in addition to extracting this huge amount of scientific information as to what makes us human, you know, the many human ancestors that have existed over the past six million years -- and there are more than 10 -- they did not have the knowledge, the technology and sophistications that we, Homo sapiens, have today. +But if this species, ancient species, would travel in time and see us today, they would very much be very proud of their legacy, because they became the ancestors of the most successful species in the universe. +And they were probably not aware of this future legacy, but they did great. +Now the question is, we Homo sapiens today are in a position to decide about the future of our planet, possibly more. +So the question is, are we up to the challenge? +And can we really do better than these primitive, small-brained ancestors? +Among the most pressing challenges that our species is faced with today are the chronic problems of Africa. +Needless to list them here, and there are more competent people to talk about this. +Still, in my opinion, we have two choices. +One is to continue to see a poor, ill, crying Africa, carrying guns, that depends on other people forever, or to promote an Africa which is confident, peaceful, independent, but cognizant of its huge problems and great values at the same time. +I am for the second option, and I'm sure many of you are. +And the key is to promote a positive African attitude towards Africa. +That's because we Africans concentrate -- I am from Ethiopia, by the way -- we concentrate too much on how we are seen from elsewhere, or from outside. +I think it's important to promote in a more positive way on how we see ourselves. +That's what I call positive African attitude. +So finally, I would like to say, so let's help Africa walk upright and forward, then we all can be proud of our future legacy as a species. +Thank you. +I've actually been waiting by the phone for a call from TED for years. +And in fact, in 2000, I was ready to talk about eBay, but no call. +In 2003, I was ready to do a talk about the Skoll Foundation and social entrepreneurship. No call. +In 2004, I started Participant Productions and we had a really good first year, and no call. +And finally, I get a call last year, and then I have to go up after J.J. Abrams. +You've got a cruel sense of humor, TED. +When I first moved to Hollywood from Silicon Valley, I had some misgivings. +But I found that there were some advantages to being in Hollywood. +And, in fact, some advantages to owning your own media company. +And I also found that Hollywood and Silicon Valley have a lot more in common than I would have dreamed. +Hollywood has its sex symbols, and the Valley has its sex symbols. +Hollywood has its rivalries, and the Valley has its rivalries. +Hollywood gathers around power tables, and the Valley gathers around power tables. +So it turned out there was a lot more in common than I would have dreamed. +But I'm actually here today to tell a story. +And part of it is a personal story. When Chris invited me to speak, he said, people think of you as a bit of an enigma, and they want to know what drives you a bit. +And what really drives me is a vision of the future that I think we all share. +It's a world of peace and prosperity and sustainability. +And when we heard a lot of the presentations over the last couple of days, Ed Wilson and the pictures of James Nachtwey, I think we all realized how far we have to go to get to this new version of humanity that I like to call "Humanity 2.0." +And it's also something that resides in each of us, to close what I think are the two big calamities in the world today. +One is the gap in opportunity -- this gap that President Clinton last night called uneven, unfair and unsustainable -- and, out of that, comes poverty and illiteracy and disease and all these evils that we see around us. +But perhaps the other, bigger gap is what we call the hope gap. +And someone, at some point, came up with this very bad idea that an ordinary individual couldn't make a difference in the world. +And I think that's just a horrible thing. +And so chapter one really begins today, with all of us, because within each of us is the power to equal those opportunity gaps and to close the hope gaps. +And if the men and women of TED can't make a difference in the world, I don't know who can. +And for me, a lot of this started when I was younger and my family used to go camping in upstate New York. +And there really wasn't much to do there for the summer, except get beaten up by my sister or read books. +And so I used to read authors like James Michener and James Clavell and Ayn Rand. +And their stories made the world seem a very small and interconnected place. +And it struck me that if I could write stories that were about this world as being small and interconnected, that maybe I could get people interested in the issues that affected us all, and maybe engage them to make a difference. +I didn't think that was necessarily the best way to make a living, so I decided to go on a path to become financially independent, so I could write these stories as quickly as I could. +I then had a bit of a wake-up call when I was 14. +And my dad came home one day and announced that he had cancer, and it looked pretty bad. +And what he said was, he wasn't so much afraid that he might die, but that he hadn't done the things that he wanted to with his life. +And knock on wood, he's still alive today, many years later. +But for a young man that made a real impression on me, that one never knows how much time one really has. +So I set out in a hurry. I studied engineering. +I started a couple of businesses that I thought would be the ticket to financial freedom. +One of those businesses was a computer rental business called Micros on the Move, which is very well named, because people kept stealing the computers. +So I figured I needed to learn a little bit more about business, so I went to Stanford Business School and studied there. +And while I was there, I made friends with a fellow named Pierre Omidyar, who is here today. And Pierre, I apologize for this. This is a photo from the old days. +And just after I'd graduated, Pierre came to me with this idea to help people buy and sell things online with each other. +And with the wisdom of my Stanford degree, I said, "Pierre, what a stupid idea." +And needless to say, I was right. +But right after that, Pierre -- in '96, Pierre and I left our full-time jobs to build eBay as a company. And the rest of that story, you know. +The company went public two years later and is today one of the best known companies in the world. +Hundreds of millions of people use it in hundreds of countries, and so on. +But for me, personally, it was a real change. +I went from living in a house with five guys in Palo Alto and living off their leftovers, to all of a sudden having all kinds of resources. +And I wanted to figure out how I could take the blessing of these resources and share it with the world. +And around that time, I met John Gardner, who is a remarkable man. +He was the architect of the Great Society programs under Lyndon Johnson in the 1960s. +And I asked him what he felt was the best thing I could do, or anyone could do, to make a difference in the long-term issues facing humanity. +And John said, "Bet on good people doing good things. +Bet on good people doing good things." +And that really resonated with me. +I started a foundation to bet on these good people doing good things. +These leading, innovative, nonprofit folks, who are using business skills in a very leveraged way to solve social problems. +People today we call social entrepreneurs. +And to put a face on it, people like Muhammad Yunus, who started the Grameen Bank, has lifted 100 million people plus out of poverty around the world, won the Nobel Peace Prize. +But there's also a lot of people that you don't know. +Folks like Ann Cotton, who started a group called CAMFED in Africa, because she felt girls' education was lagging. +And she started it about 10 years ago, and today, she educates over a quarter million African girls. +And somebody like Dr. Victoria Hale, who started the world's first nonprofit pharmaceutical company, and whose first drug will be fighting visceral leishmaniasis, also known as black fever. +And by 2010, she hopes to eliminate this disease, which is really a scourge in the developing world. +And so this is one way to bet on good people doing good things. +And a lot of this comes together in a philosophy of change that I find really is powerful. +It's what we call, "Invest, connect and celebrate." +And invest: if you see good people doing good things, invest in them. Invest in their organizations, or in business. Invest in these folks. +Connecting them together through conferences -- like a TED -- brings so many powerful connections, or through the World Forum on Social Entrepreneurship that my foundation does at Oxford every year. +And celebrate them: tell their stories, because not only are there good people doing good work, but their stories can help close these gaps of hope. +And it was this last part of the mission, the celebrate part, that really got me back to thinking when I was a kid and wanted to tell stories to get people involved in the issues that affect us all. +And a light bulb went off, which was, first, that I didn't actually have to do the writing myself, I could find writers. +And then the next light bulb was, better than just writing, what about film and TV, to get out to people in a big way? +And I thought about the films that inspired me, films like "Gandhi" and "Schindler's List." +And I wondered who was doing these kinds of films today. +And there really wasn't a specific company that was focused on the public interest. +So, in 2003, I started to make my way around Los Angeles to talk about the idea of a pro-social media company and I was met with a lot of encouragement. +One of the lines of encouragement that I heard over and over was, "The streets of Hollywood are littered with the carcasses of people like you, who think you're going to come to this town and make movies." +And then of course, there was the other adage. +"The surest way to become a millionaire is to start by being a billionaire and go into the movie business." +Undeterred, in January of 2004, I started Participant Productions with the vision to be a global media company focused on the public interest. +And our mission is to produce entertainment that creates and inspires social change. +And we don't just want people to see our movies and say, that was fun, and forget about it. +We want them to actually get involved in the issues. +In 2005, we launched our first slate of films, "Murder Ball," "North Country," "Syriana" and "Good Night and Good Luck." +And much to my surprise, they were noticed. +We ended up with 11 Oscar nominations for these films. +And it turned out to be a pretty good year for this guy. +Perhaps more importantly, tens of thousands of people joined the advocacy programs and the activism programs that we created to go around the movies. +And we had an online component of that, our community sect called Participate.net. +But with our social sector partners, like the ACLU and PBS and the Sierra Club and the NRDC, once people saw the film, there was actually something they could do to make a difference. +One of these films in particular, called "North Country," was actually kind of a box office disaster. +But it was a film that starred Charlize Theron and it was about women's rights, women's empowerment, domestic violence and so on. +And we released the film at the same time that the Congress was debating the renewal of the Violence Against Women Act. +And with screenings on the Hill, and discussions, and with our social sector partners, like the National Organization of Women, the film was widely credited with influencing the successful renewal of the act. +And that to me, spoke volumes, because it's -- the film started about a true-life story about a woman who was harassed, sued her employer, led to a landmark case that led to the Equal Opportunity Act, and the Violence Against Women Act and others. +And then the movie about this person doing these things, then led to this greater renewal. +And so again, it goes back to betting on good people doing good things. +Speaking of which, our fellow TEDster, Al -- I first saw Al do his slide show presentation on global warming in May of 2005. +At that point, I thought I knew something about global warming. +I thought it was a 30 to 50 year problem. +And after we saw his slide show, it became clear that it was much more urgent. +And so right afterwards, I met backstage with Al, and with Lawrence Bender, who was there, and Laurie David, and Davis Guggenheim, who was running documentaries for Participant at the time. +And with Al's blessing, we decided on the spot to turn it into a film, because we felt that we could get the message out there far more quickly than having Al go around the world, speaking to audiences of 100 or 200 at a time. +And you know, there's another adage in Hollywood, that nobody knows nothing about anything. +And I really thought this was going to be a straight-to-PBS charitable initiative. +And so it was a great shock to all of us when the film really captured the public interest, and today is mandatory viewing in schools in England and Scotland, and most of Scandinavia. +We've sent 50,000 DVDs to high school teachers in the U.S. +and it's really changed the debate on global warming. +It was also a pretty good year for this guy. +We now call Al the George Clooney of global warming. +And for Participant, this is just the start. +Everything we do looks at the major issues in the world. +And we have 10 films in production right now, and dozens others in development. +I'll quickly talk about a few coming up. +One is "Charlie Wilson's War," with Tom Hanks and Julia Roberts. +And it's the true story of Congressman Charlie Wilson, and how he funded the Taliban to fight the Russians in Afghanistan. +And we're also doing a movie called "The Kite Runner," based on the book "The Kite Runner," also about Afghanistan. +And we think once people see these films, they'll have a much better understanding of that part of the world and the Middle East in general. +We premiered a film called "The Chicago 10" at Sundance this year. +It's based on the protesters at the Democratic Convention in 1968, Abby Hoffman and crew, and, again, a story about a small group of individuals who did make change in the world. +And a documentary that we're doing on Jimmy Carter and his Mid-East peace efforts over the years. +And in particular, we've been following him on his recent book tour, which, as many of you know, has been very non-controversial -- -- which is really bad for getting people to come see a movie. +In closing, I'd like to say that everybody has the opportunity to make change in their own way. +And all the people in this room have done so through their business lives, or their philanthropic work, or their other interests. +And one thing that I've learned is that there's never one right way to make change. +One can do it as a tech person, or as a finance person, or a nonprofit person, or as an entertainment person, but every one of us is all of those things and more. +And I believe if we do these things, we can close the opportunity gaps, we can close the hope gaps. +And I can imagine, if we do this, the headlines in 10 years might read something like these: "New AIDS Cases in Africa Fall to Zero," "U.S. Imports its Last Barrel of Oil" -- -- "Israelis and Palestinians Celebrate 10 Years of Peaceful Coexistence." +And I like this one, "Snow Has Returned to Kilimanjaro." +And finally, an eBay listing for one well-traveled slide show, now obsolete, museum piece. Please contact Al Gore. +And I believe that, working together, we can make all of these things happen. +And I want to thank you all for having me here today. +It's been a real honor. Thank you. +Oh, thank you. +Three years ago, I got a phone call, based on an earlier film I had made, with an offer to embed the New Hampshire National Guard. +My idea -- and literally, I woke up in the middle of the night, and we've all have those moments. You know, you go to sleep -- I was excited, with this phone call. +I was thinking, I just finished making another film about World War II vets, and I realized I'd gotten to know their stories, and I realized this was a once-in-a-lifetime opportunity to tell a warrior's story as it unfolded. +So I went to bed that night pretty excited. +Not sure of all the details, but excited. +It wasn't at four in the morning, but it was closer to midnight. +Woke straight up. Wide-awake as could be. +And I had this idea: what if I could, in effect, virtually embed, and create a permeable relationship with the soldiers? +To tell the story from the inside out, versus the outside in? +So, I called back Major Heilshorn, who's the public affairs officer of the New Hampshire National Guard. +And he knew me, so I was like, "Greg?" +He's like, "Yes, Deborah?" +Told him my idea, and you know, he is one of the bravest men in the world, as is General Blair, who, in the end, gave me permission to try this experiment. +Within 10 days, I was down at Fort Dix. +He gave me my pick of units. +I picked one unit -- Charlie Company, Third of the 172nd, they're mountain infantry -- for two reasons. +One, they're infantry. +Number two, they were going to be based at LSA Anaconda, so I knew they would have Internet access. +The caveat for my access was I had to get the soldiers to volunteer. +This was a big thing that I think when Major H told me, I wasn't really totally gathering what that would mean. +So what that meant was, when I went down to Fort Dix, I had to hop out in front of 180 guys and tell them of my vision. +You can imagine the hailstorm of questions I got. +The opening one was, "What the fuck do you know about the National Guard?" +I started with the 1607 Massachusetts Bay Colony Pequot Indian Wars. +Gave them about a nine minute response, and there we went. +So, I'd like to show the clip of the film. +It's our trailer, because I know, obviously you guys are busy, many of you may not have had a chance to see it. +So, I want to show the trailer, and then I'm going to take apart one scene in detail. +If we could roll? +Stephen Pink: This is Sergeant Stephen Pink. +Michael Moriarty: Specialist Michael Moriarty. +Zack Bazzi: Do I really want to go? Probably not. +Soldier: We're not supposed to talk to the media. +SP: I'm not the media, dammit! +MM: The day is here. Life will change. +Voice: The real deal, man! Narrator: You ready? +Soldier: Bring it on! Narrator: You ready? Voice 2: Iraq, here we come! +ZB: Every soldier eventually wants to go in combat. +It's natural instinct. +SP: If you let fear get to you, then you're not going to be doing your job. +MM: Every single time you go out there, there's attacks. +It's unbelievable. +ZB: Hey, Nestor, your ass crack is right in my face. +Soldiers: IV! Are we on fire? IV! +Man down! Man down! +MM: Keep going, brother. You wanna play? +Michael Moriarty's Wife: It's really hard for him to not have his dad. +MM: This little kid is in the middle of a war zone. +Stephen Pink's Girlfriend: In the beginning, he's like, "Write something dirty!" +George W. Bush: The world's newest democracy. +MM: They're shooting at me. +SP: You don't put 150,000 troops in there, and say we're there to create democracy. +Soldier: We've got a drive through window at Burger King now. +SP: We're here to create money. +MM: I support George Bush. We're not there for the oil. +Jon Baril: The worst thing in my life. +SP: Baril, don't look at it, bud. +Michael Moriarty's Wife: He's not the same person anymore. +MM: I will not go back. +Kevin Shangraw: The Iraqi people are who we are there to help -- and we just killed one. +Soldiers: Sergeant Smith is down! Sergeant Smith is down? +There they are! Right there! Fire, fire! +JB: It'll be a better country in 20 years, 'cause we were there. +I hope. +Deborah Scranton: Thank you. +One of the things I'd like to talk to you about is having a conversation about something that is difficult to talk about. +And I'd like to relate an experience I had here at TED. +I don't know how many of you might imagine it, but there's actually a TEDster who recently got back from Iraq. +Paul? Come on, stand up. +This is Paul Anthony. +He served -- -- with the Marines, and I want to tell you a little, brief story. +We were one of the lucky ones to get in the class with the Sony cameras and the Vista software. +Right? And we started talking. +People will see my tag, and they'll see "The War Tapes," and then we'll start talking about war. +We got in a conversation with some other people in the class, and it went on and on. +I mean, we were there for an hour, talking. +And it really highlighted something that I would like to ask you guys to think about and hopefully to help with, which is, I think a lot of us are very afraid to have conversations about war, and about politics. +And really -- because maybe we're going to disagree. +Maybe it's going to get uncomfortable. +How do we open it up to really be able to have a conversation? +And you know, Paul was talking, and he then turned to Constance and said, "You know, I wouldn't have this conversation if she weren't here, because I know she has my back." +And I want to say, I was nervous. +Because I'm used to doing Q&As. +I really related to what James was saying yesterday, because I'm behind the camera. +You know, I can answer questions about my movie, but for me to come up and talk for 18 minutes is a really long time. +So, I wanted to say, Paul, I'm happy you're here, because I know you have my back. +This film was not about the Internet, but it could not have been made without it. +The guys' tapes on average took two weeks to get from Iraq to me. +In the meantime, the soldiers -- we would email and IM. +I didn't save all of them, because I didn't realize at the beginning that it would be something that I would want to keep track of. +But there were 3,211 emails and IMs and text messages that I was able to save. +The reason I quantify that is because we really embarked on this as a mutual journey to really get inside of it. +So I wanted to show you a clip, and then I was going tell you a little bit of how it got put together. +If we could roll the clip. +SP: Today is sport. [Unclear] Radio: [Unclear] Christian soldiers. +SP: We like to give these insurgents a fair chance. +So, what we do, we ride with the windows down. +Because, you know, we obviously have the advantage. I'm just kidding. +We don't fucking ride with the goddam windows down. +It's not true. Very unsafe. +Whoa. +Soldier: Right there. +SP: All right, let's get over to that site. +Be advised, we're leaving Taji right now. +We believe that the blast was right outside the gate of Taji, we're heading to that location now. +Soldier: That's a fucking car bomb! +Soldier: Motherfuckers! +Soldiers: Get your vest on! +Hey, get over the fucking -- yeah, yeah. +Any one-four elements get to the gate! +SP: Sheriff one-six, or any one-four elements, we need you at the gate of Taji right now, over. +Soldier: I'll walk you through it. +SP: Stay low. Head over to the right. +Get your bag, get your bag! +SP: It was mass casualties. +Probably 20 dead, at least 20 or 30 wounded Iraqis. +SP: It just looked like, you know, someone had thrown a quarter through a guy, and it was just like -- there was no blood coming from the shrapnel wounds. +Everything was cauterized, and it was just like there was a void going through the body. +This is the scene north. +They just removed a burnt body, or half a body from here. +I don't think there was anything left from his abdominal down. +This is blood. +And you know, you walk, and you hear the pieces of skin. +And that's it, that's all that's left. +I remember giving three IVs, bandaging several wounded. +Soldiers sitting in the corner of a sandbag wall, shaking and screaming. +Medics who were terrified and couldn't perform. +I later heard that Iraqi casualties were not to be treated in Taji. +They can work on the post for pennies, but can't die there. +They've got to die outside. +If one of those incompetent medical officers told me to stop treatment, I would've slit his throat right there. +21:00 hours, and it's just our squad going through today's events in our heads, whether we want to or not. +News Anchor: More violence in Iraq. +Twin suicide car bombings killed eight Iraqis and wounded dozens more near a coalition base north of Baghdad. +SP: We made the news. +I feel exploited and proud at the same time. +I've lost all faith in the media -- a hapless joke I would much rather laugh at than become a part of. +I should really thank God for saving my lucky ass. +I'll do that, then I'm gonna jerk off. +Because these pages smell like Linds, and there won't be any time for jerking off tomorrow. +Another mission at 06:00. +DS: Now -- -- thanks. +When I said earlier, to try and tell a story from the inside out, versus the outside in -- part of what Chris said so eloquently in his introduction -- is this melding. +It's a new way of trying to make a documentary. +When I met the guys, and 10 of them agreed to take cameras -- in total, 21 ended up filming. +Five soldiers filmed the entire time. +There are three featured in the film. +The way I learned about Taji was Steve Pink sent me an email, and in it, attached a photo of that burned body out at the car. +And the tone from the email was, you know, it had been a very bad day, obviously. +And I saw in my IM window that Mike Moriarty was at the base. +So, I pinged Mike and I said, "Mike, can you please go get that interview with Pink?" +Because the thing that very often is missing is, in the military what they call "hot wash." +It's that immediate interview after something immediately happens, you know. +And if you let time go by, it kind of softens and smooths the edges. +And for me, I really wanted that. +So, in order to get the intimacy, to share that experience with you, the guys -- the two most popular mounts -- there was a camera on the turret, the gun turret, and then on the dashboard of the Humvee. +Most of the Humvees, we ended up mounting two cameras in them. +So you get to experience that in real time, right? +The interview that you see is the one that Mike went and did within 24 hours of that episode happening. +Steve Pink reading his journal happened five months after he came home. +I knew about that journal, but it was very, very private. +And you know, you earn someone's trust, especially in doc filmmaking, through your relationship. +So, it wasn't until five months after he was home that he would read that journal. +Now, the news footage I put in there to try to show -- you know, I think mainstream media tries to do the best they can in the format that they have. +But the thing that I know you all have heard a lot of times, American soldiers saying, "Why don't they talk about the good stuff that we do?" +OK, this is a perfect example. +Pink's squad and another squad spent their entire day outside the wire. +They didn't have to go outside the wire. +There were not Americans hurt out there. +They spent their entire day outside the wire trying to save Iraqi lives -- the Iraqis who work on the post. +So, when you may hear soldiers complaining, that's what they're talking about, you know? +And I think it's such an amazing gift that they would share this as a way of bridging. +And when I talk about that polarity I get at so many different Q&As, and people are really opinionated. +But it seems like people don't want to hear so much, or listen, or try to have an exchange. +And I'm as fiery as the next person, but I really think -- you know, different speakers have talked about their concern for the world, and my concern is that we have to have these conversations. +And we have to be able to go into scary places where we may, you know, we think we know. +But we just have to leave that little bit of openness, to know. +There's such a disconnect. +And for me, it's trying to bridge that disconnect. +I'll share one story. +I get -- I'm often asked, you know, for me, what have been some of the special moments from having worked on this film. +And at screenings, inevitably -- you know, as I'm sure all of you obviously do speaking stuff -- usually you have people who hang around and want to ask you more questions. +And usually, the first questions are, "Oh, what kind of cameras did you use?" +Or you know, these things. +But there's always a few guys, almost always, who are the last ones. +And I've learned over time that those are always the soldiers. +And they wait until pretty much everybody's gone. +And for me, one of the most profound stories someone shared with me, that then became my story, was -- for those of you who haven't seen the film, and it's not a spoiler -- it's very common there are a lot of civilian accidents, where people get in front of Humvees and they get killed. +In this film, there is a scene where an Iraqi woman is killed. +A soldier came up to me and stood, you know really, pretty close, a foot away from me. +He's a big guy. +And he looked at me, and I smiled, and then I saw the tears start welling up in his eyes. +And he wasn't going to blink. +And he said, "My gunner was throwing candy." +And I knew what he was going to say. +The gunner was throwing candy. +They used to throw candy to the kids. +Kids got too close, very often. +And he said, "I killed a child. +And I'm a father. I have children. +I haven't been able to tell my wife. +I'm afraid she's going to think I'm a monster." +I hugged him, of course, and I said, you know, "It's going to be OK." +And he said, "I'm going to bring her to see your film. +And then I'm going to tell her." +So when I talk about a disconnect, it's not only for maybe those people who don't know a soldier, which there obviously are. You know, these days, it's not like World War II, where there was a war front and a home front, and everybody seemed involved. +You can go for days here and not feel like there's a war going on. +And often, I'll hear people say, who maybe know that I did this film, and they say, "Oh, you know, I'm against the war, but I support the soldiers." +And I've started to ask them, "Well, that's nice. What are you doing? +Are you volunteering at a VA? +You go and see anybody? +Do you, if you find out your neighbor's been, do you spend some time? +Not necessarily ask questions, but see if they want to talk? +Do you give money to any of the charities?" +You know, obviously, like Dean Kamen's working on that amazing thing, but there's charities where you can sponsor computers for wounded soldiers. +I think, I challenge us to say -- to operationalize those terms, when we say we support someone, you know? +Are you a friend to them? +Do you really care? +And I would just say it's my hope, and I would ask you guys to please, you know, reach out a hand. +And really do give them a hug. +Thank you. +On simplicity. What a great way to start. +First of all, I've been watching this trend where we have these books like such and such "For Dummies." +Do you know these books, these such and such "For Dummies?" +My daughters pointed out that I'm very similar looking, so this is a bit of a problem. +But I was looking online at Amazon.com for other books like this. +You know, there's also something called the "Complete Idiot's Guide?" +There's a sort of business model around being stupid in some sense. +We like to have technology make us feel bad, for some strange reason. +But I really like that, so I wrote a book called "The Laws of Simplicity." +I was in Milan last week, for the Italian launch. +It's kind of a book about questions, questions about simplicity. +Very few answers. I'm also wondering myself, what is simplicity? +Is it good? Is it bad? Is complexity better? I'm not sure. +After I wrote "The Laws of Simplicity," I was very tired of simplicity, as you can imagine. +And so in my life, I've discovered that vacation is the most important skill for any kind of over-achiever. +Because your companies will always take away your life, but they can never take away your vacation -- in theory. +So, I went to the Cape last summer to hide from simplicity, and I went to the Gap, because I only have black pants. +So I went and bought khaki shorts or whatever, and unfortunately, their branding was all about "Keep It Simple." +I opened up a magazine, and Visa's branding was, "Business Takes Simplicity." +I develop photographs, and Kodak said, "Keep It Simple." +So, I felt kind of weird that simplicity was sort of following me around. +So, I turned on the TV, and I don't watch TV very much, but you know this person? This is Paris Hilton, apparently. +And she has this show, "The Simple Life." +So I watched this. It's not very simple, a little bit confusing. +So, I looked for a different show to watch. +So, I opened up this TV Guide thing, and on the E! channel, this "Simple Life" show is very popular. +They'll play it over, and over, and over. +So it was traumatizing, actually. +So, I wanted to escape again, so I went out to my car. +And Cape Cod, there are idyllic roads, and all of us can drive in this room. +And when you drive, these signs are very important. +It's a very simple sign, it says, "road" and "road approaching." +So I'm mostly driving along, okay, and then I saw this sign. +So, I thought complexity was attacking me suddenly, so I thought, "Ah, simplicity. Very important." +But then I thought, "Oh, simplicity. What would that be like on a beach? +What if the sky was 41 percent gray? Wouldn't that be the perfect sky?" +I mean that simplicity sky. +But in reality, the sky looked like this. It was a beautiful, complex sky. +You know, with the pinks and blues. We can't help but love complexity. +We're human beings: we love complex things. +We love relationships -- very complex. So we love this kind of stuff. +I'm at this place called the Media Lab. +Maybe some of you guys have heard of this place. +It's designed by I. M. Pei, one of the premier modernist architects. +Modernism means white box, and it's a perfect white box. +And some of you guys are entrepreneurs, etc., whatever. +Last month, I was at Google, and, boy, that cafeteria, man. +You guys have things here in Silicon Valley like stock options. +See, in academia, we get titles, lots of titles. +Last year at TED, these were all my titles. I had a lot of titles. +I have a default title as a father of a bunch of daughters. +This year at TED, I'm happy to report that I have new titles, in addition to my previous titles. +Another "Associate Director of Research." +And this also happened, so I have five daughters now. +That's my baby Reina. Thank you. +And so, my life is much more complex because of the baby, actually, but that's okay. We will still stay married, I think. +But looking way back, when I was a child -- you see, I grew up in a tofu factory in Seattle. +Many of you may not like tofu because you haven't had good tofu, but tofu's a good food. It's a very simple kind of food. +It's very hard work to make tofu. +As a child, we used to wake up at 1 a.m. and work till 6 p.m., six days a week. +My father was kind of like Andy Grove, paranoid of the competition. +So often, seven days a week. Family business equals child labor. +We were a great model. So, I loved going to school. +School was great, and maybe going to school helped me get to this Media Lab place, I'm not sure. +Thank you. +But the Media Lab is an interesting place, and it's important to me because as a student, I was a computer science undergrad, and I discovered design later on in my life. +And there was this person, Muriel Cooper. +Who knows Muriel Cooper? Muriel Cooper? +Wasn't she amazing? Muriel Cooper. She was wacky. +And she was a TEDster, exactly, and she showed us, she showed the world how to make the computer beautiful again. +And she's very important in my life, because she's the one that told me to leave MIT and go to art school. +It was the best advice I ever got. So I went to art school, because of her. +She passed away in 1994, and I was hired back to MIT to try to fill her shoes, but it's so hard. +This amazing person, Muriel Cooper. +When I was in Japan -- I went to an art school in Japan -- I had a nice sort of situation, because somehow I was connected to Paul Rand. +Some of you guys know Paul Rand, the greatest graphic designer -- I'm sorry -- out there. +The great graphic designer Paul Rand designed the IBM logo, the Westinghouse logo. +He basically said, "I've designed everything." +And also Ikko Tanaka was a very important mentor in my life -- the Paul Rand of Japan. He designed most of the major icons of Japan, like Issey Miyake's brand and also Muji. +When you have mentors -- and yesterday, Kareem Abdul-Jabbar talked about mentors, these people in your life -- the problem with mentors is that they all die. +This is a sad thing, but it's actually a happy thing in a way, because you can remember them in their pure form. +I think that the mentors that we all meet sort of humanize us. +When you get older, and you're all freaked out, whatever, the mentors calm us down. +And I'm grateful for my mentors, and I'm sure all of you are too. +Because the human thing is very hard when you're at MIT. +The T doesn't stand for "human," it stands for "technology." +And because of that, I always wondered about this human thing. +So, I've always been Googling this word, "human," to find out how many hits I get. +And in 2001, I had 26 million hits, and for "computer," because computers are against humans a bit, I have 42 million hits. Let me do an Al Gore here. +So, if you sort of compare that, like this, you'll see that computer versus human -- I've been tracking this for the last year -- computer versus human over the last year has changed. +It used to be kind of two to one. Now, humans are catching up. +Very good, us humans! We're catching up with the computers. +In the simplicity realm, it's also interesting. +So if you compare complexities to simplicity, it's also catching up in a way, too. +So, somehow humans and simplicity are intertwined, I think. +I have a confession: I'm not a man of simplicity. +I spent my entire early career making complex stuff. +Lots of complex stuff. +I wrote computer programs to make complex graphics like this. +I had clients in Japan to make really complex stuff like this. +And I've always felt bad about it, in a sense. +So, I hid in a time dimension. +I built things in a time-graphics dimension. +I did this series of calendars for Shiseido. +This is a floral theme calendar in 1997, and this is a firework calendar. So, you launch the number into space, because the Japanese believe that when you see fireworks, you're cooler for some reason. +This is why they have fireworks in the summer. +A very extreme culture. +Lastly, this is a fall-based calendar, because I have so many leaves in my yard. +So this is the leaves in my yard, essentially. +And so I made a lot of these types of things. +I've been lucky to have been there before people made these kind of things, and so I made all this kind of stuff that messes with your eyes. +I feel kind of bad about that. +Tomorrow, Paola Antonelli is speaking. I love Paola. +She has this show right now at MoMA, where some of these early works are here on display at MoMA, on the walls. +If you're in New York, please go and see that. +But I've had a problem, because I make all this flying stuff and people say, "Oh, I know your work. +You're the guy that makes eye candy." +And when you're told this, you feel kind of weird. +"Eye candy" -- sort of pejorative, don't you think? +So, I say, "No, I make eye meat," instead. +And eye meat is something different, something more fibrous, something more powerful, perhaps. But what could that be, eye meat? +I've been interested in computer programs all my life, actually. +Computer programs are essentially trees, and when you make art with a computer program, there's kind of a problem. +Whenever you make art with a computer program, you're always on the tree, and the paradox is that for excellent art, you want to be off the tree. +So, this is sort of a complication I've found. +So, to get off the tree, I began to use my old computers. +I took these to Tokyo in 2001 to make computer objects. +This is a new way to type, on my old, color Classic. +You can't type very much on this. +I also discovered that an IR mouse responds to CRT emissions and starts to move by itself, so this is a self-drawing machine. +And also, one year, the G3 Bondi Blue thing -- that caddy would come out, like, dangerous, like, "whack," like that. +But I thought, "This is very interesting. What if I make like a car crash test?" +So I have a crash test. +And sort of measure the impact. Stuff like this are things I made, just to sort of understand what these things are. +Shortly after this, 9/11 happened, and I was very depressed. +I was concerned with contemporary art that was all about piss, and sort of really sad things, and so I wanted to think about something happy. +So I focused on food as my area -- these sort of clementine peel things. +In Japan, it's a wonderful thing to remove the clementine peel just in one piece. Who's done that before? One-piece clementine? +Oh, you guys are missing out, if you haven't done it yet. +It was very good, and I discovered I can make sculptures out of this, actually, in different forms. +If you dry them quick, you can make, like, elephants and steers and stuff, and my wife didn't like these, because they mold, so I had to stop that. +So, I went back to the computer, and I bought five large fries, and scanned them all. And I was looking for some kind of food theme, and I wrote some software to automatically lay out french-fry images. +And as a child, I'd hear that song, you know, "Oh, beautiful, for spacious skies, for amber waves of grain," so I made this amber waves image. +It's sort of a Midwest cornfield out of french fries. +And also, as a child, I was the fattest kid in class, so I used to love Cheetos. Oh, I love Cheetos, yummy. +So, I wanted to play with Cheetos in some way. +I wasn't sure where to go with this. I invented Cheeto paint. +Cheeto paint is a very simple way to paint with Cheetos. +I discovered that Cheetos are good, expressive material. +And with these Cheetos, I began to think, "What can I make with these Cheetos?" +And so, I began to crinkle up potato chip flecks, and also pretzels. +I was looking for some kind of form, and in the end, I made 100 butter-fries. Do you get it? +And each butter-fry is composed of different pieces. +People ask me how they make the antenna. +Sometimes, they find a hair in the food. That's my hair. +My hair's clean -- it's okay. +I'm a tenured professor, which means, basically, I don't have to work anymore. +It's a strange business model. I can come into work everyday and staple five pieces of paper and just stare at it with my latte. +End of story. +But I realized that life could be very boring, so I've been thinking about life, and I notice that my camera -- my digital camera versus my car, a very strange thing. +The car is so big, the camera is so small, yet the manual for the camera is so much bigger than the car manual. +It doesn't make any sense. +So, I was in the Cape one time, and I typed the word "simplicity," and I discovered, in this weird, M. Night Shyamalan way, that I discovered [the] letters, M, I, T. You know the word? +In the words "simplicity" and "complexity," M, I, T occur in perfect sequence. +It's a bit eerie, isn't it? +So, I thought, maybe I'll do this for the next twenty years or something. +And I wrote this book, "The Laws of Simplicity." +It's a very short, simple book. There are ten laws and three keys. +The ten laws and three keys -- I won't go over them because that's why I have a book, and also that's why it's on the Web for free. +But the laws are kind of like sushi in a way: there are all kinds. +In Japan, they say that sushi is challenging. +You know the uni is the most challenging, so number ten is challenging. +People hate number ten like they hate uni, actually. +The three keys are easy to eat, so this is anago, cooked already, so easy to eat. +So enjoy your sushi meal later, with the laws of simplicity. +Because I want to simplify them for you. +Because that's what this is about. I have to simplify this thing. +So, if I simplify the laws of simplicity, I have what's called the cookie versus laundry thing. +Anyone who has kids knows that if you offer a kid a big cookie or a small cookie, which cookie are they going to take? The big cookie. +You can say the small cookie has Godiva chocolate bits in it, but it doesn't work. They want the big cookie. +But if you offer kids two piles of laundry to fold, the small pile or the big pile, which will they choose? +Strangely, not the big pile. So, I think it's as simple as this. +You know, when you want more, it's because you want to enjoy it. +When you want less, it's because it's about work. +And so, to boil it all down, simplicity is about living life with more enjoyment and less pain. +I think this is sort of simple more versus less. +Basically, it always depends. +This book I wrote because I want to figure out life. +I love life. I love being alive. I like to see things. +And so life is a big question, I think, in simplicity, because you're trying to simplify your life. +And I just love to see the world. The world is an amazing place. +By being at TED, we see so many things at one time. +And I can't help but enjoy looking at everything in the world. +Like everything you see, every time you wake up. +It's such a joy to sort of experience everything in the world. +From everything from a weird hotel lobby, to Saran wrap placed over your window, to this moment where I had my road in front of my house paved dark black, and this white moth was sitting there dying in the sun. +And so, this whole thing has struck me as exciting to be here, because life is finite. +This was given to me by the chairman of Shiseido. +He's an expert in aging. This horizontal axis is how old you are -- twelve years old, twenty-four years old, seventy-four, ninety-six years old -- and this is some medical data. So, brain strength increases up to 60, and then after 60, it sort of goes down. Kind of depressing in a way. +Also, if you look at your physical strength. +You know, I have a lot of cocky freshmen at MIT, so I tell them, "Oh, your bodies are really getting stronger and stronger, but in your late twenties and mid-thirties, cells, they die." +OK. It gets them to work harder, sometimes. +And if you have your vision, vision is interesting. +As you age from infant age, your vision gets better, and maybe in your late teens, early twenties, you're looking for a mate, and your vision goes after that. +Your social responsibility is very interesting. +So, as you get older, you may, like, have kids, whatever. +And then the kids graduate, and you have no responsibility any more -- that's very good, too. +But if any of you people ask, "What actually goes up? Does anything go up? +What's the positive part of this, you know?" I think wisdom always goes up. +I love these eighty-year-old, ninety-year-old guys and women. +They have so many thoughts, and they have so much wisdom, and I think -- you know, this TED thing, I've come here. +And this is the fourth time, and I come here for this wisdom, I think. +This whole TED effect, it sort of ups your wisdom, somehow. +And I'm so glad to be here, and I'm very grateful to be here, Chris. +And this is an amazing experience for me as well. +As an architect you design for the present, with an awareness of the past, for a future which is essentially unknown. +The green agenda is probably the most important agenda and issue of the day. +And I'd like to share some experience over the last 40 years -- we celebrate our fortieth anniversary this year -- and to explore and to touch on some observations about the nature of sustainability. +How far you can anticipate, what follows from it, what are the threats, what are the possibilities, the challenges, the opportunities? +I think that -- I've said in the past, many, many years ago, before anybody even invented the concept of a green agenda, that it wasn't about fashion -- it was about survival. +But what I never said, and what I'm really going to make the point is, that really, green is cool. +I mean, all the projects which have, in some way, been inspired by that agenda are about a celebratory lifestyle, in a way celebrating the places and the spaces which determine the quality of life. +I rarely actually quote anything, so I'm going to try and find a piece of paper if I can, [in] which somebody, at the end of last year, ventured the thought about what for that individual, as a kind of important observer, analyst, writer -- a guy called Thomas Friedman, who wrote in the Herald Tribune, about 2006. +He said, "I think the most important thing to happen in 2006 was that living and thinking green hit Main Street. +We reached a tipping point this year where living, acting, designing, investing and manufacturing green came to be understood by a critical mass of citizens, entrepreneurs and officials as the most patriotic, capitalistic, geo-political and competitive thing they could do. +Hence my motto: green is the new red, white and blue." +And I asked myself, in a way, looking back, "When did that kind of awareness of the planet and its fragility first appear?" +And I think it was July 20, 1969, when, for the first time, man could look back at planet Earth. +And, in a way, it was Buckminster Fuller who coined that phrase. +And before the kind of collapse of the communist system, I was privileged to meet a lot of cosmonauts in Space City and other places in Russia. +And interestingly, as I think back, they were the first true environmentalists. +They were filled with a kind of pioneering passion, fired about the problems of the Aral Sea. +And at that period it was -- in a way, a number of things were happening. +Buckminster Fuller was the kind of green guru -- again, a word that had not been coined. +He was a design scientist, if you like, a poet, but he foresaw all the things that are happening now. +It's another subject. It's another conversation. +You can go back to his writings: it's quite extraordinary. +It was at that time, with an awareness fired by Bucky's prophecies, his concerns as a citizen, as a kind of citizen of the planet, that influenced my thinking and what we were doing at that time. +And it's a number of projects. +I select this one because it was 1973, and it was a master plan for one of the Canary Islands. +And this probably coincided with the time when you had the planet Earth's sourcebook, and you had the hippie movement. +And there are some of those qualities in this drawing, which seeks to sum up the recommendations. +And all the components are there which are now in common parlance, in our vocabulary, you know, 30-odd years later: wind energy, recycling, biomass, solar cells. +And in parallel at that time, there was a very kind of exclusive design club. +People who were really design conscious were inspired by the work of Dieter Rams, and the objects that he would create for the company called Braun. +This is going back the mid-'50s, '60s. +And despite Bucky's prophecies that everything would be miniaturized and technology would make an incredible style -- access to comfort, to amenities -- it was very, very difficult to imagine that everything that we see in this image, would be very, very stylishly packaged. +And that, and more besides, would be in the palm of your hand. +And I think that that digital revolution now is coming to the point where, as the virtual world, which brings so many people together here, finally connects with the physical world, there is the reality that that has become humanized, so that digital world has all the friendliness, all the immediacy, the orientation of the analog world. +Probably summed up in a way by the stylish or alternative available here, as we generously had gifted at lunchtime, the [unclear], which is a further kind of development -- and again, inspired by the incredible sort of sensual feel. +A very, very beautiful object. +So, something which in [the] '50s, '60s was very exclusive has now become, interestingly, quite inclusive. +And I think it's very tempting to, in a way, seduce ourselves -- as architects, or anybody involved with the design process -- that the answer to our problems lies with buildings. +Buildings are important, but they're only a component of a much bigger picture. +In other words, as I might seek to demonstrate, if you could achieve the impossible, the equivalent of perpetual motion, you could design a carbon-free house, for example. +That would be the answer. +Unfortunately, it's not the answer. +It's only the beginning of the problem. +You cannot separate the buildings out from the infrastructure of cites and the mobility of transit. +For example, if, in that Bucky-inspired phrase, we draw back and we look at planet Earth, and we take a kind of typical, industrialized society, then the energy consumed would be split between the buildings, 44 percent, transport, 34 percent, and industry. +But again, that only shows part of the picture. +If you looked at the buildings together with the associated transport, in other words, the transport of people, which is 26 percent, then 70 percent of the energy consumption is influenced by the way that our cites and infrastructure work together. +So the problems of sustainability cannot be separated from the nature of the cities, of which the buildings are a part. +For example, if you take, and you make a comparison between a recent kind of city, what I'll call, simplistically, a North American city -- and Detroit is not a bad example, it is very car dependent. +The city goes out in annular rings, consuming more and more green space, and more and more roads, and more and more energy in the transport of people between the city center -- which again, the city center, as it becomes deprived of the living and just becomes commercial, again becomes dead. +If you compared Detroit with a city of a Northern European example -- and Munich is not a bad example of that, with the greater dependence on walking and cycling -- then a city which is really only twice as dense, is only using one-tenth of the energy. +In other words, you take these comparable examples and the energy leap is enormous. +So basically, if you wanted to generalize, you can demonstrate that as the density increases along the bottom there, that the energy consumed reduces dramatically. +Of course you can't separate this out from issues like social diversity, mass transit, the ability to be able to walk a convenient distance, the quality of civic spaces. +But again, you can see Detroit, in yellow at the top, extraordinary consumption, down below Copenhagen. +And Copenhagen, although it's a dense city, is not dense compared with the really dense cities. +In the year 2000, a rather interesting thing happened. +You had for the first time mega-cities, [of] 5 million or more, which were occurring in the developing world. +And now, out of typically 46 cities, 33 of those mega-cities are in the developing world. +So you have to ask yourself -- the environmental impact of, for example, China or India. +If you take China, and you just take Beijing, you can see on that traffic system, and the pollution associated with the consumption of energy as the cars expand at the price of the bicycles. +In other words, if you put onto the roads, as is currently happening, 1,000 new cars every day -- statistically, it's the biggest booming auto market in the world -- and the half a billion bicycles serving one and a third billion people are reducing. +And that urbanization is extraordinary, accelerated pace. +So, if we think of the transition in our society of the movement from the land to the cities, which took 200 years, then that same process is happening in 20 years. +In other words, it is accelerating by a factor of 10. +And quite interestingly, over something like a 60-year period, we're seeing the doubling in life expectancy, over that period where the urbanization has trebled. +How does it affect the design of buildings? +And particularly, how can it lead to the creation of buildings which consume less energy, create less pollution and are more socially responsible? +That story, in terms of buildings, started in the late '60s, early '70s. +The one example I take is a corporate headquarters for a company called Willis and Faber, in a small market town in the northeast of England, commuting distance with London. +And here, the first thing you can see is that this building, the roof is a very warm kind of overcoat blanket, a kind of insulating garden, which is also about the celebration of public space. +In other words, for this community, they have this garden in the sky. +So the humanistic ideal is very, very strong in all this work, encapsulated perhaps by one of my early sketches here, where you can see greenery, you can see sunlight, you have a connection with nature. +And nature is part of the generator, the driver for this building. +And symbolically, the colors of the interior are green and yellow. +It has facilities like swimming pools, it has flextime, it has a social heart, a space, you have contact with nature. +Now this was 1973. +In 2001, this building received an award. +And the award was about a celebration for a building which had been in use over a long period of time. +And the people who'd created it came back: the project managers, the company chairmen then. +And they were saying, you know, "The architects, Norman was always going on about designing for the future, and you know, it didn't seem to cost us any more. +So we humored him, we kept him happy." +The image at the top, what it doesn't -- if you look at it in detail, really what it is saying is you can wire this building. +This building was wired for change. +So, in 1975, the image there is of typewriters. +And when the photograph was taken, it's word processors. +And what they were saying on this occasion was that our competitors had to build new buildings for the new technology. +We were fortunate, because in a way our building was future-proofed. +It anticipated change, even though those changes were not known. +Round about that design period leading up to this building, I did a sketch, which we pulled out of the archive recently. +And I was saying, and I wrote, "But we don't have the time, and we really don't have the immediate expertise at a technical level." +In other words, we didn't have the technology to do what would be really interesting on that building. +And that would be to create a kind of three-dimensional bubble -- a really interesting overcoat that would naturally ventilate, would breathe and would seriously reduce the energy loads. +Notwithstanding the fact that the building, as a green building, is very much a pioneering building. +And if I fast-forward in time, what is interesting is that the technology is now available and celebratory. +The library of the Free University, which opened last year, is an example of that. +And again, the transition from one of the many thousands of sketches and computer images to the reality. +And a combination of devices here, the kind of heavy mass concrete of these book stacks, and the way in which that is enclosed by this skin, which enables the building to be ventilated, to consume dramatically less energy, and where it's really working with the forces of nature. +And what is interesting is that this is hugely popular by the people who use it. +Again, coming back to that thing about the lifestyle, and in a way, the ecological agenda is very much at one with the spirit. +So it's not a kind of sacrifice, quite the reverse. +I think it's a great -- it's a celebration. +And you can measure the performance, in terms of energy consumption, of that building against a typical library. +If I show another aspect of that technology then, in a completely different context -- this apartment building in the Alps in Switzerland. +Prefabricated from the most traditional of materials, but that material -- because of the technology, the computing ability, the ability to prefabricate, make high-performance components out of timber -- very much at the cutting edge. +And just to give a sort of glimpse of that technology, the ability to plot points in the sky and to transmit, to transfer that information now, directly into the factory. +So if you cross the border -- just across the border -- a small factory in Germany, and here you can see the guy with his computer screen, and those points in space are communicated. +And on the left are the cutting machines, which then, in the factory, enable those individual pieces to be fabricated and plus or minus very, very few millimeters, to be slotted together on site. +And then interestingly, that building to then be clad in the oldest technology, which is the kind of hand-cut shingles. +One quarter of a million of them applied by hand as the final finish. +And again, the way in which that works as a building, for those of us who can enjoy the spaces, to live and visit there. +If I made the leap into these new technologies, then how did we -- what happened before that? +I mean, you know, what was life like before the mobile phone, the things that you take for granted? +Well, obviously the building still happened. +I mean, this is a glimpse of the interior of our Hong Kong bank of 1979, which opened in 1985, with the ability to be able to reflect sunlight deep into the heart of this space here. +And in the absence of computers, you have to physically model. +So for example, we would put models under an artificial sky. +For wind tunnels, we would literally put them in a wind tunnel and blast air, and the many kilometers of cable and so on. +And the turning point was probably, in our terms, when we had the first computer. +And that was at the time that we sought to redesign, reinvent the airport. +This is Terminal Four at Heathrow, typical of any terminal -- big, heavy roof, blocking out the sunlight, lots of machinery, big pipes, whirring machinery. +And Stansted, the green alternative, which uses natural light, is a friendly place: you know where you are, you can relate to the outside. +And for a large part of its cycle, not needing electric light -- electric light, which in turn creates more heat, which creates more cooling loads and so on. +And at that particular point in time, this was one of the few solitary computers. +And that's a little image of the tree of Stansted. +Not going back very far in time, 1990, that's our office. +And if you looked very closely, you'd see that people were drawing with pencils, and they were pushing, you know, big rulers and triangles. +It's not that long ago, 17 years, and here we are now. +I mean, major transformation. +Going back in time, there was a lady called Valerie Larkin, and in 1987, she had all our information on one disk. +Now, every week, we have the equivalent of 84 million disks, which record our archival information on past, current and future projects. +That reaches 21 kilometers into the sky. +This is the view you would get, if you looked down on that. +But meanwhile, as you know, wonderful protagonists like Al Gore are noting the inexorable rise in temperature, set in the context of that, interestingly, those buildings which are celebratory and very, very relevant to this place. +Our Reichstag project, which has a very familiar agenda, I'm sure, as a public place where we sought to, in a way, through a process of advocacy, reinterpret the relationship between society and politicians, public space. And maybe its hidden agenda, an energy manifesto -- something that would be free, completely free of fuel as we know it. +So it would be totally renewable. +And again, the humanistic sketch, the translation into the public space, but this very, very much a part of the ecology. +But here, not having to model it for real. +Obviously the wind tunnel had a place, but the ability now with the computer to explore, to plan, to see how that would work in terms of the forces of nature: natural ventilation, to be able to model the chamber below, and to look at biomass. +A combination of biomass, aquifers, burning vegetable oil -- a process that, quite interestingly, was developed in Eastern Germany, at the time of its dependence on the Soviet Bloc. +So really, retranslating that technology and developing something which was so clean, it was virtually pollution-free. +You can measure it again. +You can compare how that building, in terms of its emission in tons of carbon dioxide per year -- at the time that we took that project, over 7,000 tons -- what it would have been with natural gas and finally, with the vegetable oil, 450 tons. +I mean, a 94 percent reduction -- virtually clean. +We can see the same processes at work in terms of the Commerce Bank -- its dependence on natural ventilation, the way that you can model those gardens, the way they spiral around. +But again, very much about the lifestyle, the quality -- something that would be more enjoyable as a place to work. +And again, we can measure the reduction in terms of energy consumption. +There is an evolution here between the projects, and Swiss Re again develops that a little bit further -- the project in the city in London. +And this sequence shows the buildup of that model. +But what it shows first, which I think is quite interesting, is that here you see the circle, you see the public space around it. +What are the other ways of putting the same amount of space on the site? +If, for example, you seek to do a building which goes right to the edge of the pavement, it's the same amount of space. +And finally, you profile this, you cut grooves into it. +The grooves become the kind of green lungs which give views, which give light, ventilation, make the building fresher. +And you enclose that with something that also is central to its appearance, which is a mesh of triangulated structures -- again, in a long connection evocative of some of those works of Buckminster Fuller, and the way in which triangulation can increase performance and also give that building its sense of identity. +And here, if we look at a detail of the way that the building opens up and breathes into those atria, the way in which now, with a computer, we can model the forces, we can see the high pressure, the low pressure, the way in which the building behaves rather like an aircraft wing. +So it also has the ability, all the time, regardless of the direction of the wind, to be able to make the building fresh and efficient. +And unlike conventional buildings, the top of the building is celebratory. +It's a viewing place for people, not machinery. +And the base of the building is again about public space. +Comparing it with a typical building, what happens if we seek to use such design strategies in terms of really large-scale thinking? +And I'm just going to give two images out of a kind of company research project. +It's been well known that the Dead Sea is dying. +The level is dropping, rather like the Aral Sea. +And the Dead Sea is obviously much lower than the oceans and seas around it. +So there has been a project which rescues the Dead Sea by creating a pipeline, a pipe, sometimes above the surface, sometimes buried, that will redress that, and will feed from the Gulf of Aqaba into the Dead Sea. +And our translation of that, using a lot of the thinking built up over the 40 years, is to say, what if that, instead of being just a pipe, what if it is a lifeline? +What if it is the equivalent, depending on where you are, of the Grand Canal, in terms of tourists, habitation, desalination, agriculture? +In other words, water is the lifeblood. +And if you just go back to the previous image, and you look at this area of volatility and hostility, that a unifying design idea as a humanitarian gesture could have the affect of bringing all those warring factions together in a united cause, in terms of something that would be genuinely green and productive in the widest sense. +Infrastructure at that large scale is also inseparable from communication. +And whether that communication is the virtual world or it is the physical world, then it's absolutely central to society. +And how do we make more legible in this growing world, especially in some of the places that I'm talking about -- China, for example, which in the next ten years will create 400 new airports. +Now what form do they take? +How do you make them more friendly at that scale? +Hong Kong I refer to as a kind of analog experience in a digital age, because you always have a point of reference. +So what happens when we take that and you expand that further into the Chinese society? +And what is interesting is that that produces in a way perhaps the ultimate mega-building. +It is physically the largest project on the planet at the moment. +250 -- excuse me, 50,000 people working 24 hours, seven days. +Larger by 17 percent than every terminal put together at Heathrow -- built -- plus the new, un-built Terminal Five. +And the challenge here is a building that will be green, that is compact despite its size and is about the human experience of travel, is about friendly, is coming back to that starting point, is very, very much about the lifestyle. +And perhaps these, in the end, as celebratory spaces. +As Hubert was talking over lunch, as we sort of engaged in conversation, talked about this, talked about cities. +Hubert was saying, absolutely correctly, "These are the new cathedrals." +And in a way, one aspect of this conversation was triggered on New Year's Eve, when I was talking about the Olympic agenda in China in terms of its green ambitions and aspirations. +And I was voicing the thought that -- it just crossed my mind that New Year's Eve, a sort of symbolic turning point as we move from 2006 to 2007 -- that maybe, you know, the future was the most powerful, innovative sort of nation. +The way in which somebody like Kennedy inspirationally could say, "We put a man on the moon." +You know, who is going to say that we cracked this thing of the dependence on fossil fuels, with all that being held to ransom by rogue regimes, and so on. +And that's a concerted platform. +It's more than one device, you know, it's renewable. +And I voiced the thought that maybe at the turn of the year, I thought that the inspiration was more likely to come from those other, larger countries out there -- the Chinas, the Indias, the Asian-Pacific tigers. +Thank you very much. +I have a tough job to do. +You know, when I looked at the profile of the audience here, with their connotations and design, in all its forms, and with so much and so many people working on collaborative and networks, and so on, that I wanted to tell you, I wanted to build an argument for primary education in a very specific context. +In order to do that in 20 minutes, I have to bring out four ideas -- it's like four pieces of a puzzle. +And if I succeed in doing that, maybe you would go back with the thought that you could build on, and perhaps help me do my work. +The first piece of the puzzle is remoteness and the quality of education. +Now, by remoteness, I mean two or three different kinds of things. +Of course, remoteness in its normal sense, which means that as you go further and further away from an urban center, you get to remoter areas. +What happens to education? +The second, or a different kind of remoteness is that within the large metropolitan areas all over the world, you have pockets, like slums, or shantytowns, or poorer areas, which are socially and economically remote from the rest of the city, so it's us and them. +What happens to education in that context? +So keep both of those ideas of remoteness. +We made a guess. The guess was that schools in remote areas do not have good enough teachers. +If they do have, they cannot retain those teachers. +They do not have good enough infrastructure. +And if they had some infrastructure, they have difficulty maintaining it. +The graph was interesting, although you need to consider it carefully. +I mean, this is a very small sample; you should not generalize from it. +But it was quite obvious, quite clear, that for this particular route that I had taken, the remoter the school was, the worse its results seemed to be. +That seemed a little damning, and I tried to correlate it with things like infrastructure, or with the availability of electricity, and things like that. +To my surprise, it did not correlate. +It did not correlate with the size of classrooms. +It did not correlate with the quality of the infrastructure. +It did not correlate with the poverty levels. It did not correlate. +I would imagine that a teacher who comes or walks into class every day thinking that, I wish I was in some other school, probably has a deep impact on what happens to the results. +So it looked as though teacher motivation and teacher migration was a powerfully correlated thing with what was happening in primary schools, as opposed to whether the children have enough to eat, and whether they are packed tightly into classrooms and that sort of thing. It appears that way. +When you take education and technology, then I find in the literature that, you know, things like websites, collaborative environments -- you've been listening to all that in the morning -- it's always piloted first in the best schools, the best urban schools, and, according to me, biases the result. +The literature -- one part of it, the scientific literature -- consistently blames ET as being over-hyped and under-performing. +The teachers always say, well, it's fine, but it's too expensive for what it does. +Because it's being piloted in a school where the students are already getting, let's say, 80 percent of whatever they could do. +You put in this new super-duper technology, and now they get 83 percent. +So the principal looks at it and says, 3 percent for 300,000 dollars? Forget it. +If you took the same technology and piloted it into one of those remote schools, where the score was 30 percent, and, let's say, took that up to 40 percent -- that will be a completely different thing. +So the relative change that ET, Educational Technology, would make, would be far greater at the bottom of the pyramid than at the top, but we seem to be doing it the other way about. +So I came to this conclusion that ET should reach the underprivileged first, not the other way about. +And finally came the question of, how do you tackle teacher perception? +Whenever you go to a teacher and show them some technology, the teacher's first reaction is, you cannot replace a teacher with a machine -- it's impossible. +I don't know why it's impossible, but, even for a moment, if you did assume that it's impossible -- I have a quotation from Sir Arthur C. Clarke, the science fiction writer whom I met in Colombo, and he said something which completely solves this problem. +He said a teacher than can be replaced by a machine, should be. +So, you know, it puts the teacher into a tough bind, you have to think. +Anyway, so I'm proposing that an alternative primary education, whatever alternative you want, is required where schools don't exist, where schools are not good enough, where teachers are not available or where teachers are not good enough, for whatever reason. +If you happen to live in a part of the world where none of this applies, then you don't need an alternative education. +So far I haven't come across such an area, except for one case. I won't name the area, but somewhere in the world people said, we don't have this problem, because we have perfect teachers and perfect schools. +There are such areas, but -- anyway, I'd never heard that anywhere else. +I'm going to talk about children and self-organization, and a set of experiments which sort of led to this idea of what might an alternative education be like. +They're called the hole-in-the-wall experiments. +I'll have to really rush through this. They're a set of experiments. +The first one was done in New Delhi in 1999. +And what we did over there was pretty much simple. +I had an office in those days which bordered a slum, an urban slum, so there was a dividing wall between our office and the urban slum. +And this is what we saw. +So that was my office in IIT. Here's the hole-in-the-wall. +About eight hours later, we found this kid. +To the right is this eight-year-old child who -- and to his left is a six-year-old girl, who is not very tall. +And what he was doing was, he was teaching her to browse. +So it sort of raised more questions than it answered. +Is this real? Does the language matter, because he's not supposed to know English? +Will the computer last, or will they break it and steal it -- and did anyone teach them? +The last question is what everybody said, but you know, I mean, they must have poked their head over the wall and asked the people in your office, can you show me how to do it, and then somebody taught him. +So I took the experiment out of Delhi and repeated it, this time in a city called Shivpuri in the center of India, where I was assured that nobody had ever taught anybody anything. +So it was a warm day, and the hole in the wall was on that decrepit old building. This is the first kid who came there; he later on turned out to be a 13-year-old school dropout. +He came there and he started to fiddle around with the touchpad. +Very quickly, he noticed that when he moves his finger on the touchpad something moves on the screen -- and later on he told me, "I have never seen a television where you can do something." +So he figured that out. It took him over two minutes to figure out that he was doing things to the television. +And then, as he was doing that, he made an accidental click by hitting the touchpad -- you'll see him do that. +He did that, and the Internet Explorer changed page. +Eight minutes later, he looked from his hand to the screen, and he was browsing: he was going back and forth. +When that happened, he started calling all the neighborhood children, like, children would come and see what's happening over here. +And by the evening of that day, 70 children were all browsing. +So eight minutes and an embedded computer seemed to be all that we needed there. +So we thought that this is what was happening: that children in groups can self-instruct themselves to use a computer and the Internet. But under what circumstances? +At this time there was a -- the main question was about English. +People said, you know, you really ought to have this in Indian languages. +So I said, have what, shall I translate the Internet into some Indian language? That's not possible. +So, it has to be the other way about. +But let's see, how do the children tackle the English language? +I took the experiment out to northeastern India, to a village called Madantusi, where, for some reason, there was no English teacher, so the children had not learned English at all. +And I built a similar hole-in-the-wall. +One big difference in the villages, as opposed to the urban slums: there were more girls than boys who came to the kiosk. +In the urban slums, the girls tend to stay away. +I left the computer there with lots of CDs -- I didn't have any Internet -- and came back three months later. +So when I came back there, I found these two kids, eight- and 12-year-olds, who were playing a game on the computer. +And as soon as they saw me they said, "We need a faster processor and a better mouse." +I was real surprised. +You know, how on earth did they know all this? +And they said, "Well, we've picked it up from the CDs." +So I said, "But how did you understand what's going on over there?" +So they said, "Well, you've left this machine which talks only in English, so we had to learn English." +So then I measured, and they were using 200 English words with each other -- mispronounced, but correct usage -- words like exit, stop, find, save, that kind of thing, not only to do with the computer but in their day-to-day conversations. +So, Madantusi seemed to show that language is not a barrier; in fact they may be able to teach themselves the language if they really wanted to. +Finally, I got some funding to try this experiment out to see if these results are replicable, if they happen everywhere else. +India is a good place to do such an experiment in, because we have all the ethnic diversities, all the -- you know, the genetic diversity, all the racial diversities, and also all the socio-economic diversities. +So, I could actually choose samples to cover a cross section that would cover practically the whole world. +So I did this for almost five years, and this experiment really took us all the way across the length and breadth of India. +This is the Himalayas. Up in the north, very cold. +I also had to check or invent an engineering design which would survive outdoors, and I was using regular, normal PCs, so I needed different climates, for which India is also great, because we have very cold, very hot, and so on. +This is the desert to the west. Near the Pakistan border. +And you see here a little clip of -- one of these villages -- the first thing that these children did was to find a website to teach themselves the English alphabet. +Then to central India -- very warm, moist, fishing villages, where humidity is a very big killer of electronics. +So we had to solve all the problems we had without air conditioning and with very poor power, so most of the solutions that came out used little blasts of air put at the right places to keep the machines running. +I want to just cut this short. We did this over and over again. +This sequence is also nice. This is a small child, a six-year-old, telling his eldest sister what to do. +And this happens very often with these computers, that the younger children are found teaching the older ones. +What did we find? We found that six- to 13-year-olds can self-instruct in a connected environment, irrespective of anything that we could measure. +So if they have access to the computer, they will teach themselves, including intelligence. +I couldn't find a single correlation with anything, but it had to be in groups. +And that may be of great, you know, interest to this group, because all of you are talking about groups. +So here was the power of what a group of children can do, if you lift the adult intervention. +Just a quick idea of the measurements. +We took standard statistical techniques, so I'm going to not talk about that. +But we got a clean learning curve, almost exactly the same as what you would get in a school. +I'll leave it at that, because, I mean, it sort of says it all, doesn't it? +What could they learn to do? +Basic Windows functions, browsing, painting, chatting and email, games and educational material, music downloads, playing video. +In short, what all of us do. +And over 300 children will become computer literate and be able to do all of these things in six months with one computer. +So, how do they do that? +If you calculated the actual time of access, it would work out to minutes per day, so that's not how it's happening. +What you have, actually, is there is one child operating the computer. +And surrounding him are usually three other children, who are advising him on what they should do. +If you test them, all four will get the same scores in whatever you ask them. +Around these four are usually a group of about 16 children, who are also advising, usually wrongly, about everything that's going on on the computer. +And all of them also will clear a test given on that subject. +So they are learning as much by watching as they learn by doing. +It seems counter-intuitive to adult learning, but remember, eight-year-olds live in a society where most of the time they are told, don't do this, you know, don't touch the whiskey bottle. +So what does the eight-year-old do? +He observes very carefully how a whiskey bottle should be touched. +And if you tested him, he would answer every question correctly on that topic. +So, they seem to be able to acquire very quickly. +So what was the conclusion over the six years of work? +It was that primary education can happen on its own, or parts of it can happen on its own. +It does not have to be imposed from the top downwards. +It could perhaps be a self-organizing system, so that was the second bit that I wanted to tell you, that children can self-organize and attain an educational objective. +The third piece was on values, and again, to put it very briefly, I conducted a test over 500 children spread across all over India, and asked them -- I gave them about 68 different values-oriented questions and simply asked them their opinions. +We got all sorts of opinions. Yes, no or I don't know. +I simply took those questions where I got 50 percent yeses and 50 percent noes -- so I was able to get a collection of 16 such statements. +These were areas where the children were clearly confused, because half said yes and half said no. +A typical example being, "Sometimes it is necessary to tell lies." +They don't have a way to determine which way to answer this question; perhaps none of us do. +So I leave you with this third question. +Can technology alter the acquisition of values? +Finally, self-organizing systems, about which, again, I won't say too much because you've been hearing all about it. +Natural systems are all self-organizing: galaxies, molecules, cells, organisms, societies -- except for the debate about an intelligent designer. +But at this point in time, as far as science goes, it's self-organization. +But other examples are traffic jams, stock market, society and disaster recovery, terrorism and insurgency. +And you know about the Internet-based self-organizing systems. +So here are my four sentences then. +Remoteness affects the quality of education. +Educational technology should be introduced into remote areas first, and other areas later. +Values are acquired; doctrine and dogma are imposed -- the two opposing mechanisms. +And learning is most likely a self-organizing system. +If you put all the four together, then it gives -- according to me -- it gives us a goal, a vision, for educational technology. +An educational technology and pedagogy that is digital, automatic, fault-tolerant, minimally invasive, connected and self-organized. +As educationists, we have never asked for technology; we keep borrowing it. +PowerPoint is supposed to be considered a great educational technology, but it was not meant for education, it was meant for making boardroom presentations. +We borrowed it. Video conferencing. The personal computer itself. +I think it's time that the educationists made their own specs, and I have such a set of specs. This is a brief look at that. +And such a set of specs should produce the technology to address remoteness, values and violence. +So I thought I'd give it a name -- why don't we call it "outdoctrination." +And could this be a goal for educational technology in the future? +So I want to leave that as a thought with you. +Thank you. +I am known best for human-powered flight, but that was just one thing that got me going in the sort of things that I'm working in now. +As a youngster, I was very interested in model airplanes, ornithopters, autogyros, helicopters, gliders, power planes, indoor models, outdoor models, everything, which I just thought was a lot of fun, and wondered why most other people didn't share my same enthusiasm with them. +While this was all going on, I was in the field of weather modification, although getting a Ph.D. in aeronautics. +But then, 1971 started AeroVironment, with no employees -- then one or two, three, and sort of fumbled along on trying to get interesting projects. +We had AirDynamisis, who, like I, did not want to work for aerospace companies on some big, many year project, and so we did our small projects, and the company slowly grew. +The thing that is exciting was, in 1976, I suddenly got interested in the human-powered airplane because I'd made a made a loan to a friend of 100,000 dollars, or I guaranteed the money at the bank. +He needed them -- he needed the money for starting a company. +So suddenly, I was interested in human-powered flight -- -- and did not -- the way I approached it, first, thinking about ways to make the planes, was just like they'd been doing in England, and not succeeding, and I gave it up. I figured, nah, there isn't any simple, easy way. +You're down to a third of the speed, a third of the power, and a good bicyclist can put out that power, and that worked, and we won the prize a year later. +We didn't -- a lot of flying, a lot of experiments, a lot of things that didn't work, and ones that did work, and the plane kept getting a little better, a little better. +Got a good pilot, Brian Allen, to operate it, and finally, succeeded. But unfortunately, about 65,000 dollars was spent on the project. +And there was only about 30 to help retire the debt. +But fortunately, Henry Kramer, who put up the prize for -- that was a one-mile flight -- put up a new prize for flying the English Channel, 21 miles. +And he thought it would take another 18 years for somebody to win that. +We realized that if you just cleaned up our Gossamer Condor a little bit, the power to fly would be decreased a little bit, and if you decrease the power required a little, the pilot can fly a much longer period of time. +And Brian Allen was able, in a miraculous flight, to get the Gossamer Albatross across the English Channel, and we won the 100,000-pound, 200,000-dollar prize for that. +And when all expenses were paid, the debt was handled, and everything was fine. +It turned out that giving the planes to the museum was worth much more than the debt, so for five years, six years, I only had to pay one third income tax. +So, there were good economic reasons for the project, but -- -- that's not, well, the project was done entirely for economic reasons, and we have not been involved in any human-powered flight since then -- -- because the prizes are all over. +But that sure started me thinking about various things, and immediately, we began making a solar-powered plane because we felt solar power was going to be so important for the country and the world, we didn't want the small funding in the government to be decreased, which is what the government was trying to do with it. +And we thought a solar-powered plane wouldn't really make sense, but you could do it and it would get a lot of publicity for solar power and maybe help that field. +And that project continued, did succeed, and we then got into other projects in aviation and mechanical things and ground devices. +But while this was going on, in 1982, I got a prize from the Lindbergh Foundation -- their annual prize -- and I had to prepare a paper on it, which collected all my varied thoughts and varied interests over the years. +This was the one chance that I had to focus on what I, really, was after, and what was important. And to my surprise, I realized the importance of environmental issues, which Charles Lindbergh devoted the last third of his life to, and preparing that paper did me a lot of good. +I thought back about if I was a space traveler, and came and visited Earth every 5,000 years. +And for a few thousand visits, I would see the same thing every time, the little differences in the Earth. +But this last time, just coming round, right now, suddenly, there'd be huge changes in the environment, in the concentration of people, and it was just unbelievable, the amount of -- all the change in it. +I wanted to show the slide -- this slide, I think, is the most important one any of you will see, ever, because -- -- it shows nature versus humans, and goes from 1850 to 2050. +And so, the year 2000, you see there. +And this is the weight of all air and land vertebrates. +Humans and muskrats and giraffes and birds and so on, are -- the red line goes up. That's the humans and livestock and pets portion. +The green line goes down. That's the wild nature portion. +Humans, livestock and pets are, now, 98 percent of the total world's mass of vertebrates on land and air. +And you don't know what the future will hold, but it's not going to get a lower percentage. +Ten thousand years ago, the humans and livestock and pets were not even one tenth of one percent and wouldn't even have been visible on such a curve. +Now they are 98 percent, and it, I think, shows human domination of the Earth. +I give a talk to some remarkable high school students each summer, and ask them, after they've asked me questions, and I give them a talk and so on. Then I ask them questions. +What's the population of the Earth? +What's the population of the Earth going to be when you're the age of your parents? +Which I'd never, really -- they had never, really, thought about but, now, they think about it. +And then, what population of the Earth would be an equilibrium that could continue on, and be for 2050, 2100, 2150? +And they form little groups, all fighting with each other, and when I leave, two hours later, most of them are saying about 2 billion people, and they don't have any clue about how to get down to 2 billion, nor do I, but I think they're right and this is a serious problem. +Rachel Carson was thinking of these, and came out with "Silent Spring," way back. +"Solar Manifesto" by Hermann Scheer, in Germany, claims all energy on Earth can be derived, for every country, from solar energy and water, and so on. +You don't need to dig down for these chemicals, and we can do things much more efficiently. +Let's have the next slide. +So this just summarizes it. "Over billions of years, on a unique sphere, chance has painted a thin covering of life -- complex and probable, wonderful and fragile. +Suddenly, we humans, a recently arrived species, no longer subject to the checks and balances inherent in nature, have grown in population, technology and intelligence to a position of terrible power. We, now, wield the paintbrush." +We're in charge. It's frightening. +And I do a painting every 20 or 25 years. This is the last one. +And [it] shows the Earth in a time flag: on the right, in trilobites and dinosaurs and so on; and over the triangle, we now get to civilization and TV and traffic jams and so on. +I have no idea of what comes next, so I just used robotic and natural cockroaches as the future, as a little warning. +And two weeks after this drawing was done, we actually had our first project contract, at AeroVironment, on robotic cockroaches, which was very frightening to me. +(Paper rustling) Well, that'll be all the slides. +As time went on, we stopped our environmental programs. +We focused more on the really serious energy problems of the future, and we produced products for the company. +And we developed the impact car that General Motors made, the EV1, out of -- and got the Air Resources Board to have the regulations that stimulated the electric cars, but they've since come apart. +And we've done a lot of things, small drone airplanes and so on. +I have a Helios. We have the first video. +Narrator: With a wingspan of 247 feet, this makes her larger than a Boeing 747. +Her designers' attention to detail and her construction gives Helios' structure the flexibility and strength to deal with the turbulence encountered in the atmosphere. +This enables her to easily ride through the air currents as if she's sliding along on the ocean waves. +Paul MacCready: The wings could touch together on top and not break. We think. +Narrator: And Helios now begins the process of turning her back to the sun, to maximize the power from her solar array. +As the sky gets darker, and the outside air temperatures drop below minus 100 degrees Fahrenheit, the most environmentally hostile segment of Helios's journey has gone by without notice, except for being recorded by specially designed data acquisition systems and their associated sensors. +Approaching a peak radar altitude of 96,863 feet, at 4:12 p.m., Helios is standing on top of 98 percent of the Earth's atmosphere. +This is more than 10,000 feet higher than the previous world's altitude record held by the SR-71 Blackbird. +PM: That plane has many purposes, but it's aimed for communications, and it can fly so slowly that it'll just stay up at 65,000 feet. +Eventually, it will be able to have to stay up day, night, day, night, for six months at a time, acting like the synchronous satellite, but only ten miles above the Earth. +Let's have the next video. This shows the other end of the spectrum. +Narrator: A tiny airplane, the AV Pointer serves for surveillance. +In effect a pair of roving eyeglasses, a cutting-edge example of where miniaturization can lead if the operator is remote from the vehicle. +It is convenient to carry, assemble, and launch by hand. +Battery-powered, it is silent and rarely noticed. +It sends high-resolution video pictures back to the operator. +With on-board GPS, it can navigate autonomously, and it is rugged enough to self-land without damage. +PM: Okay, and let's have the next. +That plane is widely used by the military, now, in all their operations. +Let's have the next video. +Alan Alda: He's got it, he's got it, he's got it on his head. +We're going to end our visit with Paul MacCready's flying circus by meeting his son, Tyler, who, with his two brothers, helped build the Gossamer Condor, 25 years ago. +Tyler MacCready: You can chase it, like this, for hours. +AA: When they got bored with their father's project, they invented an extraordinary little plane of their own. +TM: And I can control it by putting the lift on one side of the wing, or on the other. +AA: They called it their Walkalong Glider. +I've never seen anything like that. +How old were you when you invented that? +TM: Oh, 10, 11. (AA: Oh my God.) TM: 12, something like that. (AA: That's amazing.) PM: And Tyler's here to show you the Walkalong. +TM: All right. You all got a couple of these in your gift bags, and one of the first things, the production version seemed to dive a little bit, and so I would just suggest you bend the wing tips up a little bit before you try flying it. +I'll give you a demonstration of how it works. +The idea is that it soars on the lift over your body, like a seagull soaring on a cliff. +As the wind comes up, it has to go over the cliff, so as you walk through the air, it goes around your body, some has to go over you. +And so you just keep the glider positioned in that up current. +The launch is the difficult part: you've got to hold it high up, over your head, and you start walking forward, and just let go of it, and you can control it like that. +And then also, like it said in the video, you can turn it left or right just by putting the lift under one wing or another. +So I can do it -- oops, that was going to be a right turn. +Okay, this one will be a left turn. +Here, but -- -- anyway. +And that's it, so you can just control it, wherever you want, and it's just hours of fun. And these are no longer in production, so you have real collector's items. +And this, we just wanted to show you -- if we can get the video running on this, yeah -- just an example of a little video surveillance. +This was flying around in the party last night, and -- -- you can see how it just can fly around, and you can spy on anybody you want. +And that's it. I was going to bring an airplane, but I was worried about hitting people in here, so I thought this would be a little bit more gentle. +And that's it, yeah, just a few inventions. +All right. +I'm going to try to give you a view of the world as I see it, the problems and the opportunities that we face, and then ask the question if we should be optimistic or pessimistic. +And then I'll let you in on a secret, which is why I am an incurable optimist. +Let me start off showing you an Al Gore movie that you may have seen before. +Now, you've all seen "Inconvenient Truth." This is a little more inconvenient. +: Man: ... extremely dangerous questions. +Because, with our present knowledge, we have no idea what would happen. +Even now, man may be unwittingly changing the world's climate through the waste products of his civilization. +Due to our release, through factories and automobiles every year, of more than six billion tons of carbon dioxide -- which helps air absorb heat from the sun -- our atmosphere seems to be getting warmer. +This is bad? +Well, it's been calculated a few degrees' rise in the earth's temperature would melt the polar ice caps. +And if this happens, an inland sea would fill a good portion of the Mississippi Valley. +Tourists in glass-bottomed boats would be viewing the drowned towers of Miami through 150 feet of tropical water. +For, in weather, we're not only dealing with forces of a far greater variety than even the atomic physicist encounters, but with life itself. +Larry Brilliant: Should we feel good, or should we feel bad that 50 years of foreknowledge accomplished so little? +Well, it depends, really, on what your goals are. +And I think, as my goals, I always go back to Gandhi's talisman. +And if it will be, it's the right thing to do, and if not, rethink it." +For those of us in this room, it's not just the poorest and the most vulnerable individual, it's the community, it's the culture, it's the world itself. +And the trends for those who are at the periphery of our society, who are the poorest and the most vulnerable, the trends give rise to a great case for pessimism. +But there's also a wonderful case for optimism. +Let's review them both. First of all, the megatrends. +There's two degrees, or three degrees of climate change baked into the system. +It will cause rising seas. It will cause saline deposited into wells and into lands. +It will disproportionately harm the poorest and the most vulnerable, as will the increasing rise of population. +Even though we've dodged Paul Ehrlich's population bomb, and we will not see 20 billion people in this decade, as he had forecast, we eat as if we were 20 billion. +And we consume so much that again, a rise of 6.5 billion to 9.5 billion in our grandchildren's lifetime will disproportionately hurt the poorest and the most vulnerable. +That's why they migrate to cities. +That's why in June of this year, we passed, as a species, 51 percent of us living in cities, and bustees, and slums, and shantytowns. +The rural areas are no longer producing as much food as they did. +The green revolution never reached Africa. +And with desertification, sandstorms, the Gobi Desert, the Ogaden, we are finding increasing difficulty of a hectare to produce as many calories as it did even 15 years ago. +So humans are turning more towards animal consumption. +In Africa last year, Africans ate 600 million wild animals, and consumed two billion kilograms of bush meat. +And every kilogram of bush meat contained hundreds of thousands of novel viruses that have never been charted, the genomic sequences of which we don't know. +Their fitness for creating pandemics we are unaware of, but we are ripe for zoonotic-borne, emerging communicable diseases. +Increasingly, I would say explosive growth of technology. +Most of us are the beneficiaries of that growth. But it has a dark side -- in bioweapons, and in technology that puts us on a collision course to magnify any anger, hatred or feeling of marginalization. +And in fact, with increasing globalization -- for which there are big winners and even bigger losers -- today the world is more diverse and unfair than perhaps it has ever been in history. +One percent of us own 40 percent of all the goods and services. +What will happen if the billion people today who live on less than one dollar a day rise to three billion in the next 30 years? +The one percent will own even more than 40 percent of all the world's goods and services. Not because they've grown richer, but because the rest of the world has grown increasingly poorer. +Last week, Bill Clinton at the TED Awards said, "This situation is unprecedented, unequal, unfair and unstable." +So there's lots of reason for pessimism. +Darfur is, at its origin, a resource war. +Last year, there were 85,000 riots in China, 230 a day, that required police or military intervention. +Most of them were about resources. +We are facing an unprecedented number, scale of disasters. +Some are weather-related, human-rights related, epidemics. +And the newly emerging diseases may make H5N1 and bird flu a quaint forerunner of things to come. It's a destabilized world. +And unlike destabilized world in the past, it will be broadcast to you on YouTube, you will see it on digital television and on your cell phones. +What will that lead to? +For some, it will lead to anger, religious and sectarian violence and terrorism. +For others, withdrawal, nihilism, materialism. +For us, where does it take us, as social activists and entrepreneurs? +As we look at these trends, do we become despondent, or will we become energized? +Let's look at one case, the case of Bangladesh. +First, even if carbon dioxide emissions stopped today, global warming would continue. +And even with global warming -- if you can see these blue lines, the dotted line shows that even if emissions of greenhouse gasses stopped today, the next decades will see rising sea levels. +A minimum of 20 to 30 inches of increase in sea levels is the best case that we can hope for, and it could be 10 times that. +What will that do to Bangladesh? Let's take a look. +So here's Bangladesh. +70 percent of Bangladesh is at less than five feet above sea level. +Let's go up and take a look at the Himalayas. +And we'll watch as global warming makes them melt. More water comes down, the deforested areas, here in the Tarai, will be unable to absorb the effluent, because trees are like straws that suck up the extra seasonal water. +Now we're looking down south, through the Kali Gandaki. +Many of you, I think, have probably trekked here. +And we're going to cruise down and take a look at Bangladesh and see what the impact will be of twin increases in water coming from the north, and in the seas rising from the south. +Looking at the five major rivers that feed Bangladesh. +And now let's look from the south, looking up, and let's see this in relief. +A minimum of 20 to 40 inches of increase in seas, coupled with increasing flows from the Himalayas. And take a look at this. +As many as 100 million refugees from Bangladesh could be expected to migrate into India and into China. +This is the difficulty that one country faces. +But if you look at the globe, all around the earth, wherever there is low-lying area, populated areas near the water, you will find increase in sea level that will challenge our way of life. +Sub-Saharan Africa, and even our own San Francisco Bay Area. +We're all in this together. +This is not something that happens far away to people that we don't know. +Global warming is something that happens to all of us, all at once. +As are these newly emerging communicable diseases, names that you hadn't heard 20 years ago: ebola, lhasa fever, monkey pox. +With the erosion of the green belt separating animals from humans, we live in each other's viral environment. +Do you remember, 20 years ago, no one had ever heard of West Nile fever? +And then we watched, as one case arrived on the East Coast of the United States and it marched every year, westwardly. +Do you remember no one had heard of ebola until we heard of hundreds of people dying in Central Africa from it? +It's just the beginning, unfortunately. +There have been 30 novel emerging communicable diseases that begin in animals that have jumped species in the last 30 years. +It's more than enough reason for pessimism. +But now let's look at the case for optimism. Enough of the bad news. Human beings have always risen to the challenge. +You just need to look at the list of Nobel laureates to remind ourselves. +We've seen the eradication of smallpox. +We may see the eradication of polio this year. +Last year, there were only 2,000 cases in the world. +We may see the eradication of guinea worm next year -- there are only 35,000 cases left in the world. +20 years ago, there were three and a half million. +And we've seen a new disease, not like the 30 novel emerging communicable diseases. +This disease is called sudden wealth syndrome. It's an amazing phenomenon. +All throughout the technology world, we're seeing young people bitten by this disease of sudden wealth syndrome. +But they're using their wealth in a way that their forefathers never did. +They're not waiting until they die to create foundations. +They're actively guiding their money, their resources, their hearts, their commitments, to make the world a better place. +Certainly, nothing can give you more optimism than that. +More reasons to be optimistic: in the '60s, and I am a creature of the '60s, there was a movement. +We all felt that we were part of it, that a better world was right around the corner, that we were watching the birth of a world free of hatred and violence and prejudice. +Today, there's another kind of movement. It's a movement to save the earth. +It's just beginning. +Five weeks ago, a group of activists from the business community gathered together to stop a Texas utility from building nine coal-fired electrical plants that would have contributed to destroying the environment. +Six months ago, a group of business activists gathered together to join with the Republican governor in California to pass AB 32, the most far-reaching legislation in environmental history. +Al Gore made presentations in the House and the Senate as an expert witness. +Can you imagine? We're seeing an entente cordiale between science and religion that five years ago I would not have believed, as the evangelical community has understood the desperate situation of global warming. +And now 4,000 churches have joined the environmental movement. +It is something to be greatly optimistic about. +The European 20-20-20 plan is an amazing breakthrough, something that should make all of us feel that hope is on the horizon. +And on April 14th, there will be Step Up Day, where there will be a thousand individual mobilized social activist movements in the United States on protest against legislation -- pushing for legislation to stop global warming. +And on July 7th, around the world, I learned only yesterday, there will be global Live Earth concerts. +And you can feel this optimistic move to save the earth in the air. +Now, that doesn't mean that people understand that global warming hurts the poorest and the weakest the most. +That means that people are beginning the first step, which is acting out of their own self-interest. +But for me, I have another reason to be an incurable optimist. +And you've heard so many inspiring stories here, and I heard so many last night that I thought I would share a little bit of mine. +My background is not exactly conventional medical training. +It should make you optimistic that smallpox no longer exists because it was the worst disease in history. +In the last century -- that's the one that was seven years ago -- half a billion people died from smallpox: more than all the wars in history, more than any other infectious disease in the history of the world. +In the Summer of Love, in 1967, two million people, children, died of smallpox. +It's not ancient history. +When you read the biblical plague of boils, that was smallpox. +Pharaoh Ramses the Fifth, whose picture is here, died of smallpox. +To eradicate smallpox, we had to gather the largest United Nations army in history. +We visited every house in India, searching for smallpox -- 120 million houses, once every month, for nearly two years. +In a cruel reversal, after we had almost conquered smallpox -- and this is what you must learn as a social entrepreneur, the realm of the final inch. +When we had almost eradicated smallpox, it came back again, because the company town of Tatanagar drew laborers, who could come there and get employment. +And they caught smallpox in the one remaining place that had smallpox, and they went home to die. +And when they did, they took smallpox to 10 other countries and reignited the epidemic. +And we had to start all over again. +But, in the end, we succeeded, and the last case of smallpox: this little girl, Rahima Banu -- Barisal, in Bangladesh -- when she coughed or breathed, and the last virus of smallpox left her lungs and fell on the dirt and the sun killed that last virus, thus ended a chain of transmission of history's greatest horror. +How can that not make you optimistic? +A disease which killed hundreds of thousands in India, and blinded half of all of those who were made blind in India, ended. +And most importantly for us here in this room, a bond was created. +Doctors, health workers, from 30 different countries, of every race, every religion, every color, worked together, fought alongside each other, fought against a common enemy, didn't fight against each other. +How can that not make you feel optimistic for the future? +Thank you very much. +In the next 18 minutes, I'm going to take you on a journey. +And it's a journey that you and I have been on for many years now, and it began some 50 years ago, when humans first stepped off our planet. +And all of these robotic missions are part of a bigger human journey: a voyage to understand something, to get a sense of our cosmic place, to understand something of our origins, and how Earth, our planet, and we, living on it, came to be. +Now, the Saturn system is a rich planetary system. +It offers mystery, scientific insight and obviously splendor beyond compare, and the investigation of this system has enormous cosmic reach. +In fact, just studying the rings alone, we stand to learn a lot about the discs of stars and gas that we call the spiral galaxies. +And here's a beautiful picture of the Andromeda Nebula, which is our closest, largest spiral galaxy to the Milky Way. +And then, here's a beautiful composite of the Whirlpool Galaxy, taken by the Hubble Space Telescope. +So the journey back to Saturn is really part of and is also a metaphor for a much larger human voyage to understand the interconnectedness of everything around us, and also how humans fit into that picture. +And it pains me that I can't tell you all that we have learned with Cassini. +I can't show you all the beautiful pictures that we've taken in the last two and a half years, because I simply don't have the time. +So I'm going to concentrate on two of the most exciting stories that have emerged out of this major exploratory expedition that we are conducting around Saturn, and have been for the past two and a half years. +Saturn is accompanied by a very large and diverse collection of moons. +They range in size from a few kilometers across to as big across as the U.S. +Most of the beautiful pictures we've taken of Saturn, in fact, show Saturn in accompaniment with some of its moons. Here's Saturn with Dione, and then, here's Saturn showing the rings edge-on, showing you just how vertically thin they are, with the moon Enceladus. +Now, two of the 47 moons that Saturn has are standouts. +And those are Titan and Enceladus. Titan is Saturn's largest moon, and, until Cassini had arrived there, was the largest single expanse of unexplored terrain that we had remaining in our solar system. +And it is a body that has long intrigued people who've watched the planets. +It has a very large, thick atmosphere, and in fact, its surface environment was believed to be more like the environment we have here on the Earth, or at least had in the past, than any other body in the solar system. +Its atmosphere is largely molecular nitrogen, like you are breathing here in this room, except that its atmosphere is suffused with simple organic materials like methane and propane and ethane. +And these molecules high up in the atmosphere of Titan get broken down, and their products join together to make haze particles. +This haze is ubiquitous. It's completely global and enveloping Titan. +And that's why you cannot see down to the surface with our eyes in the visible region of the spectrum. +But these haze particles, it was surmised, before we got there with Cassini, over billions and billions of years, gently drifted down to the surface and coated the surface in a thick organic sludge. +So like the equivalent, the Titan equivalent, of tar, or oil, or what -- we didn't know what. +But this is what we suspected. And these molecules, especially methane and ethane, can be liquids at the surface temperatures of Titan. +And so it turns out that methane is to Titan what water is to the Earth. +It's a condensable in the atmosphere, and so recognizing this circumstance brought to the fore a whole world of bizarre possibilities. You can have methane clouds, OK, and above those clouds, you have this hundreds of kilometers of haze, which prevent any sunlight from getting to the surface. +The temperature at the surface is some 350 degrees below zero Fahrenheit. +But despite that cold, you could have rain falling down on the surface of Titan. +And doing on Titan what rain does on the Earth: it carves gullies; it forms rivers and cataracts; it can create canyons; it can pool in large basins and craters. +It can wash the sludge off high mountain peaks and hills, down into the lowlands. So stop and think for a minute. +Try to imagine what the surface of Titan might look like. +It's dark. High noon on Titan is as dark as deep earth twilight on the Earth. +And for us, it has been like -- the Cassini people -- it has been like a Jules Verne adventure come true. +As I said, it has a thick, extensive atmosphere. +This is a picture of Titan, backlit by the Sun, with the rings as a beautiful backdrop. +And yet another moon there -- I don't even know which one it is. It's a very extensive atmosphere. +We have instruments on Cassini which can see down to the surface through this atmosphere, and my camera system is one of them. +And we have taken pictures like this. +And what you see is bright and dark regions, and that's about as far as it got for us. +It was so mystifying: we couldn't make out what we were seeing on Titan. +When you look closer at this region, you start to see things like sinuous channels -- we didn't know. You see a few round things. +This, we later found out, is, in fact, a crater, but there are very few craters on the surface of Titan, meaning it's a very young surface. +And there are features that look tectonic. +They look like they've been pulled apart. +Whenever you see anything linear on a planet, it means there's been a fracture, like a fault. +And so it's been tectonically altered. +But we couldn't make sense of our images, until, six months after we got into orbit, an event occurred that many have regarded as the highlight of Cassini's investigation of Titan. +And that was the deployment of the Huygens probe, the European-built Huygens probe that Cassini had carried for seven years across the solar system. We deployed it to the atmosphere of Titan, it took two and a half hours to descend, and it landed on the surface. +And I just want to emphasize how significant an event this is. +This is a device of human making, and it landed in the outer solar system for the first time in human history. +It is so significant that, in my mind, this was an event that should have been celebrated with ticker tape parades in every city across the U.S. and Europe, and sadly, that wasn't the case. +It was significant for another reason. This is an international mission, and this event was celebrated in Europe, in Germany, and the celebratory presentations were given in English accents, and American accents, and German accents, and French and Italian and Dutch accents. +It was a moving demonstration of what the words "united nations" are supposed to mean: a true union of nations joined together in a colossal effort for good. +And, in this case, it was a massive undertaking to explore a planet, and to come to understand a planetary system that, for all of human history, had been unreachable, and now humans had actually touched it. +So it was -- I mean, I'm getting goose bumps just talking about it. +It was a tremendously emotional event, and it's something that I will personally never forget, and you shouldn't either. +But anyway, the probe took measurements of the atmosphere on the way down, and it also took panoramic pictures. +And I can't tell you what it was like to see the first pictures of Titan's surface from the probe. And this is what we saw. +And it was a shocker, because it was everything we wanted those other pictures taken from orbit to be. +It was an unambiguous pattern, a geological pattern. +It's a dendritic drainage pattern that can be formed only by the flow of liquids. +And you can follow these channels and you can see how they all converge. +And they converge into this channel here, which drains into this region. +You are looking at a shoreline. +Was this a shoreline of fluids? We didn't know. +But this is somewhat of a shoreline. +This picture is taken at 16 kilometers. +This is the picture taken at eight kilometers, OK? Again, the shoreline. +Okay, now, 16 kilometers, eight kilometers -- this is roughly an airline altitude. +If you were going to take an airplane trip across the U.S., you would be flying at these altitudes. +So, this is the picture you would have at the window of Titanian Airlines as you fly across the surface of Titan. And then finally, the probe came to rest on the surface, and I'm going to show you, ladies and gentlemen, the first picture ever taken from the surface of a moon in the outer solar system. +And here is the horizon, OK? +These are probably water ice pebbles, yes? +And obviously, it landed in one of these flat, dark regions and it didn't sink out of sight. So it wasn't fluid that we landed in. +What the probe came down in was basically the Titan equivalent of a mud flat. +This is an unconsolidated ground that is suffused with liquid methane. +And it's probably the case that this material has washed off the highlands of Titan through these channels that we saw, and has drained over billions of years to fill in low-lying basins. +And that is what the Huygens probe landed in. +But still, there was no sign in our images, or even in the Huygens' images, of any large, open bodies of fluids. +Where were they? It got even more puzzling when we found dunes. +OK, so this is our movie of the equatorial region of Titan, showing these dunes. These are dunes that are 100 meters tall, separated by a few kilometers, and they go on for miles and miles and miles. +There's hundreds, up to a 1,000 or 1,200 miles of dunes. +This is the Saharan desert of Titan. +It's obviously a place which is very dry, or you wouldn't get dunes. +So again, it got puzzling that there were no bodies of fluid, until finally, we saw lakes in the polar regions. +And there is a lake scene in the south polar region of Titan. +It's about the size of Lake Ontario. +And then, only a week and a half ago, we flew over the north pole of Titan and found, again, we found a feature here the size of the Caspian Sea. +So it seems that the liquids, for some reason we don't understand, or during at least this season, are apparently at the poles of Titan. +And so now we go onto Enceladus. Enceladus is a small moon, it's about a tenth the size of Titan. And you can see it here next to England, just to show you the size. This is not meant to be a threat. +And Enceladus is very white, it's very bright, and its surface is obviously wrecked with fractures. +It is a very geologically active body. +But the mother lode of discoveries on Enceladus was found at the south pole -- and we're looking at the south pole here -- where we found this system of fractures. +And they're a different color because they're a different composition. +They are coated. These fractures are coated with organic materials. +Moreover, this whole, entire region, the south polar region, has elevated temperatures. It's the hottest place on the planet, on the body. +That's as bizarre as finding that the Antarctic on the Earth is hotter than the tropics. +And then, when we took additional pictures, we discovered that from these fractures are issuing jets of fine, icy particles extending hundreds of miles into space. +And when we color-code this image, to bring out the faint light levels, we see that these jets feed a plume that, in fact, we see, in other images, goes thousands of miles into the space above Enceladus. +My team and I have examined images like this, and like this one, and have thought about the other results from Cassini. +And we have arrived at the conclusion that these jets may be erupting from pockets of liquid water under the surface of Enceladus. +So we have, possibly, liquid water, organic materials and excess heat. +In other words, we have possibly stumbled upon the holy grail of modern day planetary exploration, or in other words, an environment that is potentially suitable for living organisms. +And I don't think I need to tell you that the discovery of life elsewhere in our solar system, whether it be on Enceladus or elsewhere, would have enormous cultural and scientific implications. +Because if we could demonstrate that genesis had occurred not once, but twice, independently, in our solar system, then that means, by inference, it has occurred a staggering number of times throughout the universe and its 13.7 billion year history. +Right now, Earth is the only planet still that we know is teeming with life. +It is precious, it is unique, it is still, so far, the only home we've ever known. +And if any of you were alert and coherent during the 1960s -- and we'd forgive you, if you weren't, OK -- you would remember this very famous picture taken by the Apollo 8 astronauts in 1968. +It was the first time that Earth was imaged from space, and it had an enormous impact on our sense of place in the universe, and our sense of responsibility for the protection of our own planet. +Well, we on Cassini have taken an equivalent first, a picture that no human eye has ever seen before. +It is a total eclipse of the Sun, seen from the other side of Saturn. +And in this impossibly beautiful picture, you see the main rings backlit by the Sun, you see the refracted image of the Sun and you see this ring created, in fact, by the exhalations of Enceladus. +But as if that weren't brilliant enough, we can spot, in this beautiful image, sight of our own planet, cradled in the arms of Saturn's rings. +Now, there is something deeply moving about seeing ourselves from afar, and capturing the sight of our little, blue-ocean planet in the skies of other worlds. +And that, and the perspective of ourselves that we gain from that, may be, in the end, the finest reward that we earn from this journey of discovery that started half a century ago. +And thank you very much. +Chris Anderson: Welcome to TED. +Richard Branson: Thank you very much. The first TED has been great. +CA: Have you met anyone interesting? +RB: Well, the nice thing about TED is everybody's interesting. +I was very glad to see Goldie Hawn, because I had an apology to make to her. +I'd had dinner with her about two years ago and I'd -- she had this big wedding ring and I put it on my finger and I couldn't get it off. +And I went home to my wife that night and she wanted to know why I had another woman's big, massive, big wedding ring on my finger. +And, anyway, the next morning we had to go along to the jeweler and get it cut off. +So -- -- so apologies to Goldie. +CA: That's pretty good. +So, we're going to put up some slides of some of your companies here. +You've started one or two in your time. +So, you know, Virgin Atlantic, Virgin Records -- I guess it all started with a magazine called Student. +And then, yes, all these other ones as well. I mean, how do you do this? +RB: I read all these sort of TED instructions: you must not talk about your own business, and this, and now you ask me. +So I suppose you're not going to be able to kick me off the stage, since you asked the question. +CA: It depends what the answer is though. +RB: No, I mean, I think I learned early on that if you can run one company, you can really run any companies. +I mean, companies are all about finding the right people, inspiring those people, you know, drawing out the best in people. +And I just love learning and I'm incredibly inquisitive and I love taking on, you know, the status quo and trying to turn it upside down. +So I've seen life as one long learning process. +And if I see -- you know, if I fly on somebody else's airline and find the experience is not a pleasant one, which it wasn't, 21 years ago, then I'd think, well, you know, maybe I can create the kind of airline that I'd like to fly on. +And so, you know, so got one secondhand 747 from Boeing and gave it a go. +CA: Well, that was a bizarre thing, because you made this move that a lot of people advised you was crazy. +And in fact, in a way, it almost took down your empire at one point. +I had a conversation with one of the investment bankers who, at the time when you basically sold Virgin Records and invested heavily in Virgin Atlantic, and his view was that you were trading, you know, the world's fourth biggest record company for the twenty-fifth biggest airline and that you were out of your mind. +Why did you do that? +RB: Well, I think that there's a very thin dividing line between success and failure. +And I think if you start a business without financial backing, you're likely to go the wrong side of that dividing line. +We had -- we were being attacked by British Airways. +They were trying to put our airline out of business, and they launched what's become known as the dirty tricks campaign. +And I realized that the whole empire was likely to come crashing down unless I chipped in a chip. +And in order to protect the jobs of the people who worked for the airline, and protect the jobs of the people who worked for the record company, I had to sell the family jewelry to protect the airline. +CA: Post-Napster, you're looking like a bit of a genius, actually, for that as well. +RB: Yeah, as it turned out, it proved to be the right move. +But, yeah, it was sad at the time, but we moved on. +CA: Now, you use the Virgin brand a lot and it seems like you're getting synergy from one thing to the other. +What does the brand stand for in your head? +RB: Well, I like to think it stands for quality, that you know, if somebody comes across a Virgin company, they -- CA: They are quality, Richard. Come on now, everyone says quality. Spirit? +RB: No, but I was going to move on this. +We have a lot of fun and I think the people who work for it enjoy it. +As I say, we go in and shake up other industries, and I think, you know, we do it differently and I think that industries are not quite the same as a result of Virgin attacking the market. +CA: I mean, there are a few launches you've done where the brand maybe hasn't worked quite as well. +I mean, Virgin Brides -- what happened there? +RB: We couldn't find any customers. +CA: I was actually also curious why -- I think you missed an opportunity with your condoms launch. You called it Mates. +I mean, couldn't you have used the Virgin brand for that as well? +Ain't virgin no longer, or something. +RB: Again, we may have had problems finding customers. +I mean, we had -- often, when you launch a company and you get customer complaints, you know, you can deal with them. +But about three months after the launch of the condom company, I had a letter, a complaint, and I sat down and wrote a long letter back to this lady apologizing profusely. +But obviously, there wasn't a lot I could do about it. +And then six months later, or nine months after the problem had taken, I got this delightful letter with a picture of the baby asking if I'd be godfather, which I became. +So, it all worked out well. +CA: Really? You should have brought a picture. That's wonderful. +RB: I should have. +CA: So, just help us with some of the numbers. +I mean, what are the numbers on this? +I mean, how big is the group overall? +How much -- what's the total revenue? +RB: It's about 25 billion dollars now, in total. +CA: And how many employees? +RB: About 55,000. +CA: So, you've been photographed in various ways at various times and never worrying about putting your dignity on the line or anything like that. +What was that? Was that real? +RB: Yeah. We were launching a megastore in Los Angeles, I think. +No, I mean, I think -- CA: But is that your hair? +RB: No. +CA: What was that one? +RB: Dropping in for tea. +CA: OK. +RB: Ah, that was quite fun. That was a wonderful car-boat in which -- CA: Oh, that car that we -- actually we -- it was a TEDster event there, I think. +Is that -- could you still pause on that one actually, for a minute? +RB: It's a tough job, isn't it? +CA: I mean, it is a tough job. +When I first came to America, I used to try this with employees as well and they kind of -- they have these different rules over here, it's very strange. +RB: I know, I have -- the lawyers say you mustn't do things like that, but -- CA: I mean, speaking of which, tell us about -- RB: "Pammy" we launched, you know -- mistakenly thought we could take on Coca-Cola, and we launched a cola bottle called "The Pammy" and it was shaped a bit like Pamela Anderson. +But the trouble is, it kept on tipping over, but -- CA: Designed by Philippe Starck perhaps? +RB: Of course. +CA: So, we'll just run a couple more pictures here. Virgin Brides. Very nice. +And, OK, so stop there. This was -- you had some award I think? +RB: Yeah, well, 25 years earlier, we'd launched the Sex Pistols' "God Save The Queen," and I'd certainly never expected that 25 years later -- that she'd actually knight us. +But somehow, she must have had a forgetful memory, I think. +CA: Well, God saved her and you got your just reward. +Do you like to be called Sir Richard, or how? +RB: Nobody's ever called me Sir Richard. +Occasionally in America, I hear people saying Sir Richard and think there's some Shakespearean play taking place. +But nowhere else anyway. +CA: OK. So can you use your knighthood for anything or is it just ... +RB: No. I suppose if you're having problems getting a booking in a restaurant or something, that might be worth using it. +CA: You know, it's not Richard Branson. It's Sir Richard Branson. +RB: I'll go get the secretary to use it. +CA: OK. So let's look at the space thing. +I think, with us, we've got a video that shows what you're up to, and Virgin Galactic up in the air. So that's the Bert Rutan designed spaceship? +RB: Yeah, it'll be ready in -- well, ready in 12 months and then we do 12 months extensive testing. +And then 24 months from now, people will be able to take a ride into space. +CA: So this interior is Philippe Starcke designed? +RB: Philippe has done the -- yeah, quite a bit of it: the logos and he's building the space station in New Mexico. +And basically, he's just taken an eye and the space station will be one giant eye, so when you're in space, you ought to be able to see this massive eye looking up at you. +And when you land, you'll be able to go back into this giant eye. +But he's an absolute genius when it comes to design. +CA: But you didn't have him design the engine? +RB: Philippe is quite erratic, so I think that he wouldn't be the best person to design the engine, no. +CA: He gave a wonderful talk here two days ago. +RB: Yeah? No, he is a -- CA: Well, some people found it wonderful, some people found it completely bizarre. +But, I personally found it wonderful. +RB: He's a wonderful enthusiast, which is why I love him. But ... +CA: So, now, you've always had this exploration bug in you. +Have you ever regretted that? +RB: Many times. +I mean, I think with the ballooning and boating expeditions we've done in the past. +Well, I got pulled out of the sea I think six times by helicopters, so -- and each time, I didn't expect to come home to tell the tale. +So in those moments, you certainly wonder what you're doing up there or -- CA: What was the closest you got to -- when did you think, this is it, I might be on my way out? +RB: Well, I think the balloon adventures were -- each one was, each one, actually, I think we came close. +And it was like holding onto a thousand horses. +And we were just crossing every finger, praying that the balloon would hold together, which, fortunately, it did. +But the ends of all those balloon trips were, you know -- something seemed to go wrong every time, and on that particular occasion, the more experienced balloonist who was with me jumped, and left me holding on for dear life. +CA: Did he tell you to jump, or he just said, "I'm out of here!" and ... +RB: No, he told me jump, but once his weight had gone, the balloon just shot up to 12,000 feet and I ... +CA: And you inspired an Ian McEwan novel I think with that. +RB: Yeah. No, I put on my oxygen mask and stood on top of the balloon, with my parachute, looking at the swirling clouds below, trying to pluck up my courage to jump into the North Sea, which -- and it was a very, very, very lonely few moments. +But, anyway, we managed to survive it. +CA: Did you jump? Or it came down in the end? +RB: Well, I knew I had about half an hour's fuel left, and I also knew that the chances were that if I jumped, I would only have a couple of minutes of life left. +So I climbed back into the capsule and just desperately tried to make sure that I was making the right decision. +And wrote some notes to my family. And then climbed back up again, looked down at those clouds again, climbed back into the capsule again. +And then finally, just thought, there's a better way. +I've got, you know, this enormous balloon above me, it's the biggest parachute ever, why not use it? +And so I managed to fly the balloon down through the clouds, and about 50 feet, before I hit the sea, threw myself over. +And the balloon hit the sea and went shooting back up to 10,000 feet without me. +But it was a wonderful feeling being in that water and -- CA: What did you write to your family? +RB: Just what you would do in a situation like that: just I love you very much. And I'd already written them a letter before going on this trip, which -- just in case anything had happened. +But fortunately, they never had to use it. +CA: Your companies have had incredible PR value out of these heroics. +The years -- and until I stopped looking at the polls, you were sort of regarded as this great hero in the U.K. and elsewhere. +And cynics might say, you know, this is just a smart business guy doing what it takes to execute his particular style of marketing. +How much was the PR value part of this? +RB: Well, of course, the PR experts said that as an airline owner, the last thing you should be doing is heading off in balloons and boats, and crashing into the seas. +CA: They have a point, Richard. +RB: In fact, I think our airline took a full page ad at the time saying, you know, come on, Richard, there are better ways of crossing the Atlantic. +CA: To do all this, you must have been a genius from the get-go, right? +RB: Well, I won't contradict that. +CA: OK, this isn't exactly hardball. OK. +Didn't -- weren't you just terrible at school? +RB: I was dyslexic. I had no understanding of schoolwork whatsoever. +I certainly would have failed IQ tests. +And it was one of the reasons I left school when I was 15 years old. +And if I -- if I'm not interested in something, I don't grasp it. +As somebody who's dyslexic, you also have some quite bizarre situations. +I mean, for instance, I've had to -- you know, I've been running the largest group of private companies in Europe, but haven't been able to know the difference between net and gross. +And so the board meetings have been fascinating. +And so, it's like, good news or bad news? +And generally, the people would say, oh, well that's bad news. +CA: But just to clarify, the 25 billion dollars is gross, right? That's gross? +RB: Well, I hope it's net actually, having -- -- I've got it right. +CA: No, trust me, it's gross. +RB: So, when I turned 50, somebody took me outside the boardroom and said, "Look Richard, here's a -- let me draw on a diagram. +Here's a net in the sea, and the fish have been pulled from the sea into this net. +And that's the profits you've got left over in this little net, everything else is eaten." +And I finally worked it all out. +CA: But, I mean, at school -- so as well as being, you know, doing pretty miserably academically, but you were also the captain of the cricket and football teams. +So you were kind of a -- you were a natural leader, but just a bit of a ... Were you a rebel then, or how would you ... +RB: Yeah, I think I was a bit of a maverick and -- but I ... And I was, yeah, I was fortunately good at sport, and so at least I had something to excel at, at school. +CA: And some bizarre things happened just earlier in your life. +I mean, there's the story about your mother allegedly dumping you in a field, aged four, and saying "OK, walk home." +Did this really happen? +RB: She was, you know, she felt that we needed to stand on our own two feet from an early age. +So she did things to us, which now she'd be arrested for, such as pushing us out of the car, and telling us to find our own way to Granny's, about five miles before we actually got there. +And making us go on wonderful, long bike rides. +And we were never allowed to watch television and the like. +CA: But is there a risk here? +I mean, there's a lot of people in the room who are wealthy, and they've got kids, and we've got this dilemma about how you bring them up. +Do you look at the current generation of kids coming up and think they're too coddled, they don't know what they've got, we're going to raise a generation of privileged ... +RB: No, I think if you're bringing up kids, you just want to smother them with love and praise and enthusiasm. +So I don't think you can mollycoddle your kids too much really. +CA: You didn't turn out too bad, I have to say, I'm ... +Your headmaster said to you -- I mean he found you kind of an enigma at your school -- he said, you're either going to be a millionaire or go to prison, and I'm not sure which. +Which of those happened first? +RB: Well, I've done both. I think I went to prison first. +I was actually prosecuted under two quite ancient acts in the U.K. +I was prosecuted under the 1889 Venereal Diseases Act and the 1916 Indecent Advertisements Act. +On the first occasion, for mentioning the word venereal disease in public, which -- we had a center where we would help young people who had problems. +And one of the problems young people have is venereal disease. +And there's an ancient law that says you can't actually mention the word venereal disease or print it in public. +So the police knocked on the door, and told us they were going to arrest us if we carried on mentioning the word venereal disease. +We changed it to social diseases and people came along with acne and spots, but nobody came with VD any more. +So, we put it back to VD and promptly got arrested. +And then subsequently, "Never Mind the Bollocks, Here's the Sex Pistols," the word bollocks, the police decided was a rude word and so we were arrested for using the word bollocks on the Sex Pistols' album. +And John Mortimer, the playwright, defended us. +And he asked if I could find a linguistics expert to come up with a different definition of the word bollocks. +And so I rang up Nottingham University, and I asked to talk to the professor of linguistics. +And he said, "Look, bollocks is not a -- has nothing to do with balls whatsoever. +It's actually a nickname given to priests in the eighteenth century." +And he went, "Furthermore, I'm a priest myself." +And so I said, "Would you mind coming to the court?" +And he said he'd be delighted. And I said -- and he said, "Would you like me to wear my dog collar?" +And I said, "Yes, definitely. Please." +CA: That's great. +RB: So our key witness argued that it was actually "Never Mind the Priest, Here's the Sex Pistols." +And the judge found us -- reluctantly found us not guilty, so ... +CA: That is outrageous. +So seriously, is there a dark side? +A lot of people would say there's no way that someone could put together this incredible collection of businesses without knifing a few people in the back, you know, doing some ugly things. +You've been accused of being ruthless. +There was a nasty biography written about you by someone. +Is any of it true? Is there an element of truth in it? +RB: I don't actually think that the stereotype of a businessperson treading all over people to get to the top, generally speaking, works. +I think if you treat people well, people will come back and come back for more. +And I think all you have in life is your reputation and it's a very small world. +And I actually think that the best way of becoming a successful business leader is dealing with people fairly and well, and I like to think that's how we run Virgin. +CA: And what about the people who love you and who see you spending -- you keep getting caught up in these new projects, but it almost feels like you're addicted to launching new stuff. +You get excited by an idea and, kapow! +I mean, do you think about life balance? +How do your family feel about each time you step into something big and new? +RB: I also believe that being a father's incredibly important, so from the time the kids were very young, you know, when they go on holiday, I go on holiday with them. +And so we spend a very good sort of three months away together. +Yes, I'll, you know, be in touch. We're very lucky, we have this tiny little island in the Caribbean and we can -- so I can take them there and we can bring friends, and we can play together, but I can also keep in touch with what's going on. +CA: You started talking in recent years about this term capitalist philanthropy. +What is that? +RB: Capitalism has been proven to be a system that works. +You know, the alternative, communism, has not worked. +But the problem with capitalism is extreme wealth ends up in the hands of a few people, and therefore extreme responsibility, I think, goes with that wealth. +And I think it's important that the individuals, who are in that fortunate position, do not end up competing for bigger and bigger boats, and bigger and bigger cars, but, you know, use that money to either create new jobs or to tackle issues around the world. +CA: And what are the issues that you worry about most, care most about, want to turn your resources toward? +RB: Well, there's -- I mean there's a lot of issues. +We need to try to encourage people to come up with a way of extracting carbon out of the Earth's atmosphere. +And we just -- you know, there weren't really people working on that before, so we wanted people to try to -- all the best brains in the world to start thinking about that, and also to try to extract the methane out of the Earth's atmosphere as well. +And actually, we've had about 15,000 people fill in the forms saying they want to give it a go. +And so we only need one, so we're hopeful. +CA: And you're also working in Africa on a couple of projects? +RB: Yes, I mean, we've got -- we're setting up something called the war room, which is maybe the wrong word. +We're trying to -- maybe we'll change it -- but anyway, it's a war room to try to coordinate all the attack that's going on in Africa, all the different social problems in Africa, and try to look at best practices. +So, for instance, there's a doctor in Africa that's found that if you give a mother antiretroviral drugs at 24 weeks, when she's pregnant, that the baby will not have HIV when it's born. +And so disseminating that information to around the rest of Africa is important. +CA: The war room sounds, it sounds powerful and dramatic. +And is there a risk that the kind of the business heroes of the West get so excited about -- I mean, they're used to having an idea, getting stuff done, and they believe profoundly in their ability to make a difference in the world. +RB: Well, first of all, on this particular situation, we're actually -- we're working with the government on it. +I mean, Thabo Mbeki's had his problems with accepting HIV and AIDS are related, but this is a way, I think, of him tackling this problem and instead of the world criticizing him, it's a way of working with him, with his government. +It's important that if people do go to Africa and do try to help, they don't just go in there and then leave after a few years. +It's got to be consistent. +But I think business leaders can bring their entrepreneurial know-how and help governments approach things slightly differently. +For instance, we're setting up clinics in Africa where we're going to be giving free antiretroviral drugs, free TB treatment and free malaria treatment. +But we're also trying to make them self-sustaining clinics, so that people pay for some other aspects. +CA: I mean a lot of cynics say about someone like yourself, or Bill Gates, or whatever, that this is really being -- it's almost driven by some sort of desire again, you know, for the right image, for guilt avoidance and not like a real philanthropic instinct. +What would you say to them? +RB: Well, I think that everybody -- people do things for a whole variety of different reasons and I think that, you know, when I'm on me deathbed, I will want to feel that I've made a difference to other people's lives. +And that may be a selfish thing to think, but it's the way I've been brought up. +I think if I'm in a position to radically change other people's lives for the better, I should do so. +CA: How old are you? +RB: I'm 56. +CA: I mean, the psychologist Erik Erikson says that -- as I understand him and I'm a total amateur -- but that during 30s, 40s people are driven by this desire to grow and that's where they get their fulfillment. +50s, 60s, the mode of operation shifts more to the quest for wisdom and a search for legacy. +I mean, it seems like you're still a little bit in the growth phases, you're still doing these incredible new plans. +How much do you think about legacy, and what would you like your legacy to be? +RB: I don't think I think too much about legacy. +I mean, I like to -- you know, my grandmother lived to 101, so hopefully I've got another 30 or 40 years to go. +No, I just want to live life to its full. +You know, if I can make a difference, I hope to be able to make a difference. +And I think one of the positive things at the moment is you've got Sergey and Larry from Google, for instance, who are good friends. +And, thank God, you've got two people who genuinely care about the world and with that kind of wealth. +If they had that kind of wealth and they didn't care about the world, it would be very worrying. +And you know they're going to make a hell of a difference to the world. +And I think it's important that people in that kind of position do make a difference. +CA: Well, Richard, when I was starting off in business, I knew nothing about it and I also was sort of -- I thought that business people were supposed to just be ruthless and that that was the only way you could have a chance of succeeding. +And you actually did inspire me. I looked at you, I thought, well, he's made it. Maybe there is a different way. +So I would like to thank you for that inspiration, and for coming to TED today. Thank you. +Thank you so much. +What I am always thinking about is what this session is about, which is called simplicity. +And almost, I would almost call it being simple-minded, but in the best sense of the word. +I'm trying to figure out two very simple things: how to live and how to die, period. +That's all I'm trying to do, all day long. +And I'm also trying to have some meals, and have some snacks, and, you know, and yell at my children, and do all the normal things that keep you grounded. +So, I was fortunate enough to be born a very dreamy child. +My older sister was busy torturing my parents, and they were busy torturing her. +I was lucky enough to be completely ignored, which is a fabulous thing, actually, I want to tell you. +So, I was able to completely daydream my way through my life. +And I finally daydreamed my way into NYU, at a very good time, in 1967, where I met a man who was trying to blow up the math building of NYU. +And I was writing terrible poetry and knitting sweaters for him. +And feminists hated us, and the whole thing was wretched from beginning to end. +But I kept writing bad poetry, and he didn't blow up the math building, but he went to Cuba. +But I gave him the money, because I was from Riverdale so I had more money than he did. +And that was a good thing to help, you know, the cause. +But, then he came back, and things happened, and I decided I really hated my writing, that it was awful, awful, purple prose. +And I decided that I wanted to tell -- but I still wanted to tell a narrative story and I still wanted to tell my stories. +So I decided that I would start to draw. How hard could that be? +And so what happened was that I started just becoming an editorial illustrator through, you know, sheer whatever, sheer ignorance. +And we started a studio. +Well, Tibor really started the studio, called M&Co. +And the premise of M&Co was, we don't know anything, but that's all right, we're going to do it anyway. +And as a matter of fact, it's better not to know anything, because if you know too much, you're stymied. +So, the premise in the studio was, there are no boundaries, there is no fear. +And I -- and my full-time job, I landed the best job on Earth, was to daydream, and to actually come up with absurd ideas that -- fortunately, there were enough people there, and it was a team, it was a collective, it was not just me coming up with crazy ideas. +But the point was that I was there as myself, as a dreamer. +And so some of the things -- I mean, it was a long history of M&Co, and clearly we also needed to make some money, so we decided we would create a series of products. +And some of the watches there, attempting to be beautiful and humorous -- maybe not attempting, hopefully succeeding. +That to be able to talk about content, to break apart what you normally expect, to use humor and surprise, elegance and humanity in your work was really important to us. +It was a very high, it was a very impersonal time in design and we wanted to say, the content is what's important, not the package, not the wrapping. +You really have to be journalists, you have to be inventors, you have to use your imagination more importantly than anything. +So, the good news is that I have a dog and, though I don't know if I believe in luck -- I don't know what I believe in, it's a very complicated question, but I do know that before I go away, I crank his tail seven times. +So, whenever he sees a suitcase in the house, because everybody's always, you know, leaving, they're always cranking this wonderful dog's tail, and he runs to the other room. +But I am able to make the transition from working for children and -- from working for adults to children, and back and forth, because, you know, I can say that I'm immature, and in a way, that's true. +I don't really -- I mean, I could tell you that I didn't understand, I'm not proud of it, but I didn't understand let's say 95 percent of the talks at this conference. +But I have been taking beautiful notes of drawings and I have a gorgeous onion from Murray Gell-Mann's talk. +And I have a beautiful page of doodles from Jonathan Woodham's talk. +So, good things come out of, you know, incomprehension -- -- which I will do a painting of, and then it will end up in my work. +So, I'm open to the possibilities of not knowing and finding out something new. +So, in writing for children, it seems simple, and it is. +You have to condense a story into 32 pages, usually. +And what you have to do is, you really have to edit down to what you want to say. +And hopefully, you're not talking down to kids and you're not talking in such a way that you, you know, couldn't stand reading it after one time. +So, I hopefully am writing, you know, books that are good for children and for adults. +But the painting reflects -- I don't think differently for children than I do for adults. +I try to use the same kind of imagination, the same kind of whimsy, the same kind of love of language. +So, you know, and I have lots of wonderful-looking friends. +This is Andrew Gatz, and he walked in through the door and I said, "You! Sit down there." You know, I take lots of photos. +And the Bertoia chair in the background is my favorite chair. +So, I get to put in all of the things that I love. +Hopefully, a dialog between adults and children will happen on many different levels, and hopefully different kinds of humor will evolve. +And the books are really journals of my life. +I never -- I don't like plots. +I don't know what a plot means. +I can't stand the idea of anything that starts in the beginning, you know, beginning, middle and end. It really scares me, because my life is too random and too confused, and I enjoy it that way. +But anyway, so we were in Venice, and this is our room. And I had this dream that I was wearing this fantastic green gown, and I was looking out the window, and it was really a beautiful thing. +And so, I was able to put that into this story, which is an alphabet, and hopefully go on to something else. +The letter C had other things in it. +I was fortunate also, to meet the man who's sitting on the bed, though I gave him hair over here and he doesn't have hair. +Well, he has some hair but -- well, he used to have hair. +And with him, I was able to do a project that was really fantastic. +I work for the New Yorker, and I do covers, and 9/11 happened and it was, you know, a complete and utter end of the world as we knew it. +And Rick and I were on our way to a party in the Bronx, and somebody said Bronxistan, and somebody said Ferreristan, and we came up with this New Yorker cover, which we were able to -- we didn't know what we were doing. +We weren't trying to be funny, we weren't trying to be -- well, we were trying to be funny actually, that's not true. +We hoped we'd be funny, but we didn't know it would be a cover, and we didn't know that that image, at the moment that it happened, would be something that would be so wonderful for a lot of people. +And it really became the -- I don't know, you know, it was one of those moments people started laughing at what was going on. +And from, you know, Fattushis, to Taxistan to, you know, for the Fashtoonks, Botoxia, Pashmina, Khlintunisia, you know, we were able to take the city and make fun of this completely foreign, who are -- what's going on over here? +Who are these people? What are these tribes? +And David Remnick, who was really wonderful about it, had one problem. He didn't like Al Zheimers, because he thought it would insult people with Alzheimer's. +But you know, we said, "David, who's going to know? +They're not." +So it stayed in, and it was, and, you know, it was a good thing. +You know, in the course of my life, I never know what's going to happen and that's kind of the beauty part. +And we were on Cape Cod, a place, obviously, of great inspiration, and I picked up this book, "The Elements of Style," at a yard sale. +And I didn't -- and I'd never used it in school, because I was too busy writing poems, and flunking out, and I don't know what, sitting in cafes. +But I picked it up and I started reading it and I thought, this book is amazing. +I said, people should know about this book. +So I decided it needed a few -- it needed a lift, it needed a few illustrations. +And basically, I called the, you know, I convinced the White Estate, and what an intersection of like, you know, Polish Jew, you know, main WASP family. Here I am, saying, I'd like to do something to this book. +And they said yes, and they left me completely alone, which was a gorgeous, wonderful thing. +And I took the examples that they gave, and just did 56 paintings, basically. +So, this is, I don't know if you can read this. +"Well, Susan, this is a fine mess you are in." +And when you're dealing with grammar, which is, you know, incredibly dry, E.B. White wrote such wonderful, whimsical -- and actually, Strunk -- and then you come to the rules and, you know, there are lots of grammar things. "Do you mind me asking a question? +Do you mind my asking a question?" +"Would, could, should, or would, should, could." +And "would" is Coco Chanel's lover, "should" is Edith Sitwell, and "could" is an August Sander subject. +And, "He noticed a large stain in the center of the rug." +So, there's a kind of British understatement, murder-mystery theme that I really love very much. +And then, "Be obscure clearly! Be wild of tongue in a way we can understand." +E.B. White wrote us a number of rules, which can either paralyze you and make you loathe him for the rest of time, or you can ignore them, which I do, or you can, I don't know what, you know, eat a sandwich. +So, what I did when I was painting was I started singing, because I really adore singing, and I think that music is the highest form of all art. +So, I commissioned a wonderful composer, Nico Muhly, who wrote nine songs using the text, and we performed this fantastic evening of -- he wrote music for both amateurs and professionals. +in the main reading room of the New York Public Library, where you're supposed to be very, very quiet, and it was a phenomenally wonderful event, which we hopefully will do some more. +Who knows? The New York TimesSelect, the op-ed page, asked me to do a column, and they said, you can do whatever you want. +So, once a month for the last year, I've been doing a column called "The Principles of Uncertainty," which, you know, I don't know who Heisenberg is, but I know I can throw that around now. You know, it's the principles of uncertainty, so, you know. +I'm going to read quickly -- and probably I'm going to edit some, because I don't have that much time left -- a few of the columns. +And basically, I was so, you know, it was so amusing, because I said, "Well, how much space do I have?" +And they said, "Well, you know, it's the Internet." +And I said, "Yes, but how much space do I have?" +And they said, "It's unlimited, it's unlimited." +OK. So, the first one I was very timid, and I'll begin. +"How can I tell you everything that is in my heart? +Impossible to begin. Enough. No. Begin with the hapless dodo." +And I talk about the dodo, and how the dodo became extinct, and then I talk about Spinoza. +"As the last dodo was dying, Spinoza was looking for a rational explanation for everything, called eudaemonia. +And then he breathed his last, with loved ones around him, and I know that he had chicken soup also, as his last meal." +I happen to know it for a fact. +And then he died, and there was no more Spinoza. Extinct. +And then, we don't have a stuffed Spinoza, but we do have a stuffed Pavlov's dog, and I visited him in the Museum of Hygiene in St. Petersburg, in Russia. +And there he is, with this horrible electrical box on his rump in this fantastic, decrepit palace. +"And I think it must have been a very, very dark day when the Bolsheviks arrived. +Maybe amongst themselves they had a few good laughs, but Stalin was a paranoid man, even more than my father." +You don't even know. +"And decided his top people had to be extinctified." +Which I think I made up, which is a good thing. +And so, this is a chart of, you know, just a small chart, because the chart would go on forever of all the people that he killed. +So, shot dead, smacked over the head, you know, thrown away. +"Nabokov's family fled Russia. How could the young Nabokov, sitting innocently and elegantly in a red chair, leafing through a book and butterflies, imagine such displacement, such loss?" +And then I want to tell you that this is a map. +So, "My beautiful mother's family fled Russia as well. +Too many pogroms. +Leaving the shack, the wild blueberry woods, the geese, the River Sluch, they went to Palestine and then America." +And my mother drew this map for me of the United States of America, and that is my DNA over here, because that person who I grew up with had no use for facts whatsoever. +Facts were actually banished from our home. +And so, if you see that Texas -- you know, Texas and California are under Canada, and that South Carolina is on top of North Carolina, this is the home that I grew up in, OK? +So, it's a miracle that I'm here today. +But actually, it's not. It's actually a wonderful thing. +But then she says Tel Aviv and Lenin, which is the town they came from, and, "Sorry, the rest unknown, thank you." +But in her lexicon, "sorry, the rest unknown, thank you" is "sorry, the rest unknown, go to hell," because she couldn't care less. +"The Impossibility of February" is that February's a really wretched month in New York and the images for me conjure up these really awful things. +Well, not so awful. +I received a box in the mail and it was wrapped with newspaper and there was the picture of the man on the newspaper and he was dead. +And I say, "I hope he's not really dead, just enjoying a refreshing lie-down in the snow, but the caption says he is dead." +And actually, he was. I think he's dead, though I don't know, maybe he's not dead. +"And this woman leans over in anguish, not about that man, but about all sad things. It happens quite often in February." +There's consoling. +This man is angry because somebody threw onions all over the staircase, and basically -- you know, I guess onions are a theme here. +And he says, "It is impossible not to lie. +It is February and not lying is impossible." +And I really spend a lot of time wondering, how much truth do we tell? +What is it that we're actually -- what story are we actually telling? +How do we know when we are ourselves? +How do we actually know that these sentences coming out of our mouths are real stories, you know, are real sentences? +Or are they fake sentences that we think we ought to be saying? +I'm going to quickly go through this. +A quote by Bertrand Russell, "All the labor of all the ages, all the devotion, all the inspiration, all the noonday brightness of human genius are destined to extinction. +So now, my friends, if that is true, and it is true, what is the point?" +A complicated question. +And so, you know, I talk to my friends and I go to plays where they're singing Russian songs. +Oh my God, you know what? +Could we have -- no, we don't have time. +I taped my aunt. I taped my aunt singing a song in Russian from the -- you know, could we have it for a second? +Do you have that? +OK. I taped my -- my aunt used to swim in the ocean every day of the year until she was about 85. +So -- and that's a song about how everybody's miserable because, you know, we're from Russia. +I went to visit Kitty Carlisle Hart, and she is 96, and when I brought her a copy of "The Elements of Style," she said she would treasure it. +And then I said -- oh, and she was talking about Moss Hart, and I said, "When you met him, you knew it was him." +And she said, "I knew it was he." +So, I was the one who should have kept the book, but it was a really wonderful moment. +And she dated George Gershwin, so, you know, get out. +Gershwin died at the age of 38. +He's buried in the same cemetery as my husband. +I don't want to talk about that now. +I do want to talk -- the absolute icing on this cemetery cake is the Barricini family mausoleum nearby. +I think the Barricini family should open a store there and sell chocolate. +And I would like to run it for them. +And I went to visit Louise Bourgeoise, who's also still working, and I looked at her sink, which is really amazing, and left. +And then I photograph and do a painting of a sofa on the street. +And a woman who lives on our street, Lolita. +And then I go and have some tea. +And then my Aunt Frances dies, and before she died, she tried to pay with Sweet'N Low packets for her bagel. +And I wonder what the point is and then I know, and I see that Hy Meyerowitz, Rick Meyerowitz's father, a dry-cleaning supply salesman from the Bronx, won the Charlie Chaplin look-alike contest in 1931. +That's actually Hy. +And I look at a beautiful bowl of fruit, and I look at a dress that I sewed for friends of mine. +And it says, "Ich habe genug," which is a Bach cantata, which I once thought meant "I've had it, I can't take it anymore, give me a break," but I was wrong. +It means "I have enough." And that is utterly true. +I happen to be alive, end of discussion. Thank you. +This idea has a lot of traction with us. +We love the idea that words, when pronounced, are little more than pure information, but they evoke physical action in the real world that helps us do work. +So, of course, with lots of programmable computers and robots around, this is an easy thing to picture. +How many of you know what I'm talking about? +Raise your right hand. +How many don't know what I'm talking about? Raise your left hand. +So that's great. So that was too easy. +You guys have very insecure computers, OK? +So now the thing is, this is a different kind of spell. +This is a computer program made of zeros and ones. +It can be pronounced on a computer, does something like this. +The important thing is we can write it in a high-level language. +A computer magician can write this thing. +It can be compiled into zeros and ones and pronounced by a computer. +And that's what makes computers powerful, these high-level languages that can be compiled. +When this amino-acid sequence gets pronounced as atoms, these little letters are sticky for each other. +It collapses into a three-dimensional shape that turns it into a nanomachine that actually cuts DNA. +The interesting thing is that if you change the sequence, you change the three-dimensional folding. +You get, now, a DNA stapler, instead. +These are the kind of molecular programs we want to be able to write. +The problem is, we don't know the machine language of proteins or have a compiler for proteins. +So I've joined a growing band of people that try to make molecular spells using DNA. +We use DNA because it's cheaper, it's easier to handle, it's something we understand really well -- so well, in fact, that we think we can actually write programming languages for DNA and have molecular compilers. +So then, we think we can do that. +One of my first questions doing this was: How can you make an arbitrary shape or pattern out of DNA? +I decided to use a type of DNA origami, where you take a long strand of DNA and fold it into whatever shape or pattern you might want. +So here's a shape. I actually spent about a year in my home in my underwear, coding, like Linus [Torvalds], in that picture before. +This program takes a shape and spits out 250 DNA sequences. +These short DNA sequences are what are going to fold the long strand into this shape that we want to make. +So you send an e-mail with these sequences in it to a company, and the company pronounces them on a DNA synthesizer, a machine about the size of a photocopier. +And they take your e-mail, and every letter in your e-mail, they replace with a 30-atom cluster -- one for each letter, A, T, C and G in DNA. They string them up in the right sequence, and then they send them back to you via FedEx. +So you get 250 of these in the mail in little tubes. +I mix them together, add a little bit of salt water, and then add this long strand I was telling you about, that I've stolen from a virus. And then what happens is, you heat this whole thing up to about boiling. +You cool it down to room temperature, and as you do, those short strands do the following thing: each one of them binds that long strand in one place, and then has a second half that binds that long strand in a distant place, and brings those two parts of the long strand close together so they stick together. +So the net effect of all 250 of these strands is to fold the long strand into the shape you're looking for. +It'll approximate that shape. We do this for real, in the test tube. +In each little drop of water, you get 50 billion of these guys. +With a microscope, you can see them on a surface. +The neat thing is if you change the sequence and change the spell, just change the sequence of the staples, you can make a molecule that looks like this. +And, you know, he likes to hang out with his buddies. +A lot of them are actually pretty good. +If you change the spell again, you change the sequence again, you get really nice, 130-nanometer triangles. If you do it again, you can get arbitrary patterns. So on a rectangle, you can paint patterns of North and South America, or the words, "DNA." +So that's DNA origami. That's one way. +There are many ways of casting molecular spells using DNA. +What we really want to do in the end is learn how to program self-assembly so we can build anything, right? +We want to be able to build technological artifacts that are maybe good for the world. +We want to learn how to build biological artifacts, like people and whales and trees. +And if it's the case that we can reach that level of complexity, if our ability to program molecules gets to be that good, then that will truly be magic. Thank you very much. +Well, as Chris pointed out, I study the human brain, the functions and structure of the human brain. +And I just want you to think for a minute about what this entails. +Here is this mass of jelly, three-pound mass of jelly you can hold in the palm of your hand, and it can contemplate the vastness of interstellar space. +It can contemplate the meaning of infinity and it can contemplate itself contemplating on the meaning of infinity. +And this peculiar recursive quality that we call self-awareness, which I think is the holy grail of neuroscience, of neurology, and hopefully, someday, we'll understand how that happens. +OK, so how do you study this mysterious organ? +I mean, you have 100 billion nerve cells, little wisps of protoplasm, interacting with each other, and from this activity emerges the whole spectrum of abilities that we call human nature and human consciousness. +How does this happen? +Well, there are many ways of approaching the functions of the human brain. +One approach, the one we use mainly, is to look at patients with sustained damage to a small region of the brain, where there's been a genetic change in a small region of the brain. +What then happens is not an across-the-board reduction in all your mental capacities, a sort of blunting of your cognitive ability. +What you get is a highly selective loss of one function, with other functions being preserved intact, and this gives you some confidence in asserting that that part of the brain is somehow involved in mediating that function. +So you can then map function onto structure, and then find out what the circuitry's doing to generate that particular function. +So that's what we're trying to do. +So let me give you a few striking examples of this. +In fact, I'm giving you three examples, six minutes each, during this talk. +The first example is an extraordinary syndrome called Capgras syndrome. +If you look at the first slide there, that's the temporal lobes, frontal lobes, parietal lobes, OK -- the lobes that constitute the brain. +And if you look, tucked away inside the inner surface of the temporal lobes -- you can't see it there -- is a little structure called the fusiform gyrus. +And that's been called the face area in the brain, because when it's damaged, you can no longer recognize people's faces. +You can still recognize them from their voice and say, "Oh yeah, that's Joe," but you can't look at their face and know who it is, right? +You can't even recognize yourself in the mirror. +I mean, you know it's you because you wink and it winks, and you know it's a mirror, but you don't really recognize yourself as yourself. +OK. Now that syndrome is well known as caused by damage to the fusiform gyrus. +But there's another rare syndrome, so rare, in fact, that very few physicians have heard about it, not even neurologists. +This is called the Capgras delusion, and that is a patient, who's otherwise completely normal, has had a head injury, comes out of coma, otherwise completely normal, he looks at his mother and says, "This looks exactly like my mother, this woman, but she's an impostor. +She's some other woman pretending to be my mother." +Now, why does this happen? +Why would somebody -- and this person is perfectly lucid and intelligent in all other respects, but when he sees his mother, his delusion kicks in and says, it's not mother. +Now, the most common interpretation of this, which you find in all the psychiatry textbooks, is a Freudian view, and that is that this chap -- and the same argument applies to women, by the way, but I'll just talk about guys. +When you're a little baby, a young baby, you had a strong sexual attraction to your mother. +This is the so-called Oedipus complex of Freud. +I'm not saying I believe this, but this is the standard Freudian view. +And then, as you grow up, the cortex develops, and inhibits these latent sexual urges towards your mother. +Thank God, or you would all be sexually aroused when you saw your mother. +And then what happens is, there's a blow to your head, damaging the cortex, allowing these latent sexual urges to emerge, flaming to the surface, and suddenly and inexplicably you find yourself being sexually aroused by your mother. +And you say, "My God, if this is my mom, how come I'm being sexually turned on? +She's some other woman. She's an impostor." +It's the only interpretation that makes sense to your damaged brain. +This has never made much sense to me, this argument. +It's very ingenious, as all Freudian arguments are -- -- but didn't make much sense because I have seen the same delusion, a patient having the same delusion, about his pet poodle. +He'll say, "Doctor, this is not Fifi. It looks exactly like Fifi, but it's some other dog." Right? +Now, you try using the Freudian explanation there. +You'll start talking about the latent bestiality in all humans, or some such thing, which is quite absurd, of course. +Now, what's really going on? +So, to explain this curious disorder, we look at the structure and functions of the normal visual pathways in the brain. +Normally, visual signals come in, into the eyeballs, go to the visual areas in the brain. +There are, in fact, 30 areas in the back of your brain concerned with just vision, and after processing all that, the message goes to a small structure called the fusiform gyrus, where you perceive faces. +There are neurons there that are sensitive to faces. +You can call it the face area of the brain, right? +I talked about that earlier. +Now, when that area's damaged, you lose the ability to see faces, right? +But from that area, the message cascades into a structure called the amygdala in the limbic system, the emotional core of the brain, and that structure, called the amygdala, gauges the emotional significance of what you're looking at. +Is it prey? Is it predator? Is it mate? +Or is it something absolutely trivial, like a piece of lint, or a piece of chalk, or a -- I don't want to point to that, but -- or a shoe, or something like that? OK? +Which you can completely ignore. +So if the amygdala is excited, and this is something important, the messages then cascade into the autonomic nervous system. +Your heart starts beating faster. +You start sweating to dissipate the heat that you're going to create from muscular exertion. +And that's fortunate, because we can put two electrodes on your palm and measure the change in skin resistance produced by sweating. +So I can determine, when you're looking at something, whether you're excited or whether you're aroused, or not, OK? +And I'll get to that in a minute. +So my idea was, when this chap looks at an object, when he looks at his -- any object for that matter, it goes to the visual areas and, however, and it's processed in the fusiform gyrus, and you recognize it as a pea plant, or a table, or your mother, for that matter, OK? +And then the message cascades into the amygdala, and then goes down the autonomic nervous system. +But maybe, in this chap, that wire that goes from the amygdala to the limbic system, the emotional core of the brain, is cut by the accident. +So because the fusiform is intact, the chap can still recognize his mother, and says, "Oh yeah, this looks like my mother." +But because the wire is cut to the emotional centers, he says, "But how come, if it's my mother, I don't experience a warmth?" +Or terror, as the case may be? Right? +And therefore, he says, "How do I account for this inexplicable lack of emotions? +This can't be my mother. +It's some strange woman pretending to be my mother." +How do you test this? +Well, what you do is, if you take any one of you here, and put you in front of a screen, and measure your galvanic skin response, and show pictures on the screen, I can measure how you sweat when you see an object, like a table or an umbrella. Of course, you don't sweat. +If I show you a picture of a lion, or a tiger, or a pinup, you start sweating, right? +And, believe it or not, if I show you a picture of your mother -- I'm talking about normal people -- you start sweating. +You don't even have to be Jewish. +Now, what happens if you show this patient? +You take the patient and show him pictures on the screen and measure his galvanic skin response. +Tables and chairs and lint, nothing happens, as in normal people, but when you show him a picture of his mother, the galvanic skin response is flat. +There's no emotional reaction to his mother, because that wire going from the visual areas to the emotional centers is cut. +So his vision is normal because the visual areas are normal, his emotions are normal -- he'll laugh, he'll cry, so on and so forth -- but the wire from vision to emotions is cut and therefore he has this delusion that his mother is an impostor. +It's a lovely example of the sort of thing we do: take a bizarre, seemingly incomprehensible, neural psychiatric syndrome and say that the standard Freudian view is wrong, that, in fact, you can come up with a precise explanation in terms of the known neural anatomy of the brain. +By the way, if this patient then goes, and mother phones from an adjacent room -- phones him -- and he picks up the phone, and he says, "Wow, mom, how are you? Where are you?" +There's no delusion through the phone. +Then, she approaches him after an hour, he says, "Who are you? +You look just like my mother." OK? +The reason is there's a separate pathway going from the hearing centers in the brain to the emotional centers, and that's not been cut by the accident. +So this explains why through the phone he recognizes his mother, no problem. +When he sees her in person, he says it's an impostor. +OK, how is all this complex circuitry set up in the brain? +Is it nature, genes, or is it nurture? +And we approach this problem by considering another curious syndrome called phantom limb. +And you all know what a phantom limb is. +When an arm is amputated, or a leg is amputated, for gangrene, or you lose it in war -- for example, in the Iraq war, it's now a serious problem -- you continue to vividly feel the presence of that missing arm, and that's called a phantom arm or a phantom leg. +In fact, you can get a phantom with almost any part of the body. +Believe it or not, even with internal viscera. +I've had patients with the uterus removed -- hysterectomy -- who have a phantom uterus, including phantom menstrual cramps at the appropriate time of the month. +And in fact, one student asked me the other day, "Do they get phantom PMS?" +A subject ripe for scientific enquiry, but we haven't pursued that. +OK, now the next question is, what can you learn about phantom limbs by doing experiments? +One of the things we've found was, about half the patients with phantom limbs claim that they can move the phantom. +It'll pat his brother on the shoulder, it'll answer the phone when it rings, it'll wave goodbye. +These are very compelling, vivid sensations. +The patient's not delusional. +He knows that the arm is not there, but, nevertheless, it's a compelling sensory experience for the patient. +But however, about half the patients, this doesn't happen. +The phantom limb -- they'll say, "But doctor, the phantom limb is paralyzed. +It's fixed in a clenched spasm and it's excruciatingly painful. +If only I could move it, maybe the pain will be relieved." +Now, why would a phantom limb be paralyzed? +It sounds like an oxymoron. +But when we were looking at the case sheets, what we found was, these people with the paralyzed phantom limbs, the original arm was paralyzed because of the peripheral nerve injury. +The actual nerve supplying the arm was severed, was cut, by say, a motorcycle accident. +So the patient had an actual arm, which is painful, in a sling for a few months or a year, and then, in a misguided attempt to get rid of the pain in the arm, the surgeon amputates the arm, and then you get a phantom arm with the same pains, right? +And this is a serious clinical problem. +Patients become depressed. +Some of them are driven to suicide, OK? +So, how do you treat this syndrome? +Now, why do you get a paralyzed phantom limb? +When I looked at the case sheet, I found that they had an actual arm, and the nerves supplying the arm had been cut, and the actual arm had been paralyzed, and lying in a sling for several months before the amputation, and this pain then gets carried over into the phantom itself. +Why does this happen? +When the arm was intact, but paralyzed, the brain sends commands to the arm, the front of the brain, saying, "Move," but it's getting visual feedback saying, "No." +Move. No. Move. No. Move. No. +And this gets wired into the circuitry of the brain, and we call this learned paralysis, OK? +The brain learns, because of this Hebbian, associative link, that the mere command to move the arm creates a sensation of a paralyzed arm. +And then, when you've amputated the arm, this learned paralysis carries over into your body image and into your phantom, OK? +Now, how do you help these patients? +How do you unlearn the learned paralysis, so you can relieve him of this excruciating, clenching spasm of the phantom arm? +Well, we said, what if you now send the command to the phantom, but give him visual feedback that it's obeying his command, right? +Maybe you can relieve the phantom pain, the phantom cramp. +How do you do that? Well, virtual reality. +But that costs millions of dollars. +So, I hit on a way of doing this for three dollars, but don't tell my funding agencies. +OK? What you do is you create what I call a mirror box. +You have a cardboard box with a mirror in the middle, and then you put the phantom -- so my first patient, Derek, came in. +He had his arm amputated 10 years ago. +He had a brachial avulsion, so the nerves were cut and the arm was paralyzed, lying in a sling for a year, and then the arm was amputated. +He had a phantom arm, excruciatingly painful, and he couldn't move it. +It was a paralyzed phantom arm. +So he came there, and I gave him a mirror like that, in a box, which I call a mirror box, right? +And the patient puts his phantom left arm, which is clenched and in spasm, on the left side of the mirror, and the normal hand on the right side of the mirror, and makes the same posture, the clenched posture, and looks inside the mirror. And what does he experience? +He looks at the phantom being resurrected, because he's looking at the reflection of the normal arm in the mirror, and it looks like this phantom has been resurrected. +"Now," I said, "now, look, wiggle your phantom -- your real fingers, or move your real fingers while looking in the mirror." +He's going to get the visual impression that the phantom is moving, right? +That's obvious, but the astonishing thing is, the patient then says, "Oh my God, my phantom is moving again, and the pain, the clenching spasm, is relieved." +And remember, my first patient who came in -- -- thank you. My first patient came in, and he looked in the mirror, and I said, "Look at your reflection of your phantom." +And he started giggling, he says, "I can see my phantom." +But he's not stupid. He knows it's not real. +He knows it's a mirror reflection, but it's a vivid sensory experience. +Now, I said, "Move your normal hand and phantom." +He said, "Oh, I can't move my phantom. You know that. It's painful." +I said, "Move your normal hand." +And he says, "Oh my God, my phantom is moving again. I don't believe this! +And my pain is being relieved." OK? +And then I said, "Close your eyes." +He closes his eyes. +"And move your normal hand." +"Oh, nothing. It's clenched again." +"OK, open your eyes." +"Oh my God, oh my God, it's moving again!" +So, he was like a kid in a candy store. +So, I said, OK, this proves my theory about learned paralysis and the critical role of visual input, but I'm not going to get a Nobel Prize for getting somebody to move his phantom limb. +It's a completely useless ability, if you think about it. +But then I started realizing, maybe other kinds of paralysis that you see in neurology, like stroke, focal dystonias -- there may be a learned component to this, which you can overcome with the simple device of using a mirror. +So, I said, "Look, Derek" -- well, first of all, the guy can't just go around carrying a mirror to alleviate his pain -- I said, "Look, Derek, take it home and practice with it for a week or two. +Maybe, after a period of practice, you can dispense with the mirror, unlearn the paralysis, and start moving your paralyzed arm, and then, relieve yourself of pain." +So he said OK, and he took it home. +I said, "Look, it's, after all, two dollars. Take it home." +So, he took it home, and after two weeks, he phones me, and he said, "Doctor, you're not going to believe this." +I said, "What?" +He said, "It's gone." +I said, "What's gone?" +I thought maybe the mirror box was gone. +He said, "No, no, no, you know this phantom I've had for the last 10 years? +It's disappeared." +And I said -- I got worried, I said, my God, I mean I've changed this guy's body image, what about human subjects, ethics and all of that? +And I said, "Derek, does this bother you?" +He said, "No, last three days, I've not had a phantom arm and therefore no phantom elbow pain, no clenching, no phantom forearm pain, all those pains are gone away. +But the problem is I still have my phantom fingers dangling from the shoulder, and your box doesn't reach." +"So, can you change the design and put it on my forehead, so I can, you know, do this and eliminate my phantom fingers?" +He thought I was some kind of magician. +Now, why does this happen? +It's because the brain is faced with tremendous sensory conflict. +It's getting messages from vision saying the phantom is back. +On the other hand, there's no proprioception, muscle signals saying that there is no arm, right? +And your motor command saying there is an arm, and, because of this conflict, the brain says, to hell with it, there is no phantom, there is no arm, right? +It goes into a sort of denial -- it gates the signals. +And when the arm disappears, the bonus is, the pain disappears because you can't have disembodied pain floating out there, in space. +So, that's the bonus. +Now, this technique has been tried on dozens of patients by other groups in Helsinki, so it may prove to be valuable as a treatment for phantom pain, and indeed, people have tried it for stroke rehabilitation. +Stroke you normally think of as damage to the fibers, nothing you can do about it. +But, it turns out some component of stroke paralysis is also learned paralysis, and maybe that component can be overcome using mirrors. +This has also gone through clinical trials, helping lots and lots of patients. +OK, let me switch gears now to the third part of my talk, which is about another curious phenomenon called synesthesia. +This was discovered by Francis Galton in the nineteenth century. +He was a cousin of Charles Darwin. +He pointed out that certain people in the population, who are otherwise completely normal, had the following peculiarity: every time they see a number, it's colored. +Five is blue, seven is yellow, eight is chartreuse, nine is indigo, OK? +Bear in mind, these people are completely normal in other respects. +Or C sharp -- sometimes, tones evoke color. +C sharp is blue, F sharp is green, another tone might be yellow, right? +Why does this happen? +This is called synesthesia. Galton called it synesthesia, a mingling of the senses. +In us, all the senses are distinct. +These people muddle up their senses. +Why does this happen? +One of the two aspects of this problem are very intriguing. +Synesthesia runs in families, so Galton said this is a hereditary basis, a genetic basis. +Secondly, synesthesia is about -- and this is what gets me to my point about the main theme of this lecture, which is about creativity -- synesthesia is eight times more common among artists, poets, novelists and other creative people than in the general population. +Why would that be? +I'm going to answer that question. +It's never been answered before. +OK, what is synesthesia? What causes it? +Well, there are many theories. +One theory is they're just crazy. +Now, that's not really a scientific theory, so we can forget about it. +Another theory is they are acid junkies and potheads, right? +Now, there may be some truth to this, because it's much more common here in the Bay Area than in San Diego. +OK. Now, the third theory is that -- well, let's ask ourselves what's really going on in synesthesia. All right? +So, we found that the color area and the number area are right next to each other in the brain, in the fusiform gyrus. +So we said, there's some accidental cross wiring between color and numbers in the brain. +So, every time you see a number, you see a corresponding color, and that's why you get synesthesia. +Now remember -- why does this happen? +Why would there be crossed wires in some people? +Remember I said it runs in families? +That gives you the clue. +And that is, there is an abnormal gene, a mutation in the gene that causes this abnormal cross wiring. +In all of us, it turns out we are born with everything wired to everything else. +So, every brain region is wired to every other region, and these are trimmed down to create the characteristic modular architecture of the adult brain. +So, if there's a gene causing this trimming and if that gene mutates, then you get deficient trimming between adjacent brain areas. +And if it's between number and color, you get number-color synesthesia. +If it's between tone and color, you get tone-color synesthesia. +So far, so good. +Now, what if this gene is expressed everywhere in the brain, so everything is cross-connected? +Well, think about what artists, novelists and poets have in common, the ability to engage in metaphorical thinking, linking seemingly unrelated ideas, such as, "It is the east, and Juliet is the Sun." +Well, you don't say, Juliet is the sun, does that mean she's a glowing ball of fire? +I mean, schizophrenics do that, but it's a different story, right? +Normal people say, she's warm like the sun, she's radiant like the sun, she's nurturing like the sun. +Instantly, you've found the links. +Now, if you assume that this greater cross wiring and concepts are also in different parts of the brain, then it's going to create a greater propensity towards metaphorical thinking and creativity in people with synesthesia. +And, hence, the eight times more common incidence of synesthesia among poets, artists and novelists. +OK, it's a very phrenological view of synesthesia. +The last demonstration -- can I take one minute? +OK. I'm going to show you that you're all synesthetes, but you're in denial about it. +Here's what I call Martian alphabet. Just like your alphabet, A is A, B is B, C is C. +Different shapes for different phonemes, right? +Here, you've got Martian alphabet. +One of them is Kiki, one of them is Buba. +Which one is Kiki and which one is Buba? +How many of you think that's Kiki and that's Buba? Raise your hands. +Well, it's one or two mutants. +How many of you think that's Buba, that's Kiki? Raise your hands. +Ninety-nine percent of you. +Now, none of you is a Martian. How did you do that? +It's because you're all doing a cross-model synesthetic abstraction, meaning you're saying that that sharp inflection -- ki-ki, in your auditory cortex, the hair cells being excited -- Kiki, mimics the visual inflection, sudden inflection of that jagged shape. +Now, this is very important, because what it's telling you is your brain is engaging in a primitive -- it's just -- it looks like a silly illusion, but these photons in your eye are doing this shape, and hair cells in your ear are exciting the auditory pattern, but the brain is able to extract the common denominator. +It's a primitive form of abstraction, and we now know this happens in the fusiform gyrus of the brain, because when that's damaged, these people lose the ability to engage in Buba Kiki, but they also lose the ability to engage in metaphor. +If you ask this guy, what -- "all that glitters is not gold," what does that mean?" +The patient says, "Well, if it's metallic and shiny, it doesn't mean it's gold. +You have to measure its specific gravity, OK?" +So, they completely miss the metaphorical meaning. +So, this area is about eight times the size in higher -- especially in humans -- as in lower primates. +Something very interesting is going on here in the angular gyrus, because it's the crossroads between hearing, vision and touch, and it became enormous in humans. And something very interesting is going on. +And I think it's a basis of many uniquely human abilities like abstraction, metaphor and creativity. +All of these questions that philosophers have been studying for millennia, we scientists can begin to explore by doing brain imaging, and by studying patients and asking the right questions. +Thank you. +Sorry about that. +You know, there's a small country nestled in the Himalayan Mountains, far from these beautiful mountains, where the people of the Kingdom of Bhutan have decided to do something different, which is to measure their gross national happiness rather than their gross national product. +And why not? +After all, happiness is not just a privilege for the lucky few, but a fundamental human right for all. +And what is happiness? +Happiness is the freedom of choice. +The freedom to chose where to live, what to do, what to buy, what to sell, from whom, to whom, when and how. +Where does choice come from? +And who gets to express it, and how do we express it? +Well, one way to express choice is through the market. +Well-functioning markets provide choices, and ultimately, the ability to express one's pursuit for happiness. +The great Indian economist, Amartya Sen, was awarded the Nobel prize for demonstrating that famine is not so much about the availability of food supply, but rather the ability to acquire or entitle oneself to that food through the market. +In 1984, in what can only be considered one of the greatest crimes of humanity, nearly one million people died of starvation in my country of birth, Ethiopia. +Not because there was not enough food -- because there was actually a surplus of food in the fertile regions of the south parts of the country -- but because in the north, people could not access or entitle themselves to that food. +That was a turning point for my life. +Most Africans today, by far, are farmers. +And most of Africa's farmers are, by and large, small farmers in terms of land that they operate, and very, very small farmers in terms of the capital they have at their disposal. +African agriculture today is among, or is, the most under-capitalized in the world. +Only seven percent of arable land in Africa is irrigated, compared to 40 percent in Asia. +African farmers only use some 22 kilograms of fertilizer per hectare, compared to 144 in Asia. +Road density is six times greater in Asia than it is in rural Africa. +There are eight times more tractors in Latin America, and three times more tractors in Asia, than in Africa. +The small farmer in Africa today lives a life without much choice, and therefore without much freedom. +His livelihood is predetermined by the conditions of grinding poverty. +He comes to the market when prices are lowest, with the meager fruits of his hard labor, just after the harvest, because he has no choice. +She comes back to the market some months later, when prices are highest, in what we call the lean season -- when food is scarce -- because she has to feed her family and has no choice. +The real question is, how can markets be developed in rural Africa to harness the power of innovation and entrepreneurship that we know exists? +Another notable economist, Theodore Schultz, in 1974 won the Nobel prize for demonstrating that farmers are efficient, but poor. +Meaning, in fact, that farmers are rational and profit-minded just like everybody else. +Well, we don't need, now, any more Nobel prizes to know that farmers want a fair shake at the market and want to make money, just like everyone else. +And one thing is clear, which is at least now we know that Africa is open for business. +And that business is agriculture. +Over two decades ago, the world insisted to Africa that markets must be liberalized, that economies must be structurally adjusted. +This meant that governments were to remove themselves from the business of buying and selling -- which they did rather inefficiently -- and let the private market do its magic. +Well, what happened over the last 25 years? +Did Africa feed itself? +Did our farmers turn into highly productive commercial actors? +So why didn't agriculture markets perform to expectations? +The market reforms prompted by the West -- and I've spent some 15 years traveling around the continent doing research on agricultural markets, and have interviewed traders in 10 to 15 countries in this continent, hundreds of traders -- trying to understand what went wrong with our market reform. +And it seems to me that the reforms might have thrown the baby out with the bath water. +Like its agriculture, Africa's markets are highly under-capitalized and inefficient. +We know from our work around the continent that transaction costs of reaching the market, and the risks of transacting in rural, agriculture markets, are extremely high. +In fact, only one third of agricultural output produced in Africa even reaches the market. +Africa's markets are weak not only because of weak infrastructure in terms of roads and telecommunications, but also because of the virtual absence of necessary market institutions, such as market information, grades and standards, and reliable ways to connect buyers and sellers. +Because of this, commodity buyers and sellers typically transact in small circles, in narrow networks of people they know and trust. +And because of that, as grain changes hands -- and I've measured that it changes hands four, five times in its trajectory from the farmer to the consumer -- every time it changes hands -- and I've seen this all over rural Africa -- it also changes sacks. +And I thought that was incredibly peculiar. +And really realized that that was because -- as traders would tell me over and over -- that's the only way people know what they're getting in terms of the quantity and the product quality. +And that actually has huge implications for the ability of markets to quickly respond to price signals, and situations where there are deficits, for example. +It also has very high cost implications. +I have measured that 26 percent of the marketing margin is simply due to the fact that, because of the absence of grades and standards and market information, sacks have to be constantly changed. +And this leads to very high handling costs. +Speaking of risk, we have seen that price volatility of food crops in Africa is the highest in the world. +In Africa, small farmers bear the brunt of this risk. +In fact, in my view, there is no region of the world and no period in history that farmers have been expected to bear the kind of market risk that Africa's farmers have to bear. +And in my view, there is simply no place in the world that has grown its agriculture on the kind of risk that our farmers in Africa today face. +In Ethiopia, for example, the variation in maize prices from year to year is as much as 50 percent annually. +This kind of market risk is mind-boggling, and has direct implications for not only the incentives of farmers to invest in higher productivity technology, such as modern seeds and fertilizers, but also direct implications for food security. +To give you an example, between 2001 and 2002, Ethiopian maize farmers produced two years of bumper harvest. +That in turn, because of the weak marketing system, led to an 80 percent collapse in maize prices in the country. +This made it unprofitable for some farmers to even harvest the grain from the fields. +And we calculated that some 300,000 tons of grain was left in the fields to rot in early 2002. +Not six months later, in July 2002, Ethiopia announced a major food crisis, to the same proportions as 1984: 14 million people at risk of starvation. +What also happened that year is in the areas where there were good rains, and where farmers had previously produced surplus grain, farmers had decided to withdraw from the fertilizer market, not use fertilizer and actually had dropped their use of fertilizer by 27 percent. +This is a tragic example of arrested development, or a budding green revolution stopped in its tracks. +And this is not just specific to Ethiopia, but happens over and over, all over Africa. +Well, I'm not here today to lament about the situation, or wring my hands. +I am here to tell you that change is in the air. +Africa today is not the Africa waiting for aid solutions, or cookie-cutter foreign expert policy prescriptions. +Africa has learned, or is learning somewhat slowly, that markets don't happen by themselves. +In the 1980s, it was very fashionable to talk about getting prices right. +There was a very influential book about that, which was mainly about getting governments out of the market. +We now recognize that getting markets right is about not just price incentives, but also investing in the right infrastructure and the appropriate and necessary institutions to create the conditions to unleash the power of innovation in the market. +When conditions are right, we know and see that that innovation is ready to explode in rural Africa, just like anywhere else. +Nearly three years ago, I decided to leave my comfortable job as a World Bank senior economist in Washington and come back to my country of birth, Ethiopia, after nearly 30 years abroad. +I did so for a simple reason. +After having spent more than a decade understanding, studying, and trying to convince policymakers and donors about what was wrong with Africa's agricultural markets, I decided it was time to do something about it. +I currently lead, in Ethiopia, an exciting new initiative to establish the first Ethiopia Commodity Exchange, or ECX. +Now, the commodity exchange itself, that concept, is not new to the world. +In fact, in 1848, 82 grain merchants and farmers got together in a small town at the crossroads of the Illinois River and Lake Michigan to establish a way to trade better amongst themselves. +That was, of course, the birth of the Chicago Board of Trade, which is the most famous commodity exchange in the world. +The Chicago Board of Trade was established then for precisely the same reasons that our farmers today would benefit from a commodity exchange. +In the American Midwest, farmers used to load grain onto barges and send it upriver to the Chicago market. +But once it arrived, if no buyer was to be found, or if prices suddenly dropped, farmers would incur tremendous losses. +And in fact, would even dump the grain in Lake Michigan, rather than spend more money transporting it back to their farms. +Well, the need to avoid these huge risks and tremendous losses led to the birth of the futures market, and the underlying system of grading grain and receipting -- issuing warehouse receipts on the basis of which trade could be done. +From there, the greatest innovation of all came about in this market, which is that buyers and sellers could transact grain without actually having to physically or visually inspect the grain. +That meant that grain could be traded across tremendous distances, and even across time -- as far forward as 18 months into the future. +This innovation is at the heart of the transformation of American agriculture, and the rise of Chicago to a global market, agricultural market, superpower from where it was, a small regional town. +But that is actually changing. +And we're seeing a shift -- powered mainly because of information technology -- a shift in market dominance towards the emerging markets. +And over the last decade, you see that the share of Western exchanges -- and this is the U.S. share of exchanges in the world -- has gone down by nearly half in just the last decade. +Similarly, there's been explosive growth in India, for example, where rural farmers are using exchanges -- growing here over the last three years by 270 percent a year. +This is powered by low-cost VSAT technology, aggressively trying to reach farmers to bring them into the market. +China's Dalian Commodity Exchange, three years ago, 2004, overtook the Chicago Board of Trade to become the second largest commodity exchange in the world. +Now, in Ethiopia, we're in the process of designing the first organized Ethiopia Commodity Exchange. +We're not trying to cut and paste the Chicago model or the India model, but creating a system uniquely tailored to Ethiopia's needs and realities, Ethiopia's small farmers. +So, the ECX is an Ethiopian exchange for Ethiopia. +We're creating a system that serves all market actors, that creates integrity, trust, efficiency, transparency and enables small farmers to manage the risks that I have described. +In the design of our commodity exchange in Ethiopia, we've done something rather unique, which is to take the approach of an integrated perspective, or what we call the ECX Edge. +The ECX Edge pretty much creates the entire ecosystem in which the market will develop itself. +And this is because one of the things we've learned over the last decade of studying market development in Africa is that the piecemeal approach does not work. +You've got one donor trying to develop market information, another trying to work on or sponsor grades and standards, another ICT, and yet another on warehousing, or warehouse receipts. +In our approach in Ethiopia, we've decided to put together the entire ecosystem, or environment, in which trade takes place. +That means that the exchange will operate a trading system, which will initially start as an open outcry, because we don't think the country's ready for full electronic trading. +But at the same time, we'll do something which I think no exchange in the world has ever done, which is itself to operate something like an Internet cafe in the rural areas. +So that farmers and small traders can actually come to a terminal center -- what we call the remote access terminal centers -- and actually, without having to buy a computer or figure out how to dial up or any of those things, simply see the trading that's happening on the Addis Ababa trading floor. +At the same time, what's very fundamental to this market is that -- and again, an innovation that we've designed for our exchange -- is that the exchange will operate warehouses around the country, in which grade certification and warehouse receipting will be done. +And in turn, we'll operate an in-house clearing system, to assure that payment is done appropriately, in the right amount and at the right time, so that basically, we create trust and integrity in the system. +Obviously, we work with exchange actors, and as we're developing the exchange market itself, we're also developing the regulatory infrastructure and legal framework, the overarching legal framework for making this market work. +So, in fact, our proclamation is going to parliament next month. +What's really important is that the ECX will operate a market information system to disseminate prices in real time to farmers around the country, using VSAT technology to bring an electronic price dissemination directly to farmers. +What this does is transforms, fundamentally, the farmers' relationship to the market. +And they start to think national, and even global. +They start to make not only commercial marketing decisions, but also planting decisions, on the basis of information coming from the futures price market. +And they come to the market knowing what grades their products will achieve in terms of a price premium. +So all of this will transform farmers. +It will also transform the way traders do business. +It will stop them from doing simple, back-to-back, limited arbitrage to really thinking strategically about how to move grain across long distances from [surplus regions] to [deficit areas]. +Can Ethiopia do this? +It seems very ambitious. +But it will create new opportunities. +We believe that this initiative requires great political will, and we'll have to align the financial sector, as well as the ICT sector, and really even the underlying legal framework. +We believe that the winds of change are here, and that we can do it. +ECX is the market for Ethiopia's new millennium, which starts in about eight months. +The last parliament of our century opened with our president announcing to the country that this was the most important economic initiative for the country today. +We believe that the stakes are high, but that the returns will be even greater. +ECX, moreover, can become a trading platform for a pan-African market in agricultural commodities. +Ethiopia's domestic market is about one billion dollars of value. +And we feel that over the next five years, if Ethiopia can capture even 40 percent, just 40 percent, of the domestic market, and add just 25 percent value to that market, the value of the market doubles. +Ethiopia's agricultural market is 30 percent higher than South Africa's grain production, and, in fact, Ethiopia is the second largest maize producer in Africa. +So the potential is there. +The will is there. +The commitment is there. +So we feel that we have a winning value proposition to transform farmers' choices, to grow our agriculture, and to change Africa. +So, we are in the business of finding our happiness. +Thank you very much. +I want to talk to you a little bit about user-generated content. +I'm going to tell you three stories on the way to one argument that's going to tell you a little bit about how we open user-generated content up for business. +So, here's the first story. +1906. This man, John Philip Sousa, traveled to this place, the United States Capitol, to talk about this technology, what he called the, quote, "talking machines." +Sousa was not a fan of the talking machines. +This is what he had to say. +"These talking machines are going to ruin artistic development of music in this country. +When I was a boy, in front of every house in the summer evenings, you would find young people together singing the songs of the day, or the old songs. +Today, you hear these infernal machines going night and day. +We will not have a vocal chord left," Sousa said. +"The vocal chords will be eliminated by a process of evolution as was the tail of man when he came from the ape." +Now, this is the picture I want you to focus on. +This is a picture of culture. +We could describe it using modern computer terminology as a kind of read-write culture. +It's a culture where people participate in the creation and the re-creation of their culture. In that sense, it's read-write. +Sousa's fear was that we would lose that capacity because of these, quote, "infernal machines." They would take it away. +And in its place, we'd have the opposite of read-write culture, what we could call read-only culture. +Culture where creativity was consumed but the consumer is not a creator. +A culture which is top-down, owned, where the vocal chords of the millions have been lost. +Now, as you look back at the twentieth century, at least in what we think of as the, quote, "developed world" -- hard not to conclude that Sousa was right. +Never before in the history of human culture had it been as professionalized, never before as concentrated. +Never before has creativity of the millions been as effectively displaced, and displaced because of these, quote, "infernal machines." +The twentieth century was that century where, at least for those places we know the best, culture moved from this read-write to read-only existence. +So, second. Land is a kind of property -- it is property. It's protected by law. +As Lord Blackstone described it, land is protected by trespass law, for most of the history of trespass law, by presuming it protects the land all the way down below and to an indefinite extent upward. +Well, in 1945, Supreme Court got a chance to address that question. +Two farmers, Thomas Lee and Tinie Causby, who raised chickens, had a significant complaint because of these technologies. +The complaint was that their chickens followed the pattern of the airplanes and flew themselves into the walls of the barn when the airplanes flew over the land. +And so they appealed to Lord Blackstone to say these airplanes were trespassing. +Since time immemorial, the law had said, you can't fly over the land without permission of the landowner, so this flight must stop. +Well, the Supreme Court considered this 100-years tradition and said, in an opinion written by Justice Douglas, that the Causbys must lose. +The Supreme Court said the doctrine protecting land all the way to the sky has no place in the modern world, otherwise every transcontinental flight would subject the operator to countless trespass suits. +Common sense, a rare idea in the law, but here it was. Common sense -- -- Revolts at the idea. Common sense. +Finally. Before the Internet, the last great terror to rain down on the content industry was a terror created by this technology. Broadcasting: a new way to spread content, and therefore a new battle over the control of the businesses that would spread content. +Now, at that time, the entity, the legal cartel, that controlled the performance rights for most of the music that would be broadcast using these technologies was ASCAP. +They had an exclusive license on the most popular content, and they exercised it in a way that tried to demonstrate to the broadcasters who really was in charge. +So, between 1931 and 1939, they raised rates by some 448 percent, until the broadcasters finally got together and said, okay, enough of this. +And in 1939, a lawyer, Sydney Kaye, started something called Broadcast Music Inc. We know it as BMI. +And BMI was much more democratic in the art that it would include within its repertoire, including African American music for the first time in the repertoire. +But most important was that BMI took public domain works and made arrangements of them, which they gave away for free to their subscribers. So that in 1940, when ASCAP threatened to double their rates, the majority of broadcasters switched to BMI. +Now, ASCAP said they didn't care. +The people will revolt, they predicted, because the very best music was no longer available, because they had shifted to the second best public domain provided by BMI. +Well, they didn't revolt, and in 1941, ASCAP cracked. +And the important point to recognize is that even though these broadcasters were broadcasting something you would call second best, that competition was enough to break, at that time, this legal cartel over access to music. +Okay. Three stories. Here's the argument. +In my view, the most significant thing to recognize about what this Internet is doing is its opportunity to revive the read-write culture that Sousa romanticized. +Digital technology is the opportunity for the revival of these vocal chords that he spoke so passionately to Congress about. +User-generated content, spreading in businesses in extraordinarily valuable ways like these, celebrating amateur culture. +By which I don't mean amateurish culture, I mean culture where people produce for the love of what they're doing and not for the money. +I mean the culture that your kids are producing all the time. +For when you think of what Sousa romanticized in the young people together, singing the songs of the day, of the old songs, you should recognize what your kids are doing right now. +Taking the songs of the day and the old songs and remixing them to make them something different. +It's how they understand access to this culture. +So, let's have some very few examples to get a sense of what I'm talking about here. +Here's something called Anime Music Video, first example, taking anime captured from television re-edited to music tracks. +This one you should be -- confidence. Jesus survives. Don't worry. +And this is the best. +My love ... +There's only you in my life ... +The only thing that's bright ... +My first love ... +You're every breath that I take ... +You're every step I make ... +And I .... +I want to share all my love with you ... +No one else will do ... +And your eyes ... +They tell me how much you care ... +So, this is remix, right? +And it's important to emphasize that what this is not is not what we call, quote, "piracy." +I'm not talking about nor justifying people taking other people's content in wholesale and distributing it without the permission of the copyright owner. +I'm talking about people taking and recreating using other people's content, using digital technologies to say things differently. +Now, the importance of this is not the technique that you've seen here. +Because, of course, every technique that you've seen here is something that television and film producers have been able to do for the last 50 years. +The importance is that that technique has been democratized. +It is now anybody with access to a $1,500 computer who can take sounds and images from the culture around us and use it to say things differently. +These tools of creativity have become tools of speech. +It is a literacy for this generation. This is how our kids speak. +It is how our kids think. It is what your kids are as they increasingly understand digital technologies and their relationship to themselves. +Now, in response to this new use of culture using digital technologies, the law has not greeted this Sousa revival with very much common sense. +Instead, the architecture of copyright law and the architecture of digital technologies, as they interact, have produced the presumption that these activities are illegal. +Because if copyright law at its core regulates something called copies, then in the digital world the one fact we can't escape is that every single use of culture produces a copy. +Every single use therefore requires permission; without permission, you are a trespasser. +You're a trespasser with about as much sense as these people were trespassers. +Common sense here, though, has not yet revolted in response to this response that the law has offered to these forms of creativity. +Instead, what we've seen is something much worse than a revolt. +There's a growing extremism that comes from both sides in this debate, in response to this conflict between the law and the use of these technologies. +One side builds new technologies, such as one recently announced that will enable them to automatically take down from sites like YouTube any content that has any copyrighted content in it, whether or not there's a judgment of fair use that might be applied to the use of that content. +The extremism on one side begets extremism on the other, a fact we should have learned many, many times over, and both extremes in this debate are just wrong. +Now, the balance that I try to fight for, I, as any good liberal, try to fight for first by looking to the government. Total mistake, right? +Looked first to the courts and the legislatures to try to get them to do something to make the system make more sense. +So, we need something different, we need a different kind of solution. +And the solution here, in my view, is a private solution, a solution that looks to legalize what it is to be young again, and to realize the economic potential of that, and that's where the story of BMI becomes relevant. +Because, as BMI demonstrated, competition here can achieve some form of balance. The same thing can happen now. +We don't have a public domain to draw upon now, so instead what we need is two types of changes. +First, that artists and creators embrace the idea, choose that their work be made available more freely. +So, for example, they can say their work is available freely for non-commercial, this amateur-type of use, but not freely for any commercial use. +Now, I would talk about one particular such plan that I know something about, but I don't want to violate TED's first commandment of selling, so I'm not going to talk about this at all. +I'm instead just going to remind you of the point that BMI teaches us. +That artist choice is the key for new technology having an opportunity to be open for business, and we need to build artist choice here if these new technologies are to have that opportunity. +But let me end with something I think much more important -- much more important than business. +It's the point about how this connects to our kids. +We have to recognize they're different from us. This is us, right? +We made mixed tapes; they remix music. +We watched TV; they make TV. +It is technology that has made them different, and as we see what this technology can do, we need to recognize you can't kill the instinct the technology produces. We can only criminalize it. +We can't stop our kids from using it. +We can only drive it underground. +We can't make our kids passive again. +We can only make them, quote, "pirates." And is that good? +We live in this weird time. It's kind of age of prohibitions, where in many areas of our life, we live life constantly against the law. +Ordinary people live life against the law, and that's what I -- we are doing to our kids. +They live life knowing they live it against the law. +That realization is extraordinarily corrosive, extraordinarily corrupting. +And in a democracy, we ought to be able to do better. +Do better, at least for them, if not for opening for business. +Thank you very much. +It's really quite an honor to be here tonight, and I'm really glad that I stayed here and listened because I've really been inspired. +And I'm going to play some songs for you tonight that are, literally, world premieres. +I've been working on my new record and I've never played these songs for anybody except the microphone. +This is a song that I wrote about the meaning of technology, which goes perfectly with this gathering. +I started thinking about -- when I was in college, especially as a blind person, doing a research paper was a major undertaking. +You had to go to the library, see if you could get them to find the books for you, you know, footnotes and all that. +Now you can just go on Google. Just look it up. +I wish I had that when I was in college. +Anyway, this is a song about: we have all this, but what are we going to do with it? +It's called "All the Answers." +Whew! It's a miracle I didn't make any mistakes on that song. +That's the first time I've ever played it. +It's a "feel the fear and do it anyway" kind of thing. +This next song is a song that started out as a dream -- a childhood dream. +It was one of the titles that I was sort of thinking about calling my record, except there's a couple of problems. +One thing is, it's unpronounceable. +And it's a made-up word. +It's called "Tembererana." +And the song is based on what I think was my first childhood attempts to think about invisible forces. +So "tembererana" was these dreams, in which I would be running away from bad feelings -- is the only way I can put it. +So this is called "Tembererana." +It's based on an Argentinian rhythm called "carnivalito." +I'd like to do pretty much what I did the first time, which is to choose a light-hearted theme. +Last time, I talked about death and dying. +This time, I'm going to talk about mental illness. +So, the way of treating these diseases in early times was to, in some way or other, exorcise those evil spirits, and this is still going on, as you know. +But it wasn't enough to use the priests. +When medicine became somewhat scientific, in about 450 BC, with Hippocrates and those boys, they tried to look for herbs, plants that would literally shake the bad spirits out. +So, they found certain plants that could cause convulsions. +And the herbals, the botanical books of up to the late Middle Ages, the Renaissance are filled with prescriptions for causing convulsions to shake the evil spirits out. +Finally, in about the sixteenth century, a physician whose name was Theophrastus Bombastus Aureolus von Hohenheim, called Paracelsus, a name probably familiar to some people here -- -- good, old Paracelsus found that he could predict the degree of convulsion by using a measured amount of camphor to produce the convulsion. +Can you imagine going to your closet, pulling out a mothball, and chewing on it if you're feeling depressed? +It's better than Prozac, but I wouldn't recommend it. +So what we see in the seventeenth, eighteenth century is the continued search for medications other than camphor that'll do the trick. +Well, along comes Benjamin Franklin, and he comes close to convulsing himself with a bolt of electricity off the end of his kite. +And so people begin thinking in terms of electricity to produce convulsions. +And then, we fast-forward to about 1932, when three Italian psychiatrists, who were largely treating depression, began to notice among their patients, who were also epileptics, that if they had an epileptic -- a series of epileptic fits, a lot of them in a row -- the depression would very frequently lift. +Not only would it lift, but it might never return. +So they got very interested in producing convulsions, measured types of convulsions. +And they thought, "Well, we've got electricity, we'll plug somebody into the wall. +That always makes hair stand up and people shake a lot." +So, they tried it on a few pigs, and none of the pigs were killed. +So, they went to the police and they said, "We know that at the Rome railroad station, there are all these lost souls wandering around, muttering gibberish. Can you bring one of them to us?" +Someone who is, as the Italians say, "cagoots." +So they found this "cagoots" guy, a 39-year-old man who was really hopelessly schizophrenic, who was known, had been known for months, to be literally defecating on himself, talking nothing that made any sense, and they brought him into the hospital. +So these three psychiatrists, after about two or three weeks of observation, laid him down on a table, connected his temples to a very small source of current. +They thought, "Well, we'll try 55 volts, two-tenths of a second. +That's not going to do anything terrible to him." +So they did that. +Well, I have the following from a firsthand observer, who told me this about 35 years ago, when I was thinking about these things for some research project of mine. +He said, "This fellow" -- remember, he wasn't even put to sleep -- "after this major grand mal convulsion, sat right up, looked at these three fellas and said, 'What the fuck are you assholes trying to do?' " If I could only say that in Italian. +Well, they were happy as could be, because he hadn't said a rational word in the weeks of observation. +So they plugged him in again, and this time they used 110 volts for half a second. +And to their amazement, after it was over, he began speaking like he was perfectly well. +He relapsed a little bit, they gave him a series of treatments, and he was essentially cured. +But of course, having schizophrenia, within a few months, it returned. +But they wrote a paper about this, and everybody in the Western world began using electricity to convulse people who were either schizophrenic or severely depressed. +It didn't work very well on the schizophrenics, but it was pretty clear in the '30s and by the middle of the '40s that electroconvulsive therapy was very, very effective in the treatment of depression. +And of course, in those days, there were no antidepressant drugs, and it became very, very popular. +They would anesthetize people, convulse them, but the real difficulty was that there was no way to paralyze muscles. +So people would have a real grand mal seizure. +Bones were broken. Especially in old, fragile people, you couldn't use it. +And then in the 1950s, late 1950s, the so-called muscle relaxants were developed by pharmacologists, and it got so that you could induce a complete convulsion, an electroencephalographic convulsion -- you could see it on the brain waves -- without causing any convulsion in the body except a little bit of twitching of the toes. +So again, it was very, very popular and very, very useful. +Well, you know, in the middle '60s, the first antidepressants came out. Tofranil was the first. +In the late '70s, early '80s, there were others, and they were very effective. +And patients' rights groups seemed to get very upset about the kinds of things that they would witness. +And so the whole idea of electroconvulsive, electroshock therapy disappeared, but has had a renaissance in the last 10 years. +And the reason that it has had a renaissance is that probably about 10 percent of the people, severe depressives, do not respond, regardless of what is done for them. +Now, why am I telling you this story at this meeting? +I'm telling you this story, because actually ever since Richard called me and asked me to talk about -- as he asked all of his speakers -- to talk about something that would be new to this audience, that we had never talked about, never written about, I've been planning this moment. +This reason really is that I am a man who, almost 30 years ago, had his life saved by two long courses of electroshock therapy. +And let me tell you this story. +I was, in the 1960s, in a marriage. To use the word bad would be perhaps the understatement of the year. +It was dreadful. +There are, I'm sure, enough divorced people in this room to know about the hostility, the anger, who knows what. +Being someone who had had a very difficult childhood, a very difficult adolescence -- it had to do with not quite poverty but close. +It had to do with being brought up in a family where no one spoke English, no one could read or write English. +It had to do with death and disease and lots of other things. +I was a little prone to depression. +So, as things got worse, as we really began to hate each other, I became progressively depressed over a period of a couple of years, trying to save this marriage, which was inevitably not to be saved. +Finally, I would schedule -- all my major surgical cases, I was scheduling them for 12, one o'clock in the afternoon, because I couldn't get out of bed before about 11 o'clock. +And anybody who's been depressed here knows what that's like. +I couldn't even pull the covers off myself. +Well, you're in a university medical center, where everybody knows everybody, and it's perfectly clear to my colleagues, so my referrals began to decrease. +As my referrals began to decrease, I clearly became increasingly depressed until I thought, my God, I can't work anymore. +And, in fact, it didn't make any difference because I didn't have any patients anymore. +So, with the advice of my physician, I had myself admitted to the acute care psychiatric unit of our university hospital. +And my colleagues, who had known me since medical school in that place, said, "Don't worry, chap. Six weeks, you're back in the operating room. Everything's going to be great." +Well, you know what bovine stercus is? +That proved to be a lot of bovine stercus. +I know some people who got tenure in that place with lies like that. +So I was one of their failures. +But it wasn't that simple. Because by the time I got out of that unit, I was not functional at all. +I could hardly see five feet in front of myself. +I shuffled when I walked. I was bowed over. +I rarely bathed. I sometimes didn't shave. It was dreadful. +And it was clear -- not to me, because nothing was clear to me at that time anymore -- that I would need long-term hospitalization in that awful place called a mental hospital. +So I was admitted, in 1973, in the spring of 1973, to the Institute of Living, which used to be called the Hartford Retreat. +It was founded in the eighteenth century, the largest psychiatric hospital in the state of Connecticut, other than the huge public hospitals that existed at that time. +And they tried everything they had. +They tried the usual psychotherapy. +They tried every medication available in those days. +And they did have Tofranil and other things -- Mellaril, who knows what. +Nothing happened except that I got jaundiced from one of these things. +And finally, because I was well known in Connecticut, they decided they better have a meeting of the senior staff. +All the senior staff got together, and I later found out what happened. +They put all their heads together and they decided that there was nothing that could be done for this surgeon who had essentially separated himself from the world, who by that time had become so overwhelmed, not just with depression and feelings of worthlessness and inadequacy, but with obsessional thinking, obsessional thinking about coincidences. +And there were particular numbers that every time I saw them, just got me dreadfully upset -- all kinds of ritualistic observances, just awful, awful stuff. +Remember when you were a kid, and you had to step on every line? +Well, I was a grown man who had all of these rituals, and it got so there was a throbbing, there was a ferocious fear in my head. +You've seen this painting by Edvard Munch, The Scream. Every moment was a scream. +It was impossible. So they decided there was no therapy, there was no treatment. But there was one treatment, which actually had been pioneered at the Hartford hospital in the early 1940s, and you can imagine what it was. It was pre-frontal lobotomy. +So they decided -- I didn't know this, again, I found this out later -- that the only thing that could be done was for this 43-year-old man to have a pre-frontal lobotomy. +Well, as in all hospitals, there was a resident assigned to my case. He was 27 years old, and he would meet with me two or three times a week. +And of course, I had been there, what, three or four months at the time. +And he asked to meet with the senior staff, and they agreed to meet with him because he was very well thought of in that place. +They thought he had a really extraordinary future. +And he dug in his heels and said, "No. I know this man better than any of you. I have met with him over and over again. +You've just seen him from time to time. You've read reports and so forth. +I really honestly believe that the basic problem here is pure depression, and all of the obsessional thinking comes out of it. +And you know, of course, what'll happen if you do a pre-frontal lobotomy. +Well, he said, "Can't we try a course of electroshock therapy?" +And you know why they agreed? They agreed to humor him. +They just thought, "Well, we'll give a course of 10. +And so we'll lose a little time. Big deal. It doesn't make any difference." +So they gave the course of 10, and the first -- the usual course, incidentally, was six to eight and still is six to eight. +Plugged me into the wires, put me to sleep, gave me the muscle relaxant. +Six didn't work. Seven didn't work. +Eight didn't work. At nine, I noticed -- and it's wonderful that I could notice anything -- I noticed a change. And at 10, I noticed a real change. +And he went back to them, and they agreed to do another 10. +Again, not a single one of them -- I think there are about seven or eight of them -- thought this would do any good. They thought this was a temporary change. +But, lo and behold, by 16, by 17, there were demonstrable differences in the way I felt. +By 18 and 19, I was sleeping through the night. +And by 20, I had the sense, I really had the sense that I could overcome this, that I was now strong enough that by an act of will, I could blow the obsessional thinking away. +I could blow the depression away. +And I've never forgotten -- I never will forget -- standing in the kitchen of the unit, it was a Sunday morning in January of 1974, standing in the kitchen by myself and thinking, "I've got the strength now to do this." +It was as though those tightly coiled wires in my head had been disconnected and I could think clearly. +But I need a formula. I need some thing to say to myself when I begin thinking obsessionally, obsessively. +Well, the Gilbert and Sullivan fans in this room will remember "Ruddigore," and they will remember Mad Margaret, and they will remember that she was married to a fellow named Sir Despard Murgatroyd. +Well, you know, I'm from the Bronx. I can't say "Basingstoke." +But I had something better. And it was very simple. +It was, "Ah, fuck it!" +Much better than "Basingstoke," at least for me. And it worked -- my God, it worked. +Every time I would begin thinking obsessionally -- again, once more, after 20 shock treatments -- I would say, "Ah, fuck it." +And things got better and better, and within three or four months, I was discharged from that hospital, and I joined a group of surgeons where I could work with other people in the community, not in New Haven, but fairly close by. +I stayed there for three years. +At the end of three years, I went back to New Haven, had remarried by that time. +I brought my wife with me, actually, to make sure I could get through this. +My children came back to live with us. +We had two more children after that. +Resuscitated the career, even better than it had been before. +Went right back into the university and began to write books. +Well, you know, it's been a wonderful life. +It's been, as I said, close to 30 years. +I stopped doing surgery about six years ago and became a full-time writer, as many people know. +But it's been very exciting. It's been very happy. +Every once in a while, I have to say, "Ah, fuck it." +Every once in a while, I get somewhat depressed and a little obsessional. +So, I'm not free of all of this. But it's worked. It's always worked. +Why have I chosen, after never, ever talking about this, to talk about it now? +Well, those of you who know some of these books know that one is about death and dying, one is about the human body and the human spirit, one is about the way mystical thoughts are constantly in our minds, and they have always to do with my own personal experiences. +One might think reading these books -- and I've gotten thousands of letters about them by people who do think this -- that based on my life's history as I've portrayed in the books, my early life's history, I am someone who has overcome adversity. +That I am someone who has drunk, drank, drunk of the bitter dregs of near-disaster in childhood and emerged not just unscathed but strengthened. +I really have it figured out, so that I can advise people about death and dying, so that I can talk about mysticism and the human spirit. +And I've always felt guilty about that. +I've always felt that somehow I was an impostor because my readers don't know what I have just told you. +It's known by some people in New Haven, obviously, but it is not generally known. +So one of the reasons that I have come here to talk about this today is to -- frankly, selfishly -- unburden myself and let it be known that this is not an untroubled mind that has written all of these books. +But more importantly, I think, is the fact that a very significant proportion of people in this audience are under 30, and there are many, of course, who are well over 30. +For people under 30, and it looks to me like almost all of you -- I would say all of you -- are either on the cusp of a magnificent and exciting career or right into a magnificent and exciting career: anything can happen to you. Things change. +Accidents happen. Something from childhood comes back to haunt you. +You can be thrown off the track. +I hope it happens to none of you, but it will probably happen to a small percentage of you. +To those to whom it doesn't happen, there will be adversities. +If I, with the bleakness of spirit, with no spirit, that I had in the 1970s and no possibility of recovery, as far as that group of very experienced psychiatrists thought, if I can find my way back from this, believe me, anybody can find their way back from any adversity that exists in their lives. +And for those who are older, who have lived through perhaps not something as bad as this, but who have lived through difficult times, perhaps where they lost everything, as I did, and started out all over again, some of these things will seem very familiar. +There is recovery. +There is redemption. And there is resurrection. +There are resurrection themes in every society that has ever been studied, and it is because not just only do we fantasize about the possibility of resurrection and recovery, but it actually happens. And it happens a lot. +Perhaps the most popular resurrection theme, outside of specifically religious ones, is the one about the phoenix, the ancient story of the phoenix, who, every 500 years, resurrects itself from its own ashes to go on to live a life that is even more beautiful than it was before. Richard, thanks very much. +I live and work from Tokyo, Japan. +And I specialize in human behavioral research, and applying what we learn to think about the future in different ways, and to design for that future. +And you know, to be honest, I've been doing this for seven years, and I haven't got a clue what the future is going to be like. +But I've got a pretty good idea how people will behave when they get there. +This is my office. It's out there. +It's not in the lab, and it's increasingly in places like India, China, Brazil, Africa. +We live on a planet -- 6.3 billion people. +About three billion people, by the end of this year, will have cellular connectivity. +And it'll take about another two years to connect the next billion after that. +And I mention this because, if we want to design for that future, we need to figure out what those people are about. +And that's, kind of, where I see what my job is and what our team's job is. +Our research often starts with a very simple question. +So I'll give you an example. What do you carry? +If you think of everything in your life that you own, when you walk out that door, what do you consider to take with you? +When you're looking around, what do you consider? +Of that stuff, what do you carry? +And of that stuff, what do you actually use? +So this is interesting to us, because the conscious and subconscious decision process implies that the stuff that you do take with you and end up using has some kind of spiritual, emotional or functional value. +And to put it really bluntly, you know, people are willing to pay for stuff that has value, right? +So I've probably done about five years' research looking at what people carry. +I go in people's bags. I look in people's pockets, purses. +I go in their homes. And we do this worldwide, and we follow them around town with video cameras. +It's kind of like stalking with permission. +And we do all this -- and to go back to the original question, what do people carry? +And it turns out that people carry a lot of stuff. +OK, that's fair enough. +But if you ask people what the three most important things that they carry are -- across cultures and across gender and across contexts -- most people will say keys, money and, if they own one, a mobile phone. +And I'm not saying this is a good thing, but this is a thing, right? +I mean, I couldn't take your phones off you if I wanted to. +You'd probably kick me out, or something. +OK, it might seem like an obvious thing for someone who works for a mobile phone company to ask. +But really, the question is, why? Right? +So why are these things so important in our lives? +And it turns out, from our research, that it boils down to survival -- survival for us and survival for our loved ones. +So, keys provide an access to shelter and warmth -- transport as well, in the U.S. increasingly. +Money is useful for buying food, sustenance, among all its other uses. +And a mobile phone, it turns out, is a great recovery tool. +If you prefer this kind of Maslow's hierarchy of needs, those three objects are very good at supporting the lowest rungs in Maslow's hierarchy of needs. +Yes, they do a whole bunch of other stuff, but they're very good at this. +And in particular, it's the mobile phone's ability to allow people to transcend space and time. +And what I mean by that is, you know, you can transcend space by simply making a voice call, right? +And you can transcend time by sending a message at your convenience, and someone else can pick it up at their convenience. +And this is fairly universally appreciated, it turns out, which is why we have three billion plus people who have been connected. +And they value that connectivity. +But actually, you can do this kind of stuff with PCs. +And you can do them with phone kiosks. +And the mobile phone, in addition, is both personal -- and so it also gives you a degree of privacy -- and it's convenient. +You don't need to ask permission from anyone, you can just go ahead and do it, right? +However, for these things to help us survive, it depends on them being carried. +But -- and it's a pretty big but -- we forget. +We're human, that's what we do. It's one of our features. +I think, quite a nice feature. +So we forget, but we're also adaptable, and we adapt to situations around us pretty well. +And so we have these strategies to remember, and one of them was mentioned yesterday. +And it's, quite simply, the point of reflection. +And that's that moment when you're walking out of a space, and you turn around, and quite often you tap your pockets. +Even women who keep stuff in their bags tap their pockets. +And you turn around, and you look back into the space, and some people talk aloud. +And pretty much everyone does it at some point. +OK, the next thing is -- most of you, if you have a stable home life, and what I mean is that you don't travel all the time, and always in hotels, but most people have what we call a center of gravity. +And a center of gravity is where you keep these objects. +And these things don't stay in the center of gravity, but over time, they gravitate there. +It's where you expect to find stuff. +And in fact, when you're turning around, and you're looking inside the house, and you're looking for this stuff, this is where you look first, right? +OK, so when we did this research, we found the absolutely, 100 percent, guaranteed way to never forget anything ever, ever again. +And that is, quite simply, to have nothing to remember. +OK, now, that sounds like something you get on a Chinese fortune cookie, right? +But is, in fact, about the art of delegation. +And from a design perspective, it's about understanding what you can delegate to technology and what you can delegate to other people. +And it turns out, delegation -- if you want it to be -- can be the solution for pretty much everything, apart from things like bodily functions, going to the toilet. +You can't ask someone to do that on your behalf. +And apart from things like entertainment, you wouldn't pay for someone to go to the cinema for you and have fun on your behalf, or, at least, not yet. +Maybe sometime in the future, we will. +So, let me give you an example of delegation in practice, right. +So this is -- probably the thing I'm most passionate about is the research that we've been doing on illiteracy and how people who are illiterate communicate. +So, the U.N. estimated -- this is 2004 figures -- that there are almost 800 million people who can't read and write, worldwide. +So, we've been conducting a lot of research. +And one of the things we were looking at is -- if you can't read and write, if you want to communicate over distances, you need to be able to identify the person that you want to communicate with. +It could be a phone number, it could be an e-mail address, it could be a postal address. +Simple question: if you can't read and write, how do you manage your contact information? +And the fact is that millions of people do it. +Just from a design perspective, we didn't really understand how they did it, and so that's just one small example of the kind of research that we were doing. +And it turns out that illiterate people are masters of delegation. +So they delegate that part of the task process to other people, the stuff that they can't do themselves. +Let me give you another example of delegation. +This one's a little bit more sophisticated, and this is from a study that we did in Uganda about how people who are sharing devices, use those devices. +Sente is a word in Uganda that means money. +It has a second meaning, which is to send money as airtime. OK? +And it works like this. +So let's say, June, you're in a village, rural village. +I'm in Kampala and I'm the wage earner. +I'm sending money back, and it works like this. +So, in your village, there's one person in the village with a phone, and that's the phone kiosk operator. +And it's quite likely that they'd have a quite simple mobile phone as a phone kiosk. +So what I do is, I buy a prepaid card like this. +And instead of using that money to top up my own phone, I call up the local village operator. +And I read out that number to them, and they use it to top up their phone. +So, they're topping up the value from Kampala, and it's now being topped up in the village. +You take a 10 or 20 percent commission, and then you -- the kiosk operator takes 10 or 20 percent commission, and passes the rest over to you in cash. +OK, there's two things I like about this. +So the first is, it turns anyone who has access to a mobile phone -- anyone who has a mobile phone -- essentially into an ATM machine. +It brings rudimentary banking services to places where there's no banking infrastructure. +And even if they could have access to the banking infrastructure, they wouldn't necessarily be considered viable customers, because they're not wealthy enough to have bank accounts. +There's a second thing I like about this. +And that is that despite all the resources at my disposal, and despite all our kind of apparent sophistication, I know I could never have designed something as elegant and as totally in tune with the local conditions as this. OK? +And, yes, there are things like Grameen Bank and micro-lending. +But the difference between this and that is, there's no central authority trying to control this. +This is just street-up innovation. +So, it turns out the street is a never-ending source of inspiration for us. +And OK, if you break one of these things here, you return it to the carrier. +They'll give you a new one. +They'll probably give you three new ones, right? +I mean, that's buy three, get one free. That kind of thing. +If you go on the streets of India and China, you see this kind of stuff. +And this is where they take the stuff that breaks, and they fix it, and they put it back into circulation. +This is from a workbench in Jilin City, in China, and you can see people taking down a phone and putting it back together. +They reverse-engineer manuals. +This is a kind of hacker's manual, and it's written in Chinese and English. +They also write them in Hindi. +You can subscribe to these. +There are training institutes where they're churning out people for fixing these things as well. +But what I like about this is, it boils down to someone on the street with a small, flat surface, a screwdriver, a toothbrush for cleaning the contact heads -- because they often get dust on the contact heads -- and knowledge. +And it's all about the social network of the knowledge, floating around. +And I like this because it challenges the way that we design stuff, and build stuff, and potentially distribute stuff. +It challenges the norms. +OK, for me the street just raises so many different questions. +Like, this is Viagra that I bought from a backstreet sex shop in China. +And China is a country where you get a lot of fakes. +And I know what you're asking -- did I test it? +I'm not going to answer that, OK. +But I look at something like this, and I consider the implications of trust and confidence in the purchase process. +And we look at this and we think, well, how does that apply, for example, for the design of -- the lessons from this -- apply to the design of online services, future services in these markets? +This is a pair of underpants from -- -- from Tibet. +And I look at something like this, and honestly, you know, why would someone design underpants with a pocket, right? +And I look at something like this and it makes me question, if we were to take all the functionality in things like this, and redistribute them around the body in some kind of personal area network, how would we prioritize where to put stuff? +And yes, this is quite trivial, but actually the lessons from this can apply to that kind of personal area networks. +And what you see here is a couple of phone numbers written above the shack in rural Uganda. +This doesn't have house numbers. This has phone numbers. +So what does it mean when people's identity is mobile? +When those extra three billion people's identity is mobile, it isn't fixed? +Your notion of identity is out-of-date already, OK, for those extra three billion people. +This is how it's shifting. +And then I go to this picture here, which is the one that I started with. +And this is from Delhi. +It's from a study we did into illiteracy, and it's a guy in a teashop. +You can see the chai being poured in the background. +And he's a, you know, incredibly poor teashop worker, on the lowest rungs in the society. +And he, somehow, has the appreciation of the values of Livestrong. +And it's not necessarily the same values, but some kind of values of Livestrong, to actually go out and purchase them, and actually display them. +For me, this kind of personifies this connected world, where everything is intertwined, and the dots are -- it's all about the dots joining together. +OK, the title of this presentation is "Connections and Consequences," and it's really a kind of summary of five years of trying to figure out what it's going to be like when everyone on the planet has the ability to transcend space and time in a personal and convenient manner, right? +When everyone's connected. +And there are four things. +So, the first thing is the immediacy of ideas, the speed at which ideas go around. +And I know TED is about big ideas, but actually, the benchmark for a big idea is changing. +If you want a big idea, you need to embrace everyone on the planet, that's the first thing. +The second thing is the immediacy of objects. +And what I mean by that is, as these become smaller, as the functionality that you can access through this becomes greater -- things like banking, identity -- these things quite simply move very quickly around the world. +And so the speed of the adoption of things is just going to become that much more rapid, in a way that we just totally cannot conceive, when you get it to 6.3 billion and the growth in the world's population. +The next thing is that, however we design this stuff -- carefully design this stuff -- the street will take it, and will figure out ways to innovate, as long as it meets base needs -- the ability to transcend space and time, for example. +And it will innovate in ways that we cannot anticipate. +In ways that, despite our resources, they can do it better than us. +That's my feeling. +And if we're smart, we'll look at this stuff that's going on, and we'll figure out a way to enable it to inform and infuse both what we design and how we design. +And the last thing is that -- actually, the direction of the conversation. +With another three billion people connected, they want to be part of the conversation. +And I think our relevance and TED's relevance is really about embracing that and learning how to listen, essentially. +And we need to learn how to listen. +So thank you very, very much. +So, I guess it is a result of globalization that you can find Coca-Cola tins on top of Everest and a Buddhist monk in Monterey. +And so I just came, two days ago, from the Himalayas to your kind invitation. +So I would like to invite you, also, for a while, to the Himalayas themselves. +And to show the place where meditators, like me, who began with being a molecular biologist in Pasteur Institute, and found their way to the mountains. +So these are a few images I was lucky to take and be there. +There's Mount Kailash in Eastern Tibet -- wonderful setting. +This is from Marlboro country. +This is a turquoise lake. +A meditator. +This is the hottest day of the year somewhere in Eastern Tibet, on August 1. +And the night before, we camped, and my Tibetan friends said, "We are going to sleep outside." And I said, "Why? We have enough space in the tent." +They said, "Yes, but it's summertime." +So now, we are going to speak of happiness. +As a Frenchman, I must say that there are a lot of French intellectuals that think happiness is not at all interesting. +I just wrote an essay on happiness, and there was a controversy. +And someone wrote an article saying, "Don't impose on us the dirty work of happiness." +"We don't care about being happy. We need to live with passion. +We like the ups and downs of life. +We like our suffering because it's so good when it ceases for a while." +This is what I see from the balcony of my hermitage in the Himalayas. +It's about two meters by three, and you are all welcome any time. +Now, let's come to happiness or well-being. +And first of all, you know, despite what the French intellectuals say, it seems that no one wakes up in the morning thinking, "May I suffer the whole day?" +Which means that somehow, consciously or not, directly or indirectly, in the short or the long term, whatever we do, whatever we hope, whatever we dream -- somehow, is related to a deep, profound desire for well-being or happiness. +As Pascal said, even the one who hangs himself, somehow, is looking for cessation of suffering. He finds no other way. +But then, if you look in the literature, East and West, you can find incredible diversity of definition of happiness. +Some people say, I only believed in remembering the past, imagining the future, never the present. +Some people say happiness is right now; it's the quality of the freshness of the present moment. +And that led Henri Bergson, the French philosopher, to say, "All the great thinkers of humanity have left happiness in the vague so that each of them could define their own terms." +Well, that would be fine if it was just a secondary preoccupation in life. +But now, if it is something that is going to determine the quality of every instant of our life, then we better know what it is, have some clearer idea. +And probably, the fact that we don't know that is why, so often, although we seek happiness, it seems we turn our back to it. +Although we want to avoid suffering, it seems we are running somewhat towards it. +And that can also come from some kind of confusions. +One of the most common ones is happiness and pleasure. +But if you look at the characteristics of those two, pleasure is contingent upon time, upon its object, upon the place. +It is something that -- changes of nature. +Beautiful chocolate cake: first serving is delicious, second one not so much, then we feel disgust. +That's the nature of things. We get tired. +I used to be a fan of Bach. I used to play it on the guitar, you know. +I can hear it two, three, five times. +If I had to hear it 24 hours, non-stop, it might be very tiring. +If you are feeling very cold, you come near a fire, it's so wonderful. +After some moments, you just go a little back, and then it starts burning. +It sort of uses itself as you experience it. +And also, again, it can -- also, it's something that you -- it is not something that is radiating outside. +Like, you can feel intense pleasure and some others around you can be suffering a lot. +Now, what, then, will be happiness? +And happiness, of course, is such a vague word, so let's say well-being. +And so, I think the best definition, according to the Buddhist view, is that well-being is not just a mere pleasurable sensation. +It is a deep sense of serenity and fulfillment. +A state that actually pervades and underlies all emotional states, and all the joys and sorrows that can come one's way. +For you, that might be surprising. +Can we have this kind of well-being while being sad? In a way, why not? +Because we are speaking of a different level. +Look at the waves coming near the shore. +When you are at the bottom of the wave, you hit the bottom. +You hit the solid rock. +When you are surfing on the top, you are all elated. +So you go from elation to depression -- there's no depth. +Now, if you look at the high sea, there might be beautiful, calm ocean, like a mirror. +There might be storms, but the depth of the ocean is still there, unchanged. +So now, how is that? +It can only be a state of being, not just a fleeting emotion, sensation. +Even joy -- that can be the spring of happiness. +But there's also wicked joy, you can rejoice in someone's suffering. +So how do we proceed in our quest for happiness? Very often, we look outside. +We think that if we could gather this and that, all the conditions, something that we say, "Everything to be happy -- to have everything to be happy." +That very sentence already reveals the doom, destruction of happiness. +To have everything. If we miss something, it collapses. +And also, when things go wrong, we try to fix the outside so much, but our control of the outer world is limited, temporary, and often, illusory. +So now, look at inner conditions. Aren't they stronger? +Isn't it the mind that translates the outer condition into happiness and suffering? +And isn't that stronger? +We know, by experience, that we can be what we call "a little paradise," and yet, be completely unhappy within. +The Dalai Lama was once in Portugal, and there was a lot of construction going on everywhere. +So one evening, he said, "Look, you are doing all these things, but isn't it nice, also, to build something within?" +And he said, "[Without] that -- even if you get a high-tech flat on the 100th floor of a super-modern and comfortable building, if you are deeply unhappy within, all you are going to look for is a window from which to jump." +So now, at the opposite, we know a lot of people who, in very difficult circumstances, manage to keep serenity, inner strength, inner freedom, confidence. +So now, if the inner conditions are stronger -- of course, the outer conditions do influence, and it's wonderful to live longer, healthier, to have access to information, education, to be able to travel, to have freedom. It's highly desirable. +However, this is not enough. Those are just auxiliary, help conditions. +The experience that translates everything is within the mind. +So then, when we ask oneself how to nurture the condition for happiness, the inner conditions, and which are those which will undermine happiness. +So then, this just needs to have some experience. +We have to know from ourselves, there are certain states of mind that are conducive to this flourishing, to this well-being, what the Greeks called eudaimonia, flourishing. +There are some which are adverse to this well-being. +And so, if we look from our own experience, anger, hatred, jealousy, arrogance, obsessive desire, strong grasping, they don't leave us in such a good state after we have experienced it. +And also, they are detrimental to others' happiness. +So we may consider that the more those are invading our mind, and, like a chain reaction, the more we feel miserable, we feel tormented. +At the opposite, everyone knows deep within that an act of selfless generosity, if from the distance, without anyone knowing anything about it, we could save a child's life, make someone happy. +We don't need the recognition. We don't need any gratitude. +Just the mere fact of doing that fills such a sense of adequation with our deep nature. +And we would like to be like that all the time. +So is that possible, to change our way of being, to transform one's mind? +Aren't those negative emotions, or destructive emotions, inherent to the nature of mind? +Is change possible in our emotions, in our traits, in our moods? +For that we have to ask, what is the nature of mind? +And if we look from the experiential point of view, there is a primary quality of consciousness that's just the mere fact to be cognitive, to be aware. +Consciousness is like a mirror that allows all images to rise on it. +You can have ugly faces, beautiful faces in the mirror. +The mirror allows that, but the mirror is not tainted, is not modified, is not altered by those images. +Likewise, behind every single thought there is the bare consciousness, pure awareness. +This is the nature. It cannot be tainted intrinsically with hatred or jealousy because then, if it was always there -- like a dye that would permeate the whole cloth -- then it would be found all the time, somewhere. +We know we're not always angry, always jealous, always generous. +So, because the basic fabric of consciousness is this pure cognitive quality that differentiates it from a stone, there is a possibility for change because all emotions are fleeting. +That is the ground for mind training. +Mind training is based on the idea that two opposite mental factors cannot happen at the same time. +You could go from love to hate. +But you cannot, at the same time, toward the same object, the same person, want to harm and want to do good. +You cannot, in the same gesture, shake hand and give a blow. +So, there are natural antidotes to emotions that are destructive to our inner well-being. +So that's the way to proceed. Rejoicing compared to jealousy. +A kind of sense of inner freedom as opposite to intense grasping and obsession. +Benevolence, loving kindness against hatred. +But, of course, each emotion then would need a particular antidote. +Another way is to try to find a general antidote to all emotions, and that's by looking at the very nature. +Usually, when we feel annoyed, hatred or upset with someone, or obsessed with something, the mind goes again and again to that object. +Each time it goes to the object, it reinforces that obsession or that annoyance. +So then, it's a self-perpetuating process. +So what we need to look for now is, instead of looking outward, we look inward. +Look at anger itself. +It looks very menacing, like a billowing monsoon cloud or thunderstorm. +We think we could sit on the cloud, but if you go there, it's just mist. +Likewise, if you look at the thought of anger, it will vanish like frost under the morning sun. +If you do this again and again, the propensity, the tendencies for anger to arise again will be less and less each time you dissolve it. +And, at the end, although it may rise, it will just cross the mind, like a bird crossing the sky without leaving any track. +So this is the principal of mind training. +because it took time for all those faults in our mind, the tendencies, to build up, so it will take time to unfold them as well. +But that's the only way to go. +Mind transformation -- that is the very meaning of meditation. +It means familiarization with a new way of being, new way of perceiving things, which is more in adequation with reality, with interdependence, with the stream and continuous transformation, which our being and our consciousness is. +So, the interface with cognitive science, since we need to come to that, it was, I suppose, the subject of -- we have to deal in such a short time -- with brain plasticity. +The brain was thought to be more or less fixed. +All the nominal connections, in numbers and quantities, were thought, until the last 20 years, to be more or less fixed when we reached adult age. +Now, recently, it has been found that it can change a lot. +A violinist, as we heard, who has done 10,000 hours of violin practice, some area that controls the movements of fingers in the brain changes a lot, increasing reinforcement of the synaptic connections. +So can we do that with human qualities? +With loving kindness, with patience, with openness? +So that's what those great meditators have been doing. +Some of them who came to the labs, like in Madison, Wisconsin, or in Berkeley, did 20 to 40,000 hours of meditation. +They do, like, three years' retreat, where they do meditate 12 hours a day. +And then, the rest of their life, they will do three or four hours a day. +They are real Olympic champions of mind training. +This is the place where the meditators -- you can see it's kind of inspiring. +Now, here with 256 electrodes. +So what did they find? Of course, same thing. +The scientific embargo -- if it's ever submitted to "Nature," hopefully, it will be accepted. +It deals with the state of compassion, unconditional compassion. +We asked meditators, who have been doing that for years and years, to put their mind in a state where there's nothing but loving kindness, total availability to sentient being. +Of course, during the training, we do that with objects. +We think of people suffering, of people we love, but at some point, it can be a state which is all pervading. +Here is the preliminary result, which I can show because it's already been shown. +The bell curve shows 150 controls, and what is being looked at is the difference between the right and the left frontal lobe. +In very short, people who have more activity in the right side of the prefrontal cortex are more depressed, withdrawn. They don't describe a lot of positive affect. +It's the opposite on the left side: more tendency to altruism, to happiness, to express, and curiosity and so forth. +So there's a basic line for people. And also, it can be changed. +If you see a comic movie, you go off to the left side. +If you are happy about something, you'll go more to the left side. +If you have a bout of depression, you'll go to the right side. +Here, the -0.5 is the full standard deviation of a meditator who meditated on compassion. +It's something that is totally out of the bell curve. +So, I've no time to go into all the different scientific results. +Hopefully, they will come. +But they found that -- this is after three and a half hours in an fMRI, it's like coming out of a space ship. +Also, it has been shown in other labs -- for instance, Paul Ekman's labs in Berkeley -- that some meditators are able, also, to control their emotional response more than it could be thought. +Like the startle experiments, for example. +If you sit a guy on a chair with all this apparatus measuring your physiology, and there's kind of a bomb that goes off, it's such an instinctive response that, in 20 years, they never saw anyone who would not jump. +Some meditators, without trying to stop it, but simply by being completely open, thinking that that bang is just going to be a small event like a shooting star, they are able not to move at all. +So the whole point of that is not, sort of, to make, like, a circus thing of showing exceptional beings who can jump, or whatever. +It's more to say that mind training matters. That this is not just a luxury. +This is not a supplementary vitamin for the soul. +This is something that's going to determine the quality of every instant of our lives. +We are ready to spend 15 years achieving education. +We love to do jogging, fitness. +We do all kinds of things to remain beautiful. +Yet, we spend surprisingly little time taking care of what matters most -- the way our mind functions -- which, again, is the ultimate thing that determines the quality of our experience. +Now, compassion is supposed to be put in action. +That's what we try to do in different places. +Just this one example is worth a lot of work. +This lady with bone TB, left alone in a tent, was going to die with her only daughter. +One year later, how she is. +Different schools and clinics we've been doing in Tibet. +And just, I leave you with the beauty of those looks that tells more about happiness than I could ever say. +And jumping monks of Tibet. +Flying monks. +Thank you very much. +You've all seen lots of articles on climate change, and here's yet another New York Times article, just like every other darn one you've seen. +It says all the same stuff as all the other ones you've seen. +It even has the same amount of headline as all the other ones you've seen. +What's unusual about this one, maybe, is that it's from 1953. +And the reason I'm saying this is that you may have the idea this problem is relatively recent. +That people have just sort of figured out about it, and now with Kyoto and the Governator and people beginning to actually do something, we may be on the road to a solution. +The fact is -- uh-uh. +We've known about this problem for 50 years, depending on how you count it. +We have talked about it endlessly over the last decade or so. +And we've accomplished close to zip. +This is the growth rate of CO2 in the atmosphere. +You've seen this in various forms, but maybe you haven't seen this one. +What this shows is that the rate of growth of our emissions is accelerating. +And that it's accelerating even faster than what we thought was the worst case just a few years back. +So that red line there was something that a lot of skeptics said the environmentalists only put in the projections to make the projections look as bad as possible, that emissions would never grow as fast as that red line. +But in fact, they're growing faster. +Here's some data from actually just 10 days ago, which shows this year's minimum of the Arctic Sea ice, and it's the lowest by far. +And the rate at which the Arctic Sea ice is going away is a lot quicker than models. +Really, we're doing this, basically. Really, not very much. +I don't want to depress you too much. +The problem is absolutely soluble, and even soluble in a way that's reasonably cheap. +Cheap meaning sort of the cost of the military, not the cost of medical care. +Cheap meaning a few percent of GDP. +No, this is really important to have this sense of scale. +So the problem is soluble, and the way we should go about solving it is, say, dealing with electricity production, which causes something like 43-or-so percent and rising of CO2 emissions. +And we could do that by perfectly sensible things like conservation, and wind power, nuclear power and coal to CO2 capture, which are all things that are ready for giant scale deployment, and work. +All we lack is the action to actually spend the money to put those into place. +Instead, we spend our time talking. +But nevertheless, that's not what I'm going to talk to you about tonight. +What I'm going to talk to you about tonight is stuff we might do if we did nothing. +And it's this stuff in the middle here, which is what you do if you don't stop the emissions quickly enough. +And you need to deal -- somehow break the link between human actions that change climate, and the climate change itself. And that's particularly important because, of course, while we can adapt to climate change -- and it's important to be honest here, there will be some benefits to climate change. +Oh, yes, I think it's bad. I've spent my whole life working to stop it. +But one of the reasons it's politically hard is there are winners and losers -- not all losers. +But, of course, the natural world, polar bears. +I spent time skiing across the sea ice for weeks at a time in the high Arctic. +They will completely lose. +And there's no adaption. +So this problem is absolutely soluble. +This geo-engineering idea, in it's simplest form, is basically the following. +You could put signed particles, say sulfuric acid particles -- sulfates -- into the upper atmosphere, the stratosphere, where they'd reflect away sunlight and cool the planet. +And I know for certain that that will work. +Not that there aren't side effects, but I know for certain it will work. +And the reason is, it's been done. +And it was done not by us, not by me, but by nature. +Here's Mount Pinatubo in the early '90s. That put a whole bunch of sulfur in the stratosphere with a sort of atomic bomb-like cloud. +The result of that was pretty dramatic. +After that, and some previous volcanoes we have, you see a quite dramatic cooling of the atmosphere. +So this lower bar is the upper atmosphere, the stratosphere, and it heats up after these volcanoes. +But you'll notice that in the upper bar, which is the lower atmosphere and the surface, it cools down because we shielded the atmosphere a little bit. +There's no big mystery about it. +There's lots of mystery in the details, and there's some bad side effects, like it partially destroys the ozone layer -- and I'll get to that in a minute. +But it clearly cools down. +And one other thing: it's fast. +It's really important to say. So much of the other things that we ought to do, like slowing emissions, are intrinsically slow, because it takes time to build all the hardware we need to reduce emissions. +And not only that, when you cut emissions, you don't cut concentrations, because concentrations, the amount of CO2 in the air, is the sum of emissions over time. +So you can't step on the brakes very quickly. +But if you do this, it's quick. +And there are times you might like to do something quick. +Another thing you might wonder about is, does it work? +Can you shade some sunlight and effectively compensate for the added CO2, and produce a climate sort of back to what it was originally? +And the answer seems to be yes. +So here are the graphs you've seen lots of times before. +That's what the world looks like, under one particular climate model's view, with twice the amount of CO2 in the air. +The lower graph is with twice the amount of CO2 and 1.8 percent less sunlight, and you're back to the original climate. +And this graph from Ken Caldeira. It's important to say came, because Ken -- at a meeting that I believe Marty Hoffart was also at in the mid-'90s -- Ken and I stood up at the back of the meeting and said, "Geo-engineering won't work." +And to the person who was promoting it said, "The atmosphere's much more complicated." +Gave a bunch of physical reasons why it wouldn't do a very good compensation. +Ken went and ran his models, and found that it did. +This topic is also old. +That report that landed on President Johnson's desk when I was two years old -- 1965. +That report, in fact, which had all the modern climate science -- the only thing they talked about doing was geo-engineering. +It didn't even talk about cutting emissions, which is an incredible shift in our thinking about this problem. +I'm not saying we shouldn't cut emissions. +We should, but it made exactly this point. +So, in a sense, there's not much new. +The one new thing is this essay. +So I should say, I guess, that since the time of that original President Johnson report, and the various reports of the U.S. National Academy -- 1977, 1982, 1990 -- people always talked about this idea. +Not as something that was foolproof, but as an idea to think about. +But when climate became, politically, a hot topic -- if I may make the pun -- in the last 15 years, this became so un-PC, we couldn't talk about it. +It just sunk below the surface. We weren't allowed to speak about it. +But in the last year, Paul Crutzen published this essay saying roughly what's all been said before: that maybe, given our very slow rate of progress in solving this problem and the uncertain impacts, we should think about things like this. +He said roughly what's been said before. +The big deal was he happened to have won the Nobel prize for ozone chemistry. +And so people took him seriously when he said we should think about this, even though there will be some ozone impacts. +And in fact, he had some ideas to make them go away. +There was all sorts of press coverage, all over the world, going right down to "Dr. Strangelove Saves the Earth," from the Economist. +And that got me thinking. I've worked on this topic on and off, but not so much technically. And I was actually lying in bed thinking one night. +And I thought about this child's toy -- hence, the title of my talk -- and I wondered if you could use the same physics that makes that thing spin 'round in the child's radiometer, to levitate particles into the upper atmosphere and make them stay there. +One of the problems with sulfates is they fall out quickly. +The other problem is they're right in the ozone layer, and I'd prefer them above the ozone layer. +And it turns out, I woke up the next morning, and I started to calculate this. +It was very hard to calculate from first principles. I was stumped. +But then I found out that there were all sorts of papers already published that addressed this topic because it happens already in the natural atmosphere. +So it seems there are already fine particles that are levitated up to what we call the mesosphere, about 100 kilometers up, that already have this effect. +I'll tell you very quickly how the effect works. +There are a lot of fun complexities that I'd love to spend the whole evening on, but I won't. +But let's say you have sunlight hitting some particle and it's unevenly heated. +So the side facing the sun is warmer; the side away, cooler. +Gas molecules that bounce off the warm side bounce away with some extra velocity because it's warm. +And so you see a net force away from the sun. +That's called the photophoretic force. +There are a bunch of other versions of it that I and some collaborators have thought about how to exploit. +And of course, we may be wrong -- this hasn't all been peer reviewed, we're in the middle of thinking about it -- but so far, it seems good. +But it looks like we could achieve long atmospheric lifetimes -- much longer than before -- because they're levitated. +We can move things out of the stratosphere into the mesosphere, in principle solving the ozone problem. +I'm sure there will be other problems that arise. +Finally, we could make the particles migrate to over the poles, so we could arrange the climate engineering so it really focused on the poles. +Which would have minimal bad impacts in the middle of the planet, where we live, and do the maximum job of what we might need to do, which is cooling the poles in case of planetary emergency, if you like. +This is a new idea that's crept up that may be, essentially, a cleverer idea than putting sulfates in. +Whether this idea is right or some other idea is right, I think it's almost certain we will eventually think of cleverer things to do than just putting sulfur in. +That if engineers and scientists really turned their minds to this, it's amazing how we can affect the planet. +The one thing about this is it gives us extraordinary leverage. +Now, suppose that space aliens arrived. +Maybe they're going to land at the U.N. headquarters down the road here, or maybe they'll pick a smarter spot -- but suppose they arrive and they give you a box. +And the box has two knobs. +One knob is the knob for controlling global temperature. +Maybe another knob is a knob for controlling CO2 concentrations. +You might imagine that we would fight wars over that box. +Because we have no way to agree about where to set the knobs. +We have no global governance. +And different people will have different places they want it set. +Now, I don't think that's going to happen. It's not very likely. +But we're building that box. +The scientists and engineers of the world are building it piece by piece, in their labs. +Even when they're doing it for other reasons. +Even when they're thinking they're just working on protecting the environment. +They have no interest in crazy ideas like engineering the whole planet. +They develop science that makes it easier and easier to do. +And so I guess my view on this is not that I want to do it -- I do not -- but that we should move this out of the shadows and talk about it seriously. +Because sooner or later, we'll be confronted with decisions about this, and it's better if we think hard about it, even if we want to think hard about reasons why we should never do it. +I'll give you two different ways to think about this problem that are the beginning of my thinking about how to think about it. +But what we need is not just a few oddballs like me thinking about this. +We need a broader debate. +A debate that involves musicians, scientists, philosophers, writers, who get engaged with this question about climate engineering and think seriously about what its implications are. +So here's one way to think about it, which is that we just do this instead of cutting emissions because it's cheaper. +I guess the thing I haven't said about this is, it is absurdly cheap. +It's conceivable that, say, using the sulfates method or this method I've come up with, you could create an ice age at a cost of .001 percent of GDP. +It's very cheap. We have a lot of leverage. +It's not a good idea, but it's just important. I'll tell you how big the lever is: the lever is that big. +And that calculation isn't much in dispute. +You might argue about the sanity of it, but the leverage is real. So because of this, we could deal with the problem simply by stopping reducing emissions, and just as the concentrations go up, we can increase the amount of geo-engineering. +I don't think anybody takes that seriously. +Because under this scenario, we walk further and further away from the current climate. +We have all sorts of other problems, like ocean acidification that come from CO2 in the atmosphere, anyway. +Nobody but maybe one or two very odd folks really suggest this. +But here's a case which is harder to reject. +Let's say that we don't do geo-engineering, we do what we ought to do, which is get serious about cutting emissions. +But we don't really know how quickly we have to cut them. +There's a lot of uncertainty about exactly how much climate change is too much. +So let's say that we work hard, and we actually don't just tap the brakes, but we step hard on the brakes and really reduce emissions and eventually reduce concentrations. +And maybe someday -- like 2075, October 23 -- we finally reach that glorious day where concentrations have peaked and are rolling down the other side. +And we have global celebrations, and we've actually started to -- you know, we've seen the worst of it. +But maybe on that day we also find that the Greenland ice sheet is really melting unacceptably fast, fast enough to put meters of sea level on the oceans in the next 100 years, and remove some of the biggest cities from the map. +That's an absolutely possible scenario. +We might decide at that point that even though geo-engineering was uncertain and morally unhappy, that it's a lot better than not geo-engineering. +And that's a very different way to look at the problem. +It's using this as risk control, not instead of action. +It's saying that you do some geo-engineering for a little while to take the worst of the heat off, not that you'd use it as a substitute for action. +But there is a problem with that view. +And the problem is the following: knowledge that geo-engineering is possible makes the climate impacts look less fearsome, and that makes a weaker commitment to cutting emissions today. +This is what economists call a moral hazard. +And that's one of the fundamental reasons that this problem is so hard to talk about, and, in general, I think it's the underlying reason that it's been politically unacceptable to talk about this. +But you don't make good policy by hiding things in a drawer. +I'll leave you with three questions, and then one final quote. +Should we do serious research on this topic? +Should we have a national research program that looks at this? +Not just at how you would do it better, but also what all the risks and downsides of it are. +Right now, you have a few enthusiasts talking about it, some in a positive side, some in a negative side -- but that's a dangerous state to be in because there's very little depth of knowledge on this topic. +A very small amount of money would get us some. +Many of us -- maybe now me -- think we should do that. +But I have a lot of reservations. +My reservations are principally about the moral hazard problem, and I don't really know how we can best avoid the moral hazard. +I think there is a serious problem: as you talk about this, people begin to think they don't need to work so hard to cut emissions. +Another thing is, maybe we need a treaty. +A treaty that decides who gets to do this. +Right now we may think of a big, rich country like the U.S. doing this. +But it might well be that, in fact, if China wakes up in 2030 and realizes that the climate impacts are just unacceptable, they may not be very interested in our moral conversations about how to do this, and they may just decide they'd really rather have a geo-engineered world than a non-geo-engineered world. +And we'll have no international mechanism to figure out who makes the decision. +So here's one last thought, which was said much, much better 25 years ago in the U.S. National Academy report than I can say today. +And I think it really summarizes where we are here. +That the CO2 problem, the climate problem that we've heard about, is driving lots of things -- innovations in the energy technologies that will reduce emissions -- but also, I think, inevitably, it will drive us towards thinking about climate and weather control, whether we like it or not. +And it's time to begin thinking about it, even if the reason we're thinking about it is to construct arguments for why we shouldn't do it. +Thank you very much. +What is bioenergy? Bioenergy is not ethanol. +You're going to be able to power stuff, so irrigation makes a difference. +Irrigation starts to make you be allowed to plant stuff where you want it, as opposed to where the rivers flood. You start getting this organic agriculture; you start putting machinery onto this stuff. Machinery, with a whole bunch of water, leads to very large-scale agriculture. +And the irony of this particular system is the place where he did the research, which was Mexico, didn't adopt this technology, ignored this technology, talked about why this technology should be thought about, but not really applied. +Now, it's not just that this guy fed a huge amount of people in the world. It's that this is the net effect in terms of what technology does, if you understand biology. +Basically, you go from 250 hours to produce 100 bushels, to 40, to 15, to five. Agricultural labor productivity increased seven times, 1950 to 2000, whereas the rest of the economy increased about 2.5 times. This is an absolutely massive increase in how much is produced per person. +The effect of this, of course, is it's not just amber waves of grain, it is mountains of stuff. +And 50 percent of the EU budget is going to subsidize agriculture from mountains of stuff that people have overproduced. +This would be a good outcome for energy. And of course, by now, you're probably saying to yourself, "Self, I thought I came to a talk about energy and here's this guy talking about biology." +So where's the link between these two things? +Now, the interesting thing about that thesis -- if that thesis turns out to be true -- is that oil, and all hydrocarbons, turned out to be concentrated sunlight. And if you think of bioenergy, bioenergy isn't ethanol. Bioenergy is taking the sun, concentrating it in amoebas, concentrating it in plants, and maybe that's why you get these rainbows. +And as you're looking at this system, if hydrocarbons are concentrated sunlight, then bioenergy works in a different way. And we've got to start thinking of oil and other hydrocarbons as part of these solar panels. +Maybe that's one of the reasons why if you fly over west Texas, the types of wells that you're beginning to see don't look unlike those pictures of Kansas and those irrigated plots. +Coal. Coal turns out to be virtually the same stuff. It is probably plants, except that these have been burned and crushed under pressure. +So you take something like this, you burn it, you put it under pressure, and likely as not, you get this. Although, again, I stress: we don't know. +Which is curious as we debate all this stuff. But as you think of coal, this is what burned wheat kernels look like. Not entirely unlike coal. +And of course, coalmines are very dangerous places because in some of these coalmines, you get gas. When that gas blows up, people die. So you're producing a biogas out of coal in some mines, but not in others. +Any place you see a differential, there're some interesting questions. There's some questions as to what you should be doing with this stuff. But again, coal. Maybe the same stuff, maybe the same system, maybe bioenergy, and you're applying exactly the same technology. +Here's your brute force approach. Once you get through your brute force approach, then you just rip off whole mountaintops. And you end up with the single largest source of carbon emissions, which are coal-fired gas plants. That is probably not the best use of bioenergy. +Gas is a similar issue. Gas is also a biological product. And as you think of gas, well, you're familiar with gas. And here's a different way of mining coal. +We already have some indicators of productivity on this stuff. OK, if you put steam into coal fields or petroleum fields that have been running for decades, you can get a really substantial increase, like an eight-fold increase, in your output. This is just the beginning stages of this stuff. +Think of it in the following terms. Think of it as beginning to program stuff for specific purposes. +What are the first principles of this stuff and where are we heading? This is one of the gentle giants on the planet. He's one of the nicest human beings you've ever met. His name is Hamilton Smith. He won the Nobel for figuring out how to cut genes -- something called restriction enzymes. +And as you think about this stuff and what the implications of this are, we're going to start not just converting ethanol from corn with very high subsidies. We're going to start thinking about biology entering energy. It is very expensive to process this stuff, both in economic terms and in energy terms. +But in the meantime, for the next decade at least, the name of the game is hydrocarbons. And be that oil, be that gas, be that coal, this is what we're dealing with. And before I make this talk too long, here's what's happening in the current energy system. +86 percent of the energy we consume are hydrocarbons. That means 86 percent of the stuff we're consuming are probably processed plants and amoebas and the rest of the stuff. And there's a role in here for conservation. There's a role in here for alternative stuff, but we've also got to get that other portion right. +Last point, last graph. One of the things that we've got to do is to stabilize oil prices. This is what oil prices look like, OK? +This is a very bad system because what happens is your hurdle rate gets set very low. People come up with really smart ideas for solar panels, or for wind, or for something else, and then guess what? +The oil price goes through the floor. That company goes out of business, and then you can bring the oil price back up. +Thank you for putting up these pictures of my colleagues over here. +We'll be talking about them. +Now, I'm going try an experiment. I don't do experiments, normally. I'm a theorist. +But I'm going see what happens if I press this button. +Sure enough. OK. I used to work in this field of elementary particles. +What happens to matter if you chop it up very fine? +What is it made of? +And the laws of these particles are valid throughout the universe, and they're very much connected with the history of the universe. +We know a lot about four forces. There must be a lot more, but those are at very, very small distances, and we haven't really interacted with them very much yet. +The main thing I want to talk about is this: that we have this remarkable experience in this field of fundamental physics that beauty is a very successful criterion for choosing the right theory. +And why on earth could that be so? +Well, here's an example from my own experience. +It's fairly dramatic, actually, to have this happen. +Three or four of us, in 1957, put forward a partially complete theory of one of these forces, this weak force. +And it was in disagreement with seven -- seven, count them, seven experiments. +Experiments were all wrong. +And we published before knowing that, because we figured it was so beautiful, it's gotta be right! +The experiments had to be wrong, and they were. +Now our friend over there, Albert Einstein, used to pay very little attention when people said, "You know, there's a man with an experiment that seems to disagree with special relativity. +DC Miller. What about that?" And he would say, "Aw, that'll go away." Now, why does stuff like that work? That's the question. +Now, yeah, what do we mean by beautiful? That's one thing. +I'll try to make that clear -- partially clear. +Why should it work, and is this something to do with human beings? +I'll let you in on the answer to the last one that I offer, and that is, it has nothing to do with human beings. +Somewhere in some other planet, orbiting some very distant star, maybe in a another galaxy, there could well be entities that are at least as intelligent as we are, and are interested in science. It's not impossible; I think there probably are lots. +Very likely, none is close enough to interact with us. +But they could be out there, very easily. +And suppose they have, you know, very different sensory apparatus, and so on. +They have seven tentacles, and they have 14 little funny-looking compound eyes, and a brain shaped like a pretzel. +Would they really have different laws? +There are lots of people who believe that, and I think it is utter baloney. +I think there are laws out there, and we of course don't understand them at any given time very well -- but we try. And we try to get closer and closer. +And someday, we may actually figure out the fundamental unified theory of the particles and forces, what I call the "fundamental law." +We may not even be terribly far from it. +But even if we don't run across it in our lifetimes, we can still think there is one out there, and we're just trying to get closer and closer to it. +I think that's the main point to be made. +We express these things mathematically. +And when the mathematics is very simple -- when in terms of some mathematical notation, you can write the theory in a very brief space, without a lot of complication -- that's essentially what we mean by beauty or elegance. +Here's what I was saying about the laws. They're really there. +Newton certainly believed that. +And he said, here, "It is the business of natural philosophy to find out those laws." +The basic law, let's say -- here's an assumption. +The assumption is that the basic law really takes the form of a unified theory of all the particles. +Now, some people call that a theory of everything. +That's wrong because the theory is quantum mechanical. +And I won't go into a lot of stuff about quantum mechanics and what it's like, and so on. +You've heard a lot of wrong things about it anyway. There are even movies about it with a lot of wrong stuff. +But the main thing here is that it predicts probabilities. +Now, sometimes those probabilities are near certainties. +And in a lot of familiar cases, they of course are. +But other times they're not, and you have only probabilities for different outcomes. +So what that means is that the history of the universe is not determined just by the fundamental law. +It's the fundamental law and this incredibly long series of accidents, or chance outcomes, that are there in addition. +And the fundamental theory doesn't include those chance outcomes; they are in addition. +So it's not a theory of everything. And in fact, a huge amount of the information in the universe around us comes from those accidents, and not just from the fundamental laws. +Now, it's often said that getting closer and closer to the fundamental laws by examining phenomena at low energies, and then higher energies, and then higher energies, or short distances, and then shorter distances, and then still shorter distances, and so on, is like peeling the skin of an onion. +And we keep doing that, and build more powerful machines, accelerators for particles. +We look deeper and deeper into the structure of particles, and in that way we get probably closer and closer to this fundamental law. +Now, what happens is that as we do that, as we peel these skins of the onion, and we get closer and closer to the underlying law, we see that each skin has something in common with the previous one, and with the next one. We write them out mathematically, and we see they use very similar mathematics. +They require very similar mathematics. +That is absolutely remarkable, and that is a central feature of what I'm trying to say today. +Newton called it -- that's Newton, by the way -- that one. +This one is Albert Einstein. Hi, Al! And anyway, he said, "nature conformable to herself" -- personifying nature as a female. +And so what happens is that the new phenomena, the new skins, the inner skins of the slightly smaller skins of the onion that we get to, resemble the slightly larger ones. +And the kind of mathematics that we had for the previous skin is almost the same as what we need for the next skin. +And that's why the equations look so simple. +Because they use mathematics we already have. +A trivial example is this: Newton found the law of gravity, which goes like one over the square of the distance between the things gravitated. +Coulomb, in France, found the same law for electric charges. +Here's an example of this similarity. +You look at gravity, you see a certain law. +Then you look at electricity. Sure enough. The same rule. +It's a very simple example. +There are lots of more sophisticated examples. +Symmetry is very important in this discussion. +You know what it means. A circle, for example, is symmetric under rotations about the center of the circle. +You rotate around the center of the circle, the circle remains unchanged. +You take a sphere, in three dimensions, you rotate around the center of the sphere, and all those rotations leave the sphere alone. +They are symmetries of the sphere. +So we say, in general, that there's a symmetry under certain operations if those operations leave the phenomenon, or its description, unchanged. +Maxwell's equations are of course symmetrical under rotations of all of space. +Doesn't matter if we turn the whole of space around by some angle, it doesn't leave the -- doesn't change the phenomenon of electricity or magnetism. +There's a new notation in the 19th century that expressed this, and if you use that notation, the equations get a lot simpler. +Then Einstein, with his special theory of relativity, looked at a whole set of symmetries of Maxwell's equations, which are called special relativity. +And those symmetries, then, make the equations even shorter, and even prettier, therefore. +Let's look. You don't have to know what these things mean, doesn't make any difference. +But you can just look at the form. You can look at the form. +You see above, at the top, a long list of equations with three components for the three directions of space: x, y and z. +Then, using vector analysis, you use rotational symmetry, and you get this next set. +Then you use the symmetry of special relativity and you get an even simpler set down here, showing that symmetry exhibits better and better. +The more and more symmetry you have, the better you exhibit the simplicity and elegance of the theory. +The last two, the first equation says that electric charges and currents give rise to all the electric and magnetic fields. +The next -- second -- equation says that there is no magnetism other than that. +The only magnetism comes from electric charges and currents. +Someday we may find some slight hole in that argument. +But for the moment, that's the case. +Now, here is a very exciting development that many people have not heard of. +They should have heard of it, but it's a little tricky to explain in technical detail, so I won't do it. I'll just mention it. But Chen Ning Yang, called by us "Frank" Yang -- -- and Bob Mills put forward, 50 years ago, this generalization of Maxwell's equations, with a new symmetry. +A whole new symmetry. +Mathematics very similar, but there was a whole new symmetry. +They hoped that this would contribute somehow to particle physics -- didn't. It didn't, by itself, contribute to particle physics. +But then some of us generalized it further. And then it did! +And it gave a very beautiful description of the strong force and of the weak force. +So here we say, again, what we said before: that each skin of the onion shows a similarity to the adjoining skins. +So the mathematics for the adjoining skins is very similar to what we need for the new one. +And therefore it looks beautiful because we already know how to write it in a lovely, concise way. +So here are the themes. We believe there is a unified theory underlying all the regularities. +Steps toward unification exhibit the simplicity. +Symmetry exhibits the simplicity. +And then there is self-similarity across the scales -- in other words, from one skin of the onion to another one. +Proximate self-similarity. And that accounts for this phenomenon. +That will account for why beauty is a successful criterion for selecting the right theory. +Here's what Newton himself said: "Nature is very consonant and conformable to her self." +One thing he was thinking of is something that most of us take for granted today, but in his day it wasn't taken for granted. +There's the story, which is not absolutely certain to be right, but a lot of people told it. +Four sources told it. That when they had the plague in Cambridge, and he went down to his mother's farm -- because the university was closed -- he saw an apple fall from a tree, or on his head or something. +And he realized suddenly that the force that drew the apple down to the earth could be the same as the force regulating the motions of the planets and the moon. +That was a big unification for those days, although today we take it for granted. +It's the same theory of gravity. +So he said that this principle of nature, consonance: "This principle of nature being very remote from the conceptions of philosophers, I forbore to describe it in that book, lest I should be accounted an extravagant freak ... " That's what we all have to watch out for, especially at this meeting. +" ... and so prejudice my readers against all those things which were the main design of the book." +Now, who today would claim that as a mere conceit of the human mind? +That the force that causes the apple to fall to the ground is the same force that causes the planets and the moon to move around, and so on? Everybody knows that. It's a property of gravitation. +It's not something in the human mind. The human mind can, of course, appreciate it and enjoy it, use it, but it's not -- it doesn't stem from the human mind. +It stems from the character of gravity. +And that's true of all the things we're talking about. +They are properties of the fundamental law. +The fundamental law is such that the different skins of the onion resemble one another, and therefore the math for one skin allows you to express beautifully and simply the phenomenon of the next skin. +I say here that Newton did a lot of things that year: gravity, the laws of motion, the calculus, white light composed of all the colors of the rainbow. +And he could have written quite an essay on "What I Did Over My Summer Vacation." +So we don't have to assume these principles as separate metaphysical postulates. +They follow from the fundamental theory. +They are what we call emergent properties. +You don't need -- you don't need something more to get something more. +That's what emergence means. +Life can emerge from physics and chemistry, plus a lot of accidents. +The human mind can arise from neurobiology and a lot of accidents, the way the chemical bond arises from physics and certain accidents. +It doesn't diminish the importance of these subjects to know that they follow from more fundamental things, plus accidents. +That's a general rule, and it's critically important to realize that. +You don't need something more in order to get something more. +People keep asking that when they read my book, "The Quark and the Jaguar," and they say, "Isn't there something more beyond what you have there?" +Presumably, they mean something supernatural. +Anyway, there isn't. You don't need something more to explain something more. +Thank you very much. +I want you to imagine that you're a student in my lab. +What I want you to do is to create a biologically inspired design. +And so here's the challenge: I want you to help me create a fully 3D, dynamic, parameterized contact model. +The translation of that is, could you help me build a foot? +And it is a true challenge, and I do want you to help me. +Of course, in the challenge there is a prize. +It's not quite the TED Prize, but it is an exclusive t-shirt from our lab. +So please send me your ideas about how to design a foot. +Now if we want to design a foot, what do we have to do? +We have to first know what a foot is. +If we go to the dictionary, it says, "It's the lower extremity of a leg that is in direct contact with the ground in standing or walking" That's the traditional definition. +But if you wanted to really do research, what do you have to do? +You have to go to the literature and look up what's known about feet. +So you go to the literature. Maybe you're familiar with this literature. +The problem is, there are many, many feet. +How do you do this? +You need to survey all feet and extract the principles of how they work. +And I want you to help me do that in this next clip. +As you see this clip, look for principles, and also think about experiments that you might design in order to understand how a foot works. +See any common themes? Principles? +What would you do? +What experiments would you run? +Wow. Our research on the biomechanics of animal locomotion has allowed us to make a blueprint for a foot. +It's a design inspired by nature, but it's not a copy of any specific foot you just looked at, but it's a synthesis of the secrets of many, many feet. +Now it turns out that animals can go anywhere. +They can locomote on substrates that vary as you saw -- in the probability of contact, the movement of that surface and the type of footholds that are present. +If you want to study how a foot works, we're going to have to simulate those surfaces, or simulate that debris. +When we did that, here's a new experiment that we did: we put an animal and had it run -- this grass spider -- on a surface with 99 percent of the contact area removed. +But it didn't even slow down the animal. +It's still running at the human equivalent of 300 miles per hour. +Now how could it do that? Well, look more carefully. +When we slow it down 50 times we see how the leg is hitting that simulated debris. +The leg is acting as a foot. +And in fact, the animal contacts other parts of its leg more frequently than the traditionally defined foot. +The foot is distributed along the whole leg. +You can do another experiment where you can take a cockroach with a foot, and you can remove its foot. +I'm passing some cockroaches around. Take a look at their feet. +Without a foot, here's what it does. It doesn't even slow down. +It can run the same speed without even that segment. +No problem for the cockroach -- they can grow them back, if you care. +How do they do it? +Look carefully: this is slowed down 100 times, and watch what it's doing with the rest of its leg. +It's acting, again, as a distributed foot -- very effective. +Now, the question we had is, how general is a distributed foot? +And the next behavior I'll show you of this animal just stunned us the first time that we saw it. +Journalists, this is off the record; it's embargoed. +Take a look at what that is! +That's a bipedal octopus that's disguised as a rolling coconut. +It was discovered by Christina Huffard and filmed by Sea Studios, right here from Monterey. +We've also described another species of bipedal octopus. +This one disguises itself as floating algae. +It walks on two legs and it holds the other arms up in the air so that it can't be seen. +And look what it does with its foot to get over challenging terrain. +It uses that beautiful distributed foot to make it as if those obstacles are not even there -- truly extraordinary. +In 1951, Escher made this drawing. He thought he created an animal fantasy. +But we know that art imitates life, and it turns out nature, three million years ago, evolved the next animal. +It's a shrimp-like animal called the stomatopod, and here's how it moves on the beaches of Panama: it actually rolls, and it can even roll uphill. +It's the ultimate distributed foot: its whole body in this case is acting like its foot. +So, if we want to then, to our blueprint, add the first important feature, we want to add distributed foot contact. +Not just with the traditional foot, but also the leg, and even of the body. +Can this help us inspire the design of novel robots? +We biologically inspired this robot, named RHex, built by these extraordinary engineers over the last few years. +RHex's foot started off to be quite simple, then it got tuned over time, and ultimately resulted in this half circle. +Why is that? The video will show you. +Watch where the robot, now, contacts its leg in order to deal with this very difficult terrain. +What you'll see, in fact, is that it's using that half circle leg as a distributed foot. +Watch it go over this. +You can see it here well on this debris. +Extraordinary. No sensing, all the control is built right into the tuned legs. +Really simple, but beautiful. +Now, you might have noticed something else about the animals when they were running over the rough terrain. +And my assistant's going to help me here. +When you touched the cockroach leg -- can you get the microphone for him? +When you touched the cockroach leg, what did it feel like? +Did you notice something? +Boy: Spiny. +Robert Full: It's spiny, right? It's really spiny, isn't it? It sort of hurts. +Maybe we could give it to our curator and see if he'd be brave enough to touch the cockroach. +Chris Anderson: Did you touch it? +RF: So if you look carefully at this, what you see is that they have spines and until a few weeks ago, no one knew what they did. +They assumed that they were for protection and for sensory structures. +We found that they're for something else -- here's a segment of that spine. +They're tuned such that they easily collapse in one direction to pull the leg out from debris, but they're stiff in the other direction so they capture disparities in the surface. +Now crabs don't miss footholds, because they normally move on sand -- until they come to our lab. +And where they have a problem with this kind of mesh, because they don't have spines. +The crabs are missing spines, so they have a problem in this kind of rough terrain. +But of course, we can deal with that because we can produce artificial spines. +We can make spines that catch on simulated debris and collapse on removal to easily pull them out. +We did that by putting these artificial spines on crabs, as you see here, and then we tested them. +Do we really understand that principle of tuning? The answer is, yes! +This is slowed down 20-fold, and the crab just zooms across that simulated debris. +A little better than nature. +So to our blueprint, we need to add tuned spines. +Now will this help us think about the design of more effective climbing robots? +Well, here's RHex: RHex has trouble on rails -- on smooth rails, as you see here. +So why not add a spine? My colleagues did this at U. Penn. +Dan Koditschek put some steel nails -- very simple version -- on the robot, and here's RHex, now, going over those steel -- those rails. No problem! +How does it do it? +Let's slow it down and you can see the spines in action. +Watch the leg come around, and you'll see it grab on right there. +It couldn't do that before; it would just slip and get stuck and tip over. +And watch again, right there -- successful. +Now just because we have a distributed foot and spines doesn't mean you can climb vertical surfaces. +This is really, really difficult. +But look at this animal do it! +One of the ones I'm passing around is climbing up this vertical surface that's a smooth metal plate. +It's extraordinary how fast it can do it -- but if you slow it down, you see something that's quite extraordinary. +It's a secret. The animal effectively climbs by slipping and look -- and doing, actually, terribly, with respect to grabbing on the surface. +It looks, in fact, like it's swimming up the surface. +We can actually model that behavior better as a fluid, if you look at it. +The distributed foot, actually, is working more like a paddle. +The same is true when we looked at this lizard running on fluidized sand. +Watch its feet. +It's actually functioning as a paddle even though it's interacting with a surface that we normally think of as a solid. +This is not different from what my former undergraduate discovered when she figured out how lizards can run on water itself. +Can you use this to make a better robot? +Martin Buehler did -- who's now at Boston Dynamics -- he took this idea and made RHex to be Aqua RHex. +So here's RHex with paddles, now converted into an incredibly maneuverable swimming robot. +For rough surfaces, though, animals add claws. +And you probably feel them if you grabbed it. +Did you touch it? +CA: I did. +RF: And they do really well at grabbing onto surfaces with these claws. +Mark Cutkosky at Stanford University, one of my collaborators, is an extraordinary engineer who developed this technique called Shape Deposition Manufacturing, where he can imbed claws right into an artificial foot. +And here's the simple version of a foot for a new robot that I'll show you in a bit. +So to our blueprint, let's attach claws. +Now if we look at animals, though, to be really maneuverable in all surfaces, the animals use hybrid mechanisms that include claws, and spines, and hairs, and pads, and glue, and capillary adhesion and a whole bunch of other things. +These are all from different insects. +There's an ant crawling up a vertical surface. +Let's look at that ant. +This is the foot of an ant. You see the hairs and the claws and this thing here. +This is when its foot's in the air. +Watch what happens when the foot goes onto your sandwich. +You see what happens? +That pad comes out. And that's where the glue is. +Here from underneath is an ant foot, and when the claws don't dig in, that pad automatically comes out without the ant doing anything. +It just extrudes. +And this was a hard shot to get -- I think this is the shot of the ant foot on the superstrings. +So it's pretty tough to do. +This is what it looks like close up -- here's the ant foot, and there's the glue. +And we discovered this glue may be an interesting two-phase mixture. +It certainly helps it to hold on. +So to our blueprint, we stick on some sticky pads. +Now you might think for smooth surfaces we get inspiration here. +Now we have something better here. +The gecko's a really great example of nanotechnology in nature. +These are its feet. +They're -- almost look alien. And the secret, which they stick on with, involves their hairy toes. +They can run up a surface at a meter per second, take 30 steps in that one second -- you can hardly see them. +If we slow it down, they attach their feet at eight milliseconds, and detach them in 16 milliseconds. +And when you watch how they detach it, it is bizarre. +They peel away from the surface like you'd peel away a piece of tape. +Very strange. How do they stick? +If you look at their feet, they have leaf-like structures called linalae with millions of hairs. +And each hair has the worst case of split ends possible. +It has a hundred to a thousand split ends, and that's the secret, because it allows intimate contact. +The gecko has a billion of these 200-nanometer-sized split ends. +And they don't stick by glue, or they don't work like Velcro, or they don't work with suction. +We discovered they work by intermolecular forces alone. +So to our blueprint, we split some hairs. +This has inspired the design of the first self-cleaning dry adhesive -- the patent issued, we're happy to say. +And here's the simplest version in nature, and here's my collaborator Ron Fearing's attempt at an artificial version of this dry adhesive made from polyurethane. +And here's the first attempt to have it work on some load. +There's enormous interest in this in a variety of different fields. +You could think of a thousand possible uses, I'm sure. +Lots of people have, and we're excited about realizing this as a product. +We have imagined products; for example, this one: we imagined a bio-inspired Band-Aid, where we took the glue off the Band-Aid. +We took some hairs from a molting gecko; put three rolls of them on here, and then made this Band-Aid. +This is an undergraduate volunteer -- we have 30,000 undergraduates so we can choose among them -- that's actually just a red pen mark. +But it makes an incredible Band-Aid. +It's aerated, it can be peeled off easily, it doesn't cause any irritation, it works underwater. +I think this is an extraordinary example of how curiosity-based research -- we just wondered how they climbed up something -- can lead to things that you could never imagine. +It's just an example of why we need to support curiosity-based research. +Here you are, pulling off the Band-Aid. +So we've redefined, now, what a foot is. +The question is, can we use these secrets, then, to inspire the design of a better foot, better than one that we see in nature? +Here's the new project: we're trying to create the first climbing search-and-rescue robot -- no suction or magnets -- that can only move on limited kinds of surfaces. +I call the new robot RiSE, for "Robot in Scansorial Environment" -- that's a climbing environment -- and we have an extraordinary team of biologists and engineers creating this robot. +And here is RiSE. +It's six-legged and has a tail. Here it is on a fence and a tree. +And here are RiSE's first steps on an incline. +You have the audio? You can hear it go up. +And here it is coming up at you, in its first steps up a wall. +Now it's only using its simplest feet here, so this is very new. +But we think we got the dynamics right of the robot. +Mark Cutkosky, though, is taking it a step further. +He's the one able to build this shape-deposition manufactured feet and toes. +The next step is to make compliant toes, and try to add spines and claws and set it for dry adhesives. +So the idea is to first get the toes and a foot right, attempt to make that climb, and ultimately put it on the robot. +And that's exactly what he's done. +He's built, in fact, a climbing foot-bot inspired by nature. +And here's Cutkosky's and his amazing students' design. +So these are tuned toes -- there are six of them, and they use the principles that I just talked about collectively for the blueprint. +So this is not using any suction, any glue, and it will ultimately, when it's attached to the robot -- it's as biologically inspired as the animal -- hopefully be able to climb any kind of a surface. +Here you see it, next, going up the side of a building at Stanford. +It's sped up -- again, it's a foot climbing. +It's not the whole robot yet, we're working on it -- now you can see how it's attaching. +These tuned structures allow the spines, friction pads and ultimately the adhesive hairs to grab onto very challenging, difficult surfaces. +And so they were able to get this thing -- this is now sped up 20 times -- can you imagine it trying to go up and rescue somebody at that upper floor? OK? +You can visualize this now; it's not impossible. +It's a very challenging task. But more to come later. +To finish: we've gotten design secrets from nature by looking at how feet are built. +We've learned we should distribute control to smart parts. +Don't put it all in the brain, but put some of the control in tuned feet, legs and even body. +That nature uses hybrid solutions, not a single solution, to these problems, and they're integrated and beautifully robust. +And third, we believe strongly that we do not want to mimic nature but instead be inspired by biology, and use these novel principles with the best engineering solutions that are out there to make -- potentially -- something better than nature. +Otherwise these secrets will be lost forever. +Thank you. +Ladies and gentlemen, the history of music and television on the Internet in three minutes. +A TED medley -- a TEDley. +You will understand nothing with my type of English. +It's good for you because you can have a break after all these fantastic people. +I must tell you I am like that, not very comfortable, because usually, in life, I think my job is absolutely useless. +I mean, I feel useless. +Now after Carolyn, and all the other guys, I feel like shit. +And definitively, I don't know why I am here, but -- you know the nightmare you can have, like you are an impostor, you arrive at the opera, and they push you, "You must sing!" +I don't know. So, so, because I have nothing to show, nothing to say, we shall try to speak about something else. +We can start, if you want, by understanding -- it's just to start, it's not interesting, but -- how I work. +When somebody comes to me and ask for what I am known, I mean, yes, lemon squeezer, toilet brush, toothpick, beautiful toilet seats, and why not -- a toothbrush? +I don't try to design the toothbrush. +I don't try to say, "Oh, that will be a beautiful object," or something like that. +That doesn't interest me. +Because there is different types of design. +The one, we can call it the cynical design, that means the design invented by Raymond Loewy in the '50s, who said, what is ugly is a bad sale, la laideur se vend mal, which is terrible. +It means the design must be just the weapon for marketing, for producer to make product more sexy, like that, they sell more: it's shit, it's obsolete, it's ridiculous. +I call that the cynical design. +If we take the toothbrush -- I don't think about the toothbrush. +I think, "What will be the effect of the brush in the mouth?" +And to understand what will be the effect of the toothbrush in the mouth, I must imagine: Who owns this mouth? +What is the life of the owner of this mouth? In what society [does] this guy live? +What civilization creates this society? +What animal species creates this civilization? +When I arrive -- and I take one minute, I am not so intelligent -- when I arrive at the level of animal species, that becomes real interesting. +Me, I have strictly no power to change anything. +But when I come back, I can understand why I shall not do it, because today to not do it, it's more positive than do it, or how I shall do it. +But to come back, where I am at the animal species, there is things to see. +There is things to see, there is the big challenge. +The big challenge in front of us. +Because there is not a human production which exists outside of what I call "the big image." +The big image is our story, our poetry, our romanticism. +Our poetry is our mutation, our life. +We must remember, and we can see that in any book of my son of 10 years old, that life appears four billion years ago, around -- four billion point two? +Voice offstage: Four point five. +Yes, point five, OK, OK, OK! I'm a designer, that's all, of Christmas gifts. +And before, there was this soup, called "soupe primordiale," this first soup -- bloop bloop bloop -- sort of dirty mud, no life, nothing. +So then -- pshoo-shoo -- lightning -- pshoo -- arrive -- pshoo-shoo -- makes life -- bloop bloop -- and that dies. +Some million years after -- pshoo-shoo, bloop-bloop -- ah, wake up! +At the end, finally, that succeeds, and life appears. +We was so, so stupid. The most stupid bacteria. +Even, I think, we copy our way to reproduce, you know what I mean, and something of -- oh no, forget it. +After, we become a fish; after, we become a frog; after, we become a monkey; after, we become what we are today: a super-monkey, and the fun is, the super-monkey we are today, is at half of the story. +Can you imagine? From that stupid bacteria to us, with a microphone, with a computer, with an iPod: four billion years. +And we know, and especially Carolyn knows, that when the sun will implode, the earth will burn, explode, I don't know what, and this is scheduled for four, four billion years? +Yes, she said, something like that. OK, that means we are at half of the story. +Fantastic! It's a beauty! +Can you imagine? It's very symbolic. +Because the bacteria we was had no idea of what we are today. +And today, we have no idea of what we shall be in four billion years. +And this territory is fantastic. +That is our poetry. That is our beautiful story. +It's our romanticism. Mu-ta-tion. We are mutants. +And if we don't deeply understand, if we don't integrate that we are mutants, we completely miss the story. +Because every generation thinks we are the final one. +We have a way to look at Earth like that, you know, "I am the man. The final man. +You know, we mutate during four billion years before, but now, because it's me, we stop. Fin. For the end, for the eternity, it is one with a red jacket." +Something like that. I am not sure of that. Because that is our intelligence of mutation and things like that. +There is so many things to do; it's so fresh. +And here is something: nobody is obliged to be a genius, but everybody is obliged to participate. +And to participate, for a mutant, there is a minimum of exercise, a minimum of sport. +We can say that. +The first, if you want -- there is so many -- but one which is very easy to do, is the duty of vision. +I can explain you. I shall try. +If you walk like that, it's OK, it's OK, you can walk, but perhaps, because you walk with the eyes like that, you will not see, oh, there is a hole. +And you will fall, and you will die. Dangerous. +That's why, perhaps, you will try to have this angle of vision. +OK, I can see, if I found something, up, up, and they continue, up up up. +I raise the angle of vision, but it's still very -- selfish, selfish, egoiste -- yes, selfish. +You, you survive. It's OK. +If you raise the level of your eyes a little more you go, "I see you, oh my God you are here, how are you, I can help you, I can design for you a new toothbrush, new toilet brush," something like that. +I live in society; I live in community. +It's OK. You start to be in the territory of intelligence, we can say. +From this level, the more you can raise this angle of view, the more you will be important for the society. +The more you will rise, the more you will be important for the civilization. +The more you will rise, to see far and high, like that, the more you will be important for the story of our mutation. +That means intelligent people are in this angle. That is intelligence. +From this to here, that, it's genius. +Ptolemy, Eratosthenes, Einstein, things like that. +Nobody's obliged to be a genius. +It's better, but nobody. +Take care, in this training, to be a good mutant. +There is some danger, there is some trap. One trap: the vertical. +Because at the vertical of us, if you look like that, "Ah! my God, there is God. Ah! God!" +God is a trap. God is the answer when we don't know the answer. +That means, when your brain is not enough big, when you don't understand, you go, "Ah, it's God, it's God." That's ridiculous. +That's why -- jump, like that? No, don't jump. +Come back. Because, after, there is another trap. +If you look like that, you look to the past, or you look inside if you are very flexible, inside yourself. +It's called schizophrenia, and you are dead also. +That's why every morning, now, because you are a good mutant, you will raise your angle of view. +Out, more of the horizontal. You are an intelligence. +Never forget -- like that, like that. +It's very, very, very important. +What, what else we can say about that? Why do that? +It's because we -- if we look from far, we see our line of evolution. +This line of evolution is clearly positive. +From far, this line looks very smooth, like that. +But if you take a lens, like that, this line is ack, ack, ack, ack, ack. Like that. +It's made of light and shadow. +We can say light is civilization, shadow is barbaria. +And it's very important to know where we are. +Because some cycle, there is a spot in the cycle, and you have not the same duty in the different parts of the cycle. +That means, we can imagine -- I don't say it was fantastic, but in the '80s, there was not too much war, like that, it was -- we can imagine that the civilization can become civilized. +In this case, people like me are acceptable. +We can say, "It's luxurious time." +We have time to think, we have time to I don't know what, speak about art and things like that. +It's OK. We are in the light. +But sometimes, like today, we fall, we fall so fast, so fast to shadow, we fall so fast to barbaria. +With many, many, many, many face of barbaria. +Because it's not, the barbaria we have today, it's perhaps not the barbaria we think. +There is different type of barbaria. +That's why we must adapt. +That means, when barbaria is back, forget the beautiful chairs, forget the beautiful hotel, forget design, even -- I'm sorry to say -- forget art. +Forget all that. There is priority; there is urgency. +You must go back to politics, you must go back to radicalization, I'm sorry if that's not very English. +You must go back to fight, to battle. +That's why today I'm so ashamed to make this job. +That's why I am here, to try to do it the best possible. +But I know that even I do it the best possible -- that's why I'm the best -- it's nothing. +Because it's not the right time. +That's why I say that. I say that, because, I repeat, nothing exist if it's not in the good reason, the reason of our beautiful dream, of this civilization. +And because we must all work to finish this story. +Because the scenario of this civilization -- about love, progress, and things like that -- it's OK, but there is so many different, other scenarios of other civilizations. +This scenario, of this civilization, was about becoming powerful, intelligent, like this idea we have invented, this concept of God. +We are God now. We are. It's almost done. +We have just to finish the story. +That is very, very important. +And when you don't understand really what's happened, you cannot go and fight and work and build and things like that. +You go to the future back, back, back, back, like that. +And you can fall, and it's very dangerous. +No, you must really understand that. +Because we have almost finished, I'll repeat this story. +And the beauty of this, in perhaps 50 years, 60 years, we can finish completely this civilization, and offer to our children the possibility to invent a new story, a new poetry, a new romanticism. +With billions of people who have been born, worked, lived and died before us, these people who have worked so much, we have now bring beautiful things, beautiful gifts, we know so many things. +We can say to our children, OK, done, that was our story. That passed. +Now you have a duty: invent a new story. Invent a new poetry. +The only rule is, we have not to have any idea about the next story. +We give you white pages. Invent. +We give you the best tools, the best tools, and now, do it. +That's why I continue to work, even if it's for toilet brush. +I want to start my story in Germany, in 1877, with a mathematician named Georg Cantor. +And Cantor decided he was going to take a line and erase the middle third of the line, and then take those two resulting lines and bring them back into the same process, a recursive process. +So he starts out with one line, and then two, and then four, and then 16, and so on. +And if he does this an infinite number of times, which you can do in mathematics, he ends up with an infinite number of lines, each of which has an infinite number of points in it. +So he realized he had a set whose number of elements was larger than infinity. +And this blew his mind. Literally. He checked into a sanitarium. And when he came out of the sanitarium, he was convinced that he had been put on earth to found transfinite set theory because the largest set of infinity would be God Himself. +He was a very religious man. +He was a mathematician on a mission. +And other mathematicians did the same sort of thing. +A Swedish mathematician, von Koch, decided that instead of subtracting lines, he would add them. +And so he came up with this beautiful curve. +And there's no particular reason why we have to start with this seed shape; we can use any seed shape we like. +And I'll rearrange this and I'll stick this somewhere -- down there, OK -- and now upon iteration, that seed shape sort of unfolds into a very different looking structure. +So these all have the property of self-similarity: the part looks like the whole. +It's the same pattern at many different scales. +Now, mathematicians thought this was very strange because as you shrink a ruler down, you measure a longer and longer length. +And since they went through the iterations an infinite number of times, as the ruler shrinks down to infinity, the length goes to infinity. +This made no sense at all, so they consigned these curves to the back of the math books. +They said these are pathological curves, and we don't have to discuss them. +And that worked for a hundred years. +And then in 1977, Benoit Mandelbrot, a French mathematician, realized that if you do computer graphics and used these shapes he called fractals, you get the shapes of nature. +You get the human lungs, you get acacia trees, you get ferns, you get these beautiful natural forms. +If you take your thumb and your index finger and look right where they meet -- go ahead and do that now -- -- and relax your hand, you'll see a crinkle, and then a wrinkle within the crinkle, and a crinkle within the wrinkle. Right? +Your body is covered with fractals. +The mathematicians who were saying these were pathologically useless shapes? +They were breathing those words with fractal lungs. +It's very ironic. And I'll show you a little natural recursion here. +Again, we just take these lines and recursively replace them with the whole shape. +So here's the second iteration, and the third, fourth and so on. +So nature has this self-similar structure. +Nature uses self-organizing systems. +Now in the 1980s, I happened to notice that if you look at an aerial photograph of an African village, you see fractals. +And I thought, "This is fabulous! I wonder why?" +And of course I had to go to Africa and ask folks why. +So I got a Fulbright scholarship to just travel around Africa for a year asking people why they were building fractals, which is a great job if you can get it. +But he was really cool about it, and he took me up there, and we talked about fractals. +And he said, "Oh yeah, yeah! We knew about a rectangle within a rectangle, we know all about that." +And it turns out the royal insignia has a rectangle within a rectangle within a rectangle, and the path through that palace is actually this spiral here. +And as you go through the path, you have to get more and more polite. +So they're mapping the social scaling onto the geometric scaling; it's a conscious pattern. It is not unconscious like a termite mound fractal. +This is a village in southern Zambia. +The Ba-ila built this village about 400 meters in diameter. +You have a huge ring. +The rings that represent the family enclosures get larger and larger as you go towards the back, and then you have the chief's ring here towards the back and then the chief's immediate family in that ring. +So here's a little fractal model for it. +Now you might wonder, how can people fit in a tiny village only this big? +That's because they're spirit people. It's the ancestors. +And of course the spirit people have a little miniature village in their village, right? +So it's just like Georg Cantor said, the recursion continues forever. +This is in the Mandara mountains, near the Nigerian border in Cameroon, Mokoulek. +I saw this diagram drawn by a French architect, and I thought, "Wow! What a beautiful fractal!" +So I tried to come up with a seed shape, which, upon iteration, would unfold into this thing. +I came up with this structure here. +Let's see, first iteration, second, third, fourth. +Now, after I did the simulation, I realized the whole village kind of spirals around, just like this, and here's that replicating line -- a self-replicating line that unfolds into the fractal. +Well, I noticed that line is about where the only square building in the village is at. +So, when I got to the village, I said, "Can you take me to the square building? +I think something's going on there." +And they said, "Well, we can take you there, but you can't go inside because that's the sacred altar, where we do sacrifices every year to keep up those annual cycles of fertility for the fields." +And I started to realize that the cycles of fertility were just like the recursive cycles in the geometric algorithm that builds this. +And the recursion in some of these villages continues down into very tiny scales. +So here's a Nankani village in Mali. +And you can see, you go inside the family enclosure -- you go inside and here's pots in the fireplace, stacked recursively. +Here's calabashes that Issa was just showing us, and they're stacked recursively. +Now, the tiniest calabash in here keeps the woman's soul. +And when she dies, they have a ceremony where they break this stack called the zalanga and her soul goes off to eternity. +Once again, infinity is important. +Now, you might ask yourself three questions at this point. +Aren't these scaling patterns just universal to all indigenous architecture? +And that was actually my original hypothesis. +When I first saw those African fractals, I thought, "Wow, so any indigenous group that doesn't have a state society, that sort of hierarchy, must have a kind of bottom-up architecture." +But that turns out not to be true. +I started collecting aerial photographs of Native American and South Pacific architecture; only the African ones were fractal. +And if you think about it, all these different societies have different geometric design themes that they use. +So Native Americans use a combination of circular symmetry and fourfold symmetry. +You can see on the pottery and the baskets. +Here's an aerial photograph of one of the Anasazi ruins; you can see it's circular at the largest scale, but it's rectangular at the smaller scale, right? +It is not the same pattern at two different scales. +Second, you might ask, "Well, Dr. Eglash, aren't you ignoring the diversity of African cultures?" +And three times, the answer is no. +First of all, I agree with Mudimbe's wonderful book, "The Invention of Africa," that Africa is an artificial invention of first colonialism, and then oppositional movements. +No, because a widely shared design practice doesn't necessarily give you a unity of culture -- and it definitely is not "in the DNA." +And finally, the fractals have self-similarity -- so they're similar to themselves, but they're not necessarily similar to each other -- you see very different uses for fractals. +It's a shared technology in Africa. +And finally, well, isn't this just intuition? +It's not really mathematical knowledge. +Africans can't possibly really be using fractal geometry, right? +It wasn't invented until the 1970s. +Well, it's true that some African fractals are, as far as I'm concerned, just pure intuition. +So some of these things, I'd wander around the streets of Dakar asking people, "What's the algorithm? What's the rule for making this?" +and they'd say, "Well, we just make it that way because it looks pretty, stupid." But sometimes, that's not the case. +In some cases, there would actually be algorithms, and very sophisticated algorithms. +So in Manghetu sculpture, you'd see this recursive geometry. +In Ethiopian crosses, you see this wonderful unfolding of the shape. +In Angola, the Chokwe people draw lines in the sand, and it's what the German mathematician Euler called a graph; we now call it an Eulerian path -- you can never lift your stylus from the surface and you can never go over the same line twice. +But they do it recursively, and they do it with an age-grade system, so the little kids learn this one, and then the older kids learn this one, then the next age-grade initiation, you learn this one. +And with each iteration of that algorithm, you learn the iterations of the myth. +You learn the next level of knowledge. +And finally, all over Africa, you see this board game. +It's called Owari in Ghana, where I studied it; it's called Mancala here on the East Coast, Bao in Kenya, Sogo elsewhere. +Well, you see self-organizing patterns that spontaneously occur in this board game. +And the folks in Ghana knew about these self-organizing patterns and would use them strategically. +So this is very conscious knowledge. +Here's a wonderful fractal. +Anywhere you go in the Sahel, you'll see this windscreen. +And of course fences around the world are all Cartesian, all strictly linear. +But here in Africa, you've got these nonlinear scaling fences. +So I tracked down one of the folks who makes these things, this guy in Mali just outside of Bamako, and I asked him, "How come you're making fractal fences? Because nobody else is." +And his answer was very interesting. +He said, "Well, if I lived in the jungle, I would only use the long rows of straw because they're very quick and they're very cheap. +It doesn't take much time, doesn't take much straw." +He said, "but wind and dust goes through pretty easily. +Now, the tight rows up at the very top, they really hold out the wind and dust. +But it takes a lot of time, and it takes a lot of straw because they're really tight." +"Now," he said, "we know from experience that the farther up from the ground you go, the stronger the wind blows." +Right? It's just like a cost-benefit analysis. +And I measured out the lengths of straw, put it on a log-log plot, got the scaling exponent, and it almost exactly matches the scaling exponent for the relationship between wind speed and height in the wind engineering handbook. +So these guys are right on target for a practical use of scaling technology. +The most complex example of an algorithmic approach to fractals that I found was actually not in geometry, it was in a symbolic code, and this was Bamana sand divination. +And the same divination system is found all over Africa. +And they did this very rapidly, and I couldn't understand where they were getting -- they only did the randomness four times -- I couldn't understand where they were getting the other 12 symbols. +And they wouldn't tell me. +They said, "No, no, I can't tell you about this." +And I said, "Well look, I'll pay you, you can be my teacher, and I'll come each day and pay you." +They said, "It's not a matter of money. This is a religious matter." +And finally, out of desperation, I said, "Well, let me explain Georg Cantor in 1877." +And I started explaining why I was there in Africa, and they got very excited when they saw the Cantor set. +And one of them said, "Come here. I think I can help you out here." +And so he took me through the initiation ritual for a Bamana priest. +And of course, I was only interested in the math, so the whole time, he kept shaking his head going, "You know, I didn't learn it this way." +But I had to sleep with a kola nut next to my bed, buried in sand, and give seven coins to seven lepers and so on. +And finally, he revealed the truth of the matter. +And it turns out it's a pseudo-random number generator using deterministic chaos. +When you have a four-bit symbol, you then put it together with another one sideways. +So even plus odd gives you odd. +Odd plus even gives you odd. +Even plus even gives you even. Odd plus odd gives you even. +It's addition modulo 2, just like in the parity bit check on your computer. +And then you take this symbol, and you put it back in so it's a self-generating diversity of symbols. +They're truly using a kind of deterministic chaos in doing this. +Now, because it's a binary code, you can actually implement this in hardware -- what a fantastic teaching tool that should be in African engineering schools. +And the most interesting thing I found out about it was historical. +In the 12th century, Hugo of Santalla brought it from Islamic mystics into Spain. +And there it entered into the alchemy community as geomancy: divination through the earth. +This is a geomantic chart drawn for King Richard II in 1390. +Leibniz, the German mathematician, talked about geomancy in his dissertation called "De Combinatoria." +And he said, "Well, instead of using one stroke and two strokes, let's use a one and a zero, and we can count by powers of two." +Right? Ones and zeros, the binary code. +George Boole took Leibniz's binary code and created Boolean algebra, and John von Neumann took Boolean algebra and created the digital computer. +So all these little PDAs and laptops -- every digital circuit in the world -- started in Africa. +And I know Brian Eno says there's not enough Africa in computers, but you know, I don't think there's enough African history in Brian Eno. +So let me end with just a few words about applications that we've found for this. +And you can go to our website, the applets are all free; they just run in the browser. +Anybody in the world can use them. +The National Science Foundation's Broadening Participation in Computing program recently awarded us a grant to make a programmable version of these design tools, so hopefully in three years, anybody'll be able to go on the Web and create their own simulations and their own artifacts. +We've focused in the U.S. on African-American students as well as Native American and Latino. +We've found statistically significant improvement with children using this software in a mathematics class in comparison with a control group that did not have the software. +So it's really very successful teaching children that they have a heritage that's about mathematics, that it's not just about singing and dancing. +We've started a pilot program in Ghana. +We got a small seed grant, just to see if folks would be willing to work with us on this; we're very excited about the future possibilities for that. +We've also been working in design. +I didn't put his name up here -- my colleague, Kerry, in Kenya, has come up with this great idea for using fractal structure for postal address in villages that have fractal structure, because if you try to impose a grid structure postal system on a fractal village, it doesn't quite fit. +Bernard Tschumi at Columbia University has finished using this in a design for a museum of African art. +David Hughes at Ohio State University has written a primer on Afrocentric architecture in which he's used some of these fractal structures. +And finally, I just wanted to point out that this idea of self-organization, as we heard earlier, it's in the brain. +It's in the -- it's in Google's search engine. +Actually, the reason that Google was such a success is because they were the first ones to take advantage of the self-organizing properties of the web. +It's in ecological sustainability. +It's in the developmental power of entrepreneurship, the ethical power of democracy. +It's also in some bad things. +Self-organization is why the AIDS virus is spreading so fast. +And if you don't think that capitalism, which is self-organizing, can have destructive effects, you haven't opened your eyes enough. +So we need to think about, as was spoken earlier, the traditional African methods for doing self-organization. +These are robust algorithms. +These are ways of doing self-organization -- of doing entrepreneurship -- that are gentle, that are egalitarian. +So if we want to find a better way of doing that kind of work, we need look only no farther than Africa to find these robust self-organizing algorithms. +Thank you. +Good morning, ladies and gentlemen. +My name is Art Benjamin, and I am a "mathemagician." +What that means is, I combine my loves of math and magic to do something I call "mathemagics." +But before I get started, I have a quick question for the audience. +By any chance, did anyone happen to bring with them this morning a calculator? +Seriously, if you have a calculator with you, raise your hand. +Raise your hand. Did your hand go up? +Now bring it out, bring it out. Anybody else? +I see, I see one way in the back. +You sir, that's three. +And anybody on this side here? +OK, over there on the aisle. Would the four of you please bring out your calculators, then join me up on stage. +Let's give them a nice round of applause. +Now, since I haven't had the chance to work with these calculators, I need to make sure that they are all working properly. +Would somebody get us started by giving us a two-digit number, please? +How about a two-digit number? +Audience: 22. +AB: 22. And another two-digit number, sir? +Audience: 47. +AB: Multiply 22 times 47, make sure you get 1,034, or the calculators are not working. Do all of you get 1,034? 1,034? +Volunteer: No. +AB: 594. Let's give three of them a nice round of applause there. +Would you like to try a more standard calculator, just in case? +OK, great. +What I'm going to try and do then -- I notice it took some of you a little bit of time to get your answer. +That's OK. +I'll give you a shortcut for multiplying even faster on the calculator. +There is something called the square of a number, which most of you know is taking a number and multiplying it by itself. +For instance, five squared would be? +Audience: 25. +AB: 25. The way we can square on most calculators -- let me demonstrate with this one -- is by taking the number, such as five, hitting "times" and then "equals," and on most calculators that will give you the square. +On some of these ancient RPN calculators, you've got an "x squared" button on it, will allow you to do the calculation even faster. +What I'm going to try and do now is to square, in my head, four two-digit numbers faster than they can do on their calculators, even using the shortcut method. +What I'll use is the second row this time, and I'll get four of you to each yell out a two-digit number, and if you would square the first number, and if you would square the second, the third and the fourth, I will try and race you to the answer. OK? +So quickly, a two-digit number please. +Audience: 37. +Arthur Benjamin: 37 squared, OK. +Audience: 23. +AB: 23 squared, OK. +Audience: 59. +AB: 59 squared, OK, and finally? +Audience: 93. +AB: 93 squared. Would you call out your answers, please? +Volunteer: 1369. AB: 1369. +Volunteer: 529. AB: 529. +Volunteer: 3481. AB: 3481. +Volunteer: 8649. +AB: Thank you very much. +Let me try to take this one step further. +I'm going to try to square some three-digit numbers this time. +I won't even write these down -- I'll just call them out as they're called out to me. +Anyone I point to, call out a three-digit number. +Anyone on our panel, verify the answer. +Just give some indication if it's right. +A three-digit number, sir, yes? +Audience: 987. +AB: 987 squared is 974,169. +AB: Yes? Good. +Another three-digit -- -- another three-digit number, sir? +Audience: 457. +AB: 457 squared is 205,849. +205,849? +AB: Yes? +OK, another, another three-digit number, sir? +Audience: 321. +AB: 321 is 103,041. +Yes? One more three-digit number please. +Audience: Oh, 722. +AB: 722 is 500, that's a harder one. +Is that 513,284? +Volunteer: Yes. +AB: Yes? Oh, one more, one more three-digit number please. +Audience: 162. +162 squared is 26,244. +Thank you very much. +Let me try to take this one step further. +I'm going to try to square a four-digit number this time. +You can all take your time on this; I will not beat you to the answer on this one, but I will try to get the answer right. +To make this a little bit more random, let's take the fourth row this time, let's say, one, two, three, four. +If each of you would call out a single digit between zero and nine, that will be the four-digit number that I'll square. +Nine. +Seven. +Five. +Eight. +9,758, this will take me a little bit of time, so bear with me. +218,564? +Volunteer: Yes! +AB: Thank you very much. +Now, I would attempt to square a five-digit number -- and I can -- but unfortunately, most calculators cannot. +Eight-digit capacity -- don't you hate that? +So, since we've reached the limits of our calculators -- what's that? Does yours go higher? +Volunteer: I don't know. +AB: Oh, yours does? +Volunteer: I can probably do it. AB: I'll talk to you later. +In the meanwhile, let me conclude the first part of my show by doing something a little trickier. +Let's take the largest number on the board here, 8649. +Would you each enter that on your calculator? +And instead of squaring it this time, I want you to take that number and multiply it by any three-digit number that you want, but don't tell me what you're multiplying by -- just multiply it by any random three-digit number. +So you should have as an answer either a six-digit or probably a seven-digit number. +How many digits do you have, six or seven? +Seven, and yours? +Seven? Seven? +And, uncertain. +Seven. +Is there any possible way that I could know what seven-digit numbers you have? Say "No." +Good, then I shall attempt the impossible -- or at least the improbable. +What I'd like each of you to do is to call out for me any six of your seven digits, any six of them, in any order you'd like. +One digit at a time, I shall try and determine the digit you've left out. +Starting with your seven-digit number, call out any six of them please. +Volunteer: 1, 9, 7, 0, 4, 2. +AB: Did you leave out the number 6? +Good, OK, that's one. +You have a seven-digit number, call out any six of them please. +Volunteer: 4, 4, 8, 7, 5. +I think I only heard five numbers. I -- wait -- 44875 -- did you leave out the number 6? +Same as she did, OK. You've got a seven-digit number -- call out any six of them loud and clear. +Volunteer: 0, 7, 9, 0, 4, 4. +I think you left out the number 3? AB: That's three. +The odds of me getting all four of these right by random guessing would be one in 10,000: 10 to the fourth power. +OK, any six of them. +Really scramble them up this time, please. +Volunteer: 2, 6, 3, 9, 7, 2. +Did you leave out the number 7? +And let's give all four of these people a nice round of applause. +Thank you very much. +For my next number -- while I mentally recharge my batteries, I have one more question for the audience. +By any chance, does anybody here happen to know the day of the week that they were born on? +If you think you know your birth day, raise your hand. +Let's see, starting with -- let's start with a gentleman first. +What year was it, first of all? +That's why I pick a gentleman first. +Audience: 1953. +1953, and the month? +November what? +23rd -- was that a Monday? Audience: Yes. +Good. Somebody else? +I haven't seen any women's hands up. +OK, how about you, what year? +1949, and the month? +October what? +Fifth -- was that a Wednesday? +Yes! I'll go way to the back right now, how about you? +Yell it out, what year? Audience: 1959. +1959, OK -- and the month? +Audience: February. +February what? +Sixth -- was that a Friday? Audience: Yes. +Good, how about the person behind her? +Call out, what year was it? +Audience: 1947. AB: 1947, and the month? +Audience: May. AB: May what? +Seventh -- would that be a Wednesday? +Audience: Yes. AB: Thank you very much. +Anybody here who'd like to know the day of the week they were born? +We can do it that way. +Of course, I could just make up an answer and you wouldn't know, so I come prepared for that. +I brought with me a book of calendars. +It goes as far back into the past as 1800, because you never know. +I didn't mean to look at you, sir -- you were just sitting there. +Anyway, Chris, you can help me out here, if you wouldn't mind. +This is a book of calendars. +Who wanted to know their birth day? +What year was it, first of all? +Audience: 1966. +66 -- turn to the calendar with 1966. +And what month? +Audience: April. AB: April what? +Audience: 17th. I believe that was a Sunday. +Can you confirm, Chris? +Chris Anderson: Yes. AB: I'll tell you what, Chris: as long as you have that book in front of you, do me a favor, turn to a year outside of the 1900s, either into the 1800s or way into the 2000s -- that'll be a much greater challenge for me. +AB: What year would you like? CA: 1824. +AB: 1824, OK. +AB: And what month? +CA: June. +AB: June what? CA: Sixth. +AB: Was that a Sunday? +CA: It was. AB: And it was cloudy. +Good, thank you very much. +(Applause ends) But I'd like to wrap things up now by alluding to something from earlier in the presentation. +There was a gentleman up here who had a 10-digit calculator. +Where is he, would you stand up, 10-digit guy? +OK, stand up for me just for a second, so I can see where you are. +You have a 10-digit calculator, sir, as well? +OK, what I'm going to try and do, is to square in my head a five-digit number requiring a 10-digit calculator. +But to make my job more interesting for you, as well as for me, I'm going to do this problem thinking out loud. +So you can actually, honestly hear what's going on in my mind while I do a calculation of this size. +Now, I have to apologize to our magician friend Lennart Green. +I know as a magician we're not supposed to reveal our secrets, but I'm not too afraid that people are going to start doing my show next week, so -- I think we're OK. +So, let's see, let's take a different row of people, starting with you. +I'll get five digits: one, two, three, four. +Oh, I did this row already. Let's do the row before you, starting with you: one, two, three, four, five. +Call out a single digit -- that will be the five-digit number that I will try to square, go ahead. +Five. +Seven. +Six. +Eight. +Three. +57,683 -- squared. +Yuck. +Let me explain to you how I'm going to attempt this problem. +I'm going to break the problem down into three parts. +I'll do 57,000 squared, plus 683 squared, plus 57,000 times 683 times two. +Add all those numbers together, and with any luck, arrive at the answer. +Now, let me recap. +Thank you. +While I explain something else -- -- I know, that you can use, right? +While I do these calculations, you might hear certain words, as opposed to numbers, creep into the calculation. +Let me explain what that is. +This is a phonetic code, a mnemonic device that I use, that allows me to convert numbers into words. +I store them as words, and later on retrieve them as numbers. +I know it sounds complicated; it's not. +I don't want you to think you're seeing something out of "Rain Man." +There's definitely a method to my madness -- definitely, definitely. Sorry. +If you want to talk to me about ADHD afterwards, you can talk to me then. +By the way, one last instruction, for my judges with the calculators -- you know who you are -- there is at least a 50 percent chance that I will make a mistake here. +If I do, don't tell me what the mistake is; just say, "you're close," or something like that, and I'll try and figure out the answer -- which could be pretty entertaining in itself. +If, however, I am right, whatever you do, don't keep it to yourself, OK? +Make sure everybody knows that I got the answer right, because this is my big finish, OK. +So, without any more stalling, here we go. +I'll start the problem in the middle, with 57 times 683. +57 times 68 is 3,400, plus 476 is 3876, that's 38,760 plus 171, 38,760 plus 171 is 38,931. +38,931; double that to get 77,862. +77,862 becomes cookie fission, cookie fission is 77,822. +That seems right, I'll go on. Cookie fission, OK. +Audience: Yeah! AB: Good. +Thank you very much. +I hope you enjoyed mathemagics. +You know, I'm struck by how one of the implicit themes of TED is compassion, these very moving demonstrations we've just seen: HIV in Africa, President Clinton last night. +And I'd like to do a little collateral thinking, if you will, about compassion and bring it from the global level to the personal. +I'm a psychologist, but rest assured, I will not bring it to the scrotal. +There was a very important study done a while ago at Princeton Theological Seminary that speaks to why it is that when all of us have so many opportunities to help, we do sometimes, and we don't other times. +A group of divinity students at the Princeton Theological Seminary were told that they were going to give a practice sermon and they were each given a sermon topic. +Half of those students were given, as a topic, the parable of the Good Samaritan: the man who stopped the stranger in -- to help the stranger in need by the side of the road. +Half were given random Bible topics. +Then one by one, they were told they had to go to another building and give their sermon. +As they went from the first building to the second, each of them passed a man who was bent over and moaning, clearly in need. The question is: Did they stop to help? +The more interesting question is: Did it matter they were contemplating the parable of the Good Samaritan? Answer: No, not at all. +What turned out to determine whether someone would stop and help a stranger in need was how much of a hurry they thought they were in -- were they feeling they were late, or were they absorbed in what they were going to talk about. +And this is, I think, the predicament of our lives: that we don't take every opportunity to help because our focus is in the wrong direction. +There's a new field in brain science, social neuroscience. +This studies the circuitry in two people's brains that activates while they interact. +And the new thinking about compassion from social neuroscience is that our default wiring is to help. +That is to say, if we attend to the other person, we automatically empathize, we automatically feel with them. +There are these newly identified neurons, mirror neurons, that act like a neuro Wi-Fi, activating in our brain exactly the areas activated in theirs. We feel "with" automatically. +And if that person is in need, if that person is suffering, we're automatically prepared to help. At least that's the argument. +But then the question is: Why don't we? +And I think this speaks to a spectrum that goes from complete self-absorption, to noticing, to empathy and to compassion. +And the simple fact is, if we are focused on ourselves, if we're preoccupied, as we so often are throughout the day, we don't really fully notice the other. +And this difference between the self and the other focus can be very subtle. +Then I realized that what I was getting from giving was a narcissistic hit -- that I felt good about myself. +Then I started to think about the people in the Himalayas whose cataracts would be helped, and I realized that I went from this kind of narcissistic self-focus to altruistic joy, to feeling good for the people that were being helped. I think that's a motivator. +But this distinction between focusing on ourselves and focusing on others is one that I encourage us all to pay attention to. +You can see it at a gross level in the world of dating. +I was at a sushi restaurant a while back and I overheard two women talking about the brother of one woman, who was in the singles scene. And this woman says, "My brother is having trouble getting dates, so he's trying speed dating." I don't know if you know speed dating? +The moment he sits down, he starts talking non-stop about himself; he never asks about the woman." +And I was doing some research in the Sunday Styles section of The New York Times, looking at the back stories of marriages -- because they're very interesting -- and I came to the marriage of Alice Charney Epstein. And she said that when she was in the dating scene, she had a simple test she put people to. +The test was: from the moment they got together, how long it would take the guy to ask her a question with the word "you" in it. +And apparently Epstein aced the test, therefore the article. +Now this is a -- it's a little test I encourage you to try out at a party. +Here at TED there are great opportunities. +The Harvard Business Review recently had an article called "The Human Moment," about how to make real contact with a person at work. And they said, well, the fundamental thing you have to do is turn off your BlackBerry, close your laptop, end your daydream and pay full attention to the person. +There is a newly coined word in the English language for the moment when the person we're with whips out their BlackBerry or answers that cell phone, and all of a sudden we don't exist. +The word is "pizzled": it's a combination of puzzled and pissed off. +I think it's quite apt. It's our empathy, it's our tuning in which separates us from Machiavellians or sociopaths. +I have a brother-in-law who's an expert on horror and terror -- he wrote the Annotated Dracula, the Essential Frankenstein -- he was trained as a Chaucer scholar, but he was born in Transylvania and I think it affected him a little bit. +At any rate, at one point my brother-in-law, Leonard, decided to write a book about a serial killer. +This is a man who terrorized the very vicinity we're in many years ago. He was known as the Santa Cruz strangler. +And before he was arrested, he had murdered his grandparents, his mother and five co-eds at UC Santa Cruz. +So my brother-in-law goes to interview this killer and he realizes when he meets him that this guy is absolutely terrifying. +For one thing, he's almost seven feet tall. +But that's not the most terrifying thing about him. +The scariest thing is that his IQ is 160: a certified genius. +But there is zero correlation between IQ and emotional empathy, feeling with the other person. +They're controlled by different parts of the brain. +So at one point, my brother-in-law gets up the courage to ask the one question he really wants to know the answer to, and that is: how could you have done it? +Didn't you feel any pity for your victims? +These were very intimate murders -- he strangled his victims. +And the strangler says very matter-of-factly, "Oh no. If I'd felt the distress, I could not have done it. +I had to turn that part of me off. I had to turn that part of me off." +And I think that that is very troubling, and in a sense, I've been reflecting on turning that part of us off. +When we focus on ourselves in any activity, we do turn that part of ourselves off if there's another person. +Think about going shopping and think about the possibilities of a compassionate consumerism. +Right now, as Bill McDonough has pointed out, the objects that we buy and use have hidden consequences. +We're all unwitting victims of a collective blind spot. +We don't notice and don't notice that we don't notice the toxic molecules emitted by a carpet or by the fabric on the seats. +Or we don't know if that fabric is a technological or manufacturing nutrient; it can be reused or does it just end up at landfill? In other words, we're oblivious to the ecological and public health and social and economic justice consequences of the things we buy and use. +In a sense, the room itself is the elephant in the room, but we don't see it. And we've become victims of a system that points us elsewhere. Consider this. +There's a wonderful book called Stuff: The Hidden Life of Everyday Objects. +And it talks about the back story of something like a t-shirt. +And it talks about where the cotton was grown and the fertilizers that were used and the consequences for soil of that fertilizer. And it mentions, for instance, that cotton is very resistant to textile dye; about 60 percent washes off into wastewater. +And it's well known by epidemiologists that kids who live near textile works tend to have high rates of leukemia. +There's a company, Bennett and Company, that supplies Polo.com, Victoria's Secret -- they, because of their CEO, who's aware of this, in China formed a joint venture with their dye works to make sure that the wastewater would be properly taken care of before it returned to the groundwater. +Right now, we don't have the option to choose the virtuous t-shirt over the non-virtuous one. So what would it take to do that? +Well, I've been thinking. For one thing, there's a new electronic tagging technology that allows any store to know the entire history of any item on the shelves in that store. +They have it for people with allergies to peanuts. +That website could tell you things about that object. +In other words, at point of purchase, we might be able to make a compassionate choice. +There's a saying in the world of information science: ultimately everybody will know everything. +And the question is: will it make a difference? +Some time ago when I was working for The New York Times, it was in the '80s, I did an article on what was then a new problem in New York -- it was homeless people on the streets. +We don't notice and therefore we don't act. +One day soon after that -- it was a Friday -- at the end of the day, I went down -- I was going down to the subway. It was rush hour and thousands of people were streaming down the stairs. +And all of a sudden as I was going down the stairs I noticed that there was a man slumped to the side, shirtless, not moving, and people were just stepping over him -- hundreds and hundreds of people. +And because my urban trance had been somehow weakened, I found myself stopping to find out what was wrong. +The moment I stopped, half a dozen other people immediately ringed the same guy. +And we found out that he was Hispanic, he didn't speak any English, he had no money, he'd been wandering the streets for days, starving, and he'd fainted from hunger. +Immediately someone went to get orange juice, someone brought a hotdog, someone brought a subway cop. +This guy was back on his feet immediately. +But all it took was that simple act of noticing, and so I'm optimistic. +Thank you very much. +So I thought, "I will talk about death." +Seemed to be the passion today. +Actually, it's not about death. +It's inevitable, terrible, but really what I want to talk about is, I'm just fascinated by the legacy people leave when they die. +That's what I want to talk about. +So Art Buchwald left his legacy of humor with a video that appeared soon after he died, saying, "Hi! I'm Art Buchwald, and I just died." +And Mike, who I met at Galapagos, a trip which I won at TED, is leaving notes on cyberspace where he is chronicling his journey through cancer. +And my father left me a legacy of his handwriting through letters and a notebook. +In the last two years of his life, when he was sick, he filled a notebook with his thoughts about me. +He wrote about my strengths, weaknesses, and gentle suggestions for improvement, quoting specific incidents, and held a mirror to my life. +After he died, I realized that no one writes to me anymore. +Handwriting is a disappearing art. +I'm all for email and thinking while typing, but why give up old habits for new? +Why can't we have letter writing and email exchange in our lives? +There are times when I want to trade all those years that I was too busy to sit with my dad and chat with him, and trade all those years for one hug. +But too late. +But that's when I take out his letters and I read them, and the paper that touched his hand is in mine, and I feel connected to him. +So maybe we all need to leave our children with a value legacy, and not a financial one. +A value for things with a personal touch -- an autograph book, a soul-searching letter. +If a fraction of this powerful TED audience could be inspired to buy a beautiful paper -- John, it'll be a recycled one -- and write a beautiful letter to someone they love, we actually may start a revolution where our children may go to penmanship classes. +So what do I plan to leave for my son? +I collect autograph books, and those of you authors in the audience know I hound you for them -- and CDs too, Tracy. +I plan to publish my own notebook. +As I witnessed my father's body being swallowed by fire, I sat by his funeral pyre and wrote. +I have no idea how I'm going to do it, but I am committed to compiling his thoughts and mine into a book, and leave that published book for my son. +I'd like to end with a few verses of what I wrote at my father's cremation. +And those linguists, please pardon the grammar, because I've not looked at it in the last 10 years. +I took it out for the first time to come here. +"Picture in a frame, ashes in a bottle, boundless energy confined in the bottle, forcing me to deal with reality, forcing me to deal with being grown up. +I hear you and I know that you would want me to be strong, but right now, I am being sucked down, surrounded and suffocated by these raging emotional waters, craving to cleanse my soul, trying to emerge on a firm footing one more time, to keep on fighting and flourishing just as you taught me. +Your encouraging whispers in my whirlpool of despair, holding me and heaving me to shores of sanity, to live again and to love again." +Thank you. +Welcome to "Five Dangerous Things You Should Let Your Children Do." +I don't have children. +I borrow my friends' children, so -- take all this advice with a grain of salt. +I'm Gever Tulley. +I'm a contract computer scientist by trade, but I'm the founder of something called the Tinkering School. +It's a summer program which aims to help kids learn how to build the things that they think of. +So we build a lot of things, and I do put power tools into the hands of second-graders. +So if you're thinking about sending your kid to Tinkering School, they do come back bruised, scraped and bloody. +You know, we live in a world that's subjected to ever more stringent child safety regulations. +There doesn't seem to be any limit on how crazy child safety regulations can get. +We put suffocation warnings on every piece of plastic film manufactured in the United States, or for sale with an item in the United States. +We put warnings on coffee cups to tell us that the contents may be hot. +And we seem to think that any item sharper than a golf ball is too sharp for children under the age of 10. +So where does this trend stop? +When we round every corner and eliminate every sharp object, every pokey bit in the world, then the first time that kids come in contact with anything sharp, or not made out of round plastic, they'll hurt themselves with it. +So, as the boundaries of what we determine as the safety zone grow ever smaller, we cut off our children from valuable opportunities to learn how to interact with the world around them. +And despite all of our best efforts and intentions, kids are always going to figure out how to do the most dangerous thing they can, in whatever environment they can. +So despite the provocative title, this presentation is really about safety, and about some simple things that we can do to raise our kids to be creative, confident and in control of the environment around them. +And what I now present to you is an excerpt from a book in progress. +The book is called "50 Dangerous Things." +This is "Five Dangerous Things." +Thing number one: Play with fire. +Learning to control one of the most elemental forces in nature is a pivotal moment in any child's personal history. +Whether we remember it or not, it's the first time we really get control of one of these mysterious things. +These mysteries are only revealed to those who get the opportunity to play with it. +So, playing with fire. +This is like one of the great things we ever discovered, fire. +From playing with it, they learn some basic principles about fire, about intake, combustion, exhaust. +These are the three working elements of fire that you have to have for a good, controlled fire. +And you can think of the open-pit fire as a laboratory. +You don't know what they're going to learn from playing with it. +Let them fool around with it on their own terms and trust me, they're going to learn things that you can't get out of playing with Dora the Explorer toys. +Number two: Own a pocketknife. +Pocketknives are kind of drifting out of our cultural consciousness, which I think is a terrible thing. +Your first pocketknife is like the first universal tool that you're given. +You know, it's a spatula, it's a pry bar, it's a screwdriver and it's a blade, yeah. +And it's a powerful and empowering tool. +And in a lot of cultures they give knives -- like, as soon as they're toddlers, they have knives. +These are Inuit children cutting whale blubber. +I first saw this in a Canadian Film Board film when I was 10, and it left a lasting impression, to see babies playing with knives. +And it shows that kids can develop an extended sense of self through a tool at a very young age. +You lay down a couple of very simple rules -- always cut away from your body, keep the blade sharp, never force it -- and these are things kids can understand and practice with. +And yeah, they're going to cut themselves. +I have some terrible scars on my legs from where I stabbed myself. +But you know, they're young. They heal fast. +Number three: Throw a spear. +It turns out that our brains are actually wired for throwing things, and like muscles, if you don't use parts of your brain, they tend to atrophy over time. +But when you exercise them, any given muscle adds strength to the whole system, and that applies to your brain, too. +So practicing throwing things has been shown to stimulate the frontal and parietal lobes, which have to do with visual acuity, 3D understanding, and structural problem solving, so it helps develop their visualization skills and their predictive ability. +And throwing is a combination of analytical and physical skill, so it's very good for that kind of whole-body training. +These kinds of target-based practices also help kids develop attention and concentration skills, so those are great. +Number [four]: Deconstruct appliances. +There is a world of interesting things inside your dishwasher. +Next time you're about to throw out an appliance, don't throw it out. +Take it apart with your kid, or send him to my school, and we'll take it apart with them. +Even if you don't know what the parts are, puzzling out what they might be for is a really good practice for the kids to get sort of the sense that they can take things apart, and no matter how complex they are, And that means that eventually, they can understand all of them. +It's a sense of knowability, that something is knowable. +So these black boxes that we live with and take for granted are actually complex things made by other people, and you can understand them. +Number five: Two-parter. +Break the Digital Millennium Copyright Act. +There are laws beyond safety regulations that attempt to limit how we can interact with the things that we own -- in this case, digital media. +It's a very simple exercise: Buy a song on iTunes, write it to a CD, then rip the CD to an MP3, and play it on your very same computer. +You've just broken a law. +Technically, the RIAA could come and prosecute you. +It's an important lesson for kids to understand, that some of these laws get broken by accident, and that laws have to be interpreted. +That's something we often talk about with the kids when we're fooling around with things and breaking them open, and taking them apart and using them for other things. +And also when we go out and drive a car. +Driving a car is a really empowering act for a young child, so this is the alternate -- For those of you who aren't comfortable actually breaking the law, you can drive a car with your child. +This is a great stage for a kid. +This happens about the same time that they get latched onto things like dinosaurs, these big things in the outside world, that they're trying to get a grip on. +A car is a similar object, and they can get in a car and drive it. +And that really gives them a handle on a world in a way that they don't often have access to. +And it's perfectly legal. +Find a big empty lot, make sure there's nothing in it, and that it's on private property, and let them drive your car. +It's very safe actually. +And it's fun for the whole family. +Let's see, I think that's it. That's number five and a half. OK. +We are going to talk today about the sequel of "Inconvenient Truth." +It's time again to talk about "Inconvenient Truth," a truth that everyone is concerned about, but nobody is willing to talk about. +Somebody has to take the lead, and I decided to do it. +If you are scared by global warming, wait until we learn about local warming. +We will talk today about local warming. +Important health message: blogging may be hazardous to your health, especially if you are a male. +This message is given as a public service. +Blogging affects your posture. We start with the posture. +This is the posture of ladies who are not blogging; this is the posture of ladies who are blogging. +This is the natural posture of a man sitting, squatting for ventilation purposes. +And this is the natural posture of a standing man, and I think this picture inspired Chris to insert me into the lateral thinking session. +This is male blogging posture sitting, and the result is, "For greater comfort, men naturally sit with their legs farther apart than women, when working on laptop. +However, they will adopt a less natural posture in order to balance it on their laps, which resulted in a significant rise of body heat between their thighs." This is the issue of local warming. +This is a very serious newspaper; it's Times of England -- very serious. This is a very -- -- gentlemen and ladies, be serious. +This is a very serious research, that you should read the underline. +And be careful, your genes are in danger. +Will geeks become endangered species? +The fact: population growth in countries with high laptop -- I need Hans Rosling to give me a graph. +Global warming fun. +But let's keep things in proportion. +How to take care in five easy steps: first of all, you can use natural ventilation. You can use body breath. +You should stay cool with the appropriate clothing. +You should care about your posture -- this is not right. +Can you extract from Chris another minute and a half for me, because I have a video I have to show you. +You are great. This is the correct posture. +Another benefit of Wi-Fi, we learned yesterday about the benefits of Wi-Fi. +Wi-Fi enables you to avoid the processor. And there are some enhanced protection measures, which I would like to share with you, and I would like, in a minute, to thank Philips for helping. +This is a research which was done in '86, but it's still valid. +Scrotal temperature reflects intratesticular temperature and is lowered by shaving. +By the way, I must admit, my English is not so good, I didn't know what is scrotal; I understand it's a scrotum. +I guess in plural it's scrotal, like medium and media. +Digital scrotum, digital media. +And only last year I recognized that I'm a proud scrotum owner. +And this research is being precipitated by the U.S. government, so you can see that your tax man is working for good causes. +Video: Man: The Philips Bodygroom has a sleek, ergonomic design for a safe and easy way to trim those scruffy underarm hairs, the untidy curls on and around your [bleep], as well as the hard to reach locks on the underside of your [bleep] and [bleep]. Once you use the Bodygroom, the world looks different. +And so does your [bleep]. These days, with a hair-free back, well-groomed shoulders and an extra optical inch on my [bleep], well, let's just say life has gotten pretty darn cozy. +Yossi Vardi: This is one of the most popular viral advertisement of last year, known as the optical inch by Philips. Let's applaud Philips -- -- for this gesture for humanity. +And this is how they are promoting the product. This is -- I didn't touch it, this is original. +Laptop use to solve overpopulation. And if everything failed, there are some secondary uses. +And then our next talk, our next TED if you invite me will be why you should not carry a cell phone in your pocket. +And this is what the young generation says. +And I just want to show you that I'm not just preaching, but I also practice. +4 am in the morning. +You cannot use this picture. +Now, I have some mini TED Prizes, this is the Philips Bodygroom, one for our leader. +Anybody feels threatened, anybody really need it? +Any lady, any lady? Thank you very much. +Thank you so much. It's really scary to be here among the smartest of the smart. +I'm here to tell you a few tales of passion. +There's a Jewish saying that I love. +What is truer than truth? Answer: The story. +I'm a storyteller. I want to convey something that is truer than truth about our common humanity. +All stories interest me, and some haunt me until I end up writing them. +Certain themes keep coming up: justice, loyalty, violence, death, political and social issues, freedom. +I'm aware of the mystery around us, so I write about coincidences, premonitions, emotions, dreams, the power of nature, magic. +In the last 20 years I have published a few books, but I have lived in anonymity until February of 2006, when I carried the Olympic flag in the Winter Olympics in Italy. +That made me a celebrity. Now people recognize me in Macy's, and my grandchildren think that I'm cool. +Allow me to tell you about my four minutes of fame. +One of the organizers of the Olympic ceremony, of the opening ceremony, called me and said that I had been selected to be one of the flag-bearers. +I replied that surely this was a case of mistaken identity because I'm as far as you can get from being an athlete. +Actually, I wasn't even sure that I could go around the stadium without a walker. +I was told that this was no laughing matter. +This would be the first time that only women would carry the Olympic flag. +Five women, representing five continents, and three Olympic gold medal winners. +My first question was, naturally, what was I going to wear? +A uniform, she said, and asked for my measurements. +My measurements. +I had a vision of myself in a fluffy anorak, looking like the Michelin Man. +By the middle of February, I found myself in Turin, where enthusiastic crowds cheered when any of the 80 Olympic teams was in the street. +Those athletes had sacrificed everything to compete in the games. +They all deserved to win, but there's the element of luck. +A speck of snow, an inch of ice, the force of the wind, can determine the result of a race or a game. +However, what matters most -- more than training or luck -- is the heart. +Only a fearless and determined heart will get the gold medal. +It is all about passion. +The streets of Turin were covered with red posters announcing the slogan of the Olympics. +Passion lives here. Isn't it always true? +Heart is what drives us and determines our fate. +That is what I need for my characters in my books: a passionate heart. +I need mavericks, dissidents, adventurers, outsiders and rebels, who ask questions, bend the rules and take risks. +People like all of you in this room. +Nice people with common sense do not make interesting characters. +They only make good former spouses. +In the green room of the stadium, I met the other flag bearers: three athletes, and the actresses Susan Sarandon and Sophia Loren. +Also, two women with passionate hearts: Wangari Maathai, the Nobel prizewinner from Kenya who has planted 30 million trees. And by doing so, she has changed the soil, the weather, in some places in Africa, and of course the economic conditions in many villages. +And Somaly Mam, a Cambodian activist who fights passionately against child prostitution. +When she was 14 years old, her grandfather sold her to a brothel. +She told us of little girls raped by men who believe that having sex with a very young virgin will cure them from AIDS. +And of brothels where children are forced to receive five, 15 clients per day, and if they rebel, they are tortured with electricity. +In the green room I received my uniform. +It was not the kind of outfit that I normally wear, but it was far from the Michelin Man suit that I had anticipated. Not bad, really. +I looked like a refrigerator. +But so did most of the flag-bearers, except Sophia Loren, the universal symbol of beauty and passion. +Sophia is over 70 and she looks great. +She's sexy, slim and tall, with a deep tan. +Now, how can you have a deep tan and have no wrinkles? +I don't know. +When asked in a TV interview, "How could she look so good?" +She replied, "Posture. My back is always straight, and I don't make old people's noises." +So, there you have some free advice from one of the most beautiful women on earth. +No grunting, no coughing, no wheezing, no talking to yourselves, no farting. +Well, she didn't say that exactly. +At some point around midnight, we were summoned to the wings of the stadium, and the loudspeakers announced the Olympic flag, and the music started -- by the way, the same music that starts here, the Aida March. +Sophia Loren was right in front of me -- she's a foot taller than I am, not counting the poofy hair. +She walked elegantly, like a giraffe on the African savannah, holding the flag on her shoulder. I jogged behind -- on my tiptoes -- holding the flag on my extended arm, so that my head was actually under the damn flag. +All the cameras were, of course, on Sophia. +That was fortunate for me, because in most press photos I appear too, although often between Sophia's legs. +A place where most men would love to be. +The best four minutes of my entire life were those in the Olympic stadium. +My husband is offended when I say this -- although I have explained to him that what we do in private usually takes less than four minutes -- -- so he shouldn't take it personally. +I have all the press clippings of those four magnificent minutes, because I don't want to forget them when old age destroys my brain cells. +I want to carry in my heart forever the key word of the Olympics -- passion. +So here's a tale of passion. +The year is 1998, the place is a prison camp for Tutsi refugees in Congo. +By the way, 80 percent of all refugees and displaced people in the world are women and girls. +We can call this place in Congo a death camp, because those who are not killed will die of disease or starvation. +The protagonists of this story are a young woman, Rose Mapendo, and her children. +She's pregnant and a widow. +Soldiers have forced her to watch as her husband was tortured and killed. +Somehow she manages to keep her seven children alive, and a few months later, she gives birth to premature twins. +Two tiny little boys. +She cuts the umbilical cord with a stick, and ties it with her own hair. +She names the twins after the camp's commanders to gain their favor, and feeds them with black tea because her milk cannot sustain them. +When the soldiers burst in her cell to rape her oldest daughter, she grabs hold of her and refuses to let go, even when they hold a gun to her head. +Somehow, the family survives for 16 months, and then, by extraordinary luck, and the passionate heart of a young American man, Sasha Chanoff, who manages to put her in a U.S. rescue plane, Rose Mapendo and her nine children end up in Phoenix, Arizona, where they're now living and thriving. +Mapendo, in Swahili, means great love. +The protagonists of my books are strong and passionate women like Rose Mapendo. +I don't make them up. There's no need for that. +I look around and I see them everywhere. +I have worked with women and for women all my life. +I know them well. +I was born in ancient times, at the end of the world, in a patriarchal Catholic and conservative family. +No wonder that by age five I was a raging feminist -- although the term had not reached Chile yet, so nobody knew what the heck was wrong with me. +I would soon find out that there was a high price to pay for my freedom, and for questioning the patriarchy. +But I was happy to pay it, because for every blow that I received, I was able to deliver two. +Once, when my daughter Paula was in her twenties, she said to me that feminism was dated, that I should move on. +We had a memorable fight. Feminism is dated? +Yes, for privileged women like my daughter and all of us here today, but not for most of our sisters in the rest of the world who are still forced into premature marriage, prostitution, forced labor -- they have children that they don't want or they cannot feed. +They have no control over their bodies or their lives. +They have no education and no freedom. +They are raped, beaten up and sometimes killed with impunity. +For most Western young women of today, being called a feminist is an insult. +Feminism has never been sexy, but let me assure you that it never stopped me from flirting, and I have seldom suffered from lack of men. +Feminism is not dead, by no means. +It has evolved. If you don't like the term, change it, for Goddess' sake. +Call it Aphrodite, or Venus, or bimbo, or whatever you want; the name doesn't matter, as long as we understand what it is about, and we support it. +So here's another tale of passion, and this is a sad one. +The place is a small women's clinic in a village in Bangladesh. +The year is 2005. +Jenny is a young American dental hygienist who has gone to the clinic as a volunteer during her three-week vacation. +She's prepared to clean teeth, but when she gets there, she finds out that there are no doctors, no dentists, and the clinic is just a hut full of flies. +Outside, there is a line of women who have waited several hours to be treated. +The first patient is in excruciating pain because she has several rotten molars. +Jenny realizes that the only solution is to pull out the bad teeth. +She's not licensed for that; she has never done it. +She risks a lot and she's terrified. +She doesn't even have the proper instruments, but fortunately she has brought some Novocaine. +Jenny has a brave and passionate heart. +She murmurs a prayer and she goes ahead with the operation. +At the end, the relieved patient kisses her hands. +That day the hygienist pulls out many more teeth. +The next morning, when she comes again to the so-called clinic, her first patient is waiting for her with her husband. +The woman's face looks like a watermelon. +It is so swollen that you can't even see the eyes. +The husband, furious, threatens to kill the American. +Jenny is horrified at what she has done, but then the translator explains that the patient's condition has nothing to do with the operation. +The day before, her husband beat her up because she was not home in time to prepare dinner for him. +Millions of women live like this today. +They are the poorest of the poor. +Although women do two-thirds of the world's labor, they own less than one percent of the world's assets. +They are paid less than men for the same work if they're paid at all, and they remain vulnerable because they have no economic independence, and they are constantly threatened by exploitation, violence and abuse. +It is a fact that giving women education, work, the ability to control their own income, inherit and own property, benefits the society. +If a woman is empowered, her children and her family will be better off. +If families prosper, the village prospers, and eventually so does the whole country. +Wangari Maathai goes to a village in Kenya. +She talks with the women and explains that the land is barren because they have cut and sold the trees. +She gets the women to plant new trees and water them, drop by drop. +In a matter of five or six years, they have a forest, the soil is enriched, and the village is saved. +The poorest and most backward societies are always those that put women down. +Yet this obvious truth is ignored by governments and also by philanthropy. +For every dollar given to a women's program, 20 dollars are given to men's programs. +Women are 51 percent of humankind. +Empowering them will change everything -- more than technology and design and entertainment. +I can promise you that women working together -- linked, informed and educated -- can bring peace and prosperity to this forsaken planet. +In any war today, most of the casualties are civilians, mainly women and children. They are collateral damage. +Men run the world, and look at the mess we have. +What kind of world do we want? +This is a fundamental question that most of us are asking. +Does it make sense to participate in the existing world order? +We want a world where life is preserved and the quality of life is enriched for everybody, not only for the privileged. +In January I saw an exhibit of Fernando Botero's paintings at the UC Berkeley library. +No museum or gallery in the United States, except for the New York gallery that carries Botero's work, has dared to show the paintings because the theme is the Abu Ghraib prison. +They are huge paintings of torture and abuse of power, in the voluminous Botero style. +I have not been able to get those images out of my mind or my heart. +What I fear most is power with impunity. +I fear abuse of power, and the power to abuse. +In our species, the alpha males define reality, and force the rest of the pack to accept that reality and follow the rules. +The rules change all the time, but they always benefit them, and in this case, the trickle-down effect, which does not work in economics, works perfectly. +Abuse trickles down from the top of the ladder to the bottom. +Women and children, especially the poor, are at the bottom. +Even the most destitute of men have someone they can abuse -- a woman or a child. +I'm fed up with the power that a few exert over the many through gender, income, race, and class. +I think that the time is ripe to make fundamental changes in our civilization. +But for real change, we need feminine energy in the management of the world. +We need a critical number of women in positions of power, and we need to nurture the feminine energy in men. +I'm talking about men with young minds, of course. +Old guys are hopeless; we have to wait for them to die off. +Yes, I would love to have Sophia Loren's long legs and legendary breasts. +But given a choice, I would rather have the warrior hearts of Wangari Maathai, Somaly Mam, Jenny and Rose Mapendo. +I want to make this world good. +Not better, but to make it good. +Why not? It is possible. Look around in this room -- all this knowledge, energy, talent and technology. +Let's get off our fannies, roll up our sleeves and get to work, passionately, in creating an almost perfect world. +Thank you. +We're going to go on a dive to the deep sea, and anyone that's had that lovely opportunity knows that for about two and half hours on the way down, it's a perfectly positively pitch-black world. +And we used to see the most mysterious animals out the window that you couldn't describe: these blinking lights -- a world of bioluminescence, like fireflies. +Dr. Edith Widder -- she's now at the Ocean Research and Conservation Association -- was able to come up with a camera that could capture some of these incredible animals, and that's what you're seeing here on the screen. +That's all bioluminescence. Like I said: just like fireflies. +There's a flying turkey under a tree. I'm a geologist by training. But I love that. +And you see, some of the bioluminescence they use to avoid being eaten, some they use to attract prey, but all of it, from an artistic point of view, is just positively amazing. +And a lot of what goes on inside -- There's a fish with glowing eyes, pulsating eyes. +Some of the colors are designed to hypnotize, these lovely patterns. And then this last one, one of my favorites, this pinwheel design. +Just absolutely amazing, every single dive. +That's the unknown world, and today we've only explored about 3 percent of what's out there in the ocean. +Already we've found the world's highest mountains, the world's deepest valleys, underwater lakes, underwater waterfalls -- a lot of that we shared with you from the stage. +And in a place where we thought no life at all, we find more life, we think, and diversity and density than the tropical rainforest, which tells us that we don't know much about this planet at all. +There's still 97 percent, and either that 97 percent is empty or just full of surprises. +But I want to jump up to shallow water now and look at some creatures that are positively amazing. +Cephalopods -- head-foots. As a kid I knew them as calamari, mostly. +This is an octopus. +This is the work of Dr. Roger Hanlon at the Marine Biological Lab, and it's just fascinating how cephalopods can, with their incredible eyes, sense their surroundings, look at light, look at patterns. +Here's an octopus moving across the reef, finds a spot to settle down, curls up and then disappears into the background. +Tough thing to do. +In the next bit, we're going to see a couple squid. +Now males, when they fight, if they're really aggressive, they turn white. +And these two males are fighting. +They do it by bouncing their butts together, which is an interesting concept. +Now, here's a male on the left and a female on the right, and the male has managed to split his coloration so the female only always sees the kinder, gentler squid in him. +Let's take a look at it again. Watch the coloration: white on the right, brown on the left. +He takes a step back, he's keeping off the other males by splitting his body, and comes up on the other side -- Bingo! +Now, I'm told that's not not just a squid phenomenon with males, but I don't know. +Cuttlefish. I love cuttlefish. This is a Giant Australian Cuttlefish. +And there he is, his droopy little eyes up here. +But they can do pretty amazing things, too. +Here we're going to see one backing into a crevice, and watch his tentacles -- he just pulls them in, makes them look just like algae. +Disappears right into the background. +Positively amazing. Here's two males fighting. +Once again, they're smart enough, these cephalopods; they know not to hurt each other. +But look at the patterns that they can do with their skin. +That's an amazing thing. +Here's an octopus. Sometimes they don't want to be seen when they move, because predators can see them. +This guy can make himself look like a rock, and, looking at his environment, can actually slide across the bottom, using the waves and the shadows so he can't be seen. +His motion blends right into the background -- the moving rock trick. So, we're learning lots new from the shallow water. +Still exploring the deep, but learning lots from the shallow water. +There's a good reason why: the shallow water's full of predators -- here's a barracuda -- and if you're an octopus or a cephalopod, you need to really understand how to use your surroundings to hide. +In the next scene, you're going to see a nice coral bottom. +And you see that an octopus would stand out very easily there if you couldn't use your camouflage, use your skin to change color and texture. +Here's some algae in the foreground -- and an octopus. Ain't that amazing? +Now, Roger spooked him, so he took off in a cloud of ink, and when he lands, the octopus says, "Oh, I've been seen. +The best thing to do is to get as big as I can get." +That big brown makes his eyespot very big. +So, he's bluffing. Let's do it backwards. +I thought he was joking when he first showed it to me. +I thought it was all graphics. So here it is in reverse. +Watch the skin color; watch the skin texture. +Just an amazing animal, it can change color and texture to match the surroundings. Watch him blend right into this algae. +One, two, three. +And now he's gone, and so am I. Thank you very much. +Those of us who believe in heaven have some sort of idea of what heaven would be. +And in my idea, heaven is satisfied curiosity. +I think of heaven as a really comfortable cloud where I can just lie down with my belly down, like I was watching TV when I was a child, and my elbows up. +And I can basically look everywhere I want, see every movie I've always wanted to see. +And in the same kind of trance that you can feel sometimes in the subway in New York when you're reading, there's something really soothing and easy. +Well, the funny thing is that I already have that kind of life, in a way, because I discovered ... +it took me a while to understand it, but when I discovered around 24 years of age that I was much more comfortable with objects than with people, I finally decided to really embrace this passion. +And I basically live my life in sort of a trance, and I look around and everything I see is just the beginning of a long story. +Just to give you an example: this is the exhibition, Humble Masterpieces, as it was at MoMA in 2004. +We were in Queens, we were building the big, big, big, big building in Midtown, so we were in the small, small, small boondocks. +That was one of the funnest moments of my career. +But it's not only that. +The typeface -- the typeface is Helvetica; it's its 50th anniversary this year. +And so I start thinking -- Max Miedinger and all those Swiss designers together, trying to outdo Akzidenz-Grotesk, and come up with a new sans-serif typeface -- and the movie starts playing in my head already. +And of course, you can imagine, with Humble Masterpieces it was the same thing multiplied by a hundred. +And I do hope, by the way, that the real goal of the exhibition is going to have the same effect on you. +The exhibition was meant to be a way to have children think of doing ... +you know when they do homeworks at home? +Instead of having a tray with two peas, I was hoping that they would go into the kitchen cabinet or the mother's handbag and do their museum-quality design collection on a tray. +So, everybody's always suggesting new humble masterpieces, and at MoMA we put out some books just for people to suggest their own humble masterpieces. +And when you do that, usually you get 80 percent porn and 20 percent real suggestions, and instead it was all -- almost -- all good suggestions. +And a lot of nationalism came in. +For instance, I didn't know that the Spaniards invented the mop, but they were very proud so every Spaniard said "la frego." And Italians did the pizza. +And I wanted to show you, also, the suggestions from Kentucky are pretty good -- they had moonshine, laundry detergents and liquid nails. +And I keep it going, and I just got, also, this suggestion from Milan: it's our traffic divider, which we call "panettone," and it's painted; it's these beautiful concrete things that you use around Milan to define all the lanes of traffic. +So, think of your own, send them on if you want to -- they're always welcome. +But an exhibition like that made me understand even more what I've been thinking of for 13 years ever since I got to MoMA. +I'm Italian. In Italy, design is normal. +Different parts of the world have a knack for different things. +I was just recently in Argentina and in Uruguay, and the default way of building homes in the country is a beautiful modernism that you don't see elsewhere, but the contemporary art was terrible. +In Italy, in Milan especially, contemporary art really doesn't have that much of a place. +But design -- oh, my God. +What you find at the store at the corner, without going to any kind of fancy store, is the kind of refined design that makes everybody think that we are all so sophisticated. +It's just what you find at the store. +And New York has another kind of knack for contemporary art. +I'm always amazed -- three-year-olds know who Richard Serra is and take you to the galleries. +But design, for some reason, is still misunderstood for decoration. +It's really interesting: what many people think when I say the word "design" is they think of this kind of overdesigned -- in this case, it's overdesigned on purpose, but -- decoration, interior decoration. +They think of somebody choosing fabrics. +Design can be that, of course, but it can also be this. +It can be a school of design in Jerusalem that tries to find a better way to design gas masks for people, because, as you know, Israel deploys one gas mask per person including babies. +So, what these designers do is they find a way to lower the neckline, so that instead of being completely strangled, a teenager can also sip a Coke. +They tried to make a toddler's gas mask in such a way that the toddler can be held by the parent because proximity of the body is so important. +And then they make a little tent for the baby. +However cruel, however ruthless you can think this is it's a great design, and it is miles away from the fancy furniture, but still, it's part of my same field of passion. +I'm very well aware that 80 percent of my public is there to see Picasso and Matisse, and then they stumble upon my show and I keep them there. +But what I've been trying to do is something that the curators at MoMA in my department have been doing ever since the museum was founded in 1929, which is to try and see what's going on in the world and try to use that authority in order to make things better. +And then there was good design for very low price. +There were a lot of programs in architecture and design that were about pointing people in the direction of a better design for a better life. +So, I started out in '95 with this exhibition that was called Mutant Materials in Contemporary Design. +It was about a new phase, in my opinion, in the world of design in that materials could be customized by the designers themselves. +And that put me in touch with such diverse design examples as the aerogels from the Lawrence Livermore Lab in California; at that time, they were beginning to be brought into the civilian market. +And at the same time, the gorgeous work of Takeshi Ishiguro, who did these beautiful salt-and-pepper containers that are made of rice dough. +So you see, the range is really quite diverse. +And then, for instance, this other exhibition that was entitled Workspheres in 2001, where I asked different designers to come up with ideas for the new type of work styles that were happening in the world at that time. +And you see IDEO there. +It was beautiful -- it was called Personal Skies. +The idea was that if you had a cubicle, you could project a sky on top of your head and have your own "Cielo in Una Stanza" -- a sky in a room -- it's a very famous Italian song. +And other examples: this was Marti Guixe about working on the go, and Hella Jongerius, my favorite, about how to work at home. +And this lets me introduce a very important idea about design: designers are the biggest synthesizers in the world. +What they do best is make a synthesis of human needs, current conditions in economy, in materials, in sustainability issues, and then what they do at the end -- if they are good -- is much more than the sum of its parts. +Hella Jongerius is a person that is able to make a synthesis that is really quite amazing and also quite hilarious. +The idea behind her work was that at that time, everybody was saying you have to really divide your life. +Instead, she said, "No, no. Work and leisure can be together." +Yeah, that's particularly gorgeous -- it's the TV dinner of 2001. +There have been many other exhibitions in the meantime, but I don't want to focus on my shows. +I would like, instead, to talk about how great some designers are. +I've always had a hard time with the word "maverick." +I came to the United States 13 years ago, and to this day I have to ask, "What does that mean?" +So, this morning I went to see on the dictionary and it said that there was this gentleman that was not branding its cattle. +Therefore, he was not following everybody's lead, and therefore, he was a maverick. +So, designers do need to be mavericks, because the best way to design a successful object -- and also an object that we were missing before -- is to pretend that either it never existed or that people will be able to have a new behavior with it. +So, Safe is the last exhibition that I did at MoMA and it ended at the beginning of last year. +It was about design that deals with safety and deals with protection. +It's a long story because it started before 2001 and it was called Emergency. +And then when 9/11 happened, I had a shock and I canceled the exhibition until, slowly but surely, it came back -- as a half-full glass instead of half-empty -- and it was about protection and safety. +But it ranged from such items as a complete de-mining equipment to these kind of water-sterilizing straws, so it was really wide-ranging. +It also had ... you know, Cameron and I worked a little bit together, and some of the entries that you see in his website were actually in the exhibition. +But what is interesting is that we don't need to talk about design and art anymore; design uses whatever tools it has at its disposal in order to make a point. +It's a sense of economy and a sense, also, of humor. +This is a beautiful project by Ralph Borland, who's South African. +It's a suit for civil disobedience. +The idea is that when you have a riot or a protest and the police comes towards you, you're wearing this thing -- it's like a big heart and it has a loudspeaker over your heart so your heartbeat is amplified -- and the police is reminded; it's like having a flower in front of the rifle. +And also, you can imagine, a whole group of people with the same suit will have this mounting collective heartbeat that will be scary to the police. +So, designers sometimes don't do things that are immediately functional, but they're functional to our understanding of issues. +But the interesting thing in the exhibition is the discovery that the ultimate shelter is your sense of self, and there are quite a few designers that are working on this particular topic. +This is Cindy van den Bremen, who is a Dutch designer that's done this series of Capsters. +They are athletic gear for Muslim women that enable them to ski, play tennis, do whatever they want to do without having to uncap themselves. +And sometimes by doing this kind of research, you encounter such beautiful ideas of design. +Twan Verdonck is really young, I think he's 27, and working together with some psychologist he did a series of toys that are for sensorial stimulation for children that have psychological impairments. +They're quite beautiful. +They range from this fluffy toy that is about hugging you -- because autistic children like to be hugged tight, so it has a spring inside -- all the way to this doll with a mirror so the child can see him or herself in the mirror and regain a sense of self. +Design really looks upon the whole world and it considers the world in all of its different ranges. +I was recently at a conference on luxury organized by the Herald Tribune in Istanbul. +And it was really interesting because I was the last speaker and before me there were people that were really talking about luxury, and I didn't want to be a party pooper but at the same time I felt that I had to kind of bring back the discourse to reality. +And the truth is that there are very different kinds of luxury, and there's luxury that is relative for people that don't have that much. +I want to make this point by showing you two examples of design coming from a sense of economy -- very, very clear limits. +This is Cuba, and this is the recycling of a squeaky toy as a bicycle bell, and this is a raincoat that is made out of rice sacks. +So they're quite beautiful, but they're beautiful because they're so smart and economical. +And here is the work of two brothers from Sao Paulo, Fernando and Humberto Campana, who got inspired by the poverty and smartness that they saw around them to do pieces of furniture that now are selling for an enormous amount of money. +But that's because of the kind of strangeness of the market itself. +So really, design takes everything into account, and the interesting thing is that as the technology advances, as we become more and more wireless and impalpable, designers, instead, want us to be hands-on. +This is a whole series of furniture that wants to engage you physically. +Even this chair that you have to open up and then sit on so that it takes your imprint, all the way to this beautiful series of objects that are considered design by Ana Mir in Barcelona. +From this kind of bijou made with human hair to these chocolate nipples to these intra-toe candies that your lover is supposed to suck from your toes. +It's quite beautiful because somehow, this is a gorgeous moment for design. +Many years ago I heard a mathematician from Vienna, whose name was Marchetti, explain how the innovation in the military industry -- therefore, secret innovation -- and the innovation in the civilian society are two sinusoids that are kind of opposed. +And that makes sense. +In moments of war there's great technological innovation, and in the world you have to do without -- well, during the Second World War, you had to do without steel, you had to do without aluminum. +And then as peace comes, all of these technologies get all of a sudden available for the civilian market. +Many of you might know that the Potato Chip Chair by Charles and Ray Eames comes exactly from that kind of instance: fiberglass was available for civilian use all of a sudden. +I think that this is a strange moment. +The rhythm of the sinusoids has changed tremendously, just like the rhythm of our life in the past 25 years, so I'm not sure anymore what the wavelength is. +And that's why designers, more and more, are working on behaviors rather than on objects. +Especially the good ones, not all of them. +I wanted to show you, for instance, the work of Mathieu Lehanneur, which is quite fantastic. +He's another young designer from France who's working -- and at this point he's working, also, with pharmaceutical companies -- on new ways to engage patients, especially children, in taking their medicines with constancy and with certainty. +For instance, this is a beautiful container for asthma medicine that kind of inflates itself when it's time for you to take the medicine, so the child has to go -- pffff! -- to release and relieve the container itself. +And this other medicine is something that you can draw on your skin, so intradermal delivery enables you to joyfully be involved in this particular kind of delivery. +Similarly, there's the work of people like Marti Guixe that tries to involve you in a way that is really about making everything pass through your mouth so that you learn from your mistakes or from your taste, orally. +The next show that I'm going to work on -- and I've been bugging a lot of you about this here -- is about the relationship between design and science. +I'm trying to find not the metaphors, but, rather, the points in common -- the common gripes, the common issues, the common preoccupations -- and I think that it will enable us to go a little further in this idea of design as an instruction, as a direction rather than a prescription of form. +And I am hoping that many of you will respond to this. +I've sent an email already to quite a few of you. +But design and science and the possibility of visualizing different scales, and therefore, really work at the scale of the very small to make it very big and very meaningful. +Thank you. +I even have dreams that take place in landscapes I recognize as the landscapes of Hungarian films, especially the early movies of Miklos Jancso. +So, how do I explain this mysterious affinity? +Maybe it's because my native state of South Carolina, which is not much smaller than present-day Hungary, once imagined a future for itself as an independent country. +And as a consequence of that presumption, my hometown was burned to the ground by an invading army, an experience that has befallen many a Hungarian town and village throughout its long and troubled history. +That was a very Hungarian thing to do, as anyone will attest who remembers 1956. +And of course, from time to time Hungarians have invented their own equivalent of the Klan. +Well, it seems to me that this Hungarian presence in my life is difficult to account for, but ultimately I ascribe it to an admiration for people with a complex moral awareness, with a heritage of guilt and defeat matched by defiance and bravado. +It's not a typical mindset for most Americans, but it is perforce typical of virtually all Hungarians. +So, "J napot, pack!" +I went back to South Carolina after some 15 years amid the alien corn at the tail end of the 1960s, with the reckless condescension of that era thinking I would save my people. +Never mind the fact that they were slow to acknowledge they needed saving. +I labored in that vineyard for a quarter century before making my way to a little kingdom of the just in upstate South Carolina, a Methodist-affiliated institution of higher learning called Wofford College. +I knew nothing about Wofford and even less about Methodism, but I was reassured on the first day that I taught at Wofford College to find, among the auditors in my classroom, a 90-year-old Hungarian, surrounded by a bevy of middle-aged European women who seemed to function as an entourage of Rhinemaidens. +His name was Sandor Teszler. +He was a puckish widower whose wife and children were dead and whose grandchildren lived far away. +In appearance, he resembled Mahatma Gandhi, minus the loincloth, plus orthopedic boots. +He had been born in 1903 in the provinces of the old Austro-Hungarian Empire, in what later would become Yugoslavia. +He was ostracized as a child, not because he was a Jew -- his parents weren't very religious anyhow -- but because he had been born with two club feet, a condition which, in those days, required institutionalization and a succession of painful operations between the ages of one and 11. +He went to the commercial business high school as a young man in Budapest, and there he was as smart as he was modest and he enjoyed a considerable success. And after graduation when he went into textile engineering, the success continued. +He built one plant after another. +He married and had two sons. He had friends in high places who assured him that he was of great value to the economy. +Once, as he had left instructions to have done, he was summoned in the middle of the night by the night watchman at one of his plants. +The night watchman had caught an employee who was stealing socks -- it was a hosiery mill, and he simply backed a truck up to the loading dock and was shoveling in mountains of socks. +Mr. Teszler went down to the plant and confronted the thief and said, "But why do you steal from me? If you need money you have only to ask." +The night watchman, seeing how things were going and waxing indignant, said, "Well, we're going to call the police, aren't we?" +But Mr. Teszler answered, "No, that will not be necessary. +He will not steal from us again." +Well, maybe he was too trusting, because he stayed where he was long after the Nazi Anschluss in Austria and even after the arrests and deportations began in Budapest. +He took the simple precaution of having cyanide capsules placed in lockets that could be worn about the necks of himself and his family. +And then one day, it happened: he and his family were arrested and they were taken to a death house on the Danube. +In those early days of the Final Solution, it was handcrafted brutality; people were beaten to death and their bodies tossed into the river. +But none who entered that death house had ever come out alive. +And in a twist you would not believe in a Steven Spielberg film -- the Gauleiter who was overseeing this brutal beating was the very same thief who had stolen socks from Mr. Teszler's hosiery mill. +It was a brutal beating. And midway through that brutality, one of Mr. Teszler's sons, Andrew, looked up and said, "Is it time to take the capsule now, Papa?" +And the Gauleiter, who afterwards vanishes from this story, leaned down and whispered into Mr. Teszler's ear, "No, do not take the capsule. Help is on the way." +And then resumed the beating. +But help was on the way, and shortly afterwards a car arrived from the Swiss Embassy. +They were spirited to safety. They were reclassified as Yugoslav citizens and they managed to stay one step ahead of their pursuers for the duration of the War, surviving burnings and bombings and, at the end of the War, arrest by the Soviets. +Probably, Mr. Teszler had gotten some money into Swiss bank accounts because he managed to take his family first to Great Britain, then to Long Island and then to the center of the textile industry in the American South. +Which, as chance would have it, was Spartanburg, South Carolina, the location of Wofford College. +And there, Mr. Teszler began all over again and once again achieved immense success, especially after he invented the process for manufacturing a new fabric called double-knit. +And then in the late 1950s, in the aftermath of Brown v. Board of Education, when the Klan was resurgent all over the South, Mr. Teszler said, "I have heard this talk before." +And he called his top assistant to him and asked, "Where would you say, in this region, racism is most virulent?" +"Well, I don't rightly know, Mr. Teszler. I reckon that would be Kings Mountain." +"Good. Buy us some land in Kings Mountain and announce we are going to build a major plant there." +The man did as he was told, and shortly afterwards, Mr. Teszler received a visit from the white mayor of Kings Mountain. +Now, you should know that at that time, the textile industry in the South was notoriously segregated. +The white mayor visited Mr. Teszler and said, "Mr. Teszler, I trust youre going to be hiring a lot of white workers." +Mr. Teszler told him, "You bring me the best workers that you can find, and if they are good enough, I will hire them." +He also received a visit from the leader of the black community, a minister, who said, "Mr. Teszler, I sure hope you're going to hire some black workers for this new plant of yours." +He got the same answer: "You bring the best workers that you can find, and if they are good enough, I will hire them." +As it happens, the black minister did his job better than the white mayor, but that's neither here or there. +Mr. Teszler hired 16 men: eight white, eight black. +They were to be his seed group, his future foremen. +He had installed the heavy equipment for his new process in an abandoned store in the vicinity of Kings Mountain, and for two months these 16 men would live and work together, mastering the new process. +He gathered them together after an initial tour of that facility and he asked if there were any questions. +There was hemming and hawing and shuffling of feet, and then one of the white workers stepped forward and said, "Well, yeah. Weve looked at this place and there's only one place to sleep, there's only one place to eat, there's only one bathroom, there's only one water fountain. Is this plant going to be integrated or what?" +Mr. Teszler said, "You are being paid twice the wages of any other textile workers in this region and this is how we do business. Do you have any other questions?" +"No, I reckon I don't." +And two months later when the main plant opened and hundreds of new workers, white and black, poured in to see the facility for the first time, they were met by the 16 foremen, white and black, standing shoulder to shoulder. +They toured the facility and were asked if there were any questions, and inevitably the same question arose: "Is this plant integrated or what?" +And one of the white foremen stepped forward and said, "You are being paid twice the wages of any other workers in this industry in this region and this is how we do business. +Do you have any other questions?" +And there were none. In one fell swoop, Mr. Teszler had integrated the textile industry in that part of the South. +It was an achievement worthy of Mahatma Gandhi, conducted with the shrewdness of a lawyer and the idealism of a saint. +To me, it was immensely reassuring that the presiding spirit of this little Methodist college in upstate South Carolina was a Holocaust survivor from Central Europe. +Wise he was, indeed, but he also had a wonderful sense of humor. +And once for an interdisciplinary class, I was screening the opening segment of Ingmar Bergman's "The Seventh Seal." +And on the first occasion that I visited his house, he gave me honor of deciding what piece of music we would listen to. +And I delighted him by rejecting "Cavalleria Rusticana" in favor of Bela Bartok's "Bluebeard's Castle." +I love Bartok's music, as did Mr. Teszler, and he had virtually every recording of Bartok's music ever issued. +And it was at his house that I heard for the first time Bartok's Third Piano Concerto and learned from Mr. Teszler that it had been composed in nearby Asheville, North Carolina in the last year of the composer's life. +He was dying of leukemia and he knew it, and he dedicated this concerto to his wife, Dita, who was herself a concert pianist. +And into the slow, second movement, marked "adagio religioso," he incorporated the sounds of birdsong that he heard outside his window in what he knew would be his last spring; he was imagining a future for her in which he would play no part. +And clearly this composition is his final statement to her -- it was first performed after his death -- and through her to the world. +And just as clearly, it is saying, "It's okay. It was all so beautiful. +Whenever you hear this, I will be there." +It was only after Mr. Teszler's death that I learned that the marker on the grave of Bela Bartok in Hartsdale, New York was paid for by Sandor Teszler. "J napot, Bela!" +Not long before Mr. Teszlers own death at the age of 97, he heard me hold forth on human iniquity. +I delivered a lecture in which I described history as, on the whole, a tidal wave of human suffering and brutality, and Mr. Teszler came up to me afterwards with gentle reproach and said, "You know, Doctor, human beings are fundamentally good." +And I made a vow to myself, then and there, that if this man who had such cause to think otherwise had reached that conclusion, I would not presume to differ until he released me from my vow. +And now he's dead, so I'm stuck with my vow. +"J napot, Sandor!" +He's also a prodigious art collector, beginning as an intern in Budapest by collecting 16th- and 17th-century Dutch art and Hungarian painting, and when he came to this country moving on to Spanish colonial art, Russian icons and finally Mayan ceramics. +He's the author of seven books, six of them on Mayan ceramics. +It was he who broke the Mayan codex, enabling scholars to relate the pictographs on Mayan ceramics to the hieroglyphs of the Mayan script. +On the occasion of my first visit, we toured his house and we saw hundreds of works of museum quality, and then we paused in front of a closed door and Dr. Robicsek said, with obvious pride, "Now for the piece De resistance." +And he opened the door and we walked into a windowless 20-by-20-foot room with shelves from floor to ceiling, and crammed on every shelf his collection of Mayan ceramics. +Now, I know absolutely nothing about Mayan ceramics, but I wanted to be as ingratiating as possible so I said, "But Dr. Robicsek, this is absolutely dazzling." +"Yes," he said. "That is what the Louvre said. +They would not leave me alone until I let them have a piece, but it was not a good one." Well, it occurred to me that I should invite Dr. Robicsek to lecture at Wofford College on -- what else? +-- Leonardo da Vinci. And further, I should invite him to meet my oldest trustee, who had majored in French history at Yale some 70-odd years before and, at 89, still ruled the world's largest privately owned textile empire with an iron hand. +His name is Roger Milliken. And Mr. Milliken agreed, and Dr. Robicsek agreed. And Dr. Robicsek visited and delivered the lecture and it was a dazzling success. +And afterwards we convened at the President's House with Dr. Robicsek on one hand, Mr. Milliken on the other. +And it was only at that moment, as we were sitting down to dinner, that I recognized the enormity of the risk I had created, because to bring these two titans, these two masters of the universe together -- it was like introducing Mothra to Godzilla over the skyline of Tokyo. +If they didn't like each other, we could all get trampled to death. +But they did, they did like each other. +They got along famously until the very end of the meal, and then they got into a furious argument. +And what they were arguing about was this: whether the second Harry Potter movie was as good as the first. Mr. Milliken said it was not. Dr. Robicsek disagreed. +I was still trying to take in the notion that these titans, these masters of the universe, in their spare time watch Harry Potter movies, when Mr. Milliken thought he would win the argument by saying, "You just think it's so good because you didn't read the book." +And Dr. Robicsek reeled back in his chair, but quickly gathered his wits, leaned forward and said, "Well, that is true, but I'll bet you went to the movie with a grandchild." "Well, yes, I did," conceded Mr. Milliken. +"Aha!" said Dr. Robicsek. "I went to the movie all by myself." And I realized, in this moment of revelation, that what these two men were revealing was the secret of their extraordinary success, each in his own right. +"Live each day as if it is your last," said Mahatma Gandhi. +"Learn as if you'll live forever." +This is what I'm passionate about. It is precisely this. +It is this inextinguishable, undaunted appetite for learning and experience, no matter how risible, no matter how esoteric, no matter how seditious it might seem. +This defines the imagined futures of our fellow Hungarians -- Robicsek, Teszler and Bartok -- as it does my own. +As it does, I suspect, that of everybody here. +To which I need only add, "Ez a mi munkank; es nem is keves." +This is our task; we know it will be hard. +"Ez a mi munkank; es nem is keves. J napot, pack!" +It's a great honor to be here with you. +The good news is I'm very aware of my responsibilities to get you out of here because I'm the only thing standing between you and the bar. +And the good news is I don't have a prepared speech, but I have a box of slides. +I have some pictures that represent my life and what I do for a living. +I've learned through experience that people remember pictures long after they've forgotten words, and so I hope you'll remember some of the pictures I'm going to share with you for just a few minutes. +The whole story really starts with me as a high school kid in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, in a tough neighborhood that everybody gave up on for dead. +So, I walked in the art room and I said, "What is that?" +And he said, "Ceramics. And who are you?" +And I said, "I'm Bill Strickland. I want you to teach me that." +And he said, "Well, get your homeroom teacher to sign a piece of paper that says you can come here, and I'll teach it to you." +And so for the remaining two years of my high school, I cut all my classes. +But I had the presence of mind to give the teachers' classes that I cut the pottery that I made, and they gave me passing grades. +And that's how I got out of high school. +And Mr. Ross said, "You're too smart to die and I don't want it on my conscience, so I'm leaving this school and I'm taking you with me." +And he drove me out to the University of Pittsburgh where I filled out a college application and got in on probation. +Well, I'm now a trustee of the university, and at my installation ceremony I said, "I'm the guy who came from the neighborhood who got into the place on probation. +Don't give up on the poor kids, because you never know what's going to happen to those children in life." +What I'm going to show you for a couple of minutes is a facility that I built in the toughest neighborhood in Pittsburgh with the highest crime rate. +One is called Bidwell Training Center; it is a vocational school for ex-steel workers and single parents and welfare mothers. +You remember we used to make steel in Pittsburgh? +Well, we don't make any steel anymore, and the people who used to make the steel are having a very tough time of it. +And I rebuild them and give them new life. +Manchester Craftsmen's Guild is named after my neighborhood. +I was adopted by the Bishop of the Episcopal Diocese during the riots, and he donated a row house. And in that row house I started Manchester Craftsmen's Guild, and I learned very quickly that wherever there are Episcopalians, there's money in very close proximity. +And the Bishop adopted me as his kid. +And last year I spoke at his memorial service and wished him well in this life. +I went out and hired a student of Frank Lloyd Wright, the architect, and I asked him to build me a world class center in the worst neighborhood in Pittsburgh. +And my building was a scale model for the Pittsburgh airport. +And when you come to Pittsburgh -- and you're all invited -- you'll be flying into the blown-up version of my building. +That's the building. +Built in a tough neighborhood where people have been given up for dead. +My view is that if you want to involve yourself in the life of people who have been given up on, you have to look like the solution and not the problem. +As you can see, it has a fountain in the courtyard. +And the reason it has a fountain in the courtyard is I wanted one and I had the checkbook, so I bought one and put it there. +And now that I'm giving speeches at conferences like TED, I got put on the board of the Carnegie Museum. +At a reception in their courtyard, I noticed that they had a fountain because they think that the people who go to the museum deserve a fountain. +Well, I think that welfare mothers and at-risk kids and ex-steel workers deserve a fountain in their life. +And so the first thing that you see in my center in the springtime is water that greets you -- water is life and water of human possibility -- and it sets an attitude and expectation about how you feel about people before you ever give them a speech. +So, from that fountain I built this building. +As you can see, it has world class art, and it's all my taste because I raised all the money. +I said to my boy, "When you raise the money, we'll put your taste on the wall." +That we have quilts and clay and calligraphy and everywhere your eye turns, there's something beautiful looking back at you, that's deliberate. +That's intentional. +In my view, it is this kind of world that can redeem the soul of poor people. +We also created a boardroom, and I hired a Japanese cabinetmaker from Kyoto, Japan, and commissioned him to do 60 pieces of furniture for our building. +We have since spun him off into his own business. +He's making a ton of money doing custom furniture for rich people. +And I got 60 pieces out of it for my school because I felt that welfare moms and ex-steel workers and single parents deserved to come to a school where there was handcrafted furniture that greeted them every day. +Because it sets a tone and an attitude about how you feel about people long before you give them the speech. +We even have flowers in the hallway, and they're not plastic. +Those are real and they're in my building every day. +And now that I've given lots of speeches, we had a bunch of high school principals come and see me, and they said, "Mr. Strickland, what an extraordinary story and what a great school. +And we were particularly touched by the flowers and we were curious as to how the flowers got there." +I said, "Well, I got in my car and I went out to the greenhouse and I bought them and I brought them back and I put them there." +You don't need a task force or a study group to buy flowers for your kids. +What you need to know is that the children and the adults deserve flowers in their life. +The cost is incidental but the gesture is huge. +And so in my building, which is full of sunlight and full of flowers, we believe in hope and human possibilities. +That happens to be at Christmas time. +And so the next thing you'll see is a million dollar kitchen that was built by the Heinz company -- you've heard of them? +They did all right in the ketchup business. +And he called me into his office -- which is the equivalent of going to see the Wizard of Oz -- and John Heinz had 600 million dollars, and at the time I had about 60 cents. +And he said, "But we've heard about you. +We've heard about your work with the kids and the ex-steel workers, and we're inclined to want to support your desire to build a new building. +And you could do us a great service if you would add a culinary program to your program." +Because back then, we were building a trades program. +He said, "That way we could fulfill our affirmative action goals for the Heinz company." +I said, "Senator, I'm reluctant to go into a field that I don't know much about, but I promise you that if you'll support my school, I'll get it built and in a couple of years, I'll come back and weigh out that program that you desire." +And Senator Heinz sat very quietly and he said, "Well, what would your reaction be if I said I'd give you a million dollars?" +I said, "Senator, it appears that we're going into the food training business." +And John Heinz did give me a million bucks. +And most importantly, he loaned me the head of research for the Heinz company. +And we kind of borrowed the curriculum from the Culinary Institute of America, which in their mind is kind of the Harvard of cooking schools, and we created a gourmet cooks program for welfare mothers in this million dollar kitchen in the middle of the inner city. +And we've never looked back. +I would like to show you now some of the food that these welfare mothers do in this million dollar kitchen. +That happens to be our cafeteria line. +That's puff pastry day. Why? +Because the students made puff pastry and that's what the school ate every day. +But the concept was that I wanted to take the stigma out of food. +That good food's not for rich people -- good food's for everybody on the planet, and there's no excuse why we all can't be eating it. +So at my school, we subsidize a gourmet lunch program for welfare mothers in the middle of the inner city because we've discovered that it's good for their stomachs, but it's better for their heads. +Because I wanted to let them know every day of their life that they have value at this place I call my center. +We have students who sit together, black kids and white kids, and what we've discovered is you can solve the race problem by creating a world class environment, because people will have a tendency to show you world class behavior if you treat them in that way. +These are examples of the food that welfare mothers are doing after six months in the training program. +No sophistication, no class, no dignity, no history. +What we've discovered is the only thing wrong with poor people is they don't have any money, which happens to be a curable condition. +It's all in the way that you think about people that often determines their behavior. +That was done by a student after seven months in the program, done by a very brilliant young woman who was taught by our pastry chef. +I've actually eaten seven of those baskets and they're very good. +They have no calories. +That's our dining room. +It looks like your average high school cafeteria in your average town in America. +But this is my view of how students ought to be treated, particularly once they have been pushed aside. +We train pharmaceutical technicians for the pharmacy industry, we train medical technicians for the medical industry, and we train chemical technicians for companies like Bayer and Calgon Carbon and Fisher Scientific and Exxon. +And I will guarantee you that if you come to my center in Pittsburgh -- and you're all invited -- you'll see welfare mothers doing analytical chemistry with logarithmic calculators 10 months from enrolling in the program. +There is absolutely no reason why poor people can't learn world class technology. +What we've discovered is you have to give them flowers and sunlight and food and expectations and Herbie's music, and you can cure a spiritual cancer every time. +We train corporate travel agents for the travel industry. +We even teach people how to read. +The kid with the red stripe was in the program two years ago -- he's now an instructor. +And I have children with high school diplomas that they can't read. +And so you must ask yourself the question: how is it possible in the 21st century that we graduate children from schools who can't read the diplomas that they have in their hands? +The reason is that the system gets reimbursed for the kids they spit out the other end, not the children who read. +I can take these children and in 20 weeks, demonstrated aptitude; I can get them high school equivalent. +No big deal. +That's our library with more handcrafted furniture. +And this is the arts program I started in 1968. +Remember I'm the black kid from the '60s who got his life saved with ceramics. +Well, I went out and decided to reproduce my experience with other kids in the neighborhood, the theory being if you get kids flowers and you give them food and you give them sunshine and enthusiasm, you can bring them right back to life. +I have 400 kids from the Pittsburgh public school system that come to me every day of the week for arts education. +And these are children who are flunking out of public school. +And last year I put 88 percent of those kids in college and I've averaged over 80 percent for 15 years. +We've made a fascinating discovery: there's nothing wrong with the kids that affection and sunshine and food and enthusiasm and Herbie's music can't cure. +For that I won a big old plaque -- Man of the Year in Education. +I beat out all the Ph.D.'s because I figured that if you treat children like human beings, it increases the likelihood they're going to behave that way. +And why we can't institute that policy in every school and in every city and every town remains a mystery to me. +Let me show you what these people do. +We have ceramics and photography and computer imaging. +And these are all kids with no artistic ability, no talent, no imagination. And we bring in the world's greatest artists -- Gordon Parks has been there, Chester Higgins has been there -- and what we've learned is that the children will become like the people who teach them. +In fact, I brought in a mosaic artist from the Vatican, an African-American woman who had studied the old Vatican mosaic techniques, and let me show you what they did with the work. +These were children who the whole world had given up on, who were flunking out of public school, and that's what they're capable of doing with affection and sunlight and food and good music and confidence. +We teach photography. +And these are examples of some of the kids' work. +That boy won a four-year scholarship on the strength of that photograph. +This is our gallery. +We have a world class gallery because we believe that poor kids need a world class gallery, so I designed this thing. +We have smoked salmon at the art openings, we have a formal printed invitation, and I even have figured out a way to get their parents to come. +I couldn't buy a parent 15 years ago so I hired a guy who got off on the Jesus big time. +He was dragging guys out of bars and saving those lives for the Lord. +And I said, "Bill, I want to hire you, man. +You have to tone down the Jesus stuff a little bit, but keep the enthusiasm. +I can't get these parents to come to the school." +He said, "I'll get them to come to the school." +So, he jumped in the van, he went to Miss Jones' house and said, "Miss Jones, I knew you wanted to come to your kid's art opening but you probably didn't have a ride. +So, I came to give you a ride." +And he got 10 parents and then 20 parents. +At the last show that we did, 200 parents showed up and we didn't pick up one parent. +Because now it's become socially not acceptable not to show up to support your children at the Manchester Craftsmen's Guild because people think you're bad parents. +And there is no statistical difference between the white parents and the black parents. +Mothers will go where their children are being celebrated, every time, every town, every city. +I wanted you to see this gallery because it's as good as it gets. +And by the time I cut these kids loose from high school, they've got four shows on their resume before they apply to college because it's all up here. +You have to change the way that people see themselves before you can change their behavior. +And it's worked out pretty good up to this day. +I even stuck another room on the building, which I'd like to show you. +This is brand new. +We just got this slide done in time for the TED Conference. +I gave this little slide show at a place called the Silicon Valley and I did all right. +And the woman came out of the audience, she said, "That was a great story and I was very impressed with your presentation. +My only criticism is your computers are getting a little bit old." +And I said, "Well, what do you do for a living?" +She said, "Well, I work for a company called Hewlett-Packard." +And I said, "You're in the computer business, is that right?" +She said, "Yes, sir." +And I said, "Well, there's an easy solution to that problem." +Well, I'm very pleased to announce to you that HP and a furniture company called Steelcase have adopted us as a demonstration model for all of their technology and all their furniture for the United States of America. +And that's the room that's initiating the relationship. +We got it just done in time to show you, so it's kind of the world debut of our digital imaging center. +I only have a couple more slides, and this is where the story gets kind of interesting. +So, I just want you to listen up for a couple more minutes and you'll understand why he's there and I'm here. +In 1986, I had the presence of mind to stick a music hall on the north end of the building while I was building it. +And a guy named Dizzy Gillespie showed up to play there because he knew this man over here, Marty Ashby. +And I stood on that stage with Dizzy Gillespie on sound check on a Wednesday afternoon, and I said, "Dizzy, why would you come to a black-run center in the middle of an industrial park with a high crime rate that doesn't even have a reputation in music?" +He said, "Because I heard you built the center and I didn't believe that you did it, and I wanted to see for myself. +And now that I have, I want to give you a gift." +I said, "You're the gift." +He said, "No, sir. You're the gift. +And I'm going to allow you to record the concert and I'm going to give you the music, and if you ever choose to sell it, you must sign an agreement that says the money will come back and support the school." +And I recorded Dizzy. And he died a year later, but not before telling a fellow named McCoy Tyner what we were doing. +And he showed up and said, "Dizzy talking about you all over the country, man, and I want to help you." +And then a guy named Wynton Marsalis showed up. +And I'm very pleased to tell you that, with their permission, I have now accumulated 600 recordings of the greatest artists in the world, including Joe Williams, who died, but not before his last recording was done at my school. +And Joe Williams came up to me and he put his hand on my shoulder and he said, "God's picked you, man, to do this work. +And I want my music to be with you." +And that worked out all right. +When the Basie band came, the band got so excited about the school they voted to give me the rights to the music. +And I recorded it and we won something called a Grammy. +And like a fool, I didn't go to the ceremony because I didn't think we were going to win. +Well, we did win, and our name was literally in lights over Madison Square Garden. +Then the U.N. Jazz Orchestra dropped by and we recorded them and got nominated for a second Grammy back to back. +So, we've become one of the hot, young jazz recording studios in the United States of America in the middle of the inner city with a high crime rate. +That's the place all filled up with Republicans. +If you'd have dropped a bomb on that room, you'd have wiped out all the money in Pennsylvania because it was all sitting there. +Including my mother and father, who lived long enough to see their kid build that building. +And there's Dizzy, just like I told you. He was there. +And he was there, Tito Puente. +And Pat Metheny and Jim Hall were there and they recorded with us. +And that was our first recording studio, which was the broom closet. +We put the mops in the hallway and re-engineered the thing and that's where we recorded the first Grammy. +And this is our new facility, which is all video technology. +And that is a room that was built for a woman named Nancy Wilson, who recorded that album at our school last Christmas. +And any of you who happened to have been watching Oprah Winfrey on Christmas Day, he was there and Nancy was there singing excerpts from this album, the rights to which she donated to our school. +And I can now tell you with absolute certainty that an appearance on Oprah Winfrey will sell 10,000 CDs. +We are currently number four on the Billboard Charts, right behind Tony Bennett. +And I think we're going to be fine. +This was burned out during the riots -- this is next to my building -- and so I had another cardboard box built and I walked back out in the streets again. +And that's the building, and that's the model, and on the right's a high-tech greenhouse and in the middle's the medical technology building. +And I'm very pleased to tell you that the building's done. +It's also full of anchor tenants at 20 dollars a foot -- triple that in the middle of the inner city. +And there's the fountain. +Every building has a fountain. +And the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center are anchor tenants and they took half the building, and we now train medical technicians through all their system. +And Mellon Bank's a tenant. +And I love them because they pay the rent on time. +And as a result of the association, I'm now a director of the Mellon Financial Corporation that bought Dreyfus. +And this is in the process of being built as we speak. +Multiply that picture times four and you will see the greenhouse that's going to open in October this year because we're going to grow those flowers in the middle of the inner city. +And we're going to have high school kids growing Phalaenopsis orchids in the middle of the inner city. +And we have a handshake with one of the large retail grocers to sell our orchids in all 240 stores in six states. +And our partners are Zuma Canyon Orchids of Malibu, California, who are Hispanic. +So, the Hispanics and the black folks have formed a partnership to grow high technology orchids in the middle of the inner city. +And I told my United States senator that there was a very high probability that if he could find some funding for this, we would become a left-hand column in the Wall Street Journal, to which he readily agreed. +And we got the funding and we open in the fall. +And you ought to come and see it -- it's going to be a hell of a story. +And this is what I want to do when I grow up. +The brown building is the one you guys have been looking at and I'll tell you where I made my big mistake. +I had a chance to buy this whole industrial park -- which is less than 1,000 feet from the riverfront -- for four million dollars and I didn't do it. +And I built the first building, and guess what happened? +I appreciated the real estate values beyond everybody's expectations and the owners of the park turned me down for eight million dollars last year, and said, "Mr. Strickland, you ought to get the Civic Leader of the Year Award because you've appreciated our property values beyond our wildest expectations. +Thank you very much for that." +The moral of the story is you must be prepared to act on your dreams, just in case they do come true. +And finally, there's this picture. +This is in a place called San Francisco. +And the reason this picture's in here is I did this slide show a couple years ago at a big economics summit, and there was a fellow in the audience who came up to me. +He said, "Man, that's a great story. +I want one of those." +I said, "Well, I'm very flattered. What do you do for a living?" +He says, "I run the city of San Francisco. +My name's Willie Brown." +And so I kind of accepted the flattery and the praise and put it out of my mind. +And that weekend, I was going back home and Herbie Hancock was playing our center that night -- first time I'd met him. +And he walked in and he says, "What is this?" +And I said, "Herbie, this is my concept of a training center for poor people." +And he said, "As God as my witness, I've had a center like this in my mind for 25 years and you've built it. +And now I really want to build one." +I said, "Well, where would you build this thing?" +He said, "San Francisco." +I said, "Any chance you know Willie Brown?" +As a matter of fact he did know Willie Brown, and Willie Brown and Herbie and I had dinner four years ago, and we started drawing out that center on the tablecloth. +And Willie Brown said, "As sure as I'm the mayor of San Francisco, I'm going to build this thing as a legacy to the poor people of this city." +And he got me five acres of land on San Francisco Bay and we got an architect and we got a general contractor and we got Herbie on the board, and our friends from HP, and our friends from Steelcase, and our friends from Cisco, and our friends from Wells Fargo and Genentech. +And along the way, I met this real short guy at my slide show in the Silicon Valley. +He came up to me afterwards, he said, "Man, that's a fabulous story. +I want to help you." +And I said, "Well, thank you very much for that. +What do you do for a living?" +He said, "Well, I built a company called eBay." +I said, "Well, that's very nice. +Thanks very much, and give me your card and sometime we'll talk." +I didn't know eBay from that jar of water sitting on that piano, but I had the presence of mind to go back and talk to one of the techie kids at my center. +I said, "Hey man, what is eBay?" +He said, "Well, that's the electronic commerce network." +I said, "Well, I met the guy who built the thing and he left me his card." +So, I called him up on the phone and I said, "Mr. Skoll, I've come to have a much deeper appreciation of who you are and I'd like to become your friend." +And Jeff and I did become friends, and he's organized a team of people and we're going to build this center. +And I went down into the neighborhood called Bayview-Hunters Point, and I said, "The mayor sent me down here to work with you and I want to build a center with you, but I'm not going to build you anything if you don't want it. +And all I've got is a box of slides." +And so I stood up in front of 200 very angry, very disappointed people on a summer night, and the air conditioner had broken and it was 100 degrees outside, and I started showing these pictures. +And after about 10 pictures they all settled down. +And I ran the story and I said, "What do you think?" +And in the back of the room, a woman stood up and she said, "In 35 years of living in this God forsaken place, you're the only person that's come down here and treated us with dignity. +I'm going with you, man." +And she turned that audience around on a pin. +And I promised these people that I was going to build this thing, and we're going to build it all right. +And I think we can get in the ground this year as the first replication of the center in Pittsburgh. +But I met a guy named Quincy Jones along the way and I showed him the box of slides. +And Quincy said, "I want to help you, man. +Let's do one in L.A." +And so he's assembled a group of people. +And I've fallen in love with him, as I have with Herbie and with his music. +And Quincy said, "Where did the idea for centers like this come from?" +And I said, "It came from your music, man. +Because Mr. Ross used to bring in your albums when I was 16 years old in the pottery class, when the world was all dark, and your music got me to the sunlight." +And I said, "If I can follow that music, I'll get out into the sunlight and I'll be OK. +And if that's not true, how did I get here?" +I want you all to know that I think the world is a place that's worth living. +I believe in you. +I believe in your hopes and your dreams, I believe in your intelligence and I believe in your enthusiasm. +And I'm tired of living like this, going into town after town with people standing around on corners with holes where eyes used to be, their spirits damaged. +We won't make it as a country unless we can turn this thing around. +In Pennsylvania it costs 60,000 dollars to keep people in jail, most of whom look like me. +It's 40,000 dollars to build the University of Pittsburgh Medical School. +It's 20,000 dollars cheaper to build a medical school than to keep people in jail. +Do the math -- it will never work. +I am banking on you and I'm banking on guys like Herbie and Quincy and Hackett and Richard and very decent people who still believe in something. +And I want to do this in my lifetime, in every city and in every town. +And I don't think I'm crazy. +I think we can get home on this thing and I think we can build these all over the country for less money than we're spending on prisons. +And I believe we can turn this whole story around to one of celebration and one of hope. +In my business it's very difficult work. +You're always fighting upstream like a salmon -- never enough money, too much need -- and so there is a tendency to have an occupational depression that accompanies my work. +And so I've figured out, over time, the solution to the depression: you make a friend in every town and you'll never be lonely. +And my hope is that I've made a few here tonight. +And thanks for listening to what I had to say. +I'm a contemporary artist and I show in art galleries and museums. +I show a number of photographs and films, but I also make television programs, books and some advertising, all with the same concept. +And it's about our fixation with celebrity and celebrity culture, and the importance of the image: celebrity is born of photography. +I'm going to start with how I started with this concept seven years ago, when Princess Diana died. +There was a sort of a standstill in Britain the moment of her death, and people decided to mourn her death in a sort of mass way. +I was fascinated by this phenomenon, so I wondered: could one erase the image of Diana, actually quite crudely and physically? +So, I got a gun and started to shoot at the image of Diana, but I couldn't erase this from my memory and certainly it was not being erased from the public psyche. +Momentum was being built. +The press wrote about her death in rather, I felt, pornographic ways -- like, "Which bit of artery left which bit of body?" +and "How did she die in the back of the car?" -- and I was intrigued by this sort of mass voyeurism, so I made these rather gory images. +I then went on wondering whether I could actually replace her image, so I got a look-alike of Diana and posed her in the right positions and angles and created something that was in, or existed in, the public imagination. +So people were wondering: was she going to marry Dodi? +Was she in love with him? +Was she pregnant? Did she want his baby? +Was she pregnant when she died? +So I created this image of Diana, Dodi and their imaginary mixed-race child and this image came out, which caused a huge public outcry at the time. +I then went on to make more comments on the media and press imagery, so I started making reference to media imagery -- made it grainy, shot through doorways and so on and so forth -- to titillate the public or the viewer further in terms of trying to make the viewer more aware of their own voyeurism. +So, this is an image of Diana looking at Camilla kissing her husband, and this was a sequence of images. +And this gets shown in art galleries like this, as a sequence. +And similarly with the Di-Dodian baby imagery -- this is another art gallery installation. +I'm particularly interested in how you can't rely on your own perception. +This is Jane Smith and Jo Bloggs, for instance, but you think it's Camilla and the Queen, and I'm fascinated how what you think is real isn't necessarily real. +And the camera can lie, and it makes it very, very easy with the mass bombardment of imagery to tell untruths. +So, I continued to work on this project of how photography seduces us and is more interesting to look at than the actual real subject matter. +And at the same time, it removes us from the real subject matter, and this acts as a sort of titillating thing. +So, the photograph becomes this teaser and incites desire and voyeurism; what you can't have, you want more. +In the photograph, the real subject doesn't exist so it makes you want that person more. +And that is the way, I think, that celebrity magazines work now: the more pictures you see of these celebrities, the more you feel you know them, but you don't know them and you want to know them further. +Of course, the Queen goes to her stud often to watch her horses ... +watch her horses. . +And then I was sort of making imagery. +In England there's an expression: "you can't imagine the Queen on the loo." +So I'm trying to penetrate that. +Well, here is the image. +All this imagery was creating a lot of fuss and I was cited as a disgusting artist. The press were writing about this, giving full pages about how terrible this was. +So, these are broadsheets, tabloids, debates were being had all about this work, films were being banned before people had actually had the look at the work, politicians were getting involved -- all sorts of things -- great headlines. +Then suddenly, it started to get on front pages. +I was being asked and paid to do front covers. +Suddenly I was becoming sort of acceptable, which I found also fascinating. +How one moment -- it was disgusting -- journalists would lie to me to get a story or a photograph of me, saying my work was wonderful, and the next minute there were terrible headlines about me. +But then this changed suddenly. +I then started to work for magazines and newspapers. +This was, for example, an image that went into Tatler. +This was another newspaper image. +It was an April fool actually, and to this day some people think it's real. +I was sitting next to someone at dinner the other day, and they were saying there's this great image of the Queen sitting outside William Hill. +They thought it was real. +I was exploring, at the time, the hyperbole of icons -- and Diana and Marilyn -- and the importance of celebrity in our lives. +How they wheedle their way into the collective psyche without us even knowing, and how that should happen. +I explored with actually dressing up as the celebrities myself. +There's me as Diana -- I look like the mass murderer Myra Hindley, I think, in this one. . +And me as the Queen. +I then continued on to make a whole body of work about Marilyn -- the biggest icon of all -- and trying to titillate by shooting through doorways and shutters and so on and so forth, and only showing certain angles to create a reality that, obviously, is completely constructed. +This is the look-alike, so the crafting elements of this is completely enormous. +She looks nothing like Marilyn, but by the time we've made her up and put wigs and makeup on, she looks exactly like Marilyn, to the extent that her husband couldn't recognize her -- or recognize this look-alike -- in these photographs, which I find quite interesting. +So, all this work is getting shown in art galleries. +Then I made a book. +I was also making a TV series for the BBC at the time. +Stills from the TV series went into this book. +But there was a real legal problem because it looks real, but how do you get over that? +Because obviously it's making a comment about our culture right now: that we can't tell what's real. +How do we know when we're looking at something whether it's real or not? +So, from my point of view, it's important to publish it, but at the same time it does cause a confusion -- intentional on my behalf, but problematic for any outlet that I'm working with. +So a big disclaimer is put on everything that I do, and I made narratives about all the European or Brit celebrities and comments about our public figures. +You know, what does Tony Blair get up to in private with his fashion guru? +And also dealing with the perceptions that are put about Bin Laden, Saddam Hussein, the links that were put about pre-Iraq war. +And what is going to happen to the monarchy? +Because obviously the British public, I think, would prefer William to Charles on the throne. +And it's that wish, or that desire, that I suppose I'm dealing with in my work. +I'm not really interested in the celebrity themselves. +I'm interested in the perception of the celebrity. +And with some look-alikes, they are so good you don't know whether they're real or not. +I did an advertising campaign for Schweppes, which is Coca-Cola, and so that was very interesting in terms of the legalities. +It's highly commercial. +But it was a difficulty for me -- because this is my artwork; should I do advertising? -- at the time. +So I made sure the work was not compromised in any way and that the integrity of the work remained the same. +But the meanings changed in the sense that with the logo on, you're closing all the lines of interpretation down to selling a product and that's all you're doing. +When you take the logo off, you're opening up the interpretations and making the work inconclusive, opposed to conclusive when you are advertising. +This image is quite interesting, actually, because I think we made it three years ago. +And it's Camilla in her wedding dress, which, again, nearly got re-used now, recently prior to her wedding. +Tony Blair and Cherie. And again, the legalities -- we had to be very careful. +It's obviously a very big commercial company, and so this little, "Shh -- it's not really them," was put on the side of the imagery. +And Margaret Thatcher visiting Jeffery Archer in jail. +I then was asked by Selfridges to do a series of windows for them, so I built a sauna bath in one of their windows and created little scenes -- live scenes with look-alikes inside the windows, and the windows were all steamed up. +So, it's Tony Blair reading and practicing his speech; I've got them doing yoga inside there with Carole Caplin; Sven making out with Ulrika Jonsson, who he was having an affair with at that time. +This was a huge success for them because the imagery got shown in the press the day after in every single newspaper, broadsheets and tabloids. +It was a bit of a road stopper, which was problematic because the police kept on trying to clear away the crowds, but huge fun -- it was great for me to do a performance. +Also, people were taking photographs of this, so it was being texted around the world extremely quickly, all this imagery. +And the press were interviewing, and I was signing my book. . +Further imagery. I'm making a new book now with Taschen that I'm working on really for a sort of global market -- my previous book was only for the U.K. market -- that I suppose it could be called humorous. +I suppose I come from a sort of non-humorous background with serious intent, and then suddenly my work is funny. +And I think it doesn't really matter that my work is considered humorous, in a way; I think it's a way in for me to deal with the importance of imagery and how we read all our information through imagery. +It's an extremely fast way of getting information. +It's extremely difficult if it's constructed correctly, and there are techniques of constructing iconic imagery. +This image, for example, is sort of spot-on because it exactly sums up what Elton may be doing in private, and also what might be happening with Saddam Hussein, and George Bush reading the Koran upside-down. +For example, George Bush target practice -- shooting at Bin Laden and Michael Moore. +And then you change the photograph he's shooting at, and it suddenly becomes rather grim and maybe less accessible. . +Tony Blair being used as a mounting block, and Rumsfeld and Bush laughing with some Abu Ghraib photos behind, and the seriousness, or the intellect, of Bush. +And also, commenting on the behind the scenes -- well, as we know now -- what goes on in prisons. +And in fact, George Bush and Tony Blair are having great fun during all of this. +And really commenting, you know, based on the perception we have of the celebrities. +What Jack Nicholson might be up to in his celebrity life, and the fact that he tried to ... he had a bit of road rage and golf-clubbed a driver the other day. +I mean, it's extremely difficult to find these look-alikes, so I'm constantly going up to people in the street and trying to ask people to come and be in one of my photographs or films. +And sometimes asking the real celebrity, mistaking them for someone who just looks like the real person, which is highly embarrassing. . +I've also been working with The Guardian on a topical basis -- a page a week in their newspaper -- which has been very interesting, working topically. +So, Jamie Oliver and school dinners; Bush and Blair having difficulty getting alongside Muslim culture; the whole of the hunting issue, and the royal family refusing to stop hunting; and the tsunami issues; and obviously Harry; Blair's views on Gordon Brown, which I find very interesting; Condi and Bush. +This image I've decided to show having a reservation about it. +I made it a year ago. And just how meanings change, and there were a terrible thing that has happened, but the fear is lurking around in our minds prior to that. +That's why this image was made one year ago, and what it means today. +So, I'll leave you with these clips to have a look. Chris Anderson: Thank you. +This is your conference, and I think you have a right to know a little bit right now, in this transition period, about this guy who's going to be looking after it for you for a bit. +So, I'm just going to grab a chair here. +Two years ago at TED, I think -- I've come to this conclusion -- I think I may have been suffering from a strange delusion. +I think that I may have believed unconsciously, then, that I was kind of a business hero. +I had this company that I'd spent 15 years building. It's called Future; it was a magazine publishing company. +It had recently gone public and the market said that it was apparently worth two billion dollars, a number I didn't really understand. +A magazine I'd recently launched called Business 2.0 was fatter than a telephone directory, busy pumping hot air into the bubble. +And I was the 40 percent owner of a dotcom that was about to go public and no doubt be worth billions more. +And all this had come from nothing. +Fifteen years earlier, I was a science journalist who people just laughed at when I said, "I really would like to start my own computer magazine." +And 15 years later, there are 100 of them and 2,000 people on staff and it was just such heady times. +The date was February 2000. +I thought the little graph of my business life that kind of looked a bit like Moore's Law -- ever upward and to the right -- it was going to go on forever. +I mean, it had to. Right? I was in for quite a surprise. +The dotcom, ironically called Snowball, was the very last consumer web company to go public the next month before NASDAQ exploded, and I entered 18 months of business hell. +I watched everything that I'd built crumbling, and it looked like all this stuff was going to die and 15 years work would have come for nothing. +And it was gut wrenching. +It took eight years of blood, sweat and tears to reach 350 employees, something which I was very proud of in the business. +February 2001 -- in one day we laid off 350 people, and before the bloodshed was finished, 1,000 people had lost their jobs from my companies. I felt sick. +I watched my own net worth falling by about a million dollars a day, every day, for 18 months. +And worse than that, far worse than that, my sense of self-worth was kind of evaporating. +I was going around with this big sign on my forehead: "LOSER." +And I think what disgusts me more than anything, looking back, is how the hell did I let my personal happiness get so tied up with this business thing? +Well, in the end, we were able to save Future and Snowball, but I was, at that point, ready to move on. +And to cut a long story short, here's where I came to. +And the reason I'm telling this story is that I believe, from many conversations, that a lot of people in this room have been through a similar kind of rollercoaster -- emotional rollercoaster -- in the last couple years. +This has been a big, big transition time, and I believe that this conference can play a big part for all of us in taking us forward to the next stage to whatever's next. +The theme next year is re-birth. +It was at the same TED two years ago when Richard and I reached an agreement on the future of TED. +And at about the same time, and I think partly because of that, I started doing something that I'd forgotten about in my business focus: I started to read again. +And I discovered that while I'd been busy playing business games, there'd been this incredible revolution in so many areas of interest: cosmology to psychology to evolutionary psychology to anthropology to ... all this stuff had changed. +And the way in which you could think about us as a species and us as a planet had just changed so much, and it was incredibly exciting. +And what was really most exciting -- and I think Richard Wurman discovered this at least 20 years before I did -- was that all this stuff is connected. +It's connected; it all hooks into each other. +We talk about this a lot, and I thought about trying to give an example of this. So, just one example: Madame de Gaulle, the wife of the French president, was famously asked once, "What do you most desire?" +And she answered, "A penis." +And when you think about it, it's very true: what we all most desire is a penis -- or "happiness" as we say in English. +And something ... good luck with that one in the Japanese translation room. +But something as basic as happiness, which 20 years ago would have been just something for discussion in the church or mosque or synagogue, today it turns out that there's dozens of TED-like questions that you can ask about it, which are really interesting. +You can ask about what causes it biochemically: neuroscience, serotonin, all that stuff. +You can ask what are the psychological causes of it: nature? Nurture? Current circumstance? +Turns out that the research done on that is absolutely mind-blowing. +You can view it as a computing problem, an artificial intelligence problem: do you need to incorporate some sort of analog of happiness into a computer brain to make it work properly? +Or you can view it as an evolutionary psychology kind of thing: did our genes invent this as a kind of trick to get us to behave in certain ways? The ant's brain, parasitized, to make us behave in certain ways so that our genes would propagate? +Are we the victims of a mass delusion? +And so on, and so on. +To understand even something as important to us as happiness, you kind of have to branch off in all these different directions, and there's nowhere that I've discovered -- other than TED -- where you can ask that many questions in that many different directions. +And so, it's the profound thing that Richard talks about: to understand anything, you just need to understand the little bits; a little bit about everything that surrounds it. +And so, gradually over these three days, you start off kind of trying to figure out, "Why am I listening to all this irrelevant stuff?" +And at the end of the four days, your brain is humming and you feel energized, alive and excited, and it's because all these different bits have been put together. +It's the total brain experience, we're going to ... +it's the mental equivalent of the full body massage. +Every mental organ addressed. It really is. +Enough of the theory, Chris. Tell us what you're actually going to do, all right? +So, I will. Here's the vision for TED. +Number one: do nothing. This thing ain't broke, so I ain't gonna fix it. +Jeff Bezos kindly remarked to me, "Chris, TED is a really great conference. +You're going to have to fuck up really badly to make it bad." +So, I gave myself the job title of TED Custodian for a reason, and I will promise you right here and now that the core values that make TED special are not going to be interfered with. +Truth, curiosity, diversity, no selling, no corporate bullshit, no bandwagoning, no platforms. +Just the pursuit of interest, wherever it lies, across all the disciplines that are represented here. +That's not going to be changed at all. +Number two: I am going to put together an incredible line up of speakers for next year. +The time scale on which TED operates is just fantastic after coming out of a magazine business with monthly deadlines. +There's a year to do this, and already -- I hope to show you a bit later -- there's 25 or so terrific speakers signed up for next year. +And I'm getting fantastic help from the community; this is just such a great community. And combined, our contacts reach pretty much everyone who's interesting in the country, if not the planet. +It's true. +Number three: I do want to, if I can, find a way of extending the TED experience throughout the year a little bit. +And one key way that we're going to do this is to introduce this book club. +Books kind of saved me in the last couple years, and that's a gift that I would like to pass on. +So, when you sign up for TED2003, every six weeks you'll get a care package with a book or two and a reason why they're linked to TED. +They may well be by a TED speaker, and so we can get the conversation going during the year and come back next year having had the same intellectual, emotional journey. +I think it will be great. +And then, fourthly: I want to mention the Sapling Foundation, which is the new owner of TED. +What Sapling's ownership means is that all of the proceeds of TED will go towards the causes that Sapling stands for. +And more important, I think, the ideas that are exhibited and realized here are ideas that the foundation can use, because there's fantastic synergy. +I'm incredibly excited about that. +In fact, I don't think, overall, that I've been as excited by anything ever in my life. +I'm in this for the long run, and I would be greatly honored and excited if you'll come on this journey with me. +I'm going to talk about two stories today. +One is how we need to use market-based pricing to affect demand and use wireless technologies to dramatically reduce our emissions in the transportation sector. +And the other is that there is an incredible opportunity if we choose the right wireless technologies; how we can generate a new engine for economic growth and dramatically reduce C02 in the other sectors. +I'm really scared. +We need to reduce C02 emissions in ten to fifteen years by 80 percent in order to avert catastrophic effects. +And I am astounded that I'm standing here to tell you that. +What are catastrophic effects? A three degree centigrade climate change rise that will result in 50 percent species extinction. +It's not a movie. This is real life. +And I'm really worried, because when people talk about cars -- which I know something about -- the press and politicians and people in this room are all thinking, "Let's use fuel-efficient cars." +If we started today, 10 years from now, at the end of this window of opportunity, those fuel-efficient cars will reduce our fossil fuel needs by four percent. +That is not enough. +But now I'll talk about some more pleasant things. +Here are some ways that we can make some dramatic changes. +So, Zipcar is a company that I founded seven years ago, but it's an example of something called car sharing. +What Zipcar does is we park cars throughout dense urban areas for members to reserve, by the hour and by the day, instead of using their own car. +How does it feel to be a person using a Zipcar? +It means that I pay only for what I need. +All those hours when a car is sitting idle, I'm not paying for it. +It means that I can choose a car exactly for that particular trip. +So, here's a woman that reserved MiniMia, and she had her day. +I can take a BMW when I'm seeing clients. +I can drive my Toyota Element when I'm going to go on that surfing trip. +And the other remarkable thing is it's, I think, the highest status of car ownership. +Not only do I have a fleet of cars available to me in seven cities around the world that I can have at my beck and call, but heaven forbid I would ever maintain or deal with the repair or have anything to do with it. +It's like the car that you always wanted that your mom said that you couldn't have. +I get all the good stuff and none of the bad. +So, what is the social result of this? +The social result is that today's Zipcar has 100,000 members driving 3,000 cars parked in 3,000 parking spaces. +Instead of driving 12,000 miles a year, which is what the average city dweller does, they drive 500 miles a year. Are they happy? +The company has been doubling in size ever since I founded it, or greater. +People adore the company. And it's better, you know? They like it. +So, how is it that people went from the 12,000 miles a year to 500 miles? +It's because they said, "It's eight to 10 dollars an hour and 65 dollars a day. +If I'm going to go buy some ice cream, do I really want to spend eight dollars to go buy the ice cream? Or maybe I'll do without. +Maybe I would have bought the ice cream when I did some other errand." +So, people really respond very quickly to it, to prices. +And the last point I want to make is Zipcar would never be possible without technology. +It required that it was completely trivial: that it takes 30 seconds to reserve a car, go get it, drive it. +And for me, as a service provider, I would never be able to provide you a car for an hour if the transaction cost was anything. +So, without these wireless technologies, this, as a concept, could never happen. +So, here's another example. This company is GoLoco -- I'm launching it in about three weeks -- and I hope to do for ridesharing what I did for car sharing. +This will apply to people across all of America. +Today, 75 percent of the trips are single-occupancy vehicles, yet 12 percent of trips to work are currently carpool. +And I think that we can apply social networks and online payment systems to completely change how people feel about ridesharing and make that trip much more efficient. +And so when I think about the future, people will be thinking that sharing the ride with someone is this incredibly great social event out of their day. +You know, how did you get to TED? You went with other TEDsters. +How fabulous. Why would you ever want to go by yourself in your own car? +How did you go food shopping? You went with your neighbor, what a great social time. +You know it's going to really transform how we feel about travel, and it will also, I think, enhance our freedom of mobility. +Where can I go today and who can I do it with? +Those are the types of things that you will look at and feel. +And the social benefits: the rate of single-occupancy vehicles is, I told you, 75 percent; I think we can get that down to 50 percent. +The demand for parking, of course, is down, congestion and the CO2 emissions. +One last piece about this, of course, is that it's enabled by wireless technologies. +And it's the cost of driving that's making people want to be able to do this. +The average American spends 19 percent of their income on their car, and there's a pressure for them to reduce that cost, yet they have no outlet today. +So, the last example of this is congestion pricing, very famously done in London. +It's when you charge a premium for people to drive on congested roads. +In London, the day they turned the congestion pricing on, there was a 25 percent decrease in congestion overnight, and that's persisted for the four years in which they've been doing congestion pricing. +And again, do people like the outcome? +Ken Livingstone was reelected. +So again, we can see that price plays an enormous role in people's willingness to reduce their driving behavior. +We've tripled the miles that we drive since 1970 and doubled them since 1982. +There's a huge slack in that system; with the right pricing we can undo that. +Congestion pricing is being discussed in every major city around the world and is, again, wirelessly enabled. +You weren't going to put tollbooths around the city of London and open and shut those gates. +And what congestion pricing is is that it's a technology trial and a psychological trial for something called road pricing. +And road pricing is where we're all going to have to go, because today we pay for our maintenance and wear and tear on our cars with gas taxes. +And as we get our cars more fuel-efficient, that's going to be reducing the amount of revenue that you get off of those gas taxes, so we need to charge people by the mile that they drive. +Whatever happens with congestion pricing and those technologies will be happening with road pricing. +Why do we travel too much? +Car travel is underpriced and therefore we over-consumed. +We need to put this better market feedback. +And if we have it, you'll decide how many miles to drive, what mode of travel, where to live and work. +And wireless technologies make this real-time loop possible. +So, I want to move now to the second part of my story, which is: when are we going to start doing this congestion pricing? Road pricing is coming. +When are we going to do it? Are we going to wait 10 to 15 years for this to happen or are we going to finally have this political will to make it happen in the next two years? +Because I'm going to say, that is going to be the tool that's going to turn our usage overnight. +And what kind of wireless technology are we going to use? +This is my big vision. +There is a tool that can help us bridge the digital divide, respond to emergencies, get traffic moving, provide a new engine for economic growth and dramatically reduce CO2 emissions in every sector. +And this is a moment from "The Graduate." Do you remember this moment? +You guys are going to be the handsome young guy and I'm going to be the wise businessman. +"I want to say one word to you, just one word." +"Yes, sir?" "Are you listening?" "Yes I am." +"Ad-hoc peer-to-peer self-configuring wireless networks." +These are also called mesh networks. +And in a mesh, every device contributes to and expands the network, and I think you might have heard a little bit about it before. +I'm going to give you some examples. +You'll be hearing later today from Alan Kay. +These laptops, when a child opens them up, they communicate with every single child in the classroom, within that school, within that village. +And what is the cost of that communication system? +Zero dollars a month. +Here's another example: in New Orleans, video cameras were mesh-enabled so that they could monitor crime in the downtown French Quarter. +When the hurricane happened, the only communication system standing was the mesh network. +Volunteers flew in, added a whole bunch of devices, and for the next 12 months, mesh networks were the only wireless that was happening in New Orleans. +Another example is in Portsmouth, U.K. +They mesh-enabled 300 buses and they speak to these smart terminals. +You can look at the terminal and be able to see precisely where your bus is on the street and when it's coming, and you can buy your tickets in real time. +Again, all mesh-enabled. Monthly communication cost: zero. +So, the beauty of mesh networks: you can have these very low-cost devices. +Zero ongoing communication costs. Highly scalable; you can just keep adding them, and as in Katrina, you can keep subtracting them -- as long as there's some, we can still communicate. +They're resilient; their redundancy is built into this fabulous decentralized design. +What are the incredible weaknesses? +There isn't anybody in Washington lobbying to make it happen -- or in those municipalities, to build out their cities with these wireless networks -- because there's zero ongoing communications cost. +So, the examples that I gave you are these islands of mesh networks, and networks are interesting only as they are big. +How do we create a big network? +Are you guys ready again -- "The Graduate"? +This time you will still play the handsome young thing, but I'll be the sexy woman. +These are the next two lines in the movie. +"Where did you do it?" "In his car." +So you know, when you stick this idea ... where would we expect me, Robin Chase, to be thinking is imagine if we put a mesh-network device in every single car across America. +We could have a coast-to-coast, free wireless communication system. +I guess I just want you to think about that. +And why is this going to happen? Because we're going to do congestion pricing, we are going to do road tolls, gas taxes are going to become road pricing. +These things are going to happen. +What's the wireless technology we're going to use? +Maybe we should use a good one. When are we going to do it? +Maybe we shouldn't wait for the 10 or 15 years for this to happen. +We should pull it forward. +So, I'd like us to launch the wireless Internet interstate wireless mesh system, and require that this network be accessible to everyone, with open standards. +Right now in the transportation sector, we're creating these wireless devices -- I guess you guys might have Fast Pass here or Easy Lane -- that are single-purpose devices in these closed networks. +What is the point? +We're transferring just a few little data bits when we're doing road controlling, road pricing. +We have this incredible excess capacity. +So, we can provide the lowest-cost means of going wireless coast-to-coast, we can have resilient nationwide communication systems, we have a new tool for creating efficiencies in all sectors. +Imagine what happens when the cost of getting information from anywhere to anywhere is close to zero. +What you can do with that tool: we can create an economic engine. +Information should be free, and access to information should be free, and we should be charging people for carbon. +I think this is a more powerful tool than the Interstate Highway Act, and I think this is as important and world changing to our economy as electrification. +And if I had my druthers, we would have an open-source version in addition to open standards. +And this open-source version means that it could be -- if we did a brilliant job of it -- it could be used around the world very quickly. +So, going back to one of my earlier thoughts. +Imagine if every one of these buses in Lagos was part of the mesh network. +When I went this morning to Larry Brilliant's TEDTalk prize -- his fabulous networks -- imagine if there was an open-source mesh communications device that can be put into those networks, to make all that happen. +And we can be doing it if we could just get over the fact that this little slice of things is going to be for free. +We could make billions of dollars on top of it, but this one particular slice of communications needs to be open source. +So, let's take control of this nightmare: implement a gas tax immediately; transition across the nation to road-tolling with this wireless mesh; require that the mesh be open to all, with open standards; and, of course, use mesh networks. +Thank you. +I hope you'll understand my English. +In the mornings it is terrible, and the afternoon is worst. +During many years, I made some speeches starting with this saying: "City is not a problem, it's a solution." +And more and more, I'm convinced that it's not only a solution for a country, but it's a solution for the problem of climate change. +But we have a very pessimistic approach about the cities. +I'm working in cities for almost 40 years, and where every mayor is trying to tell me his city is so big, or the other mayors say, "We don't have financial resources," I would like to say from the experience I had: every city in the world can be improved in less than three years. +There's no matter of scale. It's not a question of scale, it's not a question of financial resources. +Every problem in a city has to have its own equation of co-responsibility and also a design. +So to start, I want to introduce some characters from a book I made for teenagers. +The best example of quality of life is the turtle because the turtle is an example of living and working together. +And when you realize that the casque of the turtle looks like an urban tessitura, and can we imagine, if we cut the casque of the turtle, how sad she's going to be? +And that's what we're doing in our cities: living here, working here, having leisure here. +And most of the people are leaving the city and living outside of the city. +So, the other character is Otto, the automobile. +He is invited for a party -- he never wants to leave. +The chairs are on the tables and still drinking, and he drinks a lot. And he coughs a lot. Very egotistical: he carries only one or two people and he asks always for more infrastructure. +Freeways. +He's a very demanding person. +And on the other hand, Accordion, the friendly bus, he carries 300 people -- 275 in Sweden; 300 Brazilians. Speaking about the design: every city has its own design. +Curitiba, my city: three million in the metropolitan area, 1,800,000 people in the city itself. +Curitiba, Rio: it's like two birds kissing themselves. +Oaxaca, San Francisco -- it's very easy: Market Street, Van Ness and the waterfront. +And every city has its own design. +But to make it happen, sometimes you have to propose a scenario and to propose a design -- an idea that everyone, or the large majority, will help you to make it happen. +And that's the structure of the city of Curitiba. +And it's an example of living and working together. +And this is where we have more density; it's where we have more public transport. +So, this system started in '74. We started with 25,000 passengers a day, now it's 2,200,000 passengers a day. +And it took 25 years until another city ... +which is Bogota, and they did a very good job. +And now there's 83 cities all over the world that they are doing what they call the BRT of Curitiba. +And one thing: it's important not for only your own city; every city, besides its normal problems, they have a very important role in being with the whole humanity. +That means mostly two main issues -- mobility and sustainability -- are becoming very important for the cities. +And this is an articulated bus, double-articulated. +And we are very close to my house. +You can come when you are in Curitiba and have a coffee there. +And that's the evolution of the system. +What in the design that made the difference is the boarding tubes: the boarding tube gives to the bus the same performance as a subway. +That's why, I'm trying to say, it's like metro-nizing the bus. +This is the design of the bus, and you can pay before entering the bus you're boarding. +And for handicapped, they can use this as a normal system. +What I'm trying to say is the major contribution on carbon emissions are from the cars -- more than 50 percent -- so when we depend only on cars, it's ... +-- that's why when we're talking about sustainability, it's not enough, green buildings. +It's not enough, a new materials. +It's not enough, new sources of energy. +It's the concept of the city, the design of the city, that's also important, too. And also, how to teach the children. +I'll speak on this later on. +Our idea of mobility is trying to make the connections between all the systems. +We started in '83, proposing for the city of Rio how to connect the subway with the bus. +The subway was against, of course. +And 23 years after, they called us to develop -- we're developing this idea. +And you can understand how different it's going to be, the image of Rio with the system -- one-minute frequency. +And it's not Shanghai, it's not being colored during the day, only at night it will look this way. +And before you say it's a Norman Foster design, we designed this in '83. +And this is the model, how it's going to work. So, it's the same system; the vehicle is different. And that's the model. +What I'm trying to say is, I'm not trying to prove which system of transport is better. +I'm trying to say we have to combine all the systems, and with one condition: never -- if you have a subway, if you have surface systems, if you have any kind of system -- never compete in the same space. +And coming back to the car, I always used to say that the car is like your mother-in-law: you have to have good relationship with her, but she cannot command your life. +So, when the only woman in your life is your mother-in-law, you have a problem. So, all the ideas about how to transform through design -- old quarries and open universities and botanic garden -- all of it's related to how we teach the children. +And the children, we teach during six months how to separate their garbage. +And after, the children teach their parents. +And now we have 70 percent -- since 20 years, it's the highest rate of separation of garbage in the world. +Seven zero. +So teach the children. +I would like to say, if we want to have a sustainable world we have to work with everything what's said, but don't forget the cities and the children. +I'm working in a museum and also a multi-use city, because you cannot have empty places during 18 hours a day. +You should have always a structure of living and working together. +Try to understand the sectors in the city that could play different roles during the 24 hours. +Another issue is, a city's like our family portrait. +We don't rip our family portrait, even if we don't like the nose of our uncle, because this portrait is you. +And these are the references that we have in any city. +This is the main pedestrian mall; we did it in 72 hours. Yes, you have to be fast. +And these are the references from our ethnic contribution. +This is the Italian portal, the Ukrainian park, the Polish park, the Japanese square, the German park. +All of a sudden, the Soviet Union, they split. +And since we have people from Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, [unclear], we have to stop the program. +Don't forget: creativity starts when you cut a zero from your budget. +If you cut two zeros, it's much better. +And this is the Wire Opera theater. We did it in two months. +Parks -- old quarries that they were transformed into parks. +Quarries once made the nature, and sometimes we took this and we transformed. +And every part can be transformed; every frog can be transformed in a prince. +So, in a city, you have to work fast. +Planning takes time. And I'm proposing urban acupuncture. +That means me, with some focal ideas to help the normal process of planning. +And this is an acupuncture note -- or I.M. Pei's. Some small ones can make the city better. +The smallest park in New York, the most beautiful: 32 meters. +So, I want just to end saying that you can always propose new materials -- new sustainable materials -- but keep in mind that we have to work fast to the end, because we don't have the whole time to plan. +And I think creativity, innovation is starting. +And we cannot have all the answers. +So when you start -- and we cannot be so prepotent on having all the answers -- it's important starting and having the contribution from people, and they could teach you if you're not in the right track. +At the end, I would like if you can help me to sing the sustainable song. +OK? +Please, allow me just two minutes. +You're going to make the music and the rhythm. +It's a simple idea about nature. +I want to say a word for nature because we haven't talked that much about it the last couple days. +I want to say a word for the soil and the bees and the plants and the animals, and tell you about a tool, a very simple tool that I have found. +Although it's really nothing more than a literary conceit; it's not a technology. +It's very powerful for, I think, changing our relationship to the natural world and to the other species on whom we depend. +And that tool is very simply, as Chris suggested, looking at us and the world from the plants' or the animals' point of view. +It's not my idea, other people have hit on it, but I've tried to take it to some new places. +Let me tell you where I got it. +Like a lot of my ideas, like a lot of the tools I use, I found it in the garden; I'm a very devoted gardener. +And there was a day about seven years ago: I was planting potatoes, it was the first week of May -- this is New England, when the apple trees are just vibrating with bloom; they're just white clouds above. +I was here, planting my chunks, cutting up potatoes and planting it, and the bees were working on this tree; bumblebees, just making this thing vibrate. +And one of the things I really like about gardening is that it doesn't take all your concentration, you really can't get hurt -- it's not like woodworking -- and you have plenty of kind of mental space for speculation. +And the question I asked myself that afternoon in the garden, working alongside that bumblebee, was: what did I and that bumblebee have in common? +How was our role in this garden similar and different? +And I realized we actually had quite a bit in common: both of us were disseminating the genes of one species and not another, and both of us -- probably, if I can imagine the bee's point of view -- thought we were calling the shots. +I had decided what kind of potato I wanted to plant -- I had picked my Yukon Gold or Yellow Finn, or whatever it was -- and I had summoned those genes from a seed catalog across the country, brought it, and I was planting it. +And that bee, no doubt, assumed that it had decided, "I'm going for that apple tree, I'm going for that blossom, I'm going to get the nectar and I'm going to leave." +We have a grammar that suggests that's who we are; that we are sovereign subjects in nature, the bee as well as me. +I plant the potatoes, I weed the garden, I domesticate the species. +But that day, it occurred to me: what if that grammar is nothing more than a self-serving conceit? +Because, of course, the bee thinks he's in charge or she's in charge, but we know better. +We know that what's going on between the bee and that flower is that bee has been cleverly manipulated by that flower. +And when I say manipulated, I'm talking about in a Darwinian sense, right? +I mean it has evolved a very specific set of traits -- color, scent, flavor, pattern -- that has lured that bee in. +And the bee has been cleverly fooled into taking the nectar, and also picking up some powder on its leg, and going off to the next blossom. +The bee is not calling the shots. +And I realized then, I wasn't either. +I had been seduced by that potato and not another into planting its -- into spreading its genes, giving it a little bit more habitat. +And that's when I got the idea, which was, "Well, what would happen if we kind of looked at us from this point of view of these other species who are working on us?" +And agriculture suddenly appeared to me not as an invention, not as a human technology, but as a co-evolutionary development in which a group of very clever species, mostly edible grasses, had exploited us, figured out how to get us to basically deforest the world. +The competition of grasses, right? +And suddenly everything looked different. +And suddenly mowing the lawn that day was a completely different experience. +I had thought always -- and in fact, had written this in my first book; this was a book about gardening -- that lawns were nature under culture's boot, that they were totalitarian landscapes, and that when we mowed them we were cruelly suppressing the species and never letting it set seed or die or have sex. +And that's what the lawn was. +But then I realized, "No, this is exactly what the grasses want us to do. +I'm a dupe. I'm a dupe of the lawns, whose goal in life is to outcompete the trees, who they compete with for sunlight." +And so by getting us to mow the lawn, we keep the trees from coming back, which in New England happens very, very quickly. +So I started looking at things this way and wrote a whole book about it called "The Botany of Desire." +That a certain kind of potato, a certain kind of drug, a sativa-indica Cannabis cross has something to say about us. +And that, wouldn't this be kind of an interesting way to look at the world? +Now, the test of any idea -- I said it was a literary conceit -- is what does it get us? +And when you're talking about nature, which is really my subject as a writer, how does it meet the Aldo Leopold test? +Which is, does it make us better citizens of the biotic community? +Get us to do things that leads to the support and perpetuation of the biota, rather than its destruction? +And I would submit that this idea does this. +So, let me go through what you gain when you look at the world this way, besides some entertaining insights about human desire. +As an intellectual matter, looking at the world from other species' points of view helps us deal with this weird anomaly, which is -- and this is in the realm of intellectual history -- which is that we have this Darwinian revolution 150 years ago ... +Ugh. Mini-Me. We have this intellectual, this Darwinian revolution in which, thanks to Darwin, we figured out we are just one species among many; evolution is working on us the same way it's working on all the others; we are acted upon as well as acting; we are really in the fiber, the fabric of life. +But the weird thing is, we have not absorbed this lesson 150 years later; none of us really believes this. +We are still Cartesians -- the children of Descartes -- who believe that subjectivity, consciousness, sets us apart; that the world is divided into subjects and objects; that there is nature on one side, culture on another. +As soon as you start seeing things from the plant's point of view or the animal's point of view, you realize that the real literary conceit is that -- is the idea that nature is opposed to culture, the idea that consciousness is everything -- and that's another very important thing it does. +Looking at the world from other species' points of view is a cure for the disease of human self-importance. +You suddenly realize that consciousness -- which we value and we consider the crowning achievement of nature, human consciousness -- is really just another set of tools for getting along in the world. +And it's kind of natural that we would think it was the best tool. +But, you know, there's a comedian who said, "Well, who's telling me that consciousness is so good and so important? +Well, consciousness." +So when you look at the plants, you realize that there are other tools and they're just as interesting. +I'll give you two examples, also from the garden: lima beans. You know what a lima bean does when it's attacked by spider mites? +It releases this volatile chemical that goes out into the world and summons another species of mite that comes in and attacks the spider mite, defending the lima bean. +So what plants have -- while we have consciousness, tool making, language, they have biochemistry. +And they have perfected that to a degree far beyond what we can imagine. +Their complexity, their sophistication, is something to really marvel at, and I think it's really the scandal of the Human Genome Project. +You know, we went into it thinking, 40,000 or 50,000 human genes and we came out with only 23,000. +Just to give you grounds for comparison, rice: 35,000 genes. +So who's the more sophisticated species? +Well, we're all equally sophisticated. +We've been evolving just as long, just along different paths. +So, cure for self-importance, way to sort of make us feel the Darwinian idea. +And that's really what I do as a writer, as a storyteller, is try to make people feel what we know and tell stories that actually help us think ecologically. +Now, the other use of this is practical. +And I'm going to take you to a farm right now, because I used this idea to develop my understanding of the food system and what I learned, in fact, is that we are all, now, being manipulated by corn. +And the talk you heard about ethanol earlier today, to me, is the final triumph of corn over good sense. It is part of corn's scheme for world domination. +And you will see, the amount of corn planted this year will be up dramatically from last year and there will be that much more habitat because we've decided ethanol is going to help us. +So it helped me understand industrial agriculture, which of course is a Cartesian system. +It's based on this idea that we bend other species to our will and that we are in charge, and that we create these factories and we have these technological inputs and we get the food out of it or the fuel or whatever we want. +Let me take you to a very different kind of farm. +This is a farm in the Shenandoah Valley of Virginia. +I went looking for a farm where these ideas about looking at things from the species' point of view are actually implemented, and I found it in a man. The farmer's name is Joel Salatin. +And I spent a week as an apprentice on his farm, and I took away from this some of the most hopeful news about our relationship to nature that I've ever come across in 25 years of writing about nature. +And that is this: the farm is called Polyface, which means ... +the idea is he's got six different species of animals, as well as some plants, growing in this very elaborate symbiotic arrangement. +It's permaculture, those of you who know a little bit about this, such that the cows and the pigs and the sheep and the turkeys and the ... +what else does he have? +All the six different species -- rabbits, actually -- are all performing ecological services for one another, such that the manure of one is the lunch for the other and they take care of pests for one another. +It's a very elaborate and beautiful dance, but I'm going to just give you a close-up on one piece of it, and that is the relationship between his cattle and his chickens, his laying hens. +And I'll show you, if you take this approach, what you get, OK? +And this is a lot more than growing food, as you'll see; this is a different way to think about nature and a way to get away from the zero-sum notion, the Cartesian idea that either nature's winning or we're winning, and that for us to get what we want, nature is diminished. +So, one day, cattle in a pen. +The only technology involved here is this cheap electric fencing: relatively new, hooked to a car battery; even I could carry a quarter-acre paddock, set it up in 15 minutes. +Cows graze one day. They move, OK? +They graze everything down, intensive grazing. +He waits three days, and then we towed in something called the Eggmobile. +The Eggmobile is a very rickety contraption -- it looks like a prairie schooner made out of boards -- but it houses 350 chickens. +He tows this into the paddock three days later and opens the gangplank, turns them down, and 350 hens come streaming down the gangplank -- clucking, gossiping as chickens will -- and they make a beeline for the cow patties. +And what they're doing is very interesting: they're digging through the cow patties for the maggots, the grubs, the larvae of flies. +And the reason he's waited three days is because he knows that on the fourth day or the fifth day, those larvae will hatch and he'll have a huge fly problem. +But he waits that long to grow them as big and juicy and tasty as he can because they are the chickens' favorite form of protein. +So the chickens do their kind of little breakdance and they're pushing around the manure to get at the grubs, and in the process they're spreading the manure out. +Very useful second ecosystem service. +And third, while they're in this paddock they are, of course, defecating madly and their very nitrogenous manure is fertilizing this field. +They then move out to the next one, and in the course of just a few weeks, the grass just enters this blaze of growth. +And within four or five weeks, he can do it again. +He can graze again, he can cut, he can bring in another species, like the lambs, or he can make hay for the winter. +Now, I want you to just look really close up onto what's happened there. +So, it's a very productive system. +And what I need to tell you is that on 100 acres he gets 40,000 pounds of beef; 30,000 pounds of pork; 25,000 dozen eggs; 20,000 broilers; 1,000 turkeys; 1,000 rabbits -- an immense amount of food. +You know, you hear, "Can organic feed the world?" +Well, look how much food you can produce on 100 acres if you do this kind of ... +again, give each species what it wants, let it realize its desires, its physiological distinctiveness. +Put that in play. +But look at it from the point of view of the grass, now. +What happens to the grass when you do this? +When a ruminant grazes grass, the grass is cut from this height to this height, and it immediately does something very interesting. +Any one of you who gardens knows that there is something called the root-shoot ratio, and plants need to keep the root mass in some rough balance with the leaf mass to be happy. +So when they lose a lot of leaf mass, they shed roots; they kind of cauterize them and the roots die. +And the species in the soil go to work basically chewing through those roots, decomposing them -- the earthworms, the fungi, the bacteria -- and the result is new soil. +This is how soil is created. +It's created from the bottom up. +This is how the prairies were built, the relationship between bison and grasses. +More for us, less for nature. +Here, all this food comes off this farm, and at the end of the season there is actually more soil, more fertility and more biodiversity. +It's a remarkably hopeful thing to do. +There are a lot of farmers doing this today. +This is well beyond organic agriculture, which is still a Cartesian system, more or less. +This is a way to reanimate the world, and that's what's so exciting about this perspective. +When we really begin to feel Darwin's insights in our bones, the things we can do with nothing more than these ideas are something to be very hopeful about. +Thank you very much. +I draw to better understand things. +Sometimes I make a lot of drawings and I still don't understand what it is I'm drawing. +Those of you who are comfortable with digital stuff and even smug about that relationship might be amused to know that the guy who is best known for "The Way Things Work," while preparing for part of a panel for called Understanding, spent two days trying to get his laptop to communicate with his new CD burner. +Who knew about extension managers? +Now, I could talk about something that I'm known for, something that would be particularly appropriate for many of the more technically minded people here, or I could talk about something I really care about. +I decided to go with the latter. +I'm going to talk about Rome. +Now, why would I care about Rome, particularly? +Well, I went to Rhode Island School of Design in the second half of the '60s to study architecture. +I was lucky enough to spend my last year, my fifth year, in Rome as a student. It changed my life. +Not the least reason was the fact that I had spent those first four years living at home, driving into RISD everyday, driving back. +I missed the '60s. I read about them; I understand they were pretty interesting. I missed them, but I did spend that extraordinary year in Rome, and it's a place that is never far from my mind. +So, whenever given an opportunity, I try to do something in it or with it or for it. +I also make drawings to help people understand things. +Things that I want them to believe I understand. +And that's what I do as an illustrator, that's my job. +So, I'm going to show you some pictures of Rome. +I've made a lot of drawings of Rome over the years. +These are just drawings of Rome. I get back as often as possible -- I need to. +All different materials, all different styles, all different times, drawings from sketchbooks looking at the details of Rome. +Part of the reason I'm showing you these is that it sort of helps illustrate this process I go through of trying to figure out what it is I feel about Rome and why I feel it. +These are sketches of some of the little details. +Rome is a city full of surprises. +I mean, we're talking about unusual perspectives, we're talking about narrow little winding streets that suddenly open into vast, sun-drenched piazzas -- never, though, piazzas that are not humanly scaled. +Part of the reason for that is the fact that they grew up organically. +That amazing juxtaposition of old and new, the bits of light that come down between the buildings that sort of create a map that's traveling above your head of usually blue -- especially in the summer -- compared to the map that you would normally expect to see of conventional streets. +And I began to think about how I could communicate this in book form. +How could I share my sense of Rome, my understanding of Rome? +And I'm going to show you a bunch of dead ends, basically. +The primary reason for all these dead ends is when if you're not quite sure where you're going, you're certainly not going to get there with any kind of efficiency. +Here's a little map. And I thought of maps at the beginning; maybe I should just try and do a little atlas of my favorite streets and connections in Rome. +And here's a line of text that actually evolves from the exhaust of a scooter zipping across the page. +Here that same line of text wraps around a fountain in an illustration that can be turned upside down and read both ways. +Maybe that line of text could be a story to help give some human aspect to this. +That seemed like a sort of a cheap shot. +But even though I just started this presentation, this is not the first thing that I tried to do and I was getting sort of desperate. +Eventually, I realized that I had really no content that I could count on, so I decided to move towards packaging. I mean, it seems to work for a lot of things. +So I thought a little box set of four small books might do the trick. +But one of the ideas that emerged from some of those sketches was the notion of traveling through Rome in different vehicles at different speeds in order to show the different aspects of Rome. +Sort of an overview of Rome and the plan that you might see from a dirigible. +Quick snapshots of things you might see from a speeding motor scooter, and very slow walking through Rome, you might be able to study in more detail some of the wonderful surfaces and whatnot that you come across. +Anyways, I went back to the dirigible notion. +Went to Alberto Santos-Dumont. +Found one of his dirigibles that had enough dimensions so I could actually use it as a scale that I would then juxtapose with some of the things in Rome. +This thing would be flying over or past or be parked in front of, but it would be like having a ruler -- sort of travel through the pages without being a ruler. +Not that you know how long number 11 actually is, but you would be able to compare number 11 against the Pantheon with number 11 against the Baths of Caracalla, and so on and so forth. If you were interested. +This is Beatrix. She has a dog named Ajax, she has purchased a dirigible -- a small dirigible -- she's assembling the structure, Ajax is sniffing for holes in the balloon before they set off. +She launches this thing above the Spanish Steps and sets off for an aerial tour of the city. +Over the Spanish Steps we go. +A nice way to show that river, that stream sort of pouring down the hill. +Unfortunately, just across the road from it or quite close by is the Column of Marcus Aurelius, and the diameter of the dirigible makes an impression, as you can see, as she starts trying to read the story that spirals around the Column of Marcus Aurelius -- gets a little too close, nudges it. +This gives me a chance to suggest to you the structure of the Column of Marcus Aurelius, which is really no more than a pile of quarters high -- thick quarters. Over the Piazza of Saint Ignacio, completely ruining the symmetry, but that aside a spectacular place to visit. +A spectacular framework, inside of which you see, usually, extraordinary blue sky. +Over the Pantheon and the 26-foot diameter Oculus. +She parks her dirigible, lowers the anchor rope and climbs down for a closer look inside. +Unfortunately for her, the anchor line gets tangled around the feet of some Boy Scouts who are visiting the Pantheon, and they are immediately yanked out and given an extraordinary but terrifying tour of some of the domes of Rome, which would, from their point of view, naturally be hanging upside down. +They bail out as soon as they get to the top of Saint Ivo, that little spiral structure you see there. +She continues on her way over Piazza Navona. +Notices a lot of activity at the Tre Scalini restaurant, is reminded that it is lunchtime and she's hungry. +They keep on motoring towards the Campo de' Fiori, which they soon reach. Ajax the dog is put in a basket and lowered with a list of food into the marketplace, which flourishes there until about one in the afternoon, and then is completely removed and doesn't appear again until six or seven the following morning. +Anyway, the pooch gets back to the dirigible with the stuff. +Unfortunately, when she goes to unwrap the prosciutto, Ajax makes a lunge for it. +She's managed to save the prosciutto, but in the process she loses the tablecloth, which you can see flying away in the upper left-hand corner. +They continue without their tablecloth, looking for a place to land this thing so that they can actually have lunch. +They eventually discover a huge wall that's filled with small holes, ideal for docking a dirigible because you've got a place to tie up. +Turns out to be the exterior wall -- that part of it that remains -- of the Coliseum, so they park themselves there and have a terrific lunch and have a spectacular view. +At the end of lunch, they untie the anchor, they set off through the Baths of Caracalla and over the walls of the city and then an abandoned gatehouse and decide to take one more look at the Pyramid of Cestius, which has this lightning rod on top. +Unfortunately, that's a problem: they get a little too close, and when you're in a dirigible you have to be very careful about spikes. +So that sort of brings her little story to a conclusion. +Marcello, on the other hand, is sort of a lazy guy, but he's not due at work until about noon. +So, the alarm goes off and it's five to 12 or so. +He gets up, leaps onto his scooter, races through the city past the church of Santa Maria della Pace, down the alleys, through the streets that tourists may be wandering through, disturbing the quiet backstreet life of Rome at every turn. +That speed with which he is moving, I hope I have suggested in this little image, which, again, can be turned around and read from both sides because there's text on the bottom and text on the top, one of which is upside down in this image. +So, he keeps on moving, approaching an unsuspecting waiter who is trying to deliver two plates of linguine in a delicate white wine clam sauce to diners who are sitting at a table just outside of a restaurant in the street. +Waiter catches on, but it's too late. +And Marcello keeps moving in his scooter. +Everything he sees from this point on is slightly affected by the linguine, but keeps on moving because this guy's got a job to do. +Removes some scaffolding. One of the reasons Rome remains the extraordinary place it is that because of scaffolding and the determination to maintain the fabric, it is a city that continues to grow and adapt to the needs of the particular time in which it finds itself, or we find it. +Right through the Piazza della Rotonda, in front of the Pantheon -- again wreaking havoc -- and finally getting to work. +Marcello, as it turns out, is the driver of the number 64 bus, and if you've been on the number 64 bus, you know that it's driven with the same kind of exuberance as Marcello demonstrated on his scooter. +And finally Carletto. You see his apartment in the upper left-hand corner. +He's looking at his table; he's planning to propose this evening to his girlfriend of 40 years, and he wants it to be perfect. +He's got candles out, he's got flowers in the middle and he's trying to figure out where to put the plates and the glasses. +But he's not happy; something's wrong. +The phone rings anyway, he's called to the palazzo. +He saunters -- he saunters at a good clip, but as compared to all the traveling we've just seen, he's sauntering. +Everybody knows Carletto, because he's in entertainment, actually; he's in television. +He's actually in television repair, which is why people know him. +So they all have his number. +He arrives at the palazzo, arrives at the big front door. +Enters the courtyard and talks to the custodian, who tells him that there's been a disaster in the palazzo; nobody's TVs are working and there's a big soccer game coming up, and the crowd is getting a little restless and a little nervous. +He goes down to the basement and starts to check the wiring, and then gradually works his way up to the top of the building, apartment by apartment, checking every television, checking every connection, hoping to find out what this problem is. +He works his way up, finally, the grand staircase and then a smaller staircase until he reaches the attic. +He opens the window of the attic, of course, and there's a tablecloth wrapped around the building's television antenna. +He removes it, the problems are solved, everybody in the palazzo is happy. +And of course, he also solves his own problem. +All he has to do now, with a perfect table, is wait for her to arrive. +That was the first attempt, but it didn't seem substantial enough to convey whatever it was I wanted to convey about Rome. +So I thought, well, I'll just do piazzas, and I'll get inside and underneath and I'll show these things growing and show why they're shaped the way they are and so on. +And then I thought, that's too complicated. No, I'll just take my favorite bits and pieces and I'll put them inside the Pantheon but keep the scale, so you can see the top of Sant'Ivo and the Pyramid of Cestius and the Tempietto of Bramante all side by side in this amazing space. +Now that's one drawing, so I thought maybe it's time for Piranesi to meet Escher. You see that I'm beginning to really lose control here and also hope. +There's a very thin blue line of exhaust that sort of runs through this thing that would be kind of the trail that holds it all together. +Then I thought, "Wait a minute, what am I doing?" +A book is not only a neat way of collecting and storing information, it's a series of layers. +I mean, you always peel one layer off another; we think of them as pages, doing it a certain way. +But think of them as layers. I mean, Rome is a place of layers -- horizontal layers, vertical layers -- and I thought, well just peeling off a page would allow me to -- if I got you thinking about it the right way -- would allow me to sort of show you the depth of layers. +The stucco on the walls of most of the buildings in Rome covers the scars; the scars of centuries of change as these structures have been adapted rather than being torn down. +If I do a foldout page on the left-hand side and let you just unfold it, you see behind it what I mean by scar tissue. +You can see that in 1635, it became essential to make smaller windows because the bad guys were coming or whatever. +Adaptations all get buried under the stucco. +I could peel out a page of this palazzo to show you what's going on inside of it. +But more importantly, I could also show you what it looks like at the corner of one of those magnificent buildings with all the massive stone blocks, or the fake stone blocks done with brick and stucco, which is more often the case. +So it becomes slightly three-dimensional. +I could take you down one of those narrow little streets into one of those surprising piazzas by using a double gate fold -- double foldout page -- which, if you were like me reading a pop-up book as a child, you hopefully stick your head into. +You wrap the pages around your head and are in that piazza for that brief period of time. +And I've really not done anything much more complicated than make foldout pages. +But then I thought, maybe I could be simpler here. +Let's look at the Pantheon and the Piazza della Rotonda in front of it. +Here's a book completely wide open. +OK, if I don't open the book the whole way, if I just open it 90 degrees, we're looking down the front of the Pantheon, and we're looking sort of at the top, more or less down on the square. +And if I turn the book the other way, we're looking across the square at the front of the Pantheon. +No foldouts, no tricks -- just a book that isn't open the whole way. +That seemed promising. I thought, maybe I'll do it inside and I can even combine the foldouts with the only partially opened book. +So we get inside the Pantheon and it grows and so on and so forth. +And I thought, maybe I'm on the right track, but it sort of lost its human quality. +So I went back to the notion of story, which is always a good thing to have if you're trying to get people to pay attention to a book and pick up information along the way. +"Pigeon's Progress" struck me as a catchy title. +If it was a homing pigeon, it would be called "Homer's Odyssey." +But it was the journey of the ... I mean, if a title works, use it. But it would be a journey that went through Rome and showed all the things that I like about Rome. +It's a pigeon sitting on top of a church. +Goes off during the day and does normal pigeon stuff. Comes back, the whole place is covered with scaffolding and green netting and there's no way this pigeon can get home. +So it's a homeless pigeon now and it's going to have to find another place to live, and that allows me to go through my catalog of favorite things, and we start with the tall ones and so on. +Maybe it has to go back and live with family members; that's not always a good thing, but it does sort of bring pigeons together again. +And I thought, that's sort of interesting, but maybe there's a person who should be involved in this in some way. +So I kind of came up with this old guy who spends his life looking after sick pigeons. +He'll go anywhere to get them -- dangerous places and whatnot -- and they become really friends with this guy, and learn to do tricks for him and entertain him at lunchtime and stuff like that. +There's a real bond that develops between this old man and these pigeons. +But unfortunately he gets sick. He gets really sick at the end of the story. +He's taught them to spell his name, which is Aldo. +They show up one day after three or four days of not seeing him -- he lives in this little garret -- and they spell his name and fly around. +And he finally gets enough strength together to climb up the ladder onto the roof, and all the pigeons, a la Red Balloon, are there waiting for him and they carry him off over the walls of the city. +And I forgot to mention this: whenever he lost a pigeon, he would take that pigeon out beyond the walls of the city. +In the old Roman custom, the dead were never buried within the walls. +And I thought that's a really cheery story. +. That's really going to go a long way. +So anyway, I went through ... And again, if packaging doesn't work and if the stories aren't going anywhere, I just come up with titles and hope that a title will sort of kick me off in the right direction. +And sometimes it does focus me enough and I'll even do a title page. +So, these are all title pages that eventually led me to the solution I settled on, which is the story of a young woman who sends a message on a homing pigeon -- she lives outside the walls of the city of Rome -- to someone in the city. +And the pigeon is flying down above the Appian Way here. +You can see the tombs and pines and so on and so forth along the way. +If you see the red line, you are seeing the trail of the pigeon; if you don't see the red line, you are the pigeon. +And it becomes necessary and possible, at this point, to try to convey what that sense would be like of flying over the city without actually moving. +Past the Pyramid of Cestius -- these will seem very familiar to you, even if you haven't been to Rome recently -- past the gatehouse. +This is something that's a little bit unusual. +This pigeon does something that most homing pigeons do not do: it takes the scenic route, which was a device that I felt was necessary to actually extend this book beyond about four pages. +So, we circle around the Coliseum, past the Church of Santa Maria in Cosmedin and the Temple of Hercules towards the river. +We almost collide with the cornice of the Palazzo Farnese -- designed by Michelangelo, built of stone taken from the Coliseum -- narrow escape. +We swoop down over the Campo de' Fiori. +This is one of those things I show to my students because it's a complete bastardization -- a denial of any rules of perspective. +The only rule of perspective that I think matters is if it looks believable, you've succeeded. +But you try and figure out where the vanishing points meet here; a couple are on Mars and a couple of others in Cremona. +But into the piazza in front of Santa Maria della Pace, where invariably a soccer game is going on, and we're hit by a soccer ball. +Now this is a terrible illustration of being hit by a soccer ball. +I have all the pieces: there's Santa Maria della Pace, there's a soccer ball, there's a little bit of a bird's wing -- nothing's happening, so I had to rethink it. +And if you do want to see Santa Maria della Pace, these books are really flexible, incredibly interactive -- just turn it around and look at it the other way. +Through the alley, we can see the impact is captured in the red line. +And then we can swoop inside and around; and because we're flying, we don't really have to worry about gravity at this particular moment in time, so this drawing can be oriented in any way on the page. +We get a little exuberant as we pass Gesu; it's not surprising to sort of mimic the architecture in this way. +Past the wonderful wall filled with the juxtaposition that I was talking about; beautiful carvings set into the walls above the neon "Ristorante" sign, and so on. +And eventually, we arrive at the courtyard of the palazzo, which is our destination. +Straight up through the courtyard into a little window into the attic, where somebody is working at the drawing board. +He removes the message from the leg of the bird; this is what it says. +As we look at the drawing board, we see what he's working on is, in fact, a map of the journey that the pigeon has just taken, and the red line extends through all the sights. +And if you want the information, so that we complete this cycle of understanding, all you have to do is read these paragraphs. +Thank you very much. +I'm here to enlist you in helping reshape the story about how humans and other critters get things done. +Here is the old story -- we've already heard a little bit about it: biology is war in which only the fiercest survive; businesses and nations succeed only by defeating, destroying and dominating competition; politics is about your side winning at all costs. +But I think we can see the very beginnings of a new story beginning to emerge. +It's a narrative spread across a number of different disciplines, in which cooperation, collective action and complex interdependencies play a more important role. +And the central, but not all-important, role of competition and survival of the fittest shrinks just a little bit to make room. +I started thinking about the relationship between communication, media and collective action when I wrote "Smart Mobs," and I found that when I finished the book, I kept thinking about it. +In fact, if you look back, human communication media and the ways in which we organize socially have been co-evolving for quite a long time. +Humans have lived for much, much longer than the approximately 10,000 years of settled agricultural civilization in small family groups. Nomadic hunters bring down rabbits, gathering food. +The form of wealth in those days was enough food to stay alive. +But at some point, they banded together to hunt bigger game. +And we don't know exactly how they did this, although they must have solved some collective action problems; it only makes sense that you can't hunt mastodons while you're fighting with the other groups. +And again, we have no way of knowing, but it's clear that a new form of wealth must have emerged. +More protein than a hunter's family could eat before it rotted. +So that raised a social question that I believe must have driven new social forms. +Did the people who ate that mastodon meat owe something to the hunters and their families? +And if so, how did they make arrangements? +Again, we can't know, but we can be pretty sure that some form of symbolic communication must have been involved. +Of course, with agriculture came the first big civilizations, the first cities built of mud and brick, the first empires. +And it was the administers of these empires who began hiring people to keep track of the wheat and sheep and wine that was owed and the taxes that was owed on them by making marks; marks on clay in that time. +Not too much longer after that, the alphabet was invented. +And this powerful tool was really reserved, for thousands of years, for the elite administrators who kept track of accounts for the empires. +And then another communication technology enabled new media: the printing press came along, and within decades, millions of people became literate. +And from literate populations, new forms of collective action emerged in the spheres of knowledge, religion and politics. +We saw scientific revolutions, the Protestant Reformation, constitutional democracies possible where they had not been possible before. +Not created by the printing press, but enabled by the collective action that emerges from literacy. +And again, new forms of wealth emerged. +Now, commerce is ancient. Markets are as old as the crossroads. +But capitalism, as we know it, is only a few hundred years old, enabled by cooperative arrangements and technologies, such as the joint-stock ownership company, shared liability insurance, double-entry bookkeeping. +Now of course, the enabling technologies are based on the Internet, and in the many-to-many era, every desktop is now a printing press, a broadcasting station, a community or a marketplace. +Evolution is speeding up. +More recently, that power is untethering and leaping off the desktops, and very, very quickly, we're going to see a significant proportion, if not the majority of the human race, walking around holding, carrying or wearing supercomputers linked at speeds greater than what we consider to be broadband today. +Now, when I started looking into collective action, the considerable literature on it is based on what sociologists call "social dilemmas." +And there are a couple of mythic narratives of social dilemmas. +I'm going to talk briefly about two of them: the prisoner's dilemma and the tragedy of the commons. +Now, when I talked about this with Kevin Kelly, he assured me that everybody in this audience pretty much knows the details of the prisoner's dilemma, so I'm just going to go over that very, very quickly. +If you have more questions about it, ask Kevin Kelly later. The prisoner's dilemma is actually a story that's overlaid on a mathematical matrix that came out of the game theory in the early years of thinking about nuclear war: two players who couldn't trust each other. +Let me just say that every unsecured transaction is a good example of a prisoner's dilemma. +Person with the goods, person with the money, because they can't trust each other, are not going to exchange. +Neither one wants to be the first one or they're going to get the sucker's payoff, but both lose, of course, because they don't get what they want. +If they could only agree, if they could only turn a prisoner's dilemma into a different payoff matrix called an assurance game, they could proceed. +Twenty years ago, Robert Axelrod used the prisoner's dilemma as a probe of the biological question: if we are here because our ancestors were such fierce competitors, how does cooperation exist at all? +He started a computer tournament for people to submit prisoner's dilemma strategies and discovered, much to his surprise, that a very, very simple strategy won -- it won the first tournament, and even after everyone knew it won, it won the second tournament -- that's known as tit for tat. +Another economic game that may not be as well known as the prisoner's dilemma is the ultimatum game, and it's also a very interesting probe of our assumptions about the way people make economic transactions. +Here's how the game is played: there are two players; they've never played the game before, they will not play the game again, they don't know each other, and they are, in fact, in separate rooms. +First player is offered a hundred dollars and is asked to propose a split: 50/50, 90/10, whatever that player wants to propose. The second player either accepts the split -- both players are paid and the game is over -- or rejects the split -- neither player is paid and the game is over. +Now, the fundamental basis of neoclassical economics would tell you it's irrational to reject a dollar because someone you don't know in another room is going to get 99. +Yet in thousands of trials with American and European and Japanese students, a significant percentage would reject any offer that's not close to 50/50. +And although they were screened and didn't know about the game and had never played the game before, proposers seemed to innately know this because the average proposal was surprisingly close to 50/50. +Now, the interesting part comes in more recently when anthropologists began taking this game to other cultures and discovered, to their surprise, that slash-and-burn agriculturalists in the Amazon or nomadic pastoralists in Central Asia or a dozen different cultures -- each had radically different ideas of what is fair. +Which suggests that instead of there being an innate sense of fairness, that somehow the basis of our economic transactions can be influenced by our social institutions, whether we know that or not. +The other major narrative of social dilemmas is the tragedy of the commons. +Garrett Hardin used it to talk about overpopulation in the late 1960s. +He used the example of a common grazing area in which each person by simply maximizing their own flock led to overgrazing and the depletion of the resource. +He had the rather gloomy conclusion that humans will inevitably despoil any common pool resource in which people cannot be restrained from using it. +Now, Elinor Ostrom, a political scientist, in 1990 asked the interesting question that any good scientist should ask, which is: is it really true that humans will always despoil commons? +So she went out and looked at what data she could find. +She looked at thousands of cases of humans sharing watersheds, forestry resources, fisheries, and discovered that yes, in case after case, humans destroyed the commons that they depended on. +But she also found many instances in which people escaped the prisoner's dilemma; in fact, the tragedy of the commons is a multiplayer prisoner's dilemma. +And she said that people are only prisoners if they consider themselves to be. +They escape by creating institutions for collective action. +And she discovered, I think most interestingly, that among those institutions that worked, there were a number of common design principles, and those principles seem to be missing from those institutions that don't work. +I'm moving very quickly over a number of disciplines. In biology, the notions of symbiosis, group selection, evolutionary psychology are contested, to be sure. +But there is really no longer any major debate over the fact that cooperative arrangements have moved from a peripheral role to a central role in biology, from the level of the cell to the level of the ecology. +And again, our notions of individuals as economic beings have been overturned. +Rational self-interest is not always the dominating factor. +In fact, people will act to punish cheaters, even at a cost to themselves. +And most recently, neurophysiological measures have shown that people who punish cheaters in economic games show activity in the reward centers of their brain. +Which led one scientist to declare that altruistic punishment may be the glue that holds societies together. +Now, I've been talking about how new forms of communication and new media in the past have helped create new economic forms. +Commerce is ancient. Markets are very old. Capitalism is fairly recent; socialism emerged as a reaction to that. +And yet we see very little talk about how the next form may be emerging. +Jim Surowiecki briefly mentioned Yochai Benkler's paper about open source, pointing to a new form of production: peer-to-peer production. +I simply want you to keep in mind that if in the past, new forms of cooperation enabled by new technologies create new forms of wealth, we may be moving into yet another economic form that is significantly different from previous ones. +Very briefly, let's look at some businesses. IBM, as you know, HP, Sun -- some of the most fierce competitors in the IT world are open sourcing their software, are providing portfolios of patents for the commons. +Eli Lilly -- in, again, the fiercely competitive pharmaceutical world -- has created a market for solutions for pharmaceutical problems. +Toyota, instead of treating its suppliers as a marketplace, treats them as a network and trains them to produce better, even though they are also training them to produce better for their competitors. +Now none of these companies are doing this out of altruism; they're doing it because they're learning that a certain kind of sharing is in their self-interest. +Open source production has shown us that world-class software, like Linux and Mozilla, can be created with neither the bureaucratic structure of the firm nor the incentives of the marketplace as we've known them. +Google enriches itself by enriching thousands of bloggers through AdSense. +Amazon has opened its Application Programming Interface to 60,000 developers, countless Amazon shops. +They're enriching others, not out of altruism but as a way of enriching themselves. +eBay solved the prisoner's dilemma and created a market where none would have existed by creating a feedback mechanism that turns a prisoner's dilemma game into an assurance game. +Instead of, "Neither of us can trust each other, so we have to make suboptimal moves," it's, "You prove to me that you are trustworthy and I will cooperate." +Wikipedia has used thousands of volunteers to create a free encyclopedia with a million and a half articles in 200 languages in just a couple of years. +We've seen that ThinkCycle has enabled NGOs in developing countries to put up problems to be solved by design students around the world, including something that's being used for tsunami relief right now: it's a mechanism for rehydrating cholera victims that's so simple to use it, illiterates can be trained to use it. +BitTorrent turns every downloader into an uploader, making the system more efficient the more it is used. +Millions of people have contributed their desktop computers when they're not using them to link together through the Internet into supercomputing collectives that help solve the protein folding problem for medical researchers -- that's Folding@home at Stanford -- to crack codes, to search for life in outer space. +I don't think we know enough yet. +I don't think we've even begun to discover what the basic principles are, but I think we can begin to think about them. +And I don't have enough time to talk about all of them, but think about self-interest. +This is all about self-interest that adds up to more. +In El Salvador, both sides that withdrew from their civil war took moves that had been proven to mirror a prisoner's dilemma strategy. +In the U.S., in the Philippines, in Kenya, around the world, citizens have self-organized political protests and get out the vote campaigns using mobile devices and SMS. +Is an Apollo Project of cooperation possible? +A transdisciplinary study of cooperation? +I believe that the payoff would be very big. +I think we need to begin developing maps of this territory so that we can talk about it across disciplines. +And I am not saying that understanding cooperation is going to cause us to be better people -- and sometimes people cooperate to do bad things -- but I will remind you that a few hundred years ago, people saw their loved ones die from diseases they thought were caused by sin or foreigners or evil spirits. +Descartes said we need an entire new way of thinking. +When the scientific method provided that new way of thinking and biology showed that microorganisms caused disease, suffering was alleviated. +What forms of suffering could be alleviated, what forms of wealth could be created if we knew a little bit more about cooperation? +I don't think that this transdisciplinary discourse is automatically going to happen; it's going to require effort. +So I enlist you to help me get the cooperation project started. +Thank you. +I think it'll be a relief to some people and a disappointment to others that I'm not going to talk about vaginas today. +I began "The Vagina Monologues" because I was worried about vaginas. +I'm very worried today about this notion, this world, this prevailing kind of force of security. +I see this word, hear this word, feel this word everywhere. +Real security, security checks, security watch, security clearance. +Why has all this focus on security made me feel so much more insecure? +What does anyone mean when they talk about real security? +And why have we, as Americans particularly, become a nation that strives for security above all else? +In fact, I think that security is elusive. It's impossible. +We all die. We all get old. We all get sick. People leave us. +People change us. Nothing is secure. +And that's actually the good news. +This is, of course, unless your whole life is about being secure. +I think that when that is the focus of your life, these are the things that happen. +You can't travel very far or venture too far outside a certain circle. +You can't allow too many conflicting ideas into your mind at one time, as they might confuse you or challenge you. +You can't open yourself to new experiences, new people, new ways of doing things -- they might take you off course. +You can't not know who you are, so you cling to hard-matter identity. +You become a Christian, Muslim, Jew. +You're an Indian, Egyptian, Italian, American. +You're a heterosexual or a homosexual, or you never have sex. +Or at least, that's what you say when you identify yourself. +You become part of an "us." +In order to be secure, you defend against "them." +You cling to your land because it is your secure place. +You must fight anyone who encroaches upon it. +You become your nation. You become your religion. +You become whatever it is that will freeze you, numb you and protect you from doubt or change. +But all this does, actually, is shut down your mind. +In reality, it does not really make you safer. +I was in Sri Lanka, for example, three days after the tsunami, and I was standing on the beaches and it was absolutely clear that, in a matter of five minutes, a 30-foot wave could rise up and desecrate a people, a population and lives. +All this striving for security, in fact, has made you much more insecure because now you have to watch out all the time. +There are people not like you -- people who you now call enemies. +You have places you cannot go, thoughts you cannot think, worlds that you can no longer inhabit. +And so you spend your days fighting things off, defending your territory and becoming more entrenched in your fundamental thinking. +Your days become devoted to protecting yourself. +This becomes your mission. That is all you do. +Ideas get shorter. They become sound bytes. +There are evildoers and saints, criminals and victims. +There are those who, if they're not with us, are against us. +It gets easier to hurt people because you do not feel what's inside them. +It gets easier to lock them up, force them to be naked, humiliate them, occupy them, invade them and kill them, because they are only obstacles now to your security. +In six years, I've had the extraordinary privilege through V-Day, a global movement against [violence against] women, to travel probably to 60 countries, and spend a great deal of time in different portions. +I've met women and men all over this planet, who through various circumstances -- war, poverty, racism, multiple forms of violence -- have never known security, or have had their illusion of security forever devastated. +I've spent time with women in Afghanistan under the Taliban, who were essentially brutalized and censored. +I've been in Bosnian refugee camps. +I was with women in Pakistan who have had their faces melted off with acid. +I've been with girls all across America who were date-raped, or raped by their best friends when they were drugged one night. +One of the amazing things that I've discovered in my travels is that there is this emerging species. +I loved when he was talking about this other world that's right next to this world. +I've discovered these people, who, in V-Day world, we call Vagina Warriors. +These particular people, rather than getting AK-47s, or weapons of mass destruction, or machetes, in the spirit of the warrior, have gone into the center, the heart of pain, of loss. +They have grieved it, they have died into it, and allowed and encouraged poison to turn into medicine. +They have used the fuel of their pain to begin to redirect that energy towards another mission and another trajectory. +These warriors now devote themselves and their lives to making sure what happened to them doesn't happen to anyone else. +There are thousands if not millions of them on the planet. +I venture there are many in this room. +They have a fierceness and a freedom that I believe is the bedrock of a new paradigm. +They have broken out of the existing frame of victim and perpetrator. +Their own personal security is not their end goal, and because of that, because, rather than worrying about security, because the transformation of suffering is their end goal, I actually believe they are creating real safety and a whole new idea of security. +I want to talk about a few of these people that I've met. +Tomorrow, I am going to Cairo, and I'm so moved that I will be with women in Cairo who are V-Day women, who are opening the first safe house for battered women in the Middle East. +That will happen because women in Cairo made a decision to stand up and put themselves on the line, and talk about the degree of violence that is happening in Egypt, and were willing to be attacked and criticized. +And through their work over the last years, this is not only happening that this house is opening, but it's being supported by many factions of the society who never would have supported it. +Women in Uganda this year, who put on "The Vagina Monologues" during V-Day, actually evoked the wrath of the government. +And, I love this story so much. +There was a cabinet meeting and a meeting of the presidents to talk about whether "Vaginas" could come to Uganda. +And in this meeting -- it went on for weeks in the press, two weeks where there was huge discussion. +The government finally made a decision that "The Vagina Monologues" could not be performed in Uganda. +But the amazing news was that because they had stood up, these women, and because they had been willing to risk their security, it began a discussion that not only happened in Uganda, but all of Africa. +As a result, this production, which had already sold out, every single person in that 800-seat audience, except for 10 people, made a decision to keep the money. +They raised 10,000 dollars on a production that never occurred. +There's a young woman named Carrie Rethlefsen in Minnesota. +She's a high school student. +She had seen "The Vagina Monologues" and she was really moved. And as a result, she wore an "I heart my vagina" button to her high school in Minnesota. +She was basically threatened to be expelled from school. +They told her she couldn't love her vagina in high school, that it was not a legal thing, that it was not a moral thing, that it was not a good thing. +I know I've talked about Agnes here before, but I want to give you an update on Agnes. +I met Agnes three years ago in the Rift Valley. +When she was a young girl, she had been mutilated against her will. +That mutilation of her clitoris had actually obviously impacted her life and changed it in a way that was devastating. +She made a decision not to go and get a razor or a glass shard, but to devote her life to stopping that happening to other girls. +For eight years, she walked through the Rift Valley. +She had this amazing box that she carried and it had a torso of a woman's body in it, a half a torso, and she would teach people, everywhere she went, what a healthy vagina looked like and what a mutilated vagina looked like. +In the years that she walked, she educated parents, mothers, fathers. +She saved 1,500 girls from being cut. +When V-Day met her, we asked her how we could support her and she said, "Well, if you got me a Jeep, I could get around a lot faster." So, we bought her a Jeep. +In the year she had the Jeep, she saved 4,500 girls from being cut. +So, we said, what else could we do? +She said, "If you help me get money, I could open a house." +Three years ago, Agnes opened a safe house in Africa to stop mutilation. +When she began her mission eight years ago, she was reviled, she was detested, she was completely slandered in her community. +I am proud to tell you that six months ago, she was elected the deputy mayor of Narok. +I think what I'm trying to say here is that if your end goal is security, and if that's all you're focusing on, what ends up happening is that you create not only more insecurity in other people, but you make yourself far more insecure. +Real security is contemplating death, not pretending it doesn't exist. +Not running from loss, but entering grief, surrendering to sorrow. +Real security is not knowing something, when you don't know it. +Real security is hungering for connection rather than power. +It cannot be bought or arranged or made with bombs. +It is deeper, it is a process, it is acute awareness that we are all utterly inter-bended, and one action by one being in one tiny town has consequences everywhere. +Real security is not only being able to tolerate mystery, complexity, ambiguity, but hungering for them and only trusting a situation when they are present. +Something happened when I began traveling in V-Day, eight years ago. I got lost. +I remember being on a plane going from Kenya to South Africa, and I had no idea where I was. +I didn't know where I was going, where I'd come from, and I panicked. I had a total anxiety attack. +And then I suddenly realized that it absolutely didn't matter where I was going, or where I had come from because we are all essentially permanently displaced people. +All of us are refugees. +We come from somewhere and we are hopefully traveling all the time, moving towards a new place. +Freedom means I may not be identified as any one group, but that I can visit and find myself in every group. +It does not mean that I don't have values or beliefs, but it does mean I am not hardened around them. +I do not use them as weapons. +In the shared future, it will be just that, shared. +The end goal will [be] becoming vulnerable, realizing the place of our connection to one another, rather than becoming secure, in control and alone. +Thank you very much. +Chris Anderson: And how are you doing? Are you exhausted? +On a typical day, do you wake up with hope or gloom? +Eve Ensler: You know, I think Carl Jung once said that in order to survive the twentieth century, we have to live with two existing thoughts, opposite thoughts, at the same time. +And I think part of what I'm learning in this process is that one must allow oneself to feel grief. +And I think as long as I keep grieving, and weeping, and then moving on, I'm fine. +When I start to pretend that what I'm seeing isn't impacting me, and isn't changing my heart, then I get in trouble. +CA: There are a lot of causes out there in the world that have been talked about, you know, poverty, sickness and so on. You spent eight years on this one. +Why this one? +Imagine that you've been raped and you're bringing up a boy child. +How does it impact your ability to work, or envision a future, or thrive, as opposed to just survive? What I believe is if we could figure out how to make women safe and honor women, it would be parallel or equal to honoring life itself. +Thank you. Ooh, I'm like, "Phew, phew, calm down. Get back into my body now." Usually when I play out, the first thing that happens is people scream out, "What's she doing?!" +I'll play at these rock shows, be on stage standing completely still, and they're like, "What's she doing?! What's she doing?!" +And then I'll kind of be like -- -- and then they're like, "Whoa!" +I'm sure you're trying to figure out, "Well, how does this thing work?" +Well, what I'm doing is controlling the pitch with my left hand. +See, the closer I get to this antenna, the higher the note gets -- -- and you can get it really low. +And with this hand I'm controlling the volume, so the further away my right hand gets, the louder it gets. +So basically, with both of your hands you're controlling pitch and volume and kind of trying to create the illusion that you're doing separate notes, when really it's continuously going ... +(Flourish ... Beep) Sometimes I startle myself: I'll forget that I have it on, and I'll lean over to pick up something, and then it goes like -- -- "Oh!" +And it's like a funny sound effect that follows you around if you don't turn the thing off. +Maybe we'll go into the next tune, because I totally lost where this is going. +We're going to do a song by David Mash called "Listen: the Words Are Gone," and maybe I'll have words come back into me afterwards if I can relax. +So, I'm trying to think of some of the questions that are commonly asked; there are so many. +And ... Well, I guess I could tell you a little of the history of the theremin. +It was invented around the 1920s, and the inventor, Lon Theremin -- he also was a musician besides an inventor -- he came up with the idea for making the theremin, I think, when he was working on some shortwave radios. +And there'd be that sound in the signal -- it's like -- and he thought, "Oh, what if I could control that sound and turn it into an instrument, because there are pitches in it." +And so somehow through developing that, he eventually came to make the theremin the way it is now. +And a lot of times, even kids nowadays, they'll make reference to a theremin by going, "Whoo-hoo-hoo-hoo," because in the '50s it was used in the sci-fi horror movies, that sound that's like ... It's kind of a funny, goofy sound to do. +And sometimes if I have too much coffee, then my vibrato gets out of hand. +You're really sensitive to your body and its functions when you're behind this thing. +You have to stay so still if you want to have the most control. +It reminds me of the balancing act earlier on -- what Michael was doing -- because you're fighting so hard to keep the balance with what you're playing with and stay in tune, and at the same time you don't want to focus so much on being in tune all the time; you want to be feeling the music. +And then also, you're trying to stay very, very, very still because little movements with other parts of your body will affect the pitch, or sometimes if you're holding a low note -- (Tone rising out of key) -- and breathing will make it ... +If I pass out on the next song ... +I think of it almost like like a yoga instrument because it makes you so aware of every little crazy thing your body is doing, or just aware of what you don't want it to be doing while you're playing; you don't want to have any sudden movements. +And if I go to a club and play a gig, people are like, "Here, have some drinks on us!" +And it's like, "Well, I'm about to go on soon; I don't want to be like -- (Teetering tones) -- you know?" +It really does reflect the mood that you're in also, if you're ... +it's similar to being a vocalist, except instead of it coming out of your throat, you're controlling it just in the air and you don't really have a point of reference; you're always relying on your ears and adjusting constantly. +You just have to always adjust to what's happening and realize you'll have bummer notes come here and there and listen to it, adjust it, and just move on, or else you'll get too tied up and go crazy. Like me. +I think we will play another tune now. +I'm going to do "Lush Life." It's one of my favorite tunes to play. +So, what I'd like to talk about is something that was very dear to Kahn's heart, which is: how do we discover what is really particular about a project? +How do you discover the uniqueness of a project as unique as a person? +Because it seems to me that finding this uniqueness has to do with dealing with the whole force of globalization; that the particular is central to finding the uniqueness of place and the uniqueness of a program in a building. +And so I'll take you to Wichita, Kansas, where I was asked some years ago to do a science museum on a site, right downtown by the river. +And I thought the secret of the site was to make the building of the river, part of the river. +Unfortunately, though, the site was separated from the river by McLean Boulevard so I suggested, "Let's reroute McLean," and that gave birth instantly to Friends of McLean Boulevard. +And it took six months to reroute it. +The first image I showed the building committee was this astronomic observatory of Jantar Mantar in Jaipur because I talked about what makes a building a building of science. +And it seemed to me that this structure -- complex, rich and yet totally rational: it's an instrument -- had something to do with science, and somehow a building for science should be different and unique and speak of that. +And so my first sketch after I left was to say, "Let's cut the channel and make an island and make an island building." +And I got all excited and came back, and they sort of looked at me in dismay and said, "An island? +This used to be an island -- Ackerman Island -- and we filled in the channel during the Depression to create jobs." +And so the process began and they said, "You can't put it all on an island; some of it has to be on the mainland because we don't want to turn our back to the community." +And there emerged a design: the galleries sort of forming an island and you could walk through them or on the roof. +And there were all kinds of exciting features: you could come in through the landside buildings, walk through the galleries into playgrounds in the landscape. +If you were cheap you could walk on top of a bridge to the roof, peek in the exhibits and then get totally seduced, come back and pay the five dollars admission. +And the client was happy -- well, sort of happy because we were four million dollars over the budget, but essentially happy. +But I was still troubled, and I was troubled because I felt this was capricious. +It was complex, but there was something capricious about its complexity. +It was, what I would say, compositional complexity, and I felt that if I had to fulfill what I talked about -- a building for science -- there had to be some kind of a generating idea, some kind of a generating geometry. +And this gave birth to the idea of having toroidal generating geometry, one with its center deep in the earth for the landside building and a toroid with its center in the sky for the island building. +A toroid, for those who don't know, is the surface of a doughnut or, for some of us, a bagel. +And out of this idea started spinning off many, many kinds of variations of different plans and possibilities, and then the plan itself evolved in relationship to the exhibits, and you see the intersection of the plan with the toroidal geometry. +And finally the building -- this is the model. +And when there were complaints about budget, I said, "Well, it's worth doing the island because you get twice for your money: reflections." +And here's the building as it opened, with a channel overlooking downtown, and as seen from downtown. +And the bike route's going right through the building, so those traveling the river would see the exhibits and be drawn to the building. +The toroidal geometry made for a very efficient building: every beam in this building is the same radius, all laminated wood. +Every wall, every concrete wall is resisting the stresses and supporting the building. +Every piece of the building works. +These are the galleries with the light coming in through the skylights, and at night, and on opening day. +Going back to 1976. +In 1976, I was asked to design a children's memorial museum in a Holocaust museum in Yad Vashem in Jerusalem, which you see here the campus. +I was asked to do a building, and I was given all the artifacts of clothing and drawings. +And I felt very troubled. +I worked on it for months and I couldn't deal with it because I felt people were coming out of the historic museum, they are totally saturated with information and to see yet another museum with information, it would make them just unable to digest. +And so I made a counter-proposal: I said, "No building." There was a cave on the site; we tunnel into the hill, descend through the rock into an underground chamber. +There's an anteroom with photographs of children who perished and then you come into a large space. +There is a single candle flickering in the center; by an arrangement of reflective glasses, it reflects into infinity in all directions. +You walk through the space, a voice reads the names, ages and place of birth of the children. +This voice does not repeat for six months. +And then you descend to light and to the north and to life. +Well, they said, "People won't understand, they'll think it's a discotheque. You can't do that." +And they shelved the project. And it sat there for 10 years, and then one day Abe Spiegel from Los Angeles, who had lost his three-year-old son at Auschwitz, came, saw the model, wrote the check and it got built 10 years later. +So, many years after that in 1998, I was on one of my monthly trips to Jerusalem and I got a call from the foreign ministry saying, "We've got the Chief Minister of the Punjab here. +He is on a state visit. We took him on a visit to Yad Vashem, we took him to the children's memorial; he was extremely moved. +He's demanding to meet the architect. Could you come down and meet him in Tel Aviv?" +And I went down and Chief Minister Badal said to me, "We Sikhs have suffered a great deal, as you have Jews. +I was very moved by what I saw today. +We are going to build our national museum to tell the story of our people; we're about to embark on that. +I'd like you to come and design it." +And so, you know, it's one of those things that you don't take too seriously. +But two weeks later, I was in this little town, Anandpur Sahib, outside Chandigarh, the capital of the Punjab, and the temple and also next to it the fortress that the last guru of the Sikhs, Guru Gobind, died in as he wrote the Khalsa, which is their holy scripture. +And I got to work and they took me somewhere down there, nine kilometers away from the town and the temple, and said, "That's where we have chosen the location." +And I said, "This just doesn't make any sense. +The pilgrims come here by the hundreds of thousands -- they're not going to get in trucks and buses and go down there. +Let's get back to the town and walk to the site." +And I recommended they do it right there, on that hill and this hill, and bridge all the way into the town. +And, as things are a little easier in India, the site was purchased within a week and we were working. +And my proposal was to split the museum into two -- the permanent exhibits at one end, the auditorium, library, and changing exhibitions on the other -- to flood the valley into a series of water gardens and to link it all to the fort and to the downtown. +And the structures rise from the sand cliffs -- they're built in concrete and sandstones; the roofs are stainless steel -- they are facing south and reflecting light towards the temple itself, pedestrians crisscross from one side to the other. +And as you come from the north, it is all masonry growing out of the sand cliffs as you come from the Himalayas and evoking the tradition of the fortress. +And then I went away for four months and there was going to be groundbreaking. +And I came back and, lo and behold, the little model I'd left behind had been built ten times bigger for public display on site and ... the bridge was built! +Within the working drawings! +And half a million people gathered for the celebrations; you can see them on the site itself as the foundations are beginning. +I was renamed Safdie Singh. And there it is under construction; there are 1,800 workers at work and it will be finished in two years. +Back to Yad Vashem three years ago. After all this episode began, Yad Vashem decided to rebuild completely the historic museum because now Washington was built -- the Holocaust Museum in Washington -- and that museum is so much more comprehensive in terms of information. +And Yad Vashem needs to deal with three million visitors a year at this point. +They said, "Let's rebuild the museum." +But of course, the Sikhs might give you a job on a platter -- the Jews make it hard: international competition, phase one, phase two, phase three. +And again, I felt kind of uncomfortable with the notion that a building the size of the Washington building -- 50,000 square feet -- will sit on that fragile hill and that we will go into galleries -- rooms with doors and sort of familiar rooms -- to tell the story of the Holocaust. +And I proposed that we cut through the mountain. That was my first sketch. +Just cut the whole museum through the mountain -- enter from one side of the mountain, come out on the other side of the mountain -- and then bring light through the mountain into the chambers. +And here you see the model: a reception building and some underground parking. +You cross a bridge, you enter this triangular room, 60 feet high, which cuts right into the hill and extends right through as you go towards the north. +And all of it, then, all the galleries are underground, and you see the openings for the light. +And at night, just one line of light cuts through the mountain, which is a skylight on top of that triangle. +And all the galleries, as you move through them and so on, are below grade. +And there are chambers carved in the rock -- concrete walls, stone, the natural rock when possible -- with the light shafts. +This is actually a Spanish quarry, which sort of inspired the kind of spaces that these galleries could be. +And then, coming towards the north, it opens up: it bursts out of the mountain into, again, a view of light and of the city and of the Jerusalem hills. +I'd like to conclude with a project I've been working on for two months. +It's the headquarters for the Institute of Peace in Washington, the U.S. Institute of Peace. +The site chosen is across from the Lincoln Memorial; you see it there directly on the Mall. It's the last building on the Mall, on access of the Roosevelt Bridge that comes in from Virginia. +That too was a competition, and it is something I'm just beginning to work on. +But one recognized the kind of uniqueness of the site. +And that was a lot of heat to deal with. +The first sketch recognizes that the building is many spaces -- spaces where research goes on, conference centers, a public building because it will be a museum devoted to peacemaking -- and these are the drawings that we submitted for the competition, the plans showing the spaces which radiate outwards from the entry. +You see the structure as, in the sequence of structures on the Mall, very transparent and inviting and looking in. +And then as you enter it again, looking in all directions towards the city. +And what I felt about that building is that it really was a building that had to do with a lightness of being -- to quote Kundera -- that it had to do with whiteness, it had to do with a certain dynamic quality and it had to do with optimism. +And this is where it is; it's sort of evolving. +Studies for the structure of the roof, which demands maybe new materials: how to make it white, how to make it translucent, how to make it glowing, how to make it not capricious. +And here studying, in three dimensions, how to give some kind, again, of order, a structure; not something you feel you could just change because you stop the design of that particular process. +And so it goes. +I'd like to conclude by saying something ... +I'd like to conclude by relating all of what I've said to the term "beauty." +And I know it is not a fashionable term these days, and certainly not fashionable in the discourse of architectural schools, but it seems to me that all this, in one way or the other, is a search for beauty. +Beauty in the most profound sense of fit. +I have a quote that I like by a morphologist, 1917, Theodore Cook, who said, "Beauty connotes humanity. +We call a natural object beautiful because we see that its form expresses fitness, the perfect fulfillment of function." +Well, I would have said the perfect fulfillment of purpose. +Nevertheless, beauty as the kind of fit; something that tells us that all the forces that have to do with our natural environment have been fulfilled -- and our human environment -- for that. +Twenty years ago, in a conference Richard and I were at together, I wrote a poem, which seems to me to still hold for me today. +"He who seeks truth shall find beauty. He who seeks beauty shall find vanity. +He who seeks order shall find gratification. +He who seeks gratification shall be disappointed. +He who considers himself the servant of his fellow beings shall find the joy of self-expression. He who seeks self-expression shall fall into the pit of arrogance. +Arrogance is incompatible with nature. +Through nature, the nature of the universe and the nature of man, we shall seek truth. If we seek truth, we shall find beauty." +Thank you very much. +My name is Joseph, a Member of Parliament in Kenya. +Picture a Maasai village, and one evening, government soldiers come, surround the village and ask each elder to bring one boy to school. +That's how I went to school -- pretty much a government guy pointing a gun and told my father, "You have to make a choice." +I walked very comfortably to this missionary school, that was run by an American missionary. +The first thing the American missionary gave me was a candy. +I had never in my life ever tasted candy. +So I said to myself, with all these hundred other boys, this is where I belong. +When everybody else was dropping out. +My family moved; we're nomads. +It was a boarding school, I was seven -- Every time it closed you had to travel to find them. +40-50 miles, it doesn't matter. +You slept in the bush, but you kept going. +And I stayed. I don't know why, but I did. +All of a sudden I passed the national examination, found myself in a very beautiful high school in Kenya. +And I finished high school. And just walking, I found a man who gave me a full scholarship to the United States. +My mother still lived in a cow-dung hut, none of my brothers were going to school, and this man told me, "Here, go." +I got a scholarship to St. Lawrence University, Upstate New York; finished that. And after that I went to Harvard Graduate School; finished that. Then I worked in DC a little bit: I wrote a book for National Geographic and taught U.S. history. +And every time, I kept going back home, listening to their problems -- sick people, people with no water, all this stuff -- every time I go back to America, I kept thinking about them. +Then one day, an elder gave me a story that went like this: long time ago, there was a big war between tribes. +This specific tribe was really afraid of this other Luhya tribe. +Every time, they sent scouts to make sure no one attacked them. +So one day, the scouts came running and told the villagers, "The enemies are coming. Only half an hour away, they'll be here." +So people scrambled, took their things and ready to go, move out. +But there were two men: one man was blind, one man had no legs -- he was born like that. +The leader of the chiefs said, "No, sorry. We can't take you. You'll slow us down. +We have to flee our women and children, we have to run." +And they were left behind, waiting to die. +But these two people worked something out. +The blind man said, "Look, I'm a very strong man but I can't see." +The man with no legs says, "I can see as far as the end of the world, but I can't save myself from a cat, or whatever animals." +The blind man went down on his knees like this, and told the man with no legs to go over his back, and stood up. +The man on top can see, the blind man can walk. +These guys took off, followed the footsteps of the villagers until they found and passed them. +So, this was told to me in a setup of elders. +And it's a really poor area. I represent Northern Kenya: the most nomadic, remote areas you can even find. +And that man told me, "So, here you are. +You've got a good education from America, you have a good life in America; what are you going to do for us? +We want you to be our eyes, we'll give you the legs. +We'll walk you, you lead us." +The opportunity came. I was always thinking about that: "What can I do to help my people? +Every time you go to an area where for 43 years of independence, we still don't have basic health facilities. +A man has to be transported in a wheelbarrow 30 km for a hospital. +No clean drinking water. +So I said, "I'm going to dedicate myself. +I'm going to run for office." Last June, I moved from America, ran in July election and won. +And I came for them, and that's my goal. +Right now I have in place, for the last nine months, a plan that in five years, every nomad will have clean drinking water. +We're building dispensaries across that constituency. +I'm asking my friends from America to help with bringing nurses or doctors to help us out. +I'm trying to improve infrastructure. +I'm using the knowledge I received from the United States and from my community to move them forward. +I'm trying to develop homegrown solutions to our issues because people from outside can come and help us, but if we don't help ourselves, there's nothing to do. +My plan right now as I continue with introducing students to different fields -- some become doctors, some lawyers -- we want to produce a comprehensive group of people, students who can come back and help us see a community grow that is in the middle of a huge economic recession. +Thank you very much. +I'm a historian. +Steve told us about the future of little technology; I'm going to show you some of the past of big technology. +This was a project to build a 4,000-ton nuclear bomb-propelled spaceship and go to Saturn and Jupiter. +This took place in my childhood, 1957-65. +It was deeply classified. +I'm going to show you some stuff that not only has not been declassified, but has now been reclassified. +If all goes well, next year I'll be back, and I'll have a lot more to show you, and if all doesn't go well, I'll be in jail, like Wen Ho Lee. +So, this ship was basically the size of the Marriott Hotel, a little taller and a little bigger. +And one of the people who worked on it at the beginning was my father, Freeman, there in the middle. +That's me and my sister, Esther, who's a frequent TEDster. +I didn't like nuclear bomb-propelled spaceships. +I mean, I thought it was a great idea, but I started building kayaks. +So we had a few kayaks. +Just so you know that I am not Dr. Strangelove. +But all the time I was out there doing these strange kayak voyages in odd, beautiful parts of this planet, I always thought in the back of my mind about Project Orion, and how my father and his friends were going to build these big ships. +They were actually going to go -- Ted Taylor, who led the project, was going to take his children. +My father was not going to take his children, that was one of the reasons we sort of had a falling out for a few years. +The project began in '57 at General Atomics there, that's right on the coast at La Jolla. +Look at that central building right in the middle of the picture. +That's the 130-foot diameter library. +That is exactly the size of the base of the spaceship. +So put that library at the bottom of that ship -- that's how big the thing was going to be. +It would take two or three thousand bombs. +The people who worked on it were a lot of the Los Alamos people who had done the hydrogen bomb work. +It was the first project funded by ARPA. +That's the contract where ARPA gave the first million dollars to get this thing started. +"Spaceship project officially begun. Job waiting for you. Dyson." +That's July '58. +Two days later, the space traveler's manifesto explaining why -- just like we heard yesterday -- why we need to go into space: "... trips to satellites of the outer planets. August 20, 1958." +These are the statistics of what would be the good places to go and stop. +Some of the sizes of the ships, ranging all the way up to ship mass of 8 million tons. +So that was the outer extreme. +Here was version two: 2,000 bombs. +These are five-kiloton yield bombs, about the size of small Volkswagens; it would take 800 to get into orbit. +Here we see a 10,000-ton ship will deliver 1,300 tons to Saturn and back -- essentially, a five-year trip. +Possible departure dates: October 1960 to February 1967. +These are trajectories going to Mars. +All this was done by hand, with slide rules. +The little Orion ship, and what it would take to do what Orion does with chemicals: you have a ship the size of the Empire State Building. +NASA had no interest; they tried to kill the project. +The people who supported it were the Air Force, which meant that it was all secret. +And that's why when you get something declassified, that's what it looks like. +Military weapon versions that carried hydrogen bombs that could destroy half the planet. +There's another version there that sends retaliatory strikes at the Soviet Union. +This is the really secret stuff: how to get directed energy explosions. +So you're sending the energy of a nuclear explosion -- not like just a stick of dynamite, but you're directing it at the ship. +And this is still a very active subject. +It's quite dangerous, but I believe it's better to have dangerous things in the open than think you're going to keep them secret. +This is what happened at 600 microseconds. +The Air Force started to build smaller models and actually started doing this. +The guys in La Jolla said, "We've got to get started now." +They built a high-explosive propelled model. +These are stills from film footage that was saved by someone who was supposed to destroy it but didn't, and kept it in their basement for the last 40 years. +So, these are three-pound charges of C4; that's about 10 times what the guy had in his shoes. +This is Ed Day putting -- So each of these coffee cans has three pounds of C4 in it. +They're building a system that ejects these at quarter-second intervals. +That's my dad in the sport coat there, holding the briefcase. +So, they had a lot of fun doing this. But no children were allowed; my dad could tell me he was building a spaceship and going to go to Saturn, but he could not say anything more about it. +So all my life I have wanted to find this stuff out, and spent the last four years tracking these old guys down. +These are stills from the video. +Jeff Bezos kindly, yesterday, said he'll put this video up on the Amazon site -- some little clip of it. +So, thanks to him. +They got quite serious about the engineering of this. +The size of that mass, for us, is really large technology in a way we're never going to go back to. +If you saw the 1959 -- this is what it would feel like in the passenger compartment; that's acceleration profile. +And pulse-system yield: we're looking at 20-kiloton yield for an effective thrust of 10 million newtons. +Well, here we have a little problem, the radiation doses at the crew station: 700 rads per shot. +Fission yields during development: they were hoping to get clean bombs; they didn't. +Eyeburn: this is what happens to the people in Miami who are looking up. +Personnel compartment noise: that's not too bad; it's very low frequencies, it's basically like these sub-woofers. +And now we have ground-hazard assessments when you have a blow-up on the pad. +Finally, at the very end in 1964, NASA steps in and says, "OK, we'll support a feasibility study for a small version that could be launched with Saturn Vs in sections and pieced together." +So this is what NASA did, getting an eight-man version that would go to Mars. +They liked it because the guys could kind of live there and be like, "It's like living in a submarine." +This is crew compartment. It switches, so what's upside down is right side up when you go to artificial gravity mode. +The scientists were still going to go along; they would take seven astronauts and seven scientists. +This is a 20-man version for going to Jupiter: bunks, storm cellars, exercise room. +You know, it was going to be a nice, long trip. +The Air Force version: here we have a military version. +This is the kind of stuff that's not been declassified, just that people managed to sneak home and after, you know, on their deathbed, basically, gave me that. +The sort of artist conceptions. +These are basically PowerPoint presentations given to the Air Force 40 years ago. +Look at the little guys there outside the vehicle. +And one part of NASA was interested in it, but the headquarters in NASA, they killed the project. +So finally, at the end, we can see the thing followed its sort of design path right up to 1965, and then all those paths came to a halt. +Results: none. +This project is hereby terminated. +So that's the end. All I can say in closing is: we heard yesterday that one of the 10 bad things that could happen to us is an asteroid with our name on it. +And one of the bad things that could happen to NASA is if that asteroid shows up with our name on it nine months out, and everybody says, "Well, what are we going to do?" +And Orion is really one of the only, if not the only, off-the-shelf technologies that could do something. +So I'm going to tell you the good news and the bad news. +The good news is that NASA has a small, secret contingency-plan division that is looking at this, trying to keep knowledge of Orion preserved in the event of such a misfortune. +Maybe keep a few little bombs of plutonium on the side. +That's the good news. +The bad news is, when I got in contact with these people to try and get some documents from them, they went crazy because I had all this stuff that they don't have, and NASA purchased 1,759 pages of this stuff from me. +So that's the state we're at; it's not very good. +And then the pilot didn't go and I was so sad, but I kept remaining a fan of yours. +And then when I went through that big, horrible breakup with Carl and I couldn't get off the couch, I listened to your song, "Now That I Don't Have You," over and over and over and over again. +And I can't believe you're here and that I'm meeting you here at TED. +And also, I can't believe that we're eating sushi in front of the fish tank, which, personally, I think is really inappropriate. +And little did I know that one year later ... we'd be doing this show. Sobule: I sing. Sweeney: I tell stories. Together: The Jill and Julia Show. Sobule: Hey, they asked us back! Sweeney: Can you stand it?! + Dorothy Parker, mean, drunk and depressed. Sweeney: I know. + And that guy, "Seven Years in Tibet," turned out to be a Nazi. Sweeney: Yeah. + Founding fathers all had slaves. Sweeney: I know. + The explorers slaughtered the braves. Sweeney: Horribly. + Sobule: The Old Testament God can be so petty. Sweeney: Don't get me started on that. Sobule: Paul McCartney, jealous of John, even more so now that he's gone. Dylan was so mean to Donovan in that movie. Pablo Picasso, cruel to his wives. Sweeney: Horrible. + Lewis Carroll I'm sure did Alice. Sweeney: What?! + Plato in the cave with those very young boys. Sweeney: Ooh... + Sobule: Hillary supported the war. Sweeney: Even Thomas Friedman supported the war. Sobule: Colin Powell turned out to be ... Together: ... such a pussy. Sobule: William Faulkner, drunk and depressed, Tennessee Williams, drunk and depressed. Sweeney: Yeah. + Sobule: Take it, Julia. Sweeney: Okay. Oprah was never necessarily a big hero of mine. +I mean, I watch Oprah mostly when I'm home in Spokane visiting my mother. And to my mother, Oprah is a greater moral authority than the Pope, which is actually saying something because she's a devout Catholic. +And that was that she did two entire shows promoting that movie "The Secret." +Do you guys know about that movie "The Secret"? +It makes "What the Bleep Do We Know" seem like a doctoral dissertation from Harvard on quantum mechanics -- that's how bad it is. +It makes "The DaVinci Code" seem like "War and Peace." +That movie is so horrible. It promotes such awful pseudoscience. +And the basic idea is that there's this law of attraction, and your thoughts have this vibrating energy that goes out into the universe and then you attract good things to happen to you. +On a scientific basis, it's more than just "Power of Positive Thinking" -- it has a horrible, horrible dark side. Like if you get ill, it's because you've just been thinking negative thoughts. +Yeah, stuff like that was in the movie and she's promoting it. +And all I'm saying is that I really wish that Murray Gell-Mann would go on Oprah and just explain to her that the law of attraction is, in fact, not a law. +So that's what I have to say. + Sobule: I sing. Sweeney: I tell stories. Together: The Jill and Julia Show. Sobule: Sometimes it works. Sweeney: Sometimes it doesn't. Together: The Jill and Julia, the Jill and Julia, the Jill and Julia Show. +Dan Holzman: Please throw out the beanbag chairs. Here we go. +Barry Friedman: There are all kinds of high-tech chairs here today, but this is really, I think, when it reached its peak as far as ergonomics, comfort, design, flexibility ... +DH: Now obviously, this is not something we do on our regular show; it's something we just kind of learned for this, so we're going to try. But can we have some inspirational music for the beanbag chairs? +BF: Nice show, Daniel, nice show. You are the man! +Nice show. Man, that was good! +DH: Thank you. +BF: You know, sometimes when people do those, they go all the way down. +You actually just did that. That's the kind of extra effort that's gotten us where we are today ... +DH: All right, let's show them something special. +BF: ... without a MacArthur grant. +Yeah, look at this. You know, all kinds of different ... +TED is about invention, let's be honest. Right? DH: Yeah, it is. +BF: Last night, Michael Moschen showed some juggling props he has invented and working on. +Right now, Dan's going to show something he actually invented. +DH: A type of juggling I actually invented, right after I saw another juggler do it. +BF: Shut up. DH: And this is a small excerpt from a longer piece. +Folks, this is shaker cup juggling. It's not a showstopper but it certainly slows it down. +BF: Oh yeah, it does. (Drum roll) BF: Oh, Daniel. +DH: One more? (Drum roll) Perfect. (Drum roll) Perfect. (Drum roll) BF: OK. DH: Oh! All right. +I'm now pushing my luck: I'm skipping right to six cups. +In order to do six cups, I must have perfect control over three with my right hand. (Drum roll) BF: Also three with his left. +DH: Perfect. +And now, all six cups. Should I do it on the first try or should I miss once on purpose? BF: First try? Once on purpose? +(Audience: Once on purpose!) DH: How about if I try first and then decide? +BF: Good idea. Let's leave that. We'll leave that door open. +DH: He's looking at me. +BF: That's all right, he does that. All right. +DH: Oh! It's time for Richard's help. Oh, good. All right. +BF: You know, over the years, every year at the conference, it's kind of become a tradition for us to do something dangerous with Richard. And we've always done something with the bullwhips in our act. It's funny, for years I did it with Daniel holding balloons. +And then we thought, "How stupid." +DH: Excuse me, could we work on the design of the microphone? +BF: I think that's the next session. +DH: Next session? +BF: Yeah. And so we've actually found a way to incorporate Richard in this. +He actually assumes more of the danger in this. +DH: Please stand up, Richard. (Whip cracks) Oh, sorry. DH: Now Richard, please ... (Whip cracks) BF: OK, sorry. +DH: Jesus Christ. Richard, please stand in front of me. +Richard Wurman: Can I say something? +BF: Sure. +RW: In all past years I've rehearsed with them, the things that have happened to me -- I have no idea what's going to happen and that's the truth. +DH: All right, please stand here in front ... +God, I hate that. Put your hands out like this, please. +BF: No, come stay up with him. +Dan used to actually hold them but now he's got you for protection. +It's kind of neat. OK. +DH: Wow, you've been working out. +BF: No, shut up! +Having a little bit of Richard time. That's nice, that's good. +OK, here we go. +Have him hold your wrist so I can ... +DH: Please hold my wrist, will you. BF: Yeah, hold this a minute. +There you go. +OK. +OK, hold on. +RW: Hmmm. +DH: First one. +BF: All those mid-year phone calls are coming back to me now, Richard. +DH: So Richard, what were we on the list? Like 1,020? +What happened there? +BF: I think we were just outside. +DH: I don't get it. DH: Sorry. BF: Having some bad flashbacks. +RW: Do you want me to hold you or not? DH: Don't hold me that hard. +BF: Here we go, I'm taking it. (Balloon pops) DH: One more, one more. +BF: We've got one more we're going to do. +RW: Do I get to hold them? +BF: You don't want to hold these, trust me. +DH: Could you spread your legs a little bit? +BF: Gloria, you want to do it? It's very cool. +One more try. Man, I don't want to get too close. +Could you just push that? +DH: Wow! Boy! +BF: That's cool. I always wanted to try that. +DH: Let's jump this way, though. +Now, we risked Richard's life, it's only fair we risk our own lives. +So to do that, I will juggle these three razor-sharp sickles. +And if that wasn't enough, and judging by your response, it's not ... +DH: Wow! BF: Hoping for a little more build. +DH: True. Barry ... +BF: I'm going to run up behind him. +DH: Leap over my shoulder. +BF: Up and over his shoulders. +DH: Grab the blades in mid-air, land right there in a pool of blood ... +Still juggling. Impossible, you say? +BF: Incredible, you say? +DH: Why bother, you say? +BF: Here we go. +DH: Just do it juggler boys, you say? +BF: This guy, this guy invented air. +DH: I think so, that's right. +Even the pencil. +BF: He invented the pencil. +DH: All right, we'll do this trick, but please remember it took us over 10 years to perfect. +BF: Ten years to perfect, which you're about to see. +DH: It's not that difficult, we just don't like to practice that much. +BF: No, it's a hassle. Traveling too much. +Actually, we will take a second to prove -- this could be fake -- that the blades are indeed razor-sharp. +DH: Will someone please throw a small farm animal up onto the stage? +Or a virgin for a sacrifice? +BF: Anything? +DH: Where's Gloria? BF: No, she's got ... farm animal. +DH: Do you have a small farm animal? +Just trying to play the odds. All right, here we go. +BF: Over the top, over the top. +DH: How you feeling, Barry? You feeling all right? +BF: Yeah, it's all right. +DH: Do you feel everything's OK? The atmosphere, the ... +BF: Yeah, a little sketchy. +DH: Everything up here's OK? +BF: Yeah. +DH: Then here we go. +BF: This one's a little ... Who's doing the lights? Could you point that a little more directly into my eyeballs? Is that possible? I can still see a little. +DH: And turn up the intensity; we're still pink in the middle. +We went too far. BF: Yeah, it's too far. It's too much of a visual. +The design of the body is a whole different thing. +DH: Ready, Barry? BF: Over the top. +DH: May we have our jumping music please? May we have it a bit louder? +BF: They're a good crew! Whoa! +DH: Whoa, sorry. All right. +BF: We're going on. +DH: All right, we'll try again. +BF: All right? Oh my gosh. Oh. +DH: All right, here we go. Sorry about that. +BF: I thought I had the hard part. OK. +DH: Whenever you're ready. +BF: There we go! +All right, get up! Come on and dance! DH: Dance, come on. BF: Come on and dance! +Somebody dance! Come on! +Wow, wow, OK, stop. +Weird, no one dances. We're two guys doing this. I think that's uncomfortable for everyone. +DH: The French judge ... +BF: One more quick thing. +DH: The French judge gives it a 5.2. +BF: Well, you know ... +DH: There you go ... BF: Oh, yeah. Another one coming in. +DH: Tell them about our bio and stuff. +BF: Yeah. In our bio, some of you may have read that we've won two world juggling championships. +And believe it or not, you don't win juggling champions for doing things with bullwhips or shaker cups. +We're going to show you right now an excerpt from a routine that we used to wipe out the other juggling team competition. +DH: That's right. +BF: Good. +DH: I know what you're thinking: other juggling teams must really suck. +BF: Juggling's got a bad rap. +DH: But wait, Barry, there's still one more club lying there by my foot. +And look, it has a twin! +BF: Shut up. DH: There's still one more by my foot. +What do you want me to do with it? +BF: Richard you tell him, it's your last year. DH: That's a pretty good setup, Richard. +BF: Yeah, it's a good setup. That's a big setup. +DH: You can't get any better than that. All right. What I will do: I will use my panther-like reflexes. +BF: Nice. +DH: I got that -- to reach down and grab that club in my grip of steel. +BF: Nice. +DH: I touched it, Barry. That should be enough. +BF: It's progress, that's the thing. +DH: How about that? I'll do it again. +Oh wait, it's on your side, Barry. +And it's awfully windy over there. +BF: It is, it's weird. You wouldn't think it would affect half the stage, but it is. It's weird. +Watch this: what I'm going to do is slide the seventh one onto my foot. +DH: Wow! What a great trick, Barry! +Oh, look how it lies there. +Oh, Barry, is there nothing you can't do? +You are my hero. You're my Jim Shea, Jr. +Too much Olympics. +BF: From my foot, I'll attempt to kick the seventh club. Here we go. +DH: Where, Barry? Where? Tell us, Barry. +[Unclear] eagerly awaits your next syllable. What will it be? +What gem of knowledge? +What pearl of wisdom? +Do you want to buy a vowel, Barry? +Is that your final answer? +BF: All right! You have to turn off the TV from time to time. +DH: I do, I do. +BF: From my foot, the kick up in the seven. +DH: We will juggle seven. +BF: From six to seven. DH: That's a world's record. BF: Really? DH: For us. +BF: Yes. +DH: Whenever you're ready there, big guy. +Put your tongue away, Barry. +BF: Oh, oh, whoa. +DH: Please, please stay seated. Stay seated. Thank you. +Because now, to make this twice as difficult, we'll juggle the seven clubs back ... +BF: Seven-club juggling. +DH: ... to back. +BF: Thank you, that's it. +BF: Thank you guys! +DH: Thank you very much! +Roy Gould: Less than a year from now, the world is going to celebrate the International Year of Astronomy, which marks the 400th anniversary of Galileo's first glimpse of the night sky through a telescope. +In a few months, the world is also going to celebrate the launch of a new invention from Microsoft Research, which I think is going to have as profound an impact on the way we view the universe as Galileo did four centuries ago. +It's called the WorldWide Telescope, and I want to thank TED and Microsoft for allowing me to bring it to your attention. +And I want to urge you, when you get a chance, to give it a closer look at the TED Lab downstairs. +The WorldWide Telescope takes the best images from the world's greatest telescopes on Earth and in space, and has woven them seamlessly to produce a holistic view of the universe. +It's going to change the way we do astronomy, it's going to change the way we teach astronomy and I think most importantly it's going to change the way we see ourselves in the universe. +If we were having this TED meeting in our grandparents' day, that might not be so big a claim. +In 1920, for example, you weren't allowed to drink; if you were a woman, you weren't allowed to vote; and if you looked up at the stars and the Milky Way on a summer night, what you saw was thought to be the entire universe. +In fact, the head of Harvard's observatory back then gave a great debate in which he argued that the Milky Way Galaxy was the entire universe. +Harvard was wrong, big time. Of course, we know today that galaxies extend far beyond our own galaxy. +We can see all the way out to the edge of the observable universe, all the way back in time, almost to the moment of the Big Bang itself. +We can see across the entire spectrum of light, revealing worlds that had previously been invisible. +We see these magnificent star nurseries, where nature has somehow arranged for just the right numbers and just the right sizes of stars to be born for life to arise. +We see alien worlds, we see alien solar systems -- 300 now, and still counting -- and they're not like us. +We see black holes at the heart of our galaxy, in the Milky Way, and elsewhere in the universe, where time itself seems to stand still. +But until now, our view of the universe has been disconnected and fragmented, and I think that many of the marvelous stories that nature has to tell us have fallen through the cracks. And that's changing. +I want to just briefly mention three reasons why my colleagues and I, in astronomy and in education, are so excited about the WorldWide Telescope and why we think it's truly transformative. +First, it enables you to experience the universe: the WorldWide Telescope, for me, is a kind of magic carpet that lets you navigate through the universe where you want to go. +Second: you can tour the universe with astronomers as your guides. +And I'm not talking here about just experts who are telling you what you're seeing, but really people who are passionate about the various nooks and crannies of the universe, who can share their enthusiasm and can make the universe a welcoming place. +And third, you can create your own tours -- you can share them with friends, you can create them with friends -- and that's the part that I think I'm most excited about because I think that at heart, we are all storytellers. +And in telling stories, each of us is going to understand the universe in our own way. +We're going to have a personal universe. +I think we're going to see a community of storytellers evolve and emerge. +Before I introduce the person responsible for the WorldWide Telescope, I just want to leave you with this brief thought: when I ask people, "How does the night sky make you feel?" +they often say, "Oh, tiny. I feel tiny and insignificant." +Well, our gaze fills the universe. +And thanks to the creators of the WorldWide Telescope, we can now start to have a dialogue with the universe. +I think the WorldWide Telescope will convince you that we may be tiny, but we are truly, wonderfully significant. +Thank you. +I can't tell you what a privilege it is to introduce Curtis Wong from Microsoft. Curtis Wong: Thank you, Roy. +So, what you're seeing here is a wonderful presentation, but it's one of the tours. +And actually this tour is one that was created earlier. +And the tours are all totally interactive, so that if I were to go somewhere ... +you may be watching a tour and you can pause anywhere along the way, pull up other information -- there are lots of Web and information sources about places you might want to go -- you can zoom in, you can pull back out. +The whole resources are there available for you. +So, Microsoft -- this is a project that -- WorldWide Telescope is dedicated to Jim Gray, who's our colleague, and a lot of his work that he did is really what makes this project possible. +It's a labor of love for us and our small team, and we really hope it will inspire kids to explore and learn about the universe. +So basically, kids of all ages, like us. +And so WorldWide Telescope will be available this spring. +It'll be a free download -- thank you, Craig Mundie -- and it'll be available at the website WorldWideTelescope.org, which is something new. +And so, what you've seen today is less than a fraction of one percent of what is in here, and in the TED Lab, we have a tour that was created by a six-year-old named Benjamin that will knock your socks off. So we'll see you there. Thank you. +By day, I'm a venture capitalist. On weekends, I love rockets. +I love photography, I love rockets. +I'm going to talk about a hobby that can scale and show you photos I've taken over the years with kids like these, that hopefully will grow up to love rocketry and eventually become a Richard Branson or Diamandis. +My son designed a rocket that became stable, a golf ball rocket. +I thought it was quite an interesting experiment in the principles of rocket science. +And it flies straight as an arrow. +Baking soda and vinegar. +Night shots are beautiful, piercing the Big Dipper and the Milky Way. +2-stage rockets with video cameras on them, onboard computers logging their flights, rocket gliders that fly back to Earth. +I use RockSim to simulate flights before they go to see if they'll break supersonic, then fly them with onboard computers to verify performance. +To launch the big stuff, you go to the middle of nowhere: Black Rock Desert, where dangerous things happen. +The boys and the rockets get bigger. +They use motors used on cruise-missile boosters. +They rumble the belly and leave even photographers in awe, watching the spectacle. +These rockets use experimental motors like nitrous oxide. +They use solid propellant most frequently. +It's a strange kind of love. +RocketMavericks.com with my photos, if you want to learn about this, participate, be a spectator. +We had to call it Rocket Mavericks. +This one was great, went to 100,000 feet -- but didn't quite. +Actually, it went 11 feet into solid clay and became a bunker-buster. +It had to be dug out. +Rockets often spiral out of control if you put too much propellant in them. +Here was a drag race. +At night you can see what happened in a second; in daytime, we call them land sharks. +Sometimes they just explode before your eyes or come down supersonic. +To take this shot, I did what I often do, which is go way beyond the pads, where none of the spectators are. +And if we can run the video, I'll show you what it took to get this DreamWorks shot. +Voices: Woo-hoo! Yeah. Nice. +Steve Jurvetson: They realize the computer failed, they're yelling "Deploy!" +SJ: This is when they realize everything's gone haywire. +Man: It's going ballistic. +SJ: I'll just be quiet. +Woman: No! +Come on, come on, come on. +SJ: And that's me over there, taking photos the whole way. +Things often go wrong. +Some people watch this because of a NASCAR-like fascination with things bumping and grinding. +Burning the parachute as it fell. That was last weekend. +This guy went up, went supersonic, ripped the fin can off. +The art sale in the sky. +A burning metal hunk coming back. +These things dropped down from above all through the weekend of rocket launch after rocket launch. +It's a cadence you can't quite imagine. +I try to capture the mishaps; it's a challenge in photography when these things take place in a fraction of a second. +Why do it? For things like this: Gene from Alabama drives out there with this rocket he's built with X-ray sensors, video cameras, festooned with electronics. He succeeds getting to 100,000 feet, leaving the atmosphere, seeing a thin blue line of space. +It is this breathtaking image -- success, of course -- that motivates us and motivates kids to follow and understand rocket science, understand the importance of physics and math and, in many ways, to have that awe at exploration of the frontiers of the unknown. +Thank you. +A great way to start, I think, with my view of simplicity is to take a look at TED. Here you are, understanding why we're here, what's going on with no difficulty at all. +The best A.I. in the planet would find it complex and confusing, and my little dog Watson would find it simple and understandable but would miss the point. +He would have a great time. +And of course, if you're a speaker here, like Hans Rosling, a speaker finds this complex, tricky. But in Hans Rosling's case, he had a secret weapon yesterday, literally, in his sword swallowing act. +And I must say, I thought of quite a few objects that I might try to swallow today and finally gave up on, but he just did it and that was a wonderful thing. +So Puck meant not only are we fools in the pejorative sense, but that we're easily fooled. In fact, what Shakespeare was pointing out is we go to the theater in order to be fooled, so we're actually looking forward to it. +We go to magic shows in order to be fooled. +And this makes many things fun, but it makes it difficult to actually get any kind of picture on the world we live in or on ourselves. +And our friend, Betty Edwards, the "Drawing on the Right Side of the Brain" lady, shows these two tables to her drawing class and says, "The problem you have with learning to draw is not that you can't move your hand, but that the way your brain perceives images is faulty. +It's trying to perceive images into objects rather than seeing what's there." +And to prove it, she says, "The exact size and shape of these tabletops is the same, and I'm going to prove it to you." +She does this with cardboard, but since I have an expensive computer here I'll just rotate this little guy around and ... +Now having seen that -- and I've seen it hundreds of times, because I use this in every talk I give -- I still can't see that they're the same size and shape, and I doubt that you can either. +So what do artists do? Well, what artists do is to measure. +They measure very, very carefully. +And if you measure very, very carefully with a stiff arm and a straight edge, you'll see that those two shapes are exactly the same size. +And the Talmud saw this a long time ago, saying, "We see things not as they are, but as we are." +I certainly would like to know what happened to the person who had that insight back then, if they actually followed it to its ultimate conclusion. +So if the world is not as it seems and we see things as we are, then what we call reality is a kind of hallucination happening inside here. It's a waking dream, and understanding that that is what we actually exist in is one of the biggest epistemological barriers in human history. +And what that means: "simple and understandable" might not be actually simple or understandable, and things we think are "complex" might be made simple and understandable. +Somehow we have to understand ourselves to get around our flaws. +We can think of ourselves as kind of a noisy channel. +The way I think of it is, we can't learn to see until we admit we're blind. +Once you start down at this very humble level, then you can start finding ways to see things. +And what's happened, over the last 400 years in particular, is that human beings have invented "brainlets" -- little additional parts for our brain -- made out of powerful ideas that help us see the world in different ways. +And these are in the form of sensory apparatus -- telescopes, microscopes -- reasoning apparatus -- various ways of thinking -- and, most importantly, in the ability to change perspective on things. +I'll talk about that a little bit. +It's this change in perspective on what it is we think we're perceiving that has helped us make more progress in the last 400 years than we have in the rest of human history. +And yet, it is not taught in any K through 12 curriculum in America that I'm aware of. +So one of the things that goes from simple to complex is when we do more. We like more. +If we do more in a kind of a stupid way, the simplicity gets complex and, in fact, we can keep on doing it for a very long time. +But Murray Gell-Mann yesterday talked about emergent properties; another name for them could be "architecture" as a metaphor for taking the same old material and thinking about non-obvious, non-simple ways of combining it. +And in fact, what Murray was talking about yesterday in the fractal beauty of nature -- of having the descriptions at various levels be rather similar -- all goes down to the idea that the elementary particles are both sticky and standoffish, and they're in violent motion. +Those three things give rise to all the different levels of what seem to be complexity in our world. +But how simple? +So, when I saw Roslings' Gapminder stuff a few years ago, I just thought it was the greatest thing I'd seen in conveying complex ideas simply. +But then I had a thought of, "Boy, maybe it's too simple." +And I put some effort in to try and check to see how well these simple portrayals of trends over time actually matched up with some ideas and investigations from the side, and I found that they matched up very well. +So the Roslings have been able to do simplicity without removing what's important about the data. +Whereas the film yesterday that we saw of the simulation of the inside of a cell, as a former molecular biologist, I didn't like that at all. +Not because it wasn't beautiful or anything, but because it misses the thing that most students fail to understand about molecular biology, and that is: why is there any probability at all of two complex shapes finding each other just the right way so they combine together and be catalyzed? +And what we saw yesterday was every reaction was fortuitous; they just swooped in the air and bound, and something happened. +But in fact, those molecules are spinning at the rate of about a million revolutions per second; they're agitating back and forth their size every two nanoseconds; they're completely crowded together, they're jammed, they're bashing up against each other. +And if you don't understand that in your mental model of this stuff, what happens inside of a cell seems completely mysterious and fortuitous, and I think that's exactly the wrong image for when you're trying to teach science. +So, another thing that we do is to confuse adult sophistication with the actual understanding of some principle. +So a kid who's 14 in high school gets this version of the Pythagorean theorem, which is a truly subtle and interesting proof, but in fact it's not a good way to start learning about mathematics. +So a more direct one, one that gives you more of the feeling of math, is something closer to Pythagoras' own proof, which goes like this: so here we have this triangle, and if we surround that C square with three more triangles and we copy that, notice that we can move those triangles down like this. +And that leaves two open areas that are kind of suspicious ... +and bingo. That is all you have to do. +And this kind of proof is the kind of proof that you need to learn when you're learning mathematics in order to get an idea of what it means before you look into the, literally, 1,200 or 1,500 proofs of Pythagoras' theorem that have been discovered. +Now let's go to young children. +This is a very unusual teacher who was a kindergarten and first-grade teacher, but was a natural mathematician. +So she was like that jazz musician friend you have who never studied music but is a terrific musician; she just had a feeling for math. +And here are her six-year-olds, and she's got them making shapes out of a shape. +So they pick a shape they like -- like a diamond, or a square, or a triangle, or a trapezoid -- and then they try and make the next larger shape of that same shape, and the next larger shape. +You can see the trapezoids are a little challenging there. +And what this teacher did on every project was to have the children act like first it was a creative arts project, and then something like science. +So they had created these artifacts. +Now she had them look at them and do this ... laborious, which I thought for a long time, until she explained to me was to slow them down so they'll think. +So they're cutting out the little pieces of cardboard here and pasting them up. +But the whole point of this thing is for them to look at this chart and fill it out. +"What have you noticed about what you did?" +And so six-year-old Lauren there noticed that the first one took one, and the second one took three more and the total was four on that one, the third one took five more and the total was nine on that one, and then the next one. +She saw right away that the additional tiles that you had to add around the edges was always going to grow by two, so she was very confident about how she made those numbers there. +And she could see that these were the square numbers up until about six, where she wasn't sure what six times six was and what seven times seven was, but then she was confident again. +So that's what Lauren did. +And then the teacher, Gillian Ishijima, had the kids bring all of their projects up to the front of the room and put them on the floor, and everybody went batshit: "Holy shit! They're the same!" +No matter what the shapes were, the growth law is the same. +And the mathematicians and scientists in the crowd will recognize these two progressions as a first-order discrete differential equation and a second-order discrete differential equation, derived by six-year-olds. +Well, that's pretty amazing. +That isn't what we usually try to teach six-year-olds. +So, let's take a look now at how we might use the computer for some of this. +And so the first idea here is just to show you the kind of things that children do. +I'm using the software that we're putting on the $100 laptop. +So I'd like to draw a little car here -- I'll just do this very quickly -- and put a big tire on him. +And I get a little object here and I can look inside this object, I'll call it a car. And here's a little behavior: car forward. +Each time I click it, car turn. +If I want to make a little script to do this over and over again, I just drag these guys out and set them going. +And I can try steering the car here by ... +See the car turn by five here? +So what if I click this down to zero? +It goes straight. That's a big revelation for nine-year-olds. +Make it go in the other direction. +But of course, that's a little bit like kissing your sister as far as driving a car, so the kids want to do a steering wheel; so they draw a steering wheel. +And we'll call this a wheel. +See this wheel's heading here? +If I turn this wheel, you can see that number over there going minus and positive. +That's kind of an invitation to pick up this name of those numbers coming out there and to just drop it into the script here, and now I can steer the car with the steering wheel. +And it's interesting. +You know how much trouble the children have with variables, but by learning it this way, in a situated fashion, they never forget from this single trial what a variable is and how to use it. +And we can reflect here the way Gillian Ishijima did. +So if you look at the little script here, the speed is always going to be 30. +We're going to move the car according to that over and over again. +And I'm dropping a little dot for each one of these things; they're evenly spaced because they're 30 apart. +And what if I do this progression that the six-year-olds did of saying, "OK, I'm going to increase the speed by two each time, and then I'm going to increase the distance by the speed each time? +What do I get there?" +We get a visual pattern of what these nine-year-olds called acceleration. +So how do the children do science? +Teacher: [Choose] objects that you think will fall to the Earth at the same time. +Student 1: Ooh, this is nice. +Teacher: Do not pay any attention to what anybody else is doing. +Who's got the apple? +Alan Kay: They've got little stopwatches. +Student 2: What did you get? What did you get? +AK: Stopwatches aren't accurate enough. +Student 3: 0.99 seconds. +Teacher: So put "sponge ball" ... +Student 4l: [I decided to] do the shot put and the sponge ball because they're two totally different weights, and if you drop them at the same time, maybe they'll drop at the same speed. +Teacher: Drop. Class: Whoa! +AK: So obviously, Aristotle never asked a child about this particular point because, of course, he didn't bother doing the experiment, and neither did St. Thomas Aquinas. +And it was not until Galileo actually did it that an adult thought like a child, only 400 years ago. +We get one child like that about every classroom of 30 kids who will actually cut straight to the chase. +Now, what if we want to look at this more closely? +We can take a movie of what's going on, but even if we single stepped this movie, it's tricky to see what's going on. +And so what we can do is we can lay out the frames side by side or stack them up. +So when the children see this, they say, "Ah! Acceleration," remembering back four months when they did their cars sideways, and they start measuring to find out what kind of acceleration it is. +So what I'm doing is measuring from the bottom of one image to the bottom of the next image, about a fifth of a second later, like that. And they're getting faster and faster each time, and if I stack these guys up, then we see the differences; the increase in the speed is constant. +And they say, "Oh, yeah. Constant acceleration. +We've done that already." +And how shall we look and verify that we actually have it? +So you can't tell much from just making the ball drop there, but if we drop the ball and run the movie at the same time, we can see that we have come up with an accurate physical model. +Galileo, by the way, did this very cleverly by running a ball backwards down the strings of his lute. +I pulled out those apples to remind myself to tell you that this is actually probably a Newton and the apple type story, but it's a great story. +And I thought I would do just one thing on the $100 laptop here just to prove that this stuff works here. +So once you have gravity, here's this -- increase the speed by something, increase the ship's speed. +If I start the little game here that the kids have done, it'll crash the space ship. +But if I oppose gravity, here we go ... Oops! +One more. +Yeah, there we go. Yeah, OK? +I guess the best way to end this is with two quotes: Marshall McLuhan said, "Children are the messages that we send to the future," but in fact, if you think of it, children are the future we send to the future. +Forget about messages; children are the future, and children in the first and second world and, most especially, in the third world need mentors. +And this summer, we're going to build five million of these $100 laptops, and maybe 50 million next year. +But we couldn't create 1,000 new teachers this summer to save our life. +That means that we, once again, have a thing where we can put technology out, but the mentoring that is required to go from a simple new iChat instant messaging system to something with depth is missing. +I believe this has to be done with a new kind of user interface, and this new kind of user interface could be done with an expenditure of about 100 million dollars. +It sounds like a lot, but it is literally 18 minutes of what we're spending in Iraq -- we're spending 8 billion dollars a month; 18 minutes is 100 million dollars -- so this is actually cheap. +And Einstein said, "Things should be as simple as possible, but not simpler." +Thank you. +In this rather long sort of marathon presentation, I've tried to break it up into three parts: the first being a whole lot of examples on how it can be a little bit more pleasurable to deal with a computer and really address the qualities of the human interface. +And these will be some simple design qualities and they will also be some qualities of, if you will, the intelligence of interaction. +Then the second part will really just be examples of new technologies -- new media falling very much into that mold. +Again, I will go through them as fast as possible. +And then the last one will be some examples I've been able to collect, which I think illustrate this at least as best I can, in the world of entertainment. +People have this belief -- and I share most of it -- that we will be using the TV screens or their equivalents for electronic books of the future. But then you think, "My God! What a terrible image you get when you look at still pictures on TV." +Well, it doesn't have to be terrible. +And that is a slide taken from a TV set and it was pre-processed to be very sympathetic to the TV medium, and it absolutely looks beautiful. +Well, what's happened? How did people get into this mess? +Where you are now, all of a sudden, sitting in front of personal computers and video text -- teletext systems, and somewhat horrified by what you see on the screen? +Well, you have to remember that TV was designed to be looked at eight times the distance of the diagonal. +So you get a 13-inch, 19-inch, whatever, TV, and then you should multiply that by eight and that's the distance you should sit away from the TV set. +Now we've put people 18 inches in front of a TV, and all the artifacts that none of the original designers expected to be seen, all of a sudden, are staring you in the face: the shadow mask, the scan lines, all of that. +And they can be treated very easily; there are actually ways of getting rid of them, there are actually ways of just making absolutely beautiful pictures. +I'm talking here a little bit about display technologies. +Let me talk about how you might input information. +And my favorite example is always fingers. +I'm very interested in touch-sensitive displays. +High-tech, high-touch. Isn't that what some of you said? +It's certainly a very important medium for input, and a lot of people think that fingers are a very low-resolution sort of stylus for inputting to a display. +In fact, they're not: it's really a very, very high-resolution input medium -- you have to just do it twice, you have to touch the screen and then rotate your finger slightly -- and you can move a cursor with great accuracy. +And so when you see on the market these systems that have just a few light emitting diodes on the side and are very low resolution, it's nice that they exist because it still is better than nothing. +But it, in some sense, misses the point: namely, that fingers are a very, very high-resolution input medium. +Now, what are some of the other advantages? +You have to probably stop. Maybe not come to a grinding halt, but you've got to sort of find that mouse. Then you find the mouse, and you're going to have to wiggle it a little bit to see where the cursor is on the screen. +And then when you finally see where it is, then you've got to move it to get the cursor over there, and then -- "Bang" -- you've got to hit a button or do whatever. +That's four separate steps versus typing and then touching and typing and just doing it all in one motion -- or one-and-a-half, depending on how you want to count. +Again, what I'm trying to do is just illustrate the kinds of problems that I think face the designers of new computer systems and entertainment systems and educational systems from the perspective of the quality of that interface. +And another advantage, of course, of using fingers is you have 10 of them. +And we have never known how to do this technically, so this slide is a fake slide. +We never succeeded in using ten fingers, but there are certain things you can do, obviously, with more than one-finger input, which is rather fascinating. +What we did stumble across was something ... +Again, which is typical of the computer field, is when you have a bug that you can't get rid of you turn it into a feature. +And maybe ... maybe a mouse is a new kind of bug. +But the bug in our case was in touch-sensitive displays: we wanted to be able to draw -- you know, rub your finger across the screen to input continuous points -- and there was just too much friction created between your finger and the glass -- if glass was the substrate, which it usually is. +So we found that that actually was a feature in the sense you could build a pressure-sensitive display. +And when you touch it with your finger, you can actually, then, introduce all the forces on the face of that screen, and that actually has a certain amount of value. +Let me see if I can load another disc and show you, quickly, an example. +Now, imagine a screen, which is not only touch-sensitive now, it's pressure-sensitive. +And it's pressure-sensitive to the forces both in the plane of the screen -- X, Y, and Z at least in one direction; we couldn't figure out how to come in the other direction. +But let me get rid of the slide, and let's see if this comes on. +OK. So there is the pressure-sensitive display in operation. +The person's just, if you will, pushing on the screen to make a curve. +But this is the interesting part. +I want to stop it for a second because the movie is very badly made. +And the particular display was built about six years ago, and when we moved from one room to another room, a rather large person sat on it and it got destroyed. +So all we have is this record. But imagine that screen having lots of objects on it and the person has touched an object -- one of N -- like he did there, and then pushed on it. +Now, imagine a program where some of those objects are physically heavy and some are light: one is an anvil on a fuzzy rug and the other one is a ping-pong ball on a sheet of glass. +And when you touch it, you have to really push very hard to move that anvil across the screen, and yet you touch the ping-pong ball very lightly and it just scoots across the screen. +And what you can do -- oops, I didn't mean to do that -- what you can do is actually feed back to the user the feeling of the physical properties. +So again, they don't have to be weight; they could be a general trying to move troops, and he's got to move an aircraft carrier versus a little boat. +In fact, they funded it for that very reason. +The whole notion, then, is one that at the interface there are physical properties in that transducer -- in this case it's pressure and touches -- that allow you to present things to the user that you could never present before. +So it's not simply looking at the quality or, if you will, the luxury of that interface, but it's actually looking at the idea of presenting things that previously couldn't be presented before. +I want to move on to another example, which is one of a different sort, where we're trying to use computer and video disc technology now to come up with a new kind of book. +Here, the idea is that you're going to take this book, if you will, and it's going to come alive. +You're going to sort of breathe life into it. +We are so used to doing monologues. +Filmmakers, for example, are the experts in monologue making: you make a film and it has a well-formed beginning, middle and end, and in some sense the art of it is that. +And you then say, "There's an opportunity for making conversational movies." Well, what does that mean? +And it sort of nibbles at the core of the whole profession and all the assumptions of that medium. +So, book writing is the same thing. +What I'll show you very quickly is a new kind of book where it is mixed now with ... all sorts of things live in there, but you have to keep a few things in mind. +One is that this book knows about itself. +Each frame of the movie has information about itself. +So it knows, or at least there is computer-readable information in the medium itself. It's just not a static movie frame. +That's one thing. The other is that you have to realize that it is a random access medium, and you can, in fact, branch and expand and elaborate and shrink. +And here -- again, my favorite example -- is the cookbook, the "Larousse Gastronomique." +And I think I use the example all too often, but it's a great one because there is a classic ending in that little encyclopedia-style cookbook that tells you how to do something like penguin, and you get to the end of the recipe and it says, "Cook until done." +Now, that would be, if you will, the top green track, which doesn't mean too much. But you might have to elaborate for me or for somebody who isn't an expert, and say, "Cook at 380 degrees for 45 minutes." +And then for a real beginner, you would go down even further and elaborate more -- say, "Open the oven, preheat, wait for the light to go out, open the door, don't leave it open too long, put the penguin in and shut the door ..." whatever. +And that's a much more elaborate one than you dribble back. +That's one kind of use of random access. +And the other is where you want to explain the same thing in different ways. +If you're in a classroom situation and somebody asks a question, the last thing you do is repeat what you just said. +You try and think of a different way of saying the same thing, or if you know the particular student and that student's cognitive style, then you might say it in a way that you think would have a good impedance match with that student. +There are all sorts of techniques you will use -- and again, this is a different kind of branching. +So, what I will show you is ... it's a rather boring book, but I'm afraid sometimes you have to do boring books because your sponsors aren't necessarily interested in fiction and entertainment. And this is a book on how to repair a transmission. +Now, I don't even know what vintage the transmission is, but let me just show you very quickly some of it, and we'll move on. +Nicholas Negroponte: Now, this is his table of contents. +Just a picture of the transmission, and as you rub your finger across the transmission it highlights the various parts. +Narrator: When I find a chapter that I want to see, I just touch the text and the system will format pages for me to read. +The words or phrases that are lit up in red are glossary words, so I can get a different definition by just touching the word, and the definition appears, superimposed over the illustration. +NN: This is about the oil pan, or the oil filter and all that. +This is relatively important because it sets the page ... +Narrator: This is another example of a page with glossary words highlighted in red. +I can get a definition of these words just by touching them, and the definition will appear in the illustration corner. +I can get back to the illustration, but in this case it's not a single frame, but it's actually a movie of someone coming into the frame and doing the repair that's described in the text. +The two-headed slider is a speed control that allows me to watch the movie at various speeds, in forward or reverse. +And the movie is displayed as a full frame movie. +I can go back to the beginning ... and play the movie at full speed. +Here's another step-by-step procedure, only in this case -- NN: Okay, this movie is ... Everybody's heard of sound-sync movies -- this is text-sync movies, so as the movie plays, the text gets highlighted. +We highlight the text as we go through the movie. +Repairman: ... Not too far out. Front poles, preferably. +Don't loosen them too far. If you loosen them too far, you'll have a big mess. +NN: I suspect that some of you might not even understand that language. +OK. I'm at the third and last part of this, which I said I would make an attempt to at least give you some examples that may be more directly related to the world of entertainment. +But teaching kids programming per se is utterly irrelevant. +And one child, whose name I've forgotten, was about seven or eight years old, absolutely considered mentally handicapped -- couldn't read, didn't even make it in the lowest section of the school's classes -- and was pretty much not in school, though physically there. +He was, and he said, "Let me show you how this works," and they got an absolutely ingenuous, wonderful description of Logo. +And the child was just zipping right through it, showing them all sorts of things until they asked him how to do something which he couldn't explain and so he flipped through the manual, found the explanation and typed the command and got it to do what they asked. +They were delighted, and by the time it was time to go see the principal, whom they'd actually come to see -- not the computer room -- they went upstairs and they said, "This is absolutely remarkable! +That child was very articulate and showed us and even dealt with the things he couldn't do automatically with that manual. It was just absolutely fantastic." +The principal said, "There's a dreadful mistake, because that child can't read. +And you obviously have been hoodwinked or you've talked about somebody else." +And they all got up and they all went downstairs and the child was still there. And they did something very intelligent: they asked the child, "Can you read?" +And the child said, "No, I can't." +And then they said, "But wait a minute. You just looked through that manual and you found ... " and he said, "Oh, but that's not reading." +And so they said, "Well, what's reading then?" +He says, "Well, reading is this junk they give me in little books to read. +It's absolutely irrelevant, and I get nothing for it. +But here, with a little bit of effort I get a lot of return." +And it really meant something to the child. +The child read beautifully, it turned out, and was really very competent. So it actually meant something. +And that story has many other anecdotes that are similar, but wow. The key to the future of computers in education is right there, and it is: when does it mean something to a child? +There is a myth, and it truly is a myth: we believe -- and I'm sure a lot of you believe in this room -- that it is harder to read and write than it is to learn how to speak. +And it's not, but we think speech -- "My God, little children pick it up somehow, and by the age of two they're doing a mediocre job, and by three and four they're speaking reasonably well. +And yet you've got to go to school to learn how to read, and you have to sit in a classroom and somebody has to teach you. +Hence, it must be harder." Well, it's not harder. +What the truth is is that speaking has great value to a child; the child can get a great deal by talking to you. +Reading and writing is utterly useless. +There is no reason for a child to read and write except blind faith, and that it's going to help you. So what happens is you go to school and people say, "Just believe me, you're going to like it. +You're going to like reading," and just read and read. +On the other hand, you give a kid -- a three-year-old kid -- a computer and they type a little command and -- Poof! -- something happens. +And all of a sudden ... You may not call that reading and writing, but a certain bit of typing and reading stuff on the screen has a huge payoff, and it's a lot of fun. +And in fact, it's a powerful educational instrument. +Well, in Senegal we found that this was the traditional classroom: 120 kids -- three per desk -- one teacher, a little bit of chalk. +This student was one of our first students, and it's the girl on the left leaning with her chalkboard, and she came ... within two days -- I want to show you the program she wrote, and remember her hairstyle. And that is the program she made. +That's what meant something to her, is doing the hair pattern, and actually did it within two days -- an hour each day -- and found it was, to her, absolutely the most meaningful piece ... +But rooted in that, little did she know how much knowledge she was acquiring about geometry and just math and logic and all the rest. +And again, I could talk for three hours about this subject. +I will come to my last example and then quit. +And my last example -- as some of my former colleagues, whom I see in the room, can imagine what it will be. +Yes, it is. It's our work -- that was a while ago, and it still is my favorite project -- of teleconferencing. +Now, that is sufficiently zany that we would, obviously, jump to the bait, and we did. +And the fact that we knew the people -- we had to take a page out of the history of Walt Disney -- we actually went so far as to build CRTs in the shapes of the people's faces. +So if I wanted to call my friend Peter Sprague on the phone, my secretary would get his head out and bring it and set it on the desk, and that would be the TV used for the occasion. +And it's uncanny: there's no way I can explain to you the amount of eye contact you get with that physical face projected on a 3D CRT of that sort. +The next thing that we had to do is to persuade them that there needed to be spatial correspondence, which is straightforward, but again, it's something that didn't fall naturally out of a telecommunications or computing style of thinking; it was a very, if you will, architectural or spatial concept. +And that was to recognize that when you sit around the table, the actual location of the people becomes rather important. +And when somebody gets up, in fact, to go answer a phone or use a bathroom or something, the empty seat becomes, if you will, that person. And you point frequently to the empty seat and you say, "He or she wouldn't agree," and the empty chair is that person and the spatiality is crucial. +So we said, "Well, these will be on round tables and the order around the table had to be the same, so that at my site, I would be, if you will, real and then at each other's site you'd have these plastic heads. +And the plastic heads, sometimes you want to project them. +And there are a number of schemes, which I don't want to dwell on, but this is the one that we finally used where we projected onto rear screen material that was molded in the face -- literally in the face of the person. +And I'll show you one more slide, where this is actually made from something called a solid photograph and is the screen. +Now, we track, on the person's head, the head motions -- so we transmit with a video the head positions -- and so this head moves in about two axes. +So if I, all of a sudden, turn to the person to my left and start talking to that person, then at the person to my right's site, he'll see these two plastic heads talking to each other. +And then if that person interrupts, then those two heads may turn. +And it really is reconstructing, quite accurately, teleconferencing. +I'm going to go right into the slides. +And all I'm going to try and prove to you with these slides is that I do just very straight stuff. +And my ideas are -- in my head, anyway -- they're very logical and relate to what's going on and problem solving for clients. +I either convince clients at the end that I solve their problems, or I really do solve their problems, because usually they seem to like it. +Let me go right into the slides. +Can you turn off the light? Down. +I like to be in the dark. +I don't want you to see what I'm doing up here. +Anyway, I did this house in Santa Monica, and it got a lot of notoriety. +In fact, it appeared in a porno comic book, which is the slide on the right. +This is in Venice. +I just show it because I want you to know I'm concerned about context. +On the left-hand side, I had the context of those little houses, and I tried to build a building that fit into that context. +When people take pictures of these buildings out of that context they look really weird, and my premise is that they make a lot more sense when they're photographed or seen in that space. +And then, once I deal with the context, I then try to make a place that's comfortable and private and fairly serene, as I hope you'll find that slide on the right. +And then I did a law school for Loyola in downtown L.A. +I was concerned about making a place for the study of law. +And we continue to work with this client. +The building on the right at the top is now under construction. +The garage on the right -- the gray structure -- will be torn down, finally, and several small classrooms will be placed along this avenue that we've created, this campus. +And it all related to the clients and the students from the very first meeting saying they felt denied a place. +They wanted a sense of place. +And so the whole idea here was to create that kind of space in downtown, in a neighborhood that was difficult to fit into. +And it was my theory, or my point of view, that one didn't upstage the neighborhood -- one made accommodations. +I tried to be inclusive, to include the buildings in the neighborhood, whether they were buildings I liked or not. +In the '60s I started working with paper furniture and made a bunch of stuff that was very successful in Bloomingdale's. +We even made flooring, walls and everything, out of cardboard. +And the success of it threw me for a loop. +I couldn't deal with the success of furniture -- I wasn't secure enough as an architect -- and so I closed it all up and made furniture that nobody would like. +So, nobody would like this. +And it was in this, preliminary to these pieces of furniture, that Ricky and I worked on furniture by the slice. +And after we failed, I just kept failing. +The piece on the left -- and that ultimately led to the piece on the right -- happened when the kid that was working on this took one of those long strings of stuff and folded it up to put it in the wastebasket. +And I put a piece of tape around it, as you see there, and realized you could sit on it, and it had a lot of resilience and strength and so on. +So, it was an accidental discovery. +I got into fish. +I mean, the story I tell is that I got mad at postmodernism -- at po-mo -- and said that fish were 500 million years earlier than man, and if you're going to go back, we might as well go back to the beginning. +And so I started making these funny things. +And they started to have a life of their own and got bigger -- as the one glass at the Walker. +And then, I sliced off the head and the tail and everything and tried to translate what I was learning about the form of the fish and the movement. +And a lot of my architectural ideas that came from it -- accidental, again -- it was an intuitive kind of thing, and I just kept going with it, and made this proposal for a building, which was only a proposal. +I did this building in Japan. +I was taken out to dinner after the contract for this little restaurant was signed. +And I love sake and Kobe and all that stuff. +And after I got -- I was really drunk -- I was asked to do some sketches on napkins. +And I made some sketches on napkins -- little boxes and Morandi-like things that I used to do. +And the client said, "Why no fish?" +And so I made a drawing with a fish, and I left Japan. +Three weeks later, I received a complete set of drawings saying we'd won the competition. +Now, it's hard to do. It's hard to translate a fish form, because they're so beautiful -- perfect -- into a building or object like this. +And Oldenburg, who I work with a little once in a while, told me I couldn't do it, and so that made it even more exciting. +But he was right -- I couldn't do the tail. +I started to get the head OK, but the tail I couldn't do. +It was pretty hard. +The thing on the right is a snake form, a ziggurat. +And I put them together, and you walk between them. +It was a dialog with the context again. +Now, if you saw a picture of this as it was published in Architectural Record -- they didn't show the context, so you would think, "God, what a pushy guy this is." +But a friend of mine spent four hours wandering around here looking for this restaurant. +Couldn't find it. +So ... +As for craft and technology and all those things that you've all been talking about, I was thrown for a complete loop. +This was built in six months. +The way we sent drawings to Japan: we used the magic computer in Michigan that does carved models, and we used to make foam models, which that thing scanned. +We made the drawings of the fish and the scales. +And when I got there, everything was perfect -- except the tail. +So, I decided to cut off the head and the tail. +And I made the object on the left for my show at the Walker. +And it's one of the nicest pieces I've ever made, I think. +And then Jay Chiat, a friend and client, asked me to do his headquarters building in L.A. +For reasons we don't want to talk about, it got delayed. +Toxic waste, I guess, is the key clue to that one. +And so we built a temporary building -- I'm getting good at temporary -- and we put a conference room in that's a fish. +And, finally, Jay dragged me to my hometown, Toronto, Canada. +And there is a story -- it's a real story -- about my grandmother buying a carp on Thursday, bringing it home, putting it in the bathtub when I was a kid. +I played with it in the evening. +When I went to sleep, the next day it wasn't there. +And the next night, we had gefilte fish. +And so I set up this interior for Jay's offices and I made a pedestal for a sculpture. +And he didn't buy a sculpture, so I made one. +I went around Toronto and found a bathtub like my grandmother's, and I put the fish in. +It was a joke. +I play with funny people like [Claes] Oldenburg. +We've been friends for a long time. +And we've started to work on things. +A few years ago, we did a performance piece in Venice, Italy, called "Il Corso del Coltello" -- the Swiss Army knife. +And most of the imagery is -- Claes', but those two little boys are my sons, and they were Claes' assistants in the play. +He was the Swiss Army knife. +He was a souvenir salesman who always wanted to be a painter, and I was Frankie P. Toronto. +P for Palladio. +Dressed up like the AT&T building by Claes -- with a fish hat. +The highlight of the performance was at the end. +This beautiful object, the Swiss Army knife, which I get credit for participating in. +And I can tell you -- it's totally an Oldenburg. +I had nothing to do with it. +The only thing I did was, I made it possible for them to turn those blades so you could sail this thing in the canal, because I love sailing. +We made it into a sailing craft. +I've been known to mess with things like chain link fencing. +I do it because it's a curious thing in the culture, when things are made in such great quantities, absorbed in such great quantities, and there's so much denial about them. +People hate it. +And I'm fascinated with that, which, like the paper furniture -- it's one of those materials. +And I'm always drawn to that. +And so I did a lot of dirty things with chain link, which nobody will forgive me for. +But Claes made homage to it in the Loyola Law School. +And that chain link is really expensive. +It's in perspective and everything. +And then we did a camp together for children with cancer. +And you can see, we started making a building together. +Of course, the milk can is his. +But we were trying to collide our ideas, to put objects next to each other. +Like a Morandi -- like the little bottles -- composing them like a still life. +And it seemed to work as a way to put he and I together. +Then Jay Chiat asked me to do this building on this funny lot in Venice, and I started with this three-piece thing, and you entered in the middle. +And Jay asked me what I was going to do with the piece in the middle. +And he pushed that. +And one day I had a -- oh, well, the other way. +I had the binoculars from Claes, and I put them there, and I could never get rid of them after that. +Oldenburg made the binoculars incredible when he sent me the first model of the real proposal. +It made my building look sick. +And it was this interaction between that kind of, up-the-ante stuff that became pretty interesting. +It led to the building on the left. +And I still think the Time magazine picture will be of the binoculars, you know, leaving out the -- what the hell. +I use a lot of metal in my work, and I have a hard time connecting with the craft. +The whole thing about my house, the whole use of rough carpentry and everything, was the frustration with the crafts available. +I said, "If I can't get the craft that I want, I'll use the craft I can get." +There were plenty of models for that, in Rauschenberg and Jasper Johns, and many artists who were making beautiful art and sculpture with junk materials. +I went into the metal because it was a way of building a building that was a sculpture. +And it was all of one material, and the metal could go on the roof as well as the walls. +The metalworkers, for the most part, do ducts behind the ceilings and stuff. +I was given an opportunity to design an exhibit for the metalworkers' unions of America and Canada in Washington, and I did it on the condition that they become my partners in the future and help me with all future metal buildings, etc. etc. +And it's working very well to have these people, these craftsmen, interested in it. +I just tell the stories. +It's a way of connecting, at least, with some of those people that are so important to the realization of architecture. +The metal continued into a building -- Herman Miller, in Sacramento. +And it's just a complex of factory buildings. +And Herman Miller has this philosophy of having a place -- a people place. +I mean, it's kind of a trite thing to say, but it is real that they wanted to have a central place where the cafeteria would be, where the people would come and where the people working would interact. +So it's out in the middle of nowhere, and you approach it. +It's copper and galvanize. +I used the galvanize and copper in a very light gauge, so it would buckle. +I spent a lot of time undoing Richard Meier's aesthetic. +Everybody's trying to get the panels perfect, and I always try to get them sloppy and fuzzy. +And they end up looking like stone. +This is the central area. +There's a ramp. +And that little dome in there is a building by Stanley Tigerman. +Stanley was instrumental in my getting this job. +And when I was awarded the contract I, at the very beginning, asked the client if they would let Stanley do a cameo piece with me. +Because these were ideas that we were talking about, building things next to each other, making -- it's all about [a] metaphor for a city, maybe. +And so Stanley did the little dome thing. +And we did it over the phone and by fax. +He would send me a fax and show me something. +He'd made a building with a dome and he had a little tower. +I told him, "No, no, that's too ongepotchket. +I don't want the tower." +So he came back with a simpler building, but he put some funny details on it, and he moved it closer to my building. +And so I decided to put him in a depression. +I put him in a hole and made a kind of a hole that he sits in. +And so then he put two bridges -- this all happened on the fax, going back and forth over a couple of weeks' period. +And he put these two bridges with pink guardrails on it. +And so then I put this big billboard behind it. +And I call it, "David and Goliath." +And that's my cafeteria. +In Boston, we had that old building on the left. +It was a very prominent building off the freeway, and we added a floor and cleaned it up and fixed it up and used the kind of -- I thought -- the language of the neighborhood, which had these cornices, projecting cornices. +Mine got a little exuberant, but I used lead copper, which is a beautiful material, and it turns green in 100 years. +Instead of, like, copper in 10 or 15. +We redid the side of the building and re-proportioned the windows so it sort of fit into the space. +And it surprised both Boston and myself that we got it approved, because they have very strict kind of design guideline, and they wouldn't normally think I would fit them. +The detailing was very careful with the lead copper and making panels and fitting it tightly into the fabric of the existing building. +In Barcelona, on Las Ramblas for some film festival, I did the Hollywood sign going and coming, made a building out of it, and they built it. +I flew in one night and took this picture. +But they made it a third smaller than my model without telling me. +And then more metal and some chain link in Santa Monica -- a little shopping center. +And this is a laser laboratory at the University of Iowa, in which the fish comes back as an abstraction in the back. +It's the support labs, which, by some coincidence, required no windows. +And the shape fit perfectly. +I just joined the points. +In the curved part there's all the mechanical equipment. +That solid wall behind it is a pipe chase -- a pipe canyon -- and so it was an opportunity that I seized, because I didn't have to have any protruding ducts or vents or things in this form. +It gave me an opportunity to make a sculpture out of it. +This is a small house somewhere. +They've been building it so long I don't remember where it is. +It's in the West Valley. +And we started with the stream and built the house along the stream -- dammed it up to make a lake. +These are the models. +The reality, with the lake -- the workmanship is pretty bad. +And it reminded me why I play defensively in things like my house. +When you have to do something really cheaply, it's hard to get perfect corners and stuff. +That big metal thing is a passage, and in it is -- you go downstairs into the living room and then down into the bedroom, which is on the right. +It's kind of like a whole built town. +I was asked to do a hospital for schizophrenic adolescents at Yale. +I thought it was fitting for me to be doing that. +This is a house next to a Philip Johnson house in Minnesota. +The owners had a dilemma -- they asked Philip to do it. +He was too busy. +He didn't recommend me, by the way. +We ended up having to make it a sculpture, because the dilemma was, how do you build a building that doesn't look like the language? +Is it going to look like this beautiful estate is sub-divided? +Etc. etc. +You've got the idea. +And so we finally ended up making it. +These people are art collectors. +And we finally made it so it appears very sculptural from the main house and all the windows are on the other side. +And the building is very sculptural as you walk around it. +It's made of metal and the brown stuff is Fin-Ply -- it's that formed lumber from Finland. +We used it at Loyola on the chapel, and it didn't work. +I keep trying to make it work. +In this case we learned how to detail it. +In Cleveland, there's Burnham Mall, on the left. +It's never been finished. +Going out to the lake, you can see all those new buildings we built. +And we had the opportunity to build a building on this site. +There's a railroad track. +This is the city hall over here somewhere, and the courthouse. +And the centerline of the mall goes out. +Burnham had designed a railroad station that was never built, and so we followed. +Sohio is on the axis here, and we followed the axis, and they're two kind of goalposts. +And this is our building, which is a corporate headquarters for an insurance company. +We collaborated with Oldenburg and put the newspaper on top, folded. +The health club is fastened to the garage with a C-clamp, for Cleveland. +You drive down. +So it's about a 10-story C-clamp. +And all this stuff at the bottom is a museum, and an idea for a very fancy automobile entry. +This owner has a pet peeve about bad automobile entries. +And this would be a hotel. +So, the centerline of this thing -- we'd preserve it, and it would start to work with the scale of the new buildings by Pelli and Kohn Pederson Fox, etc., that are underway. +It's hard to do high-rise. +I feel much more comfortable down here. +This is a piece of property in Brentwood. +And a long time ago, about '82 or something, after my house -- I designed a house for myself that would be a village of several pavilions around a courtyard -- and the owner of this lot worked for me and built that actual model on the left. +And she came back, I guess wealthier or something -- something happened -- and asked me to design a house for her on this site. +And following that basic idea of the village, we changed it as we got into it. +And that's it, built. +The dome was a request from the client. +She wanted a dome somewhere in the house. +She didn't care where. +When you sleep in this bedroom, I hope -- I mean, I haven't slept in it yet. +I've offered to marry her so I could sleep there, but she said I didn't have to do that. +But when you're in that room, you feel like you're on a kind of barge on some kind of lake. +And it's very private. +The landscape is being built around to create a private garden. +And then up above there's a garden on this side of the living room, and one on the other side. +These aren't focused very well. +I don't know how to do it from here. +Focus the one on the right. +It's up there. +Left -- it's my right. +Anyway, you enter into a garden with a beautiful grove of trees. +That's the living room. +Servants' quarters. +A guest bedroom, which has this dome with marble on it. +And then you enter into the living room and then so on. +This is the bedroom. +You come down from this level along the stairway, and you enter the bedroom here, going into the lake. +And the bed is back in this space, with windows looking out onto the lake. +These Stonehenge things were designed to give foreground and to create a greater depth in this shallow lot. +The material is lead copper, like in the building in Boston. +And so it was an intent to make this small piece of land -- it's 100 by 250 -- into a kind of an estate by separating these areas and making the living room and dining room into this pavilion with a high space in it. +And this happened by accident that I got this right on axis with the dining room table. +It looks like I got a Baldessari painting for free. +But the idea is, the windows are all placed so you see pieces of the house outside. +Eventually this will be screened -- these trees will come up -- and it will be very private. +And you feel like you're in your own kind of village. +This is for Michael Eisner -- Disney. +We're doing some work for him. +And this is in Anaheim, California, and it's a freeway building. +You go under this bridge at about 65 miles an hour, and there's another bridge here. +And you're through this room in a split second, and the building will sort of reflect that. +On the backside, it's much more humane -- entrance, dining hall, etc. +And then this thing here -- I'm hoping as you drive by you'll hear the picket fence effect of the sound hitting it. +Kind of a fun thing to do. +I'm doing a building in Switzerland, Basel, which is an office building for a furniture company. +And we struggled with the image. +These are the early studies, but they have to sell furniture to normal people, so if I did the building and it was too fancy, then people might say, "Well, the furniture looks OK in his thing, but no, it ain't going to look good in my normal building." +So we've made a kind of pragmatic slab in the second phase here, and we've taken the conference facilities and made a villa out of them so that the communal space is very sculptural and separate. +And you're looking at it from the offices and you create a kind of interaction between these pieces. +This is in Paris, along the Seine. +Palais des Sports, the Gare de Lyon over here. +The Minister of Finance -- the guy that moved from the Louvre -- goes in here. +There's a new library across the river. +And back in here, in this already treed park, we're doing a very dense building called the American Center, which has a theater, apartments, dance school, an art museum, restaurants and all kinds of -- it's a very dense program -- bookstores, etc. +In a very tight, small -- this is the ground level. +And the French have this extraordinary way of screwing things up by taking a beautiful site and cutting the corner off. +They call it the plan coupe. +And I struggled with that thing -- how to get around the corner. +These are the models for it. +I showed you the other model, the one -- this is the way I organized myself so I could make the drawing -- so I understood the problem. +I was trying to get around this plan coupe -- how do you do it? +Apartments, etc. +And these are the kind of study models we did. +And the one on the left is pretty awful. +You can see why I was ready to commit suicide when this one was built. +But out of it came finally this resolution, where the elevator piece worked frontally to this, parallel to this street, and also parallel to here. +And then this kind of twist, with this balcony and the skirt, kind of like a ballerina lifting her skirt to let you into the foyer. +The restaurants here -- the apartments and the theater, etc. +So it would all be built in stone, in French limestone, except for this metal piece. +And it faces into a park. +And the idea was to make this express the energy of this. +On the side facing the street it's much more normal, except I slipped a few mansards down, so that coming on the point, these housing units made a gesture to the corner. +And this will be some kind of high-tech billboard. +If any of you guys have any ideas for it, please contact me. +I don't know what to do. +Jay Chiat is a glutton for punishment, and he hired me to do a house for him in the Hamptons. +And it's got a fish. +And I keep thinking, "This is going to be the last fish." +It's like a drug addict. +I say, "I'm not going to do it anymore -- I don't want to do it anymore -- I'm not going to do it." +And then I do it. +There it is. +But it's the living room. +And this piece here is -- I don't know what it is. +I just added it so that we'd have enough money in the budget so we could take something out. +This is Euro Disney, and I've worked with all of the guys that presented to you earlier. +We've had a lot of fun working together. +I think I'm from Mars for them, and they are for me, but somehow we all manage to work together, and I think, productively. +So far. +This is a shopping thing. +You come into the Magic Kingdom and the hotel that Tony Baxter's group is doing out here. +And then this is a kind of a shopping mall, with a rodeo and restaurants. +And another restaurant. +What I did -- because of the Paris skies being quite dull, I made a light grid that's perpendicular to the train station, to the route of the train. +It looks like it's kind of been there, and then crashed all these simpler forms into it. +The light grid will have a light, be lit up at night and give a kind of light ceiling. +In Switzerland -- Germany, actually -- on the Rhine across from Basel, we did a furniture factory and a furniture museum. +And I tried to -- there's a Nick Grimshaw building over here, there's an Oldenburg sculpture over here -- I tried to make a relationship urbanistically. +And I don't gave good slides to show -- it's just been completed -- but this piece here is this building, and these pieces here and here. +And as you pass by it's always part -- you see it as all of these pieces accrue and become part of an overall neighborhood. +It's plaster and just zinc. +And you wonder, if this is a museum, what it's going to be like inside? +If it's going to be so busy and crazy that you wouldn't show anything, and just wait. +I'm so cunning and clever -- I made it quiet and wonderful. +But on the outside it does scream out at you a bit. +It's actually basically three square rooms with a couple of skylights and stuff. +And from the building in the back, you see it as an iceberg floating by in the hills. +I know I'm over time. +See, that skylight goes down and becomes that one. +So it's pretty quiet inside. +This is the Disney Hall -- the concert hall. +It's a complicated project. +It has a chamber hall. +It's related to an existing Chandler Pavilion that was built with a lot of love and tears and caring. +And it's not a great building, but I approached it optimistically, that we would make a compositional relationship between us that would strengthen both of us. +And the plan of this -- it's a concert hall. +This is the foyer, which is kind of a garden structure. +There's commercial at the ground floor. +These are offices, which, really, in the competition, we didn't have to design. +But finally, there's a hotel there. +These were the kind of relationships made to the Chandler, composing these elevations together and relating them to the buildings that existed -- to MOCA, etc. +The acoustician in the competition gave us criteria, which led to this compartmentalized scheme, which we found out after the competition would not work at all. +But everybody liked these forms and liked the space, and so that's one of the problems of a competition. +You have to then try and get that back in some way. +And we studied many models. +This was our original model. +These were the three buildings that were the ideal -- the Concertgebouw, Boston and Berlin. +Everybody liked the surround. +Actually, this is the smallest hall in size, and it has more seats than any of these because it has double balconies. +Our client doesn't want balconies, so -- and when we met our new acoustician, he told us this was the right shape or this was the right shape. +And we tried many shapes, trying to get the energy of the original design within an acoustical, acceptable format. +We finally settled on a shape that was the proportion of the Concertgebouw with the sloping outside walls, which the acoustician said were crucial to this and later decided they weren't, but now we have them. +And our idea is to make the seating carriage very sculptural and out of wood and like a big boat sitting in this plaster room. +That's the idea. +And the corners would have skylights and these columns would be structural. +And the nice thing about introducing columns is they give you a kind of sense of proscenium from wherever you sit, and create intimacy. +Now, this is not a final design -- these are just on the way to being -- and so I wouldn't take it literally, except the feeling of the space. +We studied the acoustics with laser stuff, and they bounce them off this and see where it all works. +But you get the sense of the hall in section. +Most halls come straight down into a proscenium. +In this case we're opening it back up and getting skylights in the four corners. +And so it will be quite a different shape. +The original building, because it was frog-like, fit nicely on the site and cranked itself well. +When you get into a box, it's harder to do it -- and here we are, struggling with how to put the hotel in. +And this is a teapot I designed for Alessi. +I just stuck it on there. +But this is how I do work. I do take pieces and bits and look at it and struggle with it and cut it away. +And of course it's not going to look like that, but it is the crazy way I tend to work. +And then finally, in L.A. I was asked to do a sculpture at the foot of Interstate Bank Tower, the highest building in L.A. +Larry Halprin is doing the stairs. +And I was asked to do a fish, and so I did a snake. +It's a public space, and I made it kind of a garden structure, and you can go in it. +It's a kiva, and Larry's putting some water in there, and it works much better than a fish. +In Barcelona I was asked to do a fish, and we're working on that, at the foot of a Ritz-Carlton Tower being done by Skidmore, Owings and Merrill. +And the Ritz-Carlton Tower is being designed with exposed steel, non-fire proof, much like those old gas tanks. +And so we took the language of this exposed steel and used it, perverted it, into the form of the fish, and created a kind of a 19th-century contraption that looks like, that will sit -- this is the beach and the harbor out in front, and this is really a shopping center with department stores. +And we split these bridges. +Originally, this was all solid with a hole in it. +We cut them loose and made several bridges and created a kind of a foreground for this hotel. +We showed this to the hotel people the other day, and they were terrified and said that nobody would come to the Ritz-Carlton anymore, because of this fish. +And finally, I just threw these in -- Lou Danziger. +I didn't expect Lou Danziger to be here, but this is a building I did for him in 1964, I think. +A little studio -- and it's sadly for sale. +Time goes on. +And this is my son working with me on a small fast-food thing. +He designed the robot as the cashier, and the head moves, and I did the rest of it. +And the food wasn't as good as the stuff, and so it failed. +It should have been the other way around -- the food should have been good first. +It didn't work. +Thank you very much. +It was an incredible surprise to me to find out that there was actually an organization that cared about both parts of my life. +Because, basically, I work as a theoretical physicist. +I develop and test models of the Big Bang, using observational data. +And I've been moonlighting for the last five years helping with a project in Africa. +And, I get a lot of flak for this at Cambridge. +People wonder, you know, "How do you have time to do this?" And so on. +And so it was simply astonishing to me to find an organization that actually appreciated both those sides. +So I thought I'd start off by just telling you a little bit about myself and why I lead this schizophrenic life. +Well, I was born in South Africa and my parents were imprisoned for resisting the racist regime. +When they were released, we left and we went as refugees to Kenya and Tanzania. +Both were very young countries then, and full of hope for the future. +We had an amazing childhood. We didn't have any money, but we were outdoors most of the time. +We had fantastic friends and we saw the wonders of the world, like Kilimanjaro, Serengeti and the Olduvai Gorge. +Well, then we moved to London for high school. +And after that -- there's nothing much to say about that. +It was rather dull. But I came back to Africa at the age of 17, as a volunteer teacher to Lesotho, which is a tiny country, surrounded at that time by apartheid South Africa. +Well, 80 percent of the men in Lesotho worked in the mines over the border, in brutal conditions. +Nevertheless, I -- as I'm sure -- as a rather irritating young, white man coming into their village, I was welcomed with incredible hospitality and warmth. +But the kids were the best part. +The kids were amazing: extremely eager and often very bright. +And I'm just going to tell you one story, which got through to me. +I used to try to take the kids outside as often as possible, to try to connect the academic stuff with the real world. +And they weren't used to that. +But I took them outside one day and I said, "I want you to estimate the height of the building." +And I expected them to put a ruler next to the wall, size it up with a finger, and make an estimate of the height. +But there was one little boy, very small for his age. +He was the son of one of the poorest families in the village. +And he wasn't doing that. He was scribbling with chalk on the pavement. +And so, I said -- I was annoyed -- I said, "What are you doing? +I want you to estimate the height of the building." +He said, "OK. I measured the height of a brick. +I counted the number of bricks and now I'm multiplying." +Well -- -- I hadn't thought of that one. +And many experiences like this happened to me. +Another one is that I met a miner. He was home on his three-month leave from the mines. +Sitting next to him one day, he said, "There's only one thing that I really loved at school. +And you know what it was? Shakespeare." And he recited some to me. +And these and many similar experiences convinced me that there are just tons of bright kids in Africa -- inventive kids, intellectual kids -- and starved of opportunity. +And if Africa is going to get fixed, it's by them, not by us. +Well, after -- -- that's the truth. +Well, after Lesotho, I traveled across Africa before returning to England -- so gray and depressing, in comparison. +And I went to Cambridge. And there, I fell for theoretical physics. +Well, I'm not going to explain this equation, but theoretical physics is really an amazing subject. +We can write down all the laws of physics we know in one line. +And, admittedly, it's in a very shorthand notation. +And it contains 18 free parameters, OK, which we have to fit to the data. +So it's not the final story, but it's an incredibly powerful summary of everything we know about nature at the most basic level. +And apart from a few very important loose ends, which you've heard about here -- like dark energy and dark matter -- this equation describes, seems to describe everything about the universe and what's in it. +But there's one big puzzle remaining, and this was most succinctly put to me by my primary school math teacher in Tanzania, who's a wonderful Scottish lady who I still stay in touch with. +And she's now in her 80s. +And when I try to explain my work to her, she waved away all the details, and she said, "Neil, there's only one question that really matters. +What banged?" "Everyone talks about the Big Bang. What banged?" +And she's right. It's a question we've all been avoiding. +The standard explanation is that the universe somehow sprang into existence, full of a strange kind of energy -- inflationary energy -- which blew it up. +But the puzzle of why the universe emerged in that peculiar state is completely unsolved. +Now, I worked on that theory for a while, with Stephen Hawking and others. +But then I began to explore another alternative. +The alternative is that the Big Bang wasn't the beginning. +Perhaps the universe existed before the bang, and the bang was just a violent event in a pre-existing universe. +Well, this possibility is actually suggested by the latest theories, the unified theories, which try to explain all those 18 free parameters in a single framework, which will hopefully predict all of them. +And I'll just share a cartoon of this idea here. +It's all I can convey. According to these theories, there are extra dimensions of space, not just the three we're familiar with, but at every point in the room there are more dimensions. +And in particular, there's one rather strange one, in the most elegant unified theories we have. +The strange one looks likes this: that we live in a three-dimensional world. +We live in one of these worlds, and I can only show it as a sheet, but it's really three-dimensional. +And a tiny distance away, there's another sheet, also three-dimensional, and they're separated by a gap. +The gap is very tiny, and I've blown it up so you can see it. +But it's really a tiny fraction of the size of an atomic nucleus. +I won't go into the details of why we think the universe is like this, but it comes out of the math and trying to explain the physics that we know. +Well, I got interested in this because it seemed to me that it was an obvious question. +Which is, what happens if these two, three-dimensional worlds should actually collide? +And if they collide, it would look a lot like the Big Bang. +But it's slightly different than in the conventional picture. +The conventional picture of the Big Bang is a point. +Everything comes out of a point; you have infinite density. And all the equations break down. +No hope of describing that. +In this picture, you'll notice, the bang is extended. It's not a point. +The density of matter is finite, and we have a chance of a consistent set of equations that can describe the whole process. +So, to cut a long story short, we've explored this alternative. +We've shown that it can fit all of the data that we have about the formation of galaxies, the fluctuations in the microwave background. +Furthermore, there's an experimental way to tell this theory, apart from the inflationary explanation that I told you before. +It involves gravitational waves. +And in this scenario, not only was the Big Bang not the beginning, as you can see from the picture, it can happen over and over again. +It may be that we live in an endless universe, both in space and in time. +And there've been bangs in the past, and there will be bangs in the future. +And maybe we live in an endless universe. +Well, making and testing models of the universe is, for me, the best way I have of enjoying and appreciating the universe. +We need to make the best mathematical models we can, the most consistent ones. +And then we scrutinize them, logically and with data. +And we try to convince ourselves -- we really try to convince ourselves they're wrong. +That's progress: when we prove things wrong. +And gradually, we hopefully move closer and closer to understanding the world. +As I pursued my career, something was always gnawing away inside me. +What about Africa? +What about those kids I'd left behind? +Instead of developing, as we'd all hoped in the '60s, things had gotten worse. +Africa was gripped by poverty, disease and war. +This is very graphically shown by the Worldmapper website and project. +And so the idea is to represent each country on a map, but scale the area according to some quantity. +So here's just the standard area map of the world. +By the way, Africa is very large. +And the next map now shows Africa's GDP in 1960, around the time of independence for many African states. +Now, this is 1990, and then 2002. And here's a projection for 2015. +Big changes are happening in the world, but they're not helping Africa. +What about Africa's population? The population isn't out of proportion to its area, but Africa leads the world in deaths from often preventable causes: malnutrition, simple infections and birth complications. +Then there's HIV/AIDS. And then there are deaths from war. +OK, currently there are 45,000 people a month dying in the Congo, as a consequence of the war there over coltan and diamonds and other things. +It's still going on. +What about Africa's capacity to do something about these problems? +Well, here's the number of physicians in Africa. +Here's the number of people in higher education. +And here -- most shocking to me -- the number of scientific research papers coming out of Africa. +It just doesn't exist scientifically. +And this was very eloquently argued at TED Africa: that all of the aid that's been given has completely failed to put Africa onto its own two feet. +Well, the transition to democracy in South Africa in 1994 was literally a dream come true for many of us. +My parents were both elected to the first parliament, alongside Nelson and Winnie Mandela. They were the only other couple. +And in 2001, I took a research leave to visit them. +And while I was busy working -- I was working on these colliding worlds, in the day. +But I learned that there was a desperate shortage of skills, especially mathematical skills, in industry, in government, in education. +The ability to make and test models has become essential, not only to every single area of science today, but also to modern society itself. +And if you don't have math, you're not going to enter the modern age. +So I had an idea. And the idea was very simple. +The idea was to set up an African Institute for Mathematical Sciences, or AIMS. +And let's recruit students from the whole of Africa, bring them together with lecturers from all over the world, and we'll try to give them a fantastic education. +Well, as a Cambridge professor, I had many contacts. +And to my astonishment, they backed me 100 percent. +They said, "Go and do it, and we'll come and lecture." +And I knew it would be amazing fun to bring brilliant students from these countries -- where they don't have any opportunities -- together with the best lecturers in the world -- who I knew would come, because of the interest in Africa -- and put them together and just let the sparks fly. +So we bought a derelict hotel near Cape Town. +It's an 80-room Art Deco hotel from the 1920s. +The area was kind of seedy, so we got an 80-room hotel for 100,000 dollars. +It's a beautiful building. We decided we would refurbish it and then put out the word: we're going to start the best math institute in Africa in this hotel. +Well, the new South Africa is a very exciting country. +And those of you who haven't been there, you should go. +It's very, very interesting what's happening. +And we recruited wonderful staff, highly motivated staff. +The other thing that's happened, which was good for us, is the Internet. +Even though the Internet is very expensive all over Africa, there are Internet cafes everywhere. +And bright young Africans are desperate to join the global community, to be successful -- and they're very ambitious. +They want to be the next Einstein. +And so when word came out that AIMS was opening, it spread very quickly via e-mail and our website. +And we got lots of applicants. +Well, we designed AIMS as a 24-hour learning environment, and it was fantastic to start a university from the beginning. +You have to rethink, what is the university for? +And that's really exciting. +So we designed it to have interactive teaching. +No droning on at the chalkboard. +We emphasize problem-solving, working in groups, every student discovering and maximizing their own potential and not chasing grades. +Everyone lives together in this hotel -- lecturers and students -- and it's not surprising at all to find an impromptu tutorial at 1 a.m. +The students don't usually leave the computer lab till 2 or 3 a.m. +And then they're up again at eight in the morning. +Lectures, problem-solving and so on. It's an extraordinary place. +We especially emphasize areas of great relevance to Africa's development, because, in those areas, scientists working in Africa will have a competitive advantage. +They'll publish, be invited to conferences. +They'll do well. They'll have successful careers. +And AIMS has done extremely well. +Here is a list of last year's graduates, graduated in June, and what they're currently doing -- 48 of them. +And where they are is indicated over here. +And where they've gone. So these are all postgraduate students. +And they've all gone on to master's and Ph.D. degrees in excellent places. +Five students can be educated at AIMS for the cost of educating one in the U.S. or Europe. +But more important, the pan-African student body is a continual source of strength, pride and commitment to Africa. +We illustrate AIMS' progress by coloring in the countries of Africa. +So here you can see behind this list. +When a county is colored yellow, we've received an application; orange, we've accepted an application; and green, a student has graduated. +So here is where we were after the first graduation in 2004. +And we set ourselves a goal of turning the continent green. +So there's 2005, -6, -7, -8. +We're well on the way to achieving our initial goal. +We had some of the students filmed at home before they came to AIMS. +And I'll just show you one. +Tendai Mugwagwa: My name is Tendai Mugwagwa. +I have a Bachelor of Science with an education degree. +I will be attending AIMS. +My understanding of the course is that it covers quite a lot. +You know, from physics to medicine, in particular, epidemiology and also mathematical modeling. +Neil Turok: So Tendai came to AIMS and did very well. +And I'll let her take it from there. +TM: My name is Tendai Mugwagwa and I was a student at AIMS in 2003 and 2004. +After leaving AIMS, I went on to do a master's in applied mathematics at the University of Cape Town in South Africa. +After that, I came to the Netherlands where I'm now doing a Ph.D. in theoretical immunology. +Professor: Tendai is working very independently. +She communicates well with the immunologists at the hospital. +So all in all I have a very good Ph.D. student from South Africa. +So I'm happy she's here. +NT: Another student in the first year of AIMS was Shehu. +And he's shown here with his favorite high school teacher. +And then entering university in northern Nigeria. +And after AIMS, Shehu wanted to do high-energy physics, and he came to Cambridge. +He's about to finish his Ph.D., and he was filmed recently with someone you all know. +Shehu: And from there we will be able to, hopefully, make better predictions and then we compare it to the graph and also make some predictions. +Stephen Hawking: That is nice. +NT: Here are the current students at AIMS. There are 53 of them from 20 different countries, including 20 women. +So now I'm going to get to my TED business. +Well, we had a party. This is Africa -- we have good parties in Africa. And last month, they threw a surprise party for me. +Here's somebody you've seen already. +I want to point out a few other exceptional people in this picture. +So, we were having a party, as you can see they're completely eclipsing me at this point. +This is Ezra. She's from Darfur. +She's a physicist, and somehow stays smiling, in spite of everything going on back home. +But she wants to continue in physics, and she's doing extremely well. +This is Lydia. Lydia is the first ever woman to graduate in mathematics in the Central African Republic. +And she's now at AIMS. So now let me get to our TED wish. +Well, it's not my TED wish; it's our wish, as you've already gathered. +And our wish has two parts: one is a dream and the other's a plan. OK. +Our TED dream is that the next Einstein will be African. In striving for the heights of creative genius, we want to give thousands of people the motivation, the encouragement and the courage to obtain the high-level skills they need to help Africa. +Among them will be not only brilliant scientists -- I'm sure of that from what we've seen at AIMS -- they'll also be the African Gates, Brins and Pages of the future. +Well, I said we also have a plan. And our plan is quite simple. +AIMS is now a proven model. +And what we need to do is to replicate it. +We want to roll out 15 AIMS centers in the next five years, all over Africa. +Each will have a pan-African student body, but specialize in a different area of science. +We want to use science to overcome the national and cultural barriers, as it does at AIMS. +And we want to add elements to the curriculum. +We want to add entrepreneurship and policy skills. +The expanded AIMS will be a coherent pan-African institution, and its graduates will form a powerful network, working together for peace and progress across the continent. +Over the last year, we've been visiting sites in Africa, looking at potential sites for new AIMS centers. +And here are the ones we've selected. +And each of these centers has a strong local team, each is in a beautiful place, an interesting place, which international lecturers will be happy to visit. +And our partners across Africa are extremely enthusiastic about this. +Everyone wants an AIMS center in their country. +And last November, the conference of all the African ministers of science and technology, held in Mombasa, called for a comprehensive plan to roll out AIMS. +So we have political support right across the continent. +It won't be easy. +At every site there will be huge challenges. +Local scientists must play leading roles and governments must be persuaded to buy in. +Conditions are very difficult, but we cannot afford to compromise on those principles which made AIMS work. +And we summarize them this way: the institutes have got to be relevant, innovative, cost-effective and high quality. Why? +Because we want Africa to be rich. +Easy to remember the basic rules we need. +So, just in ending, let me say the only people who can fix Africa are talented young Africans. +By unlocking and nurturing their creative potential, we can create a step change in Africa's future. +Over time, they will contribute to African development and to science in ways we can only imagine. +Thank you. +Thank you so much everyone from TED, and Chris and Amy in particular. +I cannot believe I'm here. +I have not slept in weeks. +Back in about 2000, I was living in Brooklyn, I was trying to finish my first book, I was wandering around dazed every day because I wrote from 12 a.m. to 5 a.m. +So I would walk around in a daze during the day. +I had no mental acuity to speak of during the day, but I had flexible hours. +In the Brooklyn neighborhood that I lived in, Park Slope, there are a lot of writers -- it's like a very high per capita ratio of writers to normal people. +Meanwhile, I had grown up around a lot of teachers. +My mom was a teacher, my sister became a teacher and after college so many of my friends went into teaching. +And so I was always hearing them talk about their lives and how inspiring they were, and they were really sort of the most hard-working and constantly inspiring people I knew. +But I knew so many of the things they were up against, so many of the struggles they were dealing with. +And one of them was that so many of my friends that were teaching in city schools were having trouble with their students keeping up at grade level, in their reading and writing in particular. +Now, so many of these students had come from households where English isn't spoken in the home, where a lot of them have different special needs, learning disabilities. And of course they're working in schools which sometimes and very often are under-funded. +And so they would talk to me about this and say, "You know, what we really need is just more people, more bodies, more one-on-one attention, more hours, more expertise from people that have skills in English and can work with these students one-on-one." +Now, I would say, "Well, why don't you just work with them one-on-one?" +And they would say, "Well, we have five classes of 30 to 40 students each. +This can lead up to 150, 180, 200 students a day. +How can we possibly give each student even one hour a week of one-on-one attention?" +You'd have to greatly multiply the workweek and clone the teachers. +And so we started talking about this. +And at the same time, I thought about this massive group of people I knew: writers, editors, journalists, graduate students, assistant professors, you name it. +All these people that had sort of flexible daily hours and an interest in the English word -- I hope to have an interest in the English language, but I'm not speaking it well right now. I'm trying. That clock has got me. +But everyone that I knew had an interest in the primacy of the written word in terms of nurturing a democracy, nurturing an enlightened life. +And so they had, you know, their time and their interest, but at the same time there wasn't a conduit that I knew of in my community to bring these two communities together. +So when I moved back to San Francisco, we rented this building. +And the idea was to put McSweeney's -- McSweeney's Quarterly, that we published twice or three times a year, and a few other magazines -- we were going to move it into an office for the first time. +It used to be in my kitchen in Brooklyn. +We were going to move it into an office, and we were going to actually share space with a tutoring center. +So the idea was that we would be working on whatever we're working on, at 2:30 p.m. the students flow in and you put down what you're doing, or you trade, or you work a little bit later or whatever it is. +You give those hours in the afternoon to the students in the neighborhood. +So, we had this place, we rented it, the landlord was all for it. We did this mural, that's a Chris Ware mural, that basically explains the entire history of the printed word, in mural form -- it takes a long time to digest and you have to stand in the middle of the road. +So we rented this space. +And everything was great except the landlord said, "Well, the space is zoned for retail; you have to come up with something. +You've gotta sell something. +You can't just have a tutoring center." +So we thought, "Ha ha! Really!" +And we couldn't think of anything necessarily to sell, but we did all the necessary research. +It used to be a weight room, so there were rubber floors below, acoustic tile ceilings and fluorescent lights. +We took all that down, and we found beautiful wooden floors, whitewashed beams and it had the look -- while we were renovating this place, somebody said, "You know, it really kind of looks like the hull of a ship." +And we looked around and somebody else said, "Well, you should sell supplies to the working buccaneer." And so this is what we did. So it made everybody laugh, and we said, "There's a point to that. +Let's sell pirate supplies." This is the pirate supply store. +You see, this is sort of a sketch I did on a napkin. +A great carpenter built all this stuff and you see, we made it look sort of pirate supply-like. +Here you see planks sold by the foot and we have supplies to combat scurvy. +We have the peg legs there, that are all handmade and fitted to you. +Up at the top, you see the eyepatch display, which is the black column there for everyday use for your eyepatch, and then you have the pastel and other colors for stepping out at night -- special occasions, bar mitzvahs and whatever. +So we opened this place. And this is a vat that we fill with treasures that students dig in. +This is replacement eyes in case you lose one. +These are some signs that we have all over the place: "Practical Joking with Pirates." +While you're reading the sign, we pull a rope behind the counter and eight mop heads drop on your head. +That was just my one thing -- I said we had to have something that drops on people's heads. +It became mop heads. And this is the fish theater, which is just a saltwater tank with three seats, and then right behind it we set up this space, which was the tutoring center. +So right there is the tutoring center, and then behind the curtain were the McSweeney's offices, where all of us would be working on the magazine and book editing and things like that. +The kids would come in -- or we thought they would come in. I should back up. +We set the place up, we opened up, we spent months and months renovating this place. +We had tables, chairs, computers, everything. +I went to a dot-com auction at a Holiday Inn in Palo Alto and I bought 11 G4s with a stroke of a paddle. +Anyway, we bought 'em, we set everything up and then we waited. +It was started with about 12 of my friends, people that I had known for years that were writers in the neighborhood. +And we sat. And at 2:30 p.m. we put a sandwich board out on the front sidewalk and it just said, "Free Tutoring for Your English-Related and Writing-Related Needs -- Just Come In, It's All Free." +And we thought, "Oh, they're going to storm the gates, they're gonna love it." And they didn't. +And so we waited, we sat at the tables, we waited and waited. +And everybody was becoming very discouraged because it was weeks and weeks that we waited, really, where nobody came in. +And then somebody alerted us to the fact that maybe there was a trust gap, because we were operating behind a pirate supply store. We never put it together, you know? +She took over as executive director. +Immediately, she made the inroads with the teachers and the parents and the students and everything, and so suddenly it was actually full every day. +And what we were trying to offer every day was one-on-one attention. +The goal was to have a one-to-one ratio with every one of these students. +You know, it's been proven that 35 to 40 hours a year with one-on-one attention, a student can get one grade level higher. +And so most of these students, English is not spoken in the home. +They come there, many times their parents -- you can't see it, but there's a church pew that I bought in a Berkeley auction right there -- the parents will sometimes watch while their kids are being tutored. +So that was the basis of it, was one-on-one attention. +And we found ourselves full every day with kids. +If you're on Valencia Street within those few blocks at around 2 p.m., 2:30 p.m., you will get run over, often, by the kids and their big backpacks, or whatever, actually running to this space, which is very strange, because it's school, in a way. +But there was something psychological happening there that was just a little bit different. +And the other thing was, there was no stigma. +Kids weren't going into the "Center-for-Kids-That-Need-More-Help," or something like that. It was 826 Valencia. +First of all, it was a pirate supply store, which is insane. +And then secondly, there's a publishing company in the back. +And so our interns were actually working at the same tables very often, and shoulder-to-shoulder, computer-next-to-computer with the students. +And so it became a tutoring center -- publishing center, is what we called it -- and a writing center. +They go in, and they might be working with a high school student actually working on a novel -- because we had very gifted kids, too. +So there's no stigma. +They're all working next to each other. It's all a creative endeavor. +They're seeing adults. They're modeling their behavior. +These adults, they're working in their field. +They can lean over, ask a question of one of these adults and it all sort of feeds on each other. +There's a lot of cross-pollination. The only problem, especially for the adults working at McSweeney's who hadn't necessarily bought into all of this when they signed up, was that there was just the one bathroom. With like 60 kids a day, this is a problem. +But you know, there's something about the kids finishing their homework in a given day, working one-on-one, getting all this attention -- they go home, they're finished. They don't stall. +They don't do their homework in front of the TV. +They're allowed to go home at 5:30 p.m., enjoy their family, enjoy other hobbies, get outside, play. +And that makes a happy family. +A bunch of happy families in a neighborhood is a happy community. +A bunch of happy communities tied together is a happy city and a happy world. +So the key to it all is homework! There you have it, you know -- one-on-one attention. +So we started off with about 12 volunteers, and then we had about 50, and then a couple hundred. +And we now have 1,400 volunteers on our roster. +And we make it incredibly easy to volunteer. +The key thing is, even if you only have a couple of hours a month, those two hours shoulder-to-shoulder, next to one student, concentrated attention, shining this beam of light on their work, on their thoughts and their self-expression, is going to be absolutely transformative, because so many of the students have not had that ever before. +So we said, "Even if you have two hours one Sunday every six months, it doesn't matter. That's going to be enough." +So that's partly why the tutor corps grew so fast. +Then we said, "Well, what are we going to do with the space during the day, because it has to be used before 2:30 p.m.?" +So we started bringing in classes during the day. +So every day, there's a field trip where they together create a book -- you can see it being typed up above. +This is one of the classes getting way too excited about writing. +You just point a camera at a class, and it always looks like this. +So this is one of the books that they do. +Notice the title of the book, "The Book That Was Never Checked Out: Titanic." +And the first line of that book is, "Once there was a book named Cindy that was about the Titanic." +So, meanwhile, there's an adult in the back typing this up, taking it completely seriously, which blows their mind. +So then we still had more tutors to use. +This is a shot of just some of the tutors during one of the events. +The teachers that we work with -- and everything is different to teachers -- they tell us what to do. +We went in there thinking, "We're ultimately, completely malleable. You're going to tell us. +The neighborhood's going to tell us, the parents are going to tell us. +The teachers are going to tell us how we're most useful." +So then they said, "Why don't you come into the schools? +Because what about the students that wouldn't come to you, necessarily, who don't have really active parents that are bringing them in, or aren't close enough?" So then we started saying, "Well, we've got 1,400 people on our tutor roster. +Let's just put out the word." A teacher will say, "I need 12 tutors for the next five Sundays. +We're working on our college essays. Send them in." +So we put that out on the wire: 1,400 tutors. +Whoever can make it signs up. They go in about a half an hour before the class. +The teacher tells them what to do, how to do it, what their training is, what their project is so far. +They work under the teacher's guide, and it's all in one big room. +And that's actually the brunt of what we do is, people going straight from their workplace, straight from home, straight into the classroom and working directly with the students. +So then we're able to work with thousands and thousands of more students. +Then another school said, "Well, what if we just give you a classroom and you can staff it all day?" +So this is the Everett Middle School Writers' Room, where we decorated it in buccaneer style. +It's right off the library. And there we serve all 529 kids in this middle school. +This is their newspaper, the "Straight-Up News," that has an ongoing column from Mayor Gavin Newsom in both languages -- English and Spanish. +So then one day Isabel Allende wrote to us and said, "Hey, why don't you assign a book with high school students? +I want them to write about how to achieve peace in a violent world." +And so we went into Thurgood Marshall High School, which is a school that we had worked with on some other things, and we gave that assignment to the students. +And we said, "Isabel Allende is going to read all your essays at the end. +She's going to publish them in a book. +She's going to sponsor the printing of this book in paperback form. +It's going to be available in all the bookstores in the Bay Area and throughout the world, on Amazon and you name it." +So these kids worked harder than they've ever worked on anything in their lives, because there was that outside audience, there was Isabel Allende on the other end. +I think we had about 170 tutors that worked on this book with them and so this worked out incredibly well. +We had a big party at the end. +This is a book that you can find anywhere. So that led to a series of these. +You can see Amy Tan sponsored the next one, "I Might Get Somewhere." +And this became an ongoing thing. More and more books. +Now we're sort of addicted to the book thing. +And once they achieve that level, once they've written at that level, they can never go back. +It's absolutely transformative. +And so then they're all sold in the store. This is near the planks. +We sell all the student books. +Where else would you put them, right? +So we sell 'em, and then something weird had been happening with the stores. The store, actually -- even though we started out as just a gag -- the store actually made money. +So it was paying the rent. +And maybe this is just a San Francisco thing -- I don't know, I don't want to judge. +But people would come in -- and this was before the pirate movies and everything! +It was making a lot of money. Not a lot of money, but it was paying the rent, paying a full-time staff member there. +There's the ocean maps you can see on the left. +And it became a gateway to the community. +People would come in and say, "What the --? +What is this?" I don't want to swear on the web. Is that a rule? I don't know. +They would say, "What is this?" +And people would come in and learn more about it. +And then right beyond -- there's usually a little chain there -- right beyond, they would see the kids being tutored. +This is a field trip going on. And so they would be shopping, and they might be more likely to buy some lard, or millet for their parrot, or, you know, a hook, or hook protector for nighttime, all of these things we sell. +So the store actually did really well. +But it brought in so many people -- teachers, donors, volunteers, everybody -- because it was street level. It was open to the public. +It wasn't a non-profit buried, you know, on the 30th floor of some building downtown. It was right in the neighborhood that it was serving, and it was open all the time to the public. +So, it became this sort of weird, happy accident. +So all the people I used to know in Brooklyn, they said, "Well, why don't we have a place like that here?" +And a lot of them had been former educators or would-be educators, so they combined with a lot of local designers, local writers, and they just took the idea independently and they did their own thing. +They didn't want to sell pirate supplies. +They didn't think that that was going to work there. +So, knowing the crime-fighting community in New York, they opened the Brooklyn Superhero Supply Company. +This is Sam Potts' great design that did this. +And this was to make it look sort of like one of those keysmith's shops that has to have every service they've ever offered, you know, all over there. +So they opened this place. Inside, it's like a Costco for superheroes -- all the supplies in kind of basic form. +These are all handmade. +These are all sort of repurposed other products, or whatever. +All the packaging is done by Sam Potts. +So then you have the villain containment unit, where kids put their parents. You have the office. +This is a little vault -- you have to put your product in there, it goes up an electric lift and then the guy behind the counter tells you that you have to recite the vow of heroism, which you do, if you want to buy anything. And it limits, really, their sales. +Personally, I think it's a problem. +Because they have to do it hand on heart and everything. +These are some of the products. These are all handmade. +This is a secret identity kit. +If you want to take on the identity of Sharon Boone, one American female marketing executive from Hoboken, New Jersey. It's a full dossier on everything you would need to know about Sharon Boone. +So, this is the capery where you get fitted for your cape, and then you walk up these three steel-graded steps and then we turn on three hydraulic fans from every side and then you can see the cape in action. +There's nothing worse than, you know, getting up there and the cape is bunching up or something like that. +So then, the secret door -- this is one of the shelves you don't see when you walk in, but it slowly opens. +You can see it there in the middle next to all the grappling hooks. +It opens and then this is the tutoring center in the back. So you can see the full effect! +But this is -- I just want to emphasize -- locally funded, locally built. +All the designers, all of the builders, everybody was local, all the time was pro-bono. +I just came and visited and said, "Yes, you guys are doing great," or whatever. That was it. You can see the time in all five boroughs of New York in the back. So this is the space during tutoring hours. +It's very busy. Same principles: one-on-one attention, complete devotion to the students' work and a boundless optimism and sort of a possibility of creativity and ideas. +And this switch is flicked in their heads when they walk through those 18 feet of this bizarre store, right? +So it's school, but it's not school. +It's clearly not school, even though they're working shoulder-to-shoulder on tables, pencils and papers, whatever. +This is one of the students, Khaled Hamdan. +You can read this quote. +Addicted to video games and TV. Couldn't concentrate at home. +Came in. Got this concentrated attention. +And he couldn't escape it. +So, soon enough, he was writing. He would finish his homework early -- got really addicted to finishing his homework early. +It's an addictive thing to sort of be done with it, and to have it checked, and to know he's going to achieve the next thing and be prepared for school the next day. +So he got hooked on that, and then he started doing other things. +He's now been published in five books. +He co-wrote a mockumentary about failed superheroes called "Super-Has-Beens." +He wrote a series on "Penguin Balboa," which is a fighting -- a boxing -- penguin. +And then he read aloud just a few weeks ago to 500 people at Symphony Space, at a benefit for 826 New York. So he's there every day. +He's evangelical about it. He brings his cousins in now. +There's four family members that come in every day. +So, I'll go through really quickly. +This is L.A., The Echo Park Time Travel Mart: "Whenever You Are, We're Already Then." This is sort of a 7-Eleven for time travelers. +So you see everything: it's exactly as a 7-Eleven would be. +Leeches. Mammoth chunks. They even have their own Slurpee machine: "Out of Order. Come Back Yesterday." Anyway. So I'm going to jump ahead. +These are spaces that are only affiliated with us, doing this same thing: Word St. in Pittsfield, Massachusetts; Ink Spot in Cincinnati; Youth Speaks, San Francisco, California, which inspired us; Studio St. Louis in St. Louis; Austin Bat Cave in Austin; Fighting Words in Dublin, Ireland, started by Roddy Doyle, this will be open in April. +Now I'm going to the TED Wish -- is that okay? +Profound leaps forward! +And these can be things that maybe you're already doing. +I know that so many people in this room are already doing really interesting things. +I know that for a fact. So, tell us these stories and inspire others on the website. +We created a website. +I'm going to switch to "we," and not "I," hope: We hope that the attendees of this conference will usher in a new era of participation in our public schools. +We hope that you will take the lead in partnering your innovative spirit and expertise with that of innovative educators in your community. +Always let the teachers lead the way. +They will tell you how to be useful. I hope that you'll step in and help out. +There are a million ways. +You can walk up to your local school and consult with the teachers. They'll always tell you how to help. +So, this is with Hot Studio in San Francisco, they did this phenomenal job. +This website is already up, it's already got a bunch of stories, a lot of ideas. It's called "Once Upon a School," which is a great title, I think. +This site will document every story, every project that comes out of this conference and around the world. So you go to the website, you see a bunch of ideas you can be inspired by and then you add your own projects once you get started. +Hot Studio did a great job in a very tight deadline. So, visit the site. +If you have any questions, you can ask this guy, who's our director of national programs. He'll be on the phone. +You email him, he'll answer any question you possibly want. +And he'll get you inspired and get you going and guide you through the process so that you can affect change. +And it can be fun! That's the point of this talk -- it needn't be sterile. It needn't be bureaucratically untenable. +You can do and use the skills that you have. +The schools need you. The teachers need you. +Students and parents need you. They need your actual person: your physical personhood and your open minds and open ears and boundless compassion, sitting next to them, listening and nodding and asking questions for hours at a time. +Some of these kids just don't plain know how good they are: how smart and how much they have to say. +You can tell them. You can shine that light on them, one human interaction at a time. So we hope you'll join us. +Thank you so much. +Well, this is such an honor. And it's wonderful to be in the presence of an organization that is really making a difference in the world. +And I'm intensely grateful for the opportunity to speak to you today. +And I'm also rather surprised, because when I look back on my life the last thing I ever wanted to do was write, or be in any way involved in religion. +After I left my convent, I'd finished with religion, frankly. +I thought that was it. +And for 13 years I kept clear of it. I wanted to be an English literature professor. +And I certainly didn't even want to be a writer, particularly. +But then I suffered a series of career catastrophes, one after the other, and finally found myself in television. I said that to Bill Moyers, and he said, "Oh, we take anybody." And I was doing some rather controversial religious programs. +This went down very well in the U.K., where religion is extremely unpopular. +And so, for once, for the only time in my life, I was finally in the mainstream. +But I got sent to Jerusalem to make a film about early Christianity. +And there, for the first time, I encountered the other religious traditions: Judaism and Islam, the sister religions of Christianity. +And while I found I knew nothing about these faiths at all -- despite my own intensely religious background, I'd seen Judaism only as a kind of prelude to Christianity, and I knew nothing about Islam at all. +But in that city, that tortured city, where you see the three faiths jostling so uneasily together, you also become aware of the profound connection between them. +And it has been the study of other religious traditions that brought me back to a sense of what religion can be, and actually enabled me to look at my own faith in a different light. +And I found some astonishing things in the course of my study that had never occurred to me. Frankly, in the days when I thought I'd had it with religion, I just found the whole thing absolutely incredible. +These doctrines seemed unproven, abstract. +And to my astonishment, when I began seriously studying other traditions, I began to realize that belief -- which we make such a fuss about today -- is only a very recent religious enthusiasm that surfaced only in the West, in about the 17th century. +The word "belief" itself originally meant to love, to prize, to hold dear. +In the 17th century, it narrowed its focus, for reasons that I'm exploring in a book I'm writing at the moment, to include -- to mean an intellectual assent to a set of propositions, a credo. +"I believe:" it did not mean, "I accept certain creedal articles of faith." +It meant: "I commit myself. I engage myself." +Indeed, some of the world traditions think very little of religious orthodoxy. +In the Quran, religious opinion -- religious orthodoxy -- is dismissed as "zanna:" self-indulgent guesswork about matters that nobody can be certain of one way or the other, but which makes people quarrelsome and stupidly sectarian. So if religion is not about believing things, what is it about? +What I've found, across the board, is that religion is about behaving differently. +Instead of deciding whether or not you believe in God, first you do something. +You behave in a committed way, and then you begin to understand the truths of religion. +And religious doctrines are meant to be summons to action; you only understand them when you put them into practice. +Now, pride of place in this practice is given to compassion. +It is compassion, says the Buddha, which brings you to Nirvana. +Why? Because in compassion, when we feel with the other, we dethrone ourselves from the center of our world and we put another person there. And once we get rid of ego, then we're ready to see the Divine. +And in particular, every single one of the major world traditions has highlighted -- has said -- and put at the core of their tradition what's become known as the Golden Rule. +First propounded by Confucius five centuries before Christ: "Do not do to others what you would not like them to do to you." +That, he said, was the central thread which ran through all his teaching and that his disciples should put into practice all day and every day. +And it was -- the Golden Rule would bring them to the transcendent value that he called "ren," human-heartedness, which was a transcendent experience in itself. +And this is absolutely crucial to the monotheisms, too. +There's a famous story about the great rabbi, Hillel, the older contemporary of Jesus. +A pagan came to him and offered to convert to Judaism if the rabbi could recite the whole of Jewish teaching while he stood on one leg. +Hillel stood on one leg and said, "That which is hateful to you, do not do to your neighbor. That is the Torah. The rest is commentary. +Go and study it." And "go and study it" was what he meant. +He said, "In your exegesis, you must make it clear that every single verse of the Torah is a commentary, a gloss upon the Golden Rule." +The great Rabbi Meir said that any interpretation of Scripture which led to hatred and disdain, or contempt of other people -- any people whatsoever -- was illegitimate. +Saint Augustine made exactly the same point. +Scripture, he says, "teaches nothing but charity, and we must not leave an interpretation of Scripture until we have found a compassionate interpretation of it." +And this struggle to find compassion in some of these rather rebarbative texts is a good dress rehearsal for doing the same in ordinary life. But now look at our world. And we are living in a world that is -- where religion has been hijacked. Where terrorists cite Quranic verses to justify their atrocities. +Where instead of taking Jesus' words, "Love your enemies. +Don't judge others," we have the spectacle of Christians endlessly judging other people, endlessly using Scripture as a way of arguing with other people, putting other people down. Throughout the ages, religion has been used to oppress others, and this is because of human ego, human greed. +We have a talent as a species for messing up wonderful things. +We formed you, says the Quran, into tribes and nations so that you may know one another. +And this, again -- this universal outreach -- is getting subdued in the strident use of religion -- abuse of religion -- for nefarious gains. +Now, I've lost count of the number of taxi drivers who, when I say to them what I do for a living, inform me that religion has been the cause of all the major world wars in history. Wrong. +The causes of our present woes are political. +But, make no mistake about it, religion is a kind of fault line, and when a conflict gets ingrained in a region, religion can get sucked in and become part of the problem. Our modernity has been exceedingly violent. +Between 1914 and 1945, 70 million people died in Europe alone as a result of armed conflict. +And so many of our institutions, even football, which used to be a pleasant pastime, now causes riots where people even die. +And it's not surprising that religion, too, has been affected by this violent ethos. +There's also a great deal, I think, of religious illiteracy around. +People seem to think, now equate religious faith with believing things. +As though that -- we call religious people often believers, as though that were the main thing that they do. And very often, secondary goals get pushed into the first place, in place of compassion and the Golden Rule. +Because the Golden Rule is difficult. I sometimes -- when I'm speaking to congregations about compassion, I sometimes see a mutinous expression crossing some of their faces because a lot of religious people prefer to be right, rather than compassionate. Now -- but that's not the whole story. +Since September the 11th, when my work on Islam suddenly propelled me into public life, in a way that I'd never imagined, I've been able to sort of go all over the world, and finding, everywhere I go, a yearning for change. +I've just come back from Pakistan, where literally thousands of people came to my lectures, because they were yearning, first of all, to hear a friendly Western voice. +And especially the young people were coming. And were asking me -- the young people were saying, "What can we do? What can we do to change things?" +And my hosts in Pakistan said, "Look, don't be too polite to us. +Tell us where we're going wrong. Let's talk together about where religion is failing." +Because it seems to me that with -- our current situation is so serious at the moment that any ideology that doesn't promote a sense of global understanding and global appreciation of each other is failing the test of the time. +And religion, with its wide following ... Here in the United States, people may be being religious in a different way, as a report has just shown -- but they still want to be religious. It's only Western Europe that has retained its secularism, which is now beginning to look rather endearingly old-fashioned. +But people want to be religious, and religion should be made to be a force for harmony in the world, which it can and should be -- because of the Golden Rule. +"Do not do to others what you would not have them do to you": an ethos that should now be applied globally. +We should not treat other nations as we would not wish to be treated ourselves. +And these -- whatever our wretched beliefs -- is a religious matter, it's a spiritual matter. +It's a profound moral matter that engages and should engage us all. +And as I say, there is a hunger for change out there. +Here in the United States, I think you see it in this election campaign: a longing for change. +And people in churches all over and mosques all over this continent after September the 11th, coming together locally to create networks of understanding. +With the mosque, with the synagogue, saying, "We must start to speak to one another." +I think it's time that we moved beyond the idea of toleration and move toward appreciation of the other. +I'd -- there's one story I'd just like to mention. +This comes from "The Iliad." But it tells you what this spirituality should be. +You know the story of "The Iliad," the 10-year war between Greece and Troy. +And then one night, Priam, king of Troy, an old man, comes into the Greek camp incognito, makes his way to Achilles' tent to ask for the body of his son. +And everybody is shocked when the old man takes off his head covering and shows himself. +And Achilles looks at him and thinks of his father. And he starts to weep. +And Priam looks at the man who has murdered so many of his sons, and he, too, starts to weep. And the sound of their weeping filled the house. +The Greeks believed that weeping together created a bond between people. +And then Achilles takes the body of Hector, he hands it very tenderly to the father, and the two men look at each other, and see each other as divine. +That is the ethos found, too, in all the religions. +It's what is meant by overcoming the horror that we feel when we are under threat of our enemies, and beginning to appreciate the other. +It's of great importance that the word for "holy" in Hebrew, applied to God, is "Kadosh": separate, other. +And it is often, perhaps, the very otherness of our enemies which can give us intimations of that utterly mysterious transcendence which is God. +And now, here's my wish: I wish that you would help with the creation, launch and propagation of a Charter for Compassion, crafted by a group of inspirational thinkers from the three Abrahamic traditions of Judaism, Christianity and Islam, and based on the fundamental principle of the Golden Rule. +We need to create a movement among all these people that I meet in my travels -- you probably meet, too -- who want to join up, in some way, and reclaim their faith, which they feel, as I say, has been hijacked. +We need to empower people to remember the compassionate ethos, and to give guidelines. This Charter would not be a massive document. +I'd like to see it -- to give guidelines as to how to interpret the Scriptures, these texts that are being abused. Remember what the rabbis and what Augustine said about how Scripture should be governed by the principle of charity. +Let's get back to that. And the idea, too, of Jews, Christians and Muslims -- these traditions now so often at loggerheads -- working together to create a document which we hope will be signed by a thousand, at least, of major religious leaders from all the traditions of the world. +And you are the people. I'm just a solitary scholar. +Also, I would be working with the Alliance of Civilizations at the United Nations. +I was part of that United Nations initiative called the Alliance of Civilizations, which was asked by Kofi Annan to diagnose the causes of extremism, and to give practical guidelines to member states about how to avoid the escalation of further extremism. +And the Alliance has told me that they are very happy to work with it. +Good morning. +Let's look for a minute at the greatest icon of all, Leonardo da Vinci. +We're all familiar with his fantastic work -- his drawings, his paintings, his inventions, his writings. +But we do not know his face. +Thousands of books have been written about him, but there's controversy, and it remains, about his looks. +Even this well-known portrait is not accepted by many art historians. +So, what do you think? +Is this the face of Leonardo da Vinci or isn't it? +Let's find out. +Leonardo was a man that drew everything around him. +He drew people, anatomy, plants, animals, landscapes, buildings, water, everything. +But no faces? +I find that hard to believe. +His contemporaries made faces, like the ones you see here -- en face or three-quarters. +So, surely a passionate drawer like Leonardo must have made self-portraits from time to time. +So let's try to find them. +I think that if we were to scan all of his work and look for self-portraits, we would find his face looking at us. +So I looked at all of his drawings, more than 700, and looked for male portraits. +There are about 120, you see them here. +Which ones of these could be self-portraits? +Well, for that they have to be done as we just saw, en face or three-quarters. +So we can eliminate all the profiles. +It also has to be sufficiently detailed. +So we can also eliminate the ones that are very vague or very stylized. +And we know from his contemporaries that Leonardo was a very handsome, even beautiful man. +So we can also eliminate the ugly ones or the caricatures. +And look what happens -- only three candidates remain that fit the bill. +And here they are. +Yes, indeed, the old man is there, as is this famous pen drawing of the Homo Vitruvianus. +And lastly, the only portrait of a male that Leonardo painted, "The Musician." +Before we go into these faces, I should explain why I have some right to talk about them. +I've made more than 1,100 portraits myself for newspapers, over the course of 300 -- 30 years, sorry, 30 years only. +But there are 1,100, and very few artists have drawn so many faces. +So I know a little about drawing and analyzing faces. +OK, now let's look at these three portraits. +And hold onto your seats, because if we zoom in on those faces, remark how they have the same broad forehead, the horizontal eyebrows, the long nose, the curved lips and the small, well-developed chin. +I couldn't believe my eyes when I first saw that. +There is no reason why these portraits should look alike. +All we did was look for portraits that had the characteristics of a self-portrait, and look, they are very similar. +Now, are they made in the right order? +The young man should be made first. +And as you see here from the years that they were created, it is indeed the case. +They are made in the right order. +What was the age of Leonardo at the time? Does that fit? +Yes, it does. He was 33, 38 and 63 when these were made. +So we have three pictures, potentially of the same person of the same age as Leonardo at the time. +But how do we know it's him, and not someone else? +Well, we need a reference. +And here's the only picture of Leonardo that's widely accepted. +It's a statue made by Verrocchio, of David, for which Leonardo posed as a boy of 15. +And if we now compare the face of the statue, with the face of the musician, you see the very same features again. +The statue is the reference, and it connects the identity of Leonardo to those three faces. +Ladies and gentlemen, this story has not yet been published. +It's only proper that you here at TED hear and see it first. +The icon of icons finally has a face. +Here he is: Leonardo da Vinci. +Hi. I'm going to ask you to raise your arms and wave back, just the way I am -- kind of a royal wave. +You can mimic what you can see. +You can program the hundreds of muscles in your arm. +Soon, you'll be able to look inside your brain and program, control the hundreds of brain areas that you see there. +I'm going to tell you about that technology. +People have wanted to look inside the human mind, the human brain, for thousands of years. +Well, coming out of the research labs just now, for our generation, is the possibility to do that. +People envision this as being very difficult. +You had to take a spaceship, shrink it down, inject it into the bloodstream. +It was terribly dangerous. You could be attacked by white blood cells in the arteries. +But now, we have a real technology to do this. +We're going to fly into my colleague Peter's brain. +We're going to do it non-invasively using MRI. +We don't have to inject anything. We don't need radiation. +We will be able to fly into the anatomy of Peter's brain -- literally, fly into his body -- but more importantly, we can look into his mind. +When Peter moves his arm, that yellow spot you see there is the interface to the functioning of Peter's mind taking place. +Now you've seen before that with electrodes you can control robotic arms, that brain imaging and scanners can show you the insides of brains. +What's new is that that process has typically taken days or months of analysis. +We've collapsed that through technology to milliseconds, and that allows us to let Peter to look at his brain in real time as he's inside the scanner. +He can look at these 65,000 points of activation per second. +If he can see this pattern in his own brain, he can learn how to control it. +There have been three ways to try to impact the brain: the therapist's couch, pills and the knife. +This is a fourth alternative that you are soon going to have. +We all know that as we form thoughts, they form deep channels in our minds and in our brains. +Chronic pain is an example. If you burn yourself, you pull your hand away. +But if you're still in pain in six months' or six years' time, it's because these circuits are producing pain that's no longer helping you. +If we can look at the activation in the brain that's producing the pain, we can form 3D models and watch in real time the brain process information, and then we can select the areas that produce the pain. +So put your arms back up and flex your bicep. +Now imagine that you will soon be able to look inside your brain and select brain areas to do that same thing. +What you're seeing here is, we've selected the pathways in the brain of a chronic pain patient. +This may shock you, but we're literally reading this person's brain in real time. +They're watching their own brain activation, and they're controlling the pathway that produces their pain. +They're learning to flex this system that releases their own endogenous opiates. +As they do it, in the upper left is a display that's yoked to their brain activation of their own pain being controlled. +When they control their brain, they can control their pain. +This is an investigational technology, but, in clinical trials, we're seeing a 44 to 64 percent decrease in chronic pain patients. +This is not "The Matrix." You can only do this to yourself. You take control. +I've seen inside my brain. You will too, soon. +When you do, what do you want to control? +You will be able to look at all the aspects that make you yourself, all your experiences. +These are some of the areas we're working on today that I don't have time to go into in detail. +But I want to leave with you the big question. +We are the first generation that's going to be able to enter into, using this technology, the human mind and brain. +Where will we take it? +I'm delighted to be here. +I'm honored by the invitation, and thanks. +I would love to talk about stuff that I'm interested in, but unfortunately, I suspect that what I'm interested in won't interest many other people. +First off, my badge says I'm an astronomer. +I would love to talk about my astronomy, but I suspect that the number of people who are interested in radiative transfer in non-gray atmospheres and polarization of light in Jupiter's upper atmosphere are the number of people who'd fit in a bus shelter. +So I'm not going to talk about that. +It would be just as much fun to talk about some stuff that happened in 1986 and 1987, when a computer hacker is breaking into our systems over at Lawrence Berkeley Labs. +And I caught the guys, and they turned out to be working for what was then the Soviet KGB, and stealing information and selling it. +And I'd love to talk about that -- and it'd be fun -- but, 20 years later ... +I find computer security, frankly, to be kind of boring. +It's tedious. +I'm -- The first time you do something, it's science. +The second time, it's engineering. +A third time, it's just being a technician. +I'm a scientist. Once I do something, I do something else. +So, I'm not going to talk about that. +Nor am I going to talk about what I think are obvious statements from my first book, "Silicon Snake Oil," or my second book, nor am I going to talk about why I believe computers don't belong in schools. +I feel that there's a massive and bizarre idea going around that we have to bring more computers into schools. +My idea is: no! No! +Get them out of schools, and keep them out of schools. +And I'd love to talk about this, but I think the argument is so obvious to anyone who's hung around a fourth grade classroom that it doesn't need much talking about -- but I guess I may be very wrong about that, and everything else that I've said. +So don't go back and read my dissertation. +It probably has lies in it as well. +Having said that, I outlined my talk about five minutes ago. +And if you look at it over here, the main thing I wrote on my thumb was the future. +I'm supposed to talk about the future, yes? +Oh, right. And my feeling is, asking me to talk about the future is bizarre, because I've got gray hair, and so, it's kind of silly for me to talk about the future. +In fact, I think that if you really want to know what the future's going to be, if you really want to know about the future, don't ask a technologist, a scientist, a physicist. +No! Don't ask somebody who's writing code. +No, if you want to know what society's going to be like in 20 years, ask a kindergarten teacher. +They know. +In fact, don't ask just any kindergarten teacher, ask an experienced one. +They're the ones who know what society is going to be like in another generation. +I don't. Nor, I suspect, do many other people who are talking about what the future will bring. +Certainly, all of us can imagine these cool new things that are going to be there. +But to me, things aren't the future. +What I ask myself is, what's society is going to be like, when the kids today are phenomenally good at text messaging and spend a huge amount of on-screen time, but have never gone bowling together? +Change is happening, and the change that is happening is not one that is in software. +But that's not what I'm going to talk about. +I'd love to talk about it, it'd be fun, but I want to talk about what I'm doing now. What am I doing now? +Oh -- the other thing that I think I'd like to talk about is right over here. Right over here. +Is that visible? What I'd like to talk about is one-sided things. +I would dearly love to talk about things that have one side. +Because I love Mobius loops. I not only love Mobius loops, but I'm one of the very few people, if not the only person in the world, that makes Klein bottles. +Right away, I hope that all of your eyes glaze over. +This is a Klein bottle. +For those of you in the audience who know, you roll your eyes and say, yup, I know all about it. +It's one sided. It's a bottle whose inside is its outside. +It has zero volume. And it's non-orientable. +It has wonderful properties. +If you take two Mobius loops and sew their common edge together, you get one of these, and I make them out of glass. +And I'd love to talk to you about this, but I don't have much in the way of ... things to say because -- (Chris Anderson: I've got a cold.) However, the "D" in TED of course stands for design. +Just two weeks ago I made -- you know, I've been making small, medium and big Klein bottles for the trade. +But what I've just made -- and I'm delighted to show you, first time in public here. +This is a Klein bottle wine bottle, which, although in four dimensions it shouldn't be able to hold any fluid at all, it's perfectly capable of doing so because our universe has only three spatial dimensions. +And because our universe is only three spatial dimensions, it can hold fluids. +So it's highly -- that one's the cool one. +That was a month of my life. +But although I would love to talk about topology with you, I'm not going to. +Instead, I'm going to mention my mom, who passed away last summer. +Had collected photographs of me, as mothers will do. +Could somebody put this guy up? +And I looked over her album and she had collected a picture of me, standing -- well, sitting -- in 1969, in front of a bunch of dials. +And I looked at it, and said, oh my god, that was me, when I was working at the electronic music studio! +As a technician, repairing and maintaining the electronic music studio at SUNY Buffalo. And wow! +Way back machine. And I said to myself, oh yeah! +And it sent me back. +Soon after that, I found in another picture that she had, a picture of me. +This guy over here of course is me. +This man is Robert Moog, the inventor of the Moog synthesizer, who passed away this past August. +Robert Moog was a generous, kind person, extraordinarily competent engineer. +A musician who took time from his life to teach me, a sophomore, a freshman at SUNY Buffalo. +He'd come up from Trumansburg to teach me not just about the Moog synthesizer, but we'd be sitting there -- I'm studying physics at the time. This is 1969, 70, 71. +We're studying physics, I'm studying physics, and he's saying, "That's a good thing to do. +Don't get caught up in electronic music if you're doing physics." +Mentoring me. He'd come up and spend hours and hours with me. +He wrote a letter of recommendation for me to get into graduate school. +In the background, my bicycle. +I realize that this picture was taken at a friend's living room. +Bob Moog came by and hauled a whole pile of equipment to show Greg Flint and I things about this. +We sat around talking about Fourier transforms, Bessel functions, modulation transfer functions, stuff like this. +Bob's passing this past summer has been a loss to all of us. +Anyone who's a musician has been profoundly influenced by Robert Moog. +And I'll just say what I'm about to do. What I'm about to do -- I hope you can recognize that there's a distorted sine wave, almost a triangular wave upon this Hewlett-Packard oscilloscope. +Oh, cool. I can get to this place over here, right? +Kids. Kids is what I'm going to talk about -- is that okay? +It says kids over here, that's what I'd like to talk about. +I've decided that, for me at least, I don't have a big enough head. +So I think locally and I act locally. +I feel that the best way I can help out anything is to help out very, very locally. +So Ph.D. this, and degree there, and the yadda yadda. +I was talking about this stuff to some schoolteachers about a year ago. +And one of them, several of them would come up to me and say, "Well, how come you ain't teaching?" +And I said, "Well, I've taught graduate -- I've had graduate students, I've taught undergraduate classes." +No, they said, "If you're so into kids and all this stuff, how come you ain't over here on the front lines? +Put your money where you mouth is." +Is true. Is true. I teach eighth-grade science four days a week. +Not just showing up every now and then. +No, no, no, no, no. I take attendance. +I take lunch hour. This is not -- no, no, no, this is not claps. +I strongly suggest that this is a good thing for each of you to do. +Not just show up to class every now and then. +Teach a solid week. Okay, I'm teaching three-quarters time, but good enough. +One of the things that I've done for my science students is to tell them, "Look, I'm going to teach you college-level physics. +No calculus, I'll cut out that. +You won't need to know trig. +But you will need to know eighth-grade algebra, and we're going to do serious experiments. +None of this open-to-chapter-seven-and-do-all-the-odd-problem-sets. +We're going to be doing genuine physics." +And that's one of the things I thought I'd do right now. +(High-pitched tone) Oh, before I even turn that on, one of the things that we did about three weeks ago in my class -- this is through the lens, and one of the things we used a lens for was to measure the speed of light. +My students in El Cerrito -- with my help, of course, and with the help of a very beat up oscilloscope -- measured the speed of light. +We were off by 25 percent. How many eighth graders do you know of who have measured the speed of light? +In addition to that, we've measured the speed of sound. +I'd love to measure the speed of light here. +I was all set to do it and I was thinking, "Aw man," I was just going to impose upon the powers that be, and measure the speed of light. +And I'm all set to do it. I'm all set to do it, but then it turns out that to set up here, you have like 10 minutes to set up! +And there's no time to do it. +So, next time, maybe, I'll measure the speed of light! +But meanwhile, let's measure the speed of sound! +Well, the obvious way to measure the speed of sound is to bounce sound off something and look at the echo. +But, probably -- one of my students, Ariel [unclear], said, "Could we measure the speed of light using the wave equation?" +And all of you know the wave equation is the frequency times the wavelength of any wave ... +is a constant. When the frequency goes up, the wavelength comes down. Wavelength goes up, frequency goes down. So, if we have a wave here -- over here, that's what's interesting -- as the pitch goes up, things get closer, pitch goes down, things stretch out. +Right? This is simple physics. +All of you know this from eighth grade, remember? +What they didn't tell you in physics -- in eighth-grade physics -- but they should have, and I wish they had, was that if you multiply the frequency times the wavelength of sound or light, you get a constant. +And that constant is the speed of sound. +So, in order to measure the speed of sound, all I've got to do is know its frequency. Well, that's easy. +I've got a frequency counter right here. +Set it up to around A, above A, above A. There's an A, more or less. +Now, so I know the frequency. +It's 1.76 kilohertz. I measure its wavelength. +All I need now is to flip on another beam, and the bottom beam is me talking, right? +So anytime I talk, you'd see it on the screen. +I'll put it over here, and as I move this away from the source, you'll notice the spiral. +The slinky moves. We're going through different nodes of the wave, coming out this way. +Those of you who are physicists, I hear you rolling your eyes, but bear with me. To measure the wavelength, all I need to do is measure the distance from here -- one full wave -- over to here. +From here to here is the wavelength of sound. +So, I'll put a measuring tape here, measuring tape here, move it back over to here. +I've moved the microphone 20 centimeters. +0.2 meters from here, back to here, 20 centimeters. +OK, let's go back to Mr. Elmo. +And we'll say the frequency is 1.76 kilohertz, or 1760. +The wavelength was 0.2 meters. +Let's figure out what this is. +1.76 times 0.2 over here is 352 meters per second. +If you look it up in the book, it's really 343. +But, here with kludgy material, and lousy drink -- we've been able to measure the speed of sound to -- not bad. Pretty good. +All of which comes to what I wanted to say. +Go back to this picture of me a million years ago. +It was 1971, the Vietnam War was going on, and I'm like, "Oh my God!" +I'm studying physics: Landau, Lipschitz, Resnick and Halliday. +I'm going home for a midterm. A riot's going on on campus. +There's a riot! Hey, Elmo's done: off. +There's a riot going on on campus, and the police are chasing me, right? +I'm walking across campus. Cop comes and looks at me and says, "You! You're a student." +Pulls out a gun. Goes boom! +And a tear gas canister the size of a Pepsi can goes by my head. Whoosh! +I get a breath of tear gas and I can't breathe. +This cop comes after me with a rifle. +He wants to clunk me over the head! +I'm saying, "I got to clear out of here!" +I go running across campus quick as I can. I duck into Hayes Hall. +It's one of these bell-tower buildings. +The cop's chasing me. +Chasing me up the first floor, second floor, third floor. +Chases me into this room. +The entranceway to the bell tower. +I slam the door behind me, climb up, go past this place where I see a pendulum ticking. +And I'm thinking, "Oh yeah, the square root of the length is proportional to its period." I keep climbing up, go back. +I go to a place where a dowel splits off. +There's a clock, clock, clock, clock. +The time's going backwards because I'm inside of it. +I'm thinking of Lorenz contractions and Einsteinian relativity. +I climb up, and there's this place, way in the back, that you climb up this wooden ladder. +I pop up the top, and there's a cupola. +A dome, one of these ten-foot domes. +I'm looking out and I'm seeing the cops bashing students' heads, shooting tear gas, and watching students throwing bricks. +And I'm asking, "What am I doing here? Why am I here?" +Then I remember what my English teacher in high school said. +Namely, that when they cast bells, they write inscriptions on them. +So, I wipe the pigeon manure off one of the bells, and I look at it. +I'm asking myself, "Why am I here?" +So, at this time, I'd like to tell you the words inscribed upon the Hayes Hall tower bells: "All truth is one. +In this light, may science and religion endeavor here for the steady evolution of mankind, from darkness to light, from narrowness to broad-mindedness, from prejudice to tolerance. +It is the voice of life, which calls us to come and learn." +Thank you very much. +Fifty years ago in the old Soviet Union, a team of engineers was secretly moving a large object through a desolate countryside. +With it, they were hoping to capture the minds of people everywhere by being the first to conquer outer space. +The rocket was huge. +And packed in its nose was a silver ball with two radios inside. +On October 4, 1957, they launched their rocket. +One of the Russian scientists wrote at the time: "We are about to create a new planet that we will call Sputnik. +In the olden days, explorers like Vasco da Gama and Columbus had the good fortune to open up the terrestrial globe. +Now we have the good fortune to open up space. +And it is for those in the future to envy us our joy." +You're watching snippets from "Sputnik," my fifth documentary feature, which is just about completed. +It tells the story of Sputnik, and the story of what happened to America as a result. +For days after the launch, Sputnik was a wonderful curiosity. +A man-made moon visible by ordinary citizens, it inspired awe and pride that humans had finally launched an object into space. +But just three days later, on a day they called Red Monday, the media and the politicians told us, and we believed, that Sputnik was proof that our enemy had beaten us in science and technology, and that they could now attack us with hydrogen bombs, using their Sputnik rocket as an IBM missile. +All hell broke loose. +Sputnik quickly became one of the three great shocks to hit America -- historians say the equal of Pearl Harbor or 9/11. +It provoked the missile gap. +It exploded an arms race. +It began the space race. +Within a year, Congress funded huge weapons increases, and we went from 1,200 nuclear weapons to 20,000. +And the reactions to Sputnik went far beyond weapons increases. +For example, some here will remember this day, June 1958, the National Civil Defense Drill, where tens of millions of people in 78 cities went underground. +Or the Gallup Poll that showed that seven in 10 Americans believed that a nuclear war would happen, and that at least 50 percent of our population was going to be killed. +But Sputnik provoked wonderful changes as well. +For example, some in this room went to school on scholarship because of Sputnik. +Support for engineering, math and science -- education in general -- boomed. +And Vint Cerf points out that Sputnik led directly to ARPA, and the Internet, and, of course, NASA. +My feature documentary shows how a free society can be stampeded by those who know how to use media. +But it also shows how we can turn what appears at first to be a bad situation, into something that was overall very good for America. +"Sputnik" will soon be released. +In closing, I would like to take a moment to thank one of my investors: longtime TEDster, Jay Walker. +And I'd like to thank you all. +. +Thank you, Chris. +Im working a lot with motion and animation, and also I'm an old DJ and a musician. +So, music videos are something that I always found interesting, but they always seem to be so reactive. +So I was thinking, can you remove us as creators and try to make the music be the voice and have the animation following it? +So with two designers, Tolga and Christina, at my office, we took a track -- many of you probably know it. Its about 25 years old, and it's David Byrne and Brian Eno -- and we did this little animation. +And I think that it's maybe interesting, also, that it deals with two problematic issues, which are rising waters and religion. +Song: Before God destroyed the people on the Earth, he warned Noah to build an Ark. +And after Noah built his Ark, I believe he told Noah to warn the people that they must change all their wicked ways before he come upon them and destroy them. +And when Noah had done built his Ark, I understand that somebody began to rend a song. +And the song began to move on I understand like this. +And when Noah had done built his Ark ... +Move on ... In fact ... Concern ... +So they get tired, has come dark and rain; they get weary and tired. +And then he went and knocked an old lady house. +And old lady ran to the door and say, "Who is it?" +Jack say, "Me, Mama-san, could we spend the night here? +Because were far from home, were very tired." +And the old lady said, "Oh yes, come on in." +It was come dark and rain, will make you weary and tired. +There is nothing bigger or older than the universe. +The questions I would like to talk about are: one, where did we come from? +How did the universe come into being? +Are we alone in the universe? +Is there alien life out there? +What is the future of the human race? +Up until the 1920s, everyone thought the universe was essentially static and unchanging in time. +Then it was discovered that the universe was expanding. +Distant galaxies were moving away from us. +This meant they must have been closer together in the past. +If we extrapolate back, we find we must have all been on top of each other about 15 billion years ago. +This was the Big Bang, the beginning of the universe. +But was there anything before the Big Bang? +If not, what created the universe? +Why did the universe emerge from the Big Bang the way it did? +We used to think that the theory of the universe could be divided into two parts. +First, there were the laws like Maxwell's equations and general relativity that determined the evolution of the universe, given its state over all of space at one time. +And second, there was no question of the initial state of the universe. +We have made good progress on the first part, and now have the knowledge of the laws of evolution in all but the most extreme conditions. +But until recently, we have had little idea about the initial conditions for the universe. +However, this division into laws of evolution and initial conditions depends on time and space being separate and distinct. +Under extreme conditions, general relativity and quantum theory allow time to behave like another dimension of space. +This removes the distinction between time and space, and means the laws of evolution can also determine the initial state. +The universe can spontaneously create itself out of nothing. +Moreover, we can calculate a probability that the universe was created in different states. +These predictions are in excellent agreement with observations by the WMAP satellite of the cosmic microwave background, which is an imprint of the very early universe. +We think we have solved the mystery of creation. +Maybe we should patent the universe and charge everyone royalties for their existence. +I now turn to the second big question: are we alone, or is there other life in the universe? +We believe that life arose spontaneously on the Earth, so it must be possible for life to appear on other suitable planets, of which there seem to be a large number in the galaxy. +But we don't know how life first appeared. +We have two pieces of observational evidence on the probability of life appearing. +The first is that we have fossils of algae from 3.5 billion years ago. +The Earth was formed 4.6 billion years ago and was probably too hot for about the first half billion years. +So life appeared on Earth within half a billion years of it being possible, which is short compared to the 10-billion-year lifetime of a planet of Earth type. +This suggests that the probability of life appearing is reasonably high. +If it was very low, one would have expected it to take most of the ten billion years available. +On the other hand, we don't seem to have been visited by aliens. +I am discounting the reports of UFOs. +Why would they appear only to cranks and weirdos? +If there is a government conspiracy to suppress the reports and keep for itself the scientific knowledge the aliens bring, it seems to have been a singularly ineffective policy so far. +Furthermore, despite an extensive search by the SETI project, we haven't heard any alien television quiz shows. +This probably indicates that there are no alien civilizations at our stage of development within a radius of a few hundred light years. +Issuing an insurance policy against abduction by aliens seems a pretty safe bet. +This brings me to the last of the big questions: the future of the human race. +If we are the only intelligent beings in the galaxy, we should make sure we survive and continue. +But we are entering an increasingly dangerous period of our history. +Our population and our use of the finite resources of planet Earth are growing exponentially, along with our technical ability to change the environment for good or ill. +But our genetic code still carries the selfish and aggressive instincts that were of survival advantage in the past. +It will be difficult enough to avoid disaster in the next hundred years, let alone the next thousand or million. +Our only chance of long-term survival is not to remain inward-looking on planet Earth, but to spread out into space. +The answers to these big questions show that we have made remarkable progress in the last hundred years. +But if we want to continue beyond the next hundred years, our future is in space. +That is why I am in favor of manned -- or should I say, personned -- space flight. +All of my life I have sought to understand the universe and find answers to these questions. +I have been very lucky that my disability has not been a serious handicap. +Indeed, it has probably given me more time than most people to pursue the quest for knowledge. +The ultimate goal is a complete theory of the universe, and we are making good progress. +Thank you for listening. +Chris Anderson: Professor, if you had to guess either way, do you now believe that it is more likely than not that we are alone in the Milky Way, as a civilization of our level of intelligence or higher? +This answer took seven minutes, and really gave me an insight into the incredible act of generosity this whole talk was for TED. +Stephen Hawking: I think it quite likely that we are the only civilization within several hundred light years; otherwise we would have heard radio waves. +The alternative is that civilizations don't last very long, but destroy themselves. +CA: Professor Hawking, thank you for that answer. +We will take it as a salutary warning, I think, for the rest of our conference this week. +Professor, we really thank you for the extraordinary effort you made to share your questions with us today. +Thank you very much indeed. +I have given the slide show that I gave here two years ago about 2,000 times. +I'm giving a short slide show this morning that I'm giving for the very first time, so -- well it's -- I don't want or need to raise the bar, I'm actually trying to lower the bar. +Because I've cobbled this together to try to meet the challenge of this session. +And I was reminded by Karen Armstrong's fantastic presentation that religion really properly understood is not about belief, but about behavior. +Perhaps we should say the same thing about optimism. +How dare we be optimistic? +Optimism is sometimes characterized as a belief, an intellectual posture. +As Mahatma Gandhi famously said, "You must become the change you wish to see in the world." +And the outcome about which we wish to be optimistic is not going to be created by the belief alone, except to the extent that the belief brings about new behavior. But the word "behavior" is also, I think, sometimes misunderstood in this context. +I'm a big advocate of changing the lightbulbs and buying hybrids, and Tipper and I put 33 solar panels on our house, and dug the geothermal wells, and did all of that other stuff. +But, as important as it is to change the lightbulbs, it is more important to change the laws. +And when we change our behavior in our daily lives, we sometimes leave out the citizenship part and the democracy part. In order to be optimistic about this, we have to become incredibly active as citizens in our democracy. +In order to solve the climate crisis, we have to solve the democracy crisis. +And we have one. +I have been trying to tell this story for a long time. +And she said, "You know, if you dyed your hair black, you would look just like Al Gore." Many years ago, when I was a young congressman, I spent an awful lot of time dealing with the challenge of nuclear arms control -- the nuclear arms race. +And the military historians taught me, during that quest, that military conflicts are typically put into three categories: local battles, regional or theater wars, and the rare but all-important global, world war -- strategic conflicts. +And each level of conflict requires a different allocation of resources, a different approach, a different organizational model. +And there are lots of those. But the climate crisis is the rare but all-important global, or strategic, conflict. +Everything is affected. And we have to organize our response appropriately. We need a worldwide, global mobilization for renewable energy, conservation, efficiency and a global transition to a low-carbon economy. +We have work to do. And we can mobilize resources and political will. But the political will has to be mobilized, in order to mobilize the resources. +Let me show you these slides here. +I thought I would start with the logo. What's missing here, of course, is the North Polar ice cap. +Greenland remains. Twenty-eight years ago, this is what the polar ice cap -- the North Polar ice cap -- looked like at the end of the summer, at the fall equinox. +This last fall, I went to the Snow and Ice Data Center in Boulder, Colorado, and talked to the researchers here in Monterey at the Naval Postgraduate Laboratory. +This is what's happened in the last 28 years. +To put it in perspective, 2005 was the previous record. +Here's what happened last fall that has really unnerved the researchers. +The North Polar ice cap is the same size geographically -- doesn't look quite the same size -- but it is exactly the same size as the United States, minus an area roughly equal to the state of Arizona. +The amount that disappeared in 2005 was equivalent to everything east of the Mississippi. +The extra amount that disappeared last fall was equivalent to this much. It comes back in the winter, but not as permanent ice, as thin ice -- vulnerable. The amount remaining could be completely gone in summer in as little as five years. +That puts a lot of pressure on Greenland. +Already, around the Arctic Circle -- this is a famous village in Alaska. This is a town in Newfoundland. Antarctica. Latest studies from NASA. +The amount of a moderate-to-severe snow melting of an area equivalent to the size of California. +"They were the best of times, they were the worst of times": the most famous opening sentence in English literature. I want to share briefly a tale of two planets. Earth and Venus are exactly the same size. Earth's diameter is about 400 kilometers larger, but essentially the same size. +They have exactly the same amount of carbon. +It's not because Venus is slightly closer to the Sun. +It's three times hotter than Mercury, which is right next to the Sun. Now, briefly, here's an image you've seen, as one of the only old images, but I show it because I want to briefly give you CSI: Climate. +The global scientific community says: man-made global warming pollution, put into the atmosphere, thickening this, is trapping more of the outgoing infrared. +You all know that. At the last IPCC summary, the scientists wanted to say, "How certain are you?" They wanted to answer that "99 percent." +The Chinese objected, and so the compromise was "more than 90 percent." +Now, the skeptics say, "Oh, wait a minute, this could be variations in this energy coming in from the sun." If that were true, the stratosphere would be heated as well as the lower atmosphere, if it's more coming in. +If it's more being trapped on the way out, then you would expect it to be warmer here and cooler here. Here is the lower atmosphere. +Here's the stratosphere: cooler. +CSI: Climate. +Now, here's the good news. Sixty-eight percent of Americans now believe that human activity is responsible for global warming. Sixty-nine percent believe that the Earth is heating up in a significant way. There has been progress, but here is the key: when given a list of challenges to confront, global warming is still listed at near the bottom. +What is missing is a sense of urgency. +If you agree with the factual analysis, but you don't feel the sense of urgency, where does that leave you? +Well, the Alliance for Climate Protection, which I head in conjunction with Current TV -- who did this pro bono -- did a worldwide contest to do commercials on how to communicate this. +This is the winner. +NBC -- I'll show all of the networks here -- the top journalists for NBC asked 956 questions in 2007 of the presidential candidates: two of them were about the climate crisis. ABC: 844 questions, two about the climate crisis. +Fox: two. CNN: two. CBS: zero. +From laughs to tears -- this is one of the older tobacco commercials. +So here's what we're doing. +This is gasoline consumption in all of these countries. And us. +But it's not just the developed nations. +The developing countries are now following us and accelerating their pace. And actually, their cumulative emissions this year are the equivalent to where we were in 1965. And they're catching up very dramatically. The total concentrations: by 2025, they will be essentially where we were in 1985. +If the wealthy countries were completely missing from the picture, we would still have this crisis. +But we have given to the developing countries the technologies and the ways of thinking that are creating the crisis. This is in Bolivia -- over thirty years. +This is peak fishing in a few seconds. The '60s. +'70s. '80s. '90s. We have to stop this. And the good news is that we can. +We have the technologies. +We have to have a unified view of how to go about this: the struggle against poverty in the world and the challenge of cutting wealthy country emissions, all has a single, very simple solution. +People say, "What's the solution?" Here it is. +Put a price on carbon. We need a CO2 tax, revenue neutral, to replace taxation on employment, which was invented by Bismarck -- and some things have changed since the 19th century. +In the poor world, we have to integrate the responses to poverty with the solutions to the climate crisis. +Plans to fight poverty in Uganda are mooted, if we do not solve the climate crisis. +But responses can actually make a huge difference in the poor countries. This is a proposal that has been talked about a lot in Europe. +This was from Nature magazine. These are concentrating solar, renewable energy plants, linked in a so-called "supergrid" to supply all of the electrical power to Europe, largely from developing countries -- high-voltage DC currents. +This is not pie in the sky; this can be done. +We need to do it for our own economy. +The latest figures show that the old model is not working. There are a lot of great investments that you can make. If you are investing in tar sands or shale oil, then you have a portfolio that is crammed with sub-prime carbon assets. +And it is based on an old model. +Junkies find veins in their toes when the ones in their arms and their legs collapse. Developing tar sands and coal shale is the equivalent. Here are just a few of the investments that I personally think make sense. +I have a stake in these, so I'll have a disclaimer there. +But geothermal, concentrating solar, advanced photovoltaics, efficiency and conservation. +You've seen this slide before, but there's a change. +The only two countries that didn't ratify -- and now there's only one. Australia had an election. +And there was a campaign in Australia that involved television and Internet and radio commercials to lift the sense of urgency for the people there. +And we trained 250 people to give the slide show in every town and village and city in Australia. +Lot of other things contributed to it, but the new Prime Minister announced that his very first priority would be to change Australia's position on Kyoto, and he has. Now, they came to an awareness partly because of the horrible drought that they have had. +This is Lake Lanier. My friend Heidi Cullen said that if we gave droughts names the way we give hurricanes names, we'd call the one in the southeast now Katrina, and we would say it's headed toward Atlanta. +We can't wait for the kind of drought Australia had to change our political culture. +Here's more good news. The cities supporting Kyoto in the U.S. +are up to 780 -- and I thought I saw one go by there, just to localize this -- which is good news. +Now, to close, we heard a couple of days ago about the value of making individual heroism so commonplace that it becomes banal or routine. +We now have a culture of distraction. +But we have a planetary emergency. +And we have to find a way to create, in the generation of those alive today, a sense of generational mission. +I wish I could find the words to convey this. +This was another hero generation that brought democracy to the planet. +Another that ended slavery. And that gave women the right to vote. +We can do this. Don't tell me that we don't have the capacity to do it. +If we had just one week's worth of what we spend on the Iraq War, we could be well on the way to solving this challenge. +We have the capacity to do it. +One final point: I'm optimistic, because I believe we have the capacity, at moments of great challenge, to set aside the causes of distraction and rise to the challenge that history is presenting to us. +Sometimes I hear people respond to the disturbing facts of the climate crisis by saying, "Oh, this is so terrible. +What a burden we have." I would like to ask you to reframe that. How many generations in all of human history have had the opportunity to rise to a challenge that is worthy of our best efforts? +Let's do that. Thank you very much. +Chris Anderson: For so many people at TED, there is deep pain that basically a design issue on a voting form -- one bad design issue meant that your voice wasn't being heard like that in the last eight years in a position where you could make these things come true. +That hurts. +Al Gore: You have no idea. CA: When you look at what the leading candidates in your own party are doing now -- I mean, there's -- are you excited by their plans on global warming? +Every single debate has been sponsored by "Clean Coal." +"Now, even lower emissions!" +The richness and fullness of the dialogue in our democracy has not laid the basis for the kind of bold initiative that is really needed. +This challenge is part of the fabric of our whole civilization. +CO2 is the exhaling breath of our civilization, literally. +And now we mechanized that process. Changing that pattern requires a scope, a scale, a speed of change that is beyond what we have done in the past. +So that's why I began by saying, be optimistic in what you do, but be an active citizen. +Demand -- change the light bulbs, but change the laws. Change the global treaties. +We have to speak up. We have to solve this democracy -- this -- We have sclerosis in our democracy. And we have to change that. +Use the Internet. Go on the Internet. +Connect with people. Become very active as citizens. +Have a moratorium -- we shouldn't have any new coal-fired generating plants that aren't able to capture and store CO2, which means we have to quickly build these renewable sources. +Now, nobody is talking on that scale. But I do believe that between now and November, it is possible. +This Alliance for Climate Protection is going to launch a nationwide campaign -- grassroots mobilization, television ads, Internet ads, radio, newspaper -- with partnerships with everybody from the Girl Scouts to the hunters and fishermen. +We need help. We need help. +CA: In terms of your own personal role going forward, Al, is there something more than that you would like to be doing? +AG: I have prayed that I would be able to find the answer to that question. What can I do? +Buckminster Fuller once wrote, "If the future of all human civilization depended on me, what would I do? +How would I be?" It does depend on all of us, but again, not just with the light bulbs. +We, most of us here, are Americans. We have a democracy. +We can change things, but we have to actively change. +What's needed really is a higher level of consciousness. +And that's hard to -- that's hard to create -- but it is coming. +There's an old African proverb that some of you know that says, "If you want to go quickly, go alone; if you want to go far, go together." We have to go far, quickly. +So we have to have a change in consciousness. +A change in commitment. A new sense of urgency. +A new appreciation for the privilege that we have of undertaking this challenge. +CA: Al Gore, thank you so much for coming to TED. +AG: Thank you. Thank you very much. +So, as researchers, something that we often do is use immense resources to achieve certain capabilities, or achieve certain goals. +And this is essential to the progress of science, or exploration of what is possible. +But it creates this unfortunate situation where a tiny, tiny fraction of the world can actually participate in this exploration or can benefit from that technology. +Something that motivates me, and gets me really excited about my research, is when I see simple opportunities to drastically change that distribution and make the technology accessible to a much wider percentage of the population. +I'm going to show you two videos that have gotten a lot of attention that I think embody this philosophy. +And they actually use the Nintendo Wii Remote. +For those of you who aren't familiar with this device, it's a $40 video game controller. +And it's mostly advertised for its motion-sensing capabilities: so you can swing a tennis racket, or hit a baseball bat. +But what actually interests me a lot more is the fact that in the tip of each controller is a relatively high-performing infrared camera. +And I'm going to show you two demos of why this is useful. +So here, I have my computer set up with the projector, and I have a Wii Remote sitting on top of it. +And, for example, if you're in a school that doesn't have a lot money, probably a lot of schools, or if you're in an office environment, and you want an interactive whiteboard, normally these cost about two to three thousand dollars. +So I'm going to show you how to create one with a Wii Remote. +Now, this requires another piece of hardware, which is this infrared pen. +You can probably make this yourself for about five dollars with a quick trip to the Radio Shack. +It's got a battery, a button and an infrared LED -- you guys can't see it -- but it turns on whenever I push the button. +Now, what this means is that if I run this piece of software, the camera sees the infrared dot, and I can register the location of the camera pixels to the projector pixels. And now this is like an interactive whiteboard surface. +So for about $50 of hardware, you can have your own whiteboard. +This is Adobe Photoshop. +Thank you. +The software for this I've actually put on my website and have let people download it for free. +In the three months this project has been public, it's been downloaded over half a million times. +So teachers and students all around the world are already using this. +Although it does do it for 50 dollars, there are some limitations of this approach. +You get about 80 percent of the way there, for one percent of the cost. +Another nice thing is that a camera can see multiple dots, so this is actually a multi-touch, interactive whiteboard system as well. +For the second demo, I have this Wii Remote that's actually next to the TV. +So it's pointing away from the display, rather than pointing at the display. +And why this is interesting is that if you put on, say, a pair of safety glasses, that have two infrared dots in them, they are going to give the computer an approximation of your head location. +And why this is interesting is I have this sort of application running on the computer monitor, which has a 3D room, with some targets floating in it. +And you can see that it looks like a 3D room. +kind of like a video game, it sort of looks 3D, but for the most part, the image looks pretty flat, and bound to the surface of the screen. +But if we turn on head tracking -- the computer can change the image that's on the screen and make it respond to the head movements. +So let's switch back to that. +So this has actually been a little bit startling to the game-development community. +Because this is about 10 dollars of additional hardware if you already have a Nintendo Wii. +So I'm looking forward to seeing some games, and actually Louis Castle, that's him down there, last week announced that Electronic Arts, one of the largest game publishers, is releasing a game in May that has a little Easter egg feature for supporting this type of head tracking. +And that's from less than five months from a prototype in my lab to a major commercial product. +Thank you. +But actually, to me, what's almost more interesting than either of these two projects is how people actually found out about them. +YouTube has really changed the way, or changed the speed, in which a single individual can actually spread an idea around the world. +I'm doing some research in my lab with a video camera, and within the first week, a million people had seen this work, and literally within days, engineers, teachers and students from around the world were already posting their own YouTube videos of them using my system or derivatives of this work. +So I hope to see more of that in the future, and hope online video distribution to be embraced by the research community. +So thank you very much. +The first idea I'd like to suggest is that we all love music a great deal. It means a lot to us. +But music is even more powerful if you don't just listen to it, but you make it yourself. +So, that's my first idea. And we all know about the Mozart effect -- the idea that's been around for the last five to 10 years -- that just by listening to music or by playing music to your baby [in utero], that it'll raise our IQ points 10, 20, 30 percent. +Great idea, but it doesn't work at all. +So, you can't just listen to music, you have to make it somehow. +And I'd add to that, that it's not just making it, but everybody, each of us, everybody in the world has the power to create and be part of music in a very dynamic way, and that's one of the main parts of my work. +So, with the MIT Media Lab, for quite a while now, we've been engaged in a field called active music. +What are all the possible ways that we can think of to get everybody in the middle of a musical experience, not just listening, but making music? +And we started by making instruments for some of the world's greatest performers -- we call these hyperinstruments -- for Yo-Yo Ma, Peter Gabriel, Prince, orchestras, rock bands. Instruments where they're all kinds of sensors built right into the instrument, so the instrument knows how it's being played. +And just by changing the interpretation and the feeling, I can turn my cello into a voice, or into a whole orchestra, or into something that nobody has ever heard before. +When we started making these, I started thinking, why can't we make wonderful instruments like that for everybody, people who aren't fantastic Yo-Yo Mas or Princes? +So, we've made a whole series of instruments. +One of the largest collections is called the Brain Opera. +It's a whole orchestra of about 100 instruments, all designed for anybody to play using natural skill. +So, you can play a video game, drive through a piece of music, use your body gesture to control huge masses of sound, touch a special surface to make melodies, use your voice to make a whole aura. +And when we make the Brain Opera, we invite the public to come in, to try these instruments and then collaborate with us to help make each performance of the Brain Opera. +We toured that for a long time. It is now permanently in Vienna, where we built a museum around it. +And that led to something which you probably do know. +Guitar Hero came out of our lab, and my two teenage daughters and most of the students at the MIT Media Lab are proof that if you make the right kind of interface, people are really interested in being in the middle of a piece of music, and playing it over and over and over again. +So, the model works, but it's only the tip of the iceberg, because my second idea is that it's not enough just to want to make music in something like Guitar Hero. +And music is very fun, but it's also transformative. +It's very, very important. +Music can change your life, more than almost anything. +It can change the way you communicate with others, it can change your body, it can change your mind. So, we're trying to go to the next step of how you build on top of something like Guitar Hero. +We've had good enough, really, very powerful effects with kids around the world, and now people of all ages, using Hyperscore. +So, we've gotten more and more interested in using these kinds of creative activities in a much broader context, for all kinds of people who don't usually have the opportunity to make music. +So, one of the growing fields that we're working on at the Media Lab right now is music, mind and health. +A lot of you have probably seen Oliver Sacks' wonderful new book called "Musicophilia". It's on sale in the bookstore. It's a great book. +If you haven't seen it, it's worth reading. He's a pianist himself, and he details his whole career of looking at and observing incredibly powerful effects that music has had on peoples' lives in unusual situations. +So we know, for instance, that music is almost always the last thing that people with advanced Alzheimer's can still respond to. +Music is the best way to restore speech to people who have lost it through strokes, movement to people with Parkinson's disease. +It's very powerful for depression, schizophrenia, many, many things. +So, we're working on understanding those underlying principles and then building activities which will let music really improve people's health. +And we do this in many ways. We work with many different hospitals. +One of them is right near Boston, called Tewksbury Hospital. +It's a long-term state hospital, where several years ago we started working with Hyperscore and patients with physical and mental disabilities. +This has become a central part of the treatment at Tewksbury hospital, so everybody there clamors to work on musical activities. +It's the activity that seems to accelerate people's treatment the most and it also brings the entire hospital together as a kind of musical community. +I wanted to show you a quick video of some of this work before I go on. +Video: They're manipulating each other's rhythms. +It's a real experience, not only to learn how to play and listen to rhythms, but to train your musical memory and playing music in a group. +To get their hands on music, to shape it themselves, change it, to experiment with it, to make their own music. +So Hyperscore lets you start from scratch very quickly. +Everybody can experience music in a profound way, we just have to make different tools. +The third idea I want to share with you is that music, paradoxically, I think even more than words, is one of the very best ways we have of showing who we really are. I love giving talks, although strangely I feel more nervous giving talks than playing music. +If I were here playing cello, or playing on a synth, or sharing my music with you, I'd be able to show things about myself that I can't tell you in words, more personal things, perhaps deeper things. +I think that's true for many of us, and I want to give you two examples of how music is one of the most powerful interfaces we have, from ourselves to the outside world. +The first is a really crazy project that we're building right now, called Death and the Powers. And it's a big opera, one of the larger opera projects going on in the world right now. +And it's about a man, rich, successful, powerful, who wants to live forever. +So, he figures out a way to download himself into his environment, actually into a series of books. +So this guy wants to live forever, he downloads himself into his environment. +The main singer disappears at the beginning of the opera and the entire stage becomes the main character. It becomes his legacy. +And the opera is about what we can share, what we can pass on to others, to the people we love, and what we can't. +Every object in the opera comes alive and is a gigantic music instrument, like this chandelier. It takes up the whole stage. It looks like a chandelier, but it's actually a robotic music instrument. +So, as you can see in this prototype, gigantic piano strings, each string is controlled with a little robotic element -- either little bows that stroke the strings, propellers that tickle the strings, acoustic signals that vibrate the strings. We also have an army of robots on stage. +These robots are the kind of the intermediary between the main character, Simon Powers, and his family. There are a whole series of them, kind of like a Greek chorus. +They observe the action. We've designed these square robots that we're testing right now at MIT called OperaBots. These OperaBots follow my music. +They follow the characters. They're smart enough, we hope, not to bump into each other. They go off on their own. +And then they can also, when you snap, line up exactly the way you'd like to. +Even though they're cubes, they actually have a lot of personality. +The largest set piece in the opera is called The System. It's a series of books. +Every single book is robotic, so they all move, they all make sound, and when you put them all together, they turn into these walls, which have the gesture and the personality of Simon Powers. So he's disappeared, but the whole physical environment becomes this person. +This is how he's chosen to represent himself. +The books also have high-packed LEDs on the spines. So it's all display. +And here's the great baritone James Maddalena as he enters The System. +This is a sneak preview. +This premieres in Monaco -- it's in September 2009. If by any chance you can't make it, another idea with this project -- here's this guy building his legacy through this very unusual form, through music and through the environment. +But we're also making this available both online and in public spaces, as a way of each of us to use music and images from our lives to make our own legacy or to make a legacy of someone we love. +So instead of being grand opera, this opera will turn into what we're thinking of as personal opera. +And, if you're going to make a personal opera, what about a personal instrument? +Everything I've shown you so far -- whether it's a hyper-cello for Yo-Yo Ma or squeezy toy for a child -- the instruments stayed the same and are valuable for a certain class of person: a virtuoso, a child. +But what if I could make an instrument that could be adapted to the way I personally behave, to the way my hands work, to what I do very skillfully, perhaps, to what I don't do so skillfully? +I think that this is the future of interface, it's the future of music, the future of instruments. +And I'd like now to invite two very special people on the stage, so that I can give you an example of what personal instruments might be like. +So, can you give a hand to Adam Boulanger, Ph.D. student from the MIT Media Lab, and Dan Ellsey. Dan, thanks to TED and to Bombardier Flexjet, Dan is here with us today all the way from Tewksbury. He's a resident at Tewksbury Hospital. +This is by far the farthest he's strayed from Tewksbury Hospital, I can tell you that, because he's motivated to meet with you today and show you his own music. +So, first of all, Dan, do you want to say hi to everyone and tell everyone who you are? +Dan Ellsey: Hello. My name is Dan Ellsey. I am 34 years old and I have cerebral palsy. +I have always loved music and I am excited to be able to conduct my own music with this new software. +He's very shy, too. +So, turned out he's a fantastic composer, and over the last few years has been a constant collaborator of ours. He has made many, many pieces. +He makes his own CDs. Actually, he is quite well known in the Boston area -- mentors people at the hospital and children, locally, in how to make their own music. +And I'll let Adam tell you. So, Adam is a Ph.D. student at MIT, an expert in music technology and medicine. And Adam and Dan have become close collaborators. +What Adam's been working on for this last period is not only how to have Dan be able easily to make his own pieces, but how he can perform his piece using this kind of personal instrument. +So, you want to say a little bit about how you guys work? +So we started developing a technology that will allow him with nuance, with precision, with control, and despite his physical disability, to be able to do that, to be able to perform his piece of music. +So, the process and the technology -- basically, first we needed an engineering solution. So, you know, we have a FireWire camera, it looked at an infrared pointer. +We went with the type of gesture metaphor that Dan was already used to with his speaking controller. +And this was actually the least interesting part of the work, you know, the design process. We needed an input; we needed continuous tracking; in the software, we look at the types of shapes he's making. +But, then was the really interesting aspect of the work, following the engineering part, where, basically, we're coding over Dan's shoulder at the hospital extensively to figure out, you know, how does Dan move? +What's useful to him as an expressive motion? +You know, what's his metaphor for performance? +What types of things does he find important to control and convey in a piece of music? +So all the parameter fitting, and really the technology was stretched at that point to fit just Dan. +And, you know, I think this is a perspective shift. It's not that our technologies -- they provide access, they allow us to create pieces of creative work. +But what about expression? What about that moment when an artist delivers that piece of work? You know, do our technologies allow us to express? +Do they provide structure for us to do that? And, you know, that's a personal relationship to expression that is lacking in the technological sphere. So, you know, with Dan, we needed a new design process, a new engineering process to sort of discover his movement and his path to expression that allow him to perform. +And so that's what we'll do today. +TM: So let's do it. So Dan do you want to tell everyone about what you're going to play now? +DE: This is "My Eagle Song." +TM: So Dan is going to play a piece of his, called "My Eagle Song". +In fact, this is the score for Dan's piece, completely composed by Dan in Hyperscore. +So he can use his infrared tracker to go directly into Hyperscore. +He's incredibly fast at it, too, faster than I am, in fact. +TM: He's really modest, too. +So he can go in Hyperscore. You start out by making melodies and rhythms. +He can place those exactly where he wants. +Each one gets a color. He goes back into the composition window, draws the lines, places everything the way he wants to. Looking at the Hyperscore, you can see it also, you can see where the sections are, something might continue for a while, change, get really crazy and then end up with a big bang at the end. +So that's the way he made his piece, and as Adam says, we then figured out the best way to have him perform his piece. +It's going to be looked at by this camera, analyze his movements, it's going to let Dan bring out all the different aspects of his music that he wants to. +And you're also going to notice a visual on the screen. +We asked one of our students to look at what the camera is measuring. +But instead of making it very literal, showing you exactly the camera tracing, we turned it into a graphic that shows you the basic movement, and shows the way it's being analyzed. +I think it gives an understanding of how we're picking out movement from what Dan's doing, but I think it will also show you, if you look at that movement, that when Dan makes music, his motions are very purposeful, very precise, very disciplined and they're also very beautiful. +So, in hearing this piece, as I mentioned before, the most important thing is the music's great, and it'll show you who Dan is. +So, are we ready Adam? +AB: Yeah. +TM: OK, now Dan will play his piece "My Eagle Song" for you. +TM: Bravo. +One of the problems of writing, and working, and looking at the Internet is that it's very hard to separate fashion from deep change. +And so, to start helping that, I want to take us back to 1835. +In 1835, James Gordon Bennett founded the first mass-circulation newspaper in New York City. +And it cost about 500 dollars to start it, which was about the equivalent of 10,000 dollars of today. +By 15 years later, by 1850, doing the same thing -- starting what was experienced as a mass--circulation daily paper -- would come to cost two and a half million dollars. +10,000, two and a half million, 15 years. +That's the critical change that is being inverted by the Net. +And that's what I want to talk about today, and how that relates to the emergence of social production. +Now, the term "information society," "information economy," for a very long time has been used as the thing that comes after the industrial revolution. But in fact, for purposes of understanding what's happening today, that's wrong. Because for 150 years, we've had an information economy. +It's just been industrial, which means those who were producing had to have a way of raising money to pay those two and a half million dollars, and later, more for the telegraph, and the radio transmitter, and the television, and eventually the mainframe. +And that meant they were market based, or they were government owned, depending on what kind of system they were in. And this characterized and anchored the way information and knowledge were produced for the next 150 years. +Now, let me tell you a different story. Around June 2002, the world of supercomputers had a bombshell. +All of this completely ignores the fact that throughout this period, there's another supercomputer running in the world -- SETI@home. +Four and a half million users around the world, contributing their leftover computer cycles, whenever their computer isn't working, by running a screen saver, and together sharing their resources to create a massive supercomputer that NASA harnesses to analyze the data coming from radio telescopes. +They're not radically different from routers inside the middle of the network. +And computation, storage and communications capacity are in the hands of practically every connected person -- and these are the basic physical capital means necessary for producing information, knowledge and culture, in the hands of something like 600 million to a billion people around the planet. +Any one of you who has taken someone else's job, or tried to give yours to someone else, no matter how detailed the manual, you cannot transmit what you know, what you will intuit under a certain set of circumstances. +In that we're unique, and each of us holds this critical input into production as we hold this machine. +What's the effect of this? So, the story that most people know is the story of free or open source software. +This is market share of Apache Web server -- one of the critical applications in Web-based communications. +In 1995, two groups of people said, "Wow, this is really important, the Web! We need a much better Web server!" +One was a motley collection of volunteers who just decided, you know, we really need this, we should write one, and what are we going to do with what -- well, we're gonna share it! And other people will be able to develop it. +The other was Microsoft. +Now, if I told you that 10 years later, the motley crew of people, who didn't control anything that they produced, acquired 20 percent of the market and was the red line, it would be amazing! Right? +Think of it in minivans. A group of automobile engineers on their weekends are competing with Toyota. Right? +Software has done this in a way that's been very visible, because it's measurable. But the thing to see is that this actually happens throughout the Web. +Now, if you have a little girl, and she goes and writes to -- well, not so little, medium little -- tries to do research on Barbie. +And she'll come to Encarta, one of the main online encyclopedias. +Another portion is not only how content is produced, but how relevance is produced. +This is not only outside of businesses. When you think of what is the critical innovation of Google, the critical innovation is outsourcing the one most important thing -- the decision about what's relevant -- to the community of the Web as a whole, doing whatever they want to do: so, page rank. +The critical innovation here is instead of our engineers, or our people saying which is the most relevant, we're going to go out and count what you, people out there on the Web, for whatever reason -- vanity, pleasure -- produced links, and tied to each other. We're going to count those, and count them up. +And again, here, you see Barbie.com, but also, very quickly, Adiosbarbie.com, the body image for every size. A contested cultural object, which you won't find anywhere soon on Overture, which is the classic market-based mechanism: whoever pays the most is highest on the list. +So, all of that is in the creation of content, of relevance, basic human expression. +But remember, the computers were also physical. Just physical materials -- our PCs -- we share them together. We also see this in wireless. +It used to be wireless was one person owned the license, they transmitted in an area, and it had to be decided whether they would be licensed or based on property. +And this is not an idealized version. These are working models that at least in some places in the United States are being implemented, at least for public security. +If in 1999 I told you, let's build a data storage and retrieval system. +It's got to store terabytes. It's got to be available 24 hours a day, seven days a week. It's got to be available from anywhere in the world. +It has to support over 100 million users at any given moment. It's got to be robust to attack, including closing the main index, injecting malicious files, armed seizure of some major nodes. You'd say that would take years. +It would take millions. But of course, what I'm describing is P2P file sharing. +Right? We always think of it as stealing music, but fundamentally, it's a distributed data storage and retrieval system, where people, for very obvious reasons, are willing to share their bandwidth and their storage to create something. +So, essentially what we're seeing is the emergence of a fourth transactional framework. It used to be that there were two primary dimensions along which you could divide things. They could be market based, or non-market based; they could be decentralized, or centralized. +The price system was a market-based and decentralized system. +If things worked better because you actually had somebody organizing them, you had firms, if you wanted to be in the market -- or you had governments or sometimes larger non-profits in the non-market. +It was too expensive to have decentralized social production, to have decentralized action in society. That was not about society itself. +That was, in fact, economic. +But what we're seeing now is the emergence of this fourth system of social sharing and exchange. +Not that it's the first time that we do nice things to each other, or for each other, as social beings. We do it all the time. +It's that it's the first time that it's having major economic impact. +What characterizes them is decentralized authority. +You don't have to ask permission, as you do in a property-based system. +May I do this? It's open for anyone to create and innovate and share, if they want to, by themselves or with others, because property is one mechanism of coordination. +But it's not the only one. +Instead, what we see are social frameworks for all of the critical things that we use property and contract in the market: information flows to decide what are interesting problems; who's available and good for something; motivation structures -- remember, money isn't always the best motivator. +If you leave a $50 check after dinner with friends, you don't increase the probability of being invited back. +And if dinner isn't entirely obvious, think of sex. It also requires certain new organizational approaches. +And in particular, what we've seen is task organization. +You have to hire people who know what they're doing. +You have to hire them to spend a lot of time. +Now, take the same problem, chunk it into little modules, and motivations become trivial. +Five minutes, instead of watching TV? +Five minutes I'll spend just because it's interesting. Just because it's fun. +Just because it gives me a certain sense of meaning, or, in places that are more involved, like Wikipedia, gives me a certain set of social relations. +So, a new social phenomenon is emerging. +It's creating, and it's most visible when we see it as a new form of competition. +Peer-to-peer networks assaulting the recording industry; free and open source software taking market share from Microsoft; Skype potentially threatening traditional telecoms; Wikipedia competing with online encyclopedias. +But it's also a new source of opportunities for businesses. +As you see a new set of social relations and behaviors emerging, you have new opportunities. Some of them are toolmakers. +Instead of building well-behaved appliances -- things that you know what they'll do in advance -- you begin to build more open tools. There's a new set of values, a new set of things people value. +You build platforms for self-expression and collaboration. +Like Wikipedia, like the Open Directory Project, you're beginning to build platforms, and you see that as a model. +And you see surfers, people who see this happening, and in some sense build it into a supply chain, which is a very curious one. Right? +You have a belief: stuff will flow out of connected human beings. +That'll give me something I can use, and I'm going to contract with someone. +I will deliver something based on what happens. It's very scary -- that's what Google does, essentially. +That's what IBM does in software services, and they've done reasonably well. +So, social production is a real fact, not a fad. +It is the critical long-term shift caused by the Internet. +Social relations and exchange become significantly more important than they ever were as an economic phenomenon. In some contexts, it's even more efficient because of the quality of the information, the ability to find the best person, the lower transaction costs. It's sustainable and growing fast. +But -- and this is the dark lining -- it is threatened by -- in the same way that it threatens -- the incumbent industrial systems. +So next time you open the paper, and you see an intellectual property decision, a telecoms decision, it's not about something small and technical. +It is about the future of the freedom to be as social beings with each other, and the way information, knowledge and culture will be produced. +Thank you. +How does the news shape the way we see the world? +Here's the world based on the way it looks -- based on landmass. +And here's how news shapes what Americans see. +This map -- -- this map shows the number of seconds that American network and cable news organizations dedicated to news stories, by country, in February of 2007 -- just one year ago. +Now, this was a month when North Korea agreed to dismantle its nuclear facilities. +There was massive flooding in Indonesia. +And in Paris, the IPCC released its study confirming man's impact on global warming. +The U.S. accounted for 79 percent of total news coverage. +And when we take out the U.S. and look at the remaining 21 percent, we see a lot of Iraq -- that's that big green thing there -- and little else. +The combined coverage of Russia, China and India, for example, reached just one percent. +When we analyzed all the news stories and removed just one story, here's how the world looked. +What was that story? The death of Anna Nicole Smith. +This story eclipsed every country except Iraq, and received 10 times the coverage of the IPCC report. +And the cycle continues; as we all know, Britney has loomed pretty large lately. +So, why don't we hear more about the world? +One reason is that news networks have reduced the number of their foreign bureaus by half. +Aside from one-person ABC mini-bureaus in Nairobi, New Delhi and Mumbai, there are no network news bureaus in all of Africa, India or South America -- places that are home to more than two billion people. +The reality is that covering Britney is cheaper. +And this lack of global coverage is all the more disturbing when we see where people go for news. +Local TV news looms large, and unfortunately only dedicates 12 percent of its coverage to international news. +And what about the web? +The most popular news sites don't do much better. +Last year, Pew and the Colombia J-School analyzed the 14,000 stories that appeared on Google News' front page. +And they, in fact, covered the same 24 news events. +Similarly, a study in e-content showed that much of global news from U.S. news creators is recycled stories from the AP wire services and Reuters, and don't put things into a context that people can understand their connection to it. +So, if you put it all together, this could help explain why today's college graduates, as well as less educated Americans, know less about the world than their counterparts did 20 years ago. +And if you think it's simply because we are not interested, you would be wrong. +In recent years, Americans who say they closely follow global news most of the time grew to over 50 percent. +The real question: is this distorted worldview what we want for Americans in our increasingly interconnected world? +I know we can do better. +And can we afford not to? Thank you. +It is interesting that in the United States, the most significant health-care budget goes to cardiovascular disease care, whether it's private or public. +There's no comparison at all. +In Africa -- where it is a major killer -- it is totally ignored. +And that situation cannot be right. We must do something about it. +A health status of a nation parallels development of that nation. +17 million people die every year from heart disease. +32 million heart attacks and strokes occur. +Most of this is in developing countries, and the majority is in Africa. +85 percent of global disease burden for cardiovascular disease is in developing countries -- not in the West -- and yet 90 percent of the resources are in the West. +Who is at risk? People like you. +It's not just the Africans that should be concerned about that. +All friends of Africa, that will have reason to be in Africa at some point in time, should be very concerned about this deplorable situation. +Has anyone here wondered what will happen if you go back to your room at night, and you start getting chest pains, shortness of breath, sweating? +You're having a heart attack. What are you going to do? +Will you fly back to the U.S., Germany, Europe? +No, you will die. 50 percent will die within 24 hours, if not treated. +This is what's going on. +In a look at the map of the U.S. -- the graph here, 10 million people here, 10 million here. +By the time you get to 50, it's almost no one left in Nigeria -- life expectancy is 47. +It's not because some people don't survive childhood illnesses -- they do -- but they do not survive after the time that they reach about 45 years old and 50 years old. +And those are the times they're most productive. +Those are the times that they should be contributing to Africa's development. But they're not there. +The best way to spiral into a cycle of poverty is to kill the parents. +If you cannot secure the parents, you cannot guarantee the security of the African child. +What are the risk factors? +It's very well known. I'm not going to spend a lot of time on those. +These are just for information: hypertension, diabetes, obesity, lack of exercise. The usual suspects. +Right here in Tanzania, 30 percent of individuals have hypertension. +20 percent are getting treated. +Only less than one percent are adequately treated. +If we can treat hypertension alone in Africa, we'll save 250,000 lives a year. That's quite significant! +Easy to treat. Look at the situation in Mauritius. +In eight short years -- we're here talking about HIV, malaria, which is all good. +We cannot make the mistakes we've made with malaria and HIV. +In eight short years, non-communicable diseases will become the leading causes of death in Africa. +That is something to keep in mind. We can't deal with it with situations like this. +This is a typical African hospital. We can't depend on the elites -- they go to USA, Germany, U.K. for treatment. Unbelievable. +You can't depend on foreign aid alone. +Here is the situation: countries are turning inwards. +Post-9/11, [the] United States has had a lot of trouble to deal with, their own internal issues. +So, they spend their money trying to fix those problems. +You can't rightly -- it's not their responsibility, it is my responsibility. I have to take care of my own problems. +If they help, that's good! But that is not my expectation. +These worsening indices of health care or health studies in Africa demand a new look. We cannot keep on doing things the way we've always done them. +If they have not worked, we have to look for alternative solutions. +I'm here to talk to you about solutions. +This has been -- what has been a difficult sign to some of us. +Several years ago, we started thinking about it. +Everyone knows the problem. No one knows what the solutions are. +We decided that we needed to put our money where our mouth is. +Everyone is ready to throw in money, in terms of free money aid to developing countries. +Talk about sustainable investment, no one is interested. +You can't raise money. +I have done businesses in healthcare in the United States -- I live in Nashville, Tennessee, health care capital of America. +[It's] very easy to raise money for health-care ventures. +But start telling them, you know, we're going to try to do it in Nigeria -- everyone runs away. +That is totally wrong. Those of you in the audience here, if you want to help Africa, invest money in sustainable development. +Let me lead you through a day in the life of the Heart Institute, so you get a glimpse of what we do, and I'll talk a little bit more about it. +What we have done is to show that high-quality health care, comparable to the best anywhere in the world, can be done in a developing country environment. +We have 25 positions right now -- all of them trained, board certified in the USA, Canada or Britain. +We have every modality that can be done in Vanderbilt, Cleveland Clinic -- everywhere in the U.S. -- and we do it for about 10 percent of the cost that you will need to do those things in the United States. +Additionally, we have a policy that no one is ever turned away because of ability to pay. +We take care of everyone. +Whether you have one dollar, two dollars -- it doesn't matter. +And I will tell you how we're able to do it. +We make sure that we select our equipment properly. +We go for modular units. Units that have multi-modality functions have modular components. Easy to repair, and because of that, we do not take things that are not durable and cannot last. +We emphasize training, and we make sure that this process is regenerative. +Very soon we will all be dead and gone, but the problems will stay, unless we have people taking over from where we stopped. +We made sure that we produced some things ourselves. +We do not buy unit doses of radiopharmaceuticals. +We get the generators from the companies. +We manufacture them in-house, ourselves. That keeps the costs down. +So, for a radiopharmaceutical in the U.S. -- that you'll get a unit dose for 250 dollars -- when we're finished manufacturing it in-house, we come at a price of about two dollars. +We recognize that the only way to bridge the gap between the rich and poor countries is through education and technology. +All these problems we're talking about -- if we bring development, they will all disappear. +Technology is a great equalizer. How do we make it work? +It's been proved: self-care is cost-effective. +It extends opportunity to the rural centers, and we can use expertise in a very smart way. +This is the way our centers are set up. +We currently have three locations in the Caribbean, and we're planning a fourth one. +And we have now decided to go into Africa. +We will be doing the West African Heart Institute in Port Harcourt, Nigeria. That project will be starting within the next few months. We hope to open in 2008-09. +And we will do other centers. +This model can be adapted to every disease process. +All the units, all the centers, are linked through a switched hub to a central server, and all the images are populated to review stations. +And we designed this telemedicine solution. It's proprietary to us, and we are happy to share what we have learned with anyone who is interested in doing it. You can still be profitable. +We make sure that the telemedicine platform gives access to expert medical specialists anywhere in the world, just by a click of the button. +I'll lead you through, to see how this happens. +This is at the Heart Institute. The doctors from anywhere can log in. +I can call you in Switzerland and say, "Listen, go into our system. +Look at Mrs. Jones. Look at the study, tell me what you think." +They'll give me that information, and we'll make the care of the patient better. +The patient doesn't have to travel. +He doesn't have to experience the anxiety of not knowing because of limited expertise. +We also use [an] electronic medical record system. +I'm happy to say that the things we have implemented -- 80 percent of U.S. practices do not have them, and yet the technology is there. +But you know, they have that luxury. +Because if you can't get it in Nashville, you can travel to Birmingham, two hours away, and you'll get it. If you can't get it in Cleveland, you can go to Cincinnati. We don't have that luxury, so we have to make it happen. +When we do it, we will put the cost of care down. +And we'll extend it to the rural centers and make it affordable. +And everyone will get the care they deserve. +It cannot just be technology, we recognize that. +Prevention must be part of the solution -- we emphasize that. +But, you know, you have to tell people what can be done. +It's not possible to tell people to do what is going to be expensive, and they go home and can't do it. +They need to be alive, they need to feed. +We recommend exercise as the most effective, simple, easy thing to do. +We have had walks every year -- every March, April. +We form people into groups and make them go into challenges. +Which group loses the most weight, we give them prizes. +Which groups record more walking distance by pedometer, we give them prizes. We do this constantly. +We encourage them to bring children. +That way we start exposing the children from very early on, on what these issues are. Because once they learn it, they will stay with it. In doing this we have created at least 100 skilled jobs in Jamaica alone, and these are physicians with expertise and special training. +We have taken care of over 1,000 indigent patients that could have died, including four free pacemakers in patients with complete heart block. For those that understand cardiology, complete heart block means certain death. +If you don't get this pacemaker, you will be dead. +So we are pleased with that. +Indirectly, we have saved the government of Jamaica five million dollars from people that would have gone to Miami or Atlanta for care. +And we've hopefully saved a lot of lives. +By the end of this year, we would have contributed over one million dollars in indigent care. In the first four months, it's been 340,000 dollars, averaging 85,000 dollars a month. The government will not do that, because they have competing needs. +They need to put resources elsewhere. But we can still do it. +People say, "How can you do that?" This is how we can do that. +At least 4,000 rich Jamaicans that were heading to Miami for treatment have self-confessed that they did not go to Miami because of the Heart Institute of the Caribbean. +And, if they went to Miami, they will spend significantly more -- eight to 10 times more. And they feel happy spending it at home, getting the same quality of care. +And for that money -- for every one patient that has the money to pay, it gives us an opportunity to take care of at least four people that do not have the resources to pay. +For this to work, this progress must be sustainable. +So, we emphasize training. Training is critical. +We have gone further: we have formed a relationship with the University of Technology, Jamaica, where I now have an appointment. +And we are starting a biomedical engineering program, so that we will train people locally, who can repair that equipment. +That way we're not going to deal with obsolescence and all those kinds of issues. +We're also starting ancillary health-care technology training programs -- training people in echocardiography, cardiac ultrasound, those kinds of things. Now, with that kind of training, it gives people motivation. +Because now they will get a bachelors degree in medical imaging and all that kind of stuff. In the process, I want you to just hear from the trainees themselves what it has meant for them. +Dr. Jason Topping: My name is Jason Topping. +I'm a senior resident in anesthesia in intensive care at the University Hospital of the West Indies. +I came to the Heart Institute in 2006, as part of my elective in my anesthesia and intensive care program. +I spent three months at the Heart Institute. +There's been no doubt around my colleagues about the utility of the training I received here, and I think there's been an increased interest now in -- particularly in echocardiography and its use in our setting. +Sharon Lazarus: I am an echocardiographer at the Heart Institute of the Caribbean, since the past two years. I received training at this institution. +I think this aspect of training in cardiology that the Heart Institute of the Caribbean has introduced in Jamaica is very important in terms of diagnosing cardiac diseases. +Ernest Madu: The lesson in this is that it can be done, and it can be sustained, and you can make it possible for everyone. +Who are we to decide that poor people cannot get the best care? +When have you been appointed to play God? +It is not my decision. My job is to make sure that every person, no matter what fate has assigned to you, will have the opportunity to get the best quality health care in life. +Next stop is West African Heart Institute, that we are going to be doing in Port Harcourt, Nigeria, as I said before. We will do other centers across West Africa. +We will extend the same system into other areas, like dialysis treatment. +And anyone who is interested in doing it in any health care situation, we will be happy to assist you and tell you how we've done it, and how you can do it. If we do this, we can change the face of health care in Africa. +Africa has been good to us; it is time for us to give back to Africa. +I am going. Those who want to come, I welcome you to come along with me. +Thank you. +The Value of Nothing: Out of Nothing Comes Something. +That was an essay I wrote when I was 11 years old and I got a B+. What I'm going to talk about: nothing out of something, and how we create. +And I'm gonna try and do that within the 18-minute time span that we were told to stay within, and to follow the TED commandments: that is, actually, something that creates a near-death experience, but near-death is good for creativity. +OK. +So, I also want to explain, because Dave Eggers said he was going to heckle me if I said anything that was a lie, or not true to universal creativity. +And I've done it this way for half the audience, who is scientific. +When I say we, I don't mean you, necessarily; I mean me, and my right brain, my left brain and the one that's in between that is the censor and tells me what I'm saying is wrong. +And I'm going do that also by looking at what I think is part of my creative process, which includes a number of things that happened, actually -- the nothing started even earlier than the moment in which I'm creating something new. +And that includes nature, and nurture, and what I refer to as nightmares. +Now in the nature area, we look at whether or not we are innately equipped with something, perhaps in our brains, some abnormal chromosome that causes this muse-like effect. +And some people would say that we're born with it in some other means. +And others, like my mother, would say that I get my material from past lives. +Some people would also say that creativity may be a function of some other neurological quirk -- van Gogh syndrome -- that you have a little bit of, you know, psychosis, or depression. +I do have to say, somebody -- I read recently that van Gogh wasn't really necessarily psychotic, that he might have had temporal lobe seizures, and that might have caused his spurt of creativity, and I don't -- I suppose it does something in some part of your brain. +And I will mention that I actually developed temporal lobe seizures a number of years ago, but it was during the time I was writing my last book, and some people say that book is quite different. +I think that part of it also begins with a sense of identity crisis: you know, who am I, why am I this particular person, why am I not black like everybody else? +And sometimes you're equipped with skills, but they may not be the kind of skills that enable creativity. +I used to draw. I thought I would be an artist. +And I had a miniature poodle. +And it wasn't bad, but it wasn't really creative. +Because all I could really do was represent in a very one-on-one way. +And I have a sense that I probably copied this from a book. +And then, I also wasn't really shining in a certain area that I wanted to be, and you know, you look at those scores, and it wasn't bad, but it was not certainly predictive that I would one day make my living out of the artful arrangement of words. +Also, one of the principles of creativity is to have a little childhood trauma. +And I had the usual kind that I think a lot of people had, and that is that, you know, I had expectations placed on me. +That figure right there, by the way, figure right there was a toy given to me when I was but nine years old, and it was to help me become a doctor from a very early age. +I have some ones that were long lasting: from the age of five to 15, this was supposed to be my side occupation, and it led to a sense of failure. +But actually, there was something quite real in my life that happened when I was about 14. +And it was discovered that my brother, in 1967, and then my father, six months later, had brain tumors. +And my mother believed that something had gone wrong, and she was gonna find out what it was, and she was gonna fix it. +My father was a Baptist minister, and he believed in miracles, and that God's will would take care of that. +But, of course, they ended up dying, six months apart. +And after that, my mother believed that it was fate, or curses -- she went looking through all the reasons in the universe why this would have happened. +Everything except randomness. She did not believe in randomness. +There was a reason for everything. +And one of the reasons, she thought, was that her mother, who had died when she was very young, was angry at her. +And so, I had this notion of death all around me, because my mother also believed that I would be next, and she would be next. +And when you are faced with the prospect of death very soon, you begin to think very much about everything. +You become very creative, in a survival sense. +And this, then, led to my big questions. +And they're the same ones that I have today. +And they are: why do things happen, and how do things happen? +And the one my mother asked: how do I make things happen? +It's a wonderful way to look at these questions, when you write a story. +Because, after all, in that framework, between page one and 300, you have to answer this question of why things happen, how things happen, in what order they happen. What are the influences? +How do I, as the narrator, as the writer, also influence that? +And it's also one that, I think, many of our scientists have been asking. +It's a kind of cosmology, and I have to develop a cosmology of my own universe, as the creator of that universe. +And you see, there's a lot of back and forth in trying to make that happen, trying to figure it out -- years and years, oftentimes. +So, when I look at creativity, I also think that it is this sense or this inability to repress, my looking at associations in practically anything in life. +And I got a lot of them during what's been going on throughout this conference, almost everything that's been going on. +And so I'm going to use, as the metaphor, this association: quantum mechanics, which I really don't understand, but I'm still gonna use it as the process for explaining how it is the metaphor. +So, in quantum mechanics, of course, you have dark energy and dark matter. +And it's the same thing in looking at these questions of how things happen. +There's a lot of unknown, and you often don't know what it is except by its absence. +But when you make those associations, you want them to come together in a kind of synergy in the story, and what you're finding is what matters. The meaning. +And that's what I look for in my work, a personal meaning. +There is also the uncertainty principle, which is part of quantum mechanics, as I understand it. And this happens constantly in the writing. +And there's the terrible and dreaded observer effect, in which you're looking for something, and you know, things are happening simultaneously, and you're looking at it in a different way, and you're trying to really look for the about-ness, or what is this story about. And if you try too hard, then you will only write the about. +You won't discover anything. +And what you were supposed to find, what you hoped to find in some serendipitous way, is no longer there. +Now, I don't want to ignore the other side of what happens in our universe, like many of our scientists have. +And so, I am going to just throw in string theory here, and just say that creative people are multidimensional, and there are 11 levels, I think, of anxiety. +And they all operate at the same time. +There is also a big question of ambiguity. +And I would link that to something called the cosmological constant. +And you don't know what is operating, but something is operating there. +And ambiguity, to me, is very uncomfortable in my life, and I have it. Moral ambiguity. +It is constantly there. And, just as an example, this is one that recently came to me. +It was something I read in an editorial by a woman who was talking about the war in Iraq. And she said, "Save a man from drowning, you are responsible to him for life." +A very famous Chinese saying, she said. +And that means because we went into Iraq, we should stay there until things were solved. You know, maybe even 100 years. +So, there was another one that I came across, and it's "saving fish from drowning." +And it's what Buddhist fishermen say, because they're not supposed to kill anything. +And they also have to make a living, and people need to be fed. +So their way of rationalizing that is they are saving the fish from drowning, and unfortunately, in the process the fish die. +Now, what's encapsulated in both these drowning metaphors -- actually, one of them is my mother's interpretation, and it is a famous Chinese saying, because she said it to me: "save a man from drowning, you are responsible to him for life." +And it was a warning -- don't get involved in other people's business, or you're going to get stuck. +OK. I think if somebody really was drowning, she'd save them. +But, both of these sayings -- saving a fish from drowning, or saving a man from drowning -- to me they had to do with intentions. +And all of us in life, when we see a situation, we have a response. +And then we have intentions. +There's an ambiguity of what that should be that we should do, and then we do something. +And the results of that may not match what our intentions had been. +Maybe things go wrong. And so, after that, what are our responsibilities? +What are we supposed to do? +Do we stay in for life, or do we do something else and justify and say, well, my intentions were good, and therefore I cannot be held responsible for all of it? +That is the ambiguity in my life that really disturbed me, and led me to write a book called "Saving Fish From Drowning." +I saw examples of that. Once I identified this question, it was all over the place. +I got these hints everywhere. +And then, in a way, I knew that they had always been there. +And then writing, that's what happens. I get these hints, these clues, and I realize that they've been obvious, and yet they have not been. +And what I need, in effect, is a focus. +And when I have the question, it is a focus. +And all these things that seem to be flotsam and jetsam in life actually go through that question, and what happens is those particular things become relevant. +And it seems like it's happening all the time. +You think there's a sort of coincidence going on, a serendipity, in which you're getting all this help from the universe. +And it may also be explained that now you have a focus. +And you are noticing it more often. +But you apply this. +You begin to look at things having to do with your tensions. +Your brother, who's fallen in trouble, do you take care of him? +Why or why not? +It may be something that is perhaps more serious -- as I said, human rights in Burma. +I was thinking that I shouldn't go because somebody said, if I did, it would show that I approved of the military regime there. +And then, after a while, I had to ask myself, "Why do we take on knowledge, why do we take on assumptions that other people have given us?" +And it was the same thing that I felt when I was growing up, and was hearing these rules of moral conduct from my father, who was a Baptist minister. +So I decided that I would go to Burma for my own intentions, and still didn't know that if I went there, what the result of that would be, if I wrote a book -- and I just would have to face that later, when the time came. +We are all concerned with things that we see in the world that we are aware of. +We come to this point and say, what do I as an individual do? +Not all of us can go to Africa, or work at hospitals, so what do we do, if we have this moral response, this feeling? +Also, I think one of the biggest things we are all looking at, and we talked about today, is genocide. +This leads to this question. +It seems so obvious, and yet it is not. +We all hate moral ambiguity in some sense, and yet it is also absolutely necessary. +In writing a story, it is the place where I begin. +Sometimes I get help from the universe, it seems. +My mother would say it was the ghost of my grandmother from the very first book, because it seemed I knew things I was not supposed to know. +Instead of writing that the grandmother died accidentally, from an overdose of opium, while having too much of a good time, I actually put down in the story that the woman killed herself, and that actually was the way it happened. +And my mother decided that that information must have come from my grandmother. +There are also things, quite uncanny, which bring me information that will help me in the writing of the book. +In this case, I was writing a story that included some kind of detail, period of history, a certain location. +And I needed to find something historically that would match that. +And I took down this book, and I -- first page that I flipped it to was exactly the setting, and the time period, and the kind of character I needed -- was the Taiping rebellion, happening in the area near Guilin, outside of that, and a character who thought he was the son of God. +You wonder, are these things random chance? +Well, what is random? What is chance? What is luck? +What are things that you get from the universe that you can't really explain? +And that goes into the story, too. +These are the things I constantly think about from day to day. +Especially when good things happen, and, in particular, when bad things happen. +But I do think there's a kind of serendipity, and I do want to know what those elements are, so I can thank them, and also try to find them in my life. +Because, again, I think that when I am aware of them, more of them happen. +Another chance encounter is when I went to a place -- I just was with some friends, and we drove randomly to a different place, and we ended up in this non-tourist location, a beautiful village, pristine. +And we walked three valleys beyond, and the third valley, there was something quite mysterious and ominous, a discomfort I felt. And then I knew that had to be [the] setting of my book. +And in writing one of the scenes, it happened in that third valley. +For some reason I wrote about cairns -- stacks of rocks -- that a man was building. +And I didn't know exactly why I had it, but it was so vivid. +I got stuck, and a friend, when she asked if I would go for a walk with her dogs, that I said, sure. And about 45 minutes later, walking along the beach, I came across this. +And it was a man, a Chinese man, and he was stacking these things, not with glue, not with anything. +And I asked him, "How is it possible to do this?" +And he said, "Well, I guess with everything in life, there's a place of balance." +And this was exactly the meaning of my story at that point. +I had so many examples -- I have so many instances like this, when I'm writing a story, and I cannot explain it. +Is it because I had the filter that I have such a strong coincidence in writing about these things? +Or is it a kind of serendipity that we cannot explain, like the cosmological constant? +A big thing that I also think about is accidents. +And as I said, my mother did not believe in randomness. +What is the nature of accidents? +And how are we going to assign what the responsibility and the causes are, outside of a court of law? +I was able to see that in a firsthand way, when I went to beautiful Dong village, in Guizhou, the poorest province of China. +And I saw this beautiful place. I knew I wanted to come back. +And I had a chance to do that, when National Geographic asked me if I wanted to write anything about China. +And I said yes, about this village of singing people, singing minority. +And they agreed, and between the time I saw this place and the next time I went, there was a terrible accident. A man, an old man, fell asleep, and his quilt dropped in a pan of fire that kept him warm. +60 homes were destroyed, and 40 were damaged. +Responsibility was assigned to the family. +The man's sons were banished to live three kilometers away, in a cowshed. +And, of course, as Westerners, we say, "Well, it was an accident. That's not fair. +It's the son, not the father." +When I go on a story, I have to let go of those kinds of beliefs. +It takes a while, but I have to let go of them and just go there, and be there. +And so I was there on three occasions, different seasons. +And I began to sense something different about the history, and what had happened before, and the nature of life in a very poor village, and what you find as your joys, and your rituals, your traditions, your links with other families. And I saw how this had a kind of justice, in its responsibility. +I was able to find out also about the ceremony that they were using, a ceremony they hadn't used in about 29 years. And it was to send some men -- a Feng Shui master sent men down to the underworld on ghost horses. +Now you, as Westerners, and I, as Westerners, would say well, that's superstition. But after being there for a while, and seeing the amazing things that happened, you begin to wonder whose beliefs are those that are in operation in the world, determining how things happen. +Years go by, of course, and the writing, it doesn't happen instantly, as I'm trying to convey it to you here at TED. +The book comes and it goes. When it arrives, it is no longer my book. +It is in the hands of readers, and they interpret it differently. +But I go back to this question of, how do I create something out of nothing? +And how do I create my own life? +And I think it is by questioning, and saying to myself that there are no absolute truths. +I believe in specifics, the specifics of story, and the past, the specifics of that past, and what is happening in the story at that point. +I also believe that in thinking about things -- my thinking about luck, and fate, and coincidences and accidents, God's will, and the synchrony of mysterious forces -- I will come to some notion of what that is, how we create. +I have to think of my role. Where I am in the universe, and did somebody intend for me to be that way, or is it just something I came up with? +And I also can find that by imagining fully, and becoming what is imagined -- and yet is in that real world, the fictional world. +And that is how I find particles of truth, not the absolute truth, or the whole truth. +And they have to be in all possibilities, including those I never considered before. +So, there are never complete answers. +Or rather, if there is an answer, it is to remind myself that there is uncertainty in everything, and that is good, because then I will discover something new. +And if there is a partial answer, a more complete answer from me, it is to simply imagine. +And to imagine is to put myself in that story, until there was only -- there is a transparency between me and the story that I am creating. +And that's how I've discovered that if I feel what is in the story -- in one story -- then I come the closest, I think, to knowing what compassion is, to feeling that compassion. +Because for everything, in that question of how things happen, it has to do with the feeling. +I have to become the story in order to understand a lot of that. +We've come to the end of the talk, and I will reveal what is in the bag, and it is the muse, and it is the things that transform in our lives, that are wonderful and stay with us. +There she is. +Thank you very much! +In the year 1919, a virtually unknown German mathematician, named Theodor Kaluza suggested a very bold and, in some ways, a very bizarre idea. +He proposed that our universe might actually have more than the three dimensions that we are all aware of. +That is in addition to left, right, back, forth and up, down, Kaluza proposed that there might be additional dimensions of space that for some reason we don't yet see. +Now, when someone makes a bold and bizarre idea, sometimes that's all it is -- bold and bizarre, but it has nothing to do with the world around us. +This particular idea, however -- although we don't yet know whether it's right or wrong, and at the end I'll discuss experiments which, in the next few years, may tell us whether it's right or wrong -- this idea has had a major impact on physics in the last century and continues to inform a lot of cutting-edge research. +So, I'd like to tell you something about the story of these extra dimensions. +So where do we go? +To begin we need a little bit of back story. Go to 1907. +This is a year when Einstein is basking in the glow of having discovered the special theory of relativity and decides to take on a new project, to try to understand fully the grand, pervasive force of gravity. +And in that moment, there are many people around who thought that that project had already been resolved. +Newton had given the world a theory of gravity in the late 1600s that works well, describes the motion of planets, the motion of the moon and so forth, the motion of apocryphal of apples falling from trees, hitting people on the head. +All of that could be described using Newton's work. +But Einstein realized that Newton had left something out of the story, because even Newton had written that although he understood how to calculate the effect of gravity, he'd been unable to figure out how it really works. +How is it that the Sun, 93 million miles away, [that] somehow it affects the motion of the Earth? +How does the Sun reach out across empty inert space and exert influence? +And that is a task to which Einstein set himself -- to figure out how gravity works. +And let me show you what it is that he found. +So Einstein found that the medium that transmits gravity is space itself. +The idea goes like this: imagine space is a substrate of all there is. +Einstein said space is nice and flat, if there's no matter present. +But if there is matter in the environment, such as the Sun, it causes the fabric of space to warp, to curve. +And that communicates the force of gravity. +Even the Earth warps space around it. +Now look at the Moon. +The Moon is kept in orbit, according to these ideas, because it rolls along a valley in the curved environment that the Sun and the Moon and the Earth can all create by virtue of their presence. +We go to a full-frame view of this. +The Earth itself is kept in orbit because it rolls along a valley in the environment that's curved because of the Sun's presence. +That is this new idea about how gravity actually works. +Now, this idea was tested in 1919 through astronomical observations. +It really works. It describes the data. +And this gained Einstein prominence around the world. +And that is what got Kaluza thinking. +He, like Einstein, was in search of what we call a unified theory. +That's one theory that might be able to describe all of nature's forces from one set of ideas, one set of principles, one master equation, if you will. +So Kaluza said to himself, Einstein has been able to describe gravity in terms of warps and curves in space -- in fact, space and time, to be more precise. +Maybe I can play the same game with the other known force, which was, at that time, known as the electromagnetic force -- we know of others today, but at that time that was the only other one people were thinking about. +You know, the force responsible for electricity and magnetic attraction and so forth. +So Kaluza says, maybe I can play the same game and describe electromagnetic force in terms of warps and curves. +That raised a question: warps and curves in what? +Einstein had already used up space and time, warps and curves, to describe gravity. +There didn't seem to be anything else to warp or curve. +So Kaluza said, well, maybe there are more dimensions of space. +He said, if I want to describe one more force, maybe I need one more dimension. +And when he looked at that equation, it was none other than the equation that scientists had long known to describe the electromagnetic force. +Amazing -- it just popped out. +He was so excited by this realization that he ran around his house screaming, "Victory!" -- that he had found the unified theory. +Now clearly, Kaluza was a man who took theory very seriously. +He, in fact -- there is a story that when he wanted to learn how to swim, he read a book, a treatise on swimming -- -- then dove into the ocean. +This is a man who would risk his life on theory. +Now, but for those of us who are a little bit more practically minded, two questions immediately arise from his observation. +Number one: if there are more dimensions in space, where are they? +We don't seem to see them. +And number two: does this theory really work in detail, when you try to apply it to the world around us? +Now, the first question was answered in 1926 by a fellow named Oskar Klein. +He suggested that dimensions might come in two varieties -- there might be big, easy-to-see dimensions, but there might also be tiny, curled-up dimensions, curled up so small, even though they're all around us, that we don't see them. +Let me show you that one visually. +So, imagine you're looking at something like a cable supporting a traffic light. +It's in Manhattan. You're in Central Park -- it's kind of irrelevant -- but the cable looks one-dimensional from a distant viewpoint, but you and I all know that it does have some thickness. +It's very hard to see it, though, from far away. +But if we zoom in and take the perspective of, say, a little ant walking around -- little ants are so small that they can access all of the dimensions -- the long dimension, but also this clockwise, counter-clockwise direction. +And I hope you appreciate this. +It took so long to get these ants to do this. +Let me show you what that would look like. +So, if we take a look, say, at space itself -- I can only show, of course, two dimensions on a screen. +But deeply tucked into the fabric of space itself, the idea is there could be more dimensions, as we see there. +Now that's an explanation about how the universe could have more dimensions than the ones that we see. +But what about the second question that I asked: does the theory actually work when you try to apply it to the real world? +Well, it turns out that Einstein and Kaluza and many others worked on trying to refine this framework and apply it to the physics of the universe as was understood at the time, and, in detail, it didn't work. +In detail, for instance, they couldn't get the mass of the electron to work out correctly in this theory. +So many people worked on it, but by the '40s, certainly by the '50s, this strange but very compelling idea of how to unify the laws of physics had gone away. +Until something wonderful happened in our age. +In our era, a new approach to unify the laws of physics is being pursued by physicists such as myself, many others around the world, it's called superstring theory, as you were indicating. +And the wonderful thing is that superstring theory has nothing to do at first sight with this idea of extra dimensions, but when we study superstring theory, we find that it resurrects the idea in a sparkling, new form. +So, let me just tell you how that goes. +Superstring theory -- what is it? +Well, it's a theory that tries to answer the question: what are the basic, fundamental, indivisible, uncuttable constituents making up everything in the world around us? +The idea is like this. +So, imagine we look at a familiar object, just a candle in a holder, and imagine that we want to figure out what it is made of. +So we go on a journey deep inside the object and examine the constituents. +So deep inside -- we all know, you go sufficiently far down, you have atoms. +We also all know that atoms are not the end of the story. +They have little electrons that swarm around a central nucleus with neutrons and protons. +Even the neutrons and protons have smaller particles inside of them known as quarks. +That is where conventional ideas stop. +Here is the new idea of string theory. +Deep inside any of these particles, there is something else. +This something else is this dancing filament of energy. +It looks like a vibrating string -- that's where the idea, string theory comes from. +And just like the vibrating strings that you just saw in a cello can vibrate in different patterns, these can also vibrate in different patterns. +They don't produce different musical notes. +Rather, they produce the different particles making up the world around us. +So if these ideas are correct, this is what the ultra-microscopic landscape of the universe looks like. +It's built up of a huge number of these little tiny filaments of vibrating energy, vibrating in different frequencies. +The different frequencies produce the different particles. +The different particles are responsible for all the richness in the world around us. +And there you see unification, because matter particles, electrons and quarks, radiation particles, photons, gravitons, are all built up from one entity. +So matter and the forces of nature all are put together under the rubric of vibrating strings. +And that's what we mean by a unified theory. +Now here is the catch. +When you study the mathematics of string theory, you find that it doesn't work in a universe that just has three dimensions of space. +It doesn't work in a universe with four dimensions of space, nor five, nor six. +Finally, you can study the equations, and show that it works only in a universe that has 10 dimensions of space and one dimension of time. +It leads us right back to this idea of Kaluza and Klein -- that our world, when appropriately described, has more dimensions than the ones that we see. +Now you might think about that and say, well, OK, you know, if you have extra dimensions, and they're really tightly curled up, yeah, perhaps we won't see them, if they're small enough. +But if there's a little tiny civilization of green people walking around down there, and you make them small enough, and we won't see them either. That is true. +One of the other predictions of string theory -- no, that's not one of the other predictions of string theory. +But it raises the question: are we just trying to hide away these extra dimensions, or do they tell us something about the world? +In the remaining time, I'd like to tell you two features of them. +First is, many of us believe that these extra dimensions hold the answer to what perhaps is the deepest question in theoretical physics, theoretical science. +And that question is this: when we look around the world, as scientists have done for the last hundred years, there appear to be about 20 numbers that really describe our universe. +These are numbers like the mass of the particles, like electrons and quarks, the strength of gravity, the strength of the electromagnetic force -- a list of about 20 numbers that have been measured with incredible precision, but nobody has an explanation for why the numbers have the particular values that they do. +Now, does string theory offer an answer? +Not yet. +But we believe the answer for why those numbers have the values they do may rely on the form of the extra dimensions. +And the wonderful thing is, if those numbers had any other values than the known ones, the universe, as we know it, wouldn't exist. +This is a deep question. +Why are those numbers so finely tuned to allow stars to shine and planets to form, when we recognize that if you fiddle with those numbers -- if I had 20 dials up here and I let you come up and fiddle with those numbers, almost any fiddling makes the universe disappear. +So can we explain those 20 numbers? +And string theory suggests that those 20 numbers have to do with the extra dimensions. +Let me show you how. +So when we talk about the extra dimensions in string theory, it's not one extra dimension, as in the older ideas of Kaluza and Klein. +This is what string theory says about the extra dimensions. +They have a very rich, intertwined geometry. +This is an example of something known as a Calabi-Yau shape -- name isn't all that important. +But, as you can see, the extra dimensions fold in on themselves and intertwine in a very interesting shape, interesting structure. +And the idea is that if this is what the extra dimensions look like, then the microscopic landscape of our universe all around us would look like this on the tiniest of scales. +When you swing your hand, you'd be moving around these extra dimensions over and over again, but they're so small that we wouldn't know it. +So what is the physical implication, though, relevant to those 20 numbers? +Consider this. If you look at the instrument, a French horn, notice that the vibrations of the airstreams are affected by the shape of the instrument. +Now in string theory, all the numbers are reflections of the way strings can vibrate. +So just as those airstreams are affected by the twists and turns in the instrument, strings themselves will be affected by the vibrational patterns in the geometry within which they are moving. +So let me bring some strings into the story. +And if you watch these little fellows vibrating around -- they'll be there in a second -- right there, notice that they way they vibrate is affected by the geometry of the extra dimensions. +So, if we knew exactly what the extra dimensions look like -- we don't yet, but if we did -- we should be able to calculate the allowed notes, the allowed vibrational patterns. +And if we could calculate the allowed vibrational patterns, we should be able to calculate those 20 numbers. +And if the answer that we get from our calculations agrees with the values of those numbers that have been determined through detailed and precise experimentation, this in many ways would be the first fundamental explanation for why the structure of the universe is the way it is. +Now, the second issue that I want to finish up with is: how might we test for these extra dimensions more directly? +Is this just an interesting mathematical structure that might be able to explain some previously unexplained features of the world, or can we actually test for these extra dimensions? +And we think -- and this is, I think, very exciting -- that in the next five years or so we may be able to test for the existence of these extra dimensions. +Here's how it goes. In CERN, Geneva, Switzerland, a machine is being built called the Large Hadron Collider. +It's a machine that will send particles around a tunnel, opposite directions, near the speed of light. +Every so often those particles will be aimed at each other, so there's a head-on collision. +The hope is that if the collision has enough energy, it may eject some of the debris from the collision from our dimensions, forcing it to enter into the other dimensions. +How would we know it? +Well, we'll measure the amount of energy after the collision, compare it to the amount of energy before, and if there's less energy after the collision than before, this will be evidence that the energy has drifted away. +And if it drifts away in the right pattern that we can calculate, this will be evidence that the extra dimensions are there. +Let me show you that idea visually. +So, imagine we have a certain kind of particle called a graviton -- that's the kind of debris we expect to be ejected out, if the extra dimensions are real. +But here's how the experiment will go. +You take these particles. You slam them together. +You slam them together, and if we are right, some of the energy of that collision will go into debris that flies off into these extra dimensions. +So this is the kind of experiment that we'll be looking at in the next five, seven to 10 years or so. +And if this experiment bears fruit, if we see that kind of particle ejected by noticing that there's less energy in our dimensions than when we began, this will show that the extra dimensions are real. +And to me this is a really remarkable story, and a remarkable opportunity. Going back to Newton with absolute space -- didn't provide anything but an arena, a stage in which the events of the universe take place. +Einstein comes along and says, well, space and time can warp and curve -- that's what gravity is. +And now string theory comes along and says, yes, gravity, quantum mechanics, electromagnetism, all together in one package, but only if the universe has more dimensions than the ones that we see. +And this is an experiment that may test for them in our lifetime. +Amazing possibility. +Thank you very much. +One way to change our genes is to make new ones, as Craig Venter has so elegantly shown. +Another is to change our lifestyles. +And what we're learning is how powerful and dynamic these changes can be, that you don't have to wait very long to see the benefits. +When you eat healthier, manage stress, exercise and love more, your brain actually gets more blood flow and more oxygen. +But more than that, your brain gets measurably bigger. +Things that were thought impossible just a few years ago can actually be measured now. +This was figured out by Robin Williams a few years before the rest of us. +Now, there's some things that you can do to make your brain grow new brain cells. +Some of my favorite things, like chocolate and tea, blueberries, alcohol in moderation, stress management and cannabinoids found in marijuana. +I'm just the messenger. +What were we just talking about? +And other things that can make it worse, that can cause you to lose brain cells. +The usual suspects, like saturated fat and sugar, nicotine, opiates, cocaine, too much alcohol and chronic stress. +Your skin gets more blood flow when you change your lifestyle, so you age less quickly. Your skin doesn't wrinkle as much. +Your heart gets more blood flow. +We've shown that you can actually reverse heart disease. +That these clogged arteries that you see on the upper left, after only a year become measurably less clogged. +And the cardiac PET scan shown on the lower left, the blue means no blood flow. +A year later -- orange and white is maximum blood flow. +We've shown you may be able to stop and reverse the progression of early prostate cancer and, by extension, breast cancer, simply by making these changes. +We've found that tumor growth in vitro was inhibited 70 percent in the group that made these changes, whereas only nine percent in the comparison group. +These differences were highly significant. +Even your sexual organs get more blood flow, so you increase sexual potency. +One of the most effective anti-smoking ads was done by the Department of Health Services, showing that nicotine, which constricts your arteries, can cause a heart attack or a stroke, but it also causes impotence. +Half of guys who smoke are impotent. +How sexy is that? +Now we're also about to publish a study -- the first study showing you can change gene expression in men with prostate cancer. +This is what's called a heat map -- and the different colors -- and along the side, on the right, are different genes. +And we found that over 500 genes were favorably changed -- in effect, turning on the good genes, the disease-preventing genes, turning off the disease-promoting genes. +And so these findings I think are really very powerful, giving many people new hope and new choices. +And companies like Navigenics and DNA Direct and 23andMe, that are giving you your genetic profiles, are giving some people a sense of, "Gosh, well, what can I do about it?" +Well, our genes are not our fate, and if we make these changes -- they're a predisposition -- but if we make bigger changes than we might have made otherwise, we can actually change how our genes are expressed. +Thank you. +This is the Large Hadron Collider. +It's 27 kilometers in circumference. +It's the biggest scientific experiment ever attempted. +Over 10,000 physicists and engineers from 85 countries around the world have come together over several decades to build this machine. +What we do is we accelerate protons -- so, hydrogen nuclei -- around 99.999999 percent the speed of light. +Right? At that speed, they go around that 27 kilometers 11,000 times a second. +And we collide them with another beam of protons going in the opposite direction. +We collide them inside giant detectors. +They're essentially digital cameras. +And this is the one that I work on, ATLAS. +You get some sense of the size -- you can just see these EU standard-size people underneath. +You get some sense of the size: 44 meters wide, 22 meters in diameter, 7,000 tons. +And we re-create the conditions that were present less than a billionth of a second after the universe began up to 600 million times a second inside that detector -- immense numbers. +And if you see those metal bits there -- those are huge magnets that bend electrically charged particles, so it can measure how fast they're traveling. +This is a picture about a year ago. +Those magnets are in there. +And, again, a EU standard-size, real person, so you get some sense of the scale. +And it's in there that those mini-Big Bangs will be created, sometime in the summer this year. +And actually, this morning, I got an email saying that we've just finished, today, building the last piece of ATLAS. +So as of today, it's finished. I'd like to say that I planned that for TED, but I didn't. So it's been completed as of today. +Yeah, it's a wonderful achievement. +So, you might be asking, "Why? +Why create the conditions that were present less than a billionth of a second after the universe began?" +Well, particle physicists are nothing if not ambitious. +And the aim of particle physics is to understand what everything's made of, and how everything sticks together. +And by everything I mean, of course, me and you, the Earth, the Sun, the 100 billion suns in our galaxy and the 100 billion galaxies in the observable universe. +Absolutely everything. +Now you might say, "Well, OK, but why not just look at it? +You know? If you want to know what I'm made of, let's look at me." +Well, we found that as you look back in time, the universe gets hotter and hotter, denser and denser, and simpler and simpler. +Now, there's no real reason I'm aware of for that, but that seems to be the case. +So, way back in the early times of the universe, we believe it was very simple and understandable. +All this complexity, all the way to these wonderful things -- human brains -- are a property of an old and cold and complicated universe. +Back at the start, in the first billionth of a second, we believe, or we've observed, it was very simple. +It's almost like ... +imagine a snowflake in your hand, and you look at it, and it's an incredibly complicated, beautiful object. But as you heat it up, it'll melt into a pool of water, and you would be able to see that, actually, it was just made of H20, water. +So it's in that same sense that we look back in time to understand what the universe is made of. +And, as of today, it's made of these things. +Just 12 particles of matter, stuck together by four forces of nature. +The quarks, these pink things, are the things that make up protons and neutrons that make up the atomic nuclei in your body. +The electron -- the thing that goes around the atomic nucleus -- held around in orbit, by the way, by the electromagnetic force that's carried by this thing, the photon. +The quarks are stuck together by other things called gluons. +And these guys, here, they're the weak nuclear force, probably the least familiar. +But, without it, the sun wouldn't shine. +And when the sun shines, you get copious quantities of these things, called neutrinos, pouring out. +Actually, if you just look at your thumbnail -- about a square centimeter -- there are something like 60 billion neutrinos per second from the sun, passing through every square centimeter of your body. +But you don't feel them, because the weak force is correctly named -- very short range and very weak, so they just fly through you. +And these particles have been discovered over the last century, pretty much. +The first one, the electron, was discovered in 1897, and the last one, this thing called the tau neutrino, in the year 2000. Actually just -- I was going to say, just up the road in Chicago. I know it's a big country, America, isn't it? +Just up the road. +Relative to the universe, it's just up the road. +So, this thing was discovered in the year 2000, so it's a relatively recent picture. +One of the wonderful things, actually, I find, is that we've discovered any of them, when you realize how tiny they are. +You know, they're a step in size from the entire observable universe. +So, 100 billion galaxies, 13.7 billion light years away -- a step in size from that to Monterey, actually, is about the same as from Monterey to these things. +Absolutely, exquisitely minute, and yet we've discovered pretty much the full set. +So, one of my most illustrious forebears at Manchester University, Ernest Rutherford, discoverer of the atomic nucleus, once said, "All science is either physics or stamp collecting." +Now, I don't think he meant to insult the rest of science, although he was from New Zealand, so it's possible. +But what he meant was that what we've done, really, is stamp collect there. +OK, we've discovered the particles, but unless you understand the underlying reason for that pattern -- you know, why it's built the way it is -- really you've done stamp collecting. You haven't done science. +Fortunately, we have probably one of the greatest scientific achievements of the twentieth century that underpins that pattern. +It's the Newton's laws, if you want, of particle physics. +It's called the standard model -- beautifully simple mathematical equation. +You could stick it on the front of a T-shirt, which is always the sign of elegance. +This is it. +I've been a little disingenuous, because I've expanded it out in all its gory detail. +This equation, though, allows you to calculate everything -- other than gravity -- that happens in the universe. +So, you want to know why the sky is blue, why atomic nuclei stick together -- in principle, you've got a big enough computer -- why DNA is the shape it is. +In principle, you should be able to calculate it from that equation. +But there's a problem. +Can anyone see what it is? +A bottle of champagne for anyone that tells me. +I'll make it easier, actually, by blowing one of the lines up. +Basically, each of these terms refers to some of the particles. +So those Ws there refer to the Ws, and how they stick together. +These carriers of the weak force, the Zs, the same. +But there's an extra symbol in this equation: H. +Right, H. +H stands for Higgs particle. +Higgs particles have not been discovered. +But they're necessary: they're necessary to make that mathematics work. +So all the exquisitely detailed calculations we can do with that wonderful equation wouldn't be possible without an extra bit. +So it's a prediction: a prediction of a new particle. +What does it do? +Well, we had a long time to come up with good analogies. +And back in the 1980s, when we wanted the money for the LHC from the U.K. government, Margaret Thatcher, at the time, said, "If you guys can explain, in language a politician can understand, what the hell it is that you're doing, you can have the money. +I want to know what this Higgs particle does." +And we came up with this analogy, and it seemed to work. +Well, what the Higgs does is, it gives mass to the fundamental particles. +And the picture is that the whole universe -- and that doesn't mean just space, it means me as well, and inside you -- the whole universe is full of something called a Higgs field. +Higgs particles, if you will. +The analogy is that these people in a room are the Higgs particles. +Now when a particle moves through the universe, it can interact with these Higgs particles. +But imagine someone who's not very popular moves through the room. +Then everyone ignores them. They can just pass through the room very quickly, essentially at the speed of light. They're massless. +And imagine someone incredibly important and popular and intelligent walks into the room. +They're surrounded by people, and their passage through the room is impeded. +It's almost like they get heavy. They get massive. +And that's exactly the way the Higgs mechanism works. +The picture is that the electrons and the quarks in your body and in the universe that we see around us are heavy, in a sense, and massive, because they're surrounded by Higgs particles. +They're interacting with the Higgs field. +If that picture's true, then we have to discover those Higgs particles at the LHC. +If it's not true -- because it's quite a convoluted mechanism, although it's the simplest we've been able to think of -- then whatever does the job of the Higgs particles we know have to turn up at the LHC. +So, that's one of the prime reasons we built this giant machine. +I'm glad you recognize Margaret Thatcher. +Actually, I thought about making it more culturally relevant, but -- anyway. +So that's one thing. +That's essentially a guarantee of what the LHC will find. +There are many other things. You've heard many of the big problems in particle physics. +One of them you heard about: dark matter, dark energy. +There's another issue, which is that the forces in nature -- it's quite beautiful, actually -- seem, as you go back in time, they seem to change in strength. +Well, they do change in strength. +So, the electromagnetic force, the force that holds us together, gets stronger as you go to higher temperatures. +The strong force, the strong nuclear force, which sticks nuclei together, gets weaker. And what you see is the standard model -- you can calculate how these change -- is the forces, the three forces, other than gravity, almost seem to come together at one point. +It's almost as if there was one beautiful kind of super-force, back at the beginning of time. +But they just miss. +Now there's a theory called super-symmetry, which doubles the number of particles in the standard model, which, at first sight, doesn't sound like a simplification. +But actually, with this theory, we find that the forces of nature do seem to unify together, back at the Big Bang -- absolutely beautiful prophecy. The model wasn't built to do that, but it seems to do it. +Also, those super-symmetric particles are very strong candidates for the dark matter. +So a very compelling theory that's really mainstream physics. +And if I was to put money on it, I would put money on -- in a very unscientific way -- that that these things would also crop up at the LHC. +Many other things that the LHC could discover. +But in the last few minutes, I just want to give you a different perspective of what I think -- what particle physics really means to me -- particle physics and cosmology. +And that's that I think it's given us a wonderful narrative -- almost a creation story, if you'd like -- about the universe, from modern science over the last few decades. +And I'd say that it deserves, in the spirit of Wade Davis' talk, to be at least put up there with these wonderful creation stories of the peoples of the high Andes and the frozen north. +This is a creation story, I think, equally as wonderful. +The story goes like this: we know that the universe began 13.7 billion years ago, in an immensely hot, dense state, much smaller than a single atom. +It began to expand about a million, billion, billion, billion billionth of a second -- I think I got that right -- after the Big Bang. +Gravity separated away from the other forces. +The universe then underwent an exponential expansion called inflation. +In about the first billionth of a second or so, the Higgs field kicked in, and the quarks and the gluons and the electrons that make us up got mass. +The universe continued to expand and cool. +After about a few minutes, there was hydrogen and helium in the universe. That's all. +The universe was about 75 percent hydrogen, 25 percent helium. It still is today. +It continued to expand about 300 million years. +Then light began to travel through the universe. +It was big enough to be transparent to light, and that's what we see in the cosmic microwave background that George Smoot described as looking at the face of God. +After about 400 million years, the first stars formed, and that hydrogen, that helium, then began to cook into the heavier elements. +So the elements of life -- carbon, and oxygen and iron, all the elements that we need to make us up -- were cooked in those first generations of stars, which then ran out of fuel, exploded, threw those elements back into the universe. +They then re-collapsed into another generation of stars and planets. +And on some of those planets, the oxygen, which had been created in that first generation of stars, could fuse with hydrogen to form water, liquid water on the surface. +On at least one, and maybe only one of those planets, primitive life evolved, which evolved over millions of years into things that walked upright and left footprints about three and a half million years ago in the mud flats of Tanzania, and eventually left a footprint on another world. +And built this civilization, this wonderful picture, that turned the darkness into light, and you can see the civilization from space. +As one of my great heroes, Carl Sagan, said, these are the things -- and actually, not only these, but I was looking around -- these are the things, like Saturn V rockets, and Sputnik, and DNA, and literature and science -- these are the things that hydrogen atoms do when given 13.7 billion years. +Absolutely remarkable. +And, the laws of physics. Right? +So, the right laws of physics -- they're beautifully balanced. +If the weak force had been a little bit different, then carbon and oxygen wouldn't be stable inside the hearts of stars, and there would be none of that in the universe. +And I think that's a wonderful and significant story. +50 years ago, I couldn't have told that story, because we didn't know it. +It makes me really feel that that civilization -- which, as I say, if you believe the scientific creation story, has emerged purely as a result of the laws of physics, and a few hydrogen atoms -- then I think, to me anyway, it makes me feel incredibly valuable. +So that's the LHC. +The LHC is certainly, when it turns on in summer, going to write the next chapter of that book. +And I'm certainly looking forward with immense excitement to it being turned on. +Thanks. +Good morning everybody. +We are They Might Be Giants. +I am wearing the Al Gore in-ear monitors he wore on the Larry King show and I'm hearing that transmission and not mine. +But I guess that's in keeping, so now we'll just move to the PowerPoint presentation, ladies and gentlemen. +This is a brand new song. +In the spirit of TED, we're bringing you something that has not been released. +John, do you want to introduce the song? +This is a song about a creature called a hummingbird moth which imitates another creature which imitates yet another creature. +It's completely fucked up and can only be explained in song. +Thank you very much. +So we are past our 1,000th show. +Probably somewhere around 1,500. +It's hard to know. +We've only done two shows in 2007 so far, but our first show was actually the coldest performance we've ever had. +It was 19 degrees in St. Louis about a month ago and I'm happy to report that this performance you are seeing today is the earliest we have ever performed. +So thank you. +We are cultural test pilots, ladies and gentlemen. +How early can a rock performance begin? +Not all the facts are in about performing at 8.30 in the morning. +I can tell you the 19 degree thing was fantastic. +All right. +So we don't know that much about the history of violinists but we do know that when we entered the state of New Jersey there is an uptick in violence. +This song is called "Asbury Park." +It's based on a real life experience. +Marty Beller on the drums over there. +We want to get in as many songs as possible during our brief time here so this is the one to play. +This song is called "Fingertips." +We're taking calls live on stage here at TED in Monterey. +And I think we have a caller coming in here. +Hello there. +You're live. +Hello. Who's there, please? +Am I on the air? +Hi there. +You're on with They Might Be Giants. +This is Eleanor Roosevelt. +Hello, Eleanor, please ... +I want to talk to ... +Please turn off your radio, Eleanor. +I wanna talk to Randi. +I've got a question for Randi. +What's your question, please? +I want to talk to the Amazing Randi. +Do you have a laminated badge, Eleanor? +I want my million dollars. +Eleanor, I'm sorry, do you have a laminated badge? +No, I don't have a badge. +Well, I think we're going to stop that part of the show. +Here's a song we like to think of as the future anthem of TED. +It's actually a children's song but like so many projects for children it's really just a Trojan horse for adult work. +This song is called "The Alphabet ... +Of Nations!" +You've been a wonderful 8:30 audience. +Have a great session. +Thank you all. +You know, one of the things that I'd like to say upfront is that I'm really here by accident. +And what I mean -- not at TED -- that I'm -- at this point in my life, truly my set of circumstances I would truly consider an accident. +But what I'd like to talk to you about today is perhaps a way in which we could use technology to make those accidents happen often. +Because I really think, when I look back at how I actually ended up in this accident, technology played a big role in that. +So, what I'd like to do today is tell you a little bit about myself, because I'd like to put in context what I'm going to tell you. +And I think you will see why the two greatest passions in my life today are children and education. +And once I put that in context, I'd like to tell you a little bit about technology: why I believe technology is a tremendous enabler; a very powerful tool to help address some of these challenges. +Then, about the initiative that Chris mentioned, that we decided to launch at AMD that we call 50x15. +And then I'll come back to the beginning, and tell you a little bit more -- hopefully convince you -- that I believe that in today's world, it is really important for business leaders not only to have an idea of what their business is all about, but to have a passion for something that is meaningful. +So, with that in mind, first of all let me tell you, I'm one of five children. I'm the oldest, the other four are women. +So I grew up in a family of women. +I learned a lot about how to deal with that part of the world. +And, as you can imagine, if you can picture this: I was born in a very small village in Mexico, in, unfortunately, very poor surroundings, and my parents did not have a college education. +But I was fortunate to be able to have one, and so were my four sisters. +That kind of tells you a little bit of an idea of the emphasis that my parents placed on education. +My parents were fanatics about learning, and I'll come back to that a little bit later. +But one of the things that exposed me early to learning, and a tremendous curiosity that was instilled in me as a child, was through a technology which is on the screen -- is a Victrola. +He explained to me about Johann Strauss, and how he created the waltzes that became so famous in the world. +And would tell me a little bit about history too, when he'd play the 1812 Overture by Tchaikovsky on this little Victrola, and he would tell me about Russia and all the things that were happening in Russia at those times and why this music, in some way, represented a little bit of that history. +And even as a child, he was able to instill in me a lot of curiosity. +And perhaps to you this product may not look like high tech, but if you can imagine the time when this occurred -- it was in the mid '40s -- this was really, in his view, a pretty piece of high tech. +Well, one of the things that is really critical to try to distill from that experience is that in addition to that, people ask me and say, "Well, how did your parents treat you when you were a child?" +And I always said that they were really tough on me. +And not tough in the sense that most people think of, where your parents yell at you or hit you or whatever. +They were tough in the sense that, as I grew up, both my mother and father would always say to me, it's really important that you always remember two things. +First of all, when you go to bed at night, you've got to look back on the day and make sure that you felt the day was a day which you contributed something, and that you did everything you could to do it the best way you could. +And the second thing they said: and we trust you, that no matter where you are or where you go, you will always do the right thing. +Now, I don't know how many of you have ever done that with your kids, but if you do, please trust me, it's the most pressure you can put on a child, to say -- -- we trust you that you will always do the right thing. +And in today's world, being useful, affordable and accessible is not necessarily what happens in a lot of the technology that is done today. +So, one of our passions in our company, and now one of my personal passions, is to be able to really work hard at making the technology useful, accessible and affordable. +And to me, that is very, very critical. +Now, technology has changed a lot since the Victrola days. +You know, we now have, of course, incredibly powerful computers. +A tremendous thing that people refer to as a killer app is called the Internet. +Although frankly speaking, we don't believe the Internet is the killer app. +What we believe is that the Internet, frankly, is a connection of people and ideas. +The Internet happens to be just the medium in which those people and ideas get connected. +And the power of connecting people and ideas can be pretty awesome. +And so, we believe that through all the changes that have occurred, that we're faced today with a tremendous opportunity. +So, when you look at that, we said, well, we would like to, then, enable that a little bit. We would like to create an initiative. +And a couple of years ago at AMD, we came up with this idea of saying, what if we create this initiative we call 50x15, where we are going to aim, that by the year 2015, half of the world will be connected to the Internet so that people and ideas can get connected. +We knew we couldn't do it by ourselves, and by no means did we ever intend to imply that we at AMD could do it alone. +We always felt that this was something that could be done through partnerships with governments, industry, educational institutions, a myriad of other companies and, frankly, even competitors. +So, it is really a rather lofty initiative, if you want to think that way, but we felt that we had to put a real stake up in the years ahead, that was bold enough and courageous enough that it would force us all to think of ways to do things differently. +And I'll come back to that in a minute, because I think the results so far have been remarkable, and I can only anticipate and get real excited about what I think is going to happen in the next eight years, while we get to the 2015 initiative. +Where are we today? +That's year by year. This comes from our friends at Gapminder.com. +Those of you who've never looked at their website, you should look at it. It's really impressive. And you can see how the Internet penetration has changed over the years. +And so when we gave ourselves this scorecard to say well, where are we related to our goal towards 2015, the thing that becomes apparent is three pieces. +One is the Western world, defined mostly by Western Europe and the United States, has made an awful lot of progress. +The connectivity in these parts of the world are really truly phenomenal and continue to increase. +I had the opportunity to have a discussion with President Mbeki, and one of the things that we talked about is, what is it that's keeping this connectivity goal from moving ahead faster? +And one of the reasons is, in South Africa, it costs 100 dollars a month to have a broadband connectivity. +It is impossible, even in the United States, for that cost, to be able to enable the connectivity that we're all trying to reach. +So, we talked about ways in which perhaps one could partner to be able to bring the cost of this technology down. +So, when you look at this chart, you look at the very last -- it's a logarithmic chart on a horizontal scale -- you look at the very end: we've got quite a long way to go to get to the 2015 goal of 50 percent. +But we're excited in our company; we're motivated. +We really think it's a phenomenal driver of things, to force us to do things differently, and we look forward to being able to actually, working with so many partners around the world, to be able to reach that goal. +Now, one of the things I'd like to explain [about] 50x15, which I think is really critical, is that it is not a charity. +It is actually a business venture. +Let's take a small segment of this, of this unconnected world, and call it the education market. +When you look at elementary-school children, we have hundreds and hundreds of millions of children around the world that could benefit tremendously from being able to be connected to the Internet. +Therefore, when we see that, we see an opportunity to have a business that addresses the need of that segment. +And when we embarked in this initiative, from the very beginning we said it very clearly: this is not a charity. +This is really a business venture, one that addresses a very challenging segment of the market. +It is an initiative that is focused on simple, accessible and human-centric solutions. +What we mean by that is, you know, frankly, the PC was invented in 1980, roughly speaking more or less, and for 20-odd years, it hasn't changed. +It is still, in most places, a gray or black box, and it looks the same. +And frankly -- and I know that sometimes I offend some of my customers when I say this, but I truly mean it -- if you could take the name of the computer off the top of it, it would be very difficult to judge who made it, because they're all highly commoditized but they're all different. +So, there has not been a human-centric approach to addressing this segment of the market, so we really believe it is critical to think of it. +It reminded me a lot of the talk we heard this morning, about this operating room machinery that was designed specifically for Africa. +We're talking about something very similar here. +And it has to be based on a geo-sensitive approach. +What I mean by that is that in some parts of the world, the government plays a key role in the development of technology. +In other parts, it doesn't. +In other parts of the world, you have an infrastructure that allows for manufacturing to take place. +In other parts, it doesn't. And then we have to be sensitive about how this technology can be developed and put into action in those regions. +And the last piece, which is really important -- and this is an opinion that we have, not shared by many, this is one where we seem to stand alone, on this one -- is that we really believe that the greatest success of this initiative can come by fostering local, integrated, end-to-end ecosystems. +What I mean by that, and let me use this example, the country of South Africa, because I was just there, therefore I'm a little bit familiar with some of the challenges they have. +It's a country of 45 million people. It's an economy that's emerging. +It's beginning to grow tremendously. +They have an objective to lowering the cost of connectivity. +They have a computer company that makes computers in South Africa. +They're developing a software-training environment in their universities. +What a place, what an ideal place to create an ecosystem that could build the hardware and the software needed for their schools. And to my surprise, I learned in South Africa they have 18 dialects, I always thought they only had two -- English and Afrikaans -- but it turns out they have 18 dialects. +And to be able to meet the needs of this rather complex educational system, it could only be done from inside. +I don't think this segment of the market can be addressed by companies parachuting from another place of the world, and just dumping product and selling into the markets. +So, we believe that in those regions of the world where the population is large, and there's an infrastructure that can provide it, that a local, integrated, end-to-end system is really critical for its success. +This is a picture of a classroom that we outfitted with computers in Mexico, in my home country. +This particular classroom happens to be in the state of Michoacan. +Those of you that might be familiar with Mexico -- Michoacan is a very colorful state. +Children dress with very colorful, colorful clothes, and it is incredible to see the power that this has in the hands of kids, in a computer. And I have to tell you that it's so easy to appreciate the impact that access to technology and connectivity can have in the lives and education of these kids. +We just recently opened a learning laboratory in a school in the West Cape in South Africa, in a school that's called Nelson Mandela School, and when you see the faces and activities of these children being able to access computers, it's just phenomenal. +And recently, they've written us letters, telling us how excited they are about the impact that this has had on their lives, on their educational dreams, on their capabilities, and it's just phenomenal. +We have now deployed 30 different technologists in 18 different countries, and we have been able to connect millions of people in an effort to continue to learn what this particular segment of the market needs and demands. +And I have to tell you that although millions doesn't sound like a lot in terms of the billions that need to be connected, it's a start. And we are learning a lot. +And we're learning a tremendous amount about what we believe this segment needs to be able to be effective. +One example of this has been the One Laptop per Child. +Some of you are familiar with this. +This is a partnership between MIT and a group of companies -- Google is involved, Red Hat -- and AMD is a key player. +The electronics behind the One Laptop per Child are based on AMD technology; it's a microprocessor. +But to give you an idea how creative this group of people can be, one of the objectives of the One Laptop per Child is to be able to achieve a 10-hour battery life. +Because it was felt that a school day would last at least eight hours, and you wanted the child to have the ability to use the laptop for at least one full day without having to recharge it. +The engineers have done a phenomenal amount of innovation on this part, and battery life on this product is now 15 hours -- just through a lot of innovative work people have done because they're passionate and motivated to be able to do this. +We expect this to be deployed towards the end of this year, and we're very excited at the opportunities that this is going to offer in the field of education. +It's a highly focused product aimed at strictly the education market, not only in the developing countries, but actually in the developed regions as well, because there are parts of the United States where this can have also a huge impact on the ability to make education more fun and more efficient. +We also have partnered with TED in this project, with Architecture for Humanity, and along with the TED Prize winner Cameron Sinclair, we're having a contest that we have issued to the architectural community to come up with the best design for a computer lab for an emerging region. +And we're really thrilled about the opportunity to be part of this, and can't wait to see what comes out of this exciting, exciting activity. +Let me come back to the beginning, to end this presentation. +I'll tell you that one of the things that I feel is really critical for us in industry, in business, is to be able to be passionate about solving these problems. +I don't think it's enough to be able to put them on a spreadsheet, and look at numbers and say, yes, that's a good business. +I really believe that you have to have a passion for it. +And one of the things that I learned, too, from my parents -- and I'll give you a little anecdote -- especially from my father. +And it took me a while to understand it, but he said to me, when I went to college, he said, "You're the first person in the family to go to college. +And it's really important you understand that for civilization to make progress, each generation has to do better than the last one. +And therefore, this is your opportunity to do better than my generation." +Frankly, I don't know that I really understood what he told me at the time. +I was eager to go off to college, and go find girls, and study, and girls, and study, but then I finished college and I fell in love. +I graduated. I decided to get married. +And on my wedding day, my father came to me again and said, "You know, I'm going to remind you again, that each generation has to do better than the last one. +You have to be a better husband than I was, because that's how you make progress." And now he began to make sense. +That's when it dawned on me the tremendous challenge that he was placing on me, because he was a great father. +But the key is that he instilled in me a passion to really get up every day in the morning and want to do better, to really get up and think that my role in life is not just to be the CEO of a Fortune 500 company. +It's got to be that someday I can look back, and this place is truly better through some small contribution that perhaps each of us could make. +Thank you very much. +I love a challenge, and saving the Earth is probably a good one. +We all know the Earth is in trouble. +We have now entered in the 6X, the sixth major extinction on this planet. +I often wondered, if there was a United Organization of Organisms -- otherwise known as "Uh-Oh" -- -- and every organism had a right to vote, would we be voted on the planet, or off the planet? +I think that vote is occurring right now. +I want to present to you a suite of six mycological solutions, using fungi, and these solutions are based on mycelium. +The mycelium infuses all landscapes, it holds soils together, it's extremely tenacious. +This holds up to 30,000 times its mass. +They're the grand molecular disassemblers of nature -- the soil magicians. +They generate the humus soils across the landmasses of Earth. +We have now discovered that there is a multi-directional transfer of nutrients between plants, mitigated by the mcyelium -- so the mycelium is the mother that is giving nutrients from alder and birch trees to hemlocks, cedars and Douglas firs. +Dusty and I, we like to say, on Sunday, this is where we go to church. +I'm in love with the old-growth forest, and I'm a patriotic American because we have those. +Most of you are familiar with Portobello mushrooms. +And frankly, I face a big obstacle. +When I mention mushrooms to somebody, they immediately think Portobellos or magic mushrooms, their eyes glaze over, and they think I'm a little crazy. +So, I hope to pierce that prejudice forever with this group. +We call it mycophobia, the irrational fear of the unknown, when it comes to fungi. +Mushrooms are very fast in their growth. +Day 21, day 23, day 25. +Mushrooms produce strong antibiotics. +In fact, we're more closely related to fungi than we are to any other kingdom. +A group of 20 eukaryotic microbiologists published a paper two years ago erecting opisthokonta -- a super-kingdom that joins animalia and fungi together. +We share in common the same pathogens. +Fungi don't like to rot from bacteria, and so our best antibiotics come from fungi. +But here is a mushroom that's past its prime. +After they sporulate, they do rot. +But I propose to you that the sequence of microbes that occur on rotting mushrooms are essential for the health of the forest. +They give rise to the trees, they create the debris fields that feed the mycelium. +And so we see a mushroom here sporulating. +And the spores are germinating, and the mycelium forms and goes underground. +In a single cubic inch of soil, there can be more than eight miles of these cells. +My foot is covering approximately 300 miles of mycelium. +This is photomicrographs from Nick Read and Patrick Hickey. +And notice that as the mycelium grows, it conquers territory and then it begins the net. +I've been a scanning electron microscopist for many years, I have thousands of electron micrographs, and when I'm staring at the mycelium, I realize that they are microfiltration membranes. +We exhale carbon dioxide, so does mycelium. +It inhales oxygen, just like we do. +But these are essentially externalized stomachs and lungs. +And I present to you a concept that these are extended neurological membranes. +And in these cavities, these micro-cavities form, and as they fuse soils, they absorb water. +These are little wells. +And inside these wells, then microbial communities begin to form. +And so the spongy soil not only resists erosion, but sets up a microbial universe that gives rise to a plurality of other organisms. +I first proposed, in the early 1990s, that mycelium is Earth's natural Internet. +When you look at the mycelium, they're highly branched. +And if there's one branch that is broken, then very quickly, because of the nodes of crossing -- Internet engineers maybe call them hot points -- there are alternative pathways for channeling nutrients and information. +The mycelium is sentient. +It knows that you are there. +When you walk across landscapes, it leaps up in the aftermath of your footsteps trying to grab debris. +So, I believe the invention of the computer Internet is an inevitable consequence of a previously proven, biologically successful model. +The Earth invented the computer Internet for its own benefit, and we now, being the top organism on this planet, are trying to allocate resources in order to protect the biosphere. +Going way out, dark matter conforms to the same mycelial archetype. +I believe matter begets life; life becomes single cells; single cells become strings; strings become chains; chains network. +And this is the paradigm that we see throughout the universe. +Most of you may not know that fungi were the first organisms to come to land. +They came to land 1.3 billion years ago, and plants followed several hundred million years later. +How is that possible? +It's possible because the mycelium produces oxalic acids, and many other acids and enzymes, pockmarking rock and grabbing calcium and other minerals and forming calcium oxalates. +Makes the rocks crumble, and the first step in the generation of soil. +Oxalic acid is two carbon dioxide molecules joined together. +So, fungi and mycelium sequester carbon dioxide in the form of calcium oxalates. +And all sorts of other oxalates are also sequestering carbon dioxide through the minerals that are being formed and taken out of the rock matrix. +This was first discovered in 1859. +This is a photograph by Franz Hueber. +This photograph's taken 1950s in Saudi Arabia. +420 million years ago, this organism existed. +It was called Prototaxites. +Prototaxites, laying down, was about three feet tall. +The tallest plants on Earth at that time were less than two feet. +Dr. Boyce, at the University of Chicago, published an article in the Journal of Geology this past year determining that Prototaxites was a giant fungus, a giant mushroom. +Across the landscapes of Earth were dotted these giant mushrooms. +All across most land masses. +And these existed for tens of millions of years. +Now, we've had several extinction events, and as we march forward -- 65 million years ago -- most of you know about it -- we had an asteroid impact. +The Earth was struck by an asteroid, a huge amount of debris was jettisoned into the atmosphere. +Sunlight was cut off, and fungi inherited the Earth. +Those organisms that paired with fungi were rewarded, because fungi do not need light. +More recently, at Einstein University, they just determined that fungi use radiation as a source of energy, much like plants use light. +So, the prospect of fungi existing on other planets elsewhere, I think, is a forgone conclusion, at least in my own mind. +The largest organism in the world is in Eastern Oregon. +I couldn't miss it. It was 2,200 acres in size: 2,200 acres in size, 2,000 years old. +The largest organism on the planet is a mycelial mat, one cell wall thick. +How is it that this organism can be so large, and yet be one cell wall thick, whereas we have five or six skin layers that protect us? +The mycelium, in the right conditions, produces a mushroom -- it bursts through with such ferocity that it can break asphalt. +We were involved with several experiments. +I'm going to show you six, if I can, solutions for helping to save the world. +Battelle Laboratories and I joined up in Bellingham, Washington. +There were four piles saturated with diesel and other petroleum waste: one was a control pile; one pile was treated with enzymes; one pile was treated with bacteria; and our pile we inoculated with mushroom mycelium. +The mycelium absorbs the oil. +The mycelium is producing enzymes -- peroxidases -- that break carbon-hydrogen bonds. +These are the same bonds that hold hydrocarbons together. +So, the mycelium becomes saturated with the oil, and then, when we returned six weeks later, all the tarps were removed, all the other piles were dead, dark and stinky. +We came back to our pile, it was covered with hundreds of pounds of oyster mushrooms, and the color changed to a light form. +The enzymes remanufactured the hydrocarbons into carbohydrates -- fungal sugars. +Some of these mushrooms are very happy mushrooms. +They're very large. +They're showing how much nutrition that they could've obtained. +But something else happened, which was an epiphany in my life. +They sporulated, the spores attract insects, the insects laid eggs, eggs became larvae. +Birds then came, bringing in seeds, and our pile became an oasis of life. +Whereas the other three piles were dead, dark and stinky, and the PAH's -- the aromatic hydrocarbons -- went from 10,000 parts per million to less than 200 in eight weeks. +The last image we don't have. +The entire pile was a green berm of life. +These are gateway species, vanguard species that open the door for other biological communities. +So I invented burlap sacks, bunker spawn -- and putting the mycelium -- using storm blown debris, you can take these burlap sacks and put them downstream from a farm that's producing E. coli, or other wastes, or a factory with chemical toxins, and it leads to habitat restoration. +So, we set up a site in Mason County, Washington, and we've seen a dramatic decrease in the amount of coliforms. +And I'll show you a graph here. +This is a logarithmic scale, 10 to the eighth power. +There's more than a 100 million colonies per gram, and 10 to the third power is around 1,000. +In 48 hours to 72 hours, these three mushroom species reduced the amount of coliform bacteria 10,000 times. +Think of the implications. +This is a space-conservative method that uses storm debris -- and we can guarantee that we will have storms every year. +So, this one mushroom, in particular, has drawn our interest over time. +This is my wife Dusty, with a mushroom called Fomitopsis officinalis -- Agarikon. +It's a mushroom exclusive to the old-growth forest that Dioscorides first described in 65 A.D. +as a treatment against consumption. +This mushroom grows in Washington State, Oregon, northern California, British Columbia, now thought to be extinct in Europe. +May not seem that large -- let's get closer. +This is extremely rare fungus. +Our team -- and we have a team of experts that go out -- we went out 20 times in the old-growth forest last year. +We found one sample to be able to get into culture. +Preserving the genome of these fungi in the old-growth forest I think is absolutely critical for human health. +I've been involved with the U.S. Defense Department BioShield program. +We submitted over 300 samples of mushrooms that were boiled in hot water, and mycelium harvesting these extracellular metabolites. +And a few years ago, we received these results. +We have three different strains of Agarikon mushrooms that were highly active against poxviruses. +Dr. Earl Kern, who's a smallpox expert of the U.S. Defense Department, states that any compounds that have a selectivity index of two or more are active. +10 or greater are considered to be very active. +Our mushroom strains were in the highly active range. +There's a vetted press release that you can read -- it's vetted by DOD -- if you Google "Stamets" and "smallpox." +Or you can go to NPR.org and listen to a live interview. +So, encouraged by this, naturally we went to flu viruses. +And so, for the first time, I am showing this. +We have three different strains of Agarikon mushrooms highly active against flu viruses. +Here's the selectivity index numbers -- against pox, you saw 10s and 20s -- now against flu viruses, compared to the ribavirin controls, we have an extraordinarily high activity. +And we're using a natural extract within the same dosage window as a pure pharmaceutical. +We tried it against flu A viruses -- H1N1, H3N2 -- as well as flu B viruses. +So then we tried a blend, and in a blend combination we tried it against H5N1, and we got greater than 1,000 selectivity index. +I then think that we can make the argument that we should save the old-growth forest as a matter of national defense. +I became interested in entomopathogenic fungi -- fungi that kill insects. +Our house was being destroyed by carpenter ants. +So, I went to the EPA homepage, and they were recommending studies with metarhizium species of a group of fungi that kill carpenter ants, as well as termites. +I did something that nobody else had done. +I actually chased the mycelium, when it stopped producing spores. +These are spores -- this is in their spores. +I was able to morph the culture into a non-sporulating form. +And so the industry has spent over 100 million dollars specifically on bait stations to prevent termites from eating your house. +But the insects aren't stupid, and they would avoid the spores when they came close, and so I morphed the cultures into a non-sporulating form. +And I got my daughter's Barbie doll dish, I put it right where a bunch of carpenter ants were making debris fields, every day, in my house, and the ants were attracted to the mycelium, because there's no spores. +They gave it to the queen. +One week later, I had no sawdust piles whatsoever. +And then -- a delicate dance between dinner and death -- the mycelium is consumed by the ants, they become mummified, and, boing, a mushroom pops out of their head. +Now after sporulation, the spores repel. +So, the house is no longer suitable for invasion. +So, you have a near-permanent solution for reinvasion of termites. +And so my house came down, I received my first patent against carpenter ants, termites and fire ants. +Then we tried extracts, and lo and behold, we can steer insects to different directions. +This has huge implications. +I then received my second patent -- and this is a big one. +It's been called an Alexander Graham Bell patent. +It covers over 200,000 species. +This is the most disruptive technology -- I've been told by executives of the pesticide industry -- that they have ever witnessed. +This could totally revamp the pesticide industries throughout the world. +You could fly 100 Ph.D. students under the umbrella of this concept, because my supposition is that entomopathogenic fungi, prior to sporulation, attract the very insects that are otherwise repelled by those spores. +And so I came up with a Life Box, because I needed a delivery system. +The Life Box -- you're gonna be getting a DVD of the TED conference -- you add soil, you add water, you have mycorrhizal and endophytic fungi as well as spores, like of the Agarikon mushroom. +The seeds then are mothered by this mycelium. +And then you put tree seeds in here, and then you end up growing -- potentially -- an old-growth forest from a cardboard box. +I want to reinvent the delivery system, and the use of cardboard around the world, so they become ecological footprints. +If there's a YouTube-like site that you could put up, you could make it interactive, zip code specific -- where people could join together, and through satellite imaging systems, through Virtual Earth or Google Earth, you could confirm carbon credits are being sequestered by the trees that are coming through Life Boxes. +You could take a cardboard box delivering shoes, you could add water -- I developed this for the refugee community -- corns, beans and squash and onions. +I took several containers -- my wife said, if I could do this, anybody could -- and I ended up growing a seed garden. +Then you harvest the seeds -- and thank you, Eric Rasmussen, for your help on this -- and then you're harvesting the seed garden. +Then you can harvest the kernels, and then you just need a few kernels. +I add mycelium to it, and then I inoculate the corncobs. +Now, three corncobs, no other grain -- lots of mushrooms begin to form. +Too many withdrawals from the carbon bank, and so this population will be shut down. +But watch what happens here. +The mushrooms then are harvested, but very importantly, the mycelium has converted the cellulose into fungal sugars. +And so I thought, how could we address the energy crisis in this country? +And we came up with Econol. +Generating ethanol from cellulose using mycelium as an intermediary -- and you gain all the benefits that I've described to you already. +But to go from cellulose to ethanol is ecologically unintelligent, and I think that we need to be econologically intelligent about the generation of fuels. +So, we build the carbon banks on the planet, renew the soils. +These are a species that we need to join with. +I think engaging mycelium can help save the world. +Thank you very much. +and actually all the way down into the sewer because I want to talk about diarrhea. +And in particular, I want to talk about the design of diarrhea. +And when evolutionary biologists talk about design, they really mean design by natural selection. +And that brings me to the title of the talk, "Using Evolution to Design Disease Organisms Intelligently." +And I also have a little bit of a sort of smartass subtitle to this. +But I'm not just doing this to be cute. +I really think that this subtitle explains what somebody like me, who's sort of a Darwin wannabe, how they actually look at one's role in sort of coming into this field of health sciences and medicine. +It's really not a very friendly field for evolutionary biologists. +You actually see a great potential, but you see a lot of people who are sort of defending their turf, and may actually be very resistant, when one tries to introduce ideas. +So, all of the talk today is going to deal with two general questions. +One is that, why are some disease organisms more harmful? +And a very closely related question, which is, how can we take control of this situation once we understand the answer to the first question? +How can we make the harmful organisms more mild? +And I'm going to be talking, to begin with, as I said, about diarrheal disease organisms. +And the focus when I'm talking about the diarrheal organisms, as well as the focus when I'm talking about any organisms that cause acute infectious disease, is to think about the problem from a germ's point of view, germ's-eye view. +And in particular, to think about a fundamental idea which I think makes sense out of a tremendous amount of variation in the harmfulness of disease organisms. +And that idea is that from the germ's-eye point of view, disease organisms have to get from one host to another, and often they have to rely on the well-being of the host to move them to another host. +But not always. +Sometimes, you get disease organisms that don't rely on host mobility at all for transmission. +And when you have that, then evolutionary theory tells us that natural selection will favor the more exploitative, more predator-like organisms. +So, natural selection will favor organisms that are more likely to cause damage. +If instead transmission to another host requires host mobility, then we expect that the winners of the competition will be the milder organisms. +So, if the pathogen doesn't need the host to be healthy and active, and actual selection favors pathogens that take advantage of those hosts, the winners in the competition are those that exploit the hosts for their own reproductive success. +But if the host needs to be mobile in order to transmit the pathogen, then it's the benign ones that tend to be the winners. +So, I'm going to begin by applying this idea to diarrheal diseases. +Diarrheal disease organisms get transmitted in basically three ways. +They can be transmitted from person-to-person contact, person-to-food-then-to-person contact, when somebody eats contaminated food, or they can be transmitted through the water. +And when they're transmitted through the water, unlike the first two modes of transmission, these pathogens don't rely on a healthy host for transmission. +A person can be sick in bed and still infect tens, even hundreds of other individuals. +To sort of illustrate that, this diagram emphasizes that if you've got a sick person in bed, somebody's going to be taking out the contaminated materials. +They're going to wash those contaminated materials, and then the water may move into sources of drinking water. +People will come in to those places where you've got contaminated drinking water, bring things back to the family, may drink right at that point. +The whole point is that a person who can't move can still infect many other individuals. +And so, the theory tells us that when diarrheal disease organisms are transported by water, we expect them to be more predator-like, more harmful. +And you can test these ideas. +So, one way you can test is just look at all diarrheal bacteria, and see whether or not the ones that tend to be more transmitted by water, tend to be more harmful. +And the answer is -- yep, they are. +So this suggests we're on the right track. +But this, to me, suggests that we really need to ask some additional questions. +Remember the second question that I raised at the outset was, how can we use this knowledge to make disease organisms evolve to be mild? +Now, this suggests that if you could just block waterborne transmission, you could cause disease organisms to shift from the right-hand side of that graph to the left-hand side of the graph. +But it doesn't tell you how long. +I mean, if this would require thousands of years, then it's worthless in terms of controlling of these pathogens. +But if it could occur in just a few years, then it might be a very important way to control some of the nasty problems that we haven't been able to control. +In other words, this suggests that we could domesticate these organisms. +We could make them evolve to be not so harmful to us. +And so, as I was thinking about this, I focused on this organism, which is the El Tor biotype of the organism called Vibrio cholerae. +And that is the species of organism that is responsible for causing cholera. +And the reason I thought this is a really great organism to look at is that we understand why it's so harmful. +It's harmful because it produces a toxin, and that toxin is released when the organism gets into our intestinal tract. +It causes fluid to flow from the cells that line our intestine into the lumen, the internal chamber of our intestine, and then that fluid goes the only way it can, which is out the other end. +And it flushes out thousands of different other competitors that would otherwise make life difficult for the Vibrios. +So what happens, if you've got an organism, it produces a lot of toxin. +After a few days of infection you end up having -- the fecal material really isn't so disgusting as we might imagine. +It's sort of cloudy water. +And if you took a drop of that water, you might find a million diarrheal organisms. +If the organism produced a lot of toxin, you might find 10 million, or 100 million. +If it didn't produce a lot of this toxin, then you might find a smaller number. +Now, I can think of some possible experiments. +One would be to take a lot of different strains of this organism -- some that produce a lot of toxins, some that produce a little -- and take those strains and spew them out in different countries. +Some countries that might have clean water supplies, so that you can't get waterborne transmission: you expect the organism to evolve to mildness there. +Other countries, in which you've got a lot of waterborne transmission, there you expect these organisms to evolve towards a high level of harmfulness, right? +There's a little ethical problem in this experiment. +I was hoping to hear a few gasps at least. +That makes me worry a little bit. +But anyhow, the laughter makes me feel a little bit better. +And this ethical problem's a big problem. +Just to emphasize this, this is what we're really talking about. +Here's a girl who's almost dead. +She got rehydration therapy, she perked up, within a few days she was looking like a completely different person. +So, we don't want to run an experiment like that. +But interestingly, just that thing happened in 1991. +In 1991, this cholera organism got into Lima, Peru, and within two months it had spread to the neighboring areas. +Now, I don't know how that happened, and I didn't have anything to do with it, I promise you. +I don't think anybody knows, but I'm not averse to, once that's happened, to see whether or not the prediction that we would make, that I did make before, actually holds up. +Did the organism evolve to mildness in a place like Chile, which has some of the most well protected water supplies in Latin America? +And did it evolve to be more harmful in a place like Ecuador, which has some of the least well protected? +And Peru's got something sort of in between. +And so, with funding from the Bosack-Kruger Foundation, I got a lot of strains from these different countries and we measured their toxin production in the lab. +And we found that in Chile -- within two months of the invasion of Peru you had strains entering Chile -- and when you look at those strains, in the very far left-hand side of this graph, you see a lot of variation in the toxin production. +Each dot corresponds to an islet from a different person -- a lot of variation on which natural selection can act. +But the interesting point is, if you look over the 1990s, within a few years the organisms evolved to be more mild. +They evolved to produce less toxin. +And to just give you a sense of how important this might be, if we look in 1995, we find that there's only one case of cholera, on average, reported from Chile every two years. +So, it's controlled. +That's how much we have in America, cholera that's acquired endemically, and we don't think we've got a problem here. +They didn't -- they solved the problem in Chile. +But, before we get too confident, we'd better look at some of those other countries, and make sure that this organism doesn't just always evolve toward mildness. +Well, in Peru it didn't. +And in Ecuador -- remember, this is the place where it has the highest potential waterborne transmission -- it looked like it got more harmful. +In every case there's a lot of variation, but something about the environment the people are living in, and I think the only realistic explanation is that it's the degree of waterborne transmission, favored the harmful strains in one place, and mild strains in another. +So, this is very encouraging, it suggests that something that we might want to do anyhow, if we had enough money, could actually give us a much bigger bang for the buck. +It would make these organisms evolve to mildness, so that even though people might be getting infected, they'd be infected with mild strains. +It wouldn't be causing severe disease. +But there's another really interesting aspect of this, and this is that if you could control the evolution of virulence, evolution of harmfulness, then you should be able to control antibiotic resistance. +And the idea is very simple. +If you've got a harmful organism, a high proportion of the people are going to be symptomatic, a high proportion of the people are going to be going to get antibiotics. +You've got a lot of pressure favoring antibiotic resistance, so you get increased virulence leading to the evolution of increased antibiotic resistance. +And once you get increased antibiotic resistance, the antibiotics aren't knocking out the harmful strains anymore. +So, you've got a higher level of virulence. +So, you get this vicious cycle. +The goal is to turn this around. +If you could cause an evolutionary decrease in virulence by cleaning up the water supply, you should be able to get an evolutionary decrease in antibiotic resistance. +So, we can go to the same countries and look and see. +Did Chile avoid the problem of antibiotic resistance, whereas did Ecuador actually have the beginnings of the problem? +If we look in the beginning of the 1990s, we see, again, a lot of variation. +In this case, on the Y-axis, we've just got a measure of antibiotic sensitivity -- and I won't go into that. +But we've got a lot of variation in antibiotic sensitivity in Chile, Peru and Ecuador, and no trend across the years. +But if we look at the end of the 1990s, just half a decade later, we see that in Ecuador they started having a resistance problem. +Antibiotic sensitivity was going down. +And in Chile, you still had antibiotic sensitivity. +So, it looks like Chile dodged two bullets. +They got the organism to evolve to mildness, and they got no development of antibiotic resistance. +Now, these ideas should apply across the board, as long as you can figure out why some organisms evolved to virulence. +And I want to give you just one more example, because we've talked a little bit about malaria. +And the example I want to deal with is, or the idea I want to deal with, the question is, what can we do to try to get the malarial organism to evolve to mildness? +Now, malaria's transmitted by a mosquito, and normally if you're infected with malaria, and you're feeling sick, it makes it even easier for the mosquito to bite you. +And you can show, just by looking at data from literature, that vector-borne diseases are more harmful than non-vector-borne diseases. +But I think there's a really fascinating example of what one can do experimentally to try to actually demonstrate this. +In the case of waterborne transmission, we'd like to clean up the water supplies, see whether or not we can get those organisms to evolve towards mildness. +In the case of malaria, what we'd like to do is mosquito-proof houses. +And the logic's a little more subtle here. +If you mosquito-proof houses, when people get sick, they're sitting in bed -- or in mosquito-proof hospitals, they're sitting in a hospital bed -- and the mosquitoes can't get to them. +So, if you're a harmful variant in a place where you've got mosquito-proof housing, then you're a loser. +The only pathogens that get transmitted are the ones that are infecting people that feel healthy enough to walk outside and get mosquito bites. +So, if you were to mosquito proof houses, you should be able to get these organisms to evolve to mildness. +And there's a really wonderful experiment that was done that suggests that we really should go ahead and do this. +And that experiment was done in Northern Alabama. +Just to give you a little perspective on this, I've given you a star at the intellectual center of the United States, which is right there in Louisville, Kentucky. +And this really cool experiment was done about 200 miles south of there, in Northern Alabama, by the Tennessee Valley Authority. +They had dammed up the Tennessee River. +They'd caused the water to back up, they needed electric, hydroelectric power. +And when you get stagnant water, you get mosquitoes. +They found in the late '30s -- 10 years after they'd made these dams -- that the people in Northern Alabama were infected with malaria, about a third to half of them were infected with malaria. +This shows you the positions of some of these dams. +OK, so the Tennessee Valley Authority was in a little bit of a bind. +There wasn't DDT, there wasn't chloroquines: what do they do? +Well, they decided to mosquito proof every house in Northern Alabama. +So they did. They divided Northern Alabama into 11 zones, and within three years, about 100 dollars per house, they mosquito proofed every house. +And these are the data. +Every row across here represents one of those 11 zones. +And the asterisks represent the time at which the mosquito proofing was complete. +And so what you can see is that just the mosquito-proofed housing, and nothing else, caused the eradication of malaria. +And this was, incidentally, published in 1949, in the leading textbook of malaria, called "Boyd's Malariology." +But almost no malaria experts even know it exists. +This is important, because it tells us that if you have moderate biting densities, you can eradicate malaria by mosquito proofing houses. +Now, I would suggest that you could do this in a lot of places. +Like, you know, just as you get into the malaria zone, sub-Saharan Africa. +But as you move to really intense biting rate areas, like Nigeria, you're certainly not going to eradicate. +But that's when you should be favoring evolution towards mildness. +So to me, it's an experiment that's waiting to happen, and if it confirms the prediction, then we should have a very powerful tool. +In a way, much more powerful than the kind of tools we're looking at, because most of what's being done today is to rely on things like anti-malarial drugs. +And we know that, although it's great to make those anti-malarial drugs available at really low cost and high frequency, we know that when you make them highly available you're going to get resistance to those drugs. +And so it's a short-term solution. +This is a long-term solution. +What I'm suggesting here is that we could get evolution working in the direction we want it to go, rather than always having to battle evolution as a problem that stymies our efforts to control the pathogen, for example with anti-malarial drugs. +So, this table I've given just to emphasize that I've only talked about two examples. +But as I said earlier, this kind of logic applies across the board for infectious diseases, and it ought to. +Because when we're dealing with infectious diseases, we're dealing with living systems. +We're dealing with living systems; we're dealing with systems that evolve. +And so if you do something with those systems, they're going to evolve one way or another. +And all I'm saying is that we need to figure out how they'll evolve, so that -- we need to adjust our interventions to get the most bang for the intervention buck, so that we can get these organisms to evolve in the direction we want them to go. +So, I don't really have time to talk about those things, but I did want to put them up there, just to give you a sense that there really are solutions to controlling the evolution of harmfulness of some of the nasty pathogens that we're confronted with. +And this links up with a lot of the other ideas that have been talked about. +So, for example, earlier today there was discussion of, how do you really lower sexual transmission of HIV? +What this emphasizes is that we need to figure out how it will work. +Will it maybe get lowered if we alter the economy of the area? +It may get lowered if we intervene in ways that encourage people to stay more faithful to partners, and so on. +But the key thing is to figure out how to lower it, because if we lower it, we'll get an evolutionary change in the virus. +And the data really do support this: that you actually do get the virus evolving towards mildness. +And that will just add to the effectiveness of our control efforts. +So the other thing I really like about this, besides the fact that it brings a whole new dimension into the study of control of disease, is that often the kinds of interventions that you want, that it indicates should be done, are the kinds of interventions that people want anyhow. +But people just haven't been able to justify the cost. +So, this is the kind of thing I'm talking about. +Anyhow, I'll end that there, and thank you very much. +I started juggling a long time ago, but long before that, I was a golfer, and that's what I was, a golfer. +And as a golfer and as a kid, one of the things that really sort of seeped into my pores, that I sort of lived my whole life, is process. +And it's the process of learning things. +One of the great things was that my father was an avid golfer, but he was lefty. +And he had a real passion for golf, and he also created this whole mythology about Ben Hogan and various things. +Well, I learned a lot about interesting things that I knew nothing about at the time, but grew to know stuff about. +And that was the mythology of skill. +So, one of the things that I love to do is to explore skill. +And since Richard put me on this whole thing with music -- I'm supposed to actually be doing a project with Tod Machover with the MIT Media Lab -- it relates a lot to music. +But Tod couldn't come and the project is sort of somewhere, I'm not sure whether it's happening the way we thought, or not. +But I'm going to explore skill, and juggling, and basically visual music, I guess. +OK, you can start the music, thanks. +Thanks. Thank you. Now, juggling can be a lot of fun; play with skill and play with space, play with rhythm. +And you can turn the mike on now. I'm going to do a couple of pieces. +I do a big piece in a triangle and these are three sections from it. +Part of the challenge was to try to understand rhythm and space using not just my hands -- because a lot of juggling is hand-oriented -- but using the rhythm of my body and feet, and controlling the balls with my feet. +Thanks. Now, this next section was an attempt to explore space. +You see, I think Richard said something about people that are against something. +Well, a lot of people think jugglers defy gravity or do stuff. +Well, I kind of, from my childhood and golf and all that, it's a process of joining with forces. +And so what I'd like to do is try to figure out how to join with the space through the technique. +So juggling gravity -- up, down. +If you figure out what up and down really are, it's a complex physical set of skills to be able to throw a ball down and up and everything, but then you add in sideways. +Now, I look at it somewhat as a way -- when you learn juggling what you learn is how to feel with your eyes, and see with your hands because you're not looking at your hands, you're looking at where the balls are or you're looking at the audience. +So this next part is really a way of understanding space and rhythm, with the obvious reference to the feet, but it's also time -- where the feet were, where the balls were. +Thanks. So, visual music: rhythm and complexity. +I'm going to build towards complexity now. +Juggling three balls is simple and normal. +Excuse me. +We're jugglers, OK. And remember, you're transposing, you're getting into a subculture here. +And juggling -- the balls cross and all that. +OK, if you keep them in their assigned paths you get parallel lines of different heights, but then hopefully even rhythm. +And you can change the rhythm -- good, Michael. +You can change the rhythm, if you get out of the lights. +OK? Change the rhythm, so it's even. +Or you can go back and change the height. Now, skill. +But you're boxed in, if you can only do it up and down that way. +So, you've got to go after the space down there. +OK, then you've got to combine them, because then you have the whole spatial palette in front of you. +And then you get crazy. +Now, I'm actually going to ask you to try something, so you've got to pay attention. Complexity: if you spend enough time doing something, time slows down or your skill increases, so your perceptions change. +It's learning skills -- like being in a high-speed car crash. +Things slow down as you learn, as you learn, as you learn. +You may not be able to affect it, it almost drifts on you. It goes. +But that's the closest approximation I can have to it. +So, complexity. Now, how many here are jugglers? +OK, so most of you are going to have a similar reaction to this. +OK? And whoever laughed there -- you understood it completely, right? +No, it looks like a mess. It looks like a mess with a guy there, who's got his hands around that mess, OK. +Well, that's what juggling is about, right? +It's being able to do something that other people can't do or can't understand. +All right. So, that's one way of doing it, which is five balls down. +OK? Another way is the outside. +And you could play with the rhythm. +Same pattern. +Make it faster and smaller. +Make it wider. +Make it narrower. +Bring it back up. +OK. It's done. Thanks. +Now, what I wanted to get to is that you're all very bright, very tactile. +I have no idea how computer-oriented or three-dimensionally-oriented you are, but let's try something. +OK, so since you all don't understand what the five-ball pattern is, I'm going to give you a little clue. +Enough of a clue? So, you get the pattern, right? OK. +You're not getting off that easy. All right? +Now, do me a favor: follow the ball that I ask you to follow. +Green. +Yellow. +Pink. +White. +OK, you can do that? Yeah? OK. +Now, let's actually learn something. +Actually, let me put you in that area of learning, which is very insecure. +You want to do it? Yeah? OK. +Hands out in front of you. Palms up, together. +What you're going to learn is this. +OK? So what I want you to do is just listen to me and do it. +Index finger, middle finger, ring, little. +Little, ring, middle, index. And then open. +Finger, finger, finger, finger, finger, finger, finger, finger. +A little bit faster. +Finger, finger, finger, finger, finger, finger, finger, finger. +Finger, finger, finger, finger, finger, finger, finger, finger. +All right. A lot of different learning processes going on in here. +One learning process that I see is this -- OK. Another learning process that I see is this -- OK. So, everybody take a deep breath in, breath out. OK. +Now, one more time, and -- finger, finger, finger, finger, finger, finger, finger, finger. Open. +Finger, finger, finger, finger, finger, finger, finger, finger. OK. +Shake your hands out. +Now, I assume a lot of you spend a lot of time at a computer. +OK? So, what you're doing is, you're going la, la, la, and you're getting this. OK? +So that's exactly what I'm going to ask you to do, but in a slightly different way. You're going to combine it. +So what I want you to do is -- fingers. +I'll tell you what to do with your fingers, same thing. +But I want you to do is also, with your eyes, is follow the colored ball that I ask you to follow. +OK? Here we go. +So, we're going to start off looking at the white ball -- and I'm going to tell you which color, and I'm also going to tell you to go with your fingers. OK? +So white ball and -- finger, finger, finger, finger, finger, finger, finger, finger. Pink. +Finger, finger, finger, finger, finger, finger, finger, finger. Green. +Finger, finger, finger, finger. Yellow. +Finger, finger, finger, pink or finger. +Pink, finger, finger, finger, finger, finger, finger, finger. +All right. +How did you do? Well? OK. The reason I wanted you to do this is because that's actually what most people face throughout their lives, a moment of learning, a moment of challenge. +It's a moment that you can't make sense of. +Why the hell should I learn this? OK? +Does it really have anything to do with anything in my life? +You know, I can't decipher -- is it fun? Is it challenging? Am I supposed to cheat? +You know, what are you supposed to do? +You've got somebody up here who is the operative principle of doing that for his whole life. OK? +Trying to figure that stuff out. But is it going to get you anywhere? +It's just a moment. That's all it is, a moment. OK? +I'm going to change the script for one second. Just let me do this. +I don't need music for it. Talking about time in a moment. +There's a piece that I recently developed which was all about that, a moment. And what I do as a creative artist is I develop vocabularies or languages of moving objects. +What I've done for you here, I developed a lot of those tricks and I put the choreography together, but they're not original techniques. +Now, I'm going to start showing you some original techniques that come from the work that I've developed. OK? +So, a moment, how would you define a moment? +Well, as a juggler, what I wanted to do was create something that was representational of a moment. +Ahhh. +All right, I'm going to get on my knees and do it. +So, a moment. +OK? And then, what I did as a juggler was say, OK, what can I do to make that something that is dependent on something else, another dynamic. +So, a moment. +Another moment. +Excuse me, still getting there. A moment that travels. +A moment -- no, we'll try that again. It separates, and comes back together. +Time. How can you look at time? +And what do you dedicate it to, in exploring a particular thing? +Well, obviously, there's something in here, and you can all have a guess as to what it is. +There's a mystery. There's a mystery in the moment. +And it has to settle. And then it's dependent on something else. +And then it comes to rest. Just a little thing about time. +Now, this has expanded into a much bigger piece, because I use ramps of different parabolas that I roll the balls on while I'm keeping time with this. +But I just thought I'd talk about a moment. +All right. OK. Can we show the video of the triangle? +Are we ready to do that? Yes? +This is the piece that I told you about. +It's a much bigger piece that I do exploring the space of a geometric triangle. +Thanks. The only thing I'll say about the last session is, you ever try juggling and driving the car with your knees at 120 miles an hour? +The only other thing is, it was a real shock. +I always drove motorcycles. And when I bought my first car, it shocked me that it cost three times more than my parents' house. Interesting. +Anyway, balance: constant movement to find an approach to stillness. +Cheating. +Balance: making up the rules so you can't cheat, so you learn to approach stillness with different parts of your body. +To have a conversation with it. To speak. To listen. +Hup. Now, it's dependent on rhythm, and keeping a center of balance. When it falls, going underneath. +So, there's a rhythm to it. +The rhythm can get much smaller. +As your skill increases, you learn to find those tinier spaces, those tinier movements. Thanks. +Now, I'm going to show you the beginnings of a piece that is about balance in some ways, and also -- oh, actually, if you're bored, not here, here's one use for it. +You can go with the "Sticks One" music. +Thanks. That has a certain kind of balance to it, which is all about plumb. +I apprenticed with a carpenter and learned about plumb, square and level. +And they influenced that, and this next piece, which I'll do a little segment of. +"Two Sticks," you can go with it. Thanks. +Which is again exploring space, or the lines in space. +Working with space and the lines in space in a different way. +Oh, let's see here. +So, I'll come back to that in a second. But working with one ball, now, what if you attach something to it, or change it. +This is a little thing that I made because I really like the idea of curves and balls together. +And then creating space and the rhythm of space, using the surface of the balls, the surface of the arms. +Just a little toy. Which leads me to the next thing, which is -- what have I got here? OK. All right. +I'm actually leading up to something, the newest thing that I'm working on. This is not it. +This is exploring geometry and the rhythm of shape. +Now, what I just did was I worked with the mathematics -- the diameter and the circumference. +Sometimes these pieces are mathematical, in that way that I look at a shape and say, what about if I use this and this and this. +Sometimes what happens in life affects my choice of objects that I try to work with. +It's a combination of that, the beauty of that, the shape, and the stories that were involved in it, as well as the fact that they protected the contents. +The second influence on this piece came from recycling and looking into a tin can recycling bin and seeing all that beautiful emptiness. +So, if you want to go with the music for cylinders. +Talking about geometry and everything, if you take the circle and you split it in half -- can you run "S-Curve music?" +I'm going to do just a short version of it. +Circles split in half and rotated, and mythology. +Anyway, that piece also has a kinetic sculpture in the middle of it, and I dance around a small stage so -- two minutes, just to end? The latest piece that I'm working on -- what I love is that I never know what I'm working on, why I'm working on it. +They're not ideas, they're instincts. +And the latest thing that I'm working on -- -- is something really -- I don't know what it is yet. +And that's good. I like not to know for as long as possible. +Well, because then it tells me the truth, instead of me imposing the truth. +And what it is, is working with both positive and negative space but also with these curves. +And what it involves, and I don't know if my hands are too beaten up to do it or not, but I'll do a little bit of it. +It initially started off with me stacking these things, bunches of them, and then playing with the sense of space, of filling in the space. And then it started changing, and become folding on themselves. +And then changing levels. +Because my attempt is to make visual instruments, not to just make -- I'll try one other thing. +For work in three dimensions, with your perceptions of space and time. +Now, I don't know exactly where it's going, but I've got a bit of effort involved in this thing. +And it's going to change as I go through it. +But I really like it, it feels right. +This may not be the right shape, and -- look at this shape, and then I'll show you the first design I ever put to it, just to see, just to play, because I love all different kinds of things to play with. +Let's see here. +To work with the positive and negative in a different way. +And to change, and to change. +So, I'm off in my new direction with this to explore rhythm and space. +We'll see what I come up with. Thanks for having me. +How many of you have seen the Alfred Hitchcock film "The Birds"? +Any of you get really freaked out by that? +You might want to leave now. +So, this is a vending machine for crows. +And over the past few days, many of you have been asking me, "How did you come to this? How did you get started doing this?" +And it started, as with many great ideas, or many ideas you can't get rid of anyway, at a cocktail party. +About 10 years ago, I was at a cocktail party with a friend of mine, and we're sitting there, and he was complaining about the crows that he had seen that were all over his yard and making a big mess. +And he was telling me that really, we ought to try and eradicate these things. +We gotta kill them because they're making a mess. +I said that was stupid, you know, maybe we should just train them to do something useful. +And he said that was impossible. +And I'm sure I'm in good company in finding that tremendously annoying -- when someone tells you it's impossible. +So, I spent the next 10 years reading about crows in my spare time. +And after 10 years of this, my wife eventually said, "Look, you know, you gotta do this thing you've been talking about, and build the vending machine." +So I did. +But part of the reason that I found this interesting is that I started noticing that we are very aware of all the species that are going extinct on the planet as a result of human habitation expansion, and no one seems to be paying attention to all the species that are actually living -- that are surviving. +And I'm talking specifically about synanthropic species, which are species that have adapted specifically for human ecologies, species like rats and cockroaches and crows. +And as I started looking at them, I was finding that they had hyper-adapted. +They'd become extremely adept at living with us. +And in return, we just tried to kill them all the time. +And in doing so, we were breeding them for parasitism. +We were giving them all sorts of reasons to adapt new ways. +So, for example, rats are incredibly responsive breeders. +And cockroaches, as anyone who's tried to get rid of them knows, have become really immune to the poisons that we're using. +So, I thought, let's build something that's mutually beneficial. +Well, then let's build something that we can both benefit from, and find some way to make a new relationship with these species. +And so I built the vending machine. +But the story of the vending machine is a little more interesting if you know more about crows. +It turns out that crows aren't just surviving with human beings -- they're actually really thriving. +They're found everywhere on the planet except for the Arctic and the southern tip of South America. +And in all that area, they're only rarely found breeding more than five kilometers away from human beings. +So we may not think about them, but they're always around. +And not surprisingly, given the human population growth, more than half of the human population is living in cities now. +And out of those, nine-tenths of the human growth population is occurring in cities. +We're seeing a population boom with crows. +So bird counts are indicating that we might be seeing up to exponential growth in their numbers. +So that's no great surprise. +But what was really interesting to me was to find out that the birds were adapting in a pretty unusual way. +And I'll give you an example of that. +So this is Betty. She's a New Caledonian crow. +And these crows use sticks in the wild to get insects and whatnot out of pieces of wood. +Here, she's trying to get a piece of meat out of a tube. +But the researchers had a problem. +They messed up and left just a stick of wire in there. +And she hadn't had the opportunity to do this before. +You see, it wasn't working very well. +So she adapted. +Now this is completely unprompted. She had never seen this done before. +No one taught her to bend this into a hook, had shown her how it could happen. +But she did it all on her own. +So keep in mind that she's never seen this done. +Right. +Yeah. All right. +That's the part where the researchers freak out. +So, it turns out we've been finding more and more that crows are really, really intelligent. +Their brains are proportionate, in the same proportion as chimpanzee brains are. +There are all kinds of anecdotes for different kinds of intelligence they have. +For example, in Sweden, crows will wait for fishermen to drop lines through holes in the ice. +And when the fishermen move off, the crows fly down, reel up the lines, and eat the fish or the bait. +It's pretty annoying for the fishermen. +On an entirely different tack, at University of Washington, they, a few years ago, were doing an experiment where they captured some crows on campus. +Some students went out and netted some crows, brought them in, and were -- weighed them, and measured them and whatnot, and then let them back out again. +And were entertained to discover that for the rest of the week, these crows, whenever these particular students walked around campus, these crows would caw at them, and run around and make their life kind of miserable. +They were significantly less entertained when this went on for the next week. +And the next month. And after summer break. +Until they finally graduated and left campus, and -- glad to get away, I'm sure -- came back sometime later, and found the crows still remembered them. +So -- the moral being, don't piss off crows. +So now, students at the University of Washington that are studying these crows do so with a giant wig and a big mask. +It's fairly interesting. +So we know that these crows are really smart, but the more I dug into this, the more I found that they actually have an even more significant adaptation. +Video: Crows have become highly skilled at making a living in these new urban environments. +In this Japanese city, they have devised a way of eating a food that normally they can't manage: drop it among the traffic. +The problem now is collecting the bits, without getting run over. +Wait for the light to stop the traffic. +Then, collect your cracked nut in safety. +Joshua Klein: Yeah, yeah. Pretty interesting. +So what's significant about this isn't that crows are using cars to crack nuts. +In fact, that's old hat for crows. +This happened about 10 years ago in a place called Sendai City, at a driving school in the suburbs of Tokyo. +And since that time, all of the crows in the neighborhood are picking up this behavior. +And now, every crow within five kilometers is standing by a sidewalk, waiting to collect its lunch. +So, they're learning from each other. And research bears this out. +Parents seem to be teaching their young. +They've learned from their peers. They've learned from their enemies. +If I have a little extra time, I'll tell you about a case of crow infidelity that illustrates that nicely. +The point being that they've developed cultural adaptation. +And as we heard yesterday, that's the Pandora's box that's getting human beings in trouble, and we're starting to see it with them. +They're able to very quickly and very flexibly adapt to new challenges and new resources in their environment, which is really useful if you live in a city. +So we know that there's lots of crows. +We found out they're really smart, and we found out that they can teach each other. +And when all this became clear to me, I realized the only obvious thing to do is build a vending machine. +So that's what we did. +This is a vending machine for crows. +And it uses Skinnerian training to shape their behavior over four stages. +It's pretty simple. +Basically, what happens is that we put this out in a field, or someplace where there's lots of crows, and we put coins and peanuts all around the base of the machine. +And crows eventually come by, and eat the peanuts and get used to the machine being there. +And eventually, they eat up all the peanuts. +And then they see that there are peanuts here on the feeder tray, and they hop up and help themselves. +And then they leave, and the machine spits up more coins and peanuts, and life is really dandy, if you're a crow. +Then you can come back anytime and get yourself a peanut. +So, when they get really used to that, we move on to the crows coming back. +Now, they're used to the sound of the machine, and they keep coming back, and digging out these peanuts from amongst the pile of coins that's there. +And when they get really happy about this, we go ahead and stymie them. +And we move to the third stage, where we only give them a coin. +Now, like most of us who have gotten used to a good thing, this really pisses them off. +So, they do what they do in nature when they're looking for something -- they sweep things out of the way with their beak. +And they do that here, and that knocks the coins down the slot, and when that happens, they get a peanut. +And so this goes on for some time. +The crows learn that all they have to do is show up, wait for the coin to come out, put the coin in the slot, and then they get their peanut. +And when they're really good and comfortable with that, we move to the final stage, in which they show up and nothing happens. +And this is where we see the difference between crows and other animals. +Squirrels, for example, would show up, look for the peanut, go away. +Come back, look for the peanut, go away. +They do this maybe half a dozen times before they get bored, and then they go off and play in traffic. +Crows, on the other hand, show up, and they try and figure it out. +They know that this machine's been messing with them, through three different stages of behavior. +They figure it's gotta have more to it. +So, they poke at it and peck at it and whatnot. +And eventually some crow gets a bright idea that, "Hey, there's lots of coins lying around from the first stage, lying around on the ground," hops down, picks it up, drops it in the slot. +And then, we're off to the races. +That crow enjoys a temporary monopoly on peanuts, until his friends figure out how to do it, and then there we go. +So, what's significant about this to me isn't that we can train crows to pick up peanuts. +Mind you, there's 216 million dollars' worth of change lost every year, but I'm not sure I can depend on that ROI from crows. +Instead, I think we should look a little bit larger. +I think that crows can be trained to do other things. +For example, why not train them to pick up garbage after stadium events? +Or find expensive components from discarded electronics? +Or maybe do search and rescue? +The main thing, the main point of all this for me is that we can find mutually beneficial systems for these species. +We can find ways to interact with these other species that doesn't involve exterminating them, but involves finding an equilibrium with them that's a useful balance. +Thanks very much. +I write about food. I write about cooking. +I take it quite seriously, but I'm here to talk about something that's become very important to me in the last year or two. +It is about food, but it's not about cooking, per se. +I'm going to start with this picture of a beautiful cow. +I'm not a vegetarian -- this is the old Nixon line, right? +But I still think that this -- -- may be this year's version of this. +Now, that is only a little bit hyperbolic. +And why do I say it? +Because only once before has the fate of individual people and the fate of all of humanity been so intertwined. +There was the bomb, and there's now. +And where we go from here is going to determine not only the quality and the length of our individual lives, but whether, if we could see the Earth a century from now, we'd recognize it. +It's a holocaust of a different kind, and hiding under our desks isn't going to help. +Start with the notion that global warming is not only real, but dangerous. +Since every scientist in the world now believes this, and even President Bush has seen the light, or pretends to, we can take this is a given. +Then hear this, please. +After energy production, livestock is the second-highest contributor to atmosphere-altering gases. +Nearly one-fifth of all greenhouse gas is generated by livestock production -- more than transportation. +Now, you can make all the jokes you want about cow farts, but methane is 20 times more poisonous than CO2, and it's not just methane. +Livestock is also one of the biggest culprits in land degradation, air and water pollution, water shortages and loss of biodiversity. +There's more. +Like half the antibiotics in this country are not administered to people, but to animals. +But lists like this become kind of numbing, so let me just say this: if you're a progressive, if you're driving a Prius, or you're shopping green, or you're looking for organic, you should probably be a semi-vegetarian. +Now, I'm no more anti-cattle than I am anti-atom, but it's all in the way we use these things. +There's another piece of the puzzle, which Ann Cooper talked about beautifully yesterday, and one you already know. +There's no question, none, that so-called lifestyle diseases -- diabetes, heart disease, stroke, some cancers -- are diseases that are far more prevalent here than anywhere in the rest of the world. +And that's the direct result of eating a Western diet. +Our demand for meat, dairy and refined carbohydrates -- the world consumes one billion cans or bottles of Coke a day -- our demand for these things, not our need, our want, drives us to consume way more calories than are good for us. +And those calories are in foods that cause, not prevent, disease. +Now global warming was unforeseen. +We didn't know that pollution did more than cause bad visibility. +Maybe a few lung diseases here and there, but, you know, that's not such a big deal. +The current health crisis, however, is a little more the work of the evil empire. +We were told, we were assured, that the more meat and dairy and poultry we ate, the healthier we'd be. +No. Overconsumption of animals, and of course, junk food, is the problem, along with our paltry consumption of plants. +Now, there's no time to get into the benefits of eating plants here, but the evidence is that plants -- and I want to make this clear -- it's not the ingredients in plants, it's the plants. +It's not the beta-carotene, it's the carrot. +The evidence is very clear that plants promote health. +This evidence is overwhelming at this point. +You eat more plants, you eat less other stuff, you live longer. +Not bad. +But back to animals and junk food. +What do they have in common? +One: we don't need either of them for health. +We don't need animal products, and we certainly don't need white bread or Coke. +Two: both have been marketed heavily, creating unnatural demand. +We're not born craving Whoppers or Skittles. +Three: their production has been supported by government agencies at the expense of a more health- and Earth-friendly diet. +Now, let's imagine a parallel. +Let's pretend that our government supported an oil-based economy, while discouraging more sustainable forms of energy, knowing all the while that the result would be pollution, war and rising costs. +Incredible, isn't it? +Yet they do that. +And they do this here. It's the same deal. +The sad thing is, when it comes to diet, is that even when well-intentioned Feds try to do right by us, they fail. +Either they're outvoted by puppets of agribusiness, or they are puppets of agribusiness. +So, when the USDA finally acknowledged that it was plants, rather than animals, that made people healthy, they encouraged us, via their overly simplistic food pyramid, to eat five servings of fruits and vegetables a day, along with more carbs. +What they didn't tell us is that some carbs are better than others, and that plants and whole grains should be supplanting eating junk food. +But industry lobbyists would never let that happen. +And guess what? +Half the people who developed the food pyramid have ties to agribusiness. +So, instead of substituting plants for animals, our swollen appetites simply became larger, and the most dangerous aspects of them remained unchanged. +So-called low-fat diets, so-called low-carb diets -- these are not solutions. +But with lots of intelligent people focusing on whether food is organic or local, or whether we're being nice to animals, the most important issues just aren't being addressed. +Now, don't get me wrong. +I like animals, and I don't think it's just fine to industrialize their production and to churn them out like they were wrenches. +But there's no way to treat animals well, when you're killing 10 billion of them a year. +That's our number. 10 billion. +If you strung all of them -- chickens, cows, pigs and lambs -- to the moon, they'd go there and back five times, there and back. +Now, my math's a little shaky, but this is pretty good, and it depends whether a pig is four feet long or five feet long, but you get the idea. +That's just the United States. +And with our hyper-consumption of those animals producing greenhouse gases and heart disease, kindness might just be a bit of a red herring. +Let's get the numbers of the animals we're killing for eating down, and then we'll worry about being nice to the ones that are left. +Another red herring might be exemplified by the word "locavore," which was just named word of the year by the New Oxford American Dictionary. +Seriously. +And locavore, for those of you who don't know, is someone who eats only locally grown food -- which is fine if you live in California, but for the rest of us it's a bit of a sad joke. +Between the official story -- the food pyramid -- and the hip locavore vision, you have two versions of how to improve our eating. +They both get it wrong, though. +The first at least is populist, and the second is elitist. +How we got to this place is the history of food in the United States. +And I'm going to go through that, at least the last hundred years or so, very quickly right now. +A hundred years ago, guess what? +Everyone was a locavore: even New York had pig farms nearby, and shipping food all over the place was a ridiculous notion. +Every family had a cook, usually a mom. +And those moms bought and prepared food. +It was like your romantic vision of Europe. +Margarine didn't exist. +In fact, when margarine was invented, several states passed laws declaring that it had to be dyed pink, so we'd all know that it was a fake. +There was no snack food, and until the '20s, until Clarence Birdseye came along, there was no frozen food. +There were no restaurant chains. +There were neighborhood restaurants run by local people, but none of them would think to open another one. +Eating ethnic was unheard of unless you were ethnic. +And fancy food was entirely French. +As an aside, those of you who remember Dan Aykroyd in the 1970s doing Julia Child imitations can see where he got the idea of stabbing himself from this fabulous slide. +Back in those days, before even Julia, back in those days, there was no philosophy of food. +You just ate. +You didn't claim to be anything. +There was no marketing. There were no national brands. +Vitamins had not been invented. +There were no health claims, at least not federally sanctioned ones. +Fats, carbs, proteins -- they weren't bad or good, they were food. +You ate food. +Hardly anything contained more than one ingredient, because it was an ingredient. +The cornflake hadn't been invented. +The Pop-Tart, the Pringle, Cheez Whiz, none of that stuff. +Goldfish swam. +It's hard to imagine. People grew food, and they ate food. +And again, everyone ate local. +In New York, an orange was a common Christmas present, because it came all the way from Florida. +From the '30s on, road systems expanded, trucks took the place of railroads, fresh food began to travel more. +Oranges became common in New York. +The South and West became agricultural hubs, and in other parts of the country, suburbs took over farmland. +The effects of this are well known. They are everywhere. +And the death of family farms is part of this puzzle, as is almost everything from the demise of the real community to the challenge of finding a good tomato, even in summer. +Eventually, California produced too much food to ship fresh, so it became critical to market canned and frozen foods. +Thus arrived convenience. +It was sold to proto-feminist housewives as a way to cut down on housework. +Now, I know everybody over the age of, like 45 -- their mouths are watering at this point. +If we had a slide of Salisbury steak, even more so, right? +But this may have cut down on housework, but it cut down on the variety of food we ate as well. +Many of us grew up never eating a fresh vegetable except the occasional raw carrot or maybe an odd lettuce salad. +I, for one -- and I'm not kidding -- didn't eat real spinach or broccoli till I was 19. +Who needed it though? Meat was everywhere. +What could be easier, more filling or healthier for your family than broiling a steak? +But by then cattle were already raised unnaturally. +Rather than spending their lives eating grass, for which their stomachs were designed, they were forced to eat soy and corn. +They have trouble digesting those grains, of course, but that wasn't a problem for producers. +New drugs kept them healthy. +Well, they kept them alive. +Healthy was another story. +Thanks to farm subsidies, the fine collaboration between agribusiness and Congress, soy, corn and cattle became king. +And chicken soon joined them on the throne. +It was during this period that the cycle of dietary and planetary destruction began, the thing we're only realizing just now. +Listen to this, between 1950 and 2000, the world's population doubled. +Meat consumption increased five-fold. +Now, someone had to eat all that stuff, so we got fast food. +And this took care of the situation resoundingly. +Home cooking remained the norm, but its quality was down the tubes. +There were fewer meals with home-cooked breads, desserts and soups, because all of them could be bought at any store. +Not that they were any good, but they were there. +Most moms cooked like mine: a piece of broiled meat, a quickly made salad with bottled dressing, canned soup, canned fruit salad. +Maybe baked or mashed potatoes, or perhaps the stupidest food ever, Minute Rice. +For dessert, store-bought ice cream or cookies. +My mom is not here, so I can say this now. +This kind of cooking drove me to learn how to cook for myself. +It wasn't all bad. +By the '70s, forward-thinking people began to recognize the value of local ingredients. +We tended gardens, we became interested in organic food, we knew or we were vegetarians. +We weren't all hippies, either. +Some of us were eating in good restaurants and learning how to cook well. +Meanwhile, food production had become industrial. Industrial. +Perhaps because it was being produced rationally, as if it were plastic, food gained magical or poisonous powers, or both. +Many people became fat-phobic. +Others worshiped broccoli, as if it were God-like. +But mostly they didn't eat broccoli. +Instead they were sold on yogurt, yogurt being almost as good as broccoli. +Except, in reality, the way the industry sold yogurt was to convert it to something much more akin to ice cream. +Similarly, let's look at a granola bar. +You think that that might be healthy food, but in fact, if you look at the ingredient list, it's closer in form to a Snickers than it is to oatmeal. +Sadly, it was at this time that the family dinner was put in a coma, if not actually killed -- the beginning of the heyday of value-added food, which contained as many soy and corn products as could be crammed into it. +Think of the frozen chicken nugget. +The chicken is fed corn, and then its meat is ground up, and mixed with more corn products to add bulk and binder, and then it's fried in corn oil. +All you do is nuke it. What could be better? +And zapped horribly, pathetically. +By the '70s, home cooking was in such a sad state that the high fat and spice contents of foods like McNuggets and Hot Pockets -- and we all have our favorites, actually -- made this stuff more appealing than the bland things that people were serving at home. +At the same time, masses of women were entering the workforce, and cooking simply wasn't important enough for men to share the burden. +So now, you've got your pizza nights, you've got your microwave nights, you've got your grazing nights, you've got your fend-for-yourself nights and so on. +Leading the way -- what's leading the way? +Meat, junk food, cheese: the very stuff that will kill you. +So, now we clamor for organic food. +That's good. +And as evidence that things can actually change, you can now find organic food in supermarkets, and even in fast-food outlets. +But organic food isn't the answer either, at least not the way it's currently defined. +Let me pose you a question. +Can farm-raised salmon be organic, when its feed has nothing to do with its natural diet, even if the feed itself is supposedly organic, and the fish themselves are packed tightly in pens, swimming in their own filth? +And if that salmon's from Chile, and it's killed down there and then flown 5,000 miles, whatever, dumping how much carbon into the atmosphere? +I don't know. +Packed in Styrofoam, of course, before landing somewhere in the United States, and then being trucked a few hundred more miles. +This may be organic in letter, but it's surely not organic in spirit. +Now here is where we all meet. +The locavores, the organivores, the vegetarians, the vegans, the gourmets and those of us who are just plain interested in good food. +Even though we've come to this from different points, we all have to act on our knowledge to change the way that everyone thinks about food. +We need to start acting. +And this is not only an issue of social justice, as Ann Cooper said -- and, of course, she's completely right -- but it's also one of global survival. +Which bring me full circle and points directly to the core issue, the overproduction and overconsumption of meat and junk food. +As I said, 18 percent of greenhouse gases are attributed to livestock production. +How much livestock do you need to produce this? +70 percent of the agricultural land on Earth, 30 percent of the Earth's land surface is directly or indirectly devoted to raising the animals we'll eat. +And this amount is predicted to double in the next 40 years or so. +And if the numbers coming in from China are anything like what they look like now, it's not going to be 40 years. +There is no good reason for eating as much meat as we do. +And I say this as a man who has eaten a fair share of corned beef in his life. +The most common argument is that we need nutrients -- even though we eat, on average, twice as much protein as even the industry-obsessed USDA recommends. +But listen: experts who are serious about disease reduction recommend that adults eat just over half a pound of meat per week. +What do you think we eat per day? Half a pound. +But don't we need meat to be big and strong? +Isn't meat eating essential to health? +Won't a diet heavy in fruit and vegetables turn us into godless, sissy, liberals? +Some of us might think that would be a good thing. +But, no, even if we were all steroid-filled football players, the answer is no. +In fact, there's no diet on Earth that meets basic nutritional needs that won't promote growth, and many will make you much healthier than ours does. +We don't eat animal products for sufficient nutrition, we eat them to have an odd form of malnutrition, and it's killing us. +To suggest that in the interests of personal and human health Americans eat 50 percent less meat -- it's not enough of a cut, but it's a start. +It would seem absurd, but that's exactly what should happen, and what progressive people, forward-thinking people should be doing and advocating, along with the corresponding increase in the consumption of plants. +I've been writing about food more or less omnivorously -- one might say indiscriminately -- for about 30 years. +During that time, I've eaten and recommended eating just about everything. +I'll never stop eating animals, I'm sure, but I do think that for the benefit of everyone, the time has come to stop raising them industrially and stop eating them thoughtlessly. +Ann Cooper's right. +The USDA is not our ally here. +We have to take matters into our own hands, not only by advocating for a better diet for everyone -- and that's the hard part -- but by improving our own. +And that happens to be quite easy. +Less meat, less junk, more plants. +It's a simple formula: eat food. +Eat real food. +We can continue to enjoy our food, and we continue to eat well, and we can eat even better. +We can continue the search for the ingredients we love, and we can continue to spin yarns about our favorite meals. +We'll reduce not only calories, but our carbon footprint. +We can make food more important, not less, and save ourselves by doing so. +We have to choose that path. +Thank you. +The first question is this. +Our country has two exploration programs. +One is NASA, with a mission to explore the great beyond, to explore the heavens, which we all want to go to if we're lucky. +And you can see we have Sputnik, and we have Saturn, and we have other manifestations of space exploration. +Well, there's also another program, in another agency within our government, in ocean exploration. +It's in NOAA, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. +And my question is this: "why are we ignoring the oceans?" +Here's the reason, or not the reason, but here's why I ask that question. +If you compare NASA's annual budget to explore the heavens, that one-year budget would fund NOAA's budget to explore the oceans for 1,600 years. +Why? Why are we looking up? Is it because it's heaven? +And hell is down here? Is it a cultural issue? +Why are people afraid of the ocean? +Or do they just assume the ocean is just a dark, gloomy place that has nothing to offer? +I'm going to take you on a 16-minute trip on 72 percent of the planet, so buckle up. +OK. And what we're going to do is we're going to immerse ourselves in my world. +And what I'm going to try -- I hope I make the following points. +I'm going to make it right now in case I forget. +Everything I'm going to present to you was not in my textbooks when I went to school. +And most of all, it was not even in my college textbooks. +I'm a geophysicist, and all my Earth science books when I was a student -- I had to give the wrong answer to get an A. +We used to ridicule continental drift. It was something we laughed at. +We learned of Marshall Kay's geosynclinal cycle, which is a bunch of crap. +In today's context, it was a bunch of crap, but it was the law of geology, vertical tectonics. +All the things we're going to walk through in our explorations and discoveries of the oceans were mostly discoveries made by accident. +Mostly discoveries made by accident. +We were looking for something and found something else. +And everything we're going to talk about represents a one tenth of one percent glimpse, because that's all we've seen. +I have a characterization. +This is a characterization of what it would look like if you could remove the water. +It gives you the false impression it's a map. +It is not a map. +In fact, I have another version at my office and I ask people, "Why are there mountains here, on this area here, but there are none over here?" And they go, "Well, gee, I don't know," saying, "Is it a fracture zone? Is it a hot spot?" +No, no, that's the only place a ship's been. +Most of the southern hemisphere is unexplored. +We had more exploration ships down there during Captain Cook's time than now. It's amazing. +All right. So we're going to immerse ourselves in the 72 percent of the planet because, you know, it's really naive to think that the Easter Bunny put all the resources on the continents. +You know, it's just ludicrous. +We are always, constantly playing the zero sum game. +You know, we're going to do this, we're going to take it away from something else. +I believe in just enriching the economy. +And we're leaving so much on the table, 72 percent of the planet. +And as I will point out later in the presentation, 50 percent of the United States of America lies beneath the sea. +50 percent of our country that we own, have all legal jurisdiction, have all rights to do whatever we want, lies beneath the sea and we have better maps of Mars than that 50 percent. +Why? OK. Now, I began my explorations the hard way. +Back then -- actually my first expedition was when I was 17 years old. It was 49 years ago. +Do the math, I'm 66. And I went out to sea on a Scripps ship and we almost got sunk by a giant rogue wave, and I was too young to be -- you know, I thought it was great! +I was a body surfer and I thought, "Wow, that was an incredible wave!" +And we almost sank the ship, but I became enraptured with mounting expeditions. And over the last 49 years, I've done about 120, 121 -- I keep doing them -- expeditions. +But in the early days, the only way I could get to the bottom was to crawl into a submarine, a very small submarine, and go down to the bottom. +I dove in a whole series of different deep diving submersibles. +Alvin and Sea Cliff and Cyana, and all the major deep submersibles we have, which are about eight. +In fact, on a good day, we might have four or five human beings at the average depth of the Earth -- maybe four or five human beings out of whatever billions we've got going. +And so it's very difficult to get there, if you do it physically. +But I was enraptured, and in my graduate years was the dawn of plate tectonics. And we realized that the greatest mountain range on Earth lies beneath the sea. +The mid-ocean ridge runs around like the seam on a baseball. +This is on a Mercator projection. +But if you were to put it on an equal area projection, you'd see that the mid-ocean ridge covers 23 percent of the Earth's total surface area. +Almost a quarter of our planet is a single mountain range and we didn't enter it until after Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin went to the moon. +So we went to the moon, played golf up there, before we went to the largest feature on our own planet. +And our interest in this mountain range, as Earth scientists in those days, was not only because of its tremendous size, dominating the planet, but the role it plays in the genesis of the Earth's outer skin. +Because it's along the axis of the mid-ocean ridge where the great crustal plates are separating. +And like a living organism, you tear it open, it bleeds its molten blood, rises up to heal that wound from the asthenosphere, hardens, forms new tissue and moves laterally. +But no one had actually gone down into the actual site of the boundary of creation as we call it -- into the Rift Valley -- until a group of seven of us crawled in our little submarines in the summer of 1973, 1974 and were the first human beings to enter the Great Rift Valley. +We went down into the Rift Valley. +This is all accurate except for one thing -- it's pitch black. +It's absolutely pitch black, because photons cannot reach the average depth of the ocean, which is 12,000 feet. In the Rift Valley, it's 9,000 feet. +Most of our planet does not feel the warmth of the sun. +Most of our planet is in eternal darkness. +And for that reason, you do not have photosynthesis in the deep sea. +And with the absence of photosynthesis you have no plant life, and as a result, you have very little animal life living in this underworld. +Or so we thought. And so in our initial explorations, we were totally focused on exploring the boundary of creation, looking at the volcanic features running along that entire 42,000 miles. +Running along this entire 42,000 miles are tens of thousands of active volcanoes. +Tens of thousands of active volcanoes. +There are more active volcanoes beneath the sea than on land by two orders of magnitude. +So, it's a phenomenally active region, it's not just a dark, boring place. It's a very alive place. +And it's then being ripped open. +But we were dealing with a particular scientific issue back then. +We couldn't understand why you had a mountain under tension. +In plate tectonic theory, we knew that if you had plates collide, it made sense: they would crush into one another, you would thicken the crust, you'd uplift it. +That's why you get, you know, you get seashells up on Mount Everest. +It's not a flood, it was pushed up there. +We understood mountains under compression, but we could not understand why we had a mountain under tension. +It should not be. Until one of my colleagues said, "It looks to me like a thermal blister, and the mid-ocean ridge must be a cooling curve." We said, "Let's go find out." +We punched a bunch of heat probes. Everything made sense, except, at the axis, there was missing heat. It was missing heat. +It was hot. It wasn't hot enough. +So, we came up with multiple hypotheses: there's little green people down there taking it; there's all sorts of things going on. +But the only logical [explanation] was that there were hot springs. +So, there must be underwater hot springs. +We mounted an expedition to look for the missing heat. +And so we went along this mountain range, in an area along Galapagos Rift, and did we find the missing heat. +It was amazing. These giant chimneys, huge giant chimneys. +We went up to them with our submersible. +We wanted to get a temperature probe, we stuck it in there, looked at it -- it pegged off scale. +The pilot made this great observation: "That's hot." +And then we realized our probe was made out of the same stuff -- it could have melted. But it turns out the exiting temperature was 650 degrees F, hot enough to melt lead. +This is what a real one looks like, on the Juan de Fuca Ridge. +What you're looking at is an incredible pipe organ of chemicals coming out of the ocean. +Everything you see in this picture is commercial grade: copper, lead, silver, zinc and gold. +So the Easter Bunny has put things in the ocean floor, and you have massive heavy metal deposits that we're making in this mountain range. +We're making huge discoveries of large commercial-grade ore along this mountain range, but it was dwarfed by what we discovered. +We discovered a profusion of life, in a world that it should not exist [in]. Giant tube worms, 10 feet tall. +I remember having to use vodka -- my own vodka -- to pickle it because we don't carry formaldehyde. +We went and found these incredible clam beds sitting on the barren rock. Large clams, and when we opened them, they didn't look like a clam. +And when we cut them open, they didn't have the anatomy of a clam. +No mouth, no gut, no digestive system. +Their bodies had been totally taken over by another organism, a bacterium, that had figured out how to replicate photosynthesis in the dark, through a process we now call chemosynthesis. +None of it in our textbooks. None of this in our textbooks. +We did not know about this life system. +We were not predicting it. +We stumbled on it, looking for some missing heat. +So, we wanted to accelerate this process. +We wanted to get away from this silly trip, up and down on a submarine: average depth of the ocean, 12,000 feet; two and half hours to get to work in the morning; two and half hours to get to home. Five hour commute to work. +Three hours of bottom time, average distance traveled -- one mile. +On a 42,000 mile mountain range. Great job security, but not the way to go. +So, I began designing a new technology of telepresence, using robotic systems to replicate myself, so I wouldn't have to cycle my vehicle system. +We began to introduce that in our explorations, and we continued to make phenomenal discoveries with our new robotic technologies. Again, looking for something else, moving from one part of the mid-ocean ridge to another. +The scientists were off watch and they came across incredible life forms. +They came across new creatures they had not seen before. +But more importantly, they discovered edifices down there that they did not understand. +That did not make sense. They were not above a magma chamber. +They shouldn't be there. And we called it Lost City. +And Lost City was characterized by these incredible limestone formations and upside down pools. Look at that. +How do you do that? That's water upside down. +We went in underneath and tapped it, and we found that it had the pH of Drano. +The pH of 11, and yet it had chemosynthetic bacteria living in it and at this extreme environment. +And the hydrothermal vents were in an acidic environment. +All the way at the other end, in an alkaline environment, at a pH of 11, life existed. +So life was much more creative than we had ever thought. +Again, discovered by accident. Just two years ago working off Santorini, where people are sunning themselves on the beach, unbeknownst to them in the caldera nearby, we found phenomenal hydrothermal vent systems and more life systems. +This was two miles from where people go to sunbathe, and they were oblivious to the existence of this system. +Again, you know, we stop at the water's edge. +Recently, diving off -- in the Gulf of Mexico, finding pools of water, this time not upside down, right side up. +Bingo. You'd think you're in air, until a fish swims by. +You're looking at brine pools formed by salt diapirs. +Near that was methane. I've never seen volcanoes of methane. +Instead of belching out lava, they were belching out big, big bubbles of methane. And they were creating these volcanoes, and there were flows, not of lava, but of the mud coming out of the Earth but driven by -- I've never seen this before. +Moving on, there's more than just natural history beneath the sea -- human history. Our discoveries of the Titanic. +The realization that the deep sea is the largest museum on Earth. +It contains more history than all of the museums on land combined. +And yet we're only now penetrating it. +Finding the state of preservation. +We found the Bismarck in 16,000 feet. We then found the Yorktown. +People always ask, "Did you find the right ship?" +It said Yorktown on the stern. +More recently, finding ancient history. +How many ancient mariners have had a bad day? The number's a million. +We've been discovering these along ancient trade routes, where they're not supposed to be. +This shipwreck sank 100 years before the birth of Christ. +This one sank carrying a prefabricated, Home Depot Roman temple. +And then here's one that sank at the time of Homer, at 750 B.C. +More recently, into the Black Sea, where we're exploring. +Because there's no oxygen there, it's the largest reservoir of hydrogen sulfide on Earth. Shipwrecks are perfectly preserved. +All their organics are perfectly preserved. We begin to excavate them. +We expect to start hauling out the bodies in perfect condition with their DNA. +Look at the state of preservation -- still the ad mark of a carpenter. Look at the state of those artifacts. +You still see the beeswax dripping. When they dropped, they sealed it. +This ship sank 1,500 years ago. +Fortunately, we've been able to convince Congress. +We begin to go on the Hill and lobby. +And we stole recently a ship from the United States Navy. +The Okeanos Explorer on its mission. +Its mission is as good as you could get. +Its mission is to go where no one has gone before on planet Earth. +And I was looking at it yesterday, it's up in Seattle. OK. +It comes online this summer, and it begins its journey of exploration. +But we have no idea what we're going find when we go out there with our technology. +But certainly, it's going to be going to the unknown America. +This is that part of the United States that lies beneath the sea. +We own all of that blue and yet, like I say, particularly the western territorial trust, we don't have maps of them. We don't have maps of them. +We have maps of Venus, but not of the western territorial trust. +The way we're going to run this -- we have no idea what we're going to discover. +We have no idea what we're going to discover. +We're going to discover an ancient shipwreck, a Phoenician off Brazil, or a new rock formation, a new life. +So, we're going to run it like an emergency hospital. +We're going to connect our command center, via a high-bandwidth satellite link to a building we're building at the University of Rhode Island, called the Interspace Center. +And within that, we're going to run it just like you run a nuclear submarine, blue-gold team, switching them off and on, running 24 hours a day. +A discovery is made, that discovery is instantly seen in the command center a second later. +But then it's connected through Internet too -- the new Internet highway that makes Internet one look like a dirt road on the information highway -- with 10 gigabits of bandwidth. +We'll go into areas we have no knowledge of. +It's a big blank sheet on our planet. We'll map it within hours, have the maps disseminated out to the major universities. +It turns out that 90 percent of all the oceanographic intellect in this country are at 12 universities. They're all on I-2. +We can then build a command center. +This is a remote center at the University of Washington. +She's talking to the pilot. She's 5,000 miles away, but she's assumed command. +But the beauty of this, too, is we can then disseminate it to children. +We can disseminate. +I would not let an adult drive my robot. +You don't have enough gaming experience. +But I will let a kid with no license take over control of my vehicle system. +Because we want to create -- we want to create the classroom of tomorrow. +We have stiff competition and we need to motivate and it's all being done. +You win or lose an engineer or a scientist by eighth grade. +The game is not over -- it's over by the eighth grade, it's not beginning. +We need to be not only proud of our universities. +We need to be proud of our middle schools. +And when we have the best middle schools in the world, we'll have the best kids pumped out of that system, let me tell you. +Because this is what we want. This is what we want. +This is a young lady, not watching a football game, not watching a basketball game. +Watching exploration live from thousands of miles away, and it's just dawning on her what she's seeing. +And when you get a jaw drop, you can inform. +You can put so much information into that mind, it's in full [receiving] mode. +This, I hope, will be a future engineer or a future scientist in the battle for truth. +And my final question, my final question -- why are we not looking at moving out onto the sea? +Why do we have programs to build habitation on Mars, and we have programs to look at colonizing the moon, but we do not have a program looking at how we colonize our own planet? +And the technology is at hand. +Thank you very much. +Being a child, and sort of crawling around the house, I remember these Turkish carpets, and there were these scenes, these battle scenes, these love scenes. +I mean, look, this animal is trying to fight back this spear from this soldier. +And my mom took these pictures actually, last week, of our carpets, and I remember this to this day. +There was another object, this sort of towering piece of furniture with creatures and gargoyles and nudity -- pretty scary stuff, when you're a little kid. +What I remember today from this is that objects tell stories, so storytelling has been a really strong influence in my work. +And then there was another influence. +I was a teenager, and at 15 or 16, I guess like all teenagers, we want to just do what we love and what we believe in. +And so, I fused together the two things I loved the most, which was skiing and windsurfing. +Those are pretty good escapes from the drab weather in Switzerland. +So, I created this compilation of the two: I took my skis and I took a board and I put a mast foot in there, and some foot straps, and some metal fins, and here I was, going really fast on frozen lakes. +It was really a death trap. I mean, it was incredible, it worked incredibly well, but it was really dangerous. +And I realized then I had to go to design school. +I mean, look at those graphics there. +So, I went to design school, and it was the early '90s when I finished. +And I saw something extraordinary happening in Silicon Valley, so I wanted to be there, and I saw that the computer was coming into our homes, that it had to change in order to be with us in our homes. +And so I got myself a job and I was working for a consultancy, and we would get in to these meetings, and these managers would come in, and they would say, "Well, what we're going to do here is really important, you know." +And they would give the projects code names, you know, mostly from "Star Wars," actually: things like C3PO, Yoda, Luke. +So, in anticipation, I would be this young designer in the back of the room, and I would raise my hand, and I would ask questions. +I mean, in retrospect, probably stupid questions, but things like, "What's this Caps Lock key for?" +or "What's this Num Lock key for?" You know, that thing? +"You know, do people really use it? +Do they need it? Do they want it in their homes?" +What I realized then is, they didn't really want to change the legacy stuff; they didn't want to change the insides. +They were really looking for us, the designers, to create the skins, to put some pretty stuff outside of the box. +And I didn't want to be a colorist. +It wasn't what I wanted to do. +I didn't want to be a stylist in this way. +And then I saw this quote: "advertising is the price companies pay for being unoriginal." +So, I had to start on my own. So I moved to San Francisco, and I started a little company, fuseproject. +And what I wanted to work on is important stuff. +And I wanted to really not just work on the skins, but I wanted to work on the entire human experience. +And so the first projects were sort of humble, but they took technology and maybe made it into things that people would use in a new way, and maybe finding some new functionality. +This is a watch we made for Mini Cooper, the car company, right when it launched, and it's the first watch that has a display that switches from horizontal to vertical. +And that allows me to check my timer discretely, here, without bending my elbow. +And other projects, which were really about transformation, about matching the human need. +This is a little piece of furniture for an Italian manufacturer, and it ships completely flat, and then it folds into a coffee table and a stool and whatnot. +And something a little bit more experimental: this is a light fixture for Swarovski, and what it does is, it changes shape. +So, it goes from a circle, to a round, to a square, to a figure eight. +And just by drawing on a little computer tablet, the entire light fixture adjusts to what shape you want. +And then finally, the leaf lamp for Herman Miller. +This is a pretty involved process; it took us about four and a half years. +But I really was looking for creating a unique experience of light, a new experience of light. +So, we had to design both the light and the light bulb. +And that's a unique opportunity, I would say, in design. +And the new experience I was looking for is giving the choice for the user to go from a warm, sort of glowing kind of mood light, all the way to a bright work light. +So, the light bulb actually does that. +It allows the person to switch, and to mix these two colorations. +And it's done in a very simple way: one just touches the base of the light, and on one side, you can mix the brightness, and on the other, the coloration of the light. +So, all of these projects have a humanistic sense to them, and I think as designers we need to really think about how we can create a different relationship between our work and the world, whether it's for business, or, as I'm going to show, on some civic-type projects. +Because I think everybody agrees that as designers we bring value to business, value to the users also, but I think it's the values that we put into these projects that ultimately create the greater value. +And the values we bring can be about environmental issues, about sustainability, about lower power consumption. +You know, they can be about function and beauty; they can be about business strategy. +But designers are really the glue that brings these things together. +So Jawbone is a project that you're familiar with, and it has a humanistic technology. +It feels your skin. It rests on your skin, and it knows when it is you're talking. +And by knowing when it is you're talking, it gets rid of the other noises that it knows about, which is the environmental noises. +But the other thing that is humanistic about Jawbone is that we really decided to take out all the techie stuff, and all the nerdy stuff out of it, and try to make it as beautiful as we can. +I mean, think about it: the care we take in selecting sunglasses, or jewelry, or accessories is really important, so if it isn't beautiful, it really doesn't belong on your face. +And this is what we're pursuing here. +But how we work on Jawbone is really unique. +I want to point at something here, on the left. +This is the board, this is one of the things that goes inside that makes this technology work. +But this is the design process: there's somebody changing the board, putting tracers on the board, changing the location of the ICs, as the designers on the other side are doing the work. +So, it's not about slapping skins, anymore, on a technology. +It's really about designing from the inside out. +And then, on the other side of the room, the designers are making small adjustments, sketching, drawing by hand, putting it in the computer. +And it's what I call being design driven. +You know, there is some push and pull, but design is really helping define the whole experience from the inside out. +And then, of course, design is never done. +And this is -- the other new way that is unique in how we work is, because it's never done, you have to do all this other stuff. +The packaging, and the website, and you need to continue to really touch the user, in many ways. +But how do you retain somebody, when it's never done? +And Hosain Rahman, the CEO of Aliph Jawbone, you know, really understands that you need a different structure. +So, in a way, the different structure is that we're partners, it's a partnership. We can continue to work and dedicate ourselves to this project, and then we also share in the rewards. +And here's another project, another partnership-type approach. +This is called Y Water, and it's this guy from Los Angeles, Thomas Arndt, Austrian originally, who came to us, and all he wanted to do was to create a healthy drink, or an organic drink for his kids, to replace the high-sugar-content sodas that he's trying to get them away from. +So, we worked on this bottle, and it's completely symmetrical in every dimension. +And this allows the bottle to turn into a game. +The bottles connect together, and you can create different shapes, different forms. +Thank you. +And then while we were doing this, the shape of the bottle upside down reminded us of a Y, and then we thought, well these words, "why" and "why not," are probably the most important words that kids ask. +So we called it Y Water. And so this is another place where it all comes together in the same room: the three-dimensional design, the ideas, the branding, it all becomes deeply connected. +And then the other thing about this project is, we bring intellectual property, we bring a marketing approach, we bring all this stuff, but I think, at the end of the day, what we bring is these values, and these values create a soul for the companies we work with. +And it's especially rewarding when your design work becomes a creative endeavor, when others can be creative and do more with it. +Here's another project, which I think really emulates that. +This is the One Laptop per Child, the $100 laptop. +This picture is incredible. +In Nigeria, people carry their most precious belongings on their heads. +This girl is going to school with a laptop on her head. +I mean, to me, it just means so much. +But when Nicholas Negroponte -- and he has spoken about this project a lot, he's the founder of OLPC -- came to us about two and a half years ago, there were some clear ideas. +He wanted to bring education and he wanted to bring technology, and those are pillars of his life, but also pillars of the mission of One Laptop per Child. +But the third pillar that he talked about was design. +And at the time, I wasn't really working on computers. +I didn't really want to, from the previous adventure. +But what he said was really significant, is that design was going to be why the kids were going to love this product, how we were going to make it low cost, robust. +And plus, he said he was going to get rid of the Caps Lock key -- -- and the Num Lock key, too. +So, I was convinced. We designed it to be iconic, to look different. To look like it's for a kid, but not like a toy. +And then the integration of all these great technologies, which you've heard about, the Wi-Fi antennas that allow the kids to connect; the screen, which you can read in sunlight; the keyboard, which is made out of rubber, and it's protected from the environment. +You know, all these great technologies really happened because of the passion and the OLPC people and the engineers. +They fought the suppliers, they fought the manufacturers. +I mean, they fought like animals for this to remain they way it is. +And in a way, it is that will that makes projects like this one -- allows the process from not destroying the original idea. +And I think this is something really important. +So, now you get these pictures -- you get up in the morning, and you see the kids in Nigeria and you see them in Uruguay with their computers, and in Mongolia. +And we went away from obviously the beige. +I mean it's colorful, it's fun. +In fact, you can see each logo is a little bit different. +It's because we were able to run, during the manufacturing process, 20 colors for the X and the O, which is the name of the computer, and by mixing them on the manufacturing floor, you get 20 times 20: you get 400 different options there. +So, the lessons from seeing the kids using them in the developing world are incredible. +But this is my nephew, Anthony, in Switzerland, and he had the laptop for an afternoon, and I had to take it back. It was hard. +And it was a prototype. And a month and a half later, I come back to Switzerland, and there he is playing with his own version. +Like paper, paper and cardboard. +So, I'm going to finish with one last project, and this is a little bit more of adult play. +Some of you might have heard about the New York City condom. +It's actually just launched, actually launched on Valentine's Day, February 14, about 10 days ago. +So, the Department of Health in New York came to us, and they needed a way to distribute 36 million condoms for free to the citizens of New York. +So a pretty big endeavor, and we worked on the dispensers. +These are the dispensers. There's this friendly shape. +It's a little bit like designing a fire hydrant, and it has to be easily serviceable: you have to know where it is and what it does. +And we also designed the condoms themselves. +And I was just in New York at the launch, and I went to see all these places where they're installed: this is at a Puerto Rican little mom-and-pop store; at a bar in Christopher Street; at a pool hall. +I mean, they're being installed in homeless clinics -- everywhere. +Of course, clubs and discos, too. +And here's the public service announcement for this project. +Get some. +So, this is really where design is able to create a conversation. +I was in these venues, and people were, you know, really into getting them. They were excited. +It was breaking the ice, it was getting over a stigma, and I think that's also what design can do. +So, I was going to throw some condoms in the room and whatnot, but I'm not sure it's the etiquette here. +Yeah? All right, all right. I have only a few. +So, I have more, you can always ask me for some more later. +And if anybody asks why you're carrying a condom, you can just say you like the design. +So, I'll finish with just one thought: if we all work together on creating value, but if we really keep in mind the values of the work that we do, I think we can change the work that we do. +We can change these values, can change the companies we work with, and eventually, together, maybe we can change the world. +So, thank you. +A few words about how I got started, and it has a lot to do with happiness, actually. +When I was a very young child, I was extremely introverted and very much to myself. +And, kind of as a way of surviving, I would go into my own very personal space, and I would make things. +I would make things for people as a way of, you know, giving, showing them my love. +I would go into these private places, and I would put my ideas and my passions into objects -- and sort of learning how to speak with my hands. +So, the whole activity of working with my hands and creating objects is very much connected with not only the idea realm, but also with very much the feeling realm. +And the ideas are very disparate. +When I was a child, I started to explore motion. +I fell in love with the way things moved, so I started to explore motion by making little flipbooks. +And of course, when you're a little kid, there's always destruction. +So, it has to end with this -- -- gratuitous violence. +So that was how I first started to explore the way things moved, and expressed it. +Now, when I went to college, I found myself making fairly complicated, fragile machines. +And this really came about from having many different kinds of interests. +When I was in high school, I loved to program computers, so I sort of liked the logical flow of events. +I was also very interested in perhaps going into surgery and becoming a surgeon, because it meant working with my hands in a very focused, intense way. +So, I started taking art courses, and I found a way to make sculpture that brought together my love for being very precise with my hands, with coming up with different kinds of logical flows of energy through a system. +And also, working with wire -- everything that I did was both a visual and a mechanical engineering decision at the same time. +So, I was able to sort of exercise all of that. +Now, this kind of machine is as close as I can get to painting. +And it's full of many little trivial end points, like there's a little foot here that just drags around in circles and it doesn't really mean anything. +It's really just for the sort of joy of its own triviality. +The connection I have with engineering is the same as any other engineer, in that I love to solve problems. +I love to figure things out, but the end result of what I'm doing is really completely ambiguous. +That's pretty ambiguous. +The next piece that is going to come up is an example of a kind of machine that is fairly complex. +I gave myself the problem. +Since I'm always liking to solve problems, I gave myself the problem of turning a crank in one direction, and solving all of the mechanical problems for getting this little man to walk back and forth. +So, when I started this, I didn't have an overall plan for the machine, but I did have a sense of the gesture, and a sense of the shape and how it would occupy space. +And then it was a matter of starting from one point and sort of building to that final point. +That little gear there switches back and forth to change direction. +And that's a little found object. +So a lot of the pieces that I've made, they involve found objects. +And it really -- it's almost like doing visual puns all the time. +When I see objects, I imagine them in motion. +I imagine what can be said with them. +This next one here, "Machine with Wishbone," it came about from playing with this wishbone after dinner. +You know, they say, never play with your food -- but I always play with things. +So, I had this wishbone, and I thought, it's kind of like a cowboy who's been on his horse for too long. +And I started to make him walk across the table, and I thought, "Oh, I can make a little machine that will do that." +So, I made this device, linked it up, and the wishbone walks. +And because the wishbone is bone -- it's animal -- it's sort of a point where I think we can enter into it. +And that's the whole piece. +That's about that big. +This kind of work is also very much like puppetry, where the found object is, in a sense, the puppet, and I'm the puppeteer at first, because I'm playing with an object. +But then I make the machine, which is sort of the stand-in for me, and it is able to achieve the action that I want. +The next piece I'll show you is a much more conceptual thought, and it's a little piece called "Cory's Yellow Chair." +I had this image in my mind, when I saw my son's little chair, and I saw it explode up and out. +And they would coalesce for just a moment, so you could perceive that there was a chair there. +For me, it's kind of a feeling about the fleetingness of the present moment, and I wanted to express that. +Now, the machine is -- in this case, it's a real approximation of that, because obviously you can't move physical matter infinitely with infinite speed and have it stop instantaneously. +This whole thing is about four feet wide, and the chair itself is only about a few inches. +Now, this is a funny sort of conceptual thing, and yesterday we were talking about Danny Hillis' "10,000 Year Clock." +So, we have a motor here on the left, and it goes through a gear train. +There are 12 pairs of 50:1 reductions, so that means that the final speed of that gear on the end is so slow that it would take two trillion years to turn once. +So I've invented it in concrete, because it doesn't really matter. +Because it could run all the time. +Now, a completely different thought. +I'm always imagining myself in different situations. +I'm imagining myself as a machine. +What would I love? +I would love to be bathed in oil. +So, this machine does nothing but just bathe itself in oil. +And it's really, just sort of -- for me, it was just really about the lusciousness of oil. +And then, I got a call from a friend who wanted to have a show of erotic art, and I didn't have any pieces. +But when she suggested to be in the show, this piece came to mind. +So, it's sort of related, but you can see it's much more overtly erotic. +And this one I call "Machine with Grease." +It's just continually ejaculating, and it's -- -- this is a happy machine, I'll tell you. +It's definitely happy. +From an engineering point of view, this is just a little four-bar linkage. +And then again, this is a found object, a little fan that I found. +And I thought, what about the gesture of opening the fan, and how simply could I state something. +And, in a case like this, I'm trying to make something which is clear but also not suggestive of any particular kind of animal or plant. +For me, the process is very important, because I'm inventing machines, but I'm also inventing tools to make machines, and the whole thing is all sort of wrapped up from the beginning. +So this is a little wire-bending tool. +After many years of bending gears with a pair of pliers, I made that tool, and then I made this other tool for sort of centering gears very quickly -- sort of developing my own little world of technology. +My life completely changed when I found a spot welder. +And that was that tool. +It completely changed what I could do. +Now here, I'm going to do a very poor job of silver soldering. +This is not the way they teach you to silver solder when you're in school. +I just like, throw it in. +I mean, real jewelers put little bits of solder in. +So, that's a finished gear. +When I moved to Boston, I joined a group called the World Sculpture Racing Society. +And the idea, their premise was that we wanted to show pieces of sculpture on the street, and there'd be no subjective decision about what was the best. +It would be -- whatever came across the finish line first would be the winner. +But then in the end, what I decided was every time you finish writing the word, I would stop and I would give the card to somebody on the side of the road. +So I would never win the race because I'm always stopping. +But I had a lot of fun. +Now, I only have two and a half minutes -- I'm going to play this. +This is a piece that, for me, is in some ways the most complete kind of piece. +Because when I was a kid, I also played a lot of guitar. +And when I had this thought, I was imagining that I would make -- I would have a whole machine theater evening, where I would -- you would have an audience, the curtain would open, and you'd be entertained by machines on stage. +So, I imagined a very simple gestural dance that would be between a machine and just a very simple chair, and ... +When I'm making these pieces, I'm always trying to find a point where I'm saying something very clearly and it's very simple, but also at the same time it's very ambiguous. +And I think there's a point between simplicity and ambiguity which can allow a viewer to perhaps take something from it. +And that leads me to the thought that all of these pieces start off in my own mind, in my heart, and I do my best at finding ways to express them with materials, and it always feels really crude. +It's always a struggle, but somehow I manage to sort of get this thought out into an object, and then it's there, OK. +It means nothing at all. +The object itself just means nothing. +Once it's perceived, and someone brings it into their own mind, then there's a cycle that has been completed. +And to me, that's the most important thing because, ever since being a kid, I've wanted to communicate my passion and love. +And that means the complete cycle of coming from inside, out to the physical, to someone perceiving it. +So I'll just let this chair come down. +Thank you. +I graduated high school in Cleveland, Ohio, 1975. +And just like my parents did when they finished studying abroad, we went back home. +Finished university education, got a medical degree, 1986. +And by the time I was an intern house officer, I could barely afford to maintain my mother's 13-year-old car -- and I was a paid doctor. +This brings us to why a lot of us, who are professionals, are now, as they say, in diaspora. +Now, are we going to make that a permanent thing, where we all get trained, and we leave, and we don't go back? +Perhaps not, I should certainly hope not -- because that is not my vision. +All right, for good measure, that's where Nigeria is on the African map, and just there is the Delta region that I'm sure everybody's heard of. +People getting kidnapped, where the oil comes from, the oil that sometimes I think has driven us all crazy in Nigeria. +But, critical poverty: this slide is from a presentation I gave not that long ago. Gapminder.org tells the story of the gap between Africa and the rest of the world in terms of health care. +Very interesting. +How many people do you think are on that taxi? +And believe it or not, that is a taxi in Nigeria. +And the capital -- well, what used to be the capital of Nigeria -- Lagos, that's a taxi, and you have police on them. +So, tell me, how many policemen do you think are on this taxi? And now? Three. +So, when these kind of people -- and, believe me, it's not just the police that use these taxis in Lagos. We all do. I've been on one of these, and I didn't have a helmet, either. +And it just reminds me of the thought of what happens when one of us on a taxi like this falls off, has an accident and needs a hospital. +Believe it or not, some of us do survive. +Some of us do survive malaria; we do survive AIDS. +And like I tell my family, and my wife reminds me every time, "You're risking your life, you know, every time you go to that country." +And she's right. Every time you go there, you know that if you actually need critical care -- critical care of any sort -- if you have an accident -- of which there are many, there are accidents everywhere -- where do they go? +Where do they go when they need help for this kind of stuff? +I'm not saying instead of, I'm saying as well as, AIDS, TB, malaria, typhoid -- the list goes on. +I'm saying, where do they go when they're like me? +When I go back home -- and I do all kinds of things, I teach, I train -- but I catch one of these things, or I'm chronically ill with one of those, where do they go? +What's the economic impact when one of them dies or becomes disabled? +I think it's quite significant. This is where they go. +These are not old pictures and these are not from some downtrodden -- this is a major hospital. In fact, it's from a major teaching hospital in Nigeria. +Now that is less than a year old, in an operating room. +That's sterilizing equipment in Nigeria. +You remember all that oil? +Yes, I'm sorry if it upsets some of you, but I think you need to see this. That's the floor, OK? +You can say some of this is education. +You can say it's hygiene. I'm not pleading poverty. +I'm saying we need more than just, you know, vaccination, malaria, AIDS, because I want to be treated in a proper hospital if something happens to me out there. +In fact, when I start running around saying, "Hey, boys and girls, you're cardiologists in the U.S., can you come home with me and do a mission?" +I want them to think, "Well there's some hope." +Now, have a look at that. That's the anesthesiology machine. +And that's my specialty, right? +Anesthesiology and critical care -- look at that bag. +It's been taped with tape that we even stopped using in the U.K. +And believe me, these are current pictures. +Now, if something like this, which has happened in the U.K., that's where they go. This is the intensive care unit in which I work. +All right, this is a slide from a talk I gave about intensive care units in Nigeria, and jokingly we refer to it as "Expensive Scare." +Because it's scary and it's expensive, but we need to have it, OK? +So, these are the problems. +There are no prizes for telling us what the problems are, are there? +I think we all know. And several speakers before and speakers after me are going to tell us even more problems. +These are a few of them. So, what did I do? +There we go -- we're going on a mission. +We're going to do some open-heart surgery. I was the only Brit, on a team of about nine American cardiac surgeons, cardiac nurse, intensive care nurse. +We all went out and did a mission and we've done three of them so far. +Just so you know, I do believe in missions, I do believe in aid and I do believe in charity. They have their place, but where do they go for those things we talked about earlier? +Because it's not everyone that's going to benefit from a mission. +Health is wealth, in the words of Hans Rosling. +You get wealthier faster if you are healthy first. +So, here we are, mission. Big trouble. +Open-heart surgery in Nigeria -- big trouble. +That's Mike, Mike comes out from Mississippi. +Does he look like he's happy? +It took us two days just to organize the place, but hey, you know, we worked on it. Does he look happy? +Yes, that's the medical advice the committee chairman says, "Yes, I told you, you weren't going to be able to, you can't do this, I just know it." +Look, that's the technician we had. So yes, you go on, all right? +I got him to come with me -- anesthesia tech -- come with me from the U.K. +Yes, let's just go work this thing out. +See, that's one of the problems we have in Nigeria and in Africa generally. +We get a lot of donated equipment. +Equipment that's obsolete, equipment that doesn't quite work, or it works and you can't fix it. And there's nothing wrong with that, so long as we use it and we move on. +But we had problems with it. We had severe problems there. +He had to get on the phone. This guy was always on the phone. +So what we going to do now? +It looks like all these Americans are here and yes, one Brit, and he's not going to do anything -- he thinks he's British actually, and he's actually Nigerian, I just thought about that. +We eventually got it working, is the truth, but it was one of these. Even older than the one you saw. +The reason I have this picture here, this X-ray, it's just to tell you where and how we were viewing X-rays. +Do you figure where that is? It was on a window. +I mean, what's an X-ray viewing box? Please. +Well, nowadays everything's on PAX anyway. +You look at your X-rays on a screen and you do stuff with them, you email them. But we were still using X-rays, but we didn't even have a viewing box! +And we were doing open-heart surgery. +OK, I know it's not AIDS, I know it's not malaria, but we still need this stuff. Oh yeah, echo -- this was just to get the children ready and the adults ready. +People still believe in Voodoo. Heart disease, VSD, hole in the heart, tetralogies. +You still get people who believe in it and they came. +At 67 percent oxygen saturation, the normal is about 97. +Her condition, open-heart surgery that as she required, would have been treated when she was a child. +We had to do these for adults. So, we did succeed and we still do. +We've done three. We're planning another one in July in the north of the country. So, we certainly still do open-heart, but you can see the contrast between everything that was shipped in -- we ship everything, instruments. We had explosions because the kit was designed and installed by people who weren't used to it. +The oxygen tanks didn't quite work right. +But how many did we do the first one? 12. +We did 12 open-heart surgical patients successfully. +Here is our very first patient, out of intensive care, and just watch that chair, all right? +This is what I mean about appropriate technology. +That's what he was doing, propping up the bed because the bed simply didn't work. +Have you seen one of those before? +No? Yes? Doesn't matter, it worked. +I'm sure you've all seen or heard this before: "We, the willing, have been doing so much with so little for so long -- -- we are now qualified to do anything with nothing." +Thank you. Sustainable Solutions -- this was my first company. +This one's sole aim is to provide the very things that I think are missing. +So, we put my hand in my pocket and say, "Guys, let's just buy stuff. +Let's go set up a company that teaches people, educates them, gives them the tools they need to keep going." +And that's a perfect example of one. +Usually when you buy a ventilator in a hospital, you buy a different one for children, you buy a different one for transport. This one will do everything, and it will do it at half the price and doesn't need compressed air. +If you're in America and you don't know about this one, we do, because we make it our duty to find out what's appropriate technology for Africa -- what's appropriately priced, does the job, and we move on. Anesthesia machine: multi-parameter monitor, operating lights, suction. +This little unit here -- remember your little 12-volt plug in the car, that charges your, whatever, Game Boy, telephone? +That's exactly how the outlets are designed. +Yes, it will take a solar panel. Yes a solar panel will charge it. +But if you've got mains as well, it will charge the batteries in there. +And guess what? We have a little pedal charger too, just in case. +And guess what, if it all fails, if you can find a car that's still got a live battery and you stick it in, it will still work. Then you can customize it. +Is it dental surgery you want? General surgery you want? +Decide which instruments, stock it up with consumables. +And currently we're working on oxygen -- oxygen delivery on-site. +The technology for oxygen delivery is not new. +Oxygen concentrators are very old technology. What is new, and what we will have in a few months, I hope, is that ability to use this same renewable energy system to provide and produce oxygen on site. Zeolite -- it's not new -- zeolite removes nitrogen from air and nitrogen is 78 percent of air. +If you take nitrogen out, what's left? Oxygen, pretty much. +So that's not new. What we're doing is applying this technology to it. +These are the basic features of my device, or our device. +This is what makes it so special. +Apart from the awards it's won, it's portable and it's certified. It's registered, the MHRA -- and the CE mark, for those who don't know, for Europe, is the equivalent of the FDA in the U.S. +If you compare it with what's on the market, price-wise, size-wise, ease of use, complexity ... +This picture was taken last year. +These are members of my graduating class, 1986. +It was in this gentleman's house in the Potomac, for those of you who are familiar with Maryland. +African people, because they will do it with a passion, I hope. +And lots and lots of that little bit down there, sacrifice. +You have to do it. Africans have to do it, in conjunction with everyone else. +Thank you. +Cultural evolution is a dangerous child for any species to let loose on its planet. +By the time you realize what's happening, the child is a toddler, up and causing havoc, and it's too late to put it back. +We humans are Earth's Pandoran species. +We're the ones who let the second replicator out of its box, and we can't push it back in. +We're seeing the consequences all around us. +Now that, I suggest, is the view that comes out of taking memetics seriously. +And it gives us a new way of thinking about not only what's going on on our planet, but what might be going on elsewhere in the cosmos. +So first of all, I'd like to say something about memetics and the theory of memes, and secondly, how this might answer questions about who's out there, if indeed anyone is. +So, memetics: memetics is founded on the principle of Universal Darwinism. +Darwin had this amazing idea. +Indeed, some people say it's the best idea anybody ever had. +Isn't that a wonderful thought, that there could be such a thing as a best idea anybody ever had? +Do you think there could? +Audience: No. +Susan Blackmore: Someone says no, very loudly, from over there. +Well, I say yes, and if there is, I give the prize to Darwin. +Why? +Because the idea was so simple, and yet it explains all design in the universe. +I would say not just biological design, but all of the design that we think of as human design. +It's all just the same thing happening. +What did Darwin say? +I know you know the idea, natural selection, but let me just paraphrase "The Origin of Species," 1859, in a few sentences. +What Darwin said was something like this: if you have creatures that vary, and that can't be doubted -- I've been to the Galapagos, and I've measured the size of the beaks and the size of the turtle shells and so on, and so on. +And 100 pages later. +And if there is a struggle for life, such that nearly all of these creatures die -- and this can't be doubted, I've read Malthus and I've calculated how long it would take for elephants to cover the whole world if they bred unrestricted, and so on and so on. +And another 100 pages later. +And if the very few that survive pass onto their offspring whatever it was that helped them survive, then those offspring must be better adapted to the circumstances in which all this happened than their parents were. +You see the idea? +If, if, if, then. +He had no concept of the idea of an algorithm, but that's what he described in that book, and this is what we now know as the evolutionary algorithm. +The principle is you just need those three things -- variation, selection and heredity. +And as Dan Dennett puts it, if you have those, then you must get evolution. +Or design out of chaos, without the aid of mind. +There's one word I love on that slide. +What do you think my favorite word is? +Audience: Chaos. +SB: Chaos? No. What? Mind? No. +Audience: Without. +SB: No, not without. +You try them all in order: Mmm...? +Audience: Must. +SB: Must, at must. Must, must. +This is what makes it so amazing. +You don't need a designer, or a plan, or foresight, or anything else. +If there's something that is copied with variation and it's selected, then you must get design appearing out of nowhere. +You can't stop it. +Must is my favorite word there. +Now, what's this to do with memes? +Well, the principle here applies to anything that is copied with variation and selection. +We're so used to thinking in terms of biology, we think about genes this way. +Darwin didn't, of course; he didn't know about genes. +He talked mostly about animals and plants, but also about languages evolving and becoming extinct. +But the principle of Universal Darwinism is that any information that is varied and selected will produce design. +And this is what Richard Dawkins was on about in his 1976 bestseller, "The Selfish Gene." +The information that is copied, he called the replicator. +It selfishly copies. +Not meaning it kind of sits around inside cells going, "I want to get copied." +But that it will get copied if it can, regardless of the consequences. +It doesn't care about the consequences because it can't, because it's just information being copied. +And he wanted to get away from everybody thinking all the time about genes, and so he said, "Is there another replicator out there on the planet?" +Ah, yes, there is. +Look around you -- here will do, in this room. +All around us, still clumsily drifting about in its primeval soup of culture, is another replicator. +Information that we copy from person to person, by imitation, by language, by talking, by telling stories, by wearing clothes, by doing things. +This is information copied with variation and selection. +This is design process going on. +He wanted a name for the new replicator. +So, he took the Greek word "mimeme," which means that which is imitated. +Remember that, that's the core definition: that which is imitated. +And abbreviated it to meme, just because it sounds good and made a good meme, an effective spreading meme. +So that's how the idea came about. +It's important to stick with that definition. +The whole science of memetics is much maligned, much misunderstood, much feared. +But a lot of these problems can be avoided by remembering the definition. +A meme is not equivalent to an idea. +It's not an idea. It's not equivalent to anything else, really. +Stick with the definition. +It's that which is imitated, or information which is copied from person to person. +So, let's see some memes. +Well, you sir, you've got those glasses hung around your neck in that particularly fetching way. +I wonder whether you invented that idea for yourself, or copied it from someone else? +If you copied it from someone else, it's a meme. +And what about, oh, I can't see any interesting memes here. +All right everyone, who's got some interesting memes for me? +Oh, well, your earrings, I don't suppose you invented the idea of earrings. +You probably went out and bought them. +There are plenty more in the shops. +That's something that's passed on from person to person. +All the stories that we're telling -- well, of course, TED is a great meme-fest, masses of memes. +The way to think about memes, though, is to think, why do they spread? +They're selfish information, they will get copied, if they can. +But some of them will be copied because they're good, or true, or useful, or beautiful. +Some of them will be copied even though they're not. +Some, it's quite hard to tell why. +There's one particular curious meme which I rather enjoy. +And I'm glad to say, as I expected, I found it when I came here, and I'm sure all of you found it, too. +You go to your nice, posh, international hotel somewhere, and you come in and you put down your clothes and you go to the bathroom, and what do you see? +Audience: Bathroom soap. +SB: Pardon? +Audience: Soap. +SB: Soap, yeah. What else do you see? +Audience: SB: Mmm mmm. +Audience: Sink, toilet! +SB: Sink, toilet, yes, these are all memes, they're all memes, but they're sort of useful ones, and then there's this one. +What is this one doing? +This has spread all over the world. +It's not surprising that you all found it when you arrived in your bathrooms here. +But I took this photograph in a toilet at the back of a tent in the eco-camp in the jungle in Assam. +Who folded that thing up there, and why? +Some people get carried away. +Other people are just lazy and make mistakes. +Some hotels exploit the opportunity to put even more memes with a little sticker. +What is this all about? +I suppose it's there to tell you that somebody's cleaned the place, and it's all lovely. +And you know, actually, all it tells you is that another person has potentially spread germs from place to place. +So, think of it this way. +Imagine a world full of brains and far more memes than can possibly find homes. +The memes are all trying to get copied -- trying, in inverted commas -- i.e., that's the shorthand for, if they can get copied, they will. +They're using you and me as their propagating, copying machinery, and we are the meme machines. +Now, why is this important? +Why is this useful, or what does it tell us? +It gives us a completely new view of human origins and what it means to be human, all conventional theories of cultural evolution, of the origin of humans, and what makes us so different from other species. +All other theories explaining the big brain, and language, and tool use and all these things that make us unique, are based upon genes. +Language must have been useful for the genes. +Tool use must have enhanced our survival, mating and so on. +It always comes back, as Richard Dawkins complained all that long time ago, it always comes back to genes. +The point of memetics is to say, "Oh no, it doesn't." +There are two replicators now on this planet. +From the moment that our ancestors, perhaps two and a half million years ago or so, began imitating, there was a new copying process. +Copying with variation and selection. +A new replicator was let loose, and it could never be -- right from the start -- it could never be that human beings who let loose this new creature, could just copy the useful, beautiful, true things, and not copy the other things. +While their brains were having an advantage from being able to copy -- lighting fires, keeping fires going, new techniques of hunting, these kinds of things -- inevitably they were also copying putting feathers in their hair, or wearing strange clothes, or painting their faces, or whatever. +So, the big brain, on this theory, is driven by the memes. +This is why, in "The Meme Machine," I called it memetic drive. +As the memes evolve, as they inevitably must, they drive a bigger brain that is better at copying the memes that are doing the driving. +This is why we've ended up with such peculiar brains, that we like religion, and music, and art. +Language is a parasite that we've adapted to, not something that was there originally for our genes, on this view. +And like most parasites, it can begin dangerous, but then it coevolves and adapts, and we end up with a symbiotic relationship with this new parasite. +And so, from our perspective, we don't realize that that's how it began. +So, this is a view of what humans are. +All other species on this planet are gene machines only, they don't imitate at all well, hardly at all. +We alone are gene machines and meme machines as well. +The memes took a gene machine and turned it into a meme machine. +But that's not all. +We have a new kind of memes now. +I've been wondering for a long time, since I've been thinking about memes a lot, is there a difference between the memes that we copy -- the words we speak to each other, the gestures we copy, the human things -- and all these technological things around us? +I have always, until now, called them all memes, but I do honestly think now we need a new word for technological memes. +Let's call them techno-memes or temes. +Because the processes are getting different. +We began, perhaps 5,000 years ago, with writing. +We put the storage of memes out there on a clay tablet, but in order to get true temes and true teme machines, you need to get the variation, the selection and the copying, all done outside of humans. +And we're getting there. +We're at this extraordinary point where we're nearly there, that there are machines like that. +And indeed, in the short time I've already been at TED, I see we're even closer than I thought we were before. +So actually, now the temes are forcing our brains to become more like teme machines. +Our children are growing up very quickly learning to read, learning to use machinery. +We're going to have all kinds of implants, drugs that force us to stay awake all the time. +We'll think we're choosing these things, but the temes are making us do it. +So, we're at this cusp now of having a third replicator on our planet. +Now, what about what else is going on out there in the universe? +Is there anyone else out there? +People have been asking this question for a long time. +We've been asking it here at TED already. +In 1961, Frank Drake made his famous equation, but I think he concentrated on the wrong things. +It's been very productive, that equation. +He wanted to estimate N, the number of communicative civilizations out there in our galaxy, and he included in there the rate of star formation, the rate of planets, but crucially, intelligence. +I think that's the wrong way to think about it. +Intelligence appears all over the place, in all kinds of guises. +Human intelligence is only one kind of a thing. +But what's really important is the replicators you have and the levels of replicators, one feeding on the one before. +So, I would suggest that we don't think intelligence, we think replicators. +And on that basis, I've suggested a different kind of equation. +A very simple equation. +N, the same thing, the number of communicative civilizations out there [that] we might expect in our galaxy. +Just start with the number of planets there are in our galaxy. +The fraction of those which get a first replicator. +The fraction of those that get the second replicator. +The fraction of those that get the third replicator. +Because it's only the third replicator that's going to reach out -- sending information, sending probes, getting out there, and communicating with anywhere else. +OK, so if we take that equation, why haven't we heard from anybody out there? +Because every step is dangerous. +Getting a new replicator is dangerous. +You can pull through, we have pulled through, but it's dangerous. +Take the first step, as soon as life appeared on this earth. +We may take the Gaian view. +I loved Peter Ward's talk yesterday -- it's not Gaian all the time. +Actually, life forms produce things that kill themselves. +Well, we did pull through on this planet. +But then, a long time later, billions of years later, we got the second replicator, the memes. +That was dangerous, all right. +Think of the big brain. +How many mothers do we have here? +You know all about big brains. +They are dangerous to give birth to, are agonizing to give birth to. +My cat gave birth to four kittens, purring all the time. +Ah, mm -- slightly different. +But not only is it painful, it kills lots of babies, it kills lots of mothers, and it's very expensive to produce. +The genes are forced into producing all this myelin, all the fat to myelinate the brain. +Do you know, sitting here, your brain is using about 20 percent of your body's energy output for two percent of your body weight? +It's a really expensive organ to run. +Why? Because it's producing the memes. +Now, it could have killed us off. It could have killed us off, and maybe it nearly did, but you see, we don't know. +But maybe it nearly did. +Has it been tried before? +What about all those other species? +Louise Leakey talked yesterday about how we're the only one in this branch left. +What happened to the others? +Could it be that this experiment in imitation, this experiment in a second replicator, is dangerous enough to kill people off? +Well, we did pull through, and we adapted. +But now, we're hitting, as I've just described, we're hitting the third replicator point. +And this is even more dangerous -- well, it's dangerous again. +Why? Because the temes are selfish replicators and they don't care about us, or our planet, or anything else. +They're just information, why would they? +They are using us to suck up the planet's resources to produce more computers, and more of all these amazing things we're hearing about here at TED. +Don't think, "Oh, we created the Internet for our own benefit." +That's how it seems to us. +Think, temes spreading because they must. +We are the old machines. +Now, are we going to pull through? +What's going to happen? +What does it mean to pull through? +Well, there are kind of two ways of pulling through. +One that is obviously happening all around us now, is that the temes turn us into teme machines, with these implants, with the drugs, with us merging with the technology. +And why would they do that? +Because we are self-replicating. +We have babies. +We make new ones, and so it's convenient to piggyback on us, because we're not yet at the stage on this planet where the other option is viable. +Although it's closer, I heard this morning, it's closer than I thought it was. +Where the teme machines themselves will replicate themselves. +That way, it wouldn't matter if the planet's climate was utterly destabilized, and it was no longer possible for humans to live here. +Because those teme machines, they wouldn't need -- they're not squishy, wet, oxygen-breathing, warmth-requiring creatures. +They could carry on without us. +So, those are the two possibilities. +The second, I don't think we're that close. +It's coming, but we're not there yet. +The first, it's coming too. +But the damage that is already being done to the planet is showing us how dangerous the third point is, that third danger point, getting a third replicator. +And will we get through this third danger point, like we got through the second and like we got through the first? +Maybe we will, maybe we won't. +I have no idea. +Chris Anderson: That was an incredible talk. +SB: Thank you. I scared myself. +CA: +So, can we dare to be optimistic? +Well, the thesis of "The Bottom Billion" is that a billion people have been stuck living in economies that have been stagnant for 40 years, and hence diverging from the rest of mankind. +And so, the real question to pose is not, "Can we be optimistic?" +It's, "How can we give credible hope to that billion people?" +That, to my mind, is the fundamental challenge now of development. +What I'm going to offer you is a recipe, a combination of the two forces that changed the world for good, which is the alliance of compassion and enlightened self-interest. +Compassion, because a billion people are living in societies that have not offered credible hope. +That is a human tragedy. +Enlightened self-interest, because if that economic divergence continues for another 40 years, combined with social integration globally, it will build a nightmare for our children. +We need compassion to get ourselves started, and enlightened self-interest to get ourselves serious. +That's the alliance that changes the world. +So, what does it mean to get serious about providing hope for the bottom billion? +What can we actually do? +Well, a good guide is to think, "What did we do last time the rich world got serious about developing another region of the world?" +That gives us, it turns out, quite a good clue, except you have to go back quite a long time. +The last time the rich world got serious about developing another region was in the late 1940s. +The rich world was you, America, and the region that needed to be developed was my world, Europe. +That was post-War Europe. +Why did America get serious? +It wasn't just compassion for Europe, though there was that. +It was that you knew you had to, because, in the late 1940s, country after country in Central Europe was falling into the Soviet bloc, and so you knew you'd no choice. +Europe had to be dragged into economic development. +So, what did you do, last time you got serious? +Well, yes, you had a big aid program. Thank you very much. +That was Marshall aid: we need to do it again. Aid is part of the solution. +But what else did you do? +Well, you tore up your trade policy, and totally reversed it. +Before the war, America had been highly protectionist. +After the war, you opened your markets to Europe, you dragged Europe into the then-global economy, which was your economy, and you institutionalized that trade liberalization through founding the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade. +So, total reversal of trade policy. +Did you do anything else? +Yes, you totally reversed your security policy. +Before the war, your security policy had been isolationist. +After the war, you tear that up, you put 100,000 troops in Europe for over 40 years. +So, total reversal of security policy. Anything else? +Yes, you tear up the "Eleventh Commandment" -- national sovereignty. +Before the war, you treated national sovereignty as so sacrosanct that you weren't even willing to join the League of Nations. +After the war, you found the United Nations, you found the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, you found the IMF, you encouraged Europe to create the European Community -- all systems for mutual government support. +That is still the waterfront of effective policies: aid, trade, security, governments. +Of course, the details of policy are going to be different, because the challenge is different. +It's not rebuilding Europe, it's reversing the divergence for the bottom billion, so that they actually catch up. +Is that easier or harder? +We need to be at least as serious as we were then. +Now, today I'm going to take just one of those four. +I'm going to take the one that sounds the weakest, the one that's just motherhood and apple pie -- governments, mutual systems of support for governments -- and I'm going to show you one idea in how we could do something to strengthen governance, and I'm going to show you that that is enormously important now. +The opportunity we're going to look to is a genuine basis for optimism about the bottom billion, and that is the commodity booms. +The commodity booms are pumping unprecedented amounts of money into many, though not all, of the countries of the bottom billion. +Partly, they're pumping money in because commodity prices are high, but it's not just that. There's also a range of new discoveries. +Uganda has just discovered oil, in about the most disastrous location on Earth; Ghana has discovered oil; Guinea has got a huge new exploitation of iron ore coming out of the ground. +So, a mass of new discoveries. +Between them, these new revenue flows dwarf aid. +Just to give you one example: Angola alone is getting 50 billion dollars a year in oil revenue. +The entire aid flows to the 60 countries of the bottom billion last year were 34 billion. +So, the flow of resources from the commodity booms to the bottom billion are without precedent. +So there's the optimism. +The question is, how is it going to help their development? +It's a huge opportunity for transformational development. +Will it be taken? +So, here comes a bit of science, and this is a bit of science I've done since "The Bottom Billion," so it's new. +I've looked to see what is the relationship between higher commodity prices of exports, and the growth of commodity-exporting countries. +And I've looked globally, I've taken all the countries in the world for the last 40 years, and looked to see what the relationship is. +And the short run -- say, the first five to seven years -- is just great. +In fact, it's hunky dory: everything goes up. +You get more money because your terms of trade have improved, but also that drives up output across the board. +So GDP goes up a lot -- fantastic! That's the short run. +And how about the long run? +Come back 15 years later. +Well, the short run, it's hunky dory, but the long run, it's humpty dumpty. +You go up in the short run, but then most societies historically have ended up worse than if they'd had no booms at all. +That is not a forecast about how commodity prices go; it's a forecast of the consequences, the long-term consequences, for growth of an increase in prices. +So, what goes wrong? Why is there this "resource curse," as it's called? +And again, I've looked at that, and it turns out that the critical issue is the level of governance, the initial level of economic governance, when the resource booms accrue. +In fact, if you've got good enough governance, there is no resource boom. +You go up in the short term, and then you go up even more in the long term. +That's Norway, the richest country in Europe. It's Australia. It's Canada. +The resource curse is entirely confined to countries below a threshold of governance. +They still go up in the short run. +That's what we're seeing across the bottom billion at the moment. +The best growth rates they've had -- ever. +And the question is whether the short run will persist. +And with bad governance historically, over the last 40 years, it hasn't. +It's countries like Nigeria, which are worse off than if they'd never had oil. +So, there's a threshold level above which you go up in the long term, and below which you go down. +Just to benchmark that threshold, it's about the governance level of Portugal in the mid 1980s. +So, the question is, are the bottom billion above or below that threshold? +Now, there's one big change since the commodity booms of the 1970s, and that is the spread of democracy. +So I thought, well, maybe that is the thing which has transformed governance in the bottom billion. +Maybe we can be more optimistic because of the spread of democracy. +So, I looked. Democracy does have significant effects -- and unfortunately, they're adverse. +Democracies make even more of a mess of these resource booms than autocracies. +At that stage I just wanted to abandon the research, but -- -- it turns out that democracy is a little bit more complicated than that. +Because there are two distinct aspects of democracy: there's electoral competition, which determines how you acquire power, and there are checks and balances, which determine how you use power. +It turns out that electoral competition is the thing that's doing the damage with democracy, whereas strong checks and balances make resource booms good. +And so, what the countries of the bottom billion need is very strong checks and balances. +They haven't got them. +They got instant democracy in the 1990s: elections without checks and balances. +How can we help improve governance and introduce checks and balances? +In all the societies of the bottom billion, there are intense struggles to do just that. +The simple proposal is that we should have some international standards, which will be voluntary, but which would spell out the key decision points that need to be taken in order to harness these resource revenues. +We know these international standards work because we've already got one. +It's called the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative. +That is the very simple idea that governments should report to their citizens what revenues they have. +No sooner was it proposed than reformers in Nigeria adopted it, pushed it and published the revenues in the paper. +Nigerian newspapers circulations spiked. +People wanted to know what their government was getting in terms of revenue. +So, we know it works. What would the content be of these international standards? +I can't go through all of them, but I'll give you an example. +The first is how to take the resources out of the ground -- the economic processes, taking the resources out of the ground and putting assets on top of the ground. +And the first step in that is selling the rights to resource extraction. +You know how rights to resource extraction are being sold at the moment, how they've been sold over the last 40 years? +A company flies in, does a deal with a minister. +And that's great for the company, and it's quite often great for the minister -- -- and it's not great for their country. +There's a very simple institutional technology which can transform that, and it's called verified auctions. +The public agency with the greatest expertise on Earth is of course the treasury -- that is, the British Treasury. +And the British Treasury decided that it would sell the rights to third-generation mobile phones by working out what those rights were worth. +They worked out they were worth two billion pounds. +Just in time, a set of economists got there and said, "Why not try an auction? It'll reveal the value." +It went for 20 billion pounds through auction. +If the British Treasury can be out by a factor of 10, think what the ministry of finance in Sierra Leone is going to be like. +When I put that to the President of Sierra Leone, the next day he asked the World Bank to send him a team to give expertise on how to conduct auctions. +There are five such decision points; each one needs an international standard. +If we could do it, we would change the world. +We would be helping the reformers in these societies, who are struggling for change. +That's our modest role. We cannot change these societies, but we can help the people in these societies who are struggling and usually failing, because the odds are so stacked against them. +And yet, we've not got these rules. +If you think about it, the cost of promulgating international rules is zilch -- nothing. +Why on Earth are they not there? +I realized that the reason they're not there is that until we have a critical mass of informed citizens in our own societies, politicians will get away with gestures. +That unless we have an informed society, what politicians do, especially in relation to Africa, is gestures: things that look good, but don't work. +And so I realized we had to go through the business of building an informed citizenry. +That's why I broke all the professional rules of conduct for an economist, and I wrote an economics book that you could read on a beach. +. +However, I have to say, the process of communication does not come naturally to me. +This is why I'm on this stage, but it's alarming. +I grew up in a culture of self-effacement. +My wife showed me a blog comment on one of my last talks, and the blog comment said, "Collier is not charismatic -- -- but his arguments are compelling." +If you agree with that sentiment, and if you agree that we need a critical mass of informed citizenry, you will realize that I need you. +Please, become ambassadors. +Thank you. +So, I'm in Chile, in the Atacama desert, sitting in a hotel lobby, because that's the only place that I can get a Wi-Fi connection, and I have this picture up on my screen, and a woman comes up behind me. +She says, "Oh, that's beautiful. +What is it? Is that Jackson Pollock?" +And unfortunately, I can be a little too honest. +I said, "No, it's -- it's penguin shit." +And, you know, "Excuse me!" +And I could sense that she thought I was speaking synecdochically. +So, I said, "No, no, really -- it's penguin shit." +Because I had just been in the Falkland Islands taking pictures of penguins. +This is a Gentoo penguin. And she was still skeptical. +So, literally, a few minutes before that, I downloaded this scientific paper about calculations on avian defecation, which is really quite interesting, because it turns out you can model this as something called "Poiseuille flow," and you can learn an awful lot about the physics of the avian rectum. +Actually, technically, it's not a rectum. It's called a cloaca. +At this point, she stops me, and she says, "Who are you? +Wha -- what do you do?" +And I was stuck, because I didn't have any way to describe what I do. +And so, in some sense, this talk today is my answer to that. +It's a selection of a random bunch of the stuff that I do. +And it's very hard for me to make sense of it, so I'm not sure that you can. +It's the kind of thing that I sit up late at night thinking about sometimes -- often at four in the morning. +So, some people are afraid of what I do. +Some people think I am the nerd Tony Soprano, and in response, I have ordered a bulletproof pocket protector. +I'm not sure what these people think, because I don't speak Norsk. +But I'm not thinking "monsteret" is a good thing. +I don't know, you know? +So, one of the things that I love to do is travel around the world and look at archaeological sites. +Because archaeology gives us an opportunity to study past civilizations, and see where they succeeded and where they failed. +Use science to, you know, work backwards and say, "Well, really, what were they thinking?" +And recently, I was in Easter Island, which is an incredibly beautiful place, and an incredibly mysterious place, because no matter where you go in Easter Island, you're struck by these statues, called the moai. +The place is 64 square miles. +They made, so far as we can tell, 900 of them. +Why on Earth? And if you haven't read Jared Diamond's book, "Collapse," I totally recommend that you do. +He's got a great chapter about it. +Basically, these people committed ecological suicide in order to make more of these. +And somewhere along the line, somebody said, "I know! Let's cut down the last tree and commit suicide, because we need more identical statues." +And, one thing that isn't a mystery, actually, was when I grew up -- because when I was a little kid, I'd seen these pictures -- and I thought, "Well, why that look on the face? +Why that brow?" I mean, it's such a powerful thing. +Where did they get that inspiration? +And then I met Yoyo, who is the native Rapa Nui-an guide, and if you look at Yoyo's face, you kind of figure out where they got it. +There's many mysteries, these statues. +Everyone wants to know, how did they make them, how did they transport them? +This woman in the foreground is Jo Anne Van Tilberg. +She's the leading archaeologist working Easter Island today. +And she has studied the statues for 20-some years, and she has detailed records of every single statue. +The one on the page here is the same that's up there. +One interesting problem is the stone isn't very hard. +So, this used to be completely smooth. +In fact, in many of the statues, when you excavate them, the backs are totally smooth -- almost glass smooth. +But after 1,000 years out in the weather, they look like this. +Jo Anne and I have just embarked on a project to digitize them all, and we're going to do a very high-res digitization, first because it's a way of preserving them. +Second, we have these ideas about how you can algorithmically, then, learn a few of the mysteries about them. +How long have they been standing in what positions? +And maybe, indirectly, get at some of the issues of what caused them to be the way they are. +While I was in Easter Island, comet McNaught was there also, so you get a gratuitous picture of a moai with a comet. +I also have an archaeological project going on in Egypt. +"Going on" is perhaps a little bit strong. +We're trying to get all of the permissions to get everything all set, to get it going. +So, I'll talk about it at a future TED. +But there's some amazing opportunities in Egypt as well. +Another thing I do is I invent stuff. +In fact, I design nuclear reactors. +Not a joke. +This is the conventional nuclear fuel cycle. +The red line is what is done in most nuclear reactors. It's called the open fuel cycle. +The white lines are what's called an advance fuel cycle, where you reprocess. +Now, this is the normal way it's done. +It's got the huge advantage that it does not create carbon pollution. +It has a lot of disadvantages: each one of these steps is extremely expensive, it's potentially dangerous and they have the interesting property that the step cannot be performed in anyone's backyard, which is a problem. +So, our reactor eliminates these steps, which, if we can actually make it work, is a really cool thing. +Now, it's kind of nuts to work on a new nuclear reactor. +There's -- no reactor's been even built to an old design, much less a new one, in the United States for 25 years. +It's the kind of very high-risk, but potentially very high-return thing that we do. +Changing into a totally different field, we do a lot of stuff in solid state physics, particularly in an area called metamaterials. +A metamaterial is an artificial material, which manipulates, in this case, electromagnetic radiation, in a way that you couldn't otherwise. +So, this device here is an invisibility cloak. +It may not seem that, but if you were a microwave, this is how you would view it. +Rays of light -- in this case, microwave light -- come in, and they just squish around the cell, and they come back the other side. +Now, you could do that with mirrors from one angle. +The cool thing is, this does it from all angles. +Metamaterials, unfortunately -- A, it only works on microwave, and B, it doesn't work all that well yet. +But metamaterials are an incredibly exciting field. +It's -- you know, today I'd like to say it's a zero billion dollar business, but, in fact, it's negative. +But some day, some day, maybe it's going to work. +We do a lot of work in biomedical fields. +In this case, we're working with a major medical foundation to develop inexpensive ways of diagnosing diseases in developing countries. +So, they say the eyes are the windows of the soul -- turns out they're a window to a whole lot more stuff. +And these happen to be my eyes, by the way. +Now, I'm also very interested in cooking. +While I was at Microsoft, I took a leave of absence and went to a chef school in France. +I used to work, also while at Microsoft, at a leading restaurant in Seattle, so I do a lot of cooking. +I've been on a team that won the world championship of barbecue. +But barbecue's interesting, because it's one of these cult foods like chili, or bouillabaisse. +Various parts of the world will have a cult food that people get enormously attached to -- there's tremendous traditions, there's secrecy. +And I'm trying to use a very scientific approach. +So, this is my latest cooker, and if this looks more complicated than the nuclear reactor, that's because it is. +But if you get to play with all those knobs and dials -- and of course, really the controller over there does it all on software -- you can make some terrific ribs. +This is a high-speed centrifuge. +You should all have one in your kitchen, beside your Turbochef. +This subjects food to a force about 50,000 times that of normal gravity, and oh boy, does it clarify chicken stock. +You would not believe it! +I perform a series of ghoulish experiments on food -- in this case, trying to calibrate a mathematical model so that one can predict exactly what the internal cooking times are. +It turns out, A, it's useful, and for a geek like me, it's fun. +Theory is red, black is experiment. +So, I'm either really good at faking it, or this particular model seems to work. +So, another random thing I do is the search for extraterrestrial intelligence, or SETI. +And you may be familiar with the movie "Contact," which sort of popularized that. +It turns out there are real people who go out and search for extraterrestrials in a very scientific way. +In fact, almost everybody in the movie is based on a real character, a real person. +So, the Jodie Foster character here is actually this woman, Jill Tarter, and Jill has dedicated her life to this. +You know, a lot of people risk their lives in a brief act of heroism, which is kind of cool, but Jill has what I call slow heroism. +She is risking her professional life on something that her own calculations show may not work for a thousand years -- may not ever. +So, I like to support people that are risking their lives. +After the movie came out, of course, there was a lot of interest in SETI. +My kids saw the movie, and afterwards they came to me and they said, "So, Dad, so -- so -- that character -- that's Jill, right?" +I said, "Oh, yeah, yeah -- absolutely." +"And that other person, that's someone -- " I said, "Yes." +They said, "Well, you know that creepy rich guy in the movie? +Is that you?" +I said, "Well, you know, it's just a movie! Come on." +So, the SETI Institute, with a little bit of help from me, and a lot of help from Paul Allen and a variety of other people, is building a dedicated radio telescope in Hat Creek, California, so they can do this SETI work. +Now, I travel a lot, and I change cell phones a lot, and the one person who always gets updated on all my cell phones and pagers and everything else is Jill, because I really don't want to miss "the call." +I mean, can you imagine? E.T.'s phoning home, and I'm not, like, there? You know, horrible! +So, I do a lot of work on dinosaurs. +I'm known to TEDsters as the guy that has sex with dinosaurs. +And I resemble that remark. +I'm going to talk about a different aspect of dinosaurs, which is the finding of them. +Now, to find dinosaurs, you hike around in horrible conditions looking for a dinosaur. +It sounds really dumb, but that's what it is. +It's horrible conditions, because wherever you have nice weather, plants grow, and you don't get any erosion, and you don't see any dinosaurs. +So, you always find dinosaurs in deserts or badlands, areas that have very little plant growth and have flash floods in the spring. +You know, skiers pray for snow? +Paleontologists pray for erosion. +So, you hike around and -- this is after you dig them up, they look like this. +You hike around, you see something like this. +Now, this is something I found, so look at it very closely here. +You've got this bentonite clay, which is -- sort of swells up and expands. +And there's some stuff poking out. So, you look at that, and you look up close, and you say, "Well, gee, that's kind of interesting. What are all of these pieces?" +Well, if you look closely, you can recognize, actually, from the shape, that these are skull fragments. +And then when you look at this, you say, "That's a tooth. +It's a big tooth." +It's about the size of a banana. +It has a big serration on the edge. +This is what Tyrannosaurus rex looks like in the ground. +And this is what it's like to find a Tyrannosaurus rex, which I was lucky enough to do a few years ago. +Now, this is what Tyrannosaurus rex looks like in my living room. +Not the same one, actually. This is a cast, which I had bought, and then, after buying the cast, I found my own, and I don't have room for two. +You know. +So, the thing that's wonderful for me about finding dinosaurs is that it is both an intellectual thing, because you're trying to reconstruct the environment of millions of years ago. +It's something that can inform all sorts of science in unexpected ways. +The study of dinosaurs led to the realization that there's a problem with asteroid impact, for example. +The study of dinosaurs may, literally, one day save the planet. +Study of the ancient climate is very important. +In fact, the Mesozoic, when dinosaurs lived, had much higher CO2 than today, was much warmer than today, and is one of the interesting proof points for the effects of CO2 on climate. +But, besides being intellectually and scientifically interesting, it's also very different than the other things I do, because you get to hike around in the badlands. +This is actually what most dinosaur research looks like. +This is one of my papers: "A pygostyle from a non-avian theropod." +It's not as gripping as dinosaur sex, so we're not going to go into it further. +Now, I'm also really big on photography. +I travel all over the world taking pictures -- some of them good, most of them not. +These days, bits are cheap. Unfortunately, that means you've got to spend more time sorting through them. +Here's a picture I took in the Falkland Islands of king penguins on a beach. +Here's a picture I took in Alaska, a few years ago, of Orcas. +I'd gone up to photograph Orcas, and we had looked for a week, and we hadn't seen a damn Orca. +And the last day, the sun comes out, the Orcas come, they're right by the boat. It's fantastic. +And I get lots of pictures like this. +Then, a little bit later, I start getting some pictures like this. +Now, to a human audience, I need to explain that if Penthouse magazine had a marine mammal edition, this would be the centerfold. +It's true. +So, there's more and more activity near the boat, and all of a sudden somebody shouts, "What's that in the water?" +I said, "Well, I think that's what you call a free willy." +There's a variety of things you can learn from watching whales have sex. +The first thing you learn is the overwhelming importance of hands. +They don't have them. +I think Paul Simon is in the audience, and he has -- he may not realize it, but he wrote a song all about whale sex, "Slip-Slidin' Away." +That's kind of what it's like. +The other interesting thing that I learned about whale sex: they curl their toes too. +So -- where do you go putting all of these disparate pieces together? +You know, there's a tremendous amount of wisdom in finding a great thing, passion in life, and focusing all your energy on it, and I've never been able to do that. +I just -- you know, because, yes, I'll focus passion on something, but then there will be something else, and then there's something else again. +And for a long time I fought this, and I thought, "Well, gee, I really ought to buckle down." +And you know, when I was at Microsoft, that was so engrossing, and the whole industry was expanding so much, that it did tend to crowd out most of the other things in my life. +But ultimately, I decided that what I really ought to do is not fight being who I am, but embrace it. +And say, "Yeah, you know, I -- this whole talk has been a mile wide and an inch deep, but that's really what works for me." +And regardless of whether it's nuclear reactors or metamaterials or whale sex, the common -- or lowest common denominator -- is me. +That's it, thank you. +Philosophers, dramatists, theologians have grappled with this question for centuries: what makes people go wrong? +Interestingly, I asked this question when I was a little kid. +I grew up in the South Bronx, inner-city ghetto in New York, and I was surrounded by evil, as all kids are who grew up in an inner city. +And I had friends who were really good kids, who lived out the Dr. Jekyll Mr. Hyde scenario -- Robert Louis Stevenson. +That is, they took drugs, got in trouble, went to jail. +Some got killed, and some did it without drug assistance. +So when I read Robert Louis Stevenson, that wasn't fiction. +The only question is, what was in the juice? +And more importantly, that line between good and evil -- which privileged people like to think is fixed and impermeable, with them on the good side, the others on the bad side -- I knew that line was movable, and it was permeable. +Good people could be seduced across that line, and under good and some rare circumstances, bad kids could recover with help, with reform, with rehabilitation. +So I want to begin with this wonderful illusion by [Dutch] artist M.C. Escher. +If you look at it and focus on the white, what you see is a world full of angels. +But let's look more deeply, and as we do, what appears is the demons, the devils in the world. +That tells us several things. +One, the world is, was, will always be filled with good and evil, because good and evil is the yin and yang of the human condition. +It tells me something else. +If you remember, God's favorite angel was Lucifer. +Apparently, Lucifer means "the light." +It also means "the morning star," in some scripture. +And apparently, he disobeyed God, and that's the ultimate disobedience to authority. +And when he did, Michael, the archangel, was sent to kick him out of heaven along with the other fallen angels. +And so Lucifer descends into hell, becomes Satan, becomes the devil, and the force of evil in the universe begins. +Paradoxically, it was God who created hell as a place to store evil. +He didn't do a good job of keeping it there though. +So, this arc of the cosmic transformation of God's favorite angel into the Devil, for me, sets the context for understanding human beings who are transformed from good, ordinary people into perpetrators of evil. +So the Lucifer effect, although it focuses on the negatives -- the negatives that people can become, not the negatives that people are -- leads me to a psychological definition. Evil is the exercise of power. +And that's the key: it's about power. +To intentionally harm people psychologically, to hurt people physically, to destroy people mortally, or ideas, and to commit crimes against humanity. +If you Google "evil," a word that should surely have withered by now, you come up with 136 million hits in a third of a second. +A few years ago -- I am sure all of you were shocked, as I was, with the revelation of American soldiers abusing prisoners in a strange place in a controversial war, Abu Ghraib in Iraq. +And these were men and women who were putting prisoners through unbelievable humiliation. +I was shocked, but I wasn't surprised, because I had seen those same visual parallels when I was the prison superintendent of the Stanford Prison Study. +Immediately the Bush administration military said what? +What all administrations say when there's a scandal: "Don't blame us. It's not the system. +It's the few bad apples, the few rogue soldiers." +My hypothesis is, American soldiers are good, usually. +Maybe it was the barrel that was bad. +But how am I going to deal with that hypothesis? +I became an expert witness for one of the guards, Sergeant Chip Frederick, and in that position, I had access to the dozen investigative reports. +I had access to him. +I could study him, have him come to my home, get to know him, do psychological analysis to see, was he a good apple or bad apple. +And thirdly, I had access to all of the 1,000 pictures that these soldiers took. +These pictures are of a violent or sexual nature. +All of them come from the cameras of American soldiers. +Because everybody has a digital camera or cell phone camera, they took pictures of everything, more than 1,000. +And what I've done is I organized them into various categories. +But these are by United States military police, army reservists. +They are not soldiers prepared for this mission at all. +And it all happened in a single place, Tier 1-A, on the night shift. +Why? Tier 1-A was the center for military intelligence. +It was the interrogation hold. The CIA was there. +Interrogators from Titan Corporation, all there, and they're getting no information about the insurgency. +So they're going to put pressure on these soldiers, military police, to cross the line, give them permission to break the will of the enemy, to prepare them for interrogation, to soften them up, to take the gloves off. +Those are the euphemisms, and this is how it was interpreted. +Let's go down to that dungeon. +(Camera shutter sounds) (Camera shutter) (Camera shutter) (Bells end) So, pretty horrific. +That's one of the visual illustrations of evil. +And it should not have escaped you that the reason I paired the prisoner with his arms out with Leonardo da Vinci's ode to humanity is that that prisoner was mentally ill. +That prisoner covered himself with shit every day, they had to roll him in dirt so he wouldn't stink. +But the guards ended up calling him "Shit Boy." +What was he doing in that prison rather than in some mental institution? +In any event, here's former Secretary of Defense Rumsfeld. +He comes down and says, "I want to know, who is responsible? +Who are the bad apples?" Well, that's a bad question. +You have to reframe it and ask, "What is responsible?" +"What" could be the who of people, but it could also be the what of the situation, and obviously that's wrongheaded. +How do psychologists try to understand such transformations of human character, if you believe that they were good soldiers before they went down to that dungeon? +There are three ways. The main way is called dispositional. +We look at what's inside of the person, the bad apples. +This is the foundation of all of social science, the foundation of religion, the foundation of war. +Social psychologists like me come along and say, "Yeah, people are the actors on the stage, but you'll have to be aware of the situation. +Who are the cast of characters? What's the costume? +Is there a stage director?" +And so we're interested in what are the external factors around the individual -- the bad barrel? +Social scientists stop there and they miss the big point that I discovered when I became an expert witness for Abu Ghraib. +The power is in the system. +The system creates the situation that corrupts the individuals, and the system is the legal, political, economic, cultural background. +And this is where the power is of the bad-barrel makers. +If you want to change a person, change the situation. +And to change it, you've got to know where the power is, in the system. +So the Lucifer effect involves understanding human character transformations with these three factors. +And it's a dynamic interplay. +What do the people bring into the situation? +What does the situation bring out of them? +And what is the system that creates and maintains that situation? +My recent book, "The Lucifer Effect," is about, how do you understand how good people turn evil? +And it has a lot of detail about what I'm going to talk about today. +So Dr. Z's "Lucifer Effect," although it focuses on evil, really is a celebration of the human mind's infinite capacity to make any of us kind or cruel, caring or indifferent, creative or destructive, and it makes some of us villains. +And the good news that I'm going to hopefully come to at the end is that it makes some of us heroes. +This wonderful cartoon in the New Yorker summarizes my whole talk: "I'm neither a good cop nor a bad cop, Jerome. +Like yourself, I'm a complex amalgam of positive and negative personality traits that emerge or not, depending on the circumstances." +There's a study some of you think you know about, but very few people have ever read the story. You watched the movie. +This is Stanley Milgram, little Jewish kid from the Bronx, and he asked the question, "Could the Holocaust happen here, now?" +People say, "No, that's Nazi Germany, Hitler, you know, that's 1939." +He said, "Yeah, but suppose Hitler asked you, 'Would you electrocute a stranger?' 'No way, I'm a good person.'" He said, "Why don't we put you in a situation and give you a chance to see what you would do?" +And so what he did was he tested 1,000 ordinary people. +500 New Haven, Connecticut, 500 Bridgeport. +And the ad said, "Psychologists want to understand memory. +We want to improve people's memory, because it is the key to success." OK? +"We're going to give you five bucks -- four dollars for your time. +We don't want college students. We want men between 20 and 50." +In the later studies, they ran women. +Ordinary people: barbers, clerks, white-collar people. +So, you go down, one of you will be a learner, one will be a teacher. +The learner's a genial, middle-aged guy. +He gets tied up to the shock apparatus in another room. +The learner could be middle-aged, could be as young as 20. +And one of you is told by the authority, the guy in the lab coat, "Your job as teacher is to give him material to learn. +Gets it right, reward. +Gets it wrong, you press a button on the shock box. +The first button is 15 volts. He doesn't even feel it." +That's the key. All evil starts with 15 volts. +And then the next step is another 15 volts. +The problem is, at the end of the line, it's 450 volts. +And as you go along, the guy is screaming, "I've got a heart condition! I'm out of here!" +You're a good person. You complain. +"Sir, who will be responsible if something happens to him?" +The experimenter says, "Don't worry, I will be responsible. +Continue, teacher." +And the question is, who would go all the way to 450 volts? +You should notice here, when it gets up to 375, it says, "Danger. Severe Shock." +When it gets up to here, there's "XXX" -- the pornography of power. +So Milgram asks 40 psychiatrists, "What percent of American citizens would go to the end?" +They said only one percent. Because that's sadistic behavior, and we know, psychiatry knows, only one percent of Americans are sadistic. +OK. Here's the data. They could not be more wrong. +Two thirds go all the way to 450 volts. This was just one study. +Milgram did more than 16 studies. And look at this. +In study 16, where you see somebody like you go all the way, 90 percent go all the way. In study five, if you see people rebel, What about women? Study 13 -- no different than men. +So Milgram is quantifying evil as the willingness of people to blindly obey authority, to go all the way to 450 volts. +And it's like a dial on human nature. +A dial in a sense that you can make almost everybody totally obedient, down to the majority, down to none. +What are the external parallels? For all research is artificial. +What's the validity in the real world? +912 American citizens committed suicide or were murdered by family and friends in Guyana jungle in 1978, because they were blindly obedient to this guy, their pastor -- not their priest -- their pastor, Reverend Jim Jones. +He persuaded them to commit mass suicide. +And so, he's the modern Lucifer effect, a man of God who becomes the Angel of Death. +Milgram's study is all about individual authority to control people. +Most of the time, we are in institutions, so the Stanford Prison Study is a study of the power of institutions to influence individual behavior. +Interestingly, Stanley Milgram and I were in the same high school class in James Monroe in the Bronx, 1954. +I did this study with my graduate students, especially Craig Haney -- and it also began work with an ad. +We had a cheap, little ad, but we wanted college students for a study of prison life. +75 people volunteered, took personality tests. We did interviews. +Picked two dozen: the most normal, the most healthy. +Randomly assigned them to be prisoner and guard. +So on day one, we knew we had good apples. +I'm going to put them in a bad situation. +And secondly, we know there's no difference between the boys who will be guards and those who will be prisoners. +To the prisoners, we said, "Wait at home. The study will begin Sunday." +We didn't tell them that the city police were going to come and do realistic arrests. +[Day 1] Student: A police car pulls up in front, and a cop comes to the front door, and knocks, and says he's looking for me. +So they, right there, you know, they took me out the door, they put my hands against the car. +It was a real cop car, it was a real policeman, and there were real neighbors in the street, who didn't know that this was an experiment. +And there was cameras all around and neighbors all around. +They put me in the car, then they drove me around Palo Alto. +They took me to the basement of the police station. +Then they put me in a cell. +I was the first one to be picked up, so they put me in a cell, which was just like a room with a door with bars on it. +You could tell it wasn't a real jail. +They locked me in there, in this degrading little outfit. +They were taking this experiment too seriously. +Here are the prisoners, who are going to be dehumanized, they'll become numbers. +Here are the guards with the symbols of power and anonymity. +Guards get prisoners to clean the toilet bowls out with their bare hands, to do other humiliating tasks. +They strip them naked. They sexually taunt them. +They begin to do degrading activities, like having them simulate sodomy. +You saw simulating fellatio in soldiers in Abu Ghraib. +My guards did it in five days. The stress reaction was so extreme that normal kids we picked because they were healthy had breakdowns within 36 hours. +The study ended after six days, because it was out of control. +Five kids had emotional breakdowns. +if warriors go to battle changing their appearance or not? +If they're anonymous, how do they treat their victims? +In some cultures, they go to war without changing their appearance. +In others, they paint themselves like "Lord of the Flies." +In some, they wear masks. +In many, soldiers are anonymous in uniform. +So this anthropologist, John Watson, found 23 cultures that had two bits of data. +Do they change their appearance? 15. +Do they kill, torture, mutilate? 13. +If they don't change their appearance, only one of eight kills, tortures or mutilates. +The key is in the red zone. +If they change their appearance, 12 of 13 -- that's 90 percent -- kill, torture, mutilate. +And that's the power of anonymity. +So what are the seven social processes that grease the slippery slope of evil? +Mindlessly taking the first small step. +Dehumanization of others. De-individuation of self. +Diffusion of personal responsibility. Blind obedience to authority. +Uncritical conformity to group norms. +Passive tolerance of evil through inaction, or indifference. +And it happens when you're in a new or unfamiliar situation. +Your habitual response patterns don't work. +Your personality and morality are disengaged. +"Nothing is easier than to denounce the evildoer; nothing more difficult than understanding him," Dostoyevsky. +Understanding is not excusing. Psychology is not excuse-ology. +So social and psychological research reveals how ordinary, good people can be transformed without the drugs. +You don't need it. You just need the social-psychological processes. +Real world parallels? Compare this with this. +James Schlesinger -- I'm going to end with this -- says, "Psychologists have attempted to understand how and why individuals and groups who usually act humanely can sometimes act otherwise in certain circumstances." +That's the Lucifer effect. +And he goes on to say, "The landmark Stanford study provides a cautionary tale for all military operations." +If you give people power without oversight, it's a prescription for abuse. They knew that, and let that happen. +So another report, an investigative report by General Fay, says the system is guilty. In this report, he says it was the environment that created Abu Ghraib, by leadership failures that contributed to the occurrence of such abuse, and because it remained undiscovered by higher authorities for a long period of time. +Those abuses went on for three months. +Who was watching the store? +The answer is nobody, I think on purpose. +He gave the guards permission to do those things, and they knew nobody was ever going to come down to that dungeon. +So you need a paradigm shift in all of these areas. +The shift is away from the medical model that focuses only on the individual. +The shift is toward a public health model that recognizes situational and systemic vectors of disease. +Bullying is a disease. Prejudice is a disease. Violence is a disease. +Since the Inquisition, we've been dealing with problems at the individual level. +It doesn't work. +Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn says, "The line between good and evil cuts through the heart of every human being." +That means that line is not out there. +That's a decision that you have to make, a personal thing. +So I want to end very quickly on a positive note. +Heroism as the antidote to evil, by promoting the heroic imagination, especially in our kids, in our educational system. +We want kids to think, "I'm a hero in waiting, waiting for the right situation to come along, and I will act heroically. +My whole life, I'm now going to focus away from evil -- that I've been in since I was a kid -- to understanding heroes. +Banality of heroism. +It's ordinary people who do heroic deeds. +It's the counterpoint to Hannah Arendt's "Banality of Evil." +Our traditional societal heroes are wrong, because they are the exceptions. +They organize their life around this. That's why we know their names. +Our kids' heroes are also wrong models for them, because they have supernatural talents. +We want our kids to realize most heroes are everyday people, and the heroic act is unusual. This is Joe Darby. +He was the one that stopped those abuses you saw, because when he saw those images, he turned them over to a senior investigating officer. +He was a low-level private, and that stopped it. Was he a hero? No. +They had to put him in hiding, because people wanted to kill him, and then his mother and his wife. +For three years, they were in hiding. +This is the woman who stopped the Stanford Prison Study. +When I said it got out of control, I was the prison superintendent. +I didn't know it was out of control. I was totally indifferent. +She saw that madhouse and said, "You know what, it's terrible what you're doing to those boys. +They're not prisoners nor guards, they're boys, and you are responsible." +And I ended the study the next day. +The good news is I married her the next year. +I just came to my senses, obviously. +So situations have the power to do [three things]. +But the point is, this is the same situation that can inflame the hostile imagination in some of us, that makes us perpetrators of evil, can inspire the heroic imagination in others. +It's the same situation and you're on one side or the other. +Most people are guilty of the evil of inaction, because your mother said, "Don't get involved. Mind your own business." +And you have to say, "Mama, humanity is my business." +So the psychology of heroism is -- we're going to end in a moment -- how do we encourage children in new hero courses, that I'm working on with Matt Langdon -- he has a hero workshop -- to develop this heroic imagination, this self-labeling, "I am a hero in waiting," and teach them skills. +To be a hero, you have to learn to be a deviant, because you're always going against the conformity of the group. +Heroes are ordinary people whose social actions are extraordinary. Who act. +The key to heroism is two things. +You have to act when other people are passive. +B: You have to act socio-centrically, not egocentrically. +And I want to end with a known story about Wesley Autrey, New York subway hero. +Fifty-year-old African-American construction worker standing on a subway. +A white guy falls on the tracks. +The subway train is coming. There's 75 people there. +You know what? They freeze. +He's got a reason not to get involved. +He's black, the guy's white, and he's got two kids. +Instead, he gives his kids to a stranger, jumps on the tracks, puts the guy between the tracks, lays on him, the subway goes over him. +Wesley and the guy -- 20 and a half inches height. +The train clearance is 21 inches. +A half an inch would have taken his head off. +And he said, "I did what anyone could do," no big deal to jump on the tracks. +And the moral imperative is "I did what everyone should do." +And so one day, you will be in a new situation. +Take path one, you're going to be a perpetrator of evil. +Evil, meaning you're going to be Arthur Andersen. +You're going to cheat, or you're going to allow bullying. +Path two, you become guilty of the evil of passive inaction. +Path three, you become a hero. +The point is, are we ready to take the path to celebrating ordinary heroes, waiting for the right situation to come along to put heroic imagination into action? +Because it may only happen once in your life, and when you pass it by, you'll always know, I could have been a hero and I let it pass me by. +So the point is thinking it and then doing it. +So I want to thank you. Thank you. +Let's oppose the power of evil systems at home and abroad, and let's focus on the positive. +Advocate for respect of personal dignity, for justice and peace, which sadly our administration has not been doing. +Thanks so much. +You know, culture was born of the imagination, and the imagination -- the imagination as we know it -- came into being when our species descended from our progenitor, Homo erectus, and, infused with consciousness, began a journey that would carry it to every corner of the habitable world. +For a time, we shared the stage with our distant cousins, Neanderthal, who clearly had some spark of awareness, but -- whether it was the increase in the size of the brain, or the development of language, or some other evolutionary catalyst -- we quickly left Neanderthal gasping for survival. +By the time the last Neanderthal disappeared in Europe, 27,000 years ago, our direct ancestors had already, and for 5,000 years, been crawling into the belly of the earth, where in the light of the flickers of tallow candles, they had brought into being the great art of the Upper Paleolithic. +And I spent two months in the caves of southwest France with the poet Clayton Eshleman, who wrote a beautiful book called "Juniper Fuse." +And you could look at this art and you could, of course, see the complex social organization of the people who brought it into being. +But more importantly, it spoke of a deeper yearning, something far more sophisticated than hunting magic. +And the way Clayton put it was this way. +He said, "You know, clearly at some point, we were all of an animal nature, and at some point, we weren't." +And he viewed proto-shamanism as a kind of original attempt, through ritual, to rekindle a connection that had been irrevocably lost. +So, he saw this art not as hunting magic, but as postcards of nostalgia. +And viewed in that light, it takes on a whole other resonance. +And the most amazing thing about the Upper Paleolithic art is that as an aesthetic expression, it lasted for almost 20,000 years. +If these were postcards of nostalgia, ours was a very long farewell indeed. +And it was also the beginning of our discontent, because if you wanted to distill all of our experience since the Paleolithic, it would come down to two words: how and why. +And these are the slivers of insight upon which cultures have been forged. +Now, all people share the same raw, adaptive imperatives. +We all have children. +We all have to deal with the mystery of death, the world that waits beyond death, the elders who fall away into their elderly years. +All of this is part of our common experience, and this shouldn't surprise us, because, after all, biologists have finally proven it to be true, something that philosophers have always dreamt to be true. +And that is the fact that we are all brothers and sisters. +We are all cut from the same genetic cloth. +All of humanity, probably, is descended from a thousand people who left Africa roughly 70,000 years ago. +But the corollary of that is that, if we all are brothers and sisters and share the same genetic material, all human populations share the same raw human genius, the same intellectual acuity. +And so whether that genius is placed into -- technological wizardry has been the great achievement of the West -- or by contrast, into unraveling the complex threads of memory inherent in a myth, is simply a matter of choice and cultural orientation. +There is no progression of affairs in human experience. +There is no trajectory of progress. There's no pyramid that conveniently places Victorian England at the apex and descends down the flanks to the so-called primitives of the world. +All peoples are simply cultural options, different visions of life itself. +But what do I mean by different visions of life making for completely different possibilities for existence? +Well, let's slip for a moment into the greatest culture sphere ever brought into being by the imagination, that of Polynesia. +10,000 square kilometers, tens of thousands of islands flung like jewels upon the southern sea. +I recently sailed on the Hokulea, named after the sacred star of Hawaii, throughout the South Pacific to make a film about the navigators. +These are men and women who, even today, can name 250 stars in the night sky. +Indeed, if you took all of the genius that allowed us to put a man on the moon and applied it to an understanding of the ocean, what you would get is Polynesia. +And if we slip from the realm of the sea into the realm of the spirit of the imagination, you enter the realm of Tibetan Buddhism. +And I recently made a film called "The Buddhist Science of the Mind." +Why did we use that word, science? +What is science but the empirical pursuit of the truth? +What is Buddhism but 2,500 years of empirical observation as to the nature of mind? +I travelled for a month in Nepal with our good friend, Matthieu Ricard, and you'll remember Matthieu famously said to all of us here once at TED, "Western science is a major response to minor needs." +We spend all of our lifetime trying to live to be 100 without losing our teeth. +The Buddhist spends all their lifetime trying to understand the nature of existence. +Our billboards celebrate naked children in underwear. +Their billboards are manuals, prayers to the well-being of all sentient creatures. +And with the blessing of Trulshik Rinpoche, we began a pilgrimage to a curious destination, accompanied by a great doctor. +And the destination was a single room in a nunnery, where a woman had gone into lifelong retreat 55 years before. +And en route, we took darshan from Rinpoche, and he sat with us and told us about the Four Noble Truths, the essence of the Buddhist path. +All life is suffering. That doesn't mean all life is negative. +It means things happen. +The cause of suffering is ignorance. +By that, the Buddha did not mean stupidity; he meant clinging to the illusion that life is static and predictable. +The third noble truth said that ignorance can be overcome. +And the fourth and most important, of course, was the delineation of a contemplative practice that not only had the possibility of a transformation of the human heart, but had 2,500 years of empirical evidence that such a transformation was a certainty. +And so, when this door opened onto the face of a woman who had not been out of that room in 55 years, you did not see a mad woman. +You saw a woman who was more clear than a pool of water in a mountain stream. +And of course, this is what the Tibetan monks told us. +They said, at one point, you know, we don't really believe you went to the moon, but you did. +You may not believe that we achieve enlightenment in one lifetime, but we do. +And if we move from the realm of the spirit to the realm of the physical, to the sacred geography of Peru -- I've always been interested in the relationships of indigenous people that literally believe that the Earth is alive, responsive to all of their aspirations, all of their needs. +And, of course, the human population has its own reciprocal obligations. +I spent 30 years living amongst the people of Chinchero and I always heard about an event that I always wanted to participate in. +Once each year, the fastest young boy in each hamlet is given the honor of becoming a woman. +And for one day, he wears the clothing of his sister and he becomes a transvestite, a waylaka. And for that day, he leads all able-bodied men on a run, but it's not your ordinary run. +You start off at 11,500 feet. +You run down to the base of the sacred mountain, Antakillqa. +You run up to 15,000 feet, descend 3,000 feet. +Climb again over the course of 24 hours. +And of course, the waylakama spin, the trajectory of the route, is marked by holy mounds of Earth, where coke is given to the Earth, libations of alcohol to the wind, the vortex of the feminine is brought to the mountaintop. +And the metaphor is clear: you go into the mountain as an individual, but through exhaustion, through sacrifice, you emerge as a community that has once again reaffirmed its sense of place in the planet. +And at 48, I was the only outsider ever to go through this, only one to finish it. +I only managed to do it by chewing more coca leaves in one day than anyone in the 4,000-year history of the plant. +But these localized rituals become pan-Andean, and these fantastic festivals, like that of the Qoyllur Rit'i, which occurs when the Pleiades reappear in the winter sky. +It's kind of like an Andean Woodstock: 60,000 Indians on pilgrimage to the end of a dirt road that leads to the sacred valley, called the Sinakara, which is dominated by three tongues of the great glacier. +The metaphor is so clear. You bring the crosses from your community, in this wonderful fusion of Christian and pre-Columbian ideas. +You place the cross into the ice, in the shadow of Ausangate, the most sacred of all Apus, or sacred mountains of the Inca. +And then you do the ritual dances that empower the crosses. +Now, these ideas and these events allow us even to deconstruct iconic places that many of you have been to, like Machu Picchu. +Machu Picchu was never a lost city. +On the contrary, it was completely linked in to the 14,000 kilometers of royal roads the Inca made in less than a century. +But more importantly, it was linked in to the Andean notions of sacred geography. +The intiwatana, the hitching post to the sun, is actually an obelisk that constantly reflects the light that falls on the sacred Apu of Machu Picchu, which is Sugarloaf Mountain, called Huayna Picchu. +If you come to the south of the intiwatana, you find an altar. +Climb Huayna Picchu, find another altar. +Take a direct north-south bearing, you find to your astonishment that it bisects the intiwatana stone, goes to the skyline, hits the heart of Salcantay, the second of the most important mountains of the Incan empire. +And then beyond Salcantay, of course, when the southern cross reaches the southernmost point in the sky, directly in that same alignment, the Milky Way overhead. +But what is enveloping Machu Picchu from below? +The sacred river, the Urubamba, or the Vilcanota, which is itself the Earthly equivalent of the Milky Way, but it's also the trajectory that Viracocha walked at the dawn of time when he brought the universe into being. +And where does the river rise? +Right on the slopes of the Koariti. +So, 500 years after Columbus, these ancient rhythms of landscape are played out in ritual. +Now, when I was here at the first TED, I showed this photograph: two men of the Elder Brothers, the descendants, survivors of El Dorado. +These, of course, are the descendants of the ancient Tairona civilization. +If those of you who are here remember that I mentioned that they remain ruled by a ritual priesthood, but the training for the priesthood is extraordinary. +Taken from their families, sequestered in a shadowy world of darkness for 18 years -- two nine-year periods deliberately chosen to evoke the nine months they spend in the natural mother's womb. +All that time, the world only exists as an abstraction, as they are taught the values of their society. +Values that maintain the proposition that their prayers, and their prayers alone, maintain the cosmic balance. +Now, the measure of a society is not only what it does, but the quality of its aspirations. +And I always wanted to go back into these mountains, to see if this could possibly be true, as indeed had been reported by the great anthropologist, Reichel-Dolmatoff. +So, literally two weeks ago, I returned from having spent six weeks with the Elder Brothers on what was clearly the most extraordinary trip of my life. +These really are a people who live and breathe the realm of the sacred, a baroque religiosity that is simply awesome. +They consume more coca leaves than any human population, half a pound per man, per day. +The gourd you see here is -- everything in their lives is symbolic. +Their central metaphor is a loom. +They say, "Upon this loom, I weave my life." +They refer to the movements as they exploit the ecological niches of the gradient as "threads." +When they pray for the dead, they make these gestures with their hands, spinning their thoughts into the heavens. +You can see the calcium buildup on the head of the poporo gourd. +The gourd is a feminine aspect; the stick is a male. +You put the stick in the powder to take the sacred ashes -- well, they're not ashes, they're burnt limestone -- to empower the coca leaf, to change the pH of the mouth to facilitate the absorption of cocaine hydrochloride. +But if you break a gourd, you cannot simply throw it away, because every stroke of that stick that has built up that calcium, the measure of a man's life, has a thought behind it. +Fields are planted in such an extraordinary way, that the one side of the field is planted like that by the women. +The other side is planted like that by the men. Metaphorically, you turn it on the side, and you have a piece of cloth. +And they are the descendants of the ancient Tairona civilization, the greatest goldsmiths of South America, who in the wake of the conquest, retreated into this isolated volcanic massif that soars to 20,000 feet above the Caribbean coastal plain. +There are four societies: the Kogi, the Wiwa, the Kankwano and the Arhuacos. +I traveled with the Arhuacos, and the wonderful thing about this story was that this man, Danilo Villafane -- if we just jump back here for a second. +When I first met Danilo, in the Colombian embassy in Washington, I couldn't help but say, "You know, you look a lot like an old friend of mine." +Well, it turns out he was the son of my friend, Adalberto, from 1974, who had been killed by the FARC. +And I said, "Danilo, you won't remember this, but when you were an infant, I carried you on my back, up and down the mountains." +And because of that, Danilo invited us to go to the very heart of the world, a place where no journalist had ever been permitted. +Not simply to the flanks of the mountains, but to the very iced peaks which are the destiny of the pilgrims. +And this man sitting cross-legged is now a grown-up Eugenio, a man who I've known since 1974. +And this is one of those initiates. +No, it's not true that they're kept in the darkness for 18 years, but they are kept within the confines of the ceremonial men's circle for 18 years. +This little boy will never step outside of the sacred fields that surround the men's hut for all that time, until he begins his journey of initiation. +For that entire time, the world only exists as an abstraction, as he is taught the values of society, including this notion that their prayers alone maintain the cosmic balance. +Before we could begin our journey, we had to be cleansed at the portal of the Earth. +And it was extraordinary to be taken by a priest. +And you see that the priest never wears shoes because holy feet -- there must be nothing between the feet and the Earth for a mamo. +And this is actually the place where the Great Mother sent the spindle into the world that elevated the mountains and created the homeland that they call the heart of the world. +We traveled high into the paramo, and as we crested the hills, we realized that the men were interpreting every single bump on the landscape in terms of their own intense religiosity. +And then of course, as we reached our final destination, a place called Mamancana, we were in for a surprise, because the FARC were waiting to kidnap us. +And so we ended up being taken aside into these huts, hidden away until the darkness. +And then, abandoning all our gear, we were forced to ride out in the middle of the night, in a quite dramatic scene. +It's going to look like a John Ford Western. +And we ran into a FARC patrol at dawn, so it was quite harrowing. +It will be a very interesting film. But what was fascinating is that the minute there was a sense of dangers, the mamos went into a circle of divination. +And of course, this is a photograph literally taken the night we were in hiding, as they divine their route to take us out of the mountains. +We were able to, because we had trained people in filmmaking, continue with our work, and send our Wiwa and Arhuaco filmmakers to the final sacred lakes to get the last shots for the film, and we followed the rest of the Arhuaco back to the sea, taking the elements from the highlands to the sea. +And here you see how their sacred landscape has been covered by brothels and hotels and casinos, and yet, still they pray. +And it's an amazing thing to think that this close to Miami, two hours from Miami, there is an entire civilization of people praying every day for your well-being. +They call themselves the Elder Brothers. +They dismiss the rest of us who have ruined the world as the Younger Brothers. They cannot understand why it is that we do what we do to the Earth. +Now, if we slip to another end of the world, I was up in the high Arctic to tell a story about global warming, inspired in part by the former Vice President's wonderful book. +And what struck me so extraordinary was to be again with the Inuit -- a people who don't fear the cold, but take advantage of it. +A people who find a way, with their imagination, to carve life out of that very frozen. +A people for whom blood on ice is not a sign of death, but an affirmation of life. +And yet tragically, when you now go to those northern communities, you find to your astonishment that whereas the sea ice used to come in in September and stay till July, in a place like Kanak in northern Greenland, it literally comes in now in November and stays until March. +So, their entire year has been cut in half. +Now, I want to stress that none of these peoples that I've been quickly talking about here are disappearing worlds. +These are not dying peoples. +On the contrary, you know, if you have the heart to feel and the eyes to see, you discover that the world is not flat. +The world remains a rich tapestry. +It remains a rich topography of the spirit. +These myriad voices of humanity are not failed attempts at being new, failed attempts at being modern. +They're unique facets of the human imagination. +They're unique answers to a fundamental question: what does it mean to be human and alive? +And when asked that question, they respond with 6,000 different voices. +And collectively, those voices become our human repertoire for dealing with the challenges that will confront us in the ensuing millennia. +Our industrial society is scarcely 300 years old. +That shallow history shouldn't suggest to anyone that we have all of the answers for all of the questions that will confront us in the ensuing millennia. +The myriad voices of humanity are not failed attempts at being us. +They are unique answers to that fundamental question: what does it mean to be human and alive? +And there is indeed a fire burning over the Earth, taking with it not only plants and animals, but the legacy of humanity's brilliance. +Right now, as we sit here in this room, of those 6,000 languages spoken the day that you were born, fully half aren't being taught to children. +So, you're living through a time when virtually half of humanity's intellectual, social and spiritual legacy is being allowed to slip away. +This does not have to happen. +These peoples are not failed attempts at being modern -- quaint and colorful and destined to fade away as if by natural law. +In every case, these are dynamic, living peoples being driven out of existence by identifiable forces. +That's actually an optimistic observation, because it suggests that if human beings are the agents of cultural destruction, we can also be, and must be, the facilitators of cultural survival. +Thank you very much. +How do groups get anything done? Right? +How do you organize a group of individuals so that the output of the group is something coherent and of lasting value, instead of just being chaos? +And the economic framing of that problem is called coordination costs. +And a coordination cost is essentially all of the financial or institutional difficulties in arranging group output. +And we've had a classic answer for coordination costs, which is, if you want to coordinate the work of a group of people, you start an institution, right? You raise some resources. +You found something. It can be private or public. +It can be for profit or not profit. It can be large or small. +But you get these resources together. +You found an institution, and you use the institution to coordinate the activities of the group. +So, that's what I want to talk about today. +I'm going to illustrate it with some fairly concrete examples, but always pointing to the broader themes. +So, I'm going to start by trying to answer a question that I know each of you will have asked yourself at some point or other, and which the Internet is purpose-built to answer, which is, where can I get a picture of a roller-skating mermaid? +So, in New York City, on the first Saturday of every summer, Coney Island, our local, charmingly run-down amusement park, hosts the Mermaid Parade. It's an amateur parade; people come from all over the city; people get all dressed up. +Some people get less dressed up. +Young and old, dancing in the streets. +Colorful characters, and a good time is had by all. +And what I want to call your attention to is not the Mermaid Parade itself, charming though it is, but rather to these photos. +I didn't take them. How did I get them? +And the answer is: I got them from Flickr. +Flickr is a photo-sharing service that allows people to take photos, upload them, share them over the Web and so forth. +Recently, Flickr has added an additional function called tagging. +Tagging was pioneered by Delicious and Joshua Schachter. +Delicious is a social bookmarking service. +Tagging is a cooperative infrastructure answer to classification. +Right? If I had given this talk last year, I couldn't do what I just did, because I couldn't have found those photos. +But instead of saying, we need to hire a professional class of librarians to organize these photos once they're uploaded, Flickr simply turned over to the users the ability to characterize the photos. +So, I was able to go in and draw down photos that had been tagged "Mermaid Parade." There were 3,100 photos taken by 118 photographers, all aggregated and then put under this nice, neat name, shown in reverse chronological order. +And I was then able to go and retrieve them to give you that little slideshow. +Now, what hard problem is being solved here? +And it's -- in the most schematic possible view, it's a coordination problem, right? +There are a large number of people on the Internet, a very small fraction of them have photos of the Mermaid Parade. +How do we get those people together to contribute that work? +The classic answer is to form an institution, right? +To draw those people into some prearranged structure that has explicit goals. +And I want to call your attention to some of the side effects of going the institutional route. +First of all, when you form an institution, you take on a management problem, right? +No good just hiring employees, you also have to hire other employees to manage those employees and to enforce the goals of the institution and so forth. +Secondly, you have to bring structure into place. +Right? You have to have economic structure. +You have to have legal structure. +You have to have physical structure. +And that creates additional costs. +Third, forming an institution is inherently exclusionary. +You notice we haven't got everybody who has a photo. +You can't hire everyone in a company, right? +You can't recruit everyone into a governmental organization. +You have to exclude some people. +And fourth, as a result of that exclusion, you end up with a professional class. Look at the change here. +We've gone from people with photos to photographers. +Right? We've created a professional class of photographers whose goal is to go out and photograph the Mermaid Parade, or whatever else they're sent out to photograph. +When you build cooperation into the infrastructure, which is the Flickr answer, you can leave the people where they are and you take the problem to the individuals, rather than moving the individuals to the problem. +You arrange the coordination in the group, and by doing that you get the same outcome, without the institutional difficulties. +You lose the institutional imperative. +You lose the right to shape people's work when it's volunteer effort, but you also shed the institutional cost, which gives you greater flexibility. +What Flickr does is it replaces planning with coordination. +And this is a general aspect of these cooperative systems. +Right. You'll have experienced this in your life whenever you bought your first mobile phone, and you stopped making plans. +You just said, "I'll call you when I get there." +"Call me when you get off work." Right? +That is a point-to-point replacement of coordination with planning. +Right. We're now able to do that kind of thing with groups. +So here's another example. This one's somewhat more somber. +These are photos on Flickr tagged "Iraq." +And everything that was hard about the coordination cost with the Mermaid Parade is even harder here. +There are more pictures. There are more photographers. +It's taken over a wider geographic area. +The photos are spread out over a longer period of time. +And worst of all, that figure at the bottom, approximately ten photos per photographer, is a lie. +It's mathematically true, but it doesn't really talk about anything important -- because in these systems, the average isn't really what matters. +What matters is this. +This is a graph of photographs tagged Iraq as taken by the 529 photographers who contributed the 5,445 photos. +And it's ranked in order of number of photos taken per photographer. +You can see here, over at the end, our most prolific photographer has taken around 350 photos, and you can see there's a few people who have taken hundreds of photos. +Then there's dozens of people who've taken dozens of photos. +And by the time we get around here, we get ten or fewer photos, and then there's this long, flat tail. +And by the time you get to the middle, you've got hundreds of people who have contributed only one photo each. +This is called a power-law distribution. +It appears often in unconstrained social systems where people are allowed to contribute as much or as little as they like -- this is often what you get. Right? +The math behind the power-law distribution is that whatever's in the nth position is doing about one-nth of whatever's being measured, relative to the person in the first position. +So, we'd expect the tenth most prolific photographer to have contributed about a tenth of the photos, and the hundredth most prolific photographer to have contributed only about a hundred as many photos as the most prolific photographer did. +So, the head of the curve can be sharper or flatter. +But that basic math accounts both for the steep slope and for the long, flat tail. +And curiously, in these systems, as they grow larger, the systems don't converge; they diverge more. +In bigger systems, the head gets bigger and the tail gets longer, so the imbalance increases. +You can see the curve is obviously heavily left-weighted. Here's how heavily: if you take the top 10 percent of photographers contributing to this system, they account for three quarters of the photos taken -- just the top 10 percent most prolific photographers. +If you go down to five percent, you're still accounting for 60 percent of the photos. +If you go down to one percent, exclude 99 percent of the group effort, you're still accounting for almost a quarter of the photos. +And because of this left weighting, the average is actually here, way to the left. +And that sounds strange to our ears, but what ends up happening is that 80 percent of the contributors have contributed a below-average amount. +That sounds strange because we expect average and middle to be about the same, but they're not at all. +This is the math underlying the 80/20 rule. Right? +Whenever you hear anybody talking about the 80/20 rule, this is what's going on. Right? +20 percent of the merchandise accounts for 80 percent of the revenue, 20 percent of the users use 80 percent of the resources -- this is the shape people are talking about when that happens. +Institutions only have two tools: carrots and sticks. +And the 80 percent zone is a no-carrot and no-stick zone. +The costs of running the institution mean that you cannot take on the work of those people easily in an institutional frame. +The institutional model always pushes leftwards, treating these people as employees. +The institutional response is, I can get 75 percent of the value for 10 percent of the hires -- great, that's what I'll do. +The cooperative infrastructure model says, why do you want to give up a quarter of the value? +If your system is designed so that you have to give up a quarter of the value, re-engineer the system. +Don't take on the cost that prevents you from getting to the contributions of these people. +Build the system so that anybody can contribute at any amount. +So the coordination response asks not, how are these people as employees, but rather, what is their contribution like? Right? +We have over here Psycho Milt, a Flickr user, who has contributed one, and only one, photo titled "Iraq." +And here's the photo. Right. Labeled, "Bad Day at Work." +Right? So the question is, do you want that photo? Yes or no. +The question is not, is Psycho Milt a good employee? +And the tension here is between institution as enabler and institution as obstacle. +When you're dealing with the left-hand edge of one of these distributions, when you're dealing with the people who spend a lot of time producing a lot of the material you want, that's an institution-as-enabler world. +You can hire those people as employees, you can coordinate their work and you can get some output. +But when you're down here, where the Psycho Milts of the world are adding one photo at a time, that's institution as obstacle. +Institutions hate being told they're obstacles. +One of the first things that happens when you institutionalize a problem is that the first goal of the institution immediately shifts from whatever the nominal goal was to self-preservation. +And the actual goal of the institution goes to two through n. +Right? So, when institutions are told they are obstacles, and that there are other ways of coordinating the value, they go through something a little bit like the Kubler-Ross stages -- -- of reaction, being told you have a fatal illness: denial, anger, bargaining, acceptance. +Most of the cooperative systems we've seen haven't been around long enough to have gotten to the acceptance phase. +Many, many institutions are still in denial, but we're seeing recently a lot of both anger and bargaining. +There's a wonderful, small example going on right now. +In France, a bus company is suing people for forming a carpool, right, because the fact that they have coordinated themselves to create cooperative value is depriving them of revenue. +You can follow this in the Guardian. +It's actually quite entertaining. +The bigger question is, what do you do about the value down here? +Right? How do you capture that? +And institutions, as I've said, are prevented from capturing that. +Steve Ballmer, now CEO of Microsoft, was criticizing Linux a couple of years ago, and he said, "Oh, this business of thousands of programmers contributing to Linux, this is a myth. +We've looked at who's contributed to Linux, and most of the patches have been produced by programmers who've only done one thing." Right? +You can hear this distribution under that complaint. +And you can see why, from Ballmer's point of view, that's a bad idea, right? +We hired this programmer, he came in, he drank our Cokes and played Foosball for three years and he had one idea. +Right? Bad hire. Right? +The Psycho Milt question is, was it a good idea? +What if it was a security patch? +What if it was a security patch for a buffer overflow exploit, of which Windows has not some, [but] several? +Do you want that patch, right? +The fact that a single programmer can, without having to move into a professional relation to an institution, improve Linux once and never be seen from again, should terrify Ballmer. +Because this kind of value is unreachable in classic institutional frameworks, but is part of cooperative systems of open-source software, of file sharing, of the Wikipedia. I've used a lot of examples from Flickr, but there are actually stories about this from all over. +Meetup, a service founded so that users could find people in their local area who share their interests and affinities and actually have a real-world meeting offline in a cafe or a pub or what have you. +When Scott Heiferman founded Meetup, he thought it would be used for, you know, train spotters and cat fanciers -- classic affinity groups. +The inventors don't know what the invention is. +Number one group on Meetup right now, most chapters in most cities with most members, most active? +Stay-at-home moms. Right? +In the suburbanized, dual-income United States, stay-at-home moms are actually missing the social infrastructure that comes from extended family and local, small-scale neighborhoods. +So they're reinventing it, using these tools. +Meetup is the platform, but the value here is in social infrastructure. +If you want to know what technology is going to change the world, don't pay attention to 13-year-old boys -- pay attention to young mothers, because they have got not an ounce of support for technology that doesn't materially make their lives better. +This is so much more important than Xbox, but it's a lot less glitzy. +I think this is a revolution. +I think that this is a really profound change in the way human affairs are arranged. +And I use that word advisedly. +It's a revolution in that it's a change in equilibrium. +It's a whole new way of doing things, which includes new downsides. +In the United States right now, a woman named Judith Miller is in jail for not having given to a Federal Grand Jury her sources -- she's a reporter for the New York Times -- her sources, in a very abstract and hard-to-follow case. +And journalists are in the street rallying to improve the shield laws. +The shield laws are our laws -- pretty much a patchwork of state laws -- that prevent a journalist from having to betray a source. +This is happening, however, against the background of the rise of Web logging. +Web logging is a classic example of mass amateurization. +It has de-professionalized publishing. +Want to publish globally anything you think today? +It is a one-button operation that you can do for free. +That has sent the professional class of publishing down into the ranks of mass amateurization. +And so the shield law, as much as we want it -- we want a professional class of truth-tellers -- it is becoming increasingly incoherent, because the institution is becoming incoherent. +There are people in the States right now tying themselves into knots, trying to figure out whether or not bloggers are journalists. +And the answer to that question is, it doesn't matter, because that's not the right question. +Journalism was an answer to an even more important question, which is, how will society be informed? +How will they share ideas and opinions? +And if there is an answer to that that happens outside the professional framework of journalism, it makes no sense to take a professional metaphor and apply it to this distributed class. +So as much as we want the shield laws, the background -- the institution to which they were attached -- is becoming incoherent. +Here's another example. +Pro-ana, the pro-ana groups. +These are groups of teenage girls who have taken on Web logs, bulletin boards, other kinds of cooperative infrastructure, and have used it to set up support groups for remaining anorexic by choice. +They post pictures of thin models, which they call "thinspiration." +They have little slogans, like "Salvation through Starvation." +They even have Lance Armstrong-style bracelets, these red bracelets, which signify, in the small group, I am trying to maintain my eating disorder. +They trade tips, like, if you feel like eating something, clean a toilet or the litter box. The feeling will pass. +We're used to support groups being beneficial. +We have an attitude that support groups are inherently beneficial. +But it turns out that the logic of the support group is value neutral. +A support group is simply a small group that wants to maintain a way of living in the context of a larger group. +Now, when the larger group is a bunch of drunks, and the small group wants to stay sober, then we think, that's a great support group. +But when the small group is teenage girls who want to stay anorexic by choice, then we're horrified. +What's happened is that the normative goals of the support groups that we're used to, came from the institutions that were framing them, and not from the infrastructure. +Once the infrastructure becomes generically available, the logic of the support group has been revealed to be accessible to anyone, including people pursuing these kinds of goals. +So, there are significant downsides to these changes as well as upsides. And of course, in the current environment, one need allude only lightly to the work of non-state actors trying to influence global affairs, and taking advantage of these. +This is a social map of the hijackers and their associates who perpetrated the 9/11 attack. +It was produced by analyzing their communications patterns using a lot of these tools. And doubtless the intelligence communities of the world are doing the same work today for the attacks of last week. +Now, this is the part of the talk where I tell you what's going to come as a result of all of this, but I'm running out of time, which is good, because I don't know. +Right. As with the printing press, if it's really a revolution, it doesn't take us from Point A to Point B. +It takes us from Point A to chaos. +The printing press precipitated 200 years of chaos, moving from a world where the Catholic Church was the sort of organizing political force to the Treaty of Westphalia, when we finally knew what the new unit was: the nation state. +Now, I'm not predicting 200 years of chaos as a result of this. 50. +50 years in which loosely coordinated groups are going to be given increasingly high leverage, and the more those groups forego traditional institutional imperatives -- like deciding in advance what's going to happen, or the profit motive -- the more leverage they'll get. +And institutions are going to come under an increasing degree of pressure, and the more rigidly managed, and the more they rely on information monopolies, the greater the pressure is going to be. +And that's going to happen one arena at a time, one institution at a time. The forces are general, but the results are going to be specific. +And so the point here is not, "This is wonderful," or "We're going to see a transition from only institutions to only cooperative framework." +It's going to be much more complicated than that. +But the point is that it's going to be a massive readjustment. +And since we can see it in advance and know it's coming, my argument is essentially: we might as well get good at it. +Thank you very much. +Well, I'm involved in other things, besides physics. +In fact, mostly now in other things. +One thing is distant relationships among human languages. +And the professional, historical linguists in the U.S. +and in Western Europe mostly try to stay away from any long-distance relationships, big groupings, groupings that go back a long time, longer than the familiar families. +They don't like that. They think it's crank. I don't think it's crank. +And there are some brilliant linguists, mostly Russians, who are working on that, at Santa Fe Institute and in Moscow, and I would love to see where that leads. +Does it really lead to a single ancestor some 20, 25,000 years ago? +And what if we go back beyond that single ancestor, when there was presumably a competition among many languages? +How far back does that go? How far back does modern language go? +How many tens of thousands of years does it go back? +Chris Anderson: Do you have a hunch or a hope for what the answer to that is? +Murray Gell-Mann: Well, I would guess that modern language must be older than the cave paintings and cave engravings and cave sculptures and dance steps in the soft clay in the caves in Western Europe, in the Aurignacian Period some 35,000 years ago, or earlier. +I can't believe they did all those things and didn't also have a modern language. +So, I would guess that the actual origin goes back at least that far and maybe further. +But that doesn't mean that all, or many, or most of today's attested languages couldn't descend perhaps from one that's much younger than that, like say 20,000 years, or something of that kind. It's what we call a bottleneck. +CA: Well, Philip Anderson may have been right. +You may just know more about everything than anyone. +So, it's been an honor. Thank you Murray Gell-Mann. +Last year, I told you the story, in seven minutes, of Project Orion, which was this very implausible technology that technically could have worked, but it had this one-year political window where it could have happened. +So it didn't happen. It was a dream that did not happen. +This year I'm going to tell you the story of the birth of digital computing. +This was a perfect introduction. +And it's a story that did work. It did happen, and the machines are all around us. +And it was a technology that was inevitable. +If the people I'm going to tell you the story about, if they hadn't done it, somebody else would have. +So, it was sort of the right idea at the right time. +This is Barricelli's universe. This is the universe we live in now. +It's the universe in which these machines are now doing all these things, including changing biology. +I'm starting the story with the first atomic bomb at Trinity, which was the Manhattan Project. It was a little bit like TED: it brought a whole lot of very smart people together. +And three of the smartest people were Stan Ulam, Richard Feynman and John von Neumann. +And it was Von Neumann who said, after the bomb, he was working on something much more important than bombs: he's thinking about computers. +So, he wasn't only thinking about them; he built one. This is the machine he built. +He built this machine, and we had a beautiful demonstration of how this thing really works, with these little bits. And it's an idea that goes way back. +The first person to really explain that was Thomas Hobbes, who, in 1651, explained how arithmetic and logic are the same thing, and if you want to do artificial thinking and artificial logic, you can do it all with arithmetic. +He said you needed addition and subtraction. +Leibniz, who came a little bit later -- this is 1679 -- showed that you didn't even need subtraction. +You could do the whole thing with addition. +Here, we have all the binary arithmetic and logic that drove the computer revolution. +And Leibniz was the first person to really talk about building such a machine. +He talked about doing it with marbles, having gates and what we now call shift registers, where you shift the gates, drop the marbles down the tracks. +And that's what all these machines are doing, except, instead of doing it with marbles, they're doing it with electrons. +And then we jump to Von Neumann, 1945, when he sort of reinvents the whole same thing. +And 1945, after the war, the electronics existed to actually try and build such a machine. +The other sort of genesis of what Von Neumann did was the difficulty of how you would predict the weather. +Lewis Richardson saw how you could do this with a cellular array of people, giving them each a little chunk, and putting it together. +Here, we have an electrical model illustrating a mind having a will, but capable of only two ideas. +And that's really the simplest computer. +It's basically why you need the qubit, because it only has two ideas. +And you put lots of those together, you get the essentials of the modern computer: the arithmetic unit, the central control, the memory, the recording medium, the input and the output. +But, there's one catch. This is the fatal -- you know, we saw it in starting these programs up. +The instructions which govern this operation must be given in absolutely exhaustive detail. +So, the programming has to be perfect, or it won't work. +If you look at the origins of this, the classic history sort of takes it all back to the ENIAC here. +But actually, the machine I'm going to tell you about, the Institute for Advanced Study machine, which is way up there, really should be down there. So, I'm trying to revise history, and give some of these guys more credit than they've had. +Such a computer would open up universes, which are, at the present, outside the range of any instruments. +So it opens up a whole new world, and these people saw it. +The guy who was supposed to build this machine was the guy in the middle, Vladimir Zworykin, from RCA. +RCA, in probably one of the lousiest business decisions of all time, decided not to go into computers. +But the first meetings, November 1945, were at RCA's offices. +RCA started this whole thing off, and said, you know, televisions are the future, not computers. +The essentials were all there -- all the things that make these machines run. +Von Neumann, and a logician, and a mathematician from the army put this together. Then, they needed a place to build it. +When RCA said no, that's when they decided to build it in Princeton, where Freeman works at the Institute. +That's where I grew up as a kid. +That's me, that's my sister Esther, who's talked to you before, so we both go back to the birth of this thing. +That's Freeman, a long time ago, and that was me. +And this is Von Neumann and Morgenstern, who wrote the "Theory of Games." +All these forces came together there, in Princeton. +Oppenheimer, who had built the bomb. +The machine was actually used mainly for doing bomb calculations. +And Julian Bigelow, who took Zworkykin's place as the engineer, to actually figure out, using electronics, how you would build this thing. The whole gang of people who came to work on this, and women in front, who actually did most of the coding, were the first programmers. +These were the prototype geeks, the nerds. +They didn't fit in at the Institute. +This is a letter from the director, concerned about -- "especially unfair on the matter of sugar." +You can read the text. +This is hackers getting in trouble for the first time. +. +These were not theoretical physicists. +They were real soldering-gun type guys, and they actually built this thing. +And we take it for granted now, that each of these machines has billions of transistors, doing billions of cycles per second without failing. +They were using vacuum tubes, very narrow, sloppy techniques to get actually binary behavior out of these radio vacuum tubes. +They actually used 6J6, the common radio tube, because they found they were more reliable than the more expensive tubes. +And what they did at the Institute was publish every step of the way. +Reports were issued, so that this machine was cloned at 15 other places around the world. +And it really was. It was the original microprocessor. +All the computers now are copies of that machine. +The memory was in cathode ray tubes -- a whole bunch of spots on the face of the tube -- very, very sensitive to electromagnetic disturbances. +So, there's 40 of these tubes, like a V-40 engine running the memory. +The input and the output was by teletype tape at first. +This is a wire drive, using bicycle wheels. +This is the archetype of the hard disk that's in your machine now. +Then they switched to a magnetic drum. +This is modifying IBM equipment, which is the origins of the whole data-processing industry, later at IBM. +And this is the beginning of computer graphics. +The "Graph'g-Beam Turn On." This next slide, that's the -- as far as I know -- the first digital bitmap display, 1954. +So, Von Neumann was already off in a theoretical cloud, doing abstract sorts of studies of how you could build reliable machines out of unreliable components. +Those guys drinking all the tea with sugar in it were writing in their logbooks, trying to get this thing to work, with all these 2,600 vacuum tubes that failed half the time. +And that's what I've been doing, this last six months, is going through the logs. +"Running time: two minutes. Input, output: 90 minutes." +This includes a large amount of human error. +So they are always trying to figure out, what's machine error? What's human error? +What's code, what's hardware? +That's an engineer gazing at tube number 36, trying to figure out why the memory's not in focus. +He had to focus the memory -- seems OK. +So, he had to focus each tube just to get the memory up and running, let alone having, you know, software problems. +"No use, went home." "Impossible to follow the damn thing, where's a directory?" +So, already, they're complaining about the manuals: "before closing down in disgust ... " "The General Arithmetic: Operating Logs." +Burning lots of midnight oil. +"MANIAC," which became the acronym for the machine, Mathematical and Numerical Integrator and Calculator, "lost its memory." +"MANIAC regained its memory, when the power went off." "Machine or human?" +"Aha!" So, they figured out it's a code problem. +"Found trouble in code, I hope." +"Code error, machine not guilty." +"Damn it, I can be just as stubborn as this thing." +"And the dawn came." So they ran all night. +Twenty-four hours a day, this thing was running, mainly running bomb calculations. +"Everything up to this point is wasted time." "What's the use? Good night." +"Master control off. The hell with it. Way off." "Something's wrong with the air conditioner -- smell of burning V-belts in the air." +"A short -- do not turn the machine on." +"IBM machine putting a tar-like substance on the cards. The tar is from the roof." +So they really were working under tough conditions. +Here, "A mouse has climbed into the blower behind the regulator rack, set blower to vibrating. Result: no more mouse." +"Here lies mouse. Born: ?. Died: 4:50 a.m., May 1953." +There's an inside joke someone has penciled in: "Here lies Marston Mouse." +If you're a mathematician, you get that, because Marston was a mathematician who objected to the computer being there. +"Picked a lightning bug off the drum." "Running at two kilocycles." +That's two thousand cycles per second -- "yes, I'm chicken" -- so two kilocycles was slow speed. +The high speed was 16 kilocycles. +I don't know if you remember a Mac that was 16 Megahertz, that's slow speed. +"I have now duplicated both results. +How will I know which is right, assuming one result is correct? +This now is the third different output. +I know when I'm licked." +"We've duplicated errors before." +"Machine run, fine. Code isn't." +"Only happens when the machine is running." +And sometimes things are okay. +"Machine a thing of beauty, and a joy forever." "Perfect running." +"Parting thought: when there's bigger and better errors, we'll have them." +So, nobody was supposed to know they were actually designing bombs. +They're designing hydrogen bombs. But someone in the logbook, late one night, finally drew a bomb. +So, that was the result. It was Mike, the first thermonuclear bomb, in 1952. +That was designed on that machine, in the woods behind the Institute. +So Von Neumann invited a whole gang of weirdos from all over the world to work on all these problems. +Barricelli, he came to do what we now call, really, artificial life, trying to see if, in this artificial universe -- he was a viral-geneticist, way, way, way ahead of his time. +He's still ahead of some of the stuff that's being done now. +Trying to start an artificial genetic system running in the computer. +Began -- his universe started March 3, '53. +So it's almost exactly -- it's 50 years ago next Tuesday, I guess. +And he saw everything in terms of -- he could read the binary code straight off the machine. +He had a wonderful rapport. +Other people couldn't get the machine running. It always worked for him. +Even errors were duplicated. +"Dr. Barricelli claims machine is wrong, code is right." +So he designed this universe, and ran it. +When the bomb people went home, he was allowed in there. +He would run that thing all night long, running these things, if anybody remembers Stephen Wolfram, who reinvented this stuff. +And he published it. It wasn't locked up and disappeared. +It was published in the literature. +"If it's that easy to create living organisms, why not create a few yourself?" +So, he decided to give it a try, to start this artificial biology going in the machines. +And he found all these, sort of -- it was like a naturalist coming in and looking at this tiny, 5,000-byte universe, and seeing all these things happening that we see in the outside world, in biology. +This is some of the generations of his universe. +But they're just going to stay numbers; they're not going to become organisms. +They have to have something. +You have a genotype and you have to have a phenotype. +They have to go out and do something. And he started doing that, started giving these little numerical organisms things they could play with -- playing chess with other machines and so on. +And they did start to evolve. +And he went around the country after that. +Every time there was a new, fast machine, he started using it, and saw exactly what's happening now. +That the programs, instead of being turned off -- when you quit the program, you'd keep running and, basically, all the sorts of things like Windows is doing, running as a multi-cellular organism on many machines, he envisioned all that happening. +And he saw that evolution itself was an intelligent process. +It wasn't any sort of creator intelligence, but the thing itself was a giant parallel computation that would have some intelligence. +And he went out of his way to say that he was not saying this was lifelike, or a new kind of life. +It just was another version of the same thing happening. +And there's really no difference between what he was doing in the computer and what nature did billions of years ago. +And could you do it again now? +So, when I went into these archives looking at this stuff, lo and behold, the archivist came up one day, saying, "I think we found another box that had been thrown out." +And it was his universe on punch cards. +So there it is, 50 years later, sitting there -- sort of suspended animation. +That's the instructions for running -- this is actually the source code for one of those universes, with a note from the engineers saying they're having some problems. +"There must be something about this code that you haven't explained yet." +And I think that's really the truth. We still don't understand how these very simple instructions can lead to increasing complexity. +What's the dividing line between when that is lifelike and when it really is alive? +These cards, now, thanks to me showing up, are being saved. +And the question is, should we run them or not? +You know, could we get them running? +Do you want to let it loose on the Internet? +These machines would think they -- these organisms, if they came back to life now -- whether they've died and gone to heaven, there's a universe. +My laptop is 10 thousand million times the size of the universe that they lived in when Barricelli quit the project. +He was thinking far ahead, to how this would really grow into a new kind of life. +And that's what's happening! +When Juan Enriquez told us about these 12 trillion bits being transferred back and forth, of all this genomics data going to the proteomics lab, that's what Barricelli imagined: that this digital code in these machines is actually starting to code -- it already is coding from nucleic acids. +We've been doing that since, you know, since we started PCR and synthesizing small strings of DNA. +And real soon, we're actually going to be synthesizing the proteins, and, like Steve showed us, that just opens an entirely new world. +It's a world that Von Neumann himself envisioned. +This was published after he died: his sort of unfinished notes on self-reproducing machines, what it takes to get the machines sort of jump-started to where they begin to reproduce. +And all our computers have, inside them, the copies of the architecture that he had to just design one day, sort of on pencil and paper. +And we owe a tremendous credit to that. +And he explained, in a very generous way, the spirit that brought all these different people to the Institute for Advanced Study in the '40s to do this project, and make it freely available with no patents, no restrictions, no intellectual property disputes to the rest of the world. +That's the last entry in the logbook when the machine was shut down, July 1958. +And it's Julian Bigelow who was running it until midnight when the machine was officially turned off. +And that's the end. +Thank you very much. +My work is about the behaviors that we all engage in unconsciously, on a collective level. +And what I mean by that, it's the behaviors that we're in denial about, and the ones that operate below the surface of our daily awareness. +And as individuals, we all do these things, all the time, everyday. +It's like when you're mean to your wife because you're mad at somebody else. +Or when you drink a little too much at a party, just out of anxiety. +Or when you overeat because your feelings are hurt, or whatever. +And when we do these kind of things, when 300 million people do unconscious behaviors, then it can add up to a catastrophic consequence that nobody wants, and no one intended. +And that's what I look at with my photographic work. +This is an image I just recently completed, that is -- when you stand back at a distance, it looks like some kind of neo-Gothic, cartoon image of a factory spewing out pollution. +And as you get a little bit closer, it starts looking like lots of pipes, like maybe a chemical plant, or a refinery, or maybe a hellish freeway interchange. +And as you get all the way up close, you realize that it's actually made of lots and lots of plastic cups. +And in fact, this is one million plastic cups, which is the number of plastic cups that are used on airline flights in the United States every six hours. +We use four million cups a day on airline flights, and virtually none of them are reused or recycled. +They just don't do that in that industry. +Now, that number is dwarfed by the number of paper cups we use every day, and that is 40 million cups a day for hot beverages, most of which is coffee. +I couldn't fit 40 million cups on a canvas, but I was able to put 410,000. That's what 410,000 cups looks like. +That's 15 minutes of our cup consumption. +And if you could actually stack up that many cups in real life, that's the size it would be. +And there's an hour's worth of our cups. +And there's a day's worth of our cups. +You can still see the little people way down there. +That's as high as a 42-story building, and I put the Statue of Liberty in there as a scale reference. +Speaking of justice, there's another phenomenon going on in our culture that I find deeply troubling, and that is that America, right now, has the largest percentage of its population in prison of any country on Earth. +One out of four people, one out of four humans in prison are Americans, imprisoned in our country. +And I wanted to show the number. +The number is 2.3 million Americans were incarcerated in 2005. +And that's gone up since then, but we don't have the numbers yet. +So, I wanted to show 2.3 million prison uniforms, and in the actual print of this piece, each uniform is the size of a nickel on its edge. +They're tiny. They're barely visible as a piece of material, and to show 2.3 million of them required a canvas that was larger than any printer in the world would print. +And so I had to divide it up into multiple panels that are 10 feet tall by 25 feet wide. +This is that piece installed in a gallery in New York -- those are my parents looking at the piece. +Every time I look at this piece, I always wonder if my mom's whispering to my dad, "He finally folded his laundry." +I want to show you some pieces now that are about addiction. +And this particular one is about cigarette addiction. +I wanted to make a piece that shows the actual number of Americans who die from cigarette smoking. +More than 400,000 people die in the United States every year from smoking cigarettes. +And so, this piece is made up of lots and lots of boxes of cigarettes. +And, as you slowly step back, you see that it's a painting by Van Gogh, called "Skull with Cigarette." +It's a strange thing to think about, that on 9/11, when that tragedy happened, 3,000 Americans died. +And do you remember the response? +It reverberated around the world, and will continue to reverberate through time. +It will be something that we talk about in 100 years. +And yet on that same day, 1,100 Americans died from smoking. +And the day after that, another 1,100 Americans died from smoking. +And every single day since then, 1,100 Americans have died. +And today, 1,100 Americans are dying from cigarette smoking. +And we aren't talking about it -- we dismiss it. +The tobacco lobby, it's too strong. +We just dismiss it out of our consciousness. +And knowing what we know about the destructive power of cigarettes, we continue to allow our children, our sons and daughters, to be in the presence of the influences that start them smoking. +And this is what the next piece is about. +This is just lots and lots of cigarettes: 65,000 cigarettes, which is equal to the number of teenagers who will start smoking this month, and every month in the U.S. +More than 700,000 children in the United States aged 18 and under begin smoking every year. +One more strange epidemic in the United States that I want to acquaint you with is this phenomenon of abuse and misuse of prescription drugs. +This is an image I've made out of lots and lots of Vicodin. +Well, actually, I only had one Vicodin that I scanned lots and lots of times. +And so, as you stand back, you see 213,000 Vicodin pills, which is the number of hospital emergency room visits yearly in the United States, attributable to abuse and misuse of prescription painkillers and anti-anxiety medications. +One-third of all drug overdoses in the U.S. -- and that includes cocaine, heroin, alcohol, everything -- one-third of drug overdoses are prescription medications. +A strange phenomenon. +This is a piece that I just recently completed about another tragic phenomenon. And that is the phenomenon, this growing obsession we have with breast augmentation surgery. +384,000 women, American women, last year went in for elective breast augmentation surgery. +It's rapidly becoming the most popular high school graduation gift, given to young girls who are about to go off to college. +So, I made this image out of Barbie dolls, and so, as you stand back you see this kind of floral pattern, and as you get all the way back, you see 32,000 Barbie dolls, which represents the number of breast augmentation surgeries that are performed in the U.S. each month. +The vast majority of those are on women under the age of 21. +And strangely enough, the only plastic surgery that is more popular than breast augmentation is liposuction, and most of that is being done by men. +Now, I want to emphasize that these are just examples. +I'm not holding these out as being the biggest issues. +They're just examples. +And the reason that I do this, it's because I have this fear that we aren't feeling enough as a culture right now. +There's this kind of anesthesia in America at the moment. +We've lost our sense of outrage, our anger and our grief about what's going on in our culture right now, what's going on in our country, the atrocities that are being committed in our names around the world. +They've gone missing; these feelings have gone missing. +Our cultural joy, our national joy is nowhere to be seen. +As we try to build this view, and try to educate ourselves about the enormity of our culture, the information that we have to work with is these gigantic numbers: numbers in the millions, in the hundreds of millions, in the billions and now in the trillions. +Bush's new budget is in the trillions, and these are numbers that our brain just doesn't have the ability to comprehend. +We can't make meaning out of these enormous statistics. +And so that's what I'm trying to do with my work, is to take these numbers, these statistics from the raw language of data, and to translate them into a more universal visual language, that can be felt. +Because my belief is, if we can feel these issues, if we can feel these things more deeply, then they'll matter to us more than they do now. +And if we can find that, then we'll be able to find, within each one of us, what it is that we need to find to face the big question, which is: how do we change? +That, to me, is the big question that we face as a people right now: how do we change? How do we change as a culture, and how do we each individually take responsibility for the one piece of the solution that we are in charge of, and that is our own behavior? +My belief is that you don't have to make yourself bad to look at these issues. +I'm not pointing the finger at America in a blaming way. +I'm simply saying, this is who we are right now. +And if there are things that we see that we don't like about our culture, then we have a choice. +And it will profoundly affect the well-being, the quality of life of the billions of people who are going to inherit the results of our decisions. +I'm not speaking abstractly about this, I'm speaking -- this is who we are in this room, right now, in this moment. +Thank you and good afternoon. +Welcome. If I could have the first slide, please? +Contrary to calculations made by some engineers, bees can fly, dolphins can swim, and geckos can even climb up the smoothest surfaces. Now, what I want to do, in the short time I have, is to try to allow each of you to experience the thrill of revealing nature's design. +I get to do this all the time, and it's just incredible. +I want to try to share just a little bit of that with you in this presentation. +The challenge of looking at nature's designs -- and I'll tell you the way that we perceive it, and the way we've used it. +The challenge, of course, is to answer this question: what permits this extraordinary performance of animals that allows them basically to go anywhere? +And if we could figure that out, how can we implement those designs? +Well, many biologists will tell engineers, and others, organisms have millions of years to get it right; they're spectacular; they can do everything wonderfully well. +So, the answer is bio-mimicry: just copy nature directly. +We know from working on animals that the truth is that's exactly what you don't want to do -- because evolution works on the just-good-enough principle, not on a perfecting principle. +And the constraints in building any organism, when you look at it, are really severe. Natural technologies have incredible constraints. +Think about it. If you were an engineer and I told you that you had to build an automobile, but it had to start off to be this big, then it had to grow to be full size and had to work every step along the way. +Or think about the fact that if you build an automobile, I'll tell you that you also -- inside it -- have to put a factory that allows you to make another automobile. +And you can absolutely never, absolutely never, because of history and the inherited plan, start with a clean slate. +So, organisms have this important history. +Really evolution works more like a tinkerer than an engineer. +And this is really important when you begin to look at animals. +Instead, we believe you need to be inspired by biology. +You need to discover the general principles of nature, and then use these analogies when they're advantageous. +This is a real challenge to do this, because animals, when you start to really look inside them -- how they work -- appear hopelessly complex. There's no detailed history of the design plans, you can't go look it up anywhere. +They have way too many motions for their joints, too many muscles. +Even the simplest animal we think of, something like an insect, and they have more neurons and connections than you can imagine. +How can you make sense of this? Well, we believed -- and we hypothesized -- that one way animals could work simply, is if the control of their movements tended to be built into their bodies themselves. +What we discovered was that two-, four-, six- and eight-legged animals all produce the same forces on the ground when they move. +They all work like this kangaroo, they bounce. +And they can be modeled by a spring-mass system that we call the spring mass system because we're biomechanists. It's actually a pogo stick. +They all produce the pattern of a pogo stick. How is that true? +Well, a human, one of your legs works like two legs of a trotting dog, or works like three legs, together as one, of a trotting insect, or four legs as one of a trotting crab. +And then they alternate in their propulsion, but the patterns are all the same. Almost every organism we've looked at this way -- you'll see next week, I'll give you a hint, there'll be an article coming out that says that really big things like T. rex probably couldn't do this, but you'll see that next week. +Now, what's interesting is the animals, then -- we said -- bounce along the vertical plane this way, and in our collaborations with Pixar, in "A Bug's Life," we discussed the bipedal nature of the characters of the ants. +And we told them, of course, they move in another plane as well. +And they asked us this question. They say, "Why model just in the sagittal plane or the vertical plane, when you're telling us these animals are moving in the horizontal plane?" This is a good question. +Nobody in biology ever modeled it this way. +We took their advice and we modeled the animals moving in the horizontal plane as well. We took their three legs, we collapsed them down as one. +We got some of the best mathematicians in the world from Princeton to work on this problem. +And we were able to create a model where animals are not only bouncing up and down, but they're also bouncing side to side at the same time. +And many organisms fit this kind of pattern. +Now, why is this important to have this model? +Because it's very interesting. When you take this model and you perturb it, you give it a push, as it bumps into something, it self-stabilizes, with no brain or no reflexes, just by the structure alone. +It's a beautiful model. Let's look at the mathematics. +That's enough! +The animals, when you look at them running, appear to be self-stabilizing like this, using basically springy legs. That is, the legs can do computations on their own; the control algorithms, in a sense, are embedded in the form of the animal itself. +Why haven't we been more inspired by nature and these kinds of discoveries? +Well, I would argue that human technologies are really different from natural technologies, at least they have been so far. +Think about the typical kind of robot that you see. +Human technologies have tended to be large, flat, with right angles, stiff, made of metal. They have rolling devices and axles. There are very few motors, very few sensors. +Whereas nature tends to be small, and curved, and it bends and twists, and has legs instead, and appendages, and has many muscles and many, many sensors. +So it's a very different design. However, what's changing, what's really exciting -- and I'll show you some of that next -- is that as human technology takes on more of the characteristics of nature, then nature really can become a much more useful teacher. +And here's one example that's really exciting. +This is a collaboration we have with Stanford. +And they developed this new technique, called Shape Deposition Manufacturing. +It's a technique where they can mix materials together and mold any shape that they like, and put in the material properties. +They can embed sensors and actuators right in the form itself. +For example, here's a leg: the clear part is stiff, the white part is compliant, and you don't need any axles there or anything. +It just bends by itself beautifully. +So, you can put those properties in. It inspired them to show off this design by producing a little robot they named Sprawl. +Our work has also inspired another robot, a biologically inspired bouncing robot, from the University of Michigan and McGill named RHex, for robot hexapod, and this one's autonomous. +Let's go to the video, and let me show you some of these animals moving and then some of the simple robots that have been inspired by our discoveries. +Here's what some of you did this morning, although you did it outside, not on a treadmill. +Here's what we do. +This is a death's head cockroach. This is an American cockroach you think you don't have in your kitchen. +This is an eight-legged scorpion, six-legged ant, forty-four-legged centipede. +Now, I said all these animals are sort of working like pogo sticks -- they're bouncing along as they move. And you can see that in this ghost crab, from the beaches of Panama and North Carolina. +It goes up to four meters per second when it runs. +It actually leaps into the air, and has aerial phases when it does it, like a horse, and you'll see it's bouncing here. +What we discovered is whether you look at the leg of a human like Richard, or a cockroach, or a crab, or a kangaroo, the relative leg stiffness of that spring is the same for everything we've seen so far. +Now, what good are springy legs then? What can they do? +Well, we wanted to see if they allowed the animals to have greater stability and maneuverability. +So, we built a terrain that had obstacles three times the hip height of the animals that we're looking at. +And we were certain they couldn't do this. And here's what they did. +The animal ran over it and it didn't even slow down! +It didn't decrease its preferred speed at all. +We couldn't believe that it could do this. It said to us that if you could build a robot with very simple, springy legs, you could make it as maneuverable as any that's ever been built. +Here's the first example of that. This is the Stanford Shape Deposition Manufactured robot, named Sprawl. +It has six legs -- there are the tuned, springy legs. +It moves in a gait that an insect uses, and here it is going on the treadmill. Now, what's important about this robot, compared to other robots, is that it can't see anything, it can't feel anything, it doesn't have a brain, yet it can maneuver over these obstacles without any difficulty whatsoever. +It's this technique of building the properties into the form. +This is a graduate student. This is what he's doing to his thesis project -- very robust, if a graduate student does that to his thesis project. +This is from McGill and University of Michigan. This is the RHex, making its first outing in a demo. +Same principle: it only has six moving parts, six motors, but it has springy, tuned legs. It moves in the gait of the insect. +It has the middle leg moving in synchrony with the front, and the hind leg on the other side. Sort of an alternating tripod, and they can negotiate obstacles just like the animal. +(Voice: Oh my God.) Robert Full: It'll go on different surfaces -- here's sand -- although we haven't perfected the feet yet, but I'll talk about that later. +Here's RHex entering the woods. +Again, this robot can't see anything, it can't feel anything, it has no brain. It's just working with a tuned mechanical system, with very simple parts, but inspired from the fundamental dynamics of the animal. +(Voice: Ah, I love him, Bob.) RF: Here's it going down a pathway. +I presented this to the jet propulsion lab at NASA, and they said that they had no ability to go down craters to look for ice, and life, ultimately, on Mars. And he said -- especially with legged-robots, because they're way too complicated. +Nothing can do that. And I talk next. I showed them this video with the simple design of RHex here. And just to convince them we should go to Mars in 2011, I tinted the video orange just to give them the sense of being on Mars. +Another reason why animals have extraordinary performance, and can go anywhere, is because they have an effective interaction with the environment. The animal I'm going to show you, that we studied to look at this, is the gecko. +We have one here and notice its position. It's holding on. +Now I'm going to challenge you. I'm going show you a video. +One of the animals is going to be running on the level, and the other one's going to be running up a wall. Which one's which? +They're going at a meter a second. How many think the one on the left is running up the wall? +Okay. The point is it's really hard to tell, isn't it? It's incredible, we looked at students do this and they couldn't tell. +They can run up a wall at a meter a second, 15 steps per second, and they look like they're running on the level. How do they do this? +It's just phenomenal. The one on the right was going up the hill. +How do they do this? They have bizarre toes. They have toes that uncurl like party favors when you blow them out, and then peel off the surface, like tape. +Like if we had a piece of tape now, we'd peel it this way. +They do this with their toes. It's bizarre! This peeling inspired iRobot -- that we work with -- to build Mecho-Geckos. +Here's a legged version and a tractor version, or a bulldozer version. +Let's see some of the geckos move with some video, and then I'll show you a little bit of a clip of the robots. +Here's the gecko running up a vertical surface. There it goes, in real time. There it goes again. Obviously, we have to slow this down a little bit. +You can't use regular cameras. +You have to take 1,000 pictures per second to see this. +And here's some video at 1,000 frames per second. +Now, I want you to look at the animal's back. +Do you see how much it's bending like that? We can't figure that out -- that's an unsolved mystery. We don't know how it works. +If you have a son or a daughter that wants to come to Berkeley, come to my lab and we'll figure this out. Okay, send them to Berkeley because that's the next thing I want to do. Here's the gecko mill. +It's a see-through treadmill with a see-through treadmill belt, so we can watch the animal's feet, and videotape them through the treadmill belt, to see how they move. +Here's the animal that we have here, running on a vertical surface. +Pick a foot and try to watch a toe, and see if you can see what the animal's doing. +See it uncurl and then peel these toes. +It can do this in 14 milliseconds. It's unbelievable. +Here are the robots that they inspire, the Mecho-Geckos from iRobot. +First we'll see the animals toes peeling -- look at that. +And here's the peeling action of the Mecho-Gecko. +It uses a pressure-sensitive adhesive to do it. +Peeling in the animal. Peeling in the Mecho-Gecko -- that allows them climb autonomously. Can go on the flat surface, transition to a wall, and then go onto a ceiling. +There's the bulldozer version. Now, it doesn't use pressure-sensitive glue. +The animal does not use that. +But that's what we're limited to, at the moment. +What does the animal do? The animal has weird toes. +And if you look at the toes, they have these little leaves there, and if you blow them up and zoom in, you'll see that's there's little striations in these leaves. +And if you zoom in 270 times, you'll see it looks like a rug. +And if you blow that up, and zoom in 900 times, you see there are hairs there, tiny hairs. And if you look carefully, those tiny hairs have striations. And if you zoom in on those 30,000 times, you'll see each hair has split ends. +And if you blow those up, they have these little structures on the end. +The smallest branch of the hairs looks like spatulae, and an animal like that has one billion of these nano-size split ends, to get very close to the surface. In fact, there's the diameter of your hair -- a gecko has two million of these, and each hair has 100 to 1,000 split ends. +Think of the contact of that that's possible. +We were fortunate to work with another group at Stanford that built us a special manned sensor, that we were able to measure the force of an individual hair. +Here's an individual hair with a little split end there. +When we measured the forces, they were enormous. +They were so large that a patch of hairs about this size -- the gecko's foot could support the weight of a small child, about 40 pounds, easily. Now, how do they do it? +We've recently discovered this. Do they do it by friction? +No, force is too low. Do they do it by electrostatics? +No, you can change the charge -- they still hold on. +Do they do it by interlocking? That's kind of a like a Velcro-like thing. +No, you can put them on molecular smooth surfaces -- they don't do it. +How about suction? They stick on in a vacuum. +How about wet adhesion? Or capillary adhesion? +They don't have any glue, and they even stick under water just fine. +If you put their foot under water, they grab on. +How do they do it then? Believe it or not, they grab on by intermolecular forces, by Van der Waals forces. +You know, you probably had this a long time ago in chemistry, where you had these two atoms, they're close together, and the electrons are moving around. That tiny force is sufficient to allow them to do that because it's added up so many times with these small structures. +What we're doing is, we're taking that inspiration of the hairs, and with another colleague at Berkeley, we're manufacturing them. +And just recently we've made a breakthrough, where we now believe we're going to be able to create the first synthetic, self-cleaning, dry adhesive. Many companies are interested in this. +We also presented to Nike even. +But the ants do, and we'll figure out why, so that ultimately we'll make this move. And imagine: you're going to be able to have swarms of these six-millimeter robots available to run around. +Where's this going? I think you can see it already. +Clearly, the Internet is already having eyes and ears, you have web cams and so forth. But it's going to also have legs and hands. +You're going to be able to do programmable work through these kinds of robots, so that you can run, fly and swim anywhere. We saw David Kelly is at the beginning of that with his fish. +So, in conclusion, I think the message is clear. +If you need a message, if nature's not enough, if you care about search and rescue, or mine clearance, or medicine, or the various things we're working on, we must preserve nature's designs, otherwise these secrets will be lost forever. +Thank you. +I had a fire nine days ago. +My archive: 175 films, my 16-millimeter negative, all my books, my dad's books, my photographs. +I'd collected -- I was a collector, major, big-time. +It's gone. +I just looked at it, and I didn't know what to do. +I mean, this was -- was I my things? +I always live in the present -- I love the present. +I cherish the future. +And I was taught some strange thing as a kid, like, you've got to make something good out of something bad. +You've got to make something good out of something bad. +This was bad! Man, I was -- I cough. I was sick. +That's my camera lens. The first one -- the one I shot my Bob Dylan film with 35 years ago. +That's my feature film. "King, Murray" won Cannes Film Festival 1970 -- the only print I had. +That's my papers. +That was in minutes -- 20 minutes. +Epiphany hit me. Something hit me. +"You've got to make something good out of something bad," I started to say to my friends, neighbors, my sister. +By the way, that's "Sputnik." I ran it last year. +"Sputnik" was downtown, the negative. It wasn't touched. +These are some pieces of things I used in my Sputnik feature film, which opens in New York in two weeks downtown. +I called my sister. I called my neighbors. I said, "Come dig." +That's me at my desk. +That was a desk took 40-some years to build. +You know -- all the stuff. +That's my daughter, Jean. +She came. She's a nurse in San Francisco. +"Dig it up," I said. "Pieces. +I want pieces. Bits and pieces." +I came up with this idea: a life of bits and pieces, which I'm just starting to work on -- my next project. +That's my sister. She took care of pictures, because I was a big collector of snapshot photography that I believed said a lot. +And those are some of the pictures that -- something was good about the burnt pictures. +I didn't know. I looked at that -- I said, "Wow, is that better than the --" That's my proposal on Jimmy Doolittle. I made that movie for television. +It's the only copy I had. Pieces of it. +Idea about women. +So I started to say, "Hey, man, you are too much! +You could cry about this." I really didn't. +That's Arthur Leipzig's original photograph I loved. +I was a big record collector -- the records didn't make it. Boy, I tell you, film burns. Film burns. +I mean, this was 16-millimeter safety film. +The negatives are gone. +That's my father's letter to me, telling me to marry the woman I first married when I was 20. +That's my daughter and me. +She's still there. She's there this morning, actually. +That's my house. +My family's living in the Hilton Hotel in Scotts Valley. +That's my wife, Heidi, who didn't take it as well as I did. +My children, Davey and Henry. +My son, Davey, in the hotel two nights ago. +So, my message to you folks, from my three minutes, is that I appreciate the chance to share this with you. I will be back. I love being at TED. +I came to live it, and I am living it. +That's my view from my window outside of Santa Cruz, in Bonny Doon, just 35 miles from here. +Thank you everybody. +This is a work in process, based on some comments that were made at TED two years ago about the need for the storage of vaccine. +Narrator: On this planet, 1.6 billion people don't have access to electricity, refrigeration or stored fuels. +This is a problem. +It impacts: the spread of disease, the storage of food and medicine and the quality of life. +So here's the plan: inexpensive refrigeration that doesn't use electricity, propane, gas, kerosene or consumables. +Time for some thermodynamics. +And the story of the Intermittent Absorption Refrigerator. +Adam Grosser: So 29 years ago, I had this thermo teacher who talked about absorption and refrigeration. +It's one of those things that stuck in my head. +It was a lot like the Stirling engine: it was cool, but you didn't know what to do with it. +And it was invented in 1858, by this guy Ferdinand Carre, but he couldn't actually build anything with it because of the tools of the time. +This crazy Canadian named Powel Crosley commercialized this thing called the IcyBall in 1928, and it was a really neat idea, and I'll get to why it didn't work, but here's how it works. +There's two spheres and they're separated in distance. +One has a working fluid, water and ammonia, and the other is a condenser. +You heat up one side, the hot side. +The ammonia evaporates and it re-condenses in the other side. +You let it cool to room temperature, and then, as the ammonia re-evaporates and combines with the water back on the erstwhile hot side, it creates a powerful cooling effect. +So, it was a great idea that didn't work at all: it blew up. +Because using ammonia you get hugely high pressures if you heated them wrong. +It topped 400 psi. The ammonia was toxic. It sprayed everywhere. +But it was kind of an interesting thought. +So, the great thing about 2006 is there's a lot of really great computational work you can do. +So, we got the whole thermodynamics department at Stanford involved -- a lot of computational fluid dynamics. +We proved that most of the ammonia refrigeration tables are wrong. +We found some non-toxic refrigerants that worked at very low vapor pressures. +Brought in a team from the U.K. -- there's a lot of great refrigeration people, it turned out, in the U.K. -- and built a test rig, and proved that, in fact, we could make a low pressure, non-toxic refrigerator. +So, this is the way it works. +You put it on a cooking fire. +Most people have cooking fires in the world, whether it's camel dung or wood. +It heats up for about 30 minutes, cools for an hour. +Put it into a container and it will refrigerate for 24 hours. +It looks like this. This is the fifth prototype. It's not quite done. +Weighs about eight pounds, and this is the way it works. +You put it into a 15-liter vessel, about three gallons, and it'll cool it down to just above freezing -- three degrees above freezing -- for 24 hours in a 30 degree C environment. It's really cheap. +We think we can build these in high volumes for about 25 dollars, in low volumes for about 40 dollars. +And we think we can make refrigeration something that everybody can have. +Thank you. +Probably a lot of you know the story of the two salesmen who went down to Africa in the 1900s. +They were sent down to find if there was any opportunity for selling shoes, and they wrote telegrams back to Manchester. +And one of them wrote, "Situation hopeless. Stop. They don't wear shoes." +And the other one wrote, "Glorious opportunity. They don't have any shoes yet." +Now, there's a similar situation in the classical music world, because there are some people who think that classical music is dying. +And there are some of us who think you ain't seen nothing yet. +And rather than go into statistics and trends, and tell you about all the orchestras that are closing, and the record companies that are folding, I thought we should do an experiment tonight. +Actually, it's not really an experiment, because I know the outcome. +But it's like an experiment. Now, before we start -- Before we start, I need to do two things. +One is I want to remind you of what a seven-year-old child sounds like when he plays the piano. +Maybe you have this child at home. +He sounds something like this. +I see some of you recognize this child. +Now, if he practices for a year and takes lessons, he's now eight and he sounds like this. +He practices for another year and takes lessons -- he's nine. +Then he practices for another year and takes lessons -- now he's 10. +(Music ends) At that point, they usually give up. +Now, if you'd waited for one more year, you would have heard this. +(Music ends) Now, what happened was not maybe what you thought, which is, he suddenly became passionate, engaged, involved, got a new teacher, he hit puberty, or whatever it is. +What actually happened was the impulses were reduced. +You see, the first time, he was playing with an impulse on every note. +And the second, with an impulse every other note. +You can see it by looking at my head. +The nine-year-old put an impulse on every four notes. +The 10-year-old, on every eight notes. +And the 11-year-old, one impulse on the whole phrase. +I don't know how we got into this position. +I didn't say, "I'm going to move my shoulder over, move my body." +No, the music pushed me over, which is why I call it one-buttock playing. +It can be the other buttock. +You know, a gentleman was once watching a presentation I was doing, when I was working with a young pianist. +He was the president of a corporation in Ohio. +I was working with this young pianist, and said, "The trouble with you is you're a two-buttock player. +You should be a one-buttock player." +I moved his body while he was playing. +And suddenly, the music took off. It took flight. +The audience gasped when they heard the difference. +Then I got a letter from this gentleman. +He said, "I was so moved. +I went back and I transformed my entire company into a one-buttock company." +Now, the other thing I wanted to do is to tell you about you. +There are 1,600 people, I believe. +My estimation is that probably 45 of you are absolutely passionate about classical music. +You adore classical music. Your FM is always on that classical dial. +You have CDs in your car, and you go to the symphony, your children are playing instruments. +You can't imagine your life without classical music. +That's the first group, quite small. +Then there's another bigger group. +The people who don't mind classical music. +You know, you've come home from a long day, and you take a glass of wine, and you put your feet up. +A little Vivaldi in the background doesn't do any harm. +That's the second group. +Now comes the third group: people who never listen to classical music. +It's just simply not part of your life. +You might hear it like second-hand smoke at the airport ... +-- and maybe a little bit of a march from "Aida" when you come into the hall. But otherwise, you never hear it. +That's probably the largest group. +And then there's a very small group. +These are the people who think they're tone-deaf. +Amazing number of people think they're tone-deaf. +Actually, I hear a lot, "My husband is tone-deaf." +Actually, you cannot be tone-deaf. Nobody is tone-deaf. +If you were tone-deaf, you couldn't change the gears on your car, in a stick shift car. +You couldn't tell the difference between somebody from Texas and somebody from Rome. +And the telephone. The telephone. If your mother calls on the miserable telephone, she calls and says, "Hello," you not only know who it is, you know what mood she's in. +You have a fantastic ear. Everybody has a fantastic ear. +So nobody is tone-deaf. +But I tell you what. It doesn't work for me to go on with this thing, with such a wide gulf between those who understand, love and are passionate about classical music, and those who have no relationship to it at all. +The tone-deaf people, they're no longer here. +But even between those three categories, it's too wide a gulf. +So I'm not going to go on until every single person in this room, downstairs and in Aspen, and everybody else looking, will come to love and understand classical music. +So that's what we're going to do. +Now, you notice that there is not the slightest doubt in my mind that this is going to work, if you look at my face, right? +It's one of the characteristics of a leader that he not doubt for one moment the capacity of the people he's leading to realize whatever he's dreaming. +Imagine if Martin Luther King had said, "I have a dream. +Of course, I'm not sure they'll be up to it." +All right. So I'm going to take a piece of Chopin. +This is a beautiful prelude by Chopin. Some of you will know it. +Do you know what I think probably happened here? +When I started, you thought, "How beautiful that sounds." +"I don't think we should go to the same place for our summer holidays next year." +It's funny, isn't it? +It's funny how those thoughts kind of waft into your head. +And of course -- Of course, if the piece is long and you've had a long day, you might actually drift off. +Then your companion will dig you in the ribs and say, "Wake up! It's culture!" And then you feel even worse. +But has it ever occurred to you that the reason you feel sleepy in classical music is not because of you, but because of us? +Did anybody think while I was playing, "Why is he using so many impulses?" +If I'd done this with my head you certainly would have thought it. +And for the rest of your life, every time you hear classical music, you'll always be able to know if you hear those impulses. +So let's see what's really going on here. +We have a B. This is a B. The next note is a C. +And the job of the C is to make the B sad. And it does, doesn't it? +Composers know that. +If they want sad music, they just play those two notes. +But basically, it's just a B, with four sads. +Now, it goes down to A. Now to G. +So we have B, A, G, F. And if we have B, A, G, F, what do we expect next? That might have been a fluke. +Let's try it again. Oh, the TED choir. +And you notice nobody is tone-deaf, right? Nobody is. +You know, every village in Bangladesh and every hamlet in China -- everybody knows: da, da, da, da -- da. Everybody knows, who's expecting that E. +Chopin didn't want to reach the E there, because what will have happened? It will be over, like Hamlet. Do you remember? +Act One, scene three, he finds out his uncle killed his father. +He keeps on going up to his uncle and almost killing him. +And then he backs away, he goes up to him again, almost kills him. +The critics sitting in the back row there, they have to have an opinion, so they say, "Hamlet is a procrastinator." +Or they say, "Hamlet has an Oedipus complex." +No, otherwise the play would be over, stupid. +That's why Shakespeare puts all that stuff in Hamlet -- Ophelia going mad, the play within the play, and Yorick's skull, and the gravediggers. +That's in order to delay -- until Act Five, he can kill him. +It's the same with the Chopin. He's just about to reach the E, and he says, "Oops, better go back up and do it again." +So he does it again. +Now, he gets excited. +That's excitement, don't worry about it. +Now, he gets to F-sharp, and finally he goes down to E, but it's the wrong chord -- because the chord he's looking for is this one, and instead he does ... +Now, we call that a deceptive cadence, because it deceives us. +I tell my students, "If you have a deceptive cadence, raise your eyebrows, and everybody will know." +Right. He gets to E, but it's the wrong chord. +Now, he tries E again. That chord doesn't work. +Now, he tries the E again. That chord doesn't work. +Now, he tries E again, and that doesn't work. +And then finally ... +There was a gentleman in the front row who went, "Mmm." +It's the same gesture he makes when he comes home after a long day, turns off the key in his car and says, "Aah, I'm home." Because we all know where home is. +So this is a piece which goes from away to home. +I'm going to play it all the way through and you're going to follow. +B, C, B, C, B, C, B -- down to A, down to G, down to F. +Almost goes to E, but otherwise the play would be over. +He goes back up to B, he gets very excited. Goes to F-sharp. Goes to E. +It's the wrong chord. It's the wrong chord. +And finally goes to E, and it's home. +And what you're going to see is one-buttock playing. +Because for me, to join the B to the E, I have to stop thinking about every single note along the way, and start thinking about the long, long line from B to E. +You know, we were just in South Africa, and you can't go to South Africa without thinking of Mandela in jail for 27 years. +What was he thinking about? Lunch? +No, he was thinking about the vision for South Africa and for human beings. +This is about vision. This is about the long line. +Like the bird who flies over the field and doesn't care about the fences underneath, all right? +So now, you're going to follow the line all the way from B to E. +And I've one last request before I play this piece all the way through. +Would you think of somebody who you adore, who's no longer there? +A beloved grandmother, a lover -- somebody in your life who you love with all your heart, but that person is no longer with you. +Bring that person into your mind, and at the same time, follow the line all the way from B to E, and you'll hear everything that Chopin had to say. +Now, you may be wondering -- You may be wondering why I'm clapping. +Well, I did this at a school in Boston with about 70 seventh graders, 12-year-olds. +I did exactly what I did with you, and I explained the whole thing. +At the end, they went crazy, clapping. +I was clapping. They were clapping. +Finally, I said, "Why am I clapping?" +And one of them said, "Because we were listening." +Think of it. 1,600 people, busy people, involved in all sorts of different things, listening, understanding and being moved by a piece by Chopin. +Now, that is something. +Am I sure that every single person followed that, understood it, was moved by it? Of course, I can't be sure. +But I'll tell you what happened to me in Ireland during the Troubles, 10 years ago, and I was working with some Catholic and Protestant kids on conflict resolution. And I did this with them -- a risky thing to do, because they were street kids. +And one of them came to me the next morning and he said, "You know, I've never listened to classical music in my life, but when you played that shopping piece ..." +He said, "My brother was shot last year and I didn't cry for him. +But last night, when you played that piece, he was the one I was thinking about. +And I felt the tears streaming down my face. +And it felt really good to cry for my brother." +So I made up my mind at that moment that classical music is for everybody. +Now, how would you walk -- my profession, the music profession doesn't see it that way. +They say three percent of the population likes classical music. +If only we could move it to four percent, our problems would be over. +How would you walk? How would you talk? How would you be? +If you thought, "Three percent of the population likes classical music, if only we could move it to four percent." +How would you walk or talk? How would you be? +If you thought, "Everybody loves classical music -- they just haven't found out about it yet." +See, these are totally different worlds. +Now, I had an amazing experience. I was 45 years old, I'd been conducting for 20 years, and I suddenly had a realization. +The conductor of an orchestra doesn't make a sound. +My picture appears on the front of the CD -- But the conductor doesn't make a sound. +He depends, for his power, on his ability to make other people powerful. +And that changed everything for me. It was totally life-changing. +People in my orchestra said, "Ben, what happened?" That's what happened. +I realized my job was to awaken possibility in other people. +And of course, I wanted to know whether I was doing that. +How do you find out? You look at their eyes. +If their eyes are shining, you know you're doing it. +You could light up a village with this guy's eyes. +Right. So if the eyes are shining, you know you're doing it. +If the eyes are not shining, you get to ask a question. +And this is the question: who am I being that my players' eyes are not shining? +We can do that with our children, too. +Who am I being, that my children's eyes are not shining? +That's a totally different world. +Now, we're all about to end this magical, on-the-mountain week, we're going back into the world. +And I say, it's appropriate for us to ask the question, who are we being as we go back out into the world? +And you know, I have a definition of success. +For me, it's very simple. It's not about wealth and fame and power. +It's about how many shining eyes I have around me. +So now, I have one last thought, which is that it really makes a difference what we say -- the words that come out of our mouth. +I learned this from a woman who survived Auschwitz, one of the rare survivors. +She went to Auschwitz when she was 15 years old. +And her brother was eight, and the parents were lost. +And she told me this, she said, "We were in the train going to Auschwitz, and I looked down and saw my brother's shoes were missing. +I said, 'Why are you so stupid, can't you keep your things together for goodness' sake?'" The way an elder sister might speak to a younger brother. +Unfortunately, it was the last thing she ever said to him, because she never saw him again. He did not survive. +And so when she came out of Auschwitz, she made a vow. +She told me this. She said, "I walked out of Auschwitz into life and I made a vow. And the vow was, "I will never say anything that couldn't stand as the last thing I ever say." +Now, can we do that? No. +And we'll make ourselves wrong and others wrong. But it is a possibility to live into. Thank you. +Shining eyes. +Shining eyes. +But anyway, this is about the evils of science, so I think its perfect. +"Ha, I'm the only person I ever loved." + Gee, that's swell. I guess you're just my fatal attraction-ie. Youre my Clonie. Thank you. +Most people don't know that when I went to high school in this country -- I applied for university at a time when I was convinced I was going to be an artist and be a sculptor. +And I came from a very privileged background. I was very lucky. +My family was wealthy, and my father believed in one thing, and that was to give us all as much education as we wanted. +And I announced I wanted to be a sculptor in Paris. +And he was a clever man. He sort of said, "Well, that's OK, but you've done very well in your math SATs." +In fact, I'd got an 800. And he thought I did very well -- and I did, too -- in the arts: this was my passion. +And he said "If you go to MIT," to which I had been given early admission, "I will pay for every year you're at MIT, in graduate or undergraduate -- as much as you want -- I will pay for an equal number of years for you to live in Paris." +And I thought that was the best deal in town, so I accepted it immediately. +And I decided that if I was good in art, and I was good in mathematics, I'd study architecture, which was the blending of the two. +I went and told my headmaster that, at prep school. +And I said to him what I was doing, that I was going to go study architecture because it was art and mathematics put together. +He said to me something that just went completely over my head. +He said, "You know, I like grey suits, and I like pin-striped suits, but I don't like grey pin-striped suits." +And I thought, "What a turkey this guy is," and I went off to MIT. +I studied architecture, then did a second degree in architecture, and then actually quickly realized that it wasn't architecture. +That really, the mixing of art and science was computers, and that that really was the place to bring both, and enjoyed a career doing that. +And probably, if I were to fill out Jim Citrin's scale, I'd put 100 percent on the side of the equation where you spend time making it possible for others to be creative. +And after doing this for a long time, and the Media Lab passing the baton on, I thought, "Well, maybe it's time for me to do a project. +Something that would be important, but also something that would take advantage of all of these privileges that one had." +And in the case of the Media Lab, knowing a lot of people, knowing people who were either executives or wealthy, and also not having, in my own case, a career to worry about anymore. +My career, I mean, I'd done my career. +Didn't have to worry about earning money. +Didn't have to worry about what people thought about me. +And I said, "Boy, let's really do something that takes advantage of all these features," and thought that if we could address education, by leveraging the children, and bringing to the world the access of the computers, that that was really the thing we should do. +Never shown this picture before, and probably going to be sued for it. +It's taken at three o'clock in the morning, without the permission of the company. +It's about two weeks old. There they are, folks. +If you look at the picture, you'll see they're stacked up. +Those are conveyor belts that go around. +This is one of the conveyor belts with the thing going by, but then you'll see the ones up above. +What happens is, they burn into flash memory the software, and then test them for a few hours. +But you've got to have the thing moving on the assembly line, because it's constant. +So they go around in this loop, which is why you see them up there. +So this was great for us because it was a real turning point. But it goes back. +This picture was taken in 1982, just before the IBM PC was even announced. +Seymour Papert and I were bringing computers to schools and developing nations at a time when it was way ahead of itself. +But one thing we learned was that these kids can absolutely jump into it just the same way as our kids do here. +And when people tell me, "Who's going to teach the teachers to teach the kids?" +I say to myself, "What planet do you come from?" +Okay, there's not a person in this room -- I don't care how techie you are -- there's not a person in this room that doesn't give their laptop or cell phone to a kid to help them debug it. OK? +We all need help, even those of us who are very seasoned. +This picture of Seymour -- 25 years ago. Seymour made a very simple observation in 1968, and then basically presented it in 1970 -- April 11 to be precise -- called "Teaching Children Thinking." +What he observed was that kids who write computer programs understand things differently, and when they debug the programs, they come the closest to learning about learning. +That was very important, and in some sense, we've lost that. +Kids don't program enough and boy, if there's anything I hope this brings back, it's programming to kids. +It's really important. Using applications is OK, but programming is absolutely fundamental. +This is being launched with three languages in it: Squeak, Logo, and a third, that I've never even seen before. +The point being, this is going to be very, very intensive on the programming side. +This photograph is very important because it's much later. +This is in the early 2000s. My son, Dimitri -- who's here, many of you know Dimitri -- went to Cambodia, set up this school that we had built, just as the school connected it to the Internet. +And these kids had their laptops. But it was really what spirited this, plus the influence of Joe and others. We started One Laptop per Child. +This is the same village in Cambodia, just a couple of months ago. +These kids are real pros. There were just 7,000 machines out there being tested by kids. Being a nonprofit is absolutely fundamental. +Everybody advised me not to be a nonprofit, but they were all wrong. +And the reason being a nonprofit is important is actually twofold. +There are many reasons, but the two that merit the little bit of time is: one, the clarity of purpose is there. The moral purpose is clear. +I can see any head of state, any executive I want, at any time, because I'm not selling laptops. OK? I have no shareholders. +Whether we sell, it doesn't make any difference whatsoever. +The clarity of purpose is absolutely critical. And the second is very counterintuitive -- you can get the best people in the world. +If you look at our professional services, including search firms, including communications, including legal services, including banking, they're all pro bono. And it's not to save money. +We've got money in the bank. It's because you get the best people. +You get the people who are doing it because they believe in the mission, and they're the best people. +We couldn't afford to hire a CFO. We put out a job description for a CFO at zero salary, and we had a queue of people. +It allows you to team up with people. The U.N.'s not going to be our partner if we're profit making. So announcing this with Kofi Annan was very important, and the U.N. allowed us to basically reach all the countries. And this was the machine we were showing before I met Yves Behar. +And while this machine in some sense is silly, in retrospect, it actually served a very important purpose. +That pencil-yellow crank was remembered by everybody. +Everybody remembered the pencil-yellow crank. It's different. +It was getting its power in a different way. It's kind of childlike. +Even though this wasn't the direction we went because the crank -- it really is stupid to have it on board, by the way. +In spite of what some people in the press don't get it, didn't understand it, we didn't take it off because we didn't want to do -- having it on the laptop itself is really not what you want. +You want a separate thing, like the AC adaptor. +I didn't bring one with me, but they really work much better off-board. +And then, I could tell you lots about the laptop, but I decided on just four things. +Just keep in mind -- because there are other people, including Bill Gates, who said, "Gee, you've got a real computer." +That computer is unlike anything you've had, and does things -- there are four of them -- that you don't come close to. And it's very important to be low power, and I hope that's picked up more by the industry. +That the reason that you want to be below two watts is that's roughly what you can generate with your upper body. +Dual-mode display -- that sunlight display's fantastic. +We were using it at lunch today in the sunlight, and the more sunlight the better. +And that was really critical. The mesh network, it'll become commonplace. +And of course, "rugged" goes without saying. +And the reason I think design matters isn't because I wanted to go to art school. +And by the way, when I graduated from MIT, I thought the worst and silliest thing to do would be to go to Paris for six years. So, I didn't do that. But design matters for a number of reasons. +The most important being that it is the best way to make an inexpensive product. +Most people make inexpensive products by taking cheap design, cheap labor, cheap components, and making a cheap laptop. +And, in English, the word "cheap" has a double meaning, which is really appropriate, because it's cheap, in the pejorative sense, as well as inexpensive. +But if you take a different approach, and you think of very large-scale integration, very advanced materials, very advanced manufacturing -- so you're pouring chemicals in one end, iPods are spewing out the other -- and really cool design, that's what we wanted to do. +And I can race through these and save a lot of time because Yves and I obviously didn't compare notes. +These are his slides, and so I don't have to talk about them. +But it was really, to us, very important as a strategy. +It wasn't just to kind of make it cute, because somebody -- you know, good design is very important. +Yves showed one of the power-generating devices. +The mesh network, the reason I -- and I won't go into it in great detail -- but when we deliver laptops to kids in the remotest and poorest parts of the world, they're connected. There's not just laptops. +And so, we have to drop in satellite dishes. We put in generators. +It's a lot of stuff that goes behind these. These can talk to each other. +If you're in a desert, they can talk to each other about two kilometers apart. +If you're in the jungle, it's about 500 meters. So if a kid bicycles home, or walks a few miles, they're going to be off the grid, so to speak. +They're not going to be near another laptop, so you have to nail these onto a tree, and sort of, get it. +You don't call Verizon or Sprint. You build your own network. +And that's very important, the user interface. +We are launching with 18 keyboards. English is by far the minority. +Latin is relatively rare, too. You just look at some of the languages. +I'm willing to suspect some of you hadn't even heard of them before. +Is there anybody in the room, one person, unless you work with OLPC, is there anybody in the room that can tell me what language the keyboard is that's on the screen? There's only one hand -- so you get it. +Yes, you're right. He's right. It's Amharic, it's Ethiopian. In Ethiopia, there's never been a keyboard. +There is no keyboard standard because there's no market. +And this is the big difference. +Again, when you're a nonprofit, you look at children as a mission, not as a market. +So we went to Ethiopia, and we helped them make a keyboard. +And this will become the standard Ethiopian keyboard. +So what I want to end with is sort of what we're doing to roll it out. +And we changed strategy completely. I decided at the beginning -- it was a pretty good thing to decide in the beginning, it's not what we're doing now -- is to go to six countries. +Big countries, one of them is not so big, but it's rich. +Here's the six. We went to the six, and in each case the head of state said he would do it, he'd do a million. +In the case of Gaddafi, he'd do 1.2 million, and that they would launch it. +We thought, this is exactly the right strategy, get it out, and then the little countries could sort of piggyback on these big countries. +And so I went to each of those countries at least six times, met with the head of state probably two or three times. +In each case, got the ministers, went through a lot of the stuff. +This was a period in my life where I was traveling 330 days per year. +Not something you'd envy or want to do. +In the case of Libya, it was a lot of fun meeting Gaddafi in his tent. +The camel smells were unbelievable. +And it was 45 degrees C. I mean, this was not what you'd call a cool experience. And former countries -- I say former, because none of them really came through this summer -- there was a big difference between getting a head of state to have a photo opportunity, make a press release. +So we went to smaller ones. Uruguay, bless their hearts. +Small country, not so rich. President said he'd do it, and guess what? +He did do it. The tender had nothing in it that related to us, nothing specific about sunlight-readable, mesh-network, low-power, but just a vanilla laptop proposal. +And guess what? We won it hands down. +When it was announced that they were going to do every child in Uruguay, the first 100,000, boom, went to OLPC. +The next day -- the next day, not even 24 hours had passed -- in Peru, the president of Peru said, "We'll do 250." And boom, a little domino effect. +The president of Rwanda stepped in and said he would do it. +The president of Ethiopia said he would do it. +And boom, boom, boom. The president of Mongolia. +And so what happens is, these things start to happen with these countries -- still not enough. +Add up all those countries, it didn't quite get to thing, so we said, "Let's start a program in the United States." So, end of August, early September, we decide to do this. We announced it near the middle, end -- just when the Clinton Initiative was taking place. +We thought that was a good time to announce it. +Launched it on the 12 of November. +We said it would be just for a short period until the 26. We've extended it until the 31. +And the "Give One, Get One" program is really important because it got a lot of people absolutely interested. +The first day it was just wild. And then we said, "Well, let's get people to give many. Not just one, and get one, but maybe give 100, give 1,000." And that's where you come in. +And that's where I think it's very important. I don't want you all to go out and buy 400 dollars worth of laptops. Okay? Do it, but that's not going to help. Okay? +If everybody in this room goes out tonight and orders one of these things for 400 dollars, whatever it is, 300 people in the room doing it -- yeah, great. +I want you do something else. +And it's not to go out and buy 100 or 1,000, though, I invite you to do that, and 10,000 would be even better. +Tell people about it! It's got to become viral, OK? +Use your mailing lists. People in this room have extraordinary mailing lists. +Get your friends to give one, get one. +And if each one of you sends it to 300 or 400 people, that would be fantastic. +I won't dwell on the pricing at all. +Just to say that when you do the "Give One, Get One," a lot of press is a bit about, "They didn't make it, it's 188 dollars, it's not 100." +It will be 100 in two years. It will go below 100. +We've pledged not to add features, but to bring that price down. +But it was the countries that wanted it to go up, and we let them push it up for all sorts of reasons. So what you can do -- I've just said it. Don't just give one, get one. +I just want to end with one last one. This one is not even 24-hours old, or maybe it's 24-hours. +The first kids got their laptops. They got them by ship, and I'm talking now about 7,000, 8,000 at a time went out this week. +They went to Uruguay, Peru, Mexico. +And it's been slow coming, and we're only making about 5,000 a week, but we hope, we hope, sometime in next year, maybe by the middle of the year, to hit a million a month. Now put that number, and a million isn't so much. It's not a big number. +We're selling a billion cell phones worldwide this year. +But a million a month in laptop-land is a big number. +And the world production today, everybody combined, making laptops, is five million a month. So I'm standing here telling you that sometime next year, we're going to make 20 percent of the world production. +And if we do that, there are going to be a lot of lucky kids out there. +And we hope if you have EG two years from now, or whenever you have it again, I won't have bad breath, and I will be invited back, and will have, hopefully by then, maybe 100 million out there to children. +Thank you. +Those of you who know me know how passionate I am about opening the space frontier. +So when I had the chance to give the world's expert in gravity the experience of zero gravity, it was incredible. +And I want to tell you that story. +I first met him through the Archon X PRIZE for Genomics. +It's a competition we're holding, the second X PRIZE, for the first team to sequence 100 human genomes in 10 days. +We have something called the Genome 100 -- 100 individuals we're sequencing as part of that. +Craig Venter chairs that event. +And I met Professor Hawking, and he said his dream was to travel into space. +And I said, "I can't take you there, but I can take you into weightlessness into zero-g. +And he said, on the spot, "Absolutely, yes." +Well, the only way to experience zero-g on Earth is actually with parabolic flight, weightless flight. +You take an airplane, you fly over the top, you're weightless for 25 seconds. +Come back down, you weigh twice as much. +You do it again and again. +You can get eight, 10 minutes of weightlessness -- how NASA's trained their astronauts for so long. +We set out to do this. +It took us 11 years to become operational. +And we announced that we were going to fly Stephen Hawking. +We had one government agency and one company aircraft operator say, you're crazy, don't do that, you're going kill the guy. +And he wanted to go. +We worked hard to get all the permissions. +And six months later, we sat down at Kennedy Space Center. +We had a press conference, we announced our intent to do one zero-g parabola, give him 25 seconds of zero-g. +And if it went really well, we might do three parabolas. +Well, we asked him why he wanted to go up and do this. +And what he said, for me, was very moving. +He said, "Life on Earth is at an ever-increasing risk of being wiped out by disaster ... +I think the human race doesn't have a future if it doesn't go into space. +I therefore want to encourage public interest in space." +We took him out to the Kennedy Space Center, up inside the NASA vehicle, into the back of the zero-g airplane. +We had about 20 people who made donations -- we raised $150,000 in donations for children's charities -- who flew with us. +A few TEDsters here. +We set up a whole ER. +We had four emergency room doctors and two nurses on board the airplane. +We were monitoring his PO2 of his blood, his heart rate, his blood pressure. +We had everything all set in case of an emergency; God knows, you don't want to hurt this world-renowned expert. +We took off from the shuttle landing facility, where the shuttle takes off and lands. +And my partner Byron Lichtenberg and I carefully suspended him into zero-g. +Once he was there, [we] let him go to experience what weightlessness was truly like. +And after that first parabola, you know, the doc said everything is great. He was smiling, and we said go. +So we did a second parabola. +And a third. +We actually floated an apple in homage to Sir Isaac Newton because Professor Hawking holds the same chair at Cambridge that Isaac Newton did. +And we did a fourth, and a fifth and a sixth. +And a seventh and an eighth. +And this man does not look like a 65-year-old wheelchair-bound man. +He was so happy. +We are living on a precious jewel, and it's during our lifetime that we're moving off this planet. +Please join us in this epic adventure. +Thank you so much. +My search is always to find ways to chronicle, to share and to document stories about people, just everyday people. +Stories that offer transformation, that lean into transcendence, but that are never sentimental, that never look away from the darkest things about us. +Because I really believe that we're never more beautiful than when we're most ugly. +Because that's really the moment we really know what we're made of. +As Chris said, I grew up in Nigeria with a whole generation -- in the '80s -- of students who were protesting a military dictatorship, which has finally ended. +So it wasn't just me, there was a whole generation of us. +But what I've come to learn is that the world is never saved in grand messianic gestures, but in the simple accumulation of gentle, soft, almost invisible acts of compassion, everyday acts of compassion. +In South Africa, they have a phrase called Ubuntu. +Ubuntu comes out of a philosophy that says, the only way for me to be human is for you to reflect my humanity back at me. +But if you're like me, my humanity is more like a window. +I don't really see it, I don't pay attention to it until there's, you know, like a bug that's dead on the window. +Then suddenly I see it, and usually, it's never good. +It's usually when I'm cussing in traffic at someone who is trying to drive their car and drink coffee and send emails and make notes. +So what Ubuntu really says is that there is no way for us to be human without other people. +It's really very simple, but really very complicated. +So, I thought I should start with some stories. +I should tell you some stories about remarkable people, so I thought I'd start with my mother. +And she was dark, too. +My mother was English. +My parents met in Oxford in the '50s, and my mother moved to Nigeria and lived there. +She was five foot two, very feisty and very English. +This is how English my mother is -- or was, she just passed. +She came out to California, to Los Angeles, to visit me, and we went to Malibu, which she thought was very disappointing. +And then we went to a fish restaurant, and we had Chad, the surfer dude, serving us, and he came up and my mother said, "Do you have any specials, young man?" +And Chad says, "Sure, like, we have this, like, salmon, that's, like, rolled in this, like, wasabi, like, crust. +It's totally rad." +And my mother turned to me and said, "What language is he speaking?" +I said, "English, mum." +And she shook her head and said, "Oh, these Americans. We gave them a language, why don't they use it?" +But her Igbo wasn't too good. +So she took me along to translate. +I was seven. +So, here are these women, who never discuss their period with their husbands, and here I am telling them, "Well, how often do you get your period?" +And, "Do you notice any discharges?" +And, "How swollen is your vulva?" +She never would have thought of herself as a feminist, my mother, but she always used to say, "Anything a man can do, I can fix." +And when my father complained about this situation, where she's taking a seven-year-old boy to teach this birth control, you know, he used to say, "Oh, you're turning him into -- you're teaching him how to be a woman." +My mother said, "Someone has to." +This woman -- during the Biafran war, we were caught in the war. +It was my mother with five little children. +It takes her one year, through refugee camp after refugee camp, to make her way to an airstrip where we can fly out of the country. +At every single refugee camp, she has to face off soldiers who want to take my elder brother Mark, who was nine, and make him a boy soldier. +Can you imagine this five-foot-two woman, standing up to men with guns who want to kill us? +All through that one year, my mother never cried one time, not once. +But when we were in Lisbon, in the airport, about to fly to England, this woman saw my mother wearing this dress, which had been washed so many times it was basically see through, with five really hungry-looking kids, came over and asked her what had happened. +And she told this woman. +And so this woman emptied out her suitcase and gave all of her clothes to my mother, and to us, and the toys of her kids, who didn't like that very much, but -- -- that was the only time she cried. +And I remember years later, I was writing about my mother, and I asked her, "Why did you cry then?" +And she said, "You know, you can steel your heart against any kind of trouble, any kind of horror. +But the simple act of kindness from a complete stranger will unstitch you." +The old women in my father's village, after this war had happened, memorized the names of every dead person, and they would sing these dirges, made up of these names. +Dirges so melancholic that they would scorch you. +And they would sing them only when they planted the rice, as though they were seeding the hearts of the dead into the rice. +But when it came for harvest time, they would sing these joyful songs, that were made up of the names of every child who had been born that year. +And then the next planting season, when they sang the dirge, they would remove as many names of the dead that equaled as many people that were born. +And in this way, these women enacted a lot of transformation, beautiful transformation. +Did you know, that before the genocide in Rwanda, the word for rape and the word for marriage was the same one? +But today, women are rebuilding Rwanda. +Did you also know that after apartheid, when the new government went into the parliament houses, there were no female toilets in the building? +Which would seem to suggest that apartheid was entirely the business of men. +All of this to say, that despite the horror, and despite the death, women are never really counted. +Their humanity never seems to matter very much to us. +When I was growing up in Nigeria -- and I shouldn't say Nigeria, because that's too general, but in Afikpo, the Igbo part of the country where I'm from -- there were always rites of passage for young men. +Men were taught to be men in the ways in which we are not women, that's essentially what it is. +And I was this weird, sensitive kid, who couldn't really do it, but I had to do it. +And I was supposed to do this alone. +But a friend of mine, called Emmanuel, who was significantly older than me, who'd been a boy soldier during the Biafran war, decided to come with me. +Which sort of made me feel good, because he'd seen a lot of things. +Now, when I was growing up, he used to tell me stories about how he used to bayonet people, and their intestines would fall out, but they would keep running. +So, this guy comes with me. +And I don't know if you've ever heard a goat, or seen one -- they sound like human beings, that's why we call tragedies "a song of a goat." +My friend Brad Kessler says that we didn't become human until we started keeping goats. +Anyway, a goat's eyes are like a child's eyes. +So when I tried to kill this goat and I couldn't, Emmanuel bent down, he puts his hand over the mouth of the goat, covers its eyes, so I don't have to look into them, while I kill the goat. +It didn't seem like a lot, for this guy who'd seen so much, and to whom the killing of a goat must have seemed such a quotidian experience, still found it in himself to try to protect me. +I was a wimp. +I cried for a very long time. +And afterwards, he didn't say a word. +He just sat there watching me cry for an hour. +And then afterwards he said to me, "It will always be difficult, but if you cry like this every time, you will die of heartbreak. +Just know that it is enough sometimes to know that it is difficult." +Of course, talking about goats makes me think of sheep, and not in good ways. +So, I was born two days after Christmas. +So growing up, you know, I had a cake and everything, but I never got any presents, because, born two days after Christmas. +So, I was about nine, and my uncle had just come back from Germany, and we had the Catholic priest over, my mother was entertaining him with tea. +And my uncle suddenly says, "Where are Chris' presents?" +And my mother said, "Don't talk about that in front of guests." +But he was desperate to show that he'd just come back, so he summoned me up, and he said, "Go into the bedroom, my bedroom. +Take anything you want out of the suitcase. +It's your birthday present." +I'm sure he thought I'd take a book or a shirt, but I found an inflatable sheep. +So, I blew it up and ran into the living room, my finger where it shouldn't have been, I was waving this buzzing sheep around, and my mother looked like she was going to die of shock. +And Father McGetrick was completely unflustered, just stirred his tea and looked at my mother and said, "It's all right Daphne, I'm Scottish." +My last days in prison, the last 18 months, my cellmate -- for the last year, the first year of the last 18 months -- my cellmate was 14 years old. +The name was John James, and in those days, if a family member committed a crime, the military would hold you as ransom till your family turned themselves in. +So, here was this 14-year-old kid on death row. +And not everybody on death row was a political prisoner. +There were some really bad people there. +And he had smuggled in two comics, two comic books -- "Spiderman" and "X-Men." +He was obsessed. +And when he got tired of reading them, he started to teach the men in death row how to read, with these comic books. +And so, I remember night after night, you'd hear all these men, these really hardened criminals, huddled around John James, reciting, "Take that, Spidey!" +It's incredible. +I was really worried. +He didn't know what death row meant. +I'd been there twice, and I was terribly afraid that I was going to die. +And he would always laugh, and say, "Come on, man, we'll make it out." +Then I'd say, "How do you know?" +And he said, "Oh, I heard it on the grapevine." +They killed him. +They handcuffed him to a chair, and they tacked his penis to a table with a six-inch nail, then left him there to bleed to death. +That's how I ended up in solitary, because I let my feelings be known. +All around us, everywhere, there are people like this. +The Igbo used to say that they built their own gods. +They would come together as a community, and they would express a wish. +And their wish would then be brought to a priest, who would find a ritual object, and the appropriate sacrifices would be made, and the shrine would be built for the god. +But if the god became unruly and began to ask for human sacrifice, the Igbos would destroy the god. +They would knock down the shrine, and they would stop saying the god's name. +This is how they came to reclaim their humanity. +Every day, all of us here, we're building gods that have gone rampant, and it's time we started knocking them down and forgetting their names. +It doesn't require a tremendous thing. +All it requires is to recognize among us, every day -- the few of us that can see -- are surrounded by people like the ones I've told you. +There are some of you in this room, amazing people, who offer all of us the mirror to our own humanity. +I want to end with a poem by an American poet called Lucille Clifton. +The poem is called "Libation," and it's for my friend Vusi who is in the audience here somewhere. +"Libation, North Carolina, 1999. +I offer to this ground, this gin. +I imagine an old man crying here, out of the sight of the overseer. +He pushes his tongue through a hole where his tooth would be, if he were whole. +It aches in that space where his tooth would be, where his land would be, his house, his wife, his son, his beautiful daughter. +He wipes sorrow from his face, and puts his thirsty finger to his thirsty tongue, and tastes the salt. +I call a name that could be his. +This is for you, old man. +This gin, this salty earth." +Thank you. +Thank you. +Thank you. +Thank you. +I asked my mother, you know, should I say anything in support of anyone? +And she said, "Oh no! Just dis everybody, except Ralph Nader." +Some of you have heard the story before, but, in fact, there's somebody in the audience who's never heard this story -- in front of an audience -- before, so I'm a little more nervous than I normally am telling this story. +I used to be a photographer for many years. +In 1978, I was working for Time magazine, and I was given a three-day assignment to photograph Amerasian children, children who had been fathered by American GIs all over Southeast Asia, and then abandoned -- 40,000 children all over Asia. +I had never heard the word Amerasian before. +I spent a few days photographing children in different countries, and like a lot of photographers and a lot of journalists, I always hope that when my pictures were published, they might actually have an effect on a situation, instead of just documenting it. +So, I was so disturbed by what I saw, and I was so unhappy with the article that ran afterwards, that I decided I would take six months off. +I was 28 years old. +I decided I would find six children in different countries, and actually go spend some time with the kids, and try to tell their story a little bit better than I thought I had done for Time magazine. +In the course of doing the story, I was looking for children who hadn't been photographed before, and the Pearl Buck Foundation told me that they worked with a lot of Americans who were donating money to help some of these kids. +And a man told me, who ran the Pearl Buck Foundation in Korea, that there was a young girl, who was 11 years old, being raised by her grandmother. +And the grandmother had never let any Westerners ever see her. +Every time any Westerners came to the village, she hid the girl. +And of course, I was immediately intrigued. +I saw photographs of her, and I thought I wanted to go. +And the guy just told me, "There's no way. This grandmother won't even -- you know, there's no way she's ever going to let you meet this girl that's she's raising." +I took a translator with me, and went to this village, found the grandmother, sat down with her. +And to my astonishment, she agreed to let me photograph her granddaughter. +And I was paying for this myself, so I asked the translator if it would be OK if I stayed for the week. +I had a sleeping bag. +The family had a small shed on the side of the house, so I said, "Could I sleep in my sleeping bag in the evenings?" +And I just told the little girl, whose name was Hyun-Sook Lee, that if I ever did anything to embarrass her -- she didn't speak a word of English, although she looked very American -- she could just put up her hand and say, "Stop," and I would stop taking pictures. +And then, my translator left. +So there I was, I couldn't speak a word of Korean, and this is the first night I met Hyun-Sook. +Her mother was still alive. +Her mother was not raising her, her grandmother was raising her. +And what struck me immediately was how in love the two of these people were. +The grandmother was incredibly fond, deeply in love with this little girl. +They slept on the floor at night. +The way they heat their homes in Korea is to put bricks under the floors, so the heat actually radiates from underneath the floor. +Hyun-Sook was 11 years old. +I had photographed, as I said, a lot of these kids. +Hyun-Sook was in fact the fifth child that I found to photograph. +And almost universally, amongst all the kids, they were really psychologically damaged by having been made fun of, ridiculed, picked on and been rejected. +And Korea was probably the place I found to be the worst for these kids. +And what struck me immediately in meeting Hyun-Sook was how confident she appeared to be, how happy she seemed to be in her own skin. +And remember this picture, because I'm going to show you another picture later, but you can see how much she looks like her grandmother, although she looks so Western. +I decided to follow her to school. +This is the first morning I stayed with her. +This is on the way to school. +This is the morning assembly outside her school. +And I noticed that she was clowning around. +When the teachers would ask questions, she'd be the first person to raise her hand. +Again, not at all shy or withdrawn, or anything like the other children that I'd photographed. +Again, the first one to go to the blackboard to answer questions. +Getting in trouble for whispering into her best friend's ears in the middle of class. +And one of the other things that I said to her through the translator -- again, this thing about saying stop -- was to not pay attention to me. +And so, she really just completely ignored me most of the time. +I noticed that at recess, she was the girl who picked the other girls to be on her team. +It was very obvious, from the very beginning, that she was a leader. +This is on the way home. +And that's North Korea up along the hill. +This is up along the DMZ. +They would actually cover the windows every night, so that light couldn't be seen, because the South Korean government has said for years that the North Koreans may invade at any time. +So there's always this -- the closer you were to North Korea, the more terrifying it was. +Very often at school, I'd be taking pictures, and she would whisper into her girlfriends' ears, and then look at me and say, "Stop." +And I would stand at attention, and all the girls would crack up, and it was sort of a little joke. +The end of the week came and my translator came back, because I'd asked her to come back, so I could formally thank the grandmother and Hyun-Sook. +And in the course of the grandmother talking to the translator, the grandmother started crying. +And I said to my translator, "What's going on, why is she crying?" +And she spoke to the grandmother for a moment, and then she started getting tears in her eyes. +And I said, "OK, what did I do? What's going on? +Why is everyone crying?" +And the translator said, "The grandmother says that she thinks she's dying, and she wants to know if you would take Hyun-Sook to America with you." +And I said, "I'm 28 years old, and I live in hotels, and I'm not married." +I mean I had fallen in love with this girl, but I -- you know, it was, like, emotionally I was about 12 years old. +If you know of photographers, the joke is it's the finest form of delayed adolescence ever invented. +"Sorry, I have to go on an assignment, I'll be back" -- and then you never come back. +So, I asked the translator why she thought she was dying. +Can I get her to a hospital? Could I pay to get her a doctor? +And she refused any help at all. +And so, when I got outside, I actually gave the translator some money and said, "Please go back and see if you can do something." +And I gave the grandmother my business card. +And I said, "If you're serious, I will try to find a family for her." +And I immediately wrote a letter to my best friends in Atlanta, Georgia, who had an 11-year-old son. +And my best friend had mistakenly one day said something about wishing he had another child. +So here my friends Gene and Gail had not heard from me in about a year, and suddenly I was calling, saying "I'm in Korea, and I've met this extraordinary girl." +And I said, "The grandmother thinks she's sick, but I think maybe we would have to bring the grandmother over also." +And I said, "I'll pay for the ... " I mean, I had this whole sort of picture. +So anyway, I left. +And my friends actually said they were very interested in adopting her. +And I said, "Look, I think I'll scare the grandmother to death, if I actually write to her and tell her that you're willing to adopt her, I want to go back and talk to her." +But I was off on assignment. +I figured I'd come back in a couple of weeks and talk to the grandmother. +And on Christmas Day, I was in Bangkok with a group of photographers and got a telegram -- back in those days, you got telegrams -- from Time magazine saying someone in Korea had died, and left their child in a will to me. +Did I know anything about this? +Because I hadn't told them what I was doing, because I was so upset with the story they'd run. +So, I went back to Korea, and I went back to Hyun-Sook's village, and she was gone. +And the house that I had spent time in was empty. +It was incredibly cold. +No one in the village would tell me where Hyun-Sook was, because the grandmother had always hidden her from Westerners. +And they had no idea about this request that she'd made of me. +So I finally found Myung Sung, her best friend that she used to play with after school every day. +And Myung Sung, under some pressure from me and the translator, gave us an address on the outside of Seoul. +And I went to that address and knocked on the door, and a man answered the door. +It was not a very nice area of Seoul, as there were mud streets outside of it. +And I knocked on the door, and Hyun-Sook answered the door, and her eyes were bloodshot, and she seemed to be in shock. +She didn't recognize me -- there was no recognition whatsoever. +And this man came to the door and kind of barked something in Korean. +And I said to the translator, "What did he say?" +And she said, "He wants to know who you are." +And I said, "Well, tell him that I am a photographer." +I started explaining who I was, and he interrupted. +And she said, "He says he knows who you are, what do you want?" +I said, "Well, tell him that I was asked by this little girl's grandmother to find a family for her." +And he said, "I'm her uncle, she's fine, you can leave now." +So I was -- you know, the door was being slammed in my face, it's incredibly cold, and I'm trying to think, "What would the hero do in a movie, if I was writing this as a movie script?" +So I said, "Listen, it's really cold, I've come a very long way, do you mind if I just come in for a minute? I'm freezing." +So the guy kind of reluctantly let us in and we sat down on the floor. +And as we started talking, I saw him yell something, and Hyun-Sook came and brought us some food. +And I had this whole mental picture of, sort of like Cinderella. +I sort of had this picture of this incredibly wonderful, bright, happy little child, who now appeared to be very withdrawn, being enslaved by this family. +And I was really appalled, and I couldn't figure out what to do. +And the more I tried talking to him, the less friendly he was getting. +So I finally decided, I said "Look," -- this is all through the translator, because, this is all, you know, I don't speak a word of Korean -- and I said, "Look, I'm really glad that Hyun-Sook has a family to live with. +I was very worried about her. +I made a promise to her grandmother, your mother, that I would find a family, and now I'm so happy that you're going to take care of her." +I said, "But you know, I bought an airline ticket, and I'm stuck here for a week." +And I said, "I'm staying in a hotel downtown. +Would you like to come and have lunch tomorrow? +And you can practice your English." Because he told me -- I was trying to ask him questions about himself. +And so I went to the hotel, and I found two older Amerasians. +A girl whose mother had been a prostitute, and she was a prostitute, and a boy who'd been in and out of jail. +And I said to them, "Look, there's a little girl who has a tiny chance of getting out of here and going to America." +I said, "I don't know if it's the right decision or not, but I would like you to come to lunch tomorrow and tell the uncle what it's like to walk down the street, what people say to you, what you do for a living. +And just -- I want him to understand what happens if she stays here. +And I could be wrong, I don't know, but I wish you would come tomorrow." +So, these two came to lunch, and we got thrown out of the restaurant. +They were yelling at him, they were -- it got to be really ugly. +And we went outside, and he was just furious. +And I knew I had totally blown this whole thing. +Here I was again, trying to figure out what to do. +And he started yelling at me, and I said to the translator, "OK, tell him to calm down, what is he saying?" +And she said, "Well, he's saying, 'Who the hell are you to walk into my house, some rich American with your cameras around your neck, accusing me of enslaving my niece? +This is my niece, I love her, she's my sister's daughter. +Who the hell are you to accuse me of something like this?'" And I said, you know, "Look," I said, "You're absolutely right. +I don't pretend to understand what's going on here." +I said, "All I know is, I've been photographing a lot of these children." +I said, "I'm in love with your niece, I think she's an incredibly special child." +And I said, "Look, I will fly my friends over here from the United States if you want to meet them, to see if you approve of them. +I just think that -- what little I know about the situation, she has very little chance here of having the kind of life that you probably would like her to have." +So, everyone told me afterwards that inviting the prospective parents over was, again, the stupidest thing I could have possibly done, because who's ever good enough for your relative? +But he invited me to come to a ceremony they were having that day for her grandmother. +And they actually take items of clothing and photographs, and they burn them as part of the ritual. +And you can see how different she looks just in three months. +This was now, I think, February, early February. +And the pictures before were taken in September. +Well, there was an American Marine priest that I had met in the course of doing the story, who had 75 children living in his house. +He had three women helping him take care of these kids. +And so I suggested to the uncle that we go down and meet Father Keene, to find out how the adoption process worked. +Because I wanted him to feel like this was all being done very much above board. +So, this is on the way down to the orphanage. +This is Father Keene. He's just a wonderful guy. +He had kids from all over Korea living there, and he would find families for these kids. +This is a social worker interviewing Hyun-Sook. +Now, I had always thought she was completely untouched by all of this, because the grandmother, to me, appeared to be sort of the village wise woman, and the person everybody -- throughout the day, I noticed people kept coming to visit her grandmother. +And I always had this mental picture that even though they may have been one of the poorer families in the village, they were one of the most respected families in the village. +And I always felt that the grandmother had kind of demanded, and insisted, that the villagers treat Hyun-Sook with the same respect they treated her. +Hyun-Sook stayed at Father Keene's, and her uncle agreed to let her stay there until the adoption went through. +He actually agreed to the adoption. +And I went off on assignment and came back a week later, and Father Keene said, "I've got to talk to you about Hyun-Sook." +I kind of said, "Oh God, now what?" +And he takes me into this room, and he closes the door, and he says, "I have 75 children here in the orphanage, and it's total bedlam." +And there's clothes, and there's kids, and, you know, there's three adults and 75 kids -- you can imagine. +And he said, "The second day she was here she made up a list of all of the names of the older kids and the younger kids. +And she assigned one of the older kids to each of the younger kids. +And then she set up a work detail list of who cleaned the orphanage on what day." +And he said, "She's telling me that I'm messy, and I have to clean up my room." +And he said, "I don't know who raised her, but," he said, "she's running the orphanage, and she's been here three days." +This was movie day -- that she organized -- where all the kids went to the movies. +A lot of the kids who had been adopted actually wrote back to the other kids, telling them about what their life was like with their new families. +So, it was a really big deal when the letters showed up. +This is a woman who is now working at the orphanage, whose son had been adopted. +Gene and Gail started studying Korean the moment they had gotten my first letter. +They really wanted to be able to welcome Hyun-Sook into their family. +And one of the things Father Keene told me when I came back from one of these trips -- Hyun-Sook had chosen the name Natasha, which I understood was from her watching a "Rocky and Bullwinkle" cartoon on the American Air Force station. +This may be one of those myth-buster things that we'll have to clear up here, in a minute. +So, my friend Gene flew over with his son, Tim. +Gail couldn't come. +And they spent a lot of time huddled over a dictionary. +And this was Gene showing the uncle where Atlanta was on the map, where he lived. +This is the uncle signing the adoption papers. +Now, we went out to dinner that night to celebrate. +The uncle went back to his family, and Natasha and Tim and Gene and I went out to dinner. +And Gene was showing Natasha how to use a knife and fork, and then Natasha was returning the utensil lessons. +We went back to our hotel room, and Gene was showing Natasha also where Atlanta was. +This is the third night we were in Korea. +The first night we'd gotten a room for the kids right next to us. +Now, I'd been staying in this room for about three months -- it was a little 15-story Korean hotel. +So, the second night, we didn't keep the kids' room, because we went down and slept on the floor with all the kids at the orphanage. +And the third night, we came back, we'd just gone out to dinner, where you saw the pictures, and we got to the front desk and the guy at the front desk said, "There's no other free rooms on your floor tonight, so if you want to put the kids five floors below you, there's a room there." +And Gene and I looked at each other and said, "No, we don't want two 11-year-olds five floors away." +So, his son said, "Dad, I have a sleeping bag, I'll sleep on the floor." +And I said, "Yeah, I have one too." +So, Tim and I slept on the floor, Natasha got one bed, Gene got the other -- kids pass out, it's been very exciting for three days. +We're lying in bed, and Gene and I are talking about how cool we are. +We said, "That was so great, we saved this little girl's life." +We were just like, you know, ah, just full of ourselves. +And we fall asleep -- and I've been in this room, you know, for a couple of months now. +And they always overheat the hotels in Korea terribly, so during the day I always left the window open. +And then, at night, about midnight, they turn the heat off in the hotel. +So at about 1 a.m., the whole room would be like 20 below zero, and I'd get up. +I'd been doing this every night I'd been there. +So, sure enough, it's one o'clock, room's freezing, I go to close the window, and I hear people shouting outside, and I thought, "Oh, the bars must have just gotten out." +And I don't speak Korean, but I'm hearing these voices, and I'm not hearing anger, I'm hearing terror. +So, I open the window, and I look out, and there's flames coming up the side of our hotel, and the hotel's on fire. +So, I run over to Gene, and I wake him up, and I say, "Gene, don't freak out, I think the hotel's on fire." +And now there's smoke and flames coming by our windows -- we're on the eleventh floor. +So, the two of us were just like, "Oh my God, oh my God." +So, we're trying to get Natasha up, and we can't talk to her. +And you know what kids are like when they've been asleep for like an hour, it's like they took five Valiums -- you know, they're all over the place. +And we can't talk to her. +I remember his son had the L.L. Bean bootlaces, and we're trying to do up his laces. +So, we try to get to the door, and we run to the door, and we open the door and it's like walking into a blast furnace. +There's people screaming, there's the sound of glass breaking, there's these weird thumps. +And the whole room filled with smoke in about two seconds. +And Gene turns around and says, "We're not going to make it." +And he closes the door, and the whole room is now filled with smoke. +We're all choking, and there's smoke pouring through the vents, under the doors. There's people screaming. +I just remember this unbelievable, just utter chaos. +I remember sitting near the bed, and I was just so -- I had two overwhelming feelings. +One was absolute terror -- it's like, "Oh, please God, I just want to wake up. +This has got to be a nightmare, this can't be happening. +Please, I just want to wake up, it's got to be a nightmare." +And the other is unbelievable guilt. +Here I've been, playing God with my friends' lives, my friends' son, with Natasha's life, and this what you get when you try playing God, is you hurt people. +I remember just being so frightened and terrified. +And Gene, who's lying on the floor, says, "Man, we've got to soak towels." I said, "What?" +He says, "We've got to soak towels. We're going to die from the smoke." +So, we ran to the bathroom, and got towels, and put them over our faces, and the kids faces. +Then he said, "Do you have gaffer's tape?" +I said, "What?" He said, "Do you have gaffer's tape?" +I said, "Yeah, somewhere in my Halliburton." +He says, "We've got to stop the smoke." +He said, "That's all we can do, we've got to stop the smoke." +I mean, Gene -- thank God for Gene. +So, we put the room service menus over the vents in the wall, we put blankets at the bottom of the door, we put the kids on the windowsill to try to get some air. +And there was a building, a new building, going up, that was being built right outside, across the street from our hotel. +And there, in the building were photographers waiting for people to jump. +Eleven people ended up dying in the fire. +Five people jumped and died, other people were killed by the smoke. +And there's this loud thumping on the door after about 45 minutes in all this, and people were shouting in Korean. +And I remember, Natasha didn't want us opening the door -- sorry, I was trying not to open the door, because we'd spent so much time barricading the room. +I didn't know who it was, I didn't know what they wanted, and Natasha could tell they were firemen trying to get us out. +I remember a sort of a tussle at the door, trying to get the door open. +In any case, 12 hours later, I mean, they put us in the lobby. +Gene ended up using his coat, and his fist in the coat, to break open a liquor cabinet. +People were lying on the floor. +It was one of just the most horrifying nights. +And then 12 hours later, we rented a car, as we had planned to, and drove back to Natasha's village. +And we kept saying, "Do you realize we were dying in a hotel fire, like eight hours ago?" +It's so weird how life just goes on. +Natasha wanted to introduce her brother and father to all the villagers, and the day we showed up turned out to be a 60-year-old man's birthday. +This guy's 60 years old. +So it turned into a dual celebration, because Natasha was the first person from this village ever to go to the United States. +So, these are the greenhouse tents. +This is the elders teaching Gene their dances. +We drank a lot of rice wine. We were both so drunk, I couldn't believe it. +This is the last picture before Gene and Tim headed back. +The adoption people told us it was going to take a year for the adoption to go through. +Like, what could you do for a year? +So I found out the name of every official on both the Korean and American side, and I photographed them, and told them how famous they were going to be when this book was done. +And four months later, the adoption papers came through. +This is saying goodbye to everybody at the orphanage. +This is Father Keene with Natasha at the bus stop. +Her great aunt at the airport. +I had a wonderful deal with Cathay Pacific airlines for many years, where they gave me free passes on all their airlines in return for photography. +It was like the ultimate perk. +And the pilot, I actually knew -- because they used to let me sit in the jump seat, to tell you how long ago this was. +This is a Tri-Star, and so they let Natasha actually sit in the jump seat. +And the pilot, Jeff Cowley, actually went back and adopted one of the other kids at the orphanage after meeting Natasha. +This is 28 hours later in Atlanta. It's a very long flight. +Just to make things even crazier, Gail, Natasha's new mom, was three days away from giving birth to her own daughter. +So you know, if you were writing this, you'd say, "No, we've got to write the script differently." +This is the first night showing Natasha her new cousins and uncles and aunts. +Gene and Gail know everyone in Atlanta -- they're the most social couple imaginable. +So, at this point, Natasha doesn't speak a word of English, other than what little Father Keene taught her. +This is Kylie, her sister, who's now a doctor, on the right. +This is a deal I had with Natasha, which is that when we got to Atlanta she could take -- she could cut off my beard. +She never liked it very much. +She learned English in three months. +She entered seventh grade at her own age level. +Pledge of Allegiance for the first time. +This is her cooking teacher. +Natasha told me that a lot of the kids thought she was stuck up, because they would talk to her and she wouldn't answer, and they didn't realize she didn't actually speak English very well, in the beginning. +But what I noticed, again as an observer, was she was choosing who was going to be on her team, and seemed to be very popular very, very quickly. +Now, remember the picture, how much she looked like her grandmother, at the beginning? +People were always telling Natasha how much she looks like her mother, Gail. +This is a tense moment in the first football game, I think. +And Kylie -- I mean, it was almost like Kylie was her own child. +She's being baptized. +Now, a lot of parents, when they adopt, actually want to erase their children's history. +And Gail and Gene did the complete opposite. +They were studying Korean; they bought Korean clothes. +Gene even did a little tile work in the kitchen, which was that, "Once upon a time, there was a beautiful girl that came from hills of Korea to live happily ever after in Atlanta." +She hates this picture -- it was her first job. +She bought a bright red Karmann Ghia with the money she made working at Burger King. +The captain of the cheerleaders. +Beauty pageant. +Used to do their Christmas card every year. +Gene's been restoring this car for a million years. +Kodak hired Natasha to be a translator for them at the Olympics in Korea. +Her future husband, Jeff, was working for Canon cameras, and met Natasha at the Olympic Village. +This is her first trip back to Korea, so there's her uncle. +This is her half-sister. +She went back to the village. That's her best friend's mother. +And I always thought that was a very Annie Hall kind of outfit. +It's just, you know, it was just so interesting, just to watch -- this is her mother in the background there. +This is Natasha's wedding day. +Gene is looking a little older. +This is Sydney, who's going to be three years old in a couple of days. +And there's Evan. +Natasha, would you just come up, for a second, just maybe to say hello to everybody? +Natasha's actually never heard me tell the story. +I mean, she -- you know, we've looked at the pictures together. +Natasha: I've seen pictures millions of times, but today was the first time I'm actually seeing him give the whole presentation. +I started crying. +Rick Smolan: I'm sure there's about 40 things she's going to tell me, "That wasn't what happened, that wasn't what you said." +Natasha: Later, I'll do that later. +RS: Anyway, thank you, Mike and Richard, so much for letting us tell the story. +Thank you all of you. +This is a song that came about because I think it's difficult to be in the world and not be aware of what's going on, and the wars and so forth. +This song kind of came out of all of that. +And I wrote a lot of happy songs on my first record, which I still stand by, but this has got something else in it. +It's called "Peace on Earth." +I don't speak English. +I start speaking English, learning English, about a year ago. +I speak French and I grew up with French, so my English is Franglais. +I'm born in the Western Congo, in an area around here, and then went to university in Kisangani. +And after I finished, I went to this area, the Ituri Forest. +But what I've been doing -- when I was about 14, I grew in my uncle's house. +And my father was a soldier, and my uncle was a fisherman and also a poacher. +What I've been doing from 14 to 17 was, I was assisting them collecting ivory tusk, meat and whatever they were killing, poaching, hunting in the forest, bring it in the main city to get access to the market. +But finally, I got myself involved. +Around 17 to 20 years, I became, myself, a poacher. +And I wanted to do it, because -- I believed -- to continue my studies. +I wanted to go to university, but my father was poor, my uncle even. +So, I did it. +And for three to four years, I went to university. +For three times, I applied to biomedical science, to be a doctor. +I didn't succeed. +I was having my inscriptions, my admission to biology. +And I said, "No way, I'm not doing it. +My family's poor, my area don't have better health care. +I want to be a doctor to serve them." +Three times, that means three years, and I start getting old. +I say, "Oh, no, I continue." +So, I did tropical ecology and plant botany. +When I finished, I went to the Ituri Forest for my internship. +It's where I really getting passion with what I'm doing right up to now -- I'm standing in front of you -- doing botany and wildlife conservation. +That time the Ituri Forest was created as a forest reserve with some animals and also plants. +And the training center there was built around the scientific Congolese staff and some American scientists also. +So, the Okapi Faunal Reserve protects number -- I think that is the largest number of elephants we have right now in protected areas in Congo. +It has also chimpanzees. +And it has been named Okapi Faunal Reserve because of this beautiful creature. +That is a forest giraffe. +I think you guys know it quite well. +Here we have savanna giraffes, but through evolution we have this forest giraffe that lives only in Congo. +It has also some beautiful primates. +Thirteen species -- highest diversity we can find in one single area in Africa. +And it has the Ituri Forest itself -- about 1,300 species of plants, so far known. +I joined the Wildlife Conservation Society, working there, in 1995, but I started working with them as a student in 1991. +I was appointed as a teaching assistant at my university because I accomplished with honor. +But I didn't like the way -- the instruction I got was very poor. +And I wanted to be formed to a training center and a research center. +With the end of the dictatorship regime of Mobutu Sese Seko, that most of you know, life became very, very difficult. +And the work we have been doing was completely difficult to do and to achieve it. +When Kabila started his movement to liberate Congo, so Mobutu soldiers started moving and retreated. +So they started fleeing from the east to the west. +And the Okapi Faunal Reserve is there, so there was a road from Goma, somewhere here, and coming like this. +So they might go through, pass through the Okapi Faunal Reserve. +Congo has five of the world's richest sites of protected area, and the Okapi Faunal Reserve is one of them. +So soldier was fleeing in the Okapi Faunal Reserve. +On their way, they looted everything. +Torture, wars -- oh, my God, you can't believe. +Every person was looking his way -- where to go, we don't know. +And it was for us, the young, the first time really we hear the language of war, of guns. +And even people who faced the rebellion of 1963, after our independence, they didn't believe what was happening. +They were killing people. They were doing whatever they want because they have power. +Who have been doing that? +Young children. Child soldiers. +You can't ask him how old he is because he has guns. +But I was from the west, working in the east. +I even [at] that time was not speaking Swahili. +And when they came, they looted everything. +You can't speak Lingala because Lingala was from Mobutu, and everyone speaking Lingala is soldier. +And I was from the same area to him. +All my friends said, we are leaving because we are a target. +But I'm not going to the east, because I don't know Swahili. +I stay. If I go, I will be killed. +I can't go back to my area -- it's more than 1,000 kilometers [away]. +I stayed after they looted everything. +We have been doing research on botany, and we have a small herbarium of 4,500 sheets of plants. +We cut, we dry and we packed them, we mounted them on a folder. +Purpose: so that we start them for agriculture, for medicine, for whatever, and for science, for the study of the flora and the change of the forest. +That is people moving around, that's even Pygmies. +And this is a bright guy, hard-working person, and Pygmy. +I've been working with him about 10 years. +And with soldiers, they went to the forest for poaching elephants. +Because he's Pygmy, he knows how to track elephants in the forest. +He has been attacked by a leopard and they abandon him in the forest. +They came to told me, I have to save him. +And what I did, I gave him just antibiotics that we care for tuberculosis. +And fortunately, I saved his life. +And that was the language of the war. +Everywhere there has been constant extraction of mineral, killing animals, the logging timbers and so on. +And what of important things -- I think all of you here have a cell phone. +That mineral has killed a lot: five millions of Congolese have gone because of this Colombo-Tantalite -- they call it Coltan -- that they use it to make cell phones and it has been in that area, all over in Congo. Extraction, and good, big business of the war. +And what I did for the first war, after we have lost everything, I have to save something, even myself, my life and life of the staff. +I buried some of our new vehicle engines, I buried it to save it. +And some of equipment went with them, on the top of the canopy, to save it. +He's not collecting plants, he's going to save our equipment on the canopy. +And with the material that's left -- because they wanted to destroy it, to burn it, they didn't understand it, they didn't go to school -- I packed it. +And that is me, going to, hurrying to Uganda, to try to save that 4,000 material, with people carrying them on the bikes, bicycles. +And after that, we succeeded. +I housed that 4,000 material at the herbarium of Makerere University. +And after the war, I have been able to bring it back home, so that we continue our studies. +The second war came while we didn't expect it. +With friends, we had been sitting and watching match football, and having some good music with WorldSpace radio, when it started, I think. +So, it was so bad. +We heard that now from the east again the war started, and it's going fast. +This time I think Kabila will go in place of, as he did with Mobutu. +And the reserve was a target to the rebels. +Three different movements and two militia acting in the same area and competing for natural resources. +And there was no way to work. +They destroy everything. +Poaching -- oh, no way. +And that's the powerful men. We have to meet and to talk to them. +What's the regulation of the reserve and what is the regulation of the parks? +And they can't do what they are doing. +So we went to meet them. +That is Coltan extraction, gold mining. +So, we started talking with them, convincing them that we are in a protected area. +There are regulations that it's prohibited to do logging, mining and poaching, specifically. +But they said, "You guys, you think that soldiers who are dying are not important, and your animals you are protecting are most important. +We don't think so. +We have to do it, because to let our movement advance." +I say, "No way, you are not going to do it here." +We started talking with them and I was negotiating. +Tried to protect our equipment, tried to protect our staff and the villages of about 1,500 people. +And we continued. +But I was doing that, negotiating with them. +Sometimes we are having meeting and they are talking with Jean-Pierre Bemba, with Mbusa Nyamwisi, with Kabila, and I'm there. +Sometimes, they talk to my own language, that is, Lingala. +I hear it and what strategy they are doing, what they are planning. +Sometimes, they are having a helicopter to supply them with ammunition and so on. +They used me to carry that, and I was doing counting, what comes from where, and where, and where. +I had only this equipment -- my satellite phone, my computer and a plastic solar panel -- that I hide it in the forest. +And every time, daily, after we have meeting, what compromise we have, whatever, I go, I write a short email, send it. +I don't know how many people I had on my address. +I sent the message: what is going about the progress of the war and what they are planning to do. +They started suspecting that what we do on the morning, and the afternoon, it's on the news, BBC, RFI. +Something might be going on. +And one day, we went for a meeting. +Sorry. +One day, we went to meet the Chief Commander. +He had the same iridium cell phone like me. +And he asked me, "Do you know how to use this?" +I said, "I have never seen it. +I don't know." +And I had mine on my pocket. +So, it was a chance that they trusted me a lot. +They didn't -- they was not looking on me. +So I was scared. +And when we finished the meeting, I went to return it in the forest. +And I was sending news, doing whatever, reporting daily to the U.N., to UNESCO, to our institution in New York, what have been going. +And for that, they have been having big pressure to leave, to free the area. +Because there was no way -- whatever they do, it's known the same time. +During the first two rebellions, they killed all animals in the zoo. +We have a zoo of 14 Okapis, and one of them was pregnant. +And during the war, after a week of heavy war, fighting in the area, we succeeded: we had the first Okapi. +This is the only trouser and shirt remind me of this. +This is not local population, this is rebels. +They are now happy sending the news that they have protected the Okapi with the war, because we sent the news that they are killing and poaching everywhere. +After a week, we celebrated the birthday of that Okapi, they killed an elephant, just 50 meters to the area where the zoo, where Okapi was born. +And I was mad. +I oppose it -- that they are now going to dissect it, until I do my report and then I see the Chief Commander. +And I succeeded. +The elephant just decayed and they just got the tusks. +What we are doing after that -- that was the situation of the war -- we have to rebuild. +I had some money. I was paid 150 dollars. +I devoted half of it to rebuild the herbarium, because we didn't have good infrastructure to start plants. +Wildlife Conservation Society more dealing with plants. +I started this with 70 dollars, and start fundraising money to where I've been going. +I had opportunity to go all over, where herbarium for my African material is. +And they supported me a bit, and I built this. +Now, it's doing work to train young Congolese. +And also, what one of the speciality we are doing, my design is tracking the global warming effect on biodiversity, and what the impacts of the Ituri Forest is playing to uptake carbon. +This is one of the studies we are doing on a 40-hectare plot, where we have tagged trees and lianas from one centimeters, and we are tracking them. +We have now data of about 15 years, to see how that forest is contributing to the carbon reductions. +And that is -- I think it's difficult for me. +This is a very embarrassing talk, I know. +I don't know where to start, where to finish it. +When I was thinking to come here, what best title I wanted to say to my talk, I didn't find this. +But now I think that I would have titled it, "The Language of Guns." +Where are you people? +Now we are talking about reconstitution, rebuild Africa. +But is gun industries a tool to rebuild, or is it a game? +I think we see the war like a game -- like soccer, football. +Everybody is happy, but see what it's doing, see what is going in Darfur. +Now we say, oh, my God. +See what the wars in Rwanda. +That's because of the language of guns. +I don't think that someone may blame Google, because it's doing the right things, even if people like Al-Qaeda are using Google to connect between them. +But it's serving millions for the best. +But what is doing with gun industries? +Thank you. +Chris Anderson: Thank you, thank you. +Just wait over there. +It's an amazing story. +I suspect a lot of people here have the same question I have. +How can we help you? +Corneille Ewango: That's really embarrassing questions. +I think that now I feel nervous. +And I think, helping us, people are acting sometimes by ignorance. +I did it myself. +If I know when I was young, that [by] killing an elephant, I'm destroying biodiversity, I would not have done it. +Many, many of you have seen the talents of Africans, but there are few who are going to school. +Many are dying because of all those kind of pandemics, HIV, malaria, poverty, not going to school. +What you can assist us, it's by building capacities. +How many have got opportunity like me to go to U.S., do a master's? +And go -- now, I'm in the Netherlands to do a Ph.D. +But many of them are just here, because they don't have money. +And they can't go even to university. +They can't even attain the bachelor's degree. +Building capacities for the young generation is going to make a better generation and a better future tomorrow for Africa. +CA: Thank you, thank you. +I'm going to talk about a technology that we're developing at Oxford now, that we think is going to change the way that computer games and Hollywood movies are being made. +That technology is simulating humans. +It's simulated humans with a simulated body and a simulated nervous system to control that body. +Now, before I talk more about that technology, let's have a quick look at what human characters look like at the moment in computer games. +This is a clip from a game called "Grand Theft Auto 3." +We already saw that briefly yesterday. +And what you can see is -- it is actually a very good game. +It's one of the most successful games of all time. +But what you'll see is that all the animations in this game are very repetitive. +They pretty much look the same. +I've made him run into a wall here, over and over again. +And you can see he looks always the same. +The reason for that is that these characters are actually not real characters. +They are a graphical visualization of a character. +To produce these animations, an animator at a studio has to anticipate what's going to happen in the actual game, and then has to animate that particular sequence. +So, he or she sits down, animates it, and tries to anticipate what's going to happen, and then these particular animations are just played back at appropriate times in the computer game. +Now, the result of that is that you can't have real interactivity. +All you have is animations that are played back at more or less the appropriate times. +It also means that games aren't really going to be as surprising as they could be, because you only get out of it, at least in terms of the character, what you actually put into it. +There's no real emergence there. +And thirdly, as I said, most of the animations are very repetitive because of that. +Now, the only way to get around that is to actually simulate the human body and to simulate that bit of the nervous system of the brain that controls that body. +And maybe, if I could have you for a quick demonstration to show what the difference is -- because, I mean, it's very, very trivial. +If I push Chris a bit, like this, for example, he'll react to it. +If I push him from a different angle, he'll react to it differently, and that's because he has a physical body, and because he has the motor skills to control that body. +It's a very trivial thing. +It's not something you get in computer games at the moment, at all. +Thank you very much. Chris Anderson: That's it? +Torsten Reil: That's it, yes. +So, that's what we're trying to simulate -- not Chris specifically, I should say, but humans in general. +Now, we started working on this a while ago at Oxford University, and we tried to start very simply. +What we tried to do was teach a stick figure how to walk. +That stick figure is physically stimulated. You can see it here on the screen. +So, it's subject to gravity, has joints, etc. +If you just run the simulation, it will just collapse, like this. +The tricky bit is now to put an AI controller in it that actually makes it work. +And for that, we use the neural network, which we based on that part of the nervous system that we have in our spine that controls walking in humans. +It's called the central pattern generator. +So, we simulated that as well, and then the really tricky bit is to teach that network how to walk. +For that we used artificial evolution -- genetic algorithms. +We heard about those already yesterday, and I suppose that most of you are familiar with that already. +But, just briefly, the concept is that you create a large number of different individuals -- neural networks, in this case -- all of which are random at the beginning. +You hook these up -- in this case, to the virtual muscles of that two-legged creature here -- and hope that it does something interesting. +At the beginning, they're all going to be very boring. +Most of them won't move at all, but some of them might make a tiny step. +Those are then selected by the algorithm, reproduced with mutation and recombinations to introduce sex as well. +And you repeat that process over and over again, until you have something that walks -- in this case, in a straight line, like this. +So that was the idea behind this. +When we started this, I set up the simulation one evening. +It took about three to four hours to run the simulation. +I got up the next morning, went to the computer and looked at the results, and was hoping for something that walked in a straight line, like I've just demonstrated, and this is what I got instead. +So, it was back to the drawing board for us. +We did get it to work eventually, after tweaking a bit here and there. +And this is an example of a successful evolutionary run. +So, what you'll see in a moment is a very simple biped that's learning how to walk using artificial evolution. +At the beginning, it can't walk at all, but it will get better and better over time. +So, this is the one that can't walk at all. +Now, after five generations of applying evolutionary process, the genetic algorithm is getting a tiny bit better. +Generation 10 and it'll take a few steps more -- still not quite there. +But now, after generation 20, it actually walks in a straight line without falling over. +That was the real breakthrough for us. +It was, academically, quite a challenging project, and once we had reached that stage, we were quite confident that we could try and do other things as well with this approach -- actually simulating the body and simulating that part of the nervous system that controls it. +Now, at this stage, it also became clear that this could be very exciting for things like computer games or online worlds. +What you see here is the character standing there, and there's an obstacle that we put in its way. +And what you see is, it's going to fall over the obstacle. +Now, the interesting bit is, if I move the obstacle a tiny bit to the right, which is what I'm doing now, here, it will fall over it in a completely different way. +And again, if you move the obstacle a tiny bit, it'll again fall differently. +Now, what you see, by the way, at the top there, are some of the neural activations being fed into the virtual muscles. +Okay. That's the video. Thanks. +Now, this might look kind of trivial, but it's actually very important because this is not something you get at the moment in any interactive or any virtual worlds. +Now, at this stage, we decided to start a company and move this further, because obviously this was just a very simple, blocky biped. +What we really wanted was a full human body. +So we started the company. +We hired a team of physicists, software engineers and biologists to work on this, and the first thing we had to work on was to create the human body, basically. +It's got to be relatively fast, so you can run it on a normal machine, but it's got to be accurate enough, so it looks good enough, basically. +So we put quite a bit of biomechanical knowledge into this thing, and tried to make it as realistic as possible. +What you see here on the screen right now is a very simple visualization of that body. +I should add that it's very simple to add things like hair, clothes, etc., but what we've done here is use a very simple visualization, so you can concentrate on the movement. +Now, what I'm going to do right now, in a moment, is just push this character a tiny bit and we'll see what happens. +Nothing really interesting, basically. +It falls over, but it falls over like a rag doll, basically. +The reason for that is that there's no intelligence in it. +It becomes interesting when you put artificial intelligence into it. +So, this character now has motor skills in the upper body -- nothing in the legs yet, in this particular one. +But what it will do -- I'm going to push it again. +It will realize autonomously that it's being pushed. +It's going to stick out its hands. +It's going to turn around into the fall, and try and catch the fall. +So that's what you see here. +Now, it gets really interesting if you then add the AI for the lower part of the body as well. +So here, we've got the same character. +I'm going to push it a bit harder now, harder than I just pushed Chris. +But what you'll see is -- it's going to receive a push now from the left. +What you see is it takes steps backwards, it tries to counter-balance, it tries to look at the place where it thinks it's going to land. +I'll show you this again. +And then, finally hits the floor. +Now, this becomes really exciting when you push that character in different directions, again, just as I've done. +That's something that you cannot do right now. +At the moment, you only have empty computer graphics in games. +What this is now is a real simulation. That's what I want to show you now. +So, here's the same character with the same behavior I've just shown you, but now I'm just going to push it from different directions. +First, starting with a push from the right. +This is all slow motion, by the way, so we can see what's going on. +Now, the angle will have changed a tiny bit, so you can see that the reaction is different. +Again, a push, now this time from the front. +And you see it falls differently. +And now from the left -- and it falls differently. +That was really exciting for us to see that. +That was the first time we've seen that. +This is the first time the public sees this as well, because we have been in stealth mode. +I haven't shown this to anybody yet. +Now, just a fun thing: what happens if you put that character -- this is now a wooden version of it, but it's got the same AI in it -- but if you put that character on a slippery surface, like ice. +We just did that for a laugh, just to see what happens. +And this is what happens. +It's nothing we had to do about this. +We just took this character that I just talked about, put it on a slippery surface, and this is what you get out of it. +And that's a really fascinating thing about this approach. +Now, when we went to film studios and games developers and showed them that technology, we got a very good response. +And what they said was, the first thing they need immediately is virtual stuntmen. +Because stunts are obviously very dangerous, they're very expensive, and there are a lot of stunt scenes that you cannot do, obviously, because you can't really allow the stuntman to be seriously hurt. +So, they wanted to have a digital version of a stuntman and that's what we've been working on for the past few months. +And that's our first product that we're going to release in a couple of weeks. +So, here are just a few very simple scenes of the guy just being kicked. +That's what people want. That's what we're giving them. +You can see, it's always reacting. +This is not a dead body. This is a body who basically, in this particular case, feels the force and tries to protect its head. +Only, I think it's quite a big blow again. +You feel kind of sorry for that thing, and we've seen it so many times now that we don't really care any more. +There are much worse videos than this, by the way, which I have taken out, but ... +Now, here's another one. +What people wanted as a behavior was to have an explosion, a strong force applied to the character, and have the character react to it in midair. +So that you don't have a character that looks limp, but actually a character that you can use in an action film straight away, that looks kind of alive in midair as well. +So this character is going to be hit by a force, it's going to realize it's in the air, and it's going to try and, well, stick out its arm in the direction where it's landing. +That's one angle; here's another angle. +We now think that the realism we're achieving with this is good enough to be used in films. +And let's just have a look at a slightly different visualization. +This is something I just got last night from an animation studio in London, who are using our software and experimenting with it right now. +So this is exactly the same behavior that you saw, but in a slightly better rendered version. +So if you look at the character carefully, you see there are lots of body movements going on, none of which you have to animate like in the old days. +Animators had to actually animate them. +This is all happening automatically in the simulation. +This is a slightly different angle, and again a slow motion version of this. +This is incredibly quick. This is happening in real time. +You can run this simulation in real time, in front of your eyes, change it, if you want to, and you get the animation straight out of it. +At the moment, doing something like this by hand would take you probably a couple of days. +This is another behavior they requested. +I'm not quite sure why, but we've done it anyway. +It's a very simple behavior that shows you the power of this approach. +In this case, the character's hands are fixed to a particular point in space, and all we've told the character to do is to struggle. +And it looks organic. It looks realistic. +You feel kind of sorry for the guy. +It's even worse -- and that is another video I just got last night -- if you render that a bit more realistically. +Now, I'm showing this to you just to show you how organic it actually can feel, how realistic it can look. +And this is all a physical simulation of the body, using AI to drive virtual muscles in that body. +Now, one thing which we did for a laugh was to create a slightly more complex stunt scene, and one of the most famous stunts is the one where James Bond jumps off a dam in Switzerland and then is caught by a bungee. +Got a very short clip here. +Yes, you can just about see it here. +In this case, they were using a real stunt man. It was a very dangerous stunt. +It was just voted, I think in the Sunday Times, as one of the most impressive stunts. +Now, we've just tried and -- looked at our character and asked ourselves, "Can we do that ourselves as well?" +Can we use the physical simulation of the character, use artificial intelligence, put that artificial intelligence into the character, drive virtual muscles, simulate the way he jumps off the dam, and then skydive afterwards, and have him caught by a bungee afterwards? +We did that. It took about altogether just two hours, pretty much, to create the simulation. +And that's what it looks like, here. +Now, this could do with a bit more work. It's still very early stages, and we pretty much just did this for a laugh, just to see what we'd get out of it. +But what we found over the past few months is that this approach -- that we're pretty much standard upon -- is incredibly powerful. +We are ourselves surprised what you actually get out of the simulations. +There's very often very surprising behavior that you didn't predict before. +There's so many things we can do with this right now. +The first thing, as I said, is going to be virtual stuntmen. +Several studios are using this software now to produce virtual stuntmen, and they're going to hit the screen quite soon, actually, for some major productions. +The second thing is video games. +With this technology, video games will look different and they will feel very different. +For the first time, you'll have actors that really feel very interactive, that have real bodies that really react. +I think that's going to be incredibly exciting. +Probably starting with sports games, which are going to become much more interactive. +But I particularly am really excited about using this technology in online worlds, like there, for example, that Tom Melcher has shown us. +The degree of interactivity you're going to get is totally different, I think, from what you're getting right now. +A third thing we are looking at and very interested in is simulation. +We've been approached by several simulation companies, but one project we're particularly excited about, which we're starting next month, is to use our technology -- and in particular, the walking technology -- to help aid surgeons who work on children with cerebral palsy, to predict the outcome of operations on these children. +As you probably know, it's very difficult to predict what the outcome of an operation is if you try and correct the gait. +The classic quote is, I think, it's unpredictable at best, is what people think right now, is the outcome. +Now, what we want to do with our software is allow our surgeons to have a tool. +We're going to simulate the gait of a particular child and the surgeon can then work on that simulation and try out different ways to improve that gait, before he actually commits to an actual surgery. +That's one project we're particularly excited about, and that's going to start next month. +Just finally, this is only just the beginning. +We can only do several behaviors right now. +The AI isn't good enough to simulate a full human body. +The body yes, but not all the motor skills that we have. +And, I think, we're only there if we can have something like ballet dancing. +Right now, we don't have that but I'm very sure that we will be able to do that at some stage. +We do have one unintentional dancer actually, the last thing I'm going to show you. +This was an AI contour that was produced and evolved -- half-evolved, I should say -- to produce balance, basically. +So, you kick the guy and the guy's supposed to counter-balance. +That's what we thought was going to come out of this. +But this is what emerged out of it, in the end. +Bizarrely, this thing doesn't have a head. I'm not quite sure why. +So, this was not something we actually put in there. +He just started to create that dance himself. +He's actually a better dancer than I am, I have to say. +And what you see after a while -- I think he even goes into a climax right at the end. +And I think -- there you go. +So, that all happened automatically. We didn't put that in there. +That's just the simulation creating this itself, basically. +So it's just -- Thanks. +Not quite John Travolta yet, but we're working on that as well, so thanks very much for your time. +Thanks. +CA: Incredible. That was really incredible. +TR: Thanks. +I thought I'd tell you a little about what I like to write. +And I like to immerse myself in my topics. +I just like to dive right in and become sort of a human guinea pig. +And I see my life as a series of experiments. +So, I work for Esquire magazine, and a couple of years ago, I wrote an article called "My Outsourced Life," where I hired a team of people in Bangalore, India, to live my life for me. +So, they answered my emails. +They answered my phone. +They argued with my wife for me, and they read my son bedtime stories. +It was the best month of my life, because I just sat back and I read books and watched movies. +It was a wonderful experience. +More recently, I wrote an article for Esquire called -- about radical honesty. +And this is a movement where -- this is started by a psychologist in Virginia, who says that you should never, ever lie, except maybe during poker and golf, his only exceptions. +And, more than that, whatever is on your brain should come out of your mouth. +So, I decided I would try this for a month. +This was the worst month of my life. +I do not recommend this at all. +To give you a sense of the experience, the article was called, "I Think You're Fat." +So, that was hard. +It's a very exciting twist ending, like an O. Henry novel, so I won't ruin it. +But I love that one, because that was an experiment about how much information one human brain could absorb. +Although, listening to Kevin Kelly, you don't have to remember anything. +You can just Google it. +So, I wasted some time there. +I love those experiments, but I think that the most profound and life-changing experiment that I've done is my most recent experiment, where I spent a year trying to follow all of the rules of the Bible, "The Year of Living Biblically." +And I undertook this for two reasons. +The first was that I grew up with no religion at all. +As I say in my book, I'm Jewish in the same way the Olive Garden is Italian. +So, not very. +But I've become increasingly interested in religion. +I do think it's the defining issue of our time, or one of the main ones. +And I have a son. I want to know what to teach him. +So, I decided to dive in head first, and try to live the Bible. +The second reason I undertook this is because I'm concerned about the rise of fundamentalism, religious fundamentalism, and people who say they take the Bible literally, which is, according to some polls, as high as 45 or 50 percent of America. +So I decided, what if you really did take the Bible literally? +I decided to take it to its logical conclusion and take everything in the Bible literally, without picking and choosing. +The first thing I did was I got a stack of bibles. +I had Christian bibles. +I had Jewish bibles. +A friend of mine sent me something called a hip-hop bible, where the twenty-third Psalm is rendered as, "The Lord is all that," as opposed to what I knew it as, "The Lord is my shepherd." +Then I went down and I read several versions, and I wrote down every single law that I could find. +And this was a very long list -- over 700 rules. +And they range from the famous ones that I had heard of -- The Ten Commandments, love your neighbor, be fruitful and multiply. +So I wanted to follow those. +And actually, I take my projects very seriously, because I had twins during my year, so I definitely take my projects seriously. +But I also wanted to follow the hundreds of arcane and obscure laws that are in the Bible. +There is the law in Leviticus, "You cannot shave the corners of your beard." +I didn't know where my corners were, so I decided to let the whole thing grow, and this is what I looked like by the end. +As you can imagine, I spent a lot of time at airport security. +My wife wouldn't kiss me for the last two months. +So, certainly the challenge was there. +The Bible says you cannot wear clothes made of mixed fibers, so I thought, "Sounds strange, but I'll try it." +You only know if you try it. +I got rid of all my poly-cotton T-shirts. +The Bible says that if two men are in a fight, and the wife of one of those men grabs the testicles of the other man, then her hand shall be cut off. +So, I wanted to follow that rule. +That one I followed by default, by not getting in a fight with a man whose wife was standing nearby, looking like she had a strong grip. +So -- oh, there's another shot of my beard. +I will say it was an amazing year because it really was life changing, and incredibly challenging. +And there were two types of laws that were particularly challenging. +The first was avoiding the little sins that we all commit every day. +You know, I could spend a year not killing, but spending a year not gossiping, not coveting, not lying -- you know, I live in New York, and I work as a journalist, so this was 75, 80 percent of my day I had to do it. +But it was really interesting, because I was able to make some progress, because I couldn't believe how much my behavior changed my thoughts. +This was one of the huge lessons of the year, is that I almost pretended to be a better person, and I became a little bit of a better person. +So I had always thought, you know, "You change your mind, and you change your behavior," but it's often the other way around. +You change your behavior, and you change your mind. +So, you know, if you want to become more compassionate, you visit sick people in the hospital, and you will become more compassionate. +You donate money to a cause, and you become emotionally involved in that cause. +So, it really was cognitive psychology -- you know, cognitive dissonance -- that I was experiencing. +The Bible actually talks about cognitive psychology, very primitive cognitive psychology. +In the Proverbs, it says that if you smile, you will become happier, which, as we know, is actually true. +The second type of rule that was difficult to obey was the rules that will get you into a little trouble in twenty-first-century America. +And perhaps the clearest example of this is stoning adulterers. +But it's a big part of the Bible, so I figured I had to address it. +So, I was able to stone one adulterer. +It happened -- I was in the park, and I was dressed in my biblical clothing, so sandals and sort of a white robe, you know, because again, the outer affects the inner. +I wanted to see how dressing biblically affected my mind. +And this man came up to me and he said, "Why are you dressed like that?" +And I explained my project, and he said, "Well, I am an adulterer, are you going to stone me?" +And I said, "Well, that would be great!" +And I actually took out a handful of stones from my pocket that I had been carrying around for weeks, hoping for just this interaction -- and, you know, they were pebbles -- but he grabbed them out of my hand. +He was actually an elderly man, mid-70s, just so you know. +But he's still an adulterer, and still quite angry. +He grabbed them out of my hand and threw them at my face, and I felt that I could -- eye for an eye -- I could retaliate, and throw one back at him. +So that was my experience stoning, and it did allow me to talk about, in a more serious way, these big issues. +How can the Bible be so barbaric in some places, and yet so incredibly wise in others? +How should we view the Bible? +Should we view it, you know, as original intent, like a sort of a Scalia version of the Bible? +How was the Bible written? +And actually, since this is a tech crowd, I talk in the book about how the Bible actually reminds me of the Wikipedia, because it has all of these authors and editors over hundreds of years. +And it's sort of evolved. +It's not a book that was written and came down from on high. +So I thought I would end by telling you just a couple of the take-aways, the bigger lessons that I learned from my year. +The first is, thou shalt not take the Bible literally. +This became very, very clear, early on. +Because if you do, then you end up acting like a crazy person, and stoning adulterers, or -- here's another example. +Well, that's another. I did spend some time shepherding. +It's a very relaxing vocation. I recommend it. +But this one is -- the Bible says that you cannot touch women during certain times of the month, and more than that, you cannot sit on a seat where a menstruating woman has sat. +And my wife thought this was very offensive, so she sat in every seat in our apartment, and I had to spend much of the year standing until I bought my own seat and carried it around. +So, you know, I met with creationists. +I went to the creationists' museum. +And these are the ultimate literalists. +And it was fascinating, because they were not stupid people at all. +I would wager that their IQ is exactly the same as the average evolutionist. +It's just that their faith is so strong in this literal interpretation of the Bible that they distort all the data to fit their model. +And they go through these amazing mental gymnastics to accomplish this. +And I will say, though, the museum is gorgeous. +They really did a fantastic job. +If you're ever in Kentucky, there's, you can see a movie of the flood, and they have sprinklers in the ceiling that will sprinkle on you during the flood scenes. +So, whatever you think of creationism -- and I think it's crazy -- they did a great job. +Another lesson is that thou shalt give thanks. +And this one was a big lesson because I was praying, giving these prayers of thanksgiving, which was odd for an agnostic. +But I was saying thanks all the time, every day, and I started to change my perspective. +And I started to realize the hundreds of little things that go right every day, that I didn't even notice, that I took for granted, as opposed to focusing on the three or four that went wrong. +So, this is actually a key to happiness for me, is to just remember when I came over here, the car didn't flip over, and I didn't trip coming up the stairs. +It's a remarkable thing. +Third, that thou shall have reverence. +This one was unexpected because I started the year as an agnostic, and by the end of the year, I became what a friend of mine calls a reverent agnostic, which I love. +And I'm trying to start it as a movement. +So, if anyone wants to join, the basic idea is, whether or not there is a God, there's something important and beautiful about the idea of sacredness, and that our rituals can be sacred. +The Sabbath can be sacred. +This was one of the great things about my year, doing the Sabbath, because I am a workaholic, so having this one day where you cannot work, it really, that changed my life. +So, this idea of sacredness, whether or not there is a God. +Thou shall not stereotype. +This one happened because I spent a lot of time with various religious communities throughout America because I wanted it to be more than about my journey. +I wanted it to be about religion in America. +So, I spent time with evangelical Christians, and Hasidic Jews, and the Amish. +I'm very proud because I think I'm the only person in America to out Bible-talk a Jehovah's Witness. +After three and a half hours, he looked at his watch, he's like, "I gotta go." +Oh, thank you very much. +Thank you. Bless you, bless you. +But it was interesting because I had some very preconceived notions about, for instance, evangelical Christianity, and I found that it's such a wide and varied movement that it is difficult to make generalizations about it. +There's a group I met with called the Red Letter Christians, and they focus on the red words in the Bible, which are the ones that Jesus spoke. +That's how they printed them in the old Bibles. +And their argument is that Jesus never talked about homosexuality. +They have a pamphlet that says, "Here's what Jesus said about homosexuality," and you open it up, and there's nothing in it. +So, they say Jesus did talk a lot about helping the outcasts, helping poor people. +So, this was very inspiring to me. +I recommend Jim Wallis and Tony Campolo. +They're very inspiring leaders, even though I disagree with much of what they say. +Also, thou shalt not disregard the irrational. +This one was very unexpected because, you know, I grew up with the scientific worldview, and I was shocked learning how much of my life is governed by irrational forces. +And the thing is, if they're not harmful, they're not to be completely dismissed. +Because I learned that -- I was thinking, I was doing all these rituals, these biblical rituals, separating my wool and linen, and I would ask these religious people "Why would the Bible possibly tell us to do this? Why would God care?" +And they said, "We don't know, but it's just rituals that give us meaning." +And I would say, "But that's crazy." +And they would say, "Well, what about you? +You blow out candles on top of a birthday cake. +So the key is to choose the right rituals, the ones that are not harmful -- but rituals by themselves are not to be dismissed. +And finally I learned that thou shall pick and choose. +And this one I learned because I tried to follow everything in the Bible. +And I failed miserably. +Because you can't. +You have to pick and choose. And anyone who follows the Bible is going to be picking and choosing. +The key is to pick and choose the right parts. +There's the phrase called cafeteria religion, and the fundamentalists will use it in a denigrating way, and they'll say, "Oh, it's just cafeteria religion. +You're just picking and choosing." +But my argument is, "What's wrong with cafeterias?" +I've had some great meals at cafeterias. +I've also had some meals that make me want to dry heave. +So, it's about choosing the parts of the Bible about compassion, about tolerance, about loving your neighbor, as opposed to the parts about homosexuality is a sin, or intolerance, or violence, which are very much in the Bible as well. +So if we are to find any meaning in this book, then we have to really engage it, and wrestle with it. +And I thought I'd end with just a couple more. +There's me reading the Bible. +That's how I hailed taxicabs. +Seriously, and it worked. And yes, that was actually a rented sheep, so I had to return that in the morning, but it served well for a day. +So, anyway, thank you so much for letting me speak. +How will we be remembered in 200 years? +I happen to live in a little town, Princeton, in New Jersey, which every year celebrates the great event in Princeton history: the Battle of Princeton, which was, in fact, a very important battle. +It was the first battle that George Washington won, in fact, and was pretty much of a turning point in the war of independence. +It happened 225 years ago. +It was actually a terrible disaster for Princeton. +The town was burned down; it was in the middle of winter, and it was a very, very severe winter. +And about a quarter of all the people in Princeton died that winter from hunger and cold, but nobody remembers that. +What they remember is, of course, the great triumph, that the Brits were beaten, and we won, and that the country was born. +And so I agree very emphatically that the pain of childbirth is not remembered. +It's the child that's remembered. +And that's what we're going through at this time. +I wanted to just talk for one minute about the future of biotechnology, because I think I know very little about that -- I'm not a biologist -- so everything I know about it can be said in one minute. +That will blow away a lot of the opposition. +When people have this technology in their hands, you have a do-it-yourself biotech kit, grow your own -- grow your dog, grow your own cat. +Just buy the software, you design it. I won't say anymore, you can take it on from there. It's going to happen, and I think it has to happen before the technology becomes natural, becomes part of the human condition, something that everybody's familiar with and everybody accepts. +So, let's leave that aside. +I want to talk about something quite different, which is what I know about, and that is astronomy. +And I'm interested in searching for life in the universe. +And it's open to us to introduce a new way of doing that, and that's what I'll talk about for 10 minutes, or whatever the time remains. +If you look at the solar system, as we know it today, it has a few planets close to the Sun. That's where we live. +It has a fairly substantial number of asteroids between the orbit of the Earth out through -- to the orbit of Jupiter. +The asteroids are a substantial amount of real estate, but not very large. And it's not very promising for life, since most of it consists of rock and metal, mostly rock. +It's not only cold, but very dry. +So the asteroids we don't have much hope for. +There stand some interesting places a little further out: the moons of Jupiter and Saturn. +Particularly, there's a place called Europa, which is -- Europa is one of the moons of Jupiter, where we see a very level ice surface, which looks as if it's floating on top of an ocean. +So, we believe that on Europa there is, in fact, a deep ocean. +And that makes it extraordinarily interesting as a place to explore. +Ocean -- probably the most likely place for life to originate, just as it originated on the Earth. So we would love to explore Europa, to go down through the ice, find out who is swimming around in the ocean, whether there are fish or seaweed or sea monsters -- whatever there may be that's exciting --- or cephalopods. +But that's hard to do. Unfortunately, the ice is thick. +We don't know just how thick it is, probably miles thick, so it's very expensive and very difficult to go down there -- send down your submarine or whatever it is -- and explore. +That's something we don't yet know how to do. +There are plans to do it, but it's hard. +Go out a bit further, you'll find that beyond the orbit of Neptune, way out, far from the Sun, that's where the real estate really begins. +So if life could be established out there, it would have all the essentials -- chemistry and sunlight -- everything that's needed. +So, what I'm proposing is that there is where we should be looking for life, rather than on Mars, although Mars is, of course, also a very promising and interesting place. +But we can look outside, very cheaply and in a simple fashion. +And that's what I'm going to talk about. +There is a -- imagine that life originated on Europa, and it was sitting in the ocean for billions of years. +It's quite likely that it would move out of the ocean onto the surface, just as it did on the Earth. +Staying in the ocean and evolving in the ocean for 2 billion years, finally came out onto the land. And then of course it had great -- much greater freedom, and a much greater variety of creatures developed on the land than had ever been possible in the ocean. +And the step from the ocean to the land was not easy, but it happened. +Now, if life had originated on Europa in the ocean, it could also have moved out onto the surface. +There wouldn't have been any air there -- it's a vacuum. +It is out in the cold, but it still could have come. +You can imagine that the plants growing up like kelp through cracks in the ice, growing on the surface. +What would they need in order to grow on the surface? +They'd need, first of all, to have a thick skin to protect themselves from losing water through the skin. +So they would have to have something like a reptilian skin. +But better -- what is more important is that they would have to concentrate sunlight. +The sunlight in Jupiter, on the satellites of Jupiter, is 25 times fainter than it is here, since Jupiter is five times as far from the Sun. +So they would have to have -- these creatures, which I call sunflowers, which I imagine living on the surface of Europa, would have to have either lenses or mirrors to concentrate sunlight, so they could keep themselves warm on the surface. +Otherwise, they would be at a temperature of minus 150, which is certainly not favorable for developing life, at least of the kind we know. +But if they just simply could grow, like leaves, little lenses and mirrors to concentrate sunlight, then they could keep warm on the surface. +They could enjoy all the benefits of the sunlight and have roots going down into the ocean; life then could flourish much more. +So, why not look? Of course, it's not very likely that there's life on the surface of Europa. +None of these things is likely, but my, my philosophy is, look for what's detectable, not for what's probable. +There's a long history in astronomy of unlikely things turning out to be there. And I mean, the finest example of that was radio astronomy as a whole. +This was -- originally, when radio astronomy began, Mr. Jansky, at the Bell labs, detected radio waves coming from the sky. +And the regular astronomers were scornful about this. +So there's no point in looking." +And that, of course, that set back the progress of radio astronomy by about 20 years. +Since there was nothing there, you might as well not look. +Well, of course, as soon as anybody did look, which was after about 20 years, when radio astronomy really took off. Because it turned out the universe is absolutely full of all kinds of wonderful things radiating in the radio spectrum, much brighter than the Sun. +So, the same thing could be true for this kind of life, which I'm talking about, on cold objects: that it could in fact be very abundant all over the universe, and it's not been detected just because we haven't taken the trouble to look. +So, the last thing I want to talk about is how to detect it. +There is something called pit lamping. +That's the phrase which I learned from my son George, who is there in the audience. +You take -- that's a Canadian expression. +If you happen to want to hunt animals at night, you take a miner's lamp, which is a pit lamp. +You strap it onto your forehead, so you can see the reflection in the eyes of the animal. So, if you go out at night, you shine a flashlight, the animals are bright. +You see the red glow in their eyes, which is the reflection of the flashlight. +And then, if you're one of these unsporting characters, you shoot the animals and take them home. +And of course, that spoils the game for the other hunters who hunt in the daytime, so in Canada that's illegal. In New Zealand, it's legal, because the New Zealand farmers use this as a way of getting rid of rabbits, because the rabbits compete with the sheep in New Zealand. +So, the farmers go out at night with heavily armed jeeps, and shine the headlights, and anything that doesn't look like a sheep, you shoot. +So I have proposed to apply the same trick to looking for life in the universe. +That if these creatures who are living on cold surfaces -- either on Europa, or further out, anywhere where you can live on a cold surface -- those creatures must be provided with reflectors. +In order to concentrate sunlight, they have to have lenses and mirrors -- in order to keep themselves warm. +And then, when you shine sunlight at them, the sunlight will be reflected back, just as it is in the eyes of an animal. +So these creatures will be bright against the cold surroundings. +And the further out you go in this, away from the Sun, the more powerful this reflection will be. So actually, this method of hunting for life gets stronger and stronger as you go further away, because the optical reflectors have to be more powerful so the reflected light shines out even more in contrast against the dark background. +So as you go further away from the Sun, this becomes more and more powerful. +So, in fact, you can look for these creatures with telescopes from the Earth. +Why aren't we doing it? Simply because nobody thought of it yet. +But I hope that we shall look, and with any -- we probably won't find anything, none of these speculations may have any basis in fact. +But still, it's a good chance. And of course, if it happens, it will transform our view of life altogether. +Because it means that -- the way life can live out there, it has enormous advantages as compared with living on a planet. +It's extremely hard to move from one planet to another. +We're having great difficulties at the moment and any creatures that live on a planet are pretty well stuck. +Especially if you breathe air, it's very hard to get from planet A to planet B, because there's no air in between. But if you breathe air -- -- you're dead -- -- as soon as you're off the planet, unless you have a spaceship. +You still are on a piece of ice, you can still have sunlight and you can still survive while you're traveling from one place to another. +I call these creatures sunflowers. +They look like, maybe like sunflowers. +They have to be all the time pointing toward the Sun, and they will be able to spread out in space, because gravity on these objects is weak. +So they can collect sunlight from a big area. +So they will, in fact, be quite easy for us to detect. +So, I hope in the next 10 years, we'll find these creatures, and then, of course, our whole view of life in the universe will change. +If we don't find them, then we can create them ourselves. +That's another wonderful opportunity that's opening. +We can -- as soon as we have a little bit more understanding of genetic engineering, one of the things you can do with your take-it-home, do-it-yourself genetic engineering kit -- -- is to design a creature that can live on a cold satellite, a place like Europa, so we could colonize Europa with our own creatures. +That would be a fun thing to do. +In the long run, of course, it would also make it possible for us to move out there. +But in the long run, if there's no life there, we create it ourselves. +We transform the universe into something much more rich and beautiful than it is today. +So again, we have a big and wonderful future to look forward. +Thank you. +I and my colleagues Art Aron and Lucy Brown and others, have put 37 people who are madly in love into a functional MRI brain scanner. +17 who were happily in love, 15 who had just been dumped, and we're just starting our third experiment: studying people who report that they're still in love after 10 to 25 years of marriage. +So, this is the short story of that research. +In the jungles of Guatemala, in Tikal, stands a temple. +It was built by the grandest Sun King, of the grandest city-state, of the grandest civilization of the Americas, the Mayas. +His name was Jasaw Chan K'awiil. +He stood over six feet tall. +He lived into his 80s, and he was buried beneath this monument in 720 AD. +And Mayan inscriptions proclaim that he was deeply in love with his wife. +So, he built a temple in her honor, facing his. +And every spring and autumn, exactly at the equinox, the sun rises behind his temple, and perfectly bathes her temple with his shadow. +And as the sun sets behind her temple in the afternoon, it perfectly bathes his temple with her shadow. +After 1,300 years, these two lovers still touch and kiss from their tomb. +Around the world, people love. +They sing for love, they dance for love, they compose poems and stories about love. +They tell myths and legends about love. +They pine for love, they live for love, they kill for love, and they die for love. +As Walt Whitman once said, he said, "Oh, I would stake all for you." +Anthropologists have found evidence of romantic love in 170 societies. +They've never found a society that did not have it. +But love isn't always a happy experience. +In one study of college students, they asked a lot of questions about love, but the two that stood out to me the most were, "Have you ever been rejected by somebody who you really loved?" +And the second question was, "Have you ever dumped somebody who really loved you?" +And almost 95 percent of both men and women said yes to both. +Almost nobody gets out of love alive. +So, before I start telling you about the brain, I want to read for you what I think is the most powerful love poem on Earth. +There's other love poems that are, of course, just as good, but I don't think this one can be surpassed. +It was told by an anonymous Kwakiutl Indian of southern Alaska to a missionary in 1896, and here it is. +I've never had the opportunity to say it before. +"Fire runs through my body with the pain of loving you. +Pain runs through my body with the fires of my love for you. +Pain like a boil about to burst with my love for you, consumed by fire with my love for you. +I remember what you said to me. +I am thinking of your love for me. +I am torn by your love for me. +Pain and more pain -- where are you going with my love? +I am told you will go from here. +I am told you will leave me here. +My body is numb with grief. +Remember what I said, my love. +Goodbye, my love, goodbye." +Emily Dickinson once wrote, "Parting is all we need to know of hell." +How many people have suffered in all the millions of years of human evolution? +How many people around the world are dancing with elation at this very minute? +Romantic love is one of the most powerful sensations on Earth. +So, several years ago, I decided to look into the brain and study this madness. +Our first study of people who were happily in love has been widely publicized, so I'm only going to say a very little about it. +We found activity in a tiny, little factory near the base of the brain called the ventral tegmental area. +We found activity in some cells called the A10 cells, cells that actually make dopamine, a natural stimulant, and spray it to many brain regions. +Indeed, this part, the VTA, is part of the brain's reward system. +It's way below your cognitive thinking process. +It's below your emotions. +It's part of what we call the reptilian core of the brain, associated with wanting, with motivation, with focus and with craving. +In fact, the same brain region where we found activity becomes active also when you feel the rush of cocaine. +But romantic love is much more than a cocaine high -- at least you come down from cocaine. +Romantic love is an obsession. It possesses you. +You lose your sense of self. +You can't stop thinking about another human being. +Somebody is camping in your head. +As an eighth-century Japanese poet said, "My longing had no time when it ceases." +Wild is love. +And the obsession can get worse when you've been rejected. +So, right now, Lucy Brown and I, the neuroscientist on our project, are looking at the data of the people who were put into the machine after they had just been dumped. +It was very difficult actually, putting these people in the machine, because they were in such bad shape. +So anyway, we found activity in three brain regions. +We found activity in the brain region, in exactly the same brain region associated with intense romantic love. +What a bad deal. +You know, when you've been dumped, the one thing you love to do is just forget about this human being, and then go on with your life -- but no, you just love them harder. +As the poet Terence, the Roman poet once said, he said, "The less my hope, the hotter my love." +And indeed, we now know why. +Two thousand years later, we can explain this in the brain. +That brain system -- the reward system for wanting, for motivation, for craving, for focus -- becomes more active when you can't get what you want. +In this case, life's greatest prize: an appropriate mating partner. +We found activity in other brain regions also -- in a brain region associated with calculating gains and losses. +You know, you're lying there, you're looking at the picture, and you're in this machine, and you're calculating, you know, what went wrong. +How, you know, what have I lost? +As a matter of fact, Lucy and I have a little joke about this. +It comes from a David Mamet play, and there's two con artists in the play, and the woman is conning the man, and the man looks at the woman and says, "Oh, you're a bad pony, I'm not going to bet on you." +And indeed, it's this part of the brain, the core of the nucleus accumbens, actually, that is becoming active as you're measuring your gains and losses. +It's also the brain region that becomes active when you're willing to take enormous risks for huge gains and huge losses. +Last but not least, we found activity in a brain region associated with deep attachment to another individual. +No wonder people suffer around the world, and we have so many crimes of passion. +When you've been rejected in love, not only are you engulfed with feelings of romantic love, but you're feeling deep attachment to this individual. +Moreover, this brain circuit for reward is working, and you're feeling intense energy, intense focus, intense motivation and the willingness to risk it all to win life's greatest prize. +So, what have I learned from this experiment that I would like to tell the world? +Foremost, I have come to think that romantic love is a drive, a basic mating drive. +Not the sex drive -- the sex drive gets you out there, looking for a whole range of partners. +Romantic love enables you to focus your mating energy on just one at a time, conserve your mating energy, and start the mating process with this single individual. +I think of all the poetry that I've read about romantic love, what sums it up best is something that is said by Plato, over 2,000 years ago. +He said, "The god of love lives in a state of need. +It is a need. It is an urge. +It is a homeostatic imbalance. +Like hunger and thirst, it's almost impossible to stamp out." +I've also come to believe that romantic love is an addiction: a perfectly wonderful addiction when it's going well, and a perfectly horrible addiction when it's going poorly. +And indeed, it has all of the characteristics of addiction. +You focus on the person, you obsessively think about them, you crave them, you distort reality, your willingness to take enormous risks to win this person. +And it's got the three main characteristics of addiction: tolerance, you need to see them more, and more, and more; withdrawals; and last, relapse. +I've got a girlfriend who's just getting over a terrible love affair. +It's been about eight months, she's beginning to feel better. +And she was driving along in her car the other day, and suddenly she heard a song on the car radio that reminded her of this man. +And she -- not only did the instant craving come back, but she had to pull over from the side of the road and cry. +So, one thing I would like the medical community, and the legal community, and even the college community, to see if they can understand, that indeed, romantic love is one of the most addictive substances on Earth. +I would also like to tell the world that animals love. +There's not an animal on this planet that will copulate with anything that comes along. +Too old, too young, too scruffy, too stupid, and they won't do it. +Unless you're stuck in a laboratory cage -- and you know, if you spend your entire life in a little box, you're not going to be as picky about who you have sex with -- but I've looked in a hundred species, and everywhere in the wild, animals have favorites. +As a matter of fact ethologists know this. +There are over eight words for what they call "animal favoritism:" selective proceptivity, mate choice, female choice, sexual choice. +And indeed, there are now three academic articles in which they've looked at this attraction, which may only last for a second, but it's a definite attraction, and either this same brain region, this reward system, or the chemicals of that reward system are involved. +In fact, I think animal attraction can be instant -- you can see an elephant instantly go for another elephant. +And I think that this is really the origin of what you and I call "love at first sight." +People have often asked me whether what I know about love has spoiled it for me. +And I just simply say, "Hardly." +You can know every single ingredient in a piece of chocolate cake, and then when you sit down and eat that cake, you can still feel that joy. +And certainly, I make all the same mistakes that everybody else does too, but it's really deepened my understanding and compassion, really, for all human life. +As a matter of fact, in New York, I often catch myself looking in baby carriages and feeling a little sorry for the tot. +And in fact, sometimes I feel a little sorry for the chicken on my dinner plate, when I think of how intense this brain system is. +Our newest experiment has been hatched by my colleague, Art Aron -- putting people who are reporting that they are still in love, in a long-term relationship, into the functional MRI. +We've put five people in so far, and indeed, we found exactly the same thing. They're not lying. +The brain areas associated with intense romantic love still become active, 25 years later. +There are still many questions to be answered and asked about romantic love. +The question that I'm working on right this minute -- and I'm only going to say it for a second, and then end -- is, why do you fall in love with one person, rather than another? +I never would have even thought to think of this, but Match.com, the Internet-dating site, came to me three years ago and asked me that question. +And I said, I don't know. +I know what happens in the brain, when you do become in love, but I don't know why you fall in love with one person rather than another. +And so, I've spent the last three years on this. +And there are many reasons that you fall in love with one person rather than another, that psychologists can tell you. +And we tend to fall in love with somebody from the same socioeconomic background, the same general level of intelligence, the same general level of good looks, the same religious values. +Your childhood certainly plays a role, but nobody knows how. +And that's about it, that's all they know. +No, they've never found the way two personalities fit together to make a good relationship. +So, it began to occur to me that maybe your biology pulls you towards some people rather than another. +And I have concocted a questionnaire to see to what degree you express dopamine, serotonin, estrogen and testosterone. +I think we've evolved four very broad personality types associated with the ratios of these four chemicals in the brain. +And on this dating site that I have created, called Chemistry.com, I ask you first a series of questions to see to what degree you express these chemicals, and I'm watching who chooses who to love. +And 3.7 million people have taken the questionnaire in America. +About 600,000 people have taken it in 33 other countries. +I think there's biology to that. +I think we're going to end up, in the next few years, to understand all kinds of brain mechanisms that pull us to one person rather than another. +So, I will close with this. These are my older people. +Faulkner once said, "The past is not dead, it's not even the past." +Indeed, we carry a lot of luggage from our yesteryear in the human brain. +And so, there's one thing that makes me pursue my understanding of human nature, and this reminds me of it. +These are two women. +Women tend to get intimacy differently than men do. +Women get intimacy from face-to-face talking. +We swivel towards each other, we do what we call the "anchoring gaze" and we talk. +This is intimacy to women. +I think it comes from millions of years of holding that baby in front of your face, cajoling it, reprimanding it, educating it with words. +Men tend to get intimacy from side-by-side doing. +As soon as one guy looks up, the other guy will look away. +I think it comes from millions of years of standing behind that -- sitting behind the bush, looking straight ahead, trying to hit that buffalo on the head with a rock. +I think, for millions of years, men faced their enemies, they sat side by side with friends. +So my final statement is: love is in us. +It's deeply embedded in the brain. +Our challenge is to understand each other. Thank you. +As a clergyman, you can imagine how out of place I feel. +I feel like a fish out of water, or maybe an owl out of the air. +I was preaching in San Jose some time ago, and my friend Mark Kvamme, who helped introduce me to this conference, brought several CEOs and leaders of some of the companies here in the Silicon Valley to have breakfast with me, or I with them. +And I was so stimulated. +And had such -- it was an eye-opening experience to hear them talk about the world that is yet to come through technology and science. +I know that we're near the end of this conference, and some of you may be wondering why they have a speaker from the field of religion. +Richard can answer that, because he made that decision. +But some years ago I was on an elevator in Philadelphia, coming down. +I was to address a conference at a hotel. +And on that elevator a man said, "I hear Billy Graham is staying in this hotel." +And another man looked in my direction and said, "Yes, there he is. He's on this elevator with us." +And this man looked me up and down for about 10 seconds, and he said, "My, what an anticlimax!" +I hope that you won't feel that these few moments with me is not a -- is an anticlimax, after all these tremendous talks that you've heard, and addresses, which I intend to listen to every one of them. +But I was on an airplane in the east some years ago, and the man sitting across the aisle from me was the mayor of Charlotte, North Carolina. +His name was John Belk. Some of you will probably know him. +And there was a drunk man on there, and he got up out of his seat two or three times, and he was making everybody upset by what he was trying to do. +And he was slapping the stewardess and pinching her as she went by, and everybody was upset with him. +And finally, John Belk said, "Do you know who's sitting here?" +And the man said, "No, who?" +He said, "It's Billy Graham, the preacher." +He said, "You don't say!" +And he turned to me, and he said, "Put her there!" +He said, "Your sermons have certainly helped me." +And I suppose that that's true with thousands of people. +I know that as you have been peering into the future, and as we've heard some of it here tonight, I would like to live in that age and see what is going to be. +But I won't, because I'm 80 years old. This is my eightieth year, and I know that my time is brief. +I have phlebitis at the moment, in both legs, and that's the reason that I had to have a little help in getting up here, because I have Parkinson's disease in addition to that, and some other problems that I won't talk about. +But this is not the first time that we've had a technological revolution. +We've had others. +And there's one that I want to talk about. +In one generation, the nation of the people of Israel had a tremendous and dramatic change that made them a great power in the Near East. +A man by the name of David came to the throne, and King David became one of the great leaders of his generation. +He was a man of tremendous leadership. +He had the favor of God with him. +He was a brilliant poet, philosopher, writer, soldier -- with strategies in battle and conflict that people study even today. +But about two centuries before David, the Hittites had discovered the secret of smelting and processing of iron, and, slowly, that skill spread. +But they wouldn't allow the Israelis to look into it, or to have any. +But David changed all of that, and he introduced the Iron Age to Israel. +And the Bible says that David laid up great stores of iron, and which archaeologists have found, that in present-day Palestine, there are evidences of that generation. +Now, instead of crude tools made of sticks and stones, Israel now had iron plows, and sickles, and hoes and military weapons. +And in the course of one generation, Israel was completely changed. +The introduction of iron, in some ways, had an impact a little bit like the microchip has had on our generation. +And David found that there were many problems that technology could not solve. +There were many problems still left. +And they're still with us, and you haven't solved them, and I haven't heard anybody here speak to that. +How do we solve these three problems that I'd like to mention? +The first one that David saw was human evil. +Where does it come from? +How do we solve it? +Over again and again in the Psalms, which Gladstone said was the greatest book in the world, David describes the evils of the human race. +And yet he says, "He restores my soul." +Have you ever thought about what a contradiction we are? +On one hand, we can probe the deepest secrets of the universe and dramatically push back the frontiers of technology, as this conference vividly demonstrates. +We've seen under the sea, three miles down, or galaxies hundreds of billions of years out in the future. +But on the other hand, something is wrong. +Our battleships, our soldiers, are on a frontier now, almost ready to go to war with Iraq. +Now, what causes this? +Why do we have these wars in every generation, and in every part of the world? +And revolutions? +We can't get along with other people, even in our own families. +We find ourselves in the paralyzing grip of self-destructive habits we can't break. +Racism and injustice and violence sweep our world, bringing a tragic harvest of heartache and death. +Even the most sophisticated among us seem powerless to break this cycle. +I would like to see Oracle take up that, or some other technological geniuses work on this. +How do we change man, so that he doesn't lie and cheat, and our newspapers are not filled with stories of fraud in business or labor or athletics or wherever? +The Bible says the problem is within us, within our hearts and our souls. +Our problem is that we are separated from our Creator, which we call God, and we need to have our souls restored, something only God can do. +Jesus said, "For out of the heart come evil thoughts: murders, sexual immorality, theft, false testimonies, slander." +The British philosopher Bertrand Russell was not a religious man, but he said, "It's in our hearts that the evil lies, and it's from our hearts that it must be plucked out." +Albert Einstein -- I was just talking to someone, when I was speaking at Princeton, and I met Mr. Einstein. +He didn't have a doctor's degree, because he said nobody was qualified to give him one. +But he made this statement. +He said, "It's easier to denature plutonium than to denature the evil spirit of man." +And many of you, I'm sure, have thought about that and puzzled over it. +You've seen people take beneficial technological advances, such as the Internet we've heard about tonight, and twist them into something corrupting. +You've seen brilliant people devise computer viruses that bring down whole systems. +The Oklahoma City bombing was simple technology, horribly used. +The problem is not technology. +The problem is the person or persons using it. +King David said that he knew the depths of his own soul. +He couldn't free himself from personal problems and personal evils that included murder and adultery. +Yet King David sought God's forgiveness, and said, "You can restore my soul." +You see, the Bible teaches that we're more than a body and a mind. +We are a soul. +And there's something inside of us that is beyond our understanding. +That's the part of us that yearns for God, or something more than we find in technology. +Your soul is that part of you that yearns for meaning in life, and which seeks for something beyond this life. +It's the part of you that yearns, really, for God. +I find [that] young people all over the world are searching for something. +They don't know what it is. I speak at many universities, and I have many questions and answer periods, and whether it's Cambridge, or Harvard, or Oxford -- I've spoken at all of those universities. +I'm going to Harvard in about three or four -- no, it's about two months from now -- to give a lecture. +And I'll be asked the same questions that I was asked the last few times I've been there. +And it'll be on these questions: where did I come from? Why am I here? Where am I going? +What's life all about? Why am I here? +Even if you have no religious belief, there are times when you wonder that there's something else. +Thomas Edison also said, "When you see everything that happens in the world of science, and in the working of the universe, you cannot deny that there's a captain on the bridge." +I remember once, I sat beside Mrs. Gorbachev at a White House dinner. +I went to Ambassador Dobrynin, whom I knew very well. +And I'd been to Russia several times under the Communists, and they'd given me marvelous freedom that I didn't expect. +And I knew Mr. Dobrynin very well, and I said, "I'm going to sit beside Mrs. Gorbachev tonight. +What shall I talk to her about?" +And he surprised me with the answer. +He said, "Talk to her about religion and philosophy. +That's what she's really interested in." +I was a little bit surprised, but that evening that's what we talked about, and it was a stimulating conversation. +And afterward, she said, "You know, I'm an atheist, but I know that there's something up there higher than we are." +The second problem that King David realized he could not solve was the problem of human suffering. +Writing the oldest book in the world was Job, and he said, "Man is born unto trouble as the sparks fly upward." +Yes, to be sure, science has done much to push back certain types of human suffering. +But I'm -- in a few months, I'll be 80 years of age. +I admit that I'm very grateful for all the medical advances that have kept me in relatively good health all these years. +My doctors at the Mayo Clinic urged me not to take this trip out here to this -- to be here. +I haven't given a talk in nearly four months. +And when you speak as much as I do, three or four times a day, you get rusty. +That's the reason I'm using this podium and using these notes. +Every time you ever hear me on the television or somewhere, I'm ad-libbing. +I'm not reading. I never read an address. +I never read a speech or a talk or a lecture. +I talk ad lib. +But tonight, I've got some notes here so that if I begin to forget, which I do sometimes, I've got something I can turn to. +But even here among us, most -- in the most advanced society in the world, we have poverty. +We have families that self-destruct, friends that betray us. +Unbearable psychological pressures bear down on us. +I've never met a person in the world that didn't have a problem or a worry. +Why do we suffer? It's an age-old question that we haven't answered. +Yet David again and again said that he would turn to God. +He said, "The Lord is my shepherd." +The final problem that David knew he could not solve was death. +Many commentators have said that death is the forbidden subject of our generation. +Most people live as if they're never going to die. +Technology projects the myth of control over our mortality. +We see people on our screens. +Marilyn Monroe is just as beautiful on the screen as she was in person, and our -- many young people think she's still alive. +They don't know that she's dead. +Or Clark Gable, or whoever it is. +The old stars, they come to life. +And they're -- they're just as great on that screen as they were in person. +But death is inevitable. +I spoke some time ago to a joint session of Congress, last year. +And we were meeting in that room, the statue room. +About 300 of them were there. +And I said, "There's one thing that we have in common in this room, all of us together, whether Republican or Democrat, or whoever." +I said, "We're all going to die. +And we have that in common with all these great men of the past that are staring down at us." +And it's often difficult for young people to understand that. +It's difficult for them to understand that they're going to die. +As the ancient writer of Ecclesiastes wrote, he said, there's every activity under heaven. +There's a time to be born, and there's a time to die. +I've stood at the deathbed of several famous people, whom you would know. +I've talked to them. +I've seen them in those agonizing moments when they were scared to death. +And yet, a few years earlier, death never crossed their mind. +I talked to a woman this past week whose father was a famous doctor. +She said he never thought of God, never talked about God, didn't believe in God. He was an atheist. +But she said, as he came to die, he sat up on the side of the bed one day, and he asked the nurse if he could see the chaplain. +And he said, for the first time in his life he'd thought about the inevitable, and about God. +Was there a God? +A few years ago, a university student asked me, "What is the greatest surprise in your life?" +And I said, "The greatest surprise in my life is the brevity of life. +It passes so fast." +But it does not need to have to be that way. +Wernher von Braun, in the aftermath of World War II concluded, quote: "science and religion are not antagonists. +On the contrary, they're sisters." +He put it on a personal basis. +I knew Dr. von Braun very well. +And he said, "Speaking for myself, I can only say that the grandeur of the cosmos serves only to confirm a belief in the certainty of a creator." +He also said, "In our search to know God, I've come to believe that the life of Jesus Christ should be the focus of our efforts and inspiration. +The reality of this life and His resurrection is the hope of mankind." +I've done a lot of speaking in Germany and in France, and in different parts of the world -- 105 countries it's been my privilege to speak in. +And I was invited one day to visit Chancellor Adenauer, who was looked upon as sort of the founder of modern Germany, since the war. +And he once -- and he said to me, he said, "Young man." He said, "Do you believe in the resurrection of Jesus Christ?" +And I said, "Sir, I do." +He said, "So do I." +He said, "When I leave office, I'm going to spend my time writing a book on why Jesus Christ rose again, and why it's so important to believe that." +In one of his plays, Alexander Solzhenitsyn depicts a man dying, who says to those gathered around his bed, "The moment when it's terrible to feel regret is when one is dying." +How should one live in order not to feel regret when one is dying? +Blaise Pascal asked exactly that question in seventeenth-century France. +Pascal has been called the architect of modern civilization. +He was a brilliant scientist at the frontiers of mathematics, even as a teenager. +He is viewed by many as the founder of the probability theory, and a creator of the first model of a computer. +And of course, you are all familiar with the computer language named for him. +Pascal explored in depth our human dilemmas of evil, suffering and death. +He was astounded at the phenomenon we've been considering: that people can achieve extraordinary heights in science, the arts and human enterprise, yet they also are full of anger, hypocrisy and have -- and self-hatreds. +Pascal saw us as a remarkable mixture of genius and self-delusion. +On November 23, 1654, Pascal had a profound religious experience. +He wrote in his journal these words: "I submit myself, absolutely, to Jesus Christ, my redeemer." +A French historian said, two centuries later, "Seldom has so mighty an intellect submitted with such humility to the authority of Jesus Christ." +Pascal came to believe not only the love and the grace of God could bring us back into harmony, but he believed that his own sins and failures could be forgiven, and that when he died he would go to a place called heaven. +He experienced it in a way that went beyond scientific observation and reason. +It was he who penned the well-known words, "The heart has its reasons, which reason knows not of." +Equally well known is Pascal's Wager. +Essentially, he said this: "if you bet on God, and open yourself to his love, you lose nothing, even if you're wrong. +But if instead you bet that there is no God, then you can lose it all, in this life and the life to come." +For Pascal, scientific knowledge paled beside the knowledge of God. +The knowledge of God was far beyond anything that ever crossed his mind. +He was ready to face him when he died at the age of 39. +King David lived to be 70, a long time in his era. +Yet he too had to face death, and he wrote these words: "even though I walk through the valley of the shadow of death, I will fear no evil, for you are with me." +This was David's answer to three dilemmas of evil, suffering and death. +It can be yours, as well, as you seek the living God and allow him to fill your life and give you hope for the future. +When I was 17 years of age, I was born and reared on a farm in North Carolina. +I milked cows every morning, and I had to milk the same cows every evening when I came home from school. +And there were 20 of them that I had -- that I was responsible for, and I worked on the farm and tried to keep up with my studies. +I didn't make good grades in high school. +I didn't make them in college, until something happened in my heart. +One day, I was faced face-to-face with Christ. +He said, "I am the way, the truth and the life." +Can you imagine that? "I am the truth. +I'm the embodiment of all truth." +He was a liar. +Or he was insane. +Or he was what he claimed to be. +Which was he? +I had to make that decision. +I couldn't prove it. +I couldn't take it to a laboratory and experiment with it. +But by faith I said, I believe him, and he came into my heart and changed my life. +And now I'm ready, when I hear that call, to go into the presence of God. +Thank you, and God bless all of you. +Thank you for the privilege. It was great. +Richard Wurman: You did it. +Thanks. +Brain magic. What's brain magic all about? +Brain magic to me indicates that area of magic dealing with psychological and mind-reading effects. +So unlike traditional magic, it uses the power of words, linguistic deception, non-verbal communication and various other techniques to create the illusion of a sixth sense. +I'm going to show you all how easy it is to manipulate the human mind once you know how. +I want everybody downstairs also to join in with me and everybody. +I want everybody to put out your hands like this for me, first of all. +OK, clap them together, once. +OK, reverse your hands. +Now, follow my actions exactly. +Now about half the audience has their left hand up. Why is that? +OK, swap them around, put your right hand up. +Cross your hands over, so your right hand goes over, interlace your fingers like this, then make sure your right thumb is outside your left thumb -- that's very important. +Yours is the other way around, so swap it around. +Excellent, OK. Extend your fingers like this for me. +All right. Tap them together once. +OK, now, if you did not allow me to deceive your minds, you would all be able to do this. +Now you can see how easy it is for me to manipulate the human mind, once you know how. +Now, I remember when I was about 15, I read a copy of Life magazine, which detailed a story about a 75-year-old blind Russian woman who could sense printed letters -- there's still people trying to do it -- -- who could sense printed letters and even sense colors, just by touch. +And she was completely blind. +She could also read the serial numbers on bills when they were placed, face down, on a hard surface. +Now, I was fascinated, but at the same time, skeptical. +How could somebody read using their fingertips? +You know, if you actually think about it, if somebody is totally blind -- a guy yesterday did a demonstration in one of the rooms, where people had to close their eyes and they could just hear things. +And it's just a really weird thing to try and figure out. +How could somebody read using their fingertips? +Now earlier on, as part of a TV show that I have coming up on MTV, I attempted to give a similar demonstration of what is now known as second sight. +So, let's take a look. +Man: There we go. +I'm going to guide you into the car. +Kathryn Thomas: Man: You're OK, keep on going. +KT: How are you? +Keith Barry: Kathryn, it's Keith here. I'm going to take you to a secret location, OK? +Kathryn, there was no way you could see through that blindfold. +KT: OK, but don't say my name like that. KB: But you're OK? +KT: Yes. +KB: No way to see through it? KT: No. +KB: I'll take it off. +Do you want to take the rest off? +Take it off, you're OK. We'll stop for a second. +KT: I'm so afraid of what I'm going to see. +KB: You're fine, take it off. You're OK. You're safe. +Have you ever heard of second sight? +KT: No. +KB: Second sight is whereby a mind-control expert can see through somebody else's eyes. +And I'm going to try that right now. +KT: God. +KB: Are you ready? +Where is it? There's no way -- KT: KT: Oh, my God! +KB: Don't say anything, I'm trying to see through your eyes. I can't see. +KT: There's a wall, there's a wall. +KB: Look at the road, look at the road. +KT: OK, OK, OK. Oh, my God! +KB: Now, anything coming at all? KT: No. +KB: Sure there's not? +KT: No, no, I'm just still looking at the road. +I'm looking at the road, all the time. +I'm not taking my eyes off the road. +KT: Oh, my God! +KB: Where are we? Where are we? +We're going uphill, are we going uphill? +KT: Look at the road -- Still got that goddamn blindfold on. +KB: What? +KT: How are you doing this? +KB: Just don't break my concentration. +We're OK, though? KT: Yes. +That's so weird. +We're nearly there. Oh, my God! +Oh, my God! +KB: And I've stopped. +KT: That is weird. +You're like a freak-ass of nature. +That was the most scary thing I've ever done in my life! +KB: Thank you. +By the way, two days ago, we were going to film this down there, at the race course, and we got a guy into a car, and we got a camera man in the back, but halfway through the drive, he told me he had, I think it was a nine-millimeter, stuck to his leg. +So, I stopped pretty quick, and that was it. +So, do you believe it's possible to see through somebody else's eyes? +That's the question. +Now, most people here would automatically say no. +OK, but I want you to realize some facts. +I couldn't see through the blindfold. +The car was not gimmicked or tricked in any way. +The girl, I'd never met before, all right. +So, I want you to just think about it for a moment. +A lot of people try to come up with a logical solution to what just happened, all right. +But because your brains are not trained in the art of deception, the solutions you come up with will, 99 percent of the time, be way off the mark. +This is because magic is all about directing attention. +If, for instance, I didn't want you to look at my right hand, then I don't look at it. +But if I wanted you to look at my right hand, then I look at it, too. +You see, it's very simple, once you know how, but very complicated in other ways. +I'm going to give you some demonstrations right now. +I need two people to help me out real quick. Can you come up? +And let's see, down at the end, here, can you also come up, real quick? +Do you mind? Yes, at the end. +OK, give them a round of applause as they come up. +You might want to use the stairs, there. +It's very important for everybody here to realize I haven't set anything up with you. +You don't know what will happen, right? +Would you mind just standing over here for a moment? +Your name is? Nicole: Nicole. +KB: Nicole, and? +(Telephone ringing) KB: Actually, here's the thing, answer it, answer it, answer it. +Is it a girl? Man: They've already gone. +KB: OK, swap over positions. +Can you stand over here? This will make it easier. +Pity, I would have told them it was the ace of spades. +OK, a little bit closer. +OK, a little bit closer, come over -- they look really nervous up here. +Do you believe in witchcraft? +Nicole: No. +KB: Voodoo? Nicole: No. +KB: Things that go bump in the night? Nicole: No. +KB: Besides, who's next, no, OK. +I want you to just stand exactly like this for me, pull up your sleeves, if you don't mind. +OK, now, I want you to be aware of all the different sensations around you, because we'll try a voodoo experiment. +I want you to be aware of the sensations, but don't say anything until I ask you, and don't open your eyes until I ask you. +From this point onwards, close your eyes, do not say anything, do not open them, be aware of the sensations. +Yes or no, did you feel anything? +Nicole: Yes. +KB: You did feel that? What did you feel? +Nicole: A touch on my back. +KB: How many times did you feel it? +Nicole: Twice. +KB: Twice. OK, extend your left arm out in front of you. +Extend your left arm, OK. +OK, keep it there. +Be aware of the sensations, don't say anything, don't open your eyes, OK. +Did you feel anything, there? +Nicole: Yes. KB: What did you feel? +Nicole: Three -- KB: Like a tickling sensation? Nicole: Yes. +KB: Can you show us where? +OK, excellent. Open your eyes. +I never touched you. +I just touched his back, and I just touched his arm. +A voodoo experiment. +Yeah, I walk around nightclubs all night like this. +You just take a seat over here for a second. +I'm going to use you again, in a moment. +Can you take a seat right over here, if you don't mind. +Sit right here. Man: OK. +KB: OK, take a seat. Excellent, OK. +Now, what I want you to do is look directly at me, OK, just take a deep breath in through your nose, letting it out through your mouth, and relax. +Allow your eyes to close, on five, four, three, two, one. +Close your eyes right now. +OK, now, I'm not hypnotizing you, I'm merely placing you in a heightened state of synchronicity, so our minds are along the same lines. +And as you sink and drift and float into this relaxed state of mind, I'm going to take your left hand, and just place it up here. +I want you to hold it there just for a moment, and I only want you to allow your hand to sink and drift and float back to the tabletop at the same rate and speed as you drift and float into this relaxed state of awareness, and allow it to go all the way down to the tabletop. +That's it, all the way down, all the way down. +and further, and further. +Excellent. +I want you to allow your hand to stick firmly to the tabletop. +OK, now, allow it to stay there. +OK, now, in a moment, you'll feel a certain pressure, OK, and I want you to be aware of the pressure. +Just be aware of the pressure. +And I only want you to allow your hand to float slowly back up from the tabletop as you feel the pressure release, but only when you feel the pressure release. +Do you understand? Just answer yes or no. +Man: Yes. +KB: Hold it right there. +And only when you feel the pressure go back, allow your hand to drift back to the tabletop, but only when you feel the pressure. +OK, that was wonderfully done. Let's try it again. +Excellent. Now that you've got the idea, let's try something even more interesting. +Allow it to stick firmly to the tabletop, keep your eyes closed. +Can you stand up? Just stand, stage forward. +I want you to point directly at his forehead. OK. +Imagine a connection between you and him. +Only when you want the pressure to be released, make an upward gesture, like this, but only when you want it to be released. +You can wait as long as you want, but only when you want the pressure released. +OK, let's try it again. +OK, now, imagine the connection, OK. +Point directly at his forehead. +Only when you want the pressure released, we'll try it again. +OK, it worked that time, excellent. +And hold it there, both of you. +Only when you want the pressure to go back, make a downward gesture. +You can wait as long as you want. +You did it pretty quickly, but it went down, OK. +Now, I want you to be aware that in a moment, when I snap my fingers, your eyes will open, again. +It's OK to remember to forget, or forget to remember what happened. +Most people ask you, "What the hell just happened up here?" +But it's OK that even though you're not hypnotized, you will forget everything that happened. +On five, four, three, two, one -- open your eyes, wide awake. +Give them a round of applause, as they go back to their seats. +OK, you can go back. +I once saw a film called "The Gods Are Crazy." +Has anybody here seen that film? Yeah. +Remember when they threw the Coke out of the airplane, and it landed on the ground, and it didn't break? +Now, see, that's because Coke bottles are solid. +It's nearly impossible to break a Coke bottle. +Do you want to try it? +Good job. She's not taking any chances. +You see, psychokinesis is the paranormal influence of the mind on physical events and processes. +For some magicians or mentalists, sometimes the spoon will bend or melt, sometimes it will not. +Sometimes the object will slide across the table, sometimes it will not. +It depends on how much energy you have that day, so on and so forth. +We're going to try an experiment in psychokinesis, right now. +Come right over here, next to me. Excellent. +Now, have a look at the Coke bottle. +Make sure it is solid, there's only one hole, and it's a normal Coke bottle. +And you can whack it against the table, if you want; be careful. +Even though it's solid, I'm standing away. +I want you to pinch right here with two fingers and your thumb. +Excellent. Now, I've got a shard of glass here, OK. +I want you to examine the shard of glass. +Careful, it's sharp. Just hold on to it for a moment. +Now, hold it out here. +I want you to imagine, right now, a broken relationship from many years ago. +I want you to imagine all the negative energy from that broken relationship, from that guy, being imparted into the broken piece of glass, which will represent him, OK. +But I want you to take this very seriously. +Stare at the glass, ignore everybody right here. +In a moment, you'll feel a certain sensation, OK, and when you feel that sensation, I want you to drop the piece of glass into the bottle. +Think of that guy, that ba -- that guy. +I'm trying to be good here. +OK, and when you feel the sensation -- it might take a while -- drop it into the glass. +OK, drop it in. +Now, imagine all that negative energy in there. +Imagine his name and imagine him inside the glass. +And I want you to release that negative energy by shaking it from side to side. +That was a lot of negative energy, built up in there. +I also want you to look at me and think of his name. +OK, think of how many letters in the title of his name. +There's five letters in the title. +You didn't react to that, so it's four letters. +Think of one of the letters in the title. +There's a K in his name, there is a K. +I knew that because my name starts with a K also, but his name doesn't start with a K, it starts with an M. +Tell Mike I said hello, the next time you see him. +Was that his name? Nicole: Mm-hmm. +KB: OK, give her a round of applause. +Thank you. +I've got one more thing to share with you right now. +Actually, Chris, I was going to pick you for this, but instead of picking you, can you hop up here and pick a victim for this next experiment? +And it should be a male victim, that's the only thing. +Chris Anderson: Oh, OK. +KB: I was going to use you, but I decided I might want to come back another year. +CA: Well, to reward him for saying "eureka," and for selecting Michael Mercil to come and talk to us -- Steve Jurvetson. +KB: OK, Steve, come on up here. +CA: You knew! +KB: OK, Steve, I want you to take a seat, right behind here. Excellent. +Now, Steve -- oh, you can check underneath. +Go ahead, I've no fancy assistants underneath there. +They insist that because I was a magician, put a nice, black tablecloth on. +There you are, OK. +I've got four wooden plinths here, Steve. +One, two, three and four. +Now, they're all the exact same except this one obviously has a stainless steel spike sticking out of it. +I want you to examine it, and make sure it's solid. +Happy? +Steve Jurvetson: Mmm, yes. +KB: OK. Now, Steve, I'm going to stand in front of the table, When I stand in front of the table, I want you to put the cups on the plinths, in any order you want, and then mix them all up, so nobody has any idea where the spike is, all right? +SJ: No one in the audience? +KB: Yes, and just to help you out, I'll block them from view, so nobody can see what you're doing. +I'll also look away. So, go ahead and mix them up, now. +OK, and tell me when you're done. +KB: You done? SJ: Almost. +KB: Almost, oh. OK, you're making sure that's well hidden. +Oh, we've got one here, we've got one here. +So, all right, we'll leave them like that. +I'm going to have the last laugh, though. +Now, Steve, you know where the spike is, but nobody else, does? Correct? +But I don't want you to know either, so swivel around on your chair. +They'll keep an eye on me to make sure I don't do anything funny. +No, stay around, OK. +Now, Steve, look back. +Now you don't know where the spike is, and I don't know where it is either. +Now, is there any way to see through this blindfold? +SJ: Put this on? +KB: No, just, is there any way to see through it? No? +SJ: No, I can't see through it. KB: Excellent. +Now, I'm going to put on the blindfold. +Don't stack them up, OK. Give them an extra mix up. +Don't move the cups, I don't want anybody to see where the spike is, but give the plinths an extra mix up, and then line them up. +I'll put the blindfold on. Give them an extra mix up. +No messing around this time. OK, go ahead, mix them up. +My hand is at risk here. +Tell me when you're done. SJ: Done. +KB: OK, where are you? Put out your hand. Your right hand. +Tell me when I'm over a cup. +SJ: You're over a cup. KB: I'm over a cup, right now? +SJ: Mm-hmm. +KB: Now, Steve, do you think it's here? Yes or no? +SJ: Oh! +KB: I told you I'd have the last laugh. +SJ: I don't think it's there. KB: No? Good decision. +Now, if I go this way, is there another cup over here? +SJ: Can we do the left hand? +KB: Oh, no, no, no. He asked me could he do the left hand. Absolutely not. +KB: If I go this way, is there another cup? +SJ: Yes. KB: Tell me when to stop. +SJ: OK. KB: There? +SJ: Yes, there's one. +KB: OK. Do you think it's here, yes or no? This is your decision, not mine. +SJ: I'm going to say no. KB: Good decision. +OK, give me both hands. +Now, put them on both cups. +Do you think the spike is under your left or your right hand? +SJ: Neither. +KB: Neither, oh, OK. +But if you were to guess. +SJ: Under my right hand. KB: Under your right hand? +Now, remember, you made all the decisions all along. +Psychologists, figure this out. +(SJ gasps) Have a look. +SJ: Oh! +KB: Thank you. +(Applause ends) If anybody wants to see some sleight of hand later on, I'll be outside. +Thank you. +Thank you. +Thank you. +When I was president of the American Psychological Association, they tried to media-train me, and an encounter I had with CNN summarizes what I'm going to be talking about today, which is the eleventh reason to be optimistic. +The editor of Discover told us 10 of them, I'm going to give you the eleventh. +So they came to me -- CNN -- and they said, "Professor Seligman, would you tell us about the state of psychology today? +We'd like to interview you about that." And I said, "Great." +And she said, "But this is CNN, so you only get a sound bite." +So I said, "Well, how many words do I get?" +And she said, "Well, one." +And cameras rolled, and she said, "Professor Seligman, what is the state of psychology today?" +"Good." +"Cut. Cut. That won't do. +We'd really better give you a longer sound bite." +"Well, how many words do I get this time?" "I think, well, you get two. +Doctor Seligman, what is the state of psychology today?" +"Not good." +"Look, Doctor Seligman, we can see you're really not comfortable in this medium. +We'd better give you a real sound bite. +This time you can have three words. +Professor Seligman, what is the state of psychology today?" +"Not good enough." And that's what I'm going to be talking about. +I want to say why psychology was good, why it was not good and how it may become, in the next 10 years, good enough. +And by parallel summary, I want to say the same thing about technology, about entertainment and design, because I think the issues are very similar. +So, why was psychology good? +Well, for more than 60 years, psychology worked within the disease model. +Ten years ago, when I was on an airplane and I introduced myself to my seatmate, and told them what I did, they'd move away from me. +And because, quite rightly, they were saying psychology is about finding what's wrong with you. Spot the loony. +And now, when I tell people what I do, they move toward me. +And what was good about psychology, about the 30 billion dollar investment NIMH made, about working in the disease model, about what you mean by psychology, is that, 60 years ago, none of the disorders were treatable -- it was entirely smoke and mirrors. +And now, 14 of the disorders are treatable, two of them actually curable. +And the other thing that happened is that a science developed, a science of mental illness. +That we found out that we could take fuzzy concepts -- like depression, alcoholism -- and measure them with rigor. +That we could create a classification of the mental illnesses. +That we could understand the causality of the mental illnesses. +We could look across time at the same people -- people, for example, who were genetically vulnerable to schizophrenia -- and ask what the contribution of mothering, of genetics are, and we could isolate third variables by doing experiments on the mental illnesses. +And best of all, we were able, in the last 50 years, to invent drug treatments and psychological treatments. +And then we were able to test them rigorously, in random assignment, placebo controlled designs, throw out the things that didn't work, keep the things that actively did. +And the conclusion of that is that psychology and psychiatry, over the last 60 years, can actually claim that we can make miserable people less miserable. +And I think that's terrific. I'm proud of it. +But what was not good, the consequences of that were three things. +The first was moral, that psychologists and psychiatrists became victimologists, pathologizers, that our view of human nature was that if you were in trouble, bricks fell on you. +And we forgot that people made choices and decisions. +We forgot responsibility. That was the first cost. +The second cost was that we forgot about you people. +We forgot about improving normal lives. +We forgot about a mission to make relatively untroubled people happier, more fulfilled, more productive. And "genius," "high-talent," became a dirty word. +No one works on that. +And the third problem about the disease model is, in our rush to do something about people in trouble, in our rush to do something about repairing damage, it never occurred to us to develop interventions to make people happier, positive interventions. +So that was not good. +And so, that's what led people like Nancy Etcoff, Dan Gilbert, Mike Csikszentmihalyi and myself to work in something I call positive psychology, which has three aims. +The first is that psychology should be just as concerned with human strength as it is with weakness. +It should be just as concerned with building strength as with repairing damage. +It should be interested in the best things in life. +And it should be just as concerned with making the lives of normal people fulfilling, and with genius, with nurturing high talent. +So in the last 10 years and the hope for the future, we've seen the beginnings of a science of positive psychology, a science of what makes life worth living. +It turns out that we can measure different forms of happiness. +And any of you, for free, can go to that website and take the entire panoply of tests of happiness. +You can ask, how do you stack up for positive emotion, for meaning, for flow, against literally tens of thousands of other people? +We created the opposite of the diagnostic manual of the insanities: a classification of the strengths and virtues that looks at the sex ratio, how they're defined, how to diagnose them, what builds them and what gets in their way. +We found that we could discover the causation of the positive states, the relationship between left hemispheric activity and right hemispheric activity as a cause of happiness. +I've spent my life working on extremely miserable people, and I've asked the question, how do extremely miserable people differ from the rest of you? +And starting about six years ago, we asked about extremely happy people. +And how do they differ from the rest of us? +And it turns out there's one way. +They're not more religious, they're not in better shape, they don't have more money, they're not better looking, they don't have more good events and fewer bad events. +The one way in which they differ: they're extremely social. +They don't sit in seminars on Saturday morning. +They don't spend time alone. +Each of them is in a romantic relationship and each has a rich repertoire of friends. +But watch out here. This is merely correlational data, not causal, and it's about happiness in the first Hollywood sense I'm going to talk about: happiness of ebullience and giggling and good cheer. +And I'm going to suggest to you that's not nearly enough, in just a moment. +We found we could begin to look at interventions over the centuries, from the Buddha to Tony Robbins. +About 120 interventions have been proposed that allegedly make people happy. +And we find that we've been able to manualize many of them, and we actually carry out random assignment efficacy and effectiveness studies. +That is, which ones actually make people lastingly happier? +In a couple of minutes, I'll tell you about some of those results. +But the upshot of this is that the mission I want psychology to have, in addition to its mission of curing the mentally ill, and in addition to its mission of making miserable people less miserable, is can psychology actually make people happier? +And to ask that question -- happy is not a word I use very much -- we've had to break it down into what I think is askable about happy. +And I believe there are three different -- and I call them different because different interventions build them, it's possible to have one rather than the other -- three different happy lives. +The first happy life is the pleasant life. +This is a life in which you have as much positive emotion as you possibly can, and the skills to amplify it. +The second is a life of engagement -- a life in your work, your parenting, your love, your leisure, time stops for you. +That's what Aristotle was talking about. +And third, the meaningful life. +So I want to say a little bit about each of those lives and what we know about them. +The first life is the pleasant life and it's simply, as best we can find it, it's having as many of the pleasures as you can, as much positive emotion as you can, and learning the skills -- savoring, mindfulness -- that amplify them, that stretch them over time and space. +But the pleasant life has three drawbacks, and it's why positive psychology is not happy-ology and why it doesn't end here. +The first drawback is that it turns out the pleasant life, your experience of positive emotion, is heritable, about 50 percent heritable, and, in fact, not very modifiable. +So the different tricks that Matthieu [Ricard] and I and others know about increasing the amount of positive emotion in your life are 15 to 20 percent tricks, getting more of it. +Second is that positive emotion habituates. It habituates rapidly, indeed. +It's all like French vanilla ice cream, the first taste is a 100 percent; by the time you're down to the sixth taste, it's gone. +And, as I said, it's not particularly malleable. +And this leads to the second life. +And I have to tell you about my friend, Len, to talk about why positive psychology is more than positive emotion, more than building pleasure. +In two of the three great arenas of life, by the time Len was 30, Len was enormously successful. The first arena was work. +By the time he was 20, he was an options trader. +By the time he was 25, he was a multimillionaire and the head of an options trading company. +Second, in play -- he's a national champion bridge player. +But in the third great arena of life, love, Len is an abysmal failure. +And the reason he was, was that Len is a cold fish. +Len is an introvert. +American women said to Len, when he dated them, "You're no fun. You don't have positive emotion. Get lost." +And Len was wealthy enough to be able to afford a Park Avenue psychoanalyst, who for five years tried to find the sexual trauma that had somehow locked positive emotion inside of him. +But it turned out there wasn't any sexual trauma. +It turned out that -- Len grew up in Long Island and he played football and watched football, and played bridge -- Len is in the bottom five percent of what we call positive affectivities. +The question is, is Len unhappy? And I want to say not. +Contrary to what psychology told us about the bottom 50 percent of the human race in positive affectivity, I think Len is one of the happiest people I know. +He's not consigned to the hell of unhappiness and that's because Len, like most of you, is enormously capable of flow. +When he walks onto the floor of the American Exchange at 9:30 in the morning, time stops for him. And it stops till the closing bell. +When the first card is played, until 10 days later, the tournament is over, time stops for Len. +And this is indeed what Mike Csikszentmihalyi has been talking about, about flow. And it's distinct from pleasure in a very important way. +Pleasure has raw feels: you know it's happening. It's thought and feeling. +But what Mike told you yesterday -- during flow, you can't feel anything. +You're one with the music. Time stops. +You have intense concentration. +And this is indeed the characteristic of what we think of as the good life. +And we think there's a recipe for it, and it's knowing what your highest strengths are. +And again, there's a valid test of what your five highest strengths are. +And then re-crafting your life to use them as much as you possibly can. +Re-crafting your work, your love, your play, your friendship, your parenting. +Just one example. One person I worked with was a bagger at Genuardi's. +Hated the job. +She's working her way through college. +Her highest strength was social intelligence, so she re-crafted bagging to make the encounter with her the social highlight of every customer's day. +Now obviously she failed. +But what she did was to take her highest strengths, and re-craft work to use them as much as possible. +What you get out of that is not smiley-ness. +You don't look like Debbie Reynolds. +You don't giggle a lot. What you get is more absorption. +So, that's the second path. The first path, positive emotion. +The second path is eudaimonian flow. +And the third path is meaning. +This is the most venerable of the happinesses, traditionally. +And meaning, in this view, consists of -- very parallel to eudaimonia -- it consists of knowing what your highest strengths are, and using them to belong to and in the service of something larger than you are. +I mentioned that for all three kinds of lives, the pleasant life, the good life, the meaningful life, people are now hard at work on the question, are there things that lastingly change those lives? +And the answer seems to be yes. And I'll just give you some samples of it. +It's being done in a rigorous manner. +It's being done in the same way that we test drugs to see what really works. +So we do random assignment, placebo controlled, long-term studies of different interventions. +And just to sample the kind of interventions that we find have an effect, when we teach people about the pleasant life, how to have more pleasure in your life, one of your assignments is to take the mindfulness skills, the savoring skills, and you're assigned to design a beautiful day. +Next Saturday, set a day aside, design yourself a beautiful day, and use savoring and mindfulness to enhance those pleasures. +And we can show in that way that the pleasant life is enhanced. +Gratitude visit. I want you all to do this with me now, if you would. +Close your eyes. +I'd like you to remember someone who did something enormously important that changed your life in a good direction, and who you never properly thanked. +The person has to be alive. OK. +Now, OK, you can open your eyes. +I hope all of you have such a person. +Your assignment, when you're learning the gratitude visit, is to write a 300-word testimonial to that person, call them on the phone in Phoenix, ask if you can visit, don't tell them why, show up at their door, you read the testimonial -- everyone weeps when this happens. +And what happens is when we test people one week later, a month later, three months later, they're both happier and less depressed. +Another example is a strength date, in which we get couples to identify their highest strengths on the strengths test, and then to design an evening in which they both use their strengths, and we find this is a strengthener of relationships. +And fun versus philanthropy. +But it's so heartening to be in a group like this, in which so many of you have turned your lives to philanthropy. +Well, my undergraduates and the people I work with haven't discovered this, so we actually have people do something altruistic and do something fun, and to contrast it. +And what you find is when you do something fun, it has a square wave walk set. +When you do something philanthropic to help another person, it lasts and it lasts. +So those are examples of positive interventions. +So, the next to last thing I want to say is we're interested in how much life satisfaction people have. +And this is really what you're about. And that's our target variable. +And we ask the question as a function of the three different lives, how much life satisfaction do you get? +So we ask -- and we've done this in 15 replications involving thousands of people -- to what extent does the pursuit of pleasure, the pursuit of positive emotion, the pleasant life, the pursuit of engagement, time stopping for you, and the pursuit of meaning contribute to life satisfaction? +And our results surprised us, but they were backward of what we thought. +It turns out the pursuit of pleasure has almost no contribution to life satisfaction. +The pursuit of meaning is the strongest. +The pursuit of engagement is also very strong. +Where pleasure matters is if you have both engagement and you have meaning, then pleasure's the whipped cream and the cherry. +Which is to say, the full life -- the sum is greater than the parts, if you've got all three. +Conversely, if you have none of the three, the empty life, the sum is less than the parts. +And what we're asking now is does the very same relationship, physical health, morbidity, how long you live and productivity, follow the same relationship? +That is, in a corporation, is productivity a function of positive emotion, engagement and meaning? +Is health a function of positive engagement, of pleasure, and of meaning in life? +And there is reason to think the answer to both of those may well be yes. +So, Chris said that the last speaker had a chance to try to integrate what he heard, and so this was amazing for me. I've never been in a gathering like this. +I've never seen speakers stretch beyond themselves so much, which was one of the remarkable things. +But I found that the problems of psychology seemed to be parallel to the problems of technology, entertainment and design in the following way. +We all know that technology, entertainment and design have been and can be used for destructive purposes. +We also know that technology, entertainment and design can be used to relieve misery. +And by the way, the distinction between relieving misery and building happiness is extremely important. +I thought, when I first became a therapist 30 years ago, that if I was good enough to make someone not depressed, not anxious, not angry, that I'd make them happy. +And I never found that. I found the best you could ever do was to get to zero. +But they were empty. +And it turns out the skills of happiness, the skills of the pleasant life, the skills of engagement, the skills of meaning, are different from the skills of relieving misery. +And so, the parallel thing holds with technology, entertainment and design, I believe. +That is, it is possible for these three drivers of our world to increase happiness, to increase positive emotion, and that's typically how they've been used. +But once you fractionate happiness the way I do -- not just positive emotion, that's not nearly enough -- there's flow in life, and there's meaning in life. +As Laura Lee told us, design, and, I believe, entertainment and technology, can be used to increase meaning engagement in life as well. +So in conclusion, the eleventh reason for optimism, in addition to the space elevator, is that I think with technology, entertainment and design, we can actually increase the amount of tonnage of human happiness on the planet. +And if technology can, in the next decade or two, increase the pleasant life, the good life and the meaningful life, it will be good enough. +If entertainment can be diverted to also increase positive emotion, meaning, eudaimonia, it will be good enough. +And if design can increase positive emotion, eudaimonia, and flow and meaning, what we're all doing together will become good enough. Thank you. +The decorative use of wire in southern Africa dates back hundreds of years. +But modernization actually brought communication and a whole new material, in the form of telephone wire. +Rural to urban migration meant that newfound industrial materials started to replace hard-to-come-by natural grasses. +So, here you can see the change from use -- starting to use contemporary materials. +These pieces date back from the '40s to the late '50s. +In the '90s, my interest and passion for transitional art forms led me to a new form, which came from a squatter camp outside Durban. +And I got the opportunity to start working with this community at that point, and started developing, really, and mentoring them in terms of scale, in terms of the design. +And the project soon grew from five to 50 weavers in about a year. +Soon we had outgrown the scrap yards, what they could provide, so we coerced a wire manufacturer to help us, and not only to supply the materials on bobbins, but to produce to our color specifications. +At the same time, I was thinking, well, there's lots of possibility here to produce contemporary products, away from the ethnic, a little bit more contemporary. +So I developed a whole range around -- mass-produced range -- that obviously fitted into a much higher-end decor market that could be exported and also service our local market. +We started experimenting, as you can see, in terms of shapes, forms. The scale became very important, and it's become our pet project. It's successful, it's been running for 12 years. And we supply the Conran shops, and Donna Karan, and so it's kind of great. +This is our group, our main group of weavers. +They come on a weekly basis to Durban. +They all have bank accounts. +They've all moved back to the rural area where they came from. +It's a weekly turnaround of production. +This is the community that I originally showed you the slide of. +And that's also modernized today, and it's supporting work for 300 weavers. +And the rest says it all. +Thank you very much. +Who are we? +That is the big question. +And essentially we are just an upright-walking, big-brained, super-intelligent ape. +This could be us. +We belong to the family called the Hominidae. +We are the species called Homo sapiens sapiens, and it's important to remember that, in terms of our place in the world today and our future on planet Earth. +We are one species of about five and a half thousand mammalian species that exist on planet Earth today. +And that's just a tiny fraction of all species that have ever lived on the planet in past times. +We're one species out of approximately, or let's say, at least 16 upright-walking apes that have existed over the past six to eight million years. +But as far as we know, we're the only upright-walking ape that exists on planet Earth today, except for the bonobos. +And it's important to remember that, because the bonobos are so human, and they share 99 percent of their genes with us. +And we share our origins with a handful of the living great apes. +It's important to remember that we evolved. +Now, I know that's a dirty word for some people, but we evolved from common ancestors with the gorillas, the chimpanzee and also the bonobos. +We have a common past, and we have a common future. +And it is important to remember that all of these great apes have come on as long and as interesting evolutionary journey as we ourselves have today. +And it's this journey that is of such interest to humanity, and it's this journey that has been the focus of the past three generations of my family, as we've been in East Africa looking for the fossil remains of our ancestors to try and piece together our evolutionary past. +And this is how we look for them. +A group of dedicated young men and women walk very slowly out across vast areas of Africa, looking for small fragments of bone, fossil bone, that may be on the surface. +And that's an example of what we may do as we walk across the landscape in Northern Kenya, looking for fossils. +I doubt many of you in the audience can see the fossil that's in this picture, but if you look very carefully, there is a jaw, a lower jaw, of a 4.1-million-year-old upright-walking ape as it was found at Lake Turkana on the west side. +It's extremely time-consuming, labor-intensive and it is something that is going to involve a lot more people, to begin to piece together our past. +We still really haven't got a very complete picture of it. +When we find a fossil, we mark it. +Today, we've got great technology: we have GPS. +We mark it with a GPS fix, and we also take a digital photograph of the specimen, so we could essentially put it back on the surface, exactly where we found it. +And we can bring all this information into big GIS packages, today. +When we then find something very important, like the bones of a human ancestor, we begin to excavate it extremely carefully and slowly, using dental picks and fine paintbrushes. +And all the sediment is then put through these screens, and where we go again through it very carefully, looking for small bone fragments, and it's then washed. +And these things are so exciting. They are so often the only, or the very first time that anybody has ever seen the remains. +And here's a very special moment, when my mother and myself were digging up some remains of human ancestors. +And it is one of the most special things to ever do with your mother. +Not many people can say that. +But now, let me take you back to Africa, two million years ago. +I'd just like to point out, if you look at the map of Africa, it does actually look like a hominid skull in its shape. +Now we're going to go to the East African and the Rift Valley. +It essentially runs up from the Gulf of Aden, or runs down to Lake Malawi. +And the Rift Valley is a depression. +It's a basin, and rivers flow down from the highlands into the basin, carrying sediment, preserving the bones of animals that lived there. +If you want to become a fossil, you actually need to die somewhere where your bones will be rapidly buried. +You then hope that the earth moves in such a way as to bring the bones back up to the surface. +And then you hope that one of us lot will walk around and find small pieces of you. +OK, so it is absolutely surprising that we know as much as we do know today about our ancestors, because it's incredibly difficult, A, for these things to become -- to be -- preserved, and secondly, for them to have been brought back up to the surface. +And we really have only spent 50 years looking for these remains, and begin to actually piece together our evolutionary story. +So, let's go to Lake Turkana, which is one such lake basin in the very north of our country, Kenya. +And if you look north here, there's a big river that flows into the lake that's been carrying sediment and preserving the remains of the animals that lived there. +Fossil sites run up and down both lengths of that lake basin, which represents some 20,000 square miles. +That's a huge job that we've got on our hands. +Two million years ago at Lake Turkana, Homo erectus, one of our human ancestors, actually lived in this region. +You can see some of the major fossil sites that we've been working in the north. But, essentially, two million years ago, Homo erectus, up in the far right corner, lived alongside three other species of human ancestor. +And here is a skull of a Homo erectus, which I just pulled off the shelf there. +But it is not to say that being a single species on planet Earth is the norm. +In fact, if you go back in time, it is the norm that there are multiple species of hominids or of human ancestors that coexist at any one time. +Where did these things come from? +That's what we're still trying to find answers to, and it is important to realize that there is diversity in all different species, and our ancestors are no exception. +Here's some reconstructions of some of the fossils that have been found from Lake Turkana. +But I was very lucky to have been brought up in Kenya, essentially accompanying my parents to Lake Turkana in search of human remains. +And we were able to dig up, when we got old enough, fossils such as this, a slender-snouted crocodile. +And we dug up giant tortoises, and elephants and things like that. +But when I was 12, as I was in this picture, a very exciting expedition was in place on the west side, when they found essentially the skeleton of this Homo erectus. +I could relate to this Homo erectus skeleton very well, because I was the same age that he was when he died. +And I imagined him to be tall, dark-skinned. +His brothers certainly were able to run long distances chasing prey, probably sweating heavily as they did so. +He was very able to use stones effectively as tools. +And this individual himself, this one that I'm holding up here, actually had a bad back. He'd probably had an injury as a child. +He had a scoliosis and therefore must have been looked after quite carefully by other female, and probably much smaller, members of his family group, to have got to where he did in life, age 12. +Unfortunately for him, he fell into a swamp and couldn't get out. +Essentially, his bones were rapidly buried and beautifully preserved. +And he remained there until 1.6 million years later, when this very famous fossil hunter, Kamoya Kimeu, walked along a small hillside and found that small piece of his skull lying on the surface amongst the pebbles, recognized it as being hominid. +It's actually this little piece up here on the top. +Well, an excavation was begun immediately, and more and more little bits of skull started to be extracted from the sediment. +We began to find limb bones; we found finger bones, the bones of the pelvis, vertebrae, ribs, the collar bones, things that had never, ever been seen before in Homo erectus. +It was truly exciting. +He had a body very similar to our own, and he was on the threshold of becoming human. +Well, shortly afterwards, members of his species started to move northwards out of Africa, and you start to see fossils of Homo erectus in Georgia, China and also in parts of Indonesia. +So, Homo erectus was the first human ancestor to leave Africa and begin its spread across the globe. +Some exciting finds, again, as I mentioned, from Dmanisi, in the Republic of Georgia. +But also, surprising finds recently announced from the Island of Flores in Indonesia, where a group of these human ancestors have been isolated, and have become dwarfed, and they're only about a meter in height. +But they lived only 18,000 years ago, and that is truly extraordinary to think about. +Just to put this in terms of generations, because people do find it hard to think of time, Homo erectus left Africa 90,000 generations ago. +We evolved essentially from an African stock. +Again, at about 200,000 years as a fully-fledged us. +And we only left Africa about 70,000 years ago. +And until 30,000 years ago, at least three upright-walking apes shared the planet Earth. +The question now is, well, who are we? +We're certainly a polluting, wasteful, aggressive species, with a few nice things thrown in, perhaps. +For the most part, we're not particularly pleasant at all. +We have a much larger brain than our ape ancestors. +Is this a good evolutionary adaptation, or is it going to lead us to being the shortest-lived hominid species on planet Earth? +And what is it that really makes us us? +I think it's our collective intelligence. +It's our ability to write things down, our language and our consciousness. +From very primitive beginnings, with a very crude tool kit of stones, we now have a very advanced tool kit, and our tool use has really reached unprecedented levels: we've got buggies to Mars; we've mapped the human genome; and recently even created synthetic life, thanks to Craig Venter. +And we've also managed to communicate with people all over the world, from extraordinary places. +Even from within an excavation in northern Kenya, we can talk to people about what we're doing. +As Al Gore so clearly has reminded us, we have reached extraordinary numbers of people on this planet. +Human ancestors really only survive on planet Earth, if you look at the fossil record, for about, on average, a million years at a time. +We've only been around for the past 200,000 years as a species, yet we've reached a population of more than six and a half billion people. +And last year, our population grew by 80 million. +I mean, these are extraordinary numbers. +You can see here, again, taken from Al Gore's book. +But what's happened is our technology has removed the checks and balances on our population growth. +We have to control our numbers, and I think this is as important as anything else that's being done in the world today. +But we have to control our numbers, because we can't really hold it together as a species. +My father so appropriately put it, that "We are certainly the only animal that makes conscious choices that are bad for our survival as a species." +Can we hold it together? +It's important to remember that we all evolved in Africa. +We all have an African origin. +We have a common past and we share a common future. +Evolutionarily speaking, we're just a blip. +We're sitting on the edge of a precipice, and we have the tools and the technology at our hands to communicate what needs to be done to hold it together today. +We could tell every single human being out there, if we really wanted to. +But will we do that, or will we just let nature take its course? +Well, to end on a very positive note, I think evolutionarily speaking, this is probably a fairly good thing, in the end. +I'll leave it at that, thank you very much. +So I'm going to talk today about collecting stories in some unconventional ways. +This is a picture of me from a very awkward stage in my life. +You might enjoy the awkwardly tight, cut-off pajama bottoms with balloons. +Anyway, it was a time when I was mainly interested in collecting imaginary stories. +So this is a picture of me holding one of the first watercolor paintings I ever made. +And recently I've been much more interested in collecting stories from reality -- so, real stories. +And specifically, I'm interested in collecting my own stories, stories from the Internet, and then recently, stories from life, which is kind of a new area of work that I've been doing recently. +So I'll be talking about each of those today. +So, first of all, my own stories. These are two of my sketchbooks. +I have many of these books, and I've been keeping them for about the last eight or nine years. +They accompany me wherever I go in my life, and I fill them with all sorts of things, records of my lived experience: so watercolor paintings, drawings of what I see, dead flowers, dead insects, pasted ticket stubs, rusting coins, business cards, writings. +And in these books, you can find these short, little glimpses of moments and experiences and people that I meet. +And, you know, after keeping these books for a number of years, I started to become very interested in collecting not only my own personal artifacts, but also the artifacts of other people. +So, I started collecting found objects. +This is a photograph I found lying in a gutter in New York City about 10 years ago. +On the front, you can see the tattered black-and-white photo of a woman's face, and on the back it says, "To Judy, the girl with the Bill Bailey voice. +Have fun in whatever you do." +And I really loved this idea of the partial glimpse into somebody's life. +As opposed to knowing the whole story, just knowing a little bit of the story, and then letting your own mind fill in the rest. +And that idea of a partial glimpse is something that will come back in a lot of the work I'll be showing later today. +So, around this time I was studying computer science at Princeton University, and I noticed that it was suddenly possible to collect these sorts of personal artifacts, not just from street corners, but also from the Internet. +And that suddenly, people, en masse, were leaving scores and scores of digital footprints online that told stories of their private lives. +Blog posts, photographs, thoughts, feelings, opinions, all of these things were being expressed by people online, and leaving behind trails. +So, I started to write computer programs that study very, very large sets of these online footprints. +One such project is about a year and a half old. +It's called "We Feel Fine." +This is a project that scans the world's newly posted blog entries every two or three minutes, searching for occurrences of the phrases "I feel" and "I am feeling." And when it finds one of those phrases, it grabs the full sentence up to the period and also tries to identify demographic information about the author. +So, their gender, their age, their geographic location and what the weather conditions were like when they wrote that sentence. +It collects about 20,000 such sentences a day and it's been running for about a year and a half, having collected over 10 and a half million feelings now. +This is, then, how they're presented. +These dots here represent some of the English-speaking world's feelings from the last few hours, each dot being a single sentence stated by a single blogger. +And the color of each dot corresponds to the type of feeling inside, so the bright ones are happy, and the dark ones are sad. +And the diameter of each dot corresponds to the length of the sentence inside. +So the small ones are short, and the bigger ones are longer. +"I feel fine with the body I'm in, there'll be no easy excuse for why I still feel uncomfortable being close to my boyfriend," from a twenty-two-year-old in Japan. +"I got this on some trading locally, but really don't feel like screwing with wiring and crap." +Also, some of the feelings contain photographs in the blog posts. +And when that happens, these montage compositions are automatically created, which consist of the sentence and images being combined. +And any of these can be opened up to reveal the sentence inside. +"I feel good." +"I feel rough now, and I probably gained 100,000 pounds, but it was worth it." +"I love how they were able to preserve most in everything that makes you feel close to nature -- butterflies, man-made forests, limestone caves and hey, even a huge python." +So the next movement is called mobs. +This provides a slightly more statistical look at things. +This is showing the world's most common feelings overall right now, dominated by better, then bad, then good, then guilty, and so on. +Weather causes the feelings to assume the physical traits of the weather they represent. So the sunny ones swirl around, the cloudy ones float along, the rainy ones fall down, and the snowy ones flutter to the ground. +You can also stop a raindrop and open the feeling inside. +Finally, location causes the feelings to move to their spots on a world map, giving you a sense of their geographic distribution. +So I'll show you now some of my favorite montages from "We Feel Fine." +These are the images that are automatically constructed. +"I feel like I'm diagonally parked in a parallel universe." +"I've kissed numerous other boys and it hasn't felt good, the kisses felt messy and wrong, but kissing Lucas feels beautiful and almost spiritual." +"I can feel my cancer grow." +"I feel pretty." +"I feel skinny, but I'm not." +"I'm 23, and a recovering meth and heroin addict, and feel absolutely blessed to still be alive." +"I can't wait to see them racing for the first time at Daytona next month, because I feel the need for speed." +"I feel sassy." +"I feel so sexy in this new wig." +As you can see, "We Feel Fine" collects very, very small-scale personal stories. +Sometimes, stories as short as two or three words. +So, really even challenging the notion of what can be considered a story. +And recently, I've become interested in diving much more deeply into a single story. +And that's led me to doing some work with the physical world, not with the Internet, and only using the Internet at the very last moment, as a presentation medium. +So these are some newer projects that actually aren't even launched publicly yet. +The first such one is called "The Whale Hunt." +Last May, I spent nine days living up in Barrow, Alaska, the northernmost settlement in the United States, with a family of Inupiat Eskimos, documenting their annual spring whale hunt. +This is the whaling camp here, we're about six miles from shore, camping on five and a half feet of thick, frozen pack ice. +And that water that you see there is the open lead, and through that lead, bowhead whales migrate north each springtime. +And the Eskimo community basically camps out on the edge of the ice here, waits for a whale to come close enough to attack. And when it does, it throws a harpoon at it, and then hauls the whale up under the ice, and cuts it up. +And that would provide the community's food supply for a long time. +So I went up there, and I lived with these guys out in their whaling camp here, and photographed the entire experience, beginning with the taxi ride to Newark airport in New York, and ending with the butchering of the second whale, seven and a half days later. +I photographed that entire experience at five-minute intervals. +So every five minutes, I took a photograph. +When I was awake, with the camera around my neck. +When I was sleeping, with a tripod and a timer. +And then in moments of high adrenaline, like when something exciting was happening, I would up that photographic frequency to as many as 37 photographs in five minutes. +So what this created was a photographic heartbeat that sped up and slowed down, more or less matching the changing pace of my own heartbeat. +That was the first concept here. +The second concept was to use this experience to think about the fundamental components of any story. +What are the things that make up a story? +So, stories have characters. Stories have concepts. +Stories take place in a certain area. They have contexts. +They have colors. What do they look like? +They have time. When did it take place? Dates -- when did it occur? +And in the case of the whale hunt, also this idea of an excitement level. +The thing about stories, though, in most of the existing mediums that we're accustomed to -- things like novels, radio, photographs, movies, even lectures like this one -- we're very accustomed to this idea of the narrator or the camera position, some kind of omniscient, external body through whose eyes you see the story. +We're very used to this. +But if you think about real life, it's not like that at all. +I mean, in real life, things are much more nuanced and complex, and there's all of these overlapping stories intersecting and touching each other. +So, how to extract this order of narrative from this larger story? +I built a web interface for viewing "The Whale Hunt" that attempts to do just this. +So these are all 3,214 pictures taken up there. +This is my studio in Brooklyn. This is the Arctic Ocean, and the butchering of the second whale, seven days later. +You can start to see some of the story here, told by color. +So this red strip signifies the color of the wallpaper in the basement apartment where I was staying. +And things go white as we move out onto the Arctic Ocean. +Introduction of red down here, when whales are being cut up. +You can see a timeline, showing you the exciting moments throughout the story. +These are organized chronologically. +Wheel provides a slightly more playful version of the same, so these are also all the photographs organized chronologically. +And any of these can be clicked, and then the narrative is entered at that position. +So here I am sleeping on the airplane heading up to Alaska. +That's "Moby Dick." +This is the food we ate. +This is in the Patkotak's family living room in their house in Barrow. The boxed wine they served us. +Cigarette break outside -- I don't smoke. +This is a really exciting sequence of me sleeping. +This is out at whale camp, on the Arctic Ocean. +This graph that I'm clicking down here is meant to be reminiscent of a medical heartbeat graph, showing the exciting moments of adrenaline. +This is the ice starting to freeze over. The snow fence they built. +And so what I'll show you now is the ability to pull out sub-stories. +So, here you see the cast. These are all of the people in "The Whale Hunt" and the two whales that were killed down here. +And we could do something as arbitrary as, say, extract the story of Rony, involving the concepts of blood and whales and tools, taking place on the Arctic Ocean, at Ahkivgaq camp, with the heartbeat level of fast. +And now we've whittled down that whole story to just 29 matching photographs, and then we can enter the narrative at that position. +And you can see Rony cutting up the whale here. +These whales are about 40 feet long, and weighing over 40 tons. And they provide the food source for the community for much of the year. +Skipping ahead a bit more here, this is Rony on the whale carcass. +They use no chainsaws or anything; it's entirely just blades, and an incredibly efficient process. +This is the guys on the rope, pulling open the carcass. +This is the muktuk, or the blubber, all lined up for community distribution. +It's baleen. Moving on. +So what I'm going to tell you about next is a very new thing. It's not even a project yet. +So, just yesterday, I flew in here from Singapore, and before that, I was spending two weeks in Bhutan, the small Himalayan kingdom nestled between Tibet and India. +And I was doing a project there about happiness, interviewing a lot of local people. +So Bhutan has this really wacky thing where they base most of their high-level governmental decisions around the concept of gross national happiness instead of gross domestic product, and they've been doing this since the '70s. +And it leads to just a completely different value system. +It's an incredibly non-materialistic culture, where people don't have a lot, but they're incredibly happy. +So I went around and I talked to people about some of these ideas. +So, I did a number of things. I asked people a number of set questions, and took a number of set photographs, and interviewed them with audio, and also took pictures. +I would start by asking people to rate their happiness between one and 10, which is kind of inherently absurd. +And then when they answered, I would inflate that number of balloons and give them that number of balloons to hold. +So, you have some really happy person holding 10 balloons, and some really sad soul holding one balloon. +But you know, even holding one balloon is like, kind of happy. +And then I would ask them a number of questions like what was the happiest day in their life, what makes them happy. +And then finally, I would ask them to make a wish. +And when they made a wish, I would write their wish onto one of the balloons and take a picture of them holding it. +So I'm going to show you now just a few brief snippets of some of the interviews that I did, some of the people I spoke with. +This is an 11-year-old student. +He was playing cops and robbers with his friends, running around town, and they all had plastic toy guns. +His wish was to become a police officer. +He was getting started early. Those were his hands. +I took pictures of everybody's hands, because I think you can often tell a lot about somebody from how their hands look. I took a portrait of everybody, and asked everybody to make a funny face. +A 17-year-old student. Her wish was to have been born a boy. +She thinks that women have a pretty tough go of things in Bhutan, and it's a lot easier if you're a boy. +A 28-year-old cell phone shop owner. +If you knew what Paro looked like, you'd understand how amazing it is that there's a cell phone shop there. +He wanted to help poor people. +A 53-year-old farmer. She was chaffing wheat, and that pile of wheat behind her had taken her about a week to make. +She wanted to keep farming until she dies. +You can really start to see the stories told by the hands here. +She was wearing this silver ring that had the word "love" engraved on it, and she'd found it in the road somewhere. +A 16-year-old quarry worker. +This guy was breaking rocks with a hammer in the hot sunlight, but he just wanted to spend his life as a farmer. +A 21-year-old monk. He was very happy. +He wanted to live a long life at the monastery. +He had this amazing series of hairs growing out of a mole on the left side of his face, which I'm told is very good luck. +He was kind of too shy to make a funny face. +A 16-year-old student. +She wanted to become an independent woman. +I asked her about that, and she said she meant that she doesn't want to be married, because, in her opinion, when you get married in Bhutan as a woman, your chances to live an independent life kind of end, and so she had no interest in that. +A 24-year-old truck driver. +There are these terrifyingly huge Indian trucks that come careening around one-lane roads with two-lane traffic, with 3,000-foot drop-offs right next to the road, and he was driving one of these trucks. +But all he wanted was to just live a comfortable life, like other people. +A 24-year-old road sweeper. I caught her on her lunch break. +She'd built a little fire to keep warm, right next to the road. +Her wish was to marry someone with a car. +She wanted a change in her life. +She lives in a little worker's camp right next to the road, and she wanted a different lot on things. +An 81-year-old itinerant farmer. +I saw this guy on the side of the road, and he actually doesn't have a home. +He travels from farm to farm each day trying to find work, and then he tries to sleep at whatever farm he gets work at. +So his wish was to come with me, so that he had somewhere to live. +He had this amazing knife that he pulled out of his gho and started brandishing when I asked him to make a funny face. +It was all good-natured. +A 10-year-old. +He wanted to join a school and learn to read, but his parents didn't have enough money to send him to school. +He was eating this orange, sugary candy that he kept dipping his fingers into, and since there was so much saliva on his hands, this orange paste started to form on his palms. +A 37-year-old road worker. +One of the more touchy political subjects in Bhutan is the use of Indian cheap labor that they import from India to build the roads, and then they send these people home once the roads are built. +So these guys were in a worker's gang mixing up asphalt one morning on the side of the highway. +His wish was to make some money and open a store. +A 75-year-old farmer. She was selling oranges on the side of the road. +I asked her about her wish, and she said, "You know, maybe I'll live, maybe I'll die, but I don't have a wish." +She was chewing betel nut, which caused her teeth over the years to turn very red. +Finally, this is a 26-year-old nun I spoke to. +Her wish was to make a pilgrimage to Tibet. +I asked her how long she planned to live in the nunnery and she said, "Well, you know, of course, it's impermanent, but my plan is to live here until I'm 30, and then enter a hermitage." +And I said, "You mean, like a cave?" And she said, "Yeah, like a cave." +And I said, "Wow, and how long will you live in the cave?" +And she said, "Well, you know, I think I'd kind of like to live my whole life in the cave." +I just thought that was amazing. I mean, she spoke in a way -- with amazing English, and amazing humor, and amazing laughter -- that made her seem like somebody I could have bumped into on the streets of New York, or in Vermont, where I'm from. +But here she had been living in a nunnery for the last seven years. +I asked her a little bit more about the cave and what she planned would happen once she went there, you know. +What if she saw the truth after just one year, what would she do for the next 35 years in her life? +And this is what she said. +Woman: I think I'm going to stay for 35. Maybe -- maybe I'll die. +Jonathan Harris: Maybe you'll die? Woman: Yes. +JH: 10 years? Woman: Yes, yes. JH: 10 years, that's a long time. +Woman: Yes, not maybe one, 10 years, maybe I can die within one year, or something like that. +JH: Are you hoping to? +Woman: Ah, because you know, it's impermanent. +JH: Yeah, but -- yeah, OK. Do you hope -- would you prefer to live in the cave for 40 years, or to live for one year? +Woman: But I prefer for maybe 40 to 50. +JH: 40 to 50? Yeah. +Woman: Yes. From then, I'm going to the heaven. +JH: Well, I wish you the best of luck with it. +Woman: Thank you. +JH: I hope it's everything that you hope it will be. +So thank you again, so much. +Woman: You're most welcome. +JH: So if you caught that, she said she hoped to die when she was around 40. That was enough life for her. +So, the last thing we did, very quickly, is I took all those wish balloons -- there were 117 interviews, 117 wishes -- and I brought them up to a place called Dochula, which is a mountain pass in Bhutan, at 10,300 feet, one of the more sacred places in Bhutan. +And up there, there are thousands of prayer flags that people have spread out over the years. +And we re-inflated all of the balloons, put them up on a string, and hung them up there among the prayer flags. +And they're actually still flying up there today. +So if any of you have any Bhutan travel plans in the near future, you can go check these out. Here are some images from that. +We said a Buddhist prayer so that all these wishes could come true. +You can start to see some familiar balloons here. +"To make some money and to open a store" was the Indian road worker. +Thanks very much. +To be new at TED -- it's like being the last high-school virgin. +You know that all of the cool people are -- they're doing it. +And you're on the outside, you're at home. +You're like the Raspyni Brothers, where you've got your balls in cold water. And -- -- you just play with your fingers all day. And then you get invited. +And you're on the inside, and it's everything you hoped it would be. +It's exciting and there's music playing all of the time and then suddenly it's over. And it's only taken five minutes. +And you want to go back and do it again. +But I really appreciate being here. And thank you, Chris, and also, thank you, Deborah Patton, for making this possible. +So anyway, today we'll talk about architecture a little bit, within the subject of creation and optimism. +And if you put creation and optimism together, you've got two choices that you can talk about. +You can talk about creationism -- which I think wouldn't go down well with this audience, at least not from a view where you were a proponent of it -- or you can talk about optimisations, spelled the British way, with an S, instead of a Z. +And I think that's what I'd like to talk about today. +But any kind of conversation about architecture -- which is, in fact, what you were just talking about, what was going on here, setting up TED, small-scale architecture -- at the present time can't really happen without a conversation about this, the World Trade Center, and what's been going on there, what it means to us. +Because if architecture is what I believe it to be, which is the built form of our cultural ambitions, what do you do when presented with an opportunity to rectify a situation that represents somebody else's cultural ambitions relative to us? +And our own opportunity to make something new there? +This has been a really galvanizing issue for a long time. +I think that the World Trade Center in, rather an unfortunate way, brought architecture into focus in a way that I don't think people had thought of in a long time, and made it a subject for common conversation. +I don't remember, in my 20-year career of practicing and writing about architecture, a time when five people sat me down at a table and asked me very serious questions about zoning, fire exiting, safety concerns and whether carpet burns. +These are just not things we talked about very often. +And yet, now, it's talked about all the time. +At the point where you can weaponize your buildings, you have to suddenly think about architecture in a very different way. +And so now we're going to think about architecture in a very different way, we're going to think about it like this. +How many of you saw USA Today, today? There it is. Looks like that. +There's the World Trade Center site, on the front cover. +They've made a selection. +They've chosen a project by Daniel Libeskind, the enfant terrible of the moment of architecture. +Child-prodigy piano player, he started on the squeezebox, and moved to a little more serious issue, a bigger instrument, and now to an even larger instrument, upon which to work his particular brand of deconstructivist magic, as you see here. +He was one of six people who were invited to participate in this competition, after six previous firms struck out with things that were so stupid and banal that even the city of New York was forced to go, "Oh, I'm really sorry, we screwed up." +Right. Can we do this again from the top, except use some people with a vague hint of talent, instead of just six utter boobs like we brought in last time, real estate hacks of the kind who usually plan our cities. +Let's bring in some real architects for a change. +And so we got this, or we had a choice of that. Oh, stop clapping. +It's too late. That is gone. +This was a scheme by a team called THINK, a New York-based team, and then there was that one, which was the Libeskind scheme. +This one, this is going to be the new World Trade Center: a giant hole in the ground with big buildings falling into it. +Now, I don't know what you think, but I think this is a pretty stupid decision, because what you've done is just made a permanent memorial to destruction by making it look like the destruction is going to continue forever. +But that's what we're going to do. +But I want you to think about these things in terms of a kind of ongoing struggle that American architecture represents, and that these two things talk about very specifically. +And that is the wild divergence in how we choose our architects, in trying to decide whether we want architecture from the kind of technocratic solution to everything -- that there is a large, technical answer that can solve all problems, be they social, be they physical, be they chemical -- or something that's more of a romantic solution. +Now, I don't mean romantic as in, this is a nice place to take someone on a date. +I mean romantic in the sense of, there are things larger and grander than us. +Or the way we went to describe that later: manifest destiny. +Now, which would you rather be? A grid, or manifest destiny? +Manifest destiny. +It's a big deal. It sounds big, it sounds important, it sounds solid. It sounds American. Ballsy, serious, male. +And that kind of fight has gone on back and forth in architecture all the time. +I mean, it goes on in our private lives, too, every single day. +We all want to go out and buy an Audi TT, don't we? +Everyone here must own one, or at least they craved one the moment they saw one. +And then they hopped in it, turned the little electronic key, rather than the real key, zipped home on their new superhighway, and drove straight into a garage that looks like a Tudor castle. +Why? Why? Why do you want to do that? +Why do we all want to do that? I even owned a Tudor thing once myself. +It's in our nature to go ricocheting back and forth between this technocratic solution and a larger, sort of more romantic image of where we are. +So we're going to go straight into this. +Can I have the lights off for a moment? +I'm going to talk about two architects very, very briefly that represent the current split, architecturally, between these two traditions of a technocratic or technological solution and a romantic solution. +And these are two of the top architectural practices in the United States today. +One very young, one a little more mature. +This is the work of a firm called SHoP, and what you're seeing here, is their isometric drawings of what will be a large-scale camera obscura in a public park. +Does everybody know what a camera obscura is? +Yeah, it's one of those giant camera lenses that takes a picture of the outside world -- it's sort of a little movie, without any moving parts -- and projects it on a page, and you can see the world outside you as you walk around it. +This is just the outline of it, and you can see, does it look like a regular building? No. +It's actually non-orthogonal: it's not up and down, square, rectangular, anything like that, that you'd see in a normal shape of a building. +The computer revolution, the technocratic, technological revolution, has allowed us to jettison normal-shaped buildings, traditionally shaped buildings, in favor of non-orthogonal buildings such as this. +What's interesting about it is not the shape. +What's interesting about it is how it's made. How it's made. +A brand-new way to put buildings together, something called mass customization. No, it is not an oxymoron. +What makes the building expensive, in the traditional sense, is making individual parts custom, that you can't do over and over again. +That's why we all live in developer houses. +They all want to save money by building the same thing 500 times. +That's because it's cheaper. +Mass customization works by an architect feeding into a computer, a program that says, manufacture these parts. +The computer then talks to a machine -- a computer-operated machine, a cad-cam machine -- that can make a zillion different changes, at a moment's notice, because the computer is just a machine. +It doesn't care. It's manufacturing the parts. +It doesn't see any excess cost. It doesn't spend any extra time. +It's not a laborer -- it's simply an electronic lathe, so the parts can all be cut at the same time. +And so what the builder will get is every single individual part that has been custom manufactured off-site and delivered on a truck to the site, to that builder, and a set of these instruction manuals. +Just simple "Bolt A to B" and they will be able to put them together. +Here's the little drawing that tells them how that works -- and that's what will happen in the end. +You're underneath it, looking up into the lens of the camera obscura. +Lest you think this is all fiction, lest you think this is all fantasy, or romance, these same architects were asked to produce something for the central courtyard of PS1, which is a museum in Brooklyn, New York, as part of their young architects summer series. +And they said, well, it's summer, what do you do? +In the summer, you go to the beach. +And when you go to the beach, what do you get? You get sand dunes. +So let's make architectural sand dunes and a beach cabana. +So they went out and they modeled a computer model of a sand dune. +They took photographs, they fed the photographs into their computer program, and that computer program shaped a sand dune and then took that sand dune shape and turned it into -- at their instructions, using standard software with slight modifications -- a set of instructions for pieces of wood. +And those are the pieces of wood. Those are the instructions. +These are the pieces, and here's a little of that blown up. +What you can see is there's about six different colors, and each color represents a type of wood to be cut, a piece of wood to be cut. +All of which were delivered by flat bed, on a truck, and hand assembled in 48 hours by a team of eight people, only one of whom had ever seen the plans before. +Only one of whom had ever seen the plans before. +And here comes dune-scape, coming up out of the courtyard, and there it is fully built. +There are only 16 different pieces of wood, only 16 different assembly parts here. +Looks like a beautiful piano sounding board on the inside. +It has its own built-in swimming pool, very, very cool. +It's a great place for parties -- it was, it was only up for six weeks. +It's got little dressing rooms and cabanas, where lots of interesting things went on, all summer long. +Now, lest you think that this is only for the light at heart, or just temporary installations, this is the same firm working at the World Trade Center, replacing the bridge that used to go across West Street, that very important pedestrian connection between the city of New York and the redevelopment of the West Side. +They were asked to design, replace that bridge in six weeks, building it, including all of the parts, manufactured. +And they were able to do it. That was their design, using that same computer modeling system and only five or six really different kinds of parts, a couple of struts, like this, some exterior cladding material and a very simple framing system that was all manufactured off-site and delivered by truck. +They were able to create that. +They were able to create something wonderful. +They're now building a 16-story building on the side of New York, using the same technology. +Here we're going to walk across the bridge at night. +It's self-lit, you don't need any overhead lighting, so the neighbors don't complain about metal-halide lighting in their face. +Here it is going across. And there, down the other side, and you get the same kind of grandeur. +Now, let me show you, quickly, the opposite, if I may. +Woo, pretty, huh. This is the other side of the coin. +This is the work of David Rockwell from New York City, whose work you can see out here today. +The current king of the romantics, who approaches his work in a very different fashion. +"When it's all said and done, it's got to look like seaweed," said the owner. +Or his restaurant, Pod, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. +I want you to know the room you're looking at is stark white. +Every single surface of this restaurant is white. +The reason it has so much color is that it changes using lighting. +It's all about sensuality. It's all about transforming. +Watch this -- I'm not touching any buttons, ladies and gentlemen. +This is happening by itself. +It transforms through the magic of lighting. +It's all about sensuality. It's all about touch. +Rosa Mexicano restaurant, where he transports us to the shores of Acapulco, up on the Upper West Side, with this wall of cliff divers who -- there you go, like that. +Let's see it one more time. +Okay, just to make sure that you've enjoyed it. +And finally, it's about comfort, it's about making you feel good in places that you wouldn't have felt good before. +It's about bringing nature to the inside. +In the Guardian Tower of New York, converted to a W Union Square -- I'm sorry I'm rushing -- where we had to bring in the best horticulturists in the world to make sure that the interior of this dragged the garden space of the court garden of the Union Square into the building itself. +It's about stimulation. +This is a wine-buying experience simplified by color and taste. +Fizzy, fresh, soft, luscious, juicy, smooth, big and sweet wines, all explained to you by color and texture on the wall. +And finally, it's about entertainment, as in his headquarters for the Cirque du Soleil, Orlando, Florida, where you're asked to enter the Greek theater, look under the tent and join the magic world of Cirque du Soleil. +And I think I'll probably leave it at that. Thank you very much. +The Internet, the Web as we know it, the kind of Web -- the things we're all talking about -- is already less than 5,000 days old. +So all of the things that we've seen come about, starting, say, with satellite images of the whole Earth, which we couldn't even imagine happening before, all these things rolling into our lives, just this abundance of things that are right before us, sitting in front of our laptop, or our desktop. +This kind of cornucopia of stuff just coming and never ending is amazing, and we're not amazed. +It's really amazing that all this stuff is here. +It's in 5,000 days, all this stuff has come. +And I know that 10 years ago, if I had told you that this was all coming, you would have said that that's impossible. +There's simply no economic model that that would be possible. +And if I told you it was all coming for free, you would say, this is simply -- you're dreaming. +You're a Californian utopian. You're a wild-eyed optimist. +And yet it's here. +The other thing that we know about it was that 10 years ago, as I looked at what even Wired was talking about, we thought it was going to be TV, but better. +That was the model. That was what everybody was suggesting was going to be coming. +And it turns out that that's not what it was. +First of all, it was impossible, and it's not what it was. +And so one of the things that I think we're learning -- if you think about, like, Wikipedia, it's something that was simply impossible. +It's impossible in theory, but possible in practice. +And if you take all these things that are impossible, I think one of the things that we're learning from this era, from this last decade, is that we have to get good at believing in the impossible, because we're unprepared for it. +So, I'm curious about what's going to happen in the next 5,000 days. +But if that's happened in the last 5,000 days, what's going to happen in the next 5,000 days? +If there is only one machine, and our little handhelds and devices are actually just little windows into those machines, but that we're basically constructing a single, global machine. +And so I began to think about that. +And it turned out that this machine happens to be the most reliable machine that we've ever made. +It has not crashed; it's running uninterrupted. +And there's almost no other machine that we've ever made that runs the number of hours, the number of days. +5,000 days without interruption -- that's just unbelievable. +And of course, the Internet is longer than just 5,000 days; the Web is only 5,000 days. +So, I was trying to basically make measurements. +What are the dimensions of this machine? +And I started off by calculating how many billions of clicks there are all around the globe on all the computers. +And there is a 100 billion clicks per day. +And there's 55 trillion links between all the Web pages of the world. +And so I began thinking more about other kinds of dimensions, and I made a quick list. Was it Chris Jordan, the photographer, talking about numbers being so large that they're meaningless? +Well, here's a list of them. They're hard to tell, but there's one billion PC chips on the Internet, if you count all the chips in all the computers on the Internet. +There's two million emails per second. +So it's a very big number. +It's just a huge machine, and it uses five percent of the global electricity on the planet. +So here's the specifications, just as if you were to make up a spec sheet for it: 170 quadrillion transistors, 55 trillion links, emails running at two megahertz itself, 31 kilohertz text messaging, 246 exabyte storage. That's a big disk. +That's a lot of storage, memory. Nine exabyte RAM. +And the total traffic on this is running at seven terabytes per second. +Brewster was saying the Library of Congress is about twenty terabytes. +So every second, half of the Library of Congress is swooshing around in this machine. It's a big machine. +So I did something else. I figured out 100 billion clicks per day, 55 trillion links is almost the same as the number of synapses in your brain. +A quadrillion transistors is almost the same as the number of neurons in your brain. +So to a first approximation, we have these things -- twenty petahertz synapse firings. +Of course, the memory is really huge. +But to a first approximation, the size of this machine is the size -- and its complexity, kind of -- to your brain. +Because in fact, that's how your brain works -- in kind of the same way that the Web works. +However, your brain isn't doubling every two years. +So if we say this machine right now that we've made is about one HB, one human brain, if we look at the rate that this is increasing, 30 years from now, there'll be six billion HBs. +So by the year 2040, the total processing of this machine will exceed a total processing power of humanity, in raw bits and stuff. And this is, I think, where Ray Kurzweil and others get this little chart saying that we're going to cross. +So, what about that? Well, here's a couple of things. +I have three kind of general things I would like to say, three consequences of this. +First, that basically what this machine is doing is embodying. +We're giving it a body. And that's what we're going to do in the next 5,000 days -- we're going to give this machine a body. +And the second thing is, we're going to restructure its architecture. +And thirdly, we're going to become completely codependent upon it. +So let me go through those three things. +First of all, we have all these things in our hands. +We think they're all separate devices, but in fact, every screen in the world is looking into the one machine. +These are all basically portals into that one machine. +The second thing is that -- some people call this the cloud, and you're kind of touching the cloud with this. +And so in some ways, all you really need is a cloudbook. +And the cloudbook doesn't have any storage. +It's wireless. It's always connected. +There's many things about it. It becomes very simple, and basically what you're doing is you're just touching the machine, you're touching the cloud and you're going to compute that way. +So the machine is computing. +And in some ways, it's sort of back to the kind of old idea of centralized computing. +But everything, all the cameras, and the microphones, and the sensors in cars and everything is connected to this machine. +And everything will go through the Web. +And we're seeing that already with, say, phones. +Right now, phones don't go through the Web, but they are beginning to, and they will. +And if you imagine what, say, just as an example, what Google Labs has in terms of experiments with Google Docs, Google Spreadsheets, blah, blah, blah -- all these things are going to become Web based. +They're going through the machine. +And I am suggesting that every bit will be owned by the Web. +Right now, it's not. If you do spreadsheets and things at work, a Word document, they aren't on the Web, but they are going to be. They're going to be part of this machine. +They're going to speak the Web language. +They're going to talk to the machine. +The Web, in some sense, is kind of like a black hole that's sucking up everything into it. +And so every thing will be part of the Web. +So every item, every artifact that we make, will have embedded in it some little sliver of Web-ness and connection, and it will be part of this machine, so that our environment -- kind of in that ubiquitous computing sense -- our environment becomes the Web. Everything is connected. +Now, with RFIDs and other things -- whatever technology it is, it doesn't really matter. The point is that everything will have embedded in it some sensor connecting it to the machine, and so we have, basically, an Internet of things. +So you begin to think of a shoe as a chip with heels, and a car as a chip with wheels, because basically most of the cost of manufacturing cars is the embedded intelligence and electronics in it, and not the materials. +A lot of people think about the new economy as something that was going to be a disembodied, alternative, virtual existence, and that we would have the old economy of atoms. +But in fact, what the new economy really is is the marriage of those two, where we embed the information, and the digital nature of things into the material world. +That's what we're looking forward to. That is where we're going -- this union, this convergence of the atomic and the digital. +And so one of the consequences of that, I believe, is that where we have this sort of spectrum of media right now -- TV, film, video -- that basically becomes one media platform. +And while there's many differences in some senses, they will share more and more in common with each other. +So that the laws of media, such as the fact that copies have no value, the value's in the uncopiable things, the immediacy, the authentication, the personalization. +The media wants to be liquid. +The reason why things are free is so that you can manipulate them, not so that they are "free" as in "beer," but "free" as in "freedom." +And the network effects rule, meaning that the more you have, the more you get. +The first fax machine -- the person who bought the first fax machine was an idiot, because there was nobody to fax to. +But here she became an evangelist, recruiting others to get the fax machines because it made their purchase more valuable. +Those are the effects that we're going to see. +Attention is the currency. +So those laws are going to kind of spread throughout all media. +And the other thing about this embodiment is that there's kind of what I call the McLuhan reversal. +McLuhan was saying, "Machines are the extensions of the human senses." +And I'm saying, "Humans are now going to be the extended senses of the machine," in a certain sense. +So we have a trillion eyes, and ears, and touches, through all our digital photographs and cameras. +And we see that in things like Flickr, or Photosynth, this program from Microsoft that will allow you to assemble a view of a touristy place from the thousands of tourist snapshots of it. +In a certain sense, the machine is seeing through the pixels of individual cameras. +Now, the second thing that I want to talk about was this idea of restructuring, that what the Web is doing is restructuring. +And I have to warn you, that what we'll talk about is -- I'm going to give my explanation of a term you're hearing, which is a "semantic Web." +So first of all, the first stage that we've seen of the Internet was that it was going to link computers. +And that's what we called the Net; that was the Internet of nets. +And we saw that, where you have all the computers of the world. +And if you remember, it was a kind of green screen with cursors, and there was really not much to do, and if you wanted to connect it, you connected it from one computer to another computer. +And what you had to do was -- if you wanted to participate in this, you had to share packets of information. +So you were forwarding on. You didn't have control. +It wasn't like a telephone system where you had control of a line: you had to share packets. +The second stage that we're in now is the idea of linking pages. +So in the old one, if I wanted to go on to an airline Web page, I went from my computer, to an FTP site, to another airline computer. +Now we have pages -- the unit has been resolved into pages, so one page links to another page. +And if I want to go in to book a flight, I go into the airline's flight page, the website of the airline, and I'm linking to that page. +And what we're sharing were links, so you had to be kind of open with links. +You couldn't deny -- if someone wanted to link to you, you couldn't stop them. You had to participate in this idea of opening up your pages to be linked by anybody. +So that's what we were doing. +We're now entering to the third stage, which is what I'm talking about, and that is where we link the data. +So, I don't know what the name of this thing is. +I'm calling it the one machine. But we're linking data. +So we're going from machine to machine, from page to page, and now data to data. +So the difference is, is that rather than linking from page to page, we're actually going to link from one idea on a page to another idea, rather than to the other page. +So every idea is basically being supported -- or every item, or every noun -- is being supported by the entire Web. +It's being resolved at the level of items, or ideas, or words, if you want. +So besides physically coming out again into this idea that it's not just virtual, it's actually going out to things. +So something will resolve down to the information about a particular person, so every person will have a unique ID. +Every person, every item will have a something that will be very specific, and will link to a specific representation of that idea or item. +So now, in this new one, when I link to it, I would link to my particular flight, my particular seat. +And so, giving an example of this thing, I live in Pacifica, rather than -- right now Pacifica is just sort of a name on the Web somewhere. +The Web doesn't know that that is actually a town, and that it's a specific town that I live in, but that's what we're going to be talking about. +It's going to link directly to -- it will know, the Web will be able to read itself and know that that actually is a place, and that whenever it sees that word, "Pacifica," it knows that it actually has a place, latitude, longitude, a certain population. +So here are some of the technical terms, all three-letter things, that you'll see a lot more of. +All these things are about enabling this idea of linking to the data. +So I'll give you one kind of an example. +There's like a billion social sites on the Web. +Each time you go into there, you have to tell it again who you are and all your friends are. +Why should you be doing that? You should just do that once, and it should know who all your friends are. +So that's what you want, is all your friends are identified, and you should just carry these relationships around. +All this data about you should just be conveyed, and you should do it once and that's all that should happen. +And you should have all the networks of all the relationships between those pieces of data. +That's what we're moving into -- where it sort of knows these things down to that level. +A semantic Web, Web 3.0, giant global graph -- we're kind of trying out what we want to call this thing. +But what's it's doing is sharing data. +So you have to be open to having your data shared, which is a much bigger step than just sharing your Web page, or your computer. +And all these things that are going to be on this are not just pages, they are things. +Everything we've described, every artifact or place, will be a specific representation, will have a specific character that can be linked to directly. +So we have this database of things. +And so we are in the middle of this thing that's completely linked, down to every object in the little sliver of a connection that it has. +So, the last thing I want to talk about is this idea that we're going to be codependent. +It's always going to be there, and the closer it is, the better. +If you allow Google to, it will tell you your search history. +And I found out by looking at it that I search most at 11 o'clock in the morning. +So I am open, and being transparent to that. +And I think total personalization in this new world will require total transparency. +That is going to be the price. +If you want to have total personalization, you have to be totally transparent. +Google. I can't remember my phone number, I'll just ask Google. +We're so dependent on this that I have now gotten to the point where I don't even try to remember things -- I'll just Google it. It's easier to do that. +And we kind of object at first, saying, "Oh, that's awful." +But if we think about the dependency that we have on this other technology, called the alphabet, and writing, we're totally dependent on it, and it's transformed culture. +We cannot imagine ourselves without the alphabet and writing. +And so in the same way, we're going to not imagine ourselves without this other machine being there. +And what is happening with this is some kind of AI, but it's not the AI in conscious AI, as being an expert, Larry Page told me that that's what they're trying to do, and that's what they're trying to do. +But when six billion humans are Googling, who's searching who? It goes both ways. +So we are the Web, that's what this thing is. +We are going to be the machine. +So the next 5,000 days, it's not going to be the Web and only better. +Just like it wasn't TV and only better. +The next 5,000 days, it's not just going to be the Web but only better -- it's going to be something different. +And I think it's going to be smarter. +It'll have an intelligence in there, that's not, again, conscious. +But it'll anticipate what we're doing, in a good sense. +Secondly, it's become much more personalized. +It will know us, and that's good. +And again, the price of that will be transparency. +And thirdly, it's going to become more ubiquitous in terms of filling your entire environment, and we will be in the middle of it. +And all these devices will be portals into that. +So the single idea that I wanted to leave with you is that we have to begin to think about this as not just "the Web, only better," but a new kind of stage in this development. +It looks more global. If you take this whole thing, it is a very big machine, very reliable machine, more reliable than its parts. +But we can also think about it as kind of a large organism. +So we might respond to it more as if this was a whole system, more as if this wasn't a large organism that we are going to be interacting with. It's a "One." +And I don't know what else to call it, than the One. +We'll have a better word for it. +But there's a unity of some sort that's starting to emerge. +And again, I don't want to talk about consciousness, I want to talk about it just as if it was a little bacteria, or a volvox, which is what that organism is. +So, to do, action, take-away. So, here's what I would say: there's only one machine, and the Web is its OS. +All screens look into the One. No bits will live outside the Web. +To share is to gain. Let the One read it. +It's going to be machine-readable. +You want to make something that the machine can read. +And the One is us. We are in the One. +I appreciate your time. +I got my first computer when I was a teenager growing up in Accra, and it was a really cool device. +You could play games with it. You could program it in BASIC. +And I was fascinated. +So I went into the library to figure out how did this thing work. +I read about how the CPU is constantly shuffling data back and forth between the memory, the RAM and the ALU, the arithmetic and logic unit. +And I thought to myself, this CPU really has to work like crazy just to keep all this data moving through the system. +But nobody was really worried about this. +When computers were first introduced, they were said to be a million times faster than neurons. +People were really excited. They thought they would soon outstrip the capacity of the brain. +This is a quote, actually, from Alan Turing: "In 30 years, it will be as easy to ask a computer a question as to ask a person." +This was in 1946. And now, in 2007, it's still not true. +And so, the question is, why aren't we really seeing this kind of power in computers that we see in the brain? +What people didn't realize, and I'm just beginning to realize right now, is that we pay a huge price for the speed that we claim is a big advantage of these computers. +Let's take a look at some numbers. +This is Blue Gene, the fastest computer in the world. +It's got 120,000 processors; they can basically process 10 quadrillion bits of information per second. +That's 10 to the sixteenth. And they consume one and a half megawatts of power. +So that would be really great, if you could add that to the production capacity in Tanzania. +It would really boost the economy. +Just to go back to the States, if you translate the amount of power or electricity this computer uses to the amount of households in the States, you get 1,200 households in the U.S. +That's how much power this computer uses. +Now, let's compare this with the brain. +This is a picture of, actually Rory Sayres' girlfriend's brain. +Rory is a graduate student at Stanford. +He studies the brain using MRI, and he claims that this is the most beautiful brain that he has ever scanned. +So that's true love, right there. +Now, how much computation does the brain do? +I estimate 10 to the 16 bits per second, which is actually about very similar to what Blue Gene does. +So that's the question. The question is, how much -- they are doing a similar amount of processing, similar amount of data -- the question is how much energy or electricity does the brain use? +And it's actually as much as your laptop computer: it's just 10 watts. +So what we are doing right now with computers with the energy consumed by 1,200 houses, the brain is doing with the energy consumed by your laptop. +So the question is, how is the brain able to achieve this kind of efficiency? +And let me just summarize. So the bottom line: the brain processes information using 100,000 times less energy than we do right now with this computer technology that we have. +How is the brain able to do this? +Let's just take a look about how the brain works, and then I'll compare that with how computers work. +So, this clip is from the PBS series, "The Secret Life of the Brain." +It shows you these cells that process information. +They are called neurons. +They send little pulses of electricity down their processes to each other, and where they contact each other, those little pulses of electricity can jump from one neuron to the other. +That process is called a synapse. +You've got this huge network of cells interacting with each other -- about 100 million of them, sending about 10 quadrillion of these pulses around every second. +And that's basically what's going on in your brain right now as you're watching this. +How does that compare with the way computers work? +It's really a network in the literal sense of the word. +The net is doing the work in the brain. +If you just look at these two pictures, these kind of words pop into your mind. +This is serial and it's rigid -- it's like cars on a freeway, everything has to happen in lockstep -- whereas this is parallel and it's fluid. +Information processing is very dynamic and adaptive. +So I'm not the first to figure this out. This is a quote from Brian Eno: "the problem with computers is that there is not enough Africa in them." +Brian actually said this in 1995. +And nobody was listening then, but now people are beginning to listen because there's a pressing, technological problem that we face. +And I'll just take you through that a little bit in the next few slides. +This is -- it's actually really this remarkable convergence between the devices that we use to compute in computers, and the devices that our brains use to compute. +The devices that computers use are what's called a transistor. +This electrode here, called the gate, controls the flow of current from the source to the drain -- these two electrodes. +And that current, electrical current, is carried by electrons, just like in your house and so on. +And what you have here is, when you actually turn on the gate, you get an increase in the amount of current, and you get a steady flow of current. +And when you turn off the gate, there's no current flowing through the device. +Your computer uses this presence of current to represent a one, and the absence of current to represent a zero. +Now, what's happening is that as transistors are getting smaller and smaller and smaller, they no longer behave like this. +In fact, they are starting to behave like the device that neurons use to compute, which is called an ion channel. +And this is a little protein molecule. +I mean, neurons have thousands of these. +And it sits in the membrane of the cell and it's got a pore in it. +And these are individual potassium ions that are flowing through that pore. +Now, this pore can open and close. +But, when it's open, because these ions have to line up and flow through, one at a time, you get a kind of sporadic, not steady -- it's a sporadic flow of current. +And even when you close the pore -- which neurons can do, they can open and close these pores to generate electrical activity -- even when it's closed, because these ions are so small, they can actually sneak through, a few can sneak through at a time. +So, what you have is that when the pore is open, you get some current sometimes. +These are your ones, but you've got a few zeros thrown in. +And when it's closed, you have a zero, but you have a few ones thrown in. +Now, this is starting to happen in transistors. +And the reason why that's happening is that, right now, in 2007 -- the technology that we are using -- a transistor is big enough that several electrons can flow through the channel simultaneously, side by side. +In fact, there's about 12 electrons can all be flowing this way. +And that means that a transistor corresponds to about 12 ion channels in parallel. +Now, in a few years time, by 2015, we will shrink transistors so much. +This is what Intel does to keep adding more cores onto the chip. +Or your memory sticks that you have now can carry one gigabyte of stuff on them -- before, it was 256. +Transistors are getting smaller to allow this to happen, and technology has really benefitted from that. +But what's happening now is that in 2015, the transistor is going to become so small, that it corresponds to only one electron at a time can flow through that channel, and that corresponds to a single ion channel. +And you start having the same kind of traffic jams that you have in the ion channel. +The current will turn on and off at random, even when it's supposed to be on. +And that means your computer is going to get its ones and zeros mixed up, and that's going to crash your machine. +So, we are at the stage where we don't really know how to compute with these kinds of devices. +And the only kind of thing -- the only thing we know right now that can compute with these kinds of devices are the brain. +OK, so a computer picks a specific item of data from memory, it sends it into the processor or the ALU, and then it puts the result back into memory. +That's the red path that's highlighted. +The way brains work, I told you all, you have got all these neurons. +And the way they represent information is they break up that data into little pieces that are represented by pulses and different neurons. +So you have all these pieces of data distributed throughout the network. +And then the way that you process that data to get a result is that you translate this pattern of activity into a new pattern of activity, just by it flowing through the network. +So you set up these connections such that the input pattern just flows and generates the output pattern. +What you see here is that there's these redundant connections. +So if this piece of data or this piece of the data gets clobbered, it doesn't show up over here, these two pieces can activate the missing part with these redundant connections. +So even when you go to these crappy devices where sometimes you want a one and you get a zero, and it doesn't show up, there's redundancy in the network that can actually recover the missing information. +It makes the brain inherently robust. +What you have here is a system where you store data locally. +And it's brittle, because each of these steps has to be flawless, otherwise you lose that data, whereas in the brain, you have a system that stores data in a distributed way, and it's robust. +What I want to basically talk about is my dream, which is to build a computer that works like the brain. +This is something that we've been working on for the last couple of years. +And I'm going to show you a system that we designed to model the retina, which is a piece of brain that lines the inside of your eyeball. +We didn't do this by actually writing code, like you do in a computer. +In fact, the processing that happens in that little piece of brain is very similar to the kind of processing that computers do when they stream video over the Internet. +They want to compress the information -- they just want to send the changes, what's new in the image, and so on -- and that is how your eyeball is able to squeeze all that information down to your optic nerve, to send to the rest of the brain. +Instead of doing this in software, or doing those kinds of algorithms, we went and talked to neurobiologists who have actually reverse engineered that piece of brain that's called the retina. +And they figured out all the different cells, and they figured out the network, and we just took that network and we used it as the blueprint for the design of a silicon chip. +So now the neurons are represented by little nodes or circuits on the chip, and the connections among the neurons are represented, actually modeled by transistors. +And these transistors are behaving essentially just like ion channels behave in the brain. +It will give you the same kind of robust architecture that I described. +Here is actually what our artificial eye looks like. +The retina chip that we designed sits behind this lens here. +And the chip -- I'm going to show you a video that the silicon retina put out of its output when it was looking at Kareem Zaghloul, who's the student who designed this chip. +Let me explain what you're going to see, OK, because it's putting out different kinds of information, it's not as straightforward as a camera. +The retina chip extracts four different kinds of information. +It extracts regions with dark contrast, which will show up on the video as red. +And it extracts regions with white or light contrast, which will show up on the video as green. +This is Kareem's dark eyes and that's the white background that you see here. +And then it also extracts movement. +When Kareem moves his head to the right, you will see this blue activity there; it represents regions where the contrast is increasing in the image, that's where it's going from dark to light. +And you also see this yellow activity, which represents regions where contrast is decreasing; it's going from light to dark. +And these four types of information -- your optic nerve has about a million fibers in it, and 900,000 of those fibers send these four types of information. +So we are really duplicating the kind of signals that you have on the optic nerve. +What you notice here is that these snapshots taken from the output of the retina chip are very sparse, right? +It doesn't light up green everywhere in the background, only on the edges, and then in the hair, and so on. +And this is the same thing you see when people compress video to send: they want to make it very sparse, because that file is smaller. And this is what the retina is doing, and it's doing it just with the circuitry, and how this network of neurons that are interacting in there, which we've captured on the chip. +But the point that I want to make -- I'll show you up here. +So this image here is going to look like these ones, but here I'll show you that we can reconstruct the image, so, you know, you can almost recognize Kareem in that top part there. +And so, here you go. +Yes, so that's the idea. +When you stand still, you just see the light and dark contrasts. +But when it's moving back and forth, the retina picks up these changes. +And that's why, you know, when you're sitting here and something happens in your background, you merely move your eyes to it. +There are these cells that detect change and you move your attention to it. +So those are very important for catching somebody who's trying to sneak up on you. +Let me just end by saying that this is what happens when you put Africa in a piano, OK. +This is a steel drum here that has been modified, and that's what happens when you put Africa in a piano. +And what I would like us to do is put Africa in the computer, and come up with a new kind of computer that will generate thought, imagination, be creative and things like that. +Thank you. +Chris Anderson: Question for you, Kwabena. +Do you put together in your mind the work you're doing, the future of Africa, this conference -- what connections can we make, if any, between them? +Kwabena Boahen: Yes, like I said at the beginning, I got my first computer when I was a teenager, growing up in Accra. +And I had this gut reaction that this was the wrong way to do it. +It was very brute force; it was very inelegant. +I don't think that I would've had that reaction, if I'd grown up reading all this science fiction, hearing about RD2D2, whatever it was called, and just -- you know, buying into this hype about computers. +I was coming at it from a different perspective, where I was bringing that different perspective to bear on the problem. +And I think a lot of people in Africa have this different perspective, and I think that's going to impact technology. +And that's going to impact how it's going to evolve. +And I think you're going to be able to see, use that infusion, to come up with new things, because you're coming from a different perspective. +I think we can contribute. We can dream like everybody else. +CA: Thanks Kwabena, that was really interesting. +Thank you. +My talk is "Flapping Birds and Space Telescopes." +And you would think that should have nothing to do with one another, but I hope by the end of these 18 minutes, you'll see a little bit of a relation. +It ties to origami. So let me start. +What is origami? +Most people think they know what origami is. It's this: flapping birds, toys, cootie catchers, that sort of thing. +And that is what origami used to be. +But it's become something else. +It's become an art form, a form of sculpture. +The common theme -- what makes it origami -- is folding is how we create the form. +You know, it's very old. This is a plate from 1797. +It shows these women playing with these toys. +If you look close, it's this shape, called a crane. +Every Japanese kid learns how to fold that crane. +So this art has been around for hundreds of years, and you would think something that's been around that long -- so restrictive, folding only -- everything that could be done has been done a long time ago. +And that might have been the case. +But in the twentieth century, a Japanese folder named Yoshizawa came along, and he created tens of thousands of new designs. +But even more importantly, he created a language, a way we could communicate, a code of dots, dashes and arrows. +Harkening back to Susan Blackmore's talk, we now have a means of transmitting information with heredity and selection, and we know where that leads. +And where it has led in origami is to things like this. +This is an origami figure -- one sheet, no cuts, folding only, hundreds of folds. +This, too, is origami, and this shows where we've gone in the modern world. +Naturalism. Detail. +You can get horns, antlers -- even, if you look close, cloven hooves. +And it raises a question: what changed? +And what changed is something you might not have expected in an art, which is math. +That is, people applied mathematical principles to the art, to discover the underlying laws. +And that leads to a very powerful tool. +The secret to productivity in so many fields -- and in origami -- is letting dead people do your work for you. +Because what you can do is take your problem, and turn it into a problem that someone else has solved, and use their solutions. +And I want to tell you how we did that in origami. +Origami revolves around crease patterns. +The crease pattern shown here is the underlying blueprint for an origami figure. +And you can't just draw them arbitrarily. +They have to obey four simple laws. +And they're very simple, easy to understand. +The first law is two-colorability. You can color any crease pattern with just two colors without ever having the same color meeting. +The directions of the folds at any vertex -- the number of mountain folds, the number of valley folds -- always differs by two. Two more or two less. +Nothing else. +If you look at the angles around the fold, you find that if you number the angles in a circle, all the even-numbered angles add up to a straight line, all the odd-numbered angles add up to a straight line. +And if you look at how the layers stack, you'll find that no matter how you stack folds and sheets, a sheet can never penetrate a fold. +So that's four simple laws. That's all you need in origami. +All of origami comes from that. +And you'd think, "Can four simple laws give rise to that kind of complexity?" +But indeed, the laws of quantum mechanics can be written down on a napkin, and yet they govern all of chemistry, all of life, all of history. +If we obey these laws, we can do amazing things. +So in origami, to obey these laws, we can take simple patterns -- like this repeating pattern of folds, called textures -- and by itself it's nothing. +But if we follow the laws of origami, we can put these patterns into another fold that itself might be something very, very simple, but when we put it together, we get something a little different. +This fish, 400 scales -- again, it is one uncut square, only folding. +And if you don't want to fold 400 scales, you can back off and just do a few things, and add plates to the back of a turtle, or toes. +Or you can ramp up and go up to 50 stars on a flag, with 13 stripes. +And if you want to go really crazy, 1,000 scales on a rattlesnake. +And this guy's on display downstairs, so take a look if you get a chance. +The most powerful tools in origami have related to how we get parts of creatures. +And I can put it in this simple equation. +We take an idea, combine it with a square, and you get an origami figure. +What matters is what we mean by those symbols. +And you might say, "Can you really be that specific? +I mean, a stag beetle -- it's got two points for jaws, it's got antennae. Can you be that specific in the detail?" +And yeah, you really can. +So how do we do that? Well, we break it down into a few smaller steps. +So let me stretch out that equation. +I start with my idea. I abstract it. +What's the most abstract form? It's a stick figure. +And from that stick figure, I somehow have to get to a folded shape that has a part for every bit of the subject, a flap for every leg. +And then once I have that folded shape that we call the base, you can make the legs narrower, you can bend them, you can turn it into the finished shape. +Now the first step, pretty easy. +Take an idea, draw a stick figure. +The last step is not so hard, but that middle step -- going from the abstract description to the folded shape -- that's hard. +But that's the place where the mathematical ideas can get us over the hump. +And I'm going to show you all how to do that so you can go out of here and fold something. +But we're going to start small. +This base has a lot of flaps in it. +We're going to learn how to make one flap. +How would you make a single flap? +Take a square. Fold it in half, fold it in half, fold it again, until it gets long and narrow, and then we'll say at the end of that, that's a flap. +I could use that for a leg, an arm, anything like that. +What paper went into that flap? +Well, if I unfold it and go back to the crease pattern, you can see that the upper left corner of that shape is the paper that went into the flap. +So that's the flap, and all the rest of the paper's left over. +I can use it for something else. +Well, there are other ways of making a flap. +There are other dimensions for flaps. +If I make the flaps skinnier, I can use a bit less paper. +If I make the flap as skinny as possible, I get to the limit of the minimum amount of paper needed. +And you can see there, it needs a quarter-circle of paper to make a flap. +There's other ways of making flaps. +If I put the flap on the edge, it uses a half circle of paper. +And if I make the flap from the middle, it uses a full circle. +So, no matter how I make a flap, it needs some part of a circular region of paper. +So now we're ready to scale up. +What if I want to make something that has a lot of flaps? +What do I need? I need a lot of circles. +And in the 1990s, origami artists discovered these principles and realized we could make arbitrarily complicated figures just by packing circles. +And here's where the dead people start to help us out, because lots of people have studied the problem of packing circles. +I can rely on that vast history of mathematicians and artists looking at disc packings and arrangements. +And I can use those patterns now to create origami shapes. +So we figured out these rules whereby you pack circles, you decorate the patterns of circles with lines according to more rules. That gives you the folds. +Those folds fold into a base. You shape the base. +You get a folded shape -- in this case, a cockroach. +And it's so simple. +It's so simple that a computer could do it. +And you say, "Well, you know, how simple is that?" +But computers -- you need to be able to describe things in very basic terms, and with this, we could. +So I wrote a computer program a bunch of years ago called TreeMaker, and you can download it from my website. +It's free. It runs on all the major platforms -- even Windows. +And you just draw a stick figure, and it calculates the crease pattern. +It does the circle packing, calculates the crease pattern, and if you use that stick figure that I just showed -- which you can kind of tell, it's a deer, it's got antlers -- you'll get this crease pattern. +And if you take this crease pattern, you fold on the dotted lines, you'll get a base that you can then shape into a deer, with exactly the crease pattern that you wanted. +And if you want a different deer, not a white-tailed deer, but you want a mule deer, or an elk, you change the packing, and you can do an elk. +Or you could do a moose. +Or, really, any other kind of deer. +These techniques revolutionized this art. +We found we could do insects, spiders, which are close, things with legs, things with legs and wings, things with legs and antennae. +And if folding a single praying mantis from a single uncut square wasn't interesting enough, then you could do two praying mantises from a single uncut square. +She's eating him. +I call it "Snack Time." +And you can do more than just insects. +This -- you can put details, toes and claws. A grizzly bear has claws. +This tree frog has toes. +Actually, lots of people in origami now put toes into their models. +Toes have become an origami meme, because everyone's doing it. +You can make multiple subjects. +So these are a couple of instrumentalists. +The guitar player from a single square, the bass player from a single square. +And if you say, "Well, but the guitar, bass -- that's not so hot. +Do a little more complicated instrument." +Well, then you could do an organ. +And what this has allowed is the creation of origami-on-demand. +So now people can say, "I want exactly this and this and this," and you can go out and fold it. +And sometimes you create high art, and sometimes you pay the bills by doing some commercial work. +But I want to show you some examples. +Everything you'll see here, except the car, is origami. +Just to show you, this really was folded paper. +Computers made things move, but these were all real, folded objects that we made. +And we can use this not just for visuals, but it turns out to be useful even in the real world. +Surprisingly, origami and the structures that we've developed in origami turn out to have applications in medicine, in science, in space, in the body, consumer electronics and more. +And I want to show you some of these examples. +One of the earliest was this pattern, this folded pattern, studied by Koryo Miura, a Japanese engineer. +He studied a folding pattern, and realized this could fold down into an extremely compact package that had a very simple opening and closing structure. +And he used it to design this solar array. +It's an artist's rendition, but it flew in a Japanese telescope in 1995. +Now, there is actually a little origami in the James Webb Space Telescope, but it's very simple. +The telescope, going up in space, it unfolds in two places. +It folds in thirds. It's a very simple pattern -- you wouldn't even call that origami. +They certainly didn't need to talk to origami artists. +But if you want to go higher and go larger than this, then you might need some origami. +Engineers at Lawrence Livermore National Lab had an idea for a telescope much larger. +They called it the Eyeglass. +The design called for geosynchronous orbit 25,000 miles up, 100-meter diameter lens. +So, imagine a lens the size of a football field. +There were two groups of people who were interested in this: planetary scientists, who want to look up, and then other people, who wanted to look down. +Whether you look up or look down, how do you get it up in space? You've got to get it up there in a rocket. +And rockets are small. So you have to make it smaller. +How do you make a large sheet of glass smaller? +Well, about the only way is to fold it up somehow. +So you have to do something like this. +This was a small model. +Folded lens, you divide up the panels, you add flexures. +But this pattern's not going to work to get something 100 meters down to a few meters. +So the Livermore engineers, wanting to make use of the work of dead people, or perhaps live origamists, said, "Let's see if someone else is doing this sort of thing." +So they looked into the origami community, we got in touch with them, and I started working with them. +And we developed a pattern together that scales to arbitrarily large size, but that allows any flat ring or disc to fold down into a very neat, compact cylinder. +And they adopted that for their first generation, which was not 100 meters -- it was a five-meter. +But this is a five-meter telescope -- has about a quarter-mile focal length. +And it works perfectly on its test range, and it indeed folds up into a neat little bundle. +Now, there is other origami in space. +Japan Aerospace [Exploration] Agency flew a solar sail, and you can see here that the sail expands out, and you can still see the fold lines. +The problem that's being solved here is something that needs to be big and sheet-like at its destination, but needs to be small for the journey. +And that works whether you're going into space, or whether you're just going into a body. +And this example is the latter. +This is a heart stent developed by Zhong You at Oxford University. +It holds open a blocked artery when it gets to its destination, but it needs to be much smaller for the trip there, through your blood vessels. +And this stent folds down using an origami pattern, based on a model called the water bomb base. +Airbag designers also have the problem of getting flat sheets into a small space. +And they want to do their design by simulation. +So they need to figure out how, in a computer, to flatten an airbag. +And the algorithms that we developed to do insects turned out to be the solution for airbags to do their simulation. +And so they can do a simulation like this. +Those are the origami creases forming, and now you can see the airbag inflate and find out, does it work? +And that leads to a really interesting idea. +You know, where did these things come from? +Well, the heart stent came from that little blow-up box that you might have learned in elementary school. +It's the same pattern, called the water bomb base. +The airbag-flattening algorithm came from all the developments of circle packing and the mathematical theory that was really developed just to create insects -- things with legs. +The thing is, that this often happens in math and science. +When you get math involved, problems that you solve for aesthetic value only, or to create something beautiful, turn around and turn out to have an application in the real world. +And as weird and surprising as it may sound, origami may someday even save a life. +Thanks. +Hello everyone. +And so the two of us are here to give you an example of creation. +And I'm going to be folding one of Robert Lang's models. +And this is the piece of paper it will be made from, and you can see all of the folds that are needed for it. +And Rufus is going to be doing some improvisation on his custom, five-string electric cello, and it's very exciting to listen to him. +Are you ready to go? OK. +Just to make it a little bit more exciting. +All right. Take it away, Rufus. +All right. There you go. +Jambo, bonjour, zdravstvujtye, dayo: these are a few of the languages that I've spoken little bits of over the course of the last six weeks, as I've been to 17 countries I think I'm up to, on this crazy tour I've been doing, checking out various aspects of the project that we're doing. +And I'm going to tell you a little bit about later on. +And visiting some pretty incredible places, places like Mongolia, Cambodia, New Guinea, South Africa, Tanzania twice -- I was here a month ago. +And the opportunity to make a whirlwind tour of the world like that is utterly amazing, for lots of reasons. +You see some incredible stuff. +And you get to make these spot comparisons between people all around the globe. +And the thing that you really take away from that, the kind of surface thing that you take away from it, is not that we're all one, although I'm going to tell you about that, but rather how different we are. +There is so much diversity around the globe. +6,000 different languages spoken by six and a half billion people, all different colors, shapes, sizes. +You walk down the street in any big city, you travel like that, and you are amazed at the diversity in the human species. +How do we explain that diversity? +Well, that's what I'm going to talk about today, is how we're using the tools of genetics, population genetics in particular, to tell us how we generated this diversity, and how long it took. +Now, the problem of human diversity, like all big scientific questions -- how do you explain something like that -- can be broken down into sub-questions. +And you can ferret away at those little sub-questions. +First one is really a question of origins. +Do we all share a common origin, in fact? +And given that we do -- and that's the assumption everybody, I think, in this room would make -- when was that? +When did we originate as a species? +How long have we been divergent from each other? +And the second question is related, but slightly different. +If we do spring from a common source, how did we come to occupy every corner of the globe, and in the process generate all of this diversity, the different ways of life, the different appearances, the different languages around the world? +Well, the question of origins, as with so many other questions in biology, seems to have been answered by Darwin over a century ago. +In "The Descent of Man," he wrote, "In each great region of the world, the living mammals are closely related to the extinct species of the same region. +It's therefore probable that Africa was formerly inhabited by extinct apes closely allied to the gorilla and chimpanzee, and as these two species are now man's nearest allies, it's somewhat more probable that our early progenitors lived on the African continent than elsewhere." +So we're done, we can go home -- finished the origin question. +Well, not quite. Because Darwin was talking about our distant ancestry, our common ancestry with apes. +And it is quite clear that apes originated on the African continent. +Around 23 million years ago, they appear in the fossil record. +Africa was actually disconnected from the other landmasses at that time, due to the vagaries of plate tectonics, floating around the Indian Ocean. +Bumped into Eurasia around 16 million years ago, and then we had the first African exodus, as we call it. +The apes that left at that time ended up in Southeast Asia, became the gibbons and the orangutans. +And the ones that stayed on in Africa evolved into the gorillas, the chimpanzees and us. +So, yes, if you're talking about our common ancestry with apes, it's very clear, by looking at the fossil record, we started off here. +But that's not really the question I'm asking. +I'm asking about our human ancestry, things that we would recognize as being like us if they were sitting here in the room. +If they were peering over your shoulder, you wouldn't leap back, like that. What about our human ancestry? +Because if we go far enough back, we share a common ancestry with every living thing on Earth. +DNA ties us all together, so we share ancestry with barracuda and bacteria and mushrooms, if you go far enough back -- over a billion years. +What we're asking about though is human ancestry. +How do we study that? +Well, historically, it has been studied using the science of paleoanthropology. +Digging things up out of the ground, and largely on the basis of morphology -- the way things are shaped, often skull shape -- saying, "This looks a little bit more like us than that, so this must be my ancestor. +This must be who I'm directly descended from." +The field of paleoanthropology, I'll argue, gives us lots of fascinating possibilities about our ancestry, but it doesn't give us the probabilities that we really want as scientists. +What do I mean by that? +You're looking at a great example here. +These are three extinct species of hominids, potential human ancestors. +All dug up just west of here in Olduvai Gorge, by the Leakey family. +And they're all dating to roughly the same time. +From left to right, we've got Homo erectus, Homo habilis, and Australopithecus -- now called Paranthropus boisei, the robust australopithecine. Three extinct species, same place, same time. +That means that not all three could be my direct ancestor. +Which one of these guys am I actually related to? +Possibilities about our ancestry, but not the probabilities that we're really looking for. +Well, a different approach has been to look at morphology in humans using the only data that people really had at hand until quite recently -- again, largely skull shape. +The first person to do this systematically was Linnaeus, Carl von Linne, a Swedish botanist, who in the eighteenth century took it upon himself to categorize every living organism on the planet. +You think you've got a tough job? +And he did a pretty good job. +He categorized about 12,000 species in "Systema Naturae." +He actually coined the term Homo sapiens -- it means wise man in Latin. +But looking around the world at the diversity of humans, he said, "Well, you know, we seem to come in discreet sub-species or categories." +And he talked about Africans and Americans and Asians and Europeans, and a blatantly racist category he termed "Monstrosus," which basically included all the people he didn't like, including imaginary folk like elves. +It's easy to dismiss this as the perhaps well-intentioned but ultimately benighted musings of an eighteenth century scientist working in the pre-Darwinian era. +Except, if you had taken physical anthropology as recently as 20 or 30 years ago, in many cases you would have learned basically that same classification of humanity. +Human races that according to physical anthropologists of 30, 40 years ago -- Carlton Coon is the best example -- had been diverging from each other -- this was in the post-Darwinian era -- for over a million years, since the time of Homo erectus. +But based on what data? +Very little. Very little. Morphology and a lot of guesswork. +Well, what I'm going to talk about today, what I'm going to talk about now is a new approach to this problem. +Instead of going out and guessing about our ancestry, digging things up out of the ground, possible ancestors, and saying it on the basis of morphology -- which we still don't completely understand, we don't know the genetic causes underlying this morphological variation -- what we need to do is turn the problem on its head. +Because what we're really asking is a genealogical problem, or a genealogical question. +What we're trying to do is construct a family tree for everybody alive today. +And as any genealogist will tell you -- anybody have a member of the family, or maybe you have tried to construct a family tree, trace back in time? +You start in the present, with relationships you're certain about. +You and your siblings, you have a parent in common. +You and your cousins share a grandparent in common. +You gradually trace further and further back into the past, adding these ever more distant relationships. +But eventually, no matter how good you are at digging up the church records, and all that stuff, you hit what the genealogists call a brick wall. +A point beyond which you don't know anything else about your ancestors, and you enter this dark and mysterious realm we call history that we have to feel our way through with whispered guidance. +Who were these people who came before? +We have no written record. Well, actually, we do. +Written in our DNA, in our genetic code -- we have a historical document that takes us back in time to the very earliest days of our species. And that's what we study. +Now, a quick primer on DNA. +I suspect that not everybody in the audience is a geneticist. +It is a very long, linear molecule, a coded version of how to make another copy of you. It's your blueprint. +It's composed of four subunits: A, C, G and T, we call them. +And it's the sequence of those subunits that defines that blueprint. +How long is it? Well, it's billions of these subunits in length. +A haploid genome -- we actually have two copies of all of our chromosomes -- a haploid genome is around 3.2 billion nucleotides in length. +And the whole thing, if you add it all together, is over six billion nucleotides long. +If you take all the DNA out of one cell in your body, and stretch it end to end, it's around two meters long. +If you take all the DNA out of every cell in your body, and you stretch it end to end, it would reach from here to the moon and back, thousands of times. It's a lot of information. +And so when you're copying this DNA molecule to pass it on, it's a pretty tough job. +Imagine the longest book you can think of, "War and Peace." +Now multiply it by 100. +And imagine copying that by hand. +And you're working away until late at night, and you're very, very careful, and you're drinking coffee and you're paying attention, but, occasionally, when you're copying this by hand, you're going to make a little typo, a spelling mistake -- substitute an I for an E, or a C for a T. +Same thing happens to our DNA as it's being passed on through the generations. +It doesn't happen very often. We have a proofreading mechanism built in. +But when it does happen, and these changes get transmitted down through the generations, they become markers of descent. +If you share a marker with someone, it means you share an ancestor at some point in the past, the person who first had that change in their DNA. +And it's by looking at the pattern of genetic variation, the pattern of these markers in people all over the world, and assessing the relative ages when they occurred throughout our history, that we've been able to construct a family tree for everybody alive today. +These are two pieces of DNA that we use quite widely in our work. +Mitochondrial DNA, tracing a purely maternal line of descent. +You get your mtDNA from your mother, and your mother's mother, all the way back to the very first woman. +The Y chromosome, the piece of DNA that makes men men, traces a purely paternal line of descent. +Everybody in this room, everybody in the world, falls into a lineage somewhere on these trees. +Now, even though these are simplified versions of the real trees, they're still kind of complicated, so let's simplify them. +Turn them on their sides, combine them so that they look like a tree with the root at the bottom and the branches going up. +What's the take-home message? +Well, the thing that jumps out at you first is that the deepest lineages in our family trees are found within Africa, among Africans. +That means that Africans have been accumulating this mutational diversity for longer. +And what that means is that we originated in Africa. It's written in our DNA. +Every piece of DNA we look at has greater diversity within Africa than outside of Africa. +And at some point in the past, a sub-group of Africans left the African continent to go out and populate the rest of the world. +Now, how recently do we share this ancestry? +Was it millions of years ago, which we might suspect by looking at all this incredible variation around the world? +No, the DNA tells a story that's very clear. +Within the last 200,000 years, we all share an ancestor, a single person -- Mitochondrial Eve, you might have heard about her -- in Africa, an African woman who gave rise to all the mitochondrial diversity in the world today. +But what's even more amazing is that if you look at the Y-chromosome side, the male side of the story, the Y-chromosome Adam only lived around 60,000 years ago. +That's only about 2,000 human generations, the blink of an eye in an evolutionary sense. +That tells us we were all still living in Africa at that time. +This was an African man who gave rise to all the Y chromosome diversity around the world. +It's only within the last 60,000 years that we have started to generate this incredible diversity we see around the world. +Such an amazing story. +We're all effectively part of an extended African family. +Now, that seems so recent. Why didn't we start to leave earlier? +Why didn't Homo erectus evolve into separate species, or sub-species rather, human races around the world? +Why was it that we seem to have come out of Africa so recently? +Well, that's a big question. These "why" questions, particularly in genetics and the study of history in general, are always the big ones, the ones that are tough to answer. +And so when all else fails, talk about the weather. +What was going on to the world's weather around 60,000 years ago? +Well, we were going into the worst part of the last ice age. +The last ice age started roughly 120,000 years ago. +It went up and down, and it really started to accelerate around 70,000 years ago. +Lots of evidence from sediment cores and the pollen types, oxygen isotopes and so on. +We hit the last glacial maximum around 16,000 years ago, but basically, from 70,000 years on, things were getting really tough, getting very cold. The Northern Hemisphere had massive growing ice sheets. +New York City, Chicago, Seattle, all under a sheet of ice. +Most of Britain, all of Scandinavia, covered by ice several kilometers thick. +Now, Africa is the most tropical continent on the planet -- about 85 percent of it lies between Cancer and Capricorn -- and there aren't a lot of glaciers here, except on the high mountains here in East Africa. +So what was going on here? We weren't covered in ice in Africa. +Rather, Africa was drying out at that time. +This is a paleo-climatological map of what Africa looked like between 60,000 and 70,000 years ago, reconstructed from all these pieces of evidence that I mentioned before. +The reason for that is that ice actually sucks moisture out of the atmosphere. +If you think about Antarctica, it's technically a desert, it gets so little precipitation. +So the whole world was drying out. +The sea levels were dropping. And Africa was turning to desert. +The Sahara was much bigger then than it is now. +And the human habitat was reduced to just a few small pockets, compared to what we have today. +The evidence from genetic data is that the human population around this time, roughly 70,000 years ago, crashed to fewer than 2,000 individuals. +We nearly went extinct. We were hanging on by our fingernails. +And then something happened. A great illustration of it. +Look at some stone tools. +The ones on the left are from Africa, from around a million years ago. +The ones on the right were made by Neanderthals, our distant cousins, not our direct ancestors, living in Europe, and they date from around 50,000 or 60,000 years ago. +Now, at the risk of offending any paleoanthropologists or physical anthropologists in the audience, basically there's not a lot of change between these two stone tool groups. +The ones on the left are pretty similar to the ones on the right. +We are in a period of long cultural stasis from a million years ago until around 60,000 to 70,000 years ago. +The tool styles don't change that much. +The evidence is that the human way of life didn't change that much during that period. +But then 50, 60, 70 thousand years ago, somewhere in that region, all hell breaks loose. Art makes its appearance. +The stone tools become much more finely crafted. +The evidence is that humans begin to specialize in particular prey species, at particular times of the year. +The population size started to expand. +Probably, according to what many linguists believe, fully modern language, syntactic language -- subject, verb, object -- that we use to convey complex ideas, like I'm doing now, appeared around that time. +We became much more social. The social networks expanded. +This change in behavior allowed us to survive these worsening conditions in Africa, and they allowed us to start to expand around the world. +We've been talking at this conference about African success stories. +Well, you want the ultimate African success story? +Look in the mirror. You're it. The reason you're alive today is because of those changes in our brains that took place in Africa -- probably somewhere in the region where we're sitting right now, around 60, 70 thousand years ago -- allowing us not only to survive in Africa, but to expand out of Africa. +An early coastal migration along the south coast of Asia, leaving Africa around 60,000 years ago, reaching Australia very rapidly, by 50,000 years ago. +A slightly later migration up into the Middle East. +These would have been savannah hunters. +So those of you who are going on one of the post-conference tours, you'll get to see what a real savannah is like. +And it's basically a meat locker. +People who would have specialized in killing the animals, hunting the animals on those meat locker savannahs, moving up, following the grasslands into the Middle East around 45,000 years ago, during one of the rare wet phases in the Sahara. +Migrating eastward, following the grasslands, because that's what they were adapted to live on. +And when they reached Central Asia, they reached what was effectively a steppe super-highway, a grassland super-highway. +The grasslands at that time -- this was during the last ice age -- stretched basically from Germany all the way over to Korea, and the entire continent was open to them. +Entering Europe around 35,000 years ago, and finally, a small group migrating up through the worst weather imaginable, Siberia, inside the Arctic Circle, during the last ice age -- temperature was at -70, -80, even -100, perhaps -- migrating into the Americas, ultimately reaching that final frontier. +An amazing story, and it happened first in Africa. +The changes that allowed us to do that, the evolution of this highly adaptable brain that we all carry around with us, allowing us to create novel cultures, allowing us to develop the diversity that we see on a whirlwind trip like the one I've just been on. +Now, that story I just told you is literally a whirlwind tour of how we populated the world, the great Paleolithic wanderings of our species. +And that's the story that I told a couple of years ago in my book, "The Journey of Man," and a film that we made with the same title. +And as we were finishing up that film -- it was co-produced with National Geographic -- I started talking to the folks at NG about this work. +And they got really excited about it. They liked the film, but they said, "You know, we really see this as kind of the next wave in the study of human origins, where we all came from, using the tools of DNA to map the migrations around the world. +You know, the study of human origins is kind of in our DNA, and we want to take it to the next level. +What do you want to do next?" +Which is a great question to be asked by National Geographic. +And I said, "Well, you know, what I've sketched out here is just that. +It is a very coarse sketch of how we migrated around the planet. +And it's based on a few thousand people we've sampled from, you know, a handful of populations around the world. +Studied a few genetic markers, and there are lots of gaps on this map. +We've just connected the dots. What we need to do is increase our sample size by an order of magnitude or more -- hundreds of thousands of DNA samples from people all over the world." +And that was the genesis of the Genographic Project. +The project launched in April 2005. +It has three core components. Obviously, science is a big part of it. +The field research that we're doing around the world with indigenous peoples. +People who have lived in the same location for a long period of time retain a connection to the place where they live that many of the rest of us have lost. +So my ancestors come from all over northern Europe. +I live in the Eastern Seaboard of North America when I'm not traveling. +Where am I indigenous to? Nowhere really. My genes are all jumbled up. +But there are people who retain that link to their ancestors that allows us to contextualize the DNA results. +That's the focus of the field research, the centers that we've set up all over the world -- 10 of them, top population geneticists. +But, in addition, we wanted to open up this study to anybody around the world. +How often do you get to participate in a big scientific project? +The Human Genome Project, or a Mars Rover mission. +In this case, you actually can. +You can go onto our website, Nationalgeographic.com/genographic. +You can order a kit. You can test your own DNA. +And you can actually submit those results to the database, and tell us a little about your genealogical background, have the data analyzed as part of the scientific effort. +Now, this is all a nonprofit enterprise, and so the money that we raise, after we cover the cost of doing the testing and making the kit components, gets plowed back into the project. +The majority going to something we call the Legacy Fund. +It's a charitable entity, basically a grant-giving entity that gives money back to indigenous groups around the world for educational, cultural projects initiated by them. +They apply to this fund in order to do various projects, and I'll show you a couple of examples. +So how are we doing on the project? We've got about 25,000 samples collected from indigenous people around the world. +The most amazing thing has been the interest on the part of the public; 210,000 people have ordered these participation kits since we launched two years ago, which has raised around five million dollars, the majority of which, at least half, is going back into the Legacy Fund. +We've just awarded the first Legacy Grants totaling around 500,000 dollars. +Projects around the world -- documenting oral poetry in Sierra Leone, preserving traditional weaving patterns in Gaza, language revitalization in Tajikistan, etc., etc. +So the project is going very, very well, and I urge you to check out the website and watch this space. +Thank you very much. +Let's just start by looking at some great photographs. +This is an icon of National Geographic, an Afghan refugee taken by Steve McCurry. +But the Harvard Lampoon is about to come out with a parody of National Geographic, and I shudder to think what they're going to do to this photograph. +Oh, the wrath of Photoshop. +This is a jet landing at San Francisco, by Bruce Dale. +He mounted a camera on the tail. +A poetic image for a story on Tolstoy, by Sam Abell. +Pygmies in the DRC, by Randy Olson. +I love this photograph because it reminds me of Degas' bronze sculptures of the little dancer. +A polar bear swimming in the Arctic, by Paul Nicklen. +Polar bears need ice to be able to move back and forth -- they're not very good swimmers -- and we know what's happening to the ice. +These are camels moving across the Rift Valley in Africa, photographed by Chris Johns. +Shot straight down, so these are the shadows of the camels. +This is a rancher in Texas, by William Albert Allard, a great portraitist. +And Jane Goodall, making her own special connection, photographed by Nick Nichols. +This is a soap disco in Spain, photographed by David Alan Harvey. +And David said that there was lot of weird stuff happening on the dance floor. +But, hey, at least it's hygienic. +These are sea lions in Australia doing their own dance, by David Doubilet. +And this is a comet, captured by Dr. Euan Mason. +And finally, the bow of the Titanic, without movie stars, photographed by Emory Kristof. +Photography carries a power that holds up under the relentless swirl of today's saturated, media world, because photographs emulate the way that our mind freezes a significant moment. +Here's an example. +Four years ago, I was at the beach with my son, and he was learning how to swim in this relatively soft surf of the Delaware beaches. +But I turned away for a moment, and he got caught into a riptide and started to be pulled out towards the jetty. +I can stand here right now and see, as I go tearing into the water after him, the moments slowing down and freezing into this arrangement. +I can see the rocks are over here. +There's a wave about to crash onto him. +I can see his hands reaching out, and I can see his face in terror, looking at me, saying, "Help me, Dad." +I got him. The wave broke over us. +We got back on shore; he was fine. +We were a little bit rattled. +But this flashbulb memory, as it's called, is when all the elements came together to define not just the event, but my emotional connection to it. +And this is what a photograph taps into when it makes its own powerful connection to a viewer. +Now I have to tell you, I was talking to Kyle last week about this, that I was going to tell this story. +And he said, "Oh, yeah, I remember that too! +I remember my image of you was that you were up on the shore yelling at me." +I thought I was a hero. +So, this represents -- this is a cross-sample of some remarkable images taken by some of the world's greatest photojournalists, working at the very top of their craft -- except one. +This photograph was taken by Dr. Euan Mason in New Zealand last year, and it was submitted and published in National Geographic. +Last year, we added a section to our website called "Your Shot," where anyone can submit photographs for possible publication. +And it has become a wild success, tapping into the enthusiast photography community. +The quality of these amateur photographs can, at times, be amazing. +And seeing this reinforces, for me, that every one of us has at least one or two great photographs in them. +But to be a great photojournalist, you have to have more than just one or two great photographs in you. +You've got to be able to make them all the time. +But even more importantly, you need to know how to create a visual narrative. +You need to know how to tell a story. +So I'm going to share with you some coverages that I feel demonstrate the storytelling power of photography. +Photographer Nick Nichols went to document a very small and relatively unknown wildlife sanctuary in Chad, called Zakouma. +The original intent was to travel there and bring back a classic story of diverse species, of an exotic locale. +And that is what Nick did, up to a point. +This is a serval cat. +He's actually taking his own picture, shot with what's called a camera trap. +There's an infrared beam that's going across, and he has stepped into the beam and taken his photograph. +These are baboons at a watering hole. +Nick -- the camera, again, an automatic camera took thousands of pictures of this. +And Nick ended up with a lot of pictures of the rear ends of baboons. +A lion having a late night snack -- notice he's got a broken tooth. +And a crocodile walks up a riverbank toward its den. +I love this little bit of water that comes off the back of his tail. +But the centerpiece species of Zakouma are the elephants. +It's one of the largest intact herds in this part of Africa. +Here's a photograph shot in moonlight, something that digital photography has made a big difference for. +It was with the elephants that this story pivoted. +Nick, along with researcher Dr. Michael Fay, collared the matriarch of the herd. +They named her Annie, and they began tracking her movements. +The herd was safe within the confines of the park, because of this dedicated group of park rangers. +But once the annual rains began, the herd would begin migrating to feeding grounds outside the park. +And that's when they ran into trouble. +For outside the safety of the park were poachers, who would hunt them down only for the value of their ivory tusks. +The matriarch that they were radio tracking, after weeks of moving back and forth, in and out of the park, came to a halt outside the park. +Annie had been killed, along with 20 members of her herd. +And they only came for the ivory. +This is actually one of the rangers. +They were able to chase off one of the poachers and recover this ivory, because they couldn't leave it there, because it's still valuable. +But what Nick did was he brought back a story that went beyond the old-school method of just straight, "Isn't this an amazing world?" +And instead, created a story that touched our audiences deeply. +Instead of just knowledge of this park, he created an understanding and an empathy for the elephants, the rangers and the many issues surrounding human-wildlife conflicts. +Now let's go over to India. +Sometimes you can tell a broad story in a focused way. +We were looking at the same issue that Richard Wurman touches upon in his new world population project. +For the first time in history, more people live in urban, rather than rural, environments. +And most of that growth is not in the cities, but in the slums that surround them. +Jonas Bendiksen, a very energetic photographer, came to me and said, "We need to document this, and here's my proposal. +Let's go all over the world and photograph every single slum around the world." +And I said, "Well, you know, that might be a bit ambitious for our budget." +What Jonas did was not just go and do a surface look at the awful conditions that exist in such places. +He saw that this was a living and breathing and vital part of how the entire urban area functioned. +By staying tightly focused in one place, Jonas tapped into the soul and the enduring human spirit that underlies this community. +And he did it in a beautiful way. +Sometimes, though, the only way to tell a story is with a sweeping picture. +We teamed up underwater photographer Brian Skerry and photojournalist Randy Olson to document the depletion of the world's fisheries. +We weren't the only ones to tackle this subject, but the photographs that Brian and Randy created are among the best to capture both the human and natural devastation of overfishing. +Here, in a photo by Brian, a seemingly crucified shark is caught up in a gill net off of Baja. +I've seen sort of OK pictures of bycatch, the animals accidentally scooped up while fishing for a specific species. +But here, Brian captured a unique view by positioning himself underneath the boat when they threw the waste overboard. +And Brian then went on to even greater risk to get this never-before-made photograph of a trawl net scraping the ocean bottom. +Back on land, Randy Olson photographed a makeshift fish market in Africa, where the remains of filleted fish were sold to the locals, the main parts having already been sent to Europe. +And here in China, Randy shot a jellyfish market. +As prime food sources are depleted, the harvest goes deeper into the oceans and brings in more such sources of protein. +This is called fishing down the food chain. +But there are also glimmers of hope, and I think anytime we're doing a big, big story on this, we don't really want to go and just look at all the problems. +We also want to look for solutions. +Brian photographed a marine sanctuary in New Zealand, where commercial fishing had been banned -- the result being that the overfished species have been restored, and with them a possible solution for sustainable fisheries. +Photography can also compel us to confront issues that are potentially distressing and controversial. +James Nachtwey, who was honored at last year's TED, took a look at the sweep of the medical system that is utilized to handle the American wounded coming out of Iraq. +It is like a tube where a wounded soldier enters on one end and exits back home, on the other. +Jim started in the battlefield. +Here, a medical technician tends to a wounded soldier on the helicopter ride back to the field hospital. +Here is in the field hospital. +The soldier on the right has the name of his daughter tattooed across his chest, as a reminder of home. +From here, the more severely wounded are transported back to Germany, where they meet up with their families for the first time. +And then back to the States to recuperate at veterans' hospitals, such as here in Walter Reed. +And finally, often fitted with high-tech prosthesis, they exit the medical system and attempt to regain their pre-war lives. +Jim took what could have been a straight-up medical science story and gave it a human dimension that touched our readers deeply. +Now, these stories are great examples of how photography can be used to address some of our most important topics. +But there are also times when photographers simply encounter things that are, when it comes down to it, just plain fun. +Photographer Paul Nicklin traveled to Antarctica to shoot a story on leopard seals. +They have been rarely photographed, partly because they are considered one of the most dangerous predators in the ocean. +In fact, a year earlier, a researcher had been grabbed by one and pulled down to depth and killed. +So you can imagine Paul was maybe a little bit hesitant about getting into the water. +Now, what leopard seals do mostly is, they eat penguins. +You know of "The March of the Penguins." +This is sort of the munch of the penguins. +Here a penguin goes up to the edge and looks out to see if the coast is clear. +And then everybody kind of runs out and goes out. +But then Paul got in the water. +And he said he was never really afraid of this. +Well, this one female came up to him. +She's probably -- it's a shame you can't see it in the photograph, but she's 12 feet long. +So, she is pretty significant in size. +And Paul said he was never really afraid, because she was more curious about him than threatened. +This mouthing behavior, on the right, was really her way of saying to him, "Hey, look how big I am!" +Or you know, "My, what big teeth you have." +Then Paul thinks that she simply took pity on him. +To her, here was this big, goofy creature in the water that for some reason didn't seem to be interested in chasing penguins. +So what she did was she started to bring penguins to him, alive, and put them in front of him. +She dropped them off, and then they would swim away. +She'd kind of look at him, like "What are you doing?" +Go back and get them, and then bring them back and drop them in front of him. +And she did this over the course of a couple of days, until the point where she got so frustrated with him that she started putting them directly on top of his head. +Which just resulted in a fantastic photograph. +Eventually, though, Paul thinks that she just figured that he was never going to survive. +This is her just puffing out, you know, snorting out in disgust. +And lost interest with him, and went back to what she does best. +Paul set out to photograph a relatively mysterious and unknown creature, and came back with not just a collection of photographs, but an amazing experience and a great story. +It is these kinds of stories, ones that go beyond the immediate or just the superficial that demonstrate the power of photojournalism. +I believe that photography can make a real connection to people, and can be employed as a positive agent for understanding the challenges and opportunities facing our world today. +Thank you. +Id like to dedicate this next song to Carmelo, who was put to sleep a couple of days ago, because he got too old. +But apparently he was a very nice dog and he always let the cat sleep in the dog bed. +Thank you. +As a particle physicist, I study the elementary particles and how they interact on the most fundamental level. +For most of my research career, I've been using accelerators, such as the electron accelerator at Stanford University, just up the road, to study things on the smallest scale. +But more recently, I've been turning my attention to the universe on the largest scale. +Because, as I'll explain to you, the questions on the smallest and the largest scale are actually very connected. +So I'm going to tell you about our twenty-first-century view of the universe, what it's made of and what the big questions in the physical sciences are -- at least some of the big questions. +So, recently, we have realized that the ordinary matter in the universe -- and by ordinary matter, I mean you, me, the planets, the stars, the galaxies -- the ordinary matter makes up only a few percent of the content of the universe. +Almost a quarter, or approximately a quarter of the matter in the universe, is stuff that's invisible. +By invisible, I mean it doesn't absorb in the electromagnetic spectrum. +It doesn't emit in the electromagnetic spectrum. It doesn't reflect. +It doesn't interact with the electromagnetic spectrum, which is what we use to detect things. +It doesn't interact at all. So how do we know it's there? +We know it's there by its gravitational effects. +In fact, this dark matter dominates the gravitational effects in the universe on a large scale, and I'll be telling you about the evidence for that. +What about the rest of the pie? +The rest of the pie is a very mysterious substance called dark energy. +More about that later, OK. +So for now, let's turn to the evidence for dark matter. +In these galaxies, especially in a spiral galaxy like this, most of the mass of the stars is concentrated in the middle of the galaxy. +This huge mass of all these stars keeps stars in circular orbits in the galaxy. +So we have these stars going around in circles like this. +As you can imagine, even if you know physics, this should be intuitive, OK -- that stars that are closer to the mass in the middle will be rotating at a higher speed than those that are further out here, OK. +So what you would expect is that if you measured the orbital speed of the stars, that they should be slower on the edges than on the inside. +In other words, if we measured speed as a function of distance -- this is the only time I'm going to show a graph, OK -- we would expect that it goes down as the distance increases from the center of the galaxy. +When those measurements are made, instead what we find is that the speed is basically constant, as a function of distance. +If it's constant, that means that the stars out here are feeling the gravitational effects of matter that we do not see. +In fact, this galaxy and every other galaxy appears to be embedded in a cloud of this invisible dark matter. +And this cloud of matter is much more spherical than the galaxy themselves, and it extends over a much wider range than the galaxy. +So we see the galaxy and fixate on that, but it's actually a cloud of dark matter that's dominating the structure and the dynamics of this galaxy. +Galaxies themselves are not strewn randomly in space; they tend to cluster. +And this is an example of a very, actually, famous cluster, the Coma cluster. +And there are thousands of galaxies in this cluster. +They're the white, fuzzy, elliptical things here. +So these galaxy clusters -- we take a snapshot now, we take a snapshot in a decade, it'll look identical. +But these galaxies are actually moving at extremely high speeds. +They're moving around in this gravitational potential well of this cluster, OK. +So all of these galaxies are moving. +We can measure the speeds of these galaxies, their orbital velocities, and figure out how much mass is in this cluster. +And again, what we find is that there is much more mass there than can be accounted for by the galaxies that we see. +Or if we look in other parts of the electromagnetic spectrum, we see that there's a lot of gas in this cluster, as well. +But that cannot account for the mass either. +In fact, there appears to be about ten times as much mass here in the form of this invisible or dark matter as there is in the ordinary matter, OK. +It would be nice if we could see this dark matter a little bit more directly. +I'm just putting this big, blue blob on there, OK, to try to remind you that it's there. +Can we see it more visually? Yes, we can. +And so let me lead you through how we can do this. +So here's an observer: it could be an eye; it could be a telescope. +And suppose there's a galaxy out here in the universe. +How do we see that galaxy? +A ray of light leaves the galaxy and travels through the universe for perhaps billions of years before it enters the telescope or your eye. +Now, how do we deduce where the galaxy is? +Well, we deduce it by the direction that the ray is traveling as it enters our eye, right? +We say, the ray of light came this way; the galaxy must be there, OK. +Now, suppose I put in the middle a cluster of galaxies -- and don't forget the dark matter, OK. +Now, if we consider a different ray of light, one going off like this, we now need to take into account what Einstein predicted when he developed general relativity. +And that was that the gravitational field, due to mass, will deflect not only the trajectory of particles, but will deflect light itself. +So this light ray will not continue in a straight line, but would rather bend and could end up going into our eye. +Where will this observer see the galaxy? +You can respond. Up, right? +We extrapolate backwards and say the galaxy is up here. +Is there any other ray of light that could make into the observer's eye from that galaxy? +Yes, great. I see people going down like this. +So a ray of light could go down, be bent up into the observer's eye, and the observer sees a ray of light here. +Now, take into account the fact that we live in a three-dimensional universe, OK, a three-dimensional space. +Are there any other rays of light that could make it into the eye? +Yes! The rays would lie on a -- I'd like to see -- yeah, on a cone. +So there's a whole ray of light -- rays of light on a cone -- that will all be bent by that cluster and make it into the observer's eye. +If there is a cone of light coming into my eye, what do I see? +A circle, a ring. It's called an Einstein ring. Einstein predicted that, OK. +Now, it will only be a perfect ring if the source, the deflector and the eyeball, in this case, are all in a perfectly straight line. +If they're slightly skewed, we'll see a different image. +Now, you can do an experiment tonight over the reception, OK, to figure out what that image will look like. +Because it turns out that there is a kind of lens that we can devise, that has the right shape to produce this kind of effect. +We call this gravitational lensing. +And so, this is your instrument, OK. +But ignore the top part. +It's the base that I want you to concentrate, OK. +So, actually, at home, whenever we break a wineglass, I save the bottom, take it over to the machine shop. +We shave it off, and I have a little gravitational lens, OK. +So it's got the right shape to produce the lensing. +And so the next thing you need to do in your experiment is grab a napkin. I grabbed a piece of graph paper -- I'm a physicist. So, a napkin. Draw a little model galaxy in the middle. +And now put the lens over the galaxy, and what you'll find is that you'll see a ring, an Einstein ring. +Now, move the base off to the side, and the ring will split up into arcs, OK. +And you can put it on top of any image. +On the graph paper, you can see how all the lines on the graph paper have been distorted. +And again, this is a kind of an accurate model of what happens with the gravitational lensing. +OK, so the question is: do we see this in the sky? +Do we see arcs in the sky when we look at, say, a cluster of galaxies? +And the answer is yes. +And so, here's an image from the Hubble Space Telescope. +Many of the images you are seeing are earlier from the Hubble Space Telescope. +Well, first of all, for the golden shape galaxies -- those are the galaxies in the cluster. +They're the ones that are embedded in that sea of dark matter that are causing the bending of the light to cause these optical illusions, or mirages, practically, of the background galaxies. +So the streaks that you see, all these streaks, are actually distorted images of galaxies that are much further away. +So what we can do, then, is based on how much distortion we see in those images, we can calculate how much mass there must be in this cluster. +And it's an enormous amount of mass. +And also, you can tell by eye, by looking at this, that these arcs are not centered on individual galaxies. +They are centered on some more spread out structure, and that is the dark matter in which the cluster is embedded, OK. +So this is the closest you can get to kind of seeing at least the effects of the dark matter with your naked eye. +OK, so, a quick review then, to see that you're following. +So the evidence that we have that a quarter of the universe is dark matter -- this gravitationally attracting stuff -- is that galaxies, the speed with which stars orbiting galaxies is much too large; it must be embedded in dark matter. +The speed with which galaxies within clusters are orbiting is much too large; it must be embedded in dark matter. +And we see these gravitational lensing effects, these distortions that say that, again, clusters are embedded in dark matter. +OK. So now, let's turn to dark energy. +So to understand the evidence for dark energy, we need to discuss something that Stephen Hawking referred to in the previous session. +And that is the fact that space itself is expanding. +So if we imagine a section of our infinite universe -- and so I've put down four spiral galaxies, OK -- and imagine that you put down a set of tape measures, so every line on here corresponds to a tape measure, horizontal or vertical, for measuring where things are. +If you could do this, what you would find that with each passing day, each passing year, each passing billions of years, OK, the distance between galaxies is getting greater. +And it's not because galaxies are moving away from each other through space. +They're not necessarily moving through space. +They're moving away from each other because space itself is getting bigger, OK. +That's what the expansion of the universe or space means. +So they're moving further apart. +Now, what Stephen Hawking mentioned, as well, is that after the Big Bang, space expanded at a very rapid rate. +But because gravitationally attracting matter is embedded in this space, it tends to slow down the expansion of the space, OK. +So the expansion slows down with time. +So, in the last century, OK, people debated about whether this expansion of space would continue forever; whether it would slow down, you know, will be slowing down, but continue forever; slow down and stop, asymptotically stop; or slow down, stop, and then reverse, so it starts to contract again. +So a little over a decade ago, two groups of physicists and astronomers set out to measure the rate at which the expansion of space was slowing down, OK. +By how much less is it expanding today, compared to, say, a couple of billion years ago? +The startling answer to this question, OK, from these experiments, was that space is expanding at a faster rate today than it was a few billion years ago, OK. +So the expansion of space is actually speeding up. +This was a completely surprising result. +There is no persuasive theoretical argument for why this should happen, OK. +No one was predicting ahead of time this is what's going to be found. +It was the opposite of what was expected. +So we need something to be able to explain that. +Now it turns out, in the mathematics, you can put it in as a term that's an energy, but it's a completely different type of energy from anything we've ever seen before. +We call it dark energy, and it has this effect of causing space to expand. +But we don't have a good motivation for putting it in there at this point, OK. +So it's really unexplained as to why we need to put it in. +Now, so at this point, then, what I want to really emphasize to you, is that, first of all, dark matter and dark energy are completely different things, OK. +There are really two mysteries out there as to what makes up most of the universe, and they have very different effects. +Dark matter, because it gravitationally attracts, it tends to encourage the growth of structure, OK. +So clusters of galaxies will tend to form, because of all this gravitational attraction. +Dark energy, on the other hand, is putting more and more space between the galaxies, makes it, the gravitational attraction between them decrease, and so it impedes the growth of structure. +So by looking at things like clusters of galaxies, and how they -- their number density, how many there are as a function of time -- we can learn about how dark matter and dark energy compete against each other in structure forming. +In terms of dark matter, I said that we don't have any, you know, really persuasive argument for dark energy. +Do we have anything for dark matter? And the answer is yes. +We have well-motivated candidates for the dark matter. +Now, what do I mean by well motivated? +I mean that we have mathematically consistent theories that were actually introduced to explain a completely different phenomenon, OK, things that I haven't even talked about, that each predict the existence of a very weakly interacting, new particle. +So, this is exactly what you want in physics: where a prediction comes out of a mathematically consistent theory that was actually developed for something else. +But we don't know if either of those are actually the dark matter candidate, OK. +One or both, who knows? Or it could be something completely different. +Now, we look for these dark matter particles because, after all, they are here in the room, OK, and they didn't come in the door. +They just pass through anything. +They can come through the building, through the Earth -- they're so non-interacting. +So one way to look for them is to build detectors that are extremely sensitive to a dark matter particle coming through and bumping it. +So a crystal that will ring if that happens. +So one of my colleagues up the road and his collaborators have built such a detector. +And they've put it deep down in an iron mine in Minnesota, OK, deep under the ground, and in fact, in the last couple of days announced the most sensitive results so far. +They haven't seen anything, OK, but it puts limits on what the mass and the interaction strength of these dark matter particles are. +There's going to be a satellite telescope launched later this year and it will look towards the middle of the galaxy, to see if we can see dark matter particles annihilating and producing gamma rays that could be detected with this. +The Large Hadron Collider, a particle physics accelerator, that we'll be turning on later this year. +It is possible that dark matter particles might be produced at the Large Hadron Collider. +Now, because they are so non-interactive, they will actually escape the detector, so their signature will be missing energy, OK. +Now, unfortunately, there is a lot of new physics whose signature could be missing energy, so it will be hard to tell the difference. +And finally, for future endeavors, there are telescopes being designed specifically to address the questions of dark matter and dark energy -- ground-based telescopes, and there are three space-based telescopes that are in competition right now to be launched to investigate dark matter and dark energy. +So in terms of the big questions: what is dark matter? What is dark energy? +The big questions facing physics. +And I'm sure you have lots of questions, which I very much look forward to addressing over the next 72 hours, while I'm here. Thank you. +My favorite topic is shortcuts. +The master of shortcuts -- it's, of course, nature. +But I will demonstrate different ways to get rid of difficulties and go to the point, to find an answer probably much quicker than Arthur did. So, first, we violate the common sense, the logic. All of you, if you hold your hand like this, 90 degrees -- all of you. Not you. +All of you, right? Palm up. +If you do this, the common, the logic says you must turn the wrist. +Do you agree? +Good. +But I will first teach you a method, how you can do it without moving the wrist, and then the shortcut. +You can do it immediately, right? +Hold the hand like this, palm up. +Don't move the wrist. The wrist is -- I doesn't speak very many, but I do the best, what I are. +Right-molded you say, with iron? +That was a joke, actually, and I -- OK. +Hold the hand palm up. Do this, don't move the wrist. +Over the heart, don't move the wrist. +Forward, don't move the wrist. +Up, don't move the wrist. Over the heart, don't move the wrist. +And forward. Yeah. +Now -- -- logic, logically, you have got to this position from this, without moving the wrist. +Now, the shortcut. +But it was six moves. Now with one move. +I start here, palm down, you can follow. +And then look at me. +Yeah! One move. OK. +So, that was the warming up. +Now, I need an assistant. +I talked to a nice girl before, Zoe. +She has left. No! A big hand. +Good. Nice. And you can sit over there. +One item here was water, right? +And I will give my tribute to water. +I think it's enough with water for me. The other guys can talk about -- cheers. +Beer has about -- there's a lot of water in beer. +So, now I will demonstrate different ways of memorizing, control cards and so on. +And I think I'll take off this one. +I work with a special method to do it, quick. +I work with precision -- oh, sorry -- control and a very powerful ... +memory system, right? +So, if -- I have studied the poker. I like to gamble. +Officially, I don't gamble but ... +So, if we are -- if we have five person, and I will do a five-handed poker game. +Now I will interact. So a different person all the time, so not the same person can answer. +So we have an agreement. +Which one shall have a good poker hand? +Which number? One, two, three, four or five? (Audience: Three.) Lennart Green: Three -- good. +And here, I had a mat here to make it a little -- the critical moment is -- sorry. +If a card shark gathers the cards together, immediately when he -- before he deals the card. Now, so I think, number three, I have arranged them in a full house. +With queens and -- it's OK -- queens and tens. +That's a challenge. I like this. +I will explain later. One, two, three, four, five. +I start with three queens. +So here you see the contrast when I treat the cards. +And two tens. +Yeah. Thank you. +But also the other hand is good, if all the other guys have good hands too. +So these guys have actually a stronger hand -- three aces and two kings. +This guy beats them with four of a kind, or deuce -- deuce. +No reaction? That with even -- OK, and this. +These look in order, I'm probably -- hopefully -- yeah. Three, four, five, six, seven and ... +But, of course, I will have the winning hand. +Ten, jack, queen, king, ace. +Yeah. So, good. +So the hand that looks so good from the beginning, number three, at the end was actually the lowest hand. +Such life. Right? +So, please mix them. +Now, if you are interested, I will demonstrate some underground techniques. +Yes? +I work with kind of estimation, shuffle tracking -- ah, good. +Impressive. Thank you. +So, first, the first term is estimation. +Here, I can estimate exactly how many cards are put between my royal flush. +Of course, I can count the cards, but this is much quicker. +Right? You agree. +So here I have, actually -- I know exactly where the cards are. +So here, I can make a bet, and this is actually one of the points where I get my money. +So here: 10, jack, queen, king, ace. +OK. +Next is a term -- I do it quick. I call this stealing. +So here, I think I know about where the cards are. +I will spread the cards and you'll say stop, when I point to them, right. Point, say stop. +Zoe: Stop. +LG: Here -- you see some are missing? +And that's the stealing cards, which I did. +OK. +Now, another term called shuffle tracking. +Shuffle tracking means I keep track of the cards, even if another person shuffles. +This is a little risky. +So -- because if you look, now, I can still see it. +You agree? But if you square -- square, and shuffle, and then a cut. +So here, to follow my cards, I must look at the shuffle from the begin -- ah, we are started together. It's OK, it's OK. +Come to -- no, no, no, no. +I'm joking, yeah? +Any style -- yeah, good. +Here I have to calculate, but actually, I don't like to calculate. +I work direct with the right brain. +If you pass the left brain, you have to take care of logic and common sense. +Direct in the right brain, that's much better. And so -- -- Arthur Benjamin did a little of the same thing. +And if you work with, in the right atmosphere, with humor, you have -- that's the password to the cosmic bank of knowledge, where you can find any solution of any problem. +OK. Now, I drop the cards, and you say stop anyway, right? +Not at the last card. +Zoe: Stop. LG: Yeah. +When I'm sober, I do this much quicker, but we will check. +Ah, not in order, it -- that was a mistake. +No, I'm kidding. +No, now and then I put in a mistake, just to emphasize how difficult it is. +Right? +Yeah, last night I forgot that. That was a mistake. +But now I'm glad I remember it. +So, this deck is bought here. Sorry. +I have a little pad to make it a little softer. +This deck is bought here in America. +It's called "Bicycle." And this deck is very flexible, but not so many people know, if you check, if you press at the right spots, you see how thin and flexible this deck is, right? +Now, you can carry this in your wallet, so ... +You don't see it, make no reaction? +So, but here, and -- is the camera getting too much? No. +Yeah? (Audience: It's getting too much.) LG: Pardon? But then, when we will have it back, you do this. +But not too much. +Then you have to push it down again. +Here, please. If you push these heaps -- everyone see -- push them together so they are really interlaced, right? Yeah, good. +Perfect. +Just push them through, good. Thank you. +And then, I will demonstrate a thing from Russian satellite, stealen -- stolen, probably copied from America but we will see. +Here -- shortcuts. I talk about shortcuts. +Now I go very quick through the deck and try to find some pattern. +The new chaos theory is already old, right? +But you know, I think you are familiar with fractals -- the Mandelbrot spirals and all these things. +And it's much easier to memorize cards in a pattern way, and not concentrate. If you concentrate and calculate, then you go to -- then it's the left brain. But if you just look and talk in another language ... +Yeah, great. +I think I have it. +So now, different persons, older, tap. +Please name any card, anyone. +(Audience: Jack of spades.) LG: Jack of spades. +Jack of spades. +I think jack of spades is number 12 from the top. +One, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, 10, 11, 12. Yes, right. +So -- oh, jack of spades. +You said spades? (Audience: Yes.) LG: Ah. +My fault. Don't applaud, this was clubs. +So, jack of spades. +I think ... +23 -- 24, sorry, 24. +One, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23 -- ah, 25, yes. +It's the last. +Now, I do it quicker, better. +OK. Another person. Oh, I forgot, I shouldn't shuffle but I think -- -- actually, my technique is to peek, all the time. +When I lift the heap, I peek. +You see, yeah, perfect. +Three, four, five, six. Then I calculate -- yeah, good. +Another person, another card. (Audience: Seven of diamonds.) LG: Seven of diamonds. Perfect, my favorite, yeah, seven. +So I will do it quick, very quick, but in slow motion, so you can follow. +Seven of? (Audience: Diamonds.) LG: Diamonds, good. I start here. +Good, thank you. +The thing I did -- I peeked. +I know where the card were, then I chose it. So another person, another card. +Another person. +(Audience: Ten of diamonds.) LG: Pardon? +(Audience: Ten of diamonds.) LG: Ten of diamonds, yeah. +I think I do it the same way. I like to, so I know where it is. +Ten of diamonds. +But now I do it the regular speed, right? +Ten of diamonds. +Good. +Maybe you will cut? Lift. +Excellent. +So, thank you. Another person, another card. +(Audience: Five of clubs.) LG: Pardon? (Audience: Five of clubs.) LG: Five of clubs. It's not the same person, even if it's the same spot. +We can take some over there later. So now, I will drop the cards. +And you'll say stop, anywhere. Got it? +Five of clubs. +Not the last. Yes, that's difficult to find a card here. +We do it again. +The person who said five of clubs say stop, when the cards are in the air, right? +(Audience: Stop.) LG: Very good. +OK. +OK, I had to use a little force there. +I think we save five of clubs. +And now a card with a contrast of five of clubs. +(Audience: Queen of hearts.) LG: Queen of hearts, yeah. +Excellent. I love that card. +Here, I will do the most difficult thing. +For example, you are sitting in Las Vegas, and you're betting, and you let the other guys peek this card by mistake. Feel, it's just the regular, one card. +And now, when I lift this card, it shall be your card. What was your card? +(Audience: Queen of hearts.) LG: Queen of? Queen of hearts. +So that's a tough challenge, right? +So here, I grab -- you know this? Five of clubs ... +and queen of hearts. Yes! +This is a tough one, because here I must take advantage of -- I switch it with the five of clubs. +So, now a false count. +Which card shall I use? Queen or five? +Zoe: The queen. LG: Queen, yes. +So, I use the queen, and here's five of clubs. +The false count -- and the number one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight -- you say the same card all the time. +Eight, nine, 10. +This is a kind of optical deal, right? +When I put one card at a table -- look, it's not one card. It's -- look, it's a bunch of cards that gives this impression. +Yeah. +Now some hard stuff. +I think we keep the queen here, yes. +Now, to the satellites things. +This -- oh sorry, don't look at the beam. My fault. +This is high-frequency laser, and it's enough with a fraction of a second to destroy the retina completely. +Right, sorry, my -- I should have mentioned that, yeah. +But you can relax, because it takes half an hour before it works, so you have plenty of time to see my whole performance. +Now, I put the laser here, and -- now, when I deal the cards in the laser, I know where they are but -- yes? +Did the camera got it? +No? +They didn't? +What happened? +(Audience: It disappeared.) LG: OK, I'll take another group. +Do the cameras see the cards now? +No? (Audience: No, they're all gone.) LG: But you see the hand. +Ah, good, good, good. But now. +So now, that was the reason, right? +You see the cards? Yes. +Yeah, good. +Now -- -- one guy laughed. So now, to find the queen, do it this way: take back the other one, take back the queen. +Yeah, interesting, but a little dangerous. +I liked it. Now, a little more difficult. +Name -- anyone, name, please, any suit. +(Audience: Spades.) LG: Spades? Spades, good. +So here, here I have to peek, lots of cards. +I think there are lots of -- I don't know how many -- but 10, 15 spades in a deck, at least, right? +So every time I lift the heap, I peek, right. +Then I arrange them so I can get them quick. +Perfect, excellent. +So I start with the ace -- yeah, ace. Ah, yeah -- spades? +Same mistake as before, right? +So -- I arrange the spades -- the clubs. +I try to do this right here. First, I take the spades. +You see, I don't work with prestige, so always do mistakes. +It doesn't matter to me. +And now and then, I get some extra sympathy points, right? +One, two, three, four -- yes, the camera got it? Five, six, seven, eight -- ah -- nine, 10, the jack, jack of spades, queen of -- I like that laugh, yeah! Good. Queen. +Wait, wait, wait -- please take any card. +Grab any one. Quick, quick, good. +And we switch this to the king. +Ace of diamonds. +And now, look, ace of diamonds will guide. +So I find ... +king of spades. +There was the place. And here is king of spades, correct? +Yeah? OK. +Now, a little more difficult thing. +Maybe you think I have the cards in order already, so you help me to shuffle again. +Another suit, please. +(Audience: Armani.) LG: Pardon? (Audience: Armani.) LG: It was after the blindfold. +I like this guy, yeah. +OK. That should be my end effect, but OK. +Armani -- who said Armani? You? +I drop the cards and you -- which size? +Which size? It's a piece of cake. I like challenges. +Which size? +(Audience: Extra large.) LG: Extra large, OK. +Say stop. (Audience: Stop.) LG: Yeah, Armani. OK. +Ah, this is tough. +OK, a suit. I had clubs before, spades. +Another suit. (Audience: Diamonds.) LG: Diamonds, perfect. +So, in this case, I try to locate diamonds. I look at the cards, and OK. +We try. Yeah. You help me. +If I drop the card face up, like this, you reverse it. Zoe: OK. +LG: OK, now. +Do with both hands, and quick. Yes, good, good. +I think we have it now. Yeah, good, good. +So here, diamonds, hearts -- no, diamonds. Good, good. +Stop. Do you see the pattern? +No? Now? +Yes, yes, OK. +I work with pattern. +Oh sorry, I dropped one. +Maybe it's important -- yeah -- nine of diamonds, OK. +So now -- I always ask, why do I put myself in this position? +I have to figure out so many outs, when I miss some cards, but I love it. So now, I will do it. I will try to find the diamonds, but I will do it the hard way. +It's too easy to do it right away, right? +I think I will do it ... +blindfolded. +At this distance, it works immediately. +Aargh! +Duct tape. +I look -- shake the cards, so I don't. +Go ahead. Yeah, good. I like the empathy. +Empathy. +But it was -- did you hear? +It was women's voice. Hear the guy -- yeah, more, more, more. +Yeah, good. Yeah. +You can take the nostril too, because some guys think -- -- some guys think I can peek through the nostril, so do more. Go, go. +Right? Good. +Satisfied? +Looks good, like Batman. Ow! +No, with dignity and elegance, right? +But I like her, yeah. I said, be a little tough. +And it was OK. One more? +The last. +OK. +All right. +Now you must agree that I'm -- I must rely on other senses, right? +I work with vibration. +So, what was the card? +Diamonds. Ah, I memorized hearts. +So now I have to improvise again. +Maybe I'll stand up. Half. +Diamonds -- I'll start with ace of diamonds. +Just kidding, warming up -- king of hearts. +And I give you a diamonds, so they -- so you put them here, in a nice row, right. And you can see, yeah? Good. +Ace of diamonds, yes? Zoe: Yeah. +LG: Good. Good. Two -- -- thank you. +I never ever miss two. This is interesting. +Always I've found two, but the wrong color. Spades, sorry. +And the deck is a gift to you after, so let the skepticals here, in this, examine them, right? Remind me. It's a gift. +Two -- and it was two of spades, right? +Sorry, two of diamonds. I'll do it quick now. +Three -- three of diamonds. Yes! +Four -- I like challenges, yes. +Yeah, good. +Chris Anderson: You're peeking. +LG: Pardon? +CA: You're peeking. You just got to -- this is a request from the lady in the back. +Okay. +Try that. +LG: Yeah. Also listen. +OK, now. +This is maybe a little tough. +We will try. +Yes? Good? +OK. So, how many cards? Five? Zoe: Four. +LG: Four. Is five the next card? +Zoe: Five of diamonds, yeah. +LG: It's not here? Zoe: It's not there. +LG: Oh. +So here, all the cards are face down -- you agree? (Audience: Yes.) LG: Yes? You see that in the screen? +And this is face up, and it's not at the bottom here. +So next card will be -- was it five? +Zoe: Five. LG: Yeah -- I will reverse it face up here. +Yes? Zoe: Yeah. +LG: Six -- six with the thumb. +Seven. +Yeah, I do this. I know where it is, because I peeked before and then I do this. +Right? +Eight. +If -- and then nine, right? +Yeah. +Yesterday -- the day before yesterday, I was in Vegas, and I used this actually. +Nine? Yeah? Correct? +No? Yes! Ah, good, good. +Ten -- once again, I love this Jonny Wayne move. +Yeah. Jack -- you [unclear] with Jack? +Jack of diamonds, correct? (Audience: No.) LG: Yes? +And queen! Queen, with misdirection. +Misdirection. Yeah? +And then, king, after exactly five seconds. +Yeah. Five. Five seconds. +One, two, three, four -- mmm! +Check it. +Yes? +CA: King of diamonds. LG: Ah! +Good. Oh. +Touch me, feel -- ah, ah, you know! +CA: Ladies and gentlemen, Lennart Green! LG: Okay, thank you. +Dogs have interests. +They have interest sniffing each other, chasing squirrels. +And if we don't make that a reward in training, that will be a distraction. +It's always sort of struck me as really a scary thought that if you see a dog in a park, and the owner is calling it, and the owner says, you know, "Puppy, come here, come here," and the dog thinks, "Hmm, interesting. +I'm sniffing this other dog's rear end, the owner's calling." +It's a difficult choice, right? +Rear end, owner. Rear end wins. +I mean, you lose. +You cannot compete with the environment, if you have an adolescent dog's brain. +So, when we train, we're always trying to take into account the dog's point of view. +Now, I'm here largely because there's kind of a rift in dog training at the moment that -- on one side, we have people who think that you train a dog, number one, by making up rules, human rules. +We don't take the dog's point of view into account. +So the human says, "You're going to act this way, damn it. +We're going to force you to act against your will, to bend to our will." +Then, number two, we keep these rules a secret from the dog. +And then number three, now we can punish the dog for breaking rules he didn't even know existed. +So you get a little puppy, he comes. His only crime is he grew. +When he was a little puppy, he puts his paws on your leg -- you know, isn't that nice? +And you go, "Oh, there's a good boy." +You bend down, you pat him -- you reward him for jumping up. +His one mistake is he's a Tibetan mastiff, and a few months later, he weighs, you know, 80 pounds. +Every time he jumps up, he gets all sorts of abuse. +I mean, it is really very, very scary the abuse that dogs get. +So, this whole dominance issue -- number one, what we get in dog training is this Mickey-Mouse interpretation of a very complicated social system. +And they take this stuff seriously. +Male dogs are very serious about a hierarchy, because it prevents physical fights. +Of course, female dogs, bitches, on the other hand, have several bitch amendments to male hierarchical rule. +The number one is, "I have it, you don't." +And what you will find is a very, very low-ranking bitch will quite easily keep a bone away from a high-ranking male. +So, we get in dog training this notion of dominances, or of the alpha dog. I'm sure that you've heard this. +Dogs get so abused. +Dogs, horses and humans -- these are the three species which are so abused in life. +And the reason is built into their behavior -- is to always come back and apologize. +Like, "Oh, I'm sorry you had to beat me. I'm really sorry, yes, it's my fault." +They are just so beatable, and that's why they get beaten. +The poor puppy jumps up, you open the dog book, what does it say? +"Hold his front paws, squeeze his front paws, stamp on his hind feet, squirt him in the face with lemon juice, hit him on the head with a rolled-up newspaper, knee him in the chest, flip him over backwards." +Because he grew? +And because he's performing a behavior you've trained him to do? +This is insanity. +I ask owners, "Well, how would you like the dog to greet you?" +And people say, "Well, I don't know, to sit, I guess." +I said, "Let's teach him to sit." +And then we give him a reason for sitting. +Because the first stage is basically teaching a dog ESL. +I could speak to you and say, "Laytay-chai, paisey, paisey." +Go on, something should happen now. +Why aren't you responding? Oh, you don't speak Swahili. +Well, I've got news for you. +The dog doesn't speak English, or American, or Spanish, or French. +So the first stage in training is to teach the dog ESL, English as a second language. +And that's how we use the food lure in the hand, and we use food because we're dealing with owners. +My wife doesn't need food -- she's a great trainer, much better than I am. +I don't need food, but the average owner says, "Puppy, sit." +Or they go, "Sit, sit, sit." +They're making a hand signal in front of the dog's rectum for some reason, like the dog has a third eye there -- it's insane. +You know, "Sit, sit." +No, we go, "Puppy, sit" -- boom, it's got it in six to 10 trials. +Then we phase out the food as a lure, and now the dog knows that "sit" means sit, and you can actually communicate to a dog in a perfectly constructed English sentence. +"Phoenix, come here, take this, and go to Jamie, please." +And I've taught her "Phoenix," "come here," "take this," "go to" and the name of my son, "Jamie." +And the dog can take a note, and I've got my own little search-and-rescue dog. +He'll find Jamie wherever he is, you know, wherever kids are, crushing rocks by a stream or something, and take him a little message that says, "Hey, dinner's ready. Come in for dinner." +So, at this point, the dog knows what we want it to do. +Will it do it? +Not necessarily, no. +As I said, if he's in the park and there's a rear end to sniff, why come to the owner? +The dog lives with you, the dog can get you any time. +The dog can sniff your butt, if you like, when he wants to. +At the moment, he's in the park, and you are competing with smells, and other dogs, and squirrels. +So the second stage in training is to teach the dog to want to do what we want him to do, and this is very easy. +We use the Premack principle. +Basically, we follow a low-frequency behavior -- one the dog doesn't want to do -- by a high-frequency behavior, commonly known as a behavior problem, or a dog hobby -- something the dog does like to do. +That will then become a reward for the lower-frequency behavior. +So we go, "sit," on the couch; "sit," tummy-rub; "sit," look, I throw a tennis ball; "sit," say hello to that other dog. +Yes, we put "sniff butt" on queue. +"Sit," sniff butt. +So now all of these distractions that worked against training now become rewards that work for training. +And what we're doing, in essence, is we're teaching the dog, kind of like -- we're letting the dog think that the dog is training us. +And I can imagine this dog, you know, speaking through the fence to, say, an Akita, saying, "Wow, my owners, they are so incredibly easy to train. +They're like Golden Retrievers. +All I have to do is sit, and they do everything. +They open doors, they drive my car, they massage me, they will throw tennis balls, they will cook for me and serve the food. +It's like, if I just sit, that's my command. +Then I have my own personal doorman, chauffeur, masseuse, chef and waiter." +And now the dog's really happy. +And this, to me, is always what training is. +So we really motivate the dog to want to do it, such that the need for punishment seldom comes up. +Now we move to phase three, when now -- there's times, you know, when daddy knows best. +And I have a little sign on my fridge, and it says, "Because I'm the daddy, that's why." +Sorry, no more explanation. "I'm the daddy, you're not. Sit." +And there's times, for example, if my son's friends leave the door open, the dogs have to know you don't step across this line. +This is a life-or-death thing. +You leave this, the sanctity of your house, and you could be hit on the street. +So some things we have to let the dog know, "You mustn't do this." +And so we have to enforce, but without force. +People here get very confused about what a punishment is. +They think a punishment is something nasty. +I bet a lot of you do, right? +You think it's something painful, or scary, or nasty. +It doesn't have to be. +There's several definitions of what a punishment is, but one definition, the most popular, is: a punishment is a stimulus that reduces the immediately preceding behavior, such that it's less likely to occur in the future. +It does not have to be nasty, scary or painful. +And I would say, if it doesn't have to be, then maybe it shouldn't be. +I was working with a very dangerous dog about a year ago. +And this was a dog that put both his owners in hospital, plus the brother-in-law, plus the child. +And I only agreed to work with it if they promised it would stay in their house, and they never took it outside. +The dog is actually euthanized now, but this was a dog I worked with for a while. +A lot of the aggression happened around the kitchen, so while I was there -- this was on the fourth visit -- we did a four and a half hour down-stay, with the dog on his mat. +And he was kept there by the owner's calm insistence. +When the dog would try to leave the mat, she would say, "Rover, on the mat, on the mat, on the mat." +The dog broke his down-stay 22 times in four and a half hours, while she cooked dinner, because we had a lot of aggression related towards food. +The breaks got fewer and fewer. +You see, the punishment was working. +The behavior problem was going away. +She never raised her voice. +If she did, she would have got bitten. +It's not a good dog you shout at. +And a lot of my friends train really neat animals, grizzly bears -- if you've ever seen a grizzly bear on the telly or in film, then it's a friend of mine who's trained it -- killer whales. I love it because it wires you up. +How are you going to reprimand a grizzly bear? +"Bad bear, bad bear!" Voom! +Your head now is 100 yards away, sailing through the air, OK? +This is crazy. +So, where do we go from here? +We want a better way. +Dogs deserve better. +But for me, the reason for this actually has to do with dogs. +It has to do with watching people train puppies, and realizing they have horrendous interaction skills, horrendous relationship skills. +Not just with their puppy, but with the rest of the family at class. +I mean, my all-time classic is another "come here" one. +You see someone in the park -- and I'll cover my mic when I say this, because I don't want to wake you up -- and there's the owner in the park, and their dog's over here, and they say, "Rover, come here. +Rover, come here. Rover, come here, you son of a bitch." +The dog says, "I don't think so." +I mean, who in their right mind would think that a dog would want to approach them when they're screaming like that? +Instead, the dog says, "I know that tone. I know that tone. +Previously, when I've approached, I've gotten punished there." +I was walking onto a plane -- this, for me, was a pivotal moment in my career, and it really cemented what I wanted to do with this whole puppy-training thing, the notion of how to teach puppies in a dog-friendly way to want to do what we want to do, so we don't have to force them. +You know, I puppy-train my child. +And the seminal moment was, I was getting on a plane in Dallas, and in row two was a father, I presume, and a young boy about five, kicking the back of the chair. +"Johnny, don't do that." +Kick, kick, kick. +"Johnny, don't do that." Kick, kick, kick. +I'm standing right here with my bag. +The father leans over, grabs him like this and gives him ugly face. +And ugly face is this -- when you go face-to-face with a puppy or a child, you say, "What are you doing! Now stop it, stop it, stop it!" +And I went, "Oh my God, do I do something?" +That child has lost everything -- that one of the two people he can trust in this world has absolutely pulled the rug from under his feet. +And I thought, "Do I tell this jerk to quit it?" +I thought, "Ian, stay out of it, stay out of it, you know, walk on." +I walked to the back of the plane, I sat down, and a thought came to me. +If that had been a dog, I would have laid him out. +If he had kicked a dog, I would have punched him out. +He kicked a child, grabs the child like this and I let it go. +And this is what it's all about. +These relationship skills are so easy. +I mean, we as humans, our shallowness when we choose a life-mate based on the three Cs -- coat color, conformation, cuteness. +You know, kind of like a little robot. +This is how we go into a relationship, and it's hunky-dory for a year. +And then, a little behavior problem comes up. +No different from the dog barking. +The husband won't clear up his clothes, or the wife's always late for meetings, whatever it is, OK? +And it then starts, and we get into this thing, and our personal feedback -- there's two things about it. +When you watch people interacting with animals or other people, there is very little feedback, it's too infrequent. +And when it happens, it's bad, it's nasty. +You see it's especially in families, especially with spouses, especially with children, especially with parents. +You see it especially in the workplace, especially from boss to employee. +It's as if there's some schadenfreude there, that we actually take delight in people getting things wrong, so that we can then moan and groan and bitch at them. +And this, I would say, is the biggest human foible that we have. +It really is. +We take the good for granted, and we moan and groan at the bad. +And I think this whole notion of these skills should be taught. +You know, calculus is wonderful. +When I was a kid, I was a calculus whiz. +I don't understand a thing about it now, but I could do it as a kid. +Geometry, fantastic. You know, quantum mechanics -- these are cool things. +But they don't save marriages and they don't raise children. +And my look to the future is, and what I want to do with this doggy stuff, is to teach people that you know, your husband's just as easy to train. +Probably easier -- if you got a Rottie -- much easier to train. +Your kids are easy to train. +All you've got to do is to watch them, to time-sample the behavior, and say, every five minutes, you ask the question, "Is it good, or is it bad?" +If it's good, say, "That was really neat, thank you." +That is such a powerful training technique. +This should be taught in schools. +Relationships -- how do you negotiate? +How you do negotiate with your friend who wants your toy? +You know, how to prepare you for your first relationship? +How on earth about raising children? +We think how we do it -- one night in bed, we're pregnant, and then we're raising the most important thing in life, a child. +No, this is what should be taught -- the good living, the good habits, which are just as hard to break as bad habits. +So, that would be my wish to the future. +Ah, damn, I wanted to end exactly on time, but I got eight, seven, six, five, four, three, two -- so thank you very much. That's my talk, thank you. +Ninety-nine percent of us have the dream of listeners. +Not being the musicians -- the listeners, right? +And we crave one thing, even though we kind of don't know it all the time. +We crave to be in the room with the musician the day it was recorded, the day it was played. +And we go to live concerts, and we get that as much as we can. +But then we listen to the other 99 percent of our stuff recorded. +And it turns out the further back you go in history, the little rougher it sounds. +And so we said, there's a solution to this. +Let's separate the performance, as a thing, out from the recording, which was how it was made. +You know, the thing with microphones in the room and all that day. +But the performance itself was how the musicians worked their fingers, and what instruments they were using. +And it's the data hidden inside the recording. +In order to do this, it's a lot of hardware and software that runs in a very high resolution. +And Yamaha makes an incredible thing called the Disklavier Pro that looks like a nice grand piano there. +And you probably didn't realize it's going to do all these things -- but full of solenoids, and fiber optics, and computers and all this kind of stuff. The highest resolution out of Japan. +And this just didn't work until we could cross this line that says high-definition. +And we were able to cross this line, called the uncanny valley, in terms of -- artificial intelligence terms. +We have a process where we, you know, kind of put it into the computer and digitize it, and then a whole lot of analysis. +And we look at every single note, and all the attributes of those notes: how hard they were struck, and how they were held down, and how you move the fingers. +So we had to develop a whole new science of how you move your fingers. +And, you know, it's a thing your piano teacher teaches you, but we never had a science behind these kinds of things. +I'm going to start with Glenn Gould. +He died 25 years ago this year, and was born 75 years ago this year. +Was a beloved pianist, maybe the great cult pianist of the twentieth century. +He just got tired of being in front of an audience, and felt like -- a performing monkey was, in fact, his term. +So he stepped back, and did nothing but the crafting of his work. +And Gould's specialty was playing Bach. +His maybe most famous recording was something called "The Goldberg Variations." +Bach only wrote themes and variations one time. +He wrote some early pieces, but late in his life, in his mature period, he said, "Here's a theme -- 30 variations." +In fact, the theme isn't even the melody, it's the bass line. +And Gould recorded it in two major recordings that you may know about, one in mono, and one in stereo. +And the one in mono, by the way, he used the pedal, and as he got older, he said, "No, no, wait a minute. +I'm going to get very scientific about this, and not use the pedal." +What I'd like you to hear live is the 1955 version, and we'll play the first couple pieces of it. +Glenn Gould, 1955. +How about that? +So let me tell you a little bit how this was done. +First of all, let me get you to the end step. +This is -- we have a fairly complex process that, you know, software and musicians and so on, but when we're all done, we know that the ear is the final arbiter. +We can play the original in one ear, and a new recording in the other. +So I'm going to do this for you right now, what you just heard. +And in the right speaker is going to be the original recording, and the left speaker is going to be the new recording, actually of an instrument just like that one, and I'm going to play them together at the same time. +That's the original. [Unclear] That's the two together. +Before "Jurassic Park," there was no science for how skin hung off of muscle, right? +So, in the video world, we've been able to invent, in our lifetimes, natural behavior. +And this is kind of another example of putting a science behind natural behavior. +And then you heard the original. +Ultimately, I started with the experience. +And the experience is: I want to be in the room and hear the musicians. +Lots of you can afford to buy one of these. +But, if not, there is now high-definition surround sound. +And I got to tell you, if you haven't heard high-definition surround, go down to your audio dealer, your audiophile dealer. +It's so involving compared to regular stereo. +But if you don't have that, maybe you can listen on your headphones. +And so on the same disk we have five recordings -- Sony has five recordings. +And you could listen in headphones with this thing called binaural recording. +And it's a dummy head that sits in front of the instrument, and it's got microphones where the ears are. +And when you put on headphones, and you listen to this, you're inside of Glenn Gould's body. +And it is a chuckle until, you know, the musicians, who are musicians who play the piano, listen to this, say, "I can't believe it! It's just what it's like to play the piano." +Except now you're inside Glenn Gould's body playing the piano, and it feels like your fingers are making the decisions and moving through the whole process. +It's a game changer. +Here's now something we know in spectacular quality. +The whole process is very sensitive to temperature and humidity. +What you heard today was not perfect. +It's an amalgam of wood, and cast iron, and felt, and steel strings, and all these, and they're all amazingly sensitive to temperature and humidity. +So when you go into the recording session, you get to stop after every piece and rebuild the piano if you need to. +There's the whole action there, sitting, kind of, on the side, and the dummy head and our recording engineers standing around while we rebuild the piano. +Without putting dates next to these things, step-by-step music will be turned into data, like every field that's occurred in the past 35 or 40 years. +Audio has come very late to this game -- I'm not talking about digitizing, and bits, and re-mastering. +I'm talking about turn it into the data that it was made from, which is how it was performed. +And audio came very late because our ears are so hard to fool -- they're high-resolution, and they're wired straight to our emotions, and you can't trick them very easily. +Your eyes are pretty happy with some color and movement, you know. +All right, there's this episode of "Star Trek." +I get it -- it was all just laid in for me yesterday there. +The episode of "Star Trek" for me was James Daly played Methuselah -- remember this one? +And at some point he's dancing with his -- and I won't ruin the episode for you, from 1967. +Right, do you know where I'm going? +And Nimoy, I'm sorry, Spock sits down at the piano, and he starts playing this Brahms waltz, and they all dance to it. +And then Spock turns round, he goes, "James, I know all of the Brahms waltzes, and I don't believe this is one of them in the category." +That's where I'm at. +I want to hear the waltzes Brahms didn't write. +I want to hear the pieces that Horowitz didn't play. +But I believe we're on a path now, when we get to data, that we can distill styles, and templates, and formulas, and all these kinds of things, again, that you've seen happen in the computer graphics world. +It's now coming in this world. +The transition will be this one. +It says right now, we think music is notes and how they're played. +And I believe this is coming. +Because what you've just heard was a computer playing data -- no Glenn Gould in the room. +But yet, it was human. +And I believe you'll get to the next step, the real dream of listeners. +Every time you listen to a recording today, every time you take out your iPod and whatever, every time you listen to it, it's the same thing -- it's frozen. +Wouldn't it be cool if every time you listened, it could be different? +This morning, you're sadder, you want to hear your song, the same song, played sadder than you did yesterday. +You want to hear it played by different musicians. +You want to hear it in different rooms and whatever. +We've seen all these "Star Treks," and they're all holodeck episodes as well. +Every time I listen to that, I get goose bumps. +It's so amazing, it's so exciting. +Every time I listen to that recording it's like, "Oh my God, I can't believe I'm in the same room. I can't believe this is happening." +It's a way better experience than whatever you're used to listening to, in whatever form. +And lastly, I will wrap up with one minute of Art Tatum. +So I've really overshot my budget here. +We made a new recording of him playing in the Shrine Auditorium in September. +It was a concert he recorded in the Shrine Auditorium in 1949. +And I've got to tell you, we have this lab where we build and measure everything, back in Raleigh, North Carolina, and we flew out to Los Angeles. +And as the president of the company, I didn't feel real comfortable about where we were. +That's a real uncomfortable feeling, when all the equipment's come out and a whole Sony team, and people are going to be sitting there in the audience. +And we put the piano on the sweet spot of the stage in the Shrine, which has not changed since 1949, still seats 6,000 people. +And on the sweet spot on the stage, Tatum starts playing ... +and every note, every beat, every slur, every accent, every pedal was perfect, because he played it for that room on that day. +And we captured all that data all over again. +And I want you to hear that right now. +And fortunately, it's right in here. +This is an encore he used to do. +It's one minute long. +It's an Irish jig, and I want you to hear his humor. +And that's just what the live audience did. +So thank you very much, Michael, thank you for the opportunity. +So what's image got do with it? +And I must say, I think Emeka is trying to send a lot of subliminal messages, because I'm going to keep harping on some of the issues that have come up. +But I'm going to try and do something different, and try and just close the loop with some of my personal stories, and try and put a face to a lot of the issues that we've been talking about. +So, Africa is a complex continent full of contradictions, as you can see. +We're not the only ones. +And you know, it's amazing. +I mean, we need a whole conference just devoted to telling the good stories about the continent. +Just think about that, you know? +And this is typically what we've been talking about, the role that the media plays in focusing just on the negative stuff. +Now, why is that a problem? +A typical disaster story: disease, corruption, poverty. +And some of you might be standing here thinking, saying, "OK, you know, Ory, you're Harvard-educated, and all you privileged people come here, saying, 'Forget the poor people. +Let's focus on business and the markets, and whatever.' " And they're all, "There's the 80 percent of Africans who really need help." +And I want to tell you that this is my story, OK? +And it's the story of many of the Africans who are here. +We start with poverty. +I didn't grow up in the slums or anything that dire, but I know what it is to grow up without having money, or being able to support family. +Euvin was talking about bellwether signs. +The bellwether for whether our family was broke or not was breakfast. +You know, when things were good, we had eggs and sausages. +When things were bad, we had porridge. +And like many African families, my parents could never save because they supported siblings, cousins, you know, their parents, and things were always dicey. +Now, when I was born, they realized they had a pretty smart kid, and they didn't want me to go to the neighborhood school, which was free. +And they adopted a very interesting approach to education, which was they were going to take me to a school that they can barely afford. +So they took me to a private, Catholic, elementary school, which set the foundation for what ended up being my career. +And what happened was, because they could afford it sometimes, sometimes not, I got kicked out pretty much every term. +You know, someone would come in with a list of the people who haven't paid school fees, and when they started getting pretty strict, you had to leave, until your school fees could be paid. +And I remember thinking, I mean, why don't these guys just take me to a cheap school? +Because you know, as a kid you're embarrassed and you're sensitive, and everyone knows you guys don't have money. +But they kept at it, and I now understand why they did what they did. +They talk about corruption. +In Kenya, we have an entrance exam to go into high school. +And there's national schools, which are like the best schools, and provincial schools. +My dream school at that time was Kenya High School, a national school. +I missed the cutoff by one point. +And I was so disappointed, and I was like, "Oh my God, you know, what am I going to do?" +And my father said, "OK, listen. +Let's go and try and talk to the headmistress. +You know, it's just one point. I mean, maybe she'll let you in if that slot's still there." +So we went to the school, and because we were nobodies, and because we didn't have privilege, and because my father didn't have the right last name, he was treated like dirt. +And I sat and listened to the headmistress talk to him, saying, you know, who do you think you are? +And, you know, you must be joking if you think you can get a slot. +And I had gone to school with other girls, who were kids of politicians, and who had done much, much worse than I did, and they had slots there. +And there's nothing worse than seeing your parent being humiliated in front of you, you know? +And we left, and I swore to myself, and I was like, "I'm never, ever going to have to beg for anything in my life." +They called me two weeks later, they're like, oh, yeah, you can come now. And I told them to stuff it. +Final story, and I sort of have to speak quickly. +Disease. +My father, who I've been talking about, died of AIDS in 1999. +He never told anyone that he had AIDS, his fear of the stigma was so strong. +And I'm pretty much the one who figured it out, because I was a nerd. +And I was in the States at the time, and they called me. He was very sick, the first time he got sick. +And he had Cryptococcal meningitis. +And so I went on to Google, Cryptococcal meningitis, you know. +Because of doctor-patient privilege, they couldn't really tell us what was going on. +But they were like, you know, this is a long-term thing. +And when I went online and looked at the infectious -- read about the disease, I pretty much realized what was going on. +The first time he got sick, he recovered. +But what happened was that he had to be on medication that, at that time -- Diflucan, which in the States is used for yeast infections -- cost 30 dollars a pill. +He had to be on that pill for the rest of his life. +You know, so money ran out. +He got sick again. +And up until that time, he had a friend who used to travel to India, and he used to import, bring him, could get him a generic version of it. +And that kept him going. +But the money ran out. +He got sick again. He got sick on a Friday. +At that time, there was only one bank that had ATMs in Kenya, and we could not get cash. The family couldn't get cash for him to start the treatment until Monday. +The hospital put him on a water drip for three days. +And finally, we figured, well, OK, we'd better just try and take him to a public hospital. +At least he'll get treated while we try to figure out the money situation. +And he died when the ambulance was coming to the hospital to take him. +And, you know, now, imagine if -- and I could go on and on -- imagine if this is all you know about me. +How would you look at me? +With pity, you know. Sadness. +And this is how you look at Africa. +This is the damage it causes. +You don't see the other side of me. +You don't see the blogger, you don't see the Harvard-educated lawyer, the vibrant person, you know? +And I just wanted to personalize that. +Because we talk about it in big terms, and you wonder, you know, so what? +But it's damaging. +And I'm not unique, right? +Imagine if all you knew about William was the fact that he grew up in a poor village. +And you didn't know about the windmill, you know? +And I was just moved. +I was actually crying during his presentation. +He was like, I try and I make. +I was like Nike should hire him, you know, "Just do it!" +And this is, again, the point I'm trying to make. +When you focus just on the disasters -- -- we're ignoring the potential. +So, what is to be done? +First of all, Africans, we need to get better at telling our stories. +We heard about that yesterday. +We had some of them this morning. +And this is an example, you know, blogging is one way of doing that. +Afrigator is an aggregator of African blogs that was developed in South Africa. +So we need to start getting better. +If no one else will tell our stories, let's do it. +And going back to the point I was trying to make, this is the Swahili Wikipedia. +Swahili is spoken by about 50 million people in East Africa. +It only has five contributors. +Four of them are white males -- non-native speakers. +The other person is -- Ndesanjo, if you're here, stand up -- is a Tanzanian, [the] first Swahili blogger. +He's the only African who's contributing to this. +People, please. We can't whine and complain the West is doing this. +What are we doing? +Where are the rest of the Swahili speakers? +Why are we not generating our own content? +You know, it's not enough to complain. We need to act. +Reuters now integrates African blogs into their coverage of Africa. +So, that's a start, and we've heard of all their other initiatives. +The cheetah generation. +The aid approach, you know, is flawed. +And after all the hoopla of Live 8, we're still not anywhere in the picture. +No, you're not. +But the point I'm trying to make, though, is that it's not enough for us to criticize. +And for those of you in the diaspora who are struggling with where should I be, should I move back, should I stay? +You know, just jump. +The continent needs you. +And I can't emphasize that enough, you know. +I walked away from a job with one of the top firms in D.C., Covington and Burling, six figures. +With two paychecks, or three paychecks, I could solve a lot of my family's problems. +But I walked away from that, because my passion was here, and because I wanted to do things that were fulfilling. +And because I'm needed here, you know? +I probably can win a prize for the most ways to use a Harvard Law School degree because of all the things I'm doing. +One is because I'm pretty aggressive, and I try and find, you know, opportunities. +But there is such a need, you know? +I'm a corporate lawyer most of the time for an organization called Enablis that supports entrepreneurs in South Africa. +We're now moving into East Africa. +And we give them business development services, as well as financing loan and equity. +I've also set up a project in Kenya, and what we do is we track the performance of Kenyan MPs. +My partner, M, who's a tech guru, hacked WordPress. +It costs us, like, 20 dollars a month just for hosting. +Everything else on there is a labor of love. +We've manually entered all the data there. +And you can get profiles of each MP, questions they've asked in parliament. +We have a comment function, where people can ask their MPs questions. +There are some MPs who participate, and come back and ask. +And basically, we started this because we were tired of complaining about our politicians. +You know, I believe that accountability stems from demand. +You're not just going to be accountable out of the goodness of your heart. +And we as Africans need to start challenging our leaders. +What are they doing? +You know, they're not going to change just out of nowhere. +So we need new policies, we need -- where's that coming from, you know? +Another thing is that these leaders are a reflection of our society. +We talk about African governments like they've been dropped from Mars, you know? +They come from us. +And what is it about our society that is generating leaders that we don't like? +And how can we change that? +So Mzalendo was one small way we thought we could start inspiring people to start holding their leaders accountable. +Where do we go from here? +I believe in the power of ideas. +I believe in the power of sharing knowledge. +And I'd ask all of you, when you leave here, please just share, and keep the ideas that you've gotten out of here going, because it can make a difference. +The other thing I want to urge you to do is take an interest in the individual. +I've had lots of conversations about things I think need to be happening in Africa. +People are like, "OK, if you don't do aid, I'm a bleeding heart liberal, what can I do?" +And when I talk about my ideas, they're like, "BBut it's not scalable, you know. +Give me something I can do with Paypal." +It's not that easy, you know? +And sometimes just taking an interest in the individual, in the fellows you've met, and the businesspeople you've met, it can make a huge difference, especially in Africa, because usually the individual in Africa carries a lot of people behind them. +Practically. I mean, when I was a first-year student in law school, my mom's business had collapsed, so I was supporting her. +My sister was struggling to get through undergrad. +I was helping her pay her tuition. +My cousin ran out of school fees, and she's really smart. +I was paying her school fees. +A cousin of mine died of AIDS, left an orphan, so we said, well, what are we going to do with her? +You know, she's now my baby sister. +And because of the opportunities that were afforded to me, I am able to lift all those people. +So, don't underestimate that. +An example. This man changed my life. +He's a professor. He's now at Vanderbilt. +He's an undergrad professor, Mitchell Seligson. +And because of him, I got into Harvard Law School, because he took an interest. +I was taking a class of his, and he was just like, this is an overeager student, which we don't normally get in the United States, because everyone else is cynical and jaded. +He called me to his office and said, "What do you want to do when you grow up?" +I said, "I want to be a lawyer." +And he was like, "Why? You know, we don't need another lawyer in the United States." +And he tried to talk me out of it, but it was like, "OK, I know nothing about applying to law school, I'm poli-sci Ph.D. +But, you know, let's figure out what I need you to do, what I need to do to help you out." +It was like, "Where do you want to go?" +And to me at that time university -- I was at University of Pitts for undergrad, and that was like heaven, OK, because compared to what could have been in Kenya. +So I'm like, "Yeah, I'm just applying to Pitt for law school." +He was like, "Why? You know, you're smart, you have all these things going for you." +And I'm like, "Because I'm here and it's cheap, and you know, I kind of like Pittsburgh." +Like, that's the dumbest reason I've ever heard for applying to law school. +And, you know, so he took me under his wing, and he encouraged me. +And he said, "Look, you can get into Harvard, you're that good, OK? +And if they don't admit you, they're the ones who are messed up." +And he built me up, you know? +And this is just an illustration. +You can meet other individuals here. +We just need a push. +That's all I needed was a push to go to the next level. +Basically, I want to end with my vision for Africa, you know? +A gentleman spoke yesterday about the indignity of us having to leave the continent so that we can fulfill our potential. +You know, my vision is that my daughter, and any other African child being born today, can be whoever they want to be here, without having to leave. +And they can have the possibility of transcending the circumstances under which they were born. +That's one thing you Americans take for granted, you know? +That you can grow up, you know, not so good circumstances, and you can move. +Just because you are born in rural Arkansas, whatever, that doesn't define who you are. +For most Africans today, where you live, or where you were born, and the circumstances under which you were born, determine the rest of your life. +I would like to see that change, and the change starts with us. +And as Africans, we need to take responsibility for our continent. +Thank you. +So, people argue vigorously about the definition of life. +They ask if it should have reproduction in it, or metabolism, or evolution. +And I don't know the answer to that, so I'm not going to tell you. +I will say that life involves computation. +So this is a computer program. +Booted up in a cell, the program would execute, and it could result in this person; or with a small change, it could result in this person; or another small change, this person; or with a larger change, this dog, or this tree, or this whale. +So now, if you take this metaphor [of] genome as program seriously, you have to consider that Chris Anderson is a computer-fabricated artifact, as is Jim Watson, Craig Venter, as are all of us. +And in convincing yourself that this metaphor is true, there are lots of similarities between genetic programs and computer programs that could help to convince you. +But one, to me, that's most compelling is the peculiar sensitivity to small changes that can make large changes in biological development -- the output. +A small mutation can take a two-wing fly and make it a four-wing fly. +Or it could take a fly and put legs where its antennae should be. +Or if you're familiar with "The Princess Bride," it could create a six-fingered man. +Now, a hallmark of computer programs is just this kind of sensitivity to small changes. +If your bank account's one dollar, and you flip a single bit, you could end up with a thousand dollars. +So these small changes are things that I think that -- they indicate to us that a complicated computation in development is underlying these amplified, large changes. +So now, all of this indicates that there are molecular programs underlying biology, and it shows the power of molecular programs -- biology does. +And what I want to do is write molecular programs, potentially to build technology. +And there are a lot of people doing this, a lot of synthetic biologists doing this, like Craig Venter. +And they concentrate on using cells. +They're cell-oriented. +So my friends, molecular programmers, and I have a sort of biomolecule-centric approach. +We're interested in using DNA, RNA and protein, and building new languages for building things from the bottom up, using biomolecules, potentially having nothing to do with biology. +So, these are all the machines in a cell. +There's a camera. +There's the solar panels of the cell, some switches that turn your genes on and off, the girders of the cell, motors that move your muscles. +My little group of molecular programmers are trying to refashion all of these parts from DNA. +We're not DNA zealots, but DNA is the cheapest, easiest to understand and easy to program material to do this. +And as other things become easier to use -- maybe protein -- we'll work with those. +If we succeed, what will molecular programming look like? +You're going to sit in front of your computer. +You're going to design something like a cell phone, and in a high-level language, you'll describe that cell phone. +Then you're going to have a compiler that's going to take that description and it's going to turn it into actual molecules that can be sent to a synthesizer and that synthesizer will pack those molecules into a seed. +And what happens if you water and feed that seed appropriately, is it will do a developmental computation, a molecular computation, and it'll build an electronic computer. +And if I haven't revealed my prejudices already, I think that life has been about molecular computers building electrochemical computers, building electronic computers, which together with electrochemical computers will build new molecular computers, which will build new electronic computers, and so forth. +And if you buy all of this, and you think life is about computation, as I do, then you look at big questions through the eyes of a computer scientist. +So one big question is, how does a baby know when to stop growing? +And for molecular programming, the question is how does your cell phone know when to stop growing? +Or how does a computer program know when to stop running? +Or more to the point, how do you know if a program will ever stop? +There are other questions like this, too. +One of them is Craig Venter's question. +Turns out I think he's actually a computer scientist. +He asked, how big is the minimal genome that will give me a functioning microorganism? +How few genes can I use? +This is exactly analogous to the question, what's the smallest program I can write that will act exactly like Microsoft Word? +And just as he's writing, you know, bacteria that will be smaller, he's writing genomes that will work, we could write smaller programs that would do what Microsoft Word does. +But for molecular programming, our question is, how many molecules do we need to put in that seed to get a cell phone? +What's the smallest number we can get away with? +Now, these are big questions in computer science. +These are all complexity questions, and computer science tells us that these are very hard questions. +Almost -- many of them are impossible. +But for some tasks, we can start to answer them. +So, I'm going to start asking those questions for the DNA structures I'm going to talk about next. +So, this is normal DNA, what you think of as normal DNA. +It's double-stranded, it's a double helix, has the As, Ts, Cs and Gs that pair to hold the strands together. +And I'm going to draw it like this sometimes, just so I don't scare you. +We want to look at individual strands and not think about the double helix. +When we synthesize it, it comes single-stranded, so we can take the blue strand in one tube and make an orange strand in the other tube, and they're floppy when they're single-stranded. +You mix them together and they make a rigid double helix. +Now for the last 25 years, Ned Seeman and a bunch of his descendants have worked very hard and made beautiful three-dimensional structures using this kind of reaction of DNA strands coming together. +But a lot of their approaches, though elegant, take a long time. +They can take a couple of years, or it can be difficult to design. +So I came up with a new method a couple of years ago I call DNA origami that's so easy you could do it at home in your kitchen and design the stuff on a laptop. +But to do it, you need a long, single strand of DNA, which is technically very difficult to get. +So, you can go to a natural source. +You can look in this computer-fabricated artifact, and he's got a double-stranded genome -- that's no good. +You look in his intestines. There are billions of bacteria. +They're no good either. +Double strand again, but inside them, they're infected with a virus that has a nice, long, single-stranded genome that we can fold like a piece of paper. +And here's how we do it. +This is part of that genome. +We add a bunch of short, synthetic DNAs that I call staples. +Each one has a left half that binds the long strand in one place, and a right half that binds it in a different place, and brings the long strand together like this. +The net action of many of these on that long strand is to fold it into something like a rectangle. +Now, we can't actually take a movie of this process, but Shawn Douglas at Harvard has made a nice visualization for us that begins with a long strand and has some short strands in it. +And what happens is that we mix these strands together. +We heat them up, we add a little bit of salt, we heat them up to almost boiling and cool them down, and as we cool them down, the short strands bind the long strands and start to form structure. +And you can see a little bit of double helix forming there. +When you look at DNA origami, you can see that what it really is, even though you think it's complicated, is a bunch of double helices that are parallel to each other, and they're held together by places where short strands go along one helix and then jump to another one. +So there's a strand that goes like this, goes along one helix and binds -- it jumps to another helix and comes back. +That holds the long strand like this. +Now, to show that we could make any shape or pattern that we wanted, I tried to make this shape. +I wanted to fold DNA into something that goes up over the eye, down the nose, up the nose, around the forehead, back down and end in a little loop like this. +And so, I thought, if this could work, anything could work. +So I had the computer program design the short staples to do this. +I ordered them; they came by FedEx. +I mixed them up, heated them, cooled them down, and I got 50 billion little smiley faces floating around in a single drop of water. +And each one of these is just one-thousandth the width of a human hair, OK? +So, they're all floating around in solution, and to look at them, you have to get them on a surface where they stick. +So, you pour them out onto a surface and they start to stick to that surface, and we take a picture using an atomic-force microscope. +It's got a needle, like a record needle, that goes back and forth over the surface, bumps up and down, and feels the height of the first surface. +It feels the DNA origami. +There's the atomic-force microscope working and you can see that the landing's a little rough. +When you zoom in, they've got, you know, weak jaws that flip over their heads and some of their noses get punched out, but it's pretty good. +You can zoom in and even see the extra little loop, this little nano-goatee. +Now, what's great about this is anybody can do this. +And so, I got this in the mail about a year after I did this, unsolicited. +Anyone know what this is? What is it? +It's China, right? +So, what happened is, a graduate student in China, Lulu Qian, did a great job. +She wrote all her own software to design and built this DNA origami, a beautiful rendition of China, which even has Taiwan, and you can see it's sort of on the world's shortest leash, right? +So, this works really well and you can make patterns as well as shapes, OK? +And you can make a map of the Americas and spell DNA with DNA. +And what's really neat about it -- well, actually, this all looks like nano-artwork, but it turns out that nano-artwork is just what you need to make nano-circuits. +So, you can put circuit components on the staples, like a light bulb and a light switch. +Let the thing assemble, and you'll get some kind of a circuit. +And then you can maybe wash the DNA away and have the circuit left over. +So, this is what some colleagues of mine at Caltech did. +They took a DNA origami, organized some carbon nano-tubes, made a little switch, you see here, wired it up, tested it and showed that it is indeed a switch. +Now, this is just a single switch and you need half a billion for a computer, so we have a long way to go. +But this is very promising because the origami can organize parts just one-tenth the size of those in a normal computer. +So it's very promising for making small computers. +Now, I want to get back to that compiler. +The DNA origami is a proof that that compiler actually works. +So, you start with something in the computer. +You get a high-level description of the computer program, a high-level description of the origami. +You can compile it to molecules, send it to a synthesizer, and it actually works. +And it turns out that a company has made a nice program that's much better than my code, which was kind of ugly, and will allow us to do this in a nice, visual, computer-aided design way. +So, now you can say, all right, why isn't DNA origami the end of the story? +You have your molecular compiler, you can do whatever you want. +The fact is that it does not scale. +So if you want to build a human from DNA origami, the problem is, you need a long strand that's 10 trillion trillion bases long. +That's three light years' worth of DNA, so we're not going to do this. +We're going to turn to another technology, called algorithmic self-assembly of tiles. +It was started by Erik Winfree, and what it does, it has tiles that are a hundredth the size of a DNA origami. +You zoom in, there are just four DNA strands and they have little single-stranded bits on them that can bind to other tiles, if they match. +And we like to draw these tiles as little squares. +And if you look at their sticky ends, these little DNA bits, you can see that they actually form a checkerboard pattern. +So, these tiles would make a complicated, self-assembling checkerboard. +And the point of this, if you didn't catch that, is that tiles are a kind of molecular program and they can output patterns. +And a really amazing part of this is that any computer program can be translated into one of these tile programs -- specifically, counting. +So, you can come up with a set of tiles that when they come together, form a little binary counter rather than a checkerboard. +So you can read off binary numbers five, six and seven. +And in order to get these kinds of computations started right, you need some kind of input, a kind of seed. +You can use DNA origami for that. +You can encode the number 32 in the right-hand side of a DNA origami, and when you add those tiles that count, they will start to count -- they will read that 32 and they'll stop at 32. +So, what we've done is we've figured out a way to have a molecular program know when to stop going. +It knows when to stop growing because it can count. +It knows how big it is. +So, that answers that sort of first question I was talking about. +It doesn't tell us how babies do it, however. +So now, we can use this counting to try and get at much bigger things than DNA origami could otherwise. +Here's the DNA origami, and what we can do is we can write 32 on both edges of the DNA origami, and we can now use our watering can and water with tiles, and we can start growing tiles off of that and create a square. +The counter serves as a template to fill in a square in the middle of this thing. +So, what we've done is we've succeeded in making something much bigger than a DNA origami by combining DNA origami with tiles. +And the neat thing about it is, is that it's also reprogrammable. +You can just change a couple of the DNA strands in this binary representation and you'll get 96 rather than 32. +And if you do that, the origami's the same size, but the resulting square that you get is three times bigger. +So, this sort of recapitulates what I was telling you about development. +You have a very sensitive computer program where small changes -- single, tiny, little mutations -- can take something that made one size square and make something very much bigger. +Now, this -- using counting to compute and build these kinds of things by this kind of developmental process is something that also has bearing on Craig Venter's question. +So, you can ask, how many DNA strands are required to build a square of a given size? +If we wanted to make a square of size 10, 100 or 1,000, if we used DNA origami alone, we would require a number of DNA strands that's the square of the size of that square; so we'd need 100, 10,000 or a million DNA strands. +That's really not affordable. +But if we use a little computation -- we use origami, plus some tiles that count -- then we can get away with using 100, 200 or 300 DNA strands. +And so we can exponentially reduce the number of DNA strands we use, if we use counting, if we use a little bit of computation. +And so computation is some very powerful way to reduce the number of molecules you need to build something, to reduce the size of the genome that you're building. +And finally, I'm going to get back to that sort of crazy idea about computers building computers. +If you look at the square that you build with the origami and some counters growing off it, the pattern that it has is exactly the pattern that you need to make a memory. +So if you affix some wires and switches to those tiles -- rather than to the staple strands, you affix them to the tiles -- then they'll self-assemble the somewhat complicated circuits, the demultiplexer circuits, that you need to address this memory. +So you can actually make a complicated circuit using a little bit of computation. +It's a molecular computer building an electronic computer. +Now, you ask me, how far have we gotten down this path? +Experimentally, this is what we've done in the last year. +Here is a DNA origami rectangle, and here are some tiles growing from it. +And you can see how they count. +One, two, three, four, five, six, nine, 10, 11, 12, 17. +So it's got some errors, but at least it counts up. +So, it turns out we actually had this idea nine years ago, and that's about the time constant for how long it takes to do these kinds of things, so I think we made a lot of progress. +We've got ideas about how to fix these errors. +And I think in the next five or 10 years, we'll make the kind of squares that I described and maybe even get to some of those self-assembled circuits. +So now, what do I want you to take away from this talk? +I want you to remember that to create life's very diverse and complex forms, life uses computation to do that. +And the computations that it uses, they're molecular computations, and in order to understand this and get a better handle on it, as Feynman said, you know, we need to build something to understand it. +And so we are going to use molecules and refashion this thing, rebuild everything from the bottom up, using DNA in ways that nature never intended, using DNA origami, and DNA origami to seed this algorithmic self-assembly. +You know, so this is all very cool, but what I'd like you to take from the talk, hopefully from some of those big questions, is that this molecular programming isn't just about making gadgets. +It's not just making about -- it's making self-assembled cell phones and circuits. +What it's really about is taking computer science and looking at big questions in a new light, asking new versions of those big questions and trying to understand how biology can make such amazing things. Thank you. +I'm going to try and explain why it is that perhaps we don't understand as much as we think we do. +I'd like to begin with four questions. +This is not some sort of cultural thing for the time of year. +That's an in-joke, by the way. +But these four questions, actually, are ones that people who even know quite a lot about science find quite hard. +And they're questions that I've asked of science television producers, of audiences of science educators -- so that's science teachers -- and also of seven-year-olds, and I find that the seven-year-olds do marginally better than the other audiences, which is somewhat surprising. +So the first question, and you might want to write this down, either on a bit of paper, physically, or a virtual piece of paper in your head. And, for viewers at home, you can try this as well. +A little seed weighs next to nothing and a tree weighs a lot, right? +I think we agree on that. Where does the tree get the stuff that makes up this chair, right? Where does all this stuff come from? +And your next question is, can you light a little torch-bulb with a battery, a bulb and one piece of wire? +And would you be able to, kind of, draw a -- you don't have to draw the diagram, but would you be able to draw the diagram, if you had to do it? Or would you just say, that's actually not possible? +The third question is, why is it hotter in summer than in winter? +I think we can probably agree that it is hotter in summer than in winter, but why? And finally, would you be able to -- and you can sort of scribble it, if you like -- scribble a plan diagram of the solar system, showing the shape of the planets' orbits? +Would you be able to do that? +And if you can, just scribble a pattern. +OK. Now, children get their ideas not from teachers, as teachers often think, but actually from common sense, from experience of the world around them, from all the things that go on between them and their peers, and their carers, and their parents, and all of that. Experience. +And one of the great experts in this field, of course, was, bless him, Cardinal Wolsey. Be very careful what you get into people's heads because it's virtually impossible to shift it afterwards, right? +I'm not quite sure how he died, actually. +Was he beheaded in the end, or hung? +Now, those questions, which, of course, you've got right, and you haven't been conferring, and so on. +And I -- you know, normally, I would pick people out and humiliate, but maybe not in this instance. +A little seed weighs a lot and, basically, all this stuff, 99 percent of this stuff, came out of the air. +Now, I guarantee that about 85 percent of you, or maybe it's fewer at TED, will have said it comes out of the ground. And some people, probably two of you, will come up and argue with me afterwards, and say that actually, it comes out of the ground. +Now, if that was true, we'd have trucks going round the country, filling people's gardens in with soil, it'd be a fantastic business. +But, actually, we don't do that. +The mass of this comes out of the air. +Now, I passed all my biology exams in Britain. +I passed them really well, but I still came out of school thinking that that stuff came out of the ground. +Second one: can you light a little torch-bulb with a battery bulb and one piece of wire? +Yes, you can, and I'll show you in a second how to do that. +We chose MIT because, obviously, that's a very long way away from here, and you wouldn't mind too much, but it sort of works the same way in Britain and in the West Coast of the USA. +And we asked them these questions, and we asked those questions of science graduates, and they couldn't answer them. +And so, there's a whole lot of people saying, "I'd be very surprised if you told me that this came out of the air. +That's very surprising to me." And those are science graduates. +And we intercut it with, "We are the premier science university in the world," because of British-like hubris. +And when we gave graduate engineers that question, they said it couldn't be done. +And when we gave them a battery, and a piece of wire, and a bulb, and said, "Can you do it?" They couldn't do it. Right? +And that's no different from Imperial College in London, by the way, it's not some sort of anti-American thing going on. +As if. Now, the reason this matters is we pay lots and lots of money for teaching people -- we might as well get it right. +That's what plants actually do for a living. +And, for any Finnish people in the audience, this is a Finnish pun: we are, both literally and metaphorically, skating on thin ice if we don't understand that kind of thing. +Now, here's how you do the battery and the bulb. +It's so easy, isn't it? Of course, you all knew that. +But if you haven't played with a battery and a bulb, if you've only seen a circuit diagram, you might not be able to do that, and that's one of the problems. +So, why is it hotter in summer than in winter? +We learn, as children, that you get closer to something that's hot, and it burns you. It's a very powerful bit of learning, and it happens pretty early on. +By extension, we think to ourselves, "Why it's hotter in summer than in winter must be because we're closer to the Sun." +I promise you that most of you will have got that. +Oh, you're all shaking your heads, but only a few of you are shaking your heads very firmly. +Other ones are kind of going like this. All right. +It's hotter in summer than in winter because the rays from the Sun are spread out more, right, because of the tilt of the Earth. +And if you think the tilt is tilting us closer, no, it isn't. +The Sun is 93 million miles away, and we're tilting like this, right? +It makes no odds. In fact, in the Northern Hemisphere, we're further from the Sun in summer, as it happens, but it makes no odds, the difference. +OK, now, the scribble of the diagram of the solar system. +If you believe, as most of you probably do, that it's hotter in summer than in winter because we're closer to the Sun, you must have drawn an ellipse. +Right? That would explain it, right? +Except, in your -- you're nodding -- now, in your ellipse, have you thought, "Well, what happens during the night?" +So, here's Copernicus' view of what the solar system looked like as a plan. +That's pretty much what you should have on your piece of paper. Right? +And this is NASA's view. They're stunningly similar. +I hope you notice the coincidence here. +What would you do if you knew that people had this misconception, right, in their heads, of elliptical orbits caused by our experiences as children? +What sort of diagram would you show them of the solar system, to show that it's not really like that? +You'd show them something like this, wouldn't you? +It's a plan, looking down from above. +But, no, look what I found in the textbooks. +That's what you show people, right? These are from textbooks, from websites, educational websites -- and almost anything you pick up is like that. +And the reason it's like that is because it's dead boring to have a load of concentric circles, whereas that's much more exciting, to look at something at that angle, isn't it? Right? And by doing it at that angle, if you've got that misconception in your head, then that two-dimensional representation of a three-dimensional thing will be ellipses. +So you've -- it's crap, isn't it really? As we say. +So, these mental models -- we look for evidence that reinforces our models. +So, being I'm in the United States, I'll have a dig at the Europeans. +These are examples of what I would say is bad practice in science teaching centers. These pictures are from La Villette in France and the welcome wing of the Science Museum in London. +And I know that if the graduates at MIT and in the Imperial College in London had had the battery and the wire and the bit of stuff, and you know, been able to do it, they would have learned how it actually works, rather than thinking that they follow circuit diagrams and can't do it. +So good interpretation is more about things that are bodged and stuffed and of my world, right? +And things that -- where there isn't an extra barrier of a piece of glass or machined titanium, and it all looks fantastic, OK? +And the Exploratorium does that really, really well. +And it's amateur, but amateur in the best sense, in other words, the root of the word being of love and passion. +So, children are not empty vessels, OK? +So, as "Monty Python" would have it, this is a bit Lord Privy Seal to say so, but this is -- children are not empty vessels. +They come with their own ideas and their own theories, and unless you work with those, then you won't be able to shift them, right? And I probably haven't shifted your ideas of how the world and universe operates, either. +But this applies, equally, to matters of trying to sell new technology. +For example, we are, in Britain, we're trying to do a digital switchover of the whole population into digital technology [for television]. +And it's one of the difficult things is that when people have preconceptions of how it all works, it's quite difficult to shift those. +So we're not empty vessels; the mental models that we have as children persist into adulthood. +Poor teaching actually does more harm than good. +In this country and in Britain, magnetism is understood better by children before they've been to school than afterwards, OK? +Same for gravity, two concepts, so it's -- which is quite humbling, as a, you know, if you're a teacher, and you look before and after, that's quite worrying. They do worse in tests afterwards, after the teaching. +And we collude. We design tests, or at least in Britain, so that people pass them. Right? +And governments do very well. They pat themselves on the back. +So the most important thing is to get people to articulate their models. +Your homework is -- you know, how does an aircraft's wing create lift? +An obvious question, and you'll have an answer now in your heads. +And the second question to that then is, ensure you've explained how it is that planes can fly upside down. +Ah ha, right. Second question is, why is the sea blue? All right? +And you've all got an idea in your head of the answer. +So, why is it blue on cloudy days? Ah, see. +I've always wanted to say that in this country. +Finally, my plea to you is to allow yourselves, and your children, and anyone you know, to kind of fiddle with stuff, because it's by fiddling with things that you, you know, you complement your other learning. It's not a replacement, it's just part of learning that's important. +Thank you very much. +Now -- oh, oh yeah, go on then, go on. +Stephanie White: I'm going to let her introduce herself to everybody. +Can you tell everybody your name? +Einstein: Einstein. +SW: This is Einstein. Can you tell everyone "hi"? +E: Hello. +SW: That's nice. Can you be polite? +E: Hi, sweetheart. +SW: Much better. Well, Einstein is very honored to be here at TED 2006, amongst all you modern-day Einsteins. In fact, she's very excited. +E: Woo. +SW: Yeah. +Since we've arrived, there's been a constant buzz about all the exciting speakers here for the conference. +This morning we've heard a lot of whispers about Tom Reilly's wrap-up on Saturday. Einstein, did you hear whispers? +E: [Squawks] SW: Yeah. +Einstein's especially interested in Penelope's talk. +A lot of her research goes on in caves, which can get pretty dusty. +E: Achoo! +SW: It could make her sneeze. But more importantly, her research could help Einstein find a cure for her never-ending scratchy throat. +Einstein: [Coughs] SW: Yeah. +Well, Bob Russell was telling us about his work on nanotubes in his research at the microscopic level. +Well, that's really cool, but what Einstein's really hoping is that maybe he'll genetically engineer a five-pound peanut. +E: Oh, my God! My God! My God! +SW: Yeah. She would get really, really excited. +That is one big peanut. Since Einstein is a bird, she's very interested in things that fly. +She thinks Burt Rutan is very impressive. +E: Ooh. +SW: Yeah. She especially likes his latest achievement, SpaceShipOne. +Einstein, would you like to ride in Burt's spaceship? +E: [Spaceship noise] SW: Even if it doesn't have a laser? +E: [Laser noise] SW: Yeah, yeah. That was pretty funny, Einstein. +Now, Einstein also thinks, you know, working in caves and travelling through space -- it's all very dangerous jobs. +It would be very dangerous if you fell down. +E: Wheeeeeee! [Splat] SW: Yeah. +Little splat at the end there. Einstein, did that hurt? +E: Ow, ow, ow. +SW: Yeah. It's all a lot of hard work. +E: [Squawks] SW: Yeah. It can get a bird like Einstein frustrated. +E: [Squawks] SW: Yeah, it sure can. But when Einstein needs to relax from her job educating the public, she loves to take in the arts. +If the children of the Uganda need another dance partner, Einstein could sure fit the bill, because she loves to dance. +Can you get down? +E: [Bobbing head] SW: Let's get down for everybody. Come on now. +She's going to make me do it, too. Ooh, ooh. +Einstein: Ooh, ooh, ooh, ooh. +SW: Do your head now. +E: Ooh, ooh, ooh, ooh, ooh. +SW: Or maybe Sirena Huang would like to learn some arias on her violin, and Einstein can sing along with some opera? +E: [Operatic squawk] SW: Very good. +Or maybe Stu just needs another backup singer? +Einstein, can you also sing? +I know, you need to get rid of that seed first. Can you sing? +E: La, la. +SW: There you go. And, of course, if all else fails, you can just run off and enjoy a fun fiesta. +E: [Squawks] SW: All right. Well, Einstein was pretty embarrassed to admit this earlier, but she was telling me backstage that she had a problem. +E: What's the matter? +SW: No, I don't have a problem. You have the problem, remember? +You were saying that you were really embarrassed, because you're in love with a pirate? +E: Yar. +SW: There you go. And what do pirates like to drink? +E: Beer. +SW: Yeah, that's right. But you don't like to drink beer, Einstein. +You like to drink water. +E: [Water sound] SW: Very good. Now, really, she is pretty nervous. +Because one of her favorite folks from back home is here, and she's pretty nervous to meet him. +She thinks Al Gore is a really good-looking man. +What do you say to a good-looking man? +E: Hey, baby. +SW: And so do all the folks back home in Tennessee. +E: Yee haw. +SW: And since she's such a big fan, she knows that his birthday is coming up at the end of March. +And we didn't think he'd be in town then, so Einstein wanted to do something special for him. +So let's see if Einstein will sing "Happy Birthday" to Al Gore. +Can you sing "Happy Birthday" to him? +E: Happy birthday to you. +SW: Again. +E: Happy birthday to you. +SW: Again. +E: Happy birthday to you. +SW: Big finish. +E: Happy birthday to you. +SW: Good job! +Well, before we wrap it up, she would like to give a shout out to all our animal friends back at the Knoxville Zoo. +Einstein, do you want to say "hi" to all the owls? +E: Woo, woo, woo. +SW: What about the other birds? +E: Tweet, tweet, tweet. +SW: And the penguin? +E: Quack, quack, quack. +SW: There we go. +Let's get that one out of there. How about a chimpanzee? +E: Ooh, ooh, ooh. Aah, aah, aah. +SW: Very good. +What about a wolf? +E: Ooooowww. +SW: And a pig? +E: Oink, oink, oink. +SW: And the rooster? +E: Cock-a-doodle-doo! +SW: And how about those cats? +E: Meow. +SW: At the zoo we have big cats from the jungle. +E: Grrrrr. +SW: What about a skunk? +E: Stinker. +SW: She's a comedian. I suppose you think you're famous? Are you famous? +E: Superstar. +SW: Yeah. You are a superstar. +Well, we would like to encourage all of you to do your part to help protect Einstein's animal friends, and to do your part to help protect their homes that they live [in]. +Now, Einstein does say it best when we ask her. +Why do we want to protect your home? +E: I'm special. +SW: You are very special. What would you like to say to all these nice people? +E: I love you. +SW: That's good. Can you blow them a kiss? +E: [Kissing noise] SW: And what do you say when it's time to go? +E: Goodbye. +SW: Good job. Thank you all. +My mission in life since I was a kid was, and is, to take the rest of you into space. +It's during our lifetime that we're going to take the Earth, take the people of Earth and transition off, permanently. And that's exciting. +In fact, I think it is a moral imperative that we open the space frontier. +You know, it's the first time that we're going to have a chance to have planetary redundancy, a chance to, if you would, back up the biosphere. +And if you think about space, everything we hold of value on this planet -- metals and minerals and real estate and energy -- is in infinite quantities in space. +In fact, the Earth is a crumb in a supermarket filled with resources. +The analogy for me is Alaska. You know, we bought Alaska. +We Americans bought Alaska in the 1850s. It's called Seward's folly. +We valued it as the number of seal pelts we could kill. +And then we discovered these things -- gold and oil and fishing and timber -- and it became, you know, a trillion-dollar economy, and now we take our honeymoons there. The same thing will happen in space. +We are on the verge of the greatest exploration that the human race has ever known. +We explore for three reasons, the weakest of which is curiosity. +You know, it's funded NASA's budget up until now. +Some images from Mars, 1997. +In fact, I think in the next decade, without any question, we will discover life on Mars and find that it is literally ubiquitous under the soils and different parts of that planet. +The stronger motivator, the much stronger motivator, is fear. +And of course, the third motivator, one near and dear to my heart as an entrepreneur, is wealth. +In fact, the greatest wealth. If you think about these other asteroids, there's a class of the nickel iron, which in platinum-group metal markets alone are worth something like 20 trillion dollars, if you can go out and grab one of these rocks. +My plan is to actually buy puts on the precious metal market, and then actually claim that I'm going to go out and get one. +And that will fund the actual mission to go and get one. +But fear, curiosity and greed have driven us. +And for me, this is -- I'm the short kid on the right. +This was -- my motivation was actually during Apollo. +And Apollo was one of the greatest motivators ever. +If you think about what happened at the turn of -- early 1960s, on May 25, JFK said, "We're going to go to the moon." +And people left their jobs and they went to obscure locations to go and be part of this amazing mission. +And we knew nothing about going to space. +We went from having literally put Alan Shepard in suborbital flight to going to the moon in eight years, and the average age of the people that got us there was 26 years old. +They didn't know what couldn't be done. +They had to make up everything. +And that, my friend, is amazing motivation. +This is Gene Cernan, a good friend of mine, saying, "If I can go to the moon" -- this is the last human on the moon so far -- "nothing, nothing is impossible." But of course, we've thought about the government always as the person taking us there. +But I put forward here, the government is not going to get us there. +The government is unable to take the risks required to open up this precious frontier. +The shuttle is costing a billion dollars a launch. +That's a pathetic number. It's unreasonable. +We shouldn't be happy in standing for that. +One of the things that we did with the Ansari X PRIZE was take the challenge on that risk is OK, you know. +As we are going out there and taking on a new frontier, we should be allowed to risk. +In fact, anyone who says we shouldn't, you know, just needs to be put aside, because, as we go forward, in fact, the greatest discoveries we will ever know is ahead of us. +The entrepreneurs in the space business are the furry mammals, and clearly the industrial-military complex -- with Boeing and Lockheed and NASA -- are the dinosaurs. +The ability for us to access these resources to gain planetary redundancy -- we can now gather all the information, the genetic codes, you know, everything stored on our databases, and back them up off the planet, in case there would be one of those disastrous situations. +The difficulty is getting there, and clearly, the cost to orbit is key. +Once you're in orbit, you are two thirds of the way, energetically, to anywhere -- the moon, to Mars. And today, there's only three vehicles -- the U.S. shuttle, the Russian Soyuz and the Chinese vehicle -- that gets you there. +Arguably, it's about 100 million dollars a person on the space shuttle. +One of the companies I started, Space Adventures, will sell you a ticket. +We've done two so far. We'll be announcing two more on the Soyuz to go up to the space station for 20 million dollars. +But that's expensive and to understand what the potential is -- -- it is expensive. But people are willing to pay that! +You know, one -- we have a very unique period in time today. +For the first time ever, we have enough wealth concentrated in the hands of few individuals and the technology accessible that will allow us to really drive space exploration. +But how cheap could it get? I want to give you the end point. +We know -- 20 million dollars today, you can go and buy a ticket, but how cheap could it get? +Let's go back to high school physics here. +If you calculate the amount of potential energy, mgh, to take you and your spacesuit up to a couple hundred miles, and then you accelerate yourself to 17,500 miles per hour -- remember, that one half MV squared -- and you figure it out. +It's about 5.7 gigajoules of energy. +If you expended that over an hour, it's about 1.6 megawatts. +If you go to one of Vijay's micro-power sources, and they sell it to you for seven cents a kilowatt hour -- anybody here fast in math? +How much will it cost you and your spacesuit to go to orbit? +100 bucks. That's the price-improvement curve that -- we need some breakthroughs in physics along the way, I'll grant you that. +But guys, if history has taught us anything, it's that if you can imagine it, you will get there eventually. +I have no question that the physics, the engineering to get us down to the point where all of us can afford orbital space flight is around the corner. +The difficulty is that there needs to be a real marketplace to drive the investment. +Today, the Boeings and the Lockheeds don't spend a dollar of their own money in R&D. +It's all government research dollars, and very few of those. +And in fact, the large corporations, the governments, can't take the risk. +So we need what I call an exothermic economic reaction in space. +Today's commercial markets worldwide, global commercial launch market? +12 to 15 launches per year. +Number of commercial companies out there? 12 to 15 companies. +One per company. That's not it. There's only one marketplace, and I call them self-loading carbon payloads. +They come with their own money. They're easy to make. +It's people. The Ansari X PRIZE was my solution, reading about Lindbergh for creating the vehicles to get us there. +We offered 10 million dollars in cash for the first reusable ship, carry three people up to 100 kilometers, come back down, and within two weeks, make the trip again. +Twenty-six teams from seven countries entered the competition, spending between one to 25 million dollars each. +And of course, we had beautiful SpaceShipOne, which made those two flights and won the competition. +And I'd like to take you there, to that morning, for just a quick video. +Pilot: Release our fire. +Richard Searfoss: Good luck. +RS: We've got an altitude call of 368,000 feet. +RS: So in my official capacity as the chief judge of the Ansari X PRIZE competition, I declare that Mojave Aerospace Ventures has indeed earned the Ansari X PRIZE. +Peter Diamandis: Probably the most difficult thing that I had to do was raise the capital for this. It was literally impossible. +We went -- I went to 100, 200 CEOs, CMOs. +No one believed it was done. Everyone said, "Oh, what does NASA think? +Well, people are going to die, how can you possibly going to put this forward?" +I found a visionary family, the Ansari family, and Champ Car, and raised part of the money, but not the full 10 million. +And what I ended up doing was going out to the insurance industry and buying a hole-in-one insurance policy. +See, the insurance companies went to Boeing and Lockheed, and said, "Are you going to compete?" No. +"Are you going to compete?" No. "No one's going to win this thing." +So, they took a bet that no one would win by January of '05, and I took a bet that someone would win. +So -- and the best thing is they paid off and the check didn't bounce. +We've had a lot of accomplishments and it's been a tremendous success. +One of the things I'm most happy about is that the SpaceShipOne is going to hang in Air and Space Museum, next to the Spirit of St. Louis and the Wright Flyer. +Isn't that great? So a little bit about the future, steps to space, what's available for you. +Today, you can go and experience weightless flights. +By '08, suborbital flights, the price tag for that, you know, on Virgin, is going to be about 200,000. +There are three or four other serious efforts that will bring the price down very rapidly, I think, to about 25,000 dollars for a suborbital flight. +Orbital flights -- we can take you to the space station. +And then I truly believe, once a group is in orbit around the Earth -- I know if they don't do it, I am -- we're going to stockpile some fuel, make a beeline for the moon and grab some real estate. +Quick moment for the designers in the audience. +We spent 11 years getting FAA approval to do zero gravity flights. +Here are some fun images. Here's Burt Rutan and my good friend Greg Meronek inside a zero gravity -- people think a zero gravity room, there's a switch on there that turns it off -- but it's actually parabolic flight of an airplane. +And turns out 7-Up has just done a little commercial that's airing this month. +If we can get the audio up? +Narrator: For a chance to win the first free ticket to space, look for specially marked packages of Diet 7-Up. +When you want the taste that won't weigh you down, the only way to go is up. +PD: That was filmed inside our airplane, and so, you can now do this. +We're based down in Florida. +Let me talk about the other thing I'm excited about. +The future of prizes. You know, prizes are a very old idea. +I had the pleasure of borrowing from the Longitude Prize and the Orteig Prize that put Lindbergh forward. +And we have made a decision in the X PRIZE Foundation to actually carry that concept forward into other technology areas, and we just took on a new mission statement: "to bring about radical breakthroughs in space and other technologies for the benefit of humanity." +And this is something that we're very excited about. +I showed this slide to Larry Page, who just joined our board. +And you know, when you give to a nonprofit, you might have 50 cents on the dollar. +If you have a matching grant, it's typically two or three to one. +If you put up a prize, you can get literally a 50 to one leverage on your dollars. +And that's huge. And then he turned around and said, "Well, if you back a prize institute that runs a 10 prize, you get 500 to one." +I said, "Well, that's great." +So, we have actually -- are looking to turn the X PRIZE into a world-class prize institute. +This is what happens when you put up a prize, when you announce it and teams start to begin doing trials. +You get publicity increase, and when it's won, publicity shoots through the roof -- if it's properly managed -- and that's part of the benefits to a sponsor. +Then, when the prize is actually won, after it's moving, you get societal benefits, you know, new technology, new capability. +And the benefit to the sponsors is the sum of the publicity and societal benefits over the long term. +That's our value proposition in a prize. +If you were going to go and try to create SpaceShipOne, or any kind of a new technology, you have to fund that from the beginning and maintain that funding with an uncertain outcome. +It may or may not happen. But if you put up a prize, the beautiful thing is, you know, it's a very small maintenance fee, and you pay on success. +Orteig didn't pay a dime out to the nine teams that went across -- tried to go across the Atlantic, and we didn't pay a dime until someone won the Ansari X PRIZE. +So, prizes work great. +You know, innovators, the entrepreneurs out there, you know that when you're going for a goal, the first thing you have to do is believe that you can do it yourself. +Then, you've got to, you know, face potential public ridicule of -- that's a crazy idea, it'll never work. +Well, it must be a good idea. +Someone's offering 10 million dollars to go and do this thing. +And each of these areas was something that we found the Ansari X PRIZE helped short-circuit these for innovation. +So, as an organization, we put together a prize discovery process of how to come up with prizes and write the rules, and we're actually looking at creating prizes in a number of different categories. +We're looking at attacking energy, environment, nanotechnology -- and I'll talk about those more in a moment. +And the way we're doing that is we're creating prize teams within the X PRIZE. We have a space prize team. +We're going after an orbital prize. +We are looking at a number of energy prizes. +Craig Venter has just joined our board and we're doing a rapid genome sequencing prize with him, we'll be announcing later this fall, about -- imagine being able to sequence anybody's DNA for under 1,000 dollars, revolutionize medicine. +And clean water, education, medicine and even looking at social entrepreneurship. +So my final slide here is, the most critical tool for solving humanity's grand challenges -- it isn't technology, it isn't money, it's only one thing -- it's the committed, passionate human mind. +Well, good morning. +You know, the computer and television both recently turned 60, and today I'd like to talk about their relationship. +Despite their middle age, if you've been following the themes of this conference or the entertainment industry, it's pretty clear that one has been picking on the other. +So it's about time that we talked about how the computer ambushed television, or why the invention of the atomic bomb unleashed forces that lead to the writers' strike. +And it's not just what these are doing to each other, but it's what the audience thinks that really frames this matter. +To get a sense of this, and it's been a theme we've talked about all week, I recently talked to a bunch of tweeners. +I wrote on cards: "television," "radio," "MySpace," "Internet," "PC." +And I said, just arrange these, from what's important to you and what's not, and then tell me why. +Let's listen to what happens when they get to the portion of the discussion on television. +Girl 1: Well, I think it's important but, like, not necessary because you can do a lot of other stuff with your free time than watch programs. +Peter Hirshberg: Which is more fun, Internet or TV? +Girls: Internet. +Girl 2: I think we -- the reasons, one of the reasons we put computer before TV is because nowadays, like, we have TV shows on the computer. +(Girl 3: Oh, yeah.) Girl 2: And then you can download onto your iPod. +PH: Would you like to be the president of a TV network? +Girl 4: I wouldn't like it. +Girl 2: That would be so stressful. +Girl 5: No. +PH: How come? +Girl 5: Because they're going to lose all their money eventually. +Girl 3: Like the stock market, it goes up and down and stuff. +I think right now the computers will be at the top and everything will be kind of going down and stuff. +PH: There's been an uneasy relationship between the TV business and the tech business, really ever since they both turned about 30. +We go through periods of enthrallment, followed by reactions in boardrooms, in the finance community best characterized as, what's the finance term? Ick pooey. +Let me give you an example of this. The year is 1976, and Warner buys Atari because video games are on the rise. +The next year they march forward and they introduce Qube, the first interactive cable TV system, and the New York Times heralds this as telecommunications moving to the home, convergence, great things are happening. +Everybody in the East Coast gets in the pictures -- Citicorp, Penney, RCA -- all getting into this big vision. +By the way, this is about when I enter the picture. +I'm going to do a summer internship at Time Warner. +That summer I'm all -- I'm at Warner that summer -- I'm all excited to work on convergence, and then the bottom falls out. +Doesn't work out too well for them, they lose money. +And I had a happy brush with convergence until, kind of, Warner basically has to liquidate the whole thing. +That's when I leave graduate school, and I can't work in New York on kind of entertainment and technology because I have to be exiled to California, where the remaining jobs are, almost to the sea, to go to work for Apple Computer. +Warner, of course, writes off more than 400 million dollars. +Four hundred million dollars, which was real money back in the '70s. +But they were onto something and they got better at it. +By the year 2000, the process was perfected. They merged with AOL, and in just four years, managed to shed about 200 billion dollars of market capitalization, showing that they'd actually mastered the art of applying Moore's law of successive miniaturization to their balance sheet. +Now, I think that one reason that the media and the entertainment communities, or the media community, is driven so crazy by the tech community is that tech folks talk differently. +You know, for 50 years, we've talked about changing the world, about total transformation. +For 50 years, it's been about hopes and fears and promises of a better world. And I got to thinking, you know, who else talks that way? +And the answer is pretty clearly -- it's people in religion and in politics. +And so I realized that actually the tech world is best understood, not as a business cycle, but as a messianic movement. +We promise something great, we evangelize it, we're going to change the world. It doesn't work out too well, and so we actually go back to the well and start all over again, as the people in New York and L.A. look on in absolute, morbid astonishment. +But it's this irrational view of things that drives us on to the next thing. +So, what I'd like to ask is, if the computer is becoming a principal tool of media and entertainment, how did we get here? +I mean, how did a machine that was built for accounting and artillery morph into media? +So take a look at what happens when the foremost journalist of early television meets one of the foremost computer pioneers, and the computer begins to express itself. +Journalist: It's a Whirlwind electronic computer. +With considerable trepidation, we undertake to interview this new machine. +Jay Forrester: Hello New York, this is Cambridge. +And this is the oscilloscope of the Whirlwind electronic computer. +Would you like if I used the machine? +Journalist: Yes, of course. But I have an idea, Mr. Forrester. +Since this computer was made in conjunction with the Office of Naval Research, why don't we switch down to the Pentagon in Washington and let the Navy's research chief, Admiral Bolster, give Whirlwind the workout? +Calvin Bolster: Well, Ed, this problem concerns the Navy's Viking rocket. +This rocket goes up 135 miles into the sky. +Now, at the standard rate of fuel consumption, I would like to see the computer trace the flight path of this rocket and see how it can determine, at any instant, say at the end of 40 seconds, the amount of fuel remaining, and the velocity at that set instant. +JF: Over on the left-hand side, you will notice fuel consumption decreasing as the rocket takes off. +And on the right-hand side, there's a scale that shows the rocket's velocity. +The rocket's position is shown by the trajectory that we're now looking at. +And as it reaches the peak of its trajectory, the velocity, you will notice, has dropped off to a minimum. +Then, as the rocket dives down, velocity picks up again toward a maximum velocity and the rocket hits the ground. +How's that? +Journalist: What about that, Admiral? +CB: Looks very good to me. +JF: And before leaving, we would like to show you another kind of mathematical problem that some of the boys have worked out in their spare time, in a less serious vein, for a Sunday afternoon. Journalist: Thank you very much indeed, Mr. Forrester and the MIT lab. +PH: You know, so much was worked out: the first real-time interaction, the video display, pointing a gun. It lead to the microcomputer, but unfortunately, it was too pricey for the Navy, and all of this would have been lost if it weren't for a happy coincidence. +Enter the atomic bomb. +We're threatened by the greatest weapon ever, and knowing a good thing when it sees it, the Air Force decides it needs the biggest computer ever to protect us. +They adapt Whirlwind to a massive air defense system, deploy it all across the frozen north, and spend nearly three times as much on this computer as was spent on the Manhattan Project building the A-Bomb in the first place. +Talk about a shot in the arm for the computer industry. +And you can imagine that the Air Force became a pretty good salesman. +Here's their marketing video. +Narrator: In a mass raid, high-speed bombers could be in on us before we could determine their tracks. +And then it would be too late to act. +We cannot afford to take that chance. +It is to meet this threat that the Air Force has been developing SAGE, the Semi-Automatic Ground Environment system, to strengthen our air defenses. +This new computer, built to become the nerve center of a defense network, is able to perform all the complex mathematical problems involved in countering a mass enemy raid. +It is provided with its own powerhouse containing large diesel-driven generators, air-conditioning equipment, and cooling towers required to cool the thousands of vacuum tubes in the computer. +PH: You know, that one computer was huge. +There's an interesting marketing lesson from it, which is basically, when you market a product, you can either say, this is going to be wonderful, it will make you feel better and enliven you. +Or there's one other marketing proposition: if you don't use our product, you'll die. +This is a really good example of that. +This had the first pointing device. It was distributed, so it worked out -- distributed computing and modems -- so all these things could talk to each other. +About 20 percent of all the nation's programmers were wrapped up in this thing, and it led to an awful lot of what we have today. It also used vacuum tubes. +You saw how huge it was, and to give you a sense for this -- because we've talked a lot about Moore's law and making things small at this conference, so let's talk about making things large. +If we took Whirlwind and put it in a place that you all know, say, Century City, it would fit beautifully. +You'd kind of have to take Century City out, but it could fit in there. +But like, let's imagine we took the latest Pentium processor, the latest Core 2 Extreme, which is a four-core processor that Intel's working on, it will be our laptop tomorrow. +To build that, what we'd do with Whirlwind technology is we'd have to take up roughly from the 10 to Mulholland, and from the 405 to La Cienega just with those Whirlwinds. +And then, the 92 nuclear power plants that it would take to provide the power would fill up the rest of Los Angeles. +That's roughly a third more nuclear power than all of France creates. +So, the next time they tell you they're on to something, clearly they're not. +So -- and we haven't even worked out the cooling needs. +But it gives you the kind of power that people have, that the audience has, and the reasons these transformations are happening. +All of this stuff starts moving into industry. +DEC kind of reduces all this and makes the first mini-computer. +It shows up at places like MIT, and then a mutation happens. +Spacewar! is built, the first computer game, and all of a sudden, interactivity and involvement and passion is worked out. +Actually, many MIT students stayed up all night long working on this thing, and many of the principles of gaming today were worked out. +DEC knew a good thing about wasting time. +It shipped every one of its computers with that game. +Meanwhile, as all of this is happening, by the mid-'50s, the business model of traditional broadcasting and cinema has been busted completely. +A new technology has confounded radio men and movie moguls and they're quite certain that television is about to do them in. +In fact, despair is in the air. +And a quote that sounds largely reminiscent from everything I've been reading all week. +RCA had David Sarnoff, who basically commercialized radio, said this, "I don't say that radio networks must die. +Every effort has been made and will continue to be made to find a new pattern, new selling arrangements and new types of programs that may arrest the declining revenues. +It may yet be possible to eke out a poor existence for radio, but I don't know how." +And of course, as the computer industry develops interactively, producers in the emerging TV business actually hit on the same idea. +And they fake it. +Jack Berry: Boys and girls, I think you all know how to get your magic windows up on the set, you just get them out. +First of all, get your Winky Dink kits out. +Put out your Magic Window and your erasing glove, and rub it like this. +That's the way we get some of the magic into it, boys and girls. +Then take it and put it right up against the screen of your own television set, and rub it out from the center to the corners, like this. +Make sure you keep your magic crayons handy, your Winky Dink crayons and your erasing glove, because you'll be using them during the show to draw like that. +You all set? OK, let's get right to the first story about Dusty Man. +Come on into the secret lab. +PH: It was the dawn of interactive TV, and you may have noticed they wanted to sell you the Winky Dink kits. +Those are the Winky Dink crayons. I know what you're saying. +"Pete, I could use any ordinary open-source crayon, why do I have to buy theirs?" +I assure you, that's not the case. +Turns out they told us directly that these are the only crayons you should ever use with your Winky Dink Magic Window, other crayons may discolor or hurt the window. +This proprietary principle of vendor lock-in would go on to be perfected with great success as one of the enduring principles of windowing systems everywhere. +It led to lawsuits -- -- federal investigations, and lots of repercussions, and that's a scandal we won't discuss today. +But we will discuss this scandal, because this man, Jack Berry, the host of "Winky Dink," went on to become the host of "Twenty One," one of the most important quiz shows ever. +And it was rigged, and it became unraveled when this man, Charles van Doren, was outed after an unnatural winning streak, ending Berry's career. +And actually, ending the career of a lot of people at CBS. +It turns out there was a lot to learn about how this new medium worked. +And 50 years ago, if you'd been at a meeting like this and were trying to understand the media, there was one prophet and only but one you wanted to hear from, Professor Marshall McLuhan. +He actually understood something about a theme that we've been discussing all week. It's the role of the audience in an era of pervasive electronic communications. +Here he is talking from the 1960s. +Marshall McLuhan: If the audience can become involved in the actual process of making the ad, then it's happy. It's like the old quiz shows. +They were great TV because it gave the audience a role, something to do. +They were horrified when they discovered they'd really been left out all the time because the shows were rigged. +Now, then, this was a horrible misunderstanding of TV on the part of the programmers. +PH: You know, McLuhan talked about the global village. +If you substitute the word blogosphere, of the Internet today, it is very true that his understanding is probably very enlightening now. Let's listen in to him. +MM: The global village is a world in which you don't necessarily have harmony. +You have extreme concern with everybody else's business and much involvement in everybody else's life. +It's a sort of Ann Landers' column writ large. +And it doesn't necessarily mean harmony and peace and quiet, but it does mean huge involvement in everybody else's affairs. +And so the global village is as big as a planet, and as small as a village post office. +PH: We'll talk a little bit more about him later. +We're now right into the 1960s. +It's the era of big business and data centers for computing. +But all that was about to change. +You know, the expression of technology reflects the people and the time of the culture it was built in. +And when I say that code expresses our hopes and aspirations, it's not just a joke about messianism, it's actually what we do. +But for this part of the story, I'd actually like to throw it to America's leading technology correspondent, John Markoff. +John Markoff: Do you want to know what the counterculture in drugs, sex, rock 'n' roll and the anti-war movement had to do with computing? Everything. +It all happened within five miles of where I'm standing, at Stanford University, between 1960 and 1975. +In the midst of revolution in the streets and rock and roll concerts in the parks, a group of researchers led by people like John McCarthy, a computer scientist at the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Lab, and Doug Engelbart, a computer scientist at SRI, changed the world. +Engelbart came out of a pretty dry engineering culture, but while he was beginning to do his work, all of this stuff was bubbling on the mid-peninsula. +There was LSD leaking out of Kesey's Veterans' Hospital experiments and other areas around the campus, and there was music literally in the streets. +The Grateful Dead was playing in the pizza parlors. +People were leaving to go back to the land. +There was the Vietnam War. There was black liberation. +There was women's liberation. +This was a remarkable place, at a remarkable time. +And into that ferment came the microprocessor. +I think it was that interaction that led to personal computing. +They saw these tools that were controlled by the establishment as ones that could actually be liberated and put to use by these communities that they were trying to build. +And most importantly, they had this ethos of sharing information. +I think these ideas are difficult to understand, because when you're trapped in one paradigm, the next paradigm is always like a science fiction universe -- it makes no sense. +The stories were so compelling that I decided to write a book about them. +The title of the book is, "What the Dormouse Said: How the '60s Counterculture Shaped the Personal Computer Industry." +The title was taken from the lyrics to a Jefferson Airplane song. The lyrics go, "Remember what the dormouse said. +Feed your head, feed your head, feed your head." PH: By this time, computing had kind of leapt into media territory, and in short order much of what we're doing today was imagined in Cambridge and Silicon Valley. +Here's the Architecture Machine Group, the predecessor of the Media Lab, in 1981. +Meanwhile, in California, we were trying to commercialize a lot of this stuff. +HyperCard was the first program to introduce the public to hyperlinks, where you could randomly hook to any kind of picture, or piece of text, or data across a file system, and we had no way of explaining it. +There was no metaphor. Was it a database? +A prototyping tool? A scripted language? +Heck, it was everything. So we ended up writing a marketing brochure. +We asked a question about how the mind works, and we let our customers play the role of so many blind men filling out the elephant. +A few years later, we then hit on the idea of explaining to people the secret of, how do you get the content you want, the way you want it and the easy way? +Here's the Apple marketing video. +James Burke: You'll be pleased to know, I'm sure, that there are several ways to create a HyperCard interactive video. +The most involved method is to go ahead and produce your own videodisc as well as build your own HyperCard stacks. +By far the simplest method is to buy a pre-made videodisc and HyperCard stacks from a commercial supplier. +The method we illustrate in this video uses a pre-made videodisc but creates custom HyperCard stacks. +This method allows you to use existing videodisc materials in ways which suit your specific needs and interests. +PH: I hope you realize how subversive that is. +That's like a Dick Cheney speech. +You think he's a nice balding guy, but he's just declared war on the content business. Find the commercial stuff, mash it up, tell the story your way. +Now, as long as we confine this to the education market, and a personal matter between the computer and the file system, that's fine, but as you can see, it was about to leap out and upset Jack Valenti and a lot of other people. +By the way, speaking of the filing system, it never occurred to us that these hyperlinks could go beyond the local area network. +A few years later, Tim Berners-Lee worked that out. +It became a killer app of links, and today, of course, we call that the World Wide Web. +Now, not only was I instrumental in helping Apple miss the Internet, but a couple of years later, I helped Bill Gates do the same thing. +The year is 1993 and he was working on a book and I was working on a video to help him kind of explain where we were all heading and how to popularize all this. +We were plenty aware that we were messing with media, and on the surface, it looks like we predicted a lot of the right things, but we also missed an awful lot. Let's take a look. +Narrator: The pyramids, the Colosseum, the New York subway system and TV dinners, ancient and modern wonders of the man-made world all. +Yet each pales to insignificance with the completion of that magnificent accomplishment of twenty-first-century technology, the Digital Superhighway. +Once it was only a dream of technoids and a few long-forgotten politicians. +The Digital Highway arrived in America's living rooms late in the twentieth century. +Let us recall the pioneers who made this technical marvel possible. +The Digital Highway would follow the rutted trail first blazed by Alexander Graham Bell. +Though some were incredulous ... Man 1: The phone company! +Narrator: Stirred by the prospects of mass communication and making big bucks on advertising, David Sarnoff commercializes radio. +Man 2: Never had scientists been put under such pressure and demand. +Narrator: The medium introduced America to new products. +Voice 1: Say, mom, Windows for Radio means more enjoyment and greater ease of use for the whole family. +Be sure to enjoy Windows for Radio at home and at work. +Narrator: In 1939, the Radio Corporation of America introduced television. +Man 2: Never had scientists been put under such pressure and demand. +Narrator: Eventually, the race to the future took on added momentum with the breakup of the telephone company. +And further stimulus came with the deregulation of the cable television industry, and the re-regulation of the cable television industry. +Ted Turner: We did the work to build this, this cable industry, now the broadcasters want some of our money. I mean, it's ridiculous. +Narrator: Computers, once the unwieldy tools of accountants and other geeks, escaped the backrooms to enter the media fracas. +The world and all its culture reduced to bits, the lingua franca of all media. +And the forces of convergence exploded. +Finally, four great industrial sectors combined. +Telecommunications, entertainment, computing and everything else. +Man 3: We'll see channels for the gourmet and we'll see channels for the pet lover. +Voice 2: Next on the gourmet pet channel, decorating birthday cakes for your schnauzer. +Narrator: All of industry was in play, as investors flocked to place their bets. +At stake: the battle for you, the consumer, and the right to spend billions to send a lot of information into the parlors of America. PH: We missed a lot. You know, you missed, we missed the Internet, the long tail, the role of the audience, open systems, social networks. +It just goes to show how tough it is to come up with the right uses of media. +Thomas Edison had the same problem. +He wrote a list of what the phonograph might be good for when he invented it, and kind of only one of his ideas turned out to have been the right early idea. +Well, you know where we're going on from here. +We come into the era of the dotcom, the World Wide Web, and I don't need to tell you about that because we all went through that bubble together. +But when we emerge from this and what we call Web 2.0, things actually are quite different. +And I think it's the reason that TV's so challenged. +If Internet one was about pages, now it's about people. +It's a customer, it's an audience, it's a person who's participating. +It's the formidable thing that is changing entertainment now. +MM: Because it gave the audience a role, something to do. +PH: In my own company, Technorati, we see something like 67,000 blog posts an hour come in. +That's about 2,700 fresh, connective links across about 112 million blogs that are out there. +And it's no wonder that as we head into the writers' strike, odd things happen. +You know, it reminds me of that old saw in Hollywood, that a producer is anyone who knows a writer. +I now think a network boss is anyone who has a cable modem. +But it's not a joke. This is a real headline. +"Websites attract striking writers: operators of sites like MyDamnChannel.com could benefit from labor disputes." +Meanwhile, you have the TV bloggers going out on strike, in sympathy with the television writers. +And then you have TV Guide, a Fox property, which is about to sponsor the online video awards -- but cancels it out of sympathy with traditional television, not appearing to gloat. +To show you how schizophrenic this all is, here's the head of MySpace, or Fox Interactive, a News Corp company, being asked, well, with the writers' strike, isn't this going to hurt News Corp and help you online? +Man: But I, yeah, I think there's an opportunity. As the strike continues, there's an opportunity for more people to experience video on places like MySpace TV. +PH: Oh, but then he remembers he works for Rupert Murdoch. +Man: Yes, well, first, you know, I'm part of News Corporation as part of Fox Entertainment Group. +Obviously, we hope that the strike is -- that the issues are resolved as quickly as possible. +PH: One of the great things that's going on here is the globalization of content really is happening. +Here is a clip from a video, from a piece of animation that was written by a writer in Hollywood, animation worked out in Israel, farmed out to Croatia and India, and it's now an international series. +Narrator: The following takes place between the minutes of 2:15 p.m. and 2:18 p.m., in the months preceding the presidential primaries. +Voice 1: You'll have to stay here in the safe house until we get word the terrorist threat is over. +Voice 2: You mean we'll have to live here, together? +Voices 2, 3 and 4: With her? +Voice 2: Well, there goes the neighborhood. +PH: The company that created this, Aniboom, is an interesting example of where this is headed. Traditional TV animation costs, say, between 80,000 and 10,000 dollars a minute. +They're producing things for between 1,500 and 800 dollars a minute. +And they're offering their creators 30 percent of the back end, in a much more entrepreneurial manner. So, it's a different model. +What the entertainment business is struggling with, the world of brands is figuring out. +For example, Nike now understands that Nike Plus is not just a device in its shoe, it's a network to hook its customers together. +And the head of marketing at Nike says, "People are coming to our site an average of three times a week. We don't have to go to them." +Which means television advertising is down 57 percent for Nike. +Or, as Nike's head of marketing says, "We're not in the business of keeping media companies alive. +We're in the business of connecting with consumers." +And media companies realize the audience is important also. +Here's a man announcing the new Market Watch from Dow Jones, powered 100 percent by the user experience on the home page -- user-generated content married up with traditional content. +It turns out you have a bigger audience and more interest if you hook up with them. +Or, as Geoffrey Moore once told me, it's intellectual curiosity that's the trade that brands need in the age of the blogosphere. +And I think this is beginning to happen in the entertainment business. +One of my heroes is songwriter, Ally Willis, who just wrote "The Color Purple" and has been an R and -- rhythm and blues writer, and this is what she said about where songwriting's going. +Ally Willis: Where millions of collaborators wanted the song, because to look at them strictly as spam is missing what this medium is about. +PH: So, to wrap up, I'd love to throw it back to Marshall McLuhan, who, 40 years ago, was dealing with audiences that were going through just as much change, and I think that, today, traditional Hollywood and the writers are framing this perhaps in the way that it was being framed before. +But I don't need to tell you this, let's throw it back to him. +Narrator: We are in the middle of a tremendous clash between the old and the new. +MM: The medium does things to people and they are always completely unaware of this. +They don't really notice the new medium that is wrapping them up. +They think of the old medium, because the old medium is always the content of the new medium, as movies tend to be the content of TV, and as books used to be the content, novels used to be the content of movies. +And so every time a new medium arrives, the old medium is the content, and it is highly observable, highly noticeable, but the real, real roughing up and massaging is done by the new medium, and it is ignored. +PH: I think it's a great time of enthrallment. +There's been more raw DNA of communications and media thrown out there. Content is moving from shows to particles that are batted back and forth, and part of social communications, and I think this is going to be a time of great renaissance and opportunity. +And whereas television may have gotten beat up, what's getting built is a really exciting new form of communication, and we kind of have the merger of the two industries and a new way of thinking to look at it. +Thanks very much. +Good afternoon, good evening, whatever. +We can go, jambo, guten Abend, bonsoir, but we can also ooh, ooh, ooh, ooh, ooh, ooh, ooh, ooh, ooh. +That is the call that chimpanzees make before they go to sleep in the evening. +You hear it going from one side of the valley to the other, from one group of nests to the next. +And I want to pick up with my talk this evening from where Zeray left off yesterday. +He was talking about this amazing, three-year-old Australopithecine child, Selam. +And we've also been hearing about the history, the family tree, of mankind through DNA genetic profiling. +And it was a paleontologist, the late Louis Leakey, who actually set me on the path for studying chimpanzees. +And it was pretty extraordinary, way back then. +It's kind of commonplace now, but his argument was -- because he'd been searching for the fossilized remains of early humans in Africa. +And you can tell an awful lot about what those beings looked like from the fossils, from the shape of the muscle attachments, something about the way they lived from the various artifacts found with them. +But what about how they behaved? That's what he wanted to know. +And of course, behavior doesn't fossilize. +He argued -- and it's now a fairly common theory -- that if we found behavior patterns similar or the same in our closest living relatives, the great apes, and humans today, then maybe those behaviors were present in the ape-like, human-like ancestor some seven million years ago. +And therefore, perhaps we had brought those characteristics with us from that ancient, ancient past. +Well, if you look in textbooks today that deal with human evolution, you very often find people speculating about how early humans may have behaved, based on the behavior of chimpanzees. +They are more like us than any other living creature, and we've heard about that during this TED Conference. +So it remains for me to comment on the ways in which chimpanzees are so like us, in certain aspects of their behavior. +Every chimpanzee has his or her own personality. +Of course, I gave them names. They can live to be 60 years or more, although we think most of them probably don't make it to 60 in the wild. +Mr. Wurzel. The female has her first baby when she's 11 or 12. +Thereafter, she has one baby only every five or six years, a long period of childhood dependency when the child is nursing, sleeping with the mother at night, and riding on her back. +And we believe that this long period of childhood is important for chimpanzees, just as it is for us, in relation to learning. +As the brain becomes ever more complex during evolution in different forms of animals, so we find that learning plays an ever more important role in an individual's life history. +And young chimpanzees spend a lot of time watching what their elders do. +We know now that they're capable of imitating behaviors that they see. +Chimpanzees don't have a spoken language. We've talked about that. +They do have a very rich repertoire of postures and gestures, many of which are similar, or even identical, to ours and formed in the same context. Greeting chimpanzees embracing. +They also kiss, hold hands, pat one another on the back. +And they swagger and they throw rocks. +In chimpanzee society, we find many, many examples of compassion, precursors to love and true altruism. +Unfortunately, they, like us, have a dark side to their nature. +They're capable of extreme brutality, even a kind of primitive war. +And these really aggressive behaviors, for the most part, are directed against individuals of the neighboring social group. +They are very territorially aggressive. +Chimpanzees, I believe, more than any other living creature, have helped us to understand that, after all, there is no sharp line between humans and the rest of the animal kingdom. +It's a very blurry line, and it's getting more blurry all the time as we make even more observations. +The study that I began in 1960 is still continuing to this day. +And these chimpanzees, living their complex social lives in the wild, have helped -- more than anything else -- to make us realize we are part of, and not separated from, the amazing animals with whom we share the planet. +So it's pretty sad to find that chimpanzees, like so many other creatures around the world, are losing their habitats. +This is just one photograph from the air, and it shows you the forested highlands of Gombe. +"How can we even try to save these famous chimpanzees, when the people living around the National Park are struggling to survive?" +More people are living there than the land could possibly support. +The numbers increased by refugees pouring in from Burundi and over the lake from Congo. +And very poor people -- they couldn't afford to buy food from elsewhere. +This led to a program, which we call TACARE. +It's a very holistic way of improving the lives of the people living in the villages around the park. +It started small with 12 villages. It's now in 24. +There isn't time to go into it, but it's including things like tree nurseries, methods of farming most suitable to this now very degraded, almost desert-like land up in these mountains. +Ways of controlling, preventing soil erosion. +Ways of reclaiming overused farmland, so that within two years they can again be productive. +Working to help the villagers obtain fresh water from wells. +Perhaps build some schoolrooms. +Most important of all, I believe, is working with small groups of women, providing them with opportunities for micro-credit loans. +And we've got, as is the case around the world, about 95 percent of all loans returned. +Empowering women, working with education, providing scholarships for girls so they can finish secondary school, in the clear understanding that, all around the world, as women's education improves, family size drops. +We provide information about family planning and about HIV/AIDS. +And as a result of this program, something's happening for conservation. +It was a Tanzanian team talking to the villagers, asking what they were interested in. +Were they interested in conservation? Absolutely not. +They were interested in health; they were interested in education. +And as time went on, and as their situation began to improve, they began to understand ever more about the need for conservation. +They began to understand that as the upper levels of the hills were denuded of trees, so you've got this terrible soil erosion and mudslides. +Today, we are developing what we call the Greater Gombe Ecosystem. +This is an area way outside the National Park, stretching out into all these very degraded lands. +So TACARE is a success. +We're replicating it in other parts of Africa, around other wilderness areas which are faced with extreme population pressure. +The problems in Africa, however, as we've been discussing for the whole of these first couple of days of TED, are major problems. +There is a great deal of poverty. +And the other problems -- in not only Africa, but the rest of the developing world and, indeed, everywhere -- what are we doing to our planet? +You know, the famous scientist, E. O. Wilson said that if every person on this planet attains the standard of living of the average European or American, we need three new planets. +Today, they are saying four. But we don't have them. We've got one. +And what's happened? I mean, the question here is, here we are, arguably the most intelligent being that's ever walked planet Earth, with this extraordinary brain, capable of the kind of technology that is so well illustrated by these TED Conferences, and yet we're destroying the only home we have. +The indigenous people around the world, before they made a major decision, used to sit around and ask themselves, "How does this decision affect our people seven generations ahead?" +Today, major decisions -- and I'm not particularly talking about Africa here, but the developed world -- major decisions involving millions of dollars, and millions of people, are often based on, "How will this affect the next shareholders' meeting?" +And these decisions affect Africa. +As I began traveling around Africa talking about the problems faced by chimpanzees and their vanishing forests, I realized more and more how so many of Africa's problems could be laid at the door of previous colonial exploitation. +So I began traveling outside Africa, talking in Europe, talking in the United States, going to Asia. +And everywhere there were these terrible problems. +And you know the kind I'm talking about. I'm talking about pollution. +The air that we breathe that often poisons us. +The earth is poisoning our foods. +The water -- water is perhaps one of the most crucial issues that we're going to face in this century -- and everywhere water is being polluted by agricultural, industrial and household chemicals that still are being sprayed around the world, seemingly with the inability to profit from past experience. +The mangroves are being cut down; the effects of things like the tsunami get worse. +We've talked about the soil erosion. +We have the reckless burning of fossil fuels along with other greenhouse gasses, so called, leading to climate change. +Finally, all around the world, people have begun to believe that there is something going on very wrong with our climate. +All around the world climates are mixed up. +And it's the poor people who are affected worse. +It's Africa that already is affected. +In many parts of sub-Saharan Africa, the droughts are so much worse. +And when the rain does come, it so often leads to flooding and added distress, and the cycle of poverty and hunger and disease. +And the numbers of people living in an area that the land cannot support, who are too poor to buy food, who can't move away because the whole land is degraded. +And so you get desertification -- creeping, creeping, creeping -- as the last of the trees are cut down. +And this kind of thing is not just in Africa. It's all over the world. +So it wasn't surprising to me that as I was traveling around the world I met so many young people who seemed to have lost hope. +We seem to have lost wisdom, the wisdom of the indigenous people. +I asked a question. "Why?" +Well, do you think there could be some kind of disconnect between this extraordinarily clever brain, the kind of brain that the TED technologies exemplify, and the human heart? Talking about it in the non-scientific term, in terms of love and compassion. Is there some disconnect? +And these young people, when I talk to them, basically they were either depressed or apathetic, or bitter and angry. And they said more or less the same thing, "We feel this way because we feel you've compromised our future and there's nothing we can do about it." +We have compromised their future. +I've got three little grandchildren, and every time I look at them and I think how we've harmed this beautiful planet since I was their age, I feel this desperation. +And that led to this program we call Roots and Shoots, which began right here in Tanzania and has now spread to 97 countries around the world. +It's symbolic. Roots make a firm foundation. +Shoots seem tiny; to reach the sun they can break through a brick wall. +See the brick wall as all these problems we've inflicted on the planet, environmental and social. It's a message of hope. +Hundreds and thousands of young people around the world can break through and can make this a better world for all living things. +The most important message of Roots and Shoots: every single one of us makes a difference, every single day. +We have a choice. Every one of us in this room, we have a choice as to what kind of difference we want to make. +The very poor have no choice. It's up to us to change things so that the poor have choice as well. +The Roots and Shoots groups all choose three projects. +It depends on how old they are, and which country, whether they're in a city or rural, as to what kinds of projects. +But basically, we have programs now from preschool right through university, with more and more adults starting their own Roots and Shoots groups. +And every group chooses, between them, three different kinds of project to make this a better world, recognizing that all these different problems are interconnected and impinge on each other. +So one of their projects will be to help their own human community. +And then, if they're able, they may raise money to help communities in other parts of the world. +One of their projects will be to help animals -- not just wildlife, domestic animals as well. +And one of their projects will be to help the environment that we all share. +And woven throughout all of this is a message of learning to live in peace and harmony within ourselves, in our families, in our communities, between nations, between cultures, between religions and between us and the natural world. +We need the natural world. We cannot go on destroying it at the rate we are. +We not do have more than this one planet. +Just picking one or two of the projects right here in Africa that the Roots and Shoots groups are doing, one or two projects only -- in Tanzania, in Uganda, Kenya, South Africa, Congo-Brazzaville, Sierra Leone, Cameroon and other groups. And as I say, it's in 97 countries around the world. +Of course, they're planting trees. They're growing organic vegetables. +They're working in the refugee camps, with chickens and selling the eggs for a little amount of money, or just using them to feed their families, and feeling a sense of pride and empowerment, because they're no longer helpless and depending on others with their vegetables and their chickens. +It's being used in Uganda to give some psychological help to ex-child soldiers. +Doing projects like this is bringing them out of themselves. +Once again, they're useful members of society. +We have this program in prisons as well. +So, there's no time for more Roots and Shoots now. +But -- oh, they're also working on HIV/AIDS. +That's a very important component of Roots and Shoots, with older kids talking to younger ones. +And unwanted pregnancies and things like that, which young people listen to better from other youth, rather than adults. +Hope. That's the question I get asked as I'm going around the world: "Jane, you've seen so many terrible things, you've seen your chimpanzees decrease in number from about one million, at the turn of the century, to no more than 150,000 now, and the same with so many other animals. +Forests disappearing, deserts where once there was forest. +Do you really have hope?" Well, yes. +You can't come to a conference like TED and not have hope, can you? +And of course, there's hope. One is this amazing human brain. +And I mean, think of the technologies. +And I've just been so thrilled, finally, to come to people talking about compost latrines. +It's one of my hobbyhorses. +We just flush all this water down the lavatory, it's terrible. +And then talking about renewable energy -- desperately important. +Do we care about the planet for our children? +How many of us have children or grandchildren, nieces, nephews? +Do we care about their future? +And if we care about their future, we, as the elite around the world, we can do something about it. We can make choices as to how we live each day. +What we buy. What we wear. +And choose to make these choices with the question, how will this affect the environment around me? +How will it affect the life of my child when he or she grows up? +Or my grandchild, or whatever it is. +So the human brain, coupled with the human heart, and we join hands around the world. +And that's what TED is helping so well with, and Google who help us, and Esri are helping us with mapping in Gombe National Park. +All of these technologies we can use. +Now let's link them, and it's beginning to happen, isn't it? +You've heard about it this afternoon. It's beginning to happen. +This change, this change. To see change that we must have if we care about the future. +And the next reason for hope -- nature is amazingly resilient. +You can take an area that's absolutely destroyed, with time and perhaps some help it can regenerate. +And an example is the TACARE program. +I told you, where a seemingly dead tree stump -- if you stop hacking them for firewood, which you don't need to because you have wood lots, then in five years you can have a 30-foot tree. +And animals, almost on the brink of extinction, can be given a second chance. That's my next book. +And just to think of one or two people out of Africa who are just really inspiring. +We could make a very long list, but obviously Nelson Mandela, emerging from 17 years of hard physical labor, 23 years of imprisonment, with this amazing ability to forgive, so that he could lead his nation out the evil regime of apartheid without a bloodbath. +Ken Saro-Wiwa, in Nigeria, who took on the giant oil companies, and although people around the world tried their best, was executed. +People like this are so inspirational. +People like this are the role models we need for young Africans. +And we need some environmental role models as well, and I've been hearing some of them today. +So I'm really grateful for this opportunity to share this message again, with everyone at TED. +And I hope that some of us can get together and talk about some of these things, especially the Roots and Shoots program. +And just a last word on that -- the young woman who's running this entire conference center, I met her today. +She came up so excited, with her certificate. She was [in] Roots and Shoots. +She was in the leadership in Dar es Salaam. +She said it's helped her to do what she's doing. +And it was very, very exciting for me to meet her and see just one example of how young people, when they are empowered, given the opportunity to take action, to make the world a better place, truly are our hope for tomorrow. +Thank you. +Suppose that two American friends are traveling together in Italy. +They go to see Michelangelo's "David," and when they finally come face to face with the statue, they both freeze dead in their tracks. +The first guy -- we'll call him Adam -- is transfixed by the beauty of the perfect human form. +The second guy -- we'll call him Bill -- is transfixed by embarrassment, at staring at the thing there in the center. +So here's my question for you: which one of these two guys was more likely to have voted for George Bush, which for Al Gore? +I don't need a show of hands because we all have the same political stereotypes. +We all know that it's Bill. +And in this case, the stereotype corresponds to reality. +It really is a fact that liberals are much higher than conservatives on a major personality trait called openness to experience. +People who are high in openness to experience just crave novelty, variety, diversity, new ideas, travel. +People low on it like things that are familiar, that are safe and dependable. +If you know about this trait, you can understand a lot of puzzles about human behavior. +You can understand why artists are so different from accountants. +You can actually predict what kinds of books they like to read, what kinds of places they like to travel to, and what kinds of food they like to eat. +Once you understand this trait, you can understand why anybody would eat at Applebee's, but not anybody that you know. +This trait also tells us a lot about politics. +The main researcher of this trait, Robert McCrae says that, "Open individuals have an affinity for liberal, progressive, left-wing political views" -- they like a society which is open and changing -- "whereas closed individuals prefer conservative, traditional, right-wing views." +This trait also tells us a lot about the kinds of groups people join. +So here's the description of a group I found on the Web. +What kinds of people would join a global community welcoming people from every discipline and culture, who seek a deeper understanding of the world, and who hope to turn that understanding into a better future for us all? +This is from some guy named Ted. +Well, let's see now, if openness predicts who becomes liberal, and openness predicts who becomes a TEDster, then might we predict that most TEDsters are liberal? +Let's find out. +I'm going to ask you to raise your hand, whether you are liberal, left of center -- on social issues, we're talking about, primarily -- or conservative, and I'll give a third option, because I know there are a number of libertarians in the audience. +So, right now, please raise your hand -- down in the simulcast rooms, too, let's let everybody see who's here -- please raise your hand if you would say that you are liberal or left of center. +Please raise your hand high right now. OK. +Please raise your hand if you'd say you're libertarian. +OK, about a -- two dozen. +And please raise your hand if you'd say you are right of center or conservative. +One, two, three, four, five -- about eight or 10. +OK. This is a bit of a problem. +Because if our goal is to understand the world, to seek a deeper understanding of the world, our general lack of moral diversity here is going to make it harder. +Because when people all share values, when people all share morals, they become a team, and once you engage the psychology of teams, it shuts down open-minded thinking. +When the liberal team loses, as it did in 2004, and as it almost did in 2000, we comfort ourselves. +We try to explain why half of America voted for the other team. +We think they must be blinded by religion, or by simple stupidity. +So, if you think that half of America votes Republican because they are blinded in this way, then my message to you is that you're trapped in a moral matrix, in a particular moral matrix. +And by the matrix, I mean literally the matrix, like the movie "The Matrix." +But I'm here today to give you a choice. +You can either take the blue pill and stick to your comforting delusions, or you can take the red pill, learn some moral psychology and step outside the moral matrix. +Now, because I know -- -- OK, I assume that answers my question. +I was going to ask you which one you picked, but no need. +You're all high in openness to experience, and besides, it looks like it might even taste good, and you're all epicures. +So anyway, let's go with the red pill. +Let's study some moral psychology and see where it takes us. +Let's start at the beginning. +What is morality and where does it come from? +The worst idea in all of psychology is the idea that the mind is a blank slate at birth. +Developmental psychology has shown that kids come into the world already knowing so much about the physical and social worlds, and programmed to make it really easy for them to learn certain things and hard to learn others. +The best definition of innateness I've ever seen -- this just clarifies so many things for me -- is from the brain scientist Gary Marcus. +He says, "The initial organization of the brain does not depend that much on experience. +Nature provides a first draft, which experience then revises. +Built-in doesn't mean unmalleable; it means organized in advance of experience." +OK, so what's on the first draft of the moral mind? +To find out, my colleague, Craig Joseph, and I read through the literature on anthropology, on culture variation in morality and also on evolutionary psychology, looking for matches. +What are the sorts of things that people talk about across disciplines? +That you find across cultures and even across species? +We found five -- five best matches, which we call the five foundations of morality. +The first one is harm/care. +We're all mammals here, we all have a lot of neural and hormonal programming that makes us really bond with others, care for others, feel compassion for others, especially the weak and vulnerable. +It gives us very strong feelings about those who cause harm. +This moral foundation underlies about 70 percent of the moral statements I've heard here at TED. +The second foundation is fairness/reciprocity. +There's actually ambiguous evidence as to whether you find reciprocity in other animals, but the evidence for people could not be clearer. +This Norman Rockwell painting is called "The Golden Rule," and we heard about this from Karen Armstrong, of course, as the foundation of so many religions. +That second foundation underlies the other 30 percent of the moral statements I've heard here at TED. +The third foundation is in-group/loyalty. +You do find groups in the animal kingdom -- you do find cooperative groups -- but these groups are always either very small or they're all siblings. +It's only among humans that you find very large groups of people who are able to cooperate, join together into groups, but in this case, groups that are united to fight other groups. +This probably comes from our long history of tribal living, of tribal psychology. +And this tribal psychology is so deeply pleasurable that even when we don't have tribes, we go ahead and make them, because it's fun. +Sports is to war as pornography is to sex. +We get to exercise some ancient, ancient drives. +The fourth foundation is authority/respect. +Here you see submissive gestures from two members of very closely related species. +But authority in humans is not so closely based on power and brutality, as it is in other primates. +It's based on more voluntary deference, and even elements of love, at times. +The fifth foundation is purity/sanctity. +This painting is called "The Allegory Of Chastity," but purity's not just about suppressing female sexuality. +It's about any kind of ideology, any kind of idea that tells you that you can attain virtue by controlling what you do with your body, by controlling what you put into your body. +And while the political right may moralize sex much more, the political left is really doing a lot of it with food. +Food is becoming extremely moralized nowadays, and a lot of it is ideas about purity, about what you're willing to touch, or put into your body. +I believe these are the five best candidates for what's written on the first draft of the moral mind. +I think this is what we come with, at least a preparedness to learn all of these things. +But as my son, Max, grows up in a liberal college town, how is this first draft going to get revised? +And how will it end up being different from a kid born 60 miles south of us in Lynchburg, Virginia? +To think about culture variation, let's try a different metaphor. +If there really are five systems at work in the mind -- five sources of intuitions and emotions -- then we can think of the moral mind as being like one of those audio equalizers that has five channels, where you can set it to a different setting on every channel. +And my colleagues, Brian Nosek and Jesse Graham, and I, made a questionnaire, which we put up on the Web at www.YourMorals.org. +And so far, 30,000 people have taken this questionnaire, and you can too. +Here are the results. +Here are the results from about 23,000 American citizens. +On the left, I've plotted the scores for liberals; on the right, those for conservatives; in the middle, the moderates. +The blue line shows you people's responses on the average of all the harm questions. +So, as you see, people care about harm and care issues. +They give high endorsement of these sorts of statements all across the board, but as you also see, liberals care about it a little more than conservatives -- the line slopes down. +Same story for fairness. +But look at the other three lines. +For liberals, the scores are very low. +Liberals are basically saying, "No, this is not morality. +In-group, authority, purity -- this stuff has nothing to do with morality. I reject it." +But as people get more conservative, the values rise. +We can say that liberals have a kind of a two-channel, or two-foundation morality. +Conservatives have more of a five-foundation, or five-channel morality. +We find this in every country we look at. +Here's the data for 1,100 Canadians. +I'll just flip through a few other slides. +The U.K., Australia, New Zealand, Western Europe, Eastern Europe, Latin America, the Middle East, East Asia and South Asia. +Notice also that on all of these graphs, the slope is steeper on in-group, authority, purity. +Which shows that within any country, the disagreement isn't over harm and fairness. +Everybody -- I mean, we debate over what's fair -- but everybody agrees that harm and fairness matter. +Moral arguments within cultures are especially about issues of in-group, authority, purity. +This effect is so robust that we find it no matter how we ask the question. +In one recent study, we asked people to suppose you're about to get a dog. +You picked a particular breed, you learned some new information about the breed. +Suppose you learn that this particular breed is independent-minded, and relates to its owner as a friend and an equal? +Well, if you are a liberal, you say, "Hey, that's great!" +Because liberals like to say, "Fetch, please." +But if you're conservative, that's not so attractive. +If you're conservative, and you learn that a dog's extremely loyal to its home and family, and doesn't warm up quickly to strangers, for conservatives, well, loyalty is good -- dogs ought to be loyal. +But to a liberal, it sounds like this dog is running for the Republican nomination. +So, you might say, OK, there are these differences between liberals and conservatives, but what makes those three other foundations moral? +Aren't those just the foundations of xenophobia and authoritarianism and Puritanism? +What makes them moral? +The answer, I think, is contained in this incredible triptych from Hieronymus Bosch, "The Garden of Earthly Delights." +In the first panel, we see the moment of creation. +All is ordered, all is beautiful, all the people and animals are doing what they're supposed to be doing, where they're supposed to be. +But then, given the way of the world, things change. +We get every person doing whatever he wants, with every aperture of every other person and every other animal. +Some of you might recognize this as the '60s. +But the '60s inevitably gives way to the '70s, where the cuttings of the apertures hurt a little bit more. +Of course, Bosch called this hell. +So this triptych, these three panels portray the timeless truth that order tends to decay. +The truth of social entropy. +A game in which you give people money, and then, on each round of the game, they can put money into a common pot, and then the experimenter doubles what's in there, and then it's all divided among the players. +So it's a really nice analog for all sorts of environmental issues, where we're asking people to make a sacrifice and they themselves don't really benefit from their own sacrifice. +But you really want everybody else to sacrifice, but everybody has a temptation to a free ride. +And what happens is that, at first, people start off reasonably cooperative -- and this is all played anonymously. +On the first round, people give about half of the money that they can. +But they quickly see, "You know what, other people aren't doing so much though. +I don't want to be a sucker. I'm not going to cooperate." +And so cooperation quickly decays from reasonably good, down to close to zero. +But then -- and here's the trick -- Fehr and Gachter said, on the seventh round, they told people, "You know what? New rule. +If you want to give some of your own money to punish people who aren't contributing, you can do that." +And as soon as people heard about the punishment issue going on, cooperation shoots up. +It shoots up and it keeps going up. +There's a lot of research showing that to solve cooperative problems, it really helps. +It's not enough to just appeal to people's good motives. +It really helps to have some sort of punishment. +Even if it's just shame or embarrassment or gossip, you need some sort of punishment to bring people, when they're in large groups, to cooperate. +There's even some recent research suggesting that religion -- priming God, making people think about God -- often, in some situations, leads to more cooperative, more pro-social behavior. +Some people think that religion is an adaptation evolved both by cultural and biological evolution to make groups to cohere, in part for the purpose of trusting each other, and then being more effective at competing with other groups. +I think that's probably right, although this is a controversial issue. +But I'm particularly interested in religion, and the origin of religion, and in what it does to us and for us. +Because I think that the greatest wonder in the world is not the Grand Canyon. +The Grand Canyon is really simple. +It's just a lot of rock, and then a lot of water and wind, and a lot of time, and you get the Grand Canyon. +It's not that complicated. +This is what's really complicated, that there were people living in places like the Grand Canyon, cooperating with each other, or on the savannahs of Africa, or on the frozen shores of Alaska, and then some of these villages grew into the mighty cities of Babylon, and Rome, and Tenochtitlan. +How did this happen? +This is an absolute miracle, much harder to explain than the Grand Canyon. +The answer, I think, is that they used every tool in the toolbox. +It took all of our moral psychology to create these cooperative groups. +Yes, you do need to be concerned about harm, you do need a psychology of justice. +But it really helps to organize a group if you can have sub-groups, and if those sub-groups have some internal structure, and if you have some ideology that tells people to suppress their carnality, to pursue higher, nobler ends. +And now we get to the crux of the disagreement between liberals and conservatives. +Because liberals reject three of these foundations. +They say "No, let's celebrate diversity, not common in-group membership." +They say, "Let's question authority." +And they say, "Keep your laws off my body." +Liberals have very noble motives for doing this. +Traditional authority, traditional morality can be quite repressive, and restrictive to those at the bottom, to women, to people that don't fit in. +So liberals speak for the weak and oppressed. +They want change and justice, even at the risk of chaos. +This guy's shirt says, "Stop bitching, start a revolution." +If you're high in openness to experience, revolution is good, it's change, it's fun. +Conservatives, on the other hand, speak for institutions and traditions. +They want order, even at some cost to those at the bottom. +The great conservative insight is that order is really hard to achieve. +It's really precious, and it's really easy to lose. +So as Edmund Burke said, "The restraints on men, as well as their liberties, are to be reckoned among their rights." +This was after the chaos of the French Revolution. +So once you see this -- once you see that liberals and conservatives both have something to contribute, that they form a balance on change versus stability -- then I think the way is open to step outside the moral matrix. +This is the great insight that all the Asian religions have attained. +Think about yin and yang. +Yin and yang aren't enemies. Yin and yang don't hate each other. +Yin and yang are both necessary, like night and day, for the functioning of the world. +You find the same thing in Hinduism. +There are many high gods in Hinduism. +Two of them are Vishnu, the preserver, and Shiva, the destroyer. +This image actually is both of those gods sharing the same body. +You have the markings of Vishnu on the left, so we could think of Vishnu as the conservative god. +You have the markings of Shiva on the right, Shiva's the liberal god. And they work together. +You find the same thing in Buddhism. +These two stanzas contain, I think, the deepest insights that have ever been attained into moral psychology. +From the Zen master Seng-ts'an: "If you want the truth to stand clear before you, never be for or against. +The struggle between for and against is the mind's worst disease." +Now unfortunately, it's a disease that has been caught by many of the world's leaders. +But before you feel superior to George Bush, before you throw a stone, ask yourself, do you accept this? +Do you accept stepping out of the battle of good and evil? +Can you be not for or against anything? +So, what's the point? What should you do? +Well, if you take the greatest insights from ancient Asian philosophies and religions, and you combine them with the latest research on moral psychology, I think you come to these conclusions: that our righteous minds were designed by evolution to unite us into teams, to divide us against other teams and then to blind us to the truth. +So what should you do? Am I telling you to not strive? +Am I telling you to embrace Seng-ts'an and stop, stop with this struggle of for and against? +No, absolutely not. I'm not saying that. +This is an amazing group of people who are doing so much, using so much of their talent, their brilliance, their energy, their money, to make the world a better place, to fight -- to fight wrongs, to solve problems. +But as we learned from Samantha Power, in her story about Sergio Vieira de Mello, you can't just go charging in, saying, "You're wrong, and I'm right." +Because, as we just heard, everybody thinks they are right. +A lot of the problems we have to solve are problems that require us to change other people. +And if you want to change other people, a much better way to do it is to first understand who we are -- understand our moral psychology, understand that we all think we're right -- and then step out, even if it's just for a moment, step out -- check in with Seng-ts'an. +Step out of the moral matrix, just try to see it as a struggle playing out, in which everybody does think they're right, and everybody, at least, has some reasons -- even if you disagree with them -- everybody has some reasons for what they're doing. +Step out. +And if you do that, that's the essential move to cultivate moral humility, to get yourself out of this self-righteousness, which is the normal human condition. +Think about the Dalai Lama. +Think about the enormous moral authority of the Dalai Lama -- and it comes from his moral humility. +So I think the point -- the point of my talk, and I think the point of TED -- is that this is a group that is passionately engaged in the pursuit of changing the world for the better. +People here are passionately engaged in trying to make the world a better place. +But there is also a passionate commitment to the truth. +And so I think that the answer is to use that passionate commitment to the truth to try to turn it into a better future for us all. +Thank you. +David Gallo: This is Bill Lange. I'm Dave Gallo. +And we're going to tell you some stories from the sea here in video. +We've got some of the most incredible video of Titanic that's ever been seen, and we're not going to show you any of it. +The truth of the matter is that the Titanic -- even though it's breaking all sorts of box office records -- it's not the most exciting story from the sea. +And the problem, I think, is that we take the ocean for granted. +When you think about it, the oceans are 75 percent of the planet. +Most of the planet is ocean water. +The average depth is about two miles. +Part of the problem, I think, is we stand at the beach, or we see images like this of the ocean, and you look out at this great big blue expanse, and it's shimmering and it's moving and there's waves and there's surf and there's tides, but you have no idea for what lies in there. +And in the oceans, there are the longest mountain ranges on the planet. +Most of the animals are in the oceans. +Most of the earthquakes and volcanoes are in the sea, at the bottom of the sea. +The biodiversity and the biodensity in the ocean is higher, in places, than it is in the rainforests. +It's mostly unexplored, and yet there are beautiful sights like this that captivate us and make us become familiar with it. +But when you're standing at the beach, I want you to think that you're standing at the edge of a very unfamiliar world. +We have to have a very special technology to get into that unfamiliar world. +We use the submarine Alvin and we use cameras, and the cameras are something that Bill Lange has developed with the help of Sony. +Marcel Proust said, "The true voyage of discovery is not so much in seeking new landscapes as in having new eyes." +People that have partnered with us have given us new eyes, not only on what exists -- the new landscapes at the bottom of the sea -- but also how we think about life on the planet itself. +Here's a jelly. +It's one of my favorites, because it's got all sorts of working parts. +This turns out to be the longest creature in the oceans. +It gets up to about 150 feet long. +But see all those different working things? +I love that kind of stuff. +It's got these fishing lures on the bottom. They're going up and down. +It's got tentacles dangling, swirling around like that. +It's a colonial animal. +These are all individual animals banding together to make this one creature. +And it's got these jet thrusters up in front that it'll use in a moment, and a little light. +If you take all the big fish and schooling fish and all that, put them on one side of the scale, put all the jelly-type of animals on the other side, those guys win hands down. +Most of the biomass in the ocean is made out of creatures like this. +Here's the X-wing death jelly. +The bioluminescence -- they use the lights for attracting mates and attracting prey and communicating. +We couldn't begin to show you our archival stuff from the jellies. +They come in all different sizes and shapes. +Bill Lange: We tend to forget about the fact that the ocean is miles deep on average, and that we're real familiar with the animals that are in the first 200 or 300 feet, but we're not familiar with what exists from there all the way down to the bottom. +And these are the types of animals that live in that three-dimensional space, that micro-gravity environment that we really haven't explored. +You hear about giant squid and things like that, but some of these animals get up to be approximately 140, 160 feet long. +They're very little understood. +DG: This is one of them, another one of our favorites, because it's a little octopod. +You can actually see through his head. +And here he is, flapping with his ears and very gracefully going up. +We see those at all depths and even at the greatest depths. +They go from a couple of inches to a couple of feet. +They come right up to the submarine -- they'll put their eyes right up to the window and peek inside the sub. +This is really a world within a world, and we're going to show you two. +In this case, we're passing down through the mid-ocean and we see creatures like this. +This is kind of like an undersea rooster. +This guy, that looks incredibly formal, in a way. +And then one of my favorites. What a face! +This is basically scientific data that you're looking at. +It's footage that we've collected for scientific purposes. +And that's one of the things that Bill's been doing, is providing scientists with this first view of animals like this, in the world where they belong. +They don't catch them in a net. +They're actually looking at them down in that world. +We're going to take a joystick, sit in front of our computer, on the Earth, and press the joystick forward, and fly around the planet. +We're going to look at the mid-ocean ridge, a 40,000-mile long mountain range. +The average depth at the top of it is about a mile and a half. +And we're over the Atlantic -- that's the ridge right there -- but we're going to go across the Caribbean, Central America, and end up against the Pacific, nine degrees north. +We make maps of these mountain ranges with sound, with sonar, and this is one of those mountain ranges. +We're coming around a cliff here on the right. +The height of these mountains on either side of this valley is greater than the Alps in most cases. +And there's tens of thousands of those mountains out there that haven't been mapped yet. +This is a volcanic ridge. +We're getting down further and further in scale. +And eventually, we can come up with something like this. +This is an icon of our robot, Jason, it's called. +And you can sit in a room like this, with a joystick and a headset, and drive a robot like that around the bottom of the ocean in real time. +One of the things we're trying to do at Woods Hole with our partners is to bring this virtual world -- this world, this unexplored region -- back to the laboratory. +Because we see it in bits and pieces right now. +We see it either as sound, or we see it as video, or we see it as photographs, or we see it as chemical sensors, but we never have yet put it all together into one interesting picture. +Here's where Bill's cameras really do shine. +This is what's called a hydrothermal vent. +And what you're seeing here is a cloud of densely packed, hydrogen-sulfide-rich water coming out of a volcanic axis on the sea floor. +Gets up to 600, 700 degrees F, somewhere in that range. +So that's all water under the sea -- a mile and a half, two miles, three miles down. +And we knew it was volcanic back in the '60s, '70s. +And then we had some hint that these things existed all along the axis of it, because if you've got volcanism, water's going to get down from the sea into cracks in the sea floor, come in contact with magma, and come shooting out hot. +We weren't really aware that it would be so rich with sulfides, hydrogen sulfides. +We didn't have any idea about these things, which we call chimneys. +This is one of these hydrothermal vents. +Six hundred degree F water coming out of the Earth. +On either side of us are mountain ranges that are higher than the Alps, so the setting here is very dramatic. +BL: The white material is a type of bacteria that thrives at 180 degrees C. +DG: I think that's one of the greatest stories right now that we're seeing from the bottom of the sea, is that the first thing we see coming out of the sea floor after a volcanic eruption is bacteria. +And we started to wonder for a long time, how did it all get down there? +What we find out now is that it's probably coming from inside the Earth. +Not only is it coming out of the Earth -- so, biogenesis made from volcanic activity -- but that bacteria supports these colonies of life. +The pressure here is 4,000 pounds per square inch. +A mile and a half from the surface to two miles to three miles -- no sun has ever gotten down here. +All the energy to support these life forms is coming from inside the Earth -- so, chemosynthesis. +And you can see how dense the population is. +These are called tube worms. +BL: These worms have no digestive system. They have no mouth. +But they have two types of gill structures. +One for extracting oxygen out of the deep-sea water, another one which houses this chemosynthetic bacteria, which takes the hydrothermal fluid -- that hot water that you saw coming out of the bottom -- and converts that into simple sugars that the tube worm can digest. +DG: You can see, here's a crab that lives down there. +He's managed to grab a tip of these worms. +Now, they normally retract as soon as a crab touches them. +Oh! Good going. +So, as soon as a crab touches them, they retract down into their shells, just like your fingernails. +There's a whole story being played out here that we're just now beginning to have some idea of because of this new camera technology. +BL: These worms live in a real temperature extreme. +Their foot is at about 200 degrees C and their head is out at three degrees C, so it's like having your hand in boiling water and your foot in freezing water. +That's how they like to live. +DG: This is a female of this kind of worm. +And here's a male. +You watch. It doesn't take long before two guys here -- this one and one that will show up over here -- start to fight. +Everything you see is played out in the pitch black of the deep sea. +There are never any lights there, except the lights that we bring. +Here they go. +On one of the last dive series, we counted 200 species in these areas -- 198 were new, new species. +BL: One of the big problems is that for the biologists working at these sites, it's rather difficult to collect these animals. +And they disintegrate on the way up, so the imagery is critical for the science. +DG: Two octopods at about two miles depth. +This pressure thing really amazes me -- that these animals can exist there at a depth with pressure enough to crush the Titanic like an empty Pepsi can. +What we saw up till now was from the Pacific. +This is from the Atlantic. Even greater depth. +You can see this shrimp is harassing this poor little guy here, and he'll bat it away with his claw. Whack! +And the same thing's going on over here. +What they're getting at is that -- on the back of this crab -- the foodstuff here is this very strange bacteria that lives on the backs of all these animals. +And what these shrimp are trying to do is actually harvest the bacteria from the backs of these animals. +And the crabs don't like it at all. +These long filaments that you see on the back of the crab are actually created by the product of that bacteria. +So, the bacteria grows hair on the crab. +On the back, you see this again. +The red dot is the laser light of the submarine Alvin to give us an idea about how far away we are from the vents. +Those are all shrimp. +You see the hot water over here, here and here, coming out. +They're clinging to a rock face and actually scraping bacteria off that rock face. +Here's a tiny, little vent that's come out of the side of that pillar. +Those pillars get up to several stories. +So here, you've got this valley with this incredible alien landscape of pillars and hot springs and volcanic eruptions and earthquakes, inhabited by these very strange animals that live only on chemical energy coming out of the ground. +They don't need the sun at all. +BL: You see this white V-shaped mark on the back of the shrimp? +It's actually a light-sensing organ. +It's how they find the hydrothermal vents. +The vents are emitting a black body radiation -- an IR signature -- and so they're able to find these vents at considerable distances. +DG: All this stuff is happening along that 40,000-mile long mountain range that we're calling the ribbon of life, because just even today, as we speak, there's life being generated there from volcanic activity. +This is the first time we've ever tried this any place. +We're going to try to show you high definition from the Pacific. +We're moving up one of these pillars. +This one's several stories tall. +In it, you'll see that it's a habitat for a lot of different animals. +There's a funny kind of hot plate here, with vent water coming out of it. +So all of these are individual homes for worms. +Now here's a closer view of that community. +Here's crabs here, worms here. +There are smaller animals crawling around. +Here's pagoda structures. +I think this is the neatest-looking thing. +I just can't get over this -- that you've got these little chimneys sitting here smoking away. +This stuff is toxic as hell, by the way. +You could never get a permit to dump this in the ocean, and it's coming out all from it. +It's unbelievable. It's basically sulfuric acid, and it's being just dumped out, at incredible rates. +And animals are thriving -- and we probably came from here. +That's probably where we evolved from. +BL: This bacteria that we've been talking about turns out to be the most simplest form of life found. +There are a number of groups that are proposing that life evolved at these vent sites. +Although the vent sites are short-lived -- an individual site may last only 10 years or so -- as an ecosystem they've been stable for millions -- well, billions -- of years. +DG: It works too well. You see there're some fish inside here as well. +There's a fish sitting here. +Here's a crab with his claw right at the end of that tube worm, waiting for that worm to stick his head out. +BL: The biologists right now cannot explain why these animals are so active. +The worms are growing inches per week! +DG: I already said that this site, from a human perspective, is toxic as hell. +Not only that, but on top -- the lifeblood -- that plumbing system turns off every year or so. +Their plumbing system turns off, so the sites have to move. +And then there's earthquakes, and then volcanic eruptions, on the order of one every five years, that completely wipes the area out. +Despite that, these animals grow back in about a year's time. +You're talking about biodensities and biodiversity, again, higher than the rainforest that just springs back to life. +Is it sensitive? Yes. +Is it fragile? No, it's not really very fragile. +I'll end up with saying one thing. +There's a story in the sea, in the waters of the sea, in the sediments and the rocks of the sea floor. +It's an incredible story. +What we see when we look back in time, in those sediments and rocks, is a record of Earth history. +Everything on this planet -- everything -- works by cycles and rhythms. +The continents move apart. They come back together. +Oceans come and go. Mountains come and go. Glaciers come and go. +El Nino comes and goes. It's not a disaster, it's rhythmic. +What we're learning now, it's almost like a symphony. +It's just like music -- it really is just like music. +And what we're learning now is that you can't listen to a five-billion-year long symphony, get to today and say, "Stop! We want tomorrow's note to be the same as it was today." +It's absurd. It's just absurd. +So, what we've got to learn now is to find out where this planet's going at all these different scales and work with it. +Learn to manage it. +The concept of preservation is futile. +Conservation's tougher, but we can probably get there. +Thank you very much. +Thank you. +So, a big question that we're facing now and have been for quite a number of years now: are we at risk of a nuclear attack? +Now, there's a bigger question that's probably actually more important than that, is the notion of permanently eliminating the possibility of a nuclear attack, eliminating the threat altogether. +And I would like to make a case to you that over the years since we first developed atomic weaponry, until this very moment, we've actually lived in a dangerous nuclear world that's characterized by two phases, which I'm going to go through with you right now. +First of all, we started off the nuclear age in 1945. +The United States had developed a couple of atomic weapons through the Manhattan Project, and the idea was very straightforward: we would use the power of the atom to end the atrocities and the horror of this unending World War II that we'd been involved in in Europe and in the Pacific. +And in 1945, we were the only nuclear power. +We had a few nuclear weapons, two of which we dropped on Japan, in Hiroshima, a few days later in Nagasaki, in August 1945, killing about 250,000 people between those two. +And for a few years, we were the only nuclear power on Earth. +But by 1949, the Soviet Union had decided it was unacceptable to have us as the only nuclear power, and they began to match what the United States had developed. +And from 1949 to 1985 was an extraordinary time of a buildup of a nuclear arsenal that no one could possibly have imagined back in the 1940s. +So by 1985 -- each of those red bombs up here is equivalent of a thousands warheads -- the world had 65,000 nuclear warheads, and seven members of something that came to be known as the "nuclear club." +And it was an extraordinary time, and I am going to go through some of the mentality that we -- that Americans and the rest of the world were experiencing. +But I want to just point out to you that 95 percent of the nuclear weapons at any particular time since 1985 -- going forward, of course -- were part of the arsenals of the United States and the Soviet Union. +After 1985, and before the break up of the Soviet Union, we began to disarm from a nuclear point of view. +We began to counter-proliferate, and we dropped the number of nuclear warheads in the world to about a total of 21,000. +It's a very difficult number to deal with, because what we've done is we've quote unquote "decommissioned" some of the warheads. +They're still probably usable. They could be "re-commissioned," but the way they count things, which is very complicated, we think we have about a third of the nuclear weapons we had before. +But we also, in that period of time, added two more members to the nuclear club: Pakistan and North Korea. +So we stand today with a still fully armed nuclear arsenal among many countries around the world, but a very different set of circumstances. +So I'm going to talk about a nuclear threat story in two chapters. +Chapter one is 1949 to 1991, when the Soviet Union broke up, and what we were dealing with, at that point and through those years, was a superpowers' nuclear arms race. +It was characterized by a nation-versus-nation, very fragile standoff. +And basically, we lived for all those years, and some might argue that we still do, in a situation of being on the brink, literally, of an apocalyptic, planetary calamity. +It's incredible that we actually lived through all that. +We were totally dependent during those years on this amazing acronym, which is MAD. +It stands for mutually assured destruction. +So it meant if you attacked us, we would attack you virtually simultaneously, and the end result would be a destruction of your country and mine. +So the threat of my own destruction kept me from launching a nuclear attack on you. That's the way we lived. +And the danger of that, of course, is that a misreading of a radar screen could actually cause a counter-launch, even though the first country had not actually launched anything. +During this chapter one, there was a high level of public awareness about the potential of nuclear catastrophe, and an indelible image was implanted in our collective minds that, in fact, a nuclear holocaust would be absolutely globally destructive and could, in some ways, mean the end of civilization as we know it. +So this was chapter one. +Now the odd thing is that even though we knew that there would be that kind of civilization obliteration, we engaged in America in a series -- and in fact, in the Soviet Union -- in a series of response planning. +It was absolutely incredible. +So premise one is we'd be destroying the world, and then premise two is, why don't we get prepared for it? +So what we offered ourselves was a collection of things. I'm just going to go skim through a few things, just to jog your memories. +If you're born after 1950, this is just -- consider this entertainment, otherwise it's memory lane. +This was Bert the Turtle. This was basically an attempt to teach our schoolchildren that if we did get engaged in a nuclear confrontation and atomic war, then we wanted our school children to kind of basically duck and cover. +That was the principle. You -- there would be a nuclear conflagration about to hit us, and if you get under your desk, things would be OK. +I didn't do all that well in psychiatry in medical school, but I was interested, and I think this was seriously delusional. +Secondly, we told people to go down in their basements and build a fallout shelter. +Maybe it would be a study when we weren't having an atomic war, or you could use it as a TV room, or, as many teenagers found out, a very, very safe place for a little privacy with your girlfriend. +And actually -- so there are multiple uses of the bomb shelters. +Or you could buy a prefabricated bomb shelter that you could simply bury in the ground. +Now, the bomb shelters at that point -- let's say you bought a prefab one -- it would be a few hundred dollars, maybe up to 500, if you got a fancy one. +Yet, what percentage of Americans do you think ever had a bomb shelter in their house? +What percentage lived in a house with a bomb shelter? +Less than two percent. About 1.4 percent of the population, as far as anyone knows, did anything, either making a space in their basement or actually building a bomb shelter. +Many buildings, public buildings, around the country -- this is New York City -- had these little civil defense signs, and the idea was that you would run into one of these shelters and be safe from the nuclear weaponry. +And one of the greatest governmental delusions of all time was something that happened in the early days of the Federal Emergency Management Agency, FEMA, as we now know, and are well aware of their behaviors from Katrina. +Here is their first big public announcement. +They would propose -- actually there were about six volumes written on this -- a crisis relocation plan that was dependent upon the United States having three to four days warning that the Soviets were going to attack us. +So the goal was to evacuate the target cities. +We would move people out of the target cities into the countryside. +And I'm telling you, I actually testified at the Senate about the absolute ludicrous idea that we would actually evacuate, and actually have three or four days' warning. +It was just completely off the wall. +Turns out that they had another idea behind it, even though this was -- they were telling the public it was to save us. +The idea was that we would force the Soviets to re-target their nuclear weapons -- very expensive -- and potentially double their arsenal, to not only take out the original site, but take out sites where people were going. +This was what apparently, as it turns out, was behind all this. +It was just really, really frightening. +The main point here is we were dealing with a complete disconnect from reality. +The civil defense programs were disconnected from the reality of what we'd see in all-out nuclear war. +So organizations like Physicians for Social Responsibility, around 1979, started saying this a lot publicly. +They would do a bombing run. They'd go to your city, and they'd say, "Here's a map of your city. +Here's what's going to happen if we get a nuclear hit." +So no possibility of medical response to, or meaningful preparedness for all-out nuclear war. +So we had to prevent nuclear war if we expected to survive. +This disconnect was never actually resolved. +And what happened was -- when we get in to chapter two of the nuclear threat era, which started back in 1945. +Chapter two starts in 1991. +When the Soviet Union broke up, we effectively lost that adversary as a potential attacker of the United States, for the most part. +It's not completely gone. I'm going to come back to that. +But from 1991 through the present time, emphasized by the attacks of 2001, the idea of an all-out nuclear war has diminished and the idea of a single event, act of nuclear terrorism is what we have instead. +Although the scenario has changed very considerably, the fact is that we haven't changed our mental image of what a nuclear war means. +So I'm going to tell you what the implications of that are in just a second. +So, what is a nuclear terror threat? +And there's four key ingredients to describing that. +First thing is that the global nuclear weapons, in the stockpiles that I showed you in those original maps, happen to be not uniformly secure. +And it's particularly not secure in the former Soviet Union, now in Russia. +There are many, many sites where warheads are stored and, in fact, lots of sites where fissionable materials, like highly enriched uranium and plutonium, are absolutely not safe. +They're available to be bought, stolen, whatever. +They're acquirable, let me put it that way. +From 1993 through 2006, the International Atomic Energy Agency documented 175 cases of nuclear theft, 18 of which involved highly enriched uranium or plutonium, the key ingredients to make a nuclear weapon. +The global stockpile of highly enriched uranium is about 1,300, at the low end, to about 2,100 metric tons. +More than 100 megatons of this is stored in particularly insecure Russian facilities. +How much of that do you think it would take to actually build a 10-kiloton bomb? +Well, you need about 75 pounds of it. +So, what I'd like to show you is what it would take to hold 75 pounds of highly enriched uranium. +This is not a product placement. It's just -- in fact, if I was Coca Cola, I'd be pretty distressed about this -- -- but basically, this is it. +This is what you would need to steal or buy out of that 100-metric-ton stockpile that's relatively insecure to create the type of bomb that was used in Hiroshima. +Now you might want to look at plutonium as another fissionable material that you might use in a bomb. +That -- you'd need 10 to 13 pounds of plutonium. +Now, plutonium, 10 to 13 pounds: this. This is enough plutonium to create a Nagasaki-size atomic weapon. +Now this situation, already I -- you know, I don't really like thinking about this, although somehow I got myself a job where I have to think about it. So the point is that we're very, very insecure in terms of developing this material. +The second thing is, what about the know-how? +And there's a lot of controversy about whether terror organizations have the know-how to actually make a nuclear weapon. +Well, there's a lot of know-how out there. +There's an unbelievable amount of know-how out there. +There's detailed information on how to assemble a nuclear weapon from parts. +There's books about how to build a nuclear bomb. +There are plans for how to create a terror farm where you could actually manufacture and develop all the components and assemble it. +All of this information is relatively available. +If you have an undergraduate degree in physics, I would suggest -- although I don't, so maybe it's not even true -- but something close to that would allow you, with the information that's currently available, to actually build a nuclear weapon. +The third element of the nuclear terror threat is that, who would actually do such a thing? +Well, what we're seeing now is a level of terrorism that involves individuals who are highly organized. +They are very dedicated and committed. +They are stateless. +Somebody once said, Al Qaeda does not have a return address, so if they attack us with a nuclear weapon, what's the response, and to whom is the response? +And they're retaliation-proof. +Since there is no real retribution possible that would make any difference, since there are people willing to actually give up their lives in order to do a lot of damage to us, it becomes apparent that the whole notion of this mutually assured destruction would not work. +Here is Sulaiman Abu Ghaith, and Sulaiman was a key lieutenant of Osama Bin Laden. +He wrote many, many times statements to this effect: "we have the right to kill four million Americans, two million of whom should be children." +And we don't have to go overseas to find people willing to do harm, for whatever their reasons. +McVeigh and Nichols, and the Oklahoma City attack in the 1990s was a good example of homegrown terrorists. +What if they had gotten their hands on a nuclear weapon? +The fourth element is that the high-value U.S. targets are accessible, soft and plentiful. +This would be a talk for another day, but the level of the preparedness that the United States has achieved since 9/11 of '01 is unbelievably inadequate. +What you saw after Katrina is a very good indicator of how little prepared the United States is for any kind of major attack. +Seven million ship cargo containers come into the United States every year. +Five to seven percent only are inspected -- five to seven percent. +This is Alexander Lebed, who was a general that worked with Yeltsin, who talked about, and presented to Congress, this idea that the Russians had developed -- these suitcase bombs. They were very low yield -- 0.1 to one kiloton, Hiroshima was around 13 kilotons -- but enough to do an unbelievable amount of damage. +And Lebed came to the United States and told us that many, many -- more than 80 of the suitcase bombs were actually not accountable. +And they look like this. They're basically very simple arrangements. +You put the elements into a suitcase. +It becomes very portable. +The suitcase can be conveniently dropped in your trunk of your car. +You take it wherever you want to take it, and you can detonate it. +You don't want to build a suitcase bomb, and you happen to get one of those insecure nuclear warheads that exist. +This is the size of the "Little Boy" bomb that was dropped at Hiroshima. +It was 9.8 feet long, weighed 8,800 pounds. You go down to your local rent-a-truck and for 50 bucks or so, you rent a truck that's got the right capacity, and you take your bomb, you put it in the truck and you're ready to go. +It could happen. But what it would mean and who would survive? +You can't get an exact number for that kind of probability, but what I'm trying to say is that we have all the elements of that happening. +Anybody who dismisses the thought of a nuclear weapon being used by a terrorist is kidding themselves. +There's a lot that can be done to make us a lot safer. +At this particular moment, we actually could end up seeing a nuclear detonation in one of our cities. +I don't think we would see an all-out nuclear war any time soon, although even that is not completely off the table. +There's still enough nuclear weapons in the arsenals of the superpowers to destroy the Earth many, many times over. +There are flash points in India and Pakistan, in the Middle East, in North Korea, other places where the use of nuclear weapons, while initially locally, could very rapidly go into a situation where we'd be facing all-out nuclear war. +It's very unsettling. +Here we go. OK. +I'm back in my truck, and we drove over the Brooklyn Bridge. +We're coming down, and we bring that truck that you just saw somewhere in here, in the Financial District. +This is a 10-kiloton bomb, slightly smaller than was used in Hiroshima. And I want to just conclude this by just giving you some information. I think -- "news you could use" kind of concept here. +So, first of all, this would be horrific beyond anything we can possibly imagine. +This is the ultimate. +And if you're in the half-mile radius of where this bomb went off, you have a 90 percent chance of not making it. +If you're right where the bomb went off, you will be vaporized. And that's -- I'm just telling you, this is not good. +You assume that. +Two-mile radius, you have a 50 percent chance of being killed, and up to about eight miles away -- now I'm talking about killed instantly -- somewhere between a 10 and 20 percent chance of getting killed. +The thing about this is that the experience of the nuclear detonation is -- first of all, tens of millions of degrees Fahrenheit at the core here, where it goes off, and an extraordinary amount of energy in the form of heat, acute radiation and blast effects. +An enormous hurricane-like wind, and destruction of buildings almost totally, within this yellow circle here. +And what I'm going to focus on, as I come to conclusion here, is that, what happens to you if you're in here? +Well, if we're talking about the old days of an all-out nuclear attack, you, up here, are as dead as the people here. So it was a moot point. +My point now, though, is that there is a lot that we could do for you who are in here, if you've survived the initial blast. +You have, when the blast goes off -- and by the way, if it ever comes up, don't look at it. +If you look at it, you're going to be blind, either temporarily or permanently. +So if there's any way that you can avoid, like, avert your eyes, that would be a good thing. +If you find yourself alive, but you're in the vicinity of a nuclear weapon, you have -- that's gone off -- you have 10 to 20 minutes, depending on the size and exactly where it went off, to get out of the way before a lethal amount of radiation comes straight down from the mushroom cloud that goes up. +In that 10 to 15 minutes, all you have to do -- and I mean this seriously -- is go about a mile away from the blast. +And what happens is -- this is -- I'm going to show you now some fallout plumes. Within 20 minutes, it comes straight down. Within 24 hours, lethal radiation is going out with prevailing winds, and it's mostly in this particular direction -- it's going northeast. +And if you're in this vicinity, you've got to get away. +So you're feeling the wind -- and there's tremendous wind now that you're going to be feeling -- and you want to go perpendicular to the wind [not upwind or downwind]. +if you are in fact able to see where the blast was in front of you. +You've got to get out of there. +If you don't get out of there, you're going to be exposed to lethal radiation in very short order. +If you can't get out of there, we want you to go into a shelter and stay there. +But basically, you've got to get out of town as quickly as possible. +And if you do that, you actually can survive a nuclear blast. +Over the next few days to a week, there will be a radiation cloud, again, going with the wind, and settling down for another 15 or 20 miles out -- in this case, over Long Island. +And if you're in the direct fallout zone here, you really have to either be sheltered or you have to get out of there, and that's clear. But if you are sheltered, you can actually survive. +The difference between knowing information of what you're going to do personally, and not knowing information, can save your life, and it could mean the difference between 150,000 to 200,000 fatalities from something like this and half a million to 700,000 fatalities. +So, response planning in the twenty-first century is both possible and is essential. +But in 2008, there isn't one single American city that has done effective plans to deal with a nuclear detonation disaster. +Part of the problem is that the emergency planners themselves, personally, are overwhelmed psychologically by the thought of nuclear catastrophe. +They are paralyzed. +You say "nuclear" to them, and they're thinking, "Oh my God, we're all gone. What's the point? It's futile." +And we're trying to tell them, "It's not futile. +We can change the survival rates by doing some commonsensical things." +So the goal here is to minimize fatalities. +And I just want to leave you with the personal points that I think you might be interested in. +The key to surviving a nuclear blast is getting out, and not going into harm's way. +That's basically all we're going to be talking about here. +And the farther you are away in distance, the longer it is in time from the initial blast; and the more separation between you and the outside atmosphere, the better. +So separation -- hopefully with dirt or concrete, or being in a basement -- distance and time is what will save you. +So here's what you do. First of all, as I said, don't stare at the light flash, if you can. I don't know you could possibly resist doing that. +But let's assume, theoretically, you want to do that. +You want to keep your mouth open, so your eardrums don't burst from the pressures. +If you're very close to what happened, you actually do have to duck and cover, like Bert told you, Bert the Turtle. +And you want to get under something so that you're not injured or killed by objects, if that's at all possible. +You want to get away from the initial fallout mushroom cloud, I said, in just a few minutes. +And shelter and place. You want to move [only] crosswind for 1.2 miles. +You know, if you're out there and you see buildings horribly destroyed and down in that direction, less destroyed here, then you know that it was over there, the blast, and you're going this way, as long as you're going crosswise to the wind. +Once you're out and evacuating, you want to keep as much of your skin, your mouth and nose covered, as long as that covering doesn't impede you moving and getting out of there. +And finally, you want to get decontaminated as soon as possible. +And if you're wearing clothing, you've taken off your clothing, you're going to get showered down some place and remove the radiation that would be -- the radioactive material that might be on you. +And then you want to stay in shelter for 48 to 72 hours minimum, but you're going to wait hopefully -- you'll have your little wind-up, battery-less radio, and you'll be waiting for people to tell you when it's safe to go outside. That's what you need to do. +In conclusion, nuclear war is less likely than before, but by no means out of the question, and it's not survivable. +Nuclear terrorism is possible -- it may be probable -- but is survivable. +And this is Jack Geiger, who's one of the heroes of the U.S. public health community. +And Jack said the only way to deal with nuclear anything, whether it's war or terrorism, is abolition of nuclear weapons. +And you want something to work on once you've fixed global warming, I urge you to think about the fact that we have to do something about this unacceptable, inhumane reality of nuclear weapons in our world. +Now, this is my favorite civil defense slide, and I -- -- I don't want to be indelicate, but this -- he's no longer in office. We don't really care, OK. +This was sent to me by somebody who is an aficionado of civil defense procedures, but the fact of the matter is that America's gone through a very hard time. +We've not been focused, we've not done what we had to do, and now we're facing the potential of bad, hell on Earth. +Thank you. +[SHIT] This is arguably the back end of the design of animals. +But the reason I put this up here is because when I was in Africa last year, my wife and I were driving around, we had this wonderful guide, who showed us something that surprised both of us, and it was very revealing in terms of the fascination that comes with the design of animals. +It turns out that in about the 1880s, the missionaries came to Africa to spread the word of Christianity, to teach English to the natives. +And they brought blackboards and chalk. +And I'd like you to imagine that that's a blackboard, and I just used some chalk on there. +And they brought quite a bit of this stuff. +But over the years, the blackboards were fine, but they ran out of chalk. +And this is a real crisis for them. +And that's where the hyena comes in. +The hyena is probably the most perfectly designed scavenging animal in the world. +It strip-mines carcasses, and it has amazing teeth, because it enables the hyena to essentially eat bones. +Now, the end product of that action is up on the board here. +What the missionaries would do is, they'd walk around and they'd pick up hyena shit. +And the incredible thing about hyena shit is, it makes great chalk. +That's not what I'm here to talk about, but it is a fascinating aspect of animal design. +What I'm here to talk about is the camel. +When I started talking to Richard about what I was going to speak about, I had recently come back from Jordan, where I had an amazing experience with a camel. +And we were in the desert. +Richard Wurman: That's the end! Keith Bellows: Yeah, yeah. +We were in the desert, in Wadi Rum, in a small Jeep. +There were four of us, two Bedouin drivers. +You can just imagine, this expanse is an ocean of sand, 105 degrees, one water bottle. +And we were driving in what they told us was their very, very best Jeep. +Didn't look like it to me. +And as we started to go through the desert, the Jeep broke down. +The guys got out, they put the hood up, they started working under the hood, got it going again. +About a hundred yards, it broke down. +This went on about 6-7 times, we were getting more and more alarmed, we were also getting deeper and deeper into the desert. +And eventually, our worst nightmare happened: they flooded the engine. +And they said, "Ah, no problem! We just get out and walk." +And we said, "We get out and walk?" +One water bottle, remember, guys, four people. +And they said, "Yeah, yeah, we'll walk. We'll find some camels." +We got out and walked, and sure enough, about half a mile, we came over the crest of this hill, and there was a huge gathering of Bedouin with their camels. +The guy went up and started dickering, and 10 dollars later, we had four camels. +They went down like elevators; we got on them. +They went back up, and the Bedouin, each Bedouin, four of them, got behind each of the camels with a little whip. +And they started slashing away at the back of the camels, and they started galloping. +And if you've ever been on a camel, it is a very, very uncomfortable ride. +There's also one other aspect about these camels. +About every 10 steps, they lean back and try to take a chunk out of your leg. +So we kept on going, and this camel kept on trying to take a chunk out of my leg. +And eventually, three miles later, we arrived at our destination, where a Jeep was supposed to meet us. +And the camels come down again like elevators, we sort of clumsily get off, and they, obviously, try to take another chunk out of my leg. +And I've developed a very wonderful relationship with this creature by this point, and I've realized that this is a mean son of a bitch. +And much meaner, by the way, than the Bedouin who greeted me and tried to sell me one of his 26 daughters to take back to the States. +So as we talked, Richard and I, I said, "You know, maybe I should bring a camel. +It's the best designed animal in the world." +He went, "Nah. I don't think we want to be bringing a camel." +And you should be really glad we decided not to bring the camel. +So I did the next best thing. +I went to the Washington Zoo. +Richard said, "I want you to get up close and personal with this camel. +I want you to inspect its mouth, look at its teeth. +Go underneath it. Go above it. Go around it. +Pull its tail up; take a look in there. +I want you to get as close to that camel as you possibly can." +So, I got a National Geographic film crew. +We went down there, and I took one look at this camel. +It is a 2,000 pound creature who is in rut. +Now, if you've ever seen a 2,000 pound camel in rut, it is a scary, scary thing to behold. +And if Richard thought I was getting in the ring with that camel, someone was smoking Bedouin high grade. +So we got as close to it as possible, and I'm going to share this. Chris, if you want to roll this film. +Then I'm going to show you a little bit more about the design of camels. +Do you want to roll the film? +Hello. This is Keith Bellows with the TED National Geographic Camel Investigation Unit. +I'm here to look at the ultimate desert machine. +Keith Bellows: And you'll note I started chewing gum because I was around this camel all day. +That's it, OK. No! See, now he's getting a little overexcited. +So we'll need to be very careful around him. Don't let him get you. +Now, you can see copious amounts of saliva in there. +I always called myself the unstable stable boy. +Their nose, you can see his nose is flared right now. +When they're in rut, they're similar to seals in the way, like, a seal has to open its nose to breathe. +And they're similar. They have to consciously open their nose. +KB: Ears? SK: They are small. But they have excellent hearing. +But not big; for instance, in zebras, they have a huge ear that's very mobile, so they can actually turn them both around. +And they use them in the same way we use our binocular vision. +They use that to pinpoint sound. +The desert's extremely windy as well as being very cold. +So not only do they have the very long eyelashes, but there's the secondary -- I guess you'd call it the [unclear] or whatever. +It's this hair that's above the eyes, and below it, it's longer. +Most people think that the humps store water. +They don't. They store fat. +Now, I'm not a chemist, but basically what happens is the fat is oxidized by their breathing. +And that will turn it into actually usable water. +Like a lot of predators, they walk on their toes. +But there's a big fat pad in there that squishes out. +They're like sun shoes, but, you know, with sand. +Hooves? They don't have traditional hooves, but they do have one, like, big nail. +You can't really see too clear. The fur's kind of grown over. +But they use their tails a lot, especially in rut. +He will urinate and spin his tail to spread the urine around and make him more attractive. +I don't know why that would be, but it works for them. +So, what the hell. +Now, they will also defecate in certain areas. +Generally, they poop wherever they want to, but during their rut, they will defecate in perimeter areas. +I don't know if you've read or heard about the sub-sonic sounds from elephants, you know what I mean, like, "Br-r-r!" +These big, big rumbling sounds. He will do the same thing. +You can actually see, right here, it will vibrate. +We weigh our animals. +Unfortunately, he's a very aggressive animal, so he's actually destroyed some of the scales. +We had these big things that I weigh the bison on, for instance. +I'm guessing that he's at least 1,600 pounds. +But I would put him closer to 2,000. +He's basically a walking mulch pile. +We're kind of like buds, but I'm also a male as well. KB: He sees you as competition? Senior Keeper: Yeah, exactly. +And it makes him very dangerous at this time of year. +Don't even think about it. Don't think about it! +But now, we're going to meet. Out! +Out! Out! +No. +Out! +KB: What I didn't show you was, you got that swinging thing going? +Well, and you're glad I didn't show you this. +One of the other things about the camel's beautiful design is that its penis points backwards. +That way the camel can dip its tail in the stream, and just whacker the entire area around him. +And that's how he really marks his territory. +Now, what you also didn't see was that -- and you may have noticed in the pen beside him and, by the way, the camel's name is Suki. +In the pen beside him is Jasmine. +Jasmine has been his mate for some time. +But on this particular occasion, it was very, very clear that as horny as Suki was, Jasmine was having none of it. +And so we started thinking. +Well, if poor old Suki is in search of a mate, what would Suki do to find the perfect mate? +I'm going to show you another film. +But before I do, I just want to mention that this animal truly is a sort of the SUV of the sand, the ship of the desert. It's so vital to the inhabitants of the areas in which the camel is found, largely Mongolia and Sahara, that there are 160 words in Arabic to describe the camel. +And if this is a creature that was designed by committee, it's certainly been like no committee I've ever been on. +So here's what Suki would do in search of a mate. +Can you roll it, please? +Camel seeking camel Lusty beast desires attractive and sincere mate. +I'm seven feet, 2,000 lbs., with brown hair and eyes, long legs -- and I'm very well ... hung. +I'm TED Camel. +The perfect desert machine. +I'm smartly designed. +Eyelashes that keep out sand and a third eyelash that works like a windshield wiper. +A distinguished nose -- with nostrils lined to filter out sand and dust and a groove that catches moisture. +Amazingly full lips -- that allow me to eat practically anything that grows. +Callouses on my knees that let me kneel comfortably. +Leathery chest pads that beat the heat. +Short fur that keeps my skin cool. +Long legs that allow heat to escape. +And my hump? +Ogden Nash once wrote: "The camel has a single hump; the dromedary two, or else the other way around. I'm never sure. Are you?" +Here's a hint: Bactarian. +Dromedary. +My hump contains up to 80 lbs. of fat, but doesn't store H2O. +I'm built to last. +I'm the go-to animal when the oasis is dry. +I usually won't sweat until my body reaches 105 F, enough to fry an egg. +I'm able to lose 40% of my weight without dying. +(Most animals would if they lost half that much.) I'll drink 5 to 7 gallons of water a day. +But go without for more than a month. +I'm powerful. +Able to pack up to 400 lbs. of cargo. +Outrun a horse -- And cover 26 miles on a good day. +Camelot. +Jackie O. once said that traveling by camel made riding an elephant seem like taking a jet plane. +Yet my large, soft feet allow me to navigate sand. +(Is that why the Bedouin claim I can dance?) I'm a good provider, too. +Bedouins call the camel the Gift of God. +No surprise. +Tents and rugs are made of my hair. +My dried bones are prized as a sort of ivory. +My dung is burned as fuel. My milk is used for cheese. +"Camels are like angels," a Bedouin once said. +Thank you. I just want to leave you with one last thought, which is probably the most important thing to take away. +Humans, the animal, are pretty lucky creatures because, by and large, we really don't have to adapt to our environment; we adapt our environment to us. +And we've seen that repeatedly through this conference, not just this year, but in past years. +But this creature that you've just seen ultimately adapts, and keeps adapting and adapting. +I think when you look at the animal kingdom, that is one of the most remarkable things. +It doesn't have an environment that adapts to it; it has to adapt to the environment. +Ricky, thank you very much for having me. +RW: That's terrific. Thank you. +We really need to put the best we have to offer within reach of our children. +If we don't do that, we're going to get the generation we deserve. +They're going to learn from whatever it is they have around them. +And we, as now the elite, parents, librarians, professionals, whatever it is, a bunch of our activities are, in fact, in trying to get the best we have to offer within reach of those around us, or as broadly as we can. +I'm going to start and end this talk with a couple things that are carved in stone. +One is what's on the Boston Public Library. +Carved above their door is, "Free to All." +It's kind of an inspiring statement, and I'll go back at the end of this. +I'm a librarian, and what I'm trying to do is bring all of the works of knowledge to as many people as want to read it. +And the idea of using technology is perfect for us. +I think we have the opportunity to one-up the Greeks. +It's not easy to one-up the Greeks. But with the industriousness of the Egyptians, they were able to build the Library of Alexandria -- the idea of a copy of every book of all the peoples of the world. +The problem was you actually had to go to Alexandria to go to it. +On the other hand, if you did, then great things happened. +I think we can one-up the Greeks and achieve something. +And I'm going to try to argue only one point today: that universal access to all knowledge is within our grasp. +So if I'm successful, then you'll actually come away thinking, yeah, we could actually achieve the great vision of everything ever published, everything that was ever meant for distribution, available to anybody in the world that's ever wanted to have access to it. +Yes, there's issues about how money should be distributed, and that's still being refigured out. +But I'd say there's plenty of money, and there's plenty of demand, so we can actually achieve that. +But I'm going to go over the technological, social and sort of where are we as a whole, trying to get to that particular vision. +And the way I'm going to try to do this is do it like the Amazon.com website, the books, music, video and just go step -- media type by media type, just go and say, all right, how're we doing on this? +So if we start with books, you know, sort of where are we? +Well, first you have to, as an engineer, scope the problem. How big is it? +If you wanted to put all of the published works online so that anybody could have it available, well, how big a problem is it? +Well, we don't really know, but the largest print library in the world is the Library of Congress. It's 26 million volumes, 26 million volumes. +It is, by far and away, the largest print library in the world. +And a book, if you had a book, is about a megabyte, so -- you know, if you had it in Microsoft Word. +So a megabyte, 26 million megabytes is 26 terabytes -- it goes mega-, giga-, tera-. 26 terabytes. +26 terabytes fits in a computer system that's about this big, on spinning Linux drives, and it costs about 60,000 dollars. +So for the cost of a house -- or around here, a garage -- you can put, you can have spinning all of the words in the Library of Congress. +That's pretty neat. +Then the question is, what do you get? +You know, is it worth trying to get there? +Do you actually want it online? +Some of the first things that people do is they make book readers that allow you to search inside the books, and that's kind of fun. +And you can download these things, and look around them in new and different ways. +And you can get at them remotely, if you happen to have a laptop. +There's starting to be some of these sort of page turn-y interfaces that look a whole lot like books in certain ways, and you can search them, make little tabs, and it's kind of cute -- still very book-like -- on your laptop. +But I don't know, reading things on a laptop -- whenever I pull up my laptop, it always feels like work. +I think that's one of the reasons why the Kindle is so great. +I don't have to feel like I'm at work to read a Kindle. +It's starting to be a little bit more specified. +But I have to say that there's older technologies that I tend to like. +I like the physical book. +And I think we can go and use our technology to go and digitize things, put them on the Net, and then download, print them and bind them, and end up with books again. +And we sort of said, well, how hard is this? +And it turns out to not be very hard. +We actually went off to make a bookmobile. +And a bookmobile -- the size of a van with a satellite dish, a printer, binder and cutter, and kids make their own books. +It costs about three dollars to download, print and bind a normal, old book. +And they actually come out kind of nice looking. +You can actually get really good-looking books for on the order of one penny per page, sort of the parts cost for doing this. +So the idea of -- this technology actually may end up putting books back in people's hands again. +There are some other bookmobiles running around. +This is Eric Eldred making books at Walden Pond -- Thoreau's works. +This is just before he got kicked out by the Parks Services, for competing with the bookstore there. +In India, they've got another couple bookmobiles running around. +And this is the opening day at the Library of Alexandria, the new Library of Alexandria, in Egypt. +It was quite popularly attended. +And kids starting to make their own books, and a happy kid with the first book that he's ever owned. +So the idea of being able to use this technology to end up with paper where I can handle sort of sounds a little retro, but I think it still has its place. +And being from the Silicon Valley, sort of utopian sort of world, we thought, if we can make this technology work in rural Uganda, we might have something. +So we actually got some funding from the World Bank to try it out. +And we found in about 30 days we could go and take a couple folks from Silicon Valley, fly them to Uganda, buy a car, set up the first Internet connection at the National Library of Uganda, figure out what they wanted, and get a program going making books in rural Uganda. +And it actually -- so technologically, it works. +What we found out of this is we didn't have the right books. +So the books were in the library. We could get it to people, if they're digitized, but we didn't know how to quite get them digitized. +Everybody thought the answer is, send things to India and China. +And so we've tried that, and I'll go over that in a moment. +There are some newer technologies for delivering that have happened that are actually quite exciting as well. +One is a print-on-demand machine that looks like a Rube Goldberg machine. +We have one of these things now. It's completely cool. +It's all conveyor belt, and it makes a book. +And it's called the "Espresso Book Machine," and in about 10 minutes, you can press a button and make a book. +Something else I'm quite excited about in this particular domain, beyond these sort of kiosk-y things where you can get books on demand, is some of these new little screens that are coming out. +And one of my favorites in this is the $100 laptop. +And I don't mean to steal any thunder here, but we've gone and used one of these things to be an e-book reader. +So here's one of the beta units and you can -- it actually turns out to be a really good-looking e-book reader. +And we have a quick hack that we did to try to put one of our books on it, and it turns out that 200 dots per inch means that you can put scanned books on them that look really good. +At 200 dots per inch, it's kind of the equivalent of a 300 dot print laser printer. +We're in good enough shape. +You actually can go and read scanned books quite easily. +So the idea of electronic books is starting to come about. +But how do you go about doing all this scanning? +So we thought, okay, well, let's try out this send books to India thing. +And there was a project with, funded by the National Science Foundation -- sent a bunch of scanners, and the American libraries were supposed to send books. +Well, they didn't. They didn't want to send their books. +So we bought 100,000 books and sent them to India. +And then we learned why you don't want to send books to India. +The lesson we learned out of this is, scan your own books. +If you really care about books, you're going to scan them better, especially if they're valuable books. +If they're new books and you can just, you know, butcher them, because you could just buy another one, that's not such a big deal in terms of doing high-quality scanning. +But do things that you love. +But the Indians have been scanning a lot of their own books -- about 300,000 now -- doing very well. +The Chinese did over a million, and the Egyptians are about 30,000. +But we sent -- thought, OK, if we're going to need to do this, let's do it in-library. +How do we go and do this, and how do we get it down so that it's a cost point that we could afford? +And we sort of picked the price point of 10 cents a page. +If it's basically the cost of xeroxing to basically digitize, OCR, package it up, make it so that you could download, print and bind it -- the whole shebang -- we would have achieved something. +So we started out trying to figure out. How do we get to 10 cents? +And we tried these robot things, and they worked pretty well -- sort of these auto-page-turning things. +If we can have Mars Rovers, you'd think you could turn pages. +But it actually turns out to be pretty hard to turn pages, and the volume isn't there. +So anyway -- so we ended up making our own book scanner, and with two digital, high-grade, professional digital cameras, controlled museum lighting, so even if it's a black and white book, you can go and get the proper intonation. +So you basically do a beautiful, respectful job. +This is not a fax, this is -- the idea is to do a beautiful job as you're going through these libraries. +And we've been able to achieve 10 cents a page if we run things in volume. +This is what it looks like at the University of Toronto. +And actually, it turns out to, you know, pay a living wage. +People seem to love it. +Yes, it's a little boring, but some people kind of get into the Zen of it. +And especially if it's kind of interesting books that you care about, in languages that you can read. +We actually have been able to do a pretty good job of this, at getting 10 cents a page. +So 10 cents a page, 300 pages in your average book, 30 dollars a book. +The Library of Congress, if you did the whole darn thing -- 26 million books -- is about 750 million dollars, right? +But a million books, I think, actually would be a pretty good start, and that would cost 30 million dollars. That's not that big a bill. +And what we've been able to do is get into libraries. +We've now got eight of these scanning centers in three countries, and libraries are up for having their books scanned. +The Getty here is moving their books to the UCLA, which is where we have one these scanning centers, and scanning their out-of-copyright books, which is fabulous. +So we're starting to get the institutional responsibility. +The thing we're missing is the 10 cents. +If we can get the 10 cents, all the rest of it flows. +We've scanned about 200,000 books. +Now we're scanning about 15,000 books a month, and it's starting to gear up another factor of two from there. +So all in all, that's going very well. +And we're starting to move out of the just out-of-copyright into the out-of-print world. +So I think of -- we're kind of going from the out-of-copyright, library stuff, and Amazon.com is coming from the in-print world. +And I think we'll meet in the middle some place, and have the classic thing that you have, which is a publishing system and a library system working in parallel. +And so we're starting up a program to do out-of-print works, but loaning them. +Exactly what loaning means, I'm not quite sure. +But anyway, loaning out-of-print works from the Boston Public Library, the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute and a few other libraries that are starting to participate in this program, to try out this model of where does a library stop and where does the bookstore take over. +So all in all, it's possible to do this in large scale. +We're also going back over microfilm and getting that online. +So, we can do 10 cents a page, we're going 15,000 books a month and we've got about 250,000 books online, counting all the other projects that are starting to add in. +So what I wanted to argue is, books are within our grasp. +The idea of taking on the whole ball of wax is not that big a deal. +Yes, it costs tens of millions, low hundreds of millions, but one time shot and we've got basically the history of printed literature online. +And then, there's business model issues about how to try to effectively market it and get it to people. +But it is within our grasp, technologically and law-wise, at least for the out of print and out of copyright, we suggest, to be able to get the whole darn thing online. +Now let's go for audio, and I'm going to go through these. +So how much is there? +Well, as best we can tell, there are about two to three million disks having been published -- so 78s, long-playing records and CDs -- or at least that's the largest archives of published materials we've been able to sort of point at. +It costs about 10 dollars a piece to go and take a disk and put it online, if you're doing things in volume. +But we've found that the rights issues are really quite thorny. +This is a fairly heavily litigated area, so we've found that there are niches in the music world that aren't served terribly well by the classic commercial publishing system. +And we've been starting to make these available by going and offering shelf space on the Net. +In the United States, it doesn't cost you to give something away. Right? +If you give something to a charity or to the public, you get a pat on the back and a tax donation -- except on the Net, where you can go broke. +If you put up a video of your garage band, and it starts getting heavily accessed, you can lose your guitars or your house. +This doesn't make any sense. +So we've offered unlimited storage, unlimited bandwidth, forever, for free, to anybody that has something to share that belongs in a library. +And we've been getting a lot of takers. One is the rock 'n' rollers. +The rock 'n' rollers had a tradition of sharing, as long as nobody made any money. You could -- concert recordings, it's not the commercial recordings, but concert recordings, started by the Grateful Dead. +And we get about two or three bands a day signing up. +They give permission, and we get about 40 or 50 concerts a day. +We have about 40,000 concerts, everything the Grateful Dead ever did, up on the Net, so that people can see it and listen to this material. +So audio is possible to put up, but the rights issues are really pretty thorny. +We've got a lot of collections now -- a couple hundred thousand items -- and it's growing over time. +Moving images: if you think of theatrical releases, there are not that many of them. +As best we can tell, there are about 150,000 to 200,000 movies ever that are really meant for a large-scale theatrical distribution. It's just not that many. +But half of those were Indian. +But anyway, it's doable, but we've only found about a thousand of these things that -- to be out of copyright. +So we've digitized those and made those available. +But we've found that there's lots of other types of movies that haven't really seen the light of day -- archival films. +We've found, also, a lot of political films, a lot of amateur films, all sorts of things that are basically needing a home, a permanent home. +So we've been starting to make these available and it's grown to be very popular. +We're not quite a YouTube. +We tended towards longer-term things and also things that people can reuse and make into new movies, which has just been great fun. +Television comes quite a bit larger. +We started recording 20 channels of television 24 hours a day. +It's sort of the biggest TiVo box you've ever seen. +It's about a petabyte, so far, of worldwide television -- Russian, Chinese, Japanese, Iraqi, Al Jazeera, BBC, CNN, ABC, CBS, NBC -- 24 hours a day. +We only put one week up, which is mostly for cost reasons, which is the 9/11, sort of from 9/11/2001. For one week, what did the world see? +CNN was saying that Palestinians were dancing in the streets. +Were they? Let's look at the Palestinian television and find out. +How can we have critical thinking without being able to quote and being able to compare what happened in the past? +And television is dreadfully unrecorded and unquotable, except by Jon Stewart, who does a fabulous job. +So anyway, television is, I would suggest, within our grasp. +So 15 dollars per video hour, and also about 100 dollars to 150 dollars per celluloid hour, we're able to go and get materials online very inexpensively and have them up on the Net. +And we've got, now, a lot of these materials. +So we've got about 100,000 pieces up there. +So books, music, video, software. There's only 50,000 titles of it. +Mostly the issues there are legal issues and breaking copy protections. +But we've worked through some of those, but we've still got real problems in Washington. +Well, we're best known as the World Wide Web. +We've been archiving the World Wide Web since 1996. +We take a snapshot of every website and all of the pages on it, every two months. +And actually, it's really been pioneered by Alexa Internet, which donates this collection to the Internet Archive. +And it's been growing along for the last 11 years, and it's a fantastic resource. +And we've made a Wayback Machine that you can then go and see old websites kind of the way they were. +If you go and search on something -- this is Google.com, the different versions of it that we have, this is what it looks like when it was an alpha release, and this is what it looked like at Stanford. +So anyway, you've got basically an idea of where things came from. +Mostly, people want to see their old stuff out of this. +If there's one thing that we want to learn from the Library of Alexandria version one, which is probably best known for burning, is, don't just have one copy. +So we've started to -- we've made another copy of all of this and we actually put it back in the Library of Alexandria. +So this is a picture of the Internet Archive at the Library of Alexandria. +And we now have also another copy building up in Amsterdam. +So, we should put it in the San Andreas Fault Line in San Francisco, flood zone in Amsterdam and in the Middle East. Right, so anyway ... +so we're hedging our bets here. +If we go and put it in a couple more places, I think we'll be in good shape. +There's a political and social question out of this. +Is all of this, as we go digital, is it going to be public or private? +There's some large companies that have seen this vision, that are doing large-scale digitization, but they're locking up the public domain. +The question is, is that the world that we really want to live in? +What's the role of the public versus the private as things go forward? +How do we go and have a world where we both have libraries and publishing in the future, just as we basically benefited as we were growing up? +So universal access to all knowledge -- I think it can be one of the greatest achievements of humankind, like the man on the moon, or the Gutenberg Bible, or the Library of Alexandria. +It could be something that we're remembered for, for millennia, for having achieved. +And as I said before, I'll end with something that's carved above the door of the Carnegie Library. +Carnegie -- one of the great capitalists of this country -- carved above his legacy, "Free to the People." +Thank you very much. +When I knew I was going to come to speak to you, I thought, "I gotta call my mother." +I have a little Cuban mother -- she's about that big. +Four feet. Nothing larger than the sum of her figurative parts. +You still with me? I called her up. +"Hello, how're you doing, baby?" +"Hey, ma, I got to talk to you." +"You're talking to me already. What's the matter?" +I said, "I've got to talk to a bunch of nice people." +"You're always talking to nice people, except when you went to the White House." +"Ma, don't start!" +And I told her I was coming to TED, and she said, "What's the problem?" +And I said, "Well, I'm not sure." +I said, "I have to talk to them about stories. +It's 'Technology, Entertainment and Design.'" And she said, "Well, you design a story when you make it up, it's entertainment when you tell it, and you're going to use a microphone." +I said, "You're a peach, ma. Pop there?" +"What's the matter? The pearls of wisdom leaping from my lips like lemmings is no good for you?" +Then my pop got on there. +My pop, he's one of the old souls, you know -- old Cuban man from Camaguey. +Camaguey is a province in Cuba. +He's from Florida. +He was born there in 1924. +He grew up in a bohio of dirt floors, and the structure was the kind used by the Tainos, our old Arawak ancestors. +My father is at once quick-witted, wickedly funny, and then poignancy turns on a dime and leaves you breathless. +"Papi, help." +"I already heard your mother. I think she's right." +"After what I just told you?" +My whole life, my father's been there. +So we talked for a few minutes, and he said, "Why don't you tell them what you believe?" +I love that, but we don't have the time. +Good storytelling is crafting a story that someone wants to listen to. +Great story is the art of letting go. +So I'm going to tell you a little story. +Remember, this tradition comes to us not from the mists of Avalon, back in time, but further still, before we were scratching out these stories on papyrus, or we were doing the pictographs on walls in moist, damp caves. +Back then, we had an urge, a need, to tell the story. +When Lexus wants to sell you a car, they're telling you a story. +Have you been watching the commercials? +Because every one of us has this desire, for once -- just once -- to tell our story and have it heard. +There are stories you tell from stages. +There's stories that you may tell in a small group of people with some good wine. +And there's stories you tell late at night to a friend, maybe once in your life. +And then there are stories that we whisper into a Stygian darkness. +I'm not telling you that story. +I'm telling you this one. +It's called, "You're Going to Miss Me." +It's about human connection. +My Cuban mother, which I just briefly introduced you to in that short character sketch, came to the United States one thousand years ago. +I was born in 19 -- I forget, and I came to this country with them in the aftermath of the Cuban revolution. +We went from Havana, Cuba to Decatur, Georgia. +And Decatur, Georgia's a small Southern town. +And in that little Southern town, I grew up, and grew up hearing these stories. +But this story only happened a few years ago. +I called my mom. +It was a Saturday morning. +And I was calling about how to make ajiaco. It's a Cuban meal. +It's delicious. It's savory. +It makes spit froth in the little corners of your mouth -- is that enough? It makes your armpits juicy, you know? +That kind of food, yeah. +This is the sensory part of the program, people. +I called my mother, and she said, "Carmen, I need you to come, please. +I need to go to the mall, and you know your father now, he takes a nap in the afternoon, and I got to go. +I got an errand to run." +Let me parenthetically pause here and tell you -- Esther, my mother, had stopped driving several years ago, to the collective relief of the entire city of Atlanta. +Any vehicular outing with that woman from the time I was a young child, guys, naturally included flashing, blue lights. +But she'd become adept at dodging the boys in blue, and when she did meet them, oh, she had wonderful, well, rapport. +"Ma'am, did you know that was a light you just ran?" +"You don't speak English?" +"No." +But eventually, every dog has its day, and she ended up in traffic court, where she bartered with the judge for a discount. +There's a historical marker. +But now she was a septuagenarian, she'd stopped driving. +And that meant that everyone in the family had to sign up to take her to have her hair dyed, you know, that peculiar color of blue that matches her polyester pants suit, you know, same color as the Buick. +Anybody? All right. +Little picks on the legs, where she does her needlepoint, and leaves little loops. +Rockports -- they're for this. +That's why they call them that. +This is her ensemble. +And this is the woman that wants me to come on a Saturday morning when I have a lot to do, but it doesn't take long because Cuban guilt is a weighty thing. +I'm not going political on you but ... And so, I go to my mother's. +I show up. She's in the carport. +Of course, they have a carport. +The kind with the corrugated roof, you know. +The Buick's parked outside, and she's jingling, jangling a pair of keys. +"I got a surprise for you, baby!" +"We taking your car?" +"Not we, I." +And she reaches into her pocket and pulls out a catastrophe. +Somebody's storytelling. Interactive art. You can talk to me. +Oh, a driver's license, a perfectly valid driver's license. +Issued, evidently, by the DMV in her own county of Gwinnett. +Blithering fucking idiots. +I said, "Is that thing real?" +"I think so." +"Can you even see?" +"I guess I must." +"Oh, Jesus." +She gets into the car -- she's sitting on two phone books. +I can't even make this part up because she's that tiny. +She's engineered an umbrella so she can -- bam! -- slam the door. +Her daughter, me, the village idiot with the ice cream cone in the middle of her forehead, is still standing there, slack-jawed. +"You coming? You no coming?" +"Oh, my God." I said, "OK, fine. Does pop know you're driving?" +"Are you kidding me?" +"How are you doing it?" +"He's got to sleep sometime." +And so we left my father fast asleep, because I knew he'd kill me if I let her go by herself, and we get in the car. +Puts it in reverse. Fifty-five out of the driveway, in reverse. +I am buckling in seatbelts from the front. +I'm yanking them in from the back. I'm doing double knots. +I mean, I've got a mouth as dry as the Kalahari Desert. +I've got a white-knuckle grip on the door. You know what I'm talking about? +And she's whistling, and finally I do the kind of birth breathing -- you know, that one? +Only a couple of women are going uh-huh, uh-huh, uh-huh. Right. +And I said, "Ma, would you slow down?" +Because now she's picked up the Highway 285, the perimeter around Atlanta, which encompasses now -- there's seven lanes, she's on all of them, y'all. +I said, "Ma, pick a lane!" +"They give you seven lanes, they expect you to use them." +And there she goes, right. +I don't believe for a minute she has been out and not been stopped. +So, I think, hey, we can talk. It'll be a diversion. +It'll help my breathing. It'll do something for my pulse, maybe. +"Mommy, I know you have been stopped." +"No, no, what you talking about?" +"You have a license. How long have you been driving?" +"Four or five days." +"Yeah. And you haven't been stopped?" +"I did not get a ticket." +I said, "Yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, but come on, come on, come on." +"OK, so I stopped at a light and there's a guy, you know, in the back." +"Would this guy have, like, a blue uniform and a terrified look on his face?" +"You weren't there, don't start." +"Come on. You got a ticket?" +"No." She explained, "The man" -- I have to tell you as she did, because it loses something if I don't, you know -- "he come to the window, and he does a thing like this, which tells me he's pretty old, you know. +So I look up and I'm thinking, maybe he's still going to think I'm kind of cute." +"Ma, are you still doing that?" +"If it works, it works, baby. +So, I say, 'Perdon, yo no hablo ingles.' Well, wouldn't you know, he had been in Honduras for the Peace Corps." +So he's talking to her, and at some point she says, "Then, you know, it was it. That was it. It was done." +"Yeah? What? +He gave you a ticket? He didn't give you a ticket? What?" +"No, I look up, and the light, she change." +You should be terrified. +Now, I don't know if she's toying with me, kind of like a cat batting back a mouse, batting back a mouse -- left paw, right paw, left paw, right paw -- but by now, we've reached the mall. +Now, you have all been at a mall during the holidays, yes? +Talk to me. Yes. Yes. You can say yes. +Audience: Yes. +Carmen Agra Deedy: All right, then you know that you have now entered parking lot purgatory, praying to that saint of perpetual availability that as you join that serpentine line of cars crawling along, some guy's going to turn on the brake lights just as you pull up behind him. +But that doesn't happen most of the time, right? +So, first I say, "Ma, why are we here?" +"You mean, like, in the car?" +"No, don't -- why are we here today? +It's Saturday. It's the holidays." +"Because I have to exchange your father's underwear." +Now, see, this is the kind of Machiavellian thinking, that you really have to -- you know, in my mind, it's a rabbit's warren, this woman's mind. +Do I want to walk in, because unless I have Ariadne's thread to anchor -- enough metaphors for you? -- somewhere, I may not get out. +But you know. +"Why do we have to take pop's underwear back now? +And why? What is wrong with his underwear?" +"It will upset you." +"It won't upset me. Why? What? Is something wrong with him?" +"No, no, no. The only thing with him is, he's an idiot. +I sent him to the store, which was my first mistake, and he went to buy underwear, and he bought the grippers, and he's supposed to buy the boxers." +"Why?" +"I read it on the Intersnet. You cannot have children." +"Oh, my God!" +Olivia? Huh? Huh? +By now, we have now crawled another four feet, and my mother finally says to me, "I knew it, I knew it. +I'm an immigrant. We make a space. What I tell you? Right there." +And she points out the passenger window, and I look out, and three -- three -- aisles down, "Look, the Chevy." +You want to laugh, but you don't know -- you're that politically corrected, have you noticed? +Correct the other direction now, it's OK. +"Look, the Chevy -- he's coming this way." +"Mama, mama, mama, wait, wait, wait. The Chevy is three aisles away." +She looks at me like I'm her, you know, her moron child, the cretin, the one she's got to speak to very slowly and distinctly. +"I know that, honey. Get out of the car and go stand in the parking space till I get there." +OK, I want a vote. Come on, come on. No, no. +How many of you once in your -- you were a kid, you were an adult -- you stood in a parking space to hold it for someone? +See, we're a secret club with a secret handshake. +And years of therapy later, we're doing great. +We're doing great. We're doing fine. +Well, I stood up to her. +This is -- you know, you'd think by now I'm -- and still holding? +I said, "No way, ma, you have embarrassed me my entire life." +Of course, her comeback is, "When have I embarrassed you?" +She has amazing land speed for a woman her age, too. +Before I know it, she has skiddled across the parking lot and in between the cars, and people behind me, with that kind of usual religious charity that the holidays bring us, wah-wah wah-wah. +"I'm coming." Italian hand signals follow. +I scoot over. I close the door. I leave the phone books. +This is new and fast, just so you -- are you still with us? +We'll wait for the slow ones. OK. +I start, and this is where a child says to me -- and the story doesn't work if I tell you about her before, because this is my laconic child. +A brevity, brevity of everything with this child. +You know, she eats small portions. +Language is something to be meted out in small phonemes, you know -- just little hmm, hmm-hmm. +She carries a mean spiral notebook and a pen. +She wields great power. +She listens, because that's what people who tell stories do first. +But she pauses occasionally and says, "How do you spell that? What year? OK." +When she writes the expose in about 20 years, don't believe a word of it. +But this is my daughter, Lauren, my remarkable daughter, my borderline Asperger's kid. +Bless you, Dr. Watson. +She says, "Ma, you got to look!" +Now, when this kid says I got to look, you know. +But it isn't like I haven't seen this crime scene before. +I grew up with this woman. +I said, "Lauren, you know what, give me a play-by-play. I can't." +"No, mama, you got to look." +I got to look. You got to look. +Don't you want to look? +There she is. +I look in bewildered awe: she's standing, those Rockports slightly apart, but grounded. +She's holding out that cheap Kmart purse, and she is wielding it. +She's holding back tons of steel with the sheer force of her little personality, in that crone-ish voice, saying things like, "Back it up, buddy! No, it's reserved!" +Ready? Brace yourselves. Here it comes. +"No, my daughter, she's coming in the Buick. +Honey, sit up so they can see you." +Oh, Jesus. Oh, Jesus. +I finally come -- and now, it's the South. +I don't know what part of the country you live in. +I think we all secretly love stories. +We all secretly want our blankie and our Boo Bear. +We want to curl up and say, "Tell it to me, tell it to me. +Come on, honey, tell it to me." +But in the South, we love a good story. +People have pulled aside, I mean, they've come out of that queue line, they have popped their trunks, pulled out lawn chairs and cool drinks. +Bets are placed. +"I'm with the little lady. Damn!" +And she's bringing me in with a slight salsa movement. +She is, after all, Cuban. +I'm thinking, "Accelerator, break. Accelerator, break." +Like you've never thought that in your life? Right? Yeah. +I pull in. I put the car in park. +Engine's still running -- mine, not the car. +I jump out next to her going, "Don't you move!" +"I'm not going anywhere." +She's got front seat in a Greek tragedy. +I come out, and there's Esther. +She's hugging the purse. +"Que?" Which means "what," and so much more. +"Ma, have you no shame? +People are watching us all around," right? +Now, some of them you've got to make up, people. +Secret of the trade. +Guess what? Some of these stories I sculpt a little, here and there. +Some, they're just right there, right there. Put them right there. +She says this to me. +After I say -- let me refresh you -- "have you no shame?" +"No. I gave it up with pantyhose -- they're both too binding." +Yeah, you can clap, but then you're about 30 seconds from the end. +I'm about to snap like a brittle twig, when suddenly someone taps me on the shoulder. +Intrepid soul. +I'm thinking, "This is my kid. How dare she? +She jumped out of that car." +That's OK, because my mother yells at me, I yell at her. +It's a beautiful hierarchy, and it works. +I turn around, but it's not a child. It's a young woman, a little taller than I, pale green, amused eyes. +With her is a young man -- husband, brother, lover, it's not my job. +And she says, "Pardon me, ma'am" -- that's how we talk down there -- "is that your mother?" +I said, "No, I follow little old women around parking lots to see if they'll stop. Yes, it's my mother!" +The boy, now, he says. "Well, what my sister meant" -- they look at each other, it's a knowing glance -- "God, she's crazy!" +I said, , and the young girl and the young boy say, "No, no, honey, we just want to know one more thing." +I said, "Look, please, let me take care of her, OK, because I know her, and believe me, she's like a small atomic weapon, you know, you just want to handle her really gingerly." +And the girl goes, "I know, but, I mean, I swear to God, she reminds us of our mother." +I almost miss it. +He turns to her on the heel of his shoe. +It's a half-whisper, "God, I miss her." +They turn then, shoulder to shoulder, and walk away, lost in their own reverie. +Memories of some maddening woman who was the luck of their DNA draw. +And I turn to Esther, who's rocking on those 'ports, and says, "You know what, honey?" +"What, ma?" +"I'm going to drive you crazy probably for about 14, 15 more years, if you're lucky, but after that, honey, you're going to miss me." +My thing with school lunch is, it's a social justice issue. +I'm the Director of Nutrition Services for the Berkeley Unified School District. I have 90 employees and 17 locations, 9,600 kids. +I'm doing 7,100 meals a day and I've been doing it for two years, trying to change how we feed kids in America. +And that's what I want to talk to you a little bit about today. +These are some of my kids with a salad bar. +I put salad bars in all of our schools when I got there. +Everyone says it couldn't be done. +Little kids couldn't eat off the salad bar, big kids would spit in it -- neither happened. +When I took over this, I tried to really figure out, like, what my vision would be. +How do we really change children's relationship to food? +And I'll tell you why we need to change it, but we absolutely have to change it. +And what I came to understand is, we needed to teach children the symbiotic relationship between a healthy planet, healthy food and healthy kids. +And that if we don't do that, the antithesis, although we've heard otherwise, is we're really going to become extinct, because we're feeding our children to death. +That's my premise. +We're seeing sick kids get sicker and sicker. +And by -- tacitly, all of us send our kids, or grandchildren, or nieces, or nephews, to school and tell them to learn, you know, learn what's in those schools. +And when you feed these kids bad food, that's what they're learning. So that's really what this is all about. +The way we got here is because of big agribusiness. +We now live in a country where most of us don't decide, by and large, what we eat. We see big businesses, Monsanto and DuPont, who brought out Agent Orange and stain-resistant carpet. +They control 90 percent of the commercially produced seeds in our country. +These are -- 10 companies control much of what's in our grocery stores, much of what people eat. And that's really, really a problem. +So when I started thinking about these issues and how I was going to change what kids ate, I really started focusing on what we would teach them. +And the very first thing was about regional food -- trying to eat food from within our region. +And clearly, with what's going on with fossil fuel usage, or when -- as the fossil fuel is going away, as oil hits its peak oil, you know, we really have to start thinking about whether or not we should, or could, be moving food 1,500 miles before we eat it. +So we talked to kids about that, and we really start to feed kids regional food. +And then we talk about organic food. +Now, most school districts can't really afford organic food, but we, as a nation, have to start thinking about consuming, growing and feeding our children food that's not chock-full of chemicals. +We can't keep feeding our kids pesticides and herbicides and antibiotics and hormones. +We can't keep doing that. +You know, it doesn't work. +And the results of that are kids getting sick. +One of my big soapboxes right now is antibiotics. +Seventy percent of all antibiotics consumed in America is consumed in animal husbandry. +We are feeding our kids antibiotics in beef and other animal protein every day. +Seventy percent -- it's unbelievable. +And the result of it is, we have diseases. +We have things like E. coli that we can't fix, that we can't make kids better when they get sick. +And, you know, certainly antibiotics have been over-prescribed, but it's an issue in the food supply. +One of my favorite facts is that U.S. agriculture uses 1.2 billion pounds of pesticides every year. +The USDA allows these antibiotics, these hormones and these pesticides in our food supply, and the USDA paid for this ad in Time magazine. +Okay, we could talk about Rachel Carson and DDT, but we know it wasn't good for you and me. +And that is what the USDA allows in our food supply. +And that has to change, you know. +The USDA cannot be seen as the be-all and end-all of what we feed our kids and what's allowed. +We cannot believe that they have our best interests at heart. +The antithesis of this whole thing is sustainable food. +That's what I really try and get people to understand. +I really try and teach it to kids. I think it's the most important. +It's consuming food in a way in which we'll still have a planet, in which kids will grow up to be healthy, and which really tries to mitigate all the negative impacts we're seeing. +It really is just a new idea. +I mean, people toss around sustainability, but we have to figure out what sustainability is. +In less than 200 years, you know, just in a few generations, we've gone from being 200 -- being 100 percent, 95 percent farmers to less than 2 percent of farmers. +We now live in a country that has more prisoners than farmers -- 2.1 million prisoners, 1.9 million farmers. +And we spend 35,000 dollars on average a year keeping a prisoner in prison, and school districts spend 500 dollars a year feeding a child. +It's no wonder, you know, we have criminals. +And what's happening is, we're getting sick. +We're getting sick and our kids are getting sick. +It is about what we feed them. +What goes in is what we are. +We really are what we eat. +And if we continue down this path, if we continue to feed kids bad food, if we continue not to teach them what good food is, what's going to happen? You know, what is going to happen? +What's going to happen to our whole medical system? +What's going to happen is, we're going to have kids that have a life less long than our own. +The CDC, the Center for Disease Control, has said, of the children born in the year 2000 -- those seven- and eight-year-olds today -- one out of every three Caucasians, one out of every two African-Americans and Hispanics are going to have diabetes in their lifetime. +And if that's not enough, they've gone on to say, most before they graduate high school. +This means that 40 or 45 percent of all school-aged children could be insulin-dependent within a decade. Within a decade. +What's going to happen? +Well, the CDC has gone further to say that those children born in the year 2000 could be the first generation in our country's history to die at a younger age than their parents. +And it's because of what we feed them. +Because eight-year-olds don't get to decide -- and if they do, you should be in therapy. +You know, we are responsible for what kids eat. +But oops, maybe they're responsible for what kids eat. +Big companies spend 20 billion dollars a year marketing non-nutrient foods to kids. +20 billion dollars a year. 10,000 ads most kids see. +They spend 500 dollars for every one dollar -- 500 dollars marketing foods that kids shouldn't eat for every one dollar marketing healthy, nutritious food. +The result of which is kids think they're going to die if they don't have chicken nuggets. +You know that everybody thinks they should be eating more, and more, and more. +This is the USDA portion size, that little, tiny thing. +And the one over there, that's bigger than my head, is what McDonald's and Burger King and those big companies think we should eat. +And why can they serve that much? +Why can we have 29-cent Big Gulps and 99-cent double burgers? +It's because of the way the government commodifies food, and the cheap corn and cheap soy that are pushed into our food supply that makes these non-nutrient foods really, really cheap. +Which is why I say it's a social justice issue. +Now, I said I'm doing this in Berkeley, and you might think, "Oh, Berkeley. Of course you can do it in Berkeley." +Well, this is the food I found 24 months ago. +This is not even food. +This is the stuff we were feeding our kids: Extremo Burritos, corn dogs, pizza pockets, grilled cheese sandwiches. +Everything came in plastic, in cardboard. +The only kitchen tools my staff had was a box cutter. +The only working piece of equipment in my kitchen was a can crusher, because if it didn't come in a can, it came frozen in a box. +The USDA allows this. +The USDA allows all of this stuff. +In case you can't tell, that's, like, pink Danish and some kind of cupcakes. +Chicken nuggets, Tater Tots, chocolate milk with high fructose, canned fruit cocktail -- a reimbursable meal. +That's what the government says is okay to feed our kids. +It ain't okay. You know what? It is not okay. +And we, all of us, have to understand that this is about us, that we can make a difference here. +Now I don't know if any of you out there invented chicken nuggets, but I'm sure you're rich if you did. +But whoever decided that a chicken should look like a heart, a giraffe, a star? +Well, Tyson did, because there's no chicken in the chicken. +And that they could figure it out, that we could sell this stuff to kids. +You know, what's wrong with teaching kids that chicken looks like chicken? +But this is what most schools serve. +In fact, this may be what a lot of parents serve, as opposed to -- this is what we try and serve. +We really need to change this whole paradigm with kids and food. +We really have to teach children that chicken is not a giraffe. +You know, that vegetables are actually colorful, that they have flavor, that carrots grow in the ground, that strawberries grow in the ground. +There's not a strawberry tree or a carrot bush. +You know, we have to change the way we teach kids about these things. +There's a lot of stuff we can do. There's a lot of schools doing farm-to-school programs. There's a lot of schools actually getting fresh food into schools. +Now, in Berkeley, we've gone totally fresh. +We have no high-fructose corn syrup, no trans fats, no processed foods. +We're cooking from scratch every day. +We have 25 percent of our -- thank you -- 25 percent of our stuff is organic and local. We cook. +Those are my hands. I get up at 4 a.m. +every day and go cook the food for the kids, because this is what we need to do. +We can't keep serving kids processed crap, full of chemicals, and expect these are going to be healthy citizens. +You're not going to get the next generation, or the generation after, to be able to think like this if they're not nourished. +If they're eating chemicals all the time, they're not going to be able to think. +They're not going to be smart. +You know what? They're just going to be sick. +Now one of the things that -- what happened when I went into Berkeley is I realized that, you know, this was all pretty amazing to people, very, very different, and I needed to market it. +I came up with these calendars that I sent home to every parent. +And these calendars really started to lay out my program. +Now I'm in charge of all the cooking classes and all the gardening classes in our school district. +So this is a typical menu. +This is what we're serving this week at the schools. +And you see these recipes on the side? +Those are the recipes that the kids learn in my cooking classes. +They do tastings of these ingredients in the gardening classes. +They also may be growing them. And we serve them in the cafeterias. +If we're going to change children's relationship to food, it's delicious, nutritious food in the cafeterias, hands-on experience -- you're looking in cooking and gardening classes -- and academic curriculum to tie it all together. +Now you've probably garnered that I don't love the USDA, and I don't have any idea what to do with their pyramid, this upside-down pyramid with a rainbow over the top, I don't know. +You know, run up into the end of the rainbow, I don't know what you do with it. So, I came up with my own. +This is available on my website in English and Spanish, and it's a visual way to talk to kids about food. +The really tiny hamburger, the really big vegetables. +We have to start changing this. +We have to make kids understand that their food choices make a big difference. +We have cooking classes -- we have cooking classrooms in our schools. +What are kids learning? Where is the family time? +Where is socialization? Where is discussion? +Where is learning to talk? +You know, we have to change it. +I work with kids a lot. These are kids I work with in Harlem. +EATWISE -- Enlightened and Aware Teens Who Inspire Smart Eating. +We have to teach kids that Coke and Pop Tarts aren't breakfast. +We have to teach kids that if they're on a diet of refined sugar, they go up and down, just like if they're on a diet of crack. +And we have to pull it all together. We have composting in all of our schools. +We have recycling in all of our schools. +You know, the things that we maybe do at home and think are so important, we have to teach kids about in school. +It has to be so much a part of them that they really get it. +Because, you know what, many of us are sort of at the end of our careers, and we need to be giving these kids -- these young kids, the next generation -- the tools to save themselves and save the planet. +One of the things I do a lot is public-private partnerships. +I work with private companies who are willing to do R & D with me, who are willing to do distribution for me, who are really willing to work to go into schools. +Schools are underfunded. +Most schools in America spend less than 7,500 dollars a year teaching a child. +That comes down to under five dollars an hour. +Most of you spend 10, 15 dollars an hour for babysitters when you have them. +So we're spending less than 5 dollars an hour on the educational system. +And if we're going to change it, and change how we feed kids, we really have to rethink that. +So, public and private partnerships, advocacy groups, working with foundations. +In our school district, the way we afford this is our school district allocates .03 percent of the general fund towards nutrition services. And I think if every school district allocated a half to one percent, we could start to really fix this program. +We really need to change it. +It's going to take more money. +Of course, it's not all about food; it's also about kids getting exercise. +And one of the simple things we can do is put recess before lunch. +It's sort of this "duh" thing. +You know, if you have kids coming into lunch and all they're going to do when they get out of lunch is go to have recess, you see them just throw away their lunch so they can run outside. +And then, at one in the afternoon, they're totally crashing. +These are your children and grandchildren that are totally melting down when you pick them up, because they haven't had lunch. +So if the only thing they'd have to do after lunch is go to class, believe me, they're going to sit there and eat their lunch. +We need to -- we need to educate. +We need to educate the kids. +We need to educate the staff. +I had 90 employees. +Two were supposed to be cooks -- none could. +And, you know, I'm not that better off now. +But we really have to educate. +We have to get academic institutions to start thinking about ways to teach people how to cook again, because, of course, they don't -- because we've had this processed food in schools and institutions for so long. +We need 40-minute lunches -- most schools have 20-minute lunches -- and lunches that are time-appropriate. +There was just a big study done, and so many schools are starting lunch at nine and 10 in the morning. +That is not lunchtime. +You know, it's crazy. It's crazy what we're doing. +And just remember, at very least tacitly, this is what we're teaching children as what they should be doing. +I think if we're going to fix this, one of the things we have to do is really change how we have oversight over the National School Lunch Program. +Instead of the National School Lunch Program being under the USDA, I think it should be under CDC. +If we started to think about food and how we feed our kids as a health initiative, and we started thinking about food as health, then I think we wouldn't have corn dogs as lunch. +Okay, Finance 101 on this, and this -- I'm sort of wrapping it up with this finance piece, because I think this is something we all have to understand. +The National School Lunch Program spends 8 billion dollars feeding 30 million children a year. +That number probably needs to double. +People say, "Oh my God, where are we going to get 8 billion?" +In this country, we're spending 110 billion dollars a year on fast food. +We spend 100 billion dollars a year on diet aids. +We spend 50 billion dollars on vegetables, which is why we need all the diet aids. +We spend 200 billion dollars a year on diet-related illness today, with nine percent of our kids having type 2 diabetes. +200 billion. +So you know what, when we talk about needing 8 billion more, it's not a lot. +That 8 billion comes down to two dollars and 49 cents -- that's what the government allocates for lunch. +Most school districts spend two thirds of that on payroll and overhead. +That means we spend less than a dollar a day on food for kids in schools -- most schools, 80 to 90 cents. In L.A., it's 56 cents. +So we're spending less than a dollar, OK, on lunch. +Now I don't know about you, but I go to Starbucks and Pete's and places like that, and venti latte in San Francisco is five dollars. +One gourmet coffee, one, is more -- we spend more on than we are spending to feed kids for an entire week in our schools. +You know what? We should be ashamed. +We, as a country, should be ashamed at that. +The richest country. +In our country, it's the kids that need it the most, who get this really, really lousy food. +It's the kids who have parents and grandparents and uncles and aunts that can't even afford to pay for school lunch that gets this food. +And those are the same kids who are going to be getting sick. +Those are the same kids who we should be taking care of. +We can all make a difference. +That every single one of us, whether we have children, whether we care about children, whether we have nieces or nephews, or anything -- that we can make a difference. +Whether you sit down and eat a meal with your kids, whether you take your kids, or grandchildren, or nieces and nephews shopping to a farmers' market. Just do tastings with them. +Sit down and care. +And on the macro level, we're in what seems to be a 19-month presidential campaign, and of all the things we're asking all of these potential leaders, what about asking for the health of our children? +Thank you. +Hi. I'm here to talk to you about the importance of praise, admiration and thank you, and having it be specific and genuine. +And the way I got interested in this was, I noticed in myself, when I was growing up, and until about a few years ago, that I would want to say thank you to someone, I would want to praise them, I would want to take in their praise of me and I'd just stop it. +And I asked myself, why? +I felt shy, I felt embarrassed. +And then my question became, am I the only one who does this? +So, I decided to investigate. +I'm fortunate enough to work in the rehab facility, so I get to see people who are facing life and death with addiction. +And sometimes it comes down to something as simple as, their core wound is their father died without ever saying he's proud of them. +But then, they hear from all the family and friends that the father told everybody else that he was proud of him, but he never told the son. +It's because he didn't know that his son needed to hear it. +So my question is, why don't we ask for the things that we need? +I know a gentleman, married for 25 years, who's longing to hear his wife say, "Thank you for being the breadwinner, so I can stay home with the kids," but won't ask. +I know a woman who's good at this. +She, once a week, meets with her husband and says, "I'd really like you to thank me for all these things I did in the house and with the kids." +And he goes, "Oh, this is great, this is great." +And praise really does have to be genuine, but she takes responsibility for that. +And a friend of mine, April, who I've had since kindergarten, she thanks her children for doing their chores. +And she said, "Why wouldn't I thank it, even though they're supposed to do it?" +So, the question is, why was I blocking it? +Why were other people blocking it? +Why can I say, "I'll take my steak medium rare, I need size six shoes," but I won't say, "Would you praise me this way?" +And it's because I'm giving you critical data about me. +I'm telling you where I'm insecure. +I'm telling you where I need your help. +And I'm treating you, my inner circle, like you're the enemy. +Because what can you do with that data? +You could neglect me. +You could abuse it. +Or you could actually meet my need. +And I took my bike into the bike store-- I love this -- same bike, and they'd do something called "truing" the wheels. +The guy said, "You know, when you true the wheels, it's going to make the bike so much better." +I get the same bike back, and they've taken all the little warps out of those same wheels I've had for two and a half years, and my bike is like new. +So, I'm going to challenge all of you. +I want you to true your wheels: be honest about the praise that you need to hear. +What do you need to hear? Go home to your wife -- go ask her, what does she need? +Go home to your husband -- what does he need? +Go home and ask those questions, and then help the people around you. +And it's simple. +And why should we care about this? +We talk about world peace. +How can we have world peace with different cultures, different languages? +I think it starts household by household, under the same roof. +So, let's make it right in our own backyard. +And I want to thank all of you in the audience for being great husbands, great mothers, friends, daughters, sons. +And maybe somebody's never said that to you, but you've done a really, really good job. +And thank you for being here, just showing up and changing the world with your ideas. +Thank you. +I'm a, or was, or kind of am a toy designer. +And before I was a toy designer, oh, I was a mime, a street mime, actually. +And then I was an entertainer, I guess. +And before that, I was a silversmith, and before that, I was -- I was out of the house at about 15 and a half, and I never wound up going into college. +I didn't really -- I didn't see the point at the time. +I do now, after learning about all the quantum stuff. +It's really cool. +Anyway, I wanted to show you a little bit about the world of toy design, at least from my small aperture of the world. +This is a video I made when I first started doing toy design. +I'm in my garage, making weird stuff. +And then you go to these toy companies and there's some guy across the table, and he goes, "Pass. Pass. Pass." +You know, you think it's so cool, but they -- anyway, I made this little tape that I'd always show when I go in. +This is the name of my company, Giving Toys. +So I used to work at Mattel, actually. +And after I left Mattel, I started all these hamburger makers, and then got the license to make the maker. +So this is a hamburger maker that you take the peanut butter and stuff and you put it in there, and it makes -- and this is a French fry maker, little, tiny food you can eat. +I beat up the pasta maker to make that. +Then this is a McNugget maker, I think. +This, now that's the McNugget maker, and this is a -- this is my oldest daughter making a McApple Pie. +And let's see, you can make the pie and cinnamon and sugar, and then you eat, and you eat, and you eat, and you -- she's about 300 pounds now. +No, she's not, she's beautiful. +This is how they looked when they came out at the end. +These are a -- this is like a 15 million dollar line. +And it got me through some -- I didn't make any royalties on this, but it got me through. +Next is a compilation of a bunch of stuff. +That was a missile foam launcher that didn't get sold. +This is a squishy head, for no apparent reason. +This is some effects that I did for "Wig, Rattle and Roll." +That was a robot eye thing controlling it in the back. +That paid the rent for about a month. +This is a walking Barbie -- I said, "Oh, this is it!" +And they go, "Oh, that's really nice," and out it goes. +So this is some fighting robots. I thought everyone would want these. +They fight, they get back up, you know? Wouldn't this be cool? +And they made it into a toy, and then they dropped it like a hot rock. +They're pretty cool. +This is a-- we're doing some flight-testing on my little pug, seeing if this can really grab. +It does pretty good. +I'm using little phone connectors to make them so they can spin. +It's how they, see, have those album things -- kids don't know what they are. +This is a clay maker. +You know, I said -- I went to Play-Doh, and said, "Look, I can animate this." +They said, "Don't talk to us about Play-Doh." +And then, I made a Lego animator. +I thought, this would be so great! +And you know, Lego -- don't take Legos to Lego. +That's the answer. They know everything about it. +Then I started doing animatronics. +I loved dinosaurs. +I used to be in the film business, kind of, and actually, Nicholas Negroponte saw this when I was, like, 12, and anyway, so then they said, "No, you have to make two and they have to fight." +You know, how -- why would a kid want a dinosaur? +This is me using [unclear] or 3-D Studio, back in the '80s. +That's David Letterman. +You can see how old this stuff is. +That's my youngest cousin. +This is a segment called, "Dangerous Toys You Won't See at Christmas." +We had my first saw blade launcher and we had a flamethrower chair. +My career basically peaked here. +And in the back are foam-core cutouts of the people who couldn't make it to the show. +This is MEK going through a windshield wiper motor. +So this is a -- I used to kind of be an actor. +And I'm really not very good at it. +But the -- this is a guy named Dr. Yatz, who would take toys apart and show kids about engineering. +And you can see the massively parallel processing Nintendos there. +And over to the left is a view master of the CD-ROM. +And a guy named Stan Reznikov did this as a pilot. +This is a -- you can see the little window there. +You can actually see the Steadicam with a bubble on the bottom. +You see the keyboard strapped to my wrist. +Way ahead of my time here. +Narrator: I love toys! +Caleb Chung: That's all I wanted to say there. I love toys. +OK, so, so that was a, that was the first kind of a -- that was the first batch of products. +Most of them did not go. +You get one out of 20, one out of 30 products. +And every now and then, we do something like a, you know, an automated hair wrap machine, you know, that tangles your hair and pulls your scalp out, and -- and we'd make some money on that, you know. And we'd give it out. +But eventually, we left L.A., and we moved to Idaho, where there was actually a lot of peace and quiet. +And I started working on this project -- oh, I have to tell you about this real quick. +Throughout this whole thing, making toys, I think there is a real correlation with innovation and art and science. +There's some kind of a blend that happens that allows, you know, to find innovation. +And I tried to sum this up in some kind of symbol that means something, to me anyway. +And so, art and science have a kind of dynamic balance, that's where I think innovation happens. +And actually, this is, to me, how I can come up with great ideas. +But it's not how you actually get leverage. +Actually, you have to put a circle around that, and call it business. +And those three together, I think, give you leverage in the world. +But moving on. +So, this is a quick tale I'm going to tell. This is the Furby tale. +As he said, I was co-inventor of the Furby. +I did the body and creature -- well, you'll see. +So by way of showing you this, you can kind of get an understanding of what it is to, hopefully, try to create robotic life forms, or technology that has an emotional connection with the user. +So this is my family. +This is my wife, Christi, and Abby, and Melissa, and my 17-year-old now, Emily, who was just a pack of trouble. +All right, there's that robot again. +I came out of the movie business, as I said, and I said, let's make these animatronic robots. +Let's make these things. +And so I've always had a big interest in this. +This one actually didn't go anywhere, but I got my feet wet doing this. +This is a smaller one, and I have a little moving torso on there. +A little, tiny guy walks along. More servo drives, lots of servo hacking, lots of mechanical stuff. +There's another one. +He actually has skeletor legs, I think, he's wearing there. +Oh, this is a little pony, little pony -- very cute little thing. +The point of showing these is I've always been interested in little artificial life pieces. +So the challenge was -- I worked for Microsoft for a little bit, working on the Microsoft Barney. +And this is a -- you know, the purple dinosaur with kind of bloat wear. +And, you know, they had lots, just lots of stuff in there that you didn't need, I thought. +And then Microsoft can just fill a, you know, a warehouse full of this stuff and see if they sell. +So it's a really strange business model compared to coming from a toy company. +But anyway, a friend of mine and I, Dave Hampton, decided to see if we could do like a single-cell organism. +What's the fewest pieces we could use to make a little life form? +And that's our little, thirty-cent Mabuchi motor. +And so, I have all these design books, like I'm sure many of you have. +And throughout the books -- this is the first page on Furby -- I have kind of the art and science. +I have the why over here, and the how over there. +I try to do a lot of philosophy, a lot of thinking about all of these projects. +Because they're not just "bing" ideas; you have to really dig deep in these things. +So there's some real pseudo-code over here, and getting the idea of different kind of drives, things like that. +And originally, Furby only had two eyes and some batteries on the bottom. +And then we said, well, you're going to feed him, and he needs to talk, and it got more complicated. +And then I had to figure out how I'm going to use that one motor to make the eyes move, and the ears move, and the body to move, and the mouth to move. +And, you know, I want to make it blink and do all that at the same time. +Well, I came up with this kind of linear expression thing with these cams and feedback. And that worked pretty well. +Then I started to get a little more realistic and I have to start drawing the stuff. +And there's my "note to self" at the top: "lots of engineering." +So that turned out to be a little more than true. +There's my first exploded view and all the little pieces and the little worm drive and all that stuff. +And then I've got to start building it, so this is the real thing. +I get up and start cutting my finger and gluing things together. +And that's my little workshop. +And there's the first little cam that drove Furby. +And there's Furby on the half shell. +You can see the little BB in the box is my tilt sensor. +I just basically gnawed all this stuff out of plastic. +So there's the back of his head with a billion holes in it. +And there I am. I'm done. There's my little Furby. +No, it's a little robot on heroin or something, I think. +So right now, you see, I love little robots. +So my wife says, "Well, you may like it, but nobody else will." +So she comes to the rescue. +This is my wife Christi, who is just, you know, my muse and my partner for eternity here. +And she does drawings, right? +She's an actual, you know, artist. +And she starts doing all these different drawings and does color patterns and coloring books. +And I like the guy with the cigar at the bottom there. +He didn't test so well, but I like him. +And then she started doing these other images. +At that time, Beanie Babies was a big hit, and we thought, we'll do a bunch of different ones. +So here's a little pink one, a little pouf on his head. +And here's -- this didn't do so well in testing either, I don't know why. +There's my favorite, Demon Furby. +That was a good one. +Anyway, finally settled on kind of this kind of a look, little poufy body, a little imaginary character. +And there he is, a little bush baby on -- caught in the headlights there. +I actually went to Toys"R"Us, got a little furry cat, ripped it apart and made this. +And since then, every time I come home from Toys"R"Us with dolls or something, they disappear from my desk and they get hidden in the house. +I have three girls and they just, they -- it's like a rescue animal thing they're going there. +So, a little tether coming off, it's just a control for the Fur's mouth and his eyes. +It's just a little server control and I made a little video going: "Hi, my name's Furby, and I'm good," you know, and then I'd reach my hand. +He'd -- you can tickle him. When I put my hand up, "Ha, ha, ha, ha" and that's how we sold him. +And Hasbro actually said, I meant Tiger Electronics at the time, said, "Yeah, we want to do this. +We have, you know, 13 weeks or something to Toy Fair, and we're going to hire you guys to do this." +And so Dave and I got working. +Mostly me, because it was all mechanics at this point. +So now I have to really figure out all kinds of stuff I don't know how to do. +And I started working with Solid Works and a whole other group to do that. +And we started -- this was way back before there was really much SLA going on, not a lot of rapid prototyping. +We certainly didn't have the money to do this. +They only paid me, like, a little bit of money to do this, so I had to call a friend of a friend who was running the GM prototype plant, SLA plant, that was down. +And they said, "Yeah, well, we'll run them." +So they ran all the shells for us, which was nice of them. +And the cams I got cut at Hewlett Packard. +We snuck in on the weekend. +And so we just had a disc of the files. +But they have a closed system, so you couldn't print the things out on the machine. +So we actually printed them out on clear and taped them on the monitors. +And on the weekend we ran the parts for that. +So this is how they come out close to the end. +And then they looked like little Garfields there. +Eight months later -- you may remember this, this was a -- total, total, total chaos. +For a while, they were making two million Furbys a month. +They actually wound up doing about 40 million Furbys. +I -- it's unbelievable how -- I don't know how that can be. +And Hasbro made about, you know, a billion and a half dollars. +And I just a little bit on each one. +So full circle -- why do I do this? +Why do you, you know, try to do this stuff? +And it's, of course, for your kids. +And there's my youngest daughter with her Furbys. +And she still actually has those. +And then I started another company. +And they said they'd spend all this time. +So I said, "OK, let's try to do this dinosaur project." +The crazy idea is we're going to try to clone a dinosaur as much as we can with today's technology. +And it's not really -- but as close as we can do. +And we're going to try to really pull this off, intentfully try to make something that seems like it's alive. +Not a robot that kind of does, but let's really go for it. +So I picked a Camarasaurus, because the Camarasaurus was the most abundant of the sauropods in North America. +And you could actually find full fossil evidence of these. +That's a juvenile. +And so we actually went in. +There's a book called "Walking on Eggshells," where they found actual sauropod skin in Patagonia. +And the picture from the book, so when I -- I told the sculptor to use this bump pattern, whatever you can to copy that. +Very, very obsessive. +There's a kind of truncated Camarasaurus skeleton, but the geometry's correct. +And then I went in, and measured all the geometry because I figured, hey, biomimicry. +If I do it kind of right, it might move kind of like the real thing. +So there's the motor. +And about this time, you know, all these other people are starting to help. +Here's an example of what we did with the skull. +There's the skull, there's my drawing of a skull. +There's kind of the skin version of the soft tissue. +There's the mechanism that would go in there, kind of a Geneva drive. +There's some Solid Works versions of it. +Here's some SLA parts of the same thing. +And then, these are really crude pieces. We were just doing some tests here. +There's the skull, pretty much the same shape as the Camarasaurus. +There's a photorealistic eye behind a lens. +And there's kind of the first exploded view, or see-through view. +There's the first SLA version, and it already kind of has the feel, it has kind of a cuteness already. +And the thing about blending science and art in this multidisciplinary stuff is you can do a robot, and then you go back and do the shape, and then you go back and forth. +The servos in the front legs, we had to shape those like muscles. +They had to fit within the envelope. +There was a tremendous amount of work to get all that working right. +All the neck and the tail are cable, so it moves smoothly and organically. +And then, of course, you're not done yet. +You have to get the look for the skin. +The skin's a whole another thing, probably the hardest part. +So you hire artists, and you try to get the look and feel of the character. +Now, this is not -- we're character designers, right? +And we're still trying to keep with the real character. +So, now you go back and you cover the whole thing with clay. +Now you start doing the sculpture for this. +And you can see we got a guy from -- who's just a fanatic about dinosaurs to do the sculpting for us, down to the spoon-shaped teeth and everything. +And then more sculpting, and then more sculpting, and then more sculpting, and then more sculpting. +And then, four years and 10 million dollars later, we have a little Pleo. +John, do you want to bring him up? +John Sosoka is our CTO, and is really the man that's done most of the work with our 40-person company. +I'd like to give John a hand. He never gets recognition. This is John Sosoka. +So, thank you, John, thank you, and get back to work, all right, man? +All right -- -- no, it's very painful, so -- -- these are little Pleos and you can probably see them. +This -- I on purpose -- they go through life stages. +So when you first get them, they're babies. +And you -- more you have them, kind of the older they get, and they kind of learn through their behavior. +So this one, this one's actually asleep, and -- hang on. +Pleo, wake up. Pleo, come on. +So this guy's listening to my voice here. +But they have 40 sensors all over their body. +They have seven processors, they have 14 motors, they have -- but you don't care, do you? +They're just cute, right? That's the idea, that's the idea. +So you see -- hey, come on. Hey, did you feel that? +There's something big and loud over here. +Hey. +That's good, wake up, wake up, wake up. +Yeah, they're like kids, you know. +You, yeah, yeah. Okay, he's hungry. +I'll show you what he's been doing for, for four years. +Here, here, here. Have some money, Pleo. +There you go. +That's what the investors think, that it's just -- -- right, right. So they're really sweet little guys. +And we're hoping that -- you know, our belief is that humans need to feel empathy towards things in order to be more human. +And we think we can help that out by having little creatures that you can love. +Now these are not robots, they're kind of lovebots, you know. +They do change over time. +But mostly they evoke a feeling of caring. +And we have a -- I have a little something here. +Now I do want to say that, you know, Ugobe is not there yet. +We've just opened the door, and it's for all of you to step through it. +We did include some things that are hopefully useful. +Excuse me, Pleo. +They -- he has a USB and he has a SD card, so it's completely open architecture. +So anyone can plug him -- -- thank you. +This is John over here. +Anyone can take Pleo and they can totally redo his personality. +You can make him bipolar, or as someone said, a -- -- you can change his homeostatic drives, or whatever you want to call them. +Kids can just drag and drop, put in new sounds. +We -- actually, it's very hard to keep people from doing this. +We have one animator who's taken it and he's done a take on the Budweiser beer commercial, and they're going, "Whassup," you know? +You -- so it's -- yes, he likes that. +So they're a handful. We hope you get one. +I don't know what I'm missing to say, but as a last thing, I'd like to say is that if we continue along this path, we are designing our children's best friends. +And there's a lot of social responsibility in that. +That's why Pleo's soft and gentle and loving. +And so I just -- I hope we all dream well. +Thank you. +If you ask people about what part of psychology do they think is hard, and you say, "Well, what about thinking and emotions?" +Most people will say, "Emotions are terribly hard. +They're incredibly complex. They can't -- I have no idea of how they work. +But thinking is really very straightforward: it's just sort of some kind of logical reasoning, or something. +But that's not the hard part." +So here's a list of problems that come up. +One nice problem is, what do we do about health? +The other day, I was reading something, and the person said probably the largest single cause of disease is handshaking in the West. +And there was a little study about people who don't handshake, and comparing them with ones who do handshake. +And I haven't the foggiest idea of where you find the ones that don't handshake, because they must be hiding. +And the people who avoid that have 30 percent less infectious disease or something. +Or maybe it was 31 and a quarter percent. +So if you really want to solve the problem of epidemics and so forth, let's start with that. And since I got that idea, I've had to shake hundreds of hands. +And I think the only way to avoid it is to have some horrible visible disease, and then you don't have to explain. +Education: how do we improve education? +Well, the single best way is to get them to understand that what they're being told is a whole lot of nonsense. +And then, of course, you have to do something about how to moderate that, so that anybody can -- so they'll listen to you. +Pollution, energy shortage, environmental diversity, poverty. +How do we make stable societies? Longevity. +Okay, there're lots of problems to worry about. +Anyway, the question I think people should talk about -- and it's absolutely taboo -- is, how many people should there be? +And I think it should be about 100 million or maybe 500 million. +And then notice that a great many of these problems disappear. +If you had 100 million people properly spread out, then if there's some garbage, you throw it away, preferably where you can't see it, and it will rot. +Or you throw it into the ocean and some fish will benefit from it. +The problem is, how many people should there be? +And it's a sort of choice we have to make. +Most people are about 60 inches high or more, and there's these cube laws. So if you make them this big, by using nanotechnology, I suppose -- -- then you could have a thousand times as many. +That would solve the problem, but I don't see anybody doing any research on making people smaller. +Now, it's nice to reduce the population, but a lot of people want to have children. +And there's one solution that's probably only a few years off. +Wouldn't that be enough? And then the children would get plenty of support, and nurturing, and mentoring, and the world population would decline very rapidly and everybody would be totally happy. +Timesharing is a little further off in the future. +And there's this great novel that Arthur Clarke wrote twice, called "Against the Fall of Night" and "The City and the Stars." +They're both wonderful and largely the same, except that computers happened in between. +And Arthur was looking at this old book, and he said, "Well, that was wrong. +The future must have some computers." +So in the second version of it, there are 100 billion or 1,000 billion people on Earth, but they're all stored on hard disks or floppies, or whatever they have in the future. +And you let a few million of them out at a time. +A person comes out, they live for a thousand years doing whatever they do, and then, when it's time to go back for a billion years -- or a million, I forget, the numbers don't matter -- but there really aren't very many people on Earth at a time. +And you get to think about yourself and your memories, and before you go back into suspension, you edit your memories and you change your personality and so forth. +The plot of the book is that there's not enough diversity, so that the people who designed the city make sure that every now and then an entirely new person is created. +And in the novel, a particular one named Alvin is created. And he says, maybe this isn't the best way, and wrecks the whole system. +I don't think the solutions that I proposed are good enough or smart enough. +I think the big problem is that we're not smart enough to understand which of the problems we're facing are good enough. +Therefore, we have to build super intelligent machines like HAL. +As you remember, at some point in the book for "2001," HAL realizes that the universe is too big, and grand, and profound for those really stupid astronauts. If you contrast HAL's behavior with the triviality of the people on the spaceship, you can see what's written between the lines. +Well, what are we going to do about that? We could get smarter. +I think that we're pretty smart, as compared to chimpanzees, but we're not smart enough to deal with the colossal problems that we face, either in abstract mathematics or in figuring out economies, or balancing the world around. +So one thing we can do is live longer. +And nobody knows how hard that is, but we'll probably find out in a few years. +You see, there's two forks in the road. We know that people live twice as long as chimpanzees almost, and nobody lives more than 120 years, for reasons that aren't very well understood. +But lots of people now live to 90 or 100, unless they shake hands too much or something like that. +And so maybe if we lived 200 years, we could accumulate enough skills and knowledge to solve some problems. +So that's one way of going about it. +What I think is that the gene counters don't know what they're doing yet. +And whatever you do, don't read anything about genetics that's published within your lifetime, or something. +The stuff has a very short half-life, same with brain science. +And so it might be that if we just fix four or five genes, we can live 200 years. +Or it might be that it's just 30 or 40, and I doubt that it's several hundred. +So this is something that people will be discussing and lots of ethicists -- you know, an ethicist is somebody who sees something wrong with whatever you have in mind. +And it's very hard to find an ethicist who considers any change worth making, because he says, what about the consequences? +And, of course, we're not responsible for the consequences of what we're doing now, are we? Like all this complaint about clones. +And yet two random people will mate and have this child, and both of them have some pretty rotten genes, and the child is likely to come out to be average. +Which, by chimpanzee standards, is very good indeed. +If we do have longevity, then we'll have to face the population growth problem anyway. Because if people live 200 or 1,000 years, then we can't let them have a child more than about once every 200 or 1,000 years. +And so there won't be any workforce. +And one of the things Laurie Garrett pointed out, and others have, is that a society that doesn't have people of working age is in real trouble. And things are going to get worse, because there's nobody to educate the children or to feed the old. +And when I'm talking about a long lifetime, of course, I don't want somebody who's 200 years old to be like our image of what a 200-year-old is -- which is dead, actually. +You know, there's about 400 different parts of the brain which seem to have different functions. +Nobody knows how most of them work in detail, but we do know that there're lots of different things in there. +And they don't always work together. I like Freud's theory that most of them are cancelling each other out. +And so if you think of yourself as a sort of city with a hundred resources, then, when you're afraid, for example, you may discard your long-range goals, but you may think deeply and focus on exactly how to achieve that particular goal. +You throw everything else away. You become a monomaniac -- all you care about is not stepping out on that platform. +And when you're hungry, food becomes more attractive, and so forth. +So I see emotions as highly evolved subsets of your capability. +Emotion is not something added to thought. An emotional state is what you get when you remove 100 or 200 of your normally available resources. +So thinking of emotions as the opposite of -- as something less than thinking is immensely productive. And I hope, in the next few years, to show that this will lead to smart machines. +And I guess I better skip all the rest of this, which are some details on how we might make those smart machines and -- -- and the main idea is in fact that the core of a really smart machine is one that recognizes that a certain kind of problem is facing you. +This is a problem of such and such a type, and therefore there's a certain way or ways of thinking that are good for that problem. +So I think the future, main problem of psychology is to classify types of predicaments, types of situations, types of obstacles and also to classify available and possible ways to think and pair them up. +Saying, not what are the situations, but what are the kinds of problems and what are the kinds of strategies, how do you learn them, how do you connect them up, how does a really creative person invent a new way of thinking out of the available resources and so forth. +Genetic algorithms are great for certain things; I suspect I know what they're bad at, and I won't tell you. +Thank you. +Good morning. My name is David Rose. +I am a serial entrepreneur turned serial investor. +And by the use of pitching PowerPoints to VCs, I have personally raised tens of millions of dollars from VCs through PowerPoint pitches. +And turning to the other side of the equation, I've personally supervised the investment of tens of millions of dollars into companies who have pitched me with PowerPoint presentations. +So I think it's safe to say I know a little bit about the process of pitching. +So, the very first question you've got to figure out is: What is the single most important thing that a VC is looking for when you come to them pitching your new business idea? +There are obviously all kinds of things -- business models and financials and markets and this and that. +Overall, of all the things that you have to do, what is the single most important thing the VC is going to be investing in? +Somebody? What? +Audience: People! +David Rose: People! You! That's it -- you are the person. +Therefore, the entire purpose of a VC pitch is to convince them that you are the entrepreneur in whom they are going to invest their money and make a lot of money in return. +Now, how do you do this? +You can't just walk up and say, "Hi, I'm a really good guy, good girl, and you should invest in me." Right? +So in the course of your VC pitch -- you have a very few minutes; most VC pitches, angel pitches, are about 15 minutes, most should be less than half an hour -- people's attention span, after 18 minutes, begins to drop off. +Tests have shown. +So in that 18 or 10 or five minutes, you have to convey a whole bunch of different characteristics, about 10 different characteristics, while you're standing up there. +What's the single most important thing you've got to convey? What? +Audience: Integrity. +DR: Boy, oh boy, oh boy! +And I didn't even prompt him. +Right, integrity. The key thing. +I would much rather invest in, take a chance on, somebody who I know is straight than where there's any possible question of who are they looking out for, and what's going on. +So the most important thing is integrity. +What's the second most important thing? +Let's see if you can get this one. +Audience: Self-confidence. +DR: Close enough. Passion. +Right? Entrepreneurs, by definition, are people who are leaving something else, starting a new world, creating and putting their lifeblood into this thing. +You've got to convey passion. +If you're not passionate, why should anyone else be, or put money into your company if you're not passionate about it? +Integrity, passion: the most important things. +Then there's a whole panoply of other things you've got to wrap up in this package you're presenting to a VC. +Experience: you've got to be able to say, "Hey, you know, I've done this before." +"Done this before" is starting an enterprise, creating value, and taking something from beginning to end. +That's why VCs love to fund serial entrepreneurs -- even if you didn't do it right the first time, you've learned the lessons, which puts you in good stead the next time. +Along with the experience of starting an enterprise or running something -- doesn't have to be a business, it can be an organization in a school, a not-for-profit. +But experience in creating an organization. +Next: knowledge. +If you tell me you're going to be the developer of the map of the human genome, you better know what a human genome is; I want you to have expertise. +I don't want somebody who says, "I've got a great idea in a business I know nothing about. +I don't know who the players are, what the market is like." +You've got to know your market, your area. +And you have to have the skills that it takes to get a company going. +Those skills include everything from technical skills if it's a technology business, to marketing and sales and management and so on. +But, you know, not everybody has all these skills. +Very few people have the full set of skills it takes to run a company. +What else do you require? Well, leadership. +You've got to be able to convince us that you either have developed a team that has all those factors in it, or else you can. +And you have the charisma and the management style and the ability to get people to follow your lead, to inspire them, to motivate them to be part of your team. +Having done all that, what else do I want to know as a VC? +I want to know that you have commitment. +That you are going to be here to the end. +I want you to say -- or I want you to convey -- that you are going to die if you have to, with your very last breath, your fingernails scratching as they draw you out. +You'll keep my money alive and make more from it. +I don't want someone who'll cut and run at the first opportunity. +Bad things happen. +There's never been a venture-funded company where bad things didn't happen. +So know that you're committed to the very end. +You've got to have vision to see where this is going. +I don't want another "me too" product. +I want somebody who can change the world out there. +But on top of that, I need realism, Because while changing the world is great, it doesn't always happen. +And before you get to change the world, bad things are going to take place; you have to deal with that. +And you have to have rational projections. +Finally, you're asking for my money -- not just because it's my money, but because it's me. +You need to be coachable. +I need to know you have the ability to listen. +We've had a lot of experience. +People who are VCs or angels investing in you have had experience, and they'd like to know that you want to hear that experience. +So how do you convey these 10 things in 10 minutes without saying them? +You can't say, "I've got integrity, invest in me!" +You've got to do a whole pitch that conveys this without conveying it. +Think about your pitch as a timeline. +It starts off, you walk in the door. +They know nothing whatsoever about you. +You can take them on an emotional -- all pitches, all sales presentations, You can go up, you can go down, right? +And it goes from beginning to end. +You walk in, the first thing you've got to do, the overall arc of your presentation, it's got to start like a rocket. +You've got maybe 10 seconds -- between 10 and 30 seconds, depending on how long the pitch is -- to get their attention. +In my case, I've invested. +I've gotten millions of dollars from PowerPoint pitches. +"I've invested millions." That should get you right there. +This can be a fact or something counterintuitive. +It can be a story or an experience. +But you've got to grab their emotional attention, focused on you, within that first few seconds. +And then from there, you've got to take them on a very solid, steady, upward path, right from beginning to end. +Everything has to reinforce this. +And you've got to get better and better and better, revving up to the very end, then you've got to -- boom! -- knock them out of the park. +You want to get them to such an emotional high they're ready to write you a check, throw money at you, before you leave. +How do you do that? +First of all, logical progression. +Any time you go backwards, any time you skip a step -- imagine walking up a staircase where some of the treads are missing, or the heights are different. +You stop, you need to figure out a nice, logical progression. +Start with what the market is: Why are you going to do X, Y or Z? +And then you've got to tell me how you're going to do it, and what you're going to do. +And it's got to flow from beginning to end. +You've got to let me know there are touchstones, to tie in to the rest of the world out there. +For example, reference companies I've heard of, or basic items in your business. +I want to know about things that I can relate to: validators, or anything that tells me somebody else has approved this, or there's outside validation. +It can be sales; it can be you got an award for something; it can be people have done it before; it can be your beta tests are going great, whatever. +I want to know validation -- not just what you're telling me, but that somebody or something else out there says this makes sense. +And then, I'm looking for the upside; I need a believable upside. +That's two parts; it's got to be upside and believable. +The upside means if you tell me that five years out, you're making a million dollars a year, that's not really upside. +Telling me you'll be making a billion dollars a year -- that's not believable. +So it's got to be both. +On the other hand are things that take the emotional level down. +You have to recover from those. +For example, anything that I know is not true. +"We have no competition. Nobody makes a widget like this." +Odds are I know somebody who's made a widget, and the minute you tell me that, I discount half of what you're saying from then on. +Anything I don't understand, where I have to make the leap myself, in my own head, will stop the flow of the presentation. +So you've got to take me through like a sixth-grader -- dub, dub, dub -- but without patronizing me. +And it's a very tricky path. +But if you can do it, it works really well. +Anything that's inconsistent within your concept -- if you tell me sales of X, Y or Z are 10 million dollars, five slides later, they're five million dollars ... +One may have been gross sales, one may have been net sales, but I want to know that all the numbers make sense together. +And then, finally: anything that's an error or a typo, or a stupid mistake or a line that's in the wrong place -- that shows me that if you can't do a presentation, how can you run a company? +So this all feeds in together. +The best way to do this is to look at our betters, people who have done this before. +Let's look at the most successful technology executive in the business, and see how a presentation goes. +Bill Gates's PowerPoint presentation over here. +Here's Gates doing a thing for Windows. +Is this how to do a PowerPoint presentation? What do you think? +No. Who do you think we should look at as our role model? +Oh, isn't that funny! There's another great one over here. +OK, Steve Jobs. +You want absolute -- this is the Zen of presentation, right? +Here he is, one little guy, black jeans and stuff, on a totally empty stage. +What are you focusing on? +You're focusing on him! This is Steve Jobs. +So are these wonderful long bullet points, whole list of things good? +No, they're not. The long bullet points are bad. +What's good? Short. Short bullet points. +But you know what? Even better than short bullet points are no bullet points. +Just give me the headline. +And you know what? +How many bullet points does Steve Jobs use? +Basically, none. +What do you do? +Best of all, images. Just a simple image. +I look at the image; a picture's worth a thousand words. +You look at the image and you've got the whole thing. +Then you come back to me; you're focused on me, why I'm such a great guy, why you want to invest, why this all makes sense. +That said, we only have a very short time, so let's run through the things to include in your presentation. +First of all, none of these big, long-titled slides with blah, blah, I'm presenting to so-and-so on X date. +I know the day, I know who I am -- I don't need all that. +Just give me your company logo. +I look at the logo, and it ties it to my brain. +Then I come back to you. I'm focused on you, OK? +You give me your quick, 15-second or 30-second intro, grab my attention. +Then you give me a quick business overview. +This is not a five-minute pitch. This is, you know, two sentences. +"We build widgets for the X, Y, Z market." +Or, "We sell services to help do X." You know, whatever. +And that is like the picture on the outside of a jigsaw puzzle box. +That lets me know the context. +It gives me the armature for the whole thing you'll be going through; it lets me put everything in relation to what you've told me. +Then you've got to walk me through, show me who your management team is. +I want to know the size of the market. Why is this market worth getting at? +I want to know your product, that's very important. +Now, this is not a product pitch or sales pitch. +I don't want to know all the ins and outs, just what the heck is it? +If it's a website, show me a screenshot of your website. +Don't do a live demo. Never do a live demo. +Do a canned demo, or something that lets me know why people are going to buy whatever it is. +Now that I know what you're selling, tell me how you make money on it. +For every X you sell, you get Y, or services of Z. +I want to know what the business model is on a per-unit basis, or for the actual product you're selling. +I want to know who you're selling to in terms of customers and if you have any special relationships that will help you, whether it's a distribution relationship or a producing partner. +Again, validation. +This helps to say you're bigger than just one little thing over here. +But everybody has competition. +There's never been a company with no competition, even if the competition is the old way of doing something. +I want to know exactly what your competition is, and that will help me judge how you fit into the whole operation. +I want to know how you're special. +I know what your competition does -- how are you going to prevent them from eating your lunch? +All this ties into the financial overview. +And you can't do a VC pitch without giving me your financials. +I want to know a year or two back, or as long as you've been in existence. +And I want to know four or five years forward. +Five is a bit much. Probably four. +And I want to know how that business model, on a product basis, will translate into a company model: How many widgets will you sell? +You make X amount per widget. I want to know what the driver is. +We'll have 1,000 customers this year and 10,000 the next, our revenues will do this and that. +That gives me the whole picture for the next several years into which I'm investing. +And I want to know how the money from me will help you get there. +You're going to open an offshore plant in China, you're going to spend it all on sales and marketing, you're going to go to Tahiti, whatever. +But then comes the ask, where you tell me how much you want. +You're looking for 5 million -- at what valuation? +Two million? 100,000? +What's the money in so far? Who invested? +I hope you invested -- if you can't invest in your own thing, why should I? +So I like to know if you have friends and family, or angel investors, or more VCs before. +What's the capital structure up until this point? +Finally, having done all that, you've now told me the whole thing, so now you bring it back to that conclusion. +This is that rocket going up. +Hopefully everything has been positive. +And everything you say clicks, it all makes sense. +And I'm thinking, "This is really great!" +Then you take me back to just your logo on the screen. +And I look at the logo -- OK, good. +Now I come back to you. Nothing else to look at, right? +Now you've got to wrap it up to give me the final -- boom! -- the final pitch that's going to send me into space. +Now, in the process of doing this, how do you remember the sequences and do it? +You've noticed I'm not looking at the screen, right? +The screen is in front of me, so I couldn't even see if I wanted to. +So how do I know what's going on? +Well, I have a laptop in front of me. +You're looking at me and at this. +What am I looking at? +You think that I'm looking at that? +No, I'm looking, actually, at a special version of PowerPoint over here, which shows me the slides ahead and behind, my notes, so I can see what's going on. +PowerPoint has this built into every copy of it that's shipped. +If you use Apple's Keynote, it's got an even better version. +There's another program called Ovation you can get from Adobe that they bought last summer, which helps you run the timers and lets you figure out what's going on. +So, here's my wrap-up to take you to the moon, right? +I usually do a Top 10, but we don't have time, so: David's Top Five Presentation Tips. +Number five: always use presenter mode, or Ovation, or presenter tools. +It lets you know exactly where you're going, helps you pace yourself, gives you a timer, the whole bit. +Number four: always use remote control. +Have you seen me touch the computer? No. Why not? +Because I'm using remote control. Always use remote control. +Number three: the handouts you give are not your presentation. +If you follow my suggestions, you'll have a very spare, Zen-like presentation, which is great to convey who you are and get people emotionally involved, but not good as a handout. +You want a handout that gives more information; it has to stand without you. +Number two: don't read your speech. Can you imagine? +"You should invest in my company ... " It doesn't work. +And the number one presentation tip: never, ever look at the screen. +You're making a connection with your audience, and you always want a one-on-one connection. +The screen should come up behind you and supplement what you're doing, instead of replace you. +And that is how to pitch to a VC. +A year ago, I spoke to you about a book that I was just in the process of completing, that has come out in the interim, and I would like to talk to you today about some of the controversies that that book inspired. +The book is called "The Blank Slate," based on the popular idea that the human mind is a blank slate, and that all of its structure comes from socialization, culture, parenting, experience. +The "blank slate" was an influential idea in the 20th century. +Here are a few quotes indicating that: "Man has no nature," from the historian Jose Ortega y Gasset; "Man has no instincts," from the anthropologist Ashley Montagu; "The human brain is capable of a full range of behaviors and predisposed to none," from the late scientist Stephen Jay Gould. +There are a number of reasons to doubt that the human mind is a blank slate, and some of them just come from common sense. +As many people have told me over the years, anyone who's had more than one child knows that kids come into the world with certain temperaments and talents; it doesn't all come from the outside. +Oh, and anyone who has both a child and a house pet has surely noticed that the child, exposed to speech, will acquire a human language, whereas the house pet won't, presumably because of some innate different between them. +And anyone who's ever been in a heterosexual relationship knows that the minds of men and the minds of women are not indistinguishable. +There are also, I think, increasing results from the scientific study of humans that, indeed, we're not born blank slates. +One of them, from anthropology, is the study of human universals. +If you've ever taken anthropology, you know that it's a -- kind of an occupational pleasure of anthropologists to show how exotic other cultures can be, and that there are places out there where, supposedly, everything is the opposite to the way it is here. +But if you instead look at what is common to the world's cultures, you find that there is an enormously rich set of behaviors and emotions and ways of construing the world that can be found in all of the world's 6,000-odd cultures. +The anthropologist Donald Brown has tried to list them all, and they range from aesthetics, affection and age statuses all the way down to weaning, weapons, weather, attempts to control, the color white and a worldview. +Also, genetics and neuroscience are increasingly showing that the brain is intricately structured. +This is a recent study by the neurobiologist Paul Thompson and his colleagues in which they -- using MRI -- measured the distribution of gray matter -- that is, the outer layer of the cortex -- in a large sample of pairs of people. +They coded correlations in the thickness of gray matter in different parts of the brain using a false color scheme, in which no difference is coded as purple, and any color other than purple indicates a statistically significant correlation. +Well, this is what happens when you pair people up at random. +By definition, two people picked at random can't have correlations in the distribution of gray matter in the cortex. +This is what happens in people who share half of their DNA -- fraternal twins. +And as you can see, large amounts of the brain are not purple, showing that if one person has a thicker bit of cortex in that region, so does his fraternal twin. +And here's what happens if you get a pair of people who share all their DNA -- namely, clones or identical twins. +And you can see huge areas of cortex where there are massive correlations in the distribution of gray matter. +Now, these aren't just differences in anatomy, like the shape of your ear lobes, but they have consequences in thought and behavior that are well illustrated in this famous cartoon by Charles Addams: "Separated at birth, the Mallifert twins meet accidentally." +As you can see, there are two inventors with identical contraptions in their lap, meeting in the waiting room of a patent attorney. +Now, the cartoon is not such an exaggeration, because studies of identical twins who were separated at birth and then tested in adulthood show that they have astonishing similarities. +And this happens in every pair of identical twins separated at birth ever studied -- but much less so with fraternal twins separated at birth. +My favorite example is a pair of twins, one of whom was brought up as a Catholic in a Nazi family in Germany, the other brought up in a Jewish family in Trinidad. +Now -- the story might seem to good to be true, but when you administer batteries of psychological tests, you get the same results -- namely, identical twins separated at birth show quite astonishing similarities. +Now, given both the common sense and scientific data calling the doctrine of the blank slate into question, why should it have been such an appealing notion? +Well, there are a number of political reasons why people have found it congenial. +The foremost is that if we're blank slates, then, by definition, we are equal, because zero equals zero equals zero. +But if something is written on the slate, then some people could have more of it than others, and according to this line of thinking, that would justify discrimination and inequality. +Another political fear of human nature is that if we are blank slates, we can perfect mankind -- the age-old dream of the perfectibility of our species through social engineering. +Whereas, if we're born with certain instincts, then perhaps some of them might condemn us to selfishness, prejudice and violence. +Well, in the book, I argue that these are, in fact, non sequiturs. +And just to make a long story short: first of all, the concept of fairness is not the same as the concept of sameness. +And so when Thomas Jefferson wrote in the Declaration of Independence, "We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal," he did not mean "We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are clones." +Rather, that all men are equal in terms of their rights, and that every person ought to be treated as an individual, and not prejudged by the statistics of particular groups that they may belong to. +Also, even if we were born with certain ignoble motives, they don't automatically lead to ignoble behavior. +That is because the human mind is a complex system with many parts, and some of them can inhibit others. +For example, there's excellent reason to believe that virtually all humans are born with a moral sense, and that we have cognitive abilities that allow us to profit from the lessons of history. +So even if people did have impulses towards selfishness or greed, that's not the only thing in the skull, and there are other parts of the mind that can counteract them. +including the arts, cloning, crime, free will, education, evolution, gender differences, God, homosexuality, infanticide, inequality, Marxism, morality, Nazism, parenting, politics, race, rape, religion, resource depletion, social engineering, technological risk and war. +And needless to say, there were certain risks in taking on these subjects. +When I wrote a first draft of the book, I circulated it to a number of colleagues for comments, and here are some of the reactions that I got: "Better get a security camera for your house." +"Don't expect to get any more awards, job offers or positions in scholarly societies." +"Tell your publisher not to list your hometown in your author bio." +"Do you have tenure?" +Well, the book came out in October, and nothing terrible has happened. +There was indeed reason to be nervous, and there were moments in which I did feel nervous, knowing the history of what has happened to people who've taken controversial stands or discovered disquieting findings in the behavioral sciences. +There are many cases, some of which I talk about in the book, of people who have been slandered, called Nazis, physically assaulted, threatened with criminal prosecution about controversial findings. +And you never know when you're going to come across one of these booby traps. +My favorite example is a pair of psychologists who did research on left-handers, and published some data showing that left-handers are, on average, more susceptible to disease, more prone to accidents and have a shorter lifespan. +It's not clear, by the way, since then, whether that is an accurate generalization, but the data at the time seemed to support that. +Well, pretty soon they were barraged with enraged letters, death threats, ban on the topic in a number of scientific journals, coming from irate left-handers and their advocates, and they were literally afraid to open their mail because of the venom and vituperation that they had inadvertently inspired. +the night is young, but the book has been out and nothing terrible has happened. +None of the dire professional consequences has taken place -- I haven't been exiled from the city of Cambridge. +But what I wanted to talk about are two of these hot buttons that have aroused the strongest response in the 80-odd reviews that The Blank Slate has received. +I'll just put that list up for a few seconds, and see if you can guess which two -- I would estimate that probably two of these topics inspired probably 90 percent of the reaction in the various reviews and radio interviews. +It's not violence and war, it's not race, it's not gender, it's not Marxism, it's not Nazism. +They are: the arts and parenting. +So let me tell you what aroused such irate responses, and I'll let you decide if whether they -- the claims are really that outrageous. +Let me start with the arts. +I note that among the long list of human universals that I presented a few slides ago are art. +There is no society ever discovered in the remotest corner of the world that has not had something that we would consider the arts. +Visual arts -- decoration of surfaces and bodies -- appears to be a human universal. +Now, on the other hand, in the second half of the 20th century, the arts are frequently said to be in decline. +And I have a collection, probably 10 or 15 headlines, from highbrow magazines deploring the fact that the arts are in decline in our time. +I'll give you a couple of representative quotes: "We can assert with some confidence that our own period is one of decline, that the standards of culture are lower than they were 50 years ago, and that the evidences of this decline are visible in every department of human activity." +That's a quote from T. S. Eliot, a little more than 50 years ago. +And a more recent one: "The possibility of sustaining high culture in our time is becoming increasing problematical. +Serious book stores are losing their franchise, nonprofit theaters are surviving primarily by commercializing their repertory, symphony orchestras are diluting their programs, public television is increasing its dependence on reruns of British sitcoms, classical radio stations are dwindling, museums are resorting to blockbuster shows, dance is dying." +That's from Robert Brustein, the famous drama critic and director, in The New Republic about five years ago. +Well, in fact, the arts are not in decline. +I don't think this will as a surprise to anyone in this room, but by any standard they have never been flourishing to a greater extent. +There are, of course, entirely new art forms and new media, many of which you've heard over these few days. +By any economic standard, the demand for art of all forms is skyrocketing, as you can tell from the price of opera tickets, by the number of books sold, by the number of books published, the number of musical titles released, the number of new albums and so on. +The only grain of truth to this complaint that the arts are in decline come from three spheres. +One of them is in elite art since the 1930s -- say, the kinds of works performed by major symphony orchestras, where most of the repertory is before 1930, or the works shown in major galleries and prestigious museums. +In literary criticism and analysis, probably 40 or 50 years ago, literary critics were a kind of cultural hero; now they're kind of a national joke. +And the humanities and arts programs in the universities, which by many measures, indeed are in decline. +Students are staying away in droves, universities are disinvesting in the arts and humanities. +Well, here's a diagnosis. +They didn't ask me, but by their own admission, they need all the help that they can get. +And I would like to suggest that it's not a coincidence that this supposed decline in the elite arts and criticism occurred in the same point in history in which there was a widespread denial of human nature. +A famous quotation can be found -- if you look on the web, you can find it in literally scores of English core syllabuses -- "In or about December 1910, human nature changed." +A paraphrase of a quote by Virginia Woolf, and there's some debate as to what she actually meant by that. +But it's very clear, looking at these syllabuses, that -- it's used now as a way of saying that all forms of appreciation of art that were in place for centuries, or millennia, in the 20th century were discarded. +The beauty and pleasure in art -- probably a human universal -- were -- began to be considered saccharine, or kitsch, or commercial. +Barnett Newman had a famous quote that "the impulse of modern art is the desire to destroy beauty" -- which was considered bourgeois or tacky. +And here's just one example. +I mean, this is perhaps a representative example of the visual depiction of the female form in the 15th century; here is a representative example of the depiction of the female form in the 20th century. +And, as you can see, there -- something has changed in the way the elite arts appeal to the senses. +Indeed, in movements of modernism and post-modernism, there was visual art without beauty, literature without narrative and plot, poetry without meter and rhyme, architecture and planning without ornament, human scale, green space and natural light, music without melody and rhythm, and criticism without clarity, attention to aesthetics and insight into the human condition. +Let me give just you an example to back up that last statement. +But here, there -- one of the most famous literary English scholars of our time is the Berkeley professor, Judith Butler. +Well, you get the idea. +By the way, this is one sentence -- you can actually parse it. +Well, the argument in "The Blank Slate" was that elite art and criticism in the 20th century, although not the arts in general, have disdained beauty, pleasure, clarity, insight and style. +People are staying away from elite art and criticism. +What a puzzle -- I wonder why. +Well, this turned out to be probably the most controversial claim in the book. +Someone asked me whether I stuck it in in order to deflect ire from discussions of gender and Nazism and race and so on. I won't comment on that. +But it certainly inspired an energetic reaction from many university professors. +Well, the other hot button is parenting. +And the starting point is the -- for that discussion was the fact that we have all been subject to the advice of the parenting industrial complex. +Now, here is -- here is a representative quote from a besieged mother: "I'm overwhelmed with parenting advice. +I'm supposed to do lots of physical activity with my kids so I can instill in them a physical fitness habit so they'll grow up to be healthy adults. +And I'm supposed to do all kinds of intellectual play so they'll grow up smart. +And there are all kinds of play -- clay for finger dexterity, word games for reading success, large motor play, small motor play. I feel like I could devote my life to figuring out what to play with my kids." +I think anyone who's recently been a parent can sympathize with this mother. +Well, here's some sobering facts about parenting. +Most studies of parenting on which this advice is based are useless. They're useless because they don't control for heritability. They measure some correlation between what the parents do, how the children turn out and assume a causal relation: that the parenting shaped the child. +Parents who talk a lot to their kids have kids who grow up to be articulate, parents who spank their kids have kids who grow up to be violent and so on. +And very few of them control for the possibility that parents pass on genes for -- that increase the chances a child will be articulate or violent and so on. +Until the studies are redone with adoptive children, who provide an environment but not genes to their kids, we have no way of knowing whether these conclusions are valid. +The genetically controlled studies have some sobering results. +Remember the Mallifert twins: separated at birth, then they meet in the patent office -- remarkably similar. +Well, what would have happened if the Mallifert twins had grown up together? +You might think, well, then they'd be even more similar, because not only would they share their genes, but they would also share their environment. +That would make them super-similar, right? +Wrong. Identical twins, or any siblings, who are separated at birth are no less similar than if they had grown up together. +Everything that happens to you in a given home over all of those years appears to leave no permanent stamp on your personality or intellect. +A complementary finding, from a completely different methodology, is that adopted siblings reared together -- the mirror image of identical twins reared apart, they share their parents, their home, their neighborhood, don't share their genes -- end up not similar at all. +OK -- two different bodies of research with a similar finding. +So let me conclude with just a remark to bring it back to the theme of choices. +I think that the sciences of human nature -- behavioral genetics, evolutionary psychology, neuroscience, cognitive science -- are going to, increasingly in the years to come, upset various dogmas, careers and deeply-held political belief systems. +And that presents us with a choice. +The choice is whether certain facts about humans, or topics, are to be considered taboos, forbidden knowledge, where we shouldn't go there because no good can come from it, or whether we should explore them honestly. +I have my own answer to that question, which comes from a great artist of the 19th century, Anton Chekhov, who said, "Man will become better when you show him what he is like." +And I think that the argument can't be put any more eloquently than that. +Thank you very much. +What I want to tell you about today is how I see robots invading our lives at multiple levels, over multiple timescales. +And when I look out in the future, I can't imagine a world, 500 years from now, where we don't have robots everywhere. +Assuming -- despite all the dire predictions from many people about our future -- assuming we're still around, I can't imagine the world not being populated with robots. +And then the question is, well, if they're going to be here in 500 years, are they going to be everywhere sooner than that? +Are they going to be around in 50 years? +Yeah, I think that's pretty likely -- there's going to be lots of robots everywhere. +And in fact I think that's going to be a lot sooner than that. +I think we're sort of on the cusp of robots becoming common, and I think we're sort of around 1978 or 1980 in personal computer years, where the first few robots are starting to appear. +Computers sort of came around through games and toys. +And you know, the first computer most people had in the house may have been a computer to play Pong, a little microprocessor embedded, and then other games that came after that. +And we're starting to see that same sort of thing with robots: LEGO Mindstorms, Furbies -- who here -- did anyone here have a Furby? +Yeah, there's 38 million of them sold worldwide. +They are pretty common. And they're a little tiny robot, a simple robot with some sensors, a little bit of processing actuation. +On the right there is another robot doll, who you could get a couple of years ago. +And just as in the early days, when there was a lot of sort of amateur interaction over computers, you can now get various hacking kits, how-to-hack books. +And on the left there is a platform from Evolution Robotics, where you put a PC on, and you program this thing with a GUI to wander around your house and do various stuff. +And then there's a higher price point sort of robot toys -- the Sony Aibo. And on the right there, is one that the NEC developed, the PaPeRo, which I don't think they're going to release. +But nevertheless, those sorts of things are out there. +And we've seen, over the last two or three years, lawn-mowing robots, Husqvarna on the bottom, Friendly Robotics on top there, an Israeli company. +And then in the last 12 months or so we've started to see a bunch of home-cleaning robots appear. +The top left one is a very nice home-cleaning robot from a company called Dyson, in the U.K. Except it was so expensive -- 3,500 dollars -- they didn't release it. +But at the bottom left, you see Electrolux, which is on sale. +Another one from Karcher. +At the bottom right is one that I built in my lab about 10 years ago, and we finally turned that into a product. +And let me just show you that. +We're going to give this away I think, Chris said, after the talk. +This is a robot that you can go out and buy, and that will clean up your floor. +And it starts off sort of just going around in ever-increasing circles. +If it hits something -- you people see that? +Now it's doing wall-following, it's following around my feet to clean up around me. Let's see, let's -- oh, who stole my Rice Krispies? They stole my Rice Krispies! +Don't worry, relax, no, relax, it's a robot, it's smart! +See, the three-year-old kids, they don't worry about it. +It's grown-ups that get really upset. +We'll just put some crap here. +Okay. +I don't know if you see -- so, I put a bunch of Rice Krispies there, I put some pennies, let's just shoot it at that, see if it cleans up. +Yeah, OK. So -- we'll leave that for later. +Part of the trick was building a better cleaning mechanism, actually; the intelligence on board was fairly simple. +And that's true with a lot of robots. +We've all, I think, become, sort of computational chauvinists, and think that computation is everything, but the mechanics still matter. +Here's another robot, the PackBot, that we've been building for a bunch of years. +It's a military surveillance robot, to go in ahead of troops -- looking at caves, for instance. +But we had to make it fairly robust, much more robust than the robots we build in our labs. +On board that robot is a PC running Linux. +It can withstand a 400G shock. The robot has local intelligence: it can flip itself over, can get itself into communication range, can go upstairs by itself, et cetera. +Okay, so it's doing local navigation there. +A soldier gives it a command to go upstairs, and it does. +That was not a controlled descent. +Now it's going to head off. +And the big breakthrough for these robots, really, was September 11th. +We had the robots down at the World Trade Center late that evening. +Couldn't do a lot in the main rubble pile, things were just too -- there was nothing left to do. +But we did go into all the surrounding buildings that had been evacuated, and searched for possible survivors in the buildings that were too dangerous to go into. +Let's run this video. +Reporter: ...battlefield companions are helping to reduce the combat risks. +Nick Robertson has that story. +Rodney Brooks: Can we have another one of these? +Okay, good. +So, this is a corporal who had seen a robot two weeks previously. +He's sending robots into caves, looking at what's going on. +The robot's being totally autonomous. +The worst thing that's happened in the cave so far was one of the robots fell down ten meters. +So one year ago, the US military didn't have these robots. +Now they're on active duty in Afghanistan every day. +And that's one of the reasons they say a robot invasion is happening. +There's a sea change happening in how -- where technology's going. +Thanks. +And over the next couple of months, we're going to be sending robots in production down producing oil wells to get that last few years of oil out of the ground. +Very hostile environments, 150 C, 10,000 PSI. +Autonomous robots going down, doing this sort of work. +But robots like this, they're a little hard to program. +How, in the future, are we going to program our robots and make them easier to use? +And I want to actually use a robot here -- a robot named Chris -- stand up. Yeah. Okay. +Come over here. Now notice, he thinks robots have to be a bit stiff. +He sort of does that. But I'm going to -- Chris Anderson: I'm just British. RB: Oh. +I'm going to show this robot a task. It's a very complex task. +Now notice, he nodded there, he was giving me some indication he was understanding the flow of communication. +And if I'd said something completely bizarre he would have looked askance at me, and regulated the conversation. +So now I brought this up in front of him. +I'd looked at his eyes, and I saw his eyes looked at this bottle top. +And I'm doing this task here, and he's checking up. +His eyes are going back and forth up to me, to see what I'm looking at -- so we've got shared attention. +And so I do this task, and he looks, and he looks to me to see what's happening next. And now I'll give him the bottle, and we'll see if he can do the task. Can you do that? +Okay. He's pretty good. Yeah. Good, good, good. +I didn't show you how to do that. +Now see if you can put it back together. +And he thinks a robot has to be really slow. +Good robot, that's good. +So we saw a bunch of things there. +We saw when we're interacting, we're trying to show someone how to do something, we direct their visual attention. +The other thing communicates their internal state to us, whether he's understanding or not, regulates a social interaction. +There was shared attention looking at the same sort of thing, and recognizing socially communicated reinforcement at the end. +And we've been trying to put that into our lab robots because we think this is how you're going to want to interact with robots in the future. +I just want to show you one technical diagram here. +The most important thing for building a robot that you can interact with socially is its visual attention system. +Because what it pays attention to is what it's seeing and interacting with, and what you're understanding what it's doing. +So in the videos I'm about to show you, you're going to see a visual attention system on a robot which has -- it looks for skin tone in HSV space, so it works across all human colorings. +It looks for highly saturated colors, from toys. +And it looks for things that move around. +And it weights those together into an attention window, and it looks for the highest-scoring place -- the stuff where the most interesting stuff is happening -- and that is what its eyes then segue to. +And it looks right at that. +At the same time, some top-down sort of stuff: might decide that it's lonely and look for skin tone, or might decide that it's bored and look for a toy to play with. +And so these weights change. +And over here on the right, this is what we call the Steven Spielberg memorial module. +Did people see the movie "AI"? (Audience: Yes.) RB: Yeah, it was really bad, but -- remember, especially when Haley Joel Osment, the little robot, looked at the blue fairy for 2,000 years without taking his eyes off it? +Well, this gets rid of that, because this is a habituation Gaussian that gets negative, and more and more intense as it looks at one thing. +And it gets bored, so it will then look away at something else. +So, once you've got that -- and here's a robot, here's Kismet, looking around for a toy. You can tell what it's looking at. +You can estimate its gaze direction from those eyeballs covering its camera, and you can tell when it's actually seeing the toy. +And it's got a little bit of an emotional response here. +But it's still going to pay attention if something more significant comes into its field of view -- such as Cynthia Breazeal, the builder of this robot, from the right. +It sees her, pays attention to her. +Kismet has an underlying, three-dimensional emotional space, a vector space, of where it is emotionally. +And at different places in that space, it expresses -- can we have the volume on here? +Can you hear that now, out there? (Audience: Yeah.) Kismet: Do you really think so? Do you really think so? +Do you really think so? +RB: So it's expressing its emotion through its face and the prosody in its voice. +And when I was dealing with my robot over here, Chris, the robot, was measuring the prosody in my voice, and so we have the robot measure prosody for four basic messages that mothers give their children pre-linguistically. +Here we've got naive subjects praising the robot: Voice: Nice robot. +You're such a cute little robot. +RB: And the robot's reacting appropriately. +Voice: ...very good, Kismet. +Voice: Look at my smile. +RB: It smiles. She imitates the smile. This happens a lot. +These are naive subjects. +Here we asked them to get the robot's attention and indicate when they have the robot's attention. +Voice: Hey, Kismet, ah, there it is. +RB: So she realizes she has the robot's attention. +Voice: Kismet, do you like the toy? Oh. +RB: Now, here they're asked to prohibit the robot, and this first woman really pushes the robot into an emotional corner. +Voice: No. No. You're not to do that. No. +Not appropriate. No. No. +RB: I'm going to leave it at that. +We put that together. Then we put in turn taking. +When we talk to someone, we talk. +Then we sort of raise our eyebrows, move our eyes, give the other person the idea it's their turn to talk. +And then they talk, and then we pass the baton back and forth between each other. +So we put this in the robot. +We got a bunch of naive subjects in, we didn't tell them anything about the robot, sat them down in front of the robot and said, talk to the robot. +Now what they didn't know was, the robot wasn't understanding a word they said, and that the robot wasn't speaking English. +It was just saying random English phonemes. +And I want you to watch carefully, at the beginning of this, where this person, Ritchie, who happened to talk to the robot for 25 minutes -- -- says, "I want to show you something. +I want to show you my watch." +And he brings the watch center, into the robot's field of vision, points to it, gives it a motion cue, and the robot looks at the watch quite successfully. +We don't know whether he understood or not that the robot -- Notice the turn-taking. +Ritchie: OK, I want to show you something. OK, this is a watch that my girlfriend gave me. +Robot: Oh, cool. +Ritchie: Yeah, look, it's got a little blue light in it too. I almost lost it this week. +RB: So it's making eye contact with him, following his eyes. +Ritchie: Can you do the same thing? Robot: Yeah, sure. +RB: And they successfully have that sort of communication. +And here's another aspect of the sorts of things that Chris and I were doing. +This is another robot, Cog. +They first make eye contact, and then, when Christie looks over at this toy, the robot estimates her gaze direction and looks at the same thing that she's looking at. +So we're going to see more and more of this sort of robot over the next few years in labs. +But then the big questions, two big questions that people ask me are: if we make these robots more and more human-like, will we accept them, will we -- will they need rights eventually? +And the other question people ask me is, will they want to take over? +And on the first -- you know, this has been a very Hollywood theme with lots of movies. You probably recognize these characters here -- where in each of these cases, the robots want more respect. +Well, do you ever need to give robots respect? +They're just machines, after all. +But I think, you know, we have to accept that we are just machines. +After all, that's certainly what modern molecular biology says about us. +You don't see a description of how, you know, Molecule A, you know, comes up and docks with this other molecule. +And it's moving forward, you know, propelled by various charges, and then the soul steps in and tweaks those molecules so that they connect. +It's all mechanistic. We are mechanism. +If we are machines, then in principle at least, we should be able to build machines out of other stuff, which are just as alive as we are. +But I think for us to admit that, we have to give up on our special-ness, in a certain way. +And we've had the retreat from special-ness under the barrage of science and technology many times over the last few hundred years, at least. +500 years ago we had to give up the idea that we are the center of the universe when the earth started to go around the sun; 150 years ago, with Darwin, we had to give up the idea we were different from animals. +And to imagine -- you know, it's always hard for us. +We don't like to give up our special-ness, so, you know, having the idea that robots could really have emotions, or that robots could be living creatures -- I think is going to be hard for us to accept. +But we're going to come to accept it over the next 50 years or so. +And the second question is, will the machines want to take over? +And here the standard scenario is that we create these things, they grow, we nurture them, they learn a lot from us, and then they start to decide that we're pretty boring, slow. +They want to take over from us. +And for those of you that have teenagers, you know what that's like. +But Hollywood extends it to the robots. +And the question is, you know, will someone accidentally build a robot that takes over from us? +And that's sort of like this lone guy in the backyard, you know -- "I accidentally built a 747." +I don't think that's going to happen. +And I don't think -- -- I don't think we're going to deliberately build robots that we're uncomfortable with. +We'll -- you know, they're not going to have a super bad robot. +Before that has to come to be a mildly bad robot, and before that a not so bad robot. +And we're just not going to let it go that way. +So, I think I'm going to leave it at that: the robots are coming, we don't have too much to worry about, it's going to be a lot of fun, and I hope you all enjoy the journey over the next 50 years. +I was here about four years ago, talking about the relationship of design and happiness. +At the very end of it, I showed a list under that title. +I learned very few things in addition since -- but made a whole number of them into projects since. +These are inflatable monkeys in every city in Scotland: "Everybody always thinks they are right." +They were combined in the media. +"Drugs are fun in the beginning but become a drag later on." +We're doing changing media. +This is a projection that can see the viewer as the viewer walks by. +You can't help but actually ripping that spider web apart. +All of these things are pieces of graphic design. +We do them for our clients. +They are commissioned. +I would never have the money to actually pay for the installment or pay for all the billboards or the production of these, so there's always a client attached to them. +These are 65,000 coat hangers in a street that's lined with fashion stores. +"Worrying solves nothing." +"Money does not make me happy" appeared first as double-page spreads in a magazine. +The printer lost the file, didn't tell us. +When the magazine -- actually, when I got the subscription -- it was 12 following pages. +It said, "Money does does make me happy." +And a friend of mine in Austria felt so sorry for me that he talked the largest casino owner in Linz into letting us wrap his building. +So this is the big pedestrian zone in Linz. +It just says "Money," and if you look down the side street, it says, "does not make me happy." +We had a show that just came down last week in New York. +We steamed up the windows permanently, and every hour we had a different designer come in and write these things that they've learned into the steam in the window. +Everybody participated -- Milton Glaser, Massimo Vignelli. +Singapore was quite in discussion. +This is a little spot that we filmed there that's to be displayed on the large JumboTrons in Singapore. +And, of course, it's one that's dear to my heart, because all of these sentiments -- some banal, some a bit more profound -- all originally had come out of my diary. +And I do go often into the diary and check if I wanted to change something about the situation. +If it's -- see it for a long enough time, I actually do something about it. +And the very last one is a billboard. +This is our roof in New York, the roof of the studio. +This is newsprint plus stencils that lie on the newsprint. +We let that lie around in the sun. +As you all know, newsprint yellows significantly in the sun. +After a week, we took the stencils and the leaves off, shipped the newsprints to Lisbon to a very sunny spot, so on day one the billboard said, "Complaining is silly. Either act or forget." +Three days later it faded, and a week later, no more complaining anywhere. +Thank you so much. +Here's what I mean. Politics and -- let's focus on the political system in particular question here, which is the system of democracy. +Democracy, as a type of politics, is a technology for the control and deployment of power. +You can deploy power in a wide range of ways. +Now, consider religion -- in this case Islam, which is the religion that, in some direct sense, can be said to be precipitating what we're about to enter. +Let me say parenthetically why I think that's the case, because I think it's a potentially controversial statement. +I would put it in the following equation: no 9/11, no war. +At the beginning of the Bush administration, when President Bush, now President Bush, was running for president, he made it very clear that he was not interested in intervening broadly in the world. +In fact, the trend was for disengagement with the rest of the world. +That's why we heard about the backing away from the Kyoto protocol, for example. +After 9/11, the tables were turned. +And the president decided, with his advisors, to undertake some kind of an active intervention in the world around us. +That began with Afghanistan, and when Afghanistan went extremely smoothly and quickly, a decision was made through the technology of democracy -- again, notice, not a perfect technology -- but through the technology of democracy that this administration was going to push in the direction of another war -- this time, a war in Iraq. +And I would add that bin Laden and his followers are consciously devoted to the goal of creating a conflict between democracy, or at least capitalist democracy, on the one hand, and the world of Islam as they see and define it. +Now, how is Islam a technology in this conceptual apparatus? +Well, it's a technology for, first, salvation in its most basic sense. +Within the sphere of people who have that view, and it's a large number of people in the Muslim world who disagree with bin Laden in his application, but agree that Islam is the answer. +Islam represents a way of engaging the world through which one can achieve certain desirable goals. +And the goals from the perspective of Muslims are, in principle, peace, justice and equality, but on terms that correspond to traditional Muslim teachings. +Now, I don't want to leave a misimpression by identifying either of these propositions -- rather, either of these phenomena, democracy or Islam -- as technologies. +I don't want to suggest that they are a single thing that you can point to. +And I think a good way to prove this is simply to demonstrate to you what my thought process was when deciding what to put on the wall behind me when I spoke. +And I ran immediately into a conceptual problem: you can't show a picture of democracy. +You can show a slogan, or a symbol, or a sign that stands for democracy. +You can show the Capitol -- I had the same problem when I was designing the cover of my forthcoming book, in fact -- what do you put on the cover to show democracy? +And the same problem with respect to Islam. +You can show a mosque, or you can show worshippers, but there's not a straightforward way of depicting Islam. +That's because these are the kinds of concepts that are not susceptible to easy representation. +Now, it follows from that, that they're deeply contestable. +It follows from that that all of the people in the world who say that they are Muslims can, in principle, subscribe to a wide range of different interpretations of what Islam really is, and the same is true of democracy. +In other words, unlike the word hope, which one could look up in a dictionary and derive origins for, and, perhaps, reach some kind of a consensual use analysis, these are essentially contested concepts. +They're ideas about which people disagree in the deepest possible sense. +And as a consequence of this disagreement, it's very, very difficult for anyone to say, "I have the right version of Islam." +You know, post-9/11, we were treated to the amazing phenomenon of George W. Bush saying, "Islam means peace." +Well, so says George W. Bush. +Other people would say it means something else. +Some people would say that Islam means submission. +Other people would say it means an acknowledgement or recognition of God's sovereignty. +There are a wide range of different things that Islam can mean. +And ostensibly, the same is true of democracy. +Some people say that democracy consists basically in elections. +Other people say no, that's not enough, there have to be basic liberal rights: free speech, free press, equality of citizens. +These are contested points, and it's impossible to answer them by saying, "Ah ha, I looked in the right place, and I found out what these concepts mean." +Now, if Islam and democracy are at present in a moment of great confrontation, what does that mean? +Well, you could fit it into a range of different interpretative frameworks. +You could begin with the one that we began with a couple of days ago, which was fear. +And I think that that's, in fact, probably the first appropriate response. +What I want to suggest to you, though, in the next couple of minutes is that there's also a hopeful response to this. +And the hopeful response derives from recognizing that Islam and democracy are technologies. +And by virtue of being technologies, they're manipulable. +And they're manipulable in ways that can produce some extremely positive outcomes. +What do I have in mind? +And these Muslims -- and it's the vast majority of Muslims -- disagree profoundly with bin Laden's approach, profoundly. +And many of these Muslims further say that their disagreement with the United States is that it, in the past and still in the present, has sided with autocratic rulers in the Muslim world in order to promote America's short-term interests. +Now, during the Cold War, that may have been a defensible position for the United States to take. +That's an academic question. +It may be that there was a great war to be fought between West and East, and it was necessary on the axis of democracy against communism. +And it was necessary in some way for these to contradict each other, and as a consequence you have to make friends wherever you can get them. +But now that the Cold War is over, there's nearly universal consensus in the Muslim world -- and pretty close to the same here in the United States, if you talk to people and ask them -- that in principle, there's no reason that democracy and Islam cannot co-exist. +Now, you may say, but surely, what we've seen on television about Saudi Islam convinces us that it can't possibly be compatible with what we consider the core of democracy -- namely, free political choice, basic liberty and basic equality. +But I'm here to tell you that technologies are more malleable than that. +And there are Muslims, many Muslims out there, who are saying precisely this. +And they're making this argument wherever they're permitted to make it. +But their governments, needless to say, are relatively threatened by this. +And for the most part try to stop them from making this argument. +So, for example, a group of young activists in Egypt try to form a party known as the Center Party, which advocated the compatibility of Islam and democracy. +They weren't even allowed to form a party. +They were actually blocked from even forming a party under the political system there. Why? +Because they would have done extraordinarily well. +In the most recent elections in the Muslim world -- which are those in Pakistan, those in Morocco and those in Turkey -- in each case, people who present themselves to the electorate as Islamic democrats were far and away the most successful vote-getters every place they were allowed to run freely. +So in Morocco, for example, they finished third in the political race but they were only allowed to contest half the seats. +So had they contested a larger number of the seats, they would have done even better. +Now what I want to suggest to you is that the reason for hope in this case is that we are on the edge of a real transformation in the Muslim world. +And that's a transformation in which many sincerely believing Muslims -- who care very, very deeply about their traditions, who do not want to compromise those values -- believe, through the malleability of the technology of democracy and the malleability and synthetic capability of the technology of Islam, that these two ideas can work together. +Now what would that look like? +What does it mean to say that there's an Islamic democracy? +Well, one thing is, it's not going to look identical to democracy as we know it in the United States. +That may be a good thing, in light of some of the criticisms we've heard today -- for example, in the regulatory context -- of what democracy produces. +It will also not look exactly the way either the people in this room, or Muslims out in the rest of the world -- I don't mean to imply there aren't Muslims here, there probably are -- conceptualize Islam. +It will be transformative of Islam as well. +And as a result of this convergence, this synthetic attempt to make sense of these two ideas together, there's a real possibility that, instead of a clash of Islamic civilization -- if there is such a thing -- and democratic civilization -- if there is such a thing -- we'll in fact have close compatibility. +Now, I began with the war because it's the elephant in the room, and you can't pretend that there isn't about to be a war if you're talking about these issues. +The war has tremendous risks for the model that I'm describing because it's very possible that as a consequence of a war, many Muslims will conclude that the United States is not the kind of place that they want to emulate with respect to its forms of political government. +On the other hand, there's a further possibility that many Americans, swept up in the fever of a war, will say, and feel, and think that Islam is the enemy somehow -- that Islam ought to be construed as the enemy. +And even though, for political tactical reasons, the president has been very, very good about saying that Islam is not the enemy, nonetheless, there's a natural impulse when one enters war to think of the other side as an enemy. +And one furthermore has the impulse to generalize, as much as possible, in defining who that enemy is. +So the risks are very great. +On the other hand, the capacities for positive results in the aftermath of a war are also not to be underestimated, even by, and I would say especially by, people who are deeply skeptical about whether we should go to war in the first place. +Those who oppose the war ought to realize that if a war happens, it cannot be the right strategy, either pragmatically, or spiritually, or morally, to say after the war, "Well, let's let it all run itself out, and play out however it wants to play out, because we opposed the war in the first place." +That's not the way human circumstances operate. +You face the circumstances you have in front of you and you go forward. +And it is crucial -- it is crucial in a practical, activist way -- for people who care about these issues to make sure that within the technology of democracy, in this system, they exercise their preferences, their choices and their voices to encourage that outcome. +That's a hopeful message, but it's a message that's hopeful only if you understand it as incurring serious obligation for all of us. +And I think that we are capable of taking on that obligation, but only if we put what we can into it. +And if we do, then I don't think that the hope will be unwarranted altogether. +Thanks. +Aside from keeping the rain out and producing some usable space, architecture is nothing but a special-effects machine that delights and disturbs the senses. +Our work is across media. The work comes in all shapes and sizes. +It's small and large. This is an ashtray, a water glass. +From urban planning and master planning to theater and all sorts of stuff. +The thing that all the work has in common is that it challenges the assumptions about conventions of space. +And these are everyday conventions, conventions that are so obvious that we are blinded by their familiarity. +And I've assembled a sampling of work that all share a kind of productive nihilism that's used in the service of creating a particular special effect. +And that is something like nothing, or something next to nothing. +It's done through a form of subtraction or obstruction or interference in a world that we naturally sleepwalk through. +This is an image that won us a competition for an exhibition pavilion for the Swiss Expo 2002 on Lake Neuchatel, near Geneva. +And we wanted to use the water not only as a context, but as a primary building material. +We wanted to make an architecture of atmosphere. +So, no walls, no roof, no purpose -- just a mass of atomized water, a big cloud. +And this proposal was a reaction to the over-saturation of emergent technologies in recent national and world expositions, which feeds, or has been feeding, our insatiable appetite for visual stimulation with an ever greater digital virtuosity. +High definition, in our opinion, has become the new orthodoxy. +And we ask the question, can we use technology, high technology, to make an expo pavilion that's decidedly low definition, that also challenges the conventions of space and skin, and rethinks our dependence on vision? +So this is how we sought to do it. +Water's pumped from the lake and is filtered and shot as a fine mist through an array of high-pressure fog nozzles, 35,000 of them. And a weather station is on the structure. +It reads the shifting conditions of temperature, humidity, wind direction, wind speed, dew point, and it processes this data in a central computer that calibrates the degree of water pressure and distribution of water throughout. +And it's a responsive system that's trained on actual weather. +So, this is just in construction, and there's a tensegrity structure. +It's about 300 feet wide, the size of a football field, and it sits on just four very delicate columns. +These are the fog nozzles, the interface, and basically the system is kind of reading the real weather, and producing kind of semi-artificial and real weather. +So, we're very interested in creating weather. I don't know why. +Now, here we go, one side, the outside and then from the inside of the space you can see what the quality of the space was. +Unlike entering any normal space, entering Blur is like stepping into a habitable medium. +It's formless, featureless, depthless, scaleless, massless, purposeless and dimensionless. +All references are erased, leaving only an optical whiteout and white noise of the pulsing nozzles. +So, this is an exhibition pavilion where there is absolutely nothing to see and nothing to do. +And we pride ourselves -- it's a spectacular anti-spectacle in which all the conventions of spectacle are turned on their head. +So, the audience is dispersed, focused attention and dramatic build-up and climax are all replaced by a kind of attenuated attention that's sustained by a sense of apprehension caused by the fog. +And this is very much like how the Victorian novel used fog in this way. +So here the world is put out of focus, while our visual dependence is put into focus. +The public, you know, once disoriented can actually ascend to the angel deck above and then just come down under those lips into the water bar. +So, all the waters of the world are served there, so we thought that, you know, after being at the water and moving through the water and breathing the water, you could also drink this building. +And so it is sort of a theme, but it goes a little bit, you know, deeper than that. +We really wanted to bring out our absolute dependence on this master sense, and maybe share our kind of sensibility with our other senses. +You know, when we did this project it was a kind of tough sell, because the Swiss said, "Well, why are we going to spend, you know, 10 million dollars producing an effect that we already have in natural abundance that we hate?" +And, you know, we thought -- well, we tried to convince them. +And in the end, you know, they adapted this as a national icon that came to represent Swiss doubt, which we -- you know, it was kind of a meaning machine that everybody kind of laid on their own meanings off of. +Anyway, it's a temporary structure that was ultimately destroyed, and so it's now a memory of an apparition, actually, but it continues to live in edible form. +And this is the highest honor to be bestowed upon an architect in Switzerland -- to have a chocolate bar. +Anyway, moving along. +So in the '80s and '90s, we were mostly known for independent work, such as installation artist, architect, commissioned projects by museums and non-for-profit organizations. +And we did a lot of media work, also a lot of experimental theater projects. +In 2003, the Whitney mounted a retrospective of our work that featured a lot of this work from the '80s and '90s. +However, the work itself resisted the very nature of a retrospective, and this is just some of the stuff that was in the show. +This was a piece on tourism in the United States. +This is "Soft Sell" for 42nd Street. +This was something done at the Cartier Foundation. +"Master/Slave" at the MOMA, the project series, a piece called "Parasite." +And so there were many, many of these kinds of projects. +Anyway, they gave us the whole fourth floor, and, you know, the problem of the retrospective was something we were very uncomfortable with. +It's a kind of invention of the museum that's supposed to bring a kind of cohesive understanding to the public of a body of work. +And our work doesn't really resolve itself into a body in any way at all. +And one of the recurring themes, by the way, that in the work was a kind of hostility toward the museum itself, and asking about the conventions of the museum, like the wall, the white wall. +So, what you see here is basically a plan of many installations that were put there. +And we actually had to install white walls to separate these pieces, which didn't belong together. +But these white walls became a kind of target and weapon at the same time. +We used the wall to partition the 13 installations of the project and produce a kind of acoustic and visual separation. +And what you see is -- actually, the red dotted line shows the track of this performing element, which was a new piece that created -- that we created for the -- which was a robotic drill, basically, that went all the way around, cruised the museum, went all around the walls and did a lot of damage. +So, the drill was mounted on this robotic arm. +We worked with, by the way, Honeybee Robotics. This is the brain. +Honeybee Robotics designed the Mars Driller, and it was really very much fun to work with them. +They weren't doing their primary work, which was for the government, while they were helping us with this. +In any case, the way it works is that an intelligent navigator basically maps the entire surface of these walls. +So, unfolded it's about 300 linear feet. +And it randomly generates points within a three-dimensional matrix. +It selects a point, it guides the drill to that point, it pierces the dry wall, leaving a half-inch hole before traveling to the next location. +Initially these holes were lone blemishes, and as the exhibition continued the walls became increasingly perforated. +So eventually holes on both sides of the wall aligned, opening views from gallery to gallery. +Clusters of holes randomly opened up sections of wall. +And so this was a three-month performance piece in which the wall was made into kind of an increasingly unstable element. +And also the acoustic separation was destroyed. +Also the visual separation. +And there was also this constant background groan, which was very annoying. +And this is one of the blackout spaces where there's a video piece that became totally not useful. +So rather than securing a neutral background for the artworks on display, the wall now actively competed for attention. +And this acoustical nuisance and visual nuisance basically exposed the discomfort of the work to this encompassing nature of the retrospective. +It was really great when it started to break up all of the curatorial text. +Moving along to a project that we finished about a year ago. +It's the ICA -- the Institute of Contemporary Art -- in Boston, which is on the waterfront. +And there's not enough time to really introduce the building, but I'll simply say that the building negotiates between this outwardly focused nature of the site -- you know, it's a really great waterfront site in Boston -- and this contradictory other desire to have an inwardly focused museum. +So, the nature of the building is that it looks at looking -- I mean that's its primary objective, both its program and its architectural conceit. +The building incorporates the site, but it dispenses it in very small doses in the way that the museum is choreographed. +So, you come in and you're basically squeezed by the theater, by the belly of the theater, into this very compressed space where the view is turned off. +Then you come up in this glass elevator right near the curtain wall. +This elevator's about the size of a New York City studio apartment. +And then, this is a view going up, and then you could come into the theater, which can actually deny the view or open it up and become a backdrop. +And many musicians choose to use the theater glass walls totally open. +The view is denied in the galleries where we receive just natural light, and then exposed again in the north gallery with a panoramic view. +The original intention of this space, which was unfortunately never realized, was to use lenticular glass which allowed only a kind of perpendicular view out. +In this very narrow space that connects east and west galleries the intention was really to not get a climax, but to have the view stalk you, so the view would open up as you walked from one end to the other. +This was eliminated because the view was too good, and the mayor said, "No, we just want this open." +The architect lost here. +But culminating -- and that's where this hooks into the theme of my little talk -- is this Mediatheque, which is suspended from the cantilevered portion of the building. +So this is an 80-foot cantilever -- it's quite substantial. +So, it's already sticking out into space enough, and then from that is this, is this small area called the Mediatheque. +The Mediatheque has something like 16 stations where the public can get onto the server and look at digital artworks or also curated artworks off the web. +And here is where we really felt that there was a great convergence of the technological and the natural in the project. +But there is just no information, it's just -- it's just hypnosis. +Moving along to Lincoln Center. +These are the guys that did the project in the first place, 50 years ago. +We're taking over now, doing work that ranges in scale from small-scale repairs to major renovations and major facility expansions. +But we're doing it with a lot less testosterone. +This is the extent of the work that's to be completed by 2010. +And for the purposes of this talk, I wanted to isolate just a part of a project that's even a part of a project that touches a little bit on this theme of architectural special effects, and it happens to be our current obsession, and it plays a little bit with the purging and adding of distraction. +It's Alice Tully Hall, and it's tucked under the Juilliard Building and descends several levels under the street. +So, this is the entrance to Tully Hall as it used to be, before the renovation, which we just started. +And we asked ourselves, why couldn't it be exhibitionistic, like the Met, or like some of the other buildings at Lincoln Center? +And one of the things that we were asked to do was give it a street identity, expand the lobbies and make it visually accessible. +And this building, which is just naturally hermetic, we stripped. +We basically did a striptease, architectural striptease, where we're framing with this kind of canopy -- the underside of three levels of expansion of Juilliard, about 45,000 square feet -- cutting it to the angle of Broadway, and then exposing, using that canopy to frame Tully Hall. +Before and after shot. Wait a minute, it's just in that state, we have a long way to go. +But what I wanted to do was take a couple of seconds that I have left to just talk about the hall itself, which is kind of where we're really doing a massive amount of work. +So, the hall is a multi-purpose hall. +The clients have asked us to produce a great chamber music hall. +Now, that's really tough to do with a hall that has 1,100 seats. +Chamber and the notion of chamber has to do with salons and small-scale performances. They asked us to bring an intimacy. +How do you bring an intimacy into a hall? +Intimacy for us means a lot of different things. +It means acoustic intimacy and it means visual intimacy. +One thing is that the subway is running and rumbling right under the hall. +Another thing that could be fixed is the shape of the hall. +It's like a coffin, it basically sends all the sound, like a gutter-ball effect, down the aisles. +The walls are made of absorptive surface, half absorptive, half reflective, which is not very good for concert sound. +This is Avery Fisher Hall, but the notion of junk -- visual junk -- was very, very important to us, to get rid of visual noise. +Because we can't eliminate a single seat, the architecture is restricted to 18 inches. +So it's a very, very thin architecture. +First we do a kind of partial box and box separation, to take away the distraction of the subway noise. +Next we wrap the entire hall -- almost like this Olivetti keyboard -- with a material, with a wood material that basically covers all the surfaces: wall, ceiling, floor, stage, steps, everything, boxes. +But it's acoustically engineered to focus the sound into the house and back to the stage. And here's an acoustic shelf. +Looking up the hall. Just a section of the stage. +Just everything is lined, it incorporates -- every single thing that you could possibly imagine is tucked into this high-performance skin. +But one more added feature. +So now that we've stripped the hall of all visual distraction, everything that prevents this intimacy which is supposed to connect the house, the audience, with the performers, we add one little detail, one piece of architectural excess, a special effect: lighting. +We very strongly believe that the theatrics of a concert hall is as much in the space of intermission and the space of arrival as it is when the concert starts. +So what we wanted to do was produce this effect, this lighting effect, which made us have to bioengineer the wood walls. +And this is a mockup that is in Salt Lake City that gives you a sense of what this is going to look like in full-scale. +And this is a guy from Salt Lake City, this is what they look like out there. +And this is Tully in construction now. +I have no ending to say, except that I'm a couple of minutes over. +Thank you very much. +I was a student in the '60s, a time of social upheaval and questioning, and -- on a personal level -- an awakening sense of idealism. +The war in Vietnam was raging, the Civil Rights movement was under way and pictures had a powerful influence on me. +Our political and military leaders were telling us one thing and photographers were telling us another. +I believed the photographers and so did millions of other Americans. +Their images fuelled resistance to the war and to racism. +They not only recorded history -- they helped change the course of history. +Their pictures became part of our collective consciousness and, as consciousness evolved into a shared sense of conscience, change became not only possible, but inevitable. +It puts a human face on issues which, from afar, can appear abstract or ideological or monumental in their global impact. +What happens at ground level, far from the halls of power, happens to ordinary citizens one by one. +And I understood that documentary photography has the ability to interpret events from their point of view. +It gives a voice to those who otherwise would not have a voice. +My TED wish. Theres a vital story that needs to be told and I wish for TED to help me gain access to it and then to help me come up with innovative and exciting ways to use news photography in the digital era. +Thank you very much. +I grew up in Northern Ireland, right up in the very, very north end of it there, where it's absolutely freezing cold. +This was me running around in the back garden mid-summer. +I couldn't pick a career. +In Ireland the obvious choice is the military, but to be honest it actually kind of sucks. +My mother wanted me to be a dentist. +But the problem was that people kept blowing everything up. +So I actually went to school in Belfast, which was where all the action happened. +And this was a pretty common sight. +The school I went to was pretty boring. +They forced us to learn things like Latin. +The school teachers weren't having much fun, the sports were very dirty or very painful. +So I cleverly chose rowing, which I got very good at. +And I was actually rowing for my school here until this fateful day, and I flipped over right in front of the entire school. +And that was the finishing post right there. +So this was extremely embarrassing. +But our school at that time got a grant from the government, and they got an incredible computer -- the research machine 3DZ -- and they left the programming manuals lying around. +And so students like myself with nothing to do, we would learn how to program it. +Also around this time, at home, this was the computer that people were buying. +It was called the Sinclair ZX80. This was a 1K computer, and you'd buy your programs on cassette tape. +Actually I'm just going to pause for one second, because I heard that there's a prerequisite to speak here at TED -- you had to have a picture of yourself from the old days with big hair. +So I brought a picture with big hair. +I just want to get that out of the way. +So after the Sinclair ZX80 came along the very cleverly named Sinclair ZX81. +And -- you see the picture at the bottom? +There's a picture of a guy doing homework with his son. +That's what they thought they had built it for. +The reality is we got the programming manual and we started making games for it. +We were programming in BASIC, which is a pretty awful language for games, so we ended up learning Assembly language so we could really take control of the hardware. +This is the guy that invented it, Sir Clive Sinclair, and he's showing his machine. +You had this same thing in America, it was called the Timex Sinclair1000. +To play a game in those days you had to have an imagination to believe that you were really playing "Battlestar Galactica." +The graphics were just horrible. +You had to have an even better imagination to play this game, "Death Rider." +But of course the scientists couldn't help themselves. +They started making their own video games. +This is one of my favorite ones here, where they have rabbit breeding, so males choose the lucky rabbit. +It was around this time we went from 1K to 16K, which was quite the leap. +And if you're wondering how much 16K is, this eBay logo here is 16K. +And in that amount of memory someone programmed a full flight simulation program. +And that's what it looked like. +I spent ages flying this flight simulator, and I honestly believed I could fly airplanes by the end of it. +Here's Clive Sinclair now launching his color computer. +He's recognized as being the father of video games in Europe. +He's a multi-millionaire, and I think that's why he's smiling in this photograph. +So I went on for the next 20 years or so making a lot of different games. +Some of the highlights were things like "The Terminator," "Aladdin," the "Teenage Mutant Hero Turtles." +Because I was from the United Kingdom, they thought the word ninja was a little too mean for children, so they decided to call it hero instead. +I personally preferred the Spanish version, which was "Tortugas Ninja." +That was much better. +Then the last game I did was based on trying to get the video game industry and Hollywood to actually work together on something -- instead of licensing from each other, to actually work. +Now, Chris did ask me to bring some statistics with me, so I've done that. +The video game industry in 2005 became a 29 billion dollar business. +It grows every year. +Last year was the biggest year. +By 2008, we're going to kick the butt of the music industry. +By 2010, we're going to hit 42 billion. +43 percent of gamers are female. +So there's a lot more female gamers than people are really aware. +The average age of gamers? +Well, obviously it's for children, right? +Well, no, actually it's 30 years old. +And interestingly, the people who buy the most games are 37. +So 37 is our target audience. +All video games are violent. +Of course the newspapers love to beat on this. +But 83 percent of games don't have any mature content whatsoever, so it's just not true. +Online gaming statistics. +I brought some stuff on "World of Warcraft." It's 5.5 million players. +It makes about 80 million bucks a month in subscriptions. +It costs 50 bucks just to install it on your computer, making the publisher about another 275 million. +The game costs about 80 million dollars to make, so basically it pays for itself in about a month. +A player in a game called "Project Entropia" actually bought his own island for 26,500 dollars. +You have to remember that this is not a real island. +He didn't actually buy anything, just some data. +But he got great terms on it. +This purchase included mining and hunting rights, ownership of all land on the island, and a castle with no furniture included. +This market is now estimated at over 800 million dollars annually. +And what's interesting about it is the market was actually created by the gamers themselves. +They found clever ways to trade items and to sell their accounts to each other so that they could make money while they were playing their games. +I dove onto eBay a couple of days ago just to see what was gong on, typed in World of Warcraft, got 6,000 items. +I liked this one the best: a level 60 Warlock with lots of epics for 174,000 dollars. +It's like that guy obviously had some pain while making it. +So as far as popularity of games, what do you think these people are doing here? +It turns out they're actually in Hollywood Bowl in Los Angeles listening to the L.A. Philharmonic playing video game music. +That's what the show looks like. +You would expect it to be cheesy, but it's not. +It's very, very epic and a very beautiful concert. +And the people that went there absolutely loved it. +What do you think these people are doing? +They're actually bringing their computers so they can play games against each other. +And this is happening in every city around the world. +This is happening in your local cities too, you're probably just not aware of it. +Now, Chris told me that you had a timeline video a few years ago here just to show how video game graphics have been improving. +I wanted to update that video and give you a new look at it. +But what I want you to do is to try to understand it. +We're on this curve, and the graphics are getting so ridiculously better. +And I'm going to show you up to maybe 2007. +But I want you to try and think about what games could look like 10 years from now. +So we're going to start that video. +Video: Throughout human history people have played games. +As man's intellect and technology have evolved so too have the games he plays. +David Perry: The thing again I want you to think about is, don't look at these graphics and think of that's the way it is. +Think about that's where we are right now, and the curve that we're on means that this is going to continue to get better. +This is an example of the kind of graphics you need to be able to draw if you wanted to get a job in the video game industry today. +You need to be really an incredible artist. +And once we get enough of those guys, we're going to want more fantasy artists that can create places we've never been to before, or characters that we've just never seen before. +So the obvious thing for me to talk about today is graphics and audio. +But if you were to go to a game developers conference, what they're all talking about is emotion, purpose, meaning, understanding and feeling. +You'll hear about talks like, can a video game make you cry? +And these are the kind of topics we really actually care about. +I came across a student who's absolutely excellent at expressing himself, and this student agreed that he would not show his video to anybody until you here at TED had seen it. +So I'd like to play this video. +So this is a student's opinion on what his experience of games are. +Video: I, like many of you, live somewhere between reality and video games. +Some part of me -- a true living, breathing person -- has become programmed, electronic and virtual. +The boundary of my brain that divides real from fantasy has finally begun to crumble. +I'm a video game addict and this is my story. +In the year of my birth the Nintendo Entertainment System also went into development. +I played in the backyard, learned to read, and even ate some of my vegetables. +Most of my childhood was spent playing with Legos. +But as was the case for most of my generation, I spent a lot of time in front of the TV. +Mr. Rogers, Walt Disney, Nick Junior, and roughly half a million commercials have undoubtedly left their mark on me. +When my parents bought my sister and I our first Nintendo, whatever inherent addictive quality this early interactive electronic entertainment possessed quickly took hold of me. +At some point something clicked. +With the combination of simple, interactive stories and the warmth of the TV set, my simple 16-bit Nintendo became more than just an escape. +It became an alternate existence, my virtual reality. +I'm a video game addict, and it's not because of a certain number of hours I have spent playing, or nights I have gone without sleep to finish the next level. +It is because I have had life-altering experiences in virtual space, and video games had begun to erode my own understanding of what is real and what is not. +I'm addicted, because even though I know I'm losing my grip on reality, I still crave more. +From an early age I learned to invest myself emotionally in what unfolded before me on screen. +Today, after 20 years of watching TV geared to make me emotional, even a decent insurance commercial can bring tears to my eyes. +I am just one of a new generation that is growing up. +A generation who may experience much more meaning through video games than they will through the real world. +Video games are nearing an evolutionary leap, a point where game worlds will look and feel just as real as the films we see in theatres, or the news we watch on TV. +And while my sense of free will in these virtual worlds may still be limited, what I do learn applies to my real life. +Play enough video games and eventually you will really believe you can snowboard, fly a plane, drive a nine-second quarter mile, or kill a man. +I know I can. +Unlike any pop culture phenomenon before it, video games actually allow us to become part of the machine. +They allow us to sublimate into the culture of interactive, downloaded, streaming, HD reality. +We are interacting with our entertainment. +I have come to expect this level of interaction. +Without it, the problems faced in the real world -- poverty, war, disease and genocide -- lack the levity they should. +Their importance blends into the sensationalized drama of prime time TV. +But the beauty of video games today lies not in the lifelike graphics, the vibrating joysticks or virtual surround sound. +It lies in that these games are beginning to make me emotional. +I have fought in wars, feared for my own survival, watched my cohorts die on beaches and woods that look and feel more real than any textbook or any news story. +The people who create these games are smart. +They know what makes me scared, excited, panicked, proud or sad. +Then they use these emotions to dimensionalize the worlds they create. +A well-designed video game will seamlessly weave the user into the fabric of the virtual experience. +As one becomes more experienced the awareness of physical control melts away. +I know what I want and I do it. +No buttons to push, no triggers to pull, just me and the game. +My fate and the fate of the world around me lie inside my hands. +I know violent video games make my mother worry. +What troubles me is not that video game violence is becoming more and more like real life violence, but that real life violence is starting to look more and more like a video game. +These are all troubles outside of myself. +I, however, have a problem very close to home. +Something has happened to my brain. +Perhaps there is a single part of our brain that holds all of our gut instincts, the things we know to do before we even think. +While some of these instincts may be innate, most are learned, and all of them are hardwired into our brains. +These instincts are essential for survival in both real and virtual worlds. +Only in recent years has the technology behind video games allowed for a true overlap in stimuli. +As gamers we are now living by the same laws of physics in the same cities and doing many of the same things we once did in real life, only virtually. +Consider this -- my real life car has about 25,000 miles on it. +In all my driving games, I've driven a total of 31,459 miles. +To some degree I've learned how to drive from the game. +The sensory cues are very similar. +It's a funny feeling when you have spent more time doing something on the TV than you have in real life. +When I am driving down a road at sunset all I can think is, this is almost as beautiful as my games are. +For my virtual worlds are perfect. +More beautiful and rich than the real world around us. +I'm not sure what the implications of my experience are, but the potential for using realistic video game stimuli in repetition on a vast number of loyal participants is frightening to me. +Today I believe Big Brother would find much more success brainwashing the masses with video games rather than just simply TVs. +Video games are fun, engaging, and leave your brain completely vulnerable to re-programming. +But maybe brainwashing isn't always bad. +Imagine a game that teaches us to respect each other, or helps us to understand the problems we're all facing in the real world. +There is a potential to do good as well. +It is critical, as these virtual worlds continue to mirror the real world we live in, that game developers realize that they have tremendous responsibilities before them. +I'm not sure what the future of video games holds for our civilization. +But as virtual and real world experiences increasingly overlap there is a greater and greater potential for other people to feel the same way I do. +What I have only recently come to realize is that beyond the graphics, sound, game play and emotion it is the power to break down reality that is so fascinating and addictive to me. +I know that I am losing my grip. +Part of me is just waiting to let go. +I know though, that no matter how amazing video games may become, or how flat the real world may seem to us, that we must stay aware of what our games are teaching us and how they leave us feeling when we finally do unplug. +DP: Wow. +I found that video very, very thought provoking, and that's why I wanted to bring it here for you guys to see. +And what was interesting about it is the obvious choice for me to talk about was graphics and audio. +But as you heard, Michael talked about all these other elements as well. +Video games give an awful lot of other things too, and that's why people get so addicted. +The most important one being fun. +The name of this track is "The Magic To Come." +Who is that going to come from? +Is it going to come from the best directors in the world as we thought it probably would? +I don't think so. +I think it's going to come from the children who are growing up now that aren't stuck with all of the stuff that we remember from the past. +They're going to do it their way, using the tools that we've created. +The same with students or highly creative people, writers and people like that. +As far as colleges go, there's about 350 colleges around the world teaching video game courses. +That means there's literally thousands of new ideas. +Some of the ideas are really dreadful and some of them are great. +There's nothing worse than having to listen to someone try and pitch you a really bad video game idea. +Chris Anderson: You're off, you're off. That's it. +He's out of time. +DP: I've just got a little tiny bit more if you'll indulge me. +CA: Go ahead. I'm going to stay right here though. +DP: This is just a cool shot, because this is students coming to school after class. +The school is closed; they're coming back at midnight because they want to pitch their video game ideas. +I'm sitting at the front of the class, and they're actually pitching their ideas. +So it's hard to get students to come back to class, but it is possible. +This is my daughter, her name's Emma, she's 17 months old. +And I've been asking myself, what is Emma going to experience in the video game world? +And as I've shown here, we have the audience. +She's never going to know a world where you can't press a button and have millions of people ready to play. +You know, we have the technology. +She's never going to know a world where the graphics just aren't stunning and really immersive. +And as the student video showed, we can impact and move. +She's never going to know a world where video games aren't incredibly emotional and will probably make her cry. +I just hope she likes video games. +So, my closing thought. +Games on the surface seem simple entertainment, but for those that like to look a little deeper, the new paradigm of video games could open entirely new frontiers to creative minds that like to think big. +Where better to challenge those minds than here at TED? +Thank you. +Chris Anderson: David Perry. That was awesome. +I want to take you back basically to my hometown, and to a picture of my hometown of the week that "Emergence" came out. +And it's a picture we've seen several times. +Basically, "Emergence" was published on 9/11. +I live right there in the West Village, so the plume was luckily blowing west, away from us. +We had a two-and-a-half-day-old baby in the house that was ours -- we hadn't taken it from somebody else. +Because so much of that book was a celebration of the power and creative potential of density, of largely urban density, of connecting people and putting them together in one place, and putting them on sidewalks together and having them share ideas and share physical space together. +And it seemed to me looking at that -- that tower burning and then falling, those towers burning and falling -- that in fact, one of the lessons here was that density kills. +And that of all the technologies that were exploited to make that carnage come into being, probably the single group of technologies that cost the most lives were those that enable 50,000 people to live in two buildings 110 stories above the ground. +If they hadn't been crowded -- you compare the loss of life at the Pentagon to the Twin Towers, and you can see that very powerfully. +And so I started to think, well, you know, density, density -- I'm not sure if, you know, this was the right call. +And I kind of ruminated on that for a couple of days. +And then about two days later, the wind started to change a little bit, and you could sense that the air was not healthy. +And so even though there were no cars still in the West Village where we lived, my wife sent me out to buy a, you know, a large air filter at the Bed Bath and Beyond, which was located about 20 blocks away, north. +And so I went out. +And obviously I'm physically a very strong person, as you can tell -- -- so I wasn't worried about carrying this thing 20 blocks. +And I walked out, and this really miraculous thing happened to me as I was walking north to buy this air filter, which was that the streets were completely alive with people. +There was an incredible -- it was, you know, a beautiful day, as it was for about a week after, and the West Village had never seemed more lively. +I walked up along Hudson Street -- where Jane Jacobs had lived and written her great book that so influenced what I was writing in "Emergence" -- past the White Horse Tavern, that great old bar where Dylan Thomas drank himself to death, and the Bleecker Street playground was filled with kids. +And all the people who lived in the neighborhood, who owned restaurants and bars in the neighborhood, were all out there -- had them all open. +People were out. +There were no cars, so it seemed even better, in some ways. +And it was a beautiful urban day, and the incredible thing about it was that the city was working. +The city was there. +All the things that make a great city successful and all the things that make a great city stimulating -- they were all on display there on those streets. +And I thought, well, this is the power of a city. +I mean, the power of the city -- we talked about cities as being centralized in space, but what makes them so strong most of the time is they're decentralized in function. +They don't have a center executive branch that you can take out and cause the whole thing to fail. +If they did, it probably was right there at Ground Zero. +I mean, you know, the emergency bunker was right there, was destroyed by the attacks, and obviously the damage done to the building and the lives. +But nonetheless, just 20 blocks north, two days later, the city had never looked more alive. +If you'd gone into the minds of the people, well, you would have seen a lot of trauma, and you would have seen a lot of heartache, and you would have seen a lot of things that would take a long time to recover. +But the system itself of this city was thriving. +So I took heart in seeing that. +So I wanted to talk a little bit about the reasons why that works so well, and how some of those reasons kind of map on to where the Web is going right now. +The question that I found myself asking to people when I was talking about the book afterwards is -- when you've talked about emergent behavior, when you've talked about collective intelligence, the best way to get people to kind of wrap their heads around that is to ask, who builds a neighborhood? +Who decides that Soho should have this personality and that the Latin Quarter should have this personality? +Well, there are some kind of executive decisions, but mostly the answer is -- everybody and nobody. +Everybody contributes a little bit. +No single person is really the ultimate actor behind the personality of a neighborhood. +Same thing to the question of, who was keeping the streets alive post-9/11 in my neighborhood? +Well, it was the whole city. +The whole system kind of working on it, and everybody contributing a small little part. +And this is increasingly what we're starting to see on the Web in a bunch of interesting ways -- most of which weren't around, actually, except in very experimental things, when I was writing "Emergence" and when the book came out. +So it's been a very optimistic time, I think, and I want to just talk about a few of those things. +I think that there is effectively a new kind of model of interactivity that's starting to emerge online right now. +And the old one looked like this. +This is not the future King of England, although it looks like it. +It's some guy, it's a GeoCities homepage of some guy that I found online who's interested, if you look at the bottom, in soccer and Jesus and Garth Brooks and Clint Beckham and "my hometown" -- those are his links. +But nothing really says this model of interactivity -- which was so exciting and captures the real, the Web Zeitgeist of 1995 -- than "Click here for a picture of my dog." +That is -- you know, there's no sentence that kind of conjures up that period better than that, I think, which is that you suddenly have the power to put up a picture of your dog and link to it, and somebody reading the page has the power to click on that link or not click on that link. +But it's still a very one-to-one kind of relationship. +There's one person putting up the link, and there's another person on the other end trying to decide whether to click on it or not. +The new model is much more like this, and we've already seen a couple of references to this. +This is what happens when you search "Steven Johnson" on Google. +About two months ago, I had the great breakthrough -- one of my great, kind of shining achievements -- which is that my website finally became a top result for "Steven Johnson." +There's some theoretical physicist at MIT named Steven Johnson who has dropped two spots, I'm happy to say. +And, you know, I mean, I'll look at a couple of things like this, but Google is obviously the greatest technology ever invented for navel gazing. +It's just that there are so many other people in your navel when you gaze. +So there's this collective decision-making that's going on. +This page is effectively, collectively authored by the Web, and Google is just helping us kind of to put the authorship in one kind of coherent place. +Now, they're more innovative -- well, Google's pretty innovative -- but there are some new twists on this. +There's this incredibly interesting new site -- Technorati -- that's filled with lots of little widgets that are expanding on these. +And these are looking in the blog world and the world of weblogs. +He's analyzed basically all the weblogs out there that he's tracking. +And he's tracking how many other weblogs linked to those weblogs, and so you have kind of an authority -- a weblog that has a lot of links to it is more authoritative than a weblog that has few links to it. +And so at any given time, on any given page on the Web, actually, you can say, what does the weblog community think about this page? +And you can get a list. +This is what they think about my site; it's ranked by blog authority. +You can also rank it by the latest posts. +So when I was talking in "Emergence," I talked about the limitations of the one-way linking architecture that, basically, you could link to somebody else but they wouldn't necessarily know that you were pointing to them. +And that was one of the reasons why the web wasn't quite as emergent as it could be because you needed two-way linking, you needed that kind of feedback mechanism to be able to really do interesting things. +Well, something like Technorati is supplying that. +Now what's interesting here is that this is a quote from Dave Weinberger, where he talks about everything being purposive in the Web -- there's nothing artificial. +He has this line where he says, you know, you're going to put up a link there, if you see a link, somebody decided to put it there. +And he says, the link to one site didn't just grow on the other page "like a tree fungus." +And in fact, I think that's not entirely true anymore. +I could put up a feed of all those links generated by Technorati on the right-hand side of my page, and they would change as the overall ecology of the Web changes. +That little list there would change. +I wouldn't really be directly in control of it. +So it's much closer, in a way, to a data fungus, in a sense, wrapped around that page, than it is to a deliberate link that I've placed there. +Now, what you're having here is basically a global brain that you're able to do lots of kind of experiments on to see what it's thinking. +And there are all these interesting tools. +Google does the Google Zeitgeist, which looks at search requests to test what's going on, what people are interested in, and they publish it with lots of fun graphs. +And I'm saying a lot of nice things about Google, so I'll be I'll be saying one little critical thing. +There's a problem with the Google Zeitgeist, which is it often comes back with news that a lot of people are searching for Britney Spears pictures, which is not necessarily news. +The Columbia blows up, suddenly there are a lot of searches on Columbia. +Well, you know, we should expect to see that. +That's not necessarily something we didn't know already. +So the key thing in terms of these new tools that are kind of plumbing the depths of the global brain, that are sending kind of trace dyes through that whole bloodstream -- the question is, are you finding out something new? +And one of the things that I experimented with is this thing called Google Share which is basically, you take an abstract term, and you search Google for that term, and then you search the results that you get back for somebody's name. +So basically, the number of pages that mention this term, that also mention this page, the percentage of those pages is that person's Google Share of that term. +So you can do kind of interesting contests. +Like for instance, this is a Google Share of the TED Conference. +So Richard Saul Wurman has about a 15 percent Google Share of the TED conference. +Our good friend Chris has about a six percent -- but with a bullet, I might add. +But the interesting thing is, you can broaden the search a little bit. +And it turns out, actually, that 42 percent is the Mola mola fish. +I had no idea. +No, that's not true. +I made that up because I just wanted to put up a slide of the Mola mola fish. +I also did -- and I don't want to start a little fight in the next panel -- but I did a Google Share analysis of evolution and natural selection. +So right here -- now this is a big category, you have smaller percentages, so this is 0.7 percent -- Dan Dennett, who'll be speaking shortly. +Right below him, 0.5 percent, Steven Pinker. +So Dennett's in the lead a little bit there. +But what's interesting is you can then broaden the search and actually see interesting things and get a sense of what else is out there. +So Gary Bauer is not too far behind -- has slightly different theories about evolution and natural selection. +And right behind him is L. Ron Hubbard. So -- you can see we're in the ascot, which is always good. +And by the way, Chris, that would've been a really good panel, I think, right there. +Hubbard apparently started to reach, but besides that, I think it would be good next year. +Another quick thing -- this is a slightly different thing, but this analysis some of you may have seen. +It just came out. This is bursty words, looking at the historical record of State of the Union Addresses. +So these are words that suddenly start to appear out of nowhere, so they're kind of, you know, memes that start taking off, that didn't have a lot of historical precedent before. +So the first one is -- these are the bursty words around 1860s -- slaves, emancipation, slavery, rebellion, Kansas. +That's Britney Spears. I mean, you know, OK, interesting. +They're talking about slavery in 1860. +1935 -- relief, depression, recovery banks. +And OK, I didn't learn anything new there as well -- that's pretty obvious. +1985, right at the center of the Reagan years -- that's, we're, there's, we've, it's. +Now, there's one way to interpret this, which is to say that "emancipation" and "depression" and "recovery" all have a lot of syllables. +So you know, you can actually download -- it's hard to remember those. +But seriously, actually, what you can see there, in a way that would be very hard to detect otherwise, is Reagan reinventing the political language of the country and shifting to a much more intimate, much more folksy, much more telegenic -- contracting all those verbs. +You know, 20 years before it was still, "Ask not what you can do," but with Reagan, it's, "that's where, there's Nancy and I," that kind of language. +And so something we kind of knew, but you didn't actually notice syntactically what he was doing. +I'll go very quickly. +The question now -- and this is the really interesting question -- is, what kind of higher-level shape is emerging right now in the overall Web ecosystem -- and particularly in the ecosystem of the blogs because they are really kind of at the cutting edge. +And I think what happens there will also happen in the wider system. +Now there was a very interesting article by Clay Shirky that got a lot of attention about a month ago, and this is basically the distribution of links on the web to all these various different blogs. +It follows a power law, so that there are a few extremely well-linked to, popular blogs, and a long tail of blogs with very few links. +So 20 percent of the blogs get 80 percent of the links. +Now this is a very interesting thing. +It's caused a lot of controversy because people thought that this was the ultimate kind of one man, one modem democracy, where anybody can get out there and get their voice heard. +And so the question is, "Why is this happening?" +It's not being imposed by fiat from above. +It's an emergent property of the blogosphere right now. +Now, what's great about it is that people are working on -- within seconds of Clay publishing this piece, people started working on changing the underlying rules of the system so that a different shape would start appearing. +And basically, the shape appears largely because of a kind of a first-mover advantage. +if you're the first site there, everybody links to you. +If you're the second site there, most people link to you. +And so very quickly you can accumulate a bunch of links, and it makes it more likely for newcomers to link to you in the future, and then you get this kind of shape. +And so what Dave Sifry at Technorati started working on, literally as Shirky started -- after he published his piece -- was something that basically just gave a new kind of priority to newcomers. +And he started looking at interesting newcomers that don't have a lot of links, that suddenly get a bunch of links in the last 24 hours. +So in a sense, bursty weblogs coming from new voices. +So he's working on a tool right there that can actually change the overall system. +And it creates a kind of planned emergence. +You're not totally in control, but you're changing the underlying rules in interesting ways because you have an end result which is maybe a more democratic spread of voices. +So the most amazing thing about this -- and I'll end on this note -- is, most emergent systems, most self-organizing systems are not made up of component parts that are capable of looking at the overall pattern and changing their behavior based on whether they like the pattern or not. +So the most wonderful thing, I think, about this whole debate about power laws and software that could change it is the fact that we're having the conversation. +I hope it continues here. +Thanks a lot. +So, indeed, I have spent my life looking into the lives of presidents who are no longer alive. +Waking up with Abraham Lincoln in the morning, thinking of Franklin Roosevelt when I went to bed at night. +But when I try and think about what I've learned about the meaning in life, my mind keeps wandering back to a seminar that I took when I was a graduate student at Harvard with the great psychologist Erik Erikson. +He taught us that the richest and fullest lives attempt to achieve an inner balance between three realms: work, love and play. +And that to pursue one realm to the disregard of the other, is to open oneself to ultimate sadness in older age. +Whereas to pursue all three with equal dedication, is to make possible a life filled not only with achievement, but with serenity. +So since I tell stories, let me look back on the lives of two of the presidents I've studied to illustrate this point -- Abraham Lincoln and Lyndon Johnson. +As for that first sphere of work, I think what Abraham Lincoln's life suggests is that fierce ambition is a good thing. +He had a huge ambition. +But it wasn't simply for office or power or celebrity or fame -- what it was for was to accomplish something worthy enough in life so that he could make the world a little better place for his having lived in it. +Even as a child, it seemed, Lincoln dreamed heroic dreams. +He somehow had to escape that hard-scrabble farm from which he was born. +No schooling was possible for him, except a few weeks here, a few weeks there. +But he read books in every spare moment he could find. +It was said when he got a copy of the King James Bible or "Aesop's Fables," he was so excited he couldn't sleep. +He couldn't eat. +The great poet Emily Dickinson once said, "There is no frigate like a book to take us lands away." +How true for Lincoln. +Though he never would travel to Europe, he went with Shakespeare's kings to merry England, he went with Lord Byron's poetry to Spain and Portugal. +Literature allowed him to transcend his surroundings. +But there were so many losses in his early life that he was haunted by death. +His mother died when he was only nine years old; his only sister, Sarah, in childbirth a few years later; and his first love, Ann Rutledge, at the age of 22. +Moreover, when his mother lay dying, she did not hold out for him the hope that they would meet in an afterworld. +She simply said to him, "Abraham, I'm going away from you now, and I shall never return." +As a result he became obsessed with the thought that when we die our life is swept away -- dust to dust. +But only as he grew older did he develop a certain consolation from an ancient Greek notion -- but followed by other cultures as well -- that if you could accomplish something worthy in your life, you could live on in the memory of others. +Your honor and your reputation would outlive your earthly existence. +And that worthy ambition became his lodestar. +It carried him through the one significant depression that he suffered when he was in his early 30s. +Three things had combined to lay him low. +He had broken his engagement with Mary Todd, not certain he was ready to marry her, but knowing how devastating it was to her that he did that. +His one intimate friend, Joshua Speed, was leaving Illinois to go back to Kentucky because Speed's father had died. +And his political career in the state legislature was on a downward slide. +He was so depressed that friends worried he was suicidal. +They took all knives and razors and scissors from his room. +And his great friend Speed went to his side and said, "Lincoln, you must rally or you will die." +He said that, "I would just as soon die right now, but I've not yet done anything to make any human being remember that I have lived." +So fueled by that ambition, he returned to the state legislature. +He eventually won a seat in Congress. +He then ran twice for the Senate, lost twice. +"Everyone is broken by life," Ernest Hemingway once said, "but some people are stronger in the broken places." +So then he surprised the nation with an upset victory for the presidency over three far more experienced, far more educated, far more celebrated rivals. +And then when he won the general election, he stunned the nation even more by appointing each of these three rivals into his Cabinet. +It was an unprecedented act at the time because everybody thought, "He'll look like a figurehead compared to these people." +They said, "Why are you doing this, Lincoln?" +He said, "Look, these are the strongest and most able men in the country. +The country is in peril. I need them by my side." +But perhaps my old friend Lyndon Johnson might have put it in less noble fashion: "Better to have your enemies inside the tent pissing out, than outside the tent pissing in." +But it soon became clear that Abraham Lincoln would emerge as the undisputed captain of this unruly team. +For each of them soon came to understand that he possessed an unparalleled array of emotional strengths and political skills that proved far more important than the thinness of his external rsum. +For one thing, he possessed an uncanny ability to empathize with and to think about other peoples' point of view. +He repaired injured feelings that might have escalated into permanent hostility. +He shared credit with ease, assumed responsibility for the failure of his subordinates, constantly acknowledged his errors and learned from his mistakes. +These are the qualities we should be looking for in our candidates in 2008. +He refused to be provoked by petty grievances. +He never submitted to jealousy or brooded over perceived slights. +And he expressed his unshakeable convictions in everyday language, in metaphors, in stories. +And with a beauty of language -- almost as if the Shakespeare and the poetry he had so loved as a child had worked their way into his very soul. +In 1863, when the Emancipation Proclamation was signed, he brought his old friend, Joshua Speed, back to the White House, and remembered that conversation of decades before, when he was so sad. +And he, pointing to the Proclamation, said, "I believe, in this measure, my fondest hopes will be realized." +But as he was about to put his signature on the Proclamation his own hand was numb and shaking because he had shaken a thousand hands that morning at a New Year's reception. +So he put the pen down. +He said, "If ever my soul were in an act, it is in this act. +But if I sign with a shaking hand, posterity will say, 'He hesitated.'" So he waited until he could take up the pen and sign with a bold and clear hand. +But even in his wildest dreams, Lincoln could never have imagined how far his reputation would reach. +I was so thrilled to find an interview with the great Russian writer, Leo Tolstoy, in a New York newspaper in the early 1900s. +And in it, Tolstoy told of a trip that he'd recently made to a very remote area of the Caucasus, where there were only wild barbarians, who had never left this part of Russia. +Knowing that Tolstoy was in their midst, they asked him to tell stories of the great men of history. +So he said, "I told them about Napoleon and Alexander the Great and Frederick the Great and Julius Caesar, and they loved it. +But before I finished, the chief of the barbarians stood up and said, 'But wait, you haven't told us about the greatest ruler of them all. +We want to hear about that man who spoke with a voice of thunder, who laughed like the sunrise, who came from that place called America, which is so far from here, that if a young man should travel there, he would be an old man when he arrived. +Tell us of that man. Tell us of Abraham Lincoln.'" He was stunned. +He told them everything he could about Lincoln. +And then in the interview he said, "What made Lincoln so great? +Not as great a general as Napoleon, not as great a statesman as Frederick the Great." +But his greatness consisted, and historians would roundly agree, in the integrity of his character and the moral fiber of his being. +So in the end that powerful ambition that had carried Lincoln through his bleak childhood had been realized. +That ambition that had allowed him to laboriously educate himself by himself, to go through that string of political failures and the darkest days of the war. +His story would be told. +So as for that second sphere, not of work, but of love -- encompassing family, friends and colleagues -- it, too, takes work and commitment. +My relationship with him began on a rather curious level. +I was selected as a White House Fellow when I was 24 years old. +We had a big dance at the White House. +President Johnson did dance with me that night. +Not that peculiar -- there were only three women out of the 16 White House Fellows. +But he did whisper in my ear that he wanted me to work directly for him in the White House. +But it was not to be that simple. +For in the months leading up to my selection, like many young people, I'd been active in the anti-Vietnam War movement, and had written an article against Lyndon Johnson, which unfortunately came out in The New Republic two days after the dance in the White House. +And the theme of the article was how to remove Lyndon Johnson from power. +So I was certain he would kick me out of the program. +But instead, surprisingly, he said, "Oh, bring her down here for a year, and if I can't win her over, no one can." +So I did end up working for him in the White House. +Eventually accompanied him to his ranch to help him on those memoirs, never fully understanding why he'd chosen me to spend so many hours with. +I like to believe it was because I was a good listener. +He was a great storyteller. +Fabulous, colorful, anecdotal stories. +There was a problem with these stories, however, which I later discovered, which is that half of them weren't true. +But they were great, nonetheless. +So I think that part of his attraction for me was that I loved listening to his tall tales. +But I also worried that part of it was that I was then a young woman. +And he had somewhat of a minor league womanizing reputation. +So I constantly chatted to him about boyfriends, even when I didn't have any at all. +Everything was working perfectly, until one day he said he wanted to discuss our relationship. +Sounded very ominous when he took me nearby to the lake, conveniently called Lake Lyndon Baines Johnson. +And there was wine and cheese and a red-checked tablecloth -- all the romantic trappings. +And he started out, "Doris, more than any other woman I have ever known ... " And my heart sank. +And then he said, "You remind me of my mother." +It was pretty embarrassing, given what was going on in my mind. +But I must say, the older I've gotten, the more I realize what an incredible privilege it was to have spent so many hours with this aging lion of a man. +A victor in a thousand contests, three great civil rights laws, Medicare, aid to education. +And yet, roundly defeated in the end by the war in Vietnam. +And because he was so sad and so vulnerable, he opened up to me in ways he never would have had I known him at the height of his power -- sharing his fears, his sorrows and his worries. +And I'd like to believe that the privilege fired within me the drive to understand the inner person behind the public figure, that I've tried to bring to each of my books since then. +But it also brought home to me the lessons which Erik Erikson had tried to instill in all of us about the importance of finding balance in life. +He had servants to answer any whim, and he had a family who loved him deeply. +And yet, years of concentration solely on work and individual success meant that in his retirement he could find no solace in family, in recreation, in sports or in hobbies. +It was almost as if the hole in his heart was so large that even the love of a family, without work, could not fill it. +As his spirits sagged, his body deteriorated until, I believe, he slowly brought about his own death. +In those last years, he said he was so sad watching the American people look toward a new president and forgetting him. +He spoke with immense sadness in his voice, saying maybe he should have spent more time with his children, and their children in turn. +But it was too late. +Despite all that power, all that wealth, he was alone when he finally died -- his ultimate terror realized. +So deep, for instance, was Abraham Lincoln's love of Shakespeare, that he made time to spend more than a hundred nights in the theater, even during those dark days of the war. +He said, when the lights went down and a Shakespeare play came on, for a few precious hours he could imagine himself back in Prince Hal's time. +But an even more important form of relaxation for him, that Lyndon Johnson never could enjoy, was a love of -- somehow -- humor, and feeling out what hilarious parts of life can produce as a sidelight to the sadness. +He once said that he laughed so he did not cry, that a good story, for him, was better than a drop of whiskey. +His storytelling powers had first been recognized when he was on the circuit in Illinois. +The lawyers and the judges would travel from one county courthouse to the other, and when anyone was knowing Lincoln was in town, they would come from miles around to listen to him tell stories. +He would stand with his back against a fire and entertain the crowd for hours with his winding tales. +And all these stories became part of his memory bank, so he could call on them whenever he needed to. +And they're not quite what you might expect from our marble monument. +One of his favorite stories, for example, had to do with the Revolutionary War hero, Ethan Allen. +And as Lincoln told the story, Mr. Allen went to Britain after the war. +And the British people were still upset about losing the Revolution, so they decided to embarrass him a little bit by putting a huge picture of General Washington in the only outhouse, where he'd have to encounter it. +They figured he'd be upset about the indignity of George Washington being in an outhouse. +But he came out of the outhouse not upset at all. +And so they said, "Well, did you see George Washington in there?" +"Oh, yes," he said, "perfectly appropriate place for him." +"What do you mean?" they said. +"Well," he said, "there's nothing to make an Englishman shit faster than the sight of General George Washington." +So you can imagine, if you are in the middle of a tense cabinet meeting -- and he had hundreds of these stories -- you would have to relax. +So between his nightly treks to the theater, his story telling, and his extraordinary sense of humor and his love of quoting Shakespeare and poetry, he found that form of play which carried him through his days. +In my own life, I shall always be grateful for having found a form of play in my irrational love of baseball. +Which allows me, from the beginning of spring training to the end of the fall, to have something to occupy my mind and heart other than my work. +It all began when I was only six years old, and my father taught me that mysterious art of keeping score while listening to baseball games -- so that when he went to work in New York during the day, I could record for him the history of that afternoon's Brooklyn Dodgers game. +Now, when you're only six years old, and your father comes home every single night and listens to you -- as I now realize that I, in excruciating detail, recounted every single play of every inning of the game that had just taken place that afternoon. +But he made me feel I was telling him a fabulous story. +It makes you think there's something magic about history to keep your father's attention. +In fact, I'm convinced I learned the narrative art from those nightly sessions with my father. +Because at first, I'd be so excited I would blurt out, "The Dodgers won!" or, "The Dodgers lost!" +Which took much of the drama of this two-hour telling away. +So I finally learned you had to tell a story from beginning to middle to end. +I must say, so fervent was my love of the old Brooklyn Dodgers in those days that I had to confess in my first confession two sins that related to baseball. +The first occurred because the Dodgers' catcher, Roy Campanella, came to my hometown of Rockville Centre, Long Island, just as I was in preparation for my first Holy Communion. +And I was so excited -- first person I'd ever see outside of Ebbets Field. +But it so happened he was speaking in a Protestant Church. +When you are brought up as a Catholic, you think that if you ever set foot in a Protestant Church, you'll be struck dead at the threshold. +So I went to my father in tears, "What are we going to do?" +He said, "Don't worry. He's speaking in a parish hall. +We're sitting in folding chairs. He's talking about sportsmanship. +It's not a sin." +But as I left that night, I was certain that somehow I'd traded the life of my everlasting soul for this one night with Roy Campanella. +And there were no indulgences around that I could buy. +So I had this sin on my soul when I went to my first confession. +I told the priest right away. +He said, "No problem. It wasn't a religious service." +But then, unfortunately, he said, "And what else, my child?" +And then came my second sin. +I tried to sandwich it in between talking too much in church, wishing harm to others, being mean to my sisters. +And he said, "To whom did you wish harm?" +And I had to say that I wished that various New York Yankees players would break arms, legs and ankles -- -- so that the Brooklyn Dodgers could win their first World Series. +He said, "How often do you make these horrible wishes?" +And I had to say, every night when I said my prayers. +So he said, "Look, I'll tell you something. +I love the Brooklyn Dodgers, as you do, but I promise you some day they will win fairly and squarely. +You do not need to wish harm on others to make it happen." +"Oh yes," I said. +But luckily, my first confession -- to a baseball-loving priest! +Well, though my father died of a sudden heart attack when I was still in my 20s, before I had gotten married and had my three sons, I have passed his memory -- as well as his love of baseball -- on to my boys. +Though when the Dodgers abandoned us to come to L.A., I lost faith in baseball until I moved to Boston and became an irrational Red Socks fan. +I must say there is magic in these moments. +Which is why, in the end, I shall always be grateful for this curious love of history, allowing me to spend a lifetime looking back into the past. +Allowing me to learn from these large figures about the struggle for meaning for life. +Allowing me to believe that the private people we have loved and lost in our families, and the public figures we have respected in our history, just as Abraham Lincoln wanted to believe, really can live on, so long as we pledge to tell and to retell the stories of their lives. +Thank you for letting me be that storyteller today. +Thank you. +Let's just get started here. +Okay, just a moment. +All right. +Oh, sorry. +Thank you. +But there were also plenty of places in the world where societies have been developing for thousands of years without any sign of a major collapse, such as Japan, Java, Tonga and Tikopea. So evidently, societies in some areas are more fragile than in other areas. +What about ourselves? +What is there that we can learn from the past that would help us avoid declining or collapsing in the way that so many past societies have? +Obviously the answer to this question is not going to be a single factor. If anyone tells you that there is a single-factor explanation for societal collapses, you know right away that they're an idiot. This is a complex subject. +But how can we make sense out of the complexities of this subject? +In analyzing societal collapses, I've arrived at a five-point framework -- a checklist of things that I go through to try and understand collapses. And I'll illustrate that five-point framework by the extinction of the Greenland Norse society. +This is a European society with literate records, so we know a good deal about the people and their motivation. +In AD 984 Vikings went out to Greenland, settled Greenland, and around 1450 they died out -- the society collapsed, and every one of them ended up dead. +So they ended up an Iron Age European society, virtually unable to make their own iron. A second item on my checklist is climate change. Climate can get warmer or colder or dryer or wetter. +The fourth item on my checklist is relations with hostile societies. +What about a society today? +For the past five years, I've been taking my wife and kids to Southwestern Montana, where I worked as a teenager on the hay harvest. And Montana, at first sight, seems like the most pristine environment in the United States. +But scratch the surface, and Montana suffers from serious problems. +Going through the same checklist: human environmental impacts? +Yes, acute in Montana. Toxic problems from mine waste have caused damage of billions of dollars. +Long-held devotion to logging and to mines and to agriculture, and to no government regulation; values that worked well in the past, but they don't seem to be working well today. +So, I'm looking at these issues of collapses for a lot of past societies and for many present societies. +Are there any general conclusions that arise? +Or again, the collapse of the Soviet Union took place within a couple of decades, maybe within a decade, of the time when the Soviet Union was at its greatest power. +An analogue would be the growth of bacteria in a petri dish. +These rapid collapses are especially likely where there's a mismatch between available resources and resource consumption, or a mismatch between economic outlays and economic potential. +So, this is a frequent theme: societies collapse very soon after reaching their peak in power. +Easter, of all Pacific islands, has the least input of dust from Asia restoring the fertility of its soils. But that's a factor that we didn't even appreciate until 1999. +So, some societies, for subtle environmental reasons, are more fragile than others. And then finally, another generalization. I'm now teaching a course at UCLA, to UCLA undergraduates, on these collapses of societies. What really bugs my UCLA undergraduate students is, how on earth did these societies not see what they were doing? +How could the Easter Islanders have deforested their environment? +What did they say when they were cutting down the last palm tree? +Didn't they see what they were doing? How could societies not perceive their impacts on the environments and stop in time? +And I would expect that, if our human civilization carries on, then maybe in the next century people will be asking, why on earth did these people today in the year 2003 not see the obvious things that they were doing and take corrective action? +I'll just mention two generalizations in this area. +So, that's one general conclusion about why societies make bad decisions: conflicts of interest. +One of the things that enabled Australia to survive in this remote outpost of European civilization for 250 years has been their British identity. +But today, their commitment to a British identity is serving Australians poorly in their need to adapt to their situation in Asia. So it's particularly difficult to change course when the things that get you in trouble are the things that are also the source of your strength. +What's going to be the outcome today? +And my answer is, the most important thing we need to do is to forget about there being any single thing that is the most important thing we need to do. +Instead, there are a dozen things, any one of which could do us in. +And we've got to get them all right, because if we solve 11, we fail to solve the 12th -- we're in trouble. For example, if we solve our problems of water and soil and population, but don't solve our problems of toxics, then we are in trouble. +The fact is that our present course is a non-sustainable course, which means, by definition, that it cannot be maintained. +And the outcome is going to get resolved within a few decades. +That means that those of us in this room who are less than 50 or 60 years old will see how these paradoxes are resolved, and those of us who are over the age of 60 may not see the resolution, but our children and grandchildren certainly will. +The big problems facing the world today are not at all things beyond our control. Our biggest threat is not an asteroid about to crash into us, something we can do nothing about. +Instead, all the major threats facing us today are problems entirely of our own making. And since we made the problems, we can also solve the problems. That then means that it's entirely in our power to deal with these problems. +I grew up in Europe, and World War II caught me when I was between seven and 10 years old. +And I realized how few of the grown-ups that I knew were able to withstand the tragedies that the war visited on them -- how few of them could even resemble a normal, contented, satisfied, happy life once their job, their home, their security was destroyed by the war. +So I became interested in understanding what contributed to a life that was worth living. +And I tried, as a child, as a teenager, to read philosophy and to get involved in art and religion and many other ways that I could see as a possible answer to that question. +And finally I ended up encountering psychology by chance. +And I thought, well, since I can't go to the movies, at least I will go for free to listen to flying saucers. +And the man who talked at that evening lecture was very interesting. +Instead of talking about little green men, he talked about how the psyche of the Europeans had been traumatized by the war, and now they're projecting flying saucers into the sky. +He talked about how the mandalas of ancient Hindu religion were kind of projected into the sky as an attempt to regain some sense of order after the chaos of war. +And this seemed very interesting to me. +And I started reading his books after that lecture. +And that was Carl Jung, whose name or work I had no idea about. +Then I came to this country to study psychology and I started trying to understand the roots of happiness. +This is a typical result that many people have presented, and there are many variations on it. +But this, for instance, shows that about 30 percent of the people surveyed in the United States since 1956 say that their life is very happy. +And that hasn't changed at all. +Whereas the personal income, on a scale that has been held constant to accommodate for inflation, has more than doubled, almost tripled, in that period. +But you find essentially the same results, namely, that after a certain basic point -- which corresponds more or less to just a few 1,000 dollars above the minimum poverty level -- increases in material well-being don't seem to affect how happy people are. +In fact, you can find that the lack of basic resources, material resources, contributes to unhappiness, but the increase in material resources does not increase happiness. +So my research has been focused more on -- after finding out these things that actually corresponded to my own experience, I tried to understand: where -- in everyday life, in our normal experience -- do we feel really happy? +This was one of the leading composers of American music back in the '70s. +And the interview was 40 pages long. +But this little excerpt is a very good summary of what he was saying during the interview. +And it describes how he feels when composing is going well. +And he says by describing it as an ecstatic state. +Now, "ecstasy" in Greek meant simply to stand to the side of something. +And then it became essentially an analogy for a mental state where you feel that you are not doing your ordinary everyday routines. +So ecstasy is essentially a stepping into an alternative reality. +And it's interesting, if you think about it, how, when we think about the civilizations that we look up to as having been pinnacles of human achievement -- whether it's China, Greece, the Hindu civilization, or the Mayas, or Egyptians -- what we know about them is really about their ecstasies, not about their everyday life. +We know the temples they built, where people could come to experience a different reality. +We know about the circuses, the arenas, the theaters. +These are the remains of civilizations and they are the places that people went to experience life in a more concentrated, more ordered form. +Now, this man doesn't need to go to a place like this, which is also -- this place, this arena, which is built like a Greek amphitheatre, is a place for ecstasy also. +We are participating in a reality that is different from that of the everyday life that we're used to. +But this man doesn't need to go there. +He needs just a piece of paper where he can put down little marks, and as he does that, he can imagine sounds that had not existed before in that particular combination. +So once he gets to that point of beginning to create, like Jennifer did in her improvisation, a new reality -- that is, a moment of ecstasy -- he enters that different reality. +Now he says also that this is so intense an experience that it feels almost as if he didn't exist. +And that sounds like a kind of a romantic exaggeration. +But actually, our nervous system is incapable of processing more than about 110 bits of information per second. +And in order to hear me and understand what I'm saying, you need to process about 60 bits per second. +That's why you can't hear more than two people. +You can't understand more than two people talking to you. +Well, when you are really involved in this completely engaging process of creating something new, as this man is, he doesn't have enough attention left over to monitor how his body feels, or his problems at home. +He can't feel even that he's hungry or tired. +His body disappears, his identity disappears from his consciousness, because he doesn't have enough attention, like none of us do, to really do well something that requires a lot of concentration, and at the same time to feel that he exists. +So existence is temporarily suspended. +And he says that his hand seems to be moving by itself. +And it has become a kind of a truism in the study of creativity that you can't be creating anything with less than 10 years of technical-knowledge immersion in a particular field. +Whether it's mathematics or music, it takes that long to be able to begin to change something in a way that it's better than what was there before. +Now, when that happens, he says the music just flows out. +And because all of these people I started interviewing -- this was an interview which is over 30 years old -- so many of the people described this as a spontaneous flow that I called this type of experience the "flow experience." +And it happens in different realms. +For instance, a poet describes it in this form. +This is by a student of mine who interviewed some of the leading writers and poets in the United States. +And it describes the same effortless, spontaneous feeling that you get when you enter into this ecstatic state. +This poet describes it as opening a door that floats in the sky -- a very similar description to what Albert Einstein gave as to how he imagined the forces of relativity, when he was struggling with trying to understand how it worked. +But it happens in other activities. +For instance, this is another student of mine, Susan Jackson from Australia, who did work with some of the leading athletes in the world. +And you see here in this description of an Olympic skater, the same essential description of the phenomenology of the inner state of the person. +You don't think; it goes automatically, if you merge yourself with the music, and so forth. +It happens also, actually, in the most recent book I wrote, called "Good Business," where I interviewed some of the CEOs who had been nominated by their peers as being both very successful and very ethical, very socially responsible. +You see that these people define success as something that helps others and at the same time makes you feel happy as you are working at it. +And like all of these successful and responsible CEOs say, you can't have just one of these things be successful if you want a meaningful and successful job. +Anita Roddick is another one of these CEOs we interviewed. +She is the founder of Body Shop, the natural cosmetics king. +It's kind of a passion that comes from doing the best and having flow while you're working. +This is an interesting little quote from Masaru Ibuka, who was at that time starting out Sony without any money, without a product -- they didn't have a product, they didn't have anything, but they had an idea. +And the idea he had was to establish a place of work where engineers can feel the joy of technological innovation, be aware of their mission to society and work to their heart's content. +I couldn't improve on this as a good example of how flow enters the workplace. +Now, when we do studies -- we have, with other colleagues around the world, done over 8,000 interviews of people -- from Dominican monks, to blind nuns, to Himalayan climbers, to Navajo shepherds -- who enjoy their work. +And regardless of the culture, regardless of education or whatever, there are these seven conditions that seem to be there when a person is in flow. +There's this focus that, once it becomes intense, leads to a sense of ecstasy, a sense of clarity: you know exactly what you want to do from one moment to the other; you get immediate feedback. +You know that what you need to do is possible to do, even though difficult, and sense of time disappears, you forget yourself, you feel part of something larger. +And once the conditions are present, what you are doing becomes worth doing for its own sake. +In our studies, we represent the everyday life of people in this simple scheme. +And we can measure this very precisely, actually, because we give people electronic pagers that go off 10 times a day, and whenever they go off you say what you're doing, how you feel, where you are, what you're thinking about. +And two things that we measure is the amount of challenge people experience at that moment and the amount of skill that they feel they have at that moment. +So for each person we can establish an average, which is the center of the diagram. +That would be your mean level of challenge and skill, which will be different from that of anybody else. +But you have a kind of a set point there, which would be in the middle. +If we know what that set point is, we can predict fairly accurately when you will be in flow, and it will be when your challenges are higher than average and skills are higher than average. +And you may be doing things very differently from other people, but for everyone that flow channel, that area there, will be when you are doing what you really like to do -- play the piano, be with your best friend, perhaps work, if work is what provides flow for you. +And then the other areas become less and less positive. +Arousal is still good because you are over-challenged there. +Your skills are not quite as high as they should be, but you can move into flow fairly easily by just developing a little more skill. +So, arousal is the area where most people learn from, because that's where they're pushed beyond their comfort zone and to enter that -- going back to flow -- then they develop higher skills. +Control is also a good place to be, because there you feel comfortable, but not very excited. +It's not very challenging any more. +And if you want to enter flow from control, you have to increase the challenges. +So those two are ideal and complementary areas from which flow is easy to go into. +The other combinations of challenge and skill become progressively less optimal. +Relaxation is fine -- you still feel OK. +Boredom begins to be very aversive and apathy becomes very negative: you don't feel that you're doing anything, you don't use your skills, there's no challenge. +Unfortunately, a lot of people's experience is in apathy. +The largest single contributor to that experience is watching television; the next one is being in the bathroom, sitting. +Even though sometimes watching television about seven to eight percent of the time is in flow, but that's when you choose a program you really want to watch and you get feedback from it. +So the question we are trying to address -- and I'm way over time -- is how to put more and more of everyday life in that flow channel. +And that is the kind of challenge that we're trying to understand. +And some of you obviously know how to do that spontaneously without any advice, but unfortunately a lot of people don't. +And that's what our mandate is, in a way, to do. +Thank you. +Whoa, dude. Check out those killer equations. Sweet. Actually, for the next 18 minutes I'm going to do the best I can to describe the beauty of particle physics without equations. +It turns out there's a lot we can learn from coral. +Coral is a very beautiful and unusual animal. +Each coral head consists of thousand of individual polyps. +These polyps are continually budding and branching into genetically identical neighbors. +If we imagine this to be a hyper-intelligent coral, we can single out an individual and ask him a reasonable question. +We can ask how exactly he got to be in this particular location compared to his neighbors -- if it was just chance, or destiny, or what? +Now, after admonishing us for turning the temperature up too high, he would tell us that our question was completely stupid. +These corals can be quite kind of mean, you see, and I have surfing scars to prove that. +But this polyp would continue and tell us that his neighbors were quite clearly identical copies of him. +That he was in all these other locations as well, but experiencing them as separate individuals. +For a coral, branching into different copies is the most natural thing in the world. +Unlike us, a hyper-intelligent coral would be uniquely prepared to understand quantum mechanics. +The mathematics of quantum mechanics very accurately describes how our universe works. +And it tells us our reality is continually branching into different possibilities, just like a coral. +It's a weird thing for us humans to wrap our minds around, since we only ever get to experience one possibility. +This quantum weirdness was first described by Erwin Schrdinger and his cat. +The cat likes this version better. +In this setup, Schrdinger is in a box with a radioactive sample that, by the laws of quantum mechanics, branches into a state in which it is radiated and a state in which it is not. +In the branch in which the sample radiates, it sets off a trigger that releases poison and Schrdinger is dead. +But in the other branch of reality, he remains alive. +These realities are experienced separately by each individual. +As far as either can tell, the other one doesn't exist. +This seems weird to us, because each of us only experiences an individual existence, and we don't get to see other branches. +It's as if each of us, like Schrdinger here, are a kind of coral branching into different possibilities. +The mathematics of quantum mechanics tells us this is how the world works at tiny scales. +It can be summed up in a single sentence: Everything that can happen, does. +That's quantum mechanics. +But this does not mean everything happens. +The rest of physics is about describing what can happen and what can't. +What physics tells us is that everything comes down to geometry and the interactions of elementary particles. +And things can happen only if these interactions are perfectly balanced. +Now I'll go ahead and describe how we know about these particles, what they are and how this balance works. +In this machine, a beam of protons and anti-protons are accelerated to near the speed of light and brought together in a collision, producing a burst of pure energy. +This energy is immediately converted into a spray of subatomic particles, with detectors and computers used to figure out their properties. +This enormous machine -- the large Hadron Collider at CERN in Geneva -- has a circumference of 17 miles and, when it's operating, draws five times as much power as the city of Monterey. +We can't predict specifically what particles will be produced in any individual collision. +Quantum mechanics tells us all possibilities are realized. +But physics does tell us what particles can be produced. +These particles must have just as much mass and energy as is carried in by the proton and anti-proton. +Any particles more massive than this energy limit aren't produced, and remain invisible to us. +This is why this new particle accelerator is so exciting. +It's going to push this energy limit seven times beyond what's ever been done before, so we're going to get to see some new particles very soon. +But before talking about what we might see, let me describe the particles we already know of. +There's a whole zoo of subatomic particles. +Most of us are familiar with electrons. +A lot of people in this room make a good living pushing them around. +But the electron also has a neutral partner called the neutrino, with no electric charge and a very tiny mass. +In contrast, the up-and-down quarks have very large masses, and combine in threes to make the protons and neutrons inside atoms. +All of these matter particles come in left- and right-handed varieties, and have anti-particle partners that carry opposite charges. +These familiar particles also have less familiar second and third generations, which have the same charges as the first but have much higher masses. +These matter particles all interact with the various force particles. +The electromagnetic force interacts with electrically charged matter via particles called photons. +There is also a very weak force called, rather unimaginatively, the weak force, that interacts only with left-handed matter. +The strong force acts between quarks which carry a different kind of charge, called color charge, and come in three different varieties: red, green and blue. +You can blame Murray Gell-Mann for these names -- they're his fault. +Finally, there's the force of gravity, which interacts with matter via its mass and spin. +The most important thing to understand here is that there's a different kind of charge associated with each of these forces. +These four different forces interact with matter according to the corresponding charges that each particle has. +A particle that hasn't been seen yet, but we're pretty sure exists, is the Higgs particle, which gives masses to all these other particles. +The main purpose of the Large Hadron Collider is to see this Higgs particle, and we're almost certain it will. +But the greatest mystery is what else we might see. +And I'm going to show you one beautiful possibility towards the end of this talk. +Now, if we count up all these different particles using their various spins and charges, there are 226. +That's a lot of particles to keep track of. +And it seems strange that nature would have so many elementary particles. +But if we plot them out according to their charges, some beautiful patterns emerge. +The most familiar charge is electric charge. +Electrons have an electric charge, a negative one, and quarks have electric charges in thirds. +So when two up quarks and a down quark are combined to make a proton, it has a total electric charge of plus one. +These particles also have anti-particles, which have opposite charges. +Now, it turns out the electric charge is actually a combination of two other charges: hypercharge and weak charge. +If we spread out the hypercharge and weak charge and plot the charges of particles in this two-dimensional charge space, the electric charge is where these particles sit along the vertical direction. +The electromagnetic and weak forces interact with matter according to their hypercharge and weak charge, which make this pattern. +This is called the Unified Electroweak Model, and it was put together back in 1967. +The reason most of us are only familiar with electric charge and not both of these is because of the Higgs particle. +The Higgs, over here on the left, has a large mass and breaks the symmetry of this electroweak pattern. +It makes the weak force very weak by giving the weak particles a large mass. +Since this massive Higgs sits along the horizontal direction in this diagram, the photons of electromagnetism remain massless and interact with electric charge along the vertical direction in this charge space. +So the electromagnetic and weak forces are described by this pattern of particle charges in two-dimensional space. +We can include the strong force by spreading out its two charge directions and plotting the charges of the force particles in quarks along these directions. +The charges of all known particles can be plotted in a four-dimensional charge space, and projected down to two dimensions like this so we can see them. +Whenever particles interact, nature keeps things in a perfect balance along all four of these charge directions. +If a particle and an anti-particle collide, it creates a burst of energy and a total charge of zero in all four charge directions. +At this point, anything can be created as long as it has the same energy and maintains a total charge of zero. +For example, this weak force particle and its anti-particle can be created in a collision. +In further interactions, the charges must always balance. +One of the weak particles could decay into an electron and an anti-neutrino, and these three still add to zero total charge. +Nature always keeps a perfect balance. +So these patterns of charges are not just pretty. +They tell us what interactions are allowed to happen. +And we can rotate this charge space in four dimensions to get a better look at the strong interaction, which has this nice hexagonal symmetry. +In a strong interaction, a strong force particle, such as this one, interacts with a colored quark, such as this green one, to give a quark with a different color charge -- this red one. +And strong interactions are happening millions of times each second in every atom of our bodies, holding the atomic nuclei together. +But these four charges corresponding to three forces are not the end of the story. +We can also include two more charges corresponding to the gravitational force. +When we include these, each matter particle has two different spin charges, spin-up and spin-down. +So they all split, and give a nice pattern in six-dimensional charge space. +We can rotate this pattern in six dimensions, and see that it's quite pretty. +Right now, this pattern matches our best current knowledge of how nature is built at the tiny scales of these elementary particles. +This is what we know for certain. +Some of these particles are at the very limit of what we've been able to reach with experiments. +From this pattern, we already know the particle physics of these tiny scales. The way the universe works with these tiny scales is very beautiful. +But now I'm going to discuss some new and old ideas about things we don't know yet. +We want to expand this pattern using mathematics alone, and see if we can get our hands on the whole enchilada. +We want to find all the particles and forces that make a complete picture of our universe. +And we want to use this picture to predict new particles that we'll see when experiments reach higher energies. +So there's an old idea in particle physics that this known pattern of charges, which is not very symmetric, could emerge from a more perfect pattern that gets broken -- similar to how the Higgs particle breaks the electroweak pattern to give electromagnetism. +In order to do this, we need to introduce new forces with new charge directions. +When we introduce a new direction, we get to guess what charges the particles have along this direction, and then we can rotate it in with the others. +If we guess wisely, we can construct the standard charges in six charge dimensions as a broken symmetry of this more perfect pattern in seven charge dimensions. +This particular choice corresponds to a grand unified theory introduced by Pati and Salam in 1973. +When we look at this new unified pattern, we can see a couple of gaps where particles seem to be missing. +This is the way theories of unification work. +A physicist looks for larger, more symmetric patterns that include the established pattern as a subset. +The larger pattern allows us to predict the existence of particles that have never been seen. +This unification model predicts the existence of these two new force particles, which should act a lot like the weak force, only weaker. +Now we can rotate this set of charges in seven dimensions and consider an odd fact about the matter particles: the second and third generations of matter have exactly the same charges in six-dimensional charge space as the first generation. +These particles are not uniquely identified by their six charges. +They sit on top of one another in the standard charge space. +However, if we work in eight-dimensional charge space, then we can assign unique new charges to each particle. +Then we can spin these in eight dimensions, and see what the whole pattern looks like. +Here we can see the second and third generations of matter now related to the first generation by a symmetry called "triality." +This particular pattern of charges in eight dimensions is actually part of the most beautiful geometric structure in mathematics. +It's a pattern of the largest exceptional Lie group, E8. +This Lie group is a smooth, curved shape with 248 dimensions. +Each point in this pattern corresponds to a symmetry of this very complex and beautiful shape. +One small part of this E8 shape can be used to describe the curved space-time of Einstein's general relativity, explaining gravity. +Together with quantum mechanics, the geometry of this shape could describe everything about how the universe works at the tiniest scales. +The pattern of this shape living in eight-dimensional charge space is exquisitely beautiful, and it summarizes thousands of possible interactions between these elementary particles, each of which is just a facet of this complicated shape. +As we spin it, we can see many of the other intricate patterns contained in this one. +And with a particular rotation, we can look down through this pattern in eight dimensions along a symmetry axis and see all the particles at once. +It's a very beautiful object, and as with any unification, we can see some holes where new particles are required by this pattern. +There are 20 gaps where new particles should be, two of which have been filled by the Pati-Salam particles. +From their location in this pattern, we know that these new particles should be scalar fields like the Higgs particle, but have color charge and interact with the strong force. +Filling in these new particles completes this pattern, giving us the full E8. +This E8 pattern has very deep mathematical roots. +It's considered by many to be the most beautiful structure in mathematics. +It's a fantastic prospect that this object of great mathematical beauty could describe the truth of particle interactions at the smallest scales imaginable. +And this idea that nature is described by mathematics is not at all new. +In 1623, Galileo wrote this: "Nature's grand book, which stands continually open to our gaze, is written in the language of mathematics. +Its characters are triangles, circles and other geometrical figures, without which it is humanly impossible to understand a single word of it; without these, one is wandering around in a dark labyrinth." +I believe this to be true, and I've tried to follow Galileo's guidance in describing the mathematics of particle physics using only triangles, circles and other geometrical figures. +Of course, when other physicists and I actually work on this stuff, the mathematics can resemble a dark labyrinth. +But it's reassuring that at the heart of this mathematics is pure, beautiful geometry. +Joined with quantum mechanics, this mathematics describes our universe as a growing E8 coral, with particles interacting at every location in all possible ways according to a beautiful pattern. +And as more of the pattern comes into view using new machines like the Large Hadron Collider, we may be able to see whether nature uses this E8 pattern or a different one. +This process of discovery is a wonderful adventure to be involved in. +If the LHC finds particles that fit this E8 pattern, that will be very, very cool. +If the LHC finds new particles, but they don't fit this pattern -- well, that will be very interesting, but bad for this E8 theory. +And, of course, bad for me personally. +Now how bad would that be? +Well, pretty bad. +But predicting how nature works is a very risky game. +This theory and others like it are long shots. +One does a lot of hard work knowing that most of these ideas probably won't end up being true about nature. +That's what doing theoretical physics is like: there are a lot of wipeouts. +In this regard, new physics theories are a lot like start-up companies. +As with any large investment, it can be emotionally difficult to abandon a line of research when it isn't working out. +But in science, if something isn't working, you have to toss it out and try something else. +Now, the only way to maintain sanity and achieve happiness in the midst of this uncertainty is to keep balance and perspective in life. +I've tried the best I can to live a balanced life. +I try to balance my life equally between physics, love and surfing -- my own three charge directions. +This way, even if the physics I work on comes to nothing, I still know I've lived a good life. +And I try to live in beautiful places. +For most of the past ten years I've lived on the island of Maui, a very beautiful place. +Now it's one of the greatest mysteries in the universe to my parents how I managed to survive all that time without engaging in anything resembling full-time employment. +I'm going to let you in on that secret. +This was a view from my home office on Maui. +And this is another, and another. +And you may have noticed that these beautiful views are similar, but in slightly different places. +That's because this used to be my home and office on Maui. +I've chosen a very unusual life. +But not worrying about rent allowed me to spend my time doing what I love. +Living a nomadic existence has been hard at times, but it's allowed me to live in beautiful places and keep a balance in my life that I've been happy with. +It allows me to spend a lot of my time hanging out with hyper-intelligent coral. +But I also greatly enjoy the company of hyper-intelligent people. +So I'm very happy to have been invited here to TED. +Thank you very much. +Chris Anderson: I probably understood two percent of that, but I still absolutely loved it. So I'm going to sound dumb. +Your theory of everything -- Garrett Lisi: I'm used to coral. +CA: That's right. The reason it's got a few people at least excited is because, if you're right, it brings gravity and quantum theory together. +So are you saying that we should think of the universe, at its heart -- that the smallest things that there are, are somehow an E8 object of possibility? +I mean, is there a scale to it, at the smallest scale, or ...? +GL: Well, right now the pattern I showed you that corresponds to what we know about elementary particle physics -- that already corresponds to a very beautiful shape. +And that's the one that I said we knew for certain. +And that shape has remarkable similarities -- and the way it fits into this E8 pattern could be the rest of the picture. +And these patterns of points that I've shown for you actually represent symmetries of this high-dimensional object that would be warping and moving and dancing over the space time that we experience. +And that would be what explains all these elementary particles that we see. +CA: But a string theorist, as I understand it, explains electrons in terms of much smaller strings vibrating -- I know you don't like string theory -- vibrating inside it. +How should we think of an electron in relation to E8? +GL: No, it would be one of the symmetries of this E8 shape. +So what's happening is, as the shape is moving over space-time, it's twisting. And the direction it's twisting as it moves is what particle we see. So it would be -- CA: The size of the E8 shape, how does that relate to the electron? +I kind of feel like I need that for my picture. +Is it bigger? Is it smaller? +GL: Well, as far as we know electrons are point particles, so this would be going down to the smallest possible scales. +So the way these things are explained in quantum field theory is, all possibilities are expanding and developing at once. +And this is why I use the analogy to coral. +And in this way, the way that E8 comes in is it will be as a shape that's attached at each point in space-time. +And, as I said, the way the shape twists -- the directional along which way the shape is twisting as it moves over this curved surface -- is what the elementary particles are, themselves. +So through quantum field theory, they manifest themselves as points and interact that way. +I don't know if I'll be able to make this any clearer. +CA: It doesn't really matter. +It's evoking a kind of sense of wonder, and I certainly want to understand more of this. +But thank you so much for coming. That was absolutely fascinating. +I dabble in design. I'm a curator of architecture and design; I happen to be at the Museum of Modern Art. +But what we're going to talk about today is really design. Really good designers are like sponges: they really are curious and absorb every kind of information that comes their way, and transform it so that it can be used by people like us. +And so that gives me an opportunity, because every design show that I curate kind of looks at a different world. And it's great, because it seems like every time I change jobs. +And what I'm going to do today is I'm going to give you a preview of the next exhibition that I'm working on, which is called "Design and the Elastic Mind." +The world that I decided to focus on this particular time is the world of science and the world of technology. +Technology always comes into play when design is involved, but science does a little less. +But designers are great at taking big revolutions that happen and transforming them so that we can use them. +And this is what this exhibition looks at. +If you think about your life today, you go every day through many different scales, many different changes of rhythm and pace. +You work over different time zones, you talk to very different people, you multitask. We all know it, and we do it kind of automatically. +Some of the minds in this audience are super elastic, others are a little slower, others have a few stretch marks, but nonetheless this is a quite exceptional audience from that viewpoint. +Other people are not as elastic. +I can't get my father in Italy to work on the Internet. +He doesn't want to put high-speed Internet at home. +And that's because there's some little bit of fear, little bit of resistance or just clogged mechanisms. +So designers work on this particular malaise that we have, these kinds of discomforts that we have, and try to make life easier for us. +Elasticity of mind is something that we really need, you know, we really need, we really cherish and we really work on. +And this exhibition is about the work of designers that help us be more elastic, and also of designers that really work on this elasticity as an opportunity. And one last thing is that it's not only designers, but it's also scientists. +And before I launch into the display of some of the slides and into the preview, I would like to point out this beautiful detail about scientists and design. +You can say that the relationship between science and design goes back centuries. You can of course talk about Leonardo da Vinci and many other Renaissance men and women -- and there's a gigantic history behind it. +But according to a really great science historian you might know, Peter Galison -- he teaches at Harvard -- what nanotechnology in particular and quantum physics have brought to designers is this renewed interest, this real passion for design. +So basically, the idea of being able to build things bottom up, atom by atom, has made them all into tinkerers. +And all of a sudden scientists are seeking designers, just like designers are seeking scientists. +It's a brand-new love affair that we're trying to cultivate at MOMA. Together with Adam Bly, who is the founder of Seed magazine -- that's now a multimedia company, you might know it -- we founded about a year ago a monthly salon for designers and scientists, and it's quite beautiful. +And Keith has come, and also Jonathan has come and many others. +And it was great, because at the beginning was this apology fest -- you know, scientists would tell designers, you know, I don't know what style is, I'm not really elegant. +And designers would like, oh, I don't know how to do an equation, I don't understand what you're saying. And then all of a sudden they really started talking each others' language, and now we're already at the point that they collaborate. +Paul Steinhardt, a physicist from New York, and Aranda/Lasch, architects, collaborated in an installation in London at the Serpentine. +And it's really interesting to see how this happens. +The exhibition will talk about the work of both designers and scientists, and show how they're presenting the possibilities of the future to us. +I'm showing to you different sections of the show right now, just to give you a taste of it. +Nanophysics and nanotechnology, for instance, have really opened the designer's mind. +In this case I'm showing more the designers' work, because they're the ones that have really been stimulated. +A lot of the objects in the show are concepts, not objects that exist already. But what you're looking at here is the work of some scientists from UCLA. +This kind of alphabet soup is a new way to mark proteins -- not only by color but literally by alphabet letters. +New sensing elements on the body -- you can grow hairs on your nails, and therefore grab some of the particles from another person. +They seem very, very obsessed with finding out more about the ideal mate. +So they're working on enhancing everything: touch, smell -- everything they can, in order to find the perfect mate. +Very interesting. This is a typeface designer from Israel who has designed -- he calls them "typosperma." +He's thinking -- of course it's all a concept -- of injecting typefaces into spermatozoa, I don't know how to say it in English -- spermatazoi -- in order to make them become -- to almost have a song or a whole poem written with every ejaculation. I tell you, designers are quite fantastic, you know. +So, tissue design. +In this case too, you have a mixture of scientists and designers. +This here is part of the same lab at the Royal College of Arts. +The RCA is really quite an amazing school from that viewpoint. +One of the assignments for a year was to work with in-vitro meat. +You know that already you can grow meat in vitro. +In Australia they did it -- this research company, called SymbioticA. +But the problem is that it's a really ugly patty. +And so, the assignment to the students was, how should the steak of tomorrow be? +When you don't have to kill cows and it can have any shape, what should it be like? +So this particular student, James King, went around the beautiful English countryside, picked the best, best cow that he could see, and then put her in the MRI machine. +Then, he took the scans of the best organs and made the meat -- of course, this is done with a Japanese resins food maker, but you know, in the future it could be made better -- which reproduces the best MRI scan of the best cow he could find. +Instead, this element here is much more banal. +Something that you know can be done already is to grow bone tissue, so that you can make a wedding ring out of the bone tissue of your loved one -- literally. +So, this is indeed made of human bone tissue. +This is SymbioticA, and they've been working -- they were the first ones to do this in-vitro meat -- and now they've also done an in-vitro coat, a leather coat. +It's miniscule, but it's a real coat. It's shaped like one. +So, we'll be able to really not have any excuse to be wearing everything leather in the future. +One of the most important topics of the show -- you know, as anything in our life today, we can look at it from many, many different viewpoints, and at different levels. +One of the most interesting and most important concepts is the idea of scale. We change scale very often: we change resolution of screens, and we're not really fazed by it, we do it very comfortably. +So you go, even in the exhibition, from the idea of nanotechnology and the nanoscale to the manipulation of really great amounts of data -- the mapping and tagging of the universe and of the world. +In this particular case a section will be devoted to information design. +You see here the work of Ben Fry. This is "Human vs. Chimps" -- the few chromosomes that distinguish us from chimps. +It was a beautiful visualization that he did for Seed magazine. +And here's the whole code of Pac-Man, visualized with all the go-to, go-back-to, also made into a beautiful choreography. +And then also graphs by scientists, this beautiful diagraph of protein homology. +Scientists are starting to also consider aesthetics. +We were discussing with Keith Shrubb* this morning the fact that many scientists tend not to use anything beautiful in their presentations, otherwise they're afraid of being considered dumb blondes. +So they pick the worst background from any kind of PowerPoint presentation, the worst typeface. +It's only recently that this kind of marriage between design and science is producing some of the first "pretty" -- if we can say so -- scientific presentations. +Another aspect of contemporary design that I think is mind-opening, promising and will really be the future of design, is the idea of collective design. +You know, the whole XO laptop, from One Laptop per Child, is based on the idea of collaboration and mash and networking. +So, the more the merrier. +The more computers, the stronger the signal, and children work on the interface so that it's all based on doing things together, tasks together. +So the idea of collective design is something that will become even bigger in the future, and this is chosen as an example. +Related to the idea of collective design and to the new balance between the individual and the collectiveness, collectivity is the idea of existence maximum. +That's a term that I coined a few years ago while I was thinking of how pressed we are together, and at the same time how these small objects, like the Walkman first and then the iPod, create bubbles of space around us that enable us to have a metaphysical space that is much bigger than our physical space. +You can be in the subway and you can be completely isolated and have your own room in your iPod. +And this is the work of several designers that really enhance the idea of solitude and expansion by means of various techniques. +And same thing here, Social Tele-presence. +It's actually already used by the military a little bit, but it's the idea of being able to be somewhere else with your senses while you're removed from it physically. +And this is called Blind Date. It's a [unclear], so if you're too shy to be really at the date, you can stay at a distance with your flowers and somebody else reenacts the date for you. +Rapid manufacturing is another big area in which technology and design are, I think, bound to change the world. You've heard about it before many times. +Rapid manufacturing is a computer file sent directly from the computer to the manufacturing machine. +It used to be called rapid prototyping, rapid modeling. +It started out in the '80s, but at the beginning it was machines carving out of a foam block a model that was very, very fragile, and could not have any real use. +Slowly but surely, the materials became better -- better resins. +Techniques became better -- not only carving but also stereolithography and laser -- solidifying all kinds of resins, whether in powder or in liquid form. And the vats became bigger, to the point that now we can have actual chairs made by rapid manufacturing. +It takes seven days today to manufacture a chair, but you know what? One day it will take seven hours. +And then the dream is that you'll be able to, from home, customize your chair. You know, companies and designers will be designing the matrix or the margins that respect both solidity and brand, and design identity. +And then you can send it to the Kinko's store at the corner and go get your chair. Now, the implications of this are enormous, not only regarding the participation of the final buyer in the design process, but also no tracking, no warehousing, no wasted materials. +Also, I can imagine many design manufacturers will have to retool their own business plans and maybe invest in this Kinko's store. But it really is a big change. +And here I'm showing a picture that was in Wired Magazine -- you know, the Artifacts of the Future section that I love so much -- that shows you can have your desktop 3D printer and print your own basketball. +But here instead are examples, you can already 3D-print textiles, which is very interesting. +This is just a really nice touch -- it's called slow prototyping. +It's a designer that put 10,000 bees at work and they built this vase. +They had a particular shape that they had to stay in. +Mapping and tagging. +As the capacity of computers becomes really, really big, and the capacity of our mind not that much bigger, we find that we need to tag as much as we can what we do in order to then retrace our path. +Also, we do it in order to share with other people. +Again, this communal sense of experience that seems to be so important today. +So, various ways to map and tag are also the work of many designers nowadays. +Also, the senses -- designers and scientists all work on trying to expand our senses capabilities so that we can achieve more. +And also animal senses in a way. +And so this student at the RCA designed this beautiful blown-glass object where the bees move from one chamber to the other if they detect that particular smell that signifies, in this case, pregnancy. +Another shape is made for cancer. +Design for Debate is a very interesting new endeavor that designers have really shaped for themselves. +Some designers don't design objects, products, things that we're going to actually use, but rather, they design scenarios that are object-based. +They're still very useful. +They help companies and other designers think better about the future. +And usually they are accompanied by videos. +This is quite beautiful. It's Dunne and Raby, "All the Robots." +Those are a series of robots that are meant to be taken care of. +We always think that robots will take care of us, and instead they designed these robots that are very, very needy. +You need to take one in your arms and look at it in the eyes for about five minutes before it does something. +Another one gets really, really nervous if you get in to the room, and starts shaking, so you have to calm it down. +So it's really a way to make us think more about what robots mean to us. +Noam Toran and "Accessories for Lonely Men": the idea is that when you lose your loved one or you go through a bad breakup, what you miss the most are those annoying things that you used to hate when you were with the other person. +So he designed all these series of accessories. +This one is something that takes away the sheets from you at night. +Then there's another one that breathes on your neck. +There's another one that throws plates and breaks them. +So it's just this idea of what we really miss in life. +Elio Caccavale: he took the idea of those dolls that explain leukemia. +He's working on dolls that explain xenotransplantation, and also the spider gene into the goat, from a few years ago. +He's working for the exhibition on a whole series of dolls that explain to children where babies come from today. +Because it's not anymore Mom, Dad, the flowers and the bees, and then there's the baby. No, it can be two moms, three dads, in-vitro -- there's the whole idea of how babies can be made today that has changed. +So it's a series of dolls that he's working on right now. +One of the most beautiful things is that designers really work on life, even though they take technology into account. +And many designers have been working recently on the idea of death and mourning, and what we can do about it today with new technologies. +Or how we should behave about it with new technologies. +These three objects over there are hard drives with a Bluetooth connection. But they're in reality very, very beautiful sculpted artifacts that contain the whole desktop and computer memory of somebody who passed away. +So instead of having only the pictures, you will be able to put this object next to the computer and all of a sudden have, you know, Gertrude's whole life and all of her files and her address book come alive. +And this is even better. This is Auger-Loizeau, "AfterLife." +It's the idea that some people don't believe in an afterlife. +So to give them something tangible that shows that there is something after death, they take the gastric juices of people who passed away and concentrate them, and put them into a battery that can actually be used to power flashlights. They also go -- you know, sex toys, whatever. +It's quite amazing how these things can make you smile, can make you laugh, can make you cry sometimes. +But I'm hoping that this particular exhibition will be able to trace a new portrait of where design is going -- which is always, hopefully, a portrait a few years in advance of where the world is going. +Thank you very much. +You all know this story. +In the summer of 1950, Enrico Fermi, the Italian-American physicist and atomic-pile builder, went to lunch at Los Alamos National Laboratory and joined some colleagues there, and asked them a question: "Where is everybody?" +This confused his colleagues, obviously, because they were sitting right there with him. +And then he had to clarify that he wasn't talking about them. +He was talking about the space aliens. +You see, this was only a few years after the supposed flying saucer crash at Roswell, New Mexico. +And even though that turned out to be nothing, nothing at all -- -- merely a downed weather balloon piloted by small hairless men with slits for mouths ... +Still, America had gone saucer-mad, even famous scientists who were eating lunch. +Fermi's reasoning, if I may paraphrase badly, is that the universe is so vast that it stands to reason, there should be other intelligent life out there. +And the universe is so old that unless we were the very first civilization ever to evolve, we should have some evidence of their existence by now. +And yet, to the best of our knowledge, we are alone. +"Where is everybody?" asked Fermi, and his colleagues had no answer. +Fermi then went on with the same blunt logic to disprove fairies, Sasquatch, God, the possibility of love -- and thereafter, as you know, Enrico Fermi ate alone. +Now, I am not a scientist. +I have never built an atomic pile. +Although, I might argue that, technically, every pile is atomic. +However, with respect, I might point out two possibilities that Enrico Fermi perhaps did not consider. +One is that the aliens might be very far away. +Perhaps, I dare say, even on other planets. +The other possibility -- -- is, perhaps, Enrico Fermi himself was an alien. +Think about it. +Isn't it a little convenient that in the midst of the World War, out of nowhere, suddenly an Italian scientist showed up with an amazing new technology that would transform everything in the world and darken the history of the human species forever after? +And isn't it a little strange that he required no payment for this? +That he asked for only one thing -- a gift of two healthy sperm whales? +That's -- that's not true. +But it is strange. +And if Enrico Fermi were indeed a space alien, wouldn't he be the first to have tried to convince his fellow scientists that the space aliens are not already here? +It's a difficult theory to discount, I think you'll agree. +For even in my own life, there are memories I have that are difficult to explain -- happenings that are so odd and unaccountably weird, that it is difficult to imagine they were not the result of prolonged and frequent contact with aliens throughout my life. +For how else will you explain the amazing and absolutely true close encounters that I had and will describe to you now? +Encounter one: Ocean City, New Jersey, 1980. +This was the summer when the special edition of "Close Encounters of the Third Kind" was released. +And I went on vacation with my parents to the Jersey shore. +Within 12 hours, I was horribly sunburned, just like Richard Dreyfuss in the movie. +And so I spent the rest of the vacation largely sitting outside our little rental house at night, the sidewalk still warm from the sun, watching the skies for UFOs. +What did I see? Stars, satellites, blinking airplanes -- typical sky junk. +Occasionally, kids would come and join me and watch, but their necks soon got sore, and they would go off to the boardwalk to play video games and mingle with humans. +I was pretty good at the video games. I was not very good at the other part, so I stayed alone with the cosmos. +And that's when it happened. +An elderly couple came walking down the street. +I would say they were in their late seventies, and I would say that they were on a date, because he was wearing a very neat little suit with a yellow tie -- a brown suit. +And she was wearing a cardigan, because it was now fully night and a chill was coming in off the ocean. +I remember, for some reason, that they were exactly the same height. +And then they stopped, and the man turned to me and said, "What are you looking for, flying saucers?" +You have to admit, that's a pretty boss piece of detective work for an old man on a date. +But what was stranger still -- and even I realized it at the time, as a nine-year-old child -- was that they stopped at all. +That this old man would interrupt his moonlight stroll with his sweetheart with the precise reason of making fun of a child. +"Oh," he said, "little green men." +And then his girlfriend joined in, too. +"There's no such thing as space men," she said. +"There's no such thing." +And then they both laughed. "Ha, ha, ha." +I looked around. +The street was entirely empty. +I had stopped hearing the sound of the ocean. +It was as though time had stopped. +I did not know why they were teasing me. +I looked into their strangely angry faces, and I remember wondering, are they wearing rubber masks? +And what would be behind those rubber masks, if they were? +Giant, almond-shaped, unblinking eyes? +Slits for mouths? +The old man crooked his finger as though he were firing a gun, and then he made laser sounds. +"Kew, kew, kew -- watch out." +And they turned at once and walked away. +The old man reached out his knobbly claw for the woman's hand, and found it, and left me alone. +Now, you could describe this as a simple misunderstanding -- a strange encounter among humans. +Maybe it was swamp gas, but -- -- I know what I saw. +Close encounter two: Brookline, Massachusetts, 1984. +I went to see the movie "Dune," and a girl talked to me. Now, on its face -- -- this is impossible on its face, I realize -- but it is absolutely true. +It was opening night, naturally. +I went with my friend Tim McGonigal, who sat on my left. +On my right was the girl in question. +She had long, curly black hair, a blue jean jacket. +I remember, she had some sort of injury to her ankle, an Ace bandage, and she had crutches. +She was very tall, I would say. +I was starting high school at the time. I would say she was a junior, but I had never seen her before. She didn't go to my school. +I didn't know her name, and I never will. +She was sitting with someone who I presume was her mother, and they were talking about the novel, "Dune." +They were both big fans, mother and daughter -- very unusual. +They were talking about how their favorite characters were the giant sandworms. +And then it got stranger. +That's when she turned to me and said, "Are you looking forward to seeing the movie?" +First of all, I was embarrassed because I had not read the novel "Dune" at that time. +I was merely a connoisseur of movies featuring desert planets, as I still am. +But it was also the tone of how she asked the question: apropos of nothing, like she didn't even care about the answer, as though she just wanted to talk to me. +I did not know what to say. I said, "Yes." +I did not even turn my head. +The movie began. +I need not remind you that this was David Lynch's version of "Dune," in which all of the characters were sexy and deformed at the same time. +There was a character called the Third-Stage Guild Navigator, which was a kind of giant, floating fetus-creature that lived in a giant tank with this orange mist of psychedelic spice swirling around him, allowing him to bend space and time. +He could never leave the tank or interact with the outside world. +He had become, in his isolation, so deformed and so sexy, that he had to talk through a kind of old-timey radio to the outside world, and could never touch them. +I mean, I liked him a lot better than the sandworms. +The sandworms were fine, but your favorite character? +Please. +When the movie ended, everyone seemed very happy to get up and get out of the theatre as soon as possible. +Except for the girl. +As I walked out, her pace slowed. +Perhaps it was the crutches, but it seemed -- -- it seemed as though she might want to talk to me again. +When I say it out loud, it sounds so ridiculous, but I can only come to the conclusion that it was what, in the alien abductee community, they call a "screen memory": a ridiculous false recollection designed by their brain to cover up some trauma -- say, of being kidnapped and flown off to a sex pyramid. +And so I sure am glad I did not slow down to talk to her. +I sure am glad I never saw her again. +Close encounter three: Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 1989. +In the mid-to-late '80s, the novelist Whitley Strieber wrote a book called "Communion," in which he described his own lifelong experiences being abducted by aliens. +And he also described the phenomenon known in this community as "lost time," where Whitley Strieber would suddenly become aware that he could not remember the previous ten minutes, or the previous ten hours, or the previous ten days. +And would come to the conclusion that that was when the aliens were taking him and giving him rectal probes. +This book became, naturally, an enormous best-seller. +This image by Ted Joseph was from that book, and was his, sort of, police sketch of what the creatures looked like that Whitley Strieber had described to him. +And it was so successful that they made it into a movie. +And in 1989, the way I remember it, I was in Philadelphia visiting my girlfriend, and we decided, apropos of nothing, to go see this movie. +And the way I remember it, the movie featured these details. +One: Whitley Strieber was played by Christopher Walken. +Two: the alien was played by a rubber puppet. +Three: there was a surprisingly long sequence of the film in which the rubber puppet gives Christopher Walken a rectal probe. +Four: this was being shown in a regular movie theater in Center City, Philadelphia. +Five: all of which is to say, they made a movie out of the book, "Communion," and it starred Christopher Walken. +Does something seem strange about this to you? +Something odd? Something off? Something wrong with this picture? +Think about it. Yes. The answer is: I had a girlfriend. What? +How did this happen? When did this happen? +I remember walking out of the theater and becoming suddenly aware of this fact, as we walked hand in hand, and pondering these very same questions. +And to this day, I have no answer for you. +Close encounter four: the Algarve, Portugal, 1991. +Some years later, I and this woman -- we'll call her "Catherine Fletcher" -- -- went traveling through the south of Portugal together. +We stayed in old, crumbling, walled cities, in tiny little hotels, and we would climb up to the roof and drink Vinho Verde and watch the sun set and play checkers. +What? Did we do this? Really? Does anyone do this? +We went to some topless beaches. +Excuse me? No, not in my life. +For what it's worth, we went to Sagres, which was considered, at the time, to be the end of the world. +And there I was chased by a pack of feral dogs on the dock, and the lead dog bit me on the ass, requiring me to go to a strange Portuguese clinic and receive an ass shot. +Make of that what you will. +Our last day in Portugal, we were in the district capital of Faro, and Catherine decided that she wanted to go to the beach one last time. +Now, Faro is a bustling little city, and to get to the beach, she explained, you would have to take a bus and then a boat. +And did I want to come with? +But I was exhausted and dog-bitten, and so I said, "No." +I remember what she looked like before she left. +The freckles had grown and multiplied on her face and shoulders, clustering into a kind of a tan. +A tan, we were both tan -- is this true? +Her eyes were extra bright and extra blue, as a result. +She was smiling. +She was a single woman about to go alone into a country, not even speaking the language, to travel alone by bus and boat to go to a beach she did not know or had never seen. +I loved her, and then she went out into that strange, alien land. +It took me some time to come to my senses. +I had my own "lost time" moment, where I woke up and suddenly realized it was very late in the day, almost dinnertime, and she had not come back. +Nervous, I went down to the street to look for her. +Now, I did not speak Portuguese. +I did not know where the beach was. +I could not call her on a cell phone because this was 1991, and the aliens had not given us that technology yet. +I realized that the day would only have two possible outcomes: either Catherine would come back to the hotel, or she would never come back to the hotel. +And so I sat down to wait. +I did not watch the skies, but the very end of the street where the buses and cars and pedestrians and little scooters were moving along. +And I watched those constellations shift, hoping that they would part and I would see her face. +It was at that moment, in that very small town of 30,000 or so, that I truly appreciated the vastness of the universe and the searching we might do in it. +And that's when the Liberians came along. +Five young men -- all laughing, happy, traveling together, coming back to this hotel where they were staying. +One of them was named Joseph, and he asked me what was I doing, and I explained. +And he said, "Don't worry." He was sure that Catherine would be safe. +But he did not seem so very sure, for he sat down to wait with me. +And for the next two hours, they all waited with me: taking turns, going up to their room, coming back, telling me jokes, distracting me. +Two hours, they gave me a message. +We are not alone. +And then, in the middle of a sentence, at the very birth of twilight, I turned and looked down the street. +The stars aligned, and she came back. +She was smiling. She did not understand why I was so worried. +Neither did the Liberians, although there was a huge amount of relief in their laughter as they clapped us on the back, and went back up to their room and left us alone in the street, holding hands. +An event like this leaves a scar on the memory, much like a piece of alien technology that has been inserted into your buttocks by a "Portuguese doctor." +And even now, a decade and a half later, even now that we are married, I look for her still, whenever she is not in the room. +And even though, I think you'll agree, it is probable that during the time she was away, she was kidnapped and replaced by an alien clone, I love her and wait for her still. +Thank you for your kind attention. +You might be wondering why I'm wearing sunglasses, and one answer to that is, because I'm here to talk about glamour. +So, we all think we know what glamour is. Here it is. +It's glamorous movie stars, like Marlene Dietrich. +And it comes in a male form, too -- very glamorous. +Not only can he shoot, drive, drink -- you know, he drinks wine, there actually is a little wine in there -- and of course, always wears a tuxedo. +But I think that glamour actually has a much broader meaning -- one that is true for the movie stars and the fictional characters, but also comes in other forms. +A magazine? +Well, it's certainly not this one. +This is the least glamorous magazine on the newsstand -- it's all about sex tips. +Sex tips are not glamorous. +And Drew Barrymore, for all her wonderful charm, is not glamorous either. +But there is a glamour of industry. +This is Margaret Bourke-White's -- one of her pictures she did. +Fantastic, glamorous pictures of steel mills and paper mills and all kinds of glamorous industrial places. +And there's the mythic glamour of the garage entrepreneur. +This is the Hewlett-Packard garage. +We know everyone who starts a business in a garage ends up founding Hewlett-Packard. +There's the glamour of physics. +What could be more glamorous than understanding the entire universe, grand unification? And, by the way, it helps if you're Brian Greene -- he has other kinds of glamour. +And there is, of course, this glamour. +This is very, very glamorous: the glamour of outer space -- and not the alien-style glamour, but the nice, clean, early '60s version. +So what do we mean by glamour? +Well, one thing you can do if you want to know what glamour means is you can look in the dictionary. +And it actually helps a lot more if you look in a very old dictionary, in this case the 1913 dictionary. +Because for centuries, glamour had a very particular meaning, and the word was actually used differently from the way we think of it. +You had "a" glamour. +It wasn't glamour as a quality -- you "cast a glamour." +Glamour was a literal magic spell. +Not a metaphorical one, the way we use it today, but a literal magic spell associated with witches and gypsies and to some extent, Celtic magic. +And over the years, around the turn of the 20th century, it started to take on this other kind of deception -- this definition for any artificial interest in, or association with, an object through which it appears delusively magnified or glorified. +But still, glamour is an illusion. +Glamour is a magic spell. +And there's something dangerous about glamour throughout most of history. When the witches cast a magic spell on you, it was not in your self-interest -- it was to get you to act against your interest. +Well of course, in the 20th century, glamour came to have this different meaning associated with Hollywood. +And this is Hedy Lamarr. +Hedy Lamarr said, "Anyone can look glamorous, all you have to do is sit there and look stupid." But in fact, with all due respect to Hedy -- about whom we'll hear more later -- there's a lot more to it. +There was a tremendous amount of technical achievement associated with creating this Hollywood glamour. +There were scores of retouchers and lighting experts and make-up experts. +You can go to the museum of Hollywood history in Hollywood and see Max Factor's special rooms that he painted different colors depending on the complexion of the star he was going to make up. +So you've got this highly stylized portrait of something that was not entirely of this earth -- it was a portrait of a star. +And actually, we see glamorized photos of stars all the time -- they call them false color. +Glamour is a form of falsification, but falsification to achieve a particular purpose. +It may be to illuminate the star; it may be to sell a film. +And it involves a great deal of technique. +It's not -- glamour is not something -- you don't wake up in the morning glamorous. I don't care who you are. +Even Nicole Kidman doesn't wake up in the morning glamorous. +There is a process of "idealization, glorification and dramatization," and it's not just the case for people. +Glamour doesn't have to be people. +Architectural photography -- Julius Schulman, who has talked about transfiguration, took this fabulous, famous picture of the Kauffman House. +Architectural photography is extremely glamorous. +It puts you into this special, special world. +This is Alex Ross's comic book art, which appears to be extremely realistic, as part of his style is he gives you a kind of realism in his comic art. +Except that light doesn't work this way in the real world. +When you stack people in rows, the ones in the background look smaller than the ones in the foreground -- but not in the world of glamour. +What glamour is all about -- I took this from a blurb in the table of contents of New York magazine, which was telling us that glamour is back -- glamour is all about transcending the everyday. +And I think that that's starting to get at what the core that combines all sorts of glamour is. +This is Filippino Lippi's 1543 portrait of Saint Apollonia. +And I don't know who she is either, but this is the [16th] century equivalent of a supermodel. +It's a very glamorous portrait. +Why is it glamorous? +It's glamorous, first, because she is beautiful -- but that does not make you glamorous, that only makes you beautiful. +She is graceful, she is mysterious and she is transcendent, and those are the central qualities of glamour. +You don't see her eyes; they're looking downward. +She's not looking away from you exactly, but you have to mentally imagine her world. +She's encouraging you to contemplate this higher world to which she belongs, where she can be completely tranquil while holding the iron instruments of her death by torture. +Mel Gibson's "Passion Of The Christ" -- not glamorous. +That's glamour: that's Michelangelo's "Pieta," where Mary is the same age as Jesus and they're both awfully happy and pleasant. +Glamour invites us to live in a different world. +It has to simultaneously be mysterious, a little bit distant -- that's why, often in these glamour shots, the person is not looking at the audience, it's why sunglasses are glamorous -- but also not so far above us that we can't identify with the person. +In some sense, there has to be something like us. +So as I say, in religious art, you know, God is not glamorous. +God cannot be glamorous because God is omnipotent, omniscient -- too far above us. +And yet you will see in religious art, saints or the Virgin Mary will often be portrayed -- not always -- in glamorous forms. +As I said earlier, glamour does not have to be about people, but it has to have this transcendent quality. +What is it about Superman? +Aside from Alex Ross's style, which is very glamorous, one thing about Superman is he makes you believe that a man can fly. +Glamour is all about transcending this world and getting to an idealized, perfect place. +And this is one reason that modes of transportation tend to be extremely glamorous. +The less experience we have with them, the more glamorous they are. +So you can do a glamorized picture of a car, but you can't do a glamorized picture of traffic. +You can do a glamorized picture of an airplane, but not the inside. +The notion is that it's going to transport you, and the story is not about, you know, the guy in front of you in the airplane, who has this nasty little kid, or the big cough. +The story is about where you're arriving, or thinking about where you're arriving. +And this sense of being transported is one reason that we have glamour styling. +This sort of streamlining styling is not just glamorous because we associate it with movies of that period, but because, in it's streamlining, it transports us from the everyday. +The same thing -- arches are very glamorous. +Arches with stained glass -- even more glamorous. +Staircases that curve away from you are glamorous. +I happen to find that particular staircase picture very glamorous because, to me, it captures the whole promise of the academic contemplative life -- but maybe that's because I went to Princeton. +Anyway, skylines are super glamorous, city streets -- not so glamorous. +You know, when you get, actually to this town it has reality. +The horizon, the open road, is very, very glamorous. +There are few things more glamorous than the horizon -- except, possibly, multiple horizons. +Of course, here you don't feel the cold, or the heat -- you just see the possibilities. +In order to pull glamour off, you need this Renaissance quality of sprezzatura, which is a term coined by Castiglione in his book, "The Book Of The Courtier." +There's the not-glamorous version of what it looks like today, after a few centuries. +And sprezzatura is the art that conceals art. +It makes things look effortless. +You don't think about how Nicole Kidman is maneuvering that dress -- she just looks completely natural. +And I remember reading, after the Lara Croft movies, how Angelina Jolie would go home completely black and blue. +Of course, they covered that with make-up, because Lara Croft did all those same stunts -- but she doesn't get black and blue, because she has sprezzatura. +"To conceal all art and make whatever is done or said appear to be without effort": And this is one of the critical aspects of glamour. +Glamour is about editing. +How do you create the sense of transcendence, the sense of evoking a perfect world? +The sense of, you know, life could be better, I could join this -- I could be a perfect person, I could join this perfect world. +We don't tell you all the grubby details. +Now, this was kindly lent to me by Jeff Bezos, from last year. +This is underneath Jeff's desk. +This is what the real world of computers, lamps, electrical appliances of all kinds, looks like. +But if you look in a catalog -- particularly a catalog of modern, beautiful objects for your home -- it looks like this. +There are no cords. +Look next time you get these catalogs in your mail -- you can usually figure out where they hid the cord. +But there's always this illusion that if you buy this lamp, you will live in a world without cords. And the same thing is true of, if you buy this laptop or you buy this computer -- and even in these wireless eras, you don't get to live in the world without cords. +You have to have mystery and you have to have grace. +And there she is -- Grace. +This is the most glamorous picture, I think, ever. +Part of the thing is that, in "Rear Window," the question is, is she too glamorous to live in his world? +And the answer is no, but of course it's really just a movie. +Here's Hedy Lamarr again. +And, you know, this kind of head covering is extremely glamorous because, like sunglasses, it conceals and reveals at the same time. +Translucence is glamorous -- that's why all these people wear pearls. +It's why barware is glamorous. Glamour is translucent -- not transparent, not opaque. +It invites us into the world but it doesn't give us a completely clear picture. +And I think if Grace Kelly is the most glamorous person, maybe a spiral staircase with glass block may be the most glamorous interior shot, because a spiral staircase is incredibly glamorous. +It has that sense of going up and away, and yet you never think about how you would really trip if you were -- particularly going down. +And of course glass block has that sense of translucence. +So, this session's supposed to be about pure pleasure but glamour's really partly about meaning. +All individuals and all cultures have ideals that cannot possibly be realized in reality. +They have contradictions, they uphold principles that are incommensurable with each other -- whatever it is -- and yet these ideals give meaning and purpose to our lives as cultures and as individuals. +And the way we deal with that is we displace them -- we put them into a golden world, an imagined world, an age of heroes, the world to come. +And in the life of an individual, we often associate that with some object. +The white picket fence, the perfect house. +The perfect kitchen -- no bills on the counter in the perfect kitchen. +You know, you buy that Viking range, this is what your kitchen will look like. +The perfect love life -- symbolized by the perfect necklace, the perfect diamond ring. +The perfect getaway in your perfect car. +This is an interior design firm that is literally called Utopia. +The perfect office -- again, no cords, as far as I can tell. +And certainly, no, it doesn't look a thing like my office. +I mean, there's no paper on the desk. +We want this golden world. +And some people get rich enough, and if they have their ideals -- in a sort of domestic sense, they get to acquire their perfect world. +Dean Koontz built this fabulous home theater, which is -- I don't think accidentally -- in Art Deco style. +That symbolizes this sense of being safe and at home. +This is not always good, because what is your perfect world? +What is your ideal, and also, what has been edited out? +Is it something important? +"The Matrix" is a movie that is all about glamour. +I could do a whole talk on "The Matrix" and glamour. +It was criticized for glamorizing violence, because, look -- sunglasses and those long coats, and, of course, they could walk up walls and do all these kinds of things that are impossible in the real world. +This is another Margaret Bourke-White photo. +This is from Soviet Union. Attractive. +I mean, look how happy the people are, and good-looking too. +You know, we're marching toward Utopia. +I'm not a fan of PETA, but I think this is a great ad. +Because what they're doing is they're saying, your coat's not so glamorous, what's been edited out is something important. +But actually, what's even more important than remembering what's been edited out is thinking, are the ideals good? +Because glamour can be very totalitarian and deceptive. +And it's not just a matter of glamorizing cleaning your floor. +This is from "Triumph Of The Will" -- brilliant editing to cut together things. +There's a glamour shot. +National Socialism is all about glamour. +It was a very aesthetic ideology. +It was all about cleaning up Germany, and the West, and the world, and ridding it of anything unglamorous. +So glamour can be dangerous. +I think glamour has a genuine appeal, has a genuine value. +I'm not against glamour. +But there's a kind of wonder in the stuff that gets edited away in the cords of life. +And there is both a way to avoid the dangers of glamour and a way to broaden your appreciation of it. +And that's to take Isaac Mizrahi's advice and confront the manipulation of it all, and sort of admit that manipulation is something that we enjoy, but also enjoy how it happens. +And here's Hedy Lamarr. +She's very glamorous but, you know, she invented spread-spectrum technology. +So she's even more glamorous if you know that she really wasn't stupid, even though she thought she could look stupid. +David Hockney talks about how the appreciation of this very glamorous painting is heightened if you think about the fact that it takes two weeks to paint this splash, which only took a fraction of a second to happen. +There is a book out in the bookstore -- it's called "Symphony In Steel," and it's about the stuff that's hidden under the skin of the Disney Center. +And that has a fascination. +It's not necessarily glamorous, but unveiling the glamour has an appeal. +There's a wonderful book called "Crowns" that's all these glamour pictures of black women in their church hats. +And there's a quote from one of these women, and she talks about, "As a little girl, I'd admire women at church with beautiful hats. +They looked like beautiful dolls, like they'd just stepped out of a magazine. +But I also knew how hard they worked all week. +Sometimes under those hats there's a lot of joy and a lot of sorrow." +And, actually, you get more appreciation for glamour when you realize what went into creating it. +Thank you. +This session is on natural wonders, and the bigger conference is on the pursuit of happiness. +I want to try to combine them all, because to me, healing is really the ultimate natural wonder. +Your body has a remarkable capacity to begin healing itself, and much more quickly than people had once realized, if you simply stop doing whats causing the problem. +And so, really, so much of what we do in medicine and life in general is focused on mopping up the floor without also turning off the faucet. +And so its not something -- happiness is not something you get, health is generally not something that you get. +But rather all of these different practices -- you know, the ancient swamis and rabbis and priests and monks and nuns didnt develop these techniques to just manage stress or lower your blood pressure, unclog your arteries, even though it can do all those things. +Theyre powerful tools for transformation, for quieting down our mind and bodies to allow us to experience what it feels like to be happy, to be peaceful, to be joyful and to realize that its not something that you pursue and get, but rather its something that you have already until you disturb it. +I studied yoga for many years with a teacher named Swami Satchidananda and people would say, "What are you, a Hindu?" Hed say, "No, Im an undo." +And its really about identifying whats causing us to disturb our innate health and happiness, and then to allow that natural healing to occur. +To me, thats the real natural wonder. +So, within that larger context, we can talk about diet, stress management -- which are really these spiritual practices -- moderate exercise, smoking cessation, support groups and community -- which Ill talk more about -- and some vitamins and supplements. +And its not a diet. +You know, when most people think about the diet I recommend, they think its a really strict diet. +For reversing disease, thats what it takes, but if youre just trying to be healthy, you have a spectrum of choices. +And to the degree that you can move in a healthy direction, youre going to live longer, youre going to feel better, youre going to lose weight, and so on. +And in our studies, what weve been able to do is to use very expensive, high-tech, state-of-the-art measures to prove how powerful these very simple and low-tech and low-cost -- and in many ways, ancient -- interventions, can be. +We first began by looking at heart disease, and when I began doing this work 26 or 27 years ago, it was thought that once you have heart disease it can only get worse. +And what we found was that, instead of getting worse and worse, in many cases it could get better and better, and much more quickly than people had once realized. +This is a representative patient who at the time was 73 -- totally needed to have a bypass, decided to do this instead. +We used quantitative arteriography, showing the narrowing. +This is one of the arteries that feed the heart, one of the main arteries, and you can see the narrowing here. +A year later, its not as clogged; normally, it goes the other direction. +These minor changes in blockages caused a 300 percent improvement in blood flow, and using cardiac positron emission tomography, or "PET," scans, blue and black is no blood flow, orange and white is maximal. +Huge differences can occur without drugs, without surgery. +Clinically, he literally couldnt walk across the street without getting severe chest pain; within a month, like most people, was pain-free, and within a year, climbing more than 100 floors a day on a Stairmaster. +This is not unusual, and its part of what enables people to maintain these kinds of changes, because it makes such a big difference in their quality of life. +Overall, if you looked at all the arteries in all the patients, they got worse and worse, from one year to five years, in the comparison group. +This is the natural history of heart disease, but its really not natural because we found it could get better and better, and much more quickly than people had once thought. +We also found that the more people change, the better they got. +It wasnt a function of how old or how sick they were -- it was mainly how much they changed, and the oldest patients improved as much as the young ones. +I got this as a Christmas card a few years ago from two of the patients in one of our programs. +The younger brother is 86, the older ones 95; they wanted to show me how much more flexible they were. +And the following year they sent me this one, which I thought was kind of funny. +You just never know. +And what we found was that 99 percent of the patients start to reverse the progression of their heart disease. +Now I thought, you know, if we just did good science, that would change medical practice. But, that was a little naive. +Its important, but not enough. +Because we doctors do what we get paid to do, and we get trained to do what we get paid to do, so if we change insurance, then we change medical practice and medical education. +Insurance will cover the bypass, itll cover the angioplasty; it wont, until recently, cover diet and lifestyle. +So, we began through our nonprofit institute's training hospitals around the country, and we found that most people could avoid surgery, and not only was it medically effective, it was also cost effective. +And the insurance companies found that they began to save almost 30,000 dollars per patient, and Medicare is now in the middle of doing a demonstration project where theyre paying for 1,800 people to go through the program on the sites that we train. +The fortuneteller says, "I give smokers a discount because theres not as much to tell." I like this slide, because its a chance to talk about what really motivates people to change, and what doesnt. +And what doesnt work is fear of dying, and thats whats normally used. +Everybody who smokes knows its not good for you, and still 30 percent of Americans smoke -- 80 percent in some parts of the world. Why do people do it? +Well, because it helps them get through the day. +And Ill talk more about this, but the real epidemic isnt just heart disease or obesity or smoking -- its loneliness and depression. +As one woman said, "Ive got 20 friends in this package of cigarettes, and theyre always there for me and nobody else is. +Youre going to take away my 20 friends? What are you going to give me?" +Or they eat when they get depressed, or they use alcohol to numb the pain, or they work too hard, or watch too much TV. +There are lots of ways we have of avoiding and numbing and bypassing pain, but the point of all of this is to deal with the cause of the problem. +And the pain is not the problem: its the symptom. +And telling people theyre going to die is too scary to think about, or, theyre going to get emphysema or heart attack is too scary, and so they dont want to think about it, so they dont. +The most effective anti-smoking ad was this one. +Youll notice the limp cigarette hanging out of his mouth, and "impotence" -- the headline is, "Impotent" -- its not emphysema. +What was the biggest selling drug of all time when it was introduced a few years ago? +Viagra, right? Why? Because a lot of guys need it. +Its not like you say, "Hey Joe, Im having erectile dysfunction, how about you?" +And yet, look at the number of prescriptions that are being sold. +Its not so much psychological, its vascular, and nicotine makes your arteries constrict. +So does cocaine, so does a high fat diet, so does emotional stress. +So the very behaviors that we think of as being so sexy in our culture are the very ones that leave so many people feeling tired, lethargic, depressed and impotent, and thats not much fun. +But when you change those behaviors, your brain gets more blood, you think more clearly, you have more energy, your heart gets more blood in ways Ive shown you. +Your sexual function improves. +And these things occur within hours. This is a study: a high fat meal, and within one or two hours blood-flow is measurably less -- and youve all experienced this at Thanksgiving. +When you eat a big fatty meal, how do you feel? +You feel kind of sleepy afterwards. +On a low-fat meal, the blood flow doesnt go down -- it even goes up. +Many of you have kids, and you know thats a big change in your lifestyle, and so people are not afraid to make big changes in lifestyle if theyre worth it. +And the paradox is that when you make big changes, you get big benefits, and you feel so much better so quickly. +For many people, those are choices worth making -- not to live longer, but to live better. +I want to talk a little bit about the obesity epidemic, because it really is a problem. +Two-thirds of adults are overweight or obese, and diabetes in kids and 30-year-olds has increased 70 percent in the last 10 years. Its no joke: its real. +And just to show you this, this is from the CDC. +These are not election returns; these are the percentage of people who are overweight. +And if you see from '85 to '86 to '87, '88, '89, '90, '91 -- you get a new category, 15 to 20 percent; '92, '93, '94, '95, '96, '97 -- you get a new category; '98, '99, 2000, and 2001. +Mississippi, more than 25 percent of people are overweight. +Why is this? Well, this is one way to lose weight that works very well ... +but it doesnt last, which is the problem. +Now, theres no mystery in how you lose weight; you either burn more calories by exercise or you eat fewer calories. +Now, one way to eat fewer calories is to eat less food, which is why you can lose weight on any diet if you eat less food, or if you restrict entire categories of foods. +But the problem is, you get hungry, so its hard to keep it off. +The other way is to change the type of food. +And fat has nine calories per gram, whereas protein and carbs only have four. +So, when you eat less fat, you eat fewer calories without having to eat less food. +So you can eat the same amount of food, but youll be getting fewer calories because the food is less dense in calories. +And its the volume of food that affects satiety, rather than the type of food. +You know, I dont like talking about the Atkins diet, but I get asked about it every day, and so I just thought Id spend a few minutes on that. +The myth that you hear about is, Americans have been told to eat less fat, the percent of calories from fat is down, Americans are fatter than ever, therefore fat doesnt make you fat. +Its a half-truth. Actually, Americans are eating more fat than ever, and even more carbs. And so the percentage is lower, the actual amount is higher, and so the goal is to reduce both. +Your pancreas makes insulin to bring it back down, which is good. +But insulin accelerates the conversion of calories into fat. +So, the goal is not to go to pork rinds and bacon and sausages -- these are not health foods -- but to go from "bad carbs" to what are called "good carbs." +And these are things like whole foods, or unrefined carbs: fruits, vegetables, whole wheat flour, brown rice, in their natural forms, are rich in fiber. +And the fiber fills you up before you get too many calories, and it slows the absorption so you dont get that rapid rise in blood sugar. +So, and you get all the disease-protective substances. +Its not just what you exclude from your diet, but also what you include thats protective. +Just as all carbs are not bad for you, all fats are not bad for you. There are good fats. +And these are predominantly what are called the Omega-3 fatty acids. +You find these, for example, in fish oil. +And the bad fats are things like trans-fatty acids and processed food and saturated fats, which we find in meat. +If you dont remember anything else from this talk, three grams a day of fish oil can reduce your risk of a heart attack and sudden death by 50 to 80 percent. +Three grams a day. They come in one-gram capsules; more than that just gives you extra fat you dont need. +It also helps reduce the risk of the most common cancers like breast, prostate and colon cancer. +Now, the problem with the Atkins diet, everybody knows people who have lost weight on it, but you can lose weight on amphetamines, you know, and fen-phen. +I mean, there are lots of ways of losing weight that arent good for you. +You want to lose weight in a way that enhances your health rather than the one that harms it. +And the problem is that its based on this half-truth, which is that Americans eat too many simple carbs, so if you eat fewer simple carbs youre going to lose weight. +Youll lose even more weight if you go to whole foods and less fat, and youll enhance your health rather than harming it. +He says, "Ive got some good news. +While your cholesterol level has remained the same, the research findings have changed." +Now, what happens to your heart when you go on an Atkins diet? +The red is good at the beginning, and a year later -- this is from a study done in a peer-reviewed journal called Angiology -- theres more red after a year on a diet like I would recommend, theres less red, less blood flow after a year on an Atkins-type diet. +So, yes, you can lose weight, but your heart isnt happy. +Now, one of the studies funded by the Atkins Center found that 70 percent of the people were constipated, 65 percent had bad breath, 54 percent had headaches this is not a healthy way to eat. +And so, you might start to lose weight and start to attract people towards you, but when they get too close its going to be a problem. +And more seriously, there are case reports now of 16-year-old girls who died after a few weeks on the Atkins diet -- of bone disease, kidney disease, and so on. +And thats how your body excretes waste, is through your breath, your bowels and your perspiration. +So when you go on these kinds of diet, they begin to smell bad. +So, an optimal diet is low in fat, low in the bad carbs, high in the good carbs and enough of the good fats. +And then, again, its a spectrum: when you move in this direction, youre going to lose weight, youre going to feel better and youre going to gain health. +Now, there are ecological reasons for eating lower on the food chain too, whether its the deforestation of the Amazon, or making more protein available, to the four billion people who live on a dollar a day -- not to mention whatever ethical concerns people have. +So, there are lots of reasons for eating this way that go beyond just your health. +Now, were about to publish the first study looking at the effects of this program on prostate cancer, and, in collaboration with Sloane-Kettering and with UCSF. +We took 90 men who had biopsy-proven prostate cancer and who had elected, for reasons unrelated to the study, not to have surgery. +We could randomly divide them into two groups, and then we could have one group that is a non-intervention control group to compare to, which we cant do with, say, breast cancer, because everyone gets treated. +What we found was that, after a year, none of the experimental group patients who made these lifestyle changes needed treatment, whereas six of the control-group patients needed surgery or radiation. +When we looked at their PSA levels -- which is a marker for prostate cancer -- they got worse in the control group, but they actually got better in the experimental group, and these differences were highly significant. +And then I wondered: was there any relationship between how much people changed their diet and lifestyle -- whichever group they were in -- and the changes in PSA? +And sure enough, we found a dose-response relationship, just like we found in the arterial blockages in our cardiac studies. +And in order for the PSA to go down, they had to make pretty big changes. +I then wondered, well, maybe theyre just changing their PSA, but its not really affecting the tumor growth. +So we took some of their blood serum and sent it down to UCLA; they added it to a standard line of prostate tumor cells growing in tissue culture, and it inhibited the growth seven times more in the experimental group than in the control group -- 70 versus 9 percent. +And finally, I said, I wonder if theres any relationship between how much people change and how it inhibited their tumor growth, whichever group they happened to be in. +And this really got me excited because again, we found the same pattern: the more people change, the more it affected the growth of their tumors. +And finally, we did MRI and MR spectroscopy scans on some of these patients, and the tumor activity is shown in red in this patient, and you can see clearly its better a year later, along with the PSA going down. +So, if its true for prostate cancer, itll almost certainly be true for breast cancer as well. +And whether or not you have conventional treatment, in addition, if you make these changes, it may help reduce the risk of recurrence. +But also, through mechanisms that we dont fully understand, people who are lonely and depressed are many times -- three to five to ten times, in some studies -- more likely to get sick and die prematurely. +And depression is treatable. We need to do something about that. +Now, on the other hand, anything that promotes intimacy is healing. +It can be sexual intimacy I happen to think that healing energy and erotic energy are just different forms of the same thing. +Friendship, altruism, compassion, service all the perennial truths that we talked about that are part of all religion and all cultures -- once you stop trying to see the differences, these are the things in our own self-interest, because they free us from our suffering and from disease. +And its in a sense the most selfish thing that we can do. +Just take a look at one study. This was done by David Spiegel at Stanford. +He took women with metastatic breast cancer, randomly divided them into two groups. +One group of people just met for an hour-and-a-half once a week in a support group. +It was a nurturing, loving environment, where they were encouraged to let down their emotional defenses and talk about how awful it is to have breast cancer with people who understood, because they were going through it too. +They just met once a week for a year. +Five years later, those women lived twice as long, and you can see that the people -- and that was the only difference between the groups. +It was a randomized control study published in The Lancet. +Other studies have shown this as well. +So, these simple things that create intimacy are really healing, and even the word healing, it comes from the root "to make whole." +The word yoga comes from the Sanskrit, meaning "union, to yoke, to bring together." +And the last slide I want to show you is from -- I was -- again, this swami that I studied with for so many years, and I did a combined oncology and cardiology Grand Rounds at the University of Virginia medical school a couple of years ago. +And at the end of it, somebody said, "Hey, Swami, whats the difference between wellness and illness?" +And so he went up on the board and he wrote the word "illness," and circled the first letter, and then wrote the word "wellness," and circled the first two letters ... +To me, its just shorthand for what were talking about: that anything that creates a sense of connection and community and love is really healing. +And then we can enjoy our lives more fully without getting sick in the process. +Thank you. +You hear that this is the era of environment -- or biology, or information technology ... +Well, it's the era of a lot of different things that we're in right now. But one thing for sure: it's the era of change. There's more change going on than ever has occurred in the history of human life on earth. +And you all sort of know it, but it's hard to get it so that you really understand it. +And I've tried to put together something that's a good start for this. +This is unprecedented, and it's big. +Where it goes in the future is questioned. So that's the human part. +Now, the human part related to animals: look at the left side of that. +What I call the human portion -- humans and their livestock and pets -- versus the natural portion -- all the other wild animals and just -- these are vertebrates and all the birds, etc., in the land and air, not in the water. How does it balance? +Certainly, 10,000 years ago, the civilization's beginning, the human portion was less than one tenth of one percent. Let's look at it now. +And the biggest problem came in the last 25 years: it went from 25 percent up to that 97 percent. +And this really is a sobering picture upon realizing that we, humans, are in charge of life on earth; we're like the capricious Gods of old Greek myths, kind of playing with life -- and not a great deal of wisdom injected into it. +Now, the third curve is information technology. +This is the size of the earth going through that same -- -- frame. And to make it really clear, I've put all four on one graph. +There's no need to see the little detailed words on it. +That first one is humans-versus-nature; we've won, there's no more gain. Human population. +And so if you're looking for growth industries to get into, that's not a good one -- protecting natural creatures. Human population is going up; it's going to continue for quite a while. +Good business in obstetricians, morticians, and farming, housing, etc. -- they all deal with human bodies, which require being fed, transported, housed and so on. And the information technology, which connects to our brains, has no limit -- now, that is a wonderful field to be in. You're looking for growth opportunity? +It's just going up through the roof. +And then, the size of the Earth. Somehow making these all compatible with the Earth looks like a pretty bad industry to be involved with. +So, that's the stage out of all this. I find, for reasons I don't understand, I really do have a goal. +And the goal is that the world be desirable and sustainable when my kids reach my age -- and I think that's -- in other words, the next generation. I think that's a goal that we probably all share. +I think it's a hopeless goal. Technologically, it's achievable; economically, it's achievable; politically, it means sort of the habits, institutions of people -- it's impossible. +The institutions of the past with all their inertia are just irrelevant for the future, except they're there and we have to deal with them. I spend about 15 percent of my time trying to save the world, the other 85 percent, the usual -- and whatever else we devote ourselves to. +Our school systems are very flawed and do not reward you for the things that are important in life or for the survival of civilization; they reward you for a lot of learning and sopping up stuff. +We can't go into that today because there isn't time -- it's a broad subject. One thing for sure, in the future there is an essential feature -- necessary, but not sufficient -- which is doing more with less. We've got to be doing things with more efficiency using less energy, less material. +Your great-great grandparents got by on muscle power, and yet we all think there's this huge power that's essential for our lifestyle. And with all the wonderful technology we have we can do things that are much more efficient: conserve, recycle, etc. +Let me just rush very quickly through things that we've done. +Human-powered airplane -- Gossamer Condor sort of started me in this direction in 1976 and 77, winning the Kremer prize in aviation history, followed by the Albatross. And we began making various odd planes and creatures. +Here's a giant flying replica of a pterosaur that has no tail. +Trying to have it fly straight is like trying to shoot an arrow with the feathered end forward. It was a tough job, and boy it made me have a lot of respect for nature. +This was the full size of the original creature. +We did things on land, in the air, on water -- vehicles of all different kinds, usually with some electronics or electric power systems in them. I find they're all the same, whether its land, air or water. +I'll be focusing on the air here. This is a solar-powered airplane -- 165 miles carrying a person from France to England as a symbol that solar power is going to be an important part of our future. Then we did the solar car for General Motors -- the Sunracer -- that won the race in Australia. +With that preamble, let's show the first two-minute videotape, which shows a little airplane for surveillance and moving to a giant airplane. +Narrator: A tiny airplane, the AV Pointer serves for surveillance -- in effect, a pair of roving eyeglasses. A cutting-edge example of where miniaturization can lead if the operator is remote from the vehicle. It is convenient to carry, assemble and launch by hand. Battery-powered, it is silent and rarely noticed. +It sends high-resolution video pictures back to the operator. +With onboard GPS, it can navigate autonomously, and it is rugged enough to self-land without damage. +The modern sailplane is superbly efficient. +Some can glide as flat as 60 feet forward for every foot of descent. +They are powered only by the energy they can extract from the atmosphere -- an atmosphere nature stirs up by solar energy. +Humans and soaring birds have found nature to be generous in providing replenishable energy. Sailplanes have flown over 1,000 miles, and the altitude record is over 50,000 feet. +The Solar Challenger was made to serve as a symbol that photovoltaic cells can produce real power and will be part of the world's energy future. +In 1981, it flew 163 miles from Paris to England, solely on the power of sunbeams, and established a basis for the Pathfinder. +The message from all these vehicles is that ideas and technology can be harnessed to produce remarkable gains in doing more with less -- gains that can help us attain a desirable balance between technology and nature. The stakes are high as we speed toward a challenging future. +Buckminster Fuller said it clearly: "there are no passengers on spaceship Earth, only crew. We, the crew, can and must do more with less -- much less." +It's amazing: just on the puny power of the sun -- by having a super lightweight plane, you're able to get it up there. +It's part of a long-term program NASA sponsored. +And we worked very closely with the whole thing being a team effort, and with wonderful results like that flight. +And we're working on a bigger plane -- 220-foot span -- and an intermediate-size, one with a regenerative fuel cell that can store excess energy during the day, feed it back at night, and stay up 65,000 feet for months at a time. +Ray Morgan's voice will come in here. +There he's the project manager. Anything they do is certainly a team effort. He ran this program. Here's ... +some things he showed as a celebration at the very end. +Ray Morgan: We'd just ended a seven-month deployment of Hawaii. +For those who live on the mainland, it was tough being away from home. +The friendly support, the quiet confidence, congenial hospitality shown by our Hawaiian and military hosts -- this is starting -- made the experience enjoyable and unforgettable. +We couldn't bring one here to fly it and show you. +But now let's look at the other end. +So Matt Keenan, just any time you're -- all right -- ready to let her go. But first, we're going to make sure that it's appearing on the screen, so you see what it sees. +You can imagine yourself being a mouse or fly inside of it, looking out of its camera. +Matt Keenan: It's switched on. +PM: But now we're trying to get the video. There we go. +MK: Can you bring up the house lights? +PM: Yeah, the house lights and we'll see you all better and be able to fly the plane better. +MK: All right, we'll try to do a few laps around and bring it back in. +Here we go. +PM: The video worked right for the first few and I don't know why it -- there it goes. +Oh, that was only a minute, but I think you'd be safe to have that near the end of the flight, perhaps. +We get to do the classic. +All right. +If this hits you, it will not hurt you. +OK. +Thank you very much. Thank you. +But now, as they say in infomercials, we have something much better for you, which we're working on: planes that are only six inches -- 15 centimeters -- in size. +And Matt's plane was on the cover of Popular Science last month, showing what this can lead to. And in a while, something this size will have GPS and a video camera in it. We've had one of these fly nine miles through the air at 35 miles an hour with just a little battery in it. +But there's a lot of technology going. +There are just milestones along the way of some remarkable things. +This one doesn't have the video in it, but you get a little feel from what it can do. +OK, here we go. +MK: Sorry. +OK. +PM: If you can pass it down when you're done. Yeah, I think -- I lost a little orientation; I looked up into this light. +It hit the building. And the building was poorly placed, actually. +But you're beginning to see what can be done. +We're working on projects now -- even wing-flapping things the size of hawk moths -- DARPA contracts, working with Caltech, UCLA. +Where all this leads, I don't know. Is it practical? I don't know. +But like any basic research, when you're really forced to do things that are way beyond existing technology, you can get there with micro-technology, nanotechnology. +It never makes a mistake. Because if you make a mistake, you don't leave any progeny. +We should have nothing but success stories from nature, for you or for birds, and we're learning a lot from its fascinating subjects. +In concluding, I want to get back to the big picture and I have just two final slides to try and put it in perspective. +The first I'll just read. At last, I put in three sentences and had it say what I wanted. +And that's serious: we're not very bright. We're short on wisdom; we're high on technology. Where's it going to lead? +Well, inspired by the sentences, I decided to wield the paintbrush. +Every 25 years I do a picture. Here's the one -- tries to show that the world isn't getting any bigger. +Sort of a timeline, very non-linear scale, nature rates and trilobites and dinosaurs, and eventually we saw some humans with caves ... Birds were flying overhead, after pterosaurs. +And then we get to the civilization above the little TV set with a gun on it. Then traffic jams, and power systems, and some dots for digital. Where it's going to lead -- I have no idea. +And so I just put robotic and natural cockroaches out there, but you can fill in whatever you want. This is not a forecast. +This is a warning, and we have to think seriously about it. +And that time when this is happening is not 100 years or 500 years. +Things are going on this decade, next decade; it's a very short time that we have to decide what we are going to do. +I personally think the surviving intelligent life form on earth is not going to be carbon-based; it's going to be silicon-based. +And so where it all goes, I don't know. +The one final bit of sparkle we'll put in at the very end here is an utterly impractical flight vehicle, which is a little ornithopter wing-flapping device that -- rubber-band powered -- that we'll show you. +MK: 32 gram. Sorry, one gram. +PM: Last night we gave it a few too many turns and it tried to bash the roof out also. It's about a gram. +The tube there's hollow, about paper-thin. +And if this lands on you, I assure you it will not hurt you. +But if you reach out to grab it or hold it, you will destroy it. +So, be gentle, just act like a wooden Indian or something. +And when it comes down -- and we'll see how it goes. +We consider this to be sort of the spirit of TED. +And you wonder, is it practical? And it turns out if I had not been -- Unfortunately, we have some light bulb changes. +A lot of these things -- or similar -- would have happened some time, probably a decade later. I didn't realize at the time I was doing inquiry-based, hands-on things with teams, like they're trying to get in education systems. +So I think that, as a symbol, it's important. +Thank you. +When I first arrived in beautiful Zimbabwe, it was difficult to understand that 35 percent of the population is HIV positive. +It really wasn't until I was invited to the homes of people that I started to understand the human toll of the epidemic. +For instance, this is Herbert with his grandmother. +When I first met him, he was sitting on his grandmother's lap. +He has been orphaned, as both of his parents died of AIDS, and his grandmother took care of him until he too died of AIDS. +He liked to sit on her lap because he said that it was painful for him to lie in his own bed. +When she got up to make tea, she placed him in my own lap and I had never felt a child that was that emaciated. +Before I left, I actually asked him if I could get him something. +I thought he would ask for a toy, or candy, and he asked me for slippers, because he said that his feet were cold. +This is Joyce who's -- in this picture -- 21. +Single mother, HIV positive. +I photographed her before and after the birth of her beautiful baby girl, Issa. +And I was last week walking on Lafayette Street in Manhattan and got a call from a woman who I didn't know, but she called to tell me that Joyce had passed away at the age of 23. +Joyce's mother is now taking care of her daughter, like so many other Zimbabwean children who've been orphaned by the epidemic. +So a few of the stories. +With every picture, there are individuals who have full lives and stories that deserve to be told. +All these pictures are from Zimbabwe. +Chris Anderson: Kirsten, will you just take one minute, just to tell your own story of how you got to Africa? +Kirsten Ashburn: Mmm, gosh. +CA: Just -- KA: Actually, I was working at the time, doing production for a fashion photographer. +And I was constantly reading the New York Times, and stunned by the statistics, the numbers. +It was just frightening. +So I quit my job and decided that that's the subject that I wanted to tackle. +And I first actually went to Botswana, where I spent a month -- this is in December 2000 -- then went to Zimbabwe for a month and a half, and then went back again this March 2002 for another month and a half in Zimbabwe. +CA: That's an amazing story, thank you. +KB: Thanks for letting me show these. +This means, "I'm smiling." +So does that. +This means "mouse." +"Cat." +Here we have a story. +The start of the story, where this means guy, and that is a ponytail on a passer-by. +Here's where it happens. +These are when. +This is a cassette tape the girl puts into her cassette-tape player. +She wears it every day. +It's not considered vintage -- she just likes certain music to sound a certain way. +Look at her posture; it's remarkable. +That's because she dances. +Now he, the guy, takes all of this in, figuring, "Honestly, geez, what are my chances?" +And he could say, "Oh my God!" +or "I heart you!" +"I'm laughing out loud." +"I want to give you a hug." +But he comes up with that, you know. +He tells her, "I'd like to hand-paint your portrait on a coffee mug." +Put a crab inside it. +Add some water. +Seven different salts. +He means he's got this sudden notion to stand on dry land, but just panhandle at the ocean. +He says, "You look like a mermaid, but you walk like a waltz." +And the girl goes, "Wha'?" +So, the guy replies, "Yeah, I know, I know. +I think my heartbeat might be the Morse code for inappropriate. +At least, that's how it seems. +I'm like a junior varsity cheerleader sometimes -- for swearing, awkward silences, and very simple rhyme schemes. +Right now, talking to you, I'm not even really a guy. +I'm a monkey -- -- blowing kisses at a butterfly. +But I'm still suggesting you and I should meet. +First, soon, and then a lot. +I'm thinking the southwest corner of 5th and 42nd at noon tomorrow, but I'll stay until you show up, ponytail or not. +Hell, ponytail alone. +I don't know what else to tell you. +I got a pencil you can borrow. +You can put it in your phone." +But the girl does not budge, does not smile, does not frown. +She just says, "No thank you." +You know? +Zach Kaplan: Keith and I lead a research team. +We investigate materials and technologies that have unexpected properties. Over the last three years, we found over 200 of these things, and so we looked back into our library and selected six we thought would be most surprising for TED. +Of these six, the first one that we're going to talk about is in the black envelope you're holding. +It comes from a company in Japan called GelTech. Now go ahead and open it up. +Keith Schacht: Now be sure and take the two pieces apart. +What's unexpected about this is that it's soft, but it's also a strong magnet. +Zach and I have always been fascinated observing unexpected things like this. +We spent a long time thinking about why this is, and it's just recently that we realized: it's when we see something unexpected, it changes our understanding of the way things work. +As you're seeing this gel magnet for the first time, if you assume that all magnets had to be hard, then seeing this surprised you and it changed your understanding of the way magnets could work. +ZK: Now, it's important to understand what the unexpected properties are. +But to really think about the implications of what this makes possible, we found that it helps to think about how it could be applied in the world. +So, a first idea is to use it on cabinet doors. +If you line the sides of the cabinets using the gel material -- if a cabinet slams shut it wouldn't make a loud noise, and in addition the magnets would draw the cabinets closed. +Imagine taking the same material, but putting it on the bottom of a sneaker. +You know, this way you could go to the container store and buy one of those metal sheets that they hang on the back of your door, in your closet, and you could literally stick your shoes up instead of using a shelf. +For me, I really love this idea. +If you come to my apartment and see my closet, I'm sure you'd figure out why: it's a mess. +KS: Seeing the unexpected properties and then seeing a couple of applications -- it helps you see why this is significant, what the potential is. +But we've found that the way we present our ideas it makes a big difference. +ZK: It was like six months ago that Keith and I were out in L.A., and we were at Starbucks having coffee with Roman Coppola. +He works on mostly music videos and commercials with his company, The Directors Bureau. +As we were talking, Roman told us that he's kind of an inventor on the side. +These things just get him really excited. And so we're looking at these concepts, and we were just like, whoa, this guy's good. +Because the way that he presented the concept -- his approach was totally different than ours. He sold it to you as if it was for sale right now. +When we were going in the car back to the airport, we were thinking: why was this so powerful? +Narrator: Do you have a need for speed? +Inventables Water Adventures dares you to launch yourself on a magnetically-levitating board down a waterslide so fast, so tall, that when you hit the bottom, it uses brakes to stop. +Aqua Rocket: coming this summer. +KS: Now, we showed the concept to a few people before this, and they asked us, when's it coming out? +So I just wanted to let you know, it's not actually coming out, just the concept is. +ZK: So now, when we dream up these concepts, it's important for us to make sure that they work from a technical standpoint. +So I just want to quickly explain how this would work. +This is the magnetically-levitating board that they mentioned in the commercial. +The gel that you're holding would be lining the bottom of the board. +Now this is important for two reasons. +One: the soft properties of the magnet that make it so that, if it were to hit the rider in the head, it wouldn't injure him. +In addition, you can see from the diagram on the right, the underpart of the slide would be an electromagnet. +So this would actually repel the rider a little bit as you're going down. +The force of the water rushing down, in addition to that repulsion force, would make this slide go faster than any slide on the market. +It's because of this that you need the magnetic braking system. +When you get to the very bottom of the slide -- -- the rider passes through an aluminum tube. +And I'm going to kick it to Keith to explain why that's important from a technical standpoint. +KS: So I'm sure all you engineers know that even though aluminum is a metal, it's not a magnetic material. But something unexpected happens when you drop a magnet down an aluminum tube. +So we set up a quick experiment here to show that to you. +Now, you see the magnet fell really slowly. +Now, I'm not going to get into the physics of it, but all you need to know is that the faster the magnet's falling, the greater the stopping force. +ZK: Now, our next technology is actually a 10-foot pole, and I have it right here in my pocket. +There're a few different versions of it. +KS: Some of them automatically unroll like this one. +They can be made to automatically roll up, or they can be made stable, like Zach's, to hold any position in between. +In our brainstorms, we came up with the idea you could use it for a soccer goal: so at the end of the game, you just roll up the goal and put it in your gym bag. +KS: Now, the interesting thing about this is, you don't have to be an engineer to appreciate why a 10-foot pole that can fit in your pocket is so interesting. +So we decided to go out onto the streets of Chicago and ask a few people on the streets what they thought you could do with this. +Man: I clean my ceiling fans with that and I get the spider webs off my house -- I do it that way. +Woman: I'd make my very own walking stick. +Woman: I would create a ladder to use to get up on top of the tree. +Woman: An olive server. +Man: Some type of extension pole -- like what the painters use. +Woman: I would make a spear that, when you went deep sea diving, you could catch the fish really fast, and then roll it back up, and you could swim easier ... Yeah. +ZK: Now, for our next technology we're going to do a little demonstration, and so we need a volunteer from the audience. +You sir, come on up. +Come on up. Tell everybody your name. +Steve Jurvetson: Steve. +ZK: It's Steve. All right Steve, now, follow me. +We need you to stand right in front of the TED sign. +Right there. That's great. +And hold onto this. Good luck to you. +KS: No, not yet. +ZK: I'd just like to let you all know that this presentation has been brought to you by Target. +KS: Little bit -- that's perfect, just perfect. +Now, Zach, we're going to demonstrate a water gun fight from the future. +So here, come on up to the front. All right, so now if you'll see here -- no, no, it's OK. +So, describe to the audience the temperature of your shirt. Go ahead. +SJ: It's cold. +KS: Now the reason it's cold is that's it's not actually water loaded into these squirt guns -- it's a dry liquid developed by 3M. +It's perfectly clear, it's odorless, it's colorless. +It's so safe you could drink this stuff. +And the reason it feels cold is because it evaporates 25 times faster than water. +All right, well thanks for coming up. +ZK: Wait, wait, Steven -- before you go we filled this with the dry liquid so during the break you can shoot your friends. +SJ: Excellent, thank you. +KS: Thanks for coming up. Let's give him a big round of applause. +So what's the significance of this dry liquid? +Early versions of the fluid were actually used on a Cray Supercomputer. +Now, the unexpected thing about this is that Zach could stand up on stage and drench a perfectly innocent member of the audience without any concern that we'd damage the electronics, that we'd get him wet, that we'd hurt the books or the computers. It works because it's non-conductive. +So you can see here, you can immerse a whole circuit board in this and it wouldn't cause any damage. +You can circulate it to draw the heat away. +But today it's most widely used in office buildings -- in the sprinkler system -- as a fire-suppression fluid. +Again, it's perfectly safe for people. It puts out the fires, doesn't hurt anything. +But our favorite idea for this was using it in a basketball game. So during halftime, it could rain down on the players, cool everyone down, and in a matter of minutes it would dry. Wouldn't hurt the court. +ZK: Our next technology comes to us from a company in Japan called Sekisui Chemical. One of their R&D engineers was working on a way to make plastic stiffer. +While he was doing this, he noticed an unexpected thing. +We have a video to show you. +KS: So you see there, it didn't bounce back. Now, this was an unintended side effect of some experiments they were doing. +It's technically called, "shape-retaining property." +Now, think about your interactions with aluminum foil. +Shape-retaining is common in metal: you bend a piece of aluminum foil, and it holds its place. Contrast that with a plastic garbage can -- and you can push in the sides and it always bounces back. +ZK: For example, you could make a watch that wraps around your wrist, but doesn't use a buckle. +Taking it a little further, if you wove those strips together -- kind of like a little basket -- you could make a shape-retaining sheet, and then you could embed it in a cloth: so you could make a picnic sheet that wraps around the table, so that way on a windy day it wouldn't blow away. +For our next technology, it's hard to observe the unexpected property by itself, because it's an ink. +So, we've prepared a video to show it applied to paper. +KS: As this paper is bending, the resistance of the ink changes. +So with simple electronics, you can detect how much the page is being bent. +Now, to think about the potential for this, think of all the places ink is supplied: on business cards, on the back of cereal boxes, board games. Any place you use ink, you could change the way you interact with it. +ZK: So my favorite idea for this is to apply the ink to a book. +This could totally change the way that you interface with paper. +You see the dark line on the side and the top. As you turn the pages of the book, the book can actually detect what page you're on, based on the curvature of the pages. +In addition, if you were to fold in one of the corners, then you could program the book to actually email you the text on the page for your notes. +KS: For our last technology, we worked again with Roman and his team at the Directors Bureau to develop a commercial from the future to explain how it works. +Old Milk Carton: Oh yeah, it smells good. +Who are you? +New Milk Carton: I'm New Milk. +OMC: I used to smell like you. +Narrator: Fresh Watch, from Inventables Dairy Farms. +Packaging that changes color when your milk's gone off. +Don't let milk spoil your morning. +ZK: Now, this technology was developed by these two guys: Professor Ken Suslick and Neil Rakow, of the University of Illinois. +KS: Now the way it works: there's a matrix of color dyes. +And these dyes change color in response to odors. +So the smell of vanilla, that might change the four on the left to brown and the one on the right to yellow. This matrix can produce thousands of different color combinations to represent thousands of different smells. +But like in the milk commercial, if you know what odor you want to detect, then they can formulate a specific dye to detect just that odor. +ZK: Right. It was that that started a conversation with Professor Suslick and myself, and he was explaining to me the things that this is making possible, beyond just detecting spoiled food. It's really where the significance of it lies. +His company actually did a survey of firemen all across the country to try to learn, how are they currently testing the air when they respond to an emergency scene? +And he kind of comically explained that time after time, what the firemen would say is: they would rush to the scene of the crime; they would look around; if there were no dead policemen, it was OK to go. +I mean, this is a true story. They're using policemen as canaries. +But more seriously, they determined that you could develop a device that can smell better than the humans, and say if it's safe for the firemen. +In addition, he's spun off a company from the University called ChemSensing, where they're working on medical equipment. +So, a patient can come in and actually blow into their device. +By detecting the odor of particular bacteria, or viruses, or even lung cancer, the dots will change and they can use software to analyze the results. +This can radically improve the way that doctors diagnose patients. +Currently, they're using a method of trial and error, but this could tell you precisely what disease you have. +KS: So that was the six we had for you today, but I hope you're starting to see why we find these things so fascinating. +ZK: This is something that Keith and I really enjoy doing. +And you know, his son was mesmerized, because he would dunk it in the water, he would take it out and it was bone dry. A few weeks later, he said that his son was playing with a lock of his mother's hair, and he noticed that there were some drops of water on the hair. +And he took the thing and he looked up to Steve and he said, "Look, hydrophobic string." +I mean, after hearing that story -- that really summed it up for me. +Thank you very much. +KS: Thank you. +This is very strange for me, because Im not used to doing this: I usually stand on the other side of the light, and now I'm feeling the pressure I put other people into. And it's hard ... +The previous speaker has, I think, really painted a very good background as to the impulse behind my work and what drives me, and my sense of loss, and trying to find the answer to the big questions. +But this, for me, I mean, coming here to do this, feels like -- theres this sculptor that I like very much, Giacometti, who after many years of living in France -- and learning, you know, studying and working -- he returned home and he was asked, what did you produce? +What have you done with so many years of being away? +And he sort of, he showed a handful of figurines. +And obviously they were, "Is this what you spent years doing? +And we expected huge masterpieces!" +But what struck me is the understanding that in those little pieces was the culmination of a mans life, search, thought, everything -- just in a reduced, small version. +In a way, I feel like that. +I feel like Im coming home to talk about what Ive been away doing for 20 years. +And I will start with a brief taster of what Ive been about: a handful of films -- nothing much, two feature films and a handful of short films. +So, well go with the first piece. +Woman: "I destroy lives," mum said. +I love her, you know. +Shes not even my real mum. +My real mum and dad dumped me and fucked off back to Nigeria. +The devil is in me, Court. +Court: Sleep. +Woman: Have you ever been? +Court: Where? +Woman: Nigeria. +Court: Never. +My mum wanted to, couldnt afford it. +Woman: Wish I could. +I have this feeling Id be happy there. +Why does everyone get rid of me? +Court: I don't want to get rid of you. +Woman: You don't need me. +Youre just too blind to see it now. +Boy: What do you do all day? +Marcus: Read. +Boy: Don't you get bored? +And how come you ain't got a job anyway? +Marcus: I am retired. +Boy: So? +Marcus: So I've done my bit for Queen and country, now I work for myself. +Boy: No, now you sit around like a bum all day. +Marcus: Because I do what I like? +Boy: Look man, reading don't feed no one. +And it particularly don't feed your spliff habit. +Marcus: It feeds my mind and my soul. +Boy: Arguing with you is a waste of time, Marcus. +Marcus: Youre a rapper, am I right? +Boy: Yeah. +Marcus: A modern day poet. +Boy: Yeah, you could say that. +Marcus: So what do you talk about? +Boy: What's that supposed to mean? +Marcus: Simple. What do you rap about? +Boy: Reality, man. +Marcus: Whose reality? +Boy: My fuckin' reality. +Marcus: Tell me about your reality. +Boy: Racism, oppression, people like me not getting a break in life. +Marcus: So what solutions do you offer? I mean, the job of a poet is not just -- Boy: Man, fight the power! Simple: blow the motherfuckers out of the sky. +Marcus: With an AK-47? +Boy: Man, if I had one, too fuckin' right. +Marcus: And how many soldiers have you recruited to fight this war with you? +Boy: Oh, Marcus, you know what I mean. +Marcus: When a man resorts to profanities, its a sure sign of his inability to express himself. +Boy: See man, youre just taking the piss out of me now. +Marcus: The Panthers. +Boy: Panthers? +Ass kickin' guys who were fed up with all that white supremacist, powers-that-be bullshit, and just went in there and kicked everybody's arse. +Fuckin wicked, man. I saw the movie. Bad! What? +Director 1: I saw his last film. +puise, right? +Woman 1: Yes. +D1: Not to make a bad joke, but it was really puis. +Epuis -- tired, exhausted, fed up. +Director 2: Can you not shut up? +Now, you talk straight to me, whats wrong with my films? +Lets go. +W1: They suck. +Woman 2: They suck? What about yours? +What, what, what, what about, what? +What do you think about your movie? +D1: My movies, they are OK, fine. +They are better than making documentaries no one ever sees. +What the fuck are you talking about? +Did you ever move your fuckin' ass from Hollywood to go and film something real? +You make people fuckin' sleep. +Dream about bullshit. +Newton Aduaka: Thank you. The first clip, really, is totally trying to capture what cinema is for me, and where I'm coming from in terms of cinema. +The first piece was, really, there's a young woman talking about Nigeria, that she has a feeling she'll be happy there. +These are the sentiments of someone that's been away from home. +And that was something that I went through, you know, and I'm still going through. +I've not been home for quite a while, for about five years now. +I've been away 20 years in total. +And so its really -- it's really how suddenly, you know, this was made in 1997, which is the time of Abacha -- the military dictatorship, the worst part of Nigerian history, this post-colonial history. +So, for this girl to have these dreams is simply how we preserve a sense of what home is. +How -- and it's sort of, perhaps romantic, but I think beautiful, because you just need something to hold on to, especially in a society where you feel alienated. +Which takes us to the next piece, where the young man talks about lack of opportunity: living as a black person in Europe, the glass ceiling that we all know about, that we all talk about, and his reality. +Again, this was my -- this was me talking about -- this was, again, the time of multiculturalism in the United Kingdom, and there was this buzzword -- and it was trying to say, what exactly does this multiculturalism mean in the real lives of people? +And what would a child -- what does a child like Jamie -- the young boy -- think, I mean, with all this anger that's built up inside of him? +What happens with that? +But I lived in England for 18 years. +I've lived in France for about four, and I feel actually thrown back 20 years, living in France. +And then, the third piece. The third piece for me is the question: What is cinema to you? What do you do with cinema? +There's a young director, Hollywood director, with his friends -- fellow filmmakers -- talking about what cinema means. +I suppose that will take me to my last piece -- what cinema means for me. +My life started as a -- I started life in 1966, a few months before the Biafran, which lasted for three years and it was three years of war. +So that whole thing, that whole childhood echoes and takes me into the next piece. +Voice: Onicha, off to school with your brother. +Onicha: Yes, mama. +Commander: Soldiers, you are going to fight a battle, so you must get ready and willing to die. +You must get -- ? +Child Soldiers: Ready and willing to die. +C: Success, the change is only coming through the barrel of the gun. +CS: The barrel of the gun! +C: This is the gun. +CS: This is the gun. +C: This is an AK-47 rifle. This is your life. +This is your life. This is ... this is ... this is your life. +Ezra: They give us the special drugs. We call it bubbles. +Amphetamines. +Soldiers: Rain come, sun come, soldier man dey go. +I say rain come, sun come, soldier man dey go. +We went from one village to another -- three villages. +I dont remember how we got there. +Witness: We walked and walked for two days. +We didn't eat. +There was no food, just little rice. +Without food -- I was sick. +The injection made us not to have mind. +God will forgive us. +He knows we did not know. We did not know! +Committee Chairman: Do you remember January 6th, 1999? +Ezra: I dont remember. +Various Voices: You will die! You will die! Onicha: Ezra! (Ezra: Onicha! Onicha!) Various Voices: We don't need no more trouble No more trouble They killed my mother. +The Mende sons of bastards. +Who is she? +Me. +Why you giving these to me? +So you can stop staring at me. +My story is a little bit complicated. +Im interested. +Mariam is pregnant. +You know what you are? A crocodile. +Big mouth. Short legs. +In front of Rufus you are Ezra the coward. +Hes not taking care of his troops. +Troop, pay your last honor. Salute. +Open your eyes, Ezra. +A blind man can see that the diamonds end up in his pocket. + We don't need no more trouble Get that idiot out! +I take you are preparing a major attack? +This must be the mine. +Your girl is here. +Well done, well done. +That is what you are here for, no? +You are planning to go back to fight are you? + We don't need no more trouble No more trouble We don't need no more trouble No more trouble. Wake up! Everybody wake up. Road block! + We don't need no more ... Committee Chairman: We hope that, with your help and the help of others, that this commission will go a long way towards understanding the causes of the rebel war. +More than that, begin a healing process and finally to -- as an act of closure to a terrible period in this countrys history. +The beginning of hope. +Mr. Ezra Gelehun, please stand. +State your name and age for the commission. +Ezra: My name is Ezra Gelehun. +I am 15 or 16. I dont remember. +Ask my sister, she is the witch, she knows everything. +(Sister: 16.) CC: Mr. Gelehun, Id like to remind you youre not on trial here for any crimes you committed. +E: We were fighting for our freedom. +If killing in a war is a crime, then you have to charge every soldier in the world. +War is a crime, yes, but I did not start it. +You too are a retired General, not so? +CC: Yes, correct. +E: So you too must stand trial then. +Our government was corrupt. +Lack of education was their way to control power. +If I may ask, do you pay for school in your country? +CC: No, we dont. +E: You are richer than us. +But we pay for school. +Your country talks about democracy, but you support corrupt governments like my own. +Why? Because you want our diamond. +Ask if anyone in this room have ever seen real diamond before? +No. +CC: Mr. Gelehun, I'd like to remind you, you're not on trial here today. +You are not on trial. +E: Then let me go. +CC: I can't do that, son. +E: So you are a liar. +NA: Thank you. Just very quickly to say that my point really here, is that while were making all these huge advancements, what we're doing, which for me, you know, I think we should -- Africa should move forward, but we should remember, so we do not go back here again. +Thank you. +Emeka Okafor: Thank you, Newton. +One of the themes that comes through very strongly in the piece we just watched is this sense of the psychological trauma of the young that have to play this role of being child soldiers. +And considering where you are coming from, and when we consider the extent to which its not taken as seriously as it should be, what would you have to say about that? +NA: In the process of my research, I actually spent a bit of time in Sierra Leone researching this. +And I remember I met a lot of child soldiers -- ex-combatants, as they like to be called. +I met psychosocial workers who worked with them. +I met psychiatrists who spent time with them, aid workers, NGOs, the whole lot. +But I remember on the flight back on my last trip, I remember breaking down in tears and thinking to myself, if any kid in the West, in the western world, went through a day of what any of those kids have gone through, they will be in therapy for the rest of their natural lives. +So for me, the thought that we have all these children -- its a generation, we have a whole generation of children -- who have been put through so much psychological trauma or damage, and Africa has to live with that. +But Im just saying to factor that in, factor that in with all this great advancement, all this pronouncement of great achievement. +Thats really my thinking. +EO: Well, we thank you again for coming to the TED stage. +That was a very moving piece. +NA: Thank you. +EO: Thank you. +I think the future of this planet depends on humans, not technology, and we already have the knowledge -- were kind of at the endgame with knowledge. +But were nowhere near the endgame when it comes to our perception. +We still have one foot in the dark ages. +And when you listen to some of the presentations here -- and the extraordinary range of human capability, our understandings -- and then you contrast it with the fact we still call this planet, "Earth:" its pretty extraordinary -- we have one foot in the dark ages. +Just quickly: Aristotle, his thing was, "Its not flat, stupid, its round." +Galileo -- he had the Inquisition, so he had to be a little bit more polite -- his was, "Its not in the middle, you know." +And Hawkes: "its not earth, stupid, its ocean." +This is an ocean planet. +T.S. Eliot really said it for me -- and this should give you goose bumps: "we shall not cease from exploration and the end of our exploring shall be to return where we started and know the place for the first time." +And the next lines are, "Through the unknown remembered gate, where the last of earth discovered is that which is the beginning." +So I have one message. +It seems to me that were all pointed in the wrong direction. +For the rocketeers in the audience: I love what youre doing, I admire the guts, I admire the courage -- but your rockets are pointed in the wrong goddamn direction. +And its all a question of perspective. +Let me try and tell you -- I dont mean to insult you, but look, if I -- and Im not doing this for real because it would be an insult, so Im going to pretend, and it softens the blow -- Im going to tell you what youre thinking. +If I held up a square that was one foot square and the color of earth, and I held up another square that was the root two square -- so its 1.5 times bigger -- and was the color of the oceans; and I said, what is the relative value of these two things? +Well, its the relative importance. +You would say -- yeah, yeah, yeah, we all know this; water covers twice the area of the planet than dry land. +But its a question of perception, and if thats what youre thinking, if thats what you think I mean when I say, "This is an ocean planet stupidly called 'Earth.'" If you think that thats the relative importance, two to one, youre wrong by a factor of ten. +Now, youre not as thick as two short planks, but you sound like it when you say "Earth," because that demonstration, if I turned around this way -- that earth plane would be as thin as paper. +Its a thin film, two-dimensional existence. +The ocean representation would have a depth to it. +And if you hefted those two things you might find that the relative scale of those is 20 to 1. +It turns out that something more than 94 percent of life on earth is aquatic. +That means that us terrestrials occupy a minority. +The problem we have in believing that is -- you just have to give up this notion that this Earth was created for us. +Because its a problem we have. +If this is an ocean planet and we only have a small minority of this planet, it just interferes with a lot of what humanity thinks. +Okay. Let me criticize this thing. +Im not talking about James Cameron -- although I could, but I wont. +You really do have to go and see his latest film, "Aliens of the Deep." Its incredible. +It features two of these deep rovers, and I can criticize them because these sweet things are mine. +This, I think, represents one of the most beautiful classic submersibles built. +If you look at that sub, youll see a sphere. +This is an acryclic sphere. +It generates all of the buoyancy, all of the payload for the craft, and the batteries are down here hanging underneath, exactly like a balloon. +This is the envelope, and this is the gondola, the payload. +Also coming up later for criticism are these massive lights. +And this one actually carries two great manipulators. +It actually is a very good working sub -- thats what it was designed for. +The problem with it is -- and the reason I will never build another one like it -- is that this is a product of two-dimensional thinking. +Its what we humans do when we go in the ocean as engineers; we take all our terrestrial hang-ups, all our constraints -- importantly, these two-dimensional constraints that we have, and theyre so constrained we dont even understand it -- and we take them underwater. +You notice that Jim Cameron is sitting in a seat. +A seat works in a two-dimensional world, where gravity blasts down on that seat, OK? +And in a two-dimensional world, we do know about the third dimension but we dont use it because to go up requires an awful lot of energy against gravity. +And then our mothers tell us, "Careful you dont fall down" -- because youll fall over. +Now, go into the real atmosphere of this planet. +This planet has an inner atmosphere of water; its its inner atmosphere. It has two atmospheres -- a lesser, outer gaseous atmosphere, a lighter one. +Most of life on earth is in that inner atmosphere. +And that life enjoys a three-dimensional existence, which is alien to us. +Fish do not sit in seats. +They dont. Their mothers dont say to little baby fish, "Careful you dont fall over." +They dont fall over. They dont fall. +They live in a three-dimensional world where there is no difference in energy between going this way, that way, that way or that way. +Its truly a three-dimensional space. +And were only just beginning to grasp it. +I dont know of any other submersible, or even remote, that just takes advantage that this is a three-dimensional space. +This is the way we should be going into the oceans. +This is a three-dimensional machine. +What we need to do is go down into the ocean with the freedom of the animals, and move in this three-dimensional space. +OK, this is good stuff. +This is mans first attempt at flying underwater. +Right now, Im just coming down on this gorgeous, big, giant manta ray. +She has twice the wingspan that I do. +There Im coming; she sees me. +And just notice how she rolls under and turns; she doesnt sit there and try and blow air into a tank and kind of flow up or sink down -- she just rolls. +And the craft that Im in -- this hasnt been shown before. +Chris asked us to show stuff that hasnt been shown before. +I wanted you to notice that she actually turned to come back up. +There I am; I see her coming back, coming up underneath me. +I put reverse thrust and I try and pull gently down. +Im trying to do everything very gently. +We spent about three hours together and shes beginning to trust me. +And this ballet is controlled by this lady here. +She gets about that close and then she pulls away. +So now I try and go after her, but Im practicing flying. +This is the first flying machine. This was the first prototype. +This was a fly by wire. It has wings. +Therere no silly buoyancy tanks -- its permanently, positively buoyant. +And then by moving through the water its able to take that control. +Now, look at that; look, its -- she just blew me away. +She just rolled right away from underneath. +Really thats the only real dive Ive ever made in this machine. +It took 10 years to build. +But this lady here taught me, hah, taught me so much. +We just learned so much in three hours in the water there. +I just had to go and build another machine. +But look here. Instead of blowing tanks and coming up slowly without thinking about it, its a little bit of back pressure, and that sub just comes straight back up out of the water. +This is an internal Sony camera. Thank you, Sony. +I dont really look that ugly, but the camera is so close that its just distorted. +Now, there she goes, right overhead. +This is a wide-angle camera. +Shes just a few inches off the top of my head. +"Aah, ha, oh, he just crossed over the top of my head about, oh, I dont know, just so close." +I come back up, not for air. +"This is an incredible encounter with a manta. Im speechless. +Weve been just feet apart. Im going back down now." +Okay, can we cut that? Lights back up please. +Trying to fly and keep up with that animal -- it wasnt the lack of maneuverability that we had. +It was the fact she was going so slow. +I actually designed that to move faster through the water because I thought that was the thing that we needed to do: to move fast and get range. +But after that encounter I really did want to go back with that animal and dance. +She wanted to dance. +And so what we needed to do was increase the wing area so that we just had more grip, develop higher forces. +So the sub that was outside last year -- this is the one. +You see the larger wing area here. +Also, clearly, it was such a powerful thing, we wanted to try and bring other people but we couldn't figure out how to do it. +So we opened the worlds first flight school. +And then Id put my sunglasses on, the beard that would all sprout out, and I would say, "I dont need no stinking license." +"I write these stinking license," which I do. +So Bob Gelfond's around here -- but somebody in the audience here has license number 20. +Theyre one of the first subsea aviators. +So weve run two flight schools. +Where the hell that goes, I dont know, but its a lot of fun. +What comes next in 30 seconds? I cant tell you. +But the patent for underwater flight -- some business partners wanted us to patent it -- we werent sure about that. +Weve decided were just going to let that go. +It just seems wrong to try and patent -- -- the freedom for underwater flight. +So anybody who wants to copy us and come and join us, go for it. +The other thing is that weve got much lower costs. +We developed some other technology called spider optics, and Craig Ventner asked me to make an announcement here this morning: were going to be building a beautiful, little, small version of this -- unmanned, super deep -- for his boat to go and get back some deep sea DNA stuff. +Thank you. +This was in an area called Wellawatta, a prime residential area in Colombo. +We stood on the railroad tracks that ran between my friend's house and the beach. +The tracks are elevated about eight feet from the waterline normally, but at that point the water had receded to a level three or four feet below normal. +I'd never seen the reef here before. +There were fish caught in rock pools left behind by the receding water. +Some children jumped down and ran to the rock pools with bags. +They were trying to catch fish. +No one realized that this was a very bad idea. +The people on the tracks just continued to watch them. +I turned around to check on my friend's house. +Then someone on the tracks screamed. +Before I could turn around, everyone on the tracks was screaming and running. +The water had started coming back. It was foaming over the reef. +The children managed to run back onto the tracks. +No one was lost there. But the water continued to climb. +In about two minutes, it had reached the level of the railroad tracks and was coming over it. We had run about 100 meters by this time. +It continued to rise. +I saw an old man standing at his gate, knee-deep in water, refusing to move. +He said he'd lived his whole life there by the beach, and that he would rather die there than run. +A boy broke away from his mother to run back into his house to get his dog, who was apparently afraid. +An old lady, crying, was carried out of her house and up the road by her son. +The slum built on the railroad reservation between the sea and the railroad tracks was completely swept away. +Since this was a high-risk location, the police had warned the residents, and no one was there when the water rose. +But they had not had any time to evacuate any belongings. +For hours afterwards, the sea was strewn with bits of wood for miles around -- all of this was from the houses in the slum. +When the waters subsided, it was as if it had never existed. +This may seem hard to believe -- unless you've been reading lots and lots of news reports -- but in many places, after the tsunami, villagers were still terrified. +When what was a tranquil sea swallows up people, homes and long-tail boats -- mercilessly, without warning -- and no one can tell you anything reliable about whether another one is coming, I'm not sure you'd want to calm down either. +One of the scariest things about the tsunami that I've not seen mentioned is the complete lack of information. +This may seem minor, but it is terrifying to hear rumor after rumor after rumor that another tidal wave, bigger than the last, will be coming at exactly 1 p.m., or perhaps tonight, or perhaps ... +You don't even know if it is safe to go back down to the water, to catch a boat to the hospital. +We think that Phi Phi hospital was destroyed. +We think this boat is going to Phuket hospital, but if it's too dangerous to land at its pier, then perhaps it will go to Krabi instead, which is more protected. +We don't think another wave is coming right away. +At the Phi Phi Hill Resort, I was tucked into the corner furthest away from the television, but I strained to listen for information. +They reported that there was an 8.5 magnitude earthquake in Sumatra, which triggered the massive tsunami. +Having this news was comforting in some small way to understand what had just happened to us. +However, the report focused on what had already occurred and offered no information on what to expect now. +In general, everything was merely hearsay and rumor, and not a single person I spoke to for over 36 hours knew anything with any certainty. +Those were two accounts of the Asian tsunami from two Internet blogs that essentially sprang up after it occurred. +I'm now going to show you two video segments from the tsunami that also were shown on blogs. +I should warn you, they're pretty powerful. +One from Thailand, and the second one from Phuket as well. +Voice 1: It's coming in. It's coming again. +Voice 2: It's coming again? +Voice 1: Yeah. It's coming again. +Voice 2: Come get inside here. +Voice 1: It's coming again. Voice 2: New wave? +Voice 1: It's coming again. New wave! +[Unclear] They called me out here. +James Surowiecki: Phew. Those were both on this site: waveofdestruction.org. +They said, "The blogsters let us down." +What became very clear was that, within a few days, the outpouring of information was immense, and we got a complete and powerful picture of what had happened in a way that we never had been able to get before. +And what you had was a group of essentially unorganized, unconnected writers, video bloggers, etc., who were able to come up with a collective portrait of a disaster that gave us a much better sense of what it was like to actually be there than the mainstream media could give us. +And so in some ways the tsunami can be seen as a sort of seminal moment, a moment in which the blogosphere came, to a certain degree, of age. +Now, I'm going to move now from this kind of -- the sublime in the traditional sense of the word, that is to say, awe-inspiring, terrifying -- to the somewhat more mundane. +Because when we think about blogs, I think for most of us who are concerned about them, we're primarily concerned with things like politics, technology, etc. +And I want to ask three questions in this talk, in the 10 minutes that remain, about the blogosphere. +The first one is, What does it tell us about our ideas, about what motivates people to do things? +The second is, Do blogs genuinely have the possibility of accessing a kind of collective intelligence that has previously remained, for the most part, untapped? +And then the third part is, What are the potential problems, or the dark side of blogs as we know them? +OK, the first question: What do they tell us about why people do things? +They are not getting paid for it in any way other than in the attention and, to some extent, the reputational capital that they gain from doing a good job. +And this is -- at least, to a traditional economist -- somewhat remarkable, because the traditional account of economic man would say that, basically, you do things for a concrete reward, primarily financial. +But instead, what we're finding on the Internet -- and one of the great geniuses of it -- is that people have found a way to work together without any money involved at all. +They have come up with, in a sense, a different method for organizing activity. +The Yale Law professor Yochai Benkler, in an essay called "Coase's Penguin," talks about this open-source model, which we're familiar with from Linux, as being potentially applicable in a whole host of situations. +And, you know, if you think about this with the tsunami, what you have is essentially a kind of an army of local journalists, who are producing enormous amounts of material for no reason other than to tell their stories. +That's a very powerful idea, and it's a very powerful reality. +And it's one that offers really interesting possibilities for organizing a whole host of activities down the road. +There are a few bloggers -- somewhere maybe around 20, now -- who do, in fact, make some kind of money, and a few who are actually trying to make a full-time living out of it, but the vast majority of them are doing it because they love it or they love the attention, or whatever it is. +So, Howard Rheingold has written a lot about this and, I think, is writing about this more, but this notion of voluntary cooperation is an incredibly powerful one, and one worth thinking about. +The second question is, What does the blogosphere actually do for us, in terms of accessing collective intelligence? +You know, as Chris mentioned, I wrote a book called "The Wisdom of Crowds." +And the premise of "The Wisdom of Crowds" is that, under the right conditions, groups can be remarkably intelligent. +And they can actually often be smarter than even the smartest person within them. +The simplest example of this is if you ask a group of people to do something like guess how many jellybeans are in a jar. +If I had a jar of jellybeans and I asked you all to guess how many jellybeans were in that jar, your average guess would be remarkably good. +It would be somewhere probably within three and five percent of the number of beans in the jar, and it would be better than 90 to 95 percent of you. +There may be one or two of you who are brilliant jelly bean guessers, but for the most part the group's guess would be better than just about all of you. +And what's fascinating is that you can see this phenomenon at work in many more complicated situations. +For instance, if you look at the odds on horses at a racetrack, they predict almost perfectly how likely a horse is to win. +In a sense, the group of betters at the racetrack is forecasting the future, in probabilistic terms. +And this, I think, is one of the real promises of the blogosphere. +Dan Gillmor -- whose book "We the Media" is included in the gift pack -- has talked about it as saying that, as a writer, he's recognized that his readers know more than he does. +And this is a very challenging idea. It's a very challenging idea to mainstream media. It's a very challenging idea to anyone who has invested an enormous amount of time and expertise, and who has a lot of energy invested in the notion that he or she knows better than everyone else. +But what the blogosphere offers is the possibility of getting at the kind of collective, distributive intelligence that is out there, and that we know is available to us if we can just figure out a way of accessing it. +Each blog post, each blog commentary may not, in and of itself, be exactly what we're looking for, but collectively the judgment of those people posting, those people linking, more often than not is going to give you a very interesting and enormously valuable picture of what's going on. +So, that's the positive side of it. +That's the positive side of what is sometimes called participatory journalism or citizen journalism, etc. -- that, in fact, we are giving people who have never been able to talk before a voice, and we're able to access information that has always been there but has essentially gone untapped. +But there is a dark side to this, and that's what I want to spend the last part of my talk on. +One of the things that happens if you spend a lot of time on the Internet, and you spend a lot of time thinking about the Internet, is that it is very easy to fall in love with the Internet. +It is very easy to fall in love with the decentralized, bottom-up structure of the Internet. +It is very easy to think that networks are necessarily good things -- that being linked from one place to another, that being tightly linked in a group, is a very good thing. +And much of the time it is. +But there's also a downside to this -- a kind of dark side, in fact -- and that is that the more tightly linked we've become to each other, the harder it is for each of us to remain independent. +One of the fundamental characteristics of a network is that, once you are linked in the network, the network starts to shape your views and starts to shape your interactions with everybody else. +That's one of the things that defines what a network is. +A network is not just the product of its component parts. +It is something more than that. +It is, as Steven Johnson has talked about, an emergent phenomenon. +Now, this has all these benefits: it's very beneficial in terms of the efficiency of communicating information; it gives you access to a whole host of people; it allows people to coordinate their activities in very good ways. +But the problem is that groups are only smart when the people in them are as independent as possible. +This is the paradox of the wisdom of crowds, or the paradox of collective intelligence, that what it requires is actually a form of independent thinking. +And networks make it harder for people to do that, because they drive attention to the things that the network values. +So, one of the phenomena that's very clear in the blogosphere is that once a meme, once an idea gets going, it is very easy for people to just sort of pile on, because other people have, say, a link. +People have linked to it, and so other people in turn link to it, etc., etc. +And that phenomenon of piling on the existing links is one that is characteristic of the blogosphere, particularly of the political blogosphere, and it is one that essentially throws off this beautiful, decentralized, bottom-up intelligence that blogs can manifest in the right conditions. +The metaphor that I like to use is the metaphor of the circular mill. +A lot of people talk about ants. +You know, this is a conference inspired by nature. +When we talk about bottom-up, decentralized phenomena, the ant colony is the classic metaphor, because, no individual ant knows what it's doing, but collectively ants are able to reach incredibly intelligent decisions. +they're able to guide their traffic with remarkable speed. +So, the ant colony is a great model: you have all these little parts that collectively add up to a great thing. +But we know that occasionally ants go astray, and what happens is that, if army ants are wandering around and they get lost, they start to follow a simple rule -- just do what the ant in front of you does. +And what happens is that the ants eventually end up in a circle. +And there's this famous example of one that was 1,200 feet long and lasted for two days, and the ants just kept marching around and around in a circle until they died. +And that, I think, is a sort of thing to watch out for. +That's the thing we have to fear -- is that we're just going to keep marching around and around until we die. +Now, I want to connect this back, though, to the tsunami, because one of the great things about the tsunami -- in terms of the blogosphere's coverage, not in terms of the tsunami itself -- is that it really did represent a genuine bottom-up phenomenon. +You saw sites that had never existed before getting huge amounts of traffic. +You saw people being able to offer up their independent points of view in a way that they hadn't before. +There, you really did see the intelligence of the Web manifest itself. +So, that's the upside. The circular mill is the downside. +And I think that the former is what we really need to strive for. +Thank you very much. +Thank you for being here. +And I say "thank you for being here" because I was silent for 17 years. +And the first words that I spoke were in Washington, D.C., on the 20th anniversary of Earth Day. +And my family and friends had gathered there to hear me speak. +And I said, "Thank you for being here." +My mother, out in the audience, she jumped up, "Hallelujah, Johnnys talking!" +Imagine if you were quiet for 17 years and your mother was out in the audience, say. +My dad said to me, "Thats one" -- Ill explain that. +But I turned around because I didnt recognize where my voice was coming from. +I hadnt heard my voice in 17 years, so I turned around and I looked and I said, "God, who's saying what Im thinking?" +And then I realized it was me, you know, and I kind of laughed. +And I could see my father: "Yeah, he really is crazy." +Well, I want to take you on this journey. +And the journey, I believe, is a metaphor for all of our journeys. +Even though this one is kind of unusual, I want you to think about your own journey. +My journey began in 1971 when I witnessed two oil tankers collide beneath the Golden Gate, and a half a million gallons of oil spilled into the bay. +It disturbed me so much that I decided that I was going to give up riding and driving in motorized vehicles. +Thats a big thing in California. +And it was a big thing in my little community of Point Reyes Station in Inverness, California, because there were only about 350 people there in the winter this was back in '71 now. +And so when I came in and I started walking around, people -- they just knew what was going on. +And people would drive up next to me and say, "John, what are you doing?" +And Id say, "Well, Im walking for the environment." +And they said, "No, youre walking to make us look bad, right? +Youre walking to make us feel bad." +And maybe there was some truth to that, because I thought that if I started walking, everyone would follow. +Because of the oil, everybody talked about the polllution. +And so I argued with people about that, I argued and I argued. +I called my parents up. +I said, "Ive given up riding and driving in cars." +My dad said, "Why didnt you do that when you were 16?" +I didnt know about the environment then. +Theyre back in Philadelphia. +And so I told my mother, "Im happy though, Im really happy." +She said, "If you were happy, son, you wouldnt have to say it." +Mothers are like that. +And so, on my 27th birthday I decided, because I argued so much and I talk so much, that I was going to stop speaking for just one day -- one day -- to give it a rest. +And so I did. +I got up in the morning and I didnt say a word. +And I have to tell you, it was a very moving experience, because for the first time, I began listening -- in a long time. +And what I heard, it kind of disturbed me. +Because what I used to do, when I thought I was listening, was I would listen just enough to hear what people had to say and think that I could -- I knew what they were going to say, and so I stopped listening. +And in my mind, I just kind of raced ahead and thought of what I was going to say back, while they were still finishing up. +And then I would launch in. +Well, that just ended communication. +So on this first day I actually listened. +And it was very sad for me, because I realized that for those many years I had not been learning. +I was 27. I thought I knew everything. +I didnt. +And so I decided Id better do this for another day, and another day, and another day until finally, I promised myself for a year I would keep quiet because I started learning more and more and I needed to learn more. +So for a year I said I would keep quiet, and then on my birthday I would reassess what I had learned and maybe I would talk again. +Well, that lasted 17 years. +Now during that time -- those 17 years -- I walked and I played the banjo and I painted and I wrote in my journal, and I tried to study the environment by reading books. +And I decided that I was going to go to school. So I did. +I walked up to Ashland, Oregon, where they were offering an environmental studies degree. +Its only 500 miles. +And I went into the Registrars office and -- "What, what, what?" +I had a newspaper clipping. +"Oh, so you really want to go to school here? +You dont ? +We have a special program for you." They did. +And in those two years, I graduated with my first degree -- a bachelors degree. +And my father came out, he was so proud. +He said, "Listen, were really proud of you son, but what are you going to do with a bachelors degree? +You dont ride in cars, you dont talk -- youre going to have to do those things." +I hunched my shoulder, I picked my backpack up again and I started walking. +I walked all the way up to Port Townsend, Washington, where I built a wooden boat, rode it across Puget Sound and walked across Washington [to] Idaho and down to Missoula, Montana. +I had written the University of Montana two years earlier and said I'd like to go to school there. +I said I'd be there in about two years. +And I was there. I showed up in two years and they -- I tell this story because they really helped me. +There are two stories in Montana. +The first story is I didnt have any money -- thats a sign I used a lot. +And they said,"Don't worry about that." +The director of the program said, "Come back tomorrow." +He gave me 150 dollars, and he said, "Register for one credit. +Youre going to go to South America, arent you?" +And I said -- Rivers and lakes, the hydrological systems, South America. +So I did that. +He came back; he said to me, "OK John, now that you've registered for that one credit, you can have a key to an office, you can matriculate -- youre matriculating, so you can use the library. +And what were going to do is, were going to have all of the professors allow you to go to class. +Theyre going to save your grade, and when we figure out how to get you the rest of the money, then you can register for that class and theyll give you the grade." +Wow, they dont do that in graduate schools, I dont think. +But I use that story because they really wanted to help me. +They saw that I was really interested in the environment, and they really wanted to help me along the way. +And during that time, I actually taught classes without speaking. +I had 13 students when I first walked into the class. +I explained, with a friend who could interpret my sign language, that I was John Francis, I was walking around the world, I didnt talk and this was the last time this persons going to be here interpreting for me. +All the students sat around and they went ... +I could see they were looking for the schedule, to see when they could get out. +They had to take that class with me. +Two weeks later, everyone was trying to get into our class. +And I learned in that class -- because I would do things like this ... +and they were all gathered around, going, "What's he trying to say?" +"I don't know, I think he's talking about clear cutting." "Yeah, clear cutting." +"No, no, no, that's not clear cutting, thats -- he's using a handsaw." +"Well, you cant clearcut with a ..." +"Yes, you can clear cut ..." +"No, I think hes talking about selective forestry." +Now this was a discussion class and we were having a discussion. +I just backed out of that, you know, and I just kind of kept the fists from flying. +But what I learned was that sometimes I would make a sign and they said things that I absolutely did not mean, but I should have. +And so what came to me is, if you were a teacher and you were teaching, if you werent learning you probably werent teaching very well. +And so I went on. +My dad came out to see me graduate and, you know, I did the deal, and my father said, "Were really proud of you son, but ... " You know what went on, he said, "Youve got to start riding and driving and start talking. +What are you going to do with a masters degree?" +I hunched my shoulder, I got my backpack and I went on to the University of Wisconsin. +I spent two years there writing on oil spills. +No one was interested in oil spills. +But something happened -- Exxon Valdez. +And I was the only one in the United States writing on oil spills. +My dad came out again. +He said, "I don't know how you do this, son -- I mean, you don't ride in cars, you dont talk. +My sister said maybe I should leave you alone, because you seem to be doing a lot better when youre not saying anything." +Well, I put on my backpack again. +I put my banjo on and I walked all the way to the East Coast, put my foot in the Atlantic Ocean -- it was seven years and one day it took me to walk across the United States. +And on Earth Day, 1990 -- the 20th anniversary of Earth Day -- thats when I began to speak. +And thats why I said, "Thank you for being here." +Because it's sort of like that tree in the forest falling; and if there's no one there to hear, does it really make a sound? +And Im thanking you, and I'm thanking my family because they had come to hear me speak. +And thats communication. +And they also taught me about listening -- that they listened to me. +And its one of those things that came out of the silence, the listening to each other. +Really, very important -- we need to listen to each other. +Well, my journey kept going on. +My dad said, "Thats one," and I still didnt let that go. +I worked for the Coastguard, was made a U.N. Goodwill Ambassador. +I wrote regulations for the United States -- I mean, I wrote oil spill regulations. +20 years ago, if someone had said to me, "John, do you really want to make a difference?" +"Yeah, I want to make a difference." +He said, "You just start walking east; get out of your car and just start walking east." +And as I walked off a little bit, they'd say, "Yeah, and shut up, too." +"Youre going to make a difference, buddy." +How could that be, how could that be? +How could doing such a simple thing like walking and not talking make a difference? +Well, my time at the Coast Guard was a really good time. +And after that -- I only worked one year -- I said, "That's enough. One year's enough for me to do that." +I got on a sailboat and I sailed down to the Caribbean, and walked through all of the islands, and to Venezuela. +And you know, I forgot the most important thing, which is why I started talking, which I have to tell you. +I started talking because I had studied environment. +Id studied environment at this formal level, but there was this informal level. +And the informal level -- I learned about people, and what we do and how we are. +And environment changed from just being about trees and birds and endangered species to being about how we treated each other. +Because if we are the environment, then all we need to do is look around us and see how we treat ourselves and how we treat each other. +And so thats the message that I had. +And I said, "Well, I'm going to have to spread that message." +And I got in my sailboat, sailed all the way through the Caribbean -- it wasn't really my sailboat, I kind of worked on that boat -- got to Venezuela and I started walking. +This is the last part of this story, because its how I got here, because I still didn't ride in motorized vehicles. +I was walking through El Dorado -- it's a prison town, famous prison, or infamous prison -- in Venezuela, and I dont know what possessed me, because this was not like me. +There I am, walking past the guard gate and the guard stops and says, "Pasaporte, pasaporte," and with an M16 pointed at me. +And I looked at him and I said, "Passport, huh? +I don't need to show you my passport. Its in the back of my pack. +I'm Dr. Francis; I'm a U.N. Ambassador and I'm walking around the world." +And I started walking off. +What possessed me to say this thing? +The road turned into the jungle. +I didnt get shot. +And I got to -- I start saying, "Free at last -- thank God Almighty, Im free at last." +"What was that about," Im saying. What was that about? +It took me 100 miles to figure out that, in my heart, in me, I had become a prisoner. +I was a prisoner and I needed to escape. +The prison that I was in was the fact that I did not drive or use motorized vehicles. +Now how could that be? +Because when I started, it seemed very appropriate to me not to use motorized vehicles. +But the thing that was different was that every birthday, I asked myself about silence, but I never asked myself about my decision to just use my feet. +I had no idea I was going to become a U.N. Ambassador. +I had no idea I would have a Ph.D. +And so I realized that I had a responsibility to more than just me, and that I was going to have to change. +You know, we can do it. +I was going to have to change. +And I was afraid to change, because I was so used to the guy who only just walked. +I was so used to that person that I didnt want to stop. +I didnt know who I would be if I changed. +But I know I needed to. +I know I needed to change, because it would be the only way that I could be here today. +And I know that a lot of times we find ourselves in this wonderful place where weve gotten to, but theres another place for us to go. +And we kind of have to leave behind the security of who weve become, and go to the place of who we are becoming. +And so, I want to encourage you to go to that next place, to let yourself out of any prison that you might find yourself in, as comfortable as it may be, because we have to do something now. +We have to change now. +As our former Vice President said, we have to become activists. +So if my voice can touch you, if my actions can touch you, if my being here can touch you, please let it be. +And I know that all of you have touched me while Ive been here. +So, lets go out into the world and take this caring, this love, this respect that weve shown each other right here at TED, and take this out into the world. +Because we are the environment, and how we treat each other is really how were going to treat the environment. +So I want to thank you for being here and I want to end this in five seconds of silence. +Thank you. +This is a guy named Bob McKim. +He was a creativity researcher in the '60s and '70s, and also led the Stanford Design Program. +And in fact, my friend and IDEO founder, David Kelley, whos out there somewhere, studied under him at Stanford. +And he liked to do an exercise with his students where he got them to take a piece of paper and draw the person who sat next to them, their neighbor, very quickly, just as quickly as they could. +And in fact, were going to do that exercise right now. +You all have a piece of cardboard and a piece of paper. +Its actually got a bunch of circles on it. +I need you to turn that piece of paper over; you should find that its blank on the other side. +And there should be a pencil. +And I want you to pick somebody thats seated next to you, and when I say, go, youve got 30 seconds to draw your neighbor, OK? +So, everybody ready? OK. Off you go. +Youve got 30 seconds, youd better be fast. +Come on: those masterpieces ... +OK? Stop. All right, now. +Yes, lots of laughter. Yeah, exactly. +Lots of laughter, quite a bit of embarrassment. +Am I hearing a few "sorrys"? I think Im hearing a few sorrys. +Yup, yup, I think I probably am. +And thats exactly what happens every time, every time you do this with adults. +McKim found this every time he did it with his students. +He got exactly the same response: lots and lots of sorrys. +And he would point this out as evidence that we fear the judgment of our peers, and that were embarrassed about showing our ideas to people we think of as our peers, to those around us. +And this fear is what causes us to be conservative in our thinking. +So we might have a wild idea, but were afraid to share it with anybody else. +OK, so if you try the same exercise with kids, they have no embarrassment at all. +They just quite happily show their masterpiece to whoever wants to look at it. +But as they learn to become adults, they become much more sensitive to the opinions of others, and they lose that freedom and they do start to become embarrassed. +And in studies of kids playing, its been shown time after time that kids who feel secure, who are in a kind of trusted environment -- theyre the ones that feel most free to play. +And if youre starting a design firm, lets say, then you probably also want to create a place where people have the same kind of security. +Where they have the same kind of security to take risks. +Maybe have the same kind of security to play. +Before founding IDEO, David said that what he wanted to do was to form a company where all the employees are my best friends. +Now, that wasnt just self-indulgence. +He knew that friendship is a short cut to play. +And he knew that it gives us a sense of trust, and it allows us then to take the kind of creative risks that we need to take as designers. +And so, that decision to work with his friends -- now he has 550 of them -- was what got IDEO started. +And our studios, like, I think, many creative workplaces today, are designed to help people feel relaxed: familiar with their surroundings, comfortable with the people that theyre working with. +It takes more than decor, but I think weve all seen that creative companies do often have symbols in the workplace that remind people to be playful, and that its a permissive environment. +Dont know the reason for the pink flamingos, but anyway, theyre there in the garden. +Or even in the Swiss office of Google, which perhaps has the most wacky ideas of all. +And my theory is, thats so the Swiss can prove to their Californian colleagues that theyre not boring. +So they have the slide, and they even have a firemans pole. +Dont know what they do with that, but they have one. +So all of these places have these symbols. +Now, our big symbol at IDEO is actually not so much the place, its a thing. +And its actually something that we invented a few years ago, or created a few years ago. +Its a toy; its called a "finger blaster." +And I forgot to bring one up with me. +So if somebody can reach under the chair thats next to them, youll find something taped underneath it. +Thats great. If you could pass it up. Thanks, David, I appreciate it. +So this is a finger blaster, and you will find that every one of you has got one taped under your chair. +And Im going to run a little experiment. Another little experiment. +But before we start, I need just to put these on. +Thank you. All right. +Now, what Im going to do is, Im going to see how -- I cant see out of these, OK. +Im going to see how many of you at the back of the room can actually get those things onto the stage. +So the way they work is, you know, you just put your finger in the thing, pull them back, and off you go. +So, dont look backwards. Thats my only recommendation here. +I want to see how many of you can get these things on the stage. +So come on! There we go, there we go. Thank you. Thank you. Oh. +I have another idea. I wanted to -- there we go. +There we go. +Thank you, thank you, thank you. +Not bad, not bad. No serious injuries so far. +Well, theyre still coming in from the back there; theyre still coming in. +Some of you havent fired them yet. +Can you not figure out how to do it, or something? +Its not that hard. Most of your kids figure out how to do this in the first 10 seconds, when they pick it up. +All right. This is pretty good; this is pretty good. +Okay, all right. Lets -- I suppose we'd better... +I'd better clear these up out of the way; otherwise, Im going to trip over them. +All right. So the rest of you can save them for when I say something particularly boring, and then you can fire at me. +All right. I think Im going to take these off now, because I cant see a damn thing when Ive -- all right, OK. +So, ah, that was fun. +All right, good. +So, OK, so why? +So we have the finger blasters. Other people have dinosaurs, you know. +Why do we have them? Well, as I said, we have them because we think maybe playfulness is important. +But why is it important? +We use it in a pretty pragmatic way, to be honest. +We think playfulness helps us get to better creative solutions. +Helps us do our jobs better, and helps us feel better when we do them. +Now, an adult encountering a new situation -- when we encounter a new situation we have a tendency to want to categorize it just as quickly as we can, you know. +And theres a reason for that: we want to settle on an answer. +Lifes complicated; we want to figure out whats going on around us very quickly. +I suspect, actually, that the evolutionary biologists probably have lots of reasons [for] why we want to categorize new things very, very quickly. +One of them might be, you know, when we see this funny stripy thing: is that a tiger just about to jump out and kill us? +Or is it just some weird shadows on the tree? +We need to figure that out pretty fast. +Well, at least, we did once. +Most of us dont need to anymore, I suppose. +This is some aluminum foil, right? You use it in the kitchen. +Thats what it is, isnt it? Of course it is, of course it is. +Well, not necessarily. +Kids are more engaged with open possibilities. +Now, theyll certainly -- when they come across something new, theyll certainly ask, "What is it?" +Of course they will. But theyll also ask, "What can I do with it?" +And you know, the more creative of them might get to a really interesting example. +And this openness is the beginning of exploratory play. +Any parents of young kids in the audience? There must be some. +Yeah, thought so. So weve all seen it, havent we? +Weve all told stories about how, on Christmas morning, our kids end up playing with the boxes far more than they play with the toys that are inside them. +And you know, from an exploration perspective, this behavior makes complete sense. +Because you can do a lot more with boxes than you can do with a toy. +Even one like, say, Tickle Me Elmo -- which, despite its ingenuity, really only does one thing, whereas boxes offer an infinite number of choices. +So again, this is another one of those playful activities that, as we get older, we tend to forget and we have to relearn. +So another one of Bob McKims favorite exercises is called the "30 Circles Test." +So were back to work. You guys are going to get back to work again. +Turn that piece of paper that you did the sketch on back over, and youll find those 30 circles printed on the piece of paper. +So it should look like this. You should be looking at something like this. +So what Im going to do is, Im going to give you minute, and I want you to adapt as many of those circles as you can into objects of some form. +So for example, you could turn one into a football, or another one into a sun. All Im interested in is quantity. +I want you to do as many of them as you can, in the minute that Im just about to give you. +So, everybody ready? OK? Off you go. +Okay. Put down your pencils, as they say. +So, who got more than five circles figured out? +Hopefully everybody? More than 10? +Keep your hands up if you did 10. +15? 20? Anybody get all 30? +No? Oh! Somebody did. Fantastic. +Did anybody to a variation on a theme? Like a smiley face? +Happy face? Sad face? Sleepy face? Anybody do that? +Anybody use my examples? The sun and the football? +Great. Cool. So I was really interested in quantity. +I wasnt actually very interested in whether they were all different. +I just wanted you to fill in as many circles as possible. +And one of the things we tend to do as adults, again, is we edit things. +We stop ourselves from doing things. +We self-edit as were having ideas. +And in some cases, our desire to be original is actually a form of editing. +And that actually isnt necessarily really playful. +So that ability just to go for it and explore lots of things, even if they dont seem that different from each other, is actually something that kids do well, and it is a form of play. +So now, Bob McKim did another version of this test in a rather famous experiment that was done in the 1960s. +Anybody know what this is? Its the peyote cactus. +Its the plant from which you can create mescaline, one of the psychedelic drugs. +For those of you around in the '60s, you probably know it well. +McKim published a paper in 1966, describing an experiment that he and his colleagues conducted to test the effects of psychedelic drugs on creativity. +So he picked 27 professionals -- they were engineers, physicists, mathematicians, architects, furniture designers even, artists -- and he asked them to come along one evening, and to bring a problem with them that they were working on. +He gave each of them some mescaline, and had them listen to some nice, relaxing music for a while. +And then he did whats called the Purdue Creativity Test. +You might know it as, "How many uses can you find for a paper clip?" +Its basically the same thing as the 30 circles thing that I just had you do. +Now, actually, he gave the test before the drugs and after the drugs, to see what the difference was in peoples facility and speed with coming up with ideas. +And then he asked them to go away and work on those problems that theyd brought. +And theyd come up with a bunch of interesting solutions -- and actually, quite valid solutions -- to the things that theyd been working on. +So it was a pretty successful evening. +In fact, maybe this experiment was the reason that Silicon Valley got off to its great start with innovation. +We dont know, but it may be. +We need to ask some of the CEOs whether they were involved in this mescaline experiment. +But really, it wasnt the drugs that were important; it was this idea that what the drugs did would help shock people out of their normal way of thinking, and getting them to forget the adult behaviors that were getting in the way of their ideas. +But its hard to break our habits, our adult habits. +At IDEO we have brainstorming rules written on the walls. +Edicts like, "Defer judgment," or "Go for quantity." +And somehow that seems wrong. +I mean, can you have rules about creativity? +Well, it sort of turns out that we need rules to help us break the old rules and norms that otherwise we might bring to the creative process. +And weve certainly learnt that over time, you get much better brainstorming, much more creative outcomes when everybody does play by the rules. +Now, of course, many designers, many individual designers, achieve this is in a much more organic way. +I think the Eameses are wonderful examples of experimentation. +And they experimented with plywood for many years without necessarily having one single goal in mind. +They were exploring following what was interesting to them. +They went from designing splints for wounded soldiers coming out of World War II and the Korean War, I think, and from this experiment they moved on to chairs. +Through constant experimentation with materials, they developed a wide range of iconic solutions that we know today, eventually resulting in, of course, the legendary lounge chair. +Now, if the Eameses had stopped with that first great solution, then we wouldnt be the beneficiaries of so many wonderful designs today. +And of course, they used experimentation in all aspects of their work, from films to buildings, from games to graphics. +So, theyre great examples, I think, of exploration and experimentation in design. +Now, while the Eameses were exploring those possibilities, they were also exploring physical objects. +And they were doing that through building prototypes. +And building is the next of the behaviors that I thought Id talk about. +So the average Western first-grader spends as much as 50 percent of their play time taking part in whats called "construction play." +Construction play -- its playful, obviously, but also a powerful way to learn. +When play is about building a tower out of blocks, the kid begins to learn a lot about towers. +And as they repeatedly knock it down and start again, learning is happening as a sort of by-product of play. +Its classically learning by doing. +Now, David Kelley calls this behavior, when its carried out by designers, "thinking with your hands." +And it typically involves making multiple, low-resolution prototypes very quickly, often by bringing lots of found elements together in order to get to a solution. +On one of his earliest projects, the team was kind of stuck, and they came up with a mechanism by hacking together a prototype made from a roll-on deodorant. +Now, that became the first commercial computer mouse for the Apple Lisa and the Macintosh. +So, they learned their way to that by building prototypes. +Another example is a group of designers who were working on a surgical instrument with some surgeons. +They were meeting with them; they were talking to the surgeons about what it was they needed with this device. +And one of the designers ran out of the room and grabbed a white board marker and a film canister -- which is now becoming a very precious prototyping medium -- and a clothespin. He taped them all together, ran back into the room and said, "You mean, something like this?" +And the surgeons grabbed hold of it and said, well, I want to hold it like this, or like that. +And all of a sudden a productive conversation was happening about design around a tangible object. +And in the end it turned into a real device. +And so this behavior is all about quickly getting something into the real world, and having your thinking advanced as a result. +At IDEO theres a kind of a back-to-preschool feel sometimes about the environment. +The prototyping carts, filled with colored paper and Play-Doh and glue sticks and stuff -- I mean, they do have a bit of a kindergarten feel to them. +But the important idea is that everythings at hand, everythings around. +So when designers are working on ideas, they can start building stuff whenever they want. +They dont necessarily even have to go into some kind of formal workshop to do it. +And we think thats pretty important. +And then the sad thing is, although preschools are full of this kind of stuff, as kids go through the school system it all gets taken away. +They lose this stuff that facilitates this sort of playful and building mode of thinking. +And of course, by the time you get to the average workplace, maybe the best construction tool we have might be the Post-it notes. Its pretty barren. +But by giving project teams and the clients who theyre working with permission to think with their hands, quite complex ideas can spring into life and go right through to execution much more easily. +This is a nurse using a very simple -- as you can see -- plasticine prototype, explaining what she wants out of a portable information system to a team of technologists and designers that are working with her in a hospital. +And just having this very simple prototype allows her to talk about what she wants in a much more powerful way. +And of course, by building quick prototypes, we can get out and test our ideas with consumers and users much more quickly than if were trying to describe them through words. +But what about designing something that isnt physical? +Something like a service or an experience? +Something that exists as a series of interactions over time? +Instead of building play, this can be approached with role-play. +So, if youre designing an interaction between two people -- such as, I dont know -- ordering food at a fast food joint or something, you need to be able to imagine how that experience might feel over a period of time. +And I think the best way to achieve that, and get a feeling for any flaws in your design, is to act it out. +So we do quite a lot of work at IDEO trying to convince our clients of this. +They can be a little skeptical; Ill come back to that. +But a place, I think, where the effort is really worthwhile is where people are wrestling with quite serious problems -- things like education or security or finance or health. +And this is another example in a healthcare environment of some doctors and some nurses and designers acting out a service scenario around patient care. +But you know, many adults are pretty reluctant to engage with role-play. +Some of its embarrassment and some of it is because they just dont believe that what emerges is necessarily valid. +They dismiss an interesting interaction by saying, you know, "Thats just happening because theyre acting it out." +Research into kids' behavior actually suggests that its worth taking role-playing seriously. +Because when children play a role, they actually follow social scripts quite closely that theyve learnt from us as adults. +If one kid plays "store," and another ones playing "house," then the whole kind of play falls down. +So they get used to quite quickly to understanding the rules for social interactions, and are actually quite quick to point out when theyre broken. +So when, as adults, we role-play, then we have a huge set of these scripts already internalized. +Weve gone through lots of experiences in life, and they provide a strong intuition as to whether an interaction is going to work. +So were very good, when acting out a solution, at spotting whether something lacks authenticity. +So role-play is actually, I think, quite valuable when it comes to thinking about experiences. +Another way for us, as designers, to explore role-play is to put ourselves through an experience which were designing for, and project ourselves into an experience. +So here are some designers who are trying to understand what it might feel like to sleep in a confined space on an airplane. +And so they grabbed some very simple materials, you can see, and did this role-play, this kind of very crude role-play, just to get a sense of what it would be like for passengers if they were stuck in quite small places on airplanes. +This is one of our designers, Kristian Simsarian, and hes putting himself through the experience of being an ER patient. +Now, this is a real hospital, in a real emergency room. +One of the reasons he chose to take this rather large video camera with him was because he didnt want the doctors and nurses thinking he was actually sick, and sticking something into him that he was going to regret later. +So anyhow, he went there with his video camera, and its kind of interesting to see what he brought back. +Because when we looked at the video when he got back, we saw 20 minutes of this. +And also, the amazing thing about this video -- as soon as you see it you immediately project yourself into that experience. +And you know what it feels like: all of that uncertainty while youre left out in the hallway while the docs are dealing with some more urgent case in one of the emergency rooms, wondering what the hecks going on. +And so this notion of using role-play -- or in this case, living through the experience as a way of creating empathy -- particularly when you use video, is really powerful. +Or another one of our designers, Altay Sendil: hes here having his chest waxed, not because hes very vain, although actually he is -- no, Im kidding -- but in order to empathize with the pain that chronic care patients go through when theyre having dressings removed. +And so sometimes these analogous experiences, analogous role-play, can also be quite valuable. +So when a kid dresses up as a firefighter, you know, hes beginning to try on that identity. +He wants to know what it feels like to be a firefighter. +Were doing the same thing as designers. +Were trying on these experiences. +And so the idea of role-play is both as an empathy tool, as well as a tool for prototyping experiences. +And you know, we kind of admire people who do this at IDEO anyway. +Not just because they lead to insights about the experience, but also because of their willingness to explore and their ability to unselfconsciously surrender themselves to the experience. +In short, we admire their willingness to play. +Playful exploration, playful building and role-play: those are some of the ways that designers use play in their work. +And so far, I admit, this might feel like its a message just to go out and play like a kid. +And to certain extent it is, but I want to stress a couple of points. +The first thing to remember is that play is not anarchy. +Play has rules, especially when its group play. +When kids play tea party, or they play cops and robbers, theyre following a script that theyve agreed to. +And its this code negotiation that leads to productive play. +So, remember the sketching task we did at the beginning? +The kind of little face, the portrait you did? +Well, imagine if you did the same task with friends while you were drinking in a pub. +But everybody agreed to play a game where the worst sketch artist bought the next round of drinks. +That framework of rules would have turned an embarrassing, difficult situation into a fun game. +As a result, wed all feel perfectly secure and have a good time -- but because we all understood the rules and we agreed on them together. +But there arent just rules about how to play; there are rules about when to play. +Kids dont play all the time, obviously. +They transition in and out of it, and good teachers spend a lot of time thinking about how to move kids through these experiences. +As designers, we need to be able to transition in and out of play also. +And if were running design studios we need to be able to figure out, how can we transition designers through these different experiences? +I think this is particularly true if we think about the sort of -- I think whats very different about design is that we go through these two very distinctive modes of operation. +We go through a sort of generative mode, where were exploring many ideas; and then we come back together again, and come back looking for that solution, and developing that solution. +I think theyre two quite different modes: divergence and convergence. +And I think its probably in the divergent mode that we most need playfulness. +Perhaps in convergent mode we need to be more serious. +And so being able to move between those modes is really quite important. So, its where theres a more nuanced version view of play, I think, is required. +Because its very easy to fall into the trap that these states are absolute. +Youre either playful or youre serious, and you cant be both. +But thats not really true: you can be a serious professional adult and, at times, be playful. +Its not an either/or; its an "and." +You can be serious and play. +So to sum it up, we need trust to play, and we need trust to be creative. So, theres a connection. +And there are a series of behaviors that weve learnt as kids, and that turn out to be quite useful to us as designers. +They include exploration, which is about going for quantity; building, and thinking with your hands; and role-play, where acting it out helps us both to have more empathy for the situations in which were designing, and to create services and experiences that are seamless and authentic. +Thank you very much. +The fragrance that you will smell, you will never be able to smell this way again. +Its a fragrance called Beyond Paradise, which you can find in any store in the nation. +Except here its been split up in parts by Este Lauder and by the perfumer who did it, Calice Becker, and I'm most grateful to them for this. +And its been split up in successive bits and a chord. +So what youre smelling now is the top note. +And then will come what they call the heart, the lush heart note. +I will show it to you. +The Eden top note is named after the Eden Project in the U.K. +The lush heart note, Melaleuca bark note -- which does not contain any Melaleuca bark, because its totally forbidden. +And after that, the complete fragrance. +Now what you are smelling is a combination of -- I asked how many molecules there were in there, and nobody would tell me. +So I put it through a G.C., a Gas Chromatograph that I have in my office, and its about 400. +So what youre smelling is several hundred molecules floating through the air, hitting your nose. +And do not get the impression that this is very subjective. +You are all smelling pretty much the same thing, OK? +Smell has this reputation of being somewhat different for each person. +Its not really true. +And perfumery shows you that cant be true, because if it were like that it wouldnt be an art, OK? +Now, while the smell wafts over you, let me tell you the history of an idea. +Everything that youre smelling in here is made up of atoms that come from what I call the Upper East Side of the periodic table -- a nice, safe neighborhood. +You really dont want to leave it if you want to have a career in perfumery. +Some people have tried in the 1920s to add things from the bad parts, and it didnt really work. +These are the five atoms from which just about everything that youre going to smell in real life, from coffee to fragrance, are made of. +The top note that you smelled at the very beginning, the cut-grass green, what we call in perfumery -- theyre weird terms -- and this would be called a green note, because it smells of something green, like cut grass. +This is cis-3-hexene-1-ol. And I had to learn chemistry on the fly in the last three years. A very expensive high school chemistry education. +This has six carbon atoms, so "hexa," hexene-1-ol. +It has one double bond, it has an alcohol on the end, so its "ol," and thats why they call it cis-3-hexene-1-ol. +Once you figure this out, you can really impress people at parties. +This smells of cut grass. Now, this is the skeleton of the molecule. +If you dress it up with atoms, hydrogen atoms -- thats what it looks like when you have it on your computer -- but actually its sort of more like this, in the sense that the atoms have a certain sphere that you cannot penetrate. They repel. +OK, now. Why does this thing smell of cut grass, OK? +Why doesnt it smell of potatoes or violets? Well, there are really two theories. +But the first theory is: it must be the shape. +And thats a perfectly reasonable theory in the sense that almost everything else in biology works by shape. +Enzymes that chew things up, antibodies, its all, you know, the fit between a protein and whatever it is grabbing, in this case a smell. +And I will try and explain to you whats wrong with this notion. +And the other theory is that we smell molecular vibrations. +Now, this is a totally insane idea. +And when I first came across it in the early '90s, I thought my predecessor, Malcolm Dyson and Bob Wright, had really taken leave of their senses, and Ill explain to you why this was the case. +However, I came to realize gradually that they may be right -- and I have to convince all my colleagues that this is so, but Im working on it. +Heres how shape works in normal receptors. +You have a molecule coming in, it gets into the protein, which is schematic here, and it causes this thing to switch, to turn, to move in some way by binding in certain parts. +And the attraction, the forces, between the molecule and the protein cause the motion. This is a shape-based idea. +Now, whats wrong with shape is summarized in this slide. +The way --I expect everybody to memorize these compounds. +This is one page of work from a chemists workbook, OK? +Working for a fragrance company. +Hes making 45 molecules, and hes looking for a sandalwood, something that smells of sandalwood. +Because theres a lot of money in sandalwoods. +And of these 45 molecules, only 4629 actually smells of sandalwood. +And he puts an exclamation mark, OK? This is an awful lot of work. +This actually is roughly, in man-years of work, 200,000 dollars roughly, if you keep them on the low salaries with no benefits. +So this is a profoundly inefficient process. +And my definition of a theory is, its not just something that you teach people; its labor saving. +A theory is something that enables you to do less work. +I love the idea of doing less work. So let me explain to you why -- a very simple fact that tells you why this shape theory really does not work very well. +This is cis-3-hexene-1-ol. It smells of cut grass. +This is cis-3-hexene-1-thiol, and this smells of rotten eggs, OK? +Now, you will have noticed that vodka never smells of rotten eggs. +If it does, you put the glass down, you go to a different bar. +This is -- in other words, we never get the O-H -- we never mistake it for an S-H, OK? +Like, at no concentration, even pure, you know, if you smelt pure ethanol, it doesnt smell of rotten eggs. +Conversely, there is no concentration at which the sulfur compound will smell like vodka. +Its very hard to explain this by molecular recognition. +Now, I showed this to a physicist friend of mine who has a profound distaste for biology, and he says, "Thats easy! The things are a different color!" +We have to go a little beyond that. Now let me explain why vibrational theory has some sort of interest in it. These molecules, as you saw in the beginning, the building blocks had springs connecting them to each other. +In fact, molecules are able to vibrate at a set of frequencies which are very specific for each molecule and for the bonds connecting them. +So this is the sound of the O-H stretch, translated into the audible range. +S-H, quite a different frequency. +Now, this is kind of interesting, because it tells you that you should be looking for a particular fact, which is this: nothing in the world smells like rotten eggs except S-H, OK? +Now, Fact B: nothing in the world has that frequency except S-H. +If you look on this, imagine a piano keyboard. +The S-H stretch is in the middle of a part of the keyboard that has been, so to speak, damaged, and there are no neighboring notes, nothing is close to it. +You have a unique smell, a unique vibration. +So I went searching when I started in this game to convince myself that there was any degree of plausibility to this whole crazy story. +I went searching for a type of molecule, any molecule, that would have that vibration and that -- the obvious prediction was that it should absolutely smell of sulfur. +If it didnt, the whole idea was toast, and I might as well move on to other things. +Now, after searching high and low for several months, I discovered that there was a type of molecule called a Borane which has exactly the same vibration. +Now the good news is, Boranes you can get hold of. +The bad news is theyre rocket fuels. +Most of them explode spontaneously in contact with air, and when you call up the companies, they only give you minimum ten tons, OK? +So this was not what they call a laboratory-scale experiment, and they wouldnt have liked it at my college. +However, I managed to get a hold of a Borane eventually, and here is the beast. +And it really does have the same -- if you calculate, if you measure the vibrational frequencies, they are the same as S-H. +Now, does it smell of sulfur? Well, if you go back in the literature, theres a man who knew more about Boranes than anyone alive then or since, Alfred Stock, he synthesized all of them. +And in an enormous 40-page paper in German he says, at one point -- my wife is German and she translated it for me -- and at one point he says, "ganz widerlich Geruch," an "absolutely repulsive smell," which is good. Reminiscent of hydrogen sulfide. +So this fact that Boranes smell of sulfur had been known since 1910, and utterly forgotten until 1997, 1998. +Now, the slight fly in the ointment is this: that if we smell molecular vibrations, we must have a spectroscope in our nose. +Now, this is a spectroscope, OK, on my laboratory bench. +And its fair to say that if you look up somebodys nose, youre unlikely to see anything resembling this. +And this is the main objection to the theory. +OK, great, we smell vibrations. How? All right? +Now when people ask this kind of question, they neglect something, which is that physicists are really clever, unlike biologists. +This is a joke. Im a biologist, OK? +So its a joke against myself. +Bob Jacklovich and John Lamb at Ford Motor Company, in the days when Ford Motor was spending vast amounts of money on fundamental research, discovered a way to build a spectroscope that was intrinsically nano-scale. +In other words, no mirrors, no lasers, no prisms, no nonsense, just a tiny device, and he built this device. And this device uses electron tunneling. +Now, I could do the dance of electron tunneling, but Ive done a video instead, which is much more interesting. Heres how it works. +Electrons are fuzzy creatures, and they can jump across gaps, but only at equal energy. If the energy differs, they cant jump. +Unlike us, they wont fall off the cliff. +OK. Now. If something absorbs the energy, the electron can travel. +So here you have a system, you have something -- and theres plenty of that stuff in biology -- some substance giving an electron, and the electron tries to jump, and only when a molecule comes along that has the right vibration does the reaction happen, OK? +This is the basis for the device that these two guys at Ford built. +And every single part of this mechanism is actually plausible in biology. +In other words, Ive taken off-the-shelf components, and Ive made a spectroscope. +Whats nice about this idea, if you have a philosophical bent of mind, is that then it tells you that the nose, the ear and the eye are all vibrational senses. +Of course, it doesnt matter, because it could also be that theyre not. +But it has a certain -- -- it has a certain ring to it which is attractive to people who read too much 19th-century German literature. +And then a magnificent thing happened: I left academia and joined the real world of business, and a company was created around my ideas to make new molecules using my method, along the lines of, lets put someone elses money where your mouth is. +And one of the first things that happened was we started going around to fragrance companies asking for what they needed, because, of course, if you could calculate smell, you dont need chemists. +You need a computer, a Mac will do it, if you know how to program the thing right, OK? So you can try a thousand molecules, you can try ten thousand molecules in a weekend, and then you only tell the chemists to make the right one. +And so thats a direct path to making new odorants. +And one of the first things that happened was we went to see some perfumers in France -- and heres where I do my Charles Fleischer impression -- and one of them says, "You cannot make a coumarin." +He says to me, "I bet you cannot make a coumarin." +Now, coumarin is a very common thing, a material, in fragrance which is derived from a bean that comes from South America. +And it is the classic synthetic aroma chemical, OK? +Its the molecule that has made mens fragrances smell the way they do since 1881, to be exact. +And the problem is its a carcinogen. +So nobody likes particularly to -- you know, aftershave with carcinogens. +There are some reckless people, but its not worth it, OK? +So they asked us to make a new coumarin. And so we started doing calculations. +And the first thing you do is you calculate the vibrational spectrum of coumarin, and you smooth it out, so that you have a nice picture of what the sort of chord, so to speak, of coumarin is. +And then you start cranking the computer to find other molecules, related or unrelated, that have the same vibrations. +And we actually, in this case, Im sorry to say, it happened -- it was serendipitous. +And I said, first of all, let me do the calculation on that compound, bottom right, which is related to coumarin, but has an extra pentagon inserted into the molecule. +Calculate the vibrations, the purple spectrum is that new fellow, the white one is the old one. +And the prediction is it should smell of coumarin. +They made it ... and it smelled exactly like coumarin. +And this is our new baby, called tonkene. +You see, when youre a scientist, youre always selling ideas. +And people are very resistant to ideas, and rightly so. +Why should new ideas be accepted? +But when you put a little 10-gram vial on the table in front of perfumers and it smells like coumarin, and it isnt coumarin, and youve found it in three weeks, this focuses everybodys mind wonderfully. +And people often ask me, is your theory accepted? +And I said, well, by whom? I mean most, you know -- theres three attitudes: Youre right, and I dont know why, which is the most rational one at this point. +Youre right, and I dont care how you do it, in a sense; you bring me the molecules, you know. +And: Youre completely wrong, and Im sure youre completely wrong. +OK? Now, were dealing with people who only want results, and this is the commercial world. +And they tell us that even if we do it by astrology, theyre happy. +But were not actually doing it by astrology. +But for the last three years, Ive had what I consider to be the best job in the entire universe, which is to put my hobby -- which is, you know, fragrance and all the magnificent things -- plus a little bit of biophysics, a small amount of self-taught chemistry at the service of something that actually works. +Thank you very much. +So, about three years ago I was in London, and somebody called Howard Burton came to me and said, I represent a group of people, and we want to start an institute in theoretical physics. +We have about 120 million dollars, and we want to do it well. +We want to be in the forefront fields, and we want to do it differently. +We want to get out of this thing where the young people have all the ideas, and the old people have all the power and decide what science gets done. +It took me about 25 seconds to decide that that was a good idea. +Three years later, we have the Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics in Waterloo, Ontario. Its the most exciting job Ive ever had. +And its the first time Ive had a job where Im afraid to go away because of everything thats going to happen in this week when Im here. +But in any case, what Im going to do in my little bit of time is take you on a quick tour of some of the things that we talk about and we think about. +So, we think a lot about what really makes science work? +The first thing that anybody who knows science, and has been around science, is that the stuff you learn in school as a scientific method is wrong. There is no method. +On the other hand, somehow we manage to reason together as a community, from incomplete evidence to conclusions that we all agree about. +And this is, by the way, something that a democratic society also has to do. +So how does it work? +Well, my belief is that it works because scientists are a community bound together by an ethics. +And here are some of the ethical principles. +Im not going to read them all to you because Im not in teacher mode. +Im in entertain, amaze mode. +But one of the principles is that everybody who is part of the community gets to fight and argue as hard as they can for what they believe. +But were all disciplined by the understanding that the only people who are going to decide, you know, whether Im right or somebody else is right, are the people in our community in the next generation, in 30 and 50 years. +So its this combination of respect for the tradition and community were in, and rebellion that the community requires to get anywhere, that makes science work. +And being in this process of being in a community that reasons from shared evidence to conclusions, I believe, teaches us about democracy. +Not only is there a relationship between the ethics of science and the ethics of being a citizen in democracy, but there has been, historically, a relationship between how people think about space and time, and what the cosmos is, and how people think about the society that they live in. +And I want to talk about three stages in that evolution. +The first science of cosmology that was anything like science was Aristotelian science, and that was hierarchical. +The earth is in the center, then there are these crystal spheres, the sun, the moon, the planets and finally the celestial sphere, where the stars are. And everything in this universe has a place. +And Aristotles law of motion was that everything goes to its natural place, which was of course, the rule of the society that Aristotle lived in, and more importantly, the medieval society that, through Christianity, embraced Aristotle and blessed it. +And the idea is that everything is defined. +Where something is, is defined with respect to this last sphere, the celestial sphere, outside of which is this eternal, perfect realm, where lives God, who is the ultimate judge of everything. +So that is both Aristotelian cosmology, and in a certain sense, medieval society. +Now, in the 17th century there was a revolution in thinking about space and time and motion and so forth of Newton. +And at the same time there was a revolution in social thought of John Locke and his collaborators. +And they were very closely associated. +In fact, Newton and Locke were friends. +Their way of thinking about space and time and motion on the one hand, and a society on the other hand, were closely related. +And let me show you. +In a Newtonian universe, theres no center -- thank you. +There are particles and they move around with respect to a fixed, absolute framework of space and time. +Its meaningful to say absolutely where something is in space, because thats defined, not with respect to say, where other things are, but with respect to this absolute notion of space, which for Newton was God. +Now, similarly, in Lockes society there are individuals who have certain rights, properties in a formal sense, and those are defined with respect to some absolute, abstract notions of rights and justice, and so forth, which are independent of what else has happened in the society. +Of who else there is, of the history and so forth. +There is also an omniscient observer who knows everything, who is God, who is in a certain sense outside the universe, because he has no role in anything that happens, but is in a certain sense everywhere, because space is just the way that God knows where everything is, according to Newton, OK? +So this is the foundations of whats called, traditionally, liberal political theory and Newtonian physics. +Now, in the 20th century we had a revolution that was initiated at the beginning of the 20th century, and which is still going on. +It was begun with the invention of relativity theory and quantum theory. +And merging them together to make the final quantum theory of space and time and gravity, is the culmination of that, something thats going on right now. +And in this universe theres nothing fixed and absolute. Zilch, OK. +This universe is described by being a network of relationships. +Space is just one aspect, so theres no meaning to say absolutely where something is. +Theres only where it is relative to everything else that is. +And this network of relations is ever-evolving. +So we call it a relational universe. +All properties of things are about these kinds of relationships. +And also, if youre embedded in such a network of relationships, your view of the world has to do with what information comes to you through the network of relations. +And theres no place for an omniscient observer or an outside intelligence knowing everything and making everything. +So this is general relativity, this is quantum theory. +This is also, if you talk to legal scholars, the foundations of new ideas in legal thought. +Theyre thinking about the same things. +And not only that, they make the analogy to relativity theory and cosmology often. +So theres an interesting discussion going on there. +This last view of cosmology is called the relational view. +So the main slogan here is that theres nothing outside the universe, which means that theres no place to put an explanation for something outside. +So in such a relational universe, if you come upon something thats ordered and structured, like this device here, or that device there, or something beautiful, like all the living things, all of you guys in the room -- "guys" in physics, by the way, is a generic term: men and women. +Then you want to know, youre a person, you want to know how is it made. +And in a relational universe the only possible explanation was, somehow it made itself. +There must be mechanisms of self-organization inside the universe that make things. +Because theres no place to put a maker outside, as there was in the Aristotelian and the Newtonian universe. +So in a relational universe we must have processes of self-organization. +Now, Darwin taught us that there are processes of self-organization that suffice to explain all of us and everything we see. +So it works. But not only that, if you think about how natural selection works, then it turns out that natural selection would only make sense in such a relational universe. +That is, natural selection works on properties, like fitness, which are about relationships of some species to some other species. +Darwin wouldnt make sense in an Aristotelian universe, and wouldnt really make sense in a Newtonian universe. +So a theory of biology based on natural selection requires a relational notion of what are the properties of biological systems. +And if you push that all the way down, really, it makes the best sense in a relational universe where all properties are relational. +Now, not only that, but Einstein taught us that gravity is the result of the world being relational. +If it wasnt for gravity, there wouldnt be life, because gravity causes stars to form and live for a very long time, keeping pieces of the world, like the surface of the Earth, out of thermal equilibrium for billions of years so life can evolve. +In the 20th century, we saw the independent development of two big themes in science. +In the biological sciences, they explored the implications of the notion that order and complexity and structure arise in a self-organized way. +That was the triumph of Neo-Darwinism and so forth. +And slowly, that idea is leaking out to the cognitive sciences, the human sciences, economics, et cetera. +At the same time, we physicists have been busy trying to make sense of and build on and integrate the discoveries of quantum theory and relativity. +And what weve been working out is the implications, really, of the idea that the universe is made up of relations. +21st-century science is going to be driven by the integration of these two ideas: the triumph of relational ways of thinking about the world, on the one hand, and self-organization or Darwinian ways of thinking about the world, on the other hand. +And also, is that in the 21st century our thinking about space and time and cosmology, and our thinking about society are both going to continue to evolve. +And what theyre evolving towards is the union of these two big ideas, Darwinism and relationalism. +Now, if you think about democracy from this perspective, a new pluralistic notion of democracy would be one that recognizes that there are many different interests, many different agendas, many different individuals, many different points of view. +Each one is incomplete, because youre embedded in a network of relationships. +Any actor in a democracy is embedded in a network of relationships. +And you understand some things better than other things, and because of that theres a continual jostling and give and take, which is politics. +And politics is, in the ideal sense, the way in which we continually address our network of relations in order to achieve a better life and a better society. +And I also think that science will never go away and -- Im finishing on this line. +In fact, Im finished. Science will never go away. +I spent the better part of a decade looking at American responses to mass atrocity and genocide. +And I'd like to start by sharing with you one moment that to me sums up what there is to know about American and democratic responses to mass atrocity. +And that moment came on April 21, 1994. +So 14 years ago, almost, in the middle of the Rwandan genocide, in which 800,000 people would be systematically exterminated by the Rwandan government and some extremist militia. +On April 21, in the New York Times, the paper reported that somewhere between 200,000 and 300,000 people had already been killed in the genocide. +It was in the paper -- not on the front page. +It was a lot like the Holocaust coverage, it was buried in the paper. +Rwanda itself was not seen as newsworthy, and amazingly, genocide itself was not seen as newsworthy. +But on April 21, a wonderfully honest moment occurred. +And that was that an American congresswoman named Patricia Schroeder from Colorado met with a group of journalists. +And one of the journalists said to her, what's up? +What's going on in the U.S. government? +Two to 300,000 people have just been exterminated in the last couple of weeks in Rwanda. +It's two weeks into the genocide at that time, but of course, at that time you don't know how long it's going to last. +And the journalist said, why is there so little response out of Washington? +Why no hearings, no denunciations, no people getting arrested in front of the Rwandan embassy or in front of the White House? What's the deal? +And she said -- she was so honest -- she said, "It's a great question. +All I can tell you is that in my congressional office in Colorado and my office in Washington, we're getting hundreds and hundreds of calls about the endangered ape and gorilla population in Rwanda, but nobody is calling about the people. +The phones just aren't ringing about the people." +And the reason I give you this moment is there's a deep truth in it. +And that truth is, or was, in the 20th century, that while we were beginning to develop endangered species movements, we didn't have an endangered people's movement. +We had Holocaust education in the schools. +Most of us were groomed not only on images of nuclear catastrophe, but also on images and knowledge of the Holocaust. +There's a museum, of course, on the Mall in Washington, right next to Lincoln and Jefferson. +I mean, we have owned Never Again culturally, appropriately, interestingly. +And yet the politicization of Never Again, the operationalization of Never Again, had never occurred in the 20th century. +And that's what that moment with Patricia Schroeder I think shows: that if we are to bring about an end to the world's worst atrocities, we have to make it such. +There has to be a role -- there has to be the creation of political noise and political costs in response to massive crimes against humanity, and so forth. +So that was the 20th century. +Now here -- and this will be a relief to you at this point in the afternoon -- there is good news, amazing news, in the 21st century, and that is that, almost out of nowhere, there has come into being an anti-genocide movement, an anti-genocide constituency, and one that looks destined, in fact, to be permanent. +It grew up in response to the atrocities in Darfur. +It is comprised of students. There are something like 300 anti-genocide chapters on college campuses around the country. +It's bigger than the anti-apartheid movement. +There are something like 500 high school chapters devoted to stopping the genocide in Darfur. +Evangelicals have joined it. Jewish groups have joined it. +"Hotel Rwanda" watchers have joined it. It is a cacophonous movement. +To call it a movement, as with all movements, perhaps, is a little misleading. +It's diverse. It's got a lot of different approaches. +It's got all the ups and the downs of movements. +But it has been amazingly successful in one regard, in that it has become, it has congealed into this endangered people's movement that was missing in the 20th century. +It sees itself, such as it is, the it, as something that will create the impression that there will be political cost, there will be a political price to be paid, for allowing genocide, for not having an heroic imagination, for not being an upstander but for being, in fact, a bystander. +Now because it's student-driven, there's some amazing things that the movement has done. +They have launched a divestment campaign that has now convinced, I think, 55 universities in 22 states to divest their holdings of stocks with regard to companies doing business in Sudan. +They have a 1-800-GENOCIDE number -- this is going to sound very kitsch, but for those of you who may not be, I mean, may be apolitical, but interested in doing something about genocide, you dial 1-800-GENOCIDE and you type in your zip code, and you don't even have to know who your congressperson is. +It will refer you directly to your congressperson, to your U.S. senator, to your governor where divestment legislation is pending. +They've lowered the transaction costs of stopping genocide. +I think the most innovative thing they've introduced recently are genocide grades. +And it takes students to introduce genocide grades. +So what you now have when a Congress is in session is members of Congress calling up these 19-year-olds or 24-year-olds and saying, I'm just told I have a D minus on genocide; what do I do to get a C? I just want to get a C. Help me. +And the students and the others who are part of this incredibly energized base are there to answer that, and there's always something to do. +Now, what this movement has done is it has extracted from the Bush administration from the United States, at a time of massive over-stretch -- military, financial, diplomatic -- a whole series of commitments to Darfur that no other country in the world is making. +For instance, the referral of the crimes in Darfur to the International Criminal Court, which the Bush administration doesn't like. +The expenditure of 3 billion dollars in refugee camps to try to keep, basically, the people who've been displaced from their homes by the Sudanese government, by the so-called Janjaweed, the militia, to keep those people alive until something more durable can be achieved. +And recently, or now not that recently, about six months ago, the authorization of a peacekeeping force of 26,000 that will go. +And that's all the Bush administration's leadership, and it's all because of this bottom-up pressure and the fact that the phones haven't stopped ringing from the beginning of this crisis. +The bad news, however, to this question of will evil prevail, is that evil lives on. +The people in those camps are surrounded on all sides by so-called Janjaweed, these men on horseback with spears and Kalashnikovs. +Women who go to get firewood in order to heat the humanitarian aid in order to feed their families -- humanitarian aid, the dirty secret of it is it has to be heated, really, to be edible -- are themselves subjected to rape, which is a tool of the genocide that is being used. +And the peacekeepers I've mentioned, the force has been authorized, but almost no country on Earth has stepped forward since the authorization to actually put its troops or its police in harm's way. +So we have achieved an awful lot relative to the 20th century, and yet far too little relative to the gravity of the crime that is unfolding as we sit here, as we speak. +Why the limits to the movement? +Why is what has been achieved, or what the movement has done, been necessary but not sufficient to the crime? +I think there are a couple -- there are many reasons -- but a couple just to focus on briefly. +The first is that the movement, such as it is, stops at America's borders. It is not a global movement. +It does not have too many compatriots abroad who themselves are asking their governments to do more to stop genocide. +And the Holocaust culture that we have in this country makes Americans, sort of, more prone to, I think, want to bring Never Again to life. +The guilt that the Clinton administration expressed, that Bill Clinton expressed over Rwanda, created a space in our society for a consensus that Rwanda was bad and wrong and we wish we had done more, and that is something that the movement has taken advantage of. +European governments, for the most part, haven't acknowledged responsibility, and there's nothing to kind of to push back and up against. +So this movement, if it's to be durable and global, will have to cross borders, and you will have to see other citizens in democracies, not simply resting on the assumption that their government would do something in the face of genocide, but actually making it such. +Governments will never gravitate towards crimes of this magnitude naturally or eagerly. +As we saw, they haven't even gravitated towards protecting our ports or reigning in loose nukes. +Why would we expect in a bureaucracy that it would orient itself towards distant suffering? +So one reason is it hasn't gone global. +The second is, of course, that at this time in particular in America's history, we have a credibility problem, a legitimacy problem in international institutions. +It is structurally really, really hard to do, as the Bush administration rightly does, which is to denounce genocide on a Monday and then describe water boarding on a Tuesday as a no-brainer and then turn up on Wednesday and look for troop commitments. +Now, other countries have their own reasons for not wanting to get involved. +Let me be clear. +They're in some ways using the Bush administration as an alibi. +But it is essential for us to be a leader in this sphere, of course to restore our standing and our leadership in the world. +The recovery's going to take some time. +We have to ask ourselves, what now? What do we do going forward as a country and as citizens in relationship to the world's worst places, the world's worst suffering, killers, and the kinds of killers that could come home to roost sometime in the future? +The place that I turned to answer that question was to a man that many of you may not have ever heard of, and that is a Brazilian named Sergio Vieira de Mello who, as Chris said, was blown up in Iraq in 2003. +He was the victim of the first-ever suicide bomb in Iraq. +It's hard to remember, but there was actually a time in the summer of 2003, even after the U.S. invasion, where, apart from looting, civilians were relatively safe in Iraq. +Now, who was Sergio? Sergio Vieira de Mello was his name. +In addition to being Brazilian, he was described to me before I met him in 1994 as someone who was a cross between James Bond on the one hand and Bobby Kennedy on the other. +And in the U.N., you don't get that many people who actually manage to merge those qualities. +He was James Bond-like in that he was ingenious. +He was drawn to the flames, he chased the flames, he was like a moth to the flames. Something of an adrenalin junkie. +He was successful with women. +He was Bobby Kennedy-like because in some ways one could never tell if he was a realist masquerading as an idealist or an idealist masquerading as a realist, as people always wondered about Bobby Kennedy and John Kennedy in that way. +What he was was a decathlete of nation-building, of problem-solving, of troubleshooting in the world's worst places and in the world's most broken places. +In failing states, genocidal states, under-governed states, precisely the kinds of places that threats to this country exist on the horizon, and precisely the kinds of places where most of the world's suffering tends to get concentrated. +These are the places he was drawn to. +He moved with the headlines. +He was in the U.N. for 34 years. He joined at the age of 21. +Started off when the causes in the wars du jour in the '70s were wars of independence and decolonization. +He was there in Bangladesh dealing with the outflow of millions of refugees -- the largest refugee flow in history up to that point. +He was in Sudan when the civil war broke out there. +He was in Cyprus right after the Turkish invasion. +He was in Mozambique for the War of Independence. +He was in Lebanon. Amazingly, he was in Lebanon -- the U.N. base was used -- Palestinians staged attacks out from behind the U.N. base. +Israel then invaded and overran the U.N. base. +Sergio was in Beirut when the U.S. Embassy was hit by the first-ever suicide attack against the United States. +People date the beginning of this new era to 9/11, but surely 1983, with the attack on the US Embassy and the Marine barracks -- which Sergio witnessed -- those are, in fact, in some ways, the dawning of the era that we find ourselves in today. +From Lebanon he went to Bosnia in the '90s. +The issues were, of course, ethnic sectarian violence. +He was the first person to negotiate with the Khmer Rouge. +Talk about evil prevailing. I mean, here he was in the room with the embodiment of evil in Cambodia. +He negotiates with the Serbs. +He actually crosses so far into this realm of talking to evil and trying to convince evil that it doesn't need to prevail that he earns the nickname -- not Sergio but Serbio while he's living in the Balkans and conducting these kinds of negotiations. +He then goes to Rwanda and to Congo in the aftermath of the genocide, and he's the guy who has to decide -- huh, OK, the genocide is over; 800,000 people have been killed; the people responsible are fleeing into neighboring countries -- into Congo, into Tanzania. +I'm Sergio, I'm a humanitarian, and I want to feed those -- well, I don't want to feed the killers but I want to feed the two million people who are with them, so we're going to go, we're going to set up camps, and we're going to supply humanitarian aid. +But, uh-oh, the killers are within the camps. +Well, I'd like to separate the sheep from the wolves. +Let me go door-to-door to the international community and see if anybody will give me police or troops to do the separation. +And their response, of course, was no more than we wanted to stop the genocide and put our troops in harm's way to do that, nor do we now want to get in the way and pluck genocidaires from camps. +So then you have to make the decision. +Do you turn off the international spigot of life support and risk two million civilian lives? +Or do you continue feeding the civilians, knowing that the genocidaires are in the camps, literally sharpening their knives for future battle? +What do you do? +It's all lesser-evil terrain in these broken places. +Late '90s: nation-building is the cause du jour. +He's the guy put in charge. He's the Paul Bremer or the Jerry Bremer of first Kosovo and then East Timor. He governs the places. +He's the viceroy. He has to decide on tax policy, on currency, on border patrol, on policing. He has to make all these judgments. +He's a Brazilian in these places. He speaks seven languages. +He's been up to that point in 14 war zones so he's positioned to make better judgments, perhaps, than people who have never done that kind of work. +But nonetheless, he is the cutting edge of our experimentation with doing good with very few resources being brought to bear in, again, the world's worst places. +And then after Timor, 9/11 has happened, he's named U.N. Human Rights Commissioner, and he has to balance liberty and security and figure out, what do you do when the most powerful country in the United Nations is bowing out of the Geneva Conventions, bowing out of international law? Do you denounce? +Well, if you denounce, you're probably never going to get back in the room. +Maybe you stay reticent. Maybe you try to charm President Bush -- and that's what he did. And in so doing he earned himself, unfortunately, his final and tragic appointment to Iraq -- the one that resulted in his death. +One note on his death, which is so devastating, is that despite predicating the war on Iraq on a link between Saddam Hussein and terrorism in 9/11, believe it or not, the Bush administration or the invaders did no planning, no pre-war planning, to respond to terrorism. +So Sergio -- this receptacle of all of this learning on how to deal with evil and how to deal with brokenness, lay under the rubble for three and a half hours without rescue. +Stateless. The guy who tried to help the stateless people his whole career. +Like a refugee. Because he represents the U.N. +If you represent everyone, in some ways you represent no one. +You're un-owned. +And what the American -- the most powerful military in the history of mankind was able to muster for his rescue, believe it or not, was literally these heroic two American soldiers went into the shaft. Building was shaking. +One of them had been at 9/11 and lost his buddies on September 11th, and yet went in and risked his life in order to save Sergio. +And this was the pulley system. This was what we were able to muster for Sergio. +The good news, for what it's worth, is after Sergio and 21 others were killed that day in the attack on the U.N., the military created a search and rescue unit that had the cutting equipment, the shoring wood, the cranes, the things that you would have needed to do the rescue. +But it was too late for Sergio. +I want to wrap up, but I want to close with what I take to be the four lessons from Sergio's life on this question of how do we prevent evil from prevailing, which is how I would have framed the question. +Here's this guy who got a 34-year head start thinking about the kinds of questions we as a country are grappling with, we as citizens are grappling with now. What do we take away? +First, I think, is his relationship to, in fact, evil is something to learn from. +He, over the course of his career, changed a great deal. +He had a lot of flaws, but he was very adaptive. +I think that was his greatest quality. +He started as somebody who would denounce harmdoers, he would charge up to people who were violating international law, and he would say, you're violating, this is the U.N. Charter. +Don't you see it's unacceptable what you're doing? +And they would laugh at him because he didn't have the power of states, the power of any military or police. +He just had the rules, he had the norms, and he tried to use them. +And in Lebanon, Southern Lebanon in '82, he said to himself and to everybody else, I will never use the word "unacceptable" again. +I will never use it. I will try to make it such, but I will never use that word again. +But he lunged in the opposite direction. +He started, as I mentioned, to get in the room with evil, to not denounce, and became almost obsequious when he won the nickname Serbio, for instance, and even when he negotiated with the Khmer Rouge would black-box what had occurred prior to entering the room. +But by the end of his life, I think he had struck a balance that we as a country can learn from. +Be in the room, don't be afraid of talking to your adversaries, but don't bracket what happened before you entered the room. +Don't black-box history. Don't check your principles at the door. +And I think that's something that we have to be in the room, whether it's Nixon going to China or Khrushchev and Kennedy or Reagan and Gorbachev. +All the great progress in this country with relation to our adversaries has come by going into the room. +And it doesn't have to be an act of weakness. +You can actually do far more to build an international coalition against a harmdoer or a wrongdoer by being in the room and showing to the rest of the world that that person, that regime, is the problem and that you, the United States, are not the problem. +Second take-away from Sergio's life, briefly. +What I take away, and this in some ways is the most important, he espoused and exhibited a reverence for dignity that was really, really unusual. +At a micro level, the individuals around him were visible. +He saw them. +At a macro level, he thought, you know, we talk about democracy promotion, but we do it in a way sometimes that's an affront to people's dignity. +We put people on humanitarian aid and we boast about it because we've spent three billion. +It's incredibly important, those people would no longer be alive if the United States, for instance, hadn't spent that money in Darfur, but it's not a way to live. +If we think about dignity in our conduct as citizens and as individuals with relation to the people around us, and as a country, if we could inject a regard for dignity into our dealings with other countries, it would be something of a revolution. +Third point, very briefly. He talked a lot about freedom from fear. +And I recognize there is so much to be afraid of. +There are so many genuine threats in the world. +But what Sergio was talking about is, let's calibrate our relationship to the threat. +Let's not hype the threat; let's actually see it clearly. +We have reason to be afraid of melting ice caps. +We have reason to be afraid that we haven't secured loose nuclear material in the former Soviet Union. +Let's focus on what are the legitimate challenges and threats, but not lunge into bad decisions because of a panic, of a fear. +In times of fear, for instance, one of the things Sergio used to say is, fear is a bad advisor. +We lunge towards the extremes when we aren't operating and trying to, again, calibrate our relationship to the world around us. +Fourth and final point: he somehow, because he was working in all the world's worst places and all lesser evils, had a humility, of course, and an awareness of the complexity of the world around him. +I mean, such an acute awareness of how hard it was. +How Sisyphean this task was of mending, and yet aware of that complexity, humbled by it, he wasn't paralyzed by it. +And we as citizens, as we go through this experience of the kind of, the crisis of confidence, crisis of competence, crisis of legitimacy, I think there's a temptation to pull back from the world and say, ah, Katrina, Iraq -- we don't know what we're doing. +We can't afford to pull back from the world. +It's a question of how to be in the world. +And the lesson, I think, of the anti-genocide movement that I mentioned, that is a partial success but by no means has it achieved what it has set out to do -- it'll be many decades, probably, before that happens -- but is that if we want to see change, we have to become the change. +We can't rely upon our institutions to do the work of necessarily talking to adversaries on their own without us creating a space for that to happen, for having respect for dignity, and for bringing that combination of humility and a sort of emboldened sense of responsibility to our dealings with the rest of the world. +So will evil prevail? Is that the question? +I think the short answer is: no, not unless we let it. +Thank you. +I have, like, a thing about sleeping. +I don't sleep that much, and I've come to this thing about, like, not sleeping much as being a great virtue, after years of kind of battling it as being a terrible detriment, or something. +And now I really like sort of sitting up, you know. +But for years I've been sitting up and I think that, like, my creativity is greatly motivated by this kind of insomnia. +I lie awake. I think thoughts. I walk aimlessly. +Sometimes I used to walk more at night. +I walk during the day and I follow people who I think look interesting. +And sometimes -- actually, once it was on Page Six in the Post, that I was cruising this guy, like, sort of, whatever, but I was actually just following because he had these really great shoes on. +And so I was following this guy. +And I took a picture of his shoes, and we thanked each other and just went on our way. +But I do that all the time. +As a matter of fact, I think a lot of my design ideas come from mistakes and tricks of the eye. +Because I feel like, you know, there are so many images out there, so many clothes out there. +And the only ones that look interesting to me are the ones that look slightly mistaken, of course, or very, very surprising. +And often, I'm driving in a taxi and I see a hole in a shirt, or something that looks very interesting or pretty or functional in some way that I'd never seen happen before. +And so I'd make the car stop, and I'd get out of the car and walk, and see that in fact there wasn't a hole, but it was a trick of my eye, it was a shadow, you know. +Or if there was a hole I'd think like, oh damn, there was actually someone thought of that thought already. +Someone made that mistake already so I can't do it anymore. +I don't know where inspiration comes from. +It does not come for me from research. +I don't get necessarily inspired by research. +As a matter of fact, one of the most fun things I've ever, ever done in my whole life, was this Christmas season at the Guggenheim in New York. +I read "Peter and the Wolf" with this beautiful band from Juilliard. +And I did like, you know, the narrator, and I read it. +And I saw this really smart critic who I love. +This woman, Joan Acocella, who's a friend of mine, and she came backstage and she said, oh, you know, Isaac, did you know that, talking about Stalinism and talking about, you know, like the '30s in Russia. +And I said, how do I know about Stalinism? +I know about a wolf and a bird and, you know, he ate the bird, and then in the end you hear, you know, you hear the bird squeaking, or something, you know? +So I don't really know that. I don't really -- actually I do my own kind of research, you know. +If I'm commissioned to do the costumes for an 18th-century opera, or something like that, I will do a lot of research, because it's interesting, not because it's what I'm supposed to do. +I'm very, very, very inspired by movies. +The color of movies and the way light makes the colors, light from behind the projection, or light from the projection, makes the colors look so impossible. +And anyway, roll this little clip, I'll just show you. +I sit up at night and I watch movies and I watch women in movies a lot. +And I think about, you know, their roles, and about how you have to, like, watch what your daughters look at. +Because I look at the way women are portrayed all the time. +Whether they're kind of glorified in this way, or whether they're kind of, you know, ironically glorified, or whether they're, you know, sort of denigrated, or ironically denigrated. +I go back to color all the time. +Color is something that motivates me a lot. +It's rarely color that I find in nature, although, you know, juxtaposed next to artificial color, natural color is so beautiful. +So that's what I do. I study color a lot. +But for the most part, I think, like, how can I ever make anything that is as beautiful as that image of Natalie Wood? +How can I ever make anything as beautiful as Greta Garbo? +I mean, that's just not possible, you know. +And so that's what makes me lie awake at night, I guess, you know. +I want to show you -- I'm also like a big -- I go to astrologers and tarot card readers often, and that's another thing that motivates me a lot. +People say, oh, do that. An astrologer tells me to do something. +So I do it. +When I was about 21, an astrologer told me that I was going to meet the man of my dreams, and that his name was going to be Eric, right? +So, you know, for years I would go to bars and, sort of, anyone I met whose name was Eric I was humping immediately, or something. +And there were times when I was actually so desperate I would just, you know, walk into a room and just go like, "Eric!" +And anybody who would turn around I would, sort of, make a beeline for. +And I had this really interesting tarot reading a long time ago. +The last card he pulled, which was representing my destiny was this guy on like a straw boater with a cane and you know, sort of spats and this, you know, a minstrel singer, right? +I want to show you this clip because I do this kind of crazy thing where I do a cabaret act. +So actually, check this out. +Very embarrassing. +: Thank you. We can do anything you ask. +The name of the show is based on this story that I have to tell you about my mother. +It's sort of an excerpt from a quote of hers. +I was dating this guy, right? +And this has to do with being happy, I swear. +I was dating this guy and it was going on for about a year, right. +And we were getting serious, so we decided to invite them all to dinner, our parents. +And we, you know, sort of introduced them to each other. +My mother was, sort of, very sensitive to his mother, who it seemed was a little bit skeptical about the whole alternative lifestyle thing. +You know, homosexuality, right? +So my mother was a little offended. She turned to her and she said, "Are you kidding? They have the greatest life together. +They eat out, they see shows." +They eat out, they see shows. +That's the name of the show, they eat out, they -- that's on my tombstone when I die. +"He ate out, he saw shows," right? +So in editing these clips, I didn't have the audacity to edit a clip of me singing at Joe's Pub. +So you'll have to, like, go check it out and come see me or something. +Because it's mortifying, and yet it feels ... +I don't know how to put this. +I feel as little comfort as possible is a good thing, you know. +And at least, you know, in my case, because if I just do one thing all the time, I don't know, I get very, very bored. I bore very easily. +And you know, I don't say that I do everything well, I just say that I do a lot of things, that's all. +And I kind of try not to look back, you know. +Except, I guess, that's what staying up every night is about. +Like, looking back and thinking, what a fool you made of yourself, you know. +But I guess that's okay. Right? +Because if you do many things you get to feel lousy about everything, and not just one, you know. +You don't master feeling lousy about one thing. +Yeah, exactly. +I will show you this next thing, speaking of costumes for operas. +I do work with different choreographers. +I work with Twyla Tharp a lot, and I work with Mark Morris a lot, who is one of my best friends. +And I designed three operas with him, and the most recent one, "King Arthur." +I'd been very ingrained in the dance world since I was a teenager. +I went to performing arts high school, where I was an actor. +And many of my friends were ballet dancers. +Again, I don't know where inspiration comes from. +I don't know where it comes from. +I started making puppets when I was a kid. +Maybe that's where the whole inspiration thing started from, puppets, right. +And then performing arts high school. +There I was in high school, meeting dancers and acting. +And somehow, from there, I got interested in design. +I went to Parsons School of Design and then I began my career as a designer. +I don't really think of myself as a designer, I don't really think of myself necessarily as a fashion designer. +And frankly, I don't really know what to call myself. +I think of myself as a ... I don't know what I think of myself as. +It's just that. +But I must say, this whole thing about being slightly bored all the time, that is what -- I think that is a very important thing for a fashion designer. +You always have to be slightly bored with everything. +And if you're not, you have to pretend to be slightly bored with everything. +But I am really a little bored with everything. +I always say to my partner, Marisa Gardini, who books everything -- she books everything and she makes everything happen. +And she makes all the deals. +And I always tell her that I find myself with a lot of time on the computer bridge program. +Too much time on computer bridge, which is, you know, like that's so ... somehow, like, about ten years ago I thought that the most unboring place in the world would be like a T.V. studio, like for a day show. Some kind of day talk show. +Because it's all of these things that I love all kind of in one place. +And if you ever get bored you can look at another thing, and do another thing and talk about it, right? +And so I had this T.V. show. +And that was a very, very, very big part of my process. +Actually, could you roll the clip, please? +This is one of my favorite clips of Rosie. +Isaac Mizrahi: We're back on the set. +Hi there. +Rosie O'Donnell: Hello, Ben. +IM: Look how cute she looks with this, just a slick back. +Man: Her grandmother says, "Delish!" +IM: Ah, wow, delish. All right. So now where should I position myself? +I want to stay out of the way. +I don't want to be -- okay. Here we go. +Do you get nervous, Ashleigh? +Ashleigh: Doing what? +ROD: Cutting hair. +A: Cutting hair? Never, never. +I don't think there was ever a day where I cut hair I was nervous. +IM: You look so cute already, by the way. +ROD: You like it? All right. +IM: Do you have a problem with looking cute? You want to look cute. +ROD: Of course I want to look cute. +IM: Just checking, because some people want to look, you know, aggressively ugly. +ROD: No, not me, no. +IM: You read about all these people who have a lot of money and they have kids and the kids always end up somehow, like, really messed up, you know what I mean? +And there's got to be some way to do that, Rosie. +Because just because if you're fabulously rich, and fabulously famous, does that mean you shouldn't have kids, because you know they're going to end up getting messed up? +ROD: No, but it means that your priority has to be their well-being first, I think. +But you have to make the decision for yourself. +My kids are seven, who the hell knows. +They're going to be like 14 and in rehab. +And they're going to be playing this clip: "I'm such a good mother." +My God, this is the shortest I've ever had. +IM: It looks good, yeah? +A: I was going to ask you, has your hair ever been -- ROD: No! It's all right -- go crazy. +IM: I feel like it needs to be a little closer down here. +A: Oh no, we're just staging, ROD: We're just staging it. +IM: Are you freaking out? You look so cute. +ROD: No, I love it. It's the new me. +IM: Oh, it's so fabulous! +ROD: Flock of Rosie. Wooo! +IM: So by the way. Of all the most unboring things in the world, right. +I mean, like making someone who's already cute look terrible like that. +That is not boring. That is nothing if it's not boring. +Actually, I read this great quote the other day, which was, "Style makes you feel great because it takes your mind off the fact that you're going to die." +Right? And then I realized, that was on my website, and then it said, like, you know, the quote was attributed to me and I thought, oh, I said something, you know, in an interview. +I forgot that I said that. But it's really true. +I want to show you this last clip because it's going to be my last goodbye. +I'll tell you that I cook a lot also. I love to cook. +And I often look at things as though they're food. +Like I say, oh, you know, would you serve a rotten chicken? +Then how could you serve, you know, a beat up old dress or something. +How could you show a beat up old dress? +I always relate things to kitchen-ry. +And so I think that's what it all boils down to. +Everything boils down to that. +So check this out. +This is what I've been doing because I think it's the most fun thing in the world. +It's, like, this website. +It's got a lot of different things on it. +It's a polymathematical website. +We actually shoot segments like T.V. show segments. +And it's kind of my favorite thing in the world. +And it just began like in the beginning of February. So who knows? +And again, I don't say it's good, I just think it's not boring, right? +And here is the last bit. +IM: I have to tell you, I make buttermilk pancakes or buttermilk waffles all the time. +Chef: Do you? +IM: Yeah, but I can never find buttermilk, ever. +Chef: Oh. +IM: You can't find buttermilk at Citarella; you can't find buttermilk. +Chef: You can't? +IM: It's always low-fat buttermilk. +Chef: No, but that's all it is. +IM: Is that all it is? +Chef: Oh, you don't know? Let me tell you something. +Let me tell you something interesting. +IM: You know what? Stop laughing. It's not funny. +Just because I don't know that whole -- that there's no such thing as whole buttermilk. +Sorry, what? +Chef: Well, here's the deal. Let me tell you the deal. +In the old days when they used to make butter, you know how you make butter? +IM: Churns? +Chef: For cream? +IM: Yeah, exactly. +Chef: So you take heavy, high-fat milk, which is cream, and you churn it until it separates into these curds and water. +The liquid is actually that clear liquid. +If you've ever overbeaten your whipped cream, it's actually buttermilk. +And that's what it was in the early days. +And that's what people used for baking and all sorts of things. +Now, the buttermilk that you get is actually low-fat or skim milk. +IM: Excuse me, I didn't know. All right? +Chef: The reason he thought that is because buttermilk is so wonderfully thick and delicious. +IM: Yeah, it is, exactly. +So who would think that it was low-fat? +Well, that's it. Thank you very much. +Happy TED. It's so wonderful here. I love it. I love it. I love it. +Thanks. Bye. +I thought I'd start with telling you or showing you the people who started [Jet Propulsion Lab]. +When they were a bunch of kids, they were kind of very imaginative, very adventurous, as they were trying at Caltech to mix chemicals and see which one blows up more. +Well, I don't recommend that you try to do that now. +Naturally, they blew up a shack, and Caltech, well, then, hey, you go to the Arroyo and really do all your tests in there. +So, that's what we call our first five employees during the tea break, you know, in here. +As I said, they were adventurous people. +As a matter of fact, one of them, who was, kind of, part of a cult which was not too far from here on Orange Grove, and unfortunately he blew up himself because he kept mixing chemicals and trying to figure out which ones were the best chemicals. +So, that gives you a kind of flavor of the kind of people we have there. +We try to avoid blowing ourselves up. +This one I thought I'd show you. +Guess which one is a JPL employee in the heart of this crowd. +I tried to come like him this morning, but as I walked out, then it was too cold, and I said, I'd better put my shirt back on. +But more importantly, the reason I wanted to show this picture: look where the other people are looking, and look where he is looking. +Wherever anybody else looks, look somewhere else, and go do something different, you know, and doing that. +And that's kind of what has been the spirit of what we are doing. +And I want to tell you a quote from Ralph Emerson that one of my colleagues, you know, put on my wall in my office, and it says, "Do not go where the path may lead. +Go instead where there is no path, and leave a trail." +And that's my recommendation to all of you: look what everybody is doing, what they are doing; go do something completely different. +Don't try to improve a little bit on what somebody else is doing, because that doesn't get you very far. +In our early days we used to work a lot on rockets, but we also used to have a lot of parties, you know. +As you can see, one of our parties, you know, a few years ago. +But then a big difference happened about 50 years ago, after Sputnik was launched. We launched the first American satellite, and that's the one you see on the left in there. +And here we made 180 degrees change: we changed from a rocket house to be an exploration house. +And that was done over a period of a couple of years, and now we are the leading organization, you know, exploring space on all of your behalf. +But even when we did that, we had to remind ourselves, sometimes there are setbacks. +So you see, on the bottom, that rocket was supposed to go upward; somehow it ended going sideways. +So that's what we call the misguided missile. +But then also, just to celebrate that, we started an event at JPL for "Miss Guided Missile." +So, we used to have a celebration every year and select -- there used to be competition and parades and so on. +It's not very appropriate to do it now. Some people tell me to do it; I think, well, that's not really proper, you know, these days. +So, we do something a little bit more serious. +And that's what you see in the last Rose Bowl, you know, when we entered one of the floats. +That's more on the play side. And on the right side, that's the Rover just before we finished its testing to take it to the Cape to launch it. +These are the Rovers up here that you have on Mars now. +So that kind of tells you about, kind of, the fun things, you know, and the serious things that we try to do. +But I said I'm going to show you a short clip of one of our employees to kind of give you an idea about some of the talent that we have. +Video: Morgan Hendry: Beware of Safety is an instrumental rock band. +It branches on more the experimental side. +There's the improvisational side of jazz. +There's the heavy-hitting sound of rock. +Being able to treat sound as an instrument, and be able to dig for more abstract sounds and things to play live, mixing electronics and acoustics. +The music's half of me, but the other half -- I landed probably the best gig of all. +I work for the Jet Propulsion Lab. I'm building the next Mars Rover. +Some of the most brilliant engineers I know are the ones who have that sort of artistic quality about them. +You've got to do what you want to do. +And anyone who tells you you can't, you don't listen to them. +Maybe they're right - I doubt it. +Tell them where to put it, and then just do what you want to do. +I'm Morgan Hendry. I am NASA. +Charles Elachi: Now, moving from the play stuff to the serious stuff, always people ask, why do we explore? +Why are we doing all of these missions and why are we exploring them? +Well, the way I think about it is fairly simple. +Somehow, 13 billion years ago there was a Big Bang, and you've heard a little bit about, you know, the origin of the universe. +But somehow what strikes everybody's imagination -- or lots of people's imagination -- somehow from that original Big Bang we have this beautiful world that we live in today. +You look outside: you have all that beauty that you see, all that life that you see around you, and here we have intelligent people like you and I who are having a conversation here. +All that started from that Big Bang. So, the question is: How did that happen? How did that evolve? How did the universe form? +How did the galaxies form? How did the planets form? +Why is there a planet on which there is life which have evolved? +Is that very common? +Is there life on every planet that you can see around the stars? +So we literally are all made out of stardust. +We started from those stars; we are made of stardust. +So, next time you are really depressed, look in the mirror and you can look and say, hi, I'm looking at a star here. +You can skip the dust part. +But literally, we are all made of stardust. +So, what we are trying to do in our exploration is effectively write the book of how things have came about as they are today. +And one of the first, or the easiest, places we can go and explore that is to go towards Mars. +And the reason Mars takes particular attention: it's not very far from us. +You know, it'll take us only six months to get there. +Six to nine months at the right time of the year. +It's a planet somewhat similar to Earth. It's a little bit smaller, but the land mass on Mars is about the same as the land mass on Earth, you know, if you don't take the oceans into account. +It has polar caps. It has an atmosphere somewhat thinner than ours, so it has weather. So, it's very similar to some extent, and you can see some of the features on it, like the Grand Canyon on Mars, or what we call the Grand Canyon on Mars. +It is like the Grand Canyon on Earth, except a hell of a lot larger. +So it's about the size, you know, of the United States. +It has volcanoes on it. And that's Mount Olympus on Mars, which is a kind of huge volcanic shield on that planet. +And if you look at the height of it and you compare it to Mount Everest, you see, it'll give you an idea of how large that Mount Olympus, you know, is, relative to Mount Everest. +So, it basically dwarfs, you know, Mount Everest here on Earth. +So, that gives you an idea of the tectonic events or volcanic events which have happened on that planet. +Recently from one of our satellites, this shows that it's Earth-like -- we caught a landslide occurring as it was happening. +So it is a dynamic planet, and activity is going on as we speak today. +And these Rovers, people wonder now, what are they doing today, so I thought I would show you a little bit what they are doing. +This is one very large crater. Geologists love craters, because craters are like digging a big hole in the ground without really working at it, and you can see what's below the surface. +So, this is called Victoria Crater, which is about a few football fields in size. +And if you look at the top left, you see a little teeny dark dot. +This picture was taken from an orbiting satellite. +If I zoom on it, you can see: that's the Rover on the surface. +So, that was taken from orbit; we had the camera zoom on the surface, and we actually saw the Rover on the surface. +And we actually used the combination of the satellite images and the Rover to actually conduct science, because we can observe large areas and then you can get those Rovers to move around and basically go to a certain location. +So, specifically what we are doing now is that Rover is going down in that crater. +As I told you, geologists love craters. +And the reason is, many of you went to the Grand Canyon, and you see in the wall of the Grand Canyon, you see these layers. +And what these layers -- that's what the surface used to be a million years ago, 10 million years ago, 100 million years ago, and you get deposits on top of them. +So if you can read the layers it's like reading your book, and you can learn the history of what happened in the past in that location. +So what you are seeing here are the layers on the wall of that crater, and the Rover is going down now, measuring, you know, the properties and analyzing the rocks as it's going down, you know, that canyon. +Now, it's kind of a little bit of a challenge driving down a slope like this. +If you were there you wouldn't do it yourself. +But we really made sure we tested those Rovers before we got them down -- or that Rover -- and made sure that it's all working well. +Now, when I came last time, shortly after the landing -- I think it was, like, a hundred days after the landing -- I told you I was surprised that those Rovers are lasting even a hundred days. +Well, here we are four years later, and they're still working. +Well, I always say it's important that you are smart, but every once in a while it's good to be lucky. +And that's what we found out. It turned out that every once in a while there are dust devils which come by on Mars, as you are seeing here, and when the dust devil comes over the Rover, it just cleans it up. +It is like a brand new car that you have, and that's literally why they have lasted so long. +And now we designed them reasonably well, but that's exactly why they are lasting that long and still providing all the science data. +Now, the two Rovers, each one of them is, kind of, getting old. +You know, one of them, one of the wheels is stuck, is not working, one of the front wheels, so what we are doing, we are driving it backwards. +And the other one has arthritis of the shoulder joint, you know, it's not working very well, so it's walking like this, and we can move the arm, you know, that way. +But still they are producing a lot of scientific data. +Now, during that whole period, a number of people got excited, you know, outside the science community about these Rovers, so I thought I'd show you a video just to give you a reflection about how these Rovers are being viewed by people other than the science community. +So let me go on the next short video. +By the way, this video is pretty accurate of how the landing took place, you know, about four years ago. +Video: Okay, we have parachute aligned. +Okay, deploy the airbags. Open. +Camera. We have a picture right now. +Yeah! +CE: That's about what happened in the Houston operation room. It's exactly like this. +Video: Now, if there is life, the Dutch will find it. +What is he doing? +What is that? +CE: Not too bad. +So anyway, let me continue on showing you a little bit about the beauty of that planet. +As I said earlier, it looked very much like Earth, so you see sand dunes. +It looks like I could have told you these are pictures taken from the Sahara Desert or somewhere, and you'd have believed me, but these are pictures taken from Mars. +But one area which is particularly intriguing for us is the northern region, you know, of Mars, close to the North Pole, because we see ice caps, and we see the ice caps shrinking and expanding, so it's very much like you have in northern Canada. +And we wanted to find out -- and we see all kinds of glacial features on it. +So, we wanted to find out, actually, what is that ice made of, and could that have embedded in it some organic, you know, material. +So we have a spacecraft which is heading towards Mars, called Phoenix, and that spacecraft will land 17 days, seven hours and 20 seconds from now, so you can adjust your watch. +So it's on May 25 around just before five o'clock our time here on the West Coast, actually we will be landing on another planet. +And as you can see, this is a picture of the spacecraft put on Mars, but I thought that just in case you're going to miss that show, you know, in 17 days, I'll show you, kind of, a little bit of what's going to happen. +Video: That's what we call the seven minutes of terror. +So the plan is to dig in the soil and take samples that we put them in an oven and actually heat them and look what gases will come from it. +So this was launched about nine months ago. +We'll be coming in at 12,000 miles per hour, and in seven minutes we have to stop and touch the surface very softly so we don't break that lander. +Ben Cichy: Phoenix is the first Mars Scout mission. +It's the first mission that's going to try to land near the North Pole of Mars, and it's the first mission that's actually going to try and reach out and touch water on the surface of another planet. +Lynn Craig: Where there tends to be water, at least on Earth, there tends to be life, and so it's potentially a place where life could have existed on the planet in the past. +Erik Bailey: The main purpose of EDL is to take a spacecraft that is traveling at 12,500 miles an hour and bring it to a screeching halt in a soft way in a very short amount of time. +BC: We enter the Martian atmosphere. +We're 70 miles above the surface of Mars. +And our lander is safely tucked inside what we call an aeroshell. +EB: Looks kind of like an ice cream cone, more or less. +BC: And on the front of it is this heat shield, this saucer-looking thing that has about a half-inch of essentially what's cork on the front of it, which is our heat shield. +Now, this is really special cork, and this cork is what's going to protect us from the violent atmospheric entry that we're about to experience. +Rob Grover: Friction really starts to build up on the spacecraft, and we use the friction when it's flying through the atmosphere to our advantage to slow us down. +BC: From this point, we're going to decelerate from 12,500 miles an hour down to 900 miles an hour. +EB: The outside can get almost as hot as the surface of the Sun. +RG: The temperature of the heat shield can reach 2,600 degrees Fahrenheit. +EB: The inside doesn't get very hot. +It probably gets about room temperature. +Richard Kornfeld: There is this window of opportunity within which we can deploy the parachute. +EB: If you fire the 'chute too early, the parachute itself could fail. +The fabric and the stitching could just pull apart. +And that would be bad. +BC: In the first 15 seconds after we deploy the parachute, we'll decelerate from 900 miles an hour to a relatively slow 250 miles an hour. +We no longer need the heat shield to protect us from the force of atmospheric entry, so we jettison the heat shield, exposing for the first time our lander to the atmosphere of Mars. +LC: After the heat shield has been jettisoned and the legs are deployed, the next step is to have the radar system begin to detect how far Phoenix really is from the ground. +BC: We've lost 99 percent of our entry velocity. +So, we're 99 percent of the way to where we want to be. +But that last one percent, as it always seems to be, is the tricky part. +EB: Now the spacecraft actually has to decide when it's going to get rid of its parachute. +BC: We separate from the lander going 125 miles an hour at roughly a kilometer above the surface of Mars: 3,200 feet. +That's like taking two Empire State Buildings and stacking them on top of one another. +EB: That's when we separate from the back shell, and we're now in free-fall. +It's a very scary moment; a lot has to happen in a very short amount of time. +LC: So it's in a free-fall, but it's also trying to use all of its actuators to make sure that it's in the right position to land. +EB: And then it has to light up its engines, right itself, and then slowly slow itself down and touch down on the ground safely. +BC: Earth and Mars are so far apart that it takes over ten minutes for a signal from Mars to get to Earth. +And EDL itself is all over in a matter of seven minutes. +So by the time you even hear from the lander that EDL has started it'll already be over. +EB: We have to build large amounts of autonomy into the spacecraft so that it can land itself safely. +BC: EDL is this immense, technically challenging problem. +It's about getting a spacecraft that's hurtling through deep space and using all this bag of tricks to somehow figure out how to get it down to the surface of Mars at zero miles an hour. +It's this immensely exciting and challenging problem. +CE: Hopefully it all will happen the way you saw it in here. +So it will be a very tense moment, you know, as we are watching that spacecraft landing on another planet. +So now let me talk about the next things that we are doing. +So we are in the process, as we speak, of actually designing the next Rover that we are going to be sending to Mars. +So I thought I would go a little bit and tell you, kind of, the steps we go through. +It's very similar to what you do when you design your product. +As you saw a little bit earlier, when we were doing the Phoenix one, we have to take into account the heat that we are going to be facing. +So we have to study all kinds of different materials, the shape that we want to do. +In general we don't try to please the customer here. +What we want to do is to make sure we have an effective, you know, an efficient kind of machine. +First we start by we want to have our employees to be as imaginative as they can. +And we really love being close to the art center, because we have, as a matter of fact, one of the alumni from the art center, Eric Nyquist, had put a series of displays, far-out displays, you know, in our what we call mission design or spacecraft design room, just to get people to think wildly about things. +We have a bunch of Legos. So, as I said, this is a playground for adults, where they sit down and try to play with different shapes and different designs. +On the right, also, we have to take into account the environment of the planet where we are going. +If you are going to Jupiter, you have a very high-radiation, you know, environment. It's about the same radiation environment close by Jupiter as inside a nuclear reactor. +So just imagine: you take your P.C. and throw it into a nuclear reactor and it still has to work. +So these are kind of some of the little challenges, you know, that we have to face. +If we are doing entry, we have to do tests of parachutes. +You saw in the video a parachute breaking. That would be a bad day, you know, if that happened, so we have to test, because we are deploying this parachute at supersonic speeds. +We are coming at extremely high speeds, and we are deploying them to slow us down. So we have to do all kinds of tests. +To give you an idea of the size, you know, of that parachute relative to the people standing there. +Next step, we go and actually build some kind of test models and actually test them, you know, in the lab at JPL, in what we call our Mars Yard. +We kick them, we hit them, we drop them, just to make sure we understand how, where would they break. +And then we back off, you know, from that point. +And then we actually do the actual building and the flight. +And this next Rover that we're flying is about the size of a car. +That big shield that you see outside, that's a heat shield which is going to protect it. +And that will be basically built over the next year, and it will be launched June a year from now. +Now, in that case, because it was a very big Rover, we couldn't use airbags. +And I know many of you, kind of, last time afterwards said well, that was a cool thing to have -- those airbags. +Unfortunately this Rover is, like, ten times the size of the, you know, mass-wise, of the other Rover, or three times the mass. +So we can't use airbags. So we have to come up with another ingenious idea of how do we land it. +And we didn't want to take it propulsively all the way to the surface because we didn't want to contaminate the surface; we wanted the Rover to immediately land on its legs. +So we came up with this ingenious idea, which is used here on Earth for helicopters. +Actually, the lander will come down to about 100 feet and hover above that surface for 100 feet, and then we have a sky crane which will take that Rover and land it down on the surface. +Hopefully it all will work, you know, it will work that way. +And that Rover will be more kind of like a chemist. +What we are going to be doing with that Rover as it drives around, it's going to go and analyze the chemical composition of rocks. +So it will have an arm which will take samples, put them in an oven, crush and analyze them. +But also, if there is something that we cannot reach because it is too high on a cliff, we have a little laser system which will actually zap the rock, evaporate some of it, and actually analyze what's coming from that rock. +So it's a little bit like "Star Wars," you know, but it's real. +It's real stuff. +And also to help you, to help the community so you can do ads on that Rover, we are going to train that Rover to actually in addition to do this, to actually serve cocktails, you know, also on Mars. +So that's kind of giving you an idea of the kind of, you know, fun things we are doing on Mars. +I thought I'd go to "The Lord of the Rings" now and show you some of the things we have there. +Now, "The Lord of the Rings" has two things played through it. +One, it's a very attractive planet -- it just has the beauty of the rings and so on. +But for scientists, also the rings have a special meaning, because we believe they represent, on a small scale, how the Solar System actually formed. +Some of the scientists believe that the way the Solar System formed, that the Sun when it collapsed and actually created the Sun, a lot of the dust around it created rings and then the particles in those rings accumulated together, and they formed bigger rocks, and then that's how the planets, you know, were formed. +So, the idea is, by watching Saturn we're actually watching our solar system in real time being formed on a smaller scale, so it's like a test bed for it. +So, let me show you a little bit on what that Saturnian system looks like. +First, I'm going to fly you over the rings. +By the way, all of this is real stuff. +This is not animation or anything like this. +This is actually taken from the satellite that we have in orbit around Saturn, the Cassini. +And you see the amount of detail that is in those rings, which are the particles. +Some of them are agglomerating together to form larger particles. +So that's why you have these gaps, is because a small satellite, you know, is being formed in that location. +Now, you think that those rings are very large objects. +Yes, they are very large in one dimension; in the other dimension they are paper thin. Very, very thin. +What you are seeing here is the shadow of the ring on Saturn itself. +And that's one of the satellites which was actually formed on that one. +So, think about it as a paper-thin, huge area of many hundreds of thousands of miles, which is rotating. +And we have a wide variety of kind of satellites which will form, each one looking very different and very odd, and that keeps scientists busy for tens of years trying to explain this, and telling NASA we need more money so we can explain what these things look like, or why they formed that way. +Well, there were two satellites which were particularly interesting. +One of them is called Enceladus. +It's a satellite which was all made of ice, and we measured it from orbit. Made of ice. +But there was something bizarre about it. +If you look at these stripes in here, what we call tiger stripes, when we flew over them, all of a sudden we saw an increase in the temperature, which said that those stripes are warmer than the rest of the planet. +So as we flew by away from it, we looked back. And guess what? +We saw geysers coming out. +So this is a Yellowstone, you know, of Saturn. +We are seeing geysers of ice which are coming out of that planet, which indicate that most likely there is an ocean, you know, below the surface. +And somehow, through some dynamic effect, we're having these geysers which are being, you know, emitted from it. +And the reason I showed the little arrow there, I think that should say 30 miles, we decided a few months ago to actually fly the spacecraft through the plume of that geyser so we can actually measure the material that it is made of. +That was [unclear] also -- you know, because we were worried about the risk of it, but it worked pretty well. +We flew at the top of it, and we found that there is a fair amount of organic material which is being emitted in combination with the ice. +And over the next few years, as we keep orbiting, you know, Saturn, we are planning to get closer and closer down to the surface and make more accurate measurements. +Now, another satellite also attracted a lot of attention, and that's Titan. And the reason Titan is particularly interesting, it's a satellite bigger than our moon, and it has an atmosphere. +And that atmosphere is very -- as dense as our own atmosphere. +So if you were on Titan, you would feel the same pressure that you feel in here. Except it's a lot colder, and that atmosphere is heavily made of methane. +Now, methane gets people all excited, because it's organic material, so immediately people start thinking, could life have evolved in that location, when you have a lot of organic material. +So people believe now that Titan is most likely what we call a pre-biotic planet, because it's so cold organic material did not get to the stage of becoming biological material, and therefore life could have evolved on it. +So it could be Earth, frozen three billion years ago before life actually started on it. +So that's getting a lot of interest, and to show you some example of what we did in there, we actually dropped a probe, which was developed by our colleagues in Europe, we dropped a probe as we were orbiting Saturn. +We dropped a probe in the atmosphere of Titan. +And this is a picture of an area as we were coming down. +Just looked like the coast of California for me. +You see the rivers which are coming along the coast, and you see that white area which looks like Catalina Island, and that looks like an ocean. +And then with an instrument we have on board, a radar instrument, we found there are lakes like the Great Lakes in here, so it looks very much like Earth. +It looks like there are rivers on it, there are oceans or lakes, we know there are clouds. We think it's raining also on it. +So it's very much like the cycle on Earth except because it's so cold, it could not be water, you know, because water would have frozen. +What it turned out, that all that we are seeing, all this liquid, [is made of] hydrocarbon and ethane and methane, similar to what you put in your car. +So here we have a cycle of a planet which is like our Earth, but is all made of ethane and methane and organic material. +So if you were on Mars -- sorry, on Titan, you don't have to worry about four-dollar gasoline. +You just drive to the nearest lake, stick your hose in it, and you've got your car filled up. +On the other hand, if you light a match the whole planet will blow up. +So in closing, I said I want to close by a couple of pictures. +And just to kind of put us in perspective, this is a picture of Saturn taken with a spacecraft from behind Saturn, looking towards the Sun. +The Sun is behind Saturn, so we see what we call "forward scattering," so it highlights all the rings. And I'm going to zoom. +There is a -- I'm not sure you can see it very well, but on the top left, around 10 o'clock, there is a little teeny dot, and that's Earth. +You barely can see ourselves. So what I did, I thought I'd zoom on it. +So as you zoom in, you know, you can see Earth, you know, just in the middle here. So we zoomed all the way on the art center. +So thank you very much. +My name is Ursus Wehrli, and I would like to talk to you this morning about my project, Tidying Up Art. +First of all -- any questions so far? +First of all, I have to say I'm not from around here. +I'm from a completely different cultural area, maybe you noticed? +I mean, I'm wearing a tie, first. And then secondly, I'm a little bit nervous because I'm speaking in a foreign language, and I want to apologize in advance, for any mistakes I might make. +Because I'm from Switzerland, and I just don't hope you think this is Swiss German I'm speaking now here. This is just what it sounds like if we Swiss try to speak American. +But don't worry -- I don't have trouble with English, as such. +I mean, it's not my problem, it's your language after all. +I am fine. After this presentation here at TED, I can simply go back to Switzerland, and you have to go on talking like this all the time. +So I've been asked by the organizers to read from my book. +It's called "Tidying Up Art" and it's, as you can see, it's more or less a picture book. +So the reading would be over very quickly. +But since I'm here at TED, I decided to hold my talk here in a more modern way, in the spirit of TED here, and I managed to do some slides here for you. +I'd like to show them around so we can just, you know -- Actually, I managed to prepare for you some enlarged pictures -- even better. +So Tidying Up Art, I mean, I have to say, that's a relatively new term. +You won't be familiar with it. +Yeah, I kind of felt sorry for him. +And it seemed to me even he felt really bad facing these unorganized red squares day after day. +So I decided to give him a little support, and brought some order into neatly stacking the blocks on top of each other. +Yeah. And I think he looks now less miserable. +And it was great. With this experience, I started to look more closely at modern art. Then I realized how, you know, the world of modern art And I can show here a very good example. +It's actually a simple one, but it's a good one to start with. +It's a picture by Paul Klee. +And we can see here very clearly, it's a confusion of color. +Yeah. The artist doesn't really seem to know where to put the different colors. +The various pictures here of the various elements of the picture -- the whole thing is unstructured. +We don't know, maybe Mr. Klee was probably in a hurry, I mean -- -- maybe he had to catch a plane, or something. +We can see here he started out with orange, and then he already ran out of orange, and here we can see he decided to take a break for a square. +And I would like to show you here my tidied up version of this picture. +We can see now what was barely recognizable in the original: 17 red and orange squares are juxtaposed with just two green squares. +Yeah, that's great. +So I mean, that's just tidying up for beginners. +I would like to show you here a picture which is a bit more advanced. +What can you say? What a mess. +I mean, you see, everything seems to have been scattered aimlessly around the space. +If my room back home had looked like this, my mother would have grounded me for three days. +So I'd like to -- I wanted to reintroduce some structure into that picture. +And that's really advanced tidying up. +Yeah, you're right. Sometimes people clap at this point, but that's actually more in Switzerland. +We Swiss are famous for chocolate and cheese. Our trains run on time. +We are only happy when things are in order. +But to go on, here is a very good example to see. +This is a picture by Joan Miro. +And yeah, we can see the artist has drawn a few lines and shapes and dropped them any old way onto a yellow background. +And yeah, it's the sort of thing you produce when you're doodling on the phone. +And this is my -- -- you can see now the whole thing takes up far less space. +It's more economical and also more efficient. +With this method Mr. Miro could have saved canvas for another picture. +But I can see in your faces that you're still a little bit skeptical. +So that you can just appreciate how serious I am about all this, I brought along the patents, the specifications for some of these works, because I've had my working methods patented at the Eidgenssische Amt fr Geistiges Eigentum in Bern, Switzerland. +I'll just quote from the specification. +"Laut den Kunstprfer Dr. Albrecht --" It's not finished yet. +"Laut den Kunstprfer Dr. Albrecht Gtz von Ohlenhusen wird die Verfahrensweise rechtlich geschtzt welche die Kunst durch spezifisch aufgerumte Regelmssigkeiten des allgemeinen Formenschatzes neue Wirkungen zu erzielen mglich wird." +Ja, well I could have translated that, but you would have been none the wiser. +I'm not sure myself what it means but it sounds good anyway. +I just realized it's important how one introduces new ideas to people, that's why these patents are sometimes necessary. +I would like to do a short test with you. +Everyone is sitting in quite an orderly fashion here this morning. +So I would like to ask you all to raise your right hand. Yeah. +The right hand is the one we write with, apart from the left-handers. +And now, I'll count to three. I mean, it still looks very orderly to me. +Now, I'll count to three, and on the count of three I'd like you all to shake hands with the person behind you. OK? +One, two, three. +You can see now, that's a good example: even behaving in an orderly, systematic way can sometimes lead to complete chaos. +So we can also see that very clearly in this next painting. +This is a painting by the artist, Niki de Saint Phalle. +And I mean, in the original it's completely unclear to see what this tangle of colors and shapes is supposed to depict. +But in the tidied up version, it's plain to see that it's a sunburnt woman playing volleyball. +Yeah, it's a -- this one here, that's much better. +That's a picture by Keith Haring. +I think it doesn't matter. +So, I mean, this picture has not even got a proper title. +It's called "Untitled" and I think that's appropriate. +So, in the tidied-up version we have a sort of Keith Haring spare parts shop. +This is Keith Haring looked at statistically. +One can see here quite clearly, you can see we have 25 pale green elements, of which one is in the form of a circle. +Or here, for example, we have 27 pink squares with only one pink curve. +I mean, that's interesting. One could extend this sort of statistical analysis to cover all Mr. Haring's various works, in order to establish in which period the artist favored pale green circles or pink squares. +And the artist himself could also benefit from this sort of listing procedure by using it to estimate how many pots of paint he's likely to need in the future. +One can obviously also make combinations. +For example, with the Keith Haring circles and Kandinsky's dots. +You can add them to all the squares of Paul Klee. +In the end, one has a list with which one then can arrange. +Then you categorize it, then you file it, put that file in a filing cabinet, put it in your office and you can make a living doing it. +Yeah, from my own experience. So I'm -- Actually, I mean, here we have some artists that are a bit more structured. It's not too bad. +This is Jasper Johns. We can see here he was practicing with his ruler. +But I think it could still benefit from more discipline. +And I think the whole thing adds up much better if you do it like this. +And here, that's one of my favorites. +Tidying up Rene Magritte -- this is really fun. +You know, there is a -- I'm always being asked what inspired me to embark on all this. +It goes back to a time when I was very often staying in hotels. +So once I had the opportunity to stay in a ritzy, five-star hotel. +And you know, there you had this little sign -- I put this little sign outside the door every morning that read, "Please tidy room." I don't know if you have them over here. +So actually, my room there hasn't been tidied once daily, but three times a day. +So after a while I decided to have a little fun, and before leaving the room each day I'd scatter a few things around the space. +Like books, clothes, toothbrush, etc. And it was great. +By the time I returned everything had always been neatly returned to its place. +But then one morning, I hang the same little sign onto that picture by Vincent van Gogh. +And you have to say this room hadn't been tidied up since 1888. +And when I returned it looked like this. +Yeah, at least it is now possible to do some vacuuming. +OK, I mean, I can see there are always people that like reacting that one or another picture hasn't been properly tidied up. So we can make a short test with you. +This is a picture by Rene Magritte, and I'd like you all to inwardly -- like in your head, that is -- to tidy that up. So it's possible that some of you would make it like this. +Yeah? I would actually prefer to do it more this way. +Some people would make apple pie out of it. +But it's a very good example to see that the whole work was more of a handicraft endeavor that involved the very time-consuming job of cutting out the various elements and sticking them back in new arrangements. +And it's not done, as many people imagine, with the computer, otherwise it would look like this. +So now I've been able to tidy up pictures that I've wanted to tidy up for a long time. +Here is a very good example. Take Jackson Pollock, for example. +It's -- oh, no, it's -- that's a really hard one. +But after a while, I just decided here to go all the way and put the paint back into the cans. +Or you could go into three-dimensional art. +Here we have the fur cup by Meret Oppenheim. +Here I just brought it back to its original state. +But yeah, and it's great, you can even go, you know -- Or we have this pointillist movement for those of you who are into art. +The pointillist movement is that kind of paintings where everything is broken down into dots and pixels. +And then I -- this sort of thing is ideal for tidying up. +So I once applied myself to the work of the inventor of that method, Georges Seurat, and I collected together all his dots. +And now they're all in here. +You can count them afterwards, if you like. +You see, that's the wonderful thing about the tidy up art idea: it's new. So there is no existing tradition in it. +There is no textbooks, I mean, not yet, anyway. +I mean, it's "the future we will create." +But to round things up I would like to show you just one more. +This is the village square by Pieter Bruegel. +That's how it looks like when you send everyone home. +Yeah, maybe you're asking yourselves where old Bruegel's people went? +Of course, they're not gone. They're all here. +I just piled them up. +So I'm -- yeah, actually I'm kind of finished at that moment. +And for those who want to see more, I've got my book downstairs in the bookshop. +And I'm happy to sign it for you with any name of any artist. +But before leaving I would like to show you, I'm working right now on another -- in a related field with my tidying up art method. I'm working in a related field. +And I started to bring some order into some flags. +Here -- that's just my new proposal here for the Union Jack. +And then maybe before I leave you ... +yeah, I think, after you have seen that I have to leave anyway. +Yeah, that was a hard one. I couldn't find a way to tidy that up properly, so I just decided to make it a little bit more simpler. +Thank you very much. +Welcome to 10,000 feet. +Let me explain why we are here and why some of you have a pine cone close to you. +Once upon a time, I did a book called "How Buildings Learn." +Today's event you might call "How Mountains Teach." +A little background: For 10 years I've been trying to figure out how to hack civilization so that we can get long-term thinking to be automatic and common instead of difficult and rare -- or in some cases, non-existent. +It would be helpful if humanity got into the habit of thinking of the now not just as next week or next quarter, but you know, next 10,000 years and the last 10,000 years -- basically civilization's story so far. +So we have the Long Now Foundation in San Francisco. +It's an incubator for about a dozen projects, all having to do with continuity over the long term. +Our core project is a rather ambitious folly -- I suppose, a mythic undertaking: to build a 10,000-year clock that can really keep good time for that long a period. +And the design problems of a project like that are just absolutely delicious. +Go to the clock. And what we have here is something many of you saw here three years ago. +It's the first working prototype of the clock. +It's about nine feet high. +Designed by Danny Hillis and Alexander Rose. It's presently in London, and is ticking away very deliberately at the science museum there. +So the design problem for today is going to be, how do you house an eventual monumental clock like this so it can really tick, save time beautifully for 100 centuries? +Well, this was the first solution. +Alexander Rose came up with this idea of a spiraloid tower with continuous sloping ramps. +And it looked like a way to go, until you start thinking about, what does deep time do to a building? +Well, this is what deep time does to a building. +This is the Parthenon. It's only 2,450 years old, and look what happened to it. +Here's a beautiful project. They really knew it'd last forever, because they'd build it out of absolutely huge stones. +And now it's a pathetic ruin and no one even knows what it was used for. +That's what happens to buildings. They're vulnerable. +Even the most durable and intactable buildings, like the pyramids of Giza, are in bad shape when you look up close. +They've been looted inside and out. +And they're built to protect things but they don't protect things. +So we got to thinking, if you can't put things safely in a building, where can you safely put them? We thought, OK, underground. +How about underground with a view? +Underground in a place that's really solid. +So the obvious answer was, we need a mountain. +You don't want just any mountain. +You need absolutely the right mountain if you're going to have a clock for 10,000 years. +So here's an image of the long view of the search problem. +And we got to thinking for various reasons it ought to be a desert mountain, so we got looking in the dry areas of the Southwest. +We looked at mesas in New Mexico. +We were looking at dead volcanoes in Arizona. +Then Roger Kennedy, who was the director of the National Parks Service, led us to Eastern Nevada, to America's newest and oldest national park, which is called Great Basin National Park. +It's right on the eastern border of Nevada. +It's the highest range in the state -- over 13,000 feet. +And you'll notice that on the left, on the left, on the west, it's very steep, and on the right it's gentle. +This place is remote. It's over 200 miles from any major city. +It's nowhere near any Interstate or railroad. +And it's -- the only thing that goes by is what's called America's loneliest highway, U.S. 50. +Now, inside the yellow line here, on the right is -- that's all national park. +Inside the green line is national forest. +And then over to the left is Bureau of Land Management land and some private land. +Now, as it happened, that two-mile-long strip right in the middle, this vertical, was available because it was private land. +And thanks to Jay Walker who was here and Mitch Kapor who was here, who started the process, Long Now was able to get that two-mile-long strip of land. +And now let's look at the grand truth of what's there. +We're in Pole Canyon, looking west up the western escarpment of Mount Washington, which is 11,600 feet on top. +Those white cliffs are a dense Cambrian limestone. +That's a 2,000-foot thick formation, and it might be a beautiful place to hide a clock. +It would be a pilgrimage to get to it; it would be a serious hike to get up to where the clock is. +So last June, the Long Now board, some staff and some donors and advisors, made a two-week expedition to the mountain to explore it and investigate, one, if it's the right mountain, and two, if it's the right mountain, how it might actually work for us. +Now Danny Hillis sort of framed the problem. +He has a theory of how the overall clock experience should work. +It's what he calls the seven stages of a mythic adventure. +It starts with the image. The image is a picture you have in your mind of the goal at the end of the journey. +In this case it might well be an image of the clock. +Then there's the point of embarkation, that is, the point of transition from ordinary life to being a pilgrim on a quest. +Then -- this is a nice image of it, there's the labyrinth. +The labyrinth is a concept, it's like a twilight zone, it's a place where it's difficult, where you get disoriented, maybe you get scared -- but you have to go through it if you're going to get to some kind of deep reintegration. +Then there should always be in sight the draw -- a kind of a beacon that draws you on through the labyrinth to finish the process of getting there. +Now Brian Eno, who's been in the thick of the Long Now process, spent two years making a C.D. called "January 7003," and it's "Bell Studies for the Clock of the Long Now." +Based on -- parts of it are based on an algorithm that Danny Hillis developed, so that a peal of 10 bells makes a different peal every day for 10,000 years. +The Hillis algorithm. 10 factorial gives you that number. +And in fact, pretty soon we'll hear the sound. +January 7003. There it is. +OK, back to Danny's list. +Number five of the seven is the payoff. This is it. The climax. +The goal. The main thing that you're trying to get to. +And then Danny says a really great journey will have a secret payoff. +Something you didn't expect that caps what you did expect. +Then there's the return. +You've got to have a gradual return to the ordinary world, so you have time to assimilate what you've learned. +And then, how about a memento? Number seven. +At the end of it there's something physical, a kind of reward that you take away. +It might be a piece of a core drill of the mountain. +Something that's just yours. +How do you study a mountain for the kinds of things we're talking about? +This is not a normal building project. +What do you look for? +What are the elements that will most affect your ideas and decisions? +Start with borders. If you look on the left side of the cliffs here, that's national park. That's sacrosanct -- you can't do anything with that. To the right of it is national forest. +There's possibilities. The borders are important. +Other elements were mines, weather, approaches and elevation. +And especially trees. Look at those things up on top there. +It turns out that Mount Washington is covered with bristlecone pines. +They're the world's oldest living thing. +People think they're just the size of shrubs, but that's not actually true. +There are trees on that mountain that are 5,000 years old and still living. +The wood is so solid it's like stone, and it lasts for a long time. +So when you do tree ring studies of trunks that are on the mountain, some of them go back 10,000 years. +The stone itself is absolutely beautiful, sculpted by millennia of very tough winters up there. +We had tree ring analysts from the University of Arizona join us on the expedition. +Now, if you guys have a pine cone handy, now's a good time to put it in your hand and feel it, especially on the end. +That's interesting. +You'll find out why it's called a bristlecone pine. A little sensory experience. +Here's Danny Hillis in the midst of a bristlecone pine forest on Long Now land. I should say that the age of bristlecones was discovered, led by a theory. +Edmund Schulman in the 1950s had been studying trees under great stress at Timberline, and came to the realization that he put in an article in Science magazine called, "Longevity under Adversity in Conifers." +And then, based on that principle, he started looking around at the various trees at Timberline, and realized that the bristlecone pines -- he found some in the White Mountains that were over 4,000 years old. +Longevity under adversity is a pretty interesting design principle in its own right. +OK, onto the mines. The first asking price for the property when we looked at it in 1998 was one billion dollars for 180 acres and a couple of mines. +Because the owner said, "There's one billion dollars of beryllium in that mountain." +And we said, "Wow, that's great. Listen, we'll counter. How about zero? +And we're a non-profit foundation, you can give us the property and take a hell of a tax deduction. +All you have to do is prove to the government it's worth a billion dollars." +Well, a few years went by and there was some kind of back and forth, and by and by, thanks to Mitch and Jay, we were able to buy the whole property for 140,000 dollars. +This is one of the mines. It doesn't have any beryllium in it. +It's called the Pole Adit. And it does have tungsten, a little bit of tungsten, left over, that's the kind of mine it was. +But it goes a mile-and-a-half in a straight line, due east into the range, into very interesting territory -- except that, as you'll see when we go inside in a minute, we were hoping for limestone but in there is just shale. +And shale is not quite completely competent rock. +Competent rock is rock that will hold itself up without any shoring. +The shale would like some shoring, and so parts of it are caved in in there. +That's Ben Roberts from -- he's the bat specialist from the National Park. +But there are many wonders back in there, like this weird fungus on some of the collapsed timbers. +OK, here's another mine that's up on top of the property, and it dates back to 1870. +That's what the property was originally built around -- it was a set of mining claims. It was a very productive silver mine. +In fact, it was the highest-operating mine in Nevada, and it ran year round. +You can imagine what it was like in the winter at 10,000 feet. +You may recognize a couple of the miners there. +There's Jeff Bezos on the right and Paul Saville on the left looking for galena, which is the lead-silver thing. They didn't find any. +They both kept their day jobs. Here's the last mine. +It's called the Bonanza Adit. It's down in a canyon. +And Alexander Rose on the left there worked with a bunch of people from the National Park to survey the whole mine. It's a mile deep. +And they also found four species of bats in there. +Now, almost all those mines, by the way, meet underneath the mountain. +They don't quite, but it's something to think about. +They don't quite meet. +Let's go to weather. Mountains specialize in interesting weather. +Way more interesting than Monterey even today. +And so one Tuesday morning last June, there we were. +Woke up in the morning -- the mountain was covered with snow. +That was a great time to go up and visit our weather station which again, thanks to Mitch Kapor, we're building up there. +And it's a pretty interesting scene. +This is, on the left there, the joyful lady is Pat Irwin, who's the regional head of the National Forest Service, and they gave us the temporary use permit to be there. +We want a temporary use permit for the clock, eventually -- 10,000-year temporary use permit. +The weather station's pretty interesting. +Kurt Bollacker and Alexander Rose designed a radically wireless station. +It runs on solar, and it sends a signal with that antenna and bounces it off of micrometeorite trails in the atmosphere to a place in Bozeman, Montana, where the data is taken down and then sent through landlines to San Francisco, where we put the data in real time up on our website. +And there you see a week of weather at 9,400 feet on Mount Washington. +Let's go to approaches. +As it happens, there are no trails anywhere on Mount Washington, just a few old mining roads like this, so you have to bushwhack everywhere. +But there's no bears, and there's no poison oak, and there's basically no people because this place has been empty for a long time. +You can hike for days and not encounter anybody. +Well, here's a potential approach. +You need to come up the Lincoln Canyon. +It's this beautiful world all of its own, surrounded by cliffs, and it's an easy hike to stroll up the canyon bottom, until you get to this barrier, and it actually presents a problem. +So you can scratch Lincoln Canyon as an approach. +Another possible approach is right up the western front of the mountain. +You can see why we sometimes call it Long Mountain. +And from where you're standing at 6,000 feet in the valley, it's an easy hike up to the mature pinyon and juniper forest through that knoll at the front at 7,600 feet. +And you can carry right on up through meadows and steepening forest to the high base of the cliffs at 10,500 feet, where there's a bit of a problem. +Now, Jeff Bezos advised us when he left at the end of the expedition, "Make the clock inaccessible. +The harder it is to get to, the more people will value it." +And check -- those are 600-foot vertical walls there. +So Alexander Rose wanted to explore this route, and he started over here on the left from his pickup truck at 8,900 feet and headed up the mountain. +Now, as you gain elevation your IQ goes down -- but your emotional affect goes up, which is great for having a mythic experience, whether you want to or not. +In fact, Danny Hillis can estimate altitude by how much math he can't do in his head. +Now, I happened to be on the radio with Alexander when he got to this point at the base of the cliffs, and he said, quote, "There's a hidden notch. I think I can get up a ways." +Now, he's a rock climber, but you know, he's our executive director. +I don't want him killed. I know he's going to love cliffs. +I'm saying, "Be careful, be careful, be careful." +Then he starts going up, and the next thing I hear is, "I'm half-way up. It's like climbing stairs. I'm going up 60 degrees. +It's a secret passage. It's like something from Tolkien." +And I'm going, "Careful, careful. Please be careful." +And then, of course, the next thing I hear is, "I've made it to the top. You can see all of creation from up here." +And he dashed across the top of the mountains. +In fact, there he is. That's Alexander Rose. +First ascent of the western face to Mount Washington, and a solo ascent at that. +This discovery changed everything about our sense of these cliffs and what to do with them. +We realized that we had to name this thing that Alexander discovered. +How about Zander's Crevice? No. +So we finally decided on Alexander's Siq. +Zander's Siq is named after -- some of you have been to Petra, there's this wonderful slot canyon that leads into Petra called the Siq, and so this is the Siq. +And it really is hidden. I can't find it in this image, and I'm not sure you can. +Only when you get fresh snow can you see just along the rim there, and that brings it out. +And the people toiling up the mountain could see them, these tiny little people up there, incredibly halfway up the cliff. +How did they get there? Do I have to do that? +And so that maybe becomes part of the draw and part of the labyrinth. +You can get another angle on Danny's porch by going around to the south and looking north at the whole formation there. +And you need to know that Danny's clock is to be kept accurate by a ray of sunshine, that perfect noon hitting it every sunny day, and the pulse of heat from that sets off a solar trigger which resets the clock to make it perfectly accurate. +So even with the slowing of the rotation of the earth and so on, the clock will keep perfectly good time. +So here we're looking from the south, look north. +This is all Forest Service land. If you go up on top of those cliffs, that's some of the Long Now land in those trees. +And if you go up there and look back, then you'll get a sense of what the view starts to be like from the top of the mountain. +That's the long view. That's 80 miles to the horizon. +And that's also timberline and those bristlecones really are shrubs. +That's a different place to be. It's 11,400 feet and it's exquisite. +Now, if you go over to the right from this image to looking at the edge of the cliffs, it's 600 foot, just about a yard to the left of Kurt Bollacker's foot, there is a 600-foot drop. He's ambling on over to Zander's Siq. +That's what it looks like looking down it. +We should probably put in a rail or something. +Over on the eastern side it's gentle, as you can see. +And that's not snow -- that's what the white limestone looks like. +You also see there a bighorn sheep. +Their herd was reintroduced from Wyoming. +And they're doing pretty well, but they've got a bit of trouble. +This is Danny Hillis, and he's figuring out a design problem. +he's trying to determine if where he is on a bit of Long Now land would appear from down in the valley to be the actual peak of the mountain. +because the real peak is hidden around the corner. +This is what in the infantry we used to call the military crest. +And as it turned out the answer is, yes, that is from down below in the valley it does look like the peak, and that might be conjured with. +We gradually realized we have three serious design domains to work on with this. +One is the experience of the mountain. +Another is the experience in the mountain. +And the third is the experience from the mountain, which is really dominated by the view shed of the spring valley there behind Danny, and if you look off to the right, out there, 15 miles across to the Schell Creek range. +In the front, there are 10 ranches strung right along the base of the mountains using the water from the mountains. +In fact, there are artesian wells where water springs right into the air. +One of the ranches is called the Kirkeby Ranch, and I'll take you there for a minute. +It's a very nice ranch. +Alfalfa and cattle, run by Paul and Ronnie Brenham, and it's pretty idyllic. It's also hard work. +And most of these ranches are having trouble keeping going. +This is their view to the west of the Schell Creek range. +And if you go out to that line of trees at the far end, you'll see what the valley used to look like. +This is Rocky Mountain junipers that have been there for thousands of years. +OK, let's take one more look at the mountain itself. +The clock experience should be profound, but from the outside it should be invisible. +Now, at the base of the high cliffs there's this natural cave. +It's only about 12 feet deep, but what if it were deepened from inside? +You excavated from somewhere, came up from inside and deepened it. +And then you could have an entrance which was very rough and narrow as you first went in, that gradually becomes more refined and then actually quite exquisite. +And this stone takes a perfect polish. +You'd have a polished set of passages and chambers in there eventually leading to the 10,000 year clock. +And it's not a mine. This would be a nuanced evocation of the basic structure of the mountain, and you would be appreciating it as much from inside as you do from outside. +This is architecture not made by building, but by what you very carefully take away. +So that's what the mountain taught us. +Most of the amazingness of the clock we can borrow from the amazingness of the mountain. +All we have to do is highlight its spectacular features and blend in with them. +It's not a clock in a mountain -- it's a mountain clock. +Now, the Tewa Indians in the Southwest have a saying for what you need to do when you want to think long term about anything. +They say, "pin peya obe" -- welcome to the mountain. +Thank you. +I have a story, a story that I would like to share with you. +And it's an African story. +It is a story of hope, resilience and glamour. +There was Hollywood. +Then came Bollywood. +Today we have Nollywood, the third-largest film industry in the world. +In 2006 alone, almost 2,000 films were made in Nigeria. +Now, try to imagine 40, 50 films wrapped, distributed, every week in the streets of Lagos, Nigeria and West Africa. +Some estimates put the value of this industry at 250 million dollars. +It has created thousands, if not tens of thousands of jobs. +And it's expanding. +But keep in mind that this was a grassroots movement. +This is something that happened without foreign investment, without government aid, and actually, it happened against all odds, in one of the most difficult moments in Nigerian economy. +The industry is 15 years old. +And so maybe you're thinking now, why, how, an Italian filmmaker based in Boston is so interested in this story? +And so I think I have to tell you just a few words, a few things about my personal life, because I think there is a connection. +My grandfather lived most of his life and is buried in Zambia. +My father also lived most of his adult life in East Africa. +And I was born in Zambia. +Even though I left when I was only three years old, I really felt that Africa was this big part of my life. +And it really was a place where I learned to walk. +I think I uttered the first words, and my family bought their first home. +So when we came back to Italy, and one of the things that I remember the most is my family having this hard time to share stories. +It seemed that for our neighbors and friends, Africa was either this exotic place, this imaginary land that probably exists only in their imagination, or the place of horror, famine. +And so we were always caught in this stereotype. +And I remember really this desire to talk about Africa as a place where we lived and people live and go about their lives, and have dreams like we all have. +So when I read in a newspaper in the business page the story of Nollywood, I really felt this is an incredible opportunity to tell a story that goes against all these preconceived notions. +Here I can tell a story of Africans making movies like I do, and actually I felt this was an inspiration for me. +I have the good fortune of being a filmmaker-in-residence at the Center of Digital Imaging Arts at Boston University. +And we really look how digital technology is changing, and how young, independent filmmakers can make movies at a fraction of the cost. +So when I proposed the story, I really had all the support to make this film. +And not only had the support, I found two wonderful partners in crime in this adventure. +Aimee Corrigan, a very talented and young photographer, and Robert Caputo, a friend and a mentor, who is a veteran of National Geographic, and told me, "You know, Franco, in 25 years of covering Africa, I don't know if I have come across a story that is so full of hope and so fun." +So we went to Lagos in October 2005. +And we went to Lagos to meet Bond Emeruwa, a wonderful, talented film director who is with us tonight. +The plan was to give you a portrait of Nollywood, of this incredible film industry, following Bond in his quest to make an action movie that deals with the issue of corruption, called "Checkpoint." +Police corruption. +And he had nine days to make it. +We thought this was a good story. +In the meantime, we had to cover Nollywood, and we talked to a lot of filmmakers. +But I don't want to create too many expectations. +I would like to show you six minutes. +And these are six minutes they really prepared for the TED audience. +There are several themes from the documentary, but they are re-edited and made for you, OK? +So I guess it's a world premier. +Man: Action. +Milverton Nwokedi: You cut a nice movie with just 10,000 dollars in Nigeria here. +And you shoot in seven days. +Peace Piberesima: We're doing films for the masses. +We're not doing films for the elite and the people in their glass houses. +They can afford to watch their "Robocop" and whatever. +Mahmood Ali Balogun: I think filmmaking in Nigeria, for those who work in it, is a kind of subsistence filmmaking -- what they do to make a living. +It's not the fancy filmmaking where you say, oh, you want to put all the razzmatazz of Hollywood, and where you have big budgets. +Here is that you make these films, it sells, you jump onto the location again to make another film, because if you don't make the next film, you're not going to feed. +Bond Emeruwa: So while we're entertaining, we should be able to educate. +I believe in the power of audiovisuals. +I mean, 90 percent of the population will watch Nollywood. +I think it's the most viable vehicle right now to pass information across a dedicated cable. +So if you're making a movie, no matter what your topic is, put in a message in there. +Woman: You still have to report the incident. +He needs proper medical attention. +PP: I keep trying to explain to people, it's not about the quality at the moment -- the quality is coming. +I mean, there are those films that people are making for quality, but the first thing you have to remember about this society is that Africa still has people that live on one dollar a day, and these are the people that really watch these films. +Sonny McDon W: Nollywood is a fantastic industry that has just been born in this part of the world. +Because nobody believed that Nollywood can come out of Africa. +Lancelot Imasen: But our films, they are stories that our people can relate to themselves. +They are stories about our people, for our people. +And consistently, they are glued to their screen whenever they see the story. +Narrator: Suspense, fun and intrigue. +It's the blockbuster comedy. +You'll crack your ribs. +Bernard Pinayon Agbaosi: We have been so deep into the foreign movies. +It's all about the foreign movies. +But we can do something too. +We can do something, something that when the world sees it, they say, wow, this is Nigeria. +Man: Just arrest yourself, sergeant. +Don't embarrass yourself. +Come on. Don't run away. Come back. Come back. +SMW: You can now walk the street and see a role model. +Its not just what you see in picture. +You see the person live. +You see how he talks. You see how he lives. +He influences you really good, you know. +Its not just what you see in the picture. +It is not what you hear, you know, from the Western press. +Man: See you. Bye. +Action. +Saint Obi: I was so fascinated, you know, with those cowboy movies. +But then when I discovered the situation in my country, at that time there was so much corruption. +For a young man to really make it out here, you got to think of some negative things and all that, or some kind of vices. +And I didn't want that, you know. +And I discovered that I could be successful in life as an actor, without doing crime, without cheating nobody, without telling no lies. +Just me and God-given talent. +Man: Let's go. +OK, it's time to kick some ass. +Cover this. It's your own. +Move it. +Roboger Animadu: In big countries, when they do the movies, they have all these things in place. +But here, we improvise these items, like the gunshots. +Like they go, here, now, now, you see the gun there, but you won't see any guns shot, we use knock-out. +Kevin Books Ikeduba: What I'm scared of is just the explosion will come up in my face. +Woman: That's why I use enough masking tape. +The masking tape will hold it. +Wat, wait. Just hold this for me. +KBI: I'm just telling her to make sure she places it well so that it won't affect my face -- the explosion, you know. +But she's a professional. She knows what shes doing. +I'm trying to protect my face too. +This ain't going to be my last movie. +You know, this is Nollywood, where the magic lives. +RA: So now you're about to see how we do our own movies here, with or without any assistance from anybody. +Man: Action. +Cut. +Franco Sacchi: So many things to say, so little time. +So many themes in this story. +I just can't tell you -- theres one thing I want to tell you. +I spent, you know, several weeks with all these actors, producers, and the problems they have to go through are unimaginable for, you know, a Westerner, a filmmaker who works in America or in Europe. +But always with a smile, always with an enthusiasm, that is incredible. +Werner Herzog, the German filmmaker said, "I need to make movies like you need oxygen." +And I think theyre breathing. +The Nigerian filmmakers really, really, are doing what they like. +And so it's a very, very important thing for them, and for their audiences. +A woman told me, "When I see a Nollywood film, I can relax, I really -- I can breathe better." +There is also another very important thing that I hope will resonate with this audience. +Its technology. Im very interested in it and I really think that the digital non-linear editing has slashed, you know, the cost now is a fraction of what it used to be. +Incredible cameras cost under 5,000 dollars. +And this has unleashed tremendous energy. +And guess what? +We didnt have to tell to the Nigerian filmmakers. +They understood it, they embraced the technology and they run with it, and theyre successful. +I hope that the Nollywood phenomenon will go both ways. +I hope it will inspire other African nations to embrace the technology, look at the Nigerian model, make their films, create jobs, create a narrative for the population, something to identify, something positive, something that really is psychological relief and it's part of the culture. +But I really think this is a phenomenon that can inspire us. +I really think it goes both ways. +Filmmakers, friends of mine, they look at Nollywood and they say, "Wow, they are doing what we really want to do, and make a buck and live with this job." +So I really think its a lesson that we're actually learning from them. +And there's one thing, one small challenge that I have for you, and should make us reflect on the importance of storytelling. +And I think this is really the theme of this session. +Try to imagine a world where the only goal is food and a shelter, but no stories. +No stories around the campfire. +No legends, no fairytales. +Nothing. +No novels. +Difficult, eh? It's meaningless. +So this is what I really think. +I think that the key to a healthy society is a thriving community of storytellers, and I think that the Nigerian filmmakers really have proved this. +I would like you to hear their voices. +Just a few moments. +Its not an added sequence, just some voices from Nollywood. +Toyin Alousa: Nollywood is the best thing that can happen to them. +If you have an industry that puts a smile on people's face, thats Nollywood. +SO: I believe very soon, were not only going to have better movies, we'll have that original Nigerian movie. +BE: Its still the same basic themes. +Love, action. +But we're telling it our own way, our own Nigerian way, African way. +We have diverse cultures, diverse cultures, there are so many, that in the natal lifetimes, I don't see us exhausting the stories we have. +FS: My job ends here, and the Nollywood filmmakers really have now to work. +And I really hope that there will be many, many collaborations, where we teach each other things. +And I really hope that this will happen. +Thank you very much. +Chris Anderson: Stop. I've got two questions. +Franco, you described this as the world's third largest film industry. +What does that translate to in terms of numbers of films, really? +FS: Oh, yes. I think I mentioned briefly -- it's close to 2,000 films. +There is scientific data on this. +CA: 2,000 films a year? +FS: 2,000 films a year. 2005 or 6, the censor board has censored 1,600 films alone. +And we know that there are more. +So its safe to say that there are 2,000 films. +So imagine 45 films per week. +There are challenges. There are challenges. +There is a glut of film, the quality has to be raised, they need to go to the next level, but Im optimistic. +CA: And these arent films that are primarily seen in cinemas? +FS: Oh yes, of course. This is very important. +Maybe, you know, for you to try to imagine this, these are films that are distributed directly in markets. +They are bought in video shops. +They can be rented for pennies. +CA: On what format? +FS: Oh, the format -- thank you for the question. Yes, it's VCDs. +It's a CD, it's a little bit more compressed image. +They started with VHS. +They actually didn't wait for, you know, the latest technology. +They started in '92, '94. +So there are 57 million VCRs in Nigeria that play, you know, VHS and these VCDs. +It's a CD basically. It's a compact disc. +CA: So on the streets, are film casts ... ? +FS: You can be in a Lagos traffic jam and you can buy a movie or some bananas or some water. Yes. +And I have to say, this really proves that storytelling, it's a commodity, it's a staple. +There is no life without stories. +CA: Franco, thank you so much. +I thought I would think about changing your perspective on the world a bit, and showing you some of the designs that we have in nature. +And so, I have my first slide to talk about the dawning of the universe and what I call the cosmic scene investigation, that is, looking at the relics of creation and inferring what happened at the beginning, and then following it up and trying to understand it. +And so one of the questions that I asked you is, when you look around, what do you see? +Well, you see this space that's created by designers and by the work of people, but what you actually see is a lot of material that was already here, being reshaped in a certain form. +And so the question is: how did that material get here? +How did it get into the form that it had before it got reshaped, and so forth? +It's a question of what's the continuity? +So one of the things I look at is, how did the universe begin and shape? +What was the whole process in the creation and the evolution of the universe to getting to the point that we have these kinds of materials? +So that's sort of the part, and let me move on then and show you the Hubble Ultra Deep Field. +If you look at this picture, what you will see is a lot of dark with some light objects in it. +And everything but -- four of these light objects are stars, and you can see them there -- little pluses. +This is a star, this is a star, everything else is a galaxy, OK? +So there's a couple of thousand galaxies you can see easily with your eye in here. +But there's a lot of other galaxies, and some are nearby, and they're kind of the color of the Sun, and some are further away and they're a little bluer, and so forth. +But one of the questions is -- this should be, to you -- how come there are so many galaxies? +Because this represents a very clean fraction of the sky. +This is only 1,000 galaxies. +We think there's on the order -- visible to the Hubble Space Telescope, if you had the time to scan it around -- about 100 billion galaxies. Right? +It's a very large number of galaxies. +And that's roughly how many stars there are in our own galaxy. +But when you look at some of these regions like this, you'll see more galaxies than stars, which is kind of a conundrum. +So the question should come to your mind is, what kind of design, you know, what kind of creative process and what kind of design produced the world like that? +And then I'm going to show you it's actually a lot more complicated. +We're going to try and follow it up. +We have a tool that actually helps us out in this study, and that's the fact that the universe is so incredibly big that it's a time machine, in a certain sense. +We draw this set of nested spheres cut away so you see it. +Put the Earth at the center of the nested spheres, just because that's where we're making observations. +And the moon is only two seconds away, so if you take a picture of the moon using ordinary light, it's the moon two seconds ago, and who cares. +Two seconds is like the present. +The Sun is eight minutes ago. That's not such a big deal, right, unless there's solar flares coming then you want to get out the way. +You'd like to have a little advance warning. +But you get out to Jupiter and it's 40 minutes away. It's a problem. +You hear about Mars, it's a problem communicating to Mars because it takes light long enough to go there. +But if you look out to the nearest set of stars, to the nearest 40 or 50 stars, it's about 10 years. +So if you take a picture of what's going on, it's 10 years ago. +But you go and look to the center of the galaxy, it's thousands of years ago. +If you look at Andromeda, which is the nearest big galaxy, and it's two million years ago. +If you took a picture of the Earth two million years ago, there'd be no evidence of humans at all, because we don't think there were humans yet. +I mean, it just gives you the scale. +With the Hubble Space Telescope, we're looking at hundreds of millions of years to a billion years. +And so that's the sort of sequence, and so I have a more artistic impression of this. +There's the galaxy in the middle, which is the Milky Way, and around that are the Hubble -- you know, nearby kind of galaxies, and there's a sphere that marks the different times. +And behind that are some more modern galaxies. +You see the whole big picture? +The beginning of time is funny -- it's on the outside, right? +And then there's a part of the universe we can't see because it's so dense and so hot, light can't escape. +It's like you can't see to the center of the Sun; you have to use other techniques to know what's going on inside the Sun. +But you can see the edge of the Sun, and the universe gets that way, and you can see that. +And then you see this sort of model area around the outside, and that is the radiation coming from the Big Bang, which is actually incredibly uniform. +The universe is almost a perfect sphere, but there are these very tiny variations which we show here in great exaggeration. +And from them in the time sequence we're going to have to go from these tiny variations to these irregular galaxies and first stars to these more advanced galaxies, and eventually the solar system, and so forth. +So it's a big design job, but we'll see about how things are going on. +So the way these measurements were done, there's been a set of satellites, and this is where you get to see. +So there was the COBE satellite, which was launched in 1989, and we discovered these variations. +And then in 2000, the MAP satellite was launched -- the WMAP -- and it made somewhat better pictures. +And later this year -- this is the cool stealth version, the one that actually has some beautiful design features to it, and you should look -- the Planck satellite will be launched, and it will make very high-resolution maps. +And that will be the sequence of understanding the very beginning of the universe. +And what we saw was, we saw these variations, and then they told us the secrets, both about the structure of space-time, and about the contents of the universe, and about how the universe started in its original motions. +So we have this picture, which is quite a spectacular picture, and I'll come back to the beginning, where we're going to have some mysterious process that kicks the universe off at the beginning. +And we go through a period of accelerating expansion, and the universe expands and cools until it gets to the point where it becomes transparent, then to the Dark Ages, and then the first stars turn on, and they evolve into galaxies, and then later they get to the more expansive galaxies. +And somewhere around this period is when our solar system started forming. +And it's maturing up to the present time. +And there's some spectacular things. +And this wastebasket part, that's to represent what the structure of space-time itself is doing during this period. +And so this is a pretty weird model, right? +What kind of evidence do we have for that? +So let me show you some of nature's patterns that are the result of this. +I always think of space-time as being the real substance of space, and the galaxies and the stars just like the foam on the ocean. +It's a marker of where the interesting waves are and whatever went on. +So here is the Sloan Digital Sky Survey showing the location of a million galaxies. +So there's a dot on here for every galaxy. +They go out and point a telescope at the sky, take a picture, identify what are stars and throw them away, look at the galaxies, estimate how far away they are, and plot them up. +And just put radially they're going out that way. +And you see these structures, this thing we call the Great Wall, but there are voids and those kinds of stuff, and they kind of fade out because the telescope isn't sensitive enough to do it. +Now I'm going to show you this in 3D. +What happens is, you take pictures as the Earth rotates, you get a fan across the sky. +There are some places you can't look because of our own galaxy, or because there are no telescopes available to do it. +So the next picture shows you the three-dimensional version of this rotating around. +Do you see the fan-like scans made across the sky? +Remember, every spot on here is a galaxy, and you see the galaxies, you know, sort of in our neighborhood, and you sort of see the structure. +And you see this thing we call the Great Wall, and you see the complicated structure, and you see these voids. +There are places where there are no galaxies and there are places where there are thousands of galaxies clumped together, right. +So there's an interesting pattern, but we don't have enough data here to actually see the pattern. +We only have a million galaxies, right? +So we're keeping, like, a million balls in the air but, what's going on? +There's another survey which is very similar to this, called the Two-degree Field of View Galaxy Redshift Survey. +Now we're going to fly through it at warp a million. +And every time there's a galaxy -- at its location there's a galaxy -- and if we know anything about the galaxy, which we do, because there's a redshift measurement and everything, you put in the type of galaxy and the color, so this is the real representation. +And when you're in the middle of the galaxies it's hard to see the pattern; it's like being in the middle of life. +It's hard to see the pattern in the middle of the audience, it's hard to see the pattern of this. +So we're going to go out and swing around and look back at this. +And you'll see, first, the structure of the survey, and then you'll start seeing the structure of the galaxies that we see out there. +So again, you can see the extension of this Great Wall of galaxies showing up here. +But you can see the voids, you can see the complicated structure, and you say, well, how did this happen? +Suppose you're the cosmic designer. +How are you going to put galaxies out there in a pattern like that? +It's not just throwing them out at random. +There's a more complicated process going on here. +How are you going to end up doing that? +And so now we're in for some serious play. +That is, we have to seriously play God, not just change people's lives, but make the universe, right. +So if that's your responsibility, how are you going to do that? +What's the kind of technique? +What's the kind of thing you're going to do? +So I'm going to show you the results of a very large-scale simulation of what we think the universe might be like, using, essentially, some of the play principles and some of the design principles that, you know, humans have labored so hard to pick up, but apparently nature knew how to do at the beginning. +And that is, you start out with very simple ingredients and some simple rules, but you have to have enough ingredients to make it complicated. +And then you put in some randomness, some fluctuations and some randomness, and realize a whole bunch of different representations. +So what I'm going to do is show you the distribution of matter as a function of scales. +We're going to zoom in, but this is a plot of what it is. +And we had to add one more thing to make the universe come out right. +It's called dark matter. +That is matter that doesn't interact with light the typical way that ordinary matter does, the way the light's shining on me or on the stage. +It's transparent to light, but in order for you to see it, we're going to make it white. OK? +So the stuff that's in this picture that's white, that is the dark matter. +It should be called invisible matter, but the dark matter we've made visible. +And the stuff that is in the yellow color, that is the ordinary kind of matter that's turned into stars and galaxies. +So I'll show you the next movie. +So this -- we're going to zoom in. +Notice this pattern and pay attention to this pattern. +We're going to zoom in and zoom in. +And you'll see there are all these filaments and structures and voids. +And when a number of filaments come together in a knot, that makes a supercluster of galaxies. +This one we're zooming in on is somewhere between 100,000 and a million galaxies in that small region. +So we live in the boonies. +We don't live in the center of the solar system, we don't live in the center of the galaxy and our galaxy's not in the center of the cluster. +So we're zooming in. +This is a region which probably has more than 100,000, on the order of a million galaxies in that region. +We're going to keep zooming in. OK. +And so I forgot to tell you the scale. +A parsec is 3.26 light years. +So a gigaparsec is three billion light years -- that's the scale. +So it takes light three billion years to travel over that distance. +Now we're into a distance sort of between here and here. +That's the distance between us and Andromeda, right? +These little specks that you're seeing in here, they're galaxies. +Now we're going to zoom back out, and you can see this structure that, when we get very far out, looks very regular, but it's made up of a lot of irregular variations. +So they're simple building blocks. +There's a very simple fluid to begin with. +It's got dark matter, it's got ordinary matter, it's got photons and it's got neutrinos, which don't play much role in the later part of the universe. +And it's just a simple fluid and it, over time, develops into this complicated structure. +And so you know when you first saw this picture, it didn't mean quite so much to you. +Here you're looking across one percent of the volume of the visible universe and you're seeing billions of galaxies, right, and nodes, but you realize they're not even the main structure. +There's a framework, which is the dark matter, the invisible matter, that's out there that's actually holding it all together. +So let's fly through it, and you can see how much harder it is when you're in the middle of something to figure this out. +So here's that same end result. +You see a filament, you see the light is the invisible matter, and the yellow is the stars or the galaxies showing up. +And we're going to fly around, and we'll fly around, and you'll see occasionally a couple of filaments intersect, and you get a large cluster of galaxies. +And then we'll fly in to where the very large cluster is, and you can see what it looks like. +And so from inside, it doesn't look very complicated, right? +It's only when you look at it at a very large scale, and explore it and so forth, you realize it's a very intricate, complicated kind of a design, right? +And it's grown up in some kind of way. +So the question is, how hard would it be to assemble this, right? +How big a contractor team would you need to put this universe together, right? +That's the issue, right? +And so here we are. +You see how the filament -- you see how several filaments are coming together, therefore making this supercluster of galaxies. +And you have to understand, this is not how it would actually look if you -- first, you can't travel this fast, everything would be distorted, but this is using simple rendering and graphic arts kind of stuff. +This is how, if you took billions of years to go around, it might look to you, right? +And if you could see invisible matter, too. +And so the idea is, you know, how would you put together the universe in a very simple way? +We're going to start and realize that the entire visible universe, everything we can see in every direction with the Hubble Space Telescope plus our other instruments, was once in a region that was smaller than an atom. +It started with tiny quantum mechanical fluctuations, but expanding at a tremendous rate. +And those fluctuations were stretched to astronomical sizes, and those fluctuations eventually are the things we see in the cosmic microwave background. +And then we needed some way to turn those fluctuations into galaxies and clusters of galaxies and make these kinds of structures go on. +So I'm going to show you a smaller simulation. +This simulation was run on 1,000 processors for a month in order to make just this simple visible one. +So I'm going to show you one that can be run on a desktop in two days in the next picture. +So you start out with teeny fluctuations when the universe was at this point, now four times smaller, and so forth. +And you start seeing these networks, this cosmic web of structure forming. +And this is a simple one, because it doesn't have the ordinary matter and it just has the dark matter in it. +And you see how the dark matter lumps up, and the ordinary matter just trails along behind. +So there it is. +At the beginning it's very uniform. +The fluctuations are a part in 100,000. +There are a few peaks that are a part in 10,000, and then over billions of years, gravity just pulls in. +This is light over density, pulls the material around in. +That pulls in more material and pulls in more material. +But the distances on the universe are so large and the time scales are so large that it takes a long time for this to form. +And it keeps forming until the universe is roughly about half the size it is now, in terms of its expansion. +And at that point, the universe mysteriously starts accelerating its expansion and cuts off the formation of larger-scale structure. +So we're just seeing as large a scale structure as we can see, and then only things that have started forming already are going to form, and then from then on it's going to go on. +So we're able to do the simulation, but this is two days on a desktop. +We need, you know, 30 days on 1,000 processors to do the kind of simulation that I showed you before. +So we have a model, and we can calculate it, and we can use it to make designs of what we think the universe really looks like. +And that design is sort of way beyond what our original imagination ever was. +So this is what we started with 15 years ago, with the Cosmic Background Explorer -- made the map on the upper right, which basically showed us that there were large-scale fluctuations, and actually fluctuations on several scales. You can kind of see that. +Since then we've had WMAP, which just gives us higher angular resolution. +We see the same large-scale structure, but we see additional small-scale structure. +And on the bottom right is if the satellite had flipped upside down and mapped the Earth, what kind of a map we would have got of the Earth. +You can see, well, you can, kind of pick out all the major continents, but that's about it. +But what we're hoping when we get to Planck, we'll have resolution about equivalent to the resolution you see of the Earth there, where you can really see the complicated pattern that exists on the Earth. +And you can also tell, because of the sharp edges and the way things fit together, there are some non-linear processes. +Geology has these effects, which is moving the plates around and so forth. +You can see that just from the map alone. +We want to get to the point in our maps of the early universe we can see whether there are any non-linear effects that are starting to move, to modify, and are giving us a hint about how space-time itself was actually created at the beginning moments. +So that's where we are today, and that's what I wanted to give you a flavor of. +Give you a different view about what the design and what everything else looks like. +Thank you. +What technology can we really apply to reducing global poverty? +And what I found was quite surprising. +We started looking at things like death rates in the 20th century, and how they'd been improved, and very simple things turned out. +You'd think maybe antibiotics made more difference than clean water, but it's actually the opposite. +And so very simple things -- off-the-shelf technologies that we could easily find on the then-early Web -- would clearly make a huge difference to that problem. +But I also, in looking at more powerful technologies and nanotechnology and genetic engineering and other new emerging kind of digital technologies, became very concerned about the potential for abuse. +If you think about it, in history, a long, long time ago we dealt with the problem of an individual abusing another individual. +We came up with something -- the Ten Commandments: Thou shalt not kill. +That's a, kind of a one-on-one thing. +We organized into cities. We had many people. +And to keep the many from tyrannizing the one, we came up with concepts like individual liberty. +And then, to have to deal with large groups, say, at the nation-state level, and we had to have mutual non-aggression, or through a series of conflicts, we eventually came to a rough international bargain to largely keep the peace. +But now we have a new situation, really what people call an asymmetric situation, where technology is so powerful that it extends beyond a nation-state. +It's not the nation-states that have potential access to mass destruction, but individuals. +And this is a consequence of the fact that these new technologies tend to be digital. +We saw genome sequences. +You can download the gene sequences of pathogens off the Internet if you want to, and clearly someone recently -- I saw in a science magazine -- they said, well, the 1918 flu is too dangerous to FedEx around. +If people want to use it in their labs for working on research, just reconstruct it yourself, because, you know, it might break in FedEx. +So that this is possible to do this is not deniable. +So individuals in small groups super-empowered by access to these kinds of self-replicating technologies, whether it be biological or other, are clearly a danger in our world. +And the danger is that they can cause roughly what's a pandemic. +And we really don't have experience with pandemics, and we're also not very good as a society at acting to things we don't have direct and sort of gut-level experience with. +So it's not in our nature to pre-act. +And in this case, piling on more technology doesn't solve the problem, because it only super-empowers people more. +So the solution has to be, as people like Russell and Einstein and others imagine in a conversation that existed in a much stronger form, I think, early in the 20th century, that the solution had to be not just the head but the heart. +You know, public policy and moral progress. +The bargain that gives us civilization is a bargain to not use power. +We get our individual rights by society protecting us from others not doing everything they can do but largely doing only what is legal. +And so to limit the danger of these new things, we have to limit, ultimately, the ability of individuals to have access, essentially, to pandemic power. +We also have to have sensible defense, because no limitation is going to prevent a crazy person from doing something. +And you know, and the troubling thing is that it's much easier to do something bad than to defend against all possible bad things, so the offensive uses really have an asymmetric advantage. +So these are the kind of thoughts I was thinking in 1999 and 2000, and my friends told me I was getting really depressed, and they were really worried about me. +And then I signed a book contract to write more gloomy thoughts about this and moved into a hotel room in New York with one room full of books on the Plague, and you know, nuclear bombs exploding in New York where I would be within the circle, and so on. +And then I was there on September 11th, and I stood in the streets with everyone. +And it was quite an experience to be there. +I got up the next morning and walked out of the city, and all the sanitation trucks were parked on Houston Street and ready to go down and start taking the rubble away. +And I walked down the middle, up to the train station, and everything below 14th Street was closed. +It was quite a compelling experience, but not really, I suppose, a surprise to someone who'd had his room full of the books. +It was always a surprise that it happened then and there, but it wasn't a surprise that it happened at all. +And everyone then started writing about this. +Thousands of people started writing about this. +And I eventually abandoned the book, and then Chris called me to talk at the conference. I really don't talk about this anymore because, you know, there's enough frustrating and depressing things going on. +But I agreed to come and say a few things about this. +And I would say that we can't give up the rule of law to fight an asymmetric threat, which is what we seem to be doing because of the present, the people that are in power, because that's to give up the thing that makes civilization. +And we can't fight the threat in the kind of stupid way we're doing, because a million-dollar act causes a billion dollars of damage, causes a trillion dollar response which is largely ineffective and arguably, probably almost certainly, has made the problem worse. +So we can't fight the thing with a million-to-one cost, one-to-a-million cost-benefit ratio. +So after giving up on the book -- and I had the great honor to be able to join Kleiner Perkins about a year ago, and to work through venture capital on the innovative side, and to try to find some innovations that could address what I saw as some of these big problems. +Things where, you know, a factor of 10 difference can make a factor of 1,000 difference in the outcome. +I've been amazed in the last year at the incredible quality and excitement of the innovations that have come across my desk. +It's overwhelming at times. I'm very thankful for Google and Wikipedia so I can understand at least a little of what people are talking about who come through the doors. +But I wanted to share with you three areas that I'm particularly excited about and that relate to the problems that I was talking about in the Wired article. +The first is this whole area of education, and it really relates to what Nicholas was talking about with a $100 computer. +And that is to say that there's a lot of legs left in Moore's Law. +The most advanced transistors today are at 65 nanometers, and we've seen, and I've had the pleasure to invest in, companies that give me great confidence that we'll extend Moore's Law all the way down to roughly the 10 nanometer scale. +Now, just imagine what that $100 computer will be in 2020 as a tool for education. +I think the challenge for us is -- I'm very certain that that will happen, the challenge is, will we develop the kind of educational tools and things with the net to let us take advantage of that device? +I'd argue today that we have incredibly powerful computers, but we don't have very good software for them. +And it's only in retrospect, after the better software comes along, and you take it and you run it on a ten-year-old machine, you say, God, the machine was that fast? +I remember when they took the Apple Mac interface and they put it back on the Apple II. +The Apple II was perfectly capable of running that kind of interface, we just didn't know how to do it at the time. +So given that we know and should believe -- because Moore's Law's been, like, a constant, I mean, it's just been very predictable progress over the last 40 years or whatever. +We can know what the computers are going to be like in 2020. +It's great that we have initiatives to say, let's go create the education and educate people in the world, because that's a great force for peace. +And we can give everyone in the world a $100 computer or a $10 computer in the next 15 years. +The second area that I'm focusing on is the environmental problem, because that's clearly going to put a lot of pressure on this world. +We'll hear a lot more about that from Al Gore very shortly. +The thing that we see as the kind of Moore's Law trend that's driving improvement in our ability to address the environmental problem is new materials. +We have a challenge, because the urban population is growing in this century from two billion to six billion in a very short amount of time. People are moving to the cities. +They all need clean water, they need energy, they need transportation, and we want them to develop in a green way. +We're reasonably efficient in the industrial sectors. +We've made improvements in energy and resource efficiency, but the consumer sector, especially in America, is very inefficient. +But these new materials bring such incredible innovations that there's a strong basis for hope that these things will be so profitable that they can be brought to the market. +And I want to give you a specific example of a new material that was discovered 15 years ago. +If we take carbon nanotubes, you know, Iijima discovered them in 1991, they just have incredible properties. +And these are the kinds of things we're going to discover as we start to engineer at the nano scale. +Their strength: they're almost the strongest material, tensile strength material known. +They're very, very stiff. They stretch very, very little. +In two dimensions, if you make, like, a fabric out of them, they're 30 times stronger than Kevlar. +And if you make a three-dimensional structure, like a buckyball, they have all sorts of incredible properties. +If you shoot a particle at them and knock a hole in them, they repair themselves; they go zip and they repair the hole in femtoseconds, which is not -- is really quick. +If you shine a light on them, they produce electricity. +In fact, if you flash them with a camera they catch on fire. +If you put electricity on them, they emit light. +If you run current through them, you can run 1,000 times more current through one of these than through a piece of metal. +You can make both p- and n-type semiconductors, which means you can make transistors out of them. +They conduct heat along their length but not across -- well, there is no width, but not in the other direction if you stack them up; that's a property of carbon fiber also. +If you put particles in them, and they go shooting out the tip -- they're like miniature linear accelerators or electron guns. +The inside of the nanotubes is so small -- the smallest ones are 0.7 nanometers -- that it's basically a quantum world. +It's a strange place inside a nanotube. +And so we begin to see, and we've seen business plans already, where the kind of things Lisa Randall's talking about are in there. +I had one business plan where I was trying to learn more about Witten's cosmic dimension strings to try to understand what the phenomenon was going on in this proposed nanomaterial. +So inside of a nanotube, we're really at the limit here. +So what we see is with these and other new materials that we can do things with different properties -- lighter, stronger -- and apply these new materials to the environmental problems. +New materials that can make water, new materials that can make fuel cells work better, new materials that catalyze chemical reactions, that cut pollution and so on. +Ethanol -- new ways of making ethanol. +New ways of making electric transportation. +The whole green dream -- because it can be profitable. +And we've dedicated -- we've just raised a new fund, we dedicated 100 million dollars to these kinds of investments. +We believe that Genentech, the Compaq, the Lotus, the Sun, the Netscape, the Amazon, the Google in these fields are yet to be found, because this materials revolution will drive these things forward. +The third area that we're working on, and we just announced last week -- we were all in New York. +We raised 200 million dollars in a specialty fund to work on a pandemic in biodefense. +And to give you an idea of the last fund that Kleiner raised was a $400 million fund, so this for us is a very substantial fund. +And what we did, over the last few months -- well, a few months ago, Ray Kurzweil and I wrote an op-ed in the New York Times about how publishing the 1918 genome was very dangerous. +And John Doerr and Brook and others got concerned, [unclear], and we started looking around at what the world was doing about being prepared for a pandemic. And we saw a lot of gaps. +And so we asked ourselves, you know, can we find innovative things that will go fill these gaps? And Brooks told me in a break here, he said he's found so much stuff he can't sleep, because there's so many great technologies out there, we're essentially buried. And we need them, you know. +We have one antiviral that people are talking about stockpiling that still works, roughly. That's Tamiflu. +But Tamiflu -- the virus is resistant. It is resistant to Tamiflu. +We've discovered with AIDS we need cocktails to work well so that the viral resistance -- we need several anti-virals. +We need better surveillance. +We need networks that can find out what's going on. +We need rapid diagnostics so that we can tell if somebody has a strain of flu which we have only identified very recently. +We've got to be able to make the rapid diagnostics quickly. +We need new anti-virals and cocktails. We need new kinds of vaccines. +Vaccines that are broad spectrum. +Vaccines that we can manufacture quickly. +Cocktails, more polyvalent vaccines. +You normally get a trivalent vaccine against three possible strains. +We need -- we don't know where this thing is going. +We believe that if we could fill these 10 gaps, we have a chance to help really reduce the risk of a pandemic. +And the difference between a normal flu season and a pandemic is about a factor of 1,000 in deaths and certainly enormous economic impact. +So we're very excited because we think we can fund 10, or speed up 10 projects and see them come to market in the next couple years that will address this. +So if we can address, use technology, help address education, help address the environment, help address the pandemic, does that solve the larger problem that I was talking about in the Wired article? And I'm afraid the answer is really no, because you can't solve a problem with the management of technology with more technology. +If we let an unlimited amount of power loose, then we will -- a very small number of people will be able to abuse it. +We can't fight at a million-to-one disadvantage. +So what we need to do is, we need better policy. +And for example, some things we could do that would be policy solutions which are not really in the political air right now but perhaps with the change of administration would be -- use markets. +Markets are a very strong force. +For example, rather than trying to regulate away problems, which probably won't work, if we could price into the cost of doing business, the cost of catastrophe, so that people who are doing things that had a higher cost of catastrophe would have to take insurance against that risk. +So if you wanted to put a drug on the market you could put it on. +But it wouldn't have to be approved by regulators; you'd have to convince an actuary that it would be safe. +And if you apply the notion of insurance more broadly, you can use a more powerful force, a market force, to provide feedback. +How could you keep the law? +I think the law would be a really good thing to keep. +Well, you have to hold people accountable. +The law requires accountability. +Today scientists, technologists, businessmen, engineers don't have any personal responsibility for the consequences of their actions. +So if you tie that -- you have to tie that back with the law. +And finally, I think we have to do something that's not really -- it's almost unacceptable to say this -- which, we have to begin to design the future. +We can't pick the future, but we can steer the future. +Our investment in trying to prevent pandemic flu is affecting the distribution of possible outcomes. +We may not be able to stop it, but the likelihood that it will get past us is lower if we focus on that problem. +So we can design the future if we choose what kind of things we want to have happen and not have happen, and steer us to a lower-risk place. +Vice President Gore will talk about how we could steer the climate trajectory into a lower probability of catastrophic risk. +But above all, what we have to do is we have to help the good guys, the people on the defensive side, have an advantage over the people who want to abuse things. +And what we have to do to do that is we have to limit access to certain information. +And growing up as we have, and holding very high the value of free speech, this is a hard thing for us to accept -- for all of us to accept. +It's especially hard for the scientists to accept who still remember, you know, Galileo essentially locked up, and who are still fighting this battle against the church. +But that's the price of having a civilization. +The price of retaining the rule of law is to limit the access to the great and kind of unbridled power. +Thank you. +I went to Spain a few months ago and I had the best foie gras of my life. +The best culinary experience of my life. +Because what I saw, I'm convinced, is the future of cooking. +Ridiculous, right? +Foie gras and the future of cooking. +There's not a food today that's more maligned than foie gras, right? +I mean, it's crucified. +It was outlawed in Chicago for a while. +It's pending here in California, and just recently in New York. +It's like if you're a chef and you put it on your menu, you risk being attacked. +Really, it happened here in San Francisco to a famous chef. +I'm not saying that there's not a rationale for being opposed to foie gras. +The reasons usually just boil down to the gavage, which is the force feeding. +Basically you take a goose or a duck and you force feed a ton of grain down its throat. +More grain in a couple of weeks than it would ever get in a lifetime. +Its liver expands by eight times. +Suffice to say it's like -- it's not the prettiest picture of sustainable farming. +The problem for us chefs is that it's so freakin' delicious. +I mean, I love the stuff. +It is fatty, it's sweet, it's silky, it's unctuous. +It makes everything else you put it with taste incredible. +Can we produce a menu that's delicious without foie gras? +Yes, sure. +You can also bike the Tour de France without steroids, right? +Not a lot of people are doing it. +And for good reason. +So several months ago, a friend of mine sent me this link to this guy, Eduardo Sousa. +Eduardo is doing what he calls natural foie gras. +Natural foie gras. +What's natural about foie gras? +To take advantage of when the temperature drops in the fall, geese and ducks gorge on food to prepare for the harsh realities of winter. +And the rest of the year they're free to roam around Eduardo's land and eat what they want. +So no gavage, no force feeding, no factory-like conditions, no cruelty. +And it's shockingly not a new idea. +His great-granddad started -- Patera de Sousa -- in 1812. +And they've been doing it quietly ever since. +That is until last year, when Eduardo won the Coup de Coeur, the coveted French gastronomic prize. +It's like the Olympics of food products. +He placed first for his foie gras. +Big, big problem. +As he said to me, that really pissed the French off. +He said it sort of gleefully. +It was all over the papers. +I read about it. It was in Le Monde. +"Spanish chef accused ... " -- and the French accused him. +"Spanish chef accused of cheating." +They accused him of paying off the judges. +They implicated actually, the Spanish government, amazingly. +Huh, amazing. +A huge scandal for a few weeks. +Couldn't find a shred of evidence. +Now, look at the guy. +He doesn't look like a guy who's paying off French judges for his foie gras. +So that died down, and very soon afterward, new controversy. +He shouldn't win because it's not foie gras. +It's not foie gras because it's not gavage. +There's no force feeding. +So by definition, he's lying and should be disqualified. +As funny as it sounds, articulating it now and reading about it -- actually, if we had talked about it before this controversy, I would have said, "That's kind of true." +You know, foie gras by definition, force feeding, it's gavage, and that's what you get when you want foie gras. +That is, until I went to Eduardo's farm in Extremadura, 50 miles north of Seville, right on the Portugal border. +I saw first-hand a system that is incredibly complex and then at the same time, like everything beautiful in nature, is utterly simple. +And he said to me, really from the first moment, my life's work is to give the geese what they want. +He repeated that about 50 times in the two days I was with him. +I'm just here to give the geese what they want. +Actually, when I showed up he was lying down with the geese with his cell phone taking pictures of them like his children in the grass. +Amazing. +He's really just in love with -- he's at one with -- he's the goose whisperer. +And when I was speaking to him, you know, I thought, like I'm speaking to you now, right, but sort of in the middle of my questions, my excited questions, because the more I got to know him and his system, the more exciting this whole idea became. +He kept going like this to me. +And I thought, OK, excited Jew from New York, right? +I'm talking a little too aggressively, whatever, so you know, I slowed down. +And finally, by the end of the day I was like, Ed-uar-do, you know like this? +But he was still going like this. +I figured it out. +I was speaking too loudly. +So I hushed my voice. +I kind of like asked these questions and chatted with him through a translator in kind of a half whisper. +And he stopped doing this. +And amazingly, the geese who were on the other side of the paddock when I was around -- "Get the hell away from this kid!" -- when I lowered my voice, they all came right up to us. +Right up to us, like right up to here. +Right along the fence line. +And fence line was amazing in itself. +The fence -- like this conception of fence that we have it's totally backward with him. +The electricity on this fiberglass fence is only on the outside. +He rewired it. He invented it. +I've never seen it. Have you? +You fence in animals. You electrify the inside. +He doesn't. +He electrifies only the outside. +Why? +Because he said to me that he felt like the geese -- and he proved this actually, not just a conceit, he proved this -- the geese felt manipulated when they were imprisoned in their little paddocks. +Even though they were imprisoned in this Garden of Eden with figs and everything else. +He felt like they felt manipulated. +So he got rid of the electricity, he got rid of current on the inside and kept it on the outside, so it would protect them against coyotes and other predators. +Now, what happened? +They ate, and he showed me on a chart, how they ate about 20 percent more feed to feed their livers. +The landscape is incredible. +I mean, his farm is incredible. +It really is the Garden of Eden. +There's figs and everything else there for the taking. +And the irony of ironies is because Extremadura, the area -- what does Extremadura mean? +Extra hard land, right? +Extra difficult. Extra hard. +But over four generations, he and his family have literally transformed this extra hard land into a tasting menu. +Upgrades the life for these geese. +And they are allowed to take whatever they want. +Another irony, the double irony is that on the figs and the olives, Eduardo can make more money selling those than he can on the foie gras. +He doesn't care. +He lets them take what they want and he says, "Usually, it's about 50 percent. They're very fair." +The other 50 percent, he takes and he sells and he makes money on them. +Part of the income for his farm. +A big part of his income for his farm. +But he never controls it. +They get what they want, they leave the rest for me and I sell it. +His biggest obstacle, really, was the marketplace, which demands these days bright yellow foie gras. +That's how I've been trained. +You want to look and see what good foie gras is, it's got to be bright yellow. +It's the indication that it's the best foie gras. +Well, because he doesn't force feed, because he doesn't gavage tons of corn, his livers were pretty grey. +Or they were. +But he found this wild plant called the Lupin bush. +The Lupin bush, it's all around Extremadura. +He let it go to seed, he took the seeds, he planted it on his 30 acres, all around. +And the geese love the Lupin bush. +Not for the bush, but for the seeds. +And when they eat the seeds, their foie gras turns yellow. +Radioactive yellow. +Bright yellow. +Of the highest quality foie gras yellow I've ever seen. +So I'm listening to all this, you know, and I'm like, is this guy for real? Is he making some of this up? +Is he like, you know -- because he seemed to have an answer for everything, and it was always nature. +It was never him. +And I was like, you know, I always get a little, like, weirded out by people who deflect everything away from themselves. +Because, really, they want you to look at themselves, right? +But he deflected everything away from his ingenuity into working with his landscape. +So it's like, here I am, I'm on the fence about this guy, but increasingly, eating up his every word. +And we're sitting there, and I hear [clapping] from a distance, so I look over. +And he grabs my arm and the translator's, and ducks us under a bush and says, "Watch this." +"Shush," he says again for the 500th time to me. +"Shush, watch this." +And this squadron of geese come over. +[Clapping] And they're getting louder, louder, louder, like really loud, right over us. +And like airport traffic control, as they start to go past us they're called back -- and they're called back and back and back. +And then they circle around. +And his geese are calling up now to the wild geese. +[Clapping] And the wild geese are calling down. +[Clapping] And it's getting louder and louder and they circle and circle and they land. +And I'm just saying, "No way." +No way. +And I look at Eduardo, who's near tears looking at this, and I say, "You're telling me that your geese are calling to the wild geese to say come for a visit?" +And he says, "No, no, no. +They've come to stay." +They've come to stay? +It's like the DNA of a goose is to fly south in the winter, right? +I said that. I said "Isn't that what they're put on this Earth for? +To fly south in the winter and north when it gets warm?" +He said, "No, no, no. +Their DNA is to find the conditions that are conducive to life. +To happiness. +They find it here. +They don't need anything more." +They stop. They mate with his domesticated geese, and his flock continues. +Think about that for a minute. +It's brilliant, right? +Imagine -- I don't know, imagine a hog farm in, like, North Carolina, and a wild pig comes upon a factory farm and decides to stay. +So how did it taste? +I finally got to taste it before I left. +He took me to his neighborhood restaurant and he served me some of his foie gras, confit de foie gras. +It was incredible. +And the problem with saying that, of course, is that you know, at this point it risks hyperbole really easily. +And I'd like to make a metaphor, but I don't have one really. +I was drinking this guy's Kool-Aid so much, he could have served me goose feathers and I would have been like, this guy's a genius, you know? +I'm really in love with him at this point. +But it truly was the best foie gras of my life. +So much so that I don't think I had ever really had foie gras until that moment. +I'd had something that was called foie gras. +But this was transformative. Really transformative. +And I say to you, I might not stick to this, but I don't think I'll ever serve foie gras on my menu again because of that taste experience with Eduardo. +It was sweet, it was unctuous. +It had all the qualities of foie gras, but its fat had a lot of integrity and a lot of honesty. +And you could taste herbs, you could taste spices. +And I kept -- I said, you know, I swear to God I tasted star anise. +I was sure of it. +And I'm not like some super taster, you know? +But I can taste things. +There's 100 percent star anise in there. +And he says, "No." +And I ended up like going down the spices, and finally, it was like, OK, salt and pepper, thinking he's salted and peppered his liver. +But no. +He takes the liver when he harvests the foie gras, he sticks them in this jar and he confits it. +No salt, no pepper, no oil, no spices. +What? +We went back out for the final tour of the farm, and he showed me the wild pepper plants and the plants that he made sure existed on his farm for salinity. +He doesn't need salt and pepper. +And he doesn't need spices, because he's got this potpourri of herbs and flavors that his geese love to gorge on. +I turned to him at the end of the meal, and it's a question I asked several times, and he hadn't, kind of, answered me directly, but I said, "Now look, you're in Spain, some of the greatest chefs in the world are -- Ferran Adria, the preeminent chef of the world today, not that far from you. +How come you don't give him this? +How come no one's really heard of you?" +And it may be because of the wine, or it may be because of my excitement, he answered me directly and he said, "Because chefs don't deserve my foie gras." +And he was right. +He was right. +Chefs take foie gras and they make it their own. +They create a dish where all the vectors point at us. +With Eduardo it's about the expression of nature. +And as he said, I think fittingly, it's a gift from God, with God saying, you've done good work. +Simple. +I flew home, I'm on the flight with my little black book and I took, you know, pages and pages of notes about it. +I really was moved. +And in the corner of one of these -- one of my notes, is this note that says, when asked, what do you think of conventional foie gras? +What do you think of foie gras that 99.99999 percent of the world eats? +He said, "I think it's an insult to history." +And I wrote, insult to history. +I'm on the plane and I'm just tearing my hair out. +It's like, why didn't I follow up on that? +What the hell does that mean? +Insult to history. +So I did some research when I got back, and here's what I found. +The history of foie gras. +Jews invented foie gras. +True story. +True story. +By accident. +They were looking for an alternative to schmaltz. +Gotten sick of the chicken fat. +They were looking for an alternative. +And they saw in the fall that there was this natural, beautiful, sweet, delicious fat from geese. +And they slaughtered them, used the fat throughout the winter for cooking. +The Pharaoh got wind of this -- This is true, right off the Internet. +The Pharaoh got -- I swear to God. +The Pharaoh got wind of this and wanted to taste it. +He tasted it and fell in love with it. +He started demanding it. +And he didn't want it just in the fall, he wanted it all year round. +And he demanded that the Jews supply enough for everyone. +And the Jews, fearing for their life, had to come up with an ingenious idea, or at least try and satisfy the Pharaoh's wishes, of course. +And they invented, what? Gavage. +They invented gavage in a great moment of fear for their lives, and they provided the Pharaoh with gavage liver, and the good stuff they kept for themselves. +Supposedly, anyway. I believe that one. +That's the history of foie gras. +And if you think about it, it's the history of industrial agriculture. +It's the history of what we eat today. +Most of what we eat today. +Mega-farms, feed lots, chemical amendments, long-distance travel, food processing. +All of it, our food system. +That's also an insult to history. +It's an insult to the basic laws of nature and of biology. +Whether we're talking about beef cattle or we're talking about chickens, or we're talking about broccoli or Brussels sprouts, or in the case of this morning's New York Times, catfish -- which wholesale are going out of business. +Whatever it is, it's a mindset that is reminiscent of General Motors. +It's rooted in extraction. +Take more, sell more, waste more. +And for the future it won't serve us. +Jonas Salk has a great quote. +He said, "If all the insects disappeared, life on Earth as we know it would disappear within 50 years. +If human beings disappeared, life on Earth as we know it would flourish." +And he's right. +We need now to adopt a new conception of agriculture. +Really new. +One in which we stop treating the planet as if it were some kind of business in liquidation. +And stop degrading resources under the guise of cheap food. +We can start by looking to farmers like Eduardo. +Farmers that rely on nature for solutions, for answers, rather than imposing solutions on nature. +Listening as Janine Benyus, one of my favorite writers and thinkers about this topic says, "Listening to nature's operating instructions." +That's what Eduardo does, and does so brilliantly. +And what he showed me and what he can show all of us, I think, is that the great thing for chefs, the great blessing for chefs, and for people that care about food and cooking, is that the most ecological choice for food is also the most ethical choice for food. +Whether we're talking about Brussels sprouts or foie gras. +And it's also almost always, and I haven't found an example otherwise, but almost always, the most delicious choice. +That's serendipitous. +Thank you. +Great creativity. In times of need, we need great creativity. +Discuss. Great creativity is astonishingly, absurdly, rationally, irrationally powerful. +Great creativity can spread tolerance, champion freedom, make education seem like a bright idea. +Great creativity can turn a spotlight on deprivation, or show that deprivation ain't necessarily so. +Great creativity can make politicians electable, or parties unelectable. +It can make war seem like tragedy or farce. +Creativity is the meme-maker that puts slogans on our t-shirts and phrases on our lips. +It's the pathfinder that shows us a simple road through an impenetrable moral maze. +Science is clever, but great creativity is something less knowable, more magical. And now we need that magic. +This is a time of need. +Our climate is changing quickly, too quickly. +And great creativity is needed to do what it does so well: to provoke us to think differently with dramatic creative statements. +To tempt us to act differently with delightful creative scraps. +Here is one such scrap from an initiative I'm involved in using creativity to inspire people to be greener. +Man: You know, rather than drive today, I'm going to walk. +Narrator: And so he walked, and as he walked he saw things. +Strange and wonderful things he would not otherwise have seen. +A deer with an itchy leg. A flying motorcycle. +A father and daughter separated from a bicycle by a mysterious wall. +And then he stopped. Walking in front of him was her. +The woman who as a child had skipped with him through fields and broken his heart. +Sure, she had aged a little. +In fact, she had aged a lot. +But he felt all his old passion for her return. +"Ford," he called softly. For that was her name. +"Don't say another word, Gusty," she said, for that was his name. +"I know a tent next to a caravan, exactly 300 yards from here. +Let's go there and make love. In the tent." +Ford undressed. She spread one leg, and then the other. +Gusty entered her boldly and made love to her rhythmically while she filmed him, because she was a keen amateur pornographer. +The earth moved for both of them. +And they lived together happily ever after. +And all because he decided to walk that day. +Andy Hobsbawm: We've got the science, we've had the debate. +The moral imperative is on the table. +Great creativity is needed to take it all, make it simple and sharp. +To make it connect. To make it make people want to act. +So this is a call, a plea, to the incredibly talented TED community. +Let's get creative against climate change. +And let's do it soon. Thank you. +Unless we do something to prevent it, over the next 40 years were facing an epidemic of neurologic diseases on a global scale. +A cheery thought. +On this map, every country thats colored blue has more than 20 percent of its population over the age of 65. +This is the world we live in. +And this is the world your children will live in. +For 12,000 years, the distribution of ages in the human population has looked like a pyramid, with the oldest on top. +Its already flattening out. +By 2050, its going to be a column and will start to invert. +This is why its happening. +The average lifespans more than doubled since 1840, and its increasing currently at the rate of about five hours every day. +And this is why thats not entirely a good thing: because over the age of 65, your risk of getting Alzheimers or Parkinsons disease will increase exponentially. +By 2050, therell be about 32 million people in the United States over the age of 80, and unless we do something about it, half of them will have Alzheimers disease and three million more will have Parkinsons disease. +Right now, those and other neurologic diseases -- for which we have no cure or prevention -- cost about a third of a trillion dollars a year. +It will be well over a trillion dollars by 2050. +Alzheimers disease starts when a protein that should be folded up properly misfolds into a kind of demented origami. +So one approach were taking is to try to design drugs that function like molecular Scotch tape, to hold the protein into its proper shape. +That would keep it from forming the tangles that seem to kill large sections of the brain when they do. +Interestingly enough, other neurologic diseases which affect very different parts of the brain also show tangles of misfolded protein, which suggests that the approach might be a general one, and might be used to cure many neurologic diseases, not just Alzheimers disease. +Theres also a fascinating connection to cancer here, because people with neurologic diseases have a very low incidence of most cancers. +And this is a connection that most people arent pursuing right now, but which were fascinated by. +Most of the important and all of the creative work in this area is being funded by private philanthropies. +And theres tremendous scope for additional private help here, because the government has dropped the ball on much of this, Im afraid. +In the meantime, while were waiting for all these things to happen, heres what you can do for yourself. +If you want to lower your risk of Parkinsons disease, caffeine is protective to some extent; nobody knows why. +Head injuries are bad for you. They lead to Parkinsons disease. +And the Avian Flu is also not a good idea. +As far as protecting yourself against Alzheimers disease, well, it turns out that fish oil has the effect of reducing your risk for Alzheimers disease. +You should also keep your blood pressure down, because chronic high blood pressure is the biggest single risk factor for Alzheimers disease. +Its also the biggest risk factor for glaucoma, which is just Alzheimers disease of the eye. +And of course, when it comes to cognitive effects, "use it or lose it" applies, so you want to stay mentally stimulated. +But hey, youre listening to me. +So youve got that covered. +And one final thing. Wish people like me luck, okay? +Because the clock is ticking for all of us. +Thank you. +The north coast of California has rainforests -- temperate rainforests -- where it can rain more than 100 inches a year. +This is the realm of the Coast Redwood tree. +Its species name is Sequoia sempervirens. +Sequoia sempervirens is the tallest living organism on Earth. +The range of the species goes up to as much as 380 feet tall. +That's 38 stories tall. +These are trees that would stand out in midtown Manhattan. +Nobody knows how old the oldest living Coast Redwoods are because nobody has ever drilled into any of them to count their annual growth rings, and, in any case, the centers of the oldest individuals appear to be hollow. +But it's believed that the oldest living Redwoods are perhaps 2,500 years old -- roughly the age of the Parthenon -- although it's also suspected that there may be individual trees that are older than that. +You can see the range of the Coast Redwoods. It's here, in red. +The largest individuals of this species, the dreadnoughts of their kind, live just on the north coast of California, where the rain is really intense. +In recent historic times, about 96 percent of the Coast Redwood forest was cut down, especially in a series of bursts of intense liquidation logging, clear-cutting that took place in the 1970s through the early 1990s. +Even so, about four percent of the primeval Redwood rainforest remains intact, wild and now protected -- entirely protected -- in a chain of small parks strung out like pearls along the north coast of California, including Redwood National Park. +But curiously, Redwood rainforests, the fragments that we have left, to this day remain under-explored. +Redwood rainforest is incredibly difficult to move through, and even today, individual trees are being discovered that have never been seen before, including, in the summer of 2006, Hyperion, the world's tallest tree. +I'm going to do a little Gedanken experiment. +I'm going to ask you to imagine what a Redwood really is as a living organism. +And, Chris, if I could have you up here? I have a tape measure. +It's a kind loaner from TED. +And Chris, if you could take the end of that tape measure? +We're going to show you what the diameter at breast height of a big Redwood is. +Unfortunately, this tape isn't long enough -- it's only a 25-foot tape. +Chris, could you extend your arm out that way? There we go. OK. +And maybe about here, about 30 feet, is the diameter of a big Redwood. +Now, let your imagination go upward into space. +Think about this tree, rising upward into Redwood space, 325 feet, 32 stories, an individual living organism articulating its forms upward into space over long periods of time. +The Redwood species seems to exist in another kind of time: not human time, but what we might call Redwood time. +Redwood time moves at a more stately pace than human time. +To us, when we look at a Redwood tree, it seems to be motionless and still, and yet Redwoods are constantly in motion, moving upward into space, articulating themselves and filling Redwood space over Redwood time, over thousands of years. +Plant this small seed, wait 2,000 years, and you get this: the Lost Monarch. +It dwells in the Grove of Titans on the north coast, and was discovered in 1998. +And yet, when you look at the base of a Redwood tree, you're not seeing the organism. +You're like a mouse looking at the foot of an elephant, and most of the organism is overhead, unseen. +I became very interested, and I wrote about a couple. +Steve Sillett and Marie Antoine are the principal explorers of the Redwood forest canopy. They're world-class athletes, and they also are world-class forest ecology scientists. +Steve Sillett, when he was a 19-year-old college student at Reed College, had heard that the Redwood forest canopy is considered to be a so-called Redwood desert. +That is to say, at that time it was believed that there was nothing up there except the branches of Redwood trees. +And with a friend of his, he took it upon himself to free-climb a Redwood without ropes or any equipment to see what was up there. +He climbed up a small tree next to this giant Redwood, and then he leaped through space and grabbed a branch with his hands, and ended up hanging, like catching a bar of a trapeze. +And then, from there, he climbed directly up the bark until he got to the top of the tree. +His friend, a guy named Marwood Harris, was following behind. +Neither one of them had noticed that there was a Yellow Jacket wasp's nest the size of a bowling ball hanging from the branch that Steve had jumped into. +And when Marwood made the jump, he was covered with wasps stinging him in the face and eyes. He nearly let go. +He would have fallen to his death, being 75 feet above the ground. +But they made it to the top, and what they found was not a Redwood desert, but a lost world -- a kind of three-dimensional labyrinth in the air, filled with unknown life. +Now, I had been working on other topics: the emergence of infectious diseases, which come out of the natural ecosystems of the Earth, make a trans-species jump, and get into humans. +After three books on this, it got to be a bit much, in a way. +My wife and I adore our children. +And I began climbing trees with my kids as just something to do with them, using the so-called arborist climbing technique, with ropes. You use ropes to get yourself up into the crown of a tree. +Children are incredibly adept at climbing trees. +That's my son, Oliver. +They don't seem to suffer from the same fear of heights that humans do. +If ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny, then children are somewhat closer to our roots as primates in the arboreal forest. +Humans appear to be the only primates that I know of that are afraid of heights. +All other primates, when they're scared, they run up a tree, where they feel safe. +We camped overnight in the trees, in tree boats. +This is my daughter Laura, then 15, looking out of a tree boat. +She's, by the way, tied in with a rope so she can't fall. +Looking out of a tree boat in the morning and hearing birdsong coming in three dimensions around us. +We had been visited in the night by flying squirrels, who don't seem to recognize humans for what they are because they've never seen them in the canopy before. +And we practiced advanced techniques like sky-walking, where you can move from tree to tree through space, rather like Spiderman. +It became a writing project. +When Steve Sillett gets up into a big Redwood, he fires an arrow, which trails a fishing line, which gets over a branch in the tree, and then you ascend up a rope which has been dragged into the tree by the line. +You ascend 30 stories. +There are two people climbing this tree, Gaya, which is thought to be one of the oldest Redwoods. There they are. +They are only one-seventh of the way up that tree. +You do feel a sense of exposure. +There is a small person right down there on the ground. +You feel like you're climbing a wall of wood. +But then you enter the Redwood canopy, and it's like coming through a layer of clouds. +And all of a sudden, you lose sight of the ground, and you also lose sight of the sky, and you're in a three-dimensional labyrinth in the air filled with hanging gardens of ferns growing out of soil, which is populated with all kinds of small organisms. +There are epiphytes, plants that grow on trees. +These are huckleberry bushes. +Many species of mosses, and then all sorts of lichens just plastering the tree. +When you get near the top of the tree, you feel like you can't fall -- in fact, it's difficult to move. +You're worming your way through branches which are crowded with living things that don't occur near the ground. +It's like scuba diving into a coral reef, except you're going upward instead of downward. +And then the trees tend to flare out into platform-like areas at the top. +Maria's sitting on one of them. +These limbs could be five to six hundred years old. +Redwoods grow very slowly in their tops. +They also have a feature: thickets of huckleberry bushes that grow out of the tops of Redwood trees that are technically known as huckleberry afros, and you can sit there and snack on the berries while you're resting. +Redwoods have an enormous surface area that extends upward into space because they have a propensity to do something called reiteration. +A Redwood is a fractal. And as they put out limbs, the limbs burst into small trees, copies of the Redwood. +Now, here we see a reiteration in Chronos, one of the older Redwoods. +This reiteration is a huge flying buttress that comes out the tree itself. +This buttress is less than halfway up the tree. +And then it bursts into a forest of Redwoods. +This particular extra trunk is a meter across at the base and extends upward for 150 feet. +It's as big as any of the biggest trees east of the Mississippi River, and yet it's only a minor feature on Chronos. +This three-dimensional map of the crown structure of a Redwood named Iluvatar, made by Steve Sillett, Marie Antoine and their colleagues, gives you an idea. +What you're seeing here is a hierarchical schematic development of the trunks of this tree as it has elaborated itself over time into six layers of fractal, of trunks springing from trunks springing from trunks. +I asked Steve to put a human being in this to give a sense of scale. +There's the person, right there. The person is waving to us. +I've wanted to ask Craig Venter if it would be possible to insert a synthetic chromosome into a human so that we could reiterate ourselves if we wanted to. +And if we were able to reiterate, then the fingers of our hand would be people who looked like us, and they would have people on their hands and so on. +And if we had Redwood-like biology, we would have six layers of people on our hands, as it were. +And it would be a lovely thing to be able to wave to someone and have all our reiterations wave at the same time. +To reiterate the point, let's go closer into Iluvatar. +We're looking at that yellow box. +And this hallucinatory drawing shows you -- everything you see in this drawing is Iluvatar. +These are millennial structures -- portions of the tree that are believed to be more than 1,000 years old. +There are four humans in this shot -- one, two, three, four. +And there's also something that I want to show you. +This is a flying buttress. +Redwoods grow back into themselves as they expand into space, and this flying buttress is a limb shot out of that small trunk, going back into the main trunk and fusing with it. +Flying buttresses, just as in a cathedral, help strengthen the crown of the tree and help the tree exist longer through time. +The scientists are doing all kinds of experiments in these trees. +They've wired them like patients in an ICU. +They're finding out that Redwoods can move moisture out of the air and down into their trunks, possibly all the way into their root systems. +They also have the ability to put roots anywhere in the tree itself. +If a portion of a Redwood is rotting, the Redwood will send roots into its own form and draw nutrients out of itself as it falls apart. +If we had Redwood-like biology, if we got a touch of gangrene in our arm then we could just, you know, extract the nutrients extract the nutrients and the moisture out of it until it fell off. +Canopy soil can occur up to a meter deep, hundreds of feet above the ground, and there are organisms in this soil that have, as yet, no names. +This is an unnamed species of copepod. A copepod is a crustacean. +These copepods are a major constituent of the oceans, and they are a major part of the diet of grazing baleen whales. +What they're doing in the Redwood forest canopy soil hundreds of feet above the ocean, or how they got there, is completely unknown. +There are some interesting theories that, if I had time, I would tell you about. +But as you go and you look closer at a tree, what you see is, you see increasing complexity. +We're looking at the very top of Gaya, which is thought to be the oldest Redwood. +Gaya may be 3,000 to 5,000 years old, no one really knows, but its top has broken off and it's been rotting back now. +This little Japanese garden-like creation probably took 700 years to form in its complexity that we see right now. +As you look at a tree, it takes a magnifying glass to see a giant tree. +I have to show you something unfortunately very sad at the conclusion of this talk. +The Eastern Hemlock tree has often been described as the Redwood of the East. +And we're moving in a full circle now. +In the 1950s, a small organism appeared in Richmond, Virginia, called the Hemlock woolly adelgid. +It made a trans-species jump out of some other organism in Asia, where it was living on Hemlock trees in Asia. +When it moved into its new host, the Eastern Hemlock tree, it escaped its predators, and the new tree had no resistance to it. +The Eastern Hemlock forest is being considered in some ways the last fragments of primeval rainforest east of the Mississippi River. +I hadn't even known that there were rainforests in the east, but in Great Smoky Mountains National Park it can rain up to 100 inches of rain a year. +And in the last two to three summers, these invasive organisms, this kind of Ebola of the trees, as it were, has swept through the primeval Hemlock forest of the east, and has absolutely wiped it out. I climbed there this past summer. +This is Great Smoky Mountains National Park, and the Hemlocks are dead as far as the eye can see. +It's absolutely heartbreaking to see. +One of the things that is just -- I almost can't conceive it -- is the idea that the national news media hasn't picked this up at all, and this is the devastation of one of the most important ecosystems in North America. +What can the Redwoods tell us about ourselves? +Well, I think they can tell us something about human time. +The flickering, transitory quality of human time and the brevity of human life -- the necessity to love. +But we're different from trees, and they can also teach us something about ourselves in the differences that we have. +We are human, and we have the capacity to love, we have the capacity to wonder, and we have a sort of boundless curiosity, a restless inquisitiveness that so suits us as primates, I think. +And at least for me, personally, the trees have taught me an entirely new way of loving my children. +Exploring with them the forest canopy has been one of the most lovely things of my existence on Earth. +And I think that one of the happiest things is the sense that with my children I've been able to introduce them into the very small circle of humans who are lucky enough, or possibly stupid enough, to still climb trees. +Thank you very much. +Chris Anderson: I think at a previous TED, I think it was Nathan Myhrvold who told me that it was thought that because these trees are like, 2,000 years and older, on many of them there are ecosystems where there are species that are not found anywhere on the Earth except on that one tree. Is that correct? +Richard Preston: Yes, that is correct. I mentioned Hyperion, the world's tallest tree. +And I was a member of a climbing team that made the first climb of it, in 2006. +And while we were climbing Hyperion, Marie Antoine spotted an unknown species of golden-brown ant about halfway up the trunk. +Ants are not known to occur in Redwood trees, curiously enough, and we wondered whether this ant, this species of ant, was only endemic to that one tree, or possibly to that grove. +And in subsequent climbs they could never find that ant again, and so no specimens have ever been collected. +We don't know what it is -- we just know it's there. +CA: So, you have to wonder when, you know, if some other species than us was recording the stories that mattered on Earth, you know, our stories are about Iraq and war and politics and celebrity gossip. +You've just told us a different story of this tragic arms race that's happening, and maybe whole ecosystems gone forever. +It's an amazing sense of wonder you've given me, and a sense of just how fragile this whole thing is. +RP: It is fragile, and you know, I think about emerging human diseases -- parasites that move into the human species. +But that's just a very small facet of a much greater problem of invasions of species worldwide, all through the ecosystems, and you know, the Earth itself -- CA: Partly caused by us, inadvertently. +RP: Caused by humans. Caused by the movement of humans. +You can think of the Earth's biosphere as a palace, and the continents are rooms in the palace, and the islands are small rooms. +But lately, the doors of the palace have been flung open, and the walls are coming down. +CA: Richard Preston, thank you very much, I think. +RP: Thank you. +You know, we're going to do things a little differently. +I'm not going to show you a presentation. I'm going to talk to you. +And at the same time, we're going to look at just images from a photo stream that is pretty close to live of things that -- snapshots from Second Life. So hopefully this will be fascinating. +You can -- I can compete for your attention with the strange pictures that you see on screen that come from there. +I thought I'd talk a little bit about some just big ideas about this, and then get John back out here so we can talk interactively a little bit more and think and ask questions. +You know, I guess the first question is, why build a virtual world at all? +And I think the answer to that is always going to be at least driven to a certain extent by the people initially crazy enough to start the project, you know. +So I can give you a little bit of first background just on me and what moved me as a -- really going back as far as a teenager and then an adult, to actually try and build this kind of thing. +I was a very creative kid who read a lot, and got into electronics first, and then later, programming computers, when I was really young. +I was just always trying to make things. +I was just obsessed with taking things apart and building things, and just anything I could do with my hands or with wood or electronics or metal or anything else. +And so, for example -- and it's a great Second Life thing -- I had a bedroom. +And every kid, you know, as a teenager, has got his bedroom he retreats to -- but I wanted my door, I thought it would be cool if my door went up rather than opened, like on Star Trek. +I thought it would be neat to do that. And so I got up in the ceiling and I cut through the ceiling joists, much to my parents' delight, and put the door, you know, being pulled up through the ceiling. +I built -- I put a garage-door opener up in the attic that would pull this door up. +You can imagine the amount of time that it took me to do this to the house and the displeasure of my parents. +And so for me that was the thing that was so enticing. +I just wanted this place where you could build things. +And so I think you see that in the genesis of what has happened with Second Life, and I think it's important. +I also think that more generally, the use of the Internet and technology as a kind of a space between us for creativity and design is a general trend. +It is a -- sort of a great human progress. +Technology is just generally being used to allow us to create in as shared and social a way as possible. +And I think that Second Life and virtual worlds more generally represent the best we can do to achieve that right now. +You know, another way to look at that, and related to the content and, you know, thinking about space, is to connect sort of virtual worlds to space. +I thought that might be a fun thing to talk about for a second. +If you think about going into space, it's a fascinating thing. +So many movies, so many kids, we all sort of dream about exploring space. Now, why is that? +Stop for a moment and ask, why that conceit? +Why do we as people want to do that? +I think there's a couple of things. It's what we see in the movies -- you know, it's this dream that we all share. +One is that if you went into space you'd be able to begin again. +In some sense, you would become someone else in that journey, because there wouldn't be -- you'd leave society and life as you know it, behind. +And so inevitably, you would transform yourself -- irreversibly, in all likelihood -- as you began this exploration. +And then the second thing is that there's this tangible sense that if you travel far enough, you can find out there -- oh, yeah -- you have no idea what you're going to find once you get there, into space. +It's going to be different than here. +And in fact, it's going to be so different than what we see here on earth that anything is going to be possible. +So that's kind of the idea -- we as humans crave the idea of creating a new identity and going into a place where anything is possible. +And I think that if you really sit and think about it, virtual worlds, and where we're going with more and more computing technology, represent essentially the likely, really tactically possible version of space exploration. +We are moved by the idea of virtual worlds because, like space, they allow us to reinvent ourselves and they contain anything and everything, and probably anything could happen there. +You know, to give you a size idea about scale, you know, comparing space to Second Life, most people don't realize, kind of -- and then this is just like the Internet in the early '90s. +In fact, Second Life virtual worlds are a lot like the Internet in the early '90s today: everybody's very excited, there's a lot of hype and excitement about one idea or the next from moment to moment, and then there's despair and everybody thinks the whole thing's not going to work. +Everything that's happening with Second Life and more broadly with virtual worlds, all happened in the early '90s. +We always play a game at the office where you can take any article and find the same article where you just replace the words "Second Life" with "Web," and "virtual reality" with "Internet." +You can find exactly the same articles written about everything that people are observing. +To give you an idea of scale, Second Life is about 20,000 CPUs at this point. +It's about 20,000 computers connected together in three facilities in the United States right now, that are simulating this virtual space. And the virtual space itself -- there's about 250,000 people a day that are wandering around in there, so the kind of, active population is something like a smallish city. +The space itself is about 10 times the size of San Francisco, and it's about as densely built out. +So it gives you an idea of scale. Now, it's expanding very rapidly -- about five percent a month or so right now, in terms of new servers being added. +And so of course, radically unlike the real world, and like the Internet, the whole thing is expanding very, very quickly, and historically exponentially. +So that sort of space exploration thing is matched up here by the amount of content that's in there, and I think that amount is critical. +It was critical with the virtual world that it be this space of truly infinite possibility. +We're very sensitive to that as humans. +You know, you know when you see it. You know when you can do anything in a space and you know when you can't. +Second Life today is this 20,000 machines, and it's about 100 million or so user-created objects where, you know, an object would be something like this, possibly interactive. +Tens of millions of them are thinking all the time; they have code attached to them. +So it's a really large world already, in terms of the amount of stuff that's there and that's very important. +If anybody plays, like, World of Warcraft, World of Warcraft comes on, like, four DVDs. +Second Life, by comparison, has about 100 terabytes of user-created data, making it about 25,000 times larger. +So again, like the Internet compared to AOL, and the sort of chat rooms and content on AOL at the time, what's happening here is something very different, because the sheer scale of what people can do when they're enabled to do anything they want is pretty amazing. +The last big thought is that it is almost certainly true that whatever this is going to evolve into is going to be bigger in total usage than the Web itself. +And let me justify that with two statements. +Generically, what we use the Web for is to organize, exchange, create and consume information. +It's kind of like Irene talking about Google being data-driven. +I'd say I kind of think about the world as being information. +Everything that we interact with, all the experiences that we have, is kind of us flowing through a sea of information and interacting with it in different ways. +The Web puts information in the form of text and images. +The topology, the geography of the Web is text-to-text links for the most part. +That's one way of organizing information, but there are two things about the way you access information in a virtual world that I think are the important ways that they're very different and much better than what we've been able to do to date with the Web. +The first is that, as I said, the -- well, the first difference for virtual worlds is that information is presented to you in the virtual world using the most powerful iconic symbols that you can possibly use with human beings. +So for example, C-H-A-I-R is the English word for that, but a picture of this is a universal symbol. +Everybody knows what it means. There's no need to translate it. +It's also more memorable if I show you that picture, and I show you C-H-A-I-R on a piece of paper. +You can do tests that show that you'll remember that I was talking about a chair a couple of days later a lot better. +So when you organize information using the symbols of our memory, using the most common symbols that we've been immersed in all our lives, you maximally both excite, stimulate, are able to remember, transfer and manipulate data. +And so virtual worlds are the best way for us to essentially organize and experience information. +And I think that's something that people have talked about for 20 years -- you know, that 3D, that lifelike environments are really important in some magical way to us. +But the second thing -- and I think this one is less obvious -- is that the experience of creating, consuming, exploring that information is in the virtual world implicitly and inherently social. +You are always there with other people. +And we as humans are social creatures and must, or are aided by, or enjoy more, the consumption of information in the presence of others. +It's essential to us. You can't escape it. +When you're on Amazon.com and you're looking for digital cameras or whatever, you're on there right now, when you're on the site, with like 5,000 other people, but you can't talk to them. +You can't just turn to the people that are browsing digital cameras on the same page as you, and ask them, "Hey, have you seen one of these before? Because I'm thinking about buying it." +That experience of like, shopping together, just as a simple example, is an example of how as social creatures we want to experience information in that way. +So that second point, that we inherently experience information together or want to experience it together, is critical to essentially, kind of, this trend of where we're going to use technology to connect us. +And so I think, again, that it's likely that in the next decade or so these virtual worlds are going to be the most common way as human beings that we kind of use the electronics of the Internet, if you will, to be together, to consume information. +You know, mapping in India -- that's such a great example. +Maybe the solution there involves talking to other people in real time. +Asking for advice, rather than any possible way that you could just statically organize a map. +So I think that's another big point. +Big idea, but I think highly defensible. +So let me stop there and bring John back, and maybe we can just have a longer conversation. +Thank you. John. That's great. +John Hockenberry: Why is the creation, the impulse to create Second Life, not a utopian impulse? +Like for example, in the 19th century, any number of works of literature that imagined alternative worlds were explicitly utopian. +Philip Rosedale: I think that's great. That's such a deep question. Yeah. +Is a virtual world likely to be a utopia, would be one way I'd say it. +The answer is no, and I think the reason why is because the Web itself as a good example is profoundly bottoms-up. +That idea of infinite possibility, that magic of anything can happen, only happens in an environment where you really know that there's a fundamental freedom at the level of the individual actor, at the level of the Lego blocks, if you will, that make up the virtual world. +You have to have that level of freedom, and so I'm often asked that, you know, is there a, kind of, utopian or, is there a utopian tendency to Second Life and things like it, that you would create a world that has a grand scheme to it? +Those top-down schemes are alienating to just about everybody, even if you mean well when you build them. +JH: The Kremlin was pretty big. +PR: The Kremlin, yeah. That's true. The whole complex. +PR: I'm sure I can think of multiple examples of both of those. +One of my favorites. I had this feature that I built into Second Life -- I was really passionate about it. +It was an ability to kind of walk up close to somebody and have a more private conversation, but it wasn't instant messaging because you had to sort of befriend somebody. +It was just this idea that you could kind of have a private chat. +I just remember it was one of those examples of data-driven design. +I thought it was such a good idea from my perspective, and it was just absolutely never used, and we ultimately -- I think we've now turned it off, if I remember. +We finally gave up, took it out of the code. +But more generally, you know, one other example I think about this, which is great relative to the utopian idea. +Second Life originally had 16 simulators. It now has 20,000. +So when it only had 16, it was only about as big as this college campus. +And we had -- we zoned it, you know: we put a nightclub, we put a disco where you could dance, and then we had a place where you could fight with guns if you wanted to, and we had another place that was like a boardwalk, kind of a Coney Island. +And we laid out the zoning, but of course, people could build all around it however they wanted to. +And I remember that that was just so telling, you know, that you didn't know exactly what was going to happen. +When you think about stuff that people have built that's popular -- JH: CBGB's has to close eventually, you know. That's the rule. +PR: Exactly. And it -- but it closed on day one, basically, in Internet time. +You know, an example of something -- pregnancy. +You can have a baby in Second Life. +This is done entirely using, kind of, the tools that are built into Second Life, so the innate concept of becoming pregnant and having a baby, of course -- Second Life is, at the platform level, at the level of the company -- at Linden Lab -- Second Life has no game properties to it whatsoever. +There is no attempt to structure the experience, to make it utopian in that sense that we put into it. +So of course, we never would have put a mechanism for having babies or, you know, taking two avatars and merging them, or something. +But people built the ability to have babies and care for babies as a purchasable experience that you can have in Second Life and so -- I mean, that's a pretty fascinating example of, you know, what goes on in the overall economy. +And of course, the existence of an economy is another idea. +I didn't talk about it, but it's a critical feature. +When people are given the opportunity to create in the world, there's really two things they want. +One is fair ownership of the things they create. +And then the second one is -- if they feel like it, and they're not going to do it in every case, but in many they are -- they want to actually be able to sell that creation as a way of providing for their own livelihood. +True on the Web -- also true in Second Life. +And so the existence of an economy is critical. +JH: Questions for Philip Rosedale? Right here. +(Audience: Well, first an observation, which is that you look like a character.) JH: The observation is, Philip has been accused of looking like a character, an avatar, in Second Life. +Respond, and then we'll get the rest of your question. +PR: But I don't look like my avatar. +How many people here know what my avatar looks like? +That's probably not very many. +JH: Are you ripping off somebody else's avatar with that, sort of -- PR: No, no. I didn't. One of the other guys at work had a fantastic avatar -- a female avatar -- that I used to be once in a while. +But my avatar is a guy wearing chaps. +Spiky hair -- spikier than this. Kind of orange hair. +Handlebar mustache. Kind of a Village People sort of a character. +So, very cool. +JH: And your question? +(Audience: [Unclear].) JH: The question is, there appears to be a lack of cultural fine-tuning in Second Life. +It doesn't seem to have its own culture, and the sort of differences that exist in the real world aren't translated into the Second Life map. +PR: Well, first of all, we're very early, so this has only been going on for a few years. +And so part of what we see is the same evolution of human behavior that you see in emerging societies. +So a fair criticism -- is what it is -- of Second Life today is that it's more like the Wild West than it is like Rome, from a cultural standpoint. +And so, the multicultural nature and the sort of cultural melting pot that's happening inside Second Life is quite -- I think, quite remarkable relative to what in real human terms in the real world we've ever been able to achieve. +So, I think that culture will fine-tune, it will emerge, but we still have some years to wait while that happens, as you would naturally expect. +JH: Other questions? Right here. +(Audience: What's your demographic?) JH: What's your demographic? +PR: So, the question is, what's the demographic. +So average age: 32. I mentioned 65 percent of the users are not in the United States. +The distribution amongst countries is extremely broad. +There's users from, you know, virtually every country in the world now in Second Life. +The dominant ones are -- if you take the UK and Europe, together they make up about 55 percent of the usage base in Second Life. +In terms of psychographic -- oh, men and women: men and women are almost equally matched in Second Life, so about 45 percent of the people online right now on Second Life are women. +Women use Second Life, though, about 30 to 40 percent more, on an hours basis, than men do, meaning that more men sign up than women, and more women stay and use it than men. +So that's another demographic fact. +In terms of psychographic, you know, the people in Second Life are remarkably dissimilar relative to what you might think, when you go in and talk to them and meet them, and I would, you know, challenge you to just do this and find out. +But it's not a bunch of programmers. +It's not easy to describe as a demographic. +If I had to just sort of paint a broad picture, I'd say, remember the people who were really getting into eBay in the first few years of eBay? +Maybe a little bit like that: in other words, people who are early adopters. +They tend to be creative. They tend to be entrepreneurial. +A lot of them -- about 55,000 people so far -- are cash-flow positive: they're making money from what -- I mean, real-world money -- from what they're doing in Second Life, so it's a very build -- still a creative, building things, build-your-own-business type of an orientation. So, that's it. +JH: You describe yourself, Philip, as someone who was really creative when you were young and, you know, liked to make things. +I mean, it's not often that you hear somebody describe themselves as really creative. +I suspect that's possibly a euphemism for C student who spent a lot of time in his room? Is it possible? +PR: I was a -- there were times I was a C student. You know, it's funny. +When I got to college -- I studied physics in college -- and I got really -- it was funny, because I was definitely a more antisocial kid. I read all the time. +I was shy. I don't seem like it now, but I was very shy. +Moved around a bunch -- had that experience too. +So I did, kind of, I think, live in my own world, and obviously that helps, you know, engage your real interest in something. +JH: So you're on your fifth life at this point? +PR: If you count, yeah, cities. So -- but I did -- and I didn't do -- I think I didn't do as well in school as I could have. I think you're right. +I wasn't, like, an obsessed -- you know, get A's kind of guy. +JH: Last question. Right here. +(Audience: In the pamphlet, there's a statement -- ) JH: You want to paraphrase that? +PR: Yeah, so let me restate that. +So, you're saying that in the pamphlet there's a statement that we may come to prefer our digital selves to our real ones -- our more malleable or manageable digital identities to our real identities -- and that in fact, much of human life and human experience may move into the digital realm. +And then that's kind of a horrifying thought, of course. +That's a frightening change, frightening disruption. +I guess, and you're asking, what do I think about that? How do I -- JH: What's your response to the people who would say, that's horrifying? +(Audience: If someone would say to you, I find that disturbing, what would be your response?) PR: Well, I'd say a couple of things. +One is, it's disturbing like the Internet or electricity was. +That is to say, it's a big change, but it isn't avoidable. +So, no amount of backpedaling or intentional behavior or political behavior is going to keep these technology changes from connecting us together, because the basic motive that people have -- to be creative and entrepreneurial -- is going to drive energy into these virtual worlds in the same way that it has with the Web. +So this change, I believe, is a huge disruptive change. +I don't think we can get away from those changes. +It puts challenges on us to rise to. We must be better than ourselves, in many ways. +We must learn things and, you know, be more tolerant, and be smarter and learn faster and be more creative, perhaps, than we are typically in our real lives. +And I think that if that is true of virtual worlds, then these changes, though scary -- and, I say, inevitable -- are ultimately for the better, and therefore something that we should ride out. +But I would say that -- and many other authors and speakers about this, other than me, have said, you know, fasten your seat belts because the change is coming. There are going to be big changes. +JH: Philip Rosedale, thank you very much. +People love their automobiles. +They allow us to go where we want to when we want to. +They're a form of entertainment, they're a form of art, a pride of ownership. +Songs are written about cars. +Prince wrote a great song: "Little Red Corvette." +He didn't write "Little Red Laptop Computer" or "Little Red Dirt Devil." +He wrote about a car. +And one of my favorites has always been, "Make love to your man in a Chevy van," because that was my vehicle when I was in college. +The fact is, when we do our market research around the world, we see that there's nearly a universal aspiration on the part of people to own an automobile. +And 750 million people in the world today own a car. +And you say, boy, that's a lot. +But you know what? +That's just 12 percent of the population. +We really have to ask the question: Can the world sustain that number of automobiles? +And if you look at projections over the next 10 to 15 to 20 years, it looks like the world car park could grow to on the order of 1.1 billion vehicles. +Now, if you parked those end to end and wrapped them around the Earth, that would stretch around the Earth 125 times. +Now, we've made great progress with automobile technology over the last 100 years. +Cars are dramatically cleaner, dramatically safer, more efficient and radically more affordable than they were 100 years ago. +But the fact remains: the fundamental DNA of the automobile has stayed pretty much the same. +If we are going to reinvent the automobile today, rather than 100 years ago, knowing what we know about the issues associated with our product and about the technologies that exist today, what would we do? +We wanted something that was really affordable. +The fuel cell looked great: one-tenth as many moving parts and a fuel-cell propulsion system as an internal combustion engine -- and it emits just water. +And we wanted to take advantage of Moore's Law with electronic controls and software, and we absolutely wanted our car to be connected. +So we embarked upon the reinvention around an electrochemical engine, the fuel cell, hydrogen as the energy carrier. +First was Autonomy. +Autonomy really set the vision for where we wanted to head. +We embodied all of the key components of a fuel cell propulsion system. +We then had Autonomy drivable with Hy-Wire, and we showed Hy-Wire here at this conference last year. +Hy-Wire is the world's first drivable fuel cell, and we have followed up that now with Sequel. +And Sequel truly is a real car. +So if we would run the video -- But the real key question I'm sure that's on your mind: where's the hydrogen going to come from? +And secondly, when are these kinds of cars going to be available? +So let me talk about hydrogen first. +The beauty of hydrogen is it can come from so many different sources: it can come from fossil fuels, it can come from any way that you can create electricity, including renewables. +And it can come from biofuels. +And that's quite exciting. +The vision here is to have each local community play to its natural strength in creating the hydrogen. +A lot of hydrogen's produced today in the world. +It's produced to get sulfur out of gasoline -- which I find is somewhat ironic. +It's produced in the fertilizer industry; it's produced in the chemical manufacturing industry. +That hydrogen's being made because there's a good business reason for its use. +But it tells us that we know how to create it, we know how to create it cost effectively, we know how to handle it safely. +We did an analysis where you would have a station in each city with each of the 100 largest cities in the United States, and located the stations so you'd be no more than two miles from a station at any time. +We put one every 25 miles on the freeway, and it turns out that translates into about 12,000 stations. +And at a million dollars each, that would be about 12 billion dollars. +Now that's a lot of money. +But if you built the Alaskan pipeline today, that's half of what the Alaskan pipeline would cost. +But the real exciting vision that we see truly is home refueling, much like recharging your laptop or recharging your cellphone. +So we're pretty excited about the future of hydrogen. +We think it's a question of not whether, but a question of when. +So that's what we're driving to for 2010. +We haven't seen anything yet in our development work that says that isn't possible. +We actually think the future's going to be event-driven. +So since we can't predict the future, we want to spend a lot of our time trying to create that future. +I'm very, very intrigued by the fact that our cars and trucks sit idle 90 percent of the time: they're parked, they're parked all around us. +They're usually parked within 100 feet of the people that own them. +Now, if you take the power-generating capability of an automobile and you compare that to the electric grid in the United States, it turns out that four percent of the automobiles, the power in four percent of the automobiles, equals that of the electric grid of the US. +that's a huge power-generating capability, a mobile power-generating capability. +And hydrogen and fuel cells give us that opportunity to actually use our cars and trucks when they're parked to generate electricity for the grid. +And we talked about swarm networks earlier. +And talking about the ultimate swarm, about having all of the processors and all of the cars when they're sitting idle being part of a global grid for computing capability. +We find that premise quite exciting. +The automobile becomes, then, an appliance, not in a commodity sense, but an appliance, mobile power, mobile platform for information and computing and communication, as well as a form of transportation. +And the key to all of this is to make it affordable, to make it exciting, to get it on a pathway where there's a way to make money doing it. +And again, this is a pretty big march to take here. +And a lot of people say, how do you sleep at night when you're rustling with a problem of that magnitude? +And I tell them I sleep like a baby: I wake up crying every two hours. +Actually the theme of this conference, I think, has hit on really one of the major keys to pull that off -- and that's relationships and working together. +Thank you very much. +Chris Anderson: Larry, Larry, wait, wait, wait, wait, Larry, wait, wait one sec. +Just -- I've got so many questions I could ask you. +I just want to ask one. +You know, I could be wrong about this, but my sense is that in the public mind, today, that GM is not viewed as serious about some of these environmental ideas as some of your Japanese competitors, maybe even as Ford. +Are you serious about it, and not just, you know, when the consumers want it, when the regulators force us to do it we will go there? +Are you guys going to really try and show leadership on this? +Larry Burns: Yeah, we're absolutely serious. +We're into this over a billion dollars already, so I would hope people would think we're serious when we're spending that kind of money. +And secondly, it's a fundamental business proposition. +I'll be honest with you: we're into it because of business growth opportunities. +We can't grow our business unless we solve these problems. +The growth of the auto industry will be capped by sustainability issues if we don't solve the problems. +And there's a simple principle of strategy that says: Do unto yourself before others do unto you. +If we can see this possible future, others can too. +And we want to be the first one to create it, Chris. +In 1962, Buckminster Fuller presented the particularly audacious proposal for the Geoscope. +It was a 200-foot diameter geodesic sphere to be suspended over the East River in New York City, in full view of the United Nations. +It was a big idea, for sure, and it was one that he felt could truly inform and deeply affect the decision making of this body through animations of global data, trends and other information regarding the globe, on this sphere. +And today, 45 years later, we clearly have no less need for this kind of clarity and perspective, but what we do have is improved technology. +Today we don't need one million light bulbs to create a spherical display. +We can use LEDs. +LEDs are smaller, they're cheaper, they're longer lasting, they're more efficient. +Most importantly for this, they're faster. +And this speed, combined with today's high-performance micro-controllers, allows us to actually simulate, in this piece, over 17,000 LEDs -- using just 64. +And the way this happens is through the phenomenon of persistence of vision. +But as this ring rotates at about 1,700 rpm -- that's 28 times per second. +The equator's speed is actually about 60 miles per hour. +There are four on-board micro-controllers that, each time this ring rotates it, as it passes the rear of the display, it picks up a position signal. +And from that, the on-board micro-controllers can extrapolate the position of the ring at all points around the revolution and display arbitrary bitmap images and animations. +But this is really just the beginning. +In addition to higher resolution versions of this display, my father and I are working on a new patent-pending design for a fully volumetric display using the same phenomenon. +It achieves this by rotating LEDs about two axes. +So as you can see here, this is a, eleven-inch diameter circuit board. +These blocks represent LEDs. +And so you could see that as this disc rotates about this axis, it will create a disc of light that we can control. +That's nothing new: that's a propeller clock; that's the rims that you can buy for your car. +But what is new is that, when we rotate this disc about this axis, this disc of light actually becomes a sphere of light. +And so we can control that with micro-controllers and create a fully volumetric, three-dimensional display with just 256 LEDs. +Now this piece is currently in process -- due out in May -- but what we've done is we've put together a small demo, just to show the geometric translation of points into a sphere. +I've got a little video to show you, but keep in mind that this is with no electronic control, and this is also with only four LEDs. +This is actually only about 1.5 percent of what the final display will be in May. +So, take a look. +And here you can see it's rotating about the vertical axis only, creating circles. +And then, as the other axis kicks in, those actually blur into a volume. +And the shutter speed of the camera actually makes it slightly less effective in this case. +But this piece is due out in May. +It'll be on display at the Interactive Telecommunications Spring Show in Greenwich Village in New York City -- that's open to the public, definitely invite you all to come and attend -- it's a fantastic show. +There are hundreds of student innovators with fantastic projects. +This piece, actually, will be on display down in the Sierra Simulcast Lounge in the breaks between now and the end of the show. +So I'd love to talk to you all, and invite you to come down and take a closer look. +It's an honor to be here. Thanks very much. +This is Aunt Zip from Sodom, North Carolina. +She was 105 years old when I took this picture. +She was always saying things that made me stop and think, like, "Time may be a great healer, but it ain't no beauty specialist." +She said, "Be good to your friends. +Why, without them, you'd be a total stranger." +This is one of her songs. +Let's see if we can get into the flow here and all do this one together. +And I'm going to have Michael Manring play bass with me. +Give him a big old hand. +One, two, three, four. +Well, my true love's a black-eyed daisy; if I don't see her, I go crazy. +My true love lives up the river; a few more jumps and I'll be with her. +Hey, hey, black-eyed Susie! Hey, hey, black-eyed Susie! +Hey, hey black-eyed Susie, hey. +Now you've got to picture Aunt Zip at 105 years old in Sodom, North Carolina. +I'd go up and learn these old songs from her. +She couldn't sing much, couldn't play anymore. +And I'd pull her out on the front porch. +Down below, there was her grandson plowing the tobacco field with a mule. +A double outhouse over here on the side. +And we'd sing this old song. She didn't have a whole lot of energy, so I'd sing, "Hey, hey!" and she'd just answer back with, "Black-eyed Susie." +Oh, hey, hey, black-eyed Susie! Hey, hey, black-eyed Susie! +Hey, hey, black-eyed Susie, hey. +Well, she and I went blackberry picking. +She got mad; I took a licking. +Ducks on the millpond, geese in the ocean, Devil in the pretty girl when she takes a notion. +Hey, hey, black-eyed Susie! Hey, hey, black-eyed Susie! +Hey, hey black-eyed Susie, hey. +Let's have the banjo. +Well, we'll get married next Thanksgiving. +I'll lay around; she'll make a living. +She'll cook blackjacks, I'll cook gravy; we'll have chicken someday, maybe. +Hey, hey, hey, hey. Hey, hey, black-eyed Susie, hey! +One more time now. +Oh, hey, hey, black-eyed Susie! Hey, hey, black-eyed Susie! +Hey, hey, black-eyed Susie, hey. +Thank you, Michael. +This is Ralph Stanley. +When I was going to college at University of California at Santa Barbara in the College of Creative Studies, taking majors in biology and art, he came to the campus. +This was in 1968, I guess it was. +And he played his bluegrass style of music, but near the end of the concert, he played the old timing style of banjo picking that came from Africa, along with the banjo. +It's called claw-hammer style, that he had learned from his mother and grandmother. +I fell in love with that. +I went up to him and said, how can I learn that? +He said, well, you can go back to Clinch Mountain, where I'm from, or Asheville or Mount Airy, North Carolina -- some place that has a lot of music. +Because there's a lot of old people still living that play that old style. +So I went back that very summer. +I just fell in love with the culture and the people. +And you know, I came back to school, I finished my degrees and told my parents I wanted to be a banjo player. +You can imagine how excited they were. +So I thought I would just like to show you some of the pictures I've taken of some of my mentors. +Just a few of them, but maybe you'll get just a little hint of some of these folks. +And play a little banjo. Let's do a little medley. +Those last few pictures were of Ray Hicks, who just passed away last year. +He was one of the great American folk tale-tellers. +The Old Jack tales that he had learned -- he talked like this, you could hardly understand him. But it was really wonderful. +And he lived in that house that his great-grandfather had built. +No running water, no electricity. A wonderful, wonderful guy. +And you can look at more pictures. +I've actually got a website that's got a bunch of photos that I've done of some of the other folks I didn't get a chance to show you. +This instrument came up in those pictures. It's called the mouth bow. +It is definitely the first stringed instrument ever in the world, and still played in the Southern mountains. +Now, the old timers didn't take a fancy guitar string and make anything like this. +They would just take a stick and a catgut and string it up. +It was hard on the cats, but it made a great little instrument. +It sounds something like this. +Well, have you heard the many stories told by young and old with joy about the many deeds of daring that were done by the Johnson boys? +You take Kate, I'll take Sal; we'll both have a Johnson gal. +You take Kate, I'll take Sal; we'll both have a Johnson gal. +Now, they were scouts in the rebels' army, they were known both far and wide. +When the Yankees saw them coming, they'd lay down their guns and hide. +You take Kate, I'll take Sal; we'll both have a Johnson gal. +You take Kate, I'll take Sal; we'll both have a Johnson gal. +Ain't that a sound? +Well, it was 1954, I guess it was. +We were driving in the car outside of Gatesville, Texas, where I grew up in the early part of my life. +Outside of Gatesville we were coming back from the grocery store. +My mom was driving; my brother and I were in the back seat. +We were really mad at my mom. We looked out the window. +We were surrounded by thousands of acres of cotton fields. +You see, we'd just been to the grocery store, and my mom refused to buy us the jar of Ovaltine that had the coupon for the Captain Midnight decoder ring in it. +And, buddy, that made us mad. +Well, my mom didn't put up with much either, and she was driving, and she said, "You boys! You think you can have anything you want. +You don't know how hard it is to earn money. Your dad works so hard. +You think money grows on trees. You've never worked a day in your lives. +You boys make me so mad. You're going to get a job this summer." +She pulled the car over; she said, "Get out of the car." +My brother and I stepped out of the car. +We were standing on the edge of thousands of acres of cotton. +There were about a hundred black folks out there picking. +My mom grabbed us by the shoulders. She marched us out in the field. +She went up to the foreman; she said, "I've got these two little boys never worked a day in their lives." +Of course, we were just eight and 10. +She said, "Would you put them to work?" +Well, that must have seemed like a funny idea to that foreman: put these two middle-class little white boys out in a cotton field in August in Texas -- it's hot. +So he gave us each a cotton sack, about 10 feet long, about that big around, and we started picking. +Now, cotton is soft but the outside of the plant is just full of stickers. +And if you don't know what you're doing, your hands are bleeding in no time. +And my brother and I started to pick it, and our hands were startin' to bleed, and then -- "Mom!" +And Mom was just sitting by the car like this. +She wasn't going to give up. +Well, the foreman could see he was in over his head, I guess. +He kind of just snuck up behind us and he sang out in a low voice. +He just sang: "Well, there's a long white robe in heaven, I know. +Don't want it to leave me behind. +Well, there's a long white robe in heaven, I know. +Don't want it to leave me behind." +And from all around as people started singing and answering back, he sang: "Good news, good news: Chariot's coming. +Good news: Chariot's coming. +Good news: Chariot's coming. +And I don't want it to leave me behind." +Now, my brother and I had never heard anything like that in our whole lives. It was so beautiful. +We sat there all day picking cotton, without complaining, without crying, while they sang things like: "Oh, Mary, don't you weep, don't you moan" and "Wade in the water," and "I done done," "This little light of mine." +Finally, by the end of the day, we'd each picked about a quarter of a bag of cotton. +But the foreman was kind enough to give us each a check for a dollar, but my mother would never let us cash it. +I'm 57; still have the check. +Now, my mother hoped that we learned from that the value of hard work. +But if you have children, you know it doesn't often work that way. +No, we learned something else. +The first thing I learned that day was that I never ever wanted to work that hard again. +And pretty much never did. +But I also learned that some people in this world do have to work that hard every day, and that was an eye-opener. +And I also learned that a great song can make hard work go a little easier. +And it also can bring the group together in a way that nothing else can. +Now, I was just a little eight-year-old boy that day when my mama put me out of the car in that hot Texas cotton field. +I wasn't even aware of music -- not even aware of it. +But that day in the cotton field out there picking, when those people started singing, I realized I was in the very heart of real music, and that's where I've wanted to be ever since. +Try this old song with me. I sing: Well, there's a long white robe in heaven, I know. +You sing: Don't want it to leave me behind. +Well, there's a long white robe in heaven, I know. +Don't want it to leave me behind. +Good news, good news: Chariot's coming. +Good news: Chariot's coming. +Good news: Chariot's coming. +And I don't want it to leave me -- It's been a while since you guys have been picking your last bale of cotton, isn't it? +Let's try it one more time. +There's a starry crown in heaven, I know. +Don't want it to leave me behind. +There's a starry crown in heaven, I know. +Don't want it to leave me behind. +Good news: Chariot's coming. +Good news: Chariot's coming. +Good news: Chariot's coming. +And I don't want it to leave me behind. +It was a few years ago, but I sort of remembered this story, and I told it at a concert. +My mom was in the audience. +After the -- she was glad to have a story about herself, of course, but after the concert she came up and she said, "David, I've got to tell you something. +I set that whole thing up. +I set it up with the foreman. I set it up with the owner of the land. +I just wanted you boys to learn the value of hard work. +I didn't know it was going to make you fall in love with music though." +Let's try. Good news: Chariot's coming. +Good news: Chariot's coming. +Good news: Chariot's coming. +And I don't want it to leave me behind. +Well, this is the steel guitar. It's an American-made instrument. +It was originally made by the Dopyera Brothers, who later on made the Dobro, which is a wood-bodied instrument with a metal cone for -- where the sound comes from. +It's usually played flat on your lap. +It was made to play Hawaiian music back in the 1920s, before they had electric guitars, trying to make a loud guitar. +And then African-American folks figured out you could take a broken bottle neck, just like that -- a nice Merlot works very well. +That wine we had yesterday would have been perfect. +Break it off, put it on your finger, and slide into the notes. +This instrument pretty much saved my life. +Fifteen years ago, 14 years ago, I guess, this year, my wife and I lost our daughter, Sarah Jane, in a car accident, and it was the most -- it almost took me out -- it almost took me out of this world. +And I think I learned a lot about what happiness was by going through such unbelievable grief, just standing on the edge of that abyss and just wanting to jump in. +I had to make lists of reasons to stay alive. +I had to sit down and make lists, because I was ready to go; I was ready to check out of this world. +And you know, at the top of the list, of course, were Jenny, and my son, Zeb, my parents -- I didn't want to hurt them. +But then, when I thought about it beyond that, it was very simple things. +I didn't care about -- I had a radio show, I have a radio show on public radio, "Riverwalk," I didn't care about that. I didn't care about awards or money or anything. +Nothing. Nothing. +On the list it would be stuff like, seeing the daffodils bloom in the spring, the smell of new-mown hay, catching a wave and bodysurfing, the touch of a baby's hand, the sound of Doc Watson playing the guitar, listening to old records of Muddy Waters and Uncle Dave Macon. +And for me, the sound of a steel guitar, because one of my parents' neighbors just gave me one of these things. +And I would sit around with it, and I didn't know how to play it, but I would just play stuff as sad as I could play. +And it was the only instrument that, of all the ones that I play, that would really make that connection. +This is a song that came out of that. +Well, I hear you're having trouble. +Lord, I hate to hear that news. +If you want to talk about it, you know, I will listen to you through. +Words no longer say it; let me tell you what I always do. +I just break off another bottleneck and play these steel guitar blues. +People say, "Oh, snap out of it!" +Oh yeah, that's easier said than done. +While you can hardly move, they're running around having all kinds of fun. +Sometimes I think it's better just to sink way down in your funky mood 'til you can rise up humming these steel guitar blues. +Now, you can try to keep it all inside with drink and drugs and cigarettes, but you know that's not going to get you where you want to get. +But I got some medicine here that just might shake things loose. +Call me in the morning after a dose of these steel guitar blues. +Open up now. +Oh, I think I've got time to tell you about this. My dad was an inventor. +We moved to California when Sputnik went up, in 1957. +And he was working on gyroscopes; he has a number of patents for that kind of thing. +And we moved across the street from Michael and John Whitney. +They were about my age. +John went on, and Michael did too, to become some of the inventors of computer animation. +Michael's dad was working on something called the computer. +I thought, damn, those are going to be some big pants! +So that Christmas -- maybe I've got time for this -- that Christmas I got the Mister Wizard Fun-o-Rama chemistry set. +Well, I wanted to be an inventor just like my dad; so did Michael. +His great-granddad had been Eli Whitney, the inventor of the cotton gin. +So we looked in that -- this was a commercial chemistry set. +It had three chemicals we were really surprised to see: sulfur, potassium nitrate and charcoal. +Man, we were only 10, but we knew that made gunpowder. +We made up a little batch and we put it on the driveway and we threw a match and phew, it flared up. Ah, it was great. +Well, obviously the next thing to do was build a cannon. +We weren't stupid: we put up a sheet of plywood about five feet in front of it. +We stood back, we lit that thing, and they flew out of there -- they went through that plywood like it was paper. +Through the garage. +Two of them landed in the side door of his new Citroen. +We tore everything down and buried it in his backyard. +That was Pacific Palisades; it probably is still there, back there. +Well, my brother heard that we had made gunpowder. +He and his buddies, they were older, and they were pretty mean. +They said they were going to beat us up if we didn't make some gunpowder for them. +We said, well, what are you going to do with it? +They said, we're going to melt it down and make rocket fuel. +Sure. We'll make you a big batch. +So we made them a big batch, and it was in my -- now, we'd just moved here. We'd just moved to California. +Mom had redone the kitchen; Mom was gone that day. We had a pie tin. +It became Chris Berquist's job to do the melting down. +Michael and I were standing way at the side of the kitchen. +He said, "Yeah, hey, it's melting. Yeah, the sulfur's melting. +No problem. Yeah, you know." +It just flared up, and he turned around, and he looked like this. +No hair, no eyelashes, no nothing. +There were big welts all over my mom's kitchen cabinet; the air was the just full of black smoke. +She came home, she took that chemistry set away, and we never saw it again. +But we thought of it often, because every time she'd cook tuna surprise it made -- tasted faintly of gunpowder. +So I like to invent things too, and I think I'll close out my set with something I invented a good while back. +When drum machines were new, I got to thinking, why couldn't you take the oldest form of music, the hambone rhythms, and combine it with the newest technology? +I call this Thunderwear. +At that time, drum triggers were new. +And so I put them all together and sewed 12 of them in this suit. +I showed you some of the hambone rhythms yesterday; I'm going to be doing some of the same ones. +I have a trigger here, trigger here, here, here. Right there. +It's going to really hurt if I don't take that off. Okay. +Now, the drum triggers go out my tail here, into the drum machine, and they can make various sounds, like drums. +So let me put them all together. And also, I can change the sounds by stepping on this pedal right here, and -- let me just close out here by doing you a little hambone solo or something like this. +Thank you, folks. +So I understand that this meeting was planned, and the slogan was From Was to Still. +And I am illustrating Still. +Which, of course, I am not agreeing with because, although I am 94, I am not still working. +And anybody who asks me, "Are you still doing this or that?" +I don't answer because I'm not doing things still, I'm doing it like I always did. +I still have -- or did I use the word still? I didn't mean that. +I have my file which is called To Do. I have my plans. +I have my clients. I am doing my work like I always did. +So this takes care of my age. +I want to show you my work so you know what I am doing and why I am here. +This was about 1925. +All of these things were made during the last 75 years. +But, of course, I'm working since 25, doing more or less what you see here. This is Castleton China. +This was an exhibition at the Museum of Modern Art. +This is now for sale at the Metropolitan Museum. +This is still at the Metropolitan Museum now for sale. +This is a portrait of my daughter and myself. +These were just some of the things I've made. +I made hundreds of them for the last 75 years. +I call myself a maker of things. +I don't call myself an industrial designer because I'm other things. +Industrial designers want to make novel things. +Novelty is a concept of commerce, not an aesthetic concept. +The industrial design magazine, I believe, is called "Innovation." +Innovation is not part of the aim of my work. +Well, makers of things: they make things more beautiful, more elegant, more comfortable than just the craftsmen do. +I have so much to say. I have to think what I am going to say. +Well, to describe our profession otherwise, we are actually concerned with the playful search for beauty. +That means the playful search for beauty was called the first activity of Man. +Sarah Smith, who was a mathematics professor at MIT, wrote, "The playful search for beauty was Man's first activity -- that all useful qualities and all material qualities were developed from the playful search for beauty." +These are tiles. The word, "playful" is a necessary aspect of our work because, actually, one of our problems is that we have to make, produce, lovely things throughout all of life, and this for me is now 75 years. +So how can you, without drying up, make things with the same pleasure, as a gift to others, for so long? +The playful is therefore an important part of our quality as designer. +Let me tell you some about my life. +As I said, I started to do these things 75 years ago. +My first exhibition in the United States was at the Sesquicentennial exhibition in 1926 -- that the Hungarian government sent one of my hand-drawn pieces as part of the exhibit. +My work actually took me through many countries, and showed me a great part of the world. +This is not that they took me -- the work didn't take me -- I made the things particularly because I wanted to use them to see the world. +I was incredibly curious to see the world, and I made all these things, which then finally did take me to see many countries and many cultures. +I started as an apprentice to a Hungarian craftsman, and this taught me what the guild system was in Middle Ages. +The guild system: that means when I was an apprentice, I had to apprentice myself in order to become a pottery master. +In my shop where I studied, or learned, there was a traditional hierarchy of master, journeyman and learned worker, and apprentice, and I worked as the apprentice. +The work as an apprentice was very primitive. +That means I had to actually learn every aspect of making pottery by hand. +We mashed the clay with our feet when it came from the hillside. +After that, it had to be kneaded. It had to then go in, kind of, a mangle. +And then finally it was prepared for the throwing. +And there I really worked as an apprentice. +My master took me to set ovens because this was part of oven-making, oven-setting, in the time. +And finally, I had received a document that I had accomplished my apprenticeship successfully, that I had behaved morally, and this document was given to me by the Guild of Roof-Coverers, Rail-Diggers, Oven-Setters, Chimney Sweeps and Potters. +I also got at the time a workbook which explained my rights and my working conditions, and I still have that workbook. +First I set up a shop in my own garden, and made pottery which I sold on the marketplace in Budapest. +And there I was sitting, and my then-boyfriend -- I didn't mean it was a boyfriend like it is meant today -- but my boyfriend and I sat at the market and sold the pots. +My mother thought that this was not very proper, so she sat with us to add propriety to this activity. +However, after a while there was a new factory being built in Budapest, a pottery factory, a large one. +And I visited it with several ladies, and asked all sorts of questions of the director. +Then the director asked me, why do you ask all these questions? +I said, I also have a pottery. +So he asked me, could he please visit me, and then finally he did, and explained to me that what I did now in my shop was an anachronism, that the industrial revolution had broken out, and that I rather should join the factory. +There he made an art department for me where I worked for several months. +However, everybody in the factory spent his time at the art department. +The director there said there were several women casting and producing my designs now in molds, and this was sold also to America. +I remember that it was quite successful. +So this gave me the possibility because now I was a journeyman, and journeymen also take their satchel and go to see the world. +So as a journeyman, I put an ad into the paper that I had studied, that I was a down-to-earth potter's journeyman and I was looking for a job as a journeyman. +And I got several answers, and I accepted the one which was farthest from home and practically, I thought, halfway to America. +And that was in Hamburg. +Then I first took this job in Hamburg, at an art pottery where everything was done on the wheel, and so I worked in a shop where there were several potters. +And the first day, I was coming to take my place at the turntable -- there were three or four turntables -- and one of them, behind where I was sitting, was a hunchback, a deaf-mute hunchback, who smelled very bad. +So I doused him in cologne every day, which he thought was very nice, and therefore he brought bread and butter every day, which I had to eat out of courtesy. +The first day I came to work in this shop there was on my wheel a surprise for me. +My colleagues had thoughtfully put on the wheel where I was supposed to work a very nicely modeled natural man's organs. +After I brushed them off with a hand motion, they were very -- I finally was now accepted, and worked there for some six months. +This was my first job. +If I go on like this, you will be here till midnight. +So I will try speed it up a little Moderator: Eva, we have about five minutes. +Eva Zeisel: Are you sure? +Moderator: Yes, I am sure. +EZ: Well, if you are sure, I have to tell you that within five minutes I will talk very fast. +And actually, my work took me to many countries because I used my work to fill my curiosity. +And among other things, other countries I worked, was in the Soviet Union, where I worked from '32 to '37 -- actually, to '36. +I was finally there, although I had nothing to do -- I was a foreign expert. +I became art director of the china and glass industry, and eventually under Stalin's purges -- at the beginning of Stalin's purges, I didn't know that hundreds of thousands of innocent people were arrested. +So I was arrested quite early in Stalin's purges, and spent 16 months in a Russian prison. +The accusation was that I had successfully prepared an Attentat on Stalin's life. +This was a very dangerous accusation. +And if this is the end of my five minutes, I want to tell you that I actually did survive, which was a surprise. +But since I survived and I'm here, and since this is the end of the five minutes, I will -- Moderator: Tell me when your last trip to Russia was. +Weren't you there recently? +EZ: Oh, this summer, in fact, the Lomonosov factory was bought by an American company, invited me. +They found out that I had worked in '33 at this factory, and they came to my studio in Rockland County, and brought the 15 of their artists to visit me here. +And they invited myself to come to the Russian factory last summer, in July, to make some dishes, design some dishes. +And since I don't like to travel alone, they also invited my daughter, son-in-law and granddaughter, so we had a lovely trip to see Russia today, which is not a very pleasant and happy view. +Here I am now, if this is the end? Thank you. +What I'd like you to do is, just really quickly, is just, sort of, nod to the person on your right, and then nod to the person on your left. +Now, chances are that over the last winter, if you had been a beehive, either you or one of the two people you just nodded at would have died. +Now, that's an awful lot of bees. +And this is the second year in a row we have lost over 30 percent of the colonies, or we estimate we've lost 30 percent of the colonies over the winter. +Now, that's a lot, a lot of bees, and that's really important. +And most of those losses are because of things we know. +We know that there are these varroa mites that have introduced and caused a lot of losses, and we also have this new phenomenon, which I talked about last year, Colony Collapse Disorder. +And here we see a picture on top of a hill in Central Valley last December. +And below, you can see all these out yards, or temporary yards, where the colonies are brought in until February, and then they're shipped out to the almonds. +And one documentary writer, who was here and looked at this two months after I was here, described this not as beehives but as a graveyard, with these empty white boxes with no bees left in them. +Now, I'm going to sum up a year's worth of work in two sentences to say that we have been trying to figure out what the cause of this is. +And what we know is that it's as if the bees have caught a flu. +And this flu has wiped through the population of bees. +In some cases, and in fact in most cases in one year, this flu was caused by a new virus to us, or newly identified by us, called Israeli Acute Paralysis virus. +It was called that because a guy in Israel first found it, and he now regrets profoundly calling it that disease, because, of course, there's the implication. +But we think this virus is pretty ubiquitous. +And we don't have the answer to that yet, and we spend a lot of time trying to figure that out. +We think perhaps it's a combination of factors. +We know from the work of a very large and dynamic working team that, you know, we're finding a lot of different pesticides in the hive, and surprisingly, sometimes the healthiest hives have the most pesticides. And so we discover all these very strange things that we can't begin to understand. +And so this opens up the whole idea of looking at colony health. +Now of course, if you lose a lot of colonies, beekeepers can replace them very quickly. +And that's why we've been able to recover from a lot of loss. +If we lost one in every three cows in the winter, you know, the National Guard would be out. +But what beekeepers can do is, if they have one surviving colony, they can split that colony in two. +And then the one half that doesn't have a queen, they can buy a queen. +It comes in the mail; it can come from Australia or Hawaii or Florida, and you can introduce that queen. +And in fact, America was the first country that ever did mail-delivery queens and in fact, it's part of the postal code that you have to deliver queens by mail in order to make sure that we have enough bees in this country. +If you don't just want a queen, you can buy, actually, a three-pound package of bees, which comes in the mail, and of course, the Postal Office is always very concerned when they get, you know, your three-pound packages of bees. +And you can install this in your hive and replace that dead-out. +So it means that beekeepers are very good at replacing dead-outs, and so they've been able to cover those losses. +So even though we've lost 30 percent of the colonies every year, the same number of colonies have existed in the country, at about 2.4 million colonies. +Now, those losses are tragic on many fronts, and one of those fronts is for the beekeeper. +And it's really important to talk about beekeepers first, because beekeepers are among the most fascinating people you'll ever meet. +If this was a group of beekeepers, you would have everyone from the card-carrying NRA member who's, you know, live free or die, to the, you know, the self-expressed quirky San Francisco backyard pig farmer. +And you get all of these people in the same room, and they're all engaged and they're getting along, and they're all there because of the passion for bees. +Now, there's another part of that community which are the commercial beekeepers, the ones who make their livelihood from beekeeping alone. +And these tend to be some of the most independent, tenacious, intuitive, you know, inventive people you will ever meet. +They're just fascinating. And they're like that all over the world. +I had the privilege of working in Haiti just for two weeks earlier this year. +And Haiti, if you've ever been there, is just a tragedy. +I mean, there may be 100 explanations for why Haiti is the impoverished nation it is, but there is no excuse to see that sort of squalor. +But you meet this beekeeper, and I met this beekeeper here, and he is one of the most knowledgeable beekeepers I've ever met. +No formal education, but very knowledgeable. +We needed beeswax for a project we were working on; he was so capable, he was able to render the nicest block of beeswax I have ever seen from cow dung, tin cans and his veil, which he used as a screening, right in this meadow. And so that ingenuity is inspiring. +We also have Dave Hackenberg, who is the poster child of CCD. +He's the one who first identified this condition and raised the alarm bells. +And he has a history of these trucks, and he's moved these bees up and down the coast. +And a lot of people talk about trucks and moving bees, and that being bad, but we've done that for thousands of years. +The ancient Egyptians used to move bees up and down the Nile on rafts, so this idea of a movable bee force is not new at all. +And one of our real worries with Colony Collapse Disorder is the fact that it costs so much money to replace those dead-out colonies. +And you can do that one year in a row, you may be able to do it two years in a row. +But if you're losing 50 percent to 80 percent of your colonies, you can't survive three years in a row. And we're really worried about losing this segment of our industry. +And that's important for many fronts, and one of them is because of that culture that's in agriculture. +And these migratory beekeepers are the last nomads of America. +You know, they pick up their hives; they move their families once or twice in a year. +And if you look at Florida, in Dade City, Florida, that's where all the Pennsylvania beekeepers go. +And then 20 miles down the road is Groveland, and that's where all the Wisconsin beekeepers go. +And if you're ever in Central Valley in February, you go to this caf at 10 o'clock in the morning, Kathy and Kate's. +And that's where all the beekeepers come after a night of moving bees into the almond groves. +They all have their breakfast and complain about everyone right there. And it's a great experience, and I really encourage you to drop in at that diner during that time, because that's quite essential American experience. +And we see these families, these nomadic families, you know, father to son, father to son, and these guys are hurting. +And they're not people who like to ask for help, although they are the most helpful people ever. +If there's one guy who loses all his bees because of a truck overhaul, everyone pitches in and gives 20 hives to help him replace those lost colonies. +And so, it's a very dynamic, and I think, historic and exciting community to be involved with. +Of course, the real importance for bees is not the honey. +And although I highly encourage you, all use honey. +I mean, it's the most ethical sweetener, and you know, it's a dynamic and fun sweetener. +But we estimate that about one in three bites of food we eat is directly or indirectly pollinated by honeybees. +So if we did not have bees, it's not like we would starve, but clearly our diet would be diminished. +It's said that for bees, the flower is the fountain of life, and for flowers bees are the messengers of love. +And that's a really great expression, because really, bees are the sex workers for flowers. They are, you know -- they get paid for their services. +They get paid by pollen and nectar, to move that male sperm, the pollen, from flower to flower. +And there are flowers that are self-infertile. That means they can't -- the pollen in their bloom can't fertilize themselves. +So in an apple orchard, for instance, you'll have rows of 10 apples of one variety, and then you have another apple tree that's a different type of pollen. +And bees are very faithful. +When they're out pollinating or gathering pollen from one flower, they stay to that crop exclusively, in order to help generate. +And of course, they're made to carry this pollen. +They build up a static electric charge and the pollen jumps on them and helps spread that pollen from bloom to bloom. +However, honeybees are a minority. +Honeybees are not native to America; they were introduced with the colonialists. +And there are actually more species of bees than there are mammals and birds combined. +In Pennsylvania alone, we have been surveying bees for 150 years, and very intensely in the last three years. +We have identified over 400 species of bees in Pennsylvania. +Thirty-two species have not been identified or found in the state since 1950. +Now, that could be because we haven't been sampling right, but it does, I think, suggest that something's wrong with the pollinator force. And these bees are fascinating. +We have bumblebees on the top. +And bumblebees are what we call eusocial: they're not truly social, because only the queen is, over winter. +We also have the sweat bees, and these are little gems flying around. +They're like tiny little flies and they fly around. +And then you have another type of bee, which we call kleptoparasites, which is a very fancy way of saying, bad-minded, murdering -- what's the word I'm looking for? Murdering -- Audience: Bee? +Dennis vanEngelsdorp: Bee. Okay, thanks. +What these bees do is, they sit there. These solitary bees, they drill a hole in the ground or drill a hole in a branch, and they collect pollen and make it into a ball, and they lay an egg on it. +Well, these bees hang out at that hole, and they wait for that mother to fly away, they go in, eat the egg, and lay their own egg there. So they don't do any work. +And so, in fact, if you know you have these kleptoparasitic bees, you know that your environment is healthy, because they're top-of-the-food-chain bees. +And in fact, there is now a red list of pollinators that we're worried have disappeared, and on top of that list are a lot of these kleptoparasites, but also these bumblebees. +And in fact, if you guys live on the West Coast, go to these websites here, and they're really looking for people to look for some of these bumblebees, because we think some have gone extinct. Or some, the population has declined. +And so it's not just honeybees that are in trouble, but we don't understand these native pollinators or all those other parts of our community. +And of course, bees are not the only important factor here. +There are other animals that pollinate, like bats, and bats are in trouble too. +And I'm glad I'm a bee man and not a bat man, because there's no money to research the bat problems. +And bats are dying at an extraordinary rate. +White-nose syndrome has wiped out populations of bats. +If there's a cave in New York that had 15,000 bats in it, and there are 1,000 left. That's like San Francisco becoming the population of half of this county in three years. +And so that's incredible. And there's no money to do that. +But I'm glad to say that I think we know the cause of all these conditions, and that cause is NDD: Nature Deficit Disorder. +And that is that I think that what we have in our society is, we forgot our connection with nature. +And I think if we reconnect to nature, we'll be able to have the resources and that interest to solve these problems. +And I think that there is an easy cure for NDD. +And that is, make meadows and not lawns. +And I think we have lost our connection, and this is a wonderful way of reconnecting to our environment. +I've had the privilege of living by a meadow for the last little while, and it is terribly engaging. +And if we look at the history of lawns, it's actually rather tragic. +It used to be, two, three hundred years ago, that a lawn was a symbol of prestige, and so it was only the very rich that could keep these green actually, deserts: they're totally sterile. +Americans spent, in 2001 -- 11 percent of all pesticide use was done on lawns. +Five percent of our greenhouse gases are produced by mowing our lawns. +And so it's incredible the amount of resources we've spent keeping our lawns, which are these useless biosystems. +And so we need to rethink this idea. +In fact, you know, the White House used to have sheep in front in order to help fund the war effort in World War I, which probably is not a bad idea; it wouldn't be a bad idea. +I want to say this not because I'm opposed completely to mowing lawns. +I think that there is perhaps some advantage to keeping lawns at a limited scale, and I think we're encouraged to do that. +But I also want to reinforce some of the ideas we've heard here, because having a meadow or living by a meadow is transformational. +That it is amazing that connection we can have with what's there. +And this is a companion, and this is a relationship that never dries up. +You never run out of that companion as you drink this wine, too. +And I encourage you to look at that. +Now, not all of us have meadows, or lawns that we can convert, and so you can always, of course, grow a meadow in a pot. +Bees apparently, can be the gateway to, you know, other things. +So I'm not saying that you should plant a meadow of pot, but a pot in a meadow. +But you can also have this great community of city or building-top beekeepers, these beekeepers that live -- This is in Paris where these beekeepers live. +And everyone should open a beehive, because it is the most amazing, incredible thing. +And if we want to cure ourselves of NDD, or Nature Deficit Disorder, I think this is a great way of doing it. +Get a beehive and grow a meadow, and watch that life come back into your life. +And so with that, I think that what we can do, if we do this, we can make sure that our future -- our more perfect future -- includes beekeepers and it includes bees and it includes those meadows. +And that journey -- that journey of transformation that occurs as you grow your meadow and as you keep your bees or you watch those native bees there -- is an extremely exciting one. +And I hope that you experience it and I hope you tell me about it one day. +So thank you very much for being here. Thank you very much. +These rocks have been hitting our earth for about three billion years, and are responsible for much of whats gone on on our planet. +This is an example of a real meteorite, and you can see all the melting of the iron from the speed and the heat when a meteorite hits the earth, and just how much of it survives and melts. +From a meteorite from space, were over here with an original Sputnik. +This is one of the seven surviving Sputniks that was not launched into space. +This is not a copy. +The space age began 50 years ago in October, and thats exactly what Sputnik looked like. +And it wouldnt be fun to talk about the space age without seeing a flag that was carried to the moon and back, on Apollo 11. +The astronauts each got to carry about ten silk flags in their personal kits. +They would bring them back and mount them. +So this has actually been carried to the moon and back. +So thats for fun. +The dawn of books is, of course, important. +And it wouldnt be interesting to talk about the dawn of books without having a copy of a Guttenberg Bible. +You can see how portable and handy it was to have your own Guttenberg in 1455. +But whats interesting about the Guttenberg Bible, and the dawn of this technology, is not the book. +You see, the book was not driven by reading. +In 1455, nobody could read. +So why did the printing press succeed? +This is an original page of a Guttenberg Bible. +So youre looking here at one of the first printed books using movable type in the history of man, 550 years ago. +We are living at the age here at the end of the book, where electronic paper will undoubtedly replace it. +But why is this so interesting? Heres the quick story. +It turns out that in the 1450s, the Catholic Church needed money, and so they actually hand-wrote these things called indulgences, which were forgivenesss on pieces of paper. +They traveled all around Europe and sold by the hundreds or by the thousands. +They got you out of purgatory faster. +And when the printing press was invented what they found was they could print indulgences, which was the equivalent of printing money. +And so all of Western Europe started buying printing presses in 1455 -- to print out thousands, and then hundreds of thousands, and then ultimately millions of single, small pieces of paper that got you out of middle hell and into heaven. +That is why the printing press succeeded, and that is why Martin Luther nailed his 90 theses to the door: because he was complaining that the Catholic Church had gone amok in printing out indulgences and selling them in every town and village and city in all of Western Europe. +So the printing press, ladies and gentlemen, was driven entirely by the printing of forgivenesses and had nothing to do with reading. +More tomorrow. I also have pictures coming of the library for those of you that have asked for pictures. +Were going to have some tomorrow. +Instead of showing an object from the stage Im going to do something special for the first time. +We are going to show, actually, what the library looks like, OK? +So, I am married to the most wonderful woman in the world. +Youre going to find out why in a minute, because when I went to see Eileen, this is what I said I wanted to build. +This is the Library of Human Imagination. +The room itself is three stories tall. +In the glass panels are 5,000 years of human imagination that are computer controlled. +The room is a theatre. It changes colors. +And all throughout the library are different objects, different spaces. +Its designed like an Escher print. +Here is some of the lower level of the library, where the exhibits constantly change. +You can walk through. You can touch. +You can see exactly how many of these types of items would fit in a room. +Theres my very own Saturn V. +Everybody should have one, OK? So you can see here in the lower level of the library the books and the objects. +In the glass panels all along is sort of the history of imagination. +There is a glass bridge that you walk across thats suspended in space. +So its a leap of imagination. +How do we create? +So hopefully tomorrow Ill show one or two more objects from the stage, but for today I just wanted to say thank you for all the people that came and talked to us about it. +And Eileen and I are thrilled to open our home and share it with the TED community. +TED is all about patterns in the clouds. +Its all about connections. +Its all about seeing things that everybody else has seen before but thinking about them in ways that nobody has thought of them before. +And thats really what discovery and imagination is all about. +For example, we can look at a DNA molecule model here. +None of us really have ever seen one, but we know it exists because weve been taught to understand this molecule. +But we can also look at an Enigma machine from the Nazis in World War II that was a coding and decoding machine. +Now, you might say, what does this have to do with this? +Well, this is the code for life, and this is a code for death. +These two molecules code and decode. +And yet, looking at them, you would see a machine and a molecule. +But once youve seen them in a new way, you realize that both of these things really are connected. +And theyre connected primarily because of this here. +You see, this is a human brain model, OK? +And its rare, because we never really get to see a brain. +We get to see a skull. But there it is. +All of imagination -- everything that we think, we feel, we sense -- comes through the human brain. +And once we create new patterns in this brain, once we shape the brain in a new way, it never returns to its original shape. +And Ill give you a quick example. +We think about the Internet; we think about information that goes across the Internet. +And we never think about the hidden connection. +But I brought along here a lump of coal -- right here, one lump of coal. +And what does a lump of coal have to do with the Internet? +You see, it takes the energy in one lump of coal to move one megabyte of information across the net. +So every time you download a file, each megabyte is a lump of coal. +What that means is, a 200-megabyte file looks like this, ladies and gentlemen. OK? +So the next time you download a gigabyte, or two gigabytes, its not for free, OK? +The connection is the energy it takes to run the web , and to make everything we think possible, possible. +Thanks, Chris. +I'm just going to play a brief video clip. +Video: On the fifth of December 1985, a bottle of 1787 Lafitte was sold for 105,000 pounds -- nine times the previous world record. +The buyer was Kip Forbes, son of one of the most flamboyant millionaires of the 20th century. +The original owner of the bottle turned out to be one of the most enthusiastic wine buffs of the 18th century. +Chteau Lafitte is one of the greatest wines in the world, the prince of any wine cellar. +Benjamin Wallace: Now, that's about all the videotape that remains of an event that set off the longest-running mystery in the modern wine world. +And the mystery existed because of a gentleman named Hardy Rodenstock. +In 1985, he announced to his friends in the wine world that he had made this incredible discovery. +Some workmen in Paris had broken through a brick wall, and happened upon this hidden cache of wines -- apparently the property of Thomas Jefferson. 1787, 1784. +He wouldn't reveal the exact number of bottles, he would not reveal exactly where the building was and he would not reveal exactly who owned the building. +The mystery persisted for about 20 years. +It finally began to get resolved in 2005 because of this guy. +Bill Koch is a Florida billionaire who owns four of the Jefferson bottles, and he became suspicious. +And he ended up spending over a million dollars and hiring ex-FBI and ex-Scotland Yard agents to try to get to the bottom of this. +There's now ample evidence that Hardy Rodenstock is a con man, and that the Jefferson bottles were fakes. +But for those 20 years, an unbelievable number of really eminent and accomplished figures in the wine world were sort of drawn into the orbit of these bottles. +I think they wanted to believe that the most expensive bottle of wine in the world must be the best bottle of wine in the world, must be the rarest bottle of wine in the world. +I became increasingly, kind of voyeuristically interested in the question of you know, why do people spend these crazy amounts of money, not only on wine but on lots of things, and are they living a better life than me? +So, I decided to embark on a quest. +With the generous backing of a magazine I write for sometimes, I decided to sample the very best, or most expensive, or most coveted item in about a dozen categories, which was a very grueling quest, as you can imagine. +This was the first one. +A lot of the Kobe beef that you see in the U.S. is not the real thing. +It may come from Wagyu cattle, but it's not from the original, Appalachian Hyogo Prefecture in Japan. +There are very few places in the U.S. where you can try real Kobe, and one of them is Wolfgang Puck's restaurant, Cut, in Los Angeles. +I went there, and I ordered the eight-ounce rib eye for 160 dollars. +And it arrived, and it was tiny. +And I was outraged. +It was like, 160 dollars for this? +And then I took a bite, and I wished that it was tinier, because Kobe beef is so rich. +It's like foie gras -- it's not even like steak. +I almost couldn't finish it. +I was really happy when I was done. +Now, the photographer who took the pictures for this project for some reason posed his dog in a lot of them, so that's why you're going to see this recurring character. +Which, I guess, you know, communicates to you that I did not think that one was really worth the price. +White truffles. +One of the most expensive luxury foods by weight in the world. +To try this, I went to a Mario Batali restaurant in Manhattan -- Del Posto. +The waiter, you know, came out with the white truffle knob and his shaver, and he shaved it onto my pasta and he said, you know, "Would Signore like the truffles?" +And the charm of white truffles is in their aroma. +It's not in their taste, really. It's not in their texture. +It's in the smell. +These white pearlescent flakes hit the noodles, 10 seconds passed and it was gone. +And then I was left with these little ugly flakes on my pasta that, you know, their purpose had been served, and so I'm afraid to say that this was also a disappointment to me. +There were several -- several of these items were disappointments. +Yeah. +The magazine wouldn't pay for me to go there. +They did give me a tour, though. +And this hotel suite is 4,300 square feet. +It has 360-degree views. +It has four balconies. +It was designed by the architect I.M. Pei. +It comes with its own Rolls Royce and driver. +It comes with its own wine cellar that you can draw freely from. +When I took the tour, it actually included some Opus One, I was glad to see. +30,000 dollars for a night in a hotel. +This is soap that's made from silver nanoparticles, which have antibacterial properties. +I washed my face with this this morning in preparation for this. +And it, you know, tickled a little bit and it smelled good, but I have to say that nobody here has complimented me on the cleanliness of my face today. +But then again, nobody has complimented me on the jeans I'm wearing. +These ones GQ did spring for -- I own these -- but I will tell you, not only did I not get a compliment from any of you, I have not gotten a compliment from anybody in the months that I have owned and worn these. +I don't think that whether or not you're getting a compliment should be the test of something's value, but I think in the case of a fashion item, an article of clothing, that's a reasonable benchmark. +That said, a lot of work goes into these. +They are made from handpicked organic Zimbabwean cotton that has been shuttle loomed and then hand-dipped in natural indigo 24 times. +But no compliments. +Thank you. +Armando Manni is a former filmmaker who makes this olive oil from an olive that grows on a single slope in Tuscany. +And he goes to great lengths to protect the olive oil from oxygen and light. +He uses tiny bottles, the glass is tinted, he tops the olive oil off with an inert gas. +And he actually -- once he releases a batch of it, he regularly conducts molecular analyses and posts the results online, so you can go online and look at your batch number and see how the phenolics are developing, and, you know, gauge its freshness. +I did a blind taste test of this with 20 people and five other olive oils. +It tasted fine. It tasted interesting. +It was very green, it was very peppery. +But in the blind taste test, it came in last. +The olive oil that came in first was actually a bottle of Whole Foods 365 olive oil which had been oxidizing next to my stove for six months. +A recurring theme is that a lot of these things are from Japan -- you'll start to notice. +I don't play golf, so I couldn't actually road test these, but I did interview a guy who owns them. +Even the people who market these clubs -- I mean, they'll say these have four axis shafts which minimize loss of club speed and thereby drive the ball farther -- but they'll say, look, you know, you're not getting 57,000 dollars worth of performance from these clubs. +You're paying for the bling, that they're encrusted with gold and platinum. +The guy who I interviewed who owns them did say that he's gotten a lot of pleasure out of them, so ... +Oh, yeah, you know this one? +This is a coffee made from a very unusual process. +The luwak is an Asian Palm Civet. +It's a cat that lives in trees, and at night it comes down and it prowls the coffee plantations. +And apparently it's a very picky eater and it, you know, hones in on only the ripest coffee cherries. +And then an enzyme in its digestive tract leeches into the beans, and people with the unenviable job of collecting these cats' leavings then go through the forest collecting the, you know, results and processing it into coffee -- although you actually can buy it in the unprocessed form. +That's right. +Unrelatedly -- Japan is doing crazy things with toilets. +There is now a toilet that has an MP3 player in it. +There's one with a fragrance dispenser. +There's one that actually analyzes the contents of the bowl and transmits the results via email to your doctor. +It's almost like a home medical center -- and that is the direction that Japanese toilet technology is heading in. +This one does not have those bells and whistles, but for pure functionality it's pretty much the best -- the Neorest 600. +And to try this -- I couldn't get a loaner, but I did go into the Manhattan showroom of the manufacturer, Toto, and they have a bathroom off of the showroom that you can use, which I used. +It's fully automated -- you walk towards it, and the seat lifts. +The seat is preheated. +There's a water jet that cleans you. +There's an air jet that dries you. +You get up, it flushes by itself. +The lid closes, it self-cleans. +Not only is it a technological leap forward, but I really do believe it's a bit of a cultural leap forward. +I mean, a no hands, no toilet paper toilet. +And I want to get one of these. +This was another one I could not get a loaner of. +Tom Cruise supposedly owns this bed. +There's a little plaque on the end that, you know, each buyer gets their name engraved on it. +To try this one, the maker of it let me and my wife spend the night in the Manhattan showroom. +Lights glaring in off the street, and we had to hire a security guard and all these things. +But anyway, we had a great night's sleep. +And you spend a third of your life in bed. +I don't think it's that bad of a deal. +This was a fun one. +This is the fastest street-legal car in the world and the most expensive production car. +I got to drive this with a chaperone from the company, a professional race car driver, and we drove around the canyons outside of Los Angeles and down on the Pacific Coast Highway. +And, you know, when we pulled up to a stoplight the people in the adjacent cars kind of gave us respectful nods. +And it was really amazing. +It was such a smooth ride. +Most of the cars that I drive, if I get up to 80 they start to rattle. +I switched lanes on the highway and the driver, this chaperone, said, "You know, you were just going 110 miles an hour." +And I had no idea that I was one of those obnoxious people you occasionally see weaving in and out of traffic, because it was just that smooth. +And if I was a billionaire, I would get one. +This is a completely gratuitous video I'm just going to show of one of the pitfalls of advanced technology. +This is Tom Cruise arriving at the "Mission: Impossible III" premiere. +When he tries to open the door, you could call it "Mission: Impossible IV." +There was one object that I could not get my hands on, and that was the 1947 Cheval Blanc. +The '47 Cheval Blanc is probably the most mythologized wine of the 20th century. +And Cheval Blanc is kind of an unusual wine for Bordeaux in having a significant percentage of the Cabernet Franc grape. +And 1947 was a legendary vintage, especially in the right bank of Bordeaux. +And just together, that vintage and that chateau took on this aura that eventually kind of gave it this cultish following. +But it's 60 years old. +There's not much of it left. +What there is of it left you don't know if it's real -- it's considered to be the most faked wine in the world. +Not that many people are looking to pop open their one remaining bottle for a journalist. +So, I'd about given up trying to get my hands on one of these. +I'd put out feelers to retailers, to auctioneers, and it was coming up empty. +And then I got an email from a guy named Bipin Desai. +Bipin Desai is a U.C. Riverside theoretical physicist who also happens to be the preeminent organizer of rare wine tastings, and he said, "I've got a tasting coming up where we're going to serve the '47 Cheval Blanc." +And it was going to be a double vertical -- it was going to be 30 vintages of Cheval Blanc, and 30 vintages of Yquem. +And it was an invitation you do not refuse. +I went. +It was three days, four meals. +And at lunch on Saturday, we opened the '47. +and it smelled a little bit of linseed oil. +And then I tasted it, and it, you know, had this kind of unctuous, porty richness, which is characteristic of that wine -- that it sort of resembles port in a lot of ways. +There were people at my table who thought it was, you know, fantastic. +There were some people who were a little less impressed. +And I wasn't that impressed. +And I don't -- call my palate a philistine palate -- so it doesn't necessarily mean something that I wasn't impressed, but I was not the only one there who had that reaction. +And it wasn't just to that wine. +Any one of the wines served at this tasting, if I'd been served it at a dinner party, it would have been, you know, the wine experience of my lifetime, and incredibly memorable. +But drinking 60 great wines over three days, they all just blurred together, and it became almost a grueling experience. +And I just wanted to finish by mentioning a very interesting study which came out earlier this year from some researchers at Stanford and Caltech. +And they gave subjects the same wine, labeled with different price tags. +A lot of people, you know, said that they liked the more expensive wine more -- it was the same wine, but they thought it was a different one that was more expensive. +But what was unexpected was that these researchers did MRI brain imaging while the people were drinking the wine, and not only did they say they enjoyed the more expensively labeled wine more -- their brain actually registered as experiencing more pleasure from the same wine when it was labeled with a higher price tag. +Thank you. +We all make decisions every day; we want to know what the right thing is to do -- in domains from the financial to the gastronomic to the professional to the romantic. +And surely, if somebody could really tell us how to do exactly the right thing at all possible times, that would be a tremendous gift. +It turns out that, in fact, the world was given this gift in 1738 by a Dutch polymath named Daniel Bernoulli. +And what I want to talk to you about today is what that gift is, and I also want to explain to you why it is that it hasn't made a damn bit of difference. +Now, this is Bernoulli's gift. This is a direct quote. +And if it looks like Greek to you, it's because, well, it's Greek. +In a sense, what Bernoulli was saying is, if we can estimate and multiply these two things, we will always know precisely how we should behave. +Now, this simple equation, even for those of you who don't like equations, is something that you're quite used to. +This is what statisticians technically call a damn fine bet. +Now, the idea is simple when we're applying it to coin tosses, but in fact, it's not very simple in everyday life. +People are horrible at estimating both of these things, and that's what I want to talk to you about today. +There are two kinds of errors people make when trying to decide what the right thing is to do, and those are errors in estimating the odds that they're going to succeed, and errors in estimating the value of their own success. +Now, let me talk about the first one first. +Calculating odds would seem to be something rather easy: there are six sides to a die, two sides to a coin, 52 cards in a deck. +You all know what the likelihood is of pulling the ace of spades or of flipping a heads. +But as it turns out, this is not a very easy idea to apply in everyday life. That's why Americans spend more -- I should say, lose more -- gambling than on all other forms of entertainment combined. +The reason is, this isn't how people do odds. +The way people figure odds requires that we first talk a bit about pigs. +Now, the question I'm going to put to you is whether you think there are more dogs or pigs on leashes observed in any particular day in Oxford. +And of course, you all know that the answer is dogs. +And the way that you know that the answer is dogs is you quickly reviewed in memory the times you've seen dogs and pigs on leashes. +It was very easy to remember seeing dogs, not so easy to remember pigs. And each one of you assumed that if dogs on leashes came more quickly to your mind, then dogs on leashes are more probable. +That's not a bad rule of thumb, except when it is. +So, for example, here's a word puzzle. +Are there more four-letter English words with R in the third place or R in the first place? +Well, you check memory very briefly, make a quick scan, and it's awfully easy to say to yourself, Ring, Rang, Rung, and very hard to say to yourself, Pare, Park: they come more slowly. +But in fact, there are many more words in the English language with R in the third than the first place. +The reason words with R in the third place come slowly to your mind isn't because they're improbable, unlikely or infrequent. +It's because the mind recalls words by their first letter. +You kind of shout out the sound, S -- and the word comes. +It's like the dictionary; it's hard to look things up by the third letter. +So, this is an example of how this idea that the quickness with which things come to mind can give you a sense of their probability -- how this idea could lead you astray. It's not just puzzles, though. +For example, when Americans are asked to estimate the odds that they will die in a variety of interesting ways -- these are estimates of number of deaths per year per 200 million U.S. citizens. +And these are just ordinary people like yourselves who are asked to guess how many people die from tornado, fireworks, asthma, drowning, etc. +Compare these to the actual numbers. +Now, you see a very interesting pattern here, which is first of all, two things are vastly over-estimated, namely tornadoes and fireworks. +Two things are vastly underestimated: dying by drowning and dying by asthma. Why? +When was the last time that you picked up a newspaper and the headline was, "Boy dies of Asthma?" +It's not interesting because it's so common. +It's very easy for all of us to bring to mind instances of news stories or newsreels where we've seen tornadoes devastating cities, or some poor schmuck who's blown his hands off with a firework on the Fourth of July. +Drownings and asthma deaths don't get much coverage. +They don't come quickly to mind, and as a result, we vastly underestimate them. +Indeed, this is kind of like the Sesame Street game of "Which thing doesn't belong?" And you're right to say it's the swimming pool that doesn't belong, because the swimming pool is the only thing on this slide that's actually very dangerous. +The way that more of you are likely to die than the combination of all three of the others that you see on the slide. +The lottery is an excellent example, of course -- an excellent test-case of people's ability to compute probabilities. +Why in the world would anybody ever play the lottery? +Well, there are many answers, but one answer surely is, we see a lot of winners. Right? When this couple wins the lottery, or Ed McMahon shows up at your door with this giant check -- how the hell do you cash things that size, I don't know. +We see this on TV; we read about it in the paper. +When was the last time that you saw extensive interviews with everybody who lost? +Indeed, if we required that television stations run a 30-second interview with each loser every time they interview a winner, the 100 million losers in the last lottery would require nine-and-a-half years of your undivided attention just to watch them say, "Me? I lost." "Me? I lost." +Now, if you watch nine-and-a-half years of television -- no sleep, no potty breaks -- and you saw loss after loss after loss, and then at the end there's 30 seconds of, "and I won," the likelihood that you would play the lottery is very small. +Look, I can prove this to you: here's a little lottery. +There's 10 tickets in this lottery. +Nine of them have been sold to these individuals. +It costs you a dollar to buy the ticket and, if you win, you get 20 bucks. Is this a good bet? +Well, Bernoulli tells us it is. +The expected value of this lottery is two dollars; this is a lottery in which you should invest your money. +And most people say, "OK, I'll play." +Now, a slightly different version of this lottery: imagine that the nine tickets are all owned by one fat guy named Leroy. +Leroy has nine tickets; there's one left. +Do you want it? Most people won't play this lottery. +Now, you can see the odds of winning haven't changed, but it's now fantastically easy to imagine who's going to win. +It's easy to see Leroy getting the check, right? +You can't say to yourself, "I'm as likely to win as anybody," because you're not as likely to win as Leroy. +The fact that all those tickets are owned by one guy changes your decision to play, even though it does nothing whatsoever to the odds. +Now, estimating odds, as difficult as it may seem, is a piece of cake compared to trying to estimate value: trying to say what something is worth, how much we'll enjoy it, how much pleasure it will give us. +I want to talk now about errors in value. +How much is this Big Mac worth? Is it worth 25 dollars? +Most of you have the intuition that it's not -- you wouldn't pay that for it. +But in fact, to decide whether a Big Mac is worth 25 dollars requires that you ask one, and only one question, which is: What else can I do with 25 dollars? +I can't even set it on fire -- they took my cigarette lighter! +Suddenly, 25 dollars for a Big Mac might be a good deal. +On the other hand, if you're visiting an underdeveloped country, and 25 dollars buys you a gourmet meal, it's exorbitant for a Big Mac. +Why were you all sure that the answer to the question was no, before I'd even told you anything about the context? +Because most of you compared the price of this Big Mac to the price you're used to paying. Rather than asking, "What else can I do with my money," comparing this investment to other possible investments, you compared to the past. +And this is a systematic error people make. +What you knew is, you paid three dollars in the past; 25 is outrageous. +This is an error, and I can prove it to you by showing the kinds of irrationalities to which it leads. +For example, this is, of course, one of the most delicious tricks in marketing, is to say something used to be higher, and suddenly it seems like a very good deal. +When people are asked about these two different jobs: a job where you make 60K, then 50K, then 40K, a job where you're getting a salary cut each year, and one in which you're getting a salary increase, people like the second job better than the first, despite the fact they're all told they make much less money. Why? +Because they had the sense that declining wages are worse than rising wages, even when the total amount of wages is higher in the declining period. Here's another nice example. +Here's a $2,000 Hawaiian vacation package; it's now on sale for 1,600. +Assuming you wanted to go to Hawaii, would you buy this package? +Most people say they would. Here's a slightly different story: $2,000 Hawaiian vacation package is now on sale for 700 dollars, so you decide to mull it over for a week. +By the time you get to the ticket agency, the best fares are gone -- the package now costs 1,500. Would you buy it? Most people say, no. +Why? Because it used to cost 700, and there's no way I'm paying 1,500 for something that was 700 last week. +This tendency to compare to the past is causing people to pass up the better deal. In other words, a good deal that used to be a great deal is not nearly as good as an awful deal that was once a horrible deal. +Here's another example of how comparing to the past can befuddle our decisions. +Imagine that you're going to the theater. +You're on your way to the theater. +In your wallet you have a ticket, for which you paid 20 dollars. +You also have a 20-dollar bill. +When you arrive at the theater, you discover that somewhere along the way you've lost the ticket. +Would you spend your remaining money on replacing it? +Most people answer, no. +Now, let's just change one thing in this scenario. +You're on your way to the theater, and in your wallet you have two 20-dollar bills. +When you arrive you discover you've lost one of them. +Would you spend your remaining 20 dollars on a ticket? +Well, of course, I went to the theater to see the play. +What does the loss of 20 dollars along the way have to do? +Now, just in case you're not getting it, here's a schematic of what happened, OK? +Along the way, you lost something. +In both cases, it was a piece of paper. +In one case, it had a U.S. president on it; in the other case it didn't. +What the hell difference should it make? +The difference is that when you lost the ticket you say to yourself, I'm not paying twice for the same thing. +You compare the cost of the play now -- 40 dollars -- to the cost that it used to have -- 20 dollars -- and you say it's a bad deal. +Comparing with the past causes many of the problems that behavioral economists and psychologists identify in people's attempts to assign value. +But even when we compare with the possible, instead of the past, we still make certain kinds of mistakes. +And I'm going to show you one or two of them. +One of the things we know about comparison: that when we compare one thing to the other, it changes its value. +So in 1992, this fellow, George Bush, for those of us who were kind of on the liberal side of the political spectrum, didn't seem like such a great guy. +Suddenly, we're almost longing for him to return. +The comparison changes how we evaluate him. +Now, retailers knew this long before anybody else did, of course, and they use this wisdom to help you -- spare you the undue burden of money. +And so a retailer, if you were to go into a wine shop and you had to buy a bottle of wine, and you see them here for eight, 27 and 33 dollars, what would you do? +Most people don't want the most expensive, they don't want the least expensive. +So, they will opt for the item in the middle. +If you're a smart retailer, then, you will put a very expensive item that nobody will ever buy on the shelf, because suddenly the $33 wine doesn't look as expensive in comparison. +So I'm telling you something you already knew: namely, that comparison changes the value of things. +Here's why that's a problem: the problem is that when you get that $33 bottle of wine home, it won't matter what it used to be sitting on the shelf next to. +The comparisons we make when we are appraising value, where we're trying to estimate how much we'll like things, are not the same comparisons we'll be making when we consume them. +This problem of shifting comparisons can bedevil our attempts to make rational decisions. +Let me just give you an example. +I have to show you something from my own lab, so let me sneak this in. +These are subjects coming to an experiment to be asked the simplest of all questions: How much will you enjoy eating potato chips one minute from now? +They're sitting in a room with potato chips in front of them. +For some of the subjects, sitting in the far corner of a room is a box of Godiva chocolates, and for others is a can of Spam. +In fact, these items that are sitting in the room change how much the subjects think they're going to enjoy the potato chips. +Namely, those who are looking at Spam think potato chips are going to be quite tasty; those who are looking at Godiva chocolate think they won't be nearly so tasty. +Of course, what happens when they eat the potato chips? +Well, look, you didn't need a psychologist to tell you that when you have a mouthful of greasy, salty, crispy, delicious snacks, what's sitting in the corner of the room makes not a damn bit of difference to your gustatory experience. +Nonetheless, their predictions are perverted by a comparison that then does not carry through and change their experience. +You've all experienced this yourself, even if you've never come into our lab to eat potato chips. So here's a question: You want to buy a car stereo. +The dealer near your house sells this particular stereo for 200 dollars, but if you drive across town, you can get it for 100 bucks. +So would you drive to get 50 percent off, saving 100 dollars? +Most people say they would. +They can't imagine buying it for twice the price when, with one trip across town, they can get it for half off. +Now, let's imagine instead you wanted to buy a car that had a stereo, and the dealer near your house had it for 31,000. +But if you drove across town, you could get it for 30,900. +Would you drive to get it? At this point, 0.003 savings -- the 100 dollars. +Most people say, no, I'm going to schlep across town to save 100 bucks on the purchase of a car? +This kind of thinking drives economists crazy, and it should. +Because this 100 dollars that you save -- hello! -- doesn't know where it came from. +It doesn't know what you saved it on. +When you go to buy groceries with it, it doesn't go, I'm the money saved on the car stereo, or, I'm the dumb money saved on the car. It's money. +And if a drive across town is worth 100 bucks, it's worth 100 bucks no matter what you're saving it on. People don't think that way. +That's why they don't know whether their mutual fund manager is taking 0.1 percent or 0.15 percent of their investment, but they clip coupons to save one dollar off of toothpaste. +Now, you can see, this is the problem of shifting comparisons, because what you're doing is, you're comparing the 100 bucks to the purchase that you're making, but when you go to spend that money you won't be making that comparison. +You've all had this experience. +If you're an American, for example, you've probably traveled in France. +And at some point you may have met a couple from your own hometown, and you thought, "Oh, my God, these people are so warm. They're so nice to me. +I mean, compared to all these people who hate me when I try to speak their language and hate me more when I don't, these people are just wonderful." And so you tour France with them, and then you get home and you invite them over for dinner, and what do you find? +Compared to your regular friends, they are boring and dull, right? Because in this new context, the comparison is very, very different. In fact, you find yourself disliking them enough almost to qualify for French citizenship. +Now, you have exactly the same problem when you shop for a stereo. +You go to the stereo store, you see two sets of speakers -- these big, boxy, monoliths, and these little, sleek speakers, and you play them, and you go, you know, I do hear a difference: the big ones sound a little better. +And so you buy them, and you bring them home, and you entirely violate the dcor of your house. +And the problem, of course, is that this comparison you made in the store is a comparison you'll never make again. +What are the odds that years later you'll turn on the stereo and go, "Sounds so much better than those little ones," which you can't even remember hearing. +The problem of shifting comparisons is even more difficult when these choices are arrayed over time. +People have a lot of trouble making decisions about things that will happen at different points in time. +And what psychologists and behavioral economists have discovered is that by and large people use two simple rules. +So let me give you one very easy problem, a second very easy problem and then a third, hard, problem. +Here's the first easy problem: You can have 60 dollars now or 50 dollars now. Which would you prefer? +This is what we call a one-item IQ test, OK? +All of us, I hope, prefer more money, and the reason is, we believe more is better than less. +Here's the second problem: You can have 60 dollars today or 60 dollars in a month. Which would you prefer? +Again, an easy decision, because we all know that now is better than later. +What's hard in our decision-making is when these two rules conflict. +For example, when you're offered 50 dollars now or 60 dollars in a month. +This typifies a lot of situations in life in which you will gain by waiting, but you have to be patient. +What do we know? What do people do in these kinds of situations? +Well, by and large people are enormously impatient. +That is, they require interest rates in the hundred or thousands of percents in order to delay gratification and wait until next month for the extra 10 dollars. +Maybe that isn't so remarkable, but what is remarkable is how easy it is to make this impatience go away by simply changing when the delivery of these monetary units will happen. +Imagine that you can have 50 dollars in a year -- that's 12 months -- or 60 dollars in 13 months. +What do we find now? +People are gladly willing to wait: as long as they're waiting 12, they might as well wait 13. +What makes this dynamic inconsistency happen? +Comparison. Troubling comparison. Let me show you. +Now, why in the world do you get this pattern of results? +These guys can tell us. +What you see here are two lads, one of them larger than the other: the fireman and the fiddler. +They are going to recede towards the vanishing point in the horizon, and I want you to notice two things. +At no point will the fireman look taller than the fiddler. No point. +However, the difference between them seems to be getting smaller. +First it's an inch in your view, then it's a quarter-inch, then a half-inch, and then finally they go off the edge of the earth. +Here are the results of what I just showed you. +This is the subjective height -- the height you saw of these guys at various points. +And I want you to see that two things are true. +One, the farther away they are, the smaller they look; and two, the fireman is always bigger than the fiddler. +But watch what happens when we make some of them disappear. Right. +At a very close distance, the fiddler looks taller than the fireman, but at a far distance their normal, their true, relations are preserved. +As Plato said, what space is to size, time is to value. +These are the results of the hard problem I gave you: 60 now or 50 in a month? +And these are subjective values, and what you can see is, our two rules are preserved. +People always think more is better than less: 60 is always better than 50, and they always think now is better than later: the bars on this side are higher than the bars on this side. +Watch what happens when we drop some out. +Suddenly we have the dynamic inconsistency that puzzled us. +We have the tendency for people to go for 50 dollars now over waiting a month, but not if that decision is far in the future. +Notice something interesting that this implies -- namely, that when people get to the future, they will change their minds. +That is, as that month 12 approaches, you will say, what was I thinking, waiting an extra month for 60 dollars? +I'll take the 50 dollars now. +Well, the question with which I'd like to end is this: If we're so damn stupid, how did we get to the moon? +Because I could go on for about two hours with evidence of people's inability to estimate odds and inability to estimate value. +The answer to this question, I think, is an answer you've already heard in some of the talks, and I dare say you will hear again: namely, that our brains were evolved for a very different world than the one in which we are living. +They were evolved for a world in which people lived in very small groups, rarely met anybody who was terribly different from themselves, had rather short lives in which there were few choices and the highest priority was to eat and mate today. +Bernoulli's gift, Bernoulli's little formula, allows us, it tells us how we should think in a world for which nature never designed us. +That explains why we are so bad at using it, but it also explains why it is so terribly important that we become good, fast. +We are the only species on this planet that has ever held its own fate in its hands. +We have no significant predators, we're the masters of our physical environment; the things that normally cause species to become extinct are no longer any threat to us. +The only thing -- the only thing -- that can destroy us and doom us are our own decisions. +If we're not here in 10,000 years, it's going to be because we could not take advantage of the gift given to us by a young Dutch fellow in 1738, because we underestimated the odds of our future pains and overestimated the value of our present pleasures. +Thank you. +Chris Anderson: That was remarkable. +We have time for some questions for Dan Gilbert. One and two. +Bill Lyell: Would you say that this mechanism is in part how terrorism actually works to frighten us, and is there some way that we could counteract that? +Dan Gilbert: I actually was consulting recently with the Department of Homeland Security, which generally believes that American security dollars should go to making borders safer. +Surely the kinds of play that at least American media give to -- and forgive me, but in raw numbers these are very tiny accidents. +We already know, for example, in the United States, more people have died as a result of not taking airplanes -- because they were scared -- and driving on highways, than were killed in 9/11. OK? +If I told you that there was a plague that was going to kill 15,000 Americans next year, you might be alarmed if you didn't find out it was the flu. +These are small-scale accidents, and we should be wondering whether they should get the kind of play, the kind of coverage, that they do. +Surely that causes people to overestimate the likelihood that they'll be hurt in these various ways, and gives power to the very people who want to frighten us. +CA: Dan, I'd like to hear more on this. So, you're saying that our response to terror is, I mean, it's a form of mental bug? +Talk more about it. +DG: It's out-sized. I mean, look. +If Australia disappears tomorrow, terror is probably the right response. +That's an awful large lot of very nice people. On the other hand, when a bus blows up and 30 people are killed, more people than that were killed by not using their seatbelts in the same country. +Is terror the right response? +CA: What causes the bug? Is it the drama of the event -- that it's so spectacular? +Is it the fact that it's an intentional attack by, quote, outsiders? +What is it? +DG: Yes. It's a number of things, and you hit on several of them. +First, it's a human agent trying to kill us -- it's not a tree falling on us by accident. +Second, these are enemies who may want to strike and hurt us again. +People are being killed for no reason instead of good reason -- as if there's good reason, but sometimes people think there are. +So there are a number of things that together make this seem like a fantastic event, but let's not play down the fact that newspapers sell when people see something in it they want to read. So there's a large role here played by the media, who want these things to be as spectacular as they possibly can. +CA: I mean, what would it take to persuade our culture to downplay it? +And as the Israeli mother said, she said, "We never let them win by stopping weddings." +I mean, this is a society that has learned -- and there are others too -- that has learned to live with a certain amount of terrorism and not be quite as upset by it, shall I say, as those of us who have not had many terror attacks. +CA: But is there a rational fear that actually, the reason we're frightened about this is because we think that the Big One is to come? +DG: Yes, of course. So, if we knew that this was the worst attack there would ever be, there might be more and more buses of 30 people -- we would probably not be nearly so frightened. +I don't want to say -- please, I'm going to get quoted somewhere as saying, "Terrorism is fine and we shouldn't be so distressed." +That's not my point at all. +What I'm saying is that, surely, rationally, our distress about things that happen, about threats, should be roughly proportional to the size of those threats and threats to come. +I think in the case of terrorism, it isn't. +And many of the things we've heard about from our speakers today -- how many people do you know got up and said, Poverty! I can't believe what poverty is doing to us. +People get up in the morning; they don't care about poverty. +It's not making headlines, it's not making news, it's not flashy. +There are no guns going off. +I mean, if you had to solve one of these problems, Chris, which would you solve? Terrorism or poverty? +That's a tough one. +CA: There's no question. +Poverty, by an order of magnitude, a huge order of magnitude, unless someone can show that there's, you know, terrorists with a nuke are really likely to come. +The latest I've read, seen, thought is that it's incredibly hard for them to do that. +If that turns out to be wrong, we all look silly, but with poverty it's a bit -- DG: Even if that were true, still more people die from poverty. +CA: We've evolved to get all excited about these dramatic attacks. Is that because in the past, in the ancient past, we just didn't understand things like disease and systems that cause poverty and so forth, and so it made no sense for us as a species to put any energy into worrying about those things? +People died; so be it. +But if you got attacked, that was something you could do something about. +And so we evolved these responses. +Is that what happened? +DG: Well, you know, the people who are most skeptical about leaping to evolutionary explanations for everything are the evolutionary psychologists themselves. +My guess is that there's nothing quite that specific in our evolutionary past. But rather, if you're looking for an evolutionary explanation, you might say that most organisms are neo-phobic -- that is, they're a little scared of stuff that's new and different. +And there's a good reason to be, because old stuff didn't eat you. Right? +Any animal you see that you've seen before is less likely to be a predator than one that you've never seen before. +So, you know, when a school bus is blown up and we've never seen this before, our general tendency is to orient towards that which is new and novel is activated. +I don't think it's quite as specific a mechanism as the one you alluded to, but maybe a more fundamental one underlying it. +Jay Walker: You know, economists love to talk about the stupidity of people who buy lottery tickets. But I suspect you're making the exact same error you're accusing those people of, which is the error of value. +I know, because I've interviewed about 1,000 lottery buyers over the years. +It turns out that the value of buying a lottery ticket is not winning. +That's what you think it is. All right? +The average lottery buyer buys about 150 tickets a year, so the buyer knows full well that he or she is going to lose, and yet she buys 150 tickets a year. Why is that? +It's not because she is stupid or he is stupid. +It's because the anticipation of possibly winning releases serotonin in the brain, and actually provides a good feeling until the drawing indicates you've lost. +Or, to put it another way, for the dollar investment, you can have a much better feeling than flushing the money down the toilet, which you cannot have a good feeling from. +Now, economists tend to -- -- economists tend to view the world through their own lenses, which is: this is just a bunch of stupid people. +And as a result, many people look at economists as stupid people. +And so fundamentally, the reason we got to the moon is, we didn't listen to the economists. Thank you very much. +DG: Well, no, it's a great point. It remains to be seen whether the joy of anticipation is exactly equaled by the amount of disappointment after the lottery. Because remember, people who didn't buy tickets don't feel awful the next day either, even though they don't feel great during the drawing. +I would disagree that people know they're not going to win. +I think they think it's unlikely, but it could happen, which is why they prefer that to the flushing. +But certainly I see your point: that there can be some utility to buying a lottery ticket other than winning. +Now, I think there's many good reasons not to listen to economists. +That isn't one of them, for me, but there's many others. +CA: Last question. +Aubrey de Grey: My name's Aubrey de Grey, from Cambridge. +I work on the thing that kills more people than anything else kills -- I work on aging -- and I'm interested in doing something about it, as we'll all hear tomorrow. +I very much resonate with what you're saying, because it seems to me that the problem with getting people interested in doing anything about aging is that by the time aging is about to kill you it looks like cancer or heart disease or whatever. Do you have any advice? +DG: For you or for them? +AdG: In persuading them. +DG: Ah, for you in persuading them. +Well, it's notoriously difficult to get people to be farsighted. +But one thing that psychologists have tried that seems to work is to get people to imagine the future more vividly. +One of the problems with making decisions about the far future and the near future is that we imagine the near future much more vividly than the far future. +To the extent that you can equalize the amount of detail that people put into the mental representations of near and far future, people begin to make decisions about the two in the same way. +So, would you like to have an extra 100,000 dollars when you're 65 is a question that's very different than, imagine who you'll be when you're 65: will you be living, what will you look like, how much hair will you have, who will you be living with. +Once we have all the details of that imaginary scenario, suddenly we feel like it might be important to save so that that guy has a little retirement money. +But these are tricks around the margins. +I think in general you're battling a very fundamental human tendency, which is to say, "I'm here today, and so now is more important than later." +CA: Dan, thank you. Members of the audience, that was a fantastic session. Thank you. +The career that I started early on in my life was looking for exotic life forms in exotic places, and at that time I was working in the Antarctic and the Arctic, and high deserts and low deserts. +Until about a dozen years ago, when I was really captured by caves, and I really re-focused most of my research in that direction. +So I have a really cool day job-- I get to do some really amazing stuff. +I work in some of the most extreme cave environments on the planet. +Many of them are trying to kill us from the minute we go into them, but nevertheless, they're absolutely gripping, and contain unbelievable biological wonders that are very, very different from those that we have on the planet. +Apart from the intrinsic value of the biology and mineralogy and geo-microbiology that we do there, we're also using these as templates for figuring out how to go look for life on other planets. +Particularly Mars, but also Europa, the small, icy moon around Jupiter. +And perhaps, someday, far beyond our solar system itself. +I'm very passionately interested in the human future, on the Moon and Mars particularly, and elsewhere in the solar system. +I think it's time that we transitioned to a solar system-going civilization and species. +And, as an outgrowth of all of this then, I wonder about whether we can, and whether we even should, think about transporting Earth-type life to other planets. +Notably Mars, as a first example. +Something I never talk about in scientific meetings is how I actually got to this state and why I do the work that I do. +Why don't I have a normal job, a sensible job? +And then of course, I blame the Soviet Union. +Because in the mid-1950s, when I was a tiny child, they had the audacity to launch a very primitive little satellite called Sputnik, which sent the Western world into a hysterical tailspin. +And a tremendous amount of money went into the funding of science and mathematics skills for kids. +And I'm a product of that generation, like so many other of my peers. +It really caught hold of us, and caught fire, and it would be lovely if we could reproduce that again now. +Of course, refusing to grow up -- -- even though I impersonate a grown-up in daily life, but I do a fairly good job of that -- but really retaining that childlike quality of not caring what other people think about what you're interested in, is really critical. +The next element is the fact that I have applied a value judgment and my value judgment is that the presence of life is better than no life. +And so, life is more valuable than no life. +And so I think that that holds together a great deal of the work that people in this audience approach. +I'm very interested in Mars, of course, and that was a product of my being a young undergraduate when the Viking Landers landed on Mars. +And that took what had been a tiny little astronomical object in the sky, that you would see as a dot, and turned it completely into a landscape, as that very first primitive picture came rastering across the screen. +And when it became a landscape, it also became a destination, and altered, really, the course of my life. +In my graduate years I worked with my colleague and mentor and friend, Steve Schneider, at the National Center for Atmospheric Research, working on global change issues. +We've written a number of things on the role of Gaia hypothesis -- whether or not you could consider Earth as a single entity in any meaningful scientific sense, and then, as an outgrowth of that, I worked on the environmental consequences of nuclear war. +So, wonderful things and grim things. +But what it taught me was to look at Earth as a planet with external eyes, not just as our home. +And that is a wonderful stepping away in perspective, to try to then think about the way our planet behaves, as a planet, and with the life that's on it. +And all of this seems to me to be a salient point in history. +We're getting ready to begin to go through the process of leaving our planet of origin and out into the wider solar system and beyond. +So, back to Mars. +How hard is it going to be to find life on Mars? +Well, sometimes it's really very hard for us to find each other, even on this planet. +So, finding life on another planet is a non-trivial occupation and we spend a lot of time trying to think about that. +Whether or not you think it's likely to be successful sort of depends on what you think about the chances of life in the universe. +I think, myself, that life is a natural outgrowth of the increasing complexification of matter over time. +So, you start with the Big Bang and you get hydrogen, and then you get helium, and then you get more complicated stuff, and you get planets forming -- and life is a common, planetary-based phenomenon, in my view. +Certainly, in the last 15 years, we've seen increasing numbers of planets outside of our solar system being confirmed, and just last month, a couple of weeks ago, a planet in the size-class of Earth has actually been found. +And so this is very exciting news. +So, my first bold prediction is that, is that in the universe, life is going to be everywhere. +It's going to be everywhere we look -- where there are planetary systems that can possibly support it. +And those planetary systems are going to be very common. +So, what about life on Mars? +Well, if somebody had asked me about a dozen years ago what I thought the chances of life on Mars would be, I would've probably said, a couple of percent. +And even that was considered outrageous at the time. +I was once sneeringly introduced by a former NASA official, as the only person on the planet who still thought there was life on Mars. +Of course, that official is now dead, and I'm not, so there's a certain amount of glory in outliving your adversaries. +But things have changed greatly over the last dozen years. +And the reason that they have changed is because we now have new information. +The amazing Pathfinder mission that went in '97, and the MER Rover missions that are on Mars as we speak now and the European Space Agency's Mars Express, has taught us a number of amazing things. +There is sub-surface ice on that planet. +And so where there is water, there is a very high chance of our kind of life. +There's clearly sedimentary rocks all over the place one of the landers is sitting in the middle of an ancient seabed, and there are these amazing structures called blueberries, which are these little, rocky concretions that we are busy making biologically in my lab right now. +So, with all of these things put together, I think that the chances of life are much greater than I would've ever thought. +I think that the chance of life having arisen on Mars, sometime in its past, is maybe one in four to maybe even half and half. +So this is a very bold statement. +I think it's there, and I think we need to go look for it, and I think it's underground. +So the game's afoot, and this is the game that we play in astro-biology. +How do you try to get a handle on extraterrestrial life? +How do you plan to look for it? +How do you know it when you find it? +Because if it's big and obvious, we would've already found it -- it would've already bitten us on the foot, and it hasn't. +So, we know that it's probably quite cryptic. +Very critically, how do we protect it, if we find it, and not contaminate it? +And also, even perhaps more critically, because this is the only home planet we have, how do we protect us from it, while we study it? +So why might it be hard to find? +Well, it's probably microscopic, and it's never easy to study microscopic things, although the amazing tools that we now have to do that allow us to study things in much greater depth, at much smaller scales than ever before. +But it's probably hiding, because if you are out sequestering resources from your environment, that makes you yummy, and other things might want to eat you, or consume you. +And so, there's a game of predator-prey that's going to be, essentially, universal, really, in any kind of biological system. +It also may be very, very different in its fundamental properties its chemistry, or its size. +We say small, but what does that mean? +Is it virus-sized? Is it smaller than that? +Is it bigger than the biggest bacterium? We don't know. +And speed of activity, which is something that we face in our work with sub-surface organisms, because they grow very, very slowly. +If I were to take a swab off your teeth and plate it on a Petri plate, within about four or five hours, I would have to see growth. +But the organisms that we work with, from the sub-surface of Earth, very often it's months -- and in many cases, years -- before we see any growth whatsoever. +So they are, intrinsically, a slower life-form. +But the real issue is that we are guided by our limited experience, and until we can think out of the box of our cranium and what we know, then we can't recognize what to look for, or how to plan for it. +So, perspective is everything and, because of the history that I've just briefly talked to you about, I have learned to think about Earth as an extraterrestrial planet. +And this has been invaluable in our approach to try to study these things. +This is my favorite game on airplanes: where you're in an airplane and you look out the window, you see the horizon. +I always turn my head on the side, and that simple change makes me go from seeing this planet as home, to seeing it as a planet. +It's a very simple trick, and I never fail to do it when I'm sitting in a window seat. +Well, this is what we apply to our work. +This shows one of the most extreme caves that we work in. +This is Cueva de Villa Luz in Tabasco, in Mexico, and this cave is saturated with sulfuric acid. +There is tremendous amounts of hydrogen sulfide coming into this cave from volcanic sources and from the breakdown of evaporite -- minerals below the carbonates in which this cave is formed -- and it is a completely hostile environment for us. +We have to go in with protective suits and breathing gear, and 30 parts per million of H2S will kill you. +This is regularly several hundred parts per million. +So, it's a very hazardous environment, with CO as well, and many other gases. +These extreme physical and chemical parameters make the biology that grows in these places very special. +Because contrary to what you might think, this is not devoid of life. +This is one of the richest caves that we have found on the planet, anywhere. +It's bursting with life. +The extremes on Earth are interesting in their own right, but one of the reasons that we're interested in them is because they represent, really, the average conditions that we may expect on other planets. +So, this is part of the ability that we have, to try to stretch our imagination, in terms of what we may find in the future. +There's so much life in this cave, and I can't even begin to scratch the surface of it with you. +But one of the most famous objects out of this are what we call Snottites, for obvious reasons. +This stuff looks like what comes out of your two-year-old's nose when he has a cold. +And this is produced by bacteria who are actually making more sulfuric acid, and living at pHs right around zero. +And so, this stuff is like battery acid. +And yet, everything in this cave has adapted to it. +In fact, there's so much energy available for biology in this cave, that there's actually a huge number of cavefish. +And the local Zoque Indians harvest this twice a year, as part of their Easter week celebration and Holy Week celebration. +This is very unusual for caves. +In some of the other amazing caves that we work in -- this is in Lechuguilla cave in New Mexico near Carlsbad, and this is one of the most famous caves in the world. +It's 115 miles of mapped passage, it's pristine, it has no natural opening and it's a gigantic biological, geo-microbiological laboratory. +In this cave, great areas are covered by this reddish material that you see here, and also these enormous crystals of selenite that you can see dangling down. +This stuff is produced biologically. +This is the breakdown product of the bedrock, that organisms are busy munching their way through. +They take iron and manganese minerals within the bedrock and they oxidize them. +And every time they do that, they get a tiny little packet of energy. +And that tiny little packet of energy is what they use, then, to run their life processes. +Interestingly enough, they also do this with uranium and chromium, and various other toxic metals. +And so, the obvious avenue for bio-remediation comes from organisms like this. +These organisms we now bring into the lab, and you can see some of them growing on Petri plates, and get them to reproduce the precise biominerals that we find on the walls of these caves. +So, these are signals that they leave in the rock record. +Well, even in basalt surfaces in lava-tube caves, which are a by-product of volcanic activity, we find these walls totally covered, in many cases, by these beautiful, glistening silver walls, or shiny pink or shiny red or shiny gold. +And these are mineral deposits that are also made by bacteria. +And you can see in these central images here, scanning electron micrographs of some of these guys -- these are gardens of these bacteria. +One of the interesting things about these particular guys is that they're in the actinomycete and streptomycete groups of the bacteria, which is where we get most of our antibiotics. +The sub-surface of Earth contains a vast biodiversity. +And these organisms, because they're very separate from the surface, make a vast array of novel compounds. +And so, the potential for exploiting this for pharmaceutical and industrial chemical uses is completely untapped, but probably exceeds most of the rest of the biodiversity of the planet. +So, lava-tube caves-- I've just told you about organisms that live here on this planet. +We know that on Mars and the Moon there are tons of these structures. +We can see them. +On the left you can see a lava tube forming at a recent eruption -- Mount Etna in Sicily -- and this is the way these tubes form. +And when they hollow out, then they become habitats for organisms. +These are all over the planet Mars, and we're busy cataloguing them now. +And so, there's very interesting cave real estate on Mars, at least of that type. +In order to access these sub-surface environments that we're interested in, we're very interested in developing the tools to do this. +You know, it's not easy to get into these caves. +It requires crawling, climbing, rope-work, technical rope-work and many other complex human motions in order to access these. +We face the problem of, how can we do this robotically? +Why would we want to do it robotically? +Well, we're going to be sending robotic missions to Mars long in advance of human missions. +And then, secondly, getting back to that earlier point that I made about the preciousness of any life that we may find on Mars, we don't want to contaminate it. +And one of the best ways to study something without contaminating it is to have an intermediary. +And in this case, we're imagining intermediary robotic devices that can actually do some of that front-end work for us, to protect any potential life that we find. +I'm not going to go through all of these projects now, but we're involved in about half-a-dozen robotic development projects, in collaboration with a number of different groups. +I want to talk specifically about the array that you see on the top. +These are hopping microbot swarms. +I'm working on this with the Field and Space Robotics Laboratory and my friend Steve Dubowsky at MIT, and we have come up with the idea of having little, jumping bean-like robots that are propelled by artificial muscle, which is one of the Dubowsky Lab's specialties -- are the EPAMs, or artificial muscles. +And these allow them to hop. +They behave with a swarm behavior, where they relate to each other, modeled after insect swarm behavior, and they could be made very numerous. +And so, one can send a thousand of them, as you can see in this upper left-hand picture, a thousand of them could fit into the payload bay that was used for one of the current MER Rovers. +And these little guys -- you could lose many of them. +If you send a thousand of them, you could probably get rid of 90 percent of them and still have a mission. +And so, that allows you the flexibility to go into very challenging terrain and actually make your way where you want to go. +Now, to wrap this up, I want to talk for two seconds about caves and the human expansion beyond Earth as a natural outgrowth of the work that we do in caves. +It occurred to us a number of years ago that caves have many properties that people have used and other organisms have used as habitat in the past. +And perhaps it's time we started to explore those, in the context of future Mars and the Moon exploration. +So, we have just finished a NASA Institute for Advanced Concepts Phase II study, looking at the irreducible set of technologies that you would need in order to actually allow people to inhabit lava tubes on the Moon or Mars. +It turns out to be a fairly simple and small list, and we have gone in the relatively primitive technology direction. +So, we're talking about things like inflatable liners that can conform to the complex topological shape on the inside of a cave, foamed-in-place airlocks to deal with this complex topology, various ways of getting breathing gases made from the intrinsic materials of these bodies. +And the future is there for us to use these lava-tube caves on Mars. +And right now we're in caves, and we're doing science and recreation, but I think in the future we'll be using them for habitat and science on these other bodies. +Now, my view of what the current status of potential life on Mars is that it's probably been on the planet, maybe one in two chances. +The question as to whether there is life on Mars that is related to life on Earth has now been very muddied, because we now know, from Mars meteorites that have made it to Earth, that there's material that can be exchanged between those two planets. +One of the burning questions, of course, is if we go there and find life in the sub-surface, as I fully expect that we will, is that a second genesis of life? +Did life start here and was it transported there? +Did it start there and get transported here? +This will be a fascinating puzzle as we go into the next half-century, and where I expect that we will have more and more Mars missions to answer these questions. +Thank you. +I was trying to think, how is sync connected to happiness, and it occurred to me that for some reason we take pleasure in synchronizing. +We like to dance together, we like singing together. +And so, if you'll put up with this, I would like to enlist your help with a first experiment today. The experiment is -- and I notice, by the way, that when you applauded, that you did it in a typical North American way, that is, you were raucous and incoherent. +You were not organized. It didn't even occur to you to clap in unison. +Do you think you could do it? I would like to see if this audience would -- no, you haven't practiced, as far as I know -- can you get it together to clap in sync? +Whoa! Now, that's what we call emergent behavior. +So I didn't expect that, but -- I mean, I expected you could synchronize. +It didn't occur to me you'd increase your frequency. +It's interesting. +So what do we make of that? First of all, we know that you're all brilliant. +This is a room full of intelligent people, highly sensitive. +Some trained musicians out there. +Is that what enabled you to synchronize? +So to put the question a little more seriously, let's ask ourselves what are the minimum requirements for what you just did, for spontaneous synchronization. +Do you need, for instance, to be as smart as you are? +Do you even need a brain at all just to synchronize? +Do you need to be alive? I mean, that's a spooky thought, right? +Inanimate objects that might spontaneously synchronize themselves. +It's real. In fact, I'll try to explain today that sync is maybe one of, if not one of the most, perhaps the most pervasive drive in all of nature. +It extends from the subatomic scale to the farthest reaches of the cosmos. +It's a deep tendency toward order in nature that opposes what we've all been taught about entropy. +I mean, I'm not saying the law of entropy is wrong -- it's not. +But there is a countervailing force in the universe -- the tendency towards spontaneous order. And so that's our theme. +Now, to get into that, let me begin with what might have occurred to you immediately when you hear that we're talking about synchrony in nature, which is the glorious example of birds that flock together, or fish swimming in organized schools. +So these are not particularly intelligent creatures, and yet, as we'll see, they exhibit beautiful ballets. +This is from a BBC show called "Predators," and what we're looking at here are examples of synchrony that have to do with defense. +When you're small and vulnerable, like these starlings, or like the fish, it helps to swarm to avoid predators, to confuse predators. +Let me be quiet for a second because this is so gorgeous. +For a long time, biologists were puzzled by this behavior, wondering how it could be possible. +We're so used to choreography giving rise to synchrony. +These creatures are not choreographed. +They're choreographing themselves. +And only today is science starting to figure out how it works. +I'll show you a computer model made by Iain Couzin, a researcher at Oxford, that shows how swarms work. +There are just three simple rules. +First, all the individuals are only aware of their nearest neighbors. +Second, all the individuals have a tendency to line up. +And third, they're all attracted to each other, but they try to keep a small distance apart. +And when you build those three rules in, automatically you start to see swarms that look very much like fish schools or bird flocks. +Now, fish like to stay close together, about a body length apart. +Birds try to stay about three or four body lengths apart. +But except for that difference, the rules are the same for both. +Now, all this changes when a predator enters the scene. +There's a fourth rule: when a predator's coming, get out of the way. +Here on the model you see the predator attacking. +The prey move out in random directions, and then the rule of attraction brings them back together again, so there's this constant splitting and reforming. +And you see that in nature. +Keep in mind that, although it looks as if each individual is acting to cooperate, what's really going on is a kind of selfish Darwinian behavior. +Each is scattering away at random to try to save its scales or feathers. +That is, out of the desire to save itself, each creature is following these rules, and that leads to something that's safe for all of them. +Even though it looks like they're thinking as a group, they're not. +You might wonder what exactly is the advantage to being in a swarm, so you can think of several. +As I say, if you're in a swarm, your odds of being the unlucky one are reduced as compared to a small group. +There are many eyes to spot danger. +And you'll see in the example with the starlings, with the birds, when this peregrine hawk is about to attack them, that actually waves of panic can propagate, sending messages over great distances. +You'll see -- let's see, it's coming up possibly at the very end -- maybe not. +Information can be sent over half a kilometer away in a very short time through this mechanism. +Yes, it's happening here. +See if you can see those waves propagating through the swarm. +It's beautiful. The birds are, we sort of understand, we think, from that computer model, what's going on. +As I say, it's just those three simple rules, plus the one about watch out for predators. +There doesn't seem to be anything mystical about this. +We don't, however, really understand at a mathematical level. +I'm a mathematician. We would like to be able to understand better. +I mean, I showed you a computer model, but a computer is not understanding. +A computer is, in a way, just another experiment. +We would really like to have a deeper insight into how this works and to understand, you know, exactly where this organization comes from. +How do the rules give rise to the patterns? +There is one case that we have begun to understand better, and it's the case of fireflies. +If you see fireflies in North America, like so many North American sorts of things, they tend to be independent operators. They ignore each other. +They each do their own thing, flashing on and off, paying no attention to their neighbors. +But in Southeast Asia -- places like Thailand or Malaysia or Borneo -- there's a beautiful cooperative behavior that occurs among male fireflies. +You can see it every night along the river banks. +The trees, mangrove trees, are filled with fireflies communicating with light. +Specifically, it's male fireflies who are all flashing in perfect time together, in perfect synchrony, to reinforce a message to the females. +And the message, as you can imagine, is "Come hither. Mate with me." +In a second I'm going to show you a slow motion of a single firefly so that you can get a sense. This is a single frame. +Then on, and then off -- a 30th of a second, there. +And then watch this whole river bank, and watch how precise the synchrony is. +On, more on and then off. +The combined light from these beetles -- these are actually tiny beetles -- is so bright that fishermen out at sea can use them as navigating beacons to find their way back to their home rivers. It's stunning. +For a long time it was not believed when the first Western travelers, like Sir Francis Drake, went to Thailand and came back with tales of this unbelievable spectacle. +No one believed them. +We don't see anything like this in Europe or in the West. +And for a long time, even after it was documented, it was thought to be some kind of optical illusion. +Scientific papers were published saying it was twitching eyelids that explained it, or, you know, a human being's tendency to see patterns where there are none. +But I hope you've convinced yourself now, with this nighttime video, that they really were very well synchronized. +Okay, well, the issue then is, do we need to be alive to see this kind of spontaneous order, and I've already hinted that the answer is no. +Well, you don't have to be a whole creature. +You can even be just a single cell. +Like, take, for instance, your pacemaker cells in your heart right now. +They're keeping you alive. +Every beat of your heart depends on this crucial region, the sinoatrial node, which has about 10,000 independent cells that would each beep, have an electrical rhythm -- a voltage up and down -- to send a signal to the ventricles to pump. +Now, your pacemaker is not a single cell. +It's this democracy of 10,000 cells that all have to fire in unison for the pacemaker to work correctly. +I don't want to give you the idea that synchrony is always a good idea. +If you have epilepsy, there is an instance of billions of brain cells, or at least millions, discharging in pathological concert. +So this tendency towards order is not always a good thing. +You don't have to be alive. You don't have to be even a single cell. +If you look, for instance, at how lasers work, that would be a case of atomic synchrony. +In a laser, what makes laser light so different from the light above my head here is that this light is incoherent -- many different colors and different frequencies, sort of like the way you clapped initially -- but if you were a laser, it would be rhythmic applause. +It would be all atoms pulsating in unison, emitting light of one color, one frequency. +Now comes the very risky part of my talk, which is to demonstrate that inanimate things can synchronize. +Hold your breath for me. +What I have here are two empty water bottles. +This is not Keith Barry doing a magic trick. +This is a klutz just playing with some water bottles. +I have some metronomes here. +Can you hear that? +All right, so, I've got a metronome, and it's the world's smallest metronome, the -- well, I shouldn't advertise. +Anyway, so this is the world's smallest metronome. +I've set it on the fastest setting, and I'm going to now take another one set to the same setting. +We can try this first. If I just put them on the table together, there's no reason for them to synchronize, and they probably won't. +Maybe you'd better listen to them. I'll stand here. +What I'm hoping is that they might just drift apart because their frequencies aren't perfectly the same. +Right? They did. +They were in sync for a while, but then they drifted apart. +And the reason is that they're not able to communicate. +Now, you might think that's a bizarre idea. +How can metronomes communicate? +Well, they can communicate through mechanical forces. +So I'm going to give them a chance to do that. +I also want to wind this one up a bit. How can they communicate? +I'm going to put them on a movable platform, which is the "Guide to Graduate Study at Cornell." Okay? So here it is. +Let's see if we can get this to work. +My wife pointed out to me that it will work better if I put both on at the same time because otherwise the whole thing will tip over. +All right. So there we go. Let's see. OK, I'm not trying to cheat -- let me start them out of sync. No, hard to even do that. +All right. So before any one goes out of sync, I'll just put those right there. +Now, that might seem a bit whimsical, but this pervasiveness of this tendency towards spontaneous order sometimes has unexpected consequences. +And a clear case of that, was something that happened in London in the year 2000. +The Millennium Bridge was supposed to be the pride of London -- a beautiful new footbridge erected across the Thames, first river crossing in over 100 years in London. +And together they submitted a design based on Lord Foster's vision, which was -- he remembered as a kid reading Flash Gordon comic books, and he said that when Flash Gordon would come to an abyss, he would shoot what today would be a kind of a light saber. +He would shoot his light saber across the abyss, making a blade of light, and then scamper across on this blade of light. +He said, "That's the vision I want to give to London. +I want a blade of light across the Thames." +So they built the blade of light, and it's a very thin ribbon of steel, the world's -- probably the flattest and thinnest suspension bridge there is, with cables that are out on the side. +You're used to suspension bridges with big droopy cables on the top. +These cables were on the side of the bridge, like if you took a rubber band and stretched it taut across the Thames -- that's what's holding up this bridge. +Now, everyone was very excited to try it out. +On opening day, thousands of Londoners came out, and something happened. +And within two days the bridge was closed to the public. +So I want to first show you some interviews with people who were on the bridge on opening day, who will describe what happened. +Man: It really started moving sideways and slightly up and down, rather like being on the boat. +Woman: Yeah, it felt unstable, and it was very windy, and I remember it had lots of flags up and down the sides, so you could definitely -- there was something going on sideways, it felt, maybe. +Interviewer: Not up and down? Boy: No. +Interviewer: And not forwards and backwards? Boy: No. +Interviewer: Just sideways. About how much was it moving, do you think? +Boy: It was about -- Interviewer: I mean, that much, or this much? +Boy: About the second one. +Interviewer: This much? Boy: Yeah. +Man: It was at least six, six to eight inches, I would have thought. +Interviewer: Right, so, at least this much? Man: Oh, yes. +Woman: I remember wanting to get off. +Interviewer: Oh, did you? Woman: Yeah. It felt odd. +Interviewer: So it was enough to be scary? Woman: Yeah, but I thought that was just me. +Interviewer: Ah! Now, tell me why you had to do this? +Boy: We had to do this because, to keep in balance because if you didn't keep your balance, then you would just fall over about, like, to the left or right, about 45 degrees. +Interviewer: So just show me how you walk normally. Right. +And then show me what it was like when the bridge started to go. Right. +So you had to deliberately push your feet out sideways and -- oh, and short steps? +Man: That's right. And it seemed obvious to me that it was probably the number of people on it. +Interviewer: Were they deliberately walking in step, or anything like that? +Man: No, they just had to conform to the movement of the bridge. +Steven Strogatz: All right, so that already gives you a hint of what happened. +Think of the bridge as being like this platform. +Think of the people as being like metronomes. +Now, you might not be used to thinking of yourself as a metronome, but after all, we do walk like -- I mean, we oscillate back and forth as we walk. +And especially if we start to walk like those people did, right? +They all showed this strange sort of skating gait that they adopted once the bridge started to move. +And so let me show you now the footage of the bridge. +But also, after you see the bridge on opening day, you'll see an interesting clip of work done by a bridge engineer at Cambridge named Allan McRobie, who figured out what happened on the bridge, and who built a bridge simulator to explain exactly what the problem was. +It was a kind of unintended positive feedback loop between the way the people walked and the way the bridge began to move, that engineers knew nothing about. +Actually, I think the first person you'll see is the young engineer who was put in charge of this project. Okay. +Interviewer: Did anyone get hurt? Engineer: No. +Interviewer: Right. So it was quite small -- Engineer: Yes. Interviewer: -- but real? +Engineer: Absolutely. Interviewer: You thought, "Oh, bother." +Engineer: I felt I was disappointed about it. +We'd spent a lot of time designing this bridge, and we'd analyzed it, we'd checked it to codes -- to heavier loads than the codes -- and here it was doing something that we didn't know about. +Interviewer: You didn't expect. Engineer: Exactly. +Narrator: The most dramatic and shocking footage shows whole sections of the crowd -- hundreds of people -- apparently rocking from side to side in unison, not only with each other, but with the bridge. +This synchronized movement seemed to be driving the bridge. +But how could the crowd become synchronized? +Was there something special about the Millennium Bridge that caused this effect? +This was to be the focus of the investigation. +Interviewer: Well, at last the simulated bridge is finished, and I can make it wobble. +Now, Allan, this is all your fault, isn't it? Allan McRobie: Yes. +Interviewer: You designed this, yes, this simulated bridge, and this, you reckon, mimics the action of the real bridge? +AM: It captures a lot of the physics, yes. +Interviewer: Right. So if we get on it, we should be able to wobble it, yes? +Allan McRobie is a bridge engineer from Cambridge who wrote to me, suggesting that a bridge simulator ought to wobble in the same way as the real bridge -- provided we hung it on pendulums of exactly the right length. +AM: This one's only a couple of tons, so it's fairly easy to get going. +Just by walking. Interviewer: Well, it's certainly going now. +AM: It doesn't have to be a real dangle. Just walk. It starts to go. +Interviewer: It's actually quite difficult to walk. +You have to be careful where you put your feet down, don't you, because if you get it wrong, it just throws you off your feet. +AM: It certainly affects the way you walk, yes. You can't walk normally on it. +Interviewer: No. If you try and put one foot in front of another, it's moving your feet away from under you. AM: Yes. +Interviewer: So you've got to put your feet out sideways. +So already, the simulator is making me walk in exactly the same way as our witnesses walked on the real bridge. +AM: ... ice-skating gait. There isn't all this sort of snake way of walking. +Interviewer: For a more convincing experiment, I wanted my own opening-day crowd, the sound check team. +Their instructions: just walk normally. +It's really intriguing because none of these people is trying to drive it. +They're all having some difficulty walking. +And the only way you can walk comfortably is by getting in step. +But then, of course, everyone is driving the bridge. +You can't help it. You're actually forced by the movement of the bridge to get into step, and therefore to drive it to move further. +SS: All right, well, with that from the Ministry of Silly Walks, maybe I'd better end. I see I've gone over. +But I hope that you'll go outside and see the world in a new way, to see all the amazing synchrony around us. Thank you. +It's amazing, when you meet a head of state and you say, "What is your most precious natural resource?" -- they will not say children at first. +And then when you say children, they will pretty quickly agree with you. +: We're traveling today with the Minister of Defense of Colombia, head of the army and the head of the police, and we're dropping off 650 laptops today to children who have no television, no telephone and have been in a community cut off from the rest of the world for the past 40 years. +The importance of delivering laptops to this region is connecting kids who have otherwise been unconnected because of the FARC, the guerrillas that started off 40 years ago as a political movement and then became a drug movement. +There are one billion children in the world, and 50 percent of them don't have electricity at home or at school. +And in some countries -- let me pick Afghanistan -- 75 percent of the little girls don't go to school. +And I don't mean that they drop out of school in the third or fourth grade -- they don't go. +So in the three years since I talked at TED and showed a prototype, it's gone from an idea to a real laptop. +We have half a million laptops today in the hands of children. +We have about a quarter of a million in transit to those and other children, and then there are another quarter of a million more that are being ordered at this moment. +So, in rough numbers, there are a million laptops. +That's smaller than I predicted -- I predicted three to 10 million -- but is still a very large number. +In Colombia, we have about 3,000 laptops. +It's the Minister of Defense with whom we're working, not the Minister of Education, because it is seen as a strategic defense issue in the sense of liberating these zones that had been completely closed off, in which the people who had been causing, if you will, 40 years' worth of bombings and kidnappings and assassinations lived. +And suddenly, the kids have connected laptops. +They've leapfrogged. +The change is absolutely monumental, because it's not just opening it up, but it's opening it up to the rest of the world. +So yes, they're building roads, yes, they're putting in telephone, yes, there will be television. +But the kids six to 12 years old are surfing the Internet in Spanish and in local languages, so the children grow up with access to information, with a window into the rest of the world. +Before, they were closed off. +Interestingly enough, in other countries, it will be the Minister of Finance who sees it as an engine of economic growth. +And that engine is going to see the results in 20 years. +It's not going to happen, you know, in one year, but it's an important, deeply economic and cultural change that happens through children. +Thirty-one countries in total are involved, and in the case of Uruguay, half the children already have them, and by the middle of 2009, every single child in Uruguay will have a laptop -- a little green laptop. +Now what are some of the results? +Some of the results that go across every single country include teachers saying they have never loved teaching so much, and reading comprehension measured by third parties -- not by us -- skyrockets. +Probably the most important thing we see is children teaching parents. +They own the laptops. They take them home. +And so when I met with three children from the schools, who had traveled all day to come to Bogota, one of the three children brought her mother. +And the reason she brought her mother is that this six-year-old child had been teaching her mother how to read and write. +Her mother had not gone to primary school. +And this is such an inversion, and such a wonderful example of children being the agents of change. +So now, in closing, people say, now why laptops? +Laptops are a luxury; it's like giving them iPods. No. +The reason you want laptops is that the word is education, not laptop. +This is an education project, not a laptop project. +They need to learn learning. And then, just think -- they can have, let's say, 100 books. +In a village, you have 100 laptops, each with a different set of 100 books, and so that village suddenly has 10,000 books. +You and I didn't have 10,000 books when we went to primary school. +Sometimes school is under a tree, or in many cases, the teacher has only a fifth-grade education, so you need a collaborative model of learning, not just building more schools and training more teachers, which you have to do anyway. +So we're once again doing "Give One, Get One." +Last year, we ran a "Give One, Get One" program, and it generated over 100,000 laptops that we were then able to give free. +And by being a zero-dollar laptop, we can go to countries that can't afford it at all. +And that's what we did. We went to Haiti, we went to Rwanda, Afghanistan, Ethiopia, Mongolia. +Places that are not markets, seeding it with the principles of saturation, connectivity, low ages, etc. +And then we can actually roll out large numbers. +So think of it this way: think of it as inoculating children against ignorance. +And think of the laptop as a vaccine. +You don't vaccinate a few children. +You vaccinate all the children in an area. +There are more Chinese restaurants in this country than McDonald's, Burger King, Kentucky Fried Chicken and Wendy's, combined -- 40,000, actually. +Chinese restaurants have played an important role in American history, as a matter of fact. +The Cuban missile crisis was resolved in a Chinese restaurant called Yenching Palace in Washington, DC, which unfortunately is closed now, and about to be turned into Walgreen's. +And the house where John Wilkes Booth planned the assassination of Abraham Lincoln is also now a Chinese restaurant called Wok and Roll, on H Street in Washington. +And it's not completely gratuitous, because "wok" and "roll" -- Chinese food and Japanese foods, so it kind of works out. +And Americans love their Chinese food so much, they've actually brought it into space. +NASA, for example, serves thermostabilized sweet-and-sour pork on its shuttle menu for its astronauts. +So, let me present the question to you: If our benchmark for Americanness is apple pie, you should ask yourself: how often do you eat apple pie, versus how often do you eat Chinese food? +And if you think about it, a lot of the foods that we or Americans think of as Chinese food are barely recognizable to Chinese. +For example: beef with broccoli, egg rolls, General Tso's Chicken, fortune cookies, chop suey, the take-out boxes. +For example, I took a whole bunch of fortune cookies back to China, gave them to Chinese to see how they would react. +[What is this?] [Should I try it?] [Try it!] [What is this called?] [Fortune cookie.] [There's a piece of paper inside!] [What is this?] [You've won a prize!] [What is this?] [It's a fortune!] [Tasty!] So where are they from? +The short answer is, actually, they're from Japan. +And in Kyoto, outside, there are still small family-run bakeries that make fortune cookies, as they did over 100 years ago, 30 years before fortune cookies were introduced in the United States. +If you see them side by side, there's yellow and brown. +Theirs are actually flavored with miso and sesame paste, so they're not as sweet as our version. +So how did they get to the US? +Well, the short answer is, the Japanese immigrants came over, and a bunch of the bakers introduced them -- including at least one in Los Angeles, and one here in San Francisco, called Benkyodo, which is on the corner of Sutter and Buchanan. +Back then, they made fortune cookies using very much the similar kind of irons that we saw back in Kyoto. +The interesting question is: How do you go from fortune cookies being something that is Japanese to being something that is Chinese? +Well, we locked up all the Japanese during World War II, including those that made fortune cookies. +So that's when the Chinese moved in, saw a market opportunity and took over. +So, fortune cookies: invented by the Japanese, popularized by the Chinese, but ultimately consumed by Americans. +They're more American than anything else. +Another of my favorite dishes: General Tso's Chicken -- which, by the way, in the US Naval Academy is called Admiral Tso's Chicken. +I love this dish. +The original name of my book was "The Long March of General Tso." +And he has marched very far indeed, because he is sweet, he is fried, and he is chicken -- all things that Americans love. +He has marched so far, actually, that the chef who originally invented the dish doesn't recognize it; he's kind of horrified. +He's in Taiwan right now. +He's retired, deaf and plays a lot of mahjongg. +After I showed him this, he got up, and says, "mmngqmio," which means, "This is all nonsense," and goes back to play his mah-jongg game during the afternoon. +Another dish, one of my favorites: beef with broccoli. +Broccoli is not a Chinese vegetable; in fact, it is originally an Italian vegetable. +It was introduced into the United States in the 1800s, but became popularized in the 1920s and the 1930s. +The Chinese have their own version of broccoli, called Chinese broccoli, but they've now discovered American broccoli, and are importing it as a sort of exotic delicacy. +I guarantee you, General Tso never saw a stalk of broccoli in his life. +That was a picture of General Tso. +I went to his home town. +This is a billboard that says: "Welcome to the birthplace of General Tso." +And I went looking for chicken. +Finally found a cow -- and did find chicken. +Believe it or not, these guys were actually crossing the road. +And I found a whole bunch of General Tso's relatives who are still in the town. +This guy is now five generations removed from the General; this guy is about seven. +I showed them the pictures of General Tso Chicken, and they were like, "We don't know this dish. Is this Chinese food?" +Because it doesn't look like Chinese food to them. +But they weren't surprised I traveled around the world to visit them, because in their eyes he is, after all, a famous Qing dynasty military hero. +He played an important role in the Taiping Rebellion, a war started by a guy who thought he was the son of God and baby brother of Jesus Christ. +He caused a war that killed 20 million people -- still the deadliest civil war in the world to this day. +So, you know, I realized when I was there, General Tso is kind of a lot like Colonel Sanders in America, in that he's known for chicken and not war. +But in China, this guy's actually known for war and not chicken. +But the granddaddy of all the Chinese American dishes we probably ought to talk about is chop suey, which was introduced around the turn of the 20th century. +According to the New York Times in 1904, there was an outbreak of Chinese restaurants all over town, and "... the city has gone 'chop suey' mad." +So it took about 30 years before the Americans realized that chop suey is actually not known in China, and as this article points out, "The average native of any city in China knows nothing of chop suey." +Back then it was a way to show you were sophisticated and cosmopolitan; a guy who wanted to impress a girl could take her on a chop suey date. +I like to say chop suey is the biggest culinary joke one culture ever played on another, because "chop suey," translated into Chinese, means "jaahp-seui," which, translated back, means "odds and ends." +So, these people are going around China asking for chop suey, which is sort of like a Japanese guy coming here and saying, "I understand you have a very popular dish in your country called 'leftovers.'" Right? +And not only that: "This dish is particularly popular after that holiday you call 'Thanksgiving.'" So, why and where did chop suey come from? +Let's go back to the mid-1800s, when the Chinese first came to America. +Back then, Americans were not clamoring to eat Chinese food. +In fact, they saw these people who landed at their shores as alien. +These people weren't eating dogs, they were eating cats. +If they weren't eating cats, they were eating rats. +In fact, The New York Times, my esteemed employer, in 1883 ran an article that asked, "Do Chinese eat rats?" +Not the most PC question to be asked today, but if you look at the popular imagery of the time, not so outlandish. +This is actually a real advertisement for rat poison from the late 1800s. +And if you see under the word "Clears" -- very small -- it says, "They must go," which refers not only to the rats, but to the Chinese in their midst, because the way that the food was perceived was that these people who ate foods different from us must be different from us. +Another way that you saw this antipathy towards the Chinese is through documents like this. +This is in the Library of Congress. +It's a pamphlet published by Samuel Gompers, hero of our American labor movement. +It's called, "Some Reason for Chinese Exclusion: Meat versus Rice: American Manhood against Asiatic Coolieism: Which shall survive?" +And it basically made the argument that Chinese men who ate rice would necessarily bring down the standard of living for American men who ate meat. +And as a matter of fact, then, this is one of the reasons we must exclude them from this country. +So, with sentiments like these, the Chinese Exclusion Act was passed between 1882 and 1902, the only time in American history when a group was specifically excluded for its national origin or ethnicity. +So in a way, because the Chinese were attacked, chop suey was created as a defense mechanism. +Who came up with the idea of chop suey? +There's a lot of different mysteries and legends, but of the ones I've found, the most interesting is this article from 1904. +A Chinese guy named Lem Sen shows up in Chinatown, New York City, and says, "I want you all to stop making chop suey, because I am the original creator and sole proprietor of chop suey. +And the way he tells it, there was a famous Chinese diplomat that showed up, and he was told to make a dish that looked very popular and could, quote, "pass" as Chinese. +And as he said -- we would never print this today -- but basically, the American man has become very rich. +Lem Sen: "I would've made this money, too, but I spent all this time looking for the American man who stole my recipe. +Now I've found him and I want my recipe back, and I want everyone to stop making chop suey, or pay me for the right to do the same. +So it was an early exercise of intellectual property rights. +The thing is, this idea of Chinese-American food doesn't exist only in America. +In fact, Chinese food is the most pervasive food on the planet, served on all seven continents, even Antarctica, because Monday night is Chinese food night at McMurdo Station, which is the main scientific station in Antarctica. +You see different varieties of Chinese food. +For example, there is French Chinese food, where they serve salt and pepper frog legs. +There is Italian Chinese food, where they don't have fortune cookies, so they serve fried gelato. +My neighbor, Alessandra, was shocked when I told her, "Dude, fried gelato is not Chinese." +She's like, "It's not? But they serve it in all the Chinese restaurants in Italy." +Even the Brits have their own version. +This is a dish called "crispy shredded beef," which has a lot of crisp, a lot of shred, and not a lot of beef. +There is West Indian Chinese food, there's Jamaican Chinese food, Middle Eastern Chinese food, Mauritian Chinese food. +This is a dish called "Magic Bowl," that I discovered. +There's Indian Chinese food, Korean Chinese food, Japanese Chinese food, where they take the bao, the little buns, and make them into pizza versions. +And they totally randomly take Chinese noodle dishes, and just ramenize them. +This is something that, in the Chinese version, has no soup. +So, there's Peruvian Chinese food, which should not be mixed with Mexican Chinese food, where they basically take things and make it look like fajitas. +And they have things like risotto chop suey. +My personal favorite of all the restaurants I've encountered around the world was this one in Brazil, called "Kung Food." +So, let's take a step back and understand what is to be appreciated in America. +McDonald's has garnered a lot of attention, a lot of respect, for basically standardizing the menu, decor and dining experience in post-World War II America. +But you know what? +They did so through a centralized headquarters out of Illinois. +Chinese restaurants have done largely the same thing, I would argue, with the menu and the decor, even the restaurant name, but without a centralized headquarters. +So, this actually became very clear to me with the March 30, 2005 Powerball drawing, where they expected, based on the number of ticket sales they had, to have three or four second-place winners, people who match five or six Powerball numbers. +Instead, they had 110, and they were completely shocked. +They looked all across the country and discovered it couldn't be fraud, since it happened in different states, across different computer systems. +Whatever it was, it caused people to behave in a mass-synchronized way. +So, OK, maybe it had to do with the patterns on the pieces of paper, like it was a diamond, or diagonal. +It wasn't that, so they're like, OK, let's look at television. +So they looked at an episode of "Lost." +They looked at "The Young and The Restless." It wasn't that, either. +It wasn't until the first guy shows up the next day and they ask him, "Where did you get your number?" +He said, "I got it from a fortune cookie." +This is a slip one of the winners had, because the Tennessee lottery security officials were like, "Oh, no, this can't be true." +But it was true. +Basically, of those 110 people, 104 of them or so had gotten their number from a fortune cookie. +Yeah. So I went and started looking. +I went across the country, looking for these restaurants where these people had gotten their fortune cookies from. +There are a bunch of them, including Lee's China in Omaha -- which is actually run by Koreans, but that's another point, and a bunch of them named "China Buffet." +What's interesting is that their stories were similar, but different. +It was lunch, it was take-out, it was sit-down, it was buffet, it was three weeks ago, it was three months ago. +But at some point, all these people had a very similar experience that converged at a fortune cookie and a Chinese restaurant. +And all these restaurants were serving fortune cookies, which, of course, aren't even Chinese to begin with. +It's part of the phenomenon I called "spontaneous self-organization," where, like in ant colonies, little decisions made on the micro level actually have a big impact on the macro level. +A good contrast is Chicken McNuggets. +McDonald's actually spent 10 years coming out with a chicken-like product. +They did chicken pot pie, fried chicken, and finally introduced Chicken McNuggets. +And the great innovation of Chicken McNuggets was not nuggifying them, that's kind of an easy concept. +In contrast is General Tso's Chicken, which actually started in New York City in the early 1970s, as I was also started in this universe in New York City in the early 1970s. +And this logo! +So me, General Tso's Chicken and this logo are all karmicly related. +But that dish also took about 10 years to spread across America from a restaurant in New York City. +Someone's like, "It's sweet, it's fried, it's chicken -- Americans will love this." +So what I like to say, this being Bay Area, Silicon Valley, is that we think of McDonald's as sort of the Microsoft of dining experiences. +We can think of Chinese restaurants perhaps as Linux, sort of an open-source thing, right? Where ideas from one person can be copied and propagated across the entire system, that there can be specialized versions of Chinese food, depending on the region. +For example, in New Orleans we have Cajun Chinese food, where they serve Sichuan alligator and sweet and sour crawfish. +And in Philadelphia, you have Philadelphia cheesesteak roll, which is like an egg roll on the outside and cheesesteak on the inside. +I was surprised to discover that not only in Philadelphia, but also in Atlanta. +What had happened was, a Chinese family had moved from Philadelphia to Atlanta, and brought that with them. +So the thing is, our historical lore, because of the way we like narratives, is full of vast characters, such as Howard Schultz of Starbucks and Ray Kroc with McDonald's and Asa Candler with Coca-Cola. +But, you know, it's very easy to overlook the smaller characters. +For example, Lem Sen, who introduced chop suey, Chef Peng, who introduced General Tso's Chicken, and all the Japanese bakers who introduced fortune cookies. +So, the point of my presentation is to make you think twice; that those whose names are forgotten in history can often have had as much, if not more, impact on what we eat today. +Thank you very much. +I'll just start talking about the 17th century. +I hope nobody finds that offensive. +I -- you know, when I -- after I had invented PCR, I kind of needed a change. +And I moved down to La Jolla and learned how to surf. +And I started living down there on the beach for a long time. +And when surfers are out waiting for waves, you probably wonder, if you've never been out there, what are they doing? +You know, sometimes there's a 10-, 15-minute break out there when you're waiting for a wave to come in. +They usually talk about the 17th century. +You know, they get a real bad rap in the world. +People think they're sort of lowbrows. +One day, somebody suggested I read this book. +It was called -- it was called "The Air Pump," or something like "The Leviathan and The Air Pump." +It was a real weird book about the 17th century. +And I realized, the roots of the way I sort of thought was just the only natural way to think about things. +That -- you know, I was born thinking about things that way, and I had always been like a little scientist guy. +And when I went to find out something, I used scientific methods. I wasn't real surprised, you know, when they first told me how -- how you were supposed to do science, because I'd already been doing it for fun and whatever. +But it didn't -- it never occurred to me that it had to be invented and that it had been invented only 350 years ago. +You know, it was -- like it happened in England, and Germany, and Italy sort of all at the same time. +And the story of that, I thought, was really fascinating. +So I'm going to talk a little bit about that, and what exactly is it that scientists are supposed to do. +And it's, it's a kind of -- You know, Charles I got beheaded somewhere early in the 17th century. +And the English set up Cromwell and a whole bunch of Republicans or whatever, and not the kind of Republicans we had. +They changed the government, and it didn't work. +And Charles II, the son, was finally put back on the throne of England. +They didn't have TV screens, and they didn't have any football games to watch. +And they would get really pissy, and all of a sudden people would spill out into the street and fight about issues like whether or not it was okay if Robert Boyle made a device called the vacuum pump. +Now, Boyle was a friend of Charles II. +He was a Christian guy during the weekends, but during the week he was a scientist. +But what he was trying to do was to pump all the air out of there, and see what would happen inside there. +I mean, the first -- I think one of the first experiments he did was he put a bird in there. +And people in the 17th century, they didn't really understand the same way we do about you know, this stuff is a bunch of different kinds of molecules, and we breathe it in for a purpose and all that. +I mean, fish don't know much about water, and people didn't know much about air. +But both started exploring it. +One thing, he put a bird in there, and he pumped all the air out, and the bird died. So he said, hmm... +He said -- he called what he'd done as making -- they didn't call it a vacuum pump at the time. +Now you call it a vacuum pump; he called it a vacuum. +Right? And immediately, he got into trouble with the local clergy who said, you can't make a vacuum. +Ah, uh -- Aristotle said that nature abhors one. +I think it was a poor translation, probably, but people relied on authorities like that. +And you know, Boyle says, well, shit. +I make them all the time. +I mean, whatever that is that kills the bird -- and I'm calling it a vacuum. +And the religious people said that if God wanted you to make -- I mean, God is everywhere, that was one of their rules, is God is everywhere. +And a vacuum -- there's nothing in a vacuum, so you've -- God couldn't be in there. +So therefore the church said that you can't make a vacuum, you know. +And Boyle said, bullshit. +I mean, you want to call it Godless, you know, you call it Godless. +But that's not my job. I'm not into that. +I do that on the weekend. And like -- what I'm trying to do is figure out what happens when you suck everything out of a compartment. +And he did all these cute little experiments. +Like he did one with -- he had a little wheel, like a fan, that was sort of loosely attached, so it could spin by itself. +He had another fan opposed to it that he had like a -- I mean, the way I would have done this would be, like, a rubber band, and, you know, around a tinker toy kind of fan. +I know exactly how he did it; I've seen the drawings. +It's two fans, one which he could turn from outside after he got the vacuum established, and he discovered that if he pulled all the air out of it, the one fan would no longer turn the other one, right? +Something was missing, you know. I mean, these are -- it's kind of weird to think that someone had to do an experiment to show that, but that was what was going on at the time. +And like, there was big arguments about it in the -- you know, the gin houses and in the coffee shops and stuff. +And Charles started not liking that. +And so, Charles said, I'm going to put up the money give you guys a building, come here and you can meet in the building, but just don't talk about religion in there. +And that was fine with Boyle. +He said, OK, we're going to start having these meetings. +And anybody who wants to do science is -- this is about the time that Isaac Newton was starting to whip out a lot of really interesting things. +And there was all kind of people that would come to the Royal Society, they called it. You had to be dressed up pretty well. +It wasn't like a TED conference. +That was the only criteria, was that you be -- you looked like a gentleman, and they'd let anybody could come. +You didn't have to be a member then. +And so, they would come in and you would do -- Anybody that was going to show an experiment, which was kind of a new word at the time, demonstrate some principle, they had to do it on stage, where everybody could see it. +So they were -- the really important part of this was, you were not supposed to talk about final causes, for instance. +And God was out of the picture. +The actual nature of reality was not at issue. +You're not supposed to talk about the absolute nature of anything. +You were not supposed to talk about anything that you couldn't demonstrate. +So if somebody could see it, you could say, here's how the machine works, here's what we do, and then here's what happens. +And seeing what happens, it was OK to generalize, and say, I'm sure that this will happen anytime we make one of these things. +And so you can start making up some rules. +You say, anytime you have a vacuum state, you will discover that one wheel will not turn another one, if the only connection between them is whatever was there before the vacuum. That kind of thing. +Candles can't burn in a vacuum, therefore, probably sparklers wouldn't either. +It's not clear; actually sparklers will, but they didn't know that. +They didn't have sparklers. But, they -- -- you can make up rules, but they have to relate only to the things that you've been able to demonstrate. +And most the demonstrations had to do with visuals. +Like if you do an experiment on stage, and nobody can see it, they can just hear it, they would probably think you were freaky. +I mean, reality is what you can see. +That wasn't an explicit rule in the meeting, but I'm sure that was part of it, you know. If people hear voices, and they can't see and associate it with somebody, that person's probably not there. +But the general idea that you could only -- you could only really talk about things in that place that had some kind of experimental basis. +It didn't matter what Thomas Hobbes, who was a local philosopher, said about it, you know, because you weren't going to be talking final causes. +What's happening here, in the middle of the 17th century, was that what became my field -- science, experimental science -- was pulling itself away, and it was in a physical way, because we're going to do it in this room over here, but it was also what -- it was an amazing thing that happened. +Science had been all interlocked with theology, and philosophy, and -- and -- and mathematics, which is really not science. +But experimental science had been tied up with all those things. +And the mathematics part and the experimental science part was pulling away from philosophy. +And -- things -- we never looked back. +It's been so cool since then. +I mean, it just -- it just -- untangled a thing that was really impeding technology from being developed. +And, I mean, everybody in this room -- now, this is 350 short years ago. +Remember, that's a short time. +It was 300,000, probably, years ago that most of us, the ancestors of most of us in this room came up out of Africa and turned to the left. +You know, the ones that turned to the right, there are some of those in the Japanese translation. +But that happened very -- a long time ago compared to 350 short years ago. +But in that 350 years, the place has just undergone a lot of changes. +Kary Mullis: They might have done it for the teddy bear, yeah. +But -- all of us own stuff. +I mean, individuals own things that kings would have definitely gone to war to get. +And this is just 350 years. +Not a whole lot of people doing this stuff. +You know, the important people -- you can almost read about their lives, about all the really important people that made advances, you know. +You get -- you get, like -- I just had a natural feeling for science and setting up experiments. I thought that was the way everybody had always thought. +I thought that anybody with any brains will do it that way. +It isn't true. I mean, there's a lot of people -- You know, I was one of those scientists that was -- got into trouble the other night at dinner because of the post-modernism thing. +And I didn't mean, you know -- where is that lady? +Audience: Here. +KM: I mean, I didn't really think of that as an argument so much as just a lively discussion. +I didn't take it personally, but -- I just -- I had -- I naively had thought, until this surfing experience started me into the 17th century, I'd thought that's just the way people thought, and everybody did, and they recognized reality by what they could see or touch or feel or hear. +At any rate, when I was a boy, I, like, for instance, I had this -- I got this little book from Fort Sill, Oklahoma -- This is about the time that George Dyson's dad was starting to blow nuclear -- thinking about blowing up nuclear rockets and stuff. +I was thinking about making my own little rockets. +And I knew that frogs -- little frogs -- had aspirations of space travel, just like people. And I -- I was looking for a -- a propulsion system that would like, make a rocket, like, maybe about four feet high go up a couple of miles. +And, I mean, that was my sort of goal. +I wanted it to go out of sight and then I wanted this little parachute to come back with the frog in it. +And -- I -- I -- I got this book from Fort Sill, Oklahoma, where there's a missile base. +They send it out for amateur rocketeers, and it said in there do not ever heat a mixture of potassium perchlorate and sugar. +You know, that's what you call a lead. +You sort of -- now you say, well, let's see if I can get hold of some potassium chlorate and sugar, perchlorate and sugar, and heat it; it would be interesting to see what it is they don't want me to do, and what it is going to -- and how is it going to work. +And we didn't have -- like, my mother presided over the back yard from an upstairs window, where she would be ironing or something like that. +And she was usually just sort of keeping an eye on, and if there was any puffs of smoke out there, she'd lean out and admonish us all not to blow our eyes out. That was her -- You know, that was kind of the worst thing that could happen to us. +That's why I thought, as long as I don't blow my eyes out... +I may not care about the fact that it's prohibited from heating this solution. +I'm going to do it carefully, but I'll do it. +It's like anything else that's prohibited: you do it behind the garage. +So, I went to the drug store and I tried to buy some potassium perchlorate and it wasn't unreasonable then for a kid to walk into a drug store and buy chemicals. +Nowadays, it's no ma'am, check your shoes. And like -- But then it wasn't -- they didn't have any, but the guy had -- I said, what kind of salts of potassium do you have? You know. +And he had potassium nitrate. +And I said, that might do the same thing, whatever it is. +I'm sure it's got to do with rockets or it wouldn't be in that manual. +And so I -- I did some experiments. +You know, I started off with little tiny amounts of potassium nitrate and sugar, which was readily available, and I mixed it in different proportions, and I tried to light it on fire. +Just to see what would happen, if you mixed it together. +And it -- they burned. +It burned kind of slow, but it made a nice smell, compared to other rocket fuels I had tried, that all had sulfur in them. +And, it smelt like burnt candy. +And then I tried the melting business, and I melted it. +And then it melted into a little sort of syrupy liquid, brown. +And then it cooled down to a brick-hard substance, that when you lit that, it went off like a bat. +I mean, the little bowl of that stuff that had cooled down -- you'd light it, and it would just start dancing around the yard. +And I said, there is a way to get a frog up to where he wants to go. +So I started developing -- you know, George's dad had a lot of help. I just had my brother. +But I -- it took me about -- it took me about, I'd say, six months to finally figure out all the little things. +There's a lot of little things involved in making a rocket that it will actually work, even after you have the fuel. +But you do it, by -- what I just-- you know, you do experiments, and you write down things sometimes, you make observations, you know. +And then you slowly build up a theory of how this stuff works. +And it was -- I was following all the rules. +I didn't know what the rules were, I'm a natural born scientist, I guess, or some kind of a throwback to the 17th century, whatever. +But at any rate, we finally did have a device that would reproduceably put a frog out of sight and get him back alive. +And we had not -- I mean, we weren't frightened by it. +We should have been, because it made a lot of smoke and it made a lot of noise, and it was powerful, you know. +And once in a while, they would blow up. +But I wasn't worried, by the way, about, you know, the explosion causing the destruction of the planet. +I hadn't heard about the 10 ways that we should be afraid of the -- By the way, I could have thought, I'd better not do this because they say not to, you know. +And I'd better get permission from the government. +If I'd have waited around for that, I would have never -- the frog would have died, you know. +At any rate, I bring it up because it's a good story, and he said, tell personal things, you know, and that's a personal -- I was going to tell you about the first night that I met my wife, but that would be too personal, wouldn't it. +So, so I've got something else that's not personal. +But that... process is what I think of as science, see, where you start with some idea, and then instead of, like, looking up, every authority that you've ever heard of I -- sometimes you do that, if you're going to write a paper later, you want to figure out who else has worked on it. +You know, if I had gone back looking for an authority figure who could tell me if it would work or not, he would have said, no, it probably won't. +Because the results of it were so spectacular that if it worked it was going to change everybody's goddamn way of doing molecular biology. +Nobody wants a chemist to come in and poke around in their stuff like that and change things. +But if you go to authority, and you always don't -- you don't always get the right answer, see. +You know, that's how you do science. +And then you say, well, what can make it work better? +And then you figure out better and better ways to do it. +But you always work from, from like, facts that you have made available to you by doing experiments: things that you could do on a stage. +And no tricky shit behind the thing. I mean, it's all -- you've got to be very honest with what you're doing if it really is going to work. +I mean, you can't make up results, and then do another experiment based on that one. +So you have to be honest. +And I'm basically honest. +I have a fairly bad memory, and dishonesty would always get me in trouble, if I, like -- so I've just sort of been naturally honest and naturally inquisitive, and that sort of leads to that kind of science. +Now, let's see... +I've got another five minutes, right? +OK. All scientists aren't like that. +You know -- and there is a lot -- There is a lot -- a lot has been going on since Isaac Newton and all that stuff happened. +One of the things that happened right around World War II in that same time period before, and as sure as hell afterwards, government got -- realized that scientists aren't strange dudes that, you know, hide in ivory towers and do ridiculous things with test tube. +Scientists, you know, made World War II as we know it quite possible. +They made faster things. +They made bigger guns to shoot them down with. +You know, they made drugs to give the pilots if they were broken up in the process. +They made all kinds of -- and then finally one giant bomb to end the whole thing, right? +And everybody stepped back a little and said, you know, we ought to invest in this shit, because whoever has got the most of these people working in the places is going to have a dominant position, at least in the military, and probably in all kind of economic ways. +And they got involved in it, and the scientific and industrial establishment was born, and out of that came a lot of scientists who were in there for the money, you know, because it was suddenly available. +And they weren't the curious little boys that liked to put frogs up in the air. +You want to be rich, you be a businessman. +But a lot of people got in it for the money and the power and the travel. +That's back when travel was easy. +And those people don't think -- they don't -- they don't always tell you the truth, you know. +There is nothing in their contract, in fact, that makes it to their advantage always, to tell you the truth. +And the people I'm talking about are people that like -- they say that they're a member of the committee called, say, the Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate Change. +And they -- and they have these big meetings where they try to figure out how we're going to -- how we're going to continually prove that the planet is getting warmer, when that's actually contrary to most people's sensations. +I mean, if you actually measure the temperature over a period -- I mean, the temperature has been measured now pretty carefully for about 50, 60 years -- longer than that it's been measured, but in really nice, precise ways, and records have been kept for 50 or 60 years, and in fact, the temperature hadn't really gone up. +It's like, the average temperature has gone up a tiny little bit, because the nighttime temperatures at the weather stations have come up just a little bit. +But there's a good explanation for that. +And it's that the weather stations are all built outside of town, where the airport was, and now the town's moved out there, there's concrete all around and they call it the skyline effect. +And most responsible people that measure temperatures realize you have to shield your measuring device from that. +And even then, you know, because the buildings get warm in the daytime, and they keep it a little warmer at night. +So the temperature has been, sort of, inching up. +It should have been. But not a lot. Not like, you know -- the first guy -- the first guy that got the idea that we're going to fry ourselves here, actually, he didn't think of it that way. +His name was Sven Arrhenius. He was Swedish, and he said, if you double the CO2 level in the atmosphere, which he thought might -- this is in 1900 -- the temperature ought to go up about 5.5 degrees, he calculated. +He was thinking of the earth as, kind of like, you know, like a completely insulated thing with no stuff in it, really, just energy coming down, energy leaving. +But nobody actually demonstrated it, right? +So if you just average that and the daytime temperature, it looks like it went up about .7 degrees in this century. +But in fact, it was just coming up -- it was the nighttime; the daytime temperatures didn't go up. +So -- and Arrhenius' theory -- and all the global warmers think -- they would say, yeah, it should go up in the daytime, too, if it's the greenhouse effect. +It's a paper that came out in February, and most of you probably hadn't heard about it. +"Evidence for Large Decadal Variability in the Tropical Mean Radiative Energy Budget." +Excuse me. Those papers were published by NASA, and some scientists at Columbia, and Viliki and a whole bunch of people, Princeton. +They say, if you measure the temperature of the atmosphere, it isn't going up -- it's not going up at all. We've doing it very carefully now for 20 years, from satellites, and it isn't going up. +When it gets warm it generates -- it makes redder energy -- I mean, like infra-red, like something that's warm gives off infra-red. +So you still get heated, but you don't dissipate any. +Well, these guys measured all of those things. +Like, the amount of imbalance -- meaning, heat's coming in and it's not going out that you would get from having double the CO2, which we're not anywhere near that, by the way. +But if we did, in 2025 or something, have double the CO2 as we had in 1900, they say it would be increase the energy budget by about -- in other words, one watt per square centimeter more would be coming in than going out. +So the planet should get warmer. +Well, they found out in this study -- these two studies by two different teams -- that five and a half watts per square meter had been coming in from 1998, 1999, and the place didn't get warmer. +So the theory's kaput -- it's nothing. +These papers should have been called, "The End to the Global Warming Fiasco," you know. +They're concerned, and you can tell they have very guarded conclusions in these papers, because they're talking about big laboratories that are funded by lots of money and by scared people. +You know, if they said, you know what? +There isn't a problem with global warming any longer, so we can -- you know, they're funding. +And if you start a grant request with something like that, and say, global warming obviously hadn't happened... +if they -- if they -- if they actually -- if they actually said that, I'm getting out. +I'll stand up too, and -- They have to say that. +They had to be very cautious. +It's not by a small one. They just -- they just misinterpreted the fact that the earth -- there's obviously some mechanisms going on that nobody knew about, because the heat's coming in and it isn't getting warmer. +So the planet is a pretty amazing thing, you know, it's big and horrible -- and big and wonderful, and it does all kinds of things we don't know anything about. +So I mean, the reason I put those things all together, OK, here's the way you're supposed to do science -- some science is done for other reasons, and just curiosity. +And there's a lot of things like global warming, and ozone hole and you know, a whole bunch of scientific public issues, that if you're interested in them, then you have to get down the details, and read the papers called, "Large Decadal Variability in the..." +You have to figure out what all those words mean. +And if you just listen to the guys who are hyping those issues, and making a lot of money out of it, you'll be misinformed, and you'll be worrying about the wrong things. +Remember the 10 things that are going to get you. The -- one of them -- And the asteroids is the one I really agree with there. +I mean, you've got to watch out for asteroids. OK, thank you for having me here. +I'm kind of tired of talking about simplicity, actually, so I thought I'd make my life more complex, as a serious play. +So, I'm going to, like, go through some slides from way back when, and walk through them to give you a sense of how I end up here. +So, basically it all began with this whole idea of a computer. +Who has a computer? Yeah. +O.K., so, everyone has a computer. +Even a mobile phone, it's a computer. +And -- anyone remember this workbook, "Instant Activities for Your Apple" -- free poster in each book? +This was how computing began. +Don't forget: a computer came out; it had no software. +You'd buy that thing, you'd bring it home, you'd plug it in, and it would do absolutely nothing at all. +So, you had to program it, and there were great programming, like, tutorials, like this. +I mean, this was great. +It's, like, you know, Herbie the Apple II. +It's such a great way to -- I mean, they should make Java books like this, and we've have no problem learning a program. +But this was a great, grand time of the computer, when it was just a raw, raw, what is it? kind of an era. +And, you see, this era coincided with my own childhood. +I grew up in a tofu factory in Seattle. +Who of you grew up in a family business, suffered the torture? Yes, yes. +The torture was good. Wasn't it good torture? +It was just life-changing, you know. And so, in my life, you know, I was in the tofu; it was a family business. +And my mother was a kind of a designer, also. +She'd make this kind of, like, wall of tofu cooking, and it would confuse the customers, because they all thought it was a restaurant. +A bad sort of branding thing, or whatever. +But, anyway, that's where I grew up, in this little tofu factory in Seattle, and it was kind of like this: a small room where I kind of grew up. I'm big there in that picture. +That's my dad. My dad was kind of like MacGyver, really: he would invent, like, ways to make things heavy. +Like back here, there's like, concrete block technology here, and he would need the concrete blocks to press the tofu, because tofu is actually kind of a liquidy type of thing, and so you have to have heavy stuff to push out the liquid and make it hard. +Tofu comes out in these big batches, and my father would sort of cut them by hand. +I can't tell you -- family business story: you'd understand this -- my father was the most sincere man possible. +He walked into a Safeway once on a rainy day, slipped, broke his arm, rushed out: he didn't want to inconvenience Safeway. +So, instead, you know, my father's, like, arm's broken for two weeks in the store, and that week -- now, those two weeks were when my older brother and I had to do everything. +And that was torture, real torture. +Because, you see, we'd seen my father taking the big block of tofu and cutting it, like, knife in, zap, zap, zap. We thought, wow. +So, the first time I did that, I went, like, whoa! Like this. +Bad blocks. But anyways, the tofu to me was kind of my origin, basically. +And because working in a store was so hard, I liked going to school; it was like heaven. +And I was really good at school. +So, when I got to MIT, you know, as most of you who are creatives, your parents all told you not to be creative, right? +So, same way, you know, I was good at art and good at math, and my father says, he's -- John's good at math. +I went to MIT, did my math, but I had this wonderful opportunity, because computers had just become visual. +The Apple -- Macintosh just came out; I had a Mac in hand when I went to MIT. +And it was a time when a guy who, kind of, could cross the two sides -- it was a good time. +And so, I remember that my first major piece of software was on a direct copy of then-Aldus PageMaker. +I made a desktop publishing system way back when, and that was, kind of, my first step into figuring out how to -- oh, these two sides are kind of fun to mix. +And the problem when you're younger -- for all you students out there -- is, your head gets kind of big really easy. +And when I was making icons, I was, like, the icon master, and I was, like, yeah, I'm really good at this, you know. +And then luckily, you know, I had the fortune of going to something called a library, and in the library I came upon this very book. +I found this book. It's called, "Thoughts on Design," by a man named Paul Rand. +It's a little slim volume; I'm not sure if you've seen this. +It's a very nice little book. It's about this guy, Paul Rand, who was one of the greatest graphic designers, and also a great writer as well. +And when I saw this man's work, I realized how bad I was at design, or whatever I called it back then, and I suddenly had a kind of career goal, kind of in hot pursuit. +So I kind of switched. I went to MIT, finished. +I got my masters, and then went to art school after that. +And just began to design stuff, like chopstick wrappers, napkins, menus -- whatever I could get a handle on: sort of wheel-and-deal, move up in the design world, whatever. +And isn't it that strange moment when you publish your design? +Remember that moment -- publishing your designs? +Remember that moment? It felt so good, didn't it? +So, I was published, you know, so, wow, my design's in a book, you know? +After that, things kind of got strange, and I got thinking about the computer, because the computer to me always, kind of, bothered me. +I didn't quite get it. And Paul Rand was a kind of crusty designer, you know, a crusty designer, like a good -- kind of like a good French bread? +You know, he wrote in one of his books: "A Yale student once said, 'I came here to learn how to design, not how to use a computer.' Design schools take heed." +This is in the '80s, in the great clash of computer/non-computer people. +A very difficult time, actually. +And this to me was an important message from Rand. +And so I began to sort of mess with the computer at the time. +This is the first sort of play thing I did, my own serious play. +I built a working version of an Adobe Illustrator-ish thing. +It looks like Illustrator; it can, like, draw. +It was very hard to make this, actually. +It took a month to make this part. +And then I thought, what if I added this feature, where I can say, this point, you can fly like a bird. You're free, kind of thing. +So I could, sort of, change the kind of stability with a little control there on the dial, and I can sort of watch it flip around. +And this is in 1993. +And when my professors saw this, they were very upset at me. +They were saying, Why's it moving? +They were saying, Make it stop now. +Now, I was saying, Well, that's the whole point: it's moving. +And he says, Well, when's it going to stop? +And I said, Never. +And he said, Even worse. Stop it now. +I started studying this whole idea, of like, what is this computer? It's a strange medium. +It's not like print. It's not like video. +It lasts forever. It's a very strange medium. +So, I went off with this, and began to look for things even more. +And so in Japan, I began to experiment with people. +This is actually bad: human experiments. +I would do these things where I'd have students become pens: there's blue pen, red pen, green pen, black pen. +And someone sits down and draws a picture. +They're laughing because he said, draw from the middle-right to the middle, and he kind of messed up. +See, humans don't know how to take orders; the computer's so good at it. +This guy figured out how to get the computer to draw with two pens at once: you know, you, pen, do this, and you, pen, do this. +And so began to have multiple pens on the page -- again, hard to do with our hands. +And then someone discovered this "a-ha moment" where you could use coordinate systems. +We thought, ah, this is when it's going to happen. +In the end, he drew a house. It was the most boring thing. +It became computerish; we began to think computerish -- the X, Y system -- and so that was kind of a revelation. +And after this I wanted to build a computer out of people, called a human-powered computer. +So, this happened in 1993. +Sound down, please. +It's a computer where the people are the parts. +I have behind this wall a disk drive, a CPU, a graphics card, a memory system. +They're picking up a giant floppy disk made of cardboard. +It's put inside the computer. +And that little program's on that cardboard disk. +So, she wears the disk, and reads the data off the sectors of the disk, and the computer starts up; it sort of boots up, really. +And it's a sort of a working computer. And when I built this computer, I had a moment of -- what is it called? -- the epiphany where I realized that the computer's just so fast. +This computer appears to be fast - she's working pretty hard, and people are running around, and we think, wow, this is happening at a fast rate. +And this computer's programmed to do only one thing, which is, if you move your mouse, the mouse changes on the screen. +On the computer, when you move your mouse, that arrow moves around. +On this computer, if you move the mouse, it takes half an hour for the mouse cursor to change. +To give you a sense of the speed, the scale: the computer is just so amazingly fast, O.K.? +And so, after this I began to do experiments for different companies. +This is something I did for Sony in 1996. +It was three Sony "H" devices that responded to sound. +So, if you talk into the mike, you'll hear some music in your headphones; if you talk in the phone, then video would happen. +So, I began to experiment with industry in different ways with this kind of mixture of skills. +I did this ad. I don't believe in this kind of alcohol, but I do drink sometimes. +And Chanel. So, getting to do different projects. +And also, one thing I realized is that I like to make things. +We like to make things. It's fun to make things. +And so I never developed the ability to have a staff. +I have no staff; it's all kind of made by hand -- these sort of broken hands. +And these hands were influenced by this man, Mr. Inami Naomi. +This guy was my kind of like mentor. +He was the first digital media producer in Tokyo. +He's the guy that kind of discovered me, and kind of got me going in digital media. +He was such an inspirational guy. +I remember, like, we'd be in his studio, like, at 2 a.m., and then he'd show up from some client meeting. +He'd come in and say, you know, If I am here, everything is okay. +And you'd feel so much better, you know. +And I'll never forget how, like, but -- I'll never forget how, like, he had a sudden situation with his -- he had an aneurysm. +He went into a coma. +And so, for three years he was out, and he could only blink, and so I realized at this moment, I thought, wow -- how fragile is this thing we're wearing, this body and mind we're wearing, and so I thought, How do you go for it more? +How do you take that time you have left and go after it? +So, Naomi was pivotal in that. +And so, I began to think more carefully about the computer. +This was a moment where I was thinking about, so, you have a computer program, it responds to motion -- X and Y -- and I realized that each computer program has all these images inside the program. +So, if you can see here, you know, that program you're seeing in the corner, if you spread it out, it's all these things all at once. +It's real simultaneity. It's nothing we're used to working with. +We're so used to working in one vector. +This is all at the same time. +The computer lives in so many dimensions. +And also, at the same time I was frustrated, because I would go to all these art and design schools everywhere, and there were these, like, "the computer lab," you know, and this is, like, in the late 1990s, and this is in Basel, a great graphic design school. +And here's this, like, dirty, kind of, shoddy, kind of, dark computer room. +And I began to wonder, Is this the goal? +Is this what we want, you know? +And also, I began to be fascinated by machines -- you know, like copy machines -- and so this is actually in Basel. +I noticed how we spent so much time on making it interactive -- this is, like, a touch screen -- and I noticed how you can only touch five places, and so, "why are we wasting so much interactivity everywhere?" +became a question. And also, the sound: I discovered I can make my ThinkPad pretend it's a telephone. +You get it? No? O.K. +And also, I discovered in Logan airport, this was, like, calling out to me. +Do you hear that? It's like cows. This is at 4 a.m. at Logan. +So, I was wondering, like, what is this thing in front of me, this computer thing? +It didn't make any sense. +So, I began to make things again. This is another series of objects made of old computers from my basement. +I made -- I took my old Macintoshes and made different objects out of them from Tokyo. +I began to be very disinterested in computers themselves, so I began to make paintings out of PalmPilots. +I made this series of works. +They're paintings I made and put a PalmPilot in the middle as a kind of display that's sort of thinking, I'm abstract art. What am I? I'm abstract. +And so it keeps thinking out loud of its own abstraction. +I began to be fascinated by plastic, so I spent four months making eight plastic blocks perfectly optically transparent, as a kind of release of stress. +Because of that, I became interested in blue tape, so in San Francisco, at C.C., I had a whole exhibition on blue tape. +I made a whole installation out of blue tape -- blue painters' tape. +And at this point my wife kind of got worried about me, so I stopped doing blue tape and began to think, Well, what else is there in life? +And so computers, as you know, these big computers, there are now tiny computers. +They're littler computers, so the one-chip computers, I began to program one-chip computers and make objects out of P.C. boards, LEDs. +I began to make LED sculptures that would live inside little boxes out of MDF. +This is a series of light boxes I made for a show in Italy. +Very simple boxes: you just press one button and some LED interaction occurs. +This is a series of lamps I made. This is a Bento box lamp: it's sort of a plastic rice lamp; it's very friendly. +I did a show in London last year made out of iPods -- I used iPods as a material. +So I took 16 iPod Nanos and made a kind of a Nano fish, basically. +Recently, this is for Reebok. +I've done shoes for Reebok as well, as a kind of a hobby for apparel. +So anyways, there are all these things you can do, but the thing I love the most is to experience, taste the world. +The world is just so tasty. +We think we'll go to a museum; that's where all the tastes are. +No, they're all out there. +So, this is, like, in front of the Eiffel Tower, really, actually, around the Louvre area. +This I found, where nature had made a picture for me. +This is a perfect 90-degree angle by nature. +In this strange moment where, like, these things kind of appeared. +We all are creative people. +We have this gene defect in our mind. +We can't help but stop, right? This feeling's a wonderful thing. +It's the forever-always-on museum. +This is from the Cape last year. +I discovered that I had to find the equation of art and design, which we know as circle-triangle-square. +It's everywhere on the beach, I discovered. +I began to collect every instance of circle-triangle-square. +I put these all back, by the way. +And I also discovered how . +some rocks are twins separated at birth. +This is also out there, you know. +I'm, like, how did this happen, kind of thing? +I brought you guys together again. +So, three years ago I discovered, the letters M-I-T occurring in simplicity and complexity. +My alma mater, MIT, and I had this moment -- a kind of M. Night Shayamalan moment -- where I thought, Whoa! I have to do this. +And I went after it with passion. +However, recently this RISD opportunity kind of arose -- going to RISD -- and I couldn't reconcile this real easy, because the letters had told me, MIT forever. +But I discovered in the French word raison d'tre. +I was, like, aha, wait a second. +And there RISD appeared. +And so I realized it was O.K. to go. +So, I'm going to RISD, actually. +Who's a RISD alum out there? +RISD alums? Yeah, RISD. There we go, RISD. Woo, RISD. +I'm sorry, I'm sorry, Art Center -- Art Center is good, too. +RISD is kind of my new kind of passion, and I'll tell you a little bit about that. +So, RISD is -- I was outside RISD, and some student wrote this on some block, and I thought, Wow, RISD wants to know what itself is. +And I have no idea what RISD should be, actually, or what it wants to be, but one thing I have to tell you is that although I'm a technologist, I don't like technology very much. +It's a, kind of, the qi thing, or whatever. +People say, Are you going to bring RISD into the future? +And I say, well, I'm going to bring the future back to RISD. +There's my perspective. Because in reality, the problem isn't how to make the world more technological. +It's about how to make it more humane again. +And if anything, I think RISD has a strange DNA. +It's a strange exuberance about materials, about the world: a fascination that I think the world needs quite very much right now. +So, thank you everyone. +Sixty-five million years ago, a very important and catastrophic event changed the course of life on land. +And although we know that the land animals I'm going to talk about are just the scum of the Earth on the land -- the little bits of land floating around -- but they are important to us because they're sort of in our scale of experience from millimeters to meters. +And as it turns out, it actually corresponds really nicely with geologic history. +So we have a Mesozoic period, an age of fragmentation, and a Cenozoic period, an age of reconnection -- South America to North America, India to Asia. +And so my work, really, is trying to understand the character of that Mesozoic radiation compared to the Cenozoic radiation to see what mysteries we can understand from dinosaurs and from other animals about what life on drifting continents really can tell us about evolution. +The work immediately begs the question, "Why didn't they go into the waters?" +I mean, certainly mammals did. This is one example. +You can go outside -- see many other examples. +Within five, 10 million years of the bolide impact we had a whole variety of animals going into the water. Why didn't they do that? +Why didn't they hang around in trees at good size, and why didn't they burrow? +Why didn't they do all these things, and if they didn't do all these things, what kinds of animals were in those spaces? +And if there were no animals in those spaces, what does that tell us about, you know, how evolution works on land? +Really interesting questions. I think a lot of it has to do with body size. +In fact, I think that most of it has to do with body size -- the size you are when you inherit a vacant ecospace from whatever natural disaster. +Looking at dinosaur evolution and studying it, digging it up for many years, I end up looking at the mammal radiation, and it seems as though everything is quick time, just like technology, advancing by an order of magnitude. +Dinosaur evolution proceeded at a stately pace, an order of magnitude slower on any way you want to measure it. +You want to measure it by diversity? +You want to measure it by the time it took to reach maximum body size? +Yes, they do have larger body size, but many of them are smaller, but we're interested in the time it took them to achieve that. +Fifty million years to achieve this maximum body size. +And that is 10 times longer than it took the mammals to achieve maximum body size and invade all those habitats. +So there's lessons to learn, and there's lessons to learn from the exception, the exception that we know very well today from the discoveries we've made, and many other scholars have made around the world. +This slide was shown before. This is the famous Jurassic bird Archaeopteryx. +We now know this transition is the one time that dinosaurs actually went below that body size -- we're going to see where they began in a minute -- and it is the one time that they rapidly invaded all the habitats I just told you that dinosaurs weren't in. +They became marine. We now know them today from the ice caps. +There's burrowing birds. +They inhabit the trees at all body sizes, and, of course, they inhabit the land. +So we were the first to actually name a bird from the famous series that later exploded onto the pages of Science and Nature. +It is the greatest transition that we have, actually, on land from one habitat to another, bar none, to understand how a bony, fairly heavy, kilogram or a couple-of-kilogram animal could make such a transition. +It is really our greatest -- one of our greatest -- evolutionary sequences. +Now, my work began at the beginning. +I thought if I'm going to understand dinosaur evolution, I'd have to go back to those beds where they had picked up fragments, go back to a time and a place where the earliest dinosaurs existed. +I'd like to call for this little video clip to give you some idea of, sort of, what we face. Normally, we get asked a lot of questions: "Well, how do you find fossils in areas that look like this?" +If we could roll that first video clip. +This is sort of a nice helicopter ride through those early beds, and they're located in Northeastern Argentina. +And we're coming over a cliff, and at the top of that cliff, dinosaurs had basically taken over. +At the bottom of the cliff, we find that they're rare as hens' teeth. +That's where dinosaur origins is to be found: at the bottom of the cliff. +You go into an area like this, you get a geologic map, you get a topographic map, and the best, most-inspired team you can bring to the area. +And the rest is up to you. You've got to find fossils. +228 million years old, we found what really is the most primitive dinosaur: that's the Ur-dinosaur. +A three-and-a-half foot thing, beautiful skull, predator, meat-eater, a two-legged animal. +So, all the other dinosaurs that you know, or your kids know, at least, on four legs. +This is sort of a look at the skull, and it's an absolutely fantastic thing about five or six inches long. +It looks rather bird-like because it is. +It's bird-like and hollow. +A predator. Maybe 25 pounds, or 10 kilograms. +That's where dinosaurs began. That's where the radiation began. +That is 10 times larger than the mammal radiation, which was a four-legged radiation. +We are extremely dinosaur-like, and unusual in our two-legged approach to life. +Now, if you want to understand what happened then when the continents broke apart, and dinosaurs found -- landlubbers, as they are -- found themselves adrift. There's some missing puzzle pieces. +Most of those missing puzzle pieces are southern continents, because it was those continents that are least explored. +If you want to add to this picture and try and sketch it globally, you really have to force yourself to go down to the four corners of the Earth -- Africa, India, Antarctica, Australia -- and start putting together some of these pieces. +I've been to some of those continents, but Africa was, in the words of Steven Pinker, was a blank slate, largely. +But one with an immense chalkboard in the middle, with lots of little areas of dinosaur rock if you could survive an expedition. +There's no roads into the Sahara. It's an enormous place. +To be able to excavate the 80 tons of dinosaurs that we have in the Sahara and take them out, you really have to put together an expedition team that can handle the conditions. +Some of them are political. Many of them are physical. +Some of them -- the most important -- are mental. +And you really have to be able to withstand conditions -- you have to drive into the desert, you will see landscapes in many cases -- you can see from what we've discovered -- that nobody else has ever seen. +And the kinds of teams they bring in? +Well, they're composed of people who understand science as adventure with a purpose. +They're usually students who've never seen a desert. +Some of them are more experienced. +Your job as a leader -- this is definitely a team sport -- your job as a leader is to try to inspire them to do more work than they've ever done in their life under conditions that they can't imagine. +So, 125 degrees is normal. +The ground surface at 150 -- typical. +So, you can't leave your normal metal tools out because you'll get a first-degree burn if you grab them sometimes. +So, you are finding yourself also in an amazing cultural milieu. +You're really rubbing shoulders with the world's last great nomadic people. +These are the Tuareg nomads, and they're living their lives much as they have for centuries. +Your job is to excavate things like this in the foreground, and make them enter the pages of history. +To do that, you've got to actually transport them thousands of miles out of the desert. +We're talking about Ethiopia, but let's talk about Niger -- or Niger, in our English language -- north of Nigeria -- that's where this photograph was taken. +Basically you're talking about a country that, when we started working there, did not have container traffic. +You transported the bones out yourself to the coast of Africa, onto a boat, if you wanted to get them out of the middle of the Sahara. +That's a 2,000 mile journey. +So enormous excavations and a lot of work, and out of essentially a partial herd of dinosaurs that you saw buried there -- 20 tons of material -- we erect Jobaria, a sauropod dinosaur like we haven't seen on some other continents. +It really is a little bit out of place temporally. +It looks nothing like what we would find if we dug in contemporary beds in North America. +Here's the animal that was causing it trouble. +And, you know, on and on -- a whole menagerie. When you pick up something like this -- and some of you have had the chance to touch it -- this is a piece of history. You're touching something that's 110 million years old. +This is a thumb claw. There it was, moments after it was discovered. +It is an incredible view of life, and it really began when we began to understand the depth of time. +When you pick up a piece of history like that, I think it can transform kids that are possibly interested in science. +That's the animal that thumb claw came from: Suchomimus. +Here's some others. +This is something we found in Morocco, an immense animal. +We prototyped by CAT-scanning the brain out of this animal. +It turns out to have a forebrain one-fifteenth the size of a human. +This was the cover of Science, because they thought that humans were more intelligent than these animals, but we can see by some in our administration that despite the enormous advantage in brain volume some of the attitudes remain the same. Anyway, smaller raptors. +All the stuff from Jurassic Park that you know of -- all those small animals -- they all come from northern continents. +This is the first skeleton from a southern continent, and guess what? You start preparing it. +It has no big claw on its hind foot. It doesn't look like a Velociraptor. +It's really a wholly separate radiation. +So what we're trying to piece together here is a story. +It involves flying reptiles like this Pterosaur that we reconstructed from Africa. +Crocodiles, of course, and that's a nasty one we haven't named yet. +And huge things -- I mean, this is a lower jaw just laying there in the desert of this enormous crocodile. +The crocodile is technically called Sarcosuchus. +That's an adult Orinoco crocodile in its jaws. +We had to try and reconstruct this. +We had to actually look at recent crocodiles to understand how crocodiles scale. +Could I have the second little video clip? +Now, this field is just -- and, of course, science in general -- is just -- adventure. +We had to find and measure the largest crocodiles living today. +Narrator: ... as long as their boat. +Man: Look at that set of choppers! Yeah, he's a big one. +Narrator: If they can just land it, this croc will provide useful data, helping Paul in his quest to understand Sarcosuchus. +Man: OK, hand me some more here. Man 2: OK. +Narrator: It falls to Paul to cover its eyes. +Man: Watch out! Watch out! No, no, no, no. You're going to have to get on the back legs. +Man: I got the back legs. +Man 2: You have the back legs? No, you have the front legs, my friend. +I've got it. I've got the back legs. +Somebody get the front legs. +Paul Sereno: Let's get this tape measure on him. Put it right there. +Wow. +Sixty-five. Wow. +That's a big skull. +Narrator: Big, but less than half the size of supercroc's skull. +Man: Enormous. PS: You've got a ... 14-foot croc. +Man: I knew it was big. +PS: Don't get off. You don't get off, but don't worry about me. +Narrator: Paul has his data, so they decide to release the animal back into the river. +PS: Don't get off! Don't get off! Don't get off! +Narrator: Paul has never seen a fossil do that. +PS: Okay, when I say three, we move. +One, two, three! +Whoa! +So -- there were -- Well, you know, the -- the fossil record is truly amazing because it really forces you to look at living animals in a new way. +We proved with those measurements that crocodiles scaled isometrically. +It depended on the shape of their skull, though, so we had to actually get those measurements to be sure that we had reconstructed and could prove to the scientific world that supercroc in fact is a 40-foot crocodile, probably a male. +Anyway, you find other things, too. +I'm going to lead an expedition to the Sahara to dig up Africa's largest neolithic site. +We found this last year. +Two hundred skeletons, tools, jewelry. +This is a ceremonial disk. +An amazing record of the colonization of the Sahara 5,000 years ago is been sitting out there waiting for us to go back. So, really exciting. +And then work later is going to take us to Tibet. +Now, we normally think of Tibet as a highland. +It's really an island continent. +It was a precursor to India, a messenger from Gondwana -- a lost paradise of dinosaurs isolated for millions of years. +No one's found them. We know where they are, and we're going to go and get them next year. +They're only between 13 and 14,000 feet, but if you go in the warm part of the year, it's O.K. +Now, I tried to suture together a dinosaur evolutionary history so that we can try to understand some basic patterns of evolution. +I've talked about a few of them. We really need to take that further. +We need to delve into this mass of anatomy that we've been compiling to understand where the changes are occurring and what this means. +We can't predict, necessarily, what will happen in evolution, but we can learn some of the rules of the game, and that's really what we're trying to do. +With regard to the biogeographic question, the Earth is dividing. +These are all landlubbing animals. There's a couple of choices. +You get divided, and a continent's division corresponds to a fork in the evolutionary tree, or you're crafty, and you manage to escape from one to the other and erase that division, or you're living peacefully on each side, and on one side you just go extinct, and you survive on the other side and create a difference. +And the fourth thing is that you actually did one or the other of those three things, but the paleontologist never found you. +And you take those four instances and you realize you have a complex problem. +And so, in addition to digging, I think we have some answers from the dinosaur record. I think these dinosaurs migrated -- we call it dispersal -- around the globe, with the slightest land bridge. +They did it within two or three degrees of the pole, to maintain similarity between continents. +But when they were divided, indeed they were divided, and we do see the continents carving differences among dinosaurs. +But there's one thing that's even more important, and I think that's extinction. +We have downgraded this factor. +It carves up the history of life, and gives us the differences that we see in the dinosaur world towards the end, right before the bolide impact. +The best way to test this is to actually create a model. +So if we move back, this is a two-dimensional typical tree of life. +I want to give you three dimensions. +So you see the tree of life, but now I've added the dimension of area. +So the tree of life is normally divergence over time. +Now we have divergence over time, but we've created the third dimension of area. +This is a computer program which has three knobs. +We can control those things that we're worried about: extinction, sampling, dispersal -- going from one area to another. +And ultimately we can control the branching to mimic what we think the continents were like, and run it a thousand times, so we can estimate the parameters, to answer the question whether we are on the mark or not, at least to know the barriers of the problems. So that's a little bit about the science. +I was one of those. I was failed by my school -- my school failed me. +Who's pointing fingers? +Several teachers nearly killed me. +I found myself in art. +I was a total failure in school, not really headed to graduate high school. +And I went on -- that's my first painting on canvas. +I read a dictionary. I got into college. +I became an artist. O.K., and started drawing. +It became abstract. +I worked up a portfolio, and I was headed to New York. +Sometimes I would see bones when there was a body there. +Something was going on in the background. I headed to New York to a studio. +I took a side trip to the American Museum, and I never recovered. +But really it's the same discipline -- they're kindred disciplines. +I mean, is there anything that is not visualizing what can't be seen, in terms of discovering this dinosaur bone from a small piece of it that's out there, or seeing the distortion that we try to see as evolutionary distortion in one animal to another? +This is a very extraordinarily visual. +I give you a human face because you're experts at that. +It takes us years to understand how to do that with dinosaurs. +They're really kindred disciplines. +But what we're trying to create in Chicago is a way to get, collect together, those students who are least represented in our science and technology spheres. +We all know, and there's been several allusions to it, that we are failing in our ability to produce enough scientists, engineers and technicians. +We've known that for a long time. We've gone through the Sputnik phase, and now, as you see the increase in the pace of what we're doing, it becomes even more prominent. Where are all these people going to come from? +And a more general question for our society is, what's going to happen to all the rest that are left behind? +What about all the kids like me that were in school -- kids like some of you out there -- that were in school and didn't get a chance and will never get a chance to participate in science and technology? +Those are the questions I ask. And we talk about Ethiopia, and it's very important. +Niger is equally important, and I'm trying desperately to do something in Niger. +They have an AIDS problem. I asked -- the U.S. State Department asked the government recently, What do you want to do? And they gave them two problems. +Dinosaurs was one of them. +Give us a museum of dinosaurs, and we will attract tourists, which is our number two industry. +And I hope to God the United States government, me, or TED, or somebody helps us do that, because that would be an incredible thing for their country. +But when we look back at our own country, we're looking back at our cities, the cities where most of you come from -- certainly the city I come from -- there's legions of kids out there like these. +And the question is -- and we started to address this question for centuries -- as to how we get these kids involved in science. +We've started in Chicago an organization -- a non-profit organization -- called Project Exploration. +These are two kids from Project Exploration. +We met them in their early stages in high school. They were -- failing to poor students, and they are now -- one at the University of Chicago, another in Illinois. +We've got students at Harvard. We're six years old. +And we created a track record. +Because when you go out there as a scholar, and you try to find out longitudinal studies, track records like that, there essentially are very few, if none. +So, we've created an incredible track record of 100 percent graduation, 90 percent going to college, many first-generation, 90 percent of those choosing science as a career. +It's an impressive track record, and so we look back and we say, well, we didn't really exactly work this out theoretically from the start, but when we look back, there are theoretical movements in science education. +It's gone through science as an inquiry, which was a big advance, and Dewey back at Chicago -- you learn by doing. +To -- you learn by envisioning yourself as a scientist, and then you learn to envision yourself as a scientist. +The next step is to learn the capability to make yourself a scientist. +You have to have those steps. If you have -- It's easy to get kids interested in science. +It's hard to get them to envision themselves as a scientist, which involves standing up in front of people like we're doing here at this symposium and presenting something as a knowledgeable person, and then seeing yourself in the role as a scientist and giving yourself the tools to pursue that. +And so, that's what we're going to do. We're planning a permanent home in Chicago. +We have lots of ideas, but I guarantee you this one thing -- and I've talked to some people here at TED -- it's not going to look like anything you've seen before. +It's going to be part-school, part-museum hall, part-conservatory, part-zoo, and part of an answer to the problem of how you interest kids in science. +Thank you very much. +Many of you could ask the question, you know, why is a flying car, or maybe more accurately, a roadable aircraft, possible at this time? +A number of years ago, Mr. Ford predicted that flying cars of some form would be available. +Now, 60 years later, I'm here to tell you why it's possible. +When I was about five years old, not very much -- about a year after Mr. Ford made his predictions, I was living in a rural part of Canada, on the side of a mountain in a very isolated area. +Getting to school, for a kid that was actually pretty short for his age, through the Canadian winter, was not a pleasant experience. +It was a trying and scary thing for a young kid to be going through. +At the end of my first year in school, in the summer of that year, I discovered a couple hummingbirds that were caught in a shed near my home. +They'd worn themselves out, beating themselves against the window, and, well, they were easy to capture. +I took them outside and as I let them go, that split second, even though they were very tired, that second I let them go they hovered for a second, then zipped off into the distance. +I thought, what a great way to get to school. +For a kid at that age, this was like infinite speed, disappearing, and I was very inspired by that. +And so the next -- over the next six decades, believe it or not, I've built a number of aircraft, with the goal of creating something that could do for you, or me, what the hummingbird does, and give you that flexibility. +I've called this vehicle, generically, a volantor, after the Latin word "volant," meaning, to fly in a light, nimble manner. +Volantor-like helicopter, perhaps. +The FAA, the controlling body above all, calls it a "powered lift aircraft." +And they've actually issued a pilot's license -- a powerlift pilot's license -- for this type of aircraft. +It's closer than you think. It's kind of remarkable when you consider that there are no operational powered lift aircraft. +So for once, perhaps, the government is ahead of itself. +The press calls my particular volantor a "Skycar." +This is a little bit earlier version of it, that's why it's given the X designation, but it's a four-passenger aircraft that could take off vertically, like a helicopter -- therefore it doesn't need an airfield. +On the ground, it's powered electrically. +It's actually classified as a motorcycle because of the three wheels, which is a great asset because it allows you, theoretically, to use this on the highways in most states, and actually in all cities. +So that's an asset because if you've got to deal with the crash protection issues of the automobile, forget it -- you're never going to fly it. +One could say that a helicopter does pretty much what the hummingbird does, and gets around in much the same way, and it's true, but a helicopter is a very complex device. +It's expensive -- so expensive that very few people could own or use it. +It's often been described because of its fragile nature and its complexity, as a series of parts -- a large number of parts -- flying in formation. +Another difference, and I have to describe this, because it's very personal, another great difference between the helicopter and the volantor -- in my case the Skycar volantor -- is the experience that I've had in flying both of those. +In a helicopter you feel -- and it's still a remarkable sensation -- you feel like you're being hauled up from above by a vibrating crane. +When you get in the Skycar -- and I can tell you, there's only one other person that's flown it, but he had the same sensation -- you really feel like you're being lifted up by a magic carpet, without any vibration whatsoever. The sensation is unbelievable. +And it's been a great motivator. +I only get to fly this vehicle occasionally, and only when I can persuade my stockholders to let me do so, but it's still one of those wonderful experiences that reward you for all that time. +What we really need is something to replace the automobile for those 50-plus mile trips. +Very few people realize that 50 mile-plus trips make up 85 percent of the miles traveled in America. +If we can get rid of that, then the highways will now be useful to you, as contrasted by what's happening in many parts of the world today. +On this next slide, is an interesting history of what we really have seen in infrastructure, because whether I give you a perfect Skycar, the perfect vehicle for use, it's going to have very little value to you unless you've got a system to use it in. +I'm sure any of you have asked the question, yeah, are there great things up there -- what am I going to do, get up there? +It's bad enough on a highway, what's it going to be like to be in the air? +This world that you're going to be talking about tomorrow is going to be completely integrated. You're not going to be a pilot, you're going to be a passenger. +And it's the infrastructure that really determines whether this process goes forward. +I can tell you, technically we can build Skycars -- my God, we went to the moon! +The technology there was much more difficult than what I'm dealing with here. +But we have to have these priority changes, we have to have infrastructure to go with this. +Historically you see that we got around 200 years ago by canals, and as that system disappeared, were replaced by railroads. +As that disappeared we came in with highways. +But if you look at that top corner -- the highway system -- you see where we are today. Highways are no longer being built, and that's a fact. You won't see any additional highways in the next 10 years. +However, the next 10 years, if like the last 10 years, we're going to see 30 percent more traffic. +And where is that going to lead you to? +So the issue then, I've often asked, is when is it going to happen? +When are we going to be able to have these vehicles? +And of course, if you ask me, I'm going to give you a really optimistic view. +After all, I've been spending 60 years here believing it's going to happen tomorrow. +So, I'm not going to quote myself on this. +I'd prefer to quote someone else, who testified with me before Congress, and in his position as head of NASA put forward this particular vision of the future of this type of aircraft. +Now I would argue, actually, if you look at the fact that on the highways today, you're only averaging about 30 miles per hour -- on average, according to the DOT -- the Skycar travels at over 300 miles an hour, up to 25,000 feet. +And so, in effect, you could see perhaps a tenfold increase in the ability to get around as far as speed is concerned. +Unbeknownst to many of you, the highway in the sky that I'm talking about here has been under construction for 10 years. +It makes use of the GPS -- you're familiar with GPS in your automobile, but you may not be familiar with the fact that there's a GPS U.S., there's a Russian GPS, and there's a new GPS system going to Europe, called Galileo. +With those three systems, you have what is always necessary -- a level of redundancy that says, if one system fails, you'll still have a way to make sure that you're being controlled. +Because if you're in this world, where computers are controlling what you're doing, it's going to be very critical that something can't fail on you. +How would a trip in a Skycar work? +Well, you can't right now take off from your home because it's too noisy. +I mean to be able to take off from your home, you'd have to be extremely quiet. +But it's still fairly quiet. +You'd motor, electrically, to a vertiport, which may be a few blocks, maybe even a few miles away. +This is clearly, as I said earlier, a roadable aircraft, and you're not going to spend that much time on the road. +After all, if you can fly like that, why are you going to drive around on a highway? +Go to a local vertiport, plug in your destination, delivered almost like a passenger. +You can play computer games, you can sleep, you can read on the way. +This is the world -- there won't be you as a pilot. And I know the pilots in the audience aren't going to like that -- and I've had a lot of bad feedback from people who want to be up there, flying around and experiencing that. +And of course, I suppose like recreational parks you can still do that. +But the vehicle itself is going to be a very, very controlled environment. +Or it's going to have no use to you as a person who might use such a system. +We flew the first vehicle for the international press in 1965, when I really got it started. +I was a professor at the U.C. Davis System, and I got a lot of excitement around this, and I was able to fund the initiation of the program back in that time. +And then through the various years we invented various vehicles. +Actually the critical point was in 1989, when we demonstrated the stability of this vehicle -- how completely stable it was in all circumstances, which is of course very critical. +Still not a practical vehicle during all of this, but moving in the right direction, we believe. +Finally, in the early part of -- or actually the middle of 2002, we flew the 400 -- M400, which was the four-passenger vehicle. +In this case here, we're flying it remotely, as we always did at the beginning. +And we had very small power plants in it at this time. +We are now installing larger powerplants, which will make it possible for me to get back on board. +A vertical-takeoff aircraft is not the safest vehicle during the test flight program. +There's an old adage that applied for the years between 1950s and 1970s, when every aeronautical company was working on vertical-takeoff aircraft. +A vertical-takeoff aircraft needs an artificial stabilization system -- that's essential. +At least for the hover, and the low-speed flight. +If that single-stability system, that brain that flies that aircraft, fails, or if the engine fails, that vehicle crashes. There is no option to that. +And the adage that I'm referring to, that applied at that time, was that nothing comes down faster than a VTOL aircraft upside down. +That's a macabre comment because we lost a lot of pilots. +In fact, the aircraft companies gave up on vertical-takeoff aircraft more or less for a number of years. +And there's really only one operational aircraft in the world today that's a vertical-takeoff aircraft -- as distinct from a helicopter -- and that's the Hawker Harrier jump jet. +A vertical-takeoff aircraft, like the hummingbird, has a very high metabolism, which means it requires a lot of energy. +Getting that energy is very, very difficult. It all comes down to that power plant -- how to get a large amount of power in a small package. +Fortunately, Dr. Felix Wankel invented the rotary engine. +A very unique engine -- it's round, it's small, it's vibration-free. +It fits exactly where we need to fit it, right in the center of the hubs of the ducts in the system -- very critical. In fact that engine -- for those who are into the automobile -- know that it recently is applied to the RX8 -- the Mazda. +And that sportscar won Sports Car of the Year. +Wonderful engine. +In that application, it generates one horsepower per pound, which is twice as good as your car engine today, but only half of what we need. +My company has spent 35 years and many millions of dollars taking that rotary engine, which was invented in the late '50s, and getting it to the point that we get over two horsepower per pound, reliably, and critical. +We actually get 175 horsepower into one cubic foot. +We have eight engines in this vehicle. +We have four computers. We have two parachutes. +Redundancy is the critical issue here. +If you want to stay alive you've got to have backups. +And we have actually flown this vehicle and lost an engine, and continued to hover. +The computers back up each other. There's a voting system -- if one computer is not agreeing with the other three, it's kicked out of the system. +And then you have three -- you still have the triple redundancy. +If one of those fails, you still have a second chance. +If you stick around, then good luck. +There won't be a third chance. +The parachutes are there -- hopefully, more for psychological than real reasons, but they will be an ultimate backup if it comes to that. +I'd like to show you an animation in this next one, which is one element of the Skycar's use, but it's one that demonstrates how it could be used. +You could think of it personally in your own terms, of how you might use it. +Video: Skycar dispatched, launch rescue vehicle for San Francisco. +Paul Moller: I believe that personal transportation in something like the Skycar, probably in another volantor form as well, will be a significant part of our lives, as Dr. Goldin says, within the next 10 years. +And it's going to change the demographics in a very significant way. +If you can live 75 miles from San Francisco and get there in 15 minutes, you're going to sell your 700,000-dollar apartment, buy an upscale home on the side of a mountain, buy a Skycar, which I think would be priced at that time perhaps in the area of 100,000 dollars, put money in the bank ... +that's a very significant incentive for getting out of San Francisco. +But you better be the first one out of town as the real estate values go to hell. +Developing the Skycar has been a real challenge. +Obviously I'm dependent on a lot of other people believing in what I'm doing -- both financially and in technical help. +And that has -- you run into situations where you have this great acceptance of what you're doing, and a lot of rejection of the same kind of thing. +I characterized this emerging technology in an aphorism, as it's described, which really talks about what I've experienced, and I'm sure what other people may have experienced in emerging technologies. +There's an interesting poll that came out recently under NAS -- I think it's MSNBC -- in which they asked the question, "Are you in the market for a volantor?" +Twenty-three percent said, "Yes, as soon as possible." +Forty-seven percent -- yes, as soon as they could -- price could come down. +Twenty-three percent said, "As soon as it's proven safe." +Only seven percent said that they wouldn't consider buying a Skycar. +I'm encouraged by that. At least it makes me feel like, to some extent, it is becoming self-evident. +That we need an alternative to the automobile, at least for those 50-mile trips and more, so that the highways become usable in today's world. +Thank you. +What I thought I would talk about today is the transition from one mode of thinking about nature to another that's tracked by architecture. +What's interesting about architects is, we always have tried to justify beauty by looking to nature, and arguably, beautiful architecture has always been looking at a model of nature. +So, for roughly 300 years, the hot debate in architecture was whether the number five or the number seven was a better proportion to think about architecture, because the nose was one-fifth of your head, or because your head was one-seventh of your body. +In the 15th century, the decimal point was invented; architects stopped using fractions, and they had a new model of nature. +So, what's going on today is that there's a model of natural form which is calculus-based and which is using digital tools, and that has a lot of implications to the way we think about beauty and form, and it has a lot of implications in the way we think about nature. +The best example of this would probably be the Gothic, and the Gothic was invented after the invention of calculus, although the Gothic architects weren't really using calculus to define their forms. +But what was important is, the Gothic moment in architecture was the first time that force and motion was thought of in terms of form. +So, examples like Christopher Wren's King's Cross: you can see that the structural forces of the vaulting get articulated as lines, so you're really actually seeing the expression of structural force and form. +Much later, Robert Maillart's bridges, which optimize structural form with a calculus curvature almost like a parabola. +The Hanging Chain models of Antonio Gaudi, the Catalan architect. +The end of the 19th century, beginning of the 20th century, and how that Hanging Chain model translates into archways and vaulting. +So, in all of these examples, structure is the determining force. +Frei Otto was starting to use foam bubble diagrams and foam bubble models to generate his Mannheim Concert Hall. +Interestingly, in the last 10 years Norman Foster used a similar heat thermal transfer model to generate the roof of the National Gallery, with the structural engineer Chris Williams. +In all these examples, there's one ideal form, because these are thought in terms of structure. +And as an architect, I've always found these kinds of systems very limiting, because I'm not interested in ideal forms and I'm not interested in optimizing to some perfect moment. +So, what I thought I would bring up is another component that needs to be thought of, whenever you think about nature, and that's basically the invention of generic form in genetic evolution. +My hero is actually not Darwin; it's a guy named William Bateson, father of Greg Bateson, who was here for a long time in Monterey. +And he was what you'd call a teratologist: he looked at all of the monstrosities and mutations to find rules and laws, rather than looking at the norms. +So, instead of trying to find the ideal type or the ideal average, he'd always look for the exception. So, in this example, which is an example of what's called Bateson's Rule, he has two kinds of mutations of a human thumb. +When I first saw this image, 10 years ago, I actually found it very strange and beautiful at the same time. +Beautiful, because it has symmetry. +So, what he found is that in all cases of thumb mutations, instead of having a thumb, you would either get another opposable thumb, or you would get four fingers. +So, the mutations reverted to symmetry. +And Bateson invented the concept of symmetry breaking, which is that wherever you lose information in a system, you revert back to symmetry. +So, symmetry wasn't the sign of order and organization -- which is what I was always understanding, and as is an architect -- symmetry was the absence of information. +So, whenever you lost information, you'd move to symmetry; whenever you added information to a system, you would break symmetry. +So, this whole idea of natural form shifted at that moment from looking for ideal shapes to looking for a combination of information and generic form. +You know, literally after seeing that image, and finding out what Bateson was working with, we started to use these rules for symmetry breaking and branching to start to think about architectural form. +To just talk for a minute about the digital mediums that we're using now and how they integrate calculus: the fact that they're calculus-based means that we don't have to think about dimension in terms of ideal units or discreet elements. +So, in architecture we deal with big assemblies of components, so there might be up to, say, 50,000 pieces of material in this room you're sitting in right now that all need to get organized. +Now, typically you'd think that they would all be the same: like, the chairs you're sitting in would all be the same dimension. +You know, I haven't verified this, but it's the norm that every chair would be a slightly different dimension, because you'd want to space them all out for everybody's sight lines. +The elements that make up the ceiling grid and the lighting, they're all losing their modular quality, and moving more and more to these infinitesimal dimensions. +That's because we're all using calculus tools for manufacturing and for design. +Calculus is also a mathematics of curves. +So, even a straight line, defined with calculus, is a curve. +It's just a curve without inflection. +So, a new vocabulary of form is now pervading all design fields: whether it's automobiles, architecture, products, etc., it's really being affected by this digital medium of curvature. +The intricacies of scale that come out of that -- you know, in the example of the nose to the face, there's a fractional part-to-whole idea. +With calculus, the whole idea of subdivision is more complex, because the whole and the parts are one continuous series. +It's too early in the morning for a lecture on calculus, so I brought some images to just describe how that works. +This is a Korean church that we did in Queens. +And in this example, you can see that the components of this stair are repetitive, but they're repetitive without being modular. +Each one of the elements in this structure is a unique distance and dimension, and all of the connections are unique angles. +Now, the only way we could design that, or possibly construct it, is by using a calculus-based definition of the form. +It also is much more dynamic, so that you can see that the same form opens and closes in a very dynamic way as you move across it, because it has this quality of vector in motion built into it. +So the same space that appears to be a kind of closed volume, when seen from the other side becomes a kind of open vista. +And you also get a sense of visual movement in the space, because every one of the elements is changing in a pattern, so that pattern leads your eye towards the altar. +I think that's one of the main changes, also, in architecture: that we're starting to look now not for some ideal form, like a Latin cross for a church, but actually all the traits of a church: so, light that comes from behind from an invisible source, directionality that focuses you towards an altar. +It turns out it's not rocket science to design a sacred space. +You just need to incorporate a certain number of traits in a very kind of genetic way. +So, these are the different perspectives of that interior, which has a very complex set of orientations all in a simple form. +In terms of construction and manufacturing, this is a kilometer-long housing block that was built in the '70s in Amsterdam. +And here we've broken the 500 apartments up into small neighborhoods, and differentiated those neighborhoods. +I won't go into too much description of any of these projects, but what you can see is that the escalators and elevators that circulate people along the face of the building are all held up by 122 structural trusses. +Because we're using escalators to move people, all of these trusses are picking up diagonal loads. +So, every one of them is a little bit different-shaped as you move down the length of the building. +So it's a single calculation for every single component of the building that we're adding onto. +So, it's tens of millions of calculations just to design one connection between a piece of structural steel and another piece of structural steel. +But what it gives us is a harmonic and synthesized relationship of all these components, one to another. +This idea has, kind of, brought me into doing some product design, and it's because design firms that have connections to architects, like, I'm working with Vitra, which is a furniture company, and Alessi, which is a houseware company. +They saw this actually solving a problem: this ability to differentiate components but keep them synthetic. +So, not to pick on BMW, or to celebrate them, but take BMW as an example. +They have to, in 2005, have a distinct identity for all their models of cars. +So, the 300 series, or whatever their newest car is, the 100 series that's coming out, has to look like the 700 series, at the other end of their product line, so they need a distinct, coherent identity, which is BMW. +At the same time, there's a person paying 30,000 dollars for a 300-series car, and a person paying 70,000 dollars for a 700 series, and that person paying more than double doesn't want their car to look too much like the bottom-of-the-market car. +So they have to also discriminate between these products. +So, as manufacturing starts to allow more design options, this problem gets exacerbated, of the whole and the parts. +Now, as an architect, part-to-whole relationships is all I think about, but in terms of product design it's becoming more and more of an issue for companies. +So, the first kind of test product we did was with Alessi, which was for a coffee and tea set. +It's an incredibly expensive coffee and tea set; we knew that at the beginning. So, I actually went to some people I knew down south in San Diego, and we used an exploded titanium forming method that's used in the aerospace industry. +Basically what we can do, is just cut a graphite mold, put it in an oven, heat it to 1,000 degrees, gently inflate titanium that's soft, and then explode it at the last minute into this form. +But what's great about it is, the forms are only a few hundred dollars. +The titanium's several thousand dollars, but the forms are very cheap. +So, we designed a system here of eight curves that could be swapped, very similar to that housing project I showed you, and we could recombine those together, so that we always had ergonomic shapes that always had the same volume and could always be produced in the same way. +That way, each one of these tools we could pay for with a few hundred dollars, and get incredible variation in the components. +And this is one of those examples of the sets. +To go back to architecture, what's organic about architecture as a field, unlike product design, is this whole issue of holism and of monumentality is really our realm. +Like, we have to design things which are coherent as a single object, but also break down into small rooms and have an identity of both the big scale and the small scale. +So, my kind of hero for this in the natural world are these tropical frogs. +I got interested in them because they're the most extreme example of a surface where the texture and the -- let's call it the decoration -- I know the frog doesn't think of it as decoration, but that's how it works -- are all intricately connected to one another. +So a change in the form indicates a change in the color pattern. +So, the pattern and the form aren't the same thing, but they really work together and are fused in some way. +So, when doing a center for the national parks in Costa Rica, we tried to use that idea of a gradient color and a change in texture as the structure moves across the surface of the building. +We also used a continuity of change from a main exhibition hall to a natural history museum, so it's all one continuous change in the massing, but within that massing are very different kinds of spaces and forms. +In a housing project in Valencia, Spain, we're doing, the different towers of housing fused together in shared curves so you get a single mass, like a kind of monolith, but it breaks down into individual elements. +And you can see that that change in massing also gives all 48 of the apartments a unique shape and size, but always within a, kind of, controlled limit, an envelope of change. +I work with a group of other architects. +We have a company called United Architects. +We were one of the finalists for the World Trade Center site design. +And I think this just shows how we were approaching the problem of incredibly large-scale construction. +We wanted to make a kind of Gothic cathedral around the footprints of the World Trade Center site. +And to do that, we tried to connect up the five towers into a single system. +And we looked at, from the 1950s on, there were numerous examples of other architects trying to do the same thing. +We really approached it at the level of the typology of the building, where we could build these five separate towers, but they would all join at the 60th floor and make a kind of single monolithic mass. +With United Architects, also, we made a proposal for the European Central Bank headquarters that used the same system, but this time in a much more monolithic mass, like a sphere. +But again, you can see this, kind of, organic fusion of multiple building elements to make a thing which is whole, but breaks down into smaller parts, but in an incredibly organic way. +Finally, I'd like to just show you some of the effects of using digital fabrication. +About six years ago, I bought one of these CNC mills, to just replace, kind of, young people cutting their fingers off all the time building models. +And I also bought a laser cutter and started to fabricate within my own shop, kind of, large-scale building elements and models, where we could go directly to the tooling. +What I found out is that the tooling, if you intervened in the software, actually produced decorative effects. +So, for these interiors, like this shop in Stockholm, Sweden, or this installation wall in the Netherlands at the Netherlands Architecture Institute, we could use the texture that the tool would leave to produce a lot of the spatial effects, and we could integrate the texture of the wall with the form of the wall with the material. +So, in vacuum-formed plastic, in fiberglass, and then even at the level of structural steel, which you think of as being linear and modular. +The steel industry is so far ahead of the design industry that if you take advantage of it you can even start to think of beams and columns all rolled together into a single system which is highly efficient, but also produces decorative effects and formal effects that are very beautiful and organic. +Thanks very much. +I was listed on the online biography that said I was a design missionary. +That's a bit lofty; I'm really more of something like a street walker. +I spend a lot of time in urban areas looking for design, and studying design in the public sector. +I take about 5,000 photographs a year, and I thought that I would edit from these, and try to come up with some images that might be appropriate and interesting to you. +I'll use these sidewalks in Rio as an example. +A very common public design done in the '50s. +It's got a nice kind of flowing, organic form, very consistent with the Brazilian culture -- I think good design adds to culture. +Wholly inconsistent with San Francisco or New York. +But I think these are my sort of information highways: I live in much more of an analog world, where pedestrian traffic and interaction and diversity exchange, and where I think the simple things under our feet have a great amount of meaning to us. +How did I get started in this business? +I was a ceramic designer for about 10 years, and just loved utilitarian form -- simple things that we use every day, little compositions of color and surface on form. +This led me to starting a company called Design Within Reach, a company dealing with simple forms, making good designers available to us, and also selling the personalities and character of the designers as well, and it seems to have worked. +A couple of years into the process, I spent a lot of time in Europe traveling around, looking for design. +And I had a bit of a wake-up call in Amsterdam: I was there going into the design stores, and mixing with our crowd of designers, and I recognized that a whole lot of stuff pretty much looked the same, and the effect of globalization has had that in our community also. +We know a lot about what's going on with design around the world, and it's getting increasingly more difficult to find design that reflects a unique culture. +And I write a newsletter that goes out every week, and I wrote an article about this, and it got such enormous response that I realized that design, that common design, that's in the public area means a lot to people, and establishes kind of a groundwork and a dialog. +You wouldn't look at this and call this a designer bike: a designer bike is made of titanium or molybdenum. +But I began looking at design in a place like Amsterdam and recognized, you know, the first job of design is to serve a social purpose. +And so I look at this bike as not being a designer bike, but being a very good example of design. +And since that time in Amsterdam, I spent an increasing amount of time in the cities, looking at design for common evidence of design that really isn't under so much of a designer's signature. +I was in Buenos Aires very recently, and I went to see this bridge by Santiago Calatrava. +He's a Spanish architect and designer. +And the tourist brochures pointed me in the direction of this bridge -- I love bridges, metaphorically and symbolically and structurally -- and it was a bit of a disappointment, because of the sludge from the river was encrusted on it; it really wasn't in use. +And I recognized that oftentimes design, when you're set up to see design, it can be a bit of a letdown. +But there were lots of other things going on in this area: it was a kind of construction zone; a lot of buildings were going up. +And, approaching a building from a distance, you don't see too much; you get a little closer, and you arrive at a nice little composition that might remind you of a Mondrian or a Diebenkorn or something. +But to me it was an example of industrial materials with a little bit of colors and animation and a nice little still life -- kind of unintended piece of design. +And going a little closer, you get a different perspective. +I find these little vignettes, these little accidental pieces of design, to be refreshing. +They give me, I don't know, a sense of correctness in the world and some visual delight in the knowledge that the building will probably never look as good as this simple industrial scaffolding that is there to serve. +Down the road, there was another building, a nice visual structure: horizontal, vertical elements, little decorative lines going across, these magenta squiggles, the workmen being reduced to decorative elements, just a nice, kind of, breakup of the urban place. +And, you know, that no longer exists. +You've captured it for a moment, and finding this little still life's like listening to little songs or something: it gives me an enormous amount of pleasure. +Antoine Predock designed a wonderful ball stadium in San Diego called Petco Park. +A terrific use of local materials, but inside you could find some interior compositions. +Some people go to baseball stadiums to look at games; I go and see design relationships. +Just a wonderful kind of breakup of architecture, and the way that the trees form vertical elements. +Red is a color in the landscape that is often on stop signs. +It takes your attention; it has a great amount of emotion; it stares back at you the way that a figure might. +Just a piece of barrier tape construction stuff in Italy. +Construction site in New York: red having this kind of emotional power that's almost an equivalent with the way in which -- cuteness of puppies and such. +Side street in Italy. +Red drew me into this little composition, optimistic to me in the sense that maybe the public service's mailbox, door service, plumbing. +It looks as if these different public services work together to create some nice little compositions. +In Italy, you know, almost everything, kind of, looks good. +Simple menus put on a board, achieving, kind of, the sort of balance. +But I'm convinced that it's because you're walking around the streets and seeing things. +Red can be comical: it can draw your attention to the poor little personality of the little fire hydrant suffering from bad civic planning in Havana. +Color can animate simple blocks, simple materials: walking in New York, I'll stop. +I don't always know why I take photographs of things. +A nice visual composition of symmetry. +Curves against sharp things. +It's a comment on the way in which we deal with public seating in the city of New York. +I've come across some other just, kind of, curious relationships of bollards on the street that have different interpretations, but -- these things amuse me. +Sometimes a trash can -- this is just in the street in San Francisco -- a trash can that's been left there for 18 months creates a nice 45-degree angle against these other relationships, and turns a common parking spot into a nice little piece of sculpture. +So, there's this sort of silent hand of design at work that I see in places that I go. +Havana is a wonderful area. +It's quite free of commercial clutter: you don't see our logos and brands and names, and therefore you're alert to things physically. +And this is a great protection of a pedestrian zone, and the repurposing of some colonial cannons to do that. +And Cuba needs to be far more resourceful, because of the blockades and things, but a really wonderful playground. +I've often wondered why Italy is really a leader in modern design. +In our area, in furnishings, they're sort of way at the top. +The Dutch are good also, but the Italians are good. +And I came across this little street in Venice, where the communist headquarters were sharing a wall with this Catholic shrine. +A change might be a typical street corner in San Francisco. +And I use this -- this is, sort of, what I consider to be urban spam. +I notice this stuff because I walk a lot, but here, private industry is really kind of making a mess of the public sector. +And as I look at it, I sort of say, you know, the publications that report on problems in the urban area also contribute to it, and it's just my call to say to all of us, public policy won't change this at all; private industry has to work to take things like this seriously. +The extreme might be in Italy where, again, there's kind of some type of control over what's happening in the environment is very evident, even in the way that they sell and distribute periodicals. +I walk to work every day or ride my scooter, and I come down and park in this little spot. +And I came down one day, and all the bikes were red. +Now, this is not going to impress you guys who Photoshop, and can do stuff, but this was an actual moment when I got off my bike, and I looked and I thought, it's as if all of my biker brethren had kind of gotten together and conspired to make a little statement. +And it reminded me that -- to keep in the present, to look out for these kinds of things. +It gave me possibilities for wonder -- if maybe it's a yellow day in San Francisco, and we could all agree, and create some installations. +But it also reminded me of the power of pattern and repetition to make an effect in our mind. +And I don't know if there's a stronger kind of effect than pattern and the way it unites kind of disparate elements. +I was at the art show in Miami in December, and spent a couple of hours looking at fine art, and amazed at the prices of art and how expensive it is, but having a great time looking at it. +And I came outside, and the valets for this car service had created, you know, quite a nice little collage of these car keys, and my closest equivalent were a group of prayer tags that I had seen in Tokyo. +And I thought that if pattern can unite these disparate elements, it can do just about anything. +I don't have very many shots of people, because they kind of get in the way of studying pure form. +In a very short period of time, completely changed the atmosphere and character with loud voices and large bodies and such, and we had to get up and leave; it was just that uncomfortable. +And at that moment, the sun came out, and through this perforated screen, a pattern was cast over these bodies and they kind of faded into the rear, and we left the restaurant kind of feeling O.K. about stuff. +The last shots that I have deal with -- coming back to this theme of sidewalks, and I wanted to say something here about -- I'm, kind of, optimistic, you know. +Post-Second World War, the influence of the automobile has really been devastating in a lot of our cities. +A lot of urban areas have been converted into parking lots in a sort of indiscriminate use. +A lot of the planning departments became subordinated to the transportation department. It's as easy to rag on cars as it is on Wal-Mart; I'm not going to do that. +But they're real examples in urbanization and the change that's occurred in the last number of years, and the heightened sensitivity to the importance of our urban environments as cultural centers. +I think that they are, that the statements that we make in this public sector are our contributions to a larger whole. +Cities are the place where we're most likely to encounter diversity and to mix with other people. +We go there for stimulation in art and all those other things. +But I think people have recognized the sanctity of our urban areas. +A place like Chicago has really reached kind of a level of international stature. +You would expect a city like this to have upgraded flower boxes on Michigan Avenue where wealthy people shop, but if you actually go along the street you find the flower boxes change from street to street: there's actual diversity in the plants. +And the idea that a city group can maintain different types of foliage is really quite exceptional. +There are common elements of this that you'll see throughout Chicago, and then there are your big-D design statements: the Pritzker Pavilion done by Frank Gehry. +My measure of this as being an important bit of design is not so much the way that it looks, but the fact that it performs a very important social function. +There are a lot of free concerts, for example, that go on in this area; it has a phenomenal acoustic system. +But the commitment that the city has made to the public area is significant, and almost an international model. +I work on the mayor's council in San Francisco, on the International Design Council for Mayors, and Chicago is looked at as the pinnacle, and I really would like to salute Mayor Daley and the folks there. +I thought that I should include at least one shot of technology for you guys. +This is also in Millennium Park in Chicago, where the Spanish artist-designer Plensa has created, kind of, a digital readout in this park that reflects back the characters and personalities of the people in this area. +And it's a welcoming area, I think, inclusive of diversity, reflective of diversity, and I think this marriage of both technology and art in the public sector is an area where the U.S. +can really take a leadership role, and Chicago is one example. +Thank you very much. +Of the five senses, vision is the one that I appreciate the most, and it's the one that I can least take for granted. +I think this is partially due to my father, who was blind. +It was a fact that he didn't make much of a fuss about, usually. +One time in Nova Scotia, when we went to see a total eclipse of the sun -- yeah, same one as in the Carly Simon song, which may or may not refer to James Taylor, Warren Beatty or Mick Jagger; we're not really sure. +They handed out these dark plastic viewers that allowed us to look directly at the sun without damaging our eyes. +But Dad got really scared: he didn't want us doing that. +He wanted us instead to use these cheap cardboard viewers so that there was no chance at all that our eyes would be damaged. +I thought this was a little strange at the time. +What I didn't know at the time was that my father had actually been born with perfect eyesight. +When he and his sister Martha were just very little, their mom took them out to see a total eclipse -- or actually, a solar eclipse -- and not long after that, both of them started losing their eyesight. +Decades later, it turned out that the source of their blindness was most likely some sort of bacterial infection. +As near as we can tell, it had nothing whatsoever to do with that solar eclipse, but by then my grandmother had already gone to her grave thinking it was her fault. +So, Dad graduated Harvard in 1946, married my mom, and bought a house in Lexington, Massachusetts, where the first shots were fired against the British in 1775, although we didn't actually hit any of them until Concord. +He got a job working for Raytheon, designing guidance systems, which was part of the Route 128 high-tech axis in those days -- so the equivalent of Silicone Valley in the '70s. +Dad wasn't a real militaristic kind of guy; he just really felt bad that he wasn't able to fight in World War II on account of his handicap, although they did let him get through the several-hour-long army physical exam before they got to the very last test, which was for vision. +So, Dad started racking up all of these patents and gaining a reputation as a blind genius, rocket scientist, inventor. +But to us he was just Dad, and our home life was pretty normal. +As a kid, I watched a lot of television and had lots of nerdy hobbies like mineralogy and microbiology and the space program and a little bit of politics. +I played a lot of chess. +But at the age of 14, a friend of mine got me interested in comic books, and I decided that was what I wanted to do for a living. +So, here's my dad: he's a scientist, he's an engineer and he's a military contractor. +So, he has four kids, right? +One grows up to become a computer scientist, one grows up to join the Navy, one grows up to become an engineer, and then there's me: the comic book artist. +Which, incidentally, makes me the opposite of Dean Kamen, because I'm a comic book artist, son of an inventor, and he's an inventor, son of a comic book artist. +Right, it's true. +The funny thing is, Dad had a lot of faith in me. +He had faith in my abilities as a cartoonist, even though he had no direct evidence that I was any good whatsoever: everything he saw was just a blur. +Now, this gives a real meaning to the term "blind faith," which doesn't have the same negative connotation for me that it does for other people. +Now, faith in things which cannot be seen, which cannot be proved, is not the sort of faith that I've ever really related to all that much. +I tend to like science, where what we see and can ascertain are the foundation of what we know. +But there's a middle ground, too. +A middle ground tread by people like poor old Charles Babbage, and his steam-driven computers that were never built. +Nobody really understood what it was that he had in mind, except for Ada Lovelace, and he went to his grave trying to pursue that dream. +Vannevar Bush with his Memex -- this idea of all of human knowledge at your fingertips -- he had this vision. +And I think a lot of people in his day probably thought he was a bit of a kook. +And, yeah, we can look back in retrospect and say, yeah, ha-ha, you know -- it's all microfilm. But that's -- that's not the point. He understood the shape of the future. +So did J.C.R. Licklider and his notions for computer-human interaction. +Same thing: he understood the shape of the future, even though it was something that would only be implemented by people much later. +Or Paul Baran, and his vision for packet switching. +Hardly anybody listened to him in his day. +So, three types of vision, right? +Vision based on what one cannot see: the vision of that unseen and unknowable. +The vision of that which has already been proven or can be ascertained. +And this third kind of vision, of something which can be, which may be, based on knowledge, but is as yet unproven. +Now, we've seen a lot of examples of people who are pursuing that sort of vision in science, but I think it's also true in the arts, it's true in politics, it's even true in personal endeavors. +What it comes down to, really, is four basic principles: learn from everyone, follow no one, watch for patterns, and work like hell. +I think these are the four principles that go into this. +And it's that third one, especially, where visions of the future begin to manifest themselves. +What's interesting is that this particular way of looking at the world, is, I think, only one of four different ways that manifest themselves in different fields of endeavor. +In comics, I know that it results in sort of a formalist attitude towards trying to understand how it works. +Then there's another, more classical, attitude which embraces beauty and craft. +Another one which believes in the pure transparency of content. +And then another which emphasizes the authenticity of human experience -- and honesty, and rawness. +These are four very different ways of looking at the world. I even gave them names. +The classicist, the animist, and formalist and iconoclast. +Interestingly, it seemed to correspond more or less to Jung's four subdivisions of human thought. +And they reflect a dichotomy of art and delight on left and the right; tradition and revolution on the top and the bottom. +And if you go on the diagonal, you get content and form -- and then beauty and truth. +So -- so this was my nature. The thing was, I saw that the route that I took to discovering this focus in my work and who I was, I saw it as just this road to discovery. +Actually, it was just me embracing my nature, which means that I didn't actually fall that far from the tree after all. +So what does a "scientific mind" do in the arts? +Well, I started making comics, but I also started trying to understand them, almost immediately. +And one of the most important things about comics, I discovered, was that comics are a visual medium, but they try to embrace all of the senses within it. +So, the different elements of comics, like pictures and words, and the different symbols and everything in between that comics presents are all funneled through the single conduit of vision. +So you have things like resemblance, where something which resembles the physical world can be abstracted in a couple of different directions: abstracted from resemblance, but still retaining the complete meaning, or abstracted away from both resemblance and meaning towards the picture plan. +Put all these three together, and you have a nice little map of the entire boundary of visual iconography which comics can embrace. +And if you move to the right you also get language, because that's abstracting even further from resemblance, but still maintaining meaning. +Vision is called upon to represent sound and to understand the common properties of those two and their common heritage, as well. +Also, to try to represent the texture of sound to capture its essential character through visuals. +And there's also a balance between the visible and the invisible in comics. +Comics is a kind of call and response in which the artist gives you something to see within the panels, and then gives you something to imagine between the panels. +Also, another sense which comics' vision represents, and that's time. +Sequence is a very important aspect of comics. +Comics presents a kind of temporal map. +And this temporal map was something that energizes modern comics, but I was wondering if perhaps it also energizes other sorts of forms, and I found some in history. +And you can see this same principle operating in these ancient versions of the same idea. +What's interesting is, once you hit print -- and this is from 1450, by the way -- all of the artifacts of modern comics start to present themselves: rectilinear panel arrangements, simple line drawings without tone and a left-to-right reading sequence. +And within 100 years, you already start to see word balloons and captions, and it's really just a hop, skip and a jump from here to here. +So I wrote a book about this in '93, but as I was finishing the book, I had to do a little bit of typesetting, and I was tired of going to my local copy shop to do it, so I bought a computer. +And it was just a little thing -- it wasn't good for much except text entry -- but my father had told me about Moore's Law, about Moore's Law back in the '70s, and I knew what was coming. +And so, I kept my eyes peeled to see if the sort of changes that happened when we went from pre-print comics to print comics would happen when we went beyond, to post-print comics. +So, one of the first things that were proposed was that we could mix the visuals of comics with the sound, motion and interactivity of the CD-ROMs that were being made in those days. +This was even before the Web. +And one of the first things they did was, they tried to take the comics page as-is and transplant it to monitors, which was a classic McLuhanesque mistake of appropriating the shape of the previous technology as the content of the new technology. +And so, what they would do is, they'd have these comic pages that resemble print comics pages, and they would introduce all this sound and motion. +The problem was, that if you go with this idea -- this basic idea that space equals time in comics -- what happens is that when you introduce sound and motion, which are temporal phenomena that can only be represented through time, then they break with that continuity of presentation. +Interactivity was another thing. +There were hypertext comics. +But the thing about hypertext is that everything in hypertext is either here, not here or connected to here; it's profoundly non-spatial. +The distance from Abraham Lincoln to a Lincoln penny, the Penny Marshall to the Marshall Plan to "Plan 9" to nine lives: it's all the same. +And -- but in comics, in comics, every aspect of the work, every element of the work has a spatial relationship to every other element at all times. +So the question was: was there any way to preserve that spatial relationship while still taking advantage of all of the things that digital had to offer us? +And I found my personal answer for this in those ancient comics that I was showing you. +Each of them has a single unbroken reading line, whether it's going zigzag across the walls or spiraling up a column or just straight left to right, or even going in a backwards zigzag across those 88 accordion-folded pages. +The same thing is happening, and that is that the basic idea that as you move through space you move through time is being carried out without any compromise, but there were compromises when print hit. +Adjacent spaces were no longer adjacent moments, so the basic idea of comics was being broken again and again and again and again. +And I thought, O.K., well, if that's true, is there any way, when we go beyond today's print, to somehow bring that back? +Now, the monitor is just as limited as the page, technically, right? +It's a different shape, but other than that it's the same basic limitation. +But that's only if you look at the monitor as a page, but not if you look at the monitor as a window. +And that's what I proposed: that perhaps we could create these comics on an infinite canvas: along the X axis and the Y axis and staircases. +We could do circular narratives that were literally circular. +We could do a turn in a story that was literally a turn. +Parallel narratives could be literally parallel. +X, Y and also Z. +So I had all these notions. This was back in the late '90s, and other people in my business thought I was pretty crazy, but a lot of people then went on and actually did it. +I'm going to show you a couple now. +This was an early collage comic by a fellow named Jason Lex. +And notice what's going on here. +What I'm searching for is a durable mutation -- that's what all of us are searching for. +As media head into this new era, we are looking for mutations that are durable, that have some sort of staying power. +Now, we're taking this basic idea of presenting comics in a visual medium, and then we're carrying it through all the way from beginning to end. +That's that entire comic you just saw is up on the screen right now. +But even though we're only experiencing it one piece at a time, that's just where the technology is right now. +As the technology evolves, as you get full immersive displays and whatnot, this sort of thing will only grow. +It will adapt. It will adapt to its environment: it's a durable mutation. +Here's another one I'll show you. This is by Drew Weing; this is called, "Pup Contemplates the Heat Death of the Universe." +See what's going on here as we draw these stories on an infinite canvas is you're creating a more pure expression of what this medium is all about. +We'll go by this a little quickly -- you get the idea. +I just want to get to the last panel. +There we go. +Just one more. +Talk about your infinite canvas. +It's by a guy named Daniel Merlin Goodbrey in Britain. +Why is this important? +I think this is important because media, all media, provide us a window back into our world. +Now, it could be that motion pictures -- and eventually, virtual reality, or something equivalent to it -- some sort of immersive display, is going to provide us with our most efficient escape from the world that we're in. +That's why most people turn to storytelling, is to escape. +But media provides us with a window back into the world that we live in. +And when media evolve so that the identity of the media becomes increasingly unique. +Because what you're looking at is, you're looking at comics cubed: you're looking at comics that are more comics-like than they've ever been before. +When that happens, you provide people with multiple ways of re-entering the world through different windows, and when you do that, it allows them to triangulate the world that they live in and see its shape. +And that's why I think this is important. +One of many reasons, but I've got to go now. +Thank you for having me. +This is a wheat bread, a whole wheat bread, and it's made with a new technique that I've been playing around with, and developing and writing about which, for lack of a better name, we call the epoxy method. +And I call it an epoxy method because -- it's not very appetizing. I understand that -- but -- but if you think about epoxy, what's epoxy? +It's two resins that are, sort of, in and of themselves -- neither of which can make glue, but when you put the two together, something happens. A bond takes place, and you get this very strong, powerful adhesive. +And let's face it, everyone's trying to move towards whole grains. +We finally, after 40 years of knowing that wholegrain was a healthier option, we're finally getting to the point where we actually are tipping over and attempting to actually eat them. +The challenge, though, for a wholegrain baker is, you know, how do you make it taste good? +Because whole grain -- it's easy with white flour to make a good-tasting bread. White flour is sweet. +It's mainly starch, and starch, when you break it down -- what is starch? It's -- thank you -- sugar, yes. +So a baker, and a good baker, knows how to pull or draw forth the inherent sugar trapped in the starch. +With whole grain bread, you have other obstacles. +You've got bran, which is probably the healthiest part of the bread for us, or the fiber for us because it is just loaded with fiber, for the bran is fiber. +It's got germ. Those are the good things, but those aren't the tastiest parts of the wheat. +And ultimately, the challenge of the baker, the challenge of every culinary student, of every chef, is to deliver flavor. +Flavor is king. Flavor rules. +I call it the flavor rule. Flavor rules. +And -- and you can get somebody to eat something that's good for them once, but they won't eat it again if they don't like it, right? +So, this is the challenge for this bread. +We're going to try this at lunch, and I'll explain a bit more about it, but it's made not only with two types of pre-doughs -- this attempt, again, at bringing out flavor is to make a piece of dough the day before that is not leavened. +It's just dough that is wet. +It's hydrated dough we call "the soaker" -- that helps to start enzyme activity. +And enzymes are the secret, kind of, ingredient in dough that brings out flavor. +It starts to release the sugars trapped in the starch. +That's what enzymes are doing. +And so, if we can release some of those, they become accessible to us in our palate. +They become accessible to the yeast as food. +They become accessible to the oven for caramelization to give us a beautiful crust. +The other pre-dough that we make is fermented -- our pre-ferment. +And it's made -- it can be a sourdough starter, or what we call a "biga" or any other kind of pre-fermented dough with a little yeast in it, and that starts to develop flavor also. +And on day two, we put those two pieces together. That's the epoxy. +And we're hoping that, sort of, the enzyme piece of dough becomes the fuel pack for the leavened piece of dough, and when we put them together and add the final ingredients, we can create a bread that does evoke the full potential of flavor trapped in the grain. +That's the challenge. Okay, so, now, what we -- in the journey of wheat, let's go back and look at these 12 stages. +I'm going to go through them very quickly and then revisit them. +Okay, we're going to start with the first stage. +And this is what every student has to begin with. +Everyone who works in the culinary world knows that the first stage of cooking is "mise en place," which is just a French way of saying, "get organized." +Everything in its place. First stage. +So in baking we call it scaling -- weighing out the ingredients. +Stage two is mixing. We take the ingredients and we mix them. +We have to develop the gluten. +There's no gluten in flour. There's only the potential for gluten. +Here's another kind of prefiguring of epoxy because we've got glutenin and gliadin, neither of which are strong enough to make a good bread. +But when they get hydrated and they bond to each other, they create a stronger molecule, a stronger protein we call gluten. +And so we, in the mixing process, have to develop the gluten, we have to activate the leaven or the yeast, and we have to essentially distribute all the ingredients evenly. +Then we get into fermentation, the third stage, which is really where the flavor develops. +The yeast comes alive and starts eating the sugars, creating carbon dioxide and alcohol -- essentially it's burping and sweating, which is what bread is. +It's yeast burps and sweat. +And somehow, this is transformed -- the yeast burps and sweats are later transformed -- and this is really getting to the heart of what makes bread so special is that it is a transformational food, and we're going to explore that in a minute. +But then, quickly through the next few stages. +We, after it's fermented and it's developed, started to develop flavor and character, we divide it into smaller units. +And then we take those units and we shape them. We give them a little pre-shape, usually a round or a little torpedo shape, sometimes. +That's called "rounding." +And there's a short rest period. It can be for a few seconds. +It can be for 20 or 30 minutes. We call that resting or benching. +Then we go into final shaping, "panning" -- which means putting the shaped loaf on a pan. +This takes a second, but it's a distinctive stage. +It can be in a basket. It can be in a loaf pan, but we pan it. +And then, stage nine. +The fermentation which started at stage three is continuing through all these other stages. Again, developing more flavor. +The final fermentation takes place in stage nine. +We call it "proofing." +Proofing means to prove that the dough is alive. +And at stage nine we get the dough to the final shape, and it goes into the oven -- stage 10. +Three transformations take place in the oven. +The sugars in the dough caramelize in the crust. +They give us that beautiful brown crust. +Only the crust can caramelize. It's the only place that gets hot enough. +Inside, the proteins -- this gluten -- coagulates. +When it gets to about 160 degrees, the proteins all line up and they create structure, the gluten structure -- what ultimately we will call the crumb of the bread. +And the starches, when they reach about 180 degrees, And gelatinization is yet another oven transformation. +Coagulation, caramelization and gelatinization -- when the starch is thick and they absorb all the moisture that's around them, they -- they kind of swell, and then they burst. +And they burst, and they spill their guts into the bread. +So basically now we're eating yeast sweats -- sweat, burps and starch guts. +Again, transformed in stage 10 in the oven because what went into the oven as dough comes out in stage 11 as bread. +And stage 11, we call it cooling -- because we never really eat the bread right away. +There's a little carry-over baking. +The proteins have to set up, strengthen and firm up. +And then we have stage 12, which the textbooks call "packaging," but my students call "eating." +And so, we're going to be on our own journey today from wheat to eat, and in a few minutes we will try this, and see if we have succeeded in fulfilling this baker's mission of pulling out flavor. +And ultimately, the mystical or sometimes called the "anagogical" level. +It's hard to get to those levels unless you go through the literal. +In fact, Dante says you can't understand the three deeper levels unless you first understand the literal level, so that's why we're talking literally about bread. +But let's kind of look at these stages again from the standpoint of connections to possibly a deeper level -- all in my quest for answering the question, "What is it about bread that's so special?" +And fulfilling this mission of evoking the full potential of flavor. +Because what happens is, bread begins as wheat or any other grain. +But what's wheat? Wheat is a grass that grows in the field. +And, like all grasses, at a certain point it puts out seeds. +And we harvest those seeds, and those are the wheat kernels. +Now, in order to harvest it -- I mean, what's harvesting? +It's just a euphemism for killing, right? +I mean, that's what's harvest -- we say we harvest the pig, you know? +Yes, we slaughter, you know. Yes, that's life. +We harvest the wheat, and in harvesting it, we kill it. +Now, wheat is alive, and as we harvest it, it gives up its seeds. +Now, at least with seeds we have the potential for future life. +We can plant those in the ground. +And we save some of those for the next generation. +But most of those seeds get crushed and turned into flour. +And at that point, the wheat has suffered the ultimate indignity. +It's not only been killed, but it's been denied any potential for creating future life. +So we turn it into flour. +So as I said, I think bread is a transformational food. +The first transformation -- and, by the way, the definition of transformation for me is a radical change from one thing into something else. +O.K.? Radical, not subtle. +Not like hot water made cold, or cold water turned hot, but water boiled off and becoming steam. +That's a transformation, two different things. +Well, in this case, the first transformation is alive to dead. +I'd call that radical. +So, we've got now this flour. +And what do we do? We add some water. +In stage one, we weigh it. +In stage two, we add water and salt to it, mix it together, and we create something that we call "clay." +It's like clay. +And we infuse that clay with an ingredient that we call "leaven." +In this case, it's yeast, but yeast is leaven. What does leaven mean? +Leaven comes from the root word that means enliven -- to vivify, to bring to life. +By the way, what's the Hebrew word for clay? Adam. +You see, the baker, in this moment, has become, in a sense, sort of, the God of his dough, you know, and his dough, well, while it's not an intelligent life form, is now alive. +And we know it's alive because in stage three, it grows. Growth is the proof of life. +And while it's growing, all these literal transformations are taking place. +Enzymes are breaking forth sugars. +Yeast is eating sugar and turning it into carbon dioxide and alcohol. +Bacteria is in there, eating the same sugars, turning them into acids. +In other words, personality and character's being developed in this dough under the watchful gaze of the baker. +And the baker's choices all along the way determine the outcome of the product. +A subtle change in temperature -- a subtle change in time -- it's all about a balancing act between time, temperature and ingredients. That's the art of baking. +So all these things are determined by the baker, and the bread goes through some stages, and characters develop. +And then we divide it, and this one big piece of dough is divided into smaller units, and each of those units are given shape by the baker. +And as they're shaped, they're raised again, all along proving that they're alive, and developing character. +And at stage 10, we take it to the oven. +It's still dough. Nobody eats bread dough -- a few people do, I think, but not too many. +I've met some dough eaters, but -- it's not the staff of life, right? Bread is the staff of life. +But dough is what we're working with, and we take that dough to the oven, and it goes into the oven. As soon as the interior temperature of that dough crosses the threshold of 140 degrees, it passes what we call the "thermal death point." +Students love that TDP. They think it's the name of a video game. +But it's the thermal death point -- all life ceases there. +The yeast, whose mission it has been up till now to raise the dough, to enliven it, to vivify it, in order to complete its mission, which is also to turn this dough into bread, has to give up its life. +So you see the symbolism at work? It's starting to come forth a little bit, you know. +It's starting to make sense to me -- what goes in is dough, what comes out is bread -- or it goes in alive, comes out dead. +Third transformation. First transformation, alive to dead. +Second transformation, dead brought back to life. +Third transformation, alive to dead -- but dough to bread. +Or another analogy would be, a caterpillar has been turned into a butterfly. +And it's what comes out of the oven that is what we call the staff of life. +This is the product that everyone in the world eats, that is so difficult to give up. +It's so deeply embedded in our psyches that bread is used as a symbol for life. +It's used as a symbol for transformation. +And so, as we get to stage 12 and we partake of that, again completing the life cycle, you know, we have a chance to essentially ingest that -- it nurtures us, and we continue to carry on and have opportunities to ponder things like this. +So this is what I've learned from bread. +This is what bread has taught me in my journey. +And what we're going to attempt to do with this bread here, again, is to use, in addition to everything we talked about, this bread we're going to call "spent grain bread" because, as you know, bread-making is very similar to beer-making. +Beer is basically liquid bread, or bread is solid beer. +And -- they -- they're invented around the same time. I think beer came first. +And the Egyptian who was tending the beer fell asleep in the hot, Egyptian sun, and it turned into bread. +But we've got this bread, and what I did here is to try to, again, evoke even more flavor from this grain, was we've added into it the spent grain from beer-making. +And if you make this bread, you can use any kind of spent grain from any type of beer. +I like dark spent grain. Today we're using a light spent grain that's actually from, like, some kind of a lager of some sort -- a light lager or an ale -- that is wheat and barley that's been toasted. +In other words, the beer-maker knows also how to evoke flavor from the grains by using sprouting and malting and roasting. +We're going to take some of that, and put it into the bread. +So now we not only have a high-fiber bread, but now fiber on top of fiber. +And so this is, again, hopefully not only a healthy bread, but a bread that you will enjoy. +So, if I, kind of, break this bread, maybe we can share this now a little bit here. +We'll start a little piece here, and I'm going to take a little piece here -- I think I'd better taste it myself before you have it at lunch. +I'll leave you with what I call the baker's blessing. +May your crust be crisp, and your bread always rise. +Thank you. +I'm going to talk about a very fundamental change that is going on in the very fabric of the modern economy. +And to talk about that, I'm going to go back to the beginning, because in the beginning were commodities. +Commodities are things that you grow in the ground, raise on the ground or pull out of the ground: basically, animal, mineral, vegetable. +And then you extract them out of the ground, and sell them on the open marketplace. +Commodities were the basis of the agrarian economy that lasted for millennia. +But then along came the industrial revolution, and then goods became the predominant economic offering, where we used commodities as a raw material to be able to make or manufacture goods. +So, we moved from an agrarian economy to an industrial economy. +Well, what then happened over the last 50 or 60 years, is that goods have become commoditized. +Commoditized: where they're treated like a commodity, where people don't care who makes them. +They just care about three things and three things only: price, price and price. +Now, there's an antidote to commoditization, and that is customization. +So, we moved from an industrial economy to a service-based economy. +But over the past 10 or 20 years, what's happened is that services are being commoditized as well. +Long-distance telephone service sold on price, price, price; fast-food restaurants with all their value pricing; and even the Internet is commoditizing not just goods, but services as well. +What that means is that it's time to move to a new level of economic value. +Time to go beyond the goods and the services, and use, in that same heuristic, what happens when you customize a service? +What happens when you design a service that is so appropriate for a particular person -- that's exactly what they need at this moment in time? +Then you can't help but make them go "wow"; you can't help but turn it into a memorable event -- you can't help but turn it into an experience. +So we're shifting to an experience economy, where experiences are becoming the predominant economic offering. +Now most places that I talk to, when I talk about experience, I talk about Disney -- the world's premier experience-stager. +I talk about theme restaurants, and experiential retail, and boutique hotels, and Las Vegas -- the experience capital of the world. +But here, when you think about experiences, think about Thomas Dolby and his group, playing music. +Think about meaningful places. +Think about drinking wine, about a journey to the Clock of the Long Now. +Those are all experiences. Think about TED itself. +The experience capital in the world of conferences. +All of these are experiences. +Now, over the last several years I spent a lot of time in Europe, and particularly in the Netherlands, and whenever I talk about the experience economy there, I'm always greeted at the end with one particular question, almost invariably. +And the question isn't really so much a question as an accusation. +And the Dutch, when they usually put it, it always starts with the same two words. +You know the words I mean? +You Americans. +They say, you Americans. +You like your fantasy environments, your fake, your Disneyland experiences. +They say, we Dutch, we like real, natural, authentic experiences. +So much has that happened that I've developed a fairly praticed response, which is: I point out that first of all, you have to understand that there is no such thing as an inauthentic experience. +Why? Because the experience happens inside of us. +It's our reaction to the events that are staged in front of us. +So, as long as we are in any sense authentic human beings, then every experience we have is authentic. +Now, there may be more or less natural or artificial stimuli for the experience, but even that is a matter of degree, not kind. +And there's no such thing as a 100 percent natural experience. +Even if you go for a walk in the proverbial woods, there is a company that manufactured the car that delivered you to the edge of the woods; there's a company that manufactured the shoes that you have to protect yourself from the ground of the woods. +There's a company that provides a cell phone service you have in case you get lost in the woods. +Right? All of those are man-made, artificiality brought into the woods by you, and by the very nature of being there. +And then I always finish off by talking about -- the thing that amazes me the most about this question, particularly coming from the Dutch, is that the Netherlands is every bit as manufactured as Disneyland. +And the Dutch, they always go ... +and they realize, I'm right! +There isn't a square meter of ground in the entire country that hasn't been reclaimed from the sea, or otherwise moved, modified and manicured to look as if it had always been there. +It's the only place you ever go for a walk in the woods and all the trees are lined up in rows. +But nonetheless, not just the Dutch, but everyone has this desire for the authentic. +And authenticity is therefore becoming the new consumer sensibility -- the buying criteria by which consumers are choosing who are they going to buy from, and what they're going to buy. +Becoming the basis of the economy. +In fact, you can look at how each of these economies developed, that each one has their own business imperative, matched with a consumer sensibility. +We're the agrarian economy, and we're supplying commodities. +It's about supply and availability. +Getting the commodities to market. +With the industrial economy, it is about controlling costs -- getting the costs down as low as possible so we can offer them to the masses. +With the service economy, it is about improving quality. +That has -- the whole quality movement has risen with the service economy over the past 20 or 30 years. +And now, with the experience economy, it's about rendering authenticity. +Rendering authenticity -- and the keyword is "rendering." +Right? Rendering, because you have to get your consumers -- as business people -- to percieve your offerings as authentic. +Because there is a basic paradox: no one can have an inauthentic experience, but no business can supply one. +Because all businesses are man-made objects; all business is involved with money; all business is a matter of using machinery, and all those things make something inauthentic. +So, how do you render authenticity, is the question. +Are you rendering authenticity? +When you think about that, let me go back to what Lionel Trilling, in his seminal book on authenticity, "Sincerity and Authenticity" -- came out in 1960 -- points to as the seminal point at which authenticity entered the lexicon, if you will. +And that is, to no surprise, in Shakespeare, and in his play, Hamlet. +And there is one part in this play, Hamlet, where the most fake of all the characters in Hamlet, Polonius, says something profoundly real. +At the end of a laundry list of advice he's giving to his son, Laertes, he says this: And this above all: to thine own self be true. +And it doth follow, as night the day, that thou canst not then be false to any man. +And those three verses are the core of authenticity. +There are two dimensions to authenticity: one, being true to yourself, which is very self-directed. +Two, is other-directed: being what you say you are to others. +And I don't know about you, but whenever I encounter two dimensions, I immediately go, ahh, two-by-two! +All right? Anybody else like that, no? +Well, if you think about that, you do, in fact, get a two-by-two. +Where, on one dimension it's a matter of being true to yourself. +As businesses, are the economic offerings you are providing -- are they true to themselves? +And the other dimension is: are they what they say they are to others? +If not, you have, "is not true to itself," and "is not what it says it is," yielding a two-by-two matrix. +And of course, if you are both true to yourself, and are what you say you are, then you're real real! +The opposite, of course, is -- fake fake. +All right, now, there is value for fake. +There will always be companies around to supply the fake, because there will always be desire for the fake. +Fact is, there's a general rule: if you don't like it, it's fake; if you do like it, it's faux. +Now, the other two sides of the coin are: being a real fake -- is what it says it is, but is not true to itself, or being a fake real: is true to itself, but not what it says it is. +You can think about those two -- you know, both of these better than being fake fake -- not quite as good as being real real. +You can contrast them by thinking about Universal City Walk versus Disney World, or Disneyland. +Universal City Walk is a real fake -- in fact, we got this very term from Ada Louise Huxtable's book, "The Unreal America." +A wonderful book, where she talks about Universal City Walk as -- you know, she decries the fake, but she says, at least that's a real fake, right, because you can see behind the facade, right? +It is what it says it is: It's Universal Studio; it's in the city of Los Angeles; you're going to walk a lot. +Right? You don't tend to walk a lot in Los Angeles, well, here's a place where you are going to walk a lot, outside in this city. +But is it really true to itself? +Right? Is it really in the city? +Is it -- you can see behind all of it, and see what is going on in the facades of it. +So she calls it a real fake. +Disney World, on the other hand, is a fake real, or a fake reality. +Right? It's not what it says it is. It's not really the magic kingdom. +But it is -- oh, I'm sorry, I didn't mean to -- -- sorry. +We won't talk about Santa Claus then. +But Disney World is wonderfully true to itself. +Right? Just wonderfully true to itself. +When you are there you are just immersed in this wonderful environment. +So, it's a fake real. +Now the easiest way to fall down in this, and not be real real, right, the easiest way not to be true to yourself is not to understand your heritage, and thereby repudiate that heritage. +Right, the key of being true to yourself is knowing who you are as a business. +Knowing where your heritage is: what you have done in the past. +And what you have done in the past limits what you can do, what you can get away with, essentially, in the future. +So, you have to understand that past. +Think about Disney again. +Disney, 10 or 15 years ago, right, the Disney -- the company that is probably best-known for family values out there, Disney bought the ABC network. +The ABC network, affectionately known in the trade as the T&A network, right -- that's not too much jargon, is it? +Right, the T&A network. Then it bought Miramax, known for its NC-17 fare, and all of a sudden, families everywhere couldn't really trust what they were getting from Disney. +It was no longer true to its heritage; no longer true to Walt Disney. +That's one of the reasons why they're having such trouble today, and why Roy Disney is out to get Michael Eisner. +Because it is no longer true to itself. +So, understand what -- your past limits what you can do in the future. +When it comes to being what you say you are, the easiest mistake that companies make is that they advertise things that they are not. +That's when you're perceived as fake, as a phony company -- advertizing things that you're not. +Think about any hotel, any airline, any hospital. +Right, if you could check into the ads, you'd have a great experience. +But unfortunately, you have to experience the actual hotel, airline and hospital, and then you have that disconnect. +Then you have that perception that you are phony. +So, the number one thing to do when it comes to being what you say you are, is to provide places for people to experience who you are. +For people to experience who you are. +Right, it's not advertising does it. +That's why you have companies like Starbucks, right, that doesn't advertise at all. +They said, you want to know who we are, you have to come experience us. +And think about the economic value they have provided by that experience. +Right? Coffee, at its core, is what? +Right? It's beans; right? It's coffee beans. +You know how much coffee is worth, when treated as a commodity as a bean? +Two or three cents per cup -- that's what coffee is worth. +But grind it, roast it, package it, put it on a grocery store shelf, and now it'll cost five, 10, 15 cents, when you treat it as a good. +Take that same good, and perform the service of actually brewing it for a customer, in a corner diner, in a bodega, a kiosk somewhere, you get 50 cents, maybe a buck per cup of coffee. +But surround the brewing of that coffee with the ambiance of a Starbucks, with the authentic cedar that goes inside of there, and now, because of that authentic experience, you can charge two, three, four, five dollars for a cup of coffee. +So, authenticity is becoming the new consumer sensibility. +Let me summarize it, for the business people in the audience, with three rules, three basic rules. +One, don't say you're authentic unless you really are authentic. +Two, it's easier to be authentic if you don't say you're authentic. +And three, if you say you're authentic, you better be authentic. +And then for the consumers, for everyone else in the audience, let me simply summarize it by saying, increasingly, what we -- what will make us happy, is spending our time and our money satisfying the desire for authenticity. +Thank you. +My work is play. +And I play when I design. +I even looked it up in the dictionary, to make sure that I actually do that, and the definition of play, number one, was engaging in a childlike activity or endeavor, and number two was gambling. +And I realize I do both when I'm designing. +I'm both a kid and I'm gambling all the time. +And I think that if you're not, there's probably something inherently wrong with the structure or the situation you're in, if you're a designer. +But the serious part is what threw me, and I couldn't quite get a handle on it until I remembered an essay. +And it's an essay I read 30 years ago. +It was written by Russell Baker, who used to write an "Observer" column in the New York Times. +He's a wonderful humorist. And I'm going to read you this essay, or an excerpt from it because it really hit home for me. +Here is a letter of friendly advice. +Be serious, it says. +What it means, of course, is, be solemn. +Being solemn is easy. +Being serious is hard. +Children almost always begin by being serious, which is what makes them so entertaining when compared with adults as a class. +Adults, on the whole, are solemn. +In politics, the rare candidate who is serious, like Adlai Stevenson, is easily overwhelmed by one who is solemn, like Eisenhower. +That's because it is hard for most people to recognize seriousness, which is rare, but more comfortable to endorse solemnity, which is commonplace. +Jogging, which is commonplace, and widely accepted as good for you, is solemn. +Poker is serious. +Washington, D.C. is solemn. +New York is serious. +Going to educational conferences to tell you anything about the future is solemn. +Taking a long walk by yourself, during which you devise a foolproof scheme for robbing Tiffany's, is serious. +Now, when I apply Russell Baker's definition of solemnity or seriousness to design, it doesn't necessarily make any particular point about quality. +Solemn design is often important and very effective design. +Solemn design is also socially correct, and is accepted by appropriate audiences. +It's what right-thinking designers and all the clients are striving for. +Serious design, serious play, is something else. +For one thing, it often happens spontaneously, intuitively, accidentally or incidentally. +It can be achieved out of innocence, or arrogance, or out of selfishness, sometimes out of carelessness. +But mostly, it's achieved through all those kind of crazy parts of human behavior that don't really make any sense. +Serious design is imperfect. +It's filled with the kind of craft laws that come from something being the first of its kind. +Serious design is also -- often -- quite unsuccessful from the solemn point of view. +That's because the art of serious play is about invention, change, rebellion -- not perfection. +Perfection happens during solemn play. +Now, I always saw design careers like surreal staircases. +If you look at the staircase, you'll see that in your 20s the risers are very high and the steps are very short, and you make huge discoveries. +You sort of leap up very quickly in your youth. +That's because you don't know anything and you have a lot to learn, and so that anything you do is a learning experience and you're just jumping right up there. +As you get older, the risers get shallower and the steps get wider, and you start moving along at a slower pace because you're making fewer discoveries. +And as you get older and more decrepit, you sort of inch along on this sort of depressing, long staircase, leading you into oblivion. +I find it's actually getting really hard to be serious. +I'm hired to be solemn, but I find more and more that I'm solemn when I don't have to be. +And in my 35 years of working experience, I think I was really serious four times. +And I'm going to show them to you now, because they came out of very specific conditions. +It's great to be a kid. +Now, when I was in my early 20s, I worked in the record business, designing record covers for CBS Records, and I had no idea what a great job I had. +I thought everybody had a job like that. +And what -- the way I looked at design and the way I looked at the world was, what was going on around me and the things that came at the time I walked into design were the enemy. +I really, really, really hated the typeface Helvetica. +I thought the typeface Helvetica was the cleanest, most boring, most fascistic, really repressive typeface, and I hated everything that was designed in Helvetica. +And when I was in my college days, this was the sort of design that was fashionable and popular. +This is actually quite a lovely book jacket by Rudy de Harak, but I just hated it, because it was designed with Helvetica, and I made parodies about it. +I just thought it was, you know, completely boring. +So -- so, my goal in life was to do stuff that wasn't made out of Helvetica. +And to do stuff that wasn't made out of Helvetica was actually kind of hard because you had to find it. +And there weren't a lot of books about the history of design in the early 70s. There weren't -- there wasn't a plethora of design publishing. +You actually had to go to antique stores. You had to go to Europe. +You had to go places and find the stuff. +And what I responded to was, you know, Art Nouveau, or deco, or Victorian typography, or things that were just completely not Helvetica. +And I taught myself design this way, and this was sort of my early years, and I used these things in really goofy ways on record covers and in my design. +I wasn't educated. I just sort of put these things together. +I mixed up Victorian designs with pop, and I mixed up Art Nouveau with something else. +And I made these very lush, very elaborate record covers, not because I was being a post-modernist or a historicist -- because I didn't know what those things were. +I just hated Helvetica. +And that kind of passion drove me into very serious play, a kind of play I could never do now because I'm too well-educated. +And there's something wonderful about that form of youth, where you can let yourself grow and play, and be really a brat, and then accomplish things. +By the end of the '70s, actually, the stuff became known. +I mean, these covers appeared all over the world, and they started winning awards, and people knew them. +And I was suddenly a post-modernist, and I began a career as -- in my own business. +And first I was praised for it, then criticized for it, but the fact of the matter was, I had become solemn. +I didn't do what I think was a piece of serious work again for about 14 years. +I spent most of the '80s being quite solemn, turning out these sorts of designs that I was expected to do because that's who I was, and I was living in this cycle of going from serious to solemn to hackneyed to dead, and getting rediscovered all over again. +So, here was the second condition for which I think I accomplished some serious play. +There's a Paul Newman movie that I love called "The Verdict." +I don't know how many of you have seen it, but it's a beaut. +And in the movie, he plays a down-and-out lawyer who's become an ambulance chaser. +And he's taken on -- he's given, actually -- a malpractice suit to handle that's sort of an easy deal, and in the midst of trying to connect the deal, he starts to empathize and identify with his client, and he regains his morality and purpose, and he goes on to win the case. +And in the depth of despair, in the midst of the movie, when it looks like he can't pull this thing off, and he needs this case, he needs to win this case so badly. +There's a shot of Paul Newman alone, in his office, saying, "This is the case. There are no other cases. +This is the case. There are no other cases." +And in that moment of desire and focus, he can win. +And that is a wonderful position to be in to create some serious play. +And I had that moment in 1994 when I met a theater director named George Wolfe, who was going to have me design an identity for the New York Shakespeare Festival, then known, and then became the Public Theater. +And I began getting immersed in this project in a way I never was before. +This is what theater advertising looked like at that time. +This is what was in the newspapers and in the New York Times. +So, this is sort of a comment on the time. +And the Public Theater actually had much better advertising than this. +They had no logo and no identity, but they had these very iconic posters painted by Paul Davis. +And George Wolf had taken over from another director and he wanted to change the theater, and he wanted to make it urban and loud and a place that was inclusive. +So, drawing on my love of typography, I immersed myself into this project. +And what was different about it was the totality of it, was that I really became the voice, the visual voice, of a place in a way I had never done before, where every aspect -- the smallest ad, the ticket, whatever it was -- was designed by me. +There was no format. +There was no in-house department that these things were pushed to. +I literally for three years made everything -- every scrap of paper, everything online, that this theater did. +And it was the only job, even though I was doing other jobs. +I lived and breathed it in a way I haven't with a client since. +It enabled me to really express myself and grow. +And I think that you know when you're going to be given this position, and it's rare, but when you get it and you have this opportunity, it's the moment of serious play. +I did these things, and I still do them. +I still work for the Public Theater. +I'm on their board, and I still am involved with it. +The high point of the Public Theater, I think, was in 1996, two years after I designed it, which was the "Bring in 'da Noise, Bring in 'da Funk" campaign that was all over New York. +But something happened to it, and what happened to it was, it became very popular. +And that is a kiss of death for something serious because it makes it solemn. +And what happened was that New York City, to a degree, ate my identity because people began to copy it. +Here's an ad in the New York Times somebody did for a play called "Mind Games." +Then "Chicago" came out, used similar graphics, and the Public Theater's identity was just totally eaten and taken away, which meant I had to change it. +So, I changed it so that every season was different, and I continued to do these posters, but they never had the seriousness of the first identity because they were too individual, and they didn't have that heft of everything being the same thing. +Now -- and I think since the Public Theater, I must have done more than a dozen cultural identities for major institutions, and I don't think I ever -- I ever grasped that seriousness again -- I do them for very big, important institutions in New York City. +The institutions are solemn, and so is the design. +They're better crafted than the Public Theater was, and they spend more money on them, but I think that that moment comes and goes. +The best way to accomplish serious design -- which I think we all have the opportunity to do -- is to be totally and completely unqualified for the job. +That doesn't happen very often, but it happened to me in the year 2000, when for some reason or another, a whole pile of different architects started to ask me to design the insides of theaters with them, where I would take environmental graphics and work them into buildings. +I'd never done this kind of work before. +So, it was a rough -- it was a rough go, but I fell in love with this process of actually integrating graphics into architecture because I didn't know what I was doing. +I said, "Why can't the signage be on the floor?" +New Yorkers look at their feet. +And then I found that actors and actresses actually take their cues from the floor, so it turned out that these sorts of sign systems began to make sense. +They integrated with the building in really peculiar ways. +They ran around corners, they went up sides of buildings, and they melded into the architecture. +This is Symphony Space on 90th Street and Broadway, and the type is interwoven into the stainless steel and backlit with fiber optics. +And the architect, Jim Polshek, essentially gave me a canvas to play typography out on. +And it was serious play. +This is the children's museum in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, made out of completely inexpensive materials. +Extruded typography that's backlit with neon. +Things I never did before, built before. +I just thought they'd be kind of fun to do. +Donors' walls made out of Lucite. +And then, inexpensive signage. +I think my favorite of these was this little job in Newark, New Jersey. +It's a performing arts school. +This is the building that -- they had no money, and they had to recast it, and they said, if we give you 100,000 dollars, what can you do with it? +And I did a little Photoshop job on it, and I said, Well, I think we can paint it. +And we did. And it was play. +And there's the building. Everything was painted -- typography over the whole damn thing, including the air conditioning ducts. +I hired guys who paint flats fixed on the sides of garages to do the painting on the building, and they loved it. +They got into it -- they took the job incredibly seriously. +They used to climb up on the building and call me and tell me that they had to correct my typography -- that my spacing was wrong, and they moved it, and they did wonderful things with it. +They were pretty serious, too. It was quite wonderful. +By the time I did Bloomberg's headquarters my work had begun to become accepted. +People wanted it in big, expensive places. +And that began to make it solemn. +Bloomberg was all about numbers, and we did big numbers through the space and the numbers were projected on a spectacular LED that my partner, Lisa Strausfeld, programmed. +But it became the end of the seriousness of the play, and it started to, once again, become solemn. +This is a current project in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, where I got to be goofy. +I was invited to design a logo for this neighborhood, called the North Side, and I thought it was silly for a neighborhood to have a logo. +I think that's rather creepy, actually. Why would a neighborhood have a logo? +A neighborhood has a thing -- it's got a landmark, it's got a place, it's got a restaurant. It doesn't have a logo. I mean, what would that be? +So I had to actually give a presentation to a city council and neighborhood constituents, and I went to Pittsburgh and I said, "You know, really what you have here are all these underpasses that separate the neighborhood from the center of town. +Why don't you celebrate them, and make the underpasses landmarks?" +So I began doing this crazy presentation of these installations -- potential installations -- on these underpass bridges, and stood up in front of the city council -- and was a little bit scared, I have to admit. +But I was so utterly unqualified for this project, and so utterly ridiculous, and ignored the brief so desperately that I think they just embraced it with wholeheartedness, just completely because it was so goofy to begin with. +And this is the bridge they're actually painting up and preparing as we speak. +It will change every six months, and it will become an art installation in the North Side of Pittsburgh, and it will probably become a landmark in the area. +John Hockenberry told you a bit about my travail with Citibank, that is now a 10-year relationship, and I still work with them. +And I actually am amused by them and like them, and think that as a very, very, very, very, very big corporation they actually keep their graphics very nice. +I drew the logo for Citibank on a napkin in the first meeting. +That was the play part of the job. +And then I spent a year going to long, tedious, boring meetings, trying to sell this logo through to a huge corporation to the point of tears. +I thought I was going to go crazy at the end of this year. +We made idiotic presentations showing how the Citi logo made sense, and how it was really derived from an umbrella, and we made animations of these things, and we came back and forth and back and forth and back and forth. +And it was worth it, because they bought this thing, and it played out on such a grand scale, and it's so internationally recognizable, but for me it was actually a very, very depressing year. +As a matter of fact, they actually never bought onto the logo until Fallon put it on its very good "Live Richly" campaign, and then everybody accepted it all over the world. +So during this time I needed some kind of counterbalance for this crazy, crazy existence of going to these long, idiotic meetings. +They would take me about six months initially, but then I started getting faster at it. +Here's the United States. +Every single city of the United States is on here. +And it hung for about eight months at the Cooper-Hewitt, and people walked up to it, and they would point to a part of the map and they'd say, "Oh, I've been here." +And, of course, they couldn't have been because it's in the wrong spot. +But what I liked about it was, I was controlling my own idiotic information, and I was creating my own palette of information, and I was totally and completely at play. +One of my favorites was this painting I did of Florida after the 2000 election that has the election results rolling around in the water. +I keep that for evidence. +Somebody was up at my house and saw the paintings and recommended them to a gallery, and I had a first show about two-and-a-half years ago, and I showed these paintings that I'm showing you now. +And then a funny thing happened -- they sold. +And they sold quickly, and became rather popular. +We started making prints from them. +This is Manhattan, one from the series. +This is a print from the United States which we did in red, white and blue. +We began doing these big silkscreen prints, and they started selling, too. +And then this funny thing happened. +I found that I was no longer at play. +I was actually in this solemn landscape of fulfilling an expectation for a show, which is not where I started with these things. +So, while they became successful, I know how to make them, so I'm not a neophyte, and they're no longer serious -- they have become solemn. +Because in the end, that's how you grow, and that's all that matters. +So, I'm plugging along here -- and I'm just going to have to blow up the staircase. +Thank you very much. +I had requested slides, kind of adamantly, up till the -- pretty much, last few days, but was denied access to a slide projector. +I actually find them a lot more emotional -- -- and personal, and the neat thing about a slide projector is you can actually focus the work, unlike PowerPoint and some other programs. +Now, I agree that you have to -- yeah, there are certain concessions and, you know, if you use a slide projector, you're not able to have the bad type swing in from the back or the side, or up or down, but maybe that's an O.K. trade-off, to trade that off for a focus. +It's a thought. Just a thought. +And there's something nice about slides getting stuck. +And the thing you really hope for is occasionally they burn up, which we won't see tonight. So. +With that, let's get the first slide up here. +This, as many of you have probably guessed, is a recently emptied beer can in Portugal. +This -- I had just arrived in Barcelona for the first time, and I thought -- you know, fly all night, I looked up, and I thought, wow, how clean. +You come into this major airport, and they simply have a B. +I mean, how nice is that? +Everything's gotten simpler in design, and here's this mega airport, and God, I just -- I took a picture. +I thought, God, that is the coolest thing I've ever seen at an airport. +Till a couple months later, I went back to the same airport -- same plane, I think -- and looked up, and it said C. +It was only then that I realized it was simply a gate that I was coming into. +I'm a big believer in the emotion of design, and the message that's sent before somebody begins to read, before they get the rest of the information; what is the emotional response they get to the product, to the story, to the painting -- whatever it is. +That area of design interests me the most, and I think this for me is a real clear, very simplified version of what I'm talking about. +These are a couple of garage doors painted identical, situated next to each other. +So, here's the first door. You know, you get the message. +You know, it's pretty clear. +Take a look at the second door and see if there's any different message. +O.K., which one would you park in front of? +Same color, same message, same words. +The only thing that's different is the expression that the individual door-owner here put into the piece -- and, again, which is the psycho-killer here? +Yet it doesn't say that; it doesn't need to say that. +I would probably park in front of the other one. +I'm sure a lot of you are aware that graphic design has gotten a lot simpler in the last five years or so. +It's gotten so simple that it's already starting to kind of come back the other way again and get a little more expressive. +But I was in Milan and saw this street sign, and was very happy to see that apparently this idea of minimalism has even been translated by the graffiti artist. +And this graffiti artist has come along, made this sign a little bit better, and then moved on. +He didn't overpower it like they have a tendency to do. +This is for a book by "Metropolis." +I took some photos, and this is a billboard in Florida, and either they hadn't paid their rent, or they didn't want to pay their rent again on the sign, and the billboard people were too cheap to tear the whole sign down, so they just teared out sections of it. +And I would argue that it's possibly more effective than the original billboard in terms of getting your attention, getting you to look over that way. +And hopefully you don't stop and buy those awful pecan things -- Stuckey's. +This is from my second book. +The first book is called, "The End of Print," and it was done along with a film, working with William Burroughs. +And "The End of Print" is now in its fifth printing. +When I first contacted William Burroughs about being part of it, he said no; he said he didn't believe it was the end of print. +And I said, well, that's fine; I just would love to have your input on this film and this book, and he finally agreed to it. +And at the end of the film, he says in this great voice that I can't mimic but I'll kind of try, but not really, he says, "I remember attending an exhibition called, 'Photography: The End of Painting.'" And then he says, "And, of course, it wasn't at all." +So, apparently when photography was perfected, there were people going around saying, that's it: you've just ruined painting. +People are just going to take pictures now. +And of course, that wasn't the case. +So, this is from "2nd Sight," a book I did on intuition. +I think it's not the only ingredient in design, but possibly the most important. +It's something everybody has. +It's not a matter of teaching it; in fact, most of the schools tend to discount intuition as an ingredient of your working process because they can't quantify it: it's very hard to teach people the four steps to intuitive design, but we can teach you the four steps to a nice business card or a newsletter. +So it tends to get discounted. +This is a quote from Albert Einstein, who says, "The intellect has little to do on the road to discovery. +There comes a leap in consciousness -- call it intuition or what you will -- and the solution just comes to you, and you don't know from where or why." +So, it's kind of like when somebody says, Who did that song? +And the more you try to think about it, the further the answer gets from you, and the minute you stop thinking about it, your intuition gives you that answer, in a sense. +I like this for a couple of reasons. +If you've had any design courses, they would teach you you can't read this. +I think you eventually can and, more importantly, I think it's true. +"Don't mistake legibility for communication." +Just because something's legible doesn't means it communicates. +More importantly, it doesn't mean it communicates the right thing. +So, what is the message sent before somebody actually gets into the material? +And I think that's sometimes an overlooked area. +This is working with Marshall McLuhan. +I stayed and worked with his wife and son, Eric, and we came up with close to 600 quotes from Marshall that are just amazing in terms of being ahead of the times, predicting so much of what has happened in the advertising, television, media world. +And so this book is called "Probes." It's another word for quotes. +And it's -- a lot of them are never -- have never been published before, and basically, I've interpreted the different quotes. +So, this was the contents page originally. +When I got done it was 540 pages, and then the publisher, Gingko Press, ended up cutting it down considerably: it's just under 400 pages now. +But I decided I liked this contents page -- I liked the way it looks -- so I kept it. +It now has no relevance to the book whatsoever, but it's a nice spread, I think, in there. +So, a couple spreads from the book: here McLuhan says, "The new media are not bridges between Man and Nature; they are Nature." +"The invention of printing did away with anonymity, fostering ideas of literary fame and the habit of considering intellectual effort as private property," which had never been done before printing. +"When new technologies impose themselves on societies long habituated to older technologies, anxieties of all kinds result." +"While people are engaged in creating a totally different world, they always form vivid images of the preceding world." +I hate this stuff. It's hard to read. +"People in the electronic age have no possible environment except the globe, and no possible occupation except information gathering." +That was it. That's all he saw as the options. And not too far off. +So, this is a project for Nine Inch Nails. +And I only show it because it seemed like it got all this relevancy all of a sudden, and it was done right after 9/11. +And I had recently discovered a bomb shelter in the backyard of a house I had bought in LA that the real estate person hadn't pointed out. +There was some bomb shelter built, apparently in the '60s Cuban missile crisis. +And I asked the real estate guy what it was as we were walking by, and he goes, "It's something to do with the sewage system." +I was, O.K.; that's fine. +I finally went down there, and it was this old rusted circular thing, and two beds, and very kind of creepy and weird. +And also, surprisingly, it was done in kind of a cheap metal, and it had completely rusted through, and water everywhere, and spiders. +And I thought, you know, what were they thinking? +You'd think maybe cement, possibly, or something. +But anyway, I used this for a cover for the Nine Inch Nails DVD, and I've also now fixed the bomb shelter with duct tape, and it's ready. I think I'm ready. So. +This is an experiment, really, for a client, Quicksilver, where we were taking what was a six-shot sequence and trying to use print as a medium to get people to the Web. +So, this is a six-shot sequence. +I've taken one shot; I cropped it a few different ways. +And then the tiny line of copy says, If you want to see this entire sequence -- how this whole ride was -- go to the website. +And my guess is that a lot of the surf kids did go to the site to get this entire picture. +Got no way of tracking it, so I could be totally wrong. +I don't have the site. It's just the piece itself. +This is a group in New York called the Coalition for a Smoke-free Environment -- asked me to do these posters. +They were wild-posted around New York City. +You can't really -- well, you can't see it at all -- but the second line is really the more kind of payoff, in a sense. +It says, "If the cigarette companies can lie, then so can we." But -- -- but I did. +These were literally wild-posted all over New York one night, and there were definitely some heads turning, you know, people smoking and, "Huh!" +And it was purposely done to look fairly serious. +It wasn't some, you know, weird grunge type or something; it looked like they might be real. Anyway. +Poster for Atlantic Center for the Arts, a school in Florida. +This amazes me. This is a product I just found out. +I was in the Caribbean at Christmas, and I'm just blown away that in this day and age they will still sell -- not that they will sell -- that there is felt a need for people to lighten the color of their skin. +This was either an old product with new packaging, or a brand-new package, and I just thought, Yikes! How's that still happening? +I do a lot of workshops all over the world, really, and this particular assignment was to come up with new symbols for the restroom doors. +I felt this was one of the more successful solutions. +The students actually cut them up and put them up around bars and restaurants that night, and I just always have this vision of this elderly couple going to use the restroom ... +I did some work for Microsoft a few years back. +It was a worldwide branding campaign. +And it was interesting to me -- my background is in sociology; I had no design training, and sometimes people say, well, that explains it -- but it was a very interesting experiment because there's no product that I had to sell; it was simply the image of Microsoft they were trying to improve. +They thought some people didn't like them. +I found out that's very true, working on this campaign worldwide. +And our goal was to try to humanize them a bit, and what I did was add type and people to the ad, which the previous campaign had not had, and nobody remembered them, and nobody referenced them. +And we were trying to say that, hey, some of these guys that work there are actually OK; some of them actually have friends and family, and they're not all awful people. +And the umbrella campaign was "Thank God it's Monday." +So, we tried to take this -- what was perceived as a negative: their over-competitiveness, their, you know, long working hours -- and turn it into a positive and not run from it. +You know: Thank God it's Monday -- I get to go back to that little cubicle, those fake gray walls, and hear everybody else's conversations f or 10 hours and then go home. +But anyway, this is one of the ads I was most pleased with, because they were all elaborately art-directed, and this one I thought actually felt like the girl was looking at the computer. +It says, "Wonder Around." And then it's a piece of the software. +And this is how the ad ran around the world. +In Germany, they made one small change without checking with me -- nor did they have to, because it was done through agencies -- but see if you can tell the difference. +This is how the ad ran throughout the world; Germany made one slight change in the ad. +Now, there's kind of two issues here. +If you're going to put a kid in the ad, pick one that looks alive. +I just have a feeling this kid's been there for a week, you know. +He's just really hoping that boots up and, you know ... +And then as the agency explained to me, they said, "Look, we don't have little green people in our country; why would we put little green people in our ads, for instance?" +So, I understand their logic. I totally disagree with it; I think it's a very small-minded approach, the world is certainly much more global, and I certainly think the people of Germany could have handled a little black girl sitting in front of a computer, though we'll never know. +This is some work from Ray Gun. +And the point of this magazine was to read the articles, listen to the music, and try to interpret it. +There's no grid, there's no system, there's nothing set up in advance. +This is an opener for Brian Eno, and it's just kind of my personal interpretation of the music. +This is rockstars talking about teachers they had lusted after in school. +There's a lot of great writing in "Ray Gun." +And I was fortunate to find a photograph of a teacher sitting on some books. +Article on Bryan Ferry -- just really boring article -- so I set the whole article in Dingbat. +You could -- you could highlight it; you could make it Helvetica or something: it is the actual article. +I suppose you could eventually decode it, but it's really not very well written; it really wouldn't be worthwhile. +Having done a lot of magazines, I'm very curious how big magazines handle big stories, and I was very curious to see how Time and Newsweek would handle 9/11. +And I was basically pretty disappointed to see that they had chosen to show the photo we'd already seen a million times, which was basically the moment of impact. +And People magazine, I thought, got probably the best shot. +It's kind of horsey type, but the texture -- the second plane not quite hitting: there was something more enticing, if that's the right -- it's not the right word -- but in this cover than Time or Newsweek. +But when I got into this magazine, there's something kind of disturbing, and this continued. +On the left we see people dying; we see people running for their lives. +And on the right we learn that there's a new way to support your breast. +The coveted right-hand page was not given up to the whole issue. +Look at the image of this lady -- who knows what she's going through? -- and the copy says: "He knows just how to give me goosebumps." +Yeah, he jumps out of buildings. It's -- unfortunately, this one works, kind of, as a spread. +And this continued through the entire magazine. +It did not let up. +This says: "One clean fits all." . +There were a lot of orphans made this day, and here's a dead body being brought out. +It just seems to me possibly even a blank page would have been more appropriate. +And this one I think is possibly the worst: two ladies, both facing the same way, both wearing jeans. +One -- who knows what she's going through; the other one is worried about model behavior and milk. +This was what they found on their car. +There's very few times you'd be happy to find this on your car, but it did seem to indicate that we were coming back. +This is my desktop. +Somebody told me today there was this thing called folders, but I don't know what they are. +These are my notes for the talk -- there might be a correlation here. +We are wrapping up. +This I saw on the plane, flying in, for hot new products. +I'm not sure this is an improvement, or a good idea, because, like, if you don't spend quite enough time in front of your computer, you can now get a plate in the keyboard, so there's no more faking it -- that you don't really sit at your desk all day and eat and work anyway. +Now there's a plate, and it would be really, really convenient to get a piece of pizza, then type a little bit, then ... +I'm just not sure this is improvement. +If you ever doubt the power of graphic design, this is a very generic sign that literally says, "Vote for Hitler." It says nothing else. +And this to me is an extreme case of the power of emotion, of graphic design, even though, in fact, was a very generic poster at the time. +What's next? What's next is going to be people. +As we get more technically driven, the importance of people becomes more than it's ever been before. +You have to utilize who you are in your work. +Nobody else can do that: nobody else can pull from your background, from your parents, your upbringing, your whole life experience. +If you allow that to happen, it's really the only way you can do some unique work, and you're going to enjoy the work a lot more as well. +This is -- I like found art; hand lettering's coming back in a big way, and I thought this was a great example of both. +This lady's advertising for her lost pit bull. +It's friendly -- she's underlined friendly -- that's probably why she calls it Hercules or Hercles. She can't spell. +But more importantly, she's willing to give you 20 bucks to go find this lost pit bull. +And I'm thinking, yeah, right, I'll go look for a lost pit bill for 20 bucks. +I have visions of people going down alleyways yelling out for Hercles, and you get charged by this thing and you go, oh, please be Hercles; please be the friendly one. +I'm sure she never found the dog, because I took the sign. +But I was asked to give a talk at a conference in Sacramento a few years back. +And the theme was courage, and they asked me to talk about how courageous it is to be a graphic designer. +And I remembered seeing this photograph of my father, who was a test pilot, and he told me that when you signed up to become a test pilot, they told you that there was a 40 to 50 percent chance of death on the job. +That's pretty high for most occupations. +But, you know, the government would make a plane; they'd say, go see if that one flies, would you? +Some of them did; some of them didn't. +And I started thinking about some of these decisions I have to make between, like, serif versus san-serif. +And for the most part, they're not real life-threatening. +Why not experiment? Why not have some fun? +Why not put some of yourself into the work? +And when I was teaching, I used to always ask the students, What's the definition of a good job? +And as teachers, after you get all the answers, you like to give them the correct answer. +And the best one I've heard -- I'm sure some of you have heard this -- the definition of a good job is: If you could afford to -- if money wasn't an issue -- would you be doing that same work? +And if you would, you've got a great job. +And if you wouldn't, what the heck are you doing? +You're going to be dead a really long time. +Thank you very much. +What's happening in genomics, and how this revolution is about to change everything we know about the world, life, ourselves, and how we think about them. +If you saw 2001: A Space Odyssey, and you heard the boom, boom, boom, boom, and you saw the monolith, you know, that was Arthur C. Clarke's representation that we were at a seminal moment in the evolution of our species. +In this case, it was picking up bones and creating a tool, using it as a tool, which meant that apes just, sort of, running around and eating and doing each other figured out they can make things if they used a tool. +And that moved us to the next level. +And, you know, we in the last 30 years in particular have seen this acceleration in knowledge and technology, and technology has bred more knowledge and given us tools. +And we've seen many seminal moments. +We've seen the creation of small computers in the '70s and early '80s, and who would have thought back then that every single person would not have just one computer but probably 20, in your home, and in not just your P.C. but in every device -- in your washing machine, your cell phone. +You're walking around; your car has 12 microprocessors. +Then we go along and create the Internet and connect the world together; we flatten the world. +We've seen so much change, and we've given ourselves these tools now -- these high-powered tools -- that are allowing us to turn the lens inward into something that is common to all of us, and that is a genome. +How's your genome today? Have you thought about it lately? +Heard about it, at least? You probably hear about genomes these days. +I thought I'd take a moment to tell you what a genome is. +It's, sort of, like if you ask people, Well, what is a megabyte or megabit? And what is broadband? +People never want to say, I really don't understand. +So, I will tell you right off of the bat. +You've heard of DNA; you probably studied a little bit in biology. +A genome is really a description for all of the DNA that is in a living organism. +And one thing that is common to all of life is DNA. +It doesn't matter whether you're a yeast; it doesn't matter whether you're a mouse; doesn't matter whether you're a fly; we all have DNA. +The DNA is organized in words, call them: genes and chromosomes. +And when Watson and Crick in the '50s first decoded this beautiful double helix that we know as the DNA molecule -- very long, complicated molecule -- we then started on this journey to understand that inside of that DNA is a language that determines the characteristics, our traits, what we inherit, what diseases we may get. +We've also along the way discovered that this is a very old molecule, that all of the DNA in your body has been around forever, since the beginning of us, of us as creatures. +There is a historical archive. +Living in your genome is the history of our species, and you as an individual human being, where you're from, going back thousands and thousands and thousands of years, and that's now starting to be understood. +But also, the genome is really the instruction manual. +It is the program. It is the code of life. +It is what makes you function; it is what makes every organism function. +DNA is a very elegant molecule. +It's long and it's complicated. +Really all you have to know about it is that there's four letters: A, T, C, G; they represent the name of a chemical. +And with these four letters, you can create a language: a language that can describe anything, and very complicated things. +You know, they are generally put together in pairs, creating a word or what we call base pairs. +And you would, you know, when you think about it, four letters, or the representation of four things, makes us work. +And that may not sound very intuitive, but let me flip over to something else you know about, and that's computers. +Look at this screen here and, you know, you see pictures and you see words, but really all there are are ones and zeros. +The language of technology is binary; you've probably heard that at some point in time. +Everything that happens in digital is converted, or a representation, of a one and a zero. +So, when you're listening to iTunes and your favorite music, that's really just a bunch of ones and zeros playing very quickly. +When you're seeing these pictures, it's all ones and zeros, and when you're talking on your telephone, your cell phone, and it's going over the network, your voice is all being turned into ones and zeros and magically whizzed around. +And look at all the complex things and wonderful things we've been able to create with just a one and a zero. +Well, now you ramp that up to four, and you have a lot of complexity, a lot of ways to describe mechanisms. +So, let's talk about what that means. +So, if you look at a human genome, they consist of 3.2 billion of these base pairs. That's a lot. +And they mix up in all different fashions, and that makes you a human being. +If you convert that to binary, just to give you a little bit of sizing, we're actually smaller than the program Microsoft Office. +It's not really all that much data. +I will also tell you we're at least as buggy. +This here is a bug in my genome that I have struggled with for a long, long time. +When you get sick, it is a bug in your genome. +In fact, many, many diseases we have struggled with for a long time, like cancer, we haven't been able to cure because we just don't understand how it works at the genomic level. +We are starting to understand that. +So, up to this point we tried to fix it by using what I call shit-against-the-wall pharmacology, which means, well, let's just throw chemicals at it, and maybe it's going to make it work. +But if you really understand why does a cell go from normal cell to cancer? +What is the code? +What are the exact instructions that are making it do that? +then you can go about the process of trying to fix it and figure it out. +So, for your next dinner over a great bottle of wine, here's a few factoids for you. +We actually have about 24,000 genes that do things. +We have about a hundred, 120,000 others that don't appear to function every day, but represent this archival history of how we used to work as a species going back tens of thousands of years. +You might also be interested in knowing that a mouse has about the same amount of genes. +They recently sequenced Pinot Noir, and it also has about 30,000 genes, so the number of genes you have may not necessarily represent the complexity or the evolutionary order of any particular species. +Now, look around: just look next to your neighbor, look forward, look backward. We all look pretty different. +A lot of very handsome and pretty people here, skinny, chubby, different races, cultures. We are all 99.9% genetically equal. +It is one one-hundredth of one percent of genetic material that makes the difference between any one of us. +That's a tiny amount of material, but the way that ultimately expresses itself is what makes changes in humans and in all species. +So, we are now able to read genomes. +The first human genome took 10 years, three billion dollars. +It was done by Dr. Craig Venter. +And then James Watson's -- one of the co-founders of DNA -- genome was done for two million dollars, and in just two months. +And what that means is, you are going to walk around with your own personal genome on a smart card. It will be here. +And when you buy medicine, you won't be buying a drug that's used for everybody. +You will give your genome to the pharmacist, and your drug will be made for you and it will work much better than the ones that were -- you won't have side effects. +All those side effects, you know, oily residue and, you know, whatever they say in those commercials: forget about that. +They're going to make all that stuff go away. +What does a genome look like? +Well, there it is. It is a long, long series of these base pairs. +If you saw the genome for a mouse or for a human it would look no different than this, but what scientists are doing now is they're understanding what these do and what they mean. +Because what Nature is doing is double-clicking all the time. +In other words, the first couple of sentences here, assuming this is a grape plant: make a root, make a branch, create a blossom. +In a human being, down in here it could be: make blood cells, start cancer. +For me it may be: every calorie you consume, you conserve, because I come from a very cold climate. +For my wife: eat three times as much and you never put on any weight. +It's all hidden in this code, and it's starting to be understood at breakneck pace. +So, what can we do with genomes now that we can read them, now that we're starting to have the book of life? +Well, there's many things. Some are exciting. +Some people will find very scary. I will tell you a couple of things that will probably make you want to projectile puke on me, but that's okay. +So, you know, we now can learn the history of organisms. +You can do a very simple test: scrape your cheek; send it off. +You can find out where your relatives come from; you can do your genealogy going back thousands of years. +We can understand functionality. This is really important. +We can understand, for example, why we create plaque in our arteries, what creates the starchiness inside of a grain, why does yeast metabolize sugar and produce carbon dioxide. +We can also look at, at a grander scale, what creates problems, what creates disease, and how we may be able to fix them. +Because we can understand this, we can fix them, make better organisms. +Most importantly, what we're learning is that Nature has provided us a spectacular toolbox. +The toolbox exists. +An architect far better and smarter than us has given us that toolbox, and we now have the ability to use it. +We are now not just reading genomes; we are writing them. +This company, Synthetic Genomics, I'm involved with, created the first full synthetic genome for a little bug, a very primitive creature called Mycoplasma genitalium. +If you have a UTI, you've probably -- or ever had a UTI -- you've come in contact with this little bug. +Very simple -- only has about 246 genes -- but we were able to completely synthesize that genome. +Now, you have the genome and you say to yourself, So, if I plug this synthetic genome -- if I pull the old one out and plug it in -- does it just boot up and live? +Well, guess what. It does. +Not only does it do that; if you took the genome -- that synthetic genome -- and you plugged it into a different critter, like yeast, you now turn that yeast into Mycoplasma. +It's, sort of, like booting up a PC with a Mac O.S. software. +Well, actually, you could do it the other way. +So, you know, by being able to write a genome and plug it into an organism, the software, if you will, changes the hardware. +And this is extremely profound. +So, last year the French and Italians announced they got together and they went ahead and they sequenced Pinot Noir. +The genomic sequence now exists for the entire Pinot Noir organism, and they identified, once again, about 29,000 genes. +They have discovered pathways that create flavors, although it's very important to understand that those compounds that it's cranking out have to match a receptor in our genome, in our tongue, for us to understand and interpret those flavors. +They've also discovered that there's a heck of a lot of activity going on producing aroma as well. +They've identified areas of vulnerability to disease. +They now are understanding, and the work is going on, exactly how this plant works, and we have the capability to know, to read that entire code and understand how it ticks. +So, then what do you do? +Knowing that we can read it, knowing that we can write it, change it, maybe write its genome from scratch. So, what do you do? +Well, one thing you could do is what some people might call Franken-Noir. +We can build a better vine. +By the way, just so you know: you get stressed out about genetically modified organisms; there is not one single vine in this valley or anywhere that is not genetically modified. +They're not grown from seeds; they're grafted into root stock; they would not exist in nature on their own. +So, don't worry about, don't stress about that stuff. We've been doing this forever. +So, we could, you know, focus on disease resistance; we can go for higher yields without necessarily having dramatic farming techniques to do it, or costs. +We could conceivably expand the climate window: we could make Pinot Noir grow maybe in Long Island, God forbid. +We could produce better flavors and aromas. +You want a little more raspberry, a little more chocolate here or there? +All of these things could conceivably be done, and I will tell you I'd pretty much bet that it will be done. +But there's an ecosystem here. +In other words, we're not, sort of, unique little organisms running around; we are part of a big ecosystem. +In fact -- I'm sorry to inform you -- that inside of your digestive tract is about 10 pounds of microbes which you're circulating through your body quite a bit. +Our ocean's teaming with microbes; in fact, when Craig Venter went and sequenced the microbes in the ocean, in the first three months tripled the known species on the planet by discovering all-new microbes in the first 20 feet of water. +We now understand that those microbes have more impact on our climate and regulating CO2 and oxygen than plants do, which we always thought oxygenate the atmosphere. +We find microbial life in every part of the planet: in ice, in coal, in rocks, in volcanic vents; it's an amazing thing. +But we've also discovered, when it comes to plants, in plants, as much as we understand and are starting to understand their genomes, it is the ecosystem around them, it is the microbes that live in their root systems, that have just as much impact on the character of those plants as the metabolic pathways of the plants themselves. +If you take a closer look at a root system, you will find there are many, many, many diverse microbial colonies. +This is not big news to viticulturists; they have been, you know, concerned with water and fertilization. +And, again, this is, sort of, my notion of shit-against-the-wall pharmacology: you know certain fertilizers make the plant more healthy so you put more in. +You don't necessarily know with granularity exactly what organisms are providing what flavors and what characteristics. +We can start to figure that out. +We all talk about terroir; we worship terroir; we say, Wow, is my terroir great! It's so special. +I've got this piece of land and it creates terroir like you wouldn't believe. +Well, you know, we really, we argue and debate about it -- we say it's climate, it's soil, it's this. Well, guess what? +We can figure out what the heck terroir is. +It's in there, waiting to be sequenced. +There are thousands of microbes there. +They're easy to sequence: unlike a human, they, you know, have a thousand, two thousand genes; we can figure out what they are. +All we have to do is go around and sample, dig into the ground, find those bugs, sequence them, correlate them to the kinds of characteristics we like and don't like -- that's just a big database -- and then fertilize. +And then we understand what is terroir. +So, some people will say, Oh, my God, are we playing God? +Are we now, if we engineer organisms, are we playing God? +And, you know, people would always ask James Watson -- he's not always the most politically correct guy ... +... and they would say, "Are, you know, are you playing God?" +And he had the best answer I ever heard to this question: "Well, somebody has to." +I consider myself a very spiritual person, and without, you know, the organized religion part, and I will tell you: I don't believe there's anything unnatural. +I don't believe that chemicals are unnatural. +I told you I'm going to make some of you puke. +It's very simple: we don't invent molecules, compounds. +They're here. They're in the universe. +We reorganize things, we change them around, but we don't make anything unnatural. +Now, we can create bad impacts -- we can poison ourselves; we can poison the Earth -- but that's just a natural outcome of a mistake we made. +So, what's happening today is, Nature is presenting us with a toolbox, and we find that this toolbox is very extensive. +There are microbes out there that actually make gasoline, believe it or not. +There are microbes, you know -- go back to yeast. +These are chemical factories; the most sophisticated chemical factories are provided by Nature, and we now can use those. +There also is a set of rules. +Nature will not allow you to -- we could engineer a grape plant, but guess what. +We can't make the grape plant produce babies. +Nature has put a set of rules out there. +We can work within the rules; we can't break the rules; we're just learning what the rules are. +So, carbon dioxide -- the stuff we want to get rid of -- not sugar, not anything. +Carbon dioxide, a little bit of sunlight, you end up with a lipid that is highly refined. +We could solve our energy problems; we can reduce CO2,; we could clean up our oceans; we could make better wine. +If we could, would we? +Well, you know, I think the answer is very simple: working with Nature, working with this tool set that we now understand, is the next step in humankind's evolution. +And all I can tell you is, stay healthy for 20 years. +If you can stay healthy for 20 years, you'll see 150, maybe 300. +Thank you. +The future that we will create can be a future that we'll be proud of. +I think about this every day; it's quite literally my job. +I'm co-founder and senior columnist at Worldchanging.com. +Alex Steffen and I founded Worldchanging in late 2003, and since then we and our growing global team of contributors have documented the ever-expanding variety of solutions that are out there, right now and on the near horizon. +In a little over two years, we've written up about 4,000 items -- replicable models, technological tools, emerging ideas -- all providing a path to a future that's more sustainable, more equitable and more desirable. +Our emphasis on solutions is quite intentional. +There are tons of places to go, online and off, if what you want to find is the latest bit of news about just how quickly our hell-bound handbasket is moving. +We want to offer people an idea of what they can do about it. +We focus primarily on the planet's environment, but we also address issues of global development, international conflict, responsible use of emerging technologies, even the rise of the so-called Second Superpower and much, much more. +The scope of solutions that we discuss is actually pretty broad, but that reflects both the range of challenges that need to be met and the kinds of innovations that will allow us to do so. +Also, a number of the topics that we've been talking about this week at TED are things that we've addressed in the past on Worldchanging: cradle-to-cradle design, MIT's Fab Labs, the consequences of extreme longevity, the One Laptop per Child project, even Gapminder. +As a born-in-the-mid-1960s Gen X-er, hurtling all too quickly to my fortieth birthday, I'm naturally inclined to pessimism. But working at Worldchanging has convinced me, much to my own surprise, that successful responses to the world's problems are nonetheless possible. +Moreover, I've come to realize that focusing only on negative outcomes can really blind you to the very possibility of success. +As Norwegian social scientist Evelin Lindner has observed, "Pessimism is a luxury of good times ... +In difficult times, pessimism is a self-fulfilling, self-inflicted death sentence." +The truth is, we can build a better world, and we can do so right now. +We have the tools: we saw a hint of that a moment ago, and we're coming up with new ones all the time. +We have the knowledge, and our understanding of the planet improves every day. +Most importantly, we have the motive: we have a world that needs fixing, and nobody's going to do it for us. +Many of the solutions that I and my colleagues seek out and write up every day have some important aspects in common: transparency, collaboration, a willingness to experiment, and an appreciation of science -- or, more appropriately, science! +The majority of models, tools and ideas on Worldchanging encompass combinations of these characteristics, so I want to give you a few concrete examples of how these principles combine in world-changing ways. +We can see world-changing values in the emergence of tools to make the invisible visible -- that is, to make apparent the conditions of the world around us that would otherwise be largely imperceptible. +We know that people often change their behavior when they can see and understand the impact of their actions. +As a small example, many of us have experienced the change in driving behavior that comes from having a real time display of mileage showing precisely how one's driving habits affect the vehicle's efficiency. +The last few years have all seen the rise of innovations in how we measure and display aspects of the world that can be too big, or too intangible, or too slippery to grasp easily. +Simple technologies, like wall-mounted devices that display how much power your household is using, and what kind of results you'll get if you turn off a few lights -- these can actually have a direct positive impact on your energy footprint. +Community tools, like text messaging, that can tell you when pollen counts are up or smog levels are rising or a natural disaster is unfolding, can give you the information you need to act in a timely fashion. +Data-rich displays like maps of campaign contributions, or maps of the disappearing polar ice caps, allow us to better understand the context and the flow of processes that affect us all. +We can see world-changing values in research projects that seek to meet the world's medical needs through open access to data and collaborative action. +Now, some people emphasize the risks of knowledge-enabled dangers, but I'm convinced that the benefits of knowledge-enabled solutions are far more important. +For example, open-access journals, like the Public Library of Science, make cutting-edge scientific research free to all -- everyone in the world. +And actually, a growing number of science publishers are adopting this model. +Last year, hundreds of volunteer biology and chemistry researchers around the world worked together to sequence the genome of the parasite responsible for some of the developing world's worst diseases: African sleeping sickness, leishmaniasis and Chagas disease. +That genome data can now be found on open-access genetic data banks around the world, and it's an enormous boon to researchers trying to come up with treatments. +But my favorite example has to be the global response to the SARS epidemic in 2003, 2004, which relied on worldwide access to the full gene sequence of the SARS virus. +The U.S. National Research Council in its follow-up report on the outbreak specifically cited this open availability of the sequence as a key reason why the treatment for SARS could be developed so quickly. +And we can see world-changing values in something as humble as a cell phone. +I can probably count on my fingers the number of people in this room who do not use a mobile phone -- and where is Aubrey, because I know he doesn't? +For many of us, cell phones have really become almost an extension of ourselves, and we're really now beginning to see the social changes that mobile phones can bring about. +You may already know some of the big-picture aspects: globally, more camera phones were sold last year than any other kind of camera, and a growing number of people live lives mediated through the lens, and over the network -- and sometimes enter history books. +In the developing world, mobile phones have become economic drivers. +A study last year showed a direct correlation between the growth of mobile phone use and subsequent GDP increases across Africa. +In Kenya, mobile phone minutes have actually become an alternative currency. +The political aspects of mobile phones can't be ignored either, from text message swarms in Korea helping to bring down a government, to the Blairwatch Project in the UK, keeping tabs on politicians who try to avoid the press. +And it's just going to get more wild. +Pervasive, always-on networks, high quality sound and video, even devices made to be worn instead of carried in the pocket, will transform how we live on a scale that few really appreciate. +It's no exaggeration to say that the mobile phone may be among the world's most important technologies. +And in this rapidly evolving context, it's possible to imagine a world in which the mobile phone becomes something far more than a medium for social interaction. +I've long admired the Witness project, and Peter Gabriel told us more details about it on Wednesday, in his profoundly moving presentation. +And I'm just incredibly happy to see the news that Witness is going to be opening up a Web portal to enable users of digital cameras and camera phones to send in their recordings over the Internet, rather than just hand-carrying the videotape. +Not only does this add a new and potentially safer avenue for documenting abuses, it opens up the program to the growing global digital generation. +Now, imagine a similar model for networking environmentalists. +Imagine a Web portal collecting recordings and evidence of what's happening to the planet: putting news and data at the fingertips of people of all kinds, from activists and researchers to businesspeople and political figures. +It would highlight the changes that are underway, but would more importantly give voice to the people who are willing to work to see a new world, a better world, come about. +It would give everyday citizens a chance to play a role in the protection of the planet. +It would be, in essence, an "Earth Witness" project. +Now, just to be clear, in this talk I'm using the name "Earth Witness" as part of the scenario, simply as a shorthand, for what this imaginary project could aspire to, not to piggyback on the wonderful work of the Witness organization. +It could just as easily be called, "Environmental Transparency Project," "Smart Mobs for Natural Security" -- but Earth Witness is a lot easier to say. +Now, many of the people who participate in Earth Witness would focus on ecological problems, human-caused or otherwise, especially environmental crimes and significant sources of greenhouse gases and emissions. +That's understandable and important. +We need better documentation of what's happening to the planet if we're ever going to have a chance of repairing the damage. +But the Earth Witness project wouldn't need to be limited to problems. +In the best Worldchanging tradition, it might also serve as a showcase for good ideas, successful projects and efforts to make a difference that deserve much more visibility. +Earth Witness would show us two worlds: the world we're leaving behind, and the world we're building for generations to come. +And what makes this scenario particularly appealing to me is we could do it today. +The key components are already widely available. +Camera phones, of course, would be fundamental to the project. +And for a lot of us, they're as close as we have yet to always-on, widely available information tools. +We may not remember to bring our digital cameras with us wherever we go, but very few of us forget our phones. +You could even imagine a version of this scenario in which people actually build their own phones. +Over the course of last year, open-source hardware hackers have come up with multiple models for usable, Linux-based mobile phones, and the Earth Phone could spin off from this kind of project. +At the other end of the network, there'd be a server for people to send photos and messages to, accessible over the Web, combining a photo-sharing service, social networking platforms and a collaborative filtering system. +Now, you Web 2.0 folks in the audience know what I'm talking about, but for those of you for whom that last sentence was in a crazy moon language, I mean simply this: the online part of the Earth Witness project would be created by the users, working together and working openly. +That's enough right there to start to build a compelling chronicle of what's now happening to our planet, but we could do more. +An Earth Witness site could also serve as a collection spot for all sorts of data about conditions around the planet picked up by environmental sensors that attach to your cell phone. +It's hardly a stretch to imagine putting the same thing on a phone carried by a person. +Now, the idea of connecting a sensor to your phone is not new: phone-makers around the world offer phones that sniff for bad breath, or tell you to worry about too much sun exposure. +Swedish firm Uppsala Biomedical, more seriously, makes a mobile phone add-on that can process blood tests in the field, uploading the data, displaying the results. +Even the Lawrence Livermore National Labs have gotten into the act, designing a prototype phone that has radiation sensors to find dirty bombs. +Now, there's an enormous variety of tiny, inexpensive sensors on the market, and you can easily imagine someone putting together a phone that could measure temperature, CO2 or methane levels, the presence of some biotoxins -- potentially, in a few years, maybe even H5N1 avian flu virus. +You could see that some kind of system like this would actually be a really good fit with Larry Brilliant's InSTEDD project. +Now, all of this data could be tagged with geographic information and mashed up with online maps for easy viewing and analysis. +And that's worth noting in particular. +The impact of open-access online maps over the last year or two has been simply phenomenal. +Developers around the world have come up with an amazing variety of ways to layer useful data on top of the maps, from bus routes and crime statistics to the global progress of avian flu. +Earth Witness would take this further, linking what you see with what thousands or millions of other people see around the world. +It's kind of exciting to think about what might be accomplished if something like this ever existed. +We'd have a far better -- far better knowledge of what's happening on our planet environmentally than could be gathered with satellites and a handful of government sensor nets alone. +It would be a collaborative, bottom-up approach to environmental awareness and protection, able to respond to emerging concerns in a smart mobs kind of way -- and if you need greater sensor density, just have more people show up. +And most important, you can't ignore how important mobile phones are to global youth. +This is a system that could put the next generation at the front lines of gathering environmental data. +And as we work to figure out ways to mitigate the worst effects of climate disruption, every little bit of information matters. +A system like Earth Witness would be a tool for all of us to participate in the improvement of our knowledge and, ultimately, the improvement of the planet itself. +Now, as I suggested at the outset, there are thousands upon thousands of good ideas out there, so why have I spent the bulk of my time telling you about something that doesn't exist? +Because this is what tomorrow could look like: bottom-up, technology-enabled global collaboration to handle the biggest crisis our civilization has ever faced. +We can save the planet, but we can't do it alone -- we need each other. +Nobody's going to fix the world for us, but working together, making use of technological innovations and human communities alike, we might just be able to fix it ourselves. +We have at our fingertips a cornucopia of compelling models, powerful tools, and innovative ideas that can make a meaningful difference in our planet's future. +We don't need to wait for a magic bullet to save us all; we already have an arsenal of solutions just waiting to be used. +There's a staggering array of wonders out there, across diverse disciplines, all telling us the same thing: success can be ours if we're willing to try. +And as we say at Worldchanging, another world isn't just possible; another world is here. +We just need to open our eyes. Thank you very much. +So, I want to start out with this beautiful picture from my childhood. +I love the science fiction movies. +Here it is: "This Island Earth." +And leave it to Hollywood to get it just right. +Two-and-a-half years in the making. +I mean, even the creationists give us 6,000, but Hollywood goes to the chase. +And in this movie, we see what we think is out there: flying saucers and aliens. +Every world has an alien, and every alien world has a flying saucer, and they move about with great speed. Aliens. +So, in 2000 we wrote "Rare Earth." In 2003, we then asked, let's not think about where Earths are in space, but how long has Earth been Earth? +If you go back two billion years, you're not on an Earth-like planet any more. +What we call an Earth-like planet is actually a very short interval of time. +Well, "Rare Earth" actually taught me an awful lot about meeting the public. +Right after, I got an invitation to go to a science fiction convention, and with all great earnestness walked in. +David Brin was going to debate me on this, and as I walked in, the crowd of a hundred started booing lustily. +I had a girl who came up who said, "My dad says you're the devil." +You cannot take people's aliens away from them and expect to be anybody's friends. +Well, the second part of that, soon after -- and I was talking to Paul Allen; I saw him in the audience, and I handed him a copy of "Rare Earth." +And Jill Tarter was there, and she turned to me, and she looked at me just like that girl in "The Exorcist." +It was, "It burns! It burns!" +Because SETI doesn't want to hear this. +SETI wants there to be stuff out there. +I really applaud the SETI efforts, but we have not heard anything yet. +And I really do think we have to start thinking about what's a good planet and what isn't. +Now, I throw this slide up because it indicates to me that, even if SETI does hear something, can we figure out what they said? +Because this was a slide that was passed between the two major intelligences on Earth -- a Mac to a PC -- and it can't even get the letters right -- -- so how are we going to talk to the aliens? +And if they're 50 light years away, and we call them up, and you blah, blah, blah, blah, blah, and then 50 years later it comes back and they say, Please repeat? +I mean, there we are. +Our planet is a good planet because it can keep water. +Mars is a bad planet, but it's still good enough for us to go there and to live on its surface if we're protected. +But Venus is a very bad -- the worst -- planet. +Even though it's Earth-like, and even though early in its history it may very well have harbored Earth-like life, it soon succumbed to runaway greenhouse -- that's an 800 degrees [Fahrenheit] surface -- because of rampant carbon dioxide. +Well, we know from astrobiology that we can really now predict what's going to happen to our particular planet. +We are right now in the beautiful Oreo of existence -- of at least life on Planet Earth -- following the first horrible microbial age. +In the Cambrian explosion, life emerged from the swamps, complexity arose, and from what we can tell, we're halfway through. +We have as much time for animals to exist on this planet as they have been here now, till we hit the second microbial age. +And that will happen, paradoxically -- everything you hear about global warming -- when we hit CO2 down to 10 parts per million, we are no longer going to have to have plants that are allowed to have any photosynthesis, and there go animals. +So, after that we probably have seven billion years. +The Sun increases in its intensity, in its brightness, and finally, at about 12 billion years after it first started, the Earth is consumed by a large Sun, and this is what's left. +So, a planet like us is going to have an age and an old age, and we are in its golden summer age right now. +But there's two fates to everything, isn't there? +Now, a lot of you are going to die of old age, but some of you, horribly enough, are going to die in an accident. +And that's the fate of a planet, too. +Earth, if we're lucky enough -- if it doesn't get hit by a Hale-Bopp, or gets blasted by some supernova nearby in the next seven billion years -- we'll find under your feet. +But what about accidental death? +Well, paleontologists for the last 200 years have been charting death. It's strange -- extinction as a concept wasn't even thought about until Baron Cuvier in France found this first mastodon. +He couldn't match it up to any bones on the planet, and he said, Aha! It's extinct. +And very soon after, the fossil record started yielding a very good idea of how many plants and animals there have been since complex life really began to leave a very interesting fossil record. +In that complex record of fossils, there were times when lots of stuff seemed to be dying out very quickly, and the father/mother geologists called these "mass extinctions." +How long did it take to go from one system to the next? +And what they found was something unexpected. +They found in this gap, in between, a very thin clay layer, and that clay layer -- this very thin red layer here -- is filled with iridium. +And not just iridium; it's filled with glassy spherules, and it's filled with quartz grains that have been subjected to enormous pressure: shock quartz. +Now, in this slide the white is chalk, and this chalk was deposited in a warm ocean. +The chalk itself's composed by plankton which has fallen down from the sea surface onto the sea floor, so that 90 percent of the sediment here is skeleton of living stuff, and then you have that millimeter-thick red layer, and then you have black rock. +And the black rock is the sediment on the sea bottom in the absence of plankton. +And that's what happens in an asteroid catastrophe, because that's what this was, of course. This is the famous K-T. +A 10-kilometer body hit the planet. +The effects of it spread this very thin impact layer all over the planet, and we had very quickly the death of the dinosaurs, the death of these beautiful ammonites, Leconteiceras here, and Celaeceras over here, and so much else. +I mean, it must be true, because we've had two Hollywood blockbusters since that time, and this paradigm, from 1980 to about 2000, totally changed how we geologists thought about catastrophes. +Prior to that, uniformitarianism was the dominant paradigm: the fact that if anything happens on the planet in the past, there are present-day processes that will explain it. +But we haven't witnessed a big asteroid impact, so this is a type of neo-catastrophism, and it took about 20 years for the scientific establishment to finally come to grips: yes, we were hit; and yes, the effects of that hit caused a major mass extinction. +Well, there are five major mass extinctions over the last 500 million years, called the Big Five. +They range from 450 million years ago to the last, the K-T, number four, but the biggest of all was the P, or the Permian extinction, sometimes called the mother of all mass extinctions. +And every one of these has been subsequently blamed on large-body impact. +But is this true? +The most recent, the Permian, was thought to have been an impact because of this beautiful structure on the right. +This is a Buckminsterfullerene, a carbon-60. +Because it looks like those terrible geodesic domes of my late beloved '60s, they're called "buckyballs." +This evidence was used to suggest that at the end of the Permian, 250 million years ago, a comet hit us. +And when the comet hits, the pressure produces the buckyballs, and it captures bits of the comet. +Helium-3: very rare on the surface of the Earth, very common in space. +But is this true? +In 1990, working on the K-T extinction for 10 years, I moved to South Africa to begin work twice a year in the great Karoo desert. +I was so lucky to watch the change of that South Africa into the new South Africa as I went year by year. +And I worked on this Permian extinction, camping by this Boer graveyard for months at a time. +And the fossils are extraordinary. +You know, you're gazing upon your very distant ancestors. +These are mammal-like reptiles. +They are culturally invisible. We do not make movies about these. +This is a Gorgonopsian, or a Gorgon. +That's an 18-inch long skull of an animal that was probably seven or eight feet, sprawled like a lizard, probably had a head like a lion. +This is the top carnivore, the T-Rex of its time. +But there's lots of stuff. +This is my poor son, Patrick. +This is called paleontological child abuse. +Hold still, you're the scale. +There was big stuff back then. +Fifty-five species of mammal-like reptiles. +The age of mammals had well and truly started 250 million years ago ... +... and then a catastrophe happened. +And what happens next is the age of dinosaurs. +It was all a mistake; it should have never happened. But it did. +Now, luckily, this Thrinaxodon, the size of a robin egg here: this is a skull I've discovered just before taking this picture -- there's a pen for scale; it's really tiny -- this is in the Lower Triassic, after the mass extinction has finished. +You can see the eye socket and you can see the little teeth in the front. +If that does not survive, I'm not the thing giving this talk. +Something else is, because if that doesn't survive, we are not here; there are no mammals. It's that close; one species ekes through. +Well, can we say anything about the pattern of who survives and who doesn't? +Here's sort of the end of that 10 years of work. +The ranges of stuff -- the red line is the mass extinction. +But we've got survivors and things that get through, and it turns out the things that get through preferentially are cold bloods. +Warm-blooded animals take a huge hit at this time. +The survivors that do get through produce this world of crocodile-like creatures. +There's no dinosaurs yet; just this slow, saurian, scaly, nasty, swampy place with a couple of tiny mammals hiding in the fringes. +And there they would hide for 160 million years, until liberated by that K-T asteroid. +So, if not impact, what? +And the what, I think, is that we returned, over and over again, to the Pre-Cambrian world, that first microbial age, and the microbes are still out there. +They hate we animals. +They really want their world back. +And they've tried over and over and over again. +This suggests to me that life causing these mass extinctions because it did is inherently anti-Gaian. +This whole Gaia idea, that life makes the world better for itself -- anybody been on a freeway on a Friday afternoon in Los Angeles believing in the Gaia theory? No. +So, I really suspect there's an alternative, and that life does actually try to do itself in -- not consciously, but just because it does. +And here's the weapon, it seems, that it did so over the last 500 million years. +There are microbes which, through their metabolism, produce hydrogen sulfide, and they do so in large amounts. +Hydrogen sulfide is very fatal to we humans. +As small as 200 parts per million will kill you. +You only have to go to the Black Sea and a few other places -- some lakes -- and get down, and you'll find that the water itself turns purple. +It turns purple from the presence of numerous microbes which have to have sunlight and have to have hydrogen sulfide, and we can detect their presence today -- we can see them -- but we can also detect their presence in the past. +And the last three years have seen an enormous breakthrough in a brand-new field. +I am almost extinct -- I'm a paleontologist who collects fossils. +But the new wave of paleontologists -- my graduate students -- collect biomarkers. +They take the sediment itself, they extract the oil from it, and from that they can produce compounds which turn out to be very specific to particular microbial groups. +It's because lipids are so tough, they can get preserved in sediment and last the hundreds of millions of years necessary, and be extracted and tell us who was there. +And we know who was there. At the end of the Permian, at many of these mass extinction boundaries, this is what we find: isorenieratene. It's very specific. +It can only occur if the surface of the ocean has no oxygen, and is totally saturated with hydrogen sulfide -- enough, for instance, to come out of solution. +This led Lee Kump, and others from Penn State and my group, to propose what I call the Kump Hypothesis: many of the mass extinctions were caused by lowering oxygen, by high CO2. And the worst effect of global warming, it turns out: hydrogen sulfide being produced out of the oceans. +Well, what's the source of this? +In this particular case, the source over and over has been flood basalts. +This is a view of the Earth now, if we extract a lot of it. +And each of these looks like a hydrogen bomb; actually, the effects are even worse. +This is when deep-Earth material comes to the surface, spreads out over the surface of the planet. +Well, it's not the lava that kills anything, it's the carbon dioxide that comes out with it. +This isn't Volvos; this is volcanoes. +But carbon dioxide is carbon dioxide. +And there's two things that are really evident here to me, is that these extinctions take place when CO2 is going up. +But the second thing that's not shown on here: the Earth has never had any ice on it when we've had 1,000 parts per million CO2. +We are at 380 and climbing. +We should be up to a thousand in three centuries at the most, but my friend David Battisti in Seattle says he thinks a 100 years. +So, there goes the ice caps, and there comes 240 feet of sea level rise. +I live in a view house now; I'm going to have waterfront. +All right, what's the consequence? The oceans probably turn purple. +And we think this is the reason that complexity took so long to take place on planet Earth. +We had these hydrogen sulfide oceans for a very great long period. +They stop complex life from existing. +We know hydrogen sulfide is erupting presently a few places on the planet. +And I throw this slide in -- this is me, actually, two months ago -- and I throw this slide in because here is my favorite animal, chambered nautilus. +It's been on this planet since the animals first started -- 500 million years. +This is a tracking experiment, and any of you scuba divers, if you want to get involved in one of the coolest projects ever, this is off the Great Barrier Reef. +And as we speak now, these nautilus are tracking out their behaviors to us. +But the thing about this is that every once in a while we divers can run into trouble, so I'm going to do a little thought experiment here. +This is a Great White Shark that ate some of my traps. +We pulled it up; up it comes. So, it's out there with me at night. +So, I'm swimming along, and it takes off my leg. +I'm 80 miles from shore, what's going to happen to me? +Well now, I die. +Five years from now, this is what I hope happens to me: I'm taken back to the boat, I'm given a gas mask: 80 parts per million hydrogen sulfide. +I'm then thrown in an ice pond, I'm cooled 15 degrees lower and I could be taken to a critical care hospital. +And the reason I could do that is because we mammals have gone through a series of these hydrogen sulfide events, and our bodies have adapted. +And we can now use this as what I think will be a major medical breakthrough. +This is Mark Roth. He was funded by DARPA. +Tried to figure out how to save Americans after battlefield injuries. +He bleeds out pigs. +He puts in 80 parts per million hydrogen sulfide -- the same stuff that survived these past mass extinctions -- and he turns a mammal into a reptile. +"I believe we are seeing in this response the result of mammals and reptiles having undergone a series of exposures to H2S." +I got this email from him two years ago; he said, "I think I've got an answer to some of your questions." +So, he now has taken mice down for as many as four hours, sometimes six hours, and these are brand-new data he sent me on the way over here. +On the top, now, that is a temperature record of a mouse who has gone through -- the dotted line, the temperatures. +So, the temperature starts at 25 centigrade, and down it goes, down it goes. +Six hours later, up goes the temperature. +Now, the same mouse is given 80 parts per million hydrogen sulfide in this solid graph, and look what happens to its temperature. +Its temperature drops. +It goes down to 15 degrees centigrade from 35, and comes out of this perfectly fine. +Here is a way we can get people to critical care. +Here's how we can bring people cold enough to last till we get critical care. +Now, you're all thinking, yeah, what about the brain tissue? +And so this is one of the great challenges that is going to happen. +You're in an accident. You've got two choices: you're going to die, or you're going to take the hydrogen sulfide and, say, 75 percent of you is saved, mentally. +What are you going to do? +Do we all have to have a little button saying, Let me die? +This is coming towards us, and I think this is going to be a revolution. +We're going to save lives, but there's going to be a cost to it. +The new view of mass extinctions is, yes, we were hit, and, yes, we have to think about the long term, because we will get hit again. +But there's a far worse danger confronting us. +We can easily go back to the hydrogen sulfide world. +Give us a few millennia -- and we humans should last those few millennia -- will it happen again? If we continue, it'll happen again. +How many of us flew here? +How many of us have gone through our entire Kyoto quota just for flying this year? +How many of you have exceeded it? Yeah, I've certainly exceeded it. +We have a huge problem facing us as a species. +We have to beat this. +I want to be able to go back to this reef. Thank you. +Chris Anderson: I've just got one question for you, Peter. +Am I understanding you right, that what you're saying here is that we have in our own bodies a biochemical response to hydrogen sulfide that in your mind proves that there have been past mass extinctions due to climate change? +Peter Ward: Yeah, every single cell in us can produce minute quantities of hydrogen sulfide in great crises. +This is what Roth has found out. +So, what we're looking at now: does it leave a signal? +Does it leave a signal in bone or in plant? +And we go back to the fossil record and we could try to detect how many of these have happened in the past. +CA: It's simultaneously an incredible medical technique, but also a terrifying ... +PW: Blessing and curse. +You know, I am so bad at tech that my daughter -- who is now 41 -- when she was five, was overheard by me to say to a friend of hers, If it doesn't bleed when you cut it, my daddy doesn't understand it. +So, the assignment I've been given may be an insuperable obstacle for me, but I'm certainly going to try. +What have I heard during these last four days? +This is my third visit to TED. +One was to TEDMED, and one, as you've heard, was a regular TED two years ago. +One of the most impressive things about what some, perhaps 10, of the speakers have been talking about is the realization, as you listen to them carefully, that they're not saying: Well, this is what we should do; this is what I would like you to do. +It's: This is what I have done because I'm excited by it, because it's a wonderful thing, and it's done something for me and, of course, it's accomplished a great deal. +It's the old concept, the real Greek concept, of philanthropy in its original sense: phil-anthropy, the love of humankind. +And the only explanation I can have for some of what you've been hearing in the last four days is that it arises, in fact, out of a form of love. +And this gives me enormous hope. +And hope, of course, is the topic that I'm supposed to be speaking about, which I'd completely forgotten about until I arrived. +And when I did, I thought, well, I'd better look this word up in the dictionary. +So, Sarah and I -- my wife -- walked over to the public library, which is four blocks away, on Pacific Street, and we got the OED, and we looked in there, and there are 14 definitions of hope, none of which really hits you between the eyes as being the appropriate one. +And, of course, that makes sense, because hope is an abstract phenomenon; it's an abstract idea, it's not a concrete word. +Well, it reminds me a little bit of surgery. +If there's one operation for a disease, you know it works. +If there are 15 operations, you know that none of them work. +And that's the way it is with definitions of words. +If you have appendicitis, they take your appendix out, and you're cured. +If you've got reflux oesophagitis, there are 15 procedures, and Joe Schmo does it one way and Will Blow does it another way, and none of them work, and that's the way it is with this word, hope. +They all come down to the idea of an expectation of something good that is due to happen. +And you know what I found out? +The Indo-European root of the word hope is a stem, K-E-U -- we would spell it K-E-U; it's pronounced koy -- and it is the same root from which the word curve comes from. +But what it means in the original Indo-European is a change in direction, going in a different way. +And I find that very interesting and very provocative, because what you've been hearing in the last couple of days is the sense of going in different directions: directions that are specific and unique to problems. +There are different paradigms. +You've heard that word several times in the last four days, and everyone's familiar with Kuhnian paradigms. +So, when we think of hope now, we have to think of looking in other directions than we have been looking. +I can't tell you how reassured I was by the very last sentence in that glorious presentation by Dean Kamen a few days ago. +I wasn't sure I heard it right, so I found him in one of the inter-sessions. +He was talking to a very large man, but I didn't care. +I interrupted, and I said, "Did you say this?" +He said, "I think so." +So, here's what it is: I'll repeat it. +"The world will not be saved by the Internet." +It's wonderful. Do you know what the world will be saved by? +I'll tell you. It'll be saved by the human spirit. +And by the human spirit, I don't mean anything divine, I don't mean anything supernatural -- certainly not coming from this skeptic. +What I mean is this ability that each of us has to be something greater than herself or himself; to arise out of our ordinary selves and achieve something that at the beginning we thought perhaps we were not capable of. +On an elemental level, we have all felt that spirituality at the time of childbirth. +Some of you have felt it in laboratories; some of you have felt it at the workbench. +We feel it at concerts. +I've felt it in the operating room, at the bedside. +It is an elevation of us beyond ourselves. +And I think that it's going to be, in time, the elements of the human spirit that we've been hearing about bit by bit by bit from so many of the speakers in the last few days. +And if there's anything that has permeated this room, it is precisely that. +I'm intrigued by a concept that was brought to life in the early part of the 19th century -- actually, in the second decade of the 19th century -- by a 27-year-old poet whose name was Percy Shelley. +Now, we all think that Shelley obviously is the great romantic poet that he was; many of us tend to forget that he wrote some perfectly wonderful essays, too, and the most well-remembered essay is one called "A Defence of Poetry." +Now, it's about five, six, seven, eight pages long, and it gets kind of deep and difficult after about the third page, but somewhere on the second page he begins talking about the notion that he calls "moral imagination." +And here's what he says, roughly translated: A man -- generic man -- a man, to be greatly good, must imagine clearly. +He must see himself and the world through the eyes of another, and of many others. +See himself and the world -- not just the world, but see himself. +What is it that is expected of us by the billions of people who live in what Laurie Garrett the other day so appropriately called despair and disparity? +What is it that they have every right to ask of us? +What is it that we have every right to ask of ourselves, out of our shared humanity and out of the human spirit? +Well, you know precisely what it is. +There's a great deal of argument about whether we, as the great nation that we are, should be the policeman of the world, the world's constabulary, but there should be virtually no argument about whether we should be the world's healer. +There has certainly been no argument about that in this room in the past four days. +So, if we are to be the world's healer, every disadvantaged person in this world -- including in the United States -- becomes our patient. +Every disadvantaged nation, and perhaps our own nation, becomes our patient. +So, it's fun to think about the etymology of the word "patient." +It comes initially from the Latin patior, to endure, or to suffer. +So, you go back to the old Indo-European root again, and what do you find? The Indo-European stem is pronounced payen -- we would spell it P-A-E-N -- and, lo and behold, mirabile dictu, it is the same root as the word compassion comes from, P-A-E-N. +So, the lesson is very clear. The lesson is that our patient -- the world, and the disadvantaged of the world -- that patient deserves our compassion. +But beyond our compassion, and far greater than compassion, is our moral imagination and our identification with each individual who lives in that world, not to think of them as a huge forest, but as individual trees. +Of course, in this day and age, the trick is not to let each tree be obscured by that Bush in Washington that can get -- can get in the way. +So, here we are. +We are, should be, morally committed to being the healer of the world. +Now, if we're talking about medicine, and we're talking about healing, I'd like to quote someone who hasn't been quoted. +It seems to me everybody in the world's been quoted here: Pogo's been quoted; Shakespeare's been quoted backwards, forwards, inside out. +I would like to quote one of my own household gods. +I suspect he never really said this, because we don't know what Hippocrates really said, but we do know for sure that one of the great Greek physicians said the following, and it has been recorded in one of the books attributed to Hippocrates, and the book is called "Precepts." +And I'll read you what it is. +Remember, I have been talking about, essentially philanthropy: the love of humankind, the individual humankind and the individual humankind that can bring that kind of love translated into action, translated, in some cases, into enlightened self-interest. +And here he is, 2,400 years ago: "Where there is love of humankind, there is love of healing." +We have seen that here today with the sense, with the sensitivity -- and in the last three days, and with the power of the indomitable human spirit. +Thank you very much. +I became an inventor by accident. +I was out of the air force in 1956. No, no, that's not true: I went in in 1956, came out in 1959, was working at the University of Washington, and I came up with an idea, from reading a magazine article, for a new kind of a phonograph tone arm. +Now, that was before cassette tapes, C.D.s, DVDs -- any of the cool stuff we've got now. +And it was an arm that, instead of hinging and pivoting as it went across the record, went straight: a radial, linear tracking tone arm. +And it was the hardest invention I ever made, but it got me started, and I got really lucky after that. +And without giving you too much of a tirade, I want to talk to you about an invention I brought with me today: my 44th invention. No, that's not true either. +Golly, I'm just totally losing it. +My 44th patent; about the 15th invention. +I call this hypersonic sound. +I'm going to play it for you in a couple minutes, but I want to make an analogy before I do to this. +I usually show this hypersonic sound and people will say, That's really cool, but what's it good for? +And I say, What is the light bulb good for? +Sound, light: I'm going to draw the analogy. +When Edison invented the light bulb, pretty much looked like this. +Hasn't changed that much. +Light came out of it in every direction. +Before the light bulb was invented, people had figured out how to put a reflector behind it, focus it a little bit; put lenses in front of it, focus it a little bit better. +Ultimately we figured out how to make things like lasers that were totally focused. +Now, think about where the world would be today if we had the light bulb, but you couldn't focus light; if when you turned one on it just went wherever it wanted to. +That's the way loudspeakers pretty much are. +You turn on the loudspeaker, and after almost 80 years of having those gadgets, the sound just kind of goes where it wants. +Even when you're standing in front of a megaphone, it's pretty much every direction. +A little bit of differential, but not much. +If the light bulb was the way the speaker is, and you couldn't focus or sharpen the edges or define it, we wouldn't have that, or movies in general, or computers, or T.V. sets, or C.D.s, or DVDs -- and just go down the list of what the importance is of being able to focus light. +Now, after almost 80 years of having sound, I thought it was about time that we figure out a way to put sound where you want to. +I have a couple of units. +That guy there was made for a demo I did yesterday early in the day for a big car maker in Detroit who wants to put them in a car -- small version, over your head -- so that you can actually get binaural sound in a car. +What if I could aim sound the way I aim light? +I got this waterfall I recorded in my back yard. +Now, you're not going to hear a thing unless it hits you. +Maybe if I hit the side wall it will bounce around the room. +The sound is being made right next to your ears. Is that cool? +Because I have some limited time, I'll cut it off for a second, and tell you about how it works and what it's good for. +Course, like light, it's great to be able to put sound to highlight a clothing rack, or the cornflakes, or the toothpaste, or a talking plaque in a movie theater lobby. +Sony's got an idea -- Sony's our biggest customers right now. +They tried this back in the '60s and were too smart, and so they gave up. +But they want to use it -- seriously. +There's a mix an inventor has to have. +You have to be kind of smart, and though I did not graduate from college doesn't mean I'm stupid, because you cannot be stupid and do very much in the world today. +Too many other smart people out there. So. +I just happened to get my education in a little different way. +I'm not at all against education. +I think it's wonderful; I think sometimes people, when they get educated, lose it: they get so smart they're unwilling to look at things that they know better than. +And we're living in a great time right now, because almost everything's being explored anew. +I have this little slogan that I use a lot, which is: virtually nothing -- and I mean this honestly -- has been invented yet. +We're just starting. +We're just starting to really discover the laws of nature and science and physics. +And this is, I hope, a little piece of it. +Sony's got this vision back -- to get myself on track -- that when you stand in the checkout line in the supermarket, you're going to watch a new T.V. channel. +They know that when you watch T.V. at home, because there are so many choices you can change channels, miss their commercials. +A hundred and fifty-one million people every day stand in the line at the supermarket. +Now, they've tried this a couple years ago and it failed, because the checker gets tired of hearing the same message every 20 minutes, and reaches out, turns off the sound. +And, you know, if the sound isn't there, the sale typically isn't made. +For instance, like, when you're on an airplane, they show the movie, you get to watch it for free; when you want to hear the sound, you pay. +And so ABC and Sony have devised this new thing where when you step in the line in the supermarket -- initially it'll be Safeways. It is Safeways; they're trying this in three parts of the country right now -- you'll be watching TV. +And hopefully they'll be sensitive that they don't want to offend you with just one more outlet. +But what's great about it, from the tests that have been done, is, if you don't want to hear it, you take about one step to the side and you don't hear it. +So, we create silence as much as we create sound. +ATMs that talk to you; nobody else hears it. +Sit in bed, two in the morning, watch TV; your spouse, or someone, is next to you, asleep; doesn't hear it, doesn't wake up. +We're also working on noise canceling things like snoring, noise from automobiles. +I have been really lucky with this technology: all of a sudden as it is ready, the world is ready to accept it. +They have literally beat a path to our door. +We've been selling it since about last September, October, and it's been immensely gratifying. +If you're interested in what it costs -- I'm not selling them today -- but this unit, with the electronics and everything, if you buy one, is around a thousand bucks. +We expect by this time next year, it'll be hundreds, a few hundred bucks, to buy it. +It's not any more pricey than regular electronics. +Now, when I played it for you, you didn't hear the thunderous bass. +This unit that I played goes from about 200 hertz to above the range of hearing. +It's actually emitting ultrasound -- low-level ultrasound -- that's about 100,000 vibrations per second. +And the sound that you're hearing, unlike a regular speaker on which all the sound is made on the face, is made out in front of it, in the air. +The air is not linear, as we've always been taught. +You turn up the volume just a little bit -- I'm talking about a little over 80 decibels -- and all of a sudden the air begins to corrupt signals you propagate. +Here's why: the speed of sound is not a constant. It's fairly slow. +It changes with temperature and with barometric pressure. +Now, imagine, if you will, without getting too technical, I'm making a little sine wave here in the air. +Well, if I turn up the amplitude too much, I'm having an effect on the pressure, which means during the making of that sine wave, the speed at which it is propagating is shifting. +All of audio as we know it is an attempt to be more and more perfectly linear. +Linearity means higher quality sound. +Hypersonic sound is exactly the opposite: it's 100 percent based on non-linearity. +An effect happens in the air, it's a corrupting effect of the sound -- the ultrasound in this case -- that's emitted, but it's so predictable that you can produce very precise audio out of that effect. +Now, the question is, where's the sound made? +Instead of being made on the face of the cone, it's made at literally billions of little independent points along this narrow column in the air, and so when I aim it towards you, what you hear is made right next to your ears. +I said we can shorten the column, we can spread it out to cover the couch. +I can put it so that one ear hears one speaker, the other ear hears the other. That's true binaural sound. +When you listen to stereo on your home system, your both ears hear both speakers. +Turn on the left speaker sometime and notice you're hearing it also in your right ear. +So, the stage is more restricted -- the sound stage that's supposed to spread out in front of you. +Because the sound is made in the air along this column, it does not follow the inverse square law, which says it drops off about two thirds every time you double the distance: 6dB every time you go from one meter, for instance, to two meters. +That means you go to a rock concert or a symphony, and the guy in the front row gets the same level as the guy in the back row, now, all of a sudden. +Isn't that terrific? +So, we've been, as I say, very successful, very lucky, in having companies catch the vision of this, from cars -- car makers who want to put a stereo system in the front for the kids, and a separate system in the back -- oh, no, the kids aren't driving today. +I was seeing if you were listening. +Actually, I haven't had breakfast yet. +A stereo system in the front for mom and dad, and maybe there's a little DVD player in the back for the kids, and the parents don't want to be bothered with that, or their rap music or whatever. +So, again, this idea of being able to put sound anywhere you want to is really starting to catch on. +It also works for transmitting and communicating data. +It also works five times better underwater. +We've got the military -- have just deployed some of these into Iraq, where you can put fake troop movements quarter of a mile away on a hillside. +Or you can whisper in the ear of a supposed terrorist some Biblical verse. +I'm serious. And they have these infrared devices that can look at their countenance, and see a fraction of a degree Kelvin in temperature shift from 100 yards away when they play this thing. +And so, another way of hopefully determining who's friendly and who isn't. +We make a version with this which puts out 155 decibels. +Pain is 120. +So it allows you to go nearly a mile away and communicate with people, and there can be a public beach just off to the side, and they don't even know it's turned on. +We sell those to the military presently for about 70,000 dollars, and they're buying them as fast as we can make them. +We put it on a turret with a camera, so that when they shoot at you, you're over there, and it's there. +I have a bunch of other inventions. +I invented a plasma antenna, to shift gears. +Looked up at the ceiling of my office one day -- I was working on a ground-penetrating radar project -- and my physicist CEO came in and said, "We have a real problem. +We're using very short wavelengths. +We've got a problem with the antenna ringing. +When you run very short wavelengths, like a tuning fork the antenna resonates, and there's more energy coming out of the antenna than there is the backscatter from the ground that we're trying to analyze, taking too much processing." +I says, "Why don't we make an antenna that only exists when you want it? +Turn it on; turn it off. +That's a fluorescent tube refined." +I just sold that for a million and a half dollars, cash. +I took it back to the Pentagon after it got declassified, when the patent issued, and told the people back there about it, and they laughed, and then I took them back a demo and they bought. +Any of you ever wore a Jabber headphone -- the little cell headphones? +That's my invention. I sold that for seven million dollars. +Big mistake: it just sold for 80 million dollars two years ago. +I actually drew that up on a little crummy Mac computer in my attic at my house, and one of the many designs which they have now is still the same design I drew way back when. +So, I've been really lucky as an inventor. +I'm the happiest guy you're ever going to meet. +And my dad died before he realized anybody in the family would maybe, hopefully, make something out of themselves. +You've been a great audience. I know I've jumped all over the place. +I usually figure out what my talk is when I get up in front of a group. +Let me give you, in the last minute, one more quick demo of this guy, for those of you that haven't heard it. +Can never tell if it's on. +If you haven't heard it, raise your hand. +Getting it over there? +Get the cameraman. +Yeah, there you go. +I've got a Coke can opening that's right in your head; that's really cool. +Thank you once again. +Appreciate it very much. +Sheryl Shade: Hi, Aimee. Aimee Mullins: Hi. +SS: Aimee and I thought we'd just talk a little bit, and I wanted her to tell all of you what makes her a distinctive athlete. +AM: Well, for those of you who have seen the picture in the little bio -- it might have given it away -- I'm a double amputee, and I was born without fibulas in both legs. +I was amputated at age one, and I've been running like hell ever since, all over the place. +SS: Well, why don't you tell them how you got to Georgetown -- why don't we start there? +Why don't we start there? +AM: I'm a senior in Georgetown in the Foreign Service program. +I won a full academic scholarship out of high school. +They pick three students out of the nation every year to get involved in international affairs, and so I won a full ride to Georgetown and I've been there for four years. Love it. +SS: When Aimee got there, she decided that she's, kind of, curious about track and field, so she decided to call someone and start asking about it. +So, why don't you tell that story? +AM: Yeah. Well, I guess I've always been involved in sports. +I played softball for five years growing up. +I skied competitively throughout high school, and I got a little restless in college because I wasn't doing anything for about a year or two sports-wise. +And I'd never competed on a disabled level, you know -- I'd always competed against other able-bodied athletes. +That's all I'd ever known. +In fact, I'd never even met another amputee until I was 17. +And I heard that they do these track meets with all disabled runners, and I figured, "Oh, I don't know about this, but before I judge it, let me go see what it's all about." +So, I booked myself a flight to Boston in '95, 19 years old and definitely the dark horse candidate at this race. I'd never done it before. +I went out on a gravel track a couple of weeks before this meet to see how far I could run, and about 50 meters was enough for me, panting and heaving. +And I had these legs that were made of a wood and plastic compound, attached with Velcro straps -- big, thick, five-ply wool socks on -- you know, not the most comfortable things, but all I'd ever known. +And I'm up there in Boston against people wearing legs made of all things -- carbon graphite and, you know, shock absorbers in them and all sorts of things -- and they're all looking at me like, OK, we know who's not going to win this race. +Dan O'Brien jumped 5'11" in '96 in Atlanta, I mean, if it just gives you a comparison of -- these are truly accomplished athletes, without qualifying that word "athlete." +And so I decided to give this a shot: heart pounding, I ran my first race and I beat the national record-holder by three hundredths of a second, and became the new national record-holder on my first try out. +And, you know, people said, "Aimee, you know, you've got speed -- you've got natural speed -- but you don't have any skill or finesse going down that track. +You were all over the place. +We all saw how hard you were working." +And so I decided to call the track coach at Georgetown. +And I thank god I didn't know just how huge this man is in the track and field world. +He's coached five Olympians, and the man's office is lined from floor to ceiling with All America certificates of all these athletes he's coached. +He's just a rather intimidating figure. +And I called him up and said, "Listen, I ran one race and I won ..." +"I want to see if I can, you know -- I need to just see if I can sit in on some of your practices, see what drills you do and whatever." +That's all I wanted -- just two practices. +"Can I just sit in and see what you do?" +And he said, "Well, we should meet first, before we decide anything." +You know, he's thinking, "What am I getting myself into?" +So, I met the man, walked in his office, and saw these posters and magazine covers of people he has coached. +And we got to talking, and it turned out to be a great partnership because he'd never coached a disabled athlete, so therefore he had no preconceived notions of what I was or wasn't capable of, and I'd never been coached before. +So this was like, "Here we go -- let's start on this trip." +So he started giving me four days a week of his lunch break, his free time, and I would come up to the track and train with him. +So that's how I met Frank. +That was fall of '95. But then, by the time that winter was rolling around, he said, "You know, you're good enough. +You can run on our women's track team here." +And I said, "No, come on." +And he said, "No, no, really. You can. +You can run with our women's track team." +In the spring of 1996, with my goal of making the U.S. Paralympic team that May coming up full speed, I joined the women's track team. +And no disabled person had ever done that -- run at a collegiate level. +So I don't know, it started to become an interesting mix. +SS: Well, on your way to the Olympics, a couple of memorable events happened at Georgetown. +Why don't you just tell them? +And putting on my Georgetown uniform and going out there and knowing that, you know, in order to become better -- and I'm already the best in the country -- you know, you have to train with people who are inherently better than you. +And I went out there and made it to the Big East, which was sort of the championship race at the end of the season. +It was really, really hot. +And at about 85 meters of my 100 meters sprint, in all my glory, I came out of my leg. +Like, I almost came out of it, in front of, like, 5,000 people. +And I, I mean, was just mortified -- because I was signed up for the 200, you know, which went off in a half hour. +I went to my coach: "Please, don't make me do this." +I can't do this in front of all those people. My legs will come off. +And if it came off at 85 there's no way I'm going 200 meters. +And he just sat there like this. +My pleas fell on deaf ears, thank god. +Because you know, the man is from Brooklyn; he's a big man. He says, "Aimee, so what if your leg falls off? +You pick it up, you put the damn thing back on, and finish the goddamn race!" +And I did. So, he kept me in line. +He kept me on the right track. +SS: So, then Aimee makes it to the 1996 Paralympics, and she's all excited. Her family's coming down -- it's a big deal. +It's now two years that you've been running? +AM: No, a year. +SS: A year. And why don't you tell them what happened right before you go run your race? +AM: Okay, well, Atlanta. +The Paralympics, just for a little bit of clarification, are the Olympics for people with physical disabilities -- amputees, persons with cerebral palsy, and wheelchair athletes -- as opposed to the Special Olympics, which deals with people with mental disabilities. +So, here we are, a week after the Olympics and down at Atlanta, and I'm just blown away by the fact that just a year ago, I got out on a gravel track and couldn't run 50 meters. +And so, here I am -- never lost. +I set new records at the U.S. Nationals -- the Olympic trials -- that May, and was sure that I was coming home with the gold. +I was also the only, what they call "bilateral BK" -- below the knee. +I was the only woman who would be doing the long jump. +I had just done the long jump, and a guy who was missing two legs came up to me and says, "How do you do that? You know, we're supposed to have a planar foot, so we can't get off on the springboard." +I said, "Well, I just did it. No one told me that." +So, it's funny -- I'm three inches within the world record -- and kept on from that point, you know, so I'm signed up in the long jump -- signed up? +No, I made it for the long jump and the 100-meter. +And I'm sure of it, you know? +I made the front page of my hometown paper that I delivered for six years, you know? +It was, like, this is my time for shine. +And we're at the trainee warm-up track, which is a few blocks away from the Olympic stadium. +These legs that I was on, which I'll take out right now -- I was the first person in the world on these legs. +I was the guinea pig., I'm telling you, this was, like -- talk about a tourist attraction. +Everyone was taking pictures -- "What is this girl running on?" +And I'm always looking around, like, where is my competition? +It's my first international meet. +I tried to get it out of anybody I could, you know, "Who am I running against here?" +"Oh, Aimee, we'll have to get back to you on that one." +I wanted to find out times. +"Don't worry, you're doing great." +This is 20 minutes before my race in the Olympic stadium, and they post the heat sheets. And I go over and look. +And my fastest time, which was the world record, was 15.77. +Then I'm looking: the next lane, lane two, is 12.8. +Lane three is 12.5. Lane four is 12.2. I said, "What's going on?" +And they shove us all into the shuttle bus, and all the women there are missing a hand. +So, I'm just, like -- they're all looking at me like 'which one of these is not like the other,' you know? +I'm sitting there, like, "Oh, my god. Oh, my god." +You know, I'd never lost anything, like, whether it would be the scholarship or, you know, I'd won five golds when I skied. In everything, I came in first. +And Georgetown -- that was great. +I was losing, but it was the best training because this was Atlanta. +Here we are, like, crme de la crme, and there is no doubt about it, that I'm going to lose big. +And, you know, I'm just thinking, "Oh, my god, my whole family got in a van and drove down here from Pennsylvania." +And, you know, I was the only female U.S. sprinter. +So they call us out and, you know -- "Ladies, you have one minute." +And I remember putting my blocks in and just feeling horrified because there was just this murmur coming over the crowd, like, the ones who are close enough to the starting line to see. +And I'm like, "I know! Look! This isn't right." +And I'm thinking that's my last card to play here; if I'm not going to beat these girls, I'm going to mess their heads a little, you know? +I mean, it was definitely the "Rocky IV" sensation of me versus Germany, and everyone else -- Estonia and Poland -- was in this heat. +And the gun went off, and all I remember was finishing last and fighting back tears of frustration and incredible -- incredible -- this feeling of just being overwhelmed. +And I had to think, "Why did I do this?" +If I had won everything -- but it was like, what was the point? +All this training -- I had transformed my life. +I became a collegiate athlete, you know. I became an Olympic athlete. +And it made me really think about how the achievement was getting there. +I mean, the fact that I set my sights, just a year and three months before, on becoming an Olympic athlete and saying, "Here's my life going in this direction -- and I want to take it here for a while, and just seeing how far I could push it." +And the fact that I asked for help -- how many people jumped on board? +How many people gave of their time and their expertise, and their patience, to deal with me? +And that was this collective glory -- that there was, you know, 50 people behind me that had joined in this incredible experience of going to Atlanta. +So, I apply this sort of philosophy now to everything I do: sitting back and realizing the progression, how far you've come at this day to this goal, you know. +It's important to focus on a goal, I think, but also recognize the progression on the way there and how you've grown as a person. +That's the achievement, I think. That's the real achievement. +SS: Why don't you show them your legs? +AM: Oh, sure. +SS: You know, show us more than one set of legs. +AM: Well, these are my pretty legs. +No, these are my cosmetic legs, actually, and they're absolutely beautiful. +You've got to come up and see them. +There are hair follicles on them, and I can paint my toenails. +And, seriously, like, I can wear heels. +Like, you guys don't understand what that's like to be able to just go into a shoe store and buy whatever you want. +SS: You got to pick your height? +AM: I got to pick my height, exactly. +Patrick Ewing, who played for Georgetown in the '80s, comes back every summer. +And I had incessant fun making fun of him in the training room because he'd come in with foot injuries. +I'm like, "Get it off! Don't worry about it, you know. +You can be eight feet tall. Just take them off." +He didn't find it as humorous as I did, anyway. +OK, now, these are my sprinting legs, made of carbon graphite, like I said, and I've got to make sure I've got the right socket. +No, I've got so many legs in here. +These are -- do you want to hold that actually? +That's another leg I have for, like, tennis and softball. +It has a shock absorber in it so it, like, "Shhhh," makes this neat sound when you jump around on it. All right. +And then this is the silicon sheath I roll over, to keep it on. Which, when I sweat, you know, I'm pistoning out of it. +SS: Are you a different height? +AM: In these? +SS: In these. +AM: I don't know. I don't think so. +I may be a little taller. I actually can put both of them on. +SS: She can't really stand on these legs. She has to be moving, so ... +AM: Yeah, I definitely have to be moving, and balance is a little bit of an art in them. +But without having the silicon sock, I'm just going to try slip in it. +And so, I run on these, and have shocked half the world on these. +These are supposed to simulate the actual form of a sprinter when they run. +If you ever watch a sprinter, the ball of their foot is the only thing that ever hits the track. +So when I stand in these legs, my hamstring and my glutes are contracted, as they would be had I had feet and were standing on the ball of my feet. +(Audience: Who made them?) AM: It's a company in San Diego called Flex-Foot. +And I was a guinea pig, as I hope to continue to be in every new form of prosthetic limbs that come out. +But actually these, like I said, are still the actual prototype. +I need to get some new ones because the last meet I was at, they were everywhere. You know, it's like a big -- it's come full circle. +Moderator: Aimee and the designer of them will be at TEDMED 2, and we'll talk about the design of them. +AM: Yes, we'll do that. +SS: Yes, there you go. +AM: So, these are the sprint legs, and I can put my other... +SS: Can you tell about who designed your other legs? +AM: Yes. These I got in a place called Bournemouth, England, about two hours south of London, and I'm the only person in the United States with these, which is a crime because they are so beautiful. +And I don't even mean, like, because of the toes and everything. +For me, while I'm such a serious athlete on the track, I want to be feminine off the track, and I think it's so important not to be limited in any capacity, whether it's, you know, your mobility or even fashion. +I mean, I love the fact that I can go in anywhere and pick out what I want -- the shoes I want, the skirts I want -- and I'm hoping to try to bring these over here and make them accessible to a lot of people. +They're also silicon. +This is a really basic, basic prosthetic limb under here. +It's like a Barbie foot under this. +It is. It's just stuck in this position, so I have to wear a two-inch heel. +And, I mean, it's really -- let me take this off so you can see it. +I don't know how good you can see it, but, like, it really is. +There're veins on the feet, and then my heel is pink, and my Achilles' tendon -- that moves a little bit. +And it's really an amazing store. I got them a year and two weeks ago. +And this is just a silicon piece of skin. +I mean, they make ears for burn victims. +They do amazing stuff with silicon. +SS: Two weeks ago, Aimee was up for the Arthur Ashe award at the ESPYs. +And she came into town and she rushed around and she said, "I have to buy some new shoes!" +We're an hour before the ESPYs, and she thought she'd gotten a two-inch heel but she'd actually bought a three-inch heel. +AM: And this poses a problem for me, because it means I'm walking like that all night long. +SS: For 45 minutes. Luckily, the hotel was terrific. +They got someone to come in and saw off the shoes. +AM: I said to the receptionist -- I mean, I am just harried, and Sheryl's at my side -- I said, "Look, do you have anybody here who could help me? +Because I have this problem ... " You know, at first they were just going to write me off, like, "If you don't like your shoes, sorry. It's too late." +"No, no, no, no. I've got these special feet that need a two-inch heel. I have a three-inch heel. +I need a little bit off." +They didn't even want to go there. +They didn't even want to touch that one. They just did it. +No, these legs are great. +I'm actually going back in a couple of weeks to get some improvements. +I want to get legs like these made for flat feet so I can wear sneakers, because I can't with these ones. +So... Moderator: That's it. +SS: That's Aimee Mullins. +How can we investigate this flora of viruses that surround us, and aid medicine? +How can we turn our cumulative knowledge of virology into a simple, hand-held, single diagnostic assay? +I want to turn everything we know right now about detecting viruses and the spectrum of viruses that are out there into, let's say, a small chip. +When we started thinking about this project -- how we would make a single diagnostic assay to screen for all pathogens simultaneously -- well, there's some problems with this idea. +First of all, viruses are pretty complex, but they're also evolving very fast. +This is a picornavirus. +Picornaviruses -- these are things that include the common cold and polio, things like this. +You're looking at the outside shell of the virus, and the yellow color here are those parts of the virus that are evolving very, very fast, and the blue parts are not evolving very fast. +When people think about making pan-viral detection reagents, usually it's the fast-evolving problem that's an issue, because how can we detect things if they're always changing? +But evolution is a balance: where you have fast change, you also have ultra-conservation -- things that almost never change. +And so we looked into this a little more carefully, and I'm going to show you data now. +This is just some stuff you can do on the computer from the desktop. +I took a bunch of these small picornaviruses, like the common cold, like polio and so on, and I just broke them down into small segments. +And so took this first example, which is called coxsackievirus, and just break it into small windows. +And I'm coloring these small windows blue if another virus shares an identical sequence in its genome to that virus. +These sequences right up here -- which don't even code for protein, by the way -- are almost absolutely identical across all of these, so I could use this sequence as a marker to detect a wide spectrum of viruses, without having to make something individual. +Now, over here there's great diversity: that's where things are evolving fast. +Down here you can see slower evolution: less diversity. +And so we can encapsulate these regions of ultra-conservation through evolution -- how these viruses evolved -- by just choosing DNA elements or RNA elements in these regions to represent on our chip as detection reagents. +OK, so that's what we did, but how are we going to do that? +Well, for a long time, since I was in graduate school, I've been messing around making DNA chips -- that is, printing DNA on glass. +And that's what you see here: These little salt spots are just DNA tacked onto glass, and so I can put thousands of these on our glass chip and use them as a detection reagent. +We took our chip over to Hewlett-Packard and used their atomic force microscope on one of these spots, and this is what you see: you can actually see the strands of DNA lying flat on the glass here. +So, what we're doing is just printing DNA on glass -- little flat things -- and these are going to be markers for pathogens. +OK, I make little robots in lab to make these chips, and I'm really big on disseminating technology. +If you've got enough money to buy just a Camry, you can build one of these too, and so we put a deep how-to guide on the Web, totally free, with basically order-off-the-shelf parts. +You can build a DNA array machine in your garage. +Here's the section on the all-important emergency stop switch. +Every important machine's got to have a big red button. +But really, it's pretty robust. +You can actually be making DNA chips in your garage and decoding some genetic programs pretty rapidly. It's a lot of fun. +And so what we did -- and this is a really cool project -- we just started by making a respiratory virus chip. +I talked about that -- you know, that situation where you go into the clinic and you don't get diagnosed? +Well, we just put basically all the human respiratory viruses on one chip, and we threw in herpes virus for good measure -- I mean, why not? +The first thing you do as a scientist is, you make sure stuff works. +And so what we did is, we take tissue culture cells and infect them with various viruses, and we take the stuff and fluorescently label the nucleic acid, the genetic material that comes out of these tissue culture cells -- mostly viral stuff -- and stick it on the array to see where it sticks. +Now, if the DNA sequences match, they'll stick together, and so we can look at spots. +And if spots light up, we know there's a certain virus in there. +That's what one of these chips really looks like, and these red spots are, in fact, signals coming from the virus. +And each spot represents a different family of virus or species of virus. +And so, that's a hard way to look at things, so I'm just going to encode things as a little barcode, grouped by family, so you can see the results in a very intuitive way. +What we did is, we took tissue culture cells and infected them with adenovirus, and you can see this little yellow barcode next to adenovirus. +And, likewise, we infected them with parainfluenza-3 -- that's a paramyxovirus -- and you see a little barcode here. +And then we did respiratory syncytial virus. +That's the scourge of daycare centers everywhere -- it's like boogeremia, basically. +You can see that this barcode is the same family, but it's distinct from parainfluenza-3, which gives you a very bad cold. +And so we're getting unique signatures, a fingerprint for each virus. +Polio and rhino: they're in the same family, very close to each other. +Rhino's the common cold, and you all know what polio is, and you can see that these signatures are distinct. +And Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpes virus gives a nice signature down here. +And so it is not any one stripe or something that tells me I have a virus of a particular type here; it's the barcode that in bulk represents the whole thing. +All right, I can see a rhinovirus -- and here's the blow-up of the rhinovirus's little barcode -- but what about different rhinoviruses? +How do I know which rhinovirus I have? +There're 102 known variants of the common cold, and there're only 102 because people got bored collecting them: there are just new ones every year. +And so, here are four different rhinoviruses, and you can see, even with your eye, without any fancy computer pattern-matching recognition software algorithms, that you can distinguish each one of these barcodes from each other. +Now, this is kind of a cheap shot, because I know what the genetic sequence of all these rhinoviruses is, and I in fact designed the chip expressly to be able to tell them apart, but what about rhinoviruses that have never seen a genetic sequencer? +We don't know what the sequence is; just pull them out of the field. +So, here are four rhinoviruses we never knew anything about -- no one's ever sequenced them -- and you can also see that you get unique and distinguishable patterns. +You can imagine building up some library, whether real or virtual, of fingerprints of essentially every virus. +But that's, again, shooting fish in a barrel, you know, right? +You have tissue culture cells. There are a ton of viruses. +What about real people? +You can't control real people, as you probably know. +You have no idea what someone's going to cough into a cup, and it's probably really complex, right? +It could have lots of bacteria, it could have more than one virus, and it certainly has host genetic material. +So how do we deal with this? +And how do we do the positive control here? +Well, it's pretty simple. +That's me, getting a nasal lavage. +And the idea is, let's experimentally inoculate people with virus. +This is all IRB-approved, by the way; they got paid. +And basically we experimentally inoculate people with the common cold virus. +Or, even better, let's just take people right out of the emergency room -- undefined, community-acquired respiratory tract infections. +You have no idea what walks in through the door. +So, let's start off with the positive control first, where we know the person was healthy. +They got a shot of virus up the nose, let's see what happens. +Day zero: nothing happening. +They're healthy; they're clean -- it's amazing. +Actually, we thought the nasal tract might be full of viruses even when you're walking around healthy. +It's pretty clean. If you're healthy, you're pretty healthy. +Day two: we get a very robust rhinovirus pattern, and it's very similar to what we get in the lab doing our tissue culture experiment. +So that's great, but again, cheap shot, right? +We put a ton of virus up this guy's nose. So -- -- I mean, we wanted it to work. He really had a cold. +So, how about the people who walk in off the street? +Here are two individuals represented by their anonymous ID codes. +They both have rhinoviruses; we've never seen this pattern in lab. +We sequenced part of their viruses; they're new rhinoviruses no one's actually even seen. +Remember, our evolutionary-conserved sequences we're using on this array allow us to detect even novel or uncharacterized viruses, because we pick what is conserved throughout evolution. +Here's another guy. You can play the diagnosis game yourself here. +These different blocks represent the different viruses in this paramyxovirus family, so you can kind of go down the blocks and see where the signal is. +Well, doesn't have canine distemper; that's probably good. +But by the time you get to block nine, you see that respiratory syncytial virus. +Maybe they have kids. And then you can see, also, the family member that's related: RSVB is showing up here. +So, that's great. +Here's another individual, sampled on two separate days -- repeat visits to the clinic. +This individual has parainfluenza-1, and you can see that there's a little stripe over here for Sendai virus: that's mouse parainfluenza. +The genetic relationships are very close there. That's a lot of fun. +So, we built out the chip. +We made a chip that has every known virus ever discovered on it. +Why not? Every plant virus, every insect virus, every marine virus. +Everything that we could get out of GenBank -- that is, the national repository of sequences. +Now we're using this chip. And what are we using it for? +Well, first of all, when you have a big chip like this, you need a little bit more informatics, so we designed the system to do automatic diagnosis. +And this is what this looks like. +If, for example, you used a cell culture that's chronically infected with papilloma, you get a little computer readout here, and our algorithm says it's probably papilloma type 18. +And that is, in fact, what these particular cell cultures are chronically infected with. +So let's do something a little bit harder. +We put the beeper in the clinic. +When somebody shows up, and the hospital doesn't know what to do because they can't diagnose it, they call us. +That's the idea, and we're setting this up in the Bay Area. +And so, this case report happened three weeks ago. +We have a 28-year-old healthy woman, no travel history, [unclear], doesn't smoke, doesn't drink. +10-day history of fevers, night sweats, bloody sputum -- she's coughing up blood -- muscle pain. +She went to the clinic, and they gave her antibiotics and then sent her home. +She came back after ten days of fever, right? Still has the fever, and she's hypoxic -- she doesn't have much oxygen in her lungs. +They did a CT scan. +A normal lung is all sort of dark and black here. +All this white stuff -- it's not good. +This sort of tree and bud formation indicates there's inflammation; there's likely to be infection. +OK. So, the patient was treated then with a third-generation cephalosporin antibiotic and doxycycline, and on day three, it didn't help: she had progressed to acute failure. +They had to intubate her, so they put a tube down her throat and they began to mechanically ventilate her. +She could no longer breathe for herself. +What to do next? Don't know. +Switch antibiotics: so they switched to another antibiotic, Tamiflu. +It's not clear why they thought she had the flu, but they switched to Tamiflu. +And on day six, they basically threw in the towel. +You do an open lung biopsy when you've got no other options. +There's an eight percent mortality rate with just doing this procedure, and so basically -- and what do they learn from it? +You're looking at her open lung biopsy. +And I'm no pathologist, but you can't tell much from this. +All you can tell is, there's a lot of swelling: bronchiolitis. +It was "unrevealing": that's the pathologist's report. +And so, what did they test her for? +They have their own tests, of course, and so they tested her for over 70 different assays, for every sort of bacteria and fungus and viral assay you can buy off the shelf: SARS, metapneumovirus, HIV, RSV -- all these. +Everything came back negative, over 100,000 dollars worth of tests. +I mean, they went to the max for this woman. +And basically on hospital day eight, that's when they called us. +They gave us endotracheal aspirate -- you know, a little fluid from the throat, from this tube that they got down there -- and they gave us this. +We put it on the chip; what do we see? Well, we saw parainfluenza-4. +Well, what the hell's parainfluenza-4? +No one tests for parainfluenza-4. No one cares about it. +In fact, it's not even really sequenced that much. +There's just a little bit of it sequenced. +There's almost no epidemiology or studies on it. +No one would even consider it, because no one had a clue that it could cause respiratory failure. +And why is that? Just lore. There's no data -- no data to support whether it causes severe or mild disease. +Clearly, we have a case of a healthy person that's going down. +OK, that's one case report. +I'm going to tell you one last thing in the last two minutes that's unpublished -- it's going to come out tomorrow -- and it's an interesting case of how you might use this chip to find something new and open a new door. +Prostate cancer. I don't need to give you many statistics about prostate cancer. Most of you already know it: third leading cause of cancer deaths in the U.S. +Lots of risk factors, but there is a genetic predisposition to prostate cancer. +For maybe about 10 percent of prostate cancer, there are folks that are predisposed to it. +And the first gene that was mapped in association studies for this, early-onset prostate cancer, was this gene called RNASEL. +What is that? It's an antiviral defense enzyme. +So, we're sitting around and thinking, "Why would men who have the mutation -- a defect in an antiviral defense system -- get prostate cancer? +It doesn't make sense -- unless, maybe, there's a virus?" +So, we put tumors --- and now we have over 100 tumors -- on our array. +And we know who's got defects in RNASEL and who doesn't. +And I'm showing you the signal from the chip here, and I'm showing you for the block of retroviral oligos. +And what I'm telling you here from the signal, is that men who have a mutation in this antiviral defense enzyme, and have a tumor, often have -- 40 percent of the time -- a signature which reveals a new retrovirus. +OK, that's pretty wild. What is it? +So, we clone the whole virus. +First of all, I'll tell you that a little automated prediction told us it was very similar to a mouse virus. +But that doesn't tell us too much, so we actually clone the whole thing. +And the viral genome I'm showing you right here? +It's a classic gamma retrovirus, but it's totally new; no one's ever seen it before. +Its closest relative is, in fact, from mice, and so we would call this a xenotropic retrovirus, because it's infecting a species other than mice. +And this is a little phylogenetic tree to see how it's related to other viruses. +We've done it for many patients now, and we can say that they're all independent infections. +They all have the same virus, but they're different enough that there's reason to believe that they've been independently acquired. +Is it really in the tissue? And I'll end up with this: yes. +We take slices of these biopsies of tumor tissue and use material to actually locate the virus, and we find cells here with viral particles in them. +These guys really do have this virus. +Does this virus cause prostate cancer? +Nothing I'm saying here implies causality. I don't know. +Is it a link to oncogenesis? I don't know. +Is it the case that these guys are just more susceptible to viruses? +Could be. And it might have nothing to do with cancer. +But now it's a door. +We have a strong association between the presence of this virus and a genetic mutation that's been linked to cancer. +That's where we're at. +So, it opens up more questions than it answers, I'm afraid, but that's what, you know, science is really good at. +This was all done by folks in the lab -- I cannot take credit for most of this. +This is a collaboration between myself and Don. +This is the guy who started the project in my lab, and this is the guy who's been doing prostate stuff. +Thank you very much. +Natalie MacMaster: I'm going to just quickly start out with a little bit of music here. Thank you! I took my shoes off to dance, but maybe I'll get at that later. +Anyways, I... where to start? +The traditional language is Gaelic, but a lot of the music came from the Gaelic language, and the dancing and the singing and everything, and my bloodline is Scottish through and through, but my mother and father are two very, very musical people. +My mom taught me to dance when I was five, and my dad taught me to play fiddle when I was nine. +My uncle is a very well-known Cape Breton fiddler. +His name's Buddy MacMaster, and just a wonderful guy, and we have a great tradition at home called square dancing, and we had parties, great parties at our house and the neighbors' houses, and you talk about kitchen cilidhs. +I've recorded lots of CDs. +So I asked Natalie, what do I do? +And she said, just talk about yourself. +It's kind of boring, but I'll just tell you a little bit about my family. I'm one of 11 brothers and sisters from Lakefield, Ontario, an hour and a half northeast of Toronto, and we grew up on a farm. +Mom and Dad raised beef cattle, and I'm the oldest boy. +There are four girls a little bit older than me. +We grew up without a television. +People find that strange, but I think it was a great blessing for us. +We had a television for a few years, but of course we wasted so much time and the work wasn't getting done, so out went the television. +We grew up playing Mom's from Cape Breton, coincidentally. +Mom and Natalie's mother knew each other. We grew up playing, and used to dance together, right, yeah. +We grew up playing a bunch of, we played by ear and I think that's important for us because we were not really exposed to a lot of different styles of music. +That's how we met. You tell them. NM: You want to or no? Well I guess I have to now. +Twelve years, er, 20 years later little did she think her kids would be getting married, but anyway, so, then I got a phone call about, I dunno, seven years later. I was 19, first or second year of college, and it was Donnell, and he said "Hi, you probably don't know me but my name is Donnell Leahy." +And I said, "I know you. +I have a tape of yours at home." +And he said, "Well, I'm in Truro," which is where I was, and he asked me out for supper. +That's it. Then Will I keep going? Then we dated for two years, broke up for 10, got back together and got married. DL: So anyway, we're running out of time, so I'll just get to it. +I'm going to play a piece of music for you. +It's actually a Scottish piece I've chosen. +I starts out with a slow air. +Airs were played in Europe at burials, as a body was carried out from the wake site to the burial site, the procession was led by a piper or a fiddle player. +I'll quickly play a short part of the air, and then I'm going to get into kind of a crazy tune that is very difficult to play when you're not warmed up, so, if I mess it up, pretend you like it anyway. It's called The Banks. +NM: Well, we're gonna play one together now. We're laughing, like, because our styles are totally different, as you can hear. +And so, you know, Donnell and I are actually in the process of writing new pieces of music together that we can play, but we don't have any of those ready. +We just started yesterday. So we're gonna play something together anyway. +DL: With one minute. +NM: With one minute. +(Audience reaction) DL: You start. NM: No, you have to start, because you've got to do your thing. +NM: I'm not tuned. Hold on. +NM: I feel like I'm in the duck or the bird pose right now. (Audience claps along) Announcer: Great news, they're running late downstairs. +We've got another 10 minutes. +NM: Okay. Sure. +All right, okay. +Let's get her going. DL: What do you want to play? +NM: Well, um... +NM: Uh, sure. +DL: How fast? +NM: Not too fast. +(Audience claps along) (Audience claps along) DL: We're going to play a tune and Natalie's going to accompany me on the piano. +The Cape Breton piano playing is just awesome. It's very rhythmic and, you'll see it. +It became the only piano in the region, and Mom said she could basically play as soon as the piano arrived, she could play it because she had learned all these rhythms. Anyway, we found the piano last year and were able to bring it back home. We purchased it. +It had gone through, like, five or six families, and it was just a big thing for us, and we found actually an old picture of somebody and their family years ago. +Anyway, I'm blabbering on here. +NM: No, I want you to tell them about Leahy. +DL: What about Leahy? NM: Just tell them what DL: She wants me to talk about We have a band named Leahy. +There's 11 siblings. We, um What will I tell them? We opened NM: No surgeries. +DL: No surgeries, oh yeah. +We had a great opportunity. +We opened for Shania Twain for two years on her international tour. +It was a big thing for us, and now all my sisters are off having babies and the boys are all getting married, so we're staying close to home for, I guess, another couple of weeks. +What can I say? I don't know what to say, Natalie. We, uh... NM: Is this what marriage is about? +Will we play a tune? +NM: It worked. DL: It worked. +Sorry, I hate to carry on... +So this is our last number, and we'll feature Nat on piano. +Okay, play in, how about A? +Right when I was 15 was when I first got interested in solar energy. +My family had moved from Fort Lee, New Jersey to California, and we moved from the snow to lots of heat, and gas lines. +There was gas rationing in 1973. +The energy crisis was in full bore. +I started reading Popular Science magazine, and I got really excited about the potential of solar energy to try and solve that crisis. +I had just taken trigonometry in high school, I learned about the parabola and how it could concentrate rays of light to a single focus. +That got me very excited. +And I really felt that there would be potential to build some kind of thing that could concentrate light. +So, I started this company called Solar Devices. +And this was a company where I built parabolas, I took metal shop, and I remember walking into metal shop building parabolas and Stirling engines. +And I was building this Stirling engine over on the lathe, and all the biker guys -- motorcycle guys -- came over and said, "You're building a bong, aren't you?" +And I said, "No, it's a Stirling engine. It really is." +But they didn't believe me. +I sold the plans for this engine and for this dish in the back of Popular Science magazine, for four dollars each. +And I earned enough money to pay for my first year of Caltech. +It was a really big excitement for me to get into Caltech. +And my first year at Caltech, I continued the business. +But then, in the second year of Caltech, they started grading. +The whole first year was pass/fail, but the second year was graded. +I wasn't able to keep up with the business, and I ended up with a 25-year detour. +My dream had been to convert solar energy at a very practical cost, but then I had this big detour. +First, the coursework at Caltech. +Then, when I graduated from Caltech, the IBM P.C. came out, and I got addicted to the IBM P.C. in 1981. +And then in 1983, Lotus 1-2-3 came out, and I was completely blown away by Lotus 1-2-3. +I began operating my business with 1-2-3, began writing add-ins for 1-2-3, wrote a natural language interface to 1-2-3. +I started an educational software company after I joined Lotus, and then I started Idealab so I could have a roof under which I could build multiple companies in succession Then, much much later -- in 2000, very recently -- the new California energy crisis -- or what was purported to be a big energy crisis -- was coming. +And I was trying to figure if there was some way we could build something that would capitalize on that and try and get people back-up energy, in case the crisis really came. +And I started looking at how we could build battery back-up systems that could give people five hours, 10 hours, maybe even a full day, or three days' worth of back-up power. +I'm glad you heard earlier today, batteries are unbelievably energy -- lack of density compared to fuel. +So much more energy can be stored with fuel than with batteries. +You'd have to fill your entire parking space of one garage space just to give yourself four hours of battery back-up. +And I concluded, after researching every other technology that we could deploy for storing energy -- flywheels, different formulations of batteries -- it just wasn't practical to store energy. +So what about making energy? +Maybe we could make energy. +I tried to figure out -- maybe solar's become attractive. +It's been 25 years since I was doing this, let me go back and look at what's been happening with solar cells. +And the price had gone down from 10 dollars a watt to about four or five dollars a watt, but it stabilized. +And it really needed to get much lower than that to be cost effective. +I studied all the new things that had happened in solar cells, and was trying to look for ways we could innovate and make solar cells more inexpensively. +There are a lot of new things that are happening to do that, but fundamentally the process requires a tremendous amount of energy. +Some people even say it takes more energy to make a solar cell than it will give out in its entire life. +Hopefully, if we can reduce the amount of energy it takes to make the cells, that will become more practical. +But right now, you pretty much have to take silicon, put it in an oven at 1600 degrees Fahrenheit for 17 hours, to make the cells. +A lot of people are working on things to try and reduce that, but I didn't have anything to contribute in that area. +So I tried to figure out what other way could we try and make cost-effective solar electricity. +This seemed practical now, because a lot of new technologies had come in the 25 years since I had last looked at it. +First of all, there was a lot of new manufacturing techniques, not to mention really cheap miniature motors -- brushless motors, servo motors, stepper motors, that are used in printers and scanners and things like that. +So, that's a breakthrough. +Of course, inexpensive microprocessors and then a very important breakthrough -- genetic algorithms. +I'll be very short on genetic algorithms. +It's a powerful way of solving intractable problems using natural selection. +You take a problem that you can't solve with a pure mathematical answer, you build an evolutionary system to try multiple tries at guessing, you add sex -- where you take half of one solution and half of another and then make new mutations -- and you use natural selection to kill off not as good solutions. +Usually, with a genetic algorithm on a computer today, with a three gigahertz processor you can solve many, many formerly intractable problems in just a matter of minutes. +We tried to come up with a way to use genetic algorithms to create a new type of concentrator. +And I'll show you what we came up with. +Traditionally, concentrators look like this. +Those shapes are parabolas. +They take all the parallel incoming rays and focus it to a single spot. +They have to track the sun, because they have to be pointing directly at the sun. +They usually have about a one degree acceptance angle, meaning once they're more than about a degree off, none of the sunlight rays will hit the focus. +So we tried to come up with a way of making a non-tracking collector, a collector that would gather much more than one degree of light, with no moving parts. +And this is the shape that evolved. +So for direct light, it takes only one bounce, for off-axis light it might take two, and for extreme off-axis, it might take three. +Your efficiency goes down with more bounces, because you lose about 10 percent with each bounce, but this allowed us to collect light from a plus or minus 25 degree angle. +So, about two and a half hours of the day we could collect with a stationary component. +Solar cells collect light for four and a half hours though. +On an average adjusted day, a solar cell -- because the sun's moving across the sky, the solar cell is going down with a sine wave function of performance at the off-axis angles. +It collects about four and a half average hours of sunlight a day. +So, even this, although it was great with no moving parts -- we could achieve high temperatures -- wasn't enough. +We needed to beat solar cells. +So we took a look at another idea. +We looked at a way to break up a parabola into individual petals that would track. +So what you see here is 12 separate petals, that each could be controlled with individual microprocessors that would only cost a dollar. +You can buy a two megahertz microprocessor for a dollar now. +And you can buy stepper motors that pretty much never wear out because they have no brushes, for a dollar. +We can control all 12 of these petals for under 50 dollars and what this would allow us to do is not have to move the focus any more, but only move the petals. +The whole system would have a much lower profile, but also we could gather sunlight for six and a half to seven hours a day. +Now that we have concentrated sunlight, what are we going to put at the center to convert sunlight to electricity? +So we tried to look at all the different heat engines that have been used in history to try and convert sunlight to electricity, or heat to electricity. +And one of the great ones of all time, James Watt's steam engine of 1788 was a major, major breakthrough. +James Watt didn't actually invent the steam engine, he just refined it. +But, his refinements were incredible. +He added new linear motion guides to the pistons, he added a condenser to cool the steam outside the cylinder, he made the engine double-acting so it had double the power. +Those were major breakthroughs. +I mean, all of the improvements he made -- and it's justifiable that our measure of energy, the watt, today is named after him. +So we looked at this engine, and this had some potential. +Steam engines are dangerous, and they had tremendous impact on the world, as you know -- industrial revolution and ships and locomotives. +But they're usually good to be large, so they're not good for distributed power generation. +But they're also very high pressure, so they're dangerous. +Another type of engine is the hot air engine. +And the hot air engine also was not invented by Robert Stirling, but Robert Stirling came along in 1816 and radically improved it. +This engine, because it was so interesting -- it only worked on air, no steam -- has led to hundreds of creative designs over the years that use the Stirling engine principle. +But after the Stirling engine, Otto came along, and also, he didn't invent the internal combustion engine, he just refined it. +He showed it in Paris in 1867, and it was a major achievement because it brought the power density of the engine way up. +You could now get a lot more power in a lot smaller space, and that allowed the engine to be used for mobile applications. +So, once you have mobility, now you're making a lot of engines because you've got lots of units, as opposed to steam ships or big factories where you're not making as many units, so this was the engine that ended up benefiting from mass production where all the other engines didn't benefit. +So, because it went into mass production, costs were reduced, 100 years of refinement, emissions were reduced, tremendous production value. +There have been hundreds of millions of internal combustion engines built, compared to thousands of Stirling engines built. +And not nearly as many small steam engines being built anymore, only large ones for big operations. +So after looking at these three, and 47 others, we concluded that the Stirling engine would be the best one to use. +I want to give you a brief explanation of how we looked at it and how it works. +So we tried to look at the Stirling engine in a new way, because it was practical -- weight no longer mattered for our application The internal combustion engine took off because weight mattered because you were moving around. +But if you're trying to generate solar energy in a static place the weight doesn't matter so much. +The other thing we discovered is that efficiency doesn't matter so much if your energy source is free. +Normally, efficiency is crucial because the fuel cost of your engine over its life dwarfs the cost of the engine. +But if your fuel source is free, then the only thing that matters is the up-front capital cost of the engine. +So you don't want to optimize for efficiency, you want to optimize for power per dollar. +So using that new twist, with the new criteria, we thought we could re-look at the Stirling engine, and also bring genetic algorithms in. +Basically, Robert Stirling didn't have Gordon Moore before him to get us three gigahertz of processor power. +And that's the process we took -- let me show you how the engine works. +The simplest heat engine, or hot air engine, of all time would be this -- take a box, a steel canister, with a piston. +Put a flame under it, the piston moves up. +Take it off the flame and pour water on it, or let it cool down, the piston moves down. +That's a heat engine. +That's basically the most fundamental heat engine you could possibly have. +The problem is the efficiency is one hundredth of one percent, because you're heating all the metal of the chamber and then cooling all the metal of the chamber each time. +And you're only getting power from the air that's heating at the same time, but you're wasting all the energy heating the metal and cooling the metal. +So someone came up with a very clever idea, to -- instead of heating the whole cylinder and cooling the whole cylinder, what about if you put a displacer inside -- a little thing that shuttles the air back and forth. +You move that up and down with a little bit of energy but now you're only shifting the air down to the hot end and up to the cold end, down to the hot end and up to the cold end. +So, now you're not alternately heating and cooling the metal, you're just alternately heating and cooling the air. +That allows you to get the efficiency up from a hundredth of a percent to about two percent. +And then Robert Stirling came along with this genius idea, which was, well I'm still not heating the metal now, with this kind of engine, but I'm still reheating all the air. +I'm still heating the air every time and cooling the air every time. +What about if I put a thermal sponge in the middle, in the passageway between where the air has to move between hot and cold? +So he made fine wires, and cracked glass, and all different kinds of materials to be a heat sponge. +So when the air pushes up to go from the hot end to the cold end, it puts some heat into the sponge. +And then when the air comes back after it's been cooled it picks up that heat again. +So we really set out on a path to try and make the lowest cost possible. +We built a huge mathematical model of how a Stirling engine works. +We applied the genetic algorithm. +We got the results from that for the optimal engine. +We built engines -- so we built 100 different engines over the last two years. +We measured each one, we readjusted the model to what we measured, and then we led that to the current prototype. +It led to a very compact, inexpensive engine, and this is what the engine looks like. +Let me show you what it looks like in real life. +So this is the engine. +It's just a small cylinder down here which holds the generator inside and all the linkage and it's the hot cap -- the hot cylinder on the top -- this part gets hot, this part is cool, and electricity comes out. +The exact converse is also true. +If you put electricity in, this will get hot and this will get cold, you get refrigeration. +So it's a complete reversible cycle, a very efficient cycle, and quite a simple thing to make. +So now you put the two things together. +So you have the engine, now what if you combine the petals and the engine in the center? +The petals track and the engine gets the concentrated sunlight, take that heat and turn it into electricity. +This is what the first prototype of our system looked like together with the petals and the engine in the center. +This is being run out in the sun, and now I want to show you what the actual thing looks like. +Thank you. +So this is a unit with the 12 petals These petals cost about a dollar each -- they're lightweight, injection molded plastic, aluminized. +The mechanism to control each petal is below there with a microprocessor on each one. +There are thermocouples on the engine -- little sensors that detect the heat when the sunlight strikes them. +Each petal adjusts itself separately to keep the highest temperature on it. +So you don't have to tell what latitude, longitude you're at, you don't have to tell what your roof slope angle is, you don't have to tell what orientation. +It doesn't really care. +What it does is it searches to find the hottest spot, it searches again a half an hour later, it searches again a day later, it searches again a month later. +It basically figures out where on Earth you are by watching the direction the sun moves, so you don't have to actually enter anything about that. +The way the unit works is, when the sun comes out the engine will start and you get power out here. +We have A.C. and D.C., get 12 volts D.C., so that could be used for certain applications. +We have an inverter in there, so you get 117 volts A.C. +and you also get hot water. +The hot water's optional. +You don't have to use the hot water, it will cool itself. +But you can use it to optionally heat hot water and that brings the efficiency up even higher because some of the heat that you would normally be rejecting, you can now use as useful energy, whether it's for a pool or hot water. +Let me show you a quick movie of what this looks like running. +So this is the first test where we took it outside and each of the petals were individually seeking. +And what they do is step, very coarsely at first, and then very finely afterward. +Once they get a temperature reading on the thermocouple indicating they found the sun, then they slow down and do a fine search, then all the petals will move into position, and then the engine will start. +So, we've been working on this for the last two years. +We're very excited about the progress, we do have a very long way to go though still, and let me tell you a little bit more about that. +This is how we envision it would be in a residential installation: you'd probably have more than one unit on your roof. +It could be on your roof, or in your backyard, or somewhere else. +You don't have to have enough units to power your entire house, you just save money with each incremental one you add. +So you're still using the grid potentially, in this type of application, to be your back-up supply -- of course, you can't use these at night, and you can't use these on cloudy days. +But by reducing your energy use, pretty much at the peak times -- usually when you have you air conditioning on, or other times like that -- this generates the peak power at the peak usage time, so it's very complementary in that sense. +This is how we would envision a residential application. +We also think there's very big potential for energy farms, especially in remote land where there happens to be a lot of sun. +It's a really good combination of those two factors. +It turns out there's a lot of powerful sun all around the world, obviously, but in special places where it happens to be relatively inexpensive to place these and also in many more places where there is high wind power. +So an example of that is, here's the map of the United States. +Pretty much everywhere that's not green or blue is a really ideal place, but even the green or blue areas are good, just not as good as the places that are red, orange and yellow. +But the hot sport right around Las Vegas and Death Valley and that area is very, very good. +And all this does is affect the payback period, it doesn't mean that you couldn't use solar energy; you could use solar energy anywhere on Earth. +It just affects the payback period if you're comparing to grid-supplied electricity. +But if you don't have grid-supplied electricity, then the whole question of payback is a different one entirely. +It's just how many watts do you get per dollar, and how could you benefit from that using that power to change your life in some way. +This is the map of the United States. +This is the map of the whole Earth and again, you can see a huge swathe in the middle of pretty much where a large part of the population is, there's tremendous chances for solar energy. +And of course, look at Africa. +It's just unbelievable what the potential is to take advantage of solar energy there, and I'm really excited to talk more about finding ways we can help with that. +So, in conclusion, I would say my journey has shown me that you can revisit old ideas in a new light, and sometimes ideas that have been discarded in the past can be practical now if you apply some new technology or new twists. +We believe we're getting very close to something practical and affordable. +Our short-term goal for this is to be half the price of solar cells and our longer-term goal is to be less than a five-year payback. +And at less than a five-year payback, all of a sudden this becomes very economic So you don't have to just want to have a feel-good attitude about energy to want to have one of these. +It just makes economic sense. +Right now, solar paybacks are between 30 and 50 years. +If you get it down below five years then it becomes almost a no-brainer because the interest to own it -- someone else will finance it for you and you can just make money, basically from day one. +So that's our real powerful goal that we're really shooting for in the company. +Two other things that I learned that were very surprising to me -- one was how casual we are about energy. +I was walking from the elevator over here, and even just looking at the stage right now -- so there's probably 20 500 watt lights right now. +There's 10,000 watts of light pouring on the stage, one horsepower is 756 watts, at full power. +So there's basically 15 horses running at full speed just to keep the stage lit. +Not to mention the 200 horses that are probably running right now to keep the airconditioning going. +And it's just amazing, walk in the elevator and there's lights on in the elevator. +Of course, now I'm very sensitive at home when we leave the lights on by mistake. +But, everywhere around us we have insatiable use for energy because it's so cheap. +And it's cheap because we've been subsidized by energy that's been concentrated by the sun. +Basically, oil is solar energy concentrate. +It's been pounded for a billion years with a lot of energy to make it have all that energy contained in it. +And we don't have a birthright to just use that up as fast as we are, I think. +And it would be great if we could find a way to make our energy usage renewable, where as we're using the energy we're creating it at the same pace, and I really hope we can get there. +Thank you very much, you've been a great audience. +I wrote a letter last week talking about the work of the foundation, sharing some of the problems. +And Warren Buffet had recommended I do that -- being honest about what was going well, what wasn't, and making it kind of an annual thing. +A goal I had there was to draw more people in to work on those problems, because I think there are some very important problems that don't get worked on naturally. +That is, the market does not drive the scientists, the communicators, the thinkers, the governments to do the right things. +And only by paying attention to these things and having brilliant people who care and draw other people in can we make as much progress as we need to. +So this morning I'm going to share two of these problems and talk about where they stand. +But before I dive into those I want to admit that I am an optimist. +Any tough problem, I think it can be solved. +And part of the reason I feel that way is looking at the past. +Over the past century, average lifespan has more than doubled. +Another statistic, perhaps my favorite, is to look at childhood deaths. +As recently as 1960, 110 million children were born, and 20 million of those died before the age of five. +Five years ago, 135 million children were born -- so, more -- and less than 10 million of them died before the age of five. +So that's a factor of two reduction of the childhood death rate. +It's a phenomenal thing. +Each one of those lives matters a lot. +And the key reason we were able to it was not only rising incomes but also a few key breakthroughs: vaccines that were used more widely. +For example, measles was four million of the deaths back as recently as 1990 and now is under 400,000. +So we really can make changes. +The next breakthrough is to cut that 10 million in half again. +And I think that's doable in well under 20 years. +Why? Well there's only a few diseases that account for the vast majority of those deaths: diarrhea, pneumonia and malaria. +So that brings us to the first problem that I'll raise this morning, which is how do we stop a deadly disease that's spread by mosquitos? +Well, what's the history of this disease? +It's been a severe disease for thousands of years. +In fact, if we look at the genetic code, it's the only disease we can see that people who lived in Africa actually evolved several things to avoid malarial deaths. +Deaths actually peaked at a bit over five million in the 1930s. +So it was absolutely gigantic. +And the disease was all over the world. +A terrible disease. It was in the United States. It was in Europe. +People didn't know what caused it until the early 1900s, when a British military man figured out that it was mosquitos. +So it was everywhere. +And two tools helped bring the death rate down. +One was killing the mosquitos with DDT. +The other was treating the patients with quinine, or quinine derivatives. +And so that's why the death rate did come down. +Now, ironically, what happened was it was eliminated from all the temperate zones, which is where the rich countries are. +So we can see: 1900, it's everywhere. +1945, it's still most places. +1970, the U.S. and most of Europe have gotten rid of it. +1990, you've gotten most of the northern areas. +And more recently you can see it's just around the equator. +And so this leads to the paradox that because the disease is only in the poorer countries, it doesn't get much investment. +For example, there's more money put into baldness drugs than are put into malaria. +Now, baldness, it's a terrible thing. +And rich men are afflicted. +And so that's why that priority has been set. +But, malaria -- even the million deaths a year caused by malaria greatly understate its impact. +Over 200 million people at any one time are suffering from it. +It means that you can't get the economies in these areas going because it just holds things back so much. +Now, malaria is of course transmitted by mosquitos. +I brought some here, just so you could experience this. +We'll let those roam around the auditorium a little bit. +There's no reason only poor people should have the experience. +Those mosquitos are not infected. +So we've come up with a few new things. We've got bed nets. +And bed nets are a great tool. +What it means is the mother and child stay under the bed net at night, so the mosquitos that bite late at night can't get at them. +And when you use indoor spraying with DDT and those nets you can cut deaths by over 50 percent. +And that's happened now in a number of countries. +It's great to see. +But we have to be careful because malaria -- the parasite evolves and the mosquito evolves. +So every tool that we've ever had in the past has eventually become ineffective. +And so you end up with two choices. +If you go into a country with the right tools and the right way, you do it vigorously, you can actually get a local eradication. +And that's where we saw the malaria map shrinking. +Or, if you go in kind of half-heartedly, for a period of time you'll reduce the disease burden, but eventually those tools will become ineffective, and the death rate will soar back up again. +And the world has gone through this where it paid attention and then didn't pay attention. +Now we're on the upswing. +Bed net funding is up. +There's new drug discovery going on. +Our foundation has backed a vaccine that's going into phase three trial that starts in a couple months. +And that should save over two thirds of the lives if it's effective. +So we're going to have these new tools. +But that alone doesn't give us the road map. +Because the road map to get rid of this disease involves many things. +It involves communicators to keep the funding high, to keep the visibility high, to tell the success stories. +It involves social scientists, so we know how to get not just 70 percent of the people to use the bed nets, but 90 percent. +We need mathematicians to come in and simulate this, to do Monte Carlo things to understand how these tools combine and work together. +Of course we need drug companies to give us their expertise. +And so as these elements come together, I'm quite optimistic that we will be able to eradicate malaria. +Now let me turn to a second question, a fairly different question, but I'd say equally important. +And this is: How do you make a teacher great? +It seems like the kind of question that people would spend a lot of time on, and we'd understand very well. +And the answer is, really, that we don't. +Let's start with why this is important. +Well, all of us here, I'll bet, had some great teachers. +We all had a wonderful education. +That's part of the reason we're here today, part of the reason we're successful. +I can say that, even though I'm a college drop-out. +I had great teachers. +In fact, in the United States, the teaching system has worked fairly well. +There are fairly effective teachers in a narrow set of places. +So the top 20 percent of students have gotten a good education. +And those top 20 percent have been the best in the world, if you measure them against the other top 20 percent. +And they've gone on to create the revolutions in software and biotechnology and keep the U.S. at the forefront. +Now, the strength for those top 20 percent is starting to fade on a relative basis, but even more concerning is the education that the balance of people are getting. +Not only has that been weak. it's getting weaker. +And if you look at the economy, it really is only providing opportunities now to people with a better education. +And we have to change this. +We have to change it so that people have equal opportunity. +We have to change it so that the country is strong and stays at the forefront of things that are driven by advanced education, like science and mathematics. +When I first learned the statistics, I was pretty stunned at how bad things are. +Over 30 percent of kids never finish high school. +And that had been covered up for a long time because they always took the dropout rate as the number who started in senior year and compared it to the number who finished senior year. +Because they weren't tracking where the kids were before that. +But most of the dropouts had taken place before that. +They had to raise the stated dropout rate as soon as that tracking was done to over 30 percent. +For minority kids, it's over 50 percent. +And even if you graduate from high school, if you're low-income, you have less than a 25 percent chance of ever completing a college degree. +If you're low-income in the United States, you have a higher chance of going to jail than you do of getting a four-year degree. +And that doesn't seem entirely fair. +So, how do you make education better? +Now, our foundation, for the last nine years, has invested in this. +There's many people working on it. +We've worked on small schools, we've funded scholarships, we've done things in libraries. +A lot of these things had a good effect. +But the more we looked at it, the more we realized that having great teachers was the very key thing. +And we hooked up with some people studying how much variation is there between teachers, between, say, the top quartile -- the very best -- and the bottom quartile. +How much variation is there within a school or between schools? +And the answer is that these variations are absolutely unbelievable. +A top quartile teacher will increase the performance of their class -- based on test scores -- by over 10 percent in a single year. +What does that mean? +That means that if the entire U.S., for two years, had top quartile teachers, the entire difference between us and Asia would go away. +Within four years we would be blowing everyone in the world away. +So, it's simple. All you need are those top quartile teachers. +And so you'd say, "Wow, we should reward those people. +We should retain those people. +We should find out what they're doing and transfer that skill to other people." +But I can tell you that absolutely is not happening today. +What are the characteristics of this top quartile? +What do they look like? +You might think these must be very senior teachers. +And the answer is no. +Once somebody has taught for three years their teaching quality does not change thereafter. +The variation is very, very small. +You might think these are people with master's degrees. +They've gone back and they've gotten their Master's of Education. +This chart takes four different factors and says how much do they explain teaching quality. +That bottom thing, which says there's no effect at all, is a master's degree. +Now, the way the pay system works is there's two things that are rewarded. +One is seniority. +Because your pay goes up and you vest into your pension. +The second is giving extra money to people who get their master's degree. +But it in no way is associated with being a better teacher. +Teach for America: slight effect. +For math teachers majoring in math there's a measurable effect. +But, overwhelmingly, it's your past performance. +There are some people who are very good at this. +And we've done almost nothing to study what that is and to draw it in and to replicate it, to raise the average capability -- or to encourage the people with it to stay in the system. +You might say, "Do the good teachers stay and the bad teacher's leave?" +The answer is, on average, the slightly better teachers leave the system. +And it's a system with very high turnover. +Now, there are a few places -- very few -- where great teachers are being made. +A good example of one is a set of charter schools called KIPP. +KIPP means Knowledge Is Power. +It's an unbelievable thing. +They have 66 schools -- mostly middle schools, some high schools -- and what goes on is great teaching. +They take the poorest kids, and over 96 percent of their high school graduates go to four-year colleges. +And the whole spirit and attitude in those schools is very different than in the normal public schools. +They're team teaching. They're constantly improving their teachers. +They're taking data, the test scores, and saying to a teacher, "Hey, you caused this amount of increase." +They're deeply engaged in making teaching better. +When you actually go and sit in one of these classrooms, at first it's very bizarre. +I sat down and I thought, "What is going on?" +The teacher was running around, and the energy level was high. +I thought, "I'm in the sports rally or something. +What's going on?" +And the teacher was constantly scanning to see which kids weren't paying attention, which kids were bored, and calling kids rapidly, putting things up on the board. +It was a very dynamic environment, because particularly in those middle school years -- fifth through eighth grade -- keeping people engaged and setting the tone that everybody in the classroom needs to pay attention, nobody gets to make fun of it or have the position of the kid who doesn't want to be there. +Everybody needs to be involved. +And so KIPP is doing it. +How does that compare to a normal school? +Well, in a normal school, teachers aren't told how good they are. +The data isn't gathered. +In the teacher's contract, it will limit the number of times the principal can come into the classroom -- sometimes to once per year. +And they need advanced notice to do that. +So imagine running a factory where you've got these workers, some of them just making crap and the management is told, "Hey, you can only come down here once a year, but you need to let us know, because we might actually fool you, and try and do a good job in that one brief moment." +Even a teacher who wants to improve doesn't have the tools to do it. +They don't have the test scores, and there's a whole thing of trying to block the data. +For example, New York passed a law that said that the teacher improvement data could not be made available and used in the tenure decision for the teachers. +And so that's sort of working in the opposite direction. +But I'm optimistic about this, I think there are some clear things we can do. +First of all, there's a lot more testing going on, and that's given us the picture of where we are. +And that allows us to understand who's doing it well, and call them out, and find out what those techniques are. +Of course, digital video is cheap now. +Putting a few cameras in the classroom and saying that things are being recorded on an ongoing basis is very practical in all public schools. +And so every few weeks teachers could sit down and say, "OK, here's a little clip of something I thought I did well. +Here's a little clip of something I think I did poorly. +Advise me -- when this kid acted up, how should I have dealt with that?" +And they could all sit and work together on those problems. +You can take the very best teachers and kind of annotate it, have it so everyone sees who is the very best at teaching this stuff. +You can take those great courses and make them available so that a kid could go out and watch the physics course, learn from that. +If you have a kid who's behind, you would know you could assign them that video to watch and review the concept. +And in fact, these free courses could not only be available just on the Internet, but you could make it so that DVDs were always available, and so anybody who has access to a DVD player can have the very best teachers. +And so by thinking of this as a personnel system, we can do it much better. +Now there's a book actually, about KIPP -- the place that this is going on -- that Jay Matthews, a news reporter, wrote -- called, "Work Hard, Be Nice." +And I thought it was so fantastic. +It gave you a sense of what a good teacher does. +I'm going to send everyone here a free copy of this book. +Now, we put a lot of money into education, and I really think that education is the most important thing to get right for the country to have as strong a future as it should have. +In fact we have in the stimulus bill -- it's interesting -- the House version actually had money in it for these data systems, and it was taken out in the Senate because there are people who are threatened by these things. +But I -- I'm optimistic. +I think people are beginning to recognize how important this is, and it really can make a difference for millions of lives, if we get it right. +I only had time to frame those two problems. +There's a lot more problems like that -- AIDS, pneumonia -- I can just see you're getting excited, just at the very name of these things. +And the skill sets required to tackle these things are very broad. +You know, the system doesn't naturally make it happen. +Governments don't naturally pick these things in the right way. +The private sector doesn't naturally put its resources into these things. +So it's going to take brilliant people like you to study these things, get other people involved -- and you're helping to come up with solutions. +And with that, I think there's some great things that will come out of it. +Thank you. +'Theme and variations' is one of those forms that require a certain kind of intellectual activity, because you are always comparing the variation with the theme that you hold in your mind. +You might say that the theme is nature and everything that follows is a variation on the subject. +I was asked, I guess about six years ago, to do a series of paintings that in some way would celebrate the birth of Piero della Francesca. +And it was very difficult for me to imagine how to paint pictures that were based on Piero until I realized that I could look at Piero as nature -- that I would have the same attitude towards looking at Piero della Francesca as I would if I were looking out a window at a tree. +And that was enormously liberating to me. +Perhaps it's not a very insightful observation, but that really started me on a path to be able to do a kind of theme and variations based on a work by Piero, in this case that remarkable painting that's in the Uffizi, "The Duke of Montefeltro," who faces his consort, Battista. +Once I realized that I could take some liberties with the subject, I did the following series of drawings. +That's the real Piero della Francesca -- one of the greatest portraits in human history. +And these, I'll just show these without comment. +It's just a series of variations on the head of the Duke of Montefeltro, who's a great, great figure in the Renaissance, and probably the basis for Machiavelli's "The Prince." +He apparently lost an eye in battle, which is why he is always shown in profile. +And this is Battista. +And then I decided I could move them around a little bit -- so that for the first time in history, they're facing the same direction. +Whoops! Passed each other. +And then a visitor from another painting by Piero, this is from "The Resurrection of Christ" -- as though the cast had just gotten of the set to have a chat. +And now, four large panels: this is upper left; upper right; lower left; lower right. +Incidentally, I've never understood the conflict between abstraction and naturalism. +Since all paintings are inherently abstract to begin with there doesn't seem to be an argument there. +On another subject -- -- I was driving in the country one day with my wife, and I saw this sign, and I said, "That is a fabulous piece of design." +And she said, "What are you talking about?" +I said, "Well, it's so persuasive, because the purpose of that sign is to get you into the garage, and since most people are so suspicious of garages, and know that they're going to be ripped off, they use the word 'reliable.' But everybody says they're reliable. +But, reliable Dutchman" -- -- "Fantastic!" +Because as soon as you hear the word Dutchman -- which is an archaic word, nobody calls Dutch people "Dutchmen" anymore -- but as soon as you hear Dutchman, you get this picture of the kid with his finger in the dike, preventing the thing from falling and flooding Holland, and so on. +And so the entire issue is detoxified by the use of "Dutchman." +Now, if you think I'm exaggerating at all in this, all you have to do is substitute something else, like "Indonesian." +Or even "French." +Now, "Swiss" works, but you know it's going to cost a lot of money. +I'm going to take you quickly through the actual process of doing a poster. +I do a lot of work for the School of Visual Arts, where I teach, and the director of this school -- a remarkable man named Silas Rhodes -- often gives you a piece of text and he says, "Do something with this." +And so he did. +And this was the text -- "In words as fashion the same rule will hold/ Alike fantastic if too new or old/ Be not the first by whom the new are tried/ Nor yet the last to lay the old aside." +I could make nothing of that. +And I really struggled with this one. +And the first thing I did, which was sort of in the absence of another idea, was say I'll sort of write it out and make some words big, and I'll have some kind of design on the back somehow, and I was hoping -- as one often does -- to stumble into something. +So I took another crack at it -- you've got to keep it moving -- and I Xeroxed some words on pieces of colored paper and I pasted them down on an ugly board. +I thought that something would come out of it, like "Words rule fantastic new old first last Pope" because it's by Alexander Pope, but I sort of made a mess out of it, and then I thought I'd repeat it in some way so it was legible. +So, it was going nowhere. +Sometimes, in the middle of a resistant problem, I write down things that I know about it. +But you can see the beginning of an idea there, because you can see the word "new" emerging from the "old." +That's what happens. +There's a relationship between the old and the new; the new emerges from the context of the old. +And then I did some variations of it, but it still wasn't coalescing graphically at all. +I had this other version which had something interesting about it in terms of being able to put it together in your mind from clues. +The W was clearly a W, the N was clearly an N, even though they were very fragmentary and there wasn't a lot of information in it. +Then I got the words "new" and "old" and now I had regressed back to a point where there seemed to be no return. +I was really desperate at this point. +And so, I do something I'm truthfully ashamed of, which is that I took two drawings I had made for another purpose and I put them together. +It says "dreams" at the top. +And I was going to do a thing, I say, "Well, change the copy. +Let it say something about dreams, and come to SVA and you'll sort of fulfill your dreams." +But, to my credit, I was so embarrassed about doing that that I never submitted this sketch. +And, finally, I arrived at the following solution. +Now, it doesn't look terribly interesting, but it does have something that distinguishes it from a lot of other posters. +For one thing, it transgresses the idea of what a poster's supposed to be, which is to be understood and seen immediately, and not explained. +I remember hearing all of you in the graphic arts -- "If you have to explain it, it ain't working." +And one day I woke up and I said, "Well, suppose that's not true?" +So here's what it says in my explanation at the bottom left. +It says, "Thoughts: This poem is impossible. +Silas usually has a better touch with his choice of quotations. +This one generates no imagery at all." +I am now exposing myself to my audience, right? +Which is something you never want to do professionally. +"Maybe the words can make the image without anything else happening. +What's the heart of this poem? +Don't be trendy if you want to be serious. +Is doing the poster this way trendy in itself? +I guess one could reduce the idea further by suggesting that the new emerges behind and through the old, like this." +And then I show you a little drawing -- you see, you remember that old thing I discarded? +Well, I found a way to use it. +So, there's that little alternative over there, and I say, "Not bad," -- criticizing myself -- "but more didactic than visual. +Maybe what wants to be said is that old and the new are locked in a dialectical embrace, a kind of dance where each defines the other." +And then more self-questioning -- "Am I being simple-minded? +Is this the kind of simple that looks obvious, or the kind that looks profound? +There's a significant difference. +This could be embarrassing. +Actually, I realize fear of embarrassment drives me as much as any ambition. +Do you think this sort of thing could really attract a student to the school?" +Well, I think there are two fresh things here -- two fresh things. +One is the sort of willingness to expose myself to a critical audience, and not to suggest that I am confident about what I'm doing. +And as you know, you have to have a front. +I mean -- you've got to be confident; if you don't believe in your work, who else is going to believe in it? +So that's one thing, to introduce the idea of doubt into graphics. +That can be a big contribution. +The other thing is to actually give you two solutions for the price of one; you get the big one and if you don't like that, how about the little one? +And that too is a relatively new idea. +And here's just a series of experiments where I ask the question of -- does a poster have to be square? +Now, this is a little illusion. +That poster is not folded. +It's not folded, that's a photograph and it's cut on the diagonal. +Same cheap trick in the upper left-hand corner. +And here, a very peculiar poster because, simply because of using the isometric perspective in the computer, it won't sit still in the space. +At times, it seems to be wider at the back than the front, and then it shifts. +And if you sit here long enough, it'll float off the page into the audience. +But, we don't have time. +And then an experiment -- a little bit about the nature of perspective, where the outside shape is determined by the peculiarity of perspective, but the shape of the bottle -- which is identical to the outside shape -- is seen frontally. +And another piece for the art directors' club is "Anna Rees" casting long shadows. +This is another poster from the School of Visual Arts. +There were 10 artists invited to participate in it, and it was one of those things where it was extremely competitive and I didn't want to be embarrassed, so I worked very hard on this. +The idea was -- and it was a brilliant idea -- was to have 10 posters distributed throughout the city's subway system so every time you got on the subway you'd be passing a different poster, all of which had a different idea of what art is. +But I was absolutely stuck on the idea of "art is" and trying to determine what art was. +But then I gave up and I said, "Well, art is whatever." +And as soon as I said that, I discovered that the word "hat" was hidden in the word "whatever," and that led me to the inevitable conclusion. +But then again, it's on my list of didactic posters. +My intent is to have a literary accompaniment that explains the poster, in case you don't get it. +Now this says, "Note to the viewer: I thought I might use a visual cliche of our time -- Magritte's everyman -- to express the idea that art is mystery, continuity and history. +I'm also convinced that, in an age of computer manipulation, surrealism has become banal, a shadow of its former self. +The phrase 'Art is whatever' expresses the current inclusiveness that surrounds art-making -- a sort of 'it ain't what you do, it's the way that you do it' notion. +Whatever." +OK. +And the one that I did not submit, which I still like, I wanted to use the same phrase. +There were wonderful experiments by Bruno Munari on letterforms some years ago -- sort of, see how far you could go and still be able to read them. +And that idea stuck in my head. +But then I took the pieces that I had taken off and put them at the bottom. +And, of course those are the remains, and they're so labeled. +But what really happens is that you read it as: "Art is whatever remains." +Thank you. +In his inaugural address, Barack Obama appealed to each of us to give our best as we try to extricate ourselves from this current financial crisis. +But what did he appeal to? +He did not, happily, follow in the footsteps of his predecessor, and tell us to just go shopping. +Nor did he tell us, "Trust us. Trust your country. +Invest, invest, invest." +Instead, what he told us was to put aside childish things. +And he appealed to virtue. +Virtue is an old-fashioned word. +It seems a little out of place in a cutting-edge environment like this one. +And besides, some of you might be wondering, what the hell does it mean? +Let me begin with an example. +This is the job description of a hospital janitor that is scrolling up on the screen. +And all of the items on it are unremarkable. +They're the things you would expect: mop the floors, sweep them, empty the trash, restock the cabinets. +It may be a little surprising how many things there are, but it's not surprising what they are. +But the one thing I want you to notice about them is this: even though this is a very long list, there isn't a single thing on it that involves other human beings. +Not one. +The janitor's job could just as well be done in a mortuary as in a hospital. +And yet, when some psychologists interviewed hospital janitors to get a sense of what they thought their jobs were like, they encountered Mike, who told them about how he stopped mopping the floor because Mr. Jones was out of his bed getting a little exercise, trying to build up his strength, walking slowly up and down the hall. +And Charlene told them about how she ignored her supervisor's admonition and didn't vacuum the visitor's lounge because there were some family members who were there all day, every day who, at this moment, happened to be taking a nap. +And then there was Luke, who washed the floor in a comatose young man's room twice because the man's father, who had been keeping a vigil for six months, didn't see Luke do it the first time, and his father was angry. +And behavior like this from janitors, from technicians, from nurses and, if we're lucky now and then, from doctors, doesn't just make people feel a little better, it actually improves the quality of patient care and enables hospitals to run well. +Now, not all janitors are like this, of course. +But the ones who are think that these sorts of human interactions involving kindness, care and empathy are an essential part of the job. +And yet their job description contains not one word about other human beings. +These janitors have the moral will to do right by other people. +And beyond this, they have the moral skill to figure out what "doing right" means. +"Practical wisdom," Aristotle told us, "is the combination of moral will and moral skill." +A wise person knows when and how to make the exception to every rule, as the janitors knew when to ignore the job duties in the service of other objectives. +A wise person knows how to improvise, as Luke did when he re-washed the floor. +Real-world problems are often ambiguous and ill-defined and the context is always changing. +A wise person is like a jazz musician -- using the notes on the page, but dancing around them, inventing combinations that are appropriate for the situation and the people at hand. +A wise person knows how to use these moral skills in the service of the right aims. +To serve other people, not to manipulate other people. +And finally, perhaps most important, a wise person is made, not born. +Wisdom depends on experience, and not just any experience. +You need the time to get to know the people that you're serving. +You need permission to be allowed to improvise, try new things, occasionally to fail and to learn from your failures. +And you need to be mentored by wise teachers. +When you ask the janitors who behaved like the ones I described how hard it is to learn to do their job, they tell you that it takes lots of experience. +And they don't mean it takes lots of experience to learn how to mop floors and empty trash cans. +It takes lots of experience to learn how to care for people. +At TED, brilliance is rampant. +It's scary. +The good news is you don't need to be brilliant to be wise. +The bad news is that without wisdom, brilliance isn't enough. +It's as likely to get you and other people into trouble as anything else. +Now, I hope that we all know this. +There's a sense in which it's obvious, and yet, let me tell you a little story. +It's a story about lemonade. +A dad and his seven-year-old son were watching a Detroit Tigers game at the ballpark. +His son asked him for some lemonade and Dad went to the concession stand to buy it. +All they had was Mike's Hard Lemonade, which was five percent alcohol. +Dad, being an academic, had no idea that Mike's Hard Lemonade contained alcohol. +So he brought it back. +And the kid was drinking it, and a security guard spotted it, and called the police, who called an ambulance that rushed to the ballpark, whisked the kid to the hospital. +The emergency room ascertained that the kid had no alcohol in his blood. +And they were ready to let the kid go. +But not so fast. +The Wayne County Child Welfare Protection Agency said no. +And the child was sent to a foster home for three days. +At that point, can the child go home? +Well, a judge said yes, but only if the dad leaves the house and checks into a motel. +After two weeks, I'm happy to report, the family was reunited. +But the welfare workers and the ambulance people and the judge all said the same thing: "We hate to do it but we have to follow procedure." +How do things like this happen? +Scott Simon, who told this story on NPR, said, "Rules and procedures may be dumb, but they spare you from thinking." +And, to be fair, rules are often imposed because previous officials have been lax and they let a child go back to an abusive household. +Fair enough. +When things go wrong, as of course they do, we reach for two tools to try to fix them. +One tool we reach for is rules. +Better ones, more of them. +The second tool we reach for is incentives. +Better ones, more of them. +What else, after all, is there? +We can certainly see this in response to the current financial crisis. +Regulate, regulate, regulate. +Fix the incentives, fix the incentives, fix the incentives ... +The truth is that neither rules nor incentives are enough to do the job. +How could you even write a rule that got the janitors to do what they did? +And would you pay them a bonus for being empathic? +It's preposterous on its face. +And what happens is that as we turn increasingly to rules, rules and incentives may make things better in the short run, but they create a downward spiral that makes them worse in the long run. +Moral skill is chipped away by an over-reliance on rules that deprives us of the opportunity to improvise and learn from our improvisations. +And moral will is undermined by an incessant appeal to incentives that destroy our desire to do the right thing. +And without intending it, by appealing to rules and incentives, we are engaging in a war on wisdom. +Let me just give you a few examples, first of rules and the war on moral skill. +The lemonade story is one. +Second, no doubt more familiar to you, is the nature of modern American education: scripted, lock-step curricula. +Here's an example from Chicago kindergarten. +Reading and enjoying literature and words that begin with 'B.' "The Bath:" Assemble students on a rug and give students a warning about the dangers of hot water. +Say 75 items in this script to teach a 25-page picture book. +All over Chicago in every kindergarten class in the city, every teacher is saying the same words in the same way on the same day. +We know why these scripts are there. +We don't trust the judgment of teachers enough to let them loose on their own. +Scripts like these are insurance policies against disaster. +And they prevent disaster. +But what they assure in its place is mediocrity. +Don't get me wrong. We need rules! +Jazz musicians need some notes -- most of them need some notes on the page. +We need more rules for the bankers, God knows. +But too many rules prevent accomplished jazz musicians from improvising. +And as a result, they lose their gifts, or worse, they stop playing altogether. +Now, how about incentives? +They seem cleverer. +If you have one reason for doing something and I give you a second reason for doing the same thing, it seems only logical that two reasons are better than one and you're more likely to do it. +Right? +Well, not always. +Sometimes two reasons to do the same thing seem to compete with one another instead of complimenting, and they make people less likely to do it. +I'll just give you one example because time is racing. +In Switzerland, back about 15 years ago, they were trying to decide where to site nuclear waste dumps. +There was going to be a national referendum. +Some psychologists went around and polled citizens who were very well informed. +And they said, "Would you be willing to have a nuclear waste dump in your community?" +Astonishingly, 50 percent of the citizens said yes. +They knew it was dangerous. +They thought it would reduce their property values. +But it had to go somewhere and they had responsibilities as citizens. +The psychologists asked other people a slightly different question. +They said, "If we paid you six weeks' salary every year would you be willing to have a nuclear waste dump in your community?" +Two reasons. It's my responsibility and I'm getting paid. +Instead of 50 percent saying yes, 25 percent said yes. +What happens is that the second this introduction of incentive gets us so that instead of asking, "What is my responsibility?" +all we ask is, "What serves my interests?" +When incentives don't work, when CEOs ignore the long-term health of their companies in pursuit of short-term gains that will lead to massive bonuses, the response is always the same. +Get smarter incentives. +The truth is that there are no incentives that you can devise that are ever going to be smart enough. +Any incentive system can be subverted by bad will. +We need incentives. People have to make a living. +But excessive reliance on incentives demoralizes professional activity in two senses of that word. +It causes people who engage in that activity to lose morale and it causes the activity itself to lose morality. +Barack Obama said, before he was inaugurated, "We must ask not just 'Is it profitable?' but 'Is it right?'" And when professions are demoralized, everyone in them becomes dependent on -- addicted to -- incentives and they stop asking "Is it right?" +We see this in medicine. +("Although it's nothing serious, let's keep an eye on it to make sure it doesn't turn into a major lawsuit.") And we certainly see it in the world of business. +("In order to remain competitive in today's marketplace, I'm afraid we're going to have to replace you with a sleezeball.") ("I sold my soul for about a tenth of what the damn things are going for now.") It is obvious that this is not the way people want to do their work. +So what can we do? +A few sources of hope: we ought to try to re-moralize work. +One way not to do it: teach more ethics courses. +There is no better way to show people that you're not serious than to tie up everything you have to say about ethics into a little package with a bow and consign it to the margins as an ethics course. +What to do instead? +One: Celebrate moral exemplars. +Acknowledge, when you go to law school, that a little voice is whispering in your ear about Atticus Finch. +No 10-year-old goes to law school to do mergers and acquisitions. +People are inspired by moral heroes. +But we learn that with sophistication comes the understanding that you can't acknowledge that you have moral heroes. +Well, acknowledge them. +Be proud that you have them. +Celebrate them. +And demand that the people who teach you acknowledge them and celebrate them too. +That's one thing we can do. +I don't know how many of you remember this: another moral hero, 15 years ago, Aaron Feuerstein, who was the head of Malden Mills in Massachusetts -- they made Polartec -- The factory burned down. +3,000 employees. He kept every one of them on the payroll. +Why? Because it would have been a disaster for them and for the community if he had let them go. +"Maybe on paper our company is worth less to Wall Street, but I can tell you it's worth more. We're doing fine." +Just at this TED we heard talks from several moral heroes. +Two were particularly inspiring to me. +One was Ray Anderson, who turned -- -- turned, you know, a part of the evil empire into a zero-footprint, or almost zero-footprint business. +Why? Because it was the right thing to do. +And a bonus he's discovering is he's actually going to make even more money. +His employees are inspired by the effort. +Why? Because there happy to be doing something that's the right thing to do. +Yesterday we heard Willie Smits talk about re-foresting in Indonesia. +In many ways this is the perfect example. +Because it took the will to do the right thing. +God knows it took a huge amount of technical skill. +I'm boggled at how much he and his associates needed to know in order to plot this out. +But most important to make it work -- and he emphasized this -- is that it took knowing the people in the communities. +Unless the people you're working with are behind you, this will fail. +And there isn't a formula to tell you how to get the people behind you, because different people in different communities organize their lives in different ways. +So there's a lot here at TED, and at other places, to celebrate. +And you don't have to be a mega-hero. +There are ordinary heroes. +Ordinary heroes like the janitors who are worth celebrating too. +As practitioners each and every one of us should strive to be ordinary, if not extraordinary heroes. +As heads of organizations, we should strive to create environments that encourage and nurture both moral skill and moral will. +Even the wisest and most well-meaning people will give up if they have to swim against the current in the organizations in which they work. +If you run an organization, you should be sure that none of the jobs -- none of the jobs -- have job descriptions like the job descriptions of the janitors. +Because the truth is that any work that you do that involves interaction with other people is moral work. +And any moral work depends upon practical wisdom. +And, perhaps most important, as teachers, we should strive to be the ordinary heroes, the moral exemplars, to the people we mentor. +And there are a few things that we have to remember as teachers. +One is that we are always teaching. +Someone is always watching. +The camera is always on. +Bill Gates talked about the importance of education and, in particular, the model that KIPP was providing: "Knowledge is power." +And he talked about a lot of the wonderful things that KIPP is doing to take inner-city kids and turn them in the direction of college. +I want to focus on one particular thing KIPP is doing that Bill didn't mention. +That is that they have come to the realization that the single most important thing kids need to learn is character. +They need to learn to respect themselves. +They need to learn to respect their schoolmates. +They need to learn to respect their teachers. +And, most important, they need to learn to respect learning. +That's the principle objective. +If you do that, the rest is just pretty much a coast downhill. +And the teachers: the way you teach these things to the kids is by having the teachers and all the other staff embody it every minute of every day. +Obama appealed to virtue. +And I think he was right. +And the virtue I think we need above all others is practical wisdom, because it's what allows other virtues -- honesty, kindness, courage and so on -- to be displayed at the right time and in the right way. +He also appealed to hope. +Right again. +I think there is reason for hope. +I think people want to be allowed to be virtuous. +In many ways, it's what TED is all about. +Wanting to do the right thing in the right way for the right reasons. +This kind of wisdom is within the grasp of each and every one of us if only we start paying attention. +Paying attention to what we do, to how we do it, and, perhaps most importantly, to the structure of the organizations within which we work, so as to make sure that it enables us and other people to develop wisdom rather than having it suppressed. +Thank you very much. +Thank you. +Chris Anderson: You have to go and stand out here a sec. +Barry Schwartz: Thank you very much. +There's a great big elephant in the room called the economy. +So let's start talking about that. +I wanted to give you a current picture of the economy. +That's what I have behind myself. +But of course what we have to remember is this. +And what you have to think about is, when you're dancing in the flames, what's next? +And I will try and give you a sense of what the ultimate reboot looks like. +Those three trends are the ability to engineer cells, the ability to engineer tissues, and robots. +And somehow it will all make sense. +But anyway, let's start with the economy. +There's a couple of really big problems that are still sitting there. +One is leverage. +And the problem with leverage is it makes the U.S. financial system look like this. +So, a normal commercial bank has nine to 10 times leverage. +That means for every dollar you deposit, it loans out about nine or 10. +A normal investment bank is not a deposit bank, it's an investment bank; it has 15 to 20 times. +It turns out that B of A in September had 32 times. +And your friendly Citibank had 47 times. +Oops. +That means every bad loan goes bad 47 times over. +And that, of course, is the reason why all of you are making such generous and wonderful donations to these nice folks. +And as you think about that, you've got to wonder: so what do banks have in store for you now? +It ain't pretty. +The government, meanwhile, has been acting like Santa Claus. +We all love Santa Claus, right? +But the problem with Santa Clause is, if you look at the mandatory spending of what these folks have been doing and promising folks, it turned out that in 1967, 38 percent was mandatory spending on what we call "entitlements." +And then by 2007 it was 68 percent. +And we weren't supposed to run into 100 percent until about 2030. +Except we've been so busy giving away a trillion here, a trillion there, that we've brought that date of reckoning forward to about 2017. +And we thought we were going to be able to lay these debts off on our kids, but, guess what? +We're going to start to pay them. +And the problem with this stuff is, now that the bill's come due, it turns out Santa isn't quite as cute when it's summertime. +Right? +Here's some advice from one of the largest investors in the United States. +This guy runs the China Investment Corporation. +He is the main buyer of U.S. Treasury bonds. +And he gave an interview in December. +Here's his first bit of advice. +And here's his second bit of advice. +And, by the way, the Chinese Prime Minister reiterated this at Davos last Sunday. +This stuff is getting serious enough that if we don't start paying attention to the deficit, we're going to end up losing the dollar. +And then all bets are off. +Let me show you what it looks like. +I think I can safely say that I'm the only trillionaire in this room. +This is an actual bill. +And it's 10 triliion dollars. +The only problem with this bill is it's not really worth very much. +That was eight bucks last week, four bucks this week, a buck next week. +And that's what happens to currencies when you don't stand behind them. +So the next time somebody as cute as this shows up on your doorstep, and sometimes this creature's called Chrysler and sometimes Ford and sometimes ... whatever you want -- you've just got to say no. +And you've got to start banishing a word that's called "entitlement." +And the reason we have to do that in the short term is because we have just run out of cash. +If you look at the federal budget, this is what it looks like. +The orange slice is what's discretionary. +Everything else is mandated. +It makes no difference if we cut out the bridges to Alaska in the overall scheme of things. +So what we have to start thinking about doing is capping our medical spending because that's a monster that's simply going to eat the entire budget. +We've got to start thinking about asking people to retire a little bit later. +If you're 60 to 65 you retire on time. +Your 401 just got nailed. +If you're 50 to 60 we want you to work two years more. +If you're under 50 we want you to work four more years. +The reason why that's reasonable is, when your grandparents were given Social Security, they got it at 65 and were expected to check out at 68. +Sixty-eight is young today. +We've also got to cut the military about three percent a year. +We've got to limit other mandatory spending. +We've got to quit borrowing as much, because otherwise the interest is going to eat that whole pie. +And we've got to end up with a smaller government. +And if we don't start changing this trend line, we are going to lose the dollar and start to look like Iceland. +I got what you're thinking. +This is going to happen when hell freezes over. +But let me remind you this December it did snow in Vegas. +Here's what happens if you don't address this stuff. +So, Japan had a fiscal real estate crisis back in the late '80s. +And its 225 largest companies today are worth one quarter of what they were 18 years ago. +We don't fix this now, how would you like to see a Dow 3,500 in 2026? +Because that's the consequence of not dealing with this stuff. +And unless you want this person to not just become the CFO of Florida, but the United States, we'd better deal with this stuff. +That's the short term. That's the flame part. +That's the financial crisis. +Now, right behind the financial crisis there's a second and bigger wave that we need to talk about. +That wave is much larger, much more powerful, and that's of course the wave of technology. +And what's really important in this stuff is, as we cut, we also have to grow. +Among other things, because startup companies are .02 percent of U.S. GDP investmentm and they're about 17.8 percent of output. +It's groups like that in this room that generate the future of the U.S. economy. +And that's what we've got to keep growing. +We don't have to keep growing these bridges to nowhere. +So let's bring a romance novelist into this conversation. +And that's where these three trends come together. +That's where the ability to engineer microbes, the ability to engineer tissues, and the ability to engineer robots begin to lead to a reboot. +And let me recap some of the stuff you've seen. +Craig Venter showed up last year and showed you the first fully programmable cell that acts like hardware where you can insert DNA and have it boot up as a different species. +In parallel, the folks at MIT have been building a standard registry of biological parts. +So think of it as a Radio Shack for biology. +You can go out and get your proteins, your RNA, your DNA, whatever. +And start building stuff. +In 2006 they brought together high school students and college students and started to build these little odd creatures. +They just happened to be alive instead of circuit boards. +Here was one of the first things they built. +So, cells have this cycle. +First they don't grow. +Then they grow exponentially. +Then they stop growing. +Graduate students wanted a way of telling which stage they were in. +So they engineered these cells so that when they're growing in the exponential phase, they would smell like wintergreen. +And when they stopped growing they would smell like bananas. +And you could tell very easily when your experiment was working and wasn't, and where it was in the phase. +This got a bit more complicated two years later. +Twenty-one countries came together. Dozens of teams. +They started competing. +The team from Rice University started to engineer the substance in red wine that makes red wine good for you into beer. +So you take resveratrol and you put it into beer. +Of course, one of the judges is wandering by, and he goes, "Wow! Cancer-fighting beer! There is a God." +The team from Taiwan was a little bit more ambitious. +They tried to engineer bacterias in such a way that they would act as your kidneys. +Four years ago, I showed you this picture. +And people oohed and ahhed, because Cliff Tabin had been able to grow an extra wing on a chicken. +And that was very cool stuff back then. +But now moving from bacterial engineering to tissue engineering, let me show you what's happened in that period of time. +Two years ago, you saw this creature. +An almost-extinct animal from Xochimilco, Mexico called an axolotl that can re-generate its limbs. +You can freeze half its heart. It regrows. +You can freeze half the brain. It regrows. +It's almost like leaving Congress. +But now, you don't have to have the animal itself to regenerate, because you can build cloned mice molars in Petri dishes. +And, of course if you can build mice molars in Petri dishes, you can grow human molars in Petri dishes. +This should not surprise you, right? +I mean, you're born with no teeth. +You give away all your teeth to the tooth fairy. +You re-grow a set of teeth. +But then if you lose one of those second set of teeth, they don't regrow, unless, if you're a lawyer. +But, of course, for most of us, we know how to grow teeth, and therefore we can take adult stem teeth, put them on a biodegradable mold, re-grow a tooth, and simply implant it. +And we can do it with other things. +So, a Spanish woman who was dying of T.B. had a donor trachea, they took all the cells off the trachea, they spraypainted her stem cells onto that cartilage. +She regrew her own trachea, and 72 hours later it was implanted. +She's now running around with her kids. +This is going on in Tony Atala's lab in Wake Forest where he is re-growing ears for injured soldiers, and he's also re-growing bladders. +So there are now nine women walking around Boston with re-grown bladders, which is much more pleasant than walking around with a whole bunch of plastic bags for the rest of your life. +This is kind of getting boring, right? +I mean, you understand where this story's going. +But, I mean it gets more interesting. +Last year, this group was able to take all the cells off a heart, leaving just the cartilage. +Then, they sprayed stem cells onto that heart, from a mouse. +Those stem cells self-organized, and that heart started to beat. +Life happens. +This may be one of the ultimate papers. +This was done in Japan and in the U.S., published at the same time, and it rebooted skin cells into stem cells, last year. +That meant that you can take the stuff right here, and turn it into almost anything in your body. +And this is becoming common, it's moving very quickly, it's moving in a whole series of places. +Third trend: robots. +Those of us of a certain age grew up expecting that by now we would have Rosie the Robot from "The Jetsons" in our house. +And all we've got is a Roomba. +We also thought we'd have this robot to warn us of danger. +Didn't happen. +And these were robots engineered for a flat world, right? +So, Rosie runs around on skates and the other one ran on flat threads. +If you don't have a flat world, that's not good, which is why the robot's we're designing today are a little different. +This is Boston Dynamics' "BigDog." +And this is about as close as you can get to a physical Turing test. +O.K., so let me remind you, a Turing test is where you've got a wall, you're talking to somebody on the other side of the wall, and when you don't know if that thing is human or animal -- that's when computers have reached human intelligence. +This is not an intelligence Turing rest, but this is as close as you can get to a physical Turing test. +And this stuff is moving very quickly, and by the way, that thing can carry about 350 pounds of weight. +These are not the only interesting robots. +You've also got flies, the size of flies, that are being made by Robert Wood at Harvard. +You've got Stickybots that are being made at Stanford. +And as you bring these things together, as you bring cells, biological tissue engineering and mechanics together, you begin to get some really odd questions. +In the last Olympics, this gentleman, who had several world records in the Special Olympics, tried to run in the normal Olympics. +The only issue with Oscar Pistorius is he was born without bones in the lower part of his legs. +He came within about a second of qualifying. +He sued to be allowed to run, and he won the suit, but didn't qualify by time. +Next Olympics, you can bet that Oscar, or one of Oscar's successors, is going to make the time. +And two or three Olympics after that, they are going to be unbeatable. +And as you bring these trends together, and as you think of what it means to take people who are profoundly deaf, who can now begin to hear -- I mean, remember the evolution of hearing aids, right? +I mean, your grandparents had these great big cones, and then your parents had these odd boxes that would squawk at odd times during dinner, and now we have these little buds that nobody sees. +And now you have cochlear implants that go into people's heads and allow the deaf to begin to hear. +Now, they can't hear as well as you and I can. +But, in 10 or 15 machine generations they will, and these are machine generations, not human generations. +And about two or three years after they can hear as well as you and I can, they'll be able to hear maybe how bats sing, or how whales talk, or how dogs talk, and other types of tonal scales. +They'll be able to focus their hearing, they'll be able to increase the sensitivity, decrease the sensitivity, do a series of things that we can't do. +And the same thing is happening in eyes. +This is a group in Germany that's beginning to engineer eyes so that people who are blind can begin to see light and dark. +Very primitive. +And then they'll be able to see shape. +And then they'll be able to see color, and then they'll be able to see in definition, and one day, they'll see as well as you and I can. +And a couple of years after that, they'll be able to see in ultraviolet, they'll be able to see in infrared, they'll be able to focus their eyes, they'll be able to come into a microfocus. +They'll do stuff you and I can't do. +All of these things are coming together, and it's a particularly important thing to understand, as we worry about the flames of the present, to keep an eye on the future. +And, of course, the future is looking back 200 years, because next week is the 200th anniversary of Darwin's birth. +And it's the 150th anniversary of the publication of "The Origin of Species." +And Darwin, of course, argued that evolution is a natural state. +It is a natural state in everything that is alive, including hominids. +There have actually been 22 species of hominids that have been around, have evolved, have wandered in different places, have gone extinct. +It is common for hominids to evolve. +And that's the reason why, as you look at the hominid fossil record, erectus, and heidelbergensis, and floresiensis, and Neanderthals, and Homo sapiens, all overlap. +The common state of affairs is to have overlapping versions of hominids, not one. +And as you think of the implications of that, here's a brief history of the universe. +The universe was created 13.7 billion years ago, and then you created all the stars, and all the planets, and all the galaxies, and all the Milky Ways. +And then you created Earth about 4.5 billion years ago, and then you got life about four billion years ago, and then you got hominids about 0.006 billion years ago, and then you got our version of hominids about 0.0015 billion years ago. +Ta-dah! +Maybe the reason for thr creation of the universe, and all the galaxies, and all the planets, and all the energy, and all the dark energy, and all the rest of stuff is to create what's in this room. +Maybe not. +That would be a mildly arrogant viewpoint. +So, if that's not the purpose of the universe, then what's next? +I think what we're going to see is we're going to see a different species of hominid. +I think we're going to move from a Homo sapiens into a Homo evolutis. +And I think this isn't 1,000 years out. +I think most of us are going to glance at it, and our grandchildren are going to begin to live it. +And a Homo evolutis brings together these three trends into a hominid that takes direct and deliberate control over the evolution of his species, her species and other species. +And that, of course, would be the ultimate reboot. +Thank you very much. +Chris Anderson: Let's now see the extraordinary speech that we captured a couple weeks ago. +Since I was a boy, in my early childhood, I always wanted to be a musician, and, thank God, I made it. +From my teachers, my family and my community, I had all the necessary support to become a musician. +All my life I've dreamed that all Venezuelan children have the same opportunity that I had. +From that desire and from my heart stemmed the idea to make music a deep and global reality for my country. +From the very first rehearsal, I saw the bright future ahead. +Because the rehearsal meant a great challenge to me. +I had received a donation of 50 music stands to be used by 100 boys in that rehearsal. +When I arrived at the rehearsal, only 11 kids had shown up, and I said to myself, "Do I close the program or multiply these kids?" +I decided to face the challenge, and on that same night, I promised those 11 children I'd turn our orchestra into one of the leading orchestras in the world. +Two months ago, I remembered that promise I made, when a distinguished English critic published an article in the London Times, asking who could be the winner of the Orchestra World Cup. +He mentioned four great world orchestras, and the fifth one was Venezuela's Youth Symphony Orchestra. +Today we can say that art in Latin America is no longer a monopoly of elites and that it has become a social right, a right for all the people. +Child: There is no difference here between classes, nor white or black, nor if you have money or not. +Simply, if you are talented, if you have the vocation and the will to be here, you get in. You share with us and make music. +This meant not only an artistic triumph, but also a profound emotional sympathy between the public of the most advanced nations of the world and the musical youth of Latin America, as seen in Venezuela, giving these audiences a message of music, vitality, energy, enthusiasm and strength. +In its essence, the orchestra and the choir are much more than artistic structures. +They are examples and schools of social life, because to sing and to play together means to intimately coexist toward perfection and excellence, following a strict discipline of organization and coordination in order to seek the harmonic interdependence of voices and instruments. +That's how they build a spirit of solidarity and fraternity among them, develop their self-esteem and foster the ethical and aesthetical values related to the music in all its senses. +This is why music is immensely important in the awakening of sensibility, in the forging of values and in the training of youngsters to teach other kids. +Child: After all this time here, music is life. +Nothing else. +Music is life. +JA: Each teenager and child in El Sistema has his own story, and they are all important and of great significance to me. +Let me mention the case of Edicson Ruiz. +He is a boy from a parish in Caracas who passionately attended to his double bass lessons at the San Agustin's Junior Orchestra. +With his effort, and the support of his mother, his family and his community, he became a principal member in the double bass segment of the Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra. +We have another well-known case -- Gustavo Dudamel. +He started as a boy member of the children's orchestra in his hometown, Barquisimeto. +There, he grew as a violinist and as a conductor. +He became the conductor of Venezuela's junior orchestras, and today conducts the world's greatest orchestras. +He is the musical director of Los Angeles Philharmonic, and is still the overall leader of Venezuela's junior orchestras. +He was the conductor of the Gothenburg Symphony Orchestra, and he's an unbeatable example for young musicians in Latin America and the world. +The structure of El Sistema is based on a new and flexible managing style adapted to the features of each community and region, and today attends to 300,000 children of the lower and middle class all over Venezuela. +It's a program of social rescue and deep cultural transformation designed for the whole Venezuelan society with absolutely no distinctions whatsoever, but emphasizing the vulnerable and endangered social groups. +The effect of El Sistema is felt in three fundamental circles: in the personal/social circle, in the family circle and in the community. +In the personal/social circle, the children in the orchestras and choirs The music becomes a source for developing the dimensions of the human being, thus elevating the spirit and leading man to a full development of his personality. +So, the emotional and intellectual profits are huge -- the acquisition of leadership, teaching and training principles, the sense of commitment, responsibility, generosity and dedication to others, and the individual contribution to achieve great collective goals. +All this leads to the development of self-esteem and confidence. +Mother Teresa of Calcutta insisted on something that always impressed me: the most miserable and tragic thing about poverty is not the lack of bread or roof, but the feeling of being no-one -- the feeling of not being anyone, the lack of identification, the lack of public esteem. +That's why the child's development in the orchestra and the choir provides him with a noble identity and makes him a role model for his family and community. +It makes him a better student at school because it inspires in him a sense of responsibility, perseverance and punctuality that will greatly help him at school. +Within the family, the parents' support is unconditional. +The child becomes a role model for both his parents, and this is very important for a poor child. +Once the child discovers he is important to his family, he begins to seek new ways of improving himself and hopes better for himself and his community. +Also, he hopes for social and economic improvements for his own family. +All this makes up a constructive and ascending social dynamic. +The large majority of our children belong, as I already mentioned, to the most vulnerable strata of the Venezuelan population. +That encourages them to embrace new dreams, new goals, and progress in the various opportunities that music has to offer. +Finally, in the circle of the community, the orchestras prove to be the creative spaces of culture and sources of exchange and new meanings. +The spontaneity music has excludes it as a luxury item and makes it a patrimony of society. +It's what makes a child play a violin at home, while his father works in his carpentry. +It's what makes a little girl play the clarinet at home, while her mother does the housework. +The idea is that the families join with pride and joy in the activities of the orchestras and the choirs that their children belong to. +The huge spiritual world that music produces in itself, which also lies within itself, ends up overcoming material poverty. +From the minute a child's taught how to play an instrument, he's no longer poor. +He becomes a child in progress heading for a professional level, who'll later become a full citizen. +Needless to say that music is the number one prevention against prostitution, violence, bad habits, and everything degrading in the life of a child. +A few years ago, historian Arnold Toynbee said that the world was suffering a huge spiritual crisis. +Not an economic or social crisis, but a spiritual one. +I believe that to confront such a crisis, only art and religion can give proper answers to humanity, to mankind's deepest aspirations, and to the historic demands of our times. +Education -- the synthesis of wisdom and knowledge -- is the means to strive for a more perfect, more aware, more noble and more just society. +With passion and enthusiasm we pay profound respects to TED for its outstanding humanism, the scope of its principles, for its open and generous promotion of young values. +We hope that TED can contribute in a full and fundamental way to the building of this new era in the teaching of music, in which the social, communal, spiritual and vindicatory aims of the child and the adolescent become a beacon and a goal for a vast social mission. +CA: We are going live now to Caracas. +We are going live to Caracas to hear Maestro Abreu's TED Prize wish. +JA: Here is my TED Prize wish: I wish that you'll help to create and document a special training program for 50 gifted young musicians, passionate about their art and social justice, and dedicated to bringing El Sistema to the United States and other countries. +Thank you very much. +Chris Anderson: And now we go live to Caracas to see one of Maestro Abreu's great proteges. +He is the new musical director of the Los Angeles Philharmonic Orchestra. +He's the greatest young conductor in the world. +Gustavo Dudamel! +Gustavo Dudamel: Hi everybody in L.A. +Hi Quincy. Hi Maestro Zander. Hi Mark. +We are very happy to have the possibility to be with you in the other side of the world. +We can speak only with music. +We are very happy because we have the opportunity to have this angel in the world -- not only in our country, Venezuela, but in our world. +He has given us the possibility to have dreams and to make true the dreams. +And here are the results of this wonderful project that is The System in Venezuela. +We hope to have, our Maestro, to have orchestras in all the countries in all Americas. +And we want to play a little piece for you by one of the most important composers of America. +A Mexican composer: Arturo Marquez. +"Danzon No. 2." +Fifty years ago, when I began exploring the ocean, no one -- not Jacques Perrin, not Jacques Cousteau or Rachel Carson -- imagined that we could do anything to harm the ocean by what we put into it or by what we took out of it. +It seemed, at that time, to be a sea of Eden, but now we know, and now we are facing paradise lost. +It does concern you, as well. +I'm haunted by the thought of what Ray Anderson calls "tomorrow's child," asking why we didn't do something on our watch to save sharks and bluefin tuna and squids and coral reefs and the living ocean while there still was time. +Well, now is that time. +I hope for your help to explore and protect the wild ocean in ways that will restore the health and, in so doing, secure hope for humankind. +Health to the ocean means health for us. +And I hope Jill Tarter's wish to engage Earthlings includes dolphins and whales and other sea creatures in this quest to find intelligent life elsewhere in the universe. +And I hope, Jill, that someday we will find evidence that there is intelligent life among humans on this planet. +Did I say that? I guess I did. +For me, as a scientist, it all began in 1953 when I first tried scuba. +It's when I first got to know fish swimming in something other than lemon slices and butter. +I actually love diving at night; you see a lot of fish then that you don't see in the daytime. +Diving day and night was really easy for me in 1970, when I led a team of aquanauts living underwater for weeks at a time -- at the same time that astronauts were putting their footprints on the moon. +In 1979 I had a chance to put my footprints on the ocean floor while using this personal submersible called Jim. +It was six miles offshore and 1,250 feet down. +It's one of my favorite bathing suits. +Since then, I've used about 30 kinds of submarines and I've started three companies and a nonprofit foundation called Deep Search to design and build systems to access the deep sea. +I led a five-year National Geographic expedition, the Sustainable Seas expeditions, using these little subs. +They're so simple to drive that even a scientist can do it. +And I'm living proof. +Astronauts and aquanauts alike really appreciate the importance of air, food, water, temperature -- all the things you need to stay alive in space or under the sea. +I heard astronaut Joe Allen explain how he had to learn everything he could about his life support system and then do everything he could to take care of his life support system; and then he pointed to this and he said, "Life support system." +We need to learn everything we can about it and do everything we can to take care of it. +The poet Auden said, "Thousands have lived without love; none without water." +Ninety-seven percent of Earth's water is ocean. +No blue, no green. +If you think the ocean isn't important, imagine Earth without it. +Mars comes to mind. +No ocean, no life support system. +I gave a talk not so long ago at the World Bank and I showed this amazing image of Earth and I said, "There it is! The World Bank!" +That's where all the assets are! +And we've been trawling them down much faster than the natural systems can replenish them. +Tim Worth says the economy is a wholly-owned subsidiary of the environment. +With every drop of water you drink, every breath you take, you're connected to the sea. +No matter where on Earth you live. +Most of the oxygen in the atmosphere is generated by the sea. +Over time, most of the planet's organic carbon has been absorbed and stored there, mostly by microbes. +The ocean drives climate and weather, stabilizes temperature, shapes Earth's chemistry. +Water from the sea forms clouds that return to the land and the seas as rain, sleet and snow, and provides home for about 97 percent of life in the world, maybe in the universe. +No water, no life; no blue, no green. +Yet we have this idea, we humans, that the Earth -- all of it: the oceans, the skies -- are so vast and so resilient it doesn't matter what we do to it. +That may have been true 10,000 years ago, and maybe even 1,000 years ago but in the last 100, especially in the last 50, we've drawn down the assets, the air, the water, the wildlife that make our lives possible. +New technologies are helping us to understand the nature of nature; the nature of what's happening, showing us our impact on the Earth. +I mean, first you have to know that you've got a problem. +And fortunately, in our time, we've learned more about the problems than in all preceding history. +And with knowing comes caring. +And with caring, there's hope that we can find an enduring place for ourselves within the natural systems that support us. +But first we have to know. +Three years ago, I met John Hanke, who's the head of Google Earth, and I told him how much I loved being able to hold the world in my hands and go exploring vicariously. +But I asked him: "When are you going to finish it? +You did a great job with the land, the dirt. +What about the water?" +Since then, I've had the great pleasure of working with the Googlers, with DOER Marine, with National Geographic, with dozens of the best institutions and scientists around the world, ones that we could enlist, to put the ocean in Google Earth. +And as of just this week, last Monday, Google Earth is now whole. +To see -- wait a minute, we can go kshhplash! -- right there, ha -- under the ocean, see what the whales see. +We can go explore the other side of the Hawaiian Islands. +We can go actually and swim around on Google Earth and visit with humpback whales. +These are the gentle giants that I've had the pleasure of meeting face to face many times underwater. +There's nothing quite like being personally inspected by a whale. +We can pick up and fly to the deepest place: seven miles down, the Mariana Trench, where only two people have ever been. +Imagine that. It's only seven miles, but only two people have been there, 49 years ago. +One-way trips are easy. +We need new deep-diving submarines. +How about some X Prizes for ocean exploration? +We need to see deep trenches, the undersea mountains, and understand life in the deep sea. +We can now go to the Arctic. +Just ten years ago I stood on the ice at the North Pole. +An ice-free Arctic Ocean may happen in this century. +That's bad news for the polar bears. +That's bad news for us too. +Excess carbon dioxide is not only driving global warming, it's also changing ocean chemistry, making the sea more acidic. +That's bad news for coral reefs and oxygen-producing plankton. +Also it's bad news for us. +We're putting hundreds of millions of tons of plastic and other trash into the sea. +Millions of tons of discarded fishing nets, gear that continues to kill. +We're clogging the ocean, poisoning the planet's circulatory system, and we're taking out hundreds of millions of tons of wildlife, all carbon-based units. +Barbarically, we're killing sharks for shark fin soup, undermining food chains that shape planetary chemistry and drive the carbon cycle, the nitrogen cycle, the oxygen cycle, the water cycle -- our life support system. +We're still killing bluefin tuna; truly endangered and much more valuable alive than dead. +All of these parts are part of our life support system. +We kill using long lines, with baited hooks every few feet that may stretch for 50 miles or more. +Industrial trawlers and draggers are scraping the sea floor like bulldozers, taking everything in their path. +Using Google Earth you can witness trawlers -- in China, the North Sea, the Gulf of Mexico -- shaking the foundation of our life support system, leaving plumes of death in their path. +The next time you dine on sushi -- or sashimi, or swordfish steak, or shrimp cocktail, whatever wildlife you happen to enjoy from the ocean -- think of the real cost. +For every pound that goes to market, more than 10 pounds, even 100 pounds, may be thrown away as bycatch. +This is the consequence of not knowing that there are limits to what we can take out of the sea. +This chart shows the decline in ocean wildlife from 1900 to 2000. +The highest concentrations are in red. +In my lifetime, imagine, 90 percent of the big fish have been killed. +Most of the turtles, sharks, tunas and whales are way down in numbers. +But, there is good news. +Ten percent of the big fish still remain. +There are still some blue whales. +There are still some krill in Antarctica. +There are a few oysters in Chesapeake Bay. +Half the coral reefs are still in pretty good shape, a jeweled belt around the middle of the planet. +There's still time, but not a lot, to turn things around. +But business as usual means that in 50 years, there may be no coral reefs -- and no commercial fishing, because the fish will simply be gone. +Imagine the ocean without fish. +Imagine what that means to our life support system. +Natural systems on the land are in big trouble too, but the problems are more obvious, and some actions are being taken to protect trees, watersheds and wildlife. +And in 1872, with Yellowstone National Park, the United States began establishing a system of parks that some say was the best idea America ever had. +About 12 percent of the land around the world is now protected: safeguarding biodiversity, providing a carbon sink, generating oxygen, protecting watersheds. +And, in 1972, this nation began to establish a counterpart in the sea, National Marine Sanctuaries. +That's another great idea. +The good news is that there are now more than 4,000 places in the sea, around the world, that have some kind of protection. +And you can find them on Google Earth. +The bad news is that you have to look hard to find them. +In the last three years, for example, the U.S. protected 340,000 square miles of ocean as national monuments. +But it only increased from 0.6 of one percent to 0.8 of one percent of the ocean protected, globally. +Protected areas do rebound, but it takes a long time to restore 50-year-old rockfish or monkfish, sharks or sea bass, or 200-year-old orange roughy. +We don't consume 200-year-old cows or chickens. +Protected areas provide hope that the creatures of Ed Wilson's dream of an encyclopedia of life, or the census of marine life, will live not just as a list, a photograph, or a paragraph. +With scientists around the world, I've been looking at the 99 percent of the ocean that is open to fishing -- and mining, and drilling, and dumping, and whatever -- to search out hope spots, and try to find ways to give them and us a secure future. +Such as the Arctic -- we have one chance, right now, to get it right. +Or the Antarctic, where the continent is protected, but the surrounding ocean is being stripped of its krill, whales and fish. +Sargasso Sea's three million square miles of floating forest is being gathered up to feed cows. +97 percent of the land in the Galapagos Islands is protected, but the adjacent sea is being ravaged by fishing. +It's true too in Argentina on the Patagonian shelf, which is now in serious trouble. +The high seas, where whales, tuna and dolphins travel -- the largest, least protected, ecosystem on Earth, filled with luminous creatures, living in dark waters that average two miles deep. +They flash, and sparkle, and glow with their own living light. +There are still places in the sea as pristine as I knew as a child. +The next 10 years may be the most important, and the next 10,000 years the best chance our species will have to protect what remains of the natural systems that give us life. +To cope with climate change, we need new ways to generate power. +We need new ways, better ways, to cope with poverty, wars and disease. +We need many things to keep and maintain the world as a better place. +But, nothing else will matter if we fail to protect the ocean. +Our fate and the ocean's are one. +We need to do for the ocean what Al Gore did for the skies above. +A global plan of action with a world conservation union, the IUCN, is underway to protect biodiversity, to mitigate and recover from the impacts of climate change, on the high seas and in coastal areas, wherever we can identify critical places. +New technologies are needed to map, photograph and explore the 95 percent of the ocean that we have yet to see. +The goal is to protect biodiversity, to provide stability and resilience. +We need deep-diving subs, new technologies to explore the ocean. +We need, maybe, an expedition -- a TED at sea -- that could help figure out the next steps. +And so, I suppose you want to know what my wish is. +I wish you would use all means at your disposal -- films, expeditions, the web, new submarines -- and campaign to ignite public support for a global network of marine protected areas -- hope spots large enough to save and restore the ocean, the blue heart of the planet. +How much? +Some say 10 percent, some say 30 percent. +You decide: how much of your heart do you want to protect? +Whatever it is, a fraction of one percent is not enough. +My wish is a big wish, but if we can make it happen, it can truly change the world, and help ensure the survival of what actually -- as it turns out -- is my favorite species; that would be us. +For the children of today, for tomorrow's child: as never again, now is the time. +Thank you. +So, my question: are we alone? +The story of humans is the story of ideas -- scientific ideas that shine light into dark corners, ideas that we embrace rationally and irrationally, ideas for which we've lived and died and killed and been killed, ideas that have vanished in history, and ideas that have been set in dogma. +It's a story of nations, of ideologies, of territories, and of conflicts among them. +But, every moment of human history, from the Stone Age to the Information Age, from Sumer and Babylon to the iPod and celebrity gossip, they've all been carried out -- every book that you've read, every poem, every laugh, every tear -- they've all happened here. +Here. +Here. +Here. +Perspective is a very powerful thing. +Perspectives can change. +Perspectives can be altered. +From my perspective, we live on a fragile island of life, in a universe of possibilities. +For many millennia, humans have been on a journey to find answers, answers to questions about naturalism and transcendence, about who we are and why we are, and of course, who else might be out there. +Is it really just us? +Are we alone in this vast universe of energy and matter and chemistry and physics? +Well, if we are, it's an awful waste of space. +But, what if we're not? +What if, out there, others are asking and answering similar questions? +What if they look up at the night sky, at the same stars, but from the opposite side? +Would the discovery of an older cultural civilization out there inspire us to find ways to survive our increasingly uncertain technological adolescence? +Might it be the discovery of a distant civilization and our common cosmic origins that finally drives home the message of the bond among all humans? +Whether we're born in San Francisco, or Sudan, or close to the heart of the Milky Way galaxy, we are the products of a billion-year lineage of wandering stardust. +We, all of us, are what happens when a primordial mixture of hydrogen and helium evolves for so long that it begins to ask where it came from. +Fifty years ago, the journey to find answers took a different path and SETI, the Search for Extra-Terrestrial Intelligence, began. +So, what exactly is SETI? +Well, SETI uses the tools of astronomy to try and find evidence of someone else's technology out there. +Our own technologies are visible over interstellar distances, and theirs might be as well. +It might be that some massive network of communications, or some shield against asteroidal impact, or some huge astro-engineering project that we can't even begin to conceive of, could generate signals at radio or optical frequencies that a determined program of searching might detect. +For millennia, we've actually turned to the priests and the philosophers for guidance and instruction on this question of whether there's intelligent life out there. +Now, we can use the tools of the 21st century to try and observe what is, rather than ask what should be, believed. +SETI doesn't presume the existence of extra terrestrial intelligence; it merely notes the possibility, if not the probability in this vast universe, which seems fairly uniform. +The numbers suggest a universe of possibilities. +Our sun is one of 400 billion stars in our galaxy, and we know that many other stars have planetary systems. +We've discovered over 350 in the last 14 years, including the small planet, announced earlier this week, which has a radius just twice the size of the Earth. +And, if even all of the planetary systems in our galaxy were devoid of life, there are still 100 billion other galaxies out there, altogether 10^22 stars. +Now, I'm going to try a trick, and recreate an experiment from this morning. +Remember, one billion? +But, this time not one billion dollars, one billion stars. +Alright, one billion stars. +Now, up there, 20 feet above the stage, that's 10 trillion. +Well, what about 10^22? +Where's the line that marks that? +That line would have to be 3.8 million miles above this stage. +16 times farther away than the moon, or four percent of the distance to the sun. +So, there are many possibilities. +These extremophiles tell us that life may exist in many other environments. +But those environments are going to be widely spaced in this universe. +Even our nearest star, the Sun -- its emissions suffer the tyranny of light speed. +It takes a full eight minutes for its radiation to reach us. +And the nearest star is 4.2 light years away, which means its light takes 4.2 years to get here. +And the edge of our galaxy is 75,000 light years away, and the nearest galaxy to us, 2.5 million light years. +That means any signal we detect would have started its journey a long time ago. +And a signal would give us a glimpse of their past, not their present. +Which is why Phil Morrison calls SETI, "the archaeology of the future." +It tells us about their past, but detection of a signal tells us it's possible for us to have a long future. +I think this is what David Deutsch meant in 2005, when he ended his Oxford TEDTalk by saying he had two principles he'd like to share for living, and he would like to carve them on stone tablets. +The first is that problems are inevitable. +The second is that problems are soluble. +So, ultimately what's going to determine the success or failure of SETI is the longevity of technologies, and the mean distance between technologies in the cosmos -- distance over space and distance over time. +If technologies don't last and persist, we will not succeed. +And we're a very young technology in an old galaxy, and we don't yet know whether it's possible for technologies to persist. +So, up until now I've been talking to you about really large numbers. +Let me talk about a relatively small number. +And that's the length of time that the Earth was lifeless. +Zircons that are mined in the Jack Hills of western Australia, zircons taken from the Jack Hills of western Australia tell us that within a few hundred million years of the origin of the planet there was abundant water and perhaps even life. +So, our planet has spent the vast majority of its 4.56 billion year history developing life, not anticipating its emergence. +Life happened very quickly, and that bodes well for the potential of life elsewhere in the cosmos. +And the other thing that one should take away from this chart is the very narrow range of time over which humans can claim to be the dominant intelligence on the planet. +It's only the last few hundred thousand years modern humans have been pursuing technology and civilization. +So, one needs a very deep appreciation of the diversity and incredible scale of life on this planet as the first step in preparing to make contact with life elsewhere in the cosmos. +We are not the pinnacle of evolution. +We are not the determined product of billions of years of evolutionary plotting and planning. +We are one outcome of a continuing adaptational process. +We are residents of one small planet in a corner of the Milky Way galaxy. +And Homo sapiens are one small leaf on a very extensive Tree of Life, which is densely populated by organisms that have been honed for survival over millions of years. +We misuse language, and talk about the "ascent" of man. +We understand the scientific basis for the interrelatedness of life but our ego hasn't caught up yet. +So this "ascent" of man, pinnacle of evolution, has got to go. +It's a sense of privilege that the natural universe doesn't share. +Loren Eiseley has said, "One does not meet oneself until one catches the reflection from an eye other than human." +One day that eye may be that of an intelligent alien, and the sooner we eschew our narrow view of evolution the sooner we can truly explore our ultimate origins and destinations. +We are a small part of the story of cosmic evolution, and we are going to be responsible for our continued participation in that story, and perhaps SETI will help as well. +Occasionally, throughout history, this concept of this very large cosmic perspective comes to the surface, and as a result we see transformative and profound discoveries. +So in 1543, Nicholas Copernicus published "The Revolutions of Heavenly Spheres," and by taking the Earth out of the center, and putting the sun in the center of the solar system, he opened our eyes to a much larger universe, of which we are just a small part. +And that Copernican revolution continues today to influence science and philosophy and technology and theology. +So, in 1959, Giuseppe Coccone and Philip Morrison published the first SETI article in a refereed journal, and brought SETI into the scientific mainstream. +And in 1960, Frank Drake conducted the first SETI observation looking at two stars, Tau Ceti and Epsilon Eridani, for about 150 hours. +Now Drake did not discover extraterrestrial intelligence, but he learned a very valuable lesson from a passing aircraft, and that's that terrestrial technology can interfere with the search for extraterrestrial technology. +We've been searching ever since, but it's impossible to overstate the magnitude of the search that remains. +All of the concerted SETI efforts, over the last 40-some years, are equivalent to scooping a single glass of water from the oceans. +And no one would decide that the ocean was without fish on the basis of one glass of water. +The 21st century now allows us to build bigger glasses -- much bigger glasses. +In Northern California, we're beginning to take observations with the first 42 telescopes of the Allen Telescope Array -- and I've got to take a moment right now to publicly thank Paul Allen and Nathan Myhrvold and all the TeamSETI members in the TED community who have so generously supported this research. +The ATA is the first telescope built from a large number of small dishes, and hooked together with computers. +It's making silicon as important as aluminum, and we'll grow it in the future by adding more antennas to reach 350 for more sensitivity and leveraging Moore's law for more processing capability. +Today, our signal detection algorithms can find very simple artifacts and noise. +If you look very hard here you can see the signal from the Voyager 1 spacecraft, the most distant human object in the universe, 106 times as far away from us as the sun is. +And over those long distances, its signal is very faint when it reaches us. +It may be hard for your eye to see it, but it's easily found with our efficient algorithms. +But this is a simple signal, and tomorrow we want to be able to find more complex signals. +This is a very good year. +And next month, the Kepler Spacecraft will launch and will begin to tell us just how frequent Earth-like planets are, the targets for SETI's searches. +In 2009, the U.N. has declared it to be the International Year of Astronomy, a global festival to help us residents of Earth rediscover our cosmic origins and our place in the universe. +And in 2009, change has come to Washington, with a promise to put science in its rightful position. +So, what would change everything? +Well, this is the question the Edge foundation asked this year, and four of the respondents said, "SETI." +Why? +Well, to quote: "The discovery of intelligent life beyond Earth would eradicate the loneliness and solipsism that has plagued our species since its inception. +And it wouldn't simply change everything, it would change everything all at once." +So, if that's right, why did we only capture four out of those 151 minds? +I think it's a problem of completion and delivery, because the fine print said, "What game-changing ideas and scientific developments would you expect to live to see?" +So, we have a fulfillment problem. +We need bigger glasses and more hands in the water, and then working together, maybe we can all live to see the detection of the first extraterrestrial signal. +That brings me to my wish. +I wish that you would empower Earthlings everywhere to become active participants in the ultimate search for cosmic company. +The first step would be to tap into the global brain trust, to build an environment where raw data could be stored, and where it could be accessed and manipulated, where new algorithms could be developed and old algorithms made more efficient. +And this is a technically creative challenge, and it would change the perspective of people who worked on it. +And then, we'd like to augment the automated search with human insight. +We'd like to use the pattern recognition capability of the human eye to find faint, complex signals that our current algorithms miss. +And, of course, we'd like to inspire and engage the next generation. +We'd like to take the materials that we have built for education, and get them out to students everywhere, students that can't come and visit us at the ATA. +We'd like to tell our story better, and engage young people, and thereby change their perspective. +I'm sorry Seth Godin, but over the millennia, we've seen where tribalism leads. +We've seen what happens when we divide an already small planet into smaller islands. +And, ultimately, we actually all belong to only one tribe, to Earthlings. +And SETI is a mirror -- a mirror that can show us ourselves from an extraordinary perspective, and can help to trivialize the differences among us. +If SETI does nothing but change the perspective of humans on this planet, then it will be one of the most profound endeavors in history. +So, in the opening days of 2009, a visionary president stood on the steps of the U.S. Capitol and said, "We cannot help but believe that the old hatreds shall someday pass, that the lines of tribe shall soon dissolve, that, as the world grows smaller, our common humanity shall reveal itself." +So, I look forward to working with the TED community to hear about your ideas about how to fulfill this wish, and in collaborating with you, hasten the day that that visionary statement can become a reality. +Thank you. +I'm here today representing a team of artists and technologists and filmmakers that worked together on a remarkable film project for the last four years. +And along the way they created a breakthrough in computer visualization. +So I want to show you a clip of the film now. +Hopefully it won't stutter. +And if we did our jobs well, you won't know that we were even involved. +Voice : I don't know how it's possible ... +but you seem to have more hair. +Brad Pitt: What if I told you that I wasn't getting older ... +but I was getting younger than everybody else? +I was born with some form of disease. +Voice: What kind of disease? +BP: I was born old. +Man: I'm sorry. +BP: No need to be. There's nothing wrong with old age. +Girl: Are you sick? +BP: I heard momma and Tizzy whisper, and they said I was gonna die soon. +But ... maybe not. +Girl: You're different than anybody I've ever met. +BB: There were many changes ... +some you could see, some you couldn't. +Hair started growing in all sorts of places, along with other things. +I felt pretty good, considering. +Ed Ulbrich: That was a clip from "The Curious Case of Benjamin Button." +Many of you, maybe you've seen it or you've heard of the story, but what you might not know is that for nearly the first hour of the film, the main character, Benjamin Button, who's played by Brad Pitt, is completely computer-generated from the neck up. +Now, there's no use of prosthetic makeup or photography of Brad superimposed over another actor's body. +We've created a completely digital human head. +So I'd like to start with a little bit of history on the project. +This is based on an F. Scott Fitzgerald short story. +It's about a man who's born old and lives his life in reverse. +Now, this movie has floated around Hollywood for well over half a century, and we first got involved with the project in the early '90s, with Ron Howard as the director. +We took a lot of meetings and we seriously considered it. +But at the time we had to throw in the towel. +It was deemed impossible. +It was beyond the technology of the day to depict a man aging backwards. +The human form, in particular the human head, has been considered the Holy Grail of our industry. +The project came back to us about a decade later, and this time with a director named David Fincher. +Now, Fincher is an interesting guy. +David is fearless of technology, and he is absolutely tenacious. +And David won't take "no." +And David believed, like we do in the visual effects industry, that anything is possible as long as you have enough time, resources and, of course, money. +And so David had an interesting take on the film, and he threw a challenge at us. +He wanted the main character of the film to be played from the cradle to the grave by one actor. +It happened to be this guy. +We went through a process of elimination and a process of discovery with David, and we ruled out, of course, swapping actors. +That was one idea: that we would have different actors, and we would hand off from actor to actor. +We even ruled out the idea of using makeup. +We realized that prosthetic makeup just wouldn't hold up, particularly in close-up. +And makeup is an additive process. You have to build the face up. +And David wanted to carve deeply into Brad's face to bring the aging to this character. +He needed to be a very sympathetic character. +So we decided to cast a series of little people that would play the different bodies of Benjamin at the different increments of his life and that we would in fact create a computer-generated version of Brad's head, aged to appear as Benjamin, and attach that to the body of the real actor. +Sounded great. +Of course, this was the Holy Grail of our industry, and the fact that this guy is a global icon didn't help either, because I'm sure if any of you ever stand in line at the grocery store, you know -- we see his face constantly. +So there really was no tolerable margin of error. +There were two studios involved: Warner Brothers and Paramount. +And they both believed this would make an amazing film, of course, but it was a very high-risk proposition. +There was lots of money and reputations at stake. +But we believed that we had a very solid methodology that might work ... +But despite our verbal assurances, they wanted some proof. +And so, in 2004, they commissioned us to do a screen test of Benjamin. +And we did it in about five weeks. +But we used lots of cheats and shortcuts. +We basically put something together to get through the meeting. +I'll roll that for you now. This was the first test for Benjamin Button. +And in here, you can see, that's a computer-generated head -- pretty good -- attached to the body of an actor. +And it worked. And it gave the studio great relief. +After many years of starts and stops on this project, and making that tough decision, they finally decided to greenlight the movie. +And I can remember, actually, when I got the phone call to congratulate us, to say the movie was a go, I actually threw up. +You know, this is some tough stuff. +So we started to have early team meetings, and we got everybody together, and it was really more like therapy in the beginning, convincing each other and reassuring each other that we could actually undertake this. +We had to hold up an hour of a movie with a character. +And it's not a special effects film; it has to be a man. +We really felt like we were in a -- kind of a 12-step program. +And of course, the first step is: admit you've got a problem. So we had a big problem: we didn't know how we were going to do this. +But we did know one thing. +Being from the visual effects industry, we, with David, believed that we now had enough time, enough resources, and, God, we hoped we had enough money. +And we had enough passion to will the processes and technology into existence. +So, when you're faced with something like that, of course you've got to break it down. +You take the big problem and you break it down into smaller pieces and you start to attack that. +So we had three main areas that we had to focus on. +We needed to make Brad look a lot older -- needed to age him 45 years or so. +And we also needed to make sure that we could take Brad's idiosyncrasies, his little tics, the little subtleties that make him who he is and have that translate through our process so that it appears in Benjamin on the screen. +And we also needed to create a character that could hold up under, really, all conditions. +He needed to be able to walk in broad daylight, at nighttime, under candlelight, he had to hold an extreme close-up, he had to deliver dialogue, he had to be able to run, he had to be able to sweat, he had to be able to take a bath, to cry, he even had to throw up. +Not all at the same time -- but he had to, you know, do all of those things. +And the work had to hold up for almost the first hour of the movie. +We did about 325 shots. +So we needed a system that would allow Benjamin to do everything a human being can do. +And we realized that there was a giant chasm between the state of the art of technology in 2004 and where we needed it to be. +So we focused on motion capture. +I'm sure many of you have seen motion capture. +The state of the art at the time was something called marker-based motion capture. +I'll give you an example here. +It's basically the idea of, you wear a leotard, and they put some reflective markers on your body, and instead of using cameras, there're infrared sensors around a volume, and those infrared sensors track the three-dimensional position of those markers in real time. +And then animators can take the data of the motion of those markers and apply them to a computer-generated character. +You can see the computer characters on the right are having the same complex motion as the dancers. +But we also looked at numbers of other films at the time that were using facial marker tracking, and that's the idea of putting markers on the human face and doing the same process. +And as you can see, it gives you a pretty crappy performance. +That's not terribly compelling. +And what we realized was that what we needed was the information that was going on between the markers. +We needed the subtleties of the skin. +We needed to see skin moving over muscle moving over bone. +We needed creases and dimples and wrinkles and all of those things. +Our first revelation was to completely abort and walk away from the technology of the day, the status quo, the state of the art. +So we aborted using motion capture. +And we were now well out of our comfort zone, and in uncharted territory. +So we were left with this idea that we ended up calling "technology stew." +We started to look out in other fields. +The idea was that we were going to find nuggets or gems of technology that come from other industries like medical imaging, the video game space, and re-appropriate them. +And we had to create kind of a sauce. +And the sauce was code in software that we'd written to allow these disparate pieces of technology to come together and work as one. +Initially, we came across some remarkable research done by a gentleman named Dr. Paul Ekman in the early '70s. +He believed that he could, in fact, catalog the human face. +And he came up with this idea of Facial Action Coding System, or FACS. +He believed that there were 70 basic poses or shapes of the human face, and that those basic poses or shapes of the face can be combined to create infinite possibilities of everything the human face is capable of doing. +And of course, these transcend age, race, culture, gender. +So this became the foundation of our research as we went forward. +And then we came across some remarkable technology called Contour. +And here you can see a subject having phosphorus makeup stippled on her face. +And now what we're looking at is really creating a surface capture as opposed to a marker capture. +The subject stands in front of a computer array of cameras, and those cameras can, frame-by-frame, reconstruct the geometry of exactly what the subject's doing at the moment. +So, effectively, you get 3D data in real time of the subject. +And if you look in a comparison, on the left, we see what volumetric data gives us and on the right you see what markers give us. +So, clearly, we were in a substantially better place for this. +But these were the early days of this technology, and it wasn't really proven yet. +We measure complexity and fidelity of data in terms of polygonal count. +And so, on the left, we were seeing 100,000 polygons. +We could go up into the millions of polygons. +It seemed to be infinite. +This was when we had our "Aha!" +This was the breakthrough. +This is when we're like, "OK, we're going to be OK, This is actually going to work." +And the "Aha!" was, what if we could take Brad Pitt, and we could put Brad in this device, and use this Contour process, and we could stipple on this phosphorescent makeup and put him under the black lights, and we could, in fact, scan him in real time performing Ekman's FACS poses. +Right? So, effectively, we ended up with a 3D database of everything Brad Pitt's face is capable of doing. +From there, we actually carved up those faces into smaller pieces and components of his face. +So we ended up with literally thousands and thousands and thousands of shapes, a complete database of all possibilities that his face is capable of doing. +Now, that's great, except we had him at age 44. +We need to put another 40 years on him at this point. +We brought in Rick Baker, and Rick is one of the great makeup and special effects gurus of our industry. +And we also brought in a gentleman named Kazu Tsuji, and Kazu Tsuji is one of the great photorealist sculptors of our time. +And we commissioned them to make a maquette, or a bust, of Benjamin. +So, in the spirit of "The Great Unveiling" -- I had to do this -- I had to unveil something. +So this is Ben 80. +We created three of these: there's Ben 80, there's Ben 70, there's Ben 60. +And this really became the template for moving forward. +Now, this was made from a life cast of Brad. +So, in fact, anatomically, it is correct. +The eyes, the jaw, the teeth: everything is in perfect alignment with what the real guy has. +We have these maquettes scanned into the computer at very high resolution -- enormous polygonal count. +And so now we had three age increments of Benjamin in the computer. +But we needed to get a database of him doing more than that. +We went through this process, then, called retargeting. +This is Brad doing one of the Ekman FACS poses. +And here's the resulting data that comes from that, the model that comes from that. +Retargeting is the process of transposing that data onto another model. +And because the life cast, or the bust -- the maquette -- of Benjamin was made from Brad, we could transpose the data of Brad at 44 onto Brad at 87. +So now, we had a 3D database of everything Brad Pitt's face can do at age 87, in his 70s and in his 60s. +Next we had to go into the shooting process. +So while all that's going on, we're down in New Orleans and locations around the world. +And we shot our body actors, and we shot them wearing blue hoods. +So these are the gentleman who played Benjamin. +And the blue hoods helped us with two things: one, we could easily erase their heads; and we also put tracking markers on their heads so we could recreate the camera motion and the lens optics from the set. +But now we needed to get Brad's performance to drive our virtual Benjamin. +And so we edited the footage that was shot on location with the rest of the cast and the body actors and about six months later we brought Brad onto a sound stage in Los Angeles and he watched on the screen. +His job, then, was to become Benjamin. +And so we looped the scenes. +He watched again and again. +We encouraged him to improvise. +And he took Benjamin into interesting and unusual places that we didn't think he was going to go. +We shot him with four HD cameras so we'd get multiple views of him and then David would choose the take of Brad being Benjamin that he thought best matched the footage with the rest of the cast. +From there we went into a process called image analysis. +And so here, you can see again, the chosen take. +And you are seeing, now, that data being transposed on to Ben 87. +And so, what's interesting about this is we used something called image analysis, which is taking timings from different components of Benjamin's face. +And so we could choose, say, his left eyebrow. +And the software would tell us that, well, in frame 14 the left eyebrow begins to move from here to here, and it concludes moving in frame 32. +And so we could choose numbers of positions on the face to pull that data from. +And then, the sauce I talked about with our technology stew -- that secret sauce was, effectively, software that allowed us to match the performance footage of Brad in live action with our database of aged Benjamin, the FACS shapes that we had. +On a frame-by-frame basis, we could actually reconstruct a 3D head that exactly matched the performance of Brad. +So this was how the finished shot appeared in the film. +And here you can see the body actor. +And then this is what we called the "dead head," no reference to Jerry Garcia. +And then here's the reconstructed performance now with the timings of the performance. +And then, again, the final shot. +It was a long process. +The next section here, I'm going to just blast through this, because we could do a whole TEDTalk on the next several slides. +We had to create a lighting system. +So really, a big part of our processes was creating a lighting environment for every single location that Benjamin had to appear so that we could put Ben's head into any scene and it would exactly match the lighting that's on the other actors in the real world. +We also had to create an eye system. +We found the old adage, you know, "The eyes are the window to the soul," absolutely true. +So the key here was to keep everybody looking in Ben's eyes. +And if you could feel the warmth, and feel the humanity, and feel his intent coming through the eyes, then we would succeed. +So we had one person focused on the eye system for almost two full years. +We also had to create a mouth system. +We worked from dental molds of Brad. +We had to age the teeth over time. +We also had to create an articulating tongue that allowed him to enunciate his words. +There was a whole system written in software to articulate the tongue. +We had one person devoted to the tongue for about nine months. +He was very popular. +Skin displacement: another big deal. +The skin had to be absolutely accurate. +He's also in an old age home, he's in a nursing home around other old people, so he had to look exactly the same as the others. +So, lots of work on skin deformation, you can see in some of these cases it works, in some cases it looks bad. +This is a very, very, very early test in our process. +So, effectively we created a digital puppet that Brad Pitt could operate with his own face. +There were no animators necessary to come in and interpret behavior or enhance his performance. +There was something that we encountered, though, that we ended up calling "the digital Botox effect." +So, as things went through this process, Fincher would always say, "It sandblasts the edges off of the performance." +And thing our process and the technology couldn't do, is they couldn't understand intent, the intent of the actor. +So it sees a smile as a smile. +It doesn't recognize an ironic smile, or a happy smile, or a frustrated smile. +So it did take humans to kind of push it one way or another. +But we ended up calling the entire process and all the technology "emotion capture," as opposed to just motion capture. +Take another look. +Brad Pitt: Well, I heard momma and Tizzy whisper, and they said I was gonna die soon, but ... maybe not. +EU: That's how to create a digital human in 18 minutes. +A couple of quick factoids; it really took 155 people over two years, and we didn't even talk about 60 hairstyles and an all-digital haircut. +But, that is Benjamin. Thank you. +Let's talk trash. +You know, we had to be taught to renounce the powerful conservation ethic we developed during the Great Depression and World War II. +After the war, we needed to direct our enormous production capacity toward creation of products for peacetime. +Life Magazine helped in this effort by announcing the introduction of throwaways that would liberate the housewife from the drudgery of doing dishes. +Mental note to the liberators: throwaway plastics take a lot of space and don't biodegrade. +Only we humans make waste that nature can't digest. +Plastics are also hard to recycle. +A teacher told me how to express the under-five-percent of plastics recovered in our waste stream. +It's diddly-point-squat. +That's the percentage we recycle. +Now, melting point has a lot to do with this. +Plastic is not purified by the re-melting process like glass and metal. +It begins to melt below the boiling point of water and does not drive off the oily contaminants for which it is a sponge. +Half of each year's 100 billion pounds of thermal plastic pellets will be made into fast-track trash. +A large, unruly fraction of our trash will flow downriver to the sea. +Here is the accumulation at Biona Creek next to the L.A. airport. +And here is the flotsam near California State University Long Beach and the diesel plant we visited yesterday. +In spite of deposit fees, much of this trash leading out to the sea will be plastic beverage bottles. +We use two million of them in the United States every five minutes, here imaged by TED presenter Chris Jordan, who artfully documents mass consumption and zooms in for more detail. +Here is a remote island repository for bottles off the coast of Baja California. +Isla San Roque is an uninhabited bird rookery off Baja's sparsely populated central coast. +Notice that the bottles here have caps on them. +Bottles made of polyethylene terephthalate, PET, will sink in seawater and not make it this far from civilization. +Also, the caps are produced in separate factories from a different plastic, polypropylene. +They will float in seawater, but unfortunately do not get recycled under the bottle bills. +Let's trace the journey of the millions of caps that make it to sea solo. +After a year the ones from Japan are heading straight across the Pacific, while ours get caught in the California current and first head down to the latitude of Cabo San Lucas. +After ten years, a lot of the Japanese caps are in what we call the Eastern Garbage Patch, while ours litter the Philippines. +After 20 years, we see emerging the debris accumulation zone of the North Pacific Gyre. +It so happens that millions of albatross nesting on Kure and Midway atolls in the Northwest Hawaiian Islands National Monument forage here and scavenge whatever they can find for regurgitation to their chicks. +A four-month old Laysan Albatross chick died with this in its stomach. +Hundreds of thousands of the goose-sized chicks are dying with stomachs full of bottle caps and other rubbish, like cigarette lighters ... +but, mostly bottle caps. +Sadly, their parents mistake bottle caps for food tossing about in the ocean surface. +The retainer rings for the caps also have consequences for aquatic animals. +This is Mae West, still alive at a zookeeper's home in New Orleans. +I wanted to see what my home town of Long Beach was contributing to the problem, so on Coastal Clean-Up Day in 2005 I went to the Long Beach Peninsula, at the east end of our long beach. +We cleaned up the swaths of beach shown. +I offered five cents each for bottle caps. +I got plenty of takers. +Here are the 1,100 bottle caps they collected. +I thought I would spend 20 bucks. +That day I ended up spending nearly 60. +I separated them by color and put them on display the next Earth Day at Cabrillo Marine Aquarium in San Pedro. +Governor Schwarzenegger and his wife Maria stopped by to discuss the display. +In spite of my "girly man" hat, crocheted from plastic shopping bags, they shook my hand. I showed him and Maria a zooplankton trawl from the gyre north of Hawaii with more plastic than plankton. +Here's what our trawl samples from the plastic soup our ocean has become look like. +Trawling a zooplankton net on the surface for a mile produces samples like this. +And this. +Now, when the debris washes up on the beaches of Hawaii it looks like this. +And this particular beach is Kailua Beach, the beach where our president and his family vacationed before moving to Washington. +Now, how do we analyze samples like this one that contain more plastic than plankton? +We sort the plastic fragments into different size classes, from five millimeters to one-third of a millimeter. +Small bits of plastic concentrate persistent organic pollutants up to a million times their levels in the surrounding seawater. +We wanted to see if the most common fish in the deep ocean, at the base of the food chain, was ingesting these poison pills. +We did hundreds of necropsies, and over a third had polluted plastic fragments in their stomachs. +The record-holder, only two-and-a-half inches long, had 84 pieces in its tiny stomach. +Now, you can buy certified organic produce. +But no fishmonger on Earth can sell you a certified organic wild-caught fish. +This is the legacy we are leaving to future generations. +The throwaway society cannot be contained -- it has gone global. +We simply cannot store and maintain or recycle all our stuff. +We have to throw it away. +Now, the market can do a lot for us, but it can't fix the natural system in the ocean we've broken. +All the king's horses and all the king's men ... +will never gather up all the plastic and put the ocean back together again. +Narrator : The levels are increasing, the amount of packaging is increasing, the "throwaway" concept of living is proliferating, and it's showing up in the ocean. +Anchor: He offers no hope of cleaning it up. +Straining the ocean for plastic would be beyond the budget of any country and it might kill untold amounts of sea life in the process. +The solution, Moore says, is to stop the plastic at its source: stop it on land before it falls in the ocean. +And in a plastic-wrapped and packaged world, he doesn't hold out much hope for that, either. +This is Brian Rooney for Nightline, in Long Beach, California. +Charles Moore: Thank you. +This is the first of two rather extraordinary photographs I'm going to show you today. +It was taken 18 years ago. +I was 19 years old at the time. +I had just returned from one of the deepest dives I'd ever made at that time, -- a little over 200 feet -- and, I had caught this little fish here. +It turns out that that particular one was the first live one of that ever taken alive. +I'm not just an ichthyologist, I'm a bona fide fish nerd. +And to a fish nerd, this is some pretty exciting stuff. +And more exciting was the fact that the person who took this photo was a guy named Jack Randall, the greatest living ichthyologist on Earth, the Grand Poobah of fish nerds, if you will. +And so, it was really exciting to me to have this moment in time, it really set the course for the rest of my life. +But really the most significant thing, the most profound thing about this picture is that it was taken two days before I was completely paralyzed from the neck down. +I made a really stupid kind of mistake that most 19-year-old males do when they think they're immortal, and I got a bad case of the bends, and was paralyzed, and had to be flown back for treatment. +I learned two really important things that day. +The first thing I learned -- well, I'm mortal, that's a really big one. +And the second thing I learned was that I knew, with profound certainty, that this is exactly what I was going to do for the rest of my life. +I had to focus all my energies towards going to find new species of things down on deep coral reefs. +Now, when you think of a coral reef, this is what most people think of: all these big, hard, elaborate corals and lots of bright, colorful fishes and things. +But, this is really just the tip of the iceberg. +If you look at this diagram of a coral reef, we know a lot about that part up near the top, and the reason we know so much about it is scuba divers can very easily go down there and access it. +There is a problem with scuba though, in that it imposes some limitations on how deep you can go, and it turns out that depth is about 200 feet. +I'll get into why that is in just a minute. +But, the point is that scuba divers generally stay less than 100 feet deep, and very rarely go much below this, at least, not with any kind of sanity. +So, to go deeper, most biologists have turned to submersibles. +Now, submersibles are great, wonderful things, but if you're going to spend 30,000 dollars a day to use one of these things, and it's capable of going 2,000 feet, you're sure not going to go farting around up here in a couple of hundred feet, you're going to go way, way, way, down deep. +So, the bottom line is that almost all research using submersibles has taken place well below 500 feet. +Now, it's pretty obvious at this point that there's this zone here in the middle and that's the zone that really centers around my own personal pursuit of happiness. +I want to find out what's in this zone. +We know almost nothing about it. +Scuba divers can't get there, submarines go right on past it. +It took me a year to learn how to walk again after I had my diving accident in Palau and during that year I spent a lot of time learning about the physics and physiology of diving and figuring out how to overcome these limitations. +So, I'm just going to show you a basic idea. +We're all breathing air right now. Air is a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen, about 20 percent oxygen. About 80 percent nitrogen is in our lungs. +And there's a phenomenon called Henry's Law that says that gases will dissolve into a fluid in proportion to the partial pressures which you're exposing them to. +So, basically the gas dissolves into our body. +The oxygen is bound by metabolism, we use it for energy. +The nitrogen just sort of floats around in our blood and tissues, and that's all fine, that's how we're designed. +The problem happens when you start to go underwater. +Now, the deeper you go underwater, the higher the pressure is. +If you were to go down to a depth of about 130 feet, which is the recommended limit for most scuba divers, you get this pressure effect. +And the effect of that pressure is that you have an increased density of gas molecules in every breath you take. +Over time, those gas molecules dissolve into your blood and tissues and start to fill you up. +Now, if you were to go down to, say, 300 feet, you don't have five times as many gas molecules in your lungs -- you've got 10 times as many gas molecules in your lungs. +And, sure enough, they dissolve into your blood, and into your tissues as well. +And of course, if you were to down to where there's 15 times as much -- the deeper you go, the more exacerbating the problem becomes. +And the problem, the limitation of diving with air is all those dots in your body -- all the nitrogen and all the oxygen. +There're three basic limitations of scuba diving. +The first limitation is the oxygen -- oxygen toxicity. +Now, we all know the song: "Love is like oxygen./ You get too much, you get too high./ Not enough, and you're going to die." +Well, in the context of diving, you get too much, you die also. +You die also because oxygen toxicity can cause a seizure -- makes you convulse underwater, not a good thing to happen underwater. +It happens because there's too much concentration of oxygen in your body. +The nitrogen has two problems. +One of them is what Jacques Cousteau called "rapture of the deep." +It's nitrogen narcosis. +It makes you loopy. +The deeper you go, the loopier you get. +You don't want to drive drunk, you don't want to dive drunk, so that's a real big problem. +And of course, the third problem is the one I found out the hard way in Palau, which is the bends. +Now the one thing that I forgot to mention, is that to obviate the problem of the nitrogen narcosis -- all of those blue dots in our body -- you remove the nitrogen and you replace it with helium. +Now helium's a gas, there're a lot of reasons why helium's good, it's a tiny molecule, it's inert, it doesn't give you narcosis. +So that's the basic concept that we use. +But, the theory's relatively easy. +The tricky part is the implementation. +So, this is how I began, about 15 years ago. +I'll admit, it wasn't exactly the smartest of starts, but, you know, you got to start somewhere. +At the time, I wasn't the only one who didn't know what I was doing -- almost nobody did. +And this rig was actually used for a dive of 300 feet. +Over time we got a little bit better at it, and we came up with this really sophisticated-looking rig with four scuba tanks and five regulators and all the right gas mixtures and all that good stuff. +And it was fine and dandy, and it allowed us to go down and find new species. +This picture was taken 300 feet deep, catching new species of fish. +But, the problem was that it didn't allow us much time. +For all its bulk and size, it only gave us about 15 minutes at most down at those sorts of depths. +We needed more time. +There had to be a better way. +And, indeed, there is a better way. +In 1994, I was fortunate enough to get access to these prototype closed-circuit rebreathers. +Alright, closed-circuit rebreather -- what is it about it that makes it different from scuba, and why is it better? +Well, there are three main advantages to a rebreather. +One, they're quiet, they don't make any noise. +Two, they allow you to stay underwater longer. +Three, they allow you to go deeper. +How is it that they do that? +Well, in order to really understand how they do that you have to take off the hood, and look underneath and see what's going on. +There are three basic systems to a closed- circuit rebreather. +The most fundamental of these is called the breathing loop. +It's a breathing loop because you breathe off of it, and it's a closed loop, and you breathe the same gas around and around and around. +So there's a mouthpiece that you put in your mouth, and there's also a counterlung, or in this case, two counterlungs. +Now, the counterlungs aren't high-tech, they're just simply flexible bags. +They allow you to mechanically breathe, or mechanically ventilate. +When you exhale your breath, it goes in the exhale counterlung: when you inhale a breath, it comes from the inhale counterlung. +It's just pure mechanics, allowing you to cycle air through this breathing loop. +And, the other component on a breathing loop is the carbon dioxide absorbent canister. +Now, as we breathe, we produce carbon dioxide, and that carbon dioxide needs to be scrubbed out of the system. +There's a chemical filter in there that pulls the carbon dioxide out of the breathing gas -- so that, when it comes back to us to breathe again, it's safe to breathe again. +So that's the breathing loop in a nutshell. +The second main component of a closed-circuit rebreather is the gas system. +The primary purpose of the gas system is to provide oxygen, to replenish the oxygen that your body consumes. +So the main tank, the main critical thing, is this oxygen gas supply cylinder we have here. +But, if we only had an oxygen gas supply cylinder we wouldn't be able to go very deep, because we'd run into oxygen toxicity very, very quickly. +So we need another gas, something to dilute the oxygen with. +And that, fittingly enough, is called the diluent gas supply. +In our applications, we generally put air inside this diluent gas supply, because it's a very cheap and easy source of nitrogen. +So that's where we get our nitrogen from. +But, if we want to go deeper, of course, we need another gas supply. +We need helium, and the helium is what we really need to go deep. +And usually we'll have a slightly larger cylinder mounted exterior on the rebreather, like this. +And that's what we use to inject, as we start to do our deep dives. +We also have a second oxygen cylinder, that's solely as a back-up in case there's a problem with our first oxygen supply we can continue to breathe. +And the way you manage all these different gases and all these different gas supplies is this really high-tech, sophisticated gas block up on the front here, where it's easy to reach. +It's got all the valves and knobs and things you need to do to inject the right gases at the right time. +Now, normally you don't have to do that because all of it's done automatically for you with the electronics, the third system of a rebreather. +The most critical part of a rebreather is the oxygen sensors. +You need three of them, so that if one of them goes bad, you know which one it is. +You need voting logic. +You also have three microprocessors. +Any one of those computers can run the entire system, so if you have to lose two of them, there's also back-up power supplies. +And of course there're multiple displays, to get the information to the diver. +This is the high-tech gadgetry that allows us to do what we do on these kinds of deep dives. +And I can talk about it all day -- just ask my wife -- but I want to move on to something that's kind of much more interesting. +I'm going to take you on a deep dive. +I'm going to show you what it's like to do one of these dives that we do. +We start up here on the boat, and for all this high-tech, expensive equipment, this is still the best way to get in the water -- just pfft! -- flop over the side of the boat. +Now, as I showed you in the earlier diagram, these reefs that we dive on start out near the surface and they go almost vertically, completely straight down. +So, we drop in the water, and we just sort of go over the edge of this cliff, and then we just start dropping, dropping, dropping. +People have asked me, "It must take a long time to get there?" +No, it only takes a couple of minutes to get all the way down to three or four hundred feet, which is where we're aiming for. +It's kind of like skydiving in slow motion. +It's really a very interesting -- you ever see "The Abyss" where Ed Harris, you know, he's sinking down along the side of the wall? +That's kind of what it feels like. It's pretty amazing. +Also, when you get down there, you find that the water is very, very clear. +It's extremely clear water, because there's hardly any plankton. +But, when you turn on your light, you look around at the caves, and all of a sudden you're confronted with a tremendous amount of diversity, much more than anyone used to believe. +Now not all of it is new species -- like that fish you see with the white stripe, that's a known species. +But, if you look carefully into the cracks and crevices, you'll see little things scurrying all over the place. +There's a just-unbelievable diversity. +It's not just fish, either. +These are crinoids, sponges, black corals. There're some more fishes. +And those fishes that you see right now are new species. +They're still new species because I had a video camera on this dive instead of my net, so they're still waiting down there for someone to go find them. +But this is what it looks like, and this kind of habitat just goes on and on and on for miles. +This is Papua, New Guinea. +Now little fishes and invertebrates aren't the only things we see down there. +We also see sharks, much more regularly than I would have expected to. +And we're not quite sure why. +But what I want you to do right now is imagine yourself 400 feet underwater, with all this high-tech gear on your back, you're in a remote reef off Papua, New Guinea, thousands of miles from the nearest recompression chamber, and you're completely surrounded by sharks. +Video: Look at those ... +Uh-oh ... uh-oh! +I think we have their attention. Richard Pyle: When you start talking like Donald Duck, there's no situation in the world that can seem tense. +So, we're down there, and this is at 400 feet -- that's looking straight up, by the way, so you can get a sense of how far away the surface is. +And if you're a biologist and you know about sharks, and you want to assess, you know, how much jeopardy am I really in here, there's one question that sort of jumps to the forefront of your mind immediately which is -- Diver 1 : What kind of sharks? +Diver 2: Uh, silvertip sharks. +Diver 1: Oh. +RP: Silvertip sharks -- they're actually three species of sharks here. +The silvertips are the one with the white edges on the fin, and there're also gray reef sharks and some hammerheads off in the distance. +And yes, it's a little nerve-wracking. +Diver 2 : Hoo! +That little guy is frisky! Now, you've seen video like this on TV a lot, and it's very intimidating, and I think it gives the wrong impression about sharks. +Sharks are actually not very dangerous animals and that's why we weren't worried much, why we were joking around down there. +More people are killed by pigs, more people are killed by lightning strikes, more people are killed at soccer games in England. +There's a lot of other ways you can die. +And I'm not making that stuff up. +Coconuts! You can get killed by a coconut more likely than killed by a shark. +So sharks aren't quite as dangerous as most people make them out to be. +Now, I don't know if any of you get U.S. News and World Report -- I got the recent issue. +There's a cover story all about the great explorers of our time. +The last article is an article entitled "No New Frontiers." +It questions whether or not there really are any new frontiers out there, whether there are any real, true, hardcore discoveries that can still be made. +And this is my favorite line from the article. +As a fish nerd, I have to laugh, because you know they don't call us fish nerds for nothing -- we actually do get excited about finding a new dorsal spine in a guppy. +But, it's much more than that. +And, I want to show you a few of the guppies we've found over the years. +This one's -- you know, you can see how ugly it is. +Even if you ignore the scientific value of this thing, just look at the monetary value of this thing. +A couple of these ended up getting sold through the aquarium trade to Japan, where they sold for 15,000 dollars apiece. +That's half-a-million dollars per pound. +Here's another new angelfish we discovered. +This one we actually first discovered back in the air days -- the bad old air days, as we used to say -- when we were doing these kind of dives with air. +We were at 360 feet. +And I remember coming up from one of these deep dives, and I had this fog, and the narcosis takes a little while to, you know, fade away. +It's sort of like sobering up. +And I had this vague recollection of seeing these yellow fish with a black spot, and I thought, "Aw, damn. I should have caught one. +I think that's a new species." +And then, eventually, I got around to looking in my bucket. +Sure enough, I had caught one -- I just completely forgot that I had caught one. And so this one we decided to give the name Centropyge narcosis to. +So that's it's official scientific name, in reference to its deep-dwelling habits. +And this is another neat one. +When we first found it, we weren't even sure what family this thing belonged to, so we just called it the Dr. Seuss fish, because it looked like something out of one of those books. +Now, this one's pretty cool. +If you go to Papua, New Guinea, and go down 300 feet, you're going to see these big mounds. +And this may be kind of hard to see, but they're about -- oh, a couple meters in diameter. +If you look closely, you'll see there's a little white fish and gray fish that hangs out near them. +Well, it turns out this little white fish builds these giant mounds, one pebble at a time. +It's really extraordinary to find something like this. +It's not just new species: it's new behavior, it's new ecology it's all kind of new things. +So, what I'm going to show you right now, very quickly, is just a sampling of a few of the new species we've discovered. +What's extraordinary about this is not just the sheer number of species we're finding -- although as you can see that's pretty amazing, this is only half of what we've found -- what's extraordinary is how quickly we find them. +We're up to seven new species per hour of time we spend at that depth. +Now, if you go to an Amazon jungle and fog a tree, you may get a lot of bugs, but for fishes, there's nowhere in the world you can get seven new species per hour of time. +Now, we've done some back of the envelope calculations, and we're predicting that there are probably on the order of 2,000 to 2,500 new species in the Indo-Pacific alone. +There are only five to six thousand known species. +So a very large percentage of what is out there isn't really known. +We thought we had a handle on all the reef fish diversity -- evidently not. +And I'm going to just close on a very somber note. +At the beginning I told you that I was going to show you two extraordinary photographs. +This is the second extraordinary photograph I'm going to show you. +This one was taken at the exact moment I was down there filming those sharks. +This was taken exactly 300 feet above my head. +And the reason this photograph is extraordinary is because it captures a moment in the very last minute of a person's life. +Less than 60 seconds after this picture was taken, this guy was dead. +When we recovered his body, we figured out what had gone wrong. +He had made a very simple mistake. +He turned the wrong valve when he filled his cylinder -- he had 80 percent oxygen in his tank when he should have had 40. +He had an oxygen toxicity seizure and he drowned. +The reason I show this -- not to put a downer on everything -- but I just want to use it to key off my philosophy of life in general, which is that we all have two goals. +The first goal we share with every other living thing on this planet, which is to survive. I call it perpetuation: the survival of the species and survival of ourselves, because they're both about perpetuating the genome. +And the second goal, for those of us who have mastered that first goal, is to -- you know, you call it spiritual fulfillment, you can call it financial success, you can call it any number of different things. +I call it seeking joy -- this pursuit of happiness. +So, I guess my theme on this is this guy lived his life to the fullest, he absolutely did. +You have to balance those two goals. +If you live your whole life in fear -- I mean, life is a sexually transmitted disease with 100 percent mortality. +So, you can't live your life in fear. +I thought that was an old one. +But, at the same time you don't want to get so focused on rule number two, or goal number two, that you neglect goal number one. +Because once you're dead, you really can't enjoy anything after that. +I wish you all the best of luck in maintaining that balance in your future endeavors. +Thanks. +I was raised in Seoul, Korea, and moved to New York City in 1999 to attend college. +I was pre-med at the time, and I thought I would become a surgeon because I was interested in anatomy and dissecting animals really piqued my curiosity. +At the same time, I fell in love with New York City. +I started to realize that I could look at the whole city as a living organism. +I wanted to dissect it and look into its unseen layers. +And the way to it, for me, was through artistic means. +So, eventually I decided to pursue an MFA instead of an M.D. +and in grad school I became interested in creatures that dwell in the hidden corners of the city. +In New York City, rats are part of commuters' daily lives. +Most people ignore them or are frightened of them. +But I took a liking to them because they dwell on the fringes of society. +And even though they're used in labs to promote human lives, they're also considered pests. +I also started looking around in the city and trying to photograph them. +One day, in the subway, I was snapping pictures of the tracks hoping to catch a rat or two, and a man came up to me and said, "You can't take photographs here. +The MTA will confiscate your camera." +I was quite shocked by that, and thought to myself, "Well, OK then. +I'll follow the rats." +Then I started going into the tunnels, which made me realize that there's a whole new dimension to the city that I never saw before and most people don't get to see. +Around the same time, I met like-minded individuals who call themselves urban explorers, adventurers, spelunkers, guerrilla historians, etc. +I was welcomed into this loose, Internet-based network of people who regularly explore urban ruins such as abandoned subway stations, tunnels, sewers, aqueducts, factories, hospitals, shipyards and so on. +When I took photographs in these locations, I felt there was something missing in the pictures. +Simply documenting these soon-to-be-demolished structures wasn't enough for me. +So I wanted to create a fictional character or an animal that dwells in these underground spaces, and the simplest way to do it, at the time, was to model myself. +I decided against clothing because I wanted the figure to be without any cultural implications or time-specific elements. +I wanted a simple way to represent a living body inhabiting these decaying, derelict spaces. +This was taken in the Riviera Sugar Factory in Red Hook, Brooklyn. +It's now an empty, six-acre lot waiting for a shopping mall right across from the new Ikea. +I was very fond of this space because it's the first massive industrial complex I found on my own that is abandoned. +When I first went in, I was scared, because I heard dogs barking and I thought they were guard dogs. +But they happened to be wild dogs living there, and it was right by the water, so there were swans and ducks swimming around and trees growing everywhere and bees nesting in the sugar barrels. +The nature had really reclaimed the whole complex. +And, in a way, I wanted the human figure in the picture to become a part of that nature. +When I got comfortable in the space, it also felt like a big playground. +I would climb up the tanks and hop across exposed beams as if I went back in time and became a child again. +This was taken in the old Croton Aqueduct, which supplied fresh water to New York City for the first time. +The construction began in 1837. +It lasted about five years. +It got abandoned when the new Croton Aqueducts opened in 1890. +When you go into spaces like this, you're directly accessing the past, because they sit untouched for decades. +I love feeling the aura of a space that has so much history. +Instead of looking at reproductions of it at home, you're actually feeling the hand-laid bricks and shimmying up and down narrow cracks and getting wet and muddy and walking in a dark tunnel with a flashlight. +This is a tunnel underneath Riverside Park. +It was built in the 1930s by Robert Moses. +The murals were done by a graffiti artist to commemorate the hundreds of homeless people that got relocated from the tunnel in 1991 when the tunnel reopened for trains. +Walking in this tunnel is very peaceful. +There's nobody around you, and you hear the kids playing in the park above you, completely unaware of what's underneath. +When I was going out a lot to these places, I was feeling a lot of anxiety and isolation because I was in a solitary phase in my life, and I decided to title my series "Naked City Spleen," which references Charles Baudelaire. +"Naked City" is a nickname for New York, and "Spleen" embodies the melancholia and inertia that come from feeling alienated in an urban environment. +This is the same tunnel. +You see the sunbeams coming from the ventilation ducts and the train approaching. +This is a tunnel that's abandoned in Hell's Kitchen. +I was there alone, setting up, and a homeless man approached. +I was basically intruding in his living space. +I was really frightened at first, but I calmly explained to him that I was working on an art project and he didn't seem to mind and so I went ahead and put my camera on self-timer and ran back and forth. +And when I was done, he actually offered me his shirt to wipe off my feet and kindly walked me out. +It must have been a very unusual day for him. +One thing that struck me, after this incident, was that a space like that holds so many deleted memories of the city. +That homeless man, to me, really represented an element of the unconscious of the city. +He told me that he was abused above ground and was once in Riker's Island, and at last he found peace and quiet in that space. +The tunnel was once built for the prosperity of the city, but is now a sanctuary for outcasts, who are completely forgotten in the average urban dweller's everyday life. +This is underneath my alma mater, Columbia University. +The tunnels are famous for having been used during the development of the Manhattan Project. +This particular tunnel is interesting because it shows the original foundations of Bloomingdale Insane Asylum, which was demolished in 1890 when Columbia moved in. +This is the New York City Farm Colony, which was a poorhouse in Staten Island from the 1890s to the 1930s. +Most of my photos are set in places that have been abandoned for decades, but this is an exception. +This children's hospital was closed in 1997; it's located in Newark. +When I was there three years ago, the windows were broken and the walls were peeling, but everything was left there as it was. +You see the autopsy table, morgue trays, x-ray machines and even used utensils, which you see on the autopsy table. +After exploring recently-abandoned buildings, I felt that everything could fall into ruins very fast: your home, your office, a shopping mall, a church -- any man-made structures around you. +I was reminded of how fragile our sense of security is and how vulnerable people truly are. +I love to travel, and Berlin has become one of my favorite cities. +It's full of history, and also full of underground bunkers and ruins from the war. +This was taken under a homeless asylum built in 1885 to house 1,100 people. +I saw the structure while I was on the train, and I got off at the next station and met people there that gave me access to their catacomb-like basement, which was used for ammunition storage during the war and also, at some point, to hide groups of Jewish refugees. +This is the actual catacombs in Paris. +I explored there extensively in the off-limits areas and fell in love right away. +There are more than 185 miles of tunnels, and only about a mile is open to the public as a museum. +The first tunnels date back to 60 B.C. +They were consistently dug as limestone quarries and by the 18th century, the caving-in of some of these quarries posed safety threats, so the government ordered reinforcing of the existing quarries and dug new observation tunnels in order to monitor and map the whole place. +As you can see, the system is very complex and vast. +It's very dangerous to get lost in there. +And at the same time, there was a problem in the city with overflowing cemeteries. +So the bones were moved from the cemeteries into the quarries, making them into the catacombs. +The remains of over six million people are housed in there, some over 1,300 years old. +This was taken under the Montparnasse Cemetery where most of the ossuaries are located. +There are also phone cables that were used in the '50s and many bunkers from the World War II era. +This is a German bunker. +Nearby there's a French bunker, and the whole tunnel system is so complex that the two parties never met. +The tunnels are famous for having been used by the Resistance, which Victor Hugo wrote about in "Les Miserables." +And I saw a lot of graffiti from the 1800s, like this one. +After exploring the underground of Paris, I decided to climb up, and I climbed a Gothic monument that's right in the middle of Paris. +This is the Tower of Saint Jacques. +It was built in the early 1500s. +I don't recommend sitting on a gargoyle in the middle of January, naked. +It was not very comfortable. And all this time, I never saw a single rat in any of these places, until recently, when I was in the London sewers. +This was probably the toughest place to explore. +I had to wear a gas mask because of the toxic fumes -- I guess, except for in this picture. +And when the tides of waste matter come in it sounds as if a whole storm is approaching you. +This is a still from a film I worked on recently, called "Blind Door." +I've become more interested in capturing movement and texture. +And the 16mm black-and-white film gave a different feel to it. +And this is the first theater project I worked on. +I adapted and produced "A Dream Play" by August Strindberg. +It was performed last September one time only in the Atlantic Avenue tunnel in Brooklyn, which is considered to be the oldest underground train tunnel in the world, built in 1844. +I've been leaning towards more collaborative projects like these, lately. +But whenever I get a chance I still work on my series. +The last place I visited was the Mayan ruins of Copan, Honduras. +This was taken inside an archaeological tunnel in the main temple. +I like doing more than just exploring these spaces. +I feel an obligation to animate and humanize these spaces continually in order to preserve their memories in a creative way -- before they're lost forever. +Thank you. +Four years ago, on the TED stage, I announced a company I was working with at the time called Odeo. +And because of that announcement, we got a big article in The New York Times, which led to more press, which led to more attention, and me deciding to become CEO of that company -- whereas I was just an adviser -- and raising a round of venture capital and ramping up hiring. +One of the guys I hired was an engineer named Jack Dorsey, and a year later, when we were trying to decide which way to go with Odeo, Jack presented an idea he'd been tinkering around with for a number of years that was based around sending simple status updates to friends. +We were also playing with SMS at the time at Odeo, so we kind of put two and two together, and in early 2006 we launched Twitter as a side project at Odeo. +So I learned to follow hunches even though you can't necessarily justify them or know where they're going to go. +And that's kind of what's happened with Twitter, time after time. +So, for those of you unfamiliar, Twitter is based around a very simple, seemingly trivial concept. +You say what you're doing in 140 characters or less, and people who are interested in you get those updates. +If they're really interested, they get the update as a text message on their cell phone. +So, for instance, I may Twitter right now that I'm giving a talk at TED. +And in my case, when I hit send, up to 60,000 people will receive that message in a matter of seconds. +Now, the fundamental idea is that Twitter lets people share moments of their lives whenever they want, be they momentous occasions or mundane ones. +It is by sharing these moments as they're happening that lets people feel more connected and in touch, despite distance, and in real time. +This is the primary use we saw of Twitter from the beginning, and what got us excited. +What we didn't anticipate was the many, many other uses that would evolve from this very simple system. +One of the things we realized was how important Twitter could be during real-time events. +When the wildfires broke out in San Diego, in October of 2007, people turned to Twitter to report what was happening and to find information from neighbors about what was happening around them. +But it wasn't just individuals. +The L.A. Times actually turned to Twitter to dispense information as well, and put a Twitter feed on the front page, and the L.A. Fire Department and Red Cross used it to dispense news and updates as well. +At this event, dozens of people here are Twittering and thousands of people around the world are following along because they want to know what it feels like to be here and what's happening. +Among the other interesting things that have cropped up are many things from businesses, from marketing and communications and predictable things, to an insanely popular Korean-barbecue taco truck that drives around L.A. and Twitters where it stops, causing a line to form around the block. +Politicians have recently begun Twittering. +In fact, there are 47 members of Congress who currently have Twitter accounts. +And they're tweeting, in some cases, from behind closed-door sessions with the President. +In this case, this guy's not liking what he's hearing. +The President himself is our most popular Twitter user, although his tweets have dropped off as of late, while Senator McCain's have picked up. +As have this guy's. +Twitter was originally designed as a broadcast medium: you send one message and it goes out to everybody, and you receive the messages you're interested in. +One of the many ways that users shaped the evolution of Twitter was by inventing a way to reply to a specific person or a specific message. +So, this syntax, the "@username" that Shaquille O'Neal's using here to reply to one of his fans, was completely invented by users, and we didn't build it into the system until it already became popular and then we made it easier. +This is one of the many ways that users have shaped the system. +Another is via the API. +We built an application-programming interface, which basically means that programmers can write software that interacts with Twitter. +We currently know about over 2,000 pieces of software that can send Twitter updates -- interfaces for Mac, Windows, your iPhone, your BlackBerry -- as well as things like a device that lets an unborn baby Twitter when it kicks or a plant Twitter when it needs water. +Probably the most important third-party development came from a little company in Virginia called Summize. +Summize built a Twitter search engine. +And they tapped into the fact that, if you have millions of people around the world talking about what they're doing and what's around them, you have an incredible resource to find out about any topic or event while it's going on. +This really changed how we perceived Twitter. +For instance, here's what people are saying about TED. +This is another way that our mind was shifted, and Twitter wasn't what we thought it was. +We liked this so much we actually bought the company and are folding it into the main product. +This not only lets you view Twitters in different ways, but it introduces new use cases as well. +One of my favorites is what happened a few months ago when there was a gas shortage in Atlanta. +Some users figured out that they would Twitter when they found gas -- where it was, and how much it cost -- and then appended the keyword "#atlgas" which let other people search for that and find gas themselves. +And this trend of people using this communication network to help each other out goes far beyond the original idea of just keeping up with family and friends. +It's happened more and more lately, whether it's raising money for homeless people or to dig wells in Africa or for a family in crisis. +People have raised tens of thousands of dollars over Twitter in a matter of days on several occasions. +It seems like when you give people easier ways to share information, more good things happen. +I have no idea what will happen next with Twitter. +I've learned to follow the hunch, but never assume where it will go. +Thanks. +Chris Anderson: We're not quite done yet. +So, look, if we could have this screen live. +This is actually the most terrifying thing that any speaker can do after they've been to an event. +It's totally intimidating. +So, this would be the Twitter search screen. +So we're going to just type a couple of random words into Twitter. +For example: "Evan Williams." +"Evan Williams, give people more good ways to share information and follow your hunch at TED." +"Currently listening to Evan Williams." "Currently listening to Evan Williams." "Evan Williams --" Oh. +"Evan Williams is just dying on stage here at TED. +Worst talk ever!" Evan Williams: Nice. Thanks. +CA: Just kidding. +But, literally in the eight minutes he was talking, there are about fifty tweets that already came on the talk. +So he'll see every aspect of the reaction: the fact that Barack Obama is the biggest Twitterer, the fact that it came out of TED. +I don't think there's any other way of getting instant feedback that way. +You have build something very fascinating, and it looks like its best times are still ahead of it. +So, thank you very much, Evan. EW: Thank you. +CA: That was very interesting. +Back in 1992, I started working for a company called Interval Research, which was just then being founded by David Lidell and Paul Allen as a for-profit research enterprise in Silicon Valley. +I met with David to talk about what I might do in his company. +I was just coming out of a failed virtual reality business and supporting myself by being on the speaking circuit and writing books -- after twenty years or so in the computer game industry having ideas that people didn't think they could sell. +And David and I discovered that we had a question in common, that we really wanted the answer to, and that was, "Why hasn't anybody built any computer games for little girls?" +Why is that? +It can't just be a giant sexist conspiracy. +These people aren't that smart. +There's six billion dollars on the table. +They would go for it if they could figure out how. +So, what is the deal here? +And as we thought about our goals -- I should say that Interval is really a humanistic institution, in the classical sense that humanism, at its best, finds a way to combine clear-eyed empirical research with a set of core values that fundamentally love and respect people. +The basic idea of humanism is the improvable quality of life; that we can do good things, that there are things worth doing because they're good things to do, and that clear-eyed empiricism can help us figure out how to do them. +So, contrary to popular belief, there is not a conflict of interest between empiricism and values. +And Interval Research is kind of the living example of how that can be true. +So David and I decided to go find out, through the best research we could muster, what it would take to get a little girl to put her hands on a computer, to achieve the level of comfort and ease with the technology that little boys have because they play video games. +We spent two and a half years conducting research; we spent another year and a half in advance development. +Then we formed a spin-off company. +In the research phase of the project at Interval, we partnered with a company called Cheskin Research, and these people -- Davis Masten and Christopher Ireland -- changed my mind entirely about what market research was and what it could be. +They taught me how to look and see, and they did not do the incredibly stupid thing of saying to a child, "Of all these things we already make you, which do you like best?" -- which gives you zero answers that are usable. +So, what we did for the first two and a half years was four things: We did an extensive review of the literature in related fields, like cognitive psychology, spatial cognition, gender studies, play theory, sociology, primatology. +Thank you Frans de Waal, wherever you are, I love you and I'd give anything to meet you. +Also, we did focus groups with people who were on the ground with kids every day, like playground supervisors. We talked to them, confirmed some hypotheses and identified some serious questions about gender difference and play. +Then we did what I consider to be the heart of the work: interviewed 1,100 children, boys and girls, ages seven to 12, all over the United States -- except for Silicon Valley, Boston and Austin because we knew that their little families would have millions of computers in them and they wouldn't be a representative sample. +And we spent that time designing interactive prototypes for computer software and testing them with little girls. +In 1996, in November, we formed the company Purple Moon which was a spinoff of Interval Research, and our chief investors were Interval Research, Vulcan Northwest, Institutional Venture Partners and Allen and Company. +We launched a website on September 2nd that has now served 25 million pages, and has 42,000 registered young girl users. +They visit an average of one and a half times a day, spend an average of 35 minutes a visit, and look at 50 pages a visit. +So we feel that we've formed a successful online community with girls. +"What's it going to be like to be in high school or junior high school? +Who are my friends?"; to exercise the love of social complexity and the narrative intelligence that drives most of their play behavior; and which embeds in it values about noticing that we have lots of choices in our lives and the ways that we conduct ourselves. +The other title that we launched is called "Secret Paths in the Forest," which addresses the more fantasy-oriented, inner lives of girls. +These two titles both showed up in the top 50 entertainment titles in PC Data -- entertainment titles in PC Data in December, right up there with "John Madden Football," which thrills me to death. +So, we're real, and we've touched several hundreds of thousands of little girls. +We've made half-a-billion impressions with marketing and PR for this brand, Purple Moon. +Ninety-six percent of them, roughly, have been positive; four percent of them have been "other." +I want to talk about the other, because the politics of this enterprise, in a way, have been the most fascinating part of it, for me. +There are really two kinds of negative reviews that we've received. +One kind of reviewer is a male gamer who thinks he knows what games ought to be, and won't show the product to little girls. +The other kind of reviewer is a certain flavor of feminist who thinks they know what little girls ought to be. +And so it's funny to me that these interesting, odd bedfellows have one thing in common: they don't listen to little girls. +They haven't looked at children and they're certainly not demonstrating any love for them. +I'd like to play you some voices of little girls from the two-and-a-half years of research that we did -- actually, some of the voices are more recent. +And these voices will be accompanied by photographs that they took for us of their lives, of the things that they value and care about. +These are pictures the girls themselves never saw, but they gave to us This is the stuff those reviewers don't know about and aren't listening to and this is the kind of research I recommend to those who want to do humanistic work. +Girl 1: Yeah, my character is usually a tomboy. +Hers is more into boys. +Girl 2: Uh, yeah. +Girl 1: We have -- in the very beginning of the whole game, always we do this: we each have a piece of paper; we write down our name, our age -- are we rich, very rich, not rich, poor, medium, wealthy, boyfriends, dogs, pets -- what else -- sisters, brothers, and all those. +Girl 2: Divorced -- parents divorced, maybe. +Girl 3: This is my pretend [unclear] one. +Girl 4: We make a school newspaper on the computer. +Girl 5: For a girl's game also usually they'll have really pretty scenery with clouds and flowers. +Girl 6: Like, if you were a girl and you were really adventurous and a real big tomboy, you would think that girls' games were kinda sissy. +Girl 7: I run track, I played soccer, I play basketball, and I love a lot of things to do. +And sometimes I feel like I can't really enjoy myself unless it's like a vacation, like when I get Mondays and all those days off. +Girl 8: Well, sometimes there is a lot of stuff going on because I have music lessons and I'm on swim team -- all this different stuff that I have to do, and sometimes it gets overwhelming. +Girl 9: My friend Justine kinda took my friend Kelly, and now they're being mean to me. +Girl 10: Well, sometimes it gets annoying when your brothers and sisters, or brother or sister, when they copy you and you get your idea first and they take your idea and they do it themselves. +Girl 11: Because my older sister, she gets everything and, like, when I ask my mom for something, she'll say, "No" -- all the time. +But she gives my sister everything. +Brenda Laurel: I want to show you, real quickly, just a minute of "Rockett's Tricky Decision," which went gold two days ago. +Let's hope it's really stable. +This is the second day in Rockett's life. +The reason I'm showing you this is I'm hoping that the scene that I'm going to show you will look familiar and sound familiar, now that you've listened to some girls' voices. +And you can see how we've tried to incorporate the issues that matter to them in the game that we've created. +Miko: Hey Rockett! C'mere! +Rockett: Hi Miko! What's going on? +Miko: Did you hear about Nakilia's big Halloween party this weekend? +She asked me to make sure you knew about it. +Nakilia invited Reuben too, but -- Rockett: But what? Isn't he coming? +Miko: I don't think so. +I mean, I heard his band is playing at another party the same night. +Rockett: Really? What other party? +Girl: Max's party is going to be so cool, Whitney. +He's invited all the best people. +BL: I'm going to fast-forward to the decision point because I know I don't have a lot of time. +After this awful event occurs, Rocket gets to decide how she feels about it. +Rockett: Who'd want to show up at that party anyway? +I could get invited to that party any day if I wanted to. +Gee, I doubt I'll make Max's best people list. +BL: OK, so we're going to emotionally navigate. +If we were playing the game, that's what we'd do. +If at any time during the game we want to learn more about the characters, we can go into this hidden hallway, and I'll quickly just show you the interface. +We can, for example, go find Miko's locker and get some more information about her. +Oops, I turned the wrong way. +But you get the general idea of the product. +I wanted to show you the ways, innocuous as they seem, in which we're incorporating what we've learned about girls -- their desires to experience greater emotional flexibility, and to play around with the social complexity of their lives. +I want to make the point that what we're giving girls, I think, through this effort, is a kind of validation, a sense of being seen. +And a sense of the choices that are available in their lives. +We love them. +We see them. +We're not trying to tell them who they ought to be. +But we're really, really happy about who they are. +It turns out they're really great. +I want to close by showing you a videotape that's a version of a future game in the Rockett series that our graphic artists and design people put together, that we feel would please that four percent of reviewers. +"Rockett 28!" +Rockett: It's like I'm just waking up, you know? +BL: Thanks. +I was walking in the market one day with my wife, and somebody stuck a cage in my face. +And in between those slits were the saddest eyes I've ever seen. +There was a very sick orangutan baby, my first encounter. +That evening I came back to the market in the dark and I heard "uhh, uhh," and sure enough I found a dying orangutan baby on a garbage heap. +Of course, the cage was salvaged. +I took up the little baby, massaged her, forced her to drink until she finally started breathing normally. +This is Uce. +She's now living in the jungle of Sungai Wain, and this is Matahari, her second son, which, by the way, is also the son of the second orangutan I rescued, Dodoy. +That changed my life quite dramatically, and as of today, I have almost 1,000 babies in my two centers. +No. No. No. Wrong. +It's horrible. It's a proof of our failing to save them in the wild. +It's not good. +This is merely proof of everyone failing to do the right thing. +Having more than all the orangutans in all the zoos in the world together, just now like victims for every baby, six have disappeared from the forest. +The deforestation, especially for oil palm, to provide biofuel for Western countries is what's causing these problems. +And those are the peat swamp forests on 20 meters of peat, the largest accumulation of organic material in the world. +When you open this for growing oil palms you're creating CO2 volcanoes that are emitting so much CO2 that my country is now the third largest emitter of greenhouse gasses in the world, after China and the United States. +And we don't have any industry at all -- it's only because of this deforestation. +And these are horrible images. +I'm not going to talk too long about it, but there are so many of the family of Uce, which are not so fortunate to live out there in the forest, that still have to go through that process. +And I don't know anymore where to put them. +So I decided that I had to come up with a solution for her but also a solution that will benefit the people that are trying to exploit those forests, to get their hands on the last timber and that are causing, in that way, the loss of habitat and all those victims. +So I created the place Samboja Lestari, and the idea was, if I can do this on the worst possible place that I can think of where there is really nothing left, no one will have an excuse to say, "Yeah, but ..." +No. Everyone should be able to follow this. +So we're in East Borneo. This is the place where I started. +As you can see there's only yellow terrain. +There's nothing left -- just a bit of grass there. +In 2002 we had about 50 percent of the people jobless there. +There was a huge amount of crime. +People spent so much of their money on health issues and drinking water. +There was no agricultural productivity left. +This was the poorest district in the whole province and it was a total extinction of wildlife. +This was like a biological desert. +When I stood there in the grass, it's hot -- not even the sound of insects -- just this waving grass. +Still, four years later we have created jobs for about 3,000 people. +The climate has changed. I will show you: no more flooding, no more fires. +It's no longer the poorest district, and there is a huge development of biodiversity. +We've got over 1,000 species. We have 137 bird species as of today. +We have 30 species of reptiles. +So what happened here? We created a huge economic failure in this forest. +So basically the whole process of destruction had gone a bit slower than what is happening now with the oil palm. +But we saw the same thing. +We had slash and burn agriculture; people cannot afford the fertilizer, so they burn the trees and have the minerals available there; the fires become more frequent, and after a while you're stuck with an area of land where there is no fertility left. +There are no trees left. +Still, in this place, in this grassland where you can see our very first office there on that hill, four years later, there is this one green blop on the Earth's surface ... +And there are all these animals, and all these people happy, and there's this economic value. +So how's this possible? +It was quite simple. If you'll look at the steps: we bought the land, we dealt with the fire, and then only, we started doing the reforestation by combining agriculture with forestry. +Only then we set up the infrastructure and management and the monetary. +But we made sure that in every step of the way the local people were going to be fully involved so that no outside forces would be able to interfere with that. +The people would become the defenders of that forest. +So we do the "people, profit, planet" principles, but we do it in addition to a sure legal status -- because if the forest belongs to the state, people say, "It belongs to me, it belongs to everyone." +And then we apply all these other principles like transparency, professional management, measurable results, scalability, [unclear], etc. +What we did was we formulated recipes -- how to go from a starting situation where you have nothing to a target situation. +You formulate a recipe based upon the factors you can control, whether it be the skills or the fertilizer or the plant choice. +And then you look at the outputs and you start measuring what comes out. +Now in this recipe you also have the cost. +You also know how much labor is needed. +This is how it looks like in practice. We have this grass we want to get rid of. +It exudes [unclear]-like compounds from the roots. +The acacia trees are of a very low value but we need them to restore the micro-climate, to protect the soil and to shake out the grasses. +And after eight years they might actually yield some timber -- that is, if you can preserve it in the right way, which we can do with bamboo peels. +It's an old temple-building technique from Japan but bamboo is very fire-susceptible. +So if we would plant that in the beginning we would have a very high risk of losing everything again. +So we plant it later, along the waterways to filter the water, provide the raw products just in time for when the timber becomes available. +So the idea is: how to integrate these flows in space, over time and with the limited means you have. +So beautiful. What a theory. +But is it really that easy? +Not really, because if you looked at what happened in 1998, the fire started. +This is an area of about 50 million hectares. +January. +February. +March. +April. +May. +We lost 5.5 million hectares in just a matter of a few months. +This is because we have 10,000 of those underground fires that you also have in Pennsylvania here in the United States. +And once the soil gets dried, you're in a dry season -- you get cracks, oxygen goes in, flames come out and the problem starts all over again. +So how to break that cycle? +Fire is the biggest problem. +This is what it looked like for three months. +For three months, the automatic lights outside did not go off because it was that dark. +We lost all the crops. No children gained weight for over a year; they lost 12 IQ points. It was a disaster for orangutans and people. +So these fires are really the first things to work on. +That was why I put it as a single point up there. +And you need the local people for that because these grasslands, once they start burning ... It goes through it like a windstorm and you lose again the last bit of ash and nutrients to the first rainfall -- going to the sea killing off the coral reefs there. +So you have to do it with the local people. +That is the short-term solution but you also need a long-term solution. +So what we did is, we created a ring of sugar palms around the area. +These sugar palms turn out to be fire-resistant -- also flood-resistant, by the way -- and they provide a lot of income for local people. +This is what it looks like: the people have to tap them twice a day -- just a millimeter slice -- and the only thing you harvest is sugar water, carbon dioxide, rain fall and a little bit of sunshine. +In principle, you make those trees into biological photovoltaic cells. +And you can create so much energy from this -- they produce three times more energy per hectare per year, because you can tap them on a daily basis. +You don't need to harvest [unclear] or any other of the crops. +So this is the combination where we have all this genetic potential in the tropics, which is still unexploited, and doing it in combination with technology. +But also your legal side needs to be in very good order. +So we bought that land, and here is where we started our project -- in the middle of nowhere. +And if you zoom in a bit you can see that all of this area is divided into strips that go over different types of soil, and we were actually monitoring, measuring every single tree in these 2,000 hectares, 5,000 acres. +And this forest is quite different. +What I really did was I just followed nature, and nature doesn't know monocultures, but a natural forest is multilayered. +That means that both in the ground and above the ground it can make better use of the available light, it can store more carbon in the system, it can provide more functions. +But, it's more complicated. It's not that simple, and you have to work with the people. +And they become like nutrient pumps. +You need the bacteria to fix nitrogen, and without those microorganisms, you won't have any performance at all. +And then we started planting -- only 1,000 trees a day. +We could have planted many, many more, but we didn't want to because we wanted to keep the number of jobs stable. +We didn't want to lose the people that are going to work in that plantation. +And we do a lot of work here. +We use indicator plants to look at what soil types, or what vegetables will grow, or what trees will grow here. +And we have monitored every single one of those trees from space. +This is what it looks like in reality; you have this irregular ring around it, with strips of 100 meters wide, with sugar palms that can provide income for 648 families. +It's only a small part of the area. +The nursery, in here, is quite different. +If you look at the number of tree species we have in Europe, for instance, from the Urals up to England, you know how many? +165. +In this nursery, we're going to grow 10 times more than the number of species. +Can you imagine? +You do need to know what you are working with, but it's that diversity which makes it work. +That you can go from this zero situation, by planting the vegetables and the trees, or directly, the trees in the lines in that grass there, putting up the buffer zone, producing your compost, and then making sure that at every stage of that up growing forest there are crops that can be used. +In the beginning, maybe pineapples and beans and corn; in the second phase, there will be bananas and papayas; later on, there will be chocolate and chilies. +And then slowly, the trees start taking over, bringing in produce from the fruits, from the timber, from the fuel wood. +And finally, the sugar palm forest takes over and provides the people with permanent income. +On the top left, underneath those green stripes, you see some white dots -- those are actually individual pineapple plants that you can see from space. +And in that area we started growing some acacia trees that you just saw before. +So this is after one year. +And this is after two years. +And that's green. If you look from the tower -- this is when we start attacking the grass. +We plant in the seedlings mixed with the bananas, the papayas, all the crops for the local people, but the trees are growing up fast in between as well. +And three years later, 137 species of birds are living here. +So we lowered air temperature three to five degrees Celsius. +Air humidity is up 10 percent. +Cloud cover -- I'm going to show it to you -- is up. +Rainfall is up. +And all these species and income. +This ecolodge that I built here, three years before, was an empty, yellow field. +This transponder that we operate with the European Space Agency -- it gives us the benefit that every satellite that comes over to calibrate itself is taking a picture. +Those pictures we use to analyze how much carbon, how the forest is developing, and we can monitor every tree using satellite images through our cooperation. +We can use these data now to provide other regions with recipes and the same technology. +We actually have it already with Google Earth. +If you would use a little bit of your technology to put tracking devices in trucks, and use Google Earth in combination with that, you could directly tell what palm oil has been sustainably produced, which company is stealing the timber, and you could save so much more carbon than with any measure of saving energy here. +So this is the Samboja Lestari area. +You measure how the trees grow back, but you can also measure the biodiversity coming back. +And biodiversity is an indicator of how much water can be balanced, how many medicines can be kept here. +And finally I made it into the rain machine because this forest is now creating its own rain. +This nearby city of Balikpapan has a big problem with water; it's 80 percent surrounded by seawater, and we have now a lot of intrusion there. +Now we looked at the clouds above this forest; we looked at the reforestation area, the semi-open area and the open area. +And look at these images. +I'll just run them very quickly through. +In the tropics, raindrops are not formed from ice crystals, which is the case in the temperate zones, you need the trees with [unclear], chemicals that come out of the leaves of the trees that initiate the raindrops. +So you create a cool place where clouds can accumulate, and you have the trees to initiate the rain. +And look, there's now 11.2 percent more clouds -- already, after three years. +If you look at rainfall, it was already up 20 percent at that time. +Let's look at the next year, and you can see that that trend is continuing. +Where at first we had a small cap of higher rainfall, that cap is now widening and getting higher. +And if we look at the rainfall pattern above Samboja Lestari, it used to be the driest place, but now you see consistently see a peak of rain forming there. +So you can actually change the climate. +When there are trade winds of course the effect disappears, but afterwards, as soon as the wind stabilizes, you see again that the rainfall peaks come back above this area. +So to say it is hopeless is not the right thing to do, because we actually can make that difference if you integrate the various technologies. +And it's nice to have the science, but it still depends mostly upon the people, on your education. +We have our farmer schools. +But the real success of course, is our band -- because if a baby is born, we will play, so everyone's our family and you don't make trouble with your family. +This is how it looks. +We have this road going around the area, which brings the people electricity and water from our own area. +We have the zone with the sugar palms, and then we have this fence with very thorny palms to keep the orangutans -- that we provide with a place to live in the middle -- and the people apart. +And inside, we have this area for reforestation as a gene bank to keep all that material alive, because for the last 12 years not a single seedling of the tropical hardwood trees has grown up because the climatic triggers have disappeared. +All the seeds get eaten. +So now we do the monitoring on the inside -- from towers, satellites, ultralights. +Each of the families that have sold their land now get a piece of land back. +And it has two nice fences of tropical hardwood trees -- you have the shade trees planted in year one, then you underplanted with the sugar palms, and you plant this thorny fence. +And after a few years, you can remove some of those shade trees. +The people get that acacia timber which we have preserved with the bamboo peel, and they can build a house, they have some fuel wood to cook with. +And they can start producing from the trees as many as they like. +They have enough income for three families. +But whatever you do in that program, it has to be fully supported by the people, meaning that you also have to adjust it to the local, cultural values. +There is no simple one recipe for one place. +You also have to make sure that it is very difficult to corrupt -- that it's transparent. +Like here, in Samboja Lestari, we divide that ring in groups of 20 families. +If one member trespasses the agreement, and does cut down trees, the other 19 members have to decide what's going to happen to him. +If the group doesn't take action, the other 33 groups have to decide what is going to happen to the group that doesn't comply with those great deals that we are offering them. +In North Sulawesi it is the cooperative -- they have a democratic culture there, so there you can use the local justice system to protect your system. +In summary, if you look at it, in year one the people can sell their land to get income, but they get jobs back in the construction and the reforestation, the working with the orangutans, and they can use the waste wood to make handicraft. +They also get free land in between the trees, where they can grow their crops. +They can now sell part of those fruits to the orangutan project. +They get building material for houses, a contract for selling the sugar, so we can produce huge amounts of ethanol and energy locally. +They get all these other benefits: environmentally, money, they get education -- it's a great deal. +And everything is based upon that one thing -- make sure that forest remains there. +So if we want to help the orangutans -- what I actually set out to do -- we must make sure that the local people are the ones that benefit. +Now I think the real key to doing it, to give a simple answer, is integration. +I hope -- if you want to know more, you can read more. +Trees are wonderful arenas for discovery because of their tall stature, their complex structure, the biodiversity they foster and their quiet beauty. +I used to climb trees for fun all the time and now, as a grown-up, I have made my profession understanding trees and forests, through the medium of science. +The most mysterious part of forests is the upper tree canopy. +And Dr. Terry Erwin, in 1983, called the canopy, "the last biotic frontier." +I'd like to take you all on a journey up to the forest canopy, and share with you what canopy researchers are asking and also how they're communicating with other people outside of science. +Let's start our journey on the forest floor of one of my study sites in Costa Rica. +Because of the overhanging leaves and branches, you'll notice that the understory is very dark, it's very still. +And what I'd like to do is take you up to the canopy, not by putting all of you into ropes and harnesses, but rather showing you a very short clip from a National Geographic film called "Heroes of the High Frontier." +This was filmed in Monteverde, Costa Rica and I think it gives us the best impression of what it's like to climb a giant strangler fig. +So what you'll see up there is that it's really like the atmosphere of an open field, and there are tremendous numbers of plants and animals that have adapted to make their way and their life in the canopy. +Common groups, like the sloth here, have clear adaptations for forest canopies, hanging on with their very strong claws. +But I'd like to describe to you a more subtle kind of diversity and tell you about the ants. +There are 10,000 species of ants that taxonomists -- people who describe and name animals -- have named. +4,000 of those ants live exclusively in the forest canopy. +One of the reasons I tell you about ants is because of my husband, who is in fact an ant taxonomist and when we got married, he promised to name an ant after me, which he did -- Procryptocerus nalini, a canopy ant. +We've had two children, August Andrew and Erika and actually, he named ants after them. +So we may be the only family that has an ant named after each one of us. +But my passion -- in addition to Jack and my children -- are the plants, the so-called epiphytes, those plants that grow up on trees. +They don't have roots that go into trunks nor to the forest floor. +But rather, it is their leaves that are adapted to intercept the dissolved nutrients that come to them in the form of mist and fog. +These plants occur in great diversity, over 28,000 species around the world. +They grow in tropical forests like this one and they also grow in temperate rainforests, that we find in Washington state. +These epiphytes are mainly dominated by the mosses. +One thing I want to point out is that underneath these live epiphytes, as they die and decompose, they actually construct an arboreal soil, both in the temperate zone and in the tropics. +And these mosses, generated by decomposing, are like peat moss in your garden. +They have a tremendous capacity for holding on to nutrients and water. +One of the surprising things I discovered is that, if you pull back with me on those mats of epiphytes, what you'll find underneath them are connections, networks of what we call canopy roots. +These are not epiphyte roots: these are roots that emerge from the trunk and branch of the host trees themselves. +And so those epiphytes are actually paying the landlord a bit of rent in exchange for being supported high above the forest floor. +I was interested, and my canopy researcher colleagues have been interested in the dynamics of the canopy plants that live in the forest. +We've done stripping experiments where we've removed mats of epiphytes and looked at the rates of recolonization. +We had predicted that they would grow back very quickly and that they would come in encroaching from the side. +What we found, however, was that they took an extremely long time -- over 20 years -- to regenerate, starting from the bottom and growing up. +And even now, after 25 years, they're not up there, they have not recolonized completely. +And I use this little image to say this is what happens to mosses. +If it's gone, it's gone, and if you're really lucky you might get something growing back from the bottom. +So, recolonization is really very slow. +These canopy communities are fragile. +Well, when we look out, you and I, over that canopy of the intact primary forest, what we see is this enormous carpet of carbon. +One of the challenges that canopy researchers are attacking today is trying to understand the amount of carbon that is being sequestered. +We know it's a lot, but we do not yet know the answers to how much, and by what processes, carbon is being taken out of the atmosphere, held in its biomass, and moving on through the ecosystem. +So I hope I've showed you that canopy-dwellers are not just insignificant bits of green up high in the canopy that Tarzan and Jane were interested in, but rather that they foster biodiversity contribute to ecosystem nutrient cycles, and they also help to keep our global climate stable. +Up in the canopy, if you were sitting next to me and you turned around from those primary forest ecosystems, you would also see scenes like this. +Scenes of forest destruction, forest harvesting and forest fragmentation, thereby making that intact tapestry of the canopy unable to function in the marvelous ways that it has when it is not disturbed by humans. +I've also looked out on urban places like this and thought about people who are disassociated from trees in their lives. +People who grew up in a place like this did not have the opportunity to climb trees and form a relationship with trees and forests, as I did when I was a young girl. +This troubles me. +Here in 2009, you know, it's not an easy thing to be a forest ecologist, gripping ourselves with these kinds of questions and trying to figure out how we can answer them. +And especially, you know, as a small brown woman in a little college, in the upper northwest part of our country, far away from the areas of power and money, I really have to ask myself, "What can I do about this? +How can I reconnect people with trees?" +Well, I think that I can do something. +I know that as a scientist, I have information and as a human being, I can communicate with anybody, inside or outside of academia. +And so, that's what I've begin doing, and so I'd like to unveil the International Canopy Network here. +We consult to the media about canopy questions; we have a canopy newsletter; we have an email LISTSERV. +And so we're trying to disseminate information about the importance of the canopy, the beauty of the canopy, the necessity of intact canopies, to people outside of academia. +We also recognize that a lot of the products that we make -- those videos and so forth -- you know, they don't reach everybody, and so we've been fostering projects that reach people outside of academia, and outside of the choir that most ecologists preach to. +Treetop Barbie is a great example of that. +What we do, my students in my lab and I, is we buy Barbies from Goodwill and Value Village, we dress her in clothes that have been made by seamstresses and we send her out with a canopy handbook. +And my feeling is -- Thank you. +-- that we've taken this pop icon and we have just tweaked her a little bit to become an ambassador who can carry the message that being a woman scientist studying treetops is actually a really great thing. +We've also made partnerships with artists, with people who understand and can communicate the aesthetic beauty of trees and forest canopies. +And I'd like to just tell you one of our projects, which is the generation of Canopy Confluences. +What I do is I bring together scientists and artists of all kinds, and we spend a week in the forest on these little platforms; and we look at nature, we look at trees, we look at the canopy, and we communicate, and exchange, and express what we see together. +The results have been fantastic. +I'll just give you a few examples. +This is a fantastic installation by Bruce Chao who is chair of the Sculpture and Glass Blowing Department at Rhode Island School of Design. +He saw nests in the canopy at one of our Canopy Confluences in the Pacific Northwest, and created this beautiful sculpture. +We've had dance people up in the canopy. +Jodi Lomask, and her wonderful troupe Capacitor, joined me in the canopy in my rainforest site in Costa Rica. +They made a fabulous dance called "Biome." +They danced in the forest, and we are taking this dance, my scientific outreach communications, and also linking up with environmental groups, to go to different cities and to perform the science, the dance and the environmental outreach that we hope will make a difference. +We brought musicians to the canopy, and they made their music -- and it's fantastic music. +We had wooden flutists, we had oboists, we had opera singers, we had guitar players, and we had rap singers. +And I brought a little segment to give you of Duke Brady's "Canopy Rap." +That's Duke! +This experience of working with Duke also led me to initiate a program called Sound Science. +I saw the power of Duke's song with urban youth -- an audience, you know, I as a middle-aged professor, I don't have a hope of getting to -- in terms of convincing them of the importance of wildlands. +So I engaged Caution, this rap singer, with a group of young people from inner-city Tacoma. +We went out to the forest, I would pick up a branch, Caution would rap on it, and suddenly that branch was really cool. +And then the students would come into our sound studios, they would make their own rap songs with their own beats. +They ended up making a CD which they took home to their family and friends, thereby expressing their own experiences with nature in their own medium. +The final project I'll talk about is one that's very close to my heart, and it involves an economic and social value that is associated with epiphytic plants. +In the Pacific Northwest, there's a whole industry of moss-harvesting from old-growth forests. +These mosses are taken from the forest; they're used by the floriculture industry, by florists, to make arrangements and make hanging baskets. +It's a 265 million dollar industry and it's increasing rapidly. +If you remember that bald guy, you'll know that what has been stripped off of these trunks in the Pacific Northwest old-growth forest is going to take decades and decades to come back. +So this whole industry is unsustainable. +What can I, as an ecologist, do about that? +Well, my thought was that I could learn how to grow mosses, and that way we wouldn't have to take them out of the wild. +And I thought, if I had some partners that could help me with this, that would be great. +And so, I thought perhaps incarcerated men and women -- who don't have access to nature, who often have a lot of time, they often have space, and you don't need any sharp tools to work with mosses -- would be great partners. +And they have become excellent partners. +The best I can imagine. +They were very enthusiastic. +They were incredibly enthusiastic about the work. +They learned how to distinguish different species of mosses, which, to tell you the truth, is a lot more than my undergraduate students at the Evergreen College can do. +And they embraced the idea that they could help develop a research design in order to grow these mosses. +We've been successful as partners in figuring out which species grow the fastest, and I've just been overwhelmed with how successful this has been. +Because the prison wardens were very enthusiastic about this as well, I started a Science and Sustainability Seminar in the prisons. +I brought my scientific colleagues and sustainability practitioners into the prison. +We gave talks once a month, and that actually ended up implementing some amazing sustainability projects at the prisons -- organic gardens, worm culture, recycling, water catchment and beekeeping. Our latest endeavor, with a grant from the Department of Corrections at Washington state, they've asked us to expand this program to three more prisons. +And our new project is having the inmates and ourselves learn how to raise the Oregon spotted frog which is a highly endangered amphibian in Washington state and Oregon. +So they will raise them -- in captivity, of course -- from eggs to tadpoles and onward to frogs. +And they will have the pleasure, many of them, of seeing those frogs that they've raised from eggs and helped develop, helped nurture, move out into protected wildlands to augment the number of endangered species out there in the wild. +And so, I think for many reasons -- ecological, social, economic and perhaps even spiritual -- this has been a tremendous project and I'm really looking forward to not only myself and my students doing it, but also to promote and teach other scientists how to do this. +As many of you are aware, the world of academia is a rather inward-looking one. +I'm trying to help researchers move more outward to have their own partnerships with people outside of the academic community. +And so I'm hoping that my husband Jack, the ant taxonomist, can perhaps work with Mattel to make Taxonomist Ken. +Perhaps Ben Zander and Bill Gates could get together and make an opera about AIDS. +Or perhaps Al Gore and Naturally 7 could make a song about climate change that would really make you clap your hands. +So, although it's a little bit of a fantasy, I think it's also a reality. +Given the duress that we're feeling environmentally in these times, it is time for scientists to reach outward, and time for those outside of science to reach towards academia as well. +I started my career with trying to understand the mysteries of forests with the tools of science. +By making these partnerships that I described to you, I have really opened my mind and, I have to say, my heart to have a greater understanding, to make other discoveries about nature and myself. +When I look into my heart, I see trees -- this is actually an image of a real heart -- there are trees in our hearts, there are trees in your hearts. +When we come to understand nature, we are touching the most deep, the most important parts of our self. +In these partnerships, I have also learned that people tend to compartmentalize themselves into IT people, and movie star people, and scientists, but when we share nature, when we share our perspectives about nature, we find a common denominator. +Finally, as a scientist and as a person and now, as part of the TED community, I feel that I have better tools to go out to trees, to go out to forests, to go out to nature, to make new discoveries about nature -- and about humans' place in nature wherever we are and whomever you are. +Thank you very much. +The "Dirty Jobs" crew and I were called to a little town in Colorado, called Craig. +It's only a couple dozen square miles. It's in the Rockies. +And the job in question was sheep rancher. +My role on the show, for those of you who haven't seen it -- it's pretty simple. +I'm an apprentice, and I work with the people who actually do the jobs in question. +And my responsibilities are to simply try and keep up and give an honest account of what it's like to be these people, for one day in their life. +The job in question: herding sheep. Great. +We go to Craig and we check in to a hotel and I realize the next day that castration is going to be an absolute part of this work. +So, normally, I never do any research at all. +But, this is a touchy subject, and I work for the Discovery Channel, and we want to portray accurately whatever it is we do, and we certainly want to do it with a lot of respect for the animals. +So I called the Humane Society and I say, "Look, I'm going to be castrating some lambs, Can you tell me the deal?" +And they're like, "Yeah, it's pretty straightforward." +They use a band -- basically a rubber band, like this, only a little smaller. +This one was actually around the playing cards I got yesterday, but it had a certain familiarity to it. +And I said, "Well, what exactly is the process?" +And they said, "The band is applied to the tail, tightly. +And then another band is applied to the scrotum, tightly. +Blood flow is slowly retarded; a week later the parts in question fall off. +"Great -- got it." +OK, I call the SPCA to confirm this -- they confirm it. +I also call PETA, just for fun, and they don't like it -- but they confirm it. +OK, that's basically how you do it. +So the next day I go out. +And I'm given a horse and we go get the lambs and we take them to a pen that we built, and we go about the business of animal husbandry. +Melanie is the wife of Albert. +Albert is the shepherd in question. +Melanie picks up the lamb -- two hands -- one hand on both legs on the right, likewise on the left. +Lamb goes on the post, she opens it up. +Alright. Great. +Albert goes in, I follow Albert, the crew is around. +I always watch the process done the first time before I try it. +Being an apprentice, you know, you do that. +Albert reaches in his pocket to pull out, you know, this black rubber band but what comes out instead is a knife. +And I'm like that's not rubber at all, you know. +And he kind of flicked it open in a way that caught the sun that was just coming over the Rockies, it was very -- it was, it was impressive. +In the space of about two seconds, Albert had the knife between the cartilage of the tail, right next to the butt of the lamb, and very quickly the tail was gone and in the bucket that I was holding. +A second later, with a big thumb and a well calloused forefinger, he had the scrotum firmly in his grasp. +And he pulled it toward him, like so, and he took the knife and he put it on the tip. +Now you think you know what's coming, Michael -- you don't, OK? +He snips it, throws the tip over his shoulder, and then grabs the scrotum and pushes it upward, and then his head dips down, obscuring my view, but what I hear is a slurping sound, and a noise that sounds like Velcro being yanked off a sticky wall and I am not even kidding. +Can we roll the video? +No I'm kidding -- we don't -- I thought it best to talk in pictures. +So, I do something now I've never ever done on a "Dirty Jobs" shoot, ever. +I say, "Time out. Stop." +You guys know the show, we use take one, we don't do take two. +There's no writing, there's no scripting, there's no nonsense. +We don't fool around, we don't rehearse -- we shoot what we get! +I said, "Stop. This is nuts." +I mean, you know. +"This is crazy. +We can't do this." +And Albert's like, "What?" +And I'm like, "I don't know what just happened, but there are testicles in this bucket and that's not how we do it." +And he said "Well, that's how we do it." +And I said, "Why would you do it this way?" +And before I even let him explain, I said, "I want to do it the right way, with the rubber bands." +And he says, "Like the Humane Society?" +And I said, "Yes, like the Humane Society. +Let's do something that doesn't make the lamb squeal and bleed -- we're on in five continents, dude. +We're on twice a day on the Discovery Channel -- we can't do this." +He says, "OK." +He goes to his box and he pulls out a bag of these little rubber bands. +Melanie picks up another lamb, puts it on the post, band goes on the tail, band goes on the scrotum. +Lamb goes on the ground, lamb takes two steps, falls down, gets up, shakes a little, takes another couple steps, falls down. +I'm like, this is not a good sign for this lamb, at all. +Gets up, walks to the corner, it's quivering, and it lies down and it's in obvious distress. +And I'm looking at the lamb and I say, "Albert, how long? +When does he get up?" +He's like, "A day." +I said, "A day! How long does it take them to fall off?" +"A week." +Meanwhile, the lamb that he had just did his little procedure on is, you know, he's just prancing around, bleeding stopped. +He's, you know, nibbling on some grass, frolicking. +And I was just so blown away at how wrong I was, in that second. +And I was reminded how utterly wrong I am, so much of the time. +Albert hands me the knife. +I go in, tail comes off. +I go in, I grab the scrotum, tip comes off. +Albert instructs, "Push it way up there." +I do. +"Push it further." +I do. +The testicles emerge -- they look like thumbs, coming right at you -- and he says, "Bite 'em. +Just bite 'em off." +And I heard him, I heard all the words. +Like, how did -- how did I get here? +How did -- you know -- I mean -- how did I get here? +It's just -- it's one of those moments where the brain goes off on it's own: and suddenly, I'm standing there, in the Rockies, and all I can think of is the Aristotelian definition of a tragedy. +You know, Aristotle says a tragedy is that moment when the hero comes face to face with his true identity. +And I'm like, "What is this jacked-up metaphor? +I don't like what I'm thinking right now." +And I can't get this thought out of my head, and I can't get that vision out of my sight, so I did what I had to do. +I went in and I took them. +I took them like this, and I yanked my face back. +And I'm standing there with two testicles on my chin. +And now I can't get -- I can't shake the metaphor. +OK, I'm still in "Poetics," in Aristotle, and I'm thinking -- out of nowhere, two terms come crashing into my head that I haven't heard since my classics professor in college drilled them there. +And they are anagnorisis and peripeteia. +Anagnorisis and peripeteia. +Anagnorisis is the Greek word for discovery. +Literally, the transition from ignorance to knowledge is anagnorisis. +It's what our network does; it's what "Dirty Jobs" is. +And I'm up to my neck in anagnorises every single day. +Great. +The other word, peripeteia, that's the moment in the great tragedies, you know -- Euripides and Sophocles -- the moment where Oedipus has his moment, where he suddenly realizes that hot chick he's been sleeping with and having babies with is his mother. OK. +That's peripety or peripeteia. +And this metaphor in my head -- I got anagnorisis and peripetia on my chin. +I got to tell you, it's such a great device though. +When you start to look for peripetia, you find it everywhere. +I mean, Bruce Willis in "The Sixth Sense," right? +Spends the whole movie trying to help the little kid who sees dead people, and then, boom -- "Oh, I'm dead" -- peripetia. +You know? +It's crushing when the audience sees it the right way. +Neo in "The Matrix," you know? +"Oh, I'm living in a computer program" -- that's weird. +These discoveries that lead to sudden realizations; and I've been having them, over 200 dirty jobs, I have them all the time, but that one -- that one drilled something home in a way that I just wasn't prepared for. +And, as I stood there, looking at the happy lamb that I had just defiled -- but it looked OK. +Looking at that poor other little thing that I'd done it the right way on, and I just was struck by if I'm wrong about that and if I'm wrong so often, in a literal way, what other peripatetic misconceptions might I be able to comment upon? +Because, look, I'm not a social anthropologist but I have a friend who is. +And I talk to him. +And he says, "Hey Mike. +Look, I don't know if your brain is interested in this sort of thing or not, but do you realize you've shot in every state? +You've worked in mining, you've worked in fishing, you've worked in steel, you've worked in every major industry. +You've had your back shoulder to shoulder with these guys that our politicians are desperate to relate to every four years, right?" +I can still see Hillary doing the shots of rye, dribbling down her chin, with the steel workers. +I mean, these are the people that I work with every single day. +"And if you have something to say about their thoughts, collectively, it might be time to think about it. +Because, dude, you know, four years." +You know, that's in my head, testicles are on my chin, thoughts are bouncing around. +And, after that shoot, Dirty Jobs really didn't change, in terms of what the show is, but it changed for me, personally. +And now, when I talk about the show, I no longer just tell the story you heard and 190 like it. +I do, but I also start to talk about some of the other things I got wrong, some of the other notions of work that I've just been assuming are sacrosanct, and they're not. +People with dirty jobs are happier than you think. +As a group, they're the happiest people I know. +And I don't want to start whistling "Look for the Union Label," and all that happy worker crap. +I'm just telling you that these are balanced people who do unthinkable work. +Roadkill picker-uppers whistle while they work. I swear to God -- I did it with them. +They've got this amazing sort of symmetry to their life. +And I see it over and over and over again. +So I started to wonder what would happen if we challenged some of these sacred cows. +Follow your passion -- we've been talking about it here for the last 36 hours. +Follow your passion -- what could possibly be wrong with that? +Probably the worst advice I ever got. +You know, follow your dreams and go broke, right? +I mean, that's all I heard growing up. +I didn't know what to do with my life, but I was told if you follow your passion, it's going to work out. +I can give you 30 examples, right now -- Bob Combs, the pig farmer in Las Vegas who collects the uneaten scraps of food from the casinos and feeds them them to his swine. +Why? Because there's so much protein in the stuff we don't eat his pigs grow at twice the normal speed, and he is one rich pig farmer, and he is good for the environment, and he spends his days doing this incredible service, and he smells like hell, but God bless him. +He's making a great living. +You ask him, "Did you follow your passion here?" +and he'd laugh at you. +The guy's worth -- he just got offered like 60 million dollars for his farm and turned it down, outside of Vegas. +He didn't follow his passion. +He stepped back and he watched where everybody was going and he went the other way. +And I hear that story over and over. +Matt Froind, a dairy farmer in New Canaan, Connecticut, who woke up one day and realized the crap from his cows was worth more than their milk, if he could use it to make these biodegradable flower pots. +Now, he's selling them to Walmart. +Follow his passion? The guy's -- come on. +So I started to look at passion, I started to look at efficiency versus effectiveness -- as Tim talked about earlier, that's a huge distinction. +I started to look at teamwork and determination, and basically all those platitudes they call "successories" that hang with that schmaltzy art in boardrooms around the world right now. +That stuff -- it's suddenly all been turned on its head. +Safety -- safety first? +Going back to, you know, OSHA and PETA and the Humane Society: what if OSHA got it wrong? +I mean -- this is heresy, what I'm about to say -- but what if it's really safety third? +Right? +No, I mean really. +What I mean to say is I value my safety on these crazy jobs as much as the people that I'm working with, but the ones who really get it done, they're not out there talking about safety first. +They know that other things come first -- the business of doing the work comes first, the business of getting it done. +And I'll never forget, up in the Bering Sea, I was on a crab boat with the "Deadliest Catch" guys -- which I also work on -- in the first season. +We're about 100 miles off the coast of Russia: 50-foot seas, big waves, green water coming over the wheelhouse, right? +Most hazardous environment I'd ever seen, and I was back with a guy, lashing the pots down. +So, I'm 40 feet off the deck, which is like looking down at the top of your shoe, you know, and it's doing this in the ocean. +Unspeakably dangerous. +I scamper down, I go into the wheelhouse and I say, with some level of incredulity, "Captain, OSHA." +And he says, "OSHA? Ocean." +And he points out there. +But in that moment, what he said next can't be repeated in the lower 48. +It can't be repeated on any factory floor or any construction site. +But he looked at me, and he said, "Son" -- he's my age, by the way, he calls me son, I love that -- he says, "Son, I'm a captain of a crab boat. +My responsibility is not to get you home alive. +My responsibility is to get you home rich." +You want to get home alive, that's on you. +And for the rest of that day, safety first. +I was like -- So, the idea that we create this false -- this sense of complacency when all we do is talk about somebody else's responsibility as though it's our own, and vice versa. +Anyhow, a whole lot of things. +I could talk at length about the many little distinctions we made and the endless list of ways that I got it wrong. +But, what it all comes down to is this. +I formed a theory, and I'm going to share it now in my remaining two minutes and 30 seconds. +It goes like this -- we've declared war on work, as a society, all of us. +It's a civil war. +It's a cold war, really. +We didn't set out to do it and we didn't twist our mustache in some Machiavellian way, but we've done it. +And we've waged this war on at least four fronts, certainly in Hollywood. +The way we portray working people on TV -- it's laughable. +If there's a plumber, he's 300 pounds and he's got a giant butt crack. Admit it. +You see him all the time. +That's what plumbers look like, right? +We turn them into heroes, or we turn them into punch lines. +That's what TV does. +We try hard on "Dirty Jobs" not to do that, which is why I do the work and I don't cheat. +But, we've waged this war on Madison Avenue. +I mean, so many of the commercials that come out there -- in the way of a message, what's really being said? +Your life would be better if you could work a little less, if you didn't have to work so hard, if you could get home a little earlier, if you could retire a little faster, if you could punch out a little sooner -- it's all in there, over and over, again and again. +Washington? I can't even begin to talk about the deals and policies in place that affect the bottom line reality of the available jobs because I don't really know. +I just know that that's a front in this war. +And right here guys, Silicon Valley, I mean -- how many people have an iPhone on them right now? +How many people have their Blackberries? +We're plugged in; we're connected. +I would never suggest for a second that something bad has come out of the tech revolution. +Good grief, not to this crowd. +But I would suggest that innovation without imitation is a complete waste of time. +And nobody celebrates imitation the way "Dirty Jobs" guys know it has to be done. +Your iPhone without those people making the same interface, the same circuitry, the same board, over and over? +All of that? That's what makes it equally as possible as the genius that goes inside of it. +So, we've got this new toolbox, you know. +Our tools today don't look like shovels and picks. +They look like the stuff we walk around with. +And so the collective effect of all of that has been this marginalization of lots and lots of jobs. +And I realized, probably too late in this game -- I hope not, because I don't know if I can do 200 more of these things -- but we're going to do as many as we can. +And to me the most important thing to know and to really come face to face with, is that fact that I got it wrong about a lot of things, not just the testicles on my chin. +I got a lot wrong. +So, we're thinking -- by we, I mean me -- that the thing to do is to talk about a PR campaign for work, manual labor, skilled labor. +Somebody needs to be out there talking about the forgotten benefits. +I'm talking about grandfather stuff, the stuff a lot us probably grew up with but we've kind of -- you know, kind of lost a little. +Barack wants to create two and a half million jobs. +The infrastructure is a huge deal. +This war on work, that I suppose exists, has casualties like any other war. +The infrastructure's the first one; declining trade-school enrollments are the second one. +Every single year: fewer electricians, fewer carpenters, fewer plumbers, fewer welders, fewer pipefitters, fewer steamfitters. +The infrastructure jobs that everybody is talking about creating are those guys -- the ones that have been in decline, over and over. +Meanwhile, we've got two trillion dollars -- at a minimum, according to the American Society of Civil Engineers -- that we need to expend to even make a dent in the infrastructure, which is currently rated at a D minus. +So, if I were running for anything, and I'm not, I would simply say that the jobs we hope to make and the jobs we hope to create aren't going to stick unless they're jobs that people want. +And I know the point of this conference is to celebrate things that are near and dear to us, but I also know that clean and dirty aren't opposites. +They're two sides of the same coin, just like innovation and imitation, like risk and responsibility, like peripetia and anagnorisis, like that poor little lamb, who I hope isn't quivering anymore, and like my time that's gone. +It's been great talking to you and get back to work, will you? +The new me is beauty. +Yeah, people used to say, "Norman's OK, but if you followed what he said, everything would be usable but it would be ugly." +Well, I didn't have that in mind, so ... +This is neat. +Thank you for setting up my display. +I mean, it's just wonderful. +And I haven't the slightest idea of what it does or what it's good for, but I want it. +And that's my new life. +My new life is trying to understand what beauty is about, and "pretty," and "emotions." +The new me is all about making things kind of neat and fun. +And so this is a Philippe Starck juicer, produced by Alessi. +It's just neat; it's fun. It's so much fun I have it in my house -- but I have it in the entryway, I don't use it to make juice. +In fact, I bought the gold-plated special edition and it comes with a little slip of paper that says, "Don't use this juicer to make juice." +The acid will ruin the gold plating. +So actually, I took a carton of orange juice and I poured it in the glass to take this picture. +Beneath it is a wonderful knife. +It's a Global cutting knife made in Japan. +First of all, look at the shape -- it's just wonderful to look at. +Second of all, it's really beautifully balanced: it holds well, it feels well. +And third of all, it's so sharp, it just cuts. +It's a delight to use. +And so it's got everything, right? +It's beautiful and it's functional. +And I can tell you stories about it, which makes it reflective, and so you'll see I have a theory of emotion. +And those are the three components. +Hiroshi Ishii and his group at the MIT Media Lab took a ping-pong table and placed a projector above it, and on the ping-pong table they projected an image of water with fish swimming in it. +And as you play ping-pong, whenever the ball hits part of the table, the ripples spread out and the fish run away. +But of course, then the ball hits the other side, the ripples hit the -- poor fish, they can't find any peace and quiet. +Is that a good way to play ping-pong? +No. But is it fun? +Yeah! Yeah. +Or look at Google. +If you type in, oh say, "emotion and design," you get 10 pages of results. +So Google just took their logo and they spread it out. +Instead of saying, "You got 73,000 results. +This is one through 20. Next," they just give you as many o's as there are pages. +It's really simple and subtle. +I bet a lot of you have seen it and never noticed it. +That's the subconscious mind that sort of notices it -- it probably is kind of pleasant and you didn't know why. +And it's just clever. +And of course, what's especially good is, if you type "design and emotion," the first response out of those 10 pages is my website. +Now, the weird thing is Google lies, because if I type "design and emotion," it says, "You don't need the 'and.' We do it anyway." +So, OK. +So I type "design emotion" and my website wasn't first again. +It was third. +Oh well, different story. +There was this wonderful review in The New York Times about the MINI Cooper automobile. +It said, "You know, this is a car that has lots of faults. +Buy it anyway. +It's so much fun to drive." +And if you look at the inside of the car -- I mean, I loved it, I wanted to see it, I rented it, this is me taking a picture while my son is driving -- and the inside of the car, the whole design is fun. +It's round, it's neat. +The controls work wonderfully. +So that's my new life; it's all about fun. +I really have the feeling that pleasant things work better, and that never made any sense to me until I finally figured out -- look ... +I'm going to put a plank on the ground. +So, imagine I have a plank about two feet wide and 30 feet long and I'm going to walk on it, and you see I can walk on it without looking, I can go back and forth and I can jump up and down. +No problem. +Now I'm going to put the plank 300 feet in the air -- and I'm not going to go near it, thank you. +Intense fear paralyzes you. +It actually affects the way the brain works. +So, Paul Saffo, before his talk said that he didn't really have it down until just a few days or hours before the talk, and that anxiety was really helpful in causing him to focus. +That's what fear and anxiety does; it causes you to be -- what's called depth-first processing -- to focus, not be distracted. +And I couldn't force myself across that. +Now some people can -- circus workers, steel workers. +But it really changes the way you think. +And then, a psychologist, Alice Isen, did this wonderful experiment. +She brought students in to solve problems. +So, she'd bring people into the room, and there'd be a string hanging down here and a string hanging down here. +It was an empty room, except for a table with a bunch of crap on it -- some papers and scissors and stuff. +And she'd bring them in, and she'd say, "This is an IQ test and it determines how well you do in life. +Would you tie those two strings together?" +So they'd take one string and they'd pull it over here and they couldn't reach the other string. +Still can't reach it. +And, basically, none of them could solve it. +You bring in a second group of people, and you say, "Oh, before we start, I got this box of candy, and I don't eat candy. +Would you like the box of candy?" +And turns out they liked it, and it made them happy -- not very happy, but a little bit of happy. +And guess what -- they solved the problem. +And it turns out that when you're anxious you squirt neural transmitters in the brain, which focuses you makes you depth-first. +And when you're happy -- what we call positive valence -- you squirt dopamine into the prefrontal lobes, which makes you a breadth-first problem solver: you're more susceptible to interruption; you do out-of-the-box thinking. +That's what brainstorming is about, right? +With brainstorming we make you happy, we play games, and we say, "No criticism," and you get all these weird, neat ideas. +But in fact, if that's how you always were you'd never get any work done because you'd be working along and say, "Oh, I got a new way of doing it." +So to get work done, you've got to set a deadline, right? +You've got be anxious. +The brain works differently if you're happy. Things work better because you're more creative. +You get a little problem, you say, "Ah, I'll figure it out." +No big deal. +There's something I call the visceral level of processing, and there will be visceral-level design. +Biology -- we have co-adapted through biology to like bright colors. +That's especially good that mammals and primates like fruits and bright plants, because you eat the fruit and you thereby spread the seed. +There's an amazing amount of stuff that's built into the brain. +We dislike bitter tastes, we dislike loud sounds, we dislike hot temperatures, cold temperatures. +We dislike scolding voices. We dislike frowning faces; we like symmetrical faces, etc., etc. +So that's the visceral level. +In design, you can express visceral in lots of ways, like the choice of type fonts and the red for hot, exciting. +Or the 1963 Jaguar: It's actually a crummy car, falls apart all the time, but the owners love it. +And it's beautiful -- it's in the Museum of Modern Art. +A water bottle: You buy it because of the bottle, not because of the water. +And when people are finished, they don't throw it away. +They keep it for -- you know, it's like the old wine bottles, you keep it for decoration or maybe fill it with water again, which proves it's not the water. +It's all about the visceral experience. +The middle level of processing is the behavioral level and that's actually where most of our stuff gets done. +Visceral is subconscious, you're unaware of it. +Behavioral is subconscious, you're unaware of it. +Almost everything we do is subconscious. +I'm walking around the stage -- I'm not attending to the control of my legs. +I'm doing a lot; most of my talk is subconscious; it has been rehearsed and thought about a lot. +Most of what we do is subconscious. +Automatic behavior -- skilled behavior -- is subconscious, controlled by the behavioral side. +And behavioral design is all about feeling in control, which includes usability, understanding -- but also the feel and heft. +That's why the Global knives are so neat. +They're so nicely balanced, so sharp, that you really feel you're in control of the cutting. +Or, just driving a high-performance sports car over a demanding curb -- again, feeling that you are in complete control of the environment. +Or the sensual feeling. +This is a Kohler shower, a waterfall shower, and actually, all those knobs beneath are also showerheads. +It will squirt you all around and you can stay in that shower for hours -- and not waste water, by the way, because it recirculates the same dirty water. +Or this -- this is a really neat teapot I found at high tea at The Four Seasons Hotel in Chicago. +It's a Ronnefeldt tilting teapot. +That's kind of what the teapot looks like but the way you use it is you lay it on its back, and you put tea in, and then you fill it with water. +The water then seeps over the tea. +And the tea is sitting in this stuff to the right -- the tea is to the right of this line. +There's a little ledge inside, so the tea is sitting there and the water is filling it up like that. +And when the tea is ready, or almost ready, you tilt it. +And that means the tea is partially covered while it completes the brewing. +And when it's finished, you put it vertically, and now the tea is -- you remember -- above this line and the water only comes to here -- and so it keeps the tea out. +On top of that, it communicates, which is what emotion does. +Emotion is all about acting; emotion is really about acting. +It's being safe in the world. +Cognition is about understanding the world, emotion is about interpreting it -- saying good, bad, safe, dangerous, and getting us ready to act, which is why the muscles tense or relax. +And that's why we can tell the emotion of somebody else -- because their muscles are acting, subconsciously, except that we've evolved to make the facial muscles really rich with emotion. +Well, this has emotions if you like, because it signals the waiter that, "Hey, I'm finished. See -- upright." +And the waiter can come by and say, "Would you like more water?" +It's kind of neat. What a wonderful design. +And the third level is reflective, which is, if you like the superego, it's a little part of the brain that has no control over what you do, no control over the -- doesn't see the senses, doesn't control the muscles. +It looks over what's going on. +It's that little voice in your head that's watching and saying, "That's good. That's bad." +Or, "Why are you doing that? I don't understand." +It's that little voice in your head that's the seat of consciousness. +Here's a great reflective product. +Owners of the Hummer have said, "You know I've owned many cars in my life -- all sorts of exotic cars, but never have I had a car that attracted so much attention." +It's about attention. It's about their image, not about the car. +If you want a more positive model -- this is the GM car. +And the reason you might buy it now is because you care about the environment. +And you'll buy it to protect the environment, even though the first few cars are going to be really expensive and not perfected. +But that's reflective design as well. +Or an expensive watch, so you can impress people -- "Oh gee, I didn't know you had that watch." +As opposed to this one, which is a pure behavioral watch, which probably keeps better time than the $13,000 watch I just showed you. +But it's ugly. +This is a clear Don Norman watch. +And what's neat is sometimes you pit one emotion against the other, the visceral fear of falling against the reflective state saying, "It's OK. It's OK. It's safe. It's safe." +If that amusement park were rusty and falling apart, you'd never go on the ride. +So, it's pitting one against the other. +The other neat thing ... +So Jake Cress is this furniture maker, and he makes this unbelievable set of furniture. +And this is his chair with claw, and the poor little chair has lost its ball and it's trying to get it back before anybody notices. +And what's so neat about it is how you accept that story. +And that's what's nice about emotion. +So that's the new me. +I'm only saying positive things from now on. +I've been intrigued by this question of whether we could evolve or develop a sixth sense -- a sense that would give us seamless access and easy access to meta-information or information that may exist somewhere that may be relevant to help us make the right decision about whatever it is that we're coming across. +And some of you may argue, "Well, don't today's cell phones do that already?" +But I would say no. +When you meet someone here at TED -- and this is the top networking place, of course, of the year -- you don't shake somebody's hand and then say, "Can you hold on for a moment while I take out my phone and Google you?" +Or when you go to the supermarket and you're standing there in that huge aisle of different types of toilet papers, you don't take out your cell phone, and open a browser, and go to a website to try to decide which of these different toilet papers is the most ecologically responsible purchase to make. +So we don't really have easy access to all this relevant information that can just help us make optimal decisions about what to do next and what actions to take. +And so my research group at the Media Lab has been developing a series of inventions to give us access to this information in a sort of easy way, without requiring that the user changes any of their behavior. +And I'm here to unveil our latest effort, and most successful effort so far, which is still very much a work in process. +I'm actually wearing the device right now and we've sort of cobbled it together with components that are off the shelf -- and that, by the way, only cost 350 dollars at this point in time. +I'm wearing a camera, just a simple web cam, a portable, battery-powered projection system with a little mirror. +These components communicate to my cell phone in my pocket which acts as the communication and computation device. +And in the video here we see my student Pranav Mistry, who's really the genius who's been implementing and designing this whole system. +And we see how this system lets him walk up to any surface and start using his hands to interact with the information that is projected in front of him. +The system tracks the four significant fingers. +In this case, he's wearing simple marker caps that you may recognize. +But if you want a more stylish version, you could also paint your nails in different colors. +And the camera basically tracks these four fingers and recognizes any gestures that he's making so he can just go to, for example, a map of Long Beach, zoom in and out, etc. +The system also recognizes iconic gestures such as the "take a picture" gesture, and then takes a picture of whatever is in front of you. +And when he then walks back to the Media Lab, he can just go up to any wall and project all the pictures that he's taken, sort through them and organize them, and re-size them, etc., again using all natural gestures. +So, some of you most likely were here two years ago and saw the demo by Jeff Han, or some of you may think, "Well, doesn't this look like the Microsoft Surface Table?" +And yes, you also interact using natural gestures, both hands, etc. +But the difference here is that you can use any surface, you can walk up to any surface, including your hand, if nothing else is available, and interact with this projected data. +The device is completely portable, and can be -- (Applause ends) So, one important difference is that it's totally mobile. +Another even more important difference is that in mass production, this would not cost more tomorrow than today's cell phones and would actually not sort of be a bigger packaging -- could look a lot more stylish than this version that I'm wearing around my neck. +So we see Pranav here going into the supermarket and he's shopping for some paper towels. +And, as he picks up a product, the system can recognize the product that he's picking up, using either image recognition or marker technology, and give him the green light or an orange light. +He can ask for additional information. +So this particular choice here is a particularly good choice, given his personal criteria. +Some of you may want the toilet paper with the most bleach in it rather than the most ecologically responsible choice. +If he picks up a book in the bookstore, he can get an Amazon rating -- it gets projected right on the cover of the book. +This is Juan's book, our previous speaker, which gets a great rating, by the way, at Amazon. +And so, Pranav turns the page of the book and can then see additional information about the book -- reader comments, maybe sort of information by his favorite critic, etc. +If he turns to a particular page, he finds an annotation by maybe an expert or a friend of ours that gives him a little bit of additional information about whatever is on that particular page. +Reading the newspaper -- it never has to be outdated. +You can get video annotations of the events that you're reading about. +You can get the latest sports scores, etc. +This is a more controversial one. +As you interact with someone at TED, maybe you can see a word cloud of the tags, the words that are associated with that person in their blog and personal web pages. +In this case, the student is interested in cameras, etc. +On your way to the airport, if you pick up your boarding pass, it can tell you that your flight is delayed, that the gate has changed, etc. +And, if you need to know what the current time is, it's as simple as drawing a watch -- on your arm. +So that's where we're at so far in developing this sixth sense that would give us seamless access to all this relevant information about the things that we may come across. +My student Pranav, who's really, like I said, the genius behind this. +(Applause ends) He does deserve a lot of applause, because I don't think he's slept much in the last three months, actually. +And his girlfriend is probably not very happy about him either. +But it's not perfect yet, it's very much a work in progress. +And who knows, maybe in another 10 years we'll be here with the ultimate sixth sense brain implant. +Thank you. +I was speaking to a group of about 300 kids, ages six to eight, at a children's museum, and I brought with me a bag full of legs, similar to the kinds of things you see up here, and had them laid out on a table for the kids. +And, from my experience, you know, kids are naturally curious about what they don't know, or don't understand, or is foreign to them. +They only learn to be frightened of those differences when an adult influences them to behave that way, and maybe censors that natural curiosity, or you know, reins in the question-asking in the hopes of them being polite little kids. +So I just pictured a first grade teacher out in the lobby with these unruly kids, saying, "Now, whatever you do, don't stare at her legs." +But, of course, that's the point. +That's why I was there, I wanted to invite them to look and explore. +So I made a deal with the adults that the kids could come in without any adults for two minutes on their own. +The doors open, the kids descend on this table of legs, and they are poking and prodding, and they're wiggling toes, and they're trying to put their full weight on the sprinting leg to see what happens with that. +And immediately a voice shouted, "Kangaroo!" +"No, no, no! Should be a frog!" +"No. It should be Go Go Gadget!" +"No, no, no! It should be the Incredibles." +And other things that I don't -- aren't familiar with. +And then, one eight-year-old said, "Hey, why wouldn't you want to fly too?" +And the whole room, including me, was like, "Yeah." +And just like that, I went from being a woman that these kids would have been trained to see as "disabled" to somebody that had potential that their bodies didn't have yet. +Somebody that might even be super-abled. +Interesting. +So some of you actually saw me at TED, 11 years ago. +And there's been a lot of talk about how life-changing this conference is for both speakers and attendees, and I am no exception. +TED literally was the launch pad to the next decade of my life's exploration. +At the time, the legs I presented were groundbreaking in prosthetics. +I had woven carbon fiber sprinting legs modeled after the hind leg of a cheetah, which you may have seen on stage yesterday. +And also these very life-like, intrinsically painted silicone legs. +So at the time, it was my opportunity to put a call out to innovators outside the traditional medical prosthetic community to come bring their talent to the science and to the art of building legs. +So that we can stop compartmentalizing form, function and aesthetic, and assigning them different values. +Well, lucky for me, a lot of people answered that call. +And the journey started, funny enough, with a TED conference attendee -- Chee Pearlman, who hopefully is in the audience somewhere today. +She was the editor then of a magazine called ID, and she gave me a cover story. +This started an incredible journey. +Curious encounters were happening to me at the time; I'd been accepting numerous invitations to speak on the design of the cheetah legs around the world. +And people would come up to me after the conference, after my talk, men and women. +And the conversation would go something like this, "You know Aimee, you're very attractive. +You don't look disabled." +I thought, "Well, that's amazing, because I don't feel disabled." +And it really opened my eyes to this conversation that could be explored, about beauty. +What does a beautiful woman have to look like? +What is a sexy body? +And interestingly, from an identity standpoint, what does it mean to have a disability? +I mean, people -- Pamela Anderson has more prosthetic in her body than I do. +Nobody calls her disabled. +So this magazine, through the hands of graphic designer Peter Saville, went to fashion designer Alexander McQueen, and photographer Nick Knight, who were also interested in exploring that conversation. +So, three months after TED I found myself on a plane to London, doing my first fashion shoot, which resulted in this cover -- Three months after that, I did my first runway show for Alexander McQueen on a pair of hand-carved wooden legs made from solid ash. +Nobody knew -- everyone thought they were wooden boots. +Actually, I have them on stage with me: grapevines, magnolias -- truly stunning. +Poetry matters. +Poetry is what elevates the banal and neglected object to a realm of art. +It can transform the thing that might have made people fearful into something that invites them to look, and look a little longer, and maybe even understand. +I learned this firsthand with my next adventure. +The artist Matthew Barney, in his film opus called the "The Cremaster Cycle." +This is where it really hit home for me -- that my legs could be wearable sculpture. +And even at this point, I started to move away from the need to replicate human-ness as the only aesthetic ideal. +So we made what people lovingly referred to as glass legs even though they're actually optically clear polyurethane, a.k.a. bowling ball material. +Heavy! +Then we made these legs that are cast in soil with a potato root system growing in them, and beetroots out the top, and a very lovely brass toe. +That's a good close-up of that one. +Then another character was a half-woman, half-cheetah -- a little homage to my life as an athlete. +14 hours of prosthetic make-up to get into a creature that had articulated paws, claws and a tail that whipped around, like a gecko. +And then another pair of legs we collaborated on were these -- look like jellyfish legs, also polyurethane. +And the only purpose that these legs can serve, outside the context of the film, is to provoke the senses and ignite the imagination. +So whimsy matters. +Today, I have over a dozen pair of prosthetic legs that various people have made for me, and with them I have different negotiations of the terrain under my feet, and I can change my height -- I have a variable of five different heights. +Today, I'm 6'1". +And I had these legs made a little over a year ago at Dorset Orthopedic in England and when I brought them home to Manhattan, my first night out on the town, I went to a very fancy party. +And a girl was there who has known me for years at my normal 5'8". +Her mouth dropped open when she saw me, and she went, "But you're so tall!" +And I said, "I know. Isn't it fun?" +I mean, it's a little bit like wearing stilts on stilts, but I have an entirely new relationship to door jams that I never expected I would ever have. +And I was having fun with it. +And she looked at me, and she said, "But, Aimee, that's not fair." +And the incredible thing was she really meant it. +It's not fair that you can change your height, as you want it. +And that's when I knew -- that's when I knew that the conversation with society has changed profoundly in this last decade. +It is no longer a conversation about overcoming deficiency. +It's a conversation about augmentation. +It's a conversation about potential. +A prosthetic limb doesn't represent the need to replace loss anymore. +It can stand as a symbol that the wearer has the power to create whatever it is that they want to create in that space. +So people that society once considered to be disabled can now become the architects of their own identities and indeed continue to change those identities by designing their bodies from a place of empowerment. +And what is exciting to me so much right now is that by combining cutting-edge technology -- robotics, bionics -- with the age-old poetry, we are moving closer to understanding our collective humanity. +I think that if we want to discover the full potential in our humanity, we need to celebrate those heartbreaking strengths and those glorious disabilities that we all have. +I think of Shakespeare's Shylock: "If you prick us, do we not bleed, and if you tickle us, do we not laugh?" +It is our humanity, and all the potential within it, that makes us beautiful. +Thank you. +So, here we go: a flyby of play. +It's got to be serious if the New York Times puts a cover story of their February 17th Sunday magazine about play. +At the bottom of this, it says, "It's deeper than gender. +Seriously, but dangerously fun. +And a sandbox for new ideas about evolution." +Not bad, except if you look at that cover, what's missing? +You see any adults? +Well, lets go back to the 15th century. +This is a courtyard in Europe, and a mixture of 124 different kinds of play. +All ages, solo play, body play, games, taunting. +And there it is. And I think this is a typical picture of what it was like in a courtyard then. +I think we may have lost something in our culture. +So I'm gonna take you through what I think is a remarkable sequence. +North of Churchill, Manitoba, in October and November, there's no ice on Hudson Bay. +And this polar bear that you see, this 1200-pound male, he's wild and fairly hungry. +And Norbert Rosing, a German photographer, is there on scene, making a series of photos of these huskies, who are tethered. +And from out of stage left comes this wild, male polar bear, with a predatory gaze. +Any of you who've been to Africa or had a junkyard dog come after you, there is a fixed kind of predatory gaze that you know you're in trouble. +But on the other side of that predatory gaze is a female husky in a play bow, wagging her tail. +And something very unusual happens. +That fixed behavior -- which is rigid and stereotyped and ends up with a meal -- changes. +And this polar bear stands over the husky, no claws extended, no fangs taking a look. +And they begin an incredible ballet. +A play ballet. +This is in nature: it overrides a carnivorous nature and what otherwise would have been a short fight to the death. +And if you'll begin to look closely at the husky that's bearing her throat to the polar bear, and look a little more closely, they're in an altered state. +They're in a state of play. +And it's that state that allows these two creatures to explore the possible. +They are beginning to do something that neither would have done without the play signals. +And it is a marvelous example of how a differential in power can be overridden by a process of nature that's within all of us. +Now how did I get involved in this? +John mentioned that I've done some work with murderers, and I have. +The Texas Tower murderer opened my eyes, in retrospect, when we studied his tragic mass murder, to the importance of play, in that that individual, by deep study, was found to have severe play deprivation. +Charles Whitman was his name. +And our committee, which consisted of a lot of hard scientists, did feel at the end of that study that the absence of play and a progressive suppression of developmentally normal play led him to be more vulnerable to the tragedy that he perpetrated. +And that finding has stood the test of time -- unfortunately even into more recent times, at Virginia Tech. +And other studies of populations at risk sensitized me to the importance of play, but I didn't really understand what it was. +And it was many years in taking play histories of individuals before I really began to recognize that I didn't really have a full understanding of it. +And I don't think any of us has a full understanding of it, by any means. +But there are ways of looking at it that I think can give you -- give us all a taxonomy, a way of thinking about it. +And this image is, for humans, the beginning point of play. +When that mother and infant lock eyes, and the infant's old enough to have a social smile, what happens -- spontaneously -- is the eruption of joy on the part of the mother. +And she begins to babble and coo and smile, and so does the baby. +If we've got them wired up with an electroencephalogram, the right brain of each of them becomes attuned, so that the joyful emergence of this earliest of play scenes and the physiology of that is something we're beginning to get a handle on. +And I'd like you to think that every bit of more complex play builds on this base for us humans. +And so now I'm going to take you through sort of a way of looking at play, but it's never just singularly one thing. +We're going to look at body play, which is a spontaneous desire to get ourselves out of gravity. +This is a mountain goat. +If you're having a bad day, try this: jump up and down, wiggle around -- you're going to feel better. +And you may feel like this character, who is also just doing it for its own sake. +It doesn't have a particular purpose, and that's what's great about play. +If its purpose is more important than the act of doing it, it's probably not play. +And there's a whole other type of play, which is object play. +And this Japanese macaque has made a snowball, and he or she's going to roll down a hill. +And -- they don't throw it at each other, but this is a fundamental part of being playful. +The human hand, in manipulation of objects, is the hand in search of a brain; the brain is in search of a hand; and play is the medium by which those two are linked in the best way. +JPL we heard this morning -- JPL is an incredible place. +They have located two consultants, Frank Wilson and Nate Johnson, who are -- Frank Wilson is a neurologist, Nate Johnson is a mechanic. +He taught mechanics in a high school in Long Beach, and found that his students were no longer able to solve problems. +And he tried to figure out why. And he came to the conclusion, quite on his own, that the students who could no longer solve problems, such as fixing cars, hadn't worked with their hands. +Frank Wilson had written a book called "The Hand." +They got together -- JPL hired them. +Now JPL, NASA and Boeing, before they will hire a research and development problem solver -- even if they're summa cum laude from Harvard or Cal Tech -- if they haven't fixed cars, haven't done stuff with their hands early in life, played with their hands, they can't problem-solve as well. +So play is practical, and it's very important. +Now one of the things about play is that it is born by curiosity and exploration. But it has to be safe exploration. +This happens to be OK -- he's an anatomically interested little boy and that's his mom. Other situations wouldn't be quite so good. +But curiosity, exploration, are part of the play scene. +If you want to belong, you need social play. +And social play is part of what we're about here today, and is a byproduct of the play scene. +Rough and tumble play. +These lionesses, seen from a distance, looked like they were fighting. +But if you look closely, they're kind of like the polar bear and husky: no claws, flat fur, soft eyes, open mouth with no fangs, balletic movements, curvilinear movements -- all specific to play. +And rough-and-tumble play is a great learning medium for all of us. +Preschool kids, for example, should be allowed to dive, hit, whistle, scream, be chaotic, and develop through that a lot of emotional regulation and a lot of the other social byproducts -- cognitive, emotional and physical -- that come as a part of rough and tumble play. +Spectator play, ritual play -- we're involved in some of that. +Those of you who are from Boston know that this was the moment -- rare -- where the Red Sox won the World Series. +But take a look at the face and the body language of everybody in this fuzzy picture, and you can get a sense that they're all at play. +Imaginative play. +I love this picture because my daughter, who's now almost 40, is in this picture, but it reminds me of her storytelling and her imagination, her ability to spin yarns at this age -- preschool. +A really important part of being a player is imaginative solo play. +And I love this one, because it's also what we're about. +We all have an internal narrative that's our own inner story. +The unit of intelligibility of most of our brains is the story. +I'm telling you a story today about play. +Well, this bushman, I think, is talking about the fish that got away that was that long, but it's a fundamental part of the play scene. +So what does play do for the brain? +Well, a lot. +We don't know a whole lot about what it does for the human brain, because funding has not been exactly heavy for research on play. +I walked into the Carnegie asking for a grant. +They'd given me a large grant when I was an academician for the study of felony drunken drivers, and I thought I had a pretty good track record, and by the time I had spent half an hour talking about play, it was obvious that they were not -- did not feel that play was serious. +I think that -- that's a few years back -- I think that wave is past, and the play wave is cresting, because there is some good science. +Nothing lights up the brain like play. +Three-dimensional play fires up the cerebellum, puts a lot of impulses into the frontal lobe -- the executive portion -- helps contextual memory be developed, and -- and, and, and. +So it's -- for me, its been an extremely nourishing scholarly adventure to look at the neuroscience that's associated with play, and to bring together people who in their individual disciplines hadn't really thought of it that way. +And that's part of what the National Institute for Play is all about. +And this is one of the ways you can study play -- is to get a 256-lead electroencephalogram. +I'm sorry I don't have a playful-looking subject, but it allows mobility, which has limited the actual study of play. +And we've got a mother-infant play scenario that we're hoping to complete underway at the moment. +The reason I put this here is also to queue up my thoughts about objectifying what play does. +The animal world has objectified it. +In the animal world, if you take rats, who are hardwired to play at a certain period of their juvenile years and you suppress play -- they squeak, they wrestle, they pin each other, that's part of their play. +If you stop that behavior on one group that you're experimenting with, and you allow it in another group that you're experimenting with, and then you present those rats with a cat odor-saturated collar, they're hardwired to flee and hide. +Pretty smart -- they don't want to get killed by a cat. +So what happens? +They both hide out. +The non-players never come out -- they die. +The players slowly explore the environment, and begin again to test things out. +That says to me, at least in rats -- and I think they have the same neurotransmitters that we do and a similar cortical architecture -- that play may be pretty important for our survival. +And, and, and -- there are a lot more animal studies that I could talk about. +Now, this is a consequence of play deprivation. This took a long time -- I had to get Homer down and put him through the fMRI and the SPECT and multiple EEGs, but as a couch potato, his brain has shrunk. +And we do know that in domestic animals and others, when they're play deprived, they don't -- and rats also -- they don't develop a brain that is normal. +Now, the program says that the opposite of play is not work, it's depression. +And I think if you think about life without play -- no humor, no flirtation, no movies, no games, no fantasy and, and, and. +Try and imagine a culture or a life, adult or otherwise without play. +And the thing that's so unique about our species is that we're really designed to play through our whole lifetime. +And we all have capacity to play signal. +Nobody misses that dog I took a picture of on a Carmel beach a couple of weeks ago. +What's going to follow from that behavior is play. +And you can trust it. +The basis of human trust is established through play signals. +And we begin to lose those signals, culturally and otherwise, as adults. +That's a shame. +I think we've got a lot of learning to do. +Now, Jane Goodall has here a play face along with one of her favorite chimps. +So part of the signaling system of play has to do with vocal, facial, body, gestural. +You know, you can tell -- and I think when we're getting into collective play, its really important for groups to gain a sense of safety through their own sharing of play signals. +You may not know this word, but it should be your biological first name and last name. +Because neoteny means the retention of immature qualities into adulthood. +And we are, by physical anthropologists, by many, many studies, the most neotenous, the most youthful, the most flexible, the most plastic of all creatures. +And therefore, the most playful. +And this gives us a leg up on adaptability. +Now, there is a way of looking at play that I also want to emphasize here, which is the play history. +Your own personal play history is unique, and often is not something we think about particularly. +This is a book written by a consummate player by the name of Kevin Carroll. +Kevin Carroll came from extremely deprived circumstances: alcoholic mother, absent father, inner-city Philadelphia, black, had to take care of a younger brother. +Found that when he looked at a playground out of a window into which he had been confined, he felt something different. +And so he followed up on it. +And his life -- the transformation of his life from deprivation and what one would expect -- potentially prison or death -- he become a linguist, a trainer for the 76ers and now is a motivational speaker. +And he gives play as a transformative force over his entire life. +Now there's another play history that I think is a work in progress. +Those of you who remember Al Gore, during the first term and then during his successful but unelected run for the presidency, may remember him as being kind of wooden and not entirely his own person, at least in public. +And looking at his history, which is common in the press, it seems to me, at least -- looking at it from a shrink's point of view -- that a lot of his life was programmed. +Summers were hard, hard work, in the heat of Tennessee summers. +He had the expectations of his senatorial father and Washington, D.C. +And although I think he certainly had the capacity for play -- because I do know something about that -- he wasn't as empowered, I think, as he now is by paying attention to what is his own passion and his own inner drive, which I think has its basis in all of us in our play history. +So what I would encourage on an individual level to do, is to explore backwards as far as you can go to the most clear, joyful, playful image that you have, whether it's with a toy, on a birthday or on a vacation. +And begin to build to build from the emotion of that into how that connects with your life now. +And you'll find, you may change jobs -- which has happened to a number people when I've had them do this -- in order to be more empowered through their play. +Or you'll be able to enrich your life by prioritizing it and paying attention to it. +Most of us work with groups, and I put this up because the d.school, the design school at Stanford, thanks to David Kelley and a lot of others who have been visionary about its establishment, has allowed a group of us to get together and create a course called "From Play to Innovation." +This is our maiden voyage in this. +We're about two and a half, three months into it, and it's really been fun. +There is our star pupil, this labrador, who taught a lot of us what a state of play is, and an extremely aged and decrepit professor in charge there. +And Brendan Boyle, Rich Crandall -- and on the far right is, I think, a person who will be in cahoots with George Smoot for a Nobel Prize -- Stuart Thompson, in neuroscience. +So we've had Brendan, who's from IDEO, and the rest of us sitting aside and watching these students as they put play principles into practice in the classroom. +And one of their projects was to see what makes meetings boring, and to try and do something about it. +So what will follow is a student-made film about just that. +Narrator: Flow is the mental state of apparition in which the person is fully immersed in what he or she is doing. +Characterized by a feeling of energized focus, full involvement and success in the process of the activity. +An important key insight that we learned about meetings is that people pack them in one after another, disruptive to the day. +Attendees at meetings don't know when they'll get back to the task that they left at their desk. +But it doesn't have to be that way. +Some sage and repeatedly furry monks at this place called the d.school designed a meeting that you can literally step out of when it's over. +Take the meeting off, and have peace of mind that you can come back to me. +Because when you need it again, the meeting is literally hanging in your closet. +The Wearable Meeting. +Because when you put it on, you immediately get everything you need to have a fun and productive and useful meeting. +But when you take it off -- that's when the real action happens. +Stuart Brown: So I would encourage you all to engage not in the work-play differential -- where you set aside time to play -- but where your life becomes infused minute by minute, hour by hour, with body, object, social, fantasy, transformational kinds of play. +And I think you'll have a better and more empowered life. +Thank You. +Your work seems to suggest that that is powerfully wrong. +SB: Yeah, I don't think that's accurate, and I think probably because animals have taught us that. +If you stop a cat from playing -- which you can do, and we've all seen how cats bat around stuff -- they're just as good predators as they would be if they hadn't played. +And if you imagine a kid pretending to be King Kong, or a race car driver, or a fireman, they don't all become race car drivers or firemen, you know. +So there's a disconnect between preparation for the future -- which is what most people are comfortable in thinking about play as -- and thinking of it as a separate biological entity. +And this is where my chasing animals for four, five years really changed my perspective from a clinician to what I am now, which is that play has a biological place, just like sleep and dreams do. +And if you look at sleep and dreams biologically, animals sleep and dream, and they rehearse and they do some other things that help memory and that are a very important part of sleep and dreams. +The next step of evolution in mammals and creatures with divinely superfluous neurons will be to play. +And the fact that the polar bear and husky or magpie and a bear or you and I and our dogs can crossover and have that experience sets play aside as something separate. +And its hugely important in learning and crafting the brain. +So it's not just something you do in your spare time. +JH: How do you keep -- and I know you're part of the scientific research community, and you have to justify your existence with grants and proposals like everyone else -- how do you prevent -- and some of the data that you've produced, the good science that you're talking about you've produced, is hot to handle. +How do you prevent either the media's interpretation of your work or the scientific community's interpretation of the implications of your work, kind of like the Mozart metaphor, where, "Oh, MRIs show that play enhances your intelligence. +Well, let's round these kids up, put them in pens and make them play for months at a time; they'll all be geniuses and go to Harvard." +How do you prevent people from taking that sort of action on the data that you're developing? +SB: Well, I think the only way I know to do it is to have accumulated the advisers that I have who go from practitioners -- who can establish through improvisational play or clowning or whatever -- a state of play. +So people know that it's there. +And then you get an fMRI specialist, and you get Frank Wilson, and you get other kinds of hard scientists, including neuroendocrinologists. +And you get them into a group together focused on play, and it's pretty hard not to take it seriously. +Unfortunately, that hasn't been done sufficiently for the National Science Foundation, National Institute of Mental Health or anybody else to really look at it in this way seriously. +I mean you don't hear about anything that's like cancer or heart disease associated with play. +And yet I see it as something that's just as basic for survival -- long term -- as learning some of the basic things about public health. +JH: Stuart Brown, thank you very much. +Time flies. +It's actually almost 20 years ago when I wanted to reframe the way we use information, the way we work together: I invented the World Wide Web. +Now, 20 years on, at TED, I want to ask your help in a new reframing. +So going back to 1989, I wrote a memo suggesting the global hypertext system. +Nobody really did anything with it, pretty much. +But 18 months later -- this is how innovation happens -- 18 months later, my boss said I could do it on the side, as a sort of a play project, kick the tires of a new computer we'd got. +And so he gave me the time to code it up. +So I basically roughed out what HTML should look like: hypertext protocol, HTTP; the idea of URLs, these names for things which started with HTTP. +I wrote the code and put it out there. +Why did I do it? +Well, it was basically frustration. +I was frustrated -- I was working as a software engineer in this huge, very exciting lab, lots of people coming from all over the world. +They brought all sorts of different computers with them. +They had all sorts of different data formats, all sorts, all kinds of documentation systems. +And these were all incompatible. +It was just very frustrating. +The frustration was all this unlocked potential. +In fact, on all these discs there were documents. +So if you just imagined them all being part of some big, virtual documentation system in the sky, say on the Internet, then life would be so much easier. +Well, once you've had an idea like that it kind of gets under your skin and even if people don't read your memo -- actually he did, it was found after he died, his copy. +He had written, "Vague, but exciting," in pencil, in the corner. +But in general it was difficult -- it was really difficult to explain what the web was like. +It's difficult to explain to people now that it was difficult then. +But then -- OK, when TED started, there was no web so things like "click" didn't have the same meaning. +I can show somebody a piece of hypertext, a page which has got links, and we click on the link and bing -- there'll be another hypertext page. +Not impressive. +You know, we've seen that -- we've got things on hypertext on CD-ROMs. +What was difficult was to get them to imagine: so, imagine that that link could have gone to virtually any document you could imagine. +Alright, that is the leap that was very difficult for people to make. +Well, some people did. +So yeah, it was difficult to explain, but there was a grassroots movement. +And that is what has made it most fun. +That has been the most exciting thing, not the technology, not the things people have done with it, but actually the community, the spirit of all these people getting together, sending the emails. +That's what it was like then. +Do you know what? It's funny, but right now it's kind of like that again. +I asked everybody, more or less, to put their documents -- I said, "Could you put your documents on this web thing?" +And you did. +Thanks. +It's been a blast, hasn't it? +I mean, it has been quite interesting because we've found out that the things that happen with the web really sort of blow us away. +They're much more than we'd originally imagined when we put together the little, initial website that we started off with. +Now, I want you to put your data on the web. +Turns out that there is still huge unlocked potential. +There is still a huge frustration that people have because we haven't got data on the web as data. +What do you mean, "data"? What's the difference -- documents, data? +Well, documents you read, OK? +More or less, you read them, you can follow links from them, and that's it. +Data -- you can do all kinds of stuff with a computer. +Who was here or has otherwise seen Hans Rosling's talk? +One of the great -- yes a lot of people have seen it -- one of the great TED Talks. +Hans put up this presentation in which he showed, for various different countries, in various different colors -- he showed income levels on one axis and he showed infant mortality, and he shot this thing animated through time. +So, he'd taken this data and made a presentation which just shattered a lot of myths that people had about the economics in the developing world. +He put up a slide a little bit like this. +It had underground all the data OK, data is brown and boxy and boring, and that's how we think of it, isn't it? +Because data you can't naturally use by itself But in fact, data drives a huge amount of what happens in our lives and it happens because somebody takes that data and does something with it. +In this case, Hans had put the data together he had found from all kinds of United Nations websites and things. +He had put it together, combined it into something more interesting than the original pieces and then he'd put it into this software, which I think his son developed, originally, and produces this wonderful presentation. +And Hans made a point of saying, "Look, it's really important to have a lot of data." +And I was happy to see that at the party last night that he was still saying, very forcibly, "It's really important to have a lot of data." +So I want us now to think about not just two pieces of data being connected, or six like he did, but I want to think about a world where everybody has put data on the web and so virtually everything you can imagine is on the web and then calling that linked data. +The technology is linked data, and it's extremely simple. +If you want to put something on the web there are three rules: first thing is that those HTTP names -- those things that start with "http:" -- we're using them not just for documents now, we're using them for things that the documents are about. +We're using them for people, we're using them for places, we're using them for your products, we're using them for events. +All kinds of conceptual things, they have names now that start with HTTP. +Who's at the event? Whatever it is about that person, where they were born, things like that. +So the second rule is I get important information back. +Third rule is that when I get back that information it's not just got somebody's height and weight and when they were born, it's got relationships. +Data is relationships. +Interestingly, data is relationships. +This person was born in Berlin; Berlin is in Germany. +And when it has relationships, whenever it expresses a relationship then the other thing that it's related to is given one of those names that starts HTTP. +So, I can go ahead and look that thing up. +So I look up a person -- I can look up then the city where they were born; then I can look up the region it's in, and the town it's in, and the population of it, and so on. +So I can browse this stuff. +So that's it, really. +That is linked data. +I wrote an article entitled "Linked Data" a couple of years ago and soon after that, things started to happen. +The idea of linked data is that we get lots and lots and lots of these boxes that Hans had, and we get lots and lots and lots of things sprouting. +It's not just a whole lot of other plants. +So, linked data. +The meme went out there. +And, pretty soon Chris Bizer at the Freie Universitat in Berlin who was one of the first people to put interesting things up, he noticed that Wikipedia -- you know Wikipedia, the online encyclopedia with lots and lots of interesting documents in it. +Well, in those documents, there are little squares, little boxes. +And in most information boxes, there's data. +So he wrote a program to take the data, extract it from Wikipedia, and put it into a blob of linked data on the web, which he called dbpedia. +Dbpedia is represented by the blue blob in the middle of this slide and if you actually go and look up Berlin, you'll find that there are other blobs of data which also have stuff about Berlin, and they're linked together. +So if you pull the data from dbpedia about Berlin, you'll end up pulling up these other things as well. +And the exciting thing is it's starting to grow. +This is just the grassroots stuff again, OK? +Let's think about data for a bit. +Data comes in fact in lots and lots of different forms. +Think of the diversity of the web. It's a really important thing that the web allows you to put all kinds of data up there. +So it is with data. I could talk about all kinds of data. +We could talk about government data, enterprise data is really important, there's scientific data, there's personal data, there's weather data, there's data about events, there's data about talks, and there's news and there's all kinds of stuff. +I'm just going to mention a few of them so that you get the idea of the diversity of it, so that you also see how much unlocked potential. +Let's start with government data. +Barack Obama said in a speech, that he -- American government data would be available on the Internet in accessible formats. +And I hope that they will put it up as linked data. +That's important. Why is it important? +Not just for transparency, yeah transparency in government is important, but that data -- this is the data from all the government departments Think about how much of that data is about how life is lived in America. +It's actual useful. It's got value. +I can use it in my company. +I could use it as a kid to do my homework. +So we're talking about making the place, making the world run better by making this data available. +In fact if you're responsible -- if you know about some data in a government department, often you find that these people, they're very tempted to keep it -- Hans calls it database hugging. +You hug your database, you don't want to let it go until you've made a beautiful website for it. +Well, I'd like to suggest that rather -- yes, make a beautiful website, who am I to say don't make a beautiful website? +Make a beautiful website, but first give us the unadulterated data, we want the data. +We want unadulterated data. +OK, we have to ask for raw data now. +And I'm going to ask you to practice that, OK? +Can you say "raw"? +Audience: Raw. +Tim Berners-Lee: Can you say "data"? +Audience: Data. +TBL: Can you say "now"? +Audience: Now! +TBL: Alright, "raw data now"! +Audience: Raw data now! +Practice that. It's important because you have no idea the number of excuses people come up with to hang onto their data and not give it to you, even though you've paid for it as a taxpayer. +And it's not just America. It's all over the world. +And it's not just governments, of course -- it's enterprises as well. +So I'm just going to mention a few other thoughts on data. +Here we are at TED, and all the time we are very conscious of the huge challenges that human society has right now -- curing cancer, understanding the brain for Alzheimer's, understanding the economy to make it a little bit more stable, understanding how the world works. +The people who are going to solve those -- the scientists -- they have half-formed ideas in their head, they try to communicate those over the web. +But a lot of the state of knowledge of the human race at the moment is on databases, often sitting in their computers, and actually, currently not shared. +Now, they are sticking it onto -- linked data -- and now they can ask the sort of question, that you probably wouldn't ask, I wouldn't ask -- they would. +What proteins are involved in signal transduction and also related to pyramidal neurons? +Well, you take that mouthful and you put it into Google. +Of course, there's no page on the web which has answered that question because nobody has asked that question before. +You get 223,000 hits -- no results you can use. +You ask the linked data -- which they've now put together -- 32 hits, each of which is a protein which has those properties and you can look at. +The power of being able to ask those questions, as a scientist -- questions which actually bridge across different disciplines -- is really a complete sea change. +It's very very important. +Scientists are totally stymied at the moment -- the power of the data that other scientists have collected is locked up and we need to get it unlocked so we can tackle those huge problems. +Now if I go on like this, you'll think that all the data comes from huge institutions and has nothing to do with you. +But, that's not true. +In fact, data is about our lives. +You just -- you log on to your social networking site, your favorite one, you say, "This is my friend." +Bing! Relationship. Data. +You say, "This photograph, it's about -- it depicts this person. " Bing! That's data. Data, data, data. +Every time you do things on the social networking site, the social networking site is taking data and using it -- re-purposing it -- and using it to make other people's lives more interesting on the site. +But, when you go to another linked data site -- and let's say this is one about travel, and you say, "I want to send this photo to all the people in that group," you can't get over the walls. +The Economist wrote an article about it, and lots of people have blogged about it -- tremendous frustration. +The way to break down the silos is to get inter-operability between social networking sites. +We need to do that with linked data. +One last type of data I'll talk about, maybe it's the most exciting. +Before I came down here, I looked it up on OpenStreetMap The OpenStreetMap's a map, but it's also a Wiki. +Zoom in and that square thing is a theater -- which we're in right now -- The Terrace Theater. It didn't have a name on it. +So I could go into edit mode, I could select the theater, I could add down at the bottom the name, and I could save it back. +And now if you go back to the OpenStreetMap. org, and you find this place, you will find that The Terrace Theater has got a name. +I did that. Me! +I did that to the map. I just did that! +I put that up on there. Hey, you know what? +If I -- that street map is all about everybody doing their bit and it creates an incredible resource because everybody else does theirs. +And that is what linked data is all about. +It's about people doing their bit to produce a little bit, and it all connecting. +That's how linked data works. +You do your bit. Everybody else does theirs. +You may not have lots of data which you have yourself to put on there but you know to demand it. +And we've practiced that. +So, linked data -- it's huge. +I've only told you a very small number of things There are data in every aspect of our lives, every aspect of work and pleasure, and it's not just about the number of places where data comes, it's about connecting it together. +And when you connect data together, you get power in a way that doesn't happen just with the web, with documents. +You get this really huge power out of it. +So, we're at the stage now where we have to do this -- the people who think it's a great idea. +OK, so it's called linked data. +I want you to make it. +I want you to demand it. +And I think it's an idea worth spreading. +Thanks. +Im going around the world giving talks about Darwin, and usually what Im talking about is Darwins strange inversion of reasoning. +Now that title, that phrase, comes from a critic, an early critic, and this is a passage that I just love, and would like to read for you. +"In the theory with which we have to deal, Absolute Ignorance is the artificer; so that we may enunciate as the fundamental principle of the whole system, that, in order to make a perfect and beautiful machine, it is not requisite to know how to make it. +This proposition will be found on careful examination to express, in condensed form, the essential purport of the Theory, and to express in a few words all Mr. Darwins meaning; who, by a strange inversion of reasoning, seems to think Absolute Ignorance fully qualified to take the place of Absolute Wisdom in the achievements of creative skill." +Exactly. Exactly. And it is a strange inversion. +A creationist pamphlet has this wonderful page in it: "Test Two: Do you know of any building that didnt have a builder? Yes/No. +Do you know of any painting that didnt have a painter? Yes/No. +Do you know of any car that didnt have a maker? Yes/No. +If you answered 'Yes' for any of the above, give details." +A-ha! I mean, it really is a strange inversion of reasoning. +You would have thought it stands to reason that design requires an intelligent designer. +But Darwin shows that its just false. +Today, though, Im going to talk about Darwins other strange inversion, which is equally puzzling at first, but in some ways just as important. +It stands to reason that we love chocolate cake because it is sweet. +Guys go for girls like this because they are sexy. +We adore babies because theyre so cute. +And, of course, we are amused by jokes because they are funny. +This is all backwards. It is. And Darwin shows us why. +Lets start with sweet. Our sweet tooth is basically an evolved sugar detector, because sugar is high energy, and its just been wired up to the preferer, to put it very crudely, and thats why we like sugar. +Honey is sweet because we like it, not "we like it because honey is sweet." +Theres nothing intrinsically sweet about honey. +If you looked at glucose molecules till you were blind, you wouldnt see why they tasted sweet. +You have to look in our brains to understand why theyre sweet. +So if you think first there was sweetness, and then we evolved to like sweetness, youve got it backwards; thats just wrong. Its the other way round. +Sweetness was born with the wiring which evolved. +And theres nothing intrinsically sexy about these young ladies. +And its a good thing that there isnt, because if there were, then Mother Nature would have a problem: How on earth do you get chimps to mate? +Now you might think, ah, theres a solution: hallucinations. +That would be one way of doing it, but theres a quicker way. +Just wire the chimps up to love that look, and apparently they do. +Thats all there is to it. +Over six million years, we and the chimps evolved our different ways. +We became bald-bodied, oddly enough; for one reason or another, they didnt. +If we hadnt, then probably this would be the height of sexiness. +Our sweet tooth is an evolved and instinctual preference for high-energy food. +It wasnt designed for chocolate cake. +Chocolate cake is a supernormal stimulus. +The term is owed to Niko Tinbergen, who did his famous experiments with gulls, where he found that that orange spot on the gulls beak -- if he made a bigger, oranger spot the gull chicks would peck at it even harder. +It was a hyperstimulus for them, and they loved it. +What we see with, say, chocolate cake is its a supernormal stimulus to tweak our design wiring. +And there are lots of supernormal stimuli; chocolate cake is one. +There's lots of supernormal stimuli for sexiness. +And there's even supernormal stimuli for cuteness. Heres a pretty good example. +Its important that we love babies, and that we not be put off by, say, messy diapers. +So babies have to attract our affection and our nurturing, and they do. +And, by the way, a recent study shows that mothers prefer the smell of the dirty diapers of their own baby. +So nature works on many levels here. +But now, if babies didnt look the way they do -- if babies looked like this, thats what we would find adorable, thats what we would find -- we would think, oh my goodness, do I ever want to hug that. +This is the strange inversion. +Well now, finally what about funny. My answer is, its the same story, the same story. +This is the hard one, the one that isnt obvious. Thats why I leave it to the end. +And I wont be able to say too much about it. +But you have to think evolutionarily, you have to think, what hard job that has to be done -- its dirty work, somebodys got to do it -- is so important to give us such a powerful, inbuilt reward for it when we succeed. +Now, I think we've found the answer -- I and a few of my colleagues. +Its a neural system thats wired up to reward the brain for doing a grubby clerical job. +Our bumper sticker for this view is that this is the joy of debugging. +Now Im not going to have time to spell it all out, but Ill just say that only some kinds of debugging get the reward. +And what were doing is were using humor as a sort of neuroscientific probe by switching humor on and off, by turning the knob on a joke -- now its not funny ... oh, now its funnier ... +now well turn a little bit more ... now its not funny -- in this way, we can actually learn something about the architecture of the brain, the functional architecture of the brain. +Matthew Hurley is the first author of this. We call it the Hurley Model. +Hes a computer scientist, Reginald Adams a psychologist, and there I am, and were putting this together into a book. +Thank you very much. +I want to talk to you today a little bit about predictable irrationality. +And my interest in irrational behavior started many years ago in the hospital. +I was burned very badly. +And if you spend a lot of time in hospital, you'll see a lot of types of irrationalities. +And the one that particularly bothered me in the burn department was the process by which the nurses took the bandage off me. +Now, you must have all taken a Band-Aid off at some point, and you must have wondered what's the right approach. +Do you rip it off quickly -- short duration but high intensity -- or do you take your Band-Aid off slowly -- you take a long time, but each second is not as painful -- which one of those is the right approach? +The nurses in my department thought that the right approach was the ripping one, so they would grab hold and they would rip, and they would grab hold and they would rip. +And because I had 70 percent of my body burned, it would take about an hour. +And as you can imagine, I hated that moment of ripping with incredible intensity. +And I would try to reason with them and say, "Why don't we try something else? +Why don't we take it a little longer -- maybe two hours instead of an hour -- and have less of this intensity?" +And the nurses told me two things. +They told me that they had the right model of the patient -- that they knew what was the right thing to do to minimize my pain -- and they also told me that the word patient doesn't mean to make suggestions or to interfere or ... +This is not just in Hebrew, by the way. +It's in every language I've had experience with so far. +And, you know, there's not much -- there wasn't much I could do, and they kept on doing what they were doing. +And about three years later, when I left the hospital, I started studying at the university. +And one of the most interesting lessons I learned was that there is an experimental method that if you have a question you can create a replica of this question in some abstract way, and you can try to examine this question, maybe learn something about the world. +So that's what I did. +I was still interested in this question of how do you take bandages off burn patients. +So originally I didn't have much money, so I went to a hardware store and I bought a carpenter's vice. +And I would bring people to the lab and I would put their finger in it, and I would crunch it a little bit. +And I would crunch it for long periods and short periods, and pain that went up and pain that went down, and with breaks and without breaks -- all kinds of versions of pain. +And when I finished hurting people a little bit, I would ask them, so, how painful was this? Or, how painful was this? +Or, if you had to choose between the last two, which one would you choose? +I kept on doing this for a while. +And then, like all good academic projects, I got more funding. +I moved to sounds, electrical shocks -- I even had a pain suit that I could get people to feel much more pain. +But at the end of this process, what I learned was that the nurses were wrong. +Here were wonderful people with good intentions and plenty of experience, and nevertheless they were getting things wrong predictably all the time. +It turns out that because we don't encode duration in the way that we encode intensity, I would have had less pain if the duration would have been longer and the intensity was lower. +It turns out it would have been better to start with my face, which was much more painful, and move toward my legs, giving me a trend of improvement over time -- that would have been also less painful. +And it also turns out that it would have been good to give me breaks in the middle to kind of recuperate from the pain. +All of these would have been great things to do, and my nurses had no idea. +And from that point on I started thinking, are the nurses the only people in the world who get things wrong in this particular decision, or is it a more general case? +And it turns out it's a more general case -- there's a lot of mistakes we do. +And I want to give you one example of one of these irrationalities, and I want to talk to you about cheating. +And the reason I picked cheating is because it's interesting, but also it tells us something, I think, about the stock market situation we're in. +So, my interest in cheating started when Enron came on the scene, exploded all of a sudden, and I started thinking about what is happening here. +Is it the case that there was kind of a few apples who are capable of doing these things, or are we talking a more endemic situation, that many people are actually capable of behaving this way? +So, like we usually do, I decided to do a simple experiment. +And here's how it went. +If you were in the experiment, I would pass you a sheet of paper with 20 simple math problems that everybody could solve, but I wouldn't give you enough time. +When the five minutes were over, I would say, "Pass me the sheets of paper, and I'll pay you a dollar per question." +People did this. I would pay people four dollars for their task -- on average people would solve four problems. +Other people I would tempt to cheat. +I would pass their sheet of paper. +When the five minutes were over, I would say, "Please shred the piece of paper. +Put the little pieces in your pocket or in your backpack, and tell me how many questions you got correctly." +People now solved seven questions on average. +Now, it wasn't as if there was a few bad apples -- a few people cheated a lot. +Instead, what we saw is a lot of people who cheat a little bit. +Now, in economic theory, cheating is a very simple cost-benefit analysis. +You say, what's the probability of being caught? +How much do I stand to gain from cheating? +And how much punishment would I get if I get caught? +And you weigh these options out -- you do the simple cost-benefit analysis, and you decide whether it's worthwhile to commit the crime or not. +So, we try to test this. +For some people, we varied how much money they could get away with -- how much money they could steal. +We paid them 10 cents per correct question, 50 cents, a dollar, five dollars, 10 dollars per correct question. +You would expect that as the amount of money on the table increases, people would cheat more, but in fact it wasn't the case. +We got a lot of people cheating by stealing by a little bit. +What about the probability of being caught? +Some people shredded half the sheet of paper, so there was some evidence left. +Some people shredded the whole sheet of paper. +Some people shredded everything, went out of the room, and paid themselves from the bowl of money that had over 100 dollars. +You would expect that as the probability of being caught goes down, people would cheat more, but again, this was not the case. +Again, a lot of people cheated by just by a little bit, and they were insensitive to these economic incentives. +So we said, "If people are not sensitive to the economic rational theory explanations, to these forces, what could be going on?" +And we thought maybe what is happening is that there are two forces. +At one hand, we all want to look at ourselves in the mirror and feel good about ourselves, so we don't want to cheat. +On the other hand, we can cheat a little bit, and still feel good about ourselves. +So, maybe what is happening is that there's a level of cheating we can't go over, but we can still benefit from cheating at a low degree, as long as it doesn't change our impressions about ourselves. +We call this like a personal fudge factor. +Now, how would you test a personal fudge factor? +Initially we said, what can we do to shrink the fudge factor? +So, we got people to the lab, and we said, "We have two tasks for you today." +First, we asked half the people to recall either 10 books they read in high school, or to recall The Ten Commandments, and then we tempted them with cheating. +Turns out the people who tried to recall The Ten Commandments -- and in our sample nobody could recall all of The Ten Commandments -- but those people who tried to recall The Ten Commandments, given the opportunity to cheat, did not cheat at all. +It wasn't that the more religious people -- the people who remembered more of the Commandments -- cheated less, and the less religious people -- the people who couldn't remember almost any Commandments -- cheated more. +The moment people thought about trying to recall The Ten Commandments, they stopped cheating. +In fact, even when we gave self-declared atheists the task of swearing on the Bible and we give them a chance to cheat, they don't cheat at all. +Now, Ten Commandments is something that is hard to bring into the education system, so we said, "Why don't we get people to sign the honor code?" +So, we got people to sign, "I understand that this short survey falls under the MIT Honor Code." +Then they shredded it. No cheating whatsoever. +And this is particularly interesting, because MIT doesn't have an honor code. +So, all this was about decreasing the fudge factor. +What about increasing the fudge factor? +The first experiment -- I walked around MIT and I distributed six-packs of Cokes in the refrigerators -- these were common refrigerators for the undergrads. +And I came back to measure what we technically call the half-lifetime of Coke -- how long does it last in the refrigerators? +As you can expect it doesn't last very long; people take it. +In contrast, I took a plate with six one-dollar bills, and I left those plates in the same refrigerators. +No bill ever disappeared. +Now, this is not a good social science experiment, so to do it better I did the same experiment as I described to you before. +A third of the people we passed the sheet, they gave it back to us. +A third of the people we passed it to, they shredded it, they came to us and said, "Mr. Experimenter, I solved X problems. Give me X dollars." +A third of the people, when they finished shredding the piece of paper, they came to us and said, "Mr Experimenter, I solved X problems. Give me X tokens." +We did not pay them with dollars; we paid them with something else. +And then they took the something else, they walked 12 feet to the side, and exchanged it for dollars. +Think about the following intuition. +How bad would you feel about taking a pencil from work home, compared to how bad would you feel about taking 10 cents from a petty cash box? +These things feel very differently. +Would being a step removed from cash for a few seconds by being paid by token make a difference? +Our subjects doubled their cheating. +I'll tell you what I think about this and the stock market in a minute. +But this did not solve the big problem I had with Enron yet, because in Enron, there's also a social element. +People see each other behaving. +In fact, every day when we open the news we see examples of people cheating. +What does this cause us? +So, we did another experiment. +We got a big group of students to be in the experiment, and we prepaid them. +So everybody got an envelope with all the money for the experiment, and we told them that at the end, we asked them to pay us back the money they didn't make. OK? +The same thing happens. +When we give people the opportunity to cheat, they cheat. +They cheat just by a little bit, all the same. +But in this experiment we also hired an acting student. +This acting student stood up after 30 seconds, and said, "I solved everything. What do I do now?" +And the experimenter said, "If you've finished everything, go home. +That's it. The task is finished." +So, now we had a student -- an acting student -- that was a part of the group. +Nobody knew it was an actor. +And they clearly cheated in a very, very serious way. +What would happen to the other people in the group? +Will they cheat more, or will they cheat less? +Here is what happens. +It turns out it depends on what kind of sweatshirt they're wearing. +Here is the thing. +We ran this at Carnegie Mellon and Pittsburgh. +And at Pittsburgh there are two big universities, Carnegie Mellon and University of Pittsburgh. +All of the subjects sitting in the experiment were Carnegie Mellon students. +When the actor who was getting up was a Carnegie Mellon student -- he was actually a Carnegie Mellon student -- but he was a part of their group, cheating went up. +But when he actually had a University of Pittsburgh sweatshirt, cheating went down. +Now, this is important, because remember, when the moment the student stood up, it made it clear to everybody that they could get away with cheating, because the experimenter said, "You've finished everything. Go home," and they went with the money. +So it wasn't so much about the probability of being caught again. +It was about the norms for cheating. +If somebody from our in-group cheats and we see them cheating, we feel it's more appropriate, as a group, to behave this way. +So, what have we learned from this about cheating? +We've learned that a lot of people can cheat. +They cheat just by a little bit. +When we remind people about their morality, they cheat less. +When we get bigger distance from cheating, from the object of money, for example, people cheat more. +And when we see cheating around us, particularly if it's a part of our in-group, cheating goes up. +Now, if we think about this in terms of the stock market, think about what happens. +What happens in a situation when you create something where you pay people a lot of money to see reality in a slightly distorted way? +Would they not be able to see it this way? +Of course they would. +What happens when you do other things, like you remove things from money? +You call them stock, or stock options, derivatives, mortgage-backed securities. +Could it be that with those more distant things, it's not a token for one second, it's something that is many steps removed from money for a much longer time -- could it be that people will cheat even more? +And what happens to the social environment when people see other people behave around them? +I think all of those forces worked in a very bad way in the stock market. +More generally, I want to tell you something about behavioral economics. +We have many intuitions in our life, and the point is that many of these intuitions are wrong. +The question is, are we going to test those intuitions? +We can think about how we're going to test this intuition in our private life, in our business life, and most particularly when it goes to policy, when we think about things like No Child Left Behind, when you create new stock markets, when you create other policies -- taxation, health care and so on. +And the difficulty of testing our intuition was the big lesson I learned when I went back to the nurses to talk to them. +So I went back to talk to them and tell them what I found out about removing bandages. +And I learned two interesting things. +One was that my favorite nurse, Ettie, told me that I did not take her pain into consideration. +She said, "Of course, you know, it was very painful for you. +But think about me as a nurse, taking, removing the bandages of somebody I liked, and had to do it repeatedly over a long period of time. +Creating so much torture was not something that was good for me, too." +And she said maybe part of the reason was it was difficult for her. +But it was actually more interesting than that, because she said, "I did not think that your intuition was right. +I felt my intuition was correct." +So, if you think about all of your intuitions, it's very hard to believe that your intuition is wrong. +And she said, "Given the fact that I thought my intuition was right ..." -- she thought her intuition was right -- it was very difficult for her to accept doing a difficult experiment to try and check whether she was wrong. +But in fact, this is the situation we're all in all the time. +We have very strong intuitions about all kinds of things -- our own ability, how the economy works, how we should pay school teachers. +But unless we start testing those intuitions, we're not going to do better. +And just think about how better my life would have been if these nurses would have been willing to check their intuition, and how everything would have been better if we just start doing more systematic experimentation of our intuitions. +Thank you very much. +About four years ago, the New Yorker published an article about a cache of dodo bones that was found in a pit on the island of Mauritius. +Now, the island of Mauritius is a small island off the east coast of Madagascar in the Indian Ocean, and it is the place where the dodo bird was discovered and extinguished, all within about 150 years. +Everyone was very excited about this archaeological find, because it meant that they might finally be able to assemble a single dodo skeleton. +See, while museums all over the world have dodo skeletons in their collection, nobody -- not even the actual Natural History Museum on the island of Mauritius -- has a skeleton that's made from the bones of a single dodo. +Well, this isn't exactly true. +The fact is, is that the British Museum had a complete specimen of a dodo in their collection up until the 18th century -- it was actually mummified, skin and all -- but in a fit of space-saving zeal, they actually cut off the head and they cut off the feet and they burned the rest in a bonfire. +If you go look at their website today, they'll actually list these specimens, saying, the rest was lost in a fire. +Not quite the whole truth. Anyway. +The frontispiece of this article was this photo, and I'm one of the people that thinks that Tina Brown was great for bringing photos to the New Yorker, because this photo completely rocked my world. +I became obsessed with the object -- not just the beautiful photograph itself, and the color, the shallow depth of field, the detail that's visible, the wire you can see on the beak there that the conservator used to put this skeleton together -- there's an entire story here. +And I thought to myself, wouldn't it be great if I had my own dodo skeleton? +I want to point out here at this point that I've spent my life obsessed by objects and the stories that they tell, and this was the very latest one. +So I began looking around for -- to see if anyone sold a kit, some kind of model that I could get, and I found lots of reference material, lots of lovely pictures. +No dice: no dodo skeleton for me. But the damage had been done. +I had saved a few hundred photos of dodo skeletons into my "Creative Projects" folder -- it's a repository for my brain, everything that I could possibly be interested in. +Any time I have an internet connection, there's a sluice of stuff moving into there, everything from beautiful rings to cockpit photos. +The key that the Marquis du Lafayette sent to George Washington to celebrate the storming of the Bastille. +Russian nuclear launch key: The one on the top is the picture of the one I found on eBay; the one on the bottom is the one I made for myself, because I couldn't afford the one on eBay. +Storm trooper costumes. Maps of Middle Earth -- that's one I hand-drew myself. There's the dodo skeleton folder. +This folder has 17,000 photos -- over 20 gigabytes of information -- and it's growing constantly. +And one day, a couple of weeks later, it might have been maybe a year later, I was in the art store with my kids, and I was buying some clay tools -- we were going to have a craft day. +I bought some Super Sculpeys, some armature wire, some various materials. +And I looked down at this Sculpey, and I thought, maybe, yeah, maybe I could make my own dodo skull. +I should point out at this time -- I'm not a sculptor; I'm a hard-edged model maker. +You give me a drawing, you give me a prop to replicate, you give me a crane, scaffolding, parts from "Star Wars" -- especially parts from "Star Wars" -- I can do this stuff all day long. +It's exactly how I made my living for 15 years. +But you give me something like this -- my friend Mike Murnane sculpted this; it's a maquette for "Star Wars, Episode Two" -- this is not my thing -- this is something other people do -- dragons, soft things. +However, I felt like I had looked at enough photos of dodo skulls to actually be able to understand the topology and perhaps replicate it -- I mean, it couldn't be that difficult. +So, I started looking at the best photos I could find. +I grabbed all the reference, and I found this lovely piece of reference. +This is someone selling this on eBay; it was clearly a womans hand, hopefully a woman's hand. +Assuming it was roughly the size of my wife's hand, I made some measurements of her thumb, and I scaled them out to the size of the skull. +I blew it up to the actual size, and I began using that, along with all the other reference that I had, comparing it to it as size reference for figuring out exactly how big the beak should be, exactly how long, etc. +And over a few hours, I eventually achieved what was actually a pretty reasonable dodo skull. And I didn't mean to continue, I -- it's kind of like, you know, you can only clean a super messy room by picking up one thing at a time; you can't think about the totality. +I wasn't thinking about a dodo skeleton; I just noticed that as I finished this skull, the armature wire that I had been used to holding it up was sticking out of the back just where a spine would be. +And one of the other things I'd been interested in and obsessed with over the years is spines and skeletons, having collected a couple of hundred. +I actually understood the mechanics of vertebrae enough to kind of start to imitate them. +And so button by button, vertebrae by vertebrae, I built my way down. +And actually, by the end of the day, I had a reasonable skull, a moderately good vertebrae and half of a pelvis. +And again, I kept on going, looking for more reference, every bit of reference I could find -- drawings, beautiful photos. +This guy -- I love this guy! He put a dodo leg bones on a scanner with a ruler. +This is the kind of accuracy that I wanted, and I replicated every last bone and put it in. +And after about six weeks, I finished, painted, mounted my own dodo skeleton. +You can see that I even made a museum label for it that includes a brief history of the dodo. +And TAP Plastics made me -- although I didn't photograph it -- a museum vitrine. +I don't have the room for this in my house, but I had to finish what I had started. +And this actually represented kind of a sea change to me. +Again, like I said, my life has been about being fascinated by objects and the stories that they tell, and also making them for myself, obtaining them, appreciating them and diving into them. +And in this folder, "Creative Projects," there are tons of projects that I'm currently working on, projects that I've already worked on, things that I might want to work on some day, and things that I may just want to find and buy and have and look at and touch. +But now there was potentially this new category of things that I could sculpt that was different, that I -- you know, I have my own R2D2, but that's -- honestly, relative to sculpting, to me, that's easy. +And so I went back and looked through my "Creative Projects" folder, and I happened across the Maltese Falcon. +Now, this is funny for me: to fall in love with an object from a Hammett novel, because if it's true that the world is divided into two types of people, Chandler people and Hammett people, I am absolutely a Chandler person. +But in this case, it's not about the author, it's not about the book or the movie or the story, it's about the object in and of itself. +And in this case, this object is -- plays on a host of levels. +First of all, there's the object in the world. +This is the "Kniphausen Hawk." +It is a ceremonial pouring vessel made around 1700 for a Swedish Count, and it is very likely the object from which Hammett drew his inspiration for the Maltese Falcon. +Then there is the fictional bird, the one that Hammett created for the book. +Built out of words, it is the engine that drives the plot of his book and also the movie, in which another object is created: a prop that has to represent the thing that Hammett created out of words, inspired by the Kniphausen Hawk, and this represents the falcon in the movie. +And then there is this fourth level, which is a whole new object in the world: the prop made for the movie, the representative of the thing, becomes, in its own right, a whole other thing, a whole new object of desire. +And so now it was time to do some research. +I actually had done some research a few years before -- it's why the folder was there. +I'd bought a replica, a really crappy replica, of the Maltese Falcon on eBay, and had downloaded enough pictures to actually have some reasonable reference. +But I discovered, in researching further, really wanting precise reference, that one of the original lead birds had been sold at Christie's in 1994, and so I contacted an antiquarian bookseller who had the original Christie's catalogue, and in it I found this magnificent picture, which included a size reference. +I was able to scan the picture, blow it up to exactly full size. +I found other reference. Avi [Ara] Chekmayan, a New Jersey editor, actually found this resin Maltese Falcon at a flea market in 1991, although it took him five years to authenticate this bird to the auctioneers' specifications, because there was a lot of controversy about it. +It was made out of resin, which wasn't a common material for movie props about the time the movie was made. +It's funny to me that it took a while to authenticate it, because I can see it compared to this thing, and I can tell you -- it's real, it's the real thing, it's made from the exact same mold that this one is. +In this one, because the auction was actually so controversial, Profiles in History, the auction house that sold this -- I think in 1995 for about 100,000 dollars -- they actually included -- you can see here on the bottom -- not just a front elevation, but also a side, rear and other side elevation. +So now, I had all the topology I needed to replicate the Maltese Falcon. +What do they do, how do you start something like that? I really don't know. +So what I did was, again, like I did with the dodo skull, I blew all my reference up to full size, and then I began cutting out the negatives and using those templates as shape references. +So I took Sculpey, and I built a big block of it, and I passed it through until, you know, I got the right profiles. +And then slowly, feather by feather, detail by detail, I worked out and achieved -- working in front of the television and Super Sculpey -- here's me sitting next to my wife -- it's the only picture I took of the entire process. +As I moved through, I achieved a very reasonable facsimile of the Maltese Falcon. +But again, I am not a sculptor, and so I don't know a lot of the tricks, like, I don't know how my friend Mike gets beautiful, shiny surfaces with his Sculpey; I certainly wasn't able to get it. +So, I went down to my shop, and I molded it and I cast it in resin, because in the resin, then, I could absolutely get the glass smooth finished. +Now there's a lot of ways to fill and get yourself a nice smooth finish. +My preference is about 70 coats of this -- matte black auto primer. +I spray it on for about three or four days, it drips to hell, but it allows me a really, really nice gentle sanding surface and I can get it glass-smooth. +Oh, finishing up with triple-zero steel wool. +Now, the great thing about getting it to this point was that because in the movie, when they finally bring out the bird at the end, and they place it on the table, they actually spin it. +So I was able to actually screen-shot and freeze-frame to make sure. +And I'm following all the light kicks on this thing and making sure that as I'm holding the light in the same position, I'm getting the same type of reflection on it -- that's the level of detail I'm going into this thing. +I ended up with this: my Maltese Falcon. +This is where it gets weird. +Fred Sexton was a friend of this guy, George Hodel. +Terrifying guy -- agreed by many to be the killer of the Black Dahlia. +Now, James Ellroy believes that Fred Sexton, the sculptor of the Maltese Falcon, killed James Elroy's mother. +John's Grill, which actually is seen briefly in "The Maltese Falcon," is still a viable San Francisco eatery, counted amongst its regular customers Elisha Cook, who played Wilmer Cook in the movie, and he gave them one of his original plasters of the Maltese Falcon. +And they had it in their cabinet for about 15 years, until it got stolen in January of 2007. +It would seem that the object of desire only comes into its own by disappearing repeatedly. +So here I had this Falcon, and it was lovely. It looked really great, the light worked on it really well, it was better than anything that I could achieve or obtain out in the world. +But there was a problem. And the problem was that: I wanted the entirety of the object, I wanted the weight behind the object. +This thing was made of resin and it was too light. +There's this group online that I frequent. +It's a group of prop crazies just like me called the Replica Props Forum, and it's people who trade, make and travel in information about movie props. +And it turned out that one of the guys there, a friend of mine that I never actually met, but befriended through some prop deals, was the manager of a local foundry. +He took my master Falcon pattern, he actually did lost wax casting in bronze for me, and this is the bronze I got back. +And this is, after some acid etching, the one that I ended up with. +And this thing, it's deeply, deeply satisfying to me. +Here, I'm going to put it out there, later on tonight, and I want you to pick it up and handle it. +You want to know how obsessed I am. This project's only for me, and yet I went so far as to buy on eBay a 1941 Chinese San Francisco-based newspaper, in order so that the bird could properly be wrapped ... +like it is in the movie. +Yeah, I know! +There you can see, it's weighing in at 27 and a half pounds. +That's half the weight of my dog, Huxley. +But there's a problem. +Now, here's the most recent progression of Falcons. +On the far left is a piece of crap -- a replica I bought on eBay. +There's my somewhat ruined Sculpey Falcon, because I had to get it back out of the mold. There's my first casting, there's my master and there's my bronze. +There's a thing that happens when you mold and cast things, which is that every time you throw it into silicone and cast it in resin, you lose a little bit of volume, you lose a little bit of size. +And when I held my bronze one up against my Sculpey one, it was shorter by three-quarters of an inch. +Yeah, no, really, this was like aah -- why didn't I remember this? +Why didn't I start and make it bigger? +So what do I do? I figure I have two options. +One, I can fire a freaking laser at it, which I have already done, to do a 3D scan -- there's a 3D scan of this Falcon. +I'll give them one if they want it. +And then, maybe, then I'll achieve the end of this exercise. +But really, if we're all going to be honest with ourselves, I have to admit that achieving the end of the exercise was never the point of the exercise to begin with, was it. +Thank you. +I don't know what the hell I'm doing here. +I was born in a Scots Presbyterian ghetto in Canada, and dropped out of high school. I don't own a cell phone, and I paint on paper using gouache, which hasn't changed in 600 years. +But about three years ago I had an art show in New York, and I titled it "Serious Nonsense." +So I think I'm actually the first one here -- I lead. +I called it "Serious Nonsense" because on the serious side, I use a technique of painstaking realism of editorial illustration from when I was a kid. I copied it and I never unlearned it -- it's the only style I know. And it's very kind of staid and formal. +And meanwhile, I use nonsense, as you can see. +This is a Scottish castle where people are playing golf indoors, and the trick was to bang the golf ball off of suits of armor -- which you can't see there. +This was one of a series called "Zany Afternoons," which became a book. +This is a home-built rocket-propelled car. That's a 1953 Henry J -- I'm a bug for authenticity -- in a quiet neighborhood in Toledo. +This is my submission for the L.A. Museum of Film. +You can probably tell Frank Gehry and I come from the same town. +My work is so personal and so strange that I have to invent my own lexicon for it. +And I work a lot in what I call "retrofuturism," which is looking back to see how yesterday viewed tomorrow. +And they're always wrong, always hilariously, optimistically wrong. +And the peak time for that was the 30s, because the Depression was so dismal that anything to get away from the present into the future ... +and technology was going to carry us along. +Automotive retrofuturism is one of my specialties. +I was both an automobile illustrator and an advertising automobile copywriter, so I have a lot of revenge to take on the subject. +Detroit has always been halfway into the future -- the advertising half. +This is the '58 Bulgemobile: so new, they make tomorrow look like yesterday. +This is a chain gang of guys admiring the car. +That's from a whole catalog -- it's 18 pages or so -- ran back in the days of the Lampoon, where I cut my teeth. +Techno-archaeology is digging back and finding past miracles that never happened -- for good reason, usually. +The zeppelin -- this was from a brochure about the zeppelin based, obviously, on the Hindenburg. +But the zeppelin was the biggest thing that ever moved made by man. +And it carried 56 people at the speed of a Buick at an altitude you could hear dogs bark, and it cost twice as much as a first-class cabin on the Normandie to fly it. +So the Hindenburg wasn't, you know, it was inevitable it was going to go. +This is auto-gyro jousting in Malibu in the 30s. +The auto-gyro couldn't wait for the invention of the helicopter, but it should have -- it wasn't a big success. +It's the only Spanish innovation, technologically, of the 20th century, by the way. +You needed to know that. +The flying car which never got off the ground -- it was a post-war dream. +My old man used to tell me we were going to get a flying car. +This is pitched into the future from 1946, looking at the day all American families have them. +"There's Moscow, Shirley. Hope they speak Esperanto!" +Faux-nostalgia, which I'm sort of -- not, say, famous for, but I work an awful lot in it. +It's the achingly sentimental yearning for times that never happened. +Somebody once said that nostalgia is the one utterly most useless human emotion -- so I think thats a case for serious play. +This is tank polo in the South Hamptons. +The brainless rich are more fun to make fun of than anybody. I do a lot of that. +And authenticity is a major part of my serious nonsense. +I think it adds a huge amount. +Those, for example, are Mark IV British tanks from 1916. +They had two machine guns and a cannon, and they had 90 horsepower Ricardo engines. +They went five miles an hour and inside it was 105 degrees in the pitch dark. +And they had a canary hung inside the thing to make sure the Germans weren't going to use gas. +Happy little story, isn't it? +This is Motor Ritz Towers in Manhattan in the 30s, where you drove up to your front door, if you had the guts. +Anybody who was anybody had an apartment there. +I managed to stick in both the zeppelin and an ocean liner out of sheer enthusiasm. +And I love cigars -- there's a cigar billboard down there. +And faux-nostalgia works even in serious subjects like war. +This is those wonderful days of the Battle of Britain in 1940, when a Messerschmitt ME109 bursts into the House of Commons and buzzes around, just to piss off Churchill, who's down there somewhere. +It's a fond memory of times past. +Hyperbolic overkill is a way of taking exaggeration to the absolute ultimate limit, just for the fun of it. This was a piece I did -- a brochure again -- "RMS Tyrannic: The Biggest Thing in All the World." +The copy, which you can't see because it goes on and on for several pages, says that steerage passengers can't get their to bunks before the voyage is over, and it's so safe it carries no insurance. +It's obviously modeled on the Titanic. +But it's not a cri de coeur about man's hubris in the face of the elements. +It's just a sick, silly joke. +Shamelessly cheap is something, I think -- this will wake you up. +It has no meaning, just -- Desoto discovers the Mississippi, and it's a Desoto discovering the Mississippi. +I did that as a quick back page -- I had like four hours to do a back page for an issue of the Lampoon, and I did that, and I thought, "Well, I'm ashamed. I hope nobody knows it." +People wrote in for reprints of that thing. +Urban absurdism -- that's what the New Yorker really calls for. +I try to make life in New York look even weirder than it is with those covers. +I've done about 40 of them, and I'd say 30 of them are based on that concept. +I was driving down 7th Avenue one night at 3 a.m., and this steam pouring out of the street, and I thought, "What causes that?" And that -- whos to say? +The Temple of Dendur at the Metropolitan in New York -- it's a very somber place. +I thought I could jazz it up a bit, have a little fun with it. +This is a very un-PC cover. Not in New York. +I couldn't resist, and I got a nasty email from some environmental group saying, "This is too serious and solemn to make fun of. You should be ashamed, please apologize on our website." +Haven't got around to it yet but -- I may. +This is the word side of my brain. +I love the word "Eurotrash." +That's all the Eurotrash coming through JFK customs. +This was the New York bike messenger meeting the Tour de France. +If you live in New York, you know how the bike messengers move. +Except that he's carrying a tube for blueprints and stuff -- they all do -- and a lot of people thought that meant it was a terrorist about to shoot rockets at the Tour de France -- sign of our times, I guess. +This is the only fashion cover I've ever done. +It's the little old lady that lives in a shoe, and then this thing -- the title of that was, "There Goes the Neighborhood." +This is a tiny joke -- E-ZR pass. One letter makes an idea. +This is a big joke. +This is the audition for "King Kong." +People always ask me, where do you get your ideas, how do your ideas come? +Truth about that one is I had a horrible red wine hangover, in the middle of the night, this came to me like a Xerox -- all I had to do was write it down. +It was perfectly clear. I didn't do any thinking about it. +And then when it ran, a lovely lady, an old lady named Mrs. Edgar Rosenberg -- if you know that name -- called me and said she loved the cover, it was so sweet. +Her former name was Fay Wray, and so that was -- I didn't have the wit to say, "Take the painting." +Finally, this was a three-page cover, never done before, and I don't think it will ever be done again -- successive pages in the front of the magazine. +It's the ascent of man using an escalator, and it's in three parts. +You can't see it all together, unfortunately, but if you look at it enough, you can sort of start to see how it actually starts to move. +Pretty elegant. Nothing like a crash to end a joke. That completes my oeuvre. +I would just like to add a crass commercial -- I have a kids' book coming out in the fall called "Marvel Sandwiches," a compendium of all the serious play that ever was, and its going to be available in fine bookstores, crummy bookstores, tables on the street in October. +So thank you very much. +Some 17 years ago, I became allergic to Delhi's air. +My doctors told me that my lung capacity had gone down to 70 percent, and it was killing me. +With the help of IIT, TERI, and learnings from NASA, we discovered that there are three basic green plants, common green plants, with which we can grow all the fresh air we need indoors to keep us healthy. +We've also found that you can reduce the fresh air requirements into the building, while maintaining industry indoor air-quality standards. +The three plants are Areca palm, Mother-in-Law's Tongue and money plant. +The botanical names are in front of you. +Areca palm is a plant which removes CO2 and converts it into oxygen. +We need four shoulder-high plants per person, and in terms of plant care, we need to wipe the leaves every day in Delhi, and perhaps once a week in cleaner-air cities. +We had to grow them in vermi manure, which is sterile, or hydroponics, and take them outdoors every three to four months. +The second plant is Mother-in-law's Tongue, which is again a very common plant, and we call it a bedroom plant, because it converts CO2 into oxygen at night. +And we need six to eight waist-high plants per person. +The third plant is money plant, and this is again a very common plant; preferably grows in hydroponics. +And this particular plant removes formaldehydes and other volatile chemicals. +With these three plants, you can grow all the fresh air you need. +In fact, you could be in a bottle with a cap on top, and you would not die at all, and you would not need any fresh air. +We have tried these plants at our own building in Delhi, which is a 50,000-square-feet, 20-year-old building. +And it has close to 1,200 such plants for 300 occupants. +Our studies have found that there is a 42 percent probability of one's blood oxygen going up by one percent if one stays indoors in this building for 10 hours. +The government of India has discovered or published a study to show that this is the healthiest building in New Delhi. +And the study showed that, compared to other buildings, there is a reduced incidence of eye irritation by 52 percent, respiratory systems by 34 percent, headaches by 24 percent, lung impairment by 12 percent and asthma by nine percent. +And this study has been published on September 8, 2008, and it's available on the government of India website. +Our experience points to an amazing increase in human productivity by over 20 percent by using these plants. +And also a reduction in energy requirements in buildings by an outstanding 15 percent, because you need less fresh air. +We are now replicating this in a 1.75-million-square-feet building, which will have 60,000 indoor plants. +Why is this important? +It is also important for the environment, because the world's energy requirements are expected to grow by 30 percent in the next decade. +40 percent of the world's energy is taken up by buildings currently, and 60 percent of the world's population will be living in buildings in cities with a population of over one million in the next 15 years. +And there is a growing preference for living and working in air-conditioned places. +"Be the change you want to see in the world," said Mahatma Gandhi. +And thank you for listening. +If you're at all like me, this is what you do with the sunny summer weekends in San Francisco: you build experimental kite-powered hydrofoils capable of more than 30 knots. +And you realize that there is incredible power in the wind, and it can do amazing things. +And one day, a vessel not unlike this will probably break the world speed record. +But kites aren't just toys like this. +Kites: I'm going to give you a brief history, and tell you about the magnificent future of every child's favorite plaything. +So, kites are more than a thousand years old, and the Chinese used them for military applications, and even for lifting men. +So they knew at that stage they could carry large weights. +I'm not sure why there is a hole in this particular man. +In 1827, a fellow called George Pocock actually pioneered the use of kites for towing buggies in races against horse carriages across the English countryside. +Then of course, at the dawn of aviation, all of the great inventors of the time -- like Hargreaves, like Langley, even Alexander Graham Bell, inventor of the telephone, who was flying this kite -- were doing so in the pursuit of aviation. +Then these two fellows came along, and they were flying kites to develop the control systems that would ultimately enable powered human flight. +So this is of course Orville and Wilbur Wright, and the Wright Flyer. +And their experiments with kites led to this momentous occasion, where we powered up and took off for the first-ever 12-second human flight. +And that was fantastic for the future of commercial aviation. +But unfortunately, it relegated kites once again to be considered children's toys. +That was until the 1970s, where we had the last energy crisis. +And a fabulous man called Miles Loyd who lives on the outskirts of San Francisco, wrote this seminal paper that was completely ignored in the Journal of Energy about how to use basically an airplane on a piece of string to generate enormous amounts of electricity. +The real key observation he made is that a free-flying wing can sweep through more sky and generate more power in a unit of time than a fixed-wing turbine. +So turbines grew. And they can now span up to three hundred feet at the hub height, but they can't really go a lot higher, and more height is where the more wind is, and more power -- as much as twice as much. +So cut to now. We still have an energy crisis, and now we have a climate crisis as well. You know, so humans generate about 12 trillion watts, or 12 terawatts, from fossil fuels. +And Al Gore has spoken to why we need to hit one of these targets, and in reality what that means is in the next 30 to 40 years, we have to make 10 trillion watts or more of new clean energy somehow. +Wind is the second-largest renewable resource after solar: 3600 terawatts, more than enough to supply humanity 200 times over. +The majority of it is in the higher altitudes, above 300 feet, where we don't have a technology as yet to get there. +So this is the dawn of the new age of kites. +This is our test site on Maui, flying across the sky. +I'm now going to show you the first autonomous generation of power by every child's favorite plaything. +As you can tell, you need to be a robot to fly this thing for thousands of hours. +It makes you a little nauseous. +And here we're actually generating about 10 kilowatts -- so, enough to power probably five United States households -- with a kite not much larger than this piano. +And the real significant thing here is we're developing the control systems, as did the Wright brothers, that would enable sustained, long-duration flight. +And it doesn't hurt to do it in a location like this either. +So this is the equivalent for a kite flier of peeing in the snow -- that's tracing your name in the sky. +And this is where we're actually going. +So we're beyond the 12-second steps. +And we're working towards megawatt-scale machines that fly at 2000 feet and generate tons of clean electricity. +So you ask, how big are those machines? +Well, this paper plane would be maybe a -- oop! +That would be enough to power your cell phone. +Your Cessna would be 230 killowatts. +If you'd loan me your Gulfstream, I'll rip its wings off and generate you a megawatt. +If you give me a 747, I'll make six megawatts, which is more than the largest wind turbines today. +And the Spruce Goose would be a 15-megawatt wing. +So that is audacious, you say. I agree. +But audacious is what has happened many times before in history. +This is a refrigerator factory, churning out airplanes for World War II. +Prior to World War II, they were making 1000 planes a year. +By 1945, they were making 100,000. +With this factory and 100,000 planes a year, we could make all of America's electricity in about 10 years. +So really this is a story about the audacious plans of young people with these dreams. There are many of us. +I am lucky enough to work with 30 of them. +And I think we need to support all of the dreams of the kids out there doing these crazy things. +Thank you. +I've been working on issues of poverty for more than 20 years, and so it's ironic that the problem that and question that I most grapple with is how you actually define poverty. What does it mean? +So often, we look at dollar terms -- people making less than a dollar or two or three a day. +And yet the complexity of poverty really has to look at income as only one variable. +Because really, it's a condition about choice, and the lack of freedom. +And I had an experience that really deepened and elucidated for me the understanding that I have. +It was in Kenya, and I want to share it with you. +I was with my friend Susan Meiselas, the photographer, in the Mathare Valley slums. +Now, Mathare Valley is one of the oldest slums in Africa. +It's about three miles out of Nairobi, and it's a mile long and about two-tenths of a mile wide, where over half a million people live crammed in these little tin shacks, generation after generation, renting them, often eight or 10 people to a room. +And it's known for prostitution, violence, drugs: a hard place to grow up. +And when we were walking through the narrow alleys, it was literally impossible not to step in the raw sewage and the garbage alongside the little homes. +But at the same time it was also impossible not to see the human vitality, the aspiration and the ambition of the people who live there: women washing their babies, washing their clothes, hanging them out to dry. +I met this woman, Mama Rose, who has rented that little tin shack for 32 years, where she lives with her seven children. +Four sleep in one twin bed, and three sleep on the mud and linoleum floor. +And she keeps them all in school by selling water from that kiosk, and from selling soap and bread from the little store inside. +It was also the day after the inauguration, and I was reminded how Mathare is still connected to the globe. +And I would see kids on the street corners, and they'd say "Obama, he's our brother!" +And I'd say "Well, Obama's my brother, so that makes you my brother too." +And they would look quizzically, and then be like, "High five!" +And it was here that I met Jane. +I was struck immediately by the kindness and the gentleness in her face, and I asked her to tell me her story. +She started off by telling me her dream. She said, "I had two. +My first dream was to be a doctor, and the second was to marry a good man who would stay with me and my family, because my mother was a single mom, and couldn't afford to pay for school fees. +So I had to give up the first dream, and I focused on the second." +She got married when she was 18, had a baby right away. +And when she turned 20, found herself pregnant with a second child, her mom died and her husband left her -- married another woman. +So she was again in Mathare, with no income, no skill set, no money. +And so she ultimately turned to prostitution. +It wasn't organized in the way we often think of it. +She would go into the city at night with about 20 girls, look for work, and sometimes come back with a few shillings, or sometimes with nothing. +And she said, "You know, the poverty wasn't so bad. It was the humiliation and the embarrassment of it all." +In 2001, her life changed. +She had a girlfriend who had heard about this organization, Jamii Bora, that would lend money to people no matter how poor you were, as long as you provided a commensurate amount in savings. +And so she spent a year to save 50 dollars, and started borrowing, and over time she was able to buy a sewing machine. +She started tailoring. +And that turned into what she does now, which is to go into the secondhand clothing markets, and for about three dollars and 25 cents she buys an old ball gown. +Some of them might be ones you gave. +And she repurposes them with frills and ribbons, and makes these frothy confections that she sells to women for their daughter's Sweet 16 or first Holy Communion -- those milestones in a life that people want to celebrate all along the economic spectrum. +And she does really good business. In fact, I watched her walk through the streets hawking. And before you knew it, there was a crowd of women around her, buying these dresses. +And I reflected, as I was watching her sell the dresses, and also the jewelry that she makes, that now Jane makes more than four dollars a day. +And by many definitions she is no longer poor. +But she still lives in Mathare Valley. +And so she can't move out. +She lives with all of that insecurity, and in fact, in January, during the ethnic riots, she was chased from her home and had to find a new shack in which she would live. +Jamii Bora understands that and understands that when we're talking about poverty, we've got to look at people all along the economic spectrum. +And so with patient capital from Acumen and other organizations, loans and investments that will go the long term with them, they built a low-cost housing development, about an hour outside Nairobi central. +And they designed it from the perspective of customers like Jane herself, insisting on responsibility and accountability. +So she has to give 10 percent of the mortgage -- of the total value, or about 400 dollars in savings. +And then they match her mortgage to what she paid in rent for her little shanty. +And in the next couple of weeks, she's going to be among the first 200 families to move into this development. +When I asked her if she feared anything, or whether she would miss anything from Mathare, she said, "What would I fear that I haven't confronted already? +I'm HIV positive. I've dealt with it all." +And she said, "What would I miss? +You think I will miss the violence or the drugs? The lack of privacy? +Do you think I'll miss not knowing if my children are going to come home at the end of the day?" She said "If you gave me 10 minutes my bags would be packed." +I said, "Well what about your dreams?" +And she said, "Well, you know, my dreams don't look exactly like I thought they would when I was a little girl. +But if I think about it, I thought I wanted a husband, but what I really wanted was a family that was loving. And I fiercely love my children, and they love me back." +She said, "I thought that I wanted to be a doctor, but what I really wanted to be was somebody who served and healed and cured. +And so I feel so blessed with everything that I have, that two days a week I go and I counsel HIV patients. +And I say, 'Look at me. You are not dead. +You are still alive. And if you are still alive you have to serve.'" And she said, "I'm not a doctor who gives out pills. +But maybe me, I give out something better because I give them hope." +And in the middle of this economic crisis, where so many of us are inclined to pull in with fear, I think we're well suited to take a cue from Jane and reach out, recognizing that being poor doesn't mean being ordinary. +Because when systems are broken, like the ones that we're seeing around the world, it's an opportunity for invention and for innovation. +It's an opportunity to truly build a world where we can extend services and products to all human beings, so that they can make decisions and choices for themselves. +I truly believe it's where dignity starts. +We owe it to the Janes of the world. +And just as important, we owe it to ourselves. +Thank you. +I'm the weekly tech critic for the New York Times. +I review gadgets and stuff. +And mostly what good dads should be doing this time of year is nestling with their kids and decorating the Christmas tree. +What I'm mostly doing this year is going on cable TV and answering the same question: "What are the tech trends for next year?" +And I'm like, "Didn't we just go through this last year?" +But I'm going to pick the one that interests me most, and that is the completed marriage of the cell phone and the Internet. +You know, I found that volcano on Google Images, not realizing how much it makes me look like the cover of Dianetics. +Anyway, this all started a few years ago, when they started carrying your voice over the Internet rather than over a phone line, and we've come a long way since that. +But that was interesting in itself. This is companies like Vonage. +Basically you take an ordinary telephone, you plug it into this little box that they give you and the box plugs into your cable modem. +Now, it works just like a regular phone. +So you can pick up the phone, you hear a dial tone, but its just a fake-out. It's a WAV file of a dial tone, just to reassure you that the world hasn't ended. +It could be anything. It could be salsa music or a comedy routine -- it doesn't matter. +The little box has your phone number. +So that's really cool -- you can take it to London or Siberia, and your next door neighbor can dial your home number and your phone will ring, because it's got everything in the box. +They've got every feature known to man in there, because adding a new feature is just software. +And as a result of Voice Over IP -- I hate that term -- Voice Over Internet -- land-line home-phone service has gone down 30 percent in the last three years. +I mean, no self-respecting college kid has home phone service anymore. +This is what college kids are more likely to have. It's the most popular VOIP service in the world: It's Skype. +It's a free program you download for your Mac or PC, and you make free phone calls anywhere in the world The downside is that you have to wear a headset like a nerd. +It's not your phone -- it's your computer. +But nonetheless, if you're a college kid and you have no money, believe me, this is better than trying to use your cell phone. +It's really cute seeing middle-aged people like me, try out Skype for the first time, which is usually when their kid goes away for a semester abroad. +They don't want to pay the international fees, so they're like, "Timmy! Is that you?" +It's really cute. +But I -- at least it was when I did it -- I think where VOIP is really going to get interesting is when they start putting it on cell phones. +Imagine if you had an ordinary cell phone, and any time you were in a wireless hotspot -- free calls anywhere in the world, never pay the cellular company a nickel. +It'd be really, really cool -- and yet, even though the technology for this has been available for five years, incredibly, the number of standard cell phones offered by US carriers with free VOIP is zero! +I can't figure out why! +Actually, I need to update that. There's one now. +And it's so interesting that I thought I would tell you about it. +It comes from T-Mobile. +And I am not paid by T-Mobile. +I'm not plugging T-Mobile. +The New York Times has very rigid policies about that. +Ever since that Jayson Blair jerk ruined it for all of us. +Basically, the reason you haven't heard about this program is because it was introduced last year on June 29. +Does anyone remember what else happened on June 29 last year? +It was the iPhone. The iPhone came out that day. +I'm like, can you imagine being the T-Mobile PR lady? You know? +"Hi, we have an announcement to -- WAH!!!" +But it's actually really, really cool. You have a choice of phones, and we're not talking smartphones -- ordinary phones, including a Blackberry, that have Wi-Fi. +The deal is, any time you're in a Wi-Fi hotspot, all your calls are free. +And when you're out of the hotspot, you're on the regular cellular network. +You're thinking, "Well, how often am I in a hotspot?" +The answer is, "All the time!" +Because they give you a regular wireless router that works with the phone, for your house. +Which is really ingenious, because we all know that T-Mobile is the most pathetic carrier. +They have coverage like the size of my thumbnail. +But it's a hundred million dollars to put up one of those towers. Right? +They don't have that kind of money. Instead they give each of us a seven-dollar-and-95-cent box. They're like a stealth tower installation program. +We're putting it in our homes for them! +Anyway, they have Wi-Fi phones in Europe. +But the thing that T-Mobile did that nobody's done before is, when you're on a call an you move from Wi-Fi into cellular range, the call is handed off in mid-syllable, seamlessly. I'll show you the advanced technologies we use at the New York Times to test this gear. +This is me with a camcorder on a phone going like this. +As I walk out of the house from my Wi-Fi hotspot into the cellular network on a call with my wife -- look at the upper left. That's the Wi-Fi signal. +: Jennifer Pogue: Hello? +David Pogue: Hi babes, it's me. +JP: Oh, hi darling, how are you? +DP: You're on Wi-Fi. How does it sound? +JP: Oh, it sounds pretty good. +Now, I'm leaving the house. DP: I'm going for a walk -- do you mind? +JP: No not at all. I'm having a great day with the kids. +DP: What are you guys doing? +Right there! +It just changed to the cellular tower in mid-call. +I don't know why my wife says I never listen to her. I don't get that. +The bottom line is that the boundaries, because of the Internet plus cell phone, are melting. +The cool thing about the T-Mobile phones is that although switching technologies is very advanced, the billing technology has not caught up. +So what I mean is that you can start a call in your house in the Wi-Fi hotspot, you can get in your car and talk until the battery's dead -- which would be like 10 minutes -- And the call will continue to be free. +Because they don't, they haven't -- well, no, wait! Not so fast. +It also works the other way. +So if you start a call on your cellular network and you come home, you keep being billed. +Which is why most people with this service get into the habit of saying, "Hey, I just got home. Can I call you right back?" +Now you get it. +It's also true that if you use one of these phones overseas, it doesn't know what Internet hotspot you're in. +On the Internet nobody knows you're a dog, right? Nobody knows you're in Pakistan. +You can make free unlimited calls home to the US with these phones. So, very, very interesting. +This is another favorite of mine. +Does anyone here have a working cell phone that's on, with coverage, who can make a call right now without a lot of fussing? +OK. Would you call me please right now? [Phone number given.] And don't you all call me at three a.m. asking me to fix your printer. +I have two cell phones, so this going to be very odd, if it works. +I should know not to do technology demos in front of an audience. It's just, like, absurd. +This one is going off. And -- oh, I have the ringer off. Tsh! Great. +Anyway, this one is also going off. So they're both ringing at the same time. +Excuse me one second. +Hello? +Oh. Where are you calling from? +No, no just kidding. There he is. Thank you very much for doing that. +I didn't even know it was you -- I was looking at this guy. +Oh great! Yeah. Yeah you can all stop calling now! +All right! We've made the point. +All right. Ringer off. Everyone wants in on the action. +So this is Grand Central at work -- it's a -- oh, for gods sake! +I have your numbers now! +You will pay. +Grand Central is this really brilliant idea where they give you a new phone number, and then at that point one phone number rings all your phones at once. +Your home phone, your work phone, your cell phone, your yacht phone (this is the EG crowd). +The beauty of that is you never miss a call. +I know a lot of you are like, "Ooh, I don't want to be reached at any hour." +But the beauty is it's all going through the internet, so you get all of these really cool features -- like you can say, I want these people to be able to call me only during these hours. +And I want these people to hear this greeting, "Hi boss, I'm out making us both some money. Leave a message." +And then your wife calls, and, "Hi honey, leave me a message." +Very, very customizable. +Google bought it, and they've been working on it for a year. +They're supposed to come out with it very shortly in a public method. +By the way, this is something that really bothers me. +I don't know if you realize this. When you call 411 on your cell phone, they charge you two bucks. +Did you know that? It's an outrage. +I actually got a photograph of the Verizon employee right there. +I'm going to tell you how to avoid that now. +What you're going to use is Google Cellular. +It's totally free -- there's not even ads. +If you know how to send a text message, you can get the same information for free. +I'm about to change your life. So here's me doing it. +You send a text message to the word "Google," which turns out to be 46645. +Leave off the last "e" for savings. +Anyway, so lets say you need a drugstore near Chicago. +You type "pharmacy Chicago," or the zip code. +You hit send, and in five seconds, they will send you back the two closest drugstores, complete with name address and phone number. +Here it comes. +And it's already written down -- so, like, if you're driving, you don't have to do one of these things, "Uh huh, uh huh, uh huh." +It works with weather, too. +You can say "Weather," and the name of the city you're going to travel to. +And then in five seconds, they send you back the complete weather forecast for that town. +Shortly I'll tell you why I was in Milan. +Here we go. And those are just the beginning. +These are all the different things that you can text to Google and they will -- yeah! You're all trying to write this down. +That's cute. I do have an email address. You can just ask me. +It's absolutely phenomenal. The only downside is that it requires you to know how to text -- send a text message. Nobody over 40 knows how to do that. +So I'm going to teach you something even better. +This is called Google Info. +They've just launched this voice-activated version of the same thing. +It's speech recognition like you've never heard before. +So lets say I'm in Monterey, and I want what? +I want to find what? Bagels. OK. +Google: Say the business and the city and state. +DP: Bagels, Monterey, California. +I got the Chinese line. +Google: Bagels, Monterey, California. +Top eight results: Number one, Bagel Bakery on El Dorado Street. +To select number one, you can press one or say "number one." +Number two: Bagel Bakery, commissary department. +Number Two. Number Two. Two. +Why do I listen to people in the audience? +Well anyway -- oh! Here we go! +Google: ... commissary department on McClellan Avenue, Monterey. +I'll connect you, or say "details," or "go back." +DP: He's connecting me! He doesn't even tell me the phone number. +He's just connecting me directly. It's like having a personal valet. +Google: Hold on. +DP: Hi, could I have 400 with a schmear? +No, no, no -- just kidding, no no. +So anyway, you never even find out the number. +It's just so amazing. +And it has incredible, incredible accuracy. +This is even more amazing. Put this in your speed dial. +This you can ask by voice any question. +Who won the 1958 World Series? +What's the recipe for a certain cocktail? +It's absolutely amazing -- and they text you back the answer. +I tried this this morning just to make sure it's still alive. +"Which actors have played James Bond?" +They text me back this: "Sean Connery, George Lazenby, Roger Moore, Timothy Dalton, Pierce Brosnan, Daniel Craig." +Right! And then I was trying to pretend I was like a Valley girl. +I'm like, "What's the word that means you know, like, when the sun, the moon and the earth are, like, all in a line?" +Just to see how the recognition was. +They texted me back, "It's called a syzygy." +Which I knew, because it's the word that won me the Ohio spelling bee in 1976. +You know, there's a lot of people wondering, "How on earth are they going to make money doing this?" And the answer is: look at the last line. +They put this teeny-weeny little ad, about 10 characters long. +And a lot of people also want to know, "How does it work? +How can it be so good? It's as though there is a human being on the other end of the line." +Because there is one! +They have 10,000 people who are being paid 20 cents per answer. +As you can imagine, it's college kids and old people. +That's who can afford to do that. +But it's a human being on the line. And it's gotten me out of so many tough positions like, "When's the last flight out of Chicago?" +You know. It's just absolutely amazing. +Another thing that really bothers me about cell phones today -- this is probably my biggest pet peeve in all of technology. +When I call to leave you a message, I get 15 seconds of instructions from a third-grade teacher on Ambien! +"To page this person ... " Page? What is this, 1975? +Nobody has pagers anymore. +"You may begin speaking at the tone. +When you have finished recording, you may hang up." No! +And then it gets worse: when I call to retrieve my messages, first of all: "You have 87 messages. +To listen to your messages ... " Why else am I calling? +Of course I want to listen to the messages! +Oh! You all have cell phones too. +So last year I went to Milan, Italy, and I got to speak to an audience of cellular executives from 200 countries around the world. +And I said as a joke -- as a joke, I said, "I did the math. Verizon has 70 million customers. +If you check your voicemail twice a day, that's 100 million dollars a year. +I bet you guys are doing this just to run up our airtime, aren't you?" +No chuckle. They're like this -- Where is the outrage, people? Rise up! +Sorry. I'm not bitter. +So now I'm going to tell you how to get out of that. +There are these services that transcribe your voicemail into text. +And they send it either to your email or as text messages to your phone. +It is a life-changer. +And by the way, they don't always get the words right, because it's over the phone and all that. +So they attach the audio file at the bottom of the email so you can listen to double-check. +The services are called things like Spinvox, Phonetag -- this is the one I use -- Callwave. A lot of people say, "How are they doing this? +I don't really want people listening in to my calls." +The executives at these companies told me, "Well we use a proprietary B-to-B, best-of-breed, peer-to-peer soluti -- " you know. +I think basically it's like these guys in India with headsets, you know, listening in. +The reason I think that is that on the first day I tried one of these services, I got two voicemail messages. One was from a guy named Michael Stevenson, which shouldn't be that hard to transcribe, and it was misspelled. +The other was from my video producer at the Times, whose name is Vijaiy Singh, with the silent 'h'. Nailed that one. +So you be the judge. +Anyway, this service, Callwave, promises that it's all software -- nobody is listening to your messages. +And they also promise that they're going to transcribe only the gist of your messages. +So I thought I'd see how that goes. +This is me testing it out. +: Hello, this is Michael. +Hope you're doing well. I'm fine here. Everything's good. +Hey, I was walking along the street and the sky was blue. +And your daughter broke her leg at soccer practice. +I'm going to have a sandwich for lunch. +She's in room -- emergency room 53W. +OK, talk to you later -- bye. +I love my job. +So a couple minutes later, this I got by email. +It's a very good transcription. But a couple minutes after that, I got the text message version. Now remember, a text message can only be 160 characters long. +So it had better be the gist of the gist, right? +I'm not kidding you. The message said, "Was walking along the street" and "sky was blue" and "emergency"! +What the f -- ? +Well I guess that was the gist. +And lastly, I just have to talk about this one. +This is my favorite of all time. It's called Popularitydialer.com. +Basically, you're going to go on some iffy date, or a potentially bad meeting. +So you go and you type in your phone number, and at the exact minute where you want to be called -- And at that moment your phone will ring. +And you're like, "I'm sorry. I've got to take this." +The really beautiful thing is, you know how when somebody's sitting next to you, sometimes they can sort of hear a little bit of the caller. +So they give you a choice of what you want to hear on the other end. +Here's the girlfriend. +Phone: Hey you, what's going on? +DP: I'm kinda, like, giving a talk right now. +Phone: Well, that's good. +DP: What are you doing? +Phone: I was just wondering what you were up to. +DP: Right, I can't really talk right now. +This is the -- I love this -- the boss call. +Phone: Hey, this is Mr. Johnson calling from the office. +DP: Oh, hi, sir. +Phone: Did you complete that thing about a month ago? That photocopier training? +DP: Oh -- sorry I forgot. +Phone: Yeah, well so when was the last time you used the photocopier? +DP: It was like three weeks ago. +Phone: Well, I don't know if you heard, you might have heard from Lenny, but -- I think the biggest change when Internet met phone was with the iPhone. +Not my finest moment in New York Times journalism. +It was when in the fall of 2006, I explained why Apple would never do a cell phone. +I looked like a moron. However, my logic was good, because -- I don't know if you realize this, but -- until the iPhone came along, the carriers -- Verizon, AT&T, Cingular -- held veto power over every aspect of every design of every phone. +I know the people who worked on the Treo. +They went around to these carriers and said, "Look at these cool features." And Verizon is like, "Hmm, no. +I don't think so." +It was not very conducive to innovation. +What I didn't anticipate was that Steve Jobs went around and said, "Tell you what -- I'll give you a five-year exclusive if you'll let me design this phone in peace -- and you won't even see it till it's done." +Actually, even so, he was turned down by Verizon and others. +Finally Cingular said OK. +I'm going to talk about the effect of the iPhone. +Please don't corner me at the party tonight and go, "What are you? An Apple fan boy?" +- you know. I'm not. +You can see what I said about it. It's a flawed masterpiece. +It's got bad things and good things. Lets all acknowledge that right now. +But it did change a few things. The first thing it changed was that all those carriers saw that they sold 10 million of these things in a year. +And they said, "Oh my gosh, maybe we've been doing it wrong. +Maybe we should let phone designers design the phones." +Another thing was that it let 10 million people, for the first time, experience being online all the time. +Not using these 60-dollar-a-month cellular cards for their laptops. +I don't understand why we're not there yet. +When I'm an old man, I'm going to tell my grandchildren, "When I was your age, if I wanted to check my email, I used to drive around town looking for a coffee shop. I did!" +"We had wireless base stations that could broadcast -- yay, about 150 feet across." +It's absurd. We have power outlets in every room of every building. We have running water. +What's the problem? +Anyway -- but this teaches people what it's like. +You have to go to YouTube and type in "iPhone Shuffle." +This guy did a mock video of one that's one inch square, like the real iPod Shuffle. +It's like, "It only has one button. +Touch it and it dials a number at random." +"Who the hell is this?" +But the other thing it did is it opened up this idea of an app store. +It downloads right to the phone. +And you can use the tilt sensor to steer this car using this game. +These programs can use all the components of the iPhone -- the touch screen. +This is the Etch-A-Sketch program -- the theme of EG 2008. +You know how you erase it? +Of course. You shake it. +Right, of course. We shake it to erase, like this. +They have 10,000 of these programs. +This is the translator program. They have every language in the world. +You type in what you want, and it gives you the translation. +This is amazing. This is Midomi. +A song is running through your head -- you sing it into the thing: do do do do do, da da da da da da, da dum ... +OK, you tap, "Done" and it will find out the song and play it for you. +I know. It's insane, right? +This is Pandora. Free Internet radio. Not just free Internet radio -- you type in a band or a song name. +It will immediately play you that song or that band. +It has a thumbs-up and a thumbs-down. +You say if you like this song or not. +If you like it, it tries another song on you from a different band, with the same instrumentation, vocals, theme and tempo. +If you like that one, or don't like it, you do thumbs-up and thumbs-down. Over time it tailors the songs so that it completely stops playing bad songs. +It eventually only plays songs you like. +This is Urbanspoon. You're in a city. It knows from GPS where you're standing. +You want to find a place to eat. You shake it. +It proposes a restaurant. +It gives you the price, and the location and ratings. +Video: I'm not going all the way to Flushing. +Anyway, just amazing, amazing things. +Of course, its not just about the iPhone. +The iPhone broke the dyke, the wall. +But now it's everybody else. So Google has done their own Android operating system that will soon be on handsets -- phones from 34 companies. +Touch screen -- very, very nice. +Also with its own app store, where you can download programs. +This is amazing. In the wake of all this, Verizon, the most calcified, corporate, conservative carrier of all, said, "You can use any phone you want on our network." +I love the Wired headline: Pigs Fly, Hell Freezes Over and Verizon Opens Up Its Network -- No. Really. +So everything is changing. We've entered a new world of innovation, where the cell phone becomes your laptop, customized the way you want it. +Every cell phone is unique. There is software that you can add on. +Can I do one more one-minute song? Thank you. +Just to round it up -- this is the new Apple Power Music Stand. +It's only three pounds, or 12 if you install Microsoft Office. +Sorry, that was mean. +This is a song I did for the New York Times website as a music video. +Ladies and gentlemen, for seven blissful hours it was the number one video on YouTube. +And now the end is near. +I'm sick to death of this old cell phone. +Bad sound, the signal's weak, the software stinks. +A made-in-Hell phone. +I've heard there's something new -- a million times more rad than my phone. +I too will join the cult. +I want an iPhone. +Concerns -- I have a few. It's got some flaws; we may just face it. +No keys, no memory card, the battery's sealed -- you can't replace it. +But God, this thing is sweet. +A multitouch, iPod, Wi-Fi phone. +You had me from, "Hello." +I want an iPhone. +I want to touch its precious screen. +I want to wipe the smudges clean. +I want my friends to look and drool. +I want to say, "Look -- now I'm cool" I stood in line and I'll get mine. +I want an iPhone. +For what is a man? +What has he got? If not iPhone, then he's got squat. +It's all the things a phone should be. +Who cares if it's AT&T? +I took a stand, paid half a grand! +And I got an iPhone! +Thank you. Thank you very much. +I coined my own definition of success in 1934, when I was teaching at a high school in South Bend, Indiana, being a little bit disappointed, and [disillusioned] perhaps, by the way parents of the youngsters in my English classes expected their youngsters to get an A or a B. +They thought a C was all right for the neighbors' children, because they were all average. +But they weren't satisfied when their own -- it would make the teacher feel that they had failed, or the youngster had failed. +And that's not right. The good Lord in his infinite wisdom didn't create us all equal as far as intelligence is concerned, any more than we're equal for size, appearance. +Not everybody could earn an A or a B, and I didn't like that way of judging, and I did know how the alumni of various schools back in the '30s judged coaches and athletic teams. +If you won them all, you were considered to be reasonably successful -- not completely. Because I found out -- we had a number of years at UCLA where we didn't lose a game. +But it seemed that we didn't win each individual game by the margin that some of our alumni had predicted -- And quite frequently I really felt that they had backed up their predictions in a more materialistic manner. +But that was true back in the 30s, so I understood that. +But I didn't like it, I didn't agree with it. +I wanted to come up with something I hoped could make me a better teacher, and give the youngsters under my supervision, be it in athletics or the English classroom, something to which to aspire, other than just a higher mark in the classroom, or more points in some athletic contest. +I thought about that for quite a spell, and I wanted to come up with my own definition. I thought that might help. +And I knew how Mr. Webster defined it, as the accumulation of material possessions or the attainment of a position of power or prestige, or something of that sort, worthy accomplishments perhaps, but in my opinion, not necessarily indicative of success. +So I wanted to come up with something of my own. +I was raised on a small farm in Southern Indiana, and Dad tried to teach me and my brothers that you should never try to be better than someone else. +I'm sure at the time he did that, I didn't -- it didn't -- well, somewhere, I guess in the hidden recesses of the mind, it popped out years later. +Never try to be better than someone else, always learn from others. +Never cease trying to be the best you can be -- that's under your control. +If you get too engrossed and involved and concerned in regard to the things over which you have no control, it will adversely affect the things over which you have control. +Then I ran across this simple verse that said, "At God's footstool to confess, a poor soul knelt, and bowed his head. +'I failed!' he cried. +The Master said, 'Thou didst thy best, that is success.'" From those things, and one other perhaps, I coined my own definition of success, which is: Peace of mind attained only through self-satisfaction in knowing you made the effort to do the best of which you're capable. +I believe that's true. +And I think that character is much more important than what you are perceived to be. +You'd hope they'd both be good, but they won't necessarily be the same. +Well, that was my idea that I was going to try to get across to the youngsters. +I ran across other things. +I love to teach, and it was mentioned by the previous speaker that I enjoy poetry, and I dabble in it a bit, and love it. +There are some things that helped me, I think, be better than I would have been. I know I'm not what I ought to be, what I should be, but I think I'm better than I would have been if I hadn't run across certain things. +One was just a little verse that said, "No written word, no spoken plea can teach our youth what they should be; nor all the books on all the shelves -- it's what the teachers are themselves." +That made an impression on me in the 1930s. +And I tried to use that more or less in my teaching, whether it be in sports, or whether it be in the English classroom. +I love poetry and always had an interest in that somehow. +Maybe it's because Dad used to read to us at night, by coal oil lamp -- we didn't have electricity in our farm home. +And Dad would read poetry to us. So I always liked it. +And about the same time I ran across this one verse, I ran across another one. +Someone asked a lady teacher why she taught, and after some time, she said she wanted to think about that. +Then she came up and said, "They ask me why I teach, and I reply, 'Where could I find such splendid company?' There sits a statesman, strong, unbiased, wise; another Daniel Webster, silver-tongued. +A doctor sits beside him, whose quick, steady hand may mend a bone, or stem the life-blood's flow. +And there a builder; upward rise the arch of a church he builds, wherein that minister may speak the word of God, and lead a stumbling soul to touch the Christ. +And all about, a gathering of teachers, farmers, merchants, laborers -- those who work and vote and build and plan and pray into a great tomorrow. +And I may say, I may not see the church, or hear the word, or eat the food their hands may grow, but yet again I may; And later I may say, I knew him once, and he was weak, or strong, or bold or proud or gay. +I knew him once, but then he was a boy. +They ask me why I teach and I reply, 'Where could I find such splendid company?'" And I believe the teaching profession -- it's true, you have so many youngsters, and I've got to think of my youngsters at UCLA -- 30-some attorneys, 11 dentists and doctors, many, many teachers and other professions. +And that gives you a great deal of pleasure, to see them go on. +I always tried to make the youngsters feel that they're there to get an education, number one; basketball was second, because it was paying their way, and they do need a little time for social activities, but you let social activities take a little precedence over the other two, and you're not going to have any very long. +So that was the idea that I tried to get across to the youngsters under my supervision. +I had three rules, pretty much, that I stuck with practically all the time. +I'd learned these prior to coming to UCLA, and I decided they were very important. +One was "Never be late." +Later on I said certain things -- the players, if we were leaving for somewhere, had to be neat and clean. +There was a time when I made them wear jackets and shirts and ties. +Then I saw our chancellor coming to school in denims and turtlenecks, and thought, it's not right for me to keep this other [rule] so I let them just -- they had to be neat and clean. +I had one of my greatest players that you probably heard of, Bill Walton. +He came to catch the bus; we were leaving for somewhere to play. +And he wasn't clean and neat, so I wouldn't let him go. +He couldn't get on the bus, he had to go home and get cleaned up to get to the airport. +So I was a stickler for that. I believed in that. +I believe in time; very important. +I believe you should be on time, but I felt at practice, for example -- we start on time, we close on time. +The youngsters didn't have to feel that we were going to keep them over. +When I speak at coaching clinics, I often tell young coaches -- and at coaching clinics, more or less, they'll be the younger coaches getting in the profession. +Most of them are young, you know, and probably newly-married. +And I tell them, "Don't run practices late, because you'll go home in a bad mood, and that's not good, for a young married man to go home in a bad mood. +When you get older, it doesn't make any difference, but --" So I did believe: on time. +I believe starting on time, and I believe closing on time. +And another one I had was, not one word of profanity. +One word of profanity, and you are out of here for the day. +If I see it in a game, you're going to come out and sit on the bench. +And the third one was, never criticize a teammate. +I didn't want that. I used to tell them I was paid to do that. +That's my job. I'm paid to do it. Pitifully poor, but I am paid to do it. +Not like the coaches today, for gracious sakes, no. +It's a little different than it was in my day. +Those were three things that I stuck with pretty closely all the time. +And those actually came from my dad. +That's what he tried to teach me and my brothers at one time. +I came up with a pyramid eventually, that I don't have the time to go on that. +But that helped me, I think, become a better teacher. +It's something like this: And I had blocks in the pyramid, and the cornerstones being industriousness and enthusiasm, working hard and enjoying what you're doing, coming up to the apex, according to my definition of success. +And right at the top, faith and patience. +And I say to you, in whatever you're doing, you must be patient. +You have to have patience to -- we want things to happen. +We talk about our youth being impatient a lot, and they are. +They want to change everything. They think all change is progress. +And we get a little older -- we sort of let things go. +And we forget there is no progress without change. +So you must have patience, and I believe that we must have faith. +I believe that we must believe, truly believe. +Not just give it word service, believe that things will work out as they should, providing we do what we should. +I think our tendency is to hope things will turn out the way we want them to much of the time, but we don't do the things that are necessary to make those things become reality. +I worked on this for some 14 years, and I think it helped me become a better teacher. +But it all revolved around that original definition of success. +You know, a number of years ago, there was a Major League Baseball umpire by the name of George Moriarty. +He spelled Moriarty with only one 'i'. +I'd never seen that before, but he did. +Big league baseball players -- they're very perceptive about those things, and they noticed he had only one 'i' in his name. +You'd be surprised how many also told him that that was one more than he had in his head at various times. +But he wrote something where I think he did what I tried to do in this pyramid. +He called it "The Road Ahead, or the Road Behind." +He said, "Sometimes I think the Fates must grin as we denounce them and insist the only reason we can't win, is the Fates themselves have missed. +Yet there lives on the ancient claim: we win or lose within ourselves. +The shining trophies on our shelves can never win tomorrow's game. +You and I know deeper down, there's always a chance to win the crown. +But when we fail to give our best, we simply haven't met the test, of giving all and saving none until the game is really won; of showing what is meant by grit; of playing through when others quit; of playing through, not letting up. +It's bearing down that wins the cup. +Of dreaming there's a goal ahead; of hoping when our dreams are dead; of praying when our hopes have fled; yet losing, not afraid to fall, if, bravely, we have given all. +For who can ask more of a man than giving all within his span. +Giving all, it seems to me, is not so far from victory. +And so the Fates are seldom wrong, no matter how they twist and wind. +It's you and I who make our fates -- we open up or close the gates on the road ahead or the road behind." +Reminds me of another set of threes that my dad tried to get across to us: Don't whine. Don't complain. Don't make excuses. +Just get out there, and whatever you're doing, do it to the best of your ability. +And no one can do more than that. +I tried to get across, too, that -- my opponents will tell you -- you never heard me mention winning. +Never mention winning. +My idea is that you can lose when you outscore somebody in a game, and you can win when you're outscored. +I've felt that way on certain occasions, at various times. +And I just wanted them to be able to hold their head up after a game. +I used to say that when a game is over, and you see somebody that didn't know the outcome, I hope they couldn't tell by your actions whether you outscored an opponent or the opponent outscored you. +That's what really matters: if you make an effort to do the best you can regularly, the results will be about what they should be. +Not necessarily what you'd want them to be but they'll be about what they should; only you will know whether you can do that. +And that's what I wanted from them more than anything else. +And as time went by, and I learned more about other things, I think it worked a little better, But I wanted the score of a game to be the byproduct of these other things, and not the end itself. +I believe it was one great philosopher who said -- no, no -- Cervantes. +Cervantes said, "The journey is better than the end." +And I like that. I think that it is -- it's getting there. +Sometimes when you get there, there's almost a let down. +But it's the getting there that's the fun. +As a basketball coach at UCLA, I liked our practices to be the journey, and the game would be the end, the end result. +I liked to go up and sit in the stands and watch the players play, and see whether I'd done a decent job during the week. +There again, it's getting the players to get that self-satisfaction, in knowing that they'd made the effort to do the best of which they are capable. +Sometimes I'm asked who was the best player I had, or the best teams. +I can never answer that. +As far as the individuals are concerned -- I was asked one time about that, and they said, "Suppose that you, in some way, could make the perfect player. +What would you want?" +And I said, "Well, I'd want one that knew why he was at UCLA: to get an education, he was a good student, really knew why he was there in the first place. +But I'd want one that could play, too. +I'd want one to realize that defense usually wins championships, and who would work hard on defense. +But I'd want one who would play offense, too. +I'd want him to be unselfish, and look for the pass first and not shoot all the time. +And I'd want one that could pass and would pass. +I've had some that could and wouldn't, and I've had some that would and could. +And I wanted them to be able to shoot from the outside. +I wanted them to be good inside too. +I'd want them to be able to rebound well at both ends, too. +Why not just take someone like Keith Wilkes and let it go at that. +He had the qualifications. +Not the only one, but he was one that I used in that particular category, because I think he made the effort to become the best. +I mention in my book, "They Call Me Coach," two players that gave me great satisfaction, that came as close as I think anyone I ever had to reach their full potential: one was Conrad Burke, and one was Doug McIntosh. +When I saw them as freshmen, on our freshmen team -- freshmen couldn't play varsity when I taught. +I thought, "Oh gracious, if these two players, either one of them" -- they were different years, but I thought about each one at the time he was there -- "Oh, if he ever makes the varsity, our varsity must be pretty miserable, if he's good enough to make it." +And you know, one of them was a starting player for a season and a half. +The other one, his next year, played 32 minutes in a national championship game, Did a tremendous job for us. +The next year, he was a starting player on the national championship team, and here I thought he'd never play a minute, when he was -- so those are the things that give you great joy, and great satisfaction to see. +Neither one of those youngsters could shoot very well. +But they had outstanding shooting percentages, because they didn't force it. +And neither one could jump very well, but they kept good position, and so they did well rebounding. +They remembered that every shot that's taken, they assumed would be missed. +I've had too many stand around and wait to see if it's missed, then they go and it's too late, somebody else is in there ahead of them. +They weren't very quick, but they played good position, kept in good balance. +And so they played pretty good defense for us. +So they had qualities that -- they came close to -- as close to reaching possibly their full potential as any players I ever had. +So I consider them to be as successful as Lewis Alcindor or Bill Walton, or many of the others that we had; there were some outstanding players. +Have I rambled enough? +I was told that when he makes his appearance, I was supposed to shut up. +When most people think about the beginnings of AIDS, they're gonna think back to the 1980s. +And certainly, this was the decade in which we discovered AIDS and the virus that causes it, HIV. +But in fact this virus crossed over into humans many decades before, from chimpanzees, where the virus originated, into humans who hunt these apes. +This photo was taken before the Great Depression in Brazzaville, Congo. +At this time, there were thousands of individuals, we think, that were infected with HIV. +So I have a couple of really important questions for you. +If this virus was in thousands of individuals at this point, why was it the case that it took us until 1984 to be able to discover this virus? +OK now, more importantly, had we been there in the '40s and '50s, '60s, had we seen this disease, had we understood exactly what was going on with it, how might that have changed and completely transformed the nature of the way this pandemic moved? +In fact, this is not unique to HIV. The vast majority of viruses come from animals. +And you can kind of think of this as a pyramid of this bubbling up of viruses from animals into human populations. +But only at the very top of this pyramid do these things become completely human. +Nevertheless, we spend the vast majority of our energy focused on this level of the pyramid, trying to tackle things that are already completely adapted to human beings, that are going to be very very difficult to address -- as we've seen in the case of HIV. +So during the last 15 years, I've been working to actually study the earlier interface here -- what I've labeled "viral chatter," which was a term coined by my mentor Don Burke. +This is the idea that we can study the sort of pinging of these viruses into human populations, the movement of these agents over into humans; and by capturing this moment, we might be able to move to a situation where we can catch them early. +OK, so this is a picture, and I'm going to show you some pictures now from the field. +This is a picture of a central African hunter. +It's actually a fairly common picture. +One of the things I want you to note from it is blood -- that you see a tremendous amount of blood contact. +This was absolutely key for us. This is a very intimate form of connection. +So if we're going to study viral chatter, we need to get to these populations who have intensive contact with wild animals. +And so we've been studying people like this individual. +We collect blood from them, other specimens. +We look at the diseases, which are in the animals as well as the humans. +And ideally, this is going to allow us to catch these things early on, as they're moving over into human populations. +And the basic objective of this work is not to just go out once and look at these individuals, but to establish thousands of individuals in these populations that we would monitor continuously on a regular basis. +When they were sick, we would collect specimens from them. +We would actually enlist them -- which we've done now -- to collect specimens from animals. +We give them these little pieces of filter paper. +When they sample from animals, they collect the blood on the filter paper and this allows us to identify yet-unknown viruses from exactly the right animals -- the ones that are actually being hunted. +Narrator: Deep in a remote region of Cameroon, two hunters stalk their prey. +Their names are Patrice and Patee. +They're searching for bush meat; forest animals they can kill to feed their families. +Patrice and Patee set out most days to go out hunting in the forest around their homes. +They have a series of traps, of snares that they've set up to catch wild pigs, snakes, monkeys, rodents -- anything they can, really. +Patrice and Patee have been out for hours but found nothing. +The animals are simply gone. +We stop for a drink of water. +Then there is a rustle in the brush. +A group of hunters approach, their packs loaded with wild game. +There's at least three viruses that you know about, which are in this particular monkey. +Nathan Wolfe: This species, yeah. And there's many many more pathogens that are present in these animals. +These individuals are at specific risk, particularly if there's blood contact, they're at risk for transmission and possibly infection with novel viruses. +Narrator: As the hunters display their kills, something surprising happens. +They show us filter paper they've used to collect the animals' blood. +The blood will be tested for zoonotic viruses, part of a program Dr. Wolfe has spent years setting up. +NW: So this is from this animal right here, Greater Spot-Nosed Guenon. +Every person who has one of those filter papers has at least, at a minimum, been through our basic health education about the risks associated with these activities, which presumably, from our perspective, gives them the ability to decrease their own risk, and then obviously the risk to their families, the village, the country, and the world. +NW: OK, before I continue, I think it's important to take just a moment to talk about bush meat. Bush meat is the hunting of wild game. +OK? And you can consider all sorts of different bush meat. +I'm going to be talking about this. +But in fact that's not the only question they're going to ask you about this. +They're also going to ask you the question that when we knew that this was the way that HIV entered into the human population, and that other diseases had the potential to enter like this, why did we let these behaviors continue? +Why did we not find some other solution to this? +They're going to say, in regions of profound instability throughout the world, where you have intense poverty, where populations are growing and you don't have sustainable resources like this, this is going to lead to food insecurity. +But they're also going to ask you probably a different question. +It's one that I think we all need to ask ourselves, which is, why we thought the responsibility rested with this individual here. +Now this is the individual -- you can see just right up over his right shoulder -- this is the individual that hunted the monkey from the last picture that I showed you. +OK, take a look at his shirt. +You know, take a look at his face. +Bush meat is one of the central crises, which is occurring in our population right now, in humanity, on this planet. +But it can't be the fault of somebody like this. +OK? And solving it cannot be his responsibility alone. +There's no easy solutions, but what I'm saying to you is that we neglect this problem at our own peril. +So, in 1998, along with my mentors Don Burke and Colonel Mpoudi-Ngole, we went to actually start this work in Central Africa, to work with hunters in this part of the world. +And my job -- at that time I was a post-doctoral fellow, and I was really tasked with setting this up. +So I said to myself, "OK, great -- we're gonna collect all kinds of specimens. We're gonna go to all these different locations. It's going to be wonderful." +You know, I looked at the map; I picked out 17 sites; I figured, no problem. +Needless to say, I was drastically wrong. +This is challenging work to do. +Fortunately, I had and continue to have an absolutely wonderful team of colleagues and collaborators in my own team, and that's the only way that this work can really occur. +We have a whole range of challenges about this work. +One of them is just obtaining trust from individuals that we work with in the field. +The person you see on the right hand side is Paul DeLong-Minutu. +He's one of the best communicators that I've really ever dealt with. +When I arrived I didn't speak a word of French, and I still seemed to understand what it was he was saying. +Paul worked for years on the Cameroonian national radio and television, and he spoke about health issues. He was a health correspondent. +So we figured we'd hire this person -- when we got there he could be a great communicator. +When we would get to these rural villages, though, what we found out is that no one had television, so they wouldn't recognize his face. +But -- when he began to speak they would actually recognize his voice from the radio. +And this was somebody who had incredible potential to spread aspects of our message, whether it be with regards to wildlife conservation or health prevention. +Often we run into obstacles. This is us coming back from one of these very rural sites, with specimens from 200 individuals that we needed to get back to the lab within 48 hours. +I like to show this shot -- this is Ubald Tamoufe, who's the lead investigator in our Cameroon site. +Ubald laughs at me when I show this photo because of course you can't see his face. +But the reason I like to show the shot is because you can see that he's about to solve this problem. +Which -- which he did, which he did. +Just a few quick before and after shots. +This was our laboratory before. +This is what it looks like now. +Early on, in order to ship our specimens, we had to have dry ice. To get dry ice we had to go to the breweries -- beg, borrow, steal to get these folks to give it to us. +Now we have our own liquid nitrogen. +I like to call our laboratory the coldest place in Central Africa -- it might be. +And here's a shot of me, this is the before shot of me. +No comment. +So what happened? So during the 10 years that we've been doing this work, we actually surprised ourselves. +We made a number of discoveries. +And what we've found is that if you look in the right place, you can actually monitor the flow of these viruses into human populations. +That gave us a tremendous amount of hope. +What we've found is a whole range of new viruses in these individuals, including new viruses in the same group as HIV -- so, brand new retroviruses. +And let's face it, any new retrovirus in the human population -- it's something we should be aware of. +It's something we should be following. It's not something that we should be surprised by. +Needless to say in the past these viruses entering into these rural communities might very well have gone extinct. +That's no longer the case. Logging roads provide access to urban areas. +And critically, what happens in central Africa doesn't stay in Central Africa. +So, once we discovered that it was really possible that we could actually do this monitoring, we decided to move this from research, to really attempt to phase up to a global monitoring effort. +Through generous support and partnership scientifically with Google.org and the Skoll Foundation, we were able to start the Global Viral Forecasting Initiative and begin work in four different sites in Africa and Asia. +Needless to say, different populations from different parts of the world have different sorts of contact. +So it's not just hunters in Central Africa. +It's also working in live animal markets -- these wet markets -- which is exactly the place where SARS emerged in Asia. +But really, this is just the beginning from our perspective. +There was a time not very long ago when the discovery of unknown organisms was something that held incredible awe for us. +It had potential to really change the way that we saw ourselves, and thought about ourselves. +Many people, I think, on our planet right now despair, and they think we've reached a point where we've discovered most of the things. +I'm going tell you right now: please don't despair. +If an intelligent extra-terrestrial was taxed with writing the encyclopedia of life on our planet, 27 out of 30 of these volumes would be devoted to bacteria and virus, with just a few of the volumes left for plants, fungus and animals, humans being a footnote; interesting footnote but a footnote nonetheless. +This is honestly the most exciting period ever for the study of unknown life forms on our planet. +The dominant things that exist here we know almost nothing about. +And yet finally, we have the tools, which will allow us to actually explore that world and understand them. +Thank you very much. +I thought I would read poems I have that relate to the subject of youth and age. +I was sort of astonished to find out how many I have actually. +The first one is dedicated to Spencer, and his grandmother, who was shocked by his work. +My poem is called "Dirt." +My grandmother is washing my mouth out with soap; half a long century gone and still she comes at me with that thick cruel yellow bar. +All because of a word I said, not even said really, only repeated. +But "Open," she says, "open up!" +her hand clawing at my head. +I know now her life was hard; she lost three children as babies, then her husband died too, leaving young sons, and no money. +She'd stand me in the sink to pee because there was never room in the toilet. +But oh, her soap! +Might its bitter burning have been what made me a poet? +The street she lived on was unpaved, her flat, two cramped rooms and a fetid kitchen where she stalked and caught me. +Dare I admit that after she did it I never really loved her again? +She lived to a hundred, even then. All along it was the sadness, the squalor, but I never, until now loved her again. +When that was published in a magazine I got an irate letter from my uncle. +"You have maligned a great woman." +It took some diplomacy. +This is called "The Dress." +It's a longer poem. +Only later would I see the dresses also as a proclamation: that in your dim kitchen, your laundry, your bleak concrete yard, what you revealed of yourself was a fabulation; your real sensual nature, veiled in those sexless vestments, was utterly your dominion. +What release finally, the embrace: though we were wary -- it seemed so audacious -- how much unspoken joy there was in that affirmation of equality and communion, no matter how much misunderstanding and pain had passed between you by then. +In those days there was still countryside close to the city, farms, cornfields, cows; even not far from our building with its blurred brick and long shadowy hallway you could find tracts with hills and trees you could pretend were mountains and forests. +Or you could go out by yourself even to a half-block-long empty lot, into the bushes: like a creature of leaves you'd lurk, crouched, crawling, simplified, savage, alone; already there was wanting to be simpler, wanting, when they called you, never to go back. +This is another longish one, about the old and the young. +It actually happened right at the time we met. +Part of the poem takes place in space we shared and time we shared. +It's called "The Neighbor." +Her five horrid, deformed little dogs who incessantly yap on the roof under my window. +Her cats, God knows how many, who must piss on her rugs -- her landing's a sickening reek. +Her shadow once, fumbling the chain on her door, then the door slamming fearfully shut, only the barking and the music -- jazz -- filtering as it does, day and night into the hall. +The time it was Chris Connor singing "Lush Life" -- how it brought back my college sweetheart, my first real love, who -- till I left her -- played the same record. +And head on my shoulder, hand on my thigh, sang sweetly along, of regrets and depletions she was too young for, as I was too young, later, to believe in her pain. +It startled, then bored, then repelled me. +My starting to fancy she'd ended up in this fire-trap in the Village, that my neighbor was her. +My thinking we'd meet, recognize one another, become friends, that I'd accomplish a penance. +My seeing her, it wasn't her, at the mailbox. +Gray-yellow hair, army pants under a nightgown, her turning away, hiding her ravaged face in her hands, muttering an inappropriate "Hi." +Sometimes there are frightening goings-on in the stairwell. +A man shouting, "Shut up!" The dogs frantically snarling, claws scrabbling, then her -- her voice hoarse, harsh, hollow, almost only a tone, incoherent, a note, a squawk, bone on metal, metal gone molten, calling them back, "Come back darlings, come back dear ones. +My sweet angels, come back." +Medea she was, next time I saw her. +Sorceress, tranced, ecstatic, stock-still on the sidewalk ragged coat hanging agape, passersby flowing around her, her mouth torn suddenly open as though in a scream, silently though, as though only in her brain or breast had it erupted. +A cry so pure, practiced, detached, it had no need of a voice, or could no longer bear one. +These invisible links that allure, these transfigurations, even of anguish, that hold us. +The girl, my old love, the last lost time I saw her when she came to find me at a party, her drunkenly stumbling, falling, sprawling, skirt hiked, eyes veined red, swollen with tears, her shame, her dishonor. +My ignorant, arrogant coarseness, my secret pride, my turning away. +Still life on a rooftop, dead trees in barrels, a bench broken, dogs, excrement, sky. +What pathways through pain, what junctures of vulnerability, what crossings and counterings? +Too many lives in our lives already, too many chances for sorrow, too many unaccounted-for pasts. +"Behold me," the god of frenzied, inexhaustible love says, rising in bloody splendor, "Behold me." +Her making her way down the littered vestibule stairs, one agonized step at a time. +My holding the door. +Her crossing the fragmented tiles, faltering at the step to the street, droning, not looking at me, "Can you help me?" +Taking my arm, leaning lightly against me. +Her wavering step into the world. +Her whispering, "Thanks love." Lightly, lightly against me. +I think I'll lighten up a little. +Another, different kind of poem of youth and age. +It's called "Gas." +Wouldn't it be nice, I think, when the blue-haired lady in the doctor's waiting room bends over the magazine table and farts, just a little, and violently blushes. +Wouldn't it be nice if intestinal gas came embodied in visible clouds, so she could see that her really quite inoffensive pop had only barely grazed my face before it drifted away. +Besides, for this to have happened now is a nice coincidence. Because not an hour ago, while we were on our walk, my dog was startled by a backfire and jumped straight up like a horse bucking. +And that brought back to me the stable I worked on weekends when I was 12, and a splendid piebald stallion, who whenever he was mounted would buck just like that, though more hugely of course, enormous, gleaming, resplendent. +And the woman, her face abashedly buried in her "Elle" now, reminded me -- I'd forgotten that not the least part of my awe consisted of the fact that with every jump he took the horse would powerfully fart. +Phwap! Phwap! Phwap! +Something never mentioned in the dozens of books about horses and their riders I devoured in those days. +All that savage grandeur, the steely glinting hooves, the eruptions driven from the creature's mighty innards, breath stopped, heart stopped, nostrils madly flared, I didn't know if I wanted to break him, or be him. +This is called "Thirst." +Many -- most of my poems actually are urban poems. I happen to be reading a bunch that aren't. +"Thirst." +Here was my relation with the woman who lived all last autumn and winter, day and night, on a bench in the 103rd Street subway station, until finally one day she vanished. +We regarded each other, scrutinized one another. +Me shyly, obliquely, trying not to be furtive. +She boldly, unblinkingly, even pugnaciously, wrathfully even, when her bottle was empty. +I was frightened of her. I felt like a child. +I was afraid some repressed part of myself would go out of control, and I'd be forever entrapped in the shocking seethe of her stench. +Not excrement merely, not merely surface and orifice going unwashed, rediffusion of rum, there was will in it, and intention, power and purpose -- a social, ethical rage and rebellion -- despair too, though, grief, loss. +Sometimes I'd think I should take her home with me, bathe her, comfort her, dress her. +She wouldn't have wanted me to, I would think. +Instead, I'd step into my train. +How rich I would think, is the lexicon of our self-absolving. +How enduring, our bland fatal assurance that reflection is righteousness being accomplished. +The dance of our glances, the clash, pulling each other through our perceptual punctures, then holocaust, holocaust, host on host of ill, injured presences, squandered, consumed. +Her vigil somewhere I know continues. +Her occupancy, her absolute, faithful attendance. +The dance of our glances, challenge, abdication, effacement, the perfume of our consternation. +This is a newer poem, a brand new poem. +The title is "This Happened." +Herself fall. +A casual impulse, a fancy, never thought of until now, hardly thought of even now ... +Weightfully upon me was the world. +Weightfully this self which graced the world yet never wholly itself. +Weightfully this self which weighed upon me, the release from which is what I desire and what I achieve. +And the girl remembers, in this infinite instant already now so many times divided, the sadness she felt once, hardly knowing she felt it, to merely inhabit herself. +Yes, the girl falls, absurd to fall, even the earth with its compulsion to take unto itself all that falls must know that falling is absurd, yet the girl falling isn't myself, or she is myself, but a self I took of my own volition unto myself. +Forever. With grace. +This happened. +I'll read just one more. I don't usually say that. +I like to just end. +But I'm afraid that Ricky will come out here and shake his fist at me. +This is called "Old Man," appropriately enough. +"Special: big tits," Says the advertisement for a soft-core magazine on our neighborhood newsstand. +But forget her breasts. +A lush, fresh-lipped blond, skin glowing gold, sprawls there, resplendent. +60 nearly, yet these hardly tangible, hardly better than harlots, can still stir me. +Maybe a coming of age in the American sensual darkness, never seeing an unsmudged nipple, an uncensored vagina, has left me forever infected with an unquenchable lust of the eye. +Always that erotic murmur, I'm hardly myself if I'm not in a state of incipient desire. +God knows though, there are worse twists your obsessions can take. +Last year in Israel, a young ultra-orthodox Rabbi guiding some teenage girls through the Shrine of the Shoah forbade them to look in one room. +Because there were images in it he said were licentious. +The display was a photo. Men and women stripped naked, some trying to cover their genitals, others too frightened to bother, lined up in snow waiting to be shot and thrown into a ditch. +The girls, to my horror, averted their gaze. +What carnal mistrust had their teacher taught them. +Even that though. Another confession: Once in a book on pre-war Poland, a studio portrait, an absolute angel, an absolute angel with tormented, tormenting eyes. +I kept finding myself at her page. +That she died in the camps made her -- I didn't dare wonder why -- more present, more precious. +Died in the camps, that too people -- or Jews anyway -- kept from their children back then. +But it was like sex, you didn't have to be told. +Sex and death, how close they can seem. +So constantly conscious now of death moving towards me, sometimes I think I confound them. +My wife's loveliness almost consumes me. +My passion for her goes beyond reasonable bounds. +When we make love, her holding me everywhere all around me, I'm there and not there. +My mind teems, jumbles of faces, voices, impressions, I live my life over, as though I were drowning. +Then I am drowning, in despair at having to leave her, this, everything, all, unbearable, awful. +Still, to be able to die with no special contrition, not having been slaughtered, or enslaved. +And not having to know history's next mad rage or regression, it might be a relief. +No. Again, no. +I don't mean that for a moment. +What I mean is the world holds me so tightly -- the good and the bad -- my own follies and weakness that even this counterfeit Venus with her sham heat, and her bosom probably plumped with gel, so moves me my breath catches. +Vamp. Siren. Seductress. +How much more she reveals in her glare of ink than she knows. +How she incarnates our desperate human need for regard, our passion to live in beauty, to be beauty, to be cherished by glances, if by no more, of something like love, or love. +Thank you. +Newspapers are dying for a few reasons. +Readers don't want to pay for yesterday's news, and advertisers follow them. +Your iPhone, your laptop, is much more handy than New York Times on Sunday. +And we should save trees in the end. +So it's enough to bury any industry. +So, should we rather ask, "Can anything save newspapers?" +There are several scenarios for the future newspaper. +Some people say it should be free; it should be tabloid, or even smaller: A4; it should be local, run by communities, or niche, for some smaller groups like business -- but then it's not free; it's very expensive. +It should be opinion-driven; less news, more views. +And we'd rather read it during breakfast, because later we listen to radio in a car, check your mail at work and in the evening you watch TV. +Sounds nice, but this can only buy time. +Because in the long run, I think there is no reason, no practical reason for newspapers to survive. +So what can we do? +Let me tell you my story. +20 years ago, Bonnier, Swedish publisher, started to set newspapers in the former Soviet Bloc. +After a few years, they had several newspapers in central and eastern Europe. +They were run by an inexperienced staff, with no visual culture, no budgets for visuals -- in many places there were not even art directors. +I decided to be -- to work for them as an art director. +Before, I was an architect, and my grandmother asked me once, "What are you doing for a living?" +I said, "I'm designing newspapers." +"What? There's nothing to design there. It's just boring letters" And she was right. I was very frustrated, until one day. +I came to London, and I've seen performance by Cirque du Soleil. +And I had a revelation. I thought, "These guys took some creepy, run-down entertainment, and put it to the highest possible level of performance art." +I thought "Oh my God, maybe I can do the same with these boring newspapers." +And I did. We started to redesign them, one by one. +The front page became our signature. +It was my personal intimate channel to talk to the readers. +I'm not going to tell you stories about teamwork or cooperation. +My approach was very egotistic. +I wanted my artistic statement, my interpretation of reality. +I wanted to make posters, not newspapers. +Not even magazines: posters. +We were experimenting with type, with illustration, with photos. And we had fun. +Soon it started to bring results. +In Poland, our pages were named "Covers of the Year" three times in a row. +Other examples you can see here are from Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia -- the central European countries. +But it's not only about the front page. +The secret is that we were treating the whole newspaper as one piece, as one composition -- like music. +And music has a rhythm, has ups and downs. +And design is responsible for this experience. +Flipping through pages is readers experience, and I'm responsible for this experience. +We treated two pages, both spreads, as a one page, because that's how readers perceive it. +You can see some Russian pages here which got many awards on biggest infographic competition in Spain. +But the real award came from Society for Newspaper Design. +Just a year after redesigning this newspaper in Poland, they name it the World's Best-Designed Newspaper. +And two years later, the same award came to Estonia. +Isn't amazing? +What really makes it amazing: that the circulation of these newspapers were growing too. +Just some examples: in Russia, plus 11 after one year, plus 29 after three years of the redesign. +Same in Poland: plus 13, up to 35 percent raise of circulation after three years. +You can see on a graph, after years of stagnation, the paper started to grow, just after redesign. +But the real hit was in Bulgaria. +And that is really amazing. +Did design do this? +Design was just a part of the process. +And the process we made was not about changing the look, it was about improving the product completely. +I took an architectural rule about function and form and translated it into newspaper content and design. +And I put strategy at the top of it. +So first you ask a big question: why we do it? What is the goal? +Then we adjust the content accordingly. +And then, usually after two months, we start designing. +My bosses, in the beginning, were very surprised. +Why am I asking all of these business questions, instead of just showing them pages? +But soon they realized that this is the new role of designer: to be in this process from the very beginning to the very end. +So what is the lesson behind it? +The first lesson is about that design can change not just your product. +It can change your workflow -- actually, it can change everything in your company; it can turn your company upside down. +It can even change you. +And who's responsible? Designers. +Give power to designers. +But the second is even more important. +You can live in a small poor country, like me. +You can work for a small company, in a boring branch. +You can have no budgets, no people -- but still can put your work to the highest possible level. +And everybody can do it. +You just need inspiration, vision and determination. +And you need to remember that to be good is not enough. +Thank you. +I started with paragliding. +Paragliding is taking off from mountains with a paraglider, with the possibility to fly cross-country, distance, just with the use of thermals to soar. +Also different aerobatic maneuvers are possible with a paraglider. +From there I started with skydiving. +In this picture you can see there is a four-way skydive, four people flying together, and on the left hand side it's the camera flier with the camera mounted to his helmet so he can film the whole jump, for the film itself and also for the judging. +From regular, relative skydiving I went on to freeflying. +Freeflying is more the three-dimensional skydiving. +You can see the skydiver with the red suit, he's in a stand-up position. +The one with the yellow-green suit, he's flying head-down. +And that's me in the background, carving around the whole formation in freefall also, with the helmet cam to film this jump. +From freeflying I went on to skysurfing. +Skysurfing is skydiving with a board on the feet. +You can imagine with this big surface of a skysurfing board, there is a lot of force, a lot of power. +Of course I can use this power for example for nice spinning -- we call it "helicopter moves." +From there I went on to wingsuit flying. +Wingsuit flying is a suit, that I can make fly, just only with my body. +If I put some tension on my body, tension on my suit, I can make it fly. And as you see the fall rate is much much slower because of the bigger surface. +With a proper body position I'm able to really move forward to gain quite some distance. +This is a jump I did in Rio de Janeiro. +You can see the Copacabana on the left-hand side. +From there with all the skills and knowledge from paragliding and all the different disciplines in skydiving, I went on to BASE jumping. +BASE jumping is skydiving from fixed objects, like buildings, antennae, bridges and earth -- meaning mountains, cliffs. +It's for sure -- for me -- it's the ultimate feeling of being in free fall, with all the visual references. +So my goal soon was to discover new places that nobody had jumped before. +So in summer 2000 I was the first to BASE jump the Eiger North Face in Switzerland. +Two years after this, I was the first to BASE jump from Matterhorn, a very famous mountain that probably everybody knows in here. +2005 I did a BASE jump from the Eiger, from the Monk and from the Jungfrau, three very famous mountains in Switzerland. +The special thing on these three jumps were, I hiked them all and climbed them all in only one day. +In 2008 I jumped the Eiffel Tower in Paris. +So with all this knowledge, I also wanted to get into stunts. +So with some friends we started to do different tricks, like for example this jump here, I jumped from a paraglider. +Or here -- everybody was freezing, pretty much, except me, because it was very cold in Austria where we did this filming. +Everybody sitting in a basket, and I was on top of the balloon, ready to slide down with my skysurf board. +Or this jump, from a moving truck on the highway. +Extreme sports on top level like this is only possible if you practice step by step, if you really work hard on your skills and on your knowledge. +Of course you need to be in physical, very good, condition, so I'm training a lot. +You need to have the best possible equipment. +And probably the most important is you have to work on your mental skills, mental preparation. +And all this to come as close as possible to the human dream of being able to fly. +So for 2009, I'm training hard for my two new projects. +The first one, I want to set a world record in flying from a cliff with my wingsuit. +And I want to set a new record, with the longest distance ever flown. +For my second project, I have a sensational idea of a jump that never has been done before. +So now, on the following movie you will see that I'm much better in flying a wingsuit than speaking in English. +Enjoy, and thank you very much. +June Cohen: I have some questions. +I think we all might have some questions. +Question one: so does that actually feel the way the flying dream does? +Because it looks like it might. +Ueli Gegenschatz: Pretty much. I believe this is probably the closest possibility to come to the dream of being able to fly. +JC: I know the answer to this, but how do you land? +UE: Parachute. We have to open a parachute just seconds before, I would say, impact. +It's not possible to land a wingsuit yet. +JC: Yet. But people are trying. Are you among those -- you're not going to commit -- are you among those trying to do it? +UE: It's a dream. It's a dream. Yeah. +We're still working on it and we're developing the wingsuits to get better performance, to get more knowledge. +And I believe soon. +JC: All right. Well we will watch this space. But I have two more questions. +What is the -- there was exhaust coming out of the back of the wingsuit. Was that a propelled wingsuit that you were wearing? +UE: Nope. It's just smoke. +JC: Coming off of you? +UE: Hopefully not. +JC: That seems dangerous. +UE: No, smoke is for two reasons, you can see the speed, you can see the way where I was flying. +That's reason number one. And reason number two: it's much easier for the camera guy to film If I'm using smoke. +JC: Ah, I see. So the wingsuit is set up to deliberately release smoke so that you can be tracked. One more question. +What do you do to to cover your face? +Because I just keep thinking of going that fast and having your whole face smushed backwards. +Are you in a helmet? Are you in goggles? +UE: The purest and the best feeling would be with only goggles. +JC: And is that how you usually fly? +UE: Usually I'm wearing a helmet. In the mountains I'm always wearing a helmet because of landings -- usually it's difficult -- it's not like regular skydiving where you have like the big landings. +So you have to be prepared. +JC: Right. Now is there anything you don't do? +Do people come to you with projects and say, "We want you to do this!" +and do you ever say, "No, no I'm not going to." +UE: Oh of course, of course. Some people have crazy ideas and -- JC: ...a round of applause... +UE: Thank you very much. +I was asked by Wilsonart International, a plastic laminate company, which is the largest plastic laminate company in the world -- they asked me to design a trade show booth for exhibition at the International Contemporary Furniture Fair in New York, in 2000. +So looking at their three main markets for their product which were basically transportation design, interiors and furniture, we came up with the solution of taking an old Airstream trailer and gutting it, and trying to portray laminate, and a trailer, in kind of a fresh, new contemporary look. +When this trailer showed up at my shop in Berkeley, I'd actually never stepped foot in an Airstream trailer, or any other trailer. +So I can be somebody that can look at this in a totally fresh perspective and see if I can optimize it in its most idealistic fashion. +I decided I had to do some research and really figure out what had gone wrong somewhere along the history of Airstream. +What I discovered in these interiors is that there was a disconnect between the exterior shell and the interior architecture of the pieces. +In that the shell was originally conceived as a lightweight, modern, futuristic, high-tech pod for hurtling down the freeway, and the interiors were completely out of sync with that. +In fact it appeared like they referenced a mountain cabin. +That seemed really like a crisis to me, that they had never been able to develop a vocabulary about escape, and about travel, and modernity in this trailer that was consistent with the shell. +We really needed to do some archeology in the trailer itself to figure out what's authentic in an Airstream trailer, and what feels like it has true purpose and utility. +We stripped out all the vinyl and zolatone paint that was covering up this just fantastic aluminum shell. +We took off all the visible hardware and trim that was kind of doing the country cabin thing. +I literally drew on the walls of the trailer, mocked it up in cardboard, we'd come in and cut, decide things were wrong, pull it out, put it back in. +The main goal was to smooth out the interior, and begin to speak about motion, and mobility, and independence. +The biggest difficulty on one of these trailers is that when you're designing there's actually no logical place to stop and start materials because of the continuous form of the trailer. +There's no such things as two walls and a ceiling coming together, where you can change materials and shapes. +So that became a challenge. +Compounding that, the material of choice, laminate, that I was trying to highlight, only bends in two dimensions. +It's a compound curve interior. +What I had to devise was a way of fooling the eye into believing that all these panels are curved with the shell. +What I came up with was a series of second skins that basically float over the aluminum shell. +And what I was trying to do there was direct your eye in the space, so that you would perceive the geometry in a different way, and that the casework wouldn't break up the space. +They also gave us a way to run power and rewire the trailer without tearing out the skin, so they function as an electrical chase. +That's the trailer, pretty much finished. +That trailer led to another commission, to participate in whats called Tokyo Designers Block. +Its a week of furniture design events in Tokyo, in October. +Teruo Kurosaki, who owns a furniture company called Idee, he asked me to ship him two trailers to Tokyo. +He said one he would like to make a real trailer, functioning, and we would sell that one. +Trailer number two, you have a blank slate, you can to anything you want. +We came up with a fantasy scenario of a DJ traveling around the States, that would collect records and go on tours. +This trailer housed two turntables, mixer, wet bar, fridge, integrated sound system. +It's got a huge couch, fits quite a few people, and basically we'd had a great time with this. +And so in this trailer I took it upon myself to think about travel, and escape, in an idiosyncratic sense. +A lot of these ideas migrated into the production trailers for Airstream. +This brings us up to the time that I started consulting to Airstream. +They came to me and said, "Well, what can we do to freshen this thing up? +And do you think kids, you know, skateboarders, surfers, rock climbers, would use these things?" +And I said, "Well, not in that interior." +Anyway, I went out to Airstream about six times during the process of building this prototype, and it's called the Bambi prototype. +I thought, "Finally, oh yeah great, big company, I'm gonna work with somebody with money for tooling and molding." +And I walked in their prototype facility, and it's exactly like my shop, only bigger -- same tools, same things. +So the problem became -- and they set this dilemma to me -- that you have to design the interior using only our existing technology, and there's no money for tooling or molding. +The trailers themselves are actually hand-built. +All the casework is hand-scribed in, uniquely, so you can't just cut 100 parts for 100 trailers, you have to cut them big, and every single one is hand-fit. +They didn't want to go to a componentized system. +And there it is, that's the Bambi 16. +I thought I'd begin with a scene of war. +There was little to warn of the danger ahead. +The Iraqi insurgent had placed the IED, an Improvised Explosive Device, along the side of the road with great care. +By 2006, there were more than 2,500 of these attacks every single month, and they were the leading cause of casualties among American soldiers and Iraqi civilians. +The team that was hunting for this IED is called an EOD team Explosives Ordinance Disposaland they're the pointy end of the spear in the American effort to suppress these roadside bombs. +Each EOD team goes out on about 600 of these bomb calls every year, defusing about two bombs a day. +Perhaps the best sign of how valuable they are to the war effort, is that the Iraqi insurgents put a $50,000 bounty on the head of a single EOD soldier. +Unfortunately, this particular call would not end well. +By the time the soldier advanced close enough to see the telltale wires of the bomb, it exploded in a wave of flame. +Now, depending how close you are and how much explosive has been packed into that bomb, it can cause death or injury. You have to be as far as 50 yards away to escape that. +The blast is so strong it can even break your limbs, even if you're not hit. +That soldier had been on top of the bomb. +And he apologized for not being able to bring them home. +But then he talked up the silver lining that he took away from the loss. +"At least," as he wrote, "when a robot dies, you don't have to write a letter to its mother." +That scene sounds like science fiction, but is battlefield reality already. +The soldier in that case was a 42-pound robot called a PackBot. +The chief's letter went, not to some farmhouse in Iowa like you see in the old war movies, but went to the iRobot Company, which is named after the Asimov novel and the not-so-great Will Smith movie, and... um... ... +if you remember that in that fictional world, robots started out carrying out mundane chores, and then they started taking on life-and-death decisions. +That's a reality we face today. +What we're going to do is actually just flash a series of photos behind me that show you the reality of robots used in war right now or already at the prototype stage. +It's just to give you a taste. +Another way of putting it is you're not going to see anything that's powered by Vulcan technology, or teenage wizard hormones or anything like that. +This is all real. So why don't we go ahead and start those pictures. +Something big is going on in war today, and maybe even the history of humanity itself. The U.S. military went into Iraq with a handful of drones in the air. +We now have 5,300. +We went in with zero unmanned ground systems. We now have 12,000. +And the tech term "killer application" takes on new meaning in this space. +And we need to remember that we're talking about the Model T Fords, the Wright Flyers, compared to what's coming soon. +That's where we're at right now. +And so what that means is the kind of things that we used to only talk about at science fiction conventions like Comic-Con have to be talked about in the halls of power and places like the Pentagon. +A robots revolution is upon us. +Now, I need to be clear here. +I'm not talking about a revolution where you have to worry about the Governor of California showing up at your door, a la the Terminator. When historians look at this period, they're going to conclude that we're in a different type of revolution: a revolution in war, like the invention of the atomic bomb. +But it may be even bigger than that, because our unmanned systems don't just affect the "how" of war-fighting, they affect the "who" of fighting at its most fundamental level. +That is, every previous revolution in war, be it the machine gun, be it the atomic bomb, was about a system that either shot faster, went further, had a bigger boom. +That's certainly the case with robotics, but they also change the experience of the warrior and even the very identity of the warrior. +So the first is that the future of war, even a robotics one, is not going to be purely an American one. +The U.S. is currently ahead in military robotics right now, but we know that in technology there's no such thing as a permanent first move or advantage. +In a quick show of hands, how many people in this room still use Wang Computers? It's the same thing in war. The British and the French invented the tank. +The Germans figured out how to use it right, and so what we have to think about for the U.S. is that we are ahead right now, but you have 43 other countries out there working on military robotics, and they include all the interesting countries like Russia, China, Pakistan, Iran. +And this raises a bigger worry for me. +How do we move forward in this revolution given the state of our manufacturing and the state of our science and mathematics training in our schools? +Or another way of thinking about this is, what does it mean to go to war increasingly with soldiers whose hardware is made in China and software is written in India? +But just as software has gone open-source, so has warfare. +Unlike an aircraft carrier or an atomic bomb, you don't need a massive manufacturing system to build robotics. A lot of it is off the shelf. A lot of it's even do-it-yourself. +One of those things you just saw flashed before you was a raven drone, the handheld tossed one. For about a thousand dollars, you can build one yourself, equivalent to what the soldiers use in Iraq. +That raises another wrinkle when it comes to war and conflict. Good guys might play around and work on these as hobby kits, but so might bad guys. +This cross between robotics and things like terrorism is going to be fascinating and even disturbing, and we've already seen it start. +During the war between Israel, a state, and Hezbollah, a non-state actor, the non-state actor flew four different drones against Israel. +There's already a jihadi website that you can go on and remotely detonate an IED in Iraq while sitting at your home computer. +And so I think what we're going to see is two trends take place with this. +First is, you're going to reinforce the power of individuals against governments, but then the second is that we are going to see an expansion in the realm of terrorism. +The future of it may be a cross between al Qaeda 2.0 and the next generation of the Unabomber. +And another way of thinking about this is the fact that, remember, you don't have to convince a robot that they're gonna receive 72 virgins after they die to convince them to blow themselves up. +People are more likely to support the use of force if they view it as costless." +Robots for me take certain trends that are already in play in our body politic, and maybe take them to their logical ending point. +We don't have a draft. We don't have declarations of war anymore. +We don't buy war bonds anymore. +And now we have the fact that we're converting more and more of our American soldiers that we would send into harm's way into machines, and so we may take those already lowering bars to war and drop them to the ground. +But the future of war is also going to be a YouTube war. +That is, our new technologies don't merely remove humans from risk. +They also record everything that they see. +So they don't just delink the public: they reshape its relationship with war. +There's already several thousand video clips of combat footage from Iraq on YouTube right now, most of it gathered by drones. +Now, this could be a good thing. +It could be building connections between the home front and the war front as never before. +But remember, this is taking place in our strange, weird world, and so inevitably the ability to download these video clips to, you know, your iPod or your Zune gives you the ability to turn it into entertainment. +Soldiers have a name for these clips. +They call it war porn. +The typical one that I was sent was an email that had an attachment of video of a Predator strike taking out an enemy site. Missile hits, bodies burst into the air with the explosion. +It was set to music. +It was set to the pop song "I Just Want To Fly" by Sugar Ray. +This ability to watch more but experience less creates a wrinkle in the public's relationship with war. +I think about this with a sports parallel. +It's like the difference between watching an NBA game, a professional basketball game on TV, where the athletes are tiny figures on the screen, and being at that basketball game in person and realizing what someone seven feet really does look like. +But we have to remember, these are just the clips. +These are just the ESPN SportsCenter version of the game. They lose the context. +They lose the strategy. +They lose the humanity. War just becomes slam dunks and smart bombs. +Now the irony of all this is that while the future of war may involve more and more machines, it's our human psychology that's driving all of this, it's our human failings that are leading to these wars. +So one example of this that has big resonance in the policy realm is how this plays out on our very real war of ideas that we're fighting against radical groups. +What is the message that we think we are sending with these machines versus what is being received in terms of the message. +So one of the people that I met was a senior Bush Administration official, who had this to say about our unmanning of war: "It plays to our strength. The thing that scares people is our technology." +But when you go out and meet with people, for example in Lebanon, it's a very different story. One of the people I met with there was a news editor, and we're talking as a drone is flying above him, and this is what he had to say. +"This is just another sign of the coldhearted cruel Israelis and Americans, who are cowards because they send out machines to fight us. +They don't want to fight us like real men, but they're afraid to fight, so we just have to kill a few of their soldiers to defeat them." +The future of war also is featuring a new type of warrior, and it's actually redefining the experience of going to war. +You can call this a cubicle warrior. +This is what one Predator drone pilot described of his experience fighting in the Iraq War while never leaving Nevada. +"You're going to war for 12 hours, shooting weapons at targets, directing kills on enemy combatants, and then you get in the car and you drive home and within 20 minutes, you're sitting at the dinner table talking to your kids about their homework." +Now, the psychological balancing of those experiences is incredibly tough, and in fact those drone pilots have higher rates of PTSD than many of the units physically in Iraq. +But some have worries that this disconnection will lead to something else, that it might make the contemplation of war crimes a lot easier when you have this distance. "It's like a video game," is what one young pilot described to me of taking out enemy troops from afar. +As anyone who's played Grand Theft Auto knows, we do things in the video world that we wouldn't do face to face. +So much of what you're hearing from me is that there's another side to technologic revolutions, and that it's shaping our present and maybe will shape our future of war. +Moore's Law is operative, but so's Murphy's Law. +The fog of war isn't being lifted. +The enemy has a vote. +We're gaining incredible new capabilities, but we're also seeing and experiencing new human dilemmas. Now, sometimes these are just "oops" moments, which is what the head of a robotics company described it, you just have "oops" moments. Well, what are "oops" moments with robots in war? +Well, sometimes they're funny. Sometimes, they're like that scene from the Eddie Murphy movie "Best Defense," playing out in reality, where they tested out a machine gun-armed robot, and during the demonstration it started spinning in a circle and pointed its machine gun at the reviewing stand of VIPs. +Fortunately the weapon wasn't loaded and no one was hurt, but other times "oops" moments are tragic, such as last year in South Africa, where an anti-aircraft cannon had a "software glitch," and actually did turn on and fired, and nine soldiers were killed. +We have new wrinkles in the laws of war and accountability. What do we do with things like unmanned slaughter? +What is unmanned slaughter? +We've already had three instances of Predator drone strikes where we thought we got bin Laden, and it turned out not to be the case. +And this is where we're at right now. +This is not even talking about armed, autonomous systems with full authority to use force. +And do not believe that that isn't coming. +During my research I came across four different Pentagon projects on different aspects of that. +And so you have this question: what does this lead to issues like war crimes? Robots are emotionless, so they don't get upset if their buddy is killed. +They don't commit crimes of rage and revenge. +But robots are emotionless. +They see an 80-year-old grandmother in a wheelchair the same way they see a T-80 tank: they're both just a series of zeroes and ones. +And so we have this question to figure out: How do we catch up our 20th century laws of war, that are so old right now that they could qualify for Medicare, to these 21st century technologies? +And so, in conclusion, I've talked about what seems the future of war, but notice that I've only used real world examples and you've only seen real world pictures and videos. +And so this sets a great challenge for all of us that we have to worry about well before you have to worry about your Roomba sucking the life away from you. +Are we going to let the fact that what's unveiling itself right now in war sounds like science fiction and therefore keeps us in denial? +Are we going to face the reality of 21st century war? +Is our generation going to make the same mistake that a past generation did with atomic weaponry, and not deal with the issues that surround it until Pandora's box is already opened up? +Now, I could be wrong on this, and one Pentagon robot scientist told me that I was. He said, "There's no real social, ethical, moral issues when it comes to robots. +That is," he added, "unless the machine kills the wrong people repeatedly. +Then it's just a product recall issue." +And so the ending point for this is that actually, we can turn to Hollywood. +A few years ago, Hollywood gathered all the top characters and created a list of the top 100 heroes and top 100 villains of all of Hollywood history, the characters that represented the best and worst of humanity. +Only one character made it onto both lists: The Terminator, a robot killing machine. +And so that points to the fact that our machines can be used for both good and evil, but for me it points to the fact that there's a duality of humans as well. +This week is a celebration of our creativity. Our creativity has taken our species to the stars. +Our creativity has created works of arts and literature to express our love. +And now, we're using our creativity in a certain direction, to build fantastic machines with incredible capabilities, maybe even one day an entirely new species. +But one of the main reasons that we're doing that is because of our drive to destroy each other, and so the question we all should ask: is it our machines, or is it us that's wired for war? +Thank you. +One thing I wanted to say about film making is -- about this film -- in thinking about some of the wonderful talks we've heard here, Michael Moschen, and some of the talks about music, this idea that there is a narrative line, and that music exists in time. +A film also exists in time; it's an experience that you should go through emotionally. +And in making this film I felt that so many of the documentaries I've seen were all about learning something, or knowledge, or driven by talking heads, and driven by ideas. +And I wanted this film to be driven by emotions, and really to follow my journey. +So instead of doing the talking head thing, instead it's composed of scenes, and we meet people along the way. +We only meet them once. +They don't come back several times, so it really chronicles a journey. +It's something like life, that once you get in it you can't get out. +There are two clips I want to show you, the first one is a kind of hodgepodge, its just three little moments, four little moments with three of the people who are here tonight. +It's not the way they occur in the film, because they are part of much larger scenes. +They play off each other in a wonderful way. +And that ends with a little clip of my father, of Lou, talking about something that is very dear to him, which is the accidents of life. +I think he felt that the greatest things in life were accidental, and perhaps not planned at all. +And those three clips will be followed by a scene of perhaps what, to me, is really his greatest building which is a building in Dhaka, Bangladesh. +He built the capital over there. +And I think you'll enjoy this building, it's never been seen -- it's been still photographed, but never photographed by a film crew. +We were the first film crew in there. +So you'll see images of this remarkable building. +A couple of things to keep in mind when you see it, it was built entirely by hand, I think they got a crane the last year. +It was built entirely by hand off bamboo scaffolding, people carrying these baskets of concrete on their heads, dumping them in the forms. +It is the capital of the country, and it took 23 years to build, which is something they seem to be very proud of over there. +It took as long as the Taj Mahal. +Unfortunately it took so long that Lou never saw it finished. +He died in 1974. +The building was finished in 1983. +So it continued on for many years after he died. +Think about that when you see that building, that sometimes the things we strive for so hard in life we never get to see finished. +So, those are the two clips I'm going to show. +Roll that tape. +Richard Saul Wurman: I remember hearing him talk at Penn. +And I came home and I said to my father and mother, "I just met this man: doesn't have much work, and he's sort of ugly, funny voice, and he's a teacher at school. +I know you've never heard of him, but just mark this day that someday you will hear of him, because he's really an amazing man." +Frank Gehry: I heard he had some kind of a fling with Ingrid Bergman. Is that true? +Nathaniel Kahn: If he did he was a very lucky man. +NK: Did you hear that, really? +FG: Yeah, when he was in Rome. +Moshe Safdie: He was a real nomad. +And you know, when I knew him when I was in the office, he would come in from a trip, and he would be in the office for two or three days intensely, and he would pack up and go. +You know he'd be in the office till three in the morning working with us and there was this kind of sense of the nomad in him. +I mean as tragic as his death was in a railway station, it was so consistent with his life, you know? +I mean I often think I'm going to die in a plane, or I'm going to die in an airport, or die jogging without an identification on me. +I don't know why I sort of carry that from that memory of the way he died. +But he was a sort of a nomad at heart. +Louis Kahn: How accidental our existences are really and how full of influence by circumstance. +Man: We are the morning workers who come, all the time, here and enjoy the walking, city's beauty and the atmosphere and this is the nicest place of Bangladesh. +We are proud of it. +NK: You're proud of it? +Man: Yes, it is the national image of Bangladesh. +NK: Do you know anything about the architect? +Man: Architect? I've heard about him; he's a top-ranking architect. +NK: Well actually I'm here because I'm the architect's son, he was my father. +Man: Oh! Dad is Louis Farrakhan? +NK: Yeah. No not Louis Farrakhan, Louis Kahn. +Man: Louis Kahn, yes! +Man: Your father, is he alive? +NK: No, he's been dead for 25 years. +Man: Very pleased to welcome you back. +NK: Thank you. +NK: He never saw it finished, Pop. +No, he never saw this. +Shamsul Wares: It was almost impossible, building for a country like ours. +In 30, 50 years back, it was nothing, only paddy fields, and since we invited him here, he felt that he has got a responsibility. +He wanted to be a Moses here, he gave us democracy. +He is not a political man, but in this guise he has given us the institution for democracy, from where we can rise. +In that way it is so relevant. +He didn't care for how much money this country has, or whether he would be able to ever finish this building, but somehow he has been able to do it, build it, here. +And this is the largest project he has got in here, the poorest country in the world. +NK: It cost him his life. +SW: Yeah, he paid. He paid his life for this, and that is why he is great and we'll remember him. +But he was also human. +Now his failure to satisfy the family life, is an inevitable association of great people. +But I think his son will understand this, and will have no sense of grudge, or sense of being neglected, I think. +He cared in a very different manner, but it takes a lot of time to understand that. +In social aspect of his life he was just like a child, he was not at all matured. +He could not say no to anything, and that is why, that he cannot say no to things, we got this building today. +You see, only that way you can be able to understand him. +There is no other shortcut, no other way to really understand him. +But I think he has given us this building and we feel all the time for him, that's why, he has given love for us. +He could not probably give the right kind of love for you, but for us, he has given the people the right kind of love, that is important. +You have to understand that. +He had an enormous amount of love, he loved everybody. +To love everybody, he sometimes did not see the very closest ones, and that is inevitable for men of his stature. +What I'm going to try to do is explain to you quickly how to predict, and illustrate it with some predictions about what Iran is going to do in the next couple of years. +In order to predict effectively, we need to use science. +And the reason that we need to use science is because then we can reproduce what we're doing; it's not just wisdom or guesswork. +And if we can predict, then we can engineer the future. +So if you are concerned to influence energy policy, or you are concerned to influence national security policy, or health policy, or education, science -- and a particular branch of science -- is a way to do it, not the way we've been doing it, which is seat-of-the-pants wisdom. +Now before I get into how to do it let me give you a little truth in advertising, because I'm not engaged in the business of magic. +There are lots of thing that the approach I take can predict, and there are some that it can't. +It can predict complex negotiations or situations involving coercion -- that is in essence everything that has to do with politics, much of what has to do with business, but sorry, if you're looking to speculate in the stock market, I don't predict stock markets -- OK, it's not going up any time really soon. +But I'm not engaged in doing that. +I'm not engaged in predicting random number generators. +I actually get phone calls from people who want to know what lottery numbers are going to win. +I don't have a clue. +I engage in the use of game theory, game theory is a branch of mathematics and that means, sorry, that even in the study of politics, math has come into the picture. +We can no longer pretend that we just speculate about politics, we need to look at this in a rigorous way. +Now, what is game theory about? +It assumes that people are looking out for what's good for them. +That doesn't seem terribly shocking -- although it's controversial for a lot of people -- that we are self-interested. +In order to look out for what's best for them or what they think is best for them, people have values -- they identify what they want, and what they don't want. +And they have beliefs about what other people want, and what other people don't want, how much power other people have, how much those people could get in the way of whatever it is that you want. +And they face limitations, constraints, they may be weak, they may be located in the wrong part of the world, they may be Einstein, stuck away farming someplace in a rural village in India not being noticed, as was the case for Ramanujan for a long time, a great mathematician but nobody noticed. +Now who is rational? +A lot of people are worried about what is rationality about? +You know, what if people are rational? +Mother Theresa, she was rational. +Terrorists, they're rational. +Pretty much everybody is rational. +I think there are only two exceptions that I'm aware of -- two-year-olds, they are not rational, they have very fickle preferences, they switch what they think all the time, and schizophrenics are probably not rational, but pretty much everybody else is rational. +That is, they are just trying to do what they think is in their own best interest. +Now in order to work out what people are going to do to pursue their interests, we have to think about who has influence in the world. +If you're trying to influence corporations to change their behavior, with regard to producing pollutants, one approach, the common approach, is to exhort them to be better, to explain to them what damage they're doing to the planet. +And many of you may have noticed that doesn't have as big an effect, as perhaps you would like it to have. +But if you show them that it's in their interest, then they're responsive. +So, we have to work out who influences problems. +That person surrounds himself or herself with advisers. +If we're talking about national security problems, maybe it's the Secretary of State, maybe it's the Secretary of Defense, the Director of National Intelligence, maybe the ambassador to the United Nations, or somebody else who they think is going to know more about the particular problem. +But let's face it, the Secretary of State doesn't know much about Iran. +The secretary of defense doesn't know much about Iran. +Each of those people in turn has advisers who advise them, so they can advise the president. +There are lots of people shaping decisions and so if we want to predict correctly we have to pay attention to everybody who is trying to shape the outcome, not just the people at the pinnacle of the decision-making pyramid. +Unfortunately, a lot of times we don't do that. +There's a good reason that we don't do that, and there's a good reason that using game theory and computers, we can overcome the limitation of just looking at a few people. +Imagine a problem with just five decision-makers. +Imagine for example that Sally over here, wants to know what Harry, and Jane, and George and Frank are thinking, and sends messages to those people. +Sally's giving her opinion to them, and they're giving their opinion to Sally. +But Sally also wants to know what Harry is saying to these three, and what they're saying to Harry. +And Harry wants to know what each of those people are saying to each other, and so on, and Sally would like to know what Harry thinks those people are saying. +That's a complicated problem; that's a lot to know. +With five decision-makers there are a lot of linkages -- 120, as a matter of fact, if you remember your factorials. +Five factorial is 120. +Now you may be surprised to know that smart people can keep 120 things straight in their head. +Suppose we double the number of influencers from five to 10. +Does that mean we've doubled the number of pieces of information we need to know, from 120 to 240? +No. How about 10 times? +To 1,200? No. +We've increased it to 3.6 million. +Nobody can keep that straight in their head. +But computers, they can. They don't need coffee breaks, they don't need vacations, they don't need to go to sleep at night, they don't ask for raises either. +They can keep this information straight and that means that we can process the information. +So I'm going to talk to you about how to process it, and I'm going to give you some examples out of Iran, and you're going to be wondering, "Why should we listen to this guy? +Why should we believe what he's saying?" +So I'm going to show you a factoid. +This is an assessment by the Central Intelligence Agency of the percentage of time that the model I'm talking about is right in predicting things whose outcome is not yet known, when the experts who provided the data inputs got it wrong. +That's not my claim, that's a CIA claim -- you can read it, it was declassified a while ago. You can read it in a volume edited by H. Bradford Westerfield, Yale University Press. +So, what do we need to know in order to predict? +You may be surprised to find out we don't need to know very much. +We do need to know who has a stake in trying to shape the outcome of a decision. +We need to know what they say they want, not what they want in their heart of hearts, not what they think they can get, but what they say they want, because that is a strategically chosen position, and we can work backwards from that to draw inferences about important features of their decision-making. +We need to know how focused they are on the problem at hand. +That is, how willing are they to drop what they're doing when the issue comes up, and attend to it instead of something else that's on their plate -- how big a deal is it to them? +And how much clout could they bring to bear if they chose to engage on the issue? +If we know those things we can predict their behavior by assuming that everybody cares about two things on any decision. +They care about the outcome. They'd like an outcome as close to what they are interested in as possible. +They're careerists, they also care about getting credit -- there's ego involvement, they want to be seen as important in shaping the outcome, or as important, if it's their druthers, to block an outcome. +And so we have to figure out how they balance those two things. +Different people trade off between standing by their outcome, faithfully holding to it, going down in a blaze of glory, or giving it up, putting their finger in the wind, and doing whatever they think is going to be a winning position. +Most people fall in between, and if we can work out where they fall we can work out how to negotiate with them to change their behavior. +So with just that little bit of input we can work out what the choices are that people have, what the chances are that they're willing to take, what they're after, what they value, what they want, and what they believe about other people. +You might notice what we don't need to know: there's no history in here. +How they got to where they are may be important in shaping the input information, but once we know where they are we're worried about where they're going to be headed in the future. +How they got there turns out not to be terribly critical in predicting. +I remind you of that 90 percent accuracy rate. +So where are we going to get this information? +We can get this information from the Internet, from The Economist, The Financial Times, The New York Times, U.S. News and World Report, lots of sources like that, or we can get it from asking experts who spend their lives studying places and problems, because those experts know this information. +If they don't know, who are the people trying to influence the decision, how much clout do they have, how much they care about this issue, and what do they say they want, are they experts? That's what it means to be an expert, that's the basic stuff an expert needs to know. +Alright, lets turn to Iran. +Let me make three important predictions -- you can check this out, time will tell. +What is Iran going to do about its nuclear weapons program? +How secure is the theocratic regime in Iran? +What's its future? +And everybody's best friend, Ahmadinejad. How are things going for him? +How are things going to be working out for him in the next year or two? +You take a look at this, this is not based on statistics. +I want to be very clear here. I'm not projecting some past data into the future. +I've taken inputs on positions and so forth, run it through a computer model that had simulated the dynamics of interaction, and these are the simulated dynamics, the predictions about the path of policy. +So you can see here on the vertical axis, I haven't shown it all the way down to zero, there are lots of other options, but here I'm just showing you the prediction, so I've narrowed the scale. +Up at the top of the axis, "Build the Bomb." +At 130, we start somewhere above 130, between building a bomb, and making enough weapons-grade fuel so that you could build a bomb. +That's where, according to my analyses, the Iranians were at the beginning of this year. +And then the model makes predictions down the road. +At 115 they would only produce enough weapons grade fuel to show that they know how, but they wouldn't build a weapon: they would build a research quantity. +It would achieve some national pride, but not go ahead and build a weapon. +And down at 100 they would build civilian nuclear energy, which is what they say is their objective. +The yellow line shows us the most likely path. +The yellow line includes an analysis of 87 decision makers in Iran, and a vast number of outside influencers trying to pressure Iran into changing its behavior, various players in the United States, and Egypt, and Saudi Arabia, and Russia, European Union, Japan, so on and so forth. +The white line reproduces the analysis if the international environment just left Iran to make its own internal decisions, under its own domestic political pressures. +That's not going to be happening, but you can see that the line comes down faster if they're not put under international pressure, if they're allowed to pursue their own devices. +But in any event, by the end of this year, beginning of next year, we get to a stable equilibrium outcome. +And that equilibrium is not what the United States would like, but it's probably an equilibrium that the United States can live with, and that a lot of others can live with. +And that is that Iran will achieve that nationalist pride by making enough weapons-grade fuel, through research, so that they could show that they know how to make weapons-grade fuel, but not enough to actually build a bomb. +How is this happening? +Over here you can see this is the distribution of power in favor of civilian nuclear energy today, this is what that power block is predicted to be like by the late parts of 2010, early parts of 2011. +Just about nobody supports research on weapons-grade fuel today, but by 2011 that gets to be a big block, and you put these two together, that's the controlling influence in Iran. +Out here today, there are a bunch of people -- Ahmadinejad for example -- who would like not only to build a bomb, but test a bomb. +That power disappears completely; nobody supports that by 2011. +These guys are all shrinking, the power is all drifting out here, so the outcome is going to be the weapons-grade fuel. +Who are the winners and who are the losers in Iran? +Take a look at these guys, they're growing in power, and by the way, this was done a while ago before the current economic crisis, and that's probably going to get steeper. +These folks are the moneyed interests in Iran, the bankers, the oil people, the bazaaries. +They are growing in political clout, as the mullahs are isolating themselves -- with the exception of one group of mullahs, who are not well known to Americans. +That's this line here, growing in power, these are what the Iranians call the quietists. +These are the Ayatollahs, mostly based in Qom, who have great clout in the religious community, have been quiet on politics and are going to be getting louder, because they see Iran going in an unhealthy direction, a direction contrary to what Khomeini had in mind. +Here is Mr. Ahmadinejad. +Two things to notice: he's getting weaker, and while he gets a lot of attention in the United States, he is not a major player in Iran. +He is on the way down. +OK, so I'd like you to take a little away from this. +Everything is not predictable: the stock market is, at least for me, not predictable, but most complicated negotiations are predictable. +Again, whether we're talking health policy, education, environment, energy, litigation, mergers, all of these are complicated problems that are predictable, that this sort of technology can be applied to. +And the reason that being able to predict those things is important, is not just because you might run a hedge fund and make money off of it, but because if you can predict what people will do, you can engineer what they will do. +And if you engineer what they do you can change the world, you can get a better result. +I would like to leave you with one thought, which is for me, the dominant theme of this gathering, and is the dominant theme of this way of thinking about the world. +When people say to you, "That's impossible," you say back to them, "When you say 'That's impossible,' you're confused with, 'I don't know how to do it.'" Thank you. +Chris Anderson: One question for you. +That was fascinating. +I love that you put it out there. +I got very nervous halfway through the talk though, just panicking whether you'd included in your model, the possibility that putting this prediction out there might change the result. +We've got 800 people in Tehran who watch TEDTalks. +Bruce Bueno de Mesquita: I've thought about that, and since I've done a lot of work for the intelligence community, they've also pondered that. +It would be a good thing if people paid more attention, took seriously, and engaged in the same sorts of calculations, because it would change things. But it would change things in two beneficial ways. +It would hasten how quickly people arrive at an agreement, and so it would save everybody a lot of grief and time. +And, it would arrive at an agreement that everybody was happy with, without having to manipulate them so much -- which is basically what I do, I manipulate them. +So it would be a good thing. +CA: So you're kind of trying to say, "People of Iran, this is your destiny, lets go there." +CA: Here's hoping they hear it that way. Thank you very much Bruce. +BBM: Thank you. +Bacteria are the oldest living organisms on the earth. +They've been here for billions of years, and what they are are single-celled microscopic organisms. +So they are one cell and they have this special property that they only have one piece of DNA. +They have very few genes, and genetic information to encode all of the traits that they carry out. +And the way bacteria make a living is that they consume nutrients from the environment, they grow to twice their size, they cut themselves down in the middle, and one cell becomes two, and so on and so on. +They just grow and divide, and grow and divide -- so a kind of boring life, except that what I would argue is that you have an amazing interaction with these critters. +I know you guys think of yourself as humans, and this is sort of how I think of you. +This man is supposed to represent a generic human being, and all of the circles in that man are all of the cells that make up your body. +There is about a trillion human cells that make each one of us who we are and able to do all the things that we do, but you have 10 trillion bacterial cells in you or on you at any moment in your life. +So, 10 times more bacterial cells than human cells on a human being. +And of course it's the DNA that counts, so here's all the A, T, Gs and Cs that make up your genetic code, and give you all your charming characteristics. +You have about 30,000 genes. +Well it turns out you have 100 times more bacterial genes playing a role in you or on you all of your life. +At the best, you're 10 percent human, but more likely about one percent human, depending on which of these metrics you like. +I know you think of yourself as human beings, but I think of you as 90 or 99 percent bacterial. +These bacteria are not passive riders, these are incredibly important, they keep us alive. +They cover us in an invisible body armor that keeps environmental insults out so that we stay healthy. +They digest our food, they make our vitamins, they actually educate your immune system to keep bad microbes out. +So they do all these amazing things that help us and are vital for keeping us alive, and they never get any press for that. +But they get a lot of press because they do a lot of terrible things as well. +So, there's all kinds of bacteria on the Earth that have no business being in you or on you at any time, and if they are, they make you incredibly sick. +And so, the question for my lab is whether you want to think about all the good things that bacteria do, or all the bad things that bacteria do. +The question we had is how could they do anything at all? +I mean they're incredibly small, you have to have a microscope to see one. +They live this sort of boring life where they grow and divide, and they've always been considered to be these asocial reclusive organisms. +And so it seemed to us that they are just too small to have an impact on the environment if they simply act as individuals. +And so we wanted to think if there couldn't be a different way that bacteria live. +The clue to this came from another marine bacterium, and it's a bacterium called Vibrio fischeri. +What you're looking at on this slide is just a person from my lab holding a flask of a liquid culture of a bacterium, a harmless beautiful bacterium that comes from the ocean, named Vibrio fischeri. +This bacterium has the special property that it makes light, so it makes bioluminescence, like fireflies make light. +We're not doing anything to the cells here. +We just took the picture by turning the lights off in the room, and this is what we see. +What was actually interesting to us was not that the bacteria made light, but when the bacteria made light. +What we noticed is when the bacteria were alone, so when they were in dilute suspension, they made no light. +But when they grew to a certain cell number all the bacteria turned on light simultaneously. +The question that we had is how can bacteria, these primitive organisms, tell the difference from times when they're alone, and times when they're in a community, and then all do something together. +What we've figured out is that the way that they do that is that they talk to each other, and they talk with a chemical language. +This is now supposed to be my bacterial cell. +When it's alone it doesn't make any light. +But what it does do is to make and secrete small molecules that you can think of like hormones, and these are the red triangles, and when the bacteria is alone the molecules just float away and so no light. +But when the bacteria grow and double and they're all participating in making these molecules, the molecule -- the extracellular amount of that molecule increases in proportion to cell number. +And when the molecule hits a certain amount that tells the bacteria how many neighbors there are, they recognize that molecule and all of the bacteria turn on light in synchrony. +That's how bioluminescence works -- they're talking with these chemical words. +The reason that Vibrio fischeri is doing that comes from the biology. +Again, another plug for the animals in the ocean, Vibrio fischeri lives in this squid. +What you are looking at is the Hawaiian Bobtail Squid, and it's been turned on its back, and what I hope you can see are these two glowing lobes and these house the Vibrio fischeri cells, they live in there, at high cell number that molecule is there, and they're making light. +The reason the squid is willing to put up with these shenanigans is because it wants that light. +The way that this symbiosis works is that this little squid lives just off the coast of Hawaii, just in sort of shallow knee-deep water. +The squid is nocturnal, so during the day it buries itself in the sand and sleeps, but then at night it has to come out to hunt. +On bright nights when there is lots of starlight or moonlight that light can penetrate the depth of the water the squid lives in, since it's just in those couple feet of water. +What the squid has developed is a shutter that can open and close over this specialized light organ housing the bacteria. +Then it has detectors on its back so it can sense how much starlight or moonlight is hitting its back. +And it opens and closes the shutter so the amount of light coming out of the bottom -- which is made by the bacterium -- exactly matches how much light hits the squid's back, so the squid doesn't make a shadow. +It actually uses the light from the bacteria to counter-illuminate itself in an anti-predation device so predators can't see its shadow, calculate its trajectory, and eat it. +This is like the stealth bomber of the ocean. +But then if you think about it, the squid has this terrible problem because it's got this dying, thick culture of bacteria and it can't sustain that. +And so what happens is every morning when the sun comes up the squid goes back to sleep, it buries itself in the sand, and it's got a pump that's attached to its circadian rhythm, and when the sun comes up it pumps out like 95 percent of the bacteria. +Now the bacteria are dilute, that little hormone molecule is gone, so they're not making light -- but of course the squid doesn't care. It's asleep in the sand. +And as the day goes by the bacteria double, they release the molecule, and then light comes on at night, exactly when the squid wants it. +First we figured out how this bacterium does this, but then we brought the tools of molecular biology to this to figure out really what's the mechanism. +And what we found -- so this is now supposed to be, again, my bacterial cell -- is that Vibrio fischeri has a protein -- that's the red box -- it's an enzyme that makes that little hormone molecule, the red triangle. +And then as the cells grow, they're all releasing that molecule into the environment, so there's lots of molecule there. +And the bacteria also have a receptor on their cell surface that fits like a lock and key with that molecule. +These are just like the receptors on the surfaces of your cells. +When the molecule increases to a certain amount -- which says something about the number of cells -- it locks down into that receptor and information comes into the cells that tells the cells to turn on this collective behavior of making light. +Why this is interesting is because in the past decade we have found that this is not just some anomaly of this ridiculous, glow-in-the-dark bacterium that lives in the ocean -- all bacteria have systems like this. +So now what we understand is that all bacteria can talk to each other. +They make chemical words, they recognize those words, and they turn on group behaviors that are only successful when all of the cells participate in unison. +We have a fancy name for this: we call it quorum sensing. +They vote with these chemical votes, the vote gets counted, and then everybody responds to the vote. +What's important for today's talk is that we know that there are hundreds of behaviors that bacteria carry out in these collective fashions. +But the one that's probably the most important to you is virulence. +It's not like a couple bacteria get in you and they start secreting some toxins -- you're enormous, that would have no effect on you. You're huge. +What they do, we now understand, is they get in you, they wait, they start growing, they count themselves with these little molecules, and they recognize when they have the right cell number that if all of the bacteria launch their virulence attack together, they are going to be successful at overcoming an enormous host. +Bacteria always control pathogenicity with quorum sensing. +That's how it works. +We also then went to look at what are these molecules -- these were the red triangles on my slides before. +This is the Vibrio fischeri molecule. +This is the word that it talks with. +So then we started to look at other bacteria, and these are just a smattering of the molecules that we've discovered. +What I hope you can see is that the molecules are related. +The left-hand part of the molecule is identical in every single species of bacteria. +But the right-hand part of the molecule is a little bit different in every single species. +What that does is to confer exquisite species specificities to these languages. +Each molecule fits into its partner receptor and no other. +So these are private, secret conversations. +These conversations are for intraspecies communication. +Each bacteria uses a particular molecule that's its language that allows it to count its own siblings. +Once we got that far we thought we were starting to understand that bacteria have these social behaviors. +But what we were really thinking about is that most of the time bacteria don't live by themselves, they live in incredible mixtures, with hundreds or thousands of other species of bacteria. +And that's depicted on this slide. This is your skin. +So this is just a picture -- a micrograph of your skin. +Anywhere on your body, it looks pretty much like this, and what I hope you can see is that there's all kinds of bacteria there. +And so we started to think if this really is about communication in bacteria, and it's about counting your neighbors, it's not enough to be able to only talk within your species. +There has to be a way to take a census of the rest of the bacteria in the population. +So we went back to molecular biology and started studying different bacteria, and what we've found now is that in fact, bacteria are multilingual. +They all have a species-specific system -- they have a molecule that says "me." +But then, running in parallel to that is a second system that we've discovered, that's generic. +So, they have a second enzyme that makes a second signal and it has its own receptor, and this molecule is the trade language of bacteria. +It's used by all different bacteria and it's the language of interspecies communication. +What happens is that bacteria are able to count how many of me and how many of you. +They take that information inside, and they decide what tasks to carry out depending on who's in the minority and who's in the majority of any given population. +Then again we turn to chemistry, and we figured out what this generic molecule is -- that was the pink ovals on my last slide, this is it. +It's a very small, five-carbon molecule. +What the important thing is that we learned is that every bacterium has exactly the same enzyme and makes exactly the same molecule. +So they're all using this molecule for interspecies communication. +This is the bacterial Esperanto. +Once we got that far, we started to learn that bacteria can talk to each other with this chemical language. +But what we started to think is that maybe there is something practical that we can do here as well. +I've told you that bacteria do have all these social behaviors, they communicate with these molecules. +Of course, I've also told you that one of the important things they do is to initiate pathogenicity using quorum sensing. +We thought, what if we made these bacteria so they can't talk or they can't hear? +Couldn't these be new kinds of antibiotics? +Of course, you've just heard and you already know that we're running out of antibiotics. +Bacteria are incredibly multi-drug-resistant right now, and that's because all of the antibiotics that we use kill bacteria. +They either pop the bacterial membrane, they make the bacterium so it can't replicate its DNA. +We kill bacteria with traditional antibiotics and that selects for resistant mutants. +And so now of course we have this global problem in infectious diseases. +We thought, well what if we could sort of do behavior modifications, just make these bacteria so they can't talk, they can't count, and they don't know to launch virulence. +And so that's exactly what we've done, and we've sort of taken two strategies. +The first one is we've targeted the intraspecies communication system. +So we made molecules that look kind of like the real molecules -- which you saw -- but they're a little bit different. +And so they lock into those receptors, and they jam recognition of the real thing. +By targeting the red system, what we are able to do is to make species-specific, or disease-specific, anti-quorum sensing molecules. +We've also done the same thing with the pink system. +We've taken that universal molecule and turned it around a little bit so that we've made antagonists of the interspecies communication system. +The hope is that these will be used as broad-spectrum antibiotics that work against all bacteria. +To finish I'll just show you the strategy. +In this one I'm just using the interspecies molecule, but the logic is exactly the same. +What you know is that when that bacterium gets into the animal, in this case, a mouse, it doesn't initiate virulence right away. +It gets in, it starts growing, it starts secreting its quorum sensing molecules. +It recognizes when it has enough bacteria that now they're going to launch their attack, and the animal dies. +What we've been able to do is to give these virulent infections, but we give them in conjunction with our anti-quorum sensing molecules -- so these are molecules that look kind of like the real thing, but they're a little bit different which I've depicted on this slide. +What we now know is that if we treat the animal with a pathogenic bacterium -- a multi-drug-resistant pathogenic bacterium -- in the same time we give our anti-quorum sensing molecule, in fact, the animal lives. +We think that this is the next generation of antibiotics and it's going to get us around, at least initially, this big problem of resistance. +What I hope you think, is that bacteria can talk to each other, they use chemicals as their words, they have an incredibly complicated chemical lexicon that we're just now starting to learn about. +Of course what that allows bacteria to do is to be multicellular. +So in the spirit of TED they're doing things together because it makes a difference. +What happens is that bacteria have these collective behaviors, and they can carry out tasks that they could never accomplish if they simply acted as individuals. +What I would hope that I could further argue to you is that this is the invention of multicellularity. +Bacteria have been on the Earth for billions of years; humans, couple hundred thousand. +We think bacteria made the rules for how multicellular organization works. +We think, by studying bacteria, we're going to be able to have insight about multicellularity in the human body. +We know that the principles and the rules, if we can figure them out in these sort of primitive organisms, the hope is that they will be applied to other human diseases and human behaviors as well. +I hope that what you've learned is that bacteria can distinguish self from other. +By using these two molecules they can say "me" and they can say "you." +Again of course that's what we do, both in a molecular way, and also in an outward way, but I think about the molecular stuff. +This is exactly what happens in your body. +It's not like your heart cells and your kidney cells get all mixed up every day, and that's because there's all of this chemistry going on, these molecules that say who each of these groups of cells is, and what their tasks should be. +Again, we think that bacteria invented that, and you've just evolved a few more bells and whistles, but all of the ideas are in these simple systems that we can study. +The final thing is, again just to reiterate that there's this practical part, and so we've made these anti-quorum sensing molecules that are being developed as new kinds of therapeutics. +But then, to finish with a plug for all the good and miraculous bacteria that live on the Earth, we've also made pro-quorum sensing molecules. +So, we've targeted those systems to make the molecules work better. +Remember you have these 10 times or more bacterial cells in you or on you, keeping you healthy. +What we're also trying to do is to beef up the conversation of the bacteria that live as mutualists with you, in the hopes of making you more healthy, making those conversations better, so bacteria can do things that we want them to do better than they would be on their own. +Finally, I wanted to show you this is my gang at Princeton, New Jersey. +Everything I told you about was discovered by someone in that picture. +I hope when you learn things, like about how the natural world works -- I just want to say that whenever you read something in the newspaper or you get to hear some talk about something ridiculous in the natural world it was done by a child. +Science is done by that demographic. +All of those people are between 20 and 30 years old, and they are the engine that drives scientific discovery in this country. +It's a really lucky demographic to work with. +I keep getting older and older and they're always the same age, and it's just a crazy delightful job. +I want to thank you for inviting me here. +It's a big treat for me to get to come to this conference. +Thanks. +I am going to talk about myself, which I rarely do, because I -- well for one thing, I prefer to talk about things I know nothing about. +And secondly, I'm a recovering narcissist. +I didn't know I was a narcissist actually. +I thought narcissism meant you loved yourself. +And then someone told me there is a flip side to it. +So it's actually drearier than self-love; it's unrequited self-love. +I don't feel I can afford a relapse. +But I want to, though, explain how I came to design my own particular brand of comedy because I've been through so many different forms of it. +I started with improvisation, in a particular form of improvisation called theater games, which had one rule, which I always thought was a great rule for an ethic for a society. +And the rule was, you couldn't deny the other person's reality, you could only build on it. +And of course we live in a society that's all about contradicting other peoples' reality. +It's all about contradiction, which I think is why I'm so sensitive to contradiction in general. +I see it everywhere. +Like polls. You know, it's always curious to me that in public opinion polls the percentage of Americans who don't know the answer to any given question is always two percent. +75 percent of Americans think Alaska is part of Canada. +But only two percent don't know the effect that the debacle in Argentina will have on the IMF's monetary policy -- seems a contradiction. +Or this ad that I read in the New York Times: "Wearing a fine watch speaks loudly of your rank in society. +Buying it from us screams good taste." +Or this that I found in a magazine called California Lawyer, in an article that is surely meant for the lawyers at Enron. +"Surviving the Slammer: Do's and Don'ts." +"Don't use big words." +"Learn the lingua franca." +Yeah. "Lingua this, Frankie." +And I suppose it's a contradiction that I talk about science when I don't know math. +So you're six years old, you're reading Snow White and the Seven Dwarves, and it becomes rapidly obvious that there are only two kinds of men in the world: dwarves and Prince Charmings. +And the odds are seven to one against your finding the prince. +That's why little girls don't do math. It's too depressing. +Of course, by talking about science I also may, as I did the other night, incur the violent wrath of some scientists who were very upset with me. +I used the word postmodern as if it were OK. +And they got very upset. +One of them, to his credit, I think really just wanted to engage me in a serious argument. +But I don't engage in serious arguments. +I don't approve of them because arguments, of course, are all about contradiction, and they're shaped by the values that I have questions with. +I have questions with the values of Newtonian science, like rationality. You're supposed to be rational in an argument. +Well rationality is constructed by what Christie Hefner was talking about today, that mind-body split, you know? +The head is good, body bad. +Head is ego, body id. +When we say "I," -- as when Rene Descartes said, "I think therefore I am," -- we mean the head. +And as David Lee Roth sang in "Just a Gigolo," "I ain't got no body." +That's how you get rationality. +And that's why so much of humor is the body asserting itself against the head. +That's why you have toilet humor and sexual humor. +That's why you have the Raspyni Brothers whacking Richard in the genital area. +And we're laughing doubly then because he's the body, but it's also -- Voice offstage: Richard. +Emily Levine: Richard. What did I say? +Richard. Yes but it's also the head, the head of the conference. +That's the other way that humor -- like Art Buchwald takes shots at the heads of state. +It doesn't make quite as much money as body humor I'm sure -- but nevertheless, what makes us treasure you and adore you. +There's also a contradiction in rationality in this country though, which is, as much as we revere the head, we are very anti-intellectual. +I know this because I read in the New York Times, the Ayn Rand foundation took out a full-page ad after September 11, in which they said, "The problem is not Iraq or Iran, the problem in this country, facing this country is the university professors and their spawn." +So I went back and re-read "The Fountainhead." +I don't know how many of you have read it. +And I'm not an expert on sadomasochism. +But let me just read you a couple of random passages from page 217. +"The act of a master taking painful contemptuous possession of her, was the kind of rapture she wanted. +When they lay together in bed it was, as it had to be, as the nature of the act demanded, an act of violence. +It was an act of clenched teeth and hatred. It was the unendurable. +Not a caress, but a wave of pain. +The agony as an act of passion." +So you can imagine my surprise on reading in The New Yorker that Alan Greenspan, Chairman of the Federal Reserve, claims Ayn Rand as his intellectual mentor. +It's like finding out your nanny is a dominatrix. +Bad enough we had to see J. Edgar Hoover in a dress. +Now we have to picture Alan Greenspan in a black leather corset, with a butt tattoo that says, "Whip inflation now." +And Ayn Rand of course, Ayn Rand is famous for a philosophy called Objectivism, which reflects another value of Newtonian physics, which is objectivity. +Objectivity basically is constructed in that same S&M way. +It's the subject subjugating the object. +That's how you assert yourself. +You make yourself the active voice. +And the object is the passive no-voice. +I was so fascinated by that Oxygen commercial. +So the passivity was culturally projected onto the little girls. +And this still goes on as I think I told you last year. +There's a poll that proves -- there was a poll that was given by Time magazine, in which only men were asked, "Have you ever had sex with a woman you actively disliked?" +And well, yeah. +Well, 58 percent said yes, which I think is overinflated though because so many men if you just say, "Have you ever had sex ... " "Yes!" +They don't even wait for the rest of it. +And of course two percent did not know whether they'd had -- That's the first callback, of my attempted quadruple. +So this subject-object thing, is part of something I'm very interested in because this is why, frankly, I believe in political correctness. +I do. I think it can go too far. +I think Ringling Brothers may have gone too far with an ad they took out in the New York Times Magazine. +"We have a lifelong emotional and financial commitment to our Asian Elephant partners." +Maybe too far. But you know -- I don't think that a person of color making fun of white people is the same thing as a white person making fun of people of color. +Or women making fun of men is the same as men making fun of women. +Or poor people making fun of rich people, the same as rich people. +I think you can make fun of the have but not the have-nots, which is why you don't see me making fun of Kenneth Lay and his charming wife. +What's funny about being down to four houses? +And I really learned this lesson during the sex scandals of the Clinton administration or, Or as I call them, the good ol' days. +When people I knew, you know, people who considered themselves liberal, and everything else, were making fun of Jennifer Flowers and Paula Jones. +Basically, they were making fun of them for being trailer trash or white trash. +It seems, I suppose, a harmless prejudice and that you're not really hurting anybody. +Until you read, as I did, an ad in the Los Angeles Times. +"For sale: White trash compactor." +So this whole subject-object thing has relevance to humor in this way. +I read a book by a woman named Amy Richlin, who is the chair of the Classics department at USC. +And the book is called "The Garden of Priapus." +And she says that Roman humor mirrors the construction of Roman society. +So that Roman society was very top/bottom, as ours is to some degree. +And so was humor. +There always had to be the butt of a joke. +So it was always the satirist, like Juvenal or Martial, represented the audience, and he was going to make fun of the outsider, the person who didn't share that subject status. +And in stand-up of course, the stand-up comedian is supposed to dominate the audience. +A lot of heckling is the tension of trying to make sure that the comedian is going to be able to dominate, and overcome the heckler. +And I got good at that when I was in stand up. +But I always hated it because they were dictating the terms of the interaction, in the same way that engaging in a serious argument determines the content, to some degree, of what you're talking about. +And I was looking for a form that didn't have that. +And so I wanted something that was more interactive. +I know that word is so debased now by the use of it by Internet marketers. +I really miss the old telemarketers now, I'll tell you that. +I do, because at least there you stood a chance. You know? +I used to actually hang up on them. +But then I read in "Dear Abby" that that was rude. +So the next time that one called I let him get halfway through his spiel and then I said, "You sound sexy." +He hung up on me! +But the interactivity allows the audience to shape what you're going to do as much as you shape their experience of the world. +And that's really what I'm looking for. +And I was sort of, as I was starting to analyze what exactly it is that I do, I read a book called "Trickster Makes This World," by Lewis Hyde. +And it was like being psychoanalyzed. +I mean he had laid it all out. +And then coming to this conference, I realized that most everybody here shared those same qualities because really what trickster is is an agent of change. +Trickster is a change agent. +And the qualities that I'm about to describe are the qualities that make it possible to make change happen. +And one of these is boundary crossing. +I think this is what so, in fact, infuriated the scientists. +But I like to cross boundaries. +I like to, as I said, talk about things I know nothing about. +(Phone Ringing) I hope that's my agent, because you aren't paying me anything. +And I think it's good to talk about things I know nothing about because I bring a fresh viewpoint to it, you know? +I'm able to see the contradiction that you may not be able to see. +Like for instance a mime once -- or a meme as he called himself. +He was a very selfish meme. +And he said that I had to show more respect because it took up to 18 years to learn how to do mime properly. +And I said, "Well, that's how you know only stupid people go into it." +It only takes two years to learn how to talk. +And you know people, this is the problem with quote, objectivity, unquote. +When you're only surrounded by people who speak the same vocabulary as you, or share the same set of assumptions as you, you start to think that that's reality. +Like economists, you know, their definition of rational, that we all act out of our own economic self-interest. +Well, look at Michael Hawley, or look at Dean Kamen, or look at my grandmother. +My grandmother always acted in other people's interests, whether they wanted her to or not. +If they had had an Olympics in martyrdom, my grandmother would have lost on purpose. +"No, you take the prize. +You're young. I'm old. Who's going to see it? +Where am I going? I'm going to die soon." +So that's one -- this boundary crossing, this go-between which -- Fritz Lanting, is that his name, actually said that he was a go-between. +That's an actual quality of the trickster. +And another is, non-oppositional strategies. +And this is instead of contradiction. +Where you deny the other person's reality, you have paradox where you allow more than one reality to coexist, I think there's another philosophical construction. +I'm not sure what it's called. +But my example of it is a sign that I saw in a jewelry store. +It said, "Ears pierced while you wait." +There the alternative just boggles the imagination. +"Oh no. Thanks though, I'll leave them here. Thanks very much. +I have some errands to run. So I'll be back to pick them up around five, if that's OK with you. +Huh? Huh? What? Can't hear you." +And another attribute of the trickster is smart luck. +That accidents, that Louis Kahn, who talked about accidents, this is another quality of the trickster. +The trickster has a mind that is prepared for the unprepared. +That, and I will say this to the scientists, that the trickster has the ability to hold his ideas lightly so that he can let room in for new ideas or to see the contradictions or the hidden problems with his ideas. +I had no joke for that. +I just wanted to put the scientists in their place. +But here's how I think I like to make change, and that is in making connections. +This is what I tend to see almost more than contradictions. +Like the, what do you call those toes of the gecko? +You know, the toes of the gecko, curling and uncurling like the fingers of Michael Moschen. +I love connections. +Like I'll read that one of the two attributes of matter in the Newtonian universe -- there are two attributes of matter in the Newtonian universe -- one is space occupancy. Matter takes up space. +I guess the more you matter the more space you take up, which explains the whole SUV phenomenon. +And the other one though is impenetrability. +Well, in ancient Rome, impenetrability was the criterion of masculinity. +Masculinity depended on you being the active penetrator. +And then, in economics, there's an active producer and a passive consumer, which explains why business always has to penetrate new markets. +Well yeah, I mean why we forced China to open her markets. +And didn't that feel good? +And now we're being penetrated. +You know the biotech companies are actually going inside us and planting their little flags on our genes. +You know we're being penetrated. +And I suspect, by someone who actively dislikes us. +That's the second of the quadruple. +Yes of course you got that. Thank you very much. +I still have a way to go. +And what I hope to do, when I make these connections, is short circuit people's thinking. +You know, make you not follow your usual train of association, but make you rewire. +It literally -- when people say about the shock of recognition, it's literally re-cognition, rewiring how you think -- I had a joke to go with this and I forgot it. +I'm so sorry. I'm getting like the woman in that joke about -- have you heard this joke about the woman driving with her mother? +And the mother is elderly. +And the mother goes right through a red light. +And the daughter doesn't want to say anything. +She doesn't want to be like, "You're too old to drive." +And the mother goes through a second red light. +And the daughter says, as tactfully as possible, "Mom, are you aware that you just went through two red lights?" +And the mother says, "Oh! Am I driving?" +And that's the shock of recognition at the shock of recognition. +That completes the quadruple. +I just want to say two more things. +One is, another characteristic of trickster is that the trickster has to walk this fine line. +He has to have poise. +And you know the biggest hurdle for me, in doing what I do, is constructing my performance so that it's prepared and unprepared. +Finding the balance between those things is always dangerous because you might tip off too much in the direction of unprepared. +But being too prepared doesn't leave room for the accidents to happen. +I was thinking about what Moshe Safdie said yesterday about beauty because in his book, Hyde says that sometimes trickster can tip over into beauty. +But to do that you have to lose all the other qualities because once you're into beauty you're into a finished thing. +You're into something that occupies space and inhabits time. +It's an actual thing. +And it is always extraordinary to see a thing of beauty. +But if you don't do that, if you allow for the accident to keep on happening, you have the possibility of getting on a wavelength. +I like to think of what I do as a probability wave. +When you go into beauty the probability wave collapses into one possibility. +And I like to explore all the possibilities in the hope that you'll be on the wavelength of your audience. +And the one final quality I want to say about trickster is that he doesn't have a home. +He's always on the road. +I want to say to you Richard, in closing, that in TED you've created a home. +And thank you for inviting me into it. +Thank you very much. +What I wanted to talk to you about today is two things: one, the rise of a culture of availability; and two, a request. +So we're seeing a rise of this availability being driven by mobile device proliferation, globally, across all social strata. +We're seeing, along with that proliferation of mobile devices, an expectation of availability. +And, with that, comes the third point, which is obligation -- and an obligation to that availability. +And the problem is, we're still working through, from a societal standpoint, how we allow people to be available. +There's a significant delta, in fact, between what we're willing to accept. +Apologies to Hans Rosling -- he said anything that's not using real stats is a lie -- but the big delta there is how we deal with this from a public standpoint. +So we've developed certain tactics and strategies to cover up. +This first one's called "the lean." +And if you've ever been in a meeting where you play sort of meeting "chicken," you're sitting there, looking at the person, waiting for them to look away, and then quickly checking the device. +Although you can see the gentleman up on the right is busting him. +"The stretch." +OK, the gentleman on the left is saying, "Screw you, I'm going to check my device." +But the guy, here, on the right, he's doing the stretch. +It's that reeeee-e-e-each out, the physical contortion to get that device just below the tabletop. +Or, my favorite, the "Love you; mean it." +Nothing says "I love you" like "Let me find somebody else I give a damn about." +Or, this one, coming to us from India. +You can find this on YouTube, the gentleman who's recumbent on a motorcycle while text messaging. +Or what we call the "sweet gravy, stop me before I kill again!" +That is actually the device. +What this is doing is, we find a -- a direct collision -- we find a direct collision between availability -- and what's possible through availability -- and a fundamental human need -- which we've been hearing about a lot, actually -- the need to create shared narratives. +We're very good at creating personal narratives, but it's the shared narratives that make us a culture. +And when you're standing with someone, and you're on your mobile device, effectively what you're saying to them is, "You are not as important as, literally, almost anything that could come to me through this device." +Look around you. +There might be somebody on one right now, participating in multi-dimensional engagement. +Our reality right now is less interesting than the story we're going to tell about it later. +This one I love. +This poor kid, clearly a prop -- don't get me wrong, a willing prop -- but the kiss that's being documented kind of looks like it sucks. +This is the sound of one hand clapping. +So, as we lose the context of our identity, it becomes incredibly important that what you share becomes the context of shared narrative, becomes the context in which we live. +The stories that we tell -- what we push out -- becomes who we are. +People aren't simply projecting identity, they're creating it. +And so that's the request I have for everybody in this room. +We are creating the technology that is going to create the new shared experience, which will create the new world. +And so my request is, please, let's make technologies that make people more human, and not less. +Thank you. +So how would you run a whole country without oil? +That's the question that sort of hit me in the middle of a Davos afternoon about four years ago. +It never left my brain. +And I started playing with it more like a puzzle. +The original thought I had: this must be ethanol. +So I went out and researched ethanol, and found out you need the Amazon in your backyard in every country. +About six months later I figured out it must be hydrogen, until some scientist told me the unfortunate truth, which is, you actually use more clean electrons than the ones you get inside a car, if you use hydrogen. +So that is not going to be the path to go. +And then sort of through a process of wandering around, I got to the thought that actually if you could convert an entire country to electric cars, in a way that is convenient and affordable, you could get to a solution. +Now I started this from a point of view that it has to be something that scales en masse. +Not how do you build one car, but how do you scale this so that it can become something that is used by 99 percent of the population? +The thought that came to mind is that it needs to be as good as any car that you would have today. +So one, it has to be more convenient than a car. +And two, it has be more affordable than today's cars. +Affordable is not a 40,000 dollar sedan, right? +Alright? That's not something that we can finance or buy today. +And convenient is not something that you drive for an hour and charge for eight. +So we're bound with the laws of physics and the laws of economics. +And so the thought that I started with was how do you do this, still within the boundary of the science we know today -- no time for science fair, no time for playing around with things or waiting for the magic battery to show up. +How do you do it within the economics that we have today? +How do you do it from the power of the consumer up? +And not from the power of an edict down. +On a random visit to Tesla on some afternoon, I actually found out that the answer comes from separating between the car ownership and the battery ownership. +In a sense if you want to think about it this is the classic "batteries not included." +Now if you separate between the two, you could actually answer the need for a convenient car by creating a network, by creating a network before the cars show up. +The network has two components in them. +First component is you charge the car whenever you stop -- ends up that cars are these strange beasts that drive for about two hours and park for about 22 hours. +If you drive a car in the morning and drive it back in the afternoon the ratio of charge to drive is about a minute for a minute. +And so the first thought that came to mind is, everywhere we park we have electric power. +Now it sounds crazy. But in some places around the world, like Scandinavia, you already have that. +If you park your car and didn't plug in the heater, when you come back you don't have a car. It just doesn't work. +Now that last mile, last foot, in a sense, is the first step of the infrastructure. +The second step of the infrastructure needs to take care of the range extension. +See we're bound by today's technology on batteries, which is about 120 miles if you want to stay within reasonable space and weight limitations. +120 miles is a good enough range for a lot of people. +But you never want to get stuck. +So what we added is a second element to our network, which is a battery swap system. +You drive. You take your depleted battery out. +A full battery comes on. And you drive on. +You don't do it as a human being. You do it as a machine. +It looks like a car wash. You come into your car wash. +And a plate comes up, holds your battery, takes it out, puts it back in, and within two minutes you're back on the road and you can go again. +If you had charge spots everywhere, and you had battery swap stations everywhere, how often would you do it? And it ends up that you'd do swapping less times than you stop at a gas station. +As a matter of fact, we added to the contract. +We said that if you stop to swap your battery more than 50 times a year we start paying you money because it's an inconvenience. +Then we looked at the question of the affordability. +We looked at the question, what happens when the battery is disconnected from the car. +What is the cost of that battery? +Everybody tells us batteries are so expensive. +What we found out, when you move from molecules to electrons, something interesting happens. +We can go back to the original economics of the car and look at it again. +The battery is not the gas tank, in a sense. +Remember in your car you have a gas tank. +You have the crude oil. +And you have refining and delivery of that crude oil as what we call petrol or gasoline. +The battery in this sense, is the crude oil. +We have a battery bay. It costs the same hundred dollars as the gas tank. +But the crude oil is replaced with a battery. +Just it doesn't burn. It consumes itself step after step after step. +It has 2,000 life cycles these days. +And so it's sort of a mini well. +We were asked in the past when we bought an electric car to pay for the entire well, for the life of the car. +Nobody wants to buy a mini well when they buy a car. +In a sense what we've done is we've created a new consumable. +You, today, buy gasoline miles. +And we created electric miles. +And the price of electric miles ends up being a very interesting number. +Today 2010, in volume, when we come to market, it is eight cents a mile. +Those of you who have a hard time calculating what that means -- in the average consumer environment we're in in the U.S. +20 miles per gallon that's a buck 50, a buck 60 a gallon. +That's cheaper than today's gasoline, even in the U.S. +In Europe where taxes are in place, that's the equivalent to a minus 60 dollar barrel. +But e-miles follow Moore's Law. +They go from eight cents a mile in 2010, to four cents a mile in 2015, to two cents a mile by 2020. +Why? Because batteries life cycle improve -- a bit of improvement on energy density, which reduces the price. +And these prices are actually with clean electrons. +We do not use any electrons that come from coal. +So in a sense this is an absolute zero-carbon, zero-fossil fuel electric mile at two cents a mile by 2020. +Now even if we get to 40 miles per gallon by 2020, which is our desire. +Imagine only 40 miles per gallon cars would be on the road. +That is an 80 cent gallon. +An 80 cent gallon means, if the entire Pacific would convert to crude oil, and we'd let any oil company bring it out and refine it, they still can't compete with two cents a mile. +That's a new economic factor, which is fascinating to most people. +Now this would have been a wonderful paper. +That's how I solved it in my head. It was a white paper I handed out to governments. +And some governments told me that it's fascinating that the younger generation actually thinks about these things. +Until I got to the true young global leader, Shimon Peres, President of Israel, and he ran a beautiful manipulation on me. +Peres thought that was a great idea. +So we went out, and we looked at all the car companies. +We sent letters to all the car companies. +Three of them never showed up. One of them asked us if we would stay with hybrids and they would give us a discount. +But one of them Carlos Ghosn, CEO of Renault and Nissan, when asked about hybrids said something very fascinating. +He said hybrids are like mermaids. +When you want a fish you get a woman and when you need a woman you get a fish. +And Ghosn came up and said, "I have the car, Mr. Peres; I will build you the cars." +And actually true to form, Renault has put a billion and a half dollars in building nine different types of cars that fit this kind of model that will come into the market in mass volume -- mass volume being the first year, 100 thousand cars. +It's the first mass-volume electric car, zero-emission electric car in the market. +I was running, as Chris said, to be the CEO of a large software company called SAP And then Peres said, "Well won't you run this project?" +And I said, "I'm ready for CEO" And he said, "Oh no no no no no. You've got to explain to me, what is more important than saving your country and saving the world, that you would go and do?" +And I had to quit and come and do this thing called A Better Place. +We then decided to scale it up. +We went to other countries. As I said we went to Denmark. +And Denmark set this beautiful policy; it's called the IQ test. +It's inversely proportional to taxes. +They put 180 percent tax on gasoline cars and zero tax on zero-emission cars. +So if you want to buy a gasoline car in Denmark, it costs you about 60,000 Euros. +If you buy our car it's about 20,000 Euros. +If you fail the IQ test they ask you to leave the country. +We then were sort of coined as the guys who run only in small islands. +I know most people don't think of Israel as a small island, but Israel is an island -- it's a transportation island. +If your car is driving outside Israel it's been stolen. +If you're thinking about it in terms of islands, we decided to go to the biggest island that we could find, and that was Australia. The third country we announced was Australia. +It's got three centers -- in Brisbane, in Melbourne, in Sydney -- and one freeway, one electric freeway that connects them. +The next island was not too hard to find, and that was Hawaii. +We decided to come into the U.S. +and pick the two best places -- the one where you didn't need any range extension. +Hawaii you can drive around the island on one battery. +And if you really have a long day you can switch, and keep on driving around the island. +The second one was the San Francisco Bay Area where Gavin Newsom created a beautiful policy across all the mayors. +He decided that he's going to take over the state, unofficially, and then officially, and then created this beautiful Region One policy. +In the San Francisco Bay Area not only do you have the highest concentration of Priuses, but you also have the perfect range extender. +It's called the other car. +As we stared scaling it up we looked at what is the problem to come up to the U.S.? +Why is this a big issue? +And the most fascinating thing we've learned is that, when you have small problems on the individual level, like the price of gasoline to drive every morning. +You don't notice it, but when the aggregate comes up you're dead. Alright? +So the price of oil, much like lots of other curves that we've seen, goes along a depletion curve. +The foundation of this curve is that we keep losing the wells that are close to the ground. +And we keep getting wells that are farther away from the ground. +It becomes more and more and more expensive to dig them out. +You think, well it's been up, it's been down, its been up, it's going to keep on going up and down. +Here is the problem: at 147 dollars a barrel, which we were in six months ago, the U.S. spent a ton of money to get oil. +Then we lost our economy and we went back down to 47 -- sometimes it's 40, sometimes it's 50. +Now we're running a stimulus package. +It's called the trillion-dollar stimulus package. +We're going to revive the economy. Hopefully it happens between now and 2015, somewhere in that space. +What happens when the economy recovers? +By 2015 we would have had at least 250 million new cars even at the pace we're going at right now. +That's another 30 percent demand on oil. +That is another 25 million barrels a day. +That's all the U.S. usage today. +In other words at some point when we've recovered we go up to the peak. +And then we do the OPEC stimulus package also known as 200 dollars a barrel. +We take our money and we give it away. +You know what happens at that point? +We go back down. It's going to go up and down. +And the downs are going to be much longer and the ups are going to be much shorter. +And that's the difference between problems that are additive, like CO2, which we go slowly up and then we tip, and problems that are depletive, in which we lose what we have, which oscillate, and they oscillate until we lose everything we've got. +Now we actually looked at what the answer would be. +Right? Remember in the campaign: one million hybrid cars by 2015. +That is 0.5 percent of the U.S. oil consumption. +That is oh point oh well percent of the rest of the world. +That won't do much difference. +We looked at an MIT study: ten million electric cars on the global roads. +Ten million out of 500 million we will add between now and then. +That is the most pessimistic number you can have. +It's also the most optimistic number because it means we will scale this industry from 100 thousand cars is 2011, to 10 million cars by 2016 -- 100 x growth in less than five years. +You have to remember that the world today is bringing in so many cars. +We have 10 million cars by region. +That's an enormous amount of cars. +China is adding those cars -- India, Russia, Brazil. +We have all these regions. +Europe has solved it. They just put a tax on gasoline. +They'll be the first in line to get off because their prices are high. +China solves it by an edict. At some point they'll just declare that no gasoline car will come into a city, and that will be it. +The Indians don't even understand why we think of it as a problem because most people in India fill two or three gallons every time. +For them to get a battery that goes 120 miles is an extension on range, not a reduction in range. +We're the only ones who don't have the price set right. +We don't have the industry set right. +We don't have any incentive to go and resolve it across the U.S. +Now where is the car industry on that? +Very interesting. The car industry has been focused just on themselves. +They basically looked at it and said, "Car 1.0 we'll solve everything within the car itself." +No infrastructure, no problem. +We forgot about the entire chain around us. +All this stuff that happens around. +We are looking at the emergence of a car 2.0 -- a whole new market, a whole new business model. +The business model in which the money that is actually coming in, to drive the car -- the minutes, the miles if you want, that you are all familiar with -- subsidize the price of the car, just like cellphones. You'll pay for the miles. +And some of it will go back to the car maker. +Some of it will go back to your own pocket. +But our cars are actually going to be cheaper than gasoline cars. +You're looking at a world where cars are matched with windmills. +In Denmark, we will drive all the cars in Denmark from windmills, not from oil. +In Israel, we've asked to put a solar farm in the south of Israel. +And people said, "Oh that's a very very large space that you're asking for." +And we said, "What if we had proven that in the same space we found oil for the country for the next hundred years?" +And they said, "We tried. There isn't any." +We said, "No no, but what if we prove it?" +And they said, "Well you can dig." And we decided to dig up, instead of digging down. +These are perfect matches to one another. +Now all you need is about 10 percent of the electricity generated. +Think of it as a project that spans over about 10 years. +That's one percent a year. +Now when we're looking at solving big problems, we need to start thinking in two numbers. +And those are not 20 percent by 2020. +The two numbers are zero -- as in zero footprint or zero oil -- and scale it infinity. +And when we go to COP15 at the end of this year we can't stop thinking of padding CO2. +We have to start thinking about giving kickers to countries that are willing to go to this kind of scale. +One car emits four tons. +And actually 700 and change million cars today emit 2.8 billion tons of CO2. +That's, in the additive, about 25 percent of our problem. +Cars and trucks add up to about 25 percent of the world's CO2 emissions. +We have to come and attack this problem with a focus, with an effort that actually says, we're going to go to zero before the world ends. +I actually shared that with some legislators here in the U.S. +I shared it with a gentleman called Bobby Kennedy Jr., who is one of my idols. +I told him one of the reasons that his uncle was remembered is because he said we're going to send a man to the moon, and we'll do it by the end of the decade. +We didn't say we're going to send a man 20 percent to the moon. +And there will be about a 20 percent chance we'll recover him. +He actually shared with me another story, which is from about 200 years ago. +200 years ago, in Parliament, in Great Britain, there was a long argument over economy versus morality. +25 percent -- just like 25 percent emissions today comes from cars -- 25 percent of their energy for the entire industrial world in the U.K. +came from a source of energy that was immoral: human slaves. +And there was an argument. Should we stop using slaves? +And what would it do to our economy? +And people said, "Well we need to take time to do it. +Let's not do it immediately. Maybe we free the kids and keep the slaves. +And after a month of arguments they decided to stop slavery, and the industrial revolution started within less than one year. +And the U.K. had 100 years of economic growth. +We have to make the right moral decision. +We have to make it immediately. +We need to have presidential leadership just like we had in Israel that said we will end oil. +And we need to do it not within 20 years or 50 years, but within this presidential term because if we don't, we will lose our economy, right after we'd lost our morality. +Thank you all very much. +The future of life, where the unraveling of our biology -- and bring up the lights a little bit. I don't have any slides. +I'm just going to talk -- about where that's likely to carry us. +And you know, I saw all the visions of the first couple of sessions. +It almost made me feel a little bit guilty about having an uplifting talk about the future. +It felt wrong to do that in some way. +And yet, I don't really think it is because when it comes down to it, it's this larger trajectory that is really what is going to remain -- what people in the future are going to remember about this period. +I want to talk to you a little bit about why the visions of Jeremy Rivkins, who would like to ban these sorts of technologies, or of the Bill Joys who would like to relinquish them, are actually -- to follow those paths would be such a tragedy for us. +I'm focusing on biology, the biological sciences. +The reason I'm doing that is because those are going to be the areas that are the most significant to us. +The reason for that is really very simple. +It's because we're flesh and blood. +We're biological creatures. +And what we can do with our biology is going to shape our future and that of our children and that of their children -- whether we gain control over aging, whether we learn to protect ourselves from Alzheimer's, and heart disease, and cancer. +I think that Shakespeare really put it very nicely. +And I'm actually going to use his words in the same order that he did. +He said, "And so from hour to hour we ripe and ripe. +And then from hour to hour we rot and rot. +And thereby hangs a tale." +Life is short, you know. +And we need to think about planning a little bit. +We're all going to eventually, even in the developed world, going to have to lose everything that we love. +When you're beginning to rot a little bit, all of the videos crammed into your head, all of the extensions that extend your various powers, are going to being to seem a little secondary. +And you know, I'm getting a little bit gray -- so is Ray Kurzweil, so is Eric Drexler. +This is where it's really central to our lives. +Now I know there's been a whole lot of hype about our power to control biology. +You just have to look at the Human Genome Project. +It wasn't two years ago that everybody was talking about -- we've found the Holy Grail of biology. +We're deciphering the code of codes. +We're reading the book of life. +It's a little bit reminiscent of 1969 when Neil Armstrong walked on the moon, and everybody was about to race out toward the stars. +And we've all seen "2001: A Space Odyssey." +You know it's 2003, and there is no HAL. +And there is no odyssey to our own moon, much less the moons of Jupiter. +And we're still picking up pieces of the Challenger. +So it's not surprising that some people would wonder whether maybe 30 or 40 years from now, we'll look back at this instant in time, and all of the sort of talk about the Human Genome Project, and what all this is going to mean to us -- well, it will really mean precious little. +And I just want to say that that is absolutely not going to be the case. +Because when we talk about our genetics and our biology, and modifying and altering and adjusting these things, we're talking about changing ourselves. +And this is very critical stuff. +If you have any doubts about how technology affects our lives, you just have to go to any major city. +This is not the stomping ground of our Pleistocene ancestors. +What's happening is we're taking this technology -- it's becoming more precise, more potent -- and we're turning it back upon ourselves. +Before it's all done we are going to alter ourselves every bit as much as we have changed the world around us. +It's going to happen a lot sooner than people imagine. +On the way there it's going to completely revolutionize medicine and health care; that's obvious. +It's going to change the way we have children. +It's going to change the way we manage and alter our emotions. +It's going to probably change the human lifespan. +It will really make us question what it is to be a human being. +The larger context of this is that are two unprecedented revolutions that are going on today. +The first of them is the obvious one, the silicon revolution, which you all are very, very familiar with. +It's changing our lives in so many ways, and it will continue to do that. +What the essence of that is, is that we're taking the sand at our feet, the inert silicon at our feet, and we're breathing a level of complexity into it that rivals that of life itself, and may even surpass it. +As an outgrowth of that, as a child of that revolution, is the revolution in biology. +The genomics revolution, proteomics, metabolomics, all of these "omics" that sound so terrific on grants and on business plans. +What we're doing is we are seizing control of our evolutionary future. +I mean we're essentially using technology to just jam evolution into fast-forward. +It's not at all clear where it's going to take us. +But in five to ten years we're going to start see some very profound changes. +The most immediate changes that we'll see are things like in medicine. +There is going to be a big shift towards preventative medicine as we start to be able to identify all of the risk factors that we have as individuals. +But who is going to pay for all this? +And how are we going to understand all this complex information? +That is going to be the IT challenge of the next generation, is communicating all this information. +There's pharmacogenomics, the combination of pharmacology and genetics: tailoring drugs to our individual constitutions that Juan talked about a little bit earlier. +That's going to have amazing impacts. +And it's going to be used for diet as well, and nutritional supplements and such. +But it's going to have a big impact because we're going to have niche drugs. +And we aren't going to be able to support the kinds of expenses that we have to create blockbuster drugs today. +The approval process is going to fall apart, actually. +It's too slow. +It's too risk-averse. +And it is really not suited for the future that we're moving into. +Another thing is that we're just going to have to deal with this knowledge. +It's really wonderful when we hear, "Oh, 99.9 percent of the letters in the code are the same. +We're all identical to each other. Isn't it wonderful?" +And look around you and know that what we really care about is that little bit of difference. +We look the same to a visitor from another planet, maybe, but not to each other because we compete with each other all time. +And we're going to have to come to grips with the fact that there are differences between us as individuals that we will know about, and between subpopulations of humans as well. +To deny that that's the case is not a very good start on that. +A generation or so away there are going to be even more profound things that are going to happen. +That's when we're going to begin to use this knowledge to modify ourselves. +Now I don't mean extra gills or something -- something we care about, like aging. +What if we could unravel aging and understand it -- begin to retard the process or even reverse it? +It would change absolutely everything. +And it's obvious to anyone, that if we can do this, we absolutely will do this, whatever the consequences are. +The second is modifying our emotions. +I mean Ritalin, Viagra, things of that sort, Prozac. +You know, this is just clumsy little baby steps. +What if you could take a little concoction of pharmaceuticals that would make you feel really contented, just happy to be you. +Are you going to be able to resist that if it doesn't have any overt side effects? +Probably not. +And if you don't, who are you going to be? +Why do you do what you do? +We're sort of circumventing evolutionary programs that guide our behavior. +It's going to be very challenging to deal with. +The third area is reproduction. +The idea that we're going to chose our children's genes, as we begin to understand what genes say about who we are. +That's the focus of my book "Redesigning Humans," where I talk about the kinds of choices we'll make, and the challenges it's going to present to society. +There are three obvious ways of doing this. +The first is cloning. +It didn't happen. +It's a total media circus. +It will happen in five to 10 years. +And when it does it's not going to be that big a deal. +The birth of a delayed identical twin is not going to shake western civilization. +But there are more important things that are already occurring: embryo screening. +You take a six to eight cell embryo, you tease out one of the cells, you run a genetic test on that cell, and depending on the results of that test you either implant that embryo or you discard it. +It's already done to avoid rare diseases today. +And pretty soon it's going to be possible to avoid virtually all genetic diseases in that way. +As that becomes possible this is going to move from something that is used by those who have infertility problems and are already doing in vitro fertilization, to the wealthy who want to protect their children, to just about everybody else. +And in that process that's going to morph from being just for diseases, to being for lesser vulnerabilities, like risk of manic depression or something, to picking personalities, temperaments, traits, these sorts of things. +Of course there is going to be genetic engineering. +Directly going in -- it's a little bit further away, but not that far away -- going in and altering the genes in the first cell in an embryo. +The way I suspect it will happen is using artificial chromosomes and extra chromosomes, so we go from 46 to 47 or 48. +And one that is not heritable because who would want to pass on to their children the archaic enhancement modules that they got 25 years earlier from their parents? +It's a joke; of course they wouldn't want to do that. +They'll want the new release. +Those kinds of loose analogies with computers, and with programming, are actually much deeper than that. +They are really going to come to operate in this realm. +Now not everything that can be done should be done. +And it won't be done. +Humanity is going to go down this path. +And it's going to do so for two reasons. +The first is that all these technologies are just a spin-off of mainstream medical research that everybody wants to see happen. +It is being funded very very -- in a big way. +The second is, we're human. +That's what we do. +We try and use our technology to improve our lives in one way or another. +To imagine that we're not going to use these technologies when they become available, is as much a denial of who we are as to imagine that we'll use these technologies and not fret and worry about it a great deal. +The lines are going to blur. And they already are between therapy and enhancement, between treatment and prevention, between need and desire. +That's really the central one, I believe. +People can try and ban these things. +They undoubtedly will. They have. +But ultimately all this is going to do is just shift development elsewhere. +It's going to drive these things from view. +It's going to reserve the technology for the wealthy because they are in the best position to circumvent any of these sorts of laws. +And it's going to deny us the information that we need to make wise decisions about how to use these technologies. +So, sure, we need to debate these things. +And I think it's wonderful that we do. +But we shouldn't kid ourselves and think that we're going to reach a consensus about these things. +That is simply not going to happen. +They touch us too deeply. +And they depend too much upon history, upon philosophy, upon religion, upon culture, upon politics. +Some people are going to see this as an abomination, as the worst thing, as just awful. +Other people are going to say, "This is great. +This is the flowering of human endeavor." +The one thing though that is really dangerous about these sorts of technologies, is that it's easy to become seduced by them. +And to focus too much on all the high-technology possibilities that exist. +And to lose touch with the basic rhythms of our biology and our health. +There are too many people that think that high-technology medicine is going to keep them, save them, from overeating, from eating a lot of fast foods, from not getting any exercise. +It's not going to happen. +But this whole effort is generated, is driven, by IT as well because that is how we're gathering all this information, and linking it, and integrating it together. +There is a lot in this rich biota that is going to serve us well. +And that's where about half of our drugs come. +So we shouldn't dismiss this because it's an enormous opportunity to use these sorts of results, or these random loose trials from the last thousand years about what has impacts on our health. +And to use our advanced technologies to pull out what is beneficial from this sea of noise, basically. +In fact this isn't just abstract. +I just formed a biotechnology company that is using this sort of an approach to develop therapeutics for Alzheimer's and other diseases of aging, and we're making some real progress. +So here we are. +It's the beginning of a new millennium. +If you look forward, I mean future humans, far before the end of this millennium, in a few hundred years, they are going to look back at this moment. +And from the beginning of today's sessions you'd think that they're going to see this as this horrible difficult, painful period that we struggled through. +And I don't think that's what's going to happen. +They're going to do like everybody does. They are going to forget about all that stuff. +And they are actually going to romanticize this moment in time. +They are going to think about it as this glorious instant when we laid down the very foundations of their lives, of their society, of their future. +You know it's a little bit like a birth. +Where there is this bloody, awful mess happens. +And then what comes out of it? New life. +Actually as was pointed out earlier, we forget about all the struggle there was in getting there. +So to me, it's clear that one of the foundations of that future is going to be the reworking of our biology. +It's going to come gradually at first. It's going to pick up speed. +We're going to make lots of errors. +That's the way these things work. +To me it's an incredible privilege to be alive now and to be able to witness this thing. +It is something that is a unique instant in the history of all of life. +It will always be remembered. +And what's extraordinary is that we're not just observing this, we are the architects of this. +I think that we should be proud of it. +What is so difficult and challenging is that we are also the objects of these changes. +It's our health, it's our lives, it's our future, it's our children. +And that is why they are so very troubling to so many people who would pull back in fear. +I think that our choice in the choice of life, is not whether we're going to go down this path. +We are, definitely. +It's how we hold it in our hearts. +It's how we look at it. +I think Thucydides really spoke to us very clearly in 430 B.C. He put it nicely. +Again, I'll use the words in the same order he did. +"The bravest are surely those who have the clearest vision of what is before them, both glory and danger alike. +And yet notwithstanding, they go out and they meet it." +Thank you. +The AlloSphere: it's a three-story metal sphere in an echo-free chamber. +Think of the AlloSphere as a large, dynamically varying digital microscope that's connected to a supercomputer. +20 researchers can stand on a bridge suspended inside of the sphere, and be completely immersed in their data. +Imagine if a team of physicists could stand inside of an atom and watch and hear electrons spin. +Imagine if a group of sculptors could be inside of a lattice of atoms and sculpt with their material. +Imagine if a team of surgeons could fly into the brain, as though it was a world, and see tissues as landscapes, and hear blood density levels as music. +This is some of the research that you're going to see that we're undertaking at the AlloSphere. +But first a little bit about this group of artists, scientists, and engineers that are working together. +I'm a composer, orchestrally-trained, and the inventor of the AlloSphere. +With my visual artist colleagues, we map complex mathematical algorithms that unfold in time and space, visually and sonically. +Our scientist colleagues are finding new patterns in the information. +And our engineering colleagues are making one of the largest dynamically varying computers in the world for this kind of data exploration. +I'm going to fly you into five research projects in the AlloSphere that are going to take you from biological macroscopic data all the way down to electron spin. +This first project is called the AlloBrain. +And it's our attempt to quantify beauty by finding which regions of the brain are interactive while witnessing something beautiful. +You're flying through the cortex of my colleague's brain. +Our narrative here is real fMRI data that's mapped visually and sonically. +The brain now a world that we can fly through and interact with. +You see 12 intelligent computer agents, the little rectangles that are flying in the brain with you. +They're mining blood density levels. +And they're reporting them back to you sonically. +Higher density levels mean more activity in that point of the brain. +They're actually singing these densities to you with higher pitches mapped to higher densities. +We're now going to move from real biological data to biogenerative algorithms that create artificial nature in our next artistic and scientific installation. +In this artistic and scientific installation, biogenerative algorithms are helping us to understand self-generation and growth: very important for simulation in the nanoscaled sciences. +For artists, we're making new worlds that we can uncover and explore. +These generative algorithms grow over time, and they interact and communicate as a swarm of insects. +Our researchers are interacting with this data by injecting bacterial code, which are computer programs, that allow these creatures to grow over time. +We're going to move now from the biological and the macroscopic world, down into the atomic world, as we fly into a lattice of atoms. +This is real AFM -- Atomic Force Microscope -- data from my colleagues in the Solid State Lighting and Energy Center. +They've discovered a new bond, a new material for transparent solar cells. +We're flying through 2,000 lattice of atoms -- oxygen, hydrogen and zinc. +You view the bond in the triangle. +It's four blue zinc atoms bonding with one white hydrogen atom. +You see the electron flow with the streamlines we as artists have generated for the scientists. +This is allowing them to find the bonding nodes in any lattice of atoms. +We think it makes a beautiful structural art. +The sound that you're hearing are the actual emission spectrums of these atoms. +We've mapped them into the audio domain, so they're singing to you. +Oxygen, hydrogen and zinc have their own signature. +We're going to actually move even further down as we go from this lattice of atoms to one single hydrogen atom. +We're working with our physicist colleagues that have given us the mathematical calculations of the n-dimensional Schrdinger equation in time. +What you're seeing here right now is a superposition of an electron in the lower three orbitals of a hydrogen atom. +You're actually hearing and seeing the electron flow with the lines. +The white dots are the probability wave that will show you where the electron is in any given point of time and space in this particular three-orbital configuration. +In a minute we're going to move to a two-orbital configuration, and you're going to notice a pulsing. +And you're going to hear an undulation between the sound. +This is actually a light emitter. +As the sound starts to pulse and contract, our physicists can tell when a photon is going to be emitted. +They're starting to find new mathematical structures in these calculations. +And they're understanding more about quantum mathematics. +We're going to move even further down, and go to one single electron spin. +This will be the final project that I show you. +Our colleagues in the Center for Quantum Computation and Spintronics are actually measuring with their lasers decoherence in a single electron spin. +We've taken this information and we've made a mathematical model out of it. +You're actually seeing and hearing quantum information flow. +This is very important for the next step in simulating quantum computers and information technology. +So these brief examples that I've shown you give you an idea of the kind of work that we're doing at the University of California, Santa Barbara, to bring together, arts, science and engineering into a new age of math, science and art. +We hope that all of you will come to see the AlloSphere. +Inspire us to think of new ways that we can use this unique instrument that we've created at Santa Barbara. +Thank you very much. +This is Tim Ferriss circa 1979 A.D. Age two. +You can tell by the power squat, I was a very confident boy -- and not without reason. +I had a very charming routine at the time, which was to wait until late in the evening when my parents were decompressing from a hard day's work, doing their crossword puzzles, watching television. +I would run into the living room, jump up on the couch, rip the cushions off, throw them on the floor, scream at the top of my lungs and run out because I was the Incredible Hulk. +Obviously, you see the resemblance. +And this routine went on for some time. +When I was seven I went to summer camp. +My parents found it necessary for peace of mind. +And at noon each day the campers would go to a pond, where they had floating docks. +You could jump off the end into the deep end. +I was born premature. I was always very small. +My left lung had collapsed when I was born. +And I've always had buoyancy problems. +So water was something that scared me to begin with. +But I would go in on occasion. +And on one particular day, the campers were jumping through inner tubes, They were diving through inner tubes. And I thought this would be great fun. +So I dove through the inner tube, and the bully of the camp grabbed my ankles. +And I tried to come up for air, and my lower back hit the bottom of the inner tube. +And I went wild eyed and thought I was going to die. +A camp counselor fortunately came over and separated us. +From that point onward I was terrified of swimming. +That is something that I did not get over. +My inability to swim has been one of my greatest humiliations and embarrassments. +That is when I realized that I was not the Incredible Hulk. +But there is a happy ending to this story. +At age 31 -- that's my age now -- in August I took two weeks to re-examine swimming, and question all the of the obvious aspects of swimming. +And I came out, in my Speedos, European style, feeling like the Incredible Hulk. +And that's what I want everyone in here to feel like, the Incredible Hulk, at the end of this presentation. +More specifically, I want you to feel like you're capable of becoming an excellent long-distance swimmer, a world-class language learner, and a tango champion. +And I would like to share my art. +If I have an art, it's deconstructing things that really scare the living hell out of me. +So, moving onward. +Swimming, first principles. +First principles, this is very important. +I find that the best results in life are often held back by false constructs and untested assumptions. +And the turnaround in swimming came when a friend of mine said, "I will go a year without any stimulants" -- this is a six-double-espresso-per-day type of guy -- "if you can complete a one kilometer open water race." +So the clock started ticking. +I started seeking out triathletes because I found that lifelong swimmers often couldn't teach what they did. +I tried kickboards. +My feet would slice through the water like razors, I wouldn't even move. I would leave demoralized, staring at my feet. +Hand paddles, everything. +Even did lessons with Olympians -- nothing helped. +And then Chris Sacca, who is now a dear friend mine, had completed an Iron Man with 103 degree temperature, said, "I have the answer to your prayers." +And he introduced me to the work of a man named Terry Laughlin who is the founder of Total Immersion Swimming. +That set me on the road to examining biomechanics. +So here are the new rules of swimming, if any of you are afraid of swimming, or not good at it. +The first is, forget about kicking. Very counterintuitive. +So it turns out that propulsion isn't really the problem. +Kicking harder doesn't solve the problem because the average swimmer only transfers about three percent of their energy expenditure into forward motion. +The problem is hydrodynamics. +So what you want to focus on instead is allowing your lower body to draft behind your upper body, much like a small car behind a big car on the highway. +And you do that by maintaining a horizontal body position. +The only way you can do that is to not swim on top of the water. +The body is denser than water. 95 percent of it would be, at least, submerged naturally. +So you end up, number three, not swimming, in the case of freestyle, on your stomach, as many people think, reaching on top of the water. +But actually rotating from streamlined right to streamlined left, maintaining that fuselage position as long as possible. +So let's look at some examples. This is Terry. +And you can see that he's extending his right arm below his head and far in front. +And so his entire body really is underwater. +The arm is extended below the head. +The head is held in line with the spine, so that you use strategic water pressure to raise your legs up -- very important, especially for people with lower body fat. +Here is an example of the stroke. +So you don't kick. But you do use a small flick. +You can see this is the left extension. +Then you see his left leg. +Small flick, and the only purpose of that is to rotate his hips so he can get to the opposite side. +And the entry point for his right hand -- notice this, he's not reaching in front and catching the water. +Rather, he is entering the water at a 45-degree angle with his forearm, and then propelling himself by streamlining -- very important. +Incorrect, above, which is what almost every swimming coach will teach you. +Not their fault, honestly. +And I'll get to implicit versus explicit in a moment. +Below is what most swimmers will find enables them to do what I did, which is going from 21 strokes per 20-yard length to 11 strokes in two workouts with no coach, no video monitoring. +And now I love swimming. I can't wait to go swimming. +I'll be doing a swimming lesson later, for myself, if anyone wants to join me. +Last thing, breathing. A problem a lot of us have, certainly, when you're swimming. +In freestyle, easiest way to remedy this is to turn with body roll, and just to look at your recovery hand as it enters the water. +And that will get you very far. +That's it. That's really all you need to know. +Languages. Material versus method. +I, like many people, came to the conclusion that I was terrible at languages. +I suffered through Spanish for junior high, first year of high school, and the sum total of my knowledge was pretty much, "Donde esta el bano?" +And I wouldn't even catch the response. A sad state of affairs. +Then I transferred to a different school sophomore year, and I had a choice of other languages. Most of my friends were taking Japanese. +So I thought why not punish myself? I'll do Japanese. +Six months later I had the chance to go to Japan. +My teachers assured me, they said, "Don't worry. +You'll have Japanese language classes every day to help you cope. +It will be an amazing experience." My first overseas experience in fact. +So my parents encouraged me to do it. I left. +I arrived in Tokyo. Amazing. +I couldn't believe I was on the other side of the world. +I met my host family. Things went quite well I think, all things considered. +My first evening, before my first day of school, I said to my mother, very politely, "Please wake me up at eight a.m." +So, But I didn't say . I said, . Pretty close. +But I said, "Please rape me at eight a.m." +You've never seen a more confused Japanese woman. +I walked in to school. +And a teacher came up to me and handed me a piece of paper. +I couldn't read any of it -- hieroglyphics, it could have been -- because it was Kanji, Chinese characters adapted into the Japanese language. +Asked him what this said. +And he goes, "Ahh, okay okay, eehto, World History, ehh, Calculus, Traditional Japanese." And so on. +And so it came to me in waves. +There had been something lost in translation. +The Japanese classes were not Japanese instruction classes, per se. +They were the normal high school curriculum for Japanese students -- the other 4,999 students in the school, who were Japanese, besides the American. +And that's pretty much my response. +And that set me on this panic driven search for the perfect language method. +I tried everything. I went to Kinokuniya. +I tried every possible book, every possible CD. +Nothing worked until I found this. +This is the Joyo Kanji. This is a Tablet rather, or a poster of the 1,945 common-use characters as determined by the Ministry of Education in 1981. +Many of the publications in Japan limit themselves to these characters, to facilitate literacy -- some are required to. +And this became my Holy Grail, my Rosetta Stone. +As soon as I focused on this material, I took off. +I ended up being able to read Asahi Shinbu, Asahi newspaper, about six months later -- so a total of 11 months later -- and went from Japanese I to Japanese VI. +Ended up doing translation work at age 16 when I returned to the U.S., and have continued to apply this material over method approach to close to a dozen languages now. +Someone who was terrible at languages, and at any given time, speak, read and write five or six. +This brings us to the point, which is, it's oftentimes what you do, not how you do it, that is the determining factor. +This is the difference between being effective -- doing the right things -- and being efficient -- doing things well whether or not they're important. +You can also do this with grammar. +I came up with these six sentences after much experimentation. +Having a native speaker allow you to deconstruct their grammar, by translating these sentences into past, present, future, will show you subject, object, verb, placement of indirect, direct objects, gender and so forth. +From that point, you can then, if you want to, acquire multiple languages, alternate them so there is no interference. +We can talk about that if anyone in interested. +And now I love languages. +So ballroom dancing, implicit versus explicit -- very important. +You might look at me and say, "That guy must be a ballroom dancer." +But no, you'd be wrong because my body is very poorly designed for most things -- pretty well designed for lifting heavy rocks perhaps. +I used to be much bigger, much more muscular. +And so I ended up walking like this. +I looked a lot like an orangutan, our close cousins, or the Incredible Hulk. +Not very good for ballroom dancing. +I found myself in Argentina in 2005, decided to watch a tango class -- had no intention of participating. +Went in, paid my ten pesos, walked up -- 10 women two guys, usually a good ratio. +The instructor says, "You are participating." +Immediately: death sweat. +Fight-or-flight fear sweat, because I tried ballroom dancing in college -- stepped on the girl's foot with my heel. She screamed. +I was so concerned with her perception of what I was doing, that it exploded in my face, never to return to the ballroom dancing club. +She comes up, and this was her approach, the teacher. +"Okay, come on, grab me." +Gorgeous assistant instructor. +She was very pissed off that I had pulled her from her advanced practice. +So I did my best. I didn't know where to put my hands. +And she pulled back, threw down her arms, put them on her hips, turned around and yelled across the room, "This guy is built like a god-damned mountain of muscle, and he's grabbing me like a fucking Frenchman," which I found encouraging. +Everyone burst into laughter. I was humiliated. +She came back. She goes, "Come on. I don't have all day." +As someone who wrestled since age eight, I proceeded to crush her, "Of Mice and Men" style. +And she looked up and said, "Now that's better." +So I bought a month's worth of classes. +And proceeded to look at -- I wanted to set competition so I'd have a deadline -- Parkinson's Law, the perceived complexity of a task will expand to fill the time you allot it. +So I had a very short deadline for a competition. +I got a female instructor first, to teach me the female role, the follow, because I wanted to understand the sensitivities and abilities that the follow needed to develop, so I wouldn't have a repeat of college. +And then I took an inventory of the characteristics, along with her, of the of the capabilities and elements of different dancers who'd won championships. +I interviewed these people because they all taught in Buenos Aires. +I compared the two lists, and what you find is that there is explicitly, expertise they recommended, certain training methods. +Then there were implicit commonalities that none of them seemed to be practicing. +Now the protectionism of Argentine dance teachers aside, I found this very interesting. So I decided to focus on three of those commonalities. +Long steps. So a lot of milongueros -- the tango dancers will use very short steps. +I found that longer steps were much more elegant. +So you can have -- and you can do it in a very small space in fact. +Secondly, different types of pivots. +Thirdly, variation in tempo. +These seemed to be the three areas that I could exploit to compete if I wanted to comptete against people who'd been practicing for 20 to 30 years. +That photo is of the semi-finals of the Buenos Aires championships, four months later. +Then one month later, went to the world championships, made it to the semi-final. And then set a world record, following that, two weeks later. +I want you to see part of what I practiced. +I'm going to jump forward here. +This is the instructor that Alicia and I chose for the male lead. +His name is Gabriel Misse. +One of the most elegant dancers of his generation, known for his long steps, and his tempo changes and his pivots. +Alicia, in her own right, very famous. +So I think you'll agree, they look quite good together. +Now what I like about this video is it's actually a video of the first time they ever danced together because of his lead. He had a strong lead. +He didn't lead with his chest, which requires you lean forward. +I couldn't develop the attributes in my toes, the strength in my feet, to do that. +So he uses a lead that focuses on his shoulder girdle and his arm. +So he can lift the woman to break her, for example. +That's just one benefit of that. +So then we broke it down. +This would be an example of one pivot. +This is a back step pivot. +There are many different types. +I have hundreds of hours of footage -- all categorized, much like George Carlin categorized his comedy. +So using my arch-nemesis, Spanish, no less, to learn tango. +So fear is your friend. Fear is an indicator. +Sometimes it shows you what you shouldn't do. +More often than not it shows you exactly what you should do. +And the best results that I've had in life, the most enjoyable times, have all been from asking a simple question: what's the worst that can happen? +Especially with fears you gained when you were a child. +Take the analytical frameworks, the capabilities you have, apply them to old fears. +Apply them to very big dreams. +And when I think of what I fear now, it's very simple. +When I imagine my life, what my life would have been like without the educational opportunities that I had, it makes me wonder. +I've spent the last two years trying to deconstruct the American public school system, to either fix it or replace it. +And have done experiments with about 50,000 students thus far -- built, I'd say, about a half dozen schools, my readers, at this point. +And if any of you are interested in that, I would love to speak with you. +I know nothing. I'm a beginner. +But I ask a lot of questions, and I would love your advice. +Thank you very much. +It's pretty simple. There are nine, sort of, rules that I discovered after 35 years of rock climbing. +Most of them are pretty basic. +Number one: don't let go -- very sure success method. +But really, truly -- often you think about letting go way before your body does. +So hang in there, and you come up with some pretty peculiar solutions. +Number two: hesitation is bad. +This is a friction climb, up in Tuolumne Meadows, in the Yosemite high country. +Friction climbing doesn't have any sort of hard positive edges. +You're climbing on little dimples and nubbins in the rock. +The most friction you have is when you first put your hand or your foot on the rock. +And then from that point on, you're basically falling. +So momentum is good. Don't stop. +Rule number three: have a plan. +This is a climb called the Naked Edge, in El Dorado Canyon, outside of Boulder. +This climber is on the last pitch of it. +He's actually right about where I fell. +There is about 1,000 feet of air below him. +And all the hard pitches are actually below him. +Often what happens is you're planning so hard for like, "How do I get through the hardest part? How do I get through the hardest part?" +And then what happens? +You get to the last pitch. It's easy. +And you're completely flamed out. Don't do it. +You have to plan ahead to get to the top. +But you also can't forget that each individual move you have to be able to complete. +This is a climb called the Dike Route, on Pywjack Dome, up in the Yosemite high country. +The interesting thing about this climb is it's not that hard. +But if you're the leader on it, at the hardest move, you're looking at about 100 foot fall, onto some low angle slabs. +So you've got to focus. +You don't want to stop in the middle like Coleridge's Kubla Kahn. +You've got to keep going. +Rule number five: know how to rest. +It's amazing. The best climbers are the ones that in the most extreme situations can get their bodies into some position where they can rest, regroup, calm themselves, focus, and keep going. +This is a climb in the Needles, again in California. +Fear really sucks because what it means is you're not focusing on what you're doing. +You're focusing on the consequences of failing at what you're doing because any given move should require all your concentration and thought processes to execute it effectively. +One of the things in climbing is, most people sort of take it straight on. And they follow the most obvious solution. +This is the Devils Tower in Wyoming, which is a columnar basalt formation that most of you probably know from "Close Encounters." +With this, typically crack climbers would put their hands in and their toes in and just start climbing. +The cracks are too small to get your toes into so the only way to climb is using your fingertips in the cracks, and using opposing pressure and forcing yourself up. +Rule number eight: strength doesn't always equal success. +In the 35 years I've been a climbing guide and taught on indoor walls, and stuff like that, the most important thing I've learned was, guys will always try to do pull-ups. +Beginning guys, it's like, they thrash, they thrash, they get 15 feet up -- and they can do about 15 pull-ups right -- And then they just flame out. +Women are much more in balance because they don't have that idea that they're going to be able to do 100 pull-ups. +They think about how to get the weight over their feet because it's sort of natural -- they carry you all day long. +So balance is really critical, and keeping your weight on your feet, which is your strongest muscle. +And of course there is rule number nine. +I came up with rule number nine after I actually didn't plan for a fall, and went about 40 feet and cracked a rib. +So don't hang on till the bitter end. +Thank you very much. +I'm here today, as June said, to talk about a project that my twin sister and I have been doing for the past three and half years. +We're crocheting a coral reef. +And it's a project that we've actually been now joined by hundreds of people around the world, have actually been involved in this project, in many of its different aspects. +It's a project that now reaches across three continents, and its roots go into the fields of mathematics, marine biology, feminine handicraft and environmental activism. +It's true. +It's also a project that in a very beautiful way, the development of this has actually paralleled the evolution of life on earth, which is a particularly lovely thing to be saying right here in February 2009 -- which, as one of our previous speakers told us, is the 200th anniversary of the birth of Charles Darwin. +All of this I'm going to get to in the next 18 minutes, I hope. +But let me first begin by showing you some pictures of what this thing looks like. +Just to give you an idea of scale, that installation there is about six feet across, and the tallest models are about two or three feet high. +This is some more images of it. +That one on the right is about five feet high. +The work involves hundreds of different crochet models. +And indeed there are now thousands and thousands of models that people have contributed all over the world as part of this. +The totality of this project involves tens of thousands of hours of human labor -- 99 percent of it done by women. +On the right hand side, that bit there is part of an installation that is about 12 feet long. +My sister and I started this project in 2005 because in that year, at least in the science press, there was a lot of talk about global warming, and the effect that global warming was having on coral reefs. +Corals are very delicate organisms, and they are devastated by any rise in sea temperatures. +It causes these vast bleaching events that are the first signs of corals of being sick. +And if the bleaching doesn't go away -- if the temperatures don't go down -- reefs start to die. +A great deal of this has been happening in the Great Barrier Reef, particularly in coral reefs all over the world. +This is our invocation in crochet of a bleached reef. +We have a new organization together called The Institute for Figuring, which is a little organization we started to promote, to do projects about the aesthetic and poetic dimensions of science and mathematics. +And I went and put a little announcement up on our site, asking for people to join us in this enterprise. +To our surprise, one of the first people who called was the Andy Warhol Museum. +And they said they were having an exhibition about artists' response to global warming, and they'd like our coral reef to be part of it. +I laughed and said, "Well we've only just started it, you can have a little bit of it." +So in 2007 we had an exhibition, a small exhibition of this crochet reef. +And then some people in Chicago came along and they said, "In late 2007, the theme of the Chicago Humanities Festival is global warming. And we've got this 3,000 square-foot gallery and we want you to fill it with your reef." +And I, naively by this stage, said, "Oh, yes, sure." +Now I say "naively" because actually my profession is as a science writer. +What I do is I write books about the cultural history of physics. +I've written books about the history of space, the history of physics and religion, and I write articles for people like the New York Times and the L.A. Times. +So I had no idea what it meant to fill a 3,000 square-foot gallery. +So I said yes to this proposition. +And I went home, and I told my sister Christine. +And she nearly had a fit because Christine is a professor at one of L.A.'s major art colleges, CalArts, and she knew exactly what it meant to fill a 3,000 square-foot gallery. +She thought I'd gone off my head. +But she went into crochet overdrive. +And to cut a long story short, eight months later we did fill the Chicago Cultural Center's 3,000 square foot gallery. +By this stage the project had taken on a viral dimension of its own, which got completely beyond us. +The people in Chicago decided that as well as exhibiting our reefs, what they wanted to do was have the local people there make a reef. +So we went and taught the techniques. We did workshops and lectures. +And the people in Chicago made a reef of their own. +And it was exhibited alongside ours. +There were hundreds of people involved in that. +We got invited to do the whole thing in New York, and in London, and in Los Angeles. +In each of these cities, the local citizens, hundreds and hundreds of them, have made a reef. +And more and more people get involved in this, most of whom we've never met. +So the whole thing has sort of morphed into this organic, ever-evolving creature, that's actually gone way beyond Christine and I. +Now some of you are sitting here thinking, "What planet are these people on? +Why on earth are you crocheting a reef? +Woolenness and wetness aren't exactly two concepts that go together. +Why not chisel a coral reef out of marble? +Cast it in bronze." +But it turns out there is a very good reason why we are crocheting it because many organisms in coral reefs have a very particular kind of structure. +The frilly crenulated forms that you see in corals, and kelps, and sponges and nudibranchs, is a form of geometry known as hyperbolic geometry. +And the only way that mathematicians know how to model this structure is with crochet. It happens to be a fact. +It's almost impossible to model this structure any other way, and it's almost impossible to do it on computers. +So what is this hyperbolic geometry that corals and sea slugs embody? +The next few minutes is, we're all going to get raised up to the level of a sea slug. +This sort of geometry revolutionized mathematics when it was first discovered in the 19th century. +But not until 1997 did mathematicians actually understand how they could model it. +In 1997 a mathematician at Cornell, Daina Taimina, made the discovery that this structure could actually be done in knitting and crochet. +The first one she did was knitting. +But you get too many stitches on the needle. So she quickly realized crochet was the better thing. +But what she was doing was actually making a model of a mathematical structure, that many mathematicians had thought it was actually impossible to model. +And indeed they thought that anything like this structure was impossible per se. +Some of the best mathematicians spent hundreds of years trying to prove that this structure was impossible. +So what is this impossible hyperbolic structure? +Before hyperbolic geometry, mathematicians knew about two kinds of space: Euclidean space, and spherical space. +And they have different properties. +Mathematicians like to characterize things by being formalist. +You all have a sense of what a flat space is, Euclidean space is. +But mathematicians formalize this in a particular way. +And what they do is, they do it through the concept of parallel lines. +So here we have a line and a point outside the line. +And Euclid said, "How can I define parallel lines? +I ask the question, how many lines can I draw through the point but never meet the original line?" +And you all know the answer. Does someone want to shout it out? +One. Great. Okay. +That's our definition of a parallel line. +It's a definition really of Euclidean space. +But there is another possibility that you all know of: spherical space. +Think of the surface of a sphere -- just like a beach ball, the surface of the Earth. +I have a straight line on my spherical surface. +And I have a point outside the line. How many straight lines can I draw through the point but never meet the original line? +What do we mean to talk about a straight line on a curved surface? +Now mathematicians have answered that question. +They've understood there is a generalized concept of straightness, it's called a geodesic. +And on the surface of a sphere, a straight line is the biggest possible circle you can draw. +So it's like the equator or the lines of longitude. +So we ask the question again, "How many straight lines can I draw through the point, but never meet the original line?" +Does someone want to guess? +Zero. Very good. +Now mathematicians thought that was the only alternative. +It's a bit suspicious isn't it? There is two answers to the question so far, Zero and one. +Two answers? There may possibly be a third alternative. +To a mathematician if there are two answers, and the first two are zero and one, there is another number that immediately suggests itself as the third alternative. +Does anyone want to guess what it is? +Infinity. You all got it right. Exactly. +There is, there's a third alternative. +This is what it looks like. +There's a straight line, and there is an infinite number of lines that go through the point and never meet the original line. +This is the drawing. +This nearly drove mathematicians bonkers because, like you, they're sitting there feeling bamboozled. +Thinking, how can that be? You're cheating. The lines are curved. +But that's only because I'm projecting it onto a flat surface. +Mathematicians for several hundred years had to really struggle with this. +How could they see this? +What did it mean to actually have a physical model that looked like this? +It's a bit like this: imagine that we'd only ever encountered Euclidean space. +Then our mathematicians come along and said, "There's this thing called a sphere, and the lines come together at the north and south pole." +But you don't know what a sphere looks like. +And someone that comes along and says, "Look here's a ball." +And you go, "Ah! I can see it. I can feel it. +I can touch it. I can play with it." +And that's exactly what happened when Daina Taimina in 1997, showed that you could crochet models in hyperbolic space. +Here is this diagram in crochetness. +I've stitched Euclid's parallel postulate on to the surface. +And the lines look curved. +But look, I can prove to you that they're straight because I can take any one of these lines, and I can fold along it. +And it's a straight line. +So here, in wool, through a domestic feminine art, is the proof that the most famous postulate in mathematics is wrong. +And you can stitch all sorts of mathematical theorems onto these surfaces. +The discovery of hyperbolic space ushered in the field of mathematics that is called non-Euclidean geometry. +And this is actually the field of mathematics that underlies general relativity and is actually ultimately going to show us about the shape of the universe. +So there is this direct line between feminine handicraft, Euclid and general relativity. +Now, I said that mathematicians thought that this was impossible. +Here's two creatures who've never heard of Euclid's parallel postulate -- didn't know it was impossible to violate, and they're simply getting on with it. +They've been doing it for hundreds of millions of years. +I once asked the mathematicians why it was that mathematicians thought this structure was impossible when sea slugs have been doing it since the Silurian age. +Their answer was interesting. +They said, "Well I guess there aren't that many mathematicians sitting around looking at sea slugs." +And that's true. But it also goes deeper than that. +It also says a whole lot of things about what mathematicians thought mathematics was, what they thought it could and couldn't do, what they thought it could and couldn't represent. +Even mathematicians, who in some sense are the freest of all thinkers, literally couldn't see not only the sea slugs around them, but the lettuce on their plate -- because lettuces, and all those curly vegetables, they also are embodiments of hyperbolic geometry. +And so in some sense they literally, they had such a symbolic view of mathematics, they couldn't actually see what was going on on the lettuce in front of them. +It turns out that the natural world is full of hyperbolic wonders. +And so, too, we've discovered that there is an infinite taxonomy of crochet hyperbolic creatures. +We started out, Chrissy and I and our contributors, doing the simple mathematically perfect models. +But we found that when we deviated from the specific setness of the mathematical code that underlies it -- the simple algorithm crochet three, increase one -- when we deviated from that and made embellishments to the code, the models immediately started to look more natural. +And all of our contributors, who are an amazing collection of people around the world, do their own embellishments. +As it were, we have this ever-evolving, crochet taxonomic tree of life. +Just as the morphology and the complexity of life on earth is never ending, little embellishments and complexifications in the DNA code lead to new things like giraffes, or orchids -- so too, do little embellishments in the crochet code lead to new and wondrous creatures in the evolutionary tree of crochet life. +So this project really has taken on this inner organic life of its own. +There is the totality of all the people who have come to it. +And their individual visions, and their engagement with this mathematical mode. +We have these technologies. We use them. +But why? What's at stake here? What does it matter? +For Chrissy and I, one of the things that's important here is that these things suggest the importance and value of embodied knowledge. +We live in a society that completely tends to valorize symbolic forms of representation -- algebraic representations, equations, codes. +We live in a society that's obsessed with presenting information in this way, teaching information in this way. +But through this sort of modality, crochet, other plastic forms of play -- people can be engaged with the most abstract, high-powered, theoretical ideas, the kinds of ideas that normally you have to go to university departments to study in higher mathematics, which is where I first learned about hyperbolic space. +But you can do it through playing with material objects. +One of the ways that we've come to think about this is that what we're trying to do with the Institute for Figuring and projects like this, we're trying to have kindergarten for grown-ups. +And kindergarten was actually a very formalized system of education, established by a man named Friedrich Froebel, who was a crystallographer in the 19th century. +He believed that the crystal was the model for all kinds of representation. +He developed a radical alternative system of engaging the smallest children with the most abstract ideas through physical forms of play. +And he is worthy of an entire talk on his own right. +The value of education is something that Froebel championed, through plastic modes of play. +We live in a society now where we have lots of think tanks, where great minds go to think about the world. +They write these great symbolic treatises called books, and papers, and op-ed articles. +We want to propose, Chrissy and I, through The Institute for Figuring, another alternative way of doing things, which is the play tank. +And the play tank, like the think tank, is a place where people can go and engage with great ideas. +But what we want to propose, is that the highest levels of abstraction, things like mathematics, computing, logic, etc. -- all of this can be engaged with, not just through purely cerebral algebraic symbolic methods, but by literally, physically playing with ideas. +Thank you very much. +When I was five years old I fell in love with airplanes. +Now I'm talking about the '30s. +In the '30s an airplane had two wings and a round motor, and was always flown by a guy who looked like Cary Grant. +He had high leather boots, jodhpurs, an old leather jacket, a wonderful helmet and those marvelous goggles -- and, inevitably, a white scarf, to flow in the wind. +He'd always walk up to his airplane in a kind of saunter, devil-may-care saunter, flick the cigarette away, grab the girl waiting here, give her a kiss. +And then mount his airplane, maybe for the last time. +Of course I always wondered what would happen if he'd kissed the airplane first. +But this was real romance to me. +Everything about flying in those years, which was -- you have to stop and think for a moment -- was probably the most advanced technological thing going on at the time. +So as a youngster, I tried to get close to this by drawing airplanes, constantly drawing airplanes. +It's the way I got a part of this romance. +And of course, in a way, when I say romance, I mean in part the aesthetics of that whole situation. +I think the word is the holistic experience revolving around a product. +The product was that airplane. +But it built a romance. +Even the parts of the airplane had French names. +Ze fuselage, ze empanage, ze nessal. +You know, from a romance language. +So that it was something that just got into your spirit. +It did mine. +And I decided I had to get closer than just drawing fantasy airplanes. +I wanted to build airplanes. +So I built model airplanes. +And I found that in doing the model airplanes the appearance drawings were not enough. +You couldn't transfer those to the model itself. +If you wanted it to fly you had to learn the discipline of flying. +You had to learn about aeronautics. +You had to learn what made an airplane stay in the air. +And of course, as a model in those years, you couldn't control it. +So it had to be self-righting, and stay up without crashing. +So I had to give up the approach of drawing the fantasy shapes and convert it to technical drawings -- the shape of the wing, the shape of the fuselage and so on -- and build an airplane over these drawings that I knew followed some of the principles of flying. +And in so doing, I could produce a model that would fly, stay in the air. +And it had, once it was in the air, some of this romance that I was in love with. +Well the act of drawing airplanes led me to, when I had the opportunity to choose a course in school, led me to sign up for aeronautical engineering. +And when I was sitting in classes -- in which no one asked me to draw an airplane -- to my surprise. +I had to learn mathematics and mechanics and all this sort of thing. +I'd wile away my time drawing airplanes in the class. +One day a young man looked over my shoulder, he said, "You draw very well. +You should be in the art department." +And I said, "Why?" +And he said, "Well for one thing, there are more girls there." +So my romance was temporarily shifted. +And I went into art because they appreciated drawing. +Studied painting; didn't do very well at that. +Went through design, some architecture. +Eventually hired myself out as a designer. +And for the following 25 years, living in Italy, living in America, I doled out a piece of this romance to anybody who'd pay for it -- this sense, this aesthetic feeling, for the experience revolving around a designed object. +And it exists. +Any of you who rode the automobiles -- was it yesterday? -- at the track, you know the romance revolving around those high performance cars. +Well in 25 years I was mostly putting out pieces of this romance and not getting a lot back in because design on call doesn't always connect you with a circumstance in which you can produce things of this nature. +So after 25 years I began to feel as though I was running dry. +And I quit. +And I started up a very small operation -- went from 40 people to one, in an effort to rediscover my innocence. +I wanted to get back where the romance was. +And I couldn't choose airplanes because they had gotten sort of unromantic at that point, even though I'd done a lot of airplane work, on the interiors. +So I chose furniture. +And I chose chairs specifically because I knew something about them. +I'd designed a lot of chairs, over the years for tractors and trucks and submarines -- all kinds of things. +But not office chairs. +So I started doing that. +And I found that there were ways to duplicate the same approach that I used to use on the airplane. +Only this time, instead of the product being shaped by the wind, it was shaped by the human body. +So the discipline was -- as in the airplane you learn a lot about how to deal with the air, for a chair you have to learn a lot about how to deal with the body, and what the body needs, wants, indicates it needs. +And that's the way, ultimately after some ups and downs, I ended up designing the chair I'm going to show you. +I should say one more thing. When I was doing those model airplanes, I did everything. +I conceived the kind of airplane. +I basically engineered it. +I built it. +And I flew it. +And that's the way I work now. +When I started this chair it was not a preconceived notion. +Design nowadays, if you mean it, you don't start with styling sketches. +I started with a lot of loose ideas, roughly eight or nine years ago. +And the loose ideas had something to do with what I knew happened with people in the office, at the work place -- people who worked, and used task seating, a great many of them sitting in front of a computer all day long. +And I felt, the one thing they don't need, is a chair that interferes with their main reason for sitting there. +So I took the approach that the chair should do as much for them as humanly possible or as mechanistically possible so that they didn't have to fuss with it. +So my idea was that, instead of sitting down and reaching for a lot of controls, that you would sit on the chair, and it would automatically balance your weight against the force required to recline. +Now that may not mean a lot to some of you. +But you know most good chairs do recline because it's beneficial to open up this joint between your legs and your upper body for better breathing and better flow. +So that if you sit down on my chair, whether you're five feet tall or six foot six, it always deals with your weight and transfers the amount of force required to recline in a way that you don't have to look for something to adjust. +I'll tell you right up front, this is a trade off. +There are drawbacks to this. +One is: you can't accommodate everybody. +There are some very light people, some extremely heavy people, maybe people with a lot of bulk up top. +They begin to fall off the end of your chart. +But the compromise, I felt, was in my favor because most people don't adjust their chairs. +They will sit in them forever. +I had somebody on the bus out to the racetrack tell me about his sister calling him. +He said she had one of the new, better chairs. +She said, "Oh I love it." +She said, "But it's too high." +So he said, "Well I'll come over and look at it." +He came over and looked at it. +He reached down. He pulled a lever. And the chair sank down. +She said, "Oh it's wonderful. How did you do that?" +And he showed her the lever. +Well, that's typical of a lot of us working in chairs. +And why should you get a 20-page manual about how to run a chair? +I had one for a wristwatch once. 20 pages. +Anyway, I felt that it was important that you didn't have to make an adjustment in order to get this kind of action. +The other thing I felt was that armrests had never really been properly approached from the standpoint of how much of an aid they could be to your work life. +But I felt it was too much to ask to have to adjust each individual armrest in order to get it where you wanted. +So I spent a long time. +I said I worked eight or nine years on it. +And each of these things went along sort of in parallel but incrementally were a problem of their own. +I worked a long time on figuring out how to move the arms over a much greater arc -- that is up and down -- and make them a lot easier, so that you didn't have to use a button. +And so after many trials, many failures, we came up with a very simple arrangement in which we could just move one arm or the other. +And they go up easily. +And stop where you want. +You can put them down, essentially out of the way. +No arms at all. +Or you can pull them up where you want them. +And this was another thing that I felt, while not nearly as romantic as Cary Grant, nevertheless begins to grab a little bit of aesthetic operation, aesthetic performance into a product. +The next area that was of interest to me was the fact that reclining was a very important factor. +And the more you can recline, in a way, the better it is. +Would everybody put their hand under their bottom and feel their tailbone? +You feel that bone under there? +Just your own. +There's two of them, one on either side. +All the weight of your upper torso -- your arms, your head -- goes right down through your back, your spine, into those bones when you sit. +And that's a lot of load. +Just relieving your arms with armrests takes 20 percent of that load off. +Now that, if your spine is not held in a good position, will help bend your spine the wrong way, and so on. +So to unload that great weight -- if that indeed exists -- you can recline. +When you recline you take away a lot of that load off your bottom end, and transfer it to your back. +At the same time, as I say, you open up this joint. +And breathability is good. +But to do that, if you have any amount of recline, it gets to the point where you need a headrest because nearly always, automatically hold your head in a vertical position, see? +As I recline, my head says more or less vertical. +Well if you're reclined a great deal, you have to use muscle force to hold your head there. +So that's where a headrest comes in. +Now headrest is a challenge because you want it to adjust enough so that it'll fit, you know, a tall guy and a short girl. +So here we are. +I've got five inches of adjustment here in order to get the headrest in the right place. +But then I knew from experience and looking around in offices where there were chairs with headrests that nobody would ever bother to reach back and turn a knob and adjust the headrest to put it in position. +And you need it in a different position when you're upright, then when you're reclined. +So I knew that had to be solved, and had to be automatic. +So if you watch this chair as I recline, the headrest comes up to meet my neck. +Ideally you want to put the head support in the cranial area, right there. +So that part of it took a long time to work out. +And there is a variety of other things: the shape of the cushions, the gel we put. +We stole the idea from bicycle seats, and put gel in the cushions and in the armrests to absorb point load -- distributes the loading so you don't get hard spots. +You cant hit your elbow on bottom. +And I did want to demonstrate the fact that the chair can accommodate people. +While you're sitting in it you can adjust it down for the five-footer, or you can adjust it for the six-foot-six guy -- all within the scope of a few simple adjustments. +I want to talk about the election. +For the first time in the United States, a predominantly white group of voters voted for an African-American candidate for President. +And in fact Barack Obama did quite well. +He won 375 electoral votes. +And he won about 70 million popular votes more than any other presidential candidate -- of any race, of any party -- in history. +If you compare how Obama did against how John Kerry had done four years earlier -- Democrats really like seeing this transition here, where almost every state becomes bluer, becomes more democratic -- even states Obama lost, like out west, those states became more blue. +In the south, in the northeast, almost everywhere but with a couple of exceptions here and there. +One exception is in Massachusetts. +That was John Kerry's home state. +No big surprise, Obama couldn't do better than Kerry there. +Or in Arizona, which is John McCain's home, Obama didn't have much improvement. +But there is also this part of the country, kind of in the middle region here. +This kind of Arkansas, Tennessee, Oklahoma, West Virginia region. +Yes Bill Clinton was from Arkansas, but these are very, very profound differences. +So, when we think about parts of the country like Arkansas, you know. +There is a book written called, "What's the Matter with Kansas?" +But really the question here -- Obama did relatively well in Kansas. +He lost badly but every Democrat does. +He lost no worse than most people do. +But yeah, what's the matter with Arkansas? +And when we think of Arkansas we tend to have pretty negative connotations. +We think of a bunch of rednecks, quote, unquote, with guns. +And we think people like this probably don't want to vote for people who look like this and are named Barack Obama. +We think it's a matter of race. And is this fair? +Are we kind of stigmatizing people from Arkansas, and this part of the country? +And the answer is: it is at least partially fair. +We know that race was a factor, and the reason why we know that is because we asked those people. +Actually we didn't ask them, but when they conducted exit polls in every state, in 37 states, out of the 50, they asked a question, that was pretty direct, about race. +They asked this question. +In deciding your vote for President today, was the race of the candidate a factor? +We're looking for people that said, "Yes, race was a factor; moreover it was an important factor, in my decision," and people who voted for John McCain as a result of that factor, maybe in combination with other factors, and maybe alone. +We're looking for this behavior among white voters or, really, non-black voters. +So you see big differences in different parts of the country on this question. +In Louisiana, about one in five white voters said, "Yes, one of the big reasons why I voted against Barack Obama is because he was an African-American." +If those people had voted for Obama, even half of them, Obama would have won Louisiana safely. +Same is true with, I think, all of these states you see on the top of the list. +Meanwhile, California, New York, we can say, "Oh we're enlightened" but you know, certainly a much lower incidence of this admitted, I suppose, manifestation of racially-based voting. +Here is the same data on a map. +You kind of see the relationship between the redder states of where more people responded and said, "Yes, Barack Obama's race was a problem for me." +You see, comparing the map to '96, you see an overlap here. +This really seems to explain why Barack Obama did worse in this one part of the country. +So we have to ask why. +Is racism predictable in some way? +Is there something driving this? +Is it just about some weird stuff that goes on in Arkansas that we don't understand, and Kentucky? +Or are there more systematic factors at work? +And so we can look at a bunch of different variables. +These are things that economists and political scientists look at all the time -- things like income, and religion, education. +Which of these seem to drive this manifestation of racism in this big national experiment we had on November 4th? +And there are a couple of these that have strong predictive relationships, one of which is education, where you see the states with the fewest years of schooling per adult are in red, and you see this part of the country, the kind of Appalachians region, is less educated. It's just a fact. +And you see the relationship there with the racially-based voting patterns. +The other variable that's important is the type of neighborhood that you live in. +States that are more rural -- even to some extent of the states like New Hampshire and Maine -- they exhibit a little bit of this racially-based voting against Barack Obama. +So it's the combination of these two things: it's education and the type of neighbors that you have, which we'll talk about more in a moment. +And the thing about states like Arkansas and Tennessee is that they're both very rural, and they are educationally impoverished. +So yes, racism is predictable. +These things, among maybe other variables, but these things seem to predict it. +We're going to drill down a little bit more now, into something called the General Social Survey. +This is conducted by the University of Chicago every other year. +And they ask a series of really interesting questions. +In 2000 they had particularly interesting questions about racial attitudes. +One simple question they asked is, "Does anyone of the opposite race live in your neighborhood?" +We can see in different types of communities that the results are quite different. +In cites, about 80 percent of people have someone whom they consider a neighbor of another race, but in rural communities, only about 30 percent. +Probably because if you live on a farm, you might not have a lot of neighbors, period. +But nevertheless, you're not having a lot of interaction with people who are unlike you. +So what we're going to do now is take the white people in the survey and split them between those who have black neighbors -- or, really, some neighbor of another race -- and people who have only white neighbors. +And we see in some variables in terms of political attitudes, not a lot of difference. +This was eight years ago, some people were more Republican back then. +But you see Democrats versus Republican, not a big difference based on who your neighbors are. +And even some questions about race -- for example affirmative action, which is kind of a political question, a policy question about race, if you will -- not much difference here. +Affirmative action is not very popular frankly, with white voters, period. +But people with black neighbors and people with mono-racial neighborhoods feel no differently about it really. +But if you probe a bit deeper and get a bit more personal if you will, "Do you favor a law banning interracial marriage?" +There is a big difference. +People who don't have neighbors of a different race are about twice as likely to oppose interracial marriage as people who do. +Just based on who lives in your immediate neighborhood around you. +And likewise they asked, not in 2000, but in the same survey in 1996, "Would you not vote for a qualified black president?" +You see people without neighbors who are African-American who were much more likely to say, "That would give me a problem." +So it's really not even about urban versus rural. +It's about who you live with. +Racism is predictable. And it's predicted by interaction or lack thereof with people unlike you, people of other races. +So if you want to address it, the goal is to facilitate interaction with people of other races. +I have a couple of very obvious, I suppose, ideas for maybe how to do that. +I'm a big fan of cities. +Especially if we have cites that are diverse and sustainable, and can support people of different ethnicities and different income groups. +I think cities facilitate more of the kind of networking, the kind of casual interaction than you might have on a daily basis. +But also not everyone wants to live in a city, certainly not a city like New York. +So we can think more about things like street grids. +This is the neighborhood where I grew up in East Lansing, Michigan. +It's a traditional Midwestern community, which means you have real grid. +You have real neighborhoods and real trees, and real streets you can walk on. +And you interact a lot with your neighbors -- people you like, people you might not know. +And as a result it's a very tolerant community, which is different, I think, than something like this, which is in Schaumburg, Illinois, where every little set of houses has their own cul-de-sac and drive-through Starbucks and stuff like that. +I think that actually this type of urban design, which became more prevalent in the 1970s and 1980s -- I think there is a relationship between that and the country becoming more conservative under Ronald Reagan. +But also here is another idea we have -- is an intercollegiate exchange program where you have students going from New York abroad. +But frankly there are enough differences within the country now where maybe you can take a bunch of kids from NYU, have them go study for a semester at the University of Arkansas, and vice versa. Do it at the high school level. +Literally there are people who might be in school in Arkansas or Tennessee and might never interact in a positive affirmative way with someone from another part of the country, or of another racial group. +I think part of the education variable we talked about before is the networking experience you get when you go to college where you do get a mix of people that you might not interact with otherwise. +But the point is, this is all good news, because when something is predictable, it is what I call designable. +You can start thinking about solutions to solving that problem, even if the problem is pernicious and as intractable as racism. +If we understand the root causes of the behavior and where it manifests itself and where it doesn't, we can start to design solutions to it. +So that's all I have to say. Thank you very much. +So I'm here to tell you a story of success from Africa. +A year and a half ago, four of the five people who are full time members at Ushahidi, which means "testimony" in Swahili, were TED Fellows. +A year ago in Kenya we had post-election violence. +And in that time we prototyped and built, in about three days, a system that would allow anybody with a mobile phone to send in information and reports on what was happening around them. +We took what we knew about Africa, the default device, the mobile phone, as our common denominator, and went from there. +We got reports like this. +This is just a couple of them from January 17th, last year. +And our system was rudimentary. It was very basic. +It was a mash-up that used data that we collected from people, and we put it on our map. +But then we decided we needed to do something more. +We needed to take what we had built and create a platform out of it so that it could be used elsewhere in the world. +And so there is a team of developers from all over Africa, who are part of this team now -- from Ghana, from Malawi, from Kenya. +There is even some from the U.S. +We're building for smartphones, so that it can be used in the developed world, as well as the developing world. +We are realizing that this is true. +If it works in Africa then it will work anywhere. +And so we build for it in Africa first and then we move to the edges. +It's now been deployed in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. +It's being used by NGOs all over East Africa, small NGOs doing their own little projects. +Just this last month it was deployed by Al Jazeera in Gaza. +But that's actually not what I'm here to talk about. +I'm here to talk about the next big thing, because what we're finding out is that we have this capacity to report eyewitness accounts of what's going on in real time. +We're seeing this in events like Mumbai recently, where it's so much easier to report now than it is to consume it. +There is so much information; what do you do? +This is the Twitter reports for over three days just covering Mumbai. +How do you decide what is important? +What is the veracity level of what you're looking at? +So what we find is that there is this great deal of wasted crisis information because there is just too much information for us to actually do anything with right now. +And what we're actually really concerned with is this first three hours. +What we are looking at is the first three hours. +How do we deal with that information that is coming in? +You can't understand what is actually happening. +On the ground and around the world people are still curious, and trying to figure out what is going on. But they don't know. +So what we built of course, Ushahidi, is crowdsourcing this information. +You see this with Twitter, too. You get this information overload. +So you've got a lot of information. That's great. +But now what? +So we think that there is something interesting we can do here. +And we have a small team who is working on this. +We think that we can actually create a crowdsourced filter. +Take the crowd and apply them to the information. +And by rating it and by rating the different people who submit information, we can get refined results and weighted results. +So that we have a better understanding of the probability of something being true or not. +This is the kind of innovation that is, quite frankly -- it's interesting that it's coming from Africa. +It's coming from places that you wouldn't expect. +From young, smart developers. +And it's a community around it that has decided to build this. +So, thank you very much. +And we are very happy to be part of the TED family. +I'm going to read a few strips. +These are, most of these are from a monthly page I do in and architecture and design magazine called Metropolis. +And the first story is called "The Faulty Switch." +Another beautifully designed new building ruined by the sound of a common wall light switch. +It's fine during the day when the main rooms are flooded with sunlight. +But at dusk everything changes. +The architect spent hundreds of hours designing the burnished brass switchplates for his new office tower. +And then left it to a contractor to install these 79-cent switches behind them. +We know instinctively where to reach when we enter a dark room. +We automatically throw the little nub of plastic upward. +But the sound we are greeted with, as the room is bathed in the simulated glow of late-afternoon light, recalls to mind a dirty men's room in the rear of a Greek coffee shop. +This sound colors our first impression of any room; it can't be helped. +But where does this sound, commonly described as a click, come from? +Is it simply the byproduct of a crude mechanical action? +Or is it an imitation of one half the set of sounds we make to express disappointment? +The often dental consonant of no Indo-European language. +Or is it the amplified sound of a synapse firing in the brain of a cockroach? +In the 1950s they tried their best to muffle this sound with mercury switches and silent knob controls. +But today these improvements seem somehow inauthentic. +The click is the modern triumphal clarion proceeding us through life, announcing our entry into every lightless room. +The sound made flicking a wall switch off is of a completely different nature. +It has a deep melancholy ring. +Children don't like it. +It's why they leave lights on around the house. Adults find it comforting. +But wouldn't it be an easy matter to wire a wall switch so that it triggers the muted horn of a steam ship? +Or the recorded crowing of a rooster? +Or the distant peel of thunder? +Thomas Edison went through thousands of unlikely substances before he came upon the right one for the filament of his electric light bulb. +Why have we settled so quickly for the sound of its switch? +That's the end of that. +The next story is called "In Praise of the Taxpayer." +That so many of the city's most venerable taxpayers have survived yet another commercial building boom, is cause for celebration. +These one or two story structures, designed to yield only enough income to cover the taxes on the land on which they stand, were not meant to be permanent buildings. +Yet for one reason or another they have confounded the efforts of developers to be combined into lots suitable for high-rise construction. +Although they make no claim to architectural beauty, they are, in their perfect temporariness, a delightful alternative to the large-scale structures that might someday take their place. +The most perfect examples occupy corner lots. +They offer a pleasant respite from the high-density development around them. +A break of light and air, an architectural biding of time. +So buried in signage are these structures, that it often takes a moment to distinguish the modern specially constructed taxpayer from its neighbor: the small commercial building from an earlier century, whose upper floors have been sealed, and whose groundfloor space now functions as a taxpayer. +The few surfaces not covered by signs are often clad in a distinctive, dark green-gray, striated aluminum siding. +Take-out sandwich shops, film processing drop-offs, peep-shows and necktie stores. +Now these provisional structures have, in some cases, remained standing for the better part of a human lifetime. +The temporary building is a triumph of modern industrial organization, a healthy sublimation of the urge to build, and proof that not every architectural idea need be set in stone. +That's the end. +And the next story is called, "On the Human Lap." +For the ancient Egyptians the lap was a platform upon which to place the earthly possessions of the dead -- 30 cubits from foot to knee. +It was not until the 14th century that an Italian painter recognized the lap as a Grecian temple, upholstered in flesh and cloth. +Over the next 200 years we see the infant Christ go from a sitting to a standing position on the Virgin's lap, and then back again. +Every child recapitulates this ascension, straddling one or both legs, sitting sideways, or leaning against the body. +From there, to the modern ventriloquist's dummy, is but a brief moment in history. +You were late for school again this morning. +The ventriloquist must first make us believe that a small boy is sitting on his lap. +The illusion of speech follows incidentally. +What have you got to say for yourself, Jimmy? +As adults we admire the lap from a nostalgic distance. +We have fading memories of that provisional temple, erected each time an adult sat down. +On a crowded bus there was always a lap to sit on. +It is children and teenage girls who are most keenly aware of its architectural beauty. +They understand the structural integrity of a deep avuncular lap, as compared to the shaky arrangement of a neurotic niece in high heels. +The relationship between the lap and its owner is direct and intimate. +I envision a 36-story, 450-unit residential high-rise -- a reason to consider the mental health of any architect before granting an important commission. +The bathrooms and kitchens will, of course, have no windows. +The lap of luxury is an architectural construct of childhood, which we seek, in vain, as adults, to employ. +That's the end. +The next story is called "The Haverpiece Collection" A nondescript warehouse, visible for a moment from the northbound lanes of the Prykushko Expressway, serves as the temporary resting place for the Haverpiece collection of European dried fruit. +The profound convolutions on the surface of a dried cherry. +The foreboding sheen of an extra-large date. +Do you remember wandering as a child through those dark wooden storefront galleries? +Where everything was displayed in poorly labeled roach-proof bins. +Pears dried in the form of genital organs. +Apricot halves like the ears of cherubim. +In 1962 the unsold stock was purchased by Maurice Haverpiece, a wealthy prune juice bottler, and consolidated to form the core collection. +As an art form it lies somewhere between still-life painting and plumbing. +Upon his death in 1967, a quarter of the items were sold off for compote to a high-class hotel restaurant. +Unsuspecting guests were served stewed turn-of-the-century Turkish figs for breakfast. +The rest of the collection remains here, stored in plain brown paper bags until funds can be raised to build a permanent museum and study center. +A shoe made of apricot leather for the daughter of a czar. +That's the end. Thank you. +The first half of the 20th century was an absolute disaster in human affairs, a cataclysm. +We had the First World War, the Great Depression, the Second World War and the rise of the communist nations. +And each one of these forces split the world, tore the world apart, divided the world. +And they threw up walls -- political walls, trade walls, transportation walls, communication walls, iron curtains -- which divided peoples and nations. +It was only in the second half of the 20th century that we slowly began to pull ourselves out of this abyss. +Trade walls began to come tumbling down. +Here are some data on tariffs: starting at 40 percent, coming down to less than 5 percent. +We globalized the world. And what does that mean? +It means that we extended cooperation across national boundaries; we made the world more cooperative. +Transportation walls came tumbling down. +You know in 1950 the typical ship carried 5,000 to 10,000 tons worth of goods. +Today a container ship can carry 150,000 tons; it can be manned with a smaller crew; and unloaded faster than ever before. +Communication walls, I don't have to tell you -- the Internet -- have come tumbling down. +And of course the iron curtains, political walls have come tumbling down. +Now all of this has been tremendous for the world. +Trade has increased. +Here is just a little bit of data. +In 1990, exports from China to the United States: 15 billion dollars. +By 2007: over 300 billion dollars. +And perhaps most remarkably, at the beginning of the 21st century, really for the first time in modern history, growth extended to almost all parts of the world. +So China, I've already mentioned, beginning around 1978, around the time of the death of Mao, growth -- ten percent a year. +Year after year after year, absolutely incredible. +Never before in human history have so many people been raised out of such great poverty as happened in China. +China is the world's greatest anti-poverty program over the last three decades. +India, starting a little bit later, but in 1990, begetting tremendous growth. +Incomes at that time less than $1,000 per year. +And over the next 18 years have almost tripled. +Growth of six percent a year. Absolutely incredible. +Now Africa, Sub-Saharan Africa -- Sub-Saharan Africa has been the area of the world most resistant to growth. +And we can see the tragedy of Africa in the first few bars here. +Growth was negative. +People were actually getting poorer than their parents, and sometimes even poorer than their grandparents had been. +But at the end of the 20th century, the beginning of the 21st century, we saw growth in Africa. +And I think, as you'll see, there's reasons for optimism, because I believe that the best is yet to come. +Now why. +On the cutting edge today it's new ideas which are driving growth. +And by that I mean it's products for which the research and development costs are really high, and the manufacturing costs are low. +More than ever before it is these types of ideas which are driving growth on the cutting edge. +Now ideas have this amazing property. +Thomas Jefferson, I think, really expressed this quite well. +He said, "He who receives an idea from me receives instruction himself, without lessening mine. +As he who lights his candle at mine receives light without darkening me." +Or to put it slightly differently: one apple feeds one man, but an idea can feed the world. +Now this is not new. This is practically not new to TEDsters. +This is practically the model of TED. +But what is new is that the greater function of ideas is going to drive growth even more than ever before. +This provides a reason why trade and globalization are even more important, more powerful than ever before, and are going to increase growth more than ever before. +And to explain why this is so, I have a question. +Suppose that there are two diseases: one of them is rare, the other one is common, but if they are not treated they are equally severe. +If you had to choose, which would you rather have: the common disease or the rare disease? +Common, the common -- I think that's absolutely right, and why? Because there are more drugs to treat common diseases than there are to treat rare diseases. +The reason for this is incentives. +It costs about the same to produce a new drug whether that drug treats 1,000 people, 100,000 people, or a million people. +But the revenues are much greater if the drug treats a million people. +So the incentives are much larger to produce drugs which treat more people. +To put this differently: larger markets save lives. +In this case misery truly does love company. +Now think about the following: if China and India were as rich as the United States is today, the market for cancer drugs would be eight times larger than it is now. +Now we are not there yet, but it is happening. +As other countries become richer the demand for these pharmaceuticals is going to increase tremendously. +And that means an increase incentive to do research and development, which benefits everyone in the world. +Larger markets increase the incentive to produce all kinds of ideas, whether it's software, whether it's a computer chip, whether it's a new design. +For the Hollywood people in the audience, this even explains why action movies have larger budgets than comedies: it's because action movies translate easier into other languages and other cultures, so the market for those movies is larger. +People are willing to invest more, and the budgets are larger. +Alright. Well if larger markets increase the incentive to produce new ideas, how do we maximize that incentive? +It's by having one world market, by globalizing the world. +The way I like to put this is: one idea. Ideas are meant to be shared, so one idea can serve one world, one market. +One idea, one world, one market. +Well how else can we create new ideas? +That's one reason. +Globalize trade. +How else can we create new ideas? +Well, more idea creators. +Now idea creators, they come from all walks of life. +Artists and innovators -- many of the people you've seen on this stage. +I'm going to focus on scientists and engineers because I have some data on that, and I'm a data person. +Now, today, less than one-tenth of one percent of the world's population are scientists and engineers. +The United States has been an idea leader. +A large fraction of those people are in the United States. +But the U.S. is losing its idea leadership. +And for that I am very grateful. +That is a good thing. +It is fortunate that we are becoming less of an idea leader because for too long the United States, and a handful of other developed countries, have shouldered the entire burden of research and development. +But consider the following: if the world as a whole were as wealthy as the United States is now there would be more than five times as many scientists and engineers contributing to ideas which benefit everyone, which are shared by everyone. +I think of the great Indian mathematician, Ramanujan. +How many Ramanujans are there in India today toiling in the fields, barely able to feed themselves, when they could be feeding the world? +Now we're not there yet. +But it is going to happen in this century. +The real tragedy of the last century is this: if you think about the world's population as a giant computer, a massively parallel processor, then the great tragedy has been that billions of our processors have been off line. +But in this century China is coming on line. +India is coming on line. +Africa is coming on line. +We will see an Einstein in Africa in this century. +Here is just some data. This is China. +1996: less than one million new university students in China per year; 2006: over five million. +Now think what this means. +This means we all benefit when another country gets rich. +We should not fear other countries becoming wealthy. +That is something that we should embrace -- a wealthy China, a wealthy India, a wealthy Africa. +We need a greater demand for ideas -- those larger markets I was talking about earlier -- and a greater supply of ideas for the world. +Now you can see some of the reasons why I'm optimistic. +Globalization is increasing the demand for ideas, the incentive to create new ideas. +Investments in education are increasing the supply of new ideas. +In fact if you look at world history you can see some reasons for optimism. +From about the beginnings of humanity to 1500: zero economic growth, nothing. +1500 to 1800: maybe a little bit of economic growth, but less in a century than you expect to see in a year today. +1900s: maybe one percent. +Twentieth century: a little bit over two percent. +Twenty-first century could easily be 3.3, even higher percent. +Even at that rate, by 2100 average GDP per capita in the world will be $200,000. +That's not U.S. GDP per capita, which will be over a million, but world GDP per capita -- $200,000. +That's not that far. +We won't make it. +But some of our grandchildren probably will. +And I should say, I think this is a rather modest prediction. +In Kurzweilian terms this is gloomy. +In Kurzweilian terms I'm like the Eeyore of economic growth. +Alright what about problems? +What about a great depression? +Well let's take a look. Let's take a look at the Great Depression. +Here is GDP per capita from 1900 to 1929. +Now let's imagine that you were an economist in 1929, trying to forecast future growth for the United States, not knowing that the economy was about to go off a cliff, not knowing that we were about to enter the greatest economic disaster certainly in the 20th century. +What would you have predicted, not knowing this? +If you had based your prediction, your forecast on 1900 to 1929 you'd have predicted something like this. +If you'd been a little more optimistic -- say, based upon the Roaring Twenties -- you'd have said this. +So what actually happened? +We went off a cliff but we recovered. +In fact in the second half of the 20th century growth was even higher than anything you would have predicted based upon the first half of the 20th century. +So growth can wash away even what appears to be a great depression. +Alright. What else? +Oil. Oil. This was a big topic. +When I was writing up my notes oil was $140 per barrel. +So people were asking a question. They were saying, "Is China drinking our milkshake?" +And there is some truth to this, in the sense that we have something of a finite resource, and increased growth is going to push up demand for that. +But I think I don't have to tell this audience that a higher price of oil is not necessarily a bad thing. +Moreover, as everyone knows, look -- it's energy, not oil, which counts. +And higher oil prices mean a greater incentive to invest in energy R&D. +You can see this in the data. +As oil prices go up, energy patents go up. +The world is much better equipped to overcome an increase in the price of oil today, than ever in the past, because of what I'm talking about. +One idea, one world, one market. +So I'm optimistic so long as we hew to these two ideas: to keep globalizing world markets, keep extending cooperation across national boundaries, and keep investing in education. +Now the United States has a particularly important role to play in this: to keep our education system globalized, to keep our education system open to students from all over the world, because our education system is the candle that other students come to light their own candles. +Now remember here what Jefferson said. +Jefferson said, "When they come and light their candles at ours, they gain light, and we are not darkened." +But Jefferson wasn't quite right, was he? +Because the truth is, when they light their candles at ours, there is twice as much light available for everyone. +So my view is: Be optimistic. +Spread the ideas. Spread the light. +Thank you. +This machine, which we all have residing in our skulls, reminds me of an aphorism, of a comment of Woody Allen to ask about what is the very best thing to have within your skull. +And it's this machine. +And it's constructed for change. It's all about change. +It confers on us the ability to do things tomorrow that we can't do today, things today that we couldn't do yesterday. +And of course it's born stupid. +The last time you were in the presence of a baby -- this happens to be my granddaughter, Mitra. +Isn't she fabulous? +But nonetheless when she popped out despite the fact that her brain had actually been progressing in its development for several months before on the basis of her experiences in the womb -- nonetheless she had very limited abilities, as does every infant at the time of normal, natural full-term birth. +If we were to assay her perceptual abilities, they would be crude. +There is no real indication that there is any real thinking going on. +In fact there is little evidence that there is any cognitive ability in a very young infant. +Infants don't respond to much. +There is not really much of an indication in fact that there is a person on board. +And they can only in a very primitive way, and in a very limited way control their movements. +It would be several months before this infant could do something as simple as reach out and grasp under voluntary control an object and retrieve it, usually to the mouth. +And it will be some months beforeward, and we see a long steady progression of the evolution from the first wiggles, to rolling over, and sitting up, and crawling, standing, walking, before we get to that magical point in which we can motate in the world. +And yet, when we look forward in the brain we see really remarkable advance. +By this age the brain can actually store. +It has stored, recorded, can fastly retrieve the meanings of thousands, tens of thousands of objects, actions, and their relationships in the world. +And those relationships can in fact be constructed in hundreds of thousands, potentially millions of ways. +By this age the brain controls very refined perceptual abilities. +And it actually has a growing repertoire of cognitive skills. +This brain is very much a thinking machine. +And by this age there is absolutely no question that this brain, it has a person on board. +And in fact at this age it is substantially controlling its own self-development. +And by this age we see a remarkable evolution in its capacity to control movement. +Now movement has advanced to the point where it can actually control movement simultaneously, in a complex sequence, in complex ways as would be required for example for playing a complicated game, like soccer. +Now this boy can bounce a soccer ball on his head. +And where this boy comes from, Sao Paulo, Brazil, about 40 percent of boys of his age have this ability. +You could go out into the community in Monterey, and you'd have difficulty finding a boy that has this ability. +And if you did he'd probably be from Sao Paulo. +That's all another way of saying that our individual skills and abilities are very much shaped by our environments. +That environment extends into our contemporary culture, the thing our brain is challenged with. +Because what we've done in our personal evolutions is build up a large repertoire of specific skills and abilities that are specific to our own individual histories. +And in fact they result in a wonderful differentiation in humankind, in the way that, in fact, no two of us are quite alike. +Every one of us has a different set of acquired skills and abilities that all derive out of the plasticity, the adaptability of this really remarkable adaptive machine. +In an adult brain of course we've built up a large repertoire of mastered skills and abilities that we can perform more or less automatically from memory, and that define us as acting, moving, thinking creatures. +Now we study this, as the nerdy, laboratory, university-based scientists that we are, by engaging the brains of animals like rats, or monkeys, or of this particularly curious creature -- one of the more bizarre forms of life on earth -- to engage them in learning new skills and abilities. +And we try to track the changes that occur as the new skill or ability is acquired. +In fact we do this in individuals of any age, in these different species -- that is to say from infancies, infancy up to adulthood and old age. +So we might engage a rat, for example, to acquire a new skill or ability that might involve the rat using its paw to master particular manual grasp behaviors just like we might examine a child and their ability to acquire the sub-skills, or the general overall skill of accomplishing something like mastering the ability to read. +Or you might look in an older individual who has mastered a complex set of abilities that might relate to reading musical notation or performing the mechanical acts of performance that apply to musical performance. +From these studies we defined two great epochs of the plastic history of the brain. +The first great epoch is commonly called the "Critical Period." +And that is the period in which the brain is setting up in its initial form its basic processing machinery. +This is actually a period of dramatic change in which it doesn't take learning, per se, to drive the initial differentiation of the machinery of the brain. +All it takes for example in the sound domain, is exposure to sound. +And the brain actually is at the mercy of the sound environment in which it is reared. +So for example I can rear an animal in an environment in which there is meaningless dumb sound, a repertoire of sound that I make up, that I make, just by exposure, artificially important to the animal and its young brain. +And what I see is that the animal's brain sets up its initial processing of that sound in a form that's idealized, within the limits of its processing achievements to represent it in an organized and orderly way. +The sound doesn't have to be valuable to the animal: I could raise the animal in something that could be hypothetically valuable, like the sounds that simulate the sounds of a native language of a child. +And I see the brain actually develop a processor that is specialized -- specialized for that complex array, a repertoire of sounds. +It actually exaggerates their separateness of representation, in multi-dimensional neuronal representational terms. +Or I can expose the animal to a completely meaningless and destructive sound. +I can raise an animal under conditions that would be equivalent to raising a baby under a moderately loud ceiling fan, in the presence of continuous noise. +And when I do that I actually specialize the brain to be a master processor for that meaningless sound. +And I frustrate its ability to represent any meaningful sound as a consequence. +Such things in the early history of babies occur in real babies. +And they account for, for example the beautiful evolution of a language-specific processor in every normally developing baby. +And so they also account for development of defective processing in a substantial population of children who are more limited, as a consequence, in their language abilities at an older age. +Now in this early period of plasticity the brain actually changes outside of a learning context. +I don't have to be paying attention to what I hear. +The input doesn't really have to be meaningful. +I don't have to be in a behavioral context. +This is required so the brain sets up it's processing so that it can act differentially, so that it can act selectively, so that the creature that wears it, that carries it, can begin to operate on it in a selective way. +In the next great epoch of life, which applies for most of life, the brain is actually refining its machinery as it masters a wide repertoire of skills and abilities. +And in this epoch, which extends from late in the first year of life to death; it's actually doing this under behavioral control. +And that's another way of saying the brain has strategies that define the significance of the input to the brain. +And it's focusing on skill after skill, or ability after ability, under specific attentional control. +It's a function of whether a goal in a behavior is achieved or whether the individual is rewarded in the behavior. +This is actually very powerful. +This lifelong capacity for plasticity, for brain change, is powerfully expressed. +It is the basis of our real differentiation, one individual from another. +You can look down in the brain of an animal that's engaged in a specific skill, and you can witness or document this change on a variety of levels. +So here is a very simple experiment. +It was actually conducted about five years ago in collaboration with scientists from the University of Provence in Marseilles. +It's a very simple experiment where a monkey has been trained in a task that involves it manipulating a tool that's equivalent in its difficulty to a child learning to manipulate or handle a spoon. +The monkey actually mastered the task in about 700 practice tries. +So in the beginning the monkey could not perform this task at all. +It had a success rate of about one in eight tries. +Those tries were elaborate. +Each attempt was substantially different from the other. +But the monkey gradually developed a strategy. +And 700 or so tries later the monkey is performing it flawlessly -- never fails. +He's successful in his retrieval of food with this tool every time. +At this point the task is being performed in a beautifully stereotyped way: very beautifully regulated and highly repeated, trial to trial. +We can look down in the brain of the monkey. +And we see that it's distorted. +We can track these changes, and have tracked these changes in many such behaviors across time. +And here we see the distortion reflected in the map of the skin surfaces of the hand of the monkey. +Now this is a map, down in the surface of the brain, in which, in a very elaborate experiment we've reconstructed the responses, location by location, in a highly detailed response mapping of the responses of its neurons. +We see here a reconstruction of how the hand is represented in the brain. +We've actually distorted the map by the exercise. +And that is indicated in the pink. We have a couple fingertip surfaces that are larger. +These are the surfaces the monkey is using to manipulate the tool. +If we look at the selectivity of responses in the cortex of the monkey, we see that the monkey has actually changed the filter characteristics which represents input from the skin of the fingertips that are engaged. +In other words there is still a single, simple representation of the fingertips in this most organized of cortical areas of the surface of the skin of the body. +Monkey has like you have. +And yet now it's represented in substantially finer grain. +The monkey is getting more detailed information from these surfaces. +And that is an unknown -- unsuspected, maybe, by you -- part of acquiring the skill or ability. +Now actually we've looked in several different cortical areas in the monkey learning this task. +And each one of them changes in ways that are specific to the skill or ability. +So for example we can look to the cortical area that represents input that's controlling the posture of the monkey. +We look in cortical areas that control specific movements, and the sequences of movements that are required in the behavior, and so forth. +They are all remodeled. They all become specialized for the task at hand. +There are 15 or 20 cortical areas that are changed specifically when you learn a simple skill like this. +And that represents in your brain, really massive change. +It represents the change in a reliable way of the responses of tens of millions, possibly hundreds of millions of neurons in your brain. +It represents changes of hundreds of millions, possibly billions of synaptic connections in your brain. +This is constructed by physical change. +And the level of construction that occurs is massive. +Think about the changes that occur in the brain of a child through the course of acquiring their movement behavior abilities in general. +Or acquiring their native language abilities. +The changes are massive. +What it's all about is the selective representations of things that are important to the brain. +Because in most of the life of the brain this is under control of behavioral context. +It's what you pay attention to. +It's what's rewarding to you. +It's what the brain regards, itself, as positive and important to you. +It's all about cortical processing and forebrain specialization. +And that underlies your specialization. +That is why you, in your many skills and abilities, are a unique specialist: a specialist that's vastly different in your physical brain in detail than the brain of an individual 100 years ago; enormously different in the details from the brain of the average individual 1,000 years ago. +Now, one of the characteristics of this change process is that information is always related to other inputs or information that is occurring in immediate time, in context. +And that's because the brain is constructing representations of things that are correlated in little moments of time and that relate to one another in little moments of successive time. +The brain is recording all information and driving all change in temporal context. +Now overwhelmingly the most powerful context that's occurred in your brain is you. +Billions of events have occurred in your history that are related in time to yourself as the receiver, or yourself as the actor, yourself as the thinker, yourself as the mover. +Billions of times little pieces of sensation have come in from the surface of your body that are always associated with you as the receiver, and that result in the embodiment of you. +You are constructed, your self is constructed from these billions of events. +It's constructed. It's created in your brain. +And it's created in the brain via physical change. +This is a marvelously constructed thing that results in individual form because each one of us has vastly different histories, and vastly different experiences, that drive in to us this marvelous differentiation of self, of personhood. +Now we've used this research to try to understand not just how a normal person develops, and elaborates their skills and abilities, but also try to understand the origins of impairment, and the origins of differences or variations that might limit the capacities of a child, or an adult. +I'm going to talk about using these strategies to actually design brain plasticity-based approach to drive corrections in the machinery of a child that increases the competence of the child as a language receiver and user and, thereafter, as a reader. +And I'm going to talk about experiments that involve actually using this brain science, first of all to understand how it contributes to the loss of function as we age. +And then, by using it in a targeted approach we're going to try to differentiate the machinery to recover function in old age. +So the first example I'm going to talk about relates to children with learning impairments. +We now have a large body of literature that demonstrates that the fundamental problem that occurs in the majority of children that have early language impairments, and that are going to struggle to learn to read, is that their language processor is created in a defective form. +And the reason that it rises in a defective form is because early in the baby's brain's life the machine process is noisy. +It's that simple. +It's a signal-to-noise problem. Okay? +And there are a lot of things that contribute to that. +There are numerous inherited faults that could make the machine process noisier. +Now I might say the noise problem could also occur on the basis of information provided in the world from the ears. +If any -- those of you who are older in the audience know that when I was a child we understood that a child born with a cleft palate was born with what we called mental retardation. +We knew that they were going to be slow cognitively; we knew they were going to struggle to learn to develop normal language abilities; and we knew that they were going to struggle to learn to read. +Most of them would be intellectual and academic failures. +That's disappeared. That no longer applies. +That inherited weakness, that inherited condition has evaporated. +We don't hear about that anymore. Where did it go? +Well, it was understood by a Dutch surgeon, about 35 years ago, that if you simply fix the problem early enough, when the brain is still in this initial plastic period so it can set up this machinery adequately, in this initial set up time in the critical period, none of that happens. +What are you doing by operating on the cleft palate to correct it? +You're basically opening up the tubes that drain fluid from the middle ears, which have had them reliably full. +Every sound the child hears uncorrected is muffled. +It's degraded. +The child's native language is such a case is not English. +It's not Japanese. +It's muffled English. It's degraded Japanese. +It's crap. +And the brain specializes for it. +It creates a representation of language crap. +And then the child is stuck with it. +Now the crap doesn't just happen in the ear. +It can also happen in the brain. +The brain itself can be noisy. It's commonly noisy. +There are many inherited faults that can make it noisier. +And the native language for a child with such a brain is degraded. +It's not English. It's noisy English. +And that results in defective representations of sounds of words -- not normal -- a different strategy, by a machine that has different time constants and different space constants. +And you can look in the brain of such a child and record those time constants. +They are about an order of magnitude longer, about 11 times longer in duration on average, than in a normal child. +Space constants are about three times greater. +Such a child will have memory and cognitive deficits in this domain. +Of course they will. Because as a receiver of language, they are receiving it and representing it, and in information it's representing crap. +And they are going to have poor reading skills. +Because reading is dependent upon the translation of word sounds into this orthographic or visual representational form. +If you don't have a brain representation of word sounds that translation makes no sense. +And you are going to have corresponding abnormal neurology. +Then these children increasingly in evaluation after evaluation, in their operations in language, and their operations in reading -- we document that abnormal neurology. +The point is is that you can train the brain out of this. +A way to think about this is you can actually re-refine the processing capacity of the machinery by changing it. +Changing it in detail. It takes about 30 hours on the average. +And we've accomplished that in about 430,000 kids today. +Actually, probably about 15,000 children are being trained as we speak. +And actually when you look at the impacts, the impacts are substantial. +So here we're looking at the normal distribution. +What we're most interested in is these kids on the left side of the distribution. +This is from about 3,000 children. +You can see that most of the children on the left side of the distribution are moving into the middle or the right. +This is in a broad assessment of their language abilities. +This is like an IQ test for language. +The impact in the distribution, if you trained every child in the United States, would be to shift the whole distribution to the right and narrow the distribution. +This is a substantially large impact. +Think of a classroom of children in the language arts. +Think of the children on the slow side of the class. +We have the potential to move most of those children to the middle or to the right side. +In addition to accurate language training it also fixes memory and cognition speech fluency and speech production. +And an important language dependent skill is enabled by this training -- that is to say reading. +And to a large extent it fixes the brain. +You can look down in the brain of a child in a variety of tasks that scientists have at Stanford, and MIT, and UCSF, and UCLA, and a number of other institutions. +And children operating in various language behaviors, or in various reading behaviors, you see for the most extent, for most children, their neuronal responses, complexly abnormal before you start, are normalized by the training. +Now you can also take the same approach to address problems in aging. +Where again the machinery is deteriorating now from competent machinery, it's going south. +Noise is increasing in the brain. +And learning modulation and control is deteriorating. +And you can actually look down on the brain of such an individual and witness a change in the time constants and space constants with which, for example, the brain is representing language again. +Just as the brain came out of chaos at the beginning, it's going back into chaos in the end. +This results in declines in memory in cognition, and in postural ability and agility. +It turns out you can train the brain of such an individual -- this is a small population of such individuals -- train equally intensively for about 30 hours. +These are 80- to 90-year-olds. +And what you see are substantial improvements of their immediate memory, of their ability to remember things after a delay, of their ability to control their attention, their language abilities and visual-spatial abilities. +The overall neuropsychological index of these trained individuals in this population is about two standard deviations. +That means that if you sit at the left side of the distribution, and I'm looking at your neuropyschological abilities, the average person has moved to the middle or the right side of the distribution. +It means that most people who are at risk for senility, more or less immediately, are now in a protected position. +My issues are to try to get to rescuing older citizens more completely and in larger numbers, because I think this can be done in this arena on a vast scale -- and the same for kids. +My main interest is how to elaborate this science to address other maladies. +I'm specifically interested in things like autism, and cerebral palsy, these great childhood catastrophes. +And in older age conditions like Parkinsonism, and in other acquired impairments like schizophrenia. +Your issues as it relates to this science, is how to maintain your own high-functioning learning machine. +And of course, a well-ordered life in which learning is a continuous part of it, is key. +But also in your future is brain aerobics. +Get ready for it. It's going to be a part of every life not too far in the future, just like physical exercise is a part of every well organized life in the contemporary period. +The other way that we will ultimately come to consider this literature and the science that is important to you is in a consideration of how to nurture yourself. +Now that you know, now that science is telling us that you are in charge, that it's under your control, that your happiness, your well-being, your abilities, your capacities, are capable of continuous modification, continuous improvement, and you're the responsible agent and party. +Of course a lot of people will ignore this advice. +It will be a long time before they really understand it. +Now that's another issue and not my fault. +Okay. Thank you. +I should tell you that when I was asked to be here, I thought to myself that well, it's TED. +And these TEDsters are -- you know, as innocent as that name sounds -- these are the philanthropists and artists and scientists who sort of shape our world. +And what could I possibly have to say that would be distinguished enough to justify my participation in something like that? +And so I thought perhaps a really civilized-sounding British accent might help things a bit. +And then I thought no, no. I should just get up there and be myself and just talk the way I really talk because, after all, this is the great unveiling. +And so I thought I'd come up here and unveil my real voice to you. +Although many of you already know that I do speak the Queen's English because I am from Queens, New York. +But the theme of this session, of course, is invention. +And while I don't have any patents that I'm aware of, you will be meeting a few of my inventions today. +I suppose it's fair to say that I am interested in the invention of self or selves. +We're all born into certain circumstances with particular physical traits, unique developmental experiences, geographical and historical contexts. +But then what? +To what extent do we self-construct, do we self-invent? +How do we self-identify and how mutable is that identity? +Like, what if one could be anyone at any time? +Well my characters, like the ones in my shows, allow me to play with the spaces between those questions. +And so I've brought a couple of them with me. +And well, they're very excited. +What I should tell you -- what I should tell you is that they've each prepared their own little TED talks. +So feel free to think of this as Sarah University. +Okay. Okay. Oh, well. +Oh, wonderful. +Good evening everybody. +Thank you so very much for having me here today. +Ah, thank you very much. My name is Lorraine Levine. +Oh my! There's so many of you. +Hi sweetheart. Okay. +Anyway, I am here because of a young girl, Sarah Jones. +She's a very nice, young black girl. +Well you know, she calls herself black -- she's really more like a caramel color if you look at her. +But anyway. +She has me here because she puts me in her show, what she calls her one-woman show. +And you know what that means, of course. +That means she takes the credit and then makes us come out here and do all the work. +But I don't mind. +Frankly, I'm kvelling just to be here with all the luminaries you have attending something like this, you know. +Really, it's amazing. +Not only, of course, the scientists and all the wonderful giants of the industries but the celebrities. +There are so many celebrities running around here. +I saw -- Glenn Close I saw earlier. I love her. +And she was getting a yogurt in the Google cafe. +Isn't that adorable? +So many others you see, they're just wonderful. +It's lovely to know they're concerned, you know. +And -- oh, I saw Goldie Hawn. +Oh, Goldie Hawn. I love her, too; she's wonderful. Yeah. +You know, she's only half Jewish. +Did you know that about her? +Yeah. But even so, a wonderful talent. And I -- you know, when I saw her, such a wonderful feeling. +Yeah, she's lovely. +But anyway, I should have started by saying just how lucky I feel. +It's such an eye-opening experience to be here. +You're all so responsible for this world that we live in today. +You know, I couldn't have dreamed of such a thing as a young girl. +And you've all made these advancements happen in such a short time -- you're all so young. +You know, your parents must be very proud. +But I -- I also appreciate the diversity that you have here. +I noticed it's very multicultural. +You know, when you're standing up here, you can see all the different people. +It's like a rainbow. +It's okay to say rainbow. Yeah. +I just -- I can't keep up with whether you can say, you know, the different things. +What are you allowed to say or not say? +I just -- I don't want to offend anybody. You know. +But anyway, you know, I just think that to be here with all of you accomplished young people -- literally, some of you, the architects building our brighter future. +You know, it's heartening to me. +Even though, quite frankly, some of your presentations are horrifying, absolutely horrifying. +It's true. It's true. +You know, between the environmental degradation and the crashing of the world markets you're talking about. +And of course, we know it's all because of the -- all the ... +Well, I don't know how else to say it to you, so I'll just say it my way: the ganeyvish schticklich coming from the governments and the, you know, the bankers and the Wall Street. You know it. +Anyway. +The point is, I'm happy somebody has practical ideas to get us out of this mess. +So I salute each of you and your stellar achievements. +Thank you for all that you do. +And congratulations on being such big makhers that you've become TED meisters. +So, happy continued success. +Congratulations. Mazel tov. +Hi. Hi. +Thank you everybody. +Sorry, this is such a wonderful opportunity and everything, to be here right now. +My name is Noraida. And I'm just -- I'm so thrilled to be part of like your TED conference that you're doing and everything like that. +I am Dominican-American. +Actually, you could say I grew up in the capital of Dominican Republic, otherwise known as Washington Heights in New York City. +But I don't know if there's any other Dominican people here, but I know that Juan Enriquez, he was here yesterday. +And I think he's Mexican, so that's -- honestly, that's close enough for me right now. So -- I just -- I'm sorry. +I'm just trying not to be nervous because this is a very wonderful experience for me and everything. +And I just -- you know I'm not used to doing the public speaking. +And whenever I get nervous I start to talk really fast. +Nobody can understand nothing I'm saying, which is very frustrating for me, as you can imagine. +I usually have to just like try to calm down and take a deep breath. +But then on top of that, you know, Sarah Jones told me we only have 18 minutes. +So then I'm like, should I be nervous, you know, because maybe it's better. +And I'm just trying not to panic and freak out. So I like, take a deep breath. +Okay. Sorry. So anyway, what I was trying to say is that I really love TED. +Like, I love everything about this. It's amazing. +Like, it's -- I can't get over this right now. +And, like, people would not believe, seriously, where I'm from, that this even exists. +You know, like even, I mean I love like the name, the -- TED. +I mean I know it's a real person and everything, but I'm just saying that like, you know, I think it's very cool how it's also an acronym, you know, which is like, you know, is like very high concept and everything like that. +I like that. +And actually, I can relate to the whole like acronym thing and everything. +Because, actually, I'm a sophomore at college right now. +At my school -- actually I was part of co-founding an organization, which is like a leadership thing, you know, like you guys, you would really like it and everything. +And the organization is called DA BOMB, Aand DA BOMB -- not like what you guys can build and everything -- it's like, DA BOMB, it means like Dominican -- it's an acronym -- Dominican-American Benevolent Organization for Mothers and Babies. +So, I know, see, like the name is like a little bit long, but with the war on terror and everything, the Dean of Student Activities has asked us to stop saying DA BOMB and use the whole thing so nobody would get the wrong idea, whatever. +So, basically like DA BOMB -- what Dominican-American Benevolent Organization for Mothers and Babies does is, basically, we try to advocate for students who show a lot of academic promise and who also happen to be mothers like me. +I am a working mother, and I also go to school full-time. +And, you know, it's like -- it's so important to have like role models out there. +I mean, I know sometimes our lifestyles are very different, whatever. +But like even at my job -- like, I just got promoted. +Right now it's very exciting actually for me because I'm the Junior Assistant to the Associate Director under the Senior Vice President for Business Development -- that's my new title. +So, but I think whether you own your own company or you're just starting out like me, like something like this is so vital for people to just continue expanding their minds and learning. +And if everybody, like all people really had access to that, it would be a very different world out there, as I know you know. +So, I think all people, we need that, but especially, I look at people like me, you know like, I mean, Latinos -- we're about to be the majority, in like two weeks. +So, we deserve just as much to be part of the exchange of ideas as everybody else. +So, I'm very happy that you're, you know, doing this kind of thing, making the talks available online. +That's very good. I love that. +And I just -- I love you guys. I love TED. +And if you don't mind, privately now, in the future, I'm going to think of TED as an acronym for Technology, Entertainment and Dominicans. +Thank you very much. +So, that was Noraida, and just like Lorraine and everybody else you're meeting today, these are folks who are based on real people from my real life: friends, neighbors, family members. +I come from a multicultural family. +In fact, the older lady you just met: very, very loosely based on a great aunt on my mother's side. +It's a long story, believe me. +But on top of my family background, my parents also sent me to the United Nations school, where I encountered a plethora of new characters, including Alexandre, my French teacher, okay. +Well, you know, it was beginner French, that I am taking with her, you know. +And it was Madame Bousson, you know, she was very [French]. +It was like, you know, she was there in the class, you know, she was kind of typically French. +You know, she was very chic, but she was very filled with ennui, you know. +And she would be there, you know, kind of talking with the class, you know, talking about the, you know, the existential futility of life, you know. +And we were only 11 years old, so it was not appropriate. But [German]. +Yes, I took German for three years, [German], and it was quite the experience because I was the only black girl in the class, even in the UN school. +Although, you know, it was wonderful. +The teacher, Herr Schtopf, he never discriminated. +Never. He always, always treated each of us, you know, equally unbearably during the class. +So, there were the teachers and then there were my friends, classmates from everywhere, many of whom are still dear friends to this day. +And they've inspired many characters as well. +For example, a friend of mine. +Well, I just wanted to quickly say good evening. +My name is Praveen Manvi and thank you very much for this opportunity. +Of course, TED, the reputation precedes itself all over the world. +But, you know, I am originally from India, and I wanted to start by telling you that once Sarah Jones told me that we will be having the opportunity to come here to TED in California, originally, I was very pleased and, frankly, relieved because, you know, I am a human rights advocate. +And usually my work, it takes me to Washington D.C. +And there, I must attend these meetings, mingling with some tiresome politicians, trying to make me feel comfortable by telling how often they are eating the curry in Georgetown. So, you can just imagine -- right. +So, but I'm thrilled to be joining all of you here. +I wish we had more time together, but that's for another time. Okay? Great. +And, sadly, I don't think we'll have time for you to meet everybody I brought, but -- I'm trying to behave myself, it's my first time here. +But I do want to introduce you to a couple of folks you may recognize, if you saw "Bridge and Tunnel." +Uh, well, thank you. +Good evening. +My name is Pauline Ning, and first I want to tell you that I'm -- of course I am a member of the Chinese community in New York. +But then, I decided, just like Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger, I try anyway. +My daughter -- my daughter wrote that, she told me, "Always start your speech with humor." +But my background -- I want to tell you story only briefly. +My husband and I, we brought our son and daughter here in 1980s to have the freedom we cannot have in China at that time. +And we tried to teach our kids to be proud of their tradition, but it's very hard. +You know, as immigrant, I would speak Chinese to them, and they would always answer me back in English. +They love rock music, pop culture, American culture. +But when they got older, when the time comes for them to start think about getting married, that's when we expect them to realize, a little bit more, their own culture. +But that's where we had some problems. +My son, he says he is not ready to get married. +And he has a sweetheart, but she is American woman, not Chinese. +It's not that it's bad, but I told him, "What's wrong with a Chinese woman?" +But I think he will change his mind soon. +So, then I decide instead, I will concentrate on my daughter. +The daughter's marriage is very special to the mom. +But first, she said she's not interested. +She only wants to spend time with her friends. +And then at college, it's like she never came home. +And she doesn't want me to come and visit. +So I said, "What's wrong in this picture?" +So, I accused my daughter to have like a secret boyfriend. +But she told me, "Mom, you don't have to worry about boys because I don't like them." +And I said, "Yes, men can be difficult, but all women have to get used to that." +She said, "No Mom. I mean, I don't like boys. I like girls. +I am lesbian." +So, I always teach my kids to respect American ideas, but I told my daughter that this is one exception -- -- that she is not gay, she is just confused by this American problem. +But she told me, "Mom, it's not American." +She said she is in love -- in love with a nice Chinese girl. +So, these are the words I am waiting to hear, but from my son, not my daughter. +But at first I did not know what to do. +But then, over time, I have come to understand that this is who she is. +So, even though sometimes it's still hard, I will share with you that it helps me to realize society is more tolerant, usually because of places like this, because of ideas like this, and people like you, with an open mind. +So I think maybe TED, you impact people's lives in the ways maybe even you don't realize. +So, for my daughter's sake, I thank you for your ideas worth spreading. +Thank you. Xie xie. +Good evening. My name is Habbi Belahal. +And I would like to first of all thank Sarah Jones for putting all of the pressure on the only Arab who she brought with her to be last today. +I am originally from Jordan. +And I teach comparative literature at Queens College. +It is not Harvard. +But I feel a bit like a fish out of water. +But I am very proud of my students. +And I see that a few of them did make it here to the conference. +So you will get the extra credit I promised you. +But, while I know that I may not look like the typical TED-izen, as you would say, I do like to make the point that we in global society, we are never as different as the appearances may suggest. +So, if you will indulge me, I will share quickly with you a bit of verse, which I memorized as a young girl at 16 years of age. +So, back in the ancient times. +[Arabic] And this roughly translates: "Please, let me hold your hand. +I want to hold your hand. +I want to hold your hand. +And when I touch you, I feel happy inside. +It's such a feeling that my love, I can't hide, I can't hide, I can't hide." +Well, so okay, but please, please, but please. +If it is sounding familiar, it is because I was at the same time in my life listening to the Beatles. +On the radio [unclear], they were very popular. +So, all of that is to say that I like to believe that for every word intended as to render us deaf to one another, there is always a lyric connecting ears and hearts across the continents in rhyme. +And I pray that this is the way that we will self-invent, in time. +That's all, shukran. Thank you very much for the opportunity. +Okay? Great. +Thank you all very much. It was lovely. +Thank you for having me. +Thank you very, very much. I love you. +Well, you have to let me say this. +I just -- thank you. +I want to thank Chris and Jacqueline, and just everyone for having me here. +It's been a long time coming, and I feel like I'm home. +And I know I've performed for some of your companies or some of you have seen me elsewhere, but this is honestly one of the best audiences I've ever experienced. +The whole thing is amazing, and so don't you all go reinventing yourselves any time soon. +So the first question is, why do we need to even worry about a pandemic threat? +What is it that we're concerned about? +When I say "we," I'm at the Council on Foreign Relations. +We're concerned in the national security community, and of course in the biology community and the public health community. +While globalization has increased travel, it's made it necessary that everybody be everywhere, all the time, all over the world. +And that means that your microbial hitchhikers are moving with you. +So a plague outbreak in Surat, India becomes not an obscure event, but a globalized event -- a globalized concern that has changed the risk equation. +Katrina showed us that we cannot completely depend on government to have readiness in hand, to be capable of handling things. +Indeed, an outbreak would be multiple Katrinas at once. +Our big concern at the moment is a virus called H5N1 flu -- some of you call it bird flu -- which first emerged in southern China, in the mid-1990s, but we didn't know about it until 1997. +At the end of last Christmas only 13 countries had seen H5N1. +But we're now up to 55 countries in the world, have had this virus emerge, in either birds, or people or both. +In the bird outbreaks we now can see that pretty much the whole world has seen this virus except the Americas. +And I'll get into why we've so far been spared in a moment. +In domestic birds, especially chickens, it's 100 percent lethal. +It's one of the most lethal things we've seen in circulation in the world in any recent centuries. +And we've dealt with it by killing off lots and lots and lots of chickens, and unfortunately often not reimbursing the peasant farmers with the result that there's cover-up. +It's also carried on migration patterns of wild migratory aquatic birds. +There has been this centralized event in a place called Lake Chenghai, China. +Two years ago the migrating birds had a multiple event where thousands died because of a mutation occurring in the virus, which made the species range broaden dramatically. +So that birds going to Siberia, to Europe, and to Africa carried the virus, which had not previously been possible. +We're now seeing outbreaks in human populations -- so far, fortunately, small events, tiny outbreaks, occasional clusters. +The virus has mutated dramatically in the last two years to form two distinct families, if you will, of the H5N1 viral tree with branches in them, and with different attributes that are worrying. +So what's concerning us? Well, first of all, at no time in history have we succeeded in making in a timely fashion, a specific vaccine for more than 260 million people. +It's not going to do us very much good in a global pandemic. +You've heard about the vaccine we're stockpiling. +But nobody believes it will actually be particularly effective if we have a real outbreak. +So one thought is: after 9/11, when the airports closed, our flu season was delayed by two weeks. +So the thought is, hey, maybe what we should do is just immediately -- we hear there is H5N1 spreading from human to human, the virus has mutated to be a human-to-human transmitter -- let's shut down the airports. +However, huge supercomputer analyses, done of the likely effectiveness of this, show that it won't buy us much time at all. +And of course it will be hugely disruptive in preparation plans. +For example, all masks are made in China. +How do you get them mobilized around the world if you've shut all the airports down? +How do you get the vaccines moved around the world and the drugs moved, and whatever may or not be available that would work. +So it turns out that shutting down the airports is counterproductive. +We're worried because this virus, unlike any other flu we've ever studied, can be transmitted by eating raw meat of the infected animals. +We've seen transmission to wild cats and domestic cats, and now also domestic pet dogs. +And in experimental feedings to rodents and ferrets, we found that the animals exhibit symptoms never seen with flu: seizures, central nervous system disorders, partial paralysis. +This is not your normal garden-variety flu. +It mimics what we now understand about reconstructing the 1918 flu virus, the last great pandemic, in that it also jumped directly from birds to people. +We had evolution over time, and this unbelievable mortality rate in human beings: 55 percent of people who have become infected with H5N1 have, in fact, succumbed. +And we don't have a huge number of people who got infected and never developed disease. +In experimental feeding in monkeys you can see that it actually downregulates a specific immune system modulator. +The result is that what kills you is not the virus directly, but your own immune system overreacting, saying, "Whatever this is so foreign I'm going berserk." +The result: most of the deaths have been in people under 30 years of age, robustly healthy young adults. +We have seen human-to-human transmission in at least three clusters -- fortunately involving very intimate contact, still not putting the world at large at any kind of risk. +Alright, so I've got you nervous. +Now you probably assume, well the governments are going to do something. +And we have spent a lot of money. +Most of the spending in the Bush administration has actually been more related to the anthrax results and bio-terrorism threat. +But a lot of money has been thrown out at the local level and at the federal level to look at infectious diseases. +End result: only 15 states have been certified to be able to do mass distribution of vaccine and drugs in a pandemic. +Half the states would run out of hospital beds in the first week, maybe two weeks. +And 40 states already have an acute nursing shortage. +Add on pandemic threat, you're in big trouble. +So what have people been doing with this money? +Exercises, drills, all over the world. +Let's pretend there's a pandemic. +Let's everybody run around and play your role. +Main result is that there is tremendous confusion. +Most of these people don't actually know what their job will be. +And the bottom line, major thing that has come through in every single drill: nobody knows who's in charge. +Nobody knows the chain of command. +If it were Los Angeles, is it the mayor, the governor, the President of the United States, the head of Homeland Security? +In fact, the federal government says it's a guy called the Principle Federal Officer, who happens to be with TSA. +The government says the federal responsibility will basically be about trying to keep the virus out, which we all know is impossible, and then to mitigate the impact primarily on our economy. +The rest is up to your local community. +Everything is about your town, where you live. +Well how good a city council you have, how good a mayor you have -- that's who's going to be in charge. +Most local facilities would all be competing to try and get their hands on their piece of the federal stockpile of a drug called Tamiflu, which may or may not be helpful -- I'll get into that -- of available vaccines, and any other treatments, and masks, and anything that's been stockpiled. +And you'll have massive competition. +Now we did purchase a vaccine, you've probably all heard about it, made by Sanofi-Aventis. +Unfortunately it's made against the current form of H5N1. +We know the virus will mutate. It will be a different virus. +The vaccine will probably be useless. +So here's where the decisions come in. +You're the mayor of your local town. +Let's see, should we order that all pets be kept indoors? +Germany did that when H5N1 appeared in Germany last year, in order to minimize the spread between households by household cats, dogs and so on. +What do we do when we don't have any containment rooms with reverse air that will allow the healthcare workers to take care of patients? +These are in Hong Kong; we have nothing like that here. +What about quarantine? +During the SARS epidemic in Beijing quarantine did seem to help. +We have no uniform policies regarding quarantine across the United States. +And some states have differential policies, county by county. +But what about the no-brainer things? Should we close all the schools? +Well then what about all the workers? They won't go to work if their kids aren't in school. +Encouraging telecommuting? What works? +Well the British government did a model of telecommuting. +Six weeks they had all people in the banking industry pretend a pandemic was underway. +What they found was, the core functions -- you know you still sort of had banks, but you couldn't get people to put money in the ATM machines. +Nobody was processing the credit cards. +Your insurance payments didn't go through. +And basically the economy would be in a disaster state of affairs. +And that's just office workers, bankers. +We don't know how important hand washing is for flu -- shocking. One assumes it's a good idea to wash your hands a lot. +But actually in scientific community there is great debate about what percentage of flu transmission between people is from sneezing and coughing and what percentage is on your hands. +The Institute of Medicine tried to look at the masking question. +Can we figure out a way, since we know we won't have enough masks because we don't make them in America anymore, they're all made in China -- do we need N95? A state-of-the-art, top-of-the-line, must-be-fitted-to-your-face mask? +Or can we get away with some different kinds of masks? +In the SARS epidemic, we learned in Hong Kong that most of transmission was because people were removing their masks improperly. +And their hand got contaminated with the outside of the mask, and then they rubbed their nose. Bingo! They got SARS. +It wasn't flying microbes. +If you go online right now, you'll get so much phony-baloney information. +You'll end up buying -- this is called an N95 mask. Ridiculous. +We don't actually have a standard for what should be the protective gear for the first responders, the people who will actually be there on the front lines. +And Tamiflu. You've probably heard of this drug, made by Hoffmann-La Roche, patented drug. +There is some indication that it may buy you some time in the midst of an outbreak. +Should you take Tamiflu for a long period of time, well, one of the side effects is suicidal ideations. +A public health survey analyzed the effect that large-scale Tamiflu use would have, actually shows it counteractive to public health measures, making matters worse. +And here is the other interesting thing: when a human being ingests Tamiflu, only 20 percent is metabolized appropriately to be an active compound in the human being. +The rest turns into a stable compound, which survives filtration into the water systems, thereby exposing the very aquatic birds that would carry flu and providing them a chance to breed resistant strains. +And we now have seen Tamiflu-resistant strains in both Vietnam in person-to-person transmission, and in Egypt in person-to-person transmission. +So I personally think that our life expectancy for Tamiflu as an effective drug is very limited -- very limited indeed. +Nevertheless most of the governments have based their whole flu policies on building stockpiles of Tamiflu. +Russia has actually stockpiled enough for 95 percent of all Russians. +We've stockpiled enough for 30 percent. +When I say enough, that's two weeks worth. +And then you're on your own because the pandemic is going to last for 18 to 24 months. +Some of the poorer countries that have had the most experience with H5N1 have built up stockpiles; they're already expired. They are already out of date. +What do we know from 1918, the last great pandemic? +The federal government abdicated most responsibility. +And so we ended up with this wild patchwork of regulations all over America. +Every city, county, state did their own thing. +And the rules and the belief systems were wildly disparate. +In some cases all schools, all churches, all public venues were closed. +The pandemic circulated three times in 18 months in the absence of commercial air travel. +The second wave was the mutated, super-killer wave. +And in the first wave we had enough healthcare workers. +But by the time the second wave hit it took such a toll among the healthcare workers that we lost most of our doctors and nurses that were on the front lines. +Overall we lost 700,000 people. +The virus was 100 percent lethal to pregnant women and we don't actually know why. +Most of the death toll was 15 to 40 year-olds -- robustly healthy young adults. +It was likened to the plague. +We don't actually know how many people died. +The low-ball estimate is 35 million. +This was based on European and North American data. +A new study by Chris Murray at Harvard shows that if you look at the databases that were kept by the Brits in India, there was a 31-fold greater death rate among the Indians. +So there is a strong belief that in places of poverty the death toll was far higher. +And that a more likely toll is somewhere in the neighborhood of 80 to 100 million people before we had commercial air travel. +So are we ready? +As a nation, no we're not. +And I think even those in the leadership would say that is the case, that we still have a long ways to go. +So what does that mean for you? Well the first thing is, I wouldn't start building up personal stockpiles of anything -- for yourself, your family, or your employees -- unless you've really done your homework. +What mask works, what mask doesn't work. +How many masks do you need? +The Institute of Medicine study felt that you could not recycle masks. +Well if you think it's going to last 18 months, are you going to buy 18 months worth of masks for every single person in your family? +We don't know -- again with Tamiflu, the number one side effect of Tamiflu is flu-like symptoms. +So then how can you tell who in your family has the flu if everybody is taking Tamiflu? +If you expand that out to think of a whole community, or all your employees in your company, you begin to realize how limited the Tamiflu option might be. +Everybody has come up to me and said, well I'll stockpile water or, I'll stockpile food, or what have you. +But really? Do you really have a place to stockpile 18 months worth of food? Twenty-four months worth of food? +Do you want to view the pandemic threat the way back in the 1950s people viewed the civil defense issue, and build your own little bomb shelter for pandemic flu? +I don't think that's rational. +I think it's about having to be prepared as communities, not as individuals -- being prepared as nation, being prepared as state, being prepared as town. +And right now most of the preparedness is deeply flawed. +And I hope I've convinced you of that, which means that the real job is go out and say to your local leaders, and your national leaders, "Why haven't you solved these problems? +Why are you still thinking that the lessons of Katrina do not apply to flu?" +And put the pressure where the pressure needs to be put. +But I guess the other thing to add is, if you do have employees, and you do have a company, I think you have certain responsibilities to demonstrate that you are thinking ahead for them, and you are trying to plan. +At a minimum the British banking plan showed that telecommuting can be helpful. +It probably does reduce exposure because people are not coming into the office and coughing on each other, or touching common objects and sharing things via their hands. +But can you sustain your company that way? +Well if you have a dot-com, maybe you can. +Otherwise you're in trouble. +Happy to take your questions. +Audience member: What factors determine the duration of a pandemic? +Laurie Garret: What factors determine the duration of a pandemic, we don't really know. +I could give you a bunch of flip, this, that, and the other. +But I would say that honestly we don't know. +Clearly the bottom line is the virus eventually attenuates, and ceases to be a lethal virus to humanity, and finds other hosts. +But we don't really know how and why that happens. +It's a very complicated ecology. +Audience member: What kind of triggers are you looking for? +You know way more than any of us. +To say ahh, if this happens then we are going to have a pandemic? +LG: The moment that you see any evidence of serious human-to-human to transmission. +Not just intimately between family members who took care of an ailing sister or brother, but a community infected -- spread within a school, spread within a dormitory, something of that nature. +Then I think that there is universal agreement now, at WHO all the way down: Send out the alert. +Audience member: Some research has indicated that statins can be helpful. +Can you talk about that? +LG: Yeah. There is some evidence that taking Lipitor and other common statins for cholesterol control may decrease your vulnerability to influenza. +But we do not completely understand why. +The mechanism isn't clear. +And I don't know that there is any way responsibly for someone to start medicating their children with their personal supply of Lipitor or something of that nature. +We have absolutely no idea what that would do. +You might be causing some very dangerous outcomes in your children, doing such a thing. +Audience member: How far along are we in being able to determine whether someone is actually carrying, whether somebody has this before the symptoms are full-blown? +LG: Right. So I have for a long time said that what we really needed was a rapid diagnostic. +And our Centers for Disease Control has labeled a test they developed a rapid diagnostic. +It takes 24 hours in a very highly developed laboratory, in highly skilled hands. +I'm thinking dipstick. +You could do it to your own kid. It changes color. +It tells you if you have H5N1. +In terms of where we are in science with DNA identification capacities and so on, it's not that far off. +But we're not there. And there hasn't been the kind of investment to get us there. +Audience member: In the 1918 flu I understand that they theorized that there was some attenuation of the virus when it made the leap into humans. +Is that likely, do you think, here? +I mean 100 percent death rate is pretty severe. +LG: Um yeah. So we don't actually know what the lethality was of the 1918 strain to wild birds before it jumped from birds to humans. +It's curious that there is no evidence of mass die-offs of chickens or household birds across America before the human pandemic happened. +That may be because those events were occurring on the other side of the world where nobody was paying attention. +But the virus clearly went through one round around the world in a mild enough form that the British army in World War I actually certified that it was not a threat and would not affect the outcome of the war. +And after circulating around the world came back in a form that was tremendously lethal. +What percentage of infected people were killed by it? +Again we don't really know for sure. +It's clear that if you were malnourished to begin with, you had a weakened immune system, you lived in poverty in India or Africa, your likelihood of dying was far greater. +But we don't really know. +Audience member: One of the things I've heard is that the real death cause when you get a flu is the associated pneumonia, and that a pneumonia vaccine may offer you 50 percent better chance of survival. +LG: For a long time, researchers in emerging diseases were kind of dismissive of the pandemic flu threat on the grounds that back in 1918 they didn't have antibiotics. +And that most people who die of regular flu -- which in regular flu years is about 360,000 people worldwide, most of them senior citizens -- and they die not of the flu but because the flu gives an assault to their immune system. +And along comes pneumococcus or another bacteria, streptococcus and boom, they get a bacterial pneumonia. +But it turns out that in 1918 that was not the case at all. +And so far in the H5N1 cases in people, similarly bacterial infection has not been an issue at all. +It's this absolutely phenomenal disruption of the immune system that is the key to why people die of this virus. +And I would just add we saw the same thing with SARS. +So what's going on here is your body says, your immune system sends out all its sentinels and says, "I don't know what the heck this is. +We've never seen anything even remotely like this before." +It won't do any good to bring in the sharpshooters because those antibodies aren't here. +And it won't do any good to bring in the tanks and the artillery because those T-cells don't recognize it either. +So we're going to have to go all-out thermonuclear response, stimulate the total cytokine cascade. +The whole immune system swarms into the lungs. +And yes they die, drowning in their own fluids, of pneumonia. +But it's not bacterial pneumonia. +And it's not a pneumonia that would respond to a vaccine. +And I think my time is up. I thank you all for your attention. +We look around the media, as we see on the news from Iraq, Afghanistan, Sierra Leone, and the conflict seems incomprehensible to us. +And that's certainly how it seemed to me when I started this project. +But as a physicist, I thought, well if you give me some data, I could maybe understand this. You know, give us a go. +So as a naive New Zealander I thought, well I'll go to the Pentagon. +Can you get me some information? +No. So I had to think a little harder. +And I was watching the news one night in Oxford. +And I looked down at the chattering heads on my channel of choice. +And I saw that there was information there. +There was data within the streams of news that we consume. +All this noise around us actually has information. +So what I started thinking was, perhaps there is something like open source intelligence here. +If we can get enough of these streams of information together, we can perhaps start to understand the war. +So this is exactly what I did. We started bringing a team together, an interdisciplinary team of scientists, of economists, mathematicians. +We brought these guys together and we started to try and solve this. +We did it in three steps. +The first step we did was to collect. We did 130 different sources of information -- from NGO reports to newspapers and cable news. +We brought this raw data in and we filtered it. +We extracted the key bits on information to build the database. +That database contained the timing of attacks, the location, the size and the weapons used. +It's all in the streams of information we consume daily, we just have to know how to pull it out. +And once we had this we could start doing some cool stuff. +What if we were to look at the distribution of the sizes of attacks? +What would that tell us? +So we started doing this. And you can see here on the horizontal axis you've got the number of people killed in an attack or the size of the attack. +And on the vertical axis you've got the number of attacks. +So we plot data for sample on this. +You see some sort of random distribution -- perhaps 67 attacks, one person was killed, or 47 attacks where seven people were killed. +We did this exact same thing for Iraq. +And we didn't know, for Iraq what we were going to find. +It turns out what we found was pretty surprising. +You take all of the conflict, all of the chaos, all of the noise, and out of that comes this precise mathematical distribution of the way attacks are ordered in this conflict. +This blew our mind. +Why should a conflict like Iraq have this as its fundamental signature? +Why should there be order in war? +We didn't really understand that. +We thought maybe there is something special about Iraq. +So we looked at a few more conflicts. +We looked at Colombia, we looked at Afghanistan, and we looked at Senegal. +And the same pattern emerged in each conflict. +This wasn't supposed to happen. +These are different wars, with different religious factions, different political factions, and different socioeconomic problems. +And yet the fundamental patterns underlying them are the same. +So we went a little wider. +We looked around the world at all the data we could get our hands on. +From Peru to Indonesia, we studied this same pattern again. +And we found that not only were the distributions these straight lines, but the slope of these lines, they clustered around this value of alpha equals 2.5. +And we could generate an equation that could predict the likelihood of an attack. +What we're saying here is the probability of an attack killing X number of people in a country like Iraq is equal to a constant, times the size of that attack, raised to the power of negative alpha. +And negative alpha is the slope of that line I showed you before. +So what? +This is data, statistics. What does it tell us about these conflicts? +That was a challenge we had to face as physicists. +How do we explain this? +And what we really found was that alpha, if we think about it, is the organizational structure of the insurgency. +Alpha is the distribution of the sizes of attacks, which is really the distribution of the group strength carrying out the attacks. +So we look at a process of group dynamics: coalescence and fragmentation, groups coming together, groups breaking apart. +And we start running the numbers on this. Can we simulate it? +Can we create the kind of patterns that we're seeing in places like Iraq? +Turns out we kind of do a reasonable job. +We can run these simulations. +We can recreate this using a process of group dynamics to explain the patterns that we see all around the conflicts around the world. +So what's going on? +Why should these different -- seemingly different conflicts have the same patterns? +Now what I believe is going on is that the insurgent forces, they evolve over time. They adapt. +And it turns out there is only one solution to fight a much stronger enemy. +And if you don't find that solution as an insurgent force, you don't exist. +So every insurgent force that is ongoing, every conflict that is ongoing, it's going to look something like this. +And that is what we think is happening. +Taking it forward, how do we change it? +How do we end a war like Iraq? +What does it look like? +Alpha is the structure. It's got a stable state at 2.5. +This is what wars look like when they continue. +We've got to change that. +We can push it up: the forces become more fragmented; there is more of them, but they are weaker. +Or we push it down: they're more robust; there is less groups; but perhaps you can sit and talk to them. +So this graph here, I'm going to show you now. +No one has seen this before. This is literally stuff that we've come through last week. +And we see the evolution of Alpha through time. +We see it start. And we see it grow up to the stable state the wars around the world look like. +And it stays there through the invasion of Fallujah until the Samarra bombings in the Iraqi elections of '06. +And the system gets perturbed. It moves upwards to a fragmented state. +This is when the surge happens. +And depending on who you ask, the surge was supposed to push it up even further. +The opposite happened. +The groups became stronger. +They became more robust. +And so I'm thinking, right, great, it's going to keep going down. +We can talk to them. We can get a solution. The opposite happened. +It's moved up again. The groups are more fragmented. +And this tells me one of two things. +Either we're back where we started and the surge has had no effect; or finally the groups have been fragmented to the extent that we can start to think about maybe moving out. +I don't know what the answer is to that. +But I know that we should be looking at the structure of the insurgency to answer that question. +Thank you. +What I want to do today is to spend some time talking about some stuff that's sort of giving me a little bit of existential angst, for lack of a better word, over the past couple of years, and basically, these three quotes tell what's going on. +"When God made the color purple, God was just showing off," Alice Walker wrote in "The Color Purple," and Zora Neale Hurston wrote in "Dust Tracks On A Road," "Research is a formalized curiosity. +It's poking and prying with a purpose." +And then finally, when I think about the near future, you know, we have this attitude, well, whatever happens, happens. Right? +So that goes along with the Chesire Cat saying, "If you don't care much where you want to get to, it doesn't much matter which way you go." +But I think it does matter which way we go, and what road we take, because when I think about design in the near future, what I think are the most important issues, what's really crucial and vital is that we need to revitalize the arts and sciences right now in 2002. +We're, in a sense, failing to act in the future. We're purposefully, consciously being laggards. +We're lagging behind. +Frantz Fanon, who was a psychiatrist from Martinique, said, "Each generation must, out of relative obscurity, discover its mission, and fulfill or betray it." +What is our mission? What do we have to do? I think our mission is to reconcile, to reintegrate science and the arts, because right now there's a schism that exists in popular culture. You know, people have this idea that science and the arts are really separate. +And then we have this tendency, the career counselors and various people say things like, "Artists are not analytical. +They're ingenious, perhaps, but not analytical," and when these concepts underly our teaching and what we think about the world, then we have a problem, because we stymie support for everything. +By accepting this dichotomy, whether it's tongue-in-cheek, when we attempt to accommodate it in our world, and we try to build our foundation for the world, we're messing up the future, because, who wants to be uncreative? +Who wants to be illogical? +Talent would run from either of these fields if you said you had to choose either. +Then they're going to go to something where they think, "Well, I can be creative and logical at the same time." +Now I grew up in the '60s and I'll admit it, actually, my childhood spanned the '60s, and I was a wannabe hippie and I always resented the fact that I wasn't really old enough to be a hippie. +And I know there are people here, the younger generation who want to be hippies, but people talk about the '60s all the time, and they talk about the anarchy that was there, but when I think about the '60s, what I took away from it was that there was hope for the future. +We thought everyone could participate. +But the '60s left me with a problem. +You see, I always assumed I would go into space, because I followed all of this, but I also loved the arts and sciences. +You see, when I was growing up as a little girl and as a teenager, I loved designing and making dogs' clothes and wanting to be a fashion designer. +I took art and ceramics. I loved dance. +Lola Falana. Alvin Ailey. Jerome Robbins. +And I also avidly followed the Gemini and the Apollo programs. +I had science projects and tons of astronomy books. I took calculus and philosophy. +I wondered about the infinity and the Big Bang theory. +Now, my mother helped me figure that one out. But when I went into space, when I went into space I carried a number of things up with me. I carried a poster by Alvin Ailey, which you can figure out now, I love the dance company. +And I had to say, "Because it represents human creativity, the creativity that allowed us, that we were required to have to conceive and build and launch the space shuttle, springs from the same source as the imagination and analysis it took to carve a Bundu statue, or the ingenuity it took to design, choreograph, and stage "Cry." +Each one of them are different manifestations, incarnations, of creativity, avatars of human creativity, and that's what we have to reconcile in our minds, how these things fit together. +The difference between arts and sciences is not analytical versus intuitive, right? +E=MC squared required an intuitive leap, and then you had to do the analysis afterwards. +Einstein said, in fact, "The most beautiful thing we can experience is the mysterious. +It is the source of all true art and science." +Dance requires us to express and want to express the jubilation in life, but then you have to figure out, exactly what movement do I do to make sure that it comes across correctly? +The difference between arts and sciences is also not constructive versus deconstructive, right? A lot of people think of the sciences as deconstructive. +You have to pull things apart. +And yeah, sub-atomic physics is deconstructive. You literally try to tear atoms apart to understand what's inside of them. But sculpture, from what I understand from great sculptors, is deconstructive, because you see a piece and you remove what doesn't need to be there. +Biotechnology is constructive. +Orchestral arranging is constructive. +So in fact we use constructive and deconstructive techniques in everything. +The difference between science and the arts is not that they are different sides of the same coin, even, or even different parts of the same continuum, but rather they're manifestations of the same thing. +Different quantum states of an atom? +Or maybe if I want to be more 21st century I could say that they are different harmonic resonances of a superstring. +But we'll leave that alone. They spring from the same source. +The arts and sciences are avatars of human creativity. It's our attempt as humans to build an understanding of the universe, the world around us. +It's our attempt to influence things, the universe internal to ourselves and external to us. +The sciences, to me, are manifestations of our attempt to express or share our understanding, our experience, to influence the universe external to ourselves. +It doesn't rely on us as individuals. +It's the universe, as experienced by everyone, and the arts manifest our desire, our attempt to share or influence others through experiences that are peculiar to us as individuals. +Let me say it again another way: science provides an understanding of a universal experience, and arts provides a universal understanding of a personal experience. +That's what we have to think about, that they're all part of us, they're all part of a continuum. +It's not just the tools, it's not just the sciences, you know, the mathematics and the numerical stuff and the statistics, because we heard, very much on this stage, people talked about music being mathematical. Right? Arts don't just use clay, aren't the only ones that use clay, light and sound and movement. +They use analysis as well. +So people might say, well, I still like that intuitive versus analytical thing, because everybody wants to do the right brain, left brain thing, right? +We've all been accused of being right-brained or left-brained at some point in time, depending on who we disagreed with. You know, people say intuitive, you know that's like you're in touch with nature, in touch with yourself and relationships. +Analytical: you put your mind to work, and I'm going to tell you a little secret. You all know this though, but sometimes people use this analysis idea, that things are outside of ourselves, to be, say, that this is what we're going to elevate as the true, most important sciences, right? +And then you have artists, and you all know this is true as well, artists will say things about scientists because they say they're too concrete, they're disconnected with the world. +But, we've even had that here on stage, so don't act like you don't know what I'm talking about. We had folks talking about the Flat Earth Society and flower arrangers, so there's this whole dichotomy that we continue to carry along, even when we know better. +And folks say we need to choose either or. +But it would really be foolish to choose either one, right? +Intuitive versus analytical? +That's a foolish choice. It's foolish, just like trying to choose between being realistic or idealistic. +You need both in life. Why do people do this? I'm just gonna quote a molecular biologist, Sydney Brenner, who's 70 years old so he can say this. He said, "It's always important to distinguish between chastity and impotence." +Now... I want to share with you a little equation, okay? +How do understanding science and the arts fit into our lives and what's going on and the things that we're talking about here at the design conference, and this is a little thing I came up with, understanding and our resources and our will cause us to have outcomes. +Our understanding is our science, our arts, our religion, how we see the universe around us, our resources, our money, our labor, our minerals, those things that are out there in the world we have to work with. +But more importantly, there's our will. +This is our vision, our aspirations of the future, our hopes, our dreams, our struggles and our fears. +Our successes and our failures influence what we do with all of those, and to me, design and engineering, craftsmanship and skilled labor, are all the things that work on this to have our outcome, which is our human quality of life. +Where do we want the world to be? +And guess what? +Regardless of how we look at this, whether we look at arts and sciences are separate or different, they're both being influenced now and they're both having problems. +I did a project called S.E.E.ing the Future: Science, Engineering and Education, and it was looking at how to shed light on most effective use of government funding. +We got a bunch of scientists in all stages of their careers. They came to Dartmouth College, where I was teaching, and they talked about with theologians and financiers, what are some of the issues of public funding for science and engineering research? What's most important about it? +There's pseudo-science, crop circles, alien autopsy, haunted houses, or disasters. And that's what we see. +And this isn't really the information you need to operate in everyday life and figure out how to participate in this democracy and determine what's going on. +And education is not keeping up. +In K through 12, people are taking out wet labs. They think if we put a computer in the room it's going to take the place of actually, we're mixing the acids, we're growing the potatoes. +And government funding is decreasing in spending and then they're saying, let's have corporations take over, and that's not true. Government funding should at least do things like recognize cost-benefits of basic science and engineering research. We have to know that we have a responsibility as global citizens in this world. +Infrastructure museums, theaters, movie houses across the country are disappearing. We have more television stations with less to watch, we have more money spent on rewrites to get old television programs in the movies. +We have corporate funding now that, when it goes to some company, when it goes to support the arts, it almost requires that the product be part of the picture that the artist draws, and we have stadiums that are named over and over again by corporations. +In Houston, we're trying to figure out what to do with that Enron Stadium thing. +And fine arts and education in the schools is disappearing, and we have a government that seems like it's gutting the NEA and other programs, so we have to really stop and think, what are we trying to do with the sciences and the arts? +There's a need to revitalize them. +We have to pay attention to it. I just want to tell you really quickly what I'm doing. +I want to tell you what I've been doing a little bit since... I feel this need to sort of integrate some of the ideas that I've had and run across over time. +Then I went to medical school, and I was supposed to just go on what the machine said about bodies. +You know, you would ask patients questions and some people would tell you, "Don't, don't, don't listen to what the patients said." We know that patients know and understand their bodies better, but these days we're trying to divorce them from that idea. We have to reconcile the patient's knowledge of their body with physician's measurements. +We had someone talk about measuring emotions and getting machines to figure out what, to keep us from acting crazy. Right? +No, we shouldn't measure, we shouldn't use machines to measure road rage and then do something to keep us from engaging in it. +Maybe we can have machines help us to recognize that we have road rage and then we need to know how to control that without the machines. We even need to be able to recognize that without the machines. +What I'm very concerned about is how do we bolster our self-awareness as humans, as biological organisms? +Michael Moschen spoke of having to teach and learn how to feel with my eyes, to see with my hands. +We have all kinds of possibilities to use our senses by, and that's what we have to do. +That's what I want to do, is to try to use bioinstrumentation, those kind of things to help our senses in what we do, and that's the work I've been doing now as a company called BioSentient Corporation. +I figured I'd have to do that ad, because I'm an entrepreneur, because entrepreneur says that that's somebody who does what they want to do because they're not broke enough that they have to get a real job. +But that's the work I'm doing with BioSentient Corporation trying to figure out how do we integrate these things? +Let me finish by saying that my personal design issue for the future is really about integrating, to think about that intuitive and that analytical. +The arts and sciences are not separate. +High school physics lesson before you leave. High school physics teacher used to hold up a ball. She would say this ball has potential energy, but nothing will happen to it, it can't do any work until I drop it and it changes states. +I like to think of ideas as potential energy. +They're really wonderful, but nothing will happen until we risk putting them into action. +This conference is filled with wonderful ideas. +We're going to share lots of things with people, but nothing's going to happen until we risk putting those ideas into action. +We need to revitalize the arts and sciences of today, we need to take responsibility for the future. We can't hide behind saying it's just for company profits, or it's just a business, or I'm an artist or an academician. +Here's how you judge what you're doing. +I talked about that balance between intuitive, analytical. +Fran Lebowitz, my favorite cynic, she said the three questions of greatest concern, now I'm going to add on to design, is, "Is it attractive?" +That's the intuitive. +"Is it amusing?" The analytical. +"And does it know its place?" +The balance. Thank you very much. +This is a sculpture I made, which is a way of, kind of, freeing a form into an object that has different degrees of freedom. +So, it can balance on a point. +This is a bronze ball, an aluminum arm here, and then this wooden disk. +And the wooden disk was really thought about as something that you'd want to hold on to, and that would glide easily through your hands. +The aluminum is because it's very light. +The bronze is nice hard, durable material that could roll on the ground. +Inside of the bronze ball there's a lead weight that is free-swinging on an axle that's on two bearings that pass in between, across it, like this, that counterbalance this weight. +So it allows it to roll. +And the sphere has that balance property that it always sort of stays still and looks the same from every direction. +But if you put something on top of it, it disbalances it. And so it would tip over. +But in this case because the interior is free-swinging in relation to the sphere, it can stand up on one point. +And then there was a second level to this object, which is that it -- I wanted it to convey some proportions that I was interested in, which is the diameter of the Moon and the diameter of the Earth in proportion to each other. +I was exploring, really early on, wanting to make things float in the air. +And I thought up a lot of ideas. +This is sculpture that I made that -- it's magnetically levitated. +The thing is, is that it's slightly dangerous. +Normally it's sort of cordoned off when it's in a museum. +But it's uh -- let's see if I can manipulate it a little bit without, um -- oops. +So this is just floating, floating on a permanent magnetic field, which stabilizes it in all directions. +Except there is a slight tether here, which keeps it from going over the top of its field. +It's sort of surfing on a magnetic field at the crest of a wave. +And that's what supports the object and keeps it stable. +I think we could roll the tape, admin. +I have a sort of a collection of videos that I took of different installations, which I could narrate. +This is a sculpture of the Sun and the Earth, in proportion. +Representing that eight and a half minutes that it takes light and gravity to connect the two. +So here is the Earth. It's a little less than a millimeter that was turned of solid bronze. +And here is a similar sculpture. +That's the Sun at that end. +And then in a series of 55 balls, it reduces, proportionately -- each ball and the spaces between them reduce proportionately, until they get down to this little Earth. +This is in a sculpture park in Taejon. +This one is about the Moon and then the distance to the Earth, in proportion also. +This is a little stone ball, floating. +As you can see the little tether, that it's also magnetically levitated. +And then this is the first part of -- this is 109 spheres, since the Sun is 109 times the diameter of the Earth. +And so this is the size of the Sun. +And then each of these little spheres is the size of the Earth in proportion to the Sun. +It's made up of 16 concentric shells. Each one has 92 spheres. +This is in the courtyard of a twelfth-century alchemist. +I was thinking that the Sun is kind of the ultimate alchemist. So this, again, is on the subject -- a slice from the equator of the Earth. +And then the Moon in the center, and it's floating. And this is in France. +This is in Sapporo. +It's balancing on a shaft and a ball, right at the center of gravity, or just slightly above the center of gravity, which means that the lower half of the object is just a little bit more weighty. +So you can see it rotating here. +It weighs about a ton or over a ton. +It's made of stainless steel, quite thick. +But it's being balanced like that in equilibrium. +It's susceptible to motion by the air currents. +This is another species of work that I do. +These are these arrays. These spheres are all suspended, but they have magnets horizontally in them that make them all like compasses. +So all the red sides, for example, face one direction: south. +And the blue side, the compliment, faces the other way. +So as you turn around you're seeing different colors. +This is based on the structure of a diamond. +It was a diamond cell structure was the point of departure. +And then there were kind of large spaces in the hollows between the atoms. +And so I placed one more element of each one of them. +These were white spheres. +Then I had video projectors that were projecting intermittently onto the spheres. +So they would catch parts of the images, and make sort of three-dimensional color volumes, as you walk through it, through the object. +This is something I did of a tactile communication system. +It was the idea of isolating the tactile component of sculpture, and then putting it into a communication system. +This is an idea of moving a sculpture, a ball, that would be directed around the room by a computer. +This is a clock I designed. +It has Buckminster Fuller's Dymaxion Map edited here. +It turns once per day in synchrony with the Earth. +And then, this is like projects that are harder to build. +This has a diamond-bottomed lake. +So it's a floating island with water, fresh water, that can fly from place to place. +This would be grown, I suppose, with nanotechnology in the future sometime. +In the course of doing my work I sort of have a broad range of interests. +And some of it is just the idea of creating media -- media as a sculpture, something that would keep the sculpture fresh and ever-changing, by just creating the media that the sculpture is made of. +And I had a lot of -- always interested in the concept of a crystal ball. +And the idea that you could see things inside of a crystal ball and predict the future -- or a television set, where it's sort of like a magic box where anything can appear. +I was thinking about mass produced spherical television sets that could be linked to orbiting camera satellites. +So if we could roll the next film here. +This has evolved over the years in a lot of different iterations. +But this the current version of it, is a flying airship that is about 35 meters in diameter, about 110 feet in diameter. +The whole surface of it is covered with 60 million diodes, red, blue, and green, that allow you to have a high-resolution picture, visible in daylight. +I came with a plan. +I brought it to Paul MacCready's company AeroVironment to do a feasibility study, and they analyzed it, and came up with a lot of innovative ideas about how to propel it. +So we have a physical plan of how to make this actually happen. +This is the control room inside of the ship. +The idea of this air genie is, it's something that can just transform and become anything. +It's like a traveling show. +It has speakers on it. And it has cameras over the surface of it. +So it can see its environment, and then it can mimic its environment and disappear. +Here the legs are retracting. +The cabin is open or closed, as you like. +It weighs about 20 tons. +It has on-board generators. +It can generate about a million kilowatts, in order to be bright enough to be visible in daylight. +The idea of it is to make a kind of a traveling show. +It really would be dedicated to the arts and to interacting. +There would be on board a crew of artists, musicians, that would allow the thing to become actually kind of a conscious object that would respond to the moment, and to interact as an entity that was aware, that could communicate. +It's completely silent and nonpolluting. +It has electric motors with a novel propulsion system. +It could be interacted with large crowds in different ways. +Primarily I would be interested in how it would interact with, say, going to a college campus, and then being used as a way of talking about the earth sciences, the world, the situation of the globe. +The default image on the object would probably be a high-resolution Earth image. +But then one could interact with that and show plate tectonics or global warming issues, or migrations -- all of the things that we're concerned with today. +And then at night the idea is that it would be used as kind of a rave situation, where the people could cut loose, and the music and the lights, and everything. +So it could land in a park, for example. +Or this could represent a college green. +And then it would have a corresponding website that would show the itinerary of this. +And so interacting with the same kind of imagery. +It would also be able to be an open code, so people could interact with it. +It would be forum for people's ideas about what they would like to see on a giant screen of this type. +So that's pretty much it. +Okay. Thank you. +I'm not at all a cook. +So don't fear, this is not going to be a cooking demonstration. +But I do want to talk to you about something that I think is dear to all of us. +And that is bread -- something which is as simple as our basic, most fundamental human staple. +And I think few of us spend the day without eating bread in some form. +Unless you're on one of these Californian low-carb diets, bread is standard. +Bread is not only standard in the Western diet. +As I will show to you, it is actually the mainstay of modern life. +So I'm going to bake bread for you. +In the meantime I'm also talking to you, so my life is going to be complicated. Bear with me. +First of all, a little bit of audience participation. +I have two loaves of bread here. +One is a supermarket standard: white bread, pre-packaged, which I'm told is called a Wonderbread. +I didn't know this word until I arrived. +And this is more or less, a whole-meal, handmade, small-bakery loaf of bread. +Here we go. I want to see a show of hands. +Who prefers the whole-meal bread? +Okay let me do this differently. Is anybody preferring the Wonderbread at all? +I have two tentative male hands. +Okay, now the question is really, why is this so? +And I think it is because we feel that this kind of bread really is about authenticity. +It's about a traditional way of living. +A way that is perhaps more real, more honest. +This is an image from Tuscany, where we feel agriculture is still about beauty. +And life is really, too. +And this is about good taste, good traditions. +Why do we have this image? +Why do we feel that this is more true than this? +Well I think it has a lot to do with our history. +In the 10,000 years since agriculture evolved, most of our ancestors have actually been agriculturalists or they were closely related to food production. +And we have this mythical image of how life was in rural areas in the past. +Art has helped us to maintain that kind of image. +It was a mythical past. +Of course, the reality is quite different. +These poor farmers working the land by hand or with their animals, had yield levels that are comparable to the poorest farmers today in West Africa. +But we have, somehow, in the course of the last few centuries, or even decades, started to cultivate an image of a mythical, rural agricultural past. +It was only 200 years ago that we had the advent of the Industrial Revolution. +And while I'm starting to make some bread for you here, it's very important to understand what that revolution did to us. +It brought us power. It brought us mechanization, fertilizers. +And it actually drove up our yields. +And even sort of horrible things, like picking beans by hand, can now be done automatically. +All that is a real, great improvement, as we shall see. +Of course we also, particularly in the last decade, managed to envelop the world in a dense chain of supermarkets, in a chain of global trade. +And it means that you now eat products, which can come from all around the world. +That is the reality of our modern life. +Now you may prefer this loaf of bread. +Excuse my hands but this is how it is. +But actually the real relevant bread, historically, is this white Wonder loaf. +And don't despise the white bread because it really, I think, symbolizes the fact that bread and food have become plentiful and affordable to all. +And that is a feat that we are not really conscious of that much. +But it has changed the world. +This tiny bread that is tasteless in some ways and has a lot of problems has changed the world. +So what is happening? +Well the best way to look at that is to do a tiny bit of simplistic statistics. +With the advent of the Industrial Revolution with modernization of agriculture in the last few decades, since the 1960s, food availability, per head, in this world, has increased by 25 percent. +And the world population in the meantime has doubled. +That means that we have now more food available than ever before in human history. +And that is the result, directly, of being so successful at increasing the scale and volume of our production. +And this is true, as you can see, for all countries, including the so-called developing countries. +What happened to our bread in the meantime? +As food became plentiful here, it also meant that we were able to decrease the number of people working in agriculture to something like, on average, in the high income countries, five percent or less of the population. +In the U.S. only one percent of the people are actually farmers. +And it frees us all up to do other things -- to sit at TED meetings and not to worry about our food. +That is, historically, a really unique situation. +Never before has the responsibility to feed the world been in the hands of so few people. +And never before have so many people been oblivious of that fact. +So as food became more plentiful, bread became cheaper. +And as it became cheaper, bread manufacturers decided to add in all kinds of things. +We added in more sugar. +We add in raisins and oil and milk and all kinds of things to make bread, from a simple food into kind of a support for calories. +And today, bread now is associated with obesity, which is very strange. +It is the basic, most fundamental food that we've had in the last ten thousand years. +Wheat is the most important crop -- the first crop we domesticated and the most important crop we still grow today. +But this is now this strange concoction of high calories. +And that's not only true in this country, it is true all over the world. +Bread has migrated to tropical countries, where the middle classes now eat French rolls and hamburgers and where the commuters find bread much more handy to use than rice or cassava. +So bread has become from a main staple, a source of calories associated with obesity and also a source of modernity, of modern life. +And the whiter the bread, in many countries, the better it is. +So this is the story of bread as we know it now. +But of course the price of mass production has been that we moved large-scale. +And large-scale has meant destruction of many of our landscapes, destruction of biodiversity -- still a lonely emu here in the Brazilian cerrado soybean fields. +The costs have been tremendous -- water pollution, all the things you know about, destruction of our habitats. +What we need to do is to go back to understanding what our food is about. +And this is where I have to query all of you. +How many of you can actually tell wheat apart from other cereals? +How many of you actually can make a bread in this way, without starting with a bread machine or just some kind of packaged flavor? +Can you actually bake bread? Do you know how much a loaf of bread actually costs? +We have become very removed from what our bread really is, which, again, evolutionarily speaking, is very strange. +In fact not many of you know that our bread, of course, was not a European invention. +It was invented by farmers in Iraq and Syria in particular. +The tiny spike on the left to the center is actually the forefather of wheat. +This is where it all comes from, and where these farmers who actually, ten thousand years ago, put us on the road of bread. +Now it is not surprising that with this massification and large-scale production, there is a counter-movement that emerged -- very much also here in California. +The counter-movement says, "Let's go back to this. +Let's go back to traditional farming. +Let's go back to small-scale, to farmers' markets, small bakeries and all that." Wonderful. +Don't we all agree? I certainly agree. +I would love to go back to Tuscany to this kind of traditional setting, gastronomy, good food. +But this is a fallacy. +And the fallacy comes from idealizing a past that we have forgotten about. +If we do this, if we want to stay with traditional small-scale farming we are going, actually, to relegate these poor farmers and their husbands -- among whom I have lived for many years, working without electricity and water, to try to improve their food production -- we relegate them to poverty. +What they want are implements to increase their production: something to fertilize the soil, something to protect their crop and to bring it to a market. +We cannot just think that small-scale is the solution to the world food problem. +It's a luxury solution for us who can afford it, if you want to afford it. +In fact we do not want this poor woman to work the land like this. +If we say just small-scale production, as is the tendency here, to go back to local food means that a poor man like Hans Rosling cannot even eat oranges anymore because in Scandinavia we don't have oranges. +So local food production is out. +But also we do not want to relegate to poverty in the rural areas. +And we do not want to relegate the urban poor to starvation. +So we must find other solutions. +One of our problems is that world food production needs to increase very rapidly -- doubling by about 2030. +The main driver of that is actually meat. +And meat consumption in Southeast Asia and China in particular is what drives the prices of cereals. +That need for animal protein is going to continue. +We can discuss alternatives in another talk, perhaps one day, but this is our driving force. +So what can we do? +Can we find a solution to produce more? +Yes. But we need mechanization. +And I'm making a real plea here. +I feel so strongly that you cannot ask a small farmer to work the land and bend over to grow a hectare of rice, 150,000 times, just to plant a crop and weed it. +You cannot ask people to work under these conditions. +We need clever low-key mechanization that avoids the problems of the large-scale mechanization that we've had. +So what can we do? +We must feed three billion people in cities. +We will not do that through small farmers' markets because these people have no small farmers' markets at their disposal. +They have low incomes. And they benefit from cheap, affordable, safe and diverse food. +That's what we must aim for in the next 20 to 30 years. +But yes there are some solutions. +And let me just do one simple conceptual thing: if I plot science as a proxy for control of the production process and scale. +What you see is that we've started in the left-hand corner with traditional agriculture, which was sort of small-scale and low-control. +We've moved towards large-scale and very high control. +What I want us to do is to keep up the science and even get more science in there but go to a kind of regional scale -- not just in terms of the scale of the fields, but in terms of the entire food network. +That's where we should move. +And the ultimate may be, but it doesn't apply to cereals, that we have entirely closed ecosystems -- the horticultural systems right at the top left-hand corner. +So we need to think differently about agriculture science. +Agriculture science for most people -- and there are not many farmers among you here -- has this name of being bad, of being about pollution, about large-scale, about the destruction of the environment. +That is not necessary. +We need more science and not less. And we need good science. +So what kind of science can we have? +Well first of all I think we can do much better on the existing technologies. +Use biotechnology where useful, particularly in pest and disease resistance. +There are also robots, for example, who can recognize weeds with a resolution of half an inch. +We have much cleverer irrigation. +We do not need to spill the water if we don't want to. +And we need to think very dispassionately about the comparative advantages of small-scale and large-scale. +We need to think that land is multi-functional. +It has different functions. +There are different ways in which we must use it -- for residential, for nature, for agriculture purposes. +And we also need to re-examine livestock. +Go regional and go to urban food systems. +I want to see fish ponds in parking lots and basements. +I want to have horticulture and greenhouses on top of residential areas. +And I want to use the energy that comes from those greenhouses and from the fermentation of crops to heat our residential areas. +There are all kinds of ways we can do it. +We cannot solve the world food problem by using biological agriculture. +But we can do a lot more. +And the main thing that I would really ask all of you as you go back to your countries, or as you stay here: ask your government for an integrated food policy. +Food is as important as energy, as security, as the environment. +Everything is linked together. +So we can do that. In fact in a densely populated country like the River Delta, where I live in the Netherlands, we have combined these functions. +So this is not science fiction. We can combine things even in a social sense of making the rural areas more accessible to people -- to house, for example, the chronically sick. +There is all kinds of things we can do. +But there is something you must do. It's not enough for me to say, "Let's get more bold science into agriculture." +You must go back and think about your own food chain. +Talk to farmers. When was the last time you went to a farm and talked to a farmer? +Talk to people in restaurants. +Understand where you are in the food chain, where your food comes from. +Understand that you are part of this enormous chain of events. +And that frees you up to do other things. +And above all, to me, food is about respect. +It's about understanding, when you eat, that there are also many people who are still in this situation, who are still struggling for their daily food. +And the kind of simplistic solutions that we sometimes have, to think that doing everything by hand is going to be the solution, is really not morally justified. +We need to help to lift them out of poverty. +We need to make them proud of being a farmer because they allow us to survive. +Never before, as I said, has the responsibility for food been in the hands of so few. +And never before have we had the luxury of taking it for granted because it is now so cheap. +And I think there is nobody else who has expressed better, to me, the idea that food, in the end, in our own tradition, is something holy. +It's not about nutrients and calories. +It's about sharing. It's about honesty. It's about identity. +Who said this so beautifully was Mahatma Gandhi, 75 years ago, when he spoke about bread. +He did not speak about rice, in India. He said, "To those who have to go without two meals a day, God can only appear as bread." +And so as I'm finishing my bread here -- and I've been baking it, and I'll try not to burn my hands. +Let me share with those of you here in the first row. +Let me share some of the food with you. +Take some of my bread. +And as you eat it, and as you try it -- please come and stand up. +Have some of it. +I want you to think that every bite connects you to the past and the future: to these anonymous farmers, that first bred the first wheat varieties; and to the farmers of today, who've been making this. And you don't even know who they are. +Every meal you eat contains ingredients from all across the world. +Everything makes us so privileged, that we can eat this food, that we don't struggle every day. +And that, I think, evolutionarily-speaking is unique. +We've never had that before. +So enjoy your bread. +Eat it, and feel privileged. +Thank you very much. +So sometimes I get invited to give weird talks. +I got invited to speak to the people who dress up in big stuffed animal costumes to perform at sporting events. +Unfortunately I couldn't go. +But it got me thinking about the fact that these guys, at least most of them, know what it is that they do for a living. +What they do is they dress up as stuffed animals and entertain people at sporting events. +Shortly after that I got invited to speak at the convention of the people who make balloon animals. +And again, I couldn't go. But it's a fascinating group. They make balloon animals. +There is a big schism between the ones who make gospel animals and porn animals, but -- they do a lot of really cool stuff with balloons. +Sometimes they get in trouble, but not often. +And the other thing about these guys is, they also know what they do for a living. +They make balloon animals. +But what do we do for a living? +What exactly to the people watching this do every day? +And I want to argue that what we do is we try to change everything. +That we try to find a piece of the status quo -- something that bothers us, something that needs to be improved, something that is itching to be changed -- and we change it. +We try to make big, permanent, important change. +But we don't think about it that way. +And we haven't spent a lot of time talking about what that process is like. +And I've been studying it for a couple years. +And I want to share a couple stories with you today. +First, about a guy named Nathan Winograd. +Nathan was the number two person at the San Francisco SPCA. +And what you may not know about the history of the SPCA is, it was founded to kill dogs and cats. +Cities gave them a charter to get rid of the stray animals on the street and destroy them. +In a typical year four million dogs and cats were killed, most of them within 24 hours of being scooped off of the street. +Nathan and his boss saw this, and they could not tolerate it. +So they set out to make San Francisco a no-kill city: create an entire city where every dog and cat, unless it was ill or dangerous, would be adopted, not killed. +And everyone said it was impossible. +Nathan and his boss went to the city council to get a change in the ordinance. +And people from SPCAs and humane shelters around the country flew to San Francisco to testify against them -- to say it would hurt the movement and it was inhumane. +They persisted. And Nathan went directly to the community. +He connected with people who cared about this: nonprofessionals, people with passion. +And within just a couple years, San Francisco became the first no-kill city, running no deficit, completely supported by the community. +Nathan left and went to Tompkins County, New York -- a place as different from San Francisco as you can be and still be in the United States. And he did it again. +He went from being a glorified dogcatcher to completely transforming the community. +And then he went to North Carolina and did it again. +And he went to Reno and he did it again. +And when I think about what Nathan did, and when I think about what people here do, I think about ideas. +And I think about the idea that creating an idea, spreading an idea has a lot behind it. +I don't know if you've ever been to a Jewish wedding, but what they do is, they take a light bulb and they smash it. +Now there is a bunch of reasons for that, and stories about it. +But one reason is because it indicates a change, from before to after. +It is a moment in time. +And I want to argue that we are living through and are right at the key moment of a change in the way ideas are created and spread and implemented. +We started with the factory idea: that you could change the whole world if you had an efficient factory that could churn out change. +We then went to the TV idea, that said if you had a big enough mouthpiece, if you could get on TV enough times, if you could buy enough ads, you could win. +And now we're in this new model of leadership, where the way we make change is not by using money or power to lever a system, but by leading. +So let me tell you about the three cycles. The first one is the factory cycle. +Henry Ford comes up with a really cool idea. +It enables him to hire men who used to get paid 50 cents a day and pay them five dollars a day. +Because he's got an efficient enough factory. +Well with that sort of advantage you can churn out a lot of cars. +You can make a lot of change. You can get roads built. +You can change the fabric of an entire country. +That the essence of what you're doing is you need ever-cheaper labor, and ever-faster machines. +And the problem we've run into is, we're running out of both. +Ever-cheaper labor and ever-faster machines. +So we shift gears for a minute, and say, "I know: television; advertising. Push push. +Take a good idea and push it on the world. +I have a better mousetrap. +And if I can just get enough money to tell enough people, I'll sell enough." +And you can build an entire industry on that. +If necessary you can put babies in your ads. +If necessary you can use babies to sell other stuff. +And if babies don't work, you can use doctors. +But be careful. +Because you don't want to get an unfortunate juxtaposition, where you're talking about one thing instead of the other. +This model requires you to act like the king, like the person in the front of the room throwing things to the peons in the back. +That you are in charge, and you're going to tell people what to do next. +The quick little diagram of it is, you're up here, and you are pushing it out to the world. +This method -- mass marketing -- requires average ideas, because you're going to the masses, and plenty of ads. +What we've done as spammers is tried to hypnotize everyone into buying our idea, hypnotize everyone into donating to our cause, hypnotize everyone into voting for our candidate. +And, unfortunately, it doesn't work so well anymore either. +But there is good news around the corner -- really good news. +I call it the idea of tribes. +What tribes are, is a very simple concept that goes back 50,000 years. +It's about leading and connecting people and ideas. +And it's something that people have wanted forever. +Lots of people are used to having a spiritual tribe, or a church tribe, having a work tribe, having a community tribe. +But now, thanks to the internet, thanks to the explosion of mass media, thanks to a lot of other things that are bubbling through our society around the world, tribes are everywhere. +The Internet was supposed to homogenize everyone by connecting us all. +Instead what it's allowed is silos of interest. +So you've got the red-hat ladies over here. +You've got the red-hat triathletes over there. +You've got the organized armies over here. +You've got the disorganized rebels over here. +You've got people in white hats making food. +And people in white hats sailing boats. +The point is that you can find Ukrainian folk dancers and connect with them, because you want to be connected. +That people on the fringes can find each other, connect and go somewhere. +Every town that has a volunteer fire department understands this way of thinking. +Now it turns out this is a legitimate non-photoshopped photo. +People I know who are firemen told me that this is not uncommon. +And that what firemen do to train sometimes is they take a house that is going to be torn down, and they burn it down instead, and practice putting it out. +But they always stop and take a picture. +You know the pirate tribe is a fascinating one. +They've got their own flag. They've got the eye patches. +You can tell when you're running into someone in a tribe. +And it turns out that it's tribes -- not money, not factories -- that can change our world, that can change politics, that can align large numbers of people. +Not because you force them to do something against their will, but because they wanted to connect. +That what we do for a living now, all of us, I think, is find something worth changing, and then assemble tribes that assemble tribes that spread the idea and spread the idea. +And it becomes something far bigger than ourselves, it becomes a movement. +So when Al Gore set out to change the world again, he didn't do it by himself. +And he didn't do it by buying a lot of ads. +He did it by creating a movement. +Thousands of people around the country who could give his presentation for him, because he can't be in 100 or 200 or 500 cities in each night. +You don't need everyone. +What Kevin Kelley has taught us is you just need, I don't know, a thousand true fans -- a thousand people who care enough that they will get you the next round and the next round and the next round. +And that means that the idea you create, the product you create, the movement you create isn't for everyone, it's not a mass thing. That's not what this is about. +What it's about instead is finding the true believers. +It's easy to look at what I've said so far, and say, "Wait a minute, I don't have what it takes to be that kind of leader." +So here are two leaders. They don't have a lot in common. +They're about the same age. But that's about it. +What they did, though, is each in their own way, created a different way of navigating your way through technology. +So some people will go out and get people to be on one team. +And some people will get people to be on the other team. +It also informs the decisions you make when you make products or services. +You know, this is one of my favorite devices. +But what a shame that it's not organized to help authors create movements. +What would happen if, when you're using your Kindle, you could see the comments and quotes and notes from all the other people reading the same book as you in that moment. +Or from your book group. Or from your friends, or from the circle you want. +What would happen if authors, or people with ideas could use version two, which comes out on Monday, and use it to organize people who want to talk about something. +Now there is a million things I could share with you about the mechanics here. +But let me just try a couple. +The Beatles did not invent teenagers. +They merely decided to lead them. +That most movements, most leadership that we're doing is about finding a group that's disconnected but already has a yearning -- not persuading people to want something they don't have yet. +When Diane Hatz worked on "The Meatrix," her video that spread all across the internet about the way farm animals are treated, she didn't invent the idea of being a vegan. +She didn't invent the idea of caring about this issue. +But she helped organize people, and helped turn it into a movement. +Hugo Chavez did not invent the disaffected middle and lower class of Venezuela. He merely led them. +Bob Marley did not invent Rastafarians. +He just stepped up and said, "Follow me." +Derek Sivers invented CD Baby, which allowed independent musicians to have a place to sell their music without selling out to the man -- to have place to take the mission they already wanted to go to, and connect with each other. +What all these people have in common is that they are heretics. +That heretics look at the status quo and say, "This will not stand. I can't abide this status quo. +I am willing to stand up and be counted and move things forward. +I see what the status quo is; I don't like it." +That instead of looking at all the little rules and following each one of them, that instead of being what I call a sheepwalker -- somebody who's half asleep, following instructions, keeping their head down, fitting in -- every once in a while someone stands up and says, "Not me." +Someone stands up and says, "This one is important. +We need to organize around it." +And not everyone will. But you don't need everyone. +You just need a few people -- -- who will look at the rules, realize they make no sense, and realize how much they want to be connected. +So Tony Hsieh does not run a shoe store. +Zappos isn't a shoe store. +Zappos is the one, the only, the best-there-ever-was place for people who are into shoes to find each other, to talk about their passion, to connect with people who care more about customer service than making a nickel tomorrow. +It can be something as prosaic as shoes, and something as complicated as overthrowing a government. +It's exactly the same behavior though. +What it requires, as Geraldine Carter has discovered, is to be able to say, "I can't do this by myself. +But if I can get other people to join my Climb and Ride, then together we can get something that we all want. +We're just waiting for someone to lead us." +Michelle Kaufman has pioneered new ways of thinking about environmental architecture. +She doesn't do it by quietly building one house at a time. +She does it by telling a story to people who want to hear it. +By connecting a tribe of people who are desperate to be connected to each other. +By leading a movement and making change. +And around and around and around it goes. +So three questions I'd offer you. +The first one is, who exactly are you upsetting? +Because if you're not upsetting anyone, you're not changing the status quo. +The second question is, who are you connecting? +Because for a lot of people, that's what they're in it for: the connections that are being made, one to the other. +And the third one is, who are you leading? +Because focusing on that part of it -- not the mechanics of what you're building, but the who, and the leading part -- is where change comes. +So Blake, at Tom's Shoes, had a very simple idea. +"What would happen if every time someone bought a pair of these shoes I gave exactly the same pair to someone who doesn't even own a pair of shoes?" +This is not the story of how you get shelf space at Neiman Marcus. +It's a story of a product that tells a story. +And as you walk around with this remarkable pair of shoes and someone says, "What are those?" +You get to tell the story on Blake's behalf, on behalf of the people who got the shoes. +And suddenly it's not one pair of shoes or 100 pairs of shoes. +It's tens of thousands of pairs of shoes. +My friend Red Maxwell has spent the last 10 years fighting against juvenile diabetes. +Not fighting the organization that's fighting it -- fighting with them, leading them, connecting them, challenging the status quo because it's important to him. +And the people he surrounds himself with need the connection. +They need the leadership. It makes a difference. +You don't need permission from people to lead them. +But in case you do, here it is: they're waiting, we're waiting for you to show us where to go next. +So here is what leaders have in common. The first thing is, they challenge the status quo. +They challenge what's currently there. +The second thing is, they build a culture. +A secret language, a seven-second handshake, a way of knowing that you're in or out. +They have curiosity. Curiosity about people in the tribe, curiosity about outsiders. They're asking questions. +They connect people to one another. +Do you know what people want more than anything? +They want to be missed. +They want to be missed the day they don't show up. +They want to be missed when they're gone. +And tribe leaders can do that. +It's fascinating, because all tribe leaders have charisma, but you don't need charisma to become a leader. +Being a leader gives you charisma. +If you look and study the leaders who have succeeded, that's where charisma comes from -- from the leading. +Finally, they commit. +They commit to the cause. They commit to the tribe. +They commit to the people who are there. +So I'd like you to do something for me. +And I hope you'll think about it before you reject it out-of-hand. +What I want you to do, it only takes 24 hours, is: create a movement. +Something that matters. Start. Do it. We need it. +Thank you very much. I appreciate it. +AIDS was discovered 1981; the virus, 1983. +These Gapminder bubbles show you how the spread of the virus was in 1983 in the world, or how we estimate that it was. +What we are showing here is -- on this axis here, I'm showing percent of infected adults. +And on this axis, I'm showing dollars per person in income. +And the size of these bubbles, the size of the bubbles here, that shows how many are infected in each country, and the color is the continent. +Now, you can see United States, in 1983, had a very low percentage infected, but due to the big population, still a sizable bubble. +There were quite many people infected in the United States. +And, up there, you see Uganda. +They had almost five percent infected, and quite a big bubble in spite of being a small country, then. +And they were probably the most infected country in the world. +Now, what has happened? +Now you have understood the graph and now, in the next 60 seconds, we will play the HIV epidemic in the world. +But first, I have a new invention here. +I have solidified the beam of the laser pointer. +So, ready, steady, go! +First, we have the fast rise in Uganda and Zimbabwe. +They went upwards like this. +In Asia, the first country to be heavily infected was Thailand -- they reached one to two percent. +Then, Uganda started to turn back, whereas Zimbabwe skyrocketed, and some years later South Africa had a terrible rise of HIV frequency. +Look, India got many infected, but had a low level. +And almost the same happens here. +See, Uganda coming down, Zimbabwe coming down, Russia went to one percent. +In the last two to three years, we have reached a steady state of HIV epidemic in the world. +25 years it took. +But, steady state doesn't mean that things are getting better, it's just that they have stopped getting worse. +And it has -- the steady state is, more or less, one percent of the adult world population is HIV-infected. +It means 30 to 40 million people, the whole of California -- every person, that's more or less what we have today in the world. +Now, let me make a fast replay of Botswana. +Botswana -- upper middle-income country in southern Africa, democratic government, good economy, and this is what happened there. +They started low, they skyrocketed, they peaked up there in 2003, and now they are down. +But they are falling only slowly, because in Botswana, with good economy and governance, they can manage to treat people. +And if people who are infected are treated, they don't die of AIDS. +These percentages won't come down because people can survive 10 to 20 years. +So there's some problem with these metrics now. +But the poorer countries in Africa, the low-income countries down here, there the rates fall faster, of the percentage infected, because people still die. +In spite of PEPFAR, the generous PEPFAR, all people are not reached by treatment, and of those who are reached by treatment in the poor countries, only 60 percent are left on treatment after two years. +It's not realistic with lifelong treatment for everyone in the poorest countries. +But it's very good that what is done is being done. +But focus now is back on prevention. +It is only by stopping the transmission that the world will be able to deal with it. +Drugs is too costly -- had we had the vaccine, or when we will get the vaccine, that's something more effective -- but the drugs are very costly for the poor. +Not the drug in itself, but the treatment and the care which is needed around it. +So, when we look at the pattern, one thing comes out very clearly: you see the blue bubbles and people say HIV is very high in Africa. +I would say, HIV is very different in Africa. +You'll find the highest HIV rate in the world in African countries, and yet you'll find Senegal, down here -- the same rate as United States. +And you'll find Madagascar, and you'll find a lot of African countries about as low as the rest of the world. +It's this terrible simplification that there's one Africa and things go on in one way in Africa. +We have to stop that. +It's not respectful, and it's not very clever to think that way. +I had the fortune to live and work for a time in the United States. +I found out that Salt Lake City and San Francisco were different. +And so it is in Africa -- it's a lot of difference. +So, why is it so high? Is it war? +No, it's not. Look here. +War-torn Congo is down there -- two, three, four percent. +And this is peaceful Zambia, neighboring country -- 15 percent. +And there's good studies of the refugees coming out of Congo -- they have two, three percent infected, and peaceful Zambia -- much higher. +There are now studies clearly showing that the wars are terrible, that rapes are terrible, but this is not the driving force for the high levels in Africa. +So, is it poverty? +Well if you look at the macro level, it seems more money, more HIV. +But that's very simplistic, so let's go down and look at Tanzania. +I will split Tanzania in five income groups, from the highest income to the lowest income, and here we go. +The ones with the highest income, the better off -- I wouldn't say rich -- they have higher HIV. +The difference goes from 11 percent down to four percent, and it is even bigger among women. +There's a lot of things that we thought, that now, good research, done by African institutions and researchers together with the international researchers, show that that's not the case. +So, this is the difference within Tanzania. +And, I can't avoid showing Kenya. +Look here at Kenya. +I've split Kenya in its provinces. +Here it goes. +See the difference within one African country -- it goes from very low level to very high level, and most of the provinces in Kenya is quite modest. +So, what is it then? +Why do we see this extremely high levels in some countries? +Well, it is more common with multiple partners, there is less condom use, and there is age-disparate sex -- that is, older men tend to have sex with younger women. +We see higher rates in younger women than younger men in many of these highly affected countries. +But where are they situated? +I will swap the bubbles to a map. +Look, the highly infected are four percent of all population and they hold 50 percent of the HIV-infected. +HIV exists all over the world. +Look, you have bubbles all over the world here. +Brazil has many HIV-infected. +Arab countries not so much, but Iran is quite high. +They have heroin addiction and also prostitution in Iran. +India has many because they are many. +Southeast Asia, and so on. +But, there is one part of Africa -- and the difficult thing is, at the same time, not to make a uniform statement about Africa, not to come to simple ideas of why it is like this, on one hand. +On the other hand, try to say that this is not the case, because there is a scientific consensus about this pattern now. +UNAIDS have done good data available, finally, about the spread of HIV. +It could be concurrency. +It could be some virus types. +It could be that there is other things which makes transmission occur in a higher frequency. +After all, if you are completely healthy and you have heterosexual sex, the risk of infection in one intercourse is one in 1,000. +Don't jump to conclusions now on how to behave tonight and so on. +But -- and if you are in an unfavorable situation, more sexually transmitted diseases, it can be one in 100. +But what we think is that it could be concurrency. +And what is concurrency? +In Sweden, we have no concurrency. +We have serial monogamy. +Vodka, New Year's Eve -- new partner for the spring. +Vodka, Midsummer's Eve -- new partner for the fall. +Vodka -- and it goes on like this, you know? +And you collect a big number of exes. +And we have a terrible chlamydia epidemic -- terrible chlamydia epidemic which sticks around for many years. +HIV has a peak three to six weeks after infection and therefore, having more than one partner in the same month is much more dangerous for HIV than others. +Probably, it's a combination of this. +And what makes me so happy is that we are moving now towards fact when we look at this. +You can get this chart, free. +We have uploaded UNAIDS data on the Gapminder site. +And we hope that when we act on global problems in the future we will not only have the heart, we will not only have the money, but we will also use the brain. +Thank you very much. + We're ready to fly! Thank you very much. +Let me talk about India through the evolution of ideas. +Now I believe this is an interesting way of looking at it because in every society, especially an open democratic society, it's only when ideas take root that things change. +Slowly ideas lead to ideology, lead to policies that lead to actions. +In 1930 this country went through a Great Depression, which led to all the ideas of the state and social security, and all the other things that happened in Roosevelt's time. +In the 1980s we had the Reagan revolution, which lead to deregulation. +And today, after the global economic crisis, there was a whole new set of rules about how the state should intervene. +So ideas change states. +And I looked at India and said, really there are four kinds of ideas which really make an impact on India. +The first, to my mind, is what I call as "the ideas that have arrived." +These ideas have brought together something which has made India happen the way it is today. +The second set of ideas I call "ideas in progress." +Those are ideas which have been accepted but not implemented yet. +The third set of ideas are what I call as "ideas that we argue about" -- those are ideas where we have a fight, an ideological battle about how to do things. +And the fourth thing, which I believe is most important, is "the ideas that we need to anticipate." +Because when you are a developing country in the world where you can see the problems that other countries are having, you can actually anticipate what that did and do things very differently. +Now in India's case I believe there are six ideas which are responsible for where it has come today. +The first is really the notion of people. +In the '60s and '70s we thought of people as a burden. +We thought of people as a liability. +Today we talk of people as an asset. +We talk of people as human capital. +And I believe this change in the mindset, of looking at people as something of a burden to human capital, has been one of the fundamental changes in the Indian mindset. +And this change in thinking of human capital is linked to the fact that India is going through a demographic dividend. +As healthcare improves, as infant mortality goes down, fertility rates start dropping. And India is experiencing that. +India is going to have a lot of young people with a demographic dividend for the next 30 years. +What is unique about this demographic dividend is that India will be the only country in the world to have this demographic dividend. +In other words, it will be the only young country in an aging world. +And this is very important. At the same time if you peel away the demographic dividend in India, there are actually two demographic curves. +One is in the south and in the west of India, which is already going to be fully expensed by 2015, because in that part of the country, the fertility rate is almost equal to that of a West European country. +Then there is the whole northern India, which is going to be the bulk of the future demographic dividend. +But a demographic dividend is only as good as the investment in your human capital. +Only if the people have education, they have good health, they have infrastructure, they have roads to go to work, they have lights to study at night -- only in those cases can you really get the benefit of a demographic dividend. +In other words, if you don't really invest in the human capital, the same demographic dividend can be a demographic disaster. +Therefore India is at a critical point where either it can leverage its demographic dividend or it can lead to a demographic disaster. +The second thing in India has been the change in the role of entrepreneurs. +When India got independence entrepreneurs were seen as a bad lot, as people who would exploit. +But today, after 60 years, because of the rise of entrepreneurship, entrepreneurs have become role models, and they are contributing hugely to the society. +This change has contributed to the vitality and the whole economy. +The third big thing I believe that has changed India is our attitude towards the English language. +English language was seen as a language of the imperialists. +But today, with globalization, with outsourcing, English has become a language of aspiration. +This has made it something that everybody wants to learn. +And the fact that we have English is now becoming a huge strategic asset. +The next thing is technology. +Forty years back, computers were seen as something which was forbidding, something which was intimidating, something that reduced jobs. +Today we live in a country which sells eight million mobile phones a month, of which 90 percent of those mobile phones are prepaid phones because people don't have credit history. +Forty percent of those prepaid phones are recharged at less than 20 cents at each recharge. +That is the scale at which technology has liberated and made it accessible. +And therefore technology has gone from being seen as something forbidding and intimidating to something that is empowering. +Twenty years back, when there was a report on bank computerization, they didn't name the report as a report on computers, they call them as "ledger posting machines." +They didn't want the unions to believe that they were actually computers. +And when they wanted to have more advanced, more powerful computers they called them "advanced ledger posting machines." +So we have come a long way from those days where the telephone has become an instrument of empowerment, and really has changed the way Indians think of technology. +And then I think the other point is that Indians today are far more comfortable with globalization. +Again, after having lived for more than 200 years under the East India Company and under imperial rule, Indians had a very natural reaction towards globalization believing it was a form of imperialism. +But today, as Indian companies go abroad, as Indians come and work all over the world, Indians have gained a lot more confidence and have realized that globalization is something they can participate in. +And the fact that the demographics are in our favor, because we are the only young country in an aging world, makes globalization all the more attractive to Indians. +And finally, India has had the deepening of its democracy. +When democracy came to India 60 years back it was an elite concept. +It was a bunch of people who wanted to bring in democracy because they wanted to bring in the idea of universal voting and parliament and constitution and so forth. +But today democracy has become a bottom-up process where everybody has realized the benefits of having a voice, the benefits of being in an open society. +And therefore democracy has become embedded. +But having said that, then we come to what I call as ideas in progress. +Those are the ideas where there is no argument in a society, but you are not able to implement those things. +And really there are four things here. +One is the question of education. +For some reason, whatever reason -- lack of money, lack of priorities, because of religion having an older culture -- primary education was never given the focus it required. +But now I believe it's reached a point where it has become very important. +Unfortunately the government schools don't function, so children are going to private schools today. +Even in the slums of India more than 50 percent of urban kids are going into private schools. +So there is a big challenge in getting the schools to work. +But having said that, there is an enormous desire among everybody, including the poor, to educate their children. +So I believe primary education is an idea which is arrived but not yet implemented. +Similarly, infrastructure -- for a long time, infrastructure was not a priority. +Those of you who have been to India have seen that. +It's certainly not like China. +But today I believe finally infrastructure is something which is agreed upon and which people want to implement. +It is reflected in the political statements. +20 years back the political slogan was, "Roti, kapada, makaan," which meant, "Food, clothing and shelter." +And today's political slogan is, "Bijli, sadak, pani," which means "Electricity, water and roads." +And that is a change in the mindset where infrastructure is now accepted. +So I do believe this is an idea which has arrived, but simply not implemented. +The third thing is again cities. +It's because Gandhi believed in villages and because the British ruled from the cities, therefore Nehru thought of New Delhi as an un-Indian city. +For a long time we have neglected our cities. +And that is reflected in the kinds of situations that you see. +But today, finally, after economic reforms, and economic growth, I think the notion that cities are engines of economic growth, cities are engines of creativity, cities are engines of innovation, have finally been accepted. +And I think now you're seeing the move towards improving our cities. +Again, an idea which is arrived, but not yet implemented. +The final thing is the notion of India as a single market -- because when you didn't think of India as a market, you didn't really bother about a single market, because it didn't really matter. +And therefore you had a situation where every state had its own market for products. +Every province had its own market for agriculture. +Increasingly now the policies of taxation and infrastructure and all that, are moving towards creating India as a single market. +So there is a form of internal globalization which is happening, which is as important as external globalization. +These four factors I believe -- the ones of primary education, infrastructure, urbanization, and single market -- in my view are ideas in India which have been accepted, but not implemented. +Then we have what I believe are the ideas in conflict. +The ideas that we argue about. +These are the arguments we have which cause gridlock. +What are those ideas? One is, I think, are ideological issues. +Because of the historical Indian background, in the caste system, and because of the fact that there have been many people who have been left out in the cold, a lot of the politics is about how to make sure that we'll address that. +And it leads to reservations and other techniques. +It's also related to the way that we subsidize our people, and all the left and right arguments that we have. +A lot of the Indian problems are related to the ideology of caste and other things. +This policy is causing gridlock. +This is one of the factors which needs to be resolved. +The second one is the labor policies that we have, which make it so difficult for entrepreneurs to create standardized jobs in companies, that 93 percent of Indian labor is in the unorganized sector. +They have no benefits: they don't have social security; they don't have pension; they don't have healthcare; none of those things. +This needs to be fixed because unless you can bring these people into the formal workforce, you will end up creating a whole lot of people who are completely disenfranchised. +Therefore we need to create a new set of labor laws, which are not as onerous as they are today. +At the same time give a policy for a lot more people to be in the formal sector, and create the jobs for the millions of people that we need to create jobs for. +The third thing is our higher education. +Indian higher education is completely regulated. +It's very difficult to start a private university. +It's very difficult for a foreign university to come to India. +As a result of that our higher education is simply not keeping pace with India's demands. +That is leading to a lot of problems which we need to address. +But most important I believe are the ideas we need to anticipate. +Here India can look at what is happening in the west and elsewhere, and look at what needs to be done. +The first thing is, we're very fortunate that technology is at a point where it is much more advanced than when other countries had the development. +So we can use technology for governance. +We can use technology for direct benefits. +We can use technology for transparency, and many other things. +The second thing is, the health issue. +India has equally horrible health problems of the higher state of cardiac issue, the higher state of diabetes, the higher state of obesity. +So there is no point in replacing a set of poor country diseases with a set of rich country diseases. +Therefore we're to rethink the whole way we look at health. +We really need to put in place a strategy so that we don't go to the other extreme of health. +Similarly today in the West you're seeing the problem of entitlement -- the cost of social security, the cost of Medicare, the cost of Medicaid. +Therefore when you are a young country, again you have a chance to put in place a modern pension system so that you don't create entitlement problems as you grow old. +And then again, India does not have the luxury of making its environment dirty, because it has to marry environment and development. +Just to give an idea, the world has to stabilize at something like 20 gigatons per year. +On a population of nine billion our average carbon emission will have to be about two tons per year. +India is already at two tons per year. +But if India grows at something like eight percent, income per year per person will go to 16 times by 2050. +So we're saying: income growing at 16 times and no growth in carbon. +Therefore we will fundamentally rethink the way we look at the environment, the way we look at energy, the way we create whole new paradigms of development. +Now why does this matter to you? +Why does what's happening 10 thousand miles away matter to all of you? +Number one, this matters because this represents more than a billion people. +A billion people, 1/6th of the world population. +It matters because this is a democracy. +And it is important to prove that growth and democracy are not incompatible, that you can have a democracy, that you can have an open society, and you can have growth. +It's important because if you solve these problems, you can solve the problems of poverty in the world. +It's important because you need it to solve the world's environment problems. +If we really want to come to a point, we really want to put a cap on our carbon emission, we want to really lower the use of energy -- it has to be solved in countries like India. +You know if you look at the development in the West over 200 years, the average growth may have been about two percent. +Here we are talking about countries growing at eight to nine percent. +And that makes a huge difference. +When India was growing at about three, 3.5 percent and the population was growing at two percent, its per capita income was doubling every 45 years. +When the economic growth goes to eight percent and population growth drops to 1.5 percent, then per capita income is doubling every nine years. +In other words, you're certainly fast-forwarding this whole process of a billion people going to prosperity. +And you must have a clear strategy which is important for India and important for the world. +That is why I think all of you should be equally concerned with it as I am. +Thank you very much. +Believe me or not, I come offering a solution to a very important part of this larger problem, with the requisite focus on climate. +And the solution I offer is to the biggest culprit in this massive mistreatment of the earth by humankind, and the resulting decline of the biosphere. +That culprit is business and industry, which happens to be where I have spent the last 52 years since my graduation from Georgia Tech in 1956. +As an industrial engineer, cum aspiring and then successful entrepreneur. +In his book, Paul charges business and industry as, one, the major culprit in causing the decline of the biosphere, and, two, the only institution that is large enough, and pervasive enough, and powerful enough, to really lead humankind out of this mess. +And by the way he convicted me as a plunderer of the earth. +Take nothing: do no harm. +I simply said, "If Hawken is right and business and industry must lead, who will lead business and industry? +Unless somebody leads, nobody will." +It's axiomatic. Why not us? +And thanks to the people of Interface, I have become a recovering plunderer. +I once told a Fortune Magazine writer that someday people like me would go to jail. +And that became the headline of a Fortune article. +They went on to describe me as America's greenest CEO. +From plunderer to recovering plunderer, to America's greenest CEO in five years -- that, frankly, was a pretty sad commentary on American CEOs in 1999. +Asked later in the Canadian documentary, "The Corporation," what I meant by the "go to jail" remark, I offered that theft is a crime. +And theft of our children's future would someday be a crime. +According to Paul and Anne Ehrlich and a well-known environmental impact equation, impact -- a bad thing -- is the product of population, affluence and technology. +That is, impact is generated by people, what they consume in their affluence, and how it is produced. +And though the equation is largely subjective, you can perhaps quantify people, and perhaps quantify affluence, but technology is abusive in too many ways to quantify. +So the equation is conceptual. +Still it works to help us understand the problem. +So we set out at Interface, in 1994, to create an example: to transform the way we made carpet, a petroleum-intensive product for materials as well as energy, and to transform our technologies so they diminished environmental impact, rather than multiplied it. +Paul and Anne Ehrlich's environmental impact equation: I is equal to P times A times T: population, affluence and technology. +I wanted Interface to rewrite that equation so that it read I equals P times A divided by T. +Now, the mathematically-minded will see immediately that T in the numerator increases impact -- a bad thing -- but T in the denominator decreases impact. +So I ask, "What would move T, technology, from the numerator -- call it T1 -- where it increases impact, to the denominator -- call it T2 -- where it reduces impact? +I thought about the characteristics of first industrial revolution, T1, as we practiced it at Interface, and it had the following characteristics. +Extractive: taking raw materials from the earth. +Linear: take, make, waste. +Powered by fossil fuel-derived energy. +Wasteful: abusive and focused on labor productivity. +More carpet per man-hour. +Thinking it through, I realized that all those attributes must be changed to move T to the denominator. +In the new industrial revolution extractive must be replaced by renewable; linear by cyclical; fossil fuel energy by renewable energy, sunlight; wasteful by waste-free; and abusive by benign; and labor productivity by resource productivity. +And I reasoned that if we could make those transformative changes, and get rid of T1 altogether, we could reduce our impact to zero, including our impact on the climate. +And that became the Interface plan in 1995, and has been the plan ever since. +We have measured our progress very rigorously. +So I can tell you how far we have come in the ensuing 12 years. +Net greenhouse gas emissions down 82 percent in absolute tonnage. +Over the same span of time sales have increased by two-thirds and profits have doubled. +So an 82 percent absolute reduction translates into a 90 percent reduction in greenhouse gas intensity relative to sales. +This is the magnitude of the reduction the entire global technosphere must realize by 2050 to avoid catastrophic climate disruption -- so the scientists are telling us. +Fossil fuel usage is down 60 percent per unit of production, due to efficiencies in renewables. +The cheapest, most secure barrel of oil there is is the one not used through efficiencies. +Water usage is down 75 percent in our worldwide carpet tile business. +Down 40 percent in our broadloom carpet business, which we acquired in 1993 right here in California, City of Industry, where water is so precious. +Renewable or recyclable materials are 25 percent of the total, and growing rapidly. +Renewable energy is 27 percent of our total, going for 100 percent. +We have diverted 148 million pounds -- that's 74,000 tons -- of used carpet from landfills, closing the loop on material flows through reverse logistics and post-consumer recycling technologies that did not exist when we started 14 years ago. +We call it Cool Carpet. +And it has been a powerful marketplace differentiator, increasing sales and profits. +Three years ago we launched carpet tile for the home, under the brand Flor, misspelled F-L-O-R. +You can point and click today at Flor.com and have Cool Carpet delivered to your front door in five days. +It is practical, and pretty too. +We reckon that we are a bit over halfway to our goal: zero impact, zero footprint. +We've set 2020 as our target year for zero, for reaching the top, the summit of Mount Sustainability. +We call this Mission Zero. +And this is perhaps the most important facet: we have found Mission Zero to be incredibly good for business. +A better business model, a better way to bigger profits. +Here is the business case for sustainability. +From real life experience, costs are down, not up, reflecting some 400 million dollars of avoided costs in pursuit of zero waste -- the first face of Mount Sustainability. +This has paid all the costs for the transformation of Interface. +And this dispels a myth too, this false choice between the environment and the economy. +Our products are the best they've ever been, inspired by design for sustainability, an unexpected wellspring of innovation. +Our people are galvanized around this shared higher purpose. +You cannot beat it for attracting the best people and bringing them together. +And the goodwill of the marketplace is astonishing. +No amount of advertising, no clever marketing campaign, at any price, could have produced or created this much goodwill. +Costs, products, people, marketplaces -- what else is there? +It is a better business model. +And here is our 14-year record of sales and profits. +There is a dip there, from 2001 to 2003: a dip when our sales, over a three-year period, were down 17 percent. +But the marketplace was down 36 percent. +We literally gained market share. +We might not have survived that recession but for the advantages of sustainability. +If every business were pursuing Interface plans, would that solve all our problems? +I don't think so. +I remain troubled by the revised Ehrlich equation, I equals P times A divided by T2. +That A is a capital A, suggesting that affluence is an end in itself. +But what if we reframed Ehrlich further? +And what if we made A a lowercase 'a,' suggesting that it is a means to an end, and that end is happiness -- more happiness with less stuff. +But does the earth have to wait for our extinction as a species? +Well maybe so. But I don't think so. +At Interface we really intend to bring this prototypical sustainable, zero-footprint industrial company fully into existence by 2020. +We can see our way now, clear to the top of that mountain. +And now the challenge is in execution. +And as my good friend and adviser Amory Lovins says, "If something exists, it must be possible." +If we can actually do it, it must be possible. +If we, a petro-intensive company can do it, anybody can. +And if anybody can, it follows that everybody can. +Hawken fulfilled business and industry, leading humankind away from the abyss because, with continued unchecked decline of the biosphere, a very dear person is at risk here -- frankly, an unacceptable risk. +Who is that person? +Not you. Not I. +But let me introduce you to the one who is most at risk here. +And I myself met this person in the early days of this mountain climb. +On a Tuesday morning in March of 1996, I was talking to people, as I did at every opportunity back then, bringing them along and often not knowing whether I was connecting. +But about five days later back in Atlanta, I received an email from Glenn Thomas, one of my people in the California meeting. +He was sending me an original poem that he had composed after our Tuesday morning together. +And when I read it it was one of the most uplifting moments of my life. +Because it told me, by God, one person got it. +Here is what Glenn wrote. And here is that person, most at risk. +Please meet "Tomorrow's Child." +"Without a name, an unseen face, and knowing not your time or place, Tomorrow's child, though yet unborn, I met you first last Tuesday morn. +A wise friend introduced us two. +And through his sobering point of view I saw a day that you would see, a day for you but not for me. +Knowing you has changed my thinking. +For I never had an inkling that perhaps the things I do might someday, somehow threaten you. +Tomorrow's child, my daughter, son, I'm afraid I've just begun to think of you and of your good, though always having known I should. +Begin, I will. +The way the cost of what I squander, what is lost, if ever I forget that you will someday come and live here too." +Well, every day of my life since, "Tomorrow's Child" has spoken to me with one simple but profound message, which I presume to share with you. +We are, each and every one, a part of the web of life. +The continuum of humanity, sure, but in a larger sense, the web of life itself. +And we have a choice to make during our brief, brief visit to this beautiful blue and green living planet: to hurt it or to help it. +For you, it's your call. +Thank you. +I'll tell you a little bit about irrational behavior. +Not yours, of course -- other people's. +So after being at MIT for a few years, I realized that writing academic papers is not that exciting. +You know, I don't know how many of those you read, but it's not fun to read and often not fun to write -- even worse to write. +So I decided to try and write something more fun. +And I came up with an idea that I would write a cookbook. +And the title for my cookbook was going to be, "Dining Without Crumbs: The Art of Eating Over the Sink." +And it was going to be a look at life through the kitchen. +I was quite excited about this. I was going to talk a little bit about research, a little bit about the kitchen. +We do so much in the kitchen, I thought this would be interesting. +I wrote a couple of chapters, and took it to MIT Press and they said, "Cute, but not for us. Go and find somebody else." +I tried other people, and everybody said the same thing, "Cute. Not for us." +Until somebody said, "Look, if you're serious about this, you have to write about your research first; you have to publish something, then you'll get the opportunity to write something else. +If you really want to do it, you have to do it." +I said, "I don't want to write about my research. +I do it all day long, I want to write something a bit more free, less constrained." +And this person was very forceful and said, "Look, that's the only way you'll ever do it." +So I said, "Okay, if I have to do it --" I had a sabbatical. I said, "I'll write about my research, if there's no other way. +And then I'll get to do my cookbook." +So, I wrote a book on my research. +And it turned out to be quite fun in two ways. +First of all, I enjoyed writing. +But the more interesting thing was that I started learning from people. +It's a fantastic time to write, because there's so much feedback you can get from people. +People write to me about their personal experience, and about their examples, and where they disagree, and their nuances. +And even being here -- I mean, the last few days, I've known heights of obsessive behavior I never thought about. +Which I think is just fascinating. +I will tell you a little bit about irrational behavior, and I want to start by giving you some examples of visual illusion as a metaphor for rationality. +So think about these two tables. +And you must have seen this illusion. +If I asked you what's longer, the vertical line on the table on the left, or the horizontal line on the table on the right, which one seems longer? +Can anybody see anything but the left one being longer? +No, right? It's impossible. +But the nice thing about visual illusion is we can easily demonstrate mistakes. +So I can put some lines on; it doesn't help. +I can animate the lines. +And to the extent you believe I didn't shrink the lines, which I didn't, I've proven to you that your eyes were deceiving you. +Now, the interesting thing about this is when I take the lines away, it's as if you haven't learned anything in the last minute. +You can't look at this and say, "Now I see reality as it is." +Right? It's impossible to overcome this sense that this is indeed longer. +Our intuition is really fooling us in a repeatable, predictable, consistent way. +and there is almost nothing we can do about it, aside from taking a ruler and starting to measure it. +Here's another one. It's one of my favorite illusions. +What color is the top arrow pointing to? +Audience: Brown. Dan Ariely: Brown. Thank you. +The bottom one? Yellow. +Turns out they're identical. +Can anybody see them as identical? +Very, very hard. +I can cover the rest of the cube up. +If I cover the rest of the cube, you can see that they are identical. +If you don't believe me, you can get the slide later and do some arts and crafts and see that they're identical. +But again, it's the same story, that if we take the background away, the illusion comes back. +There is no way for us not to see this illusion. +I guess maybe if you're colorblind, I don't think you can see that. +I want you to think about illusion as a metaphor. +Vision is one of the best things we do. +We have a huge part of our brain dedicated to vision -- bigger than dedicated to anything else. +We use our vision more hours of the day than anything else. +We're evolutionarily designed to use vision. +And if we have these predictable repeatable mistakes in vision, which we're so good at, what are the chances we won't make even more mistakes in something we're not as good at, for example, financial decision-making. +Something we don't have an evolutionary reason to do, we don't have a specialized part of the brain for, and we don't do that many hours of the day. +The argument is in those cases, it might be that we actually make many more mistakes. +And worse -- not having an easy way to see them, because in visual illusions, we can easily demonstrate the mistakes; in cognitive illusion it's much, much harder to demonstrate the mistakes to people. +So I want to show you some cognitive illusions, or decision-making illusions, in the same way. +And this is one of my favorite plots in social sciences. +It's from a paper by Johnson and Goldstein. +It basically shows the percentage of people who indicated they would be interested in donating their organs. +These are different countries in Europe. +You basically see two types of countries: countries on the right, that seem to be giving a lot; and countries on the left that seem to giving very little, or much less. +The question is, why? +Why do some countries give a lot and some countries give a little? +When you ask people this question, they usually think that it has to be about culture. +How much do you care about people? +Giving organs to somebody else is probably about how much you care about society, how linked you are. +Or maybe it's about religion. +But if you look at this plot, you can see that countries that we think about as very similar, actually exhibit very different behavior. +For example, Sweden is all the way on the right, and Denmark, which we think is culturally very similar, is all the way on the left. +Germany is on the left, and Austria is on the right. +The Netherlands is on the left, and Belgium is on the right. +And finally, depending on your particular version of European similarity, you can think about the U.K. and France as either similar culturally or not, but it turns out that with organ donation, they are very different. +By the way, the Netherlands is an interesting story. +You see, the Netherlands is kind of the biggest of the small group. +It turns out that they got to 28 percent after mailing every household in the country a letter, begging people to join this organ donation program. +You know the expression, "Begging only gets you so far." +It's 28 percent in organ donation. +But whatever the countries on the right are doing, they're doing a much better job than begging. +So what are they doing? +Turns out the secret has to do with a form at the DMV. +And here is the story. +The countries on the left have a form at the DMV that looks something like this. +"Check the box below if you want to participate in the organ donor program." +And what happens? +People don't check, and they don't join. +The countries on the right, the ones that give a lot, have a slightly different form. +It says, "Check the box below if you don't want to participate ..." +Interestingly enough, when people get this, they again don't check, but now they join. +Now, think about what this means. +You know, we wake up in the morning and we feel we make decisions. +We wake up in the morning and we open the closet; we feel that we decide what to wear. +we open the refrigerator and we feel that we decide what to eat. +What this is actually saying, is that many of these decisions are not residing within us. +They are residing in the person who is designing that form. +When you walk into the DMV, the person who designed the form will have a huge influence on what you'll end up doing. +Now, it's also very hard to intuit these results. Think about it for yourself. +How many of you believe that if you went to renew your license tomorrow, and you went to the DMV, and you encountered one of these forms, that it would actually change your own behavior? +Very hard to think that it would influence us. +We can say, "Oh, these funny Europeans, of course it would influence them." +But when it comes to us, we have such a feeling that we're in the driver's seat, such a feeling that we're in control and we are making the decision, that it's very hard to even accept the idea that we actually have an illusion of making a decision, rather than an actual decision. +Now, you might say, "These are decisions we don't care about." +In fact, by definition, these are decisions about something that will happen to us after we die. +How could we care about something less than about something that happens after we die? +So a standard economist, somebody who believes in rationality, would say, "You know what? The cost of lifting the pencil and marking a "V" is higher than the possible benefit of the decision, so that's why we get this effect." +But, in fact, it's not because it's easy. +It's not because it's trivial. It's not because we don't care. +It's the opposite. It's because we care. +It's difficult and it's complex. +And it's so complex that we don't know what to do. +And because we have no idea what to do, we just pick whatever it was that was chosen for us. +I'll give you one more example. +This is from a paper by Redelmeier and Shafir. +And they said, "Would this effect also happens to experts? +People who are well-paid, experts in their decisions, and who make a lot of them?" +And they took a group of physicians. +They presented to them a case study of a patient. +They said, "Here is a patient. He is a 67-year-old farmer. +He's been suffering from right hip pain for a while." +And then, they said to the physicians, "You decided a few weeks ago that nothing is working for this patient. +All these medications, nothing seems to be working. +So you refer the patient for hip replacement therapy. +Hip replacement. Okay?" +So the patient is on a path to have his hip replaced. +Then they said to half of the physicians, "Yesterday, you reviewed the patient's case, and you realized that you forgot to try one medication. +You did not try ibuprofen. +What do you do? Do you pull the patient back and try ibuprofen? +Or do you let him go and have hip replacement?" +Well, the good news is that most physicians in this case decided to pull the patient and try ibuprofen. +Very good for the physicians. +To the other group of physicians, they said, "Yesterday when you reviewed the case, you discovered there were two medications you didn't try out yet -- ibuprofen and piroxicam." +You have two medications you didn't try out yet. +What do you do? You let him go, or you pull him back? +And if you pull him back, do you try ibuprofen or piroxicam? Which one?" +Now, think of it: This decision makes it as easy to let the patient continue with hip replacement, but pulling him back, all of the sudden it becomes more complex. +There is one more decision. +What happens now? +The majority of the physicians now choose to let the patient go for a hip replacement. +I hope this worries you, by the way -- when you go to see your physician. +The thing is that no physician would ever say, "Piroxicam, ibuprofen, hip replacement. Let's go for hip replacement." +But the moment you set this as the default, it has a huge power over whatever people end up doing. +I'll give you a couple of more examples on irrational decision-making. +Imagine I give you a choice: Do you want to go for a weekend to Rome, all expenses paid -- hotel, transportation, food, a continental breakfast, everything -- or a weekend in Paris? +Now, weekend in Paris, weekend in Rome -- these are different things. +They have different food, different culture, different art. +Imagine I added a choice to the set that nobody wanted. +Imagine I said, "A weekend in Rome, a weekend in Paris, or having your car stolen?" +It's a funny idea, because why would having your car stolen, in this set, influence anything? +But what if the option to have your car stolen was not exactly like this? +What if it was a trip to Rome, all expenses paid, transportation, breakfast, but it doesn't include coffee in the morning? +If you want coffee, you have to pay for it yourself, it's two euros 50. +Now in some ways, given that you can have Rome with coffee, why would you possibly want Rome without coffee? +It's like having your car stolen. It's an inferior option. +But guess what happened? The moment you add Rome without coffee, Rome with coffee becomes more popular, and people choose it. +The fact that you have Rome without coffee makes Rome with coffee look superior, and not just to Rome without coffee -- even superior to Paris. +Here are two examples of this principle. +This was an ad in The Economist a few years ago that gave us three choices: an online subscription for 59 dollars, a print subscription for 125 dollars, or you could get both for 125. +Now I looked at this, and I called up The Economist, and I tried to figure out what they were thinking. +And they passed me from one person to another to another, until eventually I got to the person who was in charge of the website, and I called them up, and they went to check what was going on. +The next thing I know, the ad is gone, no explanation. +So I decided to do the experiment that I would have loved The Economist to do with me. +I took this and I gave it to 100 MIT students. +I said, "What would you choose?" +These are the market shares -- most people wanted the combo deal. +Thankfully, nobody wanted the dominant option. +That means our students can read. +But now, if you have an option that nobody wants, you can take it off, right? +So I printed another version of this, where I eliminated the middle option. +I gave it to another 100 students. Here is what happened: Now the most popular option became the least popular, and the least popular became the most popular. +What was happening was the option that was useless, in the middle, was useless in the sense that nobody wanted it. +But it wasn't useless in the sense that it helped people figure out what they wanted. +In fact, relative to the option in the middle, which was get only the print for 125, the print and web for 125 looked like a fantastic deal. +And as a consequence, people chose it. +The general idea here, by the way, is that we actually don't know our preferences that well. +And because we don't know our preferences that well, we're susceptible to all of these influences from the external forces: the defaults, the particular options that are presented to us, and so on. +One more example of this. +People believe that when we deal with physical attraction, we see somebody, and we know immediately whether we like them or not, if we're attracted or not. +This is why we have these four-minute dates. +So I decided to do this experiment with people. +I'll show you images here, no real people, but the experiment was with people. +I showed some people a picture of Tom, and a picture of Jerry. +and I said, "Who do you want to date? Tom or Jerry?" +But for half the people, I added an ugly version of Jerry. +I took Photoshop and I made Jerry slightly less attractive. +For the other people, I added an ugly version of Tom. +And the question was, will ugly Jerry and ugly Tom help their respective, more attractive brothers? +The answer was absolutely yes. +When ugly Jerry was around, Jerry was popular. +When ugly Tom was around, Tom was popular. +This of course has two very clear implications for life in general. +If you ever go bar-hopping, who do you want to take with you? +You want a slightly uglier version of yourself. +Similar, but slightly uglier. +The second point, or course, is that if somebody invites you to bar hop, you know what they think about you. +Now you get it. +What is the general point? +The general point is that, when we think about economics, we have this beautiful view of human nature. +"What a piece of work is a man! How noble in reason!" +We have this view of ourselves, of others. +The behavioral economics perspective is slightly less "generous" to people; in fact, in medical terms, that's our view. +But there is a silver lining. +The silver lining is, I think, kind of the reason that behavioral economics is interesting and exciting. +Are we Superman, or are we Homer Simpson? +When it comes to building the physical world, we kind of understand our limitations. +We build steps. +And we build these things that not everybody can use, obviously. +We understand our limitations, and we build around them. +But for some reason, when it comes to the mental world, when we design things like healthcare and retirement and stock markets, we somehow forget the idea that we are limited. +I think that if we understood our cognitive limitations in the same way we understand our physical limitations, even though they don't stare us in the face the same way, we could design a better world, and that, I think, is the hope of this thing. +Thank you very much. +Alright. I'm going to show you a couple of images from a very diverting paper in The Journal of Ultrasound in Medicine. +I'm going to go way out on a limb and say that it is the most diverting paper ever published in The Journal of Ultrasound in Medicine. +The title is "Observations of In-Utero Masturbation." +Okay. Now on the left you can see the hand -- that's the big arrow -- and the penis on the right. The hand hovering. +And over here we have, in the words of radiologist Israel Meisner, "The hand grasping the penis in a fashion resembling masturbation movements." +Bear in mind this was an ultrasound, so it would have been moving images. +Orgasm is a reflex of the autonomic nervous system. +Now, this is the part of the nervous system that deals with the things that we don't consciously control, like digestion, heart rate and sexual arousal. +And the orgasm reflex can be triggered by a surprisingly broad range of input. +Genital stimulation. Duh. +But also, Kinsey interviewed a woman who could be brought to orgasm by having someone stroke her eyebrow. +People with spinal cord injuries, like paraplegias, quadriplegias, will often develop a very, very sensitive area right above the level of their injury, wherever that is. +There is such a thing as a knee orgasm in the literature. +I think the most curious one that I came across was a case report of a woman who had an orgasm every time she brushed her teeth. +Something in the complex sensory-motor action of brushing her teeth was triggering orgasm. +And she went to a neurologist, who was fascinated. +He checked to see if it was something in the toothpaste, but no -- it happened with any brand. +They stimulated her gums with a toothpick, to see if that was doing it. +No. It was the whole, you know, motion. +And the amazing thing to me is that you would think this woman would have excellent oral hygiene. +Sadly -- this is what it said in the journal paper -- "She believed that she was possessed by demons and switched to mouthwash for her oral care." +It's so sad. +When I was working on the book, I interviewed a woman who can think herself to orgasm. +She was part of a study at Rutgers University. +You've got to love that. Rutgers. +So I interviewed her in Oakland, in a sushi restaurant. +And I said, "So, could you do it right here?" +And she said, "Yeah, but you know I'd rather finish my meal if you don't mind." +But afterwards, she was kind enough to demonstrate on a bench outside. +It was remarkable. It took about one minute. +And I said to her, "Are you just doing this all the time?" +She said, "No. Honestly, when I get home, I'm usually too tired." +She said that the last time she had done it was on the Disneyland tram. +The headquarters for orgasm, along the spinal nerve, is something called the sacral nerve root, which is back here. +And if you trigger, if you stimulate with an electrode, the precise spot, you will trigger an orgasm. +And it is a fact that you can trigger spinal reflexes in dead people -- a certain kind of dead person, a beating-heart cadaver. +Now this is somebody who is brain-dead, legally dead, definitely checked out, but is being kept alive on a respirator, so that their organs will be oxygenated for transplantation. +Now in one of these brain-dead people, if you trigger the right spot, you will see something every now and then. +There is a reflex called the Lazarus reflex. +And this is -- I'll demonstrate as best I can, not being dead. +It's like this. You trigger the spot. +The dead guy, or gal, goes... like that. +Very unsettling for people working in pathology labs. +Now, if you can trigger the Lazarus reflex in a dead person, why not the orgasm reflex? +I asked this question to a brain death expert, Stephanie Mann, who was foolish enough to return my emails. +I said, "So, could you conceivably trigger an orgasm in a dead person?" +She said, "Yes, if the sacral nerve is being oxygenated, you conceivably could." +Obviously it wouldn't be as much fun for the person. +But it would be an orgasm -- nonetheless. +There is a researcher at the University of Alabama who does orgasm research. +I said to her, "You should do an experiment. +You know? You can get cadavers if you work at a university." +I said, "You should actually do this." +She said, "You get the human subjects review board approval for this one." +According to 1930s marriage manual author, Theodoor van De Velde, a slight seminal odor can be detected on the breath of a woman within about an hour after sexual intercourse. +Theodoor van De Velde was something of a semen connoisseur. +This is a guy writing a book, "Ideal Marriage," you know. +Very heavy hetero guy. +But he wrote in this book, "Ideal Marriage" -- he said that he could differentiate between the semen of a young man, which he said had a fresh, exhilarating smell, and the semen of mature men, whose semen smelled, quote, "Remarkably like that of the flowers of the Spanish chestnut. +Sometimes quite freshly floral, and then again sometimes extremely pungent." +Okay. In 1999, in the state of Israel, a man began hiccupping. +And this was one of those cases that went on and on. +He tried everything his friends suggested. +Nothing seemed to help. +Days went by. +At a certain point, the man, still hiccupping, had sex with his wife. +And lo and behold, the hiccups went away. +He told his doctor, who published a case report in a Canadian medical journal under the title, "Sexual Intercourse as a Potential Treatment for Intractable Hiccups." +I love this article because at a certain point they suggested that unattached hiccuppers could try masturbation. +I love that because there is like a whole demographic: unattached hiccuppers. +Married, single, unattached hiccupper. +In the 1900s, early 1900s, a lot of gynecologists believed that when a woman has an orgasm, the contractions serve to suck the semen up through the cervix and sort of deliver it really quickly to the egg, thereby upping the odds of conception. +It was called the "upsuck" theory. +If you go all the way back to Hippocrates, physicians believed that orgasm in women was not just helpful for conception, but necessary. +Doctors back then were routinely telling men the importance of pleasuring their wives. +Marriage-manual author and semen-sniffer Theodoor van De Velde -- has a line in his book. +I loved this guy. I got a lot of mileage out of Theodoor van De Velde. +He had this line in his book that supposedly comes from the Habsburg Monarchy, where there was an empress Maria Theresa, who was having trouble conceiving. +And apparently the royal court physician said to her, "I am of the opinion that the vulva of your most sacred majesty be titillated for some time prior to intercourse." +It's apparently, I don't know, on the record somewhere. +Masters and Johnson: now we're moving forward to the 1950s. +Masters and Johnson were upsuck skeptics, which is also really fun to say. +They didn't buy it. +And they decided, being Masters and Johnson, that they would get to the bottom of it. +They brought women into the lab -- I think it was five women -- and outfitted them with cervical caps containing artificial semen. +And in the artificial semen was a radio-opaque substance, such that it would show up on an X-ray. +This is the 1950s. +Anyway, these women sat in front of an X-ray device. +And they masturbated. +And Masters and Johnson looked to see if the semen was being sucked up. +Did not find any evidence of upsuck. +You may be wondering, "How do you make artificial semen?" +I have an answer for you. I have two answers. +You can use flour and water, or cornstarch and water. +I actually found three separate recipes in the literature. +My favorite being the one that says -- you know, they have the ingredients listed, and then in a recipe it will say, for example, "Yield: two dozen cupcakes." +This one said, "Yield: one ejaculate." +There's another way that orgasm might boost fertility. +This one involves men. +Sperm that sit around in the body for a week or more start to develop abnormalities that make them less effective at head-banging their way into the egg. +British sexologist Roy Levin has speculated that this is perhaps why men evolved to be such enthusiastic and frequent masturbators. +He said, "If I keep tossing myself off I get fresh sperm being made." +Which I thought was an interesting idea, theory. +So now you have an evolutionary excuse. +Okay. +All righty. There is considerable evidence for upsuck in the animal kingdom -- pigs, for instance. +In Denmark, the Danish National Committee for Pig Production found out that if you sexually stimulate a sow while you artificially inseminate her, you will see a six-percent increase in the farrowing rate, which is the number of piglets produced. +So they came up with this five-point stimulation plan for the sows. +There is posters they put in the barn, and they have a DVD. +And I got a copy of this DVD. +This is my unveiling, because I am going to show you a clip. +So, okay. +Now, here we go, la la la, off to work. +It all looks very innocent. +He's going to be doing things with his hands that the boar would use his snout, lacking hands. Okay. +This is it. The boar has a very odd courtship repertoire. +This is to mimic the weight of the boar. +You should know, the clitoris of the pig is inside the vagina. +So this may be sort of titillating for her. Here we go. +And the happy result. +I love this video. +There is a point in this video, towards the beginning, where they zoom in for a close up of his hand with his wedding ring, as if to say, "It's okay, it's just his job. He really does like women." +Okay. When I was in Denmark, my host was named Anne Marie. +And I said, "So why don't you just stimulate the clitoris of the pig? +Why don't you have the farmers do that? +That's not one of your five steps." +I have to read you what she said, because I love it. +She said, "It was a big hurdle just to get farmers to touch underneath the vulva. +So we thought, let's not mention the clitoris right now." +Shy but ambitious pig farmers, however, can purchase a -- this is true -- a sow vibrator, that hangs on the sperm feeder tube to vibrate. +Because, as I mentioned, the clitoris is inside the vagina. +So possibly, you know, a little more arousing than it looks. +And I also said to her, "Now, these sows. I mean, you may have noticed there. +The sow doesn't look to be in the throes of ecstasy." +And she said, you can't make that conclusion, because animals don't register pain or pleasure on their faces in the same way that we do. +Pigs, for example, are more like dogs. +They use the upper half of the face; the ears are very expressive. +So you're not really sure what's going on with the pig. +Primates, on the other hand, we use our mouths more. +This is the ejaculation face of the stump-tailed macaque. +And, interestingly, this has been observed in female macaques, but only when mounting another female. +Masters and Johnson. +In the 1950s, they decided, okay, we're going to figure out the entire human sexual response cycle, from arousal, all the way through orgasm, in men and women -- everything that happens in the human body. +Okay, with women, a lot of this is happening inside. +This did not stop Masters and Johnson. +They developed an artificial coition machine. +This is basically a penis camera on a motor. +There is a phallus, clear acrylic phallus, with a camera and a light source, attached to a motor that is kind of going like this. +And the woman would have sex with it. +That is what they would do. Pretty amazing. +Sadly, this device has been dismantled. +This just kills me, not because I wanted to use it -- I wanted to see it. +One fine day, Alfred Kinsey decided to calculate the average distance traveled by ejaculated semen. +This was not idle curiosity. +Doctor Kinsey had heard -- and there was a theory going around at the time, this being the 1940s -- that the force with which semen is thrown against the cervix was a factor in fertility. +Kinsey thought it was bunk, so he got to work. +He got together in his lab 300 men, a measuring tape, and a movie camera. +And in fact, he found that in three quarters of the men the stuff just kind of slopped out. +It wasn't spurted or thrown or ejected under great force. +However, the record holder landed just shy of the eight-foot mark, which is impressive. +Yes. Exactly. +Sadly, he's anonymous. His name is not mentioned. +In his write-up of this experiment in his book, Kinsey wrote, "Two sheets were laid down to protect the oriental carpets." +Which is my second favorite line in the entire oeuvre of Alfred Kinsey. +My favorite being, "Cheese crumbs spread before a pair of copulating rats will distract the female, but not the male." +Thank you very much. +Thanks! +Two years ago here at TED I reported that we had discovered at Saturn, with the Cassini Spacecraft, an anomalously warm and geologically active region at the southern tip of the small Saturnine moon Enceladus, seen here. +This region seen here for the first time in the Cassini image taken in 2005. This is the south polar region, with the famous tiger-stripe fractures crossing the south pole. +And seen just recently in late 2008, here is that region again, now half in darkness because the southern hemisphere is experiencing the onset of August and eventually winter. +And I also reported that we'd made this mind-blowing discovery -- this once-in-a-lifetime discovery of towering jets erupting from those fractures at the south pole, consisting of tiny water ice crystals accompanied by water vapor and simple organic compounds like carbon dioxide and methane. +And at that time two years ago I mentioned that we were speculating that these jets might in fact be geysers, and erupting from pockets or chambers of liquid water underneath the surface, but we weren't really sure. +However, the implications of those results -- of a possible environment within this moon that could support prebiotic chemistry, and perhaps life itself -- were so exciting that, in the intervening two years, we have focused more on Enceladus. +We've flown the Cassini Spacecraft by this moon now several times, flying closer and deeper into these jets, into the denser regions of these jets, so that now we have come away with some very precise compositional measurements. +And we have found that the organic compounds coming from this moon are in fact more complex than we previously reported. +While they're not amino acids, we're now finding things like propane and benzene, hydrogen cyanide, and formaldehyde. +And the tiny water crystals here now look for all the world like they are frozen droplets of salty water, which is a discovery that suggests that not only do the jets come from pockets of liquid water, but that that liquid water is in contact with rock. +And that is a circumstance that could supply the chemical energy and the chemical compounds needed to sustain life. +So we are very encouraged by these results. +And we are much more confident now than we were two years ago that we might indeed have on this moon, under the south pole, an environment or a zone that is hospitable to living organisms. +Whether or not there are living organisms there, of course, is an entirely different matter. +And that will have to await the arrival, back at Enceladus, of the spacecrafts, hopefully some time in the near future, specifically equipped to address that particular question. +But in the meantime I invite you to imagine the day when we might journey to the Saturnine system, and visit the Enceladus interplanetary geyser park, just because we can. +Thank you. +Forrest North: The beginning of any collaboration starts with a conversation. +And I would like to share with you some of the bits of the conversation that we started with. +I grew up in a log cabin in Washington state with too much time on my hands. +Yves Behar: And in scenic Switzerland for me. +FN: I always had a passion for alternative vehicles. +This is a land yacht racing across the desert in Nevada. +YB: Combination of windsurfing and skiing into this invention there. +FN: And I also had an interest in dangerous inventions. +This is a 100,000-volt Tesla coil that I built in my bedroom, much to the dismay of my mother. +YB: To the dismay of my mother, this is dangerous teenage fashion right there. +FN: And I brought this all together, this passion with alternative energy and raced a solar car across Australia -- also the U.S. and Japan. +YB: So, wind power, solar power -- we had a lot to talk about. +We had a lot that got us excited. +So we decided to do a special project together. +To combine engineering and design and ... +FN: Really make a fully integrated product, something beautiful. +YB: And we made a baby. +FN: Can you bring out our baby? +This baby is fully electric. +It goes 150 miles an hour. +It's twice the range of any electric motorcycle. +Really the exciting thing about a motorcycle is just the beautiful integration of engineering and design. +It's got an amazing user experience. +It was wonderful working with Yves Behar. +He came up with our name and logo. We're Mission Motors. +And we've only got three minutes, but we could talk about it for hours. +YB: Thank you. +FN: Thank you TED. And thank you Chris, for having us. +I'm here because I have a very important message: I think we have found the most important factor for success. +And it was found close to here, Stanford. +Psychology professor took kids that were four years old and put them in a room all by themselves. +And he would tell the child, a four-year-old kid, "Johnny, I am going to leave you here with a marshmallow for 15 minutes. +If, after I come back, this marshmallow is here, you will get another one. So you will have two." +To tell a four-year-old kid to wait 15 minutes for something that they like, is equivalent to telling us, "We'll bring you coffee in two hours." +Exact equivalent. +So what happened when the professor left the room? +As soon as the door closed... +two out of three ate the marshmallow. +Five seconds, 10 seconds, 40 seconds, 50 seconds, two minutes, four minutes, eight minutes. +Some lasted 14-and-a-half minutes. +Couldn't do it. Could not wait. +What's interesting is that one out of three would look at the marshmallow and go like this ... +Would look at it. +Put it back. +They would walk around. They would play with their skirts and pants. +That child already, at four, understood the most important principle for success, which is the ability to delay gratification. +Self-discipline: the most important factor for success. +15 years later, 14 or 15 years later, follow-up study. +What did they find? +They went to look for these kids who were now 18 and 19. +And they found that 100 percent of the children that had not eaten the marshmallow were successful. +They had good grades. They were doing wonderful. +They were happy. They had their plans. +They had good relationships with the teachers, students. +They were doing fine. +A great percentage of the kids that ate the marshmallow, they were in trouble. +They did not make it to university. +They had bad grades. Some of them dropped out. +A few were still there with bad grades. +A few had good grades. +I had a question in my mind: Would Hispanic kids react the same way as the American kids? +So I went to Colombia. And I reproduced the experiment. +And it was very funny. I used four, five and six years old kids. +And let me show you what happened. +So what happened in Colombia? +Hispanic kids, two out of three ate the marshmallow; one out of three did not. +This little girl was interesting; she ate the inside of the marshmallow. +In other words, she wanted us to think that she had not eaten it, so she would get two. +But she ate it. +So we know she'll be successful. But we have to watch her. +She should not go into banking, for example, or work at a cash register. +But she will be successful. +And this applies for everything. Even in sales. +The sales person that -- the customer says, "I want that." And the person says, "Okay, here you are." +That person ate the marshmallow. +If the sales person says, "Wait a second. +Let me ask you a few questions to see if this is a good choice." +Then you sell a lot more. +So this has applications in all walks of life. +I end with -- the Koreans did this. +You know what? This is so good that we want a marshmallow book for children. +We did one for children. And now it is all over Korea. +They are teaching these kids exactly this principle. +And we need to learn that principle here in the States, because we have a big debt. +We are eating more marshmallows than we are producing. +Thank you so much. +Let's talk about manias. +Let's start with Beatlemania. +Hysterical teenagers, crying, screaming, pandemonium. +(Recording of crowd roaring) Sports mania: deafening crowds, all for one idea -- get the ball in the net. +Goal! Okay, religious mania: there's rapture, there's weeping, there's visions. +Manias can be good. +Manias can be alarming. +Or manias can be deadly. +The world has a new mania. +A mania for learning English. +Listen as Chinese students practice their English, by screaming it: Teacher: ... change my life! +Students: I want to change my life! +T: I don't want to let my parents down! +S: I don't want to let my parents down! +T: I don't ever want to let my country down! +S: I don't ever want to let my country down! +T: Most importantly... S: Most importantly... +T: I don't want to let myself down! +S: I don't want to let myself down! +How many people are trying to learn English worldwide? +Two billion of them. +Students: A t-shirt. A dress. +Jay Walker: In Latin America, in India, in Southeast Asia, and most of all, in China. +If you're a Chinese student, you start learning English in the third grade, by law. +That's why this year, China will become the world's largest English-speaking country. +Why English? In a single word: opportunity. +Opportunity for a better life, a job, to be able to pay for school, or put better food on the table. +Imagine a student taking a giant test for three full days. +Her score on this one test literally determines her future. +She studies 12 hours a day for three years to prepare. +Twenty-five percent of her grade is based on English. +It's called the gaokao, and 80 million high school Chinese students have already taken this grueling test. +The intensity to learn English is almost unimaginable, unless you witness it. +Teacher: Perfect! Students: Perfect! +T: Perfect! S: Perfect! +T: I want to speak perfect English! +S: I want to speak perfect English! +T: I want to speak ... S: I want to speak ... +T: ... perfect English! S: ... perfect English! +T (yelling more loudly): I want to change my life! +S (yelling more loudly): I want to change my life! +JW: So is English mania good or bad? +Is English a tsunami, washing away other languages? +Not likely. +English is the world's second language. +Your native language is your life. +But with English you can become part of a wider conversation -- a global conversation about global problems, like climate change or poverty, or hunger or disease. +The world has other universal languages. +Mathematics is the language of science. +Music is the language of emotions. +And now English is becoming the language of problem-solving. +Not because America is pushing it, but because the world is pulling it. +So English mania is a turning point. +Like the harnessing of electricity in our cities, or the fall of the Berlin Wall, English represents hope for a better future -- a future where the world has a common language to solve its common problems. +Thank you very much. +This is my first trip, my first foreign trip as a first lady. +Can you believe that? +And while this is not my first visit to the U.K., I have to say that I am glad that this is my first official visit. +The special relationship between the United States and the U.K. +is based not only on the relationship between governments, but the common language and the values that we share, and I'm reminded of that by watching you all today. +During my visit I've been especially honored to meet some of Britain's most extraordinary women -- women who are paving the way for all of you. +And I'm honored to meet you, the future leaders of Great Britain and this world. +And although the circumstances of our lives may seem very distant, with me standing here as the First Lady of the United States of America, and you, just getting through school, I want you to know that we have very much in common. +For nothing in my life's path would have predicted that I'd be standing here as the first African-American First Lady of the United States of America. +There is nothing in my story that would land me here. +I wasn't raised with wealth or resources or any social standing to speak of. +I was raised on the South Side of Chicago. +That's the real part of Chicago. +And I was the product of a working-class community. +My father was a city worker all of his life, and my mother was a stay-at-home mom. +And she stayed at home to take care of me and my older brother. +Neither of them attended university. +My dad was diagnosed with multiple sclerosis in the prime of his life. +But even as it got harder for him to walk and get dressed in the morning -- I saw him struggle more and more -- my father never complained about his struggle. +He was grateful for what he had. +He just woke up a little earlier and worked a little harder. +And my brother and I were raised with all that you really need: love, strong values and a belief that with a good education and a whole lot of hard work, that there was nothing that we could not do. +I am an example of what's possible when girls from the very beginning of their lives are loved and nurtured by the people around them. +I was surrounded by extraordinary women in my life: grandmothers, teachers, aunts, cousins, neighbors, who taught me about quiet strength and dignity. +And my mother, the most important role model in my life, who lives with us at the White House and helps to care for our two little daughters, Malia and Sasha. +She's an active presence in their lives, as well as mine, and is instilling in them the same values that she taught me and my brother: things like compassion, and integrity, and confidence, and perseverance -- all of that wrapped up in an unconditional love that only a grandmother can give. +I was also fortunate enough to be cherished and encouraged by some strong male role models as well, including my father, my brother, uncles and grandfathers. +The men in my life taught me some important things, as well. +They taught me about what a respectful relationship should look like between men and women. +They taught me about what a strong marriage feels like: that it's built on faith and commitment and an admiration for each other's unique gifts. +They taught me about what it means to be a father and to raise a family. +And not only to invest in your own home but to reach out and help raise kids in the broader community. +And these were the same qualities that I looked for in my own husband, Barack Obama. +And when we first met, one of the things that I remember is that he took me out on a date. +And his date was to go with him to a community meeting. +I know, how romantic. +But when we met, Barack was a community organizer. +He worked, helping people to find jobs and to try to bring resources into struggling neighborhoods. +As he talked to the residents in that community center, he talked about two concepts. +He talked about "the world as it is" and "the world as it should be." +And I talked about this throughout the entire campaign. +What he said, that all too often, is that we accept the distance between those two ideas. +And sometimes we settle for the world as it is, even when it doesn't reflect our values and aspirations. +But Barack reminded us on that day, all of us in that room, that we all know what our world should look like. +We know what fairness and justice and opportunity look like. +We all know. +And he urged the people in that meeting, in that community, to devote themselves to closing the gap between those two ideas, to work together to try to make the world as it is and the world as it should be, one and the same. +And I think about that today because I am reminded and convinced that all of you in this school are very important parts of closing that gap. +You are the women who will build the world as it should be. +You're going to write the next chapter in history. +Not just for yourselves, but for your generation and generations to come. +And that's why getting a good education is so important. +That's why all of this that you're going through -- the ups and the downs, the teachers that you love and the teachers that you don't -- why it's so important. +Because communities and countries and ultimately the world are only as strong as the health of their women. +And that's important to keep in mind. +Part of that health includes an outstanding education. +The difference between a struggling family and a healthy one is often the presence of an empowered woman or women at the center of that family. +The difference between a broken community and a thriving one is often the healthy respect between men and women who appreciate the contributions each other makes to society. +The difference between a languishing nation and one that will flourish is the recognition that we need equal access to education for both boys and girls. +They allowed for no obstacles. +As the sign said back there, "without limitations." +They knew no other way to live than to follow their dreams. +And having done so, these women moved many obstacles. +And they opened many new doors for millions of female doctors and nurses and artists and authors, all of whom have followed them. +And by getting a good education, you too can control your own destiny. +Please remember that. +If you want to know the reason why I'm standing here, it's because of education. +I never cut class. Sorry, I don't know if anybody is cutting class. +I never did it. +I loved getting As. +I liked being smart. +I liked being on time. I liked getting my work done. +I thought being smart was cooler than anything in the world. +And you too, with these same values, can control your own destiny. +You too can pave the way. +You too can realize your dreams, and then your job is to reach back and to help someone just like you do the same thing. +History proves that it doesn't matter whether you come from a council estate or a country estate. +Your success will be determined by your own fortitude, your own confidence, your own individual hard work. +That is true. That is the reality of the world that we live in. +You now have control over your own destiny. +And it won't be easy -- that's for sure. +But you have everything you need. +Everything you need to succeed, you already have, right here. +My husband works in this big office. +They call it the Oval Office. +In the White House, there's the desk that he sits at -- it's called the Resolute desk. +It was built by the timber of Her Majesty's Ship Resolute and given by Queen Victoria. +It's an enduring symbol of the friendship between our two nations. +And its name, Resolute, is a reminder of the strength of character that's required not only to lead a country, but to live a life of purpose, as well. +And I hope in pursuing your dreams, you all remain resolute, that you go forward without limits, and that you use your talents -- because there are many; we've seen them; it's there -- that you use them to create the world as it should be. +Because we are counting on you. +We are counting on every single one of you to be the very best that you can be. +Because the world is big. +And it's full of challenges. +And we need strong, smart, confident young women to stand up and take the reins. +We know you can do it. We love you. Thank you so much. +All human life, all life, depends on plants. +Let me try to convince you of that in a few seconds. +Just think for a moment. +Damn it, even the books here are made out of plants. +All these things, they come back to plants. +And without them we wouldn't be here. +Now plants are under threat. +They're under threat because of changing climate. +And they are also under threat because they are sharing a planet with people like us. +And people like us want to do things that destroy plants, and their habitats. +And whether that's because of food production, or because of the introduction of alien plants into places that they really oughtn't be, or because of habitats being used for other purposes -- all these things are meaning that plants have to adapt, or die, or move. +And plants sometimes find it rather difficult to move because there might be cities and other things in the way. +So if all human life depends on plants, doesn't it make sense that perhaps we should try to save them? +I think it does. +And I want to tell you about a project to save plants. +And the way that you save plants is by storing seeds. +Because seeds, in all their diverse glory, are plants' futures. +All the genetic information for future generations of plants are held in seeds. +So here is the building; it looks rather unassuming, really. +But it goes down below ground many stories. +And it's the largest seed bank in the world. +It exists not only in southern England, but distributed around the world. I'll come to that. +This is a nuclear-proof facility. +God forbid that it should have to withstand that. +So if you're going to build a seed bank, you have to decide what you're going to store in it. Right? +And we decided that what we want to store first of all, are the species that are most under threat. +And those are the dry land species. +So first of all we did deals with 50 different countries. +It means negotiating with heads of state, and with secretaries of state in 50 countries to sign treaties. +We have 120 partner institutions all over the world, in all those countries colored orange. +People come from all over the world to learn, and then they go away and plan exactly how they're going to collect these seeds. +They have thousands of people all over the world tagging places where those plants are said to exist. +They search for them. They find them in flower. +And they go back when their seeds have arrived. +And they collect the seeds. All over the world. +The seeds -- some of if is very untechnical. +You kind of shovel them all in to bags and dry them off. +You label them. You do some high-tech things here and there, some low-tech things here and there. +And the main thing is that you have to dry them very carefully, at low temperature. +And then you have to store them at about minus 20 degrees C -- that's about minus four Fahrenheit, I think -- with a very critically low moisture content. +And these seeds will be able to germinate, we believe, with many of the species, in thousands of years, and certainly in hundreds of years. +It's no good storing the seeds if you don't know they're still viable. +So every 10 years we do germination tests on every sample of seeds that we have. +And this is a distributed network. +So all around the world people are doing the same thing. +And that enables us to develop germination protocols. +That means that we know the right combination of heat and cold and the cycles that you have to get to make the seed germinate. +And that is very useful information. +And then we grow these things, and we tell people, back in the countries where these seeds have come from, "Look, actually we're not just storing this to get the seeds later, but we can give you this information about how to germinate these difficult plants." +And that's already happening. +So where have we got to? +I am pleased to unveil that our three billionth seed -- that's three thousand millionth seed -- is now stored. +Ten percent of all plant species on the planet, 24,000 species are safe; 30,000 species, if we get the funding, by next year. +Twenty-five percent of all the world's plants, by 2020. +These are not just crop plants, as you might have seen stored in Svalbard in Norway -- fantastic work there. +This is at least 100 times bigger. +We have thousands of collections that have been sent out all over the world: drought-tolerant forest species sent to Pakistan and Egypt; come here to the United States; salt-tolerant pasture species sent to Australia; the list goes on and on. +These seeds are used for restoration. +So in habitats that have already been damaged, like the tall grass prairie here in the USA, or in mined land in various countries, restoration is already happening because of these species -- and because of this collection. +Some of these plants, like the ones on the bottom to the left of your screen, they are down to the last few remaining members. +The one where the guy is collecting seeds there on the truck, that is down to about 30 last remaining trees. +Fantastically useful plant, both for protein and for medicine. +We have training going on in China, in the USA, and many other countries. +How much does it cost? +2,800 dollars per species is the average. +I think that's cheap, at the price. +And that gets you all the scientific data that goes with it. +The future research is "How can we find the genetic and molecular markers for the viability of seeds, without having to plant them every 10 years?" +And we're almost there. +Thank you very much. +I was thinking about my place in the universe, and about my first thought about what infinity might mean, when I was a child. +And I thought that if time could reach forwards and backwards infinitely, doesn't that mean that every point in time is really infinitely small, and therefore somewhat meaningless. +So we don't really have a place in the universe, as far as on a time line. +But nothing else does either. +Therefore every moment really is the most important moment that's ever happened, including this moment right now. +And so therefore this music you're about to hear is maybe the most important music you'll ever hear in your life. +Thank you. +For those of you who I'll be fortunate enough to meet afterwards, you could please refrain from saying, "Oh my god, you're so much shorter in real life." +Because it's like the stage is an optical illusion, for some reason. +Somewhat like the curving of the universe. +I don't know what it is. I get asked in interviews a lot, "My god, you're guitars are so gigantic!" +"You must get them custom made -- special, humongous guitars." +Thank you very much. +College presidents are not the first people who come to mind when the subject is the uses of the creative imagination. +So I thought I'd start by telling you how I got here. +The story begins in the late '90s. +I was invited to meet with leading educators from the newly free Eastern Europe and Russia. +They were trying to figure out how to rebuild their universities. +Since education under the Soviet Union was essentially propaganda serving the purposes of a state ideology, they appreciated that it would take wholesale transformations if they were to provide an education worthy of free men and women. +Given this rare opportunity to start fresh, they chose liberal arts as the most compelling model because of its historic commitment to furthering its students' broadest intellectual, and deepest ethical potential. +Having made that decision they came to the United States, home of liberal arts education, to talk with some of us most closely identified with that kind of education. +They spoke with a passion, an urgency, an intellectual conviction that, for me, was a voice I had not heard in decades, a dream long forgotten. +For, in truth, we had moved light years from the passions that animated them. +But for me, unlike them, in my world, the slate was not clean, and what was written on it was not encouraging. +In truth, liberal arts education no longer exists -- at least genuine liberal arts education -- in this country. +We have professionalized liberal arts to the point where they no longer provide the breadth of application and the enhanced capacity for civic engagement that is their signature. +Over the past century the expert has dethroned the educated generalist to become the sole model of intellectual accomplishment. Expertise has for sure had its moments. +But the price of its dominance is enormous. +Subject matters are broken up into smaller and smaller pieces, with increasing emphasis on the technical and the obscure. +We have even managed to make the study of literature arcane. +You may think you know what is going on in that Jane Austen novel -- that is, until your first encounter with postmodern deconstructionism. +The progression of today's college student is to jettison every interest except one. +And within that one, to continually narrow the focus, learning more and more about less and less; this, despite the evidence all around us of the interconnectedness of things. +Lest you think I exaggerate, here are the beginnings of the A-B-Cs of anthropology. +As one moves up the ladder, values other than technical competence are viewed with increasing suspicion. +Questions such as, "What kind of a world are we making? +What kind of a world should we be making? +What kind of a world can we be making?" +are treated with more and more skepticism, and move off the table. +In so doing, the guardians of secular democracy in effect yield the connection between education and values to fundamentalists, who, you can be sure, have no compunctions about using education to further their values: the absolutes of a theocracy. +Meanwhile, the values and voices of democracy are silent. +Either we have lost touch with those values or, no better, believe they need not or cannot be taught. +This aversion to social values may seem at odds with the explosion of community service programs. +But despite the attention paid to these efforts, they remain emphatically extracurricular. +In effect, civic-mindedness is treated as outside the realm of what purports to be serious thinking and adult purposes. +Simply put, when the impulse is to change the world, the academy is more likely to engender a learned helplessness than to create a sense of empowerment. +When the astronomical distance between the realities of the academy and the visionary intensity of this challenge were more than enough, I can assure you, to give one pause, what was happening outside higher education made backing off unthinkable. +Whether it was threats to the environment, inequities in the distribution of wealth, lack of a sane policy or a sustainable policy with respect to the continuing uses of energy, we were in desperate straits. +And that was only the beginning. +The corrupting of our political life had become a living nightmare; nothing was exempt -- separation of powers, civil liberties, the rule of law, the relationship of church and state. +Accompanied by a squandering of the nation's material wealth that defied credulity. +A harrowing predilection for the uses of force had become commonplace, with an equal distaste for the alternative forms of influence. +At the same time, all of our firepower was impotent when it came to halting or even stemming the slaughter in Rwanda, Darfur, Myanmar. +Our public education, once a model for the world, has become most noteworthy for its failures. +Mastery of basic skills and a bare minimum of cultural literacy eludes vast numbers of our students. +Despite having a research establishment that is the envy of the world, more than half of the American public don't believe in evolution. +And don't press your luck about how much those who do believe in it actually understand it. +Incredibly, this nation, with all its material, intellectual and spiritual resources, seems utterly helpless to reverse the freefall in any of these areas. +Equally startling, from my point of view, is the fact that no one was drawing any connections between what is happening to the body politic, and what is happening in our leading educational institutions. +We may be at the top of the list when it comes to influencing access to personal wealth. +We are not even on the list when it comes to our responsibility for the health of this democracy. +We are playing with fire. +You can be sure Jefferson knew what he was talking about when he said, "If a nation expects to be ignorant and free in a state of civilization, it expects what never was, and never will be." +On a more personal note, this betrayal of our principles, our decency, our hope, made it impossible for me to avoid the question, "What will I say, years from now, when people ask, 'Where were you?'" As president of a leading liberal arts college, famous for its innovative history, there were no excuses. +So the conversation began at Bennington. +Knowing that if we were to regain the integrity of liberal education, it would take radical rethinking of basic assumptions, beginning with our priorities. +Enhancing the public good becomes a primary objective. +The accomplishment of civic virtue is tied to the uses of intellect and imagination at their most challenging. +Our ways of approaching agency and authority turn inside out to reflect the reality that no one has the answers to the challenges facing citizens in this century, and everyone has the responsibility for trying and participating in finding them. +Bennington would continue to teach the arts and sciences as areas of immersion that acknowledge differences in personal and professional objectives. +But the balances redressed, our shared purposes assume an equal if not greater importance. +When the design emerged it was surprisingly simple and straightforward. +The idea is to make the political-social challenges themselves -- from health and education to the uses of force -- the organizers of the curriculum. +They would assume the commanding role of traditional disciplines. +But structures designed to connect, rather than divide mutually dependent circles, rather than isolating triangles. +And the point is not to treat these topics as topics of study, but as frameworks of action. +The challenge: to figure out what it will take to actually do something that makes a significant and sustainable difference. +Contrary to widely held assumptions, an emphasis on action provides a special urgency to thinking. +The importance of coming to grips with values like justice, equity, truth, becomes increasingly evident as students discover that interest alone cannot tell them what they need to know when the issue is rethinking education, our approach to health, or strategies for achieving an economics of equity. +The value of the past also comes alive; it provides a lot of company. +You are not the first to try to figure this out, just as you are unlikely to be the last. +Even more valuable, history provides a laboratory in which we see played out the actual, as well as the intended consequences of ideas. +In the language of my students, "Deep thought matters when you're contemplating what to do about things that matter." +A new liberal arts that can support this action-oriented curriculum has begun to emerge. +Rhetoric, the art of organizing the world of words to maximum effect. +Design, the art of organizing the world of things. +Mediation and improvisation also assume a special place in this new pantheon. +Quantitative reasoning attains its proper position at the heart of what it takes to manage change where measurement is crucial. +As is a capacity to discriminate systematically between what is at the core and what is at the periphery. +And when making connections is of the essence, the power of technology emerges with special intensity. +But so does the importance of content. +The more powerful our reach, the more important the question "About what?" +When improvisation, resourcefulness, imagination are key, artists, at long last, take their place at the table, when strategies of action are in the process of being designed. +In this dramatically expanded ideal of a liberal arts education where the continuum of thought and action is its life's blood, knowledge honed outside the academy becomes essential. +Social activists, business leaders, lawyers, politicians, professionals will join the faculty as active and ongoing participants in this wedding of liberal education to the advancement of the public good. +Students, in turn, continuously move outside the classroom to engage the world directly. +And of course, this new wine needs new bottles if we are to capture the liveliness and dynamism of this idea. +The most important discovery we made in our focus on public action was to appreciate that the hard choices are not between good and evil, but between competing goods. +This discovery is transforming. +It undercuts self-righteousness, radically alters the tone and character of controversy, and enriches dramatically the possibilities for finding common ground. +Ideology, zealotry, unsubstantiated opinions simply won't do. +This is a political education, to be sure. +But it is a politics of principle, not of partisanship. +So the challenge for Bennington is to do it. +On the cover of Bennington's 2008 holiday card is the architect's sketch of a building opening in 2010 that is to be a center for the advancement of public action. +The center will embody and sustain this new educational commitment. +Think of it as a kind of secular church. +The words on the card describe what will happen inside. +We intend to turn the intellectual and imaginative power, passion and boldness of our students, faculty and staff to developing strategies for acting on the critical challenges of our time. +So we are doing our job. +While these past weeks have been a time of national exhilaration in this country, it would be tragic if you thought this meant your job was done. +The glacial silence we have experienced in the face of the shredding of the constitution, the unraveling of our public institutions, the deterioration of our infrastructure is not limited to the universities. +We the people have become inured to our own irrelevance when it comes to doing anything significant about anything that matters concerning governance, beyond waiting another four years. +We persist also in being sidelined by the idea of the expert as the only one capable of coming up with answers, despite the overwhelming evidence to the contrary. +The problem is there is no such thing as a viable democracy made up of experts, zealots, politicians and spectators. +People will continue and should continue to learn everything there is to know about something or other. +We actually do it all the time. +And there will be and should be those who spend a lifetime pursuing a very highly defined area of inquiry. +But this single-mindedness will not yield the flexibilities of mind, the multiplicity of perspectives, the capacities for collaboration and innovation this country needs. +That is where you come in. +What is certain is that the individual talent exhibited in such abundance here, needs to turn its attention to that collaborative, messy, frustrating, contentious and impossible world of politics and public policy. +President Obama and his team simply cannot do it alone. +If the question of where to start seems overwhelming you are at the beginning, not the end of this adventure. +Being overwhelmed is the first step if you are serious about trying to get at things that really matter, on a scale that makes a difference. +So what do you do when you feel overwhelmed? +Well, you have two things. +You have a mind. And you have other people. +Start with those, and change the world. +Information technology grows in an exponential manner. +It's not linear. And our intuition is linear. +When we walked through the savanna a thousand years ago we made linear predictions where that animal would be, and that worked fine. It's hardwired in our brains. +But the pace of exponential growth is really what describes information technologies. +And it's not just computation. +There is a big difference between linear and exponential growth. +If I take 30 steps linearly -- one, two, three, four, five -- I get to 30. +If I take 30 steps exponentially -- two, four, eight, 16 -- I get to a billion. +It makes a huge difference. +And that really describes information technology. +When I was a student at MIT, we all shared one computer that took up a whole building. +The computer in your cellphone today is a million times cheaper, a million times smaller, a thousand times more powerful. +That's a billion-fold increase in capability per dollar that we've actually experienced since I was a student. +And we're going to do it again in the next 25 years. +Information technology progresses through a series of S-curves where each one is a different paradigm. +So people say, "What's going to happen when Moore's Law comes to an end?" +Which will happen around 2020. +We'll then go to the next paradigm. +And Moore's Law was not the first paradigm to bring exponential growth to computing. +The exponential growth of computing started decades before Gordon Moore was even born. +And it doesn't just apply to computation. +It's really any technology where we can measure the underlying information properties. +Here we have 49 famous computers. I put them in a logarithmic graph. +The logarithmic scale hides the scale of the increase, because this represents trillions-fold increase since the 1890 census. +In 1950s they were shrinking vacuum tubes, making them smaller and smaller. They finally hit a wall; they couldn't shrink the vacuum tube any more and keep the vacuum. +And that was the end of the shrinking of vacuum tubes, but it was not the end of the exponential growth of computing. +We went to the fourth paradigm, transistors, and finally integrated circuits. +When that comes to an end we'll go to the sixth paradigm; three-dimensional self-organizing molecular circuits. +But what's even more amazing, really, than this fantastic scale of progress, is that -- look at how predictable this is. +I mean this went through thick and thin, through war and peace, through boom times and recessions. +The Great Depression made not a dent in this exponential progression. +We'll see the same thing in the economic recession we're having now. +At least the exponential growth of information technology capability will continue unabated. +And I just updated these graphs. +Because I had them through 2002 in my book, "The Singularity is Near." +So we updated them, so I could present it here, to 2007. +And I was asked, "Well aren't you nervous? +Maybe it kind of didn't stay on this exponential progression." +I was a little nervous because maybe the data wouldn't be right, but I've done this now for 30 years, and it has stayed on this exponential progression. +Look at this graph here.You could buy one transistor for a dollar in 1968. +You can buy half a billion today, and they are actually better, because they are faster. +But look at how predictable this is. +And I'd say this knowledge is over-fitting to past data. +I've been making these forward-looking predictions for about 30 years. +And the cost of a transistor cycle, which is a measure of the price performance of electronics, comes down about every year. +That's a 50 percent deflation rate. +And it's also true of other examples, like DNA data or brain data. +But we more than make up for that. +We actually ship more than twice as much of every form of information technology. +We've had 18 percent growth in constant dollars in every form of information technology for the last half-century, despite the fact that you can get twice as much of it each year. +This is a completely different example. +This is not Moore's Law. +The amount of DNA data we've sequenced has doubled every year. +The cost has come down by half every year. +And this has been a smooth progression since the beginning of the genome project. +And halfway through the project, skeptics said, "Well, this is not working out. You're halfway through the genome project and you've finished one percent of the project." +But that was really right on schedule. +Because if you double one percent seven more times, which is exactly what happened, you get 100 percent. And the project was finished on time. +Communication technologies: 50 different ways to measure this, the number of bits being moved around, the size of the Internet. +But this has progressed at an exponential pace. +This is deeply democratizing. +I wrote, over 20 years ago in "The Age of Intelligent Machines," when the Soviet Union was going strong, that it would be swept away by this growth of decentralized communication. +And we will have plenty of computation as we go through the 21st century to do things like simulate regions of the human brain. +But where will we get the software? +Some critics say, "Oh, well software is stuck in the mud." +But we are learning more and more about the human brain. +Spatial resolution of brain scanning is doubling every year. +The amount of data we're getting about the brain is doubling every year. +And we're showing that we can actually turn this data into working models and simulations of brain regions. +There is about 20 regions of the brain that have been modeled, simulated and tested: the auditory cortex, regions of the visual cortex; cerebellum, where we do our skill formation; slices of the cerebral cortex, where we do our rational thinking. +And all of this has fueled an increase, very smooth and predictable, of productivity. +We've gone from 30 dollars to 130 dollars in constant dollars in the value of an average hour of human labor, fueled by this information technology. +And we're all concerned about energy and the environment. +Well this is a logarithmic graph. +This represents a smooth doubling, every two years, of the amount of solar energy we're creating, particularly as we're now applying nanotechnology, a form of information technology, to solar panels. +And we're only eight doublings away from it meeting 100 percent of our energy needs. +And there is 10 thousand times more sunlight than we need. +We ultimately will merge with this technology. It's already very close to us. +When I was a student it was across campus, now it's in our pockets. +What used to take up a building now fits in our pockets. +What now fits in our pockets would fit in a blood cell in 25 years. +And we will begin to actually deeply influence our health and our intelligence, as we get closer and closer to this technology. +Based on that we are announcing, here at TED, in true TED tradition, Singularity University. +It's a new university that's founded by Peter Diamandis, who is here in the audience, and myself. +It's backed by NASA and Google, and other leaders in the high-tech and science community. +And our goal was to assemble the leaders, both teachers and students, in these exponentially growing information technologies, and their application. +But Larry Page made an impassioned speech at our organizing meeting, saying we should devote this study to actually addressing some of the major challenges facing humanity. +And if we did that, then Google would back this. +And so that's what we've done. +The last third of the nine-week intensive summer session will be devoted to a group project to address some major challenge of humanity. +Like for example, applying the Internet, which is now ubiquitous, in the rural areas of China or in Africa, to bringing health information to developing areas of the world. +And these projects will continue past these sessions, using collaborative interactive communication. +All the intellectual property that is created and taught will be online and available, and developed online in a collaborative fashion. +Here is our founding meeting. +But this is being announced today. +It will be permanently headquartered in Silicon Valley, at the NASA Ames research center. +There are different programs for graduate students, for executives at different companies. +The first six tracks here -- artificial intelligence, advanced computing technologies, biotechnology, nanotechnology -- are the different core areas of information technology. +Then we are going to apply them to the other areas, like energy, ecology, policy law and ethics, entrepreneurship, so that people can bring these new technologies to the world. +So we're very appreciative of the support we've gotten from both the intellectual leaders, the high-tech leaders, particularly Google and NASA. +This is an exciting new venture. +And we invite you to participate. Thank you very much. +"The Better Man." +I was the better at getting and keeping. +You were the better at spend and spend; I was the better at grubbing and heaping, But who was the better man in the end? +Yes, who was the better man, my friend? +You were the better with lords and ladies, I was the better at pillaging Troy; You were the better at kissing the babies, I was the better at search and destroy. +But who was the better man, old boy? +Who was the better man? +I was the better at improvisation, You were the better at spinning the plates; I was the better at procrastination, You were the better at quiet debate. +But who was the better man, old mate? +Who was the better man? +You were the better at rolling a reefer, I was the better at coke and rum; Remember that night on the beach in Ibiza? +The Maori twins with the tattooed bum? +But who was the better man, old chum? +Who was the better man? +Now we come down to it, relatives grieving. +Out in the hall with their crocodile tears; Now that you're out of it, now that you're leaving, Now that they've sealed your arse and your ears, What I've been meaning to tell you for years, And years, and years, and years, old friend ... +Is that you were the better man, in the end; You were the better man, My friend. +I wrote this next poem for my mother. +Every one of us had a mother, only one -- probably the most important person in your life, if you're lucky enough to know them. +My mother was certainly the most important in mine. +Let me try and describe her to you. +She's 86 years old. She's frail. +White, platinum hair. +Why do they do that? Why do old ladies go to those hair shops, and make those helmets? +Bright as a button. All the ducks in a row. +Looks like a much prettier version of Margaret Thatcher, but without any of the soft bits in Margaret's character. +I wrote this poem for her. These are not my beliefs. +But my mother has lived by this creed all her life. +"Never Go Back." +Never go back. Never go back. +Never return to the haunts of your youth. +Keep to the track, to the beaten track; Memory holds all you need of the truth. +Never look back. Never look back. +Never succumb to the gorgon's stare. +Keep to the track, to the beaten track; No-one is waiting and nothing is there. +Never go back. Never go back. +Never surrender the future you earned. +Keep to the track, to the beaten track; Never return to the bridges you've burned. +Never look back. Never look back. +Never retreat to the 'glorious past.' Keep to the track, to the beaten track; Treat every day of your life as your last. +Never go back. Never go back. +Never acknowledge the ghost on the stair. +Keep to the track, to the beaten track; No-one is waiting and nothing is there. +Now ladies and gentlemen, I'm up on me hobbyhorse. +If every commercially minded cosmetic surgeon were tied end to end along a railroad track, that would be me, stoking the train without a qualm in the world. +Ladies, don't do it. +Don't do it. +You think we want you to do it, but we don't want you to do it. +Stop it. +Tell them to go to hell. +You bodies are wonderful as they are. +Just leave them alone. +"To a Beautiful Lady of a Certain Age." +Lady lady, do not weep. +What is gone is gone. Now sleep. +Turn your pillow. Dry your tears. +Count thy sheep and not thy years. +Nothing good can come of this. +Time rules all, my dearest. +'Tis but folly to be waging war On one who never lost before. +Lady, this is all in vain. +Youth can never come again; We have drunk the summer wine. +None can make a stitch in time. +Nip and tuck till crack of doom. +What is foretold in the womb May not be foresworn with gold. +Nor may time be bought or sold. +Dearest, do I love thee less? +Do I shrink from thy caress? +Think you I could cease to care? +Never was there one so fair! +Lady lady, do not weep -- What is gone is gone. Now sleep. +Lean against me, calm your fears, Count thy blessings, not thy years. +America, ladies and gentlemen, has done more for me financially than Britain ever has, or ever could have done. +I was born in Britain, as you have probably guessed. +Even when on its worst behavior, I find myself automatically defending the USA from the sneers of green-eyed Europhiles playing their Greek card to Roman trumps. +America is an empire. +I hope you know that now. +All empires, by definition, are bumbling, shambolic, bullying, bureaucratic affairs, as certain of the rightness of their cause in infancy, as they are corrupted by power in their dotage. +I am no historian, ladies and gentlemen. +But it seems to be that the USA's sins, compared to those of many previous empires, are of a more moderate, if more pervasive, kind. +Let me put this bluntly. +If Americans are so fat, stupid and ignorant, my dear friends from Birmingham, how come they rule the world? +"Hail to the Gods of America." +Hail to the Gods of America! +Hail to the gods of the dream. +Invictus E Pluribus Unum. +But which of them reigns supreme? +Which is America's Jupiter? +The Brahmins of Capital Hill? +A sorcerer's profit on Wall Street? +They eye of a dollar bill? +Or is it celebrity status? +The worship of those we hate. +Or the cult of living forever, If only we'd watch our weight. +What of the titans of media? +Or Hollywood's siren call? +What of the temples of justice, Whose servants enslave us all? +What of the Brand and the Label? +What of the upstart Sport? +And what of the Constitution, That bully of last resort? +Hail to the God of America, Whose power the masses extol -- Convenience rules America; Convenience owns our soul. +Aye, that it does. +And if you would like to know why I am not a father -- I, who by a miracle have 22 godchildren -- the answer is in this poem, which upsets me every time I read it. +"Love Came to Visit Me." +Love came to visit me, shy as a fawn. +But finding me busy, she fled, with the dawn. +At 20 the torch of resentment was lit. +My rage at injustice waxed hot as the pits. +The flux of its lava cleared all in its path. +Comrades and enemies fled from its wrath. +Yet lovers grew wary, once novelty waned To lie with a bloody man, his terror unfeigned. +At 30 my powers seemed mighty to me. +The fruits of my rivals, I shook from the tree. +By guile and by bluster, by night and by day, I battered and scattered the fools from my way. +And women grew willing to sham and to bluff. +Their trinkets and baubles cost little enough. +From 40 to 50, grown easy and sly, I wined them and dined them, like pigs in a sty. +We feasted and reveled and rutted in muck, Forgetting our peril, forgetting to duck, Forgetting times arrows are sharper than knives. +Grown sick to our stomachs, and sick of our lives. +Love came to visit me, shy as a fawn. +But finding me busy, she fled with the dawn. +Um, there are -- I've got far too much money and I have far too much fun in my businesses. +So poetry came as a complete shock to me, ladies and gentlemen. +A complete shock. I was a little ill. +Okay, I was ill. +Okay, I had a life-threatening illness, you know. +I was in a clinic. I wasn't allowed to make telephone calls. +I wasn't allowed to see any of my -- you know, whatever. +So, in the end I begged a pack of Post-it notes off a nurse. +And from another nurse, I begged a pencil, pen. +And I didn't know what else to do. So I started to write poetry. +That was in October of 2000. +I'm not an evil man. +But sometimes I try to put myself in an evil man's position. +I'm not a glorious and fantastic-looking woman, who men fall down, you know, when she walks in a room. +But sometimes I try to put myself in that position. +Not with much success. +But it's interesting to me. I love to write historical verse. +I love to think what they thought, what it was like. +Because although many of the speakers and many of the people who are in the audience, although you guys can not only go to the moon, you know, you're going to totally transform everything. +Cloning will transform everything. Voice navigation will transform everything. +I don't know. You can do anything you want. +All you guys are so clever, and women, you can do it all! +But human nature doesn't change, mate. +My friends, human nature is exactly the same as it was when my ancestor -- probably it was my ancestor -- got his hands around the neck of the last Neanderthal, and battered the bastard to death. +You think we didn't do that? +Oh, we did. +We killed every single one of them. +Inch by inch we killed them. +We hunted them down wherever they were. +Rivals for meat. Rivals for berries. +We're still doing it, with all of the genius assembled in this room. +Our natures haven't changed a single iota. +And they never will. +Even when we've got off this little planet, and have put some of our eggs in some other baskets. +And I am as bad as you. +I spent eight years running one of the most successful publishing businesses in the world. +And at seven o'clock every night, I took me some more girls, already corrupted. +I never did anything to anyone that wasn't. +And I took crack cocaine, every single night for seven years. +It was like Dante's "Inferno." +It was unbelievable. +One of the offshoots of crack cocaine is that you keep an erection for about four hours. +And you stay up for 12. +It was absolutely unbelievable. +Twenty-two godchildren I've got. +What do I say to them? +I only stopped because I thought if I got caught, what would happen to my mother. +If you're a woman, remember that. +The love of your son can utterly transform anything he does. +"Our Lady in White." +Pale she was, listless; And soft to the touch. +A generous mistress Whom many loved much. +Shoulder to shoulder, Night after night, We hoarded and sold her -- Our Lady in White. +We breathed but to savor her crystal caress. +We craved but to favor the hem of her dress. +We dabbled and babbled, Denying our thirsts. +But always we scrabbled to lie with her first. +Absent, we missed her, grew haggard and limp. +Toyed with her sister, or threatened her pimp. +Came word out of Babel, the lady returns! +And there on the table we took her, in turns. +Sensing the power that tyranny craves, There in that hour, she made us her slaves. +Many there were, to covet her kiss. +My shame as a spur, I fled the abyss. +But only just. +I used to be a Malthusian. +This was my mental model of the world: exploding population, small planet; it's going to lead to ugly things. +But I'm moving past Malthus, because I think that we just might be about 150 years from a kind of new enlightenment. +Here's why. +This is the U.N.'s population data, you may have seen, for the world. +And the world's population expected to top out at something hopefully a bit less than 10 billion, late this century. +And after that, most likely it's going to begin to decline. +So what then? +Most of the economic models are built around scarcity and growth. +So a lot of economists look at declining population and expect to see stagnation, maybe depression. +But a declining population is going to have at least two very beneficial economic effects. +One: fewer people on a fixed amount of land make investing in property a bad bet. +In the cities, a lot of the cost of property is actually wrapped up in its speculative value. +Take away land speculation, price of land drops. +And that begins to lift a heavy burden off the world's poor. +Number two: a declining population means scarce labor. +Scarce labor drives wages. +As wages increase that also lifts the burden on the poor and the working class. +Now I'm not talking about a radical drop in population like we saw in the Black Death. +But look what happened in Europe after the plague: rising wages, land reform, technological innovation, birth of the middle class; and after that, forward-looking social movements like the Renaissance, and later the Enlightenment. +Most of our cultural heritage has tended to look backward, romanticizing the past. +All of the Western religions begin with the notion of Eden, and descend through a kind of profligate present to a very ugly future. +So human history is viewed as sort of this downhill slide from the good old days. +But I think we're in for another change, about two generations after the top of that curve, once the effects of a declining population start to settle in. +At that point, we'll start romanticizing the future again, instead of the nasty, brutish past. +So why does this matter? +Why talk about social-economic movements that may be more than a century away? +Because transitions are dangerous times. +When land owners start to lose money, and labor demands more pay, there are some powerful interests that are going to fear for the future. +Fear for the future leads to some rash decisions. +If we have a positive view about the future then we may be able to accelerate through that turn, instead of careening off a cliff. +If we can make it through the next 150 years, I think that your great great grandchildren will forget all about Malthus. +And instead, they'll be planning for the future and starting to build the 22nd Century Enlightenment. +Thank you. +What's happening to the climate? +It is unbelievably bad. +This is, obviously, that famous view now of the Arctic, which is likely to be gone at this point in the next three or four or five years. Very, very, very scary. +So we all look at what we can do. +And when you look at the worldwide sources of CO2, 52 percent are tied to buildings. +Only nine percent is passenger cars, interestingly enough. +So we ran off to a sushi bar. +And at that sushi bar we came up with a great idea. +And it was something called EcoRock. +And we said we could redesign the 115-year-old gypsum drywall process that generates 20 billion pounds of CO2 a year. +So it was a big idea. We wanted to reduce that by 80 percent, which is exactly what we've done. +We started R&D in 2006. +Decided to use recycled content from cement and steel manufacturing. +There is the inside of our lab. We haven't shown this before. +But our people had to do some 5,000 different mixes to get this right, to hit our targets. +And they worked absolutely very, very, very hard. +So then we went forward and built our production line in China. +We don't build this production equipment any longer in the U.S., unfortunately. +We did the line install over the summer. +We started right there, with absolutely nothing. +You're seeing for the first time, a brand new drywall production line, not made using gypsum at all. +That's the finished production line there. +We got our first panel out on December third. +That is the slurry being poured onto paper, basically. That's the line running. +The exciting thing is, look at the faces of the people. +These are people who worked this project for two to three years. +And they are so excited. That's the first board off the line. +Our Vice President of Operation kissing the board. Obviously very, very excited. +But this has a huge, huge impact on the environment. +We signed the first panel just a few weeks after that, had a great signing ceremony, leading to people hopefully using these products across the world. +And we've got Cradle-to-Cradle Gold on this thing. +We happened to win, just recently, the Green Product of the Year for "The Re-Invention of Drywall," from Popular Science. +Thank you. Thank you. +So here is what we learned: 8,000 gallons of gas equivalent to build one house. +You probably had no idea. It's like driving around the world six times. +We must change everything. +Look around the room: chairs, wood, everything around us has to change or we're not going to lick this problem. +Don't listen to the people who say you can't do this, because anyone can. +And these job losses, we can fix them with green-collar jobs. +We've got four plants. We're building this stuff around the country. +We're going as fast as we can. +Two and a half million cars worth of gypsum, you know, CO2 generated. Right? +So what will you do? I'll tell you what I did and why I did it. And I know my time's up. +Those are my kids, Natalie and David. +When they have their kids, 2050, they'd better look back at Grandpa and say, "Hey, you gave it a good shot. You did the best you could with the team that you had." +So my hope is that when you leave TED, you will look at reducing your carbon footprint in however you can do it. +And if you don't know how, please find me -- I will help you. +Last but not least, Bill Gates, I know you invented Windows. +Wait till you see, maybe next year, what kind of windows we've invented. +Thank you so much. +This is a world-changing invention. +The smoke alarm has saved perhaps hundreds of thousands of lives, worldwide. +But smoke alarms don't prevent fires. +Every year in the USA, over 20,000 are killed or injured with 350,000 home fires. +And one of the main causes of all these fires is electricity. +What if we could prevent electrical fires before they start? +Well, a couple of friends and I figured out how to do this. +So how does electricity ignite residential fires? +Well it turns out that the main causes are faulty and misused appliances and electrical wiring. +Our invention had to address all of these issues. +So what about circuit breakers? +Well, Thomas Edison invented the circuit breaker in 1879. +This is 130-year-old technology, and this is a problem, because over 80 percent of all home electrical fires start below the safety threshold of circuit breakers. +Hmmm ... +So we considered all of this. And we realized that electrical appliances must be able to communicate directly with the power receptacle itself. +Any electrical device -- an appliance, an extension cord, whatever -- must be able to tell the power outlet, "Hey, power outlet, I'm drawing too much current. Shut me off now, before I start a fire." +And the power outlet needs to be smart enough to do it. +So here is what we did. We put a 10-cent digital transponder, a data tag, in the appliance plug. +And we put an inexpensive, wireless data reader inside the receptacle so they could communicate. +Now, every home electrical system becomes an intelligent network. +The appliance's safe operating parameters are embedded into its plug. +If too much current is flowing, the intelligent receptacle turns itself off, and prevents another fire from starting. +We call this technology EFCI, Electrical Fault Circuit Interrupter. +Okay, two more points. Every year in the USA, roughly 2,500 children are admitted to emergency rooms for shock and burn injuries related to electrical receptacles. And this is crazy. +An intelligent receptacle prevents injuries because the power is always off, until an intelligent plug is detected. Simple. +Now, besides saving lives, perhaps the greatest benefit of intelligent power is in its energy savings. +This invention will reduce global energy consumption by allowing remote control and automation of every outlet in every home and business. +Now you can choose to reduce your home energy bill by automatically cycling heavy loads like air conditioners and heaters. +Hotels and businesses can shut down unused rooms from a central location, or even a cell phone. +There are 10 billion electrical outlets in North America alone. +The potential energy savings is very, very significant. +So far we've applied for 414 patent claims. +Of those, 186 have been granted: 228 are in process. +And I'm pleased to announce that just three weeks ago we received our first international recognition, the 2009 CES Innovation Award. +So, to conclude, intelligent power can, globally, save thousands of lives, prevent tens of thousands of injuries, and eliminate tens of billions of dollars in property damage every single year, while significantly reducing global energy consumption. +In the spirit of this year's TED Conference, we think this is a powerful, world-changing invention. +And I'd like to thank Chris for this opportunity to unveil our technology with you, and soon the world. +Thank you. +This is called Hooked on a Feeling: The Pursuit of Happiness and Human Design. +I put up a somewhat dour Darwin, but a very happy chimp up there. +My first point is that the pursuit of happiness is obligatory. +Man wishes to be happy, only wishes to be happy, and cannot wish not to be so. +We are wired to pursue happiness, not only to enjoy it, but to want more and more of it. +So given that that's true, how good are we at increasing our happiness? +Well, we certainly try. +If you look on the Amazon site, there are over 2,000 titles with advice on the seven habits, the nine choices, the 10 secrets, the 14,000 thoughts that are supposed to bring happiness. +Now another way we try to increase our happiness is we medicate ourselves. +And so there's over 120 million prescriptions out there for antidepressants. +Prozac was really the first absolute blockbuster drug. +It was clean, efficient, there was no high, there was really no danger, it had no street value. +In 1995, illegal drugs were a $400 billion business, representing eight percent of world trade, roughly the same as gas and oil. +These routes to happiness haven't really increased happiness very much. +One problem that's happening now is, although the rates of happiness are about as flat as the surface of the moon, depression and anxiety are rising. +Some people say this is because we have better diagnosis, and more people are being found out. +It isn't just that. We're seeing it all over the world. +In the United States right now there are more suicides than homicides. +There is a rash of suicide in China. +And the World Health Organization predicts by the year 2020 that depression will be the second largest cause of disability. +Now the good news here is that if you take surveys from around the world, we see that about three quarters of people will say they are at least pretty happy. +But this does not follow any of the usual trends. +For example, these two show great growth in income, absolutely flat happiness curves. +My field, the field of psychology, hasn't done a whole lot to help us move forward in understanding human happiness. +In part, we have the legacy of Freud, who was a pessimist, who said that pursuit of happiness is a doomed quest, is propelled by infantile aspects of the individual that can never be met in reality. +He said, "One feels inclined to say that the intention that man should be happy is not included in the plan of creation." +So the ultimate goal of psychoanalytic psychotherapy was really what Freud called ordinary misery. +And Freud in part reflects the anatomy of the human emotion system -- which is that we have both a positive and a negative system, and our negative system is extremely sensitive. +So for example, we're born loving the taste of something sweet and reacting aversively to the taste of something bitter. +We also find that people are more averse to losing than they are happy to gain. +The formula for a happy marriage is five positive remarks, or interactions, for every one negative. +And that's how powerful the one negative is. +Especially expressions of contempt or disgust, well you really need a lot of positives to upset that. +I also put in here the stress response. +We're wired for dangers that are immediate, that are physical, that are imminent, and so our body goes into an incredible reaction where endogenous opioids come in. +We have a system that is really ancient, and really there for physical danger. +And so over time, this becomes a stress response, which has enormous effects on the body. +Cortisol floods the brain; it destroys hippocampal cells and memory, and can lead to all kinds of health problems. +But unfortunately, we need this system in part. +If we were only governed by pleasure we would not survive. +We really have two command posts. +Emotions are short-lived intense responses to challenge and to opportunity. +And each one of them allows us to click into alternate selves that tune in, turn on, drop out thoughts, perceptions, feelings and memories. +We tend to think of emotions as just feelings. +But in fact, emotions are an all-systems alert that change what we remember, what kind of decisions we make, and how we perceive things. +So let me go forward to the new science of happiness. +We've come away from the Freudian gloom, and people are now actively studying this. +And one of the key points in the science of happiness is that happiness and unhappiness are not endpoints of a single continuum. +The Freudian model is really one continuum that, as you get less miserable, you get happier. +And that isn't true -- when you get less miserable, you get less miserable. +And that happiness is a whole other end of the equation. +And it's been missing. It's been missing from psychotherapy. +So when people's symptoms go away, they tend to recur, because there isn't a sense of the other half -- of what pleasure, happiness, compassion, gratitude, what are the positive emotions. +And of course we know this intuitively, that happiness is not just the absence of misery. +But somehow it was not put forward until very recently, seeing these as two parallel systems. +So that the body can both look for opportunity and also protect itself from danger, at the same time. +And they're sort of two reciprocal and dynamically interacting systems. +People have also wanted to deconstruct. +We use this word "happy," and it's this very large umbrella of a term. +And then three emotions for which there are no English words: fiero, which is the pride in accomplishment of a challenge; schadenfreude, which is happiness in another's misfortune, a malicious pleasure; and naches, which is a pride and joy in one's children. +Absent from this list, and absent from any discussions of happiness, are happiness in another's happiness. +We don't seem to have a word for that. +We are very sensitive to the negative, but it is in part offset by the fact that we have a positivity. +We're also born pleasure-seekers. +Babies love the taste of sweet and hate the taste of bitter. +They love to touch smooth surfaces rather than rough ones. +They like to look at beautiful faces rather than plain faces. +They like to listen to consonant melodies instead of dissonant melodies. +Babies really are born with a lot of innate pleasures. +There was once a statement made by a psychologist that said that 80 percent of the pursuit of happiness is really just about the genes, and it's as difficult to become happier as it is to become taller. +That's nonsense. +There is a decent contribution to happiness from the genes -- about 50 percent -- but there is still that 50 percent that is unaccounted for. +Let's just go into the brain for a moment, and see where does happiness arise from in evolution. +We have basically at least two systems here, and they both are very ancient. +One is the reward system, and that's fed by the chemical dopamine. +And it starts in the ventral tegmental area. +It goes to the nucleus accumbens, all the way up to the prefrontal cortex, orbital frontal cortex, where decisions are made, high level. +This was originally seen as a system that was the pleasure system of the brain. +In the 1950s, Olds and Milner put electrodes into the brain of a rat. +And the rat would just keep pressing that bar thousands and thousands and thousands of times. +It wouldn't eat. It wouldn't sleep. It wouldn't have sex. +It wouldn't do anything but press this bar. +So they assumed this must be, you know, the brain's orgasmatron. +It turned out that it wasn't, that it really is a system of motivation, a system of wanting. +It gives objects what's called incentive salience. +It makes something look so attractive that you just have to go after it. +That's something different from the system that is the pleasure system, which simply says, "I like this." +The pleasure system, as you see, which is the internal opiates, there is a hormone oxytocin, is widely spread throughout the brain. +Dopamine system, the wanting system, is much more centralized. +The other thing about positive emotions is that they have a universal signal. +And we see here the smile. +And the universal signal is not just raising the corner of the lips to the zygomatic major. +It's also crinkling the outer corner of the eye, the orbicularis oculi. +So you see, even 10-month-old babies, when they see their mother, will show this particular kind of smile. +Extroverts use it more than introverts. +People who are relieved of depression show it more after than before. +So if you want to unmask a true look of happiness, you will look for this expression. +Our pleasures are really ancient. +And we learn, of course, many, many pleasures, but many of them are base. And one of them, of course, is biophilia -- that we have a response to the natural world that's very profound. +Very interesting studies done on people recovering from surgery, who found that people who faced a brick wall versus people who looked out on trees and nature, the people who looked out on the brick wall were in the hospital longer, needed more medication, and had more medical complications. +There is something very restorative about nature, and it's part of how we are tuned. +Humans, particularly so, we're very imitative creatures. +And we imitate from almost the second we are born. +Here is a three-week-old baby. +And if you stick your tongue out at this baby, the baby will do the same. +We are social beings from the beginning. +And even studies of cooperation show that cooperation between individuals lights up reward centers of the brain. +One problem that psychology has had is instead of looking at this intersubjectivity -- or the importance of the social brain to humans who come into the world helpless and need each other tremendously -- is that they focus instead on the self and self-esteem, and not self-other. +It's sort of "me," not "we." +And I think this has been a really tremendous problem that goes against our biology and nature, and hasn't made us any happier at all. +Because when you think about it, people are happiest when in flow, when they're absorbed in something out in the world, when they're with other people, when they're active, engaged in sports, focusing on a loved one, learning, having sex, whatever. +They're not sitting in front of the mirror trying to figure themselves out, or thinking about themselves. +These are not the periods when you feel happiest. +The other thing is, that a piece of evidence is, is if you look at computerized text analysis of people who commit suicide, what you find there, and it's quite interesting, is use of the first person singular -- "I," "me," "my," not "we" and "us" -- and the letters are less hopeless than they are really alone. +And being alone is very unnatural to the human. +There is a profound need to belong. +But there are ways in which our evolutionary history can really trip us up. +Because, for example, the genes don't care whether we're happy, they care that we replicate, that we pass our genes on. +So for example we have three systems that underlie reproduction, because it's so important. +There's lust, which is just wanting to have sex. +And that's really mediated by the sex hormones. +Romantic attraction, that gets into the desire system. +And that's dopamine-fed. And that's, "I must have this one person." +There's attachment, which is oxytocin, and the opiates, which says, "This is a long-term bond." +See the problem is that, as humans, these three can separate. +So a person can be in a long term attachment, become romantically infatuated with someone else, and want to have sex with a third person. +The other way in which our genes can sometimes lead us astray is in social status. +We are very acutely aware of our social status and always seek to further and increase it. +Now in the animal world, there is only one way to increase status, and that's dominance. +I seize command by physical prowess, and I keep it by beating my chest, and you make submissive gestures. +Now, the human has a whole other way to rise to the top, and that is a prestige route, which is freely conferred. +Someone has expertise and knowledge, and knows how to do things, and we give that person status. +And that's clearly the way for us to create many more niches of status so that people don't have to be lower on the status hierarchy as they are in the animal world. +The data isn't terribly supportive of money buying happiness. +But it's not irrelevant. +So if you look at questions like this, life satisfaction, you see life satisfaction going up with each rung of income. +You see mental distress going up with lower income. +So clearly there is some effect. +But the effect is relatively small. +And one of the problems with money is materialism. +What happens when people pursue money too avidly, is they forget about the real basic pleasures of life. +So we have here, this couple. +"Do you think the less-fortunate are having better sex?" +And then this kid over here is saying, "Leave me alone with my toys." +So one of the things is that it really takes over. +That whole dopamine-wanting system takes over and derails from any of the pleasure system. +So to just quickly conclude with some brief data that suggests this might be so. +One is people who underwent what is called a quantum change: they felt their life and their whole values had changed. +And sure enough, if you look at the kinds of values that come in, you see wealth, adventure, achievement, pleasure, fun, be respected, before the change, and much more post-materialist values after. +Women had a whole different set of value shifts. +But very similarly, the only one that survived there was happiness. +They went from attractiveness and happiness and wealth and self-control to generosity and forgiveness. +I end with a few quotes. +"There is only one question: How to love this world?" +And Rilke, "If your daily life seems poor, do not blame it; blame yourself. +Tell yourself that you are not poet enough to call forth its riches." +"First, say to yourself what you would be. +Then do what you have to do." +Thank you. +Let me share with you today an original discovery. +But I want to tell it to you the way it really happened -- not the way I present it in a scientific meeting, or the way you'd read it in a scientific paper. +It's a story about beyond biomimetics, to something I'm calling biomutualism. +I define that as an association between biology and another discipline, where each discipline reciprocally advances the other, but where the collective discoveries that emerge are beyond any single field. +Now, in terms of biomimetics, as human technologies take on more of the characteristics of nature, nature becomes a much more useful teacher. +Engineering can be inspired by biology by using its principles and analogies when they're advantageous, but then integrating that with the best human engineering, ultimately to make something actually better than nature. +Now, being a biologist, I was very curious about this. +These are gecko toes. +And we wondered how they use these bizarre toes to climb up a wall so quickly. +We discovered it. And what we found was that they have leaf-like structures on their toes, with millions of tiny hairs that look like a rug, and each of those hairs has the worst case of split-ends possible: about 100 to 1000 split ends that are nano-size. +And the individual has 2 billion of these nano-size split ends. +They don't stick by Velcro or suction or glue. +They actually stick by intermolecular forces alone, van der Waals forces. +And I'm really pleased to report to you today that the first synthetic self-cleaning, dry adhesive has been made. +From the simplest version in nature, one branch, my engineering collaborator, Ron Fearing, at Berkeley, had made the first synthetic version. +And so has my other incredible collaborator, Mark Cutkosky, at Stanford -- he made much larger hairs than the gecko, but used the same general principles. +And here is its first test. +That's Kellar Autumn, my former Ph.D. student, professor now at Lewis and Clark, literally giving his first-born child up for this test. +More recently, this happened. +Man: This the first time someone has actually climbed with it. +Narrator: Lynn Verinsky, a professional climber, who appeared to be brimming with confidence. +Lynn Verinsky: Honestly, it's going to be perfectly safe. It will be perfectly safe. +Man: How do you know? +Lynn Verinsky: Because of liability insurance. Narrator: With a mattress below and attached to a safety rope, Lynn began her 60-foot ascent. +Lynn made it to the top in a perfect pairing of Hollywood and science. +Man: So you're the first human being to officially emulate a gecko. +Lynn Verinsky: Ha! Wow. And what a privilege that has been. +Robert Full: That's what she did on rough surfaces. +But she actually used these on smooth surfaces -- two of them -- to climb up, and pull herself up. +And you can try this in the lobby, and look at the gecko-inspired material. +Now the problem with the robots doing this is that they can't get unstuck, with the material. +This is the gecko's solution. They actually peel their toes away from the surface, at high rates, as they run up the wall. +Well I'm really excited today to show you the newest version of a robot, Stickybot, using a new hierarchical dry adhesive. +Here is the actual robot. +And here is what it does. +And if you look, you can see that it uses the toe peeling, just like the gecko does. +If we can show some of the video, you can see it climbing up the wall. +There it is. +And now it can go on other surfaces because of the new adhesive that the Stanford group was able to do in designing this incredible robot. +Oh. One thing I want to point out is, look at Stickybot. +You see something on it. It's not just to look like a gecko. +It has a tail. And just when you think you've figured out nature, this kind of thing happens. +The engineers told us, for the climbing robots, that, if they don't have a tail, they fall off the wall. +So what they did was they asked us an important question. +They said, "Well, it kind of looks like a tail." +Even though we put a passive bar there. +"Do animals use their tails when they climb up walls?" +What they were doing was returning the favor, by giving us a hypothesis to test, in biology, that we wouldn't have thought of. +So of course, in reality, we were then panicked, being the biologists, and we should know this already. +We said, "Well, what do tails do?" +Well we know that tails store fat, for example. +We know that you can grab onto things with them. +And perhaps it is most well known that they provide static balance. +It can also act as a counterbalance. +So watch this kangaroo. +See that tail? That's incredible! +Marc Raibert built a Uniroo hopping robot. +And it was unstable without its tail. +Now mostly tails limit maneuverability, like this human inside this dinosaur suit. +My colleagues actually went on to test this limitation, by increasing the moment of inertia of a student, so they had a tail, and running them through and obstacle course, and found a decrement in performance, like you'd predict. +But of course, this is a passive tail. +And you can also have active tails. +And when I went back to research this, I realized that one of the great TED moments in the past, from Nathan, we've talked about an active tail. +Video: Myhrvold thinks tail-cracking dinosaurs were interested in love, not war. +Robert Full: He talked about the tail being a whip for communication. +It can also be used in defense. +Pretty powerful. +So we then went back and looked at the animal. +And we ran it up a surface. +But this time what we did is we put a slippery patch that you see in yellow there. +And watch on the right what the animal is doing with its tail when it slips. This is slowed down 10 times. +So here is normal speed. +And watch it now slip, and see what it does with its tail. +It has an active tail that functions as a fifth leg, and it contributes to stability. +If you make it slip a huge amount, this is what we discovered. +This is incredible. +The engineers had a really good idea. +And then of course we wondered, okay, they have an active tail, but let's picture them. +They're climbing up a wall, or a tree. +And they get to the top and let's say there's some leaves there. +And what would happen if they climbed on the underside of that leaf, and there was some wind, or we shook it? +And we did that experiment, that you see here. +And this is what we discovered. +Now that's real time. You can't see anything. +But there it is slowed down. +What we discovered was the world's fastest air-righting response. +For those of you who remember your physics, that's a zero-angular-momentum righting response. But it's like a cat. +You know, cats falling. Cats do this. They twist their bodies. +But geckos do it better. +And they do it with their tail. +So they do it with this active tail as they swing around. +And then they always land in the sort of superman skydiving posture. +Okay, now we wondered, if we were right, we should be able to test this in a physical model, in a robot. +So for TED we actually built a robot, over there, a prototype, with the tail. +And we're going to attempt the first air-righting response in a tail, with a robot. +If we could have the lights on it. +Okay, there it goes. +And show the video. +There it is. +And it works just like it does in the animal. +So all you need is a swing of the tail to right yourself. +Now, of course, we were normally frightened because the animal has no gliding adaptations, so we thought, "Oh that's okay. We'll put it in a vertical wind tunnel. +We'll blow the air up, we'll give it a landing target, a tree trunk, just outside the plexi-glass enclosure, and see what it does. +So we did. And here is what it does. +So the wind is coming from the bottom. This is slowed down 10 times. +It does an equilibrium glide. Highly controlled. +This is sort of incredible. But actually it's quite beautiful, when you take a picture of it. +And it's better than that, it -- just in the slide -- maneuvers in mid-air. +And the way it does it, is it takes its tail and it swings it one way to yaw left, and it swings its other way to yaw right. +So we can maneuver this way. +And then -- we had to film this several times to believe this -- it also does this. Watch this. +It oscillates its tail up and down like a dolphin. +It can actually swim through the air. +But watch its front legs. Can you see what they are doing? +What does that mean for the origin of flapping flight? +Maybe it's evolved from coming down from trees, and trying to control a glide. +Stay tuned for that. +So then we wondered, "Can they actually maneuver with this?" +So there is the landing target. Could they steer towards it with these capabilities? Here it is in the wind tunnel. +And it certainly looks like it. +You can see it even better from down on top. +Watch the animal. +Definitely moving towards the landing target. +Watch the whip of its tail as it does it. Look at that. +It's unbelievable. +So now we were really confused, because there are no reports of it gliding. +So we went, "Oh my god, we have to go to the field, and see if it actually does this." +Completely opposite of the way you'd see it on a nature film, of course. +We wondered, "Do they actually glide in nature?" +Well we went to the forests of Singapore and Southeast Asia. +And the next video you see is the first time we've showed this. +This is the actual video -- not staged, a real research video -- of animal gliding down. There is a red trajectory line. +Look at the end to see the animal. +But then as it gets closer to the tree, look at the close-up. And see if you can see it land. +So there it comes down. There is a gecko at the end of that trajectory line. +You see it there? There? Watch it come down. +Now watch up there and you can see the landing. Did you see it hit? +It actually uses its tail too, just like we saw in the lab. +So now we can continue this mutualism by suggesting that they can make an active tail. +And here is the first active tail, in the robot, made by Boston Dynamics. +So to conclude, I think we need to build biomutualisms, like I showed, that will increase the pace of basic discovery in their application. +To do this though, we need to redesign education in a major way, to balance depth with interdisciplinary communication, and explicitly train people how to contribute to, and benefit from other disciplines. +And of course you need the organisms and the environment to do it. +That is, whether you care about security, search and rescue or health, we must preserve nature's designs, otherwise these secrets will be lost forever. +And from what I heard from our new president, I'm very optimistic. Thank you. +Why do so many people reach success and then fail? +One of the big reasons is, we think success is a one-way street. +So we do everything that leads up to success, but then we get there. We figure we've made it, we sit back in our comfort zone, and we actually stop doing everything that made us successful. +And it doesn't take long to go downhill. +And I can tell you this happens, because it happened to me. +Reaching success, I worked hard, I pushed myself. +But then I stopped, because I figured, "Oh, you know, I made it. +I can just sit back and relax." +Reaching success, I always tried to improve and do good work. +But then I stopped because I figured, "Hey, I'm good enough. +I don't need to improve any more." +Reaching success, I was pretty good at coming up with good ideas. +Because I did all these simple things that led to ideas. +But then I stopped, because I figured I was this hot-shot guy and I shouldn't have to work at ideas, they should just come like magic. +And the only thing that came was creative block. +I couldn't come up with any ideas. +Reaching success, I always focused on clients and projects, and ignored the money. Then all this money started pouring in. +And I got distracted by it. +And suddenly I was on the phone to my stockbroker and my real estate agent, when I should have been talking to my clients. +And reaching success, I always did what I loved. +But then I got into stuff that I didn't love, like management. I am the world's worst manager, but I figured I should be doing it, because I was, after all, the president of the company. +Well, soon a black cloud formed over my head and here I was, outwardly very successful, but inwardly very depressed. +But I'm a guy; I knew how to fix it. +I bought a fast car. +It didn't help. +I was faster but just as depressed. +So I went to my doctor. I said, "Doc, I can buy anything I want. But I'm not happy. I'm depressed. +It's true what they say, and I didn't believe it until it happened to me. +But money can't buy happiness." +He said, "No. But it can buy Prozac." +And he put me on anti-depressants. +And yeah, the black cloud faded a little bit, but so did all the work, because I was just floating along. I couldn't care less if clients ever called. +And clients didn't call. +Because they could see I was no longer serving them, I was only serving myself. +So they took their money and their projects to others who would serve them better. +Well, it didn't take long for business to drop like a rock. +My partner and I, Thom, we had to let all our employees go. +It was down to just the two of us, and we were about to go under. +And that was great. +Because with no employees, there was nobody for me to manage. +So I went back to doing the projects I loved. +I had fun again, I worked harder and, to cut a long story short, did all the things that took me back up to success. +But it wasn't a quick trip. +It took seven years. +But in the end, business grew bigger than ever. +And when I went back to following these eight principles, the black cloud over my head disappeared altogether. +And I woke up one day and I said, "I don't need Prozac anymore." +And I threw it away and haven't needed it since. +I learned that success isn't a one-way street. +It doesn't look like this; it really looks more like this. +It's a continuous journey. +And if we want to avoid "success-to-failure-syndrome," we just keep following these eight principles, because that is not only how we achieve success, it's how we sustain it. +So here is to your continued success. +Thank you very much. +I have had the distinct pleasure of living inside two biospheres. +Of course we all here in this room live in Biosphere 1. +I've also lived in Biosphere 2. +And the wonderful thing about that is that I get to compare biospheres. +And hopefully from that I get to learn something. +So what did I learn? Well, here I am inside Biosphere 2, making a pizza. +So I am harvesting the wheat, in order to make the dough. +And then of course I have to milk the goats and feed the goats in order to make the cheese. +It took me four months in Biosphere 2 to make a pizza. +Here in Biosphere 1, well it takes me about two minutes, because I pick up the phone and I call and say, "Hey, can you deliver the pizza?" +So Biosphere 2 was essentially a three-acre, entirely sealed, miniature world that I lived in for two years and 20 minutes. +Over the top it was sealed with steel and glass, underneath it was sealed with a pan of steel -- essentially entirely sealed. +So we had our own miniature rainforest, a private beach with a coral reef. +We had a savanna, a marsh, a desert. +We had our own half-acre farm that we had to grow everything. +And of course we had our human habitat, where we lived. +Back in the mid-'80s when we were designing Biosphere 2, we had to ask ourselves some pretty basic questions. +I mean, what is a biosphere? +Back then, yes, I guess we all know now that it is essentially the sphere of life around the Earth, right? +Well, you have to get a little more specific than that if you're going to build one. +And so we decided that what it really is is that it is entirely materially closed -- that is, nothing goes in or out at all, no material -- and energetically open, which is essentially what planet Earth is. +This is a chamber that was 1/400th the size of Biosphere 2 that we called our Test Module. +But of course none of that happened. +And over the ensuing few years, there were great sagas about designing Biosphere 2. +But by 1991 we finally had this thing built. +And it was time for us to go in and give it a go. +We needed to know, is life this malleable? +Can you take this biosphere, that has evolved on a planetary scale, and jam it into a little bottle, and will it survive? +Big questions. +And we wanted to know this both for being able to go somewhere else in the universe -- if we were going to go to Mars, for instance, would we take a biosphere with us, to live in it? +We also wanted to know so we can understand more about the Earth that we all live in. +Well, in 1991 it was finally time for us to go in and try out this baby. +Let's take it on a maiden voyage. +Will it work? Or will something happen that we can't understand and we can't fix, thereby negating the concept of man-made biospheres? +So eight of us went in: four men and four women. +More on that later. +And this is the world that we lived in. +So, on the top, we had these beautiful rainforests and an ocean, and underneath we had all this technosphere, we called it, which is where all the pumps and the valves and the water tanks and the air handlers, and all of that. +One of the Biospherians called it "garden of Eden on top of an aircraft carrier." +And then also we had the human habitat of course, with the laboratories, and all of that. +This is the agriculture. +It was essentially an organic farm. +The day I walked into Biosphere 2, I was, for the first time, breathing a completely different atmosphere than everybody else in the world, except seven other people. +At that moment I became part of that biosphere. +And I don't mean that in an abstract sense; I mean it rather literally. +When I breathed out, my CO2 fed the sweet potatoes that I was growing. +And we ate an awful lot of the sweet potatoes. +And those sweet potatoes became part of me. +In fact, we ate so many sweet potatoes I became orange with sweet potato. +I literally was eating the same carbon over and over again. +I was eating myself in some strange sort of bizarre way. +When it came to our atmosphere, however, it wasn't that much of a joke over the long term, because it turned out that we were losing oxygen, quite a lot of oxygen. +And we knew that we were losing CO2. +And so we were working to sequester carbon. +Good lord -- we know that term now. +We were growing plants like crazy. +We were taking their biomass, storing them in the basement, growing plants, going around, around, around, trying to take all of that carbon out of the atmosphere. +We were trying to stop carbon from going into the atmosphere. +We stopped irrigating our soil, as much as we could. +We stopped tilling, so that we could prevent greenhouse gasses from going into the air. +But our oxygen was going down faster than our CO2 was going up, which was quite unexpected, because we had seen them going in tandem in the test module. +And it was like playing atomic hide-and-seek. +We had lost seven tons of oxygen. +And we had no clue where it was. +And I tell you, when you lose a lot of oxygen -- and our oxygen went down quite far; it went from 21 percent down to 14.2 percent -- my goodness, do you feel dreadful. +I mean we were dragging ourselves around the Biosphere. +And we had sleep apnea at night. +So you'd wake up gasping with breath, because your blood chemistry has changed. +And that you literally do that. You stop breathing and then you -- -- take a breath and it wakes you up. And it's very irritating. +And everybody outside thought we were dying. +I mean, the media was making it sound like were were dying. +And I had to call up my mother every other day saying, "No, Mum, it's fine, fine. +We're not dead. We're fine. We're fine." +And the doctor was, in fact, checking us to make sure we were, in fact, fine. +But in fact he was the person who was most susceptible to the oxygen. +And one day he couldn't add up a line of figures. +And it was time for us to put oxygen in. +And you might think, well, "Boy, your life support system was failing you. Wasn't that dreadful?" +Yes. In a sense it was terrifying. +Except that I knew I could walk out the airlock door at any time, if it really got bad, though who was going to say, "I can't take it anymore!"? +Not me, that was for sure. +But on the other hand, it was the scientific gold of the project, because we could really crank this baby up, as a scientific tool, and see if we could, in fact, find where those seven tons of oxygen had gone. +And we did indeed find it. +And we found it in the concrete. +Essentially it had done something very simple. +We had put too much carbon in the soil in the form of compost. +It broke down; it took oxygen out of the air; it put CO2 into the air; and it went into the concrete. +Pretty straightforward really. +So at the end of the two years when we came out, we were elated, because, in fact, although you might say we had discovered something that was quite "uhh," when your oxygen is going down, stopped working, essentially, in your life support system, that's a very bad failure. +Except that we knew what it was. And we knew how to fix it. +And nothing else emerged that really was as serious as that. +And we proved the concept, more or less. +People, on the other hand, was a different subject. +We were -- yeah I don't know that we were fixable. +We all went quite nuts, I will say. +And the day I came out of Biosphere 2, I was thrilled I was going to see all my family and my friends. +For two years I'd been seeing people through the glass. +And everybody ran up to me. +And I recoiled. They stank! +People stink! +We stink of hairspray and underarm deodorant, and all kinds of stuff. +Now we had stuff inside Biosphere to keep ourselves clean, but nothing with perfume. +And boy do we stink out here. +Not only that, but I lost touch of where my food came from. +I had been growing all my own food. +I had no idea what was in my food, where it came from. +I didn't even recognize half the names in most of the food that I was eating. +In fact, I would stand for hours in the aisles of shops, reading all the names on all of the things. +People must have thought I was nuts. +It was really quite astonishing. +And I slowly lost track of where I was in this big biosphere, in this big biosphere that we all live in. +In Biosphere 2 I totally understood that I had a huge impact on my biosphere, everyday, and it had an impact on me, very viscerally, very literally. +So I went about my business: Paragon Space Development Corporation, a little firm I started with people while I was in the Biosphere, because I had nothing else to do. +And one of the things we did was try to figure out: how small can you make these biospheres, and what can you do with them? +And so we sent one onto the Mir Space Station. +We had one on the shuttle and one on the International Space Station, for 16 months, where we managed to produce the first organisms to go through complete multiple life cycles in space -- really pushing the envelope of understanding how malleable our life systems are. +And I'm also proud to announce that you're getting a sneak preview -- on Friday we're going to announce that we're actually forming a team to develop a system to grow plants on the Moon, which is going to be pretty fun. +And the legacy of that is a system that we were designing: an entirely sealed system to grow plants to grow on Mars. +And part of that is that we had to model very rapid circulation of CO2 and oxygen and water through this plant system. +As a result of that modeling I ended up in all places, in Eritrea, in the Horn of Africa. +Eritrea, formerly part of Ethiopia, is one of those places that is astonishingly beautiful, incredibly stark, and I have no understanding of how people eke out a living there. +It is so dry. +This is what I saw. +But this is also what I saw. +I saw a company that had taken seawater and sand, and they were growing a kind of crop that will grow on pure salt water without having to treat it. +And it will produce a food crop. +In this case it was oilseed. +It was astonishing. They were also producing mangroves in a plantation. +And the mangroves were providing wood and honey and leaves for the animals, so that they could produce milk and whatnot, like we had in the Biosphere. +And all of it was coming from this: shrimp farms. +Shrimp farms are a scourge on the earth, frankly, from an environmental point of view. +They pour huge amounts of pollutants into the ocean. +They also pollute their next-door neighbors. +So they're all shitting each other's ponds, quite literally. +And what this project was doing was taking the effluent of these, and turning them into all of this food. +They were literally turning pollution into abundance for a desert people. +They had created an industrial ecosystem, of a sense. +I was there because I was actually modeling the mangrove portion for a carbon credit program, under the U.N. +Kyoto Protocol system. +And as I was modeling this mangrove swamp, I was thinking to myself, "How do you put a box around this?" +When I'm modeling a plant in a box, literally, I know where to draw the boundary. +In a mangrove forest like this I have no idea. +Well, of course you have to draw the boundary around the whole of the Earth. +And understand its interactions with the entire Earth. +And put your project in that context. +Around the world today we're seeing an incredible transformation, from what I would call a biocidal species, one that -- whether we intentionally or unintentionally -- have designed our systems to kill life, a lot of the time. +This is in fact, this beautiful photograph, is in fact over the Amazon. +And here the light green are areas of massive deforestation. +And those beautiful wispy clouds are, in fact, fires, human-made fires. +We're in the process of transforming from this, to what I would call a biophilic society, one where we learn to nurture society. +Now it may not seem like it, but we are. +It is happening all across the world, in every kind of walk of life, and every kind of career and industry that you can think of. +And I think often times people get lost in that. +They go, "But how can I possibly find my way in that? +It's such a huge subject." +And I would say that the small stuff counts. It really does. +This is the story of a rake in my backyard. +This was my backyard, very early on, when I bought my property. +And in Arizona, of course, everybody puts gravel down. +And they like to keep everything beautifully raked. And they keep all the leaves away. +And on Sunday morning the neighbors leaf blower comes out, and I want to throttle them. +It's a certain type of aesthetic. +We're very uncomfortable with untidiness. +And I threw away my rake. +And I let all of the leaves fall from the trees that I have on my property. +And over time, essentially what have I been doing? +I've been building topsoil. +And so now all the birds come in. And I have hawks. +And I have an oasis. +This is what happens every spring. For six weeks, six to eight weeks, I have this flush of green oasis. +This is actually in a riparian area. +And all of Tucson could be like this if everybody would just revolt and throw away the rake. +The small stuff counts. +The Industrial Revolution -- and Prometheus -- has given us this, the ability to light up the world. +It has also given us this, the ability to look at the world from the outside. +Now we may not all have another biosphere that we can run to, and compare it to this biosphere. +But we can look at the world, and try to understand where we are in its context, and how we choose to interact with it. +And if you lose where you are in your biosphere, or are perhaps having a difficulty connecting with where you are in the biosphere, I would say to you, take a deep breath. +The yogis had it right. +Breath does, in fact, connect us all in a very literal way. +Take a breath now. +And as you breathe, think about what is in your breath. +There perhaps is the CO2 from the person sitting next-door to you. +Maybe there is a little bit of oxygen from some algae on the beach not far from here. +It also connects us in time. +There may be some carbon in your breath from the dinosaurs. +There could also be carbon that you are exhaling now that will be in the breath of your great-great-great-grandchildren. +Thank you. +I want to talk about the transformed media landscape, and what it means for anybody who has a message that they want to get out to anywhere in the world. +And I want to illustrate that by telling a couple of stories about that transformation. +I'll start here. Last November there was a presidential election. +You probably read something about it in the papers. +And there was some concern that in some parts of the country there might be voter suppression. +And so a plan came up to video the vote. +And the idea was that individual citizens with phones capable of taking photos or making video would document their polling places, on the lookout for any kind of voter suppression techniques, and would upload this to a central place. +And that this would operate as a kind of citizen observation -- that citizens would not be there just to cast individual votes, but also to help ensure the sanctity of the vote overall. +So this is a pattern that assumes we're all in this together. +What matters here isn't technical capital, it's social capital. +These tools don't get socially interesting until they get technologically boring. +It isn't when the shiny new tools show up that their uses start permeating society. +It's when everybody is able to take them for granted. +Because now that media is increasingly social, innovation can happen anywhere that people can take for granted the idea that we're all in this together. +And so we're starting to see a media landscape in which innovation is happening everywhere, and moving from one spot to another. +That is a huge transformation. +Not to put too fine a point on it, the moment we're living through -- the moment our historical generation is living through -- is the largest increase in expressive capability in human history. +Now that's a big claim. I'm going to try to back it up. +There are only four periods in the last 500 years where media has changed enough to qualify for the label "revolution." +The first one is the famous one, the printing press: movable type, oil-based inks, that whole complex of innovations that made printing possible and turned Europe upside-down, starting in the middle of the 1400s. +Then, a couple of hundred years ago, there was innovation in two-way communication, conversational media: first the telegraph, then the telephone. +Slow, text-based conversations, then real-time voice based conversations. +Then, about 150 years ago, there was a revolution in recorded media other than print: first photos, then recorded sound, then movies, all encoded onto physical objects. +And finally, about 100 years ago, the harnessing of electromagnetic spectrum to send sound and images through the air -- radio and television. +This is the media landscape as we knew it in the 20th century. +This is what those of us of a certain age grew up with, and are used to. +But there is a curious asymmetry here. +The media that is good at creating conversations is no good at creating groups. +And the media that's good at creating groups is no good at creating conversations. +If you want to have a conversation in this world, you have it with one other person. +If you want to address a group, you get the same message and you give it to everybody in the group, whether you're doing that with a broadcasting tower or a printing press. +That was the media landscape as we had it in the twentieth century. +And this is what changed. +This thing that looks like a peacock hit a windscreen is Bill Cheswick's map of the Internet. +He traces the edges of the individual networks and then color codes them. +The Internet is the first medium in history that has native support for groups and conversation at the same time. +Whereas the phone gave us the one-to-one pattern, and television, radio, magazines, books, gave us the one-to-many pattern, the Internet gives us the many-to-many pattern. +For the first time, media is natively good at supporting these kinds of conversations. +That's one of the big changes. +The second big change is that, as all media gets digitized, the Internet also becomes the mode of carriage for all other media, meaning that phone calls migrate to the Internet, magazines migrate to the Internet, movies migrate to the Internet. +And that means that every medium is right next door to every other medium. +Put another way, media is increasingly less just a source of information, and it is increasingly more a site of coordination, because groups that see or hear or watch or listen to something can now gather around and talk to each other as well. +And the third big change is that members of the former audience, as Dan Gilmore calls them, can now also be producers and not consumers. +Every time a new consumer joins this media landscape a new producer joins as well, because the same equipment -- phones, computers -- let you consume and produce. +It's as if, when you bought a book, they threw in the printing press for free; it's like you had a phone that could turn into a radio if you pressed the right buttons. +That is a huge change in the media landscape we're used to. +And it's not just Internet or no Internet. +We've had the Internet in its public form for almost 20 years now, and it's still changing as the media becomes more social. +It's still changing patterns even among groups who know how to deal with the Internet well. +Second story. +Last May, China in the Sichuan province had a terrible earthquake, 7.9 magnitude, massive destruction in a wide area, as the Richter Scale has it. +And the earthquake was reported as it was happening. +People were texting from their phones. They were taking photos of buildings. +They were taking videos of buildings shaking. +They were uploading it to QQ, China's largest Internet service. +They were Twittering it. +And so as the quake was happening the news was reported. +And because of the social connections, Chinese students coming elsewhere, and going to school, or businesses in the rest of the world opening offices in China -- there were people listening all over the world, hearing this news. +The BBC got their first wind of the Chinese quake from Twitter. +Twitter announced the existence of the quake several minutes before the US Geological Survey had anything up online for anybody to read. +The last time China had a quake of that magnitude it took them three months to admit that it had happened. +Now they might have liked to have done that here, rather than seeing these pictures go up online. +But they weren't given that choice, because their own citizens beat them to the punch. +Even the government learned of the earthquake from their own citizens, rather than from the Xinhua News Agency. +And this stuff rippled like wildfire. +For a while there the top 10 most clicked links on Twitter, the global short messaging service -- nine of the top 10 links were about the quake. +People collating information, pointing people to news sources, pointing people to the US geological survey. +The 10th one was kittens on a treadmill, but that's the Internet for you. +But nine of the 10 in those first hours. +And within half a day donation sites were up, and donations were pouring in from all around the world. +This was an incredible, coordinated global response. +And the Chinese then, in one of their periods of media openness, decided that they were going to let it go, that they were going to let this citizen reporting fly. +And then this happened. +People began to figure out, in the Sichuan Provence, that the reason so many school buildings had collapsed -- because tragically the earthquake happened during a school day -- the reason so many school buildings collapsed is that corrupt officials had taken bribes to allow those building to be built to less than code. +And so they started, the citizen journalists started reporting that as well. And there was an incredible picture. +You may have seen in on the front page of the New York Times. +A local official literally prostrated himself in the street, in front of these protesters, in order to get them to go away. +Essentially to say, "We will do anything to placate you, just please stop protesting in public." +But these are people who have been radicalized, because, thanks to the one child policy, they have lost everyone in their next generation. +Someone who has seen the death of a single child now has nothing to lose. +And so the protest kept going. +And finally the Chinese cracked down. +That was enough of citizen media. +And so they began to arrest the protesters. +They began to shut down the media that the protests were happening on. +China is probably the most successful manager of Internet censorship in the world, using something that is widely described as the Great Firewall of China. +And the Great Firewall of China is a set of observation points that assume that media is produced by professionals, it mostly comes in from the outside world, it comes in relatively sparse chunks, and it comes in relatively slowly. +And because of those four characteristics they are able to filter it as it comes into the country. +But like the Maginot Line, the great firewall of China was facing in the wrong direction for this challenge, because not one of those four things was true in this environment. +The media was produced locally. It was produced by amateurs. +It was produced quickly. And it was produced at such an incredible abundance that there was no way to filter it as it appeared. +And so now the Chinese government, who for a dozen years, has quite successfully filtered the web, is now in the position of having to decide whether to allow or shut down entire services, because the transformation to amateur media is so enormous that they can't deal with it any other way. +And in fact that is happening this week. +On the 20th anniversary of Tiananmen they just, two days ago, announced that they were simply shutting down access to Twitter, because there was no way to filter it other than that. +They had to turn the spigot entirely off. +Now these changes don't just affect people who want to censor messages. +They also affect people who want to send messages, because this is really a transformation of the ecosystem as a whole, not just a particular strategy. +The classic media problem, from the 20th century is, how does an organization have a message that they want to get out to a group of people distributed at the edges of a network. +And here is the twentieth century answer. +Bundle up the message. Send the same message to everybody. +National message. Targeted individuals. +Relatively sparse number of producers. +Very expensive to do, so there is not a lot of competition. +This is how you reach people. +All of that is over. +We are increasingly in a landscape where media is global, social, ubiquitous and cheap. +Now most organizations that are trying to send messages to the outside world, to the distributed collection of the audience, are now used to this change. +The audience can talk back. +And that's a little freaky. But you can get used to it after a while, as people do. +But that's not the really crazy change that we're living in the middle of. +As recently at last decade, most of the media that was available for public consumption was produced by professionals. +Those days are over, never to return. +It is the green lines now, that are the source of the free content, which brings me to my last story. +We saw some of the most imaginative use of social media during the Obama campaign. +And I don't mean most imaginative use in politics -- I mean most imaginative use ever. +And one of the things Obama did, was they famously, the Obama campaign did, was they famously put up MyBarackObama.com, myBO.com And millions of citizens rushed in to participate, and to try and figure out how to help. +An incredible conversation sprung up there. +And then, this time last year, Obama announced that he was going to change his vote on FISA, The Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act. +He had said, in January, that he would not sign a bill that granted telecom immunity for possibly warrantless spying on American persons. +By the summer, in the middle of the general campaign, He said, "I've thought about the issue more. I've changed my mind. +I'm going to vote for this bill." +And many of his own supporters on his own site went very publicly berserk. +It was Senator Obama when they created it. They changed the name later. +"Please get FISA right." +Within days of this group being created it was the fastest growing group on myBO.com; within weeks of its being created it was the largest group. +Obama had to issue a press release. +He had to issue a reply. +And he said essentially, "I have considered the issue. +I understand where you are coming from. +But having considered it all, I'm still going to vote the way I'm going to vote. +But I wanted to reach out to you and say, I understand that you disagree with me, and I'm going to take my lumps on this one." +This didn't please anybody. But then a funny thing happened in the conversation. +People in that group realized that Obama had never shut them down. +Nobody in the Obama campaign had ever tried to hide the group or make it harder to join, to deny its existence, to delete it, to take to off the site. +They had understood that their role with myBO.com was to convene their supporters but not to control their supporters. +And that is the kind of discipline that it takes to make really mature use of this media. +Media, the media landscape that we knew, as familiar as it was, as easy conceptually as it was to deal with the idea that professionals broadcast messages to amateurs, is increasingly slipping away. +In a world where media is global, social, ubiquitous and cheap, in a world of media where the former audience are now increasingly full participants, in that world, media is less and less often about crafting a single message to be consumed by individuals. +It is more and more often a way of creating an environment for convening and supporting groups. +And the choice we face, I mean anybody who has a message they want to have heard anywhere in the world, isn't whether or not that is the media environment we want to operate in. +That's the media environment we've got. +The question we all face now is, "How can we make best use of this media? +Even though it means changing the way we've always done it." +Thank you very much. +My journey to coming here today started in 1974. +That's me with the funny gloves. +I was 17 and going on a peace walk. +What I didn't know though, was most of those people, standing there with me, were Moonies. +And within a week I had come to believe that the second coming of Christ had occurred, that it was Sun Myung Moon, and that I had been specially chosen and prepared by God to be his disciple. +Now as cool as that sounds, my family was not that thrilled with this. +And they tried everything they could to get me out of there. +There was an underground railroad of sorts that was going on during those years. Maybe some of you remember it. +They were called deprogrammers. +And after about five long years my family had me deprogrammed. +And I then became a deprogrammer. +I started going out on cases. +And after about five years of doing this, I was arrested for kidnapping. +Most of the cases I went out on were called involuntary. +What happened was that the family had to get their loved ones some safe place somehow. +And so they took them to some safe place. +And we would come in and talk to them, usually for about a week. +And so after this happened, I decided it was a good time to turn my back on this work. +And about 20 years went by. +There was a burning question though that would not leave me. +And that was, "How did this happen to me?" +And in fact, what did happen to my brain? +Because something did. +And so I decided to write a book, a memoir, about this decade of my life. +And toward the end of writing that book there was a documentary that came out. +It was on Jonestown. +And it had a chilling effect on me. +These are the dead in Jonestown. +About 900 people died that day, most of them taking their own lives. +Women gave poison to their babies, and watched foam come from their mouths as they died. +The top picture is a group of Moonies that have been blessed by their messiah. +Their mates were chosen for them. +The bottom picture is Hitler youth. +This is the leg of a suicide bomber. +The thing I had to admit to myself, with great repulsion, was that I get it. +I understand how this could happen. +I understand how someone's brain, how someone's mind can come to the place where it makes sense -- in fact it would be wrong, when your brain is working like that -- not to try to save the world through genocide. +And so what is this? How does this work? +And how I've come to view what happened to me is a viral, memetic infection. +In 1974, I was young, I was naive, and I was pretty lost in my world. +I was really idealistic. +These easy ideas to complex questions are very appealing when you are emotionally vulnerable. +What happens is that circular logic takes over. +"Moon is one with God. +God is going to fix all the problems in the world. +All I have to do is humbly follow. +Because God is going to stop war and hunger -- all these things I wanted to do -- all I have to do is humbly follow. +Because after all, God is [working through] the messiah. He's going to fix all this." +It becomes impenetrable. +And the most dangerous part of this is that is creates "us" and "them," "right" and "wrong," "good" and "evil." +And it makes anything possible, makes anything rationalizable. +And the thing is, though, if you looked at my brain during those years in the Moonies -- neuroscience is expanding exponentially, as Ray Kurzweil said yesterday. Science is expanding. +We're beginning to look inside the brain. +And so if you looked at my brain, or any brain that's infected with a viral memetic infection like this, and compared it to anyone in this room, or anyone who uses critical thinking on a regular basis, I am convinced it would look very, very different. +And that, strange as it may sound, gives me hope. +And the reason that gives me hope is that the first thing is to admit that we have a problem. +But it's a human problem. It's a scientific problem, if you will. +It happens in the human brain. There is no evil force out there to get us. +And so this is something that, through research and education, I believe that we can solve. +And so the first step is to realize that we can do this together, and that there is no "us" and "them." +Thank you very much. +A talk about surgical robots is also a talk about surgery. +And while I've tried to make my images not too graphic, keep in mind that surgeons have a different relationship with blood than normal people do, because, after all, what a surgeon does to a patient, if it were done without consent, would be a felony. +Surgeons are the tailors, the plumbers, the carpenters -- some would say the butchers -- of the medical world: cutting, reshaping, reforming, bypassing, fixing. +But you need to talk about surgical instruments and the evolution of surgical technology together. +So, a little bit of perspective -- about 10,000 years of perspective. +This is a trephinated skull. +And trephination is simply just cutting a hole in the skull. +And many, many hundreds of skulls like this have been found in archaeological sites all over the world, dating back five to 10 thousand years. +Five to 10 thousand years! Now imagine this. +You are a healer in a Stone Age village. +And you have some guy that you're not quite sure what's wrong with him -- Oliver Sacks is going to be born way in the future. +He's got some seizure disorder. And you don't understand this. +But you think to yourself, "I'm not quite sure what's wrong with this guy. +But maybe if I cut a hole in his head I can fix it." +Now that is surgical thinking. +Now we've got the dawn of interventional surgery here. +What is astonishing about this is, even though we don't know really how much of this was intended to be religious, or how much of it was intended to be therapeutic, what we can tell is that these patients lived! +Judging by the healing on the borders of these holes, they lived days, months, years following trephination. +And so what we are seeing is evidence of a refined technique that was being handed down over thousands and thousands of years, all over the world. +This arose independently at sites everywhere that had no communication to one another. +We really are seeing the dawn of interventional surgery. +Now we can fast forward many thousands of years into the Bronze Age and beyond. +And we see new refined tools coming out. +But surgeons in these eras are a little bit more conservative than their bold, trephinating ancestors. +These guys confined their surgery to fairly superficial injuries. +And surgeons were tradesmen, rather than physicians. +This persisted all the way into and through the Renaissance. +That may have saved the writers, but it didn't really save the surgeons terribly much. +They were still a mistrusted lot. +Surgeons still had a bit of a PR problem, because the landscape was dominated by the itinerant barber surgeon. +These were folks that traveled from village to village, town to town, doing surgery sort of as a form of performance art. +Because we were in the age before anesthesia, the agony of the patient is really as much of the public spectacle as the surgery itself. +One of the most famous of these guys, Frere Jacques, shown here doing a lithotomy -- which is the removal of the bladder stone, one of the most invasive surgeries they did at the time -- had to take less than two minutes. +You had to have quite a flair for the dramatic, and be really, really quick. +And so here you see him doing a lithotomy. +And he is credited with doing over 4,000 of these public surgeries, wandering around in Europe, which is an astonishing number, when you think that surgery must have been a last resort. +I mean who would put themselves through that? +Until anesthesia, the absence of sensation. +With the demonstration of the Morton Ether Inhaler at the Mass. General in 1847, a whole new era of surgery was ushered in. +Anesthesia gave surgeons the freedom to operate. +Anesthesia gave them the freedom to experiment, to start to delve deeper into the body. +This was truly a revolution in surgery. +But there was a pretty big problem with this. +After these very long, painstaking operations, attempting to cure things they'd never been able to touch before, the patients died. +They died of massive infection. +Surgery didn't hurt anymore, but it killed you pretty quickly. +And infection would continue to claim a majority of surgical patients until the next big revolution in surgery, which was aseptic technique. +Joseph Lister was aepsis's, or sterility's, biggest advocate, to a very very skeptical bunch of surgeons. +But eventually they did come around. +The Mayo brothers came out to visit Lister in Europe. +And they came back to their American clinic and they said they had learned it was as important to wash your hands before doing surgery as it was to wash up afterwards. Something so simple. +And yet, operative mortality dropped profoundly. +These surgeries were actually now being effective. +With the patient insensitive to pain, and a sterile operating field all bets were off, the sky was the limit. +You could now start doing surgery everywhere, on the gut, on the liver, on the heart, on the brain. +Transplantation: you could take an organ out of one person, you could put it in another person, and it would work. +Surgeons didn't have a problem with respectability anymore; they had become gods. +The era of the "big surgeon, big incision" had arrived, but at quite a cost, because they are saving lives, but not necessarily quality of life, because healthy people don't usually need surgery, and unhealthy people have a very hard time recovering from a cut like that. +The question had to be asked, "Well, can we do these same surgeries but through little incisions?" +Laparoscopy is doing this kind of surgery: surgery with long instruments through small incisions. +And it really changed the landscape of surgery. +Some of the tools for this had been around for a hundred years, but it had only been used as a diagnostic technique until the 1980s, when there was changes in camera technologies and things like that, that allowed this to be done for real operations. +So what you see -- this is now the first surgical image -- as we're coming down the tube, this is a new entry into the body. +It looks very different from what you're expecting surgery to look like. +We bring instruments in, from two separate cuts in the side, and then you can start manipulating tissue. +Within 10 years of the first gallbladder surgeries being done laparoscopically, a majority of gallbladder surgeries were being done laparoscopically -- truly a pretty big revolution. +But there were casualties of this revolution. +These techniques were a lot harder to learn than people had anticipated. +The learning curve was very long. +And during that learning curve the complications went quite a bit higher. +Surgeons had to give up their 3D vision. +They had to give up their wrists. +They had to give up intuitive motion in the instruments. +This surgeon has over 3,000 hours of laparoscopic experience. +Now this is a particularly frustrating placement of the needle. +But this is hard. +And one of the reasons why it is so hard is because the external ergonomics are terrible. +You've got these long instruments, and you're working off your centerline. +And the instruments are essentially working backwards. +So what you need to do, to take the capability of your hand, and put it on the other side of that small incision, is you need to put a wrist on that instrument. +And so -- I get to talk about robots -- the da Vinci robot put just that wrist on the other side of that incision. +And so here you're seeing the operation of this wrist. +And now, in contrast to the laparoscopy, you can precisely place the needle in your instruments, and you can pass it all the way through and follow it in a trajectory. +And the reason why this becomes so much easier is -- you can see on the bottom -- the hands are making the motions, and the instruments are following those motions exactly. +Now, what you put between those instruments and those hands, is a large, fairly complicated robot. +The surgeon is sitting at a console, and controlling the robot with these controllers. +And the robot is moving these instruments around, and powering them, down inside the body. +You have a 3D camera, so you get a 3D view. +And since this was introduced in 1999, a lot of these robots have been out and being used for surgical procedures like a prostatectomy, which is a prostate deep in the pelvis, and it requires fine dissection and delicate manipulation to be able to get a good surgical outcome. +You can also sew bypass vessels directly onto a beating heart without cracking the chest. +This is all done in between the ribs. +And you can go inside the heart itself and repair the valves from the inside. +You've got these technologies -- thank you -- And so you might say, "Wow this is really cool! +So, smartypants, why isn't all surgery being done this way?" +And there are some reasons, some good reasons. +And cost is one of them. +I talked about the large, complicated robot. +With all its bells and whistles, one of those robots will cost you about as much as a solid gold surgeon. +More useful than a solid gold surgeon, but, still, it's a fairly big capital investment. +But once you've got it, your procedure costs do come down. +But there are other barriers. +So something like a prostatectomy -- the prostate is small, and it's in one spot, and you can set your robot up very precisely to work in that one spot. +And so it's perfect for something like that. +And in fact if you, or anyone you know, had their prostate taken out in the last couple of years, chances are it was done with one of these systems. +But if you need to reach more places than just one, you need to move the robot. +And you need to put some new incisions in there. +And you need to re-set it up. +And then you need to add some more ports, and more. +And the problem is it gets time-consuming, and cumbersome. +And for that reason there are many surgeries that just aren't being done with the da Vinci. +So we had to ask the question, "Well how do we fix that?" +What if we could change it so that we didn't have to re-set up each time we wanted to move somewhere different? +What if we could bring all the instruments in together in one place? +How would that change the capabilities of the surgeon? +And how would that change the experience for the patient? +Now, to do that, we need to be able to bring a camera and instruments in together through one small tube, like that tube you saw in the laparoscopy video. +Or, not so coincidentally, like a tube like this. +So what's going to come out of that tube is the debut of this new technology, this new robot that is going to be able to reach anywhere. +Ready? So here it comes. +This is the camera, and three instruments. +And as you see it come out, in order to actually be able to do anything useful, it can't all stay clustered up like this. +It has to be able to come off of the centerline and then be able to work back toward that centerline. +He's a cheeky little devil. +But what this lets you do is gives you that all-important traction, and counter-traction, so that you can dissect, so that you can sew, so that you can do all the things that you need to do, all the surgical tasks. +But it's all coming in through one incision. +It's not so simple. +But it's worth it for the freedom that this gives us as we're going around. +For the patient, however, it's transparent. This is all they're going to see. +It's very exciting to think where we get to go with this. +We get to write the script of the next revolution in surgery. +As we take these capabilities, and we get to go to the next places, we get to decide what our new surgeries are going to be. +And I think to really get the rest of the way in that revolution, we need to not just take our hands in in new ways, we also need to take our eyes in in new ways. +We need to see beyond the surface. +We need to be able to guide what we're cutting in a much better way. +This is a cancer surgery. +One of the problems with this, even for surgeons who've been looking at this a lot, is you can't see the cancer, especially when it's hidden below the surface. +And so what we're starting to do is we're starting to inject specially designed markers into the bloodstream that will target the cancer. +It will go, bind to the cancer. +And we can make those markers glow. +And we can take special cameras, and we can look at it. +Now we know where we need to cut, even when it's below the surface. +We can take these markers and we can inject them in a tumor site. +And we can follow where they flow out from that tumor site, so we can see the first places where that cancer might travel. +We can inject these dyes into the bloodstream, so that when we do a new vessel and we bypass a blockage on the heart, we can see if we actually made the connection, before we close that patient back up again -- something that we haven't been able to do without radiation before. +We can light up tumors like this kidney tumor, so that you can exactly see where the boundary is between the kidney tumor and the kidney you want to leave behind, or the liver tumor and the liver you want to leave behind. +And we don't even need to confine ourselves to this macro vision. +We have flexible microscopic probes that we can bring down into the body. +And we can look at cells directly. +I'm looking at nerves here. So these are nerves you see, down on the bottom, and the microscope probe that's being held by the robotic hand, up at the top. +So this is all very prototypey at this point. +But you care about nerves, if you are a surgical patient. +Because they let you keep continence, bladder control, and sexual function after surgery, all of which is generally fairly important to the patient. +So, with the combination of these technologies we can reach it all, and we can see it all. +We can heal the disease. +And we can leave the patient whole and intact and functional afterwards. +Now, I've talked about the patient as if the patient is, somehow, someone abstract outside this room. +And that is not the case. +Many of you, all of you maybe, will at some point, or have already, faced a diagnosis of cancer, or heart disease, or some organ dysfunction that's going to buy you a date with a surgeon. +And when you get to that point -- I mean, these maladies don't care how many books you've written, how many companies you've started, that Nobel Prize you have yet to win, how much time you planned to spend with your children. +These maladies come for us all. +And the prospect I'm offering you, of an easier surgery ... +is that going to make that diagnosis any less terrifying? +I'm not sure I really even want it to. +Because facing your own mortality causes a re-evaluation of priorities, and a realignment of what your goals are in life, unlike anything else. +And I would never want to deprive you of that epiphany. +What I want instead, is for you to be whole, intact, and functional enough to go out and save the world, after you've decided you need to do it. +And that is my vision for your future. +Thank you. +I want to share with you some ideas about the secret power of time, in a very short time. +Video: All right, start the clock please. 30 seconds studio. +Keep it quiet please. Settle down. +It's about time. End sequence. Take one. +15 seconds studio. +10, nine, eight, seven, six, five, four, three, two ... +Philip Zimbardo: Let's tune into the conversation of the principals in Adam's temptation. +"Come on Adam, don't be so wishy-washy. Take a bite." "I did." +"One bite, Adam. Don't abandon Eve." +"I don't know, guys. +I don't want to get in trouble." +"Okay. One bite. What the hell?" +Life is temptation. It's all about yielding, resisting, yes, no, now, later, impulsive, reflective, present focus and future focus. +Promised virtues fall prey to the passions of the moment. +Of teenage girls who pledged sexual abstinence and virginity until marriage -- thank you George Bush -- the majority, 60 percent, yielded to sexual temptations within one year. +And most of them did so without using birth control. +So much for promises. +Now lets tempt four-year-olds, giving them a treat. +They can have one marshmallow now. But if they wait until the experimenter comes back, they can have two. +Of course it pays, if you like marshmallows, to wait. +What happens is two-thirds of the kids give in to temptation. +They cannot wait. The others, of course, wait. +They resist the temptation. They delay the now for later. +Walter Mischel, my colleague at Stanford, went back 14 years later, to try to discover what was different about those kids. +There were enormous differences between kids who resisted and kids who yielded, in many ways. +The kids who resisted scored 250 points higher on the SAT. +That's enormous. That's like a whole set of different IQ points. +They didn't get in as much trouble. They were better students. +They were self-confident and determined. And the key for me today, the key for you, is, they were future-focused rather than present-focused. +So what is time perspective? That's what I'm going to talk about today. +Time perspective is the study of how individuals, all of us, divide the flow of your human experience into time zones or time categories. +And you do it automatically and non-consciously. +They vary between cultures, between nations, between individuals, between social classes, between education levels. +And the problem is that they can become biased, because you learn to over-use some of them and under-use the others. +What determines any decision you make? +You make a decision on which you're going to base an action. +For some people it's only about what is in the immediate situation, what other people are doing and what you're feeling. +And those people, when they make their decisions in that format -- we're going to call them "present-oriented," because their focus is what is now. +For others, the present is irrelevant. +It's always about "What is this situation like that I've experienced in the past?" +So that their decisions are based on past memories. +And we're going to call those people "past-oriented," because they focus on what was. +For others it's not the past, it's not the present, it's only about the future. +Their focus is always about anticipated consequences. +Cost-benefit analysis. +We're going to call them "future-oriented." Their focus is on what will be. +So, time paradox, I want to argue, the paradox of time perspective, is something that influences every decision you make, you're totally unaware of. +Namely, the extent to which you have one of these biased time perspectives. +Well there is actually six of them. There are two ways to be present-oriented. +There is two ways to be past-oriented, two ways to be future. +You can focus on past-positive, or past-negative. +You can be present-hedonistic, namely you focus on the joys of life, or present-fatalist -- it doesn't matter, your life is controlled. +You can be future-oriented, setting goals. +Or you can be transcendental future: namely, life begins after death. +Developing the mental flexibility to shift time perspectives fluidly depending on the demands of the situation, that's what you've got to learn to do. +So, very quickly, what is the optimal time profile? +High on past-positive. Moderately high on future. +And moderate on present-hedonism. +And always low on past-negative and present-fatalism. +So the optimal temporal mix is what you get from the past -- past-positive gives you roots. You connect your family, identity and your self. +What you get from the future is wings to soar to new destinations, new challenges. +What you get from the present hedonism is the energy, the energy to explore yourself, places, people, sensuality. +Any time perspective in excess has more negatives than positives. +What do futures sacrifice for success? +They sacrifice family time. They sacrifice friend time. +They sacrifice fun time. They sacrifice personal indulgence. +They sacrifice hobbies. And they sacrifice sleep. So it affects their health. +And they live for work, achievement and control. +I'm sure that resonates with some of the TEDsters. +And it resonated for me. I grew up as a poor kid in the South Bronx ghetto, a Sicilian family -- everyone lived in the past and present. +I'm here as a future-oriented person who went over the top, who did all these sacrifices because teachers intervened, and made me future oriented. +Told me don't eat that marshmallow, because if you wait you're going to get two of them, until I learned to balance out. +I've added present-hedonism, I've added a focus on the past-positive, so, at 76 years old, I am more energetic than ever, more productive, and I'm happier than I have ever been. +So I want to end by saying: many of life's puzzles can be solved by understanding your time perspective and that of others. +And the idea is so simple, so obvious, but I think the consequences are really profound. +Thank you so much. +I'm going to talk about post-conflict recovery and how we might do post-conflict recovery better. +The record on post-conflict recovery is not very impressive. +40 percent of all post-conflict situations, historically, have reverted back to conflict within a decade. +In fact, they've accounted for half of all civil wars. +Why has the record been so poor? +Well, the conventional approach to post-conflict situations has rested on, on kind of, three principles. +The first principle is: it's the politics that matters. +So, the first thing that is prioritized is politics. +Try and build a political settlement first. +And then the second step is to say, "The situation is admittedly dangerous, but only for a short time." +So get peacekeepers there, but get them home as soon as possible. +So, short-term peacekeepers. +And thirdly, what is the exit strategy for the peacekeepers? +It's an election. +That will produce a legitimate and accountable government. +So that's the conventional approach. +I think that approach denies reality. +We see that there is no quick fix. +There's certainly no quick security fix. +I've tried to look at the risks of reversion to conflict, during our post-conflict decade. +And the risks stay high throughout the decade. +And they stay high regardless of the political innovations. +Does an election produce an accountable and legitimate government? +What an election produces is a winner and a loser. +And the loser is unreconciled. +The reality is that we need to reverse the sequence. +It's not the politics first; it's actually the politics last. +The politics become easier as the decade progresses if you're building on a foundation of security and economic development -- the rebuilding of prosperity. +Why does the politics get easier? +And why is it so difficult initially? +Because after years of stagnation and decline, the mentality of politics is that it's a zero-sum game. +If the reality is stagnation, I can only go up if you go down. +And that doesn't produce a productive politics. +And so the mentality has to shift from zero-sum to positive-sum before you can get a productive politics. +You can only get positive, that mental shift, if the reality is that prosperity is being built. +And in order to build prosperity, we need security in place. +So that is what you get when you face reality. +But the objective of facing reality is to change reality. +And so now let me suggest two complimentary approaches to changing the reality of the situations. +The first is to recognize the interdependence of three key actors, who are different actors, and at the moment are uncoordinated. +The first actor is the Security Council. +The Security Council typically has the responsibility for providing the peacekeepers who build the security. +And that needs to be recognized, first of all, that peacekeeping works. +It is a cost-effective approach. +It does increase security. +But it needs to be done long-term. +It needs to be a decade-long approach, rather than just a couple of years. +That's one actor, the Security Council. +The second actor, different cast of guys, is the donors. +The donors provide post-conflict aid. +Typically in the past, the donors have been interested in the first couple of years, and then they got bored. +They moved on to some other situation. +Post-conflict economic recovery is a slow process. +There are no quick processes in economics except decline. +You can do that quite fast. +So the donors have to stick with this situation for at least a decade. +And then the third key actor is the post-conflict government. +And there are two key things it's got to do. +One is it's got to do economic reform, not fuss about the political constitution. +It's got to reform economic policy. +Why? Because during conflict economic policy typically deteriorates. +Governments snatch short-term opportunities and, by the end of the conflict, the chickens have come home to roost. +So this legacy of conflict is really bad economic policy. +So there is a reform agenda, and there is an inclusion agenda. +The inclusion agenda doesn't come from elections. +Elections produce a loser, who is then excluded. +So the inclusion agenda means genuinely bringing people inside the tent. +So those three actors. +And they are interdependent over a long term. +If the Security Council doesn't commit to security over the course of a decade, you don't get the reassurance which produces private investment. +If you don't get the policy reform and the aid, you don't get the economic recovery, which is the true exit strategy for the peacekeepers. +So we should recognize that interdependence, by formal, mutual commitments. +The United Nations actually has a language for these mutual commitments, the recognition of mutual commitments; it's called the language of compact. +And so we need a post-conflict compact. +The United Nations even has an agency which could broker these compacts; it's called the Peace Building Commission. +It would be ideal to have a standard set of norms where, when we got to a post-conflict situation, there was an expectation of these mutual commitments from the three parties. +So that's idea one: recognize interdependence. +And now let me turn to the second approach, which is complimentary. +And that is to focus on a few critical objectives. +Typical post-conflict situation is a zoo of different actors with different priorities. +And indeed, unfortunately, if you navigate by needs you get a very unfocused agenda, because in these situations, needs are everywhere, but the capacity to implement change is very limited. +So we have to be disciplined and focus on things that are critical. +And I want to suggest that in the typical post-conflict situation three things are critical. +One is jobs. +One is improvements in basic services -- especially health, which is a disaster during conflict. +So jobs, health, and clean government. +Those are the three critical priorities. +So I'm going to talk a little about each of them. +Jobs. +What is a distinctive approach to generating jobs in post-conflict situations? +And why are jobs so important? +Jobs for whom? Especially jobs for young men. +In post-conflict situations, the reason that they so often revert to conflict, is not because elderly women get upset. +It's because young men get upset. +And why are they upset? Because they have nothing to do. +And so we need a process of generating jobs, for ordinary young men, fast. +Now, that is difficult. +Governments in post-conflict situation often respond by puffing up the civil service. +That is not a good idea. +It's not sustainable. +In fact, you're building a long-term liability by inflating civil service. +But getting the private sector to expand is also difficult, because any activity which is open to international trade is basically going to be uncompetitive in a post-conflict situation. +These are not environments where you can build export manufacturing. +There's one sector which isn't exposed to international trade, and which can generate a lot of jobs, and which is, in any case, a sensible sector to expand, post-conflict, and that is the construction sector. +The construction sector has a vital role, obviously, in reconstruction. +But typically that sector has withered away during conflict. +During conflict people are doing destruction. +There isn't any construction going on. And so the sector shrivels away. +And then when you try and expand it, because it's shriveled away, you encounter a lot of bottlenecks. +Basically, prices soar and crooked politicians then milk the rents from the sector, but it doesn't generate any jobs. +And so the policy priority is to break the bottlenecks in expanding the construction sector. +What might the bottlenecks be? +Just think what you have to do successfully to build a structure, using a lot of labor. +First you need access to land. +Often the legal system is broken down so you can't even get access to land. +Secondly you need skills, the mundane skills of the construction sector. +In post-conflict situations we don't just need Doctors Without Borders, we need Bricklayers Without Borders, to rebuild the skill set. +We need firms. The firms have gone away. +So we need to encourage the growth of local firms. +If we do that, we not only get the jobs, we get the improvements in public infrastructure, the restoration of public infrastructure. +Let me turn from jobs to the second objective, which is improving basic social services. +And to date, there has been a sort of a schizophrenia in the donor community, as to how to build basic services in post-conflict sectors. +On the one hand it pays lip service to the idea of rebuild an effective state in the image of Scandinavia in the 1950s. +Lets develop line ministries of this, that, and the other, that deliver these services. +And it's schizophrenic because in their hearts donors know that's not a realistic agenda, and so what they also do is the total bypass: just fund NGOs. +Neither of those approaches is sensible. +And so what I'd suggest is what I call Independent Service Authorities. +It's to split the functions of a monopoly line ministry up into three. +The planning function and policy function stays with the ministry; the delivery of services on the ground, you should use whatever works -- churches, NGOs, local communities, whatever works. +And in between, there should be a public agency, the Independent Service Authority, which channels public money, and especially donor money, to the retail providers. +So the NGOs become part of a public government system, rather than independent of it. +One advantage of that is that you can allocate money coherently. +Another is, you can make NGOs accountable. +You can use yardstick competition, so they have to compete against each other for the resources. +The good NGOs, like Oxfam, are very keen on this idea. +They want to have the discipline and accountability. +So that's a way to get basic services scaled up. +And because the government would be funding it, it would be co-branding these services. +So they wouldn't be provided thanks to the United States government and some NGO. +They would be co-branded as being done by the post-conflict government, in the country. +So, jobs, basic services, finally, clean government. +Clean means follow their money. +The typical post-conflict government is so short of money that it needs our money just to be on a life-support system. +You can't get the basic functions of the state done unless we put money into the core budget of these countries. +But, if we put money into the core budget, we know that there aren't the budget systems with integrity that mean that money will be well spent. +And if all we do is put money in and close our eyes it's not just that the money is wasted -- that's the least of the problems -- it's that the money is captured. +It's captured by the crooks who are at the heart of the political problem. +And so inadvertently we empower the people who are the problem. +So building clean government means, yes, provide money to the budget, but also provide a lot of scrutiny, which means a lot of technical assistance that follows the money. +Paddy Ashdown, who was the grand high nabob of Bosnia to the United Nations, in his book about his experience, he said, "I realize what I needed was accountants without borders, to follow that money." +So that's the -- let me wrap up, this is the package. +What's the goal? +If we follow this, what would we hope to achieve? +That after 10 years, the focus on the construction sector would have produced both jobs and, hence, security -- because young people would have jobs -- and it would have reconstructed the infrastructure. +So that's the focus on the construction sector. +The focus on the basic service delivery through these independent service authorities would have rescued basic services from their catastrophic levels, and it would have given ordinary people the sense that the government was doing something useful. +The emphasis on clean government would have gradually squeezed out the political crooks, because there wouldn't be any money in taking part in the politics. +And so gradually the selection, the composition of politicians, would shift from the crooked to the honest. +Where would that leave us? +Gradually it would shift from a politics of plunder to a politics of hope. Thank you. +I want to help you re-perceive what philanthropy is, what it could be, and what your relationship to it is. +And in doing that, I want to offer you a vision, an imagined future, if you will, of how, as the poet Seamus Heaney has put it, "Once in a lifetime the longed-for tidal wave of justice can rise up, and hope and history rhyme." +I want to start with these word pairs here. +We all know which side of these we'd like to be on. +When philanthropy was reinvented a century ago, when the foundation form was actually invented, they didn't think of themselves on the wrong side of these either. +In fact they would never have thought of themselves as closed and set in their ways, as slow to respond to new challenges, as small and risk-averse. +And in fact they weren't. They were reinventing charity in those times, what Rockefeller called "the business of benevolence." +But by the end of the 20th century, a new generation of critics and reformers had come to see philanthropy just this way. +The thing to watch for as a global philanthropy industry comes about -- and that's exactly what is happening -- is how the aspiration is to flip these old assumptions, for philanthropy to become open and big and fast and connected, in service of the long term. +This entrepreneurial energy is emerging from many quarters. +And it's driven and propelled forward by new leaders, like many of the people here, by new tools, like the ones we've seen here, and by new pressures. +I've been following this change for quite a while now, and participating in it. +This report is our main public report. +What it tells is the story of how today actually could be as historic as 100 years ago. +What I want to do is share some of the coolest things that are going on with you. +And as I do that, I'm not going to dwell much on the very large philanthropy that everybody already knows about -- the Gates or the Soros or the Google. +Instead, what I want to do is talk about the philanthropy of all of us: the democratization of philanthropy. +This is a moment in history when the average person has more power than at any time. +What I'm going to do is look at five categories of experiments, each of which challenges an old assumption of philanthropy. +The first is mass collaboration, represented here by Wikipedia. +Now, this may surprise you. +But remember, philanthropy is about giving of time and talent, not just money. +Clay Shirky, that great chronicler of everything networked, has captured the assumption that this challenges in such a beautiful way. +He said, "We have lived in this world where little things are done for love and big things for money. +Now we have Wikipedia. +Suddenly big things can be done for love." +Watch, this spring, for Paul Hawken's new book -- Author and entrepreneur many of you may know about. +The book is called "Blessed Unrest." +And when it comes out, a series of wiki sites under the label WISER, are going to launch at the same time. +WISER stands for World Index for Social and Environmental Responsibility. +WISER sets out to document, link and empower what Paul calls the largest movement, and fastest-growing movement in human history: humanity's collective immune response to today's threats. +Now, all of these big things for love -- experiments -- aren't going to take off. +But the ones that do are going to be the biggest, the most open, the fastest, the most connected form of philanthropy in human history. +Second category is online philanthropy marketplaces. +This is, of course, to philanthropy what eBay and Amazon are to commerce. +Think of it as peer-to-peer philanthropy. +And this challenges yet another assumption, which is that organized philanthropy is only for the very wealthy. +Take a look, if you haven't, at DonorsChoose. +Omidyar Network has made a big investment in DonorsChoose. +It's one of the best known of these new marketplaces where a donor can go straight into a classroom and connect with what a teacher says they need. +Take a look at Changing the Present, started by a TEDster, next time you need a wedding present or a holiday present. +GiveIndia is for a whole country. +And it goes on and on. +The third category is represented by Warren Buffet, which I call aggregated giving. +It's not just that Warren Buffet was so amazingly generous in that historic act last summer. +It's that he challenged another assumption, that every giver should have his or her own fund or foundation. +There are now, today, so many new funds that are aggregating giving and investing, bringing together people around a common goal, to think bigger. +One of the best known is Acumen Fund, led by Jacqueline Novogratz, a TEDster who got a big boost here at TED. +But there are many others: New Profit in Cambridge, New School's Venture Fund in Silicon Valley, Venture Philanthropy Partners in Washington, Global Fund for Women in San Francisco. +Take a look at these. +These funds are to philanthropy what venture capital, private equity, and eventually mutual funds are to investing, but with a twist -- because often a community forms around these funds, as it has at Acumen and other places. +Now, imagine for a second these first three types of experiments: mass collaboration, online marketplaces, aggregated giving. +And understand how they help us re-perceive what organized philanthropy is. +It's not about foundations necessarily; it's about the rest of us. +I'm going to look quickly at the fourth and fifth categories, which are innovation, competitions and social investing. +They're betting a visible competition, a prize, can attract talent and money to some of the most difficult issues, and thereby speed the solution. +This tackles yet another assumption, that the giver and the organization is at the center, as opposed to putting the problem at the center. +You can look to these innovators to help us especially with things that require technological or scientific solution. +That leaves the final category, social investing, which is really, anyway, the biggest of them all, represented here by Xigi.net. +And this, of course, tackles the biggest assumption of all, that business is business, and philanthropy is the vehicle of people who want to create change in the world. +Xigi is a new community site that's built by the community, linking and mapping this new social capital market. +It lists already 1,000 entities that are offering debt and equity for social enterprise. +So we can look to these innovators to help us remember that if we can leverage even a small amount of the capital that seeks a return, the good that can be driven could be astonishing. +Now, what's really interesting here is that we're not thinking our way into a new way of acting; we're acting our way into a new way of thinking. +Philanthropy is reorganizing itself before our very eyes. +And even though all of the experiments and all of the big givers don't yet fulfill this aspiration, I think this is the new zeitgeist: open, big, fast, connected, and, let us also hope, long. +We have got to realize that it is going to take a long time to do these things. +If we don't develop the stamina to stick with things -- whatever it is you pick, stick with it -- all of this stuff is just going to be, you know, a fad. +But I'm really hopeful. +And I'm hopeful because it's not only philanthropy that's reorganizing itself, it's also whole other portions of the social sector, and of business, that are busy challenging "business as usual." +And everywhere I go, including here at TED, I feel that there is a new moral hunger that is growing. +What we're seeing is people really wrestling to describe what is this new thing that's happening. +Words like "philanthrocapitalism," and "natural capitalism," and "philanthroentrepreneur," and "venture philanthropy." +We don't have a language for it yet. +Whatever we call it, it's new, it's beginning, and I think it's gong to quite significant. +And that's where my imagined future comes in, which I am going to call the social singularity. +Many of you will realize that I'm ripping a bit off of the science fiction writer Vernor Vinge's notion of a technological singularity, where a number of trends accelerate and converge and come together to create, really, a shockingly new reality. +It may be that the social singularity ahead is the one that we fear the most: a convergence of catastrophes, of environmental degradation, of weapons of mass destruction, of pandemics, of poverty. +That's because our ability to confront the problems that we face has not kept pace with our ability to create them. +And as we've heard here, it is no exaggeration to say that we hold the future of our civilization in our hands as never before. +The question is, is there a positive social singularity? +Is there a frontier for us of how we live together? +Our future doesn't have to be imagined. +We can create a future where hope and history rhyme. +But we have a problem. +Our experience to date, both individually and collectively, hasn't prepared us for what we're going to need to do, or who we're going to need to be. +We are going to need a new generation of citizen leaders willing to commit ourselves to growing and changing and learning as rapidly as possible. +That's why I have one last thing I want to show you. +This is a photograph taken about 100 years ago of my grandfather and great-grandfather. +This is a newspaper publisher and a banker. +And they were great community leaders. +And, yes, they were great philanthropists. +I keep this photograph close by to me -- it's in my office -- because I've always felt a mystical connection to these two men, both of whom I never knew. +And so, in their honor, I want to offer you this blank slide. +And I want you to imagine that this a photograph of you. +And I want you to think about the community that you want to be part of creating. +Whatever that means to you. +And I want you to imagine that it's 100 years from now, and your grandchild, or great-grandchild, or niece or nephew or god-child, is looking at this photograph of you. +What is the story you most want for them to tell? +Thank you very much. +A month ago today I stood there: 90 degrees south, the top of the bottom of the world, the Geographic South Pole. +And I stood there beside two very good friends of mine, Richard Weber and Kevin Vallely. +Together we had just broken the world speed record for a trek to the South Pole. +It took us 33 days, 23 hours and 55 minutes to get there. +We shaved five days off the previous best time. +And in the process, I became the first person in history to make the entire 650-mile journey, from Hercules Inlet to South Pole, solely on feet, without skis. +Now, many of you are probably saying, "Wait a sec, is this tough to do?" +Imagine, if you will, dragging a sled, as you just saw in that video clip, with 170 pounds of gear, in it everything you need to survive on your Antarctic trek. +It's going to be 40 below, every single day. +You'll be in a massive headwind. +And at some point you're going to have to cross these cracks in the ice, these crevasses. +Some of them have a very precarious thin footbridge underneath them that could give way at a moment's notice, taking your sled, you, into the abyss, never to be seen again. +The punchline to your journey? Look at the horizon. +Yes, it's uphill the entire way, because the South Pole is at 10,000 feet, and you're starting at sea level. +Our journey did not, in fact, begin at Hercules Inlet, where frozen ocean meets the land of Antarctica. +It began a little less than two years ago. +A couple of buddies of mine and I had finished a 111-day run across the entire Sahara desert. +And while we were there we learned the seriousness of the water crisis in Northern Africa. +We also learned that many of the issues facing the people of Northern Africa affected young people the most. +I came home to my wife after 111 days of running in the sand, and I said, "You know, there's no doubt if this bozo can get across the desert, we are capable of doing anything we set our minds to." +But if I'm going to continue doing these adventures, there has to be a reason for me to do them beyond just getting there. +Around that time I met an extraordinary human being, Peter Thum, who inspired me with his actions. +He's trying to find and solve water issues, the crisis around the world. +His dedication inspired me to come up with this expedition: a run to the South Pole where, with an interactive website, I will be able to bring young people, students and teachers from around the world on board the expedition with me, as active members. +So we would have a live website, that every single day of the 33 days, we would be blogging, telling stories of, you know, depleted ozone forcing us to cover our faces, or we will burn. +Crossing miles and miles of sastrugi -- frozen ice snowdrifts that could be hip-deep. +I'm telling you, crossing these things with 170-pound sled, that sled may as well have weighed 1,700 pounds, because that's what it felt like. +We were blogging to this live website daily to these students that were tracking us as well, about 10-hour trekking days, 15-hour trekking days, sometimes 20 hours of trekking daily to meet our goal. +We'd catch cat-naps at 40 below on our sled, incidentally. +In turn, students, people from around the world, would ask us questions. +Young people would ask the most amazing questions. +One of my favorite: It's 40 below, you've got to go to the bathroom, where are you going to go and how are you going to do it? +I'm not going to answer that. But I will answer some of the more popular questions. +Where do you sleep? We slept in a tent that was very low to the ground, because the winds on Antarctica were so extreme, it would blow anything else away. +What do you eat? One of my favorite dishes on expedition: butter and bacon. It's about a million calories. +We were burning about 8,500 a day, so we needed it. +How many batteries do you carry for all the equipment that you have? +Virtually none. All of our equipment, including film equipment, was charged by the sun. +And do you get along? I certainly hope so, because at some point or another on this expedition, one of your teammates is going to have to take a very big needle, and put it in an infected blister, and drain it for you. +But seriously, seriously, we did get along, because we had a common goal of wanting to inspire these young people. +They were our teammates! They were inspiring us. +The stories we were hearing got us to the South Pole. +The website worked brilliantly as a two-way street of communication. +Young people in northern Canada, kids in an elementary school, dragging sleds across the school-yard, pretending they were Richard, Ray and Kevin. Amazing. +We arrived at the South Pole. We huddled into that tent, 45 below that day, I'll never forget it. +We looked at each other with these looks of disbelief at what we had just completed. +And I remember looking at the guys thinking, "What do I take from this journey?" You know? Seriously. +That I'm this uber-endurance guy? +As I stand here today talking to you guys, I've been running for the grand sum of five years. +And a year before that I was a pack-a-day smoker, living a very sedentary lifestyle. +What I take from this journey, from my journeys, is that, in fact, within every fiber of my belief standing here, I know that we can make the impossible possible. +I'm learning this at 40. +Can you imagine? Seriously, can you imagine? +I'm learning this at 40 years of age. +Imagine being 13 years old, hearing those words, and believing it. +Thank you very much. Thank you. +Now, if President Obama invited me to be the next Czar of Mathematics, then I would have a suggestion for him that I think would vastly improve the mathematics education in this country. +And it would be easy to implement and inexpensive. +The mathematics curriculum that we have is based on a foundation of arithmetic and algebra. +And everything we learn after that is building up towards one subject. +And at top of that pyramid, it's calculus. +And I'm here to say that I think that that is the wrong summit of the pyramid ... +that the correct summit -- that all of our students, every high school graduate should know -- should be statistics: probability and statistics. +I mean, don't get me wrong. Calculus is an important subject. +It's one of the great products of the human mind. +The laws of nature are written in the language of calculus. +And every student who studies math, science, engineering, economics, they should definitely learn calculus by the end of their freshman year of college. +But I'm here to say, as a professor of mathematics, that very few people actually use calculus in a conscious, meaningful way, in their day-to-day lives. +On the other hand, statistics -- that's a subject that you could, and should, use on daily basis. Right? +It's risk. It's reward. It's randomness. +It's understanding data. +I think if our students, if our high school students -- if all of the American citizens -- knew about probability and statistics, we wouldn't be in the economic mess that we're in today. Not only -- thank you -- not only that ... +but if it's taught properly, it can be a lot of fun. +I mean, probability and statistics, it's the mathematics of games and gambling. +It's analyzing trends. It's predicting the future. +Look, the world has changed from analog to digital. +And it's time for our mathematics curriculum to change from analog to digital, from the more classical, continuous mathematics, to the more modern, discrete mathematics -- the mathematics of uncertainty, of randomness, of data -- that being probability and statistics. +In summary, instead of our students learning about the techniques of calculus, I think it would be far more significant if all of them knew what two standard deviations from the mean means. And I mean it. +Thank you very much. +This is the exact moment that I started creating something called Tinkering School. +Tinkering School is a place where kids can pick up sticks and hammers and other dangerous objects, and be trusted. +Trusted not to hurt themselves, and trusted not to hurt others. +Tinkering School doesn't follow a set curriculum, and there are no tests. +We're not trying to teach anybody any specific thing. +When the kids arrive they're confronted with lots of stuff: wood and nails and rope and wheels, and lots of tools, real tools. +It's a six-day immersive experience for the kids. +And within that context, we can offer the kids time -- something that seems in short supply in their over-scheduled lives. +Our goal is to ensure that they leave with a better sense of how to make things than when they arrived, and the deep internal realization that you can figure things out by fooling around. +Nothing ever turns out as planned ... ever. +And the kids soon learn that all projects go awry -- and become at ease with the idea that every step in a project is a step closer to sweet success, or gleeful calamity. +We start from doodles and sketches. +And sometimes we make real plans. +And sometimes we just start building. +Building is at the heart of the experience: hands on, deeply immersed and fully committed to the problem at hand. +Robin and I, acting as collaborators, keep the landscape of the projects tilted towards completion. +Success is in the doing, and failures are celebrated and analyzed. +Problems become puzzles and obstacles disappear. +When faced with particularly difficult setbacks or complexities, a really interesting behavior emerges: decoration. +Decoration of the unfinished project is a kind of conceptual incubation. +From these interludes come deep insights and amazing new approaches to solving the problems that had them frustrated just moments before. +All materials are available for use. +Even those mundane, hateful, plastic grocery bags can become a bridge stronger than anyone imagined. +And the things that they build amaze even themselves. +Video: Three, two, one, go! +Gever Tulley: A rollercoaster built by seven-year-olds. +Video: Yay! +GT: Thank you. It's been a great pleasure. +I'll start with my favorite muse, Emily Dickinson, who said that wonder is not knowledge, neither is it ignorance. +It's something which is suspended between what we believe we can be, and a tradition we may have forgotten. +And I think, when I listen to these incredible people here, I've been so inspired -- so many incredible ideas, so many visions. +And yet, when I look at the environment outside, you see how resistant architecture is to change. +You see how resistant it is to those very ideas. +We can think them out. We can create incredible things. +And yet, at the end, it's so hard to change a wall. +We applaud the well-mannered box. +But to create a space that never existed is what interests me; to create something that has never been, a space that we have never entered except in our minds and our spirits. +And I think that's really what architecture is based on. +Architecture is not based on concrete and steel and the elements of the soil. +It's based on wonder. +And that wonder is really what has created the greatest cities, the greatest spaces that we have had. +And I think that is indeed what architecture is. It is a story. +By the way, it is a story that is told through its hard materials. +But it is a story of effort and struggle against improbabilities. +If you think of the great buildings, of the cathedrals, of the temples, of the pyramids, of pagodas, of cities in India and beyond, you think of how incredible this is that that was realized not by some abstract idea, but by people. +So, anything that has been made can be unmade. +Anything that has been made can be made better. +There it is: the things that I really believe are of important architecture. +These are the dimensions that I like to work with. +It's something very personal. +It's not, perhaps, the dimensions appreciated by art critics or architecture critics or city planners. +But I think these are the necessary oxygen for us to live in buildings, to live in cities, to connect ourselves in a social space. +And I therefore believe that optimism is what drives architecture forward. +It's the only profession where you have to believe in the future. +You can be a general, a politician, an economist who is depressed, a musician in a minor key, a painter in dark colors. +But architecture is that complete ecstasy that the future can be better. +And it is that belief that I think drives society. +And today we have a kind of evangelical pessimism all around us. +And yet it is in times like this that I think architecture can thrive with big ideas, ideas that are not small. Think of the great cities. +Think of the Empire State Building, the Rockefeller Center. +They were built in times that were not really the best of times in a certain way. +And yet that energy and power of architecture has driven an entire social and political space that these buildings occupy. +So again, I am a believer in the expressive. +I have never been a fan of the neutral. +I don't like neutrality in life, in anything. +I think expression. +And it's like espresso coffee, you know, you take the essence of the coffee. +That's what expression is. +It's been missing in much of the architecture, because we think architecture is the realm of the neutered, the realm of the kind of a state that has no opinion, that has no value. +And yet, I believe it is the expression -- expression of the city, expression of our own space -- that gives meaning to architecture. +And, of course, expressive spaces are not mute. +Expressive spaces are not spaces that simply confirm what we already know. +Expressive spaces may disturb us. +And I think that's also part of life. +Life is not just an anesthetic to make us smile, but to reach out across the abyss of history, to places we have never been, and would have perhaps been, had we not been so lucky. +So again, radical versus conservative. +Radical, what does it mean? It's something which is rooted, and something which is rooted deep in a tradition. +And I think that is what architecture is, it's radical. +It's not just a conservation in formaldehyde of dead forms. +It is actually a living connection to the cosmic event that we are part of, and a story that is certainly ongoing. +It's not something that has a good ending or a bad ending. +It's actually a story in which our acts themselves are pushing the story in a particular way. +So again I am a believer in the radical architecture. +You know the Soviet architecture of that building is the conservation. +It's like the old Las Vegas used to be. +It's about conserving emotions, conserving the traditions that have obstructed the mind in moving forward and of course what is radical is to confront them. +And I think our architecture is a confrontation with our own senses. +Therefore I believe it should not be cool. +There is a lot of appreciation for the kind of cool architecture. +I've always been an opponent of it. I think emotion is needed. +Life without emotion would really not be life. +Even the mind is emotional. +There is no reason which does not take a position in the ethical sphere, in the philosophical mystery of what we are. +So I think emotion is a dimension that is important to introduce into city space, into city life. +And of course, we are all about the struggle of emotions. +And I think that is what makes the world a wondrous place. +And of course, the confrontation of the cool, the unemotional with emotion, is a conversation that I think cities themselves have fostered. +I think that is the progress of cities. +It's not only the forms of cities, but the fact that they incarnate emotions, not just of those who build them, but of those who live there as well. +Inexplicable versus understood. You know, too often we want to understand everything. +But architecture is not the language of words. +It's a language. But it is not a language that can be reduced to a series of programmatic notes that we can verbally write. +Too many buildings that you see outside that are so banal tell you a story, but the story is very short, which says, "We have no story to tell you." +So the important thing actually, is to introduce the actual architectural dimensions, which might be totally inexplicable in words, because they operate in proportions, in materials, in light. +They connect themselves into various sources, into a kind of complex vector matrix that isn't really frontal but is really embedded in the lives, and in the history of a city, and of a people. +So again, the notion that a building should just be explicit I think is a false notion, which has reduced architecture into banality. +Hand versus the computer. +Of course, what would we be without computers? +Our whole practice depends on computing. +But the computer should not just be the glove of the hand; the hand should really be the driver of the computing power. +Because I believe that the hand in all its primitive, in all its physiological obscurity, has a source, though the source is unknown, though we don't have to be mystical about it. +We realize that the hand has been given us by forces that are beyond our own autonomy. +I think that's part of what the complexity of architecture is. +Because certainly we have gotten used to the propaganda that the simple is the good. But I don't believe it. +Listening to all of you, the complexity of thought, the complexity of layers of meaning is overwhelming. +And I think we shouldn't shy away in architecture, You know, brain surgery, atomic theory, genetics, economics are complex complex fields. +There is no reason that architecture should shy away and present this illusory world of the simple. +It is complex. Space is complex. +Space is something that folds out of itself into completely new worlds. +And as wondrous as it is, it cannot be reduced to a kind of simplification that we have often come to be admired. +And yet, our lives are complex. +Our emotions are complex. +Our intellectual desires are complex. +So I do believe that architecture as I see it needs to mirror that complexity in every single space that we have, in every intimacy that we possess. +Of course that means that architecture is political. +The political is not an enemy of architecture. +The politeama is the city. It's all of us together. +And I've always believed that the act of architecture, even a private house, when somebody else will see it, is a political act, because it will be visible to others. +And we live in a world which is connecting us more and more. +So again, the evasion of that sphere, which has been so endemic to that sort of pure architecture, the autonomous architecture that is just an abstract object has never appealed to me. +And I do believe that this interaction with the history, with history that is often very difficult, to grapple with it, to create a position that is beyond our normal expectations and to create a critique. +Because architecture is also the asking of questions. +It's not only the giving of answers. +It's also, just like life, the asking of questions. +Therefore it is important that it be real. +You know we can simulate almost anything. +But the one thing that can be ever simulated is the human heart, the human soul. +And architecture is so closely intertwined with it because we are born somewhere and we die somewhere. +So the reality of architecture is visceral. It's not intellectual. +It's not something that comes to us from books and theories. +It's the real that we touch -- the door, the window, the threshold, the bed -- such prosaic objects. And yet, I try, in every building, to take that virtual world, which is so enigmatic and so rich, and create something in the real world. +Create a space for an office, a space of sustainability that really works between that virtuality and yet can be realized as something real. +Unexpected versus habitual. +What is a habit? It's just a shackle for ourselves. +It's a self-induced poison. +So the unexpected is always unexpected. +You know, it's true, the cathedrals, as unexpected, will always be unexpected. +You know Frank Gehry's buildings, they will continue to be unexpected in the future. +So not the habitual architecture that instills in us the false sort of stability, but an architecture that is full of tension, an architecture that goes beyond itself to reach a human soul and a human heart, and that breaks out of the shackles of habits. +And of course habits are enforced by architecture. +When we see the same kind of architecture we become immured in that world of those angles, of those lights, of those materials. +We think the world really looks like our buildings. +And yet our buildings are pretty much limited by the techniques and wonders that have been part of them. +So again, the unexpected which is also the raw. +And I often think of the raw and the refined. +What is raw? The raw, I would say is the naked experience, untouched by luxury, untouched by expensive materials, untouched by the kind of refinement that we associate with high culture. +So the rawness, I think, in space, the fact that sustainability can actually, in the future translate into a raw space, a space that isn't decorated, a space that is not mannered in any source, but a space that might be cool in terms of its temperature, might be refractive to our desires. +A space that doesn't always follow us like a dog that has been trained to follow us, but moves ahead into directions of demonstrating other possibilities, other experiences, that have never been part of the vocabulary of architecture. +And of course that juxtaposition is of great interest to me because it creates a kind of a spark of new energy. +And so I do like something which is pointed, not blunt, something which is focused on reality, something that has the power, through its leverage, to transform even a very small space. +So architecture maybe is not so big, like science, but through its focal point it can leverage in an Archimedian way what we think the world is really about. +And often it takes just a building to change our experience of what could be done, what has been done, how the world has remained both in between stability and instability. +And of course buildings have their shapes. +Those shapes are difficult to change. +And yet, I do believe that in every social space, in every public space, there is a desire to communicate more than just that blunt thought, that blunt technique, but something that pinpoints, and can point in various directions forward, backward, sideways and around. +So that is indeed what is memory. +So I believe that my main interest is to memory. +Without memory we would be amnesiacs. +We would not know which way we were going, and why we are going where we're going. +So I've been never interested in the forgettable reuse, rehashing of the same things over and over again, which, of course, get accolades of critics. +Critics like the performance to be repeated again and again the same way. +But I rather play something completely unheard of, and even with flaws, than repeat the same thing over and over which has been hollowed by its meaninglessness. +So again, memory is the city, memory is the world. +Without the memory there would be no story to tell. +There would be nowhere to turn. +The memorable, I think, is really our world, what we think the world is. +And it's not only our memory, but those who remember us, which means that architecture is not mute. +It's an art of communication. +It tells a story. The story can reach into obscure desires. +It can reach into sources that are not explicitly available. +It can reach into millennia that have been buried, and return them in a just and unexpected equity. +So again, I think the notion that the best architecture is silent has never appealed to me. +Silence maybe is good for a cemetery but not for a city. +Cities should be full of vibrations, full of sound, full of music. +And that indeed is the architectural mission that I believe is important, is to create spaces that are vibrant, that are pluralistic, that can transform the most prosaic activities, and raise them to a completely different expectation. +Create a shopping center, a swimming place that is more like a museum than like entertainment. +And these are our dreams. +And of course risk. I think architecture should be risky. +You know it costs a lot of money and so on, but yes, it should not play it safe. +It should not play it safe, because if it plays it safe it's not moving us in a direction that we want to be. +And I think, of course, risk is what underlies the world. +World without risk would not be worth living. +So yes, I do believe that the risk we take in every building. +Risks to create spaces that have never been cantilevered to that extent. +Risks of spaces that have never been so dizzying, as they should be, for a pioneering city. +Risks that really move architecture even with all its flaws, into a space which is much better that the ever again repeated hollowness of a ready-made thing. +And of course that is finally what I believe architecture to be. +It's about space. It's not about fashion. +It's not about decoration. +It's about creating with minimal means something which can not be repeated, cannot be simulated in any other sphere. +And there of course is the space that we need to breathe, is the space we need to dream. +These are the spaces that are not just luxurious spaces for some of us, but are important for everybody in this world. +So again, it's not about the changing fashions, changing theories. +It's about carving out a space for trees. +It's carving out a space where nature can enter the domestic world of a city. +A space where something which has never seen a light of day can enter into the inner workings of a density. +And I think that is really the nature of architecture. +Now I am a believer in democracy. +I don't like beautiful buildings built for totalitarian regimes. +Where people cannot speak, cannot vote, cannot do anything. +We too often admire those buildings. We think they are beautiful. +And yet when I think of the poverty of society which doesn't give freedom to its people, I don't admire those buildings. +So democracy, as difficult as it is, I believe in it. +And of course, at Ground Zero what else? +It's such a complex project. +It's emotional. There is so many interests. +It's political. There is so many parties to this project. +There is so many interests. There's money. There's political power. +There are emotions of the victims. +And yet, in all its messiness, in all its difficulties, I would not have liked somebody to say, "This is the tabula rasa, mister architect -- do whatever you want." +I think nothing good will come out of that. +I think architecture is about consensus. +And it is about the dirty word "compromise." Compromise is not bad. +Compromise, if it's artistic, if it is able to cope with its strategies -- and there is my first sketch and the last rendering -- it's not that far away. +And yet, compromise, consensus, that is what I believe in. +And Ground Zero, despite all its difficulties, it's moving forward. +It's difficult. 2011, 2013. Freedom Tower, the memorial. +And that is where I end. +I was inspired when I came here as an immigrant on a ship like millions of others, looking at America from that point of view. +This is America. This is liberty. +This is what we dream about. Its individuality, demonstrated in the skyline. It's resilience. +And finally, it's the freedom that America represents, not just to me, as an immigrant, but to everyone in the world. Thank you. +Chris Anderson: I've got a question. +So have you come to peace with the process that happened at Ground Zero and the loss of the original, incredible design that you came up with? +Daniel Libeskind: Look. We have to cure ourselves of the notion that we are authoritarian, that we can determine everything that happens. +We have to rely on others, and shape the process in the best way possible. +I came from the Bronx. I was taught not to be a loser, not to be somebody who just gives up in a fight. +You have to fight for what you believe. You don't always win everything you want to win. But you can steer the process. +And I believe that what will be built at Ground Zero will be meaningful, will be inspiring, will tell other generations of the sacrifices, of the meaning of this event. +Not just for New York, but for the world. +Chris Anderson: Thank you so much, Daniel Libeskind. +Charles and Ray were a team. They were husband and wife. +Despite the New York Times' and Vanity Fair's best efforts recently, they're not brothers. And they were a lot of fun. +You know, Ray was the one who wore the ampersands in the family. +We are going to focus on Charles today, because it is Charles' 100th birthday. +But when I speak of him, I'm really speaking of both of them as a team. +Here's Charles when he was three. So he would be 100 this June. +We have a lot of cool celebrations that we're going to do. +The thing about their work is that most people come to the door of furniture -- I suspect you probably recognize this chair and some of the others I'm going to show you. +But we're going to first enter through the door of the Big Top. +The whole thing about this, though, is that, you know, why am I showing it? +Is it because Charles and Ray made this film? +This is actually a training film for a clown college that they had. +They also practiced a clown act when the future of furniture was not nearly as auspicious as it turned out to be. +There is a picture of Charles. So let's watch the next clip. +The film that we're about to see is a film they made for the Moscow World's Fair. +Video: This is the land. +It has many contrasts. +It is rough and it is flat. +In places it is cold. +In some it is hot. +Too much rain falls on some areas, and not enough on others. +But people live on this land. +And, as in Russia, they are drawn together into towns and cities. +Here is something of the way they live. +Eames Demetrios: Now, this is a film that was hardly ever seen in the United States. +It was on seven screens and it was 200 feet across. +And it was at the height of the Cold War. +The Nixon-Khrushchev Kitchen Debate happened about 50 feet from where this was shown. +And yet, how did it start? +You know, commonality, the first line in Charles' narration was, "The same stars that shine down on Russia shine down on the United States. From the sky, our cities look much the same." +It was that human connection that Charles and Ray always found in everything. +And you can imagine, and the thing about it is, that they believed that the human mind could handle this number of images because the important thing was to get the gestalt of what the images were about. +So that was just a little snip. +But the thing about Charles and Ray is that they were always modeling stuff. +They were always trying things out. +I think one of the things I am passionate about, my grandparents work, I'm passionate about my work, but on top of all that I'm passionate about a holistic vision of design, where design is a life skill, not a professional skill. +And you know, those of us with kids often want our kids to take music. +I'm no exception. +But it's not about them becoming Bono or Tracy Chapman. +It's about getting that music thing going through their heads and their thinking. +Design is the same way. Design has to become that same way. +And this is a model that they did of that seven-screen presentation. +And Charles just checking it out there. +So now we're going to go through that door of furniture. +This is an unusual installation of airport seating. +So what we're going to see is some of the icons of Eames furniture. +And the thing about their furniture is that they said the role of the designer was essentially that of a good host, anticipating the needs of the guest. +So those are cool images. But these are ones I think are really cool. +These are all the prototypes. These are the mistakes, although I don't think mistakes is the right word in design. +It's just the things you try out to kind of make it work better. +And you know some of them would probably be terrible chairs. +Some of them are kind of cool looking. It's like "Hey, why didn't they try that?" +It was that hands-on iterative process which is so much like vernacular design and folk design in traditional cultures. +And I think that's one of the commonalities between modernism and traditional design. I think it may be a real common ground as we kind of figure out what on earth to do in the next 20 or 30 years. +The other thing that's kind of cool is that you look at this and in the media when people say design, they actually mean style. +And I'm really here to talk about design. +But you know the object is just a pivot. +It's a pivot between a process and a system. +And this is a little film I made about the making of the Eames lounge chair. +The design process for Charles and Ray never ended in manufacturing. +It continued. They were always trying to make thing better and better. +Because it's like as Bill Clinton was saying about Rwandan health clinics. +It's not enough to create one. +You've got to create a system that will work better and better. +So I've always liked this prototype picture. +Because it just kind of, you know, doesn't get any more basic than that. +You try things out. +This is a relatively famous chair. +Its early version had an "X" base. That's what the collectors like. +Charles and Ray liked this one because it was better. +It worked better: "H" base, much more practical. +This is something called a splint. +And I was very touched by Dean Kamen's work for the military, or for the soldiers, because Charles and Ray designed a molded plywood splint. This is it. +And they'd been working on furniture before. +But doing these splints they learned a lot about the manufacturing process, which was incredibly important to them. +I'm trying to show you too much, because I want you to really get a broth of ideas and images. +This is a house that Charles and Ray designed. +My sister is chasing someone else. It's not me. +Although I endorse heartily the fact that he stole her diary, it's not me. +And then this is a film, on the lower left, that Charles and Ray made. +Now look at that plastic chair. +The house is 1949. +The chair is done in 1949. +Charles and Ray, they didn't obsess about style for it's own sake. +They didn't say, "Our style is curves. Let's make the house curvy." +They didn't say, "Our style is grids. Let's make the chair griddy." +They focused on the need. +They tried to solve the design problem. +Charles used to say, "The extent to which you have a design style is the extent to which you have not solved the design problem." +It's kind of a brutal quote. +This is the earlier design of that house. +And again, they managed to figure out a way to make a prototype of a house -- architecture, very expensive medium. +Here's a film we've been hearing things about. +The "Powers of Ten" is a film they made. +If we watch the next clip, you're going to see the first version of "Powers of Ten," upper left. +The familiar one on the lower right. +The Eames' film Tops, lower left. +And a lamp that Charles designed for a church. +Video: Which in turn belongs to a local group of galaxies. +These form part of a grouping system much as the stars do. +They are so many and so varied that from this distance they appear like the stars from Earth. +ED: You've seen that film, and what's so great about this whole conference is that everybody has been talking about scale. +Everybody here is coming at it from a different way. +I want to give you one example. +E.O. Wilson once told me that when he looked at ants -- he loved them, of course, and he wanted to learn more about them -- he consciously looked at them from the standpoint of scale. +So here is the tiny creature. +And yet simply by changing the frame of reference it reveals so much, including what ended up being the TED Prize. +Modeling, they tried modeling all the time. They were always modeling things. +And I think part of that is that they never delegated understanding. +And I think in our family we were very lucky, because we learned about design backwards. +Design was not something other. +It was part of the business of life in general. +It was part of the quality of life. +And here is some family pictures. +And you can see why I'm down on style, with a haircut like that. +But anyway, I remember the cut grapefruit that we would have at the Eames house when I was a kid. +So we're going to watch another film. +This is a film, the one called Toys. +You can see me, I have the same haircut, in the upper right corner. +Upper left is a film they did on toy trains. +Lower right is a solar do-nothing toy. +Lower left is Day-of-the-Dead toys. +Charles used to say that toys are not as innocent as they appear. +They are often the precursor to bigger things. +And these ideas -- that train up there, being about the honest use of materials, is totally the same as the honest use of materials in the plywood. +And now I'm going to test you. +This is a letter that my grandfather sent to my mom when she was five years old. +So can you read it? +Lucia angel, okay, eye. +Audience: Saw many trains. +ED: Awl, also, good that the leather crafter's guild is here. +Also, what is he doing? Row, rowed. +Sun? No. Well is there another name for a sunrise? +Dawn, very good. +Also rode on one. I ... +Audience: You had, I hope you had -- ED: Now you've been to the website Dogs of Saint Louis in the late, in the mid-1930's, then you'd know that was a Great Dane. +So, I hope you had a Audience: Nice time, time -- ED: Time at. +Citizen Kane, rose -- Audience: Rosebud. +ED: No, bud. "D"'s right. At Buddy's -- Audience: Party. Love. +ED: Okay, good. +So, "I saw many trains and also rode on one. +I hope you had a nice time at Buddy's party." +So you guys did pretty good, cool. +So my mom and Charles had this great relationship where they'd send those sorts of things back and forth to one another. +And it's all part of the, you know, they used to say, "Take your pleasure seriously." +These are some images from a project of mine that's called Kymaerica. +It's sort of an alternative universe. +It's kind of a reinterpretation of the landscape. +Those plaques are plaques we've been installing around North America. +We're about to do six in the U.K. next week. +And they honor events in the linear world from the fictional world. +So, of course, since it's bronze it has to be true. +Video: Kymaerica with waterfalls, tumbling through our -- ED: This is one of the traditional Kymaerican songs. +And so we had spelling bees in Paris, Illinois. +Video: Your word is N. Carolina. +Girl: Y-I-N-D-I-A-N-A. +ED: And then Embassy Row is actually a historical site, because in the Kymaerican story this is where the Parisian Diaspora started, where there embassy was. +So you can actually visit and have this three-dimensional fictional experience there. +And the town has really embraced it. +We had the spelling bee in conjunction with the Gwomeus Club. +But what is really cool is that we take our visual environment as inevitable. And it's not. +Other things could have happened. The Japanese could have discovered Monterey. +And we could have been born 100,000 years ago. +And there are a lot of fun things. This is the Museum of the Bench. +They have trading cards and all sorts of cool things. +And you're kind of trapped in the texture of Kymaerica. +The Tahatchabe, the great road building culture. +A guy named Nobu Naga, the so-called Japanese Columbus. +But now I'm going to return you to the real world. +And this is Cranbrook. I've got a real treat for you, which is the first film that Charles ever made. +So let's watch that. Nobody's ever seen it. +Cranbrook is very generous to let us show it for the first time here. +It's a film about Maya Gretel, a famous ceramicist, and a teacher at Cranbrook. +And he made it for the 1939 faculty exhibition. +Silent. We don't have a track for it yet. +Very simple. It's just a start. But it's that learn-by-doing thing. +You want to learn how to make films? Go make a movie. +And you try something out. +But here is what's really great. +See that chair there? The orange one? That's the organic chair. 1940. +At the same time that Charles was doing that chair, he was doing this film. +So my point is that this scope of vision, this holistic vision of design, was with them from the beginning. +It wasn't like "Oh, we made some chairs and got successful. +Now we're going to do some movies." +It was always part of how they looked at the world. And that's what's really powerful. +And I think that all of us in this room, as you move design forward, it's not about just doing one thing. +It's about how you approach problems. And there is this huge, beautiful commonality between design, business and the world. +So we're going to do the last clip. +And I've shown you some of the images. I just want to focus on sound now. +So this is Charles' voice. +Charles Eames: In India, those without, and the lowest in caste, eat very often, particularly in southern India, they eat off of a banana leaf. +And those a little bit up the scale eat off of a sort of a low-fired ceramic dish. +And a little bit higher, why they have a glaze on a thing they call a thali. +If you're up the scale a little bit more, why, a brass thali. +And then things get to be a little questionable. +There are things like silver-plated thalis. +And there is solid silver thalis. +And I suppose some nut has had a gold thali that he's eaten off of. +But you can go beyond that. +And the guys that have not only means, but a certain amount of knowledge and understanding, go to the next step, and they eat off a banana leaf. +And I think that in these times when we fall back and regroup, that somehow or other, the banana leaf parable sort of got to get working there, because I'm not prepared to say that the banana leaf that one eats off of is the same as the other eats off of. +But it is that process that has happened within the man that changes the banana leaf. +ED: I've been looking forward to sharing that quote with you. +Because that's part of where we've got to get to. +And I also want to share this one. +"Beyond the age of information is the age of choices." +And I really think that's where we are. +And it's kind of cool for me to be part of a family and a tradition where he was talking about that in 1978. +And part of why this stuff is important and all the things that we do are important, is that these are the ideas we need. +And I think that this is all part of surrendering to the design journey. +That's what we all need to do. +Design is not just for designers anymore. It's a process. It's not style. +All that great thinking needs to really get about solving pretty key problems. +I really thank you for your time. +Last year at TED we aimed to try to clarify the overwhelming complexity and richness that we experience at the conference in a project called Big Viz. +And the Big Viz is a collection of 650 sketches that were made by two visual artists. +David Sibbet from The Grove, and Kevin Richards, from Autodesk, made 650 sketches that strive to capture the essence of each presenter's ideas. +And the consensus was: it really worked. +These sketches brought to life the key ideas, the portraits, the magic moments that we all experienced last year. +This year we were thinking, "Why does it work?" +What is it about animation, graphics, illustrations, that create meaning? +And this is an important question to ask and answer because the more we understand how the brain creates meaning, the better we can communicate, and, I also think, the better we can think and collaborate together. +So this year we're going to visualize how the brain visualizes. +Cognitive psychologists now tell us that the brain doesn't actually see the world as it is, but instead, creates a series of mental models through a collection of "Ah-ha moments," or moments of discovery, through various processes. +The processing, of course, begins with the eyes. +Light enters, hits the back of the retina, and is circulated, most of which is streamed to the very back of the brain, at the primary visual cortex. +And primary visual cortex sees just simple geometry, just the simplest of shapes. +But it also acts like a kind of relay station that re-radiates and redirects information to many other parts of the brain. +As many as 30 other parts that selectively make more sense, create more meaning through the kind of "Ah-ha" experiences. +We're only going to talk about three of them. +So the first one is called the ventral stream. +It's on this side of the brain. +And this is the part of the brain that will recognize what something is. +It's the "what" detector. +Look at a hand. Look at a remote control. Chair. Book. +So that's the part of the brain that is activated when you give a word to something. +A second part of the brain is called the dorsal stream. +And what it does is locates the object in physical body space. +So if you look around the stage here you'll create a kind of mental map of the stage. +And if you closed your eyes you'd be able to mentally navigate it. +You'd be activating the dorsal stream if you did that. +The third part that I'd like to talk about is the limbic system. +And this is deep inside of the brain. It's very old, evolutionarily. +And it's the part that feels. +It's the kind of gut center, where you see an image and you go, "Oh! I have a strong or emotional reaction to whatever I'm seeing." +So the combination of these processing centers help us make meaning in very different ways. +So what can we learn about this? How can we apply this insight? +Well, again, the schematic view is that the eye visually interrogates what we look at. +The brain processes this in parallel, the figments of information asking a whole bunch of questions to create a unified mental model. +So, for example, when you look at this image a good graphic invites the eye to dart around, to selectively create a visual logic. +So the act of engaging, and looking at the image creates the meaning. +It's the selective logic. +Now we've augmented this and spatialized this information. +Many of you may remember the magic wall that we built in conjunction with Perceptive Pixel where we quite literally create an infinite wall. +And so we can compare and contrast the big ideas. +So the act of engaging and creating interactive imagery enriches meaning. +It activates a different part of the brain. +And then the limbic system is activated when we see motion, when we see color, and there are primary shapes and pattern detectors that we've heard about before. +So the point of this is what? +We make meaning by seeing, by an act of visual interrogation. +The lessons for us are three-fold. +First, use images to clarify what we're trying to communicate. +Secondly make those images interactive so that we engage much more fully. +And the third is to augment memory by creating a visual persistence. +These are techniques that can be used to be -- that can be applied in a wide range of problem solving. +So the low-tech version looks like this. +And, by the way, this is the way in which we develop and formulate strategy within Autodesk, in some of our organizations and some of our divisions. +What we literally do is have the teams draw out the entire strategic plan on one giant wall. +And it's very powerful because everyone gets to see everything else. +There's always a room, always a place to be able to make sense of all of the components in the strategic plan. +This is a time-lapse view of it. +You can ask the question, "Who's the boss?" +You'll be able to figure that out. So the act of collectively and collaboratively building the image transforms the collaboration. +No Powerpoint is used in two days. +But instead the entire team creates a shared mental model that they can all agree on and move forward on. +And this can be enhanced and augmented with some emerging digital technology. +And this is our great unveiling for today. +And this is an emerging set of technologies that use large-screen displays with intelligent calculation in the background to make the invisible visible. +Here what we can do is look at sustainability, quite literally. +So a team can actually look at all the key components that heat the structure and make choices and then see the end result that is visualized on this screen. +So making images meaningful has three components. +The first again, is making ideas clear by visualizing them. +Secondly, making them interactive. +And then thirdly, making them persistent. +And I believe that these three principles can be applied to solving some of the very tough problems that we face in the world today. Thanks so much. +I normally teach courses on how to rebuild states after war. +But today I've got a personal story to share with you. +This is a picture of my family, my four siblings -- my mom and I -- taken in 1977. +And we're actually Cambodians. +And this picture is taken in Vietnam. +So how did a Cambodian family end up in Vietnam in 1977? +Well to explain that, I've got a short video clip to explain the Khmer Rouge regime during 1975 and 1979. +Video: April 17th, 1975. +The communist Khmer Rouge enters Phnom Penh to liberate their people from the encroaching conflict in Vietnam, and American bombing campaigns. +Led by peasant-born Pol Pot, the Khmer Rouge evacuates people to the countryside in order to create a rural communist utopia, much like Mao Tse-tung's Cultural Revolution in China. +The Khmer Rouge closes the doors to the outside world. +But after four years the grim truth seeps out. +In a country of only seven million people, one and a half million were murdered by their own leaders, their bodies piled in the mass graves of the killing fields. +Sophal Ear: So, notwithstanding the 1970s narration, on April 17th 1975 we lived in Phnom Penh. +And my parents were told by the Khmer Rouge to evacuate the city because of impending American bombing for three days. +And here is a picture of the Khmer Rouge. +They were young soldiers, typically child soldiers. +And this is very normal now, of modern day conflict, because they're easy to bring into wars. +The reason that they gave about American bombing wasn't all that far off. +I mean, from 1965 to 1973 there were more munitions that fell on Cambodia than in all of World War II Japan, including the two nuclear bombs of August 1945. +The Khmer Rouge didn't believe in money. +So the equivalent of the Federal Reserve Bank in Cambodia was bombed. +But not just that, they actually banned money. +I think it's the only precedent in which money has ever been stopped from being used. +And we know money is the root of all evil, but it didn't actually stop evil from happening in Cambodia, in fact. +My family was moved from Phnom Penh to Pursat province. +This is a picture of what Pursat looks like. +It's actually a very pretty area of Cambodia, where rice growing takes place. +And in fact they were forced to work the fields. +So my father and mother ended up in a sort of concentration camp, labor camp. +And it was at that time that my mother got word from the commune chief that the Vietnamese were actually asking for their citizens to go back to Vietnam. +And she spoke some Vietnamese, as a child having grown up with Vietnamese friends. +And she decided, despite the advice of her neighbors, that she would take the chance and claim to be Vietnamese so that we could have a chance to survive, because at this point they're forcing everybody to work. +And they're giving about -- in a modern-day, caloric-restriction diet, I guess -- they're giving porridge, with a few grains of rice. +And at about this time actually my father got very sick. +And he didn't speak Vietnamese. +So he died actually, in January 1976. +And it made it possible, in fact, for us to take on this plan. +So the Khmer Rouge took us from a place called Pursat to Kaoh Tiev, which is across from the border from Vietnam. +And there they had a detention camp where alleged Vietnamese would be tested, language tested. +And my mother's Vietnamese was so bad that to make our story more credible, she'd given all the boys and girls new Vietnamese names. +But she'd given the boys girls' names, and the girls boys' names. +And it wasn't until she met a Vietnamese lady who told her this, and then tutored her for two days intensively, that she was able to go into her exam and -- you know, this was a moment of truth. +If she fails, we're all headed to the gallows; if she passes, we can leave to Vietnam. +And she actually, of course -- I'm here, she passes. +And we end up in Hong Ngu on the Vietnamese side. +And then onwards to Chau Doc. +And this is a picture of Hong Ngu, Vietnam today. +A pretty idyllic place on the Mekong Delta. +But for us it meant freedom. +And freedom from persecution from the Khmer Rouge. +Last year, the Khmer Rouge Tribunal, which the U.N. is helping Cambodia take on, started, and I decided that as a matter of record I should file a Civil Complaint with the Tribunal about my father's passing away. +And I got word last month that the complaint was officially accepted by the Khmer Rouge Tribunal. +And it's for me a matter of justice for history, and accountability for the future, because Cambodia remains a pretty lawless place, at times. +Five years ago my mother and I went back to Chau Doc. +And she was able to return to a place that for her meant freedom, but also fear, because we had just come out of Cambodia. +I'm happy, actually, today, to present her. +She's here today with us in the audience. +Thank you mother. +So it was about four years ago, five years ago, I was sitting on a stage in Philadelphia, I think it was, with a bag similar to this. +And I was pulling a molecule out of this bag. +And I was saying, you don't know this molecule really well, but your body knows it extremely well. +And I was thinking that your body hated it, at the time, because we are very immune to this. This is called alpha-gal epitope. +And the fact that pig heart valves have lots of these on them is the reason that you can't transplant a pig heart valve into a person easily. +Actually our body doesn't hate these. +Our body loves these. It eats them. +I mean, the cells in our immune system are always hungry. +And if an antibody is stuck to one of these things on the cell, it means "that's food." +Now, I was thinking about that and I said, you know, we've got this immune response to this ridiculous molecule that we don't make, and we see it a lot in other animals and stuff. +But I said we can't get rid of it, because all the people who tried to transplant heart valves found out you can't get rid of that immunity. +And I said, why don't you use that? +What if I could stick this molecule, slap it onto a bacteria that was pathogenic to me, that had just invaded my lungs? +I mean I could immediately tap into an immune response that was already there, where it was not going to take five or six days to develop it -- it was going to immediately attack whatever this thing was on. +It was kind of like the same thing that happens when you, like when you're getting stopped for a traffic ticket in L.A., and the cop drops a bag of marijuana in the back of your car, and then charges you for possession of marijuana. +It's like this very fast, very efficient way to get people off the street. +So you can take a bacteria that really doesn't make these things at all, and if you could clamp these on it really well you have it taken off the street. +And for certain bacteria we don't have really efficient ways to do that anymore. +Our antibiotics are running out. +And, I mean, the world apparently is running out too. +So probably it doesn't matter 50 years from now -- streptococcus and stuff like that will be rampant -- because we won't be here. But if we are -- we're going to need something to do with the bacteria. +So I started working with this thing, with a bunch of collaborators. +And trying to attach this to things that were themselves attached to certain specific target zones, bacteria that we don't like. +And I feel now like George Bush. +It's like "mission accomplished." +So I might be doing something dumb, just like he was doing at the time. +But basically what I was talking about there we've now gotten to work. +And it's killing bacteria. It's eating them. +This thing can be stuck, like that little green triangle up there, sort of symbolizing this right now. +You can stick this to something called a DNA aptamer. +And that DNA aptamer will attach specifically to a target that you have selected for it. +So you can find a little feature on a bacterium that you don't like, like Staphylococcus -- I don't like it in particular, because it killed a professor friend of mine last year. +It doesn't respond to antibiotics. So I don't like it. +And I'm making an aptamer that will have this attached to it. +That will know how to find Staph when it's in your body, and will alert your immune system to go after it. +Here's what happened. See that line on the very top with the little dots? +That's a bunch of mice that had been poisoned by our scientist friends down in Texas, at Brooks Air Base, with anthrax. +And they had also been treated with a drug that we made that would attack anthrax in particular, and direct your immune system to it. +You'll notice they all lived, the ones on the top line -- that's a 100 percent survival rate. +And they actually lived another 14 days, or 28 when we finally killed them, and took them apart and figured out what went wrong. +Why did they not die? +And they didn't die because they didn't have anthrax anymore. +So we did it. Okay? +Mission accomplished! +Because of what I'm about to say, I really should establish my green credentials. +When I was a small boy, I took my pledge as an American, to save and faithfully defend from waste the natural resources of my country, its air, soil and minerals, its forests, waters and wildlife. +And I've stuck to that. +Stanford, I majored in ecology and evolution. +1968, I put out the Whole Earth Catalog. Was "mister natural" for a while. +And then worked for the Jerry Brown administration. +The Brown administration, and a bunch of my friends, basically leveled the energy efficiency of California, so it's the same now, 30 years later, even though our economy has gone up 80 percent, per capita. +And we are putting out less greenhouse gasses than any other state. +California is basically the equivalent of Europe, in this. +This year, Whole Earth Catalog has a supplement that I'll preview today, called Whole Earth Discipline. +The dominant demographic event of our time is this screamingly rapid urbanization that we have going on. +By mid-century we'll be about 80 percent urban, and that's mostly in the developing world, where that's happening. +It's interesting, because history is driven to a large degree by the size of cities. +The developing world now has all of the biggest cities, and they are developing three times faster than the developed countries, and nine times bigger. +It's qualitatively different. +They are the drivers of history, as we see by looking at history. +1,000 years ago this is what the world looked like. +Well we now have a distribution of urban power similar to what we had 1,000 years ago. +In other words, the rise of the West, dramatic as it was, is over. +The aggregate numbers are absolutely overwhelming: 1.3 million people a week coming to town, decade after decade. +What's really going on? +Well, what's going on is the villages of the world are emptying out. +Subsistence farming is drying up basically. +People are following opportunity into town. +And this is why. +I used to have a very romantic idea about villages, and it's because I never lived in one. +Because in town -- this is the bustling squatter city of Kibera, near Nairobi -- they see action. They see opportunity. +They see a cash economy that they were not able to participate in back in the subsistence farm. +As you go around these places there's plenty of aesthetics. +There is plenty going on. +They are poor, but they are intensely urban. And they are intensely creative. +The aggregate numbers now are that basically squatters, all one billion of them, are building the urban world, which means they're building the world -- personally, one by one, family by family, clan by clan, neighborhood by neighborhood. +They start flimsy and they get substantial as time goes by. +They even build their own infrastructure. +Well, steal their own infrastructure, at first. +Cable TV, water, the whole gamut, all gets stolen. +And then gradually gentrifies. +It is not the case that slums undermine prosperity, not the working slums; they help create prosperity. +So in a town like Mumbai, which is half slums, it's 1/6th of the GDP of India. +Social capital in the slums is at its most urban and dense. +These people are valuable as a group. +And that's how they work. +There is a lot of people who think about all these poor people, "Oh there's terrible things. We've got to fix their housing." +It used to be, "Oh we've got to get them phone service." +Now they're showing us how they do their phone service. +Famine mostly is a rural event now. +There are things they care about. +And this is where we can help. +And the nations they're in can help. +And they are helping each other solve these issues. +And you go to a nice dense place like this slum in Mumbai. +You look at that lane on the right. +And you can ask, "Okay what's going on there?" +The answer is, "Everything." +This is better than a mall. It's much denser. +It's much more interactive. +And the scale is terrific. +The main event is, these are not people crushed by poverty. +These are people busy getting out of poverty just as fast as they can. +They're helping each other do it. +They're doing it through an outlaw thing, the informal economy. +The informal economy, it's sort of like dark energy in astrophysics: it's not supposed to be there, but it's huge. +We don't understand how it works yet, but we have to. +Furthermore, people in the informal economy, the gray economy -- as time goes by, crime is happening around them. And they can join the criminal world, or they can join the legitimate world. +We should be able to make that choice easier for them to get toward the legitimate world, because if we don't, they will go toward the criminal world. +There's all kinds of activity. +In Dharavi the slum performs not only a lot of services for itself, but it performs services for the city at large. +And one of the main events are these ad-hoc schools. +Parents pool their money to hire some local teachers to a private, tiny, unofficial school. +Education is more possible in the cities, and that changes the world. +So you see some interesting, typical, urban things. +So one thing slammed up against another, such as in Sao Paulo here. +That's what cities do. That's how they create value, is by slamming things together. +In this case, supply right next to demand. +So the maids and the gardeners and the guards that live in this lively part of town on the left walk to work, in the boring, rich neighborhood. +Proximity is amazing. +We are learning about how dense proximity can be. +Connectivity between the city and the country is what's going to keep the country good, because the city has interesting ways of doing things. +This is what makes cities -- this is what makes cities so green in the developing world. +Because people leave the poverty trap, an ecological disaster of subsistence farms, and head to town. +And when they're gone the natural environment starts to come back very rapidly. +And those who remain in the village can shift over to cash crops to send food to the new growing markets in town. +So if you want to save a village, you do it with a good road, or with a good cell phone connection, and ideally some grid electrical power. +So the event is: we're a city planet. That just happened. +More than half. +The numbers are considerable. A billion live in the squatter cities now. +Another billion is expected. +That's more than a sixth of humanity living a certain way. +And that will determine a lot of how we function. +Now, for us environmentalists, maybe the greenest thing about the cities is they diffuse the population bomb. +People get into town. +The immediately have fewer children. +They don't even have to get rich yet. Just the opportunity of coming up in the world means they will have fewer, higher-quality kids, and the birthrate goes down radically. +Very interesting side effect here, here's a slide from Phillip Longman. +Shows what is happening. +As we have more and more old people, like me, and fewer and fewer babies. +And they are regionally separated. +What you're getting is a world which is old folks, and old cities, going around doing things the old way, in the north. +And young people in brand new cities they're inventing, doing new things, in the south. +Where do you think the action is going to be? +Shift of subject. Quickly drop by climate. +The climate news, I'm sorry to say, is going to keep getting worse than we think, faster than we think. +Climate is a profoundly complex, nonlinear system, full of runaway positive feedbacks, hidden thresholds and irrevocable tipping points. +Here's just a few samples. +We're going to keep being surprised. And almost all the surprises are going to be bad ones. +From your standpoint this means a great increase in climate refugees over the coming decades, and what goes along with that, which is resource wars and chaos wars, as we're seeing in Darfur. +That's what drought does. +It brings carrying capacity down, and there's not enough carrying capacity to support the people. And then you're in trouble. +Shift to the power situation. +Baseload electricity is what it takes to run a city, or a city planet. +So far there is only three sources of baseload electricity: coal, some gas, nuclear and hydro. +Of those, only nuclear and hydro are green. +Coal is what is causing the climate problems. +And everyone will keep burning it because it's so cheap, until governments make it expensive. +Wind and solar can't help, because so far we don't have a way to store that energy. +So with hydro maxed out, coal and lose the climate, or nuclear, which is the current operating low-carbon source, and maybe save the climate. +And if we can eventually get good solar in space, that also could help. +Because remember, this is what drives the prosperity in the developing world in the villages and in the cities. +So, between coal and nuclear, compare their waste products. +If all of the electricity you used in your lifetime was nuclear, the amount of waste that would be added up would fit in a Coke can. +Whereas a coal-burning plant, a normal one gigawatt coal plant, burns 80 rail cars of coal a day, each car having 100 tons. +And it puts 18 thousand tons of carbon dioxide in the air. +So and then when you compare the lifetime emissions of these various energy forms, nuclear is about even with solar and wind, and ahead of solar -- oh, I'm sorry -- with hydro and wind, and ahead of solar. +And does nuclear really compete with coal? +Just ask the coal miners in Australia. +That's where you see some of the source, not from my fellow environmentalists, but from people who feel threatened by nuclear power. +Well the good news is that the developing world, but frankly, the whole world, is busy building, and starting to build, nuclear reactors. +This is good for the atmosphere. +It's good for their prosperity. +I want to point out one interesting thing, which is that environmentalists like the thing we call micropower. +It's supposed to be, I don't know, local solar and wind and cogeneration, and good things like that. +But frankly micro-reactors which are just now coming on, might serve even better. +The Russians, who started this, are building floating reactors, for their new passage, where the ice is melting, north of Russia. +And they're selling these floating reactors, only 35 megawatts, to developing countries. +Here's the design of an early one from Toshiba. +It's interesting, say, to take a 25-megawatt, 25 million watts, and you compare it to the standard big iron of an ordinary Westinghouse or Ariva, which is 1.2, 1.6 billion watts. +These things are way smaller. They're much more adaptable. +Here's an American design from Lawrence Livermore Lab. +Here's another American design that came out of Los Alamos, and is now commercial. +Almost all of these are not only small, they are proliferation-proof. +They're typically buried in the ground. +And the innovation is moving very rapidly. +So I think microreactors is going to be important for the future. +In terms of proliferation, nuclear energy has done more to dismantle nuclear weapons than any other activity. +And that's why 10 percent of the electricity in this room, 20 percent of electricity in this room is probably nuclear. +Half of that is coming from dismantled warheads from Russia, soon to be joined by our dismantled warheads. +And so I would like to see the GNEP program, that was developed in the Bush administration, go forward aggressively. +And I was glad to see that president Obama supported the nuclear fuel bank strategy when he spoke in Prague the other week. +One more subject. Genetically engineered food crops, in my view, as a biologist, have no reason to be controversial. +My fellow environmentalists, on this subject, have been irrational, anti-scientific, and very harmful. +Despite their best efforts, genetically engineered crops are the most rapidly successful agricultural innovation in history. +They're good for the environment because they enable no-till farming, which leaves the soil in place, getting healthier from year to year -- slso keeps less carbon dioxide going from the soil into the atmosphere. +They reduce pesticide use. +And they increase yield, which allows you to have your agricultural area be smaller, and therefore more wild area is freed up. +By the way, this map from 2006 is out of date because it shows Africa still under the thumb of Greenpeace, and Friends of the Earth from Europe, and they're finally getting out from under that. +And biotech is moving rapidly in Africa, at last. +This is a moral issue. +The Nuffield Council on Bioethics met on this issue twice in great detail and said it is a moral imperative to make genetically engineered crops readily available. +Speaking of imperatives, geoengineering is taboo now, especially in government circles, though I think there was a DARPA meeting on it a couple of weeks ago, but it will be on your plate -- not this year but pretty soon, because some harsh realizations are coming along. +This is a list of them. +Basically the news is going to keep getting more scary. +There will be events, like 35,000 people dying of a heat wave, which happened a while back. +Like cyclones coming up toward Bangladesh. +Like wars over water, such as in the Indus. +And as those events keep happening we're going to say, "Okay, what can we do about that really?" +But there's this little problem with geoengineering: what body is going to decide who gets to engineer? How much they do? Where they do it? +Because everybody is downstream, downwind of whatever is done. +And if we just taboo it completely we could lose civilization. +But if we just say "OK, China, you're worried, you go ahead. +You geoengineer your way. We'll geoengineer our way." +That would be considered an act of war by both nations. +So this is very interesting diplomacy coming along. +I should say, it is more practical than people think. +Here is an example that climatologists like a lot, one of the dozens of geoengineering ideas. +This one came from the sulfur dioxide from Mount Pinatubo in 1991 -- cooled the earth by half a degree. +There was so much ice in 1992, the following year, that there was a bumper crop of polar bear cubs who were known as the Pinatubo cubs. +To put sulfur dioxide in the stratosphere would cost on the order of a billion dollars a year. +That's nothing, compared to all of the other things we may be trying to do about energy. +Just to run by another one: this is a plan to brighten the reflectance of ocean clouds, by atomizing seawater; that would brighten the albedo of the whole planet. +A nice one, because it can happen lots of little ways in lots of little places, is by copying the ancient Amazon Indians who made good agricultural soil by pyrolizing, smoldering, plant waste, and biochar fixes large quantities of carbon while it's improving the soil. +So here is where we are. +Nobel Prize-winning climatologist Paul Crutzen calls our geological era the Anthropocene, the human-dominated era. We are stuck with its obligations. +In the Whole Earth Catalog, my first words were, "We are as Gods, and might as well get good at it." +The first words of Whole Earth Discipline are, "We are as Gods, and have to get good at it." +Thank you. +I have a studio in Berlin -- let me cue on here -- which is down there in this snow, just last weekend. +In the studio we do a lot of experiments. +I would consider the studio more like a laboratory. +I have occasional meetings with scientists. +And I have an academy, a part of the University of Fine Arts in Berlin. +We have an annual gathering of people, and that is called Life in Space. +Life in Space is really not necessarily about how we do things, but why we do things. +Do you mind looking, with me, at that little cross in the center there? +So just keep looking. Don't mind me. +So you will have a yellow circle, and we will do an after-image experiment. +When the circle goes away you will have another color, the complementary color. +I am saying something. And your eyes and your brain are saying something back. +This whole idea of sharing, the idea of constituting reality by overlapping what I say and what you say -- think of a movie. +Since two years now, with some stipends from the science ministry in Berlin, I've been working on these films where we produce the film together. +I don't necessarily think the film is so interesting. +Obviously this is not interesting at all in the sense of the narrative. +But nevertheless, what the potential is -- and just keep looking there -- what the potential is, obviously, is to kind of move the border of who is the author, and who is the receiver. +Who is the consumer, if you want, and who has responsibility for what one sees? +I think there is a socializing dimension in, kind of, moving that border. +Who decides what reality is? +This is the Tate Modern in London. +The show was, in a sense, about that. +It was about a space in which I put half a semi-circular yellow disk. +I also put a mirror in the ceiling, and some fog, some haze. +And my idea was to make the space tangible. +With such a big space, the problem is obviously that there is a discrepancy between what your body can embrace, and what the space, in that sense, is. +So here I had the hope that by inserting some natural elements, if you want -- some fog -- I could make the space tangible. +And what happens is that people, they start to see themselves in this space. +So look at this. Look at the girl. +Of course they have to look through a bloody camera in a museum. Right? That's how museums are working today. +But look at her face there, as she's checking out, looking at herself in the mirror. +"Oh! That was my foot there!" +She wasn't really sure whether she was seeing herself or not. +And in that whole idea, how do we configure the relationship between our body and the space? +How do we reconfigure it? +How do we know that being in a space makes a difference? +Do you see when I said in the beginning, it's about why, rather than how? +The why meant really, "What consequences does it have when I take a step?" +"What does it matter?" +"Does it matter if I am in the world or not?" +"And does it matter whether the kind of actions I take filter into a sense of responsibility?" +Is art about that? +I would say yes. It is obviously about not just about decorating the world, and making it look even better, or even worse, if you ask me. +It's obviously also about taking responsibility, like I did here when throwing some green dye in the river in L.A., Stockholm, Norway and Tokyo, among other places. +The green dye is not environmentally dangerous, but it obviously looks really rather frightening. +And it's on the other side also, I think, quite beautiful, as it somehow shows the turbulence in these kind of downtown areas, in these different places of the world. +The "Green river," as a kind of activist idea, not a part of an exhibition, it was really about showing people, in this city, as they walk by, that space has dimensions. A space has time. +And the water flows through the city with time. +The water has an ability to make the city negotiable, tangible. +Negotiable meaning that it makes a difference whether you do something or not. +It makes a difference whether you say, "I'm a part of this city. +And if I vote it makes a difference. +If I take a stand, it makes a difference." +This whole idea of a city not being a picture is, I think, something that art, in a sense, always was working with. +The idea that art can actually evaluate the relationship between what it means to be in a picture, and what it means to be in a space. What is the difference? +The difference between thinking and doing. +So these are different experiments with that. I won't go into them. +Iceland, lower right corner, my favorite place. +These kinds of experiments, they filter into architectural models. +These are ongoing experiments. +One is an experiment I did for BMW, an attempt to make a car. +It's made out of ice. +A crystalline stackable principle in the center on the top, which I am trying to turn into a concert hall in Iceland. +A sort of a run track, or a walk track, on the top of a museum in Denmark, which is made of colored glass, going all around. +So the movement with your legs will change the color of your horizon. +And two summers ago at the Hyde Park in London, with the Serpentine Gallery: a kind of a temporal pavilion where moving was the only way you could see the pavilion. +This summer, in New York: there is one thing about falling water which is very much about the time it takes for water to fall. +It's quite simple and fundamental. +I've walked a lot in the mountains in Iceland. +And as you come to a new valley, as you come to a new landscape, you have a certain view. +If you stand still, the landscape doesn't necessarily tell you how big it is. +It doesn't really tell you what you're looking at. +The moment you start to move, the mountain starts to move. +The big mountains far away, they move less. +The small mountains in the foreground, they move more. +And if you stop again, you wonder, "Is that a one-hour valley? +Or is that a three-hour hike, or is that a whole day I'm looking at?" +If you have a waterfall in there, right out there at the horizon; you look at the waterfall and you go, "Oh, the water is falling really slowly." +And you go, "My god it's really far away and it's a giant waterfall." +If a waterfall is falling faster, it's a smaller waterfall which is closer by -- because the speed of falling water is pretty constant everywhere. +And your body somehow knows that. +So this means a waterfall is a way of measuring space. +Of course being an iconic city like New York, that has had an interest in somehow playing around with the sense of space, you could say that New York wants to seem as big as possible. +Adding a measurement to that is interesting: the falling water suddenly gives you a sense of, "Oh, Brooklyn is exactly this much -- the distance between Brooklyn and Manhattan, in this case the lower East River is this big." +So it was not just necessarily about putting nature into the cities. +It was also about giving the city a sense of dimension. +And why would we want to do that? +Because I think it makes a difference whether you have a body that feels a part of a space, rather than having a body which is just in front of a picture. +And "Ha-ha, there is a picture and here is I. And what does it matter?" +Is there a sense of consequences? +So if I have a sense of the space, if I feel that the space is tangible, if I feel there is time, if there is a dimension I could call time, I also feel that I can change the space. +And suddenly it makes a difference in terms of making space accessible. +One could say this is about community, collectivity. +It's about being together. +How do we create public space? +What does the word "public" mean today anyway? +So, asked in that way, I think it raises great things about parliamentary ideas, democracy, public space, being together, being individual. +How do we create an idea which is both tolerant to individuality, and also to collectivity, without polarizing the two into two different opposites? +Of course the political agendas in the world has been very obsessed, polarizing the two against each other into different, very normative ideas. +I would claim that art and culture, and this is why art and culture are so incredibly interesting in the times we're living in now, have proven that one can create a kind of a space which is both sensitive to individuality and to collectivity. +It's very much about this causality, consequences. +It's very much about the way we link thinking and doing. +So what is between thinking and doing? +And right in-between thinking and doing, I would say, there is experience. +And experience is not just a kind of entertainment in a non-casual way. +Experience is about responsibility. +Having an experience is taking part in the world. +Taking part in the world is really about sharing responsibility. +So art, in that sense, I think holds an incredible relevance in the world in which we're moving into, particularly right now. +That's all I have. Thank you very much. +So I am a pediatric cancer doctor and stem-cell researcher at Stanford University where my clinical focus has been bone marrow transplantation. +Now, inspired by Jill Bolte Taylor last year, I didn't bring a human brain, but I did bring a liter of bone marrow. +And bone marrow is actually what we use to save the lives of tens of thousands of patients, most of whom have advanced malignancies like leukemia and lymphoma and some other diseases. +So, a few years ago, I'm doing my transplant fellowship at Stanford. +I'm in the operating room. We have Bob here, who is a volunteer donor. +We're sending his marrow across the country to save the life of a child with leukemia. +So actually how do we harvest this bone marrow? +Well we have a whole O.R. team, general anesthesia, nurses, and another doctor across from me. +Bob's on the table, and we take this sort of small needle, you know, not too big. +And the way we do this is we basically place this through the soft tissue, and kind of punch it into the hard bone, into the tuchus -- that's a technical term -- and aspirate about 10 mls of bone marrow out, each time, with a syringe. +And hand it off to the nurse. She squirts it into a tin. +Hands it back to me. And we do that again and again. +About 200 times usually. +And by the end of this my arm is sore, I've got a callus on my hand, let alone Bob, whose rear end looks something more like this, like Swiss cheese. +So I'm thinking, you know, this procedure hasn't changed in about 40 years. +And there is probably a better way to do this. +So I thought of a minimally invasive approach, and a new device that we call the Marrow Miner. +This is it. +And the Marrow Miner, the way it works is shown here. +Our standard see-through patient. +Instead of entering the bone dozens of times, we enter just once, into the front of the hip or the back of the hip. +And we have a flexible, powered catheter with a special wire loop tip that stays inside the crunchy part of the marrow and follows the contours of the hip, as it moves around. +So it enables you to very rapidly aspirate, or suck out, rich bone marrow very quickly through one hole. +We can do multiple passes through that same entry. +No robots required. +And, so, very quickly, Bob can just get one puncture, local anesthesia, and do this harvest as an outpatient. +So I did a few prototypes. I got a small little grant at Stanford. +And played around with this a little bit. +And our team members developed this technology. +And eventually we got two large animals, and pig studies. +And we found, to our surprise, that we not only got bone marrow out, but we got 10 times the stem cell activity in the marrow from the Marrow Miner, compared to the normal device. +This device was just FDA approved in the last year. +Here is a live patient. You can see it following the flexible curves around. +There will be two passes here, in the same patient, from the same hole. +This was done under local anesthesia, as an outpatient. +And we got, again, about three to six times more stem cells than the standard approach done on the same patient. +So why should you care? Bone marrow is a very rich source of adult stem cells. +You all know about embryonic stem cells. +They've got great potential but haven't yet entered clinical trials. +Adult stem cells are throughout our body, including the blood-forming stem cells in our bone marrow, which we've been using as a form of stem-cell therapy for over 40 years. +In the last decade there's been an explosion of use of bone marrow stem cells to treat the patient's other diseases such as heart disease, vascular disease, orthopedics, tissue engineering, even in neurology to treat Parkinson's and diabetes. +We've just come out, we're commercializing, this year, generation 2.0 of the Marrow Miner. +The hope is that this gets more stem cells out, which translates to better outcomes. +It may encourage more people to sign up to be potential live-saving bone marrow donors. +It may even enable you to bank your own marrow stem cells, when you're younger and healthier, to use in the future should you need it. +And ultimately -- and here's a picture of our bone marrow transplant survivors, who come together for a reunion each year at Stanford. +Hopefully this technology will let us have more of these survivors in the future. +Thanks. +I'm a neuroscientist, a professor at the University of California. +And over the past 35 years, I've studied behavior on the basis of everything from genes through neurotransmitters, dopamine, things like that, all the way through circuit analysis. +So that's what I normally do. +But then, for some reason, I got into something else, just recently. +And it all grew out of one of my colleagues asking me to analyze a bunch of brains of psychopathic killers. +And so this would be the typical talk I would give. +And the question is, "How do you end up with a psychopathic killer?" +What I mean by psychopathic killer are these people, these types of people. +And so some of the brains that I've studied are people you know about. +When I get the brains I don't know what I'm looking at. +It's blind experiments. They also gave me normal people and everything. +So I've looked at about 70 of these. +And what came up was a number of pieces of data. +So we look at these sorts of things theoretically, on the basis of genetics, and brain damage, and interaction with environment, and exactly how that machine works. +So we're interested in exactly where in the brain, and what's the most important part of the brain. +So we've been looking at this: the interaction of genes, what's called epigenetic effects, brain damage, and environment, and how these are tied together. +And how you end up with a psychopath, and a killer, depends on exactly when the damage occurs. +It's really a very precisely timed thing. +You get different kinds of psychopaths. +So we're going along with this. And here's, just to give you the pattern. +The pattern is that those people, every one of them I looked at, who was a murderer, and was a serial killer, had damage to their orbital cortex, which is right above the eyes, the orbits, and also the interior part of the temporal lobe. +So there is the pattern that every one of them had, but they all were a little different too. +They had other sorts of brain damage. +A key thing is that the major violence genes, it's called the MAO-A gene. +And there is a variant of this gene that is in the normal population. +Some of you have this. And it's sex-linked. +It's on the X chromosome. And so in this way you can only get it from your mother. +And in fact this is probably why mostly men, boys, are psychopathic killers, or are very aggressive. +Because a daughter can get one X from the father, one X from the mother, it's kind of diluted out. +But for a son, he can only get the X chromosome from his mother. +So this is how it's passed from mother to son. +And it has to do with too much brain serotonin during development, which is kind of interesting because serotonin is supposed to make you calm and relaxed. +But if you have this gene, in utero your brain is bathed in this, so your whole brain becomes insensitive to serotonin, so it doesn't work later on in life. +And I'd given this one talk in Israel, just this past year. +And it does have some consequences. +Theoretically what this means is that in order to express this gene, in a violent way, very early on, before puberty, you have to be involved in something that is really traumatic -- not a little stress, not being spanked or something, but really seeing violence, or being involved in it, in 3D. +Right? That's how the mirror neuron system works. +And so, if you have that gene, and you see a lot of violence in a certain situation, this is the recipe for disaster, absolute disaster. +And what I think might happen in these areas of the world, where we have constant violence, you end up having generations of kids that are seeing all this violence. +And if I was a young girl, somewhere in a violent area, you know, a 14 year old, and I want to find a mate, I'd find some tough guy, right, to protect me. +Well what the problem is this tends to concentrate these genes. +And now the boys and the girls get them. +So I think after several generations, and here is the idea, we really have a tinderbox. +So that was the idea. +But then my mother said to me, "I hear you've been going around talking about psychopathic killers. +And you're talking as if you come from a normal family." +I said, "What the hell are you talking about?" +She then told me about our own family tree. +Now she blamed this on my father's side, of course. +This was one of these cases, because she has no violence in her background, but my father did. +Well she said, "There is good news and bad news. +One of your cousins is Ezra Cornell, founder of Cornell university. +But the bad news is that your cousin is also Lizzie Borden. +Now I said, "Okay, so what? We have Lizzie." +She goes, "No it gets worse, read this book." +And here is this "Killed Strangely," and it's this historical book. +And the first murder of a mother by a son was my great-great-great-great-great-great-grandfather. +Okay, so that's the first case of matricide. +And that book is very interesting. Because it's about witch trials, and how people thought back then. +But it doesn't stop there. +There were seven more men, on my father's side, starting then, Cornells, that were all murderers. +Okay, now this gives one a little pause. +Because my father himself, and my three uncles, in World War II, were all conscientious objectors, all pussycats. +But every once in a while, like Lizzie Borden, like three times a century, and we're kind of due. +So the moral of the story is: people in glass houses shouldn't throw stones. +But more likely is this. +And we had to take action. Now our kids found out about it. +And they all seemed to be OK. +But our grandkids are going to be kind of concerned here. +So what we've done is I've started to do PET scans of everybody in the family. +We started to do PET scans, EEGs and genetic analysis to see where the bad news is. +Now the only person -- it turns out one son and one daughter, siblings, didn't get along and their patterns are exactly the same. +They have the same brain, and the same EEG. +And now they are close as can be. +But there's gonna be bad news somewhere. +And we don't know where it's going to pop up. +So that's my talk. +Interestingly, Charles Darwin was born a very lightly pigmented man, in a moderately-to-darkly pigmented world. +Over the course of his life, Darwin had great privilege. +He lived in a fairly wealthy home. +He was raised by very supportive and interested parents. +And when he was in his 20s he embarked upon a remarkable voyage on the ship the Beagle. +And during the course of that voyage, he saw remarkable things: tremendous diversity of plants and animals, and humans. +And the observations that he made on that epic journey were to be eventually distilled into his wonderful book, "On the Origin of Species," published 150 years ago. +Now what is so interesting and to some, the extent, what's a bit infamous about "The Origin of Species," is that there is only one line in it about human evolution. +"Light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history." +It wasn't until much longer, much later, that Darwin actually spoke and wrote about humans. +Now in his years of traveling on the Beagle, and from listening to the accounts or explorers and naturalists, he knew that skin color was one of the most important ways in which people varied. +And he was somewhat interested in the pattern of skin color. +He knew that darkly pigmented peoples were found close to the equator; lightly pigmented peoples, like himself, were found closer to the poles. +So what did he make of all this? +Well he didn't write anything about it in The Origin of Species. +But much later, in 1871, he did have something to say about it. +And it was quite curious. He said, "Of all the differences between the races of men, the color of the skin is the most conspicuous and one of the best marked." +And he went on to say, "These differences do not coincide with corresponding differences in climate." +So he had traveled all around. +He had seen people of different colors living in different places. +And yet he rejected the idea that human skin pigmentation was related to the climate. +If only Darwin lived today. +If only Darwin had NASA. +Now, one of the wonderful things that NASA does is it puts up a variety of satellites that detect all sort of interesting things about our environment. +And for many decades now there have been a series of TOMS satellites that have collected data about the radiation of the Earth's surface. +The TOMS 7 satellite data, shown here, show the annual average ultraviolet radiation at the Earth's surface. +Now the really hot pink and red areas are those parts of the world that receive the highest amounts of UV during the year. +The incrementally cooler colors -- blues, greens, yellows, and finally grays -- indicate areas of much lower ultraviolet radiation. +What's significant to the story of human skin pigmentation is just how much of the Northern Hemisphere is in these cool gray zones. +This has tremendous implications for our understanding of the evolution of human skin pigmentation. +And what Darwin could not appreciate, or didn't perhaps want to appreciate at the time, is that there was a fundamental relationship between the intensity of ultraviolet radiation and skin pigmentation. +And that skin pigmentation itself was a product of evolution. +And so when we look at a map of skin color, and predicted skin color, as we know it today, what we see is a beautiful gradient from the darkest skin pigmentations toward the equator, and the lightest ones toward the poles. +What's very, very important here is that the earliest humans evolved in high-UV environments, in equatorial Africa. +The earliest members of our lineage, the genus Homo, were darkly pigmented. +And we all share this incredible heritage of having originally been darkly pigmented, two million to one and half million years ago. +Now what happened in our history? +Let's first look at the relationship of ultraviolet radiation to the Earth's surface. +In those early days of our evolution, looking at the equator, we were bombarded by high levels of ultraviolet radiation. +The UVC, the most energetic type, was occluded by the Earth's atmosphere. +But UVB and UVA especially, came in unimpeded. +UVB turns out to be incredibly important. +It's very destructive, but it also catalyzes the production of vitamin D in the skin, vitamin D being a molecule that we very much need for our strong bones, the health of our immune system, and myriad other important functions in our bodies. +So, living at the equator, we got lots and lots of ultraviolet radiation and the melanin -- this wonderful, complex, ancient polymer compound in our skin -- served as a superb natural sunscreen. +This polymer is amazing because it's present in so many different organisms. +Melanin, in various forms, has probably been on the Earth a billion years, and has been recruited over and over again by evolution, as often happens. +Why change it if it works? +So melanin was recruited, in our lineage, and specifically in our earliest ancestors evolving in Africa, to be a natural sunscreen. +Where it protected the body against the degradations of ultraviolet radiation, the destruction, or damage to DNA, and the breakdown of a very important molecule called folate, which helps to fuel cell production, and reproduction in the body. +So, it's wonderful. We evolved this very protective, wonderful covering of melanin. +But then we moved. +And humans dispersed -- not once, but twice. +Major moves, outside of our equatorial homeland, from Africa into other parts of the Old World, and most recently, into the New World. +When humans dispersed into these latitudes, what did they face? +Conditions were significantly colder, but they were also less intense with respect to the ultraviolet regime. +So if we're somewhere in the Northern Hemisphere, look at what's happening to the ultraviolet radiation. +We're still getting a dose of UVA. +But all of the UVB, or nearly all of it, is dissipated through the thickness of the atmosphere. +In the winter, when you are skiing in the Alps, you may experience ultraviolet radiation. +But it's all UVA, and, significantly, that UVA has no ability to make vitamin D in your skin. +So people inhabiting northern hemispheric environments were bereft of the potential to make vitamin D in their skin for most of the year. +This had tremendous consequences for the evolution of human skin pigmentation. +Because what happened, in order to ensure health and well-being, these lineages of people dispersing into the Northern Hemisphere lost their pigmentation. +There was natural selection for the evolution of lightly pigmented skin. +Here we begin to see the evolution of the beautiful sepia rainbow that now characterizes all of humanity. +Lightly pigmented skin evolved not just once, not just twice, but probably three times. +Not just in modern humans, but in one of our distant unrelated ancestors, the Neanderthals. +A remarkable, remarkable testament to the power of evolution. +Humans have been on the move for a long time. +And just in the last 5,000 years, in increasing rates, over increasing distances. +Here are just some of the biggest movements of people, voluntary movements, in the last 5,000 years. +Look at some of the major latitudinal transgressions: people from high UV areas going to low UV and vice versa. +And not all these moves were voluntary. +Between 1520 and 1867, 12 million, 500 people were moved from high UV to low UV areas in the transatlantic slave trade. +Now this had all sorts of invidious social consequences. +But it also had deleterious health consequences to people. +So what? We've been on the move. +We're so clever we can overcome all of these seeming biological impediments. +Well, often we're unaware of the fact that we're living in environments in which our skin is inherently poorly adapted. +Some of us with lightly pigmented skin live in high-UV areas. +Some of us with darkly pigmented skin live in low-UV areas. +These have tremendous consequences for our health. +We have to, if we're lightly pigmented, be careful about the problems of skin cancer, and destruction of folate in our bodies, by lots of sun. +Epidemiologists and doctors have been very good about telling us about protecting our skin. +What they haven't been so good about instructing people is the problem of darkly pigmented people living in high latitude areas, or working inside all the time. +Because the problem there is just as severe, but it is more sinister, because vitamin D deficiency, from a lack of ultraviolet B radiation, is a major problem. +Vitamin D deficiency creeps up on people, and causes all sorts of health problems to their bones, to their gradual decay of their immune systems, or loss of immune function, and probably some problems with their mood and health, their mental health. +So we have, in skin pigmentation, one of these wonderful products of evolution that still has consequences for us today. +And the social consequences, as we know, are incredibly profound. +We live in a world where we have lightly and darkly pigmented people living next to one another, but often brought into proximity initially as a result of very invidious social interactions. +So how can we overcome this? +How can we begin to understand it? +Evolution helps us. +200 years after Darwin's birthday, we have the first moderately pigmented President of the United States. +How wonderful is that? +This man is significant for a whole host of reasons. +But we need to think about how he compares, in terms of his pigmentation, to other people on Earth. +He, as one of many urban admixed populations, is very emblematic of a mixed parentage, of a mixed pigmentation. +And he resembles, very closely, people with moderate levels of pigmentation who live in southern Africa, or Southeast Asia. +These people have a tremendous potential to tan, to develop more pigment in their skin, as a result of exposure to sun. +They also run the risk of vitamin D deficiency, if they have desk jobs, like that guy. +So lets all wish for his great health, and his awareness of his own skin pigmentation. +Now what is wonderful about the evolution of human skin pigmentation, and the phenomenon of pigmentation, is that it is the demonstration, the evidence, of evolution by natural selection, right on your body. +When people ask you, "What is the evidence for evolution?" +You don't have to think about some exotic examples, or fossils. +You just have to look at your skin. +Darwin, I think, would have appreciated this, even though he eschewed the importance of climate on the evolution of pigmentation during his own life. +I think, were he able to look at the evidence we have today, he would understand it. +He would appreciate it. +And most of all, he would teach it. +You, you can teach it. +You can touch it. +You can understand it. +Take it out of this room. +Take your skin color, and celebrate it. +Spread the word. +You have the evolution of the history of our species, part of it, written in your skin. +Understand it. Appreciate it. Celebrate it. +Go out. Isn't it beautiful? Isn't it wonderful? +You are the products of evolution. +Thank you. +Can I say how delighted I am to be away from the calm of Westminster and Whitehall? This is Kim, a nine-year-old Vietnam girl, her back ruined by napalm, and she awakened the conscience of the nation of America to begin to end the Vietnam War. +This is Birhan, who was the Ethiopian girl who launched Live Aid in the 1980s, 15 minutes away from death when she was rescued, and that picture of her being rescued is one that went round the world. +This is Tiananmen Square. +A man before a tank became a picture that became a symbol for the whole world of resistance. +This next is the Sudanese girl, a few moments from death, a vulture hovering in the background, a picture that went round the world and shocked people into action on poverty. +This is Neda, the Iranian girl who was shot while at a demonstration with her father in Iran only a few weeks ago, and she is now the focus, rightly so, of the YouTube generation. +And what do all these pictures and events have in common? +What they have in common is what we see unlocks what we cannot see. +What we see unlocks the invisible ties and bonds of sympathy that bring us together to become a human community. +What these pictures demonstrate is that we do feel the pain of others, however distantly. +What I think these pictures demonstrate is that we do believe in something bigger than ourselves. +There is a story about Olof Palme, the Swedish Prime Minister, going to see Ronald Reagan in America in the 1980s. +Before he arrived Ronald Reagan said -- and he was the Swedish Social Democratic Prime Minister -- "Isnt this man a communist?" +The reply was, "No, Mr President, hes an anti-communist." +And Ronald Reagan said, "I dont care what kind of communist he is!" +Ronald Reagan asked Olof Palme, the Social Democratic Prime Minister of Sweden, "Well, what do you believe in? Do you want to abolish the rich?" +He said, "No, I want to abolish the poor." +Our responsibility is to let everyone have the chance to realize their potential to the full. +I believe there is a moral sense and a global ethic that commands attention from people of every religion and every faith, and people of no faith. +But I think what's new is that we now have the capacity to communicate instantaneously across frontiers right across the world. +Go back 200 years when the slave trade was under pressure from William Wilberforce and all the protesters. +They protested across Britain. +They won public opinion over a long period of time. +But it took 24 years for the campaign to be successful. +What could they have done with the pictures that they could have shown if they were able to use the modern means of communication to win peoples hearts and minds? +Or if you take Eglantyne Jebb, the woman who created Save the Children 90 years ago. +But what more could she have done if shed had the modern means of communications available to her to create a sense that the injustice that people saw had to be acted upon immediately? +Now look at whats happened in the last 10 years. +In Philippines in 2001, President Estrada -- a million people texted each other about the corruption of that regime, eventually brought it down and it was, of course, called the "coup de text." Then you have in Zimbabwe the first election under Robert Mugabe a year ago. +Because people were able to take mobile phone photographs of what was happening at the polling stations, it was impossible for that Premier to fix that election in the way that he wanted to do. +Then take Iran itself, and what people are doing today: following what happened to Neda, people who are preventing the security services of Iran finding those people who are blogging out of Iran, any by everybody who is blogging, changing their address to Tehran, Iran, and making it difficult for the security services. +Take, therefore, what modern technology is capable of: the power of our moral sense allied to the power of communications and our ability to organize internationally. +That, in my view, gives us the first opportunity as a community to fundamentally change the world. +Foreign policy can never be the same again. It cannot be run by elites; its got to be run by listening to the public opinions of peoples who are blogging, who are communicating with each other around the world. +200 years ago the problem we had to solve was slavery. +150 years ago I suppose the main problem in a country like ours was how young people, children, had the right to education. +100 years ago in most countries in Europe, the pressure was for the right to vote. +50 years ago the pressure was for the right to social security and welfare. +In the last 50-60 years we have seen fascism, anti-Semitism, racism, apartheid, discrimination on the basis of sex and gender and sexuality; all these have come under pressure because of the campaigns that have been run by people to change the world. +I was with Nelson Mandela a year ago, when he was in London. +I was at a concert that he was attending to mark his birthday and for the creation of new resources for his foundation. +I was sitting next to Nelson Mandela -- I was very privileged to do so -- when Amy Winehouse came onto the stage. And Nelson Mandela was quite surprised at the appearance of the singer and I was explaining to him at the time who she was. +Amy Winehouse said, "Nelson Mandela and I have a lot in common. +My husband too has spent a long time in prison." +Nelson Mandela then went down to the stage and he summarized the challenge for us all. +He said in his lifetime he had climbed a great mountain, the mountain of challenging and then defeating racial oppression and defeating apartheid. +He said that there was a greater challenge ahead, the challenge of poverty, of climate change -- global challenges that needed global solutions and needed the creation of a truly global society. +We are the first generation which is in a position to do this. +Combine the power of a global ethic with the power of our ability to communicate and organize globally, with the challenges that we now face, most of which are global in their nature. +Climate change cannot be solved in one country, but has got to be solved by the world working together. +A financial crisis, just as we have seen, could not be solved by America alone or Europe alone; it needed the world to work together. +Take the problems of security and terrorism and, equally, the problem of human rights and development: they cannot be solved by Africa alone; they cannot be solved by America or Europe alone. +We cannot solve these problems unless we work together. +So the great project of our generation, it seems to me, is to build for the first time, out of a global ethic and our global ability to communicate and organize together, a truly global society, built on that ethic but with institutions that can serve that global society and make for a different future. +We have now, and are the first generation with, the power to do this. +One of the things that has got to come out of Copenhagen in the next few months is an agreement that there will be a global environmental institution that is able to deal with the problems of persuading the whole of the world to move along a climate-change agenda. +One of the reasons why an institution is not in itself enough is that we have got to persuade people around the world to change their behavior as well, so you need that global ethic of fairness and responsibility across the generations. +Take the financial crisis. +If people in poorer countries can be hit by a crisis that starts in New York or starts in the sub-prime market of the United States of America. +If people can find that that sub-prime product has been transferred across nations many, many times until it ends up in banks in Iceland or the rest in Britain, and people's ordinary savings are affected by it, then you cannot rely on a system of national supervision. +You need in the long run for stability, for economic growth, for jobs, as well as for financial stability, global economic institutions that make sure that growth to be sustained has to be shared, and are built on the principle that the prosperity of this world is indivisible. +So another challenge for our generation is to create global institutions that reflect our ideas of fairness and responsibility, not the ideas that were the basis of the last stage of financial development over these recent years. +Then take development and take the partnership we need between our countries and the rest of the world, the poorest part of the world. +We do not have the basis of a proper partnership for the future, and yet, out of peoples desire for a global ethic and a global society that can be done. +I have just been talking to the President of Sierra Leone. +This is a country of six and a half million people, but it has only 80 doctors; it has 200 nurses; it has 120 midwives. +You cannot begin to build a healthcare system for six million people with such limited resources. +Or take the girl I met when I was in Tanzania, a girl called Miriam. +She was 11 years old; her parents had both died from AIDS, her mother and then her father. +She was an AIDS orphan being handed across different extended families to be cared for. +She herself was suffering from HIV; she was suffering from tuberculosis. +I met her in a field, she was ragged, she had no shoes. +We must then build a proper relationship between the richest and the poorest countries based on our desire that they are able to fend for themselves with the investment that is necessary in their agriculture, so that Africa is not a net importer of food, but an exporter of food. +Take the problems of human rights and the problems of security in so many countries around the world. +Burma is in chains, Zimbabwe is a human tragedy, in Sudan thousands of people have died unnecessarily for wars that we could prevent. +In the Rwanda Children's Museum, there is a photograph of a 10-year-old boy and the Children's Museum is commemorating the lives that were lost in the Rwandan genocide where a million people died. +There is a photograph of a boy called David. +Beside that photograph there is the information about his life. +It said "David, age 10." +David: ambition to be a doctor. +Favorite sport: football. What did he enjoy most? +Making people laugh. +How did he die? +Tortured to death. +Last words said to his mother who was also tortured to death: "Don't worry. The United Nations are coming." +And we never did. +And that young boy believed our promises that we would help people in difficulty in Rwanda, and we never did. +So we have got to create in this world also institutions for peacekeeping and humanitarian aid, but also for reconstruction and security for some of the conflict-ridden states of the world. +So my argument today is basically this. +We have the means by which we could create a truly global society. +The institutions of this global society can be created by our endeavors. +It is said that in Ancient Rome that when Cicero spoke to his audiences, people used to turn to each other and say about Cicero, "Great speech." +But it is said that in Ancient Greece when Demosthenes spoke to his audiences, people turned to each other and didnt say "Great speech." +They said, "Let's march." +We should be marching towards a global society. +Thank you. +For me they normally happen, these career crises, often, actually, on a Sunday evening, just as the sun is starting to set, and the gap between my hopes for myself and the reality of my life starts to diverge so painfully that I normally end up weeping into a pillow. +It's perhaps easier now than ever before to make a good living. +It's perhaps harder than ever before to stay calm, to be free of career anxiety. +I want to look now, if I may, at some of the reasons why we might be feeling anxiety about our careers. +Why we might be victims of these career crises, as we're weeping softly into our pillows. +One of the reasons why we might be suffering is that we are surrounded by snobs. +In a way, I've got some bad news, particularly to anybody who's come to Oxford from abroad. +There's a real problem with snobbery, because sometimes people from outside the U.K. +imagine that snobbery is a distinctively U.K. phenomenon, fixated on country houses and titles. +The bad news is that's not true. +Snobbery is a global phenomenon; we are a global organization, this is a global phenomenon. +What is a snob? +A snob is anybody who takes a small part of you, and uses that to come to a complete vision of who you are. +That is snobbery. +The dominant kind of snobbery that exists nowadays is job snobbery. +You encounter it within minutes at a party, when you get asked that famous iconic question of the early 21st century, "What do you do?" +According to how you answer that question, people are either incredibly delighted to see you, or look at their watch and make their excuses. +Now, the opposite of a snob is your mother. +Not necessarily your mother, or indeed mine, but, as it were, the ideal mother, somebody who doesn't care about your achievements. +Unfortunately, most people are not our mothers. +Most people make a strict correlation between how much time, and if you like, love -- not romantic love, though that may be something -- but love in general, respect -- they are willing to accord us, that will be strictly defined by our position in the social hierarchy. +And that's a lot of the reason why we care so much about our careers and indeed start caring so much about material goods. +You know, we're often told that we live in very materialistic times, that we're all greedy people. +I don't think we are particularly materialistic. +I think we live in a society which has simply pegged certain emotional rewards to the acquisition of material goods. +It's not the material goods we want; it's the rewards we want. +It's a new way of looking at luxury goods. +The next time you see somebody driving a Ferrari, don't think, "This is somebody who's greedy." +Think, "This is somebody who is incredibly vulnerable and in need of love." +Feel sympathy, rather than contempt. +There are other reasons -- There are other reasons why it's perhaps harder now to feel calm than ever before. +One of these, and it's paradoxical, because it's linked to something that's rather nice, is the hope we all have for our careers. +Never before have expectations been so high about what human beings can achieve with their lifespan. +We're told, from many sources, that anyone can achieve anything. +We've done away with the caste system, we are now in a system where anyone can rise to any position they please. +And it's a beautiful idea. +Along with that is a kind of spirit of equality; we're all basically equal. +There are no strictly defined hierarchies. +There is one really big problem with this, and that problem is envy. +Envy, it's a real taboo to mention envy, but if there's one dominant emotion in modern society, that is envy. +And it's linked to the spirit of equality. Let me explain. +I think it would be very unusual for anyone here, or anyone watching, to be envious of the Queen of England. +Even though she is much richer than any of you are, and she's got a very large house, the reason why we don't envy her is because she's too weird. +She's simply too strange. +We can't relate to her, she speaks in a funny way, she comes from an odd place. +So we can't relate to her, and when you can't relate to somebody, you don't envy them. +The closer two people are -- in age, in background, in the process of identification -- the more there's a danger of envy, which is incidentally why none of you should ever go to a school reunion, because there is no stronger reference point than people one was at school with. +The problem of modern society is it turns the whole world into a school. +Everybody's wearing jeans, everybody's the same. +And yet, they're not. +So there's a spirit of equality combined with deep inequality, which can make for a very stressful situation. +It's probably as unlikely that you would nowadays become as rich and famous as Bill Gates, as it was unlikely in the 17th century that you would accede to the ranks of the French aristocracy. +But the point is, it doesn't feel that way. +It's made to feel, by magazines and other media outlets, that if you've got energy, a few bright ideas about technology, a garage -- you, too, could start a major thing. +The consequences of this problem make themselves felt in bookshops. +When you go to a large bookshop and look at the self-help sections, as I sometimes do -- if you analyze self-help books produced in the world today, there are basically two kinds. +The first kind tells you, "You can do it! You can make it! Anything's possible!" +The other kind tells you how to cope with what we politely call "low self-esteem," or impolitely call, "feeling very bad about yourself." +There's a real correlation between a society that tells people that they can do anything, and the existence of low self-esteem. +So that's another way in which something quite positive can have a nasty kickback. +There is another reason why we might be feeling more anxious -- about our careers, about our status in the world today, than ever before. +And it's, again, linked to something nice. +And that nice thing is called meritocracy. +Everybody, all politicians on Left and Right, agree that meritocracy is a great thing, and we should all be trying to make our societies really, really meritocratic. +In other words -- what is a meritocratic society? +A meritocratic society is one in which, if you've got talent and energy and skill, you will get to the top, nothing should hold you back. +It's a beautiful idea. +The problem is, if you really believe in a society where those who merit to get to the top, get to the top, you'll also, by implication, and in a far more nasty way, believe in a society where those who deserve to get to the bottom also get to the bottom and stay there. +In other words, your position in life comes to seem not accidental, but merited and deserved. +And that makes failure seem much more crushing. +You know, in the Middle Ages, in England, when you met a very poor person, that person would be described as an "unfortunate" -- literally, somebody who had not been blessed by fortune, an unfortunate. +Nowadays, particularly in the United States, if you meet someone at the bottom of society, they may unkindly be described as a "loser." +There's a real difference between an unfortunate and a loser, and that shows 400 years of evolution in society and our belief in who is responsible for our lives. +It's no longer the gods, it's us. We're in the driving seat. +That's exhilarating if you're doing well, and very crushing if you're not. +It leads, in the worst cases -- in the analysis of a sociologist like Emil Durkheim -- it leads to increased rates of suicide. +There are more suicides in developed, individualistic countries than in any other part of the world. +And some of the reason for that is that people take what happens to them extremely personally -- they own their success, but they also own their failure. +Is there any relief from some of these pressures that I've been outlining? +I think there is. I just want to turn to a few of them. +Let's take meritocracy. +This idea that everybody deserves to get where they get to, I think it's a crazy idea, completely crazy. +I will support any politician of Left and Right, with any halfway-decent meritocratic idea; I am a meritocrat in that sense. +But I think it's insane to believe that we will ever make a society that is genuinely meritocratic; it's an impossible dream. +The idea that we will make a society where literally everybody is graded, the good at the top, bad at the bottom, exactly done as it should be, is impossible. +There are simply too many random factors: accidents, accidents of birth, accidents of things dropping on people's heads, illnesses, etc. +We will never get to grade them, never get to grade people as they should. +I'm drawn to a lovely quote by St. Augustine in "The City of God," where he says, "It's a sin to judge any man by his post." +In modern English that would mean it's a sin to come to any view of who you should talk to, dependent on their business card. +It's not the post that should count. +According to St. Augustine, only God can really put everybody in their place; he's going to do that on the Day of Judgment, with angels and trumpets, and the skies will open. +Insane idea, if you're a secularist person, like me. +But something very valuable in that idea, nevertheless. +In other words, hold your horses when you're coming to judge people. +You don't necessarily know what someone's true value is. +That is an unknown part of them, and we shouldn't behave as though it is known. +There is another source of solace and comfort for all this. +When we think about failing in life, when we think about failure, one of the reasons why we fear failing is not just a loss of income, a loss of status. +What we fear is the judgment and ridicule of others. +And it exists. +The number one organ of ridicule, nowadays, is the newspaper. +If you open the newspaper any day of the week, it's full of people who've messed up their lives. +They've slept with the wrong person, taken the wrong substance, passed the wrong piece of legislation -- whatever it is, and then are fit for ridicule. +In other words, they have failed. And they are described as "losers." +Now, is there any alternative to this? +I think the Western tradition shows us one glorious alternative, which is tragedy. +Tragic art, as it developed in the theaters of ancient Greece, in the fifth century B.C., was essentially an art form devoted to tracing how people fail, and also according them a level of sympathy, which ordinary life would not necessarily accord them. +A few years ago, I was thinking about this, and I went to "The Sunday Sport," a tabloid newspaper I don't recommend you start reading if you're not familiar with it already. +And I went to talk to them about certain of the great tragedies of Western art. +I wanted to see how they would seize the bare bones of certain stories, if they came in as a news item at the news desk on a Saturday afternoon. +I mentioned Othello; they'd not heard of it but were fascinated. +I asked them to write a headline for the story. +They came up with "Love-Crazed Immigrant Kills Senator's Daughter." +Splashed across the headline. +I gave them the plotline of Madame Bovary. +Again, a book they were enchanted to discover. +And they wrote "Shopaholic Adulteress Swallows Arsenic After Credit Fraud." +And then my favorite -- they really do have a kind of genius of their own, these guys -- my favorite is Sophocles' Oedipus the King: "Sex With Mum Was Blinding." +In a way, if you like, at one end of the spectrum of sympathy, you've got the tabloid newspaper. +At the other end of the spectrum, you've got tragedy and tragic art. +And I suppose I'm arguing that we should learn a little bit about what's happening in tragic art. +It would be insane to call Hamlet a loser. +He is not a loser, though he has lost. +And I think that is the message of tragedy to us, and why it's so very, very important, I think. +The other thing about modern society and why it causes this anxiety, is that we have nothing at its center that is non-human. +We are the first society to be living in a world where we don't worship anything other than ourselves. +We think very highly of ourselves, and so we should; we've put people on the Moon, done all sorts of extraordinary things. +And so we tend to worship ourselves. Our heroes are human heroes. +That's a very new situation. +Most other societies have had, right at their center, the worship of something transcendent: a god, a spirit, a natural force, the universe, whatever it is -- something else that is being worshiped. +We've slightly lost the habit of doing that, which is, I think, why we're particularly drawn to nature. +Not for the sake of our health, though it's often presented that way, but because it's an escape from the human anthill. +It's an escape from our own competition, and our own dramas. +And that's why we enjoy looking at glaciers and oceans, and contemplating the Earth from outside its perimeters, etc. +We like to feel in contact with something that is non-human, and that is so deeply important to us. +What I think I've been talking about really is success and failure. +And one of the interesting things about success is that we think we know what it means. +If I said that there's somebody behind the screen who's very successful, certain ideas would immediately come to mind. +You'd think that person might have made a lot of money, achieved renown in some field. +My own theory of success -- I'm somebody who's very interested in success, I really want to be successful, always thinking, how can I be more successful? +But as I get older, I'm also very nuanced about what that word "success" might mean. +Here's an insight that I've had about success: You can't be successful at everything. +We hear a lot of talk about work-life balance. +Nonsense. You can't have it all. You can't. +So any vision of success has to admit what it's losing out on, where the element of loss is. +And I think any wise life will accept, as I say, that there is going to be an element where we're not succeeding. +And the thing about a successful life is that a lot of the time, our ideas of what it would mean to live successfully are not our own. +They're sucked in from other people; chiefly, if you're a man, your father, and if you're a woman, your mother. +Psychoanalysis has been drumming home this message for about 80 years. +No one's quite listening hard enough, but I very much believe it's true. +And we also suck in messages from everything from the television, to advertising, to marketing, etc. +These are hugely powerful forces that define what we want and how we view ourselves. +When we're told that banking is a very respectable profession, a lot of us want to go into banking. +When banking is no longer so respectable, we lose interest in banking. +We are highly open to suggestion. +So what I want to argue for is not that we should give up on our ideas of success, but we should make sure that they are our own. +We should focus in on our ideas, and make sure that we own them; that we are truly the authors of our own ambitions. +Because it's bad enough not getting what you want, but it's even worse to have an idea of what it is you want, and find out, at the end of the journey, that it isn't, in fact, what you wanted all along. +So, I'm going to end it there. +But what I really want to stress is: by all means, success, yes. +But let's accept the strangeness of some of our ideas. +Let's probe away at our notions of success. +Let's make sure our ideas of success are truly our own. +Thank you very much. +Chris Anderson: That was fascinating. +But how do you reconcile this idea of it being bad to think of someone as a "loser," with the idea that a lot of people like, of seizing control of your life, and that a society that encourages that, perhaps has to have some winners and losers? +Alain De Botton: Yes, I think it's merely the randomness of the winning and losing process that I want to stress, because the emphasis nowadays is so much on the justice of everything, and politicians always talk about justice. +Now I'm a firm believer in justice, I just think that it's impossible. +So we should do everything we can to pursue it, but we should always remember that whoever is facing us, whatever has happened in their lives, there will be a strong element of the haphazard. +That's what I'm trying to leave room for; otherwise, it can get quite claustrophobic. +CA: I mean, do you believe that you can combine your kind of kinder, gentler philosophy of work with a successful economy? +Or do you think that you can't, but it doesn't matter that much that we're putting too much emphasis on that? +AB: The nightmare thought is that frightening people is the best way to get work out of them, and that somehow the crueler the environment, the more people will rise to the challenge. +You want to think, who would you like as your ideal dad? +And your ideal dad is somebody who is tough but gentle. +And it's a very hard line to make. +We need fathers, as it were, the exemplary father figures in society, avoiding the two extremes, which is the authoritarian disciplinarian on the one hand, and on the other, the lax, no-rules option. +CA: Alain De Botton. +AB: Thank you very much. +Hello! My name is Golan Levin. +I'm an artist and an engineer, which is, increasingly, a more common kind of hybrid. +But I still fall into this weird crack where people don't seem to understand me. +And I was looking around and I found this wonderful picture. +It's a letter from "Artforum" in 1967 saying "We can't imagine ever doing a special issue on electronics or computers in art." And they still haven't. +And lest you think that you all, as the digerati, are more enlightened, I went to the Apple iPhone app store the other day. +Where's art? I got productivity. I got sports. +And somehow the idea that one would want to make art for the iPhone, which my friends and I are doing now, is still not reflected in our understanding of what computers are for. +So, from both directions, there is kind of, I think, a lack of understanding about what it could mean to be an artist who uses the materials of his own day, or her own day, which I think artists are obliged to do, is to really explore the expressive potential of the new tools that we have. +In my own case, I'm an artist, and I'm really interested in expanding the vocabulary of human action, and basically empowering people through interactivity. +I want people to discover themselves as actors, as creative actors, by having interactive experiences. +A lot of my work is about trying to get away from this. +This a photograph of the desktop of a student of mine. +And when I say desktop, I don't just mean the actual desk where his mouse has worn away the surface of the desk. +If you look carefully, you can even see a hint of the Apple menu, up here in the upper left, where the virtual world has literally punched through to the physical. +So this is, as Joy Mountford once said, "The mouse is probably the narrowest straw you could try to suck all of human expression through." +And the thing I'm really trying to do is enabling people to have more rich kinds of interactive experiences. +How can we get away from the mouse and use our full bodies as a way of exploring aesthetic experiences, not necessarily utilitarian ones. +So I write software. And that's how I do it. +And a lot of my experiences resemble mirrors in some way. +Because this is, in some sense, the first way, that people discover their own potential as actors, and discover their own agency. +By saying "Who is that person in the mirror? Oh it's actually me." +And so, to give an example, this is a project from last year, which is called the Interstitial Fragment Processor. +And it allows people to explore the negative shapes that they create when they're just going about their everyday business. +So as people make shapes with their hands or their heads and so forth, or with each other, these shapes literally produce sounds and drop out of thin air -- basically taking what's often this, kind of, unseen space, or this undetected space, and making it something real, that people then can appreciate and become creative with. +So again, people discover their creative agency in this way. +And their own personalities come out in totally unique ways. +So in addition to using full-body input, something that I've explored now, for a while, has been the use of the voice, which is an immensely expressive system for us, vocalizing. +Song is one of our oldest ways of making ourselves heard and understood. +And I came across this fantastic research by Wolfgang Khler, the so-called father of gestalt psychology, from 1927, who submitted to an audience like yourselves the following two shapes. +And he said one of them is called Maluma. +And one of them is called Taketa. Which is which? +Anyone want to hazard a guess? +Maluma is on top. Yeah. So. +As he says here, most people answer without any hesitation. +So what we're really seeing here is a phenomenon called phonaesthesia, which is a kind of synesthesia that all of you have. +And so, whereas Dr. Oliver Sacks has talked about how perhaps one person in a million actually has true synesthesia, where they hear colors or taste shapes, and things like this, phonaesthesia is something we can all experience to some extent. +It's about mappings between different perceptual domains, like hardness, sharpness, brightness and darkness, and the phonemes that we're able to speak with. +So 70 years on, there's been some research where cognitive psychologists have actually sussed out the extent to which, you know, L, M and B are more associated with shapes that look like this, and P, T and K are perhaps more associated with shapes like this. +And here we suddenly begin to have a mapping between curvature that we can exploit numerically, a relative mapping between curvature and shape. +So it occurred to me, what happens if we could run these backwards? +And thus was born the project called Remark, which is a collaboration with Zachary Lieberman and the Ars Electronica Futurelab. +And this is an interactive installation which presents the fiction that speech casts visible shadows. +So the idea is you step into a kind of a magic light. +And as you do, you see the shadows of your own speech. +And they sort of fly away, out of your head. +If a computer speech recognition system is able to recognize what you're saying, then it spells it out. +And if it isn't then it produces a shape which is very phonaesthetically tightly coupled to the sounds you made. +So let's bring up a video of that. +Thanks. So. And this project here, I was working with the great abstract vocalist, Jaap Blonk. +And he is a world expert in performing "The Ursonate," which is a half-an-hour nonsense poem by Kurt Schwitters, written in the 1920s, which is half an hour of very highly patterned nonsense. +And it's almost impossible to perform. +But Jaap is one of the world experts in performing it. +And in this project we've developed a form of intelligent real-time subtitles. +So these are our live subtitles, that are being produced by a computer that knows the text of "The Ursonate" -- fortunately Jaap does too, very well -- and it is delivering that text at the same time as Jaap is. +So all the text you're going to see is real-time generated by the computer, visualizing what he's doing with his voice. +Here you can see the set-up where there is a screen with the subtitles behind him. +Okay. So ... +The full videos are online if you are interested. +I got a split reaction to that during the live performance, because there is some people who understand live subtitles are a kind of an oxymoron, because usually there is someone making them afterwards. +And then a bunch of people who were like, "What's the big deal? +I see subtitles all the time on television." +You know? They don't imagine the person in the booth, typing it all. +So in addition to the full body, and in addition to the voice, another thing that I've been really interested in, most recently, is the use of the eyes, or the gaze, in terms of how people relate to each other. +It's a really profound amount of nonverbal information that's communicated with the eyes. +And it's one of the most interesting technical challenges that's very currently active in the computer sciences: being able to have a camera that can understand, from a fairly big distance away, how these little tiny balls are actually pointing in one way or another to reveal what you're interested in, and where your attention is directed. +So there is a lot of emotional communication that happens there. +And so I've been beginning, with a variety of different projects, to understand how people can relate to machines with their eyes. +And basically to ask the questions: What if art was aware that we were looking at it? +How could it respond, in a way, to acknowledge or subvert the fact that we're looking at it? +And what could it do if it could look back at us? +And so those are the questions that are happening in the next projects. +In the first one which I'm going to show you, called Eyecode, it's a piece of interactive software in which, if we read this little circle, "the trace left by the looking of the previous observer looks at the trace left by the looking of previous observer." +The idea is that it's an image wholly constructed from its own history of being viewed by different people in an installation. +So let me just switch over so we can do the live demo. +So let's run this and see if it works. +Okay. Ah, there is lots of nice bright video. +There is just a little test screen that shows that it's working. +And what I'm just going to do is -- I'm going to hide that. +And you can see here that what it's doing is it's recording my eyes every time I blink. +Hello? And I can ... hello ... okay. +And no matter where I am, what's really going on here is that it's an eye-tracking system that tries to locate my eyes. +And if I get really far away I'm blurry. +You know, you're going to have these kind of blurry spots like this that maybe only resemble eyes in a very very abstract way. +But if I come up really close and stare directly at the camera on this laptop then you'll see these nice crisp eyes. +You can think of it as a way of, sort of, typing, with your eyes. +And what you're typing are recordings of your eyes as you're looking at other peoples' eyes. +So each person is looking at the looking of everyone else before them. +And this exists in larger installations where there are thousands and thousands of eyes that people could be staring at, as you see who's looking at the people looking at the people looking before them. +So I'll just add a couple more. Blink. Blink. +And you can see, just once again, how it's sort of finding my eyes and doing its best to estimate when it's blinking. +Alright. Let's leave that. +So that's this kind of recursive observation system. +Thank you. +The last couple pieces I'm going to show are basically in the new realm of robotics -- for me, new for me. +It's called Opto-Isolator. +And I'm going to show a video of the older version of it, which is just a minute long. Okay. +In this case, the Opto-Isolator is blinking in response to one's own blinks. +So it blinks one second after you do. +This is a device which is intended to reduce the phenomenon of gaze down to the simplest possible materials. +Just one eye, looking at you, and eliminating everything else about a face, but just to consider gaze in an isolated way as a kind of, as an element. +And at the same time, it attempts to engage in what you might call familiar psycho-social gaze behaviors. +Like looking away if you look at it too long because it gets shy, or things like that. +Okay. So the last project I'm going to show is this new one called Snout. +It's an eight-foot snout, with a googly eye. +And inside it's got an 800-pound robot arm that I borrowed, from a friend. +It helps to have good friends. +I'm at Carnegie Mellon; we've got a great Robotics Institute there. +I'd like to show you thing called Snout, which is -- The idea behind this project is to make a robot that appears as if it's continually surprised to see you. +The idea is that basically -- if it's constantly like "Huh? ... Huh?" +That's why its other name is Doubletaker, Taker of Doubles. +It's always kind of doing a double take: "What?" +And the idea is basically, can it look at you and make you feel as if like, "What? Is it my shoes?" +"Got something on my hair?" Here we go. Alright. +Checking him out ... +For you nerds, here's a little behind-the-scenes. +It's got a computer vision system, and it tries to look at the people who are moving around the most. +Those are its targets. +Up there is the skeleton, which is actually what it's trying to do. +It's really about trying to create a novel body language for a new creature. +Hollywood does this all the time, of course. +But also have the body language communicate something to the person who is looking at it. +This language is communicating that it is surprised to see you, and it's interested in looking at you. +Thank you very much. That's all I've got for today. +And I'm really happy to be here. Thank you so much. +Well, this is 2009. +And it's the Bicentenary of Charles Darwin. +And all over the world, eminent evolutionists are anxious to celebrate this. +And what they're planning to do is to enlighten us on almost every aspect of Darwin and his life, and how he changed our thinking. +I say almost every aspect, because there is one aspect of this story which they have thrown no light on. +And they seem anxious to skirt around it and step over it and to talk about something else. +So I'm going to talk about it. +It's the question of, why are we so different from the chimpanzees? +We get the geneticists keeping on telling us how extremely closely we are related -- hardly any genes of difference, very, very closely related. +And yet, when you look at the phenotypes, there's a chimp, there's a man; they're astoundingly different, no resemblance at all. +I'm not talking about airy-fairy stuff about culture or psychology, or behavior. +I'm talking about ground-base, nitty-gritty, measurable physical differences. +They, that one, is hairy and walking on four legs. +That one is a naked biped. Why? +I mean -- if I'm a good Darwinist, I've got to believe there's a reason for that. +If we changed so much, something must have happened. +What happened? +Now 50 years ago, that was a laughably simple question. +Everybody knew the answer. +They knew what happened. +The ancestor of the apes stayed in the trees; our ancestors went out onto the plain. +That explained everything. +We had to get up on our legs to peer over the tall grass, or to chase after animals, or to free our hands for weapons. +And we got so overheated in the chase that we had to take off that fur coat and throw it away. +Everybody knew that, for generations. +But then, in the '90s, something began to unravel. +The paleontologists themselves looked a bit more closely at the accompanying microfauna that lived in the same time and place as the hominids. +And they weren't savanna species. +And they looked at the herbivores. And they weren't savanna herbivores. +And then they were so clever, they found a way to analyze fossilized pollen. +Shock, horror. +The fossilized pollen was not of savanna vegetation. +Some of it even came from lianas, those things that dangle in the middle of the jungle. +So we're left with a situation where we know that our earliest ancestors were moving around on four legs in the trees, before the savanna ecosystem even came into existence. +This is not something I've made up. +It's not a minority theory. +Everybody agrees with it. +Professor Tobias came over from South Africa and spoke to University College London. +He said, "Everything I've been telling you for the last 20 years, forget about it. It was wrong. +We've got to go back to square one and start again." +It made him very unpopular. They didn't want to go back to square one. +I mean, it's a terrible thing to happen. +You've got this beautiful paradigm. +You've believed it through generations. +Nobody has questioned it. +You've been constructing fanciful things on top of it, relying on it to be as solid as a rock. +And now it's whipped away from under you. +What do you do? What does a scientist do in that case? +Well, we know the answer because Thomas S. Kuhn wrote a seminal treatise about this back in 1962. +He said what scientists do when a paradigm fails is, guess what -- they carry on as if nothing had happened. +If they haven't got a paradigm they can't ask the question. +So they say, "Yes it's wrong, but supposing it was right ..." +And the only other option open to them is to stop asking the questions. +So that is what they have done now. +That's why you don't hear them talking about it. It's yesterday's question. +Some of them have even elevated it into a principle. +It's what we ought to be doing. +Aaron Filler from Harvard said, "Isn't it time we stopped talking about selective pressures? +I mean, why don't we talk about, well, there's chromosomes, and there's genes. +And we just record what we see." +Charles Darwin must be spinning in his grave! +He knew all about that kind of science. +And he called it hypothesis-free science. +And he despised it from the bottom of his heart. +And if you're going to say, "I'm going to stop talking about selective pressures," you can take "The Origin of Species" and throw it out of the window, for it's about nothing else but selective pressures. +And the irony of it is, that this is one occasion of a paradigm collapse where we didn't have to wait for a new paradigm to come up. +There was one waiting in the wings. +It had been waiting there since 1960 when Alister Hardy, a marine biologist, said, "I think what happened, perhaps our ancestors had a more aquatic existence for some of the time." +He kept it to himself for 30 years. +But then the press got hold of it and all hell broke loose. +All his colleagues said, "This is outrageous. +You've exposed us to public ridicule! +You must never do that again." +And at that time, it became set in stone: the aquatic theory should be dumped with the UFOs and the yetis, as part of the lunatic fringe of science. +Well I don't think that. +I think that Hardy had a lot going for him. +I'd like to talk about just a handful of what have been called the hallmarks of mankind, the things that made us different from everybody else, and all our relatives. +Let's look at our naked skin. +It's obvious that most of the things we think about that have lost their body hair, mammals without body hair, are aquatic ones, like the dugong, the walrus, the dolphin, the hippopotamus, the manatee. +And a couple of wallowers-in-mud like the babirusa. +And you're tempted to think, well perhaps, could that be why we are naked? +I suggested it and people said, "No no no. +I mean, look at the elephant. +You've forgotten all about the elephant haven't you?" +So back in 1982 I said, "Well perhaps the elephant had an aquatic ancestor." +Peals of merry laughter! +"That crazy woman. She's off again. She'll say anything won't she?" +But by now, everybody agrees that the elephant had an aquatic ancestor. +This has come 'round to be that all those naked pachyderms have aquatic ancestors. +The last exception was supposed to be the rhinoceros. +Last year in Florida they found extinct ancestor of a rhinoceros and said, "Seems to have spent most of its time in the water." +So this is a close connection between nakedness and water. +As an absolute connection, it only works one way. +You can't say all aquatic animals are naked, because look at the sea otter. +But you can say that every animal that has become naked has been conditioned by water, in its own lifetime, or the lifetime of its ancestors. I think this is significant. +The only exception is the naked Somalian mole-rat, which never puts its nose above the surface of the ground. +And take bipedality. +Here you can't find anybody to compare it with, because we're the only animal that walks upright on two legs. +But you can say this: all the apes and all the monkeys are capable of walking on two legs, if they want to, for a short time. +There is only one circumstance in which they always, all of them, walk on two legs, and that is when they are wading through water. +Do you think that's significant? +David Attenborough thinks it's significant, as the possible beginning of our bipedalism. +Look at the fat layer. +We have got, under our skin, a layer of fat, all over: nothing in the least like that in any other primate. +Why should it be there? +Well they do know, that if you look at other aquatic mammals, the fat that in most land mammals is deposited inside the body wall, around the kidneys and the intestines and so on, has started to migrate to the outside, and spread out in a layer inside the skin. +In the whale it's complete: no fat inside at all, all in blubber outside. +We cannot avoid the suspicion that in our case it's started to happen. +We have got skin lined with this layer. +It's the only possible explanation of why humans, if they're very unlucky, can become grossly obese, in a way that would be totally impossible for any other primate, physically impossible. +Something very odd, matter-of-factly, never explained. +The question of why we can speak. +We can speak. +And the gorilla can't speak. Why? +Nothing to do with his teeth or his tongue or his lungs or anything like that -- purely has to do with its conscious control of its breath. +You can't even train a gorilla to say "Ah" on request. +The only creatures that have got conscious control of their breath are the diving animals and the diving birds. +It was an absolute precondition for our being able to speak. +And then again, there is the fact that we are streamlined. +Trying to imagine a diver diving into water -- hardly makes a splash. +Try to imagine a gorilla performing the same maneuver, and you can see that, compared with gorilla, we are halfway to being shaped like a fish. +I am trying to suggest that, for 40-odd years, this aquatic idea has been miscategorized as lunatic fringe, and it is not lunatic fringe. +And the ironic thing about it is that they are not staving off the aquatic theory to protect a theory of their own, which they've all agreed on, and they love. +There is nothing there. +They are staving off the aquatic theory to protect a vacuum. +How do they react when I say these things? +One very common reaction I've heard about 20 times is, "But it was investigated. +They conducted a serious investigation of this at the beginning, when Hardy put forward his article." +I don't believe it. +For 35 years I've been looking for any evidence of any incident of that kind, and I've concluded that that's one of the urban myths. +It's never been done. +I ask people sometimes, and they say, "I like the aquatic theory! +Everybody likes the aquatic theory. +Of course they don't believe it, but they like it." +Well I say, "Why do you think it's rubbish?" +They say "Well ... +everybody I talk to says it's rubbish. +And they can't all be wrong, can they?" +The answer to that, loud and clear, is, "Yes! They can all be wrong." +History is strewn with the cases when they've all got it wrong. +And if you've got a scientific problem like that, you can't solve it by holding a head count, and saying, "More of us say yes than say no." +Apart from that, some of the heads count more than others. +Some of them have come over. +There was Professor Tobias. He's come over. +Daniel Dennett, he's come over. +Sir David Attenborough, he's come over. +Anybody else out there? Come on in. +The water is lovely. +And now we've got to look to the future. +Ultimately one of three things is going to happen. +Either they will go on for the next 40 years, 50 years, 60 years. +"Yeah well we don't talk about that. Let's talk about something interesting." +That would be very sad. +The second thing that could happen is that some young genius will arrive, and say, "I've found it. +It was not the savanna, it was not the water, it was this!" +No sign of that happening either. +I don't think there is a third option. +So the third thing that might happen is a very beautiful thing. +If you look back at the early years of the last century, there was a stand-off, a lot of bickering and bad feeling between the believers in Mendel, and the believers in Darwin. +It ended with a new synthesis: Darwin's ideas and Mendel's ideas blending together. +And I think the same thing will happen here. +You'll get a new synthesis. +Hardy's ideas and Darwin's ideas will be blended together. +And we can move forward from there, and really get somewhere. +That would be a beautiful thing. +It would be very nice for me if it happened soon. +Because I'm older now than George Burns was when he said, "At my age, I don't even buy green bananas." +So if it's going to come and it's going to happen, what's holding it up? +I can tell you that in three words. +Academia says no. +They decided in 1960, "That belongs with the UFOs and the yetis." +And it's not easy to change their minds. +The professional journals won't touch it with a barge pole. +The textbooks don't mention it. +The syllabus doesn't mention even the fact that we're naked, let alone look for a reason to it. +"Horizon," which takes its cue from the academics, won't touch it with a barge pole. +So we never hear the case put for it, except in jocular references to people on the lunatic fringe. +I don't know quite where this diktat comes from. +Somebody up there is issuing the commandment, "Thou shalt not believe in the aquatic theory. +And if you hope to make progress in this profession, and you do believe it, you'd better keep it to yourself, because it will get in your way." +So I get the impression that some parts of the scientific establishment are morphing into a kind of priesthood. +But you know, that makes me feel good, because Richard Dawkins has told us how to treat a priesthood. +He says, "Firstly, you've got to refuse to give it all the excessive awe and reverence it's been trained to receive." +Right. I'll go ahead with that. +And secondly, he says, "You must never be afraid to rock the boat." +I'll go along with that too. +Thank you very much. +Take a look at this picture. +It poses a very fascinating puzzle for us. +These African students are doing their homework under streetlights at the airport in the capital city because they don't have any electricity at home. +Now, I haven't met these particular students, but I've met students like them. +Let's just pick one -- for example, the one in the green shirt. +Let's give him a name, too: Nelson. +I'll bet Nelson has a cellphone. +So here is the puzzle. +Why is it that Nelson has access to a cutting-edge technology, like the cellphone, but doesn't have access to a 100-year-old technology for generating electric light in the home? +Now, in a word, the answer is "rules." +Bad rules can prevent the kind of win-win solution that's available when people can bring new technologies in and make them available to someone like Nelson. +What kinds of rules? +The electric company in this nation operates under a rule, which says that it has to sell electricity at a very low, subsidized price -- in fact, a price that is so low it loses money on every unit that it sells. +So it has neither the resources, nor the incentives, to hook up many other users. +The president wanted to change this rule. +He's seen that it's possible to have a different set of rules, rules where businesses earn a small profit, so they have an incentive to sign up more customers. +That's the kind of rules that the cellphone company that Nelson purchases his telephony from operates under. +The president has seen how those rules worked well. +So he tried to change the rules for pricing on electricity, but ran into a firestorm of protest from businesses and consumers who wanted to preserve the existing subsidized rates. +So he was stuck with rules that prevented him from letting the win-win solution help his country. +And Nelson is stuck studying under the streetlights. +The real challenge then, is to try to figure out how we can change rules. +Are there some rules we can develop for changing rules? +I want to argue that there is a general abstract insight that we can make practical, which is that, if we can give more choices to people, and more choices to leaders -- who, in many countries, are also people. +But, it's useful to present the opposition between these two. +Because the kind of choice you might want to give to a leader, a choice like giving the president the choice to raise prices on electricity, takes away a choice that people in the economy want. +They want the choice to be able to continue consuming subsidized electric power. +So if you give just to one side or the other, you'll have tension or friction. +But if we can find ways to give more choices to both, that will give us a set of rules for changing rules that get us out of traps. +Now, Nelson also has access to the Internet. +And he says that if you want to see the damaging effects of rules, the ways that rules can keep people in the dark, look at the pictures from NASA of the earth at night. +In particular check out Asia. +If you zoom in here, you can see North Korea, in outline here, which is like a black hole compared to its neighbors. +Now, you won't be surprised to learn that the rules in North Korea keep people there in the dark. +But it is important to recognize that North Korea and South Korea started out with identical sets of rules in both the sense of laws and regulations, but also in the deeper senses of understandings, norms, culture, values and beliefs. +When they separated, they made choices that led to very divergent paths for their sets of rules. +So we can change -- we as humans can change the rules that we use to interact with each other, for better, or for worse. +Now let's look at another region, the Caribbean. +Zoom in on Haiti, in outline here. +Haiti is also dark, compared to its neighbor here, the Dominican Republic, which has about the same number of residents. +Both of these countries are dark compared to Puerto Rico, which has half as many residents as either Haiti or the Dominican Republic. +What Haiti warns us is that rules can be bad because governments are weak. +It's not just that the rules are bad because the government is too strong and oppressive, as in North Korea. +So that if we want to create environments with good rules, we can't just tear down. +We've got to find ways to build up, as well. +Now, China dramatically demonstrates both the potential and the challenges of working with rules. +Back in the beginning of the data presented in this chart, China was the world's high-technology leader. +Chinese had pioneered technologies like steel, printing, gunpowder. +But the Chinese never adopted, at least in that period, effective rules for encouraging the spread of those ideas -- a profit motive that could have encouraged the spread. +And they soon adopted rules which slowed down innovation and cut China off from the rest of the world. +So as other countries in the world innovated, in the sense both of developing newer technologies, but also developing newer rules, the Chinese were cut off from those advances. +Income there stayed stagnant, as it zoomed ahead in the rest of the world. +This next chart looks at more recent data. +It plots income, average income in China as a percentage of average income in the United States. +In the '50s and '60s you can see that it was hovering at about three percent. +But then in the late '70s something changed. +Growth took off in China. The Chinese started catching up very quickly with the United States. +If you go back to the map at night, you can get a clue to the process that lead to the dramatic change in rules in China. +The brightest spot in China, which you can see on the edge of the outline here, is Hong Kong. +Hong Kong was a small bit of China that, for most of the 20th century, operated under a very different set of rules than the rest of mainland China -- rules that were copied from working market economies of the time, and administered by the British. +In the 1950s, Hong Kong was a place where millions of people could go, from the mainland, to start in jobs like sewing shirts, making toys. +But, to get on a process of increasing income, increasing skills led to very rapid growth there. +Hong Kong was also the model which leaders like Deng Xiaoping could copy, when they decided to move all of the mainland towards the market model. +But Deng Xiaoping instinctively understood the importance of offering choices to his people. +So instead of forcing everyone in China to shift immediately to the market model, they proceeded by creating some special zones that could do, in a sense, what Britain did: make the opportunity to go work with the market rules available to the people who wanted to opt in there. +So they created four special economic zones around Hong Kong: zones where Chinese could come and work, and cities grew up very rapidly there; also zones where foreign firms could come in and make things. +One of the zones next to Hong Kong has a city called Shenzhen. +In that city there is a Taiwanese firm that made the iPhone that many of you have, and they made it with labor from Chinese who moved there to Shenzhen. +So after the four special zones, there were 14 coastal cites that were open in the same sense, and eventually demonstrated successes in these places that people could opt in to, that they flocked to because of the advantages they offered. +Demonstrated successes there led to a consensus for a move toward the market model for the entire economy. +Now the Chinese example shows us several points. +One is: preserve choices for people. +Two: operate on the right scale. +If you try to change the rules in a village, you could do that, but a village would be too small to get the kinds of benefits you can get if you have millions of people all working under good rules. +On the other hand, the nation is too big. +If you try to change the rules in the nation, you can't give some people a chance to hold back, see how things turn out, and let others zoom ahead and try the new rules. +But cities give you this opportunity to create new places, with new rules that people can opt in to. +And they're large enough to get all of the benefits that we can have when millions of us work together under good rules. +So the proposal is that we conceive of something called a charter city. +We start with a charter that specifies all the rules required to attract the people who we'll need to build the city. +We'll need to attract the investors who will build out the infrastructure -- the power system, the roads, the port, the airport, the buildings. +You'll need to attract firms, who will come hire the people who move there first. +And you'll need to attract families, the residents who will come and live there permanently, raise their children, get an education for their children, and get their first job. +With that charter, people will move there. +The city can be built. +And we can scale this model. +We can go do it over and over again. +To make it work, we need good rules. We've already discussed that. +Those are captured in the charter. +We also need the choices for people. +That's really built into the model if we allow for the possibility of building cities on uninhabited land. +You start from uninhabited territory. +People can come live under the new charter, but no one is forced to live under it. +The final thing we need are choices for leaders. +And, to achieve the kind of choices we want for leaders we need to allow for the potential for partnerships between nations: cases where nations work together, in effect, de facto, the way China and Britain worked together to build, first a little enclave of the market model, and then scale it throughout China. +In a sense, Britain, inadvertently, through its actions in Hong Kong, did more to reduce world poverty than all the aid programs that we've undertaken in the last century. +So if we allow for these kind of partnerships to replicate this again, we can get those kinds of benefits scaled throughout the world. +In some cases this will involve a delegation of responsibility, a delegation of control from one country to another to take over certain kinds of administrative responsibilities. +Now, when I say that, some of you are starting to think, "Well, is this just bringing back colonialism?" +It's not. But it's important to recognize that the kind of emotions that come up when we start to think about these things, can get in the way, can make us pull back, can shut down our ability, and our interest in trying to explore new ideas. +Why is this not like colonialism? +The thing that was bad about colonialism, and the thing which is residually bad in some of our aid programs, is that it involved elements of coercion and condescension. +This model is all about choices, both for leaders and for the people who will live in these new places. +And, choice is the antidote to coercion and condescension. +So let's talk about how this could play out in practice. +Let's take a particular leader, Raul Castro, who is the leader of Cuba. +It must have occurred to Castro that he has the chance to do for Cuba what Deng Xiaoping did for China, but he doesn't have a Hong Kong there on the island in Cuba. +He does, though, have a little bit of light down in the south that has a very special status. +There is a zone there, around Guantanamo Bay, where a treaty gives the United States administrative responsibility for a piece of land that's about twice the size of Manhattan. +Castro goes to the prime minister of Canada and says, "Look, the Yankees have a terrible PR problem. +They want to get out. +Why don't you, Canada, take over? +Build -- run a special administrative zone. +Allow a new city to be built up there. +Allow many people to come in. +Let us have a Hong Kong nearby. +Some of my citizens will move into that city as well. +Others will hold back. But this will be the gateway that will connect the modern economy and the modern world to my country." +Now, where else might this model be tried? +Well, Africa. I've talked with leaders in Africa. +Many of them totally get the notion of a special zone that people can opt into as a rule. +It's a rule for changing rules. +It's a way to create new rules, and let people opt-in without coercion, and the opposition that coercion can force. +They also totally get the idea that in some instances they can make more credible promises to long-term investors -- the kind of investors who will come build the port, build the roads, in a new city -- they can make more credible promises if they do it along with a partner nation. +Perhaps even in some arrangement that's a little bit like an escrow account, where you put land in the escrow account and the partner nation takes responsibility for it. +There is also lots of land in Africa where new cities could be built. +This is a picture I took when I was flying along the coast. +There are immense stretches of land like this -- land where hundreds of millions of people could live. +Now, if we generalize this and think about not just one or two charter cites, but dozens -- cities that will help create places for the many hundreds of millions, perhaps billions of people who will move to cities in the coming century -- is there enough land for them? +Well, throughout the world, if we look at the lights at night, the one thing that's misleading is that, visually, it looks like most of the world is already built out. +So let me show you why that's wrong. +Take this representation of all of the land. +Turn it into a square that stands for all the arable land on Earth. +And let these dots represent the land that's already taken up by the cities that three billion people now live in. +If you move the dots down to the bottom of the rectangle you can see that the cities for the existing three billion urban residents take up only three percent of the arable land on earth. +So if we wanted to build cities for another billion people, they would be dots like this. +We'd go from three percent of the arable land, to four percent. +We'd dramatically reduce the human footprint on Earth by building more cities that people can move to. +And if these are cities governed by good rules, they can be cities where people are safe from crime, safe from disease and bad sanitation, where people have a chance to get a job. +They can get basic utilities like electricity. +Their kids can get an education. +So what will it take to get started building the first charter cities, scaling this so we build many more? +It would help to have a manual. +What university professors could do is write some details that might go into this manual. +You wouldn't want to let us run the cities, go out and design them. +You wouldn't let academics out in the wild. But, you could set us to work thinking about questions like, suppose it isn't just Canada that does the deal with Raul Castro. +Perhaps Brazil comes in as a participant, and Spain as well. And perhaps Cuba wants to be one of the partners in a four-way joint venture. +How would we write the treaty to do that? +There is less precedent for that, but that could easily be worked out. +How would we finance this? +Turns out Singapore and Hong Kong are cities that made huge gains on the value of the land that they owned when they got started. +You could use the gains on the value of the land to pay for things like the police, the courts, but the school system and the health care system too, which make this a more attractive place to live, makes this a place where people have higher incomes -- which, incidentally, makes the land more valuable. +So the incentives for the people helping to construct this zone and build it, and set up the basic rules, go very much in the right direction. +So there are many other details like this. +How could we have buildings that are low cost and affordable for people who work in a first job, assembling something like an iPhone, but make those buildings energy efficient, and make sure that they are safe, so they don't fall down in an earthquake or a hurricane. +Many technical details to be worked out, but those of us who are already starting to pursue these things can already tell that there is no roadblock, there's no impediment, other than a failure of imagination, that will keep us from delivering on a truly global win-win solution. +Let me conclude with this picture. +The reason we can be so well off, even though there is so many people on earth, is because of the power of ideas. +We can share ideas with other people, and when they discover them, they share with us. +It's not like scarce objects, where sharing means we each get less. +When we share ideas we all get more. +When we think about ideas in that way, we usually think about technologies. +But there is another class of ideas: the rules that govern how we interact with each other; rules like, let's have a tax system that supports a research university that gives away certain kinds of knowledge for free. +Let's have a system where we have ownership of land that is registered in a government office, that people can pledge as collateral. +There's an old saying, "Just because you can't see something, doesn't mean it's not there." +My work is -- it's a reflection of myself. +What I wanted to do is to show the world that the little things can be the biggest things. +We all seem to think that, you know, if we look down on the ground, there's nothing there. +And we use the word "nothing." +Nothing doesn't exist, because there is always something. +My mother told me that, when I was a child, that I should always respect the little things. +What made me do this work? I shall go into my story. +This all started when I was age five. +What made me do it? At school, I will admit this: academically, I couldn't express myself. +So I was, more or less, classed as "nothing." +My world was seen as less. +So I decided I didn't really want to be a part of that world. +I thought, I need to retreat into something else. +So when my mother used to take me to school, she thought I was at school, and I used to do a U-turn, when her back was turned, and run off and hide in the shed at the back of the garden. +Now, the one time I was in the shed, and my mother suspected something, thinking I was at school. +My mother was like the woman in Tom and Jerry. +So you'd just see her feet. +So I was hiding in the shed, like that. +And all of a sudden ... +And then I saw her legs. +And then she said -- grabbed me like that, because my mother was quite big -- and she lifted me up and she says, "How come you're not at school?" +I told her I couldn't face it because the way the teacher was treating me, ridiculing me, and using me as an example of failure. +So I told her. +At that age, obviously, I couldn't express it that way, but I told her I didn't feel right. +And then she just said, "You're going back to school tomorrow." +And walked off. And I didn't expect that, because I expected one of these ... +But I didn't get it. +So I'm sitting there thinking. +And as I looked down on the ground, I noticed there was some ants running around. +And I went into this little fantasy world. +And I thought, "These ants, are they looking for the queen ant? +Or do they need somewhere to live?" +So I thought "Perhaps, if I made these ants some apartments, they'll move in." +So I did. +And how I set about that, I got some splinters of wood. +And I sliced the little splinters of wood with a broken shard of glass, constructed this little apartment. +Well it looked like a little shanty shed when I'd finished. +But I thought, perhaps the ant won't know, it'll probably move in. +And so they did. +That was a bit crude, at the time. And I made all these little apartments and little merry-go-rounds, seesaws and swings, little ladders. +And then I encouraged the ants to come 'round by putting sugar and things like that. +And then I sat down and all the ants came along. +And all I could hear was "Is this for us?" +And I say, "Yes, they're all for you." +And they moved in, and decided not to pay me any rent. +And from there I was watching this little world. +It became part of me. +When I discovered that I had this gift, I wanted to experiment with this world that we can't see. +So I realized that there was more to life than just everything that we see around us that's huge. +So I started to educate myself on this molecular level. +And as I got older, I continued. I showed my mother. +My mother told me to take it smaller. +Now I shall show you something here. +And I'll explain. +As you can see, that's a pinhead. +Now that is called the Huf Haus. +The gentleman who commissioned me to do this was a gentleman called Peter Huf. +And he says to me "Willard, can you put my house on a pinhead?" +So I say, "How are you going to fit in there?" +And then he said to me, "I don't believe you can do it. Can you really do it?" +And I says, "Well, try me." +And then he said, "But I don't believe that you can do this." So I said, "OK." +So, to cut a long story short, I went home, went underneath the microscope, and I crushed up a piece of glass, crushed it up. +And underneath the microscope there were splinters of glass. +Some of them were quite jagged. +So I was crushing up these pieces of glass, which, as you can see, that's the actual frame of the house. +And the actual roof is made up of a fiber, which I found in my sister's old teddy bear. +So I got the teddy bear and I said, "Do you mind if I pull out one of your fibers?" +So I did. +And I looked at it beneath the microscope. And some of it was flat. +So I decided to slice these up with the tool that I make by -- I sharpen the end of a needle into a blade. +And then I actually slow down my whole nervous system. +And then I work between my heartbeat, I have one-and-a-half seconds to actually move. +And at the same time I have to watch I don't inhale my own work, at the same time. +Because that has happened to me. +So what I did, like I said, come back to the glass. +I found these little bits of glass. +And I had to make them square. +So I'm thinking "How can I do this?" +So what I did, I got an oilstone. Broke the edge of an oilstone off. +And what I did, I took pieces of glass. And I started to rub them. +I used a little tweezer which I made from a hair clip. +And I built rubber around the end of the tweezer so it wouldn't crush the glass. +And then I started rubbing, very very gently, till some of the edges were quite square. And then I constructed it. +And how I constructed it, is by making grooves in the top of the pinhead. +And then pushing the glass in with its own friction. +And as I was doing it, what happened? +The instrument that I used turned into a catapult. +And it went like this ... +And then that was it. +Gone. +So I'm thinking, "Mr. Huf isn't going to be very happy when I told him his house has gone to another, into the atmosphere somewhere." +So to cut the story short, I decided that I had to go back and do it. +So I found some more. And I decided to, sort of, construct it very, very slowly, holding my breath, working between my heartbeat, and making sure everything is leveled. +Because it's such a small sculpture, nothing can go wrong. +And I decided to build it up. +Then I used fibers out of my jumper, which I held and stretched. +And made the beams going around the house. +And the actual windows and the balcony had to be sort of constructed. +I used a money spider's web to actually attach certain things, which sent me insane. +But I managed to do it. +And when I finished it, I came back the next day. +I noticed that the house was occupied. +Have we ever heard of a dust mite? +Darren dust mite and his family moved in. +So basically I'd completed the house. +And there you are. +Right. As you can see, Bart Simpson is having a little argument. +I think they're arguing about the space on the pin. +There's not enough room for the two of them. +So I didn't think he was going to throw Bart off. +I think he was just warning him actually. +But this one was made out of a nylon tag out of my shirt. +What I did, I plucked the tag out and put it underneath the microscope. +I used the needle which has got a slight blade on the end. +Can anybody see the blade on the end of that needle? +Audience: No. +WW: So what I did is the same process where I just kind of hold my breath and just work away very, very slowly, manipulating the plastic, cutting it, because it behaves different. +Whenever you work on that level, things behave different. +Because it's on this molecular level things change and they act different. +And sometimes they turn into little catapults and things go up in the air. +And, you know, all different things happen. +But I had to make a little barrier, going around it, out of cellophane, to stop it moving. +Then static electricity set in. +And it went ... +And I'm trying to remove it. And the static is interfering with everything. +So there is sweat dripping off my head, because I have to carve Homer Simpson like that, in that position. +And after I've cut out the shape, then I have to make sure that there is room for Bart's neck. +So after I've done the same thing, then I have to paint it. +And after I've actually sculpted them, I have to paint them. +I experimented with a -- I found a dead fly. +And I plucked the hair off the fly's head. +Decided to make a paintbrush. +But I would never do it to a living fly. +Because I've heard a fly in pain. +And they go "Meow! Ow!" +Even though they get on our nerves, I would never kill an insect because, "All creatures great and small" -- there is a hymn that says that. +So what I decided to do is to pluck fine hair out of my face. +And I looked at it underneath the microscope. +That was the paintbrush. +And whilst I'm painting I have to be very careful, because the paint starts to turn into little blobs. +And it starts to dry very quickly. +So I have to be very quick. +If I'm not, it will end up looking not like what it's supposed to look like. +It could end up looking like Humpty Dumpty or somebody else. +So I have to be very very careful. +This one took me approximately, I would say, six to seven weeks. +My work, rough estimate, sometimes five, six to seven weeks; you can't always anticipate. +As you can see, that's Charlton Heston brought down to size. +He says to me, "Willard" -- You can see him saying, "Why me?" +I says, "I enjoyed your film. That's why." +As you can see, there's an aphid fly there. +That's just to show the scale and the actual size of the sculpture. +I would say it probably measures ... +a quarter of a millimeter. +In America they say a period stop. +So say if you cut a period stop in half, a full stop, that's about the size of the whole thing. +It's made -- the chariot is made of gold. +And Charlton Heston is made of a floating fiber, which I took out of the air. +When the sunlight comes through the window you see these little fibers. +And what I normally do is walk 'round a room -- -- trying to find one. And then I put it underneath the microscope. +I remember one time I was doing it, and the window was open. +And there was a lady standing by the bus stop. +And she saw me walking around like this. +And then she looked at me. +And then I went ... +And then she went, "Hmm, OK, he's not mad." +Yeah, to actually do this thing -- the actual chariot is made of gold. +I had a 24-karat gold ring. +And I cut off a little flake of gold. +And I bent it 'round, and made it into the chariot. +And the horse is made from nylon. +And the spider's web is for the reins on the horse. +To get the symmetrical shape of the horse was very difficult, because I had to get the horse to rear up and look as though it was in some kind of action. +When I did this one, a gentleman seen it and said to me, "There's no way you can do this, you must have used some kind of machine. +There's no way a man can do that. +It must be a machine." +So I says, "OK then, if you say it's a machine ..." +That one took me approximately six weeks. +The most famous statue in the world. +This one, I would say, was a serious challenge. +Because I had to put the torch on the top. +That one is, more or less, the same type of process. +The bottom of it is carved from a grain of sand, because I wanted to get a bit of the stone effect. +I used a microscopic shard of diamond to actually carve the actual base. +Well, I can look at this one and I can be very proud of this, because that statue has always sort of kept an image in my head of, you know, the beginning of people coming to America. +So it's sort of Ellis Island, and seeing America for the first time. +And that's the first thing they saw. +So I wanted to have that little image. +And this is it. +And we all know that is the Hulk. +I wanted to create movement in the eye of a needle. +Because we know we see needles, but people aren't familiar with the eye of a needle apart from putting a thread through it. +So I broke the needle. +And made a needle look like the Hulk's broken it. +It's -- I had to make little holes in the base of the needle, to shove his feet in. +So most of my work, I don't use glue. +They go in with their own friction. +And that's how I managed to do it. +As you can see, he's looking at the moment. He's got a little grimace on his face. +And his mouth must be probably about three microns. +So the eyes are probably about one micron or something. +That ship there, that's made from 24-karat gold. +And I normally rig it with the web of a money spider. +But I had to rig it with strands of glue. +Because the web of the spider, it was sending me insane, because I couldn't get the web to move off. +And that's 24-karat gold. And it's constructed. I built it. +Constructed each plank of gold. +And the whole thing is sort of symmetrical. +The flag had to be made out of little strands of gold. +It's almost like doing a surgical operation to get this thing right. +As you can see, dressage. +It's something I wanted to do just to show how I could get the symmetrical shape. +The actual rigging on the reins on the horse are made from the same sort of thing. +And that was done with a particle from my shirt. +And the pinhead I've made green around there by scraping the particles off a green shirt and then pressed onto the needle. +It's very painstaking work, but the best things come in small packages. +Bruno Giussani: Willard Wigan! +Good morning everybody. +I'd like to talk about a couple of things today. +The first thing is water. +Now I see you've all been enjoying the water that's been provided for you here at the conference, over the past couple of days. +And I'm sure you'll feel that it's from a safe source. +But what if it wasn't? +What if it was from a source like this? +Then statistics would actually say that half of you would now be suffering with diarrhea. +I talked a lot in the past about statistics, and the provision of safe drinking water for all. +But they just don't seem to get through. +And I think I've worked out why. +It's because, using current thinking, the scale of the problem just seems too huge to contemplate solving. +So we just switch off: us, governments and aid agencies. +Well, today, I'd like to show you that through thinking differently, the problem has been solved. +By the way, since I've been speaking, another 13,000 people around the world are suffering now with diarrhea. +And four children have just died. +I invented Lifesaver bottle because I got angry. +I, like most of you, was sitting down, the day after Christmas in 2004, when I was watching the devastating news of the Asian tsunami as it rolled in, playing out on TV. +The days and weeks that followed, people fleeing to the hills, being forced to drink contaminated water or face death. +That really stuck with me. +Then, a few months later, Hurricane Katrina slammed into the side of America. +"Okay," I thought, "here's a First World country, let's see what they can do." +Day one: nothing. +Day two: nothing. +Do you know it took five days to get water to the Superdome? +People were shooting each other on the streets for TV sets and water. +That's when I decided I had to do something. +Now I spent a lot of time in my garage, over the next weeks and months, and also in my kitchen -- much to the dismay of my wife. However, after a few failed prototypes, I finally came up with this, the Lifesaver bottle. +Okay, now for the science bit. +Before Lifesaver, the best hand filters were only capable of filtering down to about 200 nanometers. +The smallest bacteria is about 200 nanometers. +So a 200-nanometer bacteria is going to get through a 200-nanometer hole. +The smallest virus, on the other hand, is about 25 nanometers. +So that's definitely going to get through those 200 nanometer holes. +Lifesaver pores are 15 nanometers. +So nothing is getting through. +Okay, I'm going to give you a bit of a demonstration. +Would you like to see that? +I spent all the time setting this up, so I guess I should. +We're in the fine city of Oxford. +So -- someone's done that up. +Fine city of Oxford, so what I've done is I've gone and got some water from the River Cherwell, and the River Thames, that flow through here. And this is the water. +But I got to thinking, you know, if we were in the middle of a flood zone in Bangladesh, the water wouldn't look like this. +So I've gone and got some stuff to add into it. +And this is from my pond. +Have a smell of that, mister cameraman. +Okay. Right. +We're just going to pour that in there. +Audience: Ugh! +Michael Pritchard: Okay. We've got some runoff from a sewage plant farm. +So I'm just going to put that in there. +Put that in there. There we go. +And some other bits and pieces, chuck that in there. +And I've got a gift here from a friend of mine's rabbit. +So we're just going to put that in there as well. +Okay. Now. +The Lifesaver bottle works really simply. +You just scoop the water up. +Today I'm going to use a jug just to show you all. Let's get a bit of that poo in there. +That's not dirty enough. Let's just stir that up a little bit. +Okay, so I'm going to take this really filthy water, and put it in here. Do you want a drink yet? +Okay. There we go. +Replace the top. +Give it a few pumps. Okay? +That's all that's necessary. +Now as soon as I pop the teat, sterile drinking water is going to come out. +I've got to be quick. Okay, ready? +There we go. Mind the electrics. +That is safe, sterile drinking water. +Cheers. +There you go Chris. +What's it taste of? +Chris Anderson: Delicious. +Michael Pritchard: Okay. +Let's see Chris's program throughout the rest of the show. Okay? +Okay. Lifesaver bottle is used by thousands of people around the world. +It'll last for 6,000 liters. +And when it's expired, using failsafe technology, the system will shut off, protecting the user. +Pop the cartridge out. Pop a new one in. +It's good for another 6,000 liters. +So let's look at the applications. +Traditionally, in a crisis, what do we do? +We ship water. +Then, after a few weeks, we set up camps. +And people are forced to come into the camps to get their safe drinking water. +What happens when 20,000 people congregate in a camp? +Diseases spread. More resources are required. +The problem just becomes self-perpetuating. +But by thinking differently, and shipping these, people can stay put. +They can make their own sterile drinking water, and start to get on with rebuilding their homes and their lives. +Now, it doesn't require a natural disaster for this to work. +Using the old thinking, of national infrastructure and pipe work, is too expensive. +When you run the numbers on a calculator, you run out of noughts. +So here is the "thinking different" bit. +Instead of shipping water, and using man-made processes to do it, let's use Mother Nature. She's got a fantastic system. +She picks the water up from there, desalinates it, for free, transports it over there, and dumps it onto the mountains, rivers, and streams. +And where do people live? Near water. +All we've go to do is make it sterile. How do we do that? +Well, we could use the Lifesaver bottle. +Or we could use one of these. +The same technology, in a jerry can. +This will process 25,000 liters of water; that's good enough for a family of four, for three years. +And how much does it cost? +About half a cent a day to run. +Thank you. +So, by thinking differently, and processing water at the point of use, mothers and children no longer have to walk four hours a day to collect their water. +They can get it from a source nearby. +So with just eight billion dollars, we can hit the millennium goal's target of halving the number of people without access to safe drinking water. +To put that into context, The U.K. government spends about 12 billion pounds a year on foreign aid. +But why stop there? +With 20 billion dollars, everyone can have access to safe drinking water. +So the three-and-a-half billion people that suffer every year as a result, and the two million kids that die every year, will live. +Thank you. +If I could reveal anything that is hidden from us, at least in modern cultures, it would be to reveal something that we've forgotten, that we used to know as well as we knew our own names. +And that is that we live in a competent universe, that we are part of a brilliant planet, and that we are surrounded by genius. +Biomimicry is a new discipline that tries to learn from those geniuses, and take advice from them, design advice. +That's where I live, and it's my university as well. +I'm surrounded by genius. I cannot help but remember the organisms and the ecosystems that know how to live here gracefully on this planet. +This is what I would tell you to remember if you ever forget this again. +Remember this. +This is what happens every year. +This is what keeps its promise. +While we're doing bailouts, this is what happened. +Spring. +Imagine designing spring. +Imagine that orchestration. +You think TED is hard to organize. Right? +Imagine, and if you haven't done this in a while, do. +Imagine the timing, the coordination, all without top-down laws, or policies, or climate change protocols. +This happens every year. +There is lots of showing off. +There is lots of love in the air. +There's lots of grand openings. +And the organisms, I promise you, have all of their priorities in order. +I have this neighbor that keeps me in touch with this, because he's living, usually on his back, looking up at those grasses. +And one time he came up to me -- he was about seven or eight years old -- he came up to me. +And there was a wasp's nest that I had let grow in my yard, right outside my door. +And most people knock them down when they're small. +But it was fascinating to me, because I was looking at this sort of fine Italian end papers. +And he came up to me and he knocked. +He would come every day with something to show me. +And like, knock like a woodpecker on my door until I opened it up. +And he asked me how I had made the house for those wasps, because he had never seen one this big. +And I told him, "You know, Cody, the wasps actually made that." +And we looked at it together. +And I could see why he thought, you know -- it was so beautifully done. +It was so architectural. It was so precise. +But it occurred to me, how in his small life had he already believed the myth that if something was that well done, that we must have done it. +How did he not know -- it's what we've all forgotten -- that we're not the first ones to build. +We're not the first ones to process cellulose. +We're not the first ones to make paper. We're not the first ones to try to optimize packing space, or to waterproof, or to try to heat and cool a structure. +We're not the first ones to build houses for our young. +What's happening now, in this field called biomimicry, is that people are beginning to remember that organisms, other organisms, the rest of the natural world, are doing things very similar to what we need to do. +But in fact they are doing them in a way that have allowed them to live gracefully on this planet for billions of years. +So these people, biomimics, are nature's apprentices. +And they're focusing on function. +What I'd like to do is show you a few of the things that they're learning. +They have asked themselves, "What if, every time I started to invent something, I asked, 'How would nature solve this?'" And here is what they're learning. +This is an amazing picture from a Czech photographer named Jack Hedley. +This is a story about an engineer at J.R. West. +They're the people who make the bullet train. +It was called the bullet train because it was rounded in front, but every time it went into a tunnel it would build up a pressure wave, and then it would create like a sonic boom when it exited. +So the engineer's boss said, "Find a way to quiet this train." +He happened to be a birder. +He went to the equivalent of an Audubon Society meeting. +And he studied -- there was a film about king fishers. +And he thought to himself, "They go from one density of medium, the air, into another density of medium, water, without a splash. Look at this picture. +Without a splash, so they can see the fish. +And he thought, "What if we do this?" +Quieted the train. +Made it go 10 percent faster on 15 percent less electricity. +How does nature repel bacteria? +We're not the first ones to have to protect ourselves from some bacteria. +Turns out that -- this is a Galapagos Shark. +It has no bacteria on its surface, no fouling on its surface, no barnacles. +And it's not because it goes fast. +It actually basks. It's a slow-moving shark. +So how does it keep its body free of bacteria build-up? +It doesn't do it with a chemical. +It does it, it turns out, with the same denticles that you had on Speedo bathing suits, that broke all those records in the Olympics, but it's a particular kind of pattern. +And that pattern, the architecture of that pattern on its skin denticles keep bacteria from being able to land and adhere. +There is a company called Sharklet Technologies that's now putting this on the surfaces in hospitals to keep bacteria from landing, which is better than dousing it with anti-bacterials or harsh cleansers that many, many organisms are now becoming drug resistant. +Hospital-acquired infections are now killing more people every year in the United States than die from AIDS or cancer or car accidents combined -- about 100,000. +This is a little critter that's in the Namibian desert. +It has no fresh water that it's able to drink, but it drinks water out of fog. +It's got bumps on the back of its wing covers. +And those bumps act like a magnet for water. +They have water-loving tips, and waxy sides. +And the fog comes in and it builds up on the tips. +And it goes down the sides and goes into the critter's mouth. +There is actually a scientist here at Oxford who studied this, Andrew Parker. +And now kinetic and architectural firms like Grimshaw are starting to look at this as a way of coating buildings so that they gather water from the fog. +10 times better than our fog-catching nets. +CO2 as a building block. +Organisms don't think of CO2 as a poison. +Plants and organisms that make shells, coral, think of it as a building block. +There is now a cement manufacturing company starting in the United States called Calera. +They've borrowed the recipe from the coral reef, and they're using CO2 as a building block in cement, in concrete. +Instead of -- cement usually emits a ton of CO2 for every ton of cement. +Now it's reversing that equation, and actually sequestering half a ton of CO2 thanks to the recipe from the coral. +None of these are using the organisms. +They're really only using the blueprints or the recipes from the organisms. +How does nature gather the sun's energy? +This is a new kind of solar cell that's based on how a leaf works. +It's self-assembling. +It can be put down on any substrate whatsoever. +It's extremely inexpensive and rechargeable every five years. +It's actually a company a company that I'm involved in called OneSun, with Paul Hawken. +There are many many ways that nature filters water that takes salt out of water. +We take water and push it against a membrane. +And then we wonder why the membrane clogs and why it takes so much electricity. +Nature does something much more elegant. +And it's in every cell. +Every red blood cell of your body right now has these hourglass-shaped pores called aquaporins. +They actually export water molecules through. +It's kind of a forward osmosis. +They export water molecules through, and leave solutes on the other side. +A company called Aquaporin is starting to make desalination membranes mimicking this technology. +Trees and bones are constantly reforming themselves along lines of stress. +This algorithm has been put into a software program that's now being used to make bridges lightweight, to make building beams lightweight. +Actually G.M. Opel used it to create that skeleton you see, in what's called their bionic car. +It lightweighted that skeleton using a minimum amount of material, as an organism must, for the maximum amount of strength. +This beetle, unlike this chip bag here, this beetle uses one material, chitin. +And it finds many many ways to put many functions into it. +It's waterproof. +It's strong and resilient. +It's breathable. It creates color through structure. +Whereas that chip bag has about seven layers to do all of those things. +One of our major inventions that we need to be able to do to come even close to what these organisms can do is to find a way to minimize the amount of material, the kind of material we use, and to add design to it. +We use five polymers in the natural world to do everything that you see. +In our world we use about 350 polymers to make all this. +Nature is nano. +Nanotechnology, nanoparticles, you hear a lot of worry about this. +Loose nanoparticles. What is really interesting to me is that not many people have been asking, "How can we consult nature about how to make nanotechnology safe?" +Nature has been doing that for a long time. +Embedding nanoparticles in a material for instance, always. +In fact, sulfur-reducing bacteria, as part of their synthesis, they will emit, as a byproduct, nanoparticles into the water. +But then right after that, they emit a protein that actually gathers and aggregates those nanoparticles so that they fall out of solution. +Energy use. Organisms sip energy, because they have to work or barter for every single bit that they get. +And one of the largest fields right now, in the world of energy grids, you hear about the smart grid. +One of the largest consultants are the social insects. +Swarm technology. There is a company called Regen. +They are looking at how ants and bees find their food and their flowers in the most effective way as a whole hive. +And they're having appliances in your home talk to one another through that algorithm, and determine how to minimize peak power use. +There's a group of scientists in Cornell that are making what they call a synthetic tree, because they are saying, "There is no pump at the bottom of a tree." +It's capillary action and transpiration pulls water up, a drop at a time, pulling it, releasing it from a leaf and pulling it up through the roots. +And they're creating -- you can think of it as a kind of wallpaper. +They're thinking about putting it on the insides of buildings to move water up without pumps. +Amazon electric eel -- incredibly endangered, some of these species -- create 600 volts of electricity with the chemicals that are in your body. +Even more interesting to me is that 600 volts doesn't fry it. +You know we use PVC, and we sheath wires with PVC for insulation. +These organisms, how are they insulating against their own electric charge? +These are some questions that we've yet to ask. +Here's a wind turbine manufacturer that went to a whale. +Humpback whale has scalloped edges on its flippers. +And those scalloped edges play with flow in such a way that is reduces drag by 32 percent. +These wind turbines can rotate in incredibly slow windspeeds, as a result. +MIT just has a new radio chip that uses far less power than our chips. +And it's based on the cochlear of your ear, able to pick up internet, wireless, television signals and radio signals, in the same chip. +Finally, on an ecosystem scale. +At Biomimicry Guild, which is my consulting company, we work with HOK Architects. +We're looking at building whole cities in their planning department. +And what we're saying is that, shouldn't our cities do at least as well, in terms of ecosystem services, as the native systems that they replace? +So we're creating something called Ecological Performance Standards that hold cities to this higher bar. +The question is -- biomimicry is an incredibly powerful way to innovate. +The question I would ask is, "What's worth solving?" +If you haven't seen this, it's pretty amazing. +Dr. Adam Neiman. +This is a depiction of all of the water on Earth in relation to the volume of the Earth -- all the ice, all the fresh water, all the sea water -- and all the atmosphere that we can breathe, in relation to the volume of the Earth. +And inside those balls life, over 3.8 billion years, has made a lush, livable place for us. +And we are in a long, long line of organisms to come to this planet and ask ourselves, "How can we live here gracefully over the long haul?" +How can we do what life has learned to do? +Which is to create conditions conducive to life. +Now in order to do this, the design challenge of our century, I think, we need a way to remind ourselves of those geniuses, and to somehow meet them again. +One of the big ideas, one of the big projects I've been honored to work on is a new website. And I would encourage you all to please go to it. +It's called AskNature.org. +And what we're trying to do, in a TEDesque way, is to organize all biological information by design and engineering function. +And we're working with EOL, Encyclopedia of Life, Ed Wilson's TED wish. +And he's gathering all biological information on one website. +And the scientists who are contributing to EOL are answering a question, "What can we learn from this organism?" +And that information will go into AskNature.org. +And hopefully, any inventor, anywhere in the world, will be able, in the moment of creation, to type in, "How does nature remove salt from water?" +And up will come mangroves, and sea turtles and your own kidneys. +And we'll begin to be able to do as Cody does, and actually be in touch with these incredible models, these elders that have been here far, far longer than we have. +And hopefully, with their help, we'll learn how to live on this Earth, and on this home that is ours, but not ours alone. +Thank you very much. +I just want to say my name is Emmanuel Jal. +And I come from a long way. +I've been telling a story that has been so painful for me. +It's been a tough journey for me, traveling the world, telling my story in form of a book. +And also telling it like now. +And also, the easiest one was when I was doing it in form of a music. +So I have branded myself as a war child. +I'm doing this because of an old lady in my village now, who have lost her children. +There is no newspaper to cover her pain, and what she wants to change in this society. +And I'm doing it for a young man who want to create a change and has no way to project his voice because he can't write. +Or there is no Internet, like Facebook, MySpace, YouTube, for them to talk. +Also one thing that kept me pushing this story, this painful stories out, the dreams I have, sometimes, is like the voices of the dead, that I have seen would tell me, "Don't give up. Keep on going." +Because sometime I feel like stopping and not doing it, because I didn't know what I was putting myself into. +Well I was born in the most difficult time, when my country was at war. +I saw my village burned down. +The world that meant a lot to me, I saw it vanish in my face. +I saw my aunt in rape when I was only five. +My mother was claimed by the war. +My brothers and sisters were scattered. +And up to now, me and my father were detached and I still have issues with him. +Seeing people die every day, my mother crying, it's like I was raised in a violence. +And that made me call myself a war child. +And not only that, when I was eight I became a child soldier. +I didn't know what was the war for. +But one thing I knew was an image that I saw that stuck in my head. +When I went to the training camp I say, "I want to kill as many Muslims, and as many Arabs, as possible." +The training wasn't easy, but that was the driving force, because I wanted to revenge for my family. +I wanted to revenge for my village. +Luckily now things have changed because I came to discover the truth. +What was actually killing us wasn't the Muslims, wasn't the Arabs. +It was somebody sitting somewhere manipulating the system, and using religion to get what they want to get out of us, which is the oil, the diamond, the gold and the land. +So realizing the truth gave me a position to choose: should I continue to hate, or let it go? +So I happened to forgive. Now I sing music with the Muslims. I dance with them. +I even had a movie out called "War Child," funded by Muslim people. +So that pain has gone out. +But my story is huge. +So I'm just going to go into a different step now, which is easier for me. +I'm going to give you poem called "Forced to Sin," which is from my album "War Child." +I talk about my story. +One of the journey that I tread when I was tempted to eat my friend because we had no food and we were like around 400. +And only 16 people survived that journey. +So I hope you're going to hear this. +My dreams are like torment. +My every moment. +Voices in my brain, of friends that was slain. +Friends like Lual who died by my side, of starvation. +In the burning jungle, and the desert plain. +Next was I, but Jesus heard my cry. +As I was tempted to eat the rotten flesh of my comrade, he gave me comfort. +We used to raid villages, stealing chickens, goats and sheeps, anything we could eat. +I knew it was rude, but we needed food. +And therefore I was forced to sin, forced to sin to make a living, forced to sin to make a living. +Sometimes you gotta lose to win. +Never give up. Never give in. +Left home at the age of seven. +One year later, live with an AK-47 by my side. +Slept with one eye open wide. +Run, duck, play dead and hide. +I've seen my people die like flies. +But I've never seen a dead body, at least one that I've killed. +But still as I wonder, I won't go under. +Guns barking like lightning and thunder. +As a child so young and tender, Words I can't forget I still remember. +I saw sergeant command raising his hand, no retreat, no surrender. +I carry the banner of the trauma. +War child, child without a mama, still fighting in the saga. +Yet as I wage this new war I'm not alone in this drama. +No sit or stop, as I reach for the top I'm fully dedicated like a patriotic cop. +I'm on a fight, day and night. +Sometime I do wrong in order to make things right. +It's like I'm living a dream. +First time I'm feeling like a human being. +Ah! The children of Darfur. +Your empty bellies on the telly and now it's you that I'm fighting for. +Left home. +Don't even know the day I'll ever return. +My country is war-torn. +Music I used to hear was bombs and fire of guns. +So many people die that I don't even cry no more. +Ask God question, what am I here for. +And why are my people poor. +And why, why when the rest of the children were learning how to read and write, I was learning how to fight. +I ate snails, vultures, rabbits, snakes, and anything that had life. +I was ready to eat. +I know it's a shame. But who is to be blamed? +That's my story shared in the form of a lesson. +Thank you. +What energized me and kept me going is the music I do. +I never saw anybody to tell my story to them so they could advise me or do therapy. +So the music had been my therapy for me. +It's been where I actually see heaven, where I can be happy, where I can be a child again, in dances, through music. +So one thing I know about music: music is the only thing that has power to enter your cell system, your mind, your heart, influence your soul and your spirit, and can even influence the way you live without even you knowing. +Music is the only thing that can make you want to wake up your bed and shake your leg, without even wanting to do it. +And so the power music has I normally compare to the power love when love doesn't see a color. +You know, if you fall in love with a frog, that's it. +One testimony about how I find music is powerful is when I was still a soldier back then. +I hated the people in the north. +But I don't know why I don't hate their music. +So we party and dance to their music. +And one thing that shocked me is one day they brought an Arab musician to come and entertain the soldiers. +And I almost broke my leg dancing to his music. +But I had this question. +So now I'm doing music so I know what the power of music is. +So what's happening here? +I've been in a painful journey. +Today is day number 233 in which I only eat dinner. +I don't eat breakfast. No lunch. +And I've done a campaign called Lose to Win. +Where I'm losing so that I could win the battle that I'm fighting now. +So my breakfast, my lunch, I donate it to a charity that I founded because we want to build a school in Sudan. +And I'm doing this because also it's a normal thing in my home, people eat one meal a day. +Here I am in the West. I choose not to. +So in my village now, kids there, they normally listen to BBC, or any radio, and they are waiting to know, the day Emmanuel will eat his breakfast it means he got the money to build our school. +And so I made a commitment. I say, "I'm gonna not eat my breakfast." +I thought I was famous enough that I would raise the money within one month, but I've been humbled. +So it's taken me 232 days. +And I said, "No stop until we get it." +And like it's been done on Facebook, MySpace. +The people are giving three dollars. +The lowest amount we ever got was 20 cents. +Somebody donated 20 cents online. +I don't know how they did it. +But that moved me. +And so, the importance of education to me is what I'm willing to die for. +I'm willing to die for this, because I know what it can do to my people. +Education enlighten your brain, give you so many chances, and you're able to survive. +As a nation we have been crippled. +For so many years we have fed on aid. +You see a 20-years-old, 30-years-old families in a refugee camps. +They only get the food that drops from the sky, from the U.N. +So these people, you're killing a whole generation if you just give them aid. +If anybody want to help us this is what we need. +Give us tools. Give the farmers tools. +It's rain. Africa is fertile. They can grow the crops. +Invest in education. +Education so that we have strong institution that can create a revolution to change everything. +Because we have all those old men that are creating wars in Africa. They will die soon. +But if you invest in education then we'll be able to change Africa. +That's what I'm asking. +So in order to do that, I founded a charter called Gua Africa, where we put kids in school. +And now we have a couple in university. +We have like 40 kids, ex-child soldiers mixed with anybody that we feel like we want to support. +And I said "I'm going to put it in practice." +And with the people that are going to follow me and help me do things. +That's what I want to do to change, to make a difference in the world. +Well now, my time is going, so I want to sing a song. +But I'll ask you guys to stand up so we celebrate the life of a British aid worker called Emma McCune that made it possible for me to be here. +I'm gonna sing this song, just to inspire you how this woman has made a difference. +She came to my country and saw the importance of education. +She said the only way to help Sudan is to invest in the women, educating them, educating the children, so that they could come and create a revolution in this complex society. +So she even ended up marrying a commander from the SPLA. +And she rescued over 150 child soldiers. +One of them happened to be me now. +And so at this moment I want to ask to celebrate Emma with me. +Are you guys ready to celebrate Emma? +Audience: Yes! +Emmanuel Jal: All right. +Big scream for Emma everybody. +Yeah! I'm gonna get crazy now. +Go save a life of a child. +I need to make a confession at the outset here. +A little over 20 years ago, I did something that I regret, something that I'm not particularly proud of. +Something that, in many ways, I wish no one would ever know, but here I feel kind of obliged to reveal. +In the late 1980s, in a moment of youthful indiscretion, I went to law school. +In America, law is a professional degree: after your university degree, you go on to law school. +When I got to law school, I didn't do very well. +To put it mildly, I didn't do very well. +I, in fact, graduated in the part of my law school class that made the top 90% possible. +Thank you. +I never practiced law a day in my life; I pretty much wasn't allowed to. +But today, against my better judgment, against the advice of my own wife, I want to try to dust off some of those legal skills -- what's left of those legal skills. +I don't want to tell you a story. +I want to make a case. +I want to make a hard-headed, evidence-based, dare I say lawyerly case, for rethinking how we run our businesses. +So, ladies and gentlemen of the jury, take a look at this. +This is called the candle problem. +Some of you might know it. +It's created in 1945 by a psychologist named Karl Duncker. +He created this experiment that is used in many other experiments in behavioral science. +And here's how it works. Suppose I'm the experimenter. +I bring you into a room. +I give you a candle, some thumbtacks and some matches. +And I say to you, "Your job is to attach the candle to the wall so the wax doesn't drip onto the table." Now what would you do? +Many people begin trying to thumbtack the candle to the wall. +Doesn't work. +I saw somebody kind of make the motion over here -- some people have a great idea where they light the match, melt the side of the candle, try to adhere it to the wall. +It's an awesome idea. Doesn't work. +And eventually, after five or ten minutes, most people figure out the solution, which you can see here. +The key is to overcome what's called functional fixedness. +You look at that box and you see it only as a receptacle for the tacks. +But it can also have this other function, as a platform for the candle. +The candle problem. +I want to tell you about an experiment using the candle problem, done by a scientist named Sam Glucksberg, who is now at Princeton University, US, This shows the power of incentives. +He gathered his participants and said: "I'm going to time you, how quickly you can solve this problem." +To one group he said, "I'm going to time you to establish norms, averages for how long it typically takes someone to solve this sort of problem." +To the second group he offered rewards. +He said, "If you're in the top 25% of the fastest times, you get five dollars. +If you're the fastest of everyone we're testing here today, you get 20 dollars." +Now this is several years ago, adjusted for inflation, it's a decent sum of money for a few minutes of work. +It's a nice motivator. +Question: How much faster did this group solve the problem? +Answer: It took them, on average, three and a half minutes longer. +3.5 min longer. +This makes no sense, right? +I mean, I'm an American. I believe in free markets. +That's not how it's supposed to work, right? +If you want people to perform better, you reward them. Right? +Bonuses, commissions, their own reality show. +Incentivize them. That's how business works. +But that's not happening here. +You've got an incentive designed to sharpen thinking and accelerate creativity, and it does just the opposite. +It dulls thinking and blocks creativity. +What's interesting about this experiment is that it's not an aberration. +This has been replicated over and over again for nearly 40 years. +These contingent motivators -- if you do this, then you get that -- work in some circumstances. +But for a lot of tasks, they actually either don't work or, often, they do harm. +This is one of the most robust findings in social science, and also one of the most ignored. +I spent the last couple of years looking at the science of human motivation, particularly the dynamics of extrinsic motivators and intrinsic motivators. +And I'm telling you, it's not even close. +If you look at the science, there is a mismatch between what science knows and what business does. +What's alarming here is that our business operating system -- think of the set of assumptions and protocols beneath our businesses, how we motivate people, how we apply our human resources-- it's built entirely around these extrinsic motivators, around carrots and sticks. +That's actually fine for many kinds of 20th century tasks. +But for 21st century tasks, that mechanistic, reward-and-punishment approach often doesn't work, and often does harm. +Let me show you. +Glucksberg did another similar experiment, he presented the problem in a slightly different way, like this up here. +Attach the candle to the wall so the wax doesn't drip onto the table. +Same deal. You: we're timing for norms. +You: we're incentivizing. +What happened this time? +This time, the incentivized group kicked the other group's butt. +Why? Because when the tacks are out of the box, it's pretty easy isn't it? +If-then rewards work really well for those sorts of tasks, where there is a simple set of rules and a clear destination to go to. +Rewards, by their very nature, narrow our focus, concentrate the mind; that's why they work in so many cases. +So, for tasks like this, a narrow focus, where you just see the goal right there, zoom straight ahead to it, they work really well. +But for the real candle problem, you don't want to be looking like this. +The solution is on the periphery. You want to be looking around. +That reward actually narrows our focus and restricts our possibility. +Let me tell you why this is so important. +In western Europe, in many parts of Asia, in North America, in Australia, white-collar workers are doing less of this kind of work, and more of this kind of work. +That routine, rule-based, left-brain work -- certain kinds of accounting, financial analysis, computer programming -- has become fairly easy to outsource, fairly easy to automate. +Software can do it faster. +Low-cost providers can do it cheaper. +So what really matters are the more right-brained creative, conceptual kinds of abilities. +Think about your own work. +Think about your own work. +Are the problems that you face, or even the problems we've been talking about here, do they have a clear set of rules, and a single solution? +No. The rules are mystifying. +The solution, if it exists at all, is surprising and not obvious. +Everybody in this room is dealing with their own version of the candle problem. +And for candle problems of any kind, in any field, those if-then rewards, the things around which we've built so many of our businesses, don't work! +It makes me crazy. +And here's the thing. +This is not a feeling. +Okay? I'm a lawyer; I don't believe in feelings. +This is not a philosophy. +I'm an American; I don't believe in philosophy. +This is a fact -- or, as we say in my hometown of Washington, D.C., a true fact. +Let me give you an example. +Let me marshal the evidence here. +I'm not telling a story, I'm making a case. +Ladies and gentlemen of the jury, some evidence: Dan Ariely, one of the great economists of our time, he and three colleagues did a study of some MIT students. +They gave these MIT students a bunch of games, games that involved creativity, and motor skills, and concentration. +And the offered them, for performance, three levels of rewards: small reward, medium reward, large reward. +If you do really well you get the large reward, on down. +What happened? As long as the task involved only mechanical skill bonuses worked as they would be expected: the higher the pay, the better the performance. +Okay? +But once the task called for even rudimentary cognitive skill, a larger reward led to poorer performance. +Then they said, "Let's see if there's any cultural bias here. +Let's go to Madurai, India and test it." +Standard of living is lower. +In Madurai, a reward that is modest in North American standards, is more meaningful there. +Same deal. A bunch of games, three levels of rewards. +What happens? +People offered the medium level of rewards did no better than people offered the small rewards. +But this time, people offered the highest rewards, they did the worst of all. +In eight of the nine tasks we examined across three experiments, higher incentives led to worse performance. +Is this some kind of touchy-feely socialist conspiracy going on here? +No, these are economists from MIT, from Carnegie Mellon, from the University of Chicago. +Do you know who sponsored this research? +The Federal Reserve Bank of the United States. +That's the American experience. +Let's go across the pond to the London School of Economics, LSE, London School of Economics, alma mater of eleven Nobel Laureates in economics. +Training ground for great economic thinkers like George Soros, and Friedrich Hayek, and Mick Jagger. Last month, just last month, economists at LSE looked at 51 studies of pay-for-performance plans, inside of companies. +Here's what they said: "We find that financial incentives can result in a negative impact on overall performance." +There is a mismatch between what science knows and what business does. +And what worries me, as we stand here in the rubble of the economic collapse, is that too many organizations are making their decisions, their policies about talent and people, based on assumptions that are outdated, unexamined, and rooted more in folklore than in science. +And if we really want to get out of this economic mess, if we really want high performance on those definitional tasks of the 21st century, the solution is not to do more of the wrong things, to entice people with a sweeter carrot, or threaten them with a sharper stick. +We need a whole new approach. +The good news is that the scientists who've been studying motivation have given us this new approach. +It's built much more around intrinsic motivation. +Around the desire to do things because they matter, because we like it, they're interesting, or part of something important. +And to my mind, that new operating system for our businesses revolves around three elements: autonomy, mastery and purpose. +Autonomy: the urge to direct our own lives. +Mastery: the desire to get better and better at something that matters. +Purpose: the yearning to do what we do in the service of something larger than ourselves. +These are the building blocks of an entirely new operating system for our businesses. +I want to talk today only about autonomy. +In the 20th century, we came up with this idea of management. +Management did not emanate from nature. +Management is not a tree, it's a television set. +Somebody invented it. +It doesn't mean it's going to work forever. +Management is great. +Traditional notions of management are great if you want compliance. +But if you want engagement, self-direction works better. +Some examples of some kind of radical notions of self-direction. +You don't see a lot of it, but you see the first stirrings of something really interesting going on, what it means is paying people adequately and fairly, absolutely -- getting the issue of money off the table, and then giving people lots of autonomy. +Some examples. +How many of you have heard of the company Atlassian? +It looks like less than half. +Atlassian is an Australian software company. +And they do something incredibly cool. +A few times a year they tell their engineers, "Go for the next 24 hours and work on anything you want, as long as it's not part of your regular job. +Work on anything you want." +Engineers use this time to come up with a cool patch for code, come up with an elegant hack. +Then they present all of the stuff that they've developed to their teammates, to the rest of the company, in this wild and woolly all-hands meeting at the end of the day. +Being Australians, everybody has a beer. +They call them FedEx Days. +Why? Because you have to deliver something overnight. +It's pretty; not bad. +It's a huge trademark violation, but it's pretty clever. +That one day of intense autonomy has produced a whole array of software fixes that might never have existed. +It's worked so well that Atlassian has taken it to the next level with 20% time -- done, famously, at Google -- where engineers can spend 20% of their time working on anything they want. +They have autonomy over their time, their task, their team, their technique. +Radical amounts of autonomy. +And at Google, as many of you know, about half of the new products in a typical year are birthed during that 20% time: things like Gmail, Orkut, Google News. +Let me give you an even more radical example of it: something called the Results Only Work Environment (the ROWE), created by two American consultants, in place at a dozen companies around North America. +In a ROWE people don't have schedules. +They show up when they want. +They don't have to be in the office at a certain time, or any time. +They just have to get their work done. +How they do it, when they do it, where they do it, is totally up to them. +Meetings in these kinds of environments are optional. +What happens? +Almost across the board, productivity goes up, worker engagement goes up, worker satisfaction goes up, turnover goes down. +Autonomy, mastery and purpose, the building blocks of a new way of doing things. +Some of you might look at this and say, "Hmm, that sounds nice, but it's Utopian." +And I say, "Nope. +I have proof." +The mid-1990s, Microsoft started an encyclopedia called Encarta. +They had deployed all the right incentives, They paid professionals to write and edit thousands of articles. +Well-compensated managers oversaw the whole thing to make sure it came in on budget and on time. +A few years later, another encyclopedia got started. +Different model, right? +Do it for fun. No one gets paid a cent, or a euro or a yen. +Do it because you like to do it. +Just 10 years ago, if you had gone to an economist, anywhere, "Hey, I've got these two different models for creating an encyclopedia. +If they went head to head, who would win?" +10 years ago you could not have found a single sober economist anywhere on planet Earth who would have predicted the Wikipedia model. +This is the titanic battle between these two approaches. +This is the Ali-Frazier of motivation, right? +This is the Thrilla in Manila. +Intrinsic motivators versus extrinsic motivators. +Autonomy, mastery and purpose, versus carrot and sticks, and who wins? +Intrinsic motivation, autonomy, mastery and purpose, in a knockout. +Let me wrap up. +There is a mismatch between what science knows and what business does. +Here is what science knows. +One: Those 20th century rewards, those motivators we think are a natural part of business, do work, but only in a surprisingly narrow band of circumstances. +Two: Those if-then rewards often destroy creativity. +Three: The secret to high performance isn't rewards and punishments, but that unseen intrinsic drive-- the drive to do things for their own sake. +The drive to do things cause they matter. +And here's the best part. +We already know this. +The science confirms what we know in our hearts. +I rest my case. +Early visions of wireless power actually were thought of by Nikola Tesla basically about 100 years ago. +The thought that you wouldn't want to transfer electric power wirelessly, no one ever thought of that. +They thought, "Who would use it if you didn't?" +And so, in fact, he actually set about doing a variety of things. +Built the Tesla coil. This tower was built on Long Island back at the beginning of the 1900s. +And the idea was, it was supposed to be able to transfer power anywhere on Earth. +We'll never know if this stuff worked. Actually, I think the Federal Bureau of Investigation took it down for security purposes, sometime in the early 1900s. +But the one thing that did come out of electricity is that we love this stuff so much. +I mean, think about how much we love this. +If you just walk outside, there are trillions of dollars that have been invested in infrastructure around the world, putting up wires to get power from where it's created to where it's used. +The other thing is, we love batteries. +And for those of us that have an environmental element to us, there is something like 40 billion disposable batteries built every year for power that, generally speaking, is used within a few inches or a few feet of where there is very inexpensive power. +So, before I got here, I thought, "You know, I am from North America. +We do have a little bit of a reputation in the United States." +So I thought I'd better look it up first. +So definition number six is the North American definition of the word "suck." +Wires suck, they really do. +Think about it. Whether that's you in that picture or something under your desk. +The other thing is, batteries suck too. +And they really, really do. +Do you ever wonder what happens to this stuff? +40 billion of these things built. +This is what happens. +They fall apart, they disintegrate, and they end up here. +So when you talk about expensive power, the cost per kilowatt-hour to supply battery power to something is on the order of two to three hundred pounds. +Think about that. +The most expensive grid power in the world is thousandths of that. +So fortunately, one of the other definitions of "suck" that was in there, it does create a vacuum. +And nature really does abhor a vacuum. +What happened back a few years ago was a group of theoretical physicists at MIT actually came up with this concept of transferring power over distance. +Basically they were able to light a 60 watt light bulb at a distance of about two meters. +It got about 50 percent of the efficiency -- by the way, that's still a couple thousand times more efficient than a battery would be, to do the same thing. +But were able to light that, and do it very successfully. +This was actually the experiment. So you can see the coils were somewhat larger. +The light bulb was a fairly simple task, from their standpoint. +This all came from a professor waking up at night to the third night in a row that his wife's cellphone was beeping because it was running out of battery power. +And he was thinking, "With all the electricity that's out there in the walls, why couldn't some of that just come into the phone so I could get some sleep?" +And he actually came up with this concept of resonant energy transfer. +But inside a standard transformer are two coils of wire. +And those two coils of wire are really, really close to each other, and actually do transfer power magnetically and wirelessly, only over a very short distance. +What Dr. Soljacic figured out how to do was separate the coils in a transformer to a greater distance than the size of those transformers using this technology, which is not dissimilar from the way an opera singer shatters a glass on the other side of the room. +It's a resonant phenomenon for which he actually received a MacArthur Fellowship Award, which is nicknamed the Genius Award, last September, for his discovery. +So how does it work? +Imagine a coil. For those of you that are engineers, there's a capacitor attached to it too. +And if you can cause that coil to resonate, what will happen is it will pulse at alternating current frequencies -- at a fairly high frequency, by the way. +And if you can bring another device close enough to the source, that will only work at exactly that frequency, you can actually get them to do what's called strongly couple, and transfer magnetic energy between them. +And then what you do is, you start out with electricity, turn it into magnetic field, take that magnetic field, turn it back into electricity, and then you can use it. +Number one question I get asked. +I mean, people are worried about cellphones being safe. +You know. What about safety? +The first thing is this is not a "radiative" technology. +It doesn't radiate. +There aren't electric fields here. It's a magnetic field. +It stays within either what we call the source, or within the device. +And actually, the magnetic fields we're using are basically about the same as the Earth's magnetic field. +We live in a magnetic field. +And the other thing that's pretty cool about the technology is that it only transfers energy to things that work at exactly the same frequency. +And it's virtually impossible in nature to make that happen. +Then finally we have governmental bodies everywhere that will regulate everything we do. +They've pretty much set field exposure limits, which all of the things in the stuff I'll show you today sort of sit underneath those guidelines. +Mobile electronics. +Home electronics. +Those cords under your desk, I bet everybody here has something that looks like that or those batteries. +There are industrial applications. +And then finally, electric vehicles. +These electric cars are beautiful. +But who is going to want to plug them in? +Imagine driving into your garage -- we've built a system to do this -- you drive into your garage, and the car charges itself, because there is a mat on the floor that's plugged into the wall. +And it actually causes your car to charge safely and efficiently. +Then there's all kinds of other applications. Implanted medical devices, where people don't have to die of infections anymore if you can seal the thing up. +Credit cards, robot vacuum cleaners. +So what I'd like to do is take a couple minutes and show you, actually, how it works. +And what I'm going to do is to show you pretty much what's here. +You've got a coil. +That coil is connected to an R.F. amplifier that creates a high-frequency oscillating magnetic field. +We put one on the back of the television set. +By the way, I do make it look a little bit easier than it is. +There's lots of electronics and secret sauce and all kinds of intellectual property that go into it. +But then what's going to happen is, it will create a field. +It will cause one to get created on the other side. +And if the demo gods are willing, in about 10 seconds or so we should see it. +The 10 seconds actually are because we -- I don't know if any of you have ever thought about plugging a T.V. in when you use just a cord. +Generally, you have to go over and hit the button. So I thought we put a little computer in it that has to wake up to tell it to do that. +So, I'll plug that in. +It creates a magnetic field here. +It causes one to be created out here. +And as I said, in sort of about 10 seconds we should start to see ... +This is a commercially -- available color television set. +Imagine, you get one of these things. You want to hang them on the wall. +How many people want to hang them on the wall? +Think about it. You don't want those ugly cords coming down. +Imagine if you can get rid of it. +The other thing I wanted to talk about was safety. +So, there is nothing going on. I'm okay. +And I'll do it again, just for safety's sake. +Almost immediately, though, people ask, "How small can you make this? Can you make this small enough?" +Because remember Dr. Soljacic's original idea was his wife's cellphone beeping. +So, I wanted to show you something. +We're an equal opportunity designer of this sort of thing. +This a Google G1. +You know, it's the latest thing that's come out. +It runs the Android operating system. +I think I heard somebody talk about that before. +It's odd. It has a battery. +It also has coiled electronics that WiTricity has put into the back of it. +And if I can get the camera -- okay, great -- you'll see, as I get sort of close... +you're looking at a cellphone powered completely wirelessly. +And I know some of you are Apple aficionados. +So, you know they don't make it easy at Apple to get inside their phones. +So we put a little sleeve on the back, but we should be able to get this guy to wake up too. +And those of you that have an iPhone recognize the green center. +And Nokia as well. +You'll see that what we did there is put a little thing in the back, to do that, and it probably beeps, actually, as it goes on as well. +But they typically use it to light up the screen. +So, imagine these things could go ... they could go in your ceiling. +They could go in the floor. They could go, actually, underneath your desktop. +So that when you walk in or you come in from home, if you carry a purse, it works in your purse. +You never have to worry about plugging these things in again. +And think of what that would do for you. +So I think in closing, sort of in the immortal visions of The New Yorker magazine, I thought I'd put up one more slide. +And for those of you who can't read it, it says, "It does appear to be some kind of wireless technology." +So, thank you very much. +I'm going to talk about your mindset. +Does your mindset correspond to my dataset? +If not, one or the other needs upgrading, isn't it? +When I talk to my students about global issues, and I listen to them in the coffee break, they always talk about "we" and "them." +And when they come back into the lecture room I ask them, "What do you mean with "we" and "them"? +"Oh, it's very easy. It's the western world and it's the developing world," they say. +"We learned it in college." +And what is the definition then? "The definition? +Everyone knows," they say. +But then you know, I press them like this. +So one girl said, very cleverly, "It's very easy. +Western world is a long life in a small family. +Developing world is a short life in a large family." +And I like that definition, because it enabled me to transfer their mindset into the dataset. +And here you have the dataset. +So, you can see that what we have on this axis here is size of family. One, two, three, four, five children per woman on this axis. +And here, length of life, life expectancy, 30, 40, 50. +Exactly what the students said was their concept about the world. +And really this is about the bedroom. +Whether the man and woman decide to have small family, and take care of their kids, and how long they will live. +It's about the bathroom and the kitchen. If you have soap, water and food, you know, you can live long. +And the students were right. It wasn't that the world consisted -- the world consisted here, of one set of countries over here, which had large families and short life. Developing world. +And we had one set of countries up there which was the western world. +They had small families and long life. +And you are going to see here the amazing thing that has happened in the world during my lifetime. +Then the developing countries applied soap and water, vaccination. +And all the developing world started to apply family planning. +And partly to USA who help to provide technical advice and investment. +And you see all the world moves over to a two child family, and a life with 60 to 70 years. +But some countries remain back in this area here. +And you can see we still have Afghanistan down here. +We have Liberia. We have Congo. +So we have countries living there. +So the problem I had is that the worldview that my students had corresponds to reality in the world the year their teachers were born. +And we, in fact, when we have played this over the world. +I was at the Global Health Conference here in Washington last week, and I could see the wrong concept even active people in United States had, that they didn't realize the improvement of Mexico there, and China, in relation to United States. +Look here when I move them forward. +Here we go. +They catch up. There's Mexico. +It's on par with United States in these two social dimensions. +There was less than five percent of the specialists in Global Health that was aware of this. +This great nation, Mexico, has the problem that arms are coming from North, across the borders, so they had to stop that, because they have this strange relationship to the United States, you know. +But if I would change this axis here, I would instead put income per person. +Income per person. I can put that here. +And we will then see a completely different picture. +By the way, I'm teaching you how to use our website, Gapminder World, while I'm correcting this, because this is a free utility on the net. +And when I now finally got it right, I can go back 200 years in history. +And I can find United States up there. +And I can let the other countries be shown. +And now I have income per person on this axis. +And United States only had some, one, two thousand dollars at that time. +And the life expectancy was 35 to 40 years, on par with Afghanistan today. +And what has happened in the world, I will show now. +This is instead of studying history for one year at university. +You can watch me for one minute now and you'll see the whole thing. +You can see how the brown bubbles, which is west Europe, and the yellow one, which is the United States, they get richer and richer and also start to get healthier and healthier. +And this is now 100 years ago, where the rest of the world remains behind. +Here we come. And that was the influenza. +That's why we are so scared about flu, isn't it? +It's still remembered. The fall of life expectancy. +And then we come up. Not until independence started. +Look here You have China over there, you have India over there, and this is what has happened. +Did you note there, that we have Mexico up there? +Mexico is not at all on par with the United States, but they are quite close. +And especially, it's interesting to see China and the United States during 200 years, because I have my oldest son now working for Google, after Google acquired this software. +Because in fact, this is child labor. My son and his wife sat in a closet for many years and developed this. +And my youngest son, who studied Chinese in Beijing. +So they come in with the two perspectives I have, you know? +And my son, youngest son who studied in Beijing, in China, he got a long-term perspective. +Whereas when my oldest son, who works for Google, he should develop by quarter, or by half-year. +Or Google is quite generous, so he can have one or two years to go. +But in China they look generation after generation because they remember the very embarrassing period, for 100 years, when they went backwards. +And then they would remember the first part of last century, which was really bad, and we could go by this so-called Great Leap Forward. +But this was 1963. +Mao Tse-Tung eventually brought health to China, and then he died, and then Deng Xiaoping started this amazing move forward. +Isn't it strange to see that the United States first grew the economy, and then gradually got rich? +Whereas China could get healthy much earlier, because they applied the knowledge of education, nutrition, and then also benefits of penicillin and vaccines and family planning. +And Asia could have social development before they got the economic development. +So to me, as a public health professor, it's not strange that all these countries grow so fast now. +Because what you see here, what you see here is the flat world of Thomas Friedman, isn't it. +It's not really, really flat. +But the middle income countries -- and this is where I suggest to my students, stop using the concept "developing world." +Because after all, talking about the developing world is like having two chapters in the history of the United States. +The last chapter is about present, and president Obama, and the other is about the past, where you cover everything from Washington to Eisenhower. +Because Washington to Eisenhower, that is what we find in the developing world. +We could actually go to Mayflower to Eisenhower, and that would be put together into a developing world, which is rightly growing its cities in a very amazing way, which have great entrepreneurs, but also have the collapsing countries. +So, how could we make better sense about this? +Well, one way of trying is to see whether we could look at income distribution. +This is the income distribution of peoples in the world, from $1. This is where you have food to eat. +These people go to bed hungry. +And this is the number of people. +This is $10, whether you have a public or a private health service system. This is where you can provide health service for your family and school for your children, and this is OECD countries: Green, Latin America, East Europe. +This is East Asia, and the light blue there is South Asia. +And this is how the world changed. +It changed like this. +Can you see how it's growing? And how hundreds of millions and billions is coming out of poverty in Asia? +And it goes over here? +And I come now, into projections, but I have to stop at the door of Lehman Brothers there, you know, because -- that's where the projections are not valid any longer. +Probably the world will do this. +and then it will continue forward like this. +But more or less, this is what will happen, and we have a world which cannot be looked upon as divided. +We have the high income countries here, with the United States as a leading power; we have the emerging economies in the middle, which provide a lot of the funding for the bailout; and we have the low income countries here. +Yeah, this is a fact that from where the money comes, they have been saving, you know, over the last decade. +And here we have the low income countries where entrepreneurs are. +And here we have the countries in collapse and war, like Afghanistan, Somalia, parts of Congo, Darfur. +We have all this at the same time. +That's why it's so problematic to describe what has happened in the developing world. +Because it's so different, what has happened there. +And that's why I suggest a slightly different approach of what you would call it. +And you have huge differences within countries also. +I heard that your departments here were by regions. +Here you have Sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, East Asia, Arab states, East Europe, Latin America, and OECD. +And on this axis, GDP. +And on this, heath, child survival, and it doesn't come as a surprise that Africa south of Sahara is at the bottom. +But when I split it, when I split it into country bubbles, the size of the bubbles here is the population. +Then you see Sierra Leone and Mauritius, completely different. +There is such a difference within Sub-Saharan Africa. +And I can split the others. Here is the South Asian, Arab world. +Now all your different departments. +East Europe, Latin America, and OECD countries. +And here were are. We have a continuum in the world. +We cannot put it into two parts. +It is Mayflower down here. It is Washington here, building, building countries. +It's Lincoln here, advancing them. +It's Eisenhower bringing modernity into the countries. +And then it's United States today, up here. +And we have countries all this way. +Now, this is the important thing of understanding how the world has changed. +At this point I decided to make a pause. +And it is my task, on behalf of the rest of the world, to convey a thanks to the U.S. taxpayers, for Demographic Health Survey. +Many are not aware of -- no, this is not a joke. +This is very serious. +It is due to USA's continuous sponsoring during 25 years of the very good methodology for measuring child mortality that we have a grasp of what's happening in the world. +And it is U.S. government at its best, without advocacy, providing facts, that it's useful for the society. +And providing data free of charge on the internet, for the world to use. Thank you very much. +Quite the opposite of the World Bank, who compiled data with government money, tax money, and then they sell it to add a little profit, in a very inefficient, Gutenberg way. +But the people doing that at the World Bank are among the best in the world. +And they are highly skilled professionals. +It's just that we would like to upgrade our international agencies to deal with the world in the modern way, as we do. +And when it comes to free data and transparency, United States of America is one of the best. +And that doesn't come easy from the mouth of a Swedish public health professor. +And I'm not paid to come here, no. +I would like to show you what happens with the data, what we can show with this data. +Look here. This is the world. +With income down there and child mortality. +And what has happened in the world? +Since 1950, during the last 50 years we have had a fall in child mortality. +And it is the DHS that makes it possible to know this. +And we had an increase in income. +And the blue former developing countries are mixing up with the former industrialized western world. +We have a continuum. But we still have, of course, Congo, up there. We still have as poor countries as we have had, always, in history. +And that's the bottom billion, where we've heard today about a completely new approach to do it. +And how fast has this happened? +Well, MDG 4. +The United States has not been so eager to use MDG 4. +But you have been the main sponsor that has enabled us to measure it, because it's the only child mortality that we can measure. +And we used to say that it should fall four percent per year. +Let's see what Sweden has done. +We used to boast about fast social progress. +That's where we were, 1900. +1900, Sweden was there. +Same child mortality as Bangladesh had, 1990, though they had lower income. +They started very well. They used the aid well. +They vaccinated the kids. They get better water. +And they reduced child mortality, with an amazing 4.7 percent per year. They beat Sweden. +I run Sweden the same 16 year period. +Second round, it's Sweden, 1916, against Egypt, 1990. +Here we go. Once again the USA is part of the reason here. +They get safe water, they get food for the poor, and they get malaria eradicated. +5.5 percent. They are faster than the millennium development goal. +And third chance for Sweden, against Brazil here. +Brazil here has amazing social improvement over the last 16 years, and they go faster than Sweden. +This means that the world is converging. +The middle income countries, the emerging economy, they are catching up. +They are moving to cities, where they also get better assistance for that. +Well the Swedish students protest at this point. +They say, "This is not fair, because these countries had vaccines and antibiotics that were not available for Sweden. +We have to do real-time competition." +Okay. I give you Singapore, the year I was born. +Singapore had twice the child mortality of Sweden. +It's the most tropical country in the world, a marshland on the equator. +And here we go. It took a little time for them to get independent. +But then they started to grow their economy. +And they made the social investment. They got away malaria. +They got a magnificent health system that beat both the U.S. and Sweden. +We never thought it would happen that they would win over Sweden! +All these green countries are achieving millennium development goals. +These yellow are just about to be doing this. +These red are the countries that doesn't do it, and the policy has to be improved. +Not simplistic extrapolation. +We have to really find a way of supporting those countries in a better way. +We have to respect the middle income countries on what they are doing. +And we have to fact-base the whole way we look at the world. +This is dollar per person. This is HIV in the countries. +The blue is Africa. +The size of the bubbles is how many are HIV affected. +You see the tragedy in South Africa there. +About 20 percent of the adult population are infected. +And in spite of them having quite a high income, they have a huge number of HIV infected. +But you also see that there are African countries down here. +There is no such thing as an HIV epidemic in Africa. +There's a number, five to 10 countries in Africa that has the same level as Sweden and United States. +And there are others who are extremely high. +And I will show you that what has happened in one of the best countries, with the most vibrant economy in Africa and a good governance, Botswana. +They have a very high level. It's coming down. +But now it's not falling, because there, with help from PEPFAR, it's working with treatment. And people are not dying. +And you can see it's not that easy, that it is war which caused this. +Because here, in Congo, there is war. +And here, in Zambia, there is peace. +And it's not the economy. Richer country has a little higher. +If I split Tanzania in its income, the richer 20 percent in Tanzania has more HIV than the poorest one. +And it's really different within each country. +Look at the provinces of Kenya. They are very different. +And this is the situation you see. +It's not deep poverty. It's the special situation, probably of concurrent sexual partnership among part of the heterosexual population in some countries, or some parts of countries, in south and eastern Africa. +Don't make it Africa. Don't make it a race issue. +Make it a local issue. And do prevention at each place, in the way it can be done there. +So to just end up, there are things of suffering in the one billion poorest, which we don't know. +Those who live beyond the cellphone, those who have yet to see a computer, those who have no electricity at home. +This is the disease, Konzo, I spent 20 years elucidating in Africa. +It's caused by fast processing of toxic cassava root in famine situation. +It's similar to the pellagra epidemic in Mississippi in the '30s. +It's similar to other nutritional diseases. +It will never affect a rich person. +We have seen it here in Mozambique. +This is the epidemic in Mozambique. This is an epidemic in northern Tanzania. +You never heard about the disease. +But it's much more than Ebola that has been affected by this disease. +Cause crippling throughout the world. +And over the last two years, 2,000 people has been crippled in the southern tip of Bandundu region. +That used to be the illegal diamond trade, from the UNITA-dominated area in Angola. +That has now disappeared, and they are now in great economic problem. +And one week ago, for the first time, there were four lines on the Internet. +Don't get confused of the progress of the emerging economies and the great capacity of people in the middle income countries and in peaceful low income countries. +There is still mystery in one billion. +And we have to have more concepts than just developing countries and developing world. +We need a new mindset. The world is converging, but -- but -- but not the bottom billion. +They are still as poor as they've ever been. +It's not sustainable, and it will not happen around one superpower. +But you will remain one of the most important superpowers, and the most hopeful superpower, for the time to be. +And this institution will have a very crucial role, not for United States, but for the world. +So you have a very bad name, State Department. This is not the State Department. +It's the World Department. +And we have a high hope in you. Thank you very much. +I love theater. +I love the idea that you can transform, become somebody else and look at life with a completely new perspective. +I love the idea that people will sit in one room for a couple of hours and listen. +The idea that in that room at that moment, everyone, regardless of their age, their gender, their race, their color, their religion, comes together. +At that moment, we transcend space and time together. +Theater awakens our senses and opens the door to our imagination. +And our ability to imagine is what makes us explorers. +Our ability to imagine makes us inventors and creators and unique. +I was commissioned in 2003 to create an original show, and began developing "Upwake." +"Upwake" tells the story of Zero, a modern-day business man, going to work with his life in a suitcase, stuck between dream and reality and not able to decipher the two. +I wanted "Upwake" to have the same audiovisual qualities as a movie would. +And I wanted to let my imagination run wild. +So I began drawing the story that was moving in my head. +If Antoine de Saint-Exupery, the author of "The Little Prince," were here, he would have drawn three holes inside that box and told you your sheep was inside. +Because, if you look closely enough, things will begin to appear. +This is not a box; these are the renderings of my imagination from head to paper to screen to life. +In "Upwake" buildings wear suits, Zero tap dances on a giant keyboard, clones himself with a scanner, tames and whips the computer mice, sails away into dreamscape from a single piece of paper and launches into space. +I wanted to create environments that moved and morphed like an illusionist. +Go from one world to another in a second. +I wanted to have humor, beauty, simplicity and complexity and use metaphors to suggest ideas. +At the beginning of the show, for example, Zero deejays dream and reality. +Technology is an instrument that allowed me to manifest my visions in high definition, live, on stage. +So today, I would like to talk to you about the relationship between theater and technology. +Let's start with technology. +(Fuse blowing) All right. Let's start with theater. +(Click, click, bang) Thank you. +"Upwake" lasts 52 minutes and 54 seconds. +I project 3D animation on all the four surfaces of the stage which I interact with. +The use of animation and projection was a process of discovery. +I didn't use it as a special effect, but as a partner on stage. +There are no special effects in "Upwake," no artifice. +It's as lavish and intricate as it is simple and minimal. +Three hundred and forty-four frames, four and a half years and commissions later, what started as a one person show became a collaborative work of nineteen most talented artists. +And here are some excerpts. +Thank you. +So this is, relatively, a new show that we're now beginning to tour. +And in Austin, Texas, I was asked to give small demonstrations in schools during the afternoon. +When I arrived at one of the schools, I certainly did not expect this: Six hundred kids, packed in a gymnasium, waiting. +I was a little nervous performing without animation, costume -- really -- and make-up. +But the teachers came to me afterward and told me they hadn't seen the kids that attentive. +And I think the reason why is that I was able to use their language and their reality in order to transport them into another. +Something happened along the way. +Zero became a person and not just a character in a play. +Zero does not speak, is neither man nor woman. +Zero is Zero, a little hero of the 21st Century, and Zero can touch so many more people than I possibly could. +It's as much about bringing new disciplines inside this box as it is about taking theater out of its box. +As a street performer, I have learned that everybody wants to connect. +And that usually, if you're a bit extraordinary, if you're not exactly of human appearance, then people will feel inclined to participate and to feel out loud. +It's as though you made something resonate within them. +It's as though the mystery of the person they're interacting with and connecting allows them to be themselves just a bit more. +Because through your mask, they let theirs go. +Being human is an art form. +I know theater can improve the quality of people's lives, and I know theater can heal. +I've worked as a doctor clown in a hospital for two years. +I have seen sick kids and sad parents and doctors be lifted and transported in moments of pure joy. +I know theater unites us. +Zero wants to engage the generation of today and tomorrow, tell various stories through different mediums. +Comic books. Quantum physics video games. +And Zero wants to go to the moon. +In 2007, Zero launched a green campaign, suggesting his friends and fans to turn off their electricity every Sunday from 7:53 to 8:00 p.m. +The idea is simple, basic. It's not original, but it's important, and it's important to participate. +There is a revolution. +It's a human and technological revolution. +It's motion and emotion. +It's information. +It's visual. It's musical. It's sensorial. +It's conceptual. It's universal. It's beyond words and numbers. +It's happening. +The natural progression of science and art finding each other to better touch and define the human experience. +There is a revolution in the way that we think, in the way that we share, and the way that we express our stories, our evolution. +This is a time of communication, connection and creative collaboration. +Charlie Chaplin innovated motion pictures and told stories through music, silence, humor and poetry. +He was social, and his character, The Tramp, spoke to millions. +He gave entertainment, pleasure and relief to so many human beings when they needed it the most. +We are not here to question the possible; we are here to challenge the impossible. +In the science of today, we become artists. +In the art of today, we become scientists. +We design our world. We invent possibilities. +We teach, touch and move. +It is now that we can use the diversity of our talents to create intelligent, meaningful and extraordinary work. It's now. +Thank you. +I've been fascinated with crop diversity for about 35 years from now, ever since I stumbled across a fairly obscure academic article by a guy named Jack Harlan. +And he described the diversity within crops -- all the different kinds of wheat and rice and such -- as a genetic resource. +And he said, "This genetic resource," -- and I'll never forget the words -- "stands between us and catastrophic starvation on a scale we cannot imagine." +I figured he was either really on to something, or he was one of these academic nutcases. +So, I looked a little further, and what I figured out was that he wasn't a nutcase. +He was the most respected scientist in the field. +What he understood was that biological diversity -- crop diversity -- is the biological foundation of agriculture. +It's the raw material, the stuff, of evolution in our agricultural crops. +Not a trivial matter. +And he also understood that that foundation was crumbling, literally crumbling. +That indeed, a mass extinction was underway in our fields, in our agricultural system. +And that this mass extinction was taking place with very few people noticing and even fewer caring. +Now, I know that many of you don't stop to think about diversity in agricultural systems and, let's face it, that's logical. +You don't see it in the newspaper every day. +And when you go into the supermarket, you certainly don't see a lot of choices there. +You see apples that are red, yellow, and green and that's about it. +So, let me show you a picture of one form of diversity. +Here's some beans, and there are about 35 or 40 different varieties of beans on this picture. +Now, imagine each one of these varieties as being distinct from another about the same way as a poodle from a Great Dane. +If I wanted to show you a picture of all the dog breeds in the world, and I put 30 or 40 of them on a slide, it would take about 10 slides because there about 400 breeds of dogs in the world. +But there are 35 to 40,000 different varieties of beans. +So if I were to going to show you all the beans in the world, and I had a slide like this, and I switched it every second, it would take up my entire TED talk, and I wouldn't have to say anything. +But the interesting thing is that this diversity -- and the tragic thing is -- that this diversity is being lost. +We have about 200,000 different varieties of wheat, and we have about 2 to 400,000 different varieties of rice, but it's being lost. +And I want to give you an example of that. +It's a bit of a personal example, in fact. +In the United States, in the 1800s -- that's where we have the best data -- farmers and gardeners were growing 7,100 named varieties of apples. +Imagine that. 7,100 apples with names. +Today, 6,800 of those are extinct, no longer to be seen again. +I used to have a list of these extinct apples, and when I would go out and give a presentation, I would pass the list out in the audience. +I wouldn't tell them what it was, but it was in alphabetical order, and I would tell them to look for their names, their family names, their mother's maiden name. +And at the end of the speech, I would ask, "How many people have found a name?" +And I never had fewer than two-thirds of an audience hold up their hand. +And I said, "You know what? These apples come from your ancestors, and your ancestors gave them the greatest honor they could give them. +They gave them their name. +The bad news is they're extinct. +The good news is a third of you didn't hold up your hand. Your apple's still out there. +Find it. Make sure it doesn't join the list." +So, I want to tell you that the piece of the good news is that the Fowler apple is still out there. +And there's an old book back here, and I want to read a piece from it. +This book was published in 1904. +It's called "The Apples of New York" and this is the second volume. +See, we used to have a lot of apples. +And the Fowler apple is described in here -- I hope this doesn't surprise you -- as, "a beautiful fruit." +I don't know if we named the apple or if the apple named us, but ... +but, to be honest, the description goes on and it says that it "doesn't rank high in quality, however." +And then he has to go even further. +It sounds like it was written by an old school teacher of mine. +"As grown in New York, the fruit usually fails to develop properly in size and quality and is, on the whole, unsatisfactory." +And I guess there's a lesson to be learned here, and the lesson is: so why save it? +I get this question all the time. Why don't we just save the best one? +And there are a couple of answers to that question. +One thing is that there is no such thing as a best one. +Today's best variety is tomorrow's lunch for insects or pests or disease. +The other thing is that maybe that Fowler apple or maybe a variety of wheat that's not economical right now has disease or pest resistance or some quality that we're going to need for climate change that the others don't. +So it's not necessary, thank God, that the Fowler apple is the best apple in the world. +It's just necessary or interesting that it might have one good, unique trait. +And for that reason, we ought to be saving it. +Why? As a raw material, as a trait we can use in the future. +Think of diversity as giving us options. +And options, of course, are exactly what we need in an era of climate change. +In short, the answer is that in the future, in many countries, the coldest growing seasons are going to be hotter than anything those crops have seen in the past. +The coldest growing seasons of the future, hotter than the hottest of the past. +Is agriculture adapted to that? +I don't know. Can fish play the piano? +If agriculture hasn't experienced that, how could it be adapted? +Now, the highest concentration of poor and hungry people in the world, and the place where climate change, ironically, is going to be the worst is in South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. +So I've picked two examples here, and I want to show you. +In the histogram before you now, the blue bars represent the historical range of temperatures, going back about far as we have temperature data. +And you can see that there's some difference between one growing season and another. +Some are colder, some are hotter and it's a bell shaped curve. +The tallest bar is the average temperature for the most number of growing seasons. +In the future, later this century, it's going to look like the red, totally out of bounds. +The agricultural system and, more importantly, the crops in the field in India have never experienced this before. +Here's South Africa. The same story. +But the most interesting thing about South Africa is we don't have to wait for 2070 for there to be trouble. +By 2030, if the maize, or corn, varieties, which is the dominant crop -- 50 percent of the nutrition in Southern Africa are still in the field -- in 2030, we'll have a 30 percent decrease in production of maize because of the climate change already in 2030. +30 percent decrease of production in the context of increasing population, that's a food crisis. It's global in nature. +We will watch children starve to death on TV. +Now, you may say that 20 years is a long way off. +It's two breeding cycles for maize. +We have two rolls of the dice to get this right. +We have to get climate-ready crops in the field, and we have to do that rather quickly. +Now, the good news is that we have conserved. +We have collected and conserved a great deal of biological diversity, agricultural diversity, mostly in the form of seed, and we put it in seed banks, which is a fancy way of saying a freezer. +If you want to conserve seed for a long term and you want to make it available to plant breeders and researchers, you dry it and then you freeze it. +Unfortunately, these seed banks are located around the world in buildings and they're vulnerable. +Disasters have happened. In recent years we lost the gene bank, the seed bank in Iraq and Afghanistan. You can guess why. +In Rwanda, in the Solomon Islands. +And then there are just daily disasters that take place in these buildings, financial problems and mismanagement and equipment failures, and all kinds of things, and every time something like this happens, it means extinction. We lose diversity. +And I'm not talking about losing diversity in the same way that you lose your car keys. +I'm talking about losing it in the same way that we lost the dinosaurs: actually losing it, never to be seen again. +So, a number of us got together and decided that, you know, enough is enough and we need to do something about that and we need to have a facility that can really offer protection for our biological diversity of -- maybe not the most charismatic diversity. +You don't look in the eyes of a carrot seed quite in the way you do a panda bear, but it's very important diversity. +So we needed a really safe place, and we went quite far north to find it. +To Svalbard, in fact. +This is above mainland Norway. You can see Greenland there. +That's at 78 degrees north. +It's as far as you can fly on a regularly scheduled airplane. +It's a remarkably beautiful landscape. I can't even begin to describe it to you. +It's otherworldly, beautiful. +We worked with the Norwegian government and with the NorGen, the Norwegian Genetic Resources Program, to design this facility. +What you see is an artist's conception of this facility, which is built in a mountain in Svalbard. +The idea of Svalbard was that it's cold, so we get natural freezing temperatures. +But it's remote. It's remote and accessible so it's safe and we don't depend on mechanical refrigeration. +This is more than just an artist's dream, it's now a reality. +And this next picture shows it in context, in Svalbard. +And here's the front door of this facility. +When you open up the front door, this is what you're looking at. It's pretty simple. It's a hole in the ground. +It's a tunnel, and you go into the tunnel, chiseled in solid rock, about 130 meters. +There are now a couple of security doors, so you won't see it quite like this. +Again, when you get to the back, you get into an area that's really my favorite place. +I think of it as sort of a cathedral. +And I know that this tags me as a bit of a nerd, but ... +Some of the happiest days of my life have been spent ... +in this place there. +If you were to walk into one of these rooms, you would see this. +It's not very exciting, but if you know what's there, it's pretty emotional. +We have now about 425,000 samples of unique crop varieties. +There's 70,000 samples of different varieties of rice in this facility right now. +About a year from now, we'll have over half a million samples. +We're going up to over a million, and someday we'll basically have samples -- about 500 seeds -- of every variety of agricultural crop that can be stored in a frozen state in this facility. +This is a backup system for world agriculture. +It's a backup system for all the seed banks. Storage is free. +It operates like a safety deposit box. +Norway owns the mountain and the facility, but the depositors own the seed. +And if anything happens, then they can come back and get it. +This particular picture that you see shows the national collection of the United States, of Canada, and an international institution from Syria. +I can't think of anything else that's happened in my lifetime that way. +I can't look you in the eyes and tell you that I have a solution for climate change, for the water crisis. +Agriculture takes 70 percent of fresh water supplies on earth. +I can't look you in the eyes and tell you that there is such a solution for those things, or the energy crisis, or world hunger, or peace in conflict. +I can't look you in the eyes and tell you that I have a simple solution for that, but I can look you in the eyes and tell you that we can't solve any of those problems if we don't have crop diversity. +Because I challenge you to think of an effective, efficient, sustainable solution to climate change if we don't have crop diversity. +Because, quite literally, if agriculture doesn't adapt to climate change, neither will we. +And if crops don't adapt to climate change, neither will agriculture, neither will we. +So, this is not something pretty and nice to do. +There are a lot of people who would love to have this diversity exist just for the existence value of it. +It is, I agree, a nice thing to do. +But it's a necessary thing to do. +So, in a very real sense, I believe that we, as an international community, should get organized to complete the task. +The Svalbard Global Seed Vault is a wonderful gift that Norway and others have given us, but it's not the complete answer. +We need to collect the remaining diversity that's out there. +We need to put it into good seed banks that can offer those seeds to researchers in the future. +We need to catalog it. It's a library of life, but right now I would say we don't have a card catalog for it. +And we need to support it financially. +My big idea would be that while we think of it as commonplace to endow an art museum or endow a chair at a university, we really ought to be thinking about endowing wheat. +30 million dollars in an endowment would take care of preserving all the diversity in wheat forever. +So we need to be thinking a little bit in those terms. +And my final thought is that we, of course, by conserving wheat, rice, potatoes, and the other crops, we may, quite simply, end up saving ourselves. +Thank you. +I'm going to tell you about one of the world's largest problems and how it can be solved. +I'd like to start with a little experiment. +Could you put your hand up if you wear glasses or contact lenses, or you've had laser refractive surgery? +Now, unfortunately, there are too many of you for me to do the statistics properly. +But it looks like -- I'm guessing -- that it'll be about 60 percent of the room because that's roughly the fraction of developed world population that have some sort of vision correction. +The World Health Organization estimates -- well, they make various estimates of the number of people who need glasses -- the lowest estimate is 150 million people. +They also have an estimate of around a billion. +But in fact, I would argue that we've just done an experiment here and now, which shows us that the global need for corrective eyewear is around half of any population. +And the problem of poor vision, is actually not just a health problem, it's also an educational problem, and it's an economic problem, and it's a quality of life problem. +Glasses are not very expensive. They're quite plentiful. +The problem is, there aren't enough eye care professionals in the world to use the model of the delivery of corrective eyewear that we have in the developed world. +There are just way too few eye care professionals. +So this little slide here shows you an optometrist and the little blue person represents about 10,000 people and that's the ratio in the U.K. +This is the ratio of optometrists to people in sub-Saharan Africa. +In fact, there are some countries in sub-Saharan Africa where there's one optometrist for eight million of the population. +How do you do this? How do you solve this problem? +I came up with a solution to this problem, and I came up with a solution based on adaptive optics for this. +And the idea is you make eye glasses, and you adjust them yourself and that solves the problem. +What I want to do is to show you that one can make a pair of glasses. +I shall just show you how you make a pair of glasses. I shall pop this in my pocket. +I'm short sighted. I look at the signs at the end, I can hardly see them. +So -- okay, I can now see that man running out there, and I can see that guy running out there. +I've now made prescription eyewear to my prescription. +Next step in my process. +So, I've now made eye glasses to my prescription. +Okay, so I've made these glasses and ... +Okay, I've made the glasses to my prescription and ... +... I've just ... +And I've now made some glasses. That's it. +Now, these aren't the only pair in the world. +In fact, this technology's been evolving. +I started working on it in 1985, and it's been evolving very slowly. +There are about 30,000 in use now. +And they're in fifteen countries. They're spread around the world. +And I have a vision, which I'll share with you. +I have a global vision for vision. +And that vision is to try to get a billion people wearing the glasses they need by the year 2020. +To do that -- this is an early example of the technology. +The technology is being further developed -- the cost has to be brought down. +This pair, in fact, these currently cost about 19 dollars. +But the cost has to be brought right down. +It has to be brought down because we're trying to serve populations who live on a dollar a day. +How do you solve this problem? +You start to get into detail. +And on this slide, I'm basically explaining all the problems you have. +How do you distribute? How do you work out how to fit the thing? +How do you have people realizing that they have a vision problem? +How do you deal with the industry? +And the answer to that is research. +What we've done is to set up the Center for Vision in the Developing World here in the university. +If you want to know more, just come have a look at our website. Thank you. +It's hard to believe that it's less than a year since the extraordinary moment when the finance, the credit, which drives our economies froze. +A massive cardiac arrest. +The effect, the payback, perhaps, for years of vampire predators like Bernie Madoff, whom we saw earlier. +Abuse of steroids, binging and so on. +And it's only a few months since governments injected enormous sums of money to try and keep the whole system afloat. +And we're now in a very strange sort of twilight zone, where no one quite knows what's worked, or what doesn't. +We don't have any very clear maps, any compass to guide us. +We don't know which experts to believe anymore. +What I'm going to try and do is to give some pointers to what I think is the landscape on the other side of the crisis, what things we should be looking out for and how we can actually use the crisis. +There's a definition of leadership which says, "It's the ability to use the smallest possible crisis for the biggest possible effect." +And I want to talk about how we ensure that this crisis, which is by no means small, really is used to the full. +I want to start just by saying a bit about where I'm coming from. +I've got a very confused background which perhaps makes me appropriate for confused times. +I've got a Ph.D. in Telecoms, as you can see. +I trained briefly as a Buddhist monk under this guy. +I've been a civil servant, and I've been in charge of policy for this guy as well. +But what I want to talk about begins when I was at this city, this university, as a student. +And then as now, it was a beautiful place of balls and punts, beautiful people, many of whom took to heart Ronald Reagan's comment that, "even if they say hard work doesn't do you any harm, why risk it?" +But when I was here, a lot of my fellow teenagers were in a very different situation, leaving school at a time then of rapidly growing youth unemployment, and essentially hitting a brick wall in terms of their opportunities. +And I spent quite a lot of time with them rather than in punts. +And they were people who were not short of wit, or grace or energy, but they had no hope, no jobs, no prospects. +And when people aren't allowed to be useful, they soon think that they're useless. +And although that was great for the music business at the time, it wasn't much good for anything else. +And ever since then, I've wondered why it is that capitalism is so amazingly efficient at some things, but so inefficient at others, why it's so innovative in some ways and so un-innovative in others. +Now, since that time, we've actually been through an extraordinary boom, the longest boom ever in the history of this country. +Unprecedented wealth and prosperity, but that growth hasn't always delivered what we needed. +H.L. Mencken once said that, "to every complex problem, there is a simple solution and it's wrong." +But I'm not saying growth is wrong, but it's very striking that throughout the years of growth, many things didn't get better. +Rates of depression carried on up, right across the Western world. +If you look at America, the proportion of Americans with no one to talk to about important things went up from a tenth to a quarter. +We commuted longer to work, but as you can see from this graph, the longer you commute the less happy you're likely to be. +And it became ever clearer that economic growth doesn't automatically translate into social growth or human growth. +We're now at another moment when another wave of teenagers are entering a cruel job market. +There will be a million unemployed young people here by the end of the year, thousands losing their jobs everyday in America. +We've got to do whatever we can to help them, but we've also got to ask, I think, a more profound question of whether we use this crisis to jump forward to a different kind of economy that's more suited to human needs, to a better balance of economy and society. +And I think one of the lessons of history is that even the deepest crises can be moments of opportunity. +They bring ideas from the margins into the mainstream. +They often lead to the acceleration of much-needed reforms. +And you saw that in the '30s, when the Great Depression paved the way for Bretton Woods, welfare states and so on. +And I think you can see around us now, some of the green shoots of a very different kind of economy and capitalism which could grow. +You can see it in daily life. +When times are hard, people have to do things for themselves, and right across the world, Oxford, Omaha, Omsk, you can see an extraordinary explosion of urban farming, people taking over land, taking over roofs, turning barges into temporary farms. +And I'm a very small part of this. +I have 60,000 of these things in my garden. +A few of these. This is Atilla the hen. +And I'm a very small part of a very large movement, which for some people is about survival, but is also about values, about a different kind of economy, which isn't so much about consumption and credit, but about things which matter to us. +And everywhere too, you can see a proliferation of time banks and parallel currencies, people using smart technologies to link up all the resources freed up by the market -- people, buildings, land -- and linking them to whomever has got the most compelling needs. +There's a similar story, I think, for governments. +Ronald Reagan, again, said the two funniest sentences in the English language are, "I'm from the government. And I'm here to help." +But I think last year when governments did step in, people were quite glad that they were there, that they did act. +But now, a few months on, however good politicians are at swallowing frogs without pulling a face, as someone once put it, they can't hide their uncertainty. +Because it's already clear how much of the enormous amount of money they put into the economy, really went into fixing the past, bailing out the banks, the car companies, not preparing us for the future. +How much of the money is going into concrete and boosting consumption, not into solving the really profound problems we have to solve. +Surely, we should be giving the money to entrepreneurs, to civil society, for people able to create the new, not to the big, well-connected companies, big, clunky government programs. +And, after all this, as the great Chinese sage Lao Tzu said, "Governing a great country is like cooking a small fish. +Don't overdo it." +And I think more and more people are also asking: Why boost consumption, rather than change what we consume? +Like the mayor of So Paulo who's banned advertising billboards, or the many cities like San Francisco putting in infrastructures for electric cars. +You can see a bit of the same thing happening in the business world. +Some, I think some of the bankers who have appear to have learned nothing and forgotten nothing. +But ask yourselves: What will be the biggest sectors of the economy in 10, 20, 30 years time? It won't be the ones lining up for handouts, like cars and aerospace and so on. +The biggest sector, by far, will be health -- already 18 percent of the American economy, predicted to grow to 30, even 40 percent by mid-century. +Elder care, child care, already much bigger employers than cars. +Education: six, seven, eight percent of the economy and growing. +And I think that what connects the challenge for civil society, the challenge for governments and the challenge for business now is, in a way, a very simple one, but quite a difficult one. +We know our societies have to radically change. +We know we can't go back to where we were before the crisis. +But we also know it's only through experiment that we'll discover exactly how to run a low carbon city, how to care for a much older population, how to deal with drug addiction and so on. +And here's the problem. +In science, we do experiments systematically. +Our societies now spend two, three, four percent of GDP to invest systematically in new discovery, in science, in technology, to fuel the pipeline of brilliant inventions which illuminate gatherings like this. +It's not that our scientists are necessarily much smarter than they were a hundred years ago, maybe they are, but they have a hell of a lot more backing than they ever did. +And what's striking though, is that in society there's almost nothing comparable, no comparable investment, no systematic experiment, in the things capitalism isn't very good at, like compassion, or empathy, or relationships or care. +Now, I didn't really understand that until I met this guy who was then an 80-year-old, slightly shambolic man who lived on tomato soup and thought ironing was very overrated. +He had helped shape Britain's post-war institutions, its welfare state, its economy, but had sort of reinvented himself as a social entrepreneur, became an inventor of many, many different organizations. +Some famous ones like the Open University, which has 110,000 students, the University of the Third Age, which has nearly half a million older people teaching other older people, as well as strange things like DIY garages and language lines and schools for social entrepreneurs. +And he ended his life selling companies to venture capitalists. +He believed if you see a problem, you shouldn't tell someone to act, you should act on it yourself, and he lived long enough and saw enough of his ideas first scorned and then succeed that he said you should always take no as a question and not as an answer. +And his life was a systematic experiment to find better social answers, not from a theory, but from experiment, and experiment involving the people with the best intelligence on social needs, which were usually the people living with those needs. +And he believed we live with others, we share the world with others and therefore our innovation must be done with others too, not doing things at people, for them, and so on. +Now, what he did didn't used to have a name, but I think it's rapidly becoming quite mainstream. +It's what we do in the organization named after him where we try and invent, create, launch new ventures, whether it's schools, web companies, health organizations and so on. +And we find ourselves part of a very rapidly growing global movement of institutions working on social innovation, using ideas from design or technology or community organizing to develop the germs of a future world, but through practice and through demonstration and not through theory. +And they're spreading from Korea to Brazil to India to the USA and across Europe. +And they've been given new momentum by the crisis, by the need for better answers to joblessness, community breakdown and so on. +Some of the ideas are strange. +These are complaints choirs. +People come together to sing about the things that really bug them. +Others are much more pragmatic: health coaches, learning mentors, job clubs. +And some are quite structural, like social impact bonds where you raise money to invest in diverting teenagers from crime or helping old people keep out of hospital, and you get paid back according to how successful your projects are. +Now, the idea that all of this represents, I think, is rapidly becoming a common sense and part of how we respond to the crisis, recognizing the need to invest in innovation for social progress as well as technological progress. +There were big health innovation funds launched earlier this year in this country, as well as a public service innovation lab. +Across northern Europe, many governments now have innovation laboratories within them. +And just a few months ago, President Obama launched the Office of Social Innovation in the White House. +And what people are beginning to ask is: Surely, just as we invest in R and D, two, three, four percent, of our GDP, of our economy, what if we put, let's say, one percent of public spending into social innovation, into elder care, new kinds of education, new ways of helping the disabled? +Perhaps we'd achieve similar productivity gains in society to those we've had in the economy and in technology. +Now those are all goals which could be achieved within a decade, but only with radical and systematic experiment, not just with technologies, but also with lifestyles and culture and policies and institutions too. +Now, I want to end by saying a little bit about what I think this means for capitalism. +I think what this is all about, this whole movement which is growing from the margins, remains quite small. +Nothing like the resources of a CERN or a DARPA or an IBM or a Dupont. +What it's telling us is that capitalism is going to become more social. +It's already immersed in social networks. +It will become more involved in social investment, and social care and in industries where the value comes from what you do with others, not just from what you sell to them, and from relationships as well as from consumption. +But interestingly too, it implies a future where society learns a few tricks from capitalism about how you embed the DNA of restless continual innovation into society, trying things out and then growing and scaling the ones that work. +Now, I think this future will be quite surprising to many people. +In recent years, a lot of intelligent people thought that capitalism had basically won. +History was over and society would inevitably have to take second place to economy. +But I've been struck with a parallel in how people often talk about capitalism today and how they talked about the monarchy 200 years ago, just after the French Revolution and the restoration of the monarchy in France. +Then, people said monarchy dominated everywhere because it was rooted in human nature. +We were naturally deferential. We needed hierarchy. +Just as today, the enthusiasts of unrestrained capitalism say it's rooted in human nature, only now it's individualism, inquisitiveness, and so on. +Then monarchy had seen off its big challenger, mass democracy, which was seen as a well-intentioned but doomed experiment, just as capitalism has seen off socialism. +Even Fidel Castro now says that the only thing worse than being exploited by multinational capitalism is not being exploited by multinational capitalism. +And whereas then monarchies, palaces and forts dominated every city skyline and looked permanent and confident, today it's the gleaming towers of the banks which dominate every big city. +I'm not suggesting the crowds are about to storm the barricades and string up every investment banker from the nearest lamppost, though that might be quite tempting. +And as that happens, we will remember something very simple and obvious about capitalism, which is that, unlike what you read in economics textbooks, it's not a self-sufficient system. +It depends on other systems, on ecology, on family, on community, and if these aren't replenished, capitalism suffers too. +And our human nature isn't just selfish, it's also compassionate. +It's not just competitive, it's also caring. +Because of the depth of the crisis, I think we are at a moment of choice. +The crisis is almost certainly deepening around us. +It will be worse at the end of this year, quite possibly worse in a year's time than it is today. +Thank you. +I'm a creative technologist and the focus of my work is on public installations. +One of my driving passions is this idea of exploring nature, and trying to find hidden data within nature. +It seems to me that there is this latent potential everywhere, all around us. +Everything gives out some kind of data, whether it's sound or smell or vibration. +Through my work, I've been trying to find ways to harness and unveil this. +And so this basically led me to a subject called cymatics. +Now, cymatics is the process of visualizing sound by basically vibrating a medium such as sand or water, as you can see there. +So, if we have a quick look at the history of cymatics beginning with the observations of resonance, by Da Vinci, Galileo, the English scientist Robert Hook and then Ernest Chladni. +He created an experiment using a metal plate, covering it with sand and then bowing it to create the Chladni patterns that you see here on the right. +Moving on from this, the next person to explore this field was a gentleman called Hans Jenny in the 1970s. +He actually coined the term cymatics. +Then bringing us into the present day is a fellow collaborator of mine and cymatics expert, John Stewart Reed. +He's kindly recreated for us the Chladni experiment. +What we can see here is the metal sheet, this time connected to a sound driver and being fed by a frequency generator. +As the frequencies increase, so do the complexities of the patterns that appear on the plate. +As you can see with your own eyes. +So, what excites me about cymatics? +Well, for me cymatics is an almost magical tool. +It's like a looking glass into a hidden world. +Through the numerous ways that we can apply cymatics, we can actually start to unveil the substance of things not seen. +Devices like the cymascope, which you can see here, have been used to scientifically observe cymatic patterns. +And the list of scientific applications is growing every day. +For example, in oceanography, a lexicon of dolphin language is actually being created by basically visualizing the sonar beams that the dolphins emit. +And hopefully in the future we'll be able to gain some deeper understanding of how they communicate. +We can also use cymatics for healing and education. +This is an installation developed with school children, where their hands are tracked. It allows them to control and position cymatic patterns and the reflections that are caused by them. +We can also use cymatics as a beautiful natural art form. +This image here is created from a snippet of Beethoven's Ninth Symphony playing through a cymatic device. +So it kind of flips things on its head a little bit. +This is Pink Floyd's "Machine" playing in real time through the cymascope. +We can also use cymatics as a looking glass into nature. +And we can actually recreate the archetypal forms of nature. +So, for example, here on the left we can see a snowflake as it would appear in nature. +Then on the right we can see a cymatically created snowflake. +And here is a starfish and a cymatic starfish. +And there is thousands of these. +So what does this all mean? +Well, there is still a lot to explore in its early days. And there's not many people working in this field. +But consider for a moment that sound does have form. +We've seen that it can affect matter and cause form within matter. +Then sort of take a leap and think about the universe forming. +And think about the immense sound of the universe forming. +And if we kind of ponder on that, then perhaps cymatics had an influence on the formation of the universe itself. +And here is some eye candy for you, from a range of DIY scientists and artists from all over the globe. +Cymatics is accessible to everybody. +I want to urge everybody here to apply your passion, your knowledge and your skills to areas like cymatics. +I think collectively we can build a global community. +We can inspire each other. +And we can evolve this exploration of the substance of things not seen. Thank you. +I'm extremely excited to be given the opportunity to come and speak to you today about what I consider to be the biggest stunt on Earth. +Or perhaps not quite on Earth. +A parachute jump from the very edge of space. +More about that a bit later on. +I've been a professional stunt man for 13 years. +I'm a stunt coordinator. And as well as perform stunts I often design them. +During that time, health and safety has become everything about my job. +It's critical now that when a car crash happens it isn't just the stunt person we make safe, it's the crew. +We can't be killing camera men. We can't be killing stunt men. +We can't be killing anybody or hurting anybody on set, or any passerby. So, safety is everything. +But it wasn't always that way. +In the old days of the silent movies -- Harold Lloyd here, hanging famously from the clock hands -- a lot of these guys did their own stunts. They were quite remarkable. +They had no safety, no real technology. +What safety they had was very scant. +This is the first stunt woman, Rosie Venger, an amazing woman. +You can see from the slide, very very strong. +She really paved the way at a time when nobody was doing stunts, let alone women. +My favorite and a real hero of mine is Yakima Canutt. +Yakima Canutt really formed the stunt fight. +He worked with John Wayne and most of those old punch-ups you see in the Westerns. Yakima was either there or he stunt coordinated. +This is a screen capture from "Stagecoach," where Yakima Canutt is doing one of the most dangerous stunts I've ever seen. +There is no safety, no back support, no pads, no crash mats, no sand pits in the ground. +That's one of the most dangerous horse stunts, certainly. +Talking of dangerous stunts and bringing things slightly up to date, some of the most dangerous stunts we do as stunt people are fire stunts. +We couldn't do them without technology. +These are particularly dangerous because there is no mask on my face. +They were done for a photo shoot. One for the Sun newspaper, one for FHM magazine. +Highly dangerous, but also you'll notice it doesn't look as though I'm wearing anything underneath the suit. +The fire suits of old, the bulky suits, the thick woolen suits, have been replaced with modern materials like Nomex or, more recently, Carbonex -- fantastic materials that enable us as stunt professionals to burn for longer, look more spectacular, and in pure safety. +Here's a bit more. +There's a guy with a flame thrower there, giving me what for. +One of the things that a stuntman often does, and you'll see it every time in the big movies, is be blown through the air. +Well, we used to use trampettes. In the old days, that's all they had. +And that's a ramp. Spring off the thing and fly through the air, and hopefully you make it look good. +Now we've got technology. This thing is called an air ram. +It's a frightening piece of equipment for the novice stunt performer, because it will break your legs very, very quickly if you land on it wrong. +Having said that, it works with compressed nitrogen. +And that's in the up position. When you step on it, either by remote control or with the pressure of your foot, it will fire you, depending on the gas pressure, anything from five feet to 30 feet. +I could, quite literally, fire myself into the gallery. +Which I'm sure you wouldn't want. +Not today. +Car stunts are another area where technology and engineering advances have made life easier for us, and safer. +We can do bigger car stunts than ever before now. +Being run over is never easy. +That's an old-fashioned, hard, gritty, physical stunt. +But we have padding, and fantastic shock-absorbing things like Sorbothane -- the materials that help us, when we're hit like this, not to hurt ourselves too much. +The picture in the bottom right-hand corner there is of some crash test dummy work that I was doing. +Showing how stunts work in different areas, really. +And testing breakaway signpost pillars. +A company makes a Lattix pillar, which is a network, a lattice-type pillar that collapses when it's hit. +The car on the left drove into the steel pillar. +And you can't see it from there, but the engine was in the driver's lap. +They did it by remote control. +I drove the other one at 60 miles an hour, exactly the same speed, and clearly walked away from it. +Rolling a car over is another area where we use technology. +We used to have to drive up a ramp, and we still do sometimes. +But now we have a compressed nitrogen cannon. +You can just see, underneath the car, there is a black rod on the floor by the wheel of the other car. +That's the piston that was fired out of the floor. +We can flip lorries, coaches, buses, anything over with a nitrogen cannon with enough power. It's a great job, really. It's such fun! +You should hear some of the phone conversations that I have with people on my Bluetooth in the shop. +"Well, we can flip the bus over, we can have it burst into flames, and how about someone, you know, big explosion." +And people are looking like this ... +I sort of forget how bizarre some of those conversations are. +The next thing that I'd like to show you is something that Dunlop asked me to do earlier this year with our Channel Five's "Fifth Gear Show." +A loop-the-loop, biggest in the world. +Only one person had ever done it before. +Now, the stuntman solution to this in the old days would be, "Let's hit this as fast as possible. 60 miles an hour. +Let's just go for it. Foot flat to the floor." +Well, you'd die if you did that. +We went to Cambridge University, the other university, and spoke to a Doctor of Mechanical Engineering there, a physicist who taught us that it had to be 37 miles an hour. +Even then, I caught seven G and lost a bit of consciousness on the way in. +That's a long way to fall, if you get it wrong. That was just about right. +So again, science helps us, and with the engineering too -- the modifications to the car and the wheel. +High falls, they're old fashioned stunts. +What's interesting about high falls is that although we use airbags, and some airbags are quite advanced, they're designed so you don't slip off the side like you used to, if you land a bit wrong. So, they're a much safer proposition. +Just basically though, it is a basic piece of equipment. +It's a bouncy castle with slats in the side to allow the air to escape. +That's all it is, a bouncy castle. +That's the only reason we do it. See, it's all fun, this job. +What's interesting is we still use cardboard boxes. +They used to use cardboard boxes years ago and we still use them. +And that's interesting because they are almost retrospective. +They're great for catching you, up to certain heights. +And on the other side of the fence, that physical art, the physical performance of the stuntman, has interfaced with the very highest technology in I.T. and in software. +Not the cardboard box, but the green screen. +This is a shot of "Terminator," the movie. +Two stunt guys doing what I consider to be a rather benign stunt. +It's 30 feet. It's water. It's very simple. +With the green screen we can put any background in the world on it, moving or still, and I can assure you, nowadays you can't see the joint. +This is a parachutist with another parachutist doing exactly the same thing. +Completely in the safety of a studio, and yet with the green screen we can have some moving image that a skydiver took, and put in the sky moving and the clouds whizzing by. +Decelerator rigs and wires, we use them a lot. +We fly people on wires, like this. +This guy is not skydiving. He's being flown like a kite, or moved around like a kite. +And this is a Guinness World Record attempt. +They asked me to open their 50th anniversary show in 2004. +And again, technology meant that I could do the fastest abseil over 100 meters, and stop within a couple of feet of the ground without melting the rope with the friction, because of the alloys I used in the descender device. +And that's Centre Point in London. +We brought Oxford Street and Tottenham Court Road to a standstill. +Helicopter stunts are always fun, hanging out of them, whatever. +And aerial stunts. No aerial stunt would be the same without skydiving. +Which brings us quite nicely to why I'm really here today: Project Space Jump. +In 1960, Joseph Kittenger of the United States Air Force did the most spectacular thing. +He did a jump from 100,000 feet, 102,000 to be precise, and he did it to test high altitude systems for military pilots in the new range of aircraft that were going up to 80,000 feet or so. +And I'd just like to show you a little footage of what he did back then. +And just how brave he was in 1960, bear in mind. +Project Excelsior, it was called. +There were three jumps. +They first dropped some dummies. +So that's the balloon, big gas balloon. +It's that shape because the helium has to expand. +My balloon will expand to 500 times and look like a big pumpkin when it's at the top. +These are the dummies being dropped from 100,000 feet, and there is the camera that's strapped to them. +You can clearly see the curvature of the Earth at that kind of altitude. +And I'm planning to go from 120,000 feet, which is about 22 miles. +You're in a near vacuum in that environment, which is in minus 50 degrees. +So it's an extremely hostile place to be. +This is Joe Kittenger himself. +Bear in mind, ladies and gents, this was 1960. +He didn't know if he would live or die. This is an extremely brave man. +I spoke with him on the phone a few months ago. +He's a very humble and wonderful human being. +He sent me an email, saying, "If you get this thing off the ground I wish you all the best." And he signed it, "Happy landings," which I thought was quite lovely. +He's in his 80s and he lives in Florida. He's a tremendous guy. +This is him in a pressure suit. +Now one of the challenges of going up to altitude is when you get to 30,000 feet -- it's great, isn't it? -- When you get to 30,000 feet you can really only use oxygen. +Above 30,000 feet up to nearly 50,000 feet, you need pressure breathing, which is where you're wearing a G suit. +This is him in his old rock-and-roll jeans there, pushing him in, those turned up jeans. +You need a pressure suit. +You need a pressure breathing system with a G suit that squeezes you, that helps you to breathe in and helps you to exhale. +Above 50,000 feet you need a space suit, a pressure suit. +Certainly at 100,000 feet no aircraft will fly. +Not even a jet engine. +It needs to be rocket-powered or one of these things, a great big gas balloon. +It took me a while; it took me years to find the right balloon team to build the balloon that would do this job. +I've found that team in America now. +And it's made of polyethylene, so it's very thin. +We will have two balloons for each of my test jumps, and two balloons for the main jump, because they notoriously tear on takeoff. +They're just so, so delicate. +This is the step off. He's written on that thing, "The highest step in the world." +And what must that feel like? +I'm excited and I'm scared, both at the same time in equal measures. +And this is the camera that he had on him as he tumbled before his drogue chute opened to stabilize him. +A drogue chute is just a smaller chute which helps to keep your face down. +You can just see them there, popping open. +Those are the drogue chutes. He had three of them. +I did quite a lot of research. +And you'll see in a second there, he comes back down to the floor. +Now just to give you some perspective of this balloon, the little black dots are people. +It's hundreds of feet high. It's enormous. +That's in New Mexico. +That's the U.S. Air Force Museum. +And they've made a dummy of him. That's exactly what it looked like. +My gondola will be more simple than that. +It's a three sided box, basically. +So I've had to do quite a lot of training. +This is Morocco last year in the Atlas mountains, training in preparation for some high altitude jumps. +This is what the view is going to be like at 90,000 feet for me. +Now you may think this is just a thrill-seeking trip, a pleasure ride, just the world's biggest stunt. +Well there's a little bit more to it than that. +Trying to find a space suit to do this has led me to an area of technology that I never really expected when I set about doing this. +I contacted a company in the States who make suits for NASA. +That's a current suit. This was me last year with their chief engineer. +That suit would cost me about a million and a half dollars. +And it weighs 300 pounds and you can't skydive in it. +So I've been stuck. For the past 15 years I've been trying to find a space suit that would do this job, or someone that will make one. +Something revolutionary happened a little while ago, at the same facility. +That's the prototype of the parachute. I've now had them custom make one, the only one of its kind in the world. And that's the only suit of its kind in the world. +It was made by a Russian that's designed most of the suits of the past 18 years for the Soviets. +He left the company because he saw, as some other people in the space suit industry, an emerging market for space suits for space tourists. +You know if you are in an aircraft at 30,000 feet and the cabin depressurizes, you can have oxygen. +If you're at 100,000 feet you die. +In six seconds you've lost consciousness. In 10 seconds you're dead. +Your blood tries to boil. It's called vaporization. +The body swells up. It's awful. +And so we expect -- it's not much fun. +We expect, and others expect, that perhaps the FAA, the CAA might say, "You need to put someone in a suit that's not inflated, that's connected to the aircraft." +Then they're comfortable, they have good vision, like this great big visor. +And then if the cabin depressurizes while the aircraft is coming back down, in whatever emergency measures, everyone is okay. +I would like to bring Costa on, if he's here, to show you the only one of its kind in the world. +I was going to wear it, but I thought I'd get Costa to do it, my lovely assistant. +Thank you. He's very hot. Thank you, Costa. +This is the communication headset you'll see on lots of space suits. +It's a two-layer suit. NASA suits have got 13 layers. +This is a very lightweight suit. It weighs about 15 pounds. +It's next to nothing. Especially designed for me. +It's a working prototype. I will use it for all the jumps. +Would you just give us a little twirl, please, Costa? +Thank you very much. +And it doesn't look far different when it's inflated, as you can see from the picture down there. +I've even skydived in it in a wind tunnel, which means that I can practice everything I need to practice, in safety, before I ever jump out of anything. Thanks very much, Costa. +Ladies and gentlemen, that's just about it from me. +The status of my mission at the moment is it still needs a major sponsor. +I'm confident that we'll find one. +I think it's a great challenge. +And I hope that you will agree with me, it is the greatest stunt on Earth. +Thank you very much for your time. +Most of the time, art and science stare at each other across a gulf of mutual incomprehension. +There is great confusion when the two look at each other. +Art, of course, looks at the world through the psyche, the emotions -- the unconscious at times -- and of course the aesthetic. +Science tends to look at the world through the rational, the quantitative -- things that can be measured and described -- but it gives art a terrific context of understanding. +In the Extreme Ice Survey, we're dedicated to bringing those two parts of human understanding together, to merging the art and science to the end of helping us understand nature and humanity's relationship with nature better. +Specifically, I as a person who's been a professional nature photographer my whole adult life, am firmly of the belief that photography, video, film have tremendous powers for helping us understand and shape the way we think about nature and about ourselves in relationship to nature. +In this project, we're specifically interested, of course, in ice. +I'm fascinated by the beauty of it, the mutability of it, the malleability of it, and the fabulous shapes in which it can carve itself. +These first images are from Greenland. +But ice has another meaning. +Ice is the canary in the global coal mine. +It's the place where we can see and touch and hear and feel climate change in action. +Climate change is a really abstract thing in most of the world. +Whether or not you believe in it is based on your sense of is it raining more or is it raining less? +Is it getting hotter or is it getting colder? +What do the computer models say about this, that and the other thing? +All of that, strip it away. In the world of the arctic and alpine environments, where the ice is, it's real and it's present. +The changes are happening. They're very visible. +They're photographable. They're measurable. +95 percent of the glaciers in the world are retreating or shrinking. +That's outside Antarctica. +95 percent of the glaciers in the world are retreating or shrinking, and that's because the precipitation patterns and the temperature patterns are changing. +There is no significant scientific dispute about that. +It's been observed, it's measured, it's bomb-proof information. +And the great irony and tragedy of our time is that a lot of the general public thinks that science is still arguing about that. +Science is not arguing about that. +In these images we see ice from enormous glaciers, ice sheets that are hundreds of thousands of years old breaking up into chunks, and chunk by chunk by chunk, iceberg by iceberg, turning into global sea level rise. +So, having seen all of this in the course of a 30-year career, I was still a skeptic about climate change until about 10 years ago, because I thought the story of climate change was based on computer models. +I hadn't realized it was based on concrete measurements of what the paleoclimates -- the ancient climates -- were, as recorded in the ice sheets, as recorded in deep ocean sediments, as recorded in lake sediments, tree rings, and a lot of other ways of measuring temperature. +When I realized that climate change was real, and it was not based on computer models, I decided that one day I would do a project looking at trying to manifest climate change photographically. +And that led me to this project. +Initially, I was working on a National Geographic assignment -- conventional, single frame, still photography. +Well, within about three weeks, I incautiously turned that idea of a couple of time-lapse cameras into 25 time-lapse cameras. +And the next six months of my life were the hardest time in my career, trying to design, build and deploy out in the field these 25 time-lapse cameras. +They are powered by the sun. Solar panels power them. +Power goes into a battery. There is a custom made computer that tells the camera when to fire. +And these cameras are positioned on rocks on the sides of the glaciers, and they look in on the glacier from permanent, bedrock positions, and they watch the evolution of the landscape. +We just had a number of cameras out on the Greenland Ice Sheet. +We actually drilled holes into the ice, way deep down below the thawing level, and had some cameras out there for the past month and a half or so. +Actually, there's still a camera out there right now. +In any case, the cameras shoot roughly every hour. +Some of them shoot every half hour, every 15 minutes, every five minutes. +Here's a time lapse of one of the time-lapse units being made. +I personally obsessed about every nut, bolt and washer in these crazy things. +I spent half my life at our local hardware store during the months when we built these units originally. +We're working in most of the major glaciated regions of the northern hemisphere. +Our time-lapse units are in Alaska, the Rockies, Greenland and Iceland, and we have repeat photography positions, that is places we just visit on an annual basis, in British Columbia, the Alps and Bolivia. +It's a big undertaking. I stand here before you tonight as an ambassador for my whole team. +There's a lot of people working on this right now. +We've got 33 cameras out this moment. +We just had 33 cameras shoot about half an hour ago all across the northern hemisphere, watching what's happened. +And we've spent a lot of time in the field. It's been a fantastic amount of work. +We've been out for two and a half years, and we've got about another two and a half years yet to go. +That's only half our job. +The other half of our job is to tell the story to the global public. +You know, scientists have collected this kind of information off and on over the years, but a lot of it stays within the science community. +Similarly, a lot of art projects stay in the art community, and I feel very much a responsibility through mechanisms like TED, and like our relationship with the Obama White House, with the Senate, with John Kerry, to influence policy as much as possible with these pictures as well. +We've done films. We've done books. We have more coming. +We have a site on Google Earth that Google Earth was generous enough to give us, and so forth, because we feel very much the need to tell this story, because it is such an immediate evidence of ongoing climate change right now. +Now, one bit of science before we get into the visuals. +If everybody in the developed world understood this graph, and emblazoned it on the inside of their foreheads, there would be no further societal argument about climate change because this is the story that counts. +Everything else you hear is just propaganda and confusion. +Key issues: this is a 400,000 year record. +This exact same pattern is seen going back now almost a million years before our current time. +And several things are important. +Number one: temperature and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere go up and down basically in sync. +You can see that from the orange line and the blue line. +Nature naturally has allowed carbon dioxide to go up to 280 parts per million. +That's the natural cycle. +Goes up to 280 and then drops for various reasons that aren't important to discuss right here. +But 280 is the peak. +Right now, if you look at the top right part of that graph, we're at 385 parts per million. +We are way, way outside the normal, natural variability. +Earth is having a fever. +In the past hundred years, the temperature of the Earth has gone up 1.3 degrees Fahrenheit, .75 degrees Celsius, and it's going to keep going up because we keep dumping fossil fuels into the atmosphere. +At the rate of about two and a half parts per million per year. +It's been a remorseless, steady increase. +We have to turn that around. +That's the crux, and someday I hope to emblazon that across Times Square in New York and a lot of other places. +But anyway, off to the world of ice. +We're now at the Columbia Glacier in Alaska. +This is a view of what's called the calving face. +This is what one of our cameras saw over the course of a few months. +You see the glacier flowing in from the right, dropping off into the sea, camera shooting every hour. +If you look in the middle background, you can see the calving face bobbing up and down like a yo-yo. +That means that glacier's floating and it's unstable, and you're about to see the consequences of that floating. +To give you a little bit of a sense of scale, that calving face in this picture is about 325 feet tall. That's 32 stories. +This is not a little cliff. This is like a major office building in an urban center. +The calving face is the wall where the visible ice breaks off, but in fact, it goes down below sea level another couple thousand feet. +So there's a wall of ice a couple thousand feet deep going down to bedrock if the glacier's grounded on bedrock, and floating if it isn't. +Here's what Columbia's done. This is in south central Alaska. +This was an aerial picture I did one day in June three years ago. +This is an aerial picture we did this year. +That's the retreat of this glacier. +The main stem, the main flow of the glacier is coming from the right and it's going very rapidly up that stem. +We're going to be up there in just a few more weeks, and we expect that it's probably retreated another half a mile, but if I got there and discovered that it had collapsed and it was five miles further back, I wouldn't be the least bit surprised. +Now it's really hard to grasp the scale of these places, because as the glaciers -- one of the things is that places like Alaska and Greenland are huge, they're not normal landscapes -- but as the glaciers are retreating, they're also deflating, like air is being let out of a balloon. +And so, there are features on this landscape. +There's a ridge right in the middle of the picture, up above where that arrow comes in, that shows you that a little bit. +There's a marker line called the trim line above our little red illustration there. +This is something no self-respecting photographer would ever do -- you put some cheesy illustration on your shot, right? -- and yet you have to do it sometimes to narrate these points. +But, in any case, the deflation of this glacier since 1984 has been higher than the Eiffel Tower, higher than the Empire State Building. +A tremendous amount of ice has been let out of these valleys as it's retreated and deflated, gone back up valley. +These changes in the alpine world are accelerating. +It's not static. +Particularly in the world of sea ice, the rate of natural change is outstripping predictions of just a few years ago, and the processes either are accelerating or the predictions were too low to begin with. +But in any case, there are big, big changes happening as we speak. +So, here's another time-lapse shot of Columbia. +And you see where it ended in these various spring days, June, May, then October. +Now we turn on our time lapse. +This camera was shooting every hour. +Geologic process in action here. +And everybody says, well don't they advance in the winter time? +No. It was retreating through the winter because it's an unhealthy glacier. +Finally catches up to itself, it advances. +And you can look at these pictures over and over again because there's such a strange, bizarre fascination in seeing these things you don't normally get to see come alive. +We've been talking about "seeing is believing " and seeing the unseen at TED Global. +That's what you see with these cameras. +The images make the invisible visible. +These huge crevasses open up. +These great ice islands break off -- and now watch this. +This has been the springtime this year -- a huge collapse. That happened in about a month, the loss of all that ice. +So that's where we started three years ago, way out on the left, and that's where we were a few months ago, the last time we went into Columbia. +To give you a feeling for the scale of the retreat, we did another cheesy illustration, with British double-decker buses. +If you line up 295 of those nose to tail, that's about how far back that was. +It's a long way. +On up to Iceland. +One of my favorite glaciers, the Slheimajkull. +And here, if you watch, you can see the terminus retreating. +You can see this river being formed. +You can see it deflating. +Without the photographic process, you would never see this. This is invisible. +You can stand up there your whole life and you would never see this, but the camera records it. +So we wind time backwards now. +We go back a couple years in time. +That's where it started. +That's where it ended a few months ago. +And on up to Greenland. +The smaller the ice mass, the faster it responds to climate. +Greenland took a little while to start reacting to the warming climate of the past century, but it really started galloping along about 20 years ago. +And there's been a tremendous increase in the temperature up there. +It's a big place. That's all ice. +All those colors are ice and it goes up to about two miles thick, just a gigantic dome that comes in from the coast and rises in the middle. +The one glacier up in Greenland that puts more ice into the global ocean than all the other glaciers in the northern hemisphere combined is the Ilulissat Glacier. +We have some cameras on the south edge of the Ilulissat, watching the calving face as it goes through this dramatic retreat. +Here's a two-year record of what that looks like. +Helicopter in front of the calving face for scale, quickly dwarfed. +The calving face is four and a half miles across, and in this shot, as we pull back, you're only seeing about a mile and a half. +So, imagine how big this is and how much ice is charging out. +The interior of Greenland is to the right. +It's flowing out to the Atlantic Ocean on the left. +Icebergs, many, many, many, many times the size of this building, are roaring out to sea. +We just downloaded these pictures a couple weeks ago, as you can see. June 25th, monster calving events happened. +I'll show you one of those in a second. +This glacier has doubled its flow speed in the past 15 years. +It now goes at 125 feet a day, dumping all this ice into the ocean. +It tends to go in these pulses, about every three days, but on average, 125 feet a day, twice the rate it did 20 years ago. +Okay. We had a team out watching this glacier, and we recorded the biggest calving event that's ever been put on film. +We had nine cameras going. +This is what a couple of the cameras saw. +A 400-foot-tall calving face breaking off. +Huge icebergs rolling over. +Okay, how big was that? It's hard to get it. +So an illustration again, gives you a feeling for scale. +A mile of retreat in 75 minutes across the calving face, in that particular event, three miles wide. +The block was three-fifths of a mile deep, and if you compare the expanse of the calving face to the Tower Bridge in London, about 20 bridges wide. +Or if you take an American reference, to the U.S. Capitol Building and you pack 3,000 Capitol Buildings into that block, it would be equivalent to how large that block was. +75 minutes. +Now I've come to the conclusion after spending a lot of time in this climate change world that we don't have a problem of economics, technology and public policy. +We have a problem of perception. +The policy and the economics and the technology are serious enough issues, but we actually can deal with them. +I'm certain that we can. +But what we have is a perception problem because not enough people really get it yet. +You're an elite audience. You get it. +Fortunately, a lot of the political leaders in the major countries of the world are an elite audience that for the most part gets it now. +But we still need to bring a lot of people along with us. +And that's where I think organizations like TED, like the Extreme Ice Survey can have a terrific impact on human perception and bring us along. +Because I believe we have an opportunity right now. +We are nearly on the edge of a crisis, but we still have an opportunity to face the greatest challenge of our generation and, in fact, of our century. +This is a terrific, terrific call to arms to do the right thing for ourselves and for the future. +I hope that we have the wisdom to let the angels of our better nature rise to the occasion and do what needs to be done. Thank you. +Today I want to talk to you about swimming across the North Pole, across the most northern place in the whole world. +And perhaps the best place to start is with my late father. +He was a great storyteller. +He could tell a story about an event, and so you felt you were absolutely there at the moment. +And one of the stories he told me so often when I was a young boy was of the first British atomic bomb test. +He had been there and watched it go off. +And he said that the explosion was so loud and the light was so intense, that he actually had to put his hands in front of his face to protect his eyes. +And he said that he could actually see an x-ray of his fingers, because the light was so bright. +And I know that watching that atomic bomb going off had a very, very big impact on my late father. +Every holiday I had as a young boy was in a national park. +What he was trying to do with me was to inspire me to protect the world, and show me just how fragile the world is. +He also told me about the great explorers. +He loved history. He would tell me about Captain Scott walking all the way to the South Pole and Sir Edmund Hillary climbing up Mount Everest. +And so ever since I think I was just six years old, I dreamed of going to the polar regions. +I really, really wanted to go to the Arctic. +There was something about that place which drew me to it. +And, well, sometimes it takes a long time for a dream to come true. +But seven years ago, I went to the Arctic for the first time. +And it was so beautiful that I've been back there ever since, for the last seven years. +I love the place. +But I have seen that place change beyond all description, just in that short period of time. +I have seen polar bears walking across very, very thin ice in search of food. +I have swum in front of glaciers which have retreated so much. +And I have also, every year, seen less and less sea ice. +And I wanted the world to know what was happening up there. +In the two years before my swim, 23 percent of the arctic sea ice cover just melted away. +And I wanted to really shake the lapels of world leaders to get them to understand what is happening. +So I decided to do this symbolic swim at the top of the world, in a place which should be frozen over, but which now is rapidly unfreezing. +And the message was very clear: Climate change is for real, and we need to do something about it. +And we need to do something about it right now. +Well, swimming across the North Pole, it's not an ordinary thing to do. +I mean, just to put it in perspective, 27 degrees is the temperature of a normal indoor swimming pool. +This morning, the temperature of the English Channel was 18 degrees. +The passengers who fell off the Titanic fell into water of just five degrees centigrade. +Fresh water freezes at zero. +And the water at the North Pole is minus 1.7. +It's fucking freezing. +I'm sorry, but there is no other way to describe it. +And so I had to assemble an incredible team around me to help me with this task. +I assembled this team of 29 people from 10 nations. +Some people think that swimming is a very solo sport, you just dive into the sea and off you go. +It couldn't be further from the truth for me. +And I then went and did a huge amount of training, swimming in icy water, backwards and forwards. +But the most important thing was to train my mind to prepare myself for what was going to happen. +And I had to visualize the swim. +I had to see it from the beginning all the way to the end. +I had to taste the salt water in my mouth. +I had to see my coach screaming for me, "Come on Lewis! Come on! Go! Go! Go! Don't slow down!" +And so I literally swam across the North Pole hundreds and hundreds of times in my mind. +And then, after a year of training, I felt ready. +I felt confident that I could actually do this swim. +So myself and the five members of the team, we hitched a ride on an icebreaker which was going to the North Pole. +And on day four, we decided to just do a quick five minute test swim. +I had never swum in water of minus 1.7 degrees before, because it's just impossible to train in those types of conditions. +So we stopped the ship, as you do. +We all got down onto the ice, and I then got into my swimming costume and I dived into the sea. +I have never in my life felt anything like that moment. +I could barely breathe. I was gasping for air. +I was hyperventilating so much, and within seconds my hands were numb. +And it was -- the paradox is that you're in freezing cold water, but actually you're on fire. +I swam as hard as I could for five minutes. +I remember just trying to get out of the water. +I climbed out of the ice. +And I remember taking the goggles off my face and looking down at my hands in sheer shock, because my fingers had swollen so much that they were like sausages. +And they were swollen so much, I couldn't even close them. +What had happened is that we are made partially of water, and when water freezes it expands. +And so what had actually happened is that the cells in my fingers had frozen and expanded. +And they had burst. And I was in so much agony. +I immediately got rushed onto the ship and into a hot shower. +And I remember standing underneath the hot shower and trying to defrost my fingers. +And I thought, in two days' time, I was going to do this swim across the North Pole. +I was going to try and do a 20-minute swim, for one kilometer across the North Pole. +And this dream which I had had ever since I was a young boy with my father, was just going out the window. +There is no possibility that this was going to happen. +And I remember then getting out of the shower and realizing I couldn't even feel my hands. +And for a swimmer, you need to feel your hands because you need to be able to grab the water and pull it through with you. +The next morning, I woke up and I was in such a state of depression, and all I could think about was Sir Ranulph Fiennes. +For those of you who don't know him, he's the great British explorer. +A number of years ago, he tried to ski all the way to the North Pole. +He accidentally fell through the ice into the sea. +And after just three minutes in that water, to get himself out. +And his hands were so badly frostbitten that he had to return to England. +He went to a local hospital and there they said, "Ran, there is no possibility of us being able to save these fingers. +We are going to actually have to take them off." +And Ran decided to go into his tool shed and take out a saw and do it himself. +And all I could think of was, if that happened to Ran after three minutes, and I can't feel my hands after five minutes, what on earth is going to happen if I try 20 minutes? +At the very best, I'm going to end up losing some fingers. +And at worst, I didn't even want to think about it. +We carried on sailing through the ice packs towards the North Pole. +And my close friend David, he saw the way I was thinking, and he came up to me and he said, "Lewis, I've known you since you were 18 years old. +I've known you, and I know, Lewis, deep down, right deep down here, that you are going to make this swim. +I so believe in you Lewis. I've seen the way you've been training. +And I realize the reason why you're going to do this. +This is such an important swim. +We stand at a very, very important moment in this history, and you're going to make a symbolic swim here to try to shake the lapels of world leaders. +Lewis, have the courage to go in there, because we are going to look after you every moment of it." +And I just, I got so much confidence from him saying that, because he knew me so well. +So we carried on sailing and we arrived at the North Pole. +And we stopped the ship, and it was just as the scientists had predicted. +There were open patches of sea everywhere. +And I went down into my cabin and I put on my swimming costume. +And then the doctor strapped on a chest monitor, which measures my core body temperature and my heart rate. +And then we walked out onto the ice. +And I remember looking into the ice, and there were big chunks of white ice in there, and the water was completely black. +I had never seen black water before. +And it is 4,200 meters deep. +And I said to myself, "Lewis, don't look left, don't look right. +Just scuttle forward and go for it." +And so I now want to show you a short video of what happened there on the ice. +Narrator : We're just sailing out of harbor now, and it's at this stage when one can have a bit of a wobble mentally. +Everything just looks so gray around here, and looks so cold. +We've just seen our first polar bears. +It was absolutely magical. +A mother and a cub, such a beautiful sight. +And to think that in 30, 40 years they could become extinct. +It's a very frightening, very, very frightening thought. +We're finally at the North Pole. This is months and months and months of dreaming to get here, years of training and planning and preparation. +Ooh. In a couple of hours' time I'm going to get in here and do my swim. +It's all a little bit frightening, and emotional. +Amundson, you ready? Amudson: Ready. +Lewis Pugh: Ten seconds to swim. Ten seconds to swim. +Take the goggles off. Take the goggles off! +Man: Take the shoes. Take the shoes. +Well done lad! You did it! You did it Lewis! +You did it! You did it man! +LP: How on earth did we do that? +Man: Against the current! You did it against the current! +LP: Thank you very much. Thank you very much. +Thank you so much. +Audience: Encore! +LP: I'd just like to end off by just saying this: It took me four months again to feel my hands. +But was it worth it? Yes, absolutely it was. +There are very, very few people who don't know now about what is happening in the Arctic. +And people ask me, "Lewis, what can we do about climate change?" +And I say to them, I think we need to do three things. +The first thing we need to do is we need to break this problem down into manageable chunks. +You saw during that video all those flags. +Those flags represented the countries from which my team came from. +And equally, when it comes to climate change, every single country is going to have to make cuts. +Britain, America, Japan, South Africa, the Congo. +All of us together, we're all on the same ship together. +The second thing we need to do is we need to just look back at how far we have come in such a short period of time. +I remember, just a few years ago, speaking about climate change, and people heckling me in the back and saying it doesn't even exist. +I've just come back from giving a series of speeches in some of the poorest townships in South Africa to young children as young as 10 years old. +Four or five children sitting behind a desk, and even in those poorest conditions, they all have a very, very good grasp of climate change. +We need to believe in ourselves. +Now is the time to believe. +We've come a long way. We're doing good. +But the most important thing we must do is, I think, we must all walk to the end of our lives and turn around, and ask ourselves a most fundamental question. +And that is, "What type of world do we want to live in, and what decision are we going to make today to ensure that we all live in a sustainable world?" +Ladies and gentlemen, thank you very, very much. +Today I'm going to talk to you about the problem of other minds. +And the problem I'm going to talk about is not the familiar one from philosophy, which is, "How can we know whether other people have minds?" +That is, maybe you have a mind, and everyone else is just a really convincing robot. +So that's a problem in philosophy, but for today's purposes I'm going to assume that many people in this audience have a mind, and that I don't have to worry about this. +There is a second problem that is maybe even more familiar to us as parents and teachers and spouses and novelists, which is, "Why is it so hard to know what somebody else wants or believes?" +Or perhaps, more relevantly, "Why is it so hard to change what somebody else wants or believes?" +I think novelists put this best. +Like Philip Roth, who said, "And yet, what are we to do about this terribly significant business of other people? +So ill equipped are we all, to envision one another's interior workings and invisible aims." +So as a teacher and as a spouse, this is, of course, a problem I confront every day. +But as a scientist, I'm interested in a different problem of other minds, and that is the one I'm going to introduce to you today. +And that problem is, "How is it so easy to know other minds?" +So to start with an illustration, you need almost no information, one snapshot of a stranger, to guess what this woman is thinking, or what this man is. +And put another way, the crux of the problem is the machine that we use for thinking about other minds, our brain, is made up of pieces, brain cells, that we share with all other animals, with monkeys and mice and even sea slugs. +And yet, you put them together in a particular network, and what you get is the capacity to write Romeo and Juliet. +Or to say, as Alan Greenspan did, "I know you think you understand what you thought I said, but I'm not sure you realize that what you heard is not what I meant." +So, the job of my field of cognitive neuroscience is to stand with these ideas, one in each hand. +And to try to understand how you can put together simple units, simple messages over space and time, in a network, and get this amazing human capacity to think about minds. +So I'm going to tell you three things about this today. +Obviously the whole project here is huge. +And I'm going to tell you just our first few steps about the discovery of a special brain region for thinking about other people's thoughts. +Some observations on the slow development of this system as we learn how to do this difficult job. +And then finally, to show that some of the differences between people, in how we judge others, can be explained by differences in this brain system. +So first, the first thing I want to tell you is that there is a brain region in the human brain, in your brains, whose job it is to think about other people's thoughts. +This is a picture of it. +It's called the Right Temporo-Parietal Junction. +It's above and behind your right ear. +And this is the brain region you used when you saw the pictures I showed you, or when you read Romeo and Juliet or when you tried to understand Alan Greenspan. +And you don't use it for solving any other kinds of logical problems. +So this brain region is called the Right TPJ. +And this picture shows the average activation in a group of what we call typical human adults. +They're MIT undergraduates. +The second thing I want to say about this brain system is that although we human adults are really good at understanding other minds, we weren't always that way. +It takes children a long time to break into the system. +I'm going to show you a little bit of that long, extended process. +The first thing I'm going to show you is a change between age three and five, as kids learn to understand that somebody else can have beliefs that are different from their own. +So I'm going to show you a five-year-old who is getting a standard kind of puzzle that we call the false belief task. +Rebecca Saxe : This is the first pirate. His name is Ivan. +And you know what pirates really like? +Child: What? RS: Pirates really like cheese sandwiches. +Child: Cheese? I love cheese! +RS: Yeah. So Ivan has this cheese sandwich, and he says, "Yum yum yum yum yum! +I really love cheese sandwiches." +And Ivan puts his sandwich over here, on top of the pirate chest. +And Ivan says, "You know what? I need a drink with my lunch." +And so Ivan goes to get a drink. +And while Ivan is away the wind comes, and it blows the sandwich down onto the grass. +And now, here comes the other pirate. +This pirate is called Joshua. +And Joshua also really loves cheese sandwiches. +So Joshua has a cheese sandwich and he says, "Yum yum yum yum yum! I love cheese sandwiches." +And he puts his cheese sandwich over here on top of the pirate chest. +Child: So, that one is his. +RS: That one is Joshua's. That's right. +Child: And then his went on the ground. +RS: That's exactly right. +Child: So he won't know which one is his. +RS: Oh. So now Joshua goes off to get a drink. +Ivan comes back and he says, "I want my cheese sandwich." +So which one do you think Ivan is going to take? +Child: I think he is going to take that one. +RS: Yeah, you think he's going to take that one? All right. Let's see. +Oh yeah, you were right. He took that one. +So that's a five-year-old who clearly understands that other people can have false beliefs and what the consequences are for their actions. +Now I'm going to show you a three-year-old who got the same puzzle. +RS: And Ivan says, "I want my cheese sandwich." +Which sandwich is he going to take? +Do you think he's going to take that one? Let's see what happens. +Let's see what he does. Here comes Ivan. +And he says, "I want my cheese sandwich." +And he takes this one. +Uh-oh. Why did he take that one? +Child: His was on the grass. +So the three-year-old does two things differently. +First, he predicts Ivan will take the sandwich that's really his. +And second, when he sees Ivan taking the sandwich where he left his, where we would say he's taking that one because he thinks it's his, the three-year-old comes up with another explanation: He's not taking his own sandwich because he doesn't want it, because now it's dirty, on the ground. +So that's why he's taking the other sandwich. +Now of course, development doesn't end at five. +And we can see the continuation of this process of learning to think about other people's thoughts by upping the ante and asking children now, not for an action prediction, but for a moral judgment. +So first I'm going to show you the three-year-old again. +RS.: So is Ivan being mean and naughty for taking Joshua's sandwich? +Child: Yeah. +RS: Should Ivan get in trouble for taking Joshua's sandwich? +Child: Yeah. +So it's maybe not surprising he thinks it was mean of Ivan to take Joshua's sandwich, since he thinks Ivan only took Joshua's sandwich to avoid having to eat his own dirty sandwich. +But now I'm going to show you the five-year-old. +Remember the five-year-old completely understood why Ivan took Joshua's sandwich. +RS: Was Ivan being mean and naughty for taking Joshua's sandwich? +Child: Um, yeah. +And so, it is not until age seven that we get what looks more like an adult response. +RS: Should Ivan get in trouble for taking Joshua's sandwich? +Child: No, because the wind should get in trouble. +He says the wind should get in trouble for switching the sandwiches. +And now what we've started to do in my lab is to put children into the brain scanner and ask what's going on in their brain as they develop this ability to think about other people's thoughts. +So the first thing is that in children we see this same brain region, the Right TPJ, being used while children are thinking about other people. +But it's not quite like the adult brain. +So whereas in the adults, as I told you, this brain region is almost completely specialized -- it does almost nothing else except for thinking about other people's thoughts -- in children it's much less so, when they are age five to eight, the age range of the children I just showed you. +And actually if we even look at eight to 11-year-olds, getting into early adolescence, they still don't have quite an adult-like brain region. +And so, what we can see is that over the course of childhood and even into adolescence, both the cognitive system, our mind's ability to think about other minds, and the brain system that supports it are continuing, slowly, to develop. +But of course, as you're probably aware, even in adulthood, people differ from one another in how good they are at thinking of other minds, how often they do it and how accurately. +And so what we wanted to know was, could differences among adults in how they think about other people's thoughts be explained in terms of differences in this brain region? +So, the first thing that we did is we gave adults a version of the pirate problem that we gave to the kids. +And I'm going to give that to you now. +So Grace and her friend are on a tour of a chemical factory, and they take a break for coffee. +And Grace's friend asks for some sugar in her coffee. +Grace goes to make the coffee and finds by the coffee a pot containing a white powder, which is sugar. +But the powder is labeled "Deadly Poison," so Grace thinks that the powder is a deadly poison. +And she puts it in her friend's coffee. +And her friend drinks the coffee, and is fine. +How many people think it was morally permissible for Grace to put the powder in the coffee? +Okay. Good. So we ask people, how much should Grace be blamed in this case, which we call a failed attempt to harm? +And we can compare that to another case, where everything in the real world is the same. +The powder is still sugar, but what's different is what Grace thinks. +Now she thinks the powder is sugar. +And perhaps unsurprisingly, if Grace thinks the powder is sugar and puts it in her friend's coffee, people say she deserves no blame at all. +Whereas if she thinks the powder was poison, even though it's really sugar, now people say she deserves a lot of blame, even though what happened in the real world was exactly the same. +And in fact, they say she deserves more blame in this case, the failed attempt to harm, than in another case, which we call an accident. +Where Grace thought the powder was sugar, because it was labeled "sugar" and by the coffee machine, but actually the powder was poison. +So even though when the powder was poison, the friend drank the coffee and died, people say Grace deserves less blame in that case, when she innocently thought it was sugar, than in the other case, where she thought it was poison and no harm occurred. +People, though, disagree a little bit about exactly how much blame Grace should get in the accident case. +Some people think she should deserve more blame, and other people less. +And what I'm going to show you is what happened when we look inside the brains of people while they're making that judgment. +So what I'm showing you, from left to right, is how much activity there was in this brain region, and from top to bottom, how much blame people said that Grace deserved. +And what you can see is, on the left when there was very little activity in this brain region, people paid little attention to her innocent belief and said she deserved a lot of blame for the accident. +Whereas on the right, where there was a lot of activity, people paid a lot more attention to her innocent belief, and said she deserved a lot less blame for causing the accident. +So that's good, but of course what we'd rather is have a way to interfere with function in this brain region, and see if we could change people's moral judgment. +And we do have such a tool. +It's called Trans-Cranial Magnetic Stimulation, or TMS. +This is a tool that lets us pass a magnetic pulse through somebody's skull, into a small region of their brain, and temporarily disorganize the function of the neurons in that region. +So I'm going to show you a demo of this. +First, I'm going to show you that this is a magnetic pulse. +I'm going to show you what happens when you put a quarter on the machine. +When you hear clicks, we're turning the machine on. +So now I'm going to apply that same pulse to my brain, to the part of my brain that controls my hand. +So there is no physical force, just a magnetic pulse. +Woman : Ready, Rebecca? RS: Yes. +Okay, so it causes a small involuntary contraction in my hand by putting a magnetic pulse in my brain. +And we can use that same pulse, now applied to the RTPJ, to ask if we can change people's moral judgments. +So these are the judgments I showed you before, people's normal moral judgments. +And then we can apply TMS to the RTPJ and ask how people's judgments change. +And the first thing is, people can still do this task overall. +So their judgments of the case when everything was fine remain the same. They say she deserves no blame. +But in the case of a failed attempt to harm, where Grace thought that it was poison, although it was really sugar, people now say it was more okay, she deserves less blame for putting the powder in the coffee. +And in the case of the accident, where she thought that it was sugar, but it was really poison and so she caused a death, people say that it was less okay, she deserves more blame. +So what I've told you today is that people come, actually, especially well equipped to think about other people's thoughts. +We have a special brain system that lets us think about what other people are thinking. +This system takes a long time to develop, slowly throughout the course of childhood and into early adolescence. +And even in adulthood, differences in this brain region can explain differences among adults in how we think about and judge other people. +But I want to give the last word back to the novelists, and to Philip Roth, who ended by saying, "The fact remains that getting people right is not what living is all about anyway. +It's getting them wrong that is living. +Getting them wrong and wrong and wrong, and then on careful reconsideration, getting them wrong again." +Thank you. +Chris Anderson: So, I have a question. When you start talking about using magnetic pulses to change people's moral judgments, that sounds alarming. +Please tell me that you're not taking phone calls from the Pentagon, say. +RS: I'm not. +I mean, they're calling, but I'm not taking the call. +CA: They really are calling? +So then seriously, you must lie awake at night sometimes wondering where this work leads. +I mean, you're clearly an incredible human being, but someone could take this knowledge and in some future not-torture chamber, do acts that people here might be worried about. +RS: Yeah, we worry about this. +So, there's a couple of things to say about TMS. +One is that you can't be TMSed without knowing it. +So it's not a surreptitious technology. +It's quite hard, actually, to get those very small changes. +The changes I showed you are impressive to me because of what they tell us about the function of the brain, but they're small on the scale of the moral judgments that we actually make. +And what we changed was not people's moral judgments when they're deciding what to do, when they're making action choices. +We changed their ability to judge other people's actions. +And so, I think of what I'm doing not so much as studying the defendant in a criminal trial, but studying the jury. +CA: Is your work going to lead to any recommendations in education, to perhaps bring up a generation of kids able to make fairer moral judgments? +RS: That's one of the idealistic hopes. +The whole research program here of studying the distinctive parts of the human brain is brand new. +Until recently, what we knew about the brain were the things that any other animal's brain could do too, so we could study it in animal models. +We knew how brains see, and how they control the body and how they hear and sense. +And the whole project of understanding how brains do the uniquely human things -- learn language and abstract concepts, and thinking about other people's thoughts -- that's brand new. +And we don't know yet what the implications will be of understanding it. +CA: So I've got one last question. There is this thing called the hard problem of consciousness, that puzzles a lot of people. +The notion that you can understand why a brain works, perhaps. +But why does anyone have to feel anything? +Why does it seem to require these beings who sense things for us to operate? +You're a brilliant young neuroscientist. +I mean, what chances do you think there are that at some time in your career, someone, you or someone else, is going to come up with some paradigm shift in understanding what seems an impossible problem? +RS: I hope they do. And I think they probably won't. +CA: Why? +RS: It's not called the hard problem of consciousness for nothing. +CA: That's a great answer. Rebecca Saxe, thank you very much. That was fantastic. +These are grim economic times, fellow TEDsters, grim economic times indeed. +And so, I would like to cheer you up with one of the great, albeit largely unknown, commercial success stories of the past 20 years. +Comparable, in its own very peculiar way, to the achievements of Microsoft or Google. +And it's an industry which has bucked the current recession with equanimity. +I refer to organized crime. +Now organized crime has been around for a very long time, I hear you say, and these would be wise words, indeed. +But in the last two decades, it has experienced an unprecedented expansion, now accounting for roughly 15 percent of the world's GDP. +I like to call it the Global Shadow Economy, or McMafia, for short. +So what triggered this extraordinary growth in cross-border crime? +Well, of course, there is globalization, technology, communications, all that stuff, which we'll talk about a little bit later. +But first, I would like to take you back to this event: the collapse of communism. +All across Eastern Europe, a most momentous episode in our post-war history. +Now it's time for full disclosure. +This event meant a great deal to me personally. +I had started smuggling books across the Iron Curtain to Democratic opposition groups in Eastern Europe, like Solidarity in Poland, when I was in my teens. +I then started writing about Eastern Europe, and eventually I became the BBC's chief correspondent for the region, which is what I was doing in 1989. +And so when 425 million people finally won the right to choose their own governments, I was ecstatic, but I was also a touch worried about some of the nastier things lurking behind the wall. +It wasn't long, for example, before ethnic nationalism reared its bloody head in Yugoslavia. +And amongst the chaos, amidst the euphoria, it took me a little while to understand that some of the people who had wielded power before 1989, in Eastern Europe, continued to do so after the revolutions there. +Obviously there were characters like this. +But there were also some more unexpected people who played a critical role in what was going on in Eastern Europe. +Like this character. Remember these guys? +They used to win the gold medals in weightlifting and wrestling, every four years in the Olympics, and they were the great celebrities of communism, with a fabulous lifestyle to go with it. +They used to get great apartments in the center of town, casual sex on tap, and they could travel to the West very freely, which was a great luxury at the time. +It may come as a surprise, but they played a critical role in the emergence of the market economy in Eastern Europe. +Or as I like to call them, they are the midwives of capitalism. +Here are some of those same weightlifters after their 1989 makeover. +Now in Bulgaria -- this photograph was taken in Bulgaria -- when communism collapsed all over Eastern Europe, it wasn't just communism; it was the state that collapsed as well. +That means your police force wasn't working. +The court system wasn't functioning properly. +So what was a business man in the brave new world of East European capitalism going to do to make sure that his contracts would be honored? +Well, he would turn to people who were called, rather prosaically by sociologists, privatized law enforcement agencies. +We prefer to know them as the mafia. +And in Bulgaria, the mafia was soon joined with 14,000 people who were sacked from their jobs in the security services between 1989 and 1991. +Now, when your state is collapsing, your economy is heading south at a rate of knots, the last people you want coming on to the labor market are 14,000 men and women whose chief skills are surveillance, are smuggling, building underground networks and killing people. +But that's what happened all over Eastern Europe. +Now, when I was working in the 1990s, I spent most of the time covering the appalling conflict in Yugoslavia. +And I couldn't help notice that the people who were perpetrating the appalling atrocities, the paramilitary organizations, were actually the same people running the organized criminal syndicates. +And I came to think that behind the violence lay a sinister criminal enterprise. +And so I resolved to travel around the world examining this global criminal underworld by talking to policemen, by talking to victims, by talking to consumers of illicit goods and services. +But above all else, by talking to the gangsters themselves. +And the Balkans was a fabulous place to start. +Why? Well of course there was the issue of law and order collapsing, but also, as they say in the retail trade, it's location, location, location. +And what I noticed at the beginning of my research that the Balkans had turned into a vast transit zone for illicit goods and services coming from all over the world. +Heroin, cocaine, women being trafficked into prostitution and precious minerals. +And where were they heading? +The European Union, which by now was beginning to reap the benefits of globalization, transforming it into the most affluent consumer market in history, eventually comprising some 500 million people. +And a significant minority of those 500 million people like to spend some of their leisure time and spare cash sleeping with prostitutes, sticking 50 Euro notes up their nose and employing illegal migrant laborers. +Now, organized crime in a globalizing world operates in the same way as any other business. +It has zones of production, like Afghanistan and Columbia. +It has zones of distribution, like Mexico and the Balkans. +And then, of course, it has zones of consumption, like the European Union, Japan and of course, the United States. +The zones of production and distribution tend to lie in the developing world, and they are often threatened by appalling violence and bloodshed. +Take Mexico, for example. +Six thousand people killed there in the last 18 months as a direct consequence of the cocaine trade. +But what about the Democratic Republic of Congo? +Since 1998, five million people have died there. +It's not a conflict you read about much in the newspapers, but it's the biggest conflict on this planet since the Second World War. +And why is it? Because mafias from all around the world cooperate with local paramilitaries in order to seize the supplies of the rich mineral resources of the region. +In the year 2000, 80 percent of the world's coltan was sourced to the killing fields of the eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. +Now, coltan you will find in almost every mobile phone, in almost every laptop and games console. +The Congolese war lords were selling this stuff to the mafia in exchange for weapons, and the mafia would then sell it on to Western markets. +And it is this Western desire to consume that is the primary driver of international organized crime. +Now, let me show you some of my friends in action, caught conveniently on film by the Italian police, and smuggling duty-not-paid cigarettes. +Now, cigarettes out the factory gate are very cheap. +The European Union then imposes the highest taxes on them in the world. +So if you can smuggle them into the E.U., there are very handsome profits to be made, and I want to show you this to demonstrate the type of resources available to these groups. +This boat is worth one million Euros when it's new. +And it's the fastest thing on European waters. +From 1994, for seven years, 20 of these boats made the trip across the Adriatic, from Montenegro to Italy, every single night. +And as a consequence of this trade, Britain alone lost eight billion dollars in revenue. +And instead that money went to underwrite the wars in Yugoslavia and line the pockets of unscrupulous individuals. +Now Italian police, when this trade started, had just two boats which could go at the same speed. +And this is very important, because the only way you can catch these guys is if they run out of gas. +Sometimes the gangsters would bring with them women being trafficked into prostitution, and if the police intervened, they would hurl the women into the sea so that the police had to go and save them from drowning, rather than chasing the bad guys. +So I have shown you this to demonstrate how many boats, how many vessels it takes to catch one of these guys. +And the answer is six vessels. +And remember, 20 of these speed boats were coming across the Adriatic every single night. +So what were these guys doing with all the money they were making? +Well, this is where we come to globalization, because that was not just the deregulation of global trade. +It was the liberalization of international financial markets. +And boy, did that make it easy for the money launderers. +The last two decades have been the champagne era for dirty lucre. +In the 1990s, we saw financial centers around the world competing for their business, and there was simply no effective mechanism to prevent money laundering. +And a lot of licit banks were also happy to accept deposits from very dubious sources without questions being asked. +But at the heart of this, is the offshore banking network. +Now these things are an essential part of the money laundering parade, and if you want to do something about illegal tax evasion and transnational organized crime, money laundering, you have to get rid of them. +On a positive note, we at last have someone in the White House who has consistently spoken out against these corrosive entities. +And if anyone is concerned about what I believe is the necessity for new legislation, regulation, effective regulation, I say, let's take a look at Bernie Madoff, who is now going to be spending the rest of his life in jail. +Bernie Madoff stole 65 billion dollars. +That puts him up there on the Olympus of gangsters with the Colombian cartels and the major Russian crime syndicates, but he did this for decades in the very heart of Wall Street, and no regulator picked up on it. +So how many other Madoffs are there on Wall Street or in the city of London, fleecing ordinary folk and money laundering? +Well I can tell you, it's quite a few of them. +Let me go on to the 101 of international organized crime now. +And that is narcotics. Our second marijuana farm photograph for the morning. +This one, however, is in central British Columbia where I photographed it. +It's one of the tens of thousands of mom-and-pop grow-ops in B.C. +which ensure that over five percent of the province's GDP is accounted for by this trade. +Now, even by the police's admission, this makes not a dent in the profits, really, of the major exporters. +Since the beginning of globalization, the global narcotics market has expanded enormously. +There has, however, been no concomitant increase in the resources available to police forces. +This, however, may all be about to change, because something very strange is going on. +The United Nations recognized earlier this -- it was last month actually -- that Canada has become a key area of distribution and production of ecstasy and other synthetic drugs. +Interestingly, the market share of heroin and cocaine is going down, because the pills are getting ever better at reproducing their highs. +Now that is a game changer, because it shifts production away from the developing world and into the Western world. +When that happens, it is a trend which is set to overwhelm our policing capacity in the West. +The drugs policy which we've had in place for 40 years is long overdue for a very serious rethink, in my opinion. +Now, the recession. +Well, organized crime has already adapted very well to the recession. +Not surprising, the most opportunistic industry in the whole world. +And it has no rules to its regulatory system. +Except, of course, it has two business risks: arrest by law enforcement, which is, frankly, the least of their worries, and competition from other groups, i.e. a bullet in the back of the head. +What they've done is they've shifted their operations. +People don't smoke as much dope, or visit prostitutes quite so frequently during a recession. +And so instead, they have invaded financial and corporate crime in a big way, but above all, two sectors, and that is counterfeit goods and cybercrime. +And it's been terribly successful. +I would like to introduce you to Mr. Pringle. +Or perhaps I should say, more accurately, Seor Pringle. +I was introduced to this bit of kit by a Brazilian cybercriminal. +We sat in a car on the Avenue Paulista in So Paulo, together. +Hooked it up to my laptop, and within about five minutes he had penetrated the computer security system of a major Brazilian bank. +It's really not that difficult. +And it's actually much easier because the fascinating thing about cybercrime is that it's not so much the technology. +The key to cybercrime is what we call social engineering. +Or to use the technical term for it, there's one born every minute. +You would not believe how easy it is to persuade people to do things with their computers which are objectively not in their interest. +And it was very soon when the cybercriminals learned that the quickest way to do this, of course, the quickest way to a person's wallet is through the promise of sex and love. +I expect some of you remember the ILOVEYOU virus, one of the very great worldwide viruses that came. +I was very fortunate when the ILOVEYOU virus came out, because the first person I received it from was an ex-girlfriend of mine. +Now, she harbored all sorts of sentiments and emotions towards me at the time, but love was not amongst them. +And so as soon as I saw this drop into my inbox, I dispatched it hastily to the recycle bin and spared myself a very nasty infection. +So, cybercrime, do watch out for it. +One thing that we do know that the Internet is doing is the Internet is assisting these guys. +These are mosquitos who carry the malarial parasite which infests our blood when the mosy has had a free meal at our expense. +Now, Artesunate is a very effective drug at destroying the parasite in the early days of infection. +But over the past year or so, researchers in Cambodia have discovered that what's happening is the malarial parasite is developing a resistance. +And they fear that the reason why it's developing a resistance is because Cambodians can't afford the drugs on the commercial market, and so they buy it from the Internet. +And these pills contain only low doses of the active ingredient. +Which is why the parasite is beginning to develop a resistance. +The reason I say this is because we have to know that organized crime impacts all sorts of areas of our lives. +You don't have to sleep with prostitutes or take drugs in order to have a relationship with organized crime. +They affect our bank accounts. +They affect our communications, our pension funds. +They even affect the food that we eat and our governments. +This is no longer an issue of Sicilians from Palermo and New York. +There is no romance involved with gangsters in the 21st Century. +This is a mighty industry, and it creates instability and violence wherever it goes. +It is a major economic force and we need to take it very, very seriously. +It's been a privilege talking to you. +Thank you very much. +The public debate about architecture quite often just stays on contemplating the final result, the architectural object. +Is the latest tower in London a gherkin or a sausage or a sex tool? +So recently, we asked ourselves if we could invent a format that could actually tell the stories behind the projects, maybe combining images and drawings and words to actually sort of tell stories about architecture. +And we discovered that we didn't have to invent it, it already existed in the form of a comic book. +So we basically copied the format of the comic book to actually tell the stories of behind the scenes, how our projects actually evolve through adaptation and improvisation. +Sort of through the turmoil and the opportunities and the incidents of the real world. +We call this comic book "Yes is More," which is obviously a sort of evolution of the ideas of some of our heroes. +In this case it's Mies van der Rohe's Less is More. +He triggered the modernist revolution. +After him followed the post-modern counter-revolution, Robert Venturi saying, "Less is a bore." +After him, Philip Johnson sort of introduced you could say promiscuity, or at least openness to new ideas with, "I am a whore." +Recently, Obama has introduced optimism at a sort of time of global financial crisis. +And what we'd like to say with "Yes is More" is basically trying to question this idea that the architectural avant-garde is almost always negatively defined, as who or what we are against. +The cliche of the radical architect is the sort of angry young man rebelling against the establishment. +Or this idea of the misunderstood genius, frustrated that the world doesn't fit in with his or her ideas. +Rather than revolution, we're much more interested in evolution, this idea that things gradually evolve by adapting and improvising to the changes of the world. +In fact, I actually think that Darwin is one of the people who best explains our design process. +His famous evolutionary tree could almost be a diagram of the way we work. +As you can see, a project evolves through a series of generations of design meetings. +At each meeting, there's way too many ideas. +Only the best ones can survive. +And through a process of architectural selection, we might choose a really beautiful model or we might have a very functional model. +We mate them. They have sort of mutant offspring. +And through these sort of generations of design meetings we arrive at a design. +A very literal way of showing it is a project we did for a library and a hotel in Copenhagen. +But Darwin doesn't only explain the evolution of a single idea. +As you can see, sometimes a subspecies branches off. +And quite often we sit in a design meeting and we discover that there is this great idea. +It doesn't really work in this context. +But for another client in another culture, it could really be the right answer to a different question. +So as a result, we never throw anything out. +We keep our office almost like an archive of architectural biodiversity. +You never know when you might need it. +And what I'd like to do now, in an act of warp-speed storytelling, is tell the story of how two projects evolved by adapting and improvising to the happenstance of the world. +The first story starts last year when we went to Shanghai to do the competition for the Danish National Pavilion for the World Expo in 2010. +And we saw this guy, Haibao. +He's the mascot of the expo, and he looks strangely familiar. +In fact he looked like a building we had designed for a hotel in the north of Sweden. +When we submitted it for the Swedish competition we thought it was a really cool scheme, but it didn't exactly look like something from the north of Sweden. +The Swedish jury didn't think so either. So we lost. +But then we had a meeting with a Chinese businessman who saw our design and said, "Wow, that's the Chinese character for the word 'people.'" So, apparently this is how you write "people," as in the People's Republic of China. +We even double checked. +And at the same time, we got invited to exhibit at the Shanghai Creative Industry Week. +So we thought like, this is too much of an opportunity, so we hired a feng shui master. +We scaled the building up three times to Chinese proportions, and went to China. +So the People's Building, as we called it. +This is our two interpreters, sort of reading the architecture. +It went on the cover of the Wen Wei Po newspaper, which got Mr. Liangyu Chen, the mayor of Shanghai, to visit the exhibition. +And we had the chance to explain the project. +And he said, "Shanghai is the city in the world with most skyscrapers," but to him it was as if the connection to the roots had been cut over. +And with the People's Building, he saw an architecture that could bridge the gap between the ancient wisdom of China and the progressive future of China. +So we obviously profoundly agreed with him. +Unfortunately, Mr. Chen is now in prison for corruption. +But like I said, Haibao looked very familiar, because he is actually the Chinese character for "people." +And they chose this mascot because the theme of the expo is "Better City, Better Life." +Sustainability. +And we thought, sustainability has grown into being this sort of neo-Protestant idea that it has to hurt in order to do good. +You know, you're not supposed to take long, warm showers. +You're not supposed to fly on holidays because it's bad for the environment. +Gradually, you get this idea that sustainable life is less fun than normal life. +So we thought that maybe it could be interesting to focus on examples where a sustainable city actually increases the quality of life. +We also asked ourselves, what could Denmark possibly show China that would be relevant? +You know, it's one of the biggest countries in the world, one of the smallest. +China symbolized by the dragon. +Denmark, we have a national bird, the swan. +China has many great poets, but we discovered that in the People's Republic public school curriculum, they have three fairy tales by An Tu Sheng, or Hans Christian Anderson, as we call him. +So that means that all 1.3 billion Chinese have grown up with "The Emperor's New Clothes," "The Matchstick Girl" and "The Little Mermaid." +It's almost like a fragment of Danish culture integrated into Chinese culture. +The biggest tourist attraction in China is the Great Wall. +The Great Wall is the only thing that can be seen from the moon. +The big tourist attraction in Denmark is The Little Mermaid. +That can actually hardly be seen from the canal tours. +And it sort of shows the difference between these two cities. +Copenhagen, Shanghai, modern, European. +But then we looked at recent urban development, and we noticed that this is like a Shanghai street, 30 years ago. All bikes, no cars. +This is how it looks today; all traffic jam. +Bicycles have become forbidden many places. +Meanwhile, in Copenhagen we're actually expanding the bicycle lanes. +A third of all the people commute by bike. +We have a free system of bicycles called the City Bike that you can borrow if you visit the city. +So we thought, why don't we reintroduce the bicycle in China? +We donate 1,000 bikes to Shanghai. +So if you come to the expo, go straight to the Danish pavilion, get a Danish bike, and then continue on that to visit the other pavilions. +Like I said, Shanghai and Copenhagen are both port cities, but in Copenhagen the water has gotten so clean that you can actually swim in it. +One of the first projects we ever did was the harbor bath in Copenhagen, sort of continuing the public realm into the water. +So we thought that these expos quite often have a lot of state financed propaganda, images, statements, but no real experience. +So just like with a bike, we don't talk about it. +You can try it. +Like with the water, instead of talking about it, we're going to sail a million liters of harbor water from Copenhagen to Shanghai, so the Chinese who have the courage can actually dive in and feel how clean it is. +This is where people normally object that it doesn't sound very sustainable to sail water from Copenhagen to China. +But in fact, the container ships go full of goods from China to Denmark, and then they sail empty back. +So quite often you load water for ballast. +So we can actually hitch a ride for free. +And in the middle of this sort of harbor bath, we're actually going to put the actual Little Mermaid. +So the real Mermaid, the real water, and the real bikes. +And when she's gone, we're going to invite a Chinese artist to reinterpret her. +The architecture of the pavilion is this sort of loop of exhibition and bikes. +When you go to the exhibition, you'll see the Mermaid and the pool. +You'll walk around, start looking for a bicycle on the roof, jump on your ride and then continue out into the rest of the expo. +So when we actually won the competition we had to do an exhibition in China explaining the project. +And to our surprise we got one of our boards back with corrections from the Chinese state censorship. +The first thing, the China map missed Taiwan. +It's a very serious political issue in China. We will add on. +The second thing, we had compared the swan to the dragon, and then the Chinese state said, "Suggest change to panda." +So, when it came out in Denmark that we were actually going to move our national monument, the National People's Party sort of rebelled against it. +They tried to pass a law against moving the Mermaid. +So for the first time, I got invited to speak at the National Parliament. +It was kind of interesting because in the morning, from 9 to 11, they were discussing the bailout package -- how many billions to invest in saving the Danish economy. +And then at 11 o'clock they stopped talking about these little issues. +And then from 11 to 1, they were debating whether or not to send the Mermaid to China. +But to conclude, if you want to see the Mermaid from May to December next year, don't come to Copenhagen, because she's going to be in Shanghai. +If you do come to Copenhagen, you will probably see an installation by Ai Weiwei, the Chinese artist. +But if the Chinese government intervenes, it might even be a panda. +So the second story that I'd like to tell is, actually starts in my own house. +This is my apartment. +This is the view from my apartment, over the sort of landscape of triangular balconies that our client called the Leonardo DiCaprio balcony. +And they form this sort of vertical backyard where, on a nice summer day, you'll actually get introduced to all your neighbors in a vertical radius of 10 meters. +The house is sort of a distortion of a square block. +Trying to zigzag it to make sure that all of the apartments look at the straight views, instead of into each other. +Until recently, this was the view from my apartment, onto this place where our client actually bought the neighbor site. +And he said that he was going to do an apartment block next to a parking structure. +And we thought, rather than doing a traditional stack of apartments looking straight into a big boring block of cars, why don't we turn all the apartments into penthouses, put them on a podium of cars. +And because Copenhagen is completely flat, if you want to have a nice south-facing slope with a view, you basically have to do it yourself. +Then we sort of cut up the volume, so we wouldn't block the view from my apartment. +And essentially the parking is sort of occupying the deep space underneath the apartments. +And up in the sun, you have a single layer of apartments that combine all the splendors of a suburban lifestyle, like a house with a garden with a sort of metropolitan view, and a sort of dense urban location. +This is our first architectural model. +This is an aerial photo taken last summer. +And essentially, the apartments cover the parking. +They are accessed through this diagonal elevator. +It's actually a stand-up product from Switzerland, because in Switzerland they have a natural need for diagonal elevators. +And the facade of the parking, we wanted to make the parking naturally ventilated, so we needed to perforate it. +And we discovered that by controlling the size of the holes, we could actually turn the entire facade into a gigantic, naturally ventilated, rasterized image. +And since we always refer to the project as The Mountain, we commissioned this Japanese Himalaya photographer to give us this beautiful photo of Mount Everest, making the entire building a 3,000 square meter artwork. +So if you go back into the parking, into the corridors, it's almost like traveling into a parallel universe from cars and colors, into this sort of south-facing urban oasis. +The wood of your apartment continues outside becoming the facades. +If you go even further, it turns into this green garden. +And all the rainwater that drops on the Mountain is actually accumulated. +And there is an automatic irrigation system that makes sure that this sort of landscape of gardens, in one or two years it will sort of transform into a Cambodian temple ruin, completely covered in green. +So, the Mountain is like our first built example of what we like to refer to as architectural alchemy. +This idea that you can actually create, if not gold, then at least added value by mixing traditional ingredients, like normal apartments and normal parking, and in this case actually offer people the chance that they don't have to choose between a life with a garden or a life in the city. +They can actually have both. +As an architect, it's really hard to set the agenda. +You can't just say that now I'd like to do a sustainable city in central Asia, because that's not really how you get commissions. +You always have to sort of adapt and improvise to the opportunities and accidents that happen, and the sort of turmoil of the world. +One last example is that recently we, like last summer, we won the competition to design a Nordic national bank. +This was the director of the bank when he was still smiling. +It was in the middle of the capital so we were really excited by this opportunity. +Unfortunately, it was the national bank of Iceland. +At the same time, we actually had a visitor -- a minister from Azerbaijan came to our office. +We took him to see the Mountain. And he got very excited by this idea that you could actually make mountains out of architecture, because Azerbaijan is known as the Alps of Central Asia. +So he asked us if we could actually imagine an urban master plan on an island outside the capital that would recreate the silhouette of the seven most significant mountains of Azerbaijan. +So we took the commission. +And we made this small movie that I'd like to show. +We quite often make little movies. +We always argue a lot about the soundtrack, but in this case it was really easy to choose the song. +So basically, Baku is this sort of crescent bay overlooking the island of Zira, the island that we are planning -- almost like the diagram of their flag. +And our main idea was to sort of sample the seven most significant mountains of the topography of Azerbaijan and reinterpret them into urban and architectural structures, inhabitable of human life. +Then we place these mountains on the island, surrounding this sort of central green valley, almost like a central park. +And what makes it interesting is that the island right now is just a piece of desert. It has no vegetation. +It has no water. It has no energy, no resources. +So we actually sort of designed the entire island as a single ecosystem, exploiting wind energy to drive the desalination plants, and to use the thermal properties of water to heat and cool the buildings. +And all the sort of excess freshwater wastewater is filtered organically into the landscape, gradually transforming the desert island into sort of a green, lush landscape. +So, you can say where an urban development normally happens at the expense of nature, in this case it's actually creating nature. +And the buildings, they don't only sort of invoke the imagery of the mountains, they also operate like mountains. +They create shelter from the wind. +They accumulate the solar energy. +They accumulate the water. +So they actually transform the entire island into a single ecosystem. +So we recently presented the master plan, and it has gotten approved. +And this summer we are starting the construction documents of the two first mountains, in what's going to be the first carbon-neutral island in Central Asia. +Yes, maybe just to round off. +So in a way you can see how the Mountain in Copenhagen sort of evolved into the Seven Peaks of Azerbaijan. +With a little luck and some more evolution, maybe in 10 years it could be the Five Mountains on Mars. +Thank you. +So the question is, what is invisible? +There is more of it than you think, actually. +Everything, I would say. Everything that matters except every thing and except matter. +We can see matter. But we can't see what's the matter. +As in this cryptic sentence I found in The Guardian recently: "The marriage suffered a setback in 1965, when the husband was killed by the wife." +There's a world of invisibility there, isn't there? +So, we can see the stars and the planets, but we can't see what holds them apart or what draws them together. +With matter, as with people, we see only the skin of things. +We can't see into the engine room. +We can't see what makes people tick, at least not without difficulty. +And the closer we look at anything, the more it disappears. +In fact, if you look really closely at stuff, if you look at the basic substructure of matter, there isn't anything there. +Electrons disappear in a kind of fuzz, and there is only energy. And you can't see energy. +So everything that matters, that's important, is invisible. +One slightly silly thing that's invisible is this story, which is invisible to you. +And I'm now going to make it visible to you in your minds. +It's about an M.P. called Geoffrey Dickens. +The late Geoffrey Dickens, M.P. was attending a fete in his constituency. +Wherever he went, at every stall he stopped he was closely followed by a devoted smiling woman of indescribable ugliness. +Try as he might, he couldn't get away from her. +A few days later he received a letter from a constituent saying how much she admired him, had met him at a fete and asking for a signed photograph. +After her name, written in brackets was the apt description, horse face. +"I've misjudged this women," thought Mr. Dickens. +"Not only is she aware of her physical repulsiveness, she turns it to her advantage. +A photo is not enough." +So he went out and bought a plastic frame to put the photograph in. +And on the photograph, he wrote with a flourish, "To Horse Face, with love from Geoffrey Dickens, M.P." +After it had been sent off, his secretary said to him, "Did you get that letter from the woman at the fete? +I wrote Horse Face on her, so you'd remember who she was." +I bet he thought he wished he was invisible, don't you? +So, one of the interesting things about invisibility is that things that we can't see we also can't understand. +Gravity is one thing that we can't see and which we don't understand. +It's the least understood of all the four fundamental forces, and the weakest. +And nobody really knows what it is or why it's there. +For what it's worth, Sir Isaac Newton, the greatest scientist who ever lived, he thought Jesus came to Earth specifically to operate the levers of gravity. +That's what he thought he was there for. +So, bright guy, could be wrong on that one, I don't know. +Consciousness. I see all your faces. +I have no idea what any of you are thinking. Isn't that amazing? +Isn't that incredible that we can't read each other's minds? +But we can touch each other, taste each other perhaps, if we get close enough. +But we can't read each other's minds. I find that quite astonishing. +In the Sufi faith, this great Middle Eastern religion, which some claim is the route of all religions, Sufi masters are all telepaths, so they say. +But their main exercise of telepathy is to send out powerful signals to the rest of us that it doesn't exist. +So that's why we don't think it exists, the Sufi masters working on us. +In the question of consciousness and artificial intelligence, artificial intelligence has really, like the study of consciousness, gotten nowhere. We have no idea how consciousness works. +With artificial intelligence, not only have they not created artificial intelligence, they haven't yet created artificial stupidity. +The laws of physics: invisible, eternal, omnipresent, all-powerful. +Remind you of anyone? +Interesting. I'm, as you can guess, not a materialist, I'm an immaterialist. +And I've found a very useful new word, ignostic. Okay? +I'm an ignostic. +I refuse to be drawn on the question of whether God exists, until somebody properly defines the terms. +Another thing we can't see is the human genome. +And this is increasingly peculiar, because about 20 years ago, when they started delving into the genome, they thought it would probably contain around 100,000 genes. +Geneticists will know this, but every year since, it's been revised downwards. +We now think there are likely to be only just over 20,000 genes in the human genome. +This is extraordinary. Because rice -- get this -- rice is known to have 38 thousand genes. +Potatoes, potatoes have 48 chromosomes. Do you know that? +Two more than people, and the same as a gorilla. +You can't see these things, but they are very strange. +The stars by day. I always think that's fascinating. +The universe disappears. +The more light there is, the less you can see. +Time, nobody can see time. +I don't know if you know this. Modern physics, there is a big movement in modern physics to decide that time doesn't really exist, because it's too inconvenient for the figures. +It's much easier if it's not really there. +You can't see the future, obviously. +And you can't see the past, except in your memory. +One of the interesting things about the past is you particularly can't see. My son asked me this the other day, he said, "Dad, can you remember what I was like when I was two?" +And I said, "Yes." And he said, "Why can't I?" +Isn't that extraordinary? You cannot remember what happened to you earlier than the age of two or three, which is great news for psychoanalysts, because otherwise they'd be out of a job. +Because that's where all the stuff happens that makes you who you are. +Another thing you can't see is the grid on which we hang. +This is fascinating. You probably know, some of you, that cells are continually renewed. You can see it in skin and this kind of stuff. +Skin flakes off, hairs grow, nails, that kind of stuff. +But every cell in your body is replaced at some point. +Taste buds, every 10 days or so. +Livers and internal organs sort of take a bit longer. A spine takes several years. +But at the end of seven years, not one cell in your body remains from what was there seven years ago. +The question is, who, then, are we? +What are we? What is this thing that we hang on, that is actually us? +Okay. Atoms, you can't see them. +Nobody ever will. They're smaller than the wavelength of light. +Gas, you can't see that. +Interesting. Somebody mentioned 1600 recently. +Gas was invented in 1600 by a Dutch chemist called Van Helmont. +It's said to be the most successful ever invention of a word by a known individual. +Quite good. He also invented a word called "blas," meaning astral radiation. +Didn't catch on, unfortunately. +But well done, him. +There is so many things that -- Light. +You can't see light. When it's dark, in a vacuum, if a person shines a beam of light straight across your eyes, you won't see it. Slightly technical, some physicists will disagree with this. +But it's odd that you can't see the beam of light, you can only see what it hits. +I find that extraordinary, not to be able to see light, not to be able to see darkness. +Electricity, you can't see that. +Don't let anyone tell you they understand electricity. +They don't. Nobody knows what it is. +You probably think the electrons in an electric wire move instantaneously down a wire, don't you, at the speed of light when you turn the light on. They don't. +Electrons bumble down the wire, about the speed of spreading honey, they say. +Galaxies, 100 billion of them estimated in the universe. +100 billion. How many can we see? Five. +Five out of the 100 billion galaxies, with the naked eye, and one of them is quite difficult to see unless you've got very good eyesight. +Radio waves. There's another thing. +Heinrich Hertz, when he discovered radio waves in 1887, he called them radio waves because they radiated. +And somebody said to him, "Well what's the point of these, Heinrich? +What's the point of these radio waves that you've found?" +And he said, "Well, I've no idea. +But I guess somebody will find a use for them someday." +And that's what they do, radio. That's what they discovered. +Anyway, so the biggest thing that's invisible to us is what we don't know. +It is incredible how little we know. +Thomas Edison once said, "We don't know one percent of one millionth about anything." +And I've come to the conclusion -- because you've asked this other question, "What's another thing you can't see?" +The point, most of us. What's the point? +You can't see a point. It's by definition dimensionless, like an electron, oddly enough. +But the point, what I've got it down to, is there are only two questions really worth asking. +"Why are we here?" and "What should we do about it while we are? +And to help you, I've got two things to leave you with, from two great philosophers, perhaps two of the greatest philosopher thinkers of the 20th century, one a mathematician and an engineer, and the other a poet. +The first is Ludwig Wittgenstein who said, "I don't know why we are here. +But I'm pretty sure it's not in order to enjoy ourselves." +He was a cheerful bastard wasn't he? +And secondly and lastly, W.H. Auden, one of my favorite poets, who said, "We are here on earth to help others. +What the others are here for, I've no idea." +We see with the eyes, but we see with the brain as well. +And seeing with the brain is often called imagination. +And we are familiar with the landscapes of our own imagination, our inscapes. We've lived with them all our lives. +But there are also hallucinations as well, and hallucinations are completely different. +They don't seem to be of our creation. +They don't seem to be under our control. +They seem to come from the outside, and to mimic perception. +So I am going to be talking about hallucinations, and a particular sort of visual hallucination which I see among my patients. +A few months ago, I got a phone call from a nursing home where I work. +They told me that one of their residents, an old lady in her 90s, was seeing things, and they wondered if she'd gone bonkers or, because she was an old lady, whether she'd had a stroke, or whether she had Alzheimer's. +And so they asked me if I would come and see Rosalie, the old lady. +I went in to see her. +It was evident straight away that she was perfectly sane and lucid and of good intelligence, but she'd been very startled and very bewildered, because she'd been seeing things. +And she told me -- the nurses hadn't mentioned this -- that she was blind, that she had been completely blind from macular degeneration for five years. +But now, for the last few days, she'd been seeing things. +So I said, "What sort of things?" +And she said, "People in Eastern dress, in drapes, walking up and down stairs. +A man who turns towards me and smiles. +But he has huge teeth on one side of his mouth. +Animals too. +I see a white building. It's snowing, a soft snow. +I see this horse with a harness, dragging the snow away. +Then, one night, the scene changes. +I see cats and dogs walking towards me. +They come to a certain point and then stop. +Then it changes again. +I see a lot of children. They are walking up and down stairs. +They wear bright colors, rose and blue, like Eastern dress." +Sometimes, she said, before the people come on, she may hallucinate pink and blue squares on the floor, which seem to go up to the ceiling. +I said, "Is this like a dream?" +And she said, "No, it's not like a dream. It's like a movie." +She said, "It's got color. It's got motion. +But it's completely silent, like a silent movie." +And she said that it's a rather boring movie. +She said, "All these people with Eastern dress, walking up and down, very repetitive, very limited." +And she has a sense of humor. +She knew it was a hallucination. +But she was frightened. She'd lived 95 years and she'd never had a hallucination before. +She said that the hallucinations were unrelated to anything she was thinking or feeling or doing, that they seemed to come on by themselves, or disappear. +She had no control over them. +She said she didn't recognize any of the people or places in the hallucinations. +And none of the people or the animals, well, they all seemed oblivious of her. +And she didn't know what was going on. +She wondered if she was going mad or losing her mind. +Well, I examined her carefully. +She was a bright old lady, perfectly sane. She had no medical problems. +She wasn't on any medications which could produce hallucinations. +But she was blind. +And I then said to her, "I think I know what you have." +I said, "There is a special form of visual hallucination which may go with deteriorating vision or blindness. +This was originally described," I said, "right back in the 18th century, by a man called Charles Bonnet. +And you have Charles Bonnet syndrome. +There is nothing wrong with your brain. There is nothing wrong with your mind. +You have Charles Bonnet syndrome." +And she was very relieved at this, that there was nothing seriously the matter, and also rather curious. +She said, "Who is this Charles Bonnet?" +She said, "Did he have them himself?" +And she said, "Tell all the nurses that I have Charles Bonnet syndrome." +"I'm not crazy. I'm not demented. I have Charles Bonnet syndrome." +Well, so I did tell the nurses. +Now this, for me, is a common situation. +I work in old-age homes, largely. +I see a lot of elderly people who are hearing impaired or visually impaired. +About 10 percent of the hearing impaired people get musical hallucinations. +And about 10 percent of the visually impaired people get visual hallucinations. +You don't have to be completely blind, only sufficiently impaired. +Now with the original description in the 18th century, Charles Bonnet did not have them. +His grandfather had these hallucinations. +His grandfather was a magistrate, an elderly man. +He'd had cataract surgery. +His vision was pretty poor. +And in 1759, he described to his grandson various things he was seeing. +The first thing he said was he saw a handkerchief in midair. +It was a large blue handkerchief with four orange circles. +And he knew it was a hallucination. +You don't have handkerchiefs in midair. +And then he saw a big wheel in midair. +But sometimes he wasn't sure whether he was hallucinating or not, because the hallucinations would fit in the context of the visions. +So on one occasion, when his granddaughters were visiting them, he said, "And who are these handsome young men with you?" +And they said, "Alas, Grandpapa, there are no handsome young men." +And then the handsome young men disappeared. +It's typical of these hallucinations that they may come in a flash and disappear in a flash. +They don't usually fade in and out. +They are rather sudden, and they change suddenly. +Charles Lullin, the grandfather, saw hundreds of different figures, different landscapes of all sorts. +On one occasion, he saw a man in a bathrobe smoking a pipe, and realized it was himself. +That was the only figure he recognized. +On one occasion when he was walking in the streets of Paris, he saw -- this was real -- a scaffolding. +But when he got back home, he saw a miniature of the scaffolding six inches high, on his study table. +This repetition of perception is sometimes called palinopsia. +With him and with Rosalie, what seems to be going on -- and Rosalie said, "What's going on?" -- and I said that as you lose vision, as the visual parts of the brain are no longer getting any input, they become hyperactive and excitable, and they start to fire spontaneously. +And you start to see things. +The things you see can be very complicated indeed. +With another patient of mine, who, also had some vision, the vision she had could be disturbing. +On one occasion, she said she saw a man in a striped shirt in a restaurant. +And he turned around. And then he divided into six figures in striped shirts, who started walking towards her. +And then the six figures came together again, like a concertina. +Once, when she was driving, or rather, her husband was driving, the road divided into four and she felt herself going simultaneously up four roads. +She had very mobile hallucinations as well. +A lot of them had to do with a car. +Sometimes she would see a teenage boy sitting on the hood of the car. +He was very tenacious and he moved rather gracefully when the car turned. +And then when they came to a stop, the boy would do a sudden vertical takeoff, 100 foot in the air, and then disappear. +Another patient of mine had a different sort of hallucination. +This was a woman who didn't have trouble with her eyes, but the visual parts of her brain, a little tumor in the occipital cortex. +And, above all, she would see cartoons. +These cartoons would be transparent and would cover half the visual field, like a screen. +And especially she saw cartoons of Kermit the Frog. +Now, I don't watch Sesame Street, but she made a point of saying, "Why Kermit?" she said, "Kermit the Frog means nothing to me. +You know, I was wondering about Freudian determinants. +Why Kermit? +Kermit the Frog means nothing to me." +She didn't mind the cartoons too much. +But what did disturb her was she got very persistent images or hallucinations of faces and as with Rosalie, the faces were often deformed, with very large teeth or very large eyes. +And these frightened her. +Well, what is going on with these people? +As a physician, I have to try and define what's going on, and to reassure people, especially to reassure them that they're not going insane. +Something like 10 percent, as I said, of visually impaired people get these. +But no more than one percent of the people acknowledge them, because they are afraid they will be seen as insane or something. +And if they do mention them to their own doctors they may be misdiagnosed. +In particular, the notion is that if you see things or hear things, you're going mad, but the psychotic hallucinations are quite different. +Psychotic hallucinations, whether they are visual or vocal, they address you. They accuse you. +They seduce you. They humiliate you. +They jeer at you. +You interact with them. +There is none of this quality of being addressed with these Charles Bonnet hallucinations. +There is a film. You're seeing a film which has nothing to do with you, or that's how people think about it. +There is also a rare thing called temporal lobe epilepsy, and sometimes, if one has this, one may feel oneself transported back to a time and place in the past. +You're at a particular road junction. +You smell chestnuts roasting. +You hear the traffic. All the senses are involved. +And you're waiting for your girl. +And it's that Tuesday evening back in 1982. +And the temporal lobe hallucinations are all-sense hallucinations, full of feeling, full of familiarity, located in space and time, coherent, dramatic. +The Charles Bonnet ones are quite different. +So in the Charles Bonnet hallucinations, you have all sorts of levels, from the geometrical hallucinations -- the pink and blue squares the woman had -- up to quite elaborate hallucinations with figures and especially faces. +Faces, and sometimes deformed faces, are the single commonest thing in these hallucinations. +And one of the second commonest is cartoons. +So, what is going on? +Fascinatingly, in the last few years, it's been possible to do functional brain imagery, to do fMRI on people as they are hallucinating. +And in fact, to find that different parts of the visual brain are activated as they are hallucinating. +When people have these simple geometrical hallucinations, the primary visual cortex is activated. +This is the part of the brain which perceives edges and patterns. +You don't form images with your primary visual cortex. +When images are formed, a higher part of the visual cortex is involved in the temporal lobe. +And in particular, one area of the temporal lobe is called the fusiform gyrus. +And it's known that if people have damage in the fusiform gyrus, they maybe lose the ability to recognize faces. +But if there is an abnormal activity in the fusiform gyrus, they may hallucinate faces, and this is exactly what you find in some of these people. +There is an area in the anterior part of this gyrus where teeth and eyes are represented, and that part of the gyrus is activated when people get the deformed hallucinations. +There is another part of the brain which is especially activated when one sees cartoons. +It's activated when one recognizes cartoons, when one draws cartoons, and when one hallucinates them. +It's very interesting that that should be specific. +There are other parts of the brain which are specifically involved with the recognition and hallucination of buildings and landscapes. +Around 1970, it was found that there were not only parts of the brain, but particular cells. +"Face cells" were discovered around 1970. +And now we know that there are hundreds of other sorts of cells, which can be very, very specific. +So you may not only have "car" cells, you may have "Aston Martin" cells. +I saw an Aston Martin this morning. +I had to bring it in. +And now it's in there somewhere. +Now, at this level, in what's called the inferotemporal cortex, there are only visual images, or figments or fragments. +It's only at higher levels that the other senses join in and there are connections with memory and emotion. +And in the Charles Bonnet syndrome, you don't go to those higher levels. +You're in these levels of inferior visual cortex where you have thousands and tens of thousands and millions of images, or figments, or fragmentary figments, all neurally encoded in particular cells or small clusters of cells. +Normally these are all part of the integrated stream of perception, or imagination, and one is not conscious of them. +It is only if one is visually impaired or blind that the process is interrupted. +And instead of getting normal perception, you're getting an anarchic, convulsive stimulation, or release, of all of these visual cells in the inferotemporal cortex. +So, suddenly you see a face. Suddenly you see a car. +Suddenly this, and suddenly that. +The mind does its best to organize and to give some sort of coherence to this, but not terribly successfully. +When these were first described, it was thought that they could be interpreted like dreams. +But in fact people say, "I don't recognize the people. I can't form any associations." +"Kermit means nothing to me." +You don't get anywhere thinking of them as dreams. +Well, I've more or less said what I wanted. +I think I just want to recapitulate and say this is common. +Think of the number of blind people. +There must be hundreds of thousands of blind people who have these hallucinations, but are too scared to mention them. +So this sort of thing needs to be brought into notice, for patients, for doctors, for the public. +Finally, I think they are infinitely interesting and valuable, for giving one some insight as to how the brain works. +Charles Bonnet said, 250 years ago -- he wondered how, thinking these hallucinations, how, as he put it, the theater of the mind could be generated by the machinery of the brain. +Now, 250 years later, I think we're beginning to glimpse how this is done. +Thanks very much. +Chris Anderson: That was superb. Thank you so much. +You speak about these things with so much insight and empathy for your patients. +Have you yourself experienced any of the syndromes you write about? +Oliver Sacks: I was afraid you'd ask that. +Well, yeah, a lot of them. +And actually I'm a little visually impaired myself. +I'm blind in one eye, and not terribly good in the other. +And I see the geometrical hallucinations. +But they stop there. +CA: And they don't disturb you? +Because you understand what's doing it, it doesn't make you worried? +OS: Well they don't disturb me any more than my tinnitus, which I ignore. +They occasionally interest me, and I have many pictures of them in my notebooks. +I've gone and had an fMRI myself, to see how my visual cortex is taking over. +And when I see all these hexagons and complex things, which I also have, in visual migraine, I wonder whether everyone sees things like this, and whether things like cave art or ornamental art may have been derived from them a bit. +CA: That was an utterly, utterly fascinating talk. +Thank you so much for sharing. +OS: Thank you. Thank you. +My name is Jonathan Zittrain, and in my recent work I've been a bit of a pessimist. +So I thought this morning I would try to be the optimist, and give reason to hope for the future of the Internet by drawing upon its present. +Now, it may seem like there is less hope today than there was before. +People are less kind. There is less trust around. +I don't know. As a simple example, we could run a test here. +How many people have ever hitchhiked? +I know. How many people have hitchhiked within the past 10 years? +Right. So what has changed? +It's not better public transportation. +So that's one reason to think that we might be declensionists, going in the wrong direction. +But I want to give you three examples to try to say that the trend line is in fact in the other direction, and it's the Internet helping it along. +So example number one: the Internet itself. +These are three of the founders of the Internet. +They were actually high school classmates together at the same high school in suburban Los Angles in the 1960s. +You might have had a French club or a Debate club. +They had a "Let's build a global network" club, and it worked out very well. +They are pictured here for their 25th anniversary Newsweek retrospective on the Internet. +And as you can tell, they are basically goof balls. +They had one great limitation and one great freedom as they tried to conceive of a global network. +The limitation was that they didn't have any money. +No particular amount of capital to invest, of the sort that for a physical network you might need for trucks and people and a hub to move packages around overnight. +They had none of that. +But they had an amazing freedom, which was they didn't have to make any money from it. +The Internet has no business plan, never did. +No CEO, no firm responsible, singly, for building it. +Instead, it's folks getting together to do something for fun, rather than because they were told to, or because they were expecting to make a mint off of it. +That ethos led to a network architecture, a structure that was unlike other digital networks then or since. +So unusual, in fact, that it was said that it's not clear the Internet could work. +As late as 1992, IBM was known to say you couldn't possibly build a corporate network using Internet Protocol. +And even some Internet engineers today say the whole thing is a pilot project and the jury is still out. +That's why the mascot of Internet engineering, if it had one, is said to be the bumblebee. +Because the fur-to-wingspan ratio of the bumblebee is far too large for it to be able to fly. +And yet, mysteriously, somehow the bee flies. +I'm pleased to say that, thanks to massive government funding, about three years ago we finally figured out how bees fly. +It's very complicated, but it turns out they flap their wings very quickly. +So what is this bizarre architecture configuration that makes the network sing and be so unusual? +Well, to move data around from one place to another -- again, it's not like a package courier. +It's more like a mosh pit. +Imagine, you being part of a network where, you're maybe at a sporting event, and you're sitting in rows like this, and somebody asks for a beer, and it gets handed at the aisle. +And your neighborly duty is to pass the beer along, at risk to your own trousers, to get it to the destination. +No one pays you to do this. +It's just part of your neighborly duty. +And, in a way, that's exactly how packets move around the Internet, sometimes in as many as 25 or 30 hops, with the intervening entities that are passing the data around having no particular contractual or legal obligation to the original sender or to the receiver. +Now, of course, in a mosh pit it's hard to specify a destination. +You need a lot of trust, but it's not like, "I'm trying to get to Pensacola, please." +So the Internet needs addressing and directions. +It turns out there is no one overall map of the Internet. +Instead, again, it is as if we are all sitting together in a theater, but we can only see amidst the fog the people immediately around us. +So what do we do to figure out who is where? +We turn to the person on the right, and we tell that person what we see on our left, and vice versa. +And they can lather, rinse, repeat. And before you know it, you have a general sense of where everything is. +This is how Internet addressing and routing actually work. +This is a system that relies on kindness and trust, which also makes it very delicate and vulnerable. +In rare but striking instances, a single lie told by just one entity in this honeycomb can lead to real trouble. +So, for example, last year, the government of Pakistan asked its Internet service providers there to prevent citizens of Pakistan from seeing YouTube. +There was a video there that the government did not like and they wanted to make sure it was blocked. +This is a common occurrence. Governments everywhere are often trying to block and filter and censor content on the Internet. +Well this one ISP in Pakistan chose to effectuate the block for its subscribers in a rather unusual way. +It advertised -- the way that you might be asked, if you were part of the Internet, to declare what you see near you -- it advertised that near it, in fact, it had suddenly awakened to find that it was YouTube. +"That's right," it said, "I am YouTube." +Which meant that packets of data from subscribers going to YouTube stopped at the ISP, since they thought they were already there, and the ISP threw them away unopened because the point was to block it. +But it didn't stop there. +You see, that announcement went one click out, which got reverberated, one click out. +And it turns out that as you look at the postmortem of this event, you have at one moment perfectly working YouTube. +Then, at moment number two, you have the fake announcement go out. +And within two minutes, it reverberates around and YouTube is blocked everywhere in the world. +If you were sitting in Oxford, England, trying to get to YouTube, your packets were going to Pakistan and they weren't coming back. +Now just think about that. +One of the most popular websites in the world, run by the most powerful company in the world, and there was nothing that YouTube or Google were particularly privileged to do about it. +And yet, somehow, within about two hours, the problem was fixed. +How did this happen? +Well, for a big clue, we turn to NANOG. +The North American Network Operators Group, a group of people who, on a beautiful day outside, enter into a windowless room, at their terminals reading email and messages in fixed proportion font, like this, and they talk about networks. +And some of them are mid-level employees at Internet service providers around the world. +And here is the message where one of them says, "Looks like we've got a live one. We have a hijacking of YouTube! +This is not a drill. It's not just the cluelessness of YouTube engineers. I promise. +Something is up in Pakistan." +And they came together to help find the problem and fix it. +So it's kind of like if your house catches on fire. +The bad news is there is no fire brigade. +The good news is random people apparate from nowhere, put out the fire and leave without expecting payment or praise. +I was trying to think of the right model to describe this form of random acts of kindness by geeky strangers. +You know, it's just like the hail goes out and people are ready to help. +And it turns out this model is everywhere, once you start looking for it. +Example number two: Wikipedia. +If a man named Jimbo came up to you in 2001 and said, "I've got a great idea! We start with seven articles that anybody can edit anything, at any time, and we'll get a great encyclopedia! Eh?" +Right. Dumbest idea ever. +In fact, Wikipedia is an idea so profoundly stupid that even Jimbo never had it. +Jimbo's idea was for Nupedia. +It was going to be totally traditional. He would pay people money because he was feeling like a good guy, and the money would go to the people and they would write the articles. +The wiki was introduced so others could make suggestions on edits -- as almost an afterthought, a back room. +And then it turns out the back room grew to encompass the entire project. +And today, Wikipedia is so ubiquitous that you can now find it on Chinese restaurant menus. +I am not making this up. +I have a theory I can explain later. +Suffice it to say for now that I prefer my Wikipedia stir-fried with pimentos. +But now, Wikipedia doesn't just spontaneously work. +How does it really work? It turns out there is a back room that is kind of windowless, metaphorically speaking. +And there are a bunch of people who, on a sunny day, would rather be inside and monitoring this, the administrator's notice board, itself a wiki page that anyone can edit. +And you just bring your problems to the page. +It's reminiscent of the description of history as "one damn thing after another," right? +Number one: "Tendentious editing by user Andyvphil." +Apologies, Andyvphil, if you're here today. +I'm not taking sides. +"Anon attacking me for reverting." +Here is my favorite: "A long story." +It turns out there are more people checking this page for problems and wanting to solve them than there are problems arising on the page. +And that's what keeps Wikipedia afloat. +At all times, Wikipedia is approximately 45 minutes away from utter destruction. Right? +There are spambots crawling it, trying to turn every article into an ad for a Rolex watch. +It's this thin geeky line that keeps it going. +Not because it's a job, not because it's a career, but because it's a calling. +It's something they feel impelled to do because they care about it. +They even gather together in such groups as the Counter-Vandalism Unit -- "Civility, Maturity, Responsibility" -- to just clean up the pages. +It does make you wonder if there were, for instance, a massive, extremely popular Star Trek convention one weekend, who would be minding the store? +They're realizing that they have to take responsibility for what they do. +And Wikipedia has embraced this. +Some of you may remember Star Wars Kid, the poor teenager who filmed himself with a golf ball retriever, acting as if it were a light saber. +The film, without his permission or even knowledge at first, found its way onto the Internet. +Hugely viral video. Extremely popular. +Totally mortifying to him. +Now, it being encyclopedic and all, Wikipedia had to do an article about Star Wars Kid. +Every article on Wikipedia has a corresponding discussion page, and on the discussion page they had extensive argument among the Wikipedians as to whether to have his real name featured in the article. +You could see arguments on both sides. +Here is just a snapshot of some of them. +They eventually decided -- not unanimously by any means -- not to include his real name, despite the fact that nearly all media reports did. +They just didn't think it was the right thing to do. +It was an act of kindness. +And to this day, the page for Star Wars Kid has a warning right at the top that says you are not to put his real name on the page. +If you do, it will be removed immediately, removed by people who may have disagreed with the original decision, but respect the outcome and work to make it stay because they believe in something bigger than their own opinion. +As a lawyer, I've got to say these guys are inventing the law and stare decisis and stuff like that as they go along. +Now, this isn't just limited to Wikipedia. +We see it on blogs all over the place. +I mean, this is a 2005 Business Week cover. +Wow. Blogs are going to change your business. +I know they look silly. And sure they look silly. +They start off on all sorts of goofy projects. +This is my favorite goofy blog: Catsthatlooklikehitler.com. +You send in a picture of your cat if it looks like Hitler. +Yeah, I know. Number four, it's like, can you imagine coming home to that cat everyday? +But then, you can see the same kind of whimsy applied to people. +So this is a blog devoted to unfortunate portraiture. +This one says, "Bucolic meadow with split-rail fence. +Is that an animal carcass behind her?" +You're like, "You know? I think that's an animal carcass behind her." +And it's one after the other. +But then you hit this one. Image removed at request of owner. +That's it. Image removed at request of owner. +It turns out that somebody lampooned here wrote to the snarky guy that does the site, not with a legal threat, not with an offer of payment, but just said, "Hey, would you mind?" +The person said, "No, that's fine." +I even think it can go into the real world. +We can end up, as we get in a world with more censors -- everywhere there is something filming you, maybe putting it online -- to be able to have a little clip you could wear that says, "You know, I'd rather not." +And then have technology that the person taking the photo will know later, this person requested to be contacted before this goes anywhere big, if you don't mind. +And that person taking the photo can make a decision about how and whether to respect it. +In the real world, we see filtering of this sort taking place in Pakistan. +And we now have means that we can build, like this system, so that people can report the filtering as they encounter it. +And it's no longer just a "I don't know. I couldn't get there. I guess I'll move on," but suddenly a collective consciousness about what is blocked and censored where online. +In fact, talk about technology imitating life imitating tech, or maybe it's the other way around. +An NYU researcher here took little cardboard robots with smiley faces on them, and a motor that just drove them forward and a flag sticking out the back with a desired destination. +It said, "Can you help me get there?" +Released it on the streets of Manhattan. +They'll fund anything these days. +Here is the chart of over 43 people helping to steer the robot that could not steer and get it on its way, from one corner from one corner of Washington Square Park to another. +That leads to example number three: hitchhiking. +I'm not so sure hitchhiking is dead. +Why? There is the Craigslist rideshare board. +If it were called the Craigslist hitchhiking board, tumbleweeds would be blowing through it. +But it's the rideshare board, and it's basically the same thing. +Now why are people using it? +I don't know. Maybe they think that, uh, killers don't plan ahead? +No. I think the actual answer is that once you reframe it, once you get out of one set of stale expectations from a failed project that had its day, but now, for whatever reason, is tarnished, you can actually rekindle the kind of human kindness and sharing that something like this on Craigslist represents. +And then you can highlight it into something like, yes, CouchSurfing.org. +CouchSurfing: one guy's idea to, at last, put together people who are going somewhere far away and would like to sleep on a stranger's couch for free, with people who live far away, and would like someone they don't know to sleep on their couch for free. +It's a brilliant idea. +It's a bee that, yes, flies. +Amazing how many successful couch surfings there have been. +And if you're wondering, no, there have been no known fatalities associated with CouchSurfing. +Although, to be sure, the reputation system, at the moment, works that you leave your report after the couch surfing experience, so there may be some selection bias there. +So, my urging, my thought, is that the Internet isn't just a pile of information. +It's not a noun. It's a verb. +And when you go on it, if you listen and see carefully and closely enough, what you will discover is that that information is saying something to you. +What it's saying to you is what we heard yesterday, Demosthenes was saying to us. +It's saying, "Let's march." Thank you very much. +Good morning. I think, as a grumpy Eastern European, I was brought in to play the pessimist this morning. So bear with me. +Well, I come from the former Soviet Republic of Belarus, which, as some of you may know, is not exactly an oasis of liberal democracy. +So that's why I've always been fascinated with how technology could actually reshape and open up authoritarian societies like ours. +So, I'm graduating college and, feeling very idealistic, I decided to join the NGO which actually was using new media to promote democracy and media reform in much of the former Soviet Union. +However, to my surprise, I discovered that dictatorships do not crumble so easily. +In fact, some of them actually survived the Internet challenge, and some got even more repressive. +So this is when I ran out of my idealism and decided to quit my NGO job and actually study how the Internet could impede democratization. +Now, I must tell you that this was never a very popular argument, and it's probably not very popular yet with some of you sitting in this audience. +It was never popular with many political leaders, especially those in the United States who somehow thought that new media would be able to do what missiles couldn't. +That is, promote democracy in difficult places where everything else has already been tried and failed. +And I think by 2009, this news has finally reached Britain, so I should probably add Gordon Brown to this list as well. +However, there is an underlying argument about logistics, which has driven so much of this debate. Right? +So if you look at it close enough, you'll actually see that much of this is about economics. +The cybertopians say, much like fax machines and Xerox machines did in the '80s, blogs and social networks have radically transformed the economics of protest, so people would inevitably rebel. +To put it very simply, the assumption so far has been that if you give people enough connectivity, if you give them enough devices, democracy will inevitably follow. +And to tell you the truth, I never really bought into this argument, in part because I never saw three American presidents agree on anything else in the past. +But, you know, even beyond that, if you think about the logic underlying it, is something I call iPod liberalism, where we assume that every single Iranian or Chinese who happens to have and love his iPod will also love liberal democracy. +And again, I think this is kind of false. +But I think a much bigger problem with this is that this logic -- that we should be dropping iPods not bombs -- I mean, it would make a fascinating title for Thomas Friedman's new book. +But this is rarely a good sign. Right? +So, the bigger problem with this logic is that it confuses the intended versus the actual uses of technology. +For those of you who think that new media of the Internet could somehow help us avert genocide, should look no further than Rwanda, where in the '90s it was actually two radio stations which were responsible for fueling much of the ethnic hatred in the first place. +But even beyond that, coming back to the Internet, what you can actually see is that certain governments have mastered the use of cyberspace for propaganda purposes. Right? +And they are building what I call the Spinternet. +The combination of spin, on the one hand, and the Internet on the other. +So governments from Russia to China to Iran are actually hiring, training and paying bloggers in order to leave ideological comments and create a lot of ideological blog posts to comment on sensitive political issues. Right? +So you may wonder, why on Earth are they doing it? +Why are they engaging with cyberspace? +Well my theory is that it's happening because censorship actually is less effective than you think it is in many of those places. +The moment you put something critical in a blog, even if you manage to ban it immediately, it will still spread around thousands and thousands of other blogs. +So the more you block it, the more it emboldens people to actually avoid the censorship and thus win in this cat-and-mouse game. +So the only way to control this message is actually to try to spin it and accuse anyone who has written something critical of being, for example, a CIA agent. +And, again, this is happening quite often. +Just to give you an example of how it works in China, for example. +There was a big case in February 2009 called "Elude the Cat." +And for those of you who didn't know, I'll just give a little summary. +So what happened is that a 24-year-old man, a Chinese man, died in prison custody. +And police said that it happened because he was playing hide and seek, which is "elude the cat" in Chinese slang, with other inmates and hit his head against the wall, which was not an explanation which sat well with many Chinese bloggers. +So they immediately began posting a lot of critical comments. +In fact, QQ.com, which is a popular Chinese website, had 35,000 comments on this issue within hours. +But then authorities did something very smart. +Instead of trying to purge these comments, they instead went and reached out to the bloggers. +And they basically said, "Look guys. We'd like you to become netizen investigators." +So 500 people applied, and four were selected to actually go and tour the facility in question, and thus inspect it and then blog about it. +Within days the entire incident was forgotten, which would have never happened if they simply tried to block the content. +People would keep talking about it for weeks. +And this actually fits with another interesting theory about what's happening in authoritarian states and in their cyberspace. +This is what political scientists call authoritarian deliberation, and it happens when governments are actually reaching out to their critics and letting them engage with each other online. +We tend to think that somehow this is going to harm these dictatorships, but in many cases it only strengthens them. +And you may wonder why. +I'll just give you a very short list of reasons why authoritarian deliberation may actually help the dictators. +And first it's quite simple. +Most of them operate in a complete information vacuum. +They don't really have the data they need in order to identify emerging threats facing the regime. +So encouraging people to actually go online and share information and data on blogs and wikis is great because otherwise, low level apparatchiks and bureaucrats will continue concealing what's actually happening in the country, right? +So from this perspective, having blogs and wikis produce knowledge has been great. +Secondly, involving public in any decision making is also great because it helps you to share the blame for the policies which eventually fail. +Because they say, "Well look, we asked you, we consulted you, you voted on it. +You put it on the front page of your blog. +Well, great. You are the one who is to blame." +And finally, the purpose of any authoritarian deliberation efforts is usually to increase the legitimacy of the regimes, both at home and abroad. +So inviting people to all sorts of public forums, having them participate in decision making, it's actually great. +Because what happens is that then you can actually point to this initiative and say, "Well, we are having a democracy. We are having a forum." +Just to give you an example, one of the Russian regions, for example, now involves its citizens in planning its strategy up until year 2020. +Right? So they can go online and contribute ideas on what that region would look like by the year 2020. +I mean, anyone who has been to Russia would know that there was no planning in Russia for the next month. +So having people involved in planning for 2020 is not necessarily going to change anything, because the dictators are still the ones who control the agenda. +Just to give you an example from Iran, we all heard about the Twitter revolution that happened there, but if you look close enough, you'll actually see that many of the networks and blogs and Twitter and Facebook were actually operational. +They may have become slower, but the activists could still access it and actually argue that having access to them is actually great for many authoritarian states. +And it's great simply because they can gather open source intelligence. +In the past it would take you weeks, if not months, to identify how Iranian activists connect to each other. +Now you actually know how they connect to each other by looking at their Facebook page. +I mean KGB, and not just KGB, used to torture in order to actually get this data. +Now it's all available online. +But I think the biggest conceptual pitfall that cybertopians made is when it comes to digital natives, people who have grown up online. +We often hear about cyber activism, how people are getting more active because of the Internet. +Rarely hear about cyber hedonism, for example, how people are becoming passive. +Why? Because they somehow assume that the Internet is going to be the catalyst of change that will push young people into the streets, while in fact it may actually be the new opium for the masses which will keep the same people in their rooms downloading pornography. +That's not an option being considered too strongly. +So for every digital renegade that is revolting in the streets of Tehran, there may as well be two digital captives who are actually rebelling only in the World of Warcraft. +And this is realistic. And there is nothing wrong about it because the Internet has greatly empowered many of these young people and it plays a completely different social role for them. +If you look at some of the surveys on how the young people actually benefit from the Internet, you'll see that the number of teenagers in China, for example, for whom the Internet actually broadens their sex life, is three times more than in the United States. +So it does play a social role, however it may not necessarily lead to political engagement. +So the way I tend to think of it is like a hierarchy of cyber-needs in space, a total rip-off from Abraham Maslow. +But the point here is that when we get the remote Russian village online, what will get people to the Internet is not going to be the reports from Human Rights Watch. +It's going to be pornography, "Sex and the City," or maybe watching funny videos of cats. +So this is something you have to recognize. +So what should we do about it? +Well I say we have to stop thinking about the number of iPods per capita and start thinking about ways in which we can empower intellectuals, dissidents, NGOs and then the members of civil society. +Because even what has been happening up 'til now with the Spinternet and authoritarian deliberation, there is a great chance that those voices will not be heard. +So I think we should shatter some of our utopian assumptions and actually start doing something about it. +Thank you. +Thank you. +Two years ago, I stood on the TED stage in Arusha, Tanzania. +I spoke very briefly about one of my proudest creations. +It was a simple machine that changed my life. +Before that time, I had never been away from my home in Malawi. +I had never used a computer. +I had never seen an Internet. +On the stage that day, I was so nervous. +My English lost, I wanted to vomit. +I had never been surrounded by so many azungu, white people. +There was a story I wouldn't tell you then. +But well, I'm feeling good right now. +I would like to share that story today. +We have seven children in my family. +All sisters, excepting me. +This is me with my dad when I was a little boy. +Before I discovered the wonders of science, I was just a simple farmer in a country of poor farmers. +Like everyone else, we grew maize. +One year our fortune turned very bad. +In 2001 we experienced an awful famine. +Within five months all Malawians began to starve to death. +My family ate one meal per day, at night. +Only three swallows of nsima for each one of us. +The food passes through our bodies. +We drop down to nothing. +In Malawi, the secondary school, you have to pay school fees. +Because of the hunger, I was forced to drop out of school. +I looked at my father and looked at those dry fields. +It was the future I couldn't accept. +I felt very happy to be at the secondary school, so I was determined to do anything possible to receive education. +So I went to a library. +I read books, science books, especially physics. +I couldn't read English that well. +I used diagrams and pictures to learn the words around them. +Another book put that knowledge in my hands. +It said a windmill could pump water and generate electricity. +Pump water meant irrigation, a defense against hunger, which we were experiencing by that time. +So I decided I would build one windmill for myself. +But I didn't have materials to use, so I went to a scrap yard where I found my materials. +Many people, including my mother, said I was crazy. +I found a tractor fan, shock absorber, PVC pipes. +Using a bicycle frame and an old bicycle dynamo, I built my machine. +It was one light at first. +And then four lights, with switches, and even a circuit breaker, modeled after an electric bell. +Another machine pumps water for irrigation. +Queues of people start lining up at my house to charge their mobile phone. +I could not get rid of them. +And the reporters came too, which lead to bloggers and which lead to a call from something called TED. +I had never seen an airplane before. +I had never slept in a hotel. +So, on stage that day in Arusha, my English lost, I said something like, "I tried. And I made it." +So I would like to say something to all the people out there like me to the Africans, and the poor who are struggling with your dreams. +God bless. +Maybe one day you will watch this on the Internet. +I say to you, trust yourself and believe. +Whatever happens, don't give up. +Thank you. +Okay, so 90 percent of my photographic process is, in fact, not photographic. +It involves a campaign of letter writing, research and phone calls to access my subjects, which can range from Hamas leaders in Gaza to a hibernating black bear in its cave in West Virginia. +And oddly, the most notable letter of rejection I ever received came from Walt Disney World, a seemingly innocuous site. +And it read -- I'm just going to read a key sentence: "Especially during these violent times, I personally believe that the magical spell cast upon guests who visit our theme parks is particularly important to protect and helps to provide them with an important fantasy they can escape to." +Photography threatens fantasy. +They didn't want to let my camera in because it confronts constructed realities, myths and beliefs, and provides what appears to be evidence of a truth. +But there are multiple truths attached to every image, depending on the creator's intention, the viewer and the context in which it is presented. +Over a five year period following September 11th, when the American media and government were seeking hidden and unknown sites beyond its borders, most notably weapons of mass destruction, I chose to look inward at that which was integral to America's foundation, mythology and daily functioning. +I wanted to confront the boundaries of the citizen, self-imposed and real, and confront the divide between privileged and public access to knowledge. +It was a critical moment in American history and global history where one felt they didn't have access to accurate information. +And I wanted to see the center with my own eyes, but what I came away with is a photograph. +And it's just another place from which to observe, and the understanding that there are no absolute, all-knowing insiders. +And the outsider can never really reach the core. +I'm going to run through some of the photographs in this series. +It's titled, "An American Index of the Hidden and Unfamiliar," and it's comprised of nearly 70 images. +In this context I'll just show you a few. +This is a nuclear waste storage and encapsulation facility at Hanford site in Washington State, where there are over 1,900 stainless steel capsules containing nuclear waste submerged in water. +A human standing in front of an unprotected capsule would die instantly. +And I found one section amongst all of these that actually resembled the outline of the United States of America, which you can see here. +And a big part of the work that is sort of absent in this context is text. +So I create these two poles. +Every image is accompanied with a very detailed factual text. +And what I'm most interested in is the invisible space between a text and its accompanying image, and how the image is transformed by the text and the text by the image. +So, at best, the image is meant to float away into abstraction and multiple truths and fantasy. +And then the text functions as this cruel anchor that kind of nails it to the ground. +But in this context I'm just going to read an abridged version of those texts. +This is a cryopreservation unit, and it holds the bodies of the wife and mother of cryonics pioneer Robert Ettinger, who hoped to be awoken one day to extended life in good health, with advancements in science and technology, all for the cost of 35 thousand dollars, for forever. +This is a 21-year-old Palestinian woman undergoing hymenoplasty. +Hymenoplasty is a surgical procedure which restores the virginal state, allowing her to adhere to certain cultural expectations regarding virginity and marriage. +So it essentially reconstructs a ruptured hymen, allowing her to bleed upon having sexual intercourse, to simulate the loss of virginity. +This is a jury simulation deliberation room, and you can see beyond that two-way mirror jury advisers standing in a room behind the mirror. +And they observe deliberations after mock trial proceedings so that they can better advise their clients how to adjust their trial strategy to have the outcome that they're hoping for. +This process costs 60,000 dollars. +This is a U.S. Customs and Border Protection room, a contraband room, at John F. Kennedy International Airport. +On that table you can see 48 hours' worth of seized goods from passengers entering in to the United States. +There is a pig's head and African cane rats. +And part of my photographic work is I'm not just documenting what's there. +I do take certain liberties and intervene. +And in this I really wanted it to resemble an early still-life painting, so I spent some time with the smells and items. +This is the exhibited art on the walls of the CIA in Langley, Virginia, their original headquarters building. +And the CIA has had a long history with both covert and public cultural diplomacy efforts. +And it's speculated that some of their interest in the arts was designed to counter Soviet communism and promote what it considered to be pro-American thoughts and aesthetics. +And one of the art forms that elicited the interest of the agency, and had thus come under question, is abstract expressionism. +This is the Forensic Anthropology Research Facility, and on a six acre plot there are approximately 75 cadavers at any given time that are being studied by forensic anthropologists and researchers who are interested in monitoring a rate of corpse decomposition. +And in this particular photograph the body of a young boy has been used to reenact a crime scene. +This is the only federally funded site where it is legal to cultivate cannabis for scientific research in the United States. +It's a research crop marijuana grow room. +And part of the work that I hope for is that there is a sort of disorienting entropy where you can't find any discernible formula in how these things -- they sort of awkwardly jump from government to science to religion to security -- and you can't completely understand how information is being distributed. +These are transatlantic submarine communication cables that travel across the floor of the Atlantic Ocean, connecting North America to Europe. +They carry over 60 million simultaneous voice conversations, and in a lot of the government and technology sites there was just this very apparent vulnerability. +This one is almost humorous because it feels like I could just snip all of that conversation in one easy cut. +But stuff did feel like it could have been taken 30 or 40 years ago, like it was locked in the Cold War era and hadn't necessarily progressed. +This is a Braille edition of Playboy magazine. +And this is ... a division of the Library of Congress produces a free national library service for the blind and visually impaired, and the publications they choose to publish are based on reader popularity. +And Playboy is always in the top few. +But you'd be surprised, they don't do the photographs. It's just the text. +This is an avian quarantine facility where all imported birds coming into America are required to undergo a 30-day quarantine, where they are tested for diseases including Exotic Newcastle Disease and Avian Influenza. +This film shows the testing of a new explosive fill on a warhead. +And the Air Armament Center at Eglin Air Force Base in Florida is responsible for the deployment and testing of all air-delivered weaponry coming from the United States. +And the film was shot on 72 millimeter, government-issue film. +And that red dot is a marking on the government-issue film. +All living white tigers in North America are the result of selective inbreeding -- that would be mother to son, father to daughter, sister to brother -- to allow for the genetic conditions that create a salable white tiger. +Meaning white fur, ice blue eyes, a pink nose. +And the majority of these white tigers are not born in a salable state and are killed at birth. +It's a very violent process that is little known. +And the white tiger is obviously celebrated in several forms of entertainment. +Kenny was born. He actually made it to adulthood. +He has since passed away, but was mentally retarded and suffers from severe bone abnormalities. +This, on a lighter note, is at George Lucas' personal archive. +This is the Death Star. +And it's shown here in its true orientation. +In the context of "Star Wars: Return of the Jedi," its mirror image is presented. +They flip the negative. +And you can see the photoetched brass detailing, and the painted acrylic facade. +In the context of the film, this is a deep-space battle station of the Galactic Empire, capable of annihilating planets and civilizations, and in reality it measures about four feet by two feet. +This is at Fort Campbell in Kentucky. +It's a Military Operations on Urbanized Terrain site. +Essentially they've simulated a city for urban combat, and this is one of the structures that exists in that city. +It's called the World Church of God. +It's supposed to be a generic site of worship. +And after I took this photograph, they constructed a wall around the World Church of God to mimic the set-up of mosques in Afghanistan or Iraq. +And I worked with Mehta Vihar who creates virtual simulations for the army for tactical practice. +And we put that wall around the World Church of God, and also used the characters and vehicles and explosions that are offered in the video games for the army. +And I put them into my photograph. +This is live HIV virus at Harvard Medical School, who is working with the U.S. Government to develop sterilizing immunity. +And Alhurra is a U.S. Government- sponsored Arabic language television network that distributes news and information to over 22 countries in the Arab world. +It runs 24 hours a day, commercial free. +However, it's illegal to broadcast Alhurra within the United States. +And in 2004, they developed a channel called Alhurra Iraq, which specifically deals with events occurring in Iraq and is broadcast to Iraq. +Now I'm going to move on to another project I did. +It's titled "The Innocents." +And for the men in these photographs, photography had been used to create a fantasy. +Contradicting its function as evidence of a truth, in these instances it furthered the fabrication of a lie. +I traveled across the United States photographing men and women who had been wrongfully convicted of crimes they did not commit, violent crimes. +I investigate photography's ability to blur truth and fiction, and its influence on memory, which can lead to severe, even lethal consequences. +For the men in these photographs, the primary cause of their wrongful conviction was mistaken identification. +A victim or eyewitness identifies a suspected perpetrator through law enforcement's use of images. +But through exposure to composite sketches, Polaroids, mug shots and line-ups, eyewitness testimony can change. +I'll give you an example from a case. +A woman was raped and presented with a series of photographs from which to identify her attacker. +She saw some similarities in one of the photographs, but couldn't quite make a positive identification. +Days later, she is presented with another photo array of all new photographs, except that one photograph that she had some draw to from the earlier array is repeated in the second array. +And a positive identification is made because the photograph replaced the memory, if there ever was an actual memory. +Photography offered the criminal justice system a tool that transformed innocent citizens into criminals, and the criminal justice system failed to recognize the limitations of relying on photographic identifications. +Frederick Daye, who is photographed at his alibi location, where 13 witnesses placed him at the time of the crime. +He was convicted by an all-white jury of rape, kidnapping and vehicle theft. +And he served 10 years of a life sentence. +Now DNA exonerated Frederick and it also implicated another man who was serving time in prison. +But the victim refused to press charges because she claimed that law enforcement had permanently altered her memory through the use of Frederick's photograph. +Charles Fain was convicted of kidnapping, rape and murder of a young girl walking to school. +He served 18 years of a death sentence. +I photographed him at the scene of the crime at the Snake River in Idaho. +And I photographed all of the wrongfully convicted at sites that came to particular significance in the history of their wrongful conviction. +The scene of arrest, the scene of misidentification, the alibi location. +And here, the scene of the crime, it's this place to which he's never been, but changed his life forever. +So photographing there, I was hoping to highlight the tenuous relationship between truth and fiction, in both his life and in photography. +Calvin Washington was convicted of capital murder. +He served 13 years of a life sentence in Waco, Texas. +Larry Mayes, I photographed at the scene of arrest, where he hid between two mattresses in Gary, Indiana, in this very room to hide from the police. +He ended up serving 18 and a half years of an 80 year sentence for rape and robbery. +The victim failed to identify Larry in two live lineups and then made a positive identification, days later, from a photo array. +Larry Youngblood served eight years of a 10 and half year sentence in Arizona for the abduction and repeated sodomizing of a 10 year old boy at a carnival. +He is photographed at his alibi location. +Ron Williamson. Ron was convicted of the rape and murder of a barmaid at a club, and served 11 years of a death sentence. +I photographed Ron at a baseball field because he had been drafted to the Oakland A's to play professional baseball just before his conviction. +And the state's key witness in Ron's case was, in the end, the actual perpetrator. +Ronald Jones served eight years of a death sentence for rape and murder of a 28-year-old woman. +I photographed him at the scene of arrest in Chicago. +William Gregory was convicted of rape and burglary. +He served seven years of a 70 year sentence in Kentucky. +Timothy Durham, who I photographed at his alibi location where 11 witnesses placed him at the time of the crime, was convicted of 3.5 years of a 3220 year sentence, for several charges of rape and robbery. +He had been misidentified by an 11-year-old victim. +Troy Webb is photographed here at the scene of the crime in Virginia. +He was convicted of rape, kidnapping and robbery, and served seven years of a 47 year sentence. +Troy's picture was in a photo array that the victim tentatively had some draw toward, but said he looked too old. +The police went and found a photograph of Troy Webb from four years earlier, which they entered into a photo array days later, and he was positively identified. +Now I'm going to leave you with a self portrait. +And it reiterates that distortion is a constant, and our eyes are easily deceived. +That's it. Thank you. +Clearly, we're living in a moment of crisis. +Arguably the financial markets have failed us and the aid system is failing us, and yet I stand firmly with the optimists who believe that there has probably never been a more exciting moment to be alive. +Because of some of technologies we've been talking about. +Because of the resources, the skills, and certainly the surge of talent we're seeing all around the world, with the mindset to create change. +And we've got a president who sees himself as a global citizen, who recognizes that no longer is there a single superpower, but that we've got to engage in a different way with the world. +And by definition, every one of you who is in this room must consider yourself a global soul, a global citizen. +You work on the front lines. And you've seen the best and the worst that human beings can do for one another and to one another. +And no matter what country you live or work in, you've also seen the extraordinary things that individuals are capable of, even in their most ordinariness. +Today there is a raging debate as to how best we lift people out of poverty, how best we release their energies. +On the one hand, we have people that say the aid system is so broken we need to throw it out. +And on the other we have people who say the problem is that we need more aid. +And what I want to talk about is something that compliments both systems. +We call it patient capital. +The critics point to the 500 billion dollars spent in Africa since 1970 and say, and what do we have but environmental degradation and incredible levels of poverty, rampant corruption? +They use Mobutu as metaphor. +And their policy prescription is to make government more accountable, focus on the capital markets, invest, don't give anything away. +On the other side, as I said, there are those who say the problem is that we need more money. +That when it comes to the rich, we'll bail out and we'll hand a lot of aid, but when it comes to our poor brethren, we want little to do with it. +They point to the successes of aid: the eradication of smallpox, and the distribution of tens of millions of malaria bed nets and antiretrovirals. +Both sides are right. +And the problem is that neither side is listening to the other. +Even more problematic, they're not listening to poor people themselves. +After 25 years of working on issues of poverty and innovation, it's true that there are probably no more market-oriented individuals on the planet than low-income people. +They must navigate markets daily, making micro-decisions, dozens and dozens, to move their way through society, and yet if a single catastrophic health problem impacts their family, they could be put back into poverty, sometimes for generations. +And so we need both the market and we need aid. +Patient capital works between, and tries to take the best of both. +It's money that's invested in entrepreneurs who know their communities and are building solutions to healthcare, water, housing, alternative energy, thinking of low income people not as passive recipients of charity, but as individual customers, consumers, clients, people who want to make decisions in their own lives. +Patient capital requires that we have incredible tolerance for risk, a long time horizon in terms of allowing those entrepreneurs time to experiment, to use the market as the best listening device that we have, and the expectation of below-market returns, but outsized social impact. +It recognizes that the market has its limitation, and so patient capital also works with smart subsidy to extend the benefits of a global economy to include all people. +Now, entrepreneurs need patient capital for three reasons. +First, they tend to work in markets where people make one, two, three dollars a day and they are making all of their decisions within that income level. +Second, the geographies in which they work have terrible infrastructure -- no roads to speak of, sporadic electricity and high levels of corruption. +Third, they are often creating markets. +Even if you're bringing clean water for the first time into rural villages, it is something new. +And so many low-income people have seen so many failed promises broken and seen so many quacks and sporadic medicines offered to them that building trust takes a lot of time, takes a lot of patience. +It also requires being connected to a lot of management assistance. +Not only to build the systems, the business models that allow us to reach low income people in a sustainable way, but to connect those business to other markets, to governments, to corporations -- real partnerships if we want to get to scale. +I want to share one story about an innovation called drip irrigation. +In 2002 I met this incredible entrepreneur named Amitabha Sadangi from India, who'd been working for 20 years with some of the poorest farmers on the planet. +And he was expressing his frustration that the aid market had bypassed low-income farmers altogether, despite the fact that 200 million farmers alone in India make under a dollar a day. +They were creating subsidies either for large farms, or they were giving inputs to the farmers that they thought they should use, rather than that the farmers wanted to use. +At the same time Amitabha was obsessed with this drip irrigation technology that had been invented in Israel. +It was a way of bringing small amounts of water directly to the stalk of the plant. +And it could transform swaths of desert land into fields of emerald green. +But the market also had bypassed low income farmers, because these systems were both too expensive, and they were constructed for fields that were too large. +The average small village farmer works on two acres or less. +And so, Amitabha decided that he would take that innovation and he would redesign it from the perspective of the poor farmers themselves, because he spent so many years listening to what they needed not what he thought that they should have. +And he used three fundamental principles. +The first one was miniaturization. +The drip irrigation system had to be small enough that a farmer only had to risk a quarter acre, even if he had two, because it was too frightening, given all that he had at stake. +Second, it had to be extremely affordable. +In other words, that risk on the quarter acre needed to be repaid in a single harvest, or else they wouldn't take the risk. +And third, it had to be what Amitabha calls infinitely expandable. +What I mean is with the profits from the first quarter acre, the farmers could buy a second and a third and a fourth. +As of today, IDE India, Amitabha's organization, has sold over 300,000 farmers these systems and has seen their yields and incomes double or triple on average, but this didn't happen overnight. +And so we needed grants. And he used significant grants to research, to experiment, to fail, to innovate and try again. +And when he had a prototype and had a better understanding of how to market to farmers, that's when patient capital could come in. +And we helped him build a company, for profit, that would build on IDE's knowledge, and start looking at sales and exports, and be able to tap into other kinds of capital. +Secondarily, we wanted to see if we could export this drip irrigation and bring it into other countries. +And so we met Dr. Sono Khangharani in Pakistan. +And though that company has just started, our assumption is that there too we'll see the impact on millions. +But drip irrigation isn't the only innovation. +We're starting to see these happening all around the world. +In Arusha, Tanzania, A to Z Textile Manufacturing has worked in partnership with us, with UNICEF, with the Global Fund, to create a factory that now employs 7,000 people, mostly women. +And they produce 20 million lifesaving bednets for Africans around the world. +Lifespring Hospital is a joint venture between Acumen and the government of India to bring quality, affordable maternal health care to low-income women, and it's been so successful that it's currently building a new hospital every 35 days. +And 1298 Ambulances decided that it was going to reinvent a completely broken industry, building an ambulance service in Bombay that would use the technology of Google Earth, a sliding scale pricing system so that all people could have access, and a severe and public decision not to engage in any form of corruption. +So that in the terrorist attacks of November they were the first responder, and are now beginning to scale, because of partnership. +They've just won four government contracts to build off their 100 ambulances, and are one of the largest and most effective ambulance companies in India. +This idea of scale is critical. +Because we're starting to see these enterprises reach hundreds of thousands of people. All of the ones I discussed have reached at least a quarter million people. +But that's obviously not enough. +And it's where the idea of partnership becomes so important. +Whether it's by finding those innovations that can access the capital markets, government itself, or partner with major corporations, there is unbelievable opportunity for innovation. +President Obama understands that. +He recently authorized the creation of a Social Innovation Fund to focus on what works in this country, and look at how we can scale it. +And I would submit that it's time to consider a global innovation fund that would find these entrepreneurs around the world who really have innovations, not only for their country, but ones that we can use in the developed world as well. +Invest financial assistance, but also management assistance. +And then measure the returns, both from a financial perspective and from a social impact perspective. +When we think about new approaches to aid, it's impossible not to talk about Pakistan. +We've had a rocky relationship with that country and, in all fairness, the United States has not always been a very reliable partner. +But again I would say that this is our moment for extraordinary things to happen. +And if we take that notion of a global innovation fund, we could use this time to invest not directly in government, though we would have government's blessing, nor in international experts, but in the many existing entrepreneurs and civil society leaders who already are building wonderful innovations that are reaching people all across the country. +People like Rashani Zafar, who created one of the largest microfinance banks in the country, and is a real role model for women inside and outside the country. +And Tasneem Siddiqui, who developed a way called incremental housing, where he has moved 40,000 slum dwellers into safe, affordable community housing. +Educational initiatives like DIL and The Citizen Foundation that are building schools across the country. +It's not hyperbole to say that these civil society institutions and these social entrepreneurs are building real alternatives to the Taliban. +I've invested in Pakistan for over seven years now, and those of you who've also worked there can attest that Pakistanis are an incredibly hard working population, and there is a fierce upward mobility in their very nature. +President Kennedy said that those who make peaceful revolution impossible make violent revolution inevitable. +I would say that the converse is true. +That these social leaders who really are looking at innovation and extending opportunity to the 70 percent of Pakistanis who make less than two dollars a day, provide real pathways to hope. +And as we think about how we construct aid for Pakistan, while we need to strengthen the judiciary, build greater stability, we also need to think about lifting those leaders who can be role models for the rest of the world. +On one of my last visits to Pakistan, I asked Dr. Sono if he would take me to see some of the drip irrigation in the Thar Desert. +And we left Karachi one morning before dawn. +It was about 115 degrees. +And we drove for eight hours along this moonscape-like landscape with very little color, lots of heat, very little discussion, because we were exhausted. +And finally, at the end of the journey, I could see this thin little yellow line across the horizon. +And as we got closer, its significance became apparent. +That there in the desert was a field of sunflowers growing seven feet tall. +Because one of the poorest farmers on Earth had gotten access to a technology that had allowed him to change his own life. +His name was Raja, and he had kind, twinkly hazel eyes and warm expressive hands that reminded me of my father. +And he said it was the first dry season in his entire life that he hadn't taken his 12 children and 50 grandchildren on a two day journey across the desert to work as day laborers at a commercial farm for about 50 cents a day. +Because he was building these crops. +And with the money he earned he could stay this year. +And for the first time ever in three generations, his children would go to school. +We asked him if he would send his daughters as well as his sons. +And he said, "Of course I will. +Because I don't want them discriminated against anymore." +When we think about solutions to poverty, we cannot deny individuals their fundamental dignity. +Because at the end of the day, dignity is more important to the human spirit than wealth. +And what's exciting is to see so many entrepreneurs across sectors who are building innovations that recognize that what people want is freedom and choice and opportunity. +Because that is where dignity really starts. +Martin Luther King said that love without power is anemic and sentimental, and that power without love is reckless and abusive. +Our generation has seen both approaches tried, and often fail. +But I think our generation also might be the first to have the courage to embrace both love and power. +For that is what we'll need, as we move forward to dream and imagine what it will really take to build a global economy that includes all of us, and to finally extend that fundamental proposition that all men are created equal to every human being on the planet. +The time for us to begin innovating and looking for new solutions, a cross sector, is now. +I can only talk from my own experience, but in eight years of running Acumen fund, I've seen the power of patient capital. +Not only to inspire innovation and risk taking, but to truly build systems that have created more than 25,000 jobs and delivered tens of millions of services and products to some of the poorest people on the planet. +I know it works. +But I know that many other kinds of innovation also work. +And so I urge you, in whatever sector you work, in whatever job you do, to start thinking about how we might build solutions that start from the perspective of those we're trying to help. +Rather than what we think that they might need. +It will take embracing the world with both arms. +And it will take living with the spirit of generosity and accountability, with a sense of integrity and perseverance. +And yet these are the very qualities for which men and women have been honored throughout the generations. +And there is so much good that we can do. +Just think of all those sunflowers in the desert. +Thank you. +Do we live in a borderless world? +Before you answer that, have a look at this map. +Contemporary political map shows that we have over 200 countries in the world today. +That's probably more than at any time in centuries. +Now, many of you will object. +For you this would be a more appropriate map. +You could call it TEDistan. +In TEDistan, there are no borders, just connected spaces and unconnected spaces. +Most of you probably reside in one of the 40 dots on this screen, of the many more that represent 90 percent of the world economy. +But let's talk about the 90 percent of the world population that will never leave the place in which they were born. +For them, nations, countries, boundaries, borders still matter a great deal, and often violently. +Now here at TED, we're solving some of the great riddles of science and mysteries of the universe. +Well here is a fundamental problem we have not solved: our basic political geography. +How do we distribute ourselves around the world? +Now this is important, because border conflicts justify so much of the world's military-industrial complex. +Border conflicts can derail so much of the progress that we hope to achieve here. +So I think we need a deeper understanding of how people, money, power, religion, culture, technology interact to change the map of the world. +And we can try to anticipate those changes, and shape them in a more constructive direction. +So we're going to look at some maps of the past, the present and some maps you haven't seen in order to get a sense of where things are going. +Let's start with the world of 1945. +1945 there were just 100 countries in the world. +After World War II, Europe was devastated, but still held large overseas colonies: French West Africa, British East Africa, South Asia, and so forth. +Then over the late '40s, '50s, '60s, '70s and '80s, waves of decolonization took place. +Over 50 new countries were born. +You can see that Africa has been fragmented. +India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, South East Asian nations created. +Then came the end of the Cold War. +The end of the Cold War and the disintegration of the Soviet Union. +You had the creation of new states in Eastern Europe, the former Yugoslav republics and the Balkans, and the 'stans of central Asia. +Today we have 200 countries in the world. +The entire planet is covered by sovereign, independent nation-states. +Does that mean that someone's gain has to be someone else's loss? +Let's zoom in on one of the most strategic areas of the world, Eastern Eurasia. +As you can see on this map, Russia is still the largest country in the world. +And as you know, China is the most populous. +And they share a lengthy land border. +What you don't see on this map is that most of Russia's 150 million people are concentrated in its western provinces and areas that are close to Europe. +And only 30 million people are in its eastern areas. +In fact, the World Bank predicts that Russia's population is declining towards about 120 million people And there is another thing that you don't see on this map. +Stalin, Khrushchev and other Soviet leaders forced Russians out to the far east to be in gulags, labor camps, nuclear cities, whatever the case was. +But as oil prices rose, Russian governments have invested in infrastructure to unite the country, east and west. +But nothing has more perversely impacted Russia's demographic distribution, because the people in the east, who never wanted to be there anyway, have gotten on those trains and roads and gone back to the west. +As a result, in the Russian far east today, which is twice the size of India, you have exactly six million Russians. +So let's get a sense of what is happening in this part of the world. +We can start with Mongolia, or as some call it, Mine-golia. +Why do they call it that? +Because in Mine-golia, Chinese firms operate and own most of the mines -- copper, zinc, gold -- and they truck the resources south and east into mainland China. +China isn't conquering Mongolia. +It's buying it. +Colonies were once conquered. Today countries are bought. +So let's apply this principle to Siberia. +Siberia most of you probably think of as a cold, desolate, unlivable place. +But in fact, with global warming and rising temperatures, all of a sudden you have vast wheat fields and agribusiness, and grain being produced in Siberia. +But who is it going to feed? +Well, just on the other side of the Amo River, in the Heilongjiang and Harbin provinces of China, you have over 100 million people. +That's larger than the entire population of Russia. +Every single year, for at least a decade or more, [60,000] of them have been voting with their feet, crossing, moving north and inhabiting this desolate terrain. +They set up their own bazaars and medical clinics. +They've taken over the timber industry and been shipping the lumber east, back into China. +Again, like Mongolia, China isn't conquering Russia. It's just leasing it. +That's what I call globalization Chinese style. +Now maybe this is what the map of the region might look like in 10 to 20 years. +But hold on. This map is 700 years old. +This is the map of the Yuan Dynasty, led by Kublai Khan, the grandson of Genghis Khan. +So history doesn't necessarily repeat itself, but it does rhyme. +This is just to give you a taste of what's happening in this part of the world. +Again, globalization Chinese style. +Because globalization opens up all kinds of ways for us to undermine and change the way we think about political geography. +So, the history of East Asia in fact, people don't think about nations and borders. +They think more in terms of empires and hierarchies, usually Chinese or Japanese. +Well it's China's turn again. +So let's look at how China is re-establishing that hierarchy in the far East. +It starts with the global hubs. +Remember the 40 dots on the nighttime map that show the hubs of the global economy? +East Asia today has more of those global hubs than any other region in the world. +Tokyo, Seoul, Beijing, Shanghai, Hong Kong, Singapore and Sidney. +These are the filters and funnels of global capital. +Trillions of dollars a year are being brought into the region, so much of it being invested into China. +Then there is trade. +These vectors and arrows represent ever stronger trade relationships that China has with every country in the region. +Specifically, it targets Japan and Korea and Australia, countries that are strong allies of the United States. +Australia, for example, is heavily dependent on exporting iron ore and natural gas to China. +For poorer countries, China reduces tariffs so that Laos and Cambodia can sell their goods more cheaply and become dependent on exporting to China as well. +And now many of you have been reading in the news how people are looking to China to lead the rebound, the economic rebound, not just in Asia, but potentially for the world. +The Asian free trade zone, almost free trade zone, that's emerging now has a greater trade volume than trade across the Pacific. +So China is becoming the anchor of the economy in the region. +Another pillar of this strategy is diplomacy. +China has signed military agreements with many countries in the region. +It has become the hub of diplomatic institutions such as the East Asian Community. +Some of these organizations don't even have the United States as a member. +There is a treaty of nonaggression between countries, such that if there were a conflict between China and the United States, most countries vow to just sit it out, including American allies like Korea and Australia. +Another pillar of the strategy, like Russia, is demographic. +China exports business people, nannies, students, teachers to teach Chinese around the region, to intermarry and to occupy ever greater commanding heights of the economies. +Already ethnic Chinese people in Malaysia, Thailand and Indonesia are the real key factors and drivers in the economies there. +Chinese pride is resurgent in the region as a result. +Singapore, for example, used to ban Chinese language education. +Now it encourages it. +If you add it all up what do you get? +Well, if you remember before World War II, Japan had a vision for a greater Japanese co-prosperity sphere. +What's emerging today is what you might call a greater Chinese co-prosperity sphere. +So no matter what the lines on the map tell you in terms of nations and borders, what you really have emerging in the far east are national cultures, but in a much more fluid, imperial zone. +All of this is happening without firing a shot. +That's most certainly not the case in the Middle East where countries are still very uncomfortable in the borders left behind by European colonialists. +So what can we do to think about borders differently in this part of the world? +What lines on the map should we focus on? +What I want to present to you is what I call state building, day by day. +Let's start with Iraq. +Six years after the U.S. invasion of Iraq, the country still exists more on a map than it does in reality. +Oil used to be one of the forces holding Iraq together; now it is the most significant cause of the country's disintegration. +The reason is Kurdistan. +The Kurds for 3,000 years have been waging a struggle for independence, and now is their chance to finally have it. +These are pipeline routes, which emerge from Kurdistan, which is an oil-rich region. +And today, if you go to Kurdistan, you'll see that Kurdish Peshmerga guerillas are squaring off against the Sunni Iraqi army. +But what are they guarding? +Is it really a border on the map? +No. It's the pipelines. +If the Kurds can control their pipelines, they can set the terms of their own statehood. +Now should we be upset about this, about the potential disintegration of Iraq? +I don't believe we should. +Iraq will still be the second largest oil producer in the world, behind Saudi Arabia. +And we'll have a chance to solve a 3,000 year old dispute. +Now remember Kurdistan is landlocked. +It has no choice but to behave. +In order to profit from its oil it has to export it through Turkey or Syria, and other countries, and Iraq itself. +And therefore it has to have amicable relations with them. +Now lets look at a perennial conflict in the region. +That is, of course, in Palestine. +Palestine is something of a cartographic anomaly because it's two parts Palestinian, one part Israel. +30 years of rose garden diplomacy have not delivered us peace in this conflict. +What might? I believe that what might solve the problem is infrastructure. +Today donors are spending billions of dollars on this. +These two arrows are an arc, an arc of commuter railroads and other infrastructure that link the West Bank and Gaza. +If Gaza can have a functioning port and be linked to the West Bank, you can have a viable Palestinian state, Palestinian economy. +That, I believe, is going to bring peace to this particular conflict. +The lesson from Kurdistan and from Palestine is that independence alone, without infrastructure, is futile. +Now what might this entire region look like if in fact we focus on other lines on the map besides borders, when the insecurities might abate? +The last time that was the case was actually a century ago, during the Ottoman Empire. +This is the Hejaz Railway. +The Hejaz Railway ran from Istanbul to Medina via Damascus. +It even had an offshoot running to Haifa in what is today Israel, on the Mediterranean Sea. +But today the Hejaz Railway lies in tatters, ruins. +If we were to focus on reconstructing these curvy lines on the map, infrastructure, that cross the straight lines, the borders, I believe the Middle East would be a far more peaceful region. +Now let's look at another part of the world, the former Soviet Republics of Central Asia, the 'stans. +These countries' borders originate from Stalin's decrees. +He purposely did not want these countries to make sense. +He wanted ethnicities to mingle in ways that would allow him to divide and rule. +Fortunately for them, most of their oil and gas resources were discovered after the Soviet Union collapsed. +Now I know some of you may be thinking, "Oil, oil, oil. +Why is it all he's talking about is oil?" +Well, there is a big difference in the way we used to talk about oil and the way we're talking about it now. +Before it was, how do we control their oil? +Now it's their oil for their own purposes. +And I assure you it's every bit as important to them as it might have been to colonizers and imperialists. +Here are just some of the pipeline projections and possibilities and scenarios and routes that are being mapped out for the next several decades. +A great deal of them. +For a number of countries in this part of the world, having pipelines is the ticket to becoming part of the global economy and for having some meaning besides the borders that they are not loyal to themselves. +Just take Azerbaijan. +Azerbaijan was a forgotten corner of the Caucuses, but now with the Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipeline into Turkey, it has rebranded itself as the frontier of the west. +Then there is Turkmenistan, which most people think of as a frozen basket case. +But now it's contributing gas across the Caspian Sea to provide for Europe, and even a potentially Turkmen- Afghan-Pakistan-India pipeline as well. +Then there is Kazakhstan, which didn't even have a name before. +It was more considered South Siberia during the Soviet Union. +Today most people recognize Kazakhstan as an emerging geopolitical player. Why? +Because it has shrewdly designed pipelines to flow across the Caspian, north through Russia, and even east to China. +More pipelines means more silk roads, instead of the Great Game. +The Great Game connotes dominance of one over the other. +Silk road connotes independence and mutual trust. +The more pipelines we have, the more silk roads we'll have, and the less of a dominant Great Game competition we'll have in the 21st century. +Now let's look at the only part of the world that really has brought down its borders, and how that has enhanced its strength. +And that is, of course, Europe. +The European Union began as just the coal and steel community of six countries, and their main purpose was really to keep the rehabilitation of Germany to happen in a peaceful way. +But then eventually it grew into 12 countries, and those are the 12 stars on the European flag. +The E.U. also became a currency block, and is now the most powerful trade block in the entire world. +On average, the E.U. has grown by one country per year since the end of the Cold War. +In fact most of that happened on just one day. +In 2004, 15 new countries joined the E.U. +and now you have what most people consider a zone of peace spanning 27 countries and 450 million people. +So what is next? What is the future of the European Union? +Well in light blue, you see the zones or the regions that are at least two-thirds or more dependent on the European Union for trade and investment. +What does that tell us? Trade and investment tell us that Europe is putting its money where its mouth is. +Even if these regions aren't part of the E.U., they are becoming part of its sphere of influence. +Just take the Balkans. Croatia, Serbia Bosnia, they're not members of the E.U. yet. +But you can get on a German ICE train and make it almost to Albania. +In Bosnia you use the Euro currency already, and that's the only currency they're probably ever going to have. +So, looking at other parts of Europe's periphery, such as North Africa. +On average, every year or two, a new oil or gas pipeline opens up under the Mediterranean, connecting North Africa to Europe. +That not only helps Europe diminish its reliance on Russia for energy, but if you travel to North Africa today, you'll hear more and more people saying that they don't really think of their region as the Middle East. +So in other words, I believe that President Sarkozy of France is right when he talks about a Mediterranean union. +Now let's look at Turkey and the Caucasus. +I mentioned Azerbaijan before. +That corridor of Turkey and the Caucasus has become the conduit for 20 percent of Europe's energy supply. +So does Turkey really have to be a member of the European Union? +I don't think it does. I think it's already part of a Euro-Turkish superpower. +So what's next? Where are we going to see borders change and new countries born? +Well, South Central Asia, South West Asia is a very good place to start. +Eight years after the U.S. invaded Afghanistan there is still a tremendous amount of instability. +Pakistan and Afghanistan are still so fragile that neither of them have dealt constructively with the problem of Pashtun nationalism. +This is the flag that flies in the minds of 20 million Pashtuns who live on both sides of the Afghan and Pakistan border. +Let's not neglect the insurgency just to the south, Balochistan. Two weeks ago, Balochi rebels attacked a Pakistani military garrison, and this was the flag that they raised over it. +The post-colonial entropy that is happening around the world is accelerating, and I expect more such changes to occur in the map as the states fragment. +Of course, we can't forget Africa. +53 countries, and by far the most number of suspiciously straight lines on the map. +If we were to look at all of Africa we could most certainly acknowledge far more, tribal divisions and so forth. +But let's just look at Sudan, the second-largest country in Africa. +It has three ongoing civil wars, the genocide in Darfur, which you all know about, the civil war in the east of the country, and south Sudan. +South Sudan is going to be having a referendum in 2011 in which it is very likely to vote itself independence. +Now let's go up to the Arctic Circle. +There is a great race on for energy resources under the Arctic seabed. +Who will win? Canada? Russia? The United States? +Actually Greenland. +Several weeks ago Greenland's [60,000] people voted themselves self-governance rights from Denmark. +So Denmark is about to get a whole lot smaller. +What is the lesson from all of this? +Geopolitics is a very unsentimental discipline. +It's constantly morphing and changing the world, like climate change. +And like our relationship with the ecosystem we're always searching for equilibrium in how we divide ourselves across the planet. +Now we fear changes on the map. +We fear civil wars, death tolls, having to learn the names of new countries. +But I believe that the inertia of the existing borders that we have today is far worse and far more violent. +The question is how do we change those borders, and what lines do we focus on? +I believe we focus on the lines that cross borders, the infrastructure lines. +Then we'll wind up with the world we want, a borderless one. +Thank you. +I'd like to talk a little bit this morning about what happens if we move from design to design thinking. +Now this rather old photo up there is actually the first project I was ever hired to do, something like 25 years ago. +It's a woodworking machine, or at least a piece of one, and my task was to make this thing a little bit more modern, a little bit easier to use. +I thought, at the time, I did a pretty good job. +Unfortunately, not very long afterwards the company went out of business. +This is the second project that I did. It's a fax machine. +I put an attractive shell around some new technology. +Again, 18 months later, the product was obsolete. +And now, of course, the whole technology is obsolete. +Now, I'm a fairly slow learner, but eventually it occurred to me that maybe what passed for design wasn't all that important -- making things more attractive, making them a bit easier to use, making them more marketable. +By focusing on a design, maybe just a single product, I was being incremental and not having much of an impact. +But I think this small view of design is a relatively recent phenomenon, and in fact really emerged in the latter half of the 20th century as design became a tool of consumerism. +So when we talk about design today, and particularly when we read about it in the popular press, we're often talking about products like these. +Amusing? Yes. Desirable? Maybe. +Important? Not so very. +But this wasn't always the way. +And I'd like to suggest that if we take a different view of design, and focus less on the object and more on design thinking as an approach, that we actually might see the result in a bigger impact. +Now this gentleman, Isambard Kingdom Brunel, designed many great things in his career in the 19th century, including the Clifton suspension bridge in Bristol and the Thames tunnel at Rotherhithe. +Both great designs and actually very innovative too. +His greatest creation runs actually right through here in Oxford. +It's called the Great Western Railway. +And as a kid I grew up very close to here, and one of my favorite things to do was to cycle along by the side of the railway waiting for the great big express trains to roar past. +You can see it represented here in J.M.W. Turner's painting, "Rain, Steam and Speed". +Now, what Brunel said that he wanted to achieve for his passengers was the experience of floating across the countryside. +Now, this was back in the 19th century. +And to do that meant creating the flattest gradients that had ever yet been made, which meant building long viaducts across river valleys -- this is actually the viaduct across the Thames at Maidenhead -- and long tunnels such as the one at Box, in Wiltshire. +But he didn't stop there. He didn't stop with just trying to design the best railway journey. +He imagined an integrated transportation system in which it would be possible for a passenger to embark on a train in London and disembark from a ship in New York. +One journey from London to New York. +This is the S.S. Great Western that he built to take care of the second half of that journey. +Now, Brunel was working 100 years before the emergence of the design profession, but I think he was using design thinking to solve problems and to create world-changing innovations. +Now, design thinking begins with what Roger Martin, the business school professor at the University of Toronto, calls integrative thinking. +And that's the ability to exploit opposing ideas and opposing constraints to create new solutions. +In the case of design, that means balancing desirability, what humans need, with technical feasibility, and economic viability. +With innovations like the Great Western, we can stretch that balance to the absolute limit. +So somehow, we went from this to this. +Systems thinkers who were reinventing the world, to a priesthood of folks in black turtlenecks and designer glasses working on small things. +As our industrial society matured, so design became a profession and it focused on an ever smaller canvas until it came to stand for aesthetics, image and fashion. +Now I'm not trying to throw stones here. +I'm a fully paid-up member of that priesthood, and somewhere in here I have my designer glasses. +There we go. +But I do think that perhaps design is getting big again. +And that's happening through the application of design thinking to new kinds of problems -- to global warming, to education, healthcare, security, clean water, whatever. +And as we see this reemergence of design thinking and we see it beginning to tackle new kinds of problems, there are some basic ideas that I think we can observe that are useful. +And I'd like to talk about some of those just for the next few minutes. +The first of those is that design is human-centered. +It may integrate technology and economics, but it starts with what humans need, or might need. +What makes life easier, more enjoyable? +What makes technology useful and usable? +But that is more than simply good ergonomics, putting the buttons in the right place. +It's often about understanding culture and context before we even know where to start to have ideas. +So when a team was working on a new vision screening program in India, they wanted to understand what the aspirations and motivations were of these school children to understand how they might play a role in screening their parents. +Conversion Sound has developed a high quality, ultra-low-cost digital hearing aid for the developing world. +Now, in the West we rely on highly trained technicians to fit these hearing aids. +In places like India, those technicians simply don't exist. +So it took a team working in India with patients and community health workers to understand how a PDA and an application on a PDA might replace those technicians in a fitting and diagnostic service. +Instead of starting with technology, the team started with people and culture. +So if human need is the place to start, then design thinking rapidly moves on to learning by making. +Instead of thinking about what to build, building in order to think. +Now, prototypes speed up the process of innovation, because it is only when we put our ideas out into the world that we really start to understand their strengths and weaknesses. +And the faster we do that, the faster our ideas evolve. +Now, much has been said and written about the Aravind Eye Institute in Madurai, India. +They do an incredible job of serving very poor patients by taking the revenues from those who can afford to pay to cross-subsidize those who cannot. +Now, they are very efficient, but they are also very innovative. +When I visited them a few years ago, what really impressed me was their willingness to prototype their ideas very early. +This is the manufacturing facility for one of their biggest cost breakthroughs. +They make their own intraocular lenses. +These are the lenses that replace those that are damaged by cataracts. +And I think it's partly their prototyping mentality that really allowed them to achieve the breakthrough. +Because they brought the cost down from $200 a pair, down to just $4 a pair. +Partly they did this by instead of building a fancy new factory, they used the basement of one of their hospitals. +And instead of installing the large-scale machines used by western producers, they used low-cost CAD/CAM prototyping technology. +They are now the biggest manufacturer of these lenses in the developing world and have recently moved into a custom factory. +So if human need is the place to start, and prototyping, a vehicle for progress, then there are also some questions to ask about the destination. +Instead of seeing its primary objective as consumption, design thinking is beginning to explore the potential of participation -- the shift from a passive relationship between consumer and producer to the active engagement of everyone in experiences that are meaningful, productive and profitable. +So William Beveridge, when he wrote the first of his famous reports in 1942, created what became Britain's welfare state in which he hoped that every citizen would be an active participant in their own social well-being. +By the time he wrote his third report, he confessed that he had failed and instead had created a society of welfare consumers. +Hilary Cottam, Charlie Leadbeater, and Hugo Manassei of Participle have taken this idea of participation, and in their manifesto entitled Beveridge 4.0, they are suggesting a framework for reinventing the welfare state. +So in one of their projects called Southwark Circle, they worked with residents in Southwark, South London and a small team of designers to develop a new membership organization to help the elderly with household tasks. +Designs were refined and developed with 150 older people and their families before the service was launched earlier this year. +We can take this idea of participation perhaps to its logical conclusion and say that design may have its greatest impact when it's taken out of the hands of designers and put into the hands of everyone. +Nurses and practitioners at U.S. healthcare system Kaiser Permanente study the topic of improving the patient experience, and particularly focused on the way that they exchange knowledge and change shift. +Through a program of observational research, brainstorming new solutions and rapid prototyping, they've developed a completely new way to change shift. +They went from retreating to the nurse's station to discuss the various states and needs of patients, to developing a system that happened on the ward in front of patients, using a simple software tool. +By doing this they brought the time that they were away from patients down from 40 minutes to 12 minutes, on average. +They increased patient confidence and nurse happiness. +When you multiply that by all the nurses in all the wards in 40 hospitals in the system, it resulted, actually, in a pretty big impact. +And this is just one of thousands of opportunities in healthcare alone. +So these are just some of the kind of basic ideas around design thinking and some of the new kinds of projects that they're being applied to. +But I'd like to go back to Brunel here, and suggest a connection that might explain why this is happening now, and maybe why design thinking is a useful tool. +And that connection is change. +In times of change we need new alternatives, new ideas. +Now, Brunel worked at the height of the Industrial Revolution, when all of life and our economy was being reinvented. +Now the industrial systems of Brunel's time have run their course, and indeed they are part of the problem today. +But, again, we are in the midst of massive change. +And that change is forcing us to question quite fundamental aspects of our society -- how we keep ourselves healthy, how we govern ourselves, how we educate ourselves, how we keep ourselves secure. +And in these times of change, we need these new choices because our existing solutions are simply becoming obsolete. +So why design thinking? +Because it gives us a new way of tackling problems. +Instead of defaulting to our normal convergent approach where we make the best choice out of available alternatives, it encourages us to take a divergent approach, to explore new alternatives, new solutions, new ideas that have not existed before. +But before we go through that process of divergence, there is actually quite an important first step. +And that is, what is the question that we're trying to answer? +What's the design brief? +Now Brunel may have asked a question like this, "How do I take a train from London to New York?" +But what are the kinds of questions that we might ask today? +So these are some that we've been asked to think about recently. +And one in particular, is one that we're working on with the Acumen Fund, in a project that's been funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. +How might we improve access to safe drinking water for the world's poorest people, and at the same time stimulate innovation amongst local water providers? +So instead of having a bunch of American designers come up with new ideas that may or may not have been appropriate, we took a sort of more open, collaborative and participative approach. +We teamed designers and investment experts up with 11 water organizations across India. +And through workshops they developed innovative new products, services, and business models. +We hosted a competition and then funded five of those organizations to develop their ideas. +So they developed and iterated these ideas. +And then IDEO and Acumen spent several weeks working with them to help design new social marketing campaigns, community outreach strategies, business models, new water vessels for storing water and carts for delivering water. +Some of those ideas are just getting launched into the market. +And the same process is just getting underway with NGOs in East Africa. +So for me, this project shows kind of how far we can go from some of those sort of small things that I was working on at the beginning of my career. +That by focusing on the needs of humans and by using prototypes to move ideas along quickly, by getting the process out of the hands of designers, and by getting the active participation of the community, we can tackle bigger and more interesting questions. +And just like Brunel, by focusing on systems, we can have a bigger impact. +So that's one thing that we've been working on. +I'm actually really quite interested, and perhaps more interested to know what this community thinks we could work on. +What kinds of questions do we think design thinking could be used to tackle? +And if you've got any ideas then feel free, you can post them to Twitter. +There is a hash tag there that you can use, #CBDQ. +And the list looked something like this a little while ago. +And of course you can search to find the questions that you're interested in by using the same hash code. +So I'd like to believe that design thinking actually can make a difference, that it can help create new ideas and new innovations, beyond the latest High Street products. +To do that I think we have to take a more expansive view of design, more like Brunel, less a domain of a professional priesthood. +And the first step is to start asking the right questions. +Thank you very much. +For years I've been feeling frustrated, because as a religious historian, I've become acutely aware of the centrality of compassion in all the major world faiths. +Every single one of them has evolved their own version of what's been called the Golden Rule. +Sometimes it comes in a positive version -- "Always treat all others as you'd like to be treated yourself." +And equally important is the negative version -- "Don't do to others what you would not like them to do to you." +Look into your own heart, discover what it is that gives you pain and then refuse, under any circumstance whatsoever, to inflict that pain on anybody else. +And people have emphasized the importance of compassion, not just because it sounds good, but because it works. +And it brings you into the presence of what's been called God, Nirvana, Rama, Tao. +Something that goes beyond what we know in our ego-bound existence. +But you know you'd never know it a lot of the time, that this was so central to the religious life. +Because with a few wonderful exceptions, very often when religious people come together, religious leaders come together, they're arguing about abstruse doctrines or uttering a council of hatred or inveighing against homosexuality or something of that sort. +Often people don't really want to be compassionate. +I sometimes see when I'm speaking to a congregation of religious people a sort of mutinous expression crossing their faces because people often want to be right instead. +And that of course defeats the object of the exercise. +Now why was I so grateful to TED? +Because they took me very gently from my book-lined study and brought me into the 21st century, enabling me to speak to a much, much wider audience than I could have ever conceived. +Because I feel an urgency about this. +If we don't manage to implement the Golden Rule globally, so that we treat all peoples, wherever and whoever they may be, as though they were as important as ourselves, I doubt that we'll have a viable world to hand on to the next generation. +The task of our time, one of the great tasks of our time, is to build a global society, as I said, where people can live together in peace. +And the religions that should be making a major contribution are instead seen as part of the problem. +And of course it's not just religious people who believe in the Golden Rule. +This is the source of all morality, this imaginative act of empathy, putting yourself in the place of another. +And so we have a choice, it seems to me. +That is the Torah and everything else is only commentary." +And the rabbis and the early fathers of the church who said that any interpretation of scripture that bred hatred and disdain was illegitimate. +And we need to revive that spirit. +And it's not just going to happen because a spirit of love wafts us down. +We have to make this happen, and we can do it with the modern communications that TED has introduced. +Already I've been tremendously heartened at the response of all our partners. +In Singapore, we have a group going to use the Charter to heal divisions recently that have sprung up in Singaporean society, and some members of the parliament want to implement it politically. +In Malaysia, there is going to be an art exhibition in which leading artists are going to be taking people, young people, and showing them that compassion also lies at the root of all art. +Throughout Europe, the Muslim communities are holding events and discussions, are discussing the centrality of compassion in Islam and in all faiths. +But it can't stop there. It can't stop with the launch. +Religious teaching, this is where we've gone so wrong, concentrating solely on believing abstruse doctrines. +Religious teaching must always lead to action. +And I intend to work on this till my dying day. +And I want to continue with our partners to do two things -- educate and stimulate compassionate thinking. +Education because we've so dropped out of compassion. +People often think it simply means feeling sorry for somebody. +But of course you don't understand compassion if you're just going to think about it. +You also have to do it. +I want them to get the media involved because the media are crucial in helping to dissolve some of the stereotypical views we have of other people, which are dividing us from one another. +The same applies to educators. +I'd like youth to get a sense of the dynamism, the dynamic and challenge of a compassionate lifestyle. +And also see that it demands acute intelligence, not just a gooey feeling. +I'd like to call upon scholars to explore the compassionate theme in their own and in other people's traditions. +And perhaps above all, to encourage a sensitivity about uncompassionate speaking, so that because people have this Charter, whatever their beliefs or lack of them, they feel empowered to challenge uncompassionate speech, disdainful remarks from their religious leaders, their political leaders, from the captains of industry. +Because we can change the world, we have the ability. +I would never have thought of putting the Charter online. +I was still stuck in the old world of a whole bunch of boffins sitting together in a room and issuing yet another arcane statement. +And TED introduced me to a whole new way of thinking and presenting ideas. +Because that is what is so wonderful about TED. +In this room, all this expertise, if we joined it all together, we could change the world. +And of course the problems sometimes seem insuperable. +But I'd just like to quote, finish at the end with a reference to a British author, an Oxford author whom I don't quote very often, C.S. Lewis. +But he wrote one thing that stuck in my mind ever since I read it when I was a schoolgirl. +It's in his book "The Four Loves." +He said that he distinguished between erotic love, when two people gaze, spellbound, into each other's eyes. +And then he compared that to friendship, when two people stand side by side, as it were, shoulder to shoulder, with their eyes fixed on a common goal. +We don't have to fall in love with each other, but we can become friends. +And I am convinced. +I felt it very strongly during our little deliberations at Vevey, that when people of all different persuasions come together, working side by side for a common goal, differences melt away. +And we learn amity. +And we learn to live together and to get to know one another. +Thank you very much. +I have a very difficult task. +I'm a spectroscopist. +I have to talk about astronomy without showing you any single image of nebulae or galaxies, etc. +because my job is spectroscopy. +I never deal with images. +But I'll try to convince you that spectroscopy is actually something which can change this world. +Spectroscopy can probably answer the question, "Is there anybody out there?" +Are we alone? SETI. +It's not very fun to do spectroscopy. +One of my colleagues in Bulgaria, Nevena Markova, spent about 20 years studying these profiles. +And she published 42 articles just dedicated to the subject. +Can you imagine? Day and night, thinking, observing, the same star for 20 years is incredible. +But we are crazy. We do these things. +And I'm not that far. +I spent about eight months working on these profiles. +Because I've noticed a very small symmetry in the profile of one of the planet host stars. +And I thought, well maybe there is Lithium-6 in this star, which is an indication that this star has swallowed a planet. +Because apparently you can't have this fragile isotope of Lithium-6 in the atmospheres of sun-like stars. +But you have it in planets and asteroids. +So if you engulf planet or large number of asteroids, you will have this Lithium-6 isotope in the spectrum of the star. +So I invested more than eight months just studying the profile of this star. +And actually it's amazing, because I got phone calls from many reporters asking, "Have you actually seen the planet going into a star?" +Because they thought that if you are having a telescope, you are an astronomer so what you are doing is actually looking in a telescope. +And you might have seen the planet going into a star. +And I was saying, "No, excuse me. +What I see is this one." +It's just incredible. Because nobody understood really. +I bet that there were very few people who really understood what I'm talking about. +Because this is the indication that the planet went into the star. +It's amazing. +The power of spectroscopy was actually realized by Pink Floyd already in 1973. +Because they actually said that you can get any color you like in a spectrum. +And all you need is time and money to make your spectrograph. +This is the number one high resolution, most precise spectrograph on this planet, called HARPS, which is actually used to detect extrasolar planets and sound waves in the atmospheres of stars. +How we get spectra? +I'm sure most of you know from school physics that it's basically splitting a white light into colors. +And if you have a liquid hot mass, it will produce something which we call a continuous spectrum. +A hot gas is producing emission lines only, no continuum. +And if you place a cool gas in front of a hot source, you will see certain patterns which we call absorption lines. +Which is used actually to identify chemical elements in a cool matter, which is absorbing exactly at those frequencies. +Now, what we can do with the spectra? +We can actually study line-of-sight velocities of cosmic objects. +And we can also study chemical composition and physical parameters of stars, galaxies, nebulae. +A star is the most simple object. +In the core, we have thermonuclear reactions going on, creating chemical elements. +And we have a cool atmosphere. +It's cool for me. +Cool in my terms is three or four or five thousand degrees. +My colleagues in infra-red astronomy call minus 200 Kelvin is cool for them. +But you know, everything is relative. +So for me 5,000 degrees is pretty cool. +This is the spectrum of the Sun -- 24,000 spectral lines, and about 15 percent of these lines is not yet identified. +It is amazing. So we are in the 21st century, and we still cannot properly understand the spectrum of the sun. +Sometimes we have to deal with just one tiny, weak spectral line to measure the composition of that chemical element in the atmosphere. +For instance, you see the spectral line of the gold is the only spectral line in the spectrum of the Sun. +And we use this weak feature to measure the composition of gold in the atmosphere of the Sun. +And now this is a work in progress. +We have been dealing with a similarly very weak feature, which belongs to osmium. +It's a heavy element produced in thermonuclear explosions of supernovae. +It's the only place where you can produce, actually, osmium. +Just comparing the composition of osmium in one of the planet host stars, we want to understand why there is so much of this element. +Perhaps we even think that maybe supernova explosions trigger formations of planets and stars. +It can be an indication. +The other day, my colleague from Berkeley, Gibor Basri, emailed me a very interesting spectrum, asking me, "Can you have a look at this?" +And I couldn't sleep, next two weeks, when I saw the huge amount of oxygen and other elements in the spectrum of the stars. +I knew that there is nothing like that observed in the galaxy. +It was incredible. The only conclusion we could make from this is clear evidence that there was a supernova explosion in this system, which polluted the atmosphere of this star. +And later a black hole was formed in a binary system, which is still there with a mass of about five solar masses. +This was considered as first evidence that actually black holes come from supernovae explosions. +My colleagues, comparing composition of chemical elements in different galactic stars, actually discovered alien stars in our galaxy. +It's amazing that you can go so far simply studying the chemical composition of stars. +They actually said that one of the stars you see in the spectra is an alien. It comes from a different galaxy. +There is interaction of galaxies. We know this. +And sometimes they just capture stars. +You've heard about solar flares. +We were very surprised to discover a super flare, a flare which is thousands of millions of times more powerful than those we see in the Sun. +In one of the binary stars in our galaxy called FH Leo, we discovered the super flare. +And later we went to study the spectral stars to see is there anything strange with these objects. +And we found that everything is normal. +These stars are normal like the Sun. Age, everything was normal. +So this is a mystery. +It's one of the mysteries we still have, super flares. +And there are six or seven similar cases reported in the literature. +Now to go ahead with this, we really need to understand chemical evolution of the universe. +It's very complicated. I don't really want you to try to understand what is here. +But it's to show you how complicated is the whole story of the production of chemical elements. +You have two channels -- the massive stars and low-mass stars -- producing and recycling matter and chemical elements in the universe. +And doing this for 14 billion years, we end up with this picture, which is a very important graph, showing relative abundances of chemical elements in sun-like stars and in the interstellar medium. +So which means that it's really impossible to find an object where you find about 10 times more sulfur than silicon, five times more calcium than oxygen. It's just impossible. +And if you find one, I will say that this is something related to SETI, because naturally you can't do it. +Doppler Effect is something very important from fundamental physics. +And this is related to the change of the frequency of a moving source. +The Doppler Effect is used to discover extrasolar planets. +The precision which we need to discover a Jupiter-like planet around a sun-like star is something like 28.4 meters per second. +And we need nine centimeters per second to detect an Earth-like planet. +This can be done with the future spectrographs. +I, myself, I'm actually involved in the team which is developing a CODEX, high resolution, future generation spectrograph for the 42 meter E-ELT telescope. +And this is going to be an instrument to detect Earth-like planets around sun-like stars. +It is an amazing tool called astroseismology where we can detect sound waves in the atmospheres of stars. +This is the sound of an Alpha Cen. +We can detect sound waves in the atmospheres of sun-like stars. +Those waves have frequencies in infrasound domain, the sound actually nobody knows, domain. +Coming back to the most important question, "Is there anybody out there?" +This is closely related to tectonic and volcanic activity of planets. +Connection between life and radioactive nuclei is straightforward. +No life without tectonic activity, without volcanic activity. +And we know very well that geothermal energy is mostly produced by decay of uranium, thorium, and potassium. +How to measure, if we have planets where the amount of those elements is small, so those planets are tectonically dead, there cannot be life. +If there is too much uranium or potassium or thorium, probably, again, there would be no life. +Because can you imagine everything boiling? +It's too much energy on a planet. +Now, we have been measuring abundance of thorium in one of the stars with extrasolar planets. +It's exactly the same game. A very tiny feature. +We are actually trying to measure this profile and to detect thorium. +It's very tough. It's very tough. +And you have to, first you have to convince yourself. +Then you have to convince your colleagues. +And then you have to convince the whole world that you have actually detected something like this in the atmosphere of an extrasolar planet host star somewhere in 100 parsec away from here. +It's really difficult. +But if you want to know about a life on extrasolar planets, you have to do this job. +Because you have to know how much of radioactive element you have in those systems. +The one way to discover about aliens is to tune your radio telescope and listen to the signals. +If you receive something interesting, well that's what SETI does actually, what SETI has been doing for many years. +I think the most promising way is to go for biomarkers. +You can see the spectrum of the Earth, this Earthshine spectrum, and that is a very clear signal. +The slope which is coming, which we call a Red Edge, is a detection of vegetated area. +It's amazing that we can detect vegetation from a spectrum. +Now imagine doing this test for other planets. +Now very recently, very recently, I'm talking about last six, seven, eight months, water, methane, carbon dioxide have been detected in the spectrum of a planet outside the solar system. +It's amazing. So this is the power of spectroscopy. +You can actually go and detect and study a chemical composition of planets far, far, far from solar system. +We have to detect oxygen or ozone to make sure that we have all necessary conditions to have life. +Cosmic miracles are something which can be related to SETI. +Now imagine an object, amazing object, or something which we cannot explain when we just stand up and say, "Look, we give up. Physics doesn't work." +So it's something which you can always refer to SETI and say, "Well, somebody must be doing this, somehow." +And with the known physics etc, it's something actually which has been pointed out by Frank Drake, many years ago, and Shklovsky. +If you see, in the spectrum of a planet host star, if you see strange chemical elements, it can be a signal from a civilization which is there and they want to signal about it. +They want to actually signal their presence through these spectral lines, in the spectrum of a star, in different ways. +There can be different ways doing this. +One is, for instance, technetium is a radioactive element with a decay time of 4.2 million years. +If you suddenly observe technetium in a sun-like star, you can be sure that somebody has put this element in the atmosphere, because in a natural way it is impossible to do this. +Now we are reviewing the spectra of about 300 stars with extrasolar planets. +And we are doing this job since 2000 and it's a very heavy project. +We have been working very hard. +And we have some interesting cases, candidates, so on, things which we can't really explain. +And I hope in the near future we can confirm this. +So the main question: "Are we alone?" +I think it will not come from UFOs. +It will not come from radio signals. +I think it will come from a spectrum like this. +It is the spectrum of a planet like Earth, showing a presence of nitrogen dioxide, as a clear signal of life, and oxygen and ozone. +If, one day, and I think it will be within 15 years from now, or 20 years. +If we discover a spectrum like this we can be sure that there is life on that planet. +In about five years we will discover planets like Earth, around sun-like stars, the same distance as the Earth from the Sun. +It will take about five years. +And then we will need another 10, 15 years with space projects to get the spectra of Earth-like planets like the one I showed you. +And if we see the nitrogen dioxide and oxygen, I think we have the perfect E.T. +Thank you very much. +I run a design studio in New York. +Every seven years, I close it for one year to pursue some little experiments, things that are always difficult to accomplish during the regular working year. +In that year, we are not available for any of our clients. +We are totally closed. +And as you can imagine, it is a lovely and very energetic time. +I originally had opened the studio in New York to combine my two loves, music and design. +And we created videos and packaging for many musicians that you know, and for even more that you've never heard of. +As I realized, just like with many many things in my life that I actually love, I adapt to it. +And I get, over time, bored by them. +And for sure, in our case, our work started to look the same. +You see here a glass eye in a die cut of a book. +Quite the similar idea, then, a perfume packaged in a book, in a die cut. +So I decided to close it down for one year. +Also is the knowledge that right now we spend about in the first 25 years of our lives learning, then there is another 40 years that's really reserved for working. +And then tacked on at the end of it are about 15 years for retirement. +And I thought it might be helpful to basically cut off five of those retirement years and intersperse them in between those working years. +That's clearly enjoyable for myself. +But probably even more important is that the work that comes out of these years flows back into the company and into society at large, rather than just benefiting a grandchild or two. +There is a fellow TEDster who spoke two years ago, Jonathan Haidt, who defined his work into three different levels. +And they rang very true for me. +I can see my work as a job. I do it for money. +I likely already look forward to the weekend on Thursdays. +And I probably will need a hobby as a leveling mechanism. +In a career I'm definitely more engaged. +But at the same time, there will be periods when I think is all that really hard work really worth my while? +While in the third one, in the calling, very much likely I would do it also if I wouldn't be financially compensated for it. +I am not a religious person myself, but I did look for nature. +I had spent my first sabbatical in New York City. +Looked for something different for the second one. +Europe and the U.S. didn't really feel enticing because I knew them too well. So Asia it was. +The most beautiful landscapes I had seen in Asia were Sri Lanka and Bali. +Sri Lanka still had the civil war going on, so Bali it was. +It's a wonderful, very craft-oriented society. +I arrived there in September 2008, and pretty much started to work right away. +There is wonderful inspiration coming from the area itself. +However the first thing that I needed was mosquito repellent typography because they were definitely around heavily. +And then I needed some sort of way to be able to get back to all the wild dogs that surround my house, and attacked me during my morning walks. +So we created this series of 99 portraits on tee shirts. +Every single dog on one tee shirt. +As a little retaliation with a just ever so slightly menacing message on the back of the shirt. +Just before I left New York I decided I could actually renovate my studio. +And then just leave it all to them. +And I don't have to do anything. +So I looked for furniture. +And it turned out that all the furniture that I really liked, I couldn't afford. +And all the stuff I could afford, I didn't like. +So one of the things that we pursued in Bali was pieces of furniture. +This one, of course, still works with the wild dogs. +It's not quite finished yet. +And I think by the time this lamp came about, I had finally made peace with those dogs. +Then there is a coffee table. I also did a coffee table. +It's called Be Here Now. +It includes 330 compasses. +And we had custom espresso cups made that hide a magnet inside, and make those compasses go crazy, always centering on them. +Then this is a fairly talkative, verbose kind of chair. +I also started meditating for the first time in my life in Bali. +And at the same time, I'm extremely aware how boring it is to hear about other people's happinesses. +So I will not really go too far into it. +Many of you will know this TEDster, Danny Gilbert, whose book, actually, I got it through the TED book club. +I think it took me four years to finally read it, while on sabbatical. +And I was pleased to see that he actually wrote the book while he was on sabbatical. +And I'll show you a couple of people that did well by pursuing sabbaticals. +This is Ferran Adria. Many people think he is right now the best chef in the world with his restaurant north of Barcelona, El Bulli. +His restaurant is open seven months every year. +He closes it down for five months to experiment with a full kitchen staff. +His latest numbers are fairly impressive. +He can seat, throughout the year, he can seat 8,000 people. +And he has 2.2 million requests for reservations. +If I look at my cycle, seven years, one year sabbatical, it's 12.5 percent of my time. +And if I look at companies that are actually more successful than mine, 3M since the 1930s is giving all their engineers 15 percent to pursue whatever they want. +There is some good successes. +Scotch tape came out of this program, as well as Art Fry developed sticky notes from during his personal time for 3M. +Google, of course, very famously gives 20 percent for their software engineers to pursue their own personal projects. +Anybody in here has actually ever conducted a sabbatical? +That's about five percent of everybody. +So I'm not sure if you saw your neighbor putting their hand up. +Talk to them about if it was successful or not. +I've found that finding out about what I'm going to like in the future, my very best way is to talk to people who have actually done it much better than myself envisioning it. +When I had the idea of doing one, the process was I made the decision and I put it into my daily planner book. +And then I told as many, many people as I possibly could about it so that there was no way that I could chicken out later on. +In the beginning, on the first sabbatical, it was rather disastrous. +I had thought that I should do this without any plan, that this vacuum of time somehow would be wonderful and enticing for idea generation. It was not. +I just, without a plan, I just reacted to little requests, not work requests, those I all said no to, but other little requests. +Sending mail to Japanese design magazines and things like that. +So I became my own intern. +And I very quickly made a list of the things I was interested in, put them in a hierarchy, divided them into chunks of time and then made a plan, very much like in grade school. +What does it say here? Monday, 8 to 9: story writing; 9 to 10: future thinking. +Was not very successful. And so on and so forth. +And that actually, specifically as a starting point of the first sabbatical, worked really well for me. +What came out of it? +I really got close to design again. +I had fun. +Financially, seen over the long term, it was actually successful. +Because of the improved quality, we could ask for higher prices. +And probably most importantly, basically everything we've done in the seven years following the first sabbatical came out of thinking of that one single year. +And I'll show you a couple of projects that came out of the seven years following that sabbatical. +One of the strands of thinking I was involved in was that sameness is so incredibly overrated. +This whole idea that everything needs to be exactly the same works for a very very few strand of companies, and not for everybody else. +We were asked to design an identity for Casa da Musica, the Rem Koolhaas-built music center in Porto, in Portugal. +And even though I desired to do an identity that doesn't use the architecture, I failed at that. +And mostly also because I realized out of a Rem Koolhaas presentation to the city of Porto, where he talked about a conglomeration of various layers of meaning. +Which I understood after I translated it from architecture speech in to regular English, basically as logo making. +And I understood that the building itself was a logo. +So then it became quite easy. +We put a mask on it, looked at it deep down in the ground, checked it out from all sides, west, north, south, east, top and bottom. +Colored them in a very particular way by having a friend of mine write a piece of software, the Casa da Musica Logo Generator. +That's connected to a scanner. +You put any image in there, like that Beethoven image. +And the software, in a second, will give you the Casa da Musica Beethoven logo. +Which, when you actually have to design a Beethoven poster, comes in handy, because the visual information of the logo and the actual poster is exactly the same. +So it will always fit together, conceptually, of course. +If Zappa's music is performed, it gets its own logo. +Or Philip Glass or Lou Reed or the Chemical Brothers, who all performed there, get their own Casa da Musica logo. +It works the same internally with the president or the musical director, whose Casa da Musica portraits wind up on their business cards. +There is a full-blown orchestra living inside the building. +It has a more transparent identity. +The truck they go on tour with. +Or there's a smaller contemporary orchestra, 12 people that remixes its own title. +And one of the handy things that came about was that you could take the logo type and create advertising out of it. +Like this Donna Toney poster, or Chopin, or Mozart, or La Monte Young. +You can take the shape and make typography out of it. +You can grow it underneath the skin. +You can have a poster for a family event in front of the house, or a rave underneath the house or a weekly program, as well as educational services. +Second insight. So far, until that point I had been mostly involved or used the language of design for promotional purposes, which was fine with me. +On one hand I have nothing against selling. +My parents are both salespeople. +But I did feel that I spent so much time learning this language, why do I only promote with it? +There must be something else. +And the whole series of work came out of it. +Some of you might have seen it. +I showed some of it at earlier TEDs before, under the title "Things I've Learned in My Life So Far." +I'll just show two now. +This is a whole wall of bananas at different ripenesses on the opening day in this gallery in New York. +It says, "Self-confidence produces fine results." +This is after a week. +After two weeks, three weeks, four weeks, five weeks. +And you see the self confidence almost comes back, but not quite. +These are some pictures visitors sent to me. +And then the city of Amsterdam gave us a plaza and asked us to do something. +We used the stone plates as a grid for our little piece. +We got 250,000 coins from the central bank, at different darknesses. +So we got brand new ones, shiny ones, medium ones, and very old, dark ones. +And with the help of 100 volunteers, over a week, created this fairly floral typography that spelled, "Obsessions make my life worse and my work better." +And the idea of course was to make the type so precious that as an audience you would be in between, "Should I really take as much money as I can? +Or should I leave the piece intact as it is right now?" +While we built all this up during that week, with the 100 volunteers, a good number of the neighbors surrounding the plaza got very close to it and quite loved it. +So when it was finally done, and in the first night a guy came with big plastic bags and scooped up as many coins as he could possibly carry, one of the neighbors called the police. +And the Amsterdam police in all their wisdom, came, saw, and they wanted to protect the artwork. +And they swept it all up and put it into custody at police headquarters. +I think you see, you see them sweeping. You see them sweeping right here. +That's the police, getting rid of it all. +So after eight hours that's pretty much all that was left of the whole thing. +We are also working on the start of a bigger project in Bali. +It's a movie about happiness. +And here we asked some nearby pigs to do the titles for us. +They weren't quite slick enough. +So we asked the goose to do it again, and hoped she would do somehow, a more elegant or pretty job. +And I think she overdid it. +Just a bit too ornamental. +And my studio is very close to the monkey forest. +And the monkeys in that monkey forest looked, actually, fairly happy. +So we asked those guys to do it again. +They did a fine job, but had a couple of readability problems. +So of course whatever you don't really do yourself doesn't really get done properly. +That film we'll be working on for the next two years. +So it's going to be a while. +And of course you might think that doing a film on happiness might not really be worthwhile. +Then you can of course always go and see this guy. +Video: And I'm happy I'm alive. +I'm happy I'm alive. I'm happy I'm alive. +Stefan Sagmeister: Thank you. +How do you feed a city? +It's one of the great questions of our time. +Yet it's one that's rarely asked. +We take it for granted that if we go into a shop or restaurant, or indeed into this theater's foyer in about an hour's time, there is going to be food there waiting for us, having magically come from somewhere. +But when you think that every day for a city the size of London, enough food has to be produced, transported, bought and sold, cooked, eaten, disposed of, and that something similar has to happen every day for every city on earth, it's remarkable that cities get fed at all. +We live in places like this as if they're the most natural things in the world, forgetting that because we're animals and that we need to eat, we're actually as dependent on the natural world as our ancient ancestors were. +And as more of us move into cities, more of that natural world is being transformed into extraordinary landscapes like the one behind me -- it's soybean fields in Mato Grosso in Brazil -- in order to feed us. +These are extraordinary landscapes, but few of us ever get to see them. +And increasingly these landscapes are not just feeding us either. +As more of us move into cities, more of us are eating meat, so that a third of the annual grain crop globally now gets fed to animals rather than to us human animals. +And given that it takes three times as much grain -- actually ten times as much grain -- to feed a human if it's passed through an animal first, that's not a very efficient way of feeding us. +And it's an escalating problem too. +By 2050, it's estimated that twice the number of us are going to be living in cities. +And it's also estimated that there is going to be twice as much meat and dairy consumed. +So meat and urbanism are rising hand in hand. +And that's going to pose an enormous problem. +Six billion hungry carnivores to feed, by 2050. +That's a big problem. And actually if we carry on as we are, it's a problem we're very unlikely to be able to solve. +Nineteen million hectares of rainforest are lost every year to create new arable land. +Although at the same time we're losing an equivalent amount of existing arables to salinization and erosion. +We're very hungry for fossil fuels too. +It takes about 10 calories to produce every calorie of food that we consume in the West. +And even though there is food that we are producing at great cost, we don't actually value it. +Half the food produced in the USA is currently thrown away. +And to end all of this, at the end of this long process, we're not even managing to feed the planet properly. +A billion of us are obese, while a further billion starve. +None of it makes very much sense. +And when you think that 80 percent of global trade in food now is controlled by just five multinational corporations, it's a grim picture. +As we're moving into cities, the world is also embracing a Western diet. +And if we look to the future, it's an unsustainable diet. +So how did we get here? +And more importantly, what are we going to do about it? +Well, to answer the slightly easier question first, about 10,000 years ago, I would say, is the beginning of this process in the ancient Near East, known as the Fertile Crescent. +Because, as you can see, it was crescent shaped. +And it was also fertile. +And it was here, about 10,000 years ago, that two extraordinary inventions, agriculture and urbanism, happened roughly in the same place and at the same time. +This is no accident, because agriculture and cities are bound together. They need each other. +Because it was discovery of grain by our ancient ancestors for the first time that produced a food source that was large enough and stable enough to support permanent settlements. +And if we look at what those settlements were like, we see they were compact. +They were surrounded by productive farm land and dominated by large temple complexes like this one at Ur, that were, in fact, effectively, spiritualized, central food distribution centers. +Because it was the temples that organized the harvest, gathered in the grain, offered it to the gods, and then offered the grain that the gods didn't eat back to the people. +So, if you like, the whole spiritual and physical life of these cities was dominated by the grain and the harvest that sustained them. +And in fact, that's true of every ancient city. +But of course not all of them were that small. +Famously, Rome had about a million citizens by the first century A.D. +So how did a city like this feed itself? +The answer is what I call "ancient food miles." +Basically, Rome had access to the sea, which made it possible for it to import food from a very long way away. +This is the only way it was possible to do this in the ancient world, because it was very difficult to transport food over roads, which were rough. +And the food obviously went off very quickly. +So Rome effectively waged war on places like Carthage and Egypt just to get its paws on their grain reserves. +And, in fact, you could say that the expansion of the Empire was really sort of one long, drawn out militarized shopping spree, really. +In fact -- I love the fact, I just have to mention this: Rome in fact used to import oysters from London, at one stage. I think that's extraordinary. +So Rome shaped its hinterland through its appetite. +But the interesting thing is that the other thing also happened in the pre-industrial world. +If we look at a map of London in the 17th century, we can see that its grain, which is coming in from the Thames, along the bottom of this map. +So the grain markets were to the south of the city. +And the roads leading up from them to Cheapside, which was the main market, were also grain markets. +And if you look at the name of one of those streets, Bread Street, you can tell what was going on there 300 years ago. +And the same of course was true for fish. +Fish was, of course, coming in by river as well. Same thing. +And of course Billingsgate, famously, was London's fish market, operating on-site here until the mid-1980s. +Which is extraordinary, really, when you think about it. +Everybody else was wandering around with mobile phones that looked like bricks and sort of smelly fish happening down on the port. +This is another thing about food in cities: Once its roots into the city are established, they very rarely move. +Meat is a very different story because, of course, animals could walk into the city. +So much of London's meat was coming from the northwest, from Scotland and Wales. +So it was coming in, and arriving at the city at the northwest, which is why Smithfield, London's very famous meat market, was located up there. +Poultry was coming in from East Anglia and so on, to the northeast. +I feel a bit like a weather woman doing this. Anyway, and so the birds were coming in with their feet protected with little canvas shoes. +And then when they hit the eastern end of Cheapside, that's where they were sold, which is why it's called Poultry. +And, in fact, if you look at the map of any city built before the industrial age, you can trace food coming in to it. +You can actually see how it was physically shaped by food, both by reading the names of the streets, which give you a lot of clues. +Friday Street, in a previous life, is where you went to buy your fish on a Friday. +But also you have to imagine it full of food. +Because the streets and the public spaces were the only places where food was bought and sold. +And if we look at an image of Smithfield in 1830 you can see that it would have been very difficult to live in a city like this and be unaware of where your food came from. +In fact, if you were having Sunday lunch, the chances were it was mooing or bleating outside your window about three days earlier. +So this was obviously an organic city, part of an organic cycle. +And then 10 years later everything changed. +This is an image of the Great Western in 1840. +And as you can see, some of the earliest train passengers were pigs and sheep. +So all of a sudden, these animals are no longer walking into market. +They're being slaughtered out of sight and mind, somewhere in the countryside. +And they're coming into the city by rail. +And this changes everything. +To start off with, it makes it possible for the first time to grow cities, really any size and shape, in any place. +Cities used to be constrained by geography; they used to have to get their food through very difficult physical means. +All of a sudden they are effectively emancipated from geography. +And of course that was just the beginning. After the trains came cars, and really this marks the end of this process. +It's the final emancipation of the city from any apparent relationship with nature at all. +And this is the kind of city that's devoid of smell, devoid of mess, certainly devoid of people, because nobody would have dreamed of walking in such a landscape. +In fact, what they did to get food was they got in their cars, drove to a box somewhere on the outskirts, came back with a week's worth of shopping, and wondered what on earth to do with it. +And this really is the moment when our relationship, both with food and cities, changes completely. +Here we have food -- that used to be the center, the social core of the city -- at the periphery. +It used to be a social event, buying and selling food. +Now it's anonymous. +We used to cook; now we just add water, or a little bit of an egg if you're making a cake or something. +We don't smell food to see if it's okay to eat. +We just read the back of a label on a packet. +And we don't value food. We don't trust it. +So instead of trusting it, we fear it. +And instead of valuing it, we throw it away. +One of the great ironies of modern food systems is that they've made the very thing they promised to make easier much harder. +By making it possible to build cities anywhere and any place, they've actually distanced us from our most important relationship, which is that of us and nature. +And also they've made us dependent on systems that only they can deliver, that, as we've seen, are unsustainable. +So what are we going to do about that? +It's not a new question. +500 years ago it's what Thomas More was asking himself. +This is the frontispiece of his book "Utopia." +And it was a series of semi-independent city-states, if that sounds remotely familiar, a day's walk from one another where everyone was basically farming-mad, and grew vegetables in their back gardens, and ate communal meals together, and so on. +And I think you could argue that food is a fundamental ordering principle of Utopia, even though More never framed it that way. +And here is another very famous "Utopian" vision, that of Ebenezer Howard, "The Garden City." +Same idea: series of semi-independent city-states, little blobs of metropolitan stuff with arable land around, joined to one another by railway. +And again, food could be said to be the ordering principle of his vision. +It even got built, but nothing to do with this vision that Howard had. +And that is the problem with these Utopian ideas, that they are Utopian. +Utopia was actually a word that Thomas Moore used deliberately. +It was a kind of joke, because it's got a double derivation from the Greek. +It can either mean a good place, or no place. +Because it's an ideal. It's an imaginary thing. We can't have it. +And I think, as a conceptual tool for thinking about the very deep problem of human dwelling, that makes it not much use. +So I've come up with an alternative, which is Sitopia, from the ancient Greek, "sitos" for food, and "topos" for place. +I believe we already live in Sitopia. +We live in a world shaped by food, and if we realize that, we can use food as a really powerful tool -- a conceptual tool, design tool, to shape the world differently. +So if we were to do that, what might Sitopia look like? +Well I think it looks a bit like this. +I have to use this slide. It's just the look on the face of the dog. +But anyway, this is -- it's food at the center of life, at the center of family life, being celebrated, being enjoyed, people taking time for it. +This is where food should be in our society. +But you can't have scenes like this unless you have people like this. +By the way, these can be men as well. +It's people who think about food, who think ahead, who plan, who can stare at a pile of raw vegetables and actually recognize them. +We need these people. We're part of a network. +Because without these kinds of people we can't have places like this. +Here, I deliberately chose this because it is a man buying a vegetable. +But networks, markets where food is being grown locally. +It's common. It's fresh. +It's part of the social life of the city. +Because without that, you can't have this kind of place, food that is grown locally and also is part of the landscape, and is not just a zero-sum commodity off in some unseen hell-hole. +Cows with a view. +Steaming piles of humus. +This is basically bringing the whole thing together. +And this is a community project I visited recently in Toronto. +It's a greenhouse, where kids get told all about food and growing their own food. +Here is a plant called Kevin, or maybe it's a plant belonging to a kid called Kevin. I don't know. +But anyway, these kinds of projects that are trying to reconnect us with nature is extremely important. +So Sitopia, for me, is really a way of seeing. +It's basically recognizing that Sitopia already exists in little pockets everywhere. +The trick is to join them up, to use food as a way of seeing. +And if we do that, we're going to stop seeing cities as big, metropolitan, unproductive blobs, like this. +We're going to see them more like this, as part of the productive, organic framework of which they are inevitably a part, symbiotically connected. +But of course, that's not a great image either, because we need not to be producing food like this anymore. +We need to be thinking more about permaculture, which is why I think this image just sums up for me the kind of thinking we need to be doing. +It's a re-conceptualization of the way food shapes our lives. +The best image I know of this is from 650 years ago. +It's Ambrogio Lorenzetti's "Allegory of Good Government." +It's about the relationship between the city and the countryside. +And I think the message of this is very clear. +If the city looks after the country, the country will look after the city. +And I want us to ask now, what would Ambrogio Lorenzetti paint if he painted this image today? +What would an allegory of good government look like today? +Because I think it's an urgent question. +It's one we have to ask, and we have to start answering. +We know we are what we eat. +We need to realize that the world is also what we eat. +But if we take that idea, we can use food as a really powerful tool to shape the world better. +Thank you very much. +What we're really here to talk about is the "how." +Okay, so how exactly do we create this world-shattering, if you will, innovation? +Now, I want to tell you a quick story. +We'll go back a little more than a year. +In fact, the date -- I'm curious to know if any of you know what happened on this momentous date? +It was February 3rd, 2008. +Anyone remember what happened, February 3rd, 2008? +Super Bowl. I heard it over here. It was the date of the Super Bowl. +And the reason that this date was so momentous is that what my colleagues, John King and Halee Fischer-Wright, and I noticed as we began to debrief various Super Bowl parties, is that it seemed to us that across the United States, if you will, tribal councils had convened. +And they had discussed things of great national importance. +Like, "Do we like the Budweiser commercial?" +and, "Do we like the nachos?" and, "Who is going to win?" +But they also talked about which candidate they were going to support. +And if you go back in time to February 3rd, it looked like Hilary Clinton was going to get the Democratic nomination. +And there were even some polls that were saying she was going to go all the way. +But when we talked to people, it appeared that a funnel effect had happened in these tribes all across the United States. +Now what is a tribe? A tribe is a group of about 20 -- so kind of more than a team -- 20 to about 150 people. +And it's within these tribes that all of our work gets done. +But not just work. It's within these tribes that societies get built, that important things happen. +And so as we surveyed the, if you will, representatives from various tribal councils that met, also known as Super Bowl parties, we sent the following email off to 40 newspaper editors the following day. +February 4th, we posted it on our website. This was before Super Tuesday. +We said, "The tribes that we're in are saying it's going to be Obama." +Now, the reason we knew that was because we spent the previous 10 years studying tribes, studying these naturally occurring groups. +All of you are members of tribes. +In walking around at the break, many of you had met members of your tribe. And you were talking to them. +And many of you were doing what great, if you will, tribal leaders do, which is to find someone who is a member of a tribe, and to find someone else who is another member of a different tribe, and make introductions. +That is in fact what great tribal leaders do. +So here is the bottom line. +And from a distance it appears that it's a single group. +And so people form tribes. +They always have. They always will. +Just as fish swim and birds fly, people form tribes. It's just what we do. +But here's the rub. +Not all tribes are the same, and what makes the difference is the culture. +Now here is the net out of this. +You're all a member of tribes. +If you can find a way to take the tribes that you're in and nudge them forward, along these tribal stages to what we call Stage Five, which is the top of the mountain. +But we're going to start with what we call Stage One. +Now, this is the lowest of the stages. +You don't want this. Okay? +This is a bit of a difficult image to put up on the screen. +But it's one that I think we need to learn from. +Stage One produces people who do horrible things. +This is the kid who shot up Virginia Tech. +Stage One is a group where people systematically sever relationships from functional tribes, and then pool together with people who think like they do. +Stage One is literally the culture of gangs and it is the culture of prisons. +Now, again, we don't often deal with Stage One. +And I want to make the point that as members of society, we need to. +It's not enough to simply write people off. +But let's move on to Stage Two. +Now, Stage One, you'll notice, says, in effect, "Life Sucks." +So, this other book that Steve mentioned, that just came out, called "The Three Laws of Performance," my colleague, Steve Zaffron and I, argue that as people see the world, so they behave. +Well, if people see the world in such a way that life sucks, then their behavior will follow automatically from that. +It will be despairing hostility. +They'll do whatever it takes to survive, even if that means undermining other people. +Now, my birthday is coming up shortly, and my driver's license expires. +And the reason that that's relevant is that very soon I will be walking into what we call a Stage Two tribe, which looks like this. +Now, am I saying that in every Department of Motor Vehicles across the land, you find a Stage Two culture? +No. But in the one near me, where I have to go in just a few days, what I will say when I'm standing in line is, "How can people be so dumb, and yet live?" +Now, am I saying that there are dumb people working here? +Actually, no, I'm not. +But I'm saying the culture makes people dumb. +So in a Stage Two culture -- and we find these in all sorts of different places -- you find them, in fact, in the best organizations in the world. +You find them in all places in society. +I've come across them at the organizations that everybody raves about as being best in class. +But here is the point. If you believe and you say to people in your tribe, in effect, "My life sucks. +I mean, if I got to go to TEDx USC my life wouldn't suck. But I don't. So it does." +If that's how you talked, imagine what kind of work would get done. +What kind of innovation would get done? +The amount of world-changing behavior that would happen? +In fact it would be basically nil. +Now when we go on to Stage Three: this is the one that hits closest to home for many of us. +Because it is in Stage Three that many of us move. +And we park. And we stay. +Stage Three says, "I'm great. And you're not." +I'm great and you're not. +Now imagine having a whole room of people saying, in effect, "I'm great and you're not." +Or, "I'm going to find some way to compete with you and come out on top as a result of that." +A whole group of people communicating that way, talking that way. +I know this sounds like a joke. Three doctors walk into a bar. +But, in this case, three doctors walk into an elevator. +I happened to be in the elevator collecting data for this book. +And one doctor said to the others, "Did you see my article in the New England Journal of Medicine?" +And the other said, "No. That's great. Congratulations!" +The next one got kind of a wry smile on his face and said, "Well while you were, you know, doing your research," -- notice the condescending tone -- "While you were off doing your research, I was off doing more surgeries than anyone else in the department of surgery at this institution." +And they all kind of laughed and they patted him on the back. +And the elevator door opened, and they all walked out. +That is a meeting of a Stage Three tribe. +Now, we find these in places where really smart, successful people show up. +Like, oh, I don't know, TEDx USC. +Here is the greatest challenge we face in innovation. +It is moving from Stage Three to Stage Four. +Let's take a look at a quick video snippet. +This is from a company called Zappos, located outside Las Vegas. +And my question on the other side is just going to be, "What do you think they value?" +It was not Christmas time. There was a Christmas tree. +This is their lobby. +Employees volunteer time in the advice booth. +Notice it looks like something out of a Peanuts cartoon. +Okay, we're going through the hallway here at Zappos. +This is a call center. Notice how it's decorated. +Notice people are applauding for us. +They don't know who we are and they don't care. And if they did they probably wouldn't applaud. +But you'll notice the level of excitement. +Notice, again, how they decorate their office. +Now, what's important to people at Zappos, these may not be the things that are important to you. +But they value things like fun. And they value creativity. +One of their stated values is, "Be a little bit weird." +And you'll notice they are a little bit weird. +So when individuals come together and find something that unites them that's greater than their individual competence, then something very important happens. +The group gels. And it changes from a group of highly motivated but fairly individually-centric people into something larger, into a tribe that becomes aware of its own existence. +Stage Four tribes can do remarkable things. +But you'll notice we're not at the top of the mountain yet. +There is, in fact, another stage. +Now, some of you may not recognize the scene that's up here. +And if you take a look at the headline of Stage Five, which is "Life is Great," this may seem a little incongruous. +This is a scene or snippet from the Truth and Reconciliation process in South Africa for which Desmond Tutu won the Nobel Prize. +Now think about that. South Africa, terrible atrocities had happened in the society. +And people came together focused only on those two values: truth and reconciliation. +There was no road map. No one had ever done anything like this before. +And in this atmosphere, where the only guidance was people's values and their noble cause, what this group accomplished was historic. +And people, at the time, feared that South Africa would end up going the way that Rwanda has gone, descending into one skirmish after another in a civil war that seems to have no end. +In fact, South Africa has not gone down that road. +Largely because people like Desmond Tutu set up a Stage Five process to involve the thousands and perhaps millions of tribes in the country, to bring everyone together. +So, people hear this and they conclude the following, as did we in doing the study. +Okay, got it. I don't want to talk Stage One. +That's like, you know, "Life sucks." Who wants to talk that way? +I don't want to talk like they do at the particular DMV that's close to where Dave lives. +I really don't want to just say "I'm great," because that kind of sounds narcissistic, and then I won't have any friends. +Saying, "We're great" -- that sounds pretty good. +But I should really talk Stage Five, right? "Life is great." +Well, in fact, there are three somewhat counter-intuitive findings that come out of all this. +The first one, if you look at the Declaration of Independence and actually read it, the phrase that sticks in many of our minds is things about inalienable rights. +I mean, that's Stage Five, right? Life is great, oriented only by our values, no other guidance. +In fact, most of the document is written at Stage Two. +"My life sucks because I live under a tyrant, also known as King George. +We're great! Who is not great? England!" +Sorry. Well, what about other great leaders? What about Gandhi? +What about Martin Luther King? +I mean, surely these were just people who preached, "Life is great," right? +Just one little bit of happiness and joy after another. +In fact, Martin Luther King's most famous line was at Stage Three. +He didn't say "We have a dream." He said, "I have a dream." +Why did he do that? Because most people are not at Stage Five. +Two percent are at Stage One. +About 25 percent are at Stage Two, saying, in effect, "My life sucks." +48 percent of working tribes say, these are employed tribes, say, "I'm great and you're not." +And we have to duke it out every day, so we resort to politics. +Only about 22 percent of tribes are at Stage Four, oriented by our values, saying "We're great. +And our values are beginning to unite us." +Only two percent, only two percent of tribes get to Stage Five. +And those are the ones that change the world. +So the first little finding from this is that leaders need to be able to talk all the levels so that you can touch every person in society. +But you don't leave them where you found them. Okay? +Tribes can only hear one level above and below where they are. +So we have to have the ability to talk all the levels, to go to where they are. +And then leaders nudge people within their tribes to the next level. +I'd like to show you some examples of this. +One of the people we interviewed was Frank Jordan, former Mayor of San Francisco. Before that he was Chief of Police in San Francisco. +And he grew up essentially in Stage One. +And you know what changed his life? It was walking into one of these, a Boys and Girls Club. +Now here is what happened to this person who eventually became Mayor of San Francisco. +He went from being alive and passionate at Stage One -- remember, "Life sucks, despairing hostility, I will do whatever it takes to survive" -- to walking into a Boys and Girls Club, folding his arms, sitting down in a chair, and saying, "Wow. My life really sucks. +I don't know anybody. +I mean, if I was into boxing, like they were, then my life wouldn't suck. But I don't. So it does. +So I'm going to sit here in my chair and not do anything." +In fact, that's progress. +We move people from Stage One to Stage Two by getting them in a new tribe and then, over time, getting them connected. +So, what about moving from Stage Three to Stage Four? +I want to argue that we're doing that right here. +TED represents a set of values, and as we unite around these values, something really interesting begins to emerge. +If you want this experience to live on as something historic, then at the reception tonight I'd like to encourage you to do something beyond what people normally do and call networking. +Which is not just to meet new people and extend your reach, extend your influence, but instead, find someone you don't know, and find someone else you don't know, and introduce them. +That's called a triadic relationship. +See, people who build world-changing tribes do that. +They extend the reach of their tribes by connecting them, not just to myself, so that my following is greater, but I connect people who don't know each other to something greater than themselves. +And ultimately that adds to their values. +But we're not done yet. Because then how do we go from Stage Four, which is great, to Stage Five? +The story that I like to end with is this. It comes out of a place called the Gallup Organization. +You know they do polls, right? +So it's Stage Four. We're great. Who is not great? +Pretty much everybody else who does polls. +If Gallup releases a poll on the same day that NBC releases a poll, people will pay attention to the Gallup poll. Okay, we understand that. +So, they were bored. +They wanted to change the world. So here is the question someone asked. +"How could we, instead of just polling what Asia thinks or what the United States thinks, or who thinks what about Obama versus McCain or something like that, what does the entire world think?" +And they found a way to do the first-ever world poll. +They had people involved who were Nobel laureates in economics, who reported being bored. +And suddenly they pulled out sheets of paper and were trying to figure out, "How do we survey the population of Sub-Saharan Africa? +How do we survey populations that don't have access to technology, and speak languages we don't speak, and we don't know anyone who speaks those languages. Because in order to achieve on this great mission, we have to be able to do it. +Incidentally, they did pull it off. +And they released the first-ever world poll. +So I'd like to leave you with these thoughts. +First of all: we all form tribes, all of us. +You're in tribes here. Hopefully you're extending the reach of the tribes that you have. +But the question on the table is this: What kind of an impact are the tribes that you are in making? +You're hearing one presentation after another, often representing a group of people, a tribe, about how they have changed the world. +If you do what we've talked about, you listen for how people actually communicate in the tribes that you're in. +And you don't leave them where they are. You nudge them forward. +You remember to talk all five culture stages. +Because we've got people in all five, around us. +And the question that I'd like to leave you with is this: Will your tribes change the world? +Thank you very much. +I'm a storyteller. +And I would like to tell you a few personal stories about what I like to call "the danger of the single story." +I grew up on a university campus in eastern Nigeria. +My mother says that I started reading at the age of two, although I think four is probably close to the truth. +So I was an early reader, and what I read were British and American children's books. +Now, this despite the fact that I lived in Nigeria. +I had never been outside Nigeria. +We didn't have snow, we ate mangoes, and we never talked about the weather, because there was no need to. +My characters also drank a lot of ginger beer, because the characters in the British books I read drank ginger beer. +Never mind that I had no idea what ginger beer was. +And for many years afterwards, I would have a desperate desire to taste ginger beer. +But that is another story. +What this demonstrates, I think, is how impressionable and vulnerable we are in the face of a story, particularly as children. +Because all I had read were books in which characters were foreign, I had become convinced that books by their very nature had to have foreigners in them and had to be about things with which I could not personally identify. +Now, things changed when I discovered African books. +There weren't many of them available, and they weren't quite as easy to find as the foreign books. +But because of writers like Chinua Achebe and Camara Laye, I went through a mental shift in my perception of literature. +I realized that people like me, girls with skin the color of chocolate, whose kinky hair could not form ponytails, could also exist in literature. +I started to write about things I recognized. +Now, I loved those American and British books I read. +They stirred my imagination. They opened up new worlds for me. +But the unintended consequence was that I did not know that people like me could exist in literature. +So what the discovery of African writers did for me was this: It saved me from having a single story of what books are. +I come from a conventional, middle-class Nigerian family. +My father was a professor. +My mother was an administrator. +And so we had, as was the norm, live-in domestic help, who would often come from nearby rural villages. +So, the year I turned eight, we got a new house boy. +His name was Fide. +The only thing my mother told us about him was that his family was very poor. +My mother sent yams and rice, and our old clothes, to his family. +And when I didn't finish my dinner, my mother would say, "Finish your food! Don't you know? People like Fide's family have nothing." +So I felt enormous pity for Fide's family. +Then one Saturday, we went to his village to visit, and his mother showed us a beautifully patterned basket made of dyed raffia that his brother had made. +I was startled. +It had not occurred to me that anybody in his family could actually make something. +All I had heard about them was how poor they were, so that it had become impossible for me to see them as anything else but poor. +Their poverty was my single story of them. +Years later, I thought about this when I left Nigeria to go to university in the United States. +I was 19. +My American roommate was shocked by me. +She asked where I had learned to speak English so well, and was confused when I said that Nigeria happened to have English as its official language. +She asked if she could listen to what she called my "tribal music," and was consequently very disappointed when I produced my tape of Mariah Carey. +She assumed that I did not know how to use a stove. +What struck me was this: She had felt sorry for me even before she saw me. +Her default position toward me, as an African, was a kind of patronizing, well-meaning pity. +My roommate had a single story of Africa: a single story of catastrophe. +In this single story, there was no possibility of Africans being similar to her in any way, no possibility of feelings more complex than pity, no possibility of a connection as human equals. +I must say that before I went to the U.S., I didn't consciously identify as African. +But in the U.S., whenever Africa came up, people turned to me. +Never mind that I knew nothing about places like Namibia. +But I did come to embrace this new identity, and in many ways I think of myself now as African. +Although I still get quite irritable when Africa is referred to as a country, the most recent example being my otherwise wonderful flight from Lagos two days ago, in which there was an announcement on the Virgin flight about the charity work in "India, Africa and other countries." +So, after I had spent some years in the U.S. as an African, I began to understand my roommate's response to me. +If I had not grown up in Nigeria, and if all I knew about Africa were from popular images, I too would think that Africa was a place of beautiful landscapes, beautiful animals, and incomprehensible people, fighting senseless wars, dying of poverty and AIDS, unable to speak for themselves and waiting to be saved by a kind, white foreigner. +I would see Africans in the same way that I, as a child, had seen Fide's family. +This single story of Africa ultimately comes, I think, from Western literature. +Now, here is a quote from the writing of a London merchant called John Locke, who sailed to west Africa in 1561 and kept a fascinating account of his voyage. +After referring to the black Africans as "beasts who have no houses," he writes, "They are also people without heads, having their mouth and eyes in their breasts." +Now, I've laughed every time I've read this. +And one must admire the imagination of John Locke. +But what is important about his writing is that it represents the beginning of a tradition of telling African stories in the West: A tradition of Sub-Saharan Africa as a place of negatives, of difference, of darkness, of people who, in the words of the wonderful poet Rudyard Kipling, are "half devil, half child." +And so, I began to realize that my American roommate must have throughout her life seen and heard different versions of this single story, as had a professor, who once told me that my novel was not "authentically African." +Now, I was quite willing to contend that there were a number of things wrong with the novel, that it had failed in a number of places, but I had not quite imagined that it had failed at achieving something called African authenticity. +In fact, I did not know what African authenticity was. +The professor told me that my characters were too much like him, an educated and middle-class man. +My characters drove cars. +They were not starving. +Therefore they were not authentically African. +But I must quickly add that I too am just as guilty in the question of the single story. +A few years ago, I visited Mexico from the U.S. +The political climate in the U.S. at the time was tense, and there were debates going on about immigration. +And, as often happens in America, immigration became synonymous with Mexicans. +There were endless stories of Mexicans as people who were fleecing the healthcare system, sneaking across the border, being arrested at the border, that sort of thing. +I remember walking around on my first day in Guadalajara, watching the people going to work, rolling up tortillas in the marketplace, smoking, laughing. +I remember first feeling slight surprise. +And then, I was overwhelmed with shame. +I realized that I had been so immersed in the media coverage of Mexicans that they had become one thing in my mind, the abject immigrant. +I had bought into the single story of Mexicans and I could not have been more ashamed of myself. +So that is how to create a single story, show a people as one thing, as only one thing, over and over again, and that is what they become. +It is impossible to talk about the single story without talking about power. +There is a word, an Igbo word, that I think about whenever I think about the power structures of the world, and it is "nkali." +It's a noun that loosely translates to "to be greater than another." +Like our economic and political worlds, stories too are defined by the principle of nkali: How they are told, who tells them, when they're told, how many stories are told, are really dependent on power. +Power is the ability not just to tell the story of another person, but to make it the definitive story of that person. +The Palestinian poet Mourid Barghouti writes that if you want to dispossess a people, the simplest way to do it is to tell their story and to start with, "secondly." +Start the story with the arrows of the Native Americans, and not with the arrival of the British, and you have an entirely different story. +Start the story with the failure of the African state, and not with the colonial creation of the African state, and you have an entirely different story. +I recently spoke at a university where a student told me that it was such a shame that Nigerian men were physical abusers like the father character in my novel. +I told him that I had just read a novel called "American Psycho" -- -- and that it was such a shame that young Americans were serial murderers. +Now, obviously I said this in a fit of mild irritation. +But it would never have occurred to me to think that just because I had read a novel in which a character was a serial killer that he was somehow representative of all Americans. +This is not because I am a better person than that student, but because of America's cultural and economic power, I had many stories of America. +I had read Tyler and Updike and Steinbeck and Gaitskill. +I did not have a single story of America. +When I learned, some years ago, that writers were expected to have had really unhappy childhoods to be successful, I began to think about how I could invent horrible things my parents had done to me. +But the truth is that I had a very happy childhood, full of laughter and love, in a very close-knit family. +But I also had grandfathers who died in refugee camps. +My cousin Polle died because he could not get adequate healthcare. +One of my closest friends, Okoloma, died in a plane crash because our fire trucks did not have water. +I grew up under repressive military governments that devalued education, so that sometimes, my parents were not paid their salaries. +And so, as a child, I saw jam disappear from the breakfast table, then margarine disappeared, then bread became too expensive, then milk became rationed. +And most of all, a kind of normalized political fear invaded our lives. +All of these stories make me who I am. +But to insist on only these negative stories is to flatten my experience and to overlook the many other stories that formed me. +The single story creates stereotypes, and the problem with stereotypes is not that they are untrue, but that they are incomplete. +They make one story become the only story. +Of course, Africa is a continent full of catastrophes: There are immense ones, such as the horrific rapes in Congo and depressing ones, such as the fact that 5,000 people apply for one job vacancy in Nigeria. +But there are other stories that are not about catastrophe, and it is very important, it is just as important, to talk about them. +I've always felt that it is impossible to engage properly with a place or a person without engaging with all of the stories of that place and that person. +The consequence of the single story is this: It robs people of dignity. +It makes our recognition of our equal humanity difficult. +It emphasizes how we are different rather than how we are similar. +So what if before my Mexican trip, I had followed the immigration debate from both sides, the U.S. and the Mexican? +What if my mother had told us that Fide's family was poor and hardworking? +What if we had an African television network that broadcast diverse African stories all over the world? +What the Nigerian writer Chinua Achebe calls "a balance of stories." +What if my roommate knew about my Nigerian publisher, Muhtar Bakare, a remarkable man who left his job in a bank to follow his dream and start a publishing house? +Now, the conventional wisdom was that Nigerians don't read literature. +He disagreed. +He felt that people who could read, would read, if you made literature affordable and available to them. +Shortly after he published my first novel, I went to a TV station in Lagos to do an interview, and a woman who worked there as a messenger came up to me and said, "I really liked your novel. I didn't like the ending. +Now, you must write a sequel, and this is what will happen ..." +And she went on to tell me what to write in the sequel. +I was not only charmed, I was very moved. +Here was a woman, part of the ordinary masses of Nigerians, who were not supposed to be readers. +She had not only read the book, but she had taken ownership of it and felt justified in telling me what to write in the sequel. +Now, what if my roommate knew about my friend Funmi Iyanda, a fearless woman who hosts a TV show in Lagos, and is determined to tell the stories that we prefer to forget? +What if my roommate knew about the heart procedure that was performed in the Lagos hospital last week? +What if my roommate knew about contemporary Nigerian music, talented people singing in English and Pidgin, and Igbo and Yoruba and Ijo, mixing influences from Jay-Z to Fela to Bob Marley to their grandfathers. +What if my roommate knew about the female lawyer who recently went to court in Nigeria to challenge a ridiculous law that required women to get their husband's consent before renewing their passports? +What if my roommate knew about Nollywood, full of innovative people making films despite great technical odds, films so popular that they really are the best example of Nigerians consuming what they produce? +What if my roommate knew about my wonderfully ambitious hair braider, who has just started her own business selling hair extensions? +Or about the millions of other Nigerians who start businesses and sometimes fail, but continue to nurse ambition? +Every time I am home I am confronted with the usual sources of irritation for most Nigerians: our failed infrastructure, our failed government, but also by the incredible resilience of people who thrive despite the government, rather than because of it. +I teach writing workshops in Lagos every summer, and it is amazing to me how many people apply, how many people are eager to write, to tell stories. +Stories matter. +Many stories matter. +Stories have been used to dispossess and to malign, but stories can also be used to empower and to humanize. +Stories can break the dignity of a people, but stories can also repair that broken dignity. +The American writer Alice Walker wrote this about her Southern relatives who had moved to the North. +She introduced them to a book about the Southern life that they had left behind. +"They sat around, reading the book themselves, listening to me read the book, and a kind of paradise was regained." +I would like to end with this thought: That when we reject the single story, when we realize that there is never a single story about any place, we regain a kind of paradise. +Thank you. +I want to start with a game. Okay? +And to win this game, all you have to do is see the reality that's in front of you as it really is, all right? +So we have two panels here, of colored dots. +And one of those dots is the same in the two panels. +And you have to tell me which one. +Now, I narrowed it down to the gray one, the green one, and, say, the orange one. +So by a show of hands, we'll start with the easiest one. +Show of hands: how many people think it's the gray one? +Really? Okay. +How many people think it's the green one? +And how many people think it's the orange one? +Pretty even split. +Let's find out what the reality is. +Here is the orange one. +Here is the green one. +And here is the gray one. +So for all of you who saw that, you're complete realists. All right? +So this is pretty amazing, isn't it? +Because nearly every living system has evolved the ability to detect light in one way or another. +So for us, seeing color is one of the simplest things the brain does. +And yet, even at this most fundamental level, context is everything. +What I'm going to talk about is not that context is everything, but why context is everything. +Because it's answering that question that tells us not only why we see what we do, but who we are as individuals, and who we are as a society. +But first, we have to ask another question, which is, "What is color for?" +And instead of telling you, I'll just show you. +What you see here is a jungle scene, and you see the surfaces according to the amount of light that those surfaces reflect. +Now, can any of you see the predator that's about to jump out at you? +And if you haven't seen it yet, you're dead, right? +Can anyone see it? Anyone? No? +Now let's see the surfaces according to the quality of light that they reflect. +And now you see it. +So, color enables us to see the similarities and differences between surfaces, according to the full spectrum of light that they reflect. +But what you've just done is in many respects mathematically impossible. +Why? Because, as Berkeley tells us, we have no direct access to our physical world, other than through our senses. +And the light that falls onto our eyes is determined by multiple things in the world, not only the color of objects, but also the color of their illumination, and the color of the space between us and those objects. +You vary any one of those parameters, and you'll change the color of the light that falls onto your eye. +This is a huge problem, because it means that the same image could have an infinite number of possible real-world sources. +Let me show you what I mean. Imagine that this is the back of your eye, okay? +And these are two projections from the world. +They're identical in every single way. +Identical in shape, size, spectral content. +They are the same, as far as your eye is concerned. +And yet they come from completely different sources. +The one on the right comes from a yellow surface, in shadow, oriented facing the left, viewed through a pinkish medium. +The one on the left comes from an orange surface, under direct light, facing to the right, viewed through sort of a bluish medium. +Completely different meanings, giving rise to the exact same retinal information. +And yet it's only the retinal information that we get. +So how on Earth do we even see? +So if you remember anything in this next 18 minutes, remember this: that the light that falls onto your eye, sensory information, is meaningless, because it could mean literally anything. +And what's true for sensory information is true for information generally. +There's no inherent meaning in information. +It's what we do with that information that matters. +So, how do we see? Well, we see by learning to see. +The brain evolved the mechanisms for finding patterns, finding relationships in information, and associating those relationships with a behavioral meaning, a significance, by interacting with the world. +We're very aware of this in the form of more cognitive attributes, like language. +I'm going to give you some letter strings, and I want you to read them out for me, if you can. +Audience: "Can you read this?" +"You are not reading this." +"What are you reading?" +Beau Lotto: "What are you reading?" Half the letters are missing, right? +There's no a priori reason why an "H" has to go between that "W" and "A." +But you put one there. Why? +Because in the statistics of your past experience, it would have been useful to do so. So you do so again. +And yet you don't put a letter after that first "T." +Why? Because it wouldn't have been useful in the past. +So you don't do it again. +So, let me show you how quickly our brains can redefine normality, even at the simplest thing the brain does, which is color. +So if I could have the lights down up here. +I want you to first notice that those two desert scenes are physically the same. +One is simply the flipping of the other. +Now I want you to look at that dot between the green and the red. +And I want you to stare at that dot. Don't look anywhere else. +We're going to look at it for about 30 seconds, which is a bit of a killer in an 18-minute talk. +But I really want you to learn. +And I'll tell you -- don't look anywhere else -- I'll tell you what's happening in your head. +Your brain is learning, and it's learning that the right side of its visual field is under red illumination; the left side of its visual field is under green illumination. +That's what it's learning. Okay? +Now, when I tell you, I want you to look at the dot between the two desert scenes. +So why don't you do that now? +Can I have the lights up again? +I take it from your response they don't look the same anymore, right? +Why? Because your brain is seeing that same information as if the right one is still under red light, and the left one is still under green light. +That's your new normal. +Okay? So, what does this mean for context? +It means I can take two identical squares, put them in light and dark surrounds, and the one on the dark surround looks lighter than on the light surround. +What's significant is not simply the light and dark surrounds that matter. +It's what those light and dark surrounds meant for your behavior in the past. +So I'll show you what I mean. +Here we have that exact same illusion. +We have two identical tiles on the left, one in a dark surround, one in a light surround. +And the same thing over on the right. +Now, I'll reveal those two scenes, but I'm not going to change anything within those boxes, except their meaning. +And see what happens to your perception. +Notice that on the left the two tiles look nearly completely opposite: one very white and one very dark, right? +Whereas on the right, the two tiles look nearly the same. +And yet there is still one on a dark surround, and one on a light surround. Why? +Because if the tile in that shadow were in fact in shadow, and reflecting the same amount of light to your eye as the one outside the shadow, it would have to be more reflective -- just the laws of physics. +So you see it that way. +Whereas on the right, the information is consistent with those two tiles being under the same light. +If they're under the same light reflecting the same amount of light to your eye, then they must be equally reflective. +So you see it that way. +Which means we can bring all this information together to create some incredibly strong illusions. +This is one I made a few years ago. +And you'll notice you see a dark brown tile at the top, and a bright orange tile at the side. +That is your perceptual reality. +The physical reality is that those two tiles are the same. +Here you see four gray tiles on your left, seven gray tiles on the right. +I'm not going to change those tiles at all, but I'm going to reveal the rest of the scene. +And see what happens to your perception. +The four blue tiles on the left are gray. +The seven yellow tiles on the right are also gray. +They are the same. Okay? +Don't believe me? Let's watch it again. +What's true for color is also true for complex perceptions of motion. +So, here we have -- let's turn this around -- a diamond. +And what I'm going to do is, I'm going to hold it here, and I'm going to spin it. +And for all of you, you'll see it probably spinning this direction. +Now I want you to keep looking at it. +Move your eyes around, blink, maybe close one eye. +And suddenly it will flip, and start spinning the opposite direction. +Yes? Raise your hand if you got that. Yes? +Keep blinking. Every time you blink, it will switch. +So I can ask you, which direction is it rotating? +How do you know? +Your brain doesn't know, because both are equally likely. +So depending on where it looks, it flips between the two possibilities. +Are we the only ones that see illusions? +The answer to this question is no. +Even the beautiful bumblebee, with its mere one million brain cells, which is 250 times fewer cells than you have in one retina, sees illusions, does the most complicated things that even our most sophisticated computers can't do. +So in my lab we work on bumblebees, because we can completely control their experience, and see how it alters the architecture of their brain. +We do this in what we call the Bee Matrix. +Here you have the hive. +You can see the queen bee, the large bee in the middle. +Those are her daughters, the eggs. +They go back and forth between this hive and the arena, via this tube. +You'll see one of the bees come out here. +You see how she has a little number on her? +There's another one coming out, she also has a number on her. +Now, they're not born that way, right? +We pull them out, put them in the fridge, and they fall asleep. +Then you can superglue little numbers on them. +And now, in this experiment they get a reward if they go to the blue flowers. +They land on the flower, stick their tongue in there, called a proboscis, and drink sugar water. +She's drinking a glass of water that's about that big to you and I, will do that about three times, then fly. +And sometimes they learn not to go to the blue, but to go where the other bees go. +So they copy each other. They can count to five. They can recognize faces. +And here she comes down the ladder. +And she'll come into the hive, find an empty honey pot, and throw up, and that's honey. +Now remember, she's supposed to be going to the blue flowers, but what are these bees doing in the upper right corner? +It looks like they're going to green flowers. +Now, are they getting it wrong? +And the answer to the question is no. Those are actually blue flowers. +But those are blue flowers under green light. +So they're using the relationships between the colors to solve the puzzle, which is exactly what we do. +So, illusions are often used, especially in art, in the words of a more contemporary artist, "to demonstrate the fragility of our senses." +Okay, this is complete rubbish. +The senses aren't fragile. And if they were, we wouldn't be here. +Instead, color tells us something completely different, that the brain didn't actually evolve to see the world the way it is. +We can't. Instead, the brain evolved to see the world the way it was useful to see in the past. +And how we see is by continually redefining normality. +So, how can we take this incredible capacity of plasticity of the brain and get people to experience their world differently? +Well, one of the ways we do it in my lab and studio is we translate the light into sound, and we enable people to hear their visual world. +And they can navigate the world using their ears. +Here's David on the right, and he's holding a camera. +On the left is what his camera sees. +And you'll see there's a faint line going across that image. +That line is broken up into 32 squares. +In each square, we calculate the average color. +And then we just simply translate that into sound. +And now he's going to turn around, close his eyes, and find a plate on the ground with his eyes closed. +Beau Lotto: He finds it. Amazing, right? +So not only can we create a prosthetic for the visually impaired, but we can also investigate how people literally make sense of the world. +But we can also do something else. +We can also make music with color. +So, working with kids, they created images, thinking about what might the images you see sound like if we could listen to them. +And then we translated these images. +And this is one of those images. +And this is a six-year-old child composing a piece of music for a 32-piece orchestra. +And this is what it sounds like. +(Electronic representation of orchestral music) So, a six-year-old child. Okay? +Now, what does all this mean? +What this suggests is that no one is an outside observer of nature, okay? +We're not defined by our central properties, by the bits that make us up. +And that ecology is necessarily relative, historical and empirical. +So, what I'd like to finish with is this over here. +Because what I've been trying to do is really celebrate uncertainty. +Because I think only through uncertainty is there potential for understanding. +So, if some of you are still feeling a bit too certain, I'd like to do this one. +So, if we have the lights down. +And what we have here -- Can everyone see 25 purple surfaces on your left, and 25, call it yellowish, surfaces on your right? +So now, what I want to do, I'm going to put the middle nine surfaces here under yellow illumination, by simply putting a filter behind them. +Now you can see that changes the light that's coming through there, right? +Because now the light is going through a yellowish filter and then a purplish filter. +I'm going to do the opposite on the left here. +I'm going to put the middle nine under a purplish light. +Now, some of you will have noticed that the consequence is that the light coming through those middle nine on the right, or your left, is exactly the same as the light coming through the middle nine on your right. +Agreed? Yes? +Okay. So they are physically the same. +Let's pull the covers off. +Now remember -- you know that the middle nine are exactly the same. +Do they look the same? No. +The question is, "Is that an illusion?" +And I'll leave you with that. +So, thank you very much. +So, I am indeed going to talk about the spaces men create for themselves, but first I want to tell you why I'm here. +I'm here for two reasons. These two guys are my two sons Ford and Wren. +When Ford was about three years old, we shared a very small room together, in a very small space. +My office was on one half of the bedroom, and his bedroom was on the other half. +And you can imagine, if you're a writer, that things would get really crowded around deadlines. +So when Wren was on the way, I realized I needed to find a space of my own. +There was no more space in the house. So I went out to the backyard, and without any previous building experience, and about 3,000 dollars and some recycled materials, I built this space. +It had everything I needed. It was quiet. +There was enough space. And I had control, which was very important. +As I was building this space, I thought to myself, "Surely I'm not the only guy to have to have carved out a space for his own." +So I did some research. +And I found that there was an historic precedence. +Hemingway had his writing space. +Elvis had two or three manspaces, which is pretty unique because he lived with both his wife and his mother in Graceland. +In the popular culture, Superman had the Fortress of Solitude, and there was, of course, the Batcave. +So I realized then that I wanted to go out on a journey and see what guys were creating for themselves now. +Here is one of the first spaces I found. It is in Austin, Texas, which is where I'm from. +On the outside it looks like a very typical garage, a nice garage. +But on the inside, it's anything but. +And this, to me, is a pretty classic manspace. +It has neon concert posters, a bar and, of course, the leg lamp, which is very important. +I soon realized that manspaces didn't have to be only inside. +This guy built a bowling alley in his backyard, out of landscaping timbers, astroturf. +And he found the scoreboard in the trash. +Here's another outdoor space, a little bit more sophisticated. +This a 1923 wooden tugboat, made completely out of Douglas fir. +The guy did it all himself. +And there is about 1,000 square feet of hanging-out space inside. +So, pretty early on in my investigations I realized what I was finding was not what I expected to find, which was, quite frankly, a lot of beer can pyramids and overstuffed couches and flat-screen TVs. +There were definitely hang-out spots. +But some were for working, some were for playing, some were for guys to collect their things. +Most of all, I was just surprised with what I was finding. +Take this place for example. +On the outside it looks like a typical northeastern garage. +This is in Long Island, New York. +The only thing that might tip you off is the round window. +On the inside it's a recreation of a 16th century Japanese tea house. +The man imported all the materials from Japan, and he hired a Japanese carpenter to build it in the traditional style. +It has no nails or screws. +All the joints are hand-carved and hand-scribed. +Here is another pretty typical scene. This is a suburban Las Vegas neighborhood. +But you open one of the garage doors and there is a professional-size boxing ring inside. +And so there is a good reason for this. +It was built by this man who is Wayne McCullough. +He won the silver medal for Ireland in the 1992 Olympics, and he trains in this space. He trains other people. +And right off the garage he has his own trophy room where he can sort of bask in his accomplishments, which is another sort of important part about a manspace. +So, while this space represents someone's profession, this one certainly represents a passion. +It's made to look like the inside of an English sailing ship. +It's a collection of nautical antiques from the 1700s and 1800s. +Museum quality. +So, as I came to the end of my journey, I found over 50 spaces. +And they were unexpected and they were surprising. +But they were also -- I was really impressed by how personalized they were, and how much work went into them. +And I realized that's because the guys that I met were all very passionate about what they did. +And they really loved their professions. +And they were very passionate about their collections and their hobbies. +And so they created these spaces to reflect what they love to do, and who they were. +So if you don't have a space of your own, I highly recommend finding one, and getting into it. +Thank you very much. +The substance of things unseen. +Cities, past and future. +In Oxford, perhaps we can use Lewis Carroll and look in the looking glass that is New York City to try and see our true selves, or perhaps pass through to another world. +Or, in the words of F. Scott Fitzgerald, "As the moon rose higher, the inessential houses began to melt away until gradually I became aware of the old island here that once flowered for Dutch sailors' eyes, a fresh green breast of the new world." +My colleagues and I have been working for 10 years to rediscover this lost world in a project we call The Mannahatta Project. +We're trying to discover what Henry Hudson would have seen on the afternoon of September 12th, 1609, when he sailed into New York harbor. +And I'd like to tell you the story in three acts, and if I have time still, an epilogue. +So, Act I: A Map Found. +So, I didn't grow up in New York. +I grew up out west in the Sierra Nevada Mountains, like you see here, in the Red Rock Canyon. +And from these early experiences as a child I learned to love landscapes. +And so when it became time for me to do my graduate studies, I studied this emerging field of landscape ecology. +Landscape ecology concerns itself with how the stream and the meadow and the forest and the cliffs make habitats for plants and animals. +This experience and this training lead me to get a wonderful job with the Wildlife Conservation Society, which works to save wildlife and wild places all over the world. +And over the last decade, I traveled to over 40 countries to see jaguars and bears and elephants and tigers and rhinos. +But every time I would return from my trips I'd return back to New York City. +And on my weekends I would go up, just like all the other tourists, to the top of the Empire State Building, and I'd look down on this landscape, on these ecosystems, and I'd wonder, "How does this landscape work to make habitat for plants and animals? +How does it work to make habitat for animals like me?" +I'd go to Times Square and I'd look at the amazing ladies on the wall, and wonder why nobody is looking at the historical figures just behind them. +I'd go to Central Park and see the rolling topography of Central Park come up against the abrupt and sheer topography of midtown Manhattan. +I started reading about the history and the geography in New York City. +I read that New York City was the first mega-city, a city of 10 million people or more, in 1950. +I started seeing paintings like this. +For those of you who are from New York, this is 125th street under the West Side Highway. +It was once a beach. And this painting has John James Audubon, the painter, sitting on the rock. +And it's looking up on the wooded heights of Washington Heights to Jeffrey's Hook, where the George Washington Bridge goes across today. +Or this painting, from the 1740s, from Greenwich Village. +Those are two students at King's College -- later Columbia University -- sitting on a hill, overlooking a valley. +And so I'd go down to Greenwich Village and I'd look for this hill, and I couldn't find it. And I couldn't find that palm tree. +What's that palm tree doing there? +So, it was in the course of these investigations that I ran into a map. +And it's this map you see here. +It's held in a geographic information system which allows me to zoom in. +This map isn't from Hudson's time, but from the American Revolution, 170 years later, made by British military cartographers during the occupation of New York City. +And it's a remarkable map. It's in the National Archives here in Kew. +And it's 10 feet long and three and a half feet wide. +And if I zoom in to lower Manhattan you can see the extent of New York City as it was, right at the end of the American Revolution. +Here's Bowling Green. And here's Broadway. +And this is City Hall Park. +So the city basically extended to City Hall Park. +And just beyond it you can see features that have vanished, things that have disappeared. +This is the Collect Pond, which was the fresh water source for New York City for its first 200 years, and for the Native Americans for thousands of years before that. +You can see the Lispenard Meadows draining down through here, through what is TriBeCa now, and the beaches that come up from the Battery, all the way to 42nd St. +This map was made for military reasons. +They're mapping the roads, the buildings, these fortifications that they built. +But they're also mapping things of ecological interest, also military interest: the hills, the marshes, the streams. +This is Richmond Hill, and Minetta Water, which used to run its way through Greenwich Village. +Or the swamp at Gramercy Park, right here. +Or Murray Hill. And this is the Murrays' house on Murray Hill, 200 years ago. +Here is Times Square, the two streams that came together to make a wetland in Times Square, as it was at the end of the American Revolution. +So I saw this remarkable map in a book. +So, after some work we were able to georeference it, which allows us to put the modern streets on the city, and the buildings, and the open spaces, so that we can zoom in to where the Collect Pond is. +We can digitize the Collect Pond and the streams, and see where they actually are in the geography of the city today. +So this is fun for finding where things are relative to the old topography. +But I had another idea about this map. +If we take away the streets, and if we take away the buildings, and if we take away the open spaces, then we could take this map. +If we pull off the 18th century features we could drive it back in time. +We could drive it back to its ecological fundamentals: to the hills, to the streams, to the basic hydrology and shoreline, to the beaches, the basic aspects that make the ecological landscape. +We can calculate the aspect. +We can calculate the winter wind exposure -- so, which way the winter winds blow across the landscape. +The white areas on this map are the places protected from the winter winds. +We compiled all the information about where the Native Americans were, the Lenape. +And we built a probability map of where they might have been. +So, the red areas on this map indicate the places that are best for human sustainability on Manhattan, places that are close to water, places that are near the harbor to fish, places protected from the winter winds. +We know that there was a Lenape settlement down here by the Collect Pond. +And we knew that they planted a kind of horticulture, that they grew these beautiful gardens of corn, beans, and squash, the "Three Sisters" garden. +So, we built a model that explains where those fields might have been. +And the old fields, the successional fields that go. +And we might think of these as abandoned. +But, in fact, they're grassland habitats for grassland birds and plants. +And they have become successional shrub lands, and these then mix in to a map of all the ecological communities. +And it turns out that Manhattan had 55 different ecosystem types. +You can think of these as neighborhoods, as distinctive as TriBeCa and the Upper East Side and Inwood -- that these are the forest and the wetlands and the marine communities, the beaches. +And 55 is a lot. On a per-area basis, Manhattan had more ecological communities per acre than Yosemite does, than Yellowstone, than Amboseli. +It was really an extraordinary landscape that was capable of supporting an extraordinary biodiversity. +So, Act II: A Home Reconstructed. +So, we studied the fish and the frogs and the birds and the bees, the 85 different kinds of fish that were on Manhattan, the Heath hens, the species that aren't there anymore, the beavers on all the streams, the black bears, and the Native Americans, to study how they used and thought about their landscape. +We wanted to try and map these. And to do that what we did was we mapped their habitat needs. +Where do they get their food? +Where do they get their water? Where do they get their shelter? +Where do they get their reproductive resources? +To an ecologist, the intersection of these is habitat, but to most people, the intersection of these is their home. +So, we would read in field guides, the standard field guides that maybe you have on your shelves, you know, what beavers need is, "A slowly meandering stream with aspen trees and alders and willows, near the water." That's the best thing for a beaver. +So we just started making a list. +Here is the beaver. And here is the stream, and the aspen and the alder and the willow. +As if these were the maps that we would need to predict where you would find the beaver. +Or the bog turtle, needing wet meadows and insects and sunny places. +Or the bobcat, needing rabbits and beavers and den sites. +And rapidly we started to realize that beavers can be something that a bobcat needs. +But a beaver also needs things. And that having it on either side means that we can link it together, that we can create the network of the habitat relationships for these species. +Moreover, we realized that you can start out as being a beaver specialist, but you can look up what an aspen needs. +An aspen needs fire and dry soils. +And you can look at what a wet meadow needs. +And it need beavers to create the wetlands, and maybe some other things. +But you can also talk about sunny places. +So, what does a sunny place need? Not habitat per se. +But what are the conditions that make it possible? +Or fire. Or dry soils. +And that you can put these on a grid that's 1,000 columns long across the top and 1,000 rows down the other way. +And then we can visualize this data like a network, like a social network. +And this is the network of all the habitat relationships of all the plants and animals on Manhattan, and everything they needed, going back to the geology, going back to time and space at the very core of the web. +We call this the Muir Web. And if you zoom in on it it looks like this. +Each point is a different species or a different stream or a different soil type. +And those little gray lines are the connections that connect them together. +They are the connections that actually make nature resilient. +And the structure of this is what makes nature work, seen with all its parts. +We call these Muir Webs after the Scottish-American naturalist John Muir, who said, "When we try to pick out anything by itself, we find that it's bound fast by a thousand invisible cords that cannot be broken, to everything in the universe." +So then we took the Muir webs and we took them back to the maps. +So if we wanted to go between 85th and 86th, and Lex and Third, maybe there was a stream in that block. +And these would be the kind of trees that might have been there, and the flowers and the lichens and the mosses, the butterflies, the fish in the stream, the birds in the trees. +Maybe a timber rattlesnake lived there. +And perhaps a black bear walked by. And maybe Native Americans were there. +And then we took this data. +You can see this for yourself on our website. +You can zoom into any block on Manhattan, and see what might have been there 400 years ago. +And we used it to try and reveal a landscape here in Act III. +We used the tools they use in Hollywood to make these fantastic landscapes that we all see in the movies. +And we tried to use it to visualize Third Avenue. +So we would take the landscape and we would build up the topography. +We'd lay on top of that the soils and the waters, and illuminate the landscape. +We would lay on top of that the map of the ecological communities. +And feed into that the map of the species. +So that we would actually take a photograph, flying above Times Square, looking toward the Hudson River, waiting for Hudson to come. +Using this technology, we can make these fantastic georeferenced views. +We can basically take a picture out of any window on Manhattan and see what that landscape looked like 400 years ago. +This is the view from the East River, looking up Murray Hill at where the United Nations is today. +This is the view looking down the Hudson River, with Manhattan on the left, and New Jersey out on the right, looking out toward the Atlantic Ocean. +This is the view over Times Square, with the beaver pond there, looking out toward the east. +So we can see the Collect Pond, and Lispenard Marshes back behind. +We can see the fields that the Native Americans made. +And we can see this in the geography of the city today. +So when you're watching "Law and Order," and the lawyers walk up the steps they could have walked back down those steps of the New York Court House, right into the Collect Pond, 400 years ago. +So these images are the work of my friend and colleague, Mark Boyer, who is here in the audience today. +And I'd just like, if you would give him a hand, to call out for his fine work. +There is such power in bringing science and visualization together, that we can create images like this, perhaps looking on either side of a looking glass. +And even though I've only had a brief time to speak, I hope you appreciate that Mannahatta was a very special place. +The place that you see here on the left side was interconnected. It was based on this diversity. +It had this resilience that is what we need in our modern world. +But I wouldn't have you think that I don't like the place on the right, which I quite do. I've come to love the city and its kind of diversity, and its resilience, and its dependence on density and how we're connected together. +In fact, that I see them as reflections of each other, much as Lewis Carroll did in "Through the Looking Glass." +We can compare these two and hold them in our minds at the same time, that they really are the same place, that there is no way that cities can escape from nature. +And I think this is what we're learning about building cities in the future. +So if you'll allow me a brief epilogue, not about the past, but about 400 years from now, what we're realizing is that cities are habitats for people, and need to supply what people need: a sense of home, food, water, shelter, reproductive resources, and a sense of meaning. +This is the particular additional habitat requirement of humanity. +So, how can we envision the city of the future? +Well, what if we go to Madison Square Park, and we imagine it without all the cars, and bicycles instead and large forests, and streams instead of sewers and storm drains? +What if we imagined the Upper East Side with green roofs, and streams winding through the city, and windmills supplying the power we need? +Or if we imagine the New York City metropolitan area, currently home to 12 million people, but 12 million people in the future, perhaps living at the density of Manhattan, in only 36 percent of the area, with the areas in between covered by farmland, covered by wetlands, covered by the marshes we need. +This is the kind of future I think we need, is a future that has the same diversity and abundance and dynamism of Manhattan, but that learns from the sustainability of the past, of the ecology, the original ecology, of nature with all its parts. +Thank you very much. +I'm Dr. David Hanson, and I build robots with character. +And by that, I mean that I develop robots that are characters, but also robots that will eventually come to empathize with you. +So we're starting with a variety of technologies that have converged into these conversational character robots that can see faces, make eye contact with you, make a full range of facial expressions, understand speech and begin to model how you're feeling and who you are, and build a relationship with you. +I developed a series of technologies that allowed the robots to make more realistic facial expressions than previously achieved, on lower power, which enabled the walking biped robots, the first androids. +So, it's a full range of facial expressions simulating all the major muscles in the human face, running on very small batteries, extremely lightweight. +The materials that allowed the battery-operated facial expressions is a material that we call Frubber, and it actually has three major innovations in the material that allow this to happen. +One is hierarchical pores, and the other is a macro-molecular nanoscale porosity in the material. +There he's starting to walk. +This is at the Korean Advanced Institute of Science and Technology. +I built the head. They built the body. +So the goal here is to achieve sentience in machines, and not just sentience, but empathy. +We're working with the Machine Perception Laboratory at the U.C. San Diego. +They have this really remarkable facial expression technology that recognizes facial expressions, what facial expressions you're making. +It also recognizes where you're looking, your head orientation. +We're emulating all the major facial expressions, and then controlling it with the software that we call the Character Engine. +And here is a little bit of the technology that's involved in that. +In fact, right now -- plug it from here, and then plug it in here, and now let's see if it gets my facial expressions. +Okay. So I'm smiling. +Now I'm frowning. +And this is really heavily backlit. +Okay, here we go. +Oh, it's so sad. +Okay, so you smile, frowning. +So his perception of your emotional states is very important for machines to effectively become empathetic. +Machines are becoming devastatingly capable of things like killing. Right? +Those machines have no place for empathy. +And there is billions of dollars being spent on that. +Character robotics could plant the seed for robots that actually have empathy. +So, if they achieve human level intelligence or, quite possibly, greater than human levels of intelligence, this could be the seeds of hope for our future. +So, we've made 20 robots in the last eight years, during the course of getting my Ph.D. +And then I started Hanson Robotics, which has been developing these things for mass manufacturing. +This is one of our robots that we showed at Wired NextFest a couple of years ago. +And it sees multiple people in a scene, remembers where individual people are, and looks from person to person, remembering people. +So, we're involving two things. +One, the perception of people, and two, the natural interface, the natural form of the interface, so that it's more intuitive for you to interact with the robot. +You start to believe that it's alive and aware. +So one of my favorite projects was bringing all this stuff together in an artistic display of an android portrait of science-fiction writer Philip K. Dick, who wrote great works like, "Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?" +which was the basis of the movie "Bladerunner." +In these stories, robots often think that they're human, and they sort of come to life. +So we put his writings, letters, his interviews, correspondences, into a huge database of thousands of pages, and then used some natural language processing to allow you to actually have a conversation with him. +And it was kind of spooky, because he would say these things that just sounded like they really understood you. +And this is one of the most exciting projects that we're developing, which is a little character that's a spokesbot for friendly artificial intelligence, friendly machine intelligence. +And we're getting this mass-manufactured. +We specked it out to actually be doable with a very, very low-cost bill of materials, so that it can become a childhood companion for kids. +Interfacing with the Internet, it gets smarter over the years. +As artificial intelligence evolves, so does his intelligence. +Chris Anderson: Thank you so much. That's incredible. +This is my first time at TED. Normally, as an advertising man, I actually speak at TED Evil, which is TED's secret sister that pays all the bills. +It's held every two years in Burma. +And I particularly remember a really good speech by Kim Jong Il on how to get teens smoking again. +But, actually, it's suddenly come to me after years working in the business, that what we create in advertising, which is intangible value -- you might call it perceived value, you might call it badge value, subjective value, intangible value of some kind -- gets rather a bad rap. +If you think about it, if you want to live in a world in the future where there are fewer material goods, you basically have two choices. +You can either live in a world which is poorer, which people in general don't like. +Or you can live in a world where actually intangible value constitutes a greater part of overall value, that actually intangible value, in many ways is a very, very fine substitute for using up labor or limited resources in the creation of things. +Here is one example. This is a train which goes from London to Paris. +The question was given to a bunch of engineers, about 15 years ago, "How do we make the journey to Paris better?" +And they came up with a very good engineering solution, which was to spend six billion pounds building completely new tracks from London to the coast, and knocking about 40 minutes off a three-and-half-hour journey time. +Now, call me Mister Picky. I'm just an ad man ... +... but it strikes me as a slightly unimaginative way of improving a train journey merely to make it shorter. +Now what is the hedonic opportunity cost on spending six billion pounds on those railway tracks? +Here is my naive advertising man's suggestion. +What you should in fact do is employ all of the world's top male and female supermodels, pay them to walk the length of the train, handing out free Chateau Petrus for the entire duration of the journey. +Now, you'll still have about three billion pounds left in change, and people will ask for the trains to be slowed down. +Now, here is another naive advertising man's question again. +And this shows that engineers, medical people, scientific people, have an obsession with solving the problems of reality, when actually most problems, once you reach a basic level of wealth in society, most problems are actually problems of perception. +So I'll ask you another question. +What on earth is wrong with placebos? +They seem fantastic to me. They cost very little to develop. +They work extraordinarily well. +They have no side effects, or if they do, they're imaginary, so you can safely ignore them. +So I was discussing this. And I actually went to the Marginal Revolution blog by Tyler Cowen. I don't know if anybody knows it. +Someone was actually suggesting that you can take this concept further, and actually produce placebo education. +The point is that education doesn't actually work by teaching you things. +It actually works by giving you the impression that you've had a very good education, which gives you an insane sense of unwarranted self-confidence, which then makes you very, very successful in later life. +So, welcome to Oxford, ladies and gentlemen. +But, actually, the point of placebo education is interesting. +How many problems of life can be solved actually by tinkering with perception, rather than that tedious, hardworking and messy business of actually trying to change reality? +Here's a great example from history. I've heard this attributed to several other kings, but doing a bit of historical research, it seems to be Fredrick the Great. +Fredrick the Great of Prussia was very, very keen for the Germans to adopt the potato and to eat it, because he realized that if you had two sources of carbohydrate, wheat and potatoes, you get less price volatility in bread. +And you get a far lower risk of famine, because you actually had two crops to fall back on, not one. +The only problem is: potatoes, if you think about it, look pretty disgusting. +And also, 18th century Prussians ate very, very few vegetables -- rather like contemporary Scottish people. +So, actually, he tried making it compulsory. +The Prussian peasantry said, "We can't even get the dogs to eat these damn things. +They are absolutely disgusting and they're good for nothing." +There are even records of people being executed for refusing to grow potatoes. +So he tried plan B. +He tried the marketing solution, which is he declared the potato as a royal vegetable, and none but the royal family could consume it. +And he planted it in a royal potato patch, with guards who had instructions to guard over it, night and day, but with secret instructions not to guard it very well. +Now, 18th century peasants know that there is one pretty safe rule in life, which is if something is worth guarding, it's worth stealing. +Before long, there was a massive underground potato-growing operation in Germany. +What he'd effectively done is he'd re-branded the potato. +It was an absolute masterpiece. +I told this story and a gentleman from Turkey came up to me and said, "Very, very good marketer, Fredrick the Great. But not a patch on Ataturk." +Ataturk, rather like Nicolas Sarkozy, was very keen to discourage the wearing of a veil, in Turkey, to modernize it. +Now, boring people would have just simply banned the veil. +But that would have ended up with a lot of awful kickback and a hell of a lot of resistance. +Ataturk was a lateral thinker. +He made it compulsory for prostitutes to wear the veil. +I can't verify that fully, but it does not matter. +There is your environmental problem solved, by the way, guys: All convicted child molesters have to drive a Porsche Cayenne. +What Ataturk realized actually is two very fundamental things. +Which is that, actually, first one, all value is actually relative. +All value is perceived value. +For those of you who don't speak Spanish, jugo de naranja -- it's actually the Spanish for "orange juice." +Because actually it's not the dollar. It's actually the peso in Buenos Aires. Very clever Buenos Aires street vendors decided to practice price discrimination to the detriment of any passing gringo tourists. +As an advertising man, I have to admire that. +But the first thing is that all value is subjective. +Second point is that persuasion is often better than compulsion. +These funny signs that flash your speed at you, some of the new ones, on the bottom right, now actually show a smiley face or a frowny face, to act as an emotional trigger. +What's fascinating about these signs is they cost about 10 percent of the running cost of a conventional speed camera, but they prevent twice as many accidents. +So, the bizarre thing, which is baffling to conventional, classically trained economists, is that a weird little smiley face has a better effect on changing your behavior than the threat of a 60 fine and three penalty points. +Tiny little behavioral economics detail: in Italy, penalty points go backwards. +You start with 12 and they take them away. +Because they found that loss aversion is a more powerful influence on people's behavior. +In Britain we tend to feel, "Whoa! Got another three!" +Not so in Italy. +Another fantastic case of creating intangible value to replace actual or material value, which remember, is what, after all, the environmental movement needs to be about: This again is from Prussia, from, I think, about 1812, 1813. +The wealthy Prussians, to help in the war against the French, were encouraged to give in all their jewelry. +And it was replaced with replica jewelry made of cast iron. +Here's one: "Gold gab ich fr Eisen, 1813." +The interesting thing is that for 50 years hence, the highest status jewelry you could wear in Prussia wasn't made of gold or diamonds. +It was made of cast iron. +Because actually, never mind the actual intrinsic value of having gold jewelry. This actually had symbolic value, badge value. +It said that your family had made a great sacrifice in the past. +So, the modern equivalent would of course be this. +But, actually, there is a thing, just as there are Veblen goods, where the value of the good depends on it being expensive and rare -- there are opposite kind of things where actually the value in them depends on them being ubiquitous, classless and minimalistic. +If you think about it, Shakerism was a proto-environmental movement. +Adam Smith talks about 18th century America, where the prohibition against visible displays of wealth was so great, it was almost a block in the economy in New England, because even wealthy farmers could find nothing to spend their money on without incurring the displeasure of their neighbors. +It's perfectly possible to create these social pressures which lead to more egalitarian societies. +What's also interesting, if you look at products that have a high component of what you might call messaging value, a high component of intangible value, versus their intrinsic value: They are often quite egalitarian. +In terms of dress, denim is perhaps the perfect example of something which replaces material value with symbolic value. +Coca-Cola. A bunch of you may be a load of pinkos, and you may not like the Coca-Cola company, but it's worth remembering Andy Warhol's point about Coke. +What Warhol said about Coke is, he said, "What I really like about Coca-Cola is the president of the United States can't get a better Coke than the bum on the corner of the street." +Now, that is, actually, when you think about it -- we take it for granted -- it's actually a remarkable achievement, to produce something that's that democratic. +Now, we basically have to change our views slightly. +There is a basic view that real value involves making things, involves labor. It involves engineering. +It involves limited raw materials. +And that what we add on top is kind of false. It's a fake version. +And there is a reason for some suspicion and uncertainly about it. +It patently veers toward propaganda. +However, what we do have now is a much more variegated media ecosystem in which to kind of create this kind of value, and it's much fairer. +When I grew up, this was basically the media environment of my childhood as translated into food. +You had a monopoly supplier. On the left, you have Rupert Murdoch, or the BBC. +And on your right you have a dependent public which is pathetically grateful for anything you give it. +Nowadays, the user is actually involved. +This is actually what's called, in the digital world, "user-generated content." +Although it's called agriculture in the world of food. +This is actually called a mash-up, where you take content that someone else has produced and you do something new with it. +In the world of food we call it cooking. +This is food 2.0, which is food you produce for the purpose of sharing it with other people. +This is mobile food. British are very good at that. +Fish and chips in newspaper, the Cornish Pasty, the pie, the sandwich. +We invented the whole lot of them. +We're not very good at food in general. Italians do great food, but it's not very portable, generally. +I only learned this the other day. The Earl of Sandwich didn't invent the sandwich. +He actually invented the toasty. But then, the Earl of Toasty would be a ridiculous name. +Finally, we have contextual communication. +Now, the reason I show you Pernod -- it's only one example. +Every country has a contextual alcoholic drink. In France it's Pernod. +It tastes great within the borders of that country, but absolute shite if you take it anywhere else. +Unicum in Hungary, for example. +The Greeks have actually managed to produce something called Retsina, which even tastes shite when you're in Greece. +But so much communication now is contextual that the capacity for actually nudging people, for giving them better information -- B.J. Fogg, at the University of Stanford, makes the point that actually the mobile phone is -- He's invented the phrase, "persuasive technologies." +He believes the mobile phone, by being location-specific, contextual, timely and immediate, is simply the greatest persuasive technology device ever invented. +Now, if we have all these tools at our disposal, we simply have to ask the question, and Thaler and Sunstein have, of how we can use these more intelligently. +I'll give you one example. +If you had a large red button of this kind, on the wall of your home, and every time you pressed it, it saved 50 dollars for you, put 50 dollars into your pension, you would save a lot more. +The reason is that the interface fundamentally determines the behavior. Okay? +Now, marketing has done a very, very good job of creating opportunities for impulse buying. +Yet we've never created the opportunity for impulse saving. +If you did this, more people would save more. +It's simply a question of changing the interface by which people make decisions, and the very nature of the decisions changes. +Obviously, I don't want people to do this, because as an advertising man I tend to regard saving as just consumerism needlessly postponed. +But if anybody did want to do that, that's the kind of thing we need to be thinking about, actually: fundamental opportunities to change human behavior. +Now, I've got an example here from Canada. +There was a young intern at Ogilvy Canada called Hunter Somerville, who was working in improv in Toronto, and got a part-time job in advertising, and was given the job of advertising Shreddies. +Now this is the most perfect case of creating intangible, added value, without changing the product in the slightest. +Shreddies is a strange, square, whole-grain cereal, only available in New Zealand, Canada and Britain. +It's Kraft's peculiar way of rewarding loyalty to the crown. +In working out how you could re-launch Shreddies, he came up with this. +Video: Man: Shreddies is supposed to be square. +Woman: Have any of these diamond shapes gone out? +Voiceover: New Diamond Shreddies cereal. +Same 100 percent whole-grain wheat in a delicious diamond shape. +Rory Sutherland: I'm not sure this isn't the most perfect example of intangible value creation. All it requires is photons, neurons, and a great idea to create this thing. +I would say it's a work of genius. +But, naturally, you can't do this kind of thing without a little bit of market research. +Man: So, Shreddies is actually producing a new product, which is something very exciting for them. +So they are introducing new Diamond Shreddies. +So I just want to get your first impressions when you see that, when you see the Diamond Shreddies box there. +Woman: Weren't they square? +Woman #2: I'm a little bit confused. Woman #3: They look like the squares to me. +Man: They -- Yeah, it's all in the appearance. +But it's kind of like flipping a six or a nine. Like a six, if you flip it over it looks like a nine. +But a six is very different from a nine. +Woman # 3: Or an "M" and a "W". Man: An "M" and a "W", exactly. +Man #2: [unclear] You just looked like you turned it on its end. But when you see it like that it's more interesting looking. +Man: Just try both of them. +Take a square one there, first. +Man: Which one did you prefer? Man #2: The first one. +Man: The first one? +Rory Sutherland: Now, naturally, a debate raged. +There were conservative elements in Canada, unsurprisingly, who actually resented this intrusion. +So, eventually, the manufacturers actually arrived at a compromise, which was the combo pack. +So drink your wine blind in the future. +But this is both hysterically funny -- but I think an important philosophical point, which is, going forward, we need more of this kind of value. +We need to spend more time appreciating what already exists, and less time agonizing over what else we can do. +Two quotations to more or less end with. +One of them is, "Poetry is when you make new things familiar and familiar things new." +Which isn't a bad definition of what our job is, to help people appreciate what is unfamiliar, but also to gain a greater appreciation, and place a far higher value on those things which are already existing. +There is some evidence, by the way, that things like social networking help do that. +Because they help people share news. +They give badge value to everyday little trivial activities. +So they actually reduce the need for actually spending great money on display, and increase the kind of third-party enjoyment you can get from the smallest, simplest things in life. Which is magic. +The second one is the second G.K. Chesterton quote of this session, which is, "We are perishing for want of wonder, not for want of wonders," which I think for anybody involved in technology, is perfectly true. +And a final thing: When you place a value on things like health, love, sex and other things, and learn to place a material value on what you've previously discounted for being merely intangible, a thing not seen, you realize you're much, much wealthier than you ever imagined. +Thank you very much indeed. +Our mission is to build a detailed, realistic computer model of the human brain. +And we've done, in the past four years, a proof of concept on a small part of the rodent brain, and with this proof of concept we are now scaling the project up to reach the human brain. +Why are we doing this? +There are three important reasons. +The first is, it's essential for us to understand the human brain if we do want to get along in society, and I think that it is a key step in evolution. +The second reason is, we cannot keep doing animal experimentation forever, and we have to embody all our data and all our knowledge into a working model. +It's like a Noah's Ark. It's like an archive. +And the third reason is that there are two billion people on the planet that are affected by mental disorder, and the drugs that are used today are largely empirical. +I think that we can come up with very concrete solutions on how to treat disorders. +Now, even at this stage, we can use the brain model to explore some fundamental questions about how the brain works. +And here, at TED, for the first time, I'd like to share with you how we're addressing one theory -- there are many theories -- one theory of how the brain works. +So, this theory is that the brain creates, builds, a version of the universe, and projects this version of the universe, like a bubble, all around us. +Now, this is of course a topic of philosophical debate for centuries. +But, for the first time, we can actually address this, with brain simulation, and ask very systematic and rigorous questions, whether this theory could possibly be true. +The reason why the moon is huge on the horizon is simply because our perceptual bubble does not stretch out 380,000 kilometers. +It runs out of space. +And so what we do is we compare the buildings within our perceptual bubble, and we make a decision. +We make a decision it's that big, even though it's not that big. +And what that illustrates is that decisions are the key things that support our perceptual bubble. It keeps it alive. +Without decisions you cannot see, you cannot think, you cannot feel. +And you may think that anesthetics work by sending you into some deep sleep, or by blocking your receptors so that you don't feel pain, but in fact most anesthetics don't work that way. +What they do is they introduce a noise into the brain so that the neurons cannot understand each other. +They are confused, and you cannot make a decision. +So, while you're trying to make up your mind what the doctor, the surgeon, is doing while he's hacking away at your body, he's long gone. +He's at home having tea. +So, when you walk up to a door and you open it, what you compulsively have to do to perceive is to make decisions, thousands of decisions about the size of the room, the walls, the height, the objects in this room. +99 percent of what you see is not what comes in through the eyes. +It is what you infer about that room. +So I can say, with some certainty, "I think, therefore I am." +But I cannot say, "You think, therefore you are," because "you" are within my perceptual bubble. +Now, we can speculate and philosophize this, but we don't actually have to for the next hundred years. +We can ask a very concrete question. +"Can the brain build such a perception?" +Is it capable of doing it? +Does it have the substance to do it? +And that's what I'm going to describe to you today. +So, it took the universe 11 billion years to build the brain. +It had to improve it a little bit. +It had to add to the frontal part, so that you would have instincts, because they had to cope on land. +But the real big step was the neocortex. +It's a new brain. You needed it. +The mammals needed it because they had to cope with parenthood, social interactions, complex cognitive functions. +So, you can think of the neocortex actually as the ultimate solution today, of the universe as we know it. +It's the pinnacle, it's the final product that the universe has produced. +It was so successful in evolution that from mouse to man it expanded about a thousandfold in terms of the numbers of neurons, to produce this almost frightening organ, structure. +And it has not stopped its evolutionary path. +In fact, the neocortex in the human brain is evolving at an enormous speed. +If you zoom into the surface of the neocortex, you discover that it's made up of little modules, G5 processors, like in a computer. +But there are about a million of them. +They were so successful in evolution that what we did was to duplicate them over and over and add more and more of them to the brain until we ran out of space in the skull. +And the brain started to fold in on itself, and that's why the neocortex is so highly convoluted. +We're just packing in columns, so that we'd have more neocortical columns to perform more complex functions. +So you can think of the neocortex actually as a massive grand piano, a million-key grand piano. +Each of these neocortical columns would produce a note. +You stimulate it; it produces a symphony. +But it's not just a symphony of perception. +It's a symphony of your universe, your reality. +Now, of course it takes years to learn how to master a grand piano with a million keys. +That's why you have to send your kids to good schools, hopefully eventually to Oxford. +But it's not only education. +It's also genetics. +You may be born lucky, where you know how to master your neocortical column, and you can play a fantastic symphony. +In fact, there is a new theory of autism called the "intense world" theory, which suggests that the neocortical columns are super-columns. +They are highly reactive, and they are super-plastic, and so the autists are probably capable of building and learning a symphony which is unthinkable for us. +But you can also understand that if you have a disease within one of these columns, the note is going to be off. +The perception, the symphony that you create is going to be corrupted, and you will have symptoms of disease. +So, the Holy Grail for neuroscience is really to understand the design of the neocoritical column -- and it's not just for neuroscience; it's perhaps to understand perception, to understand reality, and perhaps to even also understand physical reality. +So, what we did was, for the past 15 years, was to dissect out the neocortex, systematically. +It's a bit like going and cataloging a piece of the rainforest. +How many trees does it have? +What shapes are the trees? +How many of each type of tree do you have? Where are they positioned? +But it's a bit more than cataloging because you actually have to describe and discover all the rules of communication, the rules of connectivity, because the neurons don't just like to connect with any neuron. +They choose very carefully who they connect with. +It's also more than cataloging because you actually have to build three-dimensional digital models of them. +And we did that for tens of thousands of neurons, built digital models of all the different types of neurons we came across. +And once you have that, you can actually begin to build the neocortical column. +And here we're coiling them up. +But as you do this, what you see is that the branches intersect actually in millions of locations, and at each of these intersections they can form a synapse. +And a synapse is a chemical location where they communicate with each other. +And these synapses together form the network or the circuit of the brain. +Now, the circuit, you could also think of as the fabric of the brain. +And when you think of the fabric of the brain, the structure, how is it built? What is the pattern of the carpet? +You realize that this poses a fundamental challenge to any theory of the brain, and especially to a theory that says that there is some reality that emerges out of this carpet, out of this particular carpet with a particular pattern. +The reason is because the most important design secret of the brain is diversity. +Every neuron is different. +It's the same in the forest. Every pine tree is different. +You may have many different types of trees, but every pine tree is different. And in the brain it's the same. +So there is no neuron in my brain that is the same as another, and there is no neuron in my brain that is the same as in yours. +And your neurons are not going to be oriented and positioned in exactly the same way. +And you may have more or less neurons. +So it's very unlikely that you got the same fabric, the same circuitry. +So, how could we possibly create a reality that we can even understand each other? +Well, we don't have to speculate. +We can look at all 10 million synapses now. +We can look at the fabric. And we can change neurons. +We can use different neurons with different variations. +We can position them in different places, orient them in different places. +We can use less or more of them. +And when we do that what we discovered is that the circuitry does change. +But the pattern of how the circuitry is designed does not. +So, the fabric of the brain, even though your brain may be smaller, bigger, it may have different types of neurons, different morphologies of neurons, we actually do share the same fabric. +And we think this is species-specific, which means that that could explain why we can't communicate across species. +So, let's switch it on. But to do it, what you have to do is you have to make this come alive. +We make it come alive with equations, a lot of mathematics. +And, in fact, the equations that make neurons into electrical generators were discovered by two Cambridge Nobel Laureates. +So, we have the mathematics to make neurons come alive. +We also have the mathematics to describe how neurons collect information, and how they create a little lightning bolt to communicate with each other. +And when they get to the synapse, what they do is they effectively, literally, shock the synapse. +It's like electrical shock that releases the chemicals from these synapses. +And we've got the mathematics to describe this process. +So we can describe the communication between the neurons. +There literally are only a handful of equations that you need to simulate the activity of the neocortex. +But what you do need is a very big computer. +And in fact you need one laptop to do all the calculations just for one neuron. +So you need 10,000 laptops. +So where do you go? You go to IBM, and you get a supercomputer, because they know how to take 10,000 laptops and put it into the size of a refrigerator. +So now we have this Blue Gene supercomputer. +We can load up all the neurons, each one on to its processor, and fire it up, and see what happens. +Take the magic carpet for a ride. +Here we activate it. And this gives the first glimpse of what is happening in your brain when there is a stimulation. +It's the first view. +Now, when you look at that the first time, you think, "My god. How is reality coming out of that?" +But, in fact, you can start, even though we haven't trained this neocortical column to create a specific reality. +But we can ask, "Where is the rose?" +We can ask, "Where is it inside, if we stimulate it with a picture?" +Where is it inside the neocortex? +Ultimately it's got to be there if we stimulated it with it. +So, the way that we can look at that is to ignore the neurons, ignore the synapses, and look just at the raw electrical activity. +Because that is what it's creating. +It's creating electrical patterns. +So when we did this, we indeed, for the first time, saw these ghost-like structures: electrical objects appearing within the neocortical column. +And it's these electrical objects that are holding all the information about whatever stimulated it. +And then when we zoomed into this, it's like a veritable universe. +So the next step is just to take these brain coordinates and to project them into perceptual space. +And if you do that, you will be able to step inside the reality that is created by this machine, by this piece of the brain. +So, in summary, I think that the universe may have -- it's possible -- evolved a brain to see itself, which may be a first step in becoming aware of itself. +There is a lot more to do to test these theories, and to test any other theories. +But I hope that you are at least partly convinced that it is not impossible to build a brain. +We can do it within 10 years, and if we do succeed, we will send to TED, in 10 years, a hologram to talk to you. Thank you. +Over the next five minutes, my intention is to transform your relationship with sound. +Let me start with the observation that most of the sound around us is accidental, and much of it is unpleasant. (Traffic noise) We stand on street corners, shouting over noise like this, and pretending that it doesn't exist. +Well, this habit of suppressing sound has meant that our relationship with sound has become largely unconscious. +There are four major ways sound is affecting you all the time, and I'd like to raise them in your consciousness today. +First is physiological. (Loud alarm clocks) Sorry about that. I've just given you a shot of cortisol, your fight/flight hormone. +Sounds are affecting your hormone secretions all the time, but also your breathing, your heart rate -- which I just also did -- and your brainwaves. +It's not just unpleasant sounds like that that do it. +This is surf. (Ocean waves) It has the frequency of roughly 12 cycles per minute. +Most people find that very soothing, and, interestingly, 12 cycles per minute is roughly the frequency of the breathing of a sleeping human. +There is a deep resonance with being at rest. +We also associate it with being stress-free and on holiday. +The second way in which sound affects you is psychological. +Music is the most powerful form of sound that we know that affects our emotional state. (Albinoni's Adagio) This is guaranteed to make most of you feel pretty sad if I leave it on. +Music is not the only kind of sound, however, which affects your emotions. +Natural sound can do that too. +Birdsong, for example, is a sound which most people find reassuring. (Birds chirping) There is a reason for that. Over hundreds of thousands of years we've learned that when the birds are singing, things are safe. +It's when they stop you need to be worried. +The third way in which sound affects you is cognitively. +You can't understand two people talking at once ("If you're listening to this version of") ("me you're on the wrong track.") or in this case one person talking twice. +Try and listen to the other one. ("You have to choose which me you're going to listen to.") We have a very small amount of bandwidth for processing auditory input, which is why noise like this -- (Office noise) -- is extremely damaging for productivity. +If you have to work in an open-plan office like this, your productivity is greatly reduced. +And whatever number you're thinking of, it probably isn't as bad as this. +(Ominous music) You are one third as productive in open-plan offices as in quiet rooms. +And I have a tip for you. If you have to work in spaces like that, carry headphones with you, with a soothing sound like birdsong. +Put them on and your productivity goes back up to triple what it would be. +The fourth way in which sound affects us is behaviorally. +With all that other stuff going on, it would be amazing if our behavior didn't change. +(Techno music inside a car) So, ask yourself: Is this person ever going to drive at a steady 28 miles per hour? I don't think so. +At the simplest, you move away from unpleasant sound and towards pleasant sounds. +So if I were to play this -- -- for more than a few seconds, you'd feel uncomfortable; for more than a few minutes, you'd be leaving the room in droves. +For people who can't get away from noise like that, it's extremely damaging for their health. +And that's not the only thing that bad sound damages. +Most retail sound is inappropriate and accidental, and even hostile, and it has a dramatic effect on sales. +For those of you who are retailers, you may want to look away before I show this slide. +They are losing up to 30 percent of their business with people leaving shops faster, or just turning around on the door. +We all have done it, leaving the area because the sound in there is so dreadful. +I want to spend just a moment talking about the model that we've developed, which allows us to start at the top and look at the drivers of sound, analyze the soundscape and then predict the four outcomes I've just talked about. +Or start at the bottom, and say what outcomes do we want, and then design a soundscape to have a desired effect. +At last we've got some science we can apply. +And we're in the business of designing soundscapes. +Just a word on music. Music is the most powerful sound there is, often inappropriately deployed. +It's powerful for two reasons. You recognize it fast, and you associate it very powerfully. +I'll give you two examples. (First chord of The Beatles' "A Hard Day's Night") Most of you recognize that immediately. +The younger, maybe not. (First two notes of "Jaws" theme) And most of you associate that with something! +Now, those are one-second samples of music. +Music is very powerful. And unfortunately it's veneering commercial spaces, often inappropriately. +I hope that's going to change over the next few years. +Let me just talk about brands for a moment, because some of you run brands. Every brand is out there making sound right now. +There are eight expressions of a brand in sound. +They are all important. And every brand needs to have guidelines at the center. +I'm glad to say that is starting to happen now. +(Intel ad jingle) You all recognize that one. (Nokia ringtone) This is the most-played tune in the world today. +1.8 billion times a day, that tune is played. +And it cost Nokia absolutely nothing. +Just leave you with four golden rules, for those of you who run businesses, for commercial sound. +First, make it congruent, pointing in the same direction as your visual communication. +That increases impact by over 1,100 percent. +If your sound is pointing the opposite direction, incongruent, you reduce impact by 86 percent. +That's an order of magnitude, up or down. +This is important. +Secondly, make it appropriate to the situation. +Thirdly, make it valuable. Give people something with the sound. +Don't just bombard them with stuff. +And, finally, test and test it again. +Sound is complex. There are many countervailing influences. +It can be a bit like a bowl of spaghetti: sometimes you just have to eat it and see what happens. +So I hope this talk has raised sound in your consciousness. +If you're listening consciously, you can take control of the sound around you. +It's good for your health. It's good for your productivity. +If we all do that we move to a state that I like to think will be sound living in the world. +I'm going to leave you with a little bit more birdsong. (Birds chirping) I recommend at least five minutes a day, but there is no maximum dose. +Thank you for lending me your ears today. +Thirteen trillion dollars in wealth has evaporated over the course of the last two years. +We've questioned the future of capitalism. +We've questioned the financial industry. +We've looked at our government oversight. +We've questioned where we're going. +And yet, at the same time, this very well may be a seminal moment in American history, an opportunity for the consumer to actually take control and guide us to a new trajectory in America. +I'm calling this The Great Unwind. +And the idea is a simple, simple idea, which is the fact that the consumer has moved from a state of anxiety to action. +Consumers who represent 72 percent of the GDP of America have actually started, just like banks and just like businesses, to de-leverage, to unwind their leverage, in daily life, to remove themselves from the liability and risk that presents itself as we move forward. +So, to understand this -- and I'm going to stress this -- it's not about the consumer being in retreat. +The consumer is empowered. +In order to understand this, we're going to step back and look a little bit at what's happened over the course of the last year and a half. +So, if you've been gone, this is the easy CliffsNotes on what's happened in the economy. Okay? +Unemployment up. Housing values down. Equity markets down. +Commodity prices are like this. +If you're a mom trying to manage a budget, and oil was 150 dollars a barrel last summer, and it's somewhere between 50 and 70, do you plan vacations? How do you buy? +What is your strategy in your household? +Will the bailout work? We have national debt, Detroit, currency valuations, healthcare, all these issues facing us. +You put them all together, you mix them up in a bouillabaisse, and you have consumer confidence that's basically a ticking time-bomb. +In fact, let's go back and look at what caused this crisis, because the consumer, all of us, in our daily lives, actually contributed a large part to the problem. +This is something I call the 50-20 paradox. +It took us 50 years to reach annual savings ratings of almost 10 percent. 50 years. +Do you know what this was right here? +This was World War II. Do you know why savings was so high? +There was nothing to buy, unless you wanted to buy some rivets. Right? +So, what happened though, over the course of the last 20 years -- we went from a 10 percent savings rate to a negative savings rate. +Because we binged. We bought extra-large cars, supersized everything, we bought remedies for restless leg syndrome. +All these things together basically created a factor where the consumer sort of drove us headlong into the crisis that we face today. +The personal debt-to-income ratio basically went from 65 percent to 135 percent in the span of about 15 years. +So consumers got overleveraged. +And of course our banks did as well, as did our federal government. +This is an absolutely staggering chart. +It shows leverage, trended out from 1919 to 2009. +And what you end up seeing is the whole phenomenon of the fact that we are actually stepping forth and basically leveraging future education, future children in our households. +So if you look at this in the context of visualizing the bailout, what you can see is if you stack up dollar bills, first of all, 360,000 dollars is about the size of a five-foot-four guy. +But if you stack it up, you just see this amazing, staggering amount of dollars that have been put into the system to fund and bail us out. +So this is the first 315 billion. +But I read this fact the other day, that one trillion seconds equals 32 thousand years, so if you think about that, the context, the casualness with which we talk about trillion-dollar bailout here, and trillion there, we are stacking ourselves up for long-term leverage. +However, consumers have moved. +They are taking responsibility. +What we're seeing is an uptake in the savings rate. +In fact, 11 straight months of savings have happened since the beginning of the crisis. +We are working our way back up to that 10 percent. +Also, remarkably, in the fourth quarter, spending dropped to its lowest level in 62 years, almost a 3.7 percent decline. +Visa now reports that more people are using debit cards than they're using credit cards. +So we're starting to pay for things with money that we have. +And we're starting to be much more careful about how we save and how we invest. +But that's not really the whole story. +Because this has also been a dramatic time of transformation. +And you've got to admit, over the course of the last year and a half, consumers have been doing some pretty weird things. +It's been pretty staggering, what we've lived through. +If you take into account 80 percent of all Americans were born after World War II, this is essentially our Depression. +And so, as a result, some crazy things have happened. +I'll give you some examples. Lets talk about dentists, vasectomies, guns and shark attacks. Okay? +Dentists report molars, you know, people grinding their teeth, coming in and reporting the fact that they've had stress. +And so there is an increase in people having to have their fillings replaced. +Guns, gun sales, according to the FBI, who does background checks, are up almost 25 percent since January. +Vasectomies are up 48 percent, according to the Cornell institute. +And lastly, but a very good point, hopefully not related to the former point I just made, which is that shark attacks are at their lowest level from 2003. +Does anybody know why? +No one is at the beach. So there is a bright side to everything. +But seriously, what we see happening, and the reason I want to stress that the consumer is not in retreat, is that this is a tremendous opportunity for the consumer who drove us into this recession to lead us right back out. +And what I mean by that is that we can move from mindless consumption to mindful consumption. Right? +If you think about the last three decades, the consumer has moved from savvy about marketing in the '90s, to gathering all these amazing social and search tools in this decade, but the one thing that has been holding them back is the ability to discriminate. +By restricting their demand, consumers can actually align their values with their spending, and drive capitalism and business to not just be about more, but be about better. +We're going to explain that right now. +Based on Y&R's BrandAsset Valuator, proprietary tool of VML and Young & Rubicam, we set out to understand what's been happening in the crisis with the consumer marketplace. +We found a couple of really interesting things. +We're going to go through four value-shifts that we see driving new consumer behaviors, that offer new management principles. +The first cultural value shift that we see is this tendency toward something we call liquid life. +This is the movement from Americans defining their success on having things to having liquidity, because the less excess that you have around you, the more nimble and fleet of foot you are. +As a result, dclass consumption is in. +Dclass consumption is the whole idea that spending money frivolously makes you look a little bit anti-fashion. +The management principle is dollars and cents. +So let's look at some examples of this dclass consumption that falls out of this value. +First things is we see something must be happening when P. Diddy vows to tone down his bling. +But seriously, we also have this phenomenon on Madison Avenue and in other places, where people are actually walking out of luxury boutiques with ordinary, sort of generic paper bags to hide the brand purchases. +We see high-end haggling in fashion today. +High-end haggling for luxury and real estate. +We also see just a relaxing of ego, and sort of a dismantling of artifice. +This is a story on the yacht club that's all basically blue collar. +Blue-collar yacht club, where you can join the yacht club, but you've got to work in the boat yard, as sort of condition of membership. +We also see the trend toward tourism that's a little bit more low key. Right? +Agritourism, going to vineyards and going to farms. +And then we also see this movement forward from dollars and cents. +What businesses can do to connect with these new mindsets is really interesting. +A couple things that are kind of cool. +One is that Frito-Lay figured out this liquidity thing with their consumer. +They found their consumer had more money at the beginning of the month, less at the end of the month. So what they did is they started to change their packaging. +Larger packs at the beginning of the month, smaller packaging at the end of the month. +Really interestingly, too, was the San Francisco Giants. +They've just instituted dynamic pricing. +So it takes into account everything from the pitcher match-ups, to the weather, to the team records, in setting prices for the consumer. +Another quick example of these types of movements is the rise of Zynga. +Zynga has risen on the consumer's desire to not want to be locked in to fixed-cost. +Again, this theme is about variable cost, variable living. +So micropayments have become huge. +And lastly, some people are using Hulu actually as a device to get rid of their cable bill. +So, really clever ideas there that are kind of being taken ahold and marketers are starting to understand. +The second of the four values is this movement toward ethics and fair play. +We see that play itself out with empathy and respect. +The consumer is demanding it. +And, as a result, businesses must provide not only value, but values. +Increasingly, consumers are looking at the culture of the company, looking for their conduct in the marketplace. +So, what we see with empathy and respect, lots of really hopeful things that have come out of this recession. +And I'll give you a few examples. +One is the rise toward communities and neighborhoods, and increased emphasis on your neighbors as your support system. +Also a wonderful byproduct of sort of a really lousy thing, which has been unemployment, is a rise in volunteerism that's been noted in our country. +We also see the phenomenon -- some of you may have "boomerang kids" -- these are "boomerang alumni," where universities are actually reconnecting with alumni in helping them with jobs, sharing skills and retraining. +We also talked about character and professionalism. +We had this miracle on the Hudson in New York City, you know, in January, and suddenly Sully has become a key name on Babycenter. +So, from a value and values standpoint, what companies can do is connect in lots of different ways. +Microsoft is doing something wonderful. +They are actually vowing to retrain two million Americans with I.T. training, using their existing infrastructure to do something good. +Also a really interesting company is Gore-Tex. +Gore-Tex is all about personal accountability of their management and their employees, to the point where they really kind of shun the idea of bosses. +But they also talk about the fact that their executives, all of their expense reports are put onto their company intranet for everyone to see. +Complete transparency. +Think twice before you have that bottle of wine. +The third of the four laws of post-crisis consumerism is about durable living. +We're seeing on our data that consumers are realizing this is a marathon, not a sprint. +They are digging in. And they're looking for ways to extract value out of every purchase that they make. +Witness the fact that Americans are holding on to their cars longer than ever before, 9.4 years on average, in March. A record. +We also see the fact that libraries have become a huge resource for America. +Did you know that 68 percent of Americans now carry a library card? +The highest percentage ever in our nation's history. +So what you see in this trend is also the accumulation of knowledge. +Continuing education is up. +Everything is focused on betterment, and training, and development and moving forward. +We also see a big DIY movement. +I was fascinated to learn that 30 percent of all homes in America are actually built by owners. +That includes cottages and the like. But 30 percent. +So, people are getting their hands dirty. They are rolling up their sleeves. +They want these skills. +We see that with the phenomenon of raising backyard hens and chickens and ducks. And when you work out the math, they say it doesn't work, but the principle is there that it's about being sustainable and taking care of yourself. +And then we look at the High Line in New York City, an excellent use of reimagining existing infrastructure for something good, which is a brand new park in New York City. +So, what brands can do, and companies, is pay dividends to consumers, be a brand that lasts, offer transparency, promise you're going to be there beyond today's sale. +Perfect example of that is Patagonia. +Patagonia's Footprint Chronicles basically goes through and tracks every product that they make, and gives you social responsibility, and helps you understand the ethics that are behind the product that they make. +Another great example is Fidelity. +Rather than instant cash-back rewards on your credit or debit purchases, this is about 529 rewards for your student education. +Or the interesting company SunRun. +I love this company. They've created a consumer collective where they put solar panels on households and create a consumer-based utility, where the electricity that they generate is basically pumped back out into the marketplace. +So, it's a consumer driven co-op. +So, the fourth sort of post-crisis consumerism that we see is this movement about return to the fold. +It's incredibly important right now. +Trust is not parceled out, as we all know. +It's now about connecting to your communities, connecting to your social networks. +In my book I talked about the fact that 72 percent of people trust what other people say about a brand or a company, versus 15 percent on advertising. +So, in that respect, cooperative consumerism has really taken off. +This is about consumers working together to get what they want out of the marketplace. +Let's look at a couple of quick examples. +The artisanal movement is huge. +Everything about locally derived products and services, supporting your local neighborhoods, whether it's cheeses, wines and other products. +Also this rise of local currencies. +Realizing that it's difficult to get loans in this environment, you're doing business with people you trust, in your local markets. +So, this rise of this sort of local currency is another really interesting phenomenon. +And then they did a recent report I thought was fascinating. +They actually started, in certain communities in the United States, start to publish people's electricity usage. +And what they found out is when that was available for public record, the people's electricity usage in those communities dropped. +Then we also look at the idea of cow-pooling, which is the whole phenomenon of consumers organizing together to buy meat from organic farms that they know is safe and controlled in the way that they want it to be controlled. +And then there is this other really interesting movement that's happened in California, which is about carrot mobs. +The traditional thing would be to boycott right? +Have a stick? Well why not have a carrot? +So these are consumers organizing, pooling their resources to incentify companies to do good. +And then we look at what companies can do. +This is all the opportunity about being a community organizer. +You have to realize that you can't fight and control this. +You actually need to organize it. +You need to harness it. You need to give it meaning. +And there is lots of really interesting examples here that we see. +First is just the rise of the fact that Zagat's has actually moved out of and diversified from rating restaurants, into actually rating healthcare. +So what credentials does Zagat's have? +Well, they have a lot, because it's their network of people. Right? +So that becomes a very powerful force for them to make their brand more elastic. +Then you look at the phenomenon of Kogi. +This Kogi doesn't exist. It's a moving truck. Right? +It's a moving truck through L.A., and the only way you can find it is through Twitter. +Or you look at Johnson & Johnson's Momversations. +A phenomenal blog that's been built up. +Where J&J basically is tapping into allowing them to basically create a forum where they can communicate and they can connect. +And it's also become a very, very valuable sort of advertising revenue for J&J as well. +This plus the fact that you've got phenomenal work from CEOs from Ford to Zappos, connecting on Twitter, creating an open environment, allowing their employees to be part of the process, rather than hidden behind walls. +You see this rising force in sort of total transparency and openness that companies are starting to adopt, all because the consumer is demanding it. +So, when we look at this and we step back, what I believe is that the crisis that exists today is definitely real. +It's been tremendously powerful for consumers. +But, at the same time, this is also a tremendous opportunity. +And the Chinese character for crisis is actually the same side of the same coin. +Crisis equals opportunity. +What we're seeing with consumers right now is the ability for them to actually lead us forward out of this recession. +So, we believe that values-driven spending will force capitalism to be better. +It will drive innovation. +It will make longer-lasting products. It will create better, more intuitive customer service. +It will give us the opportunity to connect with companies that share the values that we share. +So, when we look back and step out at this and see the beginning of these trends that we're seeing in our data, we see a very hopeful picture for the future of America. +Thank you very much. +One of the biggest challenges in computer graphics has been being able to create a photo-real, digital human face. +And one of the reasons it is so difficult is that, unlike aliens and dinosaurs, we look at human faces every day. +They are very important to how we communicate with each other. +As a result, we're tuned in to the subtlest things that could possibly be wrong with a computer rendering, in order to believe whether these things are realistic. +And what I'm going to do in the next five minutes is take you through a process where we tried to create a reasonably photo-realistic computer-generated face, using some computer graphics technology we've developed, and also some collaborators at a company called Image Metrics. +And we're going to try to do a photo-real face of an actress named Emily O'Brien, who is right there. +And that's actually a completely computer-generated rendering of her face. +By the end of the talk, we're going to see it move. +The way that we did this is we tried to start with Emily herself, who was gracious enough to come to our laboratory in Marina Del Rey, and sit for a session in Light Stage 5. +This is a face-scanning sphere, with 156 white LEDs all around that allow us to photograph her in a series of very controlled illumination conditions. +And the lighting that we use these days looks something like this. +We shoot all of these photographs in about three seconds. +And we basically capture enough information with video projector patterns that drape over the contours of her face, and different principle directions of light from the light stage, to figure out both the coarse-scale and the fine-scale detail of her face. +If we zoom in on this photograph right here, we can see it's a really nice photograph to have of her, because she is lit from absolutely everywhere at the same time to get a nice image of her facial texture. +And in addition, we've actually used polarizers on all the lights -- just like polarized sunglasses can block the glare off of the road, polarizers can block the shine off of the skin, so we don't get all those specular reflections to take this map. +Now, if we turn the polarizers around just a little bit, we can actually bring that specular reflection of the skin back in, and you can see she looks kind of shiny and oily at this point. +If you take the difference between these two images here, you can get an image lit from the entire sphere of light of just the shine off of Emily's skin. +I don't think any photograph like this had ever been taken before we had done this. +And this is very important light to capture, because this is the light that reflects off the first surface of the skin. +It doesn't get underneath the translucent layers of the skin and blur out. +And, as a result, it's a very good cue to the detailed shape of the skin-pore structure and all of the fine wrinkles that all of us have, the things that actually make us look like real humans. +So, if we use information that comes off of this specular reflection, we can go from a traditional face scan that might have the gross contours of the face and the basic shape, and augment it with information that puts in all of that skin pore structure and fine wrinkles. +And, even more importantly, since this is a photometric process that only takes three seconds to capture, we can shoot Emily in just part of an afternoon, in many different facial poses and facial expressions. +So, here you can see her moving her eyes around, moving her mouth around. +And these we're actually going to use to create a photo-real digital character. +If you take a look at these scans that we have of Emily, you can see that the human face does an enormous amount of amazing things as it goes into different facial expressions. +You can see things. Not only the face shape changes, but all sorts of different skin buckling and skin wrinkling occurs. +You can see that the skin pore structure changes enormously from stretched skin pores to the regular skin texture. +You can see the furrows in the brow and how the microstructure changes there. +You can see muscles pulling down at flesh to bring her eyebrows down. +Her muscles bulging in her forehead when she winces like that. +In addition to this kind of high-resolution geometry, since it's all captured with cameras, we've got a great texture map to use for the face. +And by looking at how the different color channels of the illumination, the red and the green and the blue, diffuse the light differently, we can come up with a way of shading the skin on the computer. +Then, instead of looking like a plaster mannequin, it actually looks like it's made out of living human flesh. +And this is what we used to give to the company Image Metrics to create a rigged, digital version of Emily. +We're just seeing the coarse-scale geometry here. +But they basically created a digital puppet of her, where you can pull on these various strings, and it actually moves her face in ways that are completely consistent with the scans that we took. +And, in addition to the coarse-scale geometry, they also used all of that detail to create a set of what are called "displacement maps" that animate as well. +These are the displacement maps here. +And you can see those different wrinkles actually show up as she animates. +So the next process was then to animate her. +We actually used one of her own performances to provide the source data. +So, by analyzing this video with computer vision techniques, they were able to drive the facial rig with the computer-generated performance. +So what you're going to see now, after this, is a completely photo-real digital face. +We can turn the volume up a little bit if that's available. +Emily: Image Metrics is a markerless, performance-driven animation company. +We specialize in high-quality facial animation for video games and films. +Image Metrics is a markerless, performance-driven animation company. +We specialize in high quality facial animation for video games and films. +Paul Debevec: So, if we break that down into layers, here's that diffuse component we saw in the first slide. +Here is the specular component animating. +You can see all the wrinkles happening there. +And there is the underlying wireframe mesh. +And that is Emily herself. +Now, where are we going with this here? +We've gone a little bit beyond Light Stage 5. This is Light Stage 6, and we're looking at taking this technology and applying it to whole human bodies. +This is Bruce Lawmen, one of our researchers in the group, who graciously agreed to get captured running in the Light Stage. +And let's take a look at a computer-generated version of Bruce, running in a new environment. +And thank you very much. +The magical moment, the magical moment of conducting. +Which is, you go onto a stage. There is an orchestra sitting. +They are all, you know, warming up and doing stuff. +And I go on the podium. +You know, this little office of the conductor. +Or rather a cubicle, an open-space cubicle, with a lot of space. +And in front of all that noise, you do a very small gesture. +Something like this, not very pomp, not very sophisticated, this. +And suddenly, out of the chaos, order. +Noise becomes music. +And this is fantastic. And it's so tempting to think that it's all about me. +All those great people here, virtuosos, they make noise, they need me to do that. +Not really. If it were that, I would just save you the talk, and teach you the gesture. +So you could go out to the world and do this thing in whatever company or whatever you want, and you have perfect harmony. It doesn't work. +Let's look at the first video. +I hope you'll think it's a good example of harmony. +And then speak a little bit about how it comes about. +Was that nice? +So that was a sort of a success. +Now, who should we thank for the success? +I mean, obviously the orchestra musicians playing beautifully, the Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra. +They don't often even look at the conductor. +Then you have the clapping audience, yeah, actually taking part in doing the music. +You know Viennese audiences usually don't interfere with the music. +This is the closest to an Oriental bellydancing feast that you will ever get in Vienna. +Unlike, for example Israel, where audiences cough all the time. +You know, Arthur Rubinstein, the pianist, used to say that, "Anywhere in the world, people that have the flu, they go to the doctor. +In Tel Aviv they come to my concerts." +So that's a sort of a tradition. +But Viennese audiences do not do that. +Here they go out of their regular, just to be part of that, to become part of the orchestra, and that's great. +You know, audiences like you, yeah, make the event. +But what about the conductor? What can you say the conductor was doing, actually? +Um, he was happy. +And I often show this to senior management. +People get annoyed. +"You come to work. How come you're so happy?" +Something must be wrong there, yeah? But he's spreading happiness. +And I think the happiness, the important thing is this happiness does not come from only his own story and his joy of the music. +The joy is about enabling other people's stories to be heard at the same time. +You have the story of the orchestra as a professional body. +You have the story of the audience as a community. Yeah. +You have the stories of the individuals in the orchestra and in the audience. +And then you have other stories, unseen. +People who build this wonderful concert hall. +People who made those Stradivarius, Amati, all those beautiful instruments. +And all those stories are being heard at the same time. +This is the true experience of a live concert. +That's a reason to go out of home. Yeah? +And not all conductors do just that. +Let's see somebody else, a great conductor. +Riccardo Muti, please. +Yeah, that was very short, but you could see it's a completely different figure. Right? +He's awesome. He's so commanding. Yeah? +So clear. Maybe a little bit over-clear. +Can we have a little demonstration? Would you be my orchestra for a second? +Can you sing, please, the first note of Don Giovanni? +You have to sing "Aaaaaah," and I'll stop you. +Okay? Ready? +Audience: Aaaaaaah ... Itay Talgam: Come on, with me. If you do it without me I feel even more redundant than I already feel. +So please, wait for the conductor. +Now look at me. "Aaaaaah," and I stop you. Let's go. +Audience: ... Aaaaaaaah ... Itay Talgam: So we'll have a little chat later. +But ... There is a vacancy for a ... +But -- -- you could see that you could stop an orchestra with a finger. +Now what does Riccardo Muti do? He does something like this ... +And then -- sort of -- So not only the instruction is clear, but also the sanction, what will happen if you don't do what I tell you. +So, does it work? Yes, it works -- to a certain point. +When Muti is asked, "Why do you conduct like this?" +He says, "I'm responsible." +Responsible in front of him. +No he doesn't really mean Him. He means Mozart, which is -- -- like a third seat from the center. +So he says, "If I'm -- if I'm responsible for Mozart, this is going to be the only story to be told. +It's Mozart as I, Riccardo Muti, understand it." +And you know what happened to Muti? +Three years ago he got a letter signed by all 700 employees of La Scala, musical employees, I mean the musicians, saying, "You're a great conductor. We don't want to work with you. Please resign." +"Why? Because you don't let us develop. +You're using us as instruments, not as partners. +And our joy of music, etc., etc. ..." +So he had to resign. Isn't that nice? +He's a nice guy. He's a really nice guy. +Well, can you do it with less control, or with a different kind of control? +Let's look at the next conductor, Richard Strauss. +I'm afraid you'll get the feeling that I really picked on him because he's old. +It's not true. When he was a young man of about 30, he wrote what he called "The Ten Commandments for Conductors." +The first one was: If you sweat by the end of the concert it means that you must have done something wrong. +That's the first one. The fourth one you'll like better. +It says: Never look at the trombones -- it only encourages them. +So, the whole idea is really to let it happen by itself. +Do not interfere. +But how does it happen? Did you see him turning pages in the score? +Now, either he is senile, and doesn't remember his own music, because he wrote the music. +Or he is actually transferring a very strong message to them, saying, "Come on guys. You have to play by the book. +So it's not about my story. It's not about your story. +It's only the execution of the written music, no interpretation." +Interpretation is the real story of the performer. +So, no, he doesn't want that. That's a different kind of control. +Let's see another super-conductor, a German super-conductor. Herbert von Karajan, please. +What's different? Did you see the eyes? Closed. +Did you see the hands? +Did you see this kind of movement? Let me conduct you. Twice. +Once like a Muti, and you'll -- -- clap, just once. +And then like Karajan. Let's see what happens. Okay? +Like Muti. You ready? Because Muti ... +Okay? Ready? Let's do it. +Audience: Itay Talgam: Hmm ... again. +Audience: Itay Talgam: Good. Now like a Karajan. Since you're already trained, let me concentrate, close my eyes. Come, come. +Audience: Itay Talgam: Why not together? Because you didn't know when to play. +Now I can tell you, even the Berlin Philharmonic doesn't know when to play. +But I'll tell you how they do it. No cynicism. +This is a German orchestra, yes? +They look at Karajan. And then they look at each other. +"Do you understand what this guy wants?" +And after doing that, they really look at each other, and the first players of the orchestra lead the whole ensemble in playing together. +And when Karajan is asked about it he actually says, "Yes, the worst damage I can do to my orchestra is to give them a clear instruction. +Because that would prevent the ensemble, the listening to each other that is needed for an orchestra." +Now that's great. What about the eyes? +Why are the eyes closed? +There is a wonderful story about Karajan conducting in London. +And he cues in a flute player like this. +The guy has no idea what to do. "Maestro, with all due respect, when should I start?" +What do you think Karajan's reply was? When should I start? +Oh yeah. He says, "You start when you can't stand it anymore." +Meaning that you know you have no authority to change anything. +It's my music. The real music is only in Karajan's head. +And you have to guess my mind. So you are under tremendous pressure because I don't give you instruction, and yet, you have to guess my mind. +So it's a different kind of, a very spiritual but yet very firm control. +Can we do it in another way? Of course we can. Let's go back to the first conductor we've seen: Carlos Kleiber, his name. Next video, please. +Well, it is different. But isn't that controlling in the same way? +No, it's not, because he is not telling them what to do. +When he does this, it's not, "Take your Stradivarius and like Jimi Hendrix, smash it on the floor." It's not that. +He says, "This is the gesture of the music. +I'm opening a space for you to put in another layer of interpretation." +That is another story. +But how does it really work together if it doesn't give them instructions? +It's like being on a rollercoaster. Yeah? +You're not really given any instructions, but the forces of the process itself keep you in place. +That's what he does. +The interesting thing is of course the rollercoaster does not really exist. +It's not a physical thing. It's in the players' heads. +And that's what makes them into partners. +You have the plan in your head. +You know what to do, even though Kleiber is not conducting you. +But here and there and that. You know what to do. +And you become a partner building the rollercoaster, yeah, with sound, as you actually take the ride. +This is very exciting for those players. +They do need to go to a sanatorium for two weeks, later. +It is very tiring. Yeah? +But it's the best music making, like this. +But of course it's not only about motivation and giving them a lot of physical energy. +You also have to be very professional. +And look again at this Kleiber. +Can we have the next video, quickly? +You'll see what happens when there is a mistake. +Again you see the beautiful body language. +And now there is a trumpet player who does something not exactly the way it should be done. +Go along with the video. Look. +See, second time for the same player. +And now the third time for the same player. +"Wait for me after the concert. +I have a short notice to give you." +You know, when it's needed, the authority is there. It's very important. +But authority is not enough to make people your partners. +Let's see the next video, please. See what happens here. +You might be surprised having seen Kleiber as such a hyperactive guy. +He's conducting Mozart. +The whole orchestra is playing. +Now something else. +See? He is there 100 percent, but not commanding, not telling what to do. +Rather enjoying what the soloist is doing. +Another solo now. See what you can pick up from this. +Look at the eyes. +Okay. You see that? +First of all, it's a kind of a compliment we all like to get. +It's not feedback. It's an "Mmmm ..." Yeah, it comes from here. +So that's a good thing. +And the second thing is it's about actually being in control, but in a very special way. +When Kleiber does -- did you see the eyes, going from here? You know what happens? Gravitation is no more. +Kleiber not only creates a process, but also creates the conditions in the world in which this process takes place. +So again, the oboe player is completely autonomous and therefore happy and proud of his work, and creative and all of that. +And the level in which Kleiber is in control is in a different level. +So control is no longer a zero-sum game. +You have this control. You have this control. And all you put together, in partnership, brings about the best music. +So Kleiber is about process. +Kleiber is about conditions in the world. +But you need to have process and content to create the meaning. +Lenny Bernstein, my own personal maestro. +Since he was a great teacher, Lenny Bernstein always started from the meaning. Look at this, please. +Do you remember the face of Muti, at the beginning? +Well he had a wonderful expression, but only one. +Did you see Lenny's face? +You know why? Because the meaning of the music is pain. +And you're playing a painful sound. +And you look at Lenny and he's suffering. +But not in a way that you want to stop. +It's suffering, like, enjoying himself in a Jewish way, as they say. +But you can see the music on his face. +You can see the baton left his hand. No more baton. +Now it's about you, the player, telling the story. +Now it's a reversed thing. You're telling the story. And you're telling the story. +And even briefly, you become the storyteller to which the community, the whole community, listens to. +And Bernstein enables that. Isn't that wonderful? +Now, if you are doing all the things we talked about, together, and maybe some others, you can get to this wonderful point of doing without doing. +And for the last video, I think this is simply the best title. +My friend Peter says, "If you love something, give it away." So, please. +Twenty-five-and-a-quarter years ago I read a newspaper article which said that one day syringes would be one of the major causes of the spread of AIDS, the transmission of AIDS. +I thought this was unacceptable. So I decided to do something about it. +Sadly, it's come true. Malaria, as we all know, kills approximately one million people a year. +The reuse of syringes now exceeds that and kills 1.3 million people a year. +This young girl and her friend that I met in an orphanage in Delhi were HIV positive from a syringe. +And what was so sad about this particular story was that once their parents had found out -- and don't forget, their parents took them to the doctor -- the parents threw them out on the street. +And hence they ended up in an orphanage. +And it comes from situations like this where you have either skilled or unskilled practitioners, blindly giving an injection to someone. +And the injection is so valuable, that the people basically trust the doctor, being second to God, which I've heard many times, to do the right thing. But in fact they're not. +And you can understand, obviously, the transmission problem between people in high-virus areas. +This video we took undercover, which shows you, over a half an hour period, a tray of medicines of 42 vials, which are being delivered with only 2 syringes in a public hospital in India. +And over the course of half an hour, not one syringe was filmed being unwrapped. +They started with two and they ended with two. +And you'll see, just now, a nurse coming back to the tray, which is their sort of modular station, and dropping the syringe she's just used back in the tray for it to be picked up and used again. +So you can imagine the scale of this problem. +And in fact in India alone, 62 percent of all injections given are unsafe. +These kids in Pakistan don't go to school. +They are lucky. They already have a job. +And that job is that they go around and pick up syringes from the back of hospitals, wash them, and in the course of this, obviously picking them up they injure themselves. +And then they repackage them and sell them out on markets for literally more money than a sterile syringe in the first place, which is quite bizarre. +In China, recycling is a major issue. +And they are collected en mass -- you can see the scale of it here -- and sorted out, by hand, back into the right sizes, and then put back out on the street. +So recycling and reuse are the major issues here. +But there was one interesting anecdote that I found in Indonesia. +In all schools in Indonesia, there is usually a toy seller in the playground. +The toy seller, in this case, had syringes, which they usually do, next door to the diggers, which is obviously what you would expect. +And they use them, in the breaks, for water pistols. +They squirt them at each other, which is lovely and innocent. +And they are having great fun. +But they also drink from them while they're in their breaks, because it's hot. +And they squirt the water into their mouths. +And these are used with traces of blood visible. +So we need a better product. And we need better information. +And I think, if I can just borrow this camera, I was going to show you my invention, which I came up with. +So, it's a normal-looking syringe. +You load it up in the normal way. This is made on existing equipment in 14 factories that we license. +You give the injection and then put it down. +If someone then tries to reuse it, it locks and breaks afterwards. +It's very, very simple. Thank you. +And it costs the same as a normal syringe. +And in comparison, a Coca-Cola is 10 times the price. +And that will stop reusing a syringe 20 or 30 times. +And I have an information charity which has done huge scale amount of work in India. +And we're very proud of giving information to people, so that little kids like this don't do stupid things. +Thank you very much. +The future, as we know it, is very unpredictable. +The best minds in the best institutions generally get it wrong. +This is in technology. This is in the area of politics, where pundits, the CIA, MI6 always get it wrong. +And it's clearly in the area of finance. +With institutions established to think about the future, the IMF, the BIS, the Financial Stability Forum, couldn't see what was coming. +Over 20,000 economists whose job it is, competitive entry to get there, couldn't see what was happening. +Globalization is getting more complex. +And this change is getting more rapid. +The future will be more unpredictable. +Urbanization, integration, coming together, leads to a new renaissance. +It did this a thousand years ago. +The last 40 years have been extraordinary times. +Life expectancy has gone up by about 25 years. +It took from the Stone Age to achieve that. +Income has gone up for a majority of the world's population, despite the population going up by about two billion people over this period. +And illiteracy has gone down, from a half to about a quarter of the people on Earth. +A huge opportunity, unleashing of new potential for innovation, for development. +But there is an underbelly. +There are two Achilles' heels of globalization. +There is the Achilles' heel of growing inequality -- those that are left out, those that feel angry, those that are not participating. Globalization has not been inclusive. +The second Achilles' heel is complexity -- a growing fragility, a growing brittleness. +What happens in one place very quickly affects everything else. +This is a systemic risk, systemic shock. +We've seen it in the financial crisis. We've seen it in the pandemic flu. +It will become virulent and it's something we have to build resilience against. +A lot of this is driven by what's happening in technology. +There have been huge leaps. There will be a million-fold improvement in what you can get for the same price in computing by 2030. +That's what the experience of the last 20 years has been. +It will continue. +Our computers, our systems will be as primitive as the Apollo's are for today. +Our mobile phones are more powerful than the total Apollo space engine. +Our mobile phones are more powerful than some of the strongest computers of 20 years ago. +So what will this do? +It will create huge opportunities in technology. +Miniaturization as well. +There will be invisible capacity. Invisible capacity in our bodies, in our brains, and in the air. +This is a dust mite on a nanoreplica. +This sort of ability to do everything in new ways unleashes potential, not least in the area of medicine. +This is a stem cell that we've developed here in Oxford, from an embryonic stem cell. +We can develop any part of the body. +Increasingly, over time, this will be possible from our own skin -- able to replicate parts of the body. +Fantastic potential for regenerative medicine. +I don't think there will be a Special Olympics long after 2030, because of this capacity to regenerate parts of the body. +But the question is, "Who will have it?" +The other major development is going to be in the area of what can happen in genetics. +The capacity to create, as this mouse has been genetically modified, something which goes three times faster, lasts for three times longer, we could produce, as this mouse can, to the age of our equivalent of 80 years, using about the same amount of food. +But will this only be available for the super rich, for those that can afford it? Are we headed for a new eugenics? +Will only those that are able to afford it be able to be this super race of the future? +So the big question for us is, "How do we manage this technological change?" +How do we ensure that it creates a more inclusive technology, a technology which means that not only as we grow older, that we can also grow wiser, and that we're able to support the populations of the future? +One of the most dramatic manifestations of these improvements will be moving from population pyramids to what we might term population coffins. +There is unlikely to be a pension or a retirement age in 2030. +These will be redundant concepts. And this isn't only something of the West. +The most dramatic changes will be the skyscraper type of new pyramids that will take place in China and in many other countries. +So forget about retirements if you're young. +Forget about pensions. Think about life and where it's going to be going. +Of course, migration will become even more important. +The war on talent, the need to attract people at all skill ranges, to push us around in our wheelchairs, but also to drive our economies. Our innovation will be vital. +The employment in the rich countries will go down from about 800 to about 700 million of these people. +This would imply a massive leap in migration. +So the concerns, the xenophobic concerns of today, of migration, will be turned on their head, as we search for people to help us sort out our pensions and our economies in the future. +And then, the systemic risks. +We understand that these will become much more virulent, that what we see today is this interweaving of societies, of systems, fastened by technologies and hastened by just-in-time management systems. +Small levels of stock push resilience into other people's responsibility. +The collapse in biodiversity, climate change, pandemics, financial crises: these will be the currency that we will think about. +And so a new awareness will have to arise, of how we deal with these, how we mobilize ourselves, in a new way, and come together as a community to manage systemic risk. +It's going to require innovation. +It's going to require an understanding that the glory of globalization could also be its downfall. +This could be our best century ever because of the achievements, or it could be our worst. +And of course we need to worry about the individuals, particularly the individuals that feel that they've been left out in one way or another. +An individual, for the first time in the history of humanity, will have the capacity, by 2030, to destroy the planet, to wreck everything, through the creation, for example, of a biopathogen. +How do we begin to weave these tapestries together? +How do we think about complex systems in new ways? +That will be the challenge of the scholars, and of all of us engaged in thinking about the future. +The rest of our lives will be in the future. We need to prepare for it now. +We need to understand that the governance structure in the world is fossilized. +It cannot begin to cope with the challenges that this will bring. +We have to develop a new way of managing the planet, collectively, through collective wisdom. +We know, and I know from my own experience, that amazing things can happen, when individuals and societies come together to change their future. +I left South Africa, and 15 years later, after thinking I would never go back, I had the privilege and the honor to work in the government of Nelson Mandela. +This was a miracle. We can create miracles, collectively, in our lifetime. +It is vital that we do so. +It is vital that the ideas that are nurtured in TED, that the ideas that we think about look forward, and make sure that this will be the most glorious century, and not one of eco-disaster and eco-collapse. +Thank you. +I'm sure that, throughout the hundred-thousand-odd years of our species' existence, and even before, our ancestors looked up at the night sky, and wondered what stars are. +Wondering, therefore, how to explain what they saw in terms of things unseen. +Okay, so, most people only wondered that occasionally, like today, in breaks from whatever normally preoccupied them. +But what normally preoccupied them also involved yearning to know. +They wished they knew how to prevent their food supply from sometimes failing, and how they could rest when they were tired without risking starvation, be warmer, cooler, safer, in less pain. +I bet those prehistoric cave artists would have loved to know how to draw better. +In every aspect of their lives, they wished for progress, just as we do. +But they failed, almost completely, to make any. +They didn't know how to. +Discoveries like fire happened so rarely, that from an individual's point of view, the world never improved. +Nothing new was learned. +The first clue to the origin of starlight happened as recently as 1899: radioactivity. +Within 40 years, physicists discovered the whole explanation, expressed, as usual, in elegant symbols. +But never mind the symbols. +Think how many discoveries they represent. +Nuclei and nuclear reactions, of course. +But isotopes, particles of electricity, antimatter, neutrinos, the conversion of mass to energy -- that's E=mc^2 -- gamma rays, transmutation. +That ancient dream that had always eluded the alchemists was achieved through these same theories that explained starlight and other ancient mysteries, and new, unexpected phenomena. +That all that, discovered in 40 years, had not been in the previous hundred thousand, was not for lack of thinking about stars, and all those other urgent problems they had. +They even arrived at answers, such as myths, that dominated their lives, yet bore almost no resemblance to the truth. +The tragedy of that protracted stagnation isn't sufficiently recognized, I think. +These were people with brains of essentially the same design that eventually did discover all those things. +But that ability to make progress remained almost unused, until the event that revolutionized the human condition and changed the universe. +Or so we should hope. +Because that event was the Scientific Revolution, ever since which our knowledge of the physical world, and of how to adapt it to our wishes, has been growing relentlessly. +Now, what had changed? +What were people now doing for the first time that made that difference between stagnation and rapid, open-ended discovery? +How to make that difference is surely the most important universal truth that it is possible to know. +Worryingly, there is no consensus about what it is. +So, I'll tell you. +But I'll have to backtrack a little first. +Before the Scientific Revolution, they believed that everything important, knowable, was already known, enshrined in ancient writings, institutions, and in some genuinely useful rules of thumb -- which were, however, entrenched as dogmas, along with many falsehoods. +So they believed that knowledge came from authorities that actually knew very little. +And therefore progress depended on learning how to reject the authority of learned men, priests, traditions and rulers. +Which is why the Scientific Revolution had to have a wider context. +The Enlightenment, a revolution in how people sought knowledge, trying not to rely on authority. +"Take no one's word for it." +But that can't be what made the difference. +Authorities had been rejected before, many times. +And that rarely, if ever, caused anything like the Scientific Revolution. +At the time, what they thought distinguished science was a radical idea about things unseen, known as empiricism. +All knowledge derives from the senses. +Well, we've seen that that can't be true. +It did help by promoting observation and experiment. +But, from the outset, it was obvious that there was something horribly wrong with it. +Knowledge comes from the senses. +In what language? Certainly not the language of mathematics, in which, Galileo rightly said, the book of nature is written. +Look at the world. You don't see equations carved on to the mountainsides. +If you did, it would be because people had carved them. +By the way, why don't we do that? +What's wrong with us? +Empiricism is inadequate because, well, scientific theories explain the seen in terms of the unseen. +And the unseen, you have to admit, doesn't come to us through the senses. +We don't see those nuclear reactions in stars. +We don't see the origin of species. +We don't see the curvature of space-time, and other universes. +But we know about those things. +How? +Well, the classic empiricist answer is induction. +The unseen resembles the seen. +But it doesn't. +You know what the clinching evidence was that space-time is curved? +It was a photograph, not of space-time, but of an eclipse, with a dot there rather than there. +And the evidence for evolution? +Some rocks and some finches. +And parallel universes? Again: dots there, rather than there, on a screen. +What we see, in all these cases, bears no resemblance to the reality that we conclude is responsible -- only a long chain of theoretical reasoning and interpretation connects them. +"Ah!" say creationists. +"So you admit it's all interpretation. +No one has ever seen evolution. +We see rocks. +You have your interpretation. We have ours. +Yours comes from guesswork, ours from the Bible." +But what creationist and empiricists both ignore is that, in that sense, no one has ever seen a bible either, that the eye only detects light, which we don't perceive. +Brains only detect nerve impulses. +And they don't perceive even those as what they really are, namely electrical crackles. +So we perceive nothing as what it really is. +Our connection to reality is never just perception. +It's always, as Karl Popper put it, theory-laden. +Scientific knowledge isn't derived from anything. +It's like all knowledge. It's conjectural, guesswork, tested by observation, not derived from it. +So, were testable conjectures the great innovation that opened the intellectual prison gates? +No. Contrary to what's usually said, testability is common, in myths and all sorts of other irrational modes of thinking. +Any crank claiming the sun will go out next Tuesday has got a testable prediction. +Consider the ancient Greek myth explaining seasons. +Hades, God of the Underworld, kidnaps Persephone, the Goddess of Spring, and negotiates a forced marriage contract, requiring her to return regularly, and lets her go. +And each year, she is magically compelled to return. +And her mother, Demeter, Goddess of the Earth, is sad, and makes it cold and barren. +That myth is testable. +If winter is caused by Demeter's sadness, then it must happen everywhere on Earth simultaneously. +So if the ancient Greeks had only known that Australia is at its warmest when Demeter is at her saddest, they'd have known that their theory is false. +So what was wrong with that myth, and with all pre-scientific thinking, and what, then, made that momentous difference? +I think there is one thing you have to care about. +And that implies testability, the scientific method, the Enlightenment, and everything. +And here is the crucial thing. +There is such a thing as a defect in a story. +I don't just mean a logical defect. I mean a bad explanation. +What does that mean? Well, explanation is an assertion about what's there, unseen, that accounts for what's seen. +Because the explanatory role of Persephone's marriage contract could be played equally well by infinitely many other ad hoc entities. +Why a marriage contract and not any other reason for regular annual action? +Here is one. Persephone wasn't released. +She escaped, and returns every spring to take revenge on Hades, with her Spring powers. +She cools his domain with Spring air, venting heat up to the surface, creating summer. +That accounts for the same phenomena as the original myth. +It's equally testable. +Yet what it asserts about reality is, in many ways, the opposite. +And that is possible because the details of the original myth are unrelated to seasons, except via the myth itself. +This easy variability is the sign of a bad explanation, because, without a functional reason to prefer one of countless variants, advocating one of them, in preference to the others, is irrational. +So, for the essence of what makes the difference to enable progress, seek good explanations, the ones that can't be easily varied, while still explaining the phenomena. +Now, our current explanation of seasons is that the Earth's axis is tilted like that, so each hemisphere tilts toward the sun for half the year, and away for the other half. +Better put that up. +That's a good explanation: hard to vary, because every detail plays a functional role. +For instance, we know, independently of seasons, that surfaces tilted away from radiant heat are heated less, and that a spinning sphere, in space, points in a constant direction. +And the tilt also explains the sun's angle of elevation at different times of year, and predicts that the seasons will be out of phase in the two hemispheres. +If they'd been observed in phase, the theory would have been refuted. +But now, the fact that it's also a good explanation, hard to vary, makes the crucial difference. +If the ancient Greeks had found out about seasons in Australia, they could have easily varied their myth to predict that. +For instance, when Demeter is upset, she banishes heat from her vicinity, into the other hemisphere, where it makes summer. +So, being proved wrong by observation, and changing their theory accordingly, still wouldn't have got the ancient Greeks one jot closer to understanding seasons, because their explanation was bad: easy to vary. +And it's only when an explanation is good that it even matters whether it's testable. +If the axis-tilt theory had been refuted, its defenders would have had nowhere to go. +No easily implemented change could make that tilt cause the same seasons in both hemispheres. +The search for hard-to-vary explanations is the origin of all progress. +It's the basic regulating principle of the Enlightenment. +So, in science, two false approaches blight progress. +One is well known: untestable theories. +But the more important one is explanationless theories. +Whenever you're told that some existing statistical trend will continue, but you aren't given a hard-to-vary account of what causes that trend, you're being told a wizard did it. +When you are told that carrots have human rights because they share half our genes -- but not how gene percentages confer rights -- wizard. +When someone announces that the nature-nurture debate has been settled because there is evidence that a given percentage of our political opinions are genetically inherited, but they don't explain how genes cause opinions, they've settled nothing. They are saying that our opinions are caused by wizards, and presumably so are their own. +That the truth consists of hard to vary assertions about reality is the most important fact about the physical world. +It's a fact that is, itself, unseen, yet impossible to vary. Thank you. +All buildings today have something in common. +They're made using Victorian technologies. +This involves blueprints, industrial manufacturing and construction using teams of workers. +All of this effort results in an inert object. +And that means that there is a one-way transfer of energy from our environment into our homes and cities. +This is not sustainable. +I believe that the only way that it is possible for us to construct genuinely sustainable homes and cities is by connecting them to nature, not insulating them from it. +Now, in order to do this, we need the right kind of language. +Living systems are in constant conversation with the natural world, through sets of chemical reactions called metabolism. +And this is the conversion of one group of substances into another, either through the production or the absorption of energy. +And this is the way in which living materials make the most of their local resources in a sustainable way. +So, I'm interested in the use of metabolic materials for the practice of architecture. +But they don't exist. So I'm having to make them. +I'm working with architect Neil Spiller at the Bartlett School of Architecture, and we're collaborating with international scientists in order to generate these new materials from a bottom up approach. +That means we're generating them from scratch. +One of our collaborators is chemist Martin Hanczyc, and he's really interested in the transition from inert to living matter. +Now, that's exactly the kind of process that I'm interested in, when we're thinking about sustainable materials. +So, Martin, he works with a system called the protocell. +Now all this is -- and it's magic -- is a little fatty bag. And it's got a chemical battery in it. +And it has no DNA. +This little bag is able to conduct itself in a way that can only be described as living. +It is able to move around its environment. +It can follow chemical gradients. +It can undergo complex reactions, some of which are happily architectural. +So here we are. These are protocells, patterning their environment. +We don't know how they do that yet. +Here, this is a protocell, and it's vigorously shedding this skin. +Now, this looks like a chemical kind of birth. +This is a violent process. +Here, we've got a protocell to extract carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere and turn it into carbonate. +And that's the shell around that globular fat. +They are quite brittle. So you've only got a part of one there. +So what we're trying to do is, we're trying to push these technologies towards creating bottom-up construction approaches for architecture, which contrast the current, Victorian, top-down methods which impose structure upon matter. +That can't be energetically sensible. +So, bottom-up materials actually exist today. +They've been in use, in architecture, since ancient times. +If you walk around the city of Oxford, where we are today, and have a look at the brickwork, which I've enjoyed doing in the last couple of days, you'll actually see that a lot of it is made of limestone. +And if you look even closer, you'll see, in that limestone, there are little shells and little skeletons that are piled upon each other. +And then they are fossilized over millions of years. +Now a block of limestone, in itself, isn't particularly that interesting. +It looks beautiful. +But imagine what the properties of this limestone block might be if the surfaces were actually in conversation with the atmosphere. +Maybe they could extract carbon dioxide. +Would it give this block of limestone new properties? +Well, most likely it would. It might be able to grow. +It might be able to self-repair, and even respond to dramatic changes in the immediate environment. +So, architects are never happy with just one block of an interesting material. +They think big. Okay? +So when we think about scaling up metabolic materials, we can start thinking about ecological interventions like repair of atolls, or reclamation of parts of a city that are damaged by water. +So, one of these examples would of course be the historic city of Venice. +Now, Venice, as you know, has a tempestuous relationship with the sea, and is built upon wooden piles. +So we've devised a way by which it may be possible for the protocell technology that we're working with to sustainably reclaim Venice. +And architect Christian Kerrigan has come up with a series of designs that show us how it may be possible to actually grow a limestone reef underneath the city. +So, here is the technology we have today. +This is our protocell technology, effectively making a shell, like its limestone forefathers, and depositing it in a very complex environment, against natural materials. +We're looking at crystal lattices to see the bonding process in this. +Now, this is the very interesting part. +We don't just want limestone dumped everywhere in all the pretty canals. +What we need it to do is to be creatively crafted around the wooden piles. +So, you can see from these diagrams that the protocell is actually moving away from the light, toward the dark foundations. +We've observed this in the laboratory. +The protocells can actually move away from the light. +They can actually also move towards the light. You have to just choose your species. +So that these don't just exist as one entity, we kind of chemically engineer them. +And so here the protocells are depositing their limestone very specifically, around the foundations of Venice, effectively petrifying it. +Now, this isn't going to happen tomorrow. It's going to take a while. +It's going to take years of tuning and monitoring this technology in order for us to become ready to test it out in a case-by-case basis on the most damaged and stressed buildings within the city of Venice. +But gradually, as the buildings are repaired, we will see the accretion of a limestone reef beneath the city. +An accretion itself is a huge sink of carbon dioxide. +Also it will attract the local marine ecology, who will find their own ecological niches within this architecture. +So, this is really interesting. Now we have an architecture that connects a city to the natural world in a very direct and immediate way. +But perhaps the most exciting thing about it is that the driver of this technology is available everywhere. +This is terrestrial chemistry. We've all got it, which means that this technology is just as appropriate for developing countries as it is for First World countries. +So, in summary, I'm generating metabolic materials as a counterpoise to Victorian technologies, and building architectures from a bottom-up approach. +Secondly, these metabolic materials have some of the properties of living systems, which means they can perform in similar ways. +They can expect to have a lot of forms and functions within the practice of architecture. +And finally, an observer in the future marveling at a beautiful structure in the environment may find it almost impossible to tell whether this structure has been created by a natural process or an artificial one. +Thank you. +I'm a writer and a journalist, and I'm also an insanely curious person, so in 22 years as a journalist, I've learned how to do a lot of new things. +And three years ago, one of the things I learned how to do was to become invisible. +I became one of the working homeless. +I quit my job as a newspaper editor after my father died in February of that same year, and decided to travel. +His death hit me pretty hard. +And there were a lot of things that I wanted to feel and deal with while I was doing that. +I've camped my whole life. And I decided that living in a van for a year to do this would be like one long camping trip. +So I packed my cat, my Rottweiler and my camping gear into a 1975 Chevy van, and drove off into the sunset, having fully failed to realize three critical things. +One: that society equates living in a permanent structure, even a shack, with having value as a person. +Two: I failed to realize how quickly the negative perceptions of other people can impact our reality, if we let it. +Three: I failed to realize that homelessness is an attitude, not a lifestyle. +At first, living in the van was great. +I showered in campgrounds. I ate out regularly. +And I had time to relax and to grieve. +But then the anger and the depression about my father's death set in. +My freelance job ended. And I had to get a full-time job to pay the bills. +What had been a really mild spring turned into a miserably hot summer. +And it became impossible to park anywhere -- -- without being very obvious that I had a cat and a dog with me, and it was really hot. +The cat came and went through an open window in the van. +The doggy went into doggy day care. +And I sweated. +Whenever I could, I used employee showers in office buildings and truck stops. +Or I washed up in public rest rooms. +Nighttime temperatures in the van rarely dropped below 80 degrees Fahrenheit, making it difficult or impossible to sleep. +Food rotted in the heat. +Ice in my ice chest melted within hours, and it was pretty miserable. +I couldn't afford to find an apartment, or couldn't afford an apartment that would allow me to have the Rottweiler and the cat. +And I refused to give them up, so I stayed in the van. +And when the heat made me too sick to walk the 50 feet to the public restroom outside my van at night, I used a bucket and a trash bag as a toilet. +When winter weather set in, the temperatures dropped below freezing. And they stayed there. +And I faced a whole new set of challenges. +I parked a different place every night so I would avoid being noticed and hassled by the police. +I didn't always succeed. +But I felt out of control of my life. +And I don't know when or how it happened, but the speed at which I went from being a talented writer and journalist to being a homeless woman, living in a van, took my breath away. +I hadn't changed. My I.Q. hadn't dropped. +My talent, my integrity, my values, everything about me remained the same. +But I had changed somehow. +I spiraled deeper and deeper into a depression. +And eventually someone referred me to a homeless health clinic. +And I went. I hadn't bathed in three days. +I was as smelly and as depressed as anyone in line. +I just wasn't drunk or high. +And when several of the homeless men realized that, including a former university professor, they said, "You aren't homeless. Why are you really here?" +Other homeless people didn't see me as homeless, but I did. +Then the professor listened to my story and he said, "You have a job. You have hope. +The real homeless don't have hope." +A reaction to the medication the clinic gave me for my depression left me suicidal. And I remember thinking, "If I killed myself, no one would notice." +A friend told me, shortly after that, that she had heard that Tim Russert, a nationally renowned journalist, had been talking about me on national T.V. +An essay I'd written about my father, the year before he died, was in Tim's new book. +And he was doing the talk show circuit. And he was talking about my writing. +And when I realized that Tim Russert, former moderator of "Meet the Press," was talking about my writing, while I was living in a van in a Wal-Mart parking lot, I started laughing. +You should too. +I started laughing because it got to the point where, was I a writer, or was I a homeless woman? +So I went in the bookstore. And I found Tim's book. +And I stood there. And I reread my essay. +And I cried. +Because I was a writer. +I was a writer. +Shortly after that I moved back to Tennessee. +I alternated between living in a van and couch surfing with friends. +And I started writing again. +By the summer of the following year I was a working journalist. +I was winning awards. I was living in my own apartment. +I was no longer homeless. +And I was no longer invisible. +Thousands of people work full and part-time jobs, and live in their cars. +But society continues to stigmatize and criminalize living in your vehicle or on the streets. +So the homeless, the working homeless, primarily remain invisible. +But if you ever meet one, engage them, encourage them, and offer them hope. +The human spirit can overcome anything if it has hope. +And I'm not here to be the poster girl for the homeless. +I'm not here to encourage you to give money to the next panhandler you meet. +But I am here to tell you that, based on my experience, people are not where they live, where they sleep, or what their life situation is at any given time. +Three years ago I was living in a van in a Wal-Mart parking lot, and today I'm speaking at TED. +Hope always, always finds a way. Thank you. +On the 30th of May, 1832, a gunshot was heard ringing out across the 13th arrondissement in Paris. +A peasant, who was walking to market that morning, ran towards where the gunshot had come from, and found a young man writhing in agony on the floor, clearly shot by a dueling wound. +The young man's name was Evariste Galois. +He was a well-known revolutionary in Paris at the time. +Galois was taken to the local hospital where he died the next day in the arms of his brother. +And the last words he said to his brother were, "Don't cry for me, Alfred. +I need all the courage I can muster to die at the age of 20." +It wasn't, in fact, revolutionary politics for which Galois was famous. +But a few years earlier, while still at school, he'd actually cracked one of the big mathematical problems at the time. +And he wrote to the academicians in Paris, trying to explain his theory. +But the academicians couldn't understand anything that he wrote. +This is how he wrote most of his mathematics. +So, the night before that duel, he realized this possibly is his last chance to try and explain his great breakthrough. +So he stayed up the whole night, writing away, trying to explain his ideas. +And as the dawn came up and he went to meet his destiny, he left this pile of papers on the table for the next generation. +Maybe the fact that he stayed up all night doing mathematics was the fact that he was such a bad shot that morning and got killed. +But contained inside those documents was a new language, a language to understand one of the most fundamental concepts of science -- namely symmetry. +Now, symmetry is almost nature's language. +It helps us to understand so many different bits of the scientific world. +For example, molecular structure. +What crystals are possible, we can understand through the mathematics of symmetry. +In microbiology you really don't want to get a symmetrical object, because they are generally rather nasty. +The swine flu virus, at the moment, is a symmetrical object. +And it uses the efficiency of symmetry to be able to propagate itself so well. +But on a larger scale of biology, actually symmetry is very important, because it actually communicates genetic information. +I've taken two pictures here and I've made them artificially symmetrical. +And if I ask you which of these you find more beautiful, you're probably drawn to the lower two. +Because it is hard to make symmetry. +And if you can make yourself symmetrical, you're sending out a sign that you've got good genes, you've got a good upbringing and therefore you'll make a good mate. +So symmetry is a language which can help to communicate genetic information. +Symmetry can also help us to explain what's happening in the Large Hadron Collider in CERN. +Or what's not happening in the Large Hadron Collider in CERN. +To be able to make predictions about the fundamental particles we might see there, it seems that they are all facets of some strange symmetrical shape in a higher dimensional space. +And I think Galileo summed up, very nicely, the power of mathematics to understand the scientific world around us. +He wrote, "The universe cannot be read until we have learnt the language and become familiar with the characters in which it is written. +It is written in mathematical language, and the letters are triangles, circles and other geometric figures, without which means it is humanly impossible to comprehend a single word." +But it's not just scientists who are interested in symmetry. +Artists too love to play around with symmetry. +They also have a slightly more ambiguous relationship with it. +Here is Thomas Mann talking about symmetry in "The Magic Mountain." +He has a character describing the snowflake, and he says he "shuddered at its perfect precision, found it deathly, the very marrow of death." +But what artists like to do is to set up expectations of symmetry and then break them. +And a beautiful example of this I found, actually, when I visited a colleague of mine in Japan, Professor Kurokawa. +And he took me up to the temples in Nikko. +And just after this photo was taken we walked up the stairs. +And the gateway you see behind has eight columns, with beautiful symmetrical designs on them. +Seven of them are exactly the same, and the eighth one is turned upside down. +And I said to Professor Kurokawa, "Wow, the architects must have really been kicking themselves when they realized that they'd made a mistake and put this one upside down." +And he said, "No, no, no. It was a very deliberate act." +And he referred me to this lovely quote from the Japanese "Essays in Idleness" from the 14th century, in which the essayist wrote, "In everything, uniformity is undesirable. +Leaving something incomplete makes it interesting, and gives one the feeling that there is room for growth." +Even when building the Imperial Palace, they always leave one place unfinished. +But if I had to choose one building in the world to be cast out on a desert island, to live the rest of my life, being an addict of symmetry, I would probably choose the Alhambra in Granada. +This is a palace celebrating symmetry. +Recently I took my family -- we do these rather kind of nerdy mathematical trips, which my family love. +This is my son Tamer. You can see he's really enjoying our mathematical trip to the Alhambra. +But I wanted to try and enrich him. +I think one of the problems about school mathematics is it doesn't look at how mathematics is embedded in the world we live in. +So, I wanted to open his eyes up to how much symmetry is running through the Alhambra. +You see it already. Immediately you go in, the reflective symmetry in the water. +But it's on the walls where all the exciting things are happening. +The Moorish artists were denied the possibility to draw things with souls. +So they explored a more geometric art. +And so what is symmetry? +The Alhambra somehow asks all of these questions. +What is symmetry? When [there] are two of these walls, do they have the same symmetries? +Can we say whether they discovered all of the symmetries in the Alhambra? +And it was Galois who produced a language to be able to answer some of these questions. +For Galois, symmetry -- unlike for Thomas Mann, which was something still and deathly -- for Galois, symmetry was all about motion. +What can you do to a symmetrical object, move it in some way, so it looks the same as before you moved it? +I like to describe it as the magic trick moves. +What can you do to something? You close your eyes. +I do something, put it back down again. +It looks like it did before it started. +So, for example, the walls in the Alhambra -- I can take all of these tiles, and fix them at the yellow place, rotate them by 90 degrees, put them all back down again and they fit perfectly down there. +And if you open your eyes again, you wouldn't know that they'd moved. +But it's the motion that really characterizes the symmetry inside the Alhambra. +But it's also about producing a language to describe this. +And the power of mathematics is often to change one thing into another, to change geometry into language. +So I'm going to take you through, perhaps push you a little bit mathematically -- so brace yourselves -- push you a little bit to understand how this language works, which enables us to capture what is symmetry. +So, let's take these two symmetrical objects here. +Let's take the twisted six-pointed starfish. +What can I do to the starfish which makes it look the same? +Well, there I rotated it by a sixth of a turn, and still it looks like it did before I started. +I could rotate it by a third of a turn, or a half a turn, or put it back down on its image, or two thirds of a turn. +And a fifth symmetry, I can rotate it by five sixths of a turn. +And those are things that I can do to the symmetrical object that make it look like it did before I started. +Now, for Galois, there was actually a sixth symmetry. +Can anybody think what else I could do to this which would leave it like I did before I started? +I can't flip it because I've put a little twist on it, haven't I? +It's got no reflective symmetry. +But what I could do is just leave it where it is, pick it up, and put it down again. +And for Galois this was like the zeroth symmetry. +Actually, the invention of the number zero was a very modern concept, seventh century A.D., by the Indians. +It seems mad to talk about nothing. +And this is the same idea. This is a symmetrical -- so everything has symmetry, where you just leave it where it is. +So, this object has six symmetries. +And what about the triangle? +Well, I can rotate by a third of a turn clockwise or a third of a turn anticlockwise. +But now this has some reflectional symmetry. +I can reflect it in the line through X, or the line through Y, or the line through Z. +Five symmetries and then of course the zeroth symmetry where I just pick it up and leave it where it is. +So both of these objects have six symmetries. +Now, I'm a great believer that mathematics is not a spectator sport, and you have to do some mathematics in order to really understand it. +So here is a little question for you. +And I'm going to give a prize at the end of my talk for the person who gets closest to the answer. +The Rubik's Cube. +How many symmetries does a Rubik's Cube have? +How many things can I do to this object and put it down so it still looks like a cube? +Okay? So I want you to think about that problem as we go on, and count how many symmetries there are. +And there will be a prize for the person who gets closest at the end. +But let's go back down to symmetries that I got for these two objects. +What Galois realized: it isn't just the individual symmetries, but how they interact with each other which really characterizes the symmetry of an object. +If I do one magic trick move followed by another, the combination is a third magic trick move. +And here we see Galois starting to develop a language to see the substance of the things unseen, the sort of abstract idea of the symmetry underlying this physical object. +For example, what if I turn the starfish by a sixth of a turn, and then a third of a turn? +So I've given names. The capital letters, A, B, C, D, E, F, are the names for the rotations. +B, for example, rotates the little yellow dot to the B on the starfish. And so on. +So what if I do B, which is a sixth of a turn, followed by C, which is a third of a turn? +Well let's do that. A sixth of a turn, followed by a third of a turn, the combined effect is as if I had just rotated it by half a turn in one go. +So the little table here records how the algebra of these symmetries work. +I do one followed by another, the answer is it's rotation D, half a turn. +What I if I did it in the other order? Would it make any difference? +Let's see. Let's do the third of the turn first, and then the sixth of a turn. +Of course, it doesn't make any difference. +It still ends up at half a turn. +And there is some symmetry here in the way the symmetries interact with each other. +But this is completely different to the symmetries of the triangle. +Let's see what happens if we do two symmetries with the triangle, one after the other. +Let's do a rotation by a third of a turn anticlockwise, and reflect in the line through X. +Well, the combined effect is as if I had just done the reflection in the line through Z to start with. +Now, let's do it in a different order. +Let's do the reflection in X first, followed by the rotation by a third of a turn anticlockwise. +The combined effect, the triangle ends up somewhere completely different. +It's as if it was reflected in the line through Y. +Now it matters what order you do the operations in. +And this enables us to distinguish why the symmetries of these objects -- they both have six symmetries. So why shouldn't we say they have the same symmetries? +But the way the symmetries interact enable us -- we've now got a language to distinguish why these symmetries are fundamentally different. +And you can try this when you go down to the pub, later on. +Take a beer mat and rotate it by a quarter of a turn, then flip it. And then do it in the other order, and the picture will be facing in the opposite direction. +Now, Galois produced some laws for how these tables -- how symmetries interact. +It's almost like little Sudoku tables. +You don't see any symmetry twice in any row or column. +And, using those rules, he was able to say that there are in fact only two objects with six symmetries. +And they'll be the same as the symmetries of the triangle, or the symmetries of the six-pointed starfish. +I think this is an amazing development. +It's almost like the concept of number being developed for symmetry. +In the front here, I've got one, two, three people sitting on one, two, three chairs. +The people and the chairs are very different, but the number, the abstract idea of the number, is the same. +And we can see this now: we go back to the walls in the Alhambra. +Here are two very different walls, very different geometric pictures. +But, using the language of Galois, we can understand that the underlying abstract symmetries of these things are actually the same. +For example, let's take this beautiful wall with the triangles with a little twist on them. +You can rotate them by a sixth of a turn if you ignore the colors. We're not matching up the colors. +But the shapes match up if I rotate by a sixth of a turn around the point where all the triangles meet. +What about the center of a triangle? I can rotate by a third of a turn around the center of the triangle, and everything matches up. +And then there is an interesting place halfway along an edge, where I can rotate by 180 degrees. +And all the tiles match up again. +So rotate along halfway along the edge, and they all match up. +Now, let's move to the very different-looking wall in the Alhambra. +And we find the same symmetries here, and the same interaction. +So, there was a sixth of a turn. A third of a turn where the Z pieces meet. +And the half a turn is halfway between the six pointed stars. +And although these walls look very different, Galois has produced a language to say that in fact the symmetries underlying these are exactly the same. +And it's a symmetry we call 6-3-2. +Here is another example in the Alhambra. +This is a wall, a ceiling, and a floor. +They all look very different. But this language allows us to say that they are representations of the same symmetrical abstract object, which we call 4-4-2. Nothing to do with football, but because of the fact that there are two places where you can rotate by a quarter of a turn, and one by half a turn. +Now, this power of the language is even more, because Galois can say, "Did the Moorish artists discover all of the possible symmetries on the walls in the Alhambra?" +And it turns out they almost did. +You can prove, using Galois' language, there are actually only 17 different symmetries that you can do in the walls in the Alhambra. +And they, if you try to produce a different wall with this 18th one, it will have to have the same symmetries as one of these 17. +But these are things that we can see. +And the power of Galois' mathematical language is it also allows us to create symmetrical objects in the unseen world, beyond the two-dimensional, three-dimensional, all the way through to the four- or five- or infinite-dimensional space. +And that's where I work. I create mathematical objects, symmetrical objects, using Galois' language, in very high dimensional spaces. +So I think it's a great example of things unseen, which the power of mathematical language allows you to create. +So, like Galois, I stayed up all last night creating a new mathematical symmetrical object for you, and I've got a picture of it here. +Well, unfortunately it isn't really a picture. If I could have my board at the side here, great, excellent. +Here we are. Unfortunately, I can't show you a picture of this symmetrical object. +But here is the language which describes how the symmetries interact. +Now, this new symmetrical object does not have a name yet. +Now, people like getting their names on things, on craters on the moon or new species of animals. +So I'm going to give you the chance to get your name on a new symmetrical object which hasn't been named before. +And this thing -- species die away, and moons kind of get hit by meteors and explode -- but this mathematical object will live forever. +It will make you immortal. +In order to win this symmetrical object, what you have to do is to answer the question I asked you at the beginning. +How many symmetries does a Rubik's Cube have? +Okay, I'm going to sort you out. +Rather than you all shouting out, I want you to count how many digits there are in that number. Okay? +If you've got it as a factorial, you've got to expand the factorials. +Okay, now if you want to play, I want you to stand up, okay? +If you think you've got an estimate for how many digits, right -- we've already got one competitor here. +If you all stay down he wins it automatically. +Okay. Excellent. So we've got four here, five, six. +Great. Excellent. That should get us going. All right. +Anybody with five or less digits, you've got to sit down, because you've underestimated. +Five or less digits. So, if you're in the tens of thousands you've got to sit down. +60 digits or more, you've got to sit down. +You've overestimated. +20 digits or less, sit down. +How many digits are there in your number? +Two? So you should have sat down earlier. +Let's have the other ones, who sat down during the 20, up again. Okay? +If I told you 20 or less, stand up. +Because this one. I think there were a few here. +The people who just last sat down. +Okay, how many digits do you have in your number? +21. Okay good. How many do you have in yours? +18. So it goes to this lady here. +21 is the closest. +It actually has -- the number of symmetries in the Rubik's cube has 25 digits. +So now I need to name this object. +So, what is your name? +I need your surname. Symmetrical objects generally -- spell it for me. +G-H-E-Z No, SO2 has already been used, actually, in the mathematical language. So you can't have that one. +So Ghez, there we go. That's your new symmetrical object. +You are now immortal. +And if you'd like your own symmetrical object, I have a project raising money for a charity in Guatemala, where I will stay up all night and devise an object for you, for a donation to this charity to help kids get into education in Guatemala. +And I think what drives me, as a mathematician, are those things which are not seen, the things that we haven't discovered. +It's all the unanswered questions which make mathematics a living subject. +And I will always come back to this quote from the Japanese "Essays in Idleness": "In everything, uniformity is undesirable. +Leaving something incomplete makes it interesting, and gives one the feeling that there is room for growth." Thank you. +One of my favorite cartoon characters is Snoopy. +I love the way he sits and lies on his kennel and contemplates the great things of life. +So when I thought about compassion, my mind immediately went to one of the cartoon strips, where he's lying there and he says, "I really understand, and I really appreciate how one should love one's neighbor as one love's oneself. +The only trouble is the people next door; I can't stand them." +This, in a way, is one of the challenges of how to interpret a really good idea. +We all, I think, believe in compassion. +If you look at all the world religions, all the main world religions, you'll find within them some teaching concerning compassion. +So in Judaism, we have, from our Torah, that you should love your neighbor as you love yourself. +And within Jewish teachings, the rabbinic teachings, we have Hillel, who taught that you shouldn't do to others what you don't like being done to yourself. +And all the main religions have similar teachings. +And again, within Judaism, we have a teaching about God, who is called the compassionate one, Ha-rachaman. +After all, how could the world exist without God being compassionate? +And we, as taught within the Torah that we are made in the image of God, so we too have to be compassionate. +But what does it mean? How does it impact on our everyday life? +Sometimes, of course, being compassionate can produce feelings within us that are very difficult to control. +I know there are many times when I've gone and conducted a funeral, or when I have been sitting with the bereaved, or with people who are dying, and I am overwhelmed by the sadness, by the difficulty, the challenge that is there for the family, for the person. +And I'm touched, so that tears come to my eyes. +And yet, if I just allowed myself to be overwhelmed by these feelings, I wouldn't be doing my job -- because I have to actually be there for them and make sure that rituals happen, that practicalities are seen to. +And yet, on the other hand, if I didn't feel this compassion, then I feel that it would be time for me to hang up my robe and give up being a rabbi. +And these same feelings are there for all of us as we face the world. +Who cannot be touched by compassion when we see the terrible horrors of the results of war, or famine, or earthquakes, or tsunamis? +I know some people who say "Well, you know there's just so much out there -- I can't do anything, I'm not going to even begin to try." +And there are some charity workers who call this compassion fatigue. +There are others who feel they can't confront compassion anymore, and so they turn off the television and don't watch. +In Judaism, though, we tend to always say, there has to be a middle way. +You have to, of course, be aware of the needs of others, but you have to be aware in such a way that you can carry on with your life and be of help to people. +So part of compassion has to be an understanding of what makes people tick. +And, of course, you can't do that unless you understand yourself a bit more. +And there's a lovely rabbinic interpretation of the beginnings of creation, which says that when God created the world, God thought that it would be best to create the world only with the divine attribute of justice. +Because, after all, God is just. +Therefore, there should be justice throughout the world. +And then God looked to the future and realized, if the world was created just with justice, the world couldn't exist. +So, God thought, "Nope, I'm going to create the world just with compassion." +And then God looked to the future and realized that, in fact, if the world were just filled with compassion, there would be anarchy and chaos. +There had to be limits to all things. +The rabbis describe this as being like a king who has a beautiful, fragile glass bowl. +If you put too much cold water in, it will shatter. +If you put boiling water in, it will shatter. +What do you have to do? Put in a mixture of the two. +And so God put both of these possibilities into the world. +There is something more though that has to be there. +And that is the translation of the feelings that we may have about compassion into the wider world, into action. +So, like Snoopy, we can't just lie there and think great thoughts about our neighbors. +We actually have to do something about it. +And so there is also, within Judaism, this notion of love and kindness that becomes very important: "chesed." +All these three things, then, have to be melded together. +The idea of justice, which gives boundaries to our lives and gives us a feeling of what's right about life, what's right about living, what should we be doing, social justice. +There has to be a willingness to do good deeds, but not, of course, at the expense of our own sanity. +You know, there's no way that you can do anything for anyone if you overdo things. +And balancing them all in the middle is this notion of compassion, which has to be there, if you like, at our very roots. +This idea of compassion comes to us because we're made in the image of God, who is ultimately the compassionate one. +What does this compassion entail? +It entails understanding the pain of the other. +But even more than that, it means understanding one's connection to the whole of creation: understanding that one is part of that creation, that there is a unity that underlies all that we see, all that we hear, all that we feel. +I call that unity God. +And that unity is something that connects all of creation. +And, of course, in the modern world, with the environmental movement, we're becoming even more aware of the connectivity of things, that something I do here actually does matter in Africa, that if I use too much of my carbon allowance, it seems to be that we are causing a great lack of rain in central and eastern Africa. +So there is a connectivity, and I have to understand that -- as part of the creation, as part of me being made in the image of God. +And I have to understand that my needs sometimes have to be sublimated to other needs. +This "18 minutes" business, I find quite fascinating. +Because in Judaism, the number 18, in Hebrew letters, stands for life -- the word "life." +So, in a sense, the 18 minutes is challenging me to say, "In life, this is what's important in terms of compassion." +But, something else as well: actually, 18 minutes is important. +Because at Passover, when we have to eat unleavened bread, the rabbis say, what is the difference between dough that is made into bread, and dough that is made into unleavened bread, or "matzah"? +And they say "It's 18 minutes." +Because that's how long they say it takes for this dough to become leaven. +What does it mean, "dough becomes leaven"? +It means it gets filled with hot air. +What's matzah? What's unleavened bread? You don't get it. +Symbolically, what the rabbis say is that at Passover, what we have to do is try to get rid of our hot air -- our pride, our feeling that we are the most important people in the whole entire world, and that everything should revolve round us. +So we try and get rid of those, and so doing, try to get rid of the habits, the emotions, the ideas that enslave us, that make our eyes closed, give us tunnel vision so we don't see the needs of others -- and free ourselves and free ourselves from that. +And that too is a basis for having compassion, for understanding our place in the world. +Now there is, in Judaism, a gorgeous story of a rich man who sat in synagogue one day. +And, as many people do, he was dozing off during the sermon. +And as he was dozing off, they were reading from the book of Leviticus in the Torah. +And they were saying that in the ancient times in the temple in Jerusalem, the priests used to have bread, which they used to place into a special table in the temple in Jerusalem. +The man was asleep, but he heard the words bread, temple, God, and he woke up. +He said, "God wants bread. That's it. God wants bread. I know what God wants." +And he rushed home. And after the Sabbath, he made 12 loaves of bread, took them to the synagogue, went into the synagogue, opened the ark and said, "God, I don't know why you want this bread, but here you are." +And he put it in the ark with the scrolls of the Torah. +Then he went home. +The cleaner came into the synagogue. +"Oh God, I'm in such trouble. I've got children to feed. +My wife's ill. I've got no money. What can I do?" +He goes into the synagogue. "God, will you please help me? +Ah, what a wonderful smell." +He goes to the ark. He opens the ark. +"There's bread! God, you've answered my plea. You've answered my question." +Takes the bread and goes home. +Meanwhile, the rich man thinks to himself, "I'm an idiot. God wants bread? +God, the one who rules the entire universe, wants my bread?" +He rushes to the synagogue. "I'll get it out of the ark before anybody finds it." +He goes in there, and it's not there. +And he says, "God, you really did want it. You wanted my bread. +Next week, with raisins." +This went on for years. +Every week, the man would bring bread with raisins, with all sorts of good things, put it into the ark. +Every week, the cleaner would come. "God you've answered my plea again." +Take the bread. Take it home. +Went on until a new rabbi came. Rabbis always spoil things. +The rabbi came in and saw what was going on. +And he called the two of them to his office. +And he said, you know, "This is what's happening." +And the rich man -- oh, dear -- crestfallen. +"You mean God didn't want my bread?" +And the poor man said, "And you mean God didn't answer my pleas?" +And the rabbi said, "You've misunderstood me. +You've misunderstood totally," he said. +"Of course, what you are doing," he said to the rich man, "is answering God's plea that we should be compassionate. +And God," he said to the poor man, "is answering your plea that people should be compassionate and give." +He looked at the rich man. He held the rich man's hands and said, "Don't you understand?" He said, "These are the hands of God." +I have to reevaluate them, try and separate out the material things and my emotions that may be enslaving me, so that I can see the world clearly. +And then I have to try to see in what ways I can make these the hands of God. +And so try to bring compassion to life in this world. +A human child is born, and for quite a long time is a consumer. +It cannot be consciously a contributor. +It is helpless. +It doesn't know how to survive, even though it is endowed with an instinct to survive. +It needs the help of mother, or a foster mother, to survive. +It can't afford to doubt the person who tends the child. +It has to totally surrender, as one surrenders to an anesthesiologist. +It has to totally surrender. +That implies a lot of trust. +That implies the trusted person won't violate the trust. +As the child grows, it begins to discover that the person trusted is violating the trust. +It doesn't know even the word "violation." +Therefore, it has to blame itself, a wordless blame, which is more difficult to really resolve -- the wordless self-blame. +As the child grows to become an adult: so far, it has been a consumer, but the growth of a human being lies in his or her capacity to contribute, to be a contributor. +One cannot contribute unless one feels secure, one feels big, one feels: I have enough. +To be compassionate is not a joke. +It's not that simple. +One has to discover a certain bigness in oneself. +That bigness should be centered on oneself, not in terms of money, not in terms of power you wield, not in terms of any status that you can command in the society, but it should be centered on oneself. +The self: you are self-aware. +On that self, it should be centered -- a bigness, a wholeness. +Otherwise, compassion is just a word and a dream. +You can be compassionate occasionally, more moved by empathy than by compassion. +Thank God we are empathetic. +When somebody's in pain, we pick up the pain. +In a Wimbledon final match, these two guys fight it out. +Each one has got two games. +It can be anybody's game. +What they have sweated so far has no meaning. +One person wins. +The tennis etiquette is, both the players have to come to the net and shake hands. +The winner boxes the air and kisses the ground, throws his shirt as though somebody is waiting for it. +And this guy has to come to the net. +When he comes to the net, you see, his whole face changes. +It looks as though he's wishing that he didn't win. +Why? Empathy. +That's human heart. +No human heart is denied of that empathy. +No religion can demolish that by indoctrination. +No culture, no nation and nationalism -- nothing can touch it because it is empathy. +And that capacity to empathize is the window through which you reach out to people, you do something that makes a difference in somebody's life -- even words, even time. +Compassion is not defined in one form. +There's no Indian compassion. +There's no American compassion. +It transcends nation, the gender, the age. +Why? Because it is there in everybody. +It's experienced by people occasionally. +Then this occasional compassion, we are not talking about -- it will never remain occasional. +By mandate, you cannot make a person compassionate. +You can't say, "Please love me." +Love is something you discover. +It's not an action, but in the English language, it is also an action. +I will come to it later. +So one has got to discover a certain wholeness. +I am going to cite the possibility of being whole, which is within our experience, everybody's experience. +In spite of a very tragic life, one is happy in moments which are very few and far between. +And the one who is happy, even for a slapstick joke, accepts himself and also the scheme of things in which one finds oneself. +That means the whole universe, known things and unknown things. +All of them are totally accepted because you discover your wholeness in yourself. +The subject -- "me" -- and the object -- the scheme of things -- fuse into oneness, an experience nobody can say, "I am denied of," an experience common to all and sundry. +That experience confirms that, in spite of all your limitations -- all your wants, desires, unfulfilled, and the credit cards and layoffs and, finally, baldness -- you can be happy. +But the extension of the logic is that you don't need to fulfill your desire to be happy. +You are the very happiness, the wholeness that you want to be. +There's no choice in this: that only confirms the reality that the wholeness cannot be different from you, cannot be minus you. +It has got to be you. +You cannot be a part of wholeness and still be whole. +Your moment of happiness reveals that reality, that realization, that recognition: "Maybe I am the whole. +Maybe the swami is right. +Maybe the swami is right." You start your new life. +Then everything becomes meaningful. +I have no more reason to blame myself. +If one has to blame oneself, one has a million reasons plus many. +But if I say, in spite of my body being limited -- if it is black it is not white, if it is white it is not black: body is limited any which way you look at it. Limited. +Your knowledge is limited, health is limited, and power is therefore limited, and the cheerfulness is going to be limited. +Compassion is going to be limited. +Everything is going to be limitless. +You cannot command compassion unless you become limitless, and nobody can become limitless, either you are or you are not. Period. +And there is no way of your being not limitless too. +Your own experience reveals, in spite of all limitations, you are the whole. +And the wholeness is the reality of you when you relate to the world. +It is love first. +When you relate to the world, the dynamic manifestation of the wholeness is, what we say, love. +And itself becomes compassion if the object that you relate to evokes that emotion. +Then that again transforms into giving, into sharing. +You express yourself because you have compassion. +To discover compassion, you need to be compassionate. +To discover the capacity to give and share, you need to be giving and sharing. +There is no shortcut: it is like swimming by swimming. +You learn swimming by swimming. +You cannot learn swimming on a foam mattress and enter into water. +You learn swimming by swimming. You learn cycling by cycling. +You learn cooking by cooking, having some sympathetic people around you to eat what you cook. +And, therefore, what I say, you have to fake it and make it. +You need to. +My predecessor meant that. +You have to act it out. +You have to act compassionately. +There is no verb for compassion, but you have an adverb for compassion. +That's interesting to me. +You act compassionately. +But then, how to act compassionately if you don't have compassion? +That is where you fake. +You fake it and make it. This is the mantra of the United States of America. +You fake it and make it. +You act compassionately as though you have compassion: grind your teeth, take all the support system. +If you know how to pray, pray. +Ask for compassion. +Let me act compassionately. +Do it. +You'll discover compassion and also slowly a relative compassion, and slowly, perhaps if you get the right teaching, you'll discover compassion is a dynamic manifestation of the reality of yourself, which is oneness, wholeness, and that's what you are. +With these words, thank you very much. +Compassion: what does it look like? +Come with me to 915 South Bloodworth Street in Raleigh, North Carolina, where I grew up. +If you come in you will see us: evening time, at table -- set for ten but not always all seats filled -- at the point when dinner is ready to be served. +Since mom had eight kids, sometimes she said she couldn't tell who was who and where they were. +Before we could eat, she would ask, "Are all the children in?" +And if someone happened to be missing, we would have to, we say, "Fix a plate" for that person, put it in the oven, then we could say grace, and we could eat. +For when one is honored, all are honored. +Also, we had to make a report on our extended "visited" members, that is, extended members of the family, sick and elderly, shut in. +My task was, at least once a week, to visit Mother Lassiter who lived on East Street, Mother Williamson who lived on Bledsoe Avenue, and Mother Lathers who lived on Oberlin Road. +Why? Because they were old and infirm, and we needed to go by to see if they needed anything. +For mom said, "To be family, is to care and share and to look out for one another. +They are our family." +And, of course, sometimes there was a bonus for going. +They would offer sweets or money. +Mom says, "If they ask you what it costs to either go shopping for them, you must always say, 'Nothing.' And if they insist, say, 'Whatever you mind to give me.'" This was the nature of being at that table. +In fact, she indicated that if we would do that, not only would we have the joy of receiving the gratitude from the members of the extended family, but she said, "Even God will smile, and when God smiles, there is peace, and justice, and joy." +So, at the table at 915, I learned something about compassion. +Of course, it was a minister's family, so we had to add God into it. +And so, I came to think that mama eternal, mama eternal, is always wondering: Are all the children in? +And if we had been faithful in caring and sharing, we had the sense that justice and peace would have a chance in the world. +Now, it was not always wonderful at that table. +Let me explain a point at which we did not rise to the occasion. +It was Christmas, and at our family, oh, what a morning. +Christmas morning, where we open up our gifts, where we have special prayers, and where we get to the old upright piano and we would sing carols. It was a very intimate moment. +In fact, you could come down to the tree to get your gifts and get ready to sing, and then get ready for breakfast without even taking a bath or getting dressed, except that daddy messed it up. +There was a member of his staff who did not have any place on that particular Christmas to celebrate. +And daddy brought Elder Revels to the Christmas family celebration. +We thought he must be out of his mind. +This is our time. This is intimate time. +This is when we can just be who we are, and now we have this stuffy brother with his shirt and tie on, while we are still in our PJs. +Why would daddy bring Elder Revels? +Any other time, but not to the Christmas celebration. +And mom overheard us and said, "Well, you know what? If you really understand the nature of this celebration, it is that this is a time where you extend the circle of love. +That's what the celebration is all about. +It's time to make space, to share the enjoyment of life in a beloved community." +So, we sucked up. +But growing up at 915, compassion was not a word to be debated; it was a sensibility to how we are together. +We are sisters and brothers united together. +And, like Chief Seattle said, "We did not spin the web of life. +We're all strands in it. +And whatever we do to the web, we do to ourselves." +Now that's compassion. +So, let me tell you, I kind of look at the world this way. +I see pictures, and something says, "Now, that's compassion." +A harvested field of grain, with some grain in the corners, reminding me of the Hebrew tradition that you may indeed harvest, but you must always leave some on the edges, just in case there's someone who has not had the share necessary for good nurture. +Talk about a picture of compassion. +I see -- always, it stirs my heart -- a picture of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. +walking arm in arm with Andy Young and Rabbi Heschel and maybe Thich Nhat Hanh and some of the other saints assembled, walking across the bridge and going into Selma. +Just a photograph. +Arm in arm for struggle. +Suffering together in a common hope that we can be brothers and sisters without the accidents of our birth or our ethnicity robbing us of a sense of unity of being. +So, there's another picture. Here, this one. I really do like this picture. +When Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. was assassinated, that day, everybody in my community was upset. +You heard about riots all across the land. +Bobby Kennedy was scheduled to bring an inner city message in Indianapolis. +This is the picture. They said, "It's going to be too volatile for you to go." +He insisted, "I must go." +So, sitting on a flatbed truck, the elders of the community are there, and Bobby stands up and says to the people, "I have bad news for you. +Some of you may not have heard that Dr. King has been assassinated. +I know that you are angry, and I know that you would almost wish to have the opportunity to enter now into activities of revenge. But," he said, "what I really want you to know is that I know how you feel. +Because I had someone dear to me snatched away. +I know how you feel." +And he said, "I hope that you will have the strength to do what I did. +I allowed my anger, my bitterness, my grief to simmer a while, and then I made up my mind that I was going to make a different world, and we can do that together." +That's a picture. Compassion? I think I see it. +I saw it when the Dalai Lama came to the Riverside Church while I was a pastor, and he invited representatives of faith traditions from all around the world. +He asked them to give a message, and they each read in their own language a central affirmation, and that was some version of the golden rule: "As you would that others would do unto you, do also unto them." +Twelve in their ecclesiastical or cultural or tribal attire affirming one message. +We are so connected that we must treat each other as if an action toward you is an action toward myself. +One more picture while I'm stinking and thinking about the Riverside Church: 9/11. Last night at Chagrin Fall, a newspaperman and a television guy said, "That evening, when a service was held at the Riverside Church, we carried it on our station in this city. +It was," he said, "one of the most powerful moments of life together. +We were all suffering. +But you invited representatives of all of the traditions to come, and you invited them. +'Find out what it is in your tradition that tells us what to do when we have been humiliated, when we have been despised and rejected.' And they all spoke out of their own traditions, a word about the healing power of solidarity, one with the other." +I developed a sense of compassion sort of as second nature, but I became a preacher. +Now, as a preacher, I got a job. I got to preach the stuff, but I got to do it too. +Or, as Father Divine in Harlem used to say to folks, "Some people preach the Gospel. +I have to tangibilitate the Gospel." +So, the real issue is: How do you tangibilitate compassion? +How do you make it real? +My faith has constantly lifted up the ideal, and challenged me when I fell beneath it. +In my tradition, there is a gift that we have made to other traditions -- to everybody around the world who knows the story of the "Good Samaritan." +Many people think of it primarily in terms of charity, random acts of kindness. +But for those who really study that text a little more thoroughly, you will discover that a question has been raised that leads to this parable. +The question was: "What is the greatest commandment?" +And, according to Jesus, the word comes forth, "You must love yourself, you must love the Lord your God with all your heart, mind and soul, and your neighbor as yourself." +And he said, "Here, this is the initial investment, but if needs continue, make sure that you provide them. +And whatever else is needed, I will provide it and pay for it when I return." +This always seemed to me to be a deepening of the sense of what it means to be a Good Samaritan. +A Good Samaritan is not simply one whose heart is touched in an immediate act of care and charity, but one who provides a system of sustained care -- I like that, 'a system of sustained care ' -- in the inn, take care. +I think maybe it's one time when the Bible talks about a healthcare system and a commitment to do whatever is necessary -- that all God's children would have their needs cared for, so that we could answer when mommy eternal asks, "In regards to health, are all the children in?" And we could say yes. +Oh, what a joy it has been to be a person seeking to tangibilitate compassion. +I recall that my work as a pastor has always involved caring for their spiritual needs; being concerned for housing, for healthcare, for the prisoners, for the infirm, for children -- even the foster care children for whom no one can even keep a record where they started off, where they are going. +To be a pastor is to care for these individual needs. +But now, to be a Good Samaritan -- and I always say, and to be a good American -- for me, is not simply to congratulate myself for the individual acts of care. +Compassion takes on a corporate dynamic. +I believe that whatever we did around that table at Bloodworth Street must be done around tables and rituals of faith until we become that family, that family together that understands the nature of our unity. +We are one people together. +So, let me explain to you what I mean when I think about compassion, and why I think it is so important that right at this point in history. +We would decide to establish this charter of compassion. +The reason it's important is because this is a very special time in history. +It is the time that, biblically, we would speak of as the day, or the year, of God's favor. +This is a season of grace. +Unusual things are beginning to happen. +Please pardon me, as a black man, for celebrating that the election of Obama was an unusual sign of the fact that it is a year of favor. +And yet, there is so much more that needs to be done. +We need to bring health and food and education and respect for all God's citizens, all God's children, remembering mama eternal. +Now, let me close my comments by telling you that whenever I feel something very deeply, it usually takes the form of verse. +And so I want to close with a little song. +I close with this song -- it's a children's song -- because we are all children at the table of mama eternal. +And if mama eternal has taught us correctly, this song will make sense, not only to those of us who are a part of this gathering, but to all who sign the charter for compassion. +And this is why we do it. +I'm speaking about compassion from an Islamic point of view, and perhaps my faith is not very well thought of as being one that is grounded in compassion. +The truth of the matter is otherwise. +For us human beings, and certainly for us as Muslims, whose mission, and whose purpose in following the path of the prophet is to make ourselves as much like the prophet. +And the prophet, in one of his sayings, said, "Adorn yourselves with the attributes of God." +And because God Himself said that the primary attribute of his is compassion -- in fact, the Koran says that "God decreed upon himself compassion," or, "reigned himself in by compassion" -- therefore, our objective and our mission must be to be sources of compassion, activators of compassion, actors of compassion and speakers of compassion and doers of compassion. +That is all well and good, but where do we go wrong, and what is the source of the lack of compassion in the world? +For the answer to this, we turn to our spiritual path. +In every religious tradition, there is the outer path and the inner path, or the exoteric path and the esoteric path. +The esoteric path of Islam is more popularly known as Sufism, or "tasawwuf" in Arabic. +And these doctors or these masters, these spiritual masters of the Sufi tradition, refer to teachings and examples of our prophet that teach us where the source of our problems lies. +In one of the battles that the prophet waged, he told his followers, "We are returning from the lesser war to the greater war, to the greater battle." +And they said, "Messenger of God, we are battle-weary. +How can we go to a greater battle?" +He said, "That is the battle of the self, the battle of the ego." +The sources of human problems have to do with egotism, "I." +The famous Sufi master Rumi, who is very well known to most of you, has a story in which he talks of a man who goes to the house of a friend, and he knocks on the door, and a voice answers, "Who's there?" +"It's me," or, more grammatically correctly, "It is I," as we might say in English. +The voice says, "Go away." +After many years of training, of disciplining, of search and struggle, he comes back. +With much greater humility, he knocks again on the door. +The voice asks, "Who is there?" +He said, "It is you, O heartbreaker." +The door swings open, and the voice says, "Come in, for there is no room in this house for two I's," -- two capital I's, not these eyes -- "for two egos." +And Rumi's stories are metaphors for the spiritual path. +In the presence of God, there is no room for more than one "I," and that is the "I" of divinity. +In a teaching -- called a "hadith qudsi" in our tradition -- God says that, "My servant," or "My creature, my human creature, does not approach me by anything that is dearer to me than what I have asked them to do." +And those of you who are employers know exactly what I mean. +You want your employees to do what you ask them to do, and if they've done that, then they can do extra. +But don't ignore what you've asked them to do. +"And," God says, "my servant continues to get nearer to me, by doing more of what I've asked them to do" -- extra credit, we might call it -- "until I love him or love her. +And when I love my servant," God says, "I become the eyes by which he or she sees, the ears by which he or she listens, the hand by which he or she grasps, and the foot by which he or she walks, and the heart by which he or she understands." +It is this merging of our self with divinity that is the lesson and purpose of our spiritual path and all of our faith traditions. +Muslims regard Jesus as the master of Sufism, the greatest prophet and messenger who came to emphasize the spiritual path. +Compassion on earth is given, it is in us. +All we have to do is to get our egos out of the way, get our egotism out of the way. +I'm sure, probably all of you here, or certainly the very vast majority of you, have had what you might call a spiritual experience, a moment in your lives when, for a few seconds, a minute perhaps, the boundaries of your ego dissolved. +And at that minute, you felt at one with the universe -- one with that jug of water, one with every human being, one with the Creator -- and you felt you were in the presence of power, of awe, of the deepest love, the deepest sense of compassion and mercy that you have ever experienced in your lives. +That is a moment which is a gift of God to us -- a gift when, for a moment, he lifts that boundary which makes us insist on "I, I, I, me, me, me," and instead, like the person in Rumi's story, we say, "Oh, this is all you. +This is all you. And this is all us. +And us, and I, and us are all part of you. +O, Creator! O, the Objective! The source of our being and the end of our journey, you are also the breaker of our hearts. +You are the one whom we should all be towards, for whose purpose we live, and for whose purpose we shall die, and for whose purpose we shall be resurrected again to account to God to what extent we have been compassionate beings." +Our message today, and our purpose today, and those of you who are here today, and the purpose of this charter of compassion, is to remind. +For the Koran always urges us to remember, to remind each other, because the knowledge of truth is within every human being. +We know it all. +We have access to it all. +Jung may have called it "the subconscious." +Through our subconscious, in your dreams -- the Koran calls our state of sleep "the lesser death," "the temporary death" -- in our state of sleep we have dreams, we have visions, we travel even outside of our bodies, for many of us, and we see wonderful things. +We travel beyond the limitations of space as we know it, and beyond the limitations of time as we know it. +But all this is for us to glorify the name of the creator whose primary name is the compassionating, the compassionate. +God, Bokh, whatever name you want to call him with, Allah, Ram, Om, whatever the name might be through which you name or access the presence of divinity, it is the locus of absolute being, absolute love and mercy and compassion, and absolute knowledge and wisdom, what Hindus call "satchidananda." +The language differs, but the objective is the same. +Rumi has another story about three men, a Turk, an Arab and -- and I forget the third person, but for my sake, it could be a Malay. +One is asking for angur -- one is, say, an Englishman -- one is asking for eneb, and one is asking for grapes. +And they have a fight and an argument because -- "I want grapes." "I want eneb. "I want angur." -- not knowing that the word that they're using refers to the same reality in different languages. +There's only one absolute reality by definition, one absolute being by definition, because absolute is, by definition, single, and absolute and singular. +There's this absolute concentration of being, the absolute concentration of consciousness, awareness, an absolute locus of compassion and love that defines the primary attributes of divinity. +And these should also be the primary attributes of what it means to be human. +For what defines humanity, perhaps biologically, is our physiology, but God defines humanity by our spirituality, by our nature. +And the Koran says, He speaks to the angels and says, "When I have finished the formation of Adam from clay, and breathed into him of my spirit, then, fall in prostration to him." +The angels prostrate, not before the human body, but before the human soul. +Why? Because the soul, the human soul, embodies a piece of the divine breath, a piece of the divine soul. +This is also expressed in biblical vocabulary when we are taught that we were created in the divine image. +What is the imagery of God? +The imagery of God is absolute being, absolute awareness and knowledge and wisdom and absolute compassion and love. +This is what I understand from my faith tradition, and this is what I understand from my studies of other faith traditions, and this is the common platform on which we must all stand, and when we stand on this platform as such, I am convinced that we can make a wonderful world. +And I believe, personally, that we're on the verge and that, with the presence and help of people like you here, we can bring about the prophecy of Isaiah. +For he foretold of a period when people shall transform their swords into plowshares and will not learn war or make war anymore. +We have reached a stage in human history that we have no option: we must, we must lower our egos, control our egos -- whether it is individual ego, personal ego, family ego, national ego -- and let all be for the glorification of the one. +Thank you, and God bless you. +I want to open by quoting Einstein's wonderful statement, just so people will feel at ease that the great scientist of the 20th century also agrees with us, and also calls us to this action. +He said, "A human being is a part of the whole, called by us, the 'universe,' -- a part limited in time and space. +He experiences himself, his thoughts and feelings, as something separated from the rest, a kind of optical delusion of his consciousness. +This delusion is a kind of prison for us, restricting us to our personal desires and to affection for a few persons nearest to us. +Our task must be to free ourselves from this prison by widening our circle of compassion, to embrace all living creatures and the whole of nature in its beauty." +This insight of Einstein's is uncannily close to that of Buddhist psychology, wherein compassion -- "karuna," it is called -- is defined as, "the sensitivity to another's suffering and the corresponding will to free the other from that suffering." +It pairs closely with love, which is the will for the other to be happy, which requires, of course, that one feels some happiness oneself and wishes to share it. +This is perfect in that it clearly opposes self-centeredness and selfishness to compassion, the concern for others, and, further, it indicates that those caught in the cycle of self-concern suffer helplessly, while the compassionate are more free and, implicitly, more happy. +The Dalai Lama often states that compassion is his best friend. +It helps him when he is overwhelmed with grief and despair. +Compassion helps him turn away from the feeling of his suffering as the most absolute, most terrible suffering anyone has ever had and broadens his awareness of the sufferings of others, even of the perpetrators of his misery and the whole mass of beings. +In fact, suffering is so huge and enormous, his own becomes less and less monumental. +And he begins to move beyond his self-concern into the broader concern for others. +And this immediately cheers him up, as his courage is stimulated to rise to the occasion. +Thus, he uses his own suffering as a doorway to widening his circle of compassion. +He is a very good colleague of Einstein's, we must say. +Now, I want to tell a story, which is a very famous story in the Indian and Buddhist tradition, of the great Saint Asanga who was a contemporary of Augustine in the West and was sort of like the Buddhist Augustine. +And Asanga lived 800 years after the Buddha's time. +And he was discontented with the state of people's practice of the Buddhist religion in India at that time. +And so he said, "I'm sick of all this. Nobody's really living the doctrine. +They're talking about love and compassion and wisdom and enlightenment, but they are acting selfish and pathetic. +So, Buddha's teaching has lost its momentum. +So he went on this retreat. And he meditated for three years and he did not see the future Buddha Maitreya. +And he left in disgust. +And as he was leaving, he saw a man -- a funny little man sitting sort of part way down the mountain. +And he had a lump of iron. +And he was rubbing it with a cloth. +And he became interested in that. +He said, "Well what are you doing?" +And the man said, "I'm making a needle." +And he said, "That's ridiculous. You can't make a needle by rubbing a lump of iron with a cloth." +And the man said, "Really?" And he showed him a dish full of needles. +So he said, "Okay, I get the point." +He went back to his cave. He meditated again. +Another three years, no vision. He leaves again. +This time, he comes down. +And as he's leaving, he sees a bird making a nest on a cliff ledge. +And where it's landing to bring the twigs to the cliff, its feathers brushes the rock -- and it had cut the rock six to eight inches in. There was a cleft in the rock by the brushing of the feathers of generations of the birds. +So he said, "All right. I get the point." He went back. +Another three years. +Again, no vision of Maitreya after nine years. +And he again leaves, and this time: water dripping, making a giant bowl in the rock where it drips in a stream. +And so, again, he goes back. And after 12 years there is still no vision. +And he's freaked out. And he won't even look left or right to see any encouraging vision. +And he comes to the town. He's a broken person. +And there, in the town, he's approached by a dog who comes like this -- one of these terrible dogs you can see in some poor countries, even in America, I think, in some areas -- and he's looking just terrible. +And he becomes interested in this dog because it's so pathetic, and it's trying to attract his attention. And he sits down looking at the dog. +And the dog's whole hindquarters are a complete open sore. +Some of it is like gangrenous, and there are maggots in the flesh. And it's terrible. +He thinks, "What can I do to fix up this dog? +Well, at least I can clean this wound and wash it." +So, he takes it to some water. He's about to clean, but then his awareness focuses on the maggots. +And he sees the maggots, and the maggots are kind of looking a little cute. +And they're maggoting happily in the dog's hindquarters there. +"Well, if I clean the dog, I'll kill the maggots. So how can that be? +That's it. I'm a useless person and there's no Buddha, no Maitreya, and everything is all hopeless. +And now I'm going to kill the maggots?" +So, he had a brilliant idea. +And he took a shard of something, and cut a piece of flesh from his thigh, and he placed it on ground. +He was not really thinking too carefully about the ASPCA. +He was just immediately caught with the situation. +So he thought, "I will take the maggots and put them on this piece of flesh, then clean the dog's wounds, and then I'll figure out what to do with the maggots." +So he starts to do that. He can't grab the maggots. +Apparently they wriggle around. They're kind of hard to grab, these maggots. +So he says, "Well, I'll put my tongue on the dog's flesh. +And then the maggots will jump on my warmer tongue" -- the dog is kind of used up -- "and then I'll spit them one by one down on the thing." +So he goes down, and he's sticking his tongue out like this. +And he had to close his eyes, it's so disgusting, and the smell and everything. +And then, suddenly, there's a pfft, a noise like that. +He jumps back and there, of course, is the future Buddha Maitreya in a beautiful vision -- rainbow lights, golden, jeweled, a plasma body, an exquisite mystic vision -- that he sees. +And he says, "Oh." He bows. +But, being human, he's immediately thinking of his next complaint. +So as he comes up from his first bow he says, "My Lord, I'm so happy to see you, but where have you been for 12 years? +What is this?" +And Maitreya says, "I was with you. Who do you think was making needles and making nests and dripping on rocks for you, mister dense?" +"Looking for the Buddha in person," he said. +And he said, "You didn't have, until this moment, real compassion. +And, until you have real compassion, you cannot recognize love." +"Maitreya" means love, "the loving one," in Sanskrit. +And so he looked very dubious, Asanga did. +And he said, "If you don't believe me, just take me with you." +And so he took the Maitreya -- it shrunk into a globe, a ball -- took him on his shoulder. +And he ran into town in the marketplace, and he said, "Rejoice! Rejoice! +The future Buddha has come ahead of all predictions. Here he is." +And then pretty soon they started throwing rocks and stones at him -- it wasn't Chautauqua, it was some other town -- because they saw a demented looking, scrawny looking yogi man, like some kind of hippie, with a bleeding leg and a rotten dog on his shoulder, shouting that the future Buddha had come. +So, naturally, they chased him out of town. +But on the edge of town, one elderly lady, a charwoman in the charnel ground, saw a jeweled foot on a jeweled lotus on his shoulder and then the dog, but she saw the jewel foot of the Maitreya, and she offered a flower. +So that encouraged him, and he went with Maitreya. +Maitreya then took him to a certain heaven, which is the typical way a Buddhist myth unfolds. +And Maitreya then kept him in heaven for five years, dictating to him five complicated tomes of the methodology of how you cultivate compassion. +And then I thought I would share with you what that method is, or one of them. +A famous one, it's called the "Sevenfold Causal Method of Developing Compassion." +And it begins first by one meditating and visualizing that all beings are with one -- even animals too, but everyone is in human form. +The animals are in one of their human lives. The humans are human. +And then, among them, you think of your friends and loved ones, the circle at the table. +And you think of your enemies, and you think of the neutral ones. +And then you try to say, "Well, the loved ones I love. +But, you know, after all, they're nice to me. +I had fights with them. Sometimes they were unfriendly. +I got mad. Brothers can fight. Parents and children can fight. +So, in a way, I like them so much because they're nice to me. +While the neutral ones I don't know. They could all be just fine. +And then the enemies I don't like because they're mean to me. +But they are nice to somebody. I could be them." +And then the Buddhists, of course, think that, because we've all had infinite previous lives, we've all been each other's relatives, actually. +Therefore all of you, in the Buddhist view, in some previous life, although you don't remember it and neither do I, have been my mother -- for which I do apologize for the trouble I caused you. +And also, actually, I've been your mother. +I've been female, and I've been every single one of yours' mother in a previous life, the way the Buddhists reflect. +So, my mother in this life is really great. But all of you in a way are part of the eternal mother. +You gave me that expression; "the eternal mama," you said. That's wonderful. +So, that's the way the Buddhists do it. +A theist Christian can think that all beings, even my enemies, are God's children. +So, in that sense, we're related. +So, they first create this foundation of equality. +So, we sort of reduce a little of the clinging to the ones we love -- just in the meditation -- and we open our mind to those we don't know. +And we definitely reduce the hostility and the "I don't want to be compassionate to them" to the ones we think of as the bad guys, the ones we hate and we don't like. +And we don't hate anyone, therefore. So we equalize. That's very important. +And then the next thing we do is what is called "mother recognition." +And that is, we think of every being as familiar, as family. +We expand. We take the feeling about remembering a mama, and we defuse that to all beings in this meditation. +And we see the mother in every being. +We see that look that the mother has on her face, looking at this child that is a miracle that she has produced from her own body, being a mammal, where she has true compassion, truly is the other, and identifies completely. +Often the life of that other will be more important to her than her own life. +And that's why it's the most powerful form of altruism. +The mother is the model of all altruism for human beings, in spiritual traditions. +And so, we reflect until we can sort of see that motherly expression in all beings. +People laugh at me because, you know, I used to say that I used to meditate on mama Cheney as my mom, when, of course, I was annoyed with him about all of his evil doings in Iraq. +I used to meditate on George Bush. He's quite a cute mom in a female form. +He has his little ears and he smiles and he rocks you in his arms. +And you think of him as nursing you. +And then Saddam Hussein's serious mustache is a problem, but you think of him as a mom. +And this is the way you do it. You take any being who looks weird to you, and you see how they could be familiar to you. +And you do that for a while, until you really feel that. +You can feel the familiarity of all beings. +Nobody seems alien. They're not "other." +You reduce the feeling of otherness about beings. +Then you move from there to remembering the kindness of mothers in general, if you can remember the kindness of your own mother, if you can remember the kindness of your spouse, or, if you are a mother yourself, how you were with your children. +And you begin to get very sentimental; you cultivate sentimentality intensely. +You will even weep, perhaps, with gratitude and kindness. +And then you connect that with your feeling that everyone has that motherly possibility. +Every being, even the most mean looking ones, can be motherly. +And then, third, you step from there to what is called "a feeling of gratitude." +You want to repay that kindness that all beings have shown to you. +And then the fourth step, you go to what is called "lovely love." +In each one of these you can take some weeks, or months, or days depending on how you do it, or you can do them in a run, this meditation. +And then you think of how lovely beings are when they are happy, when they are satisfied. +And every being looks beautiful when they are internally feeling a happiness. +Their face doesn't look like this. When they're angry, they look ugly, every being, but when they're happy they look beautiful. +And so you see beings in their potential happiness. +And you feel a love toward them and you want them to be happy, even the enemy. +We think Jesus is being unrealistic when he says, "Love thine enemy." +He does say that, and we think he's being unrealistic and sort of spiritual and highfalutin. "Nice for him to say it, but I can't do that." +But, actually, that's practical. +If you love your enemy that means you want your enemy to be happy. +If your enemy was really happy, why would they bother to be your enemy? +How boring to run around chasing you. +They would be relaxing somewhere having a good time. +So it makes sense to want your enemy to be happy, because they'll stop being your enemy because that's too much trouble. +But anyway, that's the "lovely love. " And then finally, the fifth step is compassion, "universal compassion." +And that is where you then look at the reality of all the beings you can think of. +And you look at them, and you see how they are. +And you realize how unhappy they are actually, mostly, most of the time. +You see that furrowed brow in people. +And then you realize they don't even have compassion on themselves. +They're driven by this duty and this obligation. +"I have to get that. I need more. I'm not worthy. And I should do something." +And they're rushing around all stressed out. +And they think of it as somehow macho, hard discipline on themselves. +But actually they are cruel to themselves. +And, of course, they are cruel and ruthless toward others. +And they, then, never get any positive feedback. +And the more they succeed and the more power they have, the more unhappy they are. +And this is where you feel real compassion for them. +And you then feel you must act. +And the choice of the action, of course, hopefully will be more practical than poor Asanga, who was fixing the maggots on the dog because he had that motivation, and whoever was in front of him, he wanted to help. +But, of course, that is impractical. He should have founded the ASPCA in the town and gotten some scientific help for dogs and maggots. +And I'm sure he did that later. But that just indicates the state of mind, you know. +And so the next step -- the sixth step beyond "universal compassion" -- is this thing where you're linked with the needs of others in a true way, and you have compassion for yourself also, and it isn't sentimental only. You might be in fear of something. +Some bad guy is making himself more and more unhappy being more and more mean to other people and getting punished in the future for it in various ways. +And in Buddhism, they catch it in the future life. +Of course in theistic religion they're punished by God or whatever. +And materialism, they think they get out of it just by not existing, by dying, but they don't. +And so they get reborn as whatever, you know. +Never mind. I won't get into that. +But the next step is called "universal responsibility." +And that is very important -- the Charter of Compassion must lead us to develop through true compassion, what is called "universal responsibility." +In the great teaching of his Holiness the Dalai Lama that he always teaches everywhere, he says that that is the common religion of humanity: kindness. +But "kindness" means "universal responsibility." +And that means whatever happens to other beings is happening to us: we are responsible for that, and we should take it and do whatever we can at whatever little level and small level that we can do it. +We absolutely must do that. There is no way not to do it. +And then, finally, that leads to a new orientation in life where we live equally for ourselves and for others and we are joyful and happy. +One thing we mustn't think is that compassion makes you miserable. +Compassion makes you happy. +The first person who is happy when you get great compassion is yourself, even if you haven't done anything yet for anybody else. +Although, the change in your mind already does something for other beings: they can sense this new quality in yourself, and it helps them already, and gives them an example. +And that uncompassionate clock has just showed me that it's all over. +So, practice compassion, read the charter, disseminate it and develop it within yourself. +Don't just think, "Well, I'm compassionate," or "I'm not compassionate," You can develop this. You can diminish the non-compassion, the cruelty, the callousness, the neglect of others, and take universal responsibility for them. +And then, not only will God smile and the eternal mama will smile, but Karen Armstrong will smile. +Thank you very much. +I'm going to talk about compassion and the golden rule from a secular perspective and even from a kind of scientific perspective. +I'm going to try to give you a little bit of a natural history of compassion and the golden rule. +So, I'm going to be sometimes using kind of clinical language, and so it's not going to sound as warm and fuzzy as your average compassion talk. +I want to warn you about that. +So, I do want to say, at the outset, that I think compassion's great. +The golden rule is great. I'm a big supporter of both. +And I think it's great that the leaders of the religions of the world are affirming compassion and the golden rule as fundamental principles that are integral to their faiths. +At the same time, I think religions don't deserve all the credit. +I think nature gave them a helping hand here. +I'm going to argue tonight that compassion and the golden rule are, in a certain sense, built into human nature. +But I'm also going to argue that once you understand the sense in which they are built into human nature, you realize that just affirming compassion, and affirming the golden rule, is really not enough. +There's a lot of work to be done after that. +OK so, a quick natural history, first of compassion. +In the beginning, there was compassion, and I mean not just when human beings first showed up, but actually even before that. +I think it's probably the case that, in the human evolutionary lineage, even before there were homo sapiens, feelings like compassion and love and sympathy had earned their way into the gene pool, and biologists have a pretty clear idea of how this first happened. +It happened through a principle known as kin selection. +And the basic idea of kin selection is that, if an animal feels compassion for a close relative, and this compassion leads the animal to help the relative, then, in the end, the compassion actually winds up helping the genes underlying the compassion itself. +So, from a biologist's point of view, compassion is actually a gene's way of helping itself. OK. +I warned you this was not going to be very warm and fuzzy. +I'll get there -- I hope to get a little fuzzier. +This doesn't bother me so much, that the underlying Darwinian rationale of compassion is kind of self-serving at the genetic level. +Actually, I think the bad news about kin selection is just that it means that this kind of compassion is naturally deployed only within the family. +That's the bad news. The good news is compassion is natural. +The bad news is that this kin selected compassion is naturally confined to the family. +Now, there's more good news that came along later in evolution, a second kind of evolutionary logic. +Biologists call that "reciprocal altruism." OK. +And there, the basic idea is that compassion leads you to do good things for people who then will return the favor. +Again, I know this is not as inspiring a notion of compassion as you may have heard in the past, but from a biologist's point of view, this reciprocal altruism kind of compassion is ultimately self-serving too. +It's not that people think that, when they feel the compassion. +It's not consciously self-serving, but to a biologist, that's the logic. +And so, you wind up most easily extending compassion to friends and allies. +I'm sure a lot of you, if a close friend has something really terrible happen to them, you feel really bad. +But if you read in the newspaper that something really horrible happened to somebody you've never heard of, you can probably live with that. +That's just human nature. +So, it's another good news/bad news story. +It's good that compassion was extended beyond the family by this kind of evolutionary logic. +The bad news is this doesn't bring us universal compassion by itself. +So, there's still work to be done. +Now, there's one other result of this dynamic called reciprocal altruism, which I think is kind of good news, which is that the way that this is played out in the human species, it has given people an intuitive appreciation of the golden rule. +And evolutionary psychologists think that these intuitions have a basis in the genes. +So, they do understand that if you want to be treated well, you treat other people well. +And it's good to treat other people well. +That's close to being a kind of built-in intuition. +So, that's good news. Now, if you've been paying attention, you're probably anticipating that there's bad news here; we still aren't to universal love, and it's true because, although an appreciation of the golden rule is natural, it's also natural to carve out exceptions to the golden rule. +I mean, for example, none of us, probably, want to go to prison, but we all think that there are some people who should go to prison. Right? +So, we think we should treat them differently than we would want to be treated. +Now, we have a rationale for that. +We say they did these bad things that make it just that they should go to prison. +None of us really extends the golden rule in truly diffuse and universal fashion. +We have the capacity to carve out exceptions, put people in a special category. +Basically it's just like, if you're my enemy, if you're my rival -- if you're not my friend, if you're not in my family -- I'm much less inclined to apply the golden rule to you. +We all do that, and you see it all over the world. +You see it in the Middle East: people who, from Gaza, are firing missiles at Israel. +They wouldn't want to have missiles fired at them, but they say, "Well, but the Israelis, or some of them have done things that put them in a special category." +The Israelis would not want to have an economic blockade imposed on them, but they impose one on Gaza, and they say, "Well, the Palestinians, or some of them, have brought this on themselves." +So, it's these exclusions to the golden rule that amount to a lot of the world's trouble. +And it's natural to do that. +So, the fact that the golden rule is in some sense built in to us is not, by itself, going to bring us universal love. +It's not going to save the world. +Now, there's one piece of good news I have that may save the world. Okay. +Are you on the edges of your seats here? +Good, because before I tell you about that good news, I'm going to have to take a little excursion through some academic terrain. +So, I hope I've got your attention with this promise of good news that may save the world. +It's this non-zero-sumness stuff you just heard a little bit about. +It's just a quick introduction to game theory. +This won't hurt. Okay. +It's about zero-sum and non-zero-sum games. +If you ask what kind of a situation is conducive to people becoming friends and allies, the technical answer is a non-zero-sum situation. +And if you ask what kind of situation is conducive to people defining people as enemies, it's a zero-sum situation. +So, what do those terms mean? +Basically, a zero-sum game is the kind you're used to in sports, where there's a winner and a loser. +So, their fortunes add up to zero. +So, in tennis, every point is either good for you and bad for the other person, or good for them, bad for you. +Either way, your fortunes add up to zero. That's a zero-sum game. +Now, if you're playing doubles, then the person on your side of the net is in a non-zero-sum relationship with you, because every point is either good for both of you -- positive, win-win -- or bad for both of you, it's lose-lose. +That's a non-zero-sum game. +And in real life, there are lots of non-zero-sum games. +In the realm of economics, say, if you buy something: that means you'd rather have the merchandise than the money, but the merchant would rather have the money than the merchandise. +You both feel you've won. +In a war, two allies are playing a non-zero-sum game. +It's going to either be win-win or lose-lose for them. +So, there are lots of non-zero-sum games in real life. +And you could basically reformulate what I said earlier, about how compassion is deployed and the golden rule is deployed, by just saying, well, compassion most naturally flows along non-zero-sum channels where people perceive themselves as being in a potentially win-win situation with some of their friends or allies. +The deployment of the golden rule most naturally happens along these non-zero-sum channels. +So, kind of webs of non-zero-sumness are where you would expect compassion and the golden rule to kind of work their magic. +With zero-sum channels you would expect something else. +Okay. So, now you're ready for the good news that I said might save the world. +And now I can admit that it might not too, now that I've held your attention for three minutes of technical stuff. +But it may. And the good news is that history has naturally expanded these webs of non-zero-sumness, these webs that can be these channels for compassion. +You can go back all the way to the stone age: technological evolution -- roads, the wheel, writing, a lot of transportation and communication technologies -- has just inexorably made it so that more people can be in more non-zero-sum relationships with more and more people at greater and greater distances. +That's the story of civilization. +It's why social organization has grown from the hunter-gatherer village to the ancient state, the empire, and now here we are in a globalized world. +And the story of globalization is largely a story of non-zero-sumness. +You've probably heard the term "interdependence" applied to the modern world. Well, that's just another term for non-zero-sum. +If your fortunes are interdependent with somebody, then you live in a non-zero-sum relationship with them. +And you see this all the time in the modern world. +You saw it with the recent economic crash, where bad things happen in the economy -- bad for everybody, for much of the world. +Good things happen, and it's good for much of the world. +And, you know, I'm happy to say, I think there's really evidence that this non-zero-sum kind of connection can expand the moral compass. +Any form of interdependence, or non-zero-sum relationship forces you to acknowledge the humanity of people. +So, I think that's good. +And the world is full of non-zero-sum dynamics. +Environmental problems, in many ways, put us all in the same boat. +And there are non-zero-sum relationships that maybe people aren't aware of. +If they get less and less happy, that will be bad for Americans. +So, there's plenty of non-zero-sumness. +And so, the question is: If there's so much non-zero-sumness, why has the world not yet been suffused in love, peace, and understanding? +The answer's complicated. It's the occasion for a whole other talk. +Certainly, a couple of things are that, first of all, there are a lot of zero-sum situations in the world. +And also, sometimes people don't recognize the non-zero-sum dynamics in the world. +In both of these areas, I think politicians can play a role. +This isn't only about religion. +I think politicians can help foster non-zero-sum relationships, Economic engagement is generally better than blockades and so on, in this regard. +Because, you know, historically, if you're not being respected, you're probably not going to wind up in a non-zero-sum, mutually profitable relationship with people. +So, we need to be aware of what kind of signals we're sending out. +And some of this, again, is in the realm of political work. +If there's one thing I can encourage everyone to do, politicians, religious leaders, and us, it would be what I call "expanding the moral imagination" -- that is to say, your ability to put yourself in the shoes of people in very different circumstances. +This is not the same as compassion, but it's conducive to compassion. It opens the channels for compassion. +And I'm afraid we have another good news/bad news story, which is that the moral imagination is part of human nature. +That's good, but again we tend to deploy it selectively. +Once we define somebody as an enemy, we have trouble putting ourselves in their shoes, just naturally. +So, if you want to take a particularly hard case for an American: somebody in Iran who is burning an American flag, and you see them on TV. +Well, the average American is going to resist the moral exercise of putting themselves in that person's head and is going to resist the idea that they have much in common with that person. +And if you tell them, "Well, they think America disrespects them and even wants to dominate them, and they hate America. +Has there ever been somebody who disrespected you so much that you kind of hated them briefly"? +You know, they'll resist that comparison and that's natural, that's human. +And, similarly, the person in Iran: when you try to humanize somebody in America who said that Islam is evil, they'll have trouble with that. +So, it's a very difficult thing to get people to expand the moral imagination to a place it doesn't naturally go. +I think it's worth the trouble because, again, it just helps us to understand. +If you want to reduce the number of people who are burning flags, it helps to understand what makes them do it. +And I think it's good moral exercise. +I would say here is where religious leaders come in, because religious leaders are good at reframing issues for people, at harnessing the emotional centers of the brain to get people to alter their awareness and reframe the way they think. +I mean, religious leaders are kind of in the inspiration business. +It's their great calling right now, to get people all around the world better at expanding their moral imaginations, appreciating that in so many ways they're in the same boat. +I would just sum up the way things look, at least from this secular perspective, as far as compassion and the golden rule go, by saying that it's good news that compassion and the golden rule are in some sense built into human nature. +It's unfortunate that they tend to be selectively deployed. +And it's going to take real work to change that. +But, nobody ever said that doing God's work was going to be easy. Thanks. +I believe that there are new, hidden tensions that are actually happening between people and institutions -- institutions that are the institutions that people inhabit in their daily life: schools, hospitals, workplaces, factories, offices, etc. +And something that I see happening is something that I would like to call a sort of "democratization of intimacy." +And what do I mean by that? +I mean that what people are doing is, in fact, they are sort of, with their communication channels, they are breaking an imposed isolation that these institutions are imposing on them. +How are they doing this? They're doing it in a very simple way, by calling their mom from work, by IMing from their office to their friends, by texting under the desk. +The pictures that you're seeing behind me are people that I visited in the last few months. +And I asked them to come along with the person they communicate with most. +And somebody brought a boyfriend, somebody a father. +One young woman brought her grandfather. +For 20 years, I've been looking at how people use channels such as email, the mobile phone, texting, etc. +What we're actually going to see is that, fundamentally, people are communicating on a regular basis with five, six, seven of their most intimate sphere. +Now, lets take some data. Facebook. +Recently some sociologists from Facebook -- Facebook is the channel that you would expect is the most enlargening of all channels. +And an average user, said Cameron Marlow, from Facebook, has about 120 friends. +But he actually talks to, has two-way exchanges with, about four to six people on a regular base, depending on his gender. +Academic research on instant messaging also shows 100 people on buddy lists, but fundamentally people chat with two, three, four -- anyway, less than five. +My own research on cellphones and voice calls shows that 80 percent of the calls are actually made to four people. 80 percent. +And when you go to Skype, it's down to two people. +A lot of sociologists actually are quite disappointed. +I mean, I've been a bit disappointed sometimes when I saw this data and all this deployment, just for five people. +And some sociologists actually feel that it's a closure, it's a cocooning, that we're disengaging from the public. +And I would actually, I would like to show you that if we actually look at who is doing it, and from where they're doing it, actually there is an incredible social transformation. +There are three stories that I think are quite good examples. +The first gentleman, he's a baker. +And so he starts working every morning at four o'clock in the morning. +And around eight o'clock he sort of sneaks away from his oven, cleans his hands from the flour and calls his wife. +He just wants to wish her a good day, because that's the start of her day. +And I've heard this story a number of times. +A young factory worker who works night shifts, who manages to sneak away from the factory floor, where there is CCTV by the way, and find a corner, where at 11 o'clock at night he can call his girlfriend and just say goodnight. +Or a mother who, at four o'clock, suddenly manages to find a corner in the toilet to check that her children are safely home. +Then there is another couple, there is a Brazilian couple. +They've lived in Italy for a number of years. +They Skype with their families a few times a week. +But once a fortnight, they actually put the computer on their dining table, pull out the webcam and actually have dinner with their family in Sao Paulo. And they have a big event of it. +And I heard this story the first time a couple of years ago from a very modest family of immigrants from Kosovo in Switzerland. +They had set up a big screen in their living room, and every morning they had breakfast with their grandmother. +But Danny Miller, who is a very good anthropologist who is working on Filipina migrant women who leave their children back in the Philippines, was telling me about how much parenting is going on through Skype, and how much these mothers are engaged with their children through Skype. +And then there is the third couple. They are two friends. +They chat to each other every day, a few times a day actually. +And finally, finally, they've managed to put instant messaging on their computers at work. +And now, obviously, they have it open. +Whenever they have a moment they chat to each other. +And this is exactly what we've been seeing with teenagers and kids doing it in school, under the table, and texting under the table to their friends. +So, none of these cases are unique. +I mean, I could tell you hundreds of them. +But what is really exceptional is the setting. +So, think of the three settings I've talked to you about: factory, migration, office. +But it could be in a school, it could be an administration, it could be a hospital. +Three settings that, if we just step back 15 years, if you just think back 15 years, when you clocked in, when you clocked in to an office, when you clocked in to a factory, there was no contact for the whole duration of the time, there was no contact with your private sphere. +If you were lucky there was a public phone hanging in the corridor or somewhere. +If you were in management, oh, that was a different story. +Maybe you had a direct line. +If you were not, you maybe had to go through an operator. +But basically, when you walked into those buildings, the private sphere was left behind you. +And this has become such a norm of our professional lives, such a norm and such an expectation. +And it had nothing to do with technical capability. +The phones were there. But the expectation was once you moved in there your commitment was fully to the task at hand, fully to the people around you. +That was where the focus had to be. +And this has become such a cultural norm that we actually school our children for them to be capable to do this cleavage. +If you think nursery, kindergarten, first years of school are just dedicated to take away the children, to make them used to staying long hours away from their family. +And then the school enacts perfectly well. +And of course, the major thing: learn to pay attention, to concentrate and focus your attention. +This only started about 150 years ago. +It only started with the birth of modern bureaucracy, and of industrial revolution. +When people basically had to go somewhere else to work and carry out the work. +And when with modern bureaucracy there was a very rational approach, where there was a clear distinction between the private sphere and the public sphere. +So, until then, basically people were living on top of their trades. +They were living on top of the land they were laboring. +They were living on top of the workshops where they were working. +And if you think, it's permeated our whole culture, even our cities. +If you think of medieval cities, medieval cities the boroughs all have the names of the guilds and professions that lived there. +Now we have sprawling residential suburbias that are well distinct from production areas and commercial areas. +And actually, over these 150 years, there has been a very clear class system that also has emerged. +So the lower the status of the job and of the person carrying out, the more removed he would be from his personal sphere. +People have taken this amazing possibility of actually being in contact all through the day or in all types of situations. +And they are doing it massively. +The Pew Institute, which produces good data on a regular basis on, for instance, in the States, says that -- and I think that this number is conservative -- 50 percent of anybody with email access at work is actually doing private email from his office. +I really think that the number is conservative. +In my own research, we saw that the peak for private email is actually 11 o'clock in the morning, whatever the country. +75 percent of people admit doing private conversations from work on their mobile phones. +100 percent are using text. +The point is that this re-appropriation of the personal sphere is not terribly successful with all institutions. +I'm always surprised the U.S. Army sociologists are discussing of the impact for instance, of soldiers in Iraq having daily contact with their families. +But there are many institutions that are actually blocking this access. +And every day, every single day, I read news that makes me cringe, like a $15 fine to kids in Texas, for using, every time they take out their mobile phone in school. +Immediate dismissal to bus drivers in New York, if seen with a mobile phone in a hand. +Companies blocking access to IM or to Facebook. +Behind issues of security and safety, which have always been the arguments for social control, in fact what is going on is that these institutions are trying to decide who, in fact, has a right to self determine their attention, to decide, whether they should, or not, be isolated. +And they are actually trying to block, in a certain sense, this movement of a greater possibility of intimacy. +A few years ago, my eyes were opened to the dark side of the construction industry. +In 2006, young Qatari students took me to go and see the migrant worker camps. +And since then I've followed the unfolding issue of worker rights. +In the last six months, more than 300 skyscrapers in the UAE have been put on hold or canceled. +Behind the headlines that lay behind these buildings is the fate of the often-indentured construction worker. +1.1 million of them. +Mainly Indian, Pakistani, Sri Lankan and Nepalese, these laborers risk everything to make money for their families back home. +They pay a middle-man thousands of dollars to be there. +And when they arrive, they find themselves in labor camps with no water, no air conditioning, and their passports taken away. +While it's easy to point the finger at local officials and higher authorities, 99 percent of these people are hired by the private sector, and so therefore we're equally, if not more, accountable. +Groups like Buildsafe UAE have emerged, but the numbers are simply overwhelming. +In August 2008, UAE public officials noted that 40 percent of the country's 1,098 labor camps had violated minimum health and fire safety regulations. +And last summer, more than 10,000 workers protested for the non-payment of wages, for the poor quality of food, and inadequate housing. +And then the financial collapse happened. +When the contractors have gone bust, as they've been overleveraged like everyone else, the difference is everything goes missing, documentation, passports, and tickets home for these workers. +Currently, right now, thousands of workers are abandoned. +There is no way back home. +And there is no way, and no proof of arrival. +These are the boom-and-bust refugees. +The question is, as a building professional, as an architect, an engineer, as a developer, if you know this is going on, as we go to the sights every single week, are you complacent or complicit in the human rights violations? +So let's forget your environmental footprint. +Let's think about your ethical footprint. +What good is it to build a zero-carbon, energy efficient complex, when the labor producing this architectural gem is unethical at best? +Now, recently I've been told I've been taking the high road. +But, quite frankly, on this issue, there is no other road. +So let's not forget who is really paying the price of this financial collapse. +And that as we worry about our next job in the office, the next design that we can get, to keep our workers. +Let's not forget these men, who are truly dying to work. +Thank you. +I'd like to talk to you today about the scale of the scientific effort that goes into making the headlines you see in the paper. +Headlines that look like this when they have to do with climate change, and headlines that look like this when they have to do with air quality or smog. +They are both two branches of the same field of atmospheric science. +Recently the headlines looked like this when the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, or IPCC, put out their report on the state of understanding of the atmospheric system. +That report was written by 620 scientists from 40 countries. +They wrote almost a thousand pages on the topic. +And all of those pages were reviewed by another 400-plus scientists and reviewers, from 113 countries. +It's a big community. It's such a big community, in fact, that our annual gathering is the largest scientific meeting in the world. +Over 15,000 scientists go to San Francisco every year for that. +And every one of those scientists is in a research group, and every research group studies a wide variety of topics. +For us at Cambridge, it's as varied as the El Nio oscillation, which affects weather and climate, to the assimilation of satellite data, to emissions from crops that produce biofuels, which is what I happen to study. +And in each one of these research areas, of which there are even more, there are PhD students, like me, and we study incredibly narrow topics, things as narrow as a few processes or a few molecules. +And one of the molecules I study is called isoprene, which is here. It's a small organic molecule. You've probably never heard of it. +The weight of a paper clip is approximately equal to 900 zeta-illion -- 10 to the 21st -- molecules of isoprene. +But despite its very small weight, enough of it is emitted into the atmosphere every year to equal the weight of all the people on the planet. +It's a huge amount of stuff. It's equal to the weight of methane. +And because it's so much stuff, it's really important for the atmospheric system. +Because it's important to the atmospheric system, we go to all lengths to study this thing. +We blow it up and look at the pieces. +This is the EUPHORE Smog Chamber in Spain. +Atmospheric explosions, or full combustion, takes about 15,000 times longer than what happens in your car. +But still, we look at the pieces. +We run enormous models on supercomputers; this is what I happen to do. +Our models have hundreds of thousands of grid boxes calculating hundreds of variables each, on minute timescales. +And it takes weeks to perform our integrations. +And we perform dozens of integrations in order to understand what's happening. +We also fly all over the world looking for this thing. +I recently joined a field campaign in Malaysia. There are others. +We found a global atmospheric watchtower there, in the middle of the rainforest, and hung hundreds of thousands of dollars worth of scientific equipment off this tower, to look for isoprene, and of course, other things while we were there. +This is the tower in the middle of the rainforest, from above. +And this is the tower from below. +And on part of that field campaign we even brought an aircraft with us. +And this plane, the model, BA146, which was run by FAAM, normally flies 120 to 130 people. +So maybe you took a similar aircraft to get here today. +But we didn't just fly it. We were flying at 100 meters above the top of the canopy to measure this molecule -- incredibly dangerous stuff. +We have to fly at a special incline in order to make the measurements. +We hire military and test pilots to do the maneuvering. +We have to get special flight clearance. +And as you come around the banks in these valleys, the forces can get up to two Gs. +And the scientists have to be completely harnessed in in order to make measurements while they're on board. +So, as you can imagine, the inside of this aircraft doesn't look like any plane you would take on vacation. +It's a flying laboratory that we took to make measurements in the region of this molecule. +We do all of this to understand the chemistry of one molecule. +And when one student like me has some sort of inclination or understanding about that molecule, they write one scientific paper on the subject. +And out of that field campaign we'll probably get a few dozen papers on a few dozen processes or molecules. +And as a body of knowledge builds up, it will form one subsection, or one sub-subsection of an assessment like the IPCC, although we have others. +And each one of the 11 chapters of the IPCC has six to ten subsections. +So you can imagine the scale of the effort. +In each one of those assessments that we write, we always tag on a summary, and the summary is written for a non-scientific audience. +And we hand that summary to journalists and policy makers, in order to make headlines like these. +Thank you very much. +I started my journey 30 years ago. +And I worked in mines. And I realized that this was a world unseen. +And I wanted, through color and large format cameras and very large prints, to make a body of work that somehow became symbols of our use of the landscape, how we use the land. +And to me this was a key component that somehow, through this medium of photography, which allows us to contemplate these landscapes, that I thought photography was perfectly suited to doing this type of work. +And after 17 years of photographing large industrial landscapes, it occurred to me that oil is underpinning the scale and speed. +Because that is what has changed, is the speed at which we're taking all our resources. +And so then I went out to develop a whole series on the landscape of oil. +And what I want to do is to kind of map an arc that there is extraction, where we're taking it from the ground, refinement. And that's one chapter. +The other chapter that I wanted to look at was how we use it -- our cities, our cars, our motorcultures, where people gather around the vehicle as a celebration. +And then the third one is this idea of the end of oil, this entropic end, where all of our parts of cars, our tires, oil filters, helicopters, planes -- where are the landscapes where all of that stuff ends up? +And to me, again, photography was a way in which I could explore and research the world, and find those places. +And another idea that I had as well, that was brought forward by an ecologist -- he basically did a calculation where he took one liter of gas and said, well, how much carbon it would take, and how much organic material? +It was 23 metric tons for one liter. +So whenever I fill up my gas, I think of that liter, and how much carbon. +And I know that oil comes from the ocean and phytoplankton, but he did the calculations for our Earth and what it had to do to produce that amount of energy. +From the photosynthetic growth, it would take 500 years of that growth to produce what we use, the 30 billion barrels we use per year. +And that also brought me to the fact that this poses such a risk to our society. +Looking at 30 billion per year, we look at our two largest suppliers, Saudi Arabia and now Canada, with its dirty oil. +And together they only form about 15 years of supply. +The whole world, at 1.2 trillion estimated reserves, only gives us about 45 years. +So, it's not a question of if, but a question of when peak oil will come upon us. +So, to me, using photography -- and I feel that all of us need to now begin to really take the task of using our talents, our ways of thinking, to begin to deal with what I think is probably one of the most challenging issues of our time, how to deal with our energy crisis. +I'd like to ask you, what do these three people have in common? +Well, you probably recognize the first person. +I'm sure you're all avid "American Idol" watchers. +But you might not recognize Aydah Al Jahani, who is a contestant, indeed a finalist, in the Poet of the Millions competition, which is broadcast out of Abu Dhabi, and seen throughout the Arab world. +In this contest people have to write and recite original poetry, in the Nabati form of poetry, which is the traditional Bedouin form. +And Lima Sahar was a finalist in the Afghan Star singing competition. +Now, before I go any further, yes, I know it all began with "Britain's Got Talent." +But my point in discussing this is to show you -- I hope I'll be able to show you how these merit-based competitions, with equal access to everyone, with the winner selected via voting by SMS, are changing tribal societies. +And I'm going to focus on Afghanistan and the Arab world with the UAE, how they're changing tribal societies, not by introducing Western ideas, but by being integrated into the language in those places. +It all begins with enjoyment. +Video: We are late to watch "Afghan Star." +We are going to watch "Afghan Star." We are late. +We are running late. +We must go to watch "Afghan Star." +Cynthia Schneider: These programs are reaching incredibly deeply into society. +In Afghanistan, people go to extraordinary lengths to be able to watch this program. +And you don't necessarily have to have your own TV set. +People watch it all over the country also in public places. +But it goes beyond watching, because also, part of this is campaigning. +People become so engaged that they have volunteers, just like political volunteers anyway, who fan out over the countryside, campaigning for their candidate. +Contestants also put themselves forward. +Now, of course there is a certain degree of ethnic allegiance, but not entirely. +Because each year the winner has come from a different tribal group. +This has opened up the door, particularly for women. +And in the last season there were two women in the finalists. +One of them, Lima Sahar, is a Pashtun from Kandahar, a very conservative part of the country. +And here she relates, in the documentary film "Afghan Star," how her friends urged her not to do this and told her that she was leaving them for democracy. +But she also confides that she knows that members of the Taliban are actually SMS-ing votes in for her. +Aydah Al Jahnani also took risks and put herself out, to compete in the Poet of the Millions competition. +I have to say, her husband backed her from the start. +But her tribe and family urged her not to compete and were very much against it. +But, once she started to win, then they got behind her again. +It turns out that competition and winning is a universal human value. +And she's out there. +Her poetry is about women, and the life of women in society. +So just by presenting herself and being in competition with men -- this shows the voting on the program -- it sets a very important example for young women -- these are young women in the audience of the program -- in Abu Dhabi, but also people in the viewing audience. +Now you'd think that "American Idol" would introduce a measure of Americanization. +But actually, just the opposite is happening. +By using this engaging popular format for traditional, local culture, it actually, in the Gulf, is precipitating a revival of interest in Nabati poetry, also in traditional dress and dance and music. +And for Afghanistan, where the Taliban banned music for many years, it is reintroducing their traditional music. +They don't sing pop songs, they sing Afghan music. +And they also have learned how to lose gracefully, without avenging the winner. +No small thing. +And the final, sort of, formulation of this "American Idol" format, which has just appeared in Afghanistan, is a new program called "The Candidate." +And in this program, people present policy platforms that are then voted on. +Many of them are too young to run for president, but by putting the issues out there, they are influencing the presidential race. +So for me, the substance of things unseen is how reality TV is driving reality. +Thank you. +We grew up interacting with the physical objects around us. +There are an enormous number of them that we use every day. +Unlike most of our computing devices, these objects are much more fun to use. +When you talk about objects, one other thing automatically comes attached to that thing, and that is gestures: how we manipulate these objects, how we use these objects in everyday life. +We use gestures not only to interact with these objects, but we also use them to interact with each other. +A gesture of "Namaste!", maybe, to respect someone, or maybe, in India I don't need to teach a kid that this means "four runs" in cricket. +It comes as a part of our everyday learning. +So, I am very interested, from the beginning, how our knowledge about everyday objects and gestures, and how we use these objects, can be leveraged to our interactions with the digital world. +Rather than using a keyboard and mouse, why can I not use my computer in the same way that I interact in the physical world? +So, I started this exploration around eight years back, and it literally started with a mouse on my desk. +Rather than using it for my computer, I actually opened it. +Most of you might be aware that, in those days, the mouse used to come with a ball inside, and there were two rollers that actually guide the computer where the ball is moving, and, accordingly, where the mouse is moving. +So, I was interested in these two rollers, and I actually wanted more, so I borrowed another mouse from a friend -- never returned to him -- and I now had four rollers. +Interestingly, what I did with these rollers is, basically, I took them off of these mouses and then put them in one line. +It had some strings and pulleys and some springs. +What I got is basically a gesture-interface device that actually acts as a motion-sensing device made for two dollars. +So, here, whatever movement I do in my physical world is actually replicated inside the digital world just using this small device that I made, around eight years back, in 2000. +Because I was interested in integrating these two worlds, I thought of sticky notes. +I thought, "Why can I not connect the normal interface of a physical sticky note to the digital world?" +A message written on a sticky note to my mom, on paper, can come to an SMS, or maybe a meeting reminder automatically syncs with my digital calendar -- a to-do list that automatically syncs with you. +But you can also search in the digital world, or maybe you can write a query, saying, "What is Dr. Smith's address?" +and this small system actually prints it out -- so it actually acts like a paper input-output system, just made out of paper. +In another exploration, I thought of making a pen that can draw in three dimensions. +So, I implemented this pen that can help designers and architects not only think in three dimensions, but they can actually draw, so that it's more intuitive to use that way. +Then I thought, "Why not make a Google Map, but in the physical world?" +Rather than typing a keyword to find something, I put my objects on top of it. +If I put a boarding pass, it will show me where the flight gate is. +A coffee cup will show where you can find more coffee, or where you can trash the cup. +So, these were some of the earlier explorations I did because the goal was to connect these two worlds seamlessly. +Among all these experiments, there was one thing in common: I was trying to bring a part of the physical world to the digital world. +I was taking some part of the objects, or any of the intuitiveness of real life, and bringing them to the digital world, because the goal was to make our computing interfaces more intuitive. +But then I realized that we humans are not actually interested in computing. +What we are interested in is information. +We want to know about things. +We want to know about dynamic things going around. +So I thought, around last year -- in the beginning of the last year -- I started thinking, "Why can I not take this approach in the reverse way?" +Maybe, "How about I take my digital world and paint the physical world with that digital information?" +Because pixels are actually, right now, confined in these rectangular devices that fit in our pockets. +Why can I not remove this confine and take that to my everyday objects, everyday life so that I don't need to learn the new language for interacting with those pixels? +So, in order to realize this dream, I actually thought of putting a big-size projector on my head. +I think that's why this is called a head-mounted projector, isn't it? +I took it very literally, and took my bike helmet, put a little cut over there so that the projector actually fits nicely. +So now, what I can do -- I can augment the world around me with this digital information. +But later, I realized that I actually wanted to interact with those digital pixels, also. +So I put a small camera over there that acts as a digital eye. +Later, we moved to a much better, consumer-oriented pendant version of that, that many of you now know as the SixthSense device. +But the most interesting thing about this particular technology is that you can carry your digital world with you wherever you go. +You can start using any surface, any wall around you, as an interface. +The camera is actually tracking all your gestures. +Whatever you're doing with your hands, it's understanding that gesture. +And, actually, if you see, there are some color markers that in the beginning version we are using with it. +You can start painting on any wall. +You stop by a wall, and start painting on that wall. +But we are not only tracking one finger, here. +We are giving you the freedom of using all of both of your hands, so you can actually use both of your hands to zoom into or zoom out of a map just by pinching all present. +The camera is actually doing -- just, getting all the images -- is doing the edge recognition and also the color recognition and so many other small algorithms are going on inside. +So, technically, it's a little bit complex, but it gives you an output which is more intuitive to use, in some sense. +But I'm more excited that you can actually take it outside. +Rather than getting your camera out of your pocket, you can just do the gesture of taking a photo, and it takes a photo for you. +Thank you. +And later I can find a wall, anywhere, and start browsing those photos or maybe, "OK, I want to modify this photo a little bit and send it as an email to a friend." +So, we are looking for an era where computing will actually merge with the physical world. +And, of course, if you don't have any surface, you can start using your palm for simple operations. +Here, I'm dialing a phone number just using my hand. +The camera is actually not only understanding your hand movements, but, interestingly, is also able to understand what objects you are holding in your hand. +For example, in this case, the book cover is matched with so many thousands, or maybe millions of books online, and checking out which book it is. +Once it has that information, it finds out more reviews about that, or maybe New York Times has a sound overview on that, so you can actually hear, on a physical book, a review as sound. +Famous talk at Harvard University -- This was Obama's visit last week to MIT. +And particularly I want to thank two outstanding MIT -- Pranav Mistry: So, I was seeing the live [video] of his talk, outside, on just a newspaper. +Your newspaper will show you live weather information rather than having it updated. +You have to check your computer in order to do that, right? +When I'm going back, I can just use my boarding pass to check how much my flight has been delayed, because at that particular time, I'm not feeling like opening my iPhone, and checking out a particular icon. +And I think this technology will not only change the way -- Yes. +It will change the way we interact with people, also, not only the physical world. +The fun part is, I'm going to the Boston metro, and playing a pong game inside the train on the ground, right? +And I think the imagination is the only limit of what you can think of when this kind of technology merges with real life. +But many of you argue, actually, that all of our work is not only about physical objects. +We actually do lots of accounting and paper editing and all those kinds of things; what about that? +And many of you are excited about the next-generation tablet computers to come out in the market. +So, rather than waiting for that, I actually made my own, just using a piece of paper. +So, what I did here is remove the camera -- All the webcam cameras have a microphone inside the camera. +I removed the microphone from that, and then just pinched that -- like I just made a clip out of the microphone -- and clipped that to a piece of paper, any paper that you found around. +So now the sound of the touch is getting me when exactly I'm touching the paper. +But the camera is actually tracking where my fingers are moving. +You can of course watch movies. +Good afternoon. My name is Russell, and I am a Wilderness Explorer in Tribe 54." +PM: And you can of course play games. +(Car engine) Here, the camera is actually understanding how you're holding the paper and playing a car-racing game. +Many of you already must have thought, OK, you can browse. +Yeah. Of course you can browse to any websites or you can do all sorts of computing on a piece of paper wherever you need it. +So, more interestingly, I'm interested in how we can take that in a more dynamic way. +When I come back to my desk, I can just pinch that information back to my desktop so I can use my full-size computer. +And why only computers? We can just play with papers. +Paper world is interesting to play with. +Here, I'm taking a part of a document, and putting over here a second part from a second place, and I'm actually modifying the information that I have over there. +Yeah. And I say, "OK, this looks nice, let me print it out, that thing." +So I now have a print-out of that thing. +So the workflow is more intuitive, the way we used to do it maybe 20 years back, rather than now switching between these two worlds. +So, as a last thought, I think that integrating information to everyday objects will not only help us to get rid of the digital divide, the gap between these two worlds, but will also help us, in some way, to stay human, to be more connected to our physical world. +And it will actually help us not end up being machines sitting in front of other machines. +That's all. Thank you. +Thank you. +Chris Anderson: So, Pranav, first of all, you're a genius. +This is incredible, really. +What are you doing with this? Is there a company being planned? +Or is this research forever, or what? +Pranav Mistry: So, there are lots of companies, sponsor companies of Media Lab interested in taking this ahead in one or another way. +Companies like mobile-phone operators want to take this in a different way than the NGOs in India, thinking, "Why can we only have 'Sixth Sense'? +We should have a 'Fifth Sense' for missing-sense people who cannot speak. +This technology can be used for them to speak out in a different way maybe a speaker system." +CA: What are your own plans? Are you staying at MIT, or are you going to do something with this? +PM: I'm trying to make this more available to people so that anyone can develop their own SixthSense device, because the hardware is actually not that hard to manufacture or hard to make your own. +We will provide all the open source software for them, maybe starting next month. +CA: Open source? Wow. +CA: Are you going to come back to India with some of this, at some point? +PM: Yeah. Yes, yes, of course. +CA: What are your plans? MIT? India? +How are you going to split your time going forward? +PM: There is a lot of energy here. Lots of learning. +All of this work that you have seen is all about my learning in India. +And now, if you see, it's more about the cost-effectiveness: this system costs you $300 compared to the $20,000 surface tables, or anything like that. +Or maybe even the $2 mouse gesture system at that time was costing around $5,000? +I showed that, at a conference, to President Abdul Kalam, at that time, and then he said, "OK, we should use this in Bhabha Atomic Research Centre for some use of that." +So I'm excited about how I can bring the technology to the masses rather than just keeping that technology in the lab environment. +CA: Based on the people we've seen at TED, I would say you're truly one of the two or three best inventors in the world right now. +It's an honor to have you at TED. +Thank you so much. +That's fantastic. +To understand the business of mythology and what a Chief Belief Officer is supposed to do, you have to hear a story of Ganesha, the elephant-headed god who is the scribe of storytellers, and his brother, the athletic warlord of the gods, Kartikeya. +The two brothers one day decided to go on a race, three times around the world. +Kartikeya leapt on his peacock and flew around the continents and the mountains and the oceans. +He went around once, he went around twice, he went around thrice. +But his brother, Ganesha, simply walked around his parents once, twice, thrice, and said, "I won." +"How come?" said Kartikeya. +And Ganesha said, "You went around 'the world.' I went around 'my world.'" What matters more? +If you understand the difference between 'the world' and 'my world,' you understand the difference between logos and mythos. +'The world' is objective, logical, universal, factual, scientific. +'My world' is subjective. +It's emotional. It's personal. +It's perceptions, thoughts, feelings, dreams. +It is the belief system that we carry. +It's the myth that we live in. +'The world' tells us how the world functions, how the sun rises, how we are born. +'My world' tells us why the sun rises, why we were born. +Every culture is trying to understand itself: "Why do we exist?" +And every culture comes up with its own understanding of life, its own customized version of mythology. +Culture is a reaction to nature, and this understanding of our ancestors is transmitted generation from generation in the form of stories, symbols and rituals, which are always indifferent to rationality. +And so, when you study it, you realize that different people of the world have a different understanding of the world. +Different people see things differently -- different viewpoints. +There is my world and there is your world, and my world is always better than your world, because my world, you see, is rational and yours is superstition. +Yours is faith. +Yours is illogical. +This is the root of the clash of civilizations. +It took place, once, in 326 B.C. +on the banks of a river called the Indus, now in Pakistan. +This river lends itself to India's name. +India. Indus. +Alexander, a young Macedonian, met there what he called a "gymnosophist," which means "the naked, wise man." +We don't know who he was. +Perhaps he was a Jain monk, like Bahubali over here, the Gomateshwara Bahubali whose image is not far from Mysore. +Or perhaps he was just a yogi who was sitting on a rock, staring at the sky and the sun and the moon. +Alexander asked, "What are you doing?" +and the gymnosophist answered, "I'm experiencing nothingness." +Then the gymnosophist asked, "What are you doing?" +and Alexander said, "I am conquering the world." +And they both laughed. +Each one thought that the other was a fool. +The gymnosophist said, "Why is he conquering the world? +It's pointless." +And Alexander thought, "Why is he sitting around, doing nothing? +What a waste of a life." +To understand this difference in viewpoints, we have to understand the subjective truth of Alexander -- his myth, and the mythology that constructed it. +Alexander's mother, his parents, his teacher Aristotle told him the story of Homer's "Iliad." +They told him of a great hero called Achilles, who, when he participated in battle, victory was assured, but when he withdrew from the battle, defeat was inevitable. +"Achilles was a man who could shape history, a man of destiny, and this is what you should be, Alexander." +That's what he heard. +"What should you not be? +You should not be Sisyphus, who rolls a rock up a mountain all day only to find the boulder rolled down at night. +Don't live a life which is monotonous, mediocre, meaningless. +Be spectacular! -- like the Greek heroes, like Jason, who went across the sea with the Argonauts and fetched the Golden Fleece. +Be spectacular like Theseus, who entered the labyrinth and killed the bull-headed Minotaur. +When you play in a race, win! -- because when you win, the exhilaration of victory is the closest you will come to the ambrosia of the gods." +Because, you see, the Greeks believed you live only once, and when you die, you have to cross the River Styx. +And if you have lived an extraordinary life, you will be welcomed to Elysium, or what the French call "Champs-lyses" -- -- the heaven of the heroes. +But these are not the stories that the gymnosophist heard. +He heard a very different story. +He heard of a man called Bharat, after whom India is called Bhrata. +Bharat also conquered the world. +And then he went to the top-most peak of the greatest mountain of the center of the world called Meru. +And he wanted to hoist his flag to say, "I was here first." +But when he reached the mountain peak, he found the peak covered with countless flags of world-conquerors before him, each one claiming "'I was here first' ... +that's what I thought until I came here." +And suddenly, in this canvas of infinity, Bharat felt insignificant. +This was the mythology of the gymnosophist. +You see, he had heroes, like Ram -- Raghupati Ram and Krishna, Govinda Hari. +But they were not two characters on two different adventures. +They were two lifetimes of the same hero. +When the Ramayana ends the Mahabharata begins. +When Ram dies, Krishna is born. +When Krishna dies, eventually he will be back as Ram. +You see, the Indians also had a river that separates the land of the living from the land of the dead. +But you don't cross it once. +You go to and fro endlessly. +It was called the Vaitarani. +You go again and again and again. +Because, you see, nothing lasts forever in India, not even death. +And so, you have these grand rituals where great images of mother goddesses are built and worshiped for 10 days ... +And what do you do at the end of 10 days? +You dunk it in the river. +Because it has to end. +And next year, she will come back. +What goes around always comes around, and this rule applies not just to man, but also the gods. +You see, the gods have to come back again and again and again as Ram, as Krishna. +Not only do they live infinite lives, but the same life is lived infinite times till you get to the point of it all. +"Groundhog Day." +Two different mythologies. +Which is right? +Two different mythologies, two different ways of looking at the world. +One linear, one cyclical. +One believes this is the one and only life. +The other believes this is one of many lives. +And so, the denominator of Alexander's life was one. +So, the value of his life was the sum total of his achievements. +The denominator of the gymnosophist's life was infinity. +So, no matter what he did, it was always zero. +And I believe it is this mythological paradigm that inspired Indian mathematicians to discover the number zero. +Who knows? +And that brings us to the mythology of business. +If Alexander's belief influenced his behavior, if the gymnosophist's belief influences his behavior, then it was bound to influence the business they were in. +You see, what is business but the result of how the market behaves and how the organization behaves? +And if you look at cultures around the world, all you have to do is understand the mythology and you will see how they behave and how they do business. +Take a look. +If you live only once, in one-life cultures around the world, you will see an obsession with binary logic, absolute truth, standardization, absoluteness, linear patterns in design. +But if you look at cultures which have cyclical and based on infinite lives, you will see a comfort with fuzzy logic, with opinion, with contextual thinking, with everything is relative, sort of -- mostly. +You look at art. Look at the ballerina, how linear she is in her performance. +And then look at the Indian classical dancer, the Kuchipudi dancer, the Bharatanatyam dancer, curvaceous. +And then look at business. +Standard business model: vision, mission, values, processes. +Sounds very much like the journey through the wilderness to the promised land, with the commandments held by the leader. +And if you comply, you will go to heaven. +But in India there is no "the" promised land. +There are many promised lands, depending on your station in society, depending on your stage of life. +You see, businesses are not run as institutions, by the idiosyncrasies of individuals. +It's always about taste. +It's always about my taste. +You see, Indian music, for example, does not have the concept of harmony. +There is no orchestra conductor. +There is one performer standing there, and everybody follows. +And you can never replicate that performance twice. +It is not about documentation and contract. +It's about conversation and faith. +It's not about compliance. It's about setting, getting the job done, by bending or breaking the rules -- just look at your Indian people around here, you'll see them smile; they know what it is. +And then look at people who have done business in India, you'll see the exasperation on their faces. +You see, this is what India is today. The ground reality is based on a cyclical world view. +So, it's rapidly changing, highly diverse, chaotic, ambiguous, unpredictable. +And people are okay with it. +And then globalization is taking place. +The demands of modern institutional thinking is coming in. +Which is rooted in one-life culture. +And a clash is going to take place, like on the banks of the Indus. +It is bound to happen. +I have personally experienced it. I'm trained as a medical doctor. +I did not want to study surgery. Don't ask me why. +I love mythology too much. +I wanted to learn mythology. But there is nowhere you can study. +So, I had to teach it to myself. +And mythology does not pay, well, until now. +So, I had to take up a job. And I worked in the pharma industry. +And I worked in the healthcare industry. +And I worked as a marketing guy, and a sales guy, and a knowledge guy, and a content guy, and a training guy. +I even was a business consultant, doing strategies and tactics. +And I would see the exasperation between my American and European colleagues, when they were dealing with India. +Example: Please tell us the process to invoice hospitals. +Step A. Step B. Step C. Mostly. +How do you parameterize "mostly"? +How do you put it in a nice little software? You can't. +I would give my viewpoints to people. +But nobody was interested in listening to it, you see, until I met Kishore Biyani of the Future group. +You see, he has established the largest retail chain, called Big Bazaar. +And there are more than 200 formats, across 50 cities and towns of India. +And he was dealing with diverse and dynamic markets. +And he knew very intuitively, that best practices, developed in Japan and China and Europe and America will not work in India. +He knew that institutional thinking doesn't work in India. Individual thinking does. +He had an intuitive understanding of the mythic structure of India. +So, he had asked me to be the Chief Belief Officer, and said, "All I want to do is align belief." +Sounds so simple. +But belief is not measurable. +You can't measure it. You can't manage it. +So, how do you construct belief? +How do you enhance the sensitivity of people to Indian-ness. +Even if you are Indian, it is not very explicit, it is not very obvious. +So, I tried to work on the standard model of culture, which is, develop stories, symbols and rituals. +And I will share one of the rituals with you. +You see it is based on the Hindu ritual of Darshan. +Hindus don't have the concept of commandments. +So, there is nothing right or wrong in what you do in life. +So, you're not really sure how you stand in front of God. +So, when you go to the temple, all you seek is an audience with God. +You want to see God. +And you want God to see you, and hence the gods have very large eyes, large unblinking eyes, sometimes made of silver, so they look at you. +Because you don't know whether you're right or wrong, and so all you seek is divine empathy. +"Just know where I came from, why I did the Jugaad." +"Why did I do the setting, why I don't care for the processes. Just understand me, please." +And based on this, we created a ritual for leaders. +After a leader completes his training and is about to take over the store, we blindfold him, we surround him with the stakeholders, the customer, his family, his team, his boss. +You read out his KRA, his KPI, you give him the keys, and then you remove the blindfold. +And invariably, you see a tear, because the penny has dropped. +He realizes that to succeed, he does not have to be a "professional," he does not have to cut out his emotions, he has to include all these people in his world to succeed, to make them happy, to make the boss happy, to make everyone happy. +The customer is happy, because the customer is God. +That sensitivity is what we need. Once this belief enters, behavior will happen, business will happen. +And it has. +So, then we come back to Alexander and to the gymnosophist. +And everybody asks me, "Which is the better way, this way or that way?" +And it's a very dangerous question, because it leads you to the path of fundamentalism and violence. +So, I will not answer the question. +What I will give you is an Indian answer, the Indian head-shake. +Depending on the context, depending on the outcome, choose your paradigm. +You see, because both the paradigms are human constructions. +They are cultural creations, not natural phenomena. +And so the next time you meet someone, a stranger, one request: Understand that you live in the subjective truth, and so does he. +Understand it. +And when you understand it you will discover something spectacular. +You will discover that within infinite myths lies the eternal truth. +Who sees it all? +Varuna has but a thousand eyes. +Indra, a hundred. +You and I, only two. +Thank you. Namaste. +One day a one-eyed monkey came into the forest. +Under a tree she saw a woman meditating furiously. +The one-eyed monkey recognized the woman, a Sekhri. +She was the wife of an even more famous Brahmin. +To watch her better, the one-eyed monkey climbed onto the tree. +Just then, with a loud bang, the heavens opened. And the god Indra jumped into the clearing. +Indra saw the woman, a Sekhri. +Ah-hah. +The woman paid him no heed. +So, Indra, attracted, threw her onto the floor, and proceeded to rape her. +Then Indra disappeared. (Clap! Clap!) And the woman's husband, the Brahmin, appeared. +He realized at once what had happened. +So, he petitioned the higher gods so that he may have justice. +So, the god Vishnu arrived. +"Are there any witnesses?" +"Just a one-eyed monkey," said the Brahmin. +Now, the one-eyed monkey really wanted for the woman, a Sekhri, to get justice, so she retold events exactly as they had happened. +Vishnu gave his judgment. +"The god Indra has sinned, in that he has sinned against ... a Brahmin. +May he be called to wash away his sins." +So, Indra arrived, and performed the sacrifice of the horse. +And so it transpired that a horse was killed, a god was made sin-free, a Brahmin's ego was appeased, a woman ... was ruined, and a one-eyed monkey was left ... +very confused at what we humans call justice. +In India there is a rape every three minutes. +In India, only 25 percent of rapes come to a police station, and of these 25 percent that come to a police station, convictions are only in four percent of the cases. +That's a lot of women who don't get justice. +And it's not only about women. +Look around you, look at your own countries. +There is a certain pattern in who gets charged with crimes. +If you're in Australia, it's mostly aboriginals who are in jail. +If you're in India, it's either Muslims or Adivasis, our tribals, the Naxalites. +If you're in the U.S., it's mostly the blacks. +There is a trend here. +And the Brahmins and the gods, like in my story, always get to tell their truth as The Truth. +So, have we all become one-eyed -- two-eyed instead of one-eyed -- monkeys? +Have we stopped seeing injustice? +Good morning. +You know, I have told this story close to 550 times, in audiences in 40 countries, to school students, to black-tie dinners at the Smithsonian, and so on and so forth, and every time it hits something. +Now, if I were to go into the same crowd and say, "I want to lecture you about justice and injustice," they would say, "Thank you very much, we have other things to do." +And that is the astonishing power of art. +Art can go through where other things can't. +You can't have barriers, because it breaks through your prejudices, breaks through everything that you have as your mask, that says, "I am this, I am that, I am that." +No. It breaks through those. +And it reaches somewhere where other things don't. +And in a world where attitudes are so difficult to change, we need a language that reaches through. +Hitler knew it; he used Wagner to make all the Nazis feel wonderful and Aryan. +And Mr. Berlusconi knows it, as he sits atop this huge empire of media and television and so on and so forth. +And all of the wonderful creative minds who are in all the advertising agencies, and who help corporate sell us things we absolutely don't require, they also know the power of the arts. +For me it came very early. +When I was a young child, my mother, who was a choreographer, came upon a phenomenon that worried her. +It was a phenomenon where young brides were committing suicide in rural Gujarat, because they were being forced to bring more and more money for their in-laws' families. +And she created a dance piece which then Prime Minister Nehru saw. +He came to talk to her and said, "What is this about?" +She told him and he set out the first inquiry into what today we call Dowry Dance. +Imagine a dance piece for the first inquiry into something that even today kills thousands of women. +Many years later, when I was working with the director Peter Brook in "The Mahabharata" playing this feisty feminine feminist called Draupadi, I had similar experiences. +Big fat black mamas in the Bronx used to come and say, "Hey girl, that's it!" +And then these trendy young things in the Sorbonne would say, "Madame Draupadi, on n'est pas feministe, mais a? a!" +And then aboriginal women in Africa would come and say, "This is it!" +And I thought, "This is what we need, as a language." +We had somebody from public health. And Devdutt also mentioned public health. +Well, millions of people around the world die of waterborne disease every year. +And that's because there is no clean water to drink, or in countries like India, people don't know that they need to soap their hands before defecation. +So, what do they do? +They drink the water they know is dirty, they get cholera, they get diarrhea, they get jaundice and they die. +And governments have not been able to provide clean water. +They try and build it. They try and build pipelines; it doesn't happen. +And the MNCs give them machines that they cannot afford. +So what do you do? Do you let them die? +Well, somebody had a great idea. +And it was a simple idea. It was an idea that could not profit anybody but would help health in every field. +Most houses in Asia and India have a cotton garment. +And it was discovered, and WHO endorses this, that a clean cotton garment folded eight times over, can reduce bacteria up to 80 percent from water sieved through. +So, why aren't governments blaring this on television? +Why isn't it on every poster across the third world? +Because there is no profit in it. +Because nobody can get a kickback. +But it still needs to get to people. +And here is one of the ways we get it to people. +[Video] Woman: Then get me one of those fancy water purifiers. +Man: You know how expensive those are. +I have a solution that requires neither machine, nor wood, nor cooking gas. +Woman: What solution? +Man: Listen, go fetch that cotton sari you have. +Boy: Grand-dad, tell me the solution please. +Man: I will tell all of you. Just wait. +Woman: Here father. (Man: Is it clean?) Woman: Yes, of course. +Man: Then do as I tell you. Fold the sari into eight folds. +Woman: All right, father. +Man: And you, you count that she does it right. (Boy: All right, grand-dad.) Man: One, two, three, four folds we make. +All the germs from the water we take. +Chorus: One, two, three, four folds we make. +All the germs from the water we take. +Five, six, seven, eight folds we make. +Our drinking water safe we make. +Five, six, seven, eight folds we make. +Our drinking water safe we make. +Woman: Here, father, your eight-times folded cotton sari. +Man: So this is the cotton sari. +And through this we will have clean water. +I think it's safe to say that all of us here are deeply concerned about the escalating violence in our daily lives. +While universities are trying to devise courses in conflict resolution, and governments are trying to stop skirmishes at borders, we are surrounded by violence, whether it's road rage, or whether it's domestic violence, whether it's a teacher beating up a student and killing her because she hasn't done her homework, it's everywhere. +So, why are we not doing something to actually attend that problem on a day to day basis? +What are we doing to try and make children and young people realize that violence is something that we indulge in, that we can stop, and that there are other ways of actually taking violence, taking anger, taking frustrations into different things that do not harm other people. +Well, here is one such way. +You are peaceful people. +Your parents were peaceful people. +Your grandparents were peaceful people. +So much peace in one place? +How could it be otherwise? +But, what if ... +Yes. What if ... +One little gene in you has been trying to get through? +From your beginnings in Africa, through each generation, may be passed on to you, in your creation. It's a secret urge, hiding deep in you. +And if it's in you, then it's in me too. Oh, dear. +It's what made you smack your baby brother, stamp on a cockroach, scratch your mother. +It's the feeling that wells up from deep inside, when your husband comes home drunk and you wanna tan his hide. +Want to kill that cyclist on the way to work, and string up your cousin 'cause she's such a jerk. Oh, dear. +And as for outsiders, white, black or brown, tar and feather them, and whip them out of town. +It's that little gene. It's small and it's mean. +Too small for detection, it's your built-in protection. +Adrenaline, kill. It'll give you the will. +Yes, you'd better face it 'cause you can't displace it. +You're V-I-O-L-E-N-T. +Cause you're either a victim, or on top, like me. +Goodbye, Abraham Lincoln. +Goodbye, Mahatma Gandhi. +Goodbye, Martin Luther King. +Hello, gangs from this neighborhood killing gangs from that neighborhood. +Hello governments of rich countries selling arms to governments of poor countries who can't even afford to give them food. +Hello civilization. Hello, 21st century. +Look what we've ... +look what they've done. +Mainstream art, cinema, has been used across the world to talk about social issues. +A few years ago we had a film called Rang De Basanti, which suddenly spawned thousands of young people wanting to volunteer for social change. +In Venezuela, one of the most popular soap operas has a heroine called Crystal. +And when, onscreen, Crystal got breast cancer, 75,000 more young women went to have mammographies done. +And of course, "The Vagina Monologues" we know about. +And there are stand-up comics who are talking about racial issues, about ethnic issues. +So, why is it, that if we think that we all agree that we need a better world, we need a more just world, why is it that we are not using the one language that has consistently showed us that we can break down barriers, that we can reach people? +What I need to say to the planners of the world, the governments, the strategists is, "You have treated the arts as the cherry on the cake. +It needs to be the yeast." +Because, any future planning, if 2048 is when we want to get there, unless the arts are put with the scientists, with the economists, with all those who prepare for the future, badly, we're not going to get there. +And unless this is actually internalized, it won't happen. +So, what is it that we require? What is it that we need? +We need to break down our vision of what planners are, of what the correct way of a path is. +And to say all these years of trying to make a better world, and we have failed. +There are more people being raped. There are more wars. +There are more people dying of simple things. +So, something has got to give. And that is what I want. +Can I have my last audio track please? +Once there was a princess who whistled beautifully. +Her father the king said, "Don't whistle." +Her mother the queen said, "Hai, don't whistle." +But the princess continued whistling. +The years went by and the princess grew up into a beautiful young woman, who whistled even more beautifully. +Her father the king said, "Who will marry a whistling princess?" +Her mother the queen said, "Who will marry a whistling princess?" +But the king had an idea. +He announced a Swayamvara. +He invited all the princes to come and defeat his daughter at whistling. +"Whoever defeats my daughter shall have half my kingdom and her hand in marriage!" +Soon the palace filled with princes whistling. +Some whistled badly. +Some whistled well. +But nobody could defeat the princess. +"Now what shall we do?" said the king. +"Now what shall we do?" said the queen. +But the princess said, "Father, Mother, don't worry. +I have an idea. I am going to go to each of these young men and I am going to ask them if they defeated correctly. +And if somebody answers, that shall be my wish." +So she went up to each and said, "Do you accept that I have defeated you?" +And they said, "Me? Defeated by a woman? +No way, that's impossible! No no no no no! That's not possible." +Till finally one prince said, "Princess, I accept, you have defeated me." +"Uh-huh ..." she said. +"Father, mother, this man shall be my wife." +Thank you. +As an Indian, and now as a politician and a government minister, I've become rather concerned about the hype we're hearing about our own country, all this talk about India becoming a world leader, even the next superpower. +In fact, the American publishers of my book, "The Elephant, The Tiger and the Cell Phone," added a gratuitous subtitle saying, "India: The next 21st-century power." +And I just don't think that's what India's all about, or should be all about. +Indeed, what worries me is the entire notion of world leadership seems to me terribly archaic. +It's redolent of James Bond movies and Kipling ballads. +After all, what constitutes a world leader? +If it's population, we're on course to top the charts. +We will overtake China by 2034. +Is it military strength? Well, we have the world's fourth largest army. +Is it nuclear capacity? We know we have that. +The Americans have even recognized it, in an agreement. +Is it the economy? Well, we have now the fifth-largest economy in the world in purchasing power parity terms. +And we continue to grow. When the rest of the world took a beating last year, we grew at 6.7 percent. +But, somehow, none of that adds up to me, to what I think India really can aim to contribute in the world, in this part of the 21st century. +And so I wondered, could what the future beckons for India to be all about be a combination of these things allied to something else, the power of example, the attraction of India's culture, what, in other words, people like to call "soft power." +Soft power is a concept invented by a Harvard academic, Joseph Nye, a friend of mine. +And, very simply, and I'm really cutting it short because of the time limits here, it's essentially the ability of a country to attract others because of its culture, its political values, its foreign policies. +And, you know, lots of countries do this. He was writing initially about the States, but we know the Alliance Francaise is all about French soft power, the British Council. +The Beijing Olympics were an exercise in Chinese soft power. +Americans have the Voice of America and the Fulbright scholarships. +But, the fact is, in fact, that probably Hollywood and MTV and McDonalds have done more for American soft power around the world than any specifically government activity. +So soft power is something that really emerges partly because of governments, but partly despite governments. +And in the information era we all live in today, what we might call the TED age, I'd say that countries are increasingly being judged by a global public that's been fed on an incessant diet of Internet news, of televised images, of cellphone videos, of email gossip. +In other words, all sorts of communication devices are telling us the stories of countries, whether or not the countries concerned want people to hear those stories. +Now, in this age, again, countries with access to multiple channels of communication and information have a particular advantage. +And of course they have more influence, sometimes, about how they're seen. +India has more all-news TV channels than any country in the world, in fact in most of the countries in this part of the world put together. +But, the fact still is that it's not just that. +In order to have soft power, you have to be connected. +One might argue that India has become an astonishingly connected country. +I think you've already heard the figures. +We've been selling 15 million cellphones a month. +Currently there are 509 million cellphones in Indian hands, in India. +And that makes us larger than the U.S. as a telephone market. +In fact, those 15 million cellphones are the most connections that any country, including the U.S. and China, has ever established in the history of telecommunications. +But, what perhaps some of you don't realize is how far we've come to get there. +You know, when I grew up in India, telephones were a rarity. +In fact, they were so rare that elected members of Parliament had the right to allocate 15 telephone lines as a favor to those they deemed worthy. +If you were lucky enough to be a wealthy businessman or an influential journalist, or a doctor or something, you might have a telephone. +But sometimes it just sat there. +I went to high school in Calcutta. +And we would look at this instrument sitting in the front foyer. +But half the time we would pick it up with an expectant look on our faces, there would be no dial tone. +If there was a dial tone and you dialed a number, the odds were two in three you wouldn't get the number you were intending to reach. +In fact the words "wrong number" were more popular than the word "Hello." +If you then wanted to connect to another city, let's say from Calcutta you wanted to call Delhi, you'd have to book something called a trunk call, and then sit by the phone all day, waiting for it to come through. +Or you could pay eight times the going rate for something called a lightning call. +But, lightning struck rather slowly in our country in those days, so, it was like about a half an hour for a lightning call to come through. +In fact, so woeful was our telephone service that a Member of Parliament stood up in 1984 and complained about this. +Now, fast-forward to today and this is what you see: the 15 million cell phones a month. +But what is most striking is who is carrying those cell phones. +You know, if you visit friends in the suburbs of Delhi, on the side streets you will find a fellow with a cart that looks like it was designed in the 16th century, wielding a coal-fired steam iron that might have been invented in the 18th century. +He's called an isthri wala. But he's carrying a 21st-century instrument. +He's carrying a cell phone because most incoming calls are free, and that's how he gets orders from the neighborhood, to know where to collect clothes to get them ironed. +The other day I was in Kerala, my home state, at the country farm of a friend, about 20 kilometers away from any place you'd consider urban. +And it was a hot day and he said, "Hey, would you like some fresh coconut water?" +And it's the best thing and the most nutritious and refreshing thing you can drink on a hot day in the tropics, so I said sure. +And he whipped out his cellphone, dialed the number, and a voice said, "I'm up here." +And right on top of the nearest coconut tree, with a hatchet in one hand and a cell phone in the other, was a local toddy tapper, who proceeded to bring down the coconuts for us to drink. +Fishermen are going out to sea and carrying their cell phones. +When they catch the fish they call all the market towns along the coast to find out where they get the best possible prices. +Farmers now, who used to have to spend half a day of backbreaking labor to find out if the market town was open, if the market was on, whether the product they'd harvested could be sold, what price they'd fetch. +They'd often send an eight year old boy all the way on this trudge to the market town to get that information and come back, then they'd load the cart. +Today they're saving half a day's labor with a two minute phone call. +So this empowerment of the underclass is the real result of India being connected. +And that transformation is part of where India is heading today. +But, of course that's not the only thing about India that's spreading. +You've got Bollywood. My attitude to Bollywood is best summarized in the tale of the two goats at a Bollywood garbage dump -- Mr. Shekhar Kapur, forgive me -- and they're chewing away on cans of celluloid discarded by a Bollywood studio. +And the first goat, chewing away, says, "You know, this film is not bad." +And the second goat says, "No, the book was better." +I usually tend to think that the book is usually better, but, having said that, the fact is that Bollywood is now taking a certain aspect of Indian-ness and Indian culture around the globe, not just in the Indian diaspora in the U.S. and the U.K., but to the screens of Arabs and Africans, of Senegalese and Syrians. +I've met a young man in New York whose illiterate mother in a village in Senegal takes a bus once a month to the capital city of Dakar, just to watch a Bollywood movie. +She can't understand the dialogue. +She's illiterate, so she can't read the French subtitles. +But these movies are made to be understood despite such handicaps, and she has a great time in the song and the dance and the action. +She goes away with stars in her eyes about India, as a result. +And this is happening more and more. +Afghanistan, we know what a serious security problem Afghanistan is for so many of us in the world. +India doesn't have a military mission there. +You know what was India's biggest asset in Afghanistan in the last seven years? +One simple fact: you couldn't try to call an Afghan at 8:30 in the evening. +Why? Because that was the moment when the Indian television soap opera, "Kyunki Saas Bhi Kabhi Bahu Thi," dubbed into Dari, was telecast on Tolo T.V. +And it was the most popular television show in Afghan history. +Every Afghan family wanted to watch it. +They had to suspend functions at 8:30. +Weddings were reported to be interrupted so guests could cluster around the T.V. set, and then turn their attention back to the bride and groom. +And they scrawled on the windshield in a reference to the show's heroine, "Tulsi Zindabad": "Long live Tulsi." +That's soft power. And that is what India is developing through the "E" part of TED: its own entertainment industry. +The same is true, of course -- we don't have time for too many more examples -- but it's true of our music, of our dance, of our art, yoga, ayurveda, even Indian cuisine. +I mean, the proliferation of Indian restaurants since I first went abroad as a student, in the mid '70s, and what I see today, you can't go to a mid-size town in Europe or North America and not find an Indian restaurant. It may not be a very good one. +But, today in Britain, for example, Indian restaurants in Britain employ more people than the coal mining, ship building and iron and steel industries combined. +So the empire can strike back. +And India is, and must remain, in my view, the land of the better story. +Stereotypes are changing. I mean, again, having gone to the U.S. +as a student in the mid '70s, I knew what the image of India was then, if there was an image at all. +Today, people in Silicon Valley and elsewhere speak of the IITs, the Indian Institutes of Technology with the same reverence they used to accord to MIT. +This can sometimes have unintended consequences. OK. +I had a friend, a history major like me, who was accosted at Schiphol Airport in Amsterdam, by an anxiously perspiring European saying, "You're Indian, you're Indian! Can you help me fix my laptop?" +We've gone from the image of India as land of fakirs lying on beds of nails, and snake charmers with the Indian rope trick, to the image of India as a land of mathematical geniuses, computer wizards, software gurus. +But that too is transforming the Indian story around the world. +But, there is something more substantive to that. +The story rests on a fundamental platform of political pluralism. +It's a civilizational story to begin with. +Because India has been an open society for millennia. +India gave refuge to the Jews, fleeing the destruction of the first temple by the Babylonians, and said thereafter by the Romans. +In fact, legend has is that when Doubting Thomas, the Apostle, Saint Thomas, landed on the shores of Kerala, my home state, somewhere around 52 A.D., he was welcomed on shore by a flute-playing Jewish girl. +And to this day remains the only Jewish diaspora in the history of the Jewish people, which has never encountered a single incident of anti-semitism. +That's the Indian story. +Islam came peacefully to the south, slightly more differently complicated history in the north. +But all of these religions have found a place and a welcome home in India. +You know, we just celebrated, this year, our general elections, the biggest exercise in democratic franchise in human history. +And the next one will be even bigger, because our voting population keeps growing by 20 million a year. +This is India, and of course it's all the more striking because it was four years later that we all applauded the U.S., the oldest democracy in the modern world, more than 220 years of free and fair elections, which took till last year to elect a president or a vice president who wasn't white, male or Christian. +So, maybe -- oh sorry, he is Christian, I beg your pardon -- and he is male, but he isn't white. +All the others have been all those three. +All his predecessors have been all those three, and that's the point I was trying to make. +But, the issue is that when I talked about that example, it's not just about talking about India, it's not propaganda. +Because ultimately, that electoral outcome had nothing to do with the rest of the world. +It was essentially India being itself. +And ultimately, it seems to me, that always works better than propaganda. +Governments aren't very good at telling stories. +But people see a society for what it is, and that, it seems to me, is what ultimately will make a difference in today's information era, in today's TED age. +So India now is no longer the nationalism of ethnicity or language or religion, because we have every ethnicity known to mankind, practically, we've every religion know to mankind, with the possible exception of Shintoism, though that has some Hindu elements somewhere. +We have 23 official languages that are recognized in our Constitution. +And those of you who cashed your money here might be surprised to see how many scripts there are on the rupee note, spelling out the denominations. +We've got all of that. +We don't even have geography uniting us, because the natural geography of the subcontinent framed by the mountains and the sea was hacked by the partition with Pakistan in 1947. +In fact, you can't even take the name of the country for granted, because the name "India" comes from the river Indus, which flows in Pakistan. +But, the whole point is that India is the nationalism of an idea. +It's the idea of an ever-ever-land, emerging from an ancient civilization, united by a shared history, but sustained, above all, by pluralist democracy. +That is a 21st-century story as well as an ancient one. +And it's the nationalism of an idea that essentially says you can endure differences of caste, creed, color, culture, cuisine, custom and costume, consonant, for that matter, and still rally around a consensus. +And the consensus is of a very simple principle, that in a diverse plural democracy like India you don't really have to agree on everything all the time, so long as you agree on the ground rules of how you will disagree. +The great success story of India, a country that so many learned scholars and journalists assumed would disintegrate, in the '50s and '60s, is that it managed to maintain consensus on how to survive without consensus. +Now, that is the India that is emerging into the 21st century. +And I do want to make the point that if there is anything worth celebrating about India, it isn't military muscle, economic power. +All of that is necessary, but we still have huge amounts of problems to overcome. +Somebody said we are super poor, and we are also super power. +We can't really be both of those. +But, it's all taking place, this great adventure of conquering those challenges, those real challenges which none of us can pretend don't exist. +But, it's all taking place in an open society, in a rich and diverse and plural civilization, in one that is determined to liberate and fulfill the creative energies of its people. +That's why India belongs at TED, and that's why TED belongs in India. +Thank you very much. +One morning, in the year 1957, the neurosurgeon Wilder Penfield saw himself like this, a weird freak with huge hands, huge mouth, and a tiny bottom. +Actually this creature is the result of the Penfield research. +He named it homunculus. +Basically the homunculus is the visualization of a human being where each part of the body is proportional to the surface it takes in the brain. +So, of course, homunculus is definitely not a freak. +It's you. It's me. +It's our invisible reality. +This visualization could explain, for example, why newborns, or smokers, put, instinctively, their fingers in the mouth. +Unfortunately it doesn't explain why so many designers remain mainly interested in designing chairs. +So anyway, even if I do not understand science entirely, for my design I essentially refer to it. +I'm fascinated by its ability to deeply investigate the human being, its way of working, its way of feeling. +And it really helps me to understand how we see, how we hear, how we breathe, how our brain can inform or mislead us. +It's a great tool for me to understand what could be our real needs. +Marketing people have never been able to do that. +Marketing reduces things. Marketing simplifies. +Marketing creates user groups. +And scientists, amidst complexity, amidst fluctuation and uniqueness. +What could be our real needs? +Maybe the silence. +In our daily life we are continuously disturbed by aggressive sounds. +And you know all those kind of sound puts us in a kind of stressful state, and prevent us from being quiet and focused. +So I wanted to create a kind of sound filter, able to preserve ourselves from noise pollution. +But I didn't want it to make it by isolating people, without any earmuffs or those kind of things. +Or neither with including complex technology. +I just wanted to, using the complexity and the technology of the brain, of the human brain. +So I worked with white noise. +dB is basically -- dB is the name of the product, basically a white noise diffuser. +This is white noise. +The white noise is the sum of all frequencies that are audible by the human being, brought to the same intensity. +And this noise is like a "shhhhhhhhhhhhh," like that. +And this noise is the most neutral. +It is the perfect sound for our ears and our brain. +So when you hear this sound you feel like a kind of shelter, preserved from noise pollution. +And when you hear the white noise, your brain is immediately focused on it. +And do not be disturbed any more by the other aggressive sound. +It seems to be magic. +But it is just physiology. It's just in your brain. +And in mine, I hope. +So in order to make this white noise a little bit active and reactive, I create a ball, a rolling ball able to analyze and find where does aggressive sound come from, and roll, at home or at work, towards aggressive noise, and emits white noise in order to neutralize it. +It works. +You feel the effect of the white noise? +It's too in silence. +If you make some noise you can feel the effect. +So even if this object, even if this product includes some technology, it includes some speakers, it includes some microphones and some electronic devices, this object is not a very smart object. +And I don't want to make a very smart object. +I don't want to create a perfect object like a perfect robot. +I want to create an object like you and me. +So, definitely not perfect. +So imagine, for instance, you are at home. +A loving dispute with your girl or boyfriend. +You shout. You say, "Blah blah blah, Blah blah blah. Who is this guy?" +And dB will probably roll toward you. +And turning around you is "shhhhhhh," like that. +Definitely not perfect. So you would probably shut it, at this point. +Anyway, in this same kind of approach, I designed K. +K is a daylight receiver transmitter. +So this object is supposed to be displayed on your desk, or on your piano, where you are supposed to spend most of your time in the day. +And this object will be able to know exactly the quantity of light you receive during the day, and able to give you the quantity of light you need. +This object is completely covered by fiber opticals. +And the idea of those fiber opticals is to inform the object, for sure, but creates the idea of an eye sensibility of the object. +I want, by this design feel, when you see it, you see, instinctively, this object seems to be very sensitive, very reactive. +And this object knows, better than you and probably before you, what you really need. +You have to know that the lack of daylight can provoke some problem of energy, or problem of libido. +So, a huge problem. +Most of the projects I work on -- I live in collaboration with scientists. +I'm just a designer. So I need them. +So there can be some biologists, psychiatrists, mathematicians, and so on. +And I submit them, my intuitions, my hypothesis, my first ideas. +And they react. They told me what is possible, what is impossible. +And together we improve the original concept. +And we build the project to the end. +And this kind of relationship between designer and scientist started when I was at school. +Indeed in my studies I was a guinea pig for a pharmaceutical industry. +And the irony for me was of course, I didn't do that for the sake of science progress. +I just do that to make money. +Anyway, this project, or this experience, make me start a new project on the design of medicine. +You have to know that today, roughly one or two every drug pills is not taken correctly. +So even if the active constituents in pharmaceuticals made constant progress in terms of chemistry, target of stability, the behavior of the patients goes more and more unstable. +So we took too many of them. +We took irregular dosage. +We do not follow instructions. And so on. +So I wanted to create a new kind of medicine, in order to create a new kind of relationship between the patient and the treatment. +So I turned traditional pills into this. +I'm going to give you some example. +This one is an antibiotic. +And its purpose is to help patient to go to the end of the treatment. +And the concept is to create a kind of onion, a kind of structure in layers. +So, you start with the darkest one. +And you are helped to visualize the duration of the treatment. +And you are helped to visualize the decrease of the infection. +So the first day, this is the big one. +And you have to peel and eat one layer a day. +And your antibiotic goes smaller and clearer. +And you're waiting for recovery as you were waiting for the Christmas day. +And you follow the treatment like that, to the end of the treatment. +And here you can get the white core. +And it means, right, you are in the recovery. +Thank you. +This one is a "third lung," a pharmaceutical device for long-term asthma treatment. +I designed it to help kids to follow the treatment. +So the idea of this one is to create a relationship between the patient of the treatment but a relationship of dependency. +But in this case it is not the medication that is dependent on the patient. +This is, the kids will feel the therapeutic object needs him. +So the idea is, all night long the elastic skin of the third lung will slowly inflate itself, including air and molecules, for sure. +And when the kids wake up, he can see the object needs him. And he take him to his mouth, and breathe the air it contains. +So by this way, the kid, to take care of himself, is to take care of this living object. +And he does not feel anymore it's relies on asthma treatment, as the asthma treatment needs him. +In this guise of living object approach, I like the idea of a kind of invisible design, as if the function of the object exists in a kind of invisible field just around the objects themselves. +We could talk about a kind of soul, of a ghost accompanying them. +And almost a kind of poltergeist effect. +So when a passive object like this one seems to be alive, because it is -- woosh -- starting to move. +And I remember an exhibition design I made for John Maeda, and for the Fondation Cartier in Paris. +And John Maeda was supposed to show several graphic animations in this exhibition. +And my idea for this exhibition design was to create a real pong game, like this one. +And the idea was to create some self-moving benches in the main exhibition room. +So the living benches would be exactly like the ball. +And John was so excited by this idea. He said to me, "Okay let's go." +I remember the day of the opening. +I was a little bit late. +When I bring the 10 living and self-moving benches in the exhibition room, John was just beside me, and was like, "Hmm. Hmm." +And he told me, after a long silence, "I wonder, Mathieu, if people won't be more fascinated by your benches than by my videos." +It would be a great honor, a great compliment for me, if he hadn't decided to take all them off two hours before the opening. +So, huge tragedy. +I guess you won't be surprised if I tell you that Pinocchio is one of my great influences. +Pinocchio is probably one of my best design products, my favorite one. +Because it is a kind of object with a conscience, able to be modified by its surroundings, and able to modify it as well. +The other great influence is the mine's canary. +In coal mines, this canary was supposed to be close to the miners. +And it was singing all day long. And when it stops it means that it just died. +So this canary was a living alarm, and a very efficient one. +A very natural technology, in order to say to the miners, "The air is too bad. You have to go. It's an emergency." +So it's, for me, a great product. +And I tried to design a kind of canary. +Andrea is one. +Andrea is a living air filter that absorbs toxic gasses from air, contaminated indoor air. +So it uses some plants to do this job, selected for their gas-filtering ability. +You have to know, or you probably already know, that indoor air pollution is more toxic than outdoor one. +So while I'm talking to you, the seats you are sitting on are currently emitting some invisible and odorless toxic gas. Sorry for that. So you are currently breathing formaldehyde. +It's the same for me with the carpet. +And this is exactly the same at home. +Because all the product we get constantly give away the volatile component of which they're made of. +So let's have a look at your home. +So your sofa, your plastic chair, your kid's toys give their own invisible reality. And this one is very toxic. +This is the reason why I created, with David Edward, a scientist of Harvard University, an object able to absorb the toxic elements using those kind of plants. +But the idea is to force the air to go in the effective part of the plants. +Because the roots of the plant are not very effective. +Bill Wolverton from NASA analyzed it cleverly in the '70s. +So the idea is to create an object able to force the air, and to be in contact at the right speed at the right place, in all the effective parts of the plant. +So this is the final object. +It will be launched next September. +This one is kind of the same approach because I include, in a product like Andrea, some plants. +And in this one, plants are used for the water filtration ability. +And it includes some fishes as well. +But here, unlike Andrea, here are supposed to be eaten. +Indeed, this object is a domestic farm, for fishes and green. +So the idea of this object is to be able to get at home very local food. +The locavores used to get food taken in a radius of 100 miles. +Local River is able to provide you food directly in your living room. +So the principle of this object is to create an ecosystem called aquaponics. +And the aquaponics is the dirty water of the fish, by a water pump, feeds the plants above. +And the plants will filter, by the roots, the dirty water of the fish. +After, it goes back into the fish tank. +After that you have two options. +Or you sit down in front of it like you would do in front your TV set. +Amazing channel. +Or you start fishing. +And you make some sushis with a fish and the aromatic plants above. +Because you can grow some potatoes. +No, not potatoes, but tomatoes, aromatic plants and so on. +So now we can breathe safely. +Now we can eat local food. +Now we can be treated by smart medicine. +Now we can be well-balanced in our biorhythm with daylight. +But it was important to create a perfect place, so I tried to, in order to work and create. +So I designed, for an American scientist based in Paris, a very stimulative, brain-stimulative office. +I wanted to create a perfect place where you can work and play, and where your body and your brain can work together. +So, in this office, you do not work anymore at your desk, like a politician. +Your seat, your sleep and your play on a big geodesic island made of leather. +See, like this one? +In this office you do not work and write and draw on a sheet of paper, but you draw directly on a kind of huge whiteboard cave, like a prehistoric scientist. +So you, like that, can make some sport during your work. +In this office you do not need to go out in order to be in contact with nature. +You include, directly, the nature in the floor of the office. +You can see it there. +This is an inspiration image to lead this project of the office. +It really helped me to design it. +I never show it to my client. He would be so afraid. +Just for my workshop. +I guess it may be the revenge of the guinea pig I was. +But it's maybe the conviction as monkey and homunculus we are. +All of us need to be considered according to our real nature. +Thank you very much. +I'm going to talk about some of my discoveries around the world through my work. +These are not discoveries of planets or new technologies or science. +They're discoveries of people and the way people are, and new leadership. +This is Benki. +Benki is a leader of the Ashaninka Nation. +His people live in Brazil and in Peru. +Benki comes from a village so remote up in the Amazon that to get there, either you have to fly and land on water, or go by canoe for several days. +I met Benki three years ago in Sao Paulo when I'd brought him and other leaders from indigenous peoples to meet with me and leaders from around the world, because we wanted to learn from each other. +We wanted to share our stories with each other. +The Ashaninka people are known throughout South America for their dignity, their spirit and their resistance, starting with the Incas and continuing through the 19th century with the rubber tappers. +Today's biggest threat to the Ashaninka people and to Benki comes from illegal logging -- the people who come into the beautiful forest and cut down ancient mahogany trees, float them down the river to world markets. +Benki knew this. +He could see what was happening to his forest, to his environment, because he was taken under his grandfather's wing when he was only two years old to begin to learn about the forest and the way of life of his people. +His grandfather died when he was only 10. +And at that young age, 10 years old, Benki became the paje of his community. +Now, in the Ashaninka tradition and culture, the paje is the most important person in the community. +This is the person who contains within him all the knowledge, all the wisdom of centuries and centuries of life, and not just about his people, but about everything that his people's survival depended on: the trees, the birds, the water, the soil, the forest. +So when he was only 10 and he became the paje, he began to lead his people. +He began to talk to them about the forest that they needed to protect, the way of life they needed to nurture. +He explained to them that it was not a question of survival of the fittest; it was a question of understanding what they needed to survive and to protect that. +Eight years later, when he was a young man of 18, Benki left the forest for the first time. +He went 3,000 miles on an odyssey to Rio to the Earth Summit to tell the world what was happening in his tiny, little corner. +And he went because he hoped the world would listen. +Some did, not everybody. +But if you can imagine this young man with his headdress and his flowing robe, learning a new language, Portuguese, not to mention English, going to Rio, building a bridge to reach out to people he'd never met before -- a pretty hostile world. +But he wasn't dismayed. +Benki came back to his village full of ideas -- new technologies, new research, new ways of understanding what was going on. +Since that time, he's continued to work with his people, and not only the Ashaninka Nation, but all the peoples of the Amazon and beyond. +He's built schools to teach children to care for the forest. +Together, he's led the reforestation of over 25 percent of the land that had been destroyed by the loggers. +He's created a cooperative to help people diversify their livelihoods. +And he's brought the internet and satellite technology to the forest -- both so that people themselves could monitor the deforestation, but also that he could speak from the forest to the rest of the world. +If you were to meet Benki and ask him, "Why are you doing this? +Why are you putting yourself at risk? +Why are you making yourself vulnerable to what is often a hostile world?" +he would tell you, as he told me, "I asked myself," he said, "What did my grandparents and my great-grandparents do to protect the forest for me? +And what am I doing?" +So when I think of that, I wonder what our grandchildren and our great-grandchildren, when they ask themselves that question, I wonder how they will answer. +For me, the world is veering towards a future we don't much want when we really think about it deep inside. +It's a future we don't know the details of, but it's a future that has signs, just like Benki saw the signs around him. +We know we are running out of what we need. +We're running out of fresh water. +We're running out of fossil fuels. +We're running out of land. +We know climate change is going to affect all of us. +We don't know how, but we know it will. +And we know that there will be more of us than ever before -- five times as many people in 40 years than 60 years ago. +We are running out of what we need. +And we also know that the world has changed in other ways, that since 1960 there are one-third as many new countries that exist as independent entities on the planet. +Egos, systems of government -- figuring it out -- massive change. +And in addition to that, we know that five other really big countries are going to have a say in the future, a say we haven't even really started to hear yet -- China, India, Russia, South Africa and Benki's own Brazil, where Benki got his civil rights only in the 1988 constitution. +But you know all that. +You know more than Benki knew when he left his forest and went 3,000 miles. +You also know that we can't just keep doing what we've always done, because we'll get the results we've always gotten. +And this reminds me of something I understand Lord Salisbury said to Queen Victoria over a hundred years ago, when she was pressing him, "Please change." +He said, "Change? +Why change? +Things are bad enough as they are." +We have to change. +It's imperative to me, when I look around the world, that we need to change ourselves. +We need new models of what it means to be a leader. +We need new models of being a leader and a human in the world. +I started life as a banker. +Now I don't admit to that to anybody but my very close friends. +But for the past eight years, I've done something completely different. +This is Sanghamitra. +Sanghamitra comes from Bangalore. +I met Sanghamitra eight years ago when I was in Bangalore organizing a workshop with leaders of different NGO's working in some of the hardest aspects of society. +Sanghamitra didn't start life as a leader of an NGO, she started her career as university professor, teaching English literature. +But she realized that she was much too detached from the world doing that. +She loved it, but she was too detached. +And so in 1993, a long time ago, she decided to start a new organization called Samraksha focused on one of the hardest areas, one of the hardest issues in India -- anywhere in the world at the time -- HIV/AIDS. +Since that time, Samraksha has grown from strength to strength and is now one of the leading health NGO's in India. +But if you just think about the state of the world and knowledge of HIV/AIDS in 1993 -- in India at that time it was skyrocketing and nobody understood why, and everyone was actually very, very afraid. +Today there are still three million HIV-positive people in India. +That's the second largest population in the world. +When I asked Sanghamitra, "How did you get from English literature to HIV/AIDS?" +not an obvious path, she said to me, "It's all connected. +Literature makes one sensitive, sensitive to people, to their dreams and to their ideas." +Since that time, under her leadership, Samraksha has been a pioneer in all fields related to HIV/AIDS. +They have respite homes, the first, the first care centers, the first counseling services -- and not just in urban, 7-million-population Bangalore, but in the hardest to reach villages in the state of Karnataka. +Even that wasn't enough. +She wanted to change policy at the government level. +10 of their programs that she pioneered are now government policy and funded by the government. +They take care of 20,000-odd people today in over 1,000 villages around Karnataka. +She works with people like Murali Krishna. +Murali Krishna comes from one of those villages. +He lost his wife to AIDS a couple of years ago, and he's HIV-positive. +But he saw the work, the care, the compassion that Sanghamitra and her team brought to the village, and he wanted to be part of it. +He's a Leaders' Quest fellow, and that helps him with his work. +They've pioneered a different approach to villages. +Instead of handing out information in pamphlets, as is so often the case, they bring theater troupes, songs, music, dance. +And they sit around, and they talk about dreams. +Sanghamitra told me just last week -- she had just come back from two weeks in the villages, and she had a real breakthrough. +They were sitting in a circle, talking about the dreams for the village. +And the young women in the village spoke up and said, "We've changed our dream. +Our dream is for our partners, our husbands, not to be given to us because of a horoscope, but to be given to us because they've been tested for HIV." +If you are lucky enough to meet Sanghamitra and ask her why and how, how have you achieved so much? +She would look at you and very quietly, very softly say, "It just happened. +It's the spirit inside." +This is Dr. Fan Jianchuan. +Jianchuan comes from Sichuan Province in southwest China. +He was born in 1957, and you can imagine what his childhood looked like and felt like, and what his life has been like over the last 50 tumultuous years. +He's been a soldier, a teacher, a politician, a vice-mayor and a business man. +But if you sat down and asked him, "Who are you really, and what do you do?" +He would tell you, "I'm a collector, and I curate a museum." +I was lucky; I had heard about him for years, and I finally met him earlier this year at his museum in Chengdu. +He's been a collector all of his life, starting when he was four or five in the early 1960's. +Now, just think of the early 1960's in China. +Over a lifetime, through everything, through the Cultural Revolution and everything afterward, he's kept collecting, so that he now has over eight million pieces in his museums documenting contemporary Chinese history. +These are pieces that you won't find anywhere else in the world, in part because they document parts of history Chinese choose to forget. +For example, he's got over one million pieces documenting the Sino-Japanese War, a war that's not talked about in China very much and whose heroes are not honored. +Why did he do all this? +Because he thought a nation should never repeat the mistakes of the past. +But it's not just Chinese heroes he cares about. +This building contains the world's largest collection of documents and artifacts commemorating the U.S. role in fighting on the Chinese side in that long war -- the Flying Tigers. +He has nine other buildings -- that are already open to the public -- filled to the rafters with artifacts documenting contemporary Chinese history. +Two of the most sensitive buildings include a lifetime of collection about the Cultural Revolution, a period that actually most Chinese would prefer to forget. +But he doesn't want his nation ever to forget. +These people inspire me, and they inspire me because they show us what is possible when you change the way you look at the world, change the way you look at your place in the world. +They looked outside, and then they changed what was on the inside. +They didn't go to business school. +They didn't read a manual, "How to Be a Good Leader in 10 Easy Steps." +But they have qualities we'd all recognize. +They have drive, passion, commitment. +They've gone away from what they did before, and they've gone to something they didn't know. +They've tried to connect worlds they didn't know existed before. +They've built bridges, and they've walked across them. +They have a sense of the great arc of time and their tiny place in it. +They know people have come before them and will follow them. +And they know that they're part of a whole, that they depend on other people. +It's not about them, they know that, but it has to start with them. +And they have humility. +It just happens. +But we know it doesn't just happen, don't we? +We know it takes a lot to make it happen, and we know the direction the world is going in. +So I think we need succession planning on a global basis. +We can't wait for the next generation, the new joiners, to come in and learn how to be the good leaders we need. +I think it has to start with us. +And we know, just like they knew, how hard it is. +But the good news is that we don't have to figure it out as we go along; we have models, we have examples, like Benki and Sanghamitra and Jianchuan. +We can look at what they've done, if we look. +We can learn from what they've learned. +We can change the way we see ourselves in the world. +And if we're lucky, we can change the way our great-grandchildren will answer Benki's question. +Thank you. +As technology progresses, and as it advances, many of us assume that these advances make us more intelligent, make us smarter and more connected to the world. +And what I'd like to argue is that that's not necessarily the case, as progress is simply a word for change, and with change you gain something, but you also lose something. +And to really illustrate this point, what I'd like to do is to show you how technology has dealt with a very simple, a very common, an everyday question. +And that question is this. +What time is it? What time is it? +If you glance at your iPhone, it's so simple to tell the time. +But, I'd like to ask you, how would you tell the time if you didn't have an iPhone? +How would you tell the time, say, 600 years ago? +How would you do it? +Well, the way you would do it is by using a device that's called an astrolabe. +So, an astrolabe is relatively unknown in today's world. +But, at the time, in the 13th century, it was the gadget of the day. +It was the world's first popular computer. +And it was a device that, in fact, is a model of the sky. +So, the different parts of the astrolabe, in this particular type, the rete corresponds to the positions of the stars. +The plate corresponds to a coordinate system. +And the mater has some scales and puts it all together. +If you were an educated child, you would know how to not only use the astrolabe, you would also know how to make an astrolabe. +And we know this because the first treatise on the astrolabe, the first technical manual in the English language, was written by Geoffrey Chaucer. +Yes, that Geoffrey Chaucer, in 1391, to his little Lewis, his 11-year-old son. +And in this book, little Lewis would know the big idea. +And the central idea that makes this computer work is this thing called stereographic projection. +And basically, the concept is, how do you represent the three-dimensional image of the night sky that surrounds us onto a flat, portable, two-dimensional surface. +The idea is actually relatively simple. +Imagine that that Earth is at the center of the universe, and surrounding it is the sky projected onto a sphere. +Each point on the surface of the sphere is mapped through the bottom pole, onto a flat surface, where it is then recorded. +So the North Star corresponds to the center of the device. +The ecliptic, which is the path of the sun, moon, and planets correspond to an offset circle. +The bright stars correspond to little daggers on the rete. +And the altitude corresponds to the plate system. +Now, the real genius of the astrolabe is not just the projection. +The real genius is that it brings together two coordinate systems so they fit perfectly. +There is the position of the sun, moon and planets on the movable rete. +And then there is their location on the sky as seen from a certain latitude on the back plate. Okay? +So how would you use this device? +Well, let me first back up for a moment. +This is an astrolabe. Pretty impressive, isn't it? +And so, this astrolabe is on loan from us from the Oxford School of -- Museum of History. +And you can see the different components. +This is the mater, the scales on the back. +This is the rete. Okay. Do you see that? +That's the movable part of the sky. +And in the back you can see a spider web pattern. +And that spider web pattern corresponds to the local coordinates in the sky. +This is a rule device. And on the back are some other devices, measuring tools and scales, to be able to make some calculations. Okay? +You know, I've always wanted one of these. +For my thesis I actually built one of these out of paper. +And this one, this is a replica from a 15th-century device. +And it's worth probably about three MacBook Pros. +But a real one would cost about as much as my house, and the house next to it, and actually every house on the block, on both sides of the street, maybe a school thrown in, and some -- you know, a church. +They are just incredibly expensive. +But let me show you how to work this device. +So let's go to step one. +First thing that you do is you select a star in the night sky, if you're telling time at night. +So, tonight, if it's clear you'll be able to see the summer triangle. +And there is a bright star called Deneb. So let's select Deneb. +Second, is you measure the altitude of Deneb. +So, step two, I hold the device up, and then I sight its altitude there so I can see it clearly now. +And then I measure its altitude. +So, it's about 26 degrees. You can't see it from over there. +Step three is identify the star on the front of the device. +Deneb is there. I can tell. +Step four is I then move the rete, move the sky, so the altitude of the star corresponds to the scale on the back. +Okay, so when that happens everything lines up. +I have here a model of the sky that corresponds to the real sky. Okay? +So, it is, in a sense, holding a model of the universe in my hands. +And then finally, I take a rule, and move the rule to a date line which then tells me the time here. +Right. So, that's how the device is used. +So, I know what you're thinking: "That's a lot of work, isn't it? Isn't it a ton of work to be able to tell the time?" +as you glance at your iPod to just check out the time. +But there is a difference between the two, because with your iPod you can tell -- or your iPhone, you can tell exactly what the time is, with precision. +The way little Lewis would tell the time is by a picture of the sky. +He would know where things would fit in the sky. +He would not only know what time it was, he would also know where the sun would rise, and how it would move across the sky. +He would know what time the sun would rise, and what time it would set. +And he would know that for essentially every celestial object in the heavens. +So, in computer graphics and computer user interface design, there is a term called affordances. +So, affordances are the qualities of an object that allow us to perform an action with it. +And what the astrolabe does is it allows us, it affords us, to connect to the night sky, to look up into the night sky and be much more -- to see the visible and the invisible together. +So, that's just one use. Incredible, there is probably 350, 400 uses. +In fact, there is a text, and that has over a thousand uses of this first computer. +On the back there is scales and measurements for terrestrial navigation. +You can survey with it. The city of Baghdad was surveyed with it. +It can be used for calculating mathematical equations of all different types. +And it would take a full university course to illustrate it. +Astrolabes have an incredible history. +They are over 2,000 years old. +The concept of stereographic projection originated in 330 B.C. +And the astrolabes come in many different sizes and shapes and forms. +There is portable ones. There is large display ones. +And I think what is common to all astrolabes is that they are beautiful works of art. +There is a quality of craftsmanship and precision that is just astonishing and remarkable. +Astrolabes, like every technology, do evolve over time. +So, the earliest retes, for example, were very simple and primitive. +And advancing retes became cultural emblems. +This is one from Oxford. +And I find this one really extraordinary because the rete pattern is completely symmetrical, and it accurately maps a completely asymmetrical, or random sky. +How cool is that? This is just amazing. +So, would little Lewis have an astrolabe? +Probably not one made of brass. He would have one made out of wood, or paper. And the vast majority of this first computer was a portable device that you could keep in the back of your pocket. +So, what does the astrolabe inspire? +Well, I think the first thing is that it reminds us just how resourceful people were, our forebears were, years and years ago. +It's just an incredible device. +Every technology advances. +Every technology is transformed and moved by others. +And what we gain with a new technology, of course, is precision and accuracy. +But what we lose, I think, is an accurate -- a felt sense of the sky, a sense of context. +Knowing the sky, knowing your relationship with the sky, is the center of the real answer to knowing what time it is. +So, it's -- I think astrolabes are just remarkable devices. +And so, what can you learn from these devices? +Well, primarily that there is a subtle knowledge that we can connect with the world. +And astrolabes return us to this subtle sense of how things all fit together, and also how we connect to the world. +Thanks very much. +Once upon a time, at the age of 24, I was a student at St. John's Medical College in Bangalore. +I was a guest student during one month of a public health course. +And that changed my mindset forever. +The course was good, but it was not the course content in itself that changed the mindset. +It was the brutal realization, the first morning, that the Indian students were better than me. +You see, I was a study nerd. +I loved statistics from a young age. +And I studied very much in Sweden. +I used to be in the upper quarter of all courses I attended. +But in St. John's, I was in the lower quarter. +And the fact was that Indian students studied harder than we did in Sweden. +They read the textbook twice, or three times or four times. +In Sweden we read it once and then we went partying. +And that, to me, that personal experience was the first time in my life that the mindset I grew up with was changed. +And I realized that perhaps the Western world will not continue to dominate the world forever. +And I think many of you have the same sort of personal experience. +It's that realization of someone you meet that really made you change your ideas about the world. +It's not the statistics, although I tried to make it funny. +And I will now, here, onstage, try to predict when that will happen -- that Asia will regain its dominant position as the leading part of the world, as it used to be, over thousands of years. +And I will do that by trying to predict precisely at what year the average income per person in India, in China, will reach that of the West. +And I don't mean the whole economy, because to grow an economy of India to the size of U.K. -- that's a piece of cake, with one billion people. +But I want to see when will the average pay, the money for each person, per month, in India and China, when will that have reached that of U.K. and the United States? +But I will start with a historical background. +And you can see my map if I get it up here. You know? +I will start at 1858. +1858 was a year of great technological advancement in the West. +That was the year when Queen Victoria was able, for the first time, to communicate with President Buchanan, through the Transatlantic Telegraphic Cable. +And they were the first to "Twitter" transatlantically. +And I've been able, through this wonderful Google and Internet, to find the text of the telegram sent back from President Buchanan to Queen Victoria. +And it ends like this: "This telegraph is a fantastic instrument to diffuse religion, civilization, liberty and law throughout the world." +Those are nice words. But I got sort of curious of what he meant with liberty, and liberty for whom. +And we will think about that when we look at the wider picture of the world in 1858. +Because 1858 was also watershed year in the history of Asia. +1858 was the year when the courageous uprising against the foreign occupation of India was defeated by the British forces. +And India was up to 89 years more of foreign domination. +1858 in China was the victory in the Opium War by the British forces. +And that meant that foreigners, as it said in the treaty, were allowed to trade freely in China. +It meant paying with opium for Chinese goods. +And 1858 in Japan was the year when Japan had to sign the Harris Treaty and accept trade on favorable condition for the U.S. +And they were threatened by those black ships there, that had been in Tokyo harbor over the last year. +But, Japan, in contrast to India and China, maintained its national sovereignty. +And let's see how much difference that can make. +And I will do that by bringing these bubbles back to a Gapminder graph here, where you can see each bubble is a country. +The size of the bubble here is the population. +On this axis, as I used to have income per person in comparable dollar. +And on that axis I have life expectancy, the health of people. +And I also bring an innovation here. +I have transformed the laser beam into an ecological, recyclable version here, in green India. +And we will see, you know. +Look here, 1858, India was here, China was here, Japan was there, United States and United Kingdom was richer over there. +And I will start the world like this. +India was not always like this level. +Actually if we go back into the historical record, there was a time hundreds of years ago when the income per person in India and China was even above that of Europe. +But 1850 had already been many, many years of foreign domination, and India had been de-industrialized. +And you can see that the countries who were growing their economy was United States and United Kingdom. +And they were also, by the end of the century, getting healthy, and Japan was starting to catch up. +India was trying down here. +Can you see how it starts to move there? +But really, really natural sovereignty was good for Japan. +And Japan is trying to move up there. +And it's the new century now. Health is getting better, United Kingdom, United States. +But careful now -- we are approaching the First World War. +And the First World War, you know, we'll see a lot of deaths and economical problems here. +United Kingdom is going down. +And now comes the Spanish flu also. +And then after the First World War, they continue up. +Still under foreign domination, and without sovereignty, India and China are down in the corner. +Not much has happened. +They have grown their population but not much more. +In the 1930's now, you can see that Japan is going to a period of war, with lower life expectancy. +And the Second World War was really a terrible event, also economically for Japan. +But they did recover quite fast afterwards. +And we are moving into the new world. +In 1947 India finally gained its independence. +And they could raise the Indian flag and become a sovereign nation, but in very big difficulties down there. +In 1949 we saw the emergence of the modern China in a way which surprised the world. +And what happened? +What happens in the after independence? +You can see that the health started to improve. +Children started to go to school. +Health services were provided. +This is the Great Leap Forward, when China fell down. +It was central planning by Mao Tse Tung. +China recovered. Then they said, "Nevermore, stupid central planning." +But they went up here, and India was trying to follow. +And they were catching up indeed. +And both countries had the better health, but still a very low economy. +And we came to 1978, and Mao Tse Tung died, and a new guy turned up from the left. +And it was Deng Xiaoping coming out here. +And he said, "Doesn't matter if a cat is white or black, as long as it catches mice." +Because catching mice is what the two cats wanted to do. +And you can see the two cats being here, China and India, wanting to catch the mices over there, you know. +And they decided to go not only for health and education, but also starting to grow their economy. +And the market reformer was successful there. +In '92 India follows with a market reform. +And they go quite closely together, and you can see that the similarity with India and China, in many ways, are greater than the differences with them. +And here they march on. And will they catch up? +This is the big question today. +There they are today. +Now what does it mean that the -- the averages there -- this is the average of China. +If I would split China, look here, Shanghai has already catched up. +Shanghai is already there. +And it's healthier than the United States. +But on the other hand, Guizhou, one of the poorest inland provinces of China, is there. +And if I split Guizhou into urban and rural, the rural part of Guizhou goes down there. +You see this enormous inequity in China, in the midst of fast economic growth. +And if I would also look at India, you have another type of inequity, actually, in India. +The geographical, macro-geographical difference is not so big. +Uttar Pradesh, the biggest of the states here, is poorer and has a lower health than the rest of India. +Kerala is flying on top there, matching United States in health, but not in economy. +And here, Maharashtra, with Mumbai, is forging forward. +Now in India, the big inequities are within the state, rather than between the states. +And that is not a bad thing, in itself. +If you have a lot inequity, macro-geographical inequities can be more difficult in the long term to deal with, than if it is in the same area where you have a growth center relatively close to where poor people are living. +No, there is one more inequity. Look there, United States. +Oh, they broke my frame. +Washington, D.C. went out here. +My friends at Gapminder wanted me to show this because there is a new leader in Washington who is really concerned about the health system. +And I can understand him, because Washington, D.C. +is so rich over there but they are not as healthy as Kerala. +It's quite interesting, isn't it? +I can see a business opportunity for Kerala, helping fix the health system in the United States. +Now here we have the whole world. You have the legend down there. +And when you see the two giant cats here, pushing forward, you see that in between them and ahead of them, is the whole emerging economies of the world, which Thomas Friedman so correctly called the "flat world." +You can see that in health and education, a large part of the world population is putting forward, but in Africa, and other parts, as in rural Guizhou in China, there is still people with low health and very low economy. +We have an enormous disparity in the world. +But most of the world in the middle are pushing forwards very fast. +Now, back to my projections. +When will it catch up? I have to go back to very conventional graph. +I will show income per person on this axis instead, poor down here, rich up there. +And then time here, from 1858 I start the world. +And we shall see what will happen with these countries. +You see, China under foreign domination actually lowered their income and came down to the Indian level here. +Whereas U.K. and United States is getting richer and richer. +And after Second World War, United States is richer than U.K. +But independence is coming here. +Growth is starting, economic reform. +Growth is faster, and with projection from IMF you can see where you expect them to be in 2014. +Now, the question is, "When will the catch up take place?" +Look at, look at the United States. +Can you see the bubble? +The bubbles, not my bubbles, but the financial bubbles. +That's the dot com bubble. This is the Lehman Brothers doorstep there. +You see it came down there. +And it seems this is another rock coming down there, you know. +So they doesn't seem to go this way, these countries. +They seem to go in a more humble growth way, you know. +And people interested in growth are turning their eyes towards Asia. +I can compare to Japan. This is Japan coming up. +You see, Japan did it like that. +We add Japan to it. +And there is no doubt that fast catch up can take place. +Can you see here what Japan did? +Japan did it like this, until full catch up, and then they follow with the other high-income economies. +But the real projections for those ones, I would like to give it like this. +Can be worse, can be better. +It's always difficult to predict, especially about the future. +Now, a historian tells me it's even more difficult to predict about the past. +I think I'm in a difficult position here. +Inequalities in China and India I consider really the big obstacle because to bring the entire population into growth and prosperity is what will create a domestic market, what will avoid social instability, and which will make use of the entire capacity of the population. +So, social investments in health, education and infrastructure, and electricity is really what is needed in India and China. +You know the climate. We have great international experts within India telling us that the climate is changing, and actions has to be taken, otherwise China and India would be the countries most to suffer from climate change. +And I consider India and China the best partners in the world in a good global climate policy. +But they ain't going to pay for what others, who have more money, have largely created, and I can agree on that. +But what I'm really worried about is war. +Will the former rich countries really accept a completely changed world economy, and a shift of power away from where it has been the last 50 to 100 to 150 years, back to Asia? +And will Asia be able to handle that new position of being in charge of being the most mighty, and the governors of the world? +So, always avoid war, because that always pushes human beings backward. +Now if these inequalities, climate and war can be avoided, get ready for a world in equity, because this is what seems to be happening. +And that vision that I got as a young student, 1972, that Indians can be much better than Swedes, is just about to happen. +And it will happen precisely the year 2048 in the later part of the summer, in July, more precisely, the 27th of July. +The 27th of July, 2048 is my 100th birthday. +And I expect to speak in the first session of the 39th TED India. +Get your bookings in time. Thank you very much. +As a culture, we tell ourselves lots of stories about the future, and where we might move forward from this point. +Some of those stories are that somebody is just going to sort everything out for us. +Other stories are that everything is on the verge of unraveling. +But I want to tell you a different story here today. +Like all stories, it has a beginning. +My work, for a long time, has been involved in education, in teaching people practical skills for sustainability, teaching people how to take responsibility for growing some of their own food, how to build buildings using local materials, how to generate their own energy, and so on. +I lived in Ireland, built the first straw-bale houses in Ireland, and some cob buildings and all this kind of thing. +But all my work for many years was focused around the idea that sustainability means basically looking at the globalized economic growth model, and moderating what comes in at one end, and moderating the outputs at the other end. +And then I came into contact with a way of looking at things which actually changed that profoundly. +And in order to introduce you to that, I've got something here that I'm going to unveil, which is one of the great marvels of the modern age. +And it's something so astounding and so astonishing that I think maybe as I remove this cloth a suitable gasp of amazement might be appropriate. +If you could help me with that it would be fantastic. +This is a liter of oil. +This bottle of oil, distilled over a hundred million years of geological time, ancient sunlight, contains the energy equivalent of about five weeks hard human manual labor -- equivalent to about 35 strong people coming round and working for you. +We can turn it into a dazzling array of materials, medicine, modern clothing, laptops, a whole range of different things. +It gives us an energy return that's unimaginable, historically. +We've based the design of our settlements, our business models, our transport plans, even the idea of economic growth, some would argue, on the assumption that we will have this in perpetuity. +Yet, when we take a step back, and look over the span of history, at what we might call the petroleum interval, it's a short period in history where we've discovered this extraordinary material, and then based a whole way of life around it. +And it's increasingly clear that we aren't going to be able to rely on the fact that we're going to have this at our disposal forever. +For every four barrels of oil that we consume, we only discover one. +And that gap continues to widen. +There is also the fact that the amount of energy that we get back from the oil that we discover is falling. +In the 1930s we got 100 units of energy back for every one that we put in to extract it. +Completely unprecedented, historically. +Already that's fallen to about 11. +And that's why, now, the new breakthroughs, the new frontiers in terms of oil extraction are scrambling about in Alberta, or at the bottom of the oceans. +There are 98 oil-producing nations in the world. +But of those, 65 have already passed their peak. +The moment when the world on average passes this peak, people wonder when that's going to happen. +And there is an emerging case that maybe that was what happened last July when the oil prices were so high. +But are we to assume that the same brilliance and creativity and adaptability that got us up to the top of that energy mountain in the first place is somehow mysteriously going to evaporate when we have to design a creative way back down the other side? +No. But the thinking that we have to come up with has to be based on a realistic assessment of where we are. +There is also the issue of climate change, is the other thing that underpins this transition approach. +But the thing that I notice, as I talk to climate scientists, is the increasingly terrified look they have in their eyes, as the data that's coming in, which is far ahead of what the IPCC are talking about. +So the IPCC said that we might see significant breakup of the arctic ice in 2100, in their worst case scenario. +Actually, if current trends continue, it could all be gone in five or 10 years' time. +If just three percent of the carbon locked up in the arctic permafrost is released as the world warms, it would offset all the savings that we need to make, in carbon, over the next 40 years to avoid runaway climate change. +We have no choice other than deep and urgent decarbonization. +But I'm always very interested to think about what might the stories be that the generations further down the slope from us are going to tell about us. +"The generation that lived at the top of the mountain, that partied so hard, and so abused its inheritance." +And one of the ways I like to do that is to look back at the stories people used to tell before we had cheap oil, before we had fossil fuels, and people relied on their own muscle, animal muscle energy, or a little bit of wind, little bit of water energy. +We had stories like "The Seven-League Boots": the giant who had these boots, where, once you put them on, with every stride you could cover seven leagues, or 21 miles, a kind of travel completely unimaginable to people without that kind of energy at their disposal. +Stories like The Magic Porridge Pot, where you had a pot where if you knew the magic words, this pot would just make as much food as you liked, without you having to do any work, provided you could remember the other magic word to stop it making porridge. +Otherwise you'd flood your entire town with warm porridge. +There is the story of "The Elves and the Shoemaker." +The people who make shoes go to sleep, wake up in the morning, and all the shoes are magically made for them. +It's something that was unimaginable to people then. +Now we have the seven-league boots in the form of Ryanair and Easyjet. +We have the magic porridge pot in the form of Walmart and Tesco. +And we have the elves in the form of China. +But we don't appreciate what an astonishing thing that has been. +And what are the stories that we tell ourselves now, as we look forward about where we're going to go. +And I would argue that there are four. There is the idea of business as usual, that the future will be like the present, just more of it. +But as we've seen over the last year, I think that's an idea that is increasingly coming into question. +And in terms of climate change, is something that is not actually feasible. +There is the idea of hitting the wall, that actually somehow everything is so fragile that it might just all unravel and collapse. +This is a popular story in some places. +The third story is the idea that technology can solve everything, that technology can somehow get us through this completely. +But the world isn't Second Life. +We can't create new land and new energy systems at the click of a mouse. +And as we sit, exchanging free ideas with each other, there are still people mining coal in order to power the servers, extracting the minerals to make all of those things. +The breakfast that we eat as we sit down to check our email in the morning is still transported at great distances, usually at the expense of the local, more resilient food systems that would have supplied that in the past, which we've so effectively devalued and dismantled. +We can be astonishingly inventive and creative. +But we also live in a world with very real constraints and demands. +Energy and technology are not the same thing. +What I'm involved with is the transition response. +And this is really about looking the challenges of peak oil and climate change square in the face, and responding with a creativity and an adaptability and an imagination that we really need. +It's something which has spread incredibly fast. +And it is something which has several characteristics. +It's viral. It seems to spread under the radar very, very quickly. +It's open source. It's something which everybody who's involved with it develops and passes on as they work with it. +It's self-organizing. There is no great central organization that pushes this; people just pick up an idea and they run with it, and they implement it where they are. +It's solutions-focused. It's very much looking at what people can do where they are, to respond to this. +It's sensitive to place and to scale. +Transitional is completely different. +Transition groups in Chile, transition groups in the U.S., transition groups here, what they're doing looks very different in every place that you go to. +It learns very much from its mistakes. +And it feels historic. It tries to create a sense that this is a historic opportunity to do something really extraordinary. +And it's a process which is really joyful. +People have a huge amount of fun doing this, reconnecting with other people as they do it. +One of the things that underpins it is this idea of resilience. +And I think, in many ways, the idea of resilience is a more useful concept than the idea of sustainability. +The idea of resilience comes from the study of ecology. +And it's really about how systems, settlements, withstand shock from the outside. +When they encounter shock from the outside that they don't just unravel and fall to pieces. +And I think it's a more useful concept than sustainability, as I said. +When our supermarkets have only two or three days' worth of food in them at any one time, often sustainability tends to focus on the energy efficiency of the freezers and on the packaging that the lettuces are wrapped up in. +Looking through the lens of resilience, we really question how we've let ourselves get into a situation that's so vulnerable. +Resilience runs much deeper: it's about building modularity into what we do, building surge breakers into how we organize the basic things that support us. +This is a photograph of the Bristol and District Market Gardeners Association, in 1897. +This is at a time when the city of Bristol, which is quite close to here, was surrounded by commercial market gardens, which provided a significant amount of the food that was consumed in the town, and created a lot of employment for people, as well. +There was a degree of resilience, if you like, at that time, which we can now only look back on with envy. +So how does this transition idea work? +So basically, you have a group of people who are excited by the idea. +They pick up some of the tools that we've developed. +They start to run an awareness-raising program looking at how this might actually work in the town. +They show films, they give talks, and so on. +It's a process which is playful and creative and informative. +Then they start to form working groups, looking at different aspects of this, and then from that, there emerge a whole lot of projects which then the transition project itself starts to support and enable. +So it started out with some work I was involved in in Ireland, where I was teaching, and has since spread. +There are now over 200 formal transition projects. +And there are thousands of others who are at what we call the mulling stage. +They are mulling whether they're going to take it further. +And actually a lot of them are doing huge amounts of stuff. +But what do they actually do? You know, it's a kind of nice idea, but what do they actually do on the ground? +Well, I think it's really important to make the point that actually you know, this isn't something which is going to do everything on its own. +We need international legislation from Copenhagen and so on. +We need national responses. We need local government responses. +But all of those things are going to be much easier if we have communities that are vibrant and coming up with ideas and leading from the front, making unelectable policies electable, over the next 5 to 10 years. +Some of the things that emerge from it are local food projects, like community-supported agriculture schemes, urban food production, creating local food directories, and so on. +A lot of places now are starting to set up their own energy companies, community-owned energy companies, where the community can invest money into itself, to start putting in place the kind of renewable energy infrastructure that we need. +A lot of places are working with their local schools. +Newent in the Forest of Dean: big polytunnel they built for the school; the kids are learning how to grow food. +Promoting recycling, things like garden-share, that matches up people who don't have a garden who would like to grow food, with people who have gardens they aren't using anymore. +Planting productive trees throughout urban spaces. +And also starting to play around with the idea of alternative currencies. +This is Lewes in Sussex, who have recently launched the Lewes Pound, a currency that you can only spend within the town, as a way of starting to cycle money within the local economy. +You take it anywhere else, it's not worth anything. +But actually within the town you start to create these economic cycles much more effectively. +Another thing that they do is what we call an energy descent plan, which is basically to develop a plan B for the town. +Most of our local authorities, when they sit down to plan for the next five, 10, 15, 20 years of a community, still start by assuming that there will be more energy, more cars, more housing, more jobs, more growth, and so on. +What does it look like if that's not the case? And how can we embrace that and actually come up with something that was actually more likely to sustain everybody? +As a friend of mine says, "Life is a series of things you're not quite ready for." +And that's certainly been my experience with transition. +From three years ago, it just being an idea, this has become something that has virally swept around the world. +We're getting a lot of interest from government. Ed Miliband, the energy minister of this country, was invited to come to our recent conference as a keynote listener. +Which he did -- -- and has since become a great advocate of the whole idea. +There are now two local authorities in this country who have declared themselves transitional local authorities, Leicestershire and Somerset. And in Stroud, the transition group there, in effect, wrote the local government's food plan. +And the head of the council said, "If we didn't have Transition Stroud, we would have to invent all of that community infrastructure for the first time." +As we see the spread of it, we see national hubs emerging. +In Scotland, the Scottish government's climate change fund has funded Transition Scotland as a national organization supporting the spread of this. +And we see it all over the place as well now. +But the key to transition is thinking not that we have to change everything now, but that things are already inevitably changing, and what we need to do is to work creatively with that, based on asking the right questions. +I think I'd like to just return at the end to the idea of stories. +Because I think stories are vital here. +And actually the stories that we tell ourselves, we have a huge dearth of stories about how to move forward creatively from here. +And one of the key things that transition does is to pull those stories out of what people are doing. +Stories about the community that's produced its own 21 pound note, for example, the school that's turned its car park into a food garden, the community that's founded its own energy company. +And for me, one of the great stories recently was the Obamas digging up the south lawn of the White House to create a vegetable garden. Because the last time that was done, when Eleanor Roosevelt did it, it led to the creation of 20 million vegetable gardens across the United States. +So the question I'd like to leave you with, really, is -- for all aspects of the things that your community needs in order to thrive, how can it be done in such a way that drastically reduces its carbon emissions, while also building resilience? +Personally, I feel enormously grateful to have lived through the age of cheap oil. +I've been astonishingly lucky, we've been astonishingly lucky. +But let us honor what it has bought us, and move forward from this point. +Because if we cling to it, and continue to assume that it can underpin our choices, the future that it presents to us is one which is really unmanageable. +And by loving and leaving all that oil has done for us, and that the Oil Age has done for us, we are able to then begin the creation of a world which is more resilient, more nourishing, and in which, we find ourselves fitter, more skilled and more connected to each other. +Thank you very much. +It's a bit funny to be at a conference dedicated to things not seen, and present my proposal to build a 6,000-kilometer-long wall across the entire African continent. +About the size of the Great Wall of China, this would hardly be an invisible structure. +And yet it's made from parts that are invisible, or near-invisible, to the naked eye: bacteria and grains of sand. +Now, as architects we're trained to solve problems. +But I don't really believe in architectural problems; I only believe in opportunities. +Which is why I'll show you a threat, and an architectural response. +The threat is desertification. +My response is a sandstone wall made from bacteria and solidified sand, stretching across the desert. +Now, sand is a magical material of beautiful contradictions. +It is simple and complex. +It is peaceful and violent. +It is always the same, never the same, endlessly fascinating. +One billion grains of sand come into existence in the world each second. +That's a cyclical process. +As rocks and mountains die, grains of sand are born. +Some of those grains may then cement naturally into sandstone. +And as the sandstone weathers, new grains break free. +Some of those grains may then accumulate on a massive scale, into a sand dune. +In a way, the static, stone mountain becomes a moving mountain of sand. +But, moving mountains can be dangerous. Let me try and explain why. +Dry areas cover more than one third of the Earth's land surfaces. +Some are already deserts; others are being seriously degraded by the sand. +Just south of the Sahara we find the Sahel. +The name means "edge of the desert." +And this is the region most closely associated with desertification. +It was here in the late '60s and early '70s that major droughts brought three million people to become dependent upon emergency food aid, with about up to 250,000 dying. +This is a catastrophe waiting to happen again. +And it's one that gets very little attention. +In our accelerated media culture, desertification is simply too slow to reach the headlines. +It's nothing like a tsunami or a Katrina: too few crying children and smashed up houses. +And yet desertification is a major threat on all continents, affecting some 110 countries and about 70 percent of the world's agricultural drylands. +It seriously threatens the livelihoods of millions of people, and especially in Africa and China. +And it is largely an issue that we've created for ourselves through unsustainable use of scarce resources. +So, we get climate change. +We get droughts, increased desertification, crashing food systems, water scarcity, famine, forced migration, political instability, warfare, crisis. +That's a potential scenario if we fail to take this seriously. +But, how far away is it? +I went to Sokoto in northern Nigeria to try and find out how far away it is. +The dunes here move southward at a pace of around 600 meters a year. +That's the Sahara eating up almost [two meters] a day of the arable land, physically pushing people away from their homes. +Here I am -- I'm the second person on the left -- with the elders in Gidan-Kara, a tiny village outside of Sokoto. +They had to move this village in 1987 as a huge dune threatened to swallow it. +So, they moved the entire village, hut by hut. +This is where the village used to be. +It took us about 10 minutes to climb up to the top of that dune, which goes to show why they had to move to a safer location. +That's the kind of forced migration that desertification can lead to. +If you happen to live close to the desert border, you can pretty much calculate how long it will be before you have to carry your kids away, and abandon your home and your life as you know it. +Now, sand dunes cover only about one fifth of our deserts. +And still, those extreme environments are very good places if we want to stop the shifting sands. +Four years ago, 23 African countries came together to create the Great Green Wall Sahara. +A fantastic project, the initial plan called for a shelter belt of trees to be planted right across the African continent, from Mauritania in the west, all the way to Djibouti in the east. +If you want to stop a sand dune from moving, what you need to make sure to do is to stop the grains from avalanching over its crest. +And a good way of doing that, the most efficient way, is to use some kind of sand catcher. +Trees or cacti are good for this. +But, one of the problems with planting trees is that the people in these regions are so poor that they chop them down for firewood. +Now there is an alternative to just planting trees and hoping that they won't get chopped down. +This sandstone wall that I'm proposing essentially does three things. +It adds roughness to the dune's surface, to the texture of the dune's surface, binding the grains. +It provides a physical support structure for the trees, and it creates physical spaces, habitable spaces inside of the sand dunes. +If people live inside of the green barrier they can help support the trees, protect them from humans, and from some of the forces of nature. +Inside of the dunes we find shade. +We can start harvesting condensation, and start greening the desert from within. +Sand dunes are almost like ready-made buildings in a way. +All we need to do is solidify the parts that we need to be solid, and then excavate the sand, and we have our architecture. +We can either excavate it by hand or we can have the wind excavate it for us. +So, the wind carries the sand onto the site and then it carries the redundant sand away from the structure for us. +But, by now, you're probably asking, how am I planning to solidify a sand dune? +How do we glue those grains of sand together? +And the answer is, perhaps, that you use these guys, Bacillus pasteurii, a micro-organism that is readily available in wetlands and marshes, and does precisely that. +It takes a pile of loose sand and it creates sandstone out of it. +These images from the American Society for Microbiology show us the process. +What happens is, you pour Bacillus pasteurii onto a pile of sand, and it starts filling up the voids in between the grains. +A chemical process produces calcite, which is a kind of natural cement that binds the grains together. +The whole cementation process takes about 24 hours. +I learned about this from a professor at U.C. Davis called Jason DeJong. +He managed to do it in a mere 1,400 minutes. +Here I am, playing the part of the mad scientist, working with the bugs at UCL in London, trying to solidify them. +So, how much would this cost? +I'm not an economist, very much not, but I did, quite literally, a back of the envelope calculation -- -- and it seems that for a cubic meter of concrete we would have to pay in the region of 90 dollars. +And, after an initial cost of 60 bucks to buy the bacteria, which you'll never have to pay again, one cubic meter of bacterial sand would be about 11 dollars. +How do we construct something like this? +Well, I'll quickly show you two options. +The first is to create a kind of balloon structure, fill it with bacteria, then allow the sand to wash over the balloon, pop the balloon, as it were, disseminating the bacteria into the sand and solidifying it. +Then, a few years afterwards, using permacultural strategies, we green that part of the desert. +The second alternative would be to use injection piles. +So, we pushed the piles down through the dune, and we create an initial bacterial surface. +We then pull the piles up through the dune and we're able to create almost any conceivable shape inside of the sand with the sand acting as a mold as we go up. +So, we have a way of turning sand into sandstone, and then creating these habitable spaces inside of the desert dunes. +But, what should they look like? +Well, I was inspired, for my architectural form, by tafoni, which look a little bit like this, this is a model representation of it. +These are cavernous rock structures that I found on the site in Sokoto. +And I realized that if I scaled them up, they would provide me with good spatial qualities, for ventilation, for thermal comfort, and for other things. +Now, part of the formal control over this structure would be lost to nature, obviously, as the bacteria do their work. +And I think this creates a kind of boundless beauty actually. +I think there is really something in that articulation that is quite nice. +We see the result, the traces, if you like, of the Bacillus pasteurii being harnessed to sculpt the desert into these habitable environments. +Some people believe that this would spread uncontrollably, and that the bacteria would kill everything in its way. +That's not true at all. +It's a natural process. It goes on in nature today, and the bacteria die as soon as we stop feeding them. +So, there it is -- architectural anti-desertification structures made from the desert itself. +Sand-stopping devices, made from sand. +The world is likely to lose one third of its arable land by the end of the century. +In a period of unprecedented population growth and increased food demands, this could prove disastrous. +And quite frankly, we're putting our heads in the sand. +If nothing else, I would like for this scheme to initiate a discussion. +But, if I had something like a TED wish, it would be to actually get it built, to start building this habitable wall, this very, very long, but very narrow city in the desert, built into the dunescape itself. +It's not only something that supports trees, but something that connects people and countries together. +I would like to conclude by showing you an animation of the structure, and leave you with a sentence by Jorge Luis Borges. +Borges said that "nothing is built on stone, everything is built on sand, but we must build as if the sand were stone." +Now, there are many details left to explore in this scheme -- political, practical, ethical, financial. +My design, as it takes you down the rabbit hole, is fraught with many challenges and difficulties in the real world. +But, it's a beginning, it's a vision. +As Borges would have it, it's the sand. +And I think now is really the time to turn it into stone. Thank you. +Chris Anderson: Thank you so much, Prime Minister, that was both fascinating and quite inspiring. +So, you're calling for a global ethic. +Would you describe that as global citizenship? +Is that an idea that you believe in, and how would you define that? +Gordon Brown: It is about global citizenship and recognizing our responsibilities to others. +There is so much to do over the next few years that is obvious to so many of us to build a better world. +And there is so much shared sense of what we need to do, that it is vital that we all come together. +But we don't necessarily have the means to do so. +So there are challenges to be met. +I believe the concept of global citizenship will simply grow out of people talking to each other across continents. +But of course the task is to create the institutions that make that global society work. +But I don't think we should underestimate the extent to which massive changes in technology make possible the linking up of people across the world. +CA: But people get excited about this idea of global citizenship, but then they get confused a bit again when they start thinking about patriotism, and how to combine these two. +I mean, you're elected as Prime Minister with a brief to bat for Britain. +How do you reconcile the two things? +GB: Well, of course national identity remains important. +But it's not at the expense of people accepting their global responsibilities. +And I think one of the problems of recession is that people become more protectionist, they look in on themselves, they try to protect their own nation, perhaps at the expense of other nations. +When you actually look at the motor of the world economy, it cannot move forward unless there is trade between the different countries. +And any nation that would become protectionist over the next few years would deprive itself of the chance of getting the benefits of growth in the world economy. +So, you've got to have a healthy sense of patriotism; that's absolutely important. +But you've got to realize that this world has changed fundamentally, and the problems we have cannot be solved by one nation and one nation alone. +CA: Well, indeed. +But what do you do when the two come into conflict and you're forced to make a decision that either is in Britain's interest, or the interest of Britons, or citizens elsewhere in the world? +GB: Well I think we can persuade people that what is necessary for Britain's long-term interests, what is necessary for America's long-term interests, is proper engagement with the rest of the world, and taking the action that is necessary. +There is a great story, again, told about Richard Nixon. +1958, Ghana becomes independent, so it is just over 50 years ago. +Richard Nixon goes to represent the United States government at the celebrations for independence in Ghana. +And it's one of his first outings as Vice President to an African country. +He doesn't quite know what to do, so he starts going around the crowd and starts talking to people and he says to people in this rather unique way, "How does it feel to be free?" +And he's going around, "How does it feel to be free?" +"How does it feel to be free?" +And then someone says, "How should I know? I come from Alabama." +And that was the 1950s. +Now, what is remarkable is that civil rights in America were achieved in the 1960s. +But what is equally remarkable is socioeconomic rights in Africa have not moved forward very fast even since the age of colonialism. +And yet, America and Africa have got a common interest. +And we have got to realize that if we don't link up with those people who are sensible voices and democratic voices in Africa, to work together for common causes, then the danger of Al Qaeda and related groups making progress in Africa is very big. +So, I would say that what seems sometimes to be altruism, in relation to Africa, or in relation to developing countries, is more than that. +It is enlightened self-interest for us to work with other countries. +And I would say that national interest and, if you like, what is the global interest to tackle poverty and climate change do, in the long run, come together. +CA: I still just want to draw out on this issue. +So, you're on vacation at a nice beach, and word comes through that there's been a massive earthquake and that there is a tsunami advancing on the beach. +One end of the beach, there is a house containing a family of five Nigerians. +And at the other end of the beach there is a single Brit. +You have time to -- you have time to alert one house. What do you do? +GB: Modern communications. +Alert both. +I do agree that my responsibility is first of all to make sure that people in our country are safe. +And I wouldn't like anything that is said today to suggest that I am diminishing the importance of the responsibility that each leader has for their own country. +But I'm trying to suggest that there is a huge opportunity open to us that was never open to us before. +But the power to communicate across borders allows us to organize the world in a different way. +And I think, look at the tsunami, it's a classic example. +Where was the early warning systems? +Where was the world acting together to deal with the problems that they knew arose from the potential for earthquakes, as well as the potential for climate change? +And when the world starts to work together, with better early-warning systems, you can deal with some of these problems in a better way. +I just think we're not seeing, at the moment, the huge opportunities open to us by the ability of people to cooperate in a world where either there was isolationism before or there was limited alliances based on convenience which never actually took you to deal with some of the central problems. +CA: But I think this is the frustration that perhaps a lot of people have, like people in the audience here, where we love the kind of language that you're talking about. +It is inspiring. +A lot of us believe that that has to be the world's future. +And yet, when the situation changes, you suddenly hear politicians talking as if, you know, for example, the life of one American soldier is worth countless numbers of Iraqi civilians. +When the pedal hits the metal, the idealism can get moved away. +I'm just wondering whether you can see that changing over time, whether you see in Britain that there are changing attitudes, and that people are actually more supportive of the kind of global ethic that you talk about. +GB: I think every religion, every faith, and I'm not just talking here to people of faith or religion -- it has this global ethic at the center of its credo. +And whether it's Jewish or whether it's Muslim or whether it's Hindu, or whether it's Sikh, the same global ethic is at the heart of each of these religions. +So, I think you're dealing with something that people instinctively see as part of their moral sense. +So you're building on something that is not pure self-interest. +You're building on people's ideas and values -- that perhaps they're candles that burn very dimly on certain occasions. +But it is a set of values that cannot, in my view, be extinguished. +Then the question is, how do you make that change happen? +How do you persuade people that it is in their interest to build strong -- After the Second World War, we built institutions, the United Nations, the IMF, the World Bank, the World Trade Organization, the Marshall Plan. +There was a period in which people talked about an act of creation, because these institutions were so new. +But they are now out of date. They don't deal with the problems. +You can't deal with the environmental problem through existing institutions. +You can't deal with the security problem in the way that you need to. +You can't deal with the economic and financial problem. +So we have got to rebuild our global institutions, build them in a way that is suitable to the challenges of this time. +And I believe that if you look at the biggest challenge we face, it is to persuade people to have the confidence that we can build a truly global society with the institutions that are founded on these rules. +So, I come back to my initial point. +Sometimes you think things are impossible. +Nobody would have said 50 years ago that apartheid would have gone in 1990, or that the Berlin wall would have fallen at the turn of the '80s and '90s, or that polio could be eradicated, or perhaps 60 years ago, nobody would have said a man could gone to the Moon. +All these things have happened. +By tackling the impossible, you make the impossible possible. +CA: And we have had a speaker who said that very thing, and swallowed a sword right after that, which was quite dramatic. +GB: Followed my sword and swallow. +CA: But, surely a true global ethic is for someone to say, "I believe that the life of every human on the planet is worth the same, equal consideration, regardless of nationality and religion." +And you have politicians who have -- you're elected. In a way, you can't say that. +Even if, as a human being, you believe that, you can't say that. You're elected for Britain's interests. +GB: We have a responsibility to protect. +I mean look, 1918, the Treaty of Versailles, and all the treaties before that, the Treaty of Westphalia and everything else, were about protecting the sovereign right of countries to do what they want. +Since then, the world has moved forward, partly as a result of what happened with the Holocaust, and people's concern about the rights of individuals within territories where they need protection, partly because of what we saw in Rwanda, partly because of what we saw in Bosnia. +The idea of the responsibility to protect all individuals who are in situations where they are at humanitarian risk is now being established as a principle which governs the world. +Now, in the end, that can only be achieved if your international institutions work well enough to be able to do so. +And that comes back to what the future role of the United Nations, and what it can do, actually is. +But, the responsibility to protect is a new idea that is, in a sense, taken over from the idea of self-determination as the principle governing the international community. +CA: Can you picture, in our lifetimes, a politician ever going out on a platform of the kind of full-form global ethic, global citizenship? +And basically saying, "I believe that all people across the planet have equal consideration, and if in power we will act in that way. +And we believe that the people of this country are also now global citizens and will support that ethic." +GB: Is that not what we're doing in the debate about climate change? +We're saying that you cannot solve the problem of climate change in one country; you've got to involve all countries. +You're saying that you must, and you have a duty to help those countries that cannot afford to deal with the problems of climate change themselves. +You're saying you want a deal with all the different countries of the world where we're all bound together to cutting carbon emissions in a way that is to the benefit of the whole world. +We've never had this before because Kyoto didn't work. +It doesn't mean that everybody does exactly the same thing, because we've actually got to do more financially to help the poorest countries, but it does mean there is equal consideration for the needs of citizens in a single planet. +CA: Yes. +And then of course the theory is still that those talks get rent apart by different countries fighting over their own individual interests. +GB: Yes, but I think Europe has got a position, which is 27 countries have already come together. +I mean, the great difficulty in Europe is if you're at a meeting and 27 people speak, it takes a very, very long time. +But we did get an agreement on climate change. +America has made its first disposition on this with the bill that President Obama should be congratulated for getting through Congress. +Japan has made an announcement. +China and India have signed up to the scientific evidence. +And now we've got to move them to accept a long-term target, and then short-term targets. +But more progress has been made, I think, in the last few weeks than had been made for some years. +And I do believe that there is a strong possibility that if we work together, we can get that agreement to Copenhagen. +I certainly have been putting forward proposals that would have allowed the poorest parts of the world to feel that we have taken into account their specific needs. +And we would help them adapt. +And we would help them make the transition to a low-carbon economy. +I do think a reform of the international institutions is vital to this. +When the IMF was created in the 1940s, it was created with resources that were five percent or so of the world's GDP. +The IMF now has limited resources, one percent. +It can't really make the difference that ought to be made in a period of crisis. +So, we've got to rebuild the world institutions. +And that's a big task: persuading all the different countries with the different voting shares in these institutions to do so. +There is a story told about the three world leaders of the day getting a chance to get some advice from God. +And the story is told that Bill Clinton went to God and he asked when there will be successful climate change and a low-carbon economy. +And God shook his head and said, "Not this year, not this decade, perhaps not even in [your] lifetime." +And Bill Clinton walked away in tears because he had failed to get what he wanted. +And then the story is that Barroso, the president of the European Commission, went to God and he asked, "When will we get a recovery of global growth?" +And God said, "Not this year, not in this decade, perhaps not in your lifetime." +So Barroso walked away crying and in tears. +And then the Secretary-General of the United Nations came up to speak to God and said, "When will our international institutions work?" +And God cried. +It is very important to recognize that this reform of institutions is the next stage after agreeing upon ourselves that there is a clear ethic upon which we can build. +CA: Prime Minister, I think there are many in the audience who are truly appreciative of the efforts you made in terms of the financial mess we got ourselves into. +And there are certainly many people in the audience who will be cheering you on as you seek to advance this global ethic. +Thank you so much for coming to TED. +GB: Well, thank you. +How do you observe something you can't see? +This is the basic question of somebody who's interested in finding and studying black holes. +Because black holes are objects whose pull of gravity is so intense that nothing can escape it, not even light, so you can't see it directly. +So, my story today about black holes is about one particular black hole. +I'm interested in finding whether or not there is a really massive, what we like to call "supermassive" black hole at the center of our galaxy. +And the reason this is interesting is that it gives us an opportunity to prove whether or not these exotic objects really exist. +And second, it gives us the opportunity to understand how these supermassive black holes interact with their environment, and to understand how they affect the formation and evolution of the galaxies which they reside in. +So, to begin with, we need to understand what a black hole is so we can understand the proof of a black hole. +So, what is a black hole? +Well, in many ways a black hole is an incredibly simple object, because there are only three characteristics that you can describe: the mass, the spin, and the charge. +And I'm going to only talk about the mass. +So, in that sense, it's a very simple object. +But in another sense, it's an incredibly complicated object that we need relatively exotic physics to describe, and in some sense represents the breakdown of our physical understanding of the universe. +But today, the way I want you to understand a black hole, for the proof of a black hole, is to think of it as an object whose mass is confined to zero volume. +So, despite the fact that I'm going to talk to you about an object that's supermassive, and I'm going to get to what that really means in a moment, it has no finite size. +So, this is a little tricky. +But fortunately there is a finite size that you can see, and that's known as the Schwarzschild radius. +And that's named after the guy who recognized why it was such an important radius. +This is a virtual radius, not reality; the black hole has no size. +So why is it so important? +It's important because it tells us that any object can become a black hole. +That means you, your neighbor, your cellphone, the auditorium can become a black hole if you can figure out how to compress it down to the size of the Schwarzschild radius. +At that point, what's going to happen? +At that point gravity wins. +Gravity wins over all other known forces. +And the object is forced to continue to collapse to an infinitely small object. +And then it's a black hole. +So, if I were to compress the Earth down to the size of a sugar cube, it would become a black hole, because the size of a sugar cube is its Schwarzschild radius. +Now, the key here is to figure out what that Schwarzschild radius is. +And it turns out that it's actually pretty simple to figure out. +It depends only on the mass of the object. +Bigger objects have bigger Schwarzschild radii. +Smaller objects have smaller Schwarzschild radii. +So, if I were to take the sun and compress it down to the scale of the University of Oxford, it would become a black hole. +So, now we know what a Schwarzschild radius is. +And it's actually quite a useful concept, because it tells us not only when a black hole will form, but it also gives us the key elements for the proof of a black hole. +I only need two things. +I need to understand the mass of the object I'm claiming is a black hole, and what its Schwarzschild radius is. +And since the mass determines the Schwarzschild radius, there is actually only one thing I really need to know. +So, my job in convincing you that there is a black hole is to show that there is some object that's confined to within its Schwarzschild radius. +And your job today is to be skeptical. +Okay, so, I'm going to talk about no ordinary black hole; I'm going to talk about supermassive black holes. +So, I wanted to say a few words about what an ordinary black hole is, as if there could be such a thing as an ordinary black hole. +An ordinary black hole is thought to be the end state of a really massive star's life. +So, if a star starts its life off with much more mass than the mass of the Sun, it's going to end its life by exploding and leaving behind these beautiful supernova remnants that we see here. +And inside that supernova remnant is going to be a little black hole that has a mass roughly three times the mass of the Sun. +On an astronomical scale that's a very small black hole. +Now, what I want to talk about are the supermassive black holes. +And the supermassive black holes are thought to reside at the center of galaxies. +And this beautiful picture taken with the Hubble Space Telescope shows you that galaxies come in all shapes and sizes. +There are big ones. There are little ones. +Almost every object in that picture there is a galaxy. +And there is a very nice spiral up in the upper left. +And there are a hundred billion stars in that galaxy, just to give you a sense of scale. +And all the light that we see from a typical galaxy, which is the kind of galaxies that we're seeing here, comes from the light from the stars. +So, we see the galaxy because of the star light. +Now, there are a few relatively exotic galaxies. +I like to call these the prima donna of the galaxy world, because they are kind of show offs. +And we call them active galactic nuclei. +And we call them that because their nucleus, or their center, are very active. +So, at the center there, that's actually where most of the starlight comes out from. +And yet, what we actually see is light that can't be explained by the starlight. +It's way more energetic. +In fact, in a few examples it's like the ones that we're seeing here. +There are also jets emanating out from the center. +Again, a source of energy that's very difficult to explain if you just think that galaxies are composed of stars. +So, what people have thought is that perhaps there are supermassive black holes which matter is falling on to. +So, you can't see the black hole itself, but you can convert the gravitational energy of the black hole into the light we see. +So, there is the thought that maybe supermassive black holes exist at the center of galaxies. +But it's a kind of indirect argument. +Nonetheless, it's given rise to the notion that maybe it's not just these prima donnas that have these supermassive black holes, but rather all galaxies might harbor these supermassive black holes at their centers. +And if that's the case -- and this is an example of a normal galaxy; what we see is the star light. +And if there is a supermassive black hole, what we need to assume is that it's a black hole on a diet. +Because that is the way to suppress the energetic phenomena that we see in active galactic nuclei. +If we're going to look for these stealth black holes at the center of galaxies, the best place to look is in our own galaxy, our Milky Way. +And this is a wide field picture taken of the center of the Milky Way. +And what we see is a line of stars. +And that is because we live in a galaxy which has a flattened, disk-like structure. +And we live in the middle of it, so when we look towards the center, we see this plane which defines the plane of the galaxy, or line that defines the plane of the galaxy. +Now, the advantage of studying our own galaxy is it's simply the closest example of the center of a galaxy that we're ever going to have, because the next closest galaxy is 100 times further away. +So, we can see far more detail in our galaxy than anyplace else. +And as you'll see in a moment, the ability to see detail is key to this experiment. +So, how do astronomers prove that there is a lot of mass inside a small volume? +Which is the job that I have to show you today. +And the tool that we use is to watch the way stars orbit the black hole. +Stars will orbit the black hole in the very same way that planets orbit the sun. +It's the gravitational pull that makes these things orbit. +If there were no massive objects these things would go flying off, or at least go at a much slower rate because all that determines how they go around is how much mass is inside its orbit. +So, this is great, because remember my job is to show there is a lot of mass inside a small volume. +So, if I know how fast it goes around, I know the mass. +And if I know the scale of the orbit I know the radius. +So, I want to see the stars that are as close to the center of the galaxy as possible. +Because I want to show there is a mass inside as small a region as possible. +So, this means that I want to see a lot of detail. +And that's the reason that for this experiment we've used the world's largest telescope. +This is the Keck observatory. It hosts two telescopes with a mirror 10 meters, which is roughly the diameter of a tennis court. +Now, this is wonderful, because the campaign promise of large telescopes is that is that the bigger the telescope, the smaller the detail that we can see. +But it turns out these telescopes, or any telescope on the ground has had a little bit of a challenge living up to this campaign promise. +And that is because of the atmosphere. +Atmosphere is great for us; it allows us to survive here on Earth. +But it's relatively challenging for astronomers who want to look through the atmosphere to astronomical sources. +So, to give you a sense of what this is like, it's actually like looking at a pebble at the bottom of a stream. +Looking at the pebble on the bottom of the stream, the stream is continuously moving and turbulent, and that makes it very difficult to see the pebble on the bottom of the stream. +Very much in the same way, it's very difficult to see astronomical sources, because of the atmosphere that's continuously moving by. +So, I've spent a lot of my career working on ways to correct for the atmosphere, to give us a cleaner view. +And that buys us about a factor of 20. +And I think all of you can agree that if you can figure out how to improve life by a factor of 20, you've probably improved your lifestyle by a lot, say your salary, you'd notice, or your kids, you'd notice. +And this animation here shows you one example of the techniques that we use, called adaptive optics. +You're seeing an animation that goes between an example of what you would see if you don't use this technique -- in other words, just a picture that shows the stars -- and the box is centered on the center of the galaxy, where we think the black hole is. +So, without this technology you can't see the stars. +With this technology all of a sudden you can see it. +This technology works by introducing a mirror into the telescope optics system that's continuously changing to counteract what the atmosphere is doing to you. +So, it's kind of like very fancy eyeglasses for your telescope. +Now, in the next few slides I'm just going to focus on that little square there. +So, we're only going to look at the stars inside that small square, although we've looked at all of them. +So, I want to see how these things have moved. +And over the course of this experiment, these stars have moved a tremendous amount. +So, we've been doing this experiment for 15 years, and we see the stars go all the way around. +Now, most astronomers have a favorite star, and mine today is a star that's labeled up there, SO-2. +Absolutely my favorite star in the world. +And that's because it goes around in only 15 years. +And to give you a sense of how short that is, the sun takes 200 million years to go around the center of the galaxy. +Stars that we knew about before, that were as close to the center of the galaxy as possible, take 500 years. +And this one, this one goes around in a human lifetime. +That's kind of profound, in a way. +But it's the key to this experiment. The orbit tells me how much mass is inside a very small radius. +So, next we see a picture here that shows you before this experiment the size to which we could confine the mass of the center of the galaxy. +What we knew before is that there was four million times the mass of the sun inside that circle. +And as you can see, there was a lot of other stuff inside that circle. +You can see a lot of stars. +So, there was actually lots of alternatives to the idea that there was a supermassive black hole at the center of the galaxy, because you could put a lot of stuff in there. +But with this experiment, we've confined that same mass to a much smaller volume that's 10,000 times smaller. +And because of that, we've been able to show that there is a supermassive black hole there. +To give you a sense of how small that size is, that's the size of our solar system. +So, we're cramming four million times the mass of the sun into that small volume. +Now, truth in advertising. Right? +I have told you my job is to get it down to the Schwarzchild radius. +And the truth is, I'm not quite there. +But we actually have no alternative today to explaining this concentration of mass. +And, in fact, it's the best evidence we have to date for not only existence of a supermassive black hole at the center of our own galaxy, but any in our universe. +So, what next? I actually think this is about as good as we're going to do with today's technology, so let's move on with the problem. +So, what I want to tell you, very briefly, is a few examples of the excitement of what we can do today at the center of the galaxy, now that we know that there is, or at least we believe, that there is a supermassive black hole there. +And the fun phase of this experiment is, while we've tested some of our ideas about the consequences of a supermassive black hole being at the center of our galaxy, almost every single one has been inconsistent with what we actually see. +And that's the fun. +So, let me give you the two examples. +You can ask, "What do you expect for the old stars, stars that have been around the center of the galaxy for a long time, they've had plenty of time to interact with the black hole." +What you expect there is that old stars should be very clustered around the black hole. +You should see a lot of old stars next to that black hole. +Likewise, for the young stars, or in contrast, the young stars, they just should not be there. +A black hole does not make a kind neighbor to a stellar nursery. +To get a star to form, you need a big ball of gas and dust to collapse. +And it's a very fragile entity. +And what does the big black hole do? +It strips that gas cloud apart. +It pulls much stronger on one side than the other and the cloud is stripped apart. +In fact, we anticipated that star formation shouldn't proceed in that environment. +So, you shouldn't see young stars. +So, what do we see? +Using observations that are not the ones I've shown you today, we can actually figure out which ones are old and which ones are young. +The old ones are red. +The young ones are blue. And the yellow ones, we don't know yet. +So, you can already see the surprise. +There is a dearth of old stars. +There is an abundance of young stars, so it's the exact opposite of the prediction. +So, this is the fun part. +And in fact, today, this is what we're trying to figure out, this mystery of how do you get -- how do you resolve this contradiction. +So, in fact, my graduate students are, at this very moment, today, at the telescope, in Hawaii, making observations to get us hopefully to the next stage, where we can address this question of why are there so many young stars, and so few old stars. +To make further progress we really need to look at the orbits of stars that are much further away. +To do that we'll probably need much more sophisticated technology than we have today. +Because, in truth, while I said we're correcting for the Earth's atmosphere, we actually only correct for half the errors that are introduced. +We do this by shooting a laser up into the atmosphere, and what we think we can do is if we shine a few more that we can correct the rest. +So this is what we hope to do in the next few years. +And on a much longer time scale, what we hope to do is build even larger telescopes, because, remember, bigger is better in astronomy. +So, we want to build a 30 meter telescope. +And with this telescope we should be able to see stars that are even closer to the center of the galaxy. +And we hope to be able to test some of Einstein's theories of general relativity, some ideas in cosmology about how galaxies form. +So, we think the future of this experiment is quite exciting. +So, in conclusion, I'm going to show you an animation that basically shows you how these orbits have been moving, in three dimensions. +And I hope, if nothing else, I've convinced you that, one, we do in fact have a supermassive black hole at the center of the galaxy. +And this means that these things do exist in our universe, and we have to contend with this, we have to explain how you can get these objects in our physical world. +Second, we've been able to look at that interaction of how supermassive black holes interact, and understand, maybe, the role in which they play in shaping what galaxies are, and how they work. +And last but not least, none of this would have happened without the advent of the tremendous progress that's been made on the technology front. +And we think that this is a field that is moving incredibly fast, and holds a lot in store for the future. +Thanks very much. +For emotions, we should not move quickly to the desert. +So, first, a small housekeeping announcement: please switch off your proper English check programs installed in your brain. +So, welcome to the Golden Desert, Indian desert. +It receives the least rainfall in the country, lowest rainfall. +If you are well-versed with inches, nine inches, centimeters, 16 [centimeters]. +The groundwater is 300 feet deep, 100 meters. +And in most parts it is saline, not fit for drinking. +So, you can't install hand pumps or dig wells, though there is no electricity in most of the villages. +But suppose you use the green technology, solar pumps -- they are of no use in this area. +So, welcome to the Golden Desert. +Clouds seldom visit this area. +But we find 40 different names of clouds in this dialect used here. +There are a number of techniques to harvest rain. +This is a new work, it's a new program. +But for the desert society this is no program; this is their life. +And they harvest rain in many ways. +So, this is the first device they use in harvesting rain. +It's called kunds; somewhere it is called [unclear]. +And you can notice they have created a kind of false catchment. +The desert is there, sand dunes, some small field. +And this is all big raised platform. +You can notice the small holes the water will fall on this catchment, and there is a slope. +Sometimes our engineers and architects do not care about slopes in bathrooms, but here they will care properly. +And the water will go where it should go. +And then it is 40 feet deep. +The waterproofing is done perfectly, better than our city contractors, because not a single drop should go waste in this. +They collect 100 thousand liters in one season. +And this is pure drinking water. +Below the surface there is hard saline water. +But now you can have this for year round. +It's two houses. +We often use a term called bylaws. +Because we are used to get written things. +But here it is unwritten by law. +And people made their house, and the water storage tanks. +These raised up platforms just like this stage. +In fact they go 15 feet deep, and collect rain water from roof, there is a small pipe, and from their courtyard. +It can also harvest something like 25,000 in a good monsoon. +Another big one, this is of course out of the hardcore desert area. +This is near Jaipur. This is called the Jaigarh Fort. +And it can collect six million gallons of rainwater in one season. +The age is 400 years. +So, since 400 years it has been giving you almost six million gallons of water per season. +You can calculate the price of that water. +It draws water from 15 kilometers of canals. +You can see a modern road, hardly 50 years old. +It can break sometimes. +But this 400 year old canal, which draws water, it is maintained for so many generations. +Of course if you want to go inside, the two doors are locked. +But they can be opened for TED people. +And we request them. +You can see person coming up with two canisters of water. +And the water level -- these are not empty canisters -- water level is right up to this. +It can envy many municipalities, the color, the taste, the purity of this water. +And this is what they call Zero B type of water, because it comes from the clouds, pure distilled water. +We stop for a quick commercial break, and then we come back to the traditional systems. +The government thought that this is a very backward area and we should bring a multi-million dollar project to bring water from the Himalayas. +That's why I said that this is a commercial break. +But we will come back, once again, to the traditional thing. +So, water from 300, 400 kilometers away, soon it become like this. +In many portions, water hyacinth covered these big canals like anything. +Of course there are some areas where water is reaching, I'm not saying that it is not reaching at all. +But the tail end, the Jaisalmer area, you will notice in Bikaner things like this: where the water hyacinth couldn't grow, the sand is flowing in these canals. +The bonus is that you can find wildlife around it. +some 30 years, 25 years ago when this canal came. +They said that throw away your traditional systems, these new cement tanks will supply you piped water. +It's a dream. And it became a dream also. +Because soon the water was not able to reach these areas. +And people started renovating their own structures. +These are all traditional water structures, which we won't be able to explain in such a short time. +But you can see that no woman is standing on those. +And they are plaiting hair. +Jaisalmer. This is heart of desert. +This town was established 800 years ago. +I'm not sure by that time Bombay was there, or Delhi was there, or Chennai was there, or Bangalore was there. +So, this was the terminal point for silk route. +Well connected, 800 years ago, through Europe. +None of us were able to go to Europe, but Jaisalmer was well connected to it. +And this is the 16 centimeter area. +Such a limited rainfall, and highest colorful life flourished in these areas. +You won't find water in this slide. +But it is invisible. +Somewhere a stream or a rivulet is running through here. +Or, if you want to paint, you can paint it blue throughout because every roof which you see in this picture collects rainwater drops and deposit in the rooms. +But apart from this system, they designed 52 beautiful water bodies around this town. +And what we call private public partnership you can add estate also. +So, estate, public and private entrepreneurs work together to build this beautiful water body. +And it's a kind of water body for all seasons. +You will admire it. Just behold the beauty throughout the year. +Whether water level goes up or down, the beauty is there throughout. +Another water body, dried up, of course, during the summer period, but you can see how the traditional society combines engineering with aesthetics, with the heart. +These statues, marvelous statues, gives you an idea of water table. +When this rain comes and the water starts filling this tank, it will submerge these beautiful statues in what we call in English today "mass communication." +This was for mass communication. +Everybody in the town will know that this elephant has drowned, so water will be there for seven months or nine months, or 12 months. +And then they will come and worship this pond, pay respect, their gratitude. +Another small water body, called the [unclear]. +It is difficult to translate in English, especially in my English. +But the nearest would be "glory," a reputation. +The reputation in desert of this small water body is that it never dries up. +In severe drought periods nobody has seen this water body getting dried up. +And perhaps they knew the future also. +It was designed some 150 years ago. +But perhaps they knew that on sixth, November, 2009, there will be a TED green and blue session, so they painted it like this. +Dry water body. Children are standing on a very difficult device to explain. +This is called kund. We have, in English, surface water and ground water. +But this is not ground water. +You can draw ground water from any well. +But this is no ordinary well. +It squeeze the moisture hidden in the sand. +And they have dubbed this water as the third one called [unclear]. +And there is a gypsum belt running below it. +And it was deposited by the great mother Earth, some three million years ago. +And where we have this gypsum strip they can harvest this water. +This is the same dry water body. +Now, you don't find any kund; they are all submerged. +But when the water goes down they will be able to draw water from those structures throughout the year. +This year they have received only six centimeters. +Six centimeter of rainfall, and they can telephone you that if you find any water problem in your city, Delhi, Bombay, Bangalore, Mysore, please come to our area of six centimeters, we can give you water. +How they maintain them? +There are three things: concept, planning, making the actual thing, and also maintaining them. +It is a structure for maintain, for centuries, by generations, without any department, without any funding, So the secret is "[unclear]," respect. +Your own thing, not personal property, my property, every time. +So, these stone pillars will remind you that you are entering into a water body area. +Don't spit, don't do anything wrong, so that the clean water can be collected. +Another pillar, stone pillar on your right side. +If you climb these three, six steps you will find something very nice. +This was done in 11th century. +And you have to go further down. +They say that a picture is worth a thousand words, so we can say a thousand words right now, an another thousand words. +If the water table goes down, you will find new stairs. +If it comes up, some of them will be submerged. +So, throughout the year this beautiful system will give you some pleasure. +Three sides, such steps, on the fourth side there is a four-story building where you can organize such TED conferences anytime. +Excuse me, who built these structures? +They are in front of you. +The best civil engineers we had, the best planners, the best architects. +We can say that because of them, because of their forefathers, India could get the first engineering college in 1847. +There were no English medium schools at that time, even no Hindi schools, [unclear] schools. +But such people, compelled to the East India Company, which came here for business, a very dirty kind of business ... +but not to create the engineering colleges. +But because of them, first engineering college was created in a small village, not in the town. +The last point, we all know in our primary schools that that camel is a ship of desert. +So, you can find through your Jeep, a camel, and a cart. +This tire comes from the airplane. +So, look at the beauty from the desert society who can harvest rainwater, and also create something through a tire from a jet plane, and used in a camel cart. +Last picture, it's a tattoo, 2,000-years-old tattoo. +They were using it on their body. +Tattoo was, at one time, a kind of a blacklisted or con thing, but now it is in thing. +You can copy this tattoo. I have some posters of this. +The center of life is water. +These are the beautiful waves. +These are the beautiful stairs which we just saw in one of the slides. +These are the trees. +And these are the flowers which add fragrance to our lives. +So, this is the message of desert. +Thank you very much. +Chris Anderson: So, first of all, I wish I had your eloquence, truly, in any language. +These artifacts and designs are inspiring. +Do you believe that they can be used elsewhere, that the world can learn from this? +Or is this just right for this place? +Anupam Mishra: No, the basic idea is to utilize water that falls on our area. +So, the ponds, the open bodies, are everywhere, right from Sri Lanka to Kashmir, and in other parts also. +And these [unclear], which stored water, there are two type of things. +One recharge, and one stores. +So, it depends on the terrain. +But kund, which uses the gypsum belt, for that you have to go back to your calendar, three million years ago. +If it is there it can be done right now. +Otherwise, it can't be done. +CA: Thank you so much. +I'm talking to you about the worst form of human rights violation, the third-largest organized crime, a $10 billion industry. +I'm talking to you about modern-day slavery. +I'd like to tell you the story of these three children, Pranitha, Shaheen and Anjali. +Pranitha's mother was a woman in prostitution, a prostituted person. +She got infected with HIV, and towards the end of her life, when she was in the final stages of AIDS, she could not prostitute, so she sold four-year-old Pranitha to a broker. +By the time we got the information, we reached there, Pranitha was already raped by three men. +Shaheen's background I don't even know. +We found her in a railway track, raped by many, many men, I don't know many. +But the indications of that on her body was that her intestine was outside her body. +And when we took her to the hospital she needed 32 stitches to put back her intestine into her body. +We still don't know who her parents are, who she is. +All that we know that hundreds of men had used her brutally. +Anjali's father, a drunkard, sold his child for pornography. +You're seeing here images of three years, four-year-olds, and five-year-old children who have been trafficked for commercial sexual exploitation. +In this country, and across the globe, hundreds and thousands of children, as young as three, as young as four, are sold into sexual slavery. +But that's not the only purpose that human beings are sold for. +They are sold in the name of adoption. +They are sold in the name of organ trade. +They are sold in the name of forced labor, camel jockeying, anything, everything. +I work on the issue of commercial sexual exploitation. +And I tell you stories from there. +My own journey to work with these children started as a teenager. +I was 15 when I was gang-raped by eight men. +I don't remember the rape part of it so much as much as the anger part of it. +Yes, there were eight men who defiled me, raped me, but that didn't go into my consciousness. +I never felt like a victim, then or now. +But what lingered from then till now -- I am 40 today -- is this huge outrageous anger. +Two years, I was ostracized, I was stigmatized, I was isolated, because I was a victim. +And that's what we do to all traffic survivors. +We, as a society, we have PhDs in victimizing a victim. +Right from the age of 15, when I started looking around me, I started seeing hundreds and thousands of women and children who are left in sexual slavery-like practices, but have absolutely no respite, because we don't allow them to come in. +Where does their journey begin? +Most of them come from very optionless families, not just poor. +You have even the middle class sometimes getting trafficked. +I had this I.S. officer's daughter, who is 14 years old, studying in ninth standard, who was raped chatting with one individual, and ran away from home because she wanted to become a heroine, who was trafficked. +I have hundreds and thousands of stories of very very well-to-do families, and children from well-to-do families, who are getting trafficked. +These people are deceived, forced. +99.9 percent of them resist being inducted into prostitution. +Some pay the price for it. +They're killed; we don't even hear about them. +They are voiceless, [unclear], nameless people. +But the rest, who succumb into it, go through everyday torture. +Because the men who come to them are not men who want to make you your girlfriends, or who want to have a family with you. +These are men who buy you for an hour, for a day, and use you, throw you. +Each of the girls that I have rescued -- I have rescued more than 3,200 girls -- each of them tell me one story in common ... +one story about one man, at least, putting chili powder in her vagina, one man taking a cigarette and burning her, one man whipping her. +We are living among those men: they're our brothers, fathers, uncles, cousins, all around us. +And we are silent about them. +We think it is easy money. +We think it is shortcut. +We think the person likes to do what she's doing. +But the extra bonuses that she gets is various infections, sexually transmitted infections, HIV, AIDS, syphilis, gonorrhea, you name it, substance abuse, drugs, everything under the sun. +And one day she gives up on you and me, because we have no options for her. +And therefore she starts normalizing this exploitation. +She believes, "Yes, this is it, this is what my destiny is about." +And this is normal, to get raped by 100 men a day. +And it's abnormal to live in a shelter. +It's abnormal to get rehabilitated. +It's in that context that I work. +It's in that context that I rescue children. +I've rescued children as young as three years, and I've rescued women as old as 40 years. +When I rescued them, one of the biggest challenges I had was where do I begin. +Because I had lots of them who were already HIV infected. +One third of the people I rescue are HIV positive. +And therefore my challenge was to understand how can I get out the power from this pain. +And for me, I was my greatest experience. +Understanding my own self, understanding my own pain, my own isolation, was my greatest teacher. +Because what we did with these girls is to understand their potential. +You see a girl here who is trained as a welder. +She works for a very big company, a workshop in Hyderabad, making furnitures. +She earns around 12,000 rupees. +She is an illiterate girl, trained, skilled as a welder. +Why welding and why not computers? +We felt, one of the things that these girls had is immense amount of courage. +They did not have any pardas inside their body, hijabs inside themselves; they've crossed the barrier of it. +And therefore they could fight in a male-dominated world, very easily, and not feel very shy about it. +We have trained girls as carpenters, as masons, as security guards, as cab drivers. +And each one of them are excelling in their chosen field, gaining confidence, restoring dignity, and building hopes in their own lives. +These girls are also working in big construction companies like Ram-ki construction, as masons, full-time masons. +What has been my challenge? +My challenge has not been the traffickers who beat me up. +I've been beaten up more than 14 times in my life. +I can't hear from my right ear. +I've lost a staff of mine who was murdered while on a rescue. +My biggest challenge is society. +It's you and me. +My biggest challenge is your blocks to accept these victims as our own. +A very supportive friend of mine, a well-wisher of mine, used to give me every month, 2,000 rupees for vegetables. +When her mother fell sick she said, "Sunitha, you have so much of contacts. +Can you get somebody in my house to work, so that she can look after my mother?" +And there is a long pause. +And then she says, "Not one of our girls." +It's very fashionable to talk about human trafficking, in this fantastic A-C hall. +It's very nice for discussion, discourse, making films and everything. +But it is not nice to bring them to our homes. +It's not nice to give them employment in our factories, our companies. +It's not nice for our children to study with their children. +There it ends. +That's my biggest challenge. +If I'm here today, I'm here not only as Sunitha Krishnan. +I'm here as a voice of the victims and survivors of human trafficking. +They need your compassion. +They need your empathy. +They need, much more than anything else, your acceptance. +Many times when I talk to people, I keep telling them one thing: don't tell me hundred ways how you cannot respond to this problem. +Can you ply your mind for that one way that you can respond to the problem? +And that's what I'm here for, asking for your support, demanding for your support, requesting for your support. +Can you break your culture of silence? +Can you speak to at least two persons about this story? +Tell them this story. Convince them to tell the story to another two persons. +I'm not asking you all to become Mahatma Gandhis or Martin Luther Kings, or Medha Patkars, or something like that. +I'm asking you, in your limited world, can you open your minds? Can you open your hearts? +Can you just encompass these people too? +Because they are also a part of us. +They are also part of this world. +I'm asking you, for these children, whose faces you see, they're no more. +They died of AIDS last year. +I'm asking you to help them, accept as human beings -- not as philanthropy, not as charity, but as human beings who deserve all our support. +I'm asking you this because no child, no human being, deserves what these children have gone through. +Thank you. +For the last 20 years I've been designing puzzles. +And I'm here today to give you a little tour, starting from the very first puzzle I designed, through what I'm doing now. +I've designed puzzles for books, printed things. +I'm the puzzle columnist for Discover Magazine. +I've been doing that for about 10 years. +I have a monthly puzzle calendar. +I do toys. The bulk of my work is in computer games. +I did puzzles for "Bejeweled." +I didn't invent "Bejeweled." I can't take credit for that. +So, very first puzzle, sixth grade, my teacher said, "Oh, let's see, that guy, he likes to make stuff. +I'll have him cut out letters out of construction paper for the board." +I thought this was a great assignment. +And so here is what I came up with. I start fiddling with it. +I came up with this letter. This is a letter of the alphabet that's been folded just once. +The question is, which letter is it if I unfold it? +One hint: It's not "L." +It could be an "L," of course. +So, what else could it be? +Yeah, a lot of you got it. +Oh yeah. So, clever thing. +Now, that was my first puzzle. I got hooked. +I created something new, I was very excited because, you know, I'd made crossword puzzles, but that's sort of like filling in somebody else's matrix. +This was something really original. I got hooked. +I read Martin Gardner's columns in Scientific American. +Went on, and eventually decided to devote myself, full time, to that. +Now, I should pause and say, what do I mean by puzzle? +A puzzle is a problem that is fun to solve and has a right answer. +"Fun to solve," as opposed to everyday problems, which, frankly, are not very well-designed puzzles. +You know, they might have a solution. +It might take a long time. Nobody wrote down the rules clearly. +Who designed this? +It's like, you know, life is not a very well-written story so we have to hire writers to make movies. +Well, I take everyday problems, and I make puzzles out of them. +And "right answer," of course there might be more than one right answer; many puzzles have more than one. +But as opposed to a couple other forms of play, toys and games -- by toy I mean, something you play with that doesn't have a particular goal. +You can create one out of Legos. +You know, you can do anything you want. +Or competitive games like chess where, well, you're not trying to solve ... You can make a chess puzzle, but the goal really is to beat another player. +I consider that puzzles are an art form. +They're very ancient. It goes back as long as there is written history. +It's a very small form, like a joke, a poem, a magic trick or a song, very compact form. +At worst, they're throwaways, they're for amusement. +But at best they can reach for something more and create a memorable impression. +The progression of my career that you'll see is looking for creating puzzles that have a memorable impact. +So, one thing I found early on, when I started doing computer games, is that I could create puzzles that will alter your perception. +I'll show you how. Here is a famous one. +So, it's two profiles in black, or a white vase in the middle. +This is called a figure-ground illusion. +The artist M.C. Escher exploited that in some of his wonderful prints. +Here we have "Day and Night." +Here is what I did with figure and ground. +So, here we have "figure" in black. +Here we have "figure" in white. +And it's all part of the same design. +The background to one is the other. +Originally I tried to do the words "figure" and "ground." +But I couldn't do that, I realized. I changed the problem. +It's all "figure." +A few other things. Here is my name. +And that turns into the title of my first book, "Inversions." +These sorts of designs now go by the word "ambigram." +I'll show you just a couple others. Here we have the numbers one through 10, the digits zero through nine, actually. +Each letter here is one of these digits. +Not strictly an ambigram in the conventional sense. +I like pushing on what an ambigram can mean. +Here's the word "mirror." No, it's not the same upside-down. +It's the same this way. +And a marvelous fellow from the Media Lab who just got appointed head of RISD, is John Maeda. +And so I did this for him. It's sort of a visual canon. +And recently in Magic magazine I've done a number of ambigrams on magician's names. +So here we have Penn and Teller, same upside-down. +This appears in my puzzle calendar. +Okay, let's go back to the slides. +Thank you very much. +Now, those are fun to look at. +Now how would you do it interactively? +For a while I was an interface designer. +And so I think a lot about interaction. +Well, let's first of all simplify the vases illusion, make the thing on the right. +Now, if you could pick up the black vase, it would look like the figure on top. +If you could pick up the white area, it would look like the figure on the bottom. +Well, you can't do that physically, but on a computer you can do it. Let's switch over to the P.C. +And here it is, figure-ground. +The goal here is to take the pieces on the left and make them so they look like the shape on the right. +And this follows the rules I just said: any black area that is surrounded by white can be picked up. +But that is also true of any white area. +So, here we got the white area in the middle, and you can pick it up. +I'll just go one step further. +So, here is -- here is a couple pieces. Move them together, and now this is an active piece. +You can really get inside somebody's perception and have them experience something. +It's like the old maxim of "you can tell somebody something and show them, but if they do it they really learn it." +Here is another thing you can do. +There is a game called Rush Hour. +This is one of the true masterpieces in puzzle design besides Rubik's cube. +So, here we have a crowded parking lot with cars all over the place. +The goal is to get the red car out. It's a sliding block puzzle. +It's made by the company Think Fun. +It's done very well. I love this puzzle. +Well, let's play one. Here. So, here is a very simple puzzle. +Well, that's too simple, let's add another piece. +Okay, so how would you solve this one? +Well, move the blue one out of the way. +Here, let's make it a little harder. Still pretty easy. +Now we'll make it harder, a little harder. +Now, this one is a little bit trickier. +You know? What do you do here? +The first move is going to be what? +You're going to move the blue one up in order to get the lavender one to the right. +And you can make puzzles like this one that aren't solvable at all. +Those four are locked in a pinwheel; you can't get them apart. +I wanted to make a sequel. +I didn't come up with the original idea. But this is another way I work as an inventor is to create a sequel. +I came up with this. This is Railroad Rush Hour. +It's the same basic game except I introduced a new piece, a square piece that can move both horizontally and vertically. +In the other game the cars can only move forward and back. +Created a whole bunch of levels for it. +Now I'm making it available to schools. +And it includes exercises that show you not just how to solve these puzzles, but how to extract the principles that will let you solve mathematical puzzles or problems in science, other areas. +So, I'm really interested in you learning how to make your own puzzles as well as just me creating them. +Garry Trudeau calls himself an investigative cartoonist. +You know, he does a lot of research before he writes a cartoon. +In Discover Magazine, I'm an investigative puzzle maker. +I got interested in gene sequencing. +And I said, "Well, how on Earth can you come up with a sequence of the base pairs in DNA?" +Cut up the DNA, you sequence individual pieces, and then you look for overlaps, and you basically match them at the edges. And I said, "This is kind of like a jigsaw puzzle, except the pieces overlap." +So, here is what I created for Discover Magazine. +And it has to be solvable in a magazine. +You know, you can't cut out the pieces and move them around. +So, here is the nine pieces. And you're supposed to put them into this grid. +And you have to choose pieces that overlap on the edge. +There is only one solution. It's not that hard. +But it takes some persistence. +And when you're done, it makes this design, which, if you squint, is the word "helix." +So, that's the form of the puzzle coming out of the content, rather than the other way around. +Here is a couple more. Here is a physics-based puzzle. +Which way will these fall? +One of these weighs 50 pounds, 30 pounds and 10 pounds. +And depending on which one weighs which amount, they'll fall different directions. +And here is a puzzle based on color mixing. +I separated this image into cyan, magenta, yellow, black, the basic printing colors, and then mixed up the separations, and you get these peculiar pictures. +Which separations were mixed up to make those pictures? +Gets you thinking about color. +Finally, what I'm doing now. So, ShuffleBrain.com, website you can go visit, I joined up with my wife, Amy-Jo Kim. +She could easily be up here giving a talk about her work. +So, we're making smart games for social media. +I'll explain what that means. We're looking at three trends. +This is what's going on in the games industry right now. +First of all, you know, for a long time computer games meant things like "Doom," where you're going around shooting things, very violent games, very fast, aimed at teenage boys. Right? That's who plays computer games. +Well, guess what? That's changing. +"Bejeweled" is a big hit. It was the game that really broke open what's called casual games. +And the main players are over 35, and are female. +Then recently "Rock Band" has been a big hit. +And it's a game you play with other people. +It's very physical. It looks nothing like a traditional game. +This is what's becoming the dominant form of electronic gaming. +Now, within that there is some interesting things happening. +There is also a trend towards games that are good for you. +Why? Well, we aging Boomers, Baby Boomers, we're eating our healthy food, we're exercising. What about our minds? +Oh no, our parents are getting Alzheimer's. We better do something. +Turns out doing crossword puzzles can stave off some of the effects of Alzheimer's. +So, we got games like "Brain Age" coming out for the Nintendo DS, huge hit. +A lot of people do Sudoku. In fact some doctors prescribe it. +And then there is social media, and what's happening on the Internet. +Everybody now considers themselves a creator, and not just a viewer. +And what does this add up to? +Here is what we see coming. +It's games that fit into a healthy lifestyle. +They're part of your life. They're not necessarily a separate thing. +And they are both, something that is good for you, and they're fun. +I'm a puzzle guy. My wife is an expert in social media. +And we decided to combine our skills. +Our first game is called "Photo Grab." The game takes about a minute and 20 seconds. +This is your first time playing my game. Okay. +Let's see how well we can do. There are three images. +And we have 24 seconds each. +Where is that? +I'll play as fast as I can. +But if you can see it, shout out the answer. +You get more -- Down, okay, yeah where is that? +Oh, yeah. There, okay. J-O and -- I guess that's that part. We got the bow. That bow helps. +That's his hair. You get a lot of figure-ground problems. +Yeah, that one is easy. Okay. So, ahhh! Okay on to the next one. +Okay, so that's the lens. +Anybody? +Looks like a black shape. So, where is that? +That's the corner of the whole thing. +Yeah, I've played this image before, but even when I make up my own puzzles -- and you can put your own images in here. +And we have people all over the world doing that now. +There we are. Visit ShuffleBrain.com if you want to try it yourself. Thank you. +Chris has been so nice. +I don't know how you keep it up, Chris, I really don't. +So nice, all week. He's the kind of man you could say to, "Chris, I'm really sorry, I've crashed your car. +And it gets worse, I crashed it into your house. +Your house has caught fire. +And what's more, your wife has just run off with your best friend." +And you know that Chris would say, "Thank you." +"Thank you for sharing, that's really interesting." +"Thank you for taking me to a place that I didn't know existed. Thank you." +One of the -- Thank you for inviting us. +One of the things about appearing later on in the TED week is that, gradually, as the days go by, all the other speakers cover most of what you were going to say. +Nuclear fusion, I had about 10 minutes on that. +Spectroscopy, that was another one. +Parallel universes. +And so this morning I thought, "Oh well, I'll just do a card trick." +That one's gone as well. +And today is Emmanuel's day, I think we've agreed that, already, haven't we? +Emmanuel? Absolutely. I was planning on finishing on a dance ... +So, that's going to look pretty shabby now. +So, what I thought I'd do is -- in honor of Emmanuel -- is, what I can do is to launch today the first TED Global auction. +If I could start, this is the Enigma decoding machine. +Who will start me with $1,000? Anyone? +Thank you. Bruno's face, just then, he said, "No, don't go through this. Don't, please don't. +Don't go through this. Don't do it." +I'm worried. When I first got the invitation, they said somewhere in the thing, they said, "15 minutes to change the world, your moment onstage." 15 minutes to change the world. +I don't know about you, it takes me 15 minutes to change a plug. +So, the idea of changing the world is really quite an extraordinary one. +Well, of course now we know we don't have to change a plug, now we've seen that wonderful demonstration of the wireless electric -- fantastic. You know, it inspires us. +300 years ago he'd have been burnt at the stake for that. +And now it's an idea. +It's great. It's fantastic. +But you do meet some fantastic people, people who look at the world in a totally different way. +Yesterday, David Deutsch, another one who covered most of what I was going to say. +But when you think of the world in that way, it does make going to Starbucks a whole new experience, don't you think? +I mean, he must walk in and they will say, "Would you like a macchiato, or a latte, or an Americano, or a cappuccino?" +And he'll say, "You're offering me things that are infinitely variable." +"How can your coffee be true?" +And they will say, "Would you mind if I serve the next customer?" +And Elaine Morgan yesterday, wasn't she wonderful? +Fantastic. Really good. +Her talk about the aquatic ape, and the link, of course, the link between Darwinism and the fact that we are all naked beneath this -- we're not hirsute and we can swim rather well. +And she said, you know, she's 90. She's running out of time, she said. +And she's desperate to find more evidence for the link. +And I think, "I'm sitting next to Lewis Pugh." +This man has swum around the North Pole, what more evidence do you want? +And there he is. +That's how TED brings these connections together. +I wasn't here on Tuesday. I didn't actually see Gordon Brown's job application -- um, sorry. +I'm so sorry. I'm so sorry. No, no. No, no, ahh ... (As Brown): "Global problems require Scottish solutions." +The problem I have is because Gordon Brown, he comes onstage and he looks for all the world like a man who's just taken the head off a bear suit. +(As Brown): "Hello, can I tell you what happened in the woods back there? +Uh, no." "I'm sorry. I've only got 18 minutes, 18 minutes to talk about saving the world, saving the planet, global institutions. +Our work on climate change, I've only got 18 minutes, unfortunately I'm not able to tell you about all the wonderful things we're doing to promote the climate change agenda in Great Britain, like the third runway we're planning at Heathrow Airport ..." +"The large coal-fired power station we're building at King's North, and of course the exciting news that only today, only this week, Britain's only manufacturer of wind turbines has been forced to close. +No time, unfortunately, to mention those." +"British jobs for Scottish people ... +No." "Christian principles, Christian values. +Thou shalt not kill, thou shalt not steal, thou shalt not covet thy neighbor's wife." +"Although to be honest, when I was at Number 11 that was never going to be a problem." +(As Tony Blair): "Yeah, alright, come on, eh. +Alright Gordon, come on, eh. +I just, can I just say a few things about, first about Cherie, because she's a wonderful lady, my wife, with a wonderful smile. +That reminds me, I must post that letter." +"I just think, you know, what people forget, Gordon and I, we always got on perfectly well. +Alright, it was never exactly 'Brokeback Mountain.'" "You know, I wrote to him, just before I left office. I said, 'Can I rely on your support for the next month?' And he wrote back. He said, 'No, you can't.' Which kind of surprised me, because I'd never seen 'can't' spelled that way before." +Another thing Gordon could have mentioned in his speech to the Mansion House in 2002 -- that was to the building; the people weren't listening. +But the people, when talking about the finance industry, he said, "What you as the city of London have done for financial services, we, as a government, hope to do for the economy as a whole." +When you think what's happened to financial services, and you see what's happened to the economy, you think, "Well, there is a man who delivers on his promises." +But we're in a new world now. We're in a completely new world. +This is the first time that I can remember, where if you get a letter from the bank manager about a loan, you don't know if you're borrowing money from him, or if he's borrowing money from you. +Am I right? +These extraordinary things, Icelandic Internet accounts. +Did anyone here have an Icelandic Internet account? +Why would you do that? Why would -- It's like one step up from replying to one of those emails from Nigeria, isn't it? +Asking for your bank details. +And, you know, Iceland, it was never going to cut it. +It didn't have that kind of collateral. +What does it have? It has fish, that's all. +That's why the Prime Minister went on television. He said, "This has left us all with a very big haddock." +A lot of what I do -- I have to try and make sense of things before I can make nonsense of them. +And making sense of the financial crisis is very, very difficult. +Luckily, somebody like George Bush was really helpful. +He summed it up, really, at a dinner. +He was speaking at a dinner, he said, "Wall Street got drunk." +"And now it's got a hangover." +And that's, you know, that's something -- And that's something we can relate to. +It's certainly something he can relate to. +And the other one, of course, is Donald Rumsfeld, who said, "There are the known knowns, the things we know we know. +And then you got the known unknowns, the things we know we don't know. +And then you got the unknown unknowns, those are the things we don't know we don't know." +And being English, when I first heard that I thought, "What a load of cock." +And then, you're now, well, actually, that's what this is about. +This whole, what Ben Bernanke has said, the chaotic unwinding of the world's financial system, it's about -- they don't know, they didn't know what they were doing. +In 2006, the head of the American Mortgage Bankers Association said, quote, "As we can clearly see, no seismic occurrence is about to overwhelm the U.S. economy." +Now, there is a man on top of his job. +And when the crisis was happening, the head of quantitative equities at Lehman Brothers said, "Events which models predicted would happen once every 10,000 years happened every day for three days." +So, it's extraordinary. It's a new world that's very, very difficult to make sense of. +But we have a new hope. We have a new man. +America has now elected its first openly black President. +Wonderful news. +Not only that, he's left-handed. Have you noticed this? +How many people here are left-handed? +You see, a lot of the people that I most admire, they're great artists, great designers, great thinkers, they're left-handed. +And somebody said to me last night, you know, being left-handed, you have to learn to write without smudging the ink. +And somebody was talking about metaphors on Monday. +And I thought, what a wonderful metaphor, isn't it? An American President who has to write without smudging the ink. +You like that one? As opposed to you could see George Bush, well, what's the metaphor there? +I think it would be something out of the aquatic ape thing, wouldn't it? +"Well, you know I'm sorry about that. +I'm right-handed but I seem to have smudged that ink as well." +But, you know, he's gone. Now he's gone. +That's eight years of American History, eight minutes of my act, just gone like that. +"You know, it's the end of an error [sic]. +I happen to believe it was a great error. +I know folks said to me they believe it was one of the greatest errors in the history of the United States. +But we proved them wrong in Iraq. +They said there was no link between Iraq and Al Qaeda. +There is now." +"But I have a message for the suicide bombers, for those people who've blown themselves up." +"We're going to find you." +"We're going to make sure you don't do it again." +But now he's gone, and it's great to see one of the -- arguably one of the worst speech makers in American history, now given way to one of the greatest, in Obama. +You were there, maybe, on the night of his victory. +And he spoke to the crowd in Chicago, he said, "If there is anyone out there who still doubts that America is a place where all things are possible ..." +I can't do the whole thing because it would take too long, it really would. +But you get the picture. And then it goes to the inauguration. +And he and the Chief Justice, they trip over each other, they get their words wrong and they screw the thing up. +And there is George Bush sitting there going, "Heh heh heh heh ..." +"Not so easy is it? Heh heh heh." +But the interesting thing is, Gordon Brown was talking about Cicero, who said, people would listen to a speech, they said, "Great speech." +And then they'd listen to Demosthenes, and they'd say, "Let's march." +And we all want to believe in President Obama. +It's rather like that line in the film "As Good As it Gets." +Do you remember that film with Helen Hunt and Jack Nicholson, and Helen Hunt says to Jack Nicholson, "What do you see in me?" +And Jack Nicholson just says, "You make me want to be a better man." +And you want a leader who inspires and challenges and makes you want to be a better citizen. Right? +But at the moment, it's a Cicero thing. +We like what Barack Obama says, but we don't do anything about it. +So he comes over to this country, and he says, "We need a big fiscal stimulus." +And everyone goes, "Great!" He leaves the country and the French and the Germans go, "No, no, forget about that, absolutely not." Nothing happens. He goes to Strasburg. +He says, "We need more boots on the ground in Afghanistan." +And everyone goes, "Great idea." +He leaves, people go, "No no no, we're not going to do that. +5,000 maximum, and no rockets. No, no, not going to do it." +He goes to Prague, he says, "We believe in a nuclear-free world." +And it's great to have an American president who can say the word "nuclear," let's just point that out first. +Do you remember that? George Bush, "A nu-ca-ler." +Sorry, what? "A nu-ca-ler." +Could you say "avuncular"? "Avunclear." +Thank you very much. +But he says, "We want a nuclear-free world." +And that day, North Korea, that very day, North Korea is just seeing if it can just get one over Japan -- -- and land it before ... +So, where do we look for inspiration? We've still got Bill Clinton. +"Travels the world." "I believe, I believe it was President Dwight D. Eisenhower who said ..." +"Tell a lie; it was Diana Ross ..." +"... who said, reach out and touch ..." +"... somebody's gla -- hand." +"Make this world a better place, if you can. +I just think that's important. I really do. +And I was hoping Hillary would get to the White House, because she'd have been out of our home for four years. +And I, you know." "So, when that didn't work out I had to make a few arrangements, let me tell you." +So, there's him. In Britain we have Prince Charles: "And the environment is so important, all we can do. +My wife gets fed up with me constantly trying to push emissions up her agenda." +Or, any South Africans, we have Mandela to inspire. +Mandela, the great man Mandela. +He's been honored with a statue now. +The previous highest honor he had in Britain was a visit from the team from Ground Force, a gardening program. +"So, Nelson, how would you like a nice water feature?" +"Ahh, listen to me Mr. Titchmarsh." +"I was held in prison for nearly 30 years on an island in the middle of the ocean. +Why would I need a bloody water feature?" +Very quickly: I wasn't quite sure how to end this talk and then yesterday that man came up with a wonderful quote from the "Japanese Essays on Idleness" which said it's nice to have something which is unfinished because it implies there is still room for growth. +Thank you very much indeed. +The National Portrait Gallery is the place dedicated to presenting great American lives, amazing people. +And that's what it's about. +We use portraiture as a way to deliver those lives, but that's it. +And so I'm not going to talk about the painted portrait today. +I'm going to talk about a program I started there, which, from my point of view, is the proudest thing I did. +I started to worry about the fact that a lot of people don't get their portraits painted anymore, and they're amazing people, and we want to deliver them to future generations. +So, how do we do that? +And so I came up with the idea of the living self-portrait series. +And the living self-portrait series was the idea of basically my being a brush in the hand of amazing people who would come and I would interview. +And so what I'm going to do is, not so much give you the great hits of that program, as to give you this whole notion of how you encounter people in that kind of situation, what you try to find out about them, and when people deliver and when they don't and why. +Now, I had two preconditions. +One was that they be American. +That's just because, in the nature of the National Portrait Gallery, it's created to look at American lives. +That was easy, but then I made the decision, maybe arbitrary, that they needed to be people of a certain age, which at that point, when I created this program, seemed really old. +Sixties, seventies, eighties and nineties. +For obvious reasons, it doesn't seem that old anymore to me. +And why did I do that? +Well, for one thing, we're a youth-obsessed culture. +And I thought really what we need is an elders program to just sit at the feet of amazing people and hear them talk. +But the second part of it -- and the older I get, the more convinced I am that that's true. +It's amazing what people will say when they know how the story turned out. +That's the one advantage that older people have. +Well, they have other, little bit of advantage, but they also have some disadvantages, but the one thing they or we have is that we've reached the point in life where we know how the story turned out. +So, we can then go back in our lives, if we've got an interviewer who gets that, and begin to reflect on how we got there. +All of those accidents that wound up creating the life narrative that we inherited. +So, I thought okay, now, what is it going to take to make this work? +There are many kinds of interviews. We know them. +There are the journalist interviews, which are the interrogation that is expected. +This is somewhat against resistance and caginess on the part of the interviewee. +Then there's the celebrity interview, where it's more important who's asking the question than who answers. +That's Barbara Walters and others like that, and we like that. +That's Frost-Nixon, where Frost seems to be as important as Nixon in that process. +Fair enough. +But I wanted interviews that were different. +I wanted to be, as I later thought of it, empathic, which is to say, to feel what they wanted to say and to be an agent of their self-revelation. +By the way, this was always done in public. +This was not an oral history program. +This was all about 300 people sitting at the feet of this individual, and having me be the brush in their self-portrait. +Now, it turns out that I was pretty good at that. +I didn't know it coming into it. +And the only reason I really know that is because of one interview I did with Senator William Fulbright, and that was six months after he'd had a stroke. +And he had never appeared in public since that point. +This was not a devastating stroke, but it did affect his speaking and so forth. +And I thought it was worth a chance, he thought it was worth a chance, and so we got up on the stage, and we had an hour conversation about his life, and after that a woman rushed up to me, essentially did, and she said, "Where did you train as a doctor?" +And I said, "I have no training as a doctor. I never claimed that." +And she said, "Well, something very weird was happening. +When he started a sentence, particularly in the early parts of the interview, and paused, you gave him the word, the bridge to get to the end of the sentence, and by the end of it, he was speaking complete sentences on his own." +I didn't know what was going on, but I was so part of the process of getting that out. +So I thought, okay, fine, I've got empathy, or empathy, at any rate, is what's critical to this kind of interview. +But then I began to think of other things. +Who makes a great interview in this context? +It had nothing to do with their intellect, the quality of their intellect. +Some of them were very brilliant, some of them were, you know, ordinary people who would never claim to be intellectuals, but it was never about that. +It was about their energy. +It's energy that creates extraordinary interviews and extraordinary lives. +I'm convinced of it. +And it had nothing to do with the energy of being young. +These were people through their 90s. +In fact, the first person I interviewed was George Abbott, who was 97, and Abbott was filled with the life force -- I guess that's the way I think about it -- filled with it. +And so he filled the room, and we had an extraordinary conversation. +He was supposed to be the toughest interview that anybody would ever do because he was famous for being silent, for never ever saying anything except maybe a word or two. +And, in fact, he did wind up opening up -- by the way, his energy is evidenced in other ways. +He subsequently got married again at 102, so he, you know, he had a lot of the life force in him. +But after the interview, I got a call, very gruff voice, from a woman. +I didn't know who she was, and she said, "Did you get George Abbott to talk?" +And I said, "Yeah. Apparently I did." +And she said, "I'm his old girlfriend, Maureen Stapleton, and I could never do it." +And then she made me go up with the tape of it and prove that George Abbott actually could talk. +So, you know, you want energy, you want the life force, but you really want them also to think that they have a story worth sharing. +The worst interviews that you can ever have are with people who are modest. +Never ever get up on a stage with somebody who's modest, because all of these people have been assembled to listen to them, and they sit there and they say, "Aw, shucks, it was an accident." +There's nothing that ever happens that justifies people taking good hours of the day to be with them. +The worst interview I ever did: William L. Shirer. +The journalist who did "The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich." +This guy had met Hitler and Gandhi within six months, and every time I'd ask him about it, he'd say, "Oh, I just happened to be there. +Didn't matter." Whatever. +Awful. +I never would ever agree to interview a modest person. +They have to think that they did something and that they want to share it with you. +But it comes down, in the end, to how do you get through all the barriers we have. +All of us are public and private beings, and if all you're going to get from the interviewee is their public self, there's no point in it. +It's pre-programmed. It's infomercial, and we all have infomercials about our lives. +We know the great lines, we know the great moments, we know what we're not going to share, and the point of this was not to embarrass anybody. +This wasn't -- and some of you will remember Mike Wallace's old interviews -- tough, aggressive and so forth. They have their place. +I was trying to get them to say what they probably wanted to say, to break out of their own cocoon of the public self, and the more public they had been, the more entrenched that person, that outer person was. +And let me tell you at once the worse moment and the best moment that happened in this interview series. +It all has to do with that shell that most of us have, and particularly certain people. +There's an extraordinary woman named Clare Boothe Luce. +It'll be your generational determinant as to whether her name means much to you. +She did so much. She was a playwright. +She did an extraordinary play called "The Women." +She was a congresswoman when there weren't very many congresswomen. +She was editor of Vanity Fair, one of the great phenomenal women of her day. +And, incidentally, I call her the Eleanor Roosevelt of the Right. +She was sort of adored on the Right the way Eleanor Roosevelt was on the Left. +And, in fact, when we did the interview -- I did the living self-portrait with her -- there were three former directors of the CIA basically sitting at her feet, just enjoying her presence. +And I thought, this is going to be a piece of cake, because I always have preliminary talks with these people for just maybe 10 or 15 minutes. +We never talk before that because if you talk before, you don't get it on the stage. +So she and I had a delightful conversation. +We were on the stage and then -- by the way, spectacular. +It was all part of Clare Boothe Luce's look. +She was in a great evening gown. +She was 80, almost that day of the interview, and there she was and there I was, and I just proceeded into the questions. +And she stonewalled me. It was unbelievable. +Anything that I would ask, she would turn around, dismiss, and I was basically up there -- any of you in the moderate-to-full entertainment world know what it is to die onstage. +And I was dying. She was absolutely not giving me a thing. +And I began to wonder what was going on, and you think while you talk, and basically, I thought, I got it. +When we were alone, I was her audience. +Now I'm her competitor for the audience. +Most people think that I was an actress. I was never an actress." +But I hadn't asked that, and then she went off on a tear, and she said, "Oh, well, there was that one time that I was an actress. +It was for a charity in Connecticut when I was a congresswoman, and I got up there," and she went on and on, "And then I got on the stage." +And then she turned to me and said, "And you know what those young actors did? +They upstaged me." And she said, "Do you know what that is?" +Just withering in her contempt. +And I said, "I'm learning." +And she looked at me, and it was like the successful arm-wrestle, and then, after that, she delivered an extraordinary account of what her life really was like. +I have to end that one. This is my tribute to Clare Boothe Luce. +Again, a remarkable person. +I'm not politically attracted to her, but through her life force, I'm attracted to her. +And the way she died -- she had, toward the end, a brain tumor. +That's probably as terrible a way to die as you can imagine, and very few of us were invited to a dinner party. +And she was in horrible pain. +We all knew that. +She stayed in her room. +Everybody came. The butler passed around canapes. +The usual sort of thing. +Then at a certain moment, the door opened and she walked out perfectly dressed, completely composed. +The public self, the beauty, the intellect, and she walked around and talked to every person there and then went back into the room and was never seen again. +She wanted the control of her final moment, and she did it amazingly. +Now, there are other ways that you get somebody to open up, and this is just a brief reference. +It wasn't this arm-wrestle, but it was a little surprising for the person involved. +I interviewed Steve Martin. It wasn't all that long ago. +And we were sitting there, and almost toward the beginning of the interview, I turned to him and I said, "Steve," or "Mr. Martin, it is said that all comedians have unhappy childhoods. +Was yours unhappy?" +And he looked at me, you know, as if to say, "This is how you're going to start this thing, right off?" +And then he turned to me, not stupidly, and he said, "What was your childhood like?" +And I said -- these are all arm wrestles, but they're affectionate -- and I said, "My father was loving and supportive, which is why I'm not funny." +And he looked at me, and then we heard the big sad story. +His father was an SOB, and, in fact, he was another comedian with an unhappy childhood, but then we were off and running. +So the question is: What is the key that's going to allow this to proceed? +Now, these are arm wrestle questions, but I want to tell you about questions that are more related to empathy and that really, very often, are the questions that people have been waiting their whole lives to be asked. +And I'll just give you two examples of this because of the time constraints. +One was an interview I did with one of the great American biographers. +Again, some of you will know him, most of you won't, Dumas Malone. +He did a five-volume biography of Thomas Jefferson, spent virtually his whole life with Thomas Jefferson, and by the way, at one point I asked him, "Would you like to have met him?" +And he said, "Well, of course, but actually, I know him better than anyone who ever met him, because I got to read all of his letters." +So, he was very satisfied with the kind of relationship they had over 50 years. +And I asked him one question. +I said, "Did Jefferson ever disappoint you?" +And here is this man who had given his whole life to uncovering Jefferson and connecting with him, and he said, "Well ..." -- I'm going to do a bad southern accent. +Dumas Malone was from Mississippi originally. +But he said, "Well," he said, "I'm afraid so." +He said, "You know, I've read everything, and sometimes Mr. Jefferson would smooth the truth a bit." +And he basically was saying that this was a man who lied more than he wished he had, because he saw the letters. +He said, "But I understand that." He said, "I understand that." +He said, "We southerners do like a smooth surface, so that there were times when he just didn't want the confrontation." +And he said, "Now, John Adams was too honest." +And he started to talk about that, and later on he invited me to his house, and I met his wife who was from Massachusetts, and he and she had exactly the relationship of Thomas Jefferson and John Adams. +She was the New Englander and abrasive, and he was this courtly fellow. +But really the most important question I ever asked, and most of the times when I talk about it, people kind of suck in their breath at my audacity, or cruelty, but I promise you it was the right question. +This was to Agnes de Mille. +Agnes de Mille is one of the great choreographers in our history. +She basically created the dances in "Oklahoma," transforming the American theater. +An amazing woman. +At the time that I proposed to her that -- by the way, I would have proposed to her; she was extraordinary -- but proposed to her that she come on. +She said, "Come to my apartment." +She lived in New York. +"Come to my apartment and we'll talk for those 15 minutes, and then we'll decide whether we proceed." +And so I showed up in this dark, rambling New York apartment, and she called out to me, and she was in bed. +I had known that she had had a stroke, and that was some 10 years before. +And so she spent almost all of her life in bed, but -- I speak of the life force -- her hair was askew. +She wasn't about to make up for this occasion. +And she was sitting there surrounded by books, and her most interesting possession she felt at that moment was her will, which she had by her side. +She wasn't unhappy about this. She was resigned. +She said, "I keep this will by my bed, memento mori, and I change it all the time just because I want to." +And she was loving the prospect of death as much as she had loved life. +I thought, this is somebody I've got to get in this series. +She agreed. +She came on. Of course she was wheelchaired on. +Half of her body was stricken, the other half not. +She was, of course, done up for the occasion, but this was a woman in great physical distress. +And we had a conversation, and then I asked her this unthinkable question. +I said, "Was it a problem for you in your life that you were not beautiful?" +And the audience just -- you know, they're always on the side of the interviewee, and they felt that this was a kind of assault, but this was the question she had wanted somebody to ask her whole life. +And she began to talk about things that had happened to her body and her face, and how she could no longer count on her beauty, and her family then treated her like the ugly sister of the beautiful one for whom all the ballet lessons were given. +And she had to go along just to be with her sister for company, and in that process, she made a number of decisions. +First of all, was that dance, even though it hadn't been offered to her, was her life. +And secondly, she had better be, although she did dance for a while, a choreographer because then her looks didn't matter. +But she was thrilled to get that out as a real, real fact in her life. +It was an amazing privilege to do this series. +There were other moments like that, very few moments of silence. +The key point was empathy because everybody in their lives is really waiting for people to ask them questions, so that they can be truthful about who they are and how they became what they are, and I commend that to you, even if you're not doing interviews. +Just be that way with your friends and particularly the older members of your family. +Thank you very much. +Good morning. +I've come here to share with you an experiment of how to get rid of one form of human suffering. +It really is a story of Dr. Venkataswamy. +His mission and his message is about the Aravind Eye Care System. +I think first it's important for us to recognize what it is to be blind. +Woman: Everywhere I went looking for work, they said no, what use do we have for a blind woman? +I couldn't thread a needle or see the lice in my hair. +If an ant fell into my rice, I couldn't see that either. +Thulasiraj Ravilla: Becoming blind is a big part of it, but I think it also deprives the person of their livelihood, their dignity, their independence, and their status in the family. +So she is just one amongst the millions who are blind. +And the irony is that they don't need to be. +A simple, well-proven surgery can restore sight to millions, and something even simpler, a pair of glasses, can make millions more see. +If we add to that the many of us here now who are more productive because they have a pair of glasses, then almost one in five Indians will require eye care, a staggering 200 million people. +Today, we're reaching not even 10 percent of them. +So this is the context in which Aravind came into existence about 30 years back as a post-retirement project of Dr. V. +He started this with no money. +He had to mortgage all his life savings to make a bank loan. +And over time, we have grown into a network of five hospitals, predominately in the state of Tamil Nadu and Puducherry, and then we added several, what we call Vision Centers as a hub-and-spoke model. +And then more recently we started managing hospitals in other parts of the country and also setting up hospitals in other parts of the world as well. +The last three decades, we have done about three-and-a-half million surgeries, a vast majority of them for the poor people. +Now, each year we perform about 300,000 surgeries. +A typical day at Aravind, we would do about a thousand surgeries, maybe see about 6,000 patients, send out teams into the villages to examine, bring back patients, lots of telemedicine consultations, and, on top of that, do a lot of training, both for doctors and technicians who will become the future staff of Aravind. +And then doing this day-in and day-out, and doing it well, requires a lot of inspiration and a lot of hard work. +And I think this was possible thanks to the building blocks put in place by Dr. V., a value system, an efficient delivery process, and fostering the culture of innovation. +Dr. V: I used to sit with the ordinary village man because I am from a village, and suddenly you turn around and seem to be in contact with his inner being, you seem to be one with him. +Here is a soul which has got all the simplicity of confidence. +Doctor, whatever you say, I accept it. +An implicit faith in you and then you respond to it. +Here is an old lady who has got so much faith in me, I must do my best for her. +When we grow in spiritual consciousness, we identify ourselves with all that is in the world, so there is no exploitation. +It is ourselves we are helping. +It is ourselves we are healing. +This helped us build a very ethical and very highly patient-centric organization and systems that support it. +But on a practical level, you also have to deliver services efficiently, and, odd as it may seem, the inspiration came from McDonald's. +Dr. V: See, McDonald's' concept is simple. +They feel they can train people all over the world, irrespective of different religions, cultures, all those things, to produce a product in the same way and deliver it in the same manner in hundreds of places. +Larry Brilliant: He kept talking about McDonalds and hamburgers, and none of it made any sense to us. +He wanted to create a franchise, a mechanism of delivery of eye care with the efficiency of McDonald's. +Dr. V: Supposing I'm able to produce eye care, techniques, methods, all in the same way, and make it available in every corner of the world. +The problem of blindness is gone. +TR: If you think about it, I think the eyeball is the same, as American or African, the problem is the same, the treatment is the same. +And yet, why should there be so much variation in quality and in service, and that was the fundamental principle that we followed when we designed the delivery systems. +And, of course, the challenge was that it's a huge problem, we are talking of millions of people, very little resource to deal with it, and then lots of logistics and affordability issues. +And then so, one had to constantly innovate. +And one of the early innovations, which still continues, is to create ownership in the community to the problem, and then engage with them as a partner, and here is one such event. +And then, with all these results, the doctor makes a final diagnosis, and then prescribes a line of treatment, and if they need a pair of glasses, they are available right there at the camp site, usually under a tree. +But they get glasses in the frames of their choice, and that's very important because I think glasses, in addition to helping people see, is also a fashion statement, and they're willing to pay for it. +So they get it in about 20 minutes and those who require surgery, are counseled, and then there are buses waiting, which will transport them to the base hospital. +And if it was not for this kind of logistics and support, many people like this would probably never get services, and certainly not when they most need it. +They receive surgery the following day, and then they will stay for a day or two, and then they are put back on the buses to be taken back to where they came from, and where their families will be waiting to take them back home. +And this happens several thousand times each year. +It may sound impressive that we're seeing lots of patients, very efficient process, but we looked at, are we solving the problem? +We did a study, a scientifically designed process, and then, to our dismay, we found this was only reaching seven percent of those in need, and we're not adequately addressing more, bigger problems. +So we had to do something different, so we set up what we call primary eye care centers, vision centers. +These are truly paperless offices with completely electronic medical records and so on. +They receive comprehensive eye exams. +We kind of changed the simple digital camera into a retinal camera, and then every patient gets their teleconsultation with a doctor. +The effect of this has been that, within the first year, we really had a 40 percent penetration in the market that it served, which is over 50,000 people. +And the second year went up to 75 percent. +So I think we have a process by which we can really penetrate into the market and reach everyone who needs it, and in this process of using technology, make sure that most don't need to come to the base hospital. +And how much will they pay for this? +We fixed the pricing, taking into account what they would save in bus fare in coming to a city, so they pay about 20 rupees, and that's good for three consultations. +The other challenge was, how do you give high-tech or more advanced treatment and care? +So the impact of all this has been essentially one of growing the market, because it focused on the non-customer, and then by reaching the unreached, we're able to significantly grow the market. +The other aspect is how do you deal with this efficiently when you have very few ophthalmologists? +So what is in this video is a surgeon operating, and then you see on the other side, another patient is getting ready. +So, as they finish the surgery, they just swing the microscope over, the tables are placed so that their distance is just right, and then we need to do this, because, by doing this kind of process, we're able to more than quadruple the productivity of the surgeon. +And then to support the surgeon, we require a certain workforce. +And then we focused on village girls that we recruited, and then they really are the backbone of the organization. +They do almost all of the skill-based routine tasks. +They do one thing at a time. They do it extremely well. +With the result we have very high productivity, very high quality at very, very low cost. +So, putting all this together, what really happened was the productivity of our staff was significantly higher than anyone else. +This is a very busy table, but what this really is conveying is that, when it comes to quality, we have put in very good quality-assurance systems. +As a result, our complications are significantly lower than what has been reported in the United Kingdom, and you don't see those kind of numbers very often. +So the final part of the puzzle is, how do you make all this work financially, especially when the people can't pay for it? +So what we did was, we gave away a lot of it for free, and then those who pay, I mean, they paid local market rates, nothing more, and often much less. +And we were helped by the market inefficiency. +I think that has been a big savior, even now. +And, of course, one needs the mindset to be wanting to give away what you have as a surplus. +The result has been, over the years, the expenditure has increased with volumes. +The revenues increase at a higher level, giving us a healthy margin while you're treating a large number of people for free. +I think in absolute terms, last year we earned about 20-odd million dollars, spent about 13 million, with over a 40 percent EBITA. +But this really requires going beyond what we do, or what we have done, if you really want to achieve solving this problem of blindness. +And what we did was a couple of very counter-intuitive things. +We created competition for ourselves, and then we made eye care affordable by making low-cost consumables. +We proactively and systematically promoted these practices to many hospitals in India, many in our own backyards and then in other parts of the world as well. +The impact of this has been that these hospitals, in the second year after our consultation, are double their output and then achieve financial recovery as well. +The other part was how do you address this increase in cost of technology? +There was a time when we failed to negotiate the [intra-ocular lens] prices to be at affordable levels, so we set up a manufacturing unit. +And then, over time, we were able to bring down the cost significantly to about two percent of what it used to be when we started out. +Today, we believe we have about seven percent of the global market, and they're used in about 120-odd countries. +To conclude, I mean, what we do, does it have a broader relevance, or is it just India or developing countries? +So to address this, we studied UK versus Aravind. +What it shows is that we do roughly about 60 percent of the volume of what the UK does, near a half-million surgeries as a whole country. +And we do about 300,000. +And then we train about 50 ophthalmologists against the 70 trained by them, comparable quality, both in training and in patient care. +So we're really comparing apples to apples. +We looked at cost. +So, I think it is simple to say just because the U.K. isn't India the difference is happening. +I think there is more to it. +I mean, I think one has to look at other aspects as well. +Maybe there is -- the solution to the cost could be in productivity, maybe in efficiency, in the clinical process, or in how much they pay for the lenses or consumables, or regulations, their defensive practice. +So, I think decoding this can probably bring answers to most developed countries including the U.S., and maybe Obama's ratings can go up again. +Another insight, which, again, I want to leave with you, in conditions where the problem is very large, which cuts across all economic strata, where we have a good solution, I think the process I described, you know, productivity, quality, patient-centered care, can give an answer, and there are many which fit this paradigm. +You take dentistry, hearing aid, maternity and so on. +There are many where this paradigm can now play, but I think probably one of the most challenging things is on the softer side. +Now, how do you create compassion? +Now, how do you make people own the problem, want to do something about it? +There are a bit harder issues. +And I'm sure people in this crowd can probably find the solutions to these. +So I want to end my talk leaving this thought and challenge to you. +Dr. V: When you grow in spiritual consciousness, we identify with all that is in the world so there is no exploitation. +It is ourselves we are helping. +It is ourselves we are healing. +TR: Thank you very much. +Hello, everyone. Because this is my first time at TED, I've decided to bring along an old friend to help break the ice a bit. +Yes. That's right. This is Barbie. +She's 50 years old. And she's looking as young as ever. +But I'd also like to introduce you to what may be an unfamiliar face. +This is Fulla. Fulla is the Arab world's answer to Barbie. +Now, according to proponents of the clash of civilizations, Barbie and Fulla occupy these completely separate spheres. +They have different interests. They have divergent values. +And should they ever come in contact ... +well, I've got to tell you, it's just not going to be pretty. +My experience, however, in the Islamic world is very different. +Where I work, in the Arab region, people are busy taking up Western innovations and changing them into things which are neither conventionally Western, nor are they traditionally Islamic. +I want to show you two examples. +The first is 4Shbab. +It means "for youth" and it's a new Arab TV channel. +: Video clips from across the globe. +The USA. + I am not afraid to stand alone I am not afraid to stand alone, if Allah is by my side I am not afraid to stand alone Everything will be all right I am not afraid to stand alone The Arab world. + She was preserved by modesty of the religion She was adorned by the light of the Quran Shereen El Feki: 4Shbab has been dubbed Islamic MTV. +Its creator, who is an Egyptian TV producer called Ahmed Abu Haba, wants young people to be inspired by Islam to lead better lives. +He reckons the best way to get that message across is to use the enormously popular medium of music videos. +4Shbab was set up as an alternative to existing Arab music channels. +And they look something like this. +That, by the way is Haifa Wehbe. She's a Lebanese pop star and pan-Arab pin-up girl. +In the world of 4Shbab, it's not about bump and grind. +But it's not about fire and brimstone either. +Its videos are intended to show a kinder, gentler face of Islam, for young people to deal with life's challenges. +Now, my second example is for a slightly younger crowd. +And it's called "The 99." +Now, these are the world's first Islamic superheroes. +They were created by a Kuwaiti psychologist called Naif Al Mutawa. +And his desire is to rescue Islam from images of intolerance, all in a child-friendly format. +"The 99." The characters are meant to embody the 99 attributes of Allah: justice, wisdom, mercy, among others. +So, for example, there is the character of Noora. +She is meant to have the power to look inside people and see the good and bad in everyone. +Another character called Jami has the ability to create fantastic inventions. +Now, "The 99" is not just a comic book. +It's now a theme park. +There is an animated series in the works. +And by this time next year, the likes of Superman and Wonder Woman will have joined forces with "The 99" to beat injustice wherever they find it. +"The 99" and 4Shbab are just two of many examples of this sort of Islamic cross-cultural hybridization. +We're not talking here about a clash of civilizations. +Nor is it some sort of indistinguishable mash. +I like to think of it as a mesh of civilizations, in which the strands of different cultures are intertwined. +Now, while 4Shbab and "The 99" may look new and shiny, there is actually a very long tradition of this. +Throughout its history, Islam has borrowed and adapted from other civilizations both ancient and modern. +After all, it's the Quran which encourages us to do this: "We made you into nations and tribes so that you could learn from one another." +And to my mind, those are pretty wise words, no matter what your creed. Thank you. +I'm going to show you how terrorism actually interacts with our daily life. +15 years ago I received a phone call from a friend. +At the time he was looking after the rights of political prisoners in Italian jails. +He asked me if I wanted to interview the Red Brigades. +Now, as many of you may remember, the Red Brigades was a terrorist, Marxist organization which was very active in Italy from the 1960s until the mid-1980s. +As part of their strategy the Red Brigades never spoke with anybody, not even with their lawyers. +They sat in silence through their trails, waving occasionally at family and friends. +In 1993 they declared the end of the armed struggle. +And they drew a list of people with whom they would talk, and tell their story. +And I was one of those people. +When I asked my friend why the Red Brigades want to talk to me, he said that the female members of the organization had actually supported my name. +In particular, one person had put it forward. +She was my childhood friend. +She had joined the Red Brigades and became a leader of the organization. +Naturally, I didn't know that until the day she was arrested. +In fact, I read it in the newspaper. +At the time of the phone call I just had a baby, I successfully completed a management buyout to the company I was working with, and the last thing I wanted to do was to go back home and touring the high-security prisons. +But this is exactly what I did because I wanted to know what had turned my best friend into a terrorist, and why she'd never tried to recruit me. +So, this is exactly what I did. +Now, I found the answer very quickly. +I actually had failed the psychological profiling of a terrorist. +The center committee of the Red Brigades had judged me too single-minded and too opinionated to become a good terrorist. +My friend, on the other hand, she was a good terrorist because she was very good at following orders. +She also embraced violence. +Because she believed that the only way to unblock what, at the time, was known as a blocked democracy, Italy, a country run by the same party for 35 years was the arms struggle. +At the same time, while I was interviewing the Red Brigades, I also discovered that their life was not ruled by politics or ideology, but actually was ruled by economics. +They were constantly short of cash. +They were constantly searching for cash. +Now, contrary to what many people believe, terrorism is actually a very expensive business. +I'll give you an idea. +In the 1970s, the turnover of the Red Brigades on a yearly basis was seven million dollars. +This is roughly between 100 and 150 million, today. +Now, you know, if you live underground it's really hard to produce this amount of money. +But this also explains why, when I was interviewing the Red Brigades, and then, later on, other arms organizations, including members of al-Zarqawi group in the Middle East, everybody was extremely reluctant to talk about ideology, or politics. +Because they had no idea. +The political vision of a terrorist organization is decided by the leadership, which, generally, is never more than five to seven people. +All the others do, day in and day out, is search for money. +Once, for example, I was interviewing this part-timer from the Red Brigades. +It was a psychiatrist. He loved sailing. +He was a really keen sailor. And he had this beautiful boat. +For that service the Red Brigades were actually paid a fee, which went to fund their organization. +So, because I am a trained economist and I think in economic terms, all of the sudden I thought, maybe there is something here. +Maybe there is a link, a commercial link, between one organization and another one. +But it was only when I interviewed Mario Moretti, the head of the Red Brigades, the man who kidnapped and killed Aldo Moro, Italian former prime minister, that I finally realized that terrorism is actually business. +I was having lunch with him in a high-security prison in Italy. +And as we were eating, I had the distinct feeling that I was back in the city of London, having lunch with a fellow banker or an economist. +This guy thought in the same way I did. +So, I decided that I wanted to investigate the economics of terrorism. +Naturally, nobody wanted to fund my research. +In fact, I think many people thought that I was a bit crazy. +You know, that woman that goes around to foundations asking for money, thinking about the economics of terrorism. +So, in the end, I took a decision that, in retrospect, did change my life. +I sold my company, and funded the research myself. +And what I discovered is this parallel reality, another international economic system, which runs parallel to our own, which has been created by arms organizations since the end of World War II. +And what is even more shocking is that this system has followed, step by step, the evolution of our own system, of our Western capitalism. +And there are three main stages. +The first one is the state sponsor of terrorism. +The second one is the privatization of terrorism. +And the third, of course, is the globalization of terrorism. +So, state sponsor of terrorism, feature of the Cold War. +This is when the two superpowers were fighting a war by proxy, along the periphery of the sphere of influence, fully funding arms organizations. +A mix of legal and illegal activities is used. +So, the link between crime and terror is established very early on. +And here is the best example, the Contras in Nicaragua, created by the CIA, legally funded by the U.S. Congress, illegally funded by the Reagan administration via covert operation, for example, the Iran-Contra Affair. +Then comes the late 1970s, early '80s, and some groups successfully carry out the privatization of terrorism. +So, they gain independence from the sponsor, and start funding themselves. +Now, again we see a mix of legal and illegal activities. +So, Arafat used to get a percentage of the smuggling of hashish from Beka Valley, which is the valley between Lebanon and Syria. +And the IRA, which control the private transportation system in Northern Ireland, did exactly the same thing. +So, every single time that somebody got into a taxi in Belfast without knowing, actually, was funding the IRA. +But the great change came, of course, with globalization and deregulation. +This is when arms organization were able to link up, also financially, with each other. +But above all, they started to do serious business with the world of crime. +And together they money-laundered their dirty business through the same channel. +This is when we see the birth of the transnational arms organization Al Qaeda. +This is an organization that can raise money across border. +But also that is able to carry out attacks in more than one country. +Now, deregulation also brought back rogue economics. +So what is rogue economics? +Rogue economics is a force which is constantly lurking in the background of history. +It comes back at times of great transformation, globalization being one of those transformations. +It is at this times in which politics actually loses control of the economy, and the economy becomes a rogue force working against us. +It has happened before in history. +It has happened with the fall of the Roman Empire. +It has happened with Industrial Revolution. +And it actually happened again, with the fall of the Berlin wall. +Now, I calculated how big was this international economic system composed by crime, terror, and illegal economy, before 9-11. +And it is a staggering 1.5 trillion dollars. +It is trillions, it's not billions. +This is about twice the GDP of the United Kingdom, soon will be more, considering where this country is going. +Now, until 9-11, the bulk of all this money flew into the U.S. economy because the bulk of the money was denominated in U.S. dollars and the money laundering was taking place inside the United States. +The entry point, of course, of most of this money were the off-shore facilities. +So, this was a vital injection of cash into the U.S. economy. +Now, when I went to look at the figures of the U.S. money supply, the U.S. money supply is the amount of dollars that the Federal Reserve prints every year in order to satisfy the increase in the demand for dollars, which, of course, reflects the growth of the economy. +So, when I went to look at those figures, I noted that since the late 1960s a growing number of these dollars was actually leaving the United States, never to come back. +These were money taken out in suitcases or in containers, in cash of course. +These were money taken out by criminals and money launderers. +These were money taken out to fund the growth of the terror, illegal and criminal economy. +So, you see, what is the relationship? +The United States actually is a country that is the reserve currency of the world. +What does it mean? That means that it has a privilege that other countries do not have. +It can borrow against the total amount of dollars in circulation in the world. +This privilege is called seigniorage. +No other country can do that. +All the other countries, for example the United Kingdom, can borrow only against the amount of money in circulation inside its own borders. +So, here is the implication of the relationship between the worlds of crime, terror, and illegal economy, and our economy. +The U.S. in the 1990s was borrowing against the growth of the terror, illegal and criminal economy. +This is how close we are with this world. +Now, this situation changed, of course, after 9-11, because George Bush launched the War on Terror. +Part of the War on Terror was the introduction of the Patriot Act. +Now, many of you know that the Patriot Act is a legislation that greatly reduces the liberties of Americans in order to protect them against terrorism. +But there is a section of the Patriot Act which refers specifically to finance. +And it is, in fact, an anti-money-laundering legislation. +What the Patriot Act did was to prohibit U.S. bank, and U.S.-registered foreign banks from doing any businesses with off-shore facilities. +It closed that door between the money laundering in dollars, and the U.S. economy. +It also gave the U.S. monetary authorities the right to monitor any dollar transaction taking place anywhere in the world. +Now, you can imagine what was the reaction of the international finance and banking. +All the bankers said to their clients, "Get out of the dollars and go and invest somewhere else." +Now, the Euro was a newly born currency of great opportunity for business, and, of course, for investment. +And this is what people did. +Nobody wants the U.S. monetary authority to check their relationship, to monitor their relationship with their clientele. +The same thing happened, of course, in the world of crime and terror. +People simply moved their money-laundering activities away from the United States into Europe. +Why did this happen? This happened because the Patriot Act was a unilateral legislation. +It was introduced only in the United States. +And it was introduced only for the U.S. dollars. +In Europe, a similar legislation was not introduced. +So, within six months Europe became the epicenter of the money-laundering activities of the world. +So, this is how incredible are the relationship between the world of crime and the world of terror, and our own life. +So, why did I tell you this story? +I told you this story because you must understand that there is a world that goes well beyond the headlines of the newspapers, including the personal relationship that you have with friends and family. +You got to question everything that is told to you, including what I just told you today. +This is the only way for you to step into the dark side, and have a look at it. +And believe me, it's going to be scary. +It's going to be frightful, but it's going to enlighten you. +And, above all, it's not going to be boring. +My name is Ryan Lobo, and I've been involved in the documentary filmmaking business all over the world for the last 10 years. +During the process of making these films I found myself taking photographs, often much to the annoyance of the video cameramen. +I found this photography of mine almost compulsive. +And at the end of a shoot, I would sometimes feel that I had photographs that told a better story than a sometimes-sensational documentary. +I felt, when I had my photographs, that I was holding on to something true, regardless of agendas or politics. +In 2007, I traveled to three war zones. +I traveled to Iraq, Afghanistan and Liberia. +And over there I experienced other people's suffering, up close and personal, immersed myself in some rather intense and emotional stories, and at times I experienced great fear for my own life. +As always, I would return to Bangalore, and often to animated discussions at friend's homes, where we would discuss various issues while they complained bitterly about the new pub timings, where a drink often cost more than what they'd paid their 14-year-old maid. +I would feel very isolated during these discussions. +But at the same time, I questioned myself and my own integrity and purpose in storytelling. +And I decided that I had compromised, just like my friends in those discussions, where we told stories in contexts we made excuses for, rather than taking responsibility for. +I won't go into details about what led to a decision I made, but let's just say it involved alcohol, cigarettes, other substances and a woman. +I basically decided that it was I, not the camera or the network, or anything that lay outside myself, that was the only instrument in storytelling truly worth tuning. +In my life, when I tried to achieve things like success or recognition, they eluded me. +Paradoxically, when I let go of these objectives, and worked from a place of compassion and purpose, looking for excellence, rather than the results of it, everything arrived on its own, including fulfillment. +Photography transcended culture, including my own. +And it is, for me, a language which expressed the intangible, and gives voice to people and stories without. +I invite you into three recent stories of mine, which are about this way of looking, if you will, which I believe exemplify the tenets of what I like to call compassion in storytelling. +In 2007 I went to Liberia, where a group of my friends and I did an independent, self-funded film, still in progress, on a very legendary and brutal war-lord named General Butt Naked. +His real name is Joshua, and he's pictured here in a cell where he once used to torture and murder people, including children. +Joshua claims to have personally killed more than 10,000 people during Liberia's civil war. +He got his name from fighting stark naked. +And he is probably the most prolific mass murderer alive on Earth today. +This woman witnessed the General murdering her brother. +Joshua commanded his child-soldiers to commit unspeakable crimes, and enforced his command with great brutality. +Today many of these children are addicted to drugs like heroin, and they are destitute, like these young men in the image. +How do you live with yourself if you know you've committed horrific crimes? +Today the General is a baptized Christian evangelist. +And he's on a mission. +We accompanied Joshua, as he walked the Earth, visiting villages where he had once killed and raped. +He seeked forgiveness, and he claims to endeavor to improve the lives of his child-soldiers. +During this expedition I expected him to be killed outright, and us as well. +But what I saw opened my eyes to an idea of forgiveness which I never thought possible. +In the midst of incredible poverty and loss, people who had nothing absolved a man who had taken everything from them. +He begs for forgiveness, and receives it from the same woman whose brother he murdered. +Senegalese, the young man seated on the wheelchair here, was once a child soldier, under the General's command, until he disobeyed orders, and the General shot off both his legs. +He forgives the General in this image. +He risked his life as he walked up to people whose families he'd murdered. +In this photograph a hostile crowd in a slum surrounds him. +And Joshua remains silent as they vented their rage against him. +This image, to me, is almost like from a Shakespearean play, with a man, surrounded by various influences, desperate to hold on to something true within himself, in a context of great suffering that he has created himself. +I was intensely moved during all this. +But the question is, does forgiveness and redemption replace justice? +Joshua, in his own words, says that he does not mind standing trial for his crimes, and speaks about them from soapboxes across Monrovia, to an audience that often includes his victims. +A very unlikely spokesperson for the idea of separation of church and state. +The second story I'm going to tell you about is about a group of very special fighting women with rather unique peace-keeping skills. +Liberia has been devastated by one of Africa's bloodiest civil wars, which has left more than 200,000 people dead, thousands of women scarred by rape and crime on a spectacular scale. +Liberia is now home to an all-woman United Nations contingent of Indian peacekeepers. +These women, many from small towns in India, help keep the peace, far away from home and family. +They use negotiation and tolerance more often than an armed response. +The commander told me that a woman could gauge a potentially violent situation much better than men. +And that they were definitely capable of diffusing it non-aggressively. +This man was very drunk, and he was very interested in my camera, until he noticed the women, who handled him with smiles, and AK-47s at the ready, of course. +This contingent seems to be quite lucky, and it has not sustained any casualties, even though dozens of peacekeepers have been killed in Liberia. +And yes, all of those people killed were male. +Many of the women are married with children, and they say the hardest part of their deployment was being kept away from their children. +I accompanied these women on their patrols, and watched as they walked past men, many who passed very lewd comments incessantly. +And when I asked one of the women about the shock and awe response, she said, "Don't worry, same thing back home. +We know how to deal with these fellows," and ignored them. +In a country ravaged by violence against women, Indian peacekeepers have inspired many local women to join the police force. +Sometimes, when the war is over and all the film crews have left, the most inspiring stories are the ones that float just beneath the radar. +I came back to India and nobody was interested in buying the story. +And one editor told me that she wasn't interested in doing what she called "manual labor stories." +In 2007 and 2009 I did stories on the Delhi Fire Service, the DFS, which, during the summer, is probably the world's most active fire department. +They answer more than 5,000 calls in just two months. +And all this against incredible logistical odds, like heat and traffic jams. +Something amazing happened during this shoot. +Due to a traffic jam, we were late in getting to a slum, a large slum, which had caught fire. +As we neared, angry crowds attacked our trucks and stoned them, by hundreds of people all over the place. +These men were terrified, as the mob attacked our vehicle. +But nonetheless, despite the hostility, firefighters left the vehicle and successfully fought the fire. +Running the gauntlet through hostile crowds, and some wearing motorbike helmets to prevent injury. +Some of the local people forcibly took away the hoses from the firemen to put out the fire in their homes. +Now, hundreds of homes were destroyed. +But the question that lingered in my mind was, what causes people to destroy fire trucks headed to their own homes? +Where does such rage come from? +And how are we responsible for this? +45 percent of the 14 million people who live in Delhi live in unauthorized slums, which are chronically overcrowded. +They lack even the most basic amenities. +And this is something that is common to all our big cities. +Back to the DFS. A huge chemical depot caught fire, thousands of drums filled with petrochemicals were blazing away and exploding all around us. +The heat was so intense, that hoses were used to cool down firefighters fighting extremely close to the fire, and with no protective clothing. +In India we often love to complain about our government bodies. +But over here, the heads of the DFS, Mr. R.C. Sharman, Mr. A.K. Sharman, led the firefight with their men. +Something wonderful in a country where manual labor is often looked down upon. +Over the years, my faith in the power of storytelling has been tested. +And I've had very serious doubt about its efficacy, and my own faith in humanity. +However, a film we shot still airs on the National Geographic channel. +And when it airs I get calls from all the guys I was with and they tell me that they receive hundreds of calls congratulating them. +Some of the firemen told me that they were also inspired to do better because they were so pleased to get thank-yous rather than brick bats. +It seems that this story helped change perceptions about the DFS, at least in the minds of an audience in part on televisions, read magazines and whose huts aren't on fire. +Sometimes, focusing on what's heroic, beautiful and dignified, regardless of the context, can help magnify these intangibles three ways, in the protagonist of the story, in the audience, and also in the storyteller. +And that's the power of storytelling. +Focus on what's dignified, courageous and beautiful, and it grows. Thank you. +There are a lot of web 2.0 consultants who make a lot of money. +In fact, they make their living on this stuff. +I'm going to try to save you all the time and money and go through it in the next three minutes, so bear with me. +Started a website in 2005 with a few friends, called Reddit.com. +It's what you'd call a social news website; basically, the democratic front page of the best stuff on the web. +You find some interesting content -- say, a TED Talk -- submit it to Reddit, and a community of your peers votes up if they like it, down if they don't. +That creates the front page. +It's always rising, falling; a half million people visit every day. But this isn't about Reddit. +It's about discovering new things that pop up on the web. +In the last four years, we've seen all kinds of memes, all kinds of trends get born right on our front page. +This isn't about Reddit itself, it's actually about humpback whales. +Well, technically, it's about Greenpeace, an environmental organization that wanted to stop the Japanese government's whaling campaign. +The whales were getting killed; they wanted to put an end to it. +One of the ways they wanted to do it was to put a tracking chip inside one of the whales. +But to personify the movement, they wanted to name it. +So in true web fashion, they put together a poll, where they had a bunch of very erudite, very thoughtful, cultured names. +I believe this is the Farsi word for "immortal." +I think this means "divine power of the ocean" in a Polynesian language. +And then there was this: "Mister Splashy Pants." +Mister Pants, or "Splashy" to his friends, was very popular on the Internet. +In fact, someone on Reddit thought, "What a great thing, we should all vote this up." +And Redditors responded and all agreed. +So the voting started. +We got behind it ourselves; we changed our logo for the day, from the alien to Splashy, to help the cause. +And it wasn't long before other sites like Fark and Boing Boing and the rest of the Internet started saying, "We love Splashy Pants!" +So it went from about five percent, which was when this meme started, to 70 percent at the end of voting. +Pretty impressive, right? We won! Mister Splashy Pants was chosen. +Just kidding -- Greenpeace actually wasn't that crazy about it, because they wanted one of the more thoughtful names to win. +They said, "No, just kidding. We'll give it another week of voting." +Well, that got us a little angry, so we changed it to Fightin' Splashy. +And the Reddit community -- really, the rest of the Internet, really got behind this. +Facebook groups were created. Facebook applications were created. +The idea was, "Vote your conscience, vote for Mister Splashy Pants." +People were putting up signs in the real world about this whale. +This was the final vote: 78 percent of the votes. +To give you an idea of the landslide, the next highest name pulled in three. +There was a clear lesson: the Internet loves Mister Splashy Pants. +Which is obvious. It's a great name. +Everyone wants to hear their news anchor say, "Mister Splashy Pants." +I think that's what helped drive this. +What was cool were the repercussions. +Greenpeace created an entire marketing campaign around it -- Mister Splashy Pants shirts and pins, an e-card so you could send your friend a dancing Splashy. +But even more important was that they accomplished their mission. +The Japanese government called off their whaling expedition. +Mission accomplished: Greenpeace was thrilled, the whales were happy -- that's a quote. +And actually, Redditors in the Internet community were happy to participate, but they weren't whale lovers. +A few, certainly, but we're talking about a lot of people, really interested and caught up in this meme. +Greenpeace came back to the site and thanked Reddit for its participation. +But this wasn't really altruism; just interest in doing something cool. +This is how the Internet works. This is that great big secret. +The Internet provides a level playing field. +Your link is as good as your link, which is as good as my link. +With a browser, anyone can get to any website no matter your budget. +That is, as long as you can keep net neutrality in place. +Another important thing is it costs nothing to get content online. +There are so many publishing tools available, it only takes a few minutes to produce something. +and the cost of iteration is so cheap, you might as well. +If you do, be genuine. Be honest, up-front. +One of the great lessons Greenpeace learned is that it's OK to lose control, OK to take yourself a little less seriously, given that, even though it's a very serious cause, you could ultimately achieve your goal. +That's the final message I want to share: you can do well online. +But no longer is the message coming from just the top down. +If you want to succeed you've got to be OK to lose control. +Thank you. +Actually, I come from Britain, but I've been living in Maldives for 26 years now. +So, that's home really. +The Maldives, as I'm sure you're aware, are a chain of islands off the southwest coast of India here. +Capital, Mal, where I live. +Actually, sitting here today in Mysore, we're closer to Mal than we are to Delhi, for example. +If you're in IT, India, obviously, is the place to be at the moment. +But if you're a marine biologist, Maldives is not such a bad place to be. +And it has been my home these years. +For those of you who've been there, fantastic coral reefs, fantastic diving, fantastic snorkeling. +I spend as much of my time as possible investigating the marine life. +I study fish, also the bigger things, whales and dolphins. +This is a blue whale. We have blue whales in the waters around here, off Maldives, around the waters of India. You can see them off Kerala. +And, in fact, we're very lucky in this region. +One of the best places in the world to see blue whales is here in this region. +In Sri Lanka, if you go down to the south coast of Sri Lanka, during the northeast monsoon season, you can see blue whales very, very easily. +It's probably the best place in the world to see them. +Now, when I talk about the northeast monsoon season, I'm sure many of you here know exactly what I mean, but perhaps some of you are not quite so sure. +I need to explain a little bit about monsoons. +Now, monsoon, the root of the word "monsoon" comes from the word "season." +So, it's just a season. And there are two seasons in most of South Asia. +And in the summer India heats up, gets very hot. +Hot air rises, and air is drawn in off the sea to replace it. +And the way it works is, it comes from the southwest. +It comes off the ocean here and is drawn up towards India. +So it comes from the southwest. It's a southwest monsoon. +Picks up moisture as it crosses the ocean. +That's what brings the monsoon rain. +And then in the winter things cool down. +High pressure builds over India. +And the whole system goes into reverse. +So, the wind is now coming from the northeast out of India, across the Indian Ocean, this way towards Africa. +Keep that in mind. +Now, I'm a marine biologist, but I'm actually a bit of an old fashioned naturalist, I suppose. +I'm interested in all sorts of things, almost everything that moves, including dragonflies. And I'm actually going to talk, this afternoon, about dragonflies. +This is a very beautiful species, it's called the Oriental Scarlet. +And one thing you need to know about dragonflies, one important thing, is that they lay their eggs in fresh water. +They need fresh water to breed. +They lay the eggs into fresh water. +Little larvae hatch out in fresh water. +They feed on other little things. They feed on mosquito larvae. +So, they're very important. +They control mosquito larvae, among other things. +And they grow and grow by stages. And they climb out of the water, burst out, as the adult which we see. +And typically, there is a lot of variation, but if you have a dragonfly with, say, a one year life cycle, which is quite typical, the larva, living in the fresh water, lives for 10 or 11 months. +And then the adult, which comes after, lives for one or two months. +So it's essentially a freshwater animal. +It really does need fresh water. +Now, the particular species of dragonfly I want to talk about is this one, because most dragonflies, like the one we've just seen, when the adult is there for its brief one or two months of life, it doesn't go very far. It can't travel very far. +A few kilometers, maybe, is quite typical. +They are very good fliers, but they don't go too far. +But this guy is an exception. +And this is called the Globe Skimmer, or Wandering Glider. +And, as the name might suggest, it is found pretty much around the world. +It lives throughout the tropics, the Americas, Africa, Asia, Australia, into the Pacific. +And it wanders far and wide. We know that much about it. +But it really hasn't been studied very much. +It's a rather mediocre looking dragonfly. +If you're going to study dragonflies, you want to study those really bright beautiful ones, like that red one. Or the really rare ones, the endemic endangered ones. +This is, it seems a bit dull you know. +It's sort of dull-colored. And it's fairly common. +And it occurs everywhere -- you know, why bother? +But if you take that attitude, you're actually missing something rather special. +Because this dragonfly has a rather amazing story to tell. +And I feel very privileged to have stumbled across it living in the Maldives. +When I first went to the Maldives, dead keen on diving, spent as much of my time as I could in and under the water. +Didn't notice any dragonflies; maybe they were there, maybe they weren't. +Didn't notice them. +But after some time, after some months, one day as I was going out and about, suddenly I noticed hundreds of dragonflies, hundreds of dragonflies. +Something like this, these are all this species Globe Skimmer. +I didn't know at the time, but I know now, they're Globe Skimmers, hundreds of them. +And they were there for some time. And then they were gone. +And I didn't think anything more of it until the following year, when it happened again, and then the year after that, and then the year after that. +And I was a bit slow, I didn't really take too much notice. +But I asked some Maldivian friends and colleagues, and yes they come every year. +And I asked people about them and yes, they knew, but they didn't know anything, where they came from, or anything. +And again I didn't think too much of it. +But slowly it began to dawn on me that something rather special was happening. +Because dragonflies need fresh water to breed. +And the Maldives, and I'm sure some of you have been there -- so here is home. +So, Maldives, beautiful place. +It's built entirely of coral reefs. +And on top of the coral reefs are sand banks. +Average height, about that much above sea level. +So, global warming, sea level rise, it's a real serious issue. +But I'm not going to talk about that. +Another important point of these sand banks is that when it rains, the rainwater soaks down into the soil. So, it's gone. +So, it stays under the soil. +The trees can put their roots into it. +Humans can dig holes and make a well. +But dragonflies -- a bit tricky. +There is no surface fresh water. +There are no ponds, streams, rivers, lakes, nothing like that. +So, why is it that every year millions of dragonflies, millions, millions of dragonflies turn up? +I got a little bit curious. In fact I'll stop here, because I want to ask, and there is a lot of people who, from India of course, people who grew up spending your childhood here. +Those of you who are Indian or spent your childhood here, let me have a show of hands, who of you -- not yet, not yet! +You're too keen. You're too keen. No. Hang on. Hang on. +Wait for the go. I'll say go. +Those of you who grew up in India, do you remember in your childhood, dragonflies, swarms of dragonflies? Maybe at school, maybe tying little bits of string onto them? +Maybe pulling bits off? I'm not asking about that. +You've only got to say, do you remember seeing lots of dragonflies. +Any hands? Any hands? Yes. Thank you. Thank you. +It's a widespread phenomenon throughout South Asia, including the Maldives. +And I got a bit curious about it. +In the Maldives -- now, in India there is plenty of water, so, dragonflies, yeah, of course. Why not? +But in Maldives, no fresh water. So, what on Earth is going on? +And the first thing I did was started recording when they turned up in the Maldives. +And there is the answer, 21st of October. +Not every year, that's the average date. +So, I've been writing it down for 15 years now. +You'd think they're coming from India. It's the closest place. +But in October, remember, we're still in southwest monsoon, Maldives is still in the southwest monsoon. +But wind is, invariably, every time, is from the west. +It's going towards India, not from India. +So, are these things, how are these things getting here? +Are they coming from India against the wind? +Seemed a bit unlikely. +So, next thing I did is I got on the phone. +Maldives is a long archipelago. +It stretches about 500 miles, of course it's India here. +I got on the phone and emailed to friends and colleagues. +When do you see the dragonflies appear? +And pretty soon, a picture started emerging. +In Bangalore, a colleague there sent me information for three years, average, 24th of September, so late September. +Down in Trivandrum, a bit later. +Far north of Maldives, a bit later. +Then Mal, then further south. +And then the southernmost Maldives. +It's pretty obvious, they're coming from India. +But they are coming 400 miles across the ocean, against the wind. +How on Earth are they doing that? +I didn't know. +The next thing I did was I started counting dragonflies. +I wanted to know about their seasonality, what time of year, this is when they first arrive, but how long are they around for? Does that give any clues? +So, I started a very rigorous scientific process. +I had a rigorous scientific transect. +I got on my bicycle, and I cycled around the island of Mal. +It's about five kilometers around, counting the dragonflies as I go, trying not to bump into people as I'm looking in the trees. +And they're here for a very short time, October, November, December. That's it. +And then they tail off, there's a few, but that's it. +October, November, December. That is not the northeast monsoon season. +That's not the southwest season. +That's the inter-monsoon, the time when the monsoon changes. +Now, what I said was, you get the southwest monsoon going one way, and then it changes and you get the northeast monsoon going the other way. +And that sort of gives the impression you've got one air mass going up and down, up and down. It doesn't work like that. +What happens, actually, is there is two air masses. +And there is a front between them, and the front moves. +So, if you've got India here, when the front is up above India you're into the southwest monsoon. +Then the front moves into the northeast monsoon. +And that front in the middle is not vertical, it's at an angle. +So, as it comes over towards Mal I'm standing in Mal underneath the front. +I can be in the southwest monsoon. +But the wind above is from the northeast monsoon. +So, the dragonflies are actually coming from India on the northeast monsoon, but at an altitude at 1,000 to 2,000 meters up in the air. Incredible. +These little insects, it's the same ones we see out here [in India], two inches long, five centimeters long, flying in their millions, 400 miles across the ocean, at 2,000 meters up. Quite incredible. +So, I was quite pleased with myself. I thought wow, I've tracked this one, I know how they come here. Then I scratched my head a bit, and that's okay, I know how they come here, but why do they come here? +What are millions of dragonflies doing, flying out over the ocean every year to their apparent doom? +It doesn't make sense. There is nothing for them in Maldives. +What on Earth are they doing? +Well, to cut a long story short, they're actually flying right across the ocean. +They're making it all the way across to East Africa. +I know that because I have friends who work on fisheries' research vessels who have sent to me reports from boats out in the ocean. +I know because we have reports from Seychelles, which fit in as well, down here. +And I know because when you look at the rainfall, these particular insects, these Globe Skimmers breed in temporary rain water pools. +Okay, they lay their eggs where the seasonal rains are, the monsoon rains. +The larvae have to develop very quickly. +They only take six weeks. Instead of 11 months, they're six weeks. +They're up, and they're off. +Now, here we have, in case you can't read at the back, the top is rainfall for India. +And we're starting in June. So this is the monsoon rain. +By September, October, it's drying out. +Nothing for these dragonflies. There is no more seasonal rain. +They've got to go hunting for seasonal rain. +And they fly south. As the monsoon withdraws to the south they come down through Karnataka, into Kerala. +And then they run out of land. +But they are incredibly good fliers. This particular species, it can fly for thousands of kilometers. +And it just keeps going. And the wind, the northeast wind swooshes it around and carries it off across the ocean to Africa, where it's raining. +And they are breeding in the rains of Africa. +Now, this is southeast Africa. It makes it look like there are sort of two breeding periods here. It's slightly more complicated than that. +What's happening is they are breeding in the monsoon rains here. +And the dragonflies you can see today outside here, on the campus, are the young of this generation. +They hatched out in India. +They're looking for somewhere to breed. If it rains here they'll breed. +But most of them are going to carry on. And next stop, perhaps only four or five days away is going to be East Africa. +The wind will swoosh them out across here. +If they pass the Maldives they might go and have a look, nothing there, they'll carry on. +Here, here, Kenya, East Africa, they've actually just come out of a long drought. +Just last week the rains broke. The short rains broke and it's raining there now. +And the dragonflies are there. I have reports from my various contacts. +The dragonflies are here now. They're breeding there. +When those guys, they'll lay their eggs now. +They'll hatch out in six weeks. By that time the seasonal rains have moved on. It's not there, it's down here. +They'll fly down here. And the clever thing is the wind is always converging to where the rain is. +The rain occurs, these are summer rains. +This is a summer monsoon. +The sun is overhead there. Summer rains in southern Africa. +The sun is overhead, maximum heating, maximum evaporation, maximum clouds, maximum rainfall, maximum opportunities for reproduction. +Not only that, because you have this convection, you have this rising of the air where it's hot, air is drawn in. +There's a convergence. So, wherever the rain is falling, the air is drawn towards it to replace the air that's rising. +So, the little fellow that hatches out here, he gets up into the air, he is automatically carried to where the rain is falling. +Lay their eggs, next generation, they come up, automatically carried to where the rain is falling. +It's now back there. They come out, it's time to come back. +So, in four generations, one, two, three, four and then back. +A complete circuit of the Indian Ocean. +This is a circuit of about 16,000 kilometers. +16,000 kilometers, four generations, mind you, for a two inch long insect. It's quite incredible. +Those of you from North America will be familiar with the Monarch butterfly. +Which, up until now has had the longest known insect migration. +It's only half the length of this one. +And this crossing here, of the ocean, is the only truly regular transoceanic crossing of any insect. +A quite incredible feat. +And I only stumbled on this because I was living in Mal, in Maldives for long enough for it to percolate into my brain that something rather special was going on. +But dragonflies are not the only creatures that make the crossing. +There is more to the story. +I'm also interested in birds. And I'm familiar with this fellow. This is a rather special bird. +It's a falcon. It's called the eastern red-footed falcon, obviously. +But it's also called the Amur Falcon. +And it's called the Amur Falcon because it breeds in Amurland. +Which is an area along the Amur River, which is up here. +It's the border, much of it is the border between China and Russia, up here in the far east. +So, Siberia, Manchuria. +And that's where it breeds. +And if you're a falcon it's quite a nice place to be in the summer. +But it's a pretty miserable place to be in the winter. +It's, well, you can imagine. +So, as any sensible bird would do, he moves south. They move south. The whole population moves south. +But then the being sensible stopped. +So, now they don't stop here, or even down here. +No, they turn across here. +They have a little refueling stop in northeastern India. +They come to the latitude of about Mumbai or Goa. +And then they strike out across the ocean, down to Kenya. +And down here, and they winter down here [in southern Africa]. +Incredible. This is the most extraordinary migration of any bird of prey. A quite incredible migration. +And they are not the only one that makes the crossing. +They have the most incredible journey, but several make the crossing from India to Africa. Includes this one, the hobby. +This fellow is a very nice bird, this is the Pied cuckoo. +Those of you from northern India will be familiar with this. +It comes with the monsoons. +This time of year they cross back to Africa. +And this guy, the roller, a rather beautiful bird. +It's known as the Eurasian Roller. In India it occurs in the northwest, so it's known as the Kashmir Roller. +And these birds, what I've done is I've complied all the records, all the available records of these birds, put them together, and found out they migrate at exactly the same time as the dragonflies. +They make use of exactly the same winds. +They travel at exactly the same time with the same winds to make the crossing. I know they travel at the same altitude. +It's known about the Amur Falcon. This guy, unfortunately, one of these met an unfortunate end. +He was flying off the coast of Goa, 21 years ago, 1988. October, 1988. +An Indian Navy jet was flying off Goa, bang! In the middle of the night. Fortunately, a two engine jet got back to base, and they pulled the remains of one of these [Eurasian Rollers] out. +Flying at night over the Indian Ocean 2,424 meters. +Same height as the dragonflies go. +So, they are using the same winds. +And the other thing, the other important factor for all these birds, all medium sized fellows, and this includes the next slide as well, which is a bee-eater. +Bee-eaters eat bees. This one has a nice blue cheek. +It's a Blue-cheeked Bee-eater. +And every one of these birds that makes the crossing from India to East Africa eats insects, large insects, the size of dragonflies. Thank you very much. +Metaphor lives a secret life all around us. +We utter about six metaphors a minute. +Metaphorical thinking is essential to how we understand ourselves and others, how we communicate, learn, discover and invent. +But metaphor is a way of thought before it is a way with words. +Now, to assist me in explaining this, I've enlisted the help of one of our greatest philosophers, the reigning king of the metaphorians, a man whose contributions to the field are so great that he himself has become a metaphor. +I am, of course, referring to none other than Elvis Presley. +Now, "All Shook Up" is a great love song. +It's also a great example of how whenever we deal with anything abstract -- ideas, emotions, feelings, concepts, thoughts -- we inevitably resort to metaphor. +In "All Shook Up," a touch is not a touch, but a chill. +Lips are not lips, but volcanoes. +She is not she, but a buttercup. +And love is not love, but being all shook up. +In this, Elvis is following Aristotle's classic definition of metaphor as the process of giving the thing a name that belongs to something else. +This is the mathematics of metaphor. +And fortunately it's very simple. +X equals Y. +This formula works wherever metaphor is present. +Elvis uses it, but so does Shakespeare in this famous line from "Romeo and Juliet:" Juliet is the sun. +Now, here, Shakespeare gives the thing, Juliet, a name that belongs to something else, the sun. +But whenever we give a thing a name that belongs to something else, we give it a whole network of analogies too. +We mix and match what we know about the metaphor's source, in this case the sun, with what we know about its target, Juliet. +And metaphor gives us a much more vivid understanding of Juliet than if Shakespeare had literally described what she looks like. +So, how do we make and understand metaphors? +This might look familiar. +The first step is pattern recognition. +Look at this image. What do you see? +Three wayward Pac-Men, and three pointy brackets are actually present. +What we see, however, are two overlapping triangles. +Metaphor is not just the detection of patterns; it is the creation of patterns. +Second step, conceptual synesthesia. +Now, synesthesia is the experience of a stimulus in once sense organ in another sense organ as well, such as colored hearing. +People with colored hearing actually see colors when they hear the sounds of words or letters. +We all have synesthetic abilities. +This is the Bouba/Kiki test. +What you have to do is identify which of these shapes is called Bouba, and which is called Kiki. +If you are like 98 percent of other people, you will identify the round, amoeboid shape as Bouba, and the sharp, spiky one as Kiki. +Can we do a quick show of hands? +Does that correspond? +Okay, I think 99.9 would about cover it. +Why do we do that? +Because we instinctively find, or create, a pattern between the round shape and the round sound of Bouba, and the spiky shape and the spiky sound of Kiki. +And many of the metaphors we use everyday are synesthetic. +Silence is sweet. +Neckties are loud. +Sexually attractive people are hot. +Sexually unattractive people leave us cold. +Metaphor creates a kind of conceptual synesthesia, in which we understand one concept in the context of another. +Third step is cognitive dissonance. +This is the Stroop test. +What you need to do here is identify as quickly as possible the color of the ink in which these words are printed. +You can take the test now. +If you're like most people, you will experience a moment of cognitive dissonance when the name of the color is printed in a differently colored ink. +The test shows that we cannot ignore the literal meaning of words even when the literal meaning gives the wrong answer. +Stroop tests have been done with metaphor as well. +The participants had to identify, as quickly as possible, the literally false sentences. +They took longer to reject metaphors as false than they did to reject literally false sentences. +Why? Because we cannot ignore the metaphorical meaning of words either. +One of the sentences was, "Some jobs are jails." +Now, unless you're a prison guard, the sentence "Some jobs are jails" is literally false. +Sadly, it's metaphorically true. +And the metaphorical truth interferes with our ability to identify it as literally false. +Metaphor matters because it's around us every day, all the time. +Metaphor matters because it creates expectations. +Pay careful attention the next time you read the financial news. +Agent metaphors describe price movements as the deliberate action of a living thing, as in, "The NASDAQ climbed higher." +Object metaphors describe price movements as non-living things, as in, "The Dow fell like a brick." +Researchers asked a group of people to read a clutch of market commentaries, and then predict the next day's price trend. +Those exposed to agent metaphors had higher expectations that price trends would continue. +And they had those expectations because agent metaphors imply the deliberate action of a living thing pursuing a goal. +If, for example, house prices are routinely described as climbing and climbing, higher and higher, people might naturally assume that that rise is unstoppable. +They may feel confident, say, in taking out mortgages they really can't afford. +That's a hypothetical example of course. +But this is how metaphor misleads. +Metaphor also matters because it influences decisions by activating analogies. +A group of students was told that a small democratic country had been invaded and had asked the U.S. for help. +And they had to make a decision. +What should they do? +Intervene, appeal to the U.N., or do nothing? +They were each then given one of three descriptions of this hypothetical crisis. +Each of which was designed to trigger a different historical analogy: World War II, Vietnam, and the third was historically neutral. +Those exposed to the World War II scenario made more interventionist recommendations than the others. +Just as we cannot ignore the literal meaning of words, we cannot ignore the analogies that are triggered by metaphor. +Metaphor matters because it opens the door to discovery. +Whenever we solve a problem, or make a discovery, we compare what we know with what we don't know. +And the only way to find out about the latter is to investigate the ways it might be like the former. +Einstein described his scientific method as combinatory play. +He famously used thought experiments, which are essentially elaborate analogies, to come up with some of his greatest discoveries. +By bringing together what we know and what we don't know through analogy, metaphorical thinking strikes the spark that ignites discovery. +Now metaphor is ubiquitous, yet it's hidden. +But you just have to look at the words around you and you'll find it. +Ralph Waldo Emerson described language as "fossil poetry." +But before it was fossil poetry language was fossil metaphor. +And these fossils still breathe. +Take the three most famous words in all of Western philosophy: "Cogito ergo sum." +That's routinely translated as, "I think, therefore I am." +But there is a better translation. +The Latin word "cogito" is derived from the prefix "co," meaning "together," and the verb "agitare," meaning "to shake." +So, the original meaning of "cogito" is to shake together. +And the proper translation of "cogito ergo sum" is "I shake things up, therefore I am." +Metaphor shakes things up, giving us everything from Shakespeare to scientific discovery in the process. +The mind is a plastic snow dome, the most beautiful, most interesting, and most itself, when, as Elvis put it, it's all shook up. +And metaphor keeps the mind shaking, rattling and rolling, long after Elvis has left the building. +Thank you very much. +The anger in me against corruption made me to make a big career change last year, becoming a full-time practicing lawyer. +My experiences over the last 18 months, as a lawyer, has seeded in me a new entrepreneurial idea, which I believe is indeed worth spreading. +So, I share it with all of you here today, though the idea itself is getting crystallized and I'm still writing up the business plan. +Of course it helps that fear of public failure diminishes as the number of ideas which have failed increases. +I've been a huge fan of enterprise and entrepreneurship since 1993. +I've explored, experienced, and experimented enterprise and capitalism to my heart's content. +I built, along with my two brothers, the leading real estate company in my home state, Kerala, and then worked professionally with two of India's biggest businessmen, but in their startup enterprises. +In 2003, when I stepped out of the pure play capitalistic sector to work on so-called social sector issues, I definitely did not have any grand strategy or plan to pursue and find for-profit solutions to addressing pressing public issues. +When life brought about a series of death and near-death experiences within my close circle, which highlighted the need for an emergency medical response service in India, similar to 911 in USA. +To address this, I, along with four friends, founded Ambulance Access for All, to promote life-support ambulance services in India. +For those from the developing world, there is nothing, absolutely nothing new in this idea. +But as we envisioned it, we had three key goals: Providing world-class life support ambulance service which is fully self-sustainable from its own revenue streams, and universally accessible to anyone in a medical emergency, irrespective of the capability to pay. +The service which grew out of this, Dial 1298 for Ambulance, with one ambulance in 2004, now has a hundred-plus ambulances in three states, and has transported over 100,000 patients and victims since inception. +The service is -- fully self-sustainable from its own revenues, without accessing any public funds, and the cross-subsidy model actually works, where the rich pays higher, poor pays lower, and the accident victim is getting the service free of charge. +The service responded effectively and efficiently, during the unfortunate 26/11 Mumbai terror attacks. +And as you can see from the visuals, the service was responding and rescuing victims from the incident locations even before the police could cordon off the incident locations and formally confirm it as a terror strike. +We ended up being the first medical response team in every incident location and transported 125 victims, saving life. +In tribute and remembrance of 26/11 attacks over the last one year, we have actually helped a Pakistani NGO, Aman Foundation, to set up a self-sustainable life support ambulance service in Karachi, facilitated by Acumen Fund. +It's a small message from us, in our own small way to the enemies of humanity, of Islam, of South Asia, of India, and of Pakistan, that humanity will continue to bloom, irrespective of such dastardly attacks. +Since then I've also co-founded two other social enterprises. +One is Education Access for All, setting up schools in small-town India. +And the other is Moksha-Yug Access, which is integrating rural supply chain on the foundations of self-help group-based microfinance. +I guess we seem to be doing at least a few things right. +Because diligent investors and venture funds have committed over 7.5 million dollars in funding. +With the significance being these funds have come in as a QT capital, not as grant or as philanthropy. +Now I come back to the idea of the new social enterprise that I'm exploring. +Corruption, bribes, and lack of transparency. +You may be surprised to know that eight speakers yesterday actually mentioned these terms in their talks. +Bribes and corruption have both a demand and a supply side, with the supply side being mostly of greedy corporate unethical businesses and hapless common man. +And the demand side being mostly politicians, bureaucrats and those who have discretionary power vested with them. +According to World Bank estimate, one trillion dollars is paid in bribes every year, worsening the condition of the already worse off. +Yet, if you analyze the common man, he or she does not wake up every day and say, "Hmm, let me see who I can pay a bribe to today." +or, "Let me see who I can corrupt today." +Often it is the constraining or the back-to-the-wall situation that the hapless common man finds himself or herself in that leads him to pay a bribe. +In the modern day world, where time is premium and battle for subsistence is unimaginably tough, the hapless common man simply gives in and pays the bribe just to get on with life. +Now, let me ask you another question. +Imagine you are being asked to pay a bribe in your day-to-day life to get something done. +What do you do? Of course you can call the police. +But what is the use if the police department is in itself steeped in corruption? +Most definitely you don't want to pay the bribe. +But you also don't have the time, resources, expertise or wherewithal to fight this. +Unfortunately, many of us in this room are supporters of capitalist policies and market forces. +Yet the market forces around the world have not yet thrown up a service where you can call in, pay a fee, and fight the demand for a bribe. +Like a bribe buster service, or 1-800-Fight-Bribes, or www.stopbribes.org or www.preventcorruption.org. +Such a service simply do not exist. +One image that has haunted me from my early business days is of a grandmother, 70 plus years, being harassed by the bureaucrats in the town planning office. +All she needed was permission to build three steps to her house, from ground level, making it easier for her to enter and exit her house. +Yet the officer in charge would not simply give her the permit for want of a bribe. +Even though it pricked my conscience then, I could not, or rather I did not tend to her or assist her, because I was busy building my real estate company. +I don't want to be haunted by such images any more. +A group of us have been working on a pilot basis to address individual instances of demands for bribes for common services or entitlement. +And in all 42 cases where we have pushed back such demands using existing and legitimate tools like the Right to Information Act, video, audio, or peer pressure, we have successfully obtained whatever our clients set out to achieve without actually paying a bribe. +And with the cost of these tools being substantially lower than the bribe demanded. +I believe that these tools that worked in these 42 pilot cases can be consolidated in standard processes in a BPO kind of environment, and made available on web, call-center and franchise physical offices, for a fee, to serve anyone confronted with a demand for a bribe. +The target market is as tempting as it can get. +It can be worth up to one trillion dollars, being paid in bribes every year, or equal to India's GDP. +And it is an absolutely virgin market. +I propose to explore this idea further, to examine the potential of creating a for-profit, fee-based BPO kind of service to stop bribes and prevent corruption. +I do realize that the fight for justice against corruption is never easy. +It never has been and it never will be. +In my last 18 months as a lawyer, battling small- and large-scale corruption, including the one perpetrated by India's biggest corporate scamster. +Through his charities I have had three police cases filed against me alleging trespass, impersonation and intimidation. +The battle against corruption exacts a toll on ourselves, our families, our friends, and even our kids. +Yet I believe the price we pay is well worth holding on to our dignity and making the world a fairer place. +What gives us the courage? +As my close friend replied, when told during the seeding days of the ambulance project that it is an impossible task and the founders are insane to chalk up their blue-chip jobs, I quote: "Of course we cannot fail in this, at least in our own minds. +For we are insane people, trying to do an impossible task. +And an insane person does not know what an impossible task is." Thank you. +Chris Anderson: Shaffi, that is a really exciting business idea. +Shaffi Mather: I just have to get through the initial days where I don't get eliminated. +CA: What's on your mind? +I mean, give us a sense of the numbers here -- a typical bribe and a typical fee. I mean, what's in your head? +SM: So let me ... Let me give you an example. +Somebody who had applied for the passport. +The officer was just sitting on it and was demanding around 3,000 rupees in bribes. +And he did not want to pay. +So we actually used the Right to Information Act, which is equal to the Freedom of Information Act in the United States, and pushed back the officers in this particular case. +And in all these 42 cases, when we kept pushing them back, there was three kinds of reaction. +A set of people actually say, "Oh, let me just grant it to them, and run away from it." +Some people actually come back and say, "Oh, you want to screw me. Let me show you what I can do." +And he will push us back. +So you take the next step, or use the next tool available in what we are putting together, and then he relents. +By the third time, in all 42 cases, we have achieved success. +CA: But if it's a 3,000-rupee, 70-dollar bribe, what fee would you have to charge, and can you actually make the business work? +SM: Well, actually the cost that we incurred was less than 200 rupees. +So, it actually works. +CA: That's a high gross margin business. I like it. +SM: I actually did not want to answer this on the TED stage. +CA: OK, so these are provisional numbers, no pricing guarantee. +If you can pull this off, you will be a global hero. +I mean, this could be huge. +Thank you so much for sharing this idea at TED. +The key question is, "When are we going to get fusion?" +It's really been a long time since we've known about fusion. +We've known about fusion since 1920, when Sir Arthur Stanley Eddington and the British Association for the Advancement of Science conjectured that that's why the sun shines. +I've always been very worried about resource. +I don't know about you, but when my mother gave me food, I always sorted the ones I disliked from the ones I liked. +And I ate the disliked ones first, because the ones you like, you want to save. +And as a child you're always worried about resource. +And once it was sort of explained to me how fast we were using up the world's resources, I got very upset, about as upset as I did when I realized that the Earth will only last about five billion years before it's swallowed by the sun. +Big events in my life, a strange child. +Energy, at the moment, is dominated by resource. +The countries that make a lot of money out of energy have something underneath them. +Coal-powered industrial revolution in this country -- oil, gas, sorry. +Gas, I'm probably the only person who really enjoys it when Mister Putin turns off the gas tap, because my budget goes up. +We're really dominated now by those things that we're using up faster and faster and faster. +And as we try to lift billions of people out of poverty in the Third World, in the developing world, we're using energy faster and faster. +And those resources are going away. +And the way we'll make energy in the future is not from resource, it's really from knowledge. +If you look 50 years into the future, the way we probably will be making energy is probably one of these three, with some wind, with some other things, but these are going to be the base load energy drivers. +Solar can do it, and we certainly have to develop solar. +But we have a lot of knowledge to gain before we can make solar the base load energy supply for the world. +Fission. +Our government is going to put in six new nuclear power stations. +They're going to put in six new nuclear power stations, and probably more after that. +China is building nuclear power stations. Everybody is. +Because they know that that is one sure way to do carbon-free energy. +But if you wanted to know what the perfect energy source is, the perfect energy source is one that doesn't take up much space, has a virtually inexhaustible supply, is safe, doesn't put any carbon into the atmosphere, doesn't leave any long-lived radioactive waste: it's fusion. +But there is a catch. Of course there is always a catch in these cases. +Fusion is very hard to do. +We've been trying for 50 years. +Okay. What is fusion? Here comes the nuclear physics. +And sorry about that, but this is what turns me on. +I was a strange child. +Nuclear energy comes for a simple reason. +The most stable nucleus is iron, right in the middle of the periodic table. +It's a medium-sized nucleus. +And you want to go towards iron if you want to get energy. +So, uranium, which is very big, wants to split. +But small atoms want to join together, small nuclei want to join together to make bigger ones to go towards iron. +And you can get energy out this way. +And indeed that's exactly what stars do. +In the middle of stars, you're joining hydrogen together to make helium and then helium together to make carbon, to make oxygen, all the things that you're made of are made in the middle of stars. +But it's a hard process to do because, as you know, the middle of a star is quite hot, almost by definition. +And there is one reaction that's probably the easiest fusion reaction to do. +It's between two isotopes of hydrogen, two kinds of hydrogen: deuterium, which is heavy hydrogen, which you can get from seawater, and tritium which is super-heavy hydrogen. +These two nuclei, when they're far apart, are charged. +And you push them together and they repel. +But when you get them close enough, something called the strong force starts to act and pulls them together. +So, most of the time they repel. +You get them closer and closer and closer and then at some point the strong force grips them together. +For a moment they become helium 5, because they've got five particles inside them. +So, that's that process there. Deuterium and tritium goes together makes helium 5. +Helium splits out, and a neutron comes out and lots of energy comes out. +If you can get something to about 150 million degrees, things will be rattling around so fast that every time they collide in just the right configuration, this will happen, and it will release energy. +And that energy is what powers fusion. +And it's this reaction that we want to do. +There is one trickiness about this reaction. +Well, there is a trickiness that you have to make it 150 million degrees, but there is a trickiness about the reaction yet. +It's pretty hot. +The trickiness about the reaction is that tritium doesn't exist in nature. +You have to make it from something else. +And you make if from lithium. That reaction at the bottom, that's lithium 6, plus a neutron, will give you more helium, plus tritium. +And that's the way you make your tritium. +But fortunately, if you can do this fusion reaction, you've got a neutron, so you can make that happen. +Now, why the hell would we bother to do this? +This is basically why we would bother to do it. +If you just plot how much fuel we've got left, in units of present world consumption. +And as you go across there you see a few tens of years of oil -- the blue line, by the way, is the lowest estimate of existing resources. +And the yellow line is the most optimistic estimate. +And as you go across there you will see that we've got a few tens of years, and perhaps 100 years of fossil fuels left. +And god knows we don't really want to burn all of it, because it will make an awful lot of carbon in the air. +And then we get to uranium. +And with current reactor technology we really don't have very much uranium. +And we will have to extract uranium from sea water, which is the yellow line, to make conventional nuclear power stations actually do very much for us. +This is a bit shocking, because in fact our government is relying on that for us to meet Kyoto, and do all those kind of things. +To go any further you would have to have breeder technology. +And breeder technology is fast breeders. And that's pretty dangerous. +The big thing, on the right, is the lithium we have in the world. +And lithium is in sea water. That's the yellow line. +And we have 30 million years worth of fusion fuel in sea water. +Everybody can get it. That's why we want to do fusion. +Is it cost-competitive? +We make estimates of what we think it would cost to actually make a fusion power plant. +And we get within about the same price as current electricity. +So, how would we make it? +We have to hold something at 150 million degrees. +And, in fact, we've done this. +We hold it with a magnetic field. +And inside it, right in the middle of this toroidal shape, doughnut shape, right in the middle is 150 million degrees. +It boils away in the middle at 150 million degrees. +And in fact we can make fusion happen. +And just down the road, this is JET. +It's the only machine in the world that's actually done fusion. +When people say fusion is 30 years away, and always will be, I say, "Yeah, but we've actually done it." Right? +We can do fusion. In the center of this device we made 16 megawatts of fusion power in 1997. +And in 2013 we're going to fire it up again and break all those records. +But that's not really fusion power. That's just making some fusion happen. +We've got to take that, we've got to make that into a fusion reactor. +Because we want 30 million years worth of fusion power for the Earth. +This is the device we're building now. +It gets very expensive to do this research. +It turns out you can't do fusion on a table top despite all that cold fusion nonsense. Right? +You can't. You have to do it in a very big device. +More than half the world's population is involved in building this device in southern France, which is a nice place to put an experiment. +Seven nations are involved in building this. +It's going to cost us 10 billion. And we'll produce half a gigawatt of fusion power. +But that's not electricity yet. +We have to get to this. +We have to get to a power plant. +We have to start putting electricity on the grid in this very complex technology. +And I'd really like it to happen a lot faster than it is. +But at the moment, all we can imagine is sometime in the 2030s. +I wish this were different. We really need it now. +We're going to have a problem with power in the next five years in this country. +So 2030 looks like an infinity away. +But we can't abandon it now; we have to push forward, get fusion to happen. +I wish we had more money, I wish we had more resources. +But this is what we're aiming at, sometime in the 2030s -- real electric power from fusion. Thank you very much. +Namaste. Salaam. +Shalom. Sat Sri Akal. +Greetings to all of you from Pakistan. +It is often said that we fear that which we do not know. +And Pakistan, in this particular vein, is very similar. +Because it has provoked, and does provoke, a visceral anxiety in the bellies of many a Western soul, especially when viewed through the monochromatic lens of turbulence and turmoil. +But there are many other dimensions to Pakistan. +And what follows is a stream of images, a series of images captured by some of Pakistan's most dynamic and young photographers, that aims to give you an alternative glimpse, a look inside the hearts and minds of some ordinary Pakistani citizens. +Here are some of the stories they wanted us to share with you. +My name is Abdul Khan. I come from Peshawar. +I hope that you will be able to see not just my Taliban-like beard, but also the richness and color of my perceptions, aspirations and dreams, as rich and colorful as the satchels that I sell. +My name is Meher and this is my friend Irim. +I hope to become a vet when I grow up so that I can take care of stray cats and dogs who wander around the streets of the village that I live near Gilgit, northern Pakistan. +My name is Kailash. And I like to enrich lives through technicolored glass. +Madame, would you like some of those orange bangles with the pink polka dots? +My name is Zamin. +And I'm an IDP, an internally displaced person, from Swat. +Do you see me on the other side of this fence? +Do I matter, or really exist for you? +My name is Iman. I am a fashion model, an up-and-coming model from Lahore. +Do you see me simply smothered in cloth? +Or can you move beyond my veil and see me for who I truly am inside? +My name is Ahmed. I am an Afghan refugee from the Khyber agency. +I have come from a place of intense darkness. +And that is why I want to illuminate the world. +My name is Papusay. +My heart and drum beat as one. +If religion is the opium of the masses, then for me, music is my one and only ganja. +A rising tide lifts all boats. +And the rising tide of India's spectacular economic growth has lifted over 400 million Indians into a buoyant middle class. +But there are still over 650 million Indians, Pakistanis, Sri Lankans, Bangladeshis, Nepalese, who remain washed up on the shores of poverty. +Therefore as India and Pakistan, as you and I, it behooves us to transcend our differences, to celebrate our diversity, to leverage our common humanity. +Our collective vision at Naya Jeevan, which for many of you, as you all recognize, means "new life" in Urdu and Hindi, is to rejuvenate the lives of millions of low income families by providing them with affordable access to catastrophic health care. +Indeed it is the emerging world's first HMO for the urban working poor. +Why should we do this as Indians and Pakistanis? +We are but two threads cut from the same cloth. +And if our fates are intertwined, then we believe that it is good karma, it is good fortune. +And for many of us, our fortunes do indeed lie at the bottom of the pyramid. Thank you. +Chris Anderson: Fantastic. Just stay up here. +That was fantastic. +I found that really moving. +You know, we fought hard to get at least a small Pakistani contingent to come. +It felt like it was really important. +They went through a lot to get here. +Would the Pakistanis please just stand up please? +I just really wanted to acknowledge you. +Thank you so much. +Well, I learned a lot of things about ballooning, especially at the end of these balloon flights around the world I did with Brian Jones. +When I took this picture, the window was frozen because of the moisture of the night. +And on the other side there was a rising sun. +So, you see that on the other side of ice you have the unknown, you have the non-obvious, you have the non-seen, for the people who don't dare to go through the ice. +There are so many people who prefer to suffer in the ice they know instead of taking the risk of going through the ice to see what there is on the other side. +And I think that's one of the main problems of our society. +We learn, maybe not the famous TED audience, but so many other people learn, that the unknown, the doubts, the question marks are dangerous. +And we have to resist to the changes. +We have to keep everything under control. +Well, the unknown is part of life. +And in that sense, ballooning is a beautiful metaphor. +Because in the balloon, like in life, we go very well in unforeseen directions. +We want to go in a direction, but the winds push us in another direction, like in life. +And as long as we fight horizontally, against life, against the winds, against what's happening to us, life is a nightmare. +How do we steer a balloon? +By understanding that the atmosphere is made out of several different layers of wind which all have different direction. +So, then, we understand that if we want to change our trajectory, in life, or in the balloon, we have to change altitude. +Changing altitude, in life, that means raising to another psychological, philosophical, spiritual level. +But how do we do that? +In ballooning, or in life, how do we change altitude? +How do we go from the metaphor to something more practical that we can really use every day? +Well, in a balloon it's easy, we have ballast. +And when we drop the ballast overboard we climb. +Sand, water, all the equipment we don't need anymore. +And I think in life it should be exactly like this. +You know, when people speak about pioneering spirit, very often they believe that pioneers are the ones who have new ideas. +It's not true. +The pioneers are not the ones who have new ideas, because new ideas are so easy to have. +We just close our eyes for a minute we all come back with a lot of new ideas. +No, the pioneer is the one who allows himself to throw overboard a lot of ballast. +Habits, certainties, convictions, exclamation marks, paradigms, dogmas. +And when we are able to do that, what happens? +Life is not anymore just one line going in one direction in one dimension. No. +Life is going to be made out of all the possible lines that go in all the possible directions in three dimensions. +And pioneering spirit will be each time we allow ourselves to explore this vertical axis. +Of course not just like the atmosphere in the balloon, but in life itself. +Explore this vertical axis, that means explore all the different ways to do, all the different ways to behave, all the different ways to think, before we find the one that goes in the direction we wish. +This is very practical. +This can be in politics. +This can be in spirituality. +This can be in environment, in finance, in education of children. +I deeply believe that life is a much greater adventure if we manage to do politics without the trench between the left and the right wing. +Because we will throw away these political dogmas. +I deeply believe that we can make much more protection of the environment if we get rid -- if we throw overboard this fundamentalism that some of the greens have showed in the past. +And that we can aim for much higher spirituality if we get rid of the religious dogmas. +Throwing overboard, as ballast, to change our direction. +Well, these basically are things I believed in such a long time. +But actually I had to go around the world in a balloon to be invited to talk about it. +It's clear that it's not easy to know which ballast to drop and which altitude to take. Sometime we need friends, family members or a psychiatrist. +Well, in balloons we need weather men, the one who calculate the direction of each layer of wind, at which altitude, in order to help the balloonist. +But sometimes it's very paradoxical. +When Brian Jones and I were flying around the world, the weather man asked us, one day, to fly quite low, and very slow. +And when we calculated we thought we're never going to make it around the world at that speed. +So, we disobeyed. We flew much higher, and double the speed. +And I was so proud to have found that jetstream that I called the weather man, and I told him, "Hey, guy, don't you think we're good pilots up there? +We fly twice the speed you predicted." +And he told me, "Don't do that. Go down immediately in order to slow down." +And I started to argue. I said, "I'm not going to do that. +We don't have enough gas to fly so slow." +And he told me, "Yes, but with the low pressure you have on your left if you fly too fast, in a couple of hours you will turn left and end up at the North Pole. +And then he asked me -- and this is something I will never forget in my life -- he just asked me, "You're the good pilot up there. +What do you really want? You want to go very fast in the wrong direction, or slowly in the good direction? +And this is why you need weathermen. +This is why you need people with long-term vision. +And this is precisely what fails in the political visions we have now, in the political governments. +We are burning, as you heard, so much energy, not understanding that such an unsustainable way of life cannot last for long. +So, we went down actually. +We slowed down. And we went through moments of fears because we had no idea how the little amount of gas we had in the balloon could allow us to travel 45,000 kilometers. +But we were expected to have doubts; we're expected to have fears. +And actually this is where the adventure really started. +When we were flying over the Sahara and India it was nice holidays. +We could land anytime and fly back home with an airplane. +In the middle of the Pacific, when you don't have the good winds, you cannot land, you cannot go back. +That's a crisis. +That's the moment when you have to wake up from the automatic way of thinking. +That's the moment when you have to motivate your inner potential, your creativity. +That's when you throw out all the ballast, all the certainties, in order to adapt to the new situation. +And actually, we changed completely our flight plan. +We changed completely our strategy. +And after 20 days we landed successfully in Egypt. +But if I show you this picture it's not to tell you how happy we were. +It's to show you how much gas was left in the last bottles. +We took off with 3.7 tons of liquid propane. +We landed with 40 kilos. +When I saw that, I made a promise to myself. +I made a promise that the next time I would fly around the world, it would be with no fuel, independent from fossil energies, in order to be safe, not to be threatened by the fuel gauge. +I had no idea how it was possible. +I just thought it's a dream and I want to do it. +And when the capsule of my balloon was introduced officially in the Air and Space Museum in Washington, together with the airplane of Charles Lindbergh, with Apollo 11, with the Wright Brothers' Flyer, with Chuck Yeager's 61, I had really a thought then. +I thought, well, the 20th century, that was brilliant. +It allowed to do all those things there. +But it will not be possible in the future any more. +It takes too much energy. It will cost too much. +It will be prohibited because we'll have to save our natural resources in a few decades from now. +So how can we perpetuate this pioneering spirit with something that will be independent from fossil energy? +And this is when the project Solar Impulse really started to turn in my head. +And I think it's a nice metaphor also for the 21st century. +Pioneering spirit should continue, but on another level. +Not to conquer the planet or space, not anymore, it has been done, but rather to improve the quality of life. +How can we go through the ice of certainty in order to make the most incredible a possible thing? +What is today completely impossible -- get rid of our dependency on fossil energy. +If you tell to people, we want to be independent from fossil energy in our world, people will laugh at you, except here, where crazy people are invited to speak. +So, the idea is that if we fly around the world in a solar powered airplane, using absolutely no fuel, nobody ever could say in the future that it's impossible to do it for cars, for heating systems, for computers, and so on and so on. +Well, solar power airplanes are not new. +They have flown in the past, but without saving capabilities, without batteries. +Which means that they have more proven the limits of renewable energies than the potential of it. +If we want to show the potential, we have to fly day and night. +That means to load the batteries during the flight, in order to spend the night on the batteries, and fly the next day again. +It has been made, already, on remote controlled little airplane models, without pilots. +But it stays an anecdote because the public couldn't identify to it. +I think you need a pilot in the plane that can talk to the universities, that can talk to students, talk to politicians during the flight, and really make it a human adventure. +For that, unfortunately, four meters wingspan is not enough. +You need 64 meter wingspan. +64 meter wingspan to carry one pilot, the batteries, flies slowly enough with the aerodynamic efficiency. +Why that? Because fuel is not easy to replace. +That's for sure. +And with 200 square meters of solar power on our plane, we can produce the same energy than 200 little lightbulbs. +That means a Christmas tree, a big Christmas tree. +So the question is, how can you carry a pilot around the world with an airplane that uses the same amount of energy as a big Christmas tree? +People will tell you it's impossible, and that's exactly why we try to do it. +We launched the project with my colleague Andre Borschberg six years ago. +We have now 70 people in the team working on it. +We have gone through the stages of simulation, design, computing, preparing the construction of the first prototype. +That has been achieved after two years of work. +Cockpit, propeller, engine. +Just the fuselage here, it's so light. +It's not designed by an artist, but it could be. +50 kilos for the entire fuselage. +Couple of kilos more for the wing spars. +This is the complete structure of the airplane. +And one month ago we have unveiled it. +You cannot imagine how it is for a team who has been working six years on it to show that it's not only a dream and a vision, it's a real airplane. +A real airplane that we could finally present. +And what's the goal now? +The goal is to take off, end of this year for the first test, but mainly next year, spring or summer, take off, on our own power, without additional help, without being towed, climb to 9,000 meters altitude. +The same time we load the batteries, we run the engines, and when we get at the maximum height, we arrive at the beginning of the night. +And there, there will be just one goal, just one: reach the next sunrise before the batteries are empty. +And this is exactly the symbol of our world. +If our airplane is too heavy, if the pilot wastes energy, we'll never make it through the night. +And in our world, if we keep on spoiling, wasting our energy resources, if we keep on building things that consume so much energy that most of the companies now go bankrupt, it's clear that we'll never give the planet to the next generation without a major problem. +So, you see that this airplane is more a symbol. +I don't think it will transport 200 people in the next years. +But when Lindbergh crossed the Atlantic, the payload was also just sufficient for one person and some fuel. +And 20 years later there were 200 people in every airplane crossing the Atlantic. +So, we have to start, and show the example. +A little bit like on this picture here. +This is a painting from Magritte, in the museum in Holland that I love so much. +It's a pipe, and it's written, "This is not a pipe." +This is not an airplane. +This is a symbol of what we can achieve when we believe in the impossible, when we have a team, when we have pioneering spirit, and especially when we understand that all the certainties we have should be thrown overboard. +What pleases me very much is that in the beginning I thought that we would have to fly around the world with no fuel in order to have our message been understood. +And more and more, we're invited around the world with Andre to talk about that project, to talk about the symbol of it, invited by politicians, invited in energy forums, in order to show that it's not anymore completely stupid to think about getting rid of the dependency on fossil energies. +So, through speeches like this one today, through interviews, through meetings, our goal is to get as many people possible on the team. +The success will not come if we "just," quote, unquote, fly around the world in a solar-powered airplane. +No, the success will come if enough people are motivated to do exactly the same in their daily life, save energy, go to renewables. +And this is possible. You know, with the technologies we have today, we can save between 30 and 50 percent of the energy of a country in Europe, and we can solve half of the rest with renewables. +It leaves 25 or 30 percent for oil, gas, coal, nuclear, or whatever. +This is acceptable. +This is why all the people who believe in this type of spirit are welcome to be on that team. +You can just go on SolarImpulse.com, subscribe to just be informed of what we're doing. +But much more, to get advices, to give your comments, to spread the word that if it's possible in the air, of course it's possible in the ground. +And each time we have some ice in the future, we have to know that life will be great, and the success will be brilliant if we dare to overcome our fear of the ice, to go through the obstacle, to go through the problem, in order to see what there is on the other side. +So, you see, this is what we're doing on our side. +Everyone has his goal, has his dreams, has his visions. +The question I leave you with now is which is the ballast you would like to throw overboard? +Which will be the altitude at which you would like to fly in your life, to get to the success that you wish to have, to get to the point that really belongs to you, with the potential you have, and the one you can really fulfill? +Because the most renewable energy we have is our own potential, and our own passion. +So, let's go for it, and I wish you an excellent adventure in the wings of the future. Thank you. +I'd like to talk to you today about the human brain, which is what we do research on at the University of California. +Just think about this problem for a second. +Here is a lump of flesh, about three pounds, which you can hold in the palm of your hand. +But it can contemplate the vastness of interstellar space. +It can contemplate the meaning of infinity, ask questions about the meaning of its own existence, about the nature of God. +And this is truly the most amazing thing in the world. +It's the greatest mystery confronting human beings: How does this all come about? +Well, the brain, as you know, is made up of neurons. +We're looking at neurons here. +There are 100 billion neurons in the adult human brain. +And each neuron makes something like 1,000 to 10,000 contacts with other neurons in the brain. +And based on this, people have calculated that the number of permutations and combinations of brain activity exceeds the number of elementary particles in the universe. +So, how do you go about studying the brain? +One approach is to look at patients who had lesions in different part of the brain, and study changes in their behavior. +This is what I spoke about in the last TED. +Today I'll talk about a different approach, which is to put electrodes in different parts of the brain, and actually record the activity of individual nerve cells in the brain. +Sort of eavesdrop on the activity of nerve cells in the brain. +Now, one recent discovery that has been made by researchers in Italy, in Parma, by Giacomo Rizzolatti and his colleagues, is a group of neurons called mirror neurons, which are on the front of the brain in the frontal lobes. +Now, it turns out there are neurons which are called ordinary motor command neurons in the front of the brain, which have been known for over 50 years. +These neurons will fire when a person performs a specific action. +For example, if I do that, and reach and grab an apple, a motor command neuron in the front of my brain will fire. +If I reach out and pull an object, another neuron will fire, commanding me to pull that object. +These are called motor command neurons that have been known for a long time. +But what Rizzolatti found was a subset of these neurons, maybe about 20 percent of them, will also fire when I'm looking at somebody else performing the same action. +So, here is a neuron that fires when I reach and grab something, but it also fires when I watch Joe reaching and grabbing something. +And this is truly astonishing. +Because it's as though this neuron is adopting the other person's point of view. +It's almost as though it's performing a virtual reality simulation of the other person's action. +Now, what is the significance of these mirror neurons? +For one thing they must be involved in things like imitation and emulation. +Because to imitate a complex act requires my brain to adopt the other person's point of view. +So, this is important for imitation and emulation. +Well, why is that important? +Well, let's take a look at the next slide. +So, how do you do imitation? Why is imitation important? +Mirror neurons and imitation, emulation. +Now, let's look at culture, the phenomenon of human culture. +If you go back in time about [75,000] to 100,000 years ago, let's look at human evolution, it turns out that something very important happened around 75,000 years ago. +And that is, there is a sudden emergence and rapid spread of a number of skills that are unique to human beings like tool use, the use of fire, the use of shelters, and, of course, language, and the ability to read somebody else's mind and interpret that person's behavior. +All of that happened relatively quickly. +Even though the human brain had achieved its present size almost three or four hundred thousand years ago, 100,000 years ago all of this happened very, very quickly. +And I claim that what happened was the sudden emergence of a sophisticated mirror neuron system, which allowed you to emulate and imitate other people's actions. +So that when there was a sudden accidental discovery by one member of the group, say the use of fire, or a particular type of tool, instead of dying out, this spread rapidly, horizontally across the population, or was transmitted vertically, down the generations. +So, this made evolution suddenly Lamarckian, instead of Darwinian. +Darwinian evolution is slow; it takes hundreds of thousands of years. +A polar bear, to evolve a coat, will take thousands of generations, maybe 100,000 years. +A human being, a child, can just watch its parent kill another polar bear, and skin it and put the skin on its body, fur on the body, and learn it in one step. What the polar bear took 100,000 years to learn, it can learn in five minutes, maybe 10 minutes. +And then once it's learned this it spreads in geometric proportion across a population. +This is the basis. The imitation of complex skills is what we call culture and is the basis of civilization. +Now there is another kind of mirror neuron, which is involved in something quite different. +And that is, there are mirror neurons, just as there are mirror neurons for action, there are mirror neurons for touch. +In other words, if somebody touches me, my hand, neuron in the somatosensory cortex in the sensory region of the brain fires. +But the same neuron, in some cases, will fire when I simply watch another person being touched. +So, it's empathizing the other person being touched. +So, most of them will fire when I'm touched in different locations. Different neurons for different locations. +But a subset of them will fire even when I watch somebody else being touched in the same location. +So, here again you have neurons which are enrolled in empathy. +Now, the question then arises: If I simply watch another person being touched, why do I not get confused and literally feel that touch sensation merely by watching somebody being touched? +I mean, I empathize with that person but I don't literally feel the touch. +Well, that's because you've got receptors in your skin, touch and pain receptors, going back into your brain and saying "Don't worry, you're not being touched. +So, empathize, by all means, with the other person, but do not actually experience the touch, otherwise you'll get confused and muddled." +Okay, so there is a feedback signal that vetoes the signal of the mirror neuron preventing you from consciously experiencing that touch. +But if you remove the arm, you simply anesthetize my arm, so you put an injection into my arm, anesthetize the brachial plexus, so the arm is numb, and there is no sensations coming in, if I now watch you being touched, I literally feel it in my hand. +In other words, you have dissolved the barrier between you and other human beings. +So, I call them Gandhi neurons, or empathy neurons. +And this is not in some abstract metaphorical sense. +All that's separating you from him, from the other person, is your skin. +Remove the skin, you experience that person's touch in your mind. +You've dissolved the barrier between you and other human beings. +And this, of course, is the basis of much of Eastern philosophy, and that is there is no real independent self, aloof from other human beings, inspecting the world, inspecting other people. +You are, in fact, connected not just via Facebook and Internet, you're actually quite literally connected by your neurons. +And there is whole chains of neurons around this room, talking to each other. +And there is no real distinctiveness of your consciousness from somebody else's consciousness. +And this is not mumbo-jumbo philosophy. +It emerges from our understanding of basic neuroscience. +So, you have a patient with a phantom limb. If the arm has been removed and you have a phantom, and you watch somebody else being touched, you feel it in your phantom. +Now the astonishing thing is, if you have pain in your phantom limb, you squeeze the other person's hand, massage the other person's hand, that relieves the pain in your phantom hand, almost as though the neuron were obtaining relief from merely watching somebody else being massaged. +So, here you have my last slide. +For the longest time people have regarded science and humanities as being distinct. +C.P. Snow spoke of the two cultures: science on the one hand, humanities on the other; never the twain shall meet. +So, 120 years ago, Dr. Rntgen X-rayed his wife's hand. +Quite why he had to pin her fingers to the floor with her brooch, I'm not sure. It seems a bit extreme to me. +That image was the start of the X-ray technology. +And I'm still fundamentally using the same principles today. +I'm interpreting it in a more contemporary manner. +The first shot I ever did was of a soda can, which was to promote a brand that we all know, so I'm not going to do them any favors by showing you it. +But the second shot I did was my shoes I was wearing on the day. +And I do really like this shot, because it shows all the detritus that's sort of embedded in the sole of the sneakers. +It was just one of those pot-luck things where you get it right first time. +Moving on to something a bit larger, this is an X-ray of a bus. +And the bus is full of people. +It's actually the same person. It's just one skeleton. +And back in the '60s, they used to teach student radiographers to take X-rays, thankfully not on you and I, but on dead people. +So, I've still got access to one of these dead people called Frieda; she's falling apart, I'm afraid, because she's very old and fragile. +But everyone on that bus is Frieda. +And the bus is taken with a cargo-scanning X-ray, which is the sort of machine you have on borders, which checks for contraband and drugs and bombs and things. +Fairly obvious what that is. +So, using large-scale objects does sort of create drama because you just don't see X-rays of big things that often. +Technology is moving ahead, and these large cargo scanner X-rays that work with the digital system are getting better and better and better. +Again though, to make it come alive you need, somehow, to add the human element. +And I think the reason this image works, again, is because Frieda is driving the bulldozer. +Quite a difficult brief, make a pair of men's pants look beautiful. +But I think the process, in itself, shows how exquisite they are. +Fashion -- now, I'm sort of anti-fashion because I don't show the surface, I show what's within. +So, the fashionistas don't really like me because it doesn't matter if Kate Moss is wearing it or if I'm wearing it, it looks the same. +We all look the same inside, believe me. +The creases in the material and the sort of nuances. +And I show things for really what they are, what they're made of. +I peel back the layers and expose it. +And if it's well made I show it, if it's badly made I show it. +And I'm sure Ross can associate that with design. +The design comes from within. +It's not just Topshop, I get some strange looks when I go out getting my props. +Here I was fumbling around in the ladies' underwear department of a department store, almost got escorted from the premises. +I live opposite a farm. And this was the runt of the litter, a piglet that died. +And what's really interesting is, if you look at the legs, you'll notice that the bones haven't fused. +And should that pig have grown, unfortunately it was dead, it would have certainly been dead after I X-rayed it, with the amount of radiation I used anyway. +But once the bones had fused together it would have been healthy. +So, that's an empty parka jacket. +But I quite love the way it's posed. +Nature is my greatest inspiration. +And to carry on with a theme that we've already touched with is how nature is related to architecture. +If you look at the roof of the Eden Project, or the British library, it's all this honeycomb structure. +And I'm sure those architects are inspired, as I am, by what surrounds us, by nature. +This, in fact, is a Victoria water lily leaf that floats on the top of a pond. +An amaryllis flower looking really three-dimensional. +Seaweed, ebbing in the tide. +Now, how do I do this, and where do I do this, and all of that sort of thing. +This is my new, purpose-built, X-ray shed. +And the door to my X-ray room is made of lead and steel. +It weighs 1,250 kilograms and the only exercise I get is opening and closing it. +The walls are 700 millimeters thick of solid dense concrete. +So, I'm using quite a lot of radiation. +A lot more than you'd get in a hospital or a vet's. +And there I am. This is a quite high-powered X-ray machine. +What's interesting really about X-ray really is, if you think about it, is that that technology is used for looking for cancer or looking for drugs, or looking for contraband or whatever. +And I use that sort of technology to create things that are quite beautiful. +So, still working with film, I'm afraid. +Technology in X-ray where it's life-size processed, apart from these large cargo-scanning machines, hasn't moved on enough for the quality of the image and the resolution to be good enough for what I want to do with it, which is show my pictures big. +So, I have to use a 1980s drum scanner, which was designed in the days when everyone shot photographs on film. +They scan each individual X-ray. +And this shows how I do my process of same-size X-rays. +So, this is, again, my daughter's dress. +Still has the tag in it from me buying it, so I can take it back to the shop if she didn't like it. +But there are four X-ray plates. +You can see them overlapping. +So, when you move forward from something fairly small, a dress which is this size, onto something like that which is done in exactly the same process, you can see that that is a lot of work. +In fact, that is three months solid X-raying. +There is over 500 separate components. +Boeing sent me a 747 in containers. +And I sent them back an X-ray. +I kid you not. +Okay, so Frieda is my dead skeleton. +This, unfortunately, is basically two pictures. +One on the extreme right is a photograph of an American footballer. +The one on the left is an x-ray. +But this time I had to use a real body. +Because I needed all the skin tissue to make it look real, to make it look like it was a real athlete. +So, here I had to use a recently deceased body. +And getting a hold of that was extremely difficult and laborious. +But people do donate their bodies to art and science. +And when they do, I'm in the queue. +So, I like to use them. +The coloring, so coloring adds another level to the X-rays. +It makes it more organic, more natural. +It's whatever takes my fancy, really. +It's not accurately colored to how it is in real life. +That flower doesn't come in bright orange, I don't think. +But I just like it in bright orange. +And also with something technical, like these are DJ decks, it sort of adds another level. +It makes a two dimensional image look more three dimensional. +The most difficult things to X-ray, the most technically challenging things to X-ray are the lightest things, the most delicate things. +To get the detail in a feather, believe me, if there is anyone out here who knows anything about X-rays, that's quite a challenge. +I'm now going to show you a short film, I'll step to the side. +Video: The thing in there is very dangerous. +If you touch that, you could possibly die through radiation poisoning. +In my career I've had two exposures to radiation, which is two too many, because it stays with you for life. +It's cumulative. +It has human connotations. +The fact that it's a child's toy that we all recognize, but also it looks like it's a robot, and it comes from a sci-fi genus. +It's a surprise that it has humanity, but also man-made, future, alien associations. +And it's just a bit spooky. +The bus was done with a cargo-scanning X-ray machine, which is used on the borders between countries, looking for contraband and illegal immigrants. +The lorry goes in front of it. And it takes slices of X-rays through the lorry. +And that's how this was done. It's actually slice, slice. +It's a bit like a CT scanner in a hospital. Slices. +And then if you look carefully, there is all little things. +He's got headphones on, reading the newspaper, got a hat on, glasses, got a bag. +So, these little details help to make it work, make it real. +The problem with using living people is that to take an X-ray, if I X-ray you, you get exposed to radiation. +So, to avoid that -- I have to avoid it somehow -- is I use dead people. +Now, that's a variety of things, from recently deceased bodies, to a skeleton that was used by student radiographers to train in taking X-rays of the human body, at different densities. +I have very high-tech equipment of gloves, scissors and a bucket. +I will show how the capillary action works, how it feeds, I'll be able to get all the cells inside that stem. +Because it transfers food from its roots to its leaves. +Look at this monster. +It's so basic. It just grows wild. +That's what I really like about it, the fact that I haven't got to go and buy it, and it hasn't been genetically modified at all. +It's just happening. +And the X-ray shows how beautiful nature can be. +Not that that is particularly beautiful when you look at it with the human eye, the way the leaves form. They're curling back on each other. +So the X-ray will show the overlaps in these little corners. +The thicker the object, the more radiation it needs, and the more time it needs. +The lighter the object, the less radiation. +Sometimes you keep the time up, because the time gives you detail. +The longer the exposure goes on for, the more detail you get. +If you look at this, just the tube, it is quite bright. +But I could get a bit darker in the tube, but everything else would suffer. +So, these leaves at the edge would start to disappear. +What I like is how hard the edges are, how sharp. +Yeah, I'm quite pleased with it. +I travel beyond the surface and show something for what it's worth, for what it's really made of, how it really works. +But also I find that I've got the benefit of taking away all the surface, which is things that people are used to seeing. +And that's the sort of thing I've been doing. +I've got the opportunity now to show you what I'm going to be doing in the future. +This is a commercial application of my most recent work. +And what's good about this, I think, is that it's like a moment in time, like you've turned around, you've got X-ray vision and you've taken a picture with the X-ray camera. +Unfortunately I haven't got X-ray vision. +I do dream in X-ray. I see my projects in my sleep. +And I know what they're going to look like in X-ray and I'm not far off. +So, what am I doing in the future? +Well, this year is the 50th anniversary of Issigonis's Mini, which is one of my favorite cars. +So, I've taken it apart, component by component, months and months and months of work. +And with this image, I'm going to be displaying it in the Victoria and Albert Museum as a light box, which is actually attached to the car. +So, I've got to saw the car in half, down the middle, not an easy task, in itself. +And then, so you can get in the driver's side, sit down, and up against you is a wall. +And if you get out and walk around to the other side of the car, you see a life-sized light box of the car showing you how it works. +And I'm going to take that idea and apply it to other sort of iconic things from my life. +Like, my first computer was a big movement in my life. +And I had a Mac Classic. And it's a little box. +And I think that would look quite neat as an X-ray. +I'm also looking to take my work from the two-dimensional form to a more three-dimensional form. +And this is quite a good way of doing it. +I'm also working now with X-ray video. +So, if you can imagine, some of these flowers, and they're actually moving and growing and you can film that in X-ray, should be quite stunning. +But that's it. I'm done. Thank you very much. +Something called the Danish Twin Study established that only about 10 percent of how long the average person lives, within certain biological limits, is dictated by our genes. +The other 90 percent is dictated by our lifestyle. +So the premise of Blue Zones: if we can find the optimal lifestyle of longevity we can come up with a de facto formula for longevity. +But if you ask the average American what the optimal formula of longevity is, they probably couldn't tell you. +They've probably heard of the South Beach Diet, or the Atkins Diet. +You have the USDA food pyramid. +There is what Oprah tells us. +There is what Doctor Oz tells us. +The fact of the matter is there is a lot of confusion around what really helps us live longer better. +Should you be running marathons or doing yoga? +Should you eat organic meats or should you be eating tofu? +When it comes to supplements, should you be taking them? +How about these hormones or resveratrol? +And does purpose play into it? +Spirituality? And how about how we socialize? +Well, our approach to finding longevity was to team up with National Geographic, and the National Institute on Aging, to find the four demographically confirmed areas that are geographically defined. +And then bring a team of experts in there to methodically go through exactly what these people do, to distill down the cross-cultural distillation. +And at the end of this I'm going to tell you what that distillation is. +But first I'd like to debunk some common myths when it comes to longevity. +And the first myth is if you try really hard you can live to be 100. +False. +The problem is, only about one out of 5,000 people in America live to be 100. +Your chances are very low. +Even though it's the fastest growing demographic in America, it's hard to reach 100. +The problem is that we're not programmed for longevity. +We are programmed for something called procreative success. +I love that word. +It reminds me of my college days. +Biologists term procreative success to mean the age where you have children and then another generation, the age when your children have children. +After that the effect of evolution completely dissipates. +If you're a mammal, if you're a rat or an elephant, or a human, in between, it's the same story. +So to make it to age 100, you not only have to have had a very good lifestyle, you also have to have won the genetic lottery. +The second myth is, there are treatments that can help slow, reverse, or even stop aging. +False. +When you think of it, there is 99 things that can age us. +Deprive your brain of oxygen for just a few minutes, those brain cells die, they never come back. +Play tennis too hard, on your knees, ruin your cartilage, the cartilage never comes back. +Our arteries can clog. Our brains can gunk up with plaque, and we can get Alzheimer's. +There is just too many things to go wrong. +Our bodies have 35 trillion cells, trillion with a "T." We're talking national debt numbers here. +Those cells turn themselves over once every eight years. +And every time they turn themselves over there is some damage. And that damage builds up. +And it builds up exponentially. +It's a little bit like the days when we all had Beatles albums or Eagles albums and we'd make a copy of that on a cassette tape, and let our friends copy that cassette tape, and pretty soon, with successive generations that tape sounds like garbage. +Well, the same things happen to our cells. +That's why a 65-year-old person is aging at a rate of about 125 times faster than a 12-year-old person. +So, if there is nothing you can do to slow your aging or stop your aging, what am I doing here? +Well, the fact of the matter is the best science tells us that the capacity of the human body, my body, your body, is about 90 years, a little bit more for women. +But life expectancy in this country is only 78. +So somewhere along the line, we're leaving about 12 good years on the table. +These are years that we could get. +And research shows that they would be years largely free of chronic disease, heart disease, cancer and diabetes. +We found our first Blue Zone about 125 miles off the coast of Italy, on the island of Sardinia. +And not the entire island, the island is about 1.4 million people, but only up in the highlands, an area called the Nuoro province. +And here we have this area where men live the longest, about 10 times more centenarians than we have here in America. +And this is a place where people not only reach age 100, they do so with extraordinary vigor. +Places where 102 year olds still ride their bike to work, chop wood, and can beat a guy 60 years younger than them. +Their history actually goes back to about the time of Christ. +It's actually a Bronze Age culture that's been isolated. +Because the land is so infertile, they largely are shepherds, which occasions regular, low-intensity physical activity. +Their diet is mostly plant-based, accentuated with foods that they can carry into the fields. +It's called Cannonau. +But the real secret I think lies more in the way that they organize their society. +And one of the most salient elements of the Sardinian society is how they treat older people. +You ever notice here in America, social equity seems to peak at about age 24? +Just look at the advertisements. +Here in Sardinia, the older you get the more equity you have, the more wisdom you're celebrated for. +You go into the bars in Sardinia, instead of seeing the Sports Illustrated swimsuit calendar, you see the centenarian of the month calendar. +This, as it turns out, is not only good for your aging parents to keep them close to the family -- it imparts about four to six years of extra life expectancy -- research shows it's also good for the children of those families, who have lower rates of mortality and lower rates of disease. +That's called the grandmother effect. +We found our second Blue Zone on the other side of the planet, about 800 miles south of Tokyo, on the archipelago of Okinawa. +Okinawa is actually 161 small islands. +And in the northern part of the main island, this is ground zero for world longevity. +This is a place where the oldest living female population is found. +It's a place where people have the longest disability-free life expectancy in the world. +They have what we want. +They live a long time, and tend to die in their sleep, very quickly, and often, I can tell you, after sex. +They live about seven good years longer than the average American. +Five times as many centenarians as we have in America. +One fifth the rate of colon and breast cancer, big killers here in America. +And one sixth the rate of cardiovascular disease. +And the fact that this culture has yielded these numbers suggests strongly they have something to teach us. +What do they do? +Once again, a plant-based diet, full of vegetables with lots of color in them. +And they eat about eight times as much tofu as Americans do. +More significant than what they eat is how they eat it. +They have all kinds of little strategies to keep from overeating, which, as you know, is a big problem here in America. +A few of the strategies we observed: they eat off of smaller plates, so they tend to eat fewer calories at every sitting. +Instead of serving family style, where you can sort of mindlessly eat as you're talking, they serve at the counter, put the food away, and then bring it to the table. +They also have a 3,000-year-old adage, which I think is the greatest sort of diet suggestion ever invented. +It was invented by Confucius. +And that diet is known as the Hara, Hatchi, Bu diet. +It's simply a little saying these people say before their meal to remind them to stop eating when their stomach is [80] percent full. +It takes about a half hour for that full feeling to travel from your belly to your brain. +And by remembering to stop at 80 percent it helps keep you from doing that very thing. +But, like Sardinia, Okinawa has a few social constructs that we can associate with longevity. +We know that isolation kills. +Fifteen years ago, the average American had three good friends. +We're down to one and half right now. +If you were lucky enough to be born in Okinawa, you were born into a system where you automatically have a half a dozen friends with whom you travel through life. +They call it a Moai. And if you're in a Moai you're expected to share the bounty if you encounter luck, and if things go bad, child gets sick, parent dies, you always have somebody who has your back. +This particular Moai, these five ladies have been together for 97 years. +Their average age is 102. +Typically in America we've divided our adult life up into two sections. +There is our work life, where we're productive. +And then one day, boom, we retire. +And typically that has meant retiring to the easy chair, or going down to Arizona to play golf. +In the Okinawan language there is not even a word for retirement. +Instead there is one word that imbues your entire life, and that word is "ikigai." +And, roughly translated, it means "the reason for which you wake up in the morning." +For this 102-year-old karate master, his ikigai was carrying forth this martial art. +For this hundred-year-old fisherman it was continuing to catch fish for his family three times a week. +And this is a question. The National Institute on Aging actually gave us a questionnaire to give these centenarians. +And one of the questions, they were very culturally astute, the people who put the questionnaire. +One of the questions was, "What is your ikigai?" +They instantly knew why they woke up in the morning. +For this 102 year old woman, her ikigai was simply her great-great-great-granddaughter. +Two girls separated in age by 101 and a half years. +And I asked her what it felt like to hold a great-great-great-granddaughter. +And she put her head back and she said, "It feels like leaping into heaven." +I thought that was a wonderful thought. +My editor at Geographic wanted me to find America's Blue Zone. +And for a while we looked on the prairies of Minnesota, where actually there is a very high proportion of centenarians. +But that's because all the young people left. +So, we turned to the data again. +And we found America's longest-lived population among the Seventh-Day Adventists concentrated in and around Loma Linda, California. +Adventists are conservative Methodists. +They celebrate their Sabbath from sunset on Friday till sunset on Saturday. +A "24-hour sanctuary in time," they call it. +And they follow five little habits that conveys to them extraordinary longevity, comparatively speaking. +In America here, life expectancy for the average woman is 80. +But for an Adventist woman, their life expectancy is 89. +And the difference is even more pronounced among men, who are expected to live about 11 years longer than their American counterparts. +Now, this is a study that followed about 70,000 people for 30 years. +Sterling study. And I think it supremely illustrates the premise of this Blue Zone project. +This is a heterogeneous community. +It's white, black, Hispanic, Asian. +The only thing that they have in common are a set of very small lifestyle habits that they follow ritualistically for most of their lives. +They take their diet directly from the Bible. +Genesis: Chapter one, Verse [29], where God talks about legumes and seeds, and on one more stanza about green plants, ostensibly missing is meat. +They take this sanctuary in time very serious. +For 24 hours every week, no matter how busy they are, how stressed out they are at work, where the kids need to be driven, they stop everything and they focus on their God, their social network, and then, hardwired right in the religion, are nature walks. +And the power of this is not that it's done occasionally, the power is it's done every week for a lifetime. +None of it's hard. None of it costs money. +Adventists also tend to hang out with other Adventists. +So, if you go to an Adventist's party you don't see people swilling Jim Beam or rolling a joint. +Instead they're talking about their next nature walk, exchanging recipes, and yes, they pray. +But they influence each other in profound and measurable ways. +This is a culture that has yielded Ellsworth Whareham. +Ellsworth Whareham is 97 years old. +He's a multimillionaire, yet when a contractor wanted 6,000 dollars to build a privacy fence, he said, "For that kind of money I'll do it myself." +So for the next three days he was out shoveling cement, and hauling poles around. +And predictably, perhaps, on the fourth day he ended up in the operating room. +But not as the guy on the table; the guy doing open-heart surgery. +At 97 he still does 20 open-heart surgeries every month. +Ed Rawlings, 103 years old now, an active cowboy, starts his morning with a swim. +And on weekends he likes to put on the boards, throw up rooster tails. +And then Marge Deton. +Marge is 104. +Her grandson actually lives in the Twin Cities here. +She starts her day with lifting weights. +She rides her bicycle. +And then she gets in her root-beer colored 1994 Cadillac Seville, and tears down the San Bernardino freeway, where she still volunteers for seven different organizations. +I've been on 19 hardcore expeditions. +I'm probably the only person you'll ever meet who rode his bicycle across the Sahara desert without sunscreen. +But I'll tell you, there is no adventure more harrowing than riding shotgun with Marge Deton. +"A stranger is a friend I haven't met yet!" she'd say to me. +So, what are the common denominators in these three cultures? +What are the things that they all do? +And we managed to boil it down to nine. +In fact we've done two more Blue Zone expeditions since this and these common denominators hold true. +And the first one, and I'm about to utter a heresy here, none of them exercise, at least the way we think of exercise. +Instead, they set up their lives so that they are constantly nudged into physical activity. +These 100-year-old Okinawan women are getting up and down off the ground, they sit on the floor, 30 or 40 times a day. +Sardinians live in vertical houses, up and down the stairs. +Every trip to the store, or to church or to a friend's house occasions a walk. +They don't have any conveniences. +There is not a button to push to do yard work or house work. +If they want to mix up a cake, they're doing it by hand. +That's physical activity. +That burns calories just as much as going on the treadmill does. +When they do do intentional physical activity, it's the things they enjoy. They tend to walk, the only proven way to stave off cognitive decline, and they all tend to have a garden. +They know how to set up their life in the right way so they have the right outlook. +Each of these cultures take time to downshift. +The Sardinians pray. The Seventh-Day Adventists pray. +The Okinawans have this ancestor veneration. +But when you're in a hurry or stressed out, that triggers something called the inflammatory response, which is associated with everything from Alzheimer's disease to cardiovascular disease. +When you slow down for 15 minutes a day you turn that inflammatory state into a more anti-inflammatory state. +They have vocabulary for sense of purpose, ikigai, like the Okinawans. +You know the two most dangerous years in your life are the year you're born, because of infant mortality, and the year you retire. +These people know their sense of purpose, and they activate in their life, that's worth about seven years of extra life expectancy. +There's no longevity diet. +Instead, these people drink a little bit every day, not a hard sell to the American population. +They tend to eat a plant-based diet. +Doesn't mean they don't eat meat, but lots of beans and nuts. +And they have strategies to keep from overeating, little things that nudge them away from the table at the right time. +And then the foundation of all this is how they connect. +They put their families first, take care of their children and their aging parents. +They all tend to belong to a faith-based community, which is worth between four and 14 extra years of life expectancy if you do it four times a month. +And the biggest thing here is they also belong to the right tribe. +They were either born into or they proactively surrounded themselves with the right people. +We know from the Framingham studies, that if your three best friends are obese there is a 50 percent better chance that you'll be overweight. +So, if you hang out with unhealthy people, that's going to have a measurable impact over time. +Instead, if your friend's idea of recreation is physical activity, bowling, or playing hockey, biking or gardening, if your friends drink a little, but not too much, and they eat right, and they're engaged, and they're trusting and trustworthy, that is going to have the biggest impact over time. +Diets don't work. No diet in the history of the world has ever worked for more than two percent of the population. +Exercise programs usually start in January; they're usually done by October. +When it comes to longevity there is no short term fix in a pill or anything else. +But when you think about it, your friends are long-term adventures, and therefore, perhaps the most significant thing you can do to add more years to your life, and life to your years. Thank you very much. +I want you to put off your preconceptions, your preconceived fears and thoughts about reptiles. +Because that is the only way I'm going to get my story across to you. +And by the way, if I come across as a sort of rabid, hippie conservationist, it's purely a figment of your imagination. +Okay. We are actually the first species on Earth to be so prolific to actually threaten our own survival. +And I know we've all seen images enough to make us numb, of the tragedies that we're perpetrating on the planet. +We're kind of like greedy kids, using it all up, aren't we? +And today is a time for me to talk to you about water. +It's not only because we like to drink lots of it, and its marvelous derivatives, beer, wine, etc. +And, of course, watch it fall from the sky and flow in our wonderful rivers, but for several other reasons as well. +When I was a kid, growing up in New York, I was smitten by snakes, the same way most kids are smitten by tops, marbles, cars, trains, cricket balls. +And my mother, brave lady, was partly to blame, taking me to the New York Natural History Museum, buying me books on snakes, and then starting this infamous career of mine, which has culminated in of course, arriving in India 60 years ago, brought by my mother, Doris Norden, and my stepfather, Rama Chattopadhyaya. +It's been a roller coaster ride. +Two animals, two iconic reptiles really captivated me very early on. +One of them was the remarkable gharial. +This crocodile, which grows to almost 20 feet long in the northern rivers, and this charismatic snake, the king cobra. +What my purpose of the talk today really is, is to sort of indelibly scar your minds with these charismatic and majestic creatures. +Because this is what you will take away from here, a reconnection with nature, I hope. +The king cobra is quite remarkable for several reasons. +What you're seeing here is very recently shot images in a forest nearby here, of a female king cobra making her nest. +Here is a limbless animal, capable of gathering a huge mound of leaves, and then laying her eggs inside, to withstand 5 to 10 [meters of rainfall], in order that the eggs can incubate over the next 90 days, and hatch into little baby king cobras. +So, she protects her eggs, and after three months, the babies finally do hatch out. +A majority of them will die, of course. There is very high mortality in little baby reptiles who are just 10 to 12 inches long. +My first experience with king cobras was in '72 at a magical place called Agumbe, in Karnataka, this state. +And it is a marvelous rain forest. +This first encounter was kind of like the Maasai boy who kills the lion to become a warrior. +It really changed my life totally. +And it brought me straight into the conservation fray. +I ended up starting this research and education station in Agumbe, which you are all of course invited to visit. +This is basically a base wherein we are trying to gather and learn virtually everything about the biodiversity of this incredibly complex forest system, and try to hang on to what's there, make sure the water sources are protected and kept clean, and of course, having a good time too. +You can almost hear the drums throbbing back in that little cottage where we stay when we're there. +It was very important for us to get through to the people. +And through the children is usually the way to go. +They are fascinated with snakes. They haven't got that steely thing that you end up either fearing or hating or despising or loathing them in some way. +They are interested. +And it really works to start with them. +This gives you an idea of the size of some of these snakes. +This is an average size king cobra, about 12 feet long. +And it actually crawled into somebody's bathroom, and was hanging around there for two or three days. +The people of this part of India worship the king cobra. +And they didn't kill it. They called us to catch it. +Now we've caught more than 100 king cobras over the last three years, and relocated them in nearby forests. +But in order to find out the real secrets of these creatures [it was necessary] for us to actually insert a small radio transmitter inside [each] snake. +Now we are able to follow them and find out their secrets, where the babies go after they hatch, and remarkable things like this you're about to see. +This was just a few days ago in Agumbe. +I had the pleasure of being close to this large king cobra who had caught a venomous pit viper. +And it does it in such a way that it doesn't get bitten itself. +And king cobras feed only on snakes. +This [little snake] was kind of a tid-bit for it, what we'd call a "vadai" or a donut or something like that. +Usually they eat something a bit larger. +In this case a rather strange and inexplicable activity happened over the last breeding season, wherein a large male king cobra actually grabbed a female king cobra, didn't mate with it, actually killed it and swallowed it. +We're still trying to explain and come to terms with what is the evolutionary advantage of this. +But they do also a lot of other remarkable things. +This is again, something [we were able to see] by virtue of the fact that we had a radio transmitter in one of the snakes. +This male snake, 12 feet long, met another male king cobra. +And they did this incredible ritual combat dance. +It's very much like the rutting of mammals, including humans, you know, sorting out our differences, but gentler, no biting allowed. +It's just a wresting match, but a remarkable activity. +Now, what are we doing with all this information? +What's the point of all this? +Well, the king cobra is literally a keystone species in these rainforests. +And our job is to convince the authorities that these forests have to be protected. +And this is one of the ways we do it, by learning as much as we can about something so remarkable and so iconic in the rainforests there, in order to help protect trees, animals and of course the water sources. +You've all heard, perhaps, of Project Tiger which started back in the early '70s, which was, in fact, a very dynamic time for conservation. +We were piloted, I could say, by a highly autocratic stateswoman, but who also had an incredible passion for environment. +And this is the time when Project Tiger emerged. +And, just like Project Tiger, our activities with the king cobra is to look at a species of animal so that we protect its habitat and everything within it. +So, the tiger is the icon. +And now the king cobra is a new one. +All the major rivers in south India are sourced in the Western Ghats, the chain of hills running along the west coast of India. +It pours out millions of gallons every hour, and supplies drinking water to at least 300 million people, and washes many, many babies, and of course feeds many, many animals, both domestic and wild, produces thousands of tons of rice. +And what do we do? How do we respond to this? +Well, basically, we dam it, we pollute it, we pour in pesticides, weedicides, fungicides. +You drink it in peril of your life. +And the thing is, it's not just big industry. +It's not misguided river engineers who are doing all this; it's us. +It seems that our citizens find the best way to dispose of garbage are in water sources. +Okay. Now we're going north, very far north. +North central India, the Chambal River is where we have our base. +This is the home of the gharial, this incredible crocodile. +It is an animal which has been on the Earth for just about 100 million years. +It survived even during the time that the dinosaurs died off. +It has remarkable features. +Even though it grows to 20 feet long, since it eats only fish it's not dangerous to human beings. +It does have big teeth, however, and it's kind of hard to convince people if an animal has big teeth, that it's a harmless creature. +But we, actually, back in the early '70s, did surveys, and found that gharial were extremely rare. +In fact, if you see the map, the range of their original habitat was all the way from the Indus in Pakistan to the Irrawaddy in Burma. +And now it's just limited to a couple of spots in Nepal and India. +So, in fact at this point there are only 200 breeding gharial left in the wild. +So, starting in the mid-'70s when conservation was at the fore, we were actually able to start projects which were basically government supported to collect eggs from the wild from the few remaining nests and release 5,000 baby gharial back to the wild. +And pretty soon we were seeing sights like this. +I mean, just incredible to see bunches of gharial basking on the river again. +But complacency does have a tendency to breed contempt. +And, sure enough, with all the other pressures on the river, like sand mining, for example, very, very heavy cultivation all the way down to the river's edge, not allowing the animals to breed anymore, we're looking at even more problems building up for the gharial, despite the early good intentions. +Their nests hatching along the riverside producing hundreds of hatchlings. It's just an amazing sight. +This was actually just taken last year. +But then the monsoon arrives, and unfortunately downriver there is always a dam or there is always a barrage, and, shoop, they get washed down to their doom. +Luckily there is still a lot of interest. +My pals in the Crocodile Specialist Group of the IUCN, the [Madras Crocodile Bank], an NGO, the World Wildlife Fund, the Wildlife Institute of India, State Forest Departments, and the Ministry of Environment, we all work together on stuff. +But it's possibly, and definitely not enough. +For example, in the winter of 2007 and 2008, there was this incredible die-off of gharial, in the Chambal River. +Suddenly dozens of gharial appearing on the river, dead. +Why? How could it happen? +This is a relatively clean river. +The Chambal, if you look at it, has clear water. +People scoop water out of the Chambal and drink it, something you wouldn't do in most north Indian rivers. +So, in order to try to find out the answer to this, we got veterinarians from all over the world working with Indian vets to try to figure out what was happening. +I was there for a lot of the necropsies on the riverside. +And we actually looked through all their organs and tried to figure out what was going on. +And it came down to something called gout, which, as a result of kidney breakdown is actually uric acid crystals throughout the body, and worse in the joints, which made the gharial unable to swim. +And it's a horribly painful death. +Just downriver from the Chambal is the filthy Yamuna river, the sacred Yamuna river. +And I hate to be so ironic and sarcastic about it but it's the truth. It's just one of the filthiest cesspools you can imagine. +It flows down through Delhi, Mathura, Agra, and gets just about every bit of effluent you can imagine. +So, it seemed that the toxin that was killing the gharial was something in the food chain, something in the fish they were eating. +And, you know, once a toxin is in the food chain everything is affected, including us. +Because these rivers are the lifeblood of people all along their course. +In order to try to answer some of these questions, we again turn to technology, to biological technology, in this case, again, telemetry, putting radios on 10 gharial, and actually following their movements. They're being watched everyday as we speak, to try to find out what this mysterious toxin is. +The Chambal river is an absolutely incredible place. +It's a place that's famous to a lot of you who know about the bandits, the dacoits who used to work up there. And there still are quite a few around. +But Poolan Devi was one [of them]. Which actually Shekhar Kapur made an incredible movie, "The Bandit Queen," which I urge you to see. +You'll get to see the incredible [Chambal] landscape as well. +But, again, heavy fishing pressures. +This is one of the last repositories of the Ganges river dolphin, various species of turtles, thousands of migratory birds, and fishing is causing problems like this. +And now [these] new elements of human intolerance for river creatures like the gharial means that if they don't drown in the net, then they simply cut their beaks off. +Animals like the Ganges river dolphin which is just down to a few left, and it is also critically endangered. +So, who is next? Us? +Because we are all dependent on these water sources. +So, we all know about the Narmada river, the tragedies of dams, the tragedies of huge projects which displace people and wreck river systems without providing livelihoods. +And development just basically going berserk, for a double figure growth index, basically. +So, we're not sure where this story is going to end, whether it's got a happy or sad ending. +And climate change is certainly going to turn all of our theories and predictions on their heads. +We're still working hard at it. +We've got a lot of a good team of people working up there. +And the thing is, you know, the decision makers, the folks in power, they're up in their bungalows and so on in Delhi, in the city capitals. They are all supplied with plenty of water. It's cool. +But out on the rivers there are still millions of people who are in really bad shape. +And it's a bleak future for them. +So, we have our Ganges and Yamuna cleanup project. +We've spent hundreds of millions of dollars on it, and nothing to show for it. Incredible. +So, people talk about political will. +During the die-off of the gharial we did galvanize a lot of action. +Government cut through all the red tape, we got foreign vets on it. It was great. +So, we can do it. +But if you stroll down to the Yamuna or to the Gomati in Lucknow, or to the Adyar river in Chennai, or the Mula-Mutha river in Pune, just see what we're capable of doing to a river. It's sad. +But I think the final note really is that we can do it. +The corporates, the artists, the wildlife nuts, the good old everyday folks can actually bring these rivers back. +And the final word is that there is a king cobra looking over our shoulders. +And there is a gharial looking at us from the river. +And these are powerful water totems. +And they are going to disturb our dreams until we do the right thing. +Namaste. +Chris Anderson: Thanks, Rom. Thanks a lot. +You know, most people are terrified of snakes. +And there might be quite a few people here who would be very glad to see the last king cobra bite the dust. +Do you have those conversations with people? +How do you really get them to care? +Romulus Whitaker: I take the sort of humble approach, I guess you could say. I don't say that snakes are huggable exactly. +It's not like the teddy bear. +But I sort of -- there is an innocence in these animals. +And when the average person looks at a cobra going "Ssssss!" like that, they say, "My god, look at that angry, dangerous creature." +I look at it as a creature who is totally frightened of something so dangerous as a human being. +And that is the truth. And that's what I try to get out. +CA: Now, incredible footage you showed of the viper being killed. +You were saying that that hasn't been filmed before. +RW: Yes, this is actually the first time anyone of us knew about it, for one thing. +As I said, it's just like a little snack for him, you know? +Usually they eat larger snakes like rat snakes, or even cobras. +But this guy who we're following right now is in the deep jungle. +Whereas other king cobras very often come into the human interface, you know, the plantations, to find big rat snakes and stuff. +This guy specializes in pit vipers. +And the guy who is working there with them, he's from Maharashtra, he said, "I think he's after the nusha." +Now, the nusha means the high. +Whenever he eats the pit viper he gets this little venom rush. +CA: Thanks Rom. Thank you. +Herbie Hancock: Thank you. +Marcus Miller. Harvey Mason. Thank you. Thank you very much. +Hi. For those of you who haven't seen dancing bears, these are the dancing bears. +In 1995, we started working on a two-year investigative research project to try and find out what was going on. +Because the sloth bears in the wild were obviously getting depleted because of this. +This is the Qalandar community. They are a marginalized Islamic community who live across India, and have been in India since the 13th century. +We went about getting evidence of what was going on. +And this is footage from a hidden camera in a button. +And we went in, pretending to be buyers. +And we found this right in this very state, in Karnataka. +And the bear cubs were being harvested from across the country and being sold and traded. +These were being sold for about 2,000 dollars each, and they are used for bear paw soup, and also being trained, later on, to become dancing bears like the one you just saw. +Sadly, the family of Qalandars depended on this bear. +The couple are barely 18 years old. +They already have four children beside them. You can see them. +And the economy of the family and their livelihood depended on those animals. +So, we had to deal with it in a very practical and sustainable manner. +Now, when we started working deeper and digging deeper, we found that it's an illegal act. +These guys could go to jail for up to seven years if they were caught by authorities. +And what they were doing to the bears was really appalling. +It was unacceptable. +The mother bears are usually killed. +The cubs, which are taken, are separated. +Their teeth are basically bashed out with a metal rod. +And they use a red hot iron needle to make a hole through the muzzle. +Now we had to start changing these people and converting them from using that for a livelihood, to getting something else. +So, this is Bitu Qalandar, who was our first experiment. +And we were so unsure that this would work. +We weren't sure at all. And we managed to convince him. +And we said, "Okay, here is some seed fund. +Let's see if you can get something else." And we got the bear surrendered to -- we set up a sanctuary. We have four sanctuaries in India. +And now he sells cool drinks, he's by the highway. +He has a telephone booth. +And then it started, there was no turning back after that. +This is Sadua who came and surrendered his bear. +And now he runs a cattle fodder store and a grain store near Agra. +Then there was no looking back at all for us. +We gave cycle rickshaws. +We set up carpet-weaving units, vocational training for the women. +The women were just not allowed to come out of the community and work with mainstream society. So, we were able to address that. +Education. The kids never went to school. +They only had Islamic education, very little of it. +And they were never allowed to go to school because they were an extra earning hand at home. So we managed to get education. +So, we sponsor 600 children education programs today. +We were able to ensure brighter futures for these people. +Of course we also had to get the bears in. +This is what happens to the bears when they come in. +And this is what we turn them into. +We have a veterinary facility in our rescue centers. +So, basically in 2002 there were 1,200 dancing bears. +We rescued over 550 dancing bears. +We've been able to ensure better futures for the people and the bears. +The big news that I want to announce today is that next month we will be bringing in the very last bear of India, into our rescue center. +And India will no longer have to witness this cruel barbaric practice which has been here for centuries. +And the people can hold their heads up high. +And the Qalandar people will rise above all this cruel barbaric past that they've lived all their lives. +And the beautiful bears can of course live in the wild again. +And there will be no more removing of these bears. +And the children, both humans and bear cubs can live peacefully. Thank you. +Contagious is a good word. +Even in the times of H1N1, I like the word. +Laughter is contagious. Passion is contagious. +Inspiration is contagious. +We've heard some remarkable stories from some remarkable speakers. +But for me, what was contagious about all of them was that they were infected by something I call the "I Can" bug. +So, the question is, why only them? +In a country of a billion people and some, why so few? +Is it luck? Is it chance? +Can we all not systematically and consciously get infected? +So, in the next eight minutes I would like to share with you my story. +I got infected when I was 17, when, as a student of the design college, I encountered adults who actually believed in my ideas, challenged me and had lots of cups of chai with me. +And I was struck by just how wonderful it felt, and how contagious that feeling was. +I also realized I should have got infected when I was seven. +So, when I started Riverside school 10 years ago it became a lab, a lab to prototype and refine a design process that could consciously infect the mind with the "I Can" bug. +And I uncovered that if learning is embedded in real-world context, that if you blur the boundaries between school and life, then children go through a journey of "aware," where they can see the change, "enable," be changed, and then "empower," lead the change. +And that directly increased student wellbeing. +Children became more competent, and less helpless. +But this was all common sense. +So, I'd like to show you a little glimpse of what common practice looks like at Riverside. +A little background: when my grade five was learning about child rights, they were made to roll incense sticks, agarbattis, for eight hours to experience what it means to be a child laborer. +It transformed them. What you will see is their journey, and then their utter conviction that they could go out and change the world. +That's them rolling. +And in two hours, after their backs were broke, they were changed. +And once that happened, they were out in the city convincing everybody that child labor just had to be abolished. +And look at Ragav, that moment when his face changes because he's been able to understand that he has shifted that man's mindset. +And that can't happen in a classroom. +So, when Ragav experienced that he went from "teacher told me," to "I am doing it." And that's the "I Can" mindshift. +And it is a process that can be energized and nurtured. +But we had parents who said, "Okay, making our children good human beings is all very well, but what about math and science and English? +Show us the grades." +And we did. The data was conclusive. +When children are empowered, not only do they do good, they do well, in fact very well, as you can see in this national benchmarking assessment taken by over 2,000 schools in India, Riverside children were outperforming the top 10 schools in India in math, English and science. +So, it worked. It was now time to take it outside Riverside. +So, on August 15th, Independence Day, 2007, the children of Riverside set out to infect Ahmedabad. +Now it was not about Riverside school. +It was about all children. So, we were shameless. +We walked into the offices of the municipal corporation, the police, the press, businesses, and basically said, "When are you going to wake up and recognize the potential that resides in every child? +When will you include the child in the city? +Basically, open your hearts and your minds to the child." +So, how did the city respond? +Since 2007 every other month the city closes down the busiest streets for traffic and converts it into a playground for children and childhood. +Here was a city telling its child, "You can." +A glimpse of infection in Ahmedabad. +Video: [Unclear] So, the busiest streets closed down. +We have the traffic police and municipal corporation helping us. +It gets taken over by children. +They are skating. They are doing street plays. +They are playing, all free, for all children. +Atul Karwal: aProCh is an organization which has been doing things for kids earlier. +And we plan to extend this to other parts of the city. +Kiran Bir Sethi: And the city will give free time. +And Ahmedabad got the first child-friendly zebra crossing in the world. +Geet Sethi: When a city gives to the children, in the future the children will give back to the city. +KBS: And because of that, Ahmedabad is known as India's first child-friendly city. +So, you're getting the pattern. First 200 children at Riverside. +Then 30,000 children in Ahmedabad, and growing. +It was time now to infect India. +So, on August 15th, again, Independence Day, 2009, empowered with the same process, we empowered 100,000 children to say, "I can." +How? We designed a simple toolkit, converted it into eight languages, and reached 32,000 schools. +We basically gave children a very simple challenge. +We said, take one idea, anything that bothers you, choose one week, and change a billion lives. +And they did. Stories of change poured in from all over India, from Nagaland in the east, to Jhunjhunu in the west, from Sikkim in the north, to Krishnagiri in the south. +Children were designing solutions for a diverse range of problems. +Right from loneliness to filling potholes in the street to alcoholism, and 32 children who stopped 16 child marriages in Rajasthan. +I mean, it was incredible. +Basically again reaffirming that when adults believe in children and say, "You can," then they will. +Infection in India. +This is in Rajasthan, a rural village. +Child: Our parents are illiterate and we want to teach them how to read and write. +KBS: First time, a rally and a street play in a rural school -- unheard of -- to tell their parents why literacy is important. +Look at what their parents says. +Man: This program is wonderful. +We feel so nice that our children can teach us how to read and write. +Woman: I am so happy that my students did this campaign. +In the future, I will never doubt my students' abilities. +See? They have done it. +KBS: An inner city school in Hyderabad. +Girl: 581. This house is 581 ... +We have to start collecting from 555. +KBS: Girls and boys in Hyderabad, going out, pretty difficult, but they did it. +Woman: Even though they are so young, they have done such good work. +First they have cleaned the society, then it will be Hyderabad, and soon India. +Woman: It was a revelation for me. It doesn't strike me that they had so much inside them. +Girl: Thank you, ladies and gentlemen. +For our auction we have some wonderful paintings for you, for a very good cause, the money you give us will be used to buy hearing aids. +Are you ready, ladies and gentlemen? Audience: Yes! +Girl: Are you ready? Audience: Yes! +Girl: Are you ready? Audience: Yes! +KBS: So, the charter of compassion starts right here. +Street plays, auctions, petitions. +I mean, they were changing lives. +It was incredible. +So, how can we still stay immune? +How can we stay immune to that passion, that energy, that excitement? +I know it's obvious, but I have to end with the most powerful symbol of change, Gandhiji. +70 years ago, it took one man to infect an entire nation with the power of "We can." +So, today who is it going to take to spread the infection from 100,000 children to the 200 million children in India? +Last I heard, the preamble still said, "We, the people of India," right? +So, if not us, then who? +If not now, then when? +Like I said, contagious is a good word. +Thank you. +In 2008, Cyclone Nargis devastated Myanmar. +Millions of people were in severe need of help. +The U.N. wanted to rush people and supplies to the area. +But there were no maps, no maps of roads, no maps showing hospitals, no way for help to reach the cyclone victims. +When we look at a map of Los Angeles or London, it is hard to believe that as of 2005, only 15 percent of the world was mapped to a geo-codable level of detail. +The U.N. ran headfirst into a problem that the majority of the world's populous faces: not having detailed maps. +But help was coming. +At Google, 40 volunteers used a new software to map 120,000 kilometers of roads, 3,000 hospitals, logistics and relief points. +And it took them four days. +The new software they used? Google Mapmaker. +Google Mapmaker is a technology that empowers each of us to map what we know locally. +People have used this software to map everything from roads to rivers, from schools to local businesses, and video stores to the corner store. +Maps matter. +Nobel Prize nominee Hernando De Soto recognized that the key to economic liftoff for most developing countries is to tap the vast amounts of uncapitalized land. +For example, a trillion dollars of real estate remains uncapitalized in India alone. +In the last year alone, thousands of users in 170 countries have mapped millions of pieces of information, and created a map of a level of detail never thought viable. +And this was made possible by the power of passionate users everywhere. +Let's look at some of the maps being created by users right now. +So, as we speak, people are mapping the world in these 170 countries. +You can see Bridget in Africa who just mapped a road in Senegal. +And, closer to home, Chalua, an N.G. road in Bangalore. +This is the result of computational geometry, gesture recognition, and machine learning. +This is a victory of thousands of users, in hundreds of cities, one user, one edit at a time. +This is an invitation to the 70 percent of our unmapped planet. +Welcome to the new world. +I am going to be talking about secrets. +Obviously the best way to divulge a secret is to tell someone to not say anything about it. +Secrets. I'm using PowerPoint this year just because, you know, I'm into the TED thing. +And when you use these things you don't have to go like that. +You just press it. +Oh, man. Um, yes. +Yes. I'm sure! Just change it! +Is Bill Gates here? +Change it! Come on! What? +Ah! Okay. +That's not my slides, but it's okay. +As you can see, these are all maps. +And maps are important devices for transferring information, especially if you have human cognitive ability. +We can see that all formulas are really maps. +Now, as humans, we make maps of places that we seldom even go, which seems a little wasteful of time. +This, of course, is a map of the moon. +There're some very delightful names. +Tranquilacalitis, [unclear]. My favorite is Frigoris. +What are these people thinking? Frigoris? +What the Frigoris you doing? Names are important. +Frigoris? This is the Moon. People could live there one day. +I'll meet you at Frigoris. No. I don't think so. +There we see Mars, again with various names. +And this is all done, by the way, by the International Astronomical Union. +This is an actual group of people that sit around naming planetary objects. +This is from their actual book. +These are some of the names that they have chosen, ladies and gentlemen. +I'll go through a little of them. Bolotnitsa. +That, of course, is the Slavic swamp mermaid. +Now I think the whole concept of a mermaid doesn't really blend into the swamp feel. +"Oh look! Mermaid come out of swamp. Oh boy! +It's time for Bolotnitsa!" +Djabran Fluctus. +If that don't flow off the tongue, what does? +I mean kids are studying this stuff and they've got the word "fluctus" up there. That's wrong. +One dyslexic kid and he could be ruining his life. +"It fluctus up, Mama." +Hikuleo Fluctus. +That's a little more flowing. Hikuleo sounds like a kind of a Leonardo DiCaprio 17 syllable thing. +And that's the Tonga underworld. +And one of my favorites is the Itoki Fluctus, who is the Nicaraguan goddess of insects, stars, and planets. +Now, if you're a goddess of stars and planets wouldn't you relegate insects to somebody else? +"No, no, really, I'm so busy with the stars. +Would you mind taking the insects? Thank you darling. +Oh take the spiders too. I know they're not insects, but I don't care. +Monkeys, chimps, just get rid of the hairy creatures." +Now, we're going to be going to Mars one day. And when we do, it's going to be unfair for the people that are living there to have to live with these ridiculous names. +So, you'll be on Mars, and you're at Hellespointica Depressio which has got to be a really "up" place. +Yeah, I'm at the Depressio, and I want to get over to Amazonis so I plug it into the Mars map, and click the button and there's my directions. +I go to Chrysokeras. +Left to the Thymiamata. +Then to Niliacus Lacus, which is not a bad name. +Niliacus Lacus, try to get the practice, slick-a-tick-a-bacus. +That's a cool name. I will say that. +So, I hold back a little of my venom for these astronomical misnomers. +And then of course Arnon to Thoth. +And of course there will be advertisements. +This is from their rule book, the International Astronomical Union. +And you know they're international because they put it "en Francais" as well. +L'Union Astronomique Internationale, for those of you who don't speak French. +I thought I'd translate for you. +From the rulebook: Nomenclature is a tool. +The first consideration, make it clear, simple and unambiguous. +And I think that Djabran Fluctus, that fits that mode. +That's simple, the goddess of goats, very simple. +Djabran Fluctus. +"Now, Frank is this clear to you, Djabran Fluctus?" +"Yeah, that's the goat goddess right? The Abacazanian? +It's clear to me." +"Listen, I'm going back to the swamp mermaid. Can you call me in a little while?" +Also, from the actual document I highlighted a part I thought may be of interest. +Anyone can suggest changing a name. +So, I look to you, fellow member of the Earth community. +We've got to change this stuff up fast. +So, these are actual names of people that work there. +I did some more investigation. +These are more people working for this group. +And, as you can see, they don't use their first names. +These are people naming planets, and they won't use their first names. +Something is askew here. +Is it because his name is really Jupiter Blunck? +Is that Ganymede Andromeda Burba? +Is that Mars Ya Marov? +I don't know. But it's investigative material, no doubt. +There are some mapping people who do use their names. +Witness please, Eugene Shoemaker, who, diligently, from a young boy decided he wanted to make maps of celestial bodies. +Must have been a very interesting day in the Shoemaker house. +"Mom, I want to make maps." +"That's wonderful Eugene. You could make maps of Toronto." +"No, I want to make maps of planets." +"Yeah, go to your room." +Martians, Venusians, Jovians. +We have names for places where people don't exist. +That seems a little silly to me. +There are no Jovians. +Getting back to my premise, I used stamps, by the way, because you don't have to pay anybody for the rights. +There is obviously Einstein, Niels Bohr, de Fermat's last theorem, and I'm not sure whether that's James Coburn or Richard Harris. +It's definitely one of the two. I'm not really clear which one. +But obviously the point is that numbers are maps. +And within numbers, is there an underlying secret to the universe? +That is the premise of this particular presentation. +By the way, that's a natural picture of Saturn, no adjustments. I mean that's just beautiful. +So beautiful that I will even give up a laugh to explain my love of this particular planet, and the day Saturday, named after it, wonderfully. +So, formulas relate number to form. +That's Euler, his formula was one of the inspirations that lead to the beginning of string theory which is kind of cool, not that funny, but it is cool. +He was also famous for having no body. +Which a lot of you are like, "How did he figure that out?" +He's got no body, no man, just a head floating high. +Here comes Euler. +And that's an icosahedron, which is one of the five sacred solids, very important shapes. +You see the icosahedron again. +The dodecahedron, it's dual. +There is a dodecahedron which I had to do in my room last night. +The five sacred solids, as you can see there. +Which is not to be confused with the five sacred salads. +Blue cheese, ranch, oil and vinegar, thousand islands and house. +I suggest the house. +The reality, now here is something important. +What's important about this is these shapes are duals of each other. +And you can see how the icosahedron withdraws into the dodecahedron and then they just merge into each other. +So, the whole concept of branes in the universe, if the universe is shaped like a dodecahedron this is a very good map of what could possibly be. +And that is, of course, what we are here to talk about. +What a coincidence! +October 9th, in France, Jean-Pierre Luminet said that the universe is probably shaped like a dodecahedron, based on information that they got from this probe. +This would be a normal wave pattern. +But what they're seeing, way out there in the far reaches of the microwave background, is this kind of odd undulation. +It doesn't plug in to what they suspected a flat universe would be. +So, you can kind of get an idea from this extrapolating that back under this huge picture, so we get this idea of what the primal universe looked like. +And judging from this, it looks a little like a cheeseburger. +So, I'm thinking the universe is either a dodecahedron or a cheeseburger. +And for me, that's a win-win. +Everybody goes, I'm happy. +Better really hurry up. +I just threw this in because as important as all of our intellectual abilities are, without heart and without love it's just -- it's all meaningless. +And that, to me, is really beautiful. +Except for that creepy guy in the background. +Getting back to the point of my particular presentation, Kepler, one of my great heroes, who realized that these five solids, which I spoke of earlier, were related somehow to the planets, but he couldn't prove it. It freaked him out. +But it did lead to Newton discovering gravity. +So, maps of things leading to organized understandings of the universe in which we emerge. +Now this is Isaac from a Vietnamese stamp. +I am not suggesting at all that my Vietnamese brothers and sisters could maybe use a little art class here and there. But ... +that's not a good picture. +Not a good picture. Now, my friends in the island of Nevis are a little better. Look at that! That's Isaac Newton. +That guy is rockin'. +What a handsome cat. +Once again, Nicaragua let me down. +And Copernicus looks like Johnny Carson, which is really weird. +I don't get that at all. +Once again, these guys rock it out. +Isaac is kickin' ass. Man, he looks like a rock star. +This is freaky is a major way. +This is Sierra Leone. +They got little babies in there, floating in there. +Man. I don't really need to comment on this. +But I didn't know that Isaac Newton was in the Moody Blues. Did you? +When did this happen? +It's a different kind of course. And they've got five apples? +I mean these guys are extrapolating in realms that are not necessarily valid. +Although five is a good number, of course. +Ecuador, my friend Kepler, as you can see, they call him Juan. +Juan? No! Johannes, not Juan. +It wasn't Carlos Chaplain. It's wrong. +Ren Descartes, of course. Once again these Grenada people, this is like way too sick for anybody's imagination. +He's all murky. There is little kids leaning on his leg, little ghosts flying around. We gotta clean this stuff up fast, ladies and gentlemen. +This is, of course, the Cartesian coordinates. +Once again, that's Sierra Leone. +This is again, indicating how numbers relate to space relate to form, maps of the universe. +Because that's why we're here, really, I think to figure stuff out and to love each other. +Descartes. Before the horse. Now, Monaco took Descartes, and just flipped him around. +Now, Monaco is problematic for me, and I'll show you why. +Here is a map. All they have is a casino on it. +And why Franklin Delano Roosevelt is on their map I don't even want to hazard a guess. +But I'd say he'd been to Hellespointica Depressio recently. +This is the flag of Monaco. Ladies and gentlemen, the flag of Indonesia. Please examine. +Not sure how this came to be, but it's not right. +In Monaco, "No, what are you talking about? +They are so different. +Look, ours is more red, it's longer. +They stole our flag! They stole our flag!" +Bode's law wasn't even his law. It was a guy named Titus. +And the reason I just bring this up because it is a law that doesn't really work. +That's Jude Law and some of his films recently didn't work. +Just a correlation that indicates how things are misinterpreted. +And I wonder if the photographer said, "Okay, Jude, could you touch your tooth? That's good." +Just a tip, if you're being photographed for press pictures, don't touch your teeth. +Prime numbers, Gauss, one of my favorites. +Golden section, I've been obsessed with this thing since before I was born. +I know that scares a lot of you, but that was my purpose entirely. +There we can see Fibonacci numbers related to the Golden Section, because Fibonacci and Golden Section relate to the unfolding of the measured meter of matter, as I refer to it. +If Fibonacci had been on Paxil, that would be the Fibonacci series. +"Ten milligram, 20 milligram." +"Leonardo, dinner's ready, put down those books and take your pills." +"Yes, Mama." +Alright where is this going? That's a good question. +Here is the premise that I began 27 years ago. +If numbers can express the laws of this incredible universe that we live, I reason, through some sort of reverse engineering, we could extrapolate from them some basic structural element of this universe. +And that's what I did. Twenty-seven years ago I started working on this. +And I tried to build a particle accelerator. +And that didn't work out well. +So, then I thought a calculator is a metaphor. +I can just divide numbers, that's like atom smashing. +That's what I did. That's how I found Moleeds. +Moleeds are what I believe the thing that will allow string theory to be proved. +They are the nodes on the string, patterns and relationships, 27, 37. +That was the first chart I came up with. +You can see, even if you don't go for the numbers, the beauty of the symmetry. +The numbers from one to 36, divided into six groups. +Symmetry, pairs. +Every top adds up to 37. +Bottom, all 74. +There is so many intricate relationships that I'm not going to go there now, because you would say, "Hey, go back to the Fluctus part." +Circle of Fifths, acoustic harmony, geometric symmetry. +I knew those two were related. +Once again, the Cartesian kind of cross-over. +So, I said if I'm going to put a circle, see what kind of patterns I get, boom, the Red System. +Look at that. You can't just make this stuff up, ladies and gentlemen. +You can't just go around going, "Oh, I'm going to put some triangles in a circle and they're going to be symmetrical. And they're all going to add up, and it's going to be, oh yeah, I figured that out." +This is beyond anything anybody could just make up. +There is the Orange System. +And you'll see over here, these are multiples of the number 27. +And they recapitulate that shape, even though that's a circle of nine and that's a circle of 36. It's nuts. +That's the Green System. It all folds in half on the Green System, right between 18 and 19. +The Blue System. The Violet. It's all there. +Look at that! I mean you cannot make that stuff up. +That just doesn't fall out of a tree, ladies and gentlemen. +Twenty-seven years of my life! +And I'm presenting it here at TED. Why? +Because this is the place if aliens land, I hope they come here. +"We are going to destroy the Earth. Hmmm ... maybe not." +In this last year I have found these subsequent systems which allow for the mathematic possibilities of the Calabi-Yau manifolds in a way that doesn't necessitate these little hidden dimensions. +Which works mathematically, but it just doesn't seem God-like to me. +It just seems like it's not sexy and elegant, it's hidden. +I don't want hidden, I want to see it. +I found other pairs all have symmetry, even though, unlike the master one, their symmetry is split. +Unbelievable. This is like crazy. +Am I the only one that sees this? +You know, I didn't just draw this in a day, by the way. +You know, try making some charts like this at home. +You gotta be accurate! There's measurement involved, increments. +These are maps, by the way. +Not stamps, but one day. +Okay, I'm getting to the punch. Golden Ratio, it's crazy. +And look at this, built within it is the Golden Ratio. +I start looking at that, and look at them again. +They start looking like planets. +I go to JPL. +I look at the orbits of the planets. +I find 18 examples of it in our solar system. +I never told anybody. This is the first thing. This could be history. +Kepler was right. +Eighteen and 19, the middle of the Moleeds, 0.618 is the golden section. +Multiply them together, 18.618 x 19.618 is 365.247. +Which is .005 different from the number of days in a year. +Hey, you can't make this up. +Thank you very much. +Thank you. +Thank you. +As a magician, I try to create images that make people stop and think. +I also try to challenge myself to do things that doctors say are not possible. +I was buried alive in New York City in a coffin, buried alive in a coffin in April, 1999, for a week. +I lived there with nothing but water. +And it ended up being so much fun that I decided I could pursue doing more of these things. +The next one is I froze myself in a block of ice for three days and three nights in New York City. +That one was way more difficult than I had expected. +The one after that, I stood on top of a hundred-foot pillar for 36 hours. +I began to hallucinate so hard that the buildings that were behind me started to look like big animal heads. +So, next I went to London. +In London I lived in a glass box for 44 days with nothing but water. +It was, for me, one of the most difficult things I'd ever done, but it was also the most beautiful. +There was so many skeptics, especially the press in London, that they started flying cheeseburgers on helicopters around my box to tempt me. +So, I felt very validated when the New England Journal of Medicine actually used the research for science. +My next pursuit was I wanted to see how long I could go without breathing, like how long I could survive with nothing, not even air. +I didn't realize that it would become the most amazing journey of my life. +As a young magician, I was obsessed with Houdini and his underwater challenges. +So, I began, early on, competing against the other kids, seeing how long I could stay underwater while they went up and down to breathe, you know, five times, while I stayed under on one breath. +By the time I was a teenager, I was able to hold my breath for three minutes and 30 seconds. +I would later find out that was Houdini's personal record. +In 1987 I heard of a story about a boy that fell through ice and was trapped under a river. +He was underneath, not breathing for 45 minutes. +When the rescue workers came, they resuscitated him and there was no brain damage. +His core temperature had dropped to 77 degrees. +As a magician, I think everything is possible. +And I think if something is done by one person, it can be done by others. +I started to think, if the boy could survive without breathing for that long, there must be a way that I could do it. +So, I met with a top neurosurgeon. +And I asked him, how long is it possible to go without breathing, like how long could I go without air? +And he said to me that anything over six minutes you have a serious risk of hypoxic brain damage. +So, I took that as a challenge, basically. +My first try, I figured that I could do something similar, and I created a water tank, and I filled it with ice and freezing cold water. +And I stayed inside of that water tank hoping my core temperature would start to drop. +And I was shivering. +In my first attempt to hold my breath, I couldn't even last a minute. +So, I realized that was completely not going to work. +I went to talk to a doctor friend -- and I asked him, "How could I do that?" +"I want to hold my breath for a really long time. How could it be done?" +And he said, "David, you're a magician, create the illusion of not breathing, it will be much easier." +So, he came up with this idea of creating a rebreather, with a CO2 scrubber, which was basically a tube from Home Depot, with a balloon duct-taped to it, that he thought we could put inside of me, and somehow be able to circulate the air and rebreathe with this thing in me. +This is a little hard to watch. +But this is that attempt. +So, that clearly wasn't going to work. +Then I actually started thinking about liquid breathing. +There is a chemical that's called perflubron. +And it's so high in oxygen levels that in theory you could breathe it. +So, I got my hands on that chemical, filled the sink up with it, and stuck my face in the sink and tried to breathe that in, which was really impossible. +It's basically like trying to breathe, as a doctor said, while having an elephant standing on your chest. +So, that idea disappeared. +Then I started thinking, would it be possible to hook up a heart/lung bypass machine and have a surgery where it was a tube going into my artery, and then appear to not breathe while they were oxygenating my blood? +Which was another insane idea, obviously. +Then I thought about the craziest idea of all the ideas: to actually do it. +To actually try to hold my breath past the point that doctors would consider you brain dead. +So, I started researching into pearl divers. +You know, because they go down for four minutes on one breath. +And when I was researching pearl divers, I found the world of free-diving. +It was the most amazing thing that I ever discovered, pretty much. +There is many different aspects to free-diving. +There is depth records, where people go as deep as they can. +And then there is static apnea. +That's holding your breath as long as you can in one place without moving. +That was the one that I studied. +The first thing that I learned is when you're holding your breath, you should never move at all; that wastes energy. +And that depletes oxygen, and it builds up CO2 in your blood. So, I learned never to move. +And I learned how to slow my heart rate down. +I had to remain perfectly still and just relax and think that I wasn't in my body, and just control that. +And then I learned how to purge. +Purging is basically hyperventilating. +You blow in and out -- (Breathing loudly) You do that, you get lightheaded, you get tingling. +And you're really ridding your body of CO2. +So, when you hold your breath, it's infinitely easier. +Then I learned that you have to take a huge breath, and just hold and relax and never let any air out, and just hold and relax through all the pain. +Every morning, this is for months, I would wake up and the first thing that I would do is I would hold my breath for, out of 52 minutes, I would hold my breath for 44 minutes. +So, basically what that means is I would purge, I'd breathe really hard for a minute. +And I would hold, immediately after, for five and a half minutes. +Then I would breathe again for a minute, purging as hard as I can, then immediately after that I would hold again for five and a half minutes. +I would repeat this process eight times in a row. +Out of 52 minutes, you're only breathing for eight minutes. +At the end of that you're completely fried, your brain. +You feel like you're walking around in a daze. +And you have these awful headaches. +Basically, I'm not the best person to talk to when I'm doing that stuff. +I started learning about the world-record holder. +His name is Tom Sietas. +And this guy is perfectly built for holding his breath. +He's six foot four. He's 160 pounds. +And his total lung capacity is twice the size of an average person. +I'm six foot one, and fat. +We'll say big-boned. +I had to drop 50 pounds in three months. +So, everything that I put into my body, I considered as medicine. +Every bit of food was exactly what it was for its nutritional value. +I ate really small controlled portions throughout the day. +And I started to really adapt my body. +[Individual results may vary] The thinner I was, the longer I was able to hold my breath. +And by eating so well and training so hard, my resting heart-rate dropped to 38 beats per minute. +Which is lower than most Olympic athletes. +In four months of training, I was able to hold my breath for over seven minutes. +I wanted to try holding my breath everywhere. +I wanted to try it in the most extreme situations to see if I could slow my heart rate down under duress. +I decided that I was going to break the world record live on prime-time television. +The world record was eight minutes and 58 seconds, held by Tom Sietas, that guy with the whale lungs I told you about. +I assumed that I could put a water tank at Lincoln Center and if I stayed there a week not eating, I would get comfortable in that situation and I would slow my metabolism, which I was sure would help me hold my breath longer than I had been able to do it. +I was completely wrong. +I entered the sphere a week before the scheduled air date. +And I thought everything seemed to be on track. +Two days before my big breath-hold attempt, for the record, the producers of my television special thought that just watching somebody holding their breath, and almost drowning, is too boring for television. +So, I had to add handcuffs, while holding my breath, to escape from. +This was a critical mistake. +Because of the movement, I was wasting oxygen. +And by seven minutes I had gone into these awful convulsions. +By 7:08, I started to black out. +And by seven minutes and 30 seconds, they had to pull my body out and bring me back. +I had failed on every level. +So, naturally, the only way out of the slump that I could think of was, I decided to call Oprah. +I told her that I wanted to up the ante and hold my breath longer than any human being ever had. +This was a different record. +This was a pure O2 static apnea record that Guinness had set the world record at 13 minutes. +So, basically you breathe pure O2 first, oxygenating your body, flushing out CO2, and you are able to hold much longer. +I realized that my real competition was the beaver. +(Laughter ends) In January of '08, Oprah gave me four months to prepare and train. +So, I would sleep in a hypoxic tent every night. +A hypoxic tent is a tent that simulates altitude at 15,000 feet. +So, it's like base camp, Everest. +What that does is, you start building up the red bloodcell count in your body, which helps you carry oxygen better. +Every morning, again, after getting out of that tent, your brain is completely wiped out. +My first attempt on pure O2, I was able to go up to 15 minutes. +So, it was a pretty big success. +The neurosurgeon pulled me out of the water because in his mind, at 15 minutes your brain is done, you're brain dead. +So, he pulled me up, and I was fine. +There was one person there that was definitely not impressed. +It was my ex-girlfriend. +While I was breaking the record underwater for the first time, she was sifting through my Blackberry, checking all my messages. +My brother had a picture of it. It is really -- (Laughter ends) I then announced that I was going to go for Sietas' record, publicly. +And what he did in response, is he went on Regis and Kelly, and broke his old record. +Then his main competitor went out and broke his record. +So, he suddenly pushed the record up to 16 minutes and 32 seconds. +Which was three minutes longer than I had prepared. +It was longer than the record. +I wanted to get the Science Times to document this. +I wanted to get them to do a piece on it. +So, I did what any person seriously pursuing scientific advancement would do. +I walked into the New York Times offices and did card tricks to everybody. +So, I don't know if it was the magic or the lure of the Cayman Islands, but John Tierney flew down and did a piece on the seriousness of breath-holding. +While he was there, I tried to impress him, of course. +And I did a dive down to 160 feet, which is basically the height of a 16 story building, and as I was coming up, I blacked out underwater, which is really dangerous; that's how you drown. +Luckily, Kirk had seen me and he swam over and pulled me up. +So, I started full focus. +I completely trained to get my breath-hold time up for what I needed to do. +But there was no way to prepare for the live television aspect of it, being on Oprah. +But in practice, I would do it face down, floating on the pool. +But for TV they wanted me to be upright so they could see my face, basically. +The other problem was the suit was so buoyant that they had to strap my feet in to keep me from floating up. +So, I had to use my legs to hold my feet into the straps that were loose, which was a real problem for me. +That made me extremely nervous, raising the heart rate. +Then, what they also did was, which we never did before, is there was a heart-rate monitor. +And it was right next to the sphere. +So, every time my heart would beat, I'd hear the beep-beep-beep-beep, you know, the ticking, really loud. +Which was making me more nervous. +And there was no way to slow my heart rate down. +Normally, I would start at 38 beats per minute, and while holding my breath, it would drop to 12 beats per minute, which is pretty unusual. +This time it started at 120 beats, and it never went down. +I spent the first five minutes underwater desperately trying to slow my heart rate down. +I was just sitting there thinking, "I've got to slow this down. I'm going to fail." +And I was getting more nervous. +And the heart rate just kept going up and up, all the way up to 150 beats. +Basically it's the same thing that created my downfall at Lincoln Center. +It was a waste of O2. +When I made it to the halfway mark, at eight minutes, I was 100 percent certain that I was not going to be able to make this. +There was no way for me to do it. +I figured, Oprah had dedicated an hour to doing this breath-hold thing, if I had cracked early, it would be a whole show about how depressed I am. +So, I figured I'm better off just fighting and staying there until I black out, at least then they can pull me out and take care of me and all that. +I kept pushing to 10 minutes. +At 10 minutes you start getting all these really strong tingling sensations in your fingers and toes. +And I knew that that was blood shunting, when the blood rushes away from your extremities to provide oxygen to your vital organs. +At 11 minutes I started feeling throbbing sensations in my legs, and my lips started to feel really strange. +At minute 12 I started to have ringing in my ears, and I started to feel my arm going numb. +And I'm a hypochondriac, and I remember arm numb means heart attack. +So, I started to really get really paranoid. +Then at 13 minutes, maybe because of the hypochondria, I started feeling pains all over my chest. +It was awful. +At 14 minutes, I had these awful contractions, like this urge to breathe. +(Laughter ends) At 15 minutes I was suffering major O2 deprivation to the heart. +And I started having ischemia to the heart. +My heartbeat would go from 120 to 50, to 150, to 40, to 20, to 150 again. +It would skip a beat. +It would start. It would stop. And I felt all this. +And I was sure that I was going to have a heart attack. +So, at 16 minutes what I did is I slid my feet out because I knew that if I did go out, if I did have a heart attack, they'd have to jump into the binding and take my feet out before pulling me up. +I was really nervous. +I let my feet out, and I started floating to the top. +And I didn't take my head out. +But I was just floating there waiting for my heart to stop, just waiting. +They had doctors with the "Pst," you know, sitting there waiting. +And then suddenly I hear screaming. +And I think that there is some weird thing -- that I had died or something had happened. +And then I realized that I had made it to 16:32. +So, with the energy of everybody that was there, I decided to keep pushing. +And I went to 17 minutes and four seconds. +As though that wasn't enough, what I did immediately after is I went to Quest Labs and had them take every blood sample that they could to test for everything and to see where my levels were, so the doctors could use it, once again. +I also didn't want anybody to question it. +I had the world record and I wanted to make sure it was legitimate. +So, I get to New York City the next day, I'm walking out of the Apple store, and this kid walks up to me he's like, "Yo, D!" +I'm like "Yeah?" +He said, "If you really held your breath that long, why'd you come out of the water dry?" +I was like "What?" +And that's my life. So -- As a magician, I try to show things to people that seem impossible. +And I think magic, whether I'm holding my breath or shuffling a deck of cards, is pretty simple. +It's practice, it's training, and it's -- It's practice, it's training and experimenting, while pushing through the pain to be the best that I can be. +And that's what magic is to me, so, thank you. +Right now is the most exciting time to see new Indian art. +Contemporary artists in India are having a conversation with the world like never before. +I thought it might be interesting, even for the many long-time collectors here with us at TED, local collectors, to have an outside view of 10 young Indian artists I wish everyone at TED to know. +The first is Bharti Kher. +The central motif of Bharti's practice is the ready-made store-bought bindi that untold millions of Indian women apply to their foreheads, every day, in an act closely associated with the institution of marriage. +But originally the significance of the bindi is to symbolize the third eye between the spiritual world and the religious world. +Bharti seeks to liberate this everyday cliche, as she calls it, by exploding it into something spectacular. +She also creates life-size fiberglass sculptures, often of animals, which she then completely covers in bindis, often with potent symbolism. +She says she first got started with 10 packets of bindis, and then wondered what she could do with 10 thousand. +Our next artist, Balasubramaniam, really stands at the crossroads of sculpture, painting and installation, working wonders with fiberglass. +Since Bala himself will be speaking at TED I won't spend too much time on him here today, except to say that he really succeeds at making the invisible visible. +Brooklyn-based Chitra Ganesh is known for her digital collages, using Indian comic books called amar chitra kathas as her primary source material. +These comics are a fundamental way that children, especially in the diaspora, learn their religious and mythological folk tales. +I, for one, was steeped in these. +Chitra basically remixes and re-titles these iconic images to tease out some of the sexual and gender politics embedded in these deeply influential comics. +And she uses this vocabulary in her installation work as well. +Jitish Kallat successfully practices across photography, sculpture, painting and installation. +As you can see, he's heavily influenced by graffiti and street art, and his home city of Mumbai is an ever-present element in his work. +He really captures that sense of density and energy which really characterizes modern urban Bombay. +He also creates phantasmagoric sculptures made of bones from cast resin. +Here he envisions the carcass of an autorickshaw he once witnessed burning in a riot. +This next artist, N.S. Harsha, actually has a studio right here in Mysore. +He's putting a contemporary spin on the miniature tradition. +He creates these fine, delicate images which he then repeats on a massive scale. +He uses scale to more and more spectacular effect, whether on the roof of a temple in Singapore, or in his increasingly ambitious installation work, here with 192 functioning sewing machines, fabricating the flags of every member of the United Nations. +builds on her love of comic books and street art to comment on the roles and expectations of modern Indian women. +She too mines the rich source material of amar chitra kathas, but in a very different way than Chitra Ganesh. +In this particular work, she actually strips out the images and leaves the actual text to reveal something previously unseen, and provocative. +Raqib Shaw is Kolkata-born, Kashmir-raised, and London-trained. +He too is reinventing the miniature tradition. +He creates these opulent tableaus inspired by Hieronymus Bosch, but also by the Kashmiri textiles of his youth. +He actually applies metallic industrial paints to his work using porcupine quills to get this rich detailed effect. +I'm kind of cheating with this next artist since Raqs Media Collective are really three artists working together. +Raqs are probably the foremost practitioners of multimedia art in India today, working across photography, video and installation. +They frequently explore themes of globalization and urbanization, and their home of Delhi is a frequent element in their work. +Here, they invite the viewer to analyze a crime looking at evidence and clues embedded in five narratives on these five different screens, in which the city itself may have been the culprit. +This next artist is probably the alpha male of contemporary Indian art, Subodh Gupta. +He was first known for creating giant photo-realistic canvases, paintings of everyday objects, the stainless steel kitchen vessels and tiffin containers known to every Indian. +He celebrates these local and mundane objects globally, and on a grander and grander scale, by incorporating them into ever more colossal sculptures and installations. +And finally number 10, last and certainly not least, Ranjani Shettar, who lives and works here in the state of Karnataka, creates ethereal sculptures and installations that really marry the organic to the industrial, and brings, like Subodh, the local global. +These are actually wires wrapped in muslin and steeped in vegetable dye. +And she arranges them so that the viewer actually has to navigate through the space, and interact with the objects. +And light and shadow are a very important part of her work. +She also explores themes of consumerism, and the environment, such as in this work, where these basket-like objects look organic and woven, and are woven, but with the strips of steel, salvaged from cars that she found in a Bangalore junkyard. +10 artists, six minutes, I know that was a lot to take in. +But I can only hope I've whet your appetite to go out and see and learn more about the amazing things that are happening in art in India today. +Thank you very much for looking and listening. +This is actually a painting that hangs at the Countway Library at Harvard Medical School. +And it shows the first time an organ was ever transplanted. +In the front, you see, actually, Joe Murray getting the patient ready for the transplant, while in the back room you see Hartwell Harrison, the Chief of Urology at Harvard, actually harvesting the kidney. +The kidney was indeed the first organ ever to be transplanted to the human. +That was back in 1954, 55 years ago. +Yet we're still dealing with a lot of the same challenges as many decades ago. +Certainly many advances, many lives saved. +But we have a major shortage of organs. +In the last decade the number of patients waiting for a transplant has doubled. +While, at the same time, the actual number of transplants has remained almost entirely flat. +That really has to do with our aging population. +We're just getting older. +Medicine is doing a better job of keeping us alive. +But as we age, our organs tend to fail more. +So, that's a challenge, not just for organs but also for tissues. +Trying to replace pancreas, trying to replace nerves that can help us with Parkinson's. +These are major issues. +This is actually a very stunning statistic. +Every 30 seconds a patient dies from diseases that could be treated with tissue regeneration or replacement. +So, what can we do about it? +We've talked about stem cells tonight. +That's a way to do it. +But still ways to go to get stem cells into patients, in terms of actual therapies for organs. +Wouldn't it be great if our bodies could regenerate? +Wouldn't it be great if we could actually harness the power of our bodies, to actually heal ourselves? +It's not really that foreign of a concept, actually; it happens on the Earth every day. +This is actually a picture of a salamander. +Salamanders have this amazing capacity to regenerate. +You see here a little video. +This is actually a limb injury in this salamander. +And this is actually real photography, timed photography, showing how that limb regenerates in a period of days. +You see the scar form. +And that scar actually grows out a new limb. +So, salamanders can do it. +Why can't we? Why can't humans regenerate? +Actually, we can regenerate. +Your body has many organs and every single organ in your body has a cell population that's ready to take over at the time of injury. It happens every day. +As you age, as you get older. +Your bones regenerate every 10 years. +Your skin regenerates every two weeks. +So, your body is constantly regenerating. +The challenge occurs when there is an injury. +At the time of injury or disease, the body's first reaction is to seal itself off from the rest of the body. +It basically wants to fight off infection, and seal itself, whether it's organs inside your body, or your skin, the first reaction is for scar tissue to move in, to seal itself off from the outside. +So, how can we harness that power? +One of the ways that we do that is actually by using smart biomaterials. +How does this work? Well, on the left side here you see a urethra which was injured. +This is the channel that connects the bladder to the outside of the body. +And you see that it is injured. +We basically found out that you can use these smart biomaterials that you can actually use as a bridge. +If you build that bridge, and you close off from the outside environment, then you can create that bridge, and cells that regenerate in your body, can then cross that bridge, and take that path. +That's exactly what you see here. +It's actually a smart biomaterial that we used, to actually treat this patient. +This was an injured urethra on the left side. +We used that biomaterial in the middle. +And then, six months later on the right-hand side you see this reengineered urethra. +Turns out your body can regenerate, but only for small distances. +The maximum efficient distance for regeneration is only about one centimeter. +So, we can use these smart biomaterials but only for about one centimeter to bridge those gaps. +So, we do regenerate, but for limited distances. +What do we do now, if you have injury for larger organs? +What do we do when we have injuries for structures which are much larger than one centimeter? +Then we can start to use cells. +To the naked eye they look like a piece of your blouse, or your shirt, but actually these materials are fairly complex and they are designed to degrade once inside the body. +It disintegrates a few months later. +It's acting only as a cell delivery vehicle. +It's bringing the cells into the body. It's allowing the cells to regenerate new tissue, and once the tissue is regenerated the scaffold goes away. +And that's what we did for this piece of muscle. +This is actually showing a piece of muscle and how we go through the structures to actually engineer the muscle. +We take the cells, we expand them, we place the cells on the scaffold, and we then place the scaffold back into the patient. +But actually, before placing the scaffold into the patient, we actually exercise it. +We want to make sure that we condition this muscle, so that it knows what to do once we put it into the patient. +That's what you're seeing here. You're seeing this muscle bio-reactor actually exercising the muscle back and forth. +Okay. These are flat structures that we see here, the muscle. +What about other structures? +This is actually an engineered blood vessel. +Very similar to what we just did, but a little bit more complex. +Here we take a scaffold, and we basically -- scaffold can be like a piece of paper here. +And we can then tubularize this scaffold. +And what we do is we, to make a blood vessel, same strategy. +A blood vessel is made up of two different cell types. +We take muscle cells, we paste, or coat the outside with these muscle cells, very much like baking a layer cake, if you will. +You place the muscle cells on the outside. +You place the vascular blood vessel lining cells on the inside. +You now have your fully seeded scaffold. +You're going to place this in an oven-like device. +It has the same conditions as a human body, 37 degrees centigrade, 95 percent oxygen. +You then exercise it, as what you saw on that tape. +And on the right you actually see a carotid artery that was engineered. +This is actually the artery that goes from your neck to your brain. +And this is an X-ray showing you the patent, functional blood vessel. +More complex structures such as blood vessels, urethras, which I showed you, they're definitely more complex because you're introducing two different cell types. +But they are really acting mostly as conduits. +You're allowing fluid or air to go through at steady states. +They are not nearly as complex as hollow organs. +Hollow organs have a much higher degree of complexity, because you're asking these organs to act on demand. +So, the bladder is one such organ. +Same strategy, we take a very small piece of the bladder, less than half the size of a postage stamp. +We then tease the tissue apart into its two individual cell components, muscle, and these bladder specialized cells. +We grow the cells outside the body in large quantities. +It takes about four weeks to grow these cells from the organ. +We then take a scaffold that we shape like a bladder. +We coat the inside with these bladder lining cells. +We coat the outside with these muscle cells. +We place it back into this oven-like device. +From the time you take that piece of tissue, six to eight weeks later you can put the organ right back into the patient. +This actually shows the scaffold. +The material is actually being coated with the cells. +When we did the first clinical trial for these patients we actually created the scaffold specifically for each patient. +We brought patients in, six to eight weeks prior to their scheduled surgery, did X-rays, and we then composed a scaffold specifically for that patient's size pelvic cavity. +For the second phase of the trials we just had different sizes, small, medium, large and extra-large. +It's true. +And I'm sure everyone here wanted an extra-large. Right? +So, bladders are definitely a little bit more complex than the other structures. +But there are other hollow organs that have added complexity to it. +This is actually a heart valve, which we engineered. +And the way you engineer this heart valve is the same strategy. +We take the scaffold, we seed it with cells, and you can now see here, the valve leaflets opening and closing. +We exercise these prior to implantation. +Same strategy. +And then the most complex are the solid organs. +For solid organs, they're more complex because you're using a lot more cells per centimeter. +This is actually a simple solid organ like the ear. +It's now being seeded with cartilage. +That's the oven-like device; once it's coated it gets placed there. +And then a few weeks later we can take out the cartilage scaffold. +This is actually digits that we're engineering. +These are being layered, one layer at a time, first the bone, we fill in the gaps with cartilage. +We then start adding the muscle on top. +And you start layering these solid structures. +Again, fairly more complex organs, but by far, the most complex solid organs are actually the vascularized, highly vascularized, a lot of blood vessel supply, organs such as the heart, the liver, the kidneys. +This is actually an example -- several strategies to engineer solid organs. +This is actually one of the strategies. We use a printer. +And instead of using ink, we use -- you just saw an inkjet cartridge -- we just use cells. +This is actually your typical desktop printer. +It's actually printing this two chamber heart, one layer at a time. +You see the heart coming out there. It takes about 40 minutes to print, and about four to six hours later you see the muscle cells contract. +This technology was developed by Tao Ju, who worked at our institute. +And this is actually still, of course, experimental, not for use in patients. +Another strategy that we have followed is actually to use decellularized organs. +We actually take donor organs, organs that are discarded, and we then can use very mild detergents to take all the cell elements out of these organs. +So, for example on the left panel, top panel, you see a liver. +We actually take the donor liver, we use very mild detergents, and we, by using these mild detergents, we take all the cells out of the liver. +Two weeks later, we basically can lift this organ up, it feels like a liver, we can hold it like a liver, it looks like a liver, but it has no cells. +All we are left with is the skeleton, if you will, of the liver, all made up of collagen, a material that's in our bodies, that will not reject. +We can use it from one patient to the next. +We then take this vascular structure and we can prove that we retain the blood vessel supply. +You can see, actually that's a fluoroscopy. +We're actually injecting contrast into the organ. +Now you can see it start. We're injecting the contrast into the organ into this decellularized liver. +And you can see the vascular tree that remains intact. +We then take the cells, the vascular cells, blood vessel cells, we perfuse the vascular tree with the patient's own cells. +We perfuse the outside of the liver with the patient's own liver cells. +And we can then create functional livers. +And that's actually what you're seeing. +This is still experimental. But we are able to actually reproduce the functionality of the liver structure, experimentally. +For the kidney, as I talked to you about the first painting that you saw, the first slide I showed you, 90 percent of the patients on the transplant wait list are waiting for a kidney, 90 percent. +So, another strategy we're following is actually to create wafers that we stack together, like an accordion, if you will. +So, we stack these wafers together, using the kidney cells. +And then you can see these miniature kidneys that we've engineered. +They are actually making urine. +Again, small structures, our challenge is how to make them larger, and that is something we're working on right now at the institute. +One of the things that I wanted to summarize for you then is what is a strategy that we're going for in regenerative medicine. +If at all possible, we really would like to use smart biomaterials that we can just take off the shelf and regenerate your organs. +We are limited with distances right now, but our goal is actually to increase those distances over time. +If we cannot use smart biomaterials, then we'd rather use your very own cells. +Why? Because they will not reject. +We can take cells from you, create the structure, put it right back into you, they will not reject. +And if possible, we'd rather use the cells from your very specific organ. +If you present with a diseased wind pipe we'd like to take cells from your windpipe. +If you present with a diseased pancreas we'd like to take cells from that organ. +Why? Because we'd rather take those cells which already know that those are the cell types you want. +A windpipe cell already knows it's a windpipe cell. +We don't need to teach it to become another cell type. +So, we prefer organ-specific cells. +And today we can obtain cells from most every organ in your body, except for several which we still need stem cells for, like heart, liver, nerve and pancreas. +And for those we still need stem cells. +If we cannot use stem cells from your body then we'd like to use donor stem cells. +And we prefer cells that will not reject and will not form tumors. +And we're working a lot with the stem cells that we published on two years ago, stem cells from the amniotic fluid, and the placenta, which have those properties. +So, at this point, I do want to tell you that some of the major challenges we have. +You know, I just showed you this presentation, everything looks so good, everything works. Actually no, these technologies really are not that easy. +Some of the work you saw today was performed by over 700 researchers at our institute across a 20-year time span. +So, these are very tough technologies. +Once you get the formula right you can replicate it. +But it takes a lot to get there. +So, I always like to show this cartoon. +This is how to stop a runaway stage. +And there you see the stagecoach driver, and he goes, on the top panel, He goes A, B, C, D, E, F. +He finally stops the runaway stage. +And those are usually the basic scientists, The bottom is usually the surgeons. +I'm a surgeon so that's not that funny. +But actually method A is the correct approach. +And what I mean by that is that anytime we've launched one of these technologies to the clinic, we've made absolutely sure that we do everything we can in the laboratory before we ever launch these technologies to patients. +And when we launch these technologies to patients we want to make sure that we ask ourselves a very tough question. +Are you ready to place this in your own loved one, your own child, your own family member, and then we proceed. +Because our main goal, of course, is first, to do no harm. +I'm going to show you now, a very short clip, It's a five second clip of a patient who received one of the engineered organs. +We started implanting some of these structures over 14 years ago. +So, we have patients now walking around with organs, engineered organs, for over 10 years, as well. +I'm going to show a clip of one young lady. +She had a spina bifida defect, a spinal cord abnormality. +She did not have a normal bladder. This is a segment from CNN. +We are just taking five seconds. +This is a segment that Sanjay Gupta actually took care of. +Video: Kaitlyn M: I'm happy. I was always afraid that I was going to have like, an accident or something. +And now I can just go and go out with my friends, go do whatever I want. +Anthony Atala: See, at the end of the day, the promise of regenerative medicine is a single promise. +And that is really very simple, to make our patients better. +Thank you for your attention. +Can geographic information make you healthy? +In 2001 I got hit by a train. +My train was a heart attack. +I found myself in a hospital in an intensive-care ward, recuperating from emergency surgery. +And I suddenly realized something: that I was completely in the dark. +I started asking my questions, "Well, why me?" +"Why now?" "Why here?" +"Could my doctor have warned me?" +So, what I want to do here in the few minutes I have with you is really talk about what is the formula for life and good health. +Genetics, lifestyle and environment. +That's going to sort of contain our risks, and if we manage those risks we're going to live a good life and a good healthy life. +Well, I understand the genetics and lifestyle part. +And you know why I understand that? +Because my physicians constantly ask me questions about this. +Have you ever had to fill out those long, legal-size forms in your doctor's office? +I mean, if you're lucky enough you get to do it more than once, right? +Do it over and over again. And they ask you questions about your lifestyle and your family history, your medication history, your surgical history, your allergy history ... did I forget any history? +But this part of the equation I didn't really get, and I don't think my physicians really get this part of the equation. +What does that mean, my environment? +Well, it can mean a lot of things. +This is my life. These are my life places. +We all have these. +While I'm talking I'd like you to also be thinking about: How many places have you lived? +Just think about that, you know, wander through your life thinking about this. +And you realize that you spend it in a variety of different places. +You spend it at rest and you spend it at work. +And if you're like me, you're in an airplane a good portion of your time traveling some place. +So, it's not really simple when somebody asks you, "Where do you live, where do you work, and where do you spend all your time? +And where do you expose yourselves to risks that maybe perhaps you don't even see?" +Well, when I have done this on myself, I always come to the conclusion that I spend about 75 percent of my time relatively in a small number of places. +And I don't wander far from that place for a majority of my time, even though I'm an extensive global trekker. +Now, I'm going to take you on a little journey here. +I started off in Scranton, Pennsylvania. +I don't know if anybody might hail from northeastern Pennsylvania, but this is where I spent my first 19 years with my little young lungs. +You know, breathing high concentrations here of sulfur dioxide, carbon dioxide and methane gas, in unequal quantities -- 19 years of this. +And if you've been in that part of the country, this is what those piles of burning, smoldering coal waste look like. +So then I decided to leave that part of the world, and I was going to go to the mid-west. +OK, so I ended up in Louisville, Kentucky. +Well, I decided to be neighbors to a place called Rubbertown. +They manufacture plastics. They use large quantities chloroprene and benzene. +Okay, I spent 25 years, in my middle-age lungs now, breathing various concentrations of that. +And on a clear day it always looked like this, so you never saw it. +It was insidious and it was really happening. +Then I decided I had to get really smart, I would take this job in the West Coast. +And I moved to Redlands California. +Very nice, and there my older, senior lungs, as I like to call them, I filled with particulate matter, carbon dioxide and very high doses of ozone. +Okay? Almost like the highest in the nation. +Alright, this is what it looks like on a good day. +If you've been there, you know what I'm talking about. +So, what's wrong with this picture? +Well, the picture is, there is a huge gap here. +The one thing that never happens in my doctor's office: They never ask me about my place history. +No doctor, can I remember, ever asking me, "Where have you lived?" +They haven't asked me what kind of the quality of the drinking water that I put in my mouth or the food that I ingest into my stomach. +They really don't do that. It's missing. +Look at the kind of data that's available. +This data's from all over the world -- countries spend billions of dollars investing in this kind of research. +Now, I've circled the places where I've been. +Well, by design, if I wanted to have a heart attack I'd been in the right places. Right? +So, how many people are in the white? +How many people in the room have spent the majority of their life in the white space? +Anybody? Boy you're lucky. +How many have spent it in the red places? +Oh, not so lucky. +There are thousands of these kinds of maps that are displayed in atlases all over the world. +They give us some sense of what's going to be our train wreck. +But none of that's in my medical record. +And it's not in yours either. +So, here's my friend Paul. +He's a colleague. He allowed his cell phone to be tracked every two hours, 24/7, 365 days out of the year for the last two years, everywhere he went. +And you can see he's been to a few places around the United States. +And this is where he has spent most of his time. +If you really studied that you might have some clues as to what Paul likes to do. +Anybody got any clues? Ski. Right. +We can zoom in here, and we suddenly see that now we see where Paul has really spent a majority of his time. +And all of those black dots are all of the toxic release inventories that are monitored by the EPA. +Did you know that data existed? +For every community in the United States, you could have your own personalized map of that. +So, our cell phones can now build a place history. +This is how Paul did it. He did it with his iPhone. +This might be what we end up with. +This is what the physician would have in front of him and her when we enter that exam room instead of just the pink slip that said I paid at the counter. Right? +This could be my little assessment. +And he looks at that and he says, "Whoa Bill, I suggest that maybe you not decide, just because you're out here in beautiful California, and it's warm every day, that you get out and run at six o'clock at night. +I'd suggest that that's a bad idea Bill, because of this report." +What I'd like to leave you for are two prescriptions. +Okay, number one is, we must teach physicians about the value of geographical information. +It's called geomedicine. There are about a half a dozen programs in the world right now that are focused on this. +And they're in the early stages of development. +These programs need to be supported, and we need to teach our future doctors of the world the importance of some of the information I've shared here with you today. +The second thing we need to do is while we're spending billions and billions of dollars all over the world building an electronic health record, we make sure we put a place history inside that medical record. +It not only will be important for the physician; it will be important for the researchers that now will have huge samples to draw upon. +But it will also be useful for us. +I could have made the decision, if I had this information, not to move to the ozone capital of the United States, couldn't I? I could make that decision. +Or I could negotiate with my employer to make that decision in the best interest of myself and my company. +With that, I would like to just say that Jack Lord said this almost 10 years ago. +Just look at that for a minute. +That was what the conclusion of the Dartmouth Atlas of Healthcare was about, was saying that we can explain the geographic variations that occur in disease, in illness, in wellness, and how our healthcare system actually operates. +That was what he was talking about on that quote. +And I would say he got it right almost a decade ago. +So, I'd very much like to see us begin to really seize this as an opportunity to get this into our medical records. +So with that, I'll leave you that in my particular view of view of health: Geography always matters. +And I believe that geographic information can make both you and me very healthy. Thank you. +I'm going to speak to you today about architectural agency. +What I mean by that is that it's time for architecture to do things again, not just represent things. +This is a construction helmet that I received two years ago at the groundbreaking of the largest project I, and my firm, have ever been involved in. +I was thrilled to get it. I was thrilled to be the only person standing on the stage with a shiny silver helmet. +I thought it represented the importance of the architect. +I stayed thrilled until I got home, threw the helmet onto my bed, fell down onto my bed and realized inside there was an inscription. +Now, I think that this is a great metaphor for the state of architecture and architects today. +We are for decorative purposes only. +Now, who do we have to blame? +We can only blame ourselves. Over the last 50 years the design and construction industry has gotten much more complex and has gotten much more litigious. +And we architects are cowards. +So, as we have faced liability, we have stepped back and back, and unfortunately, where there is liability, guess what there is: power. +So, eventually we have found ourselves in a totally marginalized position, way over here. +Now, what did we do? We're cowards, but we're smart cowards. +And so we redefined this marginalized position as the place of architecture. +And we announced, "Hey, architecture, it's over here, in this autonomous language we're going to seed control of processes." +And we were going to do something that was horrible for the profession. +We actually created an artificial schism between creation and execution, as if you could actually create without knowing how to execute and as if you could actually execute without knowing how to create. +Now, something else happened. +And that's when we began to sell the world that architecture was created by individuals creating genius sketches. +And that the incredible amount of effort to deliver those sketches for years and years and years is not only something to be derided, but we would merely write it off as merely execution. +Now I'd argue that that is as absurd as stating that 30 minutes of copulation is the creative act, and nine months of gestation, and, God forbid, 24 hours of child labor is merely execution. +So, what do we architects need to do? We need to stitch back creation and execution. +And we need to start authoring processes again instead of authoring objects. +Now, if we do this, I believe we can go back 50 years and start reinjecting agency, social engineering, back into architecture. +Now, there are all kinds of things that we architects need to learn how to do, like managing contracts, learning how to write contracts, understanding procurement processes, understanding the time value of money and cost estimation. +But I'm going to reduce this to the beginning of the process, into three very pedantic statements. +The first is: Take core positions with your client. +I know it's shocking, right, that architecture would actually say that. +The second position is: Actually take positions. +Take joint positions with your client. +This is the moment in which you as the architect and your client can begin to inject vision and agency. +But it has to be done together. +And then only after this is done are you allowed to do this, begin to put forward architectural manifestations that manifest those positions. +And both owner and architect alike are empowered to critique those manifestations based on the positions that you've taken. +Now, I believe that one really amazing thing will happen if you do this. +I'd like to call it the lost art of productively losing control. +You do not know what the end result is. +But I promise you, with enough brain power and enough passion and enough commitment, you will arrive at conclusions that will transcend convention, and will simply be something that you could not have initially or individually conceived of. +Alright, now I'm going to reduce all of this to a series of simple dumb sketches. +This is the modus operandi that we have today. +We roll 120-foot Spartan, i.e. our vision, up to our clients' gates of Troy. +And we don't understand why they won't let us in. Right? +Well, how about instead of doing that, we roll up to the gates something they want. +Now this is a little bit of a dangerous metaphor, because of course we all know that inside of the Trojan Horse were a bunch of people with spears. +So, we can change the metaphor. Let's call the Trojan Horse the vessel by which you get through the gate, get through the constraints of a project. +At which point, you and your client have the ability to start considering what you're going to put inside that vessel, the agency, the vision. +And if you do that, you do that responsibly, I believe that instead of delivering Spartans, you can deliver maidens. +And if I could summarize that all up into one single sketch it would be this. +If we are so good at our craft shouldn't we be able to conceive of an architectural manifestation that slides seamlessly through the project's and the client's constraints? +Now, with that in mind, I'm going to show a project that's very dear to many people in this room-- well, maybe not dear, but certainly close to many people in this room. +And that's a project that is just about to open next week, the new home for the Dallas Theater Center, the Dee and Charles Wyly Theatre. +Now, I'm going to present it on the same terms: issue, position and architectural manifestation. +Now, the first issue that we faced was that the Dallas Theater Center had a notoriety that was beyond what you would expect of some place outside of the triumvirate of New York, Chicago and Seattle. +And this had to do with the ambitions of the leadership. +But it also had to do with something rather unusual, and that was this horrible little building that they'd been performing in. +Why was this horrible little building so important to their renown and their innovation? +Because they could do whatever they wanted to to this building. +When you're on Broadway, you cannot tear the proscenium down. +This building, when an artistic director wanted to do a "Cherry Orchard" and wanted people and wanted people to come out of a well on the stage, they brought a backhoe in, and they simply dug the hole. +Well, that's exciting. +And you can start to get the best artistic directors, scenic designers and actors from around the country to come to perform here because you can do things you can't do elsewhere. +So, the first position we took was, "Hey, we as architects had better not show up and do a pristine building that doesn't engender the same freedoms that this old dilapidated shed provided the company." +The second issue is a nuance of the first. +And that's that the company and the building was multiform. +That meant that they were able to perform, as long as they had labor they were able to go between proscenium, thrust, flat floor, arena, traverse, you name it. +All they needed was labor. +Well, something happened. In fact something happened to all institutions around the world. +It started to become hard to raise operational costs, operational budgets. +So, they stopped having inexpensive labor. +And eventually they had to freeze their organization into something called a bastardized thruscenium. +So, the second position we took is that the freedoms that we provided, the ability to move between stage configurations, had better be able to be done without relying on operational costs. Alright? Affordably. +The architectural manifestation was frankly just dumb. +It was to take all the things that are known as front of house and back of house and redefine them as above house and below house. +At first blush you think, "Hey it's crazy, what could you possibly gain?" +We created what we like to call superfly. +Now, superfly, the concept is you take all the freedoms you normally associate with the flytower, and you smear them across flytower and auditorium. +Suddenly the artistic director can move between different stage and audience configurations. +And because that flytower has the ability to pick up all the pristine elements, suddenly the rest of the environment can be provisional. And you can drill, cut, nail, screw paint and replace, with a minimum of cost. +But there was a third advantage that we got by doing this move that was unexpected. +And that was that it freed up the perimeter of the auditorium in a most unusual way. +And that provided the artistic director suddenly the ability to define suspension of disbelief. +So, the building affords artistic directors the freedom to conceive of almost any kind of activity underneath this floating object. +But also to challenge the notion of suspension of disbelief such that in the last act of Macbeth, if he or she wants you to associate the parable that you're seeing with Dallas, with your real life, he or she can do so. +Now, in order to do this we and the clients had to do something fairly remarkable. +In fact it really was the clients who had to do it. +They had to make a decision, based on the positions we took to redefine the budget being from two thirds capital-A architecture and one-third infrastructure, to actually the inverse, two-thirds infrastructure and one-third capital-A architecture. +That's a lot for a client to commit to before you actually see the fruition of the concept. +But based on the positions, they took the educated leap of faith to do so. +And effectively we created what we like to call a theater machine. +Now, that theater machine has ability to move between a whole series of configurations at the push of a button and a few stagehands in a short amount of time. +But it also has the potential to not only provide multiform but multi-processional sequences. +Meaning: The artistic director doesn't necessarily need to go through our lobby. +One of the things that we learned when we visited various theaters is they hate us architects, because they say the first thing they have to do, the first five minutes of any show, is they have to get our architecture out of the mind of their patron. +Well now there are potentials of this building to allow the artistic director to actually move into the building without using our architecture. +So, in fact, there is the building, there is what we call the draw. +You're going down into our lobby, go through the lobby with our own little dangly bits, whether you like them or not, up through the stair that leads you into the auditorium. +But there is also the potential to allow people to move directly from the outside, in this case suggesting kind of Wagnerian entrance, into the interior of the auditorium. +And here is the fruition of that in actuality. +These are the two large pivoting doors that allow people to move directly from the outside, in or from the inside, out, performers or audience alike. +Now, imagine what that could be. I have to say honestly this is not something yet the building can do because it takes too long. +But imagine the freedoms if you could take this further, that in fact you could consider a Wagnerian entry, a first act in thrust, an intermission in Greek, a second act in arena, and you leave through our lobby with dangly bits. +Now that, I would say, is architecture performing. +It is taking the hand of the architect to actually remove the hand of the architect in favor of the hand of the artistic director. +I'll go through the three basic configurations. +This is the flat floor configuration. +You notice that there is no proscenium, the balconies have been raised up, there are no seats, the floor in the auditorium is flat. +The first configuration is easy to understand. +The balconies come down, you see that the orchestra begins to have a rake that's frontal towards the end stage, and the seats come in. +The third configuration is a little harder to understand. +Here you see that the balconies actually have to move out of the way in order to bring a thrust into the space. +And some of the seats need to actually change their direction, and change their rake, to allow that to happen. +I'll do it again so you can see it. +There you see it's the side balconies for the proscenium. +And there it is in the thrust configuration. +In order to do that, again, we needed a client who was willing to take educational risks. +And they told us one important thing: "You shall not beta-test." +Meaning, nothing that we do can we be the first ones to do it. +But they were willing for us to apply technologies from other areas that already had failsafe mechanisms to this building. +And the solution in terms of the balconies was to use something that we all know as a scoreboard lift. +Now, if you were to take a scoreboard and drop it on dirt and whiskey, that would be bad. +If you were not able to take the scoreboard out of the arena and be able to do the Ice Capades the next night, that would also be bad. +And so this technology already had all the failsafe mechanisms and allowed the theater and our client to actually do this with confidence that they would be able to change over their configurations at will. +The second technology that we applied was actually using things that you know from the stage side of an opera house. +In this case what we're doing is we're taking the orchestra floor, lifting it up, spinning it, changing the rake, taking it back to flat floor, changing the rake again. In essence, you can begin to define rakes and viewing angles of people in the orchestra seating, at will. +Here you see the chairs being spun around to go from proscenium or end stage to thrust configuration. +The proscenium, also. As far as we know this is the first building in the world in which the proscenium can entirely fly out of the space. +Here you see the various acoustic baffles as well as the flying mechanisms and catwalks over the auditorium. +And ultimately, up in the flytower, the scene sets that allow the transformations to occur. +As I said, all that was in service of creating a flexible yet affordable configuration. +But we got this other benefit, and that was the ability of the perimeter to suddenly engage Dallas on the outside. +Here you see the building in its current state with blinds closed. This is a trompe l'oeil. +Actually this is not a curtain. These are vinyl blinds that are integrated into the windows themselves, again with failsafe mechanisms that can be lifted such that you can completely demystify, if you chose, the operations of the theater going on behind, rehearsals and so forth. +But you also have the ability to allow the audience to see Dallas, to perform with Dallas as the backdrop of your performance. +Now, if I'll take you through -- this is an early concept sketch -- take you through kind of a mixture of all these things together. +Effectively you would have something like this. +You would be allowed to bring objects or performers into the performing chamber: "Aida," their elephants, you can bring the elephants in. +You would be able to expose the auditorium to Dallas or vice versa, Dallas to the auditorium. +You'd be able to open portions in order to change the procession, allow people to come in and out for an intermission, or to enter for the beginning or the end of a performance. +As I said, all the balconies can move, but they can also be disappeared completely. +The proscenium can fly. +You can bring large objects into the chamber itself. +But most convincingly when we had to confront the idea of changing costs from architecture to infrastructure, is something that is represented by this. +And again, this is not all the flexibilities of the building that is actually built, but at least suggests the ideas. +This building has the ability, in short order, to go back to a flat floor organization such that they can rent it out. +Now, if there is anyone here from American Airlines, please consider doing your Christmas party here. +That allows the company to raise operational budgets without having to compete with other venues with much larger auditoriums. +That's an enormous benefit. +So, the theater company has the ability to do totally hermetic, light-controlled, sound-controlled, great acoustics, great intimacy Shakespeare, but can also do Beckett with the skyline of Dallas sitting behind it. +Here it is in a flat floor configuration. +The theater has been going through its kind of paces. +Here it is in an end stage configuration. +It's actually beautiful. There was a rock band. +We stood outside trying to see if the acoustics worked, and you could see the guys doing this but you couldn't hear them. +It was very unusual. +Here it is in a thrust configuration. +And last but not least, you see this already has the ability to create events in order to generate operational budgets to overcome the building in fact performing to allow the company to overcome their biggest problem. +I'm going to show you a brief time lapse. +As I said, this can be done with only two people, and with a minimum amount of time. +This is the first time that actually the changeover was done and so there is literally thousands of people because everyone was excited and wanted to be a part of it. +So, in a way try to disregard all the thousands of ants running around. +And think of it being done with just a few people. +Again, just a couple people are required. +I promise. +Et voila. +So, just in conclusion, a few shots. +This is the AT&T Performing Arts Center's Dee and Charles Wyly Theater. +There it is at night. +And last but not least the entire AT&T Performing Arts Center. +You can see the Winspear Opera House on the right and the Dee and Charles Wyly Theater on the left. +And to remind you that here is an example in which architecture actually did something. +But we got to that conclusion without understanding where we were going, what we knew were a series of issues that the company and the client was confronted with. +And we took positions with them, and it was through those positions that we began to take architectural manifestations and we arrived at a conclusion that none of us, really none of us could ever have conceived of initially or individually. +Thank you. +Namaste. Good morning. +I'm very happy to be here in India. +And I've been thinking a lot about what I have learned over these last particularly 11 years with V-Day and "The Vagina Monologues," traveling the world, essentially meeting with women and girls across the planet to stop violence against women. +What I want to talk about today is this particular cell, or grouping of cells, that is in each and every one of us. +And I want to call it the girl cell. +And it's in men as well as in women. +I want you to imagine that this particular grouping of cells is central to the evolution of our species and the continuation of the human race. +I want you to imagine that the girl is a chip in the huge macrocosm of collective consciousness. +And it is essential to balance, to wisdom and to actually the future of all of us. +And then I want you to imagine that this girl cell is compassion, and it's empathy, and it's passion itself, and it's vulnerability, and it's openness, and it's intensity, and it's association, and it's relationship, and it is intuitive. +And then let's think how compassion informs wisdom, and that vulnerability is our greatest strength, and that emotions have inherent logic, which lead to radical, appropriate, saving action. +And then let's remember that we've been taught the exact opposite by the powers that be, that compassion clouds your thinking, that it gets in the way, that vulnerability is weakness, that emotions are not to be trusted, and you're not supposed to take things personally, which is one of my favorites. +I think the whole world has essentially been brought up not to be a girl. +How do we bring up boys? What does it mean to be a boy? +To be a boy really means not to be a girl. +To be a man means not to be a girl. +To be a woman means not to be a girl. +To be strong means not to be a girl. +To be a leader means not to be a girl. +I actually think that being a girl is so powerful that we've had to train everyone not to be that. +And I'd also like to say that the irony of course, is that denying girl, suppressing girl, suppressing emotion, refusing feeling has lead thus here. +Where we have now come to live in a world where the most extreme forms of violence, the most horrific poverty, genocide, mass rapes, the destruction of the Earth, is completely out of control. +And because we have suppressed our girl cells and suppressed our girl-ship, we do not feel what is going on. +So, we are not being charged with the adequate response to what is happening. +I want to talk a little bit about the Democratic Republic of Congo. +For me, it was the turning point of my life. +I have spent a lot of time there in the last three years. +I feel up to that point I had seen a lot in the world, a lot of violence. +I essentially lived in the rape mines of the world for the last 12 years. +But the Democratic Republic of Congo really was the turning point in my soul. +I went and I spent time in a place called Bukavu in a hospital called the Panzi Hospital, with a doctor who was as close to a saint as any person I've ever met. +His name is Dr. Denis Mukwege. +In the Congo, for those of you who don't know, there has been a war raging for the last 12 years, a war that has killed nearly six million people. +It is estimated that somewhere between 300,000 and 500,000 women have been raped there. +When I spent my first weeks at Panzi hospital I sat with women who sat and lined up every day to tell me their stories. +Their stories were so horrific, and so mind-blowing and so on the other side of human existence, that to be perfectly honest with you, I was shattered. +And I will tell you that what happened is through that shattering, listening to the stories of eight-year-old girls who had their insides eviscerated, who had guns and bayonets and things shoved inside them so they had holes, literally, inside them where their pee and poop came out of them. +Listening to the story of 80-year-old women who were tied to chains and circled, and where groups of men would come and rape them periodically, all in the name of economic exploitation to steal the minerals so the West can have it and profit from them. +My mind was so shattered. +But what happened for me is that that shattering actually emboldened me in a way I have never been emboldened. +That shattering, that opening of my girl cell, that kind of massive breakthrough of my heart allowed me to become more courageous, and braver, and actually more clever than I had been in the past in my life. +I want to say that I think the powers that be know that empire-building is actually -- that feelings get in the way of empire-building. +Feelings get in the way of the mass acquisition of the Earth, and excavating the Earth, and destroying things. +I remember, for example, when my father, who was very, very violent, used to beat me. +And he would actually say, while he was beating me, "Don't you cry. Don't you dare cry." +Because my crying somehow exposed his brutality to him. +And even in the moment he didn't want to be reminded of what he was doing. +I know that we have systematically annihilated the girl cell. +And I want to say we've annihilated it in men as well as in women. +And I think in some ways we've been much harsher to men in the annihilation of their girl cell. +I see how boys have been brought up, and I see this across the planet: to be tough, to be hardened, to distance themselves from their tenderness, to not cry. +I actually realized once in Kosovo, when I watched a man break down, that bullets are actually hardened tears, that when we don't allow men to have their girl self and have their vulnerability, and have their compassion, and have their hearts, that they become hardened and hurtful and violent. +And I think we have taught men to be secure when they are insecure, to pretend they know things when they don't know things, or why would we be where we are? +To pretend they're not a mess when they are a mess. +And I will tell you a very funny story. +On my way here on the airplane, I was walking up and down the aisle of the plane. +And all these men, literally at least 10 men, were in their little seats watching chick flicks. +And they were all alone, and I thought, "This is the secret life of men." +I've traveled, as I said, to many, many countries, and I've seen, if we do what we do to the girl inside us then obviously it's horrific to think what we do to girls in the world. +And we heard from Sunitha yesterday, and Kavita about what we do to girls. +But I just want to say that I've met girls with knife wounds and cigarette burns, who are literally being treated like ashtrays. +I've seen girls be treated like garbage cans. +I've seen girls who were beaten by their mothers and brothers and fathers and uncles. +I've seen girls starving themselves to death in America in institutions to look like some idealized version of themselves. +I've seen that we cut girls and we control them and we keep them illiterate, or we make them feel bad about being too smart. +We silence them. We make them feel guilty for being smart. We get them to behave, to tone it down, not to be too intense. +We sell them, we kill them as embryos, we enslave them, we rape them. +We are so accustomed to robbing girls of the subject of being the subjects of their lives that we have now actually objectified them and turned them into commodities. +The selling of girls is rampant across the planet. +And in many places they are worth less than goats and cows. +But I also want to talk about the fact that if one in eight people on the planet are girls between the ages of 10 to 24, they are they key, really, in the developing world, as well as in the whole world, to the future of humanity. +And if girls are in trouble because they face systematic disadvantages that keep them where society wants them to be, including lack of access to healthcare, education, healthy foods, labor force participation. +The burden of all the household tasks usually falls on girls and younger siblings, which ensures that they will never overcome these barriers. +The state of girls, the condition of girls, will, in my belief -- and that's the girl inside us and the girl in the world -- determine whether the species survives. +Girls are trained to please. +I want to change the verb. +I want us all to change the verb. +I want the verb to be "educate," or "activate," or "engage," or "confront," or "defy," or "create." +If we teach girls to change the verb we will actually enforce the girl inside us and the girl inside them. +And I have to now share a few stories of girls I've seen across the planet who have engaged their girl, who have taken on their girl in spite of all the circumstances around them. +I know a 14-year-old girl in the Netherlands, for example, who is demanding that she take a boat and go around the entire world by herself. +There is a teenage girl who just recently went out and knew that she needed 56 stars tattooed on the right side of her face. +There is a girl, Julia Butterfly Hill, who lived for a year in a tree because she wanted to protect the wild oaks. +There is a girl who I met 14 years ago in Afghanistan who I have adopted as my daughter because her mother was killed. Her mother was a revolutionary. +And this girl, when she was 17 years old, wore a burqa in Afghanistan, and went into the stadiums and documented the atrocities that were going on towards women, underneath her burqa, with a video. +And that video became the video that went out all over the world after 9/11 to show what was going on in Afghanistan. +I want to talk about Rachel Corrie who was in her teens when she stood in front of an Israeli tank to say, "End the occupation." +And she knew she risked death and she was literally gunned down and rolled over by that tank. +And I want to talk about a girl that I just met recently in Bukavu, who was impregnated by her rapist. +And she was holding her baby. +And I asked her if she loved her baby. +And she looked into her baby's eyes and she said, "Of course I love my baby. How could I not love my baby? +It's my baby and it's full of love." +The capacity for girls to overcome situations and to move on levels, to me, is mind-blowing. +There is a girl named Dorcas, and I just met her in Kenya. +Dorcas is 15 years old, and she was trained in self-defense. +A few months ago she was picked up on the street by three older men. +They kidnapped her, they put her in a car. +And through her self-defense, she grabbed their Adam's apples, she punched them in the eyes and she got herself free and out of the car. +In Kenya, in August, I went to visit one of the V-Day safe houses for girls, a house we opened seven years ago with an amazing woman named Agnes Pareyio. +Agnes was a woman who was cut when she was a little girl, she was female genitally mutilated. +And she made a decision as many women do across this planet, that what was done to her would not be enforced and done to other women and girls. +So, for years Agnes walked through the Rift valley. +She taught girls what a healthy vagina looked like, and what a mutilated vagina looked like. +And in that time she saved many girls. And when we met her we asked her what we could do for her, and she said, "Well, if you got me a Jeep I could get around a lot faster." +So, we got her a Jeep. And then she saved 4,500 girls. +And then we asked her, "Okay, what else do you need?" +And she said, "Well, now, I need a house." +So, seven years ago Agnes built the first V-Day safe house in Narok, Kenya, in the Masai land. +And it was a house where girls could run away, they could save their clitoris, they wouldn't be cut, they could go to school. +And in the years that Agnes has had the house, she has changed the situation there. +She has literally become deputy mayor. +She's changed the rules. +The whole community has bought in to what she's doing. +When we were there she was doing a ritual where she reconciles girls, who have run away, with their families. +And there was a young girl named Jaclyn. +Jaclyn was 14 years old and she was in her Masai family and there's a drought in Kenya. +So cows are dying, and cows are the most valued possession. +And Jaclyn overheard her father talking to an old man about how he was about to sell her for the cows. +And she knew that meant she would be cut. +She knew that meant she wouldn't go to school. +She knew that meant she wouldn't have a future. +She knew she would have to marry that old man, and she was 14. +So, one afternoon, she'd heard about the safe house, Jaclyn left her father's house and she walked for two days, two days through Masai land. +She slept with the hyenas. She hid at night. +She imagined her father killing her on one hand, and Mama Agnes greeting her, with the hope that she would greet her when she got to the house. +And when she got to the house she was greeted. +Agnes took her in, and Agnes loved her, and Agnes supported her for the year. +She went to school and she found her voice, and she found her identity, and she found her heart. +Then, her time was ready when she had to go back to talk to her father about the reconciliation, after a year. +I had the privilege of being in the hut when she was reunited with her father and reconciled. +In that hut, we walked in, and her father and his four wives were sitting there, and her sisters who had just returned because they had all fled when she had fled, and her primary mother, who had been beaten in standing up for her with the elders. +When her father saw her and saw who she had become, in her full girl self, he threw his arms around her and broke down crying. +He said, "You are beautiful. You have grown into a gorgeous woman. +We will not cut you. +And I give you my word, here and now, that we will not cut your sisters either." +And what she said to him was, "You were willing to sell me for four cows, and a calf and some blankets. +But I promise you, now that I will be educated I will always take care of you, and I will come back and I will build you a house. +And I will be in your corner for the rest of your life." +For me, that is the power of girls. +And that is the power of transformation. +I want to close today with a new piece from my book. +And I want to do it tonight for the girl in everybody here. +And I want to do it for Sunitha. +And I want to do it for the girls that Sunitha talked about yesterday, the girls who survive, the girls who can become somebody else. +But I really want to do it for each and every person here, to value the girl in us, to value the part that cries, to value the part that's emotional, to value the part that's vulnerable, to understand that's where the future lies. +This is called "I'm An Emotional Creature." +And it happened because I met a girl in Watts, L.A. +I was asking girls if they like being a girl, and all the girls were like, "No, I hate it. I can't stand it. +It's all bad. My brothers get everything." +And this girl just sat up and went, "I love being a girl. +I'm an emotional creature!" +This is for her: I love being a girl. +I can feel what you're feeling as you're feeling inside the feeling before. +I am an emotional creature. +Things do not come to me as intellectual theories or hard-pressed ideas. +They pulse through my organs and legs and burn up my ears. +Oh, I know when your girlfriend's really pissed off, even though she appears to give you what you want. +I know when a storm is coming. +I can feel the invisible stirrings in the air. +I can tell you he won't call back. It's a vibe I share. +I am an emotional creature. +I love that I do not take things lightly. +Everything is intense to me, the way I walk in the street, the way my momma wakes me up, the way it's unbearable when I lose, the way I hear bad news. +I am an emotional creature. +I am connected to everything and everyone. I was born like that. +Don't you say all negative that it's only only a teenage thing, or it's only because I'm a girl. +These feelings make me better. +They make me present. They make me ready. They make me strong. +I am an emotional creature. +There is a particular way of knowing. +It's like the older women somehow forgot. +I rejoice that it's still in my body. +Oh, I know when the coconut's about to fall. +I know we have pushed the Earth too far. +I know my father isn't coming back, and that no one's prepared for the fire. +I know that lipstick means more than show, and boys are super insecure, and so-called terrorists are made, not born. +I know that one kiss could take away all my decision-making ability. +And you know what? Sometimes it should. +This is not extreme. It's a girl thing, what we would all be if the big door inside us flew open. +Don't tell me not to cry, to calm it down, not to be so extreme, to be reasonable. +I am an emotional creature. +It's how the earth got made, how the wind continues to pollinate. +You don't tell the Atlantic Ocean to behave. +I am an emotional creature. +Why would you want to shut me down or turn me off? +I am your remaining memory. +I can take you back. +Nothing's been diluted. +Nothing's leaked out. +I love, hear me, I love that I can feel the feelings inside you, even if they stop my life, even if they break my heart, even if they take me off track, they make me responsible. +I am an emotional, I am an emotional, incondotional, devotional creature. +And I love, hear me, I love, love, love being a girl. +Can you say it with me? +I love, I love, love, love being a girl! +Thank you very much. +Please close your eyes, and open your hands. +Now imagine what you could place in your hands: an apple, maybe your wallet. +Now open your eyes. +What about a life? +What you see here is a premature baby. +He looks like he's resting peacefully, but in fact he's struggling to stay alive because he can't regulate his own body temperature. +This baby is so tiny he doesn't have enough fat on his body to stay warm. +Sadly, 20 million babies like this are born every year around the world. +Four million of these babies die annually. +But the bigger problem is that the ones who do survive grow up with severe, long-term health problems. +The reason is because in the first month of a baby's life, its only job is to grow. +If it's battling hypothermia, its organs can't develop normally, resulting in a range of health problems from diabetes, to heart disease, to low I.Q. +Imagine: Many of these problems could be prevented if these babies were just kept warm. +That is the primary function of an incubator. +But traditional incubators require electricity and cost up to 20 thousand dollars. +So, you're not going to find them in rural areas of developing countries. +As a result, parents resort to local solutions like tying hot water bottles around their babies' bodies, or placing them under light bulbs like the ones you see here -- methods that are both ineffective and unsafe. +I've seen this firsthand over and over again. +On one of my first trips to India, I met this young woman, Sevitha, who had just given birth to a tiny premature baby, Rani. +She took her baby to the nearest village clinic, and the doctor advised her to take Rani to a city hospital so she could be placed in an incubator. +But that hospital was over four hours away, and Sevitha didn't have the means to get there, so her baby died. +Inspired by this story, and dozens of other similar stories like this, my team and I realized what was needed was a local solution, something that could work without electricity, that was simple enough for a mother or a midwife to use, given that the majority of births still take place in the home. +We needed something that was portable, something that could be sterilized and reused across multiple babies and something ultra-low-cost, compared to the 20,000 dollars that an incubator in the U.S. costs. +So, this is what we came up with. +What you see here looks nothing like an incubator. +It looks like a small sleeping bag for a baby. +You can open it up completely. It's waterproof. +There's no seams inside so you can sterilize it very easily. +But the magic is in this pouch of wax. +This is a phase-change material. +It's a wax-like substance with a melting point of human body temperature, 37 degrees Celsius. +You can melt this simply using hot water and then when it melts it's able to maintain one constant temperature for four to six hours at a time, after which you simply reheat the pouch. +So, you then place it into this little pocket back here, and it creates a warm micro-environment for the baby. +Looks simple, but we've reiterated this dozens of times by going into the field to talk to doctors, moms and clinicians to ensure that this really meets the needs of the local communities. +We plan to launch this product in India in 2010, and the target price point will be 25 dollars, less than 0.1 percent of the cost of a traditional incubator. +Over the next five years we hope to save the lives of almost a million babies. +But the longer-term social impact is a reduction in population growth. +This seems counterintuitive, but turns out that as infant mortality is reduced, population sizes also decrease, because parents don't need to anticipate that their babies are going to die. +We hope that the Embrace infant warmer and other simple innovations like this represent a new trend for the future of technology: simple, localized, affordable solutions that have the potential to make huge social impact. +In designing this we followed a few basic principles. +We really tried to understand the end user, in this case, people like Sevitha. +We tried to understand the root of the problem rather than being biased by what already exists. +And then we thought of the most simple solution we could to address this problem. +In doing this, I believe we can truly bring technology to the masses. +And we can save millions of lives through the simple warmth of an Embrace. +So, imagine you're standing on a street anywhere in America and a Japanese man comes up to you and says, "Excuse me, what is the name of this block?" +And you say, "I'm sorry, well, this is Oak Street, that's Elm Street. +This is 26th, that's 27th." +He says, "OK, but what is the name of that block?" +You say, "Well, blocks don't have names. +Streets have names; blocks are just the unnamed spaces in between streets." +He leaves, a little confused and disappointed. +So, now imagine you're standing on a street, anywhere in Japan, you turn to a person next to you and say, "Excuse me, what is the name of this street?" +They say, "Oh, well that's Block 17 and this is Block 16." +And you say, "OK, but what is the name of this street?" +And they say, "Well, streets don't have names. +Blocks have names. +Just look at Google Maps here. There's Block 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19. +All of these blocks have names, and the streets are just the unnamed spaces in between the blocks. +And you say then, "OK, then how do you know your home address?" +He said, "Well, easy, this is District Eight. +There's Block 17, house number one." +You say, "OK, but walking around the neighborhood, I noticed that the house numbers don't go in order." +He says, "Of course they do. They go in the order in which they were built. +The first house ever built on a block is house number one. +The second house ever built is house number two. +Third is house number three. It's easy. It's obvious." +So, I love that sometimes we need to go to the opposite side of the world to realize assumptions we didn't even know we had, and realize that the opposite of them may also be true. +So, for example, there are doctors in China who believe that it's their job to keep you healthy. +So, any month you are healthy you pay them, and when you're sick you don't have to pay them because they failed at their job. They get rich when you're healthy, not sick. +In most music, we think of the "one" as the downbeat, the beginning of the musical phrase: one, two, three, four. +But in West African music, the "one" is thought of as the end of the phrase, like the period at the end of a sentence. +So, you can hear it not just in the phrasing, but the way they count off their music: two, three, four, one. +And this map is also accurate. +There's a saying that whatever true thing you can say about India, the opposite is also true. +So, let's never forget, whether at TED, or anywhere else, that whatever brilliant ideas you have or hear, that the opposite may also be true. +Domo arigato gozaimashita. +As a researcher, every once in a while you encounter something a little disconcerting. +And this is something that changes your understanding of the world around you, and teaches you that you're very wrong about something that you really believed firmly in. +And these are unfortunate moments, because you go to sleep that night dumber than when you woke up. +So, that's really the goal of my talk, is to A, communicate that moment to you and B, have you leave this session a little dumber than when you entered. +So, I hope I can really accomplish that. +So, this incident that I'm going to describe really began with some diarrhea. +Now, we've known for a long time the cause of diarrhea. +That's why there's a glass of water up there. +For us, it's a problem, the people in this room. +For babies, it's deadly. +They lack nutrients, and diarrhea dehydrates them. +And so, as a result, there is a lot of death, a lot of death. +In India in 1960, there was a 24 percent child mortality rate, lots of people didn't make it. This is incredibly unfortunate. +One of the big reasons this happened was because of diarrhea. +Now, there was a big effort to solve this problem, and there was actually a big solution. +This solution has been called, by some, "potentially the most important medical advance this century." +Now, the solution turned out to be simple. +And what it was was oral rehydration salts. +Many of you have probably used this. +It's brilliant. It's a way to get sodium and glucose together so that when you add it to water the child is able to absorb it even during situations of diarrhea. +Remarkable impact on mortality. +Massive solution to the problem. +Flash forward: 1960, 24 percent child mortality has dropped to 6.5 percent today. +Still a big number, but a big drop. +It looks like the technological problem is solved. +But if you look, even today there are about 400,000 diarrhea-related deaths in India alone. +What's going on here? +Well the easy answer is, we just haven't gotten those salts to those people. +That's actually not true. +If you look in areas where these salts are completely available, the price is low or zero, these deaths still continue abated. +Maybe there's a biological answer. +Maybe these are the deaths that simple rehydration alone doesn't solve. That's not true either. +Many of these deaths were completely preventable, and this what I want to think of as the disconcerting thing, what I want to call "the last mile" problem. +See, we spent a lot of energy, in many domains -- technological, scientific, hard work, creativity, human ingenuity -- to crack important social problems with technology solutions. +That's been the discoveries of the last 2,000 years, that's mankind moving forward. +But in this case we cracked it, but a big part of the problem still remains. +Nine hundred and ninety-nine miles went well, the last mile's proving incredibly stubborn. +Now, that's for oral rehydration therapy. +Maybe this is something unique about diarrhea. +Well, it turns out -- and this is where things get really disconcerting -- it's not unique to diarrhea. +It's not even unique to poor people in India. +Here's an example from a variety of contexts. +I've put a bunch of examples up here. +I'll start with insulin, diabetes medication in the U.S. +OK, the American population. +On Medicaid -- if you're fairly poor you get Medicaid, or if you have health insurance -- insulin is pretty straightforward. +You get it, either in pill form or you get it as an injection; you have to take it every day to maintain your blood sugar levels. +Massive technological advance: took an incredibly deadly disease, made it solvable. +Adherence rates. How many people are taking their insulin every day? +About on average, a typical person is taking it 75 percent of the time. +As a result, 25,000 people a year go blind, hundreds of thousands lose limbs, every year, for something that's solvable. +Here I have a bunch of other examples, all suffer from the last mile problem. +It's not just medicine. +Here's another example from technology: agriculture. We think there's a food problem, so we create new seeds. +We think there's an income problem, so we create new ways of farming that increase income. +Well, look at some old ways, some ways that we'd already cracked. +Intercropping. Intercropping really increases income. +Sometimes in rice we found incredible increases in yield when you mix different varieties of rice side by side. +Some people are doing that, many are not. What's going on? +This is the last mile. +The last mile is, everywhere, problematic. +Alright, what's the problem? +The problem is this little three-pound machine that's behind your eyes and between your ears. +This machine is really strange, and one of the consequences is that people are weird. +They do lots of inconsistent things. +They do lots of inconsistent things. +And the inconsistencies create, fundamentally, this last mile problem. +See, when we were dealing with our biology, bacteria, the genes, the things inside here, the blood? +That's complex, but it's manageable. +When we're dealing with people like this? +The mind is more complex. +That's not as manageable, and that's what we're struggling with. +Let me go back to diarrhea for a second. +Here's a question that was asked in the National Sample Survey, which is a survey asked of many Indian women: "Your child has diarrhea. +Should you increase, maintain or decrease the number of fluids?" +Just so you don't embarrass yourselves, I'll give you the right answer: It's increase. +Now, diarrhea's interesting because it's been around for thousands of years, ever since humankind really lived side by side enough to have really polluted water. +One Roman strategy that was very interesting was that -- and it really gave them a comparative advantage -- they made sure their soldiers didn't drink even remotely muddied waters. +Because if some of your troops get diarrhea they're not that effective on the battlefield. +So, if you think of Roman comparative advantage part of it was the breast shields, the breastplates, but part of it was drinking the right water. +So, here are these women. They've seen their parents have struggled with diarrhea, they've struggled with diarrhea, they've seen lots of deaths. How do they answer this question? +In India, 35 to 50 percent say "Reduce." +Think about what that means for a second. +Thirty-five to 50 percent of women forget oral rehydration therapy, they are increasing -- they are actually making their child more likely to die through their actions. +How is that possible? +Well, one possibility -- I think that's how most people respond to this -- is to say, "That's just stupid." +I don't think that's stupid. +I think there is something very profoundly right in what these women are doing. +And that is, you don't put water into a leaky bucket. +So, think of the mental model that goes behind reducing the intake. +Just doesn't make sense. +Now, the model is intuitively right. +It just doesn't happen to be right about the world. +But it makes a whole lot of sense at some deep level. +And that, to me, is the fundamental challenge of the last mile. +This first challenge is what I refer to as the persuasion challenge. +Convincing people to do something -- take oral rehydration therapy, intercrop, whatever it might be -- is not an act of information: "Let's give them the data, and when they have data they'll do the right thing." +It's more complex than that. +And if you want to understand how it's more complex let me start with something kind of interesting. +I'm going to give you a little math problem, and I want you to just yell out the answer as fast as possible. +A bat and a ball together cost $1.10. +The bat costs a dollar more than the ball. +How much does the ball cost? Quick. +So, somebody out there says, "Five." +A lot of you said, "Ten." +Let's think about 10 for a second. +If the ball costs 10, the bat costs... +this is easy, $1.10. +Yeah. So, together they would cost $1.20. +So, here you all are, ostensibly educated people. +Most of you look smart. +The combination of that produces something that is actually, you got this thing wrong. +How is that possible? Let's go to something else. +I know algebra can be complicated. +So, let's dial this back. That's what? Fifth grade? Fourth grade? +Let's go back to kindergarten. OK? +There's a great show on American television that you have to watch. +It's called "Are You Smarter Than a Fifth Grader?" +I think we've learned the answer to that here. +Let's move to kindergarten. Let's see if we can beat five-year-olds. +Here's what I'm going to do: I'm going to put objects on the screen. +I just want you to name the color of the object. +That's all it is. OK? +I want you to do it fast, and say it out loud with me, and do it quickly. I'll make the first one easy for you. +Ready? Black. +Now the next ones I want you to do quickly and say it out loud. +Ready? Go. +Audience: Red. Green. +Yellow. Blue. Red. +Sendhil Mullainathan: That's pretty good. +Almost out of kindergarten. +What is all this telling us? +You see, what's going on here, and in the bat and ball problem is that you have some intuitive ways of interacting with the world, some models that you use to understand the world. +These models, like the leaky bucket, work well in most situations. +I suspect most of you -- I hope that's true for the rest of you -- actually do pretty well with addition and subtraction in the real world. +I found a problem, a specific problem that actually found an error with that. +Diarrhea, and many last mile problems, are like that. +They are situations where the mental model doesn't match the reality. +Same thing here: You had an intuitive response to this that was very quick. +You read "blue" and you wanted to say "blue," even though you knew your task was red. +Now, I do this stuff because it's fun. +But it's more profound than fun. +I'll give you a good example of how it actually effects persuasion. +BMW is a pretty safe car. +And they are trying to figure out, "Safety is good. +I want to advertise safety. How am I going to advertise safety?" +"I could give people numbers. We do well on crash tests." +But the truth of the matter is, you look at that car, it doesn't look like a Volvo, and it doesn't look like a Hummer. +So, what I want you to think about for a few minutes is: How would you convey safety of the BMW? Okay? +So now, while you're thinking about that let's move to a second task. +The second task is fuel efficiency. Okay? +Here's another puzzle for all of you. +One person walks into a car lot, and they're thinking about buying this Toyota Yaris. +They are saying, "This is 35 miles per gallon. I'm going to do the environmentally right thing, I'm going to buy the Prius, 50 miles per gallon." +Another person walks into the lot, and they're about to buy a Hummer, nine miles per gallon, fully loaded, luxury. +And they say, "You know what? Do I need turbo? Do I need this heavyweight car?" +I'm going to do something good for the environment. +I'm going to take off some of that weight, and I'm going to buy a Hummer that's 11 miles per gallon." +Which one of these people has done more for the environment? +See, you have a mental model. +Fifty versus 35, that's a big move. Eleven versus nine? Come on. +Turns out, go home and do the math, the nine to 11 is a bigger change. That person has saved more gallons. +Why? Because we don't care about miles per gallon, we care about gallons per mile. +Think about how powerful that is if you're trying to encourage fuel efficiency. +Miles per gallon is the way we present things. +If we want to encourage change of behavior, gallons per mile would have far more effectiveness. +Researchers have found these type of anomalies. +Okay, back to BMW. What should they do? +The problem BMW faces is this car looks safe. +This car, which is my Mini, doesn't look that safe. +Here was BMW's brilliant insight, which they embodied into an ad campaign. +They showed a BMW driving down the street. +There's a truck on the right. Boxes fall out of the truck. +The car swerves to avoid it, and therefore doesn't get into an accident. +BWM realizes safety, in people's minds, has two components. +You can be safe because when you're hit, you survive, or you can be safe because you avoid accidents. +Remarkably successful campaign, but notice the power of it. +It harnesses something you already believe. +Now, even if I persuaded you to do something, it's hard sometimes to actually get action as a result. +You all probably intended to wake up, I don't know, 6:30, 7 a.m. +This is a battle we all fight every day, along with trying to get to the gym. +Now, this is an example of that battle, and makes us realize intentions don't always translate into action, and so one of the fundamental challenges is how we would actually do that. OK? +So, let me now talk about the last mile problem. +So far, I've been pretty negative. +I've been trying to show you the oddities of human behavior. +And I think maybe I'm being too negative. +Maybe it's the diarrhea. +Maybe the last mile problem really should be thought of as the last mile opportunity. +Let's go back to diabetes. +This is a typical insulin injection. +Now, carrying this thing around is complicated. +You gotta carry the bottle, you gotta carry the syringe. +It's also painful. +Now, you may think to yourself, "Well, if my eyes depended on it, you know, I would obviously use it every day." +But the pain, the discomfort, you know, paying attention, remembering to put it in your purse when you go on a long trip: These are the day-to-day of life, and they do pose problems. +Here is an innovation, a design innovation. +This is a pen, it's called an insulin pen, preloaded. +The needle is particularly sharp. +You just gotta carry this thing around. +It's much easier to use, much less painful. +Anywhere between five and 10 percent increase in adherence, just as a result of this. +That's what I'm talking about as a last mile opportunity. +You see, we tend to think the problem is solved when we solve the technology problem. +But the human innovation, the human problem still remains, and that's a great frontier that we have left. +This isn't about the biology of people; this is now about the brains, the psychology of people, and innovation needs to continue all the way through the last mile. +Here's another example of this. +This is from a company called Positive Energy. +This is about energy efficiency. +We're spending a lot of time on fuel cells right now. +What this company does is they send a letter to households that say, "Here's your energy use, here's your neighbor's energy use: You're doing well." Smiley face. +"You're doing worse." Frown. +And what they find is just this letter, nothing else, has a two to three percent reduction in electricity use. +And you want to think about the social value of that in terms of carbon offsets, reduced electricity, 900 million dollars per year. +Why? Because for free, this isn't a new technology, this is a letter -- we're getting a Big Bang in behavior. +So, how do we tackle the last mile? +I think this tells us there is an opportunity. +And I think to tackle it, we need to combine psychology, marketing, art, we've seen that. +But you know what we need to combine it with? +We need to combine this with the scientific method. +See what's really puzzling and frustrating about the last mile, to me, is that the first 999 miles are all about science. +No one would say, "Hey, I think this medicine works, go ahead and use it." +We have testing, we go to the lab, we try it again, we have refinement. +But you know what we do on the last mile? +"Oh, this is a good idea. People will like this. Let's put it out there." +The amount of resources we put in are disparate. +We put billions of dollars into fuel-efficient technologies. +How much are we putting into energy behavior change in a credible, systematic, testing way? +Now, I think that we're on the verge of something big. +We're on the verge of a whole new social science. +It's a social science that recognizes -- much like science recognizes the complexity of the body, biology recognizes the complexity of the body -- we'll recognize the complexity of the human mind. +The careful testing, retesting, design, are going to open up vistas of understanding, complexities, difficult things. +And those vistas will both create new science, and fundamental change in the world as we see it, in the next hundred years. +All right. Thank you very much. +Chris Anderson: Sendhil, thank you so much. +So, this whole area is so fascinating. +I mean, it sometimes feels, listening to behavioral economists that they are kind of putting into place academically, what great marketers have sort of intuitively known for a long time. +How much is your field talking to great marketers about their insights into human psychology? +Because they've seen it on the ground. +Sendhil Mullainathan: Yeah, we spend a lot of time talking to marketers, and I think 60 percent of it is exactly what you say, there are insights to be gleaned there. +Forty percent of it is about what marketing is. +Marketing is selling an ad to a firm. +So, in some sense, a lot of marketing is about convincing a CEO, "This is a good ad campaign." +So, there is a little bit of slippage there. +That's just a caveat. That's different from actually having an effective ad campaign. +And one of the new movements in marketing is: How do we actually measure effectiveness? Are we effective? +CA: How you take your insights here and actually get them integrated into working business models on the ground, in Indian villages, for example? +SM: So, the scientific method I alluded to is pretty important. +We work closely with companies that have operational capacity, or nonprofits that have operational capacity. +And then we say, "Well, you want to get this behavior change. +Let's come up with a few ideas, test them, see which is working, go back, synthesize, and try to come up with a thing that works," and then we're able to scale with partners. +It's kind of the model that has worked in other contexts. +If you have biological problems we try and fix it, see if it works, and then work the scale. +CA: Alright Sendhil, thanks so much for coming to TED. Thank you. +When my brother called me in December of 1998, he said, "The news does not look good." +This is him on the screen. +He'd just been diagnosed with ALS, which is a disease that the average lifespan is three years. +It paralyzes you. It starts by killing the motor neurons in your spinal cord. +And you go from being a healthy, robust 29-year-old male to someone that cannot breathe, cannot move, cannot speak. +This has actually been, to me, a gift, because we began a journey to learn a new way of thinking about life. +And even though Steven passed away three years ago we had an amazing journey as a family. +We did not even -- I think adversity is not even the right word. +We looked at this and we said, "We're going to do something with this in an incredibly positive way." +And I want to talk today about one of the things that we decided to do, which was to think about a new way of approaching healthcare. +Because, as we all know here today, it doesn't work very well. +I want to talk about it in the context of a story. +This is the story of my brother. +But it's just a story. And I want to go beyond the story, and go to something more. +"Given my status, what is the best outcome I can hope to achieve, and how do I get there?" +is what we are here to do in medicine, is what everyone should do. +And those questions all have variables to them. +All of our statuses are different. +All of our hopes and dreams, what we want to accomplish, is different, and our paths will be different, they are all stories. +But it's a story until we convert it to data and so what we do, this concept we had, was to take Steven's status, "What is my status?" +and go from this concept of walking, breathing, and then his hands, speak, and ultimately happiness and function. +So, the first set of pathologies, they end up in the stick man on his icon, but the rest of them are really what's important here. +Because Steven, despite the fact that he was paralyzed, as he was in that pool, he could not walk, he could not use his arms -- that's why he had the little floaty things on them, did you see those? -- he was happy. We were at the beach, he was raising his son, and he was productive. +And we took this, and we converted it into data. +But it's not a data point at that one moment in time. +It is a data point of Steven in a context. +Here he is in the pool. But here he is healthy, as a builder: taller, stronger, got all the women, amazing guy. +Here he is walking down the aisle, but he can barely walk now, so it's impaired. +And he could still hold his wife's hand, but he couldn't do buttons on his clothes, can't feed himself. +And here he is, paralyzed completely, unable to breathe and move, over this time journey. +These stories of his life, converted to data. +He renovated my carriage house when he was completely paralyzed, and unable to speak, and unable to breathe, and he won an award for a historic restoration. +So, here's Steven alone, sharing this story in the world. +And this is the insight, the thing that we are excited about, because we have gone away from the community that we are, the fact that we really do love each other and want to care for each other. +We need to give to others to be successful. +So, Steven is sharing this story, but he is not alone. +There are so many other people sharing their stories. +Not stories in words, but stories in data and words. +And we convert that information into this structure, this understanding, this ability to convert those stories into something that is computable, to which we can begin to change the way medicine is done and delivered. +We did this for ALS. We can do this for depression, Parkinson's disease, HIV. +These are not simple, they are not internet scalable; they require thought and processes to find the meaningful information about the disease. +So, this is what it looks like when you go to the website. +And I'm going to show you what Patients Like Me, the company that myself, my youngest brother and a good friend from MIT started. +Here are the actual patients, there are 45,000 of them now, sharing their stories as data. +Here is an M.S. patient. +His name is Mike, and he is uniformly impaired on cognition, vision, walking, sensation. +Those are things that are different for each M.S. patient. +Each of them can have a different characteristic. +You can see fibromyalgia, HIV, ALS, depression. +Look at this HIV patient down here, Zinny. +It's two years of this disease. All of the symptoms are not there. +But he is working to keep his CD4 count high and his viral level low so he can make his life better. +But you can aggregate this and you can discover things about treatments. +Look at this, 2,000 people almost, on Copaxone. +These are patients currently on drugs, sharing data. +I love some of these, physical exercise, prayer. +Anyone want to run a comparative effectiveness study on prayer against something? Let's look at prayer. +What I love about this, just sort of interesting design problems. +These are why people pray. +Here is the schedule of how frequently they -- it's a dose. +So, anyone want to see the 32 patients that pray for 60 minutes a day, and see if they're doing better, they probably are. +Here they are. It's an open network, everybody is sharing. We can see it all. +Or, I want to look at anxiety, because people are praying for anxiety. +And here is data on 15,000 people's current anxiety, right now. +How they treat it, the drugs, the components of it, their side effects, all of it in a rich environment, and you can drill down and see the individuals. +This amazing data allows us to drill down and see what this drug is for -- 1,500 people on this drug, I think. Yes. +I want to talk to the 58 patients down here who are taking four milligrams a day. +And I want to talk to the ones of those that have been doing it for more than two years. +So, you can see the duration. +All open, all available. +I'm going to log in. +And this is my brother's profile. +And this is a new version of our platform we're launching right now. +This is the second generation. It's going to be in Flash. +And you can see here, as this animates over, Steven's actual data against the background of all other patients, against this information. +The blue band is the 50th percentile. Steven is the 75th percentile, that he has non-genetic ALS. +You scroll down in this profile and you can see all of his prescription drugs, but more than that, in the new version, I can look at this interactively. +Wait, poor spinal capacity. +Doesn't this remind you of a great stock program? +Wouldn't it be great if the technology we used to take care of ourselves was as good as the technology we use to make money? +Detrol. In the side effects for his drug, integrated into that, the stem cell transplant that he had, the first in the world, shared openly for anyone who wants to see it. +I love here -- the cyberkinetics implant, which was, again, the only patient's data that was online and available. +You can adjust the time scale. You can adjust the symptoms. +You can look at the interaction between how I treat my ALS. +So, you click down on the ALS tab there. +I'm taking three drugs to manage it. Some of them are experimental. +I can look at my constipation, how to manage it. +I can see magnesium citrate, and the side effects from that drug all integrated in the time in which they're meaningful. +But I want more. +I don't want to just look at this cool device, I want to take this data and make something even better. +I don't even know what a medical record is. +I want to solve a problem. I want an application. +So, can I take this data -- rearrange yourself, put the symptoms in the left, the drugs across the top, tell me everything we know about Steven and everyone else, and what interacts. +Years after he's had these drugs, I learned that everything he did to manage his excess saliva, including some positive side effects that came from other drugs, were making his constipation worse. +And if anyone's ever had severe constipation, and you don't understand how much of an impact that has on your life -- yes, that was a pun. +You're trying to manage these, and this grid is available here, and we want to understand it. +No one's ever had this kind of information. +So, patients have this. We're for patients. +This is all about patient health care, there was no doctors on our network. +This is about the patients. +So, how can we take this and bring them a tool that they can go back and they can engage the medical system? +And we worked hard, and we thought about it and we said, "What's something we can use all the time, that we can use in the medical care system, that everyone will understand?" +So, the patients print it out, because hospitals usually block us because they believe we are a social network. +It's actually the most used feature on the website. +Doctors actually love this sheet, and they're actually really engaged. +So, we went from this story of Steven and his history to data, and then back to paper, where we went back and engaged the medical care system. +And here's another paper. +This is a journal, PNAS -- I think it's the Proceedings of the National Academy of Science of the United States of America. +You've seen multiple of these today, when everyone's bragging about the amazing things they've done. +This is a report about a drug called lithium. +Lithium, that is a drug used to treat bipolar disorder, that a group in Italy found slowed ALS down in 16 patients, and published it. +Now, we'll skip the critiques of the paper. +But the short story is: If you're a patient, you want to be on the blue line. +You don't want to be on the red line, you want to be on the blue line. +Because the blue line is a better line. The red line is way downhill, the blue line is a good line. +So, you know we said -- we looked at this, and what I love also is that people always accuse these Internet sites of promoting bad medicine and having people do things irresponsibly. +So, this is what happened when PNAS published this. +Ten percent of the people in our system took lithium. +Ten percent of the patients started taking lithium based on 16 patients of data in a bad publication. +And they call the Internet irresponsible. +Here's the implication of what happens. +There's this one guy, named Humberto, from Brazil, who unfortunately passed away nine months ago, who said, "Hey, listen. Can you help us answer this question? +Because I don't want to wait for the next trial, it's going to be years. +I want to know now. Can you help us?" +So, we launched some tools, we let them track their blood levels. +We let them share the data and exchange it. +You know, a data network. +And they said, you know, "Jamie, PLM, can you guys tell us whether this works or not?" +And we went around and we talked to people, and they said, "You can't run a clinical trial like this. You know? +You don't have the blinding, you don't have data, it doesn't follow the scientific method. +It's never going to work. You can't do it." +So, I said, "Okay well we can't do that. Then we can do something harder." +I can't say whether lithium works in all ALS patients, but I can say whether it works in Humberto. +And I said, "What if we built a time machine for patients, except instead of going backwards, we go forwards. +Can we find out what's going to happen to you, so that you can maybe change it?" +So, we did. We took all the patients like Humberto, That's the Apple background, we stole that because we didn't have time to build our own. This is a real app by the way. +This is not just graphics. +And you take those data, and we find the patients like him, and we bring their data together. And we bring their histories into it. +And then we say, "Well how do we line them all up?" +So, we line them all up so they go together around the meaningful points, integrated across everything we know about the patient. +Full information, the entire course of their disease. +And that's what is going to happen to Humberto, unless he does something. +And he took lithium, and he went down the line. +And it works almost every time. +Now, the ones that it doesn't work are interesting. +But almost all the time it works. +It's actually scary. It's beautiful. +So, we couldn't run a clinical trial, we couldn't figure it out. +But we could see whether it was going to work for Humberto. +And yeah, all the clinicians in the audience will talk about power and all the standard deviation. We'll do that later. +But here is the answer of the mean of the patients that actually decided to take lithium. +These are all the patients that started lithium. +It's the Intent to Treat Curve. +You can see here, the blue dots on the top, the light ones, those are the people in the study in PNAS that you wanted to be on. And the red ones are the ones, the pink ones on the bottom are the ones you didn't want to be. +And the ones in the middle are all of our patients from the start of lithium at time zero, going forward, and then going backward. +So, you can see we matched them perfectly, perfectly. +Terrifyingly accurate matching. +And going forward, you actually don't want to be a lithium patient this time. +You're actually doing slightly worse -- not significantly, but slightly worse. You don't want to be a lithium patient this time. +But you know, a lot of people dropped out, the trial, there is too much drop out. +Can we do the even harder thing? Can we go to the patients that actually decided to stay on lithium, because they were so convinced they were getting better? +We asked our control algorithm, are those 69 patients -- by the way, you'll notice that's four times the number of patients in the clinical trial -- can we look at those patients and say, "Can we match them with our time machine to the other patients that are just like them, and what happens?" +Even the ones that believed they were getting better matched the controls exactly. Exactly. +Those little lines? That's the power. +We did that one year ahead of the time when the first clinical trial funded by the NIH for millions of dollars failed for futility last week, and announced it. +So, remember I told you about my brother's stem cell transplant. +I never really knew whether it worked. +And I put 100 million cells in his cisterna magna, in his lumbar cord, and filled out the IRBs and did all this work, and I never really knew. +How did I not know? +I mean, I didn't know what was going to happen to him. +I actually asked Tim, who is the quant in our group -- we actually searched for about a year to find someone who could do the sort of math and statistics and modeling in healthcare, couldn't find anybody. So, we went to the finance industry. +And there are these guys who used to model the future of interest rates, and all that kind of stuff. +And some of them were available. So, we hired one. +We hired them, set them up, assisting at lab. +I I.M. him things. That's the way I communicate with him, is like a little guy in a box. I I.M.ed Tim. I said, "Tim can you tell me whether my brother's stem cell transplant worked or not?" +And he sent me this two days ago. +It was that little outliers there. You see that guy that lived a long time? +We have to go talk to him. Because I'd like to know what happened. +Because something went different. +But my brother didn't. My brother went straight down the line. +It only works about 12 months. +It's the first version of the time machine. +First time we ever tried it. We'll try to get it better later but 12 months so far. +And, you know, I look at this, and I get really emotional. +You look at the patients, you can drill in all the controls, you can look at them, you can ask them. +And I found a woman that had -- we found her, she was odd because she had data after she died. +And her husband had come in and entered her last functional scores, because he knew how much she cared. +And I am thankful. +I can't believe that these people, years after my brother had died, helped me answer the question about whether an operation I did, and spent millions of dollars on years ago, worked or not. +I wished it had been there when I'd done it the first time, and I'm really excited that it's here now, because the lab that I founded has some data on a drug that might work, and I'd like to show it. +I'd like to show it in real time, now, and I want to do that for all of the diseases that we can do that for. +I've got to thank the 45,000 people that are doing this social experiment with us. +There is an amazing journey we are going on to become human again, to be part of community again, to share of ourselves, to be vulnerable, and it's very exciting. So, thank you. +The problem that I want to talk with you about is really the problem of: How does one supply healthcare in a world in which cost is everything? +How do you do that? +And the basic paradigm we want to suggest to you, I want to suggest to you, is one in which you say that in order to treat disease you have to first know what you're treating -- that's diagnostics -- and then you have to do something. +So, the program that we're involved in is something which we call Diagnostics for All, or zero-cost diagnostics. +How do you provide medically relevant information at as close as possible to zero cost? How do you do it? +Let me just give you two examples. +The rigors of military medicine are not so dissimilar from the third world -- poor resources, a rigorous environment, a series of problems in lightweight, and things of this kind -- and also not so different from the home healthcare and diagnostic system world. +So, the technology that I want to talk about is for the third world, for the developing world, but it has, I think, much broader application, because information is so important in the healthcare system. +So, you see two examples here. +One is a lab that is actually a fairly high-end laboratory in Africa. +The second is basically an entrepreneur who is set up and doing who-knows-what in a table in a market. +I don't know what kind of healthcare is delivered there. +But it's not really what is probably most efficient. +What is our approach? +And the way in which one typically approaches a problem of lowering cost, starting from the perspective of the United States, is to take our solution, and then to try to cut cost out of it. +No matter how you do that, you're not going to start with a 100,000-dollar instrument and bring it down to no-cost. It isn't going to work. +So, the approach that we took was the other way around. +To ask, "What is the cheapest possible stuff that you could make a diagnostic system out of, and get useful information, add function?" And what we've chosen is paper. +What you see here is a prototypic device. +It's about a centimeter on the side. +It's about the size of a fingernail. +The lines around the edges are a polymer. +It's made of paper and paper, of course, wicks fluid, as you know, paper, cloth -- drop wine on the tablecloth, and the wine wicks all over everything. +Put it on your shirt, it ruins the shirt. +That's what a hydrophilic surface does. +So, in this device the idea is that you drip the bottom end of it in a drop of, in this case, urine. +The fluid wicks its way into those chambers at the top. +The brown color indicates the amount of glucose in the urine, the blue color indicates the amount of protein in the urine. +And the combination of those two is a first order shot at a number of useful things that you want. +So, this is an example of a device made from a simple piece of paper. +Now, how simple can you make the production? +Why do we choose paper? +There's an example of the same thing on a finger, showing you basically what it looks like. +One reason for using paper is that it's everywhere. +We have made these kinds of devices using napkins and toilet paper and wraps, and all kinds of stuff. +So, the production capability is there. +The second is, you can put lots and lots of tests in a very small place. +I'll show you in a moment that the stack of paper there would probably hold something like 100,000 tests, something of that kind. +And then finally, a point that you don't think of so much in developed world medicine: it eliminates sharps. +And what sharps means is needles, things that stick. +If you've taken a sample of someone's blood and the someone might have hepatitis C, you don't want to make a mistake and stick it in you. +It just -- you don't want to do that. +So, how do you dispose of that? It's a problem everywhere. +And here you simply burn it. +So, it's a sort of a practical approach to starting on things. +Now, you say, "If paper is a good idea, other people have surely thought of it." +And the answer is, of course, yes. +Those half of you, roughly, who are women, at some point may have had a pregnancy test. +And the most common of these is in a device that looks like the thing on the left. +It's something called a lateral flow immunoassay. +In that particular test, urine either, containing a hormone called HCG, does or does not flow across a piece of paper. +And there are two bars. One bar indicates that the test is working, and if the second bar shows up, you're pregnant. +This is a terrific kind of test in a binary world, and the nice thing about pregnancy is either you are pregnant or you're not pregnant. +You're not partially pregnant or thinking about being pregnant or something of that sort. +So, it works very well there, but it doesn't work very well when you need more quantitative information. +There are also dipsticks, but if you look at the dipsticks, they're for another kind of urine analysis. +There are an awful lot of colors and things like that. +What do you actually do about that in a difficult circumstance? +So, the approach that we started with is to ask: Is it really practical to make things of this sort? +And that problem is now, in a purely engineering way, solved. +And the procedure that we have is simply to start with paper. +You run it through a new kind of printer called a wax printer. +The wax printer does what looks like printing. +It is printing. You put that on, you warm it a little bit, the wax prints through so it absorbs into the paper, and you end up with the device that you want. +The printers cost 800 bucks now. +They'll make, we estimate that if you were to run them 24 hours a day they'd make about 10 million tests a year. +So, it's a solved problem, that particular problem is solved. +And there is an example of the kind of thing that you see. +That's on a piece of 8 by 12 paper. +That takes about two seconds to make. +And so I regard that as done. +There is a very important issue here, which is that because it's a printer, a color printer, it prints colors. That's what color printers do. +I'll show you in a moment, that's actually quite useful. +Now, the next question that you would like to ask is: What would you like to measure? What would you like to analyze? +And the thing which you'd most like to analyze, we're a fair distance from. +It's what's called "fever of undiagnosed origin." +Someone comes into the clinic, they have a fever, they feel bad. What do they have? +Do they have T.B.? Do they have AIDS? +Do they have a common cold? +The triage problem. That's a hard problem for reasons that I won't go through. +There are an awful lot of things that you'd like to distinguish among. +But then there are a series of things: AIDS, hepatitis, malaria, TB, others and simpler ones, such as guidance of treatment. +Now even that's more complicated than you think. +A friend of mine works in transcultural psychiatry, and he is interested in the question of why people do and don't take their meds. +So, Dapsone, or something like that, you have to take it for a while. +He has a wonderful story of talking to a villager in India and saying, "Have you taken your Dapsone?" "Yes." +"Have you taken it every day?" "Yes." +"Have you taken if for a month?" "Yes." +What the guy actually meant was that he'd fed a 30-day dose of Dapsone to his dog, that morning. +He was telling the truth. Because in a different culture, the dog is a surrogate for you, you know, "today," "this month," "since the rainy season" -- there are lots of opportunities for misunderstanding, and so an issue here is to, in some cases, to figure out how to deal with matters that seem uninteresting, like compliance. +Now, take a look at what a typical test looks like. +Prick a finger, you get some blood, about 50 microliters. +That's about all you're going to get, because you can't use the usual sort of systems. +You can't manipulate it very well, although I'll show something about that in a moment. +So, you take the drop of blood, no further manipulations, you put it on a little device, the device filters out the blood cells, lets the serum go through, and you get a series of colors down in the bottom there. +And the colors indicate "disease" or "normal." +But even that's complicated, because to you, to me, colors might indicate "normal," but, after all, we're all suffering from probably an excess of education. +What you do about something which requires quantitative analysis? +And so the solution that we and many other people are thinking about there, and at this point there is a dramatic flourish, and out comes the universal solution to everything these days, which is a cell phone. In this particular case, a camera phone. +They're everywhere, six billion a month in India. +And the idea is that what one does, is to take the device, you dip it, you develop the color, you take a picture, the picture goes to a central laboratory. +You don't have to send out a doctor, you send out somebody who can just take the sample, and in the clinic either a doctor, or ideally a computer in this case, does the analysis. +Turns out to work actually quite well, particularly when your color printer has printed the color bars that indicate how things work. +So, my view of the health care worker of the future is not a doctor, but is an 18-year-old, otherwise unemployed, who has two things: He has a backpack full of these tests, and a lancet to occasionally take a blood sample, and an AK-47. +And these are the things that get him through his day. +There's another very interesting connection here, and that is that what one wants to do is to pass through useful information over what is generally a pretty awful telephone system. +It turns out there's an enormous amount of information already available on that subject, which is the Mars rover problem. +How do you get back an accurate view of the color on Mars if you have a really terrible bandwidth to do it with? +And the answer is not complicated but it's one which I don't want to go through here, other than to say that the communication systems for doing this are really pretty well understood. +Also, a fact which you may not know is that the compute capability of this thing is not so different from the compute capability of your desktop computer. +This is a fantastic device which is only beginning to be tapped. +I don't know whether the idea of one computer, one child makes any sense. Here's the computer of the future, because this screen is already there and they're ubiquitous. +All right now let me show you just a little bit about advanced devices. +And we'll start by posing a little problem. +What you see here is another centimeter-sized device, and the different colors are different colors of dye. +And you notice something which might strike you as a little bit interesting, which is the yellow seems to disappear, get through the blue, and then get through the red. +How does that happen? How do you make something flow through something? +And, of course the answer is, "You don't." +You make it flow under and over. +But now the question is: How do you make it flow under and over in a piece of paper? +The answer is that what you do, and the details are not terribly important here, is to make something more elaborate: You take several different layers of paper, each one containing its own little fluid system, and you separate them by pieces of, literally, double-sided carpet tape, the stuff you use to stick the carpets onto the floor. +And the fluid will flow from one layer into the next. +It distributes itself, flows through further holes, distributes itself. +And in this particular case we were just interested in the replicability of that. +But that is, in principle, the way you solve the "fever of unexplained origin" problem, because each one of those spots then becomes a test for a particular set of markers of disease, and this will work in due course. +Here is an example of a slightly more complicated device. +There's the chip. +You dip in a corner. The fluid goes into the center. +It distributes itself out into these various wells or holes, and turns color, and all done with paper and carpet tape. +So, I think it's as low-cost as we're likely to be able to come up and make things. +Now, I have one last, two last little stories to tell you, in finishing off this business. +This is one: One of the things that one does occasionally need to do is to separate blood cells from serum. +And the question was, here we do it by taking a sample, we put it in a centrifuge, we spin it, and you get blood cells out. Terrific. +What happens if you don't have an electricity, and a centrifuge, and whatever? +And we thought for a while of how you might do this and the way, in fact, you do it is what's shown here. +You get an eggbeater, which is everywhere, and you saw off a blade, and then you take tubing, and you stick it on that. You put the blood in, you spin it -- somebody sits there and spins it. +It works really, really well. +And we sat down, we did the physics of eggbeaters and self-aligning tubes and all the rest of that kind of thing, sent it off to a journal. +We were very proud of this, particularly the title, which was "Eggbeater as Centrifuge." +And we sent it off, and by return mail it came back. +I called up the editor and I said, "What's going on? How is this possible?" +The editor said, with enormous disdain, "I read this. +And we're not going to publish it, because we only publish science." +And it's an important issue because it means that we have to, as a society, think about what we value. +And if it's just papers and phys. rev. letters, we've got a problem. +Here is another example of something which is -- this is a little spectrophotometer. +It measures the absorption of light in a sample The neat thing about this is, you have light source that flickers on and off at about 1,000 hertz, another light source that detects that light at 1,000 hertz, and so you can run this system in broad daylight. +It performs about equivalently to a system that's in the order of 100,000 dollars. +It costs 50 dollars. We can probably make it for 50 cents, if we put our mind to it. +Why doesn't somebody do it? And the answer is, "How do you make a profit in a capitalist system, doing that?" +Interesting problem. +So, let me finish by saying that we've thought about this as a kind of engineering problem. +And we've asked: What is the scientific unifying idea here? +And we've decided that we should think about this not so much in terms of cost, but in terms of simplicity. +Simplicity is a neat word. And you've got to think about what simplicity means. +I know what it is but I don't actually know what it means. +So, I actually was interested enough in this to put together several groups of people. +And the most recent involved a couple of people at MIT, one of them being an exceptionally bright kid who is one of the very few people I would think of who's an authentic genius. +We all struggled for an entire day to think about simplicity. +And I want to give you the answer of this deep scientific thought. +So, in a sense, you get what you pay for. +Thank you very much. +I'm a cancer doctor, and I walked out of my office and walked by the pharmacy in the hospital three or four years ago, and this was the cover of Fortune magazine sitting in the window of the pharmacy. +And so, as a cancer doctor, you look at this, and you get a little bit downhearted. +And the point of the article was that we have gotten reductionist in our view of biology, in our view of cancer. +For the last 50 years, we have focused on treating the individual gene in understanding cancer, not in controlling cancer. +So, this is an astounding table. +And this is something that sobers us in our field everyday in that, obviously, we've made remarkable impacts on cardiovascular disease, but look at cancer. The death rate in cancer in over 50 years hasn't changed. +We've made small wins in diseases like chronic myelogenous leukemia, where we have a pill that can put 100 percent of people in remission, but in general, we haven't made an impact at all in the war on cancer. +So, what I'm going to tell you today, is a little bit of why I think that's the case, and then go out of my comfort zone and tell you where I think it's going, where a new approach -- that we hope to push forward in terms of treating cancer. +Because this is wrong. +So, what is cancer, first of all? +Well, if one has a mass or an abnormal blood value, you go to a doctor, they stick a needle in. +They way we make the diagnosis today is by pattern recognition: Does it look normal? Does it look abnormal? +So, that pathologist is just like looking at this plastic bottle. +This is a normal cell. This is a cancer cell. +That is the state-of-the-art today in diagnosing cancer. +There's no molecular test, there's no sequencing of genes that was referred to yesterday, there's no fancy looking at the chromosomes. +This is the state-of-the-art and how we do it. +You know, I know very well, as a cancer doctor, I can't treat advanced cancer. +So, as an aside, I firmly believe in the field of trying to identify cancer early. +It is the only way you can start to fight cancer, is by catching it early. +We can prevent most cancers. +You know, the previous talk alluded to preventing heart disease. +We could do the same in cancer. +I co-founded a company called Navigenics, where, if you spit into a tube -- and we can look look at 35 or 40 genetic markers for disease, all of which are delayable in many of the cancers -- you start to identify what you could get, and then we can start to work to prevent them. +Because the problem is, when you have advanced cancer, we can't do that much today about it, as the statistics allude to. +So, the thing about cancer is that it's a disease of the aged. +Why is it a disease of the aged? +Because evolution doesn't care about us after we've had our children. +See, evolution protected us during our childbearing years and then, after age 35 or 40 or 45, it said "It doesn't matter anymore, because they've had their progeny." +So if you look at cancers, it is very rare -- extremely rare -- to have cancer in a child, on the order of thousands of cases a year. +As one gets older? Very, very common. +Why is it hard to treat? +Because it's heterogeneous, and that's the perfect substrate for evolution within the cancer. +It starts to select out for those bad, aggressive cells, what we call clonal selection. +But, if we start to understand that cancer isn't just a molecular defect, it's something more, then we'll get to new ways of treating it, as I'll show you. +So, one of the fundamental problems we have in cancer is that, right now, we describe it by a number of adjectives, symptoms: "I'm tired, I'm bloated, I have pain, etc." +You then have some anatomic descriptions, you get that CT scan: "There's a three centimeter mass in the liver." +You then have some body part descriptions: "It's in the liver, in the breast, in the prostate." +And that's about it. +So, our dictionary for describing cancer is very, very poor. +It's basically symptoms. +It's manifestations of a disease. +What's exciting is that over the last two or three years, the government has spent 400 million dollars, and they've allocated another billion dollars, to what we call the Cancer Genome Atlas Project. +So, it is the idea of sequencing all of the genes in the cancer, and giving us a new lexicon, a new dictionary to describe it. +You know, in the mid-1850's in France, they started to describe cancer by body part. +That hasn't changed in over 150 years. +It is absolutely archaic that we call cancer by prostate, by breast, by muscle. +It makes no sense, if you think about it. +So, obviously, the technology is here today, and, over the next several years, that will change. +You will no longer go to a breast cancer clinic. +You will go to a HER2 amplified clinic, or an EGFR activated clinic, and they will go to some of the pathogenic lesions that were involved in causing this individual cancer. +So, hopefully, we will go from being the art of medicine more to the science of medicine, and be able to do what they do in infectious disease, which is look at that organism, that bacteria, and then say, "This antibiotic makes sense, because you have a particular bacteria that will respond to it." +When one is exposed to H1N1, you take Tamiflu, and you can remarkably decrease the severity of symptoms and prevent many of the manifestations of the disease. +Why? Because we know what you have, and we know how to treat it -- although we can't make vaccine in this country, but that's a different story. +The Cancer Genome Atlas is coming out now. +The first cancer was done, which was brain cancer. +In the next month, the end of December, you'll see ovarian cancer, and then lung cancer will come several months after. +There's also a field of proteomics that I'll talk about in a few minutes, which I think is going to be the next level in terms of understanding and classifying disease. +But remember, I'm not pushing genomics, proteomics, to be a reductionist. +I'm doing it so we can identify what we're up against. +And there's a very important distinction there that we'll get to. +In health care today, we spend most of the dollars -- in terms of treating disease -- most of the dollars in the last two years of a person's life. +We spend very little, if any, dollars in terms of identifying what we're up against. +If you could start to move that, to identify what you're up against, you're going to do things a hell of a lot better. +If we could even take it one step further and prevent disease, we can take it enormously the other direction, and obviously, that's where we need to go, going forward. +So, this is the website of the National Cancer Institute. +And I'm here to tell you, it's wrong. +So, the website of the National Cancer Institute says that cancer is a genetic disease. +The website says, "If you look, there's an individual mutation, and maybe a second, and maybe a third, and that is cancer." +But, as a cancer doc, this is what I see. +This isn't a genetic disease. +So, there you see, it's a liver with colon cancer in it, and you see into the microscope a lymph node where cancer has invaded. +You see a CT scan where cancer is in the liver. +Cancer is an interaction of a cell that no longer is under growth control with the environment. +It's not in the abstract; it's the interaction with the environment. +It's what we call a system. +The goal of me as a cancer doctor is not to understand cancer. +And I think that's been the fundamental problem over the last five decades, is that we have strived to understand cancer. +The goal is to control cancer. +And that is a very different optimization scheme, a very different strategy for all of us. +I got up at the American Association of Cancer Research, one of the big cancer research meetings, with 20,000 people there, and I said, "We've made a mistake. +We've all made a mistake, myself included, by focusing down, by being a reductionist. +We need to take a step back." +And, believe it or not, there were hisses in the audience. +People got upset, but this is the only way we're going to go forward. +You know, I was very fortunate to meet Danny Hillis a few years ago. +We were pushed together, and neither one of us really wanted to meet the other. +I said, "Do I really want to meet a guy from Disney, who designed computers?" +And he was saying: Does he really want to meet another doctor? +But people prevailed on us, and we got together, and it's been transformative in what I do, absolutely transformative. +We have designed, and we have worked on the modeling -- and much of these ideas came from Danny and from his team -- the modeling of cancer in the body as complex system. +And I'll show you some data there where I really think it can make a difference and a new way to approach it. +The key is, when you look at these variables and you look at this data, you have to understand the data inputs. +You know, if I measured your temperature over 30 days, and I asked, "What was the average temperature?" +and it came back at 98.7, I would say, "Great." +But if during one of those days your temperature spiked to 102 for six hours, and you took Tylenol and got better, etc., I would totally miss it. +So, one of the problems, the fundamental problems in medicine is that you and I, and all of us, we go to our doctor once a year. +We have discrete data elements; we don't have a time function on them. +Earlier it was referred to this direct life device. +You know, I've been using it for two and a half months. +It's a staggering device, not because it tells me how many kilocalories I do every day, but because it looks, over 24 hours, what I've done in a day. +And I didn't realize that for three hours I'm sitting at my desk, and I'm not moving at all. +And a lot of the functions in the data that we have as input systems here are really different than we understand them, because we're not measuring them dynamically. +And so, if you think of cancer as a system, there's an input and an output and a state in the middle. +So, the states, are equivalent classes of history, and the cancer patient, the input, is the environment, the diet, the treatment, the genetic mutations. +The output are our symptoms: Do we have pain? Is the cancer growing? Do we feel bloated, etc.? +Most of that state is hidden. +So what we do in our field is we change and input, we give aggressive chemotherapy, and we say, "Did that output get better? Did that pain improve, etc.?" +And so, the problem is that it's not just one system, it's multiple systems on multiple scales. +It's a system of systems. +And so, when you start to look at emergent systems, you can look at a neuron under a microscope. +Well, the bad news is that these robust -- and robust is a key word -- emergent systems are very hard to understand in detail. +The good news is you can manipulate them. +You can try to control them without that fundamental understanding of every component. +One of the most fundamental clinical trials in cancer came out in February in the New England Journal of Medicine, where they took women who were pre-menopausal with breast cancer. +So, about the worst kind of breast cancer you can get. +They had gotten their chemotherapy, and then they randomized them, where half got placebo, and half got a drug called Zoledronic acid that builds bone. +It's used to treat osteoporosis, and they got that twice a year. +They looked and, in these 1,800 women, given twice a year a drug that builds bone, you reduce the recurrence of cancer by 35 percent. +Reduce occurrence of cancer by a drug that doesn't even touch the cancer. +So the notion, you change the soil, the seed doesn't grow as well. +You change that system, and you could have a marked effect on the cancer. +Nobody has ever shown -- and this will be shocking -- nobody has ever shown that most chemotherapy actually touches a cancer cell. +It's never been shown. +There's all these elegant work in the tissue culture dishes, that if you give this cancer drug, you can do this effect to the cell, but the doses in those dishes are nowhere near the doses that happen in the body. +If I give a woman with breast cancer a drug called Taxol every three weeks, which is the standard, about 40 percent of women with metastatic cancer have a great response to that drug. +And a response is 50 percent shrinkage. +Well, remember that's not even an order of magnitude, but that's a different story. +They then recur, I give them that same drug every week. +Another 30 percent will respond. +They then recur, I give them that same drug over 96 hours by continuous infusion, another 20 or 30 percent will respond. +So, you can't tell me it's working by the same mechanism in all three size. +It's not. We have no idea the mechanism. +So the idea that chemotherapy may just be disrupting that complex system, just like building bone disrupted that system and reduced recurrence, chemotherapy may work by that same exact way. +The wild thing about that trial also, was that it reduced new primaries, so new cancers, by 30 percent also. +So, the problem is, yours and mine, all of our systems are changing. +They're dynamic. +I mean, this is a scary slide, not to take an aside, but it looks at obesity in the world. +And I'm sorry if you can't read the numbers, they're kind of small. +But, if you start to look at it, that red, that dark color there, more than 75 percent of the population of those countries are obese. +Look a decade ago, look two decades ago: markedly different. +So, our systems today are dramatically different than our systems a decade or two ago. +So the diseases we have today, which reflect patterns in the system over the last several decades, are going to change dramatically over the next decade or so based on things like this. +So, this picture, although it is beautiful, is a 40-gigabyte picture of the whole proteome. +So this is a drop of blood that has gone through a superconducting magnet, and we're able to get resolution where we can start to see all of the proteins in the body. +We can start to see that system. +Each of the red dots are where a protein has actually been identified. +The power of these magnets, the power of what we can do here, is that we can see an individual neutron with this technology. +So, again, this is stuff we're doing with Danny Hillis and a group called Applied Proteomics, where we can start to see individual neutron differences, and we can start to look at that system like we never have before. +So, instead of a reductionist view, we're taking a step back. +So this is a woman, 46 years old, who had recurrent lung cancer. +It was in her brain, in her lungs, in her liver. +She had gotten Carboplatin Taxol, Carboplatin Taxotere, Gemcitabine, Navelbine: Every drug we have she had gotten, and that disease continued to grow. +She had three kids under the age of 12, and this is her CT scan. +And so what this is, is we're taking a cross-section of her body here, and you can see in the middle there is her heart, and to the side of her heart on the left there is this large tumor that will invade and will kill her, untreated, in a matter of weeks. +She goes on a pill a day that targets a pathway, and again, I'm not sure if this pathway was in the system, in the cancer, but it targeted a pathway, and a month later, pow, that cancer's gone. +Six months later it's still gone. +That cancer recurred, and she passed away three years later from lung cancer, but she got three years from a drug whose symptoms predominately were acne. +That's about it. +So, the problem is that the clinical trial was done, and we were a part of it, and in the fundamental clinical trial -- the pivotal clinical trial we call the Phase Three, we refused to use a placebo. +Would you want your mother, your brother, your sister to get a placebo if they had advanced lung cancer and had weeks to live? +And the answer, obviously, is not. +So, it was done on this group of patients. +Ten percent of people in the trial had this dramatic response that was shown here, and the drug went to the FDA, and the FDA said, "Without a placebo, how do I know patients actually benefited from the drug?" +So the morning the FDA was going to meet, this was the editorial in the Wall Street Journal. +And so, what do you know, that drug was approved. +The amazing thing is another company did the right scientific trial, where they gave half placebo and half the drug. +And we learned something important there. +What's interesting is they did it in South America and Canada, where it's "more ethical to give placebos." +They had to give it also in the U.S. to get approval, so I think there were three U.S. patients in upstate New York who were part of the trial. +But they did that, and what they found is that 70 percent of the non-responders lived much longer and did better than people who got placebo. +So it challenged everything we knew in cancer, is that you don't need to get a response. +You don't need to shrink the disease. +If we slow the disease, we may have more of a benefit on patient survival, patient outcome, how they feel, than if we shrink the disease. +The problem is that, if I'm this doc, and I get your CT scan today and you've got a two centimeter mass in your liver, and you come back to me in three months and it's three centimeters, did that drug help you or not? +How do I know? +Would it have been 10 centimeters, or am I giving you a drug with no benefit and significant cost? +So, it's a fundamental problem. +And, again, that's where these new technologies can come in. +And so, the goal obviously is that you go into your doctor's office -- well, the ultimate goal is that you prevent disease, right? +The ultimate goal is that you prevent any of these things from happening. +That is the most effective, cost-effective, best way we can do things today. +But if one is unfortunate to get a disease, you'll go into your doctor's office, he or she will take a drop of blood, and we will start to know how to treat your disease. +The way we've approached it is the field of proteomics, again, this looking at the system. +It's taking a big picture. +The problem with technologies like this is that if one looks at proteins in the body, there are 11 orders of magnitude difference between the high-abundant and the low-abundant proteins. +So, there's no technology in the world that can span 11 orders of magnitude. +And so, a lot of what has been done with people like Danny Hillis and others is to try to bring in engineering principles, try to bring the software. +We can start to look at different components along this spectrum. +And so, earlier was talked about cross-discipline, about collaboration. +And I think one of the exciting things that is starting to happen now is that people from those fields are coming in. +Yesterday, the National Cancer Institute announced a new program called the Physical Sciences and Oncology, where physicists, mathematicians, are brought in to think about cancer, people who never approached it before. +Danny and I got 16 million dollars, they announced yesterday, to try to attach this problem. +A whole new approach, instead of giving high doses of chemotherapy by different mechanisms, to try to bring technology to get a picture of what's actually happening in the body. +So, just for two seconds, how these technologies work -- because I think it's important to understand it. +What happens is every protein in your body is charged, so the proteins are sprayed in, the magnet spins them around, and then there's a detector at the end. +When it hit that detector is dependent on the mass and the charge. +And so we can accurately -- if the magnet is big enough, and your resolution is high enough -- you can actually detect all of the proteins in the body and start to get an understanding of the individual system. +And so, as a cancer doctor, instead of having paper in my chart, in your chart, and it being this thick, this is what data flow is starting to look like in our offices, where that drop of blood is creating gigabytes of data. +Electronic data elements are describing every aspect of the disease. +And certainly the goal is we can start to learn from every encounter and actually move forward, instead of just having encounter and encounter, without fundamental learning. +So, to conclude, we need to get away from reductionist thinking. +We need to start to think differently and radically. +And so, I implore everyone here: Think differently. Come up with new ideas. +Tell them to me or anyone else in our field, because over the last 59 years, nothing has changed. +We need a radically different approach. +You know, Andy Grove stepped down as chairman of the board at Intel -- and Andy was one of my mentors, tough individual. +When Andy stepped down, he said, "No technology will win. Technology itself will win." +And I'm a firm believer, in the field of medicine and especially cancer, that it's going to be a broad platform of technologies that will help us move forward and hopefully help patients in the near-term. +Thank you very much. +John Hockenberry: It's great to be here with you, Tom. +And I want to start with a question that has just been consuming me since I first became familiar with your work. +In you work there's always this kind of hybrid quality of a natural force in some sort of interplay with creative force. +Are they ever in equilibrium in the way that you see your work? +Tom Shannon: Yeah, the subject matter that I'm looking for, it's usually to solve a question. +I had the question popped into my head: What does the cone that connects the sun and the Earth look like if you could connect the two spheres? +And in proportion, what would the size of the sphere and the length, and what would the taper be to the Earth? +And so I went about and made that sculpture, turning it out of solid bronze. +And I did one that was about 35 feet long. +The sun end was about four inches in diameter, and then it tapered over about 35 feet to about a millimeter at the Earth end. +And so for me, it was really exciting just to see what it looks like if you could step outside and into a larger context, as though you were an astronaut, and see these two things as an object, because they are so intimately bound, and one is meaningless without the other. +JH: Is there a relief in playing with these forces? +And I'm wondering how much of a sense of discovery there is in playing with these forces. +TS: Well, like the magnetically levitated objects -- like that silver one there, that was the result of hundreds of experiments with magnets, trying to find a way to make something float with the least possible connection to the ground. +So I got it down to just one tether to be able to support that. +JH: Now is this electromagnetic here, or are these static? +TS: Those are permanent magnets, yeah. +JH: Because if the power went out, there would just be a big noise. +TS: Yeah. +It's really unsatisfactory having plug-in art. +JH: I agree. +TS: The magnetic works are a combination of gravity and magnetism, so it's a kind of mixture of these ambient forces that influence everything. +The sun has a tremendous field that extends way beyond the planets and the Earth's magnetic field protects us from the sun. +So there's this huge invisible shape structures that magnetism takes in the universe. +But with the pendulum, it allows me to manifest these invisible forces that are holding the magnets up. +My sculptures are normally very simplified. +I try to refine them down to very simple forms. +But the paintings become very complex, because I think the fields that are supporting them, they're billowing, and they're interpenetrating, and they're interference patterns. +JH: And they're non-deterministic. +I mean, you don't know necessarily where you're headed when you begin, even though the forces can be calculated. +So the evolution of this -- I gather this isn't your first pendulum. +TS: No. (JH: No.) TS: The first one I did was in the late 70's, and I just had a simple cone with a spigot at the bottom of it. +I threw it into an orbit, and it only had one color, and when it got to the center, the paint kept running out, so I had to run in there, didn't have any control over the spigot remotely. +So that told me right away: I need a remote control device. +But then I started dreaming of having six colors. +I sort of think about it as the DNA -- these colors, the red, blue, yellow, the primary colors and white and black. +And if you put them together in different combinations -- just like printing in a sense, like how a magazine color is printed -- and put them under certain forces, which is orbiting them or passing them back and forth or drawing with them, these amazing things started appearing. +JH: It looks like we're loaded for bear here. +TS: Yeah, well let's put a couple of canvases. +I'll ask a couple of my sons to set up the canvases here. +I want to just say -- so this is Jack, Nick and Louie. +JH: Thanks guys. +TS: So here are the -- JH: All right, I'll get out of the way here. +TS: I'm just going to throw this into an orbit and see if I can paint everybody's shoes in the front. +JH: Whoa. That is ... +ooh, nice. +TS: So something like this. +I'm doing this as a demo, and it's more playful, but inevitably, all of this can be used. +I can redeem this painting, just continuing on, doing layers upon layers. +And I keep it around for a couple of weeks, and I'm contemplating it, and I'll do another session with it and bring it up to another level, where all of this becomes the background, the depth of it. +JH: That's fantastic. +So the valves at the bottom of those tubes there are like radio-controlled airplane valves. +TS: Yes, they're servos with cams that pinch these rubber tubes. +And they can pinch them very tight and stop it, or you can have them wide open. +And all of the colors come out one central port at the bottom. +You can always be changing colors, put aluminum paint, or I could put anything into this. +It could be tomato sauce, or anything could be dispensed -- sand, powders or anything like that. +JH: So many forces there. +You've got gravity, you've got the centrifugal force, you've got the fluid dynamics. +Each of these beautiful paintings, are they images in and of themselves, or are they records of a physical event called the pendulum approaching the canvas? +TS: Well, this painting here, I wanted to do something very simple, a simple, iconic image of two ripples interfering. +So the one on the right was done first, and then the one on the left was done over it. +And then I left gaps so you could see the one that was done before. +And then when I did the second one, it really disturbed the piece -- these big blue lines crashing through the center of it -- and so it created a kind of tension and an overlap. +There are lines in front of the one on the right, and there are lines behind the one on the left, and so it takes it into different planes. +What it's also about, just the little events, the events of the interpenetration of -- JH: Two stars, or -- TS: Two things that happened -- there's an interference pattern, and then a third thing happens. +There are shapes that come about just by the marriage of two events that are happening, and I'm very interested in that. +Like the occurrence of moire patterns. +Like this green one, this is a painting I did about 10 years ago, but it has some -- see, in the upper third -- there are these moires and interference patterns that are radio kind of imagery. +And that's something that in painting I've never seen done. +I've never seen a representation of a kind of radio interference patterns, which are so ubiquitous and such an important part of our lives. +JH: Is that a literal part of the image, or is my eye making that interference pattern -- is my eye completing that interference pattern? +TS: It is the paint actually, makes it real. +It's really manifested there. +If I throw a very concentric circle, or concentric ellipse, it just dutifully makes these evenly spaced lines, which get closer and closer together, which describes how gravity works. +There's something very appealing about the exactitude of science that I really enjoy. +And I love the shapes that I see in scientific observations and apparatus, especially astronomical forms and the idea of the vastness of it, the scale, is very interesting to me. +My focus in recent years has kind of shifted more toward biology. +Some of these paintings, when you look at them very close, odd things appear that really look like horses or birds or crocodiles, elephants. +There are lots of things that appear. +When you look into it, it's sort of like looking at cloud patterns, but sometimes they're very modeled and highly rendered. +And then there are all these forms that we don't know what they are, but they're equally well-resolved and complex. +So I think, conceivably, those could be predictive. +Because since it has the ability to make forms that look like forms that we're familiar with in biology, it's also making other forms that we're not familiar with. +And maybe it's the kind of forms we'll discover underneath the surface of Mars, where there are probably lakes with fish swimming under the surface. +JH: Oh, let's hope so. Oh, my God, let's. +Oh, please, yes. Oh, I'm so there. +Is that relevant to your work? +TS: As it turns out, this device kind of comes in handy, because I don't have to have the fine motor skills to do, that I can operate slides, which is more of a mental process. +I'm looking at it and making decisions: It needs more red, it needs more blue, it needs a different shape. +And so I make these creative decisions and can execute them in a much, much simpler way. +I mean, I've got the symptoms. +I guess Parkinson's kind of creeps up over the years, but at a certain point you start seeing the symptoms. +In my case, my left hand has a significant tremor and my left leg also. +I'm left-handed, and so I draw. +All my creations really start on small drawings, which I have thousands of, and it's my way of just thinking. +I draw with a simple pencil, and at first, the Parkinson's was really upsetting, because I couldn't get the pencil to stand still. +JH: So you're not a gatekeeper for these forces. +You don't think of yourself as the master of these forces. +You think of yourself as the servant. +TS: Nature is -- well, it's a godsend. +It just has so much in it. +And I think nature wants to express itself in the sense that we are nature, humans are of the universe. +The universe is in our mind, and our minds are in the universe. +And we are expressions of the universe, basically. +As humans, ultimately being part of the universe, we're kind of the spokespeople or the observer part of the constituency of the universe. +And to interface with it, with a device that lets these forces that are everywhere act and show what they can do, giving them pigment and paint just like an artist, it's a good ally. +It's a terrific studio assistant. +JH: Well, I love the idea that somewhere within this idea of fine motion and control with the traditional skills that you have with your hand, some sort of more elemental force gets revealed, and that's the beauty here. +Tom, thank you so much. It's been really, really great. +TS: Thank you, John. +I am going to speak about corruption, but I would like to juxtapose two different things. +One is the large global economy, the large globalized economy, and the other one is the small, and very limited, capacity of our traditional governments and their international institutions to govern, to shape, this economy. +Because there is this asymmetry, which creates, basically, failing governance. +And I think corruption, and the fight against corruption, and the impact of corruption, is probably one of the most interesting ways to illustrate what I mean with this failure of governance. +Let me talk about my own experience. +I used to work as the director of the World Bank office in Nairobi for East Africa. +At that time, I noticed that corruption, that grand corruption, that systematic corruption, was undermining everything we were trying to do. +And therefore, I began to not only try to protect the work of the World Bank, our own projects, our own programs against corruption, but in general, I thought, "We need a system to protect the people in this part of the world from the ravages of corruption." +And as soon as I started this work, I received a memorandum from the World Bank, from the legal department first, in which they said, "You are not allowed to do this. +You are meddling in the internal affairs of our partner countries. +This is forbidden by the charter of the World Bank, so I want you to stop your doings." +In the meantime, I was chairing donor meetings, for instance, in which the various donors, and many of them like to be in Nairobi -- it is true, it is one of the unsafest cities of the world, but they like to be there because the other cities are even less comfortable. +And in these donor meetings, I noticed that many of the worst projects -- which were put forward by our clients, by the governments, by promoters, many of them representing suppliers from the North -- that the worst projects were realized first. +Let me give you an example: a huge power project, 300 million dollars, to be built smack into one of the most vulnerable, and one of the most beautiful, areas of western Kenya. +And we all noticed immediately that this project had no economic benefits: It had no clients, nobody would buy the electricity there, nobody was interested in irrigation projects. +To the contrary, we knew that this project would destroy the environment: It would destroy riparian forests, which were the basis for the survival of nomadic groups, the Samburu and the Turkana in this area. +So everybody knew this is a, not a useless project, this is an absolute damaging, a terrible project -- not to speak about the future indebtedness of the country for these hundreds of millions of dollars, and the siphoning off of the scarce resources of the economy from much more important activities like schools, like hospitals and so on. +And yet, we all rejected this project, none of the donors was willing to have their name connected with it, and it was the first project to be implemented. +The good projects, which we as a donor community would take under our wings, they took years, you know, you had too many studies, and very often they didn't succeed. +Now, these suppliers were our big companies. +They were the actors of this global market, which I mentioned in the beginning. +They were the Siemenses of this world, coming from France, from the UK, from Japan, from Canada, from Germany, and they were systematically driven by systematic, large-scale corruption. +We are not talking about 50,000 dollars here, or 100,000 dollars there, or one million dollars there. +No, we are talking about 10 million, 20 million dollars on the Swiss bank accounts, on the bank accounts of Liechtenstein, of the president's ministers, the high officials in the para-statal sectors. +This was the reality which I saw, and not only one project like that: I saw, I would say, over the years I worked in Africa, I saw hundreds of projects like this. +And so, I became convinced that it is this systematic corruption which is perverting economic policy-making in these countries, which is the main reason for the misery, for the poverty, for the conflicts, for the violence, for the desperation in many of these countries. +Now, why did the World Bank not let me do this work? +I found out afterwards, after I left, under a big fight, the World Bank. +The reason was that the members of the World Bank thought that foreign bribery was okay, including Germany. +In Germany, foreign bribery was allowed. +It was even tax-deductible. +No wonder that most of the most important international operators in Germany, but also in France and the UK and Scandinavia, everywhere, systematically bribed. +Not all of them, but most of them. +And this is the phenomenon which I call failing governance, because when I then came to Germany and started this little NGO here in Berlin, at the Villa Borsig, we were told, "You cannot stop our German exporters from bribing, because we will lose our contracts. +We will lose to the French, we will lose to the Swedes, we'll lose to the Japanese." +And therefore, there was a indeed a prisoner's dilemma, which made it very difficult for an individual company, an individual exporting country to say, "We are not going to continue this deadly, disastrous habit of large companies to bribe." +So this is what I mean with a failing governance structure, because even the powerful government, which we have in Germany, comparatively, was not able to say, "We will not allow our companies to bribe abroad." +They needed help, and the large companies themselves have this dilemma. +Many of them didn't want to bribe. +Many of the German companies, for instance, believe that they are really producing a high-quality product at a good price, so they are very competitive. +They are not as good at bribing as many of their international competitors are, but they were not allowed to show their strengths, because the world was eaten up by grand corruption. +And this is why I'm telling you this: Civil society rose to the occasion. +We had this small NGO, Transparency International. +In 1997, a convention, under the auspices of the OECD, which obliged everybody to change their laws and criminalize foreign bribery. +Well, thank you. I mean, it's interesting, in doing this, we had to sit together with the companies. +We had here in Berlin, at the Aspen Institute on the Wannsee, we had sessions with about 20 captains of industry, and we discussed with them what to do about international bribery. +In the first session -- we had three sessions over the course of two years. +And President von Weizscker, by the way, chaired one of the sessions, the first one, to take the fear away from the entrepreneurs, who were not used to deal with non-governmental organizations. +And in the first session, they all said, "This is not bribery, what we are doing." This is customary there. +This is what these other cultures demand. +They even applaud it. +In fact, [unclear] still says this today. +And so there are still a lot of people who are not convinced that you have to stop bribing. +But in the second session, they admitted already that they would never do this, what they are doing in these other countries, here in Germany, or in the U.K., and so on. +Cabinet ministers would admit this. +And in the final session, at the Aspen Institute, we had them all sign an open letter to the Kohl government, at the time, requesting that they participate in the OECD convention. +And this is, in my opinion, an example of soft power, because we were able to convince them that they had to go with us. +We had a longer-term time perspective. +We had a broader, geographically much wider, constituency we were trying to defend. +And that's why the law has changed. +That's why Siemens is now in the trouble they are in and that's why MIN is in the trouble they are in. +In some other countries, the OECD convention is not yet properly enforced. +And, again, civil societies breathing down the neck of the establishment. +This case, they are not prosecuting in the UK. +Why? Because they consider this as contrary to the security interest of the people of Great Britain. +Civil society is pushing, civil society is trying to get a solution to this problem, also in the U.K., and also in Japan, which is not properly enforcing, and so on. +In Germany, we are pushing the ratification of the UN convention, which is a subsequent convention. +We are, Germany, is not ratifying. +Why? Because it would make it necessary to criminalize the corruption of deputies. +In Germany, we have a system where you are not allowed to bribe a civil servant, but you are allowed to bribe a deputy. +I see my time is ticking. +Let me just try to draw some conclusions from what has happened. +I believe that what we managed to achieve in fighting corruption, one can also achieve in other areas of failing governance. +By now, the United Nations is totally on our side. +The World Bank has turned from Saulus to Paulus; under Wolfensohn, they became, I would say, the strongest anti-corruption agency in the world. +Most of the large companies are now totally convinced that they have to put in place very strong policies against bribery and so on. +And this is possible because civil society joined the companies and joined the government in the analysis of the problem, in the development of remedies, in the implementation of reforms, and then later, in the monitoring of reforms. +Of course, if civil society organizations want to play that role, they have to grow into this responsibility. +Not all civil society organizations are good. +The Ku Klux Klan is an NGO. +So, we must be aware that civil society has to shape up itself. +They have to have a much more transparent financial governance. +They have to have a much more participatory governance in many civil society organizations. +We also need much more competence of civil society leaders. +Thank you. +Sadly, in the next 18 minutes when I do our chat, four Americans that are alive will be dead through the food that they eat. +My name's Jamie Oliver. I'm 34 years old. +I'm from Essex in England and for the last seven years I've worked fairly tirelessly to save lives in my own way. +I'm not a doctor; I'm a chef, I don't have expensive equipment or medicine. +I use information, education. +I profoundly believe that the power of food has a primal place in our homes that binds us to the best bits of life. +We have an awful, awful reality right now. +America, you're at the top of your game. +This is one of the most unhealthy countries in the world. +Can I please just see a raise of hands for how many of you have children in this room today? +Put your hands up. +You can continue to put your hands up, aunties and uncles as well. +Most of you. OK. +We, the adults of the last four generations, have blessed our children with the destiny of a shorter lifespan than their own parents. +Your child will live a life ten years younger than you because of the landscape of food that we've built around them. +Two-thirds of this room, today, in America, are statistically overweight or obese. +but we'll get you eventually, don't worry. +The statistics of bad health are clear, very clear. +We spend our lives being paranoid about death, murder, homicide, you name it; it's on the front page of every paper, CNN. +Look at homicide at the bottom, for God's sake. +Right? +Every single one of those in the red is a diet-related disease. +Any doctor, any specialist will tell you that. +Fact: diet-related disease is the biggest killer in the United States, right now, here today. +This is a global problem. +It's a catastrophe. +It's sweeping the world. +England is right behind you, as usual. +I know they were close, but not that close. +We need a revolution. +Mexico, Australia, Germany, India, China, all have massive problems of obesity and bad health. +Think about smoking. +It costs way less than obesity now. +Obesity costs you Americans 10 percent of your health-care bills, 150 billion dollars a year. +In 10 years, it's set to double: 300 billion dollars a year. +Let's be honest, guys, you haven't got that cash. +I came here to start a food revolution that I so profoundly believe in. +We need it. The time is now. +We're in a tipping-point moment. +I've been doing this for seven years. +I've been trying in America for seven years. +Now is the time when it's ripe -- ripe for the picking. +I went to the eye of the storm. +I went to West Virginia, the most unhealthy state in America. +Or it was last year. +We've got a new one this year, but we'll work on that next season. +Huntington, West Virginia. Beautiful town. +I wanted to put heart and soul and people, your public, around the statistics that we've become so used to. +I want to introduce you to some of the people that I care about: your public, your children. +I want to show a picture of my friend Brittany. +She's 16 years old. +She's got six years to live because of the food that she's eaten. +She's the third generation of Americans that hasn't grown up within a food environment where they've been taught to cook at home or in school, or her mom, or her mom's mom. +She has six years to live. +She's eating her liver to death. +Stacy, the Edwards family. +This is a normal family, guys. +Stacy does her best, but she's third-generation as well; she was never taught to cook at home or at school. +The family's obese. +Justin here, 12 years old, he's 350 pounds. +He gets bullied, for God's sake. +The daughter there, Katie, she's four years old. +She's obese before she even gets to primary school. +Marissa, she's all right, she's one of your lot. +Her father, who was obese, died in her arms, And then the second most important man in her life, her uncle, died of obesity, and now her step-dad is obese. +You see, the thing is, obesity and diet-related disease doesn't just hurt the people that have it; it's all of their friends, families, brothers, sisters. +Pastor Steve: an inspirational man, one of my early allies in Huntington, West Virginia. +He's at the sharp knife-edge of this problem. +He has to bury the people, OK? +And he's fed up with it. +He's fed up with burying his friends, his family, his community. +Come winter, three times as many people die. +He's sick of it. +This is preventable disease. Waste of life. +By the way, this is what they get buried in. +We're not geared up to do this. +Can't even get them out the door, and I'm being serious. +Can't even get them there. Forklift. +OK, I see it as a triangle, OK? +This is our landscape of food. +I need you to understand it. +You've probably heard all this before. +Over the last 30 years, what's happened that's ripped the heart out of this country? +Let's be frank and honest. +Well, modern-day life. +Let's start with the Main Street. +Fast food has taken over the whole country; we know that. +The big brands are some of the most important powers, powerful powers, in this country. +Supermarkets as well. +Big companies. Big companies. +Thirty years ago, most of the food was largely local and largely fresh. +Now it's largely processed and full of all sorts of additives, extra ingredients, and you know the rest of the story. +Portion size is obviously a massive, massive problem. +Labeling is a massive problem. +The labeling in this country is a disgrace. +The industry wants to self-police themselves. +What, in this kind of climate? They don't deserve it. +How can you say something is low-fat when it's full of so much sugar? +Home. +The biggest problem with the home is that used to be the heart of passing on food culture, what made our society. +That is not happening anymore. +And you know, as we go to work and as life changes, and as life always evolves, we kind of have to look at it holistically -- step back for a moment, and re-address the balance. +It hasn't happened for 30 years, OK? +I want to show you a situation that is very normal right now; the Edwards family. +Jamie Oliver: Let's have a talk. +This stuff goes through you and your family's body every week. +And I need you to know that this is going to kill your children early. +How are you feeling? +Stacy: Just feeling really sad and depressed right now. +But, you know, I want my kids to succeed in life and this isn't going to get them there. +But I'm killing them. +JO: Yes you are. You are. +But we can stop that. +Normal. Let's get on schools, something that I'm fairly much a specialist in. +OK, school. +What is school? Who invented it? What's the purpose of school? +School was always invented to arm us with the tools to make us creative, do wonderful things, make us earn a living, etc., etc. +You know, it's been kind of in this sort of tight box for a long, long time, OK? +But we haven't really evolved it to deal with the health catastrophes of America, OK? +School food is something that most kids -- 31 million a day, actually -- have twice a day, more than often, breakfast and lunch, 180 days of the year. +So you could say that school food is quite important, really, judging the circumstances. +Before I crack into my rant, which I'm sure you're waiting for -- I need to say one thing, and it's so important in, hopefully, the magic that happens and unfolds in the next three months. +The lunch ladies, the lunch cooks of America -- I offer myself as their ambassador. +I'm not slagging them off. +They're doing the best they can do. +They're doing their best. +But they're doing what they're told, and what they're being told to do is wrong. +The system is highly run by accountants; there's not enough, or any, food-knowledgeable people in the business. +There's a problem: If you're not a food expert, and you've got tight budgets and it's getting tighter, then you can't be creative, you can't duck and dive and write different things around things. +If you're an accountant, and a box-ticker, the only thing you can do in these circumstances is buy cheaper shit. +Now, the reality is, the food that your kids get every day is fast food, it's highly processed, there's not enough fresh food in there at all. +You know, the amount of additives, E numbers, ingredients you wouldn't believe -- there's not enough veggies at all. French fries are considered a vegetable. +Pizza for breakfast. They don't even get crockery. +Knives and forks? No, they're too dangerous. +They have scissors in the classroom, but knives and forks? No. +And the way I look at it is: If you don't have knives and forks in your school, you're purely endorsing, from a state level, fast food, because it's handheld. +And yes, by the way, it is fast food: It's sloppy Joes, it's burgers, it's wieners, it's pizzas, it's all of that stuff. +Ten percent of what we spend on health care, as I said earlier, is on obesity, and it's going to double. +We're not teaching our kids. +There's no statutory right to teach kids about food, elementary or secondary school, OK? +We don't teach kids about food, right? +And this is a little clip from an elementary school, which is very common in England. +Who knows what this is? +Child: Potatoes. Jamie Oliver: Potato? So, you think these are potatoes? +Do you know what that is? +Do you know what that is? Child: Broccoli? +JO: What about this? Our good old friend. +JO: No. What do you think this is? +Child: Onion. JO: Onion? No. +JO: Immediately you get a really clear sense of "Do the kids know anything about where food comes from?" +Who knows what that is? Child: Uh, pear? +JO: What do you think this is? Child: I don't know. +JO: If the kids don't know what stuff is, then they will never eat it. +JO: Normal. England and America, England and America. +Guess what fixed that. +Two one-hour sessions. +We've got to start teaching our kids about food in schools, period. +I want to tell you about something that kind of epitomizes the trouble that we're in, guys, OK? +I want to talk about something so basic as milk. +Every kid has the right to milk at school. +Your kids will be having milk at school, breakfast and lunch, right? +They'll be having two bottles, OK? +And most kids do. +But milk ain't good enough anymore. +Don't get me wrong, I support milk -- but someone at the milk board probably paid a lot of money for some geezer to work out that if you put loads of flavorings, colorings and sugar in milk, more kids will drink it. +Obviously now that's going to catch on the apple board is going to work out that if they make toffee apples they'll eat more as well. +Do you know what I mean? +For me, there isn't any need to flavor the milk. +Okay? There's sugar in everything. +I know the ins and outs of those ingredients. +It's in everything. +Even the milk hasn't escaped the kind of modern-day problems. +There's our milk. There's our carton. +In that is nearly as much sugar as one of your favorite cans of fizzy pop, and they are having two a day. +So, let me just show you. +We've got one kid, here -- having, you know, eight tablespoons of sugar a day. +You know, there's your week. +There's your month. +And I've taken the liberty of putting in just the five years of elementary school sugar, just from milk. +Now, I don't know about you guys, but judging the circumstances, right, any judge in the whole world, would look at the statistics and the evidence, and they would find any government of old guilty of child abuse. That's my belief. +Now, if I came up here, and I wish I could come up here today and hang a cure for AIDS or cancer, you'd be fighting and scrambling to get to me. +This, all this bad news, is preventable. +That's the good news. +It's very, very preventable. +So, let's just think about, we got a problem here, we need to reboot. +Okay so, in my world, what do we need to do? +Here is the thing, right, it cannot just come from one source. +So, supermarkets. +Where else do you shop so religiously? +Week in, week out. +How much money do you spend, in your life, in a supermarket? +Love them. They just sell us what we want. All right. +They owe us to put a food ambassador in every major supermarket. +They need to help us shop. +They need to show us how to cook quick, tasty, seasonal meals for people that are busy. +This is not expensive. +It is done in some, and it needs to be done across the board in America soon, and quick. +The big brands, you know, the food brands, need to put food education at the heart of their businesses. +I know, easier said than done. +It's the future. It's the only way. +Fast food. With the fast-food industry you know, it's very competitive. +I've had loads of secret papers and dealings with fast food restaurants. +I know how they do it. +I mean, basically they've weaned us on to these hits of sugar, salt and fat, and x, y, and z, and everyone loves them, right? +So, these guys are going to be part of the solution. +But we need to get the government to work with all of the fast food purveyors and the restaurant industry, and over a five, six, seven year period wean of us off the extreme amounts of fat, sugar and all the other non-food ingredients. +Now, also, back to the sort of big brands: labeling, I said earlier, is an absolute farce and has got to be sorted. +OK, school. +Obviously, in schools, we owe it to them to make sure those 180 days of the year, from that little precious age of four, until 18, 20, 24, whatever, they need to be cooked proper, fresh food from local growers on site, OK? +There needs to be a new standard of fresh, proper food for your children, yeah? +Under the circumstances, it's profoundly important that every single American child leaves school knowing how to cook 10 recipes that will save their life. +Life skills. +That means that they can be students, young parents, and be able to sort of duck and dive around the basics of cooking, no matter what recession hits them next time. +If you can cook, recession money doesn't matter. +If you can cook, time doesn't matter. +The workplace, we haven't really talked about it. +You know, it's now time for corporate responsibility to really look at what they feed or make available to their staff. +The staff are the moms and dads of America's children. +Marissa, her father died in her hand, I think she'd be quite happy if corporate America could start feeding their staff properly. +Definitely they shouldn't be left out. +Let's go back to the home. +Now, look, if we do all this stuff, and we can, it's so achievable. You can care and be commercial. +Absolutely. +But the home needs to start passing on cooking again, for sure. +For sure, pass it on as a philosophy. +And for me, it's quite romantic, but it's about if one person teaches three people how to cook something, and they teach three of their mates, that only has to repeat itself 25 times, and that's the whole population of America. +Romantic, yes, but most importantly, it's about trying to get people to realize that every one of your individual efforts makes a difference. +We've got to put back what's been lost. +Huntington's Kitchen. +Huntington, where I made this program, we've got this prime-time program that hopefully will inspire people to really get on this change. +I truly believe that change will happen. +Huntington's Kitchen. I work with a community. +I worked in the schools. +I found local sustainable funding to get every single school in the area from the junk, onto the fresh food: six-and-a-half grand per school. +That's all it takes, six-and-a-half grand per school. +The Kitchen is 25 grand a month. Okay? +This can do 5,000 people a year, which is 10 percent of their population, and it's people on people. +You know, it's local cooks teaching local people. +It's free cooking lessons, guys, in the Main Street. +This is real, tangible change, real, tangible change. +Around America, if we just look back now, there is plenty of wonderful things going on. +There is plenty of beautiful things going on. +There are angels around America doing great things in schools -- farm-to-school set-ups, garden set-ups, education -- there are amazing people doing this already. +The problem is they all want to roll out what they're doing to the next school, but there's no cash. +We need to recognize the experts and the angels quickly, identify them, and allow them to easily find the resource to keep rolling out what they're already doing, and doing well. +Businesses of America need to support Mrs. Obama to do the things that she wants to do. +And look, I know it's weird having an English person standing here before you talking about all this. +All I can say is: I care. I'm a father, and I love this country. +And I believe truly, actually, that if change can be made in this country, beautiful things will happen around the world. +If America does it, other people will follow. +It's incredibly important. +When I was in Huntington, trying to get a few things to work when they weren't, I thought "If I had a magic wand, what would I do?" +And I thought, "You know what? +I'd just love to be put in front of some of the most amazing movers and shakers in America." +And a month later, TED phoned me up and gave me this award. +I'm here. +So, my wish. +Dyslexic, so I'm a bit slow. +My wish is for you to help a strong, sustainable movement to educate every child about food, to inspire families to cook again, and to empower people everywhere to fight obesity. +Thank you. +About a year and a half ago, Stephen Lawler, who also gave a talk here at TED in 2007 on Virtual Earth, brought me over to become the architect of Bing Maps, which is Microsoft's online-mapping effort. +In the past two and a half, we've been very hard at work on redefining the way maps work online. +And we really are seeing this in very different terms from the kind of mapping and direction site that one is used to. +So, the first thing that you might notice about the mapping site is just the fluidity of the zooming and the panning, which, if you're familiar at all with Seadragon, that's where it comes from. +Mapping is, of course, not just about cartography, it's also about imagery. +So, as we zoom-in beyond a certain level this resolves into a kind of Sim City-like virtual view at 45 degrees. +This can be viewed from any of the cardinal directions to show you the 3D structure of the city, all the facades. +Now, we see this space, this three-dimensional environment, as being a canvas on which all sorts of applications can play out, and map's directions are really just one of them. +If you click on this, you'll see some of the ones that we've put out, just in the past couple of months since we've launched. +So, for example, a couple of days after the disaster in Haiti, we had an earthquake map that showed before and after pictures from the sky. +This wonderful one which I don't have time to show you is taking hyper-local blogs in real time and mapping those stories, those entries to the places that are referred to on the blogs. +It's wonderful. +But I'm going to show you some more candy sort of stuff. +So, we see the imagery, of course, not stopping at the sky. +These little green bubbles represent photosynths that users have made. +I'm not going to dive into them either, but photosynths are integrated into the map. +Everything that's cased in blue is an area where we've taken imagery on the ground as well. +Now, I'll show you a fun app that -- we've been working on a collaboration with our friends at Flickr. +So this one was taken around five. +So that's the Flickr photo, that's our imagery. +So you really see how this kind of crowd-sourced imagery is integrating, in a very deep way, into the map itself. +Thank you. +There are several reasons why this is interesting and one of them, of course, is time travel. +And I'm not going to show you some of the wonderful historic imagery in here, but there are some with horses and carriages and so on as well. +But what's cool about this is that, not only is it augmenting this visual representation of the world with things that are coming in from users, but it also is the foundation for augmented reality, and that's something that I'll be showing you more of in just a moment. +Now I just made a transition indoors. That's also interesting. +OK, notice there's now a roof above us. +We're inside the Pike Place Market. +And this is something that we're able to do with a backpack camera, so, we're now not only imaging in the street with this camera on tops of cars, but we're also imaging inside. +And from here, we're able to do the same sorts of registration, not only of still images, but also of video. +So this is something that we're now going to try for the first time, live, and this is really, truly, very frightening. +OK. +All right, guys, are you there? +All right. I'm hitting it. I'm punching play. +I'm live. All right. There we go. +So, these are our friends in Pike Place Market, the lab. +So they're broadcasting this live. +OK, George, can you pan back over to the corner market? +Because I want to show points of interest. +No, no. The other way. +Yeah, yeah, back to the corner, back to the corner. +I don't want to see you guys yet. +OK, OK, back to the corner, back to the corner, back to the corner. +OK, never mind. +What I wanted to show you was these points of interest over here on top of the image because what that gives you a sense of is the way, if you're actually on the spot, you can think about this -- this is taking a step in addition to augmented reality. +What the hell are you guys -- oh, sorry. +We're doing two different -- OK, I'm hanging up now. +We're doing two different things here. +One of them is to take that real ... +All right, let me just take a moment and thank the team. +They've done a fantastic job of pulling this together. +I'm going to abandon them now and walk back outside. +And while I walk outside, I'll just mention that here we're using this for telepresence, but you can equally well use this on the spot, for augmented reality. +When you use it on the spot, it means that you're able to bring all of that metadata and information about the world to you. +So here, we're taking the extra step of also broadcasting it. +That was being broadcast, by the way, on a 4G network from the market. +All right, and now there's one last TED talk that Microsoft has given in the past several years. +And that's Curtis Wong, WorldWide Telescope. +So, we're going to head over to the dumpsters, where it's traditional, after a long day at the market, to go out for a break, but also stare up at the sky. +This is the integration of WorldWide Telescope into our maps. +This is the current -- thank you -- this is the current time. If we scrub the time, then we can see how the sky will look at different times, and we can get all of this very detailed information about different times, different dates: Let's move the moon a little higher in the sky, maybe change the date. +I would like to kind of zoom in on the moon. +So, this is an astronomically complete representation of the sky integrated right into the Earth. +All right now, I've overrun my time, so I've got to stop. +Thank you all very much. +Someone once said that politics is, of course, "showbiz for ugly people." +So, on that basis, I feel like I've really arrived. +The other thing to think of is what an honor it is, as a politician, to give a TED talk, particularly here in the U.K., where the reputation of politics, with the expenses scandal, has sunk so low. +There was even a story recently that scientists had thought about actually replacing rats in their experiments with politicians. +And someone asked,"Why?" +and they said, "Well, there's no shortage of politicians, no one really minds what happens to them and, after all, there are some things that rats just won't do." +Now, I know you all love data, so I'm starting with a data-rich slide. +This, I think, is the most important fact to bear in mind in British politics or American politics, and that is: We have run out of money. +We have vast budget deficits. +This is my global public debt clock, and, as you can see, it's 32 trillion and counting. +And I think what this leads to is a very simple recognition, that there's one question in politics at the moment above all other, and it's this one: How do we make things better without spending more money? +Because there isn't going to be a lot of money to improve public services, or to improve government, or to improve so many of the things that politicians talk about. +So what follows from that is that if you think it's all about money -- you can only measure success in public services in health care and education and policing by spending more money, you can only measure progress by spending money -- you're going to have a pretty miserable time. +But if you think a whole lot of other things matter that lead up to well being -- things like your family relationships, friendship, community, values -- then, actually, this is an incredibly exciting time to be in politics. +That's the argument I want to make tonight. +So, starting with the political philosophy. +Now I'm not saying for a minute that British Conservatives have all the answers. +Of course we don't. +But there are two things at heart that I think drive a conservative philosophy that are really relevant to this whole debate. +The first is this: We believe that if you give people more power and control over their lives, if you give people more choice, if you put them in the driving seat, then actually, you can create a stronger and better society. +And if you marry this fact with the incredible abundance of information that we have in our world today, I think you can completely, as I've said, remake politics, remake government, remake your public services. +The second thing we believe is we believe in going with the grain of human nature. +Politics and politicians will only succeed if they actually try and treat with people as they are, rather than as they would like them to be. +Now, why do I think now is the moment to make this argument? +Well, I'm afraid you're going to suffer a short, condensed history lesson about what I would say are the three passages of history: the pre-bureaucratic age, the bureaucratic age and what we now live in, which I think is a post-bureaucratic age. +A simpler way of thinking of it is that we have gone from a world of local control, then we went to a world of central control, and now we're in a world of people control. +Local power, central power, now, people power. +Now, here is King Cnut, king a thousand years ago. +Thought he could turn back the waves; couldn't turn back the waves. +Couldn't actually turn back very much, because if you were king a thousand years ago, while it still took hours and hours and weeks and weeks to traverse your own country, there wasn't much you were in charge of. +You weren't in charge of policing, justice, education, health, welfare. +You could just about go to war and that was about it. +This was the pre-bureaucratic age, an age in which everything had to be local. +You had to have local control because there was no nationally-available information because travel was so restricted. +So this was the pre-bureaucratic age. +Next part of the cold history lesson, the lovely picture of the British Industrial Revolution. +Suddenly, all sorts of transport, travel information were possible, and this gave birth to, what I like to call, the bureaucratic age. +And hopefully this slide is going to morph beautifully. There we are. +Suddenly, you have the big, strong, central state. +It was able -- but only it was able -- to organize health care, education, policing, justice. +And it was a world of, as I say, not local power, but now central power. +It had sucked all that power up from the localities. +It was able to do that itself. +The next great stage, which all of you are so familiar with: the massive information revolution. +Just consider this one fact: One hundred years ago, sending these 10 words cost 50 dollars. +Right now, here we are linked up to Long Beach and everywhere else, and all these secret locations for a fraction of that cost, and we can send and receive huge quantities of information without it costing anything. +So we're now living in a post-bureaucratic age, where genuine people power is possible. +Now, what does this mean for our politics, for our public services, for our government? +Well I can't, in the time I've got, give huge numbers of examples, but let me just give a few of the ways that life can change. +And this is so obvious, in a way, because you think about how all of you have changed the way we shop, the way we travel, the way that business is done. +That is already happened; the information and Internet revolution has actually gone all the way through our societies in so many different ways, but it hasn't, in every way, yet touched our government. +So, how could this happen? +Well, I think there are three chief ways that it should make an enormous difference: in transparency, in greater choice and in accountability, in giving us that genuine people power. +If we take transparency, here is one of my favorite websites, the Missouri Accountability Portal. +In the old days, only the government could hold the information, and only a few elected people could try and grab that information and question it and challenge it. +Now here, on one website, one state in America, every single dollar spent by that government is searchable, is analyzable, is checkable. +Think of the huge change that means: Any business that wants to bid for a government contract can see what currently is being spent. +Anyone thinking, "I could do that service better, I could deliver it cheaper," it's all available there. +We have only, in government and in politics, started to scratch the surface of what people are doing in the commercial world with the information revolution. +So, complete transparency will make a huge difference. +In this country, if we win the election, we are going to make all government spending over 25,000 pounds transparent and available online, searchable for anyone to see. +We're going to make every contract -- we're announcing this today -- available on the Internet so anyone can see what the terms are, what the conditions are, driving huge value for money, but also huge increases, I believe, in well-being as well. +Choice. Now you all shop online, compare online, do everything online, and yet this revolution has hardly touched the surface of public services like education, or health care or policing, and you're going to see this change massively. +And the third of these big changes: accountability. +This, I think, is a huge change. +It is a crime map. This is a crime map from Chicago. +And you can see this looks a bit like a chef's hat, but actually that's an assault, the one in blue. +You can see what crime is committed where, and you have the opportunity to hold your police force to account. +So those three ways -- transparency, accountability and choice -- will make a huge difference. +Now I also said the other principle that I think we should work on is understanding of people, is recognizing that going with the grain of human nature you can achieve so much more. +Now, we're got a huge revolution in understanding of why people behave in the way that they do, and a great opportunity to put that knowledge and information to greater use. +We're working with some of these people. +We're being advised by some of these people, as was said, to try and bring all the experience to book. +Let me just give you one example that I think is incredibly simple, and I love. +We want to get people to be more energy efficient. +Why? It cuts fuel poverty, it cuts their bills, and it cuts carbon emissions at the same time. +How do you do it? +Well, we've had government information campaigns over the years when they tell you to switch off the lights when you leave the home. +We even had -- one government minister once told us to brush our teeth in the dark. +I don't think they lasted very long. +Look at what this does. This is a simple piece of behavioral economics. +The best way to get someone to cut their electricity bill is to show them their own spending, to show them what their neighbors are spending, and then show what an energy conscious neighbor is spending. +That sort of behavioral economics can transform people's behavior in a way that all the bullying and all the information and all the badgering from a government cannot possibly achieve. +Other examples are recycling. +We all know we need to recycle more. +How do we make it happen? +All the proof from America is that actually, if you pay people to recycle, if you give them a carrot rather than a stick, you can transform their behavior. +So what does all this add up to? +Here are my two favorite U.S. speeches of the last 50 years. +Obviously, here we have JFK with that incredibly simple and powerful formulation, "Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country," an incredibly noble sentiment. +But when he made that speech, what could you do to build the stronger, better society? +You could fight for your country, you could die for your country, you could serve in your country's civil service, but you didn't really have the information and the knowledge and the ability to help build the stronger society in the way that you do now. +And I think an even more wonderful speech, which I'm going to read a big chunk of, which sums up what I said at the beginning about believing there is more to life than money, and more that we should try and measure than money. +And it is Robert Kennedy's beautiful description of why gross national product captures so little: It "does not allow for the health of our children, the quality of their education, or the joy of their play. +It does not include the beauty of our poetry or the strength of our marriages, the intelligence of our public debate. +It measures neither our wit nor our courage, neither our wisdom nor our learning, neither our compassion nor our devotion to our country. +It measures everything, in short, except that which makes life worthwhile." +Thank you. +I want to talk about my investigations into what technology means in our lives -- not just our immediate life, but in the cosmic sense, in the kind of long history of the world and our place in the world: What is this stuff? +What is the significance? +And so, I want to kind of go through my little story of what I found out. +And one of the first things that I started to investigate was the history of the name of technology. +And in the United States there is a State of the Union address given by every president since 1790. +And each one of those is really kind of summing up the most important things for the United States at that time. +If you search for the word "technology," it was not used until 1952. +So, technology was sort of absent from everybody's thinking until 1952, which happened to be the year of my birth. +And obviously, technology had existed before then, but we weren't aware of it, and so it was sort of an awakening of this force in our life. +I actually did research to find out the first use of the word "technology." +It was in 1829, and it was invented by a guy who was starting a curriculum -- a course, bringing together all the kinds of arts and crafts, and industry -- and he called it "Technology." +And that's the very first use of the word. +So, what is this stuff that we're all consumed by, and bothered by? +Alan Kay calls it, "Technology is anything that was invented after you were born." +Which is sort of the idea that we normally have about what technology is: It's all that new stuff. +It's not roads, or penicillin, or factory tires; it's the new stuff. +My friend Danny Hillis says kind of a similar one, he says, "Technology is anything that doesn't work yet." +Which is, again, a sense that it's all new. +But we know that it's just not new. +It actually goes way back, and what I want to suggest is it goes a long way back. +So, another way to think about technology, what it means, is to imagine a world without technology. +If we were to eliminate every single bit of technology in the world today -- and I mean everything, from blades to scrapers to cloth -- we as a species would not live very long. +We would die by the billions, and very quickly: The wolves would get us, we would be defenseless, we would be unable to grow enough food, or find enough food. +Even the hunter-gatherers used some elementary tools. +And so, they had minimal technology, but they had some technology. +And if we study those hunter-gatherer tribes and the Neanderthal, which are very similar to early man, we find out a very curious thing about this world without technology, and this is a kind of a curve of their average age. +There are no Neanderthal fossils that are older than 40 years old that we've ever found, and the average age of most of these hunter-gatherer tribes is 20 to 30. +There are very few young infants because they die -- high mortality rate -- and there's very few old people. +And so the profile is sort of for your average San Francisco neighborhood: a lot of young people. +And if you go there, you say, "Hey, everybody's really healthy." +Well, that's because they're all young. +And the same thing with the hunter-gatherer tribes and early man is that you didn't live beyond the age of 30. +So, it was a world without grandparents. +And grandparents are very important, because they are the transmitter of cultural evolution and information. +Imagine a world and basically everybody was 20 to 30 years old. +How much learning can you do? +You can't do very much learning in your own life, it's so short, and there's nobody to pass on what you do learn. +So, that's one aspect. +It was a very short life. But at the same time anthropologists know that most hunter-gatherer tribes of the world, with that very little technology, actually did not spend a very long time gathering the food that they needed: three to six hours a day. +Some anthropologists call that the original affluent society. +Because they had banker hours basically. +So, it was possible to get enough food. +But when the scarcity came when the highs and lows and the droughts came, then people went into starvation. +And that's why they didn't live very long. +So, what technology brought, through the very simple tools like these stone tools here -- even something as small as this -- the early bands of humans were actually able to eliminate to extinction about 250 megafauna animals in North America when they first arrived 10,000 years ago. +So, long before the industrial age we've been affecting the planet on a global scale, with just a small amount of technology. +The other thing that the early man invented was fire. +And fire was used to clear out, and again, affected the ecology of grass and whole continents, and was used in cooking. +It enabled us to actually eat all kinds of things. +It was sort of, in a certain sense, in a McLuhan sense, an external stomach, in the sense that it was cooking food that we could not eat otherwise. +And if we don't have fire, we actually could not live. +Our bodies have adapted to these new diets. +Our bodies have changed in the last 10,000 years. +So, with that little bit of technology, humans went from a small band of 10,000 or so -- the same number as Neanderthals everywhere -- and we suddenly exploded. With the invention of language around 50,000 years ago, the number of humans exploded, and very quickly became the dominant species on the planet. +And they migrated into the rest of the world at two kilometers per year until, within several tens of thousands of years, we occupied every single watershed on the planet and became the most dominant species, with a very small amount of technology. +And even at that time, with the introduction of agriculture, 8,000, 10,000 years ago we started to see climate change. +So, climate change is not a new thing. +What's new is just the degree of it. Even during the agricultural age there was climate change. +And so, already small amounts of technology were transforming the world. +And what this means, and where I'm going, is that technology has become the most powerful force in the world. +All the things that we see today that are changing our lives, we can always trace back to the introduction of some new technology. +So, it's a force that is the most powerful force that has been unleashed on this planet, and in such a degree that I think that it's become our -- who we are. +In fact, our humanity, and everything that we think about ourselves is something that we've invented. +So, we've invented ourselves. Of all the animals that we have domesticated, the most important animal that we've domesticated has been us. Okay? +So, humanity is our greatest invention. +But of course we're not done yet. +We're still inventing, and this is what technology is allowing us to do -- it's continually to reinvent ourselves. +It's a very, very strong force. +I call this entire thing -- us humans as our technology, everything that we've made, gadgets in our lives -- we call that the technium. That's this world. +My working definition of technology is "anything useful that a human mind makes." +It's not just hammers and gadgets, like laptops. +But it's also law. And of course cities are ways to make things more useful to us. +While this is something that comes from our mind, it also has its roots deeply into the cosmos. +It goes back. The origins and roots of technology go back to the Big Bang, in this way, in that they are part of this that starts at the Big Bang and goes through galaxies and stars, into life, into us. +And the three major phases of the early universe was energy, when the dominant force was energy; then it became, the dominant force, as it cooled, became matter; and then, with the invention of life, four billion years ago, the dominant force in our neighborhood became information. +That's what life is: It's an information process that was restructuring and making new order. +So, those energy, matter Einstein show were equivalent, and now new sciences of quantum computing show that entropy and information and matter and energy are all interrelated, so it's one long continuum. +You put energy into the right kind of system and out comes wasted heat, entropy and extropy, which is order. +It's the increased order. +Where does this order come from? Its roots go way back. +We actually don't know. +But we do know that the self-organization trend throughout the universe is long, and it began with things like galaxies; they maintained their order for billions of years. +Stars are basically nuclear fusion machines that self-organize and self-sustain themselves for billions of years, this order against the entropy of the world. +And flowers and plants are the same thing, extended, and technology is basically an extension of life. +One trend that we notice in all those things is that the amount of energy per gram per second that flows through this, is actually increasing. +The amount of energy is increasing through this little sequence. +And that the amount of energy per gram per second that flows through life is actually greater than a star -- because of the star's long lifespan, the energy density in life is actually higher than a star. +And the energy density that we see in the greatest of anywhere in the universe is actually in a PC chip. +There is more energy flowing through, per gram per second, than anything that we have any other experience with. +And there are things moving towards greater complexity, moving towards greater diversity, moving towards greater specialization, sentience, ubiquity and most important, evolvability: Those very same things are also present in technology. +That's where technology is going. +In fact, technology is accelerating all the aspects of life, and we can see that happening; just as there's diversity in life, there's more diversity in things we make. +Things in life start out being general cell, and they become specialized: You have tissue cells, you have muscle, brain cells. And same things happens with say, a hammer, which is general at first and becomes more specific. +So, I would like to say that while there is six kingdoms of life, we can think of technology basically as a seventh kingdom of life. +It's a branching off from the human form. +But technology has its own agenda, like anything, like life itself. +For instance, right now, three-quarters of the energy that we use is actually used to feed the technium itself. +In transportation, it's not to move us, it's to move the stuff that we make or buy. +I use the word "want." Technology wants. +This is a robot that wants to plug itself in to get more power. +Your cat wants more food. +A bacterium, which has no consciousness at all, wants to move towards light. +It has an urge, and technology has an urge. +At the same time, it wants to give us things, and what it gives us is basically progress. +You can take all kinds of curves, and they're all pointing up. +There's really no dispute about progress, if we discount the cost of that. +And that's the thing that bothers most people, is that progress is really real, but we wonder and question: What are the environmental costs of it? +I did a survey of a number of species of artifacts in my house, and there's 6,000. Other people have come up with 10,000. +When King Henry of England died, he had 18,000 things in his house, but that was the entire wealth of England. +And with that entire wealth of England, King Henry could not buy any antibiotics, he could not buy refrigeration, he could not buy a trip of a thousand miles. +Whereas this rickshaw wale in India could save up and buy antibiotics and he could buy refrigeration. +He could buy things that King Henry, in all his wealth, could never buy. +That's what progress is about. +So, technology is selfish; technology is generous. +That conflict, that tension, will be with us forever, that sometimes it wants to do what it wants to do, and sometimes it's going to do things for us. +We have confusion about what we should think about a new technology. +Right now the default position about when a new technology comes along, is we -- people talk about the precautionary principle, which is very common in Europe, which says, basically, "Don't do anything. When you meet a new technology, stop, until it can be proven that there's no harm." +I think that really leads nowhere. +But a better way is to, what I call proactionary principle, which is: You engage with technology. +You try it out. +You obviously do what the precautionary principle suggests, you try to anticipate it, but after anticipating it, you constantly asses it, not just once, but eternally. +And when it diverts from what you want, we prioritize risk, we evaluate not just the new stuff, but the old stuff. +We fix it, but most importantly, we relocate it. +And what I mean by that is that we find a new job for it. +Nuclear energy, fission, is really bad idea for bombs. +But it may be a pretty good idea relocated into sustainable nuclear energy for electricity, instead of burning coal. +When we have a bad idea, the response to a bad idea is not no ideas, it's not to stop thinking. +The response to a bad idea -- like, say, a tungsten light bulb -- is a better idea. OK? +So, better ideas is really -- always the response to technology that we don't like is basically, better technology. +And actually, in a certain sense, technology is a kind of a method for generating better ideas, if you can think about it that way. +So, maybe spraying DDT on crops is a really bad idea. +But DDT sprayed on local homes, there's nothing better to eliminate malaria, besides insect DDT-impregnated mosquito nets. +But that's a really good idea; that's a good job for technology. +So, our job as humans is to parent our mind children, to find them good friends, to find them a good job. +And so, every technology is sort of a creative force looking for the right job. +That's actually my son, right here. +There are no bad technologies, just as there are no bad children. +We don't say children are neutral, children are positive. +We just have to find them the right place. +That's what we get from technology all the time. That's why people leave villages and go into cities, is because they are always gravitating towards increased choices and possibilities. +And we are aware of the price. +We pay a price for that, but we are aware of it, and generally we will pay the price for increased freedoms, choices and opportunities. +Even technology wants clean water. +Is technology diametrically opposed to nature? +Because technology is an extension of life, it's in parallel and aligned with the same things that life wants. +So that I think technology loves biology, if we allow it to. +Great movement that is starting billions of years ago is moving through us and it continues to go, and our choice, so to speak, in technology, is really to align ourselves with this force much greater than ourselves. +So, technology is more than just the stuff in your pocket. +It's more than just gadgets; it's more than just things that people invent. +It's actually part of a very long story, a great story, that began billions of years ago. +And it's moving through us, this self-organization, and we're extending and accelerating it, and we can be part of it by aligning the technology that we make with it. +I really appreciate your attention today. Thank you. +I've always been interested in the relationship of formal structures and human behavior. +If you build a wide road out to the outskirts of town, people will move there. +Well, law is also a powerful driver of human behavior. +And what I'd like to discuss today is the need to overhaul and simplify the law to release the energy and passion of Americans, so that we can begin to address the challenges of our society. +You might have noticed that law has grown progressively denser in your lives over the last decade or two. +If you run a business, it's hard to do much of anything without calling your general counsel. +Indeed, there is this phenomenon now where the general counsels are becoming the CEOs. +It's a little bit like the Invasion Of The Body Snatchers. +You need a lawyer to run the company, because there's so much law. +But it's not just business that's affected by this, it's actually pressed down into the daily activities of ordinary people. +A couple of years ago I was hiking near Cody, Wyoming. +It was in a grizzly bear preserve, although no one told me that before we went. +And our guide was a local science teacher. +She was wholly unconcerned about the bears, but she was terrified of lawyers. +The stories started pouring out. +She'd just been involved in an episode where a parent had threatened to sue the school because she lowered the grade of the student by 10 percent when he turned the paper in late. +The principal didn't want to stand up to the parent because he didn't want to get dragged into some legal proceedings. +So, she had to go to meeting after meeting, same arguments made over and over again. +After 30 days of sleepless nights, she finally capitulated and raised the grade. +She said, "Life's too short, I just can't keep going with this." +About the same time, she was going to take two students to a leadership conference in Laramie, which is a couple of hours away, and she was going to drive them in her car, but the school said, "No, you can't drive them in the car for liability reasons. +You have to go in a school bus." +So, they provided a bus that held 60 people and drove the three of them back and forth several hours to Laramie. +Her husband is also a science teacher, and he takes his biology class on a hike in the nearby national park. +But he was told he couldn't go on the hike this year because one of the students in the class was disabled, so the other 25 students didn't get to go on the hike either. +At the end of this day I could have filled a book just with stories about law from this one teacher. +Now, we've been taught to believe that law is the foundation of freedom. +But somehow or another, in the last couple of decades, the land of the free has become a legal minefield. +It's really changed our lives in ways that are sort of imperceptible; and yet, when you pull back, you see it all the time. +It's changed the way we talk. I was talking to a pediatrician friend in North Carolina. He said, "Well you know, I don't deal with patients the same way anymore. +You wouldn't want to say something off-the-cuff that might be used against you." +This is a doctor, whose life is caring for people. +My own law firm has a list of questions that I'm not allowed to ask when interviewing candidates, such as the sinister question, bulging with hidden motives and innuendo, "Where are you from?" +Now for 20 years, tort reformers have been sounding the alarm that lawsuits are out of control. +And we read every once in while about these crazy lawsuits, like the guy in the District of Columbia who sued his dry cleaners for 54 million dollars because they lost his pair of pants. +The case went on for two years; I think he's still appealing the case. +But the reality is, these crazy cases are relatively rare. They don't usually win. +And the total of direct tort cost in this country is about two percent, which is twice as much as in other countries but, as taxes go, hardly crippling. +But the direct costs are really only the tip of the iceberg. +What's happened here, again, almost without our knowing, is our culture has changed. +People no longer feel free to act on their best judgment. +So, what do we do about it? +We certainly don't want to give up the rights, when people do something wrong, to seek redress in the courts. +We need regulation to make sure people don't pollute and such. +We lack even a vocabulary to deal with this problem, and that's because we have the wrong frame of reference. +We've been trained to think that the way to look at every dispute, every issue, is a matter of kind of individual rights. +And so we peer through a legal microscope, and look at everything. +Is it possible that there are extenuating circumstances that explain why Johnny turned his paper in late in Cody, Wyoming? +Is it possible that the doctor might have done something differently when the sick person gets sicker? +And of course the hindsight bias is perfect. +There's always a different scenario that you can sketch out where it's possible that something could have been done differently. +And yet, we've been trained to squint into this legal microscope, hoping that we can judge any dispute against the standard of a perfect society, where everyone will agree what's fair, and where accidents will be extinct, risk will be no more. +Of course, this is Utopia; it's a formula for paralysis, not freedom. +It's not the basis of the rule of law, it's not the basis of a free society. +So, now I have the first of four propositions I'm going to leave with you about how you simplify the law: You've got to judge law mainly by its effect on the broader society, not individual disputes. +Absolutely vital. +So, let's pull back from the anecdotes for a second and look at our society from high above. +Is it working? +What does the macro-data show us? +Well, the healthcare system has been transformed: a culture pervaded with defensiveness, universal distrust of the system of justice, universal practice of defensive medicine. +It's very hard to measure because there are mixed motives. +Doctors can make more on ordering tests sometimes, and also they no longer even know what's right or wrong. +But reliable estimates range between 60 billion and 200 billion dollars per year. +That's enough to provide care to all the people in America who don't have it. +The trial lawyers say, "Well, this legal fear makes doctors practice better medicine." +Well that's been studied too, by the Institute of Medicine and others. Turns out that's not the case. +The fear has chilled professional interaction so thousands of tragic errors occur because doctors are afraid to speak up: "Are you sure that's the right dosage?" +Because they're not sure, and they don't want to take legal responsibility. +Let's go to schools. +As we saw with the teacher in Cody, Wyoming, she seems to be affected by the law. +Well it turns out the schools are literally drowning in law. +You could have a separate section of a law library around each of the following legal concepts: due process, special education, no child left behind, zero tolerance, work rules ... +it goes on. We did a study of all the rules that affect one school in New York. The Board of Ed. had no idea. +Tens of thousands of discreet rules, 60 steps to suspend a student from school: It's a formula for paralysis. +What's the effect of that? One is a decline in order. +Again, studies have shown it's directly attributable to the rise of due process. +Public agenda did a survey for us a couple of years ago where they found that 43 percent of the high school teachers in America say that they spend at least half of their time maintaining order in the classroom. +That means those students are getting half the learning they're supposed to, because if one child is disrupting the class no one can learn. +And what happens when the teacher tries to assert order? +They're threatened with a legal claim. +We also surveyed that. Seventy-eight percent of the middle and high school teachers in America have been threatened by their students with violating their rights, with lawsuits by their students. They are threatening, their students. +It's not that they usually sue, it's not that they would win, but it's an indication of the corrosion of authority. +And how has this system of law worked for government? +It doesn't seem to be working very well does it? +Neither in Sacramento nor in Washington. +The other day at the State of the Union speech, President Obama said, and I think we could all agree with this goal, "From the first railroads to the interstate highway system, our nation has always been the first to compete. +There is no reason Europe or China should have the fastest trains." +Well, actually there is a reason: Environmental review has evolved into a process of no pebble left unturned for any major project taking the better part of a decade, then followed by years of litigation by anybody who doesn't like the project. +Then, just staying above the Earth for one more second, people are acting like idiots, all across the country. +Idiots. A couple of years ago, Broward County, Florida, banned running at recess. +That means all the boys are going to be ADD. +I mean it's just absolutely a formula for failure. +My favorite, though, are all the warning labels. +"Caution: Contents are hot," on billions of coffee cups. +Archeologists will dig us up in a thousand years and they won't know about defensive medicine and stuff, but they'll see all these labels, "Contents are extremely hot." +They'll think it was some kind of aphrodisiac. +That's the only explanation. Because why would you have to tell people that something was actually hot? +My favorite warning was one on a five-inch fishing lure. +I grew up in the South and whiled away the summers fishing. +Five-inch fishing lure, it's a big fishing lure, with a three pronged hook in the back, and outside it said, "Harmful if swallowed." +So, none of these people are doing what they think is right. +And why not? They don't trust the law. Why don't they trust the law? +Because it gives us the worst of both worlds: It's random -- anybody can sue for almost anything and take it to a jury, not even an effort at consistency -- and it's also too detailed. +In the areas that are regulated, there are so many rules no human could possibly know it. +Well how do you fix it? We could spend 10,000 lifetimes trying to prune this legal jungle. +But the challenge here is not one of just amending the law, because the hurdle for success is trust. +People -- for law to be the platform for freedom, people have to trust it. +So, that's my second proposition: Trust is an essential condition to a free society. +Life is complicated enough without legal fear. +But law is different than other kinds of uncertainties, because it carries with it the power of state. +And so the state can come in. +It actually changes the way people think. +It's like having a little lawyer on your shoulders all day long, whispering in your ear, "Could that go wrong? Might that go wrong?" +It drives people from the smart part of the brain -- that dark, deep well of the subconscious, where instincts and experience, and all the other factors of creativity and good judgment are -- it drives us to the thin veneer of conscious logic. +Pretty soon the doctor's saying, "Well, I doubt if that headache could be a tumor, but who would protect me if it were? So maybe I'll just order the MRI." +Then you've wasted 200 billion dollars in unnecessary tests. +If you make people self-conscious about their judgments, studies show you will make them make worse judgments. +If you tell the pianist to think about how she's hitting the notes when she's playing the piece, she can't play the piece. +Self-consciousness is the enemy of accomplishment. +Edison stated it best. He said, "Hell, we ain't got no rules around here, we're trying to accomplish something." +So, how do you restore trust? +Tweaking the law's clearly not good enough, and tort reform, which is a great idea, lowers your cost if you're a businessperson, but it's like a Band-Aid on this gaping wound of distrust. +States with extensive tort reform still suffer all these pathologies. +So, what's needed is not just to limit claims, but actually create a dry ground of freedom. +It turns out that freedom actually has a formal structure. +And it is this: Law sets boundaries, and on one side of those boundaries are all the things you can't do or must do -- you can't steal, you've got to pay your taxes -- but those same boundaries are supposed to define and protect a dry ground of freedom. +Isaiah Berlin put it this way: "Law sets frontiers, not artificially drawn, within which men shall be inviolable." +We've forgotten that second part. +Those dikes have burst. People wade through law all day long. +So, what's needed now is to rebuild these boundaries. +And it's especially important to rebuild them for lawsuits. +Because what people can sue for establishes the boundaries for everybody else's freedom. +If someone brings a lawsuit over, "A kid fell off the seesaw," it doesn't matter what happens in the lawsuit, all the seesaws will disappear. +Because no one will want to take the risk of a lawsuit. +And that's what's happened. There are no seesaws, jungle gyms, merry-go-rounds, climbing ropes, nothing that would interest a kid over the age of four, because there's no risk associated with it. +So, how do we rebuild it? +Life is too complex for... +Life is too complex for a software program. +All these choices involve value judgments and social norms, not objective facts. +And so here is the fourth proposition. +This is what we have, the philosophy we have to change to. +And there are two essential elements of it: We have to simplify the law. +We have to migrate from all this complexity towards general principles and goals. +The constitution is only 16 pages long. +Worked pretty well for 200 years. +Law has to be simple enough so that people can internalize it in their daily choices. +If they can't internalize it, they won't trust it. +And how do you make it simple? +Because life is complex, and here is the hardest and biggest change: We have to restore the authority to judges and officials to interpret and apply the law. +We have to rehumanize the law. +To make law simple so that you feel free, the people in charge have to be free to use their judgment to interpret and apply the law in accord with reasonable social norms. +As you're going down, and walking down the sidewalk during the day, you have to think that if there is a dispute, there's somebody in society who sees it as their job to affirmatively protect you if you're acting reasonably. +That person doesn't exist today. +This is the hardest hurdle. +It's actually not very hard. Ninety-eight percent of cases, this is a piece of cake. +Maybe you've got a claim in small claims court for your lost pair of pants for $100, but not in a court of general jurisdiction for millions of dollars. +Case dismissed without prejudice or refiling in small claims court. +Takes five minutes. That's it, it's not that hard. +But it's a hard hurdle because we got into this legal quicksand because we woke up in the 1960s to all these really bad values: racism, gender discrimination, pollution -- they were bad values. And we wanted to create a legal system where no one could have bad values anymore. +The problem is, we created a system where we eliminated the right to have good values. +It doesn't mean that people in authority can do whatever they want. +They're still bounded by legal goals and principles: The teacher is accountable to the principal, the judge is accountable to an appellate court, the president is accountable to voters. +But the accountability's up the line judging the decision against the effect on everybody, not just on the disgruntled person. +You can't run a society by the lowest common denominator. +So, what's needed is a basic shift in philosophy. +We can pull the plug on a lot of this stuff if we shift our philosophy. +We've been taught that authority is the enemy of freedom. +It's not true. Authority, in fact, is essential to freedom. +Law is a human institution; responsibility is a human institution. +If teachers don't have authority to run the classroom, to maintain order, everybody's learning suffers. +If the judge doesn't have the authority to toss out unreasonable claims, then all of us go through the day looking over our shoulders. +If the environmental agency can't decide that the power lines are good for the environment, then there's no way to bring the power from the wind farms to the city. +A free society requires red lights and green lights, otherwise it soon descends into gridlock. +That's what's happened to America. Look around. +What the world needs now is to restore the authority to make common choices. +It's the only way to get our freedom back, and it's the only way to release the energy and passion needed so that we can meet the challenges of our time. Thank you. +Does anybody know when the stethoscope was invented? +Any guesses? 1816. +And what I can say is, in 2016, doctors aren't going to be walking around with stethoscopes. +There's a whole lot better technology coming, and that's part of the change in medicine. +What has changed our society has been wireless devices. +But the future are digital medical wireless devices, OK? +So, let me give you some examples of this to kind of make this much more concrete. +This is the first one. This is an electrocardiogram. +And, as a cardiologist, to think that you could see in real time a patient, an individual, anywhere in the world on your smartphone, watching your rhythm -- that's incredible, and it's with us today. +But that's just the beginning. +You check your email while you're sitting here. +In the future you're going to be checking all your vital signs, all your vital signs: your heart rhythm, your blood pressure, your oxygen, your temperature, etc. +This is already available today. +This is AirStrip Technologies. +It's now wired -- or I should say, wireless -- by taking the aggregate of these signals in the hospital, in the intensive care unit, and putting it on a smartphone for physicians. +If you're an expectant parent, what about the ability to monitor, continuously, fetal heart rate, or intrauterine contractions, and not having to worry so much that things are fine as the pregnancy, and moving over into the time of delivery? +And then as we go further, today we have continuous glucose sensors. +Right now, they are under the skin, but in the future, they won't have to be implanted. +And of course, the desired range -- trying to keep glucose between 75 and less than 200, checking it every five minutes in a continuous glucose sensor -- you'll see how that can impact diabetes. +And what about sleep? +We're going to zoom in on that a little bit. +We're supposed to spend a third of our life in sleep. +What if, on your phone, which will be available in the next few weeks, you had every minute of your sleep displayed? +And this is, of course, as you can see, the awake is the orange. +The REM sleep, rapid eye movement, dream state, is in light green; and light is gray, light sleep; and deep sleep, the best restorative sleep, is that dark green. +How about counting every calorie? +And this is ability, in real time, to actually take measurements of caloric intake as well as expenditure, through a Band-Aid. +Now, what I've talked about are physiologic metrics. +But what I want to get to, the next frontier, very quickly, and why the stethoscope is on its way out, is because we can transcend listening to the valve sounds, and the breath sounds, because now, introduced by G.E. is a handheld ultra-sound. +Why is this important? Because this is so much more sensitive. +Here is an example of an abdominal ultrasound, and also a cardiac echo, which can be sent wireless, and then there's an example of fetal monitoring on your smartphone. +So, we're not just talking about physiologic metrics -- the key measurements of vital signs, and all those things in physiology -- but also all the imaging that one could look at in your smartphone. +Now, this is an example of another obsolete technology, soon to be buried: the Holter Monitor. +Twenty-four hour recording, lots of wires. +This is now a little tiny patch. +You can put it on for two weeks and send it in the mail. +Now, how does this work? Well, there is these smart Band-Aids or these sensors that one would put on, on a shoe or on the wrist. +And this sends a signal and it creates a body area network to a gateway. +Gateway could be a smartphone or it could be a dedicated gateway, as today many of these things are dedicated gateways, because they are not so well integrated. +That signal goes to the web, the cloud, and then it can be processed and sent anywhere: to a caregiver, to a physician, back to the patient, etc. +So, that's basically very simplistic technology of how this works. +Now, I have this device on. +I didn't want to take my shirt off to show you, but I can tell you it's on. +This is a device that not only measures cardiac rhythm, as you saw already, but it also goes well beyond that. +This is me now. And you can see the ECG. +Below that's the actual heart rate and the trend; to the right of that is a bioconductant. +That's the fluid status, fluid status, that's really important if you're monitoring somebody with heart failure. +And below that's temperature, and respiration, and oxygen, and then the position activity. +So, this is really striking, because this device measures seven things that are very much vital signs for monitoring someone with heart failure. OK? +And why is this important? Well, this is the most expensive bed. +What if we could reduce the need for hospital beds? +Well, we can. First of all, heart failure is the number one reason for hospital admissions and readmissions in this country. +The cost of heart failure is 37 billion dollars a year, which is 80 percent related to hospitalization. +And in the course of 30 days after a hospital stay for a Medicare greater than 65 years or older, is -- 27 percent are readmitted in 30 days, and by six months, over 56 percent are readmitted. +Why now? Why has this all of a sudden become a reality, an exciting direction in the future of medicine? +What we have is, in a way, a perfect positive storm. +This sets up consumer-driven healthcare. +That's where this is all starting. +Let me just give you specifics about why this is a big movement if you're not aware of it: 1.2 million Americans have gotten a Nike shoe, which is a body-area network that connects the shoe, the sole of the shoe to the iPhone, or an iPod. +And this Wired Magazine cover article really captured a lot of this; it talked a lot about the Nike shoe and how quickly that's been adopted to monitor exercise physiology and energy expenditure. +Here are some things, the principles that are guiding principles to keep in mind: "A data-driven health revolution promises to make us all better, faster, and stronger. Living by numbers." +Well, I tried this device. +A lot of you have gotten that Phillips Direct Life. +I didn't have one of those, but I got the Fitbit. +That looks like this. +It's like a wireless accelerometer, pedometer. +And I want to just give you the results of that testing, because I wanted to understand about the consumer movement. +I hope the, by the way, the Phillips Direct Life works better -- I hope so. +But this monitors food, it monitors activity and tracks weight. +However you have to put in most of this stuff. +The only thing it really tracks by itself is activity, and even then, it's not complete. +So, you exercise and it picks up the exercise. +You put in your height and weight, it calculates BMI, and of course it tells you how many calories you're expending from the exercise, and how many you took in, if you go in and enter all the foods. +But it really wants you to enter all your activity. +And so I went to this, and of course I was gratified that it picked up the 42 minutes of exercise, elliptical exercise I did, but then it wants more information. +So, it says, "You want to log sexual activity. +How long did you do it for?" +And it says, "How hard was it?" +Furthermore it says, "Start time." +Now, this doesn't appear -- this just doesn't work, I mean, this just doesn't work. +So, now I want to move to sleep. +Who would ever have thought you could have your own EEG at your home, tagged to a very nice alarm clock, by the way? +This is the headband that goes with this alarm clock. +It monitors your brainwaves continuously, when you're sleeping. +So, I did this thing for seven days getting ready for TEDMed. +This is an important part of our life, one-third you're supposed to be sleeping. +Of course how many here have any problems with sleeping? +It's usually 90 percent. So, you tell me you sleep better than expected. +Okay, well this was a week of my life in sleeping, and you get a Z.Q. score. Instead of an I.Q. score, you get a Z.Q. score when you wake up. +You say, "Oh, OK." And a Z.Q. score is adjusted to age, and you want to get as high as you possibly can. +So this is the moment-by-moment, or minute-by-minute sleep. +And you see that Z.Q. there was 80-odd. +And the wake time is in orange. +And this can be a problem, as I learned. +Because it not only helps you with quantifying your sleep, but also tells others you're awake. +So, when my wife came in and she could tell you're awake. +"Eric, I want to talk. I want to talk." +And I'm trying to play possum. +This thing is very, very impressive. +OK. So, that's the first night. +And this one is now 67, and that's not a good score. +And this tells you, of course, how much you had in REM sleep, in deep sleep, and all this sort of thing. +This was really fascinating because this gave that quantitation about all the different phases of sleep. +So, it also then tells you how you do compared to your age group. +It's like a managed competition of sleep. +And really interesting stuff. +Look at this thing and say, "Well, I didn't think I was a very good sleeper, but actually I did better than average in 50 to 60 year olds." OK? +And the key thing was, what I didn't know, was that I was a really good dreamer. +OK. Now let's move from sleep to diseases. +Eighty percent of Americans have chronic disease, or 80 percent of age greater than 65 have two or more chronic disease, 140 million Americans have one or more chronic disease, and 80 percent of our 1.5, whatever, trillion expenditures are related to chronic disease. +Now, diabetes is one of the big ones. +Almost 24 million people have diabetes. +And here is the latest map. It was published just a little more than a week ago in the New York Times, and it isn't looking good. +That is, for men, 29 percent in the country over 60 have Type II diabetes, and women, although it's less, it's terribly high. +But of course we have a way to measure that now on a continuous basis, with a sensor that detects blood glucose, and it's important because we could detect hyperglycemia that otherwise wouldn't be known, and also hypoglycemia. +And you can see the red dots, in this particular patient's case, were finger sticks, which would have missed both ends. +But by continuous monitoring, it captures all that vital information. +The future of this though, is being able to move this to a Band-Aid type phenomenon, and that's not so far away. +So, let me just give you, very quickly, 10 top targets for wireless medicine. +All these things are possible -- some of them are very close, or already, as you heard, are available today, in some way or form. +Alzheimer's disease: there's five million people affected, and you can check vital signs, activity, balance. +Asthma: large number, we could detect things like pollen count, air quality, respiratory rate. Breast cancer, I'll show you an example of that real quickly. +Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. +Depression, there's a great approach to that in mood disorders. +Diabetes I've just mentioned. Heart failure we already talked about. Hypertension: 74 million people could have continuous blood-pressure monitoring to come up with much better management and prevention. +And obesity we already talked about, the ways to get to that. +And sleep disorders. +This is effective around the world. The access to smartphones and cell phones today is extraordinary. +And this article from The Economist summed it up beautifully about the opportunities in health across the developing world: "Mobile phones made a bigger difference to the lives of more people, more quickly, than any previous technology." +And that's before we got going on the m-health world. +Aging: The problem is enormous, 300,000 broken hips per year; but the solutions are extraordinary, and they include so many different things. +One of the ones I just wanted to mention: The iShoe is another example of a sensor that improves proprioception among the elderly to prevent falling. +One of many different techniques using wireless sensors. +So, we can change medicine across the continuum of care, across the ages from premies or unborn children to seniors; the pharmaceutical arena changes; the full spectrum of disease -- I hope I've given you a sense of that -- across the globe. +There are two things that can really accelerate this whole process. +One of them -- we're very fortunate -- is to develop a dedicated institute and that's work that started with the work that Scripps with Qualcomm ... +and then the great fortune of meeting up with Gary and Mary West, to get behind this wireless health institute. +San Diego is an extraordinary place for this. +There's over 650 wireless companies, 100 of which or more are working in wireless health. +It's the number one source of commerce, and interestingly it dovetails beautifully with over 500 life science companies. +The wireless institute, the West Wireless Health Institute, is really the outgrowth of two extraordinary people who are here this evening: Gary and Mary West. And I'd like to give it up for them for getting behind this. +Their fantastic philanthropic investment made this possible, and this is really a nonprofit education center which is just about to open. It looks like this, this whole building dedicated. +The other big thing, besides having this fantastic institute to catalyze this process is guidance, and that's of course relying on the fact that medicine goes digital. +If we understand biology from genomics and omics and wireless through physiologic phenotyping, that's big. +Because what it does is allow a convergence like we've never had before. +Over 80 major diseases have been cracked at the genomic level, but this is quite extraordinary: More has been learned about the underpinnings of disease in the last two and a half years than in the history of man. +And when you put that together with, for example, now an app for the iPhone with your genotype to guide drug therapy ... +but, the future -- we can now tell who's going to get Type II diabetes from all the common variants, and that's going to get filled in more with low-frequency variants in the future. +We can tell who's going to get breast cancer from the various genes. +We can also know who's likely to get atrial fibrillation. +And finally, another example: sudden cardiac death. +Each of these has a sensor. +We can give glucose a sensor for diabetes to prevent it. +We can prevent, or have the earliest detection possible, for breast cancer with an ultrasound device given to the patient. +An iPatch, iRhythm, for atrial fibrillation. +And vital-signs monitoring to prevent sudden cardiac death. +We lose 700,000 people a year in the U.S. from sudden cardiac death. +So, I hope I've convinced you of this, of the impact on hospital clinic resources is profound and then the impact on diseases is equally impressive across all these different diseases and more. +It's really taking individualized medicine to a new height and it's hyper-innovative, and I think it represents the black swan of medicine. +Thanks for your attention. +I think I'll start out and just talk a little bit about what exactly autism is. +Autism is a very big continuum that goes from very severe -- the child remains non-verbal -- all the way up to brilliant scientists and engineers. +And I actually feel at home here, because there's a lot of autism genetics here. +You wouldn't have any... +It's a continuum of traits. +When does a nerd turn into Asperger, which is just mild autism? +I mean, Einstein and Mozart and Tesla would all be probably diagnosed as autistic spectrum today. +And one of the things that is really going to concern me is getting these kids to be the ones that are going to invent the next energy things, you know, that Bill Gates talked about this morning. +OK. Now, if you want to understand autism, animals. +And I want to talk to you now about different ways of thinking. +You have to get away from verbal language. +I think in pictures, I don't think in language. +Now, the thing about the autistic mind is it attends to details. +OK, this is a test where you either have to pick out the big letters, or pick out the little letters, and the autistic mind picks out the little letters more quickly. +And the thing is, the normal brain ignores the details. +Well, if you're building a bridge, details are pretty important because it will fall down if you ignore the details. +And one of my big concerns with a lot of policy things today is things are getting too abstract. +People are getting away from doing hands-on stuff. +I'm really concerned that a lot of the schools have taken out the hands-on classes, because art, and classes like that, those are the classes where I excelled. +In my work with cattle, I noticed a lot of little things that most people don't notice would make the cattle balk. Like, for example, this flag waving, right in front of the veterinary facility. +This feed yard was going to tear down their whole veterinary facility; all they needed to do was move the flag. +Rapid movement, contrast. +In the early '70s when I started, I got right down in the chutes to see what cattle were seeing. +People thought that was crazy. A coat on a fence would make them balk, shadows would make them balk, a hose on the floor ... +people weren't noticing these things -- a chain hanging down -- and that's shown very, very nicely in the movie. +In fact, I loved the movie, how they duplicated all my projects. That's the geek side. +My drawings got to star in the movie too. +And actually it's called "Temple Grandin," not "Thinking In Pictures." +So, what is thinking in pictures? It's literally movies in your head. +My mind works like Google for images. +Now, when I was a young kid I didn't know my thinking was different. +I thought everybody thought in pictures. +And then when I did my book, "Thinking In Pictures," I start interviewing people about how they think. +And I was shocked to find out that my thinking was quite different. Like if I say, "Think about a church steeple" most people get this sort of generalized generic one. +Now, maybe that's not true in this room, but it's going to be true in a lot of different places. +I see only specific pictures. +They flash up into my memory, just like Google for pictures. +And in the movie, they've got a great scene in there where the word "shoe" is said, and a whole bunch of '50s and '60s shoes pop into my imagination. +OK, there is my childhood church, that's specific. There's some more, Fort Collins. +OK, how about famous ones? +And they just kind of come up, kind of like this. +Just really quickly, like Google for pictures. +And they come up one at a time, and then I think, "OK, well maybe we can have it snow, or we can have a thunderstorm," and I can hold it there and turn them into videos. +Now, visual thinking was a tremendous asset in my work designing cattle-handling facilities. +And I've worked really hard on improving how cattle are treated at the slaughter plant. +I'm not going to go into any gucky slaughter slides. +I've got that stuff up on YouTube if you want to look at it. +But, one of the things that I was able to do in my design work is I could actually test run a piece of equipment in my mind, just like a virtual reality computer system. +And this is an aerial view of a recreation of one of my projects that was used in the movie. +That was like just so super cool. +And there were a lot of kind of Asperger types and autism types working out there on the movie set too. +But one of the things that really worries me is: Where's the younger version of those kids going today? +They're not ending up in Silicon Valley, where they belong. +Now, one of the things I learned very early on because I wasn't that social, is I had to sell my work, and not myself. +And the way I sold livestock jobs is I showed off my drawings, I showed off pictures of things. +Another thing that helped me as a little kid is, boy, in the '50s, you were taught manners. +You were taught you can't pull the merchandise off the shelves in the store and throw it around. +Now, when kids get to be in third or fourth grade, you might see that this kid's going to be a visual thinker, drawing in perspective. Now, I want to emphasize that not every autistic kid is going to be a visual thinker. +Now, I had this brain scan done several years ago, and I used to joke around about having a gigantic Internet trunk line going deep into my visual cortex. +This is tensor imaging. +And my great big internet trunk line is twice as big as the control's. +The red lines there are me, and the blue lines are the sex and age-matched control. +And there I got a gigantic one, and the control over there, the blue one, has got a really small one. +And some of the research now is showing is that people on the spectrum actually think with primary visual cortex. +Now, the thing is, the visual thinker's just one kind of mind. +You see, the autistic mind tends to be a specialist mind -- good at one thing, bad at something else. +And where I was bad was algebra. And I was never allowed to take geometry or trig. +Gigantic mistake: I'm finding a lot of kids who need to skip algebra, go right to geometry and trig. +Now, another kind of mind is the pattern thinker. +More abstract. These are your engineers, your computer programmers. +Now, this is pattern thinking. That praying mantis is made from a single sheet of paper -- no scotch tape, no cuts. +And there in the background is the pattern for folding it. +Here are the types of thinking: photo-realistic visual thinkers, like me; pattern thinkers, music and math minds. +Some of these oftentimes have problems with reading. +You also will see these kind of problems with kids that are dyslexic. +You'll see these different kinds of minds. +And then there's a verbal mind, they know every fact about everything. +Now, another thing is the sensory issues. +I was really concerned about having to wear this gadget on my face. +And I came in half an hour beforehand so I could have it put on and kind of get used to it, and they got it bent so it's not hitting my chin. +But sensory is an issue. Some kids are bothered by fluorescent lights; others have problems with sound sensitivity. +You know, it's going to be variable. +Now, visual thinking gave me a whole lot of insight into the animal mind. +Because think about it: An animal is a sensory-based thinker, not verbal -- thinks in pictures, thinks in sounds, thinks in smells. +Think about how much information there is there on the local fire hydrant. +He knows who's been there, when they were there. +Are they friend or foe? Is there anybody he can go mate with? +There's a ton of information on that fire hydrant. +It's all very detailed information, and, looking at these kind of details gave me a lot of insight into animals. +Now, the animal mind, and also my mind, puts sensory-based information into categories. +Man on a horse and a man on the ground -- that is viewed as two totally different things. +You could have a horse that's been abused by a rider. +They'll be absolutely fine with the veterinarian and with the horseshoer, but you can't ride him. +You have another horse, where maybe the horseshoer beat him up and he'll be terrible for anything on the ground, with the veterinarian, but a person can ride him. +Cattle are the same way. +Man on a horse, a man on foot -- they're two different things. +You see, it's a different picture. +See, I want you to think about just how specific this is. +Now, this ability to put information into categories, I find a lot of people are not very good at this. +When I'm out troubleshooting equipment or problems with something in a plant, they don't seem to be able to figure out, "Do I have a training people issue? +Or do I have something wrong with the equipment?" +In other words, categorize equipment problem from a people problem. +I find a lot of people have difficulty doing that. +Now, let's say I figure out it's an equipment problem. +Is it a minor problem, with something simple I can fix? +Or is the whole design of the system wrong? +People have a hard time figuring that out. +Let's just look at something like, you know, solving problems with making airlines safer. +Yeah, I'm a million-mile flier. +I do lots and lots of flying, and if I was at the FAA, what would I be doing a lot of direct observation of? +It would be their airplane tails. +You know, five fatal wrecks in the last 20 years, the tail either came off or steering stuff inside the tail broke in some way. +It's tails, pure and simple. +And when the pilots walk around the plane, guess what? They can't see that stuff inside the tail. +You know, now as I think about that, I'm pulling up all of that specific information. +It's specific. See, my thinking's bottom-up. +I take all the little pieces and I put the pieces together like a puzzle. +Now, here is a horse that was deathly afraid of black cowboy hats. +He'd been abused by somebody with a black cowboy hat. +White cowboy hats, that was absolutely fine. +Now, the thing is, the world is going to need all of the different kinds of minds to work together. +We've got to work on developing all these different kinds of minds. +And one of the things that is driving me really crazy, as I travel around and I do autism meetings, is I'm seeing a lot of smart, geeky, nerdy kids, and they just aren't very social, and nobody's working on developing their interest in something like science. +And this brings up the whole thing of my science teacher. +My science teacher is shown absolutely beautifully in the movie. +I was a goofball student. When I was in high school I just didn't care at all about studying, until I had Mr. Carlock's science class. +He was now Dr. Carlock in the movie. +And he got me challenged to figure out an optical illusion room. +This brings up the whole thing of you've got to show kids interesting stuff. +You know, one of the things that I think maybe TED ought to do is tell all the schools about all the great lectures that are on TED, and there's all kinds of great stuff on the Internet to get these kids turned on. +Because I'm seeing a lot of these geeky nerdy kids, and the teachers out in the Midwest, and the other parts of the country, when you get away from these tech areas, they don't know what to do with these kids. +And they're not going down the right path. +The thing is, you can make a mind to be more of a thinking and cognitive mind, or your mind can be wired to be more social. +And what some of the research now has shown in autism is there may by extra wiring back here, in the really brilliant mind, and we lose a few social circuits here. +It's kind of a trade-off between thinking and social. +And then you can get into the point where it's so severe you're going to have a person that's going to be non-verbal. +In the normal human mind language covers up the visual thinking we share with animals. +This is the work of Dr. Bruce Miller. +And he studied Alzheimer's patients that had frontal temporal lobe dementia. +And the dementia ate out the language parts of the brain, and then this artwork came out of somebody who used to install stereos in cars. +Now, Van Gogh doesn't know anything about physics, but I think it's very interesting that there was some work done to show that this eddy pattern in this painting followed a statistical model of turbulence, which brings up the whole interesting idea of maybe some of this mathematical patterns is in our own head. +And the Wolfram stuff -- I was taking notes and I was writing down all the search words I could use, because I think that's going to go on in my autism lectures. +We've got to show these kids interesting stuff. +And they've taken out the autoshop class and the drafting class and the art class. +I mean art was my best subject in school. +We've got to think about all these different kinds of minds, and we've got to absolutely work with these kind of minds, because we absolutely are going to need these kind of people in the future. +And let's talk about jobs. +OK, my science teacher got me studying because I was a goofball that didn't want to study. +But you know what? I was getting work experience. +I'm seeing too many of these smart kids who haven't learned basic things, like how to be on time. +I was taught that when I was eight years old. +You know, how to have table manners at granny's Sunday party. +I was taught that when I was very, very young. +And when I was 13, I had a job at a dressmaker's shop sewing clothes. +I did internships in college, I was building things, and I also had to learn how to do assignments. +You know, all I wanted to do was draw pictures of horses when I was little. +My mother said, "Well let's do a picture of something else." +They've got to learn how to do something else. +Let's say the kid is fixated on Legos. +Let's get him working on building different things. +The thing about the autistic mind is it tends to be fixated. +Like if a kid loves racecars, let's use racecars for math. +Let's figure out how long it takes a racecar to go a certain distance. +In other words, use that fixation in order to motivate that kid, that's one of the things we need to do. +I really get fed up when they, you know, the teachers, especially when you get away from this part of the country, they don't know what to do with these smart kids. +It just drives me crazy. +What can visual thinkers do when they grow up? +They can do graphic design, all kinds of stuff with computers, photography, industrial design. +The pattern thinkers, they're the ones that are going to be your mathematicians, your software engineers, your computer programmers, all of those kinds of jobs. +And then you've got the word minds. They make great journalists, and they also make really, really good stage actors. +Because the thing about being autistic is, I had to learn social skills like being in a play. +It's just kind of -- you just have to learn it. +And we need to be working with these students. +And this brings up mentors. +You know, my science teacher was not an accredited teacher. +He was a NASA space scientist. +Now, some states now are getting it to where if you have a degree in biology, or a degree in chemistry, you can come into the school and teach biology or chemistry. +We need to be doing that. +Because what I'm observing is the good teachers, for a lot of these kids, are out in the community colleges, but we need to be getting some of these good teachers into the high schools. +Another thing that can be very, very, very successful is there is a lot of people that may have retired from working in the software industry, and they can teach your kid. +And it doesn't matter if what they teach them is old, because what you're doing is you're lighting the spark. +You're getting that kid turned on. +And you get him turned on, then he'll learn all the new stuff. +Mentors are just essential. +I cannot emphasize enough what my science teacher did for me. +And we've got to mentor them, hire them. +And if you bring them in for internships in your companies, the thing about the autism, Asperger-y kind of mind, you've got to give them a specific task. Don't just say, "Design new software." +You've got to tell them something a lot more specific: "Well, we're designing a software for a phone and it has to do some specific thing. +And it can only use so much memory." +That's the kind of specificity you need. +Well, that's the end of my talk. +And I just want to thank everybody for coming. +It was great to be here. +Oh, you've got a question for me? OK. +Chris Anderson: Thank you so much for that. +You know, you once wrote, I like this quote, "If by some magic, autism had been eradicated from the face of the Earth, then men would still be socializing in front of a wood fire at the entrance to a cave." +Temple Grandin: Because who do you think made the first stone spears? +The Asperger guy. And if you were to get rid of all the autism genetics there would be no more Silicon Valley, and the energy crisis would not be solved. +CA: So, I want to ask you a couple other questions, and if any of these feel inappropriate, it's okay just to say, "Next question." +But if there is someone here who has an autistic child, or knows an autistic child and feels kind of cut off from them, what advice would you give them? +TG: Well, first of all, you've got to look at age. +If you have a two, three or four year old you know, no speech, no social interaction, I can't emphasize enough: Don't wait, you need at least 20 hours a week of one-to-one teaching. +You know, the thing is, autism comes in different degrees. +There's going to be about half the people on the spectrum that are not going to learn to talk, and they're not going to be working Silicon Valley, that would not be a reasonable thing for them to do. +But then you get the smart, geeky kids that have a touch of autism, and that's where you've got to get them turned on with doing interesting things. +I got social interaction through shared interest. +I rode horses with other kids, I made model rockets with other kids, did electronics lab with other kids, and in the '60s, it was gluing mirrors onto a rubber membrane on a speaker to make a light show. +That was like, we considered that super cool. +CA: Is it unrealistic for them to hope or think that that child loves them, as some might, as most, wish? +TG: Well let me tell you, that child will be loyal, and if your house is burning down, they're going to get you out of it. +CA: Wow. So, most people, if you ask them what are they most passionate about, they'd say things like, "My kids" or "My lover." +What are you most passionate about? +TG: I'm passionate about that the things I do are going to make the world a better place. +When I have a mother of an autistic child say, "My kid went to college because of your book, or one of your lectures," that makes me happy. +You know, the slaughter plants, I've worked with them in the '80s; they were absolutely awful. +I developed a really simple scoring system for slaughter plants where you just measure outcomes: How many cattle fell down? +How many cattle got poked with the prodder? +How many cattle are mooing their heads off? +And it's very, very simple. +You directly observe a few simple things. +It's worked really well. I get satisfaction out of seeing stuff that makes real change in the real world. We need a lot more of that, and a lot less abstract stuff. +CA: When we were talking on the phone, one of the things you said that really astonished me was you said one thing you were passionate about was server farms. Tell me about that. +TG: Well the reason why I got really excited when I read about that, it contains knowledge. +It's libraries. +And to me, knowledge is something that is extremely valuable. So, maybe, over 10 years ago now our library got flooded. +And this is before the Internet got really big. +And I was really upset about all the books being wrecked, because it was knowledge being destroyed. +And server farms, or data centers are great libraries of knowledge. +CA: Temple, can I just say it's an absolute delight to have you at TED. +TG: Well thank you so much. Thank you. +If you are a blind child in India, you will very likely have to contend with at least two big pieces of bad news. +The first bad news is that the chances of getting treatment are extremely slim to none, and that's because most of the blindness alleviation programs in the country are focused on adults, and there are very, very few hospitals that are actually equipped to treat children. +In fact, if you were to be treated, you might well end up being treated by a person who has no medical credentials as this case from Rajasthan illustrates. +This is a three-year-old orphan girl who had cataracts. +So, her caretakers took her to the village medicine man, and instead of suggesting to the caretakers that the girl be taken to a hospital, the person decided to burn her abdomen with red-hot iron bars to drive out the demons. +The second piece of bad news will be delivered to you by neuroscientists, who will tell you that if you are older than four or five years of age, that even if you have your eye corrected, the chances of your brain learning how to see are very, very slim -- again, slim or none. +So when I heard these two things, it troubled me deeply, both because of personal reasons and scientific reasons. +So let me first start with the personal reason. +It'll sound corny, but it's sincere. +That's my son, Darius. +As a new father, I have a qualitatively different sense of just how delicate babies are, what our obligations are towards them and how much love we can feel towards a child. +I would move heaven and earth in order to get treatment for Darius, and for me to be told that there might be other Dariuses who are not getting treatment, that's just viscerally wrong. +So that's the personal reason. +Scientific reason is that this notion from neuroscience of critical periods -- that if the brain is older than four or five years of age, it loses its ability to learn -- that doesn't sit well with me, because I don't think that idea has been tested adequately. +The birth of the idea is from David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel's work, two researchers who were at Harvard, and they got the Nobel Prize in 1981 for their studies of visual physiology, which are remarkably beautiful studies, but I believe some of their work has been extrapolated into the human domain prematurely. +So, they did their work with kittens, with different kinds of deprivation regiments, and those studies, which date back to the '60s, are now being applied to human children. +So I felt that I needed to do two things. +One: provide care to children who are currently being deprived of treatment. +That's the humanitarian mission. +And the scientific mission would be to test the limits of visual plasticity. +And these two missions, as you can tell, thread together perfectly. One adds to the other; in fact, one would be impossible without the other. +So, to implement these twin missions, a few years ago, I launched Project Prakash. +Prakash, as many of you know, is the Sanskrit word for light, and the idea is that in bringing light into the lives of children, we also have a chance of shedding light on some of the deepest mysteries of neuroscience. +And the logo -- even though it looks extremely Irish, it's actually derived from the Indian symbol of Diya, an earthen lamp. +The Prakash, the overall effort has three components: outreach, to identify children in need of care; medical treatment; and in subsequent study. +And I want to show you a short video clip that illustrates the first two components of this work. +This is an outreach station conducted at a school for the blind. +(Text: Most of the children are profoundly and permanently blind ...) Pawan Sinha: So, because this is a school for the blind, many children have permanent conditions. +That's a case of microphthalmos, which is malformed eyes, and that's a permanent condition; it cannot be treated. +That's an extreme of micropthalmos called enophthalmos. +But, every so often, we come across children who show some residual vision, and that is a very good sign that the condition might actually be treatable. +So, after that screening, we bring the children to the hospital. +That's the hospital we're working with in Delhi, the Schroff Charity Eye Hospital. +It has a very well-equipped pediatric ophthalmic center, which was made possible in part by a gift from the Ronald McDonald charity. +So, eating burgers actually helps. +(Text: Such examinations allow us to improve eye-health in many children, and ... +... help us find children who can participate in Project Prakash.) PS: So, as I zoom in to the eyes of this child, you will see the cause of his blindness. +The whites that you see in the middle of his pupils are congenital cataracts, so opacities of the lens. +In our eyes, the lens is clear, but in this child, the lens has become opaque, and therefore he can't see the world. +So, the child is given treatment. You'll see shots of the eye. +Here's the eye with the opaque lens, the opaque lens extracted and an acrylic lens inserted. +And here's the same child three weeks post-operation, with the right eye open. +Thank you. +So, even from that little clip, you can begin to get the sense that recovery is possible, and we have now provided treatment to over 200 children, and the story repeats itself. +After treatment, the child gains significant functionality. +In fact, the story holds true even if you have a person who got sight after several years of deprivation. +We did a paper a few years ago about this woman that you see on the right, SRD, and she got her sight late in life, and her vision is remarkable at this age. +I should add a tragic postscript to this -- she died two years ago in a bus accident. +So, hers is just a truly inspiring story -- unknown, but inspiring story. +So when we started finding these results, as you might imagine, it created quite a bit of stir in the scientific and the popular press. +Here's an article in Nature that profiled this work, and another one in Time. +So, we were fairly convinced -- we are convinced -- that recovery is feasible, despite extended visual deprivation. +The next obvious question to ask: What is the process of recovery? +So, the way we study that is, let's say we find a child who has light sensitivity. +The child is provided treatment, and I want to stress that the treatment is completely unconditional; there is no quid pro quo. +We treat many more children then we actually work with. +Every child who needs treatment is treated. +After treatment, about every week, we run the child on a battery of simple visual tests in order to see how their visual skills are coming on line. +And we try to do this for as long as possible. +This arc of development gives us unprecedented and extremely valuable information about how the scaffolding of vision gets set up. +What might be the causal connections between the early developing skills and the later developing ones? +And we've used this general approach to study many different visual proficiencies, but I want to highlight one particular one, and that is image parsing into objects. +So, any image of the kind that you see on the left, be it a real image or a synthetic image, it's made up of little regions that you see in the middle column, regions of different colors, different luminances. +The brain has this complex task of putting together, integrating, subsets of these regions into something that's more meaningful, into what we would consider to be objects, as you see on the right. +And nobody knows how this integration happens, and that's the question we asked with Project Prakash. +So, here's what happens very soon after the onset of sight. +Here's a person who had gained sight just a couple of weeks ago, and you see Ethan Myers, a graduate student from MIT, running the experiment with him. +His visual-motor coordination is quite poor, but you get a general sense of what are the regions that he's trying to trace out. +If you show him real world images, if you show others like him real world images, they are unable to recognize most of the objects because the world to them is over-fragmented; it's made up of a collage, a patchwork, of regions of different colors and luminances. +And that's what's indicated in the green outlines. +When you ask them, "Even if you can't name the objects, just point to where the objects are," these are the regions that they point to. +So the world is this complex patchwork of regions. +Even the shadow on the ball becomes its own object. +Interestingly enough, you give them a few months, and this is what happens. +Doctor: How many are these? +Patient: These are two things. +Doctor: What are their shapes? +Patient: Their shapes ... +This one is a circle, and this is a square. +PS: A very dramatic transformation has come about. +And the question is: What underlies this transformation? +It's a profound question, and what's even more amazing is how simple the answer is. +The answer lies in motion and that's what I want to show you in the next clip. +Doctor: What shape do you see here? +Patient: I can't make it out. +Doctor: Now? +Patient: Triangle. +Doctor: How many things are these? +Now, how many things are these? +Patient: Two. +Doctor: What are these things? +Patient: A square and a circle. +PS: And we see this pattern over and over again. +The one thing the visual system needs in order to begin parsing the world is dynamic information. +So the inference we are deriving from this, and several such experiments, is that dynamic information processing, or motion processing, serves as the bedrock for building the rest of the complexity of visual processing; it leads to visual integration and eventually to recognition. +This simple idea has far reaching implications. +And let me just quickly mention two, one, drawing from the domain of engineering, and one from the clinic. +So, from the perspective of engineering, we can ask: Goven that we know that motion is so important for the human visual system, can we use this as a recipe for constructing machine-based vision systems that can learn on their own, that don't need to be programmed by a human programmer? +And that's what we're trying to do. +I'm at MIT, at MIT you need to apply whatever basic knowledge you gain. +So we are creating Dylan, which is a computational system with an ambitious goal of taking in visual inputs of the same kind that a human child would receive, and autonomously discovering: What are the objects in this visual input? +So, don't worry about the internals of Dylan. +Here, I'm just going to talk about how we test Dylan. +The way we test Dylan is by giving it inputs, as I said, of the same kind that a baby, or a child in Project Prakash would get. +But for a long time we couldn't quite figure out: Wow can we get these kinds of video inputs? +So, I thought, could we have Darius serve as our babycam carrier, and that way get the inputs that we feed into Dylan? +So that's what we did. +I had to have long conversations with my wife. +In fact, Pam, if you're watching this, please forgive me. +So, we modified the optics of the camera in order to mimic the baby's visual acuity. +As some of you might know, babyies are born pretty much legally blind. +Their acuity -- our acuity is 20/20; babies' acuity is like 20/800, so they are looking at the world in a very, very blurry fashion. +Here's what a baby-cam video looks like. +Thankfully, there isn't any audio to go with this. +What's amazing is that working with such highly degraded input, the baby, very quickly, is able to discover meaning in such input. +But then two or three days afterward, babies begin to pay attention to their mother's or their father's face. +How does that happen? We want Dylan to be able to do that, and using this mantra of motion, Dylan actually can do that. +So, given that kind of video input, with just about six or seven minutes worth of video, Dylan can begin to extract patterns that include faces. +So, it's an important demonstration of the power of motion. +The clinical implication, it comes from the domain of autism. +Visual integration has been associated with autism by several researchers. +When we saw that, we asked: Could the impairment in visual integration be the manifestation of something underneath, of dynamic information processing deficiencies in autism? +Because, if that hypothesis were to be true, it would have massive repercussions in our understanding of what's causing the many different aspects of the autism phenotype. +What you're going to see are video clips of two children -- one neurotypical, one with autism, playing Pong. +So, while the child is playing Pong, we are tracking where they're looking. +In red are the eye movement traces. +This is the neurotypical child, and what you see is that the child is able to make cues of the dynamic information to predict where the ball is going to go. +Even before the ball gets to a place, the child is already looking there. +Contrast this with a child with autism playing the same game. +Instead of anticipating, the child always follows where the ball has been. +The efficiency of the use of dynamic information seems to be significantly compromised in autism. +So we are pursuing this line of work and hopefully we'll have more results to report soon. +Looking ahead, if you think of this disk as representing all of the children we've treated so far, this is the magnitude of the problem. +The red dots are the children we have not treated. +So, there are many, many more children who need to be treated, and in order to expand the scope of the project, we are planning on launching The Prakash Center for Children, which will have a dedicated pediatric hospital, a school for the children we are treating and also a cutting-edge research facility. +The Prakash Center will integrate health care, education and research in a way that truly creates the whole to be greater than the sum of the parts. +And for my students and I, it's been just a phenomenal experience because we have gotten to do interesting research, while at the same time helping the many children that we have worked with. +Thank you very much. +I think it was in my second grade that I was caught drawing the bust of a nude by Michelangelo. +I had no clue what she was talking about, but it was convincing enough for me never to draw again until the ninth grade. +Thanks to a really boring lecture, I started caricaturing my teachers in school. +And, you know, I got a lot of popularity. +I don't play sports. I'm really bad at sports. +I don't have the fanciest gadgets at home. +I'm not on top of the class. +So for me, cartooning gave me a sense of identity. +I got popular, but I was scared I'd get caught again. +So what I did was I quickly put together a collage of all the teachers I had drawn, glorified my school principal, put him right on top, and gifted it to him. +He had a good laugh at the other teachers and put it up on the notice board. +This is a part of that. +And I became a school hero. +All my seniors knew me. I felt really special. +I have to tell you a little bit about my family. +That's my mother. I love her to bits. +She's the one who taught me how to draw and, more importantly, how to love. +She's a bit of a hippie. +She said, "Don't say that," but I'm saying it anyway. +The rest of my family are boring academics, busy collecting Ivy League decals for our classic Ambassador car. +My father's a little different. +My father believed in a holistic approach to living, and, you know, every time he taught us, he'd say, "I hate these books, because these books are hijacked by Industrial Revolution." +And he was very impressed. He was all tearing up. Ready to hug me. +And I said, "Hold that thought." +I said, "Can I quit school then?" +But, to cut a long story short, I quit school to pursue a career as a cartoonist. +I must have done about 30,000 caricatures. +I would do birthday parties, weddings, divorces, anything for anyone who wanted to use my services. +But, most importantly, while I was traveling, I taught children cartooning, and in exchange, I learned how to be spontaneous. +And mad and crazy and fun. +When I started teaching them, I said let me start doing this professionally. +When I was 18 I started my own school. +However, an 18 year-old trying to start a school is not easy unless you have a big patron or a big supporter. +So I was flipping through the pages of the Times of India when I saw that the Prime Minister of India was visiting my home town, Bangalore. +And, you know, just like how every cartoonist knows Bush here, and if you had to meet Bush, it would be the funnest thing because his face was a cartoonist's delight. +I had to meet my Prime Minister. +I went to the place where his helicopter was about to land. +I saw layers of security. +I caricatured my way through three layers by just impressing the guards, but I got stuck. I got stuck at the third. +And what happened was, to my luck, I saw a nuclear scientist at whose party I had done cartoons. +I ran up to him, and said, "Hello, sir. How do you do?" +He said, "What are you doing here, Raghava?" +I said, "I'm here to meet the Prime Minister." +He said, "Oh, so am I." +I hopped into his car, and off we went through the remaining layers of security. +Thank you. +I sat him down, I caricatured him, and since then I've caricatured hundreds of celebrities. +This is one I remember fondly. +Salman Rushdie was pissed-off I think because I altered the map of New York, if you notice. +Anyway, the next slide I'm about to show you -- Should I just turn that off? +The next slide I'm about to show you, is a little more serious. +I was hesitant to include this in my presentation because this cartoon was published soon after 9/11. +What was, for me, a very naive observation, turned out to be a disaster. +That evening, I came home to hundreds of hate mails, hundreds of people telling me how they could have lived another day without seeing this. +I was also asked to leave the organization, a cartoonists' organization in America, that for me was my lifeline. +That's when I realized, you know, cartoons are really powerful, art comes with responsibility. +Anyway, what I did was I decided that I need to take a break. +I quit my job at the papers, I closed my school, and I wrapped up my pencils and my brushes and inks, and I decided to go traveling. +When I went traveling, I remember, I met this fabulous old man, who I met when I was caricaturing, who turned out to be an artist, in Italy. +He invited me to his studio. He said, "Come and visit." +When I went, I saw the ghastliest thing ever. +I saw this dead, naked effigy of himself hanging from the ceiling. +I said, "Oh, my God. What is that?" +And I asked him, and he said, "Oh, that thing? In the night, I die. +In the morning, I am born again." +I thought he was koo koo, but something about that really stuck. +I loved it. I thought there was something really beautiful about that. +So I said, "I am dead, so I need to be born again." +So, I wanted to be a painter like him, except, I don't know how to paint. +So, I tried going to the art store. +You know, there are a hundred types of brushes. +Forget it, they will confuse you even if you know how to draw. +So I decided, I'm going to learn to paint by myself. +I'm going to show you a very quick clip to show you how I painted and a little bit about my city, Bangalore. +They had to be larger than life. +Everything had to be larger. The next painting was even bigger. +And even bigger. +And for me it was, I had to dance while I painted. +It was so exciting. +Except, I even started painting dancers. +Here for example is a Flamenco dancer, except there was one problem. +I didn't know the dance form, so I started following them, and I made some money, sold my paintings and would rush off to France or Spain and work with them. +That's Pepe Linares, the renowned Flamenco singer. +But I had one problem, my paintings never danced. +As much energy as I put into them while making them, they never danced. +So I decided -- I had this crazy epiphany at two in the morning. +I called my friends, painted on their bodies, and had them dance in front of a painting. +And, all of a sudden, my paintings came alive. +And then I was fortunate enough to actually perform this in California with Velocity Circus. +And I sat like you guys there in the audience. +And I saw my work come alive. +You know, normally you work in isolation, and you show at a gallery, but here, the work was coming alive, and it had some other artists working with me. +The collaborative effort was fabulous. +I said, I'm going to collaborate with anybody and everybody I meet. +I started doing fashion. +This is a fashion show we held in London. +The best collaboration, of course, is with children. +They are ruthless, they are honest, but they're full of energy and fun. +This is a work, a library I designed for the Robin Hood Foundation. +And I must say, I spent time in the Bronx working with these kids. +And, in exchange for me working with them, they taught me how to be cool. +I don't think I've succeeded, but they've taught me. +They said, "Stop saying sorry. Say, my bad." +Then I said, all this is good, but I want to paint like a real painter. +American education is so expensive. +I was in India, and I was walking down the streets, and I saw a billboard painter. +And these guys paint humongous paintings, and they look really good. +And I wondered how they did it from so close. +So, one day I had the opportunity to meet one of these guys, and I said, "How do you paint like that? Who taught you?" +And he said, "Oh, it's very easy. I can teach you, but we're leaving the city, because billboard painters are a dying, extinct bunch of artists, because digital printing has totally replaced them and hijacked them." +I said, in exchange for education in how to paint, I will support them, and I started a company. +And since then, I've been painting all over the place. +This is a painting I did of my wife in my apartment. +This is another painting. +And, in fact, I started painting on anything, and started sending them around town. +Since I mentioned my wife, the most important collaboration has been with her, Netra. +Netra and I met when she was 18. +I must have been 19 and a half then, and it was love at first sight. +I lived in India. She lived in America. +She'd come every two months to visit me, and then I said I'm the man, I'm the man, and I have to reciprocate. +I have to travel seven oceans, and I have to come and see you. +I did that twice, and I went broke. +So then I said, "Nets, what do I do?" +She said, "Why don't you send me your paintings? +My dad knows a bunch of rich guys. +We'll try and con them into buying it, and then..." +But it turned out, after I sent the works to her, that her dad's friends, like most of you, are geeks. +I'm joking. +No, they were really big geeks, and they didn't know much about art. +So Netra was stuck with 30 paintings of mine. +So what we did was we rented a little van and we drove all over the east coast trying to sell it. +She contacted anyone and everyone who was willing to buy my work. +She made enough money, she sold off the whole collection and made enough money to move me for four years with lawyers, a company, everything, and she became my manager. +That's us in New York. +Notice one thing, we're equal here. +Something happened along the line. +But this brought me -- with Netra managing my career -- it brought me a lot of success. +I was really happy. I thought of myself as a bit of a rockstar. +I loved the attention. +This is all the press we got, and we said, it's time to celebrate. +And I said that the best way to celebrate is to marry Netra. +I said, "Let's get married." +And I said, "Not just married. Let's invite everyone who's helped us, all the people who bought our work." +And you won't believe it, we put together a list of 7,000 people, who had made a difference -- a ridiculous list, but I was determined to bring them to India, so -- a lot of them were in India. +150 artists volunteered to help me with my wedding. +We had fashion designers, installation artists, models, we had makeup artists, jewelry designers, all kinds of people working with me to make my wedding an art installation. +And I had a special installation in tribute to my in-laws. +I had the vegetable carvers work on that for me. +But all this excitement led to the press writing about us. +We were in the papers, we're still in the news three years later, but, unfortunately, something tragic happened right after. +My mother fell very ill. +I love my mother and I was told all of a sudden that she was going to die. +And they said you have to say bye to her, you have to do what you have to do. +And I was devastated. +I had shows booked up for another year. +I was on a high. +And I couldn't. I could not. +My life was not exuberant. +I could not live this larger than life person. +I started exploring the darker abscesses of the human mind. +Of course, my work turned ugly, but another thing happened. +I lost all my audiences. +The Bollywood stars who I would party with and buy my work disappeared. +The collectors, the friends, the press, everyone said, "Nice, but thank you." +"No thank you," was more like it. +But I wanted people to actually feel my work from their gut, because I was painting it from my gut. +If they wanted beauty, I said, this is the beauty I'm willing to give you. It's politicized. +Of course, none of them liked it. +My works also turned autobiographical. +At this point, something else happened. +A very, very dear friend of mine came out of the closet, and in India at that time, it was illegal to be gay, and it's disgusting to see how people respond to a gay person. +I was very upset. +I remember the time when my mother used to dress me up as a little girl -- that's me there -- because she wanted a girl, and she has only boys. +Anyway, I don't know what my friends are going to say after this talk. +It's a secret. +So, after this, my works turned a little violent. +I talked about this masculinity that one need not perform. +And I talked about the weakness of male sexuality. +This time, not only did my collectors disappear, the political activists decided to ban me and to threaten me and to forbid me from showing. +It turned nasty, and I'm a bit of a chicken. +I can't deal with any threat. This was a big threat. +So, I decided it was time to end and go back home. +This time I said let's try something different. +I need to be reborn again. +And I thought the best way, as most of you know who have children, the best way to have a new lease on life, is to have a child. +I decided to have a child, and before I did that, I quickly studied what can go wrong. +How can a family get dysfunctional? +And Rudra was born. +That's my little son. +And two magical things happened after he was born. +My mother miraculously recovered after a serious operation, and this man was elected president of this country. +You know I sat at home and I watched. +I teared up and I said that's where I want to be. +So Netra and I wound up our life, closed up everything we had, and we decided to move to New York. +And this was just eight months ago. +I moved back to New York, my work has changed. +Everything about my work has become more whimsical. +This one is called "What the Fuck Was I Thinking?" +It talks about mental incest. +You know, I may appear to be a very nice, clean, sweet boy. +But I'm not. I'm capable of thinking anything. +But I'm very civil in my action, I assure you. +These are just different cartoons. +And, before I go, I want to tell you a little story. +I was talking to mother and father this morning, and my dad said, "I know you have so much you want to say, but you have to talk about your work with children." +So I said, okay. +I work with children all over the world, and that's an entirely different talk, but I want to leave you with one story that really, really inspired me. +I met Belinda when she was 16. +I was 17. +I was in Australia, and Belinda had cancer, and I was told she's not going to live very long. +They, in fact, told me three weeks. +I walk into her room, and there was a shy girl, and she was bald, and she was trying to hide her baldness. +I whipped out my pen, and I started drawing on her head and I drew a crown for her. +And then, we started talking, and we spent a lovely time -- I told her how I ended up in Australia, how I backpacked and who I conned, and how I got a ticket, and all the stories. +And I drew it out for her. +And then I left. +Belinda died and within a few days of her death, they published a book for her, and she used my cartoon on the cover. +And she wrote a little note, she said, "Hey Rags, thank you for the magic carpet ride around the world." +For me, my art is my magic carpet ride. +I hope you will join me in this magic carpet ride, and touch children and be honest. +Thank you so much. +So, what I'm going to do is just give you the latest episode of India's -- maybe the world's -- longest running soap opera, which is cricket. +And may it run forever, because it gives people like me a living. +It's got everything that you'd want a normal soap opera to want: It's got love, joy, happiness, sadness, tears, laughter, lots of deceit, intrigue. +And like all good soaps, it jumps 20 years when the audience interest changes. +And that's exactly what cricket has done. +It's jumped 20 years into 20-over game. +And that's what I'm going to talk about, how a small change leads to a very big revolution. +But it wasn't always like that. +Cricket wasn't always this speed-driven generations game. +There was a time when you played cricket, you played timeless test matches, when you played on till the game got over. +And there was this game in March 1939 that started on the third of March and ended on the 14th of March. +And it only ended because the English cricketers had to go from Durban to Cape Town, which is a two-hour train journey, to catch the ship that left on the 17th, because the next ship wasn't around for a long time. +So, the match was ended in between. +And one of the English batsmen said, "You know what? +Another half an hour and we would have won." +Another half an hour after 12 days. +There were two Sundays in between. But of course, Sundays are church days, so you don't play on Sundays. And one day it rained, so they all sat around making friends with each other. +But there is a reason why India fell in love with cricket: because we had about the same pace of life. +The Mahabharata was like that as well, wasn't it? +You fought by day, then it was sunset, so everyone went back home. +And then you worked out your strategy, and you came and fought the next day, and you went back home again. +The only difference between the Mahabharata and our cricket was that in cricket, everybody was alive to come back and fight the next day. +Princes patronize the game, not because they love the game, but because it was a means of ingratiating themselves to the British rulers. +But there is one other reason why India fell in love with cricket, which was, all you needed was a plank of wood and a rubber ball, and any number of people could play it anywhere. +Take a look: You could play it in the dump with some rocks over there, you could play it in a little alley -- you couldn't hit square anywhere, because the bat hit the wall; don't forget the air conditioning and the cable wires. +You could play it on the banks of the Ganges -- that's as clean as the Ganges has been for a long time. +Or you could play many games in one small patch of land, even if you didn't know which game you were actually in. +As you can see, you can play anywhere. +But slowly the game moved on, you know, finally. +You don't always have five days. So, we moved on, and we started playing 50-over cricket. +And then an enormous accident took place. +In Indian sport we don't make things happen, accidents happen and we're in the right place at the right time, sometimes. +And we won this World Cup in 1983. +And suddenly we fell in love with the 50-over game, and we played it virtually every day. +There was more 50-over cricket than anywhere. +But there was another big date. +1983 was when we won the World Cup. +1991,'92, we found a finance minister and a prime minister willing to let the world look at India, rather than be this great country of intrigue and mystery in this closed country. +And so we allowed multinationals into India. +We cut customs duties, we reduced import duties, and we got all the multinationals coming in, with multinational budgets, who looked at per-capita income and got very excited about the possibilities in India, and were looking for a vehicle to reach every Indian. +And there are only two vehicles in India -- one real, one scripted. +The scripted one is what you see in the movies, the real one was cricket. +And so one of my friends sitting right here in front of me, Ravi Dhariwal from Pepsi, decided he's going to take it all over the world. +And Pepsi was this big revolution, because they started taking cricket all over. +And so cricket started becoming big; cricket started bringing riches in. +Television started covering cricket. For a long time television said, "We won't cover cricket unless you pay us to cover it." +Then they said, "OK, the next rights are sold for 55 million dollars. +The next rights are sold for 612 million dollars." +So, it's a bit of a curve, that. +And then another big accident happened in our cricket. +England invented 20 overs cricket, and said, "The world must play 20 overs cricket." +Just as England invented cricket, and made the rest of the world play it. +Thank God for them. +And so, India had to go and play the T20 World Cup, you see. +India didn't want to play the T20 World Cup. +But we were forced to play it by an 8-1 margin. +And then something very dramatic happened. +We got to the final, and then this moment, that will remain enshrined forever, for everybody, take a look. +(Crowd cheering) The Pakistani batsman trying to clear the fielder. +Announcer: And Zishan takes it! India wins! +What a match for a Twenty20 final. +India, the world champions. +India, T20 champions. +But what a game we had, M. S. Dhoni got it right in the air, but Misbah-ul-Haq, what a player. +A massive, massive success: India, the world TT champions. +Harsha Bhogle: Suddenly India discovered this power of 20-overs cricket. +The accident, of course, there, was that the batsman thought the bowler was bowling fast. +If he had bowled fast, the ball would have gone where it was meant to go, but it didn't go. And we suddenly discovered that we could be good at this game. +And what it also did was it led to a certain pride in the fact that India could be the best in the world. +It was at a time when investment was coming in, India was feeling a little more confident about itself. +And so there was a feeling that there was great pride in what we can do. +And thankfully for all of us, the English are very good at inventing things, and then the gracious people that they are, they let the world become very good at it. +And so England invented T20 cricket, and allowed India to hijack it. +It was not like reengineering that we do in medicine, we just took it straight away, as is. +And so, we launched our own T20 league. +Six weeks, city versus city. +It was a new thing for us. We had only ever supported our country -- the only two areas in which India was very proud about their country, representing itself on the field. +One was war, the Indian army, which we don't like to happen very often. +The other was Indian cricket. +Now, suddenly we had to support city leagues. +But the people getting into these city leagues were people who were taking their cues from the West. +America is a home of leagues. And they said, "Right, we'll build some glitzy leagues here in India." +But was India ready for it? +Because cricket, for a long time in India was always organized. +It was never promoted, it was never sold -- it was organized. +And look what they did with our beautiful, nice, simple family game. +All of a sudden, you had that happening. +An opening ceremony to match every other. +This was an India that was buying Corvettes. This was an India that was buying Jaguar. +This was an India that was adding more mobile phones per month than New Zealand's population twice over. +So, it was a different India. +But it was also a slightly more orthodox India that was very happy to be modern, but didn't want to say that to people. +And so, they were aghast when the cheerleaders arrived. +Everyone secretly watched them, but everyone claimed not to. +The new owners of Indian cricket were not the old princes. +They were not bureaucrats who were forced into sport because they didn't actually love it; these were people who ran serious companies. +And so they started promoting cricket big time, started promoting clubs big time. +And they've started promoting them with huge money behind it. +But what they were very good at doing was making it very localized. +So, just to give you an example of how they did it -- not Manchester United style promotion, but very Mumbai style promotion. Take a look. +Of course, a lot of people said, "Maybe they dance better than they play." +But that's all right. What it did also is it changed the way we looked at cricket. +All along, if you wanted a young cricketer, you picked him up from the bylanes of your own little locality, your own city, and you were very proud of the system that produced those cricketers. +Now, all of the sudden, if you were to bowl a shot -- if Mumbai were to bowl a shot, for example, they needn't go to Kalbadevi or Shivaji Park or somewhere to source them, they could go to Trinidad. +This was the new India, wasn't it? This was the new world, where you can source from anywhere as long as you get the best product at the best price. +And all of a sudden, Indian sport had awakened to the reality that you can source the best product for the best price anywhere in the world. +So, the Mumbai Indians flew in Dwayne Bravo from Trinidad and Tobago, overnight. And when he had to go back to represent the West Indies, they asked him, "When do you have to reach?" +He said, "I have to be there by a certain time, so I have to leave today." +We said, "No, no, no. It's not about when you have to leave; it's about when do you have to reach there?" +And so he said, "I've got to reach on date X." +And they said, "Fine, you play to date X, minus one." +So, he played in Hyderabad, went, straight after the game, went from the stadium to Hyderabad airport, sat in a private corporate jet -- first refueling in Portugal, second refueling in Brazil; he was in West Indies in time. +Never would India have thought on this scale before. +Never would India have said, "I want a player to play one game for me, and I will use a corporate jet to send him all the way back to Kingston, Jamaica to play a game." +And I just thought to myself, "Wow, we've arrived somewhere in the world, you know? +We have arrived somewhere. We are thinking big." +But what this also did was it started marrying the two most important things in Indian cricket, which is cricket and the movies in Indian entertainment. +There is cricket and the movies. +And they came together because people in the movies now started owning clubs. +And so, people started going to the cricket to watch Preity Zinta. +They started going to the cricket to watch Shah Rukh Khan. +And something very interesting happened. +We started getting song and dance in Indian cricket. +And so it started resembling the Indian movies more and more. +And of course, if you were on Preity Zinta's team -- as you will see on the clip that follows -- if you did well, you got a hug from Preity Zinta. +So that was the ultimate reason to do well. Take a look -- everyone's watching Preity Zinta. +And then of course there was Shah Rukh playing the Kolkata crowd. +We'd all seen matches in Kolkata, but we'd never seen anything like this: Shah Rukh, with the Bengali song, getting the audiences all worked up for Kolkata -- not for India, but for Kolkata. +But take a look at this. +An Indian film star hugging a Pakistani cricketer because they'd won in Kolkata. +Can you imagine? +And do you know what the Pakistani cricketer said? +"I wish I was playing for Preity Zinta's team." +But I thought I'd take this opportunity -- there's a few people from Pakistan in here. +I'm so happy that you're here because I think we can show that we can both be together and be friends, right? +We can play cricket together, we can be friends. +So thank you very much for coming, all of you from Pakistan. +There was criticism too because they said, "Players are being bought and sold? +Are they grain? +Are they cattle?" +Because we had this auction, you see. +How do you fix a price for a player? +And so the auction that followed literally had people saying, "Bang! so many million dollars for so-and-so player." +There it is. +Auctioneer: Going at 1,500,000 dollars. Chennai. +Shane Warne sold for 450,000 dollars. +HB: Suddenly, a game which earned its players 50 rupees a day -- so 250 rupees for a test match, but if you finish in four days you only got 200. +The best Indian players who played every test match -- every one of the internationals, the top of the line players -- standard contracts are 220,000 dollars in a whole year. +Now they were getting 500,000 for six days' work. +Then Andrew Flintoff came by from England, he got one and a half million dollars, and he went back and said, "For four weeks, I'm earning more than Frank Lampard and Steven Gerrard, and I'm earning more than the footballers, wow." +And where was he earning it from? From a little club in India. +Could you have imagined that day would come? +One and a half million dollars for six weeks' work. +That's not bad, is it? +So, at 2.3 billion dollars before the first ball was bowled. +What India was doing, though, was benchmarking itself against the best in the world, and it became a huge brand. +Lalit Modi was on the cover of Business Today. +IPL became the biggest brand in India and, because our elections, had to be moved to South Africa, and we had to start the tournament in three weeks. +Move a whole tournament to South Africa in three weeks. +But we did it. You know why? +Because no country works as slowly as we do till three weeks before an event, and nobody works fast as we do in the last three weeks. +Our population, which for a long time we thought was a problem, suddenly became our biggest asset because there were more people watching -- the huge consuming class -- everybody came to watch the cricket. +We'd also made cricket the only sport in India, which is a pity, but in India every other sport pushes cricket to become big, which is a bit of a tragedy of our times. +Now, this last minute before I go -- there's a couple of side effects of all this. +For a long time, India was this country of poverty, dust, beggars, snake charmers, filth, Delhi belly -- people heard Delhi belly stories before they came. +And, all of a sudden, India was this land of opportunity. +Cricketers all over the world said, "You know, we love India. We love to play in India." +And that felt good, you know? +We said, "The dollar's quite powerful actually." +Can you imagine, you've got the dollar on view and there's no Delhi belly in there anymore. +There's no filth, there's no beggars, all the snake charmers have vanished, everybody's gone. This tells you how the capitalist world rules. +Right so, finally, an English game that India usurped a little bit, but T20 is going to be the next missionary in the world. +If you want to take the game around the world, it's got to be the shortest form of the game. +You can't take a timeless test to China and sit through 14 days with no result in the end, or you can't take it all over the world. +So that's what T20 is doing. +Hopefully, it'll make everyone richer, hopefully it'll make the game bigger and hopefully it'll give cricket commentators more time in the business. +Thank you very much. Thank you. +I'm Jon M. Chu. And I'm not a dancer, I'm not a choreographer -- I'm actually a filmmaker, a storyteller. +I directed a movie two years ago called "Step Up 2: The Streets." +Anybody? Anybody? Yeah! +During that movie I got to meet a ton of hip-hop dancers -- amazing, the best in the world -- and they brought me into a society, the sort of underground street culture that blew my mind. +I mean, this is literally human beings with super-human strength and abilities. +They could fly in the air. They could bend their elbow all the way back. +They could spin on their heads for 80 times in a row. +I'd never seen anything like that. +When I was growing up, my heroes were people like Fred Astaire, Gene Kelly, Michael Jackson. +I grew up in a musical family. +And those guys, those were like, ultimate heroes. +Being a shy, little, skinny Asian kid growing up in the Silicon Valley with low self-esteem, those guys made me believe in something bigger. +Those guys made me want to, like, "I'm going to do that moonwalk at that bar mitzvah tonight for that girl." +And it seems like those dance heroes have disappeared, sort of relegated to the background of pop stars and music videos. +But after seeing what I've seen, the truth is, they have not disappeared at all. +They're here, getting better and better every day. +And dance has progressed. +It is insane what dance is right now. +Dance has never had a better friend than technology. +Online videos and social networking ... +And this is happening every day. +And from these bedrooms and living rooms and garages, with cheap webcams, lies the world's great dancers of tomorrow. +Our Fred Astaires, our Gene Kellys our Michael Jacksons are right at our fingertips, and may not have that opportunity, except for us. +So, we created the LXD, sort of a -- the Legion of Extraordinary Dancers, a justice league of dancers that believe that dance can have a transformative effect on the world. +A living, breathing comic book series, but unlike Spiderman and Iron Man, these guys can actually do it. +And we're going to show you some today. So, let me introduce to you, some of our heroes right now. +We got Madd Chadd, Lil' C, Kid David and J Smooth. +Please be excited, have fun, yell, scream. +Ladies and gentlemen: The LXD. +: Madd Chadd: When people first see me, I get a lot of different reactions actually. +Sometimes you would think that maybe kids would enjoy it, but sometimes they get a little freaked out. +And, I don't know, I kind of get a kick out of that a little bit. +J Smooth: When I'm in the zone -- I'm dancing and free styling it -- I actually visually kind of picture lines, and moving them. +I think of like, Transformers, like how panels open and then they fold, they fold in, and then you close that panel. +And then another thing opens, you close that. +Kid David: It's kind of like, honestly a lot of times I don't really know what's going on when I'm dancing. +Because at that point it's just really like, it's my body and the music. +It's not really a conscious decision, "I'm going to do this next, I'm going to do this." +It's kind of like this other level where you can't make choices anymore, and it's just your body reacting to certain sounds in the music. +I got my name just because I was so young. +I was young when I started. I was younger than a lot of the people I was dancing with. +So, it was always like, they called me Kid David, because I was the kid. +L'il C: I tell them to create a ball, and then you just use that ball of energy. +And instead of throwing it out, people would think that's a krump move, that's a krump move. +That's not a krump move. You're going to throw it out, you throw it out, and you hold it. +And you let it go, and then right when you see the tail, you grab it by the tail, then you bring it back in. +And you just got this piece of energy and you just, you're manipulating it. +You know, you create power, then you tame it. +So, today I'm back just to show you a few things, to show you, in fact, there is an open data movement afoot, now, around the world. +The cry of "Raw data now!" +which I made people make in the auditorium, was heard around the world. +So, let's roll the video. +A classic story, the first one which lots of people picked up, was when in March -- on March 10th in fact, soon after TED -- Paul Clarke, in the U.K. government, blogged, "Oh, I've just got some raw data. Here it is, it's about bicycle accidents." +Two days it took the Times Online to make a map, a mashable map -- we call these things mash-ups -- a mashed-up user interface that allows you to go in there and have a look and find out whether your bicycle route to work was affected. +Here's more data, traffic survey data, again, put out by the U.K. government, and because they put it up using the Linked Data standards, then a user could just make a map, just by clicking. +Does this data affect things? Well, let's get back to 2008. +Look at Zanesville, Ohio. +Here's a map a lawyer made. He put on it the water plant, and which houses are there, which houses have been connected to the water. +And he got, from other data sources, information to show which houses are occupied by white people. +Well, there was too much of a correlation, he felt, between which houses were occupied by white people and which houses had water, and the judge was not impressed either. +The judge was not impressed to the tune of 10.9 million dollars. +That's the power of taking one piece of data, another piece of data, putting it together, and showing the result. +Let's look at some data from the U.K. now. +This is U.K. government data, a completely independent site, Where Does My Money Go. +It allows anybody to go there and burrow down. +You can burrow down by a particular type of spending, or you can go through all the different regions and compare them. +So, that's happening in the U.K. with U.K. government data. +Yes, certainly you can do it over here. +Here's a site which allows you to look at recovery spending in California. +Take an arbitrary example, Long Beach, California, you can go and have a look at what recovery money they've been spending on different things such as energy. +In fact, this is the graph of the number of data sets in the repositories of data.gov, and data.gov.uk. +And I'm delighted to see a great competition between the U.K. in blue, and the U.S. in red. +How can you use this stuff? +Well, for example, if you have lots of data about places you can take, from a postcode -- which is like a zip plus four -- for a specific group of houses, you can make paper, print off a paper which has got very, very specific things about the bus stops, the things specifically near you. +On a larger scale, this is a mash-up of the data which was released about the Afghan elections. +It allows you to set your own criteria for what sort of things you want to look at. +The red circles are polling stations, selected by your criteria. +And then you can select also other things on the map to see what other factors, like the threat level. +So, that was government data. +I also talked about community-generated data -- in fact I edited some. +This is the wiki map, this is the Open Street Map. +"Terrace Theater" I actually put on the map because it wasn't on the map before TED last year. +I was not the only person editing the open street map. +Each flash on this visualization -- put together by ITO World -- shows an edit in 2009 made to the Open Street Map. +Let's now spin the world during the same year. +Every flash is an edit. Somebody somewhere looking at the Open Street Map, and realizing it could be better. +You can see Europe is ablaze with updates. +Some places, perhaps not as much as they should be. +Here focusing in on Haiti. +The map of Port au-Prince at the end of 2009 was not all it could be, not as good as the map of California. +Fortunately, just after the earthquake, GeoEye, a commercial company, released satellite imagery with a license, which allowed the open-source community to use it. +This is January, in time lapse, of people editing ... that's the earthquake. +After the earthquake, immediately, people all over the world, mappers who wanted to help, and could, looked at that imagery, built the map, quickly building it up. +We're focusing now on Port-au-Prince. +The light blue is refugee camps these volunteers had spotted from the [satellite images]. +So, now we have, immediately, a real-time map showing where there are refugee camps -- rapidly became the best map to use if you're doing relief work in Port-au-Prince. +Witness the fact that it's here on this Garmin device being used by rescue team in Haiti. +There's the map showing, on the left-hand side, that hospital -- actually that's a hospital ship. +This is a real-time map that shows blocked roads, damaged buildings, refugee camps -- it shows things that are needed [for rescue and relief work]. +So, if you've been involved in that at all, I just wanted to say: Whatever you've been doing, whether you've just been chanting, "Raw data now!" +or you've been putting government or scientific data online, I just wanted to take this opportunity to say: Thank you very much, and we have only just started! +I only have three minutes so I'm going to have to talk fast, and it will use up your spare mental cycles, so multitasking may be hard. +So, 27 years ago I got a traffic ticket that got me thinking. +I've had some time to think it over. +And energy efficiency is more than just about the vehicle -- it's also about the road. +Road design makes a difference, particularly intersections, of which there are two types: signalized and unsignalized, which means stop signs. +Fifty percent of crashes happen at intersections. +Roundabouts are much better. +A study of 24 intersections has found crashes drop 40 percent from when you convert a traffic light into a roundabout. +Injury crashes have dropped 76 percent, fatal crashes down 90 percent. +But that's just safety. +What about time and gas? +So, traffic keeps flowing, so that means less braking, which means less accelerating, less gas and less pollution, less time wasted, and that partly accounts for Europe's better efficiency than we have in the United States. +So, unsignalized intersections, meaning stop signs, they save many lives, but there's an excessive proliferation of them. +Small roundabouts are starting to appear. +This is one in my neighborhood. And they are much better -- better than traffic lights, better than four-way stop signs. +They're expensive to install, but they are more expensive not to. So, we should look at that. +But they are not applicable in all situations. +So, take, for example, the three-way intersection. +So, it's logical that you'd have one there, on the minor road entering the major. +But the other two are somewhat questionable. +So, here's one. There's another one which I studied. +Cars rarely appear on that third road. +And so, the question is, what does that cost us? +That intersection I looked at had about 3,000 cars per day in each direction, and so that's two ounces of gas to accelerate out of. +That's five cents each, and times 3,000 cars per day, that's $51,000 per year. +That's just the gasoline cost. There is also pollution, wear on the car, and time. +What's that time worth? +Well, at 10 seconds per 3,000 cars, that's 8.3 hours per day. The average wage in the U.S. +is $20 an hour. That is 60,000 per year. +Add that together with the gas, and it's $112,000 per year, just for that sign in each direction. +Discount that back to the present, at five percent: over two million dollars for a stop sign, in each direction. +Now, if you look at what that adjacent property is worth, you could actually buy the property, cut down the shrubbery to improve the sight line, and then sell it off again. +And you'd still come out ahead. +So, it makes one wonder, "Why is it there?" +I mean, why is there that stop sign in each direction? +Because it is saving lives. So, is there a better way to accomplish that goal? +The answer is to enable cars to come in from that side road safely. +Because there are a lot of people who might live up there and if they're waiting forever a long queue could form because the cars aren't slowing down on the main road. +Can that be accomplished with existing signs? +So, there is a long history of stop signs and yield signs. +Stop signs were invented in 1915, yield signs in 1950. But that's all we got. +So, why not use a yield sign? +Well the meaning of yield is: You must yield the right-of-way. +That means that if there are five cars waiting, you have to wait till they all go, then you go. It lacks the notion of alternating, or taking turns, and it's always on the minor road, allowing the major one to have primacy. +So, it's hard to create a new meaning for the existing sign. +You couldn't suddenly tell everyone, "OK, remember what you used to do at yield signs? Now do something different." +That would not work. +So, what the world needs now is a new type of sign. +So, you'd have a little instruction below it, you know, for those who didn't see the public service announcements. +And it merges the stop sign and yield signs. +It's kind of shaped like a T, as in taking turns. +And uncertainty results in caution. +When people come to an unfamiliar situation they don't know how to deal with they slow down. +So, now that you are all "Road Scholars" ... +don't wait for that sign to be adopted, these things don't change quickly. +But you all are members of communities, and you can exercise your community influence to create more sensible traffic flows. +And you can have more impact on the environment just getting your neighborhood to change these things than by changing your vehicle. Thank you very much. +OK. We've heard a lot of people speak at this conference about the power of the human mind. +And what I'd like to do today is give you a vivid example of how that power can be unleashed when someone is in a survival situation, how the will to survive can bring that out in people. +This is an incident which occurred on Mount Everest; it was the worst disaster in the history of Everest. +And when it occurred, I was the only doctor on the mountain. +So I'll take you through that and we'll see what it's like when someone really summons the will to survive. +OK, this is Mount Everest. +It's 29,035 feet high. +I've been there six times: Four times I did work with National Geographic, making tectonic plate measurements; twice, I went with NASA doing remote sensing devices. +It was on my fourth trip to Everest that a comet passed over the mountain. Hyakutake. +And the Sherpas told us then that was a very bad omen, and we should have listened to them. +Everest is an extreme environment. +There's only one-third as much oxygen at the summit as there is at sea level. +Near the summit, temperatures can be 40 degrees below zero. +You can have winds 20 to 40 miles an hour. +It's actually a wind-chill factor which is lower than a summer day on Mars. +I remember one time being up near the summit, I reached into my down jacket for a drink from my water bottle, inside my down jacket, only to discover that the water was already frozen solid. +That gives you an idea of just how severe things are near the summit. +OK, this is the route up Everest. +It starts at base camp, at 17,500 feet. +Camp One, 2,000 feet higher. +Camp Two, another 2,000 feet higher up, what's called the Western Cwm. +CampThree is at the base of Lhotse, which is the fourth highest mountain in the world, but it's dwarfed by Everest. +And then Camp Four is the highest camp; that's 3,000 feet short of the summit. +This is a view of base camp. +This is pitched on a glacier at 17,500 feet. +It's the highest point you can bring your yaks before you have to unload. +And this is what they unloaded for me: I had four yak loads of medical supplies, which are dumped in a tent, and here I am trying to arrange things. +This was our expedition. +It was a National Geographic expedition, but it was organized by The Explorers Club. +There were three other expeditions on the mountain, an American team, a New Zealand team and an IMAX team. +And, after actually two months of preparation, we built our camps all the way up the mountain. +This is a view looking up the icefall, the first 2,000 feet of the climb up from base camp. +And here's a picture in the icefall; it's a waterfall, but it's frozen, but it moves very slowly, and it actually changes every day. +When you're in it, you're like a rat in a maze; you can't even see over the top. +This is near the top of the icefall. +You want to climb through at night when the ice is frozen. +That way, it's less likely to tumble down on you. +These are some climbers reaching the top of the icefall just at sun-up. +This is me crossing a crevasse. +We cross on aluminum ladders with safety ropes attached. +That's another crevasse. +Some of these things are 10 stories deep or more, and one of my climbing friends says that the reason we actually climb at night is because if we ever saw the bottom of what we're climbing over, we would never do it. +Okay. This is Camp One. +It's the first flat spot you can reach after you get up to the top of the icefall. +And from there we climb up to Camp Two, which is sort of the foreground. +These are climbers moving up the Lhotse face, that mountain toward Camp Three. +They're on fixed ropes here. +A fall here, if you weren't roped in, would be 5,000 feet down. +This is a view taken from camp three. +You can see the Lhotse face is in profile, it's about a 45 degree angle. It takes two days to climb it, so you put the camp halfway through. +If you notice, the summit of Everest is black. +There's no ice over it. +And that's because Everest is so high, it's in the jet stream, and winds are constantly scouring the face, so no snow gets to accumulate. +What looks like a cloud behind the summit ridge is actually snow being blown off the summit. +This is on the way up from Camp Three to Camp Four, moving in, up through the clouds. +And this is at Camp Four. +Once you get to Camp Four, you have maybe 24 hours to decide if you're going to go for the summit or not. +Everybody's on oxygen, your supplies are limited, and you either have to go up or go down, make that decision very quickly. +This is a picture of Rob Hall. +He was the leader of the New Zealand team. +This is a radio he used later to call his wife that I'll tell you about. +These are some climbers waiting to go to the summit. +They're up at Camp Four, and you can see that there's wind blowing off the summit. +This is not good weather to climb in, so the climbers are just waiting, hoping that the wind's going to die down. +And, in fact, the wind does die down at night. +It becomes very calm, there's no wind at all. +This looks like a good chance to go for the summit. +So here are some climbers starting out for the summit on what's called the Triangular Face. +It's the first part of climb. +It's done in the dark, because it's actually less steep than what comes next, and you can gain daylight hours if you do this in the dark. +So that's what happened. +The climbers got on the southeast ridge. +This is the view looking at the southeast ridge. +The summit would be in the foreground. +From here, it's about 1,500 feet up at a 30-degree angle to the summit. +But what happened that year was the wind suddenly and unexpectedly picked up. +A storm blew in that no one was anticipating. +You can see here some ferocious winds blowing snow way high off the summit. +And there were climbers on that summit ridge. +This is a picture of me in that area taken a year before, and you can see I've got an oxygen mask on with a rebreather. +I have an oxygen hose connected here. +You can see on this climber, we have two oxygen tanks in the backpack -- little titanium tanks, very lightweight -- and we're not carrying much else. +This is all you've got. You're very exposed on the summit ridge. +OK, this is a view taken on the summit ridge itself. +This is on the way toward the summit, on that 1,500-foot bridge. +All the climbers here are climbing unroped, and the reason is because the drop off is so sheer on either side that if you were roped to somebody, you'd wind up just pulling them off with you. +So each person climbs individually. +And it's not a straight path at all, it's very difficult climbing, and there's always the risk of falling on either side. +If you fall to your left, you're going to fall 8,000 feet into Nepal; if you fall to your right, you're going to fall 12,000 feet into Tibet. +So it's probably better to fall into Tibet because you'll live longer. +But, either way, you fall for the rest of your life. +OK. Those climbers were up near the summit, along that summit ridge that you see up there, and I was down here in Camp Three. +My expedition was down in Camp Three, while these guys were up there in the storm. +The storm was so fierce that we had to lay, fully dressed, fully equipped, laid out on the tent floor to stop the tent from blowing off the mountain. +It was the worst winds I've ever seen. +And the climbers up on the ridge were that much higher, 2,000 feet higher, and completely exposed to the elements. +We were in radio contact with some of them. +This is a view taken along the summit ridge. +Rob Hall, we heard by radio, was up here, at this point in the storm with Doug Hansen. +And we heard that Rob was OK, but Doug was too weak to come down. +He was exhausted, and Rob was staying with him. +We also got some bad news in the storm that Beck Weathers, another climber, had collapsed in the snow and was dead. +There were still 18 other climbers that we weren't aware of their condition. +They were lost. There was total confusion on the mountain; all the stories were confusing, most of them were conflicting. +We really had no idea what was going on during that storm. +We were just hunkered down in our tents at Camp Three. +Our two strongest climbers, Todd Burleson and Pete Athans, decided to go up to try to rescue who they could even though there was a ferocious storm going. +They tried to radio a message to Rob Hall, who was a superb climber stuck, sort of, with a weak climber up near the summit. +I expected them to say to Rob, "Hold on. We're coming." +But in fact, what they said was, "Leave Doug and come down yourself. +There's no chance of saving him, and just try to save yourself at this point." +And Rob got that message, but his answer was, "We're both listening." +Todd and Pete got up to the summit ridge, up in here, and it was a scene of complete chaos up there. +But they did what they could to stabilize the people. +I gave them radio advice from Camp Three, and we sent down the climbers that could make it down under their own power. +The ones that couldn't we just sort of decided to leave up at Camp Four. +So the climbers were coming down along this route. +This is taken from Camp Three, where I was. +And they all came by me so I could take a look at them and see what I could do for them, which is really not much, because Camp Three is a little notch cut in the ice in the middle of a 45-degree angle. +You can barely stand outside the tent. +It's really cold; it's 24,000 feet. +The only supplies I had at that altitude were two plastic bags with preloaded syringes of painkiller and steroids. +So, as the climbers came by me, I sort of assessed whether or not they were in condition to continue on further down. +The ones that weren't that lucid or were not that well coordinated, I would give an injection of steroids to try to give them some period of lucidity and coordination where they could then work their way further down the mountain. +It's so awkward to work up there that sometimes I even gave the injections right through their clothes. +It was just too hard to maneuver any other way up there. +While I was taking care of them, we got more news about Rob Hall. +There was no way we could get up high enough to rescue him. +He called in to say that he was alone now. +Apparently, Doug had died higher up on the mountain. +But Rob was now too weak to come down himself, and with the fierce winds and up at that altitude, he was just beyond rescue and he knew it. +At that point, he asked to be paged into his wife. +He was carrying a radio. +His wife was home in New Zealand, seven months pregnant with their first child, and Rob asked to be patched into her. That was done, and Rob and his wife had their last conversation. +They picked the name for their baby. +Rob then signed off, and that was the last we ever heard of him. +I was faced with treating a lot of critically ill patients at 24,000 feet, which was an impossibility. +So what we did was, we got the victims down to 21,000 feet, where it was easier for me to treat them. +This was my medical kit. +It's a tackle box filled with medical supplies. +This is what I carried up the mountain. +I had more supplies lower down, which I asked to be brought up to meet me at the lower camp. +And this was scene at the lower camp. +The survivors came in one by one. +Some of them were hypothermic, some of them were frostbitten, some were both. +What we did was try to warm them up as best we could, put oxygen on them and try to revive them, which is difficult to do at 21,000 feet, when the tent is freezing. +This is some severe frostbite on the feet, severe frostbite on the nose. +This climber was snow blind. +As I was taking care of these climbers, we got a startling experience. +Out of nowhere, Beck Weathers, who we had already been told was dead, stumbled into the tent, just like a mummy, he walked into the tent. +I expected him to be incoherent, but, in fact, he walked into the tent and said to me, "Hi, Ken. Where should I sit?" +And then he said, "Do you accept my health insurance?" +He really said that. +So he was completely lucid, but he was very severely frostbitten. +You can see his hand is completely white; his face, his nose, is burned. +First, it turns white, and then when it's completed necrosis, it turns black, and then it falls off. +It's the last stage, just like a scar. +So, as I was taking care of Beck, he related what had been going on up there. +He said he had gotten lost in the storm, collapsed in the snow, and just laid there, unable to move. +Some climbers had come by and looked at him, and he heard them say, "He's dead." +But Beck wasn't dead; he heard that, but he was completely unable to move. +He was in some sort of catatonic state where he could be aware of his surroundings, but couldn't even blink to indicate that he was alive. +So the climbers passed him by, and Beck lay there for a day, a night and another day, in the snow. +And then he said to himself, "I don't want to die. +I have a family to come back to." +And the thoughts of his family, his kids and his wife, generated enough energy, enough motivation in him, so that he actually got up. +After laying in the snow that long a time, he got up and found his way back to the camp. +And Beck told me that story very quietly, but I was absolutely stunned by it. +I couldn't imagine anybody laying in the snow that long a time and then getting up. +He apparently reversed an irreversible hypothermia. +And I can only try to speculate on how he did it. +So, what if we had Beck hooked up to a SPECT scan, something that could actually measure brain function? +So let's take a cut through the brain here, and imagine that Beck was hooked up to a SPECT scan. +This measures dynamic blood flow and therefore energy flow within the brain. +So you have the prefrontal cortex here, lighting up in red. +This is a pretty evenly distributed scan. +You have the middle area, where the temporal lobe might be, in here, and the posterior portion, where the maintenance functions are in the back. +This is a roughly normal scan, showing equal distribution of energy. +Now, you go to this one and you see how much more the frontal lobes are lighting up. +This might be what Beck would be experiencing when he realizes he's in danger. +He's focusing all his attention on getting himself out of trouble. +These parts of the brain are quieting down. +He's not thinking about his family or anybody else at this point, and he's working pretty hard. +He's trying to get his muscles going and get out of this. +OK, but he's losing ground here. +He's running out of energy. +It's too cold; he can't keep his metabolic fires going, and, you see, there's no more red here; his brain is quieting down. +He's collapsed in the snow here. Everything is quiet, there's very little red anywhere. +Beck is powering down. +He's dying. +You go on to the next scan, but, in Beck's case, you can see that the middle part of his brain is beginning to light up again. +He's beginning to think about his family. +He's beginning to have images that are motivating him to get up. +He's developing energy in this area through thought. +And this is how he's going to turn thought back into action. +This part of the brain is called the anterior cingulate gyrus. +It's an area in which a lot of neuroscientists believe the seat of will exists. +This is where people make decisions, where they develop willpower. +And, you can see, there's an energy flow going from the mid portion of his brain, where he's got images of his family, into this area, which is powering his will. +Okay. This is getting stronger and stronger to the point where it's actually going to be a motivating factor. +He's going to develop enough energy in that area -- after a day, a night and a day -- to actually motivate himself to get up. +And you can see here, he's starting to get more energy into the frontal lobe. +He's beginning to focus, he can concentrate now. +He's thinking about what he's got to do to save himself. +So this energy has been transmitted up toward the front of his brain, and it's getting quieter down here, but he's using this energy to think about what he has to do to get himself going. +And then, that energy is sort of spreading throughout his thought areas. +He's not thinking about his family now, and he's getting himself motivated. +This is the posterior part, where his muscles are going to be moving, and he's going to be pacing himself. +His heart and lungs are going to pick up speed. +So this is what I can speculate might have been going on had we been able to do a SPECT scan on Beck during this survival epic. +So here I am taking care of Beck at 21,000 feet, and I felt what I was doing was completely trivial compared to what he had done for himself. +It just shows you what the power of the mind can do. +He was critically ill, there were other critically ill patients; luckily, we were able to get a helicopter in to rescue these guys. +A helicopter came in at 21,000 feet and carried out the highest helicopter rescue in history. +It was able to land on the ice, take away Beck and the other survivors, one by one, and get them off to Kathmandu in a clinic before we even got back to base camp. +This is a scene at base camp, at one of the camps where some of the climbers were lost. +And we had a memorial service there a few days later. +These are Serphas lighting juniper branches. +They believe juniper smoke is holy. +And the climbers stood around on the high rocks and spoke of the climbers who were lost up near the summit, turning to the mountain, actually, to talk to them directly. +There were five climbers lost here. +This was Scott Fischer, Rob Hall, Andy Harris, Doug Hansen and Yasuko Namba. +And one more climber should have died that day, but didn't, and that's Beck Weathers. +He was able to survive because he was able to generate that incredible willpower, he was able to use all the power of his mind to save himself. +These are Tibetan prayer flags. +These Sherpas believe that if you write prayers on these flags, the message will be carried up to the gods, and that year, Beck's message was answered. +Thank you. +I'm going to talk to you today about my work on suspended animation. +Now, usually when I mention suspended animation, people will flash me the Vulcan sign and laugh. +But now, I'm not talking about gorking people out to fly to Mars or even Pandora, as much fun as that may be. +I'm talking about the concept of using suspended animation to help people out in trauma. +So what do I mean when I say "suspended animation"? +It is the process by which animals de-animate, appear dead and then can wake up again without being harmed. +OK, so here is the sort of big idea: If you look out at nature, you find that as you tend to see suspended animation, you tend to see immortality. +And so, what I'm going to tell you about is a way to tell a person who's in trauma -- find a way to de-animate them a bit so they're a little more immortal when they have that heart attack. +An example of an organism or two that happens to be quite immortal would be plant seeds or bacterial spores. +These creatures are some of the most immortal life forms on our planet, and they tend to spend most of their time in suspended animation. +Bacterial spores are thought now by scientists to exist as individual cells that are alive, but in suspended animation for as long as 250 million years. +To suggest that this all, sort of, about little, tiny creatures, I want to bring it close to home. +In the immortal germ line of human beings -- that is, the eggs that sit in the ovaries -- they actually sit there in a state of suspended animation for up to 50 years in the life of each woman. +So then there's also my favorite example of suspended animation. +This is Sea-Monkeys. +Those of you with children, you know about them. +You go to the pet store or the toy store, You just open the bag, and you just dump them into the plastic aquarium, and in about a week or so, you'll have little shrimps swimming around. +Well, I wasn't so interested in the swimming. +I was interested in what was going on in the bag, the bag on the toy store shelf where those shrimp sat in suspended animation indefinitely. +So these ideas of suspended animation are not just about cells and weird, little organisms. +Occasionally, human beings are briefly de-animated, and the stories of people who are briefly de-animated that interest me the most are those having to do with the cold. +Ten years ago, there was a skier in Norway that was trapped in an icy waterfall, and she was there for two hours before they extracted her. +She was extremely cold, and she had no heartbeat -- for all intents and purposes she was dead, frozen. +Seven hours later, still without a heartbeat, they brought her back to life, and she went on to be the head radiologist in the hospital that treated her. +A couple of years later -- so I get really excited about these things -- about a couple of years later, there was a 13-month-old, she was from Canada. +Her father had gone out in the wintertime; he was working night shift, and she followed him outside in nothing but a diaper. +And they found her hours later, frozen, lifeless, and they brought her back to life. +There was a 65-year-old woman in Duluth, Minnesota last year that was found frozen and without a pulse in her front yard one morning in the winter, and they brought her back to life. +The next day, she was doing so well, they wanted to run tests on her. +She got cranky and just went home. +So, these are miracles, right? +These are truly miraculous things that happen. +Doctors have a saying that, in fact, "You're not dead until you're warm and dead." +And it's true. It's true. +In the New England Journal of Medicine, there was a study published that showed that with appropriate rewarming, people who had suffered without a heartbeat for three hours could be brought back to life without any neurologic problems. +That's over 50 percent. +So what I was trying to do is think of a way that we could study suspended animation to think about a way to reproduce, maybe, what happened to the skier. +Well, I have to tell you something very odd, and that is that being exposed to low oxygen does not always kill. +So, in this room, there's 20 percent oxygen or so, and if we reduce the oxygen concentration, we will all be dead. +And, in fact, the animals we were working with in the lab -- these little garden worms, nematodes -- they were also dead when we exposed them to low oxygen. +And here's the thing that should freak you out. +And that is that, when we lower the oxygen concentration further by 100 times, to 10 parts per million, they were not dead, they were in suspended animation, and we could bring them back to life without any harm. +And this precise oxygen concentration, 10 parts per million, that caused suspended animation, is conserved. +We can see it in a variety of different organisms. +One of the creatures we see it in is a fish. +And we can turn its heartbeat on and off by going in and out of suspended animation like you would a light switch. +So this was pretty shocking to me, that we could do this. +And so I was wondering, when we were trying to reproduce the work with the skier, that we noticed that, of course, she had no oxygen consumption, and so maybe she was in a similar state of suspended animation. +But, of course, she was also extremely cold. +So we wondered what would happen if we took our suspended animals and exposed them to the cold. +And so, what we found out was that, if you take animals that are animated like you and I, and you make them cold -- that is, these were the garden worms -- now they're dead. +But if you have them in suspended animation, and move them into the cold, they're all alive. +And there's the very important thing there: If you want to survive the cold, you ought to be suspended. Right? +It's a really good thing. +And so, we were thinking about that, about this relationship between these things, and thinking about whether or not that's what happened to the skier. +And so we wondered: Might there be some agent that is in us, something that we make ourselves, that we might be able to regulate our own metabolic flexibility in such a way as to be able to survive when we got extremely cold, and might otherwise pass away? +I thought it might be interesting to sort of hunt for such things. +You know? +I should mention briefly here that physiology textbooks that you can read about will tell you that this is a kind of heretical thing to suggest. +We have, from the time we are slapped on the butt until we take our last dying breath -- that's when we're newborn to when we're dead -- we cannot reduce our metabolic rate below what's called a standard, or basal metabolic rate. +But I knew that there were examples of creatures, also mammals, that do reduce their metabolic rate such as ground squirrels and bears, they reduce their metabolic rate in the wintertime when they hibernate. +So I wondered: Might we be able to find some agent or trigger that might induce such a state in us? +And so, we went looking for such things. +And this was a period of time when we failed tremendously. +Ken Robinson is here. He talked about the glories of failure. +Well, we had a lot of them. +We tried many different chemicals and agents, and we failed over and over again. +So, one time, I was at home watching television on the couch while my wife was putting our child to bed, and I was watching a television show. +It was a television show -- it was a NOVA show on PBS -- about caves in New Mexico. +And this particular cave was Lechuguilla, and this cave is incredibly toxic to humans. +The researchers had to suit up just to enter it. +It's filled with this toxic gas, hydrogen sulfide. +Now, hydrogen sulfide is curiously present in us. +We make it ourselves. +The highest concentration is in our brains. +Yet, it was used as a chemical warfare agent in World War I. +It's an extraordinarily toxic thing. +In fact, in chemical accidents, hydrogen sulfide is known to -- if you breathe too much of it, you collapse to the ground, you appear dead, but if you were brought out into room air, you can be reanimated without harm, if they do that quickly. +So, I thought, "Wow, I have to get some of this." +Now, it's post-9/11 America, and when you go into the research institute, and you say, "Hi. +I'd like to buy some concentrated, compressed gas cylinders of a lethal gas because I have these ideas, see, about wanting to suspend people. +It's really going to be OK." +So that's kind of a tough day, but I said, "There really is some basis for thinking why you might want to do this." +As I said, this agent is in us, and, in fact, here's a curious thing, it binds to the very place inside of your cells where oxygen binds, and where you burn it, and that you do this burning to live. +And so we thought, like in a game of musical chairs, might we be able to give a person some hydrogen sulfide, and might it be able to occupy that place like in a game of musical chairs where oxygen might bind? +And because you can't bind the oxygen, maybe you wouldn't consume it, and then maybe it would reduce your demand for oxygen. +I mean, who knows? +So -- So, there's the bit about the dopamine and being a little bit, what do you call it, delusional, and you might suggest that was it. +And so, we wanted to find out might we be able to use hydrogen sulfide in the presence of cold, and we wanted to see whether we could reproduce this skier in a mammal. +Now, mammals are warm-blooded creatures, and when we get cold, we shake and we shiver, right? +We try to keep our core temperature at 37 degrees by actually burning more oxygen. +So, it was interesting for us when we applied hydrogen sulfide to a mouse when it was also cold because what happened is the core temperature of the mouse got cold. +It stopped moving. +It appeared dead. +Its oxygen consumption rate fell by tenfold. +And here's the really important point. +I told you hydrogen sulfide is in us. +It's rapidly metabolized, and all you have to do after six hours of being in this state of de-animation is simply put the thing out in room air, and it warms up, and it's none the worse for wear. +Now, this was cosmic. +Really. Because we had found a way to de-animate a mammal, and it didn't hurt it. +Now, we'd found a way to reduce its oxygen consumption to rock-bottom levels, and it was fine. +Now, in this state of de-animation, it could not go out dancing, but it was not dead, and it was not harmed. +So, we wondered: Can we do anything useful with this capacity to control metabolic flexibility? +And one of the things we wondered -- I'm sure some of you out there are economists, and you know all about supply and demand. +And when supply is equal to demand, everything's fine, but when supply falls, in this case of oxygen, and demand stays high, you're dead. +So, what I just told you is we can now reduce demand. +We ought to be able to lower supply to unprecedented low levels without killing the animal. +And with money we got from DARPA, we could show just that. +If you give mice hydrogen sulfide, you can lower their demand for oxygen, and you can put them into oxygen concentrations that are as low as 5,000 feet above the top of Mt. Everest, and they can sit there for hours, and there's no problem. +Well this was really cool. +We also found out that we could subject animals to otherwise lethal blood loss, and we could save them if we gave them hydrogen sulfide. +So these proof of concept experiments led me to say "I should found a company, and we should take this out to a wider playing field." +I founded a company called Ikaria with others' help. +And this company, the first thing it did was make a liquid formulation of hydrogen sulfide an injectable form that we could put in and send it out to physician scientists all over the world who work on models of critical care medicine, and the results are incredibly positive. +In one model of heart attack, animals given hydrogen sulfide showed a 70 percent reduction in heart damage compared to those who got the standard of care that you and I would receive if we were to have a heart attack here today. +Same is true for organ failure, when you have loss of function owing to poor perfusion of kidney, of liver, acute respiratory distress syndrome and damage suffered in cardiac-bypass surgery. +So, these are the thought leaders in trauma medicine all over the world saying this is true, so it seems that exposure to hydrogen sulfide decreases damage that you receive from being exposed to otherwise lethal-low oxygen. +And I should say that the concentrations of hydrogen sulfide required to get this benefit are low, incredibly low. +In fact, so low that physicians will not have to lower or dim the metabolism of people much at all to see the benefit I just mentioned, which is a wonderful thing, if you're thinking about adopting this. +You don't want to be gorking people out just to save them, it's really confusing. +So, I want to say that we're in human trials. +Now, and so -- Thank you. The Phase 1 safety studies are over, and we're doing fine, we're now moved on. +We have to get to Phase 2 and Phase 3. It's going to take us a few years. +This has all moved very quickly, and the mouse experiments of hibernating mice happened in 2005; the first human studies were done in 2008, and we should know in a couple of years whether it works or not. +And this all happened really quickly because of a lot of help from a lot of people. +I want to mention that, first of all, my wife, without whom this talk and my work would not be possible, so thank you very much. +Also, the brilliant scientists who work at my lab and also others on staff, the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center in Seattle, Washington -- wonderful place to work. +And also the wonderful scientists and businesspeople at Ikaria. +And this gas that is delivered in over a thousand critical care hospitals worldwide, now is approved, on label, and saves thousands of babies a year from certain death. +So it's really incredible for me to be a part of this. +Their metabolism will fall as though you were dimming a switch on a lamp at home. +And then, they will have the time, that will buy them the time, to be transported to the hospital to get the care they need. +And then, after they get that care -- like the mouse, like the skier, like the 65-year-old woman -- they'll wake up. +A miracle? +We hope not, or maybe we just hope to make miracles a little more common. +Thank you very much. +If you think about the phone -- and Intel has tested a lot of the things I'm going to show you, over the last 10 years, in about 600 elderly households -- 300 in Ireland, and 300 in Portland -- trying to understand: How do we measure and monitor behavior in a medically meaningful way? +And if you think about the phone, right, it's something that we can use for some incredible ways to help people actually take the right medication at the right time. +We're testing these kinds of simple sensor-network technologies in the home so that any phone that a senior is already comfortable with can help them deal with their medications. +And a lot of what they do is they pick up the phone, and it's our system whispering to them which pill they need to take, and they fake like they're having a conversation with a friend. +And they're not embarrassed by a meds caddy that's ugly, that sits on their kitchen table and says, "I'm old. I'm frail." +It's surreptitious technology that's helping them do a simple task of taking the right pill at the right time. +Now, we also do some pretty amazing things with these phones. +Because that moment when you answer the phone is a cognitive test every time that you do it. +Think about it, all right? I'm going to answer the phone three different times. +"Hello? Hey." +All right? That's the first time. +"Hello? Uh, hey." +"Hello? Uh, who? +Oh, hey." +All right? Very big differences between the way I answered the phone the three times. +Waiting for that recognition moment may be the best early indicator of the onset of dementia than anything that shows up clinically today. +We call these behavioral markers. +There's lots of others. Is the person going to the phone as quickly, when it rings, as they used to? +Is it a hearing problem or is it a physicality problem? +Has their voice gotten more quiet? We're doing a lot of work with people with Alzheimer's and particularly with Parkinson's, where that quiet voice that sometimes shows up with Parkinson's patients may be the best early indicator of Parkinson's five to 10 years before it shows up clinically. +But those subtle changes in your voice over a long period of time are hard for you or your spouse to notice until it becomes so extreme and your voice has become so quiet. +So, sensors are looking at that kind of voice. +When you pick up the phone, how much tremor are you having, and what is that like, and what is that trend like over a period of time? +Are you having more trouble dialing the phone than you used to? +Is it a dexterity problem? Is it the onset of arthritis? +Are you using the phone? Are you socializing less than you used to? +And looking at that pattern. And what does that decline in social health mean, as a kind of a vital sign of the future? +And then wow, what a radical idea, we -- except in the United States -- might be able to use this newfangled technology to actually interact with a nurse or a doctor on the other end of the line. +Wow, what a great day that will be once we're allowed to actually do those kinds of things. +So, these are what I would call behavioral markers. +And it's the whole field that we've been trying to work on for the last 10 years at Intel. +How do you put simple disruptive technologies, and the first of five phrases that I'm going to talk about in this talk? +Behavioral markers matter. +How do we change behavior? +How do we measure changes in behavior in a meaningful way that's going to help us with prevention of disease, early onset of disease, and tracking the progression of disease over a long period of time? +Now, why would Intel let me spend a lot of time and money, over the last 10 years, trying to understand the needs of seniors and start thinking about these kinds of behavioral markers? +This is some of the field work that we've done. +We have now lived with 1,000 elderly households in 20 countries over the last 10 years. +We study people in Rochester, New York. +We go live with them in the winter because what they do in the winter, and their access to healthcare, and how much they socialize, is very different than in the summer. +If they have a hip fracture we go with them and we study their entire discharge experience. +If they have a family member who is a key part of their care network, we fly and study them as well. +So, we study the holistic health experience of 1,000 seniors over the last 10 years in 20 different countries. +Why is Intel willing to fund that? +It's because of the second slogan that I want to talk about. +Ten years ago, when I started trying to convince Intel to let me go start looking at disruptive technologies that could help with independent living, this is what I called it: "Y2K + 10." +You know, back in 2000, we were all so obsessed with paying attention to the aging of our computers, and whether or not they were going to survive the tick of the clock from 1999 to 2000, that we missed a moment that only demographers were paying attention to. +It was right around New Years. +And that switchover, when we had the larger number of older people on the planet, for the first time than younger people. +For the first time in human history -- and barring aliens landing or some major other pandemic, that's the expectation from demographers, going forward. +And 10 years ago it seemed like I had a lot of time to convince Intel to work on this. Right? +Y2K + 10 was coming, the baby boomers starting to retire. +Well folks, it's like we know these demographics here. +This is a map of the entire world. +It's like the lights are on, but nobody's home on this demographic Y2K + 10 problem. Right? +I mean we sort of get it here, but we don't get it here, and we're not doing anything about it. +The health reform bill is largely ignoring the realities of the age wave that's coming, and the implications for what we need to do to change not only how we pay for care, but deliver care in some radically different ways. +And in fact, it's upon us. +I mean you probably saw these headlines. This is Catherine Casey who is the first boomer to actually get Social Security. +That actually occurred this year. She took early retirement. +She was born one second after midnight in 1946. +A retired school teacher, there she is with a Social Security administrator. +The first boomer actually, we didn't even wait till 2011, next year. +We're already starting to see early retirement occur this year. +All right, so it's here. This Y2K + 10 problem is at our door. +This is 50 tsunamis scheduled on the calendar, but somehow we can't sort of marshal our government and innovative forces to sort of get out in front of it and do something about it. We'll wait until it's more of a catastrophe, and react, as opposed to prepare for it. +So, one of the reasons it's so challenging to prepare for this Y2K problem is, I want to argue, we have what I would call mainframe poisoning. +Andy Grove, about six or seven years ago, he doesn't even know or remember this, in a Fortune Magazine article he used the phrase "mainframe healthcare," and I've been extending and expanding this. +He saw it written down somewhere. He's like, "Eric that's a really cool concept." +I was like, "Actually it was your idea. You said it in a Fortune Magazine article. +I just extended it." +You know, this is the mainframe. +This mentality of traveling to and timesharing large, expensive healthcare systems actually began in 1787. +This is the first general hospital in Vienna. +And actually the second general hospital in Vienna, in about 1850, was where we started to build out an entire curriculum for teaching med students specialties. +And it's a place in which we started developing architecture that literally divided the body, and divided care into departments and compartments. +And it was reflected in our architecture, it was reflected in the way that we taught students, and this mainframe mentality persists today. +Now, I'm not anti-hospital. +With my own healthcare problems, I've taken drug therapies, I've traveled to this hospital and others, many, many times. +But we worship the high hospital on a hill. Right? +And this is mainframe healthcare. +We have to shift from this mainframe mentality of healthcare to a personal model of healthcare. +We are obsessed with this way of thinking. +When Intel does surveys all around the world and we say, "Quick response: healthcare." +The first word that comes up is "doctor." +The second that comes up is "hospital." And the third is "illness" or "sickness." Right? +We are wired, in our imagination, to think about healthcare and healthcare innovation as something that goes into that place. +Our entire health reform discussion right now, health I.T., when we talk with policy makers, equals "How are we going to get doctors using electronic medical records in the mainframe?" +We're not thinking about how do we shift from the mainframe to the home. +And the problem with this is the way we conceive healthcare. Right? +This is a very reactive, crisis-driven system. +We're doing 15-minute exams with patients. +It's population-based. +We collect a bunch of biological information in this artificial setting, and we fix them up, like Humpty-Dumpty all over again, and send them home, and hope -- we might hand them a brochure, maybe an interactive website -- that they do as asked and don't come back into the mainframe. +And the problem is we can't afford it today, folks. +We can't afford mainframe healthcare today to include the uninsured. +And now we want to do a double-double of the age wave coming through? +Business as usual in healthcare is broken and we've got to do something different. +We've got to focus on the home. +We've got to focus on a personal healthcare paradigm that moves care to the home. How do we be more proactive, prevention-driven? +How do we collect vital signs and other kinds of information 24 by 7? +How do we get a personal baseline about what's going to work for you? +How do we collect not just biological data but behavioral data, psychological data, relational data, in and on and around the home? +And how do we drive compliance to be a customized care plan that uses all this great technology that's around us to change our behavior? +That's what we need to do for our personal health model. +I want to give you a couple of examples. This is Mimi from one of our studies -- in her 90s, had to move out of her home because her family was worried about falls. +Raise your hand if you had a serious fall in your household, or any of your loved ones, your parents or so forth. Right? +Classic. Hip fracture often leads to institutionalization of a senior. +This is what was happening to Mimi; the family was worried about it, moved her out of her own home into an assisted living facility. +She tripped over her oxygen tank. +Many people in this generation won't press the button, even if they have an alert call system, because they don't want to bother anybody, even though they've been paying 30 dollars a month. +Boomers will press the button. Trust me. +They're going to be pressing that button non-stop. Right? +Mimi broke her pelvis, lay all night, all morning, finally somebody came in and found her, sent her to the hospital. +They fixed her back up. She was never going to be able to move back into the assisted living. They put her into the nursing home unit. +Now, the most frightening thing about this is this is my wife's grandmother. +Now, I'm Eric Dishman. I speak English, I work for Intel, I make a good salary, I'm smart about falls and fall-related injuries -- it's an area of research that I work on. +I have access to senators and CEOs. +I can't stop this from happening. +What happens if you don't have money, you don't speak English or don't have the kind of access to deal with these kinds of problems that inevitably occur? +How do we actually prevent the vast majority of falls from ever occurring in the first place? +Let me give you a quick example of work that we're doing to try to do exactly that. +I've been wearing a little technology that we call Shimmer. +It's a research platform. +It has accelerometry. You can plug in a three-lead ECG. +There is all kinds of sort of plug-and-play kind of Legos that you can do to capture, in the wild, in the real world, things like tremor, gait, stride length and those kinds of things. +The problem is, our understanding of falls today, like Mimi, is get a survey in the mail three months after you fell, from the State, saying, "What were you doing when you fell?" +That's sort of the state of the art. +And most often we can do two interventions, fix the meds mix. +I'm a qualitative researcher, but when I look at these data streams coming in from these homes, I can look at the data and tell you the day that some doctor prescribed them something that nobody else knew that they were on, because we see the changes in their patterns in the household. Right? +These discoveries of behavioral markers, and behavioral changes are game changing, and like the discovery of the microscope because of our collecting data streams that we've actually never done before. +This is an example in our TRIL Clinic in Ireland of -- actually what you're seeing is she's looking at data, in this picture, from the Magic Carpet. +So, we have a little carpet that you can look at your amount of postural sway, and look at the changes in your postural sway over many months. +Here's what some of this data might look like. +This is actually sensor firings. +These are two different subjects in our study. +It's about a year's worth of data. +The color represents different rooms they are in the house. +This person on the left is living in their own home. +This person on the right is actually living in an assisted living facility. +I know this because look at how punctuated meal time is when they are no longer in their particular rooms here. Right? +Now, this doesn't mean that much to you. +You can go to ORCATech.org -- it has nothing to do with whales, it's the Oregon Center for Aging and Technology -- to see more about that. +The problem is, Intel is still one of the largest funders in the world of independent living technology research. +I'm not bragging about how much we fund; it's how little anyone else actually pays attention to aging and funds innovation on aging, chronic disease management and independent living in the home. +So, my mantra here, my fourth slogan is: 10,000 households or bust. +So, 10,000 households or bust. +These are just some of the households that we've done in the Intel studies. +It doesn't matter how we finance healthcare. +We're going to figure something out for the next 10 years, and try it. +No matter who pays for it, we better start doing care in a fundamentally different way and treating the home and the patient and the family member and the caregivers as part of these coordinated care teams and using disruptive technologies that are already here to do care in some pretty fundamental different ways. +The president needs to stand up and say, at the end of a healthcare reform debate, "Our goal as a country is to move 50 percent of care out of institutions, clinics, hospitals and nursing homes, to the home, in 10 years." +It's achievable. We should do it economically, we should do it morally, and we should do it for quality of life. +But there is no goal within this health reform. +It's just a mess today. +So, you know, that's my last message to you. +How do we set a going-to-the-moon goal of dealing with the Y2K +10 problem that's coming? +It's not that innovation and technology is going to be the magic pill that cures all, but it's going to be part of the solution. +And if we don't create a personal health movement, something that we're all aiming towards in reform, then we're going to move nowhere. +So, I hope you'll turn this conference into that kind of movement forward. +Thanks very much. +So, I was just asked to go and shoot this film called "Elizabeth." +And we're all talking about this great English icon and saying, "She's a fantastic woman, she does everything. +How are we going to introduce her?" +So we went around the table with the studio and the producers and the writer, and they came to me and said, "Shekhar, what do you think?" +And I said, "I think she's dancing." +And I could see everybody looked at me, somebody said, "Bollywood." +The other said, "How much did we hire him for?" +And the third said, "Let's find another director." +I thought I had better change. +So we had a lot of discussion on how to introduce Elizabeth, and I said, "OK, maybe I am too Bollywood. +Maybe Elizabeth, this great icon, dancing? +What are you talking about?" +So I rethought the whole thing, and then we all came to a consensus. +And here was the introduction of this great British icon called "Elizabeth." +Leicester: May I join you, my lady? +Elizabeth: If it please you, sir. +Shekhar Kapur: So she was dancing. +So how many people who saw the film did not get that here was a woman in love, that she was completely innocent and saw great joy in her life, and she was youthful? +And how many of you did not get that? +That's the power of visual storytelling, that's the power of dance, that's the power of music: the power of not knowing. +When I go out to direct a film, every day we prepare too much, we think too much. +Knowledge becomes a weight upon wisdom. +You know, simple words lost in the quicksand of experience. +So I come up, and I say, "What am I going to do today?" I'm not going to do what I planned to do, and I put myself into absolute panic. +It's my one way of getting rid of my mind, getting rid of this mind that says, "Hey, you know what you're doing. You know exactly what you're doing. +You're a director, you've done it for years." +So I've got to get there and be in complete panic. +It's a symbolic gesture. I tear up the script, I go and I panic myself, I get scared. +I'm doing it right now; you can watch me. I'm getting nervous, I don't know what to say, I don't know what I'm doing, I don't want to go there. +And as I go there, of course, my A.D. says, "You know what you're going to do, sir." I say, "Of course I do." +And the studio executives, they would say, "Hey, look at Shekhar. He's so prepared." +And inside I've just been listening to Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan because he's chaotic. +I'm allowing myself to go into chaos because out of chaos, I'm hoping some moments of truth will come. +All preparation is preparation. +I don't even know if it's honest. +I don't even know if it's truthful. +The truth of it all comes on the moment, organically, and if you get five great moments of great, organic stuff in your storytelling, in your film, your film, audiences will get it. +So I'm looking for those moments, and I'm standing there and saying, "I don't know what to say." +So, ultimately, everybody's looking at you, 200 people at seven in the morning who got there at quarter to seven, and you arrived at seven, and everybody's saying, "Hey. What's the first thing? What's going to happen?" +And you put yourself into a state of panic where you don't know, and so you don't know. +You're looking for something that comes and hits you. +Until that hits you, you're not going to do the first shot. +So what do you do? +So Cate says, "Shekhar, what do you want me to do?" +And I say, "Cate, what do you want to do?" "You're a great actor, and I like to give to my actors -- why don't you show me what you want to do?" +What am I doing? I'm trying to buy time. +I'm trying to buy time. +So the first thing about storytelling that I learned, and I follow all the time is: Panic. +Panic is the great access of creativity because that's the only way to get rid of your mind. +Get rid of your mind. +Get out of it, get it out. +And let's go to the universe because there's something out there that is more truthful than your mind, that is more truthful than your universe. +[unclear], you said that yesterday. I'm just repeating it because that's what I follow constantly to find the shunyata somewhere, the emptiness. +Out of the emptiness comes a moment of creativity. +So that's what I do. +When I was a kid -- I was about eight years old. +You remember how India was. There was no pollution. +In Delhi, we used to live -- we used to call it a chhat or the khota. +Khota's now become a bad word. It means their terrace -- and we used to sleep out at night. +At school I was being just taught about physics, and I was told that if there is something that exists, then it is measurable. +If it is not measurable, it does not exist. +And at night I would lie out, looking at the unpolluted sky, as Delhi used to be at that time when I was a kid, and I used to stare at the universe and say, "How far does this universe go?" +My father was a doctor. +And I would think, "Daddy, how far does the universe go?" +And he said, "Son, it goes on forever." +So I said, "Please measure forever because in school they're teaching me that if I cannot measure it, it does not exist. +It doesn't come into my frame of reference." +So, how far does eternity go? +What does forever mean? +And I would lie there crying at night because my imagination could not touch creativity. +So what did I do? +At that time, at the tender age of seven, I created a story. +What was my story? +And I don't know why, but I remember the story. +There was a woodcutter who's about to take his ax and chop a piece of wood, and the whole galaxy is one atom of that ax. +And when that ax hits that piece of wood, that's when everything will destroy and the Big Bang will happen again. +But all before that there was a woodcutter. +And then when I would run out of that story, I would imagine that woodcutter's universe is one atom in the ax of another woodcutter. +So every time, I could tell my story again and again and get over this problem, and so I got over the problem. +How did I do it? Tell a story. +So what is a story? +A story is our -- all of us -- we are the stories we tell ourselves. +In this universe, and this existence, where we live with this duality of whether we exist or not and who are we, the stories we tell ourselves are the stories that define the potentialities of our existence. +We are the stories we tell ourselves. +So that's as wide as we look at stories. +A story is the relationship that you develop between who you are, or who you potentially are, and the infinite world, and that's our mythology. +We tell our stories, and a person without a story does not exist. +So Einstein told a story and followed his stories and came up with theories and came up with theories and then came up with his equations. +Alexander had a story that his mother used to tell him, and he went out to conquer the world. +We all, everybody, has a story that they follow. +We tell ourselves stories. +So, I will go further, and I say, "I tell a story, and therefore I exist." +I exist because there are stories, and if there are no stories, we don't exist. +We create stories to define our existence. +If we do not create the stories, we probably go mad. +I don't know; I'm not sure, but that's what I've done all the time. +Now, a film. +A film tells a story. +I often wonder when I make a film -- I'm thinking of making a film of the Buddha -- and I often wonder: If Buddha had all the elements that are given to a director -- if he had music, if he had visuals, if he had a video camera -- would we get Buddhism better? +But that puts some kind of burden on me. +I have to tell a story in a much more elaborate way, but I have the potential. +It's called subtext. +When I first went to Hollywood, they said -- I used to talk about subtext, and my agent came to me, "Would you kindly not talk about subtext?" +And I said, "Why?" He said, "Because nobody is going to give you a film if you talk about subtext. +Just talk about plot and say how wonderful you'll shoot the film, what the visuals will be." +So when I look at a film, here's what we look for: We look for a story on the plot level, then we look for a story on the psychological level, then we look for a story on the political level, then we look at a story on a mythological level. +And I look for stories on each level. +Now, it is not necessary that these stories agree with each other. +What is wonderful is, at many times, the stories will contradict with each other. +So when I work with Rahman who's a great musician, I often tell him, "Don't follow what the script already says. +Find that which is not. +Find the truth for yourself, and when you find the truth for yourself, there will be a truth in it, but it may contradict the plot, but don't worry about it." +So, the sequel to "Elizabeth," "Golden Age." +When I made the sequel to "Elizabeth," here was a story that the writer was telling: A woman who was threatened by Philip II and was going to war, and was going to war, fell in love with Walter Raleigh. +Because she fell in love with Walter Raleigh, she was giving up the reasons she was a queen, and then Walter Raleigh fell in love with her lady in waiting, and she had to decide whether she was a queen going to war or she wanted... +Here's the story I was telling: The gods up there, there were two people. +There was Philip II, who was divine because he was always praying, and there was Elizabeth, who was divine, but not quite divine because she thought she was divine, but the blood of being mortal flowed in her. +But the divine one was unjust, so the gods said, "OK, what we need to do is help the just one." +And so they helped the just one. +And what they did was, they sent Walter Raleigh down to physically separate her mortal self from her spirit self. +And the mortal self was the girl that Walter Raleigh was sent, and gradually he separated her so she was free to be divine. +And the two divine people fought, and the gods were on the side of divinity. +Of course, all the British press got really upset. +They said, "We won the Armada." +But I said, "But the storm won the Armada. +The gods sent the storm." +So what was I doing? +I was trying to find a mythic reason to make the film. +Of course, when I asked Cate Blanchett, I said, "What's the film about?" +She said, "The film's about a woman coming to terms with growing older." +Psychological. +The writer said "It's about history, plot." +I said "It's about mythology, the gods." +So let me show you a film -- a piece from that film -- and how a camera also -- so this is a scene, where in my mind, she was at the depths of mortality. +She was discovering what mortality actually means, and if she is at the depths of mortality, what really happens. +And she's recognizing the dangers of mortality and why she should break away from mortality. +Remember, in the film, to me, both her and her lady in waiting were parts of the same body, one the mortal self and one the spirit self. +So can we have that second? +Elizabeth: Bess? +Bess? +Bess Throckmorton? +Bess: Here, my lady. +Elizabeth: Tell me, is it true? +Are you with child? +Are you with child? +Bess: Yes, my lady. +Elizabeth: Traitorous. +You dare to keep secrets from me? +You ask my permission before you rut, before you breed. +My bitches wear my collars. +Do you hear me? Do you hear me? +Walsingham: Majesty. Please, dignity. Mercy. +Elizabeth: This is no time for mercy, Walsingham. +You go to your traitor brother and leave me to my business. +Is it his? +Tell me. Say it. Is the child his? Is it his? +Bess: Yes. +My lady, it is my husband's child. +Elizabeth: Bitch! Raleigh: Majesty. +This is not the queen I love and serve. +Elizabeth: This man has seduced a ward of the queen, and she has married without royal consent. +These offenses are punishable by law. Arrest him. +Go. +You no longer have the queen's protection. +Bess: As you wish, Majesty. +Elizabeth: Get out! Get out! Get out! +Get out. +Shekhar Kapur: So, what am I trying to do here? +Elizabeth has realized, and she's coming face-to-face with her own sense of jealousy, her own sense of mortality. +What am I doing with the architecture? +The architecture is telling a story. +The architecture is telling a story about how, even though she's the most powerful woman in the world at that time, there is the other, the architecture's bigger. +The stone is bigger than her because stone is an organic. +It'll survive her. +So it's telling you, to me, stone is part of her destiny. +Not only that, why is the camera looking down? +The camera's looking down at her because she's in the well. +She's in the absolute well of her own sense of being mortal. +That's where she has to pull herself out from the depths of mortality, come in, release her spirit. +And that's the moment where, in my mind, both Elizabeth and Bess are the same person. +But that's the moment she's surgically removing herself from that. +So the film is operating on many many levels in that scene. +And how we tell stories visually, with music, with actors, and at each level it's a different sense and sometimes contradictory to each other. +So how do I start all this? +What's the process of telling a story? +About ten years ago, I heard this little thing from a politician, not a politician that was very well respected in India. +And he said that these people in the cities, in one flush, expend as much water as you people in the rural areas don't get for your family for two days. +That struck a chord, and I said, "That's true." +I went to see a friend of mine, and he made me wait in his apartment in Malabar Hill on the twentieth floor, which is a really, really upmarket area in Mumbai. +And he was having a shower for 20 minutes. +I got bored and left, and as I drove out, I drove past the slums of Bombay, as you always do, and I saw lines and lines in the hot midday sun of women and children with buckets waiting for a tanker to come and give them water. +And an idea started to develop. +So how does that become a story? +I suddenly realized that we are heading towards disaster. +So my next film is called "Paani" which means water. +And now, out of the mythology of that, I'm starting to create a world. +What kind of world do I create, and where does the idea, the design of that come? +So, in my mind, in the future, they started to build flyovers. +You understand flyovers? Yeah? +They started to build flyovers to get from A to B faster, but they effectively went from one area of relative wealth to another area of relative wealth. +And then what they did was they created a city above the flyovers. +And the rich people moved to the upper city and left the poorer people in the lower cities, about 10 to 12 percent of the people have moved to the upper city. +Now, where does this upper city and lower city come? +There's a mythology in India about -- where they say, and I'll say it in Hindi, [Hindi] Right. What does that mean? +It says that the rich are always sitting on the shoulders and survive on the shoulders of the poor. +So, from that mythology, the upper city and lower city come. +So the design has a story. +And now, what happens is that the people of the upper city, they suck up all the water. +Remember the word I said, suck up. +They suck up all the water, keep to themselves, and they drip feed the lower city. +And if there's any revolution, they cut off the water. +And, because democracy still exists, there's a democratic way in which you say "Well, if you give us what [we want], we'll give you water." +So, okay my time is up. +But I can go on about telling you how we evolve stories, and how stories effectively are who we are and how these get translated into the particular discipline that I am in, which is film. +But ultimately, what is a story? It's a contradiction. +Everything's a contradiction. +The universe is a contradiction. +And all of us are constantly looking for harmony. +When you get up, the night and day is a contradiction. +But you get up at 4 a.m. +That first blush of blue is where the night and day are trying to find harmony with each other. +Harmony is the notes that Mozart didn't give you, but somehow the contradiction of his notes suggest that. +All contradictions of his notes suggest the harmony. +It's the effect of looking for harmony in the contradiction that exists in a poet's mind, a contradiction that exists in a storyteller's mind. +In a storyteller's mind, it's a contradiction of moralities. +In a poet's mind, it's a conflict of words, in the universe's mind, between day and night. +In the mind of a man and a woman, we're looking constantly at the contradiction between male and female, we're looking for harmony within each other. +The whole idea of contradiction, but the acceptance of contradiction is the telling of a story, not the resolution. +The problem with a lot of the storytelling in Hollywood and many films, and as [unclear] was saying in his, that we try to resolve the contradiction. +Harmony is not resolution. +Harmony is the suggestion of a thing that is much larger than resolution. +Harmony is the suggestion of something that is embracing and universal and of eternity and of the moment. +Resolution is something that is far more limited. +It is finite; harmony is infinite. +So that storytelling, like all other contradictions in the universe, is looking for harmony and infinity in moral resolutions, resolving one, but letting another go, letting another go and creating a question that is really important. +Thank you very much. +I'm going to speak today about the relationship between science and human values. +Now, it's generally understood that questions of morality -- questions of good and evil and right and wrong -- are questions about which science officially has no opinion. +It's thought that science can help us get what we value, but it can never tell us what we ought to value. +And, consequently, most people -- I think most people probably here -- think that science will never answer the most important questions in human life: questions like, "What is worth living for?" +"What is worth dying for?" +"What constitutes a good life?" +So, I'm going to argue that this is an illusion -- that the separation between science and human values is an illusion -- and actually quite a dangerous one at this point in human history. +Now, it's often said that science cannot give us a foundation for morality and human values, because science deals with facts, and facts and values seem to belong to different spheres. +It's often thought that there's no description of the way the world is that can tell us how the world ought to be. +But I think this is quite clearly untrue. +Values are a certain kind of fact. +They are facts about the well-being of conscious creatures. +Why is it that we don't have ethical obligations toward rocks? +Why don't we feel compassion for rocks? +It's because we don't think rocks can suffer. And if we're more concerned about our fellow primates than we are about insects, as indeed we are, it's because we think they're exposed to a greater range of potential happiness and suffering. +Now, the crucial thing to notice here is that this is a factual claim: This is something that we could be right or wrong about. And if we have misconstrued the relationship between biological complexity and the possibilities of experience well then we could be wrong about the inner lives of insects. +And there's no notion, no version of human morality and human values that I've ever come across that is not at some point reducible to a concern about conscious experience and its possible changes. +Even if you get your values from religion, even if you think that good and evil ultimately relate to conditions after death -- either to an eternity of happiness with God or an eternity of suffering in hell -- you are still concerned about consciousness and its changes. +And to say that such changes can persist after death is itself a factual claim, which, of course, may or may not be true. +Now, to speak about the conditions of well-being in this life, for human beings, we know that there is a continuum of such facts. +We know that it's possible to live in a failed state, where everything that can go wrong does go wrong -- where mothers cannot feed their children, where strangers cannot find the basis for peaceful collaboration, where people are murdered indiscriminately. +And we know that it's possible to move along this continuum towards something quite a bit more idyllic, to a place where a conference like this is even conceivable. +And we know -- we know -- that there are right and wrong answers to how to move in this space. +Would adding cholera to the water be a good idea? +Probably not. +Would it be a good idea for everyone to believe in the evil eye, so that when bad things happened to them they immediately blame their neighbors? Probably not. +There are truths to be known about how human communities flourish, whether or not we understand these truths. +And morality relates to these truths. +So, in talking about values we are talking about facts. +Now, of course our situation in the world can be understood at many levels -- from the level of the genome on up to the level of economic systems and political arrangements. +But if we're going to talk about human well-being we are, of necessity, talking about the human brain. +Because we know that our experience of the world and of ourselves within it is realized in the brain -- whatever happens after death. +Even if the suicide bomber does get 72 virgins in the afterlife, in this life, his personality -- his rather unfortunate personality -- is the product of his brain. +So the contributions of culture -- if culture changes us, as indeed it does, it changes us by changing our brains. +And so therefore whatever cultural variation there is in how human beings flourish can, at least in principle, be understood in the context of a maturing science of the mind -- neuroscience, psychology, etc. +So, what I'm arguing is that value's reduced to facts -- to facts about the conscious experience of conscious beings. +And we can therefore visualize a space of possible changes in the experience of these beings. +And I think of this as kind of a moral landscape, with peaks and valleys that correspond to differences in the well-being of conscious creatures, both personal and collective. +And one thing to notice is that perhaps there are states of human well-being that we rarely access, that few people access. +And these await our discovery. +Perhaps some of these states can be appropriately called mystical or spiritual. +Perhaps there are other states that we can't access because of how our minds are structured but other minds possibly could access them. +Now, let me be clear about what I'm not saying. I'm not saying that science is guaranteed to map this space, or that we will have scientific answers to every conceivable moral question. +I don't think, for instance, that you will one day consult a supercomputer to learn whether you should have a second child, or whether we should bomb Iran's nuclear facilities, or whether you can deduct the full cost of TED as a business expense. +But if questions affect human well-being then they do have answers, whether or not we can find them. +And just admitting this -- just admitting that there are right and wrong answers to the question of how humans flourish -- will change the way we talk about morality, and will change our expectations of human cooperation in the future. +For instance, there are 21 states in our country where corporal punishment in the classroom is legal, where it is legal for a teacher to beat a child with a wooden board, hard, and raising large bruises and blisters and even breaking the skin. +And hundreds of thousands of children, incidentally, are subjected to this every year. +The locations of these enlightened districts, I think, will fail to surprise you. +We're not talking about Connecticut. +And the rationale for this behavior is explicitly religious. +The creator of the universe himself has told us not to spare the rod, lest we spoil the child -- this is in Proverbs 13 and 20, and I believe, 23. +But we can ask the obvious question: Is it a good idea, generally speaking, to subject children to pain and violence and public humiliation as a way of encouraging healthy emotional development and good behavior? +Is there any doubt that this question has an answer, and that it matters? +Now, many of you might worry that the notion of well-being is truly undefined, and seemingly perpetually open to be re-construed. +And so, how therefore can there be an objective notion of well-being? +Well, consider by analogy, the concept of physical health. +The concept of physical health is undefined. +As we just heard from Michael Specter, it has changed over the years. +When this statue was carved the average life expectancy was probably 30. +It's now around 80 in the developed world. +There may come a time when we meddle with our genomes in such a way that not being able to run a marathon at age 200 will be considered a profound disability. +People will send you donations when you're in that condition. +Notice that the fact that the concept of health is open, genuinely open for revision, does not make it vacuous. +The distinction between a healthy person and a dead one is about as clear and consequential as any we make in science. +Another thing to notice is there may be many peaks on the moral landscape: There may be equivalent ways to thrive; there may be equivalent ways to organize a human society so as to maximize human flourishing. +Now, why wouldn't this undermine an objective morality? +Well think of how we talk about food: I would never be tempted to argue to you that there must be one right food to eat. +There is clearly a range of materials that constitute healthy food. +But there's nevertheless a clear distinction between food and poison. +The fact that there are many right answers to the question, "What is food?" +does not tempt us to say that there are no truths to be known about human nutrition. +Many people worry that a universal morality would require moral precepts that admit of no exceptions. +So, for instance, if it's really wrong to lie, it must always be wrong to lie, and if you can find an exception, well then there's no such thing as moral truth. +Why would we think this? +Consider, by analogy, the game of chess. +Now, if you're going to play good chess, a principle like, "Don't lose your Queen," is very good to follow. +But it clearly admits some exceptions. +There are moments when losing your Queen is a brilliant thing to do. +There are moments when it is the only good thing you can do. +And yet, chess is a domain of perfect objectivity. +The fact that there are exceptions here does not change that at all. +Now, this brings us to the sorts of moves that people are apt to make in the moral sphere. +Consider the great problem of women's bodies: What to do about them? +Well this is one thing you can do about them: You can cover them up. +Now, it is the position, generally speaking, of our intellectual community that while we may not like this, we might think of this as "wrong" in Boston or Palo Alto, who are we to say that the proud denizens of an ancient culture are wrong to force their wives and daughters to live in cloth bags? +And who are we to say, even, that they're wrong to beat them with lengths of steel cable, or throw battery acid in their faces if they decline the privilege of being smothered in this way? +Well, who are we not to say this? +Who are we to pretend that we know so little about human well-being that we have to be non-judgmental about a practice like this? +I'm not talking about voluntary wearing of a veil -- women should be able to wear whatever they want, as far as I'm concerned. +But what does voluntary mean in a community where, when a girl gets raped, her father's first impulse, rather often, is to murder her out of shame? +Just let that fact detonate in your brain for a minute: Your daughter gets raped, and what you want to do is kill her. +What are the chances that represents a peak of human flourishing? +Now, to say this is not to say that we have got the perfect solution in our own society. +For instance, this is what it's like to go to a newsstand almost anywhere in the civilized world. +Now, granted, for many men it may require a degree in philosophy to see something wrong with these images. +But if we are in a reflective mood, we can ask, "Is this the perfect expression of psychological balance with respect to variables like youth and beauty and women's bodies?" +I mean, is this the optimal environment in which to raise our children? +Probably not. OK, so perhaps there's some place on the spectrum between these two extremes that represents a place of better balance. +Perhaps there are many such places -- again, given other changes in human culture there may be many peaks on the moral landscape. +But the thing to notice is that there will be many more ways not to be on a peak. +Now the irony, from my perspective, is that the only people who seem to generally agree with me and who think that there are right and wrong answers to moral questions are religious demagogues of one form or another. +And of course they think they have right answers to moral questions because they got these answers from a voice in a whirlwind, not because they made an intelligent analysis of the causes and condition of human and animal well-being. +In fact, the endurance of religion as a lens through which most people view moral questions has separated most moral talk from real questions of human and animal suffering. +This is why we spend our time talking about things like gay marriage and not about genocide or nuclear proliferation or poverty or any other hugely consequential issue. +But the demagogues are right about one thing: We need a universal conception of human values. +Now, what stands in the way of this? +Well, one thing to notice is that we do something different when talking about morality -- especially secular, academic, scientist types. +When talking about morality we value differences of opinion in a way that we don't in any other area of our lives. +So, for instance the Dalai Lama gets up every morning meditating on compassion, and he thinks that helping other human beings is an integral component of human happiness. +On the other hand, we have someone like Ted Bundy; Ted Bundy was very fond of abducting and raping and torturing and killing young women. +So, we appear to have a genuine difference of opinion about how to profitably use one's time. +Most Western intellectuals look at this situation and say, "Well, there's nothing for the Dalai Lama to be really right about -- really right about -- or for Ted Bundy to be really wrong about that admits of a real argument that potentially falls within the purview of science. +He likes chocolate, he likes vanilla. +There's nothing that one should be able to say to the other that should persuade the other." +Notice that we don't do this in science. +On the left you have Edward Witten. +He's a string theorist. +If you ask the smartest physicists around who is the smartest physicist around, in my experience half of them will say Ed Witten. +The other half will tell you they don't like the question. +So, what would happen if I showed up at a physics conference and said,"String theory is bogus. +It doesn't resonate with me. It's not how I chose to view the universe at a small scale. +I'm not a fan." +Well, nothing would happen because I'm not a physicist; I don't understand string theory. +I'm the Ted Bundy of string theory. +I wouldn't want to belong to any string theory club that would have me as a member. +But this is just the point. +Whenever we are talking about facts certain opinions must be excluded. +That is what it is to have a domain of expertise. +That is what it is for knowledge to count. +How have we convinced ourselves that in the moral sphere there is no such thing as moral expertise, or moral talent, or moral genius even? +How have we convinced ourselves that every opinion has to count? +How have we convinced ourselves that every culture has a point of view on these subjects worth considering? +Does the Taliban have a point of view on physics that is worth considering? No. +How is their ignorance any less obvious on the subject of human well-being? +So, this, I think, is what the world needs now. +It needs people like ourselves to admit that there are right and wrong answers to questions of human flourishing, and morality relates to that domain of facts. +It is possible for individuals, and even for whole cultures, to care about the wrong things, which is to say that it's possible for them to have beliefs and desires that reliably lead to needless human suffering. +Just admitting this will transform our discourse about morality. +We live in a world in which the boundaries between nations mean less and less, and they will one day mean nothing. +We live in a world filled with destructive technology, and this technology cannot be uninvented; it will always be easier to break things than to fix them. +It seems to me, therefore, patently obvious that we can no more respect and tolerate vast differences in notions of human well-being than we can respect or tolerate vast differences in the notions about how disease spreads, or in the safety standards of buildings and airplanes. +We simply must converge on the answers we give to the most important questions in human life. +And to do that, we have to admit that these questions have answers. +Thank you very much. +Chris Anderson: So, some combustible material there. +Whether in this audience or people elsewhere in the world, hearing some of this, may well be doing the screaming-with-rage thing, after as well, some of them. +Language seems to be really important here. +When you're talking about the veil, you're talking about women dressed in cloth bags. +I've lived in the Muslim world, spoken with a lot of Muslim women. +And some of them would say something else. They would say, "No, you know, this is a celebration of female specialness, it helps build that and it's a result of the fact that" -- and this is arguably a sophisticated psychological view -- "that male lust is not to be trusted." +I mean, can you engage in a conversation with that kind of woman without seeming kind of cultural imperialist? +Sam Harris: Yeah, well I think I tried to broach this in a sentence, watching the clock ticking, but the question is: What is voluntary in a context where men have certain expectations, and you're guaranteed to be treated in a certain way if you don't veil yourself? +And so, if anyone in this room wanted to wear a veil, or a very funny hat, or tattoo their face -- I think we should be free to voluntarily do whatever we want, but we have to be honest about the constraints that these women are placed under. +And so I think we shouldn't be so eager to always take their word for it, especially when it's 120 degrees out and you're wearing a full burqa. +CA: A lot of people want to believe in this concept of moral progress. +But can you reconcile that? +I think I understood you to say that you could reconcile that with a world that doesn't become one dimensional, where we all have to think the same. +Paint your picture of what rolling the clock 50 years forward, 100 years forward, how you would like to think of the world, balancing moral progress with richness. +SH: Well, I think once you admit that we are on the path toward understanding our minds at the level of the brain in some important detail, then you have to admit that we are going to understand all of the positive and negative qualities of ourselves in much greater detail. +So, everything is not going to be up for grabs. +It's not going to be like veiling my daughter from birth is just as good as teaching her to be confident and well-educated in the context of men who do desire women. +I mean I don't think we need an NSF grant to know that compulsory veiling is a bad idea -- but at a certain point we're going to be able to scan the brains of everyone involved and actually interrogate them. +Do people love their daughters just as much in these systems? +And I think there are clearly right answers to that. +CA: And if the results come out that actually they do, are you prepared to shift your instinctive current judgment on some of these issues? +SH: Well yeah, modulo one obvious fact, that you can love someone in the context of a truly delusional belief system. +So, you can say like, "Because I knew my gay son was going to go to hell if he found a boyfriend, I chopped his head off. And that was the most compassionate thing I could do." +If you get all those parts aligned, yes I think you could probably be feeling the emotion of love. +But again, then we have to talk about well-being in a larger context. +It's all of us in this together, not one man feeling ecstasy and then blowing himself up on a bus. +CA: Sam, this is a conversation I would actually love to continue for hours. +We don't have that, but maybe another time. Thank you for coming to TED. +SH: Really an honor. Thank you. +Illegal wildlife trade in Brazil is one of the major threats against our fauna, especially birds, and mainly to supply the pet market with thousands of animals taken from nature every month, and transported far from their origins, to be sold mainly in Rio de Janeiro and So Paulo. +It is estimated that all kinds of illegal wildlife trade in Brazil withdraw from nature almost 38 million animals every year, a business worth almost two billion dollars. +The police intercepts these huge cargos with live animals, intended to supply the pet market, or they seize the animals directly from the people's houses, and this is how we end up, every month, with thousands of seized animals. +And for us to understand what happens with them, we're going to follow Brad. +In the eyes of many people, after the animals are seized, they say, "Yay, justice has been served. +The good guys arrived, took the cute, mistreated animals from the hands of the evil traffickers, and everyone lived happily ever after." +But did they? Actually, no, and this is where many of our problems begin. +Because we have to figure out what to do with all these animals. +In Brazil, they are usually first sent to governmental triage facilities, in which most of the cases, the conditions are as bad as with the traffickers. +In 2002, these centers received 45,000 animals, of which 37,000 were birds. +And the police estimates that we seize only five percent of what's being trafficked. +Some lucky ones -- and among them, Brad -- go to serious rehabilitation centers after that. +And in these places they are cared for. +They train their flying, they learn how to recognize the food they will find in nature, and they are able to socialize with others from the same species. +But then what? +The Brazil Ornithological Society -- so now we're talking only birds -- claims that we have too little knowledge about the species in nature. +Therefore, it would be too risky to release these animals, both for the released and for the natural populations. +They also claim that we spend too many resources in their rehabilitation. +Following this argument, they suggest that all the birds seized from non-threatened species should be euthanized. +However, this would mean having killed 26,267 birds, only in the state of So Paulo, only in 2006. +But, some researchers, myself included -- some NGOs and some people from the Brazilian government -- believe there is an alternative. +All of these were released by us. +On the top, the turtles are just enjoying freedom. +On the middle, this guy nested a couple of weeks after the release. +And on the bottom, my personal favorite, the little male over there, four hours after his release he was together with a wild female. +So, this is not new, people have been doing this around the world. +But it's still a big issue in Brazil. +We believe we have performed responsible releases. +We've registered released animals mating in nature and having chicks. +So, these genes are indeed going back to the populations. +However this is still a minority for the very lack of knowledge. +So, I say, "Let's study more, let's shed light on this issue, let's do whatever we can." +I'm devoting my career to that. +And I'm here to urge each and every one of you to do whatever is in your reach: Talk to your neighbor, teach your children, make sure your pet is from a legal breeder. +We need to act, and act now, before these ones are the only ones left. +Thank you very much. +So, basically we have public leaders, public officials who are out of control; they are writing bills that are unintelligible, and out of these bills are going to come maybe 40,000 pages of regulations, total complexity, which has a dramatically negative impact on our life. +If you're a veteran coming back from Iraq or Vietnam you face a blizzard of paperwork to get your benefits; if you're trying to get a small business loan, you face a blizzard of paperwork. +What are we going to do about it? I define simplicity as a means to achieving clarity, transparency and empathy, building humanity into communications. +I've been simplifying things for 30 years. +I come out of the advertising and design business. +My focus is understanding you people, and how you interact with the government to get your benefits, how you interact with corporations to decide whom you're going to do business with, and how you view brands. +So, very quickly, when President Obama said, "I don't see why we can't have a one-page, plain English consumer credit agreement." +So, I locked myself in a room, figured out the content, organized the document, and wrote it in plain English. +I've had this checked by the two top consumer credit lawyers in the country. +This is a real thing. +Now, I went one step further and said, "Why do we have to stick with the stodgy lawyers and just have a paper document? Let's go online." +And many people might need help in computation. +Working with the Harvard Business School, you'll see this example when you talk about minimum payment: If you spent 62 dollars for a meal, the longer you take to pay out that loan, you see, over a period of time using the minimum payment it's 99 dollars and 17 cents. +How about that? Do you think your bank is going to show that to people? +But it's going to work. It's more effective than just computational aids. +And what about terms like "over the limit"? +Perhaps a stealth thing. +Define it in context. Tell people what it means. +When you put it in plain English, you almost force the institution to give the people a way, a default out of that, and not put themselves at risk. +Plain English is about changing the content. +And one of the things I'm most proud of is this agreement for IBM. +It's a grid, it's a calendar. +At such and such a date, IBM has responsibilities, you have responsibilities. +Received very favorably by business. +And there is some good news to report today. +Each year, one in 10 taxpayers receives a notice from the IRS. +There are 200 million letters that go out. +Running through this typical letter that they had, I ran it through my simplicity lab, it's pretty unintelligible. +All the parts of the document in red are not intelligible. +We looked at doing over 1,000 letters that cover 70 percent of their transactions in plain English. +They have been tested in the laboratory. +When I run it through my lab, this heat-mapping shows everything is intelligible. +And the IRS has introduced the program. +There are a couple of things going on right now that I want to bring to your attention. +There is a lot of discussion now about a consumer financial protection agency, how to mandate simplicity. +We see all this complexity. +It's incumbent upon us, and this organization, I believe, to make clarity, transparency and empathy a national priority. +There is no way that we should allow government to communicate the way they communicate. +There is no way we should do business with companies that have agreements with stealth provisions and that are unintelligible. +So, how are we going to change the world? +Make clarity, transparency and simplicity a national priority. +I thank you. +I want to talk about 4.6 billion years of history in 18 minutes. +That's 300 million years per minute. +Let's start with the first photograph NASA obtained of planet Mars. +This is fly-by, Mariner IV. +It was taken in 1965. +When this picture appeared, that well-known scientific journal, The New York Times, wrote in its editorial, "Mars is uninteresting. +It's a dead world. NASA should not spend any time or effort studying Mars anymore." +Fortunately, our leaders in Washington at NASA headquarters knew better and we began a very extensive study of the red planet. +One of the key questions in all of science, "Is there life outside of Earth?" +I believe that Mars is the most likely target for life outside the Earth. +I'm going to show you in a few minutes some amazing measurements that suggest there may be life on Mars. +But let me start with a Viking photograph. +This is a composite taken by Viking in 1976. +Viking was developed and managed at the NASA Langley Research Center. +We sent two orbiters and two landers in the summer of 1976. +We had four spacecraft, two around Mars, two on the surface -- an amazing accomplishment. +This is the first photograph taken from the surface of any planet. +This is a Viking Lander photograph of the surface of Mars. +And yes, the red planet is red. +Mars is half the size of the Earth, but because two-thirds of the Earth is covered by water, the land area on Mars is comparable to the land area on Earth. +So, Mars is a pretty big place even though it's half the size. +We have obtained topographic measurements of the surface of Mars. We understand the elevation differences. +We know a lot about Mars. +Mars has the largest volcano in the solar system, Olympus Mons. +Mars has the Grand Canyon of the solar system, Valles Marineris. +Very, very interesting planet. +Mars has the largest impact crater in the solar system, Hellas Basin. +This is 2,000 miles across. +If you happened to be on Mars when this impactor hit, it was a really bad day on Mars. +This is Olympus Mons. +This is bigger than the state of Arizona. +Volcanoes are important, because volcanoes produce atmospheres and they produce oceans. +We're looking at Valles Marineris, the largest canyon in the solar system, superimposed on a map of the United States, 3,000 miles across. +One of the most intriguing features about Mars, the National Academy of Science says one of the 10 major mysteries of the space age, is why certain areas of Mars are so highly magnetized. +We call this crustal magnetism. +There are regions on Mars, where, for some reason -- we don't understand why at this point -- the surface is very, very highly magnetized. +Is there water on Mars? +The answer is no, there is no liquid water on the surface of Mars today. +But there is intriguing evidence that suggests that the early history of Mars there may have been rivers and fast flowing water. +Today Mars is very very dry. +We believe there's some water in the polar caps, there are polar caps of North Pole and South Pole. +Here are some recent images. +This is from Spirit and Opportunity. +These images that show at one time, there was very fast flowing water on the surface of Mars. +Why is water important? Water is important because if you want life you have to have water. +Water is the key ingredient in the evolution, the origin of life on a planet. +Here is some picture of Antarctica and a picture of Olympus Mons, very similar features, glaciers. +So, this is frozen water. +This is ice water on Mars. +This is my favorite picture. This was just taken a few weeks ago. +It has not been seen publicly. +This is European space agency Mars Express, image of a crater on Mars and in the middle of the crater we have liquid water, we have ice. +Very intriguing photograph. +We now believe that in the early history of Mars, which is 4.6 billion years ago, 4.6 billion years ago, Mars was very Earth-like. +Mars had rivers, Mars had lakes, but more important Mars had planetary-scale oceans. +We believe that the oceans were in the northern hemisphere, and this area in blue, which shows a depression of about four miles, was the ancient ocean area on the surface of Mars. +Where did the ocean's worth of water on Mars go? +Well, we have an idea. +This is a measurement we obtained a few years ago from a Mars-orbiting satellite called Odyssey. +Sub-surface water on Mars, frozen in the form of ice. +And this shows the percent. If it's a blueish color, it means 16 percent by weight. +Sixteen percent, by weight, of the interior contains frozen water, or ice. +So, there is a lot of water below the surface. +The most intriguing and puzzling measurement, in my opinion, we've obtained of Mars, was released earlier this year in the magazine Science. +And what we're looking at is the presence of the gas methane, CH4, in the atmosphere of Mars. +And you can see there are three distinct regions of methane. +Why is methane important? +Because on Earth, almost all -- 99.9 percent -- of the methane is produced by living systems, not little green men, but microscopic life below the surface or at the surface. +We now have evidence that methane is in the atmosphere of Mars, a gas that, on Earth, is biogenic in origin, produced by living systems. +These are the three plumes: A, B1, B2. +And this is the terrain it appears over, and we know from geological studies that these regions are the oldest regions on Mars. +In fact, the Earth and Mars are both 4.6 billion years old. +The oldest rock on Earth is only 3.6 billion. +The reason there is a billion-year gap in our geological understanding is because of plate tectonics, The crust of the Earth has been recycled. +We have no geological record prior for the first billion years. +That record exists on Mars. +And this terrain that we're looking at dates back to 4.6 billion years when Earth and Mars were formed. +It was a Tuesday. +This is a map that shows where we've put our spacecraft on the surface of Mars. +Here is Viking I, Viking II. +This is Opportunity. This is Spirit. +This is Mars Pathfinder. This is Phoenix, we just put two years ago. +Notice all of our rovers and all of our landers have gone to the northern hemisphere. +That's because the northern hemisphere is the region of the ancient ocean basin. +There aren't many craters. +And that's because the water protected the basin from being impacted by asteroids and meteorites. +But look in the southern hemisphere. +In the southern hemisphere there are impact craters, there are volcanic craters. +Here's Hellas Basin, a very very different place, geologically. +Look where the methane is, the methane is in a very rough terrain area. +What is the best way to unravel the mysteries on Mars that exist? +We asked this question 10 years ago. +We invited 10 of the top Mars scientists to the Langley Research Center for two days. +We addressed on the board the major questions that have not been answered. +And we spent two days deciding how to best answer this question. +And the result of our meeting was a robotic rocket-powered airplane we call ARES. +It's an Aerial Regional-scale Environmental Surveyor. +There's a model of ARES here. +This is a 20-percent scale model. +This airplane was designed at the Langley Research Center. +If any place in the world can build an airplane to fly on Mars, it's the Langley Research Center, for almost 100 years a leading center of aeronautics in the world. +We fly about a mile above the surface. +We cover hundreds of miles, and we fly about 450 miles an hour. +We can do things that rovers can't do and landers can't do: We can fly above mountains, volcanoes, impact craters; we fly over valleys; we can fly over surface magnetism, the polar caps, subsurface water; and we can search for life on Mars. +But, of equal importance, as we fly through the atmosphere of Mars, we transmit that journey, the first flight of an airplane outside of the Earth, we transmit those images back to Earth. +And our goal is to inspire the American public who is paying for this mission through tax dollars. +But more important we will inspire the next generation of scientists, technologists, engineers and mathematicians. +And that's a critical area of national security and economic vitality, to make sure we produce the next generation of scientists, engineers, mathematicians and technologists. +This is what ARES looks like as it flies over Mars. +We preprogram it. +We will fly where the methane is. +We will have instruments aboard the plane that will sample, every three minutes, the atmosphere of Mars. +We will look for methane as well as other gasses produced by living systems. +We will pinpoint where these gases emanate from, because we can measure the gradient where it comes from, and there, we can direct the next mission to land right in that area. +How do we transport an airplane to Mars? +In two words, very carefully. +The problem is we don't fly it to Mars, we put it in a spacecraft and we send it to Mars. +The problem is the spacecraft's largest diameter is nine feet; ARES is 21-foot wingspan, 17 feet long. +How do we get it to Mars? +We fold it, and we transport it in a spacecraft. +And we have it in something called an aeroshell. +This is how we do it. +And we have a little video that describes the sequence. +Video: Seven, six. Green board. Five, four, three, two, one. +Main engine start, and liftoff. +Joel Levine: This is a launch from the Kennedy Space Center in Florida. +This is the spacecraft taking nine months to get to Mars. +It enters the atmosphere of Mars. +A lot of heating, frictional heating. It's going 18 thousand miles an hour. +A parachute opens up to slow it down. +The thermal tiles fall off. +The airplane is exposed to the atmosphere for the first time. +It unfolds. +The rocket engine begins. +We believe that in a one-hour flight we can rewrite the textbook on Mars by making high-resolution measurements of the atmosphere, looking for gases of biogenic origin, looking for gases of volcanic origin, studying the surface, studying the magnetism on the surface, which we don't understand, as well as about a dozen other areas. +Practice makes perfect. +How do we know we can do it? +Because we have tested ARES model, several models in a half a dozen wind tunnels at the NASA Langley Research Center for eight years, under Mars conditions. +And, of equal importance is, we test ARES in the Earth's atmosphere, at 100,000 feet, which is comparable to the density and pressure of the atmosphere on Mars where we'll fly. +Now, 100,000 feet, if you fly cross-country to Los Angeles, you fly 37,000 feet. +We do our tests at 100,000 feet. +And I want to show you one of our tests. +This is a half-scale model. +This is a high-altitude helium balloon. +This is over Tilamook, Oregon. +We put the folded airplane on the balloon -- it took about three hours to get up there -- and then we released it on command at 103,000 feet, and we deploy the airplane and everything works perfectly. +And we've done high-altitude and low-altitude tests, just to perfect this technique. +We're ready to go. +I have a scale model here. +But we have a full-scale model in storage at the NASA Langley Research Center. +We're ready to go. All we need is a check from NASA headquarters to cover the costs. +I'm prepared to donate my honorarium for today's talk for this mission. +There's actually no honorarium for anyone for this thing. +This is the ARES team; we have about 150 scientists, engineers; where we're working with Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Goddard Space Flight Center, Ames Research Center and half a dozen major universities and corporations in developing this. +It's a large effort. It's all at NASA Langley Research Center. +And let me conclude by saying not too far from here, right down the road in Kittyhawk, North Carolina, a little more than 100 years ago history was made when we had the first powered flight of an airplane on Earth. +We are on the verge right now to make the first flight of an airplane outside the Earth's atmosphere. +We are prepared to fly this on Mars, rewrite the textbook about Mars. +If you're interested in more information, we have a website that describes this exciting and intriguing mission, and why we want to do it. +Thank you very much. +You know for me, the interest in contemporary forms of slavery started with a leaflet that I picked up in London. +It was the early '90s, and I was at a public event. +I saw this leaflet and it said, "There are millions of slaves in the world today." +And I thought, "No way, no way." +And I'm going to admit to hubris. +Because I also, I'm going to admit to you, I also thought, "How can I be like a hot-shot young full professor who teaches human rights and not know this? +So it can't be true." +Well, if you teach, if you worship in the temple of learning, do not mock the gods, because they will take you, fill you with curiosity and desire, and drive you. Drive you with a passion to change things. +I went out and did a lit review, 3,000 articles on the key word "slavery." +Two turned out to be about contemporary -- only two. +All the rest were historical. +They were press pieces and they were full of outrage, they were full of speculation, they were anecdotal -- no solid information. +So, I began to do a research project of my own. +I went to five countries around the world. +I looked at slaves. I met slaveholders, and I looked very deeply into slave-based businesses because this is an economic crime. +People do not enslave people to be mean to them. +They do it to make a profit. +And I've got to tell you, what I found out in the world in four different continents, was depressingly familiar. +Like this: Agricultural workers in Africa, whipped and beaten, showing us how they were beaten in the fields before they escaped from slavery and met up with our film crew. +It was mind-blowing. +And I want to be very clear. +I'm talking about real slavery. +This is not about lousy marriages, this is not about jobs that suck. +This is about people who can not walk away, people who are forced to work without pay, people who are operating 24/7 under a threat of violence and have no pay. +It's real slavery in exactly the same way that slavery would be recognized throughout all of human history. +Now, where is it? +Well, this map in the sort of redder, yellower colors are the places with the highest densities of slavery. +But in fact that kind of bluey color are the countries where we can't find any cases of slavery. +And you might notice that it's only Iceland and Greenland where we can't find any cases of enslavement around the world. +We're also particularly interested and looking very carefully at places where slaves are being used to perpetrate extreme environmental destruction. +Around the world, slaves are used to destroy the environment, cutting down trees in the Amazon; destroying forest areas in West Africa; mining and spreading mercury around in places like Ghana and the Congo; destroying the coastal ecosystems in South Asia. +It's a pretty harrowing linkage between what's happening to our environment and what's happening to our human rights. +Now, how on Earth did we get to a situation like this, where we have 27 million people in slavery in the year 2010? +That's double the number that came out of Africa in the entire transatlantic slave trade. +Well, it builds up with these factors. +They are not causal, they are actually supporting factors. +One we all know about, the population explosion: the world goes from two billion people to almost seven billion people in the last 50 years. +Being numerous does not make you a slave. +Add in the increased vulnerability of very large numbers of people in the developing world, caused by civil wars, ethnic conflicts, kleptocratic governments, disease ... you name it, you know it. +We understand how that works. In some countries all of those things happen at once, like Sierra Leone a few years ago, and push enormous parts ... about a billion people in the world, in fact, as we know, live on the edge, live in situations where they don't have any opportunity and are usually even destitute. +But that doesn't make you a slave either. +What it takes to turn a person who is destitute and vulnerable into a slave, is the absence of the rule of law. +If the rule of law is sound, it protects the poor and it protects the vulnerable. +But if corruption creeps in and people don't have the opportunity to have that protection of the rule of law, then if you can use violence, if you can use violence with impunity, you can reach out and harvest the vulnerable into slavery. +Well, that is precisely what has happened around the world. +Though, for a lot of people, into slavery today don't usually get kidnapped or knocked over the head. +They come into slavery because someone has asked them this question. +All around the world I've been told an almost identical story. +People say, "I was home, someone came into our village, they stood up in the back of a truck, they said, 'I've got jobs, who needs a job?'" And they did exactly what you or I would do in the same situation. +They said, "That guy looked sketchy. I was suspicious, but my children were hungry. +We needed medicine. +I knew I had to do anything I could to earn some money to support the people I care about." +They climb into the back of the truck. They go off with the person who recruits them. +Ten miles, 100 miles, 1,000 miles later, they find themselves in dirty, dangerous, demeaning work. +They take it for a little while, but when they try to leave, bang!, the hammer comes down, and they discover they're enslaved. +Now, that kind of slavery is, again, pretty much what slavery has been all through human history. +But there is one thing that is particularly remarkable and novel about slavery today, and that is a complete collapse in the price of human beings -- expensive in the past, dirt cheap now. +Even the business programs have started picking up on this. +I just want to share a little clip for you. +Daphne: OK. Llively discussion guaranteed here, as always, as we get macro and talk commodities. +Continuing here in the studio with our guest Michael O'Donohue, head of commodities at Four Continents Capital Management. +And we're also joined by Brent Lawson from Lawson Frisk Securities. +Brent Lawson: Happy to be here. +D: Good to have you with us, Brent. +Now, gentlemen ... Brent, where is your money going this year? +BL: Well Daphne, we've been going short on gas and oil recently and casting our net just a little bit wider. +We really like the human being story a lot. +If you look at a long-term chart, prices are at historical lows and yet global demand for forced labor is still real strong. +So, that's a scenario that we think we should be capitalizing on. +D: Michael, what's your take on the people story? Are you interested? +Michael O'Donoghue: Oh definitely. Non-voluntary labor's greatest advantage as an asset is the endless supply. +We're not about to run out of people. No other commodity has that. +BL: Daphne, if I may draw your attention to one thing. +That is that private equity has been sniffing around, and that tells me that this market is about to explode. +Africans and Indians, as usual, South Americans, and Eastern Europeans in particular are on our buy list. +D: Interesting. Micheal, bottom line, what do you recommend? +MO: We're recommending to our clients a buy and hold strategy. +There's no need to play the market. +There's a lot of vulnerable people out there. It's very exciting. +D: Exciting stuff indeed. Gentlemen, thank you very much. +Kevin Bales: Okay, you figured it out. That's a spoof. +Though I enjoyed watching your jaws drop, drop, drop, until you got it. +MTV Europe worked with us and made that spoof, and they've been slipping it in between music videos without any introduction, which I think is kind of fun. +Here's the reality. +The price of human beings across the last 4,000 years in today's money has averaged about 40,000 dollars. +Capital purchase items. +You can see that the lines cross when the population explodes. +The average price of a human being today, around the world, is about 90 dollars. +They are more expensive in places like North America. +Slaves cost between 3,000 to 8,000 dollars in North America, but I could take you places in India or Nepal where human beings can be acquired for five or 10 dollars. +They key here is that people have ceased to be that capital purchase item and become like Styrofoam cups. +You buy them cheaply, you use them, you crumple them up, and then when you're done with them you just throw them away. +These young boys are in Nepal. +They are basically the transport system on a quarry run by a slaveholder. +There are no roads there, so they carry loads of stone on their backs, often of their own weight, up and down the Himalaya Mountains. +One of their mothers said to us, "You know, we can't survive here, but we can't even seem to die either." +It's a horrible situation. +And if there is anything that makes me feel very positive about this, it's that there are also -- in addition to young men like this who are still enslaved -- there are ex-slaves who are now working to free others. +Or, we say, Frederick Douglass is in the house. +I don't know if you've ever had a daydream about, "Wow. What would it be like to meet Harriet Tubman? +What would it be like to meet Frederick Douglass?" +I've got to say, one of the most exciting parts about my job is that I get to, and I want to introduce you to one of those. +His name is James Kofi Annan. He was a slave child in Ghana enslaved in the fishing industry, and he now, after escape and building a new life, has formed an organization that we work closely with to go back and get people out of slavery. +This is not James, this is one of the kids that he works with. +James Kofi Annan : He was hit with a paddle in the head. And this reminds me of my childhood when I used to work here. +KB: James and our country director in Ghana, Emmanuel Otoo are now receiving regular death threats because the two of them managed to get convictions and imprisonment for three human traffickers for the very first time in Ghana for enslaving people, from the fishing industry, for enslaving children. +Now, everything I've been telling you, I admit, is pretty disheartening. +But there is actually a very positive side to this, and that is this: The 27 million people who are in slavery today, that's a lot of people, but it's also the smallest fraction of the global population to ever be in slavery. +And likewise, the 40 billion dollars that they generate into the global economy each year is the tiniest proportion of the global economy to ever be represented by slave labor. +Slavery, illegal in every country has been pushed to the edges of our global society. +And in a way, without us even noticing, has ended up standing on the precipice of its own extinction, waiting for us to give it a big boot and knock it over. And get rid of it. +And it can be done. +Now, if we do that, if we put the resources and the focus to it, what does it actually cost to get people out of slavery? +Well, first, before I even tell you the cost I've got to be absolutely clear. +We do not buy people out of slavery. +Buying people out of slavery is like paying a burglar to get your television back; it's abetting a crime. +Liberation, however, costs some money. +Liberation, and more importantly all the work that comes after liberation. +It's not an event, it's a process. +It's about helping people to build lives of dignity, stability, economic autonomy, citizenship. +A boy in Ghana rescued from fishing slavery, about 400 dollars. +In the United States, North America, much more expensive. Legal costs, medical costs ... +we understand that it's expensive here: about 30,000 dollars. +But most of the people in the world in slavery live in those places where the costs are lowest. +And in fact, the global average is about what it is for Ghana. +Intel's fourth quarter earnings: 10.8 billion. +It's not a lot of money at the global level. +In fact, it's peanuts. +And the great thing about it is that it's not money down a hole, there is a freedom dividend. When you let people out of slavery to work for themselves, are they motivated? +They take their kids out of the workplace, they build a school, they say, "We're going to have stuff we've never had before like three squares, medicine when we're sick, clothing when we're cold." +They become consumers and producers and local economies begin to spiral up very rapidly. +That's important, all of that about how we rebuild sustainable freedom, because we'd never want to repeat what happened in this country in 1865. +Four million people were lifted up out of slavery and then dumped. +Dumped without political participation, decent education, any kind of real opportunity in terms of economic lives, and then sentenced to generations of violence and prejudice and discrimination. +And America is still paying the price for the botched emancipation of 1865. +We have made a commitment that we will never let people come out of slavery on our watch, and end up as second class citizens. +It's just not going to happen. +This is what liberation really looks like. +Children rescued from slavery in the fishing industry in Ghana, reunited with their parents, and then taken with their parents back to their villages to rebuild their economic well-being so that they become slave-proof -- absolutely unenslaveable. +Now, this woman lived in a village in Nepal. +We'd been working there about a month. +They had just begun to come out of a hereditary kind of slavery. +They'd just begun to light up a little bit, open up a little bit. +But when we went to speak with her, when we took this photograph, the slaveholders were still menacing us from the sidelines. They hadn't been really pushed back. +I was frightened. We were frightened. +We said to her, "Are you worried? Are you upset?" +She said, "No, because we've got hope now. +How could we not succeed," she said, "when people like you from the other side of the world are coming here to stand beside us?" +Okay, we have to ask ourselves, are we willing to live in a world with slavery? +If we don't take action, we just leave ourselves open to have someone else jerk the strings that tie us to slavery in the products we buy, and in our government policies. +And yet, if there's one thing that every human being can agree on, I think it's that slavery should end. +And if there is a fundamental violation of our human dignity that we would all say is horrific, it's slavery. +And we've got to say, what good is all of our intellectual and political and economic power -- and I'm really thinking intellectual power in this room -- if we can't use it to bring slavery to an end? +I think there is enough intellectual power in this room to bring slavery to an end. +And you know what? If we can't do that, if we can't use our intellectual power to end slavery, there is one last question: Are we truly free? +Okay, thank you so much. +I'm standing in front of you today in all humility, wanting to share with you my journey of the last six years in the field of service and education. +And I'm not a trained academic. +Neither am I a veteran social worker. +I was 26 years in the corporate world, trying to make organizations profitable. +And then in 2003 I started Parikrma Humanity Foundation from my kitchen table. +The first thing that we did was walk through the slums. +You know, by the way, there are two million people in Bangalore, who live in 800 slums. +We couldn't go to all the slums, but we tried to cover as much as we could. +We walked through these slums, identified houses where children would never go to school. +We talked to the parents, tried to convince them about sending their children to school. +We played with the children, and came back home really tired, exhausted, but with images of bright faces, twinkling eyes, and went to sleep. +We were all excited to start, but the numbers hit us then: 200 million children between four to 14 that should be going to school, but do not; 100 million children who go to school but cannot read; 125 million who cannot do basic maths. +We also heard that 250 billion Indian rupees was dedicated for government schooling. +Ninety percent of it was spent on teachers' salary and administrators' salary. +And yet, India has nearly the highest teacher absenteeism in the world, with one out of four teachers not going to school at all the entire academic year. +Those numbers were absolutely mind-boggling, overwhelming, and we were constantly asked, "When will you start? How many schools will you start? +How many children will you get? +How are you going to scale? +How are you going to replicate?" +It was very difficult not to get scared, not to get daunted. +But we dug our heels and said, "We're not in the number game. +We want to take one child at a time and take the child right through school, sent to college, and get them prepared for better living, a high value job." +So, we started Parikrma. +The first Parikrma school started in a slum where there were 70,000 people living below the poverty line. +Our first school was on a rooftop of a building inside the slums, a second story building, the only second story building inside the slums. +And that rooftop did not have any ceiling, only half a tin sheet. +That was our first school. One hundred sixty-five children. +Indian academic year begins in June. +So, June it rains, so many a times all of us would be huddled under the tin roof, waiting for the rain to stop. +My God! What a bonding exercise that was. +And all of us that were under that roof are still here together today. +Then came the second school, the third school, the fourth school and a junior college. +In six years now, we have four schools, one junior college, 1,100 children coming from 28 slums and four orphanages. +Our dream is very simple: to send each of these kids, get them prepared to be educated but also to live peacefully, contented in this conflict-ridden chaotic globalized world. +Now, when you talk global you have to talk English. +And so all our schools are English medium schools. +But they know there is this myth that children from the slums cannot speak English well. +No one in their family has spoken English. +No one in their generation has spoken English. +But how wrong it is. +Girl: I like adventurous books, and some of my favorites are Alfred Hitchcock and [unclear] and Hardy Boys. +Although they are like in different contexts, one is magical, the other two are like investigation, I like those books because they have something special in them. +The vocabulary used in those books and the style of writing. +I mean like once I pick up one book I cannot put it down until I finish the whole book. +Even if it takes me four and a half hours, or three and half hours to finish my book, I do it. +Boy: I did good research and I got the information [on the] world's fastest cars. +I like Ducati ZZ143, because it is the fastest, the world's fastest bike, and I like Pulsar 220 DTSI because it is India's fastest bike. Shukla Bose: Well, that girl that you saw, her father sells flowers on the roadside. +And this little boy has been coming to school for five years. +But isn't it strange that little boys all over the world love fast bikes? He hasn't seen one, he hasn't ridden one, of course, but he has done a lot of research through Google search. +You know, when we started with our English medium schools we also decided to adopt the best curriculum possible, the ICSE curriculum. +And again, there were people who laughed at me and said, "Don't be crazy choosing such a tough curriculum for these students. +They'll never be able to cope." +Not only do our children cope very well, but they excel in it. +You should just come across to see how well our children do. +There is also this myth that parents from the slums are not interested in their children going to school; they'd much rather put them to work. +That's absolute hogwash. +All parents all over the world want their children to lead a better life than themselves, but they need to believe that change is possible. +Video: SB: We have 80 percent attendance for all our parents-teachers meeting. +Sometimes it's even 100 percent, much more than many privileged schools. +Fathers have started to attend. +It's very interesting. When we started our school the parents would give thumbprints in the attendance register. +Now they have started writing their signature. +The children have taught them. +It's amazing how much children can teach. +We have, a few months ago, actually late last year, we had a few mothers who came to us and said, "You know, we want to learn how to read and write. +Can you teach us?" So, we started an afterschool for our parents, for our mothers. +We had 25 mothers who came regularly after school to study. +We want to continue with this program and extend it to all our other schools. +Ninety-eight percent of our fathers are alcoholics. +So, you can imagine how traumatized and how dysfunctional the houses are where our children come from. +We have to send the fathers to de-addiction labs and when they come back, most times sober, we have to find a job for them so that they don't regress. +We have about three fathers who have been trained to cook. +We have taught them nutrition, hygiene. +We have helped them set up the kitchen and now they are supplying food to all our children. +They do a very good job because their children are eating their food, but most importantly this is the first time they have got respect, and they feel that they are doing something worthwhile. +More than 90 percent of our non-teaching staff are all parents and extended families. +We've started many programs just to make sure that the child comes to school. +Vocational skill program for the older siblings so the younger ones are not stopped from coming to school. +There is also this myth that children from the slums cannot integrate with mainstream. +Take a look at this little girl who was one of the 28 children from all privileged schools, best schools in the country that was selected for the Duke University talent identification program and was sent to IIM Ahmedabad. +Video: Girl: Duke IIMA Camp. Whenever we see that IIMA, it was such a pride for us to go to that camp. +Everybody was very friendly, especially I got a lot of friends. +And I felt that my English has improved a lot going there and chatting with friends. +There they met children who are with a different standard and a different mindset, a totally different society. +I mingled with almost everyone. +They were very friendly. +I had very good friends there, who are from Delhi, who are from Mumbai. +Even now we are in touch through Facebook. +After this Ahmedabad trip I've been like a totally different mingling with people and all of those. +Before that I feel like I wasn't like this. +I don't even mingle, or start speaking with someone so quickly. +My accent with English improved a lot. +And I learned football, volleyball, Frisbee, lots of games. +And I wouldn't want to go to Bangalore. Let me stay here. +Such beautiful food, I enjoyed it. It was so beautiful. +I enjoyed eating food like [unclear] would come and ask me, "Yes ma'am, what you want?" It was so good to hear! +SB: This girl was working as a maid before she came to school. +And today she wants to be a neurologist. +Our children are doing brilliantly in sports. +They are really excelling. +There is an inter-school athletic competition that is held every year in Bangalore, where 5,000 children participate from 140 best schools in the city. +We've got the best school award for three years successively. +And our children are coming back home with bags full of medals, with lots of admirers and friends. +Last year there were a couple of kids from elite schools that came to ask for admissions in our school. +We also have our very own dream team. +Why is this happening? Why this confidence? +Is it the exposure? We have professors from MIT, Berkeley, Stanford, Indian Institute of Science who come and teach our children lots of scientific formulas, experiments, much beyond the classroom. +Art, music are considered therapy and mediums of expression. +We also believe that it's the content that is more important. +It is not the infrastructure, not the toilets, not the libraries, but it is what actually happens in this school that is more important. +Creating an environment of learning, of inquiry, of exploration is what is true education. +When we started Parikrma we had no idea which direction we were taking. +We didn't hire McKinsey to do a business plan. +But we know for sure that what we want to do today is take one child at a time, not get bogged with numbers, and actually see the child complete the circle of life, and unleash his total potential. +We do not believe in scale because we believe in quality, and scale and numbers will automatically happen. +We have corporates that have stood behind us, and we are able to, now, open more schools. +But we began with the idea of one child at a time. +This is five-year-old Parusharam. +He was begging by a bus stop a few years ago, got picked up and is now in an orphanage, has been coming to school for the last four and a half months. +He's in kindergarten. +He has learned how to speak English. +We have a model by which kids can speak English and understand English in three month's time. +He can tell you stories in English of the thirsty crow, of the crocodile and of the giraffe. +And if you ask him what he likes to do he will say, "I like sleeping. +I like eating. I like playing." +And if you ask him what he wants to do, he will say, "I want to horsing." +Now, "horsing" is going for a horse ride. +So, Parusharam comes to my office every day. +He comes for a tummy rub, because he believes that will give me luck. When I started Parikrma I began with a great deal of arrogance of transforming the world. +But today I have been transformed. +I have been changed with my children. +I've learned so much from them: love, compassion, imagination and such creativity. +Parusharam is Parikrma with a simple beginning but a long way to go. +I promise you, Parusharam will speak in the TED conference a few years from now. +Thank you. +We are drowning in news. +Reuters alone puts out three and a half million news stories a year. +That's just one source. +My question is: How many of those stories are actually going to matter in the long run? +That's the idea behind The Long News. +It's a project by The Long Now Foundation, which was founded by TEDsters including Kevin Kelly and Stewart Brand. +And what we're looking for is news stories that might still matter 50 or 100 or 10,000 years from now. +And when you look at the news through that filter, a lot falls by the wayside. +To take the top stories from the A.P. this last year, is this going to matter in a decade? +Or this? +Or this? +Really? +Is this going to matter in 50 or 100 years? +Okay, that was kind of cool. +But the top story of this past year was the economy, and I'm just betting that, sooner or later, this particular recession is going to be old news. +So, what kind of stories might make a difference for the future? +Well, let's take science. +Someday, little robots will go through our bloodstreams fixing things. +That someday is already here if you're a mouse. +Some recent stories: nanobees zap tumors with real bee venom; they're sending genes into the brain; a robot they built that can crawl through the human body. +What about resources? How are we going to feed nine billion people? +We're having trouble feeding six billion today. +As we heard yesterday, there's over a billion people hungry. +Britain will starve without genetically modified crops. +Bill Gates, fortunately, has bet a billion on [agricultural] research. +What about global politics? +The world's going to be very different when and if China sets the agenda, and they may. +They've overtaken the U.S. as the world's biggest car market, they've overtaken Germany as the largest exporter, and they've started doing DNA tests on kids to choose their careers. +We're finding all kinds of ways to push back the limits of what we know. +Some recent discoveries: There's an ant colony from Argentina that has now spread to every continent but Antarctica; there's a self-directed robot scientist that's made a discovery -- soon, science may no longer need us, and life may no longer need us either; a microbe wakes up after 120,000 years. +It seems that with or without us, life will go on. +But my pick for the top Long News story of this past year was this one: water found on the moon. +Makes it a lot easier to put a colony up there. +And if NASA doesn't do it, China might, or somebody in this room might write a big check. +My point is this: In the long run, some news stories are more important than others. +Ladies and gentlemen, at TED we talk a lot about leadership and how to make a movement. +So let's watch a movement happen, start to finish, in under three minutes and dissect some lessons from it. First, of course you know, a leader needs the guts to stand out and be ridiculed. +What he's doing is so easy to follow. +Here's his first follower with a crucial role; he's going to show everyone else how to follow. +Now, notice that the leader embraces him as an equal. +Now it's not about the leader anymore; it's about them, plural. +Now, there he is calling to his friends. +Now, if you notice that the first follower is actually an underestimated form of leadership in itself. +It takes guts to stand out like that. +The first follower is what transforms a lone nut into a leader. +And here comes a second follower. +Now it's not a lone nut, it's not two nuts -- three is a crowd, and a crowd is news. +So a movement must be public. +It's important to show not just the leader, but the followers, because you find that new followers emulate the followers, not the leader. +Now, here come two more people, and immediately after, three more people. +Now we've got momentum. This is the tipping point. +Now we've got a movement. +So, notice that, as more people join in, it's less risky. +So those that were sitting on the fence before now have no reason not to. +They won't stand out, they won't be ridiculed, but they will be part of the in-crowd if they hurry. +So, over the next minute, you'll see all of those that prefer to stick with the crowd because eventually they would be ridiculed for not joining in. +And that's how you make a movement. +But let's recap some lessons from this. +So first, if you are the type, like the shirtless dancing guy that is standing alone, remember the importance of nurturing your first few followers as equals so it's clearly about the movement, not you. +Okay, but we might have missed the real lesson here. +The biggest lesson, if you noticed -- did you catch it? -- is that leadership is over-glorified. +Yes, it was the shirtless guy who was first, and he'll get all the credit, but it was really the first follower that transformed the lone nut into a leader. +So, as we're told that we should all be leaders, that would be really ineffective. +If you really care about starting a movement, have the courage to follow and show others how to follow. +And when you find a lone nut doing something great, have the guts to be the first one to stand up and join in. +And what a perfect place to do that, at TED. +Thanks. +Now, I want to start with a question: When was the last time you were called "childish"? +For kids like me, being called childish can be a frequent occurrence. +Every time we make irrational demands, exhibit irresponsible behavior, or display any other signs of being normal American citizens, we are called childish. +Which really bothers me. +After all, take a look at these events: Imperialism and colonization, world wars, George W. Bush. +Ask yourself, who's responsible? Adults. +Now, what have kids done? +Well, Anne Frank touched millions with her powerful account of the Holocaust. +Ruby Bridges helped to end segregation in the United States. +And, most recently, Charlie Simpson helped to raise 120,000 pounds for Haiti, on his little bike. +So as you can see evidenced by such examples, age has absolutely nothing to do with it. +The traits the word "childish" addresses are seen so often in adults, that we should abolish this age-discriminatory word, when it comes to criticizing behavior associated with irresponsibility and irrational thinking. +Thank you. +Then again, who's to say that certain types of irrational thinking aren't exactly what the world needs? +Maybe you've had grand plans before, but stopped yourself, thinking, "That's impossible," or "That costs too much," or "That won't benefit me." +For better or worse, we kids aren't hampered as much when it comes to thinking about reasons why not to do things. +Kids can be full of inspiring aspirations and hopeful thinking, like my wish that no one went hungry, or that everything were free, a kind of utopia. +How many of you still dream like that, and believe in the possibilities? +Sometimes a knowledge of history and the past failures of Utopian ideals can be a burden, because you know that if everything were free, then the food stocks would become depleted and scarce and lead to chaos. +On the other hand, we kids still dream about perfection. +And that's a good thing, because in order to make anything a reality, you have to dream about it first. +In many ways, our audacity to imagine helps push the boundaries of possibility. +For instance, the Museum of Glass in Tacoma, Washington, my home state -- yoohoo, Washington! +has a program called Kids Design Glass, and kids draw their own ideas for glass art. +The resident artist said they got some of their best ideas from the program, because kids don't think about the limitations of how hard it can be to blow glass into certain shapes, they just think of good ideas. +Now, when you think of glass, you might think of colorful Chihuly designs, or maybe Italian vases, but kids challenge glass artists to go beyond that, into the realm of brokenhearted snakes and bacon boys, who you can see has meat vision. +Now, our inherent wisdom doesn't have to be insider's knowledge. +Kids already do a lot of learning from adults, and we have a lot to share. +I think that adults should start learning from kids. +Now, I do most of my speaking in front of an education crowd -- teachers and students, and I like this analogy: It shouldn't be a teacher at the head of the class, telling students, "Do this, do that." +The students should teach their teachers. +Learning between grown-ups and kids should be reciprocal. +The reality, unfortunately, is a little different, and it has a lot to do with trust, or a lack of it. +Now, if you don't trust someone, you place restrictions on them, right? +If I doubt my older sister's ability to pay back the 10 percent interest I established on her last loan, I'm going to withhold her ability to get more money from me, until she pays it back. True story, by the way. +Now, adults seem to have a prevalently restrictive attitude towards kids, from every "Don't do that, don't do this" in the school handbook, to restrictions on school Internet use. +As history points out, regimes become oppressive when they're fearful about keeping control. +And although adults may not be quite at the level of totalitarian regimes, kids have no or very little say in making the rules, when really, the attitude should be reciprocal, meaning that the adult population should learn and take into account the wishes of the younger population. +Now, what's even worse than restriction, is that adults often underestimate kids' abilities. +We love challenges, but when expectations are low, trust me, we will sink to them. +My own parents had anything but low expectations for me and my sister. +Okay, so they didn't tell us to become doctors or lawyers or anything like that, but my dad did read to us about Aristotle and pioneer germ-fighters, when lots of other kids were hearing "The Wheels on the Bus Go Round and Round." +Well, we heard that one too, but "Pioneer Germ Fighters" totally rules. +I loved to write from the age of four, and when I was six, my mom bought me my own laptop equipped with Microsoft Word. +Thank you, Bill Gates, and thank you, Ma. +I wrote over 300 short stories on that little laptop, and I wanted to get published. +Instead of just scoffing at this heresy that a kid wanted to get published, or saying wait until you're older, my parents were really supportive. +Many publishers were not quite so encouraging. +One large children's publisher ironically said that they didn't work with children. +Children's publisher not working with children? +I don't know, you're kind of alienating a large client there. +One publisher, Action Publishing, was willing to take that leap and trust me, and to listen to what I had to say. +They published my first book, "Flying Fingers," you see it here. +And from there on, it's gone to speaking at hundreds of schools, keynoting to thousands of educators, and finally, today, speaking to you. +I appreciate your attention today, because to show that you truly care, you listen. +But there's a problem with this rosy picture of kids being so much better than adults. +Kids grow up and become adults just like you. +Or just like you? Really? +The goal is not to turn kids into your kind of adult, but rather, better adults than you have been, which may be a little challenging, considering your guys' credentials. +But the way progress happens, is because new generations and new eras grow and develop and become better than the previous ones. +It's the reason we're not in the Dark Ages anymore. +No matter your position or place in life, it is imperative to create opportunities for children, so that we can grow up to blow you away. +Adults and fellow TEDsters, you need to listen and learn from kids, and trust us and expect more from us. +You must lend an ear today, because we are the leaders of tomorrow, which means we're going to take care of you when you're old and senile. +No, just kidding. No, really, we are going to be the next generation, the ones who will bring this world forward. +And in case you don't think that this really has meaning for you, remember that cloning is possible, and that involves going through childhood again, in which case you'll want to be heard, just like my generation. +Now, the world needs opportunities for new leaders and new ideas. +Kids need opportunities to lead and succeed. +Are you ready to make the match? +Because the world's problems shouldn't be the human family's heirloom. +Thank you. +Thank you. Thank you. +"People do stupid things. +That's what spreads HIV." +This was a headline in a U.K. newspaper, The Guardian, not that long ago. +I'm curious, show of hands, who agrees with it? +Well, one or two brave souls. +This is actually a direct quote from an epidemiologist who's been in field of HIV for 15 years, worked on four continents, and you're looking at her. +And I am now going to argue that this is only half true. +People do get HIV because they do stupid things, but most of them are doing stupid things for perfectly rational reasons. +Wonderful. +That's slightly problematic for me because I work in HIV, and although I'm sure you all know that HIV is about poverty and gender inequality, and if you were at TED '07 it's about coffee prices ... +Actually, HIV's about sex and drugs, and if there are two things that make human beings a little bit irrational, they are erections and addiction. +So, let's start with what's rational for an addict. +Now, I remember speaking to an Indonesian friend of mine, Frankie. +We were having lunch and he was telling me about when he was in jail in Bali for a drug injection. +It was someone's birthday, and they had very kindly smuggled some heroin into jail, and he was very generously sharing it out with all of his colleagues. +And so everyone lined up, all the smackheads in a row, and the guy whose birthday it was filled up the fit, and he went down and started injecting people. +So he injects the first guy, and then he's wiping the needle on his shirt, and he injects the next guy. +And Frankie says, "I'm number 22 in line, and I can see the needle coming down towards me, and there is blood all over the place. +It's getting blunter and blunter. +And a small part of my brain is thinking, 'That is so gross and really dangerous,' but most of my brain is thinking, 'Please let there be some smack left by the time it gets to me. +Please let there be some left.'" And then, telling me this story, Frankie said, "You know ... God, drugs really make you stupid." +And, you know, you can't fault him for accuracy. +But, actually, Frankie, at that time, was a heroin addict and he was in jail. +So his choice was either to accept that dirty needle or not to get high. +And if there's one place you really want to get high, it's when you're in jail. +But I'm a scientist and I don't like to make data out of anecdotes, so let's look at some data. +We talked to 600 drug addicts in three cities in Indonesia, and we said, "Well, do you know how you get HIV?" +"Oh yeah, by sharing needles." +I mean, nearly 100 percent. Yeah, by sharing needles. +And, "Do you know where you can get a clean needle at a price you can afford to avoid that?" +"Oh yeah." Hundred percent. +"We're smackheads; we know where to get clean needles." +"So are you carrying a needle?" +We're actually interviewing people on the street, in the places where they're hanging out and taking drugs. +"Are you carrying clean needles?" +One in four, maximum. +So no surprises then that the proportion that actually used clean needles every time they injected in the last week is just about one in 10, and the other nine in 10 are sharing. +So you've got this massive mismatch; everyone knows that if they share they're going to get HIV, but they're all sharing anyway. +So what's that about? Is it like you get a better high if you share or something? +We asked that to a junkie and they're like, "Are you nuts?" +You don't want to share a needle anymore than you want to share a toothbrush even with someone you're sleeping with. +There's just kind of an ick factor there. +"No, no. We share needles because we don't want to go to jail." +So, in Indonesia at this time, if you were carrying a needle and the cops rounded you up, they could put you into jail. +And that changes the equation slightly, doesn't it? +Because your choice now is either I use my own needle now, or I could share a needle now and get a disease that's going to possibly kill me 10 years from now, or I could use my own needle now and go to jail tomorrow. +And while junkies think that it's a really bad idea to expose themselves to HIV, they think it's a much worse idea to spend the next year in jail where they'll probably end up in Frankie's situation and expose themselves to HIV anyway. +So, suddenly it becomes perfectly rational to share needles. +Now, let's look at it from a policy maker's point of view. +This is a really easy problem. +For once, your incentives are aligned. +We've got what's rational for public health. +You want people to use clean needles -- and junkies want to use clean needles. +So we could make this problem go away simply by making clean needles universally available and taking away the fear of arrest. +Now, the first person to figure that out and do something about it on a national scale was that well-known, bleeding heart liberal Margaret Thatcher. +And she put in the world's first national needle exchange program, and other countries followed suit: Australia, The Netherlands and few others. +And in all of those countries, you can see, not more than four percent of injectors ever became infected with HIV. +Now, places that didn't do this -- New York City for example, Moscow, Jakarta -- we're talking, at its peak, one in two injectors infected with this fatal disease. +Now, Margaret Thatcher didn't do this because she has any great love for junkies. +She did it because she ran a country that had a national health service. +So, if she didn't invest in effective prevention, she was going to have pick up the costs of treatment later on, and obviously those are much higher. +So she was making a politically rational decision. +Now, if I take out my public health nerd glasses here and look at these data, it seems like a no-brainer, doesn't it? +But in this country, where the government apparently does not feel compelled to provide health care for citizens, we've taken a very different approach. +So what we've been doing in the United States is reviewing the data -- endlessly reviewing the data. +So, these are reviews of hundreds of studies by all the big muckety-mucks of the scientific pantheon in the United States, and these are the studies that show needle programs are effective -- quite a lot of them. +Now, the ones that show that needle programs aren't effective -- you think that's one of these annoying dynamic slides and I'm going to press my dongle and the rest of it's going to come up, but no -- that's the whole slide. +There is nothing on the other side. +So, completely irrational, you would think. +Except that, wait a minute, politicians are rational, too, and they're responding to what they think the voters want. +So what we see is that voters respond very well to things like this and not quite so well to things like this. +So it becomes quite rational to deny services to injectors. +Now let's talk about sex. +Are we any more rational about sex? +Well, I'm not even going to address the clearly irrational positions of people like the Catholic Church, who think somehow that if you give out condoms, everyone's going to run out and have sex. +I don't know if Pope Benedict watches TEDTalks online, but if you do, I've got news for you Benedict -- I carry condoms all the time and I never get laid. +It's not that easy! +Here, maybe you'll have better luck. +Okay, seriously, HIV is actually not that easy to transmit sexually. +So, it depends on how much virus there is in your blood and in your body fluids. +And what we've got is a very, very high level of virus right at the beginning when you're first infected, then you start making antibodies, and then it bumps along at quite low levels for a long time -- 10 or 12 years -- you have spikes if you get another sexually transmitted infection. +But basically, nothing much is going on until you start to get symptomatic AIDS, and by that stage, you're not looking great, you're not feeling great, you're not having that much sex. +So the sexual transmission of HIV is essentially determined by how many partners you have in these very short spaces of time when you have peak viremia. +Now, this makes people crazy because it means that you have to talk about some groups having more sexual partners in shorter spaces of time than other groups, and that's considered stigmatizing. +I've always been a bit curious about that because I think stigma is a bad thing, whereas lots of sex is quite a good thing, but we'll leave that be. +The truth is that 20 years of very good research have shown us that there are groups that are more likely to turnover large numbers of partners in a short space of time. +And those groups are, globally, people who sell sex and their more regular partners. +They are gay men on the party scene who have, on average, three times more partners than straight people on the party scene. +And they are heterosexuals who come from countries that have traditions of polygamy and relatively high levels of female autonomy, and almost all of those countries are in east or southern Africa. +And that is reflected in the epidemic that we have today. +You can see these horrifying figures from Africa. +These are all countries in southern Africa where between one in seven, and one in three of all adults, are infected with HIV. +Now, in the rest of the world, we've got basically nothing going on in the general population -- very, very low levels -- but we have extraordinarily high levels of HIV in these other populations who are at highest risk: drug injectors, sex workers and gay men. +And you'll note, that's the local data from Los Angeles: 25 percent prevalence among gay men. +Of course, you can't get HIV just by having unprotected sex. +You can only HIV by having unprotected sex with a positive person. +In most of the world, these few prevention failures notwithstanding, we are actually doing quite well these days in commercial sex: condom use rates are between 80 and 100 percent in commercial sex in most countries. +And, again, it's because of an alignment of the incentives. +What's rational for public health is also rational for individual sex workers because it's really bad for business to have another STI. +No one wants it. +And, actually, clients don't want to go home with a drip either. +So essentially, you're able to achieve quite high rates of condom use in commercial sex. +But in "intimate" relations it's much more difficult because, with your wife or your boyfriend or someone that you hope might turn into one of those things, we have this illusion of romance and trust and intimacy, and nothing is quite so unromantic as the, "My condom or yours, darling?" question. +So in the face of that, you really need quite a strong incentive to use condoms. +This, for example, this gentleman is called Joseph. +He's from Haiti and he has AIDS. +And he's probably not having a lot of sex right now, but he is a reminder in the population, of why you might want to be using condoms. +This is also in Haiti and is a reminder of why you might want to be having sex, perhaps. +Now, funnily enough, this is also Joseph after six months on antiretroviral treatment. +Not for nothing do we call it the Lazarus Effect. +But it is changing the equation of what's rational in sexual decision-making. +So, what we've got -- some people say, "Oh, it doesn't matter very much because, actually, treatment is effective prevention because it lowers your viral load and therefore makes it more difficult to transmit HIV." +So, if you look at the viremia thing again, if you do start treatment when you're sick, well, what happens? Your viral load comes down. +But compared to what? What happens if you're not on treatment? +Well, you die, so your viral load goes to zero. +Now, am I saying, "Oh, well, great prevention strategy. +Let's just stop treating people." +Of course not, of course not. +We need to expand antiretroviral treatment as much as we can. +But what I am doing is calling into question those people who say that more treatment is all the prevention we need. +That's simply not necessarily true, and I think we can learn a lot from the experience of gay men in rich countries where treatment has been widely available for going on 15 years now. +And the other thing is that people are simply not as scared of HIV as they were of AIDS, and rightly so. +AIDS was a disfiguring disease that killed you, and HIV is an invisible virus that makes you take a pill every day. +And that's boring, but is it as boring as having to use a condom every time you have sex, no matter how drunk you are, no matter how many poppers you've taken, whatever? +If we look at the data, we can see that the answer to that question is, mmm. +So these are data from Scotland. +You see the peak in drug injectors before they started the national needle exchange program. +Then it came way down. +And both in heterosexuals -- mostly in commercial sex -- and in drug users, you've really got nothing much going on after treatment begins, and that's because of that alignment of incentives that I talked about earlier. +But in gay men, you've got quite a dramatic rise starting three or four years after treatment became widely available. +This is of new infections. +What does that mean? +It means that the combined effect of being less worried and having more virus out there in the population -- more people living longer, healthier lives, more likely to be getting laid with HIV -- is outweighing the effects of lower viral load, and that's a very worrisome thing. +What does it mean? +It means we need to be doing more prevention the more treatment we have. +Is that what's happening? +No, and I call it the "compassion conundrum." +We've talked a lot about compassion the last couple of days, and what's happening really is that people are unable quite to bring themselves to put in good sexual and reproductive health services for sex workers, unable quite to be giving out needles to junkies. +But once they've gone from being transgressive people whose behaviors we don't want to condone to being AIDS victims, we come over all compassionate and buy them incredibly expensive drugs for the rest of their lives. +It doesn't make any sense from a public health point of view. +I want to give what's very nearly the last word to Ines. +Ines is a a transgender hooker on the streets of Jakarta; she's a chick with a dick. +Why does she do that job? +Well, of course, because she's forced into it because she doesn't have any better option, etc., etc. +And if we could just teach her to sew and get her a nice job in a factory, all would be well. +This is what factory workers earn in an hour in Indonesia: on average, 20 cents. +It varies a bit province to province. +I do speak to sex workers, 15,000 of them for this particular slide, and this is what sex workers say they earn in an hour. +So it's not a great job, but for a lot of people it really is quite a rational choice. +Okay, Ines. +We've got the tools, the knowledge and the cash, and commitment to preventing HIV too. +Ines: So why is prevalence still rising? +It's all politics. +When you get to politics, nothing makes sense. +Elizabeth Pisani: "When you get to politics, nothing makes sense." +So, from the point of view of a sex worker, politicians are making no sense. +From the point of view of a public health nerd, junkies are doing dumb things. +The truth is that everyone has a different rationale. +There are as many different ways of being rational as there are human beings on the planet, and that's one of the glories of human existence. +But those ways of being rational are not independent of one another, so it's rational for a drug injector to share needles because of a stupid decision that's made by a politician, and it's rational for a politician to make that stupid decision because they're responding to what they think the voters want. +But here's the thing: we are the voters. +We're not all of them, of course, but TED is a community of opinion leaders. +And everyone who's in this room, and everyone who's watching this out there on the web, I think, has a duty to demand of their politicians that we make policy based on scientific evidence and on common sense. +It's going to be really hard for us to individually affect what's rational for every Frankie and every Ines out there, but you can at least use your vote to stop politicians doing stupid things that spread HIV. +Thank you. +It's not about technology, it's about people and stories. +I could show you what recently was on television as a high quality video: 60 Minutes, many of you may have seen it. +And it was the now director of the entire piece of the veteran's administration -- who, himself, had lost an arm 39 years ago in Vietnam -- who was adamantly opposed to these crazy devices that don't work. +But that would sort of be jumping to the middle of the story, and I'm not going to show you that polished video. +I'm going to, instead, in a minute or two, show you an early, crude video because I think it's a better way to tell a story. +A few years ago I was visited by the guy that runs DARPA, the people that fund all the advanced technologies that businesses and universities probably wouldn't take the risk of doing. +They have a particular interest in ones that will help our soldiers. +I get this sort of unrequested -- by me anyway -- visit, and sitting in my conference room is a very senior surgeon from the military and the guy that runs DARPA. +They proceed to tell me a story which comes down to basically the following. We have used such advanced technologies now and made them available in the most remote places that we put soldiers: hills of Afghanistan, Iraq ... +That's the good news. +The bad news is if they've collected this person and he or she is missing an arm or leg, part of the face, it's probably not coming back. +So, they started giving me the statistics on how many of these kids had lost an arm. +And then the surgeon pointed out, with a lot of anger, he said, "Why is it? At the end of the Civil War, they were shooting each other with muskets. If somebody lost an arm, we gave them a wooden stick with a hook on it. +Now we've got F18s and F22s, and if somebody loses an arm, we give them a plastic stick with a hook on it." +And they basically said, "This is unacceptable," and then the punchline: "So, Dean, we're here because you make medical stuff. +You're going to give us an arm." +And I was waiting for the 500 pages of bureaucracy, paperwork and DODs. +No, the guy says, "We're going to bring a guy into this conference room, and wearing the arm you're going to give us, he or she is going to pick up a raisin or a grape off this table. +If it's the grape, they won't break it." +Great he needs efferent, afferent, haptic response sensors. +"If it's the raisin, they won't drop it." +So he wants fine motor control: flex at the wrist, flex at the elbow, abduct and flex at the shoulder. +Either way they were going to eat it. +"Oh, by the way Dean. It's going to fit on a 50th percentile female frame -- namely 32 inches from the long finger -- and weigh less than nine pounds." +50th percentile female frame. +"And it's going to be completely self contained including all its power." +So, they finished that. And I, as you can tell, am a bashful guy. +I told them they're nuts. +They've been watching too much "Terminator." +Then, the surgeon says to me, "Dean, you need to know more than two dozen of these kids have come back bilateral." +Now, I cannot imagine -- I'm sorry, you may have a better imagination than I do -- I can't imagine losing my arm, and typically at 22 years old. +But compared to that, losing two? +Seems like that would be an inconvenience. +Anyway, I went home that night. I thought about it. +I literally could not sleep thinking about, "I wonder how you'd roll over with no shoulders." +So, I decided we've got to do this. +And trust me, I've got a day job, I've got a lot of day jobs. +Most of my day job keeps me busy funding my fantasies like FIRST and water and power .... +And I've got a lot of day jobs. +But I figured I gotta do this. +Did a little investigation, went down to Washington, told them I still think they're nuts but we're going to do it. +And I told them I'd build them an arm. +I told them it would probably take five years to get through the FDA, and probably 10 years to be reasonably functional. +Look what it takes to make things like iPods. +"Great," he said, "You got two years." +I said, "I'll tell you what. I'll build you an arm that's under nine pounds that has all that capability in one year. +It will take the other nine to make it functional and useful." +We sort of agreed to disagree. +I went back and I started putting a team together, the best guys I could find with a passion to do this. +At the end of exactly one year we had a device with 14 degrees of freedom, all the sensors, all the microprocessors, all the stuff inside. +I could show you it with a cosmesis on it that's so real it's eerie, but then you wouldn't see all this cool stuff. +I then thought it would be years before we'd be able to make it really, really useful. +It turned out, as I think you could see in Aimee's capabilities and attitudes, people with a desire to do something are quite remarkable and nature is quite adaptable. +Anyway, with less than 10 hours of use, two guys -- one that's bilateral. +He's literally, he's got no shoulder on one side, and he's high trans-humeral on the other. +And that's Chuck and Randy together, after 10 hours -- were playing in our office. +And we took some pretty cruddy home movies. +At the end of the one I'm going to show, it's only about a minute and a couple of seconds long, Chuck does something that to this day I'm jealous of, I can't do it. +He picks up a spoon, picks it up, scoops out some Shredded Wheat and milk, holds the spoon level as he translates it, moving all these joints simultaneously, to his mouth, and he doesn't drop any milk. +I cannot do that. +His wife was standing behind me. +She's standing behind me at the time and she says, "Dean, Chuck hasn't fed himself in 19 years. +So, you've got a choice: We keep the arm, or you keep Chuck." +So, can we see that? +This is Chuck showing simultaneous control of all the joints. +He's punching our controls guy. The guy behind him is our engineer/surgeon, which is a convenient guy to have around. +There's Randy, these guys are passing a rubber little puck between them. +And just as in the spirit of FIRST, gracious professionalism, they are quite proud of this, so they decide to share a drink. +This is a non-trivial thing to do, by the way. +Imagine doing that with a wooden stick and a hook on the end of it, doing either of those. +Now Chuck is doing something quite extraordinary, at least for my limited physical skill. +And now he's going to do what DARPA asked me for. +He's going to pick up a grape -- he didn't drop it, he didn't break it -- and he's going to eat it. +So, that's where we were at the end of about 15 months. +But, as I've learned from Richard, the technology, the processors, the sensors, the motors, is not the story. +I hadn't dealt with this kind of problem or frankly, this whole segment of the medical world. +I'll give you some astounding things that have happened as we started this. +It doesn't matter whether the Department of Defense likes this arm." +When I told them that they weren't entirely enthusiastic, but I told them, "It really doesn't matter what their opinion is. +There is only one opinion that matters, the kids that are either going to use it or not." +I told a bunch of my engineers, "Look we're going to walk into Walter Reed, and you're going to see people, lots of them, missing major body parts. +They're probably going to be angry, depressed, frustrated. +We're probably going to have to give them support, encouragement. +But we've got to extract from them enough information to make sure we're doing the right thing." +We walked into Walter Reed and I could not have been more wrong. +We did see a bunch of people, a lot of them missing a lot of body parts, and parts they had left were burned; half a face gone, an ear burned off. +They were sitting at a table. They were brought together for us. +And we started asking them all questions. +"Look," I'd say to them, "We're not quite as good as nature yet. +I could give you fine motor control, or I could let you curl 40 pounds; I probably can't do both. +I can give you fast control with low reduction ratios in these gears, or I can give you power; I can't give you both. +And we were trying to get them to all help us know what to give them. +Not only were they enthusiastic, they kept thinking they're there to help us. +"Well, would it help if I ..." +"Guys, and woman, you've given enough. +We're here to help you. We need data. We need to know what you need." +After a half an hour, maybe, there was one guy at the far end of the table who wasn't saying much. +You could see he was missing an arm. +He was leaning on his other arm. +I called down to the end, "Hey, you haven't said much. +If we needed this or this, what would you want?" +And he said, "You know, I'm the lucky guy at this table. +I lost my right arm, but I'm a lefty." +So, he wouldn't say much. +He had a great spirit, like all the rest of them had great spirits. +And he made a few comments. +And then the meeting ended. We said goodbye to all these guys. +And that guy pushed himself back from the table ... +he has no legs. +So, we left. +And I was thinking, "We didn't give them support and encouragement; they gave it to us. +They're not finished giving yet." +It was astounding. +So, we went back. +And I started working harder, faster. +Then we went out to Brooke Army Medical Center. +And we saw lots of these kids, lots of them. +And it was astounding how positive they are. +So, we went back, and we've been working harder yet. +We're in clinical trials, we've got five of them on people. +We're screaming along. +And I get a call and we go back to Washington. +We go back to Walter Reed, and a kid, literally, 20 some-odd days before that was blown up. +And they shipped him to Germany and 24 hours later they shipped him from Germany to Walter Reed. +And he was there, and they said we needed to come. +And I went down and they rolled him into a room. +He's got no legs. +He's got no arms. +He's got a small residual limb on one side. +Half of his face is gone, but they said his vision is coming back. +He had one good eye. +His name is Brandon Marrocco. +And he said, "I need your arms, but I need two of them." +"You'll get them." +This kid was from Staten Island. +And he said, "I had a truck, before I went over there, and it had a stick. +You think I'll be able to drive it?" +"Sure." +And I turned around and went, "How are we going to do this?" +Anyway, he was just like all the rest of them. +He doesn't really want a lot. +He wants to help. He told me that he wanted to go back to help his buddies. +So, I was on my way out here. +I was asked to stop at Texas. +There were 3,500 people, the Veteran's Administration, U.S. ... just 3,500 at this huge event to help the families of all the kids -- some that have died, some that are like Brandon -- and they wanted me to speak. +I said, "What am I going to say? +This is not a happy thing. Look, if this happens to you, I can give you ... This stuff is still not as good at the original equipment." +"You need to come." +So, I went. +And, as I think you get the point, there were a lot people there recovering. +Some further along than others. +But universally, these people that had been through this had astounding attitudes, and just the fact that people care makes a huge difference to them. +I'll shut up, except one message or concern I have. +I don't think anybody does it intentionally, but there were people there literally talking about, "Well, how much will they get?" +You know, this country is involved as we've all heard, in this great healthcare debate. +"Who is entitled to what? +Who is entitled to how much? +Who is going to pay for it?" +Those are tough questions. +I don't have an answer to that. Not everybody can be entitled to everything simply because you were born here. +It's not possible. It would be nice but let's be realistic. +They were tough questions. There's polarized groups down there. +I don't know the answers. +There are other questions that are tough. +"Should we be there? +How do we get out? +What do we need to do?" There's very polarized answers to that question too, and I don't have any answers to that. +Those are political questions, economic questions, strategic questions. +I don't have the answer. But let me give you a simple concern or maybe statement, then. +It is an easy answer. +I know what these kids deserve on the healthcare side. +I was talking to one of them, and he was really liking this arm -- it's way, way, way better than a plastic stick with a hook on it -- but there's nobody in this room that would rather have that than the one you got. +But I was saying to him, "You know, the first airplane went 100 feet in 1903. +Wilbur and Orville. +But you know what? It wouldn't have made an old pigeon jealous. +But now we got Eagles out there, F15s, even that Bald Eagle. +I've never seen a bird flying around at Mach 2. +I think eventually we'll make these things extraordinary." +And I said to that kid, "I'll stop when your buddies are envious of your Luke arm because of what it can do, and how it does it. +And we'll keep working. And I'm not going to stop working until we do that." +And I think this country ought to continue its great debate, whining and complaining, "I'm entitled." "You're a victim." +And whining and complaining about what our foreign policy ought to be. +But while we have the luxury of whining and complaining about who's paying for what and how much we get, the people that are out there giving us that great privilege of whining and complaining, I know what they deserve: everything humanly possible. +And we ought to give it to them. +So, the first robot to talk about is called STriDER. +It stands for Self-excited Tripedal Dynamic Experimental Robot. +It's a robot that has three legs, which is inspired by nature. +But have you seen anything in nature, an animal that has three legs? +Probably not. So, why do I call this a biologically inspired robot? How would it work? +But before that, let's look at pop culture. +So, you know H.G. Wells' "War of the Worlds," novel and movie. +And what you see over here is a very popular video game, and in this fiction they describe these alien creatures that are robots that have three legs that terrorize Earth. +But my robot, STriDER, does not move like this. +So, this is an actual dynamic simulation animation. +I'm just going to show you how the robot works. +It flips its body 180 degrees and it swings its leg between the two legs and catches the fall. +So, that's how it walks. But when you look at us human being, bipedal walking, what you're doing is you're not really using a muscle to lift your leg and walk like a robot. Right? +What you're doing is you really swing your leg and catch the fall, stand up again, swing your leg and catch the fall. +You're using your built-in dynamics, the physics of your body, just like a pendulum. +We call that the concept of passive dynamic locomotion. +What you're doing is, when you stand up, potential energy to kinetic energy, potential energy to kinetic energy. +It's a constantly falling process. +So, even though there is nothing in nature that looks like this, really, we were inspired by biology and applying the principles of walking to this robot. Thus it's a biologically inspired robot. +What you see over here, this is what we want to do next. +We want to fold up the legs and shoot it up for long-range motion. +And it deploys legs -- it looks almost like "Star Wars" -- when it lands, it absorbs the shock and starts walking. +What you see over here, this yellow thing, this is not a death ray. This is just to show you that if you have cameras or different types of sensors -- because it is tall, it's 1.8 meters tall -- you can see over obstacles like bushes and those kinds of things. +So we have two prototypes. +The first version, in the back, that's STriDER I. +The one in front, the smaller, is STriDER II. +The problem that we had with STriDER I is it was just too heavy in the body. We had so many motors, you know, aligning the joints, and those kinds of things. +So, we decided to synthesize a mechanical mechanism so we could get rid of all the motors, and with a single motor we can coordinate all the motions. +It's a mechanical solution to a problem, instead of using mechatronics. +So, with this now the top body is light enough. So, it's walking in our lab; this was the very first successful step. +It's still not perfected -- its coffee falls down -- so we still have a lot of work to do. +The second robot I want to talk about is called IMPASS. +It stands for Intelligent Mobility Platform with Actuated Spoke System. +So, it's a wheel-leg hybrid robot. +So, think of a rimless wheel or a spoke wheel, but the spokes individually move in and out of the hub; so, it's a wheel-leg hybrid. +We are literally re-inventing the wheel here. +Let me demonstrate how it works. +So, in this video we're using an approach called the reactive approach. +Just simply using the tactile sensors on the feet, it's trying to walk over a changing terrain, a soft terrain where it pushes down and changes. +And just by the tactile information, it successfully crosses over these type of terrain. +You probably haven't seen anything like this out there. +This is a very high mobility robot that we developed called IMPASS. +Ah, isn't that cool? +When you drive your car, when you steer your car, you use a method called Ackermann steering. +The front wheels rotate like this. +For most small wheeled robots, they use a method called differential steering where the left and right wheel turns the opposite direction. +For IMPASS, we can do many, many different types of motion. +For example, in this case, even though the left and right wheel is connected with a single axle rotating at the same angle of velocity. +We just simply change the length of the spoke. +It affects the diameter and then can turn to the left, turn to the right. +So, these are just some examples of the neat things that we can do with IMPASS. +This robot is called CLIMBeR: Cable-suspended Limbed Intelligent Matching Behavior Robot. +So, I've been talking to a lot of NASA JPL scientists -- at JPL they are famous for the Mars rovers -- and the scientists, geologists always tell me that the real interesting science, the science-rich sites, are always at the cliffs. +But the current rovers cannot get there. +So, inspired by that we wanted to build a robot that can climb a structured cliff environment. +So, this is CLIMBeR. +So, what it does, it has three legs. It's probably difficult to see, but it has a winch and a cable at the top -- and it tries to figure out the best place to put its foot. +And then once it figures that out in real time, it calculates the force distribution: how much force it needs to exert to the surface so it doesn't tip and doesn't slip. +Once it stabilizes that, it lifts a foot, and then with the winch it can climb up these kinds of thing. +Also for search and rescue applications as well. +Five years ago I actually worked at NASA JPL during the summer as a faculty fellow. +And they already had a six legged robot called LEMUR. +So, this is actually based on that. This robot is called MARS: Multi-Appendage Robotic System. So, it's a hexapod robot. +We developed our adaptive gait planner. +We actually have a very interesting payload on there. +The students like to have fun. And here you can see that it's walking over unstructured terrain. +It's trying to walk on the coarse terrain, sandy area, but depending on the moisture content or the grain size of the sand the foot's soil sinkage model changes. +So, it tries to adapt its gait to successfully cross over these kind of things. +And also, it does some fun stuff, as can imagine. +We get so many visitors visiting our lab. +So, when the visitors come, MARS walks up to the computer, starts typing "Hello, my name is MARS." +Welcome to RoMeLa, the Robotics Mechanisms Laboratory at Virginia Tech. +This robot is an amoeba robot. +Now, we don't have enough time to go into technical details, I'll just show you some of the experiments. +So, this is some of the early feasibility experiments. +We store potential energy to the elastic skin to make it move. +Or use an active tension cords to make it move forward and backward. It's called ChIMERA. +We also have been working with some scientists and engineers from UPenn to come up with a chemically actuated version of this amoeba robot. +We do something to something And just like magic, it moves. The blob. +This robot is a very recent project. It's called RAPHaEL. +Robotic Air Powered Hand with Elastic Ligaments. +There are a lot of really neat, very good robotic hands out there in the market. +The problem is they're just too expensive, tens of thousands of dollars. +So, for prosthesis applications it's probably not too practical, because it's not affordable. +We wanted to go tackle this problem in a very different direction. +Instead of using electrical motors, electromechanical actuators, we're using compressed air. +We developed these novel actuators for joints. +It is compliant. You can actually change the force, simply just changing the air pressure. +And it can actually crush an empty soda can. +It can pick up very delicate objects like a raw egg, or in this case, a lightbulb. +The best part, it took only $200 dollars to make the first prototype. +This robot is actually a family of snake robots that we call HyDRAS, Hyper Degrees-of-freedom Robotic Articulated Serpentine. +This is a robot that can climb structures. +This is a HyDRAS's arm. +It's a 12 degrees of freedom robotic arm. +But the cool part is the user interface. +The cable over there, that's an optical fiber. +And this student, probably the first time using it, but she can articulate it many different ways. +So, for example in Iraq, you know, the war zone, there is roadside bombs. Currently you send these remotely controlled vehicles that are armed. +It takes really a lot of time and it's expensive to train the operator to operate this complex arm. +In this case it's very intuitive; this student, probably his first time using it, doing very complex manipulation tasks, picking up objects and doing manipulation, just like that. Very intuitive. +Now, this robot is currently our star robot. +We actually have a fan club for the robot, DARwIn: Dynamic Anthropomorphic Robot with Intelligence. +As you know, we are very interested in humanoid robot, human walking, so we decided to build a small humanoid robot. +This was in 2004; at that time, this was something really, really revolutionary. +This was more of a feasibility study: What kind of motors should we use? +Is it even possible? What kinds of controls should we do? +So, this does not have any sensors. +So, it's an open loop control. +For those who probably know, if you don't have any sensors and there are any disturbances, you know what happens. +So, based on that success, the following year we did the proper mechanical design starting from kinematics. +And thus, DARwIn I was born in 2005. +It stands up, it walks -- very impressive. +However, still, as you can see, it has a cord, umbilical cord. So, we're still using an external power source and external computation. +So, in 2006, now it's really time to have fun. +Let's give it intelligence. We give it all the computing power it needs: a 1.5 gigahertz Pentium M chip, two FireWire cameras, rate gyros, accelerometers, four force sensors on the foot, lithium polymer batteries. +And now DARwIn II is completely autonomous. +It is not remote controlled. +There are no tethers. It looks around, searches for the ball, looks around, searches for the ball, and it tries to play a game of soccer, autonomously: artificial intelligence. +Let's see how it does. This was our very first trial, and... Spectators : Goal! +Dennis Hong: So, there is actually a competition called RoboCup. +I don't know how many of you have heard about RoboCup. +It's an international autonomous robot soccer competition. +And the goal of RoboCup, the actual goal is, by the year 2050 we want to have full size, autonomous humanoid robots play soccer against the human World Cup champions and win. +It's a true actual goal. It's a very ambitious goal, but we truly believe that we can do it. +So, this is last year in China. +We were the very first team in the United States that qualified in the humanoid RoboCup competition. +This is this year in Austria. +You're going to see the action, three against three, completely autonomous. +There you go. Yes! +The robots track and they team play amongst themselves. +It's very impressive. It's really a research event packaged in a more exciting competition event. +What you see over here, this is the beautiful Louis Vuitton Cup trophy. +So, this is for the best humanoid, and we would like to bring this for the very first time, to the United States next year, so wish us luck. +DARwIn also has a lot of other talents. +Last year it actually conducted the Roanoke Symphony Orchestra for the holiday concert. +This is the next generation robot, DARwIn IV, but smarter, faster, stronger. +And it's trying to show off its ability: "I'm macho, I'm strong. +I can also do some Jackie Chan-motion, martial art movements." +And it walks away. So, this is DARwIn IV. +And again, you'll be able to see it in the lobby. +We truly believe this is going to be the very first running humanoid robot in the United States. So, stay tuned. +All right. So I showed you some of our exciting robots at work. +So, what is the secret of our success? +Where do we come up with these ideas? +How do we develop these kinds of ideas? +We have a fully autonomous vehicle that can drive into urban environments. We won a half a million dollars in the DARPA Urban Challenge. +We also have the world's very first vehicle that can be driven by the blind. +We call it the Blind Driver Challenge, very exciting. +And many, many other robotics projects I want to talk about. +These are just the awards that we won in 2007 fall from robotics competitions and those kinds of things. +So, really, we have five secrets. +First is: Where do we get inspiration? +Where do we get this spark of imagination? +This is a true story, my personal story. +At night when I go to bed, 3 - 4 a.m. in the morning, I lie down, close my eyes, and I see these lines and circles and different shapes floating around. +And they assemble, and they form these kinds of mechanisms. +And then I think, "Ah this is cool." +So, right next to my bed I keep a notebook, a journal, with a special pen that has a light on it, LED light, because I don't want to turn on the light and wake up my wife. +So, I see this, scribble everything down, draw things, and I go to bed. +Every day in the morning, the first thing I do before my first cup of coffee, before I brush my teeth, I open my notebook. +Many times it's empty, sometimes I have something there -- if something's there, sometimes it's junk -- but most of the time I can't even read my handwriting. +And so, 4 am in the morning, what do you expect, right? +So, I need to decipher what I wrote. +But sometimes I see this ingenious idea in there, and I have this eureka moment. +I directly run to my home office, sit at my computer, I type in the ideas, I sketch things out and I keep a database of ideas. +So, when we have these calls for proposals, I try to find a match between my potential ideas and the problem. If there is a match we write a research proposal, get the research funding in, and that's how we start our research programs. +But just a spark of imagination is not good enough. +How do we develop these kinds of ideas? +At our lab RoMeLa, the Robotics and Mechanisms Laboratory, we have these fantastic brainstorming sessions. +So, we gather around, we discuss about problems and social problems and talk about it. +But before we start we set this golden rule. +The rule is: Nobody criticizes anybody's ideas. +Nobody criticizes any opinion. +This is important, because many times students, they fear or they feel uncomfortable how others might think about their opinions and thoughts. +So, once you do this, it is amazing how the students open up. +They have these wacky, cool, crazy, brilliant ideas, and the whole room is just electrified with creative energy. +And this is how we develop our ideas. +Well, we're running out of time. One more thing I want to talk about is, you know, just a spark of idea and development is not good enough. +There was a great TED moment, I think it was Sir Ken Robinson, was it? +He gave a talk about how education and school kills creativity. +Well, actually, there are two sides to the story. +So, there is only so much one can do with just ingenious ideas and creativity and good engineering intuition. +If you want to go beyond a tinkering, if you want to go beyond a hobby of robotics and really tackle the grand challenges of robotics through rigorous research we need more than that. This is where school comes in. +Batman, fighting against bad guys, he has his utility belt, he has his grappling hook, he has all different kinds of gadgets. +For us roboticists, engineers and scientists, these tools, these are the courses and classes you take in class. +Math, differential equations. +I have linear algebra, science, physics, even nowadays, chemistry and biology, as you've seen. +These are all the tools that we need. +So, the more tools you have, for Batman, more effective at fighting the bad guys, for us, more tools to attack these kinds of big problems. +So, education is very important. +Also, it's not about that, only about that. You also have to work really, really hard. +So, I always tell my students, "Work smart, then work hard." +This picture in the back this is 3 a.m. in the morning. +I guarantee if you come to your lab at 3 - 4 am we have students working there, not because I tell them to, but because we are having too much fun. +Which leads to the last topic: Do not forget to have fun. +That's really the secret of our success, we're having too much fun. +I truly believe that highest productivity comes when you're having fun, and that's what we're doing. +There you go. Thank you so much. +Thank you. I have two missions here today. +The first is to tell you something about pollen, I hope, and to convince you that it's more than just something that gets up your nose. +And, secondly, to convince you that every home really ought to have a scanning electron microscope. +Pollen is a flower's way of making more flowers. +It carries male sex cells from one flower to another. +This gives us genetic diversity, or at least it gives the plants genetic diversity. +And it's really rather better not to mate with yourself. +That's probably true of humans as well, mostly. +Pollen is produced by the anthers of flowers. +Each anther can carry up to 100,000 grains of pollen, so, it's quite prolific stuff. +And it isn't just bright flowers that have pollen; it's also trees and grasses. +And remember that all our cereal crops are grasses as well. +Here is a scanning electron micrograph of a grain of pollen. +The little hole in the middle, we'll come to a bit later, but that's for the pollen tube to come out later on. A very tiny tube. +So, that's 20 micrometers across, that pollen grain there. +That's about a 50th of a millimeter. +But not all pollen is quite so simple looking. +This is Morina. This is a plant -- which I've always thought to be rather tedious -- named after Morin, who was an enterprising French gardener, who issued the first seed catalog in 1621. +But anyway, take a look at its pollen. +This is amazing, I think. +That little hole in the middle there is for the pollen tube, and when the pollen finds its special female spot in another Morina flower, just on the right species, what happens? +Like I said, pollen carries the male sex cells. +If you actually didn't realize that plants have sex, they have rampant, promiscuous and really quite interesting and curious sex. Really. +My story is actually not about plant propagation, but about pollen itself. +"So, what are pollen's properties?" I hear you ask. +First of all, pollen is tiny. Yes we know that. +It's also very biologically active, as anyone with hay fever will understand. +Now, pollen from plants, which are wind-dispersed -- like trees and grasses and so on -- tend to cause the most hay fever. +And the reason for that is they've got to chuck out masses and masses of pollen to have any chance of the pollen reaching another plant of the same species. +Here are some examples -- they're very smooth if you look at them -- of tree pollen that is meant to be carried by the wind. +Again -- this time, sycamore -- wind-dispersed. +So, trees: very boring flowers, not really trying to attract insects. +Cool pollen, though. +This one I particularly like. +This is the Monterey Pine, which has little air sacks to make the pollen carry even further. +Remember, that thing is just about 30 micrometers across. +Now, it's much more efficient if you can get insects to do your bidding. +This is a bee's leg with the pollen glommed onto it from a mallow plant. +And this is the outrageous and beautiful flower of the mangrove palm. +Very showy, to attract lots of insects to do its bidding. +The pollen has little barbs on it, if we look. +Now, those little barbs obviously stick to the insects well, but there is something else that we can tell from this photograph, and that is that you might be able to see a fracture line across what would be the equator of this, if it was the Earth. +That tells me that it's actually been fossilized, this pollen. +And I'm rather proud to say that this was found just near London, and that 55 million years ago London was full of mangroves. +Isn't that cool? +Okay, so this is another species evolved to be dispersed by insects. +You can tell that from the little barbs on there. +All these pictures were taken with a scanning electron microscope, actually in the lab at Kew Laboratories. +No coincidence that these were taken by Rob Kesseler, who is an artist, and I think it's someone with a design and artistic eye like him that has managed to bring out the best in pollen. +Now, all this diversity means that you can look at a pollen grain and tell what species it came from, and that's actually quite handy if you maybe have a sample and you want to see where it came from. +So, different species of plants grow in different places, and some pollen carries further than others. +So, if you have a pollen sample, then in principle, you should be able to tell where that sample came from. +And this is where it gets interesting for forensics. +Pollen is tiny. It gets on to things, and it sticks to them. +So, not only does each type of pollen look different, but each habitat has a different combination of plants. +A different pollen signature, if you like, or a different pollen fingerprint. +By looking at the proportions and combinations of different kinds of pollen in a sample, you can tell very precisely where it came from. +This is some pollen embedded in a cotton shirt, similar to the one that I'm wearing now. +Now, much of the pollen will still be there after repeated washings. +Where has it been? +Four very different habitats might look similar, but they've got very different pollen signatures. +Actually this one is particularly easy, these pictures were all taken in different countries. +But pollen forensics can be very subtle. +It's being used now to track where counterfeit drugs have been made, where banknotes have come from, to look at the provenance of antiques and see that they really did come from the place the seller said they did. +And murder suspects have been tracked using their clothing, certainly in the U.K., to within an area that's small enough that you can send in tracker dogs to find the murder victim. +So, you can tell from a piece of clothing to within about a kilometer or so, where that piece of clothing has been recently and then send in dogs. +And finally, in a rather grizzly way, the Bosnia war crimes; some of the people brought to trial were brought to trial because of the evidence from pollen, which showed that bodies had been buried, exhumed and then reburied somewhere else. +I hope I've opened your eyes, if you'll excuse the visual pun, to some of pollen's secrets. +This is a horse chestnut. +There is an invisible beauty all around us, each grain with a story to tell ... +each of us, in fact, with a story to tell from the pollen fingerprint that's upon us. +Thank you to the colleagues at Kew, and thank you to palynologists everywhere. +I've been working on a project for the last six years adapting children's poetry to music. +And that's a poem by Charles Edward Carryl, who was a stockbroker in New York City for 45 years, but in the evenings, he wrote nonsense for his children. +And this book was one of the most famous books in America for about 35 years. +"The Sleepy Giant," which is the song that I just sang, is one of his poems. +Now, we're going to do other poems for you, and here's a preview of some of the poets. +This is Rachel Field, Robert Graves -- a very young Robert Graves -- Christina Rossetti. +Ghosts, right? +Have nothing to say to us, obsolete, gone -- not so. +What I really enjoyed about this project is reviving these people's words. +Taking them off the dead, flat pages. +Bringing them to life, bringing them to light. +So, what we're going to do next is a poem that was written by Nathalia Crane. +Nathalia Crane was a little girl from Brooklyn. +When she was 10 years old in 1927, she published her first book of poems called "The Janitor's Boy." +Here she is. +And here's her poem. +The next poem is "If No One Ever Marries Me." +It was written by Laurence Alma-Tadema. +She was the daughter of a very, very famous Dutch painter who had made his fame in England. +He went there after the death of his wife of smallpox and brought his two young children. +One was his daughter, Laurence. +She wrote this poem when she was 18 years old in 1888, and I look at it as kind of a very sweet feminist manifesto tinged with a little bit of defiance and a little bit of resignation and regret. +I became very curious about the poets after spending six years with them, and started to research their lives, and then decided to write a book about it. +And the burning question about Alma-Tadema was: Did she marry? +And the answer was no, which I found in the London Times archive. +She died alone in 1940 in the company of her books and her dear friends. +Gerard Manley Hopkins, a saintly man. +He became a Jesuit. +He converted from his Anglican faith. +He was moved to by the Tractarian Movement, the Oxford Movement, otherwise known as -- and he became a Jesuit priest. +He burned all his poetry at the age of 24 and then did not write another poem for at least seven years because he couldn't rectify the life of a poet with the life of a priest. +He died typhoid fever at the age of 44, I believe, 43 or 44. +At the time, he was teaching classics at Trinity College in Dublin. +A few years before he died, after he had resumed writing poetry, but in secret, he confessed to a friend in a letter that I found when I was doing my research: "I've written a verse. +It is to explain death to a child, and it deserves a piece of plain-song music." +And my blood froze when I read that because I had written the plain-song music 130 years after he'd written the letter. +And the poem is called, "Spring and Fall." +I'd like to thank everybody, all the scientists, the philosophers, the architects, the inventors, the biologists, the botanists, the artists ... +everyone that blew my mind this week. +Thank you. +Just bring it down a little. It's my turn. +I still have two minutes. +Okay, we're going to start that verse again. + Well, you've been so ... That's innovative, don't you think? +Calming the audience down; I'm supposed to be whipping you into a frenzy, and I, "That's enough. Sh." Now, you've been kind and ... I'm going to sing this to Bill Gates. I have so much admiration for him. +I'll show you how to clap to this song. I want to thank you, thank you Thank you, thank you Thank you, thank you Thank you, thank you I want to thank you, thank you It works better, right? + I want to thank you, thank you I want to thank you Ooh hoo Ooh hoo Ooh hoo Ooh hoo Let's bring it down. +Decrescendo. +Gradually, bringing it down, bringing it down. + I want to thank you, thank you Finger popping, ain't no stopping. +Thank you so much. +In my industry, we believe that images can change the world. +Okay, we're naive, we're bright-eyed and bushy-tailed. +The truth is that we know that the images themselves don't change the world, but we're also aware that, since the beginning of photography, images have provoked reactions in people, and those reactions have caused change to happen. +So let's begin with a group of images. +I'd be extremely surprised if you didn't recognize many or most of them. +They're best described as iconic: so iconic, perhaps, they're cliches. +In fact, they're so well-known that you might even recognize them in a slightly or somewhat different form. +But I think we're looking for something more. +We're looking for something more. +We're looking for images that shine an uncompromising light on crucial issues, images that transcend borders, that transcend religions, images that provoke us to step up and do something -- in other words, to act. +Well, this image you've all seen. +It changed our view of the physical world. +We had never seen our planet from this perspective before. +Many people credit a lot of the birth of the environmental movement to our seeing the planet like this for the first time -- its smallness, its fragility. +Forty years later, this group, more than most, are well aware of the destructive power that our species can wield over our environment. +And at last, we appear to be doing something about it. +This destructive power takes many different forms. +For example, these images taken by Brent Stirton in the Congo. +These gorillas were murdered, some would even say crucified, and unsurprisingly, they sparked international outrage. +Most recently, we've been tragically reminded of the destructive power of nature itself with the recent earthquake in Haiti. +Well, I think what is far worse is man's destructive power over man. +Samuel Pisar, an Auschwitz survivor, said, and I'll quote him, "The Holocaust teaches us that nature, even in its cruelest moments, is benign in comparison with man, when he loses his moral compass and his reason." +There's another kind of crucifixion. +The horrifying images from Abu Ghraib as well as the images from Guantanamo had a profound impact. +The publication of those images, as opposed to the images themselves, caused a government to change its policies. +Some would argue that it is those images that did more to fuel the insurgency in Iraq than virtually any other single act. +Furthermore, those images forever removed the so-called moral high ground of the occupying forces. +Let's go back a little. +In the 1960s and 1970s, the Vietnam War was basically shown in America's living rooms day in, day out. +News photos brought people face to face with the victims of the war: a little girl burned by napalm, a student killed by the National Guard at Kent State University in Ohio during a protest. +In fact, these images became the voices of protest themselves. +Now, images have power to shed light of understanding on suspicion, ignorance, and in particular -- I've given a lot of talks on this but I'll just show one image -- the issue of HIV/AIDS. +In the 1980s, the stigmatization of people with the disease was an enormous barrier to even discussing or addressing it. +A simple act, in 1987, of the most famous woman in the world, the Princess of Wales, touching an HIV/AIDS infected baby did a great deal, especially in Europe, to stop that. +She, better than most, knew the power of an image. +So when we are confronted by a powerful image, we all have a choice: We can look away, or we can address the image. +Thankfully, when these photos appeared in The Guardian in 1998, they put a lot of focus and attention and, in the end, a lot of money towards the Sudan famine relief efforts. +Did the images change the world? +No, but they had a major impact. +Images often push us to question our core beliefs and our responsibilities to each other. +We all saw those images after Katrina, and I think for millions of people they had a very strong impact. +And I think it's very unlikely that they were far from the minds of Americans when they went to vote in November 2008. +Unfortunately, some very important images are deemed too graphic or disturbing for us to see them. +I'll show you one photo here, and it's a photo by Eugene Richards of an Iraq War veteran from an extraordinary piece of work, which has never been published, called War Is Personal. +But images don't need to be graphic in order to remind us of the tragedy of war. +John Moore set up this photo at Arlington Cemetery. +After all the tense moments of conflict in all the conflict zones of the world, there's one photograph from a much quieter place that haunts me still, much more than the others. +Ansel Adams said, and I'm going to disagree with him, "You don't take a photograph, you make it." +In my view, it's not the photographer who makes the photo, it's you. +We bring to each image our own values, our own belief systems, and as a result of that, the image resonates with us. +My company has 70 million images. +I have one image in my office. +Here it is. +I hope that the next time you see an image that sparks something in you, you'll better understand why, and I know that speaking to this audience, you'll definitely do something about it. +And thank you to all the photographers. +First of all, I'm a geek. +I'm an organic food-eating, carbon footprint-minimizing, robotic surgery geek. +And I really want to build green, but I'm very suspicious of all of these well-meaning articles, people long on moral authority and short on data, telling me how to do these kinds of things. +And so I have to figure this out for myself. +For example: Is this evil? +I have dropped a blob of organic yogurt from happy self-actualized local cows on my counter top, and I grab a paper towel and I want to wipe it up. +But can I use a paper towel? The answer to this can be found in embodied energy. +This is the amount of energy that goes into any paper towel or embodied water, and every time I use a paper towel, I am using this much virtual energy and water. +Wipe it up, throw it away. +Now, if I compare that to a cotton towel that I can use a thousand times, I don't have a whole lot of embodied energy until I wash that yogurty towel. +This is now operating energy. +So if I throw my towel in the washing machine, I've now put energy and water back into that towel ... +unless I use a front-loading, high-efficiency washing machine, and then it looks a little bit better. +But what about a recycled paper towel that comes in those little half sheets? +Well, now a paper towel looks better. +Screw the paper towels. Let's go to a sponge. +I wipe it up with a sponge, and I put it under the running water, and I have a lot less energy and a lot more water. +Unless you're like me and you leave the handle in the position of hot even when you turn it on, and then you start to use more energy. +Or worse, you let it run until it's warm to rinse out your towel. +And now all bets are off. +So what this says is that sometimes the things that you least expect -- the position in which you put the handle -- have a bigger effect than any of those other things that you were trying to optimize. +Now imagine someone as twisted as me trying to build a house. +That's what my husband and I are doing right now. +And so, we wanted to know, how green could we be? +And there's a thousand and one articles out there telling us how to make all these green trade-offs. +And they are just as suspect in telling us to optimize these little things around the edges and missing the elephant in the living room. +Now, the average house has about 300 megawatt hours of embodied energy in it; this is the energy it takes to make it -- millions and millions of paper towels. +We wanted to know how much better we could do. +And so, like many people, we start with a house on a lot, and I'm going to show you a typical construction on the top and what we're doing on the bottom. +So first, we demolish it. +It takes some energy, but if you deconstruct it -- you take it all apart, you use the bits -- you can get some of that energy back. +We then dug a big hole to put in a rainwater catchment tank to take our yard water independent. +And then we poured a big foundation for passive solar. +Now, you can reduce the embodied energy by about 25 percent by using high fly ash concrete. +We then put in framing. +And so this is framing -- lumber, composite materials -- and it's kind of hard to get the embodied energy out of that, but it can be a sustainable resource if you use FSC-certified lumber. +We then go on to the first thing that was very surprising. +If we put aluminum windows in this house, we would double the energy use right there. +Now, PVC is a little bit better, but still not as good as the wood that we chose. +We then put in plumbing, electrical and HVAC, and insulate. +Now, spray foam is an excellent insulator -- it fills in all the cracks -- but it is pretty high embodied energy, and, sprayed-in cellulose or blue jeans is a much lower energy alternative to that. +We also used straw bale infill for our library, which has zero embodied energy. +When it comes time to sheetrock, if you use EcoRock it's about a quarter of the embodied energy of standard sheetrock. +And then you get to the finishes, the subject of all of those "go green" articles, and on the scale of a house they almost make no difference at all. +And yet, all the press is focused on that. +Except for flooring. +If you put carpeting in your house, it's about a tenth of the embodied energy of the entire house, unless you use concrete or wood for a much lower embodied energy. +So now we add in the final construction energy, we add it all up, and we've built a house for less than half of the typical embodied energy for building a house like this. +But before we pat ourselves too much on the back, we have poured 151 megawatt hours of energy into constructing this house when there was a house there before. +And so the question is: How could we make that back? +And so if I run my new energy-efficient house forward, compared with the old, non-energy-efficient house, we make it back in about six years. +Now, I probably would have upgraded the old house to be more energy-efficient, and in that case, it would take me more about 20 years to break even. +Now, if I hadn't paid attention to embodied energy, it would have taken us over 50 years to break even compared to the upgraded house. +So what does this mean? +On the scale of my portion of the house, this is equivalent to about as much as I drive in a year, it's about five times as much as if I went entirely vegetarian. +But my elephant in the living room flies. +Clearly, I need to walk home from TED. +But all the calculations for embodied energy are on the blog. +And, remember, it's sometimes the things that you are not expecting to be the biggest changes that are. +Thank you. +I first became fascinated with octopus at an early age. +I grew up in Mobile, Alabama -- somebody's got to be from Mobile, right? -- and Mobile sits at the confluence of five rivers, forming this beautiful delta. +And the delta has alligators crawling in and out of rivers filled with fish and cypress trees dripping with snakes, birds of every flavor. +It's an absolute magical wonderland to live in -- if you're a kid interested in animals, to grow up in. +And this delta water flows to Mobile Bay, and finally into the Gulf of Mexico. +And I remember my first real contact with octopus was probably at age five or six. +I was in the gulf, and I was swimming around and saw a little octopus on the bottom. +And I reached down and picked him up, and immediately became fascinated and impressed by its speed and its strength and agility. +It was prying my fingers apart and moving to the back of my hand. +It was all I could do to hold onto this amazing creature. +Then it sort of calmed down in the palms of my hands and started flashing colors, just pulsing all of these colors. +And as I looked at it, it kind of tucked its arms under it, raised into a spherical shape and turned chocolate brown with two white stripes. +I'm going, "My gosh!" I had never seen anything like this in my life! +So I marveled for a moment, and then decided it was time to release him, so I put him down. +The octopus left my hands and then did the damnedest thing: It landed on the bottom in the rubble and -- fwoosh! -- vanished right before my eyes. +And I knew, right then, at age six, that is an animal that I want to learn more about. So I did. +And I went off to college and got a degree in marine zoology, and then moved to Hawaii and entered graduate school at the University of Hawaii. +And while a student at Hawaii, I worked at the Waikiki Aquarium. +Now, the fish in the tanks were gorgeous to look at, but they didn't really interact with people. +But the octopus did. +If you walked up to an octopus tank, especially early in the morning before anyone arrived, the octopus would rise up and look at you and you're thinking, "Is that guy really looking at me? He is looking at me!" +And you walk up to the front of the tank. Then you realize that these animals all have different personalities: Some of them would hold their ground, others would slink into the back of the tank and disappear in the rocks, and one in particular, this amazing animal ... +I went up to the front of the tank, and he's just staring at me, and he had little horns come up above his eyes. +So I went right up to the front of the tank -- I was three or four inches from the front glass -- and the octopus was sitting on a perch, a little rock, and he came off the rock and he also came down right to the front of the glass. +So I was staring at this animal about six or seven inches away, and at that time I could actually focus that close; now as I look at my fuzzy fingers I realize those days are long gone. +Anyway, there we were, staring at each other, and he reaches down and grabs an armful of gravel and releases it in the jet of water entering the tank from the filtration system, and -- chk chk chk chk chk! -- this gravel hits the front of the glass and falls down. +He reaches up, takes another armful of gravel, releases it -- chk chk chk chk chk! -- same thing. +Then he lifts another arm and I lift an arm. +Then he lifts another arm and I lift another arm. +And then I realize the octopus won the arms race, because I was out and he had six left. But the only way I can describe what I was seeing that day was that this octopus was playing, which is a pretty sophisticated behavior for a mere invertebrate. +So, about three years into my degree, a funny thing happened on the way to the office, which actually changed the course of my life. +A man came into the aquarium. It's a long story, but essentially he sent me and a couple of friends of mine to the South Pacific to collect animals for him, and as we left, he gave us two 16-millimeter movie cameras. +He said, "Make a movie about this expedition." +"OK, a couple of biologists making a movie -- this'll be interesting," and off we went. And we did, we made a movie, which had to be the worst movie ever made in the history of movie making, but it was a blast. I had so much fun. +And I remember that proverbial light going off in my head, thinking, "Wait a minute. +Maybe I can do this all the time. +Yeah, I'll be a filmmaker." +So I literally came back from that job, quit school, hung my filmmaking shingle and just never told anyone that I didn't know what I was doing. +It's been a good ride. +And what I learned in school though was really beneficial. +If you're a wildlife filmmaker and you're going out into the field to film animals, especially behavior, it helps to have a fundamental background on who these animals are, how they work and, you know, a bit about their behaviors. +But where I really learned about octopus was in the field, as a filmmaker making films with them, where you're allowed to spend large periods of time with the animals, seeing octopus being octopus in their ocean homes. +I remember I took a trip to Australia, went to an island called One Tree Island. +And apparently, evolution had occurred at a pretty rapid rate on One Tree, between the time they named it and the time I arrived, because I'm sure there were at least three trees on that island when we were there. +Anyway, one tree is situated right next to a beautiful coral reef. +In fact, there's a surge channel where the tide is moving back and forth, twice a day, pretty rapidly. +And there's a beautiful reef, very complex reef, with lots of animals, including a lot of octopus. +And not uniquely but certainly, the octopus in Australia are masters at camouflage. +As a matter of fact, there's one right there. +So our first challenge was to find these things, and that was a challenge, indeed. +But the idea is, we were there for a month and I wanted to acclimate the animals to us so that we could see behaviors without disturbing them. +So the first week was pretty much spent just getting as close as we could, every day a little closer, a little closer, a little closer. +And you knew what the limit was: they would start getting twitchy and you'd back up, come back in a few hours. +And after the first week, they ignored us. +It was like, "I don't know what that thing is, but he's no threat to me." +So they went on about their business and from a foot away, we're watching mating and courting and fighting and it is just an unbelievable experience. +And one of the most fantastic displays that I remember, or at least visually, was a foraging behavior. +And they had a lot of different techniques that they would use for foraging, but this particular one used vision. +And they would see a coral head, maybe 10 feet away, and start moving over toward that coral head. +And as soon as the crabs touched the arm, it was lights out. +And I always wondered what happened under that web. +So we created a way to find out, and I got my first look at that famous beak in action. +It was fantastic. +If you're going to make a lot of films about a particular group of animals, you might as well pick one that's fairly common. +And octopus are, they live in all the oceans. +They also live deep. +And I can't say octopus are responsible for my really strong interest in getting in subs and going deep, but whatever the case, I like that. +It's like nothing you've ever done. +If you ever really want to get away from it all and see something that you have never seen, and have an excellent chance of seeing something no one has ever seen, get in a sub. +You climb in, seal the hatch, turn on a little oxygen, turn on the scrubber, which removes the CO2 in the air you breathe, and they chuck you overboard. +Down you go. There's no connection to the surface apart from a pretty funky radio. +And as you go down, the washing machine at the surface calms down. +And it gets quiet. +And it starts getting really nice. +And as you go deeper, that lovely, blue water you were launched in gives way to darker and darker blue. +And finally, it's a rich lavender, and after a couple of thousand feet, it's ink black. +And now you've entered the realm of the mid-water community. +You could give an entire talk about the creatures that live in the mid-water. +Suffice to say though, as far as I'm concerned, without question, the most bizarre designs and outrageous behaviors are in the animals that live in the mid-water community. +But we're just going to zip right past this area, this area that includes about 95 percent of the living space on our planet and go to the mid-ocean ridge, which I think is even more extraordinary. +The mid-ocean ridge is a huge mountain range, 40,000 miles long, snaking around the entire globe. +And they're big mountains, thousands of feet tall, some of which are tens of thousands of feet and bust through the surface, creating islands like Hawaii. +And the top of this mountain range is splitting apart, creating a rift valley. +And when you dive into that rift valley, that's where the action is because literally thousands of active volcanoes are going off at any point in time all along this 40,000 mile range. +And as these tectonic plates are spreading apart, magma, lava is coming up and filling those gaps, and you're looking land -- new land -- being created right before your eyes. +In fact, this whole area is like a Yellowstone National Park with all of the trimmings. +And this vent fluid is about 600 or 700 degrees F. +The surrounding water is just a couple of degrees above freezing. +So it immediately cools, and it can no longer hold in suspension all of the material that it's dissolved, and it precipitates out, forming black smoke. +And it forms these towers, these chimneys that are 10, 20, 30 feet tall. +And all along the sides of these chimneys is shimmering with heat and loaded with life. +You've got black smokers going all over the place and chimneys that have tube worms that might be eight to 10 feet long. +And out of the tops of these tube worms are these beautiful red plumes. +And living amongst the tangle of tube worms is an entire community of animals: shrimp, fish, lobsters, crab, clams and swarms of arthropods that are playing that dangerous game between over here is scalding hot and freezing cold. +And this whole ecosystem wasn't even known about until 33 years ago. +And it completely threw science on its head. +It made scientists rethink where life on Earth might have actually begun. +And before the discovery of these vents, all life on Earth, the key to life on Earth, was believed to be the sun and photosynthesis. +But down there, there is no sun, there is no photosynthesis; it's chemosynthetic environment down there driving it, and it's all so ephemeral. +You might film this unbelievable hydrothermal vent, which you think at the time has to be on another planet. +It's amazing to think that this is actually on earth; it looks like aliens in an alien environment. +But you go back to the same vent eight years later and it can be completely dead. +There's no hot water. +All of the animals are gone, they're dead, and the chimneys are still there creating a really nice ghost town, an eerie, spooky ghost town, but essentially devoid of animals, of course. +But 10 miles down the ridge... +pshhh! There's another volcano going. +And there's a whole new hydrothermal vent community that has been formed. +And this kind of life and death of hydrothermal vent communities is going on every 30 or 40 years all along the ridge. +And that ephemeral nature of the hydrothermal vent community isn't really different from some of the areas that I've seen in 35 years of traveling around, making films. +Where you go and film a really nice sequence at a bay. +And you go back, and I'm at home, and I'm thinking, "Okay, what can I shoot ... +Ah! I know where I can shoot that. +There's this beautiful bay, lots of soft corals and stomatopods." +And you show up, and it's dead. +There's no coral, algae growing on it, and the water's pea soup. +You think, "Well, what happened?" +And you turn around, and there's a hillside behind you with a neighborhood going in, and bulldozers are pushing piles of soil back and forth. +And over here there's a golf course going in. +And this is the tropics. +It's raining like crazy here. +So this rainwater is flooding down the hillside, carrying with it sediments from the construction site, smothering the coral and killing it. +And fertilizers and pesticides are flowing into the bay from the golf course -- the pesticides killing all the larvae and little animals, fertilizer creating this beautiful plankton bloom -- and there's your pea soup. +But, encouragingly, I've seen just the opposite. +I've been to a place that was a pretty trashed bay. +And I looked at it, just said, "Yuck," and go and work on the other side of the island. +Five years later, come back, and that same bay is now gorgeous. It's beautiful. +It's got living coral, fish all over the place, crystal clear water, and you go, "How did that happen?" +Well, how it happened is the local community galvanized. +They recognized what was happening on the hillside and put a stop to it; enacted laws and made permits required to do responsible construction and golf course maintenance and stopped the sediments flowing into the bay, and stopped the chemicals flowing into the bay, and the bay recovered. +The ocean has an amazing ability to recover, if we'll just leave it alone. +I think Margaret Mead said it best. +She said that a small group of thoughtful people could change the world. +Indeed, it's the only thing that ever has. +And a small group of thoughtful people changed that bay. +I'm a big fan of grassroots organizations. +I've been to a lot of lectures where, at the end of it, inevitably, one of the first questions that comes up is, "But, but what can I do? +I'm an individual. I'm one person. +And these problems are so large and global, and it's just overwhelming." +Fair enough question. +My answer to that is don't look at the big, overwhelming issues of the world. +Look in your own backyard. +Look in your heart, actually. +What do you really care about that isn't right where you live? +And fix it. +Create a healing zone in your neighborhood and encourage others to do the same. +And maybe these healing zones can sprinkle a map, little dots on a map. +And in fact, the way that we can communicate today -- where Alaska is instantly knowing what's going on in China, and the Kiwis did this, and then over in England they tried to ... +and everybody is talking to everyone else -- it's not isolated points on a map anymore, it's a network we've created. +And maybe these healing zones can start growing, and possibly even overlap, and good things can happen. +So that's how I answer that question. +Look in your own backyard, in fact, look in the mirror. +What can you do that is more responsible than what you're doing now? +And do that, and spread the word. +The vent community animals can't really do much about the life and death that's going on where they live, but up here we can. +In theory, we're thinking, rational human beings. +And we can make changes to our behavior that will influence and affect the environment, like those people changed the health of that bay. +Now, Sylvia's TED Prize wish was to beseech us to do anything we could, everything we could, to set aside not pin pricks, but significant expanses of the ocean for preservation, "hope spots," she calls them. +And I applaud that. I loudly applaud that. +And it's my hope that some of these "hope spots" can be in the deep ocean, an area that has historically been seriously neglected, if not abused. +The term "deep six" comes to mind: "If it's too big or too toxic for a landfill, deep six it!" +So, I hope that we can also keep some of these "hope spots" in the deep sea. +Now, I don't get a wish, but I certainly can say that I will do anything I can to support Sylvia Earle's wish. +And that I do. +Thank you very much. +The brilliant playwright, Adrienne Kennedy, wrote a volume called "People Who Led to My Plays." +And if I were to write a volume, it would be called, "Artists Who Have Led My Exhibitions" because my work, in understanding art and in understanding culture, has come by following artists, by looking at what artists mean and what they do and who they are. +J.J. from "Good Times," significant to many people of course because of "Dy-no-mite," but perhaps more significant as the first, really, black artist on primetime TV. +Jean-Michel Basquiat, important to me because [he was] the first black artist in real time that showed me the possibility of who and what I was about to enter into. +My overall project is about art -- specifically, about black artists -- very generally about the way in which art can change the way we think about culture and ourselves. +My interest is in artists who understand and rewrite history, who think about themselves within the narrative of the larger world of art, but who have created new places for us to see and understand. +I'm showing two artists here, Glenn Ligon and Kara Walker, two of many who really form for me the essential questions that I wanted to bring as a curator to the world. +I was interested in the idea of why and how I could create a new story, a new narrative in art history and a new narrative in the world. +And to do this, I knew that I had to see the way in which artists work, understand the artist's studio as a laboratory, imagine, then, reinventing the museum as a think tank and looking at the exhibition as the ultimate white paper -- asking questions, providing the space to look and to think about answers. +In 1994, when I was a curator at the Whitney Museum, I made an exhibition called Black Male. +It looked at the intersection of race and gender in contemporary American art. +It sought to express the ways in which art could provide a space for dialogue -- complicated dialogue, dialogue with many, many points of entry -- and how the museum could be the space for this contest of ideas. +This exhibition included over 20 artists of various ages and races, but all looking at black masculinity from a very particular point of view. +What was significant about this exhibition is the way in which it engaged me in my role as a curator, as a catalyst, for this dialogue. +One of the things that happened very distinctly in the course of this exhibition is I was confronted with the idea of how powerful images can be in people's understanding of themselves and each other. +I'm showing you two works, one on the right by Leon Golub, one on the left by Robert Colescott. +And in the course of the exhibition -- which was contentious, controversial and ultimately, for me, life-changing in my sense of what art could be -- a woman came up to me on the gallery floor to express her concern about the nature of how powerful images could be and how we understood each other. +And she pointed to the work on the left to tell me how problematic this image was, as it related, for her, to the idea of how black people had been represented. +And she pointed to the image on the right as an example, to me, of the kind of dignity that needed to be portrayed to work against those images in the media. +She then assigned these works racial identities, basically saying to me that the work on the right, clearly, was made by a black artist, the work on the left, clearly, by a white artist, when, in effect, that was the opposite case: Bob Colescott, African-American artist; Leon Golub, a white artist. +Harlem now, sort of explaining and thinking of itself in this part of the century, looking both backwards and forwards ... +I always say Harlem is an interesting community because, unlike many other places, it thinks of itself in the past, present and the future simultaneously; no one speaks of it just in the now. +It's always what it was and what it can be. +And, in thinking about that, then my second project, the second question I ask is: Can a museum be a catalyst in a community? +Can a museum house artists and allow them to be change agents as communities rethink themselves? +This is Harlem, actually, on January 20th, thinking about itself in a very wonderful way. +So I work now at The Studio Museum in Harlem, thinking about exhibitions there, thinking about what it means to discover art's possibility. +Now, what does this mean to some of you? +In some cases, I know that many of you are involved in cross-cultural dialogues, you're involved in ideas of creativity and innovation. +Think about the place that artists can play in that -- that is the kind of incubation and advocacy that I work towards, in working with young, black artists. +Think about artists, not as content providers, though they can be brilliant at that, but, again, as real catalysts. +The Studio Museum was founded in the late 60s. +And I bring this up because it's important to locate this practice in history. +And then, of course, to bring us to today. +In 1975, Muhammad Ali gave a lecture at Harvard University. +After his lecture, a student got up and said to him, "Give us a poem." +And Mohammed Ali said, "Me, we." +A profound statement about the individual and the community. +The space in which now, in my project of discovery, of thinking about artists, of trying to define what might be black art cultural movement of the 21st century. +What that might mean for cultural movements all over this moment, the "me, we" seems incredibly prescient totally important. +To this end, the specific project that has made this possible for me is a series of exhibitions, all titled with an F -- Freestyle, Frequency and Flow -- which have set out to discover and define the young, black artists working in this moment who I feel strongly will continue to work over the next many years. +This series of exhibitions was made specifically to try and question the idea of what it would mean now, at this point in history, to see art as a catalyst; what it means now, at this point in history, as we define and redefine culture, black culture specifically in my case, but culture generally. +I named this group of artists around an idea, which I put out there called post-black, really meant to define them as artists who came and start their work now, looking back at history but start in this moment, historically. +It is really in this sense of discovery that I have a new set of questions that I'm asking. +This new set of questions is: What does it mean, right now, to be African-American in America? +What can artwork say about this? +Where can a museum exist as the place for us all to have this conversation? +Really, most exciting about this is thinking about the energy and the excitement that young artists can bring. +I am continually amazed by the way in which the subject of race can take itself in many places that we don't imagine it should be. +I am always amazed by the way in which artists are willing to do that in their work. +It is why I look to art. +It's why I ask questions of art. +It is why I make exhibitions. +Now, this exhibition, as I said, 40 young artists done over the course of eight years, and for me it's about considering the implications. +It's considering the implications of what this generation has to say to the rest of us. +It's considering what it means for these artists to be both out in the world as their work travels, but in their communities as people who are seeing and thinking about the issues that face us. +It's also about thinking about the creative spirit and nurturing it, and imagining, particularly in urban America, about the nurturing of the spirit. +Now, where, perhaps, does this end up right now? +For me, it is about re-imagining this cultural discourse in an international context. +So the last iteration of this project has been called Flow, with the idea now of creating a real network of artists around the world; really looking, not so much from Harlem and out, but looking across, and Flow looked at artists all born on the continent of Africa. +So, what do I discover when I look at artworks? +What do I think about when I think about art? +I feel like the privilege I've had as a curator is not just the discovery of new works, the discovery of exciting works. +But, really, it has been what I've discovered about myself and what I can offer in the space of an exhibition, to talk about beauty, to talk about power, to talk about ourselves, and to talk and speak to each other. +That's what makes me get up every day and want to think about this generation of black artists and artists around the world. +Thank you. +In the spirit of Jacques Cousteau, who said, "People protect what they love," I want to share with you today what I love most in the ocean, and that's the incredible number and variety of animals in it that make light. +My addiction began with this strange looking diving suit called Wasp; that's not an acronym -- just somebody thought it looked like the insect. +It was actually developed for use by the offshore oil industry for diving on oil rigs down to a depth of 2,000 feet. +Right after I completed my Ph.D., I was lucky enough to be included with a group of scientists that was using it for the first time as a tool for ocean exploration. +We trained in a tank in Port Hueneme, and then my first open ocean dive was in Santa Barbara Channel. +It was an evening dive. +I went down to a depth of 880 feet and turned out the lights. +And the reason I turned out the lights is because I knew I would see this phenomenon of animals making light called bioluminescence. +But I was totally unprepared for how much there was and how spectacular it was. +It was breathtaking. +Now, usually if people are familiar with bioluminescence at all, it's these guys; it's fireflies. +And there are a few other land-dwellers that can make light -- some insects, earthworms, fungi -- but in general, on land, it's really rare. +In the ocean, it's the rule rather than the exception. +If I go out in the open ocean environment, virtually anywhere in the world, and I drag a net from 3,000 feet to the surface, most of the animals -- in fact, in many places, 80 to 90 percent of the animals that I bring up in that net -- make light. +This makes for some pretty spectacular light shows. +Now I want to share with you a little video that I shot from a submersible. +I first developed this technique working from a little single-person submersible called Deep Rover and then adapted it for use on the Johnson Sea-Link, which you see here. +So, mounted in front of the observation sphere, there's a a three-foot diameter hoop with a screen stretched across it. +And inside the sphere with me is an intensified camera that's about as sensitive as a fully dark-adapted human eye, albeit a little fuzzy. +So you turn on the camera, turn out the lights. +That sparkle you're seeing is not luminescence, that's just electronic noise on these super intensified cameras. +You don't see luminescence until the submersible begins to move forward through the water, but as it does, animals bumping into the screen are stimulated to bioluminesce. +Now, when I was first doing this, all I was trying to do was count the numbers of sources. +I knew my forward speed, I knew the area, and so I could figure out how many hundreds of sources there were per cubic meter. +But I started to realize that I could actually identify animals by the type of flashes they produced. +And so, here, in the Gulf of Maine at 740 feet, I can name pretty much everything you're seeing there to the species level. +Like those big explosions, sparks, are from a little comb jelly, and there's krill and other kinds of crustaceans, and jellyfish. +There was another one of those comb jellies. +And so I've worked with computer image analysis engineers to develop automatic recognition systems that can identify these animals and then extract the XYZ coordinate of the initial impact point. +And we can then do the kinds of things that ecologists do on land, and do nearest neighbor distances. +But you don't always have to go down to the depths of the ocean to see a light show like this. +You can actually see it in surface waters. +This is some shot, by Dr. Mike Latz at Scripps Institution, of a dolphin swimming through bioluminescent plankton. +And this isn't someplace exotic like one of the bioluminescent bays in Puerto Rico, this was actually shot in San Diego Harbor. +And sometimes you can see it even closer than that, because the heads on ships -- that's toilets, for any land lovers that are listening -- are flushed with unfiltered seawater that often has bioluminescent plankton in it. +So, if you stagger into the head late at night and you're so toilet-hugging sick that you forget to turn on the light, you may think that you're having a religious experience. So, how does a living creature make light? +Well, that was the question that 19th century French physiologist Raphael Dubois, asked about this bioluminescent clam. +He ground it up and he managed to get out a couple of chemicals; one, the enzyme, he called luciferase; the substrate, he called luciferin after Lucifer the Lightbearer. +That terminology has stuck, but it doesn't actually refer to specific chemicals because these chemicals come in a lot of different shapes and forms. +In fact, most of the people studying bioluminescence today are focused on the chemistry, because these chemicals have proved so incredibly valuable for developing antibacterial agents, cancer fighting drugs, testing for the presence of life on Mars, detecting pollutants in our waters -- which is how we use it at ORCA. +In 2008, the Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded for work done on a molecule called green fluorescent protein that was isolated from the bioluminescent chemistry of a jellyfish, and it's been equated to the invention of the microscope, in terms of the impact that it has had on cell biology and genetic engineering. +Another thing all these molecules are telling us that, apparently, bioluminescence has evolved at least 40 times, maybe as many as 50 separate times in evolutionary history, which is a clear indication of how spectacularly important this trait is for survival. +So, what is it about bioluminescence that's so important to so many animals? +Well, for animals that are trying to avoid predators by staying in the darkness, light can still be very useful for the three basic things that animals have to do to survive: and that's find food, attract a mate and avoid being eaten. +So, for example, this fish has a built-in headlight behind its eye that it can use for finding food or attracting a mate. +And then when it's not using it, it actually can roll it down into its head just like the headlights on your Lamborghini. +This fish actually has high beams. +And this fish, which is one of my favorites, has three headlights on each side of its head. +Now, this one is blue, and that's the color of most bioluminescence in the ocean because evolution has selected for the color that travels farthest through seawater in order to optimize communication. +So, most animals make blue light, and most animals can only see blue light, but this fish is a really fascinating exception because it has two red light organs. +And I have no idea why there's two, and that's something I want to solve some day -- but not only can it see blue light, but it can see red light. +So it uses its red bioluminescence like a sniper's scope to be able to sneak up on animals that are blind to red light and be able to see them without being seen. +It's also got a little chin barbel here with a blue luminescent lure on it that it can use to attract prey from a long way off. +And a lot of animals will use their bioluminescence as a lure. +This is another one of my favorite fish. +This is a viperfish, and it's got a lure on the end of a long fishing rod that it arches in front of the toothy jaw that gives the viperfish its name. +The teeth on this fish are so long that if they closed inside the mouth of the fish, it would actually impale its own brain. +So instead, it slides in grooves on the outside of the head. +This is a Christmas tree of a fish; everything on this fish lights up, it's not just that lure. +It's got a built-in flashlight. +It's got these jewel-like light organs on its belly that it uses for a type of camouflage that obliterates its shadow, so when it's swimming around and there's a predator looking up from below, it makes itself disappear. +It's got light organs in the mouth, it's got light organs in every single scale, in the fins, in a mucus layer on the back and the belly, all used for different things -- some of which we know about, some of which we don't. +And we know a little bit more about bioluminescence thanks to Pixar, and I'm very grateful to Pixar for sharing my favorite topic with so many people. +I do wish, with their budget, that they might have spent just a tiny bit more money to pay a consulting fee to some poor, starving graduate student, who could have told them that those are the eyes of a fish that's been preserved in formalin. +These are the eyes of a living anglerfish. +So, she's got a lure that she sticks out in front of this living mousetrap of needle-sharp teeth in order to attract in some unsuspecting prey. +And this one has a lure with all kinds of little interesting threads coming off it. +Now we used to think that the different shape of the lure was to attract different types of prey, but then stomach content analyses on these fish done by scientists, or more likely their graduate students, have revealed that they all eat pretty much the same thing. +So, now we believe that the different shape of the lure is how the male recognizes the female in the anglerfish world, because many of these males are what are known as dwarf males. +This little guy has no visible means of self-support. +He has no lure for attracting food and no teeth for eating it when it gets there. +His only hope for existence on this planet is as a gigolo. He's got to find himself a babe and then he's got to latch on for life. +So this little guy has found himself this babe, and you will note that he's had the good sense to attach himself in a way that he doesn't actually have to look at her. +But he still knows a good thing when he sees it, and so he seals the relationship with an eternal kiss. +His flesh fuses with her flesh, her bloodstream grows into his body, and he becomes nothing more than a little sperm sac. +Well, this is a deep-sea version of Women's Lib. +She always knows where he is, and she doesn't have to be monogamous, because some of these females come up with multiple males attached. +So they can use it for finding food, for attracting mates. +They use it a lot for defense, many different ways. +A lot of them can release their luciferin or luferase in the water just the way a squid or an octopus will release an ink cloud. +This shrimp is actually spewing light out of its mouth like a fire breathing dragon in order to blind or distract this viperfish so that the shrimp can swim away into the darkness. +And there are a lot of different animals that can do this: There's jellyfish, there's squid, there's a whole lot of different crustaceans, there's even fish that can do this. +This fish is called the shining tubeshoulder because it actually has a tube on its shoulder that can squirt out light. +And I was luck enough to capture one of these when we were on a trawling expedition off the northwest coast of Africa for "Blue Planet," for the deep portion of "Blue Planet." +And we were using a special trawling net that we were able to bring these animals up alive. +So we captured one of these, and I brought it into the lab. +So I'm holding it, and I'm about to touch that tube on its shoulder, and when I do, you'll see bioluminescence coming out. +But to me, what's shocking is not just the amount of light, but the fact that it's not just luciferin and luciferase. +For this fish, it's actually whole cells with nuclei and membranes. +It's energetically very costly for this fish to do this, and we have no idea why it does it -- another one of these great mysteries that needs to be solved. +This jellyfish, for example, has a spectacular bioluminescent display. +This is us chasing it in the submersible. +That's not luminescence, that's reflected light from the gonads. +We capture it in a very special device on the front of the submersible that allows us to bring it up in really pristine condition, bring it into the lab on the ship. +And then to generate the display you're about to see, all I did was touch it once per second on its nerve ring with a sharp pick that's sort of like the sharp tooth of a fish. +And once this display gets going, I'm not touching it anymore. +This is an unbelievable light show. +It's this pinwheel of light, and I've done calculations that show that this could be seen from as much as 300 feet away by a predator. +And I thought, "You know, that might actually make a pretty good lure." +Because one of the things that's frustrated me as a deep-sea explorer is how many animals there probably are in the ocean that we know nothing about because of the way we explore the ocean. +The primary way that we know about what lives in the ocean is we go out and drag nets behind ships. +And I defy you to name any other branch of science that still depends on hundreds of year-old technology. +The other primary way is we go down with submersibles and remote-operated vehicles. +I've made hundreds of dives in submersibles. +When I'm sitting in a submersible though, I know that I'm not unobtrusive at all -- I've got bright lights and noisy thrusters -- any animal with any sense is going to be long gone. +So, I've wanted for a long time to figure out a different way to explore. +And so, sometime ago, I got this idea for a camera system. +It's not exactly rocket science. We call this thing Eye-in-the-Sea. +And scientists have done this on land for years; we just use a color that the animals can't see and then a camera that can see that color. +You can't use infrared in the sea. +We use far-red light, but even that's a problem because it gets absorbed so quickly. +Made an intensified camera, wanted to make this electronic jellyfish. +Thing is, in science, you basically have to tell the funding agencies what you're going to discover before they'll give you the money. +And I didn't know what I was going to discover, so I couldn't get the funding for this. +So I kluged this together, I got the Harvey Mudd Engineering Clinic to actually do it as an undergraduate student project initially, and then I kluged funding from a whole bunch of different sources. +And you can see just what a shoestring operation this really was, because we cast these 16 blue LEDs in epoxy and you can see in the epoxy mold that we used, the word Ziploc is still visible. +Needless to say, when it's kluged together like this, there were a lot of trials and tribulations getting this working. +But there came a moment when it all came together, and everything worked. +And, remarkably, that moment got caught on film by photographer Mark Richards, who happened to be there at the precise moment that we discovered that it all came together. +That's me on the left, my graduate student at the time, Erika Raymond, and Lee Fry, who was the engineer on the project. +And we have this photograph posted in our lab in a place of honor with the caption: "Engineer satisfying two women at once." And we were very, very happy. +So now we had a system that we could actually take to some place that was kind of like an oasis on the bottom of the ocean that might be patrolled by large predators. +And so, the place that we took it to was this place called a Brine Pool, which is in the northern part of the Gulf of Mexico. +It's a magical place. +And I know this footage isn't going to look like anything to you -- we had a crummy camera at the time -- but I was ecstatic. +We're at the edge of the Brine Pool, there's a fish that's swimming towards the camera. +It's clearly undisturbed by us. +And I had my window into the deep sea. +I, for the first time, could see what animals were doing down there when we weren't down there disturbing them in some way. +Four hours into the deployment, we had programmed the electronic jellyfish to come on for the first time. +Eighty-six seconds after it went into its pinwheel display, we recorded this: This is a squid, over six feet long, that is so new to science, it cannot be placed in any known scientific family. +I could not have asked for a better proof of concept. +And based on this, I went back to the National Science Foundation and said, "This is what we will discover." +So one of these take-home messages here is, there is still a lot to explore in the oceans. +And Sylvia has said that we are destroying the oceans before we even know what's in them, and she's right. +So if you ever, ever get an opportunity to take a dive in a submersible, say yes -- a thousand times, yes -- and please turn out the lights. +I promise, you'll love it. +Thank you. +Good morning. +Happy to see so many fine folks out here and so many smiling faces. +I have a very peculiar background, attitude and approach to the real world because I am a conjurer. +Now, I prefer that term over magician, because if I were a magician, that would mean that I use spells and incantations and weird gestures in order to accomplish real magic. +No, I don't do that; I'm a conjurer, who is someone who pretends to be a real magician. Now, how do we go about that sort of thing? +We depend on the fact that audiences, such as yourselves, will make assumptions. +For example, when I walked up here and I took the microphone from the stand and switched it on, you assumed this was a microphone, which it is not. +As a matter of fact, this is something that about half of you, more than half of you will not be familiar with. +It's a beard trimmer, you see? +And it makes a very bad microphone; I've tried it many times. The other assumption that you made -- and this little lesson is to show you that you will make assumptions. +Not only that you can, but that you will when they are properly suggested to you. +You believe I'm looking at you. +Wrong. I'm not looking at you. I can't see you. +I know you're out there, they told me backstage, it's a full house and such. +I know you're there because I can hear you, but I can't see you because I normally wear glasses. +These are not glasses, these are empty frames. Quite empty frames. +Now why would a grown man appear before you wearing empty frames on his face? +To fool you, ladies and gentlemen, to deceive you, to show that you, too, can make assumptions. +Don't you ever forget that. +Now, I have to do something -- first of all, switch to real glasses so I can actually see you, which would probably be a convenience. I don't know. +I haven't had a good look. Well, it's not that great a convenience. +I have to do something now, which seems a little bit strange for a magician. +But I'm going to take some medication. +This is a full bottle of Calms Forte. +I'll explain that in just a moment. +Ignore the instructions, that's what the government has to put in there to confuse you, I'm sure. +I will take enough of these. Mm. +Indeed, the whole container. +Thirty-two tablets of Calms Forte. +Now that I've done that -- I'll explain it in a moment -- I must tell you that I am an actor. +I'm an actor who plays a specific part. +I play the part of a magician, a wizard, if you will, a real wizard. +If someone were to appear on this stage in front of me and actually claim to be an ancient prince of Denmark named Hamlet, you would be insulted and rightly so. +Why would a man assume that you would believe something bizarre like this? +But there exists out there a very large population of people who will tell you that they have psychic, magical powers that they can predict the future, that they can make contact with the deceased. +Oh, they also say they will sell you astrology or other fortunetelling methods. +Oh, they gladly sell you that, yes. +And they also say that they can give you perpetual motion machines and free energy systems. +They claim to be psychics, or sensitives, whatever they can. +But the one thing that has made a big comeback just recently is this business of speaking with the dead. +Now, to my innocent mind, dead implies incapable of communicating. You might agree with me on that. +But these people, they tend to tell you that not only can they communicate with the dead -- "Hi, there" -- but they can hear the dead as well, and they can relay this information back to the living. +I wonder if that's true. +I don't think so, because this subculture of people use exactly the same gimmicks that we magicians do, exactly the same -- the same physical methods, the same psychological methods -- and they effectively and profoundly deceive millions of people around the earth, to their detriment. +They deceive these people, costs them a lot of money, cost them a lot of emotional anguish. +Billions of dollars are spent every year, all over the globe, on these charlatans. +Now, I have two questions I would like to ask these people if I had the opportunity to do so. +First question: If I want to ask them to call up -- because they do hear them through the ear. +They listen to the spirits like this -- I'm going to ask you to call up the ghost of my grandmother because, when she died, she had the family will, and she secreted it someplace. We don't know where it is, so we ask Granny, "Where is the will, Granny?" +What does Granny say? She says, "I'm in heaven and it's wonderful. +I'm here with all my old friends, my deceased friends, and my family and all the puppy dogs and the kittens that I used to have when I was a little girl. +And I love you, and I'll always be with you. +Good bye." +And she didn't answer the damn question! +Where is the will? +Now, she could easily have said, "Oh, it's in the library on the second shelf, behind the encyclopedia," but she doesn't say that. No, she doesn't. +She doesn't bring any useful information to us. +We paid a lot of money for that information, be we didn't get it. +The second question that I'd like to ask, rather simple: Suppose I ask them to contact the spirit of my deceased father-in-law, as an example. +Why do they insist on saying -- remember, they speak into this ear -- why do they say, "My name starts with J or M?" +Is this a hunting game? +Hunting and fishing? What is it? +Is it 20 questions? No, it's more like 120 questions. +But it is a cruel, vicious, absolutely conscienceless -- I'll be all right, keep your seats -- game that these people play. +And they take advantage of the innocent, the naive, the grieving, the needy people out there. +Now, this is a process that is called cold reading. +There's one fellow out there, Van Praagh is his name, James Van Praagh. +He's one of the big practitioners of this sort of thing. +John Edward, Sylvia Browne and Rosemary Altea, they are other operators. +There are hundreds of them all over the earth, but in this country, James Van Praagh is very big. +And what does he do? He likes to tell you how the deceased got deceased, the people he's talking to through his ear, you see? +So what he says is, very often, is like this: he says, "He tells me, he tells me, before he passed, that he had trouble breathing." +Folks, that's what dying is all about! +You stop breathing, and then you're dead. +It's that simple. +And that's the kind of information they're going to bring back to you? +I don't think so. +Now, these people will make guesses, they'll say things like, "Why am I getting electricity? +He's saying to me, 'Electricity.' Was he an electrician?" "No." +"Did he ever have an electric razor?" "No." +It was a game of hunting questions like this. +This is what they go through. +Now, folks often ask us at the James Randi Educational Foundation, they call me, they say, "Why are you so concerned about this, Mr. Randi? +Isn't it just a lot of fun?" +No, it is not fun. It is a cruel farce. +Now, it may bring a certain amount of comfort, but that comfort lasts only about 20 minutes or so. +And then the people look in the mirror, and they say, I just paid a lot of money for that reading. +And what did she say to me? 'I love you!'" They always say that. +They don't get any information, they don't get any value for what they spend. +Now, Sylvia Browne is the big operator. +We call her "The Talons." +Sylvia Browne -- thank you -- Sylvia Browne is the big operator in this field at this very moment. +Now, Sylvia Browne -- just to show you -- she actually gets 700 dollars for a 20 minute reading over the telephone, she doesn't even go there in person, and you have to wait up to two years because she's booked ahead that amount of time. +You pay by credit card or whatever, and then she will call you sometime in the next two years. +You can tell it's her. "Hello, this is Sylvia Browne." +That's her, you can tell right away. +Now, Montel Williams is an intelligent man. +We all know who he is on television. +He's well educated, he's smart, he knows what Sylvia Browne is doing but he doesn't give a damn. +He just doesn't care. +Because, the bottom line is, the sponsors love it, and he will expose her to television publicity all the time. +Now, what does Sylvia Browne give you for that 700 dollars? +She gives you the names of your guardian angels, that's first. +Now, without that, how could we possibly function? She gives you the names of previous lives, who you were in previous lives. +Duh. +It turns out that the women that she gives readings for were all Babylonian princesses, or something like that. +And the men were all Grecian warriors fighting with Agamemnon. +Nothing is ever said about a 14 year-old bootblack in the streets of London who died of consumption. +He isn't worth bringing back, obviously. +And the strange thing -- folks, you may have noticed this too. +You see these folks on television -- they never call anybody back from hell. Everyone comes back from heaven, but never from hell. +If they call back any of my friends, they're not going to... Well, you see the story. +Now, Sylvia Browne is an exception, an exception in one way, because the James Randi Educational Foundation, my foundation, offers a one million dollar prize in negotiable bonds. +Very simply won. +All you have to do is prove any paranormal, occult or supernatural event or power of any kind under proper observing conditions. +It's very easy, win the million dollars. +Sylvia Browne is an exception in that she's the only professional psychic in the whole world that has accepted our challenge. +She did this on the "Larry King Live" show on CNN six and a half years ago. +And we haven't heard from her since. Strange. +She said that, first of all, that she didn't know how to contact me. +Duh. +A professional psychic who speaks to dead people, she can't reach me? +I'm alive, you may have noticed. +Well, pretty well anyway. +She couldn't reach me. Now she says she doesn't want to reach me because I'm a godless person. +All the more reason to take the million dollars, wouldn't you think, Sylvia? +Now these people need to be stopped, seriously now. +They need to be stopped because this is a cruel farce. +We get people coming to the foundation all the time. +They're ruined financially and emotionally because they've given their money and their faith to these people. +Now, I popped some pills earlier. +I have to explain that to you. +Homeopathy, let's find out what that's all about. +Hmm. You've heard of it. +It's an alternative form of healing, right? +Homeopathy actually consists -- and that's what this is. +This is Calms Forte, 32 caplets of sleeping pills! I forgot to tell you that. +I just ingested six and a half days worth of sleeping pills. +Six and a half days, that certainly is a fatal dose. +It says right on the back here, "In case of overdose, contact your poison control center immediately," and it gives an 800 number. +Keep your seats -- it's going to be okay. +I don't really need it because I've been doing this stunt for audiences all over the world for the last eight or 10 years, taking fatal doses of homeopathic sleeping pills. +Why don't they affect me? +The answer may surprise you. +What is homeopathy? +It's taking a medicine that really works and diluting it down well beyond Avogadro's limit. +Diluting it down to the point where there's none of it left. Now folks, this is not just a metaphor I'm going to give you now, it's true. +It's exactly equivalent to taking one 325 milligram aspirin tablet, throwing it into the middle of Lake Tahoe, and then stirring it up, obviously with a very big stick, and waiting two years or so until the solution is homogeneous. +Then, when you get a headache, you take a sip of this water, and -- voila! -- it is gone. +Now that is true. That is what homeopathy is all about. +And another claim that they make -- you'll love this one -- the more dilute the medicine is, they say, the more powerful it is. +Now wait a minute, we heard about a guy in Florida. +The poor man, he was on homeopathic medicine. +He died of an overdose. +He forgot to take his pill. +Work on it. Work on it. +It's a ridiculous thing. It is absolutely ridiculous. +I don't know what we're doing, believing in all this nonsense over all these years. +Now, let me tell you, The James Randi Educational Foundation is waving this very big carrot, but I must say, the fact that nobody has taken us up on this offer doesn't mean that the powers don't exist. +They might, some place out there. +Maybe these people are just independently wealthy. +Well, with Sylvia Browne I would think so. +You know, 700 dollars for a 20 minute reading over the telephone -- that's more than lawyers make! +I mean that's a fabulous amount of money. +These people don't need the million dollars perhaps, but wouldn't you think they'd like to take it just to make me look silly? +Just to get rid of this godless person out there that Sylvia Browne talks about all the time? +I think that something needs to be done about this. +We really would love to have suggestions from you folks on how to contact federal, state and local authorities to get them to do something. +If you find out -- now I understand. +We've seen people, even today, speaking to us about AIDS epidemics and starving kids around the world and impure water supplies that people have to suffer with. +Those are very important, critically important to us. +And we must do something about those problems. +But at the same time, as Arthur C. Clarke said, The rotting of the human mind, the business of believing in the paranormal and the occult and the supernatural -- all of this total nonsense, this medieval thinking -- I think something should be done about that, and it all lies in education. +Largely, it's the media who are to blame for this sort of thing. +They shamelessly promote all kinds of nonsense of this sort because it pleases the sponsors. +It's the bottom line, the dollar line. +That's what they're looking at. +We really must do something about this. +I'm willing to take your suggestions, and I'm willing to have you tune in to our webpage. +It's www.randi.org. +Go in there and look at the archives, and you will begin to understand much more of what I've been talking about today. +You will see the records that we have. +There's nothing like sitting in that library and having a family appear there and say that Mum gave away all the family fortune. +She cashed in the CDs, she gave away the stocks and the certificates. +That's really sad to hear, and it hasn't helped them one bit, hasn't solved any of their problems. +Yes, there could be a rotting of the American mind, and of the minds all the way around the earth, if we don't start to think sensibly about these things. +Now, we've offered this carrot, as I say, we've dangled the carrot. +We're waiting for the psychics to come forth and snap at it. +Oh, we get lots of them, hundreds of them every year come by. +These are dowsers and people who think that they can talk to the dead as well, but they're amateurs; they don't know how to evaluate their own so-called powers. +The professionals never come near us, except in that case of Sylvia Browne that I told you about a moment ago. +She did accept and then backed away. +Ladies and gentlemen, I'm James Randi, and I'm waiting. +Thank you. +The greatest irony in global health is that the poorest countries carry the largest disease burden. +If we resize the countries of the globe in proportion to the subject of interest, we see that Sub-Saharan Africa is the worst hit region by HIV/AIDS. +This is the most devastating epidemic of our time. +We also see that this region has the least capability in terms of dealing with the disease. +There are very few doctors and, quite frankly, these countries do not have the resources that are needed to cope with such epidemics. +So what the Western countries, developed countries, have generously done is they have proposed to provide free drugs to all people in Third World countries who actually can't afford these medications. +And this has already saved millions of lives, and it has prevented entire economies from capsizing in Sub-Saharan Africa. +But there is a fundamental problem that is killing the efforts in fighting this disease, because if you keep throwing drugs out at people who don't have diagnostic services, you end up creating a problem of drug resistance. +This is already beginning to happen in Sub-Saharan Africa. +The problem is that, what begins as a tragedy in the Third World could easily become a global problem. +And the last thing we want to see is drug-resistant strains of HIV popping up all over the world, because it will make treatment more expensive and it could also restore the pre-ARV carnage of HIV/AIDS. +I experienced this firsthand as a high school student in Uganda. +This was in the 90s during the peak of the HIV epidemic, before there were any ARVs in Sub-Saharan Africa. +And during that time, I actually lost more relatives, as well as the teachers who taught me, to HIV/AIDS. +So this became one of the driving passions of my life, to help find real solutions that could address these kinds of problems. +We all know about the miracle of miniaturization. +Back in the day, computers used to fill this entire room, and people actually used to work inside the computers. +But what electronic miniaturization has done is that it has allowed people to shrink technology into a cell phone. +And I'm sure everyone here enjoys cell phones that can actually be used in the remote areas of the world, in the Third World countries. +The good news is that the same technology that allowed miniaturization of electronics is now allowing us to miniaturize biological laboratories. +So, right now, we can actually miniaturize biological and chemistry laboratories onto microfluidic chips. +I was very lucky to come to the US right after high school, and was able to work on this technology and develop some devices. +This is a microfluidic chip that I developed. +A close look at how the technology works: These are channels that are about the size of a human hair -- so you have integrated valves, pumps, mixers and injectors -- onto a microfluidic system. +So what I plan to do with this technology is to actually take the current state of the technology and build an HIV kit in a microfluidic system. +So, with one microfluidic chip, which is the size of an iPhone, you can actually diagnose 100 patients at the same time. +For each patient, we will be able to do up to 100 different viral loads per patient. +And this is only done in four hours, 50 times faster than the current state of the art, at a cost that will be five to 500 times cheaper than the current options. +So this will allow us to create personalized medicines in the Third World at a cost that is actually achievable and make the world a safer place. +I invite your interest as well as your involvement in driving this vision to a point of practical reality. +Thank you very much. +One of the things that defines a TEDster is you've taken your passion, and you've turned it into stewardship. +You actually put action to the issues you care about. +But what you're going to find eventually is you may need to actually get elected officials to help you out. +So, how do you do that? +One of the things I should probably tell you is, I worked for the Discovery Channel early in my career, and that sort of warped my framework. +So, when you start to think about politicians, you've got to realize these are strange creatures. +Other than the fact that they can't tell directions, and they have very strange breeding habits, how do you actually work with these things? What we need to understand is: What drives the political creature? +And there are two things that are primary in a politician's heart: One is reputation and influence. +These are the primary tools by which a politician can do his job. +The second one -- unlike most animals, which is survival of the species -- this is preservation of self. +Now you may think it's money, but that's actually sort of a proxy to what I can do to preserve myself. +Now, the challenge with you moving your issue forward is these animals are getting broadcast to all the time. +So, what doesn't work, in terms of getting your issue to be important? +You can send them an email. +Well, unfortunately, I've got so many Viagra ads coming at me, your email is lost. +It doesn't matter, it's spam. +How about you get on the phone? +Well, chances are I've got a droid who's picking up the phone, "Yes, they called, and they said they didn't like it." +That doesn't move. +Face to face would work, but it's hard to set it up. +It's hard to get the context and actually get the communication to work. +Yes, contributions actually do make a difference and they set a context for having a conversation, but it takes some time to build up. +So what actually works? +And the answer is rather strange. +It's a letter. +We live in a digital world, but we're fairly analog creatures. +Letters actually work. +Even the top dog himself takes time every day to read 10 letters that are picked out by staff. +I can tell you that every official that I've ever worked with will tell you about the letters they get and what they mean. +So, how are you going to write your letter? +First of all, you're going to pick up an analog device: a pen. +I know these are tough, and you may have a hard time getting your hand bent around it, but this is actually critical. +And it is critical that you actually handwrite your letter. +It is so novel to see this, that somebody actually picked up an analog device and has written to me. +Second of all, I'm going to recommend that you get into a proactive stance and write to your elected officials at least once a month. +Here's my promise to you: If you are consistent and do this, within three months the elected official will start calling you when that issue comes up and say, "What do you think?" +Now, I'm going to give you a four paragraph format to work with. +Now, when you approach these animals, you need to understand there's a dangerous end to them, and you also need to approach them with some level of respect and a little bit of wariness. +So in paragraph number one, what I'm going to tell you to do is very simply this: You appreciate them. +You may not appreciate the person, you may not appreciate anything else, but maybe you appreciate the fact that they've got a tough gig. +When animals are going to make a point, they make the point. +They don't spend a lot of time dicking around. +So, here you go. Paragraph number two: You may actually have to just get very blunt and say what's really on your mind. +When you do this, don't attack people; you attack tactics. +Ad hominem attacks will get you nowhere. +Paragraph number three: When animals are attacked or cornered, they will fight to the death, so you have to give them an exit. +Most of the time, if they have an exit strategy, they should take it. +"Obviously, you're intelligent. +If you had the right information, you would have done the right thing." Lastly, you want to be the nurturing agent. +You're the safe place to come in to. +So, in paragraph number four, you're going to tell people, "If no one is providing you with this information, let me help." Animals do displays. They do two things: They warn you or they try to attract you and say, "We need to mate." +You're going to do that by the way you sign your letter. +You do a number of things: you're a vice president, you volunteer, you do something else. +Why is is this important? +Because this establishes the two primary criteria for the political creature: that you have influence in a large sphere, and that my preservation depends on you. +Here is one very quick hack, especially for the feds in the audience. +Here's how you mail your letter. +First of all, you send the original to the district office. +So, you send the copy to the main office. +If they follow protocol, they'll pick up the phone and say, "Hey, do you have the original?" +Then some droid in the back puts the name on a tickler and says, "Oh, this is an important letter." +And you actually get into the folder that the elected official actually has to read. +So, what your letter means: I've got to tell you, we are all in a party, and political officials are the pinatas. +We are harangued, lectured to, sold, marketed, but a letter is actually one of the few times that we have honest communication. +I got this letter when I was first elected, and I still carry it to every council meeting I go to. +This is an opportunity at real dialogue, and if you have stewardship and want to communicate, that dialogue is incredibly powerful. +So when you do that, here's what I can promise: You're going to be the 800 pound gorilla in the forest. +Get writing. +Salaam. Namaskar. +Good morning. +Given my TED profile, you might be expecting that I'm going to speak to you about the latest philanthropic trends -- the one that's currently got Wall Street and the World Bank buzzing -- how to invest in women, how to empower them, how to save them. +Not me. +I am interested in how women are saving us. +They're saving us by redefining and re-imagining a future that defies and blurs accepted polarities, polarities we've taken for granted for a long time, like the ones between modernity and tradition, First World and Third World, oppression and opportunity. +In the midst of the daunting challenges we face as a global community, there's something about this third way raga that is making my heart sing. +What intrigues me most is how women are doing this, despite a set of paradoxes that are both frustrating and fascinating. +Why is it that women are, on the one hand, viciously oppressed by cultural practices, and yet at the same time, are the preservers of cultures in most societies? +Is the hijab or the headscarf a symbol of submission or resistance? +When so many women and girls are beaten, raped, maimed on a daily basis in the name of all kinds of causes -- honor, religion, nationality -- what allows women to replant trees, to rebuild societies, to lead radical, non-violent movements for social change? +Is it different women who are doing the preserving and the radicalizing? +Or are they one and the same? +Are we guilty, as Chimamanda Adichie reminded us at the TED conference in Oxford, of assuming that there is a single story of women's struggles for their rights while there are, in fact, many? +And what, if anything, do men have to do with it? +Much of my life has been a quest to get some answers to these questions. +It's taken me across the globe and introduced me to some amazing people. +In the process, I've gathered a few fragments that help me shed some light on this puzzle. +Among those who've helped open my eyes to a third way are: a devout Muslim in Afghanistan, a group of harmonizing lesbians in Croatia and a taboo breaker in Liberia. +I'm indebted to them, as I am to my parents, who for some set of misdemeanors in their last life, were blessed with three daughters in this one. +And for reasons equally unclear to me, seem to be inordinately proud of the three of us. +I was born and raised here in India, and I learned from an early age to be deeply suspicious of the aunties and uncles who would bend down, pat us on the head and then say to my parents with no problem at all, "Poor things. You only have three daughters. +But you're young, you could still try again." +My sense of outrage about women's rights was brought to a boil when I was about 11. +My aunt, an incredibly articulate and brilliant woman, was widowed early. +A flock of relatives descended on her. +They took off her colorful sari. +They made her wear a white one. +They wiped her bindi off her forehead. +They broke her bangles. +Her daughter, Rani, a few years older than me, sat in her lap bewildered, not knowing what had happened to the confident woman she once knew as her mother. +Late that night, I heard my mother begging my father, "Please do something Ramu. Can't you intervene?" +And my father, in a low voice, muttering, "I'm just the youngest brother, there's nothing I can do. +This is tradition." +That's the night I learned the rules about what it means to be female in this world. +Women don't make those rules, but they define us, and they define our opportunities and our chances. +And men are affected by those rules too. +My father, who had fought in three wars, could not save his own sister from this suffering. +By 18, under the excellent tutelage of my mother, I was therefore, as you might expect, defiantly feminist. +On the streets chanting, "[Hindi] [Hindi] We are the women of India. +We are not flowers, we are sparks of change." +By the time I got to Beijing in 1995, it was clear to me, the only way to achieve gender equality was to overturn centuries of oppressive tradition. +Soon after I returned from Beijing, I leapt at the chance to work for this wonderful organization, founded by women, to support women's rights organizations around the globe. +But barely six months into my new job, I met a woman who forced me to challenge all my assumptions. +Her name is Sakena Yacoobi. +She walked into my office at a time when no one knew where Afghanistan was in the United States. +She said to me, "It is not about the burka." +She was the most determined advocate for women's rights I had ever heard. +She told me women were running underground schools in her communities inside Afghanistan, and that her organization, the Afghan Institute of Learning, had started a school in Pakistan. +She said, "The first thing anyone who is a Muslim knows is that the Koran requires and strongly supports literacy. +The prophet wanted every believer to be able to read the Koran for themselves." +Had I heard right? +Was a women's rights advocate invoking religion? +But Sakena defies labels. +She always wears a headscarf, but I've walked alongside with her on a beach with her long hair flying in the breeze. +She starts every lecture with a prayer, but she's a single, feisty, financially independent woman in a country where girls are married off at the age of 12. +She is also immensely pragmatic. +"This headscarf and these clothes," she says, "give me the freedom to do what I need to do to speak to those whose support and assistance are critical for this work. +When I had to open the school in the refugee camp, I went to see the imam. +I told him, 'I'm a believer, and women and children in these terrible conditions need their faith to survive.'" She smiles slyly. +"He was flattered. +He began to come twice a week to my center because women could not go to the mosque. +And after he would leave, women and girls would stay behind. +We began with a small literacy class to read the Koran, then a math class, then an English class, then computer classes. +In a few weeks, everyone in the refugee camp was in our classes." +Sakena is a teacher at a time when to educate women is a dangerous business in Afghanistan. +She is on the Taliban's hit list. +I worry about her every time she travels across that country. +She shrugs when I ask her about safety. +"Kavita jaan, we cannot allow ourselves to be afraid. +Look at those young girls who go back to school when acid is thrown in their face." +And I smile, and I nod, realizing I'm watching women and girls using their own religious traditions and practices, turning them into instruments of opposition and opportunity. +Their path is their own and it looks towards an Afghanistan that will be different. +Being different is something the women of Lesbor in Zagreb, Croatia know all too well. +To be a lesbian, a dyke, a homosexual in most parts of the world, including right here in our country, India, is to occupy a place of immense discomfort and extreme prejudice. +In post-conflict societies like Croatia, where a hyper-nationalism and religiosity have created an environment unbearable for anyone who might be considered a social outcast. +So enter a group of out dykes, young women who love the old music that once spread across that region from Macedonia to Bosnia, from Serbia to Slovenia. +These folk singers met at college at a gender studies program. +Many are in their 20s, some are mothers. +Many have struggled to come out to their communities, in families whose religious beliefs make it hard to accept that their daughters are not sick, just queer. +As Leah, one of the founders of the group, says, "I like traditional music very much. +I also like rock and roll. +So Lesbor, we blend the two. +I see traditional music like a kind of rebellion, in which people can really speak their voice, especially traditional songs from other parts of the former Yugoslav Republic. +After the war, lots of these songs were lost, but they are a part of our childhood and our history, and we should not forget them." +Improbably, this LGBT singing choir has demonstrated how women are investing in tradition to create change, like alchemists turning discord into harmony. +Their repertoire includes the Croatian national anthem, a Bosnian love song and Serbian duets. +And, Leah adds with a grin, "Kavita, we especially are proud of our Christmas music, because it shows we are open to religious practices even though Catholic Church hates us LGBT." +Their concerts draw from their own communities, yes, but also from an older generation: a generation that might be suspicious of homosexuality, but is nostalgic for its own music and the past it represents. +One father, who had initially balked at his daughter coming out in such a choir, now writes songs for them. +In the Middle Ages, troubadours would travel across the land singing their tales and sharing their verses: Lesbor travels through the Balkans like this, singing, connecting people divided by religion, nationality and language. +Bosnians, Croats and Serbs find a rare shared space of pride in their history, and Lesbor reminds them that the songs one group often claims as theirs alone really belong to them all. +Yesterday, Mallika Sarabhai showed us that music can create a world more accepting of difference than the one we have been given. +The world Leymah Gbowee was given was a world at war. +Liberia had been torn apart by civil strife for decades. +Leymah was not an activist, she was a mother of three. +But she was sick with worry: She worried her son would be abducted and taken off to be a child soldier, she worried her daughters would be raped, she worried for their lives. +One night, she had a dream. +She dreamt she and thousands of other women ended the bloodshed. +The next morning at church, she asked others how they felt. +They were all tired of the fighting. +We need peace, and we need our leaders to know we will not rest until there is peace. +Among Leymah's friends was a policewoman who was Muslim. +She promised to raise the issue with her community. +At the next Friday sermon, the women who were sitting in the side room of the mosque began to share their distress at the state of affairs. +"What does it matter?" they said, "A bullet doesn't distinguish between a Muslim and a Christian." +This small group of women, determined to bring an end to the war, and they chose to use their traditions to make a point: Liberian women usually wear lots of jewelry and colorful clothing. +But no, for the protest, they dressed all in white, no makeup. +As Leymah said, "We wore the white saying we were out for peace." +They stood on the side of the road on which Charles Taylor's motorcade passed every day. +They stood for weeks -- first just 10, then 20, then 50, then hundreds of women -- wearing white, singing, dancing, saying they were out for peace. +Eventually, opposing forces in Liberia were pushed to hold peace talks in Ghana. +The peace talks dragged on and on and on. +Leymah and her sisters had had enough. +With their remaining funds, they took a small group of women down to the venue of the peace talks and they surrounded the building. +In a now famous CNN clip, you can see them sitting on the ground, their arms linked. +We know this in India. It's called a [Hindi]. +Then things get tense. +The police are called in to physically remove the women. +As the senior officer approaches with a baton, Leymah stands up with deliberation, reaches her arms up over her head, and begins, very slowly, to untie her headdress that covers her hair. +You can see the policeman's face. +He looks embarrassed. He backs away. +And the next thing you know, the police have disappeared. +Leymah said to me later, "It's a taboo, you know, in West Africa. +If an older woman undresses in front of a man because she wants to, the man's family is cursed." +She said, "I don't know if he did it because he believed, but he knew we were not going to leave. +We were not going to leave until the peace accord was signed." +And the peace accord was signed. +And the women of Liberia then mobilized in support of Ellen Johnson Sirleaf, a woman who broke a few taboos herself becoming the first elected woman head of state in Africa in years. +When she made her presidential address, she acknowledged these brave women of Liberia who allowed her to win against a football star -- that's soccer for you Americans -- no less. +Women like Sakena and Leah and Leymah have humbled me and changed me and made me realize that I should not be so quick to jump to assumptions of any kind. +They've also saved me from my righteous anger by offering insights into this third way. +A Filipina activist once said to me, "How do you cook a rice cake? +With heat from the bottom and heat from the top." +The protests, the marches, the uncompromising position that women's rights are human rights, full stop. +That's the heat from the bottom. +That's Malcolm X and the suffragists and gay pride parades. +But we also need the heat from the top. +And in most parts of the world, that top is still controlled by men. +So to paraphrase Marx: Women make change, but not in circumstances of their own choosing. +They have to negotiate. +They have to subvert tradition that once silenced them in order to give voice to new aspirations. +And they need allies from their communities. +Allies like the imam, allies like the father who now writes songs for a lesbian group in Croatia, allies like the policeman who honored a taboo and backed away, allies like my father, who couldn't help his sister but has helped three daughters pursue their dreams. +Maybe this is because feminism, unlike almost every other social movement, is not a struggle against a distinct oppressor -- it's not the ruling class or the occupiers or the colonizers -- it's against a deeply held set of beliefs and assumptions that we women, far too often, hold ourselves. +And perhaps this is the ultimate gift of feminism, that the personal is in fact the political. +So that, as Eleanor Roosevelt said once of human rights, the same is true of gender equality: that it starts in small places, close to home. +On the streets, yes, but also in negotiations at the kitchen table and in the marital bed and in relationships between lovers and parents and sisters and friends. +And then you realize that by integrating aspects of tradition and community into their struggles, women like Sakena and Leah and Leymah -- but also women like Sonia Gandhi here in India and Michelle Bachelet in Chile and Shirin Ebadi in Iran -- are doing something else. +They're challenging the very notion of Western models of development. +They are saying, we don't have to be like you to make change. +We can wear a sari or a hijab or pants or a boubou, and we can be party leaders and presidents and human rights lawyers. +We can use our tradition to navigate change. +We can demilitarize societies and pour resources, instead, into reservoirs of genuine security. +It is in these little stories, these individual stories, that I see a radical epic being written by women around the world. +It is in these threads that are being woven into a resilient fabric that will sustain communities, that I find hope. +And if my heart is singing, it's because in these little fragments, every now and again, you catch a glimpse of a whole, of a whole new world. +And she is definitely on her way. +Thank you. +So I want to talk today about an idea. It's a big idea. +Actually, I think it'll eventually be seen as probably the single biggest idea that's emerged in the past century. +It's the idea of computation. +Now, of course, that idea has brought us all of the computer technology we have today and so on. +But there's actually a lot more to computation than that. +It's really a very deep, very powerful, very fundamental idea, whose effects we've only just begun to see. +Well, I myself have spent the past 30 years of my life working on three large projects that really try to take the idea of computation seriously. +So I started off at a young age as a physicist using computers as tools. +Then, I started drilling down, thinking about the computations I might want to do, trying to figure out what primitives they could be built up from and how they could be automated as much as possible. +Eventually, I created a whole structure based on symbolic programming and so on that let me build Mathematica. +And for the past 23 years, at an increasing rate, we've been pouring more and more ideas and capabilities and so on into Mathematica, and I'm happy to say that that's led to many good things in R & D and education, lots of other areas. +Well, I have to admit, actually, that I also had a very selfish reason for building Mathematica: I wanted to use it myself, a bit like Galileo got to use his telescope 400 years ago. +But I wanted to look not at the astronomical universe, but at the computational universe. +So we normally think of programs as being complicated things that we build for very specific purposes. +But what about the space of all possible programs? +Here's a representation of a really simple program. +So, if we run this program, this is what we get. +Very simple. +So let's try changing the rule for this program a little bit. +Now we get another result, still very simple. +Try changing it again. +You get something a little bit more complicated. +But if we keep running this for a while, we find out that although the pattern we get is very intricate, it has a very regular structure. +So the question is: Can anything else happen? +Well, we can do a little experiment. +Let's just do a little mathematical experiment, try and find out. +Let's just run all possible programs of the particular type that we're looking at. +They're called cellular automata. +You can see a lot of diversity in the behavior here. +Most of them do very simple things, but if you look along all these different pictures, at rule number 30, you start to see something interesting going on. +So let's take a closer look at rule number 30 here. +So here it is. +We're just following this very simple rule at the bottom here, but we're getting all this amazing stuff. +It's not at all what we're used to, and I must say that, when I first saw this, it came as a huge shock to my intuition. +And, in fact, to understand it, I eventually had to create a whole new kind of science. +This science is different, more general, than the mathematics-based science that we've had for the past 300 or so years. +You know, it's always seemed like a big mystery: how nature, seemingly so effortlessly, manages to produce so much that seems to us so complex. +Well, I think we've found its secret: It's just sampling what's out there in the computational universe and quite often getting things like Rule 30 or like this. +And knowing that starts to explain a lot of long-standing mysteries in science. +It also brings up new issues, though, like computational irreducibility. +I mean, we're used to having science let us predict things, but something like this is fundamentally irreducible. +The only way to find its outcome is, effectively, just to watch it evolve. +It's connected to, what I call, the principle of computational equivalence, which tells us that even incredibly simple systems can do computations as sophisticated as anything. +It doesn't take lots of technology or biological evolution to be able to do arbitrary computation; just something that happens, naturally, all over the place. +Things with rules as simple as these can do it. +Well, this has deep implications about the limits of science, about predictability and controllability of things like biological processes or economies, about intelligence in the universe, about questions like free will and about creating technology. +You know, in working on this science for many years, I kept wondering, "What will be its first killer app?" +Well, ever since I was a kid, I'd been thinking about systematizing knowledge and somehow making it computable. +People like Leibniz had wondered about that too 300 years earlier. +But I'd always assumed that to make progress, I'd essentially have to replicate a whole brain. +So, it's been a big, very complex project, which I was not sure was going to work at all. +But I'm happy to say it's actually going really well. +And last year we were able to release the first website version of Wolfram Alpha. +Its purpose is to be a serious knowledge engine that computes answers to questions. +So let's give it a try. +Let's start off with something really easy. +Hope for the best. +Very good. Okay. +So far so good. +Let's try something a little bit harder. +Let's do some mathy thing, and with luck it'll work out the answer and try and tell us some interesting things things about related math. +We could ask it something about the real world. +Let's say -- I don't know -- what's the GDP of Spain? +And it should be able to tell us that. +Now we could compute something related to this, let's say ... the GDP of Spain divided by, I don't know, the -- hmmm ... +let's say the revenue of Microsoft. +The idea is that we can just type this in, this kind of question in, however we think of it. +So let's try asking a question, like a health related question. +So let's say we have a lab finding that ... +you know, we have an LDL level of 140 for a male aged 50. +So let's type that in, and now Wolfram Alpha will go and use available public health data and try and figure out what part of the population that corresponds to and so on. +Or let's try asking about, I don't know, the International Space Station. +And what's happening here is that Wolfram Alpha is not just looking up something; it's computing, in real time, where the International Space Station is right now at this moment, how fast it's going, and so on. +So Wolfram Alpha knows about lots and lots of kinds of things. +It's got, by now, pretty good coverage of everything you might find in a standard reference library. +But the goal is to go much further and, very broadly, to democratize all of this knowledge, and to try and be an authoritative source in all areas. +To be able to compute answers to specific questions that people have, not by searching what other people may have written down before, but by using built in knowledge to compute fresh new answers to specific questions. +Now, of course, Wolfram Alpha is a monumentally huge, long-term project with lots and lots of challenges. +For a start, one has to curate a zillion different sources of facts and data, and we built quite a pipeline of Mathematica automation and human domain experts for doing this. +But that's just the beginning. +Given raw facts or data to actually answer questions, one has to compute: one has to implement all those methods and models and algorithms and so on that science and other areas have built up over the centuries. +Well, even starting from Mathematica, this is still a huge amount of work. +So far, there are about 8 million lines of Mathematica code in Wolfram Alpha built by experts from many, many different fields. +Well, a crucial idea of Wolfram Alpha is that you can just ask it questions using ordinary human language, which means that we've got to be able to take all those strange utterances that people type into the input field and understand them. +And I must say that I thought that step might just be plain impossible. +Two big things happened: First, a bunch of new ideas about linguistics that came from studying the computational universe; and second, the realization that having actual computable knowledge completely changes how one can set about understanding language. +And, of course, now with Wolfram Alpha actually out in the wild, we can learn from its actual usage. +And, in fact, there's been an interesting coevolution that's been going on between Wolfram Alpha and its human users, and it's really encouraging. +Right now, if we look at web queries, more than 80 percent of them get handled successfully the first time. +And if you look at things like the iPhone app, the fraction is considerably larger. +So, I'm pretty pleased with it all. +But, in many ways, we're still at the very beginning with Wolfram Alpha. +I mean, everything is scaling up very nicely and we're getting more confident. +You can expect to see Wolfram Alpha technology showing up in more and more places, working both with this kind of public data, like on the website, and with private knowledge for people and companies and so on. +You know, I've realized that Wolfram Alpha actually gives one a whole new kind of computing that one can call knowledge-based computing, in which one's starting not just from raw computation, but from a vast amount of built-in knowledge. +And when one does that, one really changes the economics of delivering computational things, whether it's on the web or elsewhere. +You know, we have a fairly interesting situation right now. +On the one hand, we have Mathematica, with its sort of precise, formal language and a huge network of carefully designed capabilities able to get a lot done in just a few lines. +Let me show you a couple of examples here. +So here's a trivial piece of Mathematica programming. +Here's something where we're sort of integrating a bunch of different capabilities here. +Here we'll just create, in this line, a little user interface that allows us to do something fun there. +If you go on, that's a slightly more complicated program that's now doing all sorts of algorithmic things and creating user interface and so on. +But it's something that is very precise stuff. +It's a precise specification with a precise formal language that causes Mathematica to know what to do here. +Then on the other hand, we have Wolfram Alpha, with all the messiness of the world and human language and so on built into it. +So what happens when you put these things together? +I think it's actually rather wonderful. +With Wolfram Alpha inside Mathematica, you can, for example, make precise programs that call on real world data. +Here's a real simple example. +You can also just sort of give vague input and then try and have Wolfram Alpha figure out what you're talking about. +Let's try this here. +But actually I think the most exciting thing about this is that it really gives one the chance to democratize programming. +I mean, anyone will be able to say what they want in plain language. +Then, the idea is that Wolfram Alpha will be able to figure out what precise pieces of code can do what they're asking for and then show them examples that will let them pick what they need to build up bigger and bigger, precise programs. +So, sometimes, Wolfram Alpha will be able to do the whole thing immediately and just give back a whole big program that you can then compute with. +Here's a big website where we've been collecting lots of educational and other demonstrations about lots of kinds of things. +I'll show you one example here. +This is just an example of one of these computable documents. +This is probably a fairly small piece of Mathematica code that's able to be run here. +Okay. Let's zoom out again. +So, given our new kind of science, is there a general way to use it to make technology? +So, with physical materials, we're used to going around the world and discovering that particular materials are useful for particular technological purposes. +Well, it turns out we can do very much the same kind of thing in the computational universe. +There's an inexhaustible supply of programs out there. +The challenge is to see how to harness them for human purposes. +Something like Rule 30, for example, turns out to be a really good randomness generator. +Other simple programs are good models for processes in the natural or social world. +And, for example, Wolfram Alpha and Mathematica are actually now full of algorithms that we discovered by searching the computational universe. +And, for example, this -- if we go back here -- this has become surprisingly popular among composers finding musical forms by searching the computational universe. +In a sense, we can use the computational universe to get mass customized creativity. +I'm hoping we can, for example, use that even to get Wolfram Alpha to routinely do invention and discovery on the fly, and to find all sorts of wonderful stuff that no engineer and no process of incremental evolution would ever come up with. +Well, so, that leads to kind of an ultimate question: Could it be that someplace out there in the computational universe we might find our physical universe? +Perhaps there's even some quite simple rule, some simple program for our universe. +Well, the history of physics would have us believe that the rule for the universe must be pretty complicated. +But in the computational universe, we've now seen how rules that are incredibly simple can produce incredibly rich and complex behavior. +So could that be what's going on with our whole universe? +If the rules for the universe are simple, it's kind of inevitable that they have to be very abstract and very low level; operating, for example, far below the level of space or time, which makes it hard to represent things. +But in at least a large class of cases, one can think of the universe as being like some kind of network, which, when it gets big enough, behaves like continuous space in much the same way as having lots of molecules can behave like a continuous fluid. +Well, then the universe has to evolve by applying little rules that progressively update this network. +And each possible rule, in a sense, corresponds to a candidate universe. +Actually, I haven't shown these before, but here are a few of the candidate universes that I've looked at. +Some of these are hopeless universes, completely sterile, with other kinds of pathologies like no notion of space, no notion of time, no matter, other problems like that. +But the exciting thing that I've found in the last few years is that you actually don't have to go very far in the computational universe before you start finding candidate universes that aren't obviously not our universe. +Here's the problem: Any serious candidate for our universe is inevitably full of computational irreducibility. +Which means that it is irreducibly difficult to find out how it will really behave, and whether it matches our physical universe. +A few years ago, I was pretty excited to discover that there are candidate universes with incredibly simple rules that successfully reproduce special relativity, and even general relativity and gravitation, and at least give hints of quantum mechanics. +So, will we find the whole of physics? +I don't know for sure, but I think at this point it's sort of almost embarrassing not to at least try. +Not an easy project. +One's got to build a lot of technology. +One's got to build a structure that's probably at least as deep as existing physics. +And I'm not sure what the best way to organize the whole thing is. +Build a team, open it up, offer prizes and so on. +But I'll tell you, here today, that I'm committed to seeing this project done, to see if, within this decade, we can finally hold in our hands the rule for our universe and know where our universe lies in the space of all possible universes ... +and be able to type into Wolfram Alpha, "the theory of the universe," and have it tell us. +So I've been working on the idea of computation now for more than 30 years, building tools and methods and turning intellectual ideas into millions of lines of code and grist for server farms and so on. +With every passing year, I realize how much more powerful the idea of computation really is. +It's taken us a long way already, but there's so much more to come. +From the foundations of science to the limits of technology to the very definition of the human condition, I think computation is destined to be the defining idea of our future. +Thank you. +Chris Anderson: That was astonishing. +Stay here. I've got a question. +So, that was, fair to say, an astonishing talk. +Are you able to say in a sentence or two how this type of thinking could integrate at some point to things like string theory or the kind of things that people think of as the fundamental explanations of the universe? +Stephen Wolfram: Well, the parts of physics that we kind of know to be true, things like the standard model of physics: what I'm trying to do better reproduce the standard model of physics or it's simply wrong. +The things that people have tried to do in the last 25 years or so with string theory and so on have been an interesting exploration that has tried to get back to the standard model, but hasn't quite gotten there. +My guess is that some great simplifications of what I'm doing may actually have considerable resonance with what's been done in string theory, but that's a complicated math thing that I don't yet know how it's going to work out. +CA: Benoit Mandelbrot is in the audience. +He also has shown how complexity can arise out of a simple start. +Does your work relate to his? +SW: I think so. +I view Benoit Mandelbrot's work as one of the founding contributions to this kind of area. +Benoit has been particularly interested in nested patterns, in fractals and so on, where the structure is something that's kind of tree-like, and where there's sort of a big branch that makes little branches and even smaller branches and so on. +That's one of the ways that you get towards true complexity. +I think things like the Rule 30 cellular automaton get us to a different level. +In fact, in a very precise way, they get us to a different level because they seem to be things that are capable of complexity that's sort of as great as complexity can ever get ... +I could go on about this at great length, but I won't. CA: Stephen Wolfram, thank you. +Hi, my name is Roz Savage and I row across oceans. +Four years ago, I rowed solo across the Atlantic, and since then, I've done two out of three stages across the Pacific, from San Francisco to Hawaii and from Hawaii to Kiribati. +And tomorrow, I'll be leaving this boat to fly back to Kiribati to continue with the third and final stage of my row across the Pacific. +Cumulatively, I will have rowed over 8,000 miles, taken over three million oar strokes and spent more than 312 days alone on the ocean on a 23 foot rowboat. +This has given me a very special relationship with the ocean. +We have a bit of a love/hate thing going on. +I feel a bit about it like I did about a very strict math teacher that I once had at school. +I didn't always like her, but I did respect her, and she taught me a heck of a lot. +So today I'd like to share with you some of my ocean adventures and tell you a little bit about what they've taught me, and how I think we can maybe take some of those lessons and apply them to this environmental challenge that we face right now. +Now, some of you might be thinking, "Hold on a minute. She doesn't look very much like an ocean rower. +Isn't she meant to be about this tall and about this wide and maybe look a bit more like these guys?" +You'll notice, they've all got something that I don't. +Well, I don't know what you're thinking, but I'm talking about the beards. And no matter how long I've spent on the ocean, I haven't yet managed to muster a decent beard, and I hope that it remains that way. +For a long time, I didn't believe that I could have a big adventure. +The story that I told myself was that adventurers looked like this. +I didn't look the part. +I thought there were them and there were us, and I was not one of them. +So for 11 years, I conformed. +I did what people from my kind of background were supposed to do. +I was working in an office in London as a management consultant. +And I think I knew from day one that it wasn't the right job for me. +But that kind of conditioning just kept me there for so many years, until I reached my mid-30s and I thought, "You know, I'm not getting any younger. +I feel like I've got a purpose in this life, and I don't know what it is, but I'm pretty certain that management consultancy is not it. +So, fast forward a few years. +I'd gone through some changes. +To try and answer that question of, "What am I supposed to be doing with my life?" +I sat down one day and wrote two versions of my own obituary, the one that I wanted, a life of adventure, and the one that I was actually heading for which was a nice, normal, pleasant life, but it wasn't where I wanted to be by the end of my life. +I wanted to live a life that I could be proud of. +And I remember looking at these two versions of my obituary and thinking, "Oh boy, I'm on totally the wrong track here. +If I carry on living as I am now, I'm just not going to end up where I want to be in five years, or 10 years, or at the end of my life." +I made a few changes, let go of some loose trappings of my old life, and through a bit of a leap of logic, decided to row across the Atlantic Ocean. +The Atlantic Rowing Race runs from the Canaries to Antigua, it's about 3,000 miles, and it turned out to be the hardest thing I had ever done. +Sure, I had wanted to get outside of my comfort zone, but what I'd sort of failed to notice was that getting out of your comfort zone is, by definition, extremely uncomfortable. +And my timing was not great either: 2005, when I did the Atlantic, was the year of Hurricane Katrina. +There were more tropical storms in the North Atlantic than ever before, since records began. +And pretty early on, those storms started making their presence known. +All four of my oars broke before I reached halfway across. +Oars are not supposed to look like this. +But what can you do? You're in the middle of the ocean. +Oars are your only means of propulsion. +So I just had to look around the boat and figure out what I was going to use to fix up these oars so that I could carry on. +So I found a boat hook and my trusty duct tape and splintered the boat hook to the oars to reinforce it. +Then, when that gave out, I sawed the wheel axles off my spare rowing seat and used those. +And then when those gave out, I cannibalized one of the broken oars. +I'd never been very good at fixing stuff when I was living my old life, but it's amazing how resourceful you can become when you're in the middle of the ocean and there's only one way to get to the other side. +And the oars kind of became a symbol of just in how many ways I went beyond what I thought were my limits. +I suffered from tendinitis on my shoulders and saltwater sores on my bottom. +I really struggled psychologically, totally overwhelmed by the scale of the challenge, realizing that, if I carried on moving at two miles an hour, 3,000 miles was going to take me a very, very long time. +There were so many times when I thought I'd hit that limit, but had no choice but to just carry on and try and figure out how I was going to get to the other side without driving myself crazy. +And eventually after 103 days at sea, I arrived in Antigua. +I don't think I've ever felt so happy in my entire life. +It was a bit like finishing a marathon and getting out of solitary confinement and winning an Oscar all rolled into one. +I was euphoric. +And to see all the people coming out to greet me and standing along the cliff tops and clapping and cheering, I just felt like a movie star. +It was absolutely wonderful. +And I really learned then that, the bigger the challenge, the bigger the sense of achievement when you get to the end of it. +So this might be a good moment to take a quick time-out to answer a few FAQs about ocean rowing that might be going through your mind. +Number one that I get asked: What do you eat? +A few freeze-dried meals, but mostly I try and eat much more unprocessed foods. +So I grow my own beansprouts. +I eat fruits and nut bars, a lot of nuts. +And generally arrive about 30 pounds lighter at the other end. +Question number two: How do you sleep? +With my eyes shut. Ha-ha. +I suppose what you mean is: What happens to the boat while I'm sleeping? +Well, I plan my route so that I'm drifting with the winds and the currents while I'm sleeping. +On a good night, I think my best ever was 11 miles in the right direction. +Worst ever, 13 miles in the wrong direction. +That's a bad day at the office. +What do I wear? +Mostly, a baseball cap, rowing gloves and a smile -- or a frown, depending on whether I went backwards overnight -- and lots of sun lotion. +Do I have a chase boat? +No I don't. I'm totally self-supporting out there. +I don't see anybody for the whole time that I'm at sea, generally. +And finally: Am I crazy? +Well, I leave that one up to you to judge. +So, how do you top rowing across the Atlantic? +Well, naturally, you decide to row across the Pacific. +Well, I thought the Atlantic was big, but the Pacific is really, really big. +I think we tend to do it a little bit of a disservice in our usual maps. +I don't know for sure that the Brits invented this particular view of the world, but I suspect we might have done so: we are right in the middle, and we've cut the Pacific in half and flung it to the far corners of the world. +Whereas if you look in Google Earth, this is how the Pacific looks. +It pretty much covers half the planet. +You can just see a little bit of North America up here and a sliver of Australia down there. +It is really big -- 65 million square miles -- and to row in a straight line across it would be about 8,000 miles. +Unfortunately, ocean rowboats very rarely go in a straight line. +By the time I get to Australia, if I get to Australia, I will have rowed probably nine or 10,000 miles in all. +So, because nobody in their straight mind would row straight past Hawaii without dropping in, I decided to cut this very big undertaking into three segments. +The first attempt didn't go so well. +In 2007, I did a rather involuntary capsize drill three times in 24 hours. +A bit like being in a washing machine. +Boat got a bit dinged up, so did I. +I blogged about it. Unfortunately, somebody with a bit of a hero complex decided that this damsel was in distress and needed saving. +The first I knew about this was when the Coast Guard plane turned up overhead. +I tried to tell them to go away. +We had a bit of a battle of wills. +I lost and got airlifted. +Awful, really awful. +It was one of the worst feelings of my life, as I was lifted up on that winch line into the helicopter and looked down at my trusty little boat rolling around in the 20 foot waves and wondering if I would ever see her again. +So I had to launch a very expensive salvage operation and then wait another nine months before I could get back out onto the ocean again. +But what do you do? +Fall down nine times, get up 10. +So, the following year, I set out and, fortunately, this time made it safely across to Hawaii. +But it was not without misadventure. +My watermaker broke, only the most important piece of kit that I have on the boat. +Powered by my solar panels, it sucks in saltwater and turns it into freshwater. +But it doesn't react very well to being immersed in ocean, which is what happened to it. +Fortunately, help was at hand. +There was another unusual boat out there at the same time, doing as I was doing, bringing awareness to the North Pacific Garbage Patch, that area in the North Pacific about twice the size of Texas, with an estimated 3.5 million tons of trash in it, circulating at the center of that North Pacific Gyre. +So, to make the point, these guys had actually built their boat out of plastic trash, 15,000 empty water bottles latched together into two pontoons. +They were going very slowly. +Partly, they'd had a bit of a delay. +They'd had to pull in at Catalina Island shortly after they left Long Beach because the lids of all the water bottles were coming undone, and they were starting to sink. +So they'd had to pull in and do all the lids up. +But, as I was approaching the end of my water reserves, luckily, our courses were converging. +They were running out of food; I was running out of water. +So we liaised by satellite phone and arranged to meet up. +And it took about a week for us to actually gradually converge. +I was doing a pathetically slow speed of about 1.3 knots, and they were doing only marginally less pathetic speed of about 1.4: it was like two snails in a mating dance. +But, eventually, we did manage to meet up and Joel hopped overboard, caught us a beautiful, big mahi-mahi, which was the best food I'd had in, ooh, at least three months. +Fortunately, the one that he caught that day was better than this one they caught a few weeks earlier. +When they opened this one up, they found its stomach was full of plastic. +And this is really bad news because plastic is not an inert substance. +It leaches out chemicals into the flesh of the poor critter that ate it, and then we come along and eat that poor critter, and we get some of the toxins accumulating in our bodies as well. +So there are very real implications for human health. +I eventually made it to Hawaii still alive. +And, the following year, set out on the second stage of the Pacific, from Hawaii down to Tarawa. +And you'll notice something about Tarawa; it is very low-lying. +It's that little green sliver on the horizon, which makes them very nervous about rising oceans. +This is big trouble for these guys. +They've got no points of land more than about six feet above sea level. +And also, as an increase in extreme weather events due to climate change, they're expecting more waves to come in over the fringing reef, which will contaminate their fresh water supply. +I had a meeting with the president there, who told me about his exit strategy for his country. +He expects that within the next 50 years, the 100,000 people that live there will have to relocate to New Zealand or Australia. +And that made me think about how would I feel if Britain was going to disappear under the waves; if the places where I'd been born and gone to school and got married, if all those places were just going to disappear forever. +How, literally, ungrounded that would make me feel. +Very shortly, I'll be setting out to try and get to Australia, and if I'm successful, I'll be the first woman ever to row solo all the way across the Pacific. +And I try to use this to bring awareness to these environmental issues, to bring a human face to the ocean. +I think there are probably three key points here. +The first one is about the stories that we tell ourselves. +For so long, I told myself that I couldn't have an adventure because I wasn't six foot tall and athletic and bearded. +And then that story changed. +I found out that people had rowed across oceans. +I even met one of them and she was just about my size. +So even though I didn't grow any taller, I didn't sprout a beard, something had changed: My interior dialogue had changed. +At the moment, the story that we collectively tell ourselves is that we need all this stuff, that we need oil. +But what about if we just change that story? +We do have alternatives, and we have the power of free will to choose those alternatives, those sustainable ones, to create a greener future. +The second point is about the accumulation of tiny actions. +We might think that anything that we do as an individual is just a drop in the ocean, that it can't really make a difference. +But it does. Generally, we haven't got ourselves into this mess through big disasters. +Yes, there have been the Exxon Valdezes and the Chernobyls, but mostly it's been an accumulation of bad decisions by billions of individuals, day after day and year after year. +And, by the same token, we can turn that tide. +We can start making better, wiser, more sustainable decisions. +And when we do that, we're not just one person. +Anything that we do spreads ripples. +Other people will see if you're in the supermarket line and you pull out your reusable grocery bag. +Maybe if we all start doing this, we can make it socially unacceptable to say yes to plastic in the checkout line. +That's just one example. +This is a world-wide community. +The other point: It's about taking responsibility. +For so much of my life, I wanted something else to make me happy. +I thought if I had the right house or the right car or the right man in my life, then I could be happy. +But when I wrote that obituary exercise, I actually grew up a little bit in that moment and realized that I needed to create my own future. +I couldn't just wait passively for happiness to come and find me. +And I suppose I'm a selfish environmentalist. +I plan on being around for a long time, and when I'm 90 years old, I want to be happy and healthy. +And it's very difficult to be happy on a planet that's racked with famine and drought. +It's very difficult to be healthy on a planet where we've poisoned the earth and the sea and the air. +So, shortly, I'm going to be launching a new initiative called Eco-Heroes. +And the idea here is that all our Eco-Heroes will log at least one green deed every day. +It's meant to be a bit of a game. +We're going to make an iPhone app out of it. +We just want to try and create that awareness because, sure, changing a light bulb isn't going to change the world, but that attitude, that awareness that leads you to change the light bulb or take your reusable coffee mug, that is what could change the world. +I really believe that we stand at a very important point in history. +We have a choice. We've been blessed, or cursed, with free will. +We can choose a greener future, and we can get there if we all pull together to take it one stroke at a time. +Thank you. +Most of the talks that you've heard in the last several fabulous days have been from people who have the characteristic that they have thought about something, they are experts, they know what's going on. +All of you know about the topic that I'm supposed to talk about. +That is, you know what simplicity is, you know what complexity is. +The trouble is, I don't. +And what I'm going to do is share with you my ignorance on this subject. +I want you to read this, because we're going to come back to it in a moment. +The quote is from the fabled Potter Stewart opinion on pornography. +And let me just read it, the important details here: "Shorthand description, ['hardcore pornography']; and perhaps I could never succeed in intelligibly defining it. +But I know it when I see it." +I'm going to come back to that in a moment. +So, what is simplicity? +It's good to start with some examples. +A coffee cup -- we don't think about coffee cups, but it's much more interesting than one might think -- a coffee cup is a device, which has a container and a handle. +The handle enables you to hold it when the container is filled with hot liquid. +Why is that important? +Well, it enables you to drink coffee. +But also, by the way, the coffee is hot, the liquid is sterile; you're not likely to get cholera that way. +So the coffee cup, or the cup with a handle, is one of the tools used by society to maintain public health. +Scissors are your clothes, glasses enable you to see things and keep you from being eaten by cheetahs or run down by automobiles, and books are, after all, your education. +But there's another class of simple things, which are also very important. +Simple in function, but not at all simple in how they're constructed. +And the two here are just examples. +One is the cellphone, which we use every day. +And it rests on a complexity, which has some characteristics very different from those that my friend Benoit Mandelbrot discussed, but are very interesting. +And the other, of course, is a birth control pill, which, in a very simple way, fundamentally changed the structure of society by changing the role of women in it by providing to them the opportunity to make reproductive choices. +So, there are two ways of thinking about this word, I think. +And here I've corrupted the Potter Stewart quotation by saying that we can think about something -- which spans all the way from scissors to the cell phone, Internet and birth control pills -- by saying that they're simple, the functions are simple, and we recognize what that simplicity is when we see it. +Or there may be another way of doing it, which is to think about the problem in terms of what -- if you associate with moral philosophers -- is called the teapot problem. +The teapot problem I'll pose this way. +Suppose you see a teapot, and the teapot is filled with hot water. +And you then ask the question: Why is the water hot? +And that's a simple question. +It's like, what is simplicity? +One answer would be: because the kinetic energy of the water molecules is high and they bounce against things rapidly -- that's a kind of physical science argument. +A second argument would be: because it was sitting on a stove with the flame on -- that's an historical argument. +A third is that I wanted hot water for tea -- that's an intentional argument. +And, since this is coming from a moral philosopher, the fourth would be that it's part of God's plan for the universe. +All of these are possibilities. +The point is that you get into trouble when you ask a single question with a single box for an answer, in which that single question actually is many questions with quite different meanings, but with the same words. +Asking, "What is simplicity?" I think falls in that category. +What is the state of science? +And, interestingly, complexity is very highly evolved. +We have a lot of interesting information about what complexity is. +Simplicity, for reasons that are a little bit obscure, is almost not pursued, at least in the academic world. +We academics -- I am an academic -- we love complexity. +You can write papers about complexity, and the nice thing about complexity is it's fundamentally intractable in many ways, so you're not responsible for outcomes. Simplicity -- all of you really would like your Waring Blender in the morning to make whatever a Waring Blender does, but not explode or play Beethoven. +You're not interested in the limits of these things. +So what one is interested in has a lot to do with the rewards of the system. +And there's a lot of rewards in thinking about complexity and emergence, not so much in thinking about simplicity. +All right, what is complexity in this view of things, and what is emergence? +We have, actually, a pretty good working definition of complexity. +It is a system, like traffic, which has components. +The components interact with one another. +These are cars and drivers. They dissipate energy. +It turns out that, whenever you have that system, weird stuff happens, and you in Los Angeles probably know this better than anyone. +Here's another example, which I put up because it's an example of really important current science. +You can't possibly read that. It's not intended that you read it, but that's a tiny part of the chemical reactions going on in each of your cells at any given moment. +And it's like the traffic that you see. +The amazing thing about the cell is that it actually does maintain a fairly stable working relationship with other cells, but we don't know why. +Anyone who tells you that we understand life, walk away. +And let me reduce this to the simplest level. +We've heard from Bill Gates recently. +All of us, to some extent, study this thing called a Bill Gates. +Terrific. You learn everything you can about that. +And then there's another kind of thing that you might study, and you study that hard. +That's a Bono, this is a Bono. +But then, if you know everything you can know about those two things, and you put them together, what can you say about this combination? +The answer is, not a lot. +And that's complexity. +Now, imagine building that up to a city, or to a society, and you've got, obviously, an interesting problem. +All right, so let me give you an example of simplicity of a particular kind. +And I want to introduce a word that I think is very useful, which is stacking. +And I'm going to use stacking for a kind of simplicity that has the characteristic that it is so simple and so reliable that I can build things with it. +Or I'm going to use simple to mean reliable, predictable, repeatable. +And I'm going to use as an example the Internet, because it's a particularly good example of stacked simplicity. +We call it a complex system, which it is, but it's also something else. +The Internet starts with mathematics, it starts with binary. +And if you look at the list of things on the bottom, we are familiar with the Arabic numbers one to 10 and so on. +In binary, one is 0001, seven is 0111. +The question is: Why is binary simpler than Arabic? +And the answer is, simply, that if I hold up three fingers, you can count that easily, but if I hold up this, it's sort of hard to say that I just did seven. +The virtue of binary is that it's the simplest possible way of representing numbers. +Anything else is more complicated. +You can catch errors with it, it's unambiguous in its reading, there are lots of good things about binary. +So it is very, very simple once you learn how to read it. +Now, if you like to represent this zero and one of binary, you need a device. +And think of things in your life that are binary, one of them is light switches. +They can be on and off. That's binary. +Now wall switches, we all know, fail. +But our friends who are condensed matter physicists managed to come up, some 50 years ago, with a very nice device, shown under that bell jar, which is a transistor. +A transistor is nothing more than a wall switch. +It turns things on and off, but it does so without moving parts and it doesn't fail, basically, for a very long period of time. +So the second layer of simplicity was the transistor in the Internet. +So, since the transistor is so simple, you can put lots of them together. +And you put lots of them together and you come with something called integrated circuits. +And a current integrated circuit might have in each one of these chips something like a billion transistors, all of which have to work perfectly every time. +So that's the next layer of simplicity, and, in fact, integrated circuits are really simple in the sense that they, in general, work really well. +With integrated circuits, you can build cellphones. +You all are accustomed to having your cellphones work the large majority of the time. +In Boston ... Boston is a little bit like Namibia in its cell phone coverage, so that we're not accustomed to that all the time, but some of the time. +But, in fact, if you have cell phones, you can now go to this nice lady who's somewhere like Namibia, and who is extremely happy with the fact that although she does not have an master's degree in electrical engineering from MIT, she's nonetheless able to hack her cell phone to get power in some funny way. +And from that comes the Internet. +And this is a map of bitflows across the continent. +The two blobs that are light in the middle there are the United States and Europe. +And then back to simplicity again. +So here we have what I think is one of the great ideas, which is Google. +Which, in this simple portal makes the claim that it makes accessible all of the world's information. +But the point is that that extraordinary simple idea rests on layers of simplicity each compounded into a complexity that is itself simple, in the sense that it is completely reliable. +All right, let me then finish off with four general statements, an example and two aphorisms. +The characteristics, which I think are useful to think about for simple things: First, they are predictable. +Their behavior is predictable. +Now, one of the nice characteristics of simple things is you know what it's going to do, in general. +So simplicity and predictability are characteristics of simple things. +The second is, and this is a real world statement, they're cheap. +If you have things that are cheap enough, people will find uses for them, even if they seem very primitive. +So, for example, stones. +You can build cathedrals out of stones, you just have to know what it does. +You carve them in blocks and then you pile them on top of one another, and they support weight. +So there has to be function, the function has to be predictable and the cost has to be low. +What that means is that you have to have a high performance or value for cost. +And then I would propose as this last component that they serve, or have the potential to serve, as building blocks. +That is, you can stack them. +And stack can mean this way, or it can mean this way, or it can mean in some arbitrary n-dimensional space. +But if you have something that has a function, and it's really cheap, people will find new ways of putting it together to make new things. +Cheap, functional, reliable things unleash the creativity of people who then build stuff that you could not imagine. +There's no way of predicting the Internet based on the first transistor. +It just is not possible. +So these are the components. +Now, the example is something that I want to give you from the work that we ourselves do. +We are very interested in delivering health care in the developing world, and one of the things that we wish to do in this particular business is to find a way of doing medical diagnosis at as close to zero cost as we can manage. +So, how does one do that? +This is a world in which there's no electricity, there's no money, there's no medical competence. +And I don't want to spend your time in going through the details, but in the lower right-hand corner, you see an example of the kind of thing that we have. +It's a little paper chip. +It has a few things printed on it using the same technology that you use for making comic books, which was the inspiration for this particular idea. +And you put a drop, in this case, of urine at the bottom. +It wicks its way up into these little branches. +You know, no power required. +It turns colors. In this particular case, you're reading kidney function. +So what you've done is to take a technology, which is available everywhere, make a device, which is extremely cheap, and make it in such a fashion that it is very, very reliable. +If we can pull this off, if we can build more function, it will be stackable. +That is to say, if we can make the basic technology of one or two things work, it will be applicable to a very, very large variety of human conditions, and hence, extendable in both vertical and horizontal directions. +Part of my interest in this, I have to say, is that I would like to -- how do I put this politely? -- change the way, or maybe eviscerate, the capital structure of the U.S. health care system, which I think is fundamentally broken. +So, let me close -- Let me close with my two aphorisms. +One of them is from Mr. Einstein, and he says, "Everything should be made as simple as possible, but not simpler." +And I think that's a very good way of thinking about the problem. +If you take too much out of something that's simple, you lose function. +You have to have low cost, but you also have to have a function. +So you can't make it too simple. +And the second is a design issue, and it's not directly relevant, but it's a nice statement. +This is by de Saint-Exupery. +And he says, "You know you've achieved perfection in design, not when you have nothing more to add, but when you have nothing more to take away." +And that certainly is going in the right direction. +If we make that kind of simplicity in our technology and then give it to you guys, you can go off and do all kinds of fabulous things with it. +Thank you very much. +Chris Anderson: Quick question. +So can you picture that a science of simplicity might get to the point where you could look out at various systems -- say a financial system or a legal system, health system -- and say, "That has got to the point of danger or dysfunctionality for the following reasons, and this is how we might simplify it"? +George Whitesides: Yes, I think you could. Because if you look at the components from which the system is made and examine their fragility, or their stability, you can probably build a kind of risk assessment based on that basis. +CA: Have you started to do that? +I mean, with the health system, you got a sort of radical solution on the cost side, but in terms of the system itself? +GW: Well, no. +How do I put that simply? No. +CA: That was a simple, powerful answer. GW: Yes. +CA: So, in terms of that diagnostic technology that you've got, where is that, and when do you see that maybe getting rolled out to scale. +GW: That's coming out soon. I mean, the systems work, and we have to find out how to manufacture them and do things of this kind, but the basic technology works. +CA: You've got a company set up to ... +GW: A foundation, a foundation. Not-for-profit. +CA: All right. Well, thank you so much for your talk. Thank you. +If you go on the TED website, you can currently find there over a full week of TEDTalk videos, over 1.3 million words of transcripts and millions of user ratings. +And that's a huge amount of data. +And it got me wondering: If you took all this data and put it through statistical analysis, could you reverse engineer a TEDTalk? +Could you create the ultimate TEDTalk? +And also, could you create the worst possible TEDTalk that they would still let you get away with? +To find this out, I looked at three things: I looked at the topic that you should choose, I looked at how you should deliver it and the visuals onstage. +Now, with the topic: There's a whole range of topics you can choose, but you should choose wisely, because your topic strongly correlates with how users will react to your talk. +Now, to make this more concrete, let's look at the list of top 10 words that statistically stick out in the most favorite TEDTalks and in the least favorite TEDTalks. +So if you came here to talk about how French coffee will spread happiness in our brains, that's a go. +Whereas, if you wanted to talk about your project involving oxygen, girls, aircraft -- actually, I would like to hear that talk, but statistics say it's not so good. +Oh, well. +If you generalize this, the most favorite TEDTalks are those that feature topics we can connect with, both easily and deeply, such as happiness, our own body, food, emotions. +And the more technical topics, such as architecture, materials and, strangely enough, men, those are not good topics to talk about. +How should you deliver your talk? +TED is famous for keeping a very sharp eye on the clock, so they're going to hate me for revealing this, because, actually, you should talk as long as they will let you. Because the most favorite TEDTalks are, on average, over 50 percent longer than the least favorite ones. +And this holds true for all ranking lists on TED.com except if you want to have a talk that's beautiful, inspiring or funny. +Then, you should be brief. But other than that, talk until they drag you off the stage. +Now, while ... +While you're pushing the clock, there's a few rules to obey. +I found these rules out by comparing the statistics of four-word phrases that appear more often in the most favorite TEDTalks as opposed to the least favorite TEDTalks. +I'll give you three examples. +First of all, I must, as a speaker, provide a service to the audience and talk about what I will give you, instead of saying what I can't have. +Secondly, it's imperative that you do not cite The New York Times. +And finally, it's okay for the speaker -- that's the good news -- to fake intellectual capacity. +If I don't understand something, I can just say, "etc., etc." +You'll all stay with me. +It's perfectly fine. +Now, let's go to the visuals. +The most obvious visual thing on stage is the speaker. +And analysis shows if you want to be among the most favorite TED speakers, you should let your hair grow a little bit longer than average, make sure you wear your glasses and be slightly more dressed-up than the average TED speaker. +Slides are okay, though you might consider going for props. +And now the most important thing, that is the mood onstage. +Color plays a very important role. +Color closely correlates with the ratings that talks get on the website. +For example, fascinating talks contain a statistically high amount of exactly this blue color, much more than the average TEDTalk. +Ingenious TEDTalks, much more this green color, etc., et. +Now, personally, I think I'm not the first one who has done this analysis, but I'll leave this to your good judgment. +So, now it's time to put it all together and design the ultimate TEDTalk. +Now, since this is TEDActive, and I learned from my analysis that I should actually give you something, I will not impose the ultimate or worst TEDTalk on you, but rather give you a tool to create your own. +And I call this tool the TEDPad. +And the TEDPad is a matrix of 100 specifically selected, highly curated sentences that you can easily piece together to get your own TEDTalk. +You only have to make one decision, and that is: Are you going to use the white version for very good TEDTalks, about creativity, human genius? +Or are you going to go with a black version, which will allow you to create really bad TEDTalks, mostly about blogs, politics and stuff? +So, download it and have fun with it. +Now I hope you enjoy the session. +I hope you enjoy designing your own ultimate and worst possible TEDTalks. +And I hope some of you will be inspired for next year to create this, which I really want to see. +Thank you very much. +So here it is. You can check: I am short, I'm French, I have a pretty strong French accent, so that's going to be clear in a moment. +Maybe a sobering thought and something you all know about. +And I suspect many of you gave something to the people of Haiti this year. +And there is something else I believe in the back of your mind you also know. +That is, every day, 25,000 children die of entirely preventable causes. +That's a Haiti earthquake every eight days. +And I suspect many of you probably gave something towards that problem as well, but somehow it doesn't happen with the same intensity. +So why is that? +Well, here is a thought experiment for you. +Imagine you have a few million dollars that you've raised -- maybe you're a politician in a developing country and you have a budget to spend. You want to spend it on the poor: How do you go about it? +Do you believe the people who tell you that all we need to do is to spend money? +That we know how to eradicate poverty, we just need to do more? +Or do you believe the people who tell you that aid is not going to help, on the contrary it might hurt, it might exacerbate corruption, dependence, etc.? +Or maybe you turn to the past. +After all, we have spent billions of dollars on aid. +Maybe you look at the past and see. +Has it done any good? +And, sadly, we don't know. +And worst of all, we will never know. +And the reason is that -- take Africa for example. +Africans have already got a lot of aid. +These are the blue bars. +And the GDP in Africa is not making much progress. +Okay, fine. How do you know what would have happened without the aid? +Maybe it would have been much worse, or maybe it would have been better. +We have no idea. We don't know what the counterfactual is. +There's only one Africa. +So what do you do? +To give the aid, and hope and pray that something comes out of it? +Or do you focus on your everyday life and let the earthquake every eight days continue to happen? +The thing is, if we don't know whether we are doing any good, we are not any better than the Medieval doctors and their leeches. +Sometimes the patient gets better, sometimes the patient dies. +Is it the leeches? Is it something else? +We don't know. +So here are some other questions. +They're smaller questions, but they are not that small. +Immunization, that's the cheapest way to save a child's life. +And the world has spent a lot of money on it: The GAVI and the Gates Foundations are each pledging a lot of money towards it, and developing countries themselves have been doing a lot of effort. +And yet, every year at least 25 million children do not get the immunization they should get. +So this is what you call a "last mile problem." +The technology is there, the infrastructure is there, and yet it doesn't happen. +So you have your million. +How do you use your million to solve this last mile problem? +And here's another question: Malaria. Malaria kills almost 900,000 people every year, most of them in Sub-Saharan Africa, most of them under five. +In fact, that is the leading cause of under-five mortality. +We already know how to kill malaria, but some people come to you and say, "You have your millions. How about bed nets?" +Bed nets are very cheap. +For 10 dollars, you can manufacture and ship an insecticide treated bed net and you can teach someone to use them. +And, not only do they protect the people who sleep under them, but they have these great contagion benefits. +If half of a community sleeps under a net, the other half also benefits because the contagion of the disease spread. +And yet, only a quarter of kids at risk sleep under a net. +Societies should be willing to go out and subsidize the net, give them for free, or, for that matter, pay people to use them because of those contagion benefits. +"Not so fast," say other people. +"If you give the nets for free, people are not going to value them. +They're not going to use them, or at least they're not going to use them as bed nets, maybe as fishing nets." +So, what do you do? +Do you give the nets for free to maximize coverage, or do you make people pay in order to make sure that they really value them? +How do you know? +And a third question: Education. +Maybe that's the solution, maybe we should send kids to school. +But how do you do that? +Do you hire teachers? Do you build more schools? +Do you provide school lunch? +How do you know? +So here is the thing. +I cannot answer the big question, whether aid did any good or not. +But these three questions, I can answer them. +It's not the Middle Ages anymore, it's the 21st century. +And in the 20th century, randomized, controlled trials have revolutionized medicine by allowing us to distinguish between drugs that work and drugs that don't work. +And you can do the same randomized, controlled trial for social policy. +You can put social innovation to the same rigorous, scientific tests that we use for drugs. +And in this way, you can take the guesswork out of policy-making by knowing what works, what doesn't work and why. +And I'll give you some examples with those three questions. +So I start with immunization. +Here's Udaipur District, Rajasthan. Beautiful. +Well, when I started working there, about one percent of children were fully immunized. +That's bad, but there are places like that. +Now, it's not because the vaccines are not there -- they are there and they are free -- and it's not because parents do not care about their kids. +The same child that is not immunized against measles, if they do get measles, parents will spend thousands of rupees to help them. +So you get these empty village subcenters and crowded hospitals. +So what is the problem? +Well, part of the problem, surely, is people do not fully understand. +After all, in this country as well, all sorts of myths and misconceptions go around immunization. +So if that's the case, that's difficult, because persuasion is really difficult. +But maybe there is another problem as well. +It's going from intention to action. +Imagine you are a mother in Udaipur District, Rajasthan. +You have to walk a few kilometers to get your kids immunized. +And maybe when you get there, what you find is this: The subcenter is closed. Ao you have to come back, and you are so busy and you have so many other things to do, you will always tend to postpone and postpone, and eventually it gets too late. +Well, if that's the problem, then that's much easier. +Because A, we can make it easy, and B, we can maybe give people a reason to act today, rather than wait till tomorrow. +So these are simple ideas, but we didn't know. +So let's try them. +So what we did is we did a randomized, controlled trial in 134 villages in Udaipur Districts. +So the blue dots are selected randomly. +We made it easy -- I'll tell you how in a moment. +In the red dots, we made it easy and gave people a reason to act now. +The white dots are comparisons, nothing changed. +So we make it easy by organizing this monthly camp where people can get their kids immunized. +And then you make it easy and give a reason to act now by adding a kilo of lentils for each immunization. +Now, a kilo of lentils is tiny. +It's never going to convince anybody to do something that they don't want to do. +On the other hand, if your problem is you tend to postpone, then it might give you a reason to act today rather than later. +So what do we find? +Well, beforehand, everything is the same. +That's the beauty of randomization. +Afterwards, the camp -- just having the camp -- increases immunization from six percent to 17 percent. +That's full immunization. +That's not bad, that's a good improvement. +Add the lentils and you reach to 38 percent. +So here you've got your answer. +Make it easy and give a kilo of lentils, you multiply immunization rate by six. +Now, you might say, "Well, but it's not sustainable. +We cannot keep giving lentils to people." +Well, it turns out it's wrong economics, because it is cheaper to give lentils than not to give them. +Since you have to pay for the nurse anyway, the cost per immunization ends up being cheaper if you give incentives than if you don't. +How about bed nets? +Should you give them for free, or should you ask people to pay for them? +So the answer hinges on the answer to three simple questions. +One is: If people must pay for a bed net, are they going to purchase them? +The second one is: If I give bed nets for free, are people going to use them? +And the third one is: Do free bed nets discourage future purchase? +The third one is important because if we think people get used to handouts, it might destroy markets to distribute free bed nets. +Now this is a debate that has generated a lot of emotion and angry rhetoric. +It's more ideological than practical, but it turns out it's an easy question. +We can know the answer to this question. +We can just run an experiment. +And many experiments have been run, and they all have the same results, so I'm just going to talk to you about one. +And this one that was in Kenya, they went around and distributed to people vouchers, discount vouchers. +So people with their voucher could get the bed net in the local pharmacy. +And some people get 100 percent discount, and some people get 20 percent discounts, and some people get 50 percent discount, etc. +And now we can see what happens. +So, how about the purchasing? +Well, what you can see is that when people have to pay for their bed nets, the coverage rate really falls down a lot. +So even with partial subsidy, three dollars is still not the full cost of a bed net, and now you only have 20 percent of the people with the bed nets, you lose the health immunity, that's not great. +Second thing is, how about the use? +Well, the good news is, people, if they have the bed nets, will use the bed nets regardless of how they got it. +If they get it for free, they use it. +If they have to pay for it, they use it. +How about the long term? +In the long term, people who got the free bed nets, one year later, were offered the option to purchase a bed net at two dollars. +And people who got the free one were actually more likely to purchase the second one than people who didn't get a free one. +So people do not get used to handouts; they get used to nets. +Maybe we need to give them a little bit more credit. +So, that's for bed nets. So you will think, "That's great. +You know how to immunize kids, you know how to give bed nets." +But what politicians need is a range of options. +They need to know: Out of all the things I could do, what is the best way to achieve my goals? +So suppose your goal is to get kids into school. +There are so many things you could do. You could pay for uniforms, you could eliminate fees, you could build latrines, you could give girls sanitary pads, etc., etc. +So what's the best? +Well, at some level, we think all of these things should work. +So, is that sufficient? If we think they should work intuitively, should we go for them? +Well, in business, that's certainly not the way we would go about it. +Consider for example transporting goods. +Before the canals were invented in Britain before the Industrial Revolution, goods used to go on horse carts. +And then canals were built, and with the same horseman and the same horse, you could carry ten times as much cargo. +So should they have continued to carry the goods on the horse carts, on the ground, that they would eventually get there? +Well, if that had been the case, there would have been no Industrial Revolution. +So why shouldn't we do the same with social policy? +In technology, we spend so much time experimenting, fine-tuning, getting the absolute cheapest way to do something, so why aren't we doing that with social policy? +Well, with experiments, what you can do is answer a simple question. +Suppose you have 100 dollars to spend on various interventions. +How many extra years of education do you get for your hundred dollars? +Now I'm going to show you what we get with various education interventions. +So the first ones are if you want the usual suspects, hire teachers, school meals, school uniforms, scholarships. +And that's not bad. For your hundred dollars, you get between one and three extra years of education. +Things that don't work so well is bribing parents, just because so many kids are already going to school that you end up spending a lot of money. +And here are the most surprising results. +Tell people the benefits of education, that's very cheap to do. +So for every hundred dollars you spend doing that, you get 40 extra years of education. +And, in places where there are worms, intestinal worms, cure the kids of their worms. +And for every hundred dollars, you get almost 30 extra years of education. +So this is not your intuition, this is not what people would have gone for, and yet, these are the programs that work. +We need that kind of information, we need more of it, and then we need to guide policy. +So now, I started from the big problem, and I couldn't answer it. +And I cut it into smaller questions, and I have the answer to these smaller questions. +And they are good, scientific, robust answers. +So let's go back to Haiti for a moment. +In Haiti, about 200,000 people died -- actually, a bit more by the latest estimate. +And the response of the world was great: Two billion dollars got pledged just last month, so that's about 10,000 dollars per death. +That doesn't sound like that much when you think about it. +But if we were willing to spend 10,000 dollars for every child under five who dies, that would be 90 billion per year just for that problem. +And yet it doesn't happen. +So, why is that? +Well, I think what part of the problem is that, in Haiti, although the problem is huge, somehow we understand it, it's localized. +You give your money to Doctors Without Borders, you give your money to Partners In Health, and they'll send in the doctors, and they'll send in the lumber, and they'll helicopter things out and in. +And the problem of poverty is not like that. +So, first, it's mostly invisible; second, it's huge; and third, we don't know whether we are doing the right thing. +There's no silver bullet. +You cannot helicopter people out of poverty. +And that's very frustrating. +But look what we just did today. +I gave you three simple answers to three questions: Give lentils to immunize people, provide free bed nets, deworm children. +With immunization or bed nets, you can save a life for 300 dollars per life saved. +With deworming, you can get an extra year of education for three dollars. +So we cannot eradicate poverty just yet, but we can get started. +And maybe we can get started small with things that we know are effective. +Here's an example of how this can be powerful. +Deworming. +Worms have a little bit of a problem grabbing the headlines. +They are not beautiful and don't kill anybody. +And yet, when the young global leader in Davos showed the numbers I gave you, they started Deworm the World. +And thanks to Deworm the World, and the effort of many country governments and foundations, 20 million school-aged children got dewormed in 2009. +So this evidence is powerful. +It can prompt action. +So we should get started now. +It's not going to be easy. +It's a very slow process. +You have to keep experimenting, and sometimes ideology has to be trumped by practicality. +And sometimes what works somewhere doesn't work elsewhere. +So it's a slow process, but there is no other way. +These economics I'm proposing, it's like 20th century medicine. +It's a slow, deliberative process of discovery. +There is no miracle cure, but modern medicine is saving millions of lives every year, and we can do the same thing. +And now, maybe, we can go back to the bigger question that I started with at the beginning. +I cannot tell you whether the aid we have spent in the past has made a difference, but can we come back here in 30 years and say, "What we have done, it really prompted a change for the better." +I believe we can and I hope we will. +Thank you. +How do you explain when things don't go as we assume? +Or better, how do you explain when others are able to achieve things that seem to defy all of the assumptions? +For example: Why is Apple so innovative? +Year after year, after year, they're more innovative than all their competition. +And yet, they're just a computer company. +They're just like everyone else. +They have the same access to the same talent, the same agencies, the same consultants, the same media. +Then why is it that they seem to have something different? +Why is it that Martin Luther King led the Civil Rights Movement? +He wasn't the only man who suffered in pre-civil rights America, and he certainly wasn't the only great orator of the day. +Why him? +And why is it that the Wright brothers were able to figure out controlled, powered man flight when there were certainly other teams who were better qualified, better funded -- and they didn't achieve powered man flight, and the Wright brothers beat them to it. +There's something else at play here. +About three and a half years ago, I made a discovery. +And this discovery profoundly changed my view on how I thought the world worked, and it even profoundly changed the way in which I operate in it. +As it turns out, there's a pattern. +As it turns out, all the great inspiring leaders and organizations in the world, whether it's Apple or Martin Luther King or the Wright brothers, they all think, act and communicate the exact same way. +And it's the complete opposite to everyone else. +All I did was codify it, and it's probably the world's simplest idea. +I call it the golden circle. +Why? How? What? +This little idea explains why some organizations and some leaders are able to inspire where others aren't. +Let me define the terms really quickly. +Every single person, every single organization on the planet knows what they do, 100 percent. +Some know how they do it, whether you call it your differentiated value proposition or your proprietary process or your USP. +But very, very few people or organizations know why they do what they do. +And by "why" I don't mean "to make a profit." +That's a result. It's always a result. +By "why," I mean: What's your purpose? +What's your cause? What's your belief? +Why does your organization exist? +Why do you get out of bed in the morning? +And why should anyone care? +As a result, the way we think, we act, the way we communicate is from the outside in, it's obvious. +We go from the clearest thing to the fuzziest thing. +But the inspired leaders and the inspired organizations -- regardless of their size, regardless of their industry -- all think, act and communicate from the inside out. +Let me give you an example. +I use Apple because they're easy to understand and everybody gets it. +If Apple were like everyone else, a marketing message from them might sound like this: "We make great computers. +They're beautifully designed, simple to use and user friendly. +Want to buy one?" "Meh." +That's how most of us communicate. +That's how most marketing and sales are done, that's how we communicate interpersonally. +We say what we do, we say how we're different or better and we expect some sort of a behavior, a purchase, a vote, something like that. +Here's our new law firm: We have the best lawyers with the biggest clients, we always perform for our clients. +Here's our new car: It gets great gas mileage, it has leather seats. +Buy our car. +But it's uninspiring. +Here's how Apple actually communicates. +"Everything we do, we believe in challenging the status quo. +We believe in thinking differently. +The way we challenge the status quo is by making our products beautifully designed, simple to use and user friendly. +We just happen to make great computers. +Want to buy one?" +Totally different, right? You're ready to buy a computer from me. +I just reversed the order of the information. +What it proves to us is that people don't buy what you do; people buy why you do it. +This explains why every single person in this room is perfectly comfortable buying a computer from Apple. +But we're also perfectly comfortable buying an MP3 player from Apple, or a phone from Apple, or a DVR from Apple. +As I said before, Apple's just a computer company. +Nothing distinguishes them structurally from any of their competitors. +Their competitors are equally qualified to make all of these products. +In fact, they tried. +A few years ago, Gateway came out with flat-screen TVs. +They're eminently qualified to make flat-screen TVs. +They've been making flat-screen monitors for years. +Nobody bought one. +Dell came out with MP3 players and PDAs, and they make great quality products, and they can make perfectly well-designed products -- and nobody bought one. +In fact, talking about it now, we can't even imagine buying an MP3 player from Dell. +Why would you buy one from a computer company? +But we do it every day. +People don't buy what you do; they buy why you do it. +The goal is not to do business with everybody who needs what you have. +The goal is to do business with people who believe what you believe. +Here's the best part: None of what I'm telling you is my opinion. +It's all grounded in the tenets of biology. +Not psychology, biology. +If you look at a cross-section of the human brain, from the top down, the human brain is actually broken into three major components that correlate perfectly with the golden circle. +Our newest brain, our Homo sapien brain, our neocortex, corresponds with the "what" level. +The neocortex is responsible for all of our rational and analytical thought and language. +The middle two sections make up our limbic brains, and our limbic brains are responsible for all of our feelings, like trust and loyalty. +It's also responsible for all human behavior, all decision-making, and it has no capacity for language. +In other words, when we communicate from the outside in, yes, people can understand vast amounts of complicated information like features and benefits and facts and figures. +It just doesn't drive behavior. +When we can communicate from the inside out, we're talking directly to the part of the brain that controls behavior, and then we allow people to rationalize it with the tangible things we say and do. +This is where gut decisions come from. +Sometimes you can give somebody all the facts and figures, and they say, "I know what all the facts and details say, but it just doesn't feel right." +Why would we use that verb, it doesn't "feel" right? +Because the part of the brain that controls decision-making doesn't control language. +The best we can muster up is, "I don't know. It just doesn't feel right." +Or sometimes you say you're leading with your heart or soul. +I hate to break it to you, those aren't other body parts controlling your behavior. +It's all happening here in your limbic brain, the part of the brain that controls decision-making and not language. +But if you don't know why you do what you do, and people respond to why you do what you do, then how will you ever get people to vote for you, or buy something from you, or, more importantly, be loyal and want to be a part of what it is that you do. +The goal is not just to sell to people who need what you have; the goal is to sell to people who believe what you believe. +The goal is not just to hire people who need a job; it's to hire people who believe what you believe. +I always say that, you know, if you hire people just because they can do a job, they'll work for your money, but if they believe what you believe, they'll work for you with blood and sweat and tears. +Nowhere else is there a better example than with the Wright brothers. +Most people don't know about Samuel Pierpont Langley. +And back in the early 20th century, the pursuit of powered man flight was like the dot com of the day. +Everybody was trying it. +And Samuel Pierpont Langley had, what we assume, to be the recipe for success. +Even now, you ask people, "Why did your product or why did your company fail?" +and people always give you the same permutation of the same three things: under-capitalized, the wrong people, bad market conditions. +It's always the same three things, so let's explore that. +Samuel Pierpont Langley was given 50,000 dollars by the War Department to figure out this flying machine. +Money was no problem. +He held a seat at Harvard and worked at the Smithsonian and was extremely well-connected; he knew all the big minds of the day. +He hired the best minds money could find and the market conditions were fantastic. +The New York Times followed him around everywhere, and everyone was rooting for Langley. +Then how come we've never heard of Samuel Pierpont Langley? +A few hundred miles away in Dayton Ohio, Orville and Wilbur Wright, they had none of what we consider to be the recipe for success. +They had no money; they paid for their dream with the proceeds from their bicycle shop; not a single person on the Wright brothers' team had a college education, not even Orville or Wilbur; and The New York Times followed them around nowhere. +The difference was, Orville and Wilbur were driven by a cause, by a purpose, by a belief. +They believed that if they could figure out this flying machine, it'll change the course of the world. +Samuel Pierpont Langley was different. +He wanted to be rich, and he wanted to be famous. +He was in pursuit of the result. +He was in pursuit of the riches. +And lo and behold, look what happened. +The people who believed in the Wright brothers' dream worked with them with blood and sweat and tears. +The others just worked for the paycheck. +They tell stories of how every time the Wright brothers went out, they would have to take five sets of parts, because that's how many times they would crash before supper. +And, eventually, on December 17th, 1903, the Wright brothers took flight, and no one was there to even experience it. +We found out about it a few days later. +And further proof that Langley was motivated by the wrong thing: The day the Wright brothers took flight, he quit. +He could have said, "That's an amazing discovery, guys, and I will improve upon your technology," but he didn't. +He wasn't first, he didn't get rich, he didn't get famous, so he quit. +People don't buy what you do; they buy why you do it. +If you talk about what you believe, you will attract those who believe what you believe. +But why is it important to attract those who believe what you believe? +Something called the law of diffusion of innovation, if you don't know the law, you know the terminology. +The first 2.5% of our population are our innovators. +The next 13.5% of our population are our early adopters. +The next 34% are your early majority, your late majority and your laggards. +The only reason these people buy touch-tone phones is because you can't buy rotary phones anymore. +I love asking businesses, "What's your conversion on new business?" +They love to tell you, "It's about 10 percent," proudly. +Well, you can trip over 10% of the customers. +We all have about 10% who just "get it." +That's how we describe them, right? +That's like that gut feeling, "Oh, they just get it." +The problem is: How do you find the ones that get it before doing business versus the ones who don't get it? +So it's this here, this little gap that you have to close, as Jeffrey Moore calls it, "Crossing the Chasm" -- because, you see, the early majority will not try something until someone else has tried it first. +And these guys, the innovators and the early adopters, they're comfortable making those gut decisions. +They're more comfortable making those intuitive decisions that are driven by what they believe about the world and not just what product is available. +These are the people who stood in line for six hours to buy an iPhone when they first came out, when you could have bought one off the shelf the next week. +These are the people who spent 40,000 dollars on flat-screen TVs when they first came out, even though the technology was substandard. +And, by the way, they didn't do it because the technology was so great; they did it for themselves. +It's because they wanted to be first. +People don't buy what you do; they buy why you do it and what you do simply proves what you believe. +In fact, people will do the things that prove what they believe. +The reason that person bought the iPhone in the first six hours, stood in line for six hours, was because of what they believed about the world, and how they wanted everybody to see them: They were first. +People don't buy what you do; they buy why you do it. +So let me give you a famous example, a famous failure and a famous success of the law of diffusion of innovation. +First, the famous failure. +It's a commercial example. +As we said before, the recipe for success is money and the right people and the right market conditions. +You should have success then. +Look at TiVo. +From the time TiVo came out about eight or nine years ago to this current day, they are the single highest-quality product on the market, hands down, there is no dispute. +They were extremely well-funded. +Market conditions were fantastic. +I mean, we use TiVo as verb. +I TiVo stuff on my piece-of-junk Time Warner DVR all the time. +But TiVo's a commercial failure. +They've never made money. +And when they went IPO, their stock was at about 30 or 40 dollars and then plummeted, and it's never traded above 10. +In fact, I don't think it's even traded above six, except for a couple of little spikes. +Because you see, when TiVo launched their product, they told us all what they had. +They said, "We have a product that pauses live TV, skips commercials, rewinds live TV and memorizes your viewing habits without you even asking." +And the cynical majority said, "We don't believe you. +We don't need it. We don't like it. +You're scaring us." +What if they had said, "If you're the kind of person who likes to have total control over every aspect of your life, boy, do we have a product for you. +It pauses live TV, skips commercials, memorizes your viewing habits, etc., etc." +People don't buy what you do; they buy why you do it, and what you do simply serves as the proof of what you believe. +Now let me give you a successful example of the law of diffusion of innovation. +In the summer of 1963, 250,000 people showed up on the mall in Washington to hear Dr. King speak. +They sent out no invitations, and there was no website to check the date. +How do you do that? +Well, Dr. King wasn't the only man in America who was a great orator. +He wasn't the only man in America who suffered in a pre-civil rights America. +In fact, some of his ideas were bad. +But he had a gift. +He didn't go around telling people what needed to change in America. +He went around and told people what he believed. +"I believe, I believe, I believe," he told people. +And people who believed what he believed took his cause, and they made it their own, and they told people. +And some of those people created structures to get the word out to even more people. +And lo and behold, 250,000 people showed up on the right day at the right time to hear him speak. +How many of them showed up for him? +Zero. +They showed up for themselves. +It's what they believed about America that got them to travel in a bus for eight hours to stand in the sun in Washington in the middle of August. +It's what they believed, and it wasn't about black versus white: 25% of the audience was white. +Dr. King believed that there are two types of laws in this world: those that are made by a higher authority and those that are made by men. +And not until all the laws that are made by men are consistent with the laws made by the higher authority will we live in a just world. +It just so happened that the Civil Rights Movement was the perfect thing to help him bring his cause to life. +We followed, not for him, but for ourselves. +By the way, he gave the "I have a dream" speech, not the "I have a plan" speech. +Listen to politicians now, with their comprehensive 12-point plans. +They're not inspiring anybody. +Because there are leaders and there are those who lead. +Leaders hold a position of power or authority, but those who lead inspire us. +Whether they're individuals or organizations, we follow those who lead, not because we have to, but because we want to. +We follow those who lead, not for them, but for ourselves. +And it's those who start with "why" that have the ability to inspire those around them or find others who inspire them. +Thank you very much. +I've been playing TED for nearly a decade, and I've very rarely played any new songs of my own. +And that was largely because there weren't any. +So I've been busy with a couple of projects, and one of them was this: The Nutmeg. +A 1930s ship's lifeboat, which I've been restoring in the garden of my beach house in England. +And, so now, when the polar ice caps melt, my recording studio will rise up like an ark, and I'll float off into the drowned world like a character from a J.G. Ballard novel. +During the day, the Nutmeg collects energy from solar panels on the roof of the wheelhouse, and from a 450 watt turbine up the mast. +So that when it gets dark, I've got plenty of power. +And I can light up the Nutmeg like a beacon. +And so I go in there until the early hours of the morning, and I work on new songs. +I'd like to play to you guys, if you're willing to be the first audience to hear it. +It's about Billie Holiday. +And it appears that, some night in 1947 she left her physical space and was missing all night, until she reappeared in the morning. +But I know where she was. +She was with me on my lifeboat. +And she was hot. +I'm an ecologist, mostly a coral reef ecologist. +I started out in Chesapeake Bay and went diving in the winter and became a tropical ecologist overnight. +And it was really a lot of fun for about 10 years. +I mean, somebody pays you to go around and travel and look at some of the most beautiful places on the planet. +And that was what I did. +And I ended up in Jamaica, in the West Indies, where the coral reefs were really among the most extraordinary, structurally, that I ever saw in my life. +And this picture here, it's really interesting, it shows two things: First of all, it's in black and white because the water was so clear and you could see so far, and film was so slow in the 1960s and early 70s, you took pictures in black and white. +The other thing it shows you is that, although there's this beautiful forest of coral, there are no fish in that picture. +Those reefs at Discovery Bay, Jamaica were the most studied coral reefs in the world for 20 years. +We were the best and the brightest. +People came to study our reefs from Australia, which is sort of funny because now we go to theirs. +And the view of scientists about how coral reefs work, how they ought to be, was based on these reefs without any fish. +Then, in 1980, there was a hurricane, Hurricane Allen. +I put half the lab up in my house. +The wind blew very strong. +The waves were 25 to 50 feet high. +And the reefs disappeared, and new islands formed, and we thought, "Well, we're real smart. +We know that hurricanes have always happened in the past." +And we published a paper in Science, the first time that anybody ever described the destruction on a coral reef by a major hurricane. +And we predicted what would happen, and we got it all wrong. +And the reason was because of overfishing, and the fact that a last common grazer, a sea urchin, died. +And within a few months after that sea urchin dying, the seaweed started to grow. +And that is the same reef; that's the same reef 15 years ago; that's the same reef today. +The coral reefs of the north coast of Jamaica have a few percent live coral cover and a lot of seaweed and slime. +And that's more or less the story of the coral reefs of the Caribbean, and increasingly, tragically, the coral reefs worldwide. +Now, that's my little, depressing story. +All of us in our 60s and 70s have comparable depressing stories. +There are tens of thousands of those stories out there, and it's really hard to conjure up much of a sense of well-being, because it just keeps getting worse. +And the reason it keeps getting worse is that after a natural catastrophe, like a hurricane, it used to be that there was some kind of successional sequence of recovery, but what's going on now is that overfishing and pollution and climate change are all interacting in a way that prevents that. +And so I'm going to sort of go through and talk about those three kinds of things. +We hear a lot about the collapse of cod. +It's difficult to imagine that two, or some historians would say three world wars were fought during the colonial era for the control of cod. +Cod fed most of the people of Western Europe. +It fed the slaves brought to the Antilles, the song "Jamaica Farewell" -- "Ackee rice salt fish are nice" -- is an emblem of the importance of salt cod from northeastern Canada. +It all collapsed in the 80s and the 90s: 35,000 people lost their jobs. +And that was the beginning of a kind of serial depletion from bigger and tastier species to smaller and not-so-tasty species, from species that were near to home to species that were all around the world, and what have you. +It's a little hard to understand that, because you can go to a Costco in the United States and buy cheap fish. +You ought to read the label to find out where it came from, but it's still cheap, and everybody thinks it's okay. +It's hard to communicate this, and one way that I think is really interesting is to talk about sport fish, because people like to go out and catch fish. +It's one of those things. +Well, that's what it's like now, but this is what it was like in the 1950s from the same boat in the same place on the same board on the same dock. +The trophy fish were so big that you couldn't put any of those small fish up on it. +And the average size trophy fish weighed 250 to 300 pounds, goliath grouper, and if you wanted to go out and kill something, you could pretty much count on being able to catch one of those fish. +And they tasted really good. +And people paid less in 1950 dollars to catch that than what people pay now to catch those little, tiny fish. +And that's everywhere. +It's not just the fish, though, that are disappearing. +Industrial fishing uses big stuff, big machinery. +We use nets that are 20 miles long. +We use longlines that have one million or two million hooks. +And we trawl, which means to take something the size of a tractor trailer truck that weighs thousands and thousands of pounds, put it on a big chain, and drag it across the sea floor to stir up the bottom and catch the fish. +Think of it as being kind of the bulldozing of a city or of a forest, because it clears it away. +And the habitat destruction is unbelievable. +This is a photograph, a typical photograph, of what the continental shelves of the world look like. +You can see the rows in the bottom, the way you can see the rows in a field that has just been plowed to plant corn. +What that was, was a forest of sponges and coral, which is a critical habitat for the development of fish. +What it is now is mud, and the area of the ocean floor that has been transformed from forest to level mud, to parking lot, is equivalent to the entire area of all the forests that have ever been cut down on all of the earth in the history of humanity. +We've managed to do that in the last 100 to 150 years. +We tend to think of oil spills and mercury and we hear a lot about plastic these days. +And all of that stuff is really disgusting, but what's really insidious is the biological pollution that happens because of the magnitude of the shifts that it causes to entire ecosystems. +And I'm going to just talk very briefly about two kinds of biological pollution: one is introduced species and the other is what comes from nutrients. +So this is the infamous Caulerpa taxifolia, the so-called killer algae. +A book was written about it. +It's a bit of an embarrassment. +It was accidentally released from the aquarium in Monaco, it was bred to be cold tolerant to have in peoples aquaria. +It's very pretty, and it has rapidly started to overgrow the once very rich biodiversity of the northwestern Mediterranean. +I don't know how many of you remember the movie "The Little Shop of Horrors," but this is the plant of "The Little Shop of Horrors." +But, instead of devouring the people in the shop, what it's doing is overgrowing and smothering virtually all of the bottom-dwelling life of the entire northwestern Mediterranean Sea. +We don't know anything that eats it, we're trying to do all sorts of genetics and figure out something that could be done, but, as it stands, it's the monster from hell, about which nobody knows what to do. +Now another form of pollution that's biological pollution is what happens from excess nutrients. +The green revolution, all of this artificial nitrogen fertilizer, we use too much of it. +It's subsidized, which is one of the reasons we used too much of it. +It runs down the rivers, and it feeds the plankton, the little microscopic plant cells in the coastal water. +But since we ate all the oysters and we ate all the fish that would eat the plankton, there's nothing to eat the plankton and there's more and more of it, so it dies of old age, which is unheard of for plankton. +And when it dies, it falls to the bottom and then it rots, which means that bacteria break it down. +And in the process they use up all the oxygen, and in using up all the oxygen they make the environment utterly lethal for anything that can't swim away. +So, what we end up with is a microbial zoo dominated by bacteria and jellyfish, as you see on the left in front of you. +And the only fishery left -- and it is a commercial fishery -- is the jellyfish fishery you see on the right, where there used to be prawns. +Even in Newfoundland where we used to catch cod, we now have a jellyfish fishery. +And another version of this sort of thing is what is often called red tides or toxic blooms. +That picture on the left is just staggering to me. +I have talked about it a million times, but it's unbelievable. +In the upper right of that picture on the left is almost the Mississippi Delta, and the lower left of that picture is the Texas-Mexico border. +You're looking at the entire northwestern Gulf of Mexico; you're looking at one toxic dinoflagellate bloom that can kill fish, made by that beautiful little creature on the lower right. +And in the upper right you see this black sort of cloud moving ashore. +That's the same species. +And as it comes to shore and the wind blows, and little droplets of the water get into the air, the emergency rooms of all the hospitals fill up with people with acute respiratory distress. +And that's retirement homes on the west coast of Florida. +A friend and I did this thing in Hollywood we called Hollywood ocean night, and I was trying to figure out how to explain to actors what's going on. +And I said, "So, imagine you're in a movie called 'Escape from Malibu' because all the beautiful people have moved to North Dakota, where it's clean and safe. +And the only people who are left there are the people who can't afford to move away from the coast, because the coast, instead of being paradise, is harmful to your health." +And then this is amazing. +It was when I was on holiday last early autumn in France. +This is from the coast of Brittany, which is being enveloped in this green, algal slime. +The reason that it attracted so much attention, besides the fact that it's disgusting, is that sea birds flying over it are asphyxiated by the smell and die, and a farmer died of it, and you can imagine the scandal that happened. +And so there's this war between the farmers and the fishermen about it all, and the net result is that the beaches of Brittany have to be bulldozed of this stuff on a regular basis. +And then, of course, there's climate change, and we all know about climate change. +I guess the iconic figure of it is the melting of the ice in the Arctic Sea. +Think about the thousands and thousands of people who died trying to find the Northwest Passage. +Well, the Northwest Passage is already there. +I think it's sort of funny; it's on the Siberian coast, maybe the Russians will charge tolls. +The governments of the world are taking this really seriously. +The military of the Arctic nations is taking it really seriously. +For all the denial of climate change by government leaders, the CIA and the navies of Norway and the U.S. and Canada, whatever are busily thinking about how they will secure their territory in this inevitability from their point of view. +And, of course, Arctic communities are toast. +The other kinds of effects of climate change -- this is coral bleaching. It's a beautiful picture, right? +All that white coral. +Except it's supposed to be brown. +What happens is that the corals are a symbiosis, and they have these little algal cells that live inside them. +And the algae give the corals sugar, and the corals give the algae nutrients and protection. +But when it gets too hot, the algae can't make the sugar. +The corals say, "You cheated. You didn't pay your rent." +They kick them out, and then they die. +Not all of them die; some of them survive, some more are surviving, but it's really bad news. +To try and give you a sense of this, imagine you go camping in July somewhere in Europe or in North America, and you wake up the next morning, and you look around you, and you see that 80 percent of the trees, as far as you can see, have dropped their leaves and are standing there naked. +And you come home, and you discover that 80 percent of all the trees in North America and in Europe have dropped their leaves. +And then you read in the paper a few weeks later, "Oh, by the way, a quarter of those died." +Well, that's what happened in the Indian Ocean during the 1998 El Nino, an area vastly greater than the size of North America and Europe, when 80 percent of all the corals bleached and a quarter of them died. +And then the really scary thing about all of this -- the overfishing, the pollution and the climate change -- is that each thing doesn't happen in a vacuum. +But there are these, what we call, positive feedbacks, the synergies among them that make the whole vastly greater than the sum of the parts. +And the great scientific challenge for people like me in thinking about all this, is do we know how to put Humpty Dumpty back together again? +I mean, because we, at this point, we can protect it. +But what does that mean? +We really don't know. +So what are the oceans going to be like in 20 or 50 years? +Well, there won't be any fish except for minnows, and the water will be pretty dirty, and all those kinds of things and full of mercury, etc., etc. +And dead zones will get bigger and bigger and they'll start to merge, and we can imagine something like the dead-zonification of the global, coastal ocean. +Then you sure won't want to eat fish that were raised in it, because it would be a kind of gastronomic Russian roulette. +Sometimes you have a toxic bloom; sometimes you don't. +That doesn't sell. +The really scary things though are the physical, chemical, oceanographic things that are happening. +As the surface of the ocean gets warmer, the water is lighter when it's warmer, it becomes harder and harder to turn the ocean over. +We say it becomes more strongly stratified. +The consequence of that is that all those nutrients that fuel the great anchoveta fisheries, of the sardines of California or in Peru or whatever, those slow down and those fisheries collapse. +And, at the same time, water from the surface, which is rich in oxygen, doesn't make it down and the ocean turns into a desert. +So the question is: How are we all going to respond to this? +And we can do all sorts of things to fix it, but in the final analysis, the thing we really need to fix is ourselves. +It's not about the fish; it's not about the pollution; it's not about the climate change. +It's about us and our greed and our need for growth and our inability to imagine a world that is different from the selfish world we live in today. +So the question is: Will we respond to this or not? +I would say that the future of life and the dignity of human beings depends on our doing that. +Thank you. +I bring to you a message from tens of thousands of people -- in the villages, in the slums, in the hinterland of the country -- who have solved problems through their own genius, without any outside help. +When our home minister announces a few weeks ago a war on one third of India, about 200 districts that he mentioned were ungovernable, he missed the point. +The point that we have been stressing for the last 21 years, the point that people may be economically poor, but they're not poor in the mind. +In other words, the minds on the margin are not the marginal minds. +That is the message, which we started 31 years ago. +And what did it start? +Let me just tell you, briefly, my personal journey, which led me to come to this point. +In '85, '86, I was in Bangladesh advising the government and the research council there how to help scientists work on the lands, on the fields of the poor people, and how to develop research technologies, which are based on the knowledge of the people. +I came back in '86. +I had been tremendously invigorated by the knowledge and creativity that I found in that country, which had 60 percent landlessness but amazing creativity. +I started looking at my own work: The work that I had done for the previous 10 years, almost every time, had instances of knowledge that people had shared. +Now, I was paid in dollars as a consultant, and I looked at my income tax return and tried to ask myself: "Is there a line in my return, which shows how much of this income has gone to the people whose knowledge has made it possible? +Was it because I'm brilliant that I'm getting this reward, or because of the revolution? +Is it that I write very well? +Is it that I articulate very well? +Is it that I analyze the data very well? +Is it because I'm a professor, and, therefore, I must be entitled to this reward from society?" +I tried to convince myself that, "No, no, I have worked for the policy changes. +You know, the public policy will become more responsive to the needs of the poor, and, therefore I think it's okay." +So much so, that much of my work till that time was in the English language. +The majority of the people from whom I learned didn't know English. +So what kind of a contributor was I? +I was talking about social justice, and here I was, a professional who was pursuing the most unjust act -- of taking knowledge from the people, making them anonymous, getting rent from that knowledge by sharing it and doing consultancy, writing papers and publishing them in the papers, getting invited to the conferences, getting consultancies and whatever have you. +So then, a dilemma rose in the mind that, if I'm also an exploiter, then this is not right; life cannot go on like that. +And this was a moment of great pain and trauma because I couldn't live with it any longer. +So I did a review of ethical dilemma and value conflicts and management research, wrote, read about 100 papers. +And I came to the conclusion that while dilemma is unique, dilemma is not unique; the solution had to be unique. +And one day -- I don't know what happened -- while coming back from the office towards home, maybe I saw a honey bee or it occurred to my mind that if I only could be like the honey bee, life would be wonderful. +What the honey bee does: it pollinates, takes nectar from the flower, pollinates another flower, cross-pollinates. +And when it takes the nectar, the flowers don't feel shortchanged. +In fact, they invite the honey bees through their colors, and the bees don't keep all the honey for themselves. +These are the three guiding principles of the Honey Bee Network: that whenever we learn something from people it must be shared with them in their language. +They must not remain anonymous. +And I must tell you that after 20 years, I have not made one percent of change in the professional practice of this art. +That is a great tragedy -- which I'm carrying still with me and I hope that all of you will carry this with you -- that the profession still legitimizes publication of knowledge of people without attributing them by making them anonymous. +The research guidelines of U.S. National Academy of Sciences or Research Councils of the U.K. +or of Indian Councils of Science Research do not require that whatever you learn from people, you must share back with them. +We are talking about an accountable society, a society that is fair and just, and we don't even do justice in the knowledge market. +And India wants to be a knowledge society. +How will it be a knowledge society? +So, obviously, you cannot have two principles of justice, one for yourself and one for others. +It must be the same. +You cannot discriminate. +You cannot be in favor of your own values, which are at a distance from the values that you espouse. +So, fairness to one and to the other is not divisible. +Look at this picture. +Can you tell me where has it been taken from, and what is it meant for? Anybody? +I'm a professor; I must quiz you. Anybody? Any guess at all? +Pardon? (Audience Member: Rajasthan.) Anil Gupta: But what has it been used for? What has it been used for? +Pardon? +You know, you're so right. We must give him a hand, because this man knows how insensitive our government is. +Look at this. This is the site of the government of India. +It invites tourists to see the shame of our country. +I'm so sorry to say that. +Is this a beautiful picture or is it a terrible picture? +It depends upon how you look at the life of the people. +If this woman has to carry water on her head for miles and miles and miles, you cannot be celebrating that. +We should be doing something about it. +And let me tell you, with all the science and technology at our command, millions of women still carry water on their heads. +And we do not ask this question. +You must have taken tea in the morning. +Think for a minute. +The leaves of the tea, plucked from the bushes; you know what the action is? The action is: The lady picks up a few leaves, puts them in the basket on the backside. +Just do it 10 times; you will realize the pain in this shoulder. +And she does it a few thousand times every day. +The rice that you ate in the lunch, and you will eat today, is transplanted by women bending in a very awkward posture, millions of them, every season, in the paddy season, when they transplant paddy with their feet in the water. +And feet in the water will develop fungus, infections, and that infection pains because then other insects bite that point. +And every year, 99.9 percent of the paddy is transplanted manually. +No machines have been developed. +So the silence of scientists, of technologists, of public policy makers, of the change agent, drew our attention that this is not on, this is not on; this is not the way society will work. +This is not what our parliament would do. You know, we have a program for employment: One hundred, 250 million people have to be given jobs for 100 days by this great country. +Doing what? Breaking stones, digging earth. +So we asked a question to the parliament: Do poor have heads? +Do poor have legs, mouth and hands, but no head? +So Honey Bee Network builds upon the resource in which poor people are rich. +And what has happened? +An anonymous, faceless, nameless person gets in contact with the network, and then gets an identity. +This is what Honey Bee Network is about. +And this network grew voluntarily, continues to be voluntary, and has tried to map the minds of millions of people of our country and other parts of the world who are creative. +They could be creative in terms of education, they may be creative in terms of culture, they may be creative in terms of institutions; but a lot of our work is in the field of technological creativity, the innovations, either in terms of contemporary innovations, or in terms of traditional knowledge. +And it all begins with curiosity. +It all begins with curiosity. +This person, whom we met -- and you will see it on the website, www.sristi.org -- this tribal person, he had a wish. +And he said, "If my wish gets fulfilled" -- somebody was sick and he had to monitor -- "God, please cure him. +And if you cure him, I will get my wall painted." +And this is what he got painted. +Somebody was talking yesterday about Maslowian hierarchy. +There could be nothing more wrong than the Maslowian model of hierarchy of needs because the poorest people in this country can get enlightenment. +Kabir, Rahim, all the great Sufi saints, they were all poor people, and they had a great reason. Please do not ever think that only after meeting your physiological needs and other needs can you be thinking about your spiritual needs or your enlightenment. +Any person anywhere is capable of rising to that highest point of attainment, only by the resolve that they have in their mind that they must achieve something. +Look at this. +We saw it in Shodh Yatra. Every six months we walk in different parts of the country. +I've walked about 4,000 kilometers in the last 12 years. +So on the wayside we found these dung cakes, which are used as a fuel. +Now, this lady, on the wall of the dung cake heap, has made a painting. +That's the only space she could express her creativity. +And she's so marvelous. +Look at this lady, Ram Timari Devi, on a grain bin. In Champaran, we had a Shodh Yatra and we were walking in the land where Gandhiji went to hear about the tragedy, pain of indigo growers. +Bhabi Mahato in Purulia and Bankura. +Look at what she has done. +The whole wall is her canvas. She's sitting there with a broom. +Is she an artisan or an artist? +Obviously she's an artist; she's a creative person. +If we can create markets for these artists, we will not have to employ them for digging earth and breaking stones. +They will be paid for what they are good at, not what they're bad at. +Look at what Rojadeen has done. +In Motihari in Champaran, there are a lot of people who sell tea on the shack and, obviously, there's a limited market for tea. +Every morning you have tea, as well as coffee. +So he thought, why don't I convert a pressure cooker into a coffee machine? +So this is a coffee machine. Just takes a few hundred rupees. +People bring their own cooker, he attaches a valve and a steam pipe, and now he gives you espresso coffee. Now, this is a real, affordable coffee percolator that works on gas. +Look at what Sheikh Jahangir has done. +A lot of poor people do not have enough grains to get ground. +So this fellow is bringing a flour-grinding machine on a two-wheeler. +If you have 500 grams, 1000, one kilogram, he will grind it for it for you; the flourmill will not grind such a small quantity. +Please understand the problem of poor people. +They have needs which have to be met efficiently in terms of energy, in terms of cost, in terms of quality. +They don't want second-standard, second-quality outputs. +But to be able to give them high-quality output you need to adapt technology to their needs. +And that is what Sheikh Jahangir did. +But that's not enough, what he did. Look at what he did here. +If you have clothes, and you don't have enough time to wash them, he brought a washing machine to your doorstep, mounted on a two-wheeler. +So here's a model where a two-wheeler washing machine ... +He is washing your clothes and drying them at your doorstep. +You bring your water, you bring your soap, I wash the clothes for you. Charge 50 paisa, one rupee for you per lot, and a new business model can emerge. +Now, what we need is, we need people who will be able to scale them up. +Look at this. +It looks like a beautiful photograph. +But you know what it is? Can anybody guess what it is? +Somebody from India would know, of course. +It's a tawa. +It's a hot plate made of clay. +Now, what is the beauty in it? +When you have a non-stick pan, it costs about, maybe, 250 rupees, five dollars, six dollars. +This is less than a dollar and this is non-stick; it is coated with one of these food-grade materials. +And the best part is that, while you use a costly non-stick pan, you eat the so-called Teflon or Teflon-like material because after some time the stuff disappears. Where has it gone? +It has gone in your stomach. It was not meant for that. You know? But here in this clay hot plate, it will never go into your stomach. +So it is better, it is safer; it is affordable, it is energy-efficient. +In other words, solutions by the poor people need not be cheaper, need not be, so-called, jugaad, need not be some kind of makeshift arrangement. +They have to be better, they have to be more efficient, they have to be affordable. +And that is what Mansukh Bhai Prajapati has done. +He has designed this plate with a handle. +And now with one dollar, you can afford a better alternative than the people market is offering you. +This lady, she developed a herbal pesticide formulation. +We filed the patent for her, the National Innovation Foundation. +And who knows? Somebody will license this technology and develop marketable products, and she would get revenue. +Now, let me mention one thing: I think we need a polycentric model of development, where a large number of initiatives in different parts of the country, in different parts of the world, would solve the needs of locality in a very efficient and adaptive manner. +Higher the local fit, greater is the chance of scaling up. +In the scaling up, there's an inherent inadequacy to match the needs of the local people, point by point, with the supply that you're making. +So why are people willing to adjust with that mismatch? +Things can scale up, and they have scaled up. +For example, cell phones: We have 400 million cellphones in this country. +Now, it is possible that I use only two buttons on the cellphone, only three options on the cellphone. +It has 300 options, I'm paying for 300; I'm using only three but I'm willing to live with it, therefore it is scaling up. +But if I had to get a match to match, obviously, I would need a different design of a cellphone. +So what we're saying is that scalability should not become an enemy of sustainability. +There must be a place in the world for solutions that are only relevant for a locality, and yet, one can be able to fund them. +So either you sub-optimize your needs to a larger scale or else you remain out. +Now, the eminent model, the long-tail model tells you that small sales of a large number of books, for example, having only a few copies sold can still be a viable model. +And we must find a mechanism where people will pool in the portfolio, will invest in the portfolio, where different innovations will go to a small number of people in their localities, and yet, the overall platform of the model will become viable. +Look at what he is doing. +Saidullah Sahib is an amazing man. +At the age of 70, he is linking up something very creative. +Saidullah Sahib: I couldn't wait for the boat. +I had to meet my love. +My desperation made me an innovator. +Even love needs help from technology. +Innovation is the light of my wife, Noor. +New inventions are the passion of my life. +My technology. +AG: Saidulluh Sahib is in Motihari, again in Champaran. +Wonderful human being, but he stills sells, at this age, honey on a cycle to earn his livelihood, because we haven't been able to convince the water park people, the lake people, in [unclear] operations. +So we have not yet cracked the problem of making it available as a rescue device, as a vending device during the floods in eastern India, when you have to deliver things to people in different islands where they're marooned. +But the idea has a merit. The idea has a merit. +What has Appachan done? Appachan, unfortunately, is no more, but he has left behind a message. +A very powerful message Appachan: I watch the world wake up every day. +It's not that a coconut fell on my head, and I came upon this idea. +With no money to fund my studies, I scaled new heights. +Now, they call me the local Spiderman. +My technology. +AG: Many of you might not realize and believe that we have sold this product internationally -- what I call a G2G model, grassroots to global. +And a professor in the University of Massachusetts, in the zoology department, bought this climber because she wanted to study the insect diversity of the top of the tree canopy. +And this device makes it possible for her to take samples from a larger number of palms, rather than only a few, because otherwise she had to make a big platform and then climb her [unclear] would climb on that. +So, you know, we are advancing the frontiers of science. +Remya Jose has developed ... +you can go to the YouTube and find India Innovates and then you will find these videos. +Innovation by her when she was in class 10th: a washing machine-cum-exercising machine. +Mr. Kharai who is a physically challenged person, one and a half foot height, only. +But he has modified a two-wheeler so that he can get autonomy and freedom and flexibility. +This innovation is from the slums of Rio. +And this person, Mr. Ubirajara. +We were talking about, my friends in Brazil, how we scale up this model in China and Brazil. +And we have a very vibrant network in China, particularly, but also emerging in Brazil and other parts of the world. +This stand on the front wheel, you will not find on any cycle. +India and China have the largest number of cycles. +But this innovation emerged in Brazil. +The point is, none of us should be parochial, none of us should be so nationalistic to believe that all good ideas will come only from our country. +No, we have to have the humility to learn from knowledge of economically poor people, wherever they are. +And look at this whole range of cycle-based innovations: cycle that's a sprayer, cycle that generates energy from the shocks on the road. +I can't change the condition of the road, but I can make the cycle run faster. +That is what Kanak Das has done. +And in South Africa, we had taken our innovators, and many of us had gone there share with the colleagues in South Africa as to how innovation can become a means of liberation from the drudgery that people have. +And this is a donkey cart which they modified. +There's an axle here, of 30, 40 kg, serving no purpose. +Remove it, the cart needs one donkey less. +This is in China. This girl needed a breathing apparatus. +These three people in the village sat down and decided to think, "How do we elongate the life of this girl of our village?" +They were not related to her, but they tried to find out, "How can we use ... " They used a cycle, they put together a breathing apparatus. +And this breathing apparatus now saved the life, and she's very welcome. +There's a whole range of innovations that we have. +A car, which runs on compressed air with six paisa per kilometer. +Assam, Kanak Gogoi. +And you would not find this car in U.S. or Europe, but this is available in India. +Now, this lady, she used to do the winding of the yarn for Pochampally Saree. +In one day, 18,000 times, she had to do this winding to generate two sarees. +This is what her son has done after seven years of struggle. +She said, "Change your profession." +He said, "I can't. This is the only thing I know, but I'll invent a machine, which will solve your problem." +And this is what he did, a sewing machine in Uttar Pradesh. +So, this is what SRISTI is saying: "Give me a place to stand, and I will move the world." +I will just tell you that we are also doing a competition among children for creativity, a whole range of things. +We have sold things all over the world, from Ethiopia to Turkey to U.S. to wherever. +Products have gone to the market, a few. +These are the people whose knowledge made this Herbavate cream for eczema possible. +And here, a company which licensed this herbal pesticide put a photograph of the innovator on the packing so that every time a user uses it, it asks the user, "You can also be an innovator. +If you have an idea, send it back to us." +So, creativity counts, knowledge matters, innovations transform, incentives inspire. +And incentives: not just material, but also non-material incentives. +Thank you. +For me, this story begins about 15 years ago, when I was a hospice doctor at the University of Chicago. +And I was taking care of people who were dying and their families in the South Side of Chicago. +And I was observing what happened to people and their families over the course of their terminal illness. +And in my lab, I was studying the widower effect, which is a very old idea in the social sciences, going back 150 years, known as "dying of a broken heart." +So, when I die, my wife's risk of death can double, for instance, in the first year. +And I had gone to take care of one particular patient, a woman who was dying of dementia. +And in this case, unlike this couple, she was being cared for by her daughter. +And the daughter was exhausted from caring for her mother. +And the daughter's husband, he also was sick from his wife's exhaustion. +And I was driving home one day, and I get a phone call from the husband's friend, calling me because he was depressed about what was happening to his friend. +So here I get this call from this random guy that's having an experience that's being influenced by people at some social distance. +And so I suddenly realized two very simple things: First, the widowhood effect was not restricted to husbands and wives. +And second, it was not restricted to pairs of people. +And I started to see the world in a whole new way, like pairs of people connected to each other. +And then I realized that these individuals would be connected into foursomes with other pairs of people nearby. +And then, in fact, these people were embedded in other sorts of relationships: marriage and spousal and friendship and other sorts of ties. +And that, in fact, these connections were vast and that we were all embedded in this broad set of connections with each other. +So I started to see the world in a completely new way and I became obsessed with this. +I became obsessed with how it might be that we're embedded in these social networks, and how they affect our lives. +So, social networks are these intricate things of beauty, and they're so elaborate and so complex and so ubiquitous, in fact, that one has to ask what purpose they serve. +Why are we embedded in social networks? +I mean, how do they form? How do they operate? +And how do they effect us? +So my first topic with respect to this, was not death, but obesity. +It had become trendy to speak about the "obesity epidemic." +And, along with my collaborator, James Fowler, we began to wonder whether obesity really was epidemic and could it spread from person to person like the four people I discussed earlier. +So this is a slide of some of our initial results. +It's 2,200 people in the year 2000. +Every dot is a person. We make the dot size proportional to people's body size; so bigger dots are bigger people. +In addition, if your body size, if your BMI, your body mass index, is above 30 -- if you're clinically obese -- we also colored the dots yellow. +So, if you look at this image, right away you might be able to see that there are clusters of obese and non-obese people in the image. +But the visual complexity is still very high. +It's not obvious exactly what's going on. +In addition, some questions are immediately raised: How much clustering is there? +Is there more clustering than would be due to chance alone? +How big are the clusters? How far do they reach? +And, most importantly, what causes the clusters? +So we did some mathematics to study the size of these clusters. +This here shows, on the Y-axis, the increase in the probability that a person is obese given that a social contact of theirs is obese and, on the X-axis, the degrees of separation between the two people. +On the far left, you see the purple line. +It says that, if your friends are obese, your risk of obesity is 45 percent higher. +And the next bar over, the [red] line, says if your friend's friends are obese, your risk of obesity is 25 percent higher. +And then the next line over says if your friend's friend's friend, someone you probably don't even know, is obese, your risk of obesity is 10 percent higher. +And it's only when you get to your friend's friend's friend's friends that there's no longer a relationship between that person's body size and your own body size. +Well, what might be causing this clustering? +There are at least three possibilities: One possibility is that, as I gain weight, it causes you to gain weight. +A kind of induction, a kind of spread from person to person. +Another possibility, very obvious, is homophily, or, birds of a feather flock together; here, I form my tie to you because you and I share a similar body size. +And the last possibility is what is known as confounding, because it confounds our ability to figure out what's going on. +And here, the idea is not that my weight gain is causing your weight gain, nor that I preferentially form a tie with you because you and I share the same body size, but rather that we share a common exposure to something, like a health club that makes us both lose weight at the same time. +When we studied these data, we found evidence for all of these things, including for induction. +And we found that if your friend becomes obese, it increases your risk of obesity by about 57 percent in the same given time period. +There can be many mechanisms for this effect: One possibility is that your friends say to you something like -- you know, they adopt a behavior that spreads to you -- like, they say, "Let's go have muffins and beer," which is a terrible combination. But you adopt that combination, and then you start gaining weight like them. +Another more subtle possibility is that they start gaining weight, and it changes your ideas of what an acceptable body size is. +Here, what's spreading from person to person is not a behavior, but rather a norm: An idea is spreading. +Now, headline writers had a field day with our studies. +I think the headline in The New York Times was, "Are you packing it on? +Blame your fat friends." What was interesting to us is that the European headline writers had a different take: They said, "Are your friends gaining weight? Perhaps you are to blame." +And we thought this was a very interesting comment on America, and a kind of self-serving, "not my responsibility" kind of phenomenon. +Now, I want to be very clear: We do not think our work should or could justify prejudice against people of one or another body size at all. +Our next questions was: Could we actually visualize this spread? +Was weight gain in one person actually spreading to weight gain in another person? +And this was complicated because we needed to take into account the fact that the network structure, the architecture of the ties, was changing across time. +In addition, because obesity is not a unicentric epidemic, there's not a Patient Zero of the obesity epidemic -- if we find that guy, there was a spread of obesity out from him -- it's a multicentric epidemic. +Lots of people are doing things at the same time. +And I'm about to show you a 30 second video animation that took me and James five years of our lives to do. +So, again, every dot is a person. +Every tie between them is a relationship. +We're going to put this into motion now, taking daily cuts through the network for about 30 years. +The dot sizes are going to grow, you're going to see a sea of yellow take over. +You're going to see people be born and die -- dots will appear and disappear -- ties will form and break, marriages and divorces, friendings and defriendings. +A lot of complexity, a lot is happening just in this 30-year period that includes the obesity epidemic. +And, by the end, you're going to see clusters of obese and non-obese individuals within the network. +And so, I came to see these kinds of social networks as living things, as living things that we could put under a kind of microscope to study and analyze and understand. +And we used a variety of techniques to do this. +And we started exploring all kinds of other phenomena. +We looked at smoking and drinking behavior, and voting behavior, and divorce -- which can spread -- and altruism. +And, eventually, we became interested in emotions. +Now, when we have emotions, we show them. +Why do we show our emotions? +I mean, there would be an advantage to experiencing our emotions inside, you know, anger or happiness. +But we don't just experience them, we show them. +And not only do we show them, but others can read them. +And, not only can they read them, but they copy them. +There's emotional contagion that takes place in human populations. +And so this function of emotions suggests that, in addition to any other purpose they serve, they're a kind of primitive form of communication. +And that, in fact, if we really want to understand human emotions, we need to think about them in this way. +Now, we're accustomed to thinking about emotions in this way, in simple, sort of, brief periods of time. +So, for example, I was giving this talk recently in New York City, and I said, "You know when you're on the subway and the other person across the subway car smiles at you, and you just instinctively smile back?" +And they looked at me and said, "We don't do that in New York City." And I said, "Everywhere else in the world, that's normal human behavior." +And so there's a very instinctive way in which we briefly transmit emotions to each other. +And, in fact, emotional contagion can be broader still. +Like we could have punctuated expressions of anger, as in riots. +The question that we wanted to ask was: Could emotion spread, in a more sustained way than riots, across time and involve large numbers of people, not just this pair of individuals smiling at each other in the subway car? +Maybe there's a kind of below the surface, quiet riot that animates us all the time. +Maybe there are emotional stampedes that ripple through social networks. +Maybe, in fact, emotions have a collective existence, not just an individual existence. +And this is one of the first images we made to study this phenomenon. +Again, a social network, but now we color the people yellow if they're happy and blue if they're sad and green in between. +And if you look at this image, you can right away see clusters of happy and unhappy people, again, spreading to three degrees of separation. +And you might form the intuition that the unhappy people occupy a different structural location within the network. +There's a middle and an edge to this network, and the unhappy people seem to be located at the edges. +So to invoke another metaphor, if you imagine social networks as a kind of vast fabric of humanity -- I'm connected to you and you to her, on out endlessly into the distance -- this fabric is actually like an old-fashioned American quilt, and it has patches on it: happy and unhappy patches. +And whether you become happy or not depends in part on whether you occupy a happy patch. +So, this work with emotions, which are so fundamental, then got us to thinking about: Maybe the fundamental causes of human social networks are somehow encoded in our genes. +Because human social networks, whenever they are mapped, always kind of look like this: the picture of the network. +But they never look like this. +Why do they not look like this? +Why don't we form human social networks that look like a regular lattice? +Well, the striking patterns of human social networks, their ubiquity and their apparent purpose beg questions about whether we evolved to have human social networks in the first place, and whether we evolved to form networks with a particular structure. +And notice first of all -- so, to understand this, though, we need to dissect network structure a little bit first -- and notice that every person in this network has exactly the same structural location as every other person. +But that's not the case with real networks. +So, for example, here is a real network of college students at an elite northeastern university. +And now I'm highlighting a few dots. +If you look here at the dots, compare node B in the upper left to node D in the far right; B has four friends coming out from him and D has six friends coming out from him. +And so, those two individuals have different numbers of friends. +That's very obvious, we all know that. +But certain other aspects of social network structure are not so obvious. +Compare node B in the upper left to node A in the lower left. +Now, those people both have four friends, but A's friends all know each other, and B's friends do not. +So the friend of a friend of A's is, back again, a friend of A's, whereas the friend of a friend of B's is not a friend of B's, but is farther away in the network. +This is known as transitivity in networks. +And, finally, compare nodes C and D: C and D both have six friends. +If you talk to them, and you said, "What is your social life like?" +they would say, "I've got six friends. +That's my social experience." +But now we, with a bird's eye view looking at this network, can see that they occupy very different social worlds. +And I can cultivate that intuition in you by just asking you: Who would you rather be if a deadly germ was spreading through the network? +Would you rather be C or D? +You'd rather be D, on the edge of the network. +And now who would you rather be if a juicy piece of gossip -- not about you -- was spreading through the network? Now, you would rather be C. +So different structural locations have different implications for your life. +And, in fact, when we did some experiments looking at this, what we found is that 46 percent of the variation in how many friends you have is explained by your genes. +And this is not surprising. We know that some people are born shy and some are born gregarious. That's obvious. +But we also found some non-obvious things. +For instance, 47 percent in the variation in whether your friends know each other is attributable to your genes. +Whether your friends know each other has not just to do with their genes, but with yours. +And we think the reason for this is that some people like to introduce their friends to each other -- you know who you are -- and others of you keep them apart and don't introduce your friends to each other. +And so some people knit together the networks around them, creating a kind of dense web of ties in which they're comfortably embedded. +And finally, we even found that 30 percent of the variation in whether or not people are in the middle or on the edge of the network can also be attributed to their genes. +So whether you find yourself in the middle or on the edge is also partially heritable. +Now, what is the point of this? +How does this help us understand? +How does this help us figure out some of the problems that are affecting us these days? +Well, the argument I'd like to make is that networks have value. +They are a kind of social capital. +New properties emerge because of our embeddedness in social networks, and these properties inhere in the structure of the networks, not just in the individuals within them. +So think about these two common objects. +They're both made of carbon, and yet one of them has carbon atoms in it that are arranged in one particular way -- on the left -- and you get graphite, which is soft and dark. +But if you take the same carbon atoms and interconnect them a different way, you get diamond, which is clear and hard. +And those properties of softness and hardness and darkness and clearness do not reside in the carbon atoms; they reside in the interconnections between the carbon atoms, or at least arise because of the interconnections between the carbon atoms. +So, similarly, the pattern of connections among people confers upon the groups of people different properties. +It is the ties between people that makes the whole greater than the sum of its parts. +And so it is not just what's happening to these people -- whether they're losing weight or gaining weight, or becoming rich or becoming poor, or becoming happy or not becoming happy -- that affects us; it's also the actual architecture of the ties around us. +Our experience of the world depends on the actual structure of the networks in which we're residing and on all the kinds of things that ripple and flow through the network. +Now, the reason, I think, that this is the case is that human beings assemble themselves and form a kind of superorganism. +Now, a superorganism is a collection of individuals which show or evince behaviors or phenomena that are not reducible to the study of individuals and that must be understood by reference to, and by studying, the collective. +Superorganisms have properties that cannot be understood just by studying the individuals. +Now, look at this. +I think we form social networks because the benefits of a connected life outweigh the costs. +If I was always violent towards you or gave you misinformation or made you sad or infected you with deadly germs, you would cut the ties to me, and the network would disintegrate. +So the spread of good and valuable things is required to sustain and nourish social networks. +Similarly, social networks are required for the spread of good and valuable things, like love and kindness and happiness and altruism and ideas. +I think, in fact, that if we realized how valuable social networks are, we'd spend a lot more time nourishing them and sustaining them, because I think social networks are fundamentally related to goodness. +And what I think the world needs now is more connections. +Thank you. +We invent. +My company invents all kinds of new technology in lots of different areas. +And we do that for a couple of reasons. +We invent for fun -- invention is a lot of fun to do -- and we also invent for profit. +The two are related because the profit actually takes long enough that if it isn't fun, you wouldn't have the time to do it. +Bill Gates is one of those smartest guys of ours that work on these problems and he also funds this work, so thank you. +So I'm going to briefly discuss a couple of problems that we have and a couple of problems where we've got some solutions underway. +Vaccination is one of the key techniques in public health, a fantastic thing. +But in the developing world a lot of vaccines spoil before they're administered, and that's because they need to be kept cold. +Almost all vaccines need to be kept at refrigerator temperatures. +They go bad very quickly if you don't, and if you don't have stable power grid, this doesn't happen, so kids die. +It's not just the loss of the vaccine that matters; it's the fact that those kids don't get vaccinated. +This is one of the ways that vaccines are carried: These are Styrofoam chests. These are being carried by people, but they're also put on the backs of pickup trucks. +We've got a different solution. +Now, one of these Styrofoam chests will last for about four hours with ice in it. +And we thought, well, that's not really good enough. +So we made this thing. +This lasts six months with no power; absolutely zero power, because it loses less than a half a watt. +Now, this is our second generations prototype. +The third generation prototype is, right now, in Uganda being tested. +Now, the reason we were able to come up with this One is that this is similar to a cryogenic Dewar, something you'd keep liquid nitrogen or liquid helium in. +They have incredible insulation, so let's put some incredible insulation here. +The other idea is kind of interesting, which is, you can't reach inside anymore. +Because if you open it up and reach inside, you'd let the heat in, the game would be over. +So the inside of this thing actually looks like a Coke machine. +It vends out little individual vials. +So a simple idea, which we hope is going to change the way vaccines are distributed in Africa and around the world. +We'll move on to malaria. +Malaria is one of the great public health problems. +Esther Duflo talked a little bit about this. +Two hundred million people a year. +Every 43 seconds a child in Africa dies; 27 will die during my talk. +And there's no way for us here in this country to grasp really what that means to the people involved. +Another comment of Esther's was that we react when there's a tragedy like Haiti, but that tragedy is ongoing. +So what can we do about it? +Well, there are a lot of things people have tried for many years for solving malaria. +You can spray; the problem is there are environmental issues. +You can try to treat people and create awareness. +That's great, except the places that have malaria really bad, they don't have health care systems. +A vaccine would be a terrific thing, only they don't work yet. +People have tried for a long time. There are a couple of interesting candidates. +It's a very difficult thing to make a vaccine for. +You can distribute bed nets, and bed nets are very effective if you use them. +You don't always use them for that. People fish with them. +They don't always get to everyone. +And bed nets have an effect on the epidemic, but you're never going to make it extinct with bed nets. +Now, malaria is an incredibly complicated disease. +We could spend hours going over this. +It's got this sort of soap opera-like lifestyle; they have sex, they burrow into your liver, they tunnel into your blood cells ... +it's an incredibly complicated disease, but that's actually one of the things we find interesting about it and why we work on malaria: There's a lot of potential ways in. +One of those ways might be better diagnosis. +So we hope this year to prototype each of these devices. +One does an automatic malaria diagnosis in the same way that a diabetic's glucose meter works: You take a drop of blood, you put it in there and it automatically tells you. +Today, you need to do a complicated laboratory procedure, create a bunch of microscope slides and have a trained person examine it. +The other thing is, you know, it would be even better if you didn't have to draw the blood. +And if you look through the eye, or you look at the vessels on the white of the eye, in fact, you may be able to do this directly, without drawing any blood at all, or through your nail beds. +Because if you actually look through your fingernails, you can see blood vessels, and once you see blood vessels, we think we can see the malaria. +We can see it because of this molecule called hemozoin. +It's produced by the malaria parasite and it's a very interesting crystalline substance. +Interesting, anyway, if you're a solid-state physicist. +There's a lot of cool stuff we can do with it. +This is our femtosecond laser lab. +So this creates pulses of light that last a femtosecond. +That's really, really, really short. +This is a pulse of light that's only about one wavelength of light long, so it's a whole bunch of photons all coming and hitting simultaneously. +It creates a very high peak power and it lets you do all kinds of interesting things; in particular, it lets you find hemozoin. +So here's an image of red blood cells, and now we can actually map where the hemozoin and where the malaria parasites are inside those red blood cells. +And using both this technique and other optical techniques, we think we can make those diagnostics. +We also have another hemozoin-oriented therapy for malaria: a way, in acute cases, to actually take the malaria parasite and filter it out of the blood system. +Sort of like doing dialysis, but for relieving the parasite load. +This is our thousand-core supercomputer. +We're kind of software guys, and so nearly any problem that you pose, we like to try to solve with some software. +One of the problems that you have if you're trying to eradicate malaria or reduce it is you don't know what's the most effective thing to do. +Okay, we heard about bed nets earlier. +You spend a certain amount per bed net. +Or you could spray. +You can give drug administration. +There's all these different interventions but they have different kinds of effectiveness. +How can you tell? +So we've created, using our supercomputer, the world's best computer model of malaria, which we'll show you now. +We picked Madagascar. +We have every road, every village, every, almost, square inch of Madagascar. +We have all of the precipitation data and the temperature data. +That's very important because the humidity and precipitation tell you whether you've got standing pools of water for the mosquitoes to breed. +So that sets the stage on which you do this. +You then have to introduce the mosquitoes, and you have to model that and how they come and go. +Ultimately, it gives you this. +This is malaria spreading across Madagascar. +And this is this latter part of the rainy season. +We're going to the dry season now. +It nearly goes away in the dry season, because there's no place for the mosquitoes to breed. +And then, of course, the next year it comes roaring back. +By doing these kinds of simulations, we want to eradicate or control malaria thousands of times in software before we actually have to do it in real life; to be able to simulate both the economic trade-offs -- how many bed nets versus how much spraying? -- or the social trade-offs -- what happens if unrest breaks out? +We also try to study our foe. +This is a high-speed camera view of a mosquito. +And, in a moment, we're going to see a view of the airflow. +Here, we're trying to visualize the airflow around the wings of the mosquito with little particles we're illuminating with a laser. +By understanding how mosquitoes fly, we hope to understand how to make them not fly. +Now, one of the ways you can make them not fly is with DDT. +This is a real ad. +This is one of those things you just can't make up. +Once upon a time, this was the primary technique, and, in fact, many countries got rid of malaria through DDT. +The United States did. +In 1935, there were 150,000 cases a year of malaria in the United States, but DDT and a massive public health effort managed to squelch it. +So we thought, "Well, we've done all these things that are focused on the Plasmodium, the parasite involved. +What can we do to the mosquito? +Well, let's try to kill it with consumer electronics." +Now, that sounds silly, but each of these devices has something interesting in it that maybe you could use. +Your Blu-ray player has a very cheap blue laser. +Your laser printer has a mirror galvanometer that's used to steer a laser beam very accurately; that's what makes those little dots on the page. +And, of course, there's signal processing and digital cameras. +So what if we could put all that together to shoot them out of the sky with lasers? +Now, in our company, this is what we call "the pinky-suck moment." +What if we could do that? +Now, just suspend disbelief for a moment, and let's think of what could happen if we could do that. +Well, we could protect very high-value targets like clinics. +Clinics are full of people that have malaria. +They're sick, and so they're less able to defend themselves from the mosquitoes. +You really want to protect them. +Of course, if you do that, you could also protect your backyard. +And farmers could protect their crops that they want to sell to Whole Foods because our photons are 100 percent organic. They're completely natural. +Now, it actually gets better than this. +You could, if you're really smart, you could shine a nonlethal laser on the bug before you zap it, and you could listen to the wing beat frequency and you could measure the size. +And then you could decide: "Is this an insect I want to kill, or an insect I don't want to kill?" +Moore's law made computing cheap; so cheap we can weigh the life of an individual insect and decide thumbs up or thumbs down. Now, it turns out we only kill the female mosquitoes. +They're the only ones that are dangerous. +Mosquitoes only drink blood to lay eggs. +Mosquitoes actually live ... their day-to-day nutrition comes from nectar, from flowers -- in fact, in the lab, we feed ours raisins -- but the female needs the blood meal. +So, this sounds really crazy, right? +Would you like to see it? +Audience: Yeah! +Nathan Myhrvold: Okay, so our legal department prepared a disclaimer, and here it is. +Now, after thinking about this a little bit we thought, you know, it probably would be simpler to do this with a nonlethal laser. +So, Eric Johanson, who built the device, actually, with parts from eBay; and Pablos Holman over here, he's got mosquitoes in the tank. +We have the device over here. +And we're going to show you, instead of the kill laser, which will be a very brief, instantaneous pulse, we're going to have a green laser pointer that's going to stay on the mosquito for, actually, quite a long period of time; otherwise, you can't see it very well. +Take it away Eric. +Eric Johanson: What we have here is a tank on the other side of the stage. +And we have ... this computer screen can actually see the mosquitoes as they fly around. +And Pablos, if he stirs up our mosquitoes a little bit we can see them flying around. +Now, that's a fairly straightforward image processing routine, and let me show you how it works. +Here you can see that the insects are being tracked as they're flying around, which is kind of fun. +Next we can actually light them up with a laser. Now, this is a low powered laser, and we can actually pick up a wing-beat frequency. +So you may be able to hear some mosquitoes flying around. +NM: That's a mosquito wing beat you're hearing. +EJ: Finally, let's see what this looks like. +There you can see mosquitoes as they fly around, being lit up. +This is slowed way down so that you have an opportunity to see what's happening. +Here we have it running at high-speed mode. +So this system that was built for TED is here to illustrate that it is technically possible to actually deploy a system like this, and we're looking very hard at how to make it highly cost-effective to use in places like Africa and other parts of the world. +NM: So it wouldn't be any fun to show you that without showing you what actually happens when we hit 'em. +This is very satisfying. +This is one of the first ones we did. +The energy's a little bit high here. +We'll loop around here in just a second, and you'll see another one. +Here's another one. Bang. +An interesting thing is, we kill them all the time; we've never actually gotten the wings to shut off in midair. +The wing motor is very resilient. +I mean, here we're blowing wings off but the wing motor keeps all the way down. +So, that's what I have. Thanks very much. +I'm going to tell you two things today: One is what we have lost, and two, a way to bring it back. +And let me start with this. +This is my baseline: This is the Mediterranean coast with no fish, bare rock and lots of sea urchins that like to eat the algae. +Something like this is what I first saw when I jumped in the water for the first time in the Mediterranean coast off Spain. +Now, if an alien came to earth -- let's call him Joe -- what would Joe see? +If Joe jumped in a coral reef, there are many things the alien could see. +Very unlikely, Joe would jump on a pristine coral reef, a virgin coral reef with lots of coral, sharks, crocodiles, manatees, groupers, turtles, etc. +So, probably, what Joe would see would be in this part, in the greenish part of the picture. +Here we have the extreme with dead corals, microbial soup and jellyfish. +And where the diver is, this is probably where most of the reefs of the world are now, with very few corals, algae overgrowing the corals, lots of bacteria, and where the large animals are gone. +And this is what most marine scientists have seen too. +This is their baseline. This is what they think is natural because we started modern science with scuba diving long after we started degrading marine ecosystems. +So I'm going to get us all on a time machine, and we're going to the left; we're going to go back to the past to see what the ocean was like. +And let's start with this time machine, the Line Islands, where we have conducted a series of National Geographic expeditions. +This sea is an archipelago belonging to Kiribati that spans across the equator and it has several uninhabited, unfished, pristine islands and a few inhabited islands. +So let's start with the first one: Christmas Island, over 5,000 people. +Most of the reefs are dead, most of the corals are dead -- overgrown by algae -- and most of the fish are smaller than the pencils we use to count them. +We did 250 hours of diving here in 2005. +We didn't see a single shark. +This is the place that Captain Cook discovered in 1777 and he described a huge abundance of sharks biting the rudders and the oars of their small boats while they were going ashore. +Let's move the dial a little bit to the past. +Fanning Island, 2,500 people. +The corals are doing better here. Lots of small fish. +This is what many divers would consider paradise. +This is where you can see most of the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary. +And many people think this is really, really beautiful, if this is your baseline. +If we go back to a place like Palmyra Atoll, where I was with Jeremy Jackson a few years ago, the corals are doing better and there are sharks. +You can see sharks in every single dive. +And this is something that is very unusual in today's coral reefs. +But then, if we shift the dial 200, 500 years back, then we get to the places where the corals are absolutely healthy and gorgeous, forming spectacular structures, and where the predators are the most conspicuous thing, where you see between 25 and 50 sharks per dive. +What have we learned from these places? +This is what we thought was natural. +This is what we call the biomass pyramid. +If we get all of the fish of a coral reef together and weigh them, this is what we would expect. +Most of the biomass is low on the food chain, the herbivores, the parrotfish, the surgeonfish that eat the algae. +Then the plankton feeders, these little damselfish, the little animals floating in the water. +And then we have a lower biomass of carnivores, and a lower biomass of top head, or the sharks, the large snappers, the large groupers. +But this is a consequence. +This view of the world is a consequence of having studied degraded reefs. +When we went to pristine reefs, we realized that the natural world was upside down; this pyramid was inverted. +The top head does account for most of the biomass, in some places up to 85 percent, like Kingman Reef, which is now protected. +The good news is that, in addition to having more predators, there's more of everything. +The size of these boxes is bigger. +We have more sharks, more biomass of snappers, more biomass of herbivores, too, like these parrot fish that are like marine goats. +They clean the reef; everything that grows enough to be seen, they eat, and they keep the reef clean and allow the corals to replenish. +Not only do these places -- these ancient, pristine places -- have lots of fish, but they also have other important components of the ecosystem like the giant clams; pavements of giant clams in the lagoons, up to 20, 25 per square meter. +These have disappeared from every inhabited reef in the world, and they filter the water; they keep the water clean from microbes and pathogens. +But still, now we have global warming. +If we don't have fishing because these reefs are protected by law or their remoteness, this is great. +But the water gets warmer for too long and the corals die. +So how are these fish, these predators going to help? +Well, what we have seen is that in this particular area during El Nino, year '97, '98, the water was too warm for too long, and many corals bleached and many died. +In Christmas, where the food web is really trimmed down, where the large animals are gone, the corals have not recovered. +In Fanning Island, the corals are not recovered. +But you see here a big table coral that died and collapsed. +And the fish have grazed the algae, so the turf of algae is a little lower. +Then you go to Palmyra Atoll that has more biomass of herbivores, and the dead corals are clean, and the corals are coming back. +And when you go to the pristine side, did this ever bleach? +These places bleached too, but they recovered faster. +The more intact, the more complete, [and] the more complex your food web, the higher the resilience, [and] the more likely that the system is going to recover from the short-term impacts of warming events. +And that's good news, so we need to recover that structure. +We need to make sure that all of the pieces of the ecosystem are there so the ecosystem can adapt to the effects of global warming. +So if we have to reset the baseline, if we have to push the ecosystem back to the left, how can we do it? +Well, there are several ways. +One very clear way is the marine protected areas, especially no-take reserves that we set aside to allow for the recovery for marine life. +And let me go back to that image of the Mediterranean. +This was my baseline. This is what I saw when I was a kid. +And at the same time I was watching Jacques Cousteau's shows on TV, with all this richness and abundance and diversity. +And I thought that this richness belonged to tropical seas, and that the Mediterranean was a naturally poor sea. +But, little did I know, until I jumped for the first time in a marine reserve. +And this is what I saw, lots of fish. +After a few years, between five and seven years, fish come back, they eat the urchins, and then the algae grow again. +So you have this little algal forest, and in the size of a laptop you can find more than 100 species of algae, mostly microscopic fit hundreds of species of little animals that then feed the fish, so that the system recovers. +And this particular place, the Medes Islands Marine Reserve, is only 94 hectares, and it brings 6 million euros to the local economy, 20 times more than fishing, and it represents 88 percent of all the tourist revenue. +So these places not only help the ecosystem but also help the people who can benefit from the ecosystem. +So let me just give you a summary of what no-take reserves do. +These places, when we protect them, if we compare them to unprotected areas nearby, this is what happens. +The number of species increases 21 percent; so if you have 1,000 species you would expect 200 more in a marine reserve. +This is very substantial. +The size of organisms increases a third, so your fish are now this big. +The abundance, how many fish you have per square meter, increases almost 170 percent. +And the biomass -- this is the most spectacular change -- 4.5 times greater biomass on average, just after five to seven years. +In some places up to 10 times larger biomass inside the reserves. +So we have all these things inside the reserve that grow, and what do they do? +They reproduce. That's population biology 101. +If you don't kill the fish, they take a longer time to die, they grow larger and they reproduce a lot. +And same thing for invertebrates. This is the example. +These are egg cases laid by a snail off the coast of Chile, and this is how many eggs they lay on the bottom. +Outside the reserve, you cannot even detect this. +One point three million eggs per square meter inside the marine reserve where these snails are very abundant. +So these organisms reproduce, the little larvae juveniles spill over, they all spill over, and then people can benefit from them outside too. +This is in the Bahamas: Nassau grouper. +Huge abundance of groupers inside the reserve, and the closer you get to the reserve, the more fish you have. +So the fishermen are catching more. +You can see where the limits of the reserve are because you see the boats lined up. +So there is spill over; there are benefits beyond the boundaries of these reserves that help people around them, while at the same time the reserve is protecting the entire habitat. It is building resilience. +So what we have now -- or a world without reserves -- is like a debit account where we withdraw all the time and we never make any deposit. +Reserves are like savings accounts. +We have this principal that we don't touch; that produces returns, social, economic and ecological. +And if we think about the increase of biomass inside the reserves, this is like compound interest. +Two examples, again, of how these reserves can benefit people. +This is how much fishermen get everyday in Kenya, fishing over a series of years, in a place where there is no protection; it's a free-for-all. +Once the most degrading fishing gear, seine nets, were removed, the fishermen were catching more. +If you fish less, you're actually catching more. +But if we add the no-take reserve on top of that, the fishermen are still making more money by fishing less around an area that is protected. +Another example: Nassau groupers in Belize in the Mesoamerican Reef. +This is grouper sex, and the groupers aggregate around the full moons of December and January for a week. +They used to aggregate up to the tens of thousands, 30,000 groupers about this big in one hectare, in one aggregation. +Fishermen knew about these things; they caught them, and they depleted them. +When I went there for the first time in 2000, there were only 3,000 groupers left. +And the fishermen were authorized to catch 30 percent of the entire spawning population every year. +So we did a simple analysis, and it doesn't take rocket science to figure out that, if you take 30 percent every year, your fishery is going to collapse very quickly. +And with the fishery, the entire reproductive ability of the species goes extinct. +It happened in many places around the Caribbean. +And they would make 4,000 dollars per year, total, for the entire fishery, several fishing boats. +Now, if you do an economic analysis and project what would happen if the fish were not cut, if we brought just 20 divers one month per year, the revenue would be more than 20 times higher and that would be sustainable over time. +So how much of this do we have? +If this is so good, if this is such a no-brainer, how much of this do we have? +And you already heard that less than one percent of the ocean's protected. +We're getting closer to one percent now, thanks to the protections of the Chagos Archipelago, and only a fraction of this is fully protected from fishing. +Scientific studies recommend that at least 20 percent of the ocean should be protected. +The estimated range is between 20 and 50 percent for a series of goals of biodiversity and fishery enhancement and resilience. +Now, is this possible? People would ask: How much would that cost? +Well, let's think about how much we are paying now to subsidize fishing: 35 billion dollars per year. +Many of these subsidies go to destructive fishing practices. +Well, there are a couple estimates of how much it would cost to create a network of protected areas covering 20 percent of the ocean that would be only a fraction of what we are now paying; the government hands out to a fishery that is collapsing. +People are losing their jobs because the fisheries are collapsing. +A creation of a network of reserves would provide direct employment for more than a million people plus all the secondary jobs and all the secondary benefits. +So how can we do that? +If it's so clear that these savings accounts are good for the environment and for people, why don't we have 20, 50 percent of the ocean? +And how can we reach that goal? +Well, there are two ways of getting there. +The trivial solution is to create really large protected areas like the Chagos Archipelago. +The problem is that we can create these large reserves only in places where there are no people, where there is no social conflict, where the political cost is really low and the economic cost is also low. +And a few of us, a few organizations in this room and elsewhere are working on this. +But what about the rest of the coast of the world, where people live and make a living out of fishing? +Well, there are three main reasons why we don't have tens of thousands of small reserves: The first one is that people have no idea what marine reserves do, and fishermen tend to be really, really defensive when it comes to regulating or closing an area, even if it's small. +Second, the governance is not right because most coastal communities around the world don't have the authority to monitor the resources to create the reserve and enforce it. +It's a top down hierarchical structure where people wait for government agents to come and this is not effective. And the government doesn't have enough resources. +Which takes us to the third reason, why we don't have many more reserves, is that the funding models have been wrong. +NGOs and governments spend a lot of time and energy and resources in a few small areas, usually. +So marine conservation and coastal protection has become a sink for government or philanthropic money, and this is not sustainable. +So the solutions are just fixing these three issues. +First, we need to develop a global awareness campaign to inspire local communities and governments to create no-take reserves that are better than what we have now. +It's the savings accounts versus the debit accounts with no deposits. +Second, we need to redesign our governance so conservation efforts can be decentralized, so conservation efforts don't depend on work from NGOs or from government agencies and can be created by the local communities, like it happens in the Philippines and a few other places. +And third, and very important, we need to develop new business models. +The philanthropy sink as the only way to create reserves is not sustainable. +We really need to develop models, business models, where coastal conservation is an investment, because we already know that these marine reserves provide social, ecological and economic benefits. +And I'd like to finish with one thought, which is that no one organization alone is going to save the ocean. +There has been a lot of competition in the past, and we need to develop a new model of partnership, truly collaborative, where we are looking for complementing, not substituting. +The stakes are just too high to continue the way we are going. +So let's do that. Thank you very much. +Chris Anderson: Thank you Enric. +Enric Sala: Thank you. +CA: That was a masterful job of pulling things together. +First of all, your pyramid, your inverted pyramid, showing 85 percent biomass in the predators, that seems impossible. +How could 85 percent survive on 15 percent? +ES: Well, imagine that you have two gears of a watch, a big one and a small one. +The big one is moving very slowly, and the small one is moving fast. +That's basically it. +The animals at the lower parts of the food chain, they reproduce very fast; they grow really fast; they produce millions of eggs. +Up there, you have sharks and large fish that live 25, 30 years. +They reproduce very slowly; they have a slow metabolism; and, basically, they just maintain their biomass. +So, basically, the production surplus of these guys down there is enough to maintain this biomass that is not moving. +They are like capacitors of the system. +CA: That's very fascinating. +So, really, our picture of a food pyramid is just -- we have to change that completely. +ES: At least in the seas. +What we found in coral reefs is that the inverted pyramid is the equivalent of the Serengeti, with five lions per wildebeest. +And on land, this cannot work. +But at least on coral reefs are systems where there is a bottom component with structure. +We think this is universal. +But we have started studying pristine reefs only very recently. +CA: So the numbers you presented really are astonishing. +You're saying we're spending 35 billion dollars now on subsidies. +It would only cost 16 billion to set up 20 percent of the ocean as marine protected areas that actually give new living choices to the fishermen as well. +If the world was a smarter place, we could solve this problem for negative 19 billion dollars. +We've got 19 billion to spend on health care or something. +ES: And then we have the under-performance of fisheries that is 50 billion dollars. +So again, one of the big solutions is have the World Trade Organization shifting the subsidies to sustainable practices. +CA: Okay, so there's a lot of examples that I'm hearing out there about ending this subsidies madness. +So thank you for those numbers. +The last one's a personal question. +A lot of the experience of people here who've been in the oceans for a long time has just been seeing this degradation, the places they saw that were beautiful getting worse, depressing. +Talk to me about the feeling that you must have experienced of going to these pristine areas and seeing things coming back. +ES: It is a spiritual experience. +We go there to try to understand the ecosystems, to try to measure or count fish and sharks and see how these places are different from the places we know. +But the best feeling is this biophilia that E.O. Wilson talks about, where humans have this sense of awe and wonder in front of untamed nature, of raw nature. +And there, only there, you really feel that you are part of a larger thing or of a larger global ecosystem. +And if it were not for these places that show hope, I don't think I could continue doing this job. +It would be just too depressing. +CA: Well, Enric, thank you so much for sharing some of that spiritual experience with us all. Thank you. +ES: Thank you very much. +Can I ask you to please recall a time when you really loved something -- a movie, an album, a song or a book -- and you recommended it wholeheartedly to someone you also really liked, and you anticipated that reaction, you waited for it, and it came back, and the person hated it? +So, by way of introduction, that is the exact same state in which I spent every working day of the last six years. I teach high school math. +I sell a product to a market that doesn't want it, but is forced by law to buy it. +I mean, it's just a losing proposition. +So there's a useful stereotype about students that I see, a useful stereotype about you all. +I could give you guys an algebra-two final exam, and I would expect no higher than a 25 percent pass rate. +And both of these facts say less about you or my students than they do about what we call math education in the U.S. today. +To start with, I'd like to break math down into two categories. +One is computation; this is the stuff you've forgotten. +For example, factoring quadratics with leading coefficients greater than one. +This stuff is also really easy to relearn, provided you have a really strong grounding in reasoning. Math reasoning -- we'll call it the application of math processes to the world around us -- this is hard to teach. +This is what we would love students to retain, even if they don't go into mathematical fields. +This is also something that, the way we teach it in the U.S. +all but ensures they won't retain it. +So, I'd like to talk about why that is, why that's such a calamity for society, what we can do about it and, to close with, why this is an amazing time to be a math teacher. +So first, five symptoms that you're doing math reasoning wrong in your classroom. +One is a lack of initiative; your students don't self-start. +You finish your lecture block and immediately you have five hands going up asking you to re-explain the entire thing at their desks. +Students lack perseverance. +They lack retention; you find yourself re-explaining concepts three months later, wholesale. +There's an aversion to word problems, which describes 99 percent of my students. +And then the other one percent is eagerly looking for the formula to apply in that situation. +This is really destructive. +David Milch, creator of "Deadwood" and other amazing TV shows, has a really good description for this. +He swore off creating contemporary drama, shows set in the present day, because he saw that when people fill their mind with four hours a day of, for example, "Two and a Half Men," no disrespect, it shapes the neural pathways, he said, in such a way that they expect simple problems. +He called it, "an impatience with irresolution." +You're impatient with things that don't resolve quickly. +You expect sitcom-sized problems that wrap up in 22 minutes, three commercial breaks and a laugh track. +And I'll put it to all of you, what you already know, that no problem worth solving is that simple. +I am very concerned about this because I'm going to retire in a world that my students will run. +I'm doing bad things to my own future and well-being when I teach this way. +I'm here to tell you that the way our textbooks -- particularly mass-adopted textbooks -- teach math reasoning and patient problem solving, it's functionally equivalent to turning on "Two and a Half Men" and calling it a day. +In all seriousness. Here's an example from a physics textbook. +It applies equally to math. +Notice, first of all here, that you have exactly three pieces of information there, each of which will figure into a formula somewhere, eventually, which the student will then compute. +I believe in real life. +And ask yourself, what problem have you solved, ever, that was worth solving where you knew all of the given information in advance; where you didn't have a surplus of information and you had to filter it out, or you didn't have sufficient information and had to go find some. +I'm sure we all agree that no problem worth solving is like that. +And the textbook, I think, knows how it's hamstringing students because, watch this, this is the practice problem set. +When it comes time to do the actual problem set, we have problems like this right here where we're just swapping out numbers and tweaking the context a little bit. +And if the student still doesn't recognize the stamp this was molded from, it helpfully explains to you what sample problem you can return to to find the formula. +You could literally, I mean this, pass this particular unit without knowing any physics, just knowing how to decode a textbook. That's a shame. +So I can diagnose the problem a little more specifically in math. +Here's a really cool problem. I like this. +It's about defining steepness and slope using a ski lift. +But what you have here is actually four separate layers, and I'm curious which of you can see the four separate layers and, particularly, how when they're compressed together and presented to the student all at once, how that creates this impatient problem solving. +I'll define them here: You have the visual. +You also have the mathematical structure, talking about grids, measurements, labels, points, axes, that sort of thing. +You have substeps, which all lead to what we really want to talk about: which section is the steepest. +So I hope you can see. +I really hope you can see how what we're doing here is taking a compelling question, a compelling answer, but we're paving a smooth, straight path from one to the other and congratulating our students for how well they can step over the small cracks in the way. +That's all we're doing here. +So I want to put to you that if we can separate these in a different way and build them up with students, we can have everything we're looking for in terms of patient problem solving. +So right here I start with the visual, and I immediately ask the question: Which section is the steepest? +And this starts conversation because the visual is created in such a way where you can defend two answers. +So you get people arguing against each other, friend versus friend, in pairs, journaling, whatever. +And then eventually we realize it's getting annoying to talk about the skier in the lower left-hand side of the screen or the skier just above the mid line. +And we realize how great would it be if we just had some A, B, C and D labels to talk about them more easily. +And then as we start to define what does steepness mean, we realize it would be nice to have some measurements to really narrow it down, specifically what that means. +And then and only then, we throw down that mathematical structure. +The math serves the conversation, the conversation doesn't serve the math. +And at that point, I'll put it to you that nine out of 10 classes are good to go on the whole slope, steepness thing. +But if you need to, your students can then develop those substeps together. +Do you guys see how this, right here, compared to that -- which one creates that patient problem solving, that math reasoning? +It's been obvious in my practice, to me. +And I'll yield the floor here for a second to Einstein, who, I believe, has paid his dues. +He talked about the formulation of a problem being so incredibly important, and yet in my practice, in the U.S. here, we just give problems to students; we don't involve them in the formulation of the problem. +So 90 percent of what I do with my five hours of prep time per week is to take fairly compelling elements of problems like this from my textbook and rebuild them in a way that supports math reasoning and patient problem solving. +And here's how it works. +I like this question. It's about a water tank. +The question is: How long will it take you to fill it up? +First things first, we eliminate all the substeps. +Students have to develop those, they have to formulate those. +And then notice that all the information written on there is stuff you'll need. +None of it's a distractor, so we lose that. +Students need to decide, "All right, well, does the height matter? Does the side of it matter? +Does the color of the valve matter? What matters here?" +Such an underrepresented question in math curriculum. +So now we have a water tank. +How long will it take you to fill it up? And that's it. +And because this is the 21st century and we would love to talk about the real world on its own terms, not in terms of line art or clip art that you so often see in textbooks, we go out and we take a picture of it. +So now we have the real deal. +How long will it take it to fill it up? +And then even better is we take a video, a video of someone filling it up. +And it's filling up slowly, agonizingly slowly. +It's tedious. +Students are looking at their watches, rolling their eyes, and they're all wondering at some point or another, "Man, how long is it going to take to fill up?" +That's how you know you've baited the hook, right? +And that question, off this right here, is really fun for me because, like the intro, I teach kids -- because of my inexperience -- I teach the kids that are the most remedial, all right? +And I've got kids who will not join a conversation about math because someone else has the formula; someone else knows how to work the formula better than me, so I won't talk about it. +But here, every student is on a level playing field of intuition. +Everyone's filled something up with water before, so I get kids answering the question, "How long will it take?" +I've got kids who are mathematically and conversationally intimidated joining the conversation. +We put names on the board, attach them to guesses, and kids have bought in here. +And then we follow the process I've described. +And the best part here, or one of the better parts is that we don't get our answer from the answer key in the back of the teacher's edition. +We, instead, just watch the end of the movie. +And that's terrifying, because the theoretical models that always work out in the answer key in the back of a teacher's edition, that's great, but it's scary to talk about sources of error when the theoretical does not match up with the practical. +But those conversations have been so valuable, among the most valuable. +So I'm here to report some really fun games with students who come pre-installed with these viruses day one of the class. +These are the kids who now, one semester in, I can put something on the board, totally new, totally foreign, and they'll have a conversation about it for three or four minutes more than they would have at the start of the year, which is just so fun. +We're no longer averse to word problems, because we've redefined what a word problem is. +We're no longer intimidated by math, because we're slowly redefining what math is. +This has been a lot of fun. +And why this is an amazing time to be a math teacher right now is because we have the tools to create this high-quality curriculum in our front pocket. +It's ubiquitous and fairly cheap, and the tools to distribute it freely under open licenses has also never been cheaper or more ubiquitous. +I put a video series on my blog not so long ago and it got 6,000 views in two weeks. +I get emails still from teachers in countries I've never visited saying, "Wow, yeah. We had a good conversation about that. +Oh, and by the way, here's how I made your stuff better," which, wow. +I put this problem on my blog recently: In a grocery store, which line do you get into, the one that has one cart and 19 items or the line with four carts and three, five, two and one items. +And the linear modeling involved in that was some good stuff for my classroom, but it eventually got me on "Good Morning America" a few weeks later, which is just bizarre, right? +And from all of this, I can only conclude that people, not just students, are really hungry for this. +Math makes sense of the world. +Math is the vocabulary for your own intuition. +So I just really encourage you, whatever your stake is in education -- whether you're a student, parent, teacher, policy maker, whatever -- insist on better math curriculum. +We need more patient problem solvers. Thank you. +I have a daughter, Mulan. +And when she was eight, last year, she was doing a report for school or she had some homework about frogs. +And we were at this restaurant, and she said, "So, basically, frogs lay eggs and the eggs turn into tadpoles, and tadpoles turn into frogs." +And I said, "Yeah. You know, I'm not really up on my frog reproduction that much. +It's the females, I think, that lay the eggs, and then the males fertilize them. +And then they become tadpoles and frogs." +And she says, "What? Only the females have eggs?" +And I said, "Yeah." +And she goes, "And what's this fertilizing?" +So I kind of said, "Oh, it's this extra ingredient, you know, that you need to create a new frog from the mom and dad frog." And she said, "Oh, so is that true for humans too?" +And I thought, "Okay, here we go." +I didn't know it would happen so quick, at eight. +I was trying to remember all the guidebooks, and all I could remember was, "Only answer the question they're asking. +Don't give any more information." So I said, "Yes." +And she said, "And where do, um, where do human women, like, where do women lay their eggs?" +And I said, "Well, funny you should ask. We have evolved to have our own pond. +We have our very own pond inside our bodies. +And we lay our eggs there, we don't have to worry about other eggs or anything like that. +It's our own pond. And that's how it happens." +And she goes, "Then how do they get fertilized?" +And I said, "Well, Men, through their penis, they fertilize the eggs by the sperm coming out. +And you go through the woman's vagina." +And so we're just eating, and her jaw just drops, and she goes, "Mom! +Like, where you go to the bathroom?" +And I said, "I know. +I know." +That's how we evolved. It does seem odd. +It is a little bit like having a waste treatment plant right next to an amusement park ... +Bad zoning, but ..." She's like, "What?" And she goes, "But Mom, but men and women can't ever see each other naked, Mom. +So how could that ever happen?" +And then I go, "Well," and then I put my Margaret Mead hat on. +"Human males and females develop a special bond, and when they're much older, much, much older than you, and they have a very special feeling, then they can be naked together." +And she said, "Mom, have you done this before?" +And I said, "Yes." +And she said, "But Mom, you can't have kids." +Because she knows that I adopted her and that I can't have kids. +And I said, "Yes." +And she said, "Well, you don't have to do that again." +And I said, "..." +And then she said, "But how does it happen when a man and woman are together? +Like, how do they know that's the time? +Mom, does the man just say, 'Is now the time to take off my pants?'" And I said, "Yes." +"That is exactly right. +That's exactly how it happens." +So we're driving home and she's looking out the window, and she goes, "Mom. What if two just people saw each other on the street, like a man and a woman, they just started doing it. Would that ever happen?" +And I said, "Oh, no. Humans are so private. +Oh ..." +And then she goes, "What if there was like a party, and there was just like a whole bunch of girls and a whole bunch of boys, and there was a bunch of men and women and they just started doing it, Mom? +Would that ever happen?" +And I said, "Oh, no, no. +That's not how we do it." +Then we got home and we see the cat. And she goes, "Mom, how do cats do it?" +And I go, "Oh, it's the same. It's basically the same." +And then she got all caught up in the legs. "But how would the legs go, Mom? +I don't understand the legs." +She goes, "Mom, everyone can't do the splits." +And I go, "I know, but the legs ..." +and I'm probably like, "The legs get worked out." +And she goes, "But I just can't understand it." +So I go, "You know, why don't we go on the Internet, and maybe we can see ... like on Wikipedia." So we go online, and we put in "cats mating." +And, unfortunately, on YouTube, there's many cats mating videos. +And we watched them and I'm so thankful, because she's just like, "Wow! This is so amazing." +She goes, "What about dogs?" +So we put in dogs mating, and, you know, we're watching it, and she's totally absorbed. +And then she goes, "Mom, do you think they would have, on the Internet, any humans mating?" +And then I realized that I had taken my little eight year old's hand, and taken her right into Internet porn. And I looked into this trusting, loving face, and I said, "Oh, no. +That would never happen." +Thank you. +Thank you. +Thank you. I'm so happy to be here. +Good afternoon. +There's a medical revolution happening all around us, and it's one that's going to help us conquer some of society's most dreaded conditions, including cancer. +The revolution is called angiogenesis, and it's based on the process that our bodies use to grow blood vessels. +So why should we care about blood vessels? +Well, the human body is literally packed with them -- 60,000 miles worth in a typical adult. +End to end, that would form a line that would circle the earth twice. +The smallest blood vessels are called capillaries. +We've got 19 billion of them in our bodies. +And these are the vessels of life, and as I'll show you, they can also be the vessels of death. +Now, the remarkable thing about blood vessels is that they have this ability to adapt to whatever environment they're growing in. +For example, in the liver, they form channels to detoxify the blood; in the lungs, they line air sacs for gas exchange. +In muscle, they corkscrew, so that muscles can contract without cutting off circulation. +And in nerves, they course along like power lines, keeping those nerves alive. +We get most of these blood vessels when we're actually still in the womb. +And what that means is that as adults, blood vessels don't normally grow. +Except in a few special circumstances. +In women, blood vessels grow every month, to build the lining of the uterus. +During pregnancy, they form the placenta, which connects mom and baby. +And after injury, blood vessels actually have to grow under the scab in order to heal a wound. +And this is actually what it looks like, hundreds of blood vessels, all growing toward the center of the wound. +So the body has the ability to regulate the amount of blood vessels that are present at any given time. +It does this through an elaborate and elegant system of checks and balances, stimulators and inhibitors of angiogenesis, such that, when we need a brief burst of blood vessels, the body can do this by releasing stimulators, proteins called angiogenic factors, that act as natural fertilizer, and stimulate new blood vessels to sprout. +When those excess vessels are no longer needed, the body prunes them back to baseline, using naturally-occurring inhibitors of angiogenesis. +There are other situations where we start beneath the baseline, and we need to grow more blood vessels, just to get back to normal levels -- for example, after an injury -- and the body can do that too, but only to that normal level, that set point. +But what we now know, is that for a number of diseases, there are defects in the system, where the body can't prune back extra blood vessels, or can't grow enough new ones in the right place at the right time. +And in these situations, angiogenesis is out of balance. +And when angiogenesis is out of balance, a myriad of diseases result. +For example, insufficient angiogenesis -- not enough blood vessels -- leads to wounds that don't heal, heart attacks, legs without circulation, death from stroke, nerve damage. +And on the other end, excessive angiogenesis -- too many blood vessels -- drives disease, and we see this in cancer, blindness, arthritis, obesity, Alzheimer's disease. +In total, there are more than 70 major diseases affecting more than a billion people worldwide, that all look on the surface to be different from one another, but all actually share abnormal angiogenesis as their common denominator. +And this realization is allowing us to re-conceptualize the way that we actually approach these diseases, by controlling angiogenesis. +Now, I'm going to focus on cancer, because angiogenesis is a hallmark of cancer -- every type of cancer. +So here we go. +This is a tumor: dark, gray, ominous mass growing inside a brain. +And under the microscope, you can see hundreds of these brown-stained blood vessels, capillaries that are feeding cancer cells, bringing oxygen and nutrients. +But cancers don't start out like this, and in fact, cancers don't start out with a blood supply. +They start out as small, microscopic nests of cells, that can only grow to one half a cubic millimeter in size. +That's the tip of a ballpoint pen. +Then they can't get any larger because they don't have a blood supply, so they don't have enough oxygen or nutrients. +In fact, we're probably forming these microscopic cancers all the time in our body. +Autopsy studies from people who died in car accidents have shown that about 40 percent of women between the ages of 40 and 50 actually have microscopic cancers in their breasts. +About 50 percent of men in their 50s and 60s have microscopic prostate cancers, and virtually 100 percent of us, by the time we reach our 70s, will have microscopic cancers growing in our thyroid. +Yet, without a blood supply, most of these cancers will never become dangerous. +Dr. Judah Folkman, who was my mentor and who was the pioneer of the angiogenesis field, once called this "cancer without disease." +So the body's ability to balance angiogenesis, when it's working properly, prevents blood vessels from feeding cancers. +And this turns out to be one of our most important defense mechanisms against cancer. +In fact, if you actually block angiogenesis and prevent blood vessels from ever reaching cancer cells, tumors simply can't grow up. +But once angiogenesis occurs, cancers can grow exponentially. +And this is actually how a cancer goes from being harmless, to being deadly. +Cancer cells mutate, and they gain the ability to release lots of those angiogenic factors, natural fertilizer, that tip the balance in favor of blood vessels invading the cancer. +And once those vessels invade the cancer, it can expand, it can invade local tissues, and the same vessels that are feeding tumors allow cancer cells to exit into the circulation as metastases. +And unfortunately, this late stage of cancer is the one at which it's most likely to be diagnosed, when angiogenesis is already turned on, and cancer cells are growing like wild. +So, if angiogenesis is a tipping point between a harmless cancer and a harmful one, then one major part of the angiogenesis revolution is a new approach to treating cancer by cutting off the blood supply. +We call this antiangiogenic therapy, and it's completely different from chemotherapy, because it selectively aims at the blood vessels that are feeding the cancers. +We can do this because tumor blood vessels are unlike normal, healthy vessels we see in other places of the body -- they're abnormal, they're very poorly constructed, and because of that, they're highly vulnerable to treatments that target them. +In effect, when we give cancer patients antiangiogenic therapy -- here, an experimental drug for a glioma, which is a type of brain tumor -- you can see that there are dramatic changes that occur when the tumor is being starved. +Here's a woman with a breast cancer, being treated with the antiangiogenic drug called Avastin, which is FDA approved. +And you can see that the halo of blood flow disappears after treatment. +Well, I've just shown you two very different types of cancer that both responded to antiangiogenic therapy. +So a few years ago, I asked myself, "Can we take this one step further and treat other cancers, even in other species?" +So here is a nine year-old boxer named Milo, who had a very aggressive tumor called a malignant neurofibroma growing on his shoulder. +It invaded into his lungs. +His veterinarian only gave him three months to live. +So we created a cocktail of antiangiogenic drugs that could be mixed into his dog food, as well as an antiangiogenic cream, that could be applied on the surface of the tumor. +And within a few weeks of treatment, we were able to slow down that cancer's growth, such that we were ultimately able to extend Milos survival to six times what the veterinarian had initially predicted, all with a very good quality of life. +And we've subsequently treated more than 600 dogs. +We have about a 60 percent response rate, and improved survival for these pets that were about to be euthanized. +So let me show you a couple of even more interesting examples. +This is 20-year-old dolphin living in Florida, and she had these lesions in her mouth that, over the course of three years, developed into invasive squamous cell cancers. +So we created an antiangiogenic paste. +We had it painted on top of the cancer three times a week. +And over the course of seven months, the cancers completely disappeared, and the biopsies came back as normal. +Here's a cancer growing on the lip of a Quarter Horse named Guinness. +It's a very, very deadly type of cancer called an angiosarcoma. +It had already spread to his lymph nodes, so we used an antiangiogenic skin cream for the lip, and the oral cocktail, so we could treat from the inside as well as the outside. +And over the course of six months, he experienced a complete remission. +And here he is six years later, Guinness, with his very happy owner. +Now obviously, antiangiogenic therapy could be used for a wide range of cancers. +And in fact, the first pioneering treatments for people as well as dogs, are already becoming available. +There are 12 different drugs, 11 different cancer types. +But the real question is: How well do these work in practice? +So here's actually the patient survival data from eight different types of cancer. +The bars represent survival time taken from the era in which there was only chemotherapy, or surgery, or radiation available. +But starting in 2004, when antiangiogenic therapies first became available, you can see that there has been a 70 to 100 percent improvement in survival for people with kidney cancer, multiple myeloma, colorectal cancer, and gastrointestinal stromal tumors. +That's impressive. +But for other tumors and cancer types, the improvements have only been modest. +So I started asking myself, "Why haven't we been able to do better?" +And the answer, to me, is obvious: we're treating cancer too late in the game, when it's already established, and oftentimes, it's already spread or metastasized. +And as a doctor, I know that once a disease progresses to an advanced stage, achieving a cure can be difficult, if not impossible. +So I went back to the biology of angiogenesis, and started thinking: Could the answer to cancer be preventing angiogenesis, beating cancer at its own game, so the cancers could never become dangerous? +This could help healthy people, as well as people who've already beaten cancer once or twice, and want to find a way to keep it from coming back. +So to look for a way to prevent angiogenesis in cancer, I went back to look at cancer's causes. +And what really intrigued me, was when I saw that diet accounts for 30 to 35 percent of environmentally-caused cancers. +Now the obvious thing is to think about what we could remove from our diet, But I actually took a completely opposite approach, and began asking: What could we be adding to our diet that's naturally antiangiogenic, and that could boost the body's defense system, and beat back those blood vessels that are feeding cancers? +In other words, can we eat to starve cancer? +Well, the answer is yes, and I'm going to show you how. +And our search for this has taken us to the market, because what we've discovered is that Mother Nature has laced a large number of foods and beverages and herbs with naturally-occurring inhibitors of angiogenesis. +Here's a test system we developed. +At the center is a ring from which hundreds of blood vessels are growing out in a starburst fashion. +And we can use this system to test dietary factors at concentrations that are obtainable by eating. +Let me show you what happens when we put in an extract from red grapes. +The active ingredient is resveratrol, it's also found in red wine. +This inhibits abnormal angiogenesis, by 60 percent. +Here's what happens when we added an extract from strawberries. +It potently inhibits angiogenesis. +And extract from soybeans. +And here is a growing list of antiangiogenic foods and beverages that we're interested in studying. +For each food type, we believe that there are different potencies within different strains and varietals. +And we want to measure this because, well, while you're eating a strawberry or drinking tea, why not select the one that's most potent for preventing cancer? +So here are four different teas that we've tested. +They're all common ones: Chinese jasmine, Japanese sencha, Earl Grey and a special blend that we prepared, and you can see clearly that the teas vary in their potency, from less potent to more potent. +But what's very cool is when we combine the two less potent teas together, the combination, the blend, is more potent than either one alone. +This means there's food synergy. +Here's some more data from our testing. +Now in the lab, we can simulate tumor angiogenesis, represented here in a black bar. +And using this system, we can test the potency of cancer drugs. +So the shorter the bar, the less angiogenesis -- that's good. +And here are some common drugs that have been associated with reducing the risk of cancer in people. +Statins, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, and a few others -- they inhibit angiogenesis, too. +And here are the dietary factors going head-to-head against these drugs. +You can see they clearly hold their own, and in some cases, they're more potent than the actual drugs. +Soy, parsley, garlic, grapes, berries. +I could go home and cook a tasty meal using these ingredients. +Imagine if we could create the world's first rating system, in which we could score foods according to their antiangiogenic, cancer-preventative properties. +And that's what we're doing right now. +Now, I've shown you a bunch of lab data, and so the real question is: What is the evidence in people that eating certain foods can reduce angiogenesis in cancer? +Well, the best example I know is a study of 79,000 men followed over 20 years, in which it was found that men who consumed cooked tomatoes two to three times a week, had up to a 50 percent reduction in their risk of developing prostate cancer. +Now, we know that tomatoes are a good source of lycopene, and lycopene is antiangiogenic. +But what's even more interesting from this study, is that in those men who did develop prostate cancer, those who ate more servings of tomato sauce, actually had fewer blood vessels feeding their cancer. +So this human study is a prime example of how antiangiogenic substances present in food and consumed at practical levels, can have an impact on cancer. +And we're now studying the role of a healthy diet -- with Dean Ornish at UCSF and Tufts University -- the role of this healthy diet on markers of angiogenesis that we can find in the bloodstream. +Obviously, what I've shared with you has some far-ranging implications, even beyond cancer research. +Because if we're right, it could impact consumer education, food services, public health and even the insurance industry. +And in fact, some insurance companies are already beginning to think along these lines. +Check out this ad from BlueCross BlueShield of Minnesota. +For many people around the world, dietary cancer prevention may be the only practical solution, because not everybody can afford expensive end-stage cancer treatments, but everybody could benefit from a healthy diet based on local, sustainable, antiangiogenic crops. +Now, finally, I've talked to you about food, and I've talked to you about cancer, so there's just one more disease that I have to tell you about, and that's obesity. +Because it turns out that adipose tissue -- fat -- is highly angiogenesis-dependent. +And like a tumor, fat grows when blood vessels grow. +So the question is: Can we shrink fat by cutting off its blood supply? +The top curve shows the body weight of a genetically obese mouse that eats nonstop until it turns fat, like this furry tennis ball. And the bottom curve is the weight of a normal mouse. +If you take the obese mouse and give it an angiogenesis inhibitor, it loses weight. +Stop the treatment, gains the weight back. Restart the treatment, loses the weight. +Stop the treatment, it gains the weight back. +And, in fact, you can cycle the weight up and down simply by inhibiting angiogenesis. +So this approach that we're taking for cancer prevention may also have an application for obesity. +The truly interesting thing about this is that we can't take these obese mice and make them lose more weight than what the normal mouse's weight is supposed to be. +In other words, we can't create supermodel mice. +And this speaks to the role of angiogenesis in regulating healthy set points. +Albert Szent-Gyrgi once said, "Discovery consists of seeing what everyone has seen, and thinking what no one has thought." +I hope I've convinced you that for diseases like cancer, obesity and other conditions, there may be a great power in attacking their common denominator: angiogenesis. +And that's what I think the world needs now. Thank you. +June Cohen: I have a quick question for you. +JC: So these drugs aren't exactly in mainstream cancer treatments right now. +For anyone out here who has cancer, what would you recommend? +Do you recommend pursuing these treatments now, for most cancer patients? +William Li: There are antiangiogenic treatments that are FDA approved, and if you're a cancer patient, or working for one or advocating for one, you should ask about them. +And there are many clinical trials. +The Angiogenesis Foundation is following almost 300 companies, and there are about 100 more drugs in that pipeline. +So, consider the approved ones, look for clinical trials, but then between what the doctor can do for you, we need to start asking what can we do for ourselves. +This is one of the themes I'm talking about: We can empower ourselves to do the things that doctors can't do for us, which is to use knowledge and take action. +And if Mother Nature has given us some clues, we think there might be a new future in the value of how we eat, and what we eat is really our chemotherapy three times a day. +JC: Right. And along those lines, for people who might have risk factors for cancer, would you recommend pursuing any treatments prophylactically, or simply pursuing the right diet, with lots of tomato sauce? +WL: Well, you know, there's abundant epidemiological evidence, and I think in the information age, it doesn't take long to go to a credible source like PubMed, the National Library of Medicine, to look for epidemiological studies for cancer risk reduction based on diet and based on common medications. +And that's certainly something that anybody can look into. +JC: Okay. Well, thank you so much. +About a year ago, I asked myself a question: "Knowing what I know, why am I not a vegetarian?" +After all, I'm one of the green guys: I grew up with hippie parents in a log cabin. +I started a site called TreeHugger -- I care about this stuff. +I knew that eating a mere hamburger a day can increase my risk of dying by a third. +Cruelty: I knew that the 10 billion animals we raise each year for meat are raised in factory farm conditions that we, hypocritically, wouldn't even consider for our own cats, dogs and other pets. +Environmentally, meat, amazingly, causes more emissions than all of transportation combined: cars, trains, planes, buses, boats, all of it. +And beef production uses 100 times the water that most vegetables do. +I also knew that I'm not alone. +We as a society are eating twice as much meat as we did in the 50s. +So what was once the special little side treat now is the main, much more regular. +So really, any of these angles should have been enough to convince me to go vegetarian. +Yet, there I was -- chk, chk, chk -- tucking into a big old steak. +So why was I stalling? +I realized that what I was being pitched was a binary solution. +It was either you're a meat eater or you're a vegetarian, and I guess I just wasn't quite ready. +Imagine your last hamburger. +So my common sense, my good intentions, were in conflict with my taste buds. +And I'd commit to doing it later, and not surprisingly, later never came. +Sound familiar? +So I wondered, might there be a third solution? +And I thought about it, and I came up with one. +I've been doing it for the last year, and it's great. +It's called weekday veg. +The name says it all: Nothing with a face Monday through Friday. +On the weekend, your choice. +Simple. +If you want to take it to the next level, remember, the major culprits in terms of environmental damage and health are red and processed meats. +So you want to swap those out with some good, sustainably harvested fish. +It's structured, so it ends up being simple to remember, and it's okay to break it here and there. +After all, cutting five days a week is cutting 70 percent of your meat intake. +The program has been great, weekday veg. +My footprint's smaller, I'm lessening pollution, I feel better about the animals, I'm even saving money. +Best of all, I'm healthier, I know that I'm going to live longer, and I've even lost a little weight. +So, please ask yourselves, for your health, for your pocketbook, for the environment, for the animals: What's stopping you from giving weekday veg a shot? +After all, if all of us ate half as much meat, it would be like half of us were vegetarians. +Thank you. +I want to talk about penguins today. +But first, I want to start by saying that we need a new operating system, for the oceans and for the Earth. +When I came to the Galapagos 40 years ago, there were 3,000 people that lived in the Galapagos. +Now there are over 30,000. +There were two Jeeps on Santa Cruz. +Now, there are around a thousand trucks and buses and cars there. +So the fundamental problems that we face are overconsumption and too many people. +It's the same problems in the Galapagos, except, obviously, it's worse here, in some ways, than other places. +Because we've only doubled the population of the Earth since the 1960s -- a little more than doubled -- but we have 6.7 billion people in the world, and we all like to consume. +And one of the major problems that we have is our operating system is not giving us the proper feedback. +We're not paying the true environmental costs of our actions. +And when I came at age 22 to live on Fernandina, let me just say, that I had never camped before. +I had never lived alone for any period of time, and I'd never slept with sea lions snoring next to me all night. +But moreover, I'd never lived on an uninhabited island. +Punta Espinosa is where I lived for over a year, and we call it uninhabited because there are no people there. +But it's alive with life; it's hardly uninhabited. +So a lot has happened in the last 40 years, and what I learned when I came to the Galapagos is the importance of wild places, wild things, certainly wildlife, and the amazing qualities that penguins have. +Penguins are real athletes: They can swim 173 kilometers in a day. +They can swim at the same speed day and night -- that's faster than any Olympic swimmer. +I mean, they can do like seven kilometers an hour and sustain it. +But what is really amazing, because of this deepness here, Emperor penguins can go down more than 500 meters and they can hold their breath for 23 minutes. +Magellanic penguins, the ones that I work on, they can dive to about 90 meters and they can stay down for about 4.6 minutes. +Humans, without fins: 90 meters, 3.5 minutes. +And I doubt anybody in this room could really hold their breath for 3.5 minutes. +You have to train to be able to do that. +So penguins are amazing athletes. +The other thing is, I've never met anybody that really doesn't say that they like penguins. +They're comical, they walk upright, and, of course, they're diligent. +And, more importantly, they're well-dressed. +So they have all the criteria that people normally like. +But scientifically, they're amazing because they're sentinels. +They tell us about our world in a lot of different ways, and particularly the ocean. +This is a picture of a Galapagos penguin that's on the front of a little zodiac here in the Galapagos. +And that's what I came to study. +I thought I was going to study the social behavior of Galapagos penguins, but you already know penguins are rare. +These are the rarest penguins in the world. +Why I thought I was going to be able to do that, I don't know. +But the population has changed dramatically since I was first here. +When I counted penguins for the first time and tried to do a census, we just counted all the individual beaks that we could around all these islands. +We counted around 2,000, so I don't know how many penguins there really are, but I know I can count 2,000. +If you go and do it now, the national parks count about 500. +So we have a quarter of the penguins that we did 40 years ago. +And this is true of most of our living systems. +We have less than we had before, and most of them are in fairly steep decline. +And I want to just show you a little bit about why. +That's a penguin braying to tell you that it's important to pay attention to penguins. +Most important of all, I didn't know what that was the first time I heard it. +And you can imagine sleeping on Fernandina your first night there and you hear this lonesome, plaintful call. +I fell in love with penguins, and it certainly has changed the rest of my life. +What I found out I was studying is really the difference in how the Galapagos changes, the most extreme variation. +You've heard about these El Ninos, but this is the extreme that penguins all over the world have to adapt to. +This is a cold-water event called La Nina. +Where it's blue and it's green, it means the water is really cold. +And so you can see this current coming up -- in this case, the Humboldt Current -- that comes all the way out to the Galapagos Islands, and this deep undersea current, the Cromwell Current, that upwells around the Galapagos. +That brings all the nutrients: When this is cold in the Galapagos, it's rich, and there's plenty of food for everyone. +When we have extreme El Nino events, you see all this red, and you see no green out here around the Galapagos. +That means that there's no upwelling, and there's basically no food. +So it's a real desert for not only for the penguins and the sea lions and the marine iguanas ... +things die when there's no food. +But we didn't even know that that affected the Galapagos when I went to study penguins. +And you can imagine being on an island hoping you're going to see penguins, and you're in the middle of an El Nino event and there are no penguins. +They're not breeding; they're not even around. +I studied marine iguanas at that point. +But this is a global phenomenon, we know that. +And if you look along the coast of Argentina, where I work now, at a place called Punta Tombo -- the largest Magellanic penguin colony in the world down here about 44 degrees south latitude -- you see that there's great variation here. +Some years, the cold water goes all the way up to Brazil, and other years, in these La Nina years, it doesn't. +So the oceans don't always act together; they act differently, but that is the kind of variation that penguins have to live with, and it's not easy. +So when I went to study the Magellanic penguins, I didn't have any problems. +There were plenty of them. +This is a picture at Punta Tombo in February showing all the penguins along the beach. +I went there because the Japanese wanted to start harvesting them and turning them into high fashion golf gloves, protein and oil. +Fortunately, nobody has harvested any penguins and we're getting over 100,000 tourists a year to see them. +But the population is declining and it's declined fairly substantially, about 21 percent since 1987, when I started these surveys, in terms of number of active nests. +Here, you can see where Punta Tombo is, and they breed in incredibly dense colonies. +We know this because of long-term science, because we have long-term studies there. +And science is important in informing decision makers, and also in changing how we do and knowing the direction of change that we're going in. +And so we have this penguin project. The Wildlife Conservation Society has funded me along with a lot of individuals over the last 27 years to be able to produce these kinds of maps. +And also, we know that it's not only Galapagos penguins that are in trouble, but Magellanics and many other species of penguins. +And so we have started a global penguin society to try to focus on the real plight of penguins. +This is one of the plights of penguins: oil pollution. +Penguins don't like oil and they don't like to swim through oil. +The nice thing is, if you look down here in Argentina, there's no surface oil pollution from this composite map. +But, in fact, when we went to Argentina, penguins were often found totally covered in oil. +So they were just minding their own business. +They ended up swimming through ballast water that had oil in it. +Because when tankers carry oil they have to have ballast at some point, so when they're empty, they have the ballast water in there. +When they come back, they actually dump this oily ballast water into the ocean. +Why do they do that? Because it's cheaper, because they don't pay the real environmental costs. +We usually don't, and we want to start getting the accounting system right so we can pay the real cost. +At first, the Argentine government said, "No, there's no way. +You can't find oiled penguins in Argentina. +We have laws, and we can't have illegal dumping; it's against the law." +So we ended up spending nine years convincing the government that there were lots of oiled penguins. +In some years, like this year, we found more than 80 percent of the adult penguins dead on the beach were covered in oil. +These little blue dots are the fledglings -- we do this survey every March -- which means that they're only in the environment from January until March, so maybe three months at the most that they could get covered in oil. +And you can see, in some years over 60 percent of the fledglings were oiled. +Eventually, the government listened and, amazingly, they changed their laws. +They moved the tanker lanes 40 kilometers farther off shore, and people are not doing as much illegal dumping. +So what we're seeing now is very few penguins are oiled. +Why are there even these penguins oiled? +Because we've solved the problem in Chubut province, which is like a state in Argentina where Punta Tombo is -- so that's about 1,000 kilometers of coastline -- but we haven't solved the problem in northern Argentina, Uruguay and Brazil. +So now I want to show you that penguins are affected. +I'm just going to talk about two things. +This is climate change. Now this has really been a fun study because I put satellite tags on the back of these Magellanic penguins. +Try to convince donors to give you a couple thousand dollars to glue a satellite tag on the back of penguins. +But we've been doing this now for more than a decade to learn where they go. +We thought we needed a marine protected area of about 30 kilometers, and then we put a satellite tag on the back of a penguin. +And what the penguins show us -- and these are all the little dots from where the penguins' positions were for penguins in incubation in 2003 -- and what you see is some of these individuals are going 800 kilometers away from their nests. +So that means as their mate is sitting on the nest incubating the eggs, the other one is out there foraging, and the longer they have to stay gone, the worse condition the mate is in when the mate comes back. +And, of course, all of this then leads to a vicious cycle and you can't raise a lot of chicks. +Here you see in 2003 -- these are all the dots of where the penguins are -- they were raising a little over a half of a chick. +Here, you can see in 2006, they raised almost three quarters of a chick per nest, and you can see that they're closer to Punta Tombo; they're not going as far away. +This past year, in 2009, you can see that they're now raising about a fourth of a chick, and some of these individuals are going more than 900 kilometers away from their nests. +So it's kind of like you having a job in Chicago, and then you get transferred to St. Louis, and your mate is not happy about this because you've got to pay airfare, because you're gone longer. +The same thing's true for penguins as well. +And they're going about, on average now, 40 kilometers farther than they did a decade ago. +We need to be able to get information out to the general public. +And so we started a publication with the Society for Conservation that we think presents cutting-edge science in a new, novel way, because we have reporters that are good writers that actually can distill the information and make it accessible to the general public. +So if you're interested in cutting-edge science and smarter conservation, you should join with our 11 partners -- some of them here in this room, like the Nature Conservancy -- and look at this magazine because we need to get information out about conservation to the general public. +Lastly I want to say that all of you, probably, have had some relationship at some time in your life with a dog, a cat, some sort of pet, and you recognized that those are individuals. +And some of you consider them almost part of your family. +If you had a relationship with a penguin, you'd see it in the same sort of way. +They're amazing creatures that really change how you view the world because they're not that different from us: They're trying to make a living, they're trying to raise their offspring, they're trying to get on and survive in the world. +This is Turbo the Penguin. +Turbo's never been fed. +He met us and got his name because he started standing under my diesel truck: a turbo truck, so we named him Turbo. +Turbo has taken to knocking on the door with his beak, we let him in and he comes in here. +And I just wanted to show you what happened one day when Turbo brought in a friend. +So this is Turbo. +He's coming up to one of my graduate students and flipper patting, which he would do to a female penguin. +And you can see, he's not trying to bite. +This guy has never been in before and he's trying to figure out, "What is going on? +What is this guy doing? +This is really pretty weird." +And you'll see soon that my graduate student ... +and you see, Turbo's pretty intent on his flipper patting. +And now he's looking at the other guy, saying, "You are really weird." +And now look at this: not friendly. +So penguins really differ in their personalities just like our dogs and our cats. +We're also trying to collect our information and become more technologically literate. +So we're trying to put that in computers in the field. +And penguins are always involved in helping us or not helping us in one way or another. +This is a radio frequency ID system. +You put a little piece of rice in the foot of a penguin that has a barcode, so it tells you who it is. +It walks over the pad, and you know who it is. +Okay, so here are a few penguins coming in. +See, this one's coming back to its nest. +They're all coming in at this time, walking across there, just kind of leisurely coming in. +Here's a female that's in a hurry. She's got food. +She's really rushing back, because it's hot, to try to feed her chicks. +And then there's another fellow that will leisurely come by. +Look how fat he is. He's walking back to feed his chicks. +Then I realize that they're playing king of the box. +This is my box up here, and this is the system that works. +You can see this penguin, he goes over, he looks at those wires, does not like that wire. +He unplugs the wire; we have no data. +So, they really are pretty amazing creatures. +OK. +Most important thing is: Only you can change yourself, and only you can change the world and make it better, for people as well as penguins. +So, thank you very much. +For the next few minutes we're going to talk about energy, and it's going to be a bit of a varied talk. +I'll try to spin a story about energy, and oil's a convenient starting place. +The talk will be broadly about energy, but oil's a good place to start. +And one of the reasons is this is remarkable stuff. +You take about eight or so carbon atoms, about 20 hydrogen atoms, you put them together in exactly the right way and you get this marvelous liquid: very energy-dense and very easy to refine into a number of very useful products and fuels. +It's great stuff. +Now, as far as it goes, there's a lot of oil out there in the world. +Here's my little pocket map of where it's all located. +A bigger one for you to look at. +But this is it, this is the oil in the world. +Geologists have a pretty good idea of where the oil is. +This is about 100 trillion gallons of crude oil still to be developed and produced in the world today. +Now, that's just one story about oil, and we could end it there and say, "Well, oil's going to last forever because, well, there's just a lot of it." +But there's actually more to the story than that. +Oh, by the way, if you think you're very far from some of this oil, 1000 meters below where you're all sitting is one of the largest producing oil fields in the world. +Come talk to me about it, I'll fill in some of the details if you want. +So, that's one of the stories of oil; there's just a lot of it. +But what about oil? Where is it in the energy system? +Here's a little snapshot of 150 years of oil, and it's been a dominant part of our energy system for most of those 150 years. +Now, here's another little secret I'm going to tell you about: For the last 25 years, oil has been playing less and less of a role in global energy systems. +There was one kind of peak oil in 1985, when oil represented 50 percent of global energy supply. +Now, it's about 35 percent. +It's been declining and I believe it will continue to decline. +Gasoline consumption in the U.S. probably peaked in 2007 and is declining. +So oil is playing a less significant role every year. +And so, 25 years ago, there was a peak oil; just like, in the 1920s, there was a peak coal; and a hundred years before that, there was a peak wood. +This is a very important picture of the evolution of energy systems. +And what's been taking up the slack in the last few decades? +Well, a lot of natural gas and a little bit of nuclear, for starters. +And what goes on in the future? +Well, I think out ahead of us a few decades is peak gas, and beyond that, peak renewables. +Now, I'll tell you another little, very important story about this picture. +Now, I'm not pretending that energy use in total isn't increasing, it is -- that's another part of the story. Come talk to me about it, we'll fill in some of the details -- but there's a very important message here: This is 200 years of history, and for 200 years we've been systematically decarbonizing our energy system. +Energy systems of the world becoming progressively -- year on year, decade on decade, century on century -- becoming less carbon intense. +And that continues into the future with the renewables that we're developing today, reaching maybe 30 percent of primary energy by mid century. +Now that might be the end of the story -- Okay, we just replace it all with conventional renewables -- but I think, actually, there's more to the story than that. +And to tell the next part of the story -- and this is looking out say 2100 and beyond. +What is the future of truly sustainable, carbon-free energy? +Well, we have to take a little excursion, and we'll start in central Texas. +Here's a piece of limestone. +I picked it up outside of Marble Falls, Texas. +It's about 400 million years old. +And it's just limestone, nothing really special about it. +Now, here's a piece of chalk. +I picked this up at MIT. It's a little younger. +And it's different than this limestone, you can see that. +You wouldn't build a building out of this stuff, and you wouldn't try to give a lecture and write on the chalkboard with this. +Yeah, it's very different -- no, it's not different. +It's not different, it's the same stuff: calcium carbonate, calcium carbonate. +What's different is how the molecules are put together. +Now, if you think that's kind of neat, the story gets really neat right now. +Off the coast of California comes this: It's an abalone shell. +Now, millions of abalone every year make this shell. +Oh, by the way, just in case you weren't already guessing, it's calcium carbonate. +It's the same stuff as this and the same stuff as this. +But it's not the same stuff; it's different. +It's thousands of times, maybe 3,000 times tougher than this. +And why? Because the lowly abalone is able to lay down the calcium carbonate crystals in layers, making this beautiful, iridescent mother of pearl. +Very specialized material that the abalone self-assembles, millions of abalone, all the time, every day, every year. +This is pretty incredible stuff. +All the same, what's different? +How the molecules are put together. +Now, what does this have to do with energy? +Here's a piece of coal. +And I'll suggest that this coal is about as exciting as this chalk. +Now, whether we're talking about fuels or energy carriers, or perhaps novel materials for batteries or fuel cells, nature hasn't ever built those perfect materials yet because nature didn't need to. +Nature didn't need to because, unlike the abalone shell, the survival of a species didn't depend on building those materials, until maybe now when it might just matter. +So, when we think about the future of energy, imagine what would it be like if instead of this, we could build the energy equivalent of this just by rearranging the molecules differently. +And so that is my story. +The oil will never run out. +It's not because we have a lot of it. +It's not because we're going to build a bajillion windmills. +It's because, well, thousands of years ago, people invented ideas -- they had ideas, innovations, technology -- and the Stone Age ended, not because we ran out of stones. +It's ideas, it's innovation, it's technology that will end the age of oil, long before we run out of oil. +Thank you very much. +We're here today to announce the first synthetic cell, a cell made by starting with the digital code in the computer, building the chromosome from four bottles of chemicals, assembling that chromosome in yeast, transplanting it into a recipient bacterial cell and transforming that cell into a new bacterial species. +So this is the first self-replicating species that we've had on the planet whose parent is a computer. +It also is the first species to have its own website encoded in its genetic code. +But we'll talk more about the watermarks in a minute. +This is a project that had its inception 15 years ago when our team then -- we called the institute TIGR -- was involved in sequencing the first two genomes in history. +We did Haemophilus influenzae and then the smallest genome of a self-replicating organism, that of Mycoplasma genitalium. +And as soon as we had these two sequences we thought, if this is supposed to be the smallest genome of a self-replicating species, could there be even a smaller genome? +Could we understand the basis of cellular life at the genetic level? +It's been a 15-year quest just to get to the starting point now to be able to answer those questions, because it's very difficult to eliminate multiple genes from a cell. +You can only do them one at a time. +We decided early on that we had to take a synthetic route, even though nobody had been there before, to see if we could synthesize a bacterial chromosome so we could actually vary the gene content to understand the essential genes for life. +That started our 15-year quest to get here. +But before we did the first experiments, we actually asked Art Caplan's team at the University of Pennsylvania to undertake a review of what the risks, the challenges, the ethics around creating new species in the laboratory were because it hadn't been done before. +They spent about two years reviewing that independently and published their results in Science in 1999. +Ham and I took two years off as a side project to sequence the human genome, but as soon as that was done we got back to the task at hand. +In 2002, we started a new institute, the Institute for Biological Energy Alternatives, where we set out two goals: One, to understand the impact of our technology on the environment, and how to understand the environment better, and two, to start down this process of making synthetic life to understand basic life. +In 2003, we published our first success. +So Ham Smith and Clyde Hutchison developed some new methods for making error-free DNA at a small level. +Our first task was a 5,000-letter code bacteriophage, a virus that attacks only E. coli. +So that was the phage phi X 174, which was chosen for historical reasons. +It was the first DNA phage, DNA virus, DNA genome that was actually sequenced. +So once we realized that we could make 5,000-base pair we thought, we at least have the means then to try and make serially lots of these pieces to be able to eventually assemble them together to make this mega base chromosome. +So, substantially larger than we even thought we would go initially. +There were several steps to this. There were two sides: We had to solve the chemistry for making large DNA molecules, and we had to solve the biological side of how, if we had this new chemical entity, how would we boot it up, activate it in a recipient cell. +We had two teams working in parallel: one team on the chemistry, and the other on trying to be able to transplant entire chromosomes to get new cells. +When we started this out, we thought the synthesis would be the biggest problem, which is why we chose the smallest genome. +And some of you have noticed that we switched from the smallest genome to a much larger one. +And we can walk through the reasons for that, but basically the small cell took on the order of one to two months to get results from, whereas the larger, faster-growing cell takes only two days. +So there's only so many cycles we could go through in a year at six weeks per cycle. +And you should know that basically 99, probably 99 percent plus of our experiments failed. +So this was a debugging, problem-solving scenario from the beginning because there was no recipe of how to get there. +So, one of the most important publications we had was in 2007. +Carole Lartigue led the effort to actually transplant a bacterial chromosome from one bacteria to another. +I think philosophically, that was one of the most important papers that we've ever done because it showed how dynamic life was. +And we knew, once that worked, that we actually had a chance if we could make the synthetic chromosomes to do the same with those. +We didn't know that it was going to take us several years more to get there. +In 2008, we reported the complete synthesis of the Mycoplasma genitalium genome, a little over 500,000 letters of genetic code, but we have not yet succeeded in booting up that chromosome. +We think in part, because of its slow growth and, in part, cells have all kinds of unique defense mechanisms to keep these events from happening. +It turned out the cell that we were trying to transplant into had a nuclease, an enzyme that chews up DNA on its surface, and was happy to eat the synthetic DNA that we gave it and never got transplantations. +But at the time, that was the largest molecule of a defined structure that had been made. +And so both sides were progressing, but part of the synthesis had to be accomplished or was able to be accomplished using yeast, putting the fragments in yeast and yeast would assemble these for us. +It's an amazing step forward, but we had a problem because now we had the bacterial chromosomes growing in yeast. +So in addition to doing the transplant, we had to find out how to get a bacterial chromosome out of the eukaryotic yeast into a form where we could transplant it into a recipient cell. +So our team developed new techniques for actually growing, cloning entire bacterial chromosomes in yeast. +So we took the same mycoides genome that Carole had initially transplanted, and we grew that in yeast as an artificial chromosome. +And we thought this would be a great test bed for learning how to get chromosomes out of yeast and transplant them. +When we did these experiments, though, we could get the chromosome out of yeast but it wouldn't transplant and boot up a cell. +That little issue took the team two years to solve. +It turns out, the DNA in the bacterial cell was actually methylated, and the methylation protects it from the restriction enzyme, from digesting the DNA. +So what we found is if we took the chromosome out of yeast and methylated it, we could then transplant it. +Further advances came when the team removed the restriction enzyme genes from the recipient capricolum cell. +And once we had done that, now we can take naked DNA out of yeast and transplant it. +So last fall when we published the results of that work in Science, we all became overconfident and were sure we were only a few weeks away from being able to now boot up a chromosome out of yeast. +Because of the problems with Mycoplasma genitalium and its slow growth about a year and a half ago, we decided to synthesize the much larger chromosome, the mycoides chromosome, knowing that we had the biology worked out on that for transplantation. +And Dan led the team for the synthesis of this over one-million-base pair chromosome. +But it turned out it wasn't going to be as simple in the end, and it set us back three months because we had one error out of over a million base pairs in that sequence. +So the team developed new debugging software, where we could test each synthetic fragment to see if it would grow in a background of wild type DNA. +And we found that 10 out of the 11 100,000-base pair pieces we synthesized were completely accurate and compatible with a life-forming sequence. +We narrowed it down to one fragment; we sequenced it and found just one base pair had been deleted in an essential gene. +So accuracy is essential. +There's parts of the genome where it cannot tolerate even a single error, and then there's parts of the genome where we can put in large blocks of DNA, as we did with the watermarks, and it can tolerate all kinds of errors. +So it took about three months to find that error and repair it. +And then early one morning, at 6 a.m. +we got a text from Dan saying that, now, the first blue colonies existed. +So, it's been a long route to get here: 15 years from the beginning. +We felt one of the tenets of this field was to make absolutely certain we could distinguish synthetic DNA from natural DNA. +Early on, when you're working in a new area of science, you have to think about all the pitfalls and things that could lead you to believe that you had done something when you hadn't, and, even worse, leading others to believe it. +So, we thought the worst problem would be a single molecule contamination of the native chromosome, leading us to believe that we actually had created a synthetic cell, when it would have been just a contaminant. +So early on, we developed the notion of putting in watermarks in the DNA to absolutely make clear that the DNA was synthetic. +And the first chromosome we built in 2008 -- the 500,000-base pair one -- we simply assigned the names of the authors of the chromosome into the genetic code, but it was using just amino acid single letter translations, which leaves out certain letters of the alphabet. +So the team actually developed a new code within the code within the code. +So it's a new code for interpreting and writing messages in DNA. +Now, mathematicians have been hiding and writing messages in the genetic code for a long time, but it's clear they were mathematicians and not biologists because, if you write long messages with the code that the mathematicians developed, it would more than likely lead to new proteins being synthesized with unknown functions. +So the code that Mike Montague and the team developed actually puts frequent stop codons, so it's a different alphabet but allows us to use the entire English alphabet with punctuation and numbers. +So, there are four major watermarks all over 1,000 base pairs of genetic code. +The first one actually contains within it this code for interpreting the rest of the genetic code. +So in the remaining information, in the watermarks, contain the names of, I think it's 46 different authors and key contributors to getting the project to this stage. +And we also built in a website address so that if somebody decodes the code within the code within the code, they can send an email to that address. +So it's clearly distinguishable from any other species, having 46 names in it, its own web address. +And we added three quotations, because with the first genome we were criticized for not trying to say something more profound than just signing the work. +So we won't give the rest of the code, but we will give the three quotations. +The first is, "To live, to err, to fall, to triumph and to recreate life out of life." +It's a James Joyce quote. +The second quotation is, "See things not as they are, but as they might be." +It's a quote from the "American Prometheus" book on Robert Oppenheimer. +And the last one is a Richard Feynman quote: "What I cannot build, I cannot understand." +So, because this is as much a philosophical advance as a technical advance in science, we tried to deal with both the philosophical and the technical side. +Even with this announcement, as we did in 2003 -- that work was funded by the Department of Energy, so the work was reviewed at the level of the White House, trying to decide whether to classify the work or publish it. +And they came down on the side of open publication, which is the right approach -- we've briefed the White House, we've briefed members of Congress, we've tried to take and push the policy issues in parallel with the scientific advances. +So with that, I would like to open it first to the floor for questions. +Yes, in the back. +Reporter: Could you explain, in layman's terms, how significant a breakthrough this is please? +Craig Venter: Can we explain how significant this is? +I'm not sure we're the ones that should be explaining how significant it is. +It's significant to us. +Perhaps it's a giant philosophical change in how we view life. +We actually view it as a baby step in terms of, it's taken us 15 years to be able to do the experiment we wanted to do 15 years ago on understanding life at its basic level. +But we actually believe this is going to be a very powerful set of tools and we're already starting in numerous avenues to use this tool. +We have, at the Institute, ongoing funding now from NIH in a program with Novartis to try and use these new synthetic DNA tools to perhaps make the flu vaccine that you might get next year. +Because instead of taking weeks to months to make these, Dan's team can now make these in less than 24 hours. +So when you see how long it took to get an H1N1 vaccine out, we think we can shorten that process quite substantially. +In the vaccine area, Synthetic Genomics and the Institute are forming a new vaccine company because we think these tools can affect vaccines to diseases that haven't been possible to date, things where the viruses rapidly evolve, such with rhinovirus. +Wouldn't it be nice to have something that actually blocked common colds? +Or, more importantly, HIV, where the virus evolves so quickly the vaccines that are made today can't keep up with those evolutionary changes. +Also, at Synthetic Genomics, we've been working on major environmental issues. +I think this latest oil spill in the Gulf is a reminder. +We can't see CO2 -- we depend on scientific measurements for it and we see the beginning results of having too much of it -- but we can see pre-CO2 now floating on the waters and contaminating the beaches in the Gulf. +We need some alternatives for oil. +We have a program with Exxon Mobile to try and develop new strains of algae that can efficiently capture carbon dioxide from the atmosphere or from concentrated sources, make new hydrocarbons that can go into their refineries to make normal gasoline and diesel fuel out of CO2. +Those are just a couple of the approaches and directions that we're taking. +I was here four years ago, and I remember, at the time, that the talks weren't put online. +I think they were given to TEDsters in a box, a box set of DVDs, which they put on their shelves, where they are now. +And actually, Chris called me a week after I'd given my talk, and said, "We're going to start putting them online. Can we put yours online?" +And I said, "Sure." +And four years later, it's been downloaded four million times. +So I suppose you could multiply that by 20 or something to get the number of people who've seen it. +And, as Chris says, there is a hunger for videos of me. +Don't you feel? +So, this whole event has been an elaborate build-up to me doing another one for you, so here it is. +Al Gore spoke at the TED conference I spoke at four years ago and talked about the climate crisis. +And I referenced that at the end of my last talk. +So I want to pick up from there because I only had 18 minutes, frankly. +So, as I was saying -- You see, he's right. +I mean, there is a major climate crisis, obviously, and I think if people don't believe it, they should get out more. +But I believe there is a second climate crisis, which is as severe, which has the same origins, and that we have to deal with with the same urgency. +And you may say, by the way, "Look, I'm good. +I have one climate crisis, I don't really need the second one." +But this is a crisis of, not natural resources -- though I believe that's true -- but a crisis of human resources. +I believe fundamentally, as many speakers have said during the past few days, that we make very poor use of our talents. +Very many people go through their whole lives having no real sense of what their talents may be, or if they have any to speak of. +I meet all kinds of people who don't think they're really good at anything. +Actually, I kind of divide the world into two groups now. +Jeremy Bentham, the great utilitarian philosopher, once spiked this argument. +He said, "There are two types of people in this world: those who divide the world into two types and those who do not." +Well, I do. +I meet all kinds of people who don't enjoy what they do. +They simply go through their lives getting on with it. +They get no great pleasure from what they do. +They endure it rather than enjoy it, and wait for the weekend. +But I also meet people who love what they do and couldn't imagine doing anything else. +If you said, "Don't do this anymore," they'd wonder what you're talking about. +It isn't what they do, it's who they are. +They say, "But this is me, you know. +It would be foolish to abandon this, because it speaks to my most authentic self." +And it's not true of enough people. +In fact, on the contrary, I think it's still true of a minority of people. +And I think there are many possible explanations for it. +And high among them is education, because education, in a way, dislocates very many people from their natural talents. +And human resources are like natural resources; they're often buried deep. +You have to go looking for them, they're not just lying around on the surface. +You have to create the circumstances where they show themselves. +And you might imagine education would be the way that happens, but too often, it's not. +Every education system in the world is being reformed at the moment and it's not enough. +Reform is no use anymore, because that's simply improving a broken model. +What we need -- and the word's been used many times in the past few days -- is not evolution, but a revolution in education. +This has to be transformed into something else. +One of the real challenges is to innovate fundamentally in education. +Innovation is hard, because it means doing something that people don't find very easy, for the most part. +It means challenging what we take for granted, things that we think are obvious. +The great problem for reform or transformation is the tyranny of common sense. +Things that people think, "It can't be done differently, that's how it's done." +I came across a great quote recently from Abraham Lincoln, who I thought you'd be pleased to have quoted at this point. +He said this in December 1862 to the second annual meeting of Congress. +I ought to explain that I have no idea what was happening at the time. +We don't teach American history in Britain. +We suppress it. You know, this is our policy. +No doubt, something fascinating was happening then, which the Americans among us will be aware of. +But he said this: "The dogmas of the quiet past are inadequate to the stormy present. +The occasion is piled high with difficulty, and we must rise with the occasion." +I love that. +Not rise to it, rise with it. +"As our case is new, so we must think anew and act anew. +We must disenthrall ourselves, and then we shall save our country." +I love that word, "disenthrall." +You know what it means? +That there are ideas that all of us are enthralled to, which we simply take for granted as the natural order of things, the way things are. +And many of our ideas have been formed, not to meet the circumstances of this century, but to cope with the circumstances of previous centuries. +But our minds are still hypnotized by them, and we have to disenthrall ourselves of some of them. +Now, doing this is easier said than done. +It's very hard to know, by the way, what it is you take for granted. +And the reason is that you take it for granted. +Let me ask you something you may take for granted. +How many of you here are over the age of 25? +That's not what you take for granted, I'm sure you're familiar with that. +Are there any people here under the age of 25? +Great. Now, those over 25, could you put your hands up if you're wearing your wristwatch? +Now that's a great deal of us, isn't it? +Ask a room full of teenagers the same thing. +Teenagers do not wear wristwatches. +I don't mean they can't, they just often choose not to. +And the reason is we were brought up in a pre-digital culture, those of us over 25. +And so for us, if you want to know the time, you have to wear something to tell it. +Kids now live in a world which is digitized, and the time, for them, is everywhere. +They see no reason to do this. +And by the way, you don't need either; it's just that you've always done it and you carry on doing it. +My daughter never wears a watch, my daughter Kate, who's 20. +She doesn't see the point. +As she says, "It's a single-function device." +"Like, how lame is that?" +And I say, "No, no, it tells the date as well." +"It has multiple functions." +But, you see, there are things we're enthralled to in education. +A couple of examples. +One of them is the idea of linearity: that it starts here and you go through a track and if you do everything right, you will end up set for the rest of your life. +Everybody who's spoken at TED has told us implicitly, or sometimes explicitly, a different story: that life is not linear; it's organic. +We create our lives symbiotically as we explore our talents in relation to the circumstances they help to create for us. +But, you know, we have become obsessed with this linear narrative. +And probably the pinnacle for education is getting you to college. +I think we are obsessed with getting people to college. +Certain sorts of college. +I don't mean you shouldn't go, but not everybody needs to go, or go now. +Maybe they go later, not right away. +And I was up in San Francisco a while ago doing a book signing. +There was this guy buying a book, he was in his 30s. +I said, "What do you do?" +And he said, "I'm a fireman." +I asked, "How long have you been a fireman?" +"Always. I've always been a fireman." +"Well, when did you decide?" He said, "As a kid. +Actually, it was a problem for me at school, because at school, everybody wanted to be a fireman." +He said, "But I wanted to be a fireman." +And he said, "When I got to the senior year of school, my teachers didn't take it seriously. +This one teacher didn't take it seriously. +He said I was throwing my life away if that's all I chose to do with it; that I should go to college, I should become a professional person, that I had great potential and I was wasting my talent to do that." +He said, "It was humiliating. +It was in front of the whole class and I felt dreadful. +But it's what I wanted, and as soon as I left school, I applied to the fire service and I was accepted. +You know, I was thinking about that guy recently, just a few minutes ago when you were speaking, about this teacher, because six months ago, I saved his life." +He said, "He was in a car wreck, and I pulled him out, gave him CPR, and I saved his wife's life as well." +He said, "I think he thinks better of me now." +You know, to me, human communities depend upon a diversity of talent, not a singular conception of ability. +And at the heart of our challenges -- At the heart of the challenge is to reconstitute our sense of ability and of intelligence. +This linearity thing is a problem. +When I arrived in L.A. about nine years ago, I came across a policy statement -- very well-intentioned -- which said, "College begins in kindergarten." +No, it doesn't. +It doesn't. +If we had time, I could go into this, but we don't. +Kindergarten begins in kindergarten. +A friend of mine once said, "A three year-old is not half a six year-old." +They're three. +But as we just heard in this last session, there's such competition now to get into kindergarten -- to get to the right kindergarten -- that people are being interviewed for it at three. +Kids sitting in front of unimpressed panels, you know, with their resumes -- Flicking through and saying, "What, this is it?" +"You've been around for 36 months, and this is it?" +"You've achieved nothing -- commit. +Spent the first six months breastfeeding, I can see." +See, it's outrageous as a conception. +The other big issue is conformity. +We have built our education systems on the model of fast food. +This is something Jamie Oliver talked about the other day. +There are two models of quality assurance in catering. +One is fast food, where everything is standardized. +The other is like Zagat and Michelin restaurants, where everything is not standardized, they're customized to local circumstances. +And we have sold ourselves into a fast-food model of education, and it's impoverishing our spirit and our energies as much as fast food is depleting our physical bodies. +We have to recognize a couple of things here. +One is that human talent is tremendously diverse. +People have very different aptitudes. +I worked out recently that I was given a guitar as a kid at about the same time that Eric Clapton got his first guitar. +It worked out for Eric, that's all I'm saying. +In a way -- it did not for me. +I could not get this thing to work no matter how often or how hard I blew into it. +It just wouldn't work. +But it's not only about that. +It's about passion. +Often, people are good at things they don't really care for. +It's about passion, and what excites our spirit and our energy. +And if you're doing the thing that you love to do, that you're good at, time takes a different course entirely. +My wife's just finished writing a novel, and I think it's a great book, but she disappears for hours on end. +You know this, if you're doing something you love, an hour feels like five minutes. +If you're doing something that doesn't resonate with your spirit, five minutes feels like an hour. +And the reason so many people are opting out of education is because it doesn't feed their spirit, it doesn't feed their energy or their passion. +So I think we have to change metaphors. +We have to go from what is essentially an industrial model of education, a manufacturing model, which is based on linearity and conformity and batching people. +We have to move to a model that is based more on principles of agriculture. +We have to recognize that human flourishing is not a mechanical process; it's an organic process. +And you cannot predict the outcome of human development. +All you can do, like a farmer, is create the conditions under which they will begin to flourish. +So when we look at reforming education and transforming it, it isn't like cloning a system. +There are great ones, like KIPP's; it's a great system. +There are many great models. +It's about customizing to your circumstances and personalizing education to the people you're actually teaching. +And doing that, I think, is the answer to the future because it's not about scaling a new solution; it's about creating a movement in education in which people develop their own solutions, but with external support based on a personalized curriculum. +Now in this room, there are people who represent extraordinary resources in business, in multimedia, in the Internet. +These technologies, combined with the extraordinary talents of teachers, provide an opportunity to revolutionize education. +And I urge you to get involved in it because it's vital, not just to ourselves, but to the future of our children. +But we have to change from the industrial model to an agricultural model, where each school can be flourishing tomorrow. +That's where children experience life. +Or at home, if that's what they choose, to be educated with their families or friends. +There's been a lot of talk about dreams over the course of these few days. +And I wanted to just very quickly -- I was very struck by Natalie Merchant's songs last night, recovering old poems. +I wanted to read you a quick, very short poem from W. B. Yeats, who some of you may know. +He wrote this to his love, Maud Gonne, and he was bewailing the fact that he couldn't really give her what he thought she wanted from him. +And he says, "I've got something else, but it may not be for you." +And every day, everywhere, our children spread their dreams beneath our feet. +And we should tread softly. +Thank you. +Thank you. +I heard this amazing story about Miuccia Prada. +She's an Italian fashion designer. +She goes to this vintage store in Paris with a friend of hers. +She's rooting around, she finds this one jacket by Balenciaga -- she loves it. +She's turning it inside out. +She's looking at the seams. She's looking at the construction. +Her friend says, "Buy it already." +She said, "I'll buy it, but I'm also going to replicate it." +Now, the academics in this audience may think, "Well, that sounds like plagiarism." +But to a fashionista, what it really is is a sign of Prada's genius: that she can root through the history of fashion and pick the one jacket that doesn't need to be changed by one iota, and to be current and to be now. +You might also be asking whether it's possible that this is illegal for her to do this. +Well, it turns out that it's actually not illegal. +In the fashion industry, there's very little intellectual property protection. +They have trademark protection, but no copyright protection and no patent protection to speak of. +All they have, really, is trademark protection, and so it means that anybody could copy any garment on any person in this room and sell it as their own design. +The only thing that they can't copy is the actual trademark label within that piece of apparel. +That's one reason that you see logos splattered all over these products. +It's because it's a lot harder for knock-off artists to knock off these designs because they can't knock off the logo. +But if you go to Santee Alley, yeah. +Well, yeah. +Canal Street, I know. +And sometimes these are fun, right? +Now, the reason for this, the reason that the fashion industry doesn't have any copyright protection is because the courts decided long ago that apparel is too utilitarian to qualify for copyright protection. +They didn't want a handful of designers owning the seminal building blocks of our clothing. +And then everybody else would have to license this cuff or this sleeve because Joe Blow owns it. +But too utilitarian? I mean is that the way you think of fashion? +This is Vivienne Westwood. No! +We think of it as maybe too silly, too unnecessary. +Now, those of you who are familiar with the logic behind copyright protection -- which is that without ownership, there is no incentive to innovate -- might be really surprised by both the critical success of the fashion industry and the economic success of this industry. +What I'm going to argue today is that because there's no copyright protection in the fashion industry, fashion designers have actually been able to elevate utilitarian design, things to cover our naked bodies, into something that we consider art. +Because there's no copyright protection in this industry, there's a very open and creative ecology of creativity. +Unlike their creative brothers and sisters, who are sculptors or photographers or filmmakers or musicians, fashion designers can sample from all their peers' designs. +They can take any element from any garment from the history of fashion and incorporate it into their own design. +They're also notorious for riffing off of the zeitgeist. +And here, I suspect, they were influenced by the costumes in Avatar. +Maybe just a little. +Can't copyright a costume either. +Now, fashion designers have the broadest palette imaginable in this creative industry. +This wedding dress here is actually made of sporks, and this dress is actually made of aluminum. +I've heard this dress actually sort of sounds like wind chimes as they walk through. +So, one of the magical side effects of having a culture of copying, which is really what it is, is the establishment of trends. +People think this is a magical thing. How does it happen? +Well, it's because it's legal for people to copy one another. +And that's where they really get a lot of their creative inspiration, so it's both a top-down and a bottom-up kind of industry. +Now, the fast fashion giants have probably benefited the most from the lack of copyright protection in the fashion industry. +They are notorious for knocking off high-end designs and selling them at very low prices. +And they've been faced with a lot of lawsuits, but those lawsuits are usually not won by fashion designers. +The courts have said over and over again, "You don't need any more intellectual property protection." +When you look at copies like this, you wonder: How do the luxury high-end brands remain in business? +If you can get it for 200 bucks, why pay a thousand? +Well, that's one reason we had a conference here at USC a few years ago. +We invited Tom Ford to come -- the conference was called, "Ready to Share: Fashion and the Ownership of Creativity" -- and we asked him exactly this question. +Here's what he had to say. +He had just come off a successful stint as the lead designer at Gucci, in case you didn't know. +Tom Ford: And we found after much research that -- actually not much research, quite simple research -- that the counterfeit customer was not our customer. +Johanna Blakley: Imagine that. +The people on Santee Alley are not the ones who shop at Gucci. +This is a very different demographic. +And, you know, a knock-off is never the same as an original high-end design, at least in terms of the materials; they're always made of cheaper materials. +But even sometimes a cheaper version can actually have some charming aspects, can breathe a little extra life into a dying trend. +There's lots of virtues of copying. +One that a lot of cultural critics have pointed to is that we now have a much broader palette of design choices to choose from than we ever have before, and this is mainly because of the fast fashion industry, actually. +And this is a good thing. We need lots of options. +Fashion, whether you like it or not, helps you project who you are to the world. +Because of fast fashion, global trends actually get established much more quickly than they used to. +And this, actually, is good news to trendsetters; they want trends to be set so that they can move product. +For fashionistas, they want to stay ahead of the curve. +They don't want to be wearing what everybody else is wearing. +And so, they want to move on to the next trend as soon as possible. +I tell you, there is no rest for the fashionable. +Every season, these designers have to struggle to come up with the new fabulous idea that everybody's going to love. +And this, let me tell you, is very good for the bottom line. +Now of course, there's a bunch of effects that this culture of copying has on the creative process. +And Stuart Weitzman is a very successful shoe designer. +He has complained a lot about people copying him, but in one interview I read, he said it has really forced him to up his game. +He had to come up with new ideas, new things that would be hard to copy. +He came up with this Bowden-wedge heel that has to be made out of steel or titanium; if you make it from some sort of cheaper material, it'll actually crack in two. +It forced him to be a little more innovative. And that actually reminded me of jazz great, Charlie Parker. +I don't know if you've heard this anecdote, but I have. +He said that one of the reasons he invented bebop was that he was pretty sure that white musicians wouldn't be able to replicate the sound. He wanted to make it too difficult to copy, and that's what fashion designers are doing all the time. +They're trying to put together a signature look, an aesthetic that reflects who they are. +When people knock it off, everybody knows because they've put that look out on the runway, and it's a coherent aesthetic. +I love these Gallianos. +Okay, we'll move on. This is not unlike the world of comedy. +I don't know if you know that jokes also can't be copyright protected. +So when one-liners were really popular, everybody stole them from one another. +But now, we have a different kind of comic. +They develop a persona, a signature style, much like fashion designers. +And their jokes, much like the fashion designs by a fashion designer, really only work within that aesthetic. +If somebody steals a joke from Larry David, for instance, it's not as funny. +Now, the other thing that fashion designers have done to survive in this culture of copying is they've learned how to copy themselves. +They knock themselves off. +They make deals with the fast fashion giants and they come up with a way to sell their product to a whole new demographic: the Santee Alley demographic. +Now, some fashion designers will say, "It's only in the United States that we don't have any respect. +In other countries there is protection for our artful designs." +But if you take a look at the two other biggest markets in the world, it turns out that the protection that's offered is really ineffectual. +In Japan, for instance, which I think is the third largest market, they have a design law; it protects apparel, but the novelty standard is so high, you have to prove that your garment has never existed before, it's totally unique. +And that's sort of like the novelty standard for a U.S. patent, which fashion designers never get -- rarely get here in the states. +In the European Union, they went in the other direction. +Very low novelty standard, anybody can register anything. +But even though it's the home of the fast fashion industry and you have a lot of luxury designers there, they don't register their garments, generally, and there's not a lot of litigation. +It turns out it's because the novelty standard is too low. +A person can come in and take somebody else's gown, cut off three inches from the bottom, go to the E.U. and register it as a new, original design. +So, that does not stop the knock-off artists. +If you look at the registry, actually, a lot of the registered things in the E.U. +are Nike T-shirts that are almost identical to one another. +But this has not stopped Diane von Furstenberg. +She is the head of the Council of Fashion Designers of America, and she has told her constituency that she is going to get copyright protection for fashion designs. +The retailers have kind of quashed this notion though. +I don't think the legislation is going anywhere, because they realized it is so hard to tell the difference between a pirated design and something that's just part of a global trend. +Who owns a look? +That is a very difficult question to answer. +It takes lots of lawyers and lots of court time, and the retailers decided that would be way too expensive. +You know, it's not just the fashion industry that doesn't have copyright protection. +There's a bunch of other industries that don't have copyright protection, including the food industry. +You cannot copyright a recipe because it's a set of instructions, it's fact, and you cannot copyright the look and feel of even the most unique dish. +Same with automobiles. +It doesn't matter how wacky they look or how cool they look, you cannot copyright the sculptural design. +It's a utilitarian article, that's why. +Same with furniture, it's too utilitarian. +Magic tricks, I think they're instructions, sort of like recipes: no copyright protection. +Hairdos, no copyright protection. +Open source software, these guys decided they didn't want copyright protection. +They thought it'd be more innovative without it. +It's really hard to get copyright for databases. +Tattoo artists, they don't want it; it's not cool. +They share their designs. +Jokes, no copyright protection. +Fireworks displays, the rules of games, the smell of perfume: no. +And some of these industries may seem sort of marginal to you, but these are the gross sales for low I.P. industries, industries with very little copyright protection, and there's the gross sales of films and books. +It ain't pretty. +So you talk to people in the fashion industry and they're like, "Shhh! +Don't tell anybody we can actually steal from each other's designs. +It's embarrassing." +But you know what? It's revolutionary, and it's a model that a lot of other industries -- like the ones we just saw with the really small bars -- they might have to think about this. +Because right now, those industries with a lot of copyright protection are operating in an atmosphere where it's as if they don't have any protection, and they don't know what to do. +When I found out that there are a whole bunch of industries that didn't have copyright protection, I thought, "What exactly is the underlying logic? +I want a picture." And the lawyers do not provide a picture, so I made one. +These are the two main sort of binary oppositions within the logic of copyright law. +It is more complex than this, but this will do. +First: Is something an artistic object? +Then it deserves protection. +Is it a utilitarian object? +Then no, it does not deserve protection. +This is a difficult, unstable binary. +The other one is: Is it an idea? +Is it something that needs to freely circulate in a free society? +No protection. +Or is it a physically fixed expression of an idea: something that somebody made and they deserve to own it for a while and make money from it? +The problem is that digital technology has completely subverted the logic of this physically fixed, expression versus idea concept. +Nowadays, we don't really recognize a book as something that sits on our shelf or music as something that is a physical object that we can hold. +It's a digital file. +It is barely tethered to any sort of physical reality in our minds. +And these things, because we can copy and transmit them so easily, actually circulate within our culture a lot more like ideas than like physically instantiated objects. +Now, the conceptual issues are truly profound when you talk about creativity and ownership and, let me tell you, we don't want to leave this just to lawyers to figure out. +They're smart. +I'm with one. He's my boyfriend, he's okay. +He's smart, he's smart. +But you want an interdisciplinary team of people hashing this out, trying to figure out: What is the kind of ownership model, in a digital world, that's going to lead to the most innovation? +And my suggestion is that fashion might be a really good place to start looking for a model for creative industries in the future. +If you want more information about this research project, please visit our website: it's ReadyToShare.org. +And I really want to thank Veronica Jauriqui for making this very fashionable presentation. +Thank you so much. +Today, I want you to look at children who become suicide bombers through a completely different lens. +In 2009, there were 500 bomb blasts across Pakistan. +I spent the year working with children who were training to become suicide bombers and with Taliban recruiters, trying to understand how the Taliban were converting these children into live ammunition and why these children were actively signing up to their cause. +I want you to watch a short video from my latest documentary film, "Children of the Taliban." +The Taliban now run their own schools. +They target poor families and convince the parents to send their children. +In return, they provide free food and shelter and sometimes pay the families a monthly stipend. +We've obtained a propaganda video made by the Taliban. +Young boys are taught justifications for suicide attacks and the execution of spies. +I made contact with a child from Swat who studied in a madrassa like this. +Hazrat Ali is from a poor farming family in Swat. +He joined the Taliban a year ago when he was 13. +How do the Taliban in your area get people to join them? +Hazrat Ali: They first call us to the mosque and preach to us. +Then they take us to a madrassa and teach us things from the Koran. +Sharmeen Obaid Chinoy: He tells me that children are then given months of military training. +HA: They teach us to use machine guns, Kalashnikov, rocket launchers, grenades, bombs. +They ask us to use them only against the infidels. +Then they teach us to do a suicide attack. +SOC: Would you like to carry out a suicide attack? +HA: If God gives me strength. +SOC: I, in my research, have seen that the Taliban have perfected the way in which they recruit and train children, and I think it's a five-step process. +Step one is that the Taliban prey on families that are large, that are poor, that live in rural areas. +They separate the parents from the children by promising to provide food, clothing, shelter to these children. +Then they ship them off, hundreds of miles away to hard-line schools that run along the Taliban agenda. +Step two: They teach the children the Koran, which is Islam's holiest book, in Arabic, a language these children do not understand and cannot speak. +They rely very heavily on teachers, who I have personally seen distort the message to these children as and when it suits their purpose to. +These children are explicitly forbidden from reading newspapers, listening to radio, reading any books that the teachers do not prescribe them. +If any child is found violating these rules, he is severely reprimanded. +Effectively, the Taliban create a complete blackout of any other source of information for these children. +Step three: The Taliban want these children to hate the world that they currently live in. +So they beat these children -- I have seen it; they feed them twice a day dried bread and water; they rarely allow them to play games; they tell them that, for eight hours at a time, all they have to do is read the Koran. +The children are virtual prisoners; they cannot leave, they cannot go home. +Their parents are so poor, they have no resources to get them back. +Step four: The older members of the Taliban, the fighters, start talking to the younger boys about the glories of martyrdom. +They talk to them about how when they die, they will be received up with lakes of honey and milk, how there will be 72 virgins waiting for them in paradise, how there will be unlimited food, and how this glory is going to propel them to become heroes in their neighborhoods. +Effectively, this is the brainwashing process that has begun. +Step five: I believe the Taliban have one of the most effective means of propaganda. +Their videos that they use are intercut with photographs of men and women and children dying in Iraq and Afghanistan and in Pakistan. +And the basic message is that the Western powers do not care about civilian deaths, so those people who live in areas and support governments that work with Western powers are fair game. +That's why Pakistani civilians, over 6,000 of whom have been killed in the last two years alone, are fair game. +Now these children are primed to become suicide bombers. +They're ready to go out and fight because they've been told that this is effectively their only way to glorify Islam. +I want you to watch another excerpt from the film. +This boy is called Zenola. +He blew himself up, killing six. +This boy is called Sadik. +He killed 22. +This boy is called Messoud. +He killed 28. +The Taliban are running suicide schools, preparing a generation of boys for atrocities against civilians. +Do you want to carry out a suicide attack? +Boy: I would love to. +But only if I get permission from my dad. +When I look at suicide bombers younger than me, or my age, I get so inspired by their terrific attacks. +SOC: What blessing would you get from carrying out a suicide attack? +Boy: On the day of judgment, God will ask me, "Why did you do that?" +I will answer, "My Lord! Only to make you happy! +I have laid down my life fighting the infidels." +Then God will look at my intention. +If my intention was to eradicate evil for Islam, then I will be rewarded with paradise. +As one Taliban recruiter told me, "There will always be sacrificial lambs in this war." +Thank you. +Do you worry about what is going to kill you? +Heart disease, cancer, a car accident? +Most of us worry about things we can't control, like war, terrorism, the tragic earthquake that just occurred in Haiti. +But what really threatens humanity? +A few years ago, Professor Vaclav Smil tried to calculate the probability of sudden disasters large enough to change history. +He called these, "massively fatal discontinuities," meaning that they could kill up to 100 million people in the next 50 years. +He looked at the odds of another world war, of a massive volcanic eruption, even of an asteroid hitting the Earth. +But he placed the likelihood of one such event above all others at close to 100 percent, and that is a severe flu pandemic. +Now, you might think of flu as just a really bad cold, but it can be a death sentence. +Every year, 36,000 people in the United States die of seasonal flu. +In the developing world, the data is much sketchier but the death toll is almost certainly higher. +You know, the problem is if this virus occasionally mutates so dramatically, it essentially is a new virus and then we get a pandemic. +In 1918, a new virus appeared that killed some 50 to 100 million people. +It spread like wildfire and some died within hours of developing symptoms. +Are we safer today? +Well, we seem to have dodged the deadly pandemic this year that most of us feared, but this threat could reappear at any time. +The good news is that we're at a moment in time when science, technology, globalization is converging to create an unprecedented possibility: the possibility to make history by preventing infectious diseases that still account for one-fifth of all deaths and countless misery on Earth. +We can do this. +We're already preventing millions of deaths with existing vaccines, and if we get these to more people, we can certainly save more lives. +But with new or better vaccines for malaria, TB, HIV, pneumonia, diarrhea, flu, we could end suffering that has been on the Earth since the beginning of time. +So, I'm here to trumpet vaccines for you. +But first, I have to explain why they're important because vaccines, the power of them, is really like a whisper. +When they work, they can make history, but after a while you can barely hear them. +Now, some of us are old enough to have a small, circular scar on our arms from an inoculation we received as children. +But when was the last time you worried about smallpox, a disease that killed half a billion people last century and no longer is with us? +Or polio? How many of you remember the iron lung? +We don't see scenes like this anymore because of vaccines. +Now, it's interesting because there are 30-odd diseases that can be treated with vaccines now, but we're still threatened by things like HIV and flu. +Why is that? +Well, here's the dirty little secret. +Until recently, we haven't had to know exactly how a vaccine worked. +We knew they worked through old-fashioned trial and error. +You took a pathogen, you modified it, you injected it into a person or an animal and you saw what happened. +This worked well for most pathogens, somewhat well for crafty bugs like flu, but not at all for HIV, for which humans have no natural immunity. +So let's explore how vaccines work. +They basically create a cache of weapons for your immune system which you can deploy when needed. +Now, when you get a viral infection, what normally happens is it takes days or weeks for your body to fight back at full strength, and that might be too late. +When you're pre-immunized, what happens is you have forces in your body pre-trained to recognize and defeat specific foes. +So that's really how vaccines work. +Now, let's take a look at a video that we're debuting at TED, for the first time, on how an effective HIV vaccine might work. +Narrator: A vaccine trains the body in advance how to recognize and neutralize a specific invader. +After HIV penetrates the body's mucosal barriers, it infects immune cells to replicate. +The invader draws the attention of the immune system's front-line troops. +Dendritic cells, or macrophages, capture the virus and display pieces of it. +Memory cells generated by the HIV vaccine are activated when they learn HIV is present from the front-line troops. +These memory cells immediately deploy the exact weapons needed. +Memory B cells turn into plasma cells, which produce wave after wave of the specific antibodies that latch onto HIV to prevent it from infecting cells, while squadrons of killer T cells seek out and destroy cells that are already HIV infected. +The virus is defeated. +Without a vaccine, these responses would have taken more than a week. +By that time, the battle against HIV would already have been lost. +Seth Berkley: Really cool video, isn't it? +The antibodies you just saw in this video, in action, are the ones that make most vaccines work. +So the real question then is: How do we ensure that your body makes the exact ones that we need to protect against flu and HIV? +The principal challenge for both of these viruses is that they're always changing. +So let's take a look at the flu virus. +In this rendering of the flu virus, these different colored spikes are what it uses to infect you. +And also, what the antibodies use is a handle to essentially grab and neutralize the virus. +When these mutate, they change their shape, and the antibodies don't know what they're looking at anymore. +So that's why every year you can catch a slightly different strain of flu. +It's also why in the spring, we have to make a best guess at which three strains are going to prevail the next year, put those into a single vaccine and rush those into production for the fall. +Even worse, the most common influenza -- influenza A -- also infects animals that live in close proximity to humans, and they can recombine in those particular animals. +In addition, wild aquatic birds carry all known strains of influenza. +So, you've got this situation: In 2003, we had an H5N1 virus that jumped from birds into humans in a few isolated cases with an apparent mortality rate of 70 percent. +Now luckily, that particular virus, although very scary at the time, did not transmit from person to person very easily. +This year's H1N1 threat was actually a human, avian, swine mixture that arose in Mexico. +It was easily transmitted, but, luckily, was pretty mild. +And so, in a sense, our luck is holding out, but you know, another wild bird could fly over at anytime. +Now let's take a look at HIV. +As variable as flu is, HIV makes flu look like the Rock of Gibraltar. +The virus that causes AIDS is the trickiest pathogen scientists have ever confronted. +It mutates furiously, it has decoys to evade the immune system, it attacks the very cells that are trying to fight it and it quickly hides itself in your genome. +Here's a slide looking at the genetic variation of flu and comparing that to HIV, a much wilder target. +In the video a moment ago, you saw fleets of new viruses launching from infected cells. +Now realize that in a recently infected person, there are millions of these ships; each one is just slightly different. +Finding a weapon that recognizes and sinks all of them makes the job that much harder. +Now, in the 27 years since HIV was identified as the cause of AIDS, we've developed more drugs to treat HIV than all other viruses put together. +These drugs aren't cures, but they represent a huge triumph of science because they take away the automatic death sentence from a diagnosis of HIV, at least for those who can access them. +The vaccine effort though is really quite different. +Large companies moved away from it because they thought the science was so difficult and vaccines were seen as poor business. +Many thought that it was just impossible to make an AIDS vaccine, but today, evidence tells us otherwise. +In September, we had surprising but exciting findings from a clinical trial that took place in Thailand. +For the first time, we saw an AIDS vaccine work in humans -- albeit, quite modestly -- and that particular vaccine was made almost a decade ago. +Newer concepts and early testing now show even greater promise in the best of our animal models. +But in the past few months, researchers have also isolated several new broadly neutralizing antibodies from the blood of an HIV infected individual. +Now, what does this mean? +We saw earlier that HIV is highly variable, that a broad neutralizing antibody latches on and disables multiple variations of the virus. +If you take these and you put them in the best of our monkey models, they provide full protection from infection. +In addition, these researchers found a new site on HIV where the antibodies can grab onto, and what's so special about this spot is that it changes very little as the virus mutates. +It's like, as many times as the virus changes its clothes, it's still wearing the same socks, and now our job is to make sure we get the body to really hate those socks. +So what we've got is a situation. +The Thai results tell us we can make an AIDS vaccine, and the antibody findings tell us how we might do that. +This strategy, working backwards from an antibody to create a vaccine candidate, has never been done before in vaccine research. +It's called retro-vaccinology, and its implications extend way beyond that of just HIV. +So think of it this way. +We've got these new antibodies we've identified, and we know that they latch onto many, many variations of the virus. +We know that they have to latch onto a specific part, so if we can figure out the precise structure of that part, present that through a vaccine, what we hope is we can prompt your immune system to make these matching antibodies. +And that would create a universal HIV vaccine. +Now, it sounds easier than it is because the structure actually looks more like this blue antibody diagram attached to its yellow binding site, and as you can imagine, these three-dimensional structures are much harder to work on. +And if you guys have ideas to help us solve this, we'd love to hear about it. +But, you know, the research that has occurred from HIV now has really helped with innovation with other diseases. +So for instance, a biotechnology company has now found broadly neutralizing antibodies to influenza, as well as a new antibody target on the flu virus. +They're currently making a cocktail -- an antibody cocktail -- that can be used to treat severe, overwhelming cases of flu. +In the longer term, what they can do is use these tools of retro-vaccinology to make a preventive flu vaccine. +Now, retro-vaccinology is just one technique within the ambit of so-called rational vaccine design. +Let me give you another example. +We talked about before the H and N spikes on the surface of the flu virus. +Notice these other, smaller protuberances. +These are largely hidden from the immune system. +Now it turns out that these spots also don't change much when the virus mutates. +If you can cripple these with specific antibodies, you could cripple all versions of the flu. +So far, animal tests indicate that such a vaccine could prevent severe disease, although you might get a mild case. +So if this works in humans, what we're talking about is a universal flu vaccine, one that doesn't need to change every year and would remove the threat of death. +We really could think of flu, then, as just a bad cold. +Of course, the best vaccine imaginable is only valuable to the extent we get it to everyone who needs it. +So to do that, we have to combine smart vaccine design with smart production methods and, of course, smart delivery methods. +So I want you to think back a few months ago. +In June, the World Health Organization declared the first global flu pandemic in 41 years. +The U.S. government promised 150 million doses of vaccine by October 15th for the flu peak. +Vaccines were promised to developing countries. +Hundreds of millions of dollars were spent and flowed to accelerating vaccine manufacturing. +So what happened? +Well, we first figured out how to make flu vaccines, how to produce them, in the early 1940s. +It was a slow, cumbersome process that depended on chicken eggs, millions of living chicken eggs. +Viruses only grow in living things, and so it turned out that, for flu, chicken eggs worked really well. +For most strains, you could get one to two doses of vaccine per egg. +Luckily for us, we live in an era of breathtaking biomedical advances. +So today, we get our flu vaccines from ... +chicken eggs, hundreds of millions of chicken eggs. +Almost nothing has changed. +The system is reliable but the problem is you never know how well a strain is going to grow. +This year's swine flu strain grew very poorly in early production: basically .6 doses per egg. +So, here's an alarming thought. +What if that wild bird flies by again? +You could see an avian strain that would infect the poultry flocks, and then we would have no eggs for our vaccines. +So, Dan [Barber], if you want billions of chicken pellets for your fish farm, I know where to get them. +So right now, the world can produce about 350 million doses of flu vaccine for the three strains, and we can up that to about 1.2 billion doses if we want to target a single variant like swine flu. +But this assumes that our factories are humming because, in 2004, the U.S. supply was cut in half by contamination at one single plant. +And the process still takes more than half a year. +So are we better prepared than we were in 1918? +Well, with the new technologies emerging now, I hope we can say definitively, "Yes." +Imagine we could produce enough flu vaccine for everyone in the entire world for less than half of what we're currently spending now in the United States. +With a range of new technologies, we could. +Here's an example: A company I'm engaged with has found a specific piece of the H spike of flu that sparks the immune system. +If you lop this off and attach it to the tail of a different bacterium, which creates a vigorous immune response, they've created a very powerful flu fighter. +This vaccine is so small it can be grown in a common bacteria, E. coli. +Now, as you know, bacteria reproduce quickly -- it's like making yogurt -- and so we could produce enough swine origin flu for the entire world in a few factories, in a few weeks, with no eggs, for a fraction of the cost of current methods. +So here's a comparison of several of these new vaccine technologies. +And, aside from the radically increased production and huge cost savings -- for example, the E. coli method I just talked about -- look at the time saved: this would be lives saved. +The developing world, mostly left out of the current response, sees the potential of these alternate technologies and they're leapfrogging the West. +India, Mexico and others are already making experimental flu vaccines, and they may be the first place we see these vaccines in use. +Because these technologies are so efficient and relatively cheap, billions of people can have access to lifesaving vaccines if we can figure out how to deliver them. +Now think of where this leads us. +New infectious diseases appear or reappear every few years. +Some day, perhaps soon, we'll have a virus that is going to threaten all of us. +Will we be quick enough to react before millions die? +Luckily, this year's flu was relatively mild. +I say, "luckily" in part because virtually no one in the developing world was vaccinated. +So if we have the political and financial foresight to sustain our investments, we will master these and new tools of vaccinology, and with these tools we can produce enough vaccine for everyone at low cost and ensure healthy productive lives. +No longer must flu have to kill half a million people a year. +No longer does AIDS need to kill two million a year. +No longer do the poor and vulnerable need to be threatened by infectious diseases, or indeed, anybody. +Instead of having Vaclav Smil's "massively fatal discontinuity" of life, we can ensure the continuity of life. +What the world needs now are these new vaccines, and we can make it happen. +Thank you very much. +Chris Anderson: Thank you. +Thank you. +So, the science is changing. +In your mind, Seth -- I mean, you must dream about this -- what is the kind of time scale on, let's start with HIV, for a game-changing vaccine that's actually out there and usable? +SB: The game change can come at any time, because the problem we have now is we've shown we can get a vaccine to work in humans; we just need a better one. +And with these types of antibodies, we know humans can make them. +So, if we can figure out how to do that, then we have the vaccine, and what's interesting is there already is some evidence that we're beginning to crack that problem. +So, the challenge is full speed ahead. +CA: In your gut, do you think it's probably going to be at least another five years? +SB: You know, everybody says it's 10 years, but it's been 10 years every 10 years. +So I hate to put a timeline on scientific innovation, but the investments that have occurred are now paying dividends. +CA: And that's the same with universal flu vaccine, the same kind of thing? +SB: I think flu is different. I think what happened with flu is we've got a bunch -- I just showed some of this -- a bunch of really cool and useful technologies that are ready to go now. +They look good. The problem has been that, what we did is we invested in traditional technologies because that's what we were comfortable with. +You also can use adjuvants, which are chemicals you mix. +That's what Europe is doing, so we could have diluted out our supply of flu and made more available, but, going back to what Michael Specter said, the anti-vaccine crowd didn't really want that to happen. +CA: And malaria's even further behind? +SB: No, malaria, there is a candidate that actually showed efficacy in an earlier trial and is currently in phase three trials now. +It probably isn't the perfect vaccine, but it's moving along. +CA: Seth, most of us do work where every month, we produce something; we get that kind of gratification. +You've been slaving away at this for more than a decade, and I salute you and your colleagues for what you do. +The world needs people like you. Thank you. +SB: Thank you. +I want to talk about what we learn from conservatives. +And I'm at a stage in life where I'm yearning for my old days, so I want to confess to you that when I was a kid, indeed, I was a conservative. +I was a Young Republican, a Teenage Republican, a leader in the Teenage Republicans. +Indeed, I was the youngest member of any delegation in the 1980 convention that elected Ronald Reagan to be the Republican nominee for president. +Now, I know what you're thinking. +You're thinking, "That's not what the Internets say." +You're thinking, "Wikipedia doesn't say this fact." +And indeed, this is just one of the examples of the junk that flows across the tubes in these Internets here. +Wikipedia reports that this guy, this former congressman from Erie, Pennsylvania was, at the age of 20, one of the youngest people at the Republican National Convention, but it's just not true. +Indeed, it drives me so nuts, let me just change this little fact here. +All right. Okay, so ... perfect. +Perfect. +Okay, speaker Lawrence Lessig, right. +Okay. +Finally, truth will be brought here. +Okay, see? It's done. It's almost done. Here we go. +"... Youngest Republican," okay, we're finished. +That's it. Please save this. +Great, here we go. +And ... Wikipedia is fixed, finally. +Okay, but no, this is really besides the point. +But the thing I want you to think about when we think about conservatives -- not so much this issue of the 1980 convention -- the thing to think about is this: They go to church. +Now, you know, I mean, a lot of people go to church. +I'm not talking about that only conservatives go to church. +And I'm not talking about the God thing. +I don't want to get into that, you know; that's not my point. +They go to church, by which I mean, they do lots of things for free for each other. +They hold potluck dinners. +Indeed, they sell books about potluck dinners. +They serve food to poor people. +They share, they give, they give away for free. +And it's the very same people leading Wall Street firms who, on Sundays, show up and share. +And not only food, right. +These very same people are strong believers, in lots of contexts, in the limits on the markets. +They are in many important places against markets. +Indeed, they, like all of us, celebrate this kind of relationship. +But they're very keen that we don't let money drop into that relationship, else it turns into something like this. +They want to regulate us, those conservatives, to stop us from allowing the market to spread in those places. +Because they understand: There are places for the market and places where the market should not exist, where we should be free to enjoy the fellowship of others. +They recognize: Both of these things have to live together. +And the second great thing about conservatives: they get ecology. +Right, it was the first great Republican president of the 20th century who taught us about environmental thinking -- Teddy Roosevelt. +They first taught us about ecology in the context of natural resources. +And then they began to teach us in the context of innovation, economics. +They understand, in that context, "free." They understand "free" is an important essential part of the cultural ecology as well. +That's the thing I want you to think about them. +Now, I know you don't believe me, really, here. +So here's exhibit number one. +I want to share with you my latest hero, Julian Sanchez, a libertarian who works at the, for many people, "evil" Cato Institute. +Okay, so Julian made this video. +He's a terrible producer of videos, but it's great content, so I'm going to give you a little bit of it. +So here he is beginning. +Julian Sanchez: I'm going to make an observation about the way remix culture seems to be evolving ... +Larry Lessig: So what he does is he begins to tell us about these three videos. +This is this fantastic Brat Pack remix set to Lisztomania. +Which, of course, spread virally. +Hugely successful. +And then some people from Brooklyn saw it. +They decided they wanted to do the same. +And then, of course, people from San Fransisco saw it. +And San Franciscans thought they had to do the same as well. +And so they're beautiful, but this libertarian has some important lessons he wants us to learn from this. +Here's lesson number one. +JS: There's obviously also something really deeply great about this. +They are acting in the sense that they're emulating the original mashup. +And the guy who shot it obviously has a strong eye and some experience with video editing. +But this is also basically just a group of friends having an authentic social moment and screwing around together. +It should feel familiar and kind of resonate for anyone who's had a sing-a-long or a dance party with a group of good friends. +LL: Or ... +JS: So that's importantly different from the earlier videos we looked at because here, remix isn't just about an individual doing something alone in his basement; it becomes an act of social creativity. +And it's not just that it yields a different kind of product at the end, it's that potentially it changes the way that we relate to each other. +All of our normal social interactions become a kind of invitation to this sort of collective expression. +It's our real social lives themselves that are transmuted into art. +LL: And so then, what this libertarian draws from these two points ... +JS: One remix is about individuals using our shared culture as a kind of language to communicate something to an audience. +Stage two, social remix, is really about using it to mediate people's relationships to each other. +First, within each video, the Brat Pack characters are used as a kind of template for performing the social reality of each group. +But there's also a dialogue between the videos, where, once the basic structure is established, it becomes a kind of platform for articulating the similarities and differences between the groups' social and physical worlds. +LL: And then, here's for me, the critical key to what Julian has to say ... +JS: Copyright policy isn't just about how to incentivize the production of a certain kind of artistic commodity; it's about what level of control we're going to permit to be exercised over our social realities -- social realities that are now inevitably permeated by pop culture. +I think it's important that we keep these two different kinds of public goods in mind. +If we're only focused on how to maximize the supply of one, I think we risk suppressing this different and richer and, in some ways, maybe even more important one. +LL: Right. Bingo. Point. +Freedom needs this opportunity to both have the commercial success of the great commercial works and the opportunity to build this different kind of culture. +And for that to happen, you need ideas like fair use to be central and protected, to enable this kind of innovation, as this libertarian tells us, between these two creative cultures, a commercial and a sharing culture. +The point is they, he, here, gets that culture. +Now, my concern is, we Dems, too often, not so much. +All right, take for example this great company. +In the good old days when this Republican ran that company, their greatest work was work that built on the past, right. +All of the great Disney works were works that took works that were in the public domain and remixed them, or waited until they entered the public domain to remix them, to celebrate this add-on remix creativity. +Indeed, Mickey Mouse himself, of course, as "Steamboat Willie," is a remix of the then, very dominant, very popular "Steamboat Bill" by Buster Keaton. +This man was a remixer extraordinaire. +He is the celebration and ideal of exactly this kind of creativity. +But then the company passes through this dark stage to this Democrat. +Wildly different. +This is the mastermind behind the eventual passage of what we call the Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act, extending the term of existing copyrights by 20 years, so that no one could do to Disney what Disney did to the Brothers Grimm. +But apparently, no brains existed in this place when Democrats passed and signed this bill into law. +Now, tiny little quibble of a footnote: Sonny Bono, you might say, was a Republican, but I don't buy it. +This guy is no Republican. +Okay, for a second example, think about this cultural hero, icon on the Left, creator of this character. +Look at the site that he built: "Star Wars" MashUps, inviting people to come and use their creative energy to produce a new generation of attention towards this extraordinarily important cultural icon. +Read the license. +The license for these remixers assigns all of the rights to the remix back to Lucas. +The mashup is owned by Lucas. +Indeed, anything you add to the mashup, music you might add, Lucas has a worldwide perpetual right to exploit that for free. +There is no creator here to be recognized. +The creator doesn't have any rights. +The creator is a sharecropper in this story. +And we should remember who employed the sharecroppers: the Democrats, right? +So the point is the Republicans here recognize that there's a certain need of ownership, a respect for ownership, the respect we should give the creator, the remixer, the owner, the property owner, the copyright owner of this extraordinarily powerful stuff, and not a generation of sharecroppers. +Now, I think there are lessons we should learn here, lessons about openness. +Our lives are sharing activities, at least in part. +Even for the head of Goldman Sachs, at least in part. +And for that sharing activity to happen, we have to have well-protected spaces of fair use. +That's number one. Number two: This ecology of sharing needs freedom within which to create. +Freedom, which means without permission from anyone, the ability to create. +And number three: We need to respect the creator, the creator of these remixes through rights that are directly tied to them. +Now, this explains the right-wing nonprofit Creative Commons. +Actually, it's not a right-wing nonprofit, but of course -- let me just tie it here -- the Creative Commons, which is offering authors this simple way to mark their content with the freedoms they intended to carry. +So that we go from a "all rights reserved" world to a "some rights reserved" world so that people can know the freedoms they have attached to the content, building and creating on the basis of this creative copyrighted work. +These tools that we built enable this sharing in parts through licenses that make it clear and a freedom to create without requiring permission first because the permission has already been granted and a respect for the creator because it builds upon a copyright the creator has licensed freely. +And it explains the vast right-wing conspiracy that's obviously developed around these licenses, as now more than 350 million digital objects are out there, licensed freely in this way. +Now that picture of an ecology of creativity, the picture of an ecology of balanced creativity, is that the ecology of creativity we have right now? +Well, as you all know, not many of us believe we do. +I tripped on the reality of this ecology of creativity just last week. +I created a video which was based on a Wireside Chat that I'd given, and I uploaded it to YouTube. +I then got this email from YouTube weirdly notifying me that there was content in that owned by the mysterious WMG that matched their content ID. +So I didn't think much about it. +And then on Twitter, somebody said to me, "Your talk on YouTube was DMCA'd. Was that your purpose?" +imagining that I had this deep conspiracy to reveal the obvious flaws in the DMCA. +I answered, "No." I didn't even think about it. +But then I went to the site and all of the audio in my site had been silenced. +My whole 45-minute video had been silenced because there were snippets in that video, a video about fair use, that included Warner Music Group music. +Now, interestingly, they still sold ads for that music, if you played the silent video. +You could still buy the music, but you couldn't hear anything because it had been silenced. +So I did what the current regime says I must do to be free to use YouTube to talk about fair use. +I went to this site, and I had to answer these questions. +And then in an extraordinarily Bart Simpson-like, juvenile way you've actually got to type out these words and get them right to reassert your freedom to speak. +And I felt like I was in third grade again. +"I will not put tacks on the teacher's chair. +I will not put tacks on the teacher's chair." +This is absurd. +It is outrageous. +It is an extraordinary perversion of the system of freedom we should be encouraging. +And the question I ask you is: Who's fighting it? +Well, interestingly, in the last presidential election, who was the number one, active opponent of this system of regulation in online speech? +John McCain. +Letter after letter attacking YouTube's refusal to be more respectful of fair use with their extraordinary notice and take down system, that led his campaign so many times to be thrown off the Internet. +Now, that was the story of me then, my good old days of right-wing lunacy. +The president, who has supported a process that secretly negotiates agreements, which effectively lock us into the insane system of DMCA that we have adopted and likely lock us down a path of three strikes, you're out that, of course, the rest of the world are increasingly adopting. +Not a single example of reform has been produced yet. +And we're not going to see this change in this system anytime soon. +So here's the lessons of openness that I think we need to learn. +Openness is a commitment to a certain set of values. +We need to speak of those values. +The value of freedom. It's a value of community. +It's a value of the limits in regulation. +It's a value respecting the creator. +Now, if we can learn those values from at least some influences on the Right, if we can take them and incorporate them, maybe we could do a little trade. +We learn those values on the Left, and maybe they'll do health care or global warming legislation or something in the Right. +Anyway, please join me in teaching these values. +Thank you very much. +We're 25, 26 years after the advent of the Macintosh, which was an astoundingly seminal event in the history of human-machine interface and in computation in general. +It fundamentally changed the way that people thought about computation, thought about computers, how they used them and who and how many people were able to use them. +It was such a radical change, in fact, that the early Macintosh development team in '82, '83, '84 had to write an entirely new operating system from the ground up. +Now, this is an interesting little message, and it's a lesson that has since, I think, been forgotten or lost or something, and that is, namely, that the OS is the interface. +The interface is the OS. +It's like the land and the king (i.e. Arthur) they're inseparable, they are one. +And to write a new operating system was not a capricious matter. +It wasn't just a matter of tuning up some graphics routines. +There were no graphics routines. There were no mouse drivers. +So it was a necessity. +But in the quarter-century since then, we've seen all of the fundamental supporting technologies go berserk. +So memory capacity and disk capacity have been multiplied by something between 10,000 and a million. +Same thing for processor speeds. +Networks, we didn't have networks at all at the time of the Macintosh's introduction, and that has become the single most salient aspect of how we live with computers. +And, of course, graphics: Today 84 dollars and 97 cents at Best Buy buys you more graphics power than you could have gotten for a million bucks from SGI only a decade ago. +So we've got that incredible ramp-up. +Then, on the side, we've got the Web and, increasingly, the cloud, which is fantastic, but also -- in the regard in which an interface is fundamental -- kind of a distraction. +So we've forgotten to invent new interfaces. +Certainly we've seen in recent years a lot of change in that regard, and people are starting to wake up about that. +So what happens next? Where do we go from there? +The problem, as we see it, has to do with a single, simple word: "space," or a single, simple phrase: "real world geometry." +Computers and the programming languages that we talk to them in, that we teach them in, are hideously insensate when it comes to space. +They don't understand real world space. +It's a funny thing because the rest of us occupy it quite frequently and quite well. +They also don't understand time, but that's a matter for a separate talk. +So what happens if you start to explain space to them? +One thing you might get is something like the Luminous Room. +The Luminous Room is a system in which it's considered that input and output spaces are co-located. +That's a strangely simple, and yet unexplored idea, right? +When you use a mouse, your hand is down here on the mouse pad. +It's not even on the same plane as what you're talking about: The pixels are up on the display. +So here was a room in which all the walls, floors, ceilings, pets, potted plants, whatever was in there, were capable, not only of display but of sensing as well. +And that means input and output are in the same space enabling stuff like this. +That's a digital storage in a physical container. +The contract is the same as with real word objects in real world containers. +Has to come back out, whatever you put in. +This little design experiment that was a small office here knew a few other tricks as well. +If you presented it with a chess board, it tried to figure out what you might mean by that. +And if there was nothing for them to do, the chess pieces eventually got bored and hopped away. +The academics who were overseeing this work thought that that was too frivolous, so we built deadly serious applications like this optics prototyping workbench in which a toothpaste cap on a cardboard box becomes a laser. +The beam splitters and lenses are represented by physical objects, and the system projects down the laser beam path. +So you've got an interface that has no interface. +You operate the world as you operate the real world, which is to say, with your hands. +Similarly, a digital wind tunnel with digital wind flowing from right to left -- not that remarkable in a sense; we didn't invent the mathematics. +But if you displayed that on a CRT or flat panel display, it would be meaningless to hold up an arbitrary object, a real world object in that. +Here, the real world merges with the simulation. +And finally, to pull out all the stops, this is a system called Urp, for urban planners, in which we give architects and urban planners back the models that we confiscated when we insisted that they use CAD systems. +And we make the machine meet them half way. +It projects down digital shadows, as you see here. +And if you introduce tools like this inverse clock, then you can control the sun's position in the sky. +That's 8 a.m. shadows. +They get a little shorter at 9 a.m. +There you are, swinging the sun around. +Short shadows at noon and so forth. +And we built up a series of tools like this. +There are inter-shadowing studies that children can operate, even though they don't know anything about urban planning: To move a building, you simply reach out your hand and you move the building. +A material wand makes the building into a sort of Frank Gehry thing that reflects light in all directions. +Are you blinding passers by and motorists on the freeways? +A zoning tool connects distant structures, a building and a roadway. +Are you going to get sued by the zoning commission? And so forth. +Now, if these ideas seem familiar or perhaps even a little dated, that's great; they should seem familiar. +This work is 15 years old. +This stuff was undertaken at MIT and the Media Lab under the incredible direction of Professor Hiroshi Ishii, director of the Tangible Media Group. +But it was that work that was seen by Alex McDowell, one of the world's legendary production designers. +But Alex was preparing a little, sort of obscure, indie, arthouse film called "Minority Report" for Steven Spielberg, and invited us to come out from MIT and design the interfaces that would appear in that film. +And the great thing about it was that Alex was so dedicated to the idea of verisimilitude, the idea that the putative 2054 that we were painting in the film be believable, that he allowed us to take on that design work as if it were an R&D effort. +And the result is sort of gratifyingly perpetual. +People still reference those sequences in "Minority Report" when they talk about new UI design. +So this led full circle, in a strange way, to build these ideas into what we believe is the necessary future of human machine interface: the Spatial Operating Environment, we call it. +So here we have a bunch of stuff, some images. +And, using a hand, we can actually exercise six degrees of freedom, six degrees of navigational control. +And it's fun to fly through Mr. Beckett's eye. +And you can come back out through the scary orangutan. +And that's all well and good. +Let's do something a little more difficult. +Here, we have a whole bunch of disparate images. +We can fly around them. +So navigation is a fundamental issue. +You have to be able to navigate in 3D. +Much of what we want computers to help us with in the first place is inherently spatial. +And the part that isn't spatial can often be spatialized to allow our wetware to make greater sense of it. +Now we can distribute this stuff in many different ways. +So we can throw it out like that. Let's reset it. +We can organize it this way. +And, of course, it's not just about navigation, but about manipulation as well. +So if we don't like stuff, or we're intensely curious about Ernst Haeckel's scientific falsifications, we can pull them out like that. +And then if it's time for analysis, we can pull back a little bit and ask for a different distribution. +Let's just come down a bit and fly around. +So that's a different way to look at stuff. +If you're of a more analytical nature then you might want, actually, to look at this as a color histogram. +So now we've got the stuff color-sorted, angle maps onto color. +And now, if we want to select stuff, 3D, space, the idea that we're tracking hands in real space becomes really important because we can reach in, not in 2D, not in fake 2D, but in actual 3D. +Here are some selection planes. +And we'll perform this Boolean operation because we really love yellow and tapirs on green grass. +So, from there to the world of real work. +Here's a logistics system, a small piece of one that we're currently building. +There're a lot of elements. +And one thing that's very important is to combine traditional tabular data with three-dimensional and geospatial information. +So here's a familiar place. +And we'll bring this back here for a second. +Maybe select a little bit of that. +And bring out this graph. +And we should, now, be able to fly in here and have a closer look. +These are logistics elements that are scattered across the United States. +One thing that three-dimensional interactions and the general idea of imbuing computation with space affords you is a final destruction of that unfortunate one-to-one pairing between human beings and computers. +That's the old way, that's the old mantra: one machine, one human, one mouse, one screen. +Well, that doesn't really cut it anymore. +In the real world, we have people who collaborate; we have people who have to work together, and we have many different displays. +And we might want to look at these various images. +We might want to ask for some help. +The author of this new pointing device is sitting over there, so I can pull this from there to there. +These are unrelated machines, right? +So the computation is space soluble and network soluble. +So I'm going to leave that over there because I have a question for Paul. +Paul is the designer of this wand, and maybe its easiest for him to come over here and tell me in person what's going on. +So let me get some of these out of the way. +Let's pull this apart: I'll go ahead and explode it. +Kevin, can you help? +Let me see if I can help us find the circuit board. +Mind you, it's a sort of gratuitous field-stripping exercise, but we do it in the lab all the time. +All right. +So collaborative work, whether it's immediately co-located or distant and distinct, is always important. +And again, that stuff needs to be undertaken in the context of space. +And finally, I'd like to leave you with a glimpse that takes us back to the world of imagery. +This is a system called TAMPER, which is a slightly whimsical look at what the future of editing and media manipulation systems might be. +We at Oblong believe that media should be accessible in much more fine-grained form. +So we have a large number of movies stuck inside here. +And let's just pick out a few elements. +We can zip through them as a possibility. +We can grab elements off the front, where upon they reanimate, come to life, and drag them down onto the table here. +We'll go over to Jacques Tati here and grab our blue friend and put him down on the table as well. +We may need more than one. +And we probably need, well, we probably need a cowboy to be quite honest. +Yeah, let's take that one. +You see, cowboys and French farce people don't go well together, and the system knows that. +Let me leave with one final thought, and that is that one of the greatest English language writers of the last three decades suggested that great art is always a gift. +And he wasn't talking about whether the novel costs 24.95 [dollars], or whether you have to spring 70 million bucks to buy the stolen Vermeer; he was talking about the circumstances of its creation and of its existence. +And I think that it's time that we asked for the same from technology. +Technology is capable of expressing and being imbued with a certain generosity, and we need to demand that, in fact. +For some of this kind of technology, ground center is a combination of design, which is crucially important. +We can't have advances in technology any longer unless design is integrated from the very start. +And, as well, as of efficacy, agency. +We're, as human beings, the creatures that create, and we should make sure that our machines aid us in that task and are built in that same image. +So I will leave you with that. Thank you. +Chris Anderson: So to ask the obvious question -- actually this is from Bill Gates -- when? (John Underkoffler: When?) CA: When real? When for us, not just in a lab and on a stage? +Can it be for every man, or is this just for corporations and movie producers? +JU: No, it has to be for every human being. +That's our goal entirely. +We won't have succeeded unless we take that next big step. +I mean it's been 25 years. +Can there really be only one interface? There can't. +CA: But does that mean that, at your desk or in your home, you need projectors, cameras? +You know, how can it work? +JU: No, this stuff will be built into the bezel of every display. +It'll be built into architecture. +The gloves go away in a matter of months or years. +So this is the inevitability about it. +CA: So, in your mind, five years time, someone can buy this as part of a standard computer interface? +JU: I think in five years time when you buy a computer, you'll get this. +CA: Well that's cool. +The world has a habit of surprising us as to how these things are actually used. +What do you think, what in your mind is the first killer app for this? +JU: That's a good question, and we ask ourselves that every day. +At the moment, our early-adopter customers -- and these systems are deployed out in the real world -- do all the big data intensive, data heavy problems with it. +So, whether it's logistics and supply chain management or natural gas and resource extraction, financial services, pharmaceuticals, bioinformatics, those are the topics right now, but that's not a killer app. +And I understand what you're asking. +CA: C'mon, c'mon. Martial arts, games. C'mon. +John, thank you for making science-fiction real. +JU: It's been a great pleasure. +Thank you to you all. +I would like to share with you this morning some stories about the ocean through my work as a still photographer for National Geographic magazine. +I guess I became an underwater photographer and a photojournalist because I fell in love with the sea as a child. +And I wanted to tell stories about all the amazing things I was seeing underwater, incredible wildlife and interesting behaviors. +And after even 30 years of doing this, after 30 years of exploring the ocean, I never cease to be amazed at the extraordinary encounters that I have while I'm at sea. +But more and more frequently these days I'm seeing terrible things underwater as well, things that I don't think most people realize. +And I've been compelled to turn my camera towards these issues to tell a more complete story. +I want people to see what's happening underwater, both the horror and the magic. +The first story that I did for National Geographic, where I recognized the ability to include environmental issues within a natural history coverage, was a story I proposed on harp seals. +The story I wanted to do initially was just a small focus to look at the few weeks each year where these animals migrate down from the Canadian arctic to the Gulf of St. Lawrence in Canada to engage in courtship, mating and to have their pups. +And all of this is played out against the backdrop of transient pack ice that moves with wind and tide. +And because I'm an underwater photographer, I wanted to do this story from both above and below, to make pictures like this that show one of these little pups making its very first swim in the icy 29-degree water. +But as I got more involved in the story, I realized that there were two big environmental issues I couldn't ignore. +The first was that these animals continue to be hunted, killed with hakapiks at about eight, 15 days old. +It actually is the largest marine mammal slaughter on the planet, with hundreds of thousands of these seals being killed every year. +But as disturbing as that is, I think the bigger problem for harp seals is the loss of sea ice due to global warming. +This is an aerial picture that I made that shows the Gulf of St. Lawrence during harp seal season. +And even though we see a lot of ice in this picture, there's a lot of water as well, which wasn't there historically. +And the ice that is there is quite thin. +The problem is that these pups need a stable platform of solid ice in order to nurse from their moms. +They only need 12 days from the moment they're born until they're on their own. +But if they don't get 12 days, they can fall into the ocean and die. +This problem has continued to grow each year since I was there. +I read that last year the pup mortality rate was 100 percent in parts of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. +So, clearly, this species has a lot of problems going forward. +This ended up becoming a cover story at National Geographic. +And it received quite a bit of attention. +And with that, I saw the potential to begin doing other stories about ocean problems. +So I proposed a story on the global fish crisis, in part because I had personally witnessed a lot of degradation in the ocean over the last 30 years, but also because I read a scientific paper that stated that 90 percent of the big fish in the ocean have disappeared in the last 50 or 60 years. +These are the tuna, the billfish and the sharks. +When I read that, I was blown away by those numbers. +I thought this was going to be headline news in every media outlet, but it really wasn't, so I wanted to do a story that was a very different kind of underwater story. +I wanted it to be more like war photography, where I was making harder-hitting pictures that showed readers what was happening to marine wildlife around the planet. +The first component of the story that I thought was essential, however, was to give readers a sense of appreciation for the ocean animals that they were eating. +You know, I think people go into a restaurant, and somebody orders a steak, and we all know where steak comes from, and somebody orders a chicken, and we know what a chicken is, but when they're eating bluefin sushi, do they have any sense of the magnificent animal that they're consuming? +These are the lions and tigers of the sea. +In reality, these animals have no terrestrial counterpart; they're unique in the world. +These are animals that can practically swim from the equator to the poles and can crisscross entire oceans in the course of a year. +If we weren't so efficient at catching them, because they grow their entire life, would have 30-year-old bluefin out there that weigh a ton. +But the truth is we're way too efficient at catching them, and their stocks have collapsed worldwide. +This is the daily auction at the Tsukiji Fish Market that I photographed a couple years ago. +And every single day these tuna, bluefin like this, are stacked up like cordwood, just warehouse after warehouse. +As I wandered around and made these pictures, it sort of occurred to me that the ocean's not a grocery store, you know. +We can't keep taking without expecting serious consequences as a result. +I also, with the story, wanted to show readers how fish are caught, some of the methods that are used to catch fish, like a bottom trawler, which is one of the most common methods in the world. +This was a small net that was being used in Mexico to catch shrimp, but the way it works is essentially the same everywhere in the world. +You have a large net in the middle with two steel doors on either end. +And as this assembly is towed through the water, the doors meet resistance with the ocean, and it opens the mouth of the net, and they place floats at the top and a lead line on the bottom. +And this just drags over the bottom, in this case to catch shrimp. +But as you can imagine, it's catching everything else in its path as well. +And it's destroying that precious benthic community on the bottom, things like sponges and corals, that critical habitat for other animals. +This photograph I made of the fisherman holding the shrimp that he caught after towing his nets for one hour. +So he had a handful of shrimp, maybe seven or eight shrimp, and all those other animals on the deck of the boat are bycatch. +These are animals that died in the process, but have no commercial value. +So this is the true cost of a shrimp dinner, maybe seven or eight shrimp and 10 pounds of other animals that had to die in the process. +I also wanted to focus on the shark fishing industry because, currently on planet Earth, we're killing over 100 million sharks every single year. +But before I went out to photograph this component, I sort of wrestled with the notion of how do you make a picture of a dead shark that will resonate with readers You know, I think there's still a lot of people out there who think the only good shark is a dead shark. +But this one morning I jumped in and found this thresher that had just recently died in the gill net. +And with its huge pectoral fins and eyes still very visible, it struck me as sort of a crucifixion, if you will. +This ended up being the lead picture in the global fishery story in National Geographic. +And I hope that it helped readers to take notice of this problem of 100 million sharks. +And because I love sharks -- I'm somewhat obsessed with sharks -- I wanted to do another, more celebratory, story about sharks, as a way of talking about the need for shark conservation. +So I went to the Bahamas because there're very few places in the world where sharks are doing well these days, but the Bahamas seem to be a place where stocks were reasonably healthy, largely due to the fact that the government there had outlawed longlining several years ago. +And I wanted to show several species that we hadn't shown much in the magazine and worked in a number of locations. +One of the locations was this place called Tiger Beach, in the northern Bahamas where tiger sharks aggregate in shallow water. +This is a low-altitude photograph that I made showing our dive boat with about a dozen of these big old tiger sharks sort of just swimming around behind. +But the one thing I definitely didn't want to do with this coverage was to continue to portray sharks as something like monsters. +I didn't want them to be overly threatening or scary. +And with this photograph of a beautiful 15-feet, probably 14-feet, I guess, female tiger shark, I sort of think I got to that goal, where she was swimming with these little barjacks off her nose, and my strobe created a shadow on her face. +And I think it's a gentler picture, a little less threatening, a little more respectful of the species. +I also searched on this story for the elusive great hammerhead, an animal that really hadn't been photographed much until maybe about seven or 10 years ago. +It's a very solitary creature. +But this is an animal that's considered data deficient by science in both Florida and in the Bahamas. +You know, we know almost nothing about them. +We don't know where they migrate to or from, where they mate, where they have their pups, and yet, hammerhead populations in the Atlantic have declined about 80 percent in the last 20 to 30 years. +You know, we're losing them faster than we can possibly find them. +This is the oceanic whitetip shark, an animal that is considered the fourth most dangerous species, if you pay attention to such lists. +But it's an animal that's about 98 percent in decline throughout most of its range. +Because this is a pelagic animal and it lives out in the deeper water, and because we weren't working on the bottom, I brought along a shark cage here, and my friend, shark biologist Wes Pratt is inside the cage. +You'll see that the photographer, of course, was not inside the cage here, so clearly the biologist is a little smarter than the photographer I guess. +And lastly with this story, I also wanted to focus on baby sharks, shark nurseries. +And I went to the island of Bimini, in the Bahamas, to work with lemon shark pups. +This is a photo of a lemon shark pup, and it shows these animals where they live for the first two to three years of their lives in these protective mangroves. +This is a very sort of un-shark-like photograph. +It's not what you typically might think of as a shark picture. +But, you know, here we see a shark that's maybe 10 or 11 inches long swimming in about a foot of water. +But this is crucial habitat and it's where they spend the first two, three years of their lives, until they're big enough to go out on the rest of the reef. +After I left Bimini, I actually learned that this habitat was being bulldozed to create a new golf course and resort. +And other recent stories have looked at single, flagship species, if you will, that are at risk in the ocean as a way of talking about other threats. +One such story I did documented the leatherback sea turtle. +This is the largest, widest-ranging, deepest-diving and oldest of all turtle species. +Here we see a female crawling out of the ocean under moonlight on the island of Trinidad. +These are animals whose lineage dates back about 100 million years. +And there was a time in their lifespan where they were coming out of the water to nest and saw Tyrannosaurus rex running by. +And today, they crawl out and see condominiums. +But despite this amazing longevity, they're now considered critically endangered. +In the Pacific, where I made this photograph, their stocks have declined about 90 percent in the last 15 years. +This is a photograph that shows a hatchling about to taste saltwater for the very first time beginning this long and perilous journey. +Only one in a thousand leatherback hatchlings will reach maturity. +But that's due to natural predators like vultures that pick them off on a beach or predatory fish that are waiting offshore. +Nature has learned to compensate with that, and females have multiple clutches of eggs to overcome those odds. +But what they can't deal with is anthropogenic stresses, human things, like this picture that shows a leatherback caught at night in a gill net. +I actually jumped in and photographed this, and with the fisherman's permission, I cut the turtle out, and it was able to swim free. +But, you know, thousands of other leatherbacks each year are not so fortunate, and the species' future is in great danger. +Another charismatic megafauna species that I worked with is the story I did on the right whale. +And essentially, the story is this with right whales, that about a million years ago, there was one species of right whale on the planet, but as land masses moved around and oceans became isolated, the species sort of separated, and today we have essentially two distinct stocks. +We have the Southern right whale that we see here and the North Atlantic right whale that we see here with a mom and calf off the coast of Florida. +Now, both species were hunted to the brink of extinction by the early whalers, but the Southern right whales have rebounded a lot better because they're located in places farther away from human activity. +The North Atlantic right whale is listed as the most endangered species on the planet today because they are urban whales; they live along the east coast of North America, United States and Canada, and they have to deal with all these urban ills. +This photo shows an animal popping its head out at sunset off the coast of Florida. +You can see the coal burning plant in the background. +They have to deal with things like toxins and pharmaceuticals that are flushed out into the ocean, and maybe even affecting their reproduction. +They also get entangled in fishing gear. +This is a picture that shows the tail of a right whale. +And those white markings are not natural markings. +These are entanglement scars. +72 percent of the population has such scars, but most don't shed the gear, things like lobster traps and crab pots. +They hold on to them, and it eventually kills them. +And the other problem is they get hit by ships. +And this was an animal that was struck by a ship in Nova Scotia, Canada being towed in, where they did a necropsy to confirm the cause of death, which was indeed a ship strike. +So all of these ills are stacking up against these animals and keeping their numbers very low. +And to draw a contrast with that beleaguered North Atlantic population, I went to a new pristine population of Southern right whales that had only been discovered about 10 years ago in the sub-Antarctic of New Zealand, a place called the Auckland Islands. +I went down there in the winter time. +And these are animals that had never seen humans before, and I was one of the first people they probably had ever seen. +And I got in the water with them, and I was amazed at how curious they were. +This photograph shows my assistant standing on the bottom at about 70 feet and one of these amazingly beautiful, 45-foot, like a city bus just swimming up, you know. +They were in perfect condition, very fat and healthy, robust, no entanglement scars, the way they're supposed to look. +You know, I read that the pilgrims, when they landed at Plymouth Rock in Massachusetts in 1620, wrote that you could walk across Cape Cod Bay on the backs of right whales. +And we can't go back and see that today, but maybe we can preserve what we have left. +And I wanted to close this program with a story of hope, a story I did on marine reserves as sort of a solution to the problem of overfishing, the global fish crisis story. +I settled on working in the country of New Zealand because New Zealand was rather progressive, and is rather progressive in terms of protecting their ocean. +And I really wanted this story to be about three things: I wanted it to be about abundance, about diversity and about resilience. +And one of the first places I worked was a reserve called Goat Island in Leigh of New Zealand. +What the scientists there told me was that when protected this first marine reserve in 1975, they hoped and expected that certain things might happen. +For example, they hoped that certain species of fish like the New Zealand snapper would return because they had been fished to the brink of commercial extinction. +And they did come back. What they couldn't predict was that other things would happen. +For example, these fish predate on sea urchins, and when the fish were all gone, all anyone ever saw underwater was just acres and acres of sea urchins. +But when the fish came back and began predating and controlling the urchin population, low and behold, kelp forests emerged in shallow water. +And that's because the urchins eat kelp. +So when the fish control the urchin population, the ocean was restored to its natural equilibrium. +You know, this is probably how the ocean looked here one or 200 years ago, but nobody was around to tell us. +I worked in other parts of New Zealand as well, in beautiful, fragile, protected areas like in Fiordland, where this sea pen colony was found. +Little blue cod swimming in for a dash of color. +In the northern part of New Zealand, I dove in the blue water, where the water's a little warmer, and photographed animals like this giant sting ray swimming through an underwater canyon. +Every part of the ecosystem in this place seems very healthy, from tiny, little animals like a nudibrank crawling over encrusting sponge or a leatherjacket that is a very important animal in this ecosystem because it grazes on the bottom and allows new life to take hold. +And I wanted to finish with this photograph, a picture I made on a very stormy day in New Zealand when I just laid on the bottom amidst a school of fish swirling around me. +And I was in a place that had only been protected about 20 years ago. +And I talked to divers that had been diving there for many years, and they said that the marine life was better here today than it was in the 1960s. +And that's because it's been protected, that it has come back. +So I think the message is clear. +The ocean is, indeed, resilient and tolerant to a point, but we must be good custodians. +I became an underwater photographer because I fell in love with the sea, and I make pictures of it today because I want to protect it, and I don't think it's too late. +Thank you very much. +Tom Green: That's a 4chan thing. +These kids on the Internet, they have this group of kids and they like to say funny words like "barrel roll." +It's a video game move from "Star Fox." +"Star Fox 20"? (Assistant: "Star Fox 64.") Tom Green: Yeah. And they've been dogging me for a year. +I got to tell you, it's driving me nuts, actually. +Sometimes I wake up in the middle of the night and I scream, "4chan!" +Christopher Poole: When I was 15, I found this website called Futaba Channel. +And it was a Japanese forum and imageboard. +That format of forum, at that time, was not well-known outside of Japan. +And so what I did is I took it, I translated it into English, and I stuck it up for my friends to use. +Now, six and a half years later, over seven million people are using it, contributing over 700,000 posts per day. +And we've gone from one board to 48 boards. +This is what it looks like. +So, what's unique about the site is that it's anonymous, and it has no memory. +There's no archive, there are no barriers, there's no registration. +These things that we're used to with forums don't exist on 4chan. +And that's led to this discussion that's completely raw, completely unfiltered. +What the site's known for, because it has this environment, is it's fostered the creation of a lot of Internet phenomena, viral videos and whatnot, known as "memes." +Two of the largest memes that have come out of this site some of you might be familiar with are these LOLcats -- just silly pictures of cats with text. +And this resonates with millions of people, apparently, because there are tens of thousands of these, and there is a whole blogging empire now dedicated to pictures like these. +And Rick Astley's kind of rebirth these past two years ... +Rickroll was this bait and switch, really simple, classic bait and switch. +Somebody says they're linking to something interesting, and you get an '80s pop song. That's all it was. +And it got big enough to the point where there was a float last year at the Macy's Thanksgiving Day parade, and Rick Astley pops out, and rickrolls millions of people on television. +There are thousands of memes that come out of the site. +There are a handful that have escaped into the mainstream, the ones I've just shown you, but every day, every month, people are producing thousands of these. +So does a site like this have rules? +We do; they're the codified rules that I've come up with, which are more-or-less ignored by the community. +And so they've come up with their own set of rules, the "Rules of the Internet." +And so there are three that I want to show you specifically. +Rule one is you don't talk about /b/. +Two is you do not talk about /b/. +And this one's kind of interesting: "If it exists, there is porn of it. No exceptions." +And I will spare you that slide. +I assure you, it is very true. +/b/ is the first board we started with, and it is, in many ways, the beating heart of the website. +It is where a third of all the traffic is going. +And /b/ is known for, more than anything, not just the memes they've created, but the exploits. +And Chris just touched on one of those a second ago, and that was the Time 100 poll. +So somebody at Time, at the magazine, thought it would be fun to nominate me for this thing they did last year. +And so they placed me on it, and the Internet got wind of it. My community decided they wanted me to win it. +I didn't instruct them to do it; they just decided that that's what they wanted. +And so, you know, 390 percent approval rating ain't so bad. +So they broke that poll. +And I ended up on top. +I ended up at this really fancy party. +But that's not what's interesting about this. +It's that they weren't putting me at the top of this list; they were actually -- it got so sophisticated to the point where they gamed all of the top 21 places to spell "mARBLECAKE. ALSO, THE GAME." +The amount of time and effort that went into that is absolutely incredible. +And "marble cake" is significant because it is the channel that this group called Anonymous organized. +Anonymous is this group of people that protested, very famously, Scientology. +The story is, Scientology had this embarrassing video of Tom Cruise. It went up online. +They got it taken offline and managed to piss off part of the Internet. +And so these people, over 7,000 people, less than one month later, organized in a hundred cities around the globe and -- this is L.A. -- protested the Church of Scientology, and they have continued to do so, now, two full years after the fact. +They are still protesting. +So we've got this activist group that's this grassroots group that's come out of the site. +And last, I'm going to show you the example, the story of Dusty the cat. +Dusty is the name that we've given to this cat. +This young man posted a video of him abusing his cat on YouTube. +And, you know, this didn't sit well with people, and so there was this outpouring of support for people to do something about this. +So what they did is they -- I mean, they put CSI to shame here -- the Internet detectives came out. +They matched, they found his MySpace. +They took the YouTube video and they mashed everything in the video. +Within 24 hours, they had his name, and within 48 hours, he was arrested. +And so, what I think is really intriguing about a community like 4chan is just that it's this open place. +As I said, it's raw, it's unfiltered. +And sites like it are kind of going the way of the dinosaur right now. +They're endangered because we're moving towards social networking. +We're moving towards persistent identity. +We're moving towards, you know, a lack of privacy, really. +We're sacrificing a lot of that, and I think in doing so, moving towards those things, we're losing something valuable. +Thank you. +Chris Anderson: Thank you. +Got a couple questions for you. +But if I ask them, is the TED website going to go down? +CP: You're lucky that this is not being streamed to them live right now. +CA: Well, you never know. Some of them -- we've got people in 75 countries out there watching. +Don't tell. +But seriously, this issue on anonymity is -- I mean, you made the case there. +But anonymity basically allows people to say anything, all the rules gone. +You've had to wrestle with issues like child pornography. +And I'm just curious whether you sometimes lie awake in the night worrying that you've opened Pandora's box. +CP: Yes and no. +I mean, for as much good that kind of comes out of this environment, there is plenty of bad. +There are plenty of downsides. +But I think that the greater good is being served here by just allowing people -- there are very few places, now, where you can go and not have identity, to be completely anonymous and say whatever you'd like. +And saying whatever you like, I think, is powerful. +Doing whatever you like is now crossing a line. +But I think it's important to have these places. +When I get emails, people say, "Thank you for giving me this place, this outlet, where I can come after work and be myself." +CA: But words, saying things, you know, can be constructive; it can be really damaging. +And if you cut the link between what is said and any attribution back to you, I mean, surely there are huge risks with that. +CP: There are, certainly. +But -- CA: Tell me about what -- I mean, I think you asked the board what you might say at TED, right? +CP: Yeah, I posted a thread on Sunday. +And within 24 hours, it had over 12,000 responses. +And the thing is, I didn't make it into that presentation because I can't read to you anything that they said, more or less. +99 percent of it is just, would have been, you know, bleeped out. +But there were some good things that came out of that too. +Love and peace were mentioned. +CA: Love and peace were mentioned, kind of with quote marks around them, right? +CP: Cats and dogs were mentioned too. +CA: And that content is all off the board now. +Right, it's gone? Or is it still up there? +CP: I stuck that thread so it lasted a few days. +It went up to about 16,000 posts, and now it has been taken off. +CA: Okay, well. +Now, I'm not sure I would have necessarily recommended everyone at TED to go and check it out anyway. +Chris, you yourself? I mean, you're a figure of some intrigue. +You've got this surprising semi-underground influence, but it's not making you a lot of money, yet. +What's the commercial picture here? +CP: The commercial picture is that there really isn't much of one, I guess. +The site has adult content on it. +I mean, obviously, it's got some very offensive, obscene content on it, just in terms of language alone. +And when you've got that, you've pretty much sacrificed any hope of making lots of money. +CA: But you still live at home, right? +CP: I actually moved out recently. +CA: That's very cool. +CP: I got out of Mom's, and I'm back in school right now. +CA: But what conversations did you or do you have with your mother about 4chan? +CP: At first, very kind of pained, awkward conversations. +The content is not dinner table conversation in the least. +But my parents -- I think part of why they kind of are able to appreciate it is because they don't understand it. +CA: And they were probably pleased to see you on top of the Time poll. +CP: Yeah. They still didn't know what to think of that though. +CA: And so, in 10 years' time, what do you picture yourself doing? +CP: That's a good question. +As I said, I just went back to school, and I am considering majoring in urban studies and then going on to urban planning, kind of taking whatever I've learned from online communities and trying to adapt that to a physical community. +CA: Chris, thank you. Absolutely fascinating. Thank you for coming to TED. +We live in difficult and challenging economic times, of course. +And one of the first victims of difficult economic times, I think, is public spending of any kind, but certainly in the firing line at the moment is public spending for science, and particularly curiosity-led science and exploration. +So I want to try and convince you in about 15 minutes that that's a ridiculous and ludicrous thing to do. +But I think to set the scene, I want to show -- the next slide is not my attempt to show the worst TED slide in the history of TED, but it is a bit of a mess. +But actually, it's not my fault; it's from the Guardian newspaper. +And it's actually a beautiful demonstration of how much science costs. +Because, if I'm going to make the case for continuing to spend on curiosity-driven science and exploration, I should tell you how much it costs. +So this is a game called "spot the science budgets." +This is the U.K. government spend. +You see there, it's about 620 billion a year. +The science budget is actually -- if you look to your left, there's a purple set of blobs and then yellow set of blobs. +And it's one of the yellow set of blobs around the big yellow blob. +It's about 3.3 billion pounds per year out of 620 billion. +That funds everything in the U.K. +from medical research, space exploration, where I work, at CERN in Geneva, particle physics, engineering, even arts and humanities, funded from the science budget, which is that 3.3 billion, that little, tiny yellow blob around the orange blob at the top left of the screen. +So that's what we're arguing about. +That percentage, by the way, is about the same in the U.S. and Germany and France. +R&D in total in the economy, publicly funded, is about 0.6 percent of GDP. +So that's what we're arguing about. +The first thing I want to say, and this is straight from "Wonders of the Solar System," is that our exploration of the solar system and the universe has shown us that it is indescribably beautiful. +This is a picture that actually was sent back by the Cassini space probe around Saturn, after we'd finished filming "Wonders of the Solar System." +So it isn't in the series. +It's of the moon Enceladus. +So that big sweeping, white sphere in the corner is Saturn, which is actually in the background of the picture. +And that crescent there is the moon Enceladus, which is about as big as the British Isles. +It's about 500 kilometers in diameter. +So, tiny moon. +What's fascinating and beautiful ... +this an unprocessed picture, by the way, I should say, it's black and white, straight from Saturnian orbit. +What's beautiful is, you can probably see on the limb there some faint, sort of, wisps of almost smoke rising up from the limb. +This is how we visualize that in "Wonders of the Solar System." +It's a beautiful graphic. +What we found out were that those faint wisps are actually fountains of ice rising up from the surface of this tiny moon. +That's fascinating and beautiful in itself, but we think that the mechanism for powering those fountains requires there to be lakes of liquid water beneath the surface of this moon. +And what's important about that is that, on our planet, on Earth, wherever we find liquid water, we find life. +So, to find strong evidence of liquid, pools of liquid, beneath the surface of a moon 750 million miles away from the Earth is really quite astounding. +So what we're saying, essentially, is maybe that's a habitat for life in the solar system. +Well, let me just say, that was a graphic. I just want to show this picture. +That's one more picture of Enceladus. +This is when Cassini flew beneath Enceladus. +So it made a very low pass, just a few hundred kilometers above the surface. +And so this, again, a real picture of the ice fountains rising up into space, absolutely beautiful. +But that's not the prime candidate for life in the solar system. +That's probably this place, which is a moon of Jupiter, Europa. +And again, we had to fly to the Jovian system to get any sense that this moon, as most moons, was anything other than a dead ball of rock. +It's actually an ice moon. +So what you're looking at is the surface of the moon Europa, which is a thick sheet of ice, probably a hundred kilometers thick. +But by measuring the way that Europa interacts with the magnetic field of Jupiter, and looking at how those cracks in the ice that you can see there on that graphic move around, we've inferred very strongly that there's an ocean of liquid surrounding the entire surface of Europa. +So below the ice, there's an ocean of liquid around the whole moon. +It could be hundreds of kilometers deep, we think. +We think it's saltwater, and that would mean that there's more water on that moon of Jupiter than there is in all the oceans of the Earth combined. +So that place, a little moon around Jupiter, is probably the prime candidate for finding life on a moon or a body outside the Earth, that we know of. +Tremendous and beautiful discovery. +Our exploration of the solar system has taught us that the solar system is beautiful. +It may also have pointed the way to answering one of the most profound questions that you can possibly ask, which is: "Are we alone in the universe?" +Is there any other use to exploration and science, other than just a sense of wonder? +Well, there is. +This is a very famous picture taken, actually, on my first Christmas Eve, December 24th, 1968, when I was about eight months old. +It was taken by Apollo 8 as it went around the back of the moon. +Earthrise from Apollo 8. +A famous picture; many people have said that it's the picture that saved 1968, which was a turbulent year -- the student riots in Paris, the height of the Vietnam War. +The reason many people think that about this picture, and Al Gore has said it many times, actually, on the stage at TED, is that this picture, arguably, was the beginning of the environmental movement. +Because, for the first time, we saw our world, not as a solid, immovable, kind of indestructible place, but as a very small, fragile-looking world just hanging against the blackness of space. +What's also not often said about the space exploration, about the Apollo program, is the economic contribution it made. +I mean while you can make arguments that it was wonderful and a tremendous achievement and delivered pictures like this, it cost a lot, didn't it? +Well, actually, many studies have been done about the economic effectiveness, the economic impact of Apollo. +The biggest one was in 1975 by Chase Econometrics. +And it showed that for every $1 spent on Apollo, 14 came back into the U.S. economy. +So the Apollo program paid for itself in inspiration, in engineering, achievement and, I think, in inspiring young scientists and engineers 14 times over. +So exploration can pay for itself. +What about scientific discovery? +What about driving innovation? +Well, this looks like a picture of virtually nothing. +What it is, is a picture of the spectrum of hydrogen. +See, back in the 1880s, 1890s, many scientists, many observers, looked at the light given off from atoms. +And they saw strange pictures like this. +What you're seeing when you put it through a prism is that you heat hydrogen up and it doesn't just glow like a white light, it just emits light at particular colors, a red one, a light blue one, some dark blue ones. +Now that led to an understanding of atomic structure because the way that's explained is atoms are a single nucleus with electrons going around them. +And the electrons can only be in particular places. +And when they jump up to the next place they can be, and fall back down again, they emit light at particular colors. +And so the fact that atoms, when you heat them up, only emit light at very specific colors, was one of the key drivers that led to the development of the quantum theory, the theory of the structure of atoms. +I just wanted to show this picture because this is remarkable. +This is actually a picture of the spectrum of the Sun. +And now, this is a picture of atoms in the Sun's atmosphere absorbing light. +And again, they only absorb light at particular colors when electrons jump up and fall down, jump up and fall down. +But look at the number of black lines in that spectrum. +And the element helium was discovered just by staring at the light from the Sun because some of those black lines were found that corresponded to no known element. +And that's why helium's called helium. +It's called "helios" -- helios from the Sun. +Now, that sounds esoteric, and indeed it was an esoteric pursuit, but the quantum theory quickly led to an understanding of the behaviors of electrons in materials like silicon, for example. +The way that silicon behaves, the fact that you can build transistors, is a purely quantum phenomenon. +So without that curiosity-driven understanding of the structure of atoms, which led to this rather esoteric theory, quantum mechanics, then we wouldn't have transistors, we wouldn't have silicon chips, we wouldn't have pretty much the basis of our modern economy. +There's one more, I think, wonderful twist to that tale. +In "Wonders of the Solar System," we kept emphasizing the laws of physics are universal. +It's one of the most incredible things about the physics and the understanding of nature that you get on Earth, is you can transport it, not only to the planets, but to the most distant stars and galaxies. +And one of the astonishing predictions of quantum mechanics, just by looking at the structure of atoms -- the same theory that describes transistors -- is that there can be no stars in the universe that have reached the end of their life that are bigger than, quite specifically, 1.4 times the mass of the Sun. +That's a limit imposed on the mass of stars. +You can work it out on a piece of paper in a laboratory, get a telescope, swing it to the sky, and you find that there are no dead stars bigger than 1.4 times the mass of the Sun. +That's quite an incredible prediction. +What happens when you have a star that's right on the edge of that mass? +Well, this is a picture of it. +This is the picture of a galaxy, a common "our garden" galaxy with, what, 100 billion stars like our Sun in it. +It's just one of billions of galaxies in the universe. +There are a billion stars in the galactic core, which is why it's shining out so brightly. +This is about 50 million light years away, so one of our neighboring galaxies. +But that bright star there is actually one of the stars in the galaxy. +So that star is also 50 million light years away. +It's part of that galaxy, and it's shining as brightly as the center of the galaxy with a billion suns in it. +That's a Type Ia supernova explosion. +Now that's an incredible phenomena, because it's a star that sits there. +It's called a carbon-oxygen dwarf. +It sits there about, say, 1.3 times the mass of the Sun. +And it has a binary companion that goes around it, so a big star, a big ball of gas. +And what it does is it sucks gas off its companion star, until it gets to this limit called the Chandrasekhar limit, and then it explodes. +And it explodes, and it shines as brightly as a billion suns for about two weeks, and releases, not only energy, but a huge amount of chemical elements into the universe. +In fact, that one is a carbon-oxygen dwarf. +Now, there was no carbon and oxygen in the universe at the Big Bang. +And there was no carbon and oxygen in the universe throughout the first generation of stars. +It was made in stars like that, locked away and then returned to the universe in explosions like that in order to recondense into planets, stars, new solar systems and, indeed, people like us. +I think that's a remarkable demonstration of the power and beauty and universality of the laws of physics, because we understand that process, because we understand the structure of atoms here on Earth. +This is a beautiful quote that I found -- we're talking about serendipity there -- from Alexander Fleming: "When I woke up just after dawn on September 28, 1928, I certainly didn't plan to revolutionize all medicine by discovering the world's first antibiotic." +Now, the explorers of the world of the atom did not intend to invent the transistor. +And they certainly didn't intend to describe the mechanics of supernova explosions, which eventually told us where the building blocks of life were synthesized in the universe. +So, I think science can be -- serendipity is important. +It can be beautiful. It can reveal quite astonishing things. +It can also, I think, finally reveal the most profound ideas to us about our place in the universe and really the value of our home planet. +This is a spectacular picture of our home planet. +Now, it doesn't look like our home planet. +It looks like Saturn because, of course, it is. +It was taken by the Cassini space probe. +But it's a famous picture, not because of the beauty and majesty of Saturn's rings, but actually because of a tiny, faint blob just hanging underneath one of the rings. +And if I blow it up there, you see it. +It looks like a moon, but in fact, it's a picture of Earth. +It was a picture of Earth captured in that frame of Saturn. +That's our planet from 750 million miles away. +I think the Earth has got a strange property that the farther away you get from it, the more beautiful it seems. +But that is not the most distant or most famous picture of our planet. +It was taken by this thing, which is called the Voyager spacecraft. +And that's a picture of me in front of it for scale. +The Voyager is a tiny machine. +It's currently 10 billion miles away from Earth, transmitting with that dish, with the power of 20 watts, and we're still in contact with it. +But it visited Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. +And after it visited all four of those planets, Carl Sagan, who's one of my great heroes, had the wonderful idea of turning Voyager around and taking a picture of every planet it had visited. +And it took this picture of Earth. +Now it's very hard to see the Earth there, it's called the "Pale Blue Dot" picture, but Earth is suspended in that red shaft of light. +That's Earth from four billion miles away. +And I'd like to read you what Sagan wrote about it, just to finish, because I cannot say words as beautiful as this to describe what he saw in that picture that he had taken. +He said, "Consider again that dot. +That's here. That's home. That's us. +On it, everyone you love, everyone you know, everyone you've ever heard of, every human being who ever was lived out their lives. +It's been said that astronomy's a humbling and character-building experience. +There is perhaps no better demonstration of the folly of human conceits than this distant image of our tiny world. +To me, it underscores our responsibility to deal more kindly with one another and to preserve and cherish the pale blue dot, the only home we've ever known." +Beautiful words about the power of science and exploration. +The argument has always been made, and it will always be made, that we know enough about the universe. +You could have made it in the 1920s; you wouldn't have had penicillin. +You could have made it in the 1890s; you wouldn't have the transistor. +And it's made today in these difficult economic times. +Surely, we know enough. +We don't need to discover anything else about our universe. +Let me leave the last words to someone who's rapidly becoming a hero of mine, Humphrey Davy, who did his science at the turn of the 19th century. +He was clearly under assault all the time. +"We know enough at the turn of the 19th century. +Just exploit it; just build things." +He said this, he said, "Nothing is more fatal to the progress of the human mind than to presume that our views of science are ultimate, that our triumphs are complete, that there are no mysteries in nature, and that there are no new worlds to conquer." +Thank you. +Hi there. +I'm going to be talking a little bit about music, machines and life. +Or, more specifically, what we learned from the creation of a very large and complicated machine for a music video. +Some of you may recognize this image. +This is the opening frame of the video that we created. +We'll be showing the video at the end, but before we do, I want to talk a little bit about what it is that they wanted. +Now, when we first started talking to OK Go -- the name of the song is "This Too Shall Pass" -- we were really excited because they expressed interest in building a machine that they could dance with. +And we were very excited about this because, of course, they have a history of dancing with machines. +They're responsible for this video, "Here It Goes Again." +50-million-plus views on YouTube. +Four guys dancing on treadmills, no cuts, just a static camera. +A fantastically viral and wonderful video. +So we were really excited about working with them. +And we sort of started talking about what it is that they wanted. +And they explained that they wanted kind of a Rube Goldberg machine. +Now, for those of you who don't know, a Rube Goldberg machine is a complicated contraption, an incredibly over-engineered piece of machinery that accomplishes a relatively simple task. +So we were excited by this idea, and we started talking about exactly what it would look like. +And we came up with some parameters, because, you know, building a Rube Goldberg machine has limitations, but it also is pretty wide open. +And we wanted to make sure that we did something that would work for a music video. +So we came up with a list of requirements, the "10 commandments," and they were, in order of ascending difficulty: The first is "No magic." +Everything that happened on screen had to be very easily understood by a typical viewer. +The rule of thumb was that, if my mother couldn't understand it, then we couldn't use it in the video. +They wanted band integration, that is, the machine acting upon the band members, specifically not the other way around. +They wanted the machine action to follow the song feeling. +So as the song picks up emotion, so should the machine get grander in its process. +They wanted us to make use of the space. +So we have this 10,000-square-foot warehouse we were using, divided between two floors. +It included an exterior loading dock. +We used all of that, including a giant hole in the floor that we actually descended the camera and cameraman through. +They wanted it messy, and we were happy to oblige. +The machine itself would start the music. +So the machine would get started, it would travel some distance, reacting along the way, hit play on an iPod or a tape deck or something that would start playback. +And the machine would maintain synchronization throughout. +And speaking of synchronization, they wanted it to sync to the rhythm and to hit specific beats along the way. +Okay. They wanted it to end precisely on time. +Okay, so now the start to finish timing has to be perfect. +And they wanted the music to drop out at a certain point in the video and actual live audio from the machine to play part of the song. +And as if that wasn't enough, all of these incredibly complicating things, right, they wanted it in one shot. +Okay. +So, just some statistics about what we went through in the process. +The machine itself has 89 distinct interactions. +It took us 85 takes to get it on film to our satisfaction. +Of those 85 takes, only three actually successfully completed their run. +We destroyed two pianos and 10 televisions in the process. +We went to Home Depot well over a hundred times. +And we lost one high-heeled shoe when one of our engineers, Heather Knight, left her high-heeled shoe -- after a nice dinner, and returned back to the build -- and left it in a pile of stuff. +And another engineer thought, "Well, that would be a really good thing to use" and ended up using it as a really nice trigger. +And it's actually in the machine. +So what did we learn from all of this? +Well, having completed this, we have the opportunity to step back and reflect on some of the things. +And we learned that small stuff stinks. +Little balls in wooden tracks are really susceptible to humidity and temperature and a little bit of dust, and they fall out of the tracks, the exact angles makes it hard to get right. +And yet, a bowling ball will always follow the same path. +It doesn't matter what temperature it is, doesn't matter what's in its way; it will pretty much get where it needs to go. +But as much as the small stuff stinks, we needed somewhere to start, so that we would have somewhere to go. +And so you have to start with it. You have to focus on it. +Small stuff stinks, but, of course, it's essential, right? +What else? Planning is incredibly important. +You know, we spent a lot of time ideating and even building some of these things. +It's been said that, "No battle plan survives contact with the enemy." +I think our enemy was physics -- and she's a cruel mistress. +Often, we had to pull things out as a result because of timing or aesthetics or whatever. +And so while planning is important, so is flexibility. +These are all things that ended up not making it into the final machine. +So also, put reliable stuff last, the stuff that's going to run every time. +Again, small to large is relevant here. +The little Lego car in the beginning of the video references the big, real car near the end of the video. +The big, real car works every time; there's no problem about it. +The little one had a tendency to try to run off the track and that's a problem. +But you don't want to have to reset the whole machine because the Lego car at the end doesn't work, right. +So you put that up front so that, if it fails, at least you know you don't have to reset the whole thing. +Life can be messy. +There were incredibly difficult moments in the building of this thing. +Months were spent in this tiny, cold warehouse. +And the wonderful elation that we had when we finally completed it. +So it's important to remember that whether it's good or it's bad, "This Too Shall Pass." +Thank you very much. +And now to introduce their music video, we have OK Go. +OK Go: An introduction. Hello TEDxUSC. +We are OK Go. +What are we doing? Oh, just hanging out with our Grammy. What what! +It think we can do better than this. Hello TEDxUSC. +We are OK Go. Have you read the "Natural Curiosity Cabinet?" +I mean, "Curiosity" -- excuse me. +Let me start again. +We need some more ridiculous things besides "The Cabinet of Natural Curiosities." +Tim's sundial hat. +Have you seen the new work they've done to the Waltz Towers? +Sorry, start again. +Dogs. +Hello, TEDxUSC. We are OK Go, and this our new video, "This Too Shall Pass." +[unclear] Kay, we can still do one better I think, yeah. +That one's pretty good. It's getting better. +One thing the world needs, one thing this country desperately needs is a better way of conducting our political debates. +We need to rediscover the lost art of democratic argument. +If you think about the arguments we have, most of the time it's shouting matches on cable television, ideological food fights on the floor of Congress. +I have a suggestion. +Look at all the arguments we have these days over health care, over bonuses and bailouts on Wall Street, over the gap between rich and poor, over affirmative action and same-sex marriage. +Lying just beneath the surface of those arguments, with passions raging on all sides, are big questions of moral philosophy, big questions of justice. +But we too rarely articulate and defend and argue about those big moral questions in our politics. +So what I would like to do today is have something of a discussion. +First, let me take a famous philosopher who wrote about those questions of justice and morality, give you a very short lecture on Aristotle of ancient Athens, Aristotle's theory of justice, and then have a discussion here to see whether Aristotle's ideas actually inform the way we think and argue about questions today. +So, are you ready for the lecture? +According to Aristotle, justice means giving people what they deserve. +That's it; that's the lecture. +Now, you may say, well, that's obvious enough. +The real questions begin when it comes to arguing about who deserves what and why. +Take the example of flutes. +Suppose we're distributing flutes. +Who should get the best ones? +Let's see what people -- What would you say? +Who should get the best flute? +You can just call it out. +(Audience: Random.) Michael Sandel: At random. You would do it by lottery. +Or by the first person to rush into the hall to get them. +Who else? +(Audience: The best flute players.) MS: The best flute players. (Audience: The worst flute players.) MS: The worst flute players. +How many say the best flute players? +Why? +Actually, that was Aristotle's answer too. +But here's a harder question. +Why do you think, those of you who voted this way, that the best flutes should go to the best flute players? +Peter: The greatest benefit to all. +MS: The greatest benefit to all. +We'll hear better music if the best flutes should go to the best flute players. +That's Peter? (Audience: Peter.) MS: All right. +Well, it's a good reason. +We'll all be better off if good music is played rather than terrible music. +But Peter, Aristotle doesn't agree with you that that's the reason. +That's all right. +Aristotle had a different reason for saying the best flutes should go to the best flute players. +He said, that's what flutes are for -- to be played well. +He says that to reason about just distribution of a thing, we have to reason about, and sometimes argue about, the purpose of the thing, or the social activity -- in this case, musical performance. +And the point, the essential nature, of musical performance is to produce excellent music. +It'll be a happy byproduct that we'll all benefit. +But when we think about justice, Aristotle says, what we really need to think about is the essential nature of the activity in question and the qualities that are worth honoring and admiring and recognizing. +One of the reasons that the best flute players should get the best flutes is that musical performance is not only to make the rest of us happy, but to honor and recognize the excellence of the best musicians. +Now, flutes may seem ... the distribution of flutes may seem a trivial case. +Let's take a contemporary example of the dispute about justice. +It had to do with golf. +Casey Martin -- a few years ago, Casey Martin -- did any of you hear about him? +He was a very good golfer, but he had a disability. +He had a bad leg, a circulatory problem, that made it very painful for him to walk the course. +In fact, it carried risk of injury. +He asked the PGA, the Professional Golfers' Association, for permission to use a golf cart in the PGA tournaments. +They said, "No. +Now that would give you an unfair advantage." +He sued, and his case went all the way to the Supreme Court, believe it or not, the case over the golf cart, because the law says that the disabled must be accommodated, provided the accommodation does not change the essential nature of the activity. +He says, "I'm a great golfer. +I want to compete. +But I need a golf cart to get from one hole to the next." +Suppose you were on the Supreme Court. +Suppose you were deciding the justice of this case. +How many here would say that Casey Martin does have a right to use a golf cart? +And how many say, no, he doesn't? +All right, let's take a poll, show of hands. +How many would rule in favor of Casey Martin? +And how many would not? How many would say he doesn't? +All right, we have a good division of opinion here. +Someone who would not grant Casey Martin the right to a golf cart, what would be your reason? +Raise your hand, and we'll try to get you a microphone. +What would be your reason? +(Audience: It'd be an unfair advantage.) MS: It would be an unfair advantage if he gets to ride in a golf cart. +All right, those of you, I imagine most of you who would not give him the golf cart worry about an unfair advantage. +What about those of you who say he should be given a golf cart? +How would you answer the objection? +Yes, all right. +Audience: The cart's not part of the game. +MS: What's your name? (Audience: Charlie.) MS: Charlie says -- We'll get Charlie a microphone in case someone wants to reply. +Tell us, Charlie, why would you say he should be able to use a golf cart? +Charlie: The cart's not part of the game. +MS: But what about walking from hole to hole? +Charlie: It doesn't matter; it's not part of the game. +MS: Walking the course is not part of the game of golf? +Charlie: Not in my book, it isn't. +MS: All right. Stay there, Charlie. +Who has an answer for Charlie? +All right, who has an answer for Charlie? +What would you say? +Audience: The endurance element is a very important part of the game, walking all those holes. +MS: Walking all those holes? +That's part of the game of golf? (Audience: Absolutely.) MS: What's your name? (Audience: Warren.) MS: Warren. +Charlie, what do you say to Warren? +Charley: I'll stick to my original thesis. +MS: Warren, are you a golfer? +Warren: I am not a golfer. +Charley: And I am. (MS: Okay.) You know, it's interesting. +In the case, in the lower court, they brought in golfing greats to testify on this very issue. +Is walking the course essential to the game? +And they brought in Jack Nicklaus and Arnold Palmer. +And what do you suppose they all said? +Yes. They agreed with Warren. +They said, yes, walking the course is strenuous physical exercise. +The fatigue factor is an important part of golf. +And so it would change the fundamental nature of the game to give him the golf cart. +Now, notice, something interesting -- Well, I should tell you about the Supreme Court first. +The Supreme Court decided. +What do you suppose they said? +They said yes, that Casey Martin must be provided a golf cart. +Seven to two, they ruled. +What was interesting about their ruling and about the discussion we've just had is that the discussion about the right, the justice, of the matter depended on figuring out what is the essential nature of golf. +And the Supreme Court justices wrestled with that question. +And Justice Stevens, writing for the majority, said he had read all about the history of golf, and the essential point of the game is to get very small ball from one place into a hole in as few strokes as possible, and that walking was not essential, but incidental. +Now, there were two dissenters, one of whom was Justice Scalia. +He wouldn't have granted the cart, and he had a very interesting dissent. +It's interesting because he rejected the Aristotelian premise underlying the majority's opinion. +He said it's not possible to determine the essential nature of a game like golf. +Here's how he put it. +"To say that something is essential is ordinarily to say that it is necessary to the achievement of a certain object. +But since it is the very nature of a game to have no object except amusement, that is, what distinguishes games from productive activity, it is quite impossible to say that any of a game's arbitrary rules is essential." +So there you have Justice Scalia taking on the Aristotelian premise of the majority's opinion. +Justice Scalia's opinion is questionable for two reasons. +First, no real sports fan would talk that way. +If we had thought that the rules of the sports we care about are merely arbitrary, rather than designed to call forth the virtues and the excellences that we think are worthy of admiring, we wouldn't care about the outcome of the game. +It's also objectionable on a second ground. +On the face of it, it seemed to be -- this debate about the golf cart -- an argument about fairness, what's an unfair advantage. +But if fairness were the only thing at stake, there would have been an easy and obvious solution. +What would it be? (Audience: Let everyone use the cart.) Let everyone ride in a golf cart if they want to. +Then the fairness objection goes away. +But letting everyone ride in a cart would have been, I suspect, more anathema to the golfing greats and to the PGA, even than making an exception for Casey Martin. +Why? +Because what was at stake in the dispute over the golf cart was not only the essential nature of golf, but, relatedly, the question: What abilities are worthy of honor and recognition as athletic talents? +Let me put the point as delicately as possible: Golfers are a little sensitive about the athletic status of their game. +After all, there's no running or jumping, and the ball stands still. +So if golfing is the kind of game that can be played while riding around in a golf cart, it would be hard to confer on the golfing greats the status that we confer, the honor and recognition that goes to truly great athletes. +That illustrates that with golf, as with flutes, it's hard to decide the question of what justice requires, without grappling with the question, "What is the essential nature of the activity in question, and what qualities, what excellences connected with that activity, are worthy of honor and recognition?" +Let's take a final example that's prominent in contemporary political debate: same-sex marriage. +There are those who favor state recognition only of traditional marriage between one man and one woman, and there are those who favor state recognition of same-sex marriage. +How many here favor the first policy: the state should recognize traditional marriage only? +And how many favor the second, same-sex marriage? +Now, put it this way: What ways of thinking about justice and morality underlie the arguments we have over marriage? +The opponents of same-sex marriage say that the purpose of marriage, fundamentally, is procreation, and that's what's worthy of honoring and recognizing and encouraging. +And the defenders of same-sex marriage say no, procreation is not the only purpose of marriage; what about a lifelong, mutual, loving commitment? +That's really what marriage is about. +So with flutes, with golf carts, and even with a fiercely contested question like same-sex marriage, Aristotle has a point. +Very hard to argue about justice without first arguing about the purpose of social institutions and about what qualities are worthy of honor and recognition. +So let's step back from these cases and see how they shed light on the way we might improve, elevate, the terms of political discourse in the United States, and for that matter, around the world. +There is a tendency to think that if we engage too directly with moral questions in politics, that's a recipe for disagreement, and for that matter, a recipe for intolerance and coercion. +So better to shy away from, to ignore, the moral and the religious convictions that people bring to civic life. +It seems to me that our discussion reflects the opposite, that a better way to mutual respect is to engage directly with the moral convictions citizens bring to public life, rather than to require that people leave their deepest moral convictions outside politics before they enter. +That, it seems to me, is a way to begin to restore the art of democratic argument. +Thank you very much. +Thank you. +Thank you. +Thank you very much. +Thanks. Thank you. +Chris. +Thanks, Chris. +Chris Anderson: From flutes to golf courses to same-sex marriage -- that was a genius link. +Now look, you're a pioneer of open education. +Your lecture series was one of the first to do it big. +What's your vision for the next phase of this? +MS: Well, I think that it is possible. +In the classroom, we have arguments on some of the most fiercely held moral convictions that students have about big public questions. +And I think we can do that in public life more generally. +CA: So you picture, at some point, live, in real time, you could have this kind of conversation, inviting questions, but with people from China and India joining in? +MS: Right. We did a little bit of it here with 1,500 people in Long Beach, and we do it in a classroom at Harvard with about 1,000 students. +Wouldn't it be interesting to take this way of thinking and arguing, engaging seriously with big moral questions, exploring cultural differences and connect through a live video hookup, students in Beijing and Mumbai and in Cambridge, Massachusetts and create a global classroom. +That's what I would love to do. +CA: So, I would imagine that there are a lot of people who would love to join you in that endeavor. +Michael Sandel. Thank you so much. (MS: Thanks so much.) +In Africa we say, "God gave the white man a watch and gave the black man time." +I think, how is it possible for a man with so much time to tell his story in 18 minutes? +I think it will be quite a challenge for me. +Most African stories these days, they talk about famine, HIV and AIDS, poverty or war. +But my story that I would like to share with you today is the one about success. +It is about a country in the southwest of Africa called Namibia. +Namibia has got 2.1 million people, but it is only twice the size of California. +I come from a region in the remote northwest part of the country. +It's called Kunene region. +And in the center of Kunene region is the village of Sesfontein. This is where I was born. +This is where I'm coming from. +Most people that are following the story of Angelina Jolie and Brad Pitt will know where Namibia is. +They love Namibia for its beautiful dunes, that are even taller than the Empire State Building. +Wind and time have twisted our landscape into very strange shapes, and these shapes are speckled with wildlife that has become so adapted to this harsh and strange land. +I'm a Himba. +You might wonder, why are you wearing these Western clothes? +I'm a Himba and Namibian. +A Himba is one of the 29 ethnic groups in Namibia. +We live a very traditional lifestyle. +I grew up herding, looking after our livestock -- goats, sheep and cattle. +And one day, my father actually took me into the bush. +He said, "John, I want you to become a good herder. +Boy, if you are looking after our livestock and you see a cheetah eating our goat -- cheetah is very nervous -- just walk up to it. +Walk up to it and smack it on the backside." +"And he will let go of the goat and run off." +But then he said, "Boy, if you run into a lion, don't move. +Don't move. Stand your ground. +Puff up and just look it in the eye and it may not want to fight you." +But then, he said, "If you see a leopard, boy, you better run like hell." +"Imagine you run faster than those goats you are looking after." +In this way -- In this way, I actually started to learn about nature. +In addition to being an ordinary Namibian and in addition to being a Himba I'm also a trained conservationist. +And it is very important if you are in the field to know what to confront and what to run from. +I was born in 1971. +We lived under apartheid regime. +The whites could farm, graze and hunt as they wished, but we black, we were not regarded as responsible to use wildlife. +Whenever we tried to hunt, we were called poachers. +And as a result, we were fined and locked up in jail. +Between 1966 and 1990, the U.S. and Soviet interests fought for control over my country. +And you know, during war time, there are militaries, armies, that are moving around. +And the army hunted for valuable rhino horns and tusks. +They could sell these things for anything between $5,000 a kilo. +During the same year almost every Himba had a rifle. +Because it was wartime, the British .303 rifle was just all over the whole country. +Then in the same time, around 1980, we had a very big drought. +It killed almost everything that was left. +Our livestock was almost at the brink of extinction, protected as well. +We were hungry. +I remember a night when a hungry leopard went into the house of one of our neighbors and took a sleeping child out of the bed. +It's a very sad story. +But even today, that memory is still in people's minds. +They can pinpoint the exact location where this all happened. +And then, in the same year, we almost lost everything. +And my father said, "Why don't you just go to school?" +And they sent me off to school, just to get busy somewhere there. +And the year I went to school, my father actually got a job with a non-governmental organization called IRDNC, Integrated Rural Development and Nature Conservation. +They actually spend a lot of time a year in the communities. +They were trusted by the local communities like our leader, Joshua Kangombe. +Joshua Kangombe saw what was happening: wildlife disappearing, poaching was skyrocketing, and the situation seemed very hopeless. +Death and despair surrounded Joshua and our entire communities. +But then, the people from IRDNC proposed to Joshua: What if we pay people that you trust to look after wildlife? +Do you have anybody in your communities, or people, that know the bush very well and that know wildlife very well? +The headman said: "Yes. Our poachers." +"Eh? The poachers?" +"Yes. Our poachers." +And that was my father. +My father has been a poacher for quite a long time. +Instead of shooting poachers dead like they were doing elsewhere in Africa, IRDNC has helped men reclaim their abilities to manage their peoples and their rights to own and manage wildlife. +And thus, as people started feeling ownership over wildlife, wildlife numbers started coming back, and that's actually becoming a foundation for conservation in Namibia. +With independence, the whole approach of community getting involved was embraced by our new government. +Three things that actually help to build on this foundation: The very first one is honoring of tradition and being open to new ideas. +Here is our tradition: At every Himba village, there is a sacred fire. +And at this sacred fire, the spirit of our ancestors speak through the headman and advise us where to get water, where to get grazings, and where to go and hunt. +And I think this is the best way of regulating ourselves on the environment. +And here are the new ideas. +Transporting rhinos using helicopters I think is much easier than talking through a spirit that you can't see, isn't it? +And these things we were taught by outsiders. +We learned these things from outsiders. +We needed new boundaries to describe our traditional lands; we needed to learn more things like GPS just to see whether -- can GPS really reflect the true reflection of the land or is this just a thing made somewhere in the West? +And we then wanted to see whether we can match our ancestral maps with digital maps made somewhere in the world. +And through this, we actually started realizing our dreams, and we maintained honoring our traditions but we were still open to new ideas. +The second element is that we wanted to have a life, a better life where we can benefit through many things. +Most poachers, like my father, were people from our own community. +They were not people from outside. +These were our own people. +And sometimes, once they were caught, they were treated with respect, brought back into the communities and they were made part of the bigger dreams. +The best one, like my father -- I'm not campaigning for my father -- they were put in charge to stop others from poaching. +And when this thing started going on, we started becoming one community, renewing our connection to nature. +And that was a very strong thing in Namibia. +The last element that actually helped develop these things was the partnerships. +Our government has given legal status over our traditional lands. +The other partners that we have got is business communities. +Business communities helped bring Namibia onto the world map and they have also helped make wildlife a very valuable land use like any other land uses such as agriculture. +And most of my conservation colleagues today that you find in Namibia have been trained through the initiative, through the involvement of World Wildlife Fund in the most up-to-date conservation practices. +They have also given funding for two decades to this whole program. +And so far, with the support of World Wildlife Fund, we've been able to scale up the very small programs to national programs today. +Namibia ... or Sesfontein was no more an isolated village somewhere, hidden away in Namibia. +With these assets we are now part of the global village. +Thirty years have passed since my father's first job as a community game guard. +It's very unfortunate that he passed away and he cannot see the success as I and my children see it today. +When I finished school in 1995, there were only 20 lions in the entire Northwest -- in our area. +But today, there are more than 130 lions. +So please, if you go to Namibia, make sure that you stay in the tents. +Don't walk out at night! +The black rhino -- they were almost extinct in 1982. +But today, Kunene has the largest concentration of black rhino -- free-roaming black rhinos -- in the world. +This is outside the protected area. +The leopard -- they are now in big numbers but they are now far away from our village, because the natural plain has multiplied, like zebras, springboks and everything. +They stay very much far away because this other thing has multiplied from less than a thousand to tens of thousands of animals. +What started as very small, community rangers getting community involved, has now grown into something that we call conservancies. +Conservancies are legally instituted institutions by the government, and these are run by the communities themselves, for their benefit. +Today, we have got 60 conservancies that manage and protect over 13 million hectares of land in Namibia. +We have already reshaped conservation in the entire country. +Nowhere else in the world has community-adopted conservation at this scale. +In 2008, conservancy generated 5.7 million dollars. +This is our new economy -- an economy based on the respect of our natural resources. +And we are able to use this money for many things: Very importantly, we put it in education. +Secondly, we put it for infrastructure. Food. +Very important as well -- we invest this money in AIDS and HIV education. +You know that Africa is being affected by these viruses. +And this is the good news from Africa that we have to shout from the rooftops. +I like that one: Namibia serving as a model to Africa, and Africa serving as a model to the United States. +We were successful in Namibia because we dreamed of a future that was much more than just a healthy wildlife. +We knew conservation would fail if it doesn't work to improve the lives of the local communities. +So, come and talk to me about Namibia, and better yet, come to Namibia and see for yourself how we have done it. +And please, do visit our website to learn more and see how you can help CBNRM in Africa and across the world. +Thank you very much. +Those of you who may remember me from TEDGlobal remember me asking a few questions which still preoccupy me. +One of them was: Why is it necessary to spend six billion pounds speeding up the Eurostar train when, for about 10 percent of that money, you could have top supermodels, male and female, serving free Chateau Petrus to all the passengers for the entire duration of the journey? +You'd still have five billion left in change, and people would ask for the trains to be slowed down. +So there seems to be a complete disconnect here. +So what I'm asking for is the creation of a new job title -- I'll come to this a little later -- and perhaps the addition of a new word into the English language. +Because it does seem to me that large organizations including government, which is, of course, the largest organization of all, have actually become completely disconnected with what actually matters to people. +Let me give you one example of this. +You may remember this as the AOL-Time Warner merger, okay, heralded at the time as the largest single deal of all time. +It may still be, for all I know. +Now, all of you in this room, in one form or other, are probably customers of one or both of those organizations that merged. +Just interested, did anybody notice anything different as a result of this at all? +So unless you happened to be a shareholder of one or the other organizations or one of the dealmakers or lawyers involved in the no-doubt lucrative activity, you're actually engaging in a huge piece of activity that meant absolutely bugger-all to anybody, okay? +By contrast, years of marketing have taught me that if you actually want people to remember you and to appreciate what you do, the most potent things are actually very, very small. +This is from Virgin Atlantic upper-class, it's the cruet salt and pepper set. +Quite nice in itself, they're little, sort of, airplane things. +What's really, really sweet is every single person looking at these things has exactly the same mischievous thought, which is, "I reckon I can heist these." +However, you pick them up and underneath, actually engraved in the metal, are the words, "Stolen from Virgin Atlantic Airways upper-class." +Now, years after you remember the strategic question of whether you're flying in a 777 or an Airbus, you remember those words and that experience. +Similarly, this is from a hotel in Stockholm, the Lydmar. +Has anybody stayed there? +It's the lift, it's a series of buttons in the lift. +Nothing unusual about that at all, except that these are actually not the buttons that take you to an individual floor. +It starts with garage at the bottom, I suppose, appropriately, but it doesn't go up garage, grand floor, mezzanine, one, two, three, four. +It actually says garage, funk, rhythm and blues. +You have a series of buttons. You actually choose your lift music. +My guess is that the cost of installing this in the lift in the Lydmar Hotel in Stockholm is probably 500 to 1,000 pounds max. +It's frankly more memorable than all those millions of hotels we've all stayed at that tell you that your room has actually been recently renovated at a cost of 500,000 dollars, in order to make it resemble every other hotel room you've ever stayed in in the entire course of your life. +Now, these are trivial marketing examples, I accept. +But I was at a TED event recently and Esther Duflo, probably one of the leading experts in, effectively, the eradication of poverty in the developing world, actually spoke. +And she came across a similar example of something that fascinated me as being something which, in a business context or a government context, would simply be so trivial a solution as to seem embarrassing. +It was simply to encourage the inoculation of children by, not only making it a social event -- I think good use of behavioral economics in that, if you turn up with several other mothers to have your child inoculated, your sense of confidence is much greater than if you turn up alone. +But secondly, to incentivize that inoculation by giving a kilo of lentils to everybody who participated. +It's a tiny, tiny thing. +If you're a senior person at UNESCO and someone says, "So what are you doing to eradicate world poverty?" +you're not really confident standing up there saying, "I've got it cracked; it's the lentils," are you? +Our own sense of self-aggrandizement feels that big important problems need to have big important, and most of all, expensive solutions attached to them. +But everything about institutions makes them uncomfortable with that disproportionality. +So what happens in an institution is the very person who has the power to solve the problem also has a very, very large budget. +And once you have a very, very large budget, you actually look for expensive things to spend it on. +What is completely lacking is a class of people who have immense amounts of power, but no money at all. +It's those people I'd quite like to create in the world going forward. +Now, here's another thing that happens, which is what I call sometimes "Terminal 5 syndrome," which is that big, expensive things get big, highly-intelligent attention, and they're great, and Terminal 5 is absolutely magnificent, until you get down to the small detail, the usability, which is the signage, which is catastrophic. +You come out of "Arrive" at the airport, and you follow a big yellow sign that says "Trains" and it's in front of you. +So you walk for another hundred yards, expecting perhaps another sign, that might courteously be yellow, in front of you and saying "Trains." +No, no, no, the next one is actually blue, to your left, and says "Heathrow Express." +I mean, it could almost be rather like that scene from the film "Airplane." +A yellow sign? That's exactly what they'll be expecting. +Actually, what happens in the world increasingly -- now, all credit to the British Airport Authority. +I spoke about this before, and a brilliant person got in touch with me and said, "Okay, what can you do?" +So I did come up with five suggestions, which they are actually actioning. +One of them also being, although logically it's quite a good idea to have a lift with no up and down button in it, if it only serves two floors, it's actually bloody terrifying, okay? +Because when the door closes and there's nothing for you to do, you've actually just stepped into a Hammer film. +So these questions ... what is happening in the world is the big stuff, actually, is done magnificently well. +But the small stuff, what you might call the user interface, is done spectacularly badly. +But also, there seems to be a complete sort of gridlock in terms of solving these small solutions. +Because the people who can actually solve them actually are too powerful and too preoccupied with something they think of as "strategy" to actually solve them. +I tried this exercise recently, talking about banking. +They said, "Can we do an advertising campaign? +What can we do and encourage more online banking?" +I said, "It's really, really easy." +I said, "When people login to their online bank there are lots and lots of things they'd probably quite like to look at. +The last thing in the world you ever want to see is your balance." +I've got friends who actually never use their own bank cash machines because there's the risk that it might display their balance on the screen. +Why would you willingly expose yourself to bad news? +Okay, you simply wouldn't. +I said, "If you make, actually, 'Tell me my balance.' If you make that an option rather than the default, you'll find twice as many people log on to online banking, and they do it three times as often." +Let's face it, most of us -- how many of you actually check your balance before you remove cash from a cash machine? +And you're pretty rich by the standards of the world at large. +Now, interesting that no single person does that, or at least can admit to being so anal as to do it. +But what's interesting about that suggestion was that, to implement that suggestion wouldn't cost 10 million pounds; it wouldn't involve large amounts of expenditure; it would actually cost about 50 quid. +And yet, it never happens. +Because there's a fundamental disconnect, as I said, that actually, the people with the power want to do big expensive things. +And there's to some extent a big strategy myth that's prevalent in business now. +And if you think about it, it's very, very important that the strategy myth is maintained. +But what is happening is that effectively -- and the invention of the spreadsheet hasn't helped this; lots of things haven't helped this -- business and government suffers from a kind of physics envy. +It wants the world to be the kind of place where the input and the change are proportionate. +It's a kind of mechanistic world that we'd all love to live in where, effectively, it sits very nicely on spreadsheets, everything is numerically expressible, and the amount you spend on something is proportionate to the scale of your success. +That's the world people actually want. +In truth, we do live in a world that science can understand. +Unfortunately, the science is probably closer to being climatology in that in many cases, very, very small changes can have disproportionately huge effects, and equally, vast areas of activity, enormous mergers, can actually accomplish absolutely bugger-all. +But it's very, very uncomfortable for us to actually acknowledge that we're living in such a world. +But what I'm saying is we could just make things a little bit better for ourselves if we looked at it in this very simple four-way approach. +That is actually strategy, and I'm not denying that strategy has a role. +You know, there are cases where you spend quite a lot of money and you accomplish quite a lot. +And I'd be wrong to dis that completely. +Moving over, we come, of course, to consultancy. +I thought it was very indecent of Accenture to ditch Tiger Woods in such a sort of hurried and hasty way. +I mean, Tiger surely was actually obeying the Accenture model. +He developed an interesting outsourcing model for sexual services, no longer tied to a single monopoly provider, in many cases, sourcing things locally, and of course, the ability to have between one and three girls delivered at any time led for better load-balancing. +So what Accenture suddenly found so unattractive about that, I'm not sure. +Then there are other things that don't cost much and achieve absolutely nothing. +That's called trivia. +But there's a fourth thing. +And the fundamental problem is we don't actually have a word for this stuff. +We don't know what to call it. +And actually we don't spend nearly enough money looking for those things, looking for those tiny things that may or may not work, but which, if they do work, can have a success absolutely out of proportion to their expense, their efforts and the disruption they cause. +So the first thing I'd like is a competition -- to anybody watching this as a film -- is to come up with a name for that stuff on the bottom right. +And the second thing, I think, is that the world needs to have people in charge of that. +That's why I call for the "Chief Detail Officer." +Every corporation should have one, and every government should have a Ministry of Detail. +And if actually we created a Ministry of Detail and business actually had Chief Detail Officers, then that fourth quadrant, which is so woefully neglected at the moment, might finally get the attention it deserves. +Thank you very much. +Chris Anderson: We're having a debate. +The debate is over the proposition: "What the world needs now is nuclear energy." True or false? +And before we have the debate, I'd like to actually take a show of hands -- on balance, right now, are you for or against this? +So those who are "yes," raise your hand. "For." +Okay, hands down. +Those who are against, raise your hands. +Okay, I'm reading that at about 75 to 25 in favor at the start. +Which means we're going to take a vote at the end and see how that shifts, if at all. +So here's the format: They're going to have six minutes each, and then after one little, quick exchange between them, I want two people on each side of this debate in the audience to have 30 seconds to make one short, crisp, pungent, powerful point. +So, in favor of the proposition, possibly shockingly, is one of, truly, the founders of the environmental movement, a long-standing TEDster, the founder of the Whole Earth Catalog, someone we all know and love, Stewart Brand. +Stewart Brand: Whoa. +The saying is that with climate, those who know the most are the most worried. +With nuclear, those who know the most are the least worried. +A classic example is James Hansen, a NASA climatologist pushing for 350 parts per million carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. +He came out with a wonderful book recently called "Storms of My Grandchildren." +And Hansen is hard over for nuclear power, as are most climatologists who are engaging this issue seriously. +This is the design situation: a planet that is facing climate change and is now half urban. +Look at the client base for this. +Five out of six of us live in the developing world. +We are moving to cities. We are moving up in the world. +And we are educating our kids, having fewer kids, basically good news all around. +But we move to cities, toward the bright lights, and one of the things that is there that we want, besides jobs, is electricity. +And if it isn't easily gotten, we'll go ahead and steal it. +This is one of the most desired things by poor people all over the world, in the cities and in the countryside. +Electricity for cities, at its best, is what's called baseload electricity. +That's where it is on all the time. +And so far there are only three major sources of that -- coal and gas, hydro-electric, which in most places is maxed-out -- and nuclear. +I would love to have something in the fourth place here, but in terms of constant, clean, scalable energy, [solar] and wind and the other renewables aren't there yet because they're inconstant. +Nuclear is and has been for 40 years. +Now, from an environmental standpoint, the main thing you want to look at is what happens to the waste from nuclear and from coal, the two major sources of electricity. +If all of your electricity in your lifetime came from nuclear, the waste from that lifetime of electricity would go in a Coke can -- a pretty heavy Coke can, about two pounds. +But one day of coal adds up to one hell of a lot of carbon dioxide in a normal one-gigawatt coal-fired plant. +Then what happens to the waste? +The nuclear waste typically goes into a dry cask storage out back of the parking lot at the reactor site because most places don't have underground storage yet. +It's just as well, because it can stay where it is. +While the carbon dioxide, vast quantities of it, gigatons, goes into the atmosphere where we can't get it back -- yet -- and where it is causing the problems that we're most concerned about. +So when you add up the greenhouse gases in the lifetime of these various energy sources, nuclear is down there with wind and hydro, below solar and way below, obviously, all the fossil fuels. +Wind is wonderful; I love wind. +I love being around these big wind generators. +But one of the things we're discovering is that wind, like solar, is an actually relatively dilute source of energy. +And so it takes a very large footprint on the land, a very large footprint in terms of materials, five to 10 times what you'd use for nuclear, and typically to get one gigawatt of electricity is on the order of 250 square miles of wind farm. +In places like Denmark and Germany, they've maxed out on wind already. +They've run out of good sites. +The power lines are getting overloaded. +And you peak out. +Likewise, with solar, especially here in California, we're discovering that the 80 solar farm schemes that are going forward want to basically bulldoze 1,000 square miles of southern California desert. +Well, as an environmentalist, we would rather that didn't happen. +It's okay on frapped-out agricultural land. +Solar's wonderful on rooftops. +But out in the landscape, one gigawatt is on the order of 50 square miles of bulldozed desert. +When you add all these things up -- Saul Griffith did the numbers and figured out what would it take to get 13 clean terawatts of energy from wind, solar and biofuels, and that area would be roughly the size of the United States, an area he refers to as "Renewistan." +A guy who's added it up all this very well is David Mackay, a physicist in England, and in his wonderful book, "Sustainable Energy," among other things, he says, "I'm not trying to be pro-nuclear. I'm just pro-arithmetic." +In terms of weapons, the best disarmament tool so far is nuclear energy. +We have been taking down the Russian warheads, turning it into electricity. +Ten percent of American electricity comes from decommissioned warheads. +We haven't even started the American stockpile. +I think of most interest to a TED audience would be the new generation of reactors that are very small, down around 10 to 125 megawatts. +This is one from Toshiba. +Here's one the Russians are already building that floats on a barge. +And that would be very interesting in the developing world. +Typically, these things are put in the ground. +They're referred to as nuclear batteries. +They're incredibly safe, weapons proliferation-proof and all the rest of it. +Here is a commercial version from New Mexico called the Hyperion, and another one from Oregon called NuScale. +Babcock & Wilcox that make nuclear reactors, here's an integral fast reactor. +Thorium reactor that Nathan Myhrvold's involved in. +The governments of the world are going to have to decide that coals need to be made expensive, and these will go ahead. +And here's the future. +CA: Okay. Okay. +So arguing against, a man who's been at the nitty, gritty heart of the energy debate and the climate change debate for years. +In 2000, he discovered that soot was probably the second leading cause of global warming, after CO2. +His team have been making detailed calculations of the relative impacts of different energy sources. +His first time at TED, possibly a disadvantage -- we shall see -- from Stanford, Professor Mark Jacobson. Good luck. +Mark Jacobson: Thank you. +So my premise here is that nuclear energy puts out more carbon dioxide, puts out more air pollutants, enhances mortality more and takes longer to put up than real renewable energy systems, namely wind, solar, geothermal power, hydro-tidal wave power. +And it also enhances nuclear weapons proliferation. +So let's start just by looking at the CO2 emissions from the life cycle. +CO2e emissions are equivalent emissions of all the greenhouse gases and particles that cause warming and converted to CO2. +And if you look, wind and concentrated solar have the lowest CO2 emissions, if you look at the graph. +Nuclear -- there are two bars here. +One is a low estimate, and one is a high estimate. +The low estimate is the nuclear energy industry estimate of nuclear. +The high is the average of 103 scientific, peer-reviewed studies. +And this is just the CO2 from the life cycle. +If we look at the delays, it takes between 10 and 19 years to put up a nuclear power plant from planning to operation. +This includes about three and a half to six years for a site permit. +and another two and a half to four years for a construction permit and issue, and then four to nine years for actual construction. +And in China, right now, they're putting up five gigawatts of nuclear. +And the average, just for the construction time of these, is 7.1 years on top of any planning times. +While you're waiting around for your nuclear, you have to run the regular electric power grid, which is mostly coal in the United States and around the world. +And the chart here shows the difference between the emissions from the regular grid, resulting if you use nuclear, or anything else, versus wind, CSP or photovoltaics. +Wind takes about two to five years on average, same as concentrated solar and photovoltaics. +So the difference is the opportunity cost of using nuclear versus wind, or something else. +So if you add these two together, alone, you can see a separation that nuclear puts out at least nine to 17 times more CO2 equivalent emissions than wind energy. +And this doesn't even account for the footprint on the ground. +If you look at the air pollution health effects, this is the number of deaths per year in 2020 just from vehicle exhaust. +Let's say we converted all the vehicles in the United States to battery electric vehicles, hydrogen fuel cell vehicles or flex fuel vehicles run on E85. +Well, right now in the United States, 50 to 100,000 people die per year from air pollution, and vehicles are about 25,000 of those. +In 2020, the number will go down to 15,000 due to improvements. +And so, on the right, you see gasoline emissions, the death rates of 2020. +If you go to corn or cellulosic ethanol, you'd actually increase the death rate slightly. +If you go to nuclear, you do get a big reduction, but it's not as much as with wind and concentrated solar. +Now if you consider the fact that nuclear weapons proliferation is associated with nuclear energy proliferation, because we know for example, India and Pakistan developed nuclear weapons secretly by enriching uranium in nuclear energy facilities. +North Korea did that to some extent. +Iran is doing that right now. +And Venezuela would be doing it if they started with their nuclear energy facilities. +would be this. +So, do we need this? +The next thing is: What about the footprint? Stewart mentioned the footprint. +Actually, the footprint on the ground for wind is by far the smallest of any energy source in the world. +That, because the footprint, as you can see, is just the pole touching the ground. +And you can power the entire U.S. vehicle fleet with 73,000 to 145,000 five-megawatt wind turbines. +That would take between one and three square kilometers of footprint on the ground, entirely. +The spacing is something else. +That's the footprint that is always being confused. +People confuse footprint with spacing. +As you can see from these pictures, the spacing between can be used for multiple purposes including agricultural land, range land or open space. +Over the ocean, it's not even land. +Now if we look at nuclear -- With nuclear, what do we have? +We have facilities around there. You also have a buffer zone that's 17 square kilometers. +And you have the uranium mining that you have to deal with. +Now if we go to the area, lots is worse than nuclear or wind. +For example, cellulosic ethanol, to power the entire U.S. vehicle fleet, this is how much land you would need. +That's cellulosic, second generation biofuels from prairie grass. +Here's corn ethanol. It's smaller. +This is based on ranges from data, but if you look at nuclear, it would be the size of Rhode Island to power the U.S. vehicle fleet. +For wind, there's a larger area, but much smaller footprint. +And of course, with wind, you could put it all over the East Coast, offshore theoretically, or you can split it up. +And now, if you go back to looking at geothermal, it's even smaller than both, and solar is slightly larger than the nuclear spacing, but it's still pretty small. +And this is to power the entire U.S. vehicle fleet. +To power the entire world with 50 percent wind, you would need about one percent of world land. +Matching the reliability, base load is actually irrelevant. +We want to match the hour-by-hour power supply. +You can do that by combining renewables. +This is from real data in California, looking at wind data and solar data. +And it considers just using existing hydro to match the hour-by-hour power demand. +Here are the world wind resources. +There's five to 10 times more wind available worldwide than we need for all the world. +So then here's the final ranking. +And one last slide I just want to show. This is the choice: You can either have wind or nuclear. +If you use wind, you guarantee ice will last. +Nuclear, the time lag alone will allow the Arctic to melt and other places to melt more. +And we can guarantee a clean, blue sky or an uncertain future with nuclear power. +CA: All right. +So while they're having their comebacks on each other -- and yours is slightly short because you slightly overran -- I need two people from either side. +So if you're for this, if you're for nuclear power, put up two hands. +If you're against, put up one. +And I want two of each for the mics. +Now then, you guys have -- you have a minute comeback on him to pick up a point he said, challenge it, whatever. +SB: I think a point of difference we're having, Mark, has to do with weapons and energy. +These diagrams that show that nuclear is somehow putting out a lot of greenhouse gases -- a lot of those studies include, "Well of course war will be inevitable and therefore we'll have cities burning and stuff like that," which is kind of finessing it a little bit, I think. +The reality is that there's, what, 21 nations that have nuclear power? +Of those, seven have nuclear weapons. +In every case, they got the weapons before they got the nuclear power. +There are two nations, North Korea and Israel, that have nuclear weapons and don't have nuclear power at all. +The places that we would most like to have really clean energy occur are China, India, Europe, North America, all of which have sorted out their situation in relation to nuclear weapons. +So that leaves a couple of places like Iran, maybe Venezuela, that you would like to have very close surveillance of anything that goes on with fissile stuff. +Pushing ahead with nuclear power will mean we really know where all of the fissile material is, and we can move toward zero weapons left, once we know all that. +CA: Mark, 30 seconds, either on that or on anything Stewart said. +MJ: Well we know India and Pakistan had nuclear energy first, and then they developed nuclear weapons secretly in the factories. +So the other thing is, we don't need nuclear energy. +There's plenty of solar and wind. +You can make it reliable, as I showed with that diagram. +That's from real data. +And this is an ongoing research. This is not rocket science. +Solving the world's problems can be done, if you really put your mind to it and use clean, renewable energy. +There's absolutely no need for nuclear power. +CA: We need someone for. +Rod Beckstrom: Thank you Chris. I'm Rod Beckstrom, CEO of ICANN. +I've been involved in global warming policy since 1994, when I joined the board of Environmental Defense Fund that was one of the crafters of the Kyoto Protocol. +And I want to support Stewart Brand's position. +I've come around in the last 10 years. +I used to be against nuclear power. +I'm now supporting Stewart's position, softly, from a risk-management standpoint, agreeing that the risks of overheating the planet outweigh the risk of nuclear incident, which certainly is possible and is a very real problem. +However, I think there may be a win-win solution here where both parties can win this debate, and that is, we face a situation where it's carbon caps on this planet or die. +And in the United States Senate, we need bipartisan support -- only one or two votes are needed -- to move global warming through the Senate, and this room can help. +So if we get that through, then Mark will solve these problems. Thanks Chris. +CA: Thank you Rod Beckstrom. Against. +David Fanton: Hi, I'm David Fanton. I just want to say a couple quick things. +The first is: be aware of the propaganda. +The propaganda from the industry has been very, very strong. +And we have not had the other side of the argument fully aired so that people can draw their own conclusions. +Be very aware of the propaganda. +Secondly, think about this. +If we build all these nuclear power plants, all that waste is going to be on hundreds, if not thousands, of trucks and trains, moving through this country every day. +Tell me they're not going to have accidents. +Tell me that those accidents aren't going to put material into the environment that is poisonous for hundreds of thousands of years. +And then tell me that each and every one of those trucks and trains isn't a potential terrorist target. +CA: Thank you. +For. +Anyone else for? Go. +Alex: Hi, I'm Alex. I just wanted to say, I'm, first of all, renewable energy's biggest fan. +I've got solar PV on my roof. +I've got a hydro conversion at a watermill that I own. +And I'm, you know, very much "pro" that kind of stuff. +However, there's a basic arithmetic problem here. +The capability of the sun shining, the wind blowing and the rain falling, simply isn't enough to add up. +So if we want to keep the lights on, we actually need a solution which is going to keep generating all of the time. +I campaigned against nuclear weapons in the '80s, and I continue to do so now. +But we've got an opportunity to recycle them into something more useful that enables us to get energy all of the time. +And, ultimately, the arithmetic problem isn't going to go away. +We're not going to get enough energy from renewables alone. +We need a solution that generates all of the time. +If we're going to keep the lights on, nuclear is that solution. +CA: Thank you. +Anyone else against? +Man: The last person who was in favor made the premise that we don't have enough alternative renewable resources. +And our "against" proponent up here made it very clear that we actually do. +And so the fallacy that we need this resource and we can actually make it in a time frame that is meaningful is not possible. +I will also add one other thing. +Ray Kurzweil and all the other talks -- we know that the stick is going up exponentially. +So you can't look at state-of-the-art technologies in renewables and say, "That's all we have." +Because five years from now, it will blow you away what we'll actually have as alternatives to this horrible, disastrous nuclear power. +CA: Point well made. Thank you. +So each of you has really just a couple sentences -- 30 seconds each to sum up. +Your final pitch, Stewart. +SB: I loved your "It all balances out" chart that you had there. +It was a sunny day and a windy night. +And just now in England they had a cold spell. +All of the wind in the entire country shut down for a week. +None of those things were stirring. +And as usual, they had to buy nuclear power from France. +Two gigawatts comes through the Chunnel. +This keeps happening. +I used to worry about the 10,000 year factor. +And the fact is, we're going to use the nuclear waste we have for fuel in the fourth generation of reactors that are coming along. +And especially the small reactors need to go forward. +I heard from Nathan Myhrvold -- and I think here's the action point -- it'll take an act of Congress to make the Nuclear Regulatory Commission start moving quickly on these small reactors, which we need very much, here and in the world. +MJ: So we've analyzed the hour-by-hour power demand and supply, looking at solar, wind, using data for California. +And you can match that demand, hour-by-hour, for the whole year almost. +Now, with regard to the resources, we've developed the first wind map of the world, from data alone, at 80 meters. +We know what the wind resources are. You can cover 15 percent. +Fifteen percent of the entire U.S. +has wind at fast enough speeds to be cost-competitive. +And there's much more solar than there is wind. +There's plenty of resource. You can make it reliable. +CA: Okay. So, thank you, Mark. +So if you were in Palm Springs ... +Shameless. Shameless. Shameless. +So, people of the TED community, I put it to you that what the world needs now is nuclear energy. +All those in favor, raise your hands. +And all those against. +Ooooh. +Now that is -- my take on that ... +Just put up ... Hands up, people who changed their minds during the debate, who voted differently. +Those of you who changed your mind in favor of "for" put your hands up. +Okay. So here's the read on it. +Both people won supporters, but on my count, the mood of the TED community shifted from about 75 to 25 to about 65 to 35 in favor, in favor. +You both won. I congratulate both of you. +Thank you for that. +This is the venue where, as a young man, some of the music that I wrote was first performed. +It was, remarkably, a pretty good sounding room. +With all the uneven walls and all the crap everywhere, it actually sounded pretty good. +This is a song that was recorded there. +This is not Talking Heads, in the picture anyway. +(Music: "A Clean Break (Let's Work)" by Talking Heads) So the nature of the room meant that words could be understood. +The lyrics of the songs could be pretty much understood. +The sound system was kind of decent. +And there wasn't a lot of reverberation in the room. +So the rhythms could be pretty intact too, pretty concise. +Other places around the country had similar rooms. +This is Tootsie's Orchid Lounge in Nashville. +The music was in some ways different, but in structure and form, The clientele behavior was very much the same too. +And so the bands at Tootsie's or at CBGB's had to play loud enough -- the volume had to be loud enough to overcome people falling down, shouting out and doing whatever else they were doing. +Since then, I've played other places that are much nicer. +I've played the Disney Hall here and Carnegie Hall and places like that. +And it's been very exciting. +But I also noticed that sometimes the music that I had written, or was writing at the time, didn't sound all that great in some of those halls. +We managed, but sometimes those halls didn't seem exactly suited to the music I was making or had made. +So I asked myself: Do I write stuff for specific rooms? +Do I have a place, a venue, in mind when I write? +Is that a kind of model for creativity? +Do we all make things with a venue, a context, in mind? +Okay, Africa. +(Music: "Wenlenga" / Various artists) Most of the popular music that we know now has a big part of its roots in West Africa. +And the music there, I would say, the instruments, the intricate rhythms, the way it's played, the setting, the context, it's all perfect. It all works perfect. +The music works perfectly in that setting. +There's no big room to create reverberation and confuse the rhythms. +The instruments are loud enough that they can be heard without amplification, etc., etc. +It's no accident. +It's perfect for that particular context. +And it would be a mess in a context like this. This is a gothic cathedral. +(Music: "Spem In Alium" by Thomas Tallis) In a gothic cathedral, this kind of music is perfect. +It doesn't change key, the notes are long, there's almost no rhythm whatsoever, and the room flatters the music. +It actually improves it. +This is the room that Bach wrote some of his music for. This is the organ. +It's not as big as a gothic cathedral, so he can write things that are a little bit more intricate. +He can, very innovatively, actually change keys without risking huge dissonances. +(Music: "Fantasia On Jesu, Mein Freunde" by Johann S. Bach) This is a little bit later. +This is the kind of rooms that Mozart wrote in. +I think we're in like 1770, somewhere around there. +They're smaller, even less reverberant, so he can write really frilly music that's very intricate -- and it works. +(Music: "Sonata in F," KV 13, by Wolfgang A. Mozart) It fits the room perfectly. +This is La Scala. +It's around the same time, I think it was built around 1776. +People in the audience in these opera houses, when they were built, they used to yell out to one another. +They used to eat, drink and yell out to people on the stage, just like they do at CBGB's and places like that. +If they liked an aria, they would holler and suggest that it be done again as an encore, not at the end of the show, but immediately. +And well, that was an opera experience. +This is the opera house that Wagner built for himself. +And the size of the room is not that big. +It's smaller than this. +But Wagner made an innovation. +He wanted a bigger band. +He wanted a little more bombast, so he increased the size of the orchestra pit so he could get more low-end instruments in there. +(Music: "Lohengrin / Prelude to Act III" by Richard Wagner) Okay. +This is Carnegie Hall. +Obviously, this kind of thing became popular. +The halls got bigger. Carnegie Hall's fair-sized. +It's larger than some of the other symphony halls. +And they're a lot more reverberant than La Scala. +Around the same, according to Alex Ross who writes for the New Yorker, this kind of rule came into effect that audiences had to be quiet -- no more eating, drinking and yelling at the stage, or gossiping with one another during the show. +They had to be very quiet. +So those two things combined meant that a different kind of music worked best in these kind of halls. +It meant that there could be extreme dynamics, which there weren't in some of these other kinds of music. +Quiet parts could be heard that would have been drowned out by all the gossiping and shouting. +But because of the reverberation in those rooms like Carnegie Hall, the music had to be maybe a little less rhythmic and a little more textural. +(Music: "Symphony No. 8 in E Flat Major" by Gustav Mahler) This is Mahler. +It looks like Bob Dylan, but it's Mahler. +That was Bob's last record, yeah. +Popular music, coming along at the same time. +This is a jazz band. +According to Scott Joplin, the bands were playing on riverboats and clubs. +Again, it's noisy. They're playing for dancers. +There's certain sections of the song -- the songs had different sections that the dancers really liked. +And they'd say, "Play that part again." +Well, there's only so many times you can play the same section of a song over and over again for the dancers. +So the bands started to improvise new melodies. +And a new form of music was born. +(Music: "Royal Garden Blues" by W.C. Handy / Ethel Waters) These are played mainly in small rooms. +People are dancing, shouting and drinking. +So the music has to be loud enough to be heard above that. +Same thing goes true for -- that's the beginning of the century -- for the whole of 20th-century popular music, whether it's rock or Latin music or whatever. +[Live music] doesn't really change that much. +It changes about a third of the way into the 20th century, when this became one of the primary venues for music. +And this was one way that the music got there. +Microphones enabled singers, in particular, and musicians and composers, to completely change the kind of music that they were writing. +So far, a lot of the stuff that was on the radio was live music, but singers, like Frank Sinatra, could use the mic and do things that they could never do without a microphone. +Other singers after him went even further. +(Music: "My Funny Valentine" by Chet Baker) This is Chet Baker. +And this kind of thing would have been impossible without a microphone. +It would have been impossible without recorded music as well. +And he's singing right into your ear. +He's whispering into your ears. +The effect is just electric. +It's like the guy is sitting next to you, whispering who knows what into your ear. +So at this point, music diverged. +There's live music, and there's recorded music. +And they no longer have to be exactly the same. +Now there's venues like this, a discotheque, and there's jukeboxes in bars, where you don't even need to have a band. +There doesn't need to be any live performing musicians whatsoever, and the sound systems are good. +People began to make music specifically for discos and for those sound systems. +And, as with jazz, the dancers liked certain sections more than they did others. +So the early hip-hop guys would loop certain sections. +(Music: "Rapper's Delight" by The Sugarhill Gang) The MC would improvise lyrics in the same way that the jazz players would improvise melodies. +And another new form of music was born. +Live performance, when it was incredibly successful, ended up in what is probably, acoustically, the worst sounding venues on the planet: sports stadiums, basketball arenas and hockey arenas. +Musicians who ended up there did the best they could. +They wrote what is now called arena rock, which is medium-speed ballads. +(Music: "I Still Haven't Found What I'm Looking For" by U2) They did the best they could given that this is what they're writing for. +The tempos are medium. It sounds big. +It's more a social situation than a musical situation. +And in some ways, the music that they're writing for this place works perfectly. +So there's more new venues. +One of the new ones is the automobile. +I grew up with a radio in a car. +But now that's evolved into something else. +The car is a whole venue. +(Music: "Who U Wit" by Lil' Jon & the East Side Boyz) The music that, I would say, is written for automobile sound systems works perfectly on it. +It might not be what you want to listen to at home, but it works great in the car -- has a huge frequency spectrum, you know, big bass and high-end and the voice kind of stuck in the middle. +Automobile music, you can share with your friends. +There's one other kind of new venue, the private MP3 player. +Presumably, this is just for Christian music. +And in some ways it's like Carnegie Hall, or when the audience had to hush up, because you can now hear every single detail. +In other ways, it's more like the West African music because if the music in an MP3 player gets too quiet, you turn it up, and the next minute, your ears are blasted out by a louder passage. +So that doesn't really work. +I think pop music, mainly, it's written today, to some extent, is written for these kind of players, for this kind of personal experience where you can hear extreme detail, but the dynamic doesn't change that much. +So I asked myself: Okay, is this a model for creation, this adaptation that we do? +And does it happen anywhere else? +Well, according to David Attenborough and some other people, birds do it too -- that the birds in the canopy, where the foliage is dense, their calls tend to be high-pitched, short and repetitive. +And the birds on the floor tend to have lower pitched calls, so that they don't get distorted when they bounce off the forest floor. +And birds like this Savannah sparrow, they tend to have a buzzing (Sound clip: Savannah sparrow song) type call. +And it turns out that a sound like this is the most energy efficient and practical way to transmit their call across the fields and savannahs. +Other birds, like this tanager, have adapted within the same species. +The tananger on the East Coast of the United States, where the forests are a little denser, has one kind of call, and the tananger on the other side, on the west (Sound clip: Scarlet tanager song) has a different kind of call. +(Sound clip: Scarlet tanager song) So birds do it too. +And I thought: Well, if this is a model for creation, if we make music, primarily the form at least, to fit these contexts, and if we make art to fit gallery walls or museum walls, and if we write software to fit existing operating systems, is that how it works? +Yeah. I think it's evolutionary. +It's adaptive. +But the pleasure and the passion and the joy is still there. +This is a reverse view of things from the kind of traditional Romantic view. +The Romantic view is that first comes the passion and then the outpouring of emotion, and then somehow it gets shaped into something. +And I'm saying, well, the passion's still there, but the vessel that it's going to be injected into and poured into, that is instinctively and intuitively created first. +We already know where that passion is going. +But this conflict of views is kind of interesting. +The writer, Thomas Frank, says that this might be a kind of explanation why some voters vote against their best interests, that voters, like a lot of us, assume, that if they hear something that sounds like it's sincere, that it's coming from the gut, that it's passionate, that it's more authentic. +And they'll vote for that. +So that, if somebody can fake sincerity, if they can fake passion, they stand a better chance of being selected in that way, which seems a little dangerous. +I'm saying the two, the passion, the joy, are not mutually exclusive. +Maybe what the world needs now is for us to realize that we are like the birds. +We adapt. +We sing. +And like the birds, the joy is still there, even though we have changed what we do to fit the context. +Thank you very much. +So since I was here last in '06, we discovered that global climate change is turning out to be a pretty serious issue, so we covered that fairly extensively in Skeptic magazine. +We investigate all kinds of scientific and quasi-scientific controversies, but it turns out we don't have to worry about any of this because the world's going to end in 2012. +Another update: You will recall I introduced you guys to the Quadro Tracker. +It's like a water dowsing device. +It's just a hollow piece of plastic with an antenna that swivels around. +And you walk around, and it points to things. +Like if you're looking for marijuana in students' lockers, it'll point right to somebody. +Oh, sorry. This particular one that was given to me finds golf balls, especially if you're at a golf course and you check under enough bushes. +Well, under the category of "What's the harm of silly stuff like this?" +this device, the ADE 651, was sold to the Iraqi government for 40,000 dollars apiece. +It's just like this one, completely worthless, in which it allegedly worked by "electrostatic magnetic ion attraction," which translates to "pseudoscientific baloney" -- would be the nice word -- in which you string together a bunch of words that sound good, but it does absolutely nothing. +In this case, at trespass points, allowing people to go through because your little tracker device said they were okay, actually cost lives. +So there is a danger to pseudoscience, in believing in this sort of thing. +So what I want to talk about today is belief. +I want to believe, and you do too. +And in fact, I think my thesis here is that belief is the natural state of things. +It is the default option. We just believe. +We believe all sorts of things. +Belief is natural; disbelief, skepticism, science, is not natural. +It's more difficult. +It's uncomfortable to not believe things. +So like Fox Mulder on "X-Files," who wants to believe in UFOs? Well, we all do, and the reason for that is because we have a belief engine in our brains. +Essentially, we are pattern-seeking primates. +We connect the dots: A is connected to B; B is connected to C. +And sometimes A really is connected to B, and that's called association learning. +And whatever they were doing just before they got the reward, they repeat that particular pattern. +Sometimes it was even spinning around twice counterclockwise, once clockwise and peck the key twice. +And that's called superstition, and that, I'm afraid, we will always have with us. +I call this process "patternicity" -- that is, the tendency to find meaningful patterns in both meaningful and meaningless noise. +When we do this process, we make two types of errors. +A Type I error, or false positive, is believing a pattern is real when it's not. +Our second type of error is a false negative. +A Type II error is not believing a pattern is real when it is. +So let's do a thought experiment. +You are a hominid three million years ago walking on the plains of Africa. +Your name is Lucy, okay? +And you hear a rustle in the grass. +Is it a dangerous predator, or is it just the wind? +Your next decision could be the most important one of your life. +Well, if you think that the rustle in the grass is a dangerous predator and it turns out it's just the wind, you've made an error in cognition, made a Type I error, false positive. +But no harm. You just move away. +You're more cautious. You're more vigilant. +On the other hand, if you believe that the rustle in the grass is just the wind, and it turns out it's a dangerous predator, you're lunch. +You've just won a Darwin award. +You've been taken out of the gene pool. +Now the problem here is that patternicities will occur whenever the cost of making a Type I error is less than the cost of making a Type II error. +This is the only equation in the talk by the way. +We have a pattern detection problem that is assessing the difference between a Type I and a Type II error is highly problematic, especially in split-second, life-and-death situations. +So the default position is just: Believe all patterns are real -- All rustles in the grass are dangerous predators and not just the wind. +And so I think that we evolved ... +there was a natural selection for the propensity for our belief engines, our pattern-seeking brain processes, to always find meaningful patterns and infuse them with these sort of predatory or intentional agencies that I'll come back to. +So for example, what do you see here? +It's a horse head, that's right. +It looks like a horse. It must be a horse. +That's a pattern. +And is it really a horse? +Or is it more like a frog? +See, our pattern detection device, which appears to be located in the anterior cingulate cortex -- it's our little detection device there -- can be easily fooled, and this is the problem. +For example, what do you see here? +Yes, of course, it's a cow. +Once I prime the brain -- it's called cognitive priming -- once I prime the brain to see it, it pops back out again even without the pattern that I've imposed on it. +And what do you see here? +Some people see a Dalmatian dog. +Yes, there it is. And there's the prime. +So when I go back without the prime, your brain already has the model so you can see it again. +What do you see here? +Planet Saturn. Yes, that's good. +How about here? +Just shout out anything you see. +That's a good audience, Chris. +Because there's nothing in this. Well, allegedly there's nothing. +This is an experiment done by Jennifer Whitson at U.T. Austin on corporate environments and whether feelings of uncertainty and out of control makes people see illusory patterns. +That is, almost everybody sees the planet Saturn. +People that are put in a condition of feeling out of control are more likely to see something in this, which is allegedly patternless. +In other words, the propensity to find these patterns goes up when there's a lack of control. +For example, baseball players are notoriously superstitious when they're batting, but not so much when they're fielding. +Because fielders are successful 90 to 95 percent of the time. +The best batters fail seven out of 10 times. +So their superstitions, their patternicities, are all associated with feelings of lack of control and so forth. +What do you see in this particular one here, in this field? +Anybody see an object there? +There actually is something here, but it's degraded. +While you're thinking about that, this was an experiment done by Susan Blackmore, a psychologist in England, who showed subjects this degraded image and then ran a correlation between their scores on an ESP test: How much did they believe in the paranormal, supernatural, angels and so forth. +And those who scored high on the ESP scale, tended to not only see more patterns in the degraded images but incorrect patterns. +Here is what you show subjects. +The fish is degraded 20 percent, 50 percent and then the one I showed you, 70 percent. +A similar experiment was done by another [Swiss] psychologist named Peter Brugger, who found significantly more meaningful patterns were perceived on the right hemisphere, via the left visual field, than the left hemisphere. +So if you present subjects the images such that it's going to end up on the right hemisphere instead of the left, then they're more likely to see patterns than if you put it on the left hemisphere. +Our right hemisphere appears to be where a lot of this patternicity occurs. +So what we're trying to do is bore into the brain to see where all this happens. +Brugger and his colleague, Christine Mohr, gave subjects L-DOPA. +L-DOPA's a drug, as you know, given for treating Parkinson's disease, which is related to a decrease in dopamine. +L-DOPA increases dopamine. +An increase of dopamine caused subjects to see more patterns than those that did not receive the dopamine. +So dopamine appears to be the drug associated with patternicity. +In fact, neuroleptic drugs that are used to eliminate psychotic behavior, things like paranoia, delusions and hallucinations, these are patternicities. +They're incorrect patterns. They're false positives. They're Type I errors. +And if you give them drugs that are dopamine antagonists, they go away. +That is, you decrease the amount of dopamine, and their tendency to see patterns like that decreases. +On the other hand, amphetamines like cocaine are dopamine agonists. +They increase the amount of dopamine. +So you're more likely to feel in a euphoric state, creativity, find more patterns. +In fact, I saw Robin Williams recently talk about how he thought he was much funnier when he was doing cocaine, when he had that issue, than now. +So perhaps more dopamine is related to more creativity. +Dopamine, I think, changes our signal-to-noise ratio. +That is, how accurate we are in finding patterns. +If it's too low, you're more likely to make too many Type II errors. +You miss the real patterns. You don't want to be too skeptical. +If you're too skeptical, you'll miss the really interesting good ideas. +Just right, you're creative, and yet you don't fall for too much baloney. +Too high and maybe you see patterns everywhere. +Every time somebody looks at you, you think people are staring at you. +You think people are talking about you. +And if you go too far on that, that's just simply labeled as madness. +It's a distinction perhaps we might make between two Nobel laureates, Richard Feynman and John Nash. +One sees maybe just the right number of patterns to win a Nobel Prize. +The other one also, but maybe too many patterns. +And we then call that schizophrenia. +So the signal-to-noise ratio then presents us with a pattern-detection problem. +And of course you all know exactly what this is, right? +And what pattern do you see here? +Again, I'm putting your anterior cingulate cortex to the test here, causing you conflicting pattern detections. +You know, of course, this is Via Uno shoes. +These are sandals. +Pretty sexy feet, I must say. +Maybe a little Photoshopped. +And of course, the ambiguous figures that seem to flip-flop back and forth. +It turns out what you're thinking about a lot influences what you tend to see. +And you see the lamp here, I know. +Because the lights on here. +Of course, thanks to the environmentalist movement we're all sensitive to the plight of marine mammals. +So what you see in this particular ambiguous figure is, of course, the dolphins, right? +You see a dolphin here, and there's a dolphin, and there's a dolphin. +That's a dolphin tail there, guys. +If we can give you conflicting data, again, your ACC is going to be going into hyperdrive. +If you look down here, it's fine. If you look up here, then you get conflicting data. +And then we have to flip the image for you to see that it's a set up. +The impossible crate illusion. +It's easy to fool the brain in 2D. +So you say, "Aw, come on Shermer, anybody can do that in a Psych 101 text with an illusion like that." +Well here's the late, great Jerry Andrus' "impossible crate" illusion in 3D, in which Jerry is standing inside the impossible crate. +And he was kind enough to post this and give us the reveal. +Of course, camera angle is everything. The photographer is over there, and this board appears to overlap with this one, and this one with that one, and so on. +But even when I take it away, the illusion is so powerful because of how are brains are wired to find those certain kinds of patterns. +This is a fairly new one that throws us off because of the conflicting patterns of comparing this angle with that angle. +In fact, it's the exact same picture side by side. +So what you're doing is comparing that angle instead of with this one, but with that one. +And so your brain is fooled. +Yet again, your pattern detection devices are fooled. +Faces are easy to see because we have an additional evolved facial recognition software in our temporal lobes. +Here's some faces on the side of a rock. +I'm actually not even sure if this is -- this might be Photoshopped. +But anyway, the point is still made. +Now which one of these looks odd to you? +In a quick reaction, which one looks odd? +The one on the left. Okay. So I'll rotate it so it'll be the one on the right. +And you are correct. +A fairly famous illusion -- it was first done with Margaret Thatcher. +Now, they trade up the politicians every time. +Well, why is this happening? +Well, we know exactly where it happens, in the temporal lobe, right across, sort of above your ear there, in a little structure called the fusiform gyrus. +And there's two types of cells that do this, that record facial features either globally, or specifically these large, rapid-firing cells, first look at the general face. +So you recognize Obama immediately. +And then you notice something quite a little bit odd about the eyes and the mouth. +Especially when they're upside down, you're engaging that general facial recognition software there. +Now I said back in our little thought experiment, you're a hominid walking on the plains of Africa. +Is it just the wind or a dangerous predator? +What's the difference between those? +Well, the wind is inanimate; the dangerous predator is an intentional agent. +And I call this process agenticity. +That is the tendency to infuse patterns with meaning, intention and agency, often invisible beings from the top down. +This is an idea that we got from a fellow TEDster here, Dan Dennett, who talked about taking the intentional stance. +So it's a type of that expanded to explain, I think, a lot of different things: souls, spirits, ghosts, gods, demons, angels, aliens, intelligent designers, government conspiracists and all manner of invisible agents with power and intention, are believed to haunt our world and control our lives. +I think it's the basis of animism and polytheism and monotheism. +It's the belief that aliens are somehow more advanced than us, more moral than us, and the narratives always are that they're coming here to save us and rescue us from on high. +The intelligent designer's always portrayed as this super intelligent, moral being that comes down to design life. +Even the idea that government can rescue us -- that's no longer the wave of the future, but that is, I think, a type of agenticity: projecting somebody up there, big and powerful, will come rescue us. +And this is also, I think, the basis of conspiracy theories. +There's somebody hiding behind there pulling the strings, whether it's the Illuminati or the Bilderbergers. +But this is a pattern detection problem, isn't it? +Some patterns are real and some are not. +Was JFK assassinated by a conspiracy or by a lone assassin? +Well, if you go there -- there's people there on any given day -- like when I went there, here -- showing me where the different shooters were. +My favorite one was he was in the manhole. +And he popped out at the last second, took that shot. +But of course, Lincoln was assassinated by a conspiracy. +So we can't just uniformly dismiss all patterns like that. +Because, let's face it, some patterns are real. +Some conspiracies really are true. +Explains a lot, maybe. +And 9/11 has a conspiracy theory. It is a conspiracy. +We did a whole issue on it. +Nineteen members of Al Queda plotting to fly planes into buildings constitutes a conspiracy. +But that's not what the "9/11 truthers" think. +They think it was an inside job by the Bush administration. +Well, that's a whole other lecture. +You know how we know that 9/11 was not orchestrated by the Bush administration? +Because it worked. +So we are natural-born dualists. +Our agenticity process comes from the fact that we can enjoy movies like these. +Because we can imagine, in essence, continuing on. +We know that if you stimulate the temporal lobe, you can produce a feeling of out-of-body experiences, near-death experiences, which you can do by just touching an electrode to the temporal lobe there. +Or you can do it through loss of consciousness, by accelerating in a centrifuge. +You get a hypoxia, or a lower oxygen. +And the brain then senses that there's an out-of-body experience. +You can use -- which I did, went out and did -- Michael Persinger's God Helmet, that bombards your temporal lobes with electromagnetic waves. +And you get a sense of out-of-body experience. +So I'm going to end here with a short video clip that sort of brings all this together. +It's just a minute and a half. +It ties together all this into the power of expectation and the power of belief. +Go ahead and roll it. +Narrator: This is the venue they chose for their fake auditions for an advert for lip balm. +Woman: We're hoping we can use part of this in a national commercial, right? +And this is test on some lip balms that we have over here. +And these are our models who are going to help us, Roger and Matt. +And we have our own lip balm, and we have a leading brand. +Would you have any problem kissing our models to test it? +Girl: No. +Woman: You wouldn't? (Girl: No.) Woman: You'd think that was fine. +Girl: That would be fine. (Woman: Okay.) So this is a blind test. +I'm going to ask you to go ahead and put a blindfold on. +Kay, now can you see anything? (Girl: No.) Pull it so you can't even see down. (Girl: Okay.) Woman: It's completely blind now, right? +Girl: Yes. (Woman: Okay.) Now, what I'm going to be looking for in this test is how it protects your lips, the texture, right, and maybe if you can discern any flavor or not. +Girl: Okay. (Woman: Have you ever done a kissing test before?) Girl: No. +Woman: Take a step here. +Okay, now I'm going to ask you to pucker up. +Pucker up big and lean in just a little bit, okay? +Woman: Okay. +And, Jennifer, how did that feel? +Jennifer: Good. +Girl: Oh my God! +Michael Shermer: Thank you very much. Thank you. Thanks. +So, if you're in the audience today, or maybe you're watching this talk in some other time or place, you are a participant in the digital rights ecosystem. +Whether you're an artist, a technologist, a lawyer or a fan, the handling of copyright directly impacts your life. +Rights management is no longer simply a question of ownership, it's a complex web of relationships and a critical part of our cultural landscape. +YouTube cares deeply about the rights of content owners, but in order to give them choices about what they can do with copies, mashups and more, we need to first identify when copyrighted material is uploaded to our site. +Let's look at a specific video so you can see how it works. +Two years ago, recording artist Chris Brown released the official video of his single "Forever." +A fan saw it on TV, recorded it with her camera phone, and uploaded it to YouTube. +Because Sony Music had registered Chris Brown's video in our Content ID system, within seconds of attempting to upload the video, the copy was detected, giving Sony the choice of what to do next. +But how do we know that the user's video was a copy? +Well, it starts with content owners delivering assets into our database, along with a usage policy that tells us what to do when we find a match. +We compare each upload against all of the reference files in our database. +This heat map is going to show you how the brain of the system works. +Here we can see the original reference file being compared to the user generated content. +The system compares every moment of one to the other to see if there's a match. +This means that we can identify a match even if the copy used is just a portion of the original file, plays it in slow motion and has degraded audio and video quality. +And we do this every time that a video is uploaded to YouTube. +And that's over 20 hours of video every minute. +When we find a match, we apply the policy that the rights owner has set down. +And the scale and the speed of this system is truly breathtaking. +We're not just talking about a few videos, we're talking about over 100 years of video every day, between new uploads and the legacy scans we regularly do across all of the content on the site. +When we compare those hundred years of video, we're comparing it against millions of reference files in our database. +It would be like 36,000 people staring at 36,000 monitors each and every day, without so much as a coffee break. +Now, what do we do when we find a match? +Well, most rights owners, instead of blocking, will allow the copy to be published. +And then they benefit through the exposure, advertising and linked sales. +Remember Chris Brown's video "Forever"? +Well, it had its day in the sun and then it dropped off the charts, and that looked like the end of the story, but sometime last year, a young couple got married. +This is their wedding video. +You may have seen it. +What's amazing about this is, if the processional of the wedding was this much fun, can you imagine how much fun the reception must have been? +I mean, who are these people? +I totally want to go to that wedding. +So their little wedding video went on to get over 40 million views. +And instead of Sony blocking, they allowed the upload to occur. +And they put advertising against it and linked from it to iTunes. +And the song, 18 months old, went back to number four on the iTunes charts. +So Sony is generating revenue from both of these. +And Jill and Kevin, the happy couple, they came back from their honeymoon and found that their video had gone crazy viral. +And they've ended up on a bunch of talk shows, and they've used it as an opportunity to make a difference. +The video's inspired over 26,000 dollars in donations to end domestic violence. +The "JK Wedding [Entrance] Dance" became so popular that NBC parodied it on the season finale of "The Office," which just goes to show, it's truly an ecosystem of culture. +Because it's not just amateurs borrowing from big studios, but sometimes big studios borrowing back. +By empowering choice, we can create a culture of opportunity. +And all it took to change things around was to allow for choice through rights identification. +So why has no one ever solved this problem before? +It's because it's a big problem, and it's complicated and messy. +It's not uncommon for a single video to have multiple rights owners. +There's musical labels. +There's multiple music publishers. +And each of these can vary by country. +There's lots of cases where we have more than one work mashed together. +So we have to manage many claims to the same video. +YouTube's Content ID system addresses all of these cases. +But the system only works through the participation of rights owners. +If you have content that others are uploading to YouTube, you should register in the Content ID system, and then you'll have the choice about how your content is used. +And think carefully about the policies that you attach to that content. +By simply blocking all reuse, you'll miss out on new art forms, new audiences, new distribution channels and new revenue streams. +But it's not just about dollars and impressions. +Just look at all the joy that was spread through progressive rights management and new technology. +And I think we can all agree that joy is definitely an idea worth spreading. +Thank you. +Thank you so much. I'm going to try to take you on a journey of the underwater acoustic world of whales and dolphins. +Since we are such a visual species, it's hard for us to really understand this, so I'll use a mixture of figures and sounds and hope this can communicate it. +But let's also think, as a visual species, what it's like when we go snorkeling or diving and try to look underwater. +We really can't see very far. +Our vision, which works so well in air, all of a sudden is very restricted and claustrophobic. +And what marine mammals have evolved over the last tens of millions of years is ways to depend on sound to both explore their world and also to stay in touch with one another. +Dolphins and toothed whales use echolocation. +They can produce loud clicks and listen for echoes from the sea floor in order to orient. +They can listen for echoes from prey in order to decide where food is and to decide which one they want to eat. +All marine mammals use sound for communication to stay in touch. +So the large baleen whales will produce long, beautiful songs, which are used in reproductive advertisement for male and females, both to find one another and to select a mate. +And mother and young and closely bonded animals use calls to stay in touch with one another, so sound is really critical for their lives. +The first thing that got me interested in the sounds of these underwater animals, whose world was so foreign to me, was evidence from captive dolphins that captive dolphins could imitate human sounds. +And I mentioned I'll use some visual representations of sounds. +Here's the first example. +This is a plot of frequency against time -- sort of like musical notation, where the higher notes are up higher and the lower notes are lower, and time goes this way. +This is a picture of a trainer's whistle, a whistle a trainer will blow to tell a dolphin it's done the right thing and can come get a fish. +It sounds sort of like "tweeeeeet." Like that. +This is a calf in captivity making an imitation of that trainer's whistle. +If you hummed this tune to your dog or cat and it hummed it back to you, you ought to be pretty surprised. +Very few nonhuman mammals can imitate sounds. +It's really important for our music and our language. +So it's a puzzle: The few other mammal groups that do this, why do they do it? +A lot of my career has been devoted to trying to understand how these animals use their learning, use the ability to change what you say based on what you hear in their own communication systems. +So let's start with calls of a nonhuman primate. +Many mammals have to produce contact calls when, say, a mother and calf are apart. +This is an example of a call produced by squirrel monkeys when they're isolated from another one. +And you can see, there's not much variability in these calls. +By contrast, the signature whistle which dolphins use to stay in touch, each individual here has a radically different call. +They can use this ability to learn calls in order to develop more complicated and more distinctive calls to identify individuals. +How about the setting in which animals need to use this call? +Well let's look at mothers and calves. +In normal life for mother and calf dolphin, they'll often drift apart or swim apart if Mom is chasing a fish, and when they separate they have to get back together again. +What this figure shows is the percentage of the separations in which dolphins whistle, against the maximum distance. +So when dolphins are separating by less than 20 meters, less than half the time they need to use whistles. +Most of the time they can just find each other just by swimming around. +But all of the time when they separate by more than 100 meters, they need to use these individually distinctive whistles to come back together again. +Most of these distinctive signature whistles are quite stereotyped and stable through the life of a dolphin. +But there are some exceptions. +When a male dolphin leaves Mom, it will often join up with another male and form an alliance, which may last for decades. +As these two animals form a social bond, their distinctive whistles actually converge and become very similar. +This plot shows two members of a pair. +As you can see at the top here, they share an up-sweep, like "woop, woop, woop." +They both have that kind of up-sweep. +Whereas these members of a pair go "wo-ot, wo-ot, wo-ot." +And what's happened is they've used this learning process to develop a new sign that identifies this new social group. +It's a very interesting way that they can form a new identifier for the new social group that they've had. +Let's now take a step back and see what this message can tell us about protecting dolphins from human disturbance. +Anybody looking at this picture will know this dolphin is surrounded, and clearly his behavior is being disrupted. +This is a bad situation. +But it turns out that when just a single boat is approaching a group of dolphins at a couple hundred meters away, the dolphins will start whistling, they'll change what they're doing, they'll have a more cohesive group, wait for the boat to go by, and then they'll get back to normal business. +Well, in a place like Sarasota, Florida, the average interval between times that a boat is passing within a hundred meters of a dolphin group is six minutes. +So even in the situation that doesn't look as bad as this, it's still affecting the amount of time these animals have to do their normal work. +And if we look at a very pristine environment like western Australia, Lars Bider has done work comparing dolphin behavior and distribution before there were dolphin-watching boats. +When there was one boat, not much of an impact. +And two boats: When the second boat was added, what happened was that some of the dolphins left the area completely. +Of the ones that stayed, their reproductive rate declined. +So it could have a negative impact on the whole population. +When we think of marine-protected areas for animals like dolphins, this means that we have to be quite conscious about activities that we thought were benign. +We may need to regulate the intensity of recreational boating and actual whale watching in order to prevent these kinds of problems. +I'd also like to point out that sound doesn't obey boundaries. +So you can draw a line to try to protect an area, but chemical pollution and noise pollution will continue to move through the area. +And I'd like to switch now from this local, familiar, coastal environment to a much broader world of the baleen whales and the open ocean. +This is a kind of map we've all been looking at. +The world is mostly blue. +But I'd also like to point out that the oceans are much more connected than we think. +Notice how few barriers there are to movement across all of the oceans compared to land. +To me, the most mind-bending example of the interconnectedness of the ocean comes from an acoustic experiment where oceanographers took a ship to the southern Indian Ocean, deployed an underwater loudspeaker and played back a sound. +That same sound traveled to the west, and could be heard in Bermuda, and traveled to the east, and could be heard in Monterey -- the same sound. +So we live in a world of satellite communication, are used to global communication, but it's still amazing to me. +The ocean has properties that allow low-frequency sound to basically move globally. +The acoustic transit time for each of these paths is about three hours. +It's nearly halfway around the globe. +In the early '70s, Roger Payne and an ocean acoustician published a theoretical paper pointing out that it was possible that sound could transmit over these large areas, but very few biologists believed it. +It actually turns out, though, even though we've only known of long-range propagation for a few decades, the whales clearly have evolved, over tens of millions of years, a way to exploit this amazing property of the ocean. +So blue whales and fin whales produce very low-frequency sounds that can travel over very long ranges. +The top plot here shows a complicated series of calls that are repeated by males. +They form songs, and they appear to play a role in reproduction, sort of like that of song birds. +Down below here, we see calls made by both males and females that also carry over very long ranges. +The biologists continued to be skeptical of the long-range communication issue well past the '70s, until the end of the Cold War. +What happened was, during the Cold War, the U.S. Navy had a system that was secret at the time, that they used to track Russian submarines. +It had deep underwater microphones, or hydrophones, cabled to shore, all wired back to a central place that could listen to sounds over the whole North Atlantic. +And after the Berlin Wall fell, the Navy made these systems available to whale bio-acousticians to see what they could hear. +This is a plot from Christopher Clark who tracked one individual blue whale as it passed by Bermuda, went down to the latitude of Miami and came back again. +It was tracked for 43 days, swimming 1,700 kilometers, or more than 1,000 miles. +This shows us both that the calls are detectable over hundreds of miles and that whales routinely swim hundreds of miles. +They're ocean-based and scale animals who are communicating over much longer ranges than we had anticipated. +Unlike fins and blues, which disperse into the temperate and tropical oceans, the humpbacked whales congregate in local traditional breeding grounds, so they can make a sound that's a little higher in frequency, broader-band and more complicated. +So you're listening to the complicated song produced by humpbacks here. +Humpbacks, when they develop the ability to sing this song, they're listening to other whales and modifying what they sing based on what they're hearing, just like song birds or the dolphin whistles I described. +This means that humpback song is a form of animal culture, just like music for humans would be. +I think one of the most interesting examples of this comes from Australia. +Biologists on the east coast of Australia were recording the songs of humpbacks in that area. +And this orange line here marks the typical songs of east coast humpbacks. +In '95 they all sang the normal song. +But in '96 they heard a few weird songs, and it turned out that these strange songs were typical of west coast whales. +The west coast calls became more and more popular, until by 1998, none of the whales sang the east coast song; it was completely gone. +They just sang the cool new west coast song. +It's as if some new hit style had completely wiped out the old-fashioned style before, and with no golden oldies stations. +Nobody sang the old ones. +I'd like to briefly just show what the ocean does to these calls. +Now you are listening to a recording made by Chris Clark, 0.2 miles away from a humpback. +You can hear the full frequency range. It's quite loud. +You sound very nearby. +The next recording you're going to hear was made of the same humpback song 50 miles away. +That's shown down here. +You only hear the low frequencies. +You hear the reverberation as the sound travels over long-range in the ocean and is not quite as loud. +Now after I play back these humpback calls, I'll play blue whale calls, but they have to be sped up because they're so low in frequency that you wouldn't be able to hear it otherwise. +Here's a blue whale call at 50 miles, which was distant for the humpback. +It's loud, clear -- you can hear it very clearly. +Here's the same call recorded from a hydrophone 500 miles away. +There's a lot of noise, which is mostly other whales. +But you can still hear that faint call. +Let's now switch and think about a potential for human impacts. +The most dominant sound that humans put into the ocean comes from shipping. +This is the sound of a ship, and I'm having to talk a little louder to talk over it. +Imagine that whale listening from 500 miles. +There's a potential problem that maybe this kind of shipping noise would prevent whales from being able to hear each other. +Now this is something that's been known for quite a while. +This is a figure from a textbook on underwater sound. +And on the y-axis is the loudness of average ambient noise in the deep ocean by frequency. +In the low frequencies, this line indicates sound that comes from seismic activity of the earth. +Up high, these variable lines indicate increasing noise in this frequency range from higher wind and wave. +But right in the middle here where there's a sweet spot, the noise is dominated by human ships. +Now think about it. This is an amazing thing: That in this frequency range where whales communicate, the main source globally, on our planet, for the noise comes from human ships, thousands of human ships, distant, far away, just all aggregating. +The next slide will show what the impact this may have on the range at which whales can communicate. +So here we have the loudness of a call at the whale. +And as we get farther away, the sound gets fainter and fainter. +Now in the pre-industrial ocean, as we were mentioning, this whale call could be easily detected. +It's louder than noise at a range of a thousand kilometers. +Let's now take that additional increase in noise that we saw comes from shipping. +All of a sudden, the effective range of communication goes from a thousand kilometers to 10 kilometers. +Now if this signal is used for males and females to find each other for mating and they're dispersed, imagine the impact this could have on the recovery of endangered populations. +Whales also have contact calls like I described for the dolphins. +I'll play the sound of a contact call used by right whales to stay in touch. +And this is the kind of call that is used by, say, right whale mothers and calves as they separate to come back again. +Now imagine -- let's put the ship noise in the picture. +What's a mother to do if the ship comes by and her calf isn't there? +I'll describe a couple strategies. +One strategy is if your call's down here, and the noise is in this band, you could shift the frequency of your call out of the noise band and communicate better. +Susan Parks of Penn State has actually studied this. +She's looked in the Atlantic. Here's data from the South Atlantic. +Here's a typical South Atlantic contact call from the '70s. +Look what happened by 2000 to the average call. +Same thing in the North Atlantic, in the '50s versus 2000. +Over the last 50 years, as we've put more noise into the oceans, these whales have had to shift. +It's as if the whole population had to shift from being basses to singing as a tenor. +It's an amazing shift, induced by humans over this large scale, in both time and space. +And we now know that whales can compensate for noise by calling louder, like I did when that ship was playing, by waiting for silence and by shifting their call out of the noise band. +Now there's probably costs to calling louder or shifting the frequency away from where you want to be, and there's probably lost opportunities. +If we also have to wait for silence, they may miss a critical opportunity to communicate. +So we have to be very concerned about when the noise in habitats degrades the habitat enough that the animals either have to pay too much to be able to communicate, or are not able to perform critical functions. +It's a really important problem. +And I'm happy to say that there are several very promising developments in this area, looking at the impact of shipping on whales. +In terms of the shipping noise, the International Maritime Organization of the United Nations has formed a group whose job is to establish guidelines for quieting ships, to tell the industry how you could quiet ships. +And they've already found that by being more intelligent about better propeller design, you can reduce that noise by 90 percent. +If you actually insulate and isolate the machinery of the ship from the hull, you can reduce that noise by 99 percent. +So at this point, it's primarily an issue of cost and standards. +If this group can establish standards, and if the shipbuilding industry adopts them for building new ships, we can now see a gradual decline in this potential problem. +But there's also another problem from ships that I'm illustrating here, and that's the problem of collision. +This is a whale that just squeaked by a rapidly moving container ship and avoided collision. +But collision is a serious problem. +Endangered whales are killed every year by ship collision, and it's very important to try to reduce this. +I'll discuss two very promising approaches. +The first case comes from the Bay of Fundy. +These black lines mark shipping lanes in and out of the Bay of Fundy. +The colorized area shows the risk of collision for endangered right whales because of the ships moving in this lane. +It turns out that this lane here goes right through a major feeding area of right whales in the summer time, and it makes an area of a significant risk of collision. +Well, biologists who couldn't take no for an answer went to the International Maritime Organization and petitioned them to say, "Can't you move that lane? Those are just lines on the ground. +Can't you move them over to a place where there's less of a risk?" +And the International Maritime Organization responded very strongly, "These are the new lanes." +The shipping lanes have been moved. +And as you can see, the risk of collision is much lower. +So it's very promising, actually. +We can be very creative about thinking of different ways to reduce these risks. +Another action which was just taken independently by a shipping company itself was initiated because of concerns the shipping company had about greenhouse gas emissions with global warming. +The Maersk Line looked at their competition and saw that everybody who is in shipping thinks time is money. +They rush as fast as they can to get to their port. +But then they often wait there. +What Maersk did is they worked ways to slow down. +They could slow down by about 50 percent. +This reduced their fuel consumption by about 30 percent, which saved them money, and at the same time, it had a significant benefit for whales. +It you slow down, you reduce the amount of noise you make and you reduce the risk of collision. +So to conclude, I'd just like to point out, you know, the whales live in an amazing acoustic environment. +They've evolved over tens of millions of years to take advantage of this. +And we need to be very attentive and vigilant to thinking about where things that we do may unintentionally prevent them from being able to achieve their important activities. +At the same time, we need to be really creative in thinking of solutions to be able to help reduce these problems. +I hope these examples have shown some of the different directions we can take in addition to protected areas to be able to keep the ocean safe for whales to be able to continue to communicate. +Thank you very much. +I would be willing to bet that I'm the dumbest guy in the room because I couldn't get through school. I struggled with school. +It's not something that is a bad thing and is vilified, which is what happens in a lot of society. +Kids, when we grow up, have dreams, and we have passions, and we have visions, and somehow we get those things crushed. +We get told that we need to study harder or be more focused or get a tutor. +My parents got me a tutor in French, and I still suck in French. +Two years ago, I was the highest-rated lecturer at MIT's entrepreneurial master's program. +And it was a speaking event in front of groups of entrepreneurs from around the world. +When I was in grade two, I won a city-wide speaking competition, but nobody had ever said, "Hey, this kid's a good speaker. +He can't focus, but he loves walking around and getting people energized." +No one said, "Get him a coach in speaking." +They said, get me a tutor in what I suck at. +So as kids show these traits -- and we need to start looking for them -- I think we should be raising kids to be entrepreneurs instead of lawyers. +Unfortunately the school system is grooming this world to say, "Hey, let's be a lawyer or let's be a doctor," and we're missing that opportunity because no one ever says, "Hey, be an entrepreneur." +Entrepreneurs are people -- because we have a lot of them in this room -- who have these ideas and these passions or see these needs in the world and we decide to stand up and do it. +And we put everything on the line to make that stuff happen. +We have the ability to get those groups of people around us that want to kind of build that dream with us, and I think if we could get kids to embrace the idea at a young age of being entrepreneurial, we could change everything in the world that is a problem today. +Every problem that's out there, somebody has the idea for. +And as a young kid, nobody can say it can't happen because you're too dumb to realize that you couldn't figure it out. +I think we have an obligation as parents and a society to start teaching our kids to fish instead of giving them the fish -- the old parable: "If you give a man a fish, you feed him for a day. +If you teach a man to fish, you feed him for a lifetime." +If we can teach our kids to become entrepreneurial -- the ones that show those traits to be -- like we teach the ones who have science gifts to go on in science, what if we saw the ones who had entrepreneurial traits and taught them to be entrepreneurs? +We could actually have all these kids spreading businesses instead of waiting for government handouts. +What we do is we sit and teach our kids all the things they shouldn't do: Don't hit; don't bite; don't swear. +Right now we teach our kids to go after really good jobs, you know, and the school system teaches them to go after things like being a doctor and being a lawyer and being an accountant and a dentist and a teacher and a pilot. +And the media says that it's really cool if we could go out and be a model or a singer or a sports hero like Luongo, Crosby. +Our MBA programs do not teach kids to be entrepreneurs. +The reason that I avoided an MBA program -- other than the fact that I couldn't get into any because I had a 61 percent average out of high school and then 61 percent average at the only school in Canada that accepted me, Carlton -- but our MBA programs don't teach kids to be entrepreneurs. +They teach them to go work in corporations. +So who's starting these companies? It's these random few people. +Even in popular literature, the only book I've ever found -- and this should be on all of your reading lists -- the only book I've ever found that makes the entrepreneur into the hero is "Atlas Shrugged." +Everything else in the world tends to look at entrepreneurs and say that we're bad people. +I look at even my family. +Both my grandfathers were entrepreneurs. My dad was an entrepreneur. +Both my brother and sister and I, all three of us own companies as well. +And we all decided to start these things because it's really the only place we fit. +We didn't fit in the normal work. We couldn't work for somebody else because we're too stubborn and we have all these other traits. +But kids could be entrepreneurs as well. +I'm a big part of a couple organizations globally called the Entrepreneurs' Organization and the Young Presidents' Organization. +I just came back from speaking in Barcelona at the YPO global conference, and everyone that I met over there who's an entrepreneur struggled with school. +I have 18 out of the 19 signs of attention deficit disorder diagnosed. +So this thing right here is freaking me out. +It's probably why I'm a little bit panicked right now -- other than all the caffeine that I've had and the sugar -- but this is really creepy for an entrepreneur. +Attention deficit disorder, bipolar disorder. +Do you know that bipolar disorder is nicknamed the CEO disease? +Ted Turner's got it. Steve Jobs has it. +All three of the founders of Netscape had it. +I could go on and on. +Kids -- you can see these signs in kids. +And what we're doing is we're giving them Ritalin and saying, "Don't be an entrepreneurial type. +Fit into this other system and try to become a student." +Sorry, entrepreneurs aren't students. +We fast-track. We figure out the game. +I stole essays. I cheated on exams. +I hired kids to do my accounting assignments in university for 13 consecutive assignments. +But as an entrepreneur you don't do accounting, you hire accountants. +So I just figured that out earlier. +At least I can admit I cheated in university; most of you won't. +I'm also quoted -- and I told the person who wrote the textbook -- I'm now quoted in that exact same university textbook in every Canadian university and college studies. +In managerial accounting, I'm chapter eight. +I open up chapter eight talking about budgeting. +And I told the author, after they did my interview, that I cheated in that same course. +And she thought it was too funny to not include it anyway. +But kids, you can see these signs in them. +The definition of an entrepreneur is "a person who organizes, operates and assumes the risk of a business venture." +That doesn't mean you have to go to an MBA program. +It doesn't mean you have to get through school. +It just means that those few things have to feel right in your gut. +And we've heard those things about "is it nurture or is it nature," right? +Is it thing one or thing two? What is it? +Well, I don't think it's either. I think it can be both. +I was groomed as an entrepreneur. +When I was growing up as a young kid, I had no choice, because I was taught at a very early, young age -- when my dad realized I wasn't going to fit into everything else that was being taught to me in school -- that he could teach me to figure out business at an early age. +He groomed us, the three of us, to hate the thought of having a job and to love the fact of creating companies that we could employ other people. +My first little business venture: I was seven years old, I was in Winnipeg, and I was lying in my bedroom with one of those long extension cords. +And I was calling all the dry cleaners in Winnipeg to find out how much would the dry cleaners pay me for coat hangers. +And my mom came into the room and she said, "Where are you going to get the coat hangers to sell to the dry cleaners?" +And I said, "Let's go and look in the basement." +And we went down to the basement. And I opened up this cupboard. +And there was about a thousand coat hangers that I'd collected. +Because, when I told her I was going out to play with the kids, I was going door to door in the neighborhood to collect coat hangers to put in the basement to sell. +Because I saw her a few weeks before that -- you could get paid. They used to pay you two cents per coat hanger. +So I was just like, well there's all kinds of coat hangers. +And so I'll just go get them. +And I knew she wouldn't want me to go get them, so I just did it anyway. +And I learned that you could actually negotiate with people. +This one person offered me three cents and I got him up to three and a half. +I even knew at a seven-year-old age that I could actually get a fractional percent of a cent, and people would pay that because it multiplied up. +At seven years old I figured it out. I got three and a half cents for a thousand coat hangers. +I sold license plate protectors door to door. +My dad actually made me go find someone who would sell me these things at wholesale. +And at nine years old, I walked around in the city of Sudbury selling license plate protectors door to door to houses. +And I remember this one customer so vividly because I also did some other stuff with these clients. +I sold newspapers. +And he wouldn't buy a newspaper from me ever. +But I was convinced I was going to get him to buy a license plate protector. +And he's like, "Well, we don't need one." +And I said, "But you've got two cars ..." -- I'm nine years old. +I'm like, "But you have two cars and they don't have license plate protectors." +And he said, "I know." +And I said, "This car here's got one license plate that's all crumpled up." +And he said, "Yes, that's my wife's car." And I said, "Why don't we just test one on the front of your wife's car and see if it lasts longer." +So I knew there were two cars with two license plates on each. +If I couldn't sell all four, I could at least get one. +I learned that at a young age. +I did comic book arbitrage. +When I was about 10 years old, I sold comic books out of our cottage on Georgian Bay. +And I would go biking up to the end of the beach and buy all the comics from the poor kids. +And then I would go back to the other end of the beach and sell them to the rich kids. +But it was obvious to me, right? Buy low, sell high. +You've got this demand over here that has money. +Don't try to sell to the poor kids; they don't have cash. The rich people do. Go get some. +So that's obvious, right. +It's like a recession. So, there's a recession. +There's still 13 trillion dollars circulating in the U.S. economy. +Go get some of that. And I learned that at a young age. +I also learned, don't reveal your source, because I got beat up after about four weeks of doing this because one of the rich kids found out where I was buying my comics from, and he didn't like the fact that he was paying a lot more. +I was forced to get a paper route at 10 years old. +I didn't really want a paper route, but at 10, my dad said, "That's going to be your next business." +So not only would he get me one, but I had to get two, and then he wanted me to hire someone to deliver half the papers, which I did, and then I realized that collecting tips was where you made all the money. +So I would collect the tips and get payment. +So I would go and collect for all the papers. +He could just deliver them. +Because then I realized I could make the money. +By this point, I was definitely not going to be an employee. +My dad owned an automotive and industrial repair shop. +He had all these old automotive parts lying around. +They had this old brass and copper. +I asked him what he did with it, and he said he just throws it out. +I said, "But wouldn't somebody pay you for that?" And he goes, "Maybe." +Remember at 10 years old -- so 34 years ago I saw opportunity in this stuff. +I saw there was money in garbage. +And I was actually collecting it from all the automotive shops in the area on my bicycle. +And then my dad would drive me on Saturdays to a scrap metal recycler where I got paid. +And I thought that was kind of cool. +Strangely enough, 30 years later, we're building 1-800-GOT-JUNK? +and making money off that too. +I built these little pincushions when I was 11 years old in Cubs, and we made these pin cushions for our moms for Mother's Day. +And you made these pincushions out of wooden clothespins -- when we used to hang clothes on clotheslines outside. +And you'd make these chairs. +And I had these little pillows that I would sew up. +And you could stuff pins in them. +Because people used to sew and they needed a pin cushion. +But what I realized was that you had to have options. +So I actually spray painted a whole bunch of them brown. +And then when I went to the door, it wasn't, "Do you want to buy one?" +It was, "Which color would you like?" +Like I'm 10 years old; you're not going to say no to me, especially if you have two options -- you have the brown one or the clear one. +So I learned that lesson at a young age. +I learned that manual labor really sucks. +Right, like cutting lawns is brutal. +But because I had to cut lawns all summer for all of our neighbors and get paid to do that, I realized that recurring revenue from one client is amazing. +That if I land this client once, and every week I get paid by that person, that's way better than trying to sell one clothespin thing to one person. +Because you can't sell them more. +So I love that recurring revenue model I started to learn at a young age. +Remember, I was being groomed to do this. I was not allowed to have jobs. +I would caddy, I would go to the golf course and caddy for people. +But I realized that there was this one hill on our golf course, the 13th hole that had this huge hill. +And people could never get their bags up it. +So I would sit there with a lawn chair and just carry up all the people who didn't have caddies. +I would carry their golf bags up to the top, and they'd pay me a dollar. +Meanwhile, my friends were working for five hours to haul some guy's bag around and get paid 10 bucks. +I'm like, "That's stupid because you have to work for five hours. +That doesn't make any sense." You just figure out a way to make more money faster. +Every week, I would go to the corner store and buy all these pops. +Then I would go up and deliver them to these 70-year-old women playing bridge. +And they'd give me their orders for the following week. +And then I'd just deliver pop and I'd just charge twice. +And I had this captured market. You didn't need contracts. +You just needed to have a supply and demand and this audience who bought into you. +These women weren't going to go to anybody else because they liked me, and I kind of figured it out. +I went and got golf balls from golf courses. +But everybody else was looking in the bush and looking in the ditches for golf balls. +I'm like, screw that. They're all in the pond and nobody's going into the pond. +So I would go into the ponds and crawl around and pick them up with my toes. +You just pick them up with both feet. +You can't do it on stage. +You get the golf balls, and you just throw them in your bathing suit trunks and when you're done you've got a couple hundred of them. +But the problem is that people all didn't want all the golf balls. +So I just packaged them. I'm like 12, right? +I packaged them up three ways. +I had the Pinnacles and DDHs and the really cool ones back then. +Those sold for two dollars each. +And then I had all the good ones that didn't look crappy. They were 50 cents each. +And then I'd sell 50 at a time of all the crappy ones. +And they could use those for practice balls. +I sold sunglasses, when I was in school, to all the kids in high school. +This is what really kind of gets everybody hating you is because you're trying to extract money from all your friends all the time. +But it paid the bills. +So I sold lots and lots of sunglasses. +Then when the school shut me down -- the school actually called me into the office and told me I couldn't do it -- so I went to the gas stations and I sold lots of them to the gas stations and had the gas stations sell them to their customers. +That was cool because then I had retail outlets. +And I think I was 14. +Then I paid my entire way through first year university at Carlton by selling wine skins door to door. +You know that you can hold a 40-ounce bottle of rum and two bottles of coke in a wineskin? So what, right? +Yeah, but you know what? You stuff that down your shorts, when you go into a football game you can get booze in for free, everybody bought them. +Supply, demand, big opportunity. +I also branded it, so I sold them for five times the normal cost. +It had our university logo on it. +You know we teach our kids and we buy them games, but why don't we get them games, if they're entrepreneurial kids, that kind of nurture the traits that you need to be entrepreneurs? +Why don't you teach them not to waste money? +I remember being told to walk out in the middle of a street in Banff, Alberta because I'd thrown a penny out in the street, and my dad said, "Go pick it up." +He said, "I work too damn hard for my money. I'm not going to see you ever waste a penny." +And I remember that lesson to this day. +Allowances teach kids the wrong habits. +Allowances, by nature, are teaching kids to think about a job. +An entrepreneur doesn't expect a regular paycheck. +Allowance is breeding kids at a young age to expect a regular paycheck. +That's wrong, for me, if you want to raise entrepreneurs. +What I do with my kids now -- I've got two, nine and seven -- is I teach them to walk around the house and the yard, looking for stuff that needs to get done. +Come to me and tell me what it is. +Or I'll come to them and say, "Here's what I need done." +And then you know what we do? We negotiate. +They go around looking for what it is. +But then we negotiate on what they're going to get paid. +And then they don't have a regular check, but they have more opportunities to find more stuff, and they learn the skill of negotiating, and they learn the skill of finding opportunities as well. +You breed that kind of stuff. Each of my kids has two piggy banks. +Fifty percent of all the money that they earn or get gifted, 50 percent goes in their house account, 50 percent goes in their toy account. +Anything in their toy account they can spend on whatever they want. +The 50 percent that goes in their house account, every six months, goes to the bank. +They walk up with me. Every year all the money in the bank goes to their broker. +Both my nine- and seven-year-olds have a stock broker already. +But I'm teaching them to force that savings habit. +It drives me crazy that 30-year-olds are saying, "Maybe I'll start contributing to my RSP now." +Shit, you've missed 25 years. +You can teach those habits to young kids when they don't even feel the pain yet. +Don't read them bedtime stories every night. +Maybe four nights out of the week read them bedtime stories and three nights of the week have them tell stories. +Why don't you sit down with kids and give them four items, a red shirt, a blue tie, a kangaroo and a laptop, and have them tell a story about those four things? +My kids do that all the time. +It teaches them to sell; it teaches them creativity; it teaches them to think on their feet. +Just do that kind of stuff and have fun with it. +Get kids to stand up in front of groups and talk, even if it's just stand up in front of their friends and do plays and have speeches. +Those are entrepreneurial traits that you want to be nurturing. +Show the kids what bad customers or bad employees look like. +Show them the grumpy employees. +When you see grumpy customer service, point that out to them. +Say, "By the way, that guy's a crappy employee." +And say, "These ones are good ones." +If you go into a restaurant and you have bad customer service, show them what bad customer service looks like. +We have all these lessons in front of us, but we don't take those opportunities; we teach kids to go get a tutor. +Imagine if you actually took all the kids' junk that's in the house right now, all the toys that they've outgrown two years ago and said, "Why don't we start selling some of this on Craigslist and Kijiji?" +And they can actually sell it and learn how to find scammers when they get email offers come in. +They can come into your account or a sub account or whatever. +But teach them how to fix the price, guess the price, pull up the photos. +Teach them how to do that kind of stuff and make money. +Then the money they get, 50 percent goes in their house account, 50 percent goes in their toy account. +My kids love this stuff. +Some of the entrepreneurial traits that you've got to nurture in kids: attainment, tenacity, leadership, introspection, interdependence, values. +All these traits you can find in young kids, and you can help nurture them. +Look for that kind of stuff. +There's two traits that I want you to also look out for that we don't kind of get out of their system. +Don't medicate kids for attention deficit disorder unless it is really, really freaking bad. +The same with the whole things on mania and stress and depression, unless it is so clinically brutal, man. +Bipolar disorder is nicknamed the CEO disease. +When Steve Jurvetson and Jim Clark and Jim Barksdale have all got it, and they built Netscape -- imagine if they were given Ritalin. +We wouldn't have have that stuff, right? +Al Gore really would have had to invented the Internet. +These skills are the skills we should be teaching in the classroom as well as everything else. +I'm not saying don't get kids to want to be lawyers. +But how about getting entrepreneurship to be ranked right up there with the rest of them as well? +Because there's huge opportunities in that. +I want to close with a quick little video. +It's a video that was done by one of the companies that I mentor. +These guys, Grasshopper. +It's about kids. It's about entrepreneurship. +Hopefully this inspires you to take what you've heard from me and do something with it to change the world. +[Sanskrit] This is an ode to the mother goddess, that most of us in India learn when we are children. +I learned it when I was four at my mother's knee. +That year she introduced me to dance, and thus began my tryst with classical dance. +Since then -- it's been four decades now -- I've trained with the best in the field, performed across the globe, taught young and old alike, created, collaborated, choreographed, and wove a rich tapestry of artistry, achievement and awards. +The crowning glory was in 2007, when I received this country's fourth highest civilian award, the Padma Shri, for my contribution to art. +But nothing, nothing prepared me for what I was to hear on the first of July 2008. +I heard the word "carcinoma." +Yes, breast cancer. +As I sat dumbstruck in my doctor's office, I heard other words: "cancer," "stage," "grade." +Until then, Cancer was the zodiac sign of my friend, stage was what I performed on, and grades were what I got in school. +That day, I realized I had an unwelcome, uninvited, new life partner. +As a dancer, I know the nine rasas or the navarasas: anger, valor, disgust, humor and fear. +I thought I knew what fear was. +That day, I learned what fear was. +Overcome with the enormity of it all and the complete feeling of loss of control, I shed copious tears and asked my dear husband, Jayant. +I said, "Is this it? Is this the end of the road? +Is this the end of my dance?" +And he, the positive soul that he is, said, "No, this is just a hiatus, a hiatus during the treatment, and you'll get back to doing what you do best." +I realized then that I, who thought I had complete control of my life, had control of only three things: My thought, my mind -- the images that these thoughts created -- and the action that derived from it. +So here I was wallowing in a vortex of emotions and depression and what have you, with the enormity of the situation, wanting to go to a place of healing, health and happiness. +I wanted to go from where I was to where I wanted to be, for which I needed something. +I needed something that would pull me out of all this. +So I dried my tears, and I declared to the world at large ... +I said, "Cancer's only one page in my life, and I will not allow this page to impact the rest of my life." +I also declared to the world at large that I would ride it out, and I would not allow cancer to ride me. +But to go from where I was to where I wanted to be, I needed something. +I needed an anchor, an image, a peg to peg this process on, so that I could go from there. +And I found that in my dance, my dance, my strength, my energy, my passion, my very life breath. +But it wasn't easy. +Believe me, it definitely wasn't easy. +How do you keep cheer when you go from beautiful to bald in three days? +How do you not despair when, with the body ravaged by chemotherapy, climbing a mere flight of stairs was sheer torture, that to someone like me who could dance for three hours? +How do you not get overwhelmed by the despair and the misery of it all? +All I wanted to do was curl up and weep. +But I kept telling myself fear and tears are options I did not have. +So I would drag myself into my dance studio -- body, mind and spirit -- every day into my dance studio, and learn everything I learned when I was four, all over again, reworked, relearned, regrouped. +It was excruciatingly painful, but I did it. +Difficult. +I focused on my mudras, on the imagery of my dance, on the poetry and the metaphor and the philosophy of the dance itself. +And slowly, I moved out of that miserable state of mind. +But I needed something else. +I needed something to go that extra mile, and I found it in that metaphor which I had learned from my mother when I was four. +The metaphor of Mahishasura Mardhini, of Durga. +Durga, the mother goddess, the fearless one, created by the pantheon of Hindu gods. +Durga, resplendent, bedecked, beautiful, her 18 arms ready for warfare, as she rode astride her lion into the battlefield to destroy Mahishasur. +Durga, the epitome of creative feminine energy, or shakti. +Durga, the fearless one. +I made that image of Durga and her every attribute, her every nuance, my very own. +Powered by the symbology of a myth and the passion of my training, I brought laser-sharp focus into my dance, laser-sharp focus to such an extent that I danced a few weeks after surgery. +I danced through chemo and radiation cycles, much to the dismay of my oncologist. +I danced between chemo and radiation cycles and badgered him to fit it to my performing dance schedule. +What I had done is I had tuned out of cancer and tuned into my dance. +Yes, cancer has just been one page in my life. +My story is a story of overcoming setbacks, obstacles and challenges that life throws at you. +My story is the power of thought. +My story is the power of choice. +It's the power of focus. +It's the power of bringing ourselves to the attention of something that so animates you, so moves you, that something even like cancer becomes insignificant. +My story is the power of a metaphor. +It's the power of an image. +Mine was that of Durga, Durga the fearless one. +She was also called Simhanandini, the one who rode the lion. +As I ride out, as I ride my own inner strength, my own inner resilience, armed as I am with what medication can provide and continue treatment, as I ride out into the battlefield of cancer, asking my rogue cells to behave, I want to be known not as a cancer survivor, but as a cancer conqueror. +I present to you an excerpt of that work "Simhanandini." +I'm going to talk about the simple truth in leadership in the 21st century. +In the 21st century, we need to actually look at -- and what I'm actually going to encourage you to consider today -- is to go back to our school days when we learned how to count. +But I think it's time for us to think about what we count. +Because what we actually count truly counts. +Let me start by telling you a little story. +This is Van Quach. +She came to this country in 1986 from Vietnam. +She changed her name to Vivian because she wanted to fit in here in America. +Her first job was at an inner-city motel in San Francisco as a maid. +I happened to buy that motel about three months after Vivian started working there. +So Vivian and I have been working together for 23 years. +With the youthful idealism of a 26-year-old, in 1987, I started my company and I called it Joie de Vivre, a very impractical name, because I actually was looking to create joy of life. +And this first hotel that I bought, motel, was a pay-by-the-hour, no-tell motel in the inner-city of San Francisco. +As I spent time with Vivian, I saw that she had sort of a joie de vivre in how she did her work. +It made me question and curious: How could someone actually find joy in cleaning toilets for a living? +So I spent time with Vivian, and I saw that she didn't find joy in cleaning toilets. +Her job, her goal and her calling was not to become the world's greatest toilet scrubber. +What counts for Vivian was the emotional connection she created with her fellow employees and our guests. +And what gave her inspiration and meaning was the fact that she was taking care of people who were far away from home. +Because Vivian knew what it was like to be far away from home. +That very human lesson, more than 20 years ago, served me well during the last economic downturn we had. +In the wake of the dotcom crash and 9/11, San Francisco Bay Area hotels went through the largest percentage revenue drop in the history of American hotels. +We were the largest operator of hotels in the Bay Area, so we were particularly vulnerable. +But also back then, remember we stopped eating French fries in this country. +Well, not exactly, of course not. +We started eating "freedom fries," and we started boycotting anything that was French. +Well, my name of my company, Joie de Vivre -- so I started getting these letters from places like Alabama and Orange County saying to me that they were going to boycott my company because they thought we were a French company. +And I'd write them back, and I'd say, "What a minute. We're not French. +We're an American company. We're based in San Francisco." +And I'd get a terse response: "Oh, that's worse." +So one particular day when I was feeling a little depressed and not a lot of joie de vivre, I ended up in the local bookstore around the corner from our offices. +And I initially ended up in the business section of the bookstore looking for a business solution. +But given my befuddled state of mind, I ended up in the self-help section very quickly. +That's where I got reacquainted with Abraham Maslow's "hierarchy of needs." +I took one psychology class in college, and I learned about this guy, Abraham Maslow, as many of us are familiar with his hierarchy of needs. +But as I sat there for four hours, the full afternoon, reading Maslow, I recognized something that is true of most leaders. +One of the simplest facts in business is something that we often neglect, and that is that we're all human. +Each of us, no matter what our role is in business, has some hierarchy of needs in the workplace. +So as I started reading more Maslow, what I started to realize is that Maslow, later in his life, wanted to take this hierarchy for the individual and apply it to the collective, to organizations and specifically to business. +But unfortunately, he died prematurely in 1970, and so he wasn't really able to live that dream completely. +So I realized in that dotcom crash that my role in life was to channel Abe Maslow. +And that's what I did a few years ago when I took that five-level hierarchy of needs pyramid and turned it into what I call the transformation pyramid, which is survival, success and transformation. +It's not just fundamental in business, it's fundamental in life. +And we started asking ourselves the questions about how we were actually addressing the higher needs, these transformational needs for our key employees in the company. +These three levels of the hierarchy needs relate to the five levels of Maslow's hierarchy of needs. +But as we started asking ourselves about how we were addressing the higher needs of our employees and our customers, I realized we had no metrics. +We had nothing that actually could tell us whether we were actually getting it right. +So we started asking ourselves: What kind of less obvious metrics could we use to actually evaluate our employees' sense of meaning, or our customers' sense of emotional connection with us? +For example, we actually started asking our employees, do they understand the mission of our company, and do they feel like they believe in it, can they actually influence it, and do they feel that their work actually has an impact on it? +We started asking our customers, did they feel an emotional connection with us, in one of seven different kinds of ways. +Miraculously, as we asked these questions and started giving attention higher up the pyramid, what we found is we created more loyalty. +Our customer loyalty skyrocketed. +Our employee turnover dropped to one-third of the industry average, and during that five year dotcom bust, we tripled in size. +As I went out and started spending time with other leaders out there and asking them how they were getting through that time, what they told me over and over again was that they just manage what they can measure. +What we can measure is that tangible stuff at the bottom of the pyramid. +They didn't even see the intangible stuff higher up the pyramid. +So I started asking myself the question: How can we get leaders to start valuing the intangible? +If we're taught as leaders to just manage what we can measure, and all we can measure is the tangible in life, we're missing a whole lot of things at the top of the pyramid. +So as leaders, we understand that intangibles are important, but we don't have a clue how to measure them. +So here's another Einstein quote: "Not everything that can be counted counts, and not everything that counts can be counted." +I hate to argue with Einstein, but if that which is most valuable in our life and our business actually can't be counted or valued, aren't we going to spend our lives just mired in measuring the mundane? +It was that sort of heady question about what counts that led me to take my CEO hat off for a week and fly off to the Himalayan peaks. +I flew off to a place that's been shrouded in mystery for centuries, a place some folks call Shangri-La. +It's actually moved from the survival base of the pyramid to becoming a transformational role model for the world. +I went to Bhutan. +The teenage king of Bhutan was also a curious man, but this was back in 1972, when he ascended to the throne two days after his father passed away. +At age 17, he started asking the kinds of questions that you'd expect of someone with a beginner's mind. +On a trip through India, early in his reign as king, he was asked by an Indian journalist about the Bhutanese GDP, the size of the Bhutanese GDP. +The king responded in a fashion that actually has transformed us four decades later. +He said the following, he said: "Why are we so obsessed and focused with gross domestic product? +Why don't we care more about gross national happiness?" +Now, in essence, the king was asking us to consider an alternative definition of success, what has come to be known as GNH, or gross national happiness. +Most world leaders didn't take notice, and those that did thought this was just "Buddhist economics." +But the king was serious. +For the next three dozen years as king, this king actually started measuring and managing around happiness in Bhutan -- including, just recently, taking his country from being an absolute monarchy to a constitutional monarchy with no bloodshed, no coup. +Bhutan, for those of you who don't know it, is the newest democracy in the world, just two years ago. +So as I spent time with leaders in the GNH movement, I got to really understand what they're doing. +And I got to spend some time with the prime minister. +Over dinner, I asked him an impertinent question. +I asked him, "How can you create and measure something which evaporates -- in other words, happiness?" +And he's a very wise man, and he said, "Listen, Bhutan's goal is not to create happiness. +We create the conditions for happiness to occur. +In other words, we create a habitat of happiness." +Wow, that's interesting. +He said that they have a science behind that art, and they've actually created four essential pillars, nine key indicators and 72 different metrics that help them to measure their GNH. +One of those key indicators is: How do the Bhutanese feel about how they spend their time each day? +It's a good question. How do you feel about how you spend your time each day? +Time is one of the scarcest resources in the modern world. +And yet, of course, that little intangible piece of data doesn't factor into our GDP calculations. +As I spent my week up in the Himalayas, I started to imagine what I call an emotional equation. +And it focuses on something I read long ago from a guy named Rabbi Hyman Schachtel. +How many know him? Anybody? +1954, he wrote a book called "The Real Enjoyment of Living," and he suggested that happiness is not about having what you want; instead, it's about wanting what you have. +Or in other words, I think the Bhutanese believe happiness equals wanting what you have -- imagine gratitude -- divided by having what you want -- gratification. +The Bhutanese aren't on some aspirational treadmill, constantly focused on what they don't have. +Their religion, their isolation, their deep respect for their culture and now the principles of their GNH movement all have fostered a sense of gratitude about what they do have. +How many of us here, as TEDsters in the audience, spend more of our time in the bottom half of this equation, in the denominator? +We are a bottom-heavy culture in more ways than one. +The reality is, in Western countries, quite often we do focus on the pursuit of happiness as if happiness is something that we have to go out -- an object that we're supposed to get, or maybe many objects. +Actually, in fact, if you look in the dictionary, many dictionaries define pursuit as to "chase with hostility." +Do we pursue happiness with hostility? +Good question. But back to Bhutan. +Bhutan's bordered on its north and south by 38 percent of the world's population. +Could this little country, like a startup in a mature industry, be the spark plug that influences a 21st century of middle-class in China and India? +Bhutan's created the ultimate export, a new global currency of well-being, and there are 40 countries around the world today that are studying their own GNH. +You may have heard, this last fall Nicolas Sarkozy in France announcing the results of an 18-month study by two Nobel economists, focusing on happiness and wellness in France. +Sarkozy suggested that world leaders should stop myopically focusing on GDP and consider a new index, what some French are calling a "joie de vivre index." +I like it. +Co-branding opportunities. +So it suggests that the momentum is shifting. +I've taken that Robert Kennedy quote, and I've turned it into a new balance sheet for just a moment here. +This is a collection of things that Robert Kennedy said in that quote. +GDP counts everything from air pollution to the destruction of our redwoods. +But it doesn't count the health of our children or the integrity of our public officials. +As you look at these two columns here, doesn't it make you feel like it's time for us to start figuring out a new way to count, a new way to imagine what's important to us in life? +Certainly Robert Kennedy suggested at the end of the speech exactly that. +He said GDP "measures everything in short, except that which makes life worthwhile." +Wow. +So how do we do that? +Let me say one thing we can just start doing ten years from now, at least in this country. +Why in the heck in America are we doing a census in 2010? +We're spending 10 billion dollars on the census. +We're asking 10 simple questions -- it is simplicity. +But all of those questions are tangible. +They're about demographics. +They're about where you live, how many people you live with, and whether you own your home or not. +That's about it. +We're not asking meaningful metrics. +We're not asking important questions. +We're not asking anything that's intangible. +Abe Maslow said long ago something you've heard before, but you didn't realize it was him. +He said, "If the only tool you have is a hammer, everything starts to look like a nail." +We've been fooled by our tool. +Excuse that expression. +We've been fooled by our tool. +GDP has been our hammer. +And our nail has been a 19th- and 20th-century industrial-era model of success. +And yet, 64 percent of the world's GDP today is in that intangible industry we call service, the service industry, the industry I'm in. +And only 36 percent is in the tangible industries of manufacturing and agriculture. +So maybe it's time that we get a bigger toolbox, right? +Maybe it's time we get a toolbox that doesn't just count what's easily counted, the tangible in life, but actually counts what we most value, the things that are intangible. +I guess I'm sort of a curious CEO. +I was also a curious economics major as an undergrad. +I learned that economists measure everything in tangible units of production and consumption as if each of those tangible units is exactly the same. +They aren't the same. +In fact, as leaders, what we need to learn is that we can influence the quality of that unit of production by creating the conditions for our employees to live their calling. +In Vivian's case, her unit of production isn't the tangible hours she works, it's the intangible difference she makes during that one hour of work. +This is Dave Arringdale who's actually been a longtime guest at Vivian's motel. +He stayed there a hundred times in the last 20 years, and he's loyal to the property because of the relationship that Vivian and her fellow employees have created with him. +They've created a habitat of happiness for Dave. +He tells me that he can always count on Vivian and the staff there to make him feel at home. +Why is it that business leaders and investors quite often don't see the connection between creating the intangible of employee happiness with creating the tangible of financial profits in their business? +We don't have to choose between inspired employees and sizable profits, we can have both. +In fact, inspired employees quite often help make sizable profits, right? +So what the world needs now, in my opinion, is business leaders and political leaders who know what to count. +We count numbers. +We count on people. +What really counts is when we actually use our numbers to truly take into account our people. +I learned that from a maid in a motel and a king of a country. +What can you start counting today? +What one thing can you start counting today that actually would be meaningful in your life, whether it's your work life or your business life? +Thank you very much. +I'm going to begin by reciting a poem. +"Oh beloved dentist: Your rubber fingers in my mouth ... +your voice so soft and muffled ... +Lower the mask, dear dentist, lower the mask." +Okay, in this presentation, I'm going to be putting the right side of your brains through a fairly serious workout. +You're going to see a lot of imagery, and it's not always connected to what I'm talking about, so I need you to kind of split your brains in half and let the images flow over one side and listen to me on the other. +So I am one of those people with a transformative personal story. +Six years ago, after 20 years in graphic design and typography, I changed the way I was working and the way most graphic designers work to pursue a more personal approach to my work, with only the humble attempt to simply make a living doing something that I loved. +But something weird happened. +I became bizarrely popular. +My current work seems to resonate with people in a way that has so taken me by surprise that I still frequently wonder what in the hell is going on. +And I'm slowly coming to understand that the appeal of what I do may be connected to why I do it. +These days, I call myself a graphic artist. +So where my work as a graphic designer was to follow strategy, my work now follows my heart and my interests with the guidance of my ego to create work that is mutually beneficial to myself and a client. +Now, this is heresy in the design world. +The ego is not supposed to be involved in graphic design. +But I find that for myself, without exception, the more I deal with the work as something of my own, as something that is personal, the more successful it is as something that's compelling, interesting and sustaining. +So I exist somewhat outside of the mainstream of design thinking. +Where others might look at measurable results, I tend to be interested in more ethereal qualities, like "Does it bring joy?" +"Is there a sense of wonder?" +and "Does it invoke curiosity?" +This is a scientific diagram, by the way. +I don't have time to explain it, but it has to do with DNA and RNA. +So I have a particular imaginative approach to visual work. +The things that interest me when I'm working are visual structure, surprise and anything that requires figuring things out. +So for this reason, I'm particularly drawn to systems and patterns. +I'm going to give you a couple of examples of how my brain works. +This is a piece that I did for The Guardian newspaper in the U.K. +They have a magazine that they call G2. +And this is for their puzzle special in 2007. +And puzzling it is. +I started by creating a series of tiling units. +And these tiling units, I designed specifically so that they would contain parts of letterforms within their shapes so that I could then join those pieces together to create letters and then words within the abstract patterning. +But then as well, I was able to just flip them, rotate them and combine them in different ways to create either regular patterns or abstract patterns. +So here's the word puzzle again. +And here it is with the abstract surrounding. +And as you can see, it's extremely difficult to read. +But all I have to do is fill certain areas of those letterforms and I can bring those words out of the background pattern. +But maybe that's a little too obvious. +I'm also interested in working with unusual materials and common materials in unusual ways. +So this requires figuring out how to get the most out of something's innate properties and also how to bend it to my will. +So ultimately, my goal is to create something unexpected. +To this end, I have worked in sugar for Stefan Sagmeister, three-time TED speaker. +And this project began essentially on my kitchen table. +I've been eating cereal for breakfast all of my life. +And for that same amount of time, I've been spilling sugar on the table and just kind of playing with it with my fingers. +And eventually I used this technique to create a piece of artwork. +And then I used it again to create six pieces for Stefan's book, "Things in My Life I've Learned So Far." +And these were created without sketches, just freehand, by putting the sugar down on a white surface and then manipulating it to get the words and designs out of it. +Recently, I've also made some rather highbrow baroque borders out of lowbrow pasta. +And this is for a chapter that I'm doing in a book, and the chapter is on honor. +So it's a little bit unexpected, but, in a way, it refers to the macaroni art that children make for their parents or they make in school and give to their parents, which is in itself a form of honor. +This is what you can do with some household tinfoil. +Okay, well, it's what I can do with some household tinfoil. +I'm very interested in wonder, in design as an impetus to inquiring. +To say I wonder is to say I question, I ask. +And to experience wonder is to experience awe. +So I'm currently working on a book, which plays with both senses of the word, as I explore some of my own ideas and inquiries in a visual display of rather peacock-like grandeur. +The world is full of wonder. +But the world of graphic design, for the most part, is not. +So I'm using my own writings as a kind of testing ground for a book that has an interdependency between word and image as a kind of seductive force. +I think that one of the things that religions got right was the use of visual wonder to deliver a message. +I think this true marriage of art and information is woefully underused in adult literature, and I'm mystified as to why visual wealth is not more commonly used to enhance intellectual wealth. +When we look at works like this, we tend to associate them with children's literature. +There's an implication that ornamental graphics detract from the seriousness of the content. +But I really hope to have the opportunity to change that perception. +This book is taking rather a long time, but I'm nearly done. +For some reason, I thought it would be a good idea to put an intermission in my talk. +And this is it -- just to give you and me a moment to catch up. +So I do these valentines. +I've been sending out valentines on a fairly large scale since 2005. +These are my valentines from 2005 and 2006. +And I started by doing just a single image like this and sending them out to each person. +But in 2007, I got the cockamamie idea to hand-draw each valentine for everyone on my mailing list. +I reduced my mailing list to 150 people. +And I drew each person their own unique valentine and put their name on it and numbered it and signed it and sent it out. +Believe it or not, I devised this as a timesaving method. +I was very busy in the beginning of that year, and I didn't know when I was going to find time to design and print a single valentine. +And I thought that I could kind of do this piecemeal as I was traveling. +It didn't exactly work out that way. +There's a longer story to this, but I did get them all done in time, and they were extremely well received. +I got an almost 100 percent response rate. +And those who didn't respond will never receive anything from me ever again. +Last year, I took a more conceptual approach to the valentine. +I had this idea that I wanted people to receive a kind of mysterious love letter, like a found fragment in their mailbox. +I wanted it to be something that was not addressed to them or signed by me, something that caused them to wonder what on Earth this thing was. +And I specifically wrote four pages that don't connect. +There were four different versions of this. +And I wrote them so that they begin in the middle of a sentence, end in the middle of a sentence. +And they're on the one hand, universal, so I avoid specific names or places, but on the other hand, they're personal. +So I wanted people to really get the sense that they had received something that could have been a love letter to them. +And I'm just going to read one of them to you. +"You've never really been sure of this, but I can assure you that this quirk you're so self-conscious of is intensely endearing. +Just please accept that this piece of you escapes with your smile, and those of us who notice are happy to catch it in passing. +Time spent with you is like chasing and catching small birds, but without the scratches and bird shit." +"That is to say, your thoughts and words flit and dart, disconcertedly elusive at times, but when caught and examined -- ahh, such a wonder, such a delightful reward. +There's no passing time with you, only collecting -- the collecting of moments with the hope for preservation and at the same time release. +Impossible? I don't think so. +I know this makes you embarrassed. +I'm certain I can see you blushing. +But I just have to tell you because sometimes I hear your self-doubt, and it's so crushing to think that you may not know how truly wonderful you are, how inspiring and delightful and really, truly the most completely ..." +So Valentine's Day is coming up in a couple of days, and these are currently arriving in mailboxes all around the world. +This year, I got, what I really have to say is a rather brilliant idea, to laser cut my valentines out of used Christmas cards. +So I solicited friends to send me their used Christmas cards, and I made 500 of these. +Each one of them is completely different. +I'm just really, really thrilled with them. +I don't have that much else to say, but they turned out really well. +I do spend a lot of time on my work. +And one of the things that I've been thinking about recently is what is worth while. +What is it that's worth spending my time on and my life on in this way? +Working in the commercial world, this is something that I do have to struggle with at times. +And yes, sometimes I'm swayed by money. +But ultimately, I don't consider that a worthy goal. +What makes something worthwhile for me is the people I work for or with, the conditions I work under and the audience that I'm able to reach. +So I might ask: "Who is it for?" +"What does it say?" +and "What does it do?" +You know, I have to tell you, it's really difficult for someone like me to come up on stage at this conference with these unbelievably brilliant minds, who are thinking these really big-picture, world-changing, life-changing ideas and technologies. +And it's very, very common for designers and people in the visual arts to feel that we're not contributing enough, or worse, that all we're doing is contributing to landfill. +Here I am; I'm showing you some pretty visuals and talking about aesthetics. +But I've come to believe that truly imaginative visual work is extremely important in society. +Just in the way that I'm inspired by books and magazines of all kinds, conversations I have, movies, so I also think, when I put visual work out there into the mass media, work that is interesting, unusual, intriguing, work that maybe opens up that sense of inquiry in the mind, that I'm seeding the imagination of the populace. +And you just never know who is going to take something from that and turn it into something else, because inspiration is cross-pollinating. +So a piece of mine may inspire a playwright or a novelist or a scientist, and that in turn may be the seed that inspires a doctor or a philanthropist or a babysitter. +And this isn't something that you can quantify or track or measure, and we tend to undervalue things in society that we can't measure. +But I really believe that a fully operating, rich society needs these seeds coming from all directions and all disciplines in order to keep the gears of inspiration and imagination flowing and cycling and growing. +And I actually really feel that it's worthwhile to spend my valuable and limited time on this Earth in this way. +And I thank you for allowing me to show it to you. +It's a great pleasure to be here. +It's a great pleasure to speak after Brian Cox from CERN. +I think CERN is the home of the Large Hadron Collider. +What ever happened to the Small Hadron Collider? +Where is the Small Hadron Collider? +Because the Small Hadron Collider once was the big thing. +Now, the Small Hadron Collider is in a cupboard, overlooked and neglected. +You know when the Large Hadron Collider started, and it didn't work, and people tried to work out why, it was the Small Hadron Collider team who sabotaged it because they were so jealous. +The whole Hadron Collider family needs unlocking. +The lesson of Brian's presentation, in a way -- all those fantastic pictures -- is this really: that vantage point determines everything that you see. +What Brian was saying was science has opened up successively different vantage points from which we can see ourselves, and that's why it's so valuable. +So the vantage point you take determines virtually everything that you will see. +The question that you will ask will determine much of the answer that you get. +And so if you ask this question: Where would you look to see the future of education? +The answer that we've traditionally given to that is very straightforward, at least in the last 20 years: You go to Finland. +Finland is the best place in the world to see school systems. +The Finns may be a bit boring and depressive and there's a very high suicide rate, but by golly, they are qualified. +And they have absolutely amazing education systems. +So we all troop off to Finland, and we wonder at the social democratic miracle of Finland and its cultural homogeneity and all the rest of it, and then we struggle to imagine how we might bring lessons back. +Well, so, for this last year, with the help of Cisco who sponsored me, for some balmy reason, to do this, I've been looking somewhere else. +Because actually radical innovation does sometimes come from the very best, but it often comes from places where you have huge need -- unmet, latent demand -- and not enough resources for traditional solutions to work -- traditional, high-cost solutions, which depend on professionals, which is what schools and hospitals are. +So I ended up in places like this. +This is a place called Monkey Hill. +It's one of the hundreds of favelas in Rio. +Most of the population growth of the next 50 years will be in cities. +We'll grow by six cities of 12 million people a year for the next 30 years. +Almost all of that growth will be in the developed world. +Almost all of that growth will be in places like Monkey Hill. +This is where you'll find the fastest growing young populations of the world. +So if you want recipes to work -- for virtually anything -- health, education, government politics and education -- you have to go to these places. +And if you go to these places, you meet people like this. +This is a guy called Juanderson. +At the age of 14, in common with many 14-year-olds in the Brazilian education system, he dropped out of school. +It was boring. +And Juanderson, instead, went into what provided kind of opportunity and hope in the place that he lived, which was the drugs trade. +And by the age of 16, with rapid promotion, he was running the drugs trade in 10 favelas. +He was turning over 200,000 dollars a week. +He employed 200 people. +He was going to be dead by the age of 25. +And luckily, he met this guy, who is Rodrigo Baggio, the owner of the first laptop to ever appear in Brazil. +1994, Rodrigo started something called CDI, which took computers donated by corporations, put them into community centers in favelas and created places like this. +What turned Juanderson around was technology for learning that made learning fun and accessible. +Or you can go to places like this. +This is Kibera, which is the largest slum in East Africa. +Millions of people living here, stretched over many kilometers. +And there I met these two, Azra on the left, Maureen on the right. +They just finished their Kenyan certificate of secondary education. +That name should tell you that the Kenyan education system borrows almost everything from Britain, circa 1950, but has managed to make it even worse. +So there are schools in slums like this. +They're places like this. +That's where Maureen went to school. +They're private schools. There are no state schools in slums. +And the education they got was pitiful. +It was in places like this. This a school set up by some nuns in another slum called Nakuru. +Half the children in this classroom have no parents because they've died through AIDS. +The other half have one parent because the other parent has died through AIDS. +So the challenges of education in this kind of place are not to learn the kings and queens of Kenya or Britain. +They are to stay alive, to earn a living, to not become HIV positive. +The one technology that spans rich and poor in places like this is not anything to do with industrial technology. +It's not to do with electricity or water. +It's the mobile phone. +If you want to design from scratch virtually any service in Africa, you would start now with the mobile phone. +Or you could go to places like this. +This is a place called the Madangiri Settlement Colony, which is a very developed slum about 25 minutes outside New Delhi, where I met these characters who showed me around for the day. +The remarkable thing about these girls, and the sign of the kind of social revolution sweeping through the developing world is that these girls are not married. +Ten years ago, they certainly would have been married. +Now they're not married, and they want to go on to study further, to have a career. +They've been brought up by mothers who are illiterate, who have never ever done homework. +All across the developing world there are millions of parents -- tens, hundreds of millions -- who for the first time are with children doing homework and exams. +And the reason they carry on studying is not because they went to a school like this. +This is a private school. +This is a fee-pay school. This is a good school. +This is the best you can get in Hyderabad in Indian education. +The reason they went on studying was this. +This is a computer installed in the entrance to their slum by a revolutionary social entrepreneur called Sugata Mitra who has conducted the most radical experiments, showing that children, in the right conditions, can learn on their own with the help of computers. +Those girls have never touched Google. +They know nothing about Wikipedia. +Imagine what their lives would be like if you could get that to them. +So if you look, as I did, through this tour, and by looking at about a hundred case studies of different social entrepreneurs working in these very extreme conditions, look at the recipes that they come up with for learning, they look nothing like school. +What do they look like? +Well, education is a global religion. +And education, plus technology, is a great source of hope. +You can go to places like this. +This is a school three hours outside of Sao Paulo. +Most of the children there have parents who are illiterate. +Many of them don't have electricity at home. +But they find it completely obvious to use computers, websites, make videos, so on and so forth. +When you go to places like this what you see is that education in these settings works by pull, not push. +Most of our education system is push. +I was literally pushed to school. +When you get to school, things are pushed at you: knowledge, exams, systems, timetables. +If you want to attract people like Juanderson who could, for instance, buy guns, wear jewelry, ride motorbikes and get girls through the drugs trade, and you want to attract him into education, having a compulsory curriculum doesn't really make sense. +That isn't really going to attract him. +You need to pull him. +And so education needs to work by pull, not push. +And so the idea of a curriculum is completely irrelevant in a setting like this. +You need to start education from things that make a difference to them in their settings. +What does that? +Well, the key is motivation, and there are two aspects to it. +One is to deliver extrinsic motivation, that education has a payoff. +Our education systems all work on the principle that there is a payoff, but you have to wait quite a long time. +That's too long if you're poor. +Waiting 10 years for the payoff from education is too long when you need to meet daily needs, when you've got siblings to look after or a business to help with. +So you need education to be relevant and help people to make a living there and then, often. +And you also need to make it intrinsically interesting. +So time and again, I found people like this. +This is an amazing guy, Sebastiao Rocha, in Belo Horizonte, in the third largest city in Brazil. +He's invented more than 200 games to teach virtually any subject under the sun. +In the schools and communities that Taio works in, the day always starts in a circle and always starts from a question. +Imagine an education system that started from questions, not from knowledge to be imparted, or started from a game, not from a lesson, or started from the premise that you have to engage people first before you can possibly teach them. +Our education systems, you do all that stuff afterward, if you're lucky, sport, drama, music. +These things, they teach through. +They attract people to learning because it's really a dance project or a circus project or, the best example of all -- El Sistema in Venezuela -- it's a music project. +And so you attract people through that into learning, not adding that on after all the learning has been done and you've eaten your cognitive greens. +So El Sistema in Venezuela uses a violin as a technology of learning. +Taio Rocha uses making soap as a technology of learning. +And what you find when you go to these schemes is that they use people and places in incredibly creative ways. +Masses of peer learning. +How do you get learning to people when there are no teachers, when teachers won't come, when you can't afford them, and even if you do get teachers, what they teach isn't relevant to the communities that they serve? +Well, you create your own teachers. +You create peer-to-peer learning, or you create para-teachers, or you bring in specialist skills. +But you find ways to get learning that's relevant to people through technology, people and places that are different. +So this is a school in a bus on a building site in Pune, the fastest growing city in Asia. +Pune has 5,000 building sites. +It has 30,000 children on those building sites. +That's one city. +Imagine that urban explosion that's going to take place across the developing world and how many thousands of children will spend their school years on building sites. +Well, this is a very simple scheme to get the learning to them through a bus. +And they all treat learning, not as some sort of academic, analytical activity, but as that's something that's productive, something you make, something that you can do, perhaps earn a living from. +So I met this character, Steven. +He'd spent three years in Nairobi living on the streets because his parents had died of AIDS. +And he was finally brought back into school, not by the offer of GCSEs, but by the offer of learning how to become a carpenter, a practical making skill. +So the trendiest schools in the world, High Tech High and others, they espouse a philosophy of learning as productive activity. +Here, there isn't really an option. +Learning has to be productive in order for it to make sense. +And finally, they have a different model of scale, and it's a Chinese restaurant model of how to scale. +And I learned it from this guy, who is an amazing character. +He's probably the most remarkable social entrepreneur in education in the world. +His name is Madhav Chavan, and he created something called Pratham. +And Pratham runs preschool play groups for, now, 21 million children in India. +It's the largest NGO in education in the world. +And it also supports working-class kids going into Indian schools. +He's a complete revolutionary. +He's actually a trade union organizer by background, and that's how he learned the skills to build his organization. +When they got to a certain stage, Pratham got big enough to attract some pro bono support from McKinsey. +McKinsey came along and looked at his model and said, "You know what you should do with this, Madhav? +You should turn it into McDonald's. +And what you do when you go to any new site is you kind of roll out a franchise. +And it's the same wherever you go. +It's reliable and people know exactly where they are. +And there will be no mistakes." +And Madhav said, "Why do we have to do it that way? +Why can't we do it more like the Chinese restaurants?" +There are Chinese restaurants everywhere, but there is no Chinese restaurant chain. +Yet, everyone knows what is a Chinese restaurant. +They know what to expect, even though it'll be subtly different and the colors will be different and the name will be different. +You know a Chinese restaurant when you see it. +These people work with the Chinese restaurant model -- same principles, different applications and different settings -- not the McDonald's model. +The McDonald's model scales. +The Chinese restaurant model spreads. +So mass education started with social entrepreneurship in the 19th century. +And that's desperately what we need again on a global scale. +And what can we learn from all of that? +Well, we can learn a lot because our education systems are failing desperately in many ways. +They fail to reach the people they most need to serve. +They often hit their target but miss the point. +Improvement is increasingly difficult to organize; our faith in these systems, incredibly fraught. +And this is just a very simple way of understanding what kind of innovation, what kind of different design we need. +There are two basic types of innovation. +There's sustaining innovation, which will sustain an existing institution or an organization, and disruptive innovation that will break it apart, create some different way of doing it. +There are formal settings -- schools, colleges, hospitals -- in which innovation can take place, and informal settings -- communities, families, social networks. +Almost all our effort goes in this box, sustaining innovation in formal settings, getting a better version of the essentially Bismarckian school system that developed in the 19th century. +And as I said, the trouble with this is that, in the developing world there just aren't teachers to make this model work. +You'd need millions and millions of teachers in China, India, Nigeria and the rest of developing world to meet need. +And in our system, we know that simply doing more of this won't eat into deep educational inequalities, especially in inner cities and former industrial areas. +So that's why we need three more kinds of innovation. +We need more reinvention. +And all around the world now you see more and more schools reinventing themselves. +They're recognizably schools, but they look different. +There are Big Picture schools in the U.S. and Australia. +There are Kunskapsskolan schools in Sweden. +Of 14 of them, only two of them are in schools. +Most of them are in other buildings not designed as schools. +There is an amazing school in Northen Queensland called Jaringan. +And they all have the same kind of features: highly collaborative, very personalized, often pervasive technology, learning that starts from questions and problems and projects, not from knowledge and curriculum. +So we certainly need more of that. +But because so many of the issues in education aren't just in school, they're in family and community, what you also need, definitely, is more on the right hand side. +You need efforts to supplement schools. +The most famous of these is Reggio Emilia in Italy, the family-based learning system to support and encourage people in schools. +The most exciting is the Harlem Children's Zone, which over 10 years, led by Geoffrey Canada, has, through a mixture of schooling and family and community projects, attempted to transform not just education in schools, but the entire culture and aspiration of about 10,000 families in Harlem. +We need more of that completely new and radical thinking. +You can go to places an hour away, less, from this room, just down the road, which need that, which need radicalism of a kind that we haven't imagined. +And finally, you need transformational innovation that could imagine getting learning to people in completely new and different ways. +So we are on the verge, 2015, of an amazing achievement, the schoolification of the world. +Every child up to the age of 15 who wants a place in school will be able to have one in 2015. +It's an amazing thing. +It's recognizably 19th century in its roots. +And of course it's a huge achievement. +And of course it will bring great things. +It will bring skills and learning and reading. +But it will also lay waste to imagination. +It will lay waste to appetite. It will lay waste to social confidence. +It will stratify society as much as it liberates it. +And we are bequeathing to the developing world school systems that they will now spend a century trying to reform. +That is why we need really radical thinking, and why radical thinking is now more possible and more needed than ever in how we learn. +Thank you. +When I was 10 years old, a cousin of mine took me on a tour of his medical school. +And as a special treat, he took me to the pathology lab and took a real human brain out of the jar and placed it in my hands. +And there it was, the seat of human consciousness, the powerhouse of the human body, sitting in my hands. +And that day I knew that when I grew up, I was going to become a brain doctor, scientist, something or the other. +Years later, when I finally grew up, my dream came true. +And it was while I was doing my Ph.D. +on the neurological causes of dyslexia in children that I encountered a startling fact that I'd like to share with you all today. +It is estimated that one in six children, that's one in six children, suffer from some developmental disorder. +This is a disorder that retards mental development in the child and causes permanent mental impairments. +Which means that each and every one of you here today knows at least one child that is suffering from a developmental disorder. +But here's what really perplexed me. +Despite the fact that each and every one of these disorders originates in the brain, most of these disorders are diagnosed solely on the basis of observable behavior. +But diagnosing a brain disorder without actually looking at the brain is analogous to treating a patient with a heart problem based on their physical symptoms, without even doing an ECG or a chest X-ray to look at the heart. +It seemed so intuitive to me. +To diagnose and treat a brain disorder accurately, it would be necessary to look at the brain directly. +Looking at behavior alone can miss a vital piece of the puzzle and provide an incomplete, or even a misleading, picture of the child's problems. +Yet, despite all the advances in medical technology, the diagnosis of brain disorders in one in six children still remained so limited. +And then I came across a team at Harvard University that had taken one such advanced medical technology and finally applied it, instead of in brain research, towards diagnosing brain disorders in children. +Their groundbreaking technology records the EEG, or the electrical activity of the brain, in real time, allowing us to watch the brain as it performs various functions and then detect even the slightest abnormality in any of these functions: vision, attention, language, audition. +A program called Brain Electrical Activity Mapping then triangulates the source of that abnormality in the brain. +And another program called Statistical Probability Mapping then performs mathematical calculations to determine whether any of these abnormalities are clinically significant, allowing us to provide a much more accurate neurological diagnosis of the child's symptoms. +And so I became the head of neurophysiology for the clinical arm of this team, and we're finally able to use this technology towards actually helping children with brain disorders. +And I'm happy to say that I'm now in the process of setting up this technology here in India. +I'd like to tell you about one such child, whose story was also covered by ABC News. +Seven-year-old Justin Senigar came to our clinic with this diagnosis of very severe autism. +Like many autistic children, his mind was locked inside his body. +There were moments when he would actually space out for seconds at a time. +And the doctors told his parents he was never going to be able to communicate or interact socially, and he would probably never have too much language. +When we used this groundbreaking EEG technology to actually look at Justin's brain, the results were startling. +It turned out that Justin was almost certainly not autistic. +He was suffering from brain seizures that were impossible to see with the naked eye, but that were actually causing symptoms that mimicked those of autism. +After Justin was given anti-seizure medication, the change in him was amazing. +Within a period of 60 days, his vocabulary went from two to three words to 300 words. +And his communication and social interaction were improved so dramatically that he was enrolled into a regular school and even became a karate super champ. +Research shows that 50 percent of children, almost 50 percent of children diagnosed with autism are actually suffering from hidden brain seizures. +These are the faces of the children that I have tested with stories just like Justin. +All these children came to our clinic with a diagnosis of autism, attention deficit disorder, mental retardation, language problems. +Instead, our EEG scans revealed very specific problems hidden within their brains that couldn't possibly have been detected by their behavioral assessments. +So these EEG scans enabled us to provide these children with a much more accurate neurological diagnosis and much more targeted treatment. +For too long now, children with developmental disorders have suffered from misdiagnosis while their real problems have gone undetected and left to worsen. +And for too long, these children and their parents have suffered undue frustration and desperation. +But we are now in a new era of neuroscience, one in which we can finally look directly at brain function in real time with no risks and no side effects, non-invasively, and find the true source of so many disabilities in children. +So if I could inspire even a fraction of you in the audience today to share this pioneering diagnostic approach with even one parent whose child is suffering from a developmental disorder, then perhaps one more puzzle in one more brain will be solved. +One more mind will be unlocked. +And one more child who has been misdiagnosed or even undiagnosed by the system will finally realize his or her true potential while there's still time for his or her brain to recover. +And all this by simply watching the child's brainwaves. +Thank you. +So, these are the Dark Ages. +And the Dark Ages are the time between when you put away the Lego for the last time as a kid, and you decide as an adult that it is okay to play with a kid's toy. +Started out with my then four-year-old: "Oh, should buy the kid some Lego. +That stuff's cool." +Walked into the Lego store. +Bought him this. +It's totally appropriate for a four-year-old. +I think the box says -- let's see here -- "8 to 12" on it. +I turn to my wife and said, "Who are we buying this for?" +She's like, "Oh, us." I'm like, "Okay. All right. That's cool." +Pretty soon it got a little bit out of control. +The dining room looked like this. +You walk there, and it hurts. +So we took a room downstairs in the basement that had been used as sort of an Abu Ghraib annex. +Torture, very funny. +Wow, you guys are great. +And we put down those little floor tiles, and then I went onto eBay and bought 150 pounds of Lego -- which is insane. +My daughter -- the day we got it, I was tucking her in -- and I said, "Honey, you're my treasure." +And she said, "No, the Lego is the treasure." +And then she said, "Dad, we're Lego rich." +I was like, "Yeah. +I suppose we are." +So then once you do that you're like, "Oh, crap. Where am I going to put all this?" +So you go to The Container Store and spend an enormous amount of money, and then you start this crazy sorting process that never -- it's just nuts. +Whatever. +So then you realize there are these conventions. +And you go to one of these conventions, and some dude built the Titanic. +And you're like, "Holy shit! +He had to come in like a truck, a semi, with this thing." +And then someone built this -- this is the Smith Tower in Seattle. +Just beautiful. +And there's a dude selling these aftermarket weapons for Lego, because Lego -- the Danish -- no, they're not into guns. +But the Americans? Oh, we'll make some guns for Lego, no problem. +And at a certain point, you look around, you're like, "Whoa, this is a really nerdy crowd." +And I mean like this is a nerdy crowd, but that's like a couple of levels above furries. +The nerds here, they get laid -- except for the lady with the condoms in her pocket -- and you say to yourself at some point, "Am I part of this group? Like, am I into this?" +And I was just like, "Yeah, I guess I am. +I'm coming out. +I'm kind of into this stuff, and I'm going to stop being embarrassed." +So then you really get into it, and you're like, "Well, the Lego people in Denmark, they've got all this software to let you build your own virtually." +And so this is like this CAD program where you build it. +And then whatever you design virtually, you click the button and it shows up at your doorstep a week later. +And then some of the designs that people do they actually sell in the store. +The Lego guys don't give you any royalties, strangely, but some user made this and then it sold. +And it's pretty amazing actually. +I have to take a moment. +I love the guy who's like running away with his clasps, his hooks. +Okay. Anyway. +There's a whole programming language and robotics tool, so if you want to teach someone how to program, kid, adult, whatever it is. +And the guy that made this, he made a slot machine out of Lego. +And I don't mean he made Lego that looked like a slot machine; I mean he made a slot machine out of Lego. +The insides were Lego. +There's people getting drunk building Lego, and you've got to finish the thing before you puke. +There's a whole gray market for Lego, thousands of home-based businesses. +And some people will fund their entire Lego habit by selling the little guy, but then you have no guys in your ships. +And then, just some examples. This stuff really is sculpture. +This is amazing what you can do. +And don't kid yourself: some architectural details, incredible organic shapes and just, even, nature out of, again, little blocks. +This is my house. +And this is my house. +I was afraid a car was going to come smash it as I was taking a picture for you guys. +Anyway, I'm out of time. +But just very quickly -- we'll just see if I can do this quick. +Because there aren't enough TED logos around here. +Let's see here. +Okay. +Ta-da. +The story starts in Kenya in December of 2007, when there was a disputed presidential election, and in the immediate aftermath of that election, there was an outbreak of ethnic violence. +And there was a lawyer in Nairobi, Ory Okolloh -- who some of you may know from her TEDTalk -- who began blogging about it on her site, Kenyan Pundit. +And shortly after the election and the outbreak of violence, the government suddenly imposed a significant media blackout. +And so weblogs went from being commentary as part of the media landscape to being a critical part of the media landscape in trying to understand where the violence was. +And Okolloh solicited from her commenters more information about what was going on. +The comments began pouring in, and Okolloh would collate them. She would post them. +And she quickly said, "It's too much. +I could do this all day every day and I can't keep up. +There is more information about what's going on in Kenya right now than any one person can manage. +If only there was a way to automate this." +And two programmers who read her blog held their hands up and said, "We could do that," and in 72 hours, they launched Ushahidi. +Ushahidi -- the name means "witness" or "testimony" in Swahili -- is a very simple way of taking reports from the field, whether it's from the web or, critically, via mobile phones and SMS, aggregating it and putting it on a map. +And that, that maneuver called "crisis mapping," was kicked off in Kenya in January of 2008. +And enough people looked at it and found it valuable enough that the programmers who created Ushahidi decided they were going to make it open source and turn it into a platform. +It's since been deployed in Mexico to track electoral fraud. +It's been deployed in Washington D.C. to track snow cleanup. +And it's been used most famously in Haiti in the aftermath of the earthquake. +And when you look at the map now posted on the Ushahidi front page, you can see that the number of deployments in Ushahidi has gone worldwide, all right? +This went from a single idea and a single implementation in East Africa in the beginning of 2008 to a global deployment in less than three years. +Now what Okolloh did would not have been possible without digital technology. +What Okolloh did would not have been possible without human generosity. +And the interesting moment now, the number of environments where the social design challenge relies on both of those things being true. +That is the resource that I'm talking about. +I call it cognitive surplus. +And it represents the ability of the world's population to volunteer and to contribute and collaborate on large, sometimes global, projects. +Cognitive surplus is made up of two things. +The first, obviously, is the world's free time and talents. +The world has over a trillion hours a year of free time to commit to shared projects. +Now, that free time existed in the 20th century, but we didn't get Ushahidi in the 20th century. +That's the second half of cognitive surplus. +The media landscape in the 20th century was very good at helping people consume, and we got, as a result, very good at consuming. +But now that we've been given media tools -- the Internet, mobile phones -- that let us do more than consume, what we're seeing is that people weren't couch potatoes because we liked to be. +We were couch potatoes because that was the only opportunity given to us. +We still like to consume, of course. +But it turns out we also like to create, and we like to share. +And it's those two things together -- ancient human motivation and the modern tools to allow that motivation to be joined up in large-scale efforts -- that are the new design resource. +And using cognitive surplus, we're starting to see truly incredible experiments in scientific, literary, artistic, political efforts. +Designing. +We're also getting, of course, a lot of LOLcats. +LOLcats are cute pictures of cats made cuter with the addition of cute captions. +And they are also part of the abundant media landscape we're getting now. +This is one of the participatory -- one of the participatory models we see coming out of that, along with Ushahidi. +Now I want to stipulate, as the lawyers say, that LOLcats are the stupidest possible creative act. +There are other candidates of course, but LOLcats will do as a general case. +But here's the thing: The stupidest possible creative act is still a creative act. +Someone who has done something like this, however mediocre and throwaway, has tried something, has put something forward in public. +And once they've done it, they can do it again, and they could work on getting it better. +There is a spectrum between mediocre work and good work, and as anybody who's worked as an artist or a creator knows, it's a spectrum you're constantly struggling to get on top of. +The gap is between doing anything and doing nothing. +And someone who makes a LOLcat has already crossed over that gap. +Now it's tempting to want to get the Ushahidis without the LOLcats, right, to get the serious stuff without the throwaway stuff. +But media abundance never works that way. +Freedom to experiment means freedom to experiment with anything. +Even with the sacred printing press, we got erotic novels 150 years before we got scientific journals. +So before I talk about what is, I think, the critical difference between LOLcats and Ushahidi, I want to talk about their shared source. +And that source is design for generosity. +This is a graph from a paper by Uri Gneezy and Aldo Rustichini, who set out to test, at the beginning of this decade, what they called "deterrence theory." +And deterrence theory is a very simple theory of human behavior: If you want somebody to do less of something, add a punishment and they'll do less of it. +Simple, straightforward, commonsensical -- also, largely untested. +And so they went and studied 10 daycare centers in Haifa, Israel. +They studied those daycare centers at the time of highest tension, which is pick-up time. +At pick-up time the teachers, who have been with your children all day, would like you to be there at the appointed hour to take your children back. +Meanwhile, the parents -- perhaps a little busy at work, running late, running errands -- want a little slack to pick the kids up late. +So Gneezy and Rustichini said, "How many instances of late pick-ups are there at these 10 daycare centers?" +Now they saw -- and this is what the graph is, these are the number of weeks and these are the number of late arrivals -- that there were between six and 10 instances of late pick-ups on average in these 10 daycare centers. +So they divided the daycare centers into two groups. +The white group there is the control group; they change nothing. +But the group of daycare centers represented by the black line, they said, "We are changing this bargain as of right now. +If you pick your kid up more than 10 minutes late, we're going to add a 10 shekel fine to your bill. +Boom. No ifs, ands or buts." +And the minute they did that, the behavior in those daycare centers changed. +Late pick-ups went up every week for the next four weeks until they topped out at triple the pre-fine average, and then they fluctuated at between double and triple the pre-fine average for the life of the fine. +And you can see immediately what happened, right? +The fine broke the culture of the daycare center. +By adding a fine, what they did was communicate to the parents that their entire debt to the teachers had been discharged with the payment of 10 shekels, and that there was no residue of guilt or social concern that the parents owed the teachers. +And so the parents, quite sensibly, said, "10 shekels to pick my kid up late? +What could be bad?" +The explanation of human behavior that we inherited in the 20th century was that we are all rational, self-maximizing actors, and in that explanation -- the daycare center had no contract -- should have been operating without any constraints. +But that's not right. +They were operating with social constraints rather than contractual ones. +And critically, the social constraints created a culture that was more generous than the contractual constraints did. +So Gneezy and Rustichini run this experiment for a dozen weeks -- run the fine for a dozen weeks -- and then they say, "Okay, that's it. All done; fine." +And then a really interesting thing happens: Nothing changes. +The culture that got broken by the fine stayed broken when the fine was removed. +Not only are economic motivations and intrinsic motivations incompatible, that incompatibility can persist over long periods. +So the trick in designing these kinds of situations is to understand where you're relying on the economic part of the bargain -- as with the parents paying the teachers -- and when you're relying on the social part of the bargain, when you're really designing for generosity. +This brings me back to the LOLcats and to Ushahidi. +This is, I think, the range that matters. +Both of these rely on cognitive surplus. +Both of these design for the assumption that people like to create and we want to share. +Here is the critical difference between these: LOLcats is communal value. +It's value created by the participants for each other. +Communal value on the networks we have is everywhere -- every time you see a large aggregate of shared, publicly available data, whether it's photos on Flickr or videos on Youtube or whatever. +This is good. I like LOLcats as much as the next guy, maybe a little more even, but this is also a largely solved problem. +I have a hard time envisioning a future in which someone is saying, "Where, oh where, can I find a picture of a cute cat?" +Ushahidi, by contrast, is civic value. +It's value created by the participants but enjoyed by society as a whole. +The goals set out by Ushahidi are not just to make life better for the participants, but to make life better for everyone in the society in which Ushahidi is operating. +And that kind of civic value is not just a side effect of opening up to human motivation. +It really is going to be a side effect of what we, collectively, make of these kinds of efforts. +There are a trillion hours a year of participatory value up for grabs. +That will be true year-in and year-out. +What's going to make the difference here is what Dean Kamen said, the inventor and entrepreneur. +Kamen said, "Free cultures get what they celebrate." +We've got a choice before us. +We've got this trillion hours a year. +We can use it to crack each other up, and we're going to do that. +That, we get for free. +But we can also celebrate and support and reward the people trying to use cognitive surplus to create civic value. +And to the degree we're going to do that, to the degree we're able to do that, we'll be able to change society. +Thank you very much. +In the last 50 years, we've been building the suburbs with a lot of unintended consequences. +And I'm going to talk about some of those consequences and just present a whole bunch of really interesting projects that I think give us tremendous reasons to be really optimistic that the big design and development project of the next 50 years is going to be retrofitting suburbia. +And in the process, what that allows us to do is to redirect a lot more of our growth back into existing communities that could use a boost, and have the infrastructure in place, instead of continuing to tear down trees and to tear up the green space out at the edges. +So why is this important? +I think there are any number of reasons, and I'm just going to not get into detail but mention a few. +Just from the perspective of climate change, the average urban dweller in the U.S. +has about one-third the carbon footprint of the average suburban dweller, mostly because suburbanites drive a lot more, and living in detached buildings, you have that much more exterior surface to leak energy out of. +So strictly from a climate change perspective, the cities are already relatively green. +The big opportunity to reduce greenhouse gas emissions is actually in urbanizing the suburbs. +All that driving that we've been doing out in the suburbs, we have doubled the amount of miles we drive. +It's increased our dependence on foreign oil despite the gains in fuel efficiency. +We're just driving so much more; we haven't been able to keep up technologically. +Public health is another reason to consider retrofitting. +Researchers at the CDC and other places have increasingly been linking suburban development patterns with sedentary lifestyles. +And those have been linked then with the rather alarming, growing rates of obesity, shown in these maps here, and that obesity has also been triggering great increases in heart disease and diabetes to the point where a child born today has a one-in-three chance of developing diabetes. +And that rate has been escalating at the same rate as children not walking to school anymore, again, because of our development patterns. +And then there's finally -- there's the affordability question. +I mean, how affordable is it to continue to live in suburbia with rising gas prices? +Suburban expansion to cheap land, for the last 50 years -- you know the cheap land out on the edge -- has helped generations of families enjoy the American dream. +But increasingly, the savings promised by drive-till-you-qualify affordability -- which is basically our model -- those savings are wiped out when you consider the transportation costs. +For instance, here in Atlanta, about half of households make between $20,000 and $50,000 a year, and they are spending 29 percent of their income on housing and 32 percent on transportation. +I mean, that's 2005 figures. +That's before we got up to the four bucks a gallon. +You know, none of us really tend to do the math on our transportation costs, and they're not going down any time soon. +Whether you love suburbia's leafy privacy or you hate its soulless commercial strips, there are reasons why it's important to retrofit. +But is it practical? +I think it is. +June Williamson and I have been researching this topic for over a decade, and we've found over 80 varied projects. +But that they're really all market driven, and what's driving the market in particular -- number one -- is major demographic shifts. +We all tend to think of suburbia as this very family-focused place, but that's really not the case anymore. +Since 2000, already two-thirds of households in suburbia did not have kids in them. +We just haven't caught up with the actual realities of this. +The reasons for this have a lot to with the dominance of the two big demographic groups right now: the Baby Boomers retiring -- and then there's a gap, Generation X, which is a small generation. +They're still having kids -- but Generation Y hasn't even started hitting child-rearing age. +They're the other big generation. +So as a result of that, demographers predict that through 2025, 75 to 85 percent of new households will not have kids in them. +And the market research, consumer research, asking the Boomers and Gen Y what it is they would like, what they would like to live in, tells us there is going to be a huge demand -- and we're already seeing it -- for more urban lifestyles within suburbia. +That basically, the Boomers want to be able to age in place, and Gen Y would like to live an urban lifestyle, but most of their jobs will continue to be out in suburbia. +The other big dynamic of change is the sheer performance of underperforming asphalt. +Now I keep thinking this would be a great name for an indie rock band, but developers generally use it to refer to underused parking lots -- and suburbia is full of them. +When the postwar suburbs were first built out on the cheap land away from downtown, it made sense to just build surface parking lots. +But those sites have now been leapfrogged and leapfrogged again, as we've just continued to sprawl, and they now have a relatively central location. +It no longer just makes sense. +That land is more valuable than just surface parking lots. +It now makes sense to go back in, build a deck and build up on those sites. +So what do you do with a dead mall, dead office park? +It turns out, all sorts of things. +In a slow economy like ours, re-inhabitation is one of the more popular strategies. +So this happens to be a dead mall in St. Louis that's been re-inhabited as art-space. +It's now home to artist studios, theater groups, dance troupes. +It's not pulling in as much tax revenue as it once was, but it's serving its community. +It's keeping the lights on. +It's becoming, I think, a really great institution. +Other malls have been re-inhabited as nursing homes, as universities, and as all variety of office space. +We also found a lot of examples of dead big-box stores that have been converted into all sorts of community-serving uses as well -- lots of schools, lots of churches and lots of libraries like this one. +This was a little grocery store, a Food Lion grocery store, that is now a public library. +In addition to, I think, doing a beautiful adaptive reuse, they tore up some of the parking spaces, put in bioswales to collect and clean the runoff, put in a lot more sidewalks to connect to the neighborhoods. +And they've made this, what was just a store along a commercial strip, into a community gathering space. +This one is a little L-shaped strip shopping center in Phoenix, Arizona. +Really all they did was they gave it a fresh coat of bright paint, a gourmet grocery, and they put up a restaurant in the old post office. +Never underestimate the power of food to turn a place around and make it a destination. +It's been so successful, they've now taken over the strip across the street. +The real estate ads in the neighborhood all very proudly proclaim, "Walking distance to Le Grande Orange," because it provided its neighborhood with what sociologists like to call "a third place." +If home is the first place and work is the second place, the third place is where you go to hang out and build community. +And especially as suburbia is becoming less centered on the family, the family households, there's a real hunger for more third places. +So the most dramatic retrofits are really those in the next category, the next strategy: redevelopment. +Now, during the boom, there were several really dramatic redevelopment projects where the original building was scraped to the ground and then the whole site was rebuilt at significantly greater density, a sort of compact, walkable urban neighborhoods. +But some of them have been much more incremental. +This is Mashpee Commons, the oldest retrofit that we've found. +And it's just incrementally, over the last 20 years, built urbanism on top of its parking lots. +So the black and white photo shows the simple 60's strip shopping center. +And then the maps above that show its gradual transformation into a compact, mixed-use New England village, and it has plans now that have been approved for it to connect to new residential neighborhoods across the arterials and over to the other side. +So, you know, sometimes it's incremental. +Sometimes, it's all at once. +This is another infill project on the parking lots, this one of an office park outside of Washington D.C. +When Metrorail expanded transit into the suburbs and opened a station nearby to this site, the owners decided to build a new parking deck and then insert on top of their surface lots a new Main Street, several apartments and condo buildings, while keeping the existing office buildings. +Here is the site in 1940: It was just a little farm in the village of Hyattsville. +By 1980, it had been subdivided into a big mall on one side and the office park on the other and then some buffer sites for a library and a church to the far right. +Today, the transit, the Main Street and the new housing have all been built. +Eventually, I expect that the streets will probably extend through a redevelopment of the mall. +Plans have already been announced for a lot of those garden apartments above the mall to be redeveloped. +Transit is a big driver of retrofits. +So here's what it looks like. +You can sort of see the funky new condo buildings in between the office buildings and the public space and the new Main Street. +This one is one of my favorites, Belmar. +I think they really built an attractive place here and have just employed all-green construction. +There's massive P.V. arrays on the roofs as well as wind turbines. +This was a very large mall It's now 22 walkable urban blocks with public streets, two public parks, eight bus lines and a range of housing types, and so it's really given Lakewood, Colorado the downtown that this particular suburb never had. +Here was the mall in its heyday. +They had their prom in the mall. They loved their mall. +So here's the site in 1975 with the mall. +By 1995, the mall has died. +The department store has been kept -- and we found this was true in many cases. +The department stores are multistory; they're better built. +They're easy to be re-adapted. +But the one story stuff ... +that's really history. +So here it is at projected build-out. +This project, I think, has great connectivity to the existing neighborhoods. +It's providing 1,500 households with the option of a more urban lifestyle. +It's about two-thirds built out right now. +Here's what the new Main Street looks like. +It's very successful, and it's helped to prompt -- eight of the 13 regional malls in Denver have now, or have announced plans to be, retrofitted. +But it's important to note that all of this retrofitting is not occurring -- just bulldozers are coming and just plowing down the whole city. +No, it's pockets of walkability on the sites of under-performing properties. +And so it's giving people more choices, but it's not taking away choices. +But it's also not really enough to just create pockets of walkability. +You want to also try to get more systemic transformation. +We need to also retrofit the corridors themselves. +So this is one that has been retrofitted in California. +They took the commercial strip shown on the black-and-white images below, and they built a boulevard that has become the Main Street for their town. +And it's transformed from being an ugly, unsafe, undesirable address, to becoming a beautiful, attractive, dignified sort of good address. +I mean now we're hoping we start to see it; they've already built City Hall, attracted two hotels. +I could imagine beautiful housing going up along there without tearing down another tree. +So there's a lot of great things, but I'd love to see more corridors getting retrofitting. +But densification is not going to work everywhere. +Sometimes re-greening is really the better answer. +There's a lot to learn from successful landbanking programs in cities like Flint, Michigan. +There's also a burgeoning suburban farming movement -- sort of victory gardens meets the Internet. +But perhaps one of the most important re-greening aspects is the opportunity to restore the local ecology, as in this example outside of Minneapolis. +When the shopping center died, the city restored the site's original wetlands, creating lakefront property, which then attracted private investment, the first private investment to this very low-income neighborhood in over 40 years. +So they've managed to both restore the local ecology and the local economy at the same time. +This is another re-greening example. +It also makes sense in very strong markets. +This one in Seattle is on the site of a mall parking lot adjacent to a new transit stop. +And the wavy line is a path alongside a creek that has now been daylit. +The creek had been culverted under the parking lot. +But daylighting our creeks really improves their water quality and contributions to habitat. +So I've shown you some of the first generation of retrofits. +What's next? +I think we have three challenges for the future. +The first is to plan retrofitting much more systemically at the metropolitan scale. +We need to be able to target which areas really should be re-greened. +Where should we be redeveloping? +And where should we be encouraging re-inhabitation? +These slides just show two images from a larger project that looked at trying to do that for Atlanta. +I led a team that was asked to imagine Atlanta 100 years from now. +And we chose to try to reverse sprawl through three simple moves -- expensive, but simple. +One, in a hundred years, transit on all major rail and road corridors. +Two, in a hundred years, thousand foot buffers on all stream corridors. +It's a little extreme, but we've got a little water problem. +In a hundred years, subdivisions that simply end up too close to water or too far from transit won't be viable. +And so we've created the eco-acre transfer-to-transfer development rights to the transit corridors and allow the re-greening of those former subdivisions for food and energy production. +So the second challenge is to improve the architectural design quality of the retrofits. +And I close with this image of democracy in action: This is a protest that's happening on a retrofit in Silver Spring, Maryland on an Astroturf town green. +Now, retrofits are often accused of being examples of faux downtowns and instant urbanism, and not without reason; you don't get much more phony than an Astroturf town green. +I have to say, these are very hybrid places. +They are new but trying to look old. +They have urban streetscapes, but suburban parking ratios. +Their populations are more diverse than typical suburbia, but they're less diverse than cities. +And they are public places, but that are managed by private companies. +And just the surface appearance are often -- like the Astroturf here -- they make me wince. +So, you know, I mean I'm glad that the urbanism is doing its job. +The fact that a protest is happening really does mean that the layout of the blocks, the streets and blocks, the putting in of public space, compromised as it may be, is still a really great thing. +But we've got to get the architecture better. +The final challenge is for all of you. +I want you to join the protest and start demanding more sustainable suburban places -- more sustainable places, period. +But culturally, we tend to think that downtowns should be dynamic, and we expect that. +But we seem to have an expectation that the suburbs should forever remain frozen in whatever adolescent form they were first given birth to. +It's time to let them grow up, so I want you to all support the zoning changes, the road diets, the infrastructure improvements and the retrofits that are coming soon to a neighborhood near you. +Thank you. +It can be a very complicated thing, the ocean. +And it can be a very complicated thing, what human health is. +And bringing those two together might seem a very daunting task, but what I'm going to try to say is that even in that complexity, there's some simple themes that I think, if we understand, we can really move forward. +And those simple themes aren't really themes about the complex science of what's going on, but things that we all pretty well know. +And I'm going to start with this one: If momma ain't happy, ain't nobody happy. +We know that, right? We've experienced that. +And if we just take that and we build from there, then we can go to the next step, which is that if the ocean ain't happy, ain't nobody happy. +That's the theme of my talk. +And we're making the ocean pretty unhappy in a lot of different ways. +This is a shot of Cannery Row in 1932. +Cannery Row, at the time, had the biggest industrial canning operation on the west coast. +We piled enormous amounts of pollution into the air and into the water. +Rolf Bolin, who was a professor at the Hopkin's Marine Station where I work, wrote in the 1940s that "The fumes from the scum floating on the inlets of the bay were so bad they turned lead-based paints black." +People working in these canneries could barely stay there all day because of the smell, but you know what they came out saying? +They say, "You know what you smell? +You smell money." +That pollution was money to that community, and those people dealt with the pollution and absorbed it into their skin and into their bodies because they needed the money. +We made the ocean unhappy; we made people very unhappy, and we made them unhealthy. +The connection between ocean health and human health is actually based upon another couple simple adages, and I want to call that "pinch a minnow, hurt a whale." +The pyramid of ocean life ... +Now, when an ecologist looks at the ocean -- I have to tell you -- we look at the ocean in a very different way, and we see different things than when a regular person looks at the ocean because when an ecologist looks at the ocean, we see all those interconnections. +We see the base of the food chain, the plankton, the small things, and we see how those animals are food to animals in the middle of the pyramid, and on so up this diagram. +And that flow, that flow of life, from the very base up to the very top, is the flow that ecologists see. +And that's what we're trying to preserve when we say, "Save the ocean. Heal the ocean." +It's that pyramid. +Now why does that matter for human health? +Because when we jam things in the bottom of that pyramid that shouldn't be there, some very frightening things happen. +Pollutants, some pollutants have been created by us: molecules like PCBs that can't be broken down by our bodies. +And they go in the base of that pyramid, and they drift up; they're passed up that way, on to predators and on to the top predators, and in so doing, they accumulate. +Now, to bring that home, I thought I'd invent a little game. +We don't really have to play it; we can just think about it here. +It's the Styrofoam and chocolate game. +Imagine that when we got on this boat, we were all given two Styrofoam peanuts. +Can't do much with them: Put them in your pocket. +Suppose the rules are: every time you offer somebody a drink, you give them the drink, and you give them your Styrofoam peanuts too. +What'll happen is that the Styrofoam peanuts will start moving through our society here, and they will accumulate in the drunkest, stingiest people. +There's no mechanism in this game for them to go anywhere but into a bigger and bigger pile of indigestible Styrofoam peanuts. +And that's exactly what happens with PDBs in this food pyramid: They accumulate into the top of it. +Now suppose, instead of Styrofoam peanuts, we take these lovely little chocolates that we get and we had those instead. +Well, some of us would be eating those chocolates instead of passing them around, and instead of accumulating, they will just pass into our group here and not accumulate in any one group because they're absorbed by us. +And that's the difference between a PCB and, say, something natural like an omega-3, something we want out of the marine food chain. +PCBs accumulate. +We have great examples of that, unfortunately. +PCBs accumulate in dolphins in Sarasota Bay, in Texas, in North Carolina. +They get into the food chain. +The dolphins eat the fish that have PCBs from the plankton, and those PCBs, being fat-soluble, accumulate in these dolphins. +Now, a dolphin, mother dolphin, any dolphin -- there's only one way that a PCB can get out of a dolphin. +And what's that? +In mother's milk. +Here's a diagram of the PCB load of dolphins in Sarasota Bay. +Adult males: a huge load. +Juveniles: a huge load. +Females after their first calf is already weaned: a lower load. +Those females, they're not trying to. +Those females are passing the PCBs in the fat of their own mother's milk into their offspring, and their offspring don't survive. +The death rate in these dolphins, for the first calf born of every female dolphin, is 60 to 80 percent. +These mothers pump their first offspring full of this pollutant, and most of them die. +Now, the mother then can go and reproduce, but what a terrible price to pay for the accumulation of this pollutant in these animals -- the death of the first-born calf. +There's another top predator in the ocean, it turns out. +That top predator, of course, is us. +And we also are eating meat that comes from some of these same places. +This is whale meat that I photographed in a grocery store in Tokyo -- or is it? +In fact, what we did a few years ago was learn how to smuggle a molecular biology lab into Tokyo and use it to genetically test the DNA out of whale meat samples and identify what they really were. +And some of those whale meat samples were whale meat. +Some of them were illegal whale meat, by the way. +That's another story. +But some of them were not whale meat at all. +Even though they were labeled whale meat, they were dolphin meat. +Some of them were dolphin liver. Some of them were dolphin blubber. +And those dolphin parts had a huge load of PCBs, dioxins and heavy metals. +And that huge load was passing into the people that ate this meat. +It turns out that a lot of dolphins are being sold as meat in the whale meat market around the world. +That's a tragedy for those populations, but it's also a tragedy for the people eating them because they don't know that that's toxic meat. +We had these data a few years ago. +I remember sitting at my desk being about the only person in the world who knew that whale meat being sold in these markets was really dolphin meat, and it was toxic. +It had two-to-three-to-400 times the toxic loads ever allowed by the EPA. +And I remember there sitting at my desk thinking, "Well, I know this. This is a great scientific discovery," but it was so awful. +And for the very first time in my scientific career, I broke scientific protocol, which is that you take the data and publish them in scientific journals and then begin to talk about them. +We sent a very polite letter to the Minister of Health in Japan and simply pointed out that this is an intolerable situation, not for us, but for the people of Japan because mothers who may be breastfeeding, who may have young children, would be buying something that they thought was healthy, but it was really toxic. +That led to a whole series of other campaigns in Japan, and I'm really proud to say that at this point, it's very difficult to buy anything in Japan that's labeled incorrectly, even though they're still selling whale meat, which I believe they shouldn't. +But at least it's labeled correctly, and you're no longer going to be buying toxic dolphin meat instead. +It isn't just there that this happens, but in a natural diet of some communities in the Canadian arctic and in the United States and in the European arctic, a natural diet of seals and whales leads to an accumulation of PCBs that have gathered up from all parts of the world and ended up in these women. +These women have toxic breast milk. +They cannot feed their offspring, their children, their breast milk because of the accumulation of these toxins in their food chain, in their part of the world's ocean pyramid. +That means their immune systems are compromised. +It means that their children's development can be compromised. +And the world's attention on this over the last decade has reduced the problem for these women, not by changing the pyramid, but by changing what they particularly eat out of it. +We've taken them out of their natural pyramid in order to solve this problem. +That's a good thing for this particular acute problem, but it does nothing to solve the pyramid problem. +There's other ways of breaking the pyramid. +The pyramid, if we jam things in the bottom, can get backed up like a sewer line that's clogged. +And if we jam nutrients, sewage, fertilizer in the base of that food pyramid, it can back up all through it. +We end up with things we've heard about before: red tides, for example, which are blooms of toxic algae floating through the oceans causing neurological damage. +We can also see blooms of bacteria, blooms of viruses in the ocean. +These are two shots of a red tide coming on shore here and a bacteria in the genus vibrio, which includes the genus that has cholera in it. +How many people have seen a "beach closed" sign? +Why does that happen? +It happens because we have jammed so much into the base of the natural ocean pyramid that these bacteria clog it up and overfill onto our beaches. +Often what jams us up is sewage. +Now how many of you have ever gone to a state park or a national park where you had a big sign at the front saying, "Closed because human sewage is so far over this park that you can't use it"? +Not very often. We wouldn't tolerate that. +We wouldn't tolerate our parks being swamped by human sewage, but beaches are closed a lot in our country. +They're closed more and more and more all around the world for the same reason, and I believe we shouldn't tolerate that either. +It's not just a question of cleanliness; it's also a question of how those organisms then turn into human disease. +These vibrios, these bacteria, can actually infect people. +They can go into your skin and create skin infections. +This is a graph from NOAA's ocean and human health initiative, showing the rise of the infections by vibrio in people over the last few years. +Surfers, for example, know this incredibly. +And if you can see on some surfing sites, in fact, not only do you see what the waves are like or what the weather's like, but on some surf rider sites, you see a little flashing poo alert. +That means that the beach might have great waves, but it's a dangerous place for surfers to be because they can carry with them, even after a great day of surfing, this legacy of an infection that might take a very long time to solve. +Some of these infections are actually carrying antibiotic resistance genes now, and that makes them even more difficult. +These same infections create harmful algal blooms. +Those blooms are generating other kinds of chemicals. +This is just a simple list of some of the types of poisons that come out of these harmful algal blooms: shellfish poisoning,fish ciguatera, diarrheic shellfish poisoning -- you don't want to know about that -- neurotoxic shellfish poisoning, paralytic shellfish poisoning. +These are things that are getting into our food chain because of these blooms. +Rita Calwell very famously traced a very interesting story of cholera into human communities, brought there, not by a normal human vector, but by a marine vector, this copepod. +Copepods are small crustaceans. +They're a tiny fraction of an inch long, and they can carry on their little legs some of the cholera bacteria that then leads to human disease. +That has sparked cholera epidemics in ports along the world and has led to increased concentration on trying to make sure shipping doesn't move these vectors of cholera around the world. +So what do you do? +We have major problems in disrupted ecosystem flow that the pyramid may not be working so well, that the flow from the base up into it is being blocked and clogged. +What do you do when you have this sort of disrupted flow? +Well, there's a bunch of things you could do. +You could call Joe the Plumber, for example. +And he could come in and fix the flow. +But in fact, if you look around the world, not only are there hope spots for where we may be able to fix problems, there have been places where problems have been fixed, where people have come to grips with these issues and begun to turn them around. +Monterey is one of those. +I started out showing how much we had distressed the Monterey Bay ecosystem with pollution and the canning industry and all of the attendant problems. +In 1932, that's the picture. +In 2009, the picture is dramatically different. +The canneries are gone. The pollution has abated. +But there's a greater sense here that what the individual communities need is working ecosystems. +They need a functioning pyramid from the base all the way to the top. +And that pyramid in Monterey, right now, because of the efforts of a lot of different people, is functioning better than it's ever functioned for the last 150 years. +It didn't happen accidentally. +It happened because many people put their time and effort and their pioneering spirit into this. +On the left there, Julia Platt, the mayor of my little hometown in Pacific Grove. +At 74 years old, became mayor because something had to be done to protect the ocean. +In 1931, she produced California's first community-based marine protected area, right next to the biggest polluting cannery, because Julia knew that when the canneries eventually were gone, the ocean needed a place to grow from, that the ocean needed a place to spark a seed, and she wanted to provide that seed. +Other people, like David Packard and Julie Packard, who were instrumental in producing the Monterey Bay aquarium to lock into people's notion that the ocean and the health of the ocean ecosystem were just as important to the economy of this area as eating the ecosystem would be. +That change in thinking has led to a dramatic shift, not only in the fortunes of Monterey Bay, but other places around the world. +Well, I want to leave you with the thought that what we're really trying to do here is protect this ocean pyramid, and that ocean pyramid connects to our own pyramid of life. +It's an ocean planet, and we think of ourselves as a terrestrial species, but the pyramid of life in the ocean and our own lives on land are intricately connected. +And it's only through having the ocean being healthy that we can remain healthy ourselves. +Thank you very much. +It's a great honor today to share with you The Digital Universe, which was created for humanity to really see where we are in the universe. +And so I think we can roll the video that we have. +[The Himalayas.] The flat horizon that we've evolved with has been a metaphor for the infinite: unbounded resources and unlimited capacity for disposal of waste. +It wasn't until we really left Earth, got above the atmosphere and had seen the horizon bend back on itself, that we could understand our planet as a limited condition. +The Digital Universe Atlas has been built at the American Museum of Natural History over the past 12 years. +We maintain that, put that together as a project to really chart the universe across all scales. +What we see here are satellites around the Earth and the Earth in proper registration against the universe, as we see. +NASA supported this work 12 years ago as part of the rebuilding of the Hayden Planetarium so that we would share this with the world. +The Digital Universe is the basis of our space show productions that we do -- our main space shows in the dome. +But what you see here is the result of, actually, internships that we hosted with Linkoping University in Sweden. +I've had 12 students work on this for their graduate work, and the result has been this software called Uniview and a company called SCISS in Sweden. +This software allows interactive use, so this actual flight path and movie that we see here was actually flown live. +I captured this live from my laptop in a cafe called Earth Matters on the Lower East Side of Manhattan, where I live, and it was done as a collaborative project with the Rubin Museum of Himalayan Art for an exhibit on comparative cosmology. +And so as we move out, we see continuously from our planet all the way out into the realm of galaxies, as we see here, light-travel time, giving you a sense of how far away we are. +As we move out, the light from these distant galaxies have taken so long, we're essentially backing up into the past. +We back so far up we're finally seeing a containment around us -- the afterglow of the Big Bang. +This is the WMAP microwave background that we see. +We'll fly outside it here, just to see this sort of containment. +If we were outside this, it would almost be meaningless, in the sense as before time. +But this our containment of the visible universe. +We know the universe is bigger than that which we can see. +Coming back quickly, we see here the radio sphere that we jumped out of in the beginning, but these are positions, the latest positions of exoplanets that we've mapped, and our sun here, obviously, with our own solar system. +What you're going to see -- we're going to have to jump in here pretty quickly between several orders of magnitude to get down to where we see the solar system -- these are the paths of Voyager 1, Voyager 2, Pioneer 11 and Pioneer 10, the first four spacecraft to have left the solar system. +Coming in closer, picking up Earth, orbit of the Moon, and we see the Earth. +This map can be updated, and we can add in new data. +I know Dr. Carolyn Porco is the camera P.I. +for the Cassini mission. +But here we see the complex trajectory of the Cassini mission color coded for different mission phases, ingeniously developed so that 45 encounters with the largest moon, Titan, which is larger that the planet Mercury, diverts the orbit into different parts of mission phase. +This software allows us to come close and look at parts of this. +This software can also be networked between domes. +We have a growing user base of this, and we network domes. +And we can network between domes and classrooms. +We're actually sharing tours of the universe with the first sub-Saharan planetarium in Ghana as well as new libraries that have been built in the ghettos in Columbia and a high school in Cambodia. +And the Cambodians have actually controlled the Hayden Planetarium from their high school. +This is an image from Saturday, photographed by the Aqua satellite, but through the Uniview software. +So you're seeing the edge of the Earth. +This is Nepal. +This is, in fact, right here is the valley of Lhasa, right here in Tibet. +But we can see the haze from fires and so forth in the Ganges valley down below in India. +This is Nepal and Tibet. +Because our home is the universe, and we are the universe, essentially. +We carry that in us. +And to be able to see our context in this larger sense at all scales helps us all, I think, in understanding where we are and who we are in the universe. +Thank you. +Why grow homes? Because we can. +Right now, America is in an unremitting state of trauma. +And there's a cause for that, all right. +We've got McPeople, McCars, McHouses. +As an architect, I have to confront something like this. +So what's a technology that will allow us to make ginormous houses? +Well, it's been around for 2,500 years. +It's called pleaching, or grafting trees together, or grafting inosculate matter into one contiguous, vascular system. +And we do something different than what we did in the past; we add kind of a modicum of intelligence to that. +We use CNC to make scaffolding to train semi-epithetic matter, plants, into a specific geometry that makes a home that we call a Fab Tree Hab. +It fits into the environment. It is the environment. +It is the landscape, right? +And you can have a hundred million of these homes, and it's great because they suck carbon. +They're perfect. +You can have 100 million families, or take things out of the suburbs, because these are homes that are a part of the environment. +Imagine pre-growing a village -- it takes about seven to 10 years -- and everything is green. +So we've been doing this for a couple of years, and that's our lab. +And what we do is we grow extracellular matrix from pigs. +We use a modified inkjet printer, and we print geometry. +We print geometry where we can make industrial design objects like, you know, shoes, leather belts, handbags, etc., where no sentient creature is harmed. +It's victimless. It's meat from a test tube. +So our theory is that eventually we should be doing this with homes. +So here is a typical stud wall, an architectural construction, and this is a section of our proposal for a meat house, where you can see we use fatty cells as insulation, cilia for dealing with wind loads and sphincter muscles for the doors and windows. +And we know it's incredibly ugly. +It could have been an English Tudor or Spanish Colonial, but we kind of chose this shape. +And there it is kind of grown, at least one particular section of it. +We had a big show in Prague, and we decided to put it in front of the cathedral so religion can confront the house of meat. +That's why we grow homes. Thanks very much. +Thank you very much. +Please excuse me for sitting; I'm very old. +Well, the topic I'm going to discuss is one which is, in a certain sense, very peculiar because it's very old. +Roughness is part of human life forever and forever, and ancient authors have written about it. +It was very much uncontrollable, and in a certain sense, it seemed to be the extreme of complexity, just a mess, a mess and a mess. +There are many different kinds of mess. +Now, in fact, by a complete fluke, I got involved many years ago in a study of this form of complexity, and to my utter amazement, I found traces -- very strong traces, I must say -- of order in that roughness. +And so today, I would like to present to you a few examples of what this represents. +I prefer the word roughness to the word irregularity because irregularity -- to someone who had Latin in my long-past youth -- means the contrary of regularity. +But it is not so. +Regularity is the contrary of roughness because the basic aspect of the world is very rough. +So let me show you a few objects. +Some of them are artificial. +Others of them are very real, in a certain sense. +Now this is the real. It's a cauliflower. +Now why do I show a cauliflower, a very ordinary and ancient vegetable? +Because old and ancient as it may be, it's very complicated and it's very simple, both at the same time. +If you try to weigh it -- of course it's very easy to weigh it, and when you eat it, the weight matters -- but suppose you try to measure its surface. +Well, it's very interesting. +If you cut, with a sharp knife, one of the florets of a cauliflower and look at it separately, you think of a whole cauliflower, but smaller. +And then you cut again, again, again, again, again, again, again, again, again, and you still get small cauliflowers. +So the experience of humanity has always been that there are some shapes which have this peculiar property, that each part is like the whole, but smaller. +Now, what did humanity do with that? +Very, very little. +So what I did actually is to study this problem, and I found something quite surprising. +That one can measure roughness by a number, a number, 2.3, 1.2 and sometimes much more. +One day, a friend of mine, to bug me, brought a picture and said, "What is the roughness of this curve?" +I said, "Well, just short of 1.5." +It was 1.48. +Now, it didn't take me any time. +I've been looking at these things for so long. +So these numbers are the numbers which denote the roughness of these surfaces. +I hasten to say that these surfaces are completely artificial. +They were done on a computer, and the only input is a number, and that number is roughness. +So on the left, I took the roughness copied from many landscapes. +To the right, I took a higher roughness. +So the eye, after a while, can distinguish these two very well. +Humanity had to learn about measuring roughness. +This is very rough, and this is sort of smooth, and this perfectly smooth. +Very few things are very smooth. +So then if you try to ask questions: "What's the surface of a cauliflower?" +Well, you measure and measure and measure. +Each time you're closer, it gets bigger, down to very, very small distances. +What's the length of the coastline of these lakes? +The closer you measure, the longer it is. +The concept of length of coastline, which seems to be so natural because it's given in many cases, is, in fact, complete fallacy; there's no such thing. +You must do it differently. +What good is that, to know these things? +Well, surprisingly enough, it's good in many ways. +To begin with, artificial landscapes, which I invented sort of, are used in cinema all the time. +We see mountains in the distance. +They may be mountains, but they may be just formulae, just cranked on. +Now it's very easy to do. +It used to be very time-consuming, but now it's nothing. +Now look at that. That's a real lung. +Now a lung is something very strange. +If you take this thing, you know very well it weighs very little. +The volume of a lung is very small, but what about the area of the lung? +Anatomists were arguing very much about that. +Some say that a normal male's lung has an area of the inside of a basketball [court]. +And the others say, no, five basketball [courts]. +Enormous disagreements. +Why so? Because, in fact, the area of the lung is something very ill-defined. +The bronchi branch, branch, branch and they stop branching, not because of any matter of principle, but because of physical considerations: the mucus, which is in the lung. +So what happens is that in a way you have a much bigger lung, but it branches and branches down to distances about the same for a whale, for a man and for a little rodent. +Now, what good is it to have that? +Well, surprisingly enough, amazingly enough, the anatomists had a very poor idea of the structure of the lung until very recently. +And I think that my mathematics, surprisingly enough, has been of great help to the surgeons studying lung illnesses and also kidney illnesses, all these branching systems, for which there was no geometry. +So I found myself, in other words, constructing a geometry, a geometry of things which had no geometry. +And a surprising aspect of it is that very often, the rules of this geometry are extremely short. +You have formulas that long. +And you crank it several times. +Sometimes repeatedly: again, again, again, the same repetition. +And at the end, you get things like that. +This cloud is completely, 100 percent artificial. +Well, 99.9. +And the only part which is natural is a number, the roughness of the cloud, which is taken from nature. +Something so complicated like a cloud, so unstable, so varying, should have a simple rule behind it. +Now this simple rule is not an explanation of clouds. +The seer of clouds had to take account of it. +I don't know how much advanced these pictures are. They're old. +I was very much involved in it, but then turned my attention to other phenomena. +Now, here is another thing which is rather interesting. +One of the shattering events in the history of mathematics, which is not appreciated by many people, occurred about 130 years ago, 145 years ago. +Mathematicians began to create shapes that didn't exist. +Mathematicians got into self-praise to an extent which was absolutely amazing, that man can invent things that nature did not know. +In particular, it could invent things like a curve which fills the plane. +A curve's a curve, a plane's a plane, and the two won't mix. +Well, they do mix. +A man named Peano did define such curves, and it became an object of extraordinary interest. +It was very important, but mostly interesting because a kind of break, a separation between the mathematics coming from reality, on the one hand, and new mathematics coming from pure man's mind. +Well, I was very sorry to point out that the pure man's mind has, in fact, seen at long last what had been seen for a long time. +And so here I introduce something, the set of rivers of a plane-filling curve. +And well, it's a story unto itself. +So it was in 1875 to 1925, an extraordinary period in which mathematics prepared itself to break out from the world. +And the objects which were used as examples, when I was a child and a student, as examples of the break between mathematics and visible reality -- those objects, I turned them completely around. +I used them for describing some of the aspects of the complexity of nature. +Well, a man named Hausdorff in 1919 introduced a number which was just a mathematical joke, and I found that this number was a good measurement of roughness. +When I first told it to my friends in mathematics they said, "Don't be silly. It's just something [silly]." +Well actually, I was not silly. +The great painter Hokusai knew it very well. +The things on the ground are algae. +He did not know the mathematics; it didn't yet exist. +And he was Japanese who had no contact with the West. +But painting for a long time had a fractal side. +I could speak of that for a long time. +The Eiffel Tower has a fractal aspect. +I read the book that Mr. Eiffel wrote about his tower, and indeed it was astonishing how much he understood. +This is a mess, mess, mess, Brownian loop. +One day I decided -- halfway through my career, I was held by so many things in my work -- I decided to test myself. +Could I just look at something which everybody had been looking at for a long time and find something dramatically new? +Well, so I looked at these things called Brownian motion -- just goes around. +I played with it for a while, and I made it return to the origin. +Then I was telling my assistant, "I don't see anything. Can you paint it?" +So he painted it, which means he put inside everything. He said: "Well, this thing came out ..." And I said, "Stop! Stop! Stop! +I see; it's an island." +And amazing. +So Brownian motion, which happens to have a roughness number of two, goes around. +I measured it, 1.33. +Again, again, again. +Long measurements, big Brownian motions, 1.33. +Mathematical problem: how to prove it? +It took my friends 20 years. +Three of them were having incomplete proofs. +They got together, and together they had the proof. +So they got the big [Fields] medal in mathematics, one of the three medals that people have received for proving things which I've seen without being able to prove them. +Now everybody asks me at one point or another, "How did it all start? +What got you in that strange business?" +What got you to be, at the same time, a mechanical engineer, a geographer and a mathematician and so on, a physicist? +Well actually I started, oddly enough, studying stock market prices. +And so here I had this theory, and I wrote books about it -- financial prices increments. +To the left you see data over a long period. +To the right, on top, you see a theory which is very, very fashionable. +It was very easy, and you can write many books very fast about it. +There are thousands of books on that. +Now compare that with real price increments. +Where are real price increments? +Well, these other lines include some real price increments and some forgery which I did. +So the idea there was that one must be able to -- how do you say? -- model price variation. +And it went really well 50 years ago. +For 50 years, people were sort of pooh-poohing me because they could do it much, much easier. +But I tell you, at this point, people listened to me. +These two curves are averages: Standard & Poor, the blue one; and the red one is Standard & Poor's from which the five biggest discontinuities are taken out. +Now discontinuities are a nuisance, so in many studies of prices, one puts them aside. +"Well, acts of God. +And you have the little nonsense which is left. +Acts of God." In this picture, five acts of God are as important as everything else. +In other words, it is not acts of God that we should put aside. +That is the meat, the problem. +If you master these, you master price, and if you don't master these, you can master the little noise as well as you can, but it's not important. +Well, here are the curves for it. +Now, I get to the final thing, which is the set of which my name is attached. +In a way, it's the story of my life. +My adolescence was spent during the German occupation of France. +Since I thought that I might vanish within a day or a week, I had very big dreams. +And after the war, I saw an uncle again. +My uncle was a very prominent mathematician, and he told me, "Look, there's a problem which I could not solve 25 years ago, and which nobody can solve. +This is a construction of a man named [Gaston] Julia and [Pierre] Fatou. +If you could find something new, anything, you will get your career made." +Very simple. +So I looked, and like the thousands of people that had tried before, I found nothing. +But then the computer came, and I decided to apply the computer, not to new problems in mathematics -- like this wiggle wiggle, that's a new problem -- but to old problems. +And I went from what's called real numbers, which are points on a line, to imaginary, complex numbers, which are points on a plane, which is what one should do there, and this shape came out. +This shape is of an extraordinary complication. +The equation is hidden there, z goes into z squared, plus c. +It's so simple, so dry. +It's so uninteresting. +Now you turn the crank once, twice: twice, marvels come out. +I mean this comes out. +I don't want to explain these things. +This comes out. This comes out. +Shapes which are of such complication, such harmony and such beauty. +This comes out repeatedly, again, again, again. +And that was one of my major discoveries, to find that these islands were the same as the whole big thing, more or less. +And then you get these extraordinary baroque decorations all over the place. +All that from this little formula, which has whatever, five symbols in it. +And then this one. +The color was added for two reasons. +First of all, because these shapes are so complicated that one couldn't make any sense of the numbers. +And if you plot them, you must choose some system. +And so my principle has been to always present the shapes with different colorings because some colorings emphasize that, and others it is that or that. +It's so complicated. +In 1990, I was in Cambridge, U.K. +to receive a prize from the university, and three days later, a pilot was flying over the landscape and found this thing. +So where did this come from? +Obviously, from extraterrestrials. +Well, so the newspaper in Cambridge published an article about that "discovery" and received the next day 5,000 letters from people saying, "But that's simply a Mandelbrot set very big." +Well, let me finish. +This shape here just came out of an exercise in pure mathematics. +Bottomless wonders spring from simple rules, which are repeated without end. +Thank you very much. +I'm Ellen, and I'm totally obsessed with food. +But I didn't start out obsessed with food. +I started out obsessed with global security policy because I lived in New York during 9/11, and it was obviously a very relevant thing. +And I got from global security policy to food because I realized when I'm hungry, I'm really pissed off, and I'm assuming that the rest of the world is too. +Especially if you're hungry and your kids are hungry and your neighbor's kids are hungry and your whole neighborhood is hungry, you're pretty angry. +And actually, lo and behold, it looks pretty much like the areas of the world that are hungry are also the areas of the world that are pretty insecure. +So I took a job at the United Nations World Food Programme as a way to try to address these security issues through food security issues. +And while I was there, I came across what I think is the most brilliant of their programs. +It's called School Feeding, and it's a really simple idea to sort of get in the middle of the cycle of poverty and hunger that continues for a lot of people around the world, and stop it. +By giving kids a free school meal, it gets them into school, which is obviously education, the first step out of poverty, but it also gives them the micronutrients and the macronutrients they need to really develop both mentally and physically. +While I was working at the U.N., I met this girl. Her name is Lauren Bush. +And she had this really awesome idea to sell the bag called the "Feed Bag" -- which is really beautifully ironic because you can strap on the Feed Bag. +But each bag we'd sell would provide a year's worth of school meals for one kid. +It's so simple, and we thought, you know, okay, it costs between 20 and 50 bucks to provide school feeding for a year. +We could sell these bags and raise a ton of money and a ton of awareness for the World Food Programme. +But of course, you know at the U.N., sometimes things move slowly, and they basically said no. +And we thought, God, this is such a good idea and it's going to raise so much money. +So we said screw it, we'll just start our own company, which we did three years ago. +So that was kind of my first dream, was to start this company called FEED, and here's a screenshot of our website. +We did this bag for Haiti, and we launched it just a month after the earthquake to provide school meals for kids in Haiti. +So FEED's doing great. We've so far provided 55 million meals to kids around the world by selling now 550,000 bags, a ton of bags, a lot of bags. +All this time you're -- when you think about hunger, it's a hard thing to think about, because what we think about is eating. +I think about eating a lot, and I really love it. +And the thing that's a little strange about international hunger and talking about international issues is that most people kind of want to know: "What are you doing in America?" +"What are you doing for America's kids?" +There's definitely hunger in America: 49 million people and almost 16.7 million children. +I mean that's pretty dramatic for our own country. +Hunger definitely means something a little bit different in America than it does internationally, but it's incredibly important to address hunger in our own country. +But obviously the bigger problem that we all know about is obesity, and it's dramatic. +The other thing that's dramatic is that both hunger and obesity have really risen in the last 30 years. +Unfortunately, obesity's not only an American problem. +It's actually been spreading all around the world and mainly through our kind of food systems that we're exporting. +The numbers are pretty crazy. +There's a billion people obese or overweight and a billion people hungry. +So those seem like two bifurcated problems, but I kind of started to think about, you know, what is obesity and hunger? What are both those things about? +Well, they're both about food. +And when you think about food, the underpinning of food in both cases is potentially problematic agriculture. +And agriculture is where food comes from. +Well, agriculture in America's very interesting. +It's very consolidated, and the foods that are produced lead to the foods that we eat. +Well, the foods that are produced are, more or less, corn, soy and wheat. +And as you can see, that's three-quarters of the food that we're eating for the most part: processed foods and fast foods. +Unfortunately, in our agricultural system, we haven't done a good job in the last three decades of exporting those technologies around the world. +So African agriculture, which is the place of most hunger in the world, has actually fallen precipitously as hunger has risen. +So somehow we're not making the connect between exporting a good agricultural system that will help feed people all around the world. +Who is farming them? That's what I was wondering. +So I went and stood on a big grain bin in the Midwest, and that really didn't help me understand farming, but I think it's a really cool picture. +And you know, the reality is that between farmers in America, who actually, quite frankly, when I spend time in the Midwest, are pretty large in general. +And their farms are also large. +But farmers in the rest of the world are actually quite skinny, and that's because they're starving. +Most hungry people in the world are subsistence farmers. +And most of those people are women -- which is a totally other topic that I won't get on right now, but I'd love to do the feminist thing at some point. +I think it's really interesting to look at agriculture from these two sides. +There's this large, consolidated farming that's led to what we eat in America, and it's really been since around 1980, after the oil crisis, when, you know, mass consolidation, mass exodus of small farmers in this country. +And then in the same time period, you know, we've kind of left Africa's farmers to do their own thing. +Unfortunately, what is farmed ends up as what we eat. +And in America, a lot of what we eat has led to obesity and has led to a real change in sort of what our diet is in the last 30 years. +It's crazy. +A fifth of kids under two drinks soda. +Hello. You don't put soda in bottles. +But people do because it's so cheap, and so our whole food system in the last 30 years has really shifted. +I think, you know, it's not just in our own country, but really we're exporting the system around the world, and when you look at the data of least developed countries -- especially in cities, which are growing really rapidly -- people are eating American processed foods. +And in one generation, they're going from hunger, and all of the detrimental health effects of hunger, to obesity and things like diabetes and heart disease in one generation. +So the problematic food system is affecting both hunger and obesity. +Not to beat a dead horse, but this is a global food system where there's a billion people hungry and billion people obese. +I think that's the only way to look at it. +And instead of taking these two things as bifurcated problems that are very separate, it's really important to look at them as one system. +We get a lot of our food from all around the world, and people from all around the world are importing our food system, so it's incredibly relevant to start a new way of looking at it. +The thing is, I've learned -- and the technology people that are here, which I'm totally not one of them -- but apparently, it really takes 30 years for a lot of technologies to become really endemic to us, like the mouse and the Internet and Windows. +You know, there's 30-year cycles. +I think 2010 can be a really interesting year because it is the end of the 30-year cycle, and it's the birthday of the global food system. +So that's the first birthday I want to talk about. +You know, I think if we really think that this is something that's happened in the last 30 years, there's hope in that. +It's the thirtieth anniversary of GMO crops and the Big Gulp, Chicken McNuggets, high fructose corn syrup, the farm crisis in America and the change in how we've addressed agriculture internationally. +So there's a lot of reasons to take this 30-year time period as sort of the creation of this new food system. +I'm not the only one who's obsessed with this whole 30-year thing. +The icons like Michael Pollan and Jamie Oliver in his TED Prize wish both addressed this last three-decade time period as incredibly relevant for food system change. +Well, I really care about 1980 because it's also the thirtieth anniversary of me this year. +And so in my lifetime, a lot of what's happened in the world -- and being a person obsessed with food -- a lot of this has really changed. +So my second dream is that I think we can look to the next 30 years as a time to change the food system again. +And we know what's happened in the past, so if we start now, and we look at technologies and improvements to the food system long term, we might be able to recreate the food system so when I give my next talk and I'm 60 years old, I'll be able to say that it's been a success. +So I'm announcing today the start of a new organization, or a new fund within the FEED Foundation, called the 30 Project. +And the 30 Project is really focused on these long-term ideas for food system change. +And I think by aligning international advocates that are addressing hunger and domestic advocates that are addressing obesity, we might actually look for long-term solutions that will make the food system better for everyone. +We all tend to think that these systems are quite different, and people argue whether or not organic can feed the world, but if we take a 30-year view, there's more hope in collaborative ideas. +So I'm hoping that by connecting really disparate organizations like the ONE campaign and Slow Food, which don't seem right now to have much in common, we can talk about holistic, long-term, systemic solutions that will improve food for everyone. +Some ideas I've had is like, look, the reality is -- kids in the South Bronx need apples and carrots and so do kids in Botswana. +And how are we going to get those kids those nutritious foods? +Another thing that's become incredibly global is production of meat and fish. +Understanding how to produce protein in a way that's healthy for the environment and healthy for people will be incredibly important to address things like climate change and how we use petrochemical fertilizers. +And you know, these are really relevant topics that are long term and important for both people in Africa who are small farmers and people in America who are farmers and eaters. +And I also think that thinking about processed foods in a new way, where we actually price the negative externalities like petrochemicals and like fertilizer runoff into the price of a bag of chips. +Well, if that bag of chips then becomes inherently more expensive than an apple, then maybe it's time for a different sense of personal responsibility in food choice because the choices are actually choices instead of three-quarters of the products being made just from corn, soy and wheat. +The 30Project.org is launched, and I've gathered a coalition of a few organizations to start. +And it'll be growing over the next few months. +But I really hope that you will all think of ways that you can look long term at things like the food system and make change. +Trees epitomize stasis. +Trees are rooted in the ground in one place for many human generations, but if we shift our perspective from the trunk to the twigs, trees become very dynamic entities, moving and growing. +And I decided to explore this movement by turning trees into artists. +I simply tied the end of a paintbrush onto a twig. +I waited for the wind to come up and held up a canvas, and that produced art. +The piece of art you see on your left is painted by a western red cedar and that on your right by a Douglas fir, and what I learned was that different species have different signatures, like a Picasso versus a Monet. +But I was also interested in the movement of trees and how this art might let me capture that and quantify it, so to measure the distance that a single vine maple tree -- which produced this painting -- moved in a single year, I simply measured and summed each of those lines. +I multiplied them by the number of twigs per branch and the number of branches per tree and then divided that by the number of minutes per year. +And so I was able to calculate how far a single tree moved in a single year. +You might have a guess. +The answer is actually 186,540 miles, or seven times around the globe. +And so simply by shifting our perspective from a single trunk to the many dynamic twigs, we are able to see that trees are not simply static entities, but rather extremely dynamic. +And I began to think about ways that we might consider this lesson of trees, to consider other entities that are also static and stuck, but which cry for change and dynamicism, and one of those entities is our prisons. +Prisons, of course, are where people who break our laws are stuck, confined behind bars. +And our prison system itself is stuck. +The United States has over 2.3 million incarcerated men and women. +That number is rising. +Of the 100 incarcerated people that are released, 60 will return to prison. +Funds for education, for training and for rehabilitation are declining, so this despairing cycle of incarceration continues. +I decided to ask whether the lesson I had learned from trees as artists could be applied to a static institution such as our prisons, and I think the answer is yes. +In the year 2007, I started a partnership with the Washington State Department of Corrections. +Working with four prisons, we began bringing science and scientists, sustainability and conservation projects to four state prisons. +We give science lectures, and the men here are choosing to come to our science lectures instead of watching television or weightlifting. +That, I think, is movement. +We partnered with the Nature Conservancy for inmates at Stafford Creek Correctional Center to grow endangered prairie plants for restoration of relic prairie areas in Washington state. +That, I think, is movement. +We worked with the Washington State Department of Fish and Wildlife to grow endangered frogs -- the Oregon spotted frog -- for later release into protected wetlands. +That, I think, is movement. +And just recently, we've begun to work with those men who are segregated in what we call Supermax facilities. +They've incurred violent infractions by becoming violent with guards and with other prisoners. +They're kept in bare cells like this for 23 hours a day. +When they have meetings with their review boards or mental health professionals, they're placed in immobile booths like this. +For one hour a day they're brought to these bleak and bland exercise yards. +Although we can't bring trees and prairie plants and frogs into these environments, we are bringing images of nature into these exercise yards, putting them on the walls, so at least they get contact with visual images of nature. +This is Mr. Lopez, who has been in solitary confinement for 18 months, and he's providing input on the types of images that he believes would make him and his fellow inmates more serene, more calm, less apt to violence. +And so what we see, I think, is that small, collective movements of change can perhaps move an entity such as our own prison system in a direction of hope. +We know that trees are static entities when we look at their trunks. +But if trees can create art, if they can encircle the globe seven times in one year, if prisoners can grow plants and raise frogs, then perhaps there are other static entities that we hold inside ourselves, like grief, like addictions, like racism, that can also change. +Thank you very much. +I still remember the day in school when our teacher told us that the world population had become three billion people, and that was in 1960. +I'm going to talk now about how world population has changed from that year and into the future, but I will not use digital technology, as I've done during my first five TEDTalks. +Instead, I have progressed, and I am, today, launching a brand new analog teaching technology that I picked up from IKEA: this box. +This box contains one billion people. +And our teacher told us that the industrialized world, 1960, had one billion people. +In the developing world, she said, they had two billion people. +And they lived away then. +There was a big gap between the one billion in the industrialized world and the two billion in the developing world. +In the industrialized world, people were healthy, educated, rich, and they had small families. +And their aspiration was to buy a car. +And in 1960, all Swedes were saving to try to buy a Volvo like this. +This was the economic level at which Sweden was. +But in contrast to this, in the developing world, far away, the aspiration of the average family there was to have food for the day. +They were saving to be able to buy a pair of shoes. +There was an enormous gap in the world when I grew up. +And this gap between the West and the rest has created a mindset of the world, which we still use linguistically when we talk about "the West" and "the Developing World." +But the world has changed, and it's overdue to upgrade that mindset and that taxonomy of the world, and to understand it. +And that's what I'm going to show you, because since 1960 what has happened in the world up to 2010 is that a staggering four billion people have been added to the world population. +Just look how many. +The world population has doubled since I went to school. +And of course, there's been economic growth in the West. +A lot of companies have happened to grow the economy, so the Western population moved over to here. +And now their aspiration is not only to have a car. +Now they want to have a holiday on a very remote destination and they want to fly. +So this is where they are today. +And the most successful of the developing countries, they have moved on, you know, and they have become emerging economies, we call them. +They are now buying cars. +And what happened a month ago was that the Chinese company, Geely, they acquired the Volvo company, and then finally the Swedes understood that something big had happened in the world. +So there they are. +And the tragedy is that the two billion over here that is struggling for food and shoes, they are still almost as poor as they were 50 years ago. +The new thing is that we have the biggest pile of billions, the three billions here, which are also becoming emerging economies, because they are quite healthy, relatively well-educated, and they already also have two to three children per woman, as those [richer also] have. +And their aspiration now is, of course, to buy a bicycle, and then later on they would like to have a motorbike also. +But this is the world we have today, no longer any gap. +But the distance from the poorest here, the very poorest, to the very richest over here is wider than ever. +But there is a continuous world from walking, biking, driving, flying -- there are people on all levels, and most people tend to be somewhere in the middle. +This is the new world we have today in 2010. +And what will happen in the future? +Well, I'm going to project into 2050. +I was in Shanghai recently, and I listened to what's happening in China, and it's pretty sure that they will catch up, just as Japan did. +All the projections [say that] this one [billion] will [only] grow with one to two or three percent. +[But this second] grows with seven, eight percent, and then they will end up here. +They will start flying. +And these lower or middle income countries, the emerging income countries, they will also forge forwards economically. +And if, but only if, we invest in the right green technology -- so that we can avoid severe climate change, and energy can still be relatively cheap -- then they will move all the way up here. +And they will start to buy electric cars. +This is what we will find there. +So what about the poorest two billion? +What about the poorest two billion here? +Will they move on? +Well, here population [growth] comes in because there [among emerging economies] we already have two to three children per woman, family planning is widely used, and population growth is coming to an end. +Here [among the poorest], population is growing. +So these [poorest] two billion will, in the next decades, increase to three billion, and they will thereafter increase to four billion. +There is nothing -- but a nuclear war of a kind we've never seen -- that can stop this [growth] from happening. +Because we already have this [growth] in process. +But if, and only if, [the poorest] get out of poverty, they get education, they get improved child survival, they can buy a bicycle and a cell phone and come [to live] here, then population growth will stop in 2050. +We cannot have people on this level looking for food and shoes because then we get continued population growth. +And let me show you why by converting back to the old-time digital technology. +Here I have on the screen my country bubbles. +Every bubble is a country. The size is population. +The colors show the continent. +The yellow on there is the Americas; dark blue is Africa; brown is Europe; green is the Middle East and this light blue is South Asia. +That's India and this is China. Size is population. +Here I have children per woman: two children, four children, six children, eight children -- big families, small families. +The year is 1960. +And down here, child survival, the percentage of children surviving childhood up to starting school: 60 percent, 70 percent, 80 percent, 90, and almost 100 percent, as we have today in the wealthiest and healthiest countries. +But look, this is the world my teacher talked about in 1960: one billion Western world here -- high child-survival, small families -- and all the rest, the rainbow of developing countries, with very large families and poor child survival. +What has happened? I start the world. Here we go. +Can you see, as the years pass by, child survival is increasing? +They get soap, hygiene, education, vaccination, penicillin and then family planning. Family size is decreasing. +[When] they get up to 90-percent child survival, then families decrease, and most of the Arab countries in the Middle East is falling down there [to small families]. +Look, Bangladesh catching up with India. +The whole emerging world joins the Western world with good child survival and small family size, but we still have the poorest billion. +Can you see the poorest billion, those [two] boxes I had over here? +They are still up here. +And they still have a child survival of only 70 to 80 percent, meaning that if you have six children born, there will be at least four who survive to the next generation. +And the population will double in one generation. +So the only way of really getting world population [growth] to stop is to continue to improve child survival to 90 percent. +That's why investments by Gates Foundation, UNICEF and aid organizations, together with national government in the poorest countries, are so good; because they are actually helping us to reach a sustainable population size of the world. +We can stop at nine billion if we do the right things. +Child survival is the new green. +It's only by child survival that we will stop population growth. +And will it happen? +Well, I'm not an optimist, neither am I a pessimist. +I'm a very serious "possibilist." +It's a new category where we take emotion apart, and we just work analytically with the world. +It can be done. +We can have a much more just world. +With green technology and with investments to alleviate poverty, and global governance, the world can become like this. +And look at the position of the old West. +Remember when this blue box was all alone, leading the world, living its own life. +This will not happen [again]. +The role of the old West in the new world is to become the foundation of the modern world -- nothing more, nothing less. +But it's a very important role. +Do it well and get used to it. +Thank you very much. +This is the ocean as I used to know it. +And I find that since I've been in the Gulf a couple of times, I really kind of am traumatized because whenever I look at the ocean now, no matter where I am, even where I know none of the oil has gone, I sort of see slicks, and I'm finding that I'm very much haunted by it. +But what I want to talk to you about today is a lot of things that try to put all of this in context, not just about the oil eruption, but what it means and why it has happened. +First, just a little bit about me. +I'm basically just a guy that likes to go fishing ever since I was a little kid, and because I did, I wound up studying sea birds to try to stay in the coastal habitats that I so loved. +And now I mainly write books about how the ocean is changing, and the ocean is certainly changing very rapidly. +Now we saw this kind of graphic earlier on, that we really live on a hard marble that has just a slight bit of wetness to it. +It's like you dipped a marble in water. +And the same thing with the atmosphere: If you took all the atmosphere and rolled it up in a ball, you would get that little sphere of gas on the right. +So we live on the most fragile, little soap bubble you can imagine, a very sacred soap bubble, but one that is very, very easy to affect. +And all the burning of oil and coal and gas, all the fossil fuels, have changed the atmosphere greatly. +Carbon dioxide level has gone up and up and up. +We're warming the climate. +So the blowout in the Gulf is just a little piece of a much larger problem that we have with the energy that we use to run civilization. +Beyond warming, we have the problem of the oceans getting more acidified -- and already measurably so, and already affecting animals. +Now in the laboratory, if you take a clam and you put it in the pH that is -- not 8.1, which is the normal pH of seawater -- but 7.5, it dissolves in about three days. +If you take a sea urchin larva from 8.1, put it in a pH of 7.7 -- not a huge change -- it becomes deformed and dies. +And already, commercial oyster larvae are dying at large scales in some places. +Coral reefs are growing slower in some places because of this problem. +So this really matters. +Now, let's take a little tour around the Gulf a little bit. +One of the things that really impresses me about the people in the Gulf: They are really, really aquatic people. +And they can handle water. +They can handle a hurricane that comes and goes. +When the water goes down, they know what to do. +But when it's something other than water, and their water habitat changes, they don't have many options. +In fact, those entire communities really don't have many options. +They don't have another thing they can do. +They can't go and work in the local hotel business because there isn't one in their community. +If you go to the Gulf and you look around, you do see a lot of oil. +You see a lot of oil on the ocean. +You see a lot of oil on the shoreline. +If you go to the site of the blowout, it looks pretty unbelievable. +It looks like you just emptied the oil pan in your car, and you just dumped it in the ocean. +And one of the really most incredible things, I think, is that there's nobody out there trying to collect it at the site where it is densest. +Parts of the ocean there look just absolutely apocalyptic. +You go in along the shore, you can find it everywhere. +It's really messy. +If you go to the places where it's just arriving, like the eastern part of the Gulf, in Alabama, there's still people using the beach while there are people cleaning up the beach. +And they have a very strange way of cleaning up the beach. +They're not allowed to put more than 10 pounds of sand in a 50-gallon plastic bag. +They have thousands and thousands of plastic bags. +I don't know what they're going to do with all that stuff. +Meanwhile, there are still people trying to use the beach. +They don't see the little, tiny sign that says: "Stay out of the water." +Their kids are in the water; they're getting tar all over their clothes and their sandals. It's a mess. +If you go to the place where the oil has been a while, it's an even bigger mess. +And there's basically nobody there anymore, a few people trying to keep using it. +You see people who are really shell-shocked. +They are very hardworking people. +All they know about life is they get up in the morning, and if their engine starts, they go to work. +They always felt that they could rely on the assurances that nature brought them through the ecosystem of the Gulf. +They're finding that their world is really collapsing. +And so you can see, literally, signs of their shock, signs of their outrage, signs of their anger, and signs of their grief. +These are the things that you can see. +There's a lot you can't see, also, underwater. +What's going on underwater? +Well, some people say there are oil plumes. +Some people say there are not oil plumes. +And Congressman Markey asks, you know, "Is it going to take a submarine ride to see if there are really oil plumes?" +But I couldn't take a submarine ride -- especially between the time I knew I was coming here and today -- so I had to do a little experiment myself to see if there was oil in the Gulf of Mexico. +So this is the Gulf of Mexico, sparkling place full of fish. +I created a little oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico. +And I learned -- in fact, I confirmed -- the hypothesis that oil and water don't mix until you add a dispersant, and then they start mixing. +And you add a little energy from the wind and the waves, and you get a big mess, a big mess that you can't possibly clean, you can't touch, you can't extract and, I think most importantly -- this is what I think -- you can't see it. +I think it's being hidden on purpose. +Now this is such a catastrophe and such a mess, that lots of stuff is leaking out on the edges of the information stream. +But as many people have said, there's a large attempt to suppress what's going on. +Personally, I think that the dispersants are a major strategy to hide the body, because we put the murderer in charge of the crime scene. +But you can see it. +You can see where the oil is concentrated at the surface, and then it is attacked, because they don't want the evidence, in my opinion. +Okay. +We heard that bacteria eat oil? +So do sea turtles. +When it breaks up, it has a long way to go before it gets down to bacteria. +Turtles eat it. It gets in the gills of fish. +These guys have to swim around through it. +I heard the most incredible story today when I was on the train coming here. +A writer named Ted Williams called me, and he was asking me a couple of questions about what I saw, because he's writing an article for Audubon magazine. +He said that he had been in the Gulf a little while ago -- like about a week ago -- and a guy who had been a recreational fishing guide took him out to show him what's going on. +That guide's entire calendar year is canceled bookings. +He has no bookings left. +Everybody wanted their deposit back. Everybody is fleeing. +That's the story of thousands of people. +But he told Ted that on the last day he went out, a bottlenose dolphin suddenly appeared next to the boat, and it was splattering oil out its blowhole. +And he moved away because it was his last fishing trip, and he knew that the dolphins scare fish. +So he moved away from it, turned around a few minutes later, it was right next to the side of the boat again. +He said that in 30 years of fishing he had never seen a dolphin do that. +And he felt that -- he felt that it was coming to ask for help. Sorry. +Now, in the Exxon Valdez spill, about 30 percent of the killer whales died in the first few months. +Their numbers have never recovered. +So the recovery rate of all this stuff is going to be variable. +It's going to take longer for some things. +And some things, I think, will probably come back a little faster. +The other thing about the Gulf that is important is that there are a lot of animals that concentrate in the Gulf at certain parts of the year. +So the Gulf is a really important piece of water -- more important than a similar volume of water in the open Atlantic Ocean. +These tuna swim the entire ocean. +They get in the Gulf Stream. They go all the way to Europe. +When it comes time to spawn, they come inside, and these two tuna that were tagged, you can see them on the spawning grounds very much right in the area of the slick. +They're probably having, at the very least, a catastrophic spawning season this year. +I'm hoping that maybe the adults are avoiding that dirty water. +They don't usually like to go into water that is very cloudy anyway. +But these are really high-performance athletic animals. +I don't know what this kind of stuff will do in their gills. +I don't know if it'll affect the adults. +If it's not, it's certainly affecting their eggs and larvae, I would certainly think. +But if you look at that graph that goes down and down and down, that's what we've done to this species through overfishing over many decades. +So while the oil spill, the leak, the eruption, is a catastrophe, I think it's important to keep in mind that we've done a lot to affect what's in the ocean for a very, very long time. +It's not like we're starting with something that's been okay. +We're starting with something that's had a lot of stresses and a lot of problems to begin with. +If you look around at the birds, there are a lot of birds in the Gulf that concentrate in the Gulf at certain times of the year, but then leave. +And they populate much larger areas. +So for instance, most of the birds in this picture are migratory birds. +They were all on the Gulf in May, while oil was starting to come ashore in certain places. +Down on the lower left there are Ruddy Turnstones and Sanderlings. +They breed in the high arctic, and they winter down in southern South America. +But they concentrate in the Gulf and then fan out all across the arctic. +I saw birds that breed in Greenland in the Gulf, so this is a hemispheric issue. +The economic effects go at least nationally in many ways. +The biological effects are certainly hemispheric. +I think that this is one of the most absolutely mind-boggling examples of total unpreparedness that I can even think of. +Even when the Japanese bombed Pearl Harbor, at least they shot back. +And we just seem to be unable to figure out what to do. +There was nothing ready, and, you know, as we can see by what they're doing. +Mainly what they're doing is booms and dispersants. +The booms are absolutely not made for open water. +They don't even attempt to corral the oil where it is most concentrated. +They get near shore. Look at these two boats. +That one on the right is called Fishing Fool. +And I think, you know, that's a great name for boats that think that they're going to do anything to make a dent in this by dragging a boom between them when there are literally hundreds of thousands of square miles in the Gulf right now with oil at the surface. +The dispersants make the oil go right under the booms. +The booms are only about 13 inches in diameter. +So it's just absolutely crazy. +Here are shrimp boats employed. +There are hundreds of shrimp boats employed to drag booms instead of nets. +Here they are working. +You can see easily that all the oily water just goes over the back of the boom. +All they're doing is stirring it. +It's just ridiculous. +Also, for all the shoreline that has booms -- hundreds and hundreds of miles of shoreline -- all of the shoreline that has booms, there's adjacent shoreline that doesn't have any booms. +There is ample opportunity for oil and dirty water to get in behind them. +And that lower photo, that's a bird colony that has been boomed. +Everybody's trying to protect the bird colonies there. +Well, as an ornithologist, I can tell you that birds fly, and that -- and that booming a bird colony doesn't do it; it doesn't do it. +These birds make a living by diving into the water. +In fact, really what I think they should do, if anything -- they're trying so hard to protect those nests -- actually, if they destroyed every single nest some of the birds would leave, and that would be better for them this year. +As far as cleaning them, I don't mean to cast any aspersion on people cleaning birds. +It's really, really important that we express our compassion. +I think that's the most important thing that people have, is compassion. +It's really important to get those images and to show it. +But really, where are those birds going to get released to? +It's like taking somebody out of a burning building, treating them for smoke inhalation and sending them back into the building, because the oil is still gushing. +I refuse to acknowledge this as anything like an accident. +I think that this is the result of gross negligence. +Not just B.P. +B.P. operated very sloppily and very recklessly because they could. +And they were allowed to do so because of the absolute failure of oversight of the government that's supposed to be our government, protecting us. +It turns out that -- you see this sign on almost every commercial vessel in the United States -- you know, if you spilled a couple of gallons of oil, you would be in big trouble. +And you have to really wonder who are the laws made for, and who has gotten above the laws. +Now there are things that we can do in the future. +We could have the kinds of equipment that we would really need. +It would not take an awful lot to anticipate that after making 30,000 holes in the sea floor of the Gulf of Mexico looking for oil, oil might start coming out of one of them. +And you'd have some idea of what to do. +That's certainly one of the things we need to do. +But I think we have to understand where this leak really started from. +It really started from the destruction of the idea that the government is there because it's our government, meant to protect the larger public interest. +So I think that the oil blowout, the bank bailout, the mortgage crisis and all these things are absolutely symptoms of the same cause. +We still seem to understand that at least we need the police to protect us from a few bad people. +And even though the police can be a little annoying at times -- giving us tickets and stuff like that -- nobody says that we should just get rid of them. +But in the entire rest of government right now and for the last at least 30 years, there has been a culture of deregulation that is caused directly by the people who we need to be protected from, buying the government out from under us. +Now this has been a problem for a very, very long time. +You can see that corporations were illegal at the founding of America, and even Thomas Jefferson complained that they were already bidding defiance to the laws of our country. +Okay, people who say they're conservative, if they really wanted to be really conservative and really patriotic, they would tell these corporations to go to hell. +That's what it would really mean to be conservative. +So what we really need to do is regain the idea that it's our government safeguarding our interests and regain a sense of unity and common cause in our country that really has been lost. +I think there are signs of hope. +We seem to be waking up a little bit. +The Glass-Steagall Act -- which was really to protect us from the kind of thing that caused the recession to happen, and the bank meltdown and all that stuff that required the bailouts -- that was put in effect in 1933, was systematically destroyed. +Now there's a mood to put some of that stuff back in place, but the lobbyists are already there trying to weaken the regulations after the legislation has just passed. +So it's a continued fight. +It's a historic moment right now. +We're either going to have an absolutely unmitigated catastrophe of this oil leak in the Gulf, or we will make the moment we need out of this, as many people have noted today. +There's certainly a common theme about needing to make the moment out of this. +We've been through this before with other ways of offshore drilling. +The first offshore wells were called whales. +The first offshore drills were called harpoons. +We emptied the ocean of the whales at that time. +Now are we stuck with this? +Ever since we lived in caves, every time we wanted any energy, we lit something on fire, and that is still what we're doing. +We're still lighting something on fire every time we want energy. +And people say we can't have clean energy because it's too expensive. +Who says it's too expensive? +People who sell us fossil fuels. +We've been here before with energy, and people saying the economy cannot withstand a switch, because the cheapest energy was slavery. +Energy is always a moral issue. +It's an issue that is moral right now. +It's a matter of right and wrong. +Thank you very much. +When I was a student here in Oxford in the 1970s, the future of the world was bleak. +The population explosion was unstoppable. +Global famine was inevitable. +A cancer epidemic caused by chemicals in the environment was going to shorten our lives. +The acid rain was falling on the forests. +The desert was advancing by a mile or two a year. +The oil was running out, and a nuclear winter would finish us off. +None of those things happened, and astonishingly, if you look at what actually happened in my lifetime, the average per-capita income of the average person on the planet, in real terms, adjusted for inflation, has tripled. +Lifespan is up by 30 percent in my lifetime. +Child mortality is down by two-thirds. +Per-capita food production is up by a third. +And all this at a time when the population has doubled. +How did we achieve that, whether you think it's a good thing or not? +How did we achieve that? +How did we become the only species that becomes more prosperous as it becomes more populous? +The size of the blob in this graph represents the size of the population, and the level of the graph represents GDP per capita. +I think to answer that question you need to understand how human beings bring together their brains and enable their ideas to combine and recombine, to meet and, indeed, to mate. +In other words, you need to understand how ideas have sex. +I want you to imagine how we got from making objects like this to making objects like this. +These are both real objects. +One is an Acheulean hand axe from half a million years ago of the kind made by Homo erectus. +The other is obviously a computer mouse. +They're both exactly the same size and shape to an uncanny degree. +I've tried to work out which is bigger, and it's almost impossible. +And that's because they're both designed to fit the human hand. +They're both technologies. In the end, their similarity is not that interesting. +It just tells you they were both designed to fit the human hand. +The differences are what interest me, because the one on the left was made to a pretty unvarying design for about a million years -- from one-and-a-half million years ago to half a million years ago. +Homo erectus made the same tool for 30,000 generations. +Of course there were a few changes, but tools changed slower than skeletons in those days. +There was no progress, no innovation. +It's an extraordinary phenomenon, but it's true. +Whereas the object on the right is obsolete after five years. +And there's another difference too, which is the object on the left is made from one substance. +The object on the right is made from a confection of different substances, from silicon and metal and plastic and so on. +And more than that, it's a confection of different ideas, the idea of plastic, the idea of a laser, the idea of transistors. +They've all been combined together in this technology. +And it's this combination, this cumulative technology, that intrigues me, because I think it's the secret to understanding what's happening in the world. +My body's an accumulation of ideas too: the idea of skin cells, the idea of brain cells, the idea of liver cells. +They've come together. +How does evolution do cumulative, combinatorial things? +Well, it uses sexual reproduction. +In an asexual species, if you get two different mutations in different creatures, a green one and a red one, then one has to be better than the other. +One goes extinct for the other to survive. +But if you have a sexual species, then it's possible for an individual to inherit both mutations from different lineages. +So what sex does is it enables the individual to draw upon the genetic innovations of the whole species. +It's not confined to its own lineage. +What's the process that's having the same effect in cultural evolution as sex is having in biological evolution? +And I think the answer is exchange, the habit of exchanging one thing for another. +It's a unique human feature. +No other animal does it. +You can teach them in the laboratory to do a little bit of exchange -- and indeed there's reciprocity in other animals -- But the exchange of one object for another never happens. +As Adam Smith said, "No man ever saw a dog make a fair exchange of a bone with another dog." +You can have culture without exchange. +You can have, as it were, asexual culture. +Chimpanzees, killer whales, these kinds of creatures, they have culture. +They teach each other traditions which are handed down from parent to offspring. +In this case, chimpanzees teaching each other how to crack nuts with rocks. +But the difference is that these cultures never expand, never grow, never accumulate, never become combinatorial, and the reason is because there is no sex, as it were, there is no exchange of ideas. +Chimpanzee troops have different cultures in different troops. +There's no exchange of ideas between them. +And why does exchange raise living standards? +Well, the answer came from David Ricardo in 1817. +And here is a Stone Age version of his story, although he told it in terms of trade between countries. +Adam takes four hours to make a spear and three hours to make an axe. +Oz takes one hour to make a spear and two hours to make an axe. +So Oz is better at both spears and axes than Adam. +He doesn't need Adam. +He can make his own spears and axes. +Well no, because if you think about it, if Oz makes two spears and Adam make two axes, and then they trade, then they will each have saved an hour of work. +And the more they do this, the more true it's going to be, because the more they do this, the better Adam is going to get at making axes and the better Oz is going to get at making spears. +So the gains from trade are only going to grow. +And this is one of the beauties of exchange, is it actually creates the momentum for more specialization, which creates the momentum for more exchange and so on. +Adam and Oz both saved an hour of time. +That is prosperity, the saving of time in satisfying your needs. +Ask yourself how long you would have to work to provide for yourself an hour of reading light this evening to read a book by. +If you had to start from scratch, let's say you go out into the countryside. +You find a sheep. You kill it. You get the fat out of it. +You render it down. You make a candle, etc. etc. +How long is it going to take you? Quite a long time. +How long do you actually have to work to earn an hour of reading light if you're on the average wage in Britain today? +And the answer is about half a second. +Back in 1950, you would have had to work for eight seconds on the average wage to acquire that much light. +And that's seven and a half seconds of prosperity that you've gained since 1950, as it were, because that's seven and a half seconds in which you can do something else, or you can acquire another good or service. +And back in 1880, it would have been 15 minutes to earn that amount of light on the average wage. +Back in 1800, you'd have had to work six hours to earn a candle that could burn for an hour. +In other words, the average person on the average wage could not afford a candle in 1800. +Go back to this image of the axe and the mouse, and ask yourself: "Who made them and for who?" +The stone axe was made by someone for himself. +It was self-sufficiency. +We call that poverty these days. +But the object on the right was made for me by other people. +How many other people? +Tens? Hundreds? Thousands? +You know, I think it's probably millions. +Because you've got to include the man who grew the coffee, which was brewed for the man who was on the oil rig, who was drilling for oil, which was going to be made into the plastic, etc. +They were all working for me, to make a mouse for me. +And that's the way society works. +That's what we've achieved as a species. +In the old days, if you were rich, you literally had people working for you. +That's how you got to be rich; you employed them. +Louis XIV had a lot of people working for him. +They made his silly outfits, like this, and they did his silly hairstyles, or whatever. +He had 498 people to prepare his dinner every night. +But a modern tourist going around the palace of Versailles and looking at Louis XIV's pictures, he has 498 people doing his dinner tonight too. +They're in bistros and cafes and restaurants and shops all over Paris, and they're all ready to serve you at an hour's notice with an excellent meal that's probably got higher quality than Louis XIV even had. +And that's what we've done, because we're all working for each other. +We're able to draw upon specialization and exchange to raise each other's living standards. +Now, you do get other animals working for each other too. +Ants are a classic example; workers work for queens and queens work for workers. +But there's a big difference, which is that it only happens within the colony. +There's no working for each other across the colonies. +And the reason for that is because there's a reproductive division of labor. +That is to say, they specialize with respect to reproduction. +The queen does it all. +In our species, we don't like doing that. +It's the one thing we insist on doing for ourselves, is reproduction. +Even in England, we don't leave reproduction to the Queen. +So when did this habit start? +And how long has it been going on? And what does it mean? +Well, I think, probably, the oldest version of this is probably the sexual division of labor. +But I've got no evidence for that. +It just looks like the first thing we did was work male for female and female for male. +In all hunter-gatherer societies today, there's a foraging division of labor between, on the whole, hunting males and gathering females. +It isn't always quite that simple, but there's a distinction between specialized roles for males and females. +And the beauty of this system is that it benefits both sides. +The woman knows that, in the Hadzas' case here -- digging roots to share with men in exchange for meat -- she knows that all she has to do to get access to protein is to dig some extra roots and trade them for meat. +And she doesn't have to go on an exhausting hunt and try and kill a warthog. +And the man knows that he doesn't have to do any digging to get roots. +All he has to do is make sure that when he kills a warthog it's big enough to share some. +And so both sides raise each other's standards of living through the sexual division of labor. +When did this happen? We don't know, but it's possible that Neanderthals didn't do this. +They were a highly cooperative species. +They were a highly intelligent species. +Their brains on average, by the end, were bigger than yours and mine in this room today. +They were imaginative. They buried their dead. +They had language, probably, because we know they had the FOXP2 gene of the same kind as us, which was discovered here in Oxford. +And so it looks like they probably had linguistic skills. +They were brilliant people. I'm not dissing the Neanderthals. +But there's no evidence of a sexual division of labor. +There's no evidence of gathering behavior by females. +It looks like the females were cooperative hunters with the men. +And the other thing there's no evidence for is exchange between groups, because the objects that you find in Neanderthal remains, the tools they made, are always made from local materials. +For example, in the Caucasus there's a site where you find local Neanderthal tools. +They're always made from local chert. +In the same valley there are modern human remains from about the same date, 30,000 years ago, and some of those are from local chert, but more -- but many of them are made from obsidian from a long way away. +And when human beings began moving objects around like this, it was evidence that they were exchanging between groups. +Trade is 10 times as old as farming. +People forget that. People think of trade as a modern thing. +Exchange between groups has been going on for a hundred thousand years. +And the earliest evidence for it crops up somewhere between 80 and 120,000 years ago in Africa, when you see obsidian and jasper and other things moving long distances in Ethiopia. +You also see seashells -- as discovered by a team here in Oxford -- moving 125 miles inland from the Mediterranean in Algeria. +And that's evidence that people have started exchanging between groups. +And that will have led to specialization. +How do you know that long-distance movement means trade rather than migration? +Well, you look at modern hunter gatherers like aboriginals, who quarried for stone axes at a place called Mount Isa, which was a quarry owned by the Kalkadoon tribe. +They traded them with their neighbors for things like stingray barbs, and the consequence was that stone axes ended up over a large part of Australia. +So long-distance movement of tools is a sign of trade, not migration. +What happens when you cut people off from exchange, from the ability to exchange and specialize? +And the answer is that not only do you slow down technological progress, you can actually throw it into reverse. +An example is Tasmania. +When the sea level rose and Tasmania became an island 10,000 years ago, the people on it not only experienced slower progress than people on the mainland, they actually experienced regress. +They gave up the ability to make stone tools and fishing equipment and clothing because the population of about 4,000 people was simply not large enough to maintain the specialized skills necessary to keep the technology they had. +It's as if the people in this room were plonked on a desert island. +How many of the things in our pockets could we continue to make after 10,000 years? +It didn't happen in Tierra del Fuego -- similar island, similar people. +The reason: because Tierra del Fuego is separated from South America by a much narrower straight, and there was trading contact across that straight throughout 10,000 years. +The Tasmanians were isolated. +Go back to this image again and ask yourself, not only who made it and for who, but who knew how to make it. +In the case of the stone axe, the man who made it knew how to make it. +But who knows how to make a computer mouse? +Nobody, literally nobody. +There is nobody on the planet who knows how to make a computer mouse. +I mean this quite seriously. +The president of the computer mouse company doesn't know. +He just knows how to run a company. +The person on the assembly line doesn't know because he doesn't know how to drill an oil well to get oil out to make plastic, and so on. +We all know little bits, but none of us knows the whole. +And what we've done in human society, through exchange and specialization, is we've created the ability to do things that we don't even understand. +It's not the same with language. +With language we have to transfer ideas that we understand with each other. +But with technology, we can actually do things that are beyond our capabilities. +We've gone beyond the capacity of the human mind to an extraordinary degree. +And by the way, that's one of the reasons that I'm not interested in the debate about I.Q., about whether some groups have higher I.Q.s than other groups. +It's completely irrelevant. +What's relevant to a society is how well people are communicating their ideas, and how well they're cooperating, not how clever the individuals are. +So we've created something called the collective brain. +We're just the nodes in the network. +We're the neurons in this brain. +It's the interchange of ideas, the meeting and mating of ideas between them, that is causing technological progress, incrementally, bit by bit. +However, bad things happen. +And in the future, as we go forward, we will, of course, experience terrible things. +There will be wars; there will be depressions; there will be natural disasters. +Awful things will happen in this century, I'm absolutely sure. +But I'm also sure that, because of the connections people are making, and the ability of ideas to meet and to mate as never before, I'm also sure that technology will advance, and therefore living standards will advance. +Because through the cloud, through crowd sourcing, through the bottom-up world that we've created, where not just the elites but everybody is able to have their ideas and make them meet and mate, we are surely accelerating the rate of innovation. +Thank you. +I'm an American, which means, generally, I ignore football unless it involves guys my size or Bruno's size running into each other at extremely high speeds. +That said, it's been really hard to ignore football for the last couple of weeks. +I go onto Twitter, there are all these strange words that I've never heard before: FIFA, vuvuzela, weird jokes about octopi. +But the one that's really been sort of stressing me out, that I haven't been able to figure out, is this phrase "Cala a boca, Galvao." +If you've gone onto Twitter in the last couple of weeks, you've probably seen this. +It's been a major trending topic. +Being a monolingual American, I obviously don't know what the phrase means. +So I went onto Twitter, and I asked some people if they could explain to me "Cala a boca, Galvao." +And fortunately, my Brazilian friends were more than ready to help. +They explained that the Galvao bird is a rare and endangered parrot that's in terrible, terrible danger. +In fact, I'll let them tell you a bit more about it. +Narrator: A word about Galvao, a very rare kind of bird native to Brazil. +Every year, more than 300,000 Galvao birds are killed during Carnival parades. +Ethan Zuckerman: Obviously, this is a tragic situation, and it actually gets worse. +It turns out that, not only is the Galvao parrot very attractive, useful for headdresses, it evidently has certain hallucinogenic properties, which means that there's a terrible problem with Galvao abuse. +Some sick and twisted people have found themselves snorting Galvao. +And it's terribly endangered. +The good news about this is that the global community -- again, my Brazilian friends tell me -- is pitching in to help out. +It turns out that Lady Gaga has released a new single -- actually five or six new singles, as near as I can tell -- titled "Cala a boca, Galvao." +And my Brazilian friends tell me that if I just tweet the phrase "Cala a boca, Galvao," 10 cents will be given to a global campaign to save this rare and beautiful bird. +Now, most of you have figured out that this was a prank, and actually a very, very good one. +"Cala a boca, Galvao" actually means something very different. +In Portugese, it means "Shut your mouth, Galvao." +And it specifically refers to this guy, Galvao Bueno, who's the lead soccer commentator for Rede Globo. +And what I understand from my Brazilian friends is that this guy is just a cliche machine. +He can ruin the most interesting match by just spouting cliche again and again and again. +So Brazilians went to that first match against North Korea, put up this banner, started a Twitter campaign and tried to convince the rest of us to tweet the phrase: "Cala a boca, Galvao." +And in fact, were so successful at this that it topped Twitter for two weeks. +Now there's a couple -- there's a couple of lessons that you can take from this. +And the first lesson, which I think is a worthwhile one, is that you cannot go wrong asking people to be active online, so long as activism just means retweeting a phrase. +So as long as activism is that simple, it's pretty easy to get away with. +The other thing you can take from this, by the way, is that there are a lot of Brazilians on Twitter. +There's more than five million of them. +As far as national representation, 11 percent of Brazilian internet users are on Twitter. +That's a much higher number than in the U.S. or U.K. +Next to Japan, it's the second most represented by population. +Now if you're using Twitter or other social networks, and you didn't realize this was a space with a lot of Brazilians in it, you're like most of us. +Because what happens on a social network is you interact with the people that you have chosen to interact with. +And if you are like me, a big, geeky, white, American guy, you tend to interact with a lot of other geeky, white, American guys. +And you don't necessarily have the sense that Twitter is in fact a very heavily Brazilian space. +It's also extremely surprising to many Americans, a heavily African-American space. +Twitter recently did some research. +They looked at their local population. +They believe that 24 percent of American Twitter users are African-American. +That's about twice as high as African-Americans are represented in the population. +And again, that was very shocking to many Twitter users, but it shouldn't be. +And the reason it shouldn't be is that on any day you can go into Trending Topics. +And you tend to find topics that are almost entirely African-American conversations. +This was a visualization done by Fernando Viegas and Martin Wattenberg, two amazing visualization designers, who looked at a weekend's worth of Twitter traffic and essentially found that a lot of these trending topics were basically segregated conversations -- and in ways that you wouldn't expect. +It turns out that oil spill is a mostly white conversation, that cookout is a mostly black conversation. +And what's crazy about this is that if you wanted to mix up who you were seeing on Twitter, it's literally a quick click away. +You click on that cookout tag, there an entirely different conversation with different people participating in it. +But generally speaking, most of us don't. +We end up within these filter bubbles, as my friend Eli Pariser calls them, where we see the people we already know and the people who are similar to the people we already know. +And we tend not to see that wider picture. +Now for me, I'm surprised by this, because this wasn't how the internet was supposed to be. +If you go back into the early days of the internet, when cyber-utopians like Nick Negroponte were writing big books like "Being Digital," the prediction was that the internet was going to be an incredibly powerful force to smooth out cultural differences, to put us all on a common field of one fashion or another. +Negroponte started his book with a story about how hard it is to build connections in the world of atoms. +He's at a technology conference in Florida. +And he's looking at something really, truly absurd, which is bottles of Evian water on the table. +And Negroponte says this is crazy. +This is the old economy. +It's the economy of moving these heavy, slow atoms over long distances that's very difficult to do. +We're heading to the future of bits, where everything is speedy, it's weightless. +It can be anywhere in the world at any time. +And it's going to change the world as we know it. +Now, Negroponte has been right about a lot of things. +He's totally wrong about this one. +It turns out that in many cases atoms are much more mobile than bits. +If I walk into a store in the United States, it's very, very easy for me to buy water that's bottled in Fiji, shipped at great expense to the United States. +It's actually surprisingly hard for me to see a Fijian feature film. +It's really difficult for me to listen to Fijian music. +It's extremely difficult for me to get Fijian news, which is strange, because actually there's an enormous amount going on in Fiji. +There's a coup government. There's a military government. +There's crackdowns on the press. +It's actually a place that we probably should be paying attention to at the moment. +Here's what I think is going on. +I think that we tend to look a lot at the infrastructure of globalization. +We look at the framework that makes it possible to live in this connected world. +And that's a framework that includes things like airline routes. +It includes things like the Internet cables. +We look at a map like this one, and it looks like the entire world is flat because everything is a hop or two away. +You can get on a flight in London, you can end up in Bangalore later today. +Two hops, you're in Suva, the capitol of Fiji. +It's all right there. +When you start looking at what actually flows on top of these networks, you get a very different picture. +You start looking at how the global plane flights move, and you suddenly discover that the world isn't even close to flat. +It's extremely lumpy. +There are parts of the world that are very, very well connected. +There's basically a giant pathway in the sky between London and New York. +but look at this map, and you can watch this for, you know, two or three minutes. +You won't see very many planes go from South America to Africa. +And you'll discover that there are parts of the globe that are systematically cut off. +When we stop looking at the infrastructure that makes connection possible, and we look at what actually happens, we start realizing that the world doesn't work quite the same way that we think it does. +So here's the problem that I've been interested in in the last decade or so. +The world is, in fact, getting more global. +It's getting more connected. +More of problems are global in scale. +More of our economics is global in scale. +And our media is less global by the day. +If you watched a television broadcast in the United States in the 1970s, 35 to 40 percent of it would have been international news on a nightly new broadcast. +That's down to about 12 to 15 percent. +And this tends to give us a very distorted view of the world. +Here's a slide that Alisa Miller showed at a previous TED Talk. +Alisa's the president of Public Radio International. +And she made a cartogram, which is basically a distorted map based on what American television news casts looked at for a month. +And you see that when you distort a map based on attention, the world within American television news is basically reduced to this giant bloated U.S. +and a couple of other countries which we've invaded. +And that's basically what our media is about. +And before you conclude that this is just a function of American TV news -- which is dreadful, and I agree that it's dreadful -- I've been mapping elite media like the New York Times, and I get the same thing. +When you look at the New York Times, you look at other elite media, what you largely get are pictures of very wealthy nations and the nations we've invaded. +It turns out that new media isn't necessarily helping us all that much. +Here's a map made by Mark Graham who's down the street at the Oxford Internet Institute. +A this is a map of articles in Wikipedia that have been geo-coded. +And you'll notice that there's a very heavy bias towards North America and Western Europe. +Even within Wikipedias, where we're creating their own content online, there's a heavy bias towards the place where a lot of the Wikipedia authors are based, rather than to the rest of the world. +In the U.K., you can get up, you can pick up your computer when you get out of this session, you could read a newspaper from India or from Australia, from Canada, God forbid from the U.S. +You probably won't. +If you look at online media consumption -- in this case, in the top 10 users of the internet -- more than 95 percent of the news readership is on domestic news sites. +It's one of these rare cases where the U.S. is actually slightly better than [the U.K.], because we actually like reading your media, rather than vice versa. +So all of this starts leading me to think that we're in a state that I refer to as imaginary cosmopolitanism. +We look at the internet. +We think we're getting this wide view of the globe. +We occasionally stumble onto a page in Chinese, and we decide that we do in fact have the greatest technology ever built to connect us to the rest of the world. +And we forget that most of the time we're checking Boston Red Sox scores. +So this is a real problem -- not just because the Red Sox are having a bad year -- but it's a real problem because, as we're discussing here at TED, the real problems in the world the interesting problems to solve are global in scale and scope, they require global conversations to get to global solutions. +This is a problem we have to solve. +So here's the good news. +For six years, I've been hanging out with these guys. +This is a group called Global Voices. +This is a team of bloggers from around the world. +Our mission was to fix the world's media. +We started in 2004. +You might have noticed, we haven't done all that well so far. +Nor do I think we are by ourselves, actually going to solve the problem. +But the more that I think about it, the more that I think that a few things that we have learned along the way are interesting lessons for how we would rewire if we we wanted to use the web to have a wider world. +The first thing you have to consider is that there are parts of the world that are dark spots in terms of attention. +In this case -- the map of the world at night by NASA -- they're dark literally because of lack of electricity. +And I used to think that a dark spot on this map basically meant you're not going to get media from there because there are more basic needs. +What I'm starting to realize is that you can get media, it's just an enormous amount of work, and you need an enormous amount of encouragement. +One of those dark spots is Madagascar, a country which is generally better known for the Dreamworks film than it is actually known for the lovely people who live there. +And so the people who founded Foko Club in Madagascar weren't actually concerned with trying to change the image of their country. +They were doing something much simpler. +It was a club to learn English and to learn computers and the internet. +but what happened was that Madagascar went through a violent coup. +Most independent media was shut down. +And the high school students who were learning to blog through Foko Club suddenly found themselves talking to an international audience about the demonstrations, the violence, everything that was going on within this country. +So a very, very small program designed to get people in front of computers, publishing their own thoughts, publishing independent media, ended up having a huge impact on what we know about this country. +Now the trick with this is that I'm guessing most people here don't speak Malagasy. +I'm also guessing that most of you don't even speak Chinese -- which is sort of sad if you think about it, as it's now the most represented language on the internet. +Fortunately people are trying to figure out how to fix this. +If you're using Google Chrome and you go to a Chinese language site, you notice this really cute box at the top, which automatically detects that the page is in Chinese and very quickly at a mouse click will give you a translation of the page. +Unfortunately, it's a machine translation of the page. +And while Google is very, very good with some languages, it's actually pretty dreadful with Chinese. +And the results can be pretty funny. +What you really want -- what I really want, is eventually the ability to push a button and have this queued so a human being can translate this. +And if you think this is absurd, it's not. +There's a group right now in China called Yeeyan. +And Yeeyan is a group of 150,000 volunteers who get online every day. +They look for the most interesting content in the English language. +They translate roughly 100 articles a day from major newspapers, major websites. +They put it online for free. +It's the project of a guy named Zhang Lei, who was living in the United States during the Lhasa riots and who couldn't believe how biased American media coverage was. +And he said, "If there's one thing I can do, I can start translating, so that people between these countries start understanding each other a little bit better." +And my question to you is: if Yeeyan can line up 150,000 people to translate the English internet into Chinese, where's the English language Yeeyan? +Who's going after Chinese, which now has 400 million internet users out there? +My guess is at least one of them has something interesting to say. +So even if we can find a way to translate from Chinese, there's no guarantee that we're going to find it. +When we look for information online, we basically have two strategies. +We use a lot of search. +And search is terrific if you know what you're looking for. +But if what you're looking for is serendipity, if you want to stumble onto something that you didn't know you needed, our main philosophy is to look to our social networks, to look for our friends. +What are they looking at? Maybe we should be looking at it. +The problem with this is that essentially what you end up getting after a while is the wisdom of the flock. +You end up flocking with a lot of people who are probably similar to you, who have similar interests. +And it's very, very hard to get information from the other flocks, from the other parts of the world where people getting together and talking about their own interests. +To do this, at a certain point, you need someone to bump you out of your flock and into another flock. +You need a guide. +So this is Amira Al Hussaini. She is the Middle East editor for Global Voices. +She has one of the hardest jobs in the world. +Not only does she have to keep our Israeli and Palestinian contributors from killing each other, she has to figure out what is going to interest you about the Middle East. +And in that sense of trying to get you out of your normal orbit, and to try to get you to pay attention to a story about someone who's given up smoking for the month of Ramadan, she has to know something about a global audience. +She has to know something about what stories are available. +Basically, she's a deejay. +She's a skilled human curator who knows what material is available to her, who's able to listen to the audience, and who's able to make a selection and push people forward in one fashion or another. +I don't think this is necessarily an algorithmic process. +I think what's great about the internet is that it actually makes it much easier for deejays to reach a wider audience. +I know Amira. +I can ask her what to read. +But with the internet, she's in a position where she can tell a lot of people what to read. +And you can listen to her as well, if this is a way that you're interested in having your web widened. +So once you start widening like this, once you start lighting up voices in the dark spots, once you start translating, once you start curating, you end up in some really weird places. +This is an image from pretty much my favorite blog, which is AfriGadget. +And AfriGadget is a blog that looks at technology in an Africa context. +And specifically, it's looking at a blacksmith in Kibera in Nairobi, who is turning the shaft of a Landrover into a cold chisel. +And when you look at this image, you might find yourself going, "Why would I conceivably care about this?" +And the truth is, this guy can probably explain this to you. +This is Erik Hersman. You guys may have seen him around the conference. +He goes by the moniker White African. +He's both a very well known American geek, but he's also Kenyan; he was born in Sudan, grew up in Kenya. +He is a bridge figure. +He is someone who literally has feet in both worlds -- one in the world of the African technology community, one in the world of the American technology community. +And so he's able to tell a story about this blacksmith in Kibera and turn it into a story about repurposing technology, about innovating from constraint, about looking for inspiration based on reusing materials. +He knows one world, and he's finding a way to communicate it to another world, both of which he has deep connections to. +These bridge figures, I'm pretty well convinced, are the future of how we try to make the world wider through using the web. +But the trick with bridges is, ultimately, you need someone to cross them. +And that's where we start talking about xenophiles. +So if I found myself in the NFL, I suspect I would spend my off-season nursing my wounds, enjoying my house, so on and so forth -- possibly recording a hip-hop album. +Dhani Jones, who is the middle linebacker for the Cincinnati Bengals, has a slightly different approach to the off-season. +Dhani has a television show. +It's called "Dhani Tackles the Globe." +And every week on this television show, Dhani travels to a different nation of the world. +He finds a local sporting team. +He trains with them for a week, and he plays a match with them. +And his reason for this is not just that he wants to master Muay Thai boxing. +It's because, for him, sport is the language that allows him to encounter the full width and wonder of the world. +For some of us it might be music. For some of us it might be food. +For a lot of us it might be literature or writing. +But there are all these different techniques that allow you to go out and look at the world and find your place within it. +The goal of my Talk here is not to persuade the people in this room to embrace your xenophilia. +My guess -- given that you're at a conference called TEDGlobal -- is that most of you are xenophiles, whether or not you use that term. +My challenge instead is this. +It's not enough to make the personal decision that you want a wider world. +We have to figure out how to rewire the systems that we have. +We have to fix our media. +We have to fix the internet. We have to fix our education. +We have to fix our immigration policy. +We need to look at ways of creating serendipity, of making translation pervasive, and we need to find ways to embrace and celebrate these bridge figures. +And we need to figure out how to cultivate xenophiles. +That's what I'm trying to do. I need your help. +I'm a storyteller. +That's what I do in life -- telling stories, writing novels -- and today I would like to tell you a few stories about the art of storytelling and also some supernatural creatures called the djinni. +But before I go there, please allow me to share with you glimpses of my personal story. +I will do so with the help of words, of course, but also a geometrical shape, the circle, so throughout my talk, you will come across several circles. +I was born in Strasbourg, France to Turkish parents. +Shortly after, my parents got separated, and I came to Turkey with my mom. +From then on, I was raised as a single child by a single mother. +Now in the early 1970s, in Ankara, that was a bit unusual. +Our neighborhood was full of large families, where fathers were the heads of households, so I grew up seeing my mother as a divorcee in a patriarchal environment. +In fact, I grew up observing two different kinds of womanhood. +On the one hand was my mother, a well-educated, secular, modern, westernized, Turkish woman. +On the other hand was my grandmother, who also took care of me and was more spiritual, less educated and definitely less rational. +This was a woman who read coffee grounds to see the future and melted lead into mysterious shapes to fend off the evil eye. +Many people visited my grandmother, people with severe acne on their faces or warts on their hands. +Each time, my grandmother would utter some words in Arabic, take a red apple and stab it with as many rose thorns as the number of warts she wanted to remove. +Then one by one, she would encircle these thorns with dark ink. +A week later, the patient would come back for a follow-up examination. +Now, I'm aware that I should not be saying such things in front of an audience of scholars and scientists, but the truth is, of all the people who visited my grandmother for their skin conditions, I did not see anyone go back unhappy or unhealed. +I asked her how she did this. Was it the power of praying? +In response she said, "Yes, praying is effective, but also beware of the power of circles." +From her, I learned, amongst many other things, one very precious lesson -- that if you want to destroy something in this life, be it an acne, a blemish or the human soul, all you need to do is to surround it with thick walls. +It will dry up inside. +Now we all live in some kind of a social and cultural circle. +We all do. +We're born into a certain family, nation, class. +But if we have no connection whatsoever with the worlds beyond the one we take for granted, then we too run the risk of drying up inside. +Our imagination might shrink; our hearts might dwindle, and our humanness might wither if we stay for too long inside our cultural cocoons. +Our friends, neighbors, colleagues, family -- if all the people in our inner circle resemble us, it means we are surrounded with our mirror image. +Now one other thing women like my grandma do in Turkey is to cover mirrors with velvet or to hang them on the walls with their backs facing out. +It's an old Eastern tradition based on the knowledge that it's not healthy for a human being to spend too much time staring at his own reflection. +Ironically, [living in] communities of the like-minded is one of the greatest dangers of today's globalized world. +And it's happening everywhere, among liberals and conservatives, agnostics and believers, the rich and the poor, East and West alike. +We tend to form clusters based on similarity, and then we produce stereotypes about other clusters of people. +In my opinion, one way of transcending these cultural ghettos is through the art of storytelling. +Stories cannot demolish frontiers, but they can punch holes in our mental walls. +And through those holes, we can get a glimpse of the other, and sometimes even like what we see. +I started writing fiction at the age of eight. +My mother came home one day with a turquoise notebook and asked me if I'd be interested in keeping a personal journal. +In retrospect, I think she was slightly worried about my sanity. +I was constantly telling stories at home, which was good, except I told this to imaginary friends around me, which was not so good. +I was an introverted child, to the point of communicating with colored crayons and apologizing to objects when I bumped into them, so my mother thought it might do me good to write down my day-to-day experiences and emotions. +What she didn't know was that I thought my life was terribly boring, and the last thing I wanted to do was to write about myself. +Instead, I began to write about people other than me and things that never really happened. +And thus began my life-long passion for writing fiction. +So from the very beginning, fiction for me was less of an autobiographical manifestation than a transcendental journey into other lives, other possibilities. +And please bear with me: I'll draw a circle and come back to this point. +Now one other thing happened around this same time. +My mother became a diplomat. +So from this small, superstitious, middle-class neighborhood of my grandmother, I was zoomed into this posh, international school [in Madrid], where I was the only Turk. +It was here that I had my first encounter with what I call the "representative foreigner." +In our classroom, there were children from all nationalities, yet this diversity did not necessarily lead to a cosmopolitan, egalitarian classroom democracy. +Instead, it generated an atmosphere in which each child was seen -- not as an individual on his own, but as the representative of something larger. +We were like a miniature United Nations, which was fun, except whenever something negative, with regards to a nation or a religion, took place. +The child who represented it was mocked, ridiculed and bullied endlessly. +And I should know, because during the time I attended that school, a military takeover happened in my country, a gunman of my nationality nearly killed the Pope, and Turkey got zero points in [the] Eurovision Song Contest. +I skipped school often and dreamed of becoming a sailor during those days. +I also had my first taste of cultural stereotypes there. +The other children asked me about the movie "Midnight Express," which I had not seen; they inquired how many cigarettes a day I smoked, because they thought all Turks were heavy smokers, and they wondered at what age I would start covering my hair. +I came to learn that these were the three main stereotypes about my country: politics, cigarettes and the veil. +After Spain, we went to Jordan, Germany and Ankara again. +Everywhere I went, I felt like my imagination was the only suitcase I could take with me. +Stories gave me a sense of center, continuity and coherence, the three big Cs that I otherwise lacked. +In my mid-twenties, I moved to Istanbul, the city I adore. +I lived in a very vibrant, diverse neighborhood where I wrote several of my novels. +I was in Istanbul when the earthquake hit in 1999. +When I ran out of the building at three in the morning, I saw something that stopped me in my tracks. +There was the local grocer there -- a grumpy, old man who didn't sell alcohol and didn't speak to marginals. +He was sitting next to a transvestite with a long black wig and mascara running down her cheeks. +I watched the man open a pack of cigarettes with trembling hands and offer one to her, and that is the image of the night of the earthquake in my mind today -- a conservative grocer and a crying transvestite smoking together on the sidewalk. +In the face of death and destruction, our mundane differences evaporated, and we all became one even if for a few hours. +But I've always believed that stories, too, have a similar effect on us. +I'm not saying that fiction has the magnitude of an earthquake, but when we are reading a good novel, we leave our small, cozy apartments behind, go out into the night alone and start getting to know people we had never met before and perhaps had even been biased against. +Shortly after, I went to a women's college in Boston, then Michigan. +I experienced this, not so much as a geographical shift, as a linguistic one. +I started writing fiction in English. +I'm not an immigrant, refugee or exile -- they ask me why I do this -- but the commute between languages gives me the chance to recreate myself. +I love writing in Turkish, which to me is very poetic and very emotional, and I love writing in English, which to me is very mathematical and cerebral. +So I feel connected to each language in a different way. +For me, like millions of other people around the world today, English is an acquired language. +When you're a latecomer to a language, what happens is you live there with a continuous and perpetual frustration. +As latecomers, we always want to say more, you know, crack better jokes, say better things, but we end up saying less because there's a gap between the mind and the tongue. +And that gap is very intimidating. +But if we manage not to be frightened by it, it's also stimulating. +And this is what I discovered in Boston -- that frustration was very stimulating. +At this stage, my grandmother, who had been watching the course of my life with increasing anxiety, started to include in her daily prayers that I urgently get married so that I could settle down once and for all. +And because God loves her, I did get married. +But instead of settling down, I went to Arizona. +And since my husband is in Istanbul, I started commuting between Arizona and Istanbul -- the two places on the surface of earth that couldn't be more different. +I guess one part of me has always been a nomad, physically and spiritually. +Stories accompany me, keeping my pieces and memories together, like an existential glue. +Yet as much as I love stories, recently, I've also begun to think that they lose their magic if and when a story is seen as more than a story. +And this is a subject that I would love to think about together. +When my first novel written in English came out in America, I heard an interesting remark from a literary critic. +"I liked your book," he said, "but I wish you had written it differently." +I asked him what he meant by that. +He said, "Well, look at it. There's so many Spanish, American, Hispanic characters in it, but there's only one Turkish character and it's a man." +Now the novel took place on a university campus in Boston, so to me, it was normal that there be more international characters in it than Turkish characters, but I understood what my critic was looking for. +And I also understood that I would keep disappointing him. +He wanted to see the manifestation of my identity. +He was looking for a Turkish woman in the book because I happened to be one. +We often talk about how stories change the world, but we should also see how the world of identity politics affects the way stories are being circulated, read and reviewed. +Many authors feel this pressure, but non-Western authors feel it more heavily. +If you're a woman writer from the Muslim world, like me, then you are expected to write the stories of Muslim women and, preferably, the unhappy stories of unhappy Muslim women. +You're expected to write informative, poignant and characteristic stories and leave the experimental and avant-garde to your Western colleagues. +What I experienced as a child in that school in Madrid is happening in the literary world today. +Writers are not seen as creative individuals on their own, but as the representatives of their respective cultures: a few authors from China, a few from Turkey, a few from Nigeria. +We're all thought to have something very distinctive, if not peculiar. +The writer and commuter James Baldwin gave an interview in 1984 in which he was repeatedly asked about his homosexuality. +When the interviewer tried to pigeonhole him as a gay writer, Baldwin stopped and said, "But don't you see? There's nothing in me that is not in everybody else, and nothing in everybody else that is not in me." +When identity politics tries to put labels on us, it is our freedom of imagination that is in danger. +There's a fuzzy category called multicultural literature in which all authors from outside the Western world are lumped together. +I never forget my first multicultural reading, in Harvard Square about 10 years ago. +We were three writers, one from the Philippines, one Turkish and one Indonesian -- like a joke, you know. +And the reason why we were brought together was not because we shared an artistic style or a literary taste. +It was only because of our passports. +Multicultural writers are expected to tell real stories, not so much the imaginary. +A function is attributed to fiction. +In this way, not only the writers themselves, but also their fictional characters become the representatives of something larger. +But I must quickly add that this tendency to see a story as more than a story does not solely come from the West. +It comes from everywhere. +And I experienced this firsthand when I was put on trial in 2005 for the words my fictional characters uttered in a novel. +I had intended to write a constructive, multi-layered novel about an Armenian and a Turkish family through the eyes of women. +My micro story became a macro issue when I was prosecuted. +Some people criticized, others praised me for writing about the Turkish-Armenian conflict. +But there were times when I wanted to remind both sides that this was fiction. +It was just a story. +And when I say, "just a story," I'm not trying to belittle my work. +I want to love and celebrate fiction for what it is, not as a means to an end. +Writers are entitled to their political opinions, and there are good political novels out there, but the language of fiction is not the language of daily politics. +Chekhov said, "The solution to a problem and the correct way of posing the question are two completely separate things. +And only the latter is an artist's responsibility." +Identity politics divides us. Fiction connects. +One is interested in sweeping generalizations. +The other, in nuances. +One draws boundaries. +The other recognizes no frontiers. +Identity politics is made of solid bricks. +Fiction is flowing water. +In the Ottoman times, there were itinerant storytellers called "meddah." +They would go to coffee houses, where they would tell a story in front of an audience, often improvising. +With each new person in the story, the meddah would change his voice, impersonating that character. +Everybody could go and listen, you know -- ordinary people, even the sultan, Muslims and non-Muslims. +Stories cut across all boundaries, like "The Tales of Nasreddin Hodja," which were very popular throughout the Middle East, North Africa, the Balkans and Asia. +Today, stories continue to transcend borders. +When Palestinian and Israeli politicians talk, they usually don't listen to each other, but a Palestinian reader still reads a novel by a Jewish author, and vice versa, connecting and empathizing with the narrator. +Literature has to take us beyond. +If it cannot take us there, it is not good literature. +Books have saved the introverted, timid child that I was -- that I once was. +But I'm also aware of the danger When the poet and mystic, Rumi, met his spiritual companion, Shams of Tabriz, one of the first things the latter did was to toss Rumi's books into water and watch the letters dissolve. +The Sufis say, "Knowledge that takes you not beyond yourself is far worse than ignorance." +The problem with today's cultural ghettos is not lack of knowledge -- we know a lot about each other, or so we think -- but knowledge that takes us not beyond ourselves: it makes us elitist, distant and disconnected. +There's a metaphor which I love: living like a drawing compass. +As you know, one leg of the compass is static, rooted in a place. +Meanwhile, the other leg draws a wide circle, constantly moving. +Like that, my fiction as well. +One part of it is rooted in Istanbul, with strong Turkish roots, but the other part travels the world, connecting to different cultures. +In that sense, I like to think of my fiction as both local and universal, both from here and everywhere. +Now those of you who have been to Istanbul have probably seen Topkapi Palace, which was the residence of Ottoman sultans for more than 400 years. +In the palace, just outside the quarters of the favorite concubines, there's an area called The Gathering Place of the Djinn. +It's between buildings. +I'm intrigued by this concept. +We usually distrust those areas that fall in between things. +We see them as the domain of supernatural creatures like the djinn, who are made of smokeless fire and are the symbol of elusiveness. +But my point is perhaps that elusive space is what writers and artists need most. +When I write fiction I cherish elusiveness and changeability. +I like not knowing what will happen 10 pages later. +I like it when my characters surprise me. +I might write about a Muslim woman in one novel, and perhaps it will be a very happy story, and in my next book, I might write about a handsome, gay professor in Norway. +As long as it comes from our hearts, we can write about anything and everything. +Audre Lorde once said, "The white fathers taught us to say, 'I think, therefore I am.'" She suggested, "I feel, therefore I am free." +I think it was a wonderful paradigm shift. +And yet, why is it that, in creative writing courses today, the very first thing we teach students is "write what you know"? +Perhaps that's not the right way to start at all. +Imaginative literature is not necessarily about writing who we are or what we know or what our identity is about. +We should teach young people and ourselves to expand our hearts and write what we can feel. +We should get out of our cultural ghetto and go visit the next one and the next. +In the end, stories move like whirling dervishes, drawing circles beyond circles. +They connect all humanity, regardless of identity politics, and that is the good news. +And I would like to finish with an old Sufi poem: "Come, let us be friends for once; let us make life easy on us; let us be lovers and loved ones; the earth shall be left to no one." +Thank you. +Chris Anderson: Julian, welcome. +It's been reported that WikiLeaks, your baby, has, in the last few years has released more classified documents than the rest of the world's media combined. +Can that possibly be true? +Julian Assange: Yeah, can it possibly be true? +It's a worry -- isn't it? -- that the rest of the world's media is doing such a bad job that a little group of activists is able to release more of that type of information than the rest of the world press combined. +CA: How does it work? +How do people release the documents? +And how do you secure their privacy? +JA: So these are -- as far as we can tell -- classical whistleblowers, and we have a number of ways for them to get information to us. +So we use this state-of-the-art encryption to bounce stuff around the Internet, to hide trails, pass it through legal jurisdictions like Sweden and Belgium to enact those legal protections. +We get information in the mail, the regular postal mail, encrypted or not, vet it like a regular news organization, format it -- which is sometimes something that's quite hard to do, when you're talking about giant databases of information -- release it to the public and then defend ourselves against the inevitable legal and political attacks. +CA: So you make an effort to ensure the documents are legitimate, but you actually almost never know who the identity of the source is? +JA: That's right, yeah. Very rarely do we ever know, and if we find out at some stage then we destroy that information as soon as possible. +(Phone ring) God damn it. +CA: I think that's the CIA asking what the code is for a TED membership. +So let's take [an] example, actually. +This is something you leaked a few years ago. +If we can have this document up ... +So this was a story in Kenya a few years ago. +Can you tell us what you leaked and what happened? +JA: So this is the Kroll Report. +This was a secret intelligence report commissioned by the Kenyan government after its election in 2004. +Prior to 2004, Kenya was ruled by Daniel arap Moi for about 18 years. +He was a soft dictator of Kenya. +And when Kibaki got into power -- through a coalition of forces that were trying to clean up corruption in Kenya -- they commissioned this report, spent about two million pounds on this and an associated report. +And then the government sat on it and used it for political leverage on Moi, who was the richest man -- still is the richest man -- in Kenya. +It's the Holy Grail of Kenyan journalism. +So I went there in 2007, and we managed to get hold of this just prior to the election -- the national election, December 28. +When we released that report, we did so three days after the new president, Kibaki, had decided to pal up with the man that he was going to clean out, Daniel arap Moi, so this report then became a dead albatross around President Kibaki's neck. +CA: And -- I mean, to cut a long story short -- word of the report leaked into Kenya, not from the official media, but indirectly, and in your opinion, it actually shifted the election. +JA: Yeah. So this became front page of the Guardian and was then printed in all the surrounding countries of Kenya, in Tanzanian and South African press. +And so it came in from the outside. +And that, after a couple of days, made the Kenyan press feel safe to talk about it. +And it ran for 20 nights straight on Kenyan TV, shifted the vote by 10 percent, according to a Kenyan intelligence report, which changed the result of the election. +CA: Wow, so your leak really substantially changed the world? +JA: Yep. +CA: Here's -- We're going to just show a short clip from this Baghdad airstrike video. +The video itself is longer, but here's a short clip. +This is -- this is intense material, I should warn you. +Radio: ... just fuckin', once you get on 'em just open 'em up. +I see your element, uh, got about four Humvees, uh, out along ... +You're clear. All right. Firing. +Let me know when you've got them. Let's shoot. +Light 'em all up. +C'mon, fire! +(Machine gun fire) Keep shoot 'n. Keep shoot 'n. +(Machine gun fire) Keep shoot 'n. +Hotel ... Bushmaster Two-Six, Bushmaster Two-Six, we need to move, time now! +All right, we just engaged all eight individuals. +Yeah, we see two birds [helicopters], and we're still firing. +Roger. I got 'em. +Two-Six, this is Two-Six, we're mobile. +Oops, I'm sorry. What was going on? +God damn it, Kyle. All right, hahaha. I hit 'em. +CA: So, what was the impact of that? +JA: The impact on the people who worked on it was severe. +We ended up sending two people to Baghdad to further research that story. +So this is just the first of three attacks that occurred in that scene. +CA: So, I mean, 11 people died in that attack, right, including two Reuters employees? +JA: Yeah. Two Reuters employees, two young children were wounded. +There were between 18 and 26 people killed all together. +CA: And releasing this caused widespread outrage. +What was the key element of this that actually caused the outrage, do you think? +JA: I don't know. I guess people can see the gross disparity in force. +You have guys walking in a relaxed way down the street, and then an Apache helicopter sitting up at one kilometer firing 30-millimeter cannon shells on everyone -- looking for any excuse to do so -- and killing people rescuing the wounded. +And there was two journalists involved that clearly weren't insurgents because that's their full-time job. +CA: I mean, there's been this U.S. intelligence analyst, Bradley Manning, arrested, and it's alleged that he confessed in a chat room to have leaked this video to you, along with 280,000 classified U.S. embassy cables. +I mean, did he? +JA: We have denied receiving those cables. +He has been charged, about five days ago, with obtaining 150,000 cables and releasing 50. +Now, we had released, early in the year, a cable from the Reykjavik U.S. embassy, but this is not necessarily connected. +I mean, I was a known visitor of that embassy. +CA: I mean, if you did receive thousands of U.S. embassy diplomatic cables ... +JA: We would have released them. (CA: You would?) JA: Yeah. (CA: Because?) JA: Well, because these sort of things reveal what the true state of, say, Arab governments are like, the true human-rights abuses in those governments. +If you look at declassified cables, that's the sort of material that's there. +CA: So let's talk a little more broadly about this. +I mean, in general, what's your philosophy? +Why is it right to encourage leaking of secret information? +JA: Well, there's a question as to what sort of information is important in the world, what sort of information can achieve reform. +And there's a lot of information. +So information that organizations are spending economic effort into concealing, that's a really good signal that when the information gets out, there's a hope of it doing some good -- because the organizations that know it best, that know it from the inside out, are spending work to conceal it. +And that's what we've found in practice, and that's what the history of journalism is. +CA: But are there risks with that, either to the individuals concerned or indeed to society at large, where leaking can actually have an unintended consequence? +JA: Not that we have seen with anything we have released. +I mean, we have a harm immunization policy. +We have a way of dealing with information that has sort of personal -- personally identifying information in it. +But there are legitimate secrets -- you know, your records with your doctor; that's a legitimate secret -- but we deal with whistleblowers that are coming forward that are really sort of well-motivated. +CA: So they are well-motivated. +And what would you say to, for example, the, you know, the parent of someone whose son is out serving the U.S. military, and he says, "You know what, you've put up something that someone had an incentive to put out. +It shows a U.S. soldier laughing at people dying. +That gives the impression, has given the impression, to millions of people around the world that U.S. soldiers are inhuman people. +Actually, they're not. My son isn't. How dare you?" +What would you say to that? +JA: Yeah, we do get a lot of that. +But remember, the people in Baghdad, the people in Iraq, the people in Afghanistan -- they don't need to see the video; they see it every day. +So it's not going to change their opinion. It's not going to change their perception. +That's what they see every day. +It will change the perception and opinion of the people who are paying for it all, and that's our hope. +CA: So you found a way to shine light into what you see as these sort of dark secrets in companies and in government. +Light is good. +But do you see any irony in the fact that, in order for you to shine that light, you have to, yourself, create secrecy around your sources? +JA: Not really. I mean, we don't have any WikiLeaks dissidents yet. +We don't have sources who are dissidents on other sources. +Should they come forward, that would be a tricky situation for us, but we're presumably acting in such a way that people feel morally compelled to continue our mission, not to screw it up. +CA: I'd actually be interested, just based on what we've heard so far -- I'm curious as to the opinion in the TED audience. +You know, there might be a couple of views of WikiLeaks and of Julian. +You know, hero -- people's hero -- bringing this important light. +Dangerous troublemaker. +Who's got the hero view? +Who's got the dangerous troublemaker view? +JA: Oh, come on. There must be some. +CA: It's a soft crowd, Julian, a soft crowd. +We have to try better. Let's show them another example. +Now here's something that you haven't yet leaked, but I think for TED you are. +I mean it's an intriguing story that's just happened, right? +What is this? +JA: So this is a sample of what we do sort of every day. +So late last year -- in November last year -- there was a series of well blowouts in Albania, like the well blowout in the Gulf of Mexico, but not quite as big. +And we got a report -- a sort of engineering analysis into what happened -- saying that, in fact, security guards from some rival, various competing oil firms had, in fact, parked trucks there and blown them up. +And part of the Albanian government was in this, etc., etc. +And the engineering report had nothing on the top of it, so it was an extremely difficult document for us. +We couldn't verify it because we didn't know who wrote it and knew what it was about. +So we were kind of skeptical that maybe it was a competing oil firm just sort of playing the issue up. +So under that basis, we put it out and said, "Look, we're skeptical about this thing. +We don't know, but what can we do? +The material looks good, it feels right, but we just can't verify it." +And we then got a letter just this week from the company who wrote it, wanting to track down the source -- saying, "Hey, we want to track down the source." +And we were like, "Oh, tell us more. +What document is it, precisely, you're talking about? +Can you show that you had legal authority over that document? +Is it really yours?" +So they sent us this screen shot with the author in the Microsoft Word ID. +Yeah. +That's happened quite a lot though. +This is like one of our methods of identifying, of verifying, what a material is, is to try and get these guys to write letters. +CA: Yeah. Have you had information from inside BP? +JA: Yeah, we have a lot, but I mean, at the moment, we are undergoing a sort of serious fundraising and engineering effort. +So our publication rate over the past few months has been sort of minimized while we're re-engineering our back systems for the phenomenal public interest that we have. +That's a problem. +I mean, like any sort of growing startup organization, we are sort of overwhelmed by our growth, and that means we're getting enormous quantity of whistleblower disclosures of a very high caliber but don't have enough people to actually process and vet this information. +CA: So that's the key bottleneck, basically journalistic volunteers and/or the funding of journalistic salaries? +JA: Yep. Yeah, and trusted people. +I mean, we're an organization that is hard to grow very quickly because of the sort of material we deal with, so we have to restructure in order to have people who will deal with the highest national security stuff, and then lower security cases. +CA: So help us understand a bit about you personally and how you came to do this. +And I think I read that as a kid you went to 37 different schools. +Can that be right? +JA: Well, my parents were in the movie business and then on the run from a cult, so the combination between the two ... +CA: I mean, a psychologist might say that's a recipe for breeding paranoia. +JA: What, the movie business? +CA: And you were also -- I mean, you were also a hacker at an early age and ran into the authorities early on. +JA: Well, I was a journalist. +You know, I was a very young journalist activist at an early age. +I wrote a magazine, was prosecuted for it when I was a teenager. +So you have to be careful with hacker. +I mean there's like -- there's a method that can be deployed for various things. +Unfortunately, at the moment, it's mostly deployed by the Russian mafia in order to steal your grandmother's bank accounts. +So this phrase is not, not as nice as it used to be. +CA: Yeah, well, I certainly don't think you're stealing anyone's grandmother's bank account, but what about your core values? +Can you give us a sense of what they are and maybe some incident in your life that helped determine them? +JA: I'm not sure about the incident. +But the core values: well, capable, generous men do not create victims; they nurture victims. +And that's something from my father and something from other capable, generous men that have been in my life. +CA: Capable, generous men do not create victims; they nurture victims? +JA: Yeah. And you know, I'm a combative person, so I'm not actually so big on the nurture, but some way -- there is another way of nurturing victims, which is to police perpetrators of crime. +And so that is something that has been in my character for a long time. +CA: So just tell us, very quickly in the last minute, the story: what happened in Iceland? +You basically published something there, ran into trouble with a bank, then the news service there was injuncted from running the story. +Instead, they publicized your side. +That made you very high-profile in Iceland. What happened next? +JA: Yeah, this is a great case, you know. +Iceland went through this financial crisis. +It was the hardest hit of any country in the world. +Its banking sector was 10 times the GDP of the rest of the economy. +Anyway, so we release this report in July last year. +And the national TV station was injuncted five minutes before it went on air, like out of a movie: injunction landed on the news desk, and the news reader was like, "This has never happened before. What do we do?" +Well, we just show the website instead, for all that time, as a filler, and we became very famous in Iceland, went to Iceland and spoke about this issue. +Iceland's a Nordic country, so, like Norway, it's able to tap into the system. +And just a month ago, this was passed by the Icelandic parliament unanimously. +CA: Wow. +Last question, Julian. +When you think of the future then, do you think it's more likely to be Big Brother exerting more control, more secrecy, or us watching Big Brother, or it's just all to be played for either way? +JA: I'm not sure which way it's going to go. +I mean, there's enormous pressures to harmonize freedom of speech legislation and transparency legislation around the world -- within the E.U., between China and the United States. +Which way is it going to go? It's hard to see. +That's why it's a very interesting time to be in -- because with just a little bit of effort, we can shift it one way or the other. +CA: Well, it looks like I'm reflecting the audience's opinion to say, Julian, be careful, and all power to you. +JA: Thank you, Chris. (CA: Thank you.) +In October 2010, the Justice League of America will be teaming up with The 99. +Icons like Batman, Superman, Wonder Woman and their colleagues will be teaming up with icons Jabbar, Noora, Jami and their colleagues. +It's a story of intercultural intersections, and what better group to have this conversation than those that grew out of fighting fascism in their respective histories and geographies? +As fascism took over Europe in the 1930s, an unlikely reaction came out of North America. +As Christian iconography got changed, and swastikas were created out of crucifixes, Batman and Superman were created by Jewish young men in the United States and Canada, also going back to the Bible. +Consider this: like the prophets, all the superheroes are missing parents. +Superman's parents die on Krypton before the age of one. +Bruce Wayne, who becomes Batman, loses his parents at the age of six in Gotham City. +Spiderman is raised by his aunt and uncle. +And all of them, just like the prophets who get their message from God through Gabriel, get their message from above. +Peter Parker is in a library in Manhattan when the spider descends from above and gives him his message through a bite. +Bruce Wayne is in his bedroom when a big bat flies over his head, and he sees it as an omen to become Batman. +Superman is not only sent to Earth from the heavens, or Krypton, but he's sent in a pod, much like Moses was on the Nile. +And you hear the voice of his father, Jor-El, saying to Earth, "I have sent to you my only son." +These are clearly biblical archetypes, and the thinking behind that was to create positive, globally-resonating storylines that could be tied to the same things that other people were pulling mean messages out of because then the person that's using religion for the wrong purpose just becomes a bad man with a bad message. +And it's only by linking positive things that the negative can be delinked. +This is the kind of thinking that went into creating The 99. +The 99 references the 99 attributes of Allah in the Koran, things like generosity and mercy and foresight and wisdom and dozens of others that no two people in the world would disagree about. +It doesn't matter what your religion is; even if you're an atheist, you don't raise your kid telling him, you know, "Make sure you lie three times a day." +Those are basic human values. +And so the backstory of The 99 takes place in 1258, which history tells us the Mongols invaded Baghdad and destroyed it. +All the books from Bait al-Hikma library, the most famous library in its day, were thrown in the Tigris River, and the Tigris changes color with ink. +It's a story passed on generation after generation. +I rewrote that story, and in my version, the librarians find out that this is going to happen -- and here's a side note: if you want a comic book to do well, make the librarians the hero. It always works well. +So the librarians find out and they get together a special solution, a chemical solution called King's Water, that when mixed with 99 stones would be able to save all that culture and history in the books. +But the Mongols get there first. +The books and the solution get thrown in the Tigris River. +Some librarians escape, and over the course of days and weeks, they dip the stones into the Tigris and suck up that collective wisdom that we all think is lost to civilization. +Those stones have been smuggled as three prayer beads of 33 stones each through Arabia into Andalusia in Spain, where they're safe for 200 years. +But in 1492, two important things happen. +The first is the fall of Granada, the last Muslim enclave in Europe. +The second is Columbus finally gets funded to go to India, but he gets lost. +So 33 of the stones are smuggled onto the Nina, the Pinta and the Santa Maria and are spread in the New World. +Thirty-three go on the Silk Road to China, South Asia and Southeast Asia. +And 33 are spread between Europe, the Middle East and Africa. +And now it's 2010, and there are 99 heroes from 99 different countries. +Now it's very easy to assume that those books, because they were from a library called Bait al-Hikma, were Muslim books, but that's not the case because the caliph that built that library, his name was al-Ma'mun -- he was Harun al-Rashid's son. +He had told his advisers, "Get me all the scholars to translate any book they can get their hands onto into Arabic, and I will pay them its weight in gold." +After a while, his advisers complained. +They said, "Your Highness, the scholars are cheating. +They're writing in big handwriting to take more gold." +To which he said, "Let them be, because what they're giving us is worth a lot more than what we're paying them." +So the idea of an open architecture, an open knowledge, is not new to my neck of the desert. +The concept centers on something called the Noor stones. +Noor is Arabic for light. +So these 99 stones, a few kind of rules in the game: Number one, you don't choose the stone; the stone chooses you. +There's a King Arthur element to the storyline, okay. +Number two, all of The 99, when they first get their stone, or their power, abuse it; they use it for self-interest. +And there's a very strong message in there that when you start abusing your stone, you get taken advantage of by people who will exploit your powers, okay. +Number three, the 99 stones all have within them a mechanism that self-updates. +Now there are two groups that exist within the Muslim world. +Everybody believes the Koran is for all time and all place. +Some believe that means that the original interpretation from a couple thousand years ago is what's relevant today. +I don't belong there. +Then there's a group that believes the Koran is a living, breathing document, and I captured that idea within these stones that self-update. +Now the main bad guy, Rughal, does not want these stones to update, so he's trying to get them to stop updating. +He can't use the stones, but he can stop them. +And by stopping them, he has more of a fascist agenda, where he gets some of The 99 to work for him -- they're all wearing cookie-cutter, same color uniforms They're not allowed to individually express who they are and what they are. +And he controls them from the top down -- whereas when they work for the other side, eventually, when they find out this is the wrong person, they've been manipulated, they actually, each one has a different, colorful kind of dress. +And the last point about the 99 Noor stones is this. +So The 99 work in teams of three. +Why three? A couple of reasons. +Number one, we have a thing within Islam that you don't leave a boy and a girl alone together, because the third person is temptation or the devil, right? +I think that's there in all cultures, right? +But this is not about religion, it's not about proselytizing. +There's this very strong social message that needs to get to kind of the deepest crevices of intolerance, and the only way to get there is to kind of play the game. +And so this is the way I dealt with it. +They work in teams of three: two boys and a girl, two girls and a boy, three boys, three girls, no problem. +And the Swiss psychoanalyst, Carl Jung, also spoke about the importance of the number three in all cultures, so I figure I'm covered. +Well ... +I got accused in a few blogs that I was actually sent by the Pope to preach the Trinity and Catholicism in the Middle East, so you -- you believe who you want. I gave you my version of the story. +So here's some of the characters that we have. +Mujiba, from Malaysia: her main power is she's able to answer any question. +She's the Trivial Pursuit queen, if you want, but when she first gets her power, she starts going on game shows and making money. +We have Jabbar from Saudi who starts breaking things when he has the power. +Now, Mumita was a fun one to name. Mumita is the destroyer. +So the 99 attributes of Allah have the yin and the yang; there's the powerful, the hegemonous, the strong, and there's also the kind, the generous. +I'm like, are all the girls going to be kind and merciful and the guys all strong? +I'm like, you know what, I've met a few girls who were destroyers in my lifetime, so ... +We have Jami from Hungary, who first starts making weapons: He's the technology wiz. +Musawwira from Ghana, Hadya from Pakistan, Jaleel from Iran who uses fire. +And this is one of my favorites, Al-Batina from Yemen. +Al-Batina is the hidden. +So Al-Batina is hidden, but she's a superhero. +I came home to my wife and I said, "I created a character after you." +My wife is a Saudi from Yemeni roots. +And she said, "Show me." So I showed this. +She said, "That's not me." +I said, "Look at the eyes. They're your eyes." +So I promised my investors this would not be another made-in-fifth-world-country production. +This was going to be Superman, or it wasn't worth my time or their money. +So from day one, the people involved in the project, bottom left is Fabian Nicieza, writer for X-Men and Power Rangers. +Next to him is Dan Panosian, one of the character creators for the modern-day X-Men. +Top right is Stuart Moore, a writer for Iron Man. +Next to him is John McCrea, who was an inker for Spiderman. +And we entered Western consciousness with a tagline: "Next Ramadan, the world will have new heroes," back in 2005. +Now I went to Dubai, to an Arab Thought Foundation Conference, and I was waiting by the coffee for the right journalist. +Didn't have a product, but had energy. +And I found somebody from The New York Times, and I cornered him, and I pitched him. +And I think I scared him -- because he basically promised me -- we had no product -- but he said, "We'll give you a paragraph in the arts section if you'll just go away." +So I said, "Great." So I called him up a few weeks afterward. +I said, "Hi, Hesa." And he said, "Hi." I said, "Happy New Year." +He said, "Thank you. We had a baby." I said, "Congratulations." +Like I care, right? +"So when's the article coming out?" +He said, "Naif, Islam and cartoon? +That's not timely. +You know, maybe next week, next month, next year, but, you know, it'll come out." +So a few days after that, what happens? +What happens is the world erupts in the Danish cartoon controversy. +I became timely. +So flurry of phone calls and emails from The New York Times. +Next thing you knew, there's a full page covering us positively, January 22nd, 2006, which changed our lives forever, because anybody Googling Islam and cartoon or Islam and comic, guess what they got; they got me. +And The 99 were like superheroes kind of flying out of what was happening around the world. +And that led to all kinds of things, from being in curricula in universities and schools to -- one of my favorite pictures I have from South Asia, it was a couple of men with long beards and a lot of girls wearing the hijab -- it looked like a school. +The good news is they're all holding copies of The 99, smiling, and they found me to sign the picture. +The bad news is they were all photocopies, so we didn't make a dime in revenue. +We've been able to license The 99 comic books into eight languages so far -- Chinese, Indonesian, Hindi, Urdu, Turkish. +Opened a theme park through a license in Kuwait a year and a half ago called The 99 Village Theme Park -- 300,000 square feet, 20 rides, all with our characters: a couple back-to-school licenses in Spain and Turkey. +But the biggest thing we've done to date, which is just amazing, is that we've done a 26-episode animated series, which is done for global audiences: in fact, we're already going to be in the U.S. and Turkey, we know. +It's 3D CGI, which is going to be very high-quality, written in Hollywood by the writers behind Ben 10 and Spiderman and Star Wars: Clone Wars. +In this clip I'm about to show you, which has never been seen in the public before, there is a struggle. +Two of the characters, Jabbar, the one with the muscles, and Noora, the one that can use light, are actually wearing the cookie-cutter fascist gray uniform because they're being manipulated. +They don't know, OK, and they're trying to get another member of The 99 to join them. +So there's a struggle within the team. +So if we can get the lights ... +["The 99"] Jabbar: Dana, I can't see where to grab hold. +I need more light. +What's happening? +Dana: There's too much darkness. +Rughal: There must be something we can do. +Man: I won't send any more commandos in until I know it's safe. +Dr. Razem: It's time to go, Miklos. +Miklos: Must download file contents. +I can't forget auntie. +Jabbar: Dana, I can't do this without you. +Dana: But I can't help. +Jabbar: You can, even if you don't believe in yourself right now. +I believe in you. +You are Noora the Light. +Dana: No. +I don't deserve it. I don't deserve anything. +Jabbar: Then what about the rest of us? +Don't we deserve to be saved? Don't I? +Now, tell me which way to go. +Dana: That way. +Alarm: Threat imminent. +Jabbar: Aaaahhh! +Miklos: Stay away from me. +Jabbar: We're here to help you. +Dr. Razem: Don't listen to them. +Dana: Miklos, that man is not your friend. +Miklos: No. He gave me access, and you want to reboot the [unclear]. No more [unclear]. +["The 99"] Thank you. +So "The 99" is technology; it's entertainment; it's design. +But that's only half the story. +As the father of five sons, I worry about who they're going to be using as role models. +I worry because all around me, even within my extended family, I see religion being manipulated. +As a psychologist, I worry for the world in general, but worry about the perception of how people see themselves in my part of the world. +Now, I'm a clinical psychologist. I'm licensed in New York State. +I trained at Bellevue Hospital Survivors of Political Torture Program, and I heard one too many stories of people growing up to idolize their leadership, only to end up being tortured by their heroes. +And torture's a terrible enough thing as it is, but when it's done by your hero, that just breaks you in so many ways. +I left Bellevue, went to business school and started this. +And I took away the name of the writer, the name of the [unclear] -- everything was gone except the facts. +And the first one was about a group called The Party of God, who wanted to ban Valentine's Day. Red was made illegal. +Any boys and girls caught flirting would get married off immediately, okay. +The second one was about a woman complaining because three minivans with six bearded men pulled up and started interrogating her on the spot for talking to a man who wasn't related to her. +And I asked the students in Kuwait where they thought these incidents took place. +The first one, they said Saudi Arabia. There was no debate. +The second one, they were actually split between Saudi and Afghanistan. +What blew their mind was the first one took place in India, it was the party of a Hindu God. +The second one took place in upstate New York. +It was an Orthodox Jewish community. +But what breaks my heart and what's alarming is that in those two interviews, the people around, who were interviewed as well, refer to that behavior as Talibanization. +In other words, good Hindus and good Jews don't act this way. +This is Islam's influence on Hinduism and Judaism. +But what do the students in Kuwait say? They said it's us -- and this is dangerous. +It's dangerous when a group self-identifies itself as extreme. +This is one of my sons, Rayan, who's a Scooby Doo addict. +You can tell by the glasses there. +He actually called me a meddling kid the other day. +But I borrow a lesson that I learned from him. +Last summer when we were in our home in New York, he was out in the yard playing in his playhouse. And I was in my office working, and he came in, "Baba, I want you to come with me. I want my toy." +"Yes, Rayan, just go away." He left his Scooby Doo in his house. +I said, "Go away. I'm working. I'm busy." +And what Rayan did then is he sat there, he tapped his foot on the floor, at three and a half, and he looked at me and he said, "Baba, I want you to come with me to my office in my house. +I have work to do." +Rayan reframed the situation and brought himself down to my level. +And with The 99, that is what we aim to do. +You know, I think that there's a big parallel between bending the crucifix out of shape and creating swastikas. +And I think -- I think The 99 can and will achieve its mission. +As an undergrad at Tufts University, we were giving away free falafel one day and, you know, it was Middle East Day or something. +And people came up and picked up the culturally resonant image of the falafel, ate it and, you know, talked and left. +And no two people could disagree about what the word free was and what the word falafel was, behind us, "free falafel." You know. +Or so we thought, until a woman came rushing across the campus and dropped her bag on the floor, pointed up to the sign and said, "Who's falafel?" +True story. +She was actually coming out of an Amnesty International meeting. +Just today, D.C. Comics announced the cover of our upcoming crossover. +On that cover you see Batman, Superman and a fully-clothed Wonder Woman with our Saudi member of The 99, our Emirati member and our Libyan member. +On April 26, 2010, President Barack Obama said that of all the initiatives since his now famous Cairo speech -- in which he reached out to the Muslim world -- the most innovative was that The 99 reach back out to the Justice League of America. +We live in a world in which the most culturally innocuous symbols, like the falafel, can be misunderstood because of baggage, and where religion can be twisted and purposefully made where it's not supposed to be by others. +In a world like that, they'll always be a job for Superman and The 99. +Thank you very much. +Well, indeed, I'm very, very lucky. +My talk essentially got written by three historic events that happened within days of each other in the last two months -- seemingly unrelated, but as you will see, actually all having to do with the story I want to tell you today. +The first one was actually a funeral -- to be more precise, a reburial. +On May 22nd, there was a hero's reburial in Frombork, Poland of the 16th-century astronomer who actually changed the world. +He did that, literally, by replacing the Earth with the Sun in the center of the Solar System, and then with this simple-looking act, he actually launched a scientific and technological revolution, which many call the Copernican Revolution. +Now that was, ironically, and very befittingly, the way we found his grave. +As it was the custom of the time, Copernicus was actually simply buried in an unmarked grave, together with 14 others in that cathedral. +That match was unambiguous. +The DNA matched, and we know that this was indeed Nicolaus Copernicus. +Now, the connection between biology and DNA and life is very tantalizing when you talk about Copernicus because, even back then, his followers very quickly made the logical step to ask: if the Earth is just a planet, then what about planets around other stars? +What about the idea of the plurality of the worlds, about life on other planets? +In fact, I'm borrowing here from one of those very popular books of the time. +And at the time, people actually answered that question positively: "Yes." +But there was no evidence. +And here begins 400 years of frustration, of unfulfilled dreams -- the dreams of Galileo, Giordano Bruno, many others -- which never led to the answer of those very basic questions which humanity has asked all the time. +"What is life? What is the origin of life? +Are we alone?" +And that especially happened in the last 10 years, at the end of the 20th century, when the beautiful developments due to molecular biology, understanding the code of life, DNA, all of that seemed to actually put us, not closer, but further apart from answering those basic questions. +Now, the good news. +A lot has happened in the last few years, and let's start with the planets. +Let's start with the old Copernican question: Are there earths around other stars? +And as we already heard, there is a way in which we are trying, and now able, to answer that question. +It's a new telescope. +Our team, befittingly I think, named it after one of those dreamers of the Copernican time, Johannes Kepler, and that telescope's sole purpose is to go out, find the planets that orbit other stars in our galaxy, and tell us how often do planets like our own Earth happen to be out there. +The telescope is actually built similarly to the, well-known to you, Hubble Space Telescope, except it does have an additional lens -- a wide-field lens, as you would call it as a photographer. +And if, in the next couple of months, you walk out in the early evening and look straight up and place you palm like this, you will actually be looking at the field of the sky where this telescope is searching for planets day and night, without any interruption, for the next four years. +The way we do that, actually, is with a method, which we call the transit method. +It's actually mini-eclipses that occur when a planet passes in front of its star. +Not all of the planets will be fortuitously oriented for us to be able do that, but if you have a million stars, you'll find enough planets. +And as you see on this animation, what Kepler is going to detect is just the dimming of the light from the star. +We are not going to see the image of the star and the planet as this. +All the stars for Kepler are just points of light. +But we learn a lot from that: not only that there is a planet there, but we also learn its size. +How much of the light is being dimmed depends on how big the planet is. +We learn about its orbit, the period of its orbit and so on. +So, what have we learned? +Well, let me try to walk you through what we actually see and so you understand the news that I'm here to tell you today. +What Kepler does is discover a lot of candidates, which we then follow up and find as planets, confirm as planets. +It basically tells us this is the distribution of planets in size. +There are small planets, there are bigger planets, there are big planets, okay. +So we count many, many such planets, and they have different sizes. +We do that in our solar system. +In fact, even back during the ancients, the Solar System in that sense would look on a diagram like this. +There will be the smaller planets, and there will be the big planets, even back to the time of Epicurus and then of course Copernicus and his followers. +Up until recently, that was the Solar System -- four Earth-like planets with small radius, smaller than about two times the size of the Earth -- and that was of course Mercury, Venus, Mars, and of course the Earth, and then the two big, giant planets. +Then the Copernican Revolution brought in telescopes, and of course three more planets were discovered. +Now the total planet number in our solar system was nine. +The small planets dominated, and there was a certain harmony to that, which actually Copernicus was very happy to note, and Kepler was one of the big proponents of. +So now we have Pluto to join the numbers of small planets. +But up until, literally, 15 years ago, that was all we knew about planets. +And that's what the frustration was. +The Copernican dream was unfulfilled. +Finally, 15 years ago, the technology came to the point where we could discover a planet around another star, and we actually did pretty well. +In the next 15 years, almost 500 planets were discovered orbiting other stars, with different methods. +Unfortunately, as you can see, there was a very different picture. +There was of course an explanation for it: We only see the big planets, so that's why most of those planets are really in the category of "like Jupiter." +But you see, we haven't gone very far. +We were still back where Copernicus was. +We didn't have any evidence whether planets like the Earth are out there. +And we do care about planets like the Earth because by now we understood that life as a chemical system really needs a smaller planet with water and with rocks and with a lot of complex chemistry to originate, to emerge, to survive. +And we didn't have the evidence for that. +So today, I'm here to actually give you a first glimpse of what the new telescope, Kepler, has been able to tell us in the last few weeks, and, lo and behold, we are back to the harmony and to fulfilling the dreams of Copernicus. +You can see here, the small planets dominate the picture. +The planets which are marked "like Earth," [are] definitely more than any other planets that we see. +And now for the first time, we can say that. +There is a lot more work we need to do with this. +Most of these are candidates. +In the next few years we will confirm them. +But the statistical result is loud and clear. +And the statistical result is that planets like our own Earth are out there. +Our own Milky Way Galaxy is rich in this kind of planets. +So the question is: what do we do next? +Well, first of all, we can study them now that we know where they are. +And we can find those that we would call habitable, meaning that they have similar conditions to the conditions that we experience here on Earth and where a lot of complex chemistry can happen. +So, we can even put a number to how many of those planets now do we expect our own Milky Way Galaxy harbors. +And the number, as you might expect, is pretty staggering. +It's about 100 million such planets. +That's great news. Why? +Because with our own little telescope, just in the next two years, we'll be able to identify at least 60 of them. +So that's great because then we can go and study them -- remotely, of course -- with all the techniques that we already have tested in the past five years. +We can find what they're made of, would their atmospheres have water, carbon dioxide, methane. +We know and expect that we'll see that. +That's great, but that is not the whole news. +That's not why I'm here. +Why I'm here is to tell you that the next step is really the exciting part. +The one that this step is enabling us to do is coming next. +And here comes biology -- biology, with its basic question, which still stands unanswered, which is essentially: "If there is life on other planets, do we expect it to be like life on Earth?" +And let me immediately tell you here, when I say life, I don't mean "dolce vita," good life, human life. +I really mean life on Earth, past and present, from microbes to us humans, in its rich molecular diversity, the way we now understand life on Earth as being a set of molecules and chemical reactions -- and we call that, collectively, biochemistry, life as a chemical process, as a chemical phenomenon. +So the question is: is that chemical phenomenon universal, or is it something which depends on the planet? +Is it like gravity, which is the same everywhere in the universe, or there would be all kinds of different biochemistries wherever we find them? +We need to know what we are looking for when we try to do that. +And that's a very basic question, which we don't know the answer to, but which we can try -- and we are trying -- to answer in the lab. +We don't need to go to space to answer that question. +And so, that's what we are trying to do. +And that's what many people now are trying to do. +And a lot of the good news comes from that part of the bridge that we are trying to build as well. +So this is one example that I want to show you here. +When we think of what is necessary for the phenomenon that we call life, we think of compartmentalization, keeping the molecules which are important for life in a membrane, isolated from the rest of the environment, but yet, in an environment in which they actually could originate together. +But those bubbles have membranes very similar to the membrane of every cell of every living thing on Earth looks like, like this. +And they really help molecules, like nucleic acids, like RNA and DNA, stay inside, develop, change, divide and do some of the processes that we call life. +Now this is just an example to tell you the pathway in which we are trying to answer that bigger question about the universality of the phenomenon. +And in a sense, you can think of that work that people are starting to do now around the world as building a bridge, building a bridge from two sides of the river. +On one hand, on the left bank of the river, are the people like me who study those planets and try to define the environments. +We don't want to go blind because there's too many possibilities, and there is not too much lab, and there is not enough human time to actually to do all the experiments. +So that's what we are building from the left side of the river. +From the right bank of the river are the experiments in the lab that I just showed you, where we actually tried that, and it feeds back and forth, and we hope to meet in the middle one day. +So why should you care about that? +Why am I trying to sell you a half-built bridge? +Am I that charming? +Well, there are many reasons, and you heard some of them in the short talk today. +This understanding of chemistry actually can help us with our daily lives. +But there is something more profound here, something deeper. +And that deeper, underlying point is that science is in the process of redefining life as we know it. +And that is going to change our worldview in a profound way -- not in a dissimilar way as 400 years ago, Copernicus' act did, by changing the way we view space and time. +Now it's about something else, but it's equally profound. +And half the time, what's happened is it's related this kind of sense of insignificance to humankind, to the Earth in a bigger space. +And the more we learn, the more that was reinforced. +You've all learned that in school -- how small the Earth is compared to the immense universe. +And the bigger the telescope, the bigger that universe becomes. +And look at this image of the tiny, blue dot. +This pixel is the Earth. +It is the Earth as we know it. +It is seen from, in this case, from outside the orbit of Saturn. +But it's really tiny. +We know that. +Let's think of life as that entire planet because, in a sense, it is. +The biosphere is the size of the Earth. +Life on Earth is the size of the Earth. +And let's compare it to the rest of the world in spatial terms. +What if that Copernican insignificance was actually all wrong? +Would that make us more responsible for what is happening today? +Let's actually try that. +So in space, the Earth is very small. +Can you imagine how small it is? +Let me try it. +Okay, let's say this is the size of the observable universe, with all the galaxies, with all the stars, okay, from here to here. +Do you know what the size of life in this necktie will be? +It will be the size of a single, small atom. +It is unimaginably small. +We can't imagine it. +I mean look, you can see the necktie, but you can't even imagine seeing the size of a little, small atom. +But that's not the whole story, you see. +The universe and life are both in space and time. +If that was the age of the universe, then this is the age of life on Earth. +Think about those oldest living things on Earth, but in a cosmic proportion. +This is not insignificant. +This is very significant. +So life might be insignificant in size, but it is not insignificant in time. +Life and the universe compare to each other like a child and a parent, parent and offspring. +So what does this tell us? +This tells us that that insignificance paradigm that we somehow got to learn from the Copernican principle, it's all wrong. +There is immense, powerful potential in life in this universe -- especially now that we know that places like the Earth are common. +And that potential, that powerful potential, is also our potential, of you and me. +And if we are to be stewards of our planet Earth and its biosphere, we'd better understand the cosmic significance and do something about it. +And the good news is we can actually, indeed do it. +And let's do it. +Let's start this new revolution at the tail end of the old one, with synthetic biology being the way to transform both our environment and our future. +And let's hope that we can build this bridge together and meet in the middle. +Thank you very much. +Up until now, our communication with machines has always been limited to conscious and direct forms. +Whether it's something simple like turning on the lights with a switch, or even as complex as programming robotics, we have always had to give a command to a machine, or even a series of commands, in order for it to do something for us. +Communication between people, on the other hand, is far more complex and a lot more interesting because we take into account so much more than what is explicitly expressed. +We observe facial expressions, body language, and we can intuit feelings and emotions from our dialogue with one another. +This actually forms a large part of our decision-making process. +Our vision is to introduce this whole new realm of human interaction into human-computer interaction so that computers can understand not only what you direct it to do, but it can also respond to your facial expressions and emotional experiences. +And what better way to do this than by interpreting the signals naturally produced by our brain, our center for control and experience. +Well, it sounds like a pretty good idea, but this task, as Bruno mentioned, isn't an easy one for two main reasons: First, the detection algorithms. +Our brain is made up of billions of active neurons, around 170,000 km of combined axon length. +When these neurons interact, the chemical reaction emits an electrical impulse, which can be measured. +The majority of our functional brain is distributed over the outer surface layer of the brain, and to increase the area that's available for mental capacity, the brain surface is highly folded. +Now this cortical folding presents a significant challenge for interpreting surface electrical impulses. +Each individual's cortex is folded differently, very much like a fingerprint. +So even though a signal may come from the same functional part of the brain, by the time the structure has been folded, its physical location is very different between individuals, even identical twins. +There is no longer any consistency in the surface signals. +Our breakthrough was to create an algorithm that unfolds the cortex, so that we can map the signals closer to its source, and therefore making it capable of working across a mass population. +The second challenge is the actual device for observing brainwaves. +EEG measurements typically involve a hairnet with an array of sensors, like the one that you can see here in the photo. +A technician will put the electrodes onto the scalp using a conductive gel or paste and usually after a procedure of preparing the scalp by light abrasion. +Now this is quite time consuming and isn't the most comfortable process. +And on top of that, these systems actually cost in the tens of thousands of dollars. +So with that, I'd like to invite onstage Evan Grant, who is one of last year's speakers, who's kindly agreed to help me to demonstrate what we've been able to develop. +So the device that you see is a 14-channel, high-fidelity EEG acquisition system. +It doesn't require any scalp preparation, no conductive gel or paste. +It only takes a few minutes to put on and for the signals to settle. +It's also wireless, so it gives you the freedom to move around. +And compared to the tens of thousands of dollars for a traditional EEG system, this headset only costs a few hundred dollars. +Now on to the detection algorithms. +So facial expressions -- as I mentioned before in emotional experiences -- are actually designed to work out of the box with some sensitivity adjustments available for personalization. +But with the limited time we have available, I'd like to show you the cognitive suite, which is the ability for you to basically move virtual objects with your mind. +Now, Evan is new to this system, so what we have to do first is create a new profile for him. +He's obviously not Joanne -- so we'll "add user." +Evan. Okay. +So the first thing we need to do with the cognitive suite is to start with training a neutral signal. +With neutral, there's nothing in particular that Evan needs to do. +He just hangs out. He's relaxed. +And the idea is to establish a baseline or normal state for his brain, because every brain is different. +It takes eight seconds to do this, and now that that's done, we can choose a movement-based action. +So Evan, choose something that you can visualize clearly in your mind. +Evan Grant: Let's do "pull." +Tan Le: Okay, so let's choose "pull." +So the idea here now is that Evan needs to imagine the object coming forward into the screen, and there's a progress bar that will scroll across the screen while he's doing that. +The first time, nothing will happen, because the system has no idea how he thinks about "pull." +But maintain that thought for the entire duration of the eight seconds. +So: one, two, three, go. +Okay. +So once we accept this, the cube is live. +So let's see if Evan can actually try and imagine pulling. +Ah, good job! +That's really amazing. +So we have a little bit of time available, so I'm going to ask Evan to do a really difficult task. +And this one is difficult because it's all about being able to visualize something that doesn't exist in our physical world. +This is "disappear." +So what you want to do -- at least with movement-based actions, we do that all the time, so you can visualize it. +But with "disappear," there's really no analogies -- so Evan, what you want to do here is to imagine the cube slowly fading out, okay. +Same sort of drill. So: one, two, three, go. +Okay. Let's try that. +Oh, my goodness. He's just too good. +Let's try that again. +EG: Losing concentration. +TL: But we can see that it actually works, even though you can only hold it for a little bit of time. +As I said, it's a very difficult process to imagine this. +And the great thing about it is that we've only given the software one instance of how he thinks about "disappear." +As there is a machine learning algorithm in this -- Thank you. +Good job. Good job. +Thank you, Evan, you're a wonderful, wonderful example of the technology. +So, as you can see, before, there is a leveling system built into this software so that as Evan, or any user, becomes more familiar with the system, they can continue to add more and more detections, so that the system begins to differentiate between different distinct thoughts. +And once you've trained up the detections, these thoughts can be assigned or mapped to any computing platform, application or device. +So I'd like to show you a few examples, because there are many possible applications for this new interface. +In games and virtual worlds, for example, your facial expressions can naturally and intuitively be used to control an avatar or virtual character. +Obviously, you can experience the fantasy of magic and control the world with your mind. +And also, colors, lighting, sound and effects can dynamically respond to your emotional state to heighten the experience that you're having, in real time. +And moving on to some applications developed by developers and researchers around the world, with robots and simple machines, for example -- in this case, flying a toy helicopter simply by thinking "lift" with your mind. +The technology can also be applied to real world applications -- in this example, a smart home. +You know, from the user interface of the control system to opening curtains or closing curtains. +And of course, also to the lighting -- turning them on or off. +And finally, to real life-changing applications, such as being able to control an electric wheelchair. +In this example, facial expressions are mapped to the movement commands. +Man: Now blink right to go right. +Now blink left to turn back left. +Now smile to go straight. +TL: We really -- Thank you. +We are really only scratching the surface of what is possible today, and with the community's input, and also with the involvement of developers and researchers from around the world, we hope that you can help us to shape where the technology goes from here. Thank you so much. +So let me just start with my story. +So I tore my knee joint meniscus cartilage playing soccer in college. +Then I went on to tear my ACL, the ligament in my knee, and then developed an arthritic knee. +And I'm sure that many of you in this audience have that same story, and, by the way, I married a woman who has exactly the same story. +So this motivated me to become an orthopedic surgeon and to see if I couldn't focus on solutions for those problems that would keep me playing sports and not limit me. +So with that, let me just show you a quick video to get you in the mood of what we're trying to explain. +Narrator: We are all aware of the risk of cancer, but there's another disease that's destined to affect even more of us: arthritis. +Cancer may kill you, but when you look at the numbers, arthritis ruins more lives. +Assuming you live a long life, there's a 50 percent chance you'll develop arthritis. +And it's not just aging that causes arthritis. +Common injuries can lead to decades of pain, until our joints quite literally grind to a halt. +Desperate for a solution, we've turned to engineering to design artificial components to replace our worn-out body parts, but in the midst of the modern buzz around the promises of a bionic body, shouldn't we stop and ask if there's a better, more natural way? +Let's consider an alternative path. +What if all the replacements our bodies need already exist in nature, or within our own stem cells? +This is the field of biologic replacements, where we replace worn-out parts with new, natural ones. +Kevin Stone: And so, the mission is: how do I treat these things biologically? +And let's talk about both what I did for my wife, and what I've done for hundreds of other patients. +First thing for my wife, and the most common thing I hear from my patients, particularly in the 40- to 80-year-old age group, 70-year-old age group, is they come in and say, "Hey, Doc, isn't there just a shock absorber you can put in my knee? +I'm not ready for joint replacement." +And so for her, I put in a human meniscus allograft donor right into that [knee] joint space. +And [the allograft] replaces [the missing meniscus]. +And then for that unstable ligament, we put in a human donor ligament to stabilize the knee. +And then for the damaged arthritis on the surface, we did a stem cell paste graft, which we designed in 1991, to regrow that articular cartilage surface and give it back a smooth surface there. +So here's my wife's bad knee on the left, and her just hiking now four months later in Aspen, and doing well. +And it works, not just for my wife, but certainly for other patients. +The girl on the video, Jen Hudak, just won the Superpipe in Aspen just nine months after having destroyed her knee, as you see in the other image -- and having a paste graft to that knee. +And so we can regrow these surfaces biologically. +So with all this success, why isn't that good enough, you might ask. +Well the reason is because there's not enough donor cycles. +There's not enough young, healthy people falling off their motorcycle and donating that tissue to us. +And the tissue's very expensive. +And so that's not going to be a solution that's going to get us global with biologic tissue. +But the solution is animal tissue because it's plentiful, it's cheap, you can get it from young, healthy tissues, but the barrier is immunology. +And the specific barrier is a specific epitope called the galactosyl, or gal epitope. +So if we're going to transplant animal tissues to people, we have to figure out a way to get rid of that epitope. +So my story in working with animal tissues starts in 1984. +And I started first with cow Achilles tendon, where we would take the cow Achilles tendon, which is type-I collagen, strip it of its antigens by degrading it with an acid and detergent wash and forming it into a regeneration template. +We would then take that regeneration template and insert it into the missing meniscus cartilage to regrow that in a patient's knee. +We've now done that procedure, and it's been done worldwide in over 4,000 cases, so it's an FDA-approved and worldwide-accepted way to regrow the meniscus. +And that's great when I can degrade the tissue. +But what happens for your ligament when I need an intact ligament? +I can't grind it up in a blender. +So in that case, I have to design -- and we designed with Uri Galili and Tom Turek -- an enzyme wash to wash away, or strip, those galactosyl epitopes with a specific enzyme. +And we call that a "gal stripping" technique. +What we do is humanize the tissue. +It's by gal stripping that tissue we humanize it , and then we can put it back into a patient's knee. +And we've done that. Now we've taken pig ligament -- young, healthy, big tissue, put it into 10 patients in an FDA-approved trial -- and then one of our patients went on to have three Canadian Masters Downhill championships -- on his "pig-lig," as he calls it. So we know it can work. +And there's a wide clinical trial of this tissue now pending. +So what about the next step? +What about getting to a total biologic knee replacement, not just the parts? +How are we going to revolutionize artificial joint replacement? +Well here's how we're going to do it. +So what we're going to do is take an articular cartilage from a young, healthy pig, strip it of its antigens, load it with your stem cells, then put it back on to that arthritic surface in your knee, tack it on there, have you heal that surface and then create a new biologic surface for your knee. +So that's our biologic approach right now. +We're going to rebuild your knee with the parts. +We're going to resurface it with a completely new surface. +But we have other advantages from the animal kingdom. +There's a benefit of 400 million years of ambulation. +We can harness those benefits. +We can use thicker, younger, better tissues than you might have injured in your knee, or that you might have when you're 40, 50 or 60. +We can do it as an outpatient procedure. +We can strip that tissue very economically, and so this is how we can get biologic knee replacement to go global. +And so welcome to super biologics. +It's not hardware. +It's not software. +It's bioware. +It's version 2.0 of you. +And so with that, coming to a -- coming to an operating theater near you soon, I believe. +Thank you very much. +Today, I'm going to take you around the world in 18 minutes. +My base of operations is in the U.S., but let's start at the other end of the map, in Kyoto, Japan, where I was living with a Japanese family while I was doing part of my dissertational research 15 years ago. +I knew even then that I would encounter cultural differences and misunderstandings, but they popped up when I least expected it. +On my first day, I went to a restaurant, and I ordered a cup of green tea with sugar. +After a pause, the waiter said, "One does not put sugar in green tea." +"I know," I said. "I'm aware of this custom. +But I really like my tea sweet." +In response, he gave me an even more courteous version of the same explanation. +"One does not put sugar in green tea." +"I understand," I said, "that the Japanese do not put sugar in their green tea, but I'd like to put some sugar in my green tea." +Surprised by my insistence, the waiter took up the issue with the manager. +Pretty soon, a lengthy discussion ensued, and finally the manager came over to me and said, "I am very sorry. We do not have sugar." +Well, since I couldn't have my tea the way I wanted it, I ordered a cup of coffee, which the waiter brought over promptly. +Resting on the saucer were two packets of sugar. +My failure to procure myself a cup of sweet, green tea was not due to a simple misunderstanding. +This was due to a fundamental difference in our ideas about choice. +From my American perspective, when a paying customer makes a reasonable request based on her preferences, she has every right to have that request met. +The American way, to quote Burger King, is to "have it your way," because, as Starbucks says, "happiness is in your choices." +But from the Japanese perspective, it's their duty to protect those who don't know any better -- in this case, the ignorant gaijin -- from making the wrong choice. +Let's face it: the way I wanted my tea was inappropriate according to cultural standards, and they were doing their best to help me save face. +Americans tend to believe that they've reached some sort of pinnacle in the way they practice choice. +They think that choice, as seen through the American lens best fulfills an innate and universal desire for choice in all humans. +Unfortunately, these beliefs are based on assumptions that don't always hold true in many countries, in many cultures. +At times they don't even hold true at America's own borders. +I'd like to discuss some of these assumptions and the problems associated with them. +As I do so, I hope you'll start thinking about some of your own assumptions and how they were shaped by your backgrounds. +First assumption: if a choice affects you, then you should be the one to make it. +This is the only way to ensure that your preferences and interests will be most fully accounted for. +It is essential for success. +In America, the primary locus of choice is the individual. +People must choose for themselves, sometimes sticking to their guns, regardless of what other people want or recommend. +It's called "being true to yourself." +But do all individuals benefit from taking such an approach to choice? +Mark Lepper and I did a series of studies in which we sought the answer to this very question. +In one study, which we ran in Japantown, San Francisco, we brought seven- to nine-year-old Anglo- and Asian-American children into the laboratory, and we divided them up into three groups. +The first group came in, and they were greeted by Miss Smith, who showed them six big piles of anagram puzzles. +The kids got to choose which pile of anagrams they would like to do, and they even got to choose which marker they would write their answers with. +When the second group of children came in, they were brought to the same room, shown the same anagrams, but this time Miss Smith told them which anagrams to do and which markers to write their answers with. +Now when the third group came in, they were told that their anagrams and their markers had been chosen by their mothers. +In reality, the kids who were told what to do, whether by Miss Smith or their mothers, were actually given the very same activity, which their counterparts in the first group had freely chosen. +With this procedure, we were able to ensure that the kids across the three groups all did the same activity, making it easier for us to compare performance. +Such small differences in the way we administered the activity yielded striking differences in how well they performed. +Anglo-Americans, they did two and a half times more anagrams when they got to choose them, as compared to when it was chosen for them by Miss Smith or their mothers. +It didn't matter who did the choosing, if the task was dictated by another, their performance suffered. +In fact, some of the kids were visibly embarrassed when they were told that their mothers had been consulted. +One girl named Mary said, "You asked my mother?" +In contrast, Asian-American children performed best when they believed their mothers had made the choice, second best when they chose for themselves, and least well when it had been chosen by Miss Smith. +A girl named Natsumi even approached Miss Smith as she was leaving the room and tugged on her skirt and asked, "Could you please tell my mommy I did it just like she said?" +The first-generation children were strongly influenced by their immigrant parents' approach to choice. +For them, choice was not just a way of defining and asserting their individuality, but a way to create community and harmony by deferring to the choices of people whom they trusted and respected. +If they had a concept of being true to one's self, then that self, most likely, [was] composed, not of an individual, but of a collective. +Success was just as much about pleasing key figures as it was about satisfying one's own preferences. +Or, you could say that the individual's preferences were shaped by the preferences of specific others. +The assumption then that we do best when the individual self chooses only holds when that self is clearly divided from others. +When, in contrast, two or more individuals see their choices and their outcomes as intimately connected, then they may amplify one another's success by turning choosing into a collective act. +To insist that they choose independently might actually compromise both their performance and their relationships. +Yet that is exactly what the American paradigm demands. +It leaves little room for interdependence or an acknowledgment of individual fallibility. +It requires that everyone treat choice as a private and self-defining act. +People that have grown up in such a paradigm might find it motivating, but it is a mistake to assume that everyone thrives under the pressure of choosing alone. +The second assumption which informs the American view of choice goes something like this. +The more choices you have, the more likely you are to make the best choice. +So bring it on, Walmart, with 100,000 different products, and Amazon, with 27 million books and Match.com with -- what is it? -- 15 million date possibilities now. +You will surely find the perfect match. +Let's test this assumption by heading over to Eastern Europe. +Here, I interviewed people who were residents of formerly communist countries, who had all faced the challenge of transitioning to a more democratic and capitalistic society. +One of the most interesting revelations came not from an answer to a question, but from a simple gesture of hospitality. +When the participants arrived for their interview, I offered them a set of drinks: Coke, Diet Coke, Sprite -- seven, to be exact. +During the very first session, which was run in Russia, one of the participants made a comment that really caught me off guard. +"Oh, but it doesn't matter. +It's all just soda. That's just one choice." +I was so struck by this comment that from then on, I started to offer all the participants those seven sodas, and I asked them, "How many choices are these?" +Again and again, they perceived these seven different sodas, not as seven choices, but as one choice: soda or no soda. +When I put out juice and water in addition to these seven sodas, now they perceived it as only three choices -- juice, water and soda. +Compare this to the die-hard devotion of many Americans, not just to a particular flavor of soda, but to a particular brand. +You know, research shows repeatedly that we can't actually tell the difference between Coke and Pepsi. +Of course, you and I know that Coke is the better choice. +For modern Americans who are exposed to more options and more ads associated with options than anyone else in the world, choice is just as much about who they are as it is about what the product is. +Combine this with the assumption that more choices are always better, and you have a group of people for whom every little difference matters and so every choice matters. +But for Eastern Europeans, the sudden availability of all these consumer products on the marketplace was a deluge. +They were flooded with choice before they could protest that they didn't know how to swim. +When asked, "What words and images do you associate with choice?" +Grzegorz from Warsaw said, "Ah, for me it is fear. +There are some dilemmas you see. +I am used to no choice." +Bohdan from Kiev said, in response to how he felt about the new consumer marketplace, "It is too much. +We do not need everything that is there." +A sociologist from the Warsaw Survey Agency explained, "The older generation jumped from nothing to choice all around them. +They were never given a chance to learn how to react." +And Tomasz, a young Polish man said, "I don't need twenty kinds of chewing gum. +I don't mean to say that I want no choice, but many of these choices are quite artificial." +In reality, many choices are between things that are not that much different. +The value of choice depends on our ability to perceive differences between the options. +Americans train their whole lives to play "spot the difference." +They practice this from such an early age that they've come to believe that everyone must be born with this ability. +In fact, though all humans share a basic need and desire for choice, we don't all see choice in the same places or to the same extent. +When someone can't see how one choice is unlike another, or when there are too many choices to compare and contrast, the process of choosing can be confusing and frustrating. +Instead of making better choices, we become overwhelmed by choice, sometimes even afraid of it. +Choice no longer offers opportunities, but imposes constraints. +It's not a marker of liberation, but of suffocation by meaningless minutiae. +In other words, choice can develop into the very opposite of everything it represents in America when it is thrust upon those who are insufficiently prepared for it. +But it is not only other people in other places that are feeling the pressure of ever-increasing choice. +Americans themselves are discovering that unlimited choice seems more attractive in theory than in practice. +We all have physical, mental and emotional limitations that make it impossible for us to process every single choice we encounter, even in the grocery store, let alone over the course of our entire lives. +A number of my studies have shown that when you give people 10 or more options when they're making a choice, they make poorer decisions, whether it be health care, investment, other critical areas. +Yet still, many of us believe that we should make all our own choices and seek out even more of them. +This brings me to the third, and perhaps most problematic, assumption: "You must never say no to choice." +To examine this, let's go back to the U.S. +and then hop across the pond to France. +Right outside Chicago, a young couple, Susan and Daniel Mitchell, were about to have their first baby. +They'd already picked out a name for her, Barbara, after her grandmother. +One night, when Susan was seven months pregnant, she started to experience contractions and was rushed to the emergency room. +The baby was delivered through a C-section, but Barbara suffered cerebral anoxia, a loss of oxygen to the brain. +Unable to breathe on her own, she was put on a ventilator. +Two days later, the doctors gave the Mitchells a choice: They could either remove Barbara off the life support, in which case she would die within a matter of hours, or they could keep her on life support, in which case she might still die within a matter of days. +If she survived, she would remain in a permanent vegetative state, never able to walk, talk or interact with others. +What do they do? +What do any parent do? +In a study I conducted with Simona Botti and Kristina Orfali, American and French parents were interviewed. +They had all suffered the same tragedy. +In all cases, the life support was removed, and the infants had died. +But there was a big difference. +In France, the doctors decided whether and when the life support would be removed, while in the United States, the final decision rested with the parents. +We wondered: does this have an effect on how the parents cope with the loss of their loved one? +We found that it did. +Even up to a year later, American parents were more likely to express negative emotions, as compared to their French counterparts. +French parents were more likely to say things like, "Noah was here for so little time, but he taught us so much. +He gave us a new perspective on life." +American parents were more likely to say things like, "What if? What if?" +Another parent complained, "I feel as if they purposefully tortured me. +How did they get me to do that?" +And another parent said, "I feel as if I've played a role in an execution." +But when the American parents were asked if they would rather have had the doctors make the decision, they all said, "No." +They could not imagine turning that choice over to another, even though having made that choice made them feel trapped, guilty, angry. +In a number of cases they were even clinically depressed. +These parents could not contemplate giving up the choice, because to do so would have gone contrary to everything they had been taught and everything they had come to believe about the power and purpose of choice. +In her essay, "The White Album," Joan Didion writes, "We tell ourselves stories in order to live. +We interpret what we see, select the most workable of the multiple choices. +We live entirely by the imposition of a narrative line upon disparate images, by the idea with which we have learned to freeze the shifting phantasmagoria, which is our actual experience." +The story Americans tell, the story upon which the American dream depends, is the story of limitless choice. +This narrative promises so much: freedom, happiness, success. +It lays the world at your feet and says, "You can have anything, everything." +It's a great story, and it's understandable why they would be reluctant to revise it. +But when you take a close look, you start to see the holes, and you start to see that the story can be told in many other ways. +Americans have so often tried to disseminate their ideas of choice, believing that they will be, or ought to be, welcomed with open hearts and minds. +But the history books and the daily news tell us it doesn't always work out that way. +The phantasmagoria, the actual experience that we try to understand and organize through narrative, varies from place to place. +No single narrative serves the needs of everyone everywhere. +Moreover, Americans themselves could benefit from incorporating new perspectives into their own narrative, which has been driving their choices for so long. +Robert Frost once said that, "It is poetry that is lost in translation." +This suggests that whatever is beautiful and moving, whatever gives us a new way to see, cannot be communicated to those who speak a different language. +But Joseph Brodsky said that, "It is poetry that is gained in translation," suggesting that translation can be a creative, transformative act. +When it comes to choice, we have far more to gain than to lose by engaging in the many translations of the narratives. +Instead of replacing one story with another, we can learn from and revel in the many versions that exist and the many that have yet to be written. +No matter where we're from and what your narrative is, we all have a responsibility to open ourselves up to a wider array of what choice can do, and what it can represent. +And this does not lead to a paralyzing moral relativism. +Rather, it teaches us when and how to act. +It brings us that much closer to realizing the full potential of choice, to inspiring the hope and achieving the freedom that choice promises but doesn't always deliver. +If we learn to speak to one another, albeit through translation, then we can begin to see choice in all its strangeness, complexity and compelling beauty. +Thank you. +Bruno Giussani: Thank you. +Sheena, there is a detail about your biography that we have not written in the program book. +But by now it's evident to everyone in this room. You're blind. +And I guess one of the questions on everybody's mind is: How does that influence your study of choosing because that's an activity that for most people is associated with visual inputs like aesthetics and color and so on? +Sheena Iyengar: Well, it's funny that you should ask that because one of the things that's interesting about being blind is you actually get a different vantage point when you observe the way sighted people make choices. +And as you just mentioned, there's lots of choices out there that are very visual these days. +Yeah, I -- as you would expect -- get pretty frustrated by choices like what nail polish to put on because I have to rely on what other people suggest. +And I can't decide. +And so one time I was in a beauty salon, and I was trying to decide between two very light shades of pink. +And one was called "Ballet Slippers." +And the other one was called "Adorable." +And so I asked these two ladies, and the one lady told me, "Well, you should definitely wear 'Ballet Slippers.'" "Well, what does it look like?" +"Well, it's a very elegant shade of pink." +"Okay, great." +The other lady tells me to wear "Adorable." +"What does it look like?" +"It's a glamorous shade of pink." +And so I asked them, "Well, how do I tell them apart? +What's different about them?" +And they said, "Well, one is elegant, the other one's glamorous." +Okay, we got that. +And the only thing they had consensus on: well, if I could see them, I would clearly be able to tell them apart. +And what I wondered was whether they were being affected by the name or the content of the color, so I decided to do a little experiment. +So I brought these two bottles of nail polish into the laboratory, and I stripped the labels off. +And I brought women into the laboratory, and I asked them, "Which one would you pick?" +50 percent of the women accused me of playing a trick, of putting the same color nail polish in both those bottles. +At which point you start to wonder who the trick's really played on. +Now, of the women that could tell them apart, when the labels were off, they picked "Adorable," and when the labels were on, they picked "Ballet Slippers." +So as far as I can tell, a rose by any other name probably does look different and maybe even smells different. +BG: Thank you. Sheena Iyengar. Thank you Sheena. +For a moment, what I need to do is project something on the screen of your imagination. +We're in 17th century Japan on the west coast, and a little, wizened monk is hurrying along, near midnight, to the crest of a small hill. +He arrives on the small hill, dripping with water. +He stands there, and he looks across at the island, Sado. +And he scans across the ocean, and he looks at the sky. +Then he says to himself, very quietly, "[Turbulent the sea,] [Stretching across to Sado] [The Milky Way]." +Basho was a brilliant man. +He said more with less than any human that I have ever read or talked to. +Basho, in 17 syllables, juxtaposed a turbulent ocean driven by a storm now past, and captured the almost impossible beauty of our home galaxy with millions of stars, probably hundreds and hundreds of -- who knows how many -- planets, maybe even an ocean that we will probably call Sylvia in time. +As he was nearing his death, his disciples and followers kept asking him, "What's the secret? +How can you make haiku poems so beautiful so easily?" +And toward the end, he said, "If you would know the pine tree, go to the pine tree." +That was it. +Sylvia has said we must use every capacity we have in order to know the oceans. +If we would know the oceans, we must go to the oceans. +And what I'd like to talk to you today about, a little bit, is really transforming the relationship, or the interplay, between humans and oceans with a new capability that is not at all routine yet. +I hope it will be. +There are a few key points. +One of them is the oceans are central to the quality of life on earth. +Another is that there are bold, new ways of studying oceans that we have not used well yet. +And the last is that these bold, new ways that we are exploring as a community will transform the way we look at our planet, our oceans, and eventually how we manage probably the entire planet, for what it's worth. +So what scientists do when they begin is to start with the system. +They define what the system is. +The system isn't Chesapeake Bay. +It's not the Kuril arc. It's not even the entire Pacific. +It's the whole planet, the entire planet, continents and oceans together. +That's the system. +And basically, our challenge is to optimize the benefits and mitigate the risks of living on a planet that's driven by only two processes, two sources of energy, one of which is solar, that drives the winds, the waves, the clouds, the storms and photosynthesis. +The second one is internal energy. +And these two war against one another almost continuously. +Mountain ranges, plate tectonics, moves the continents around, forms ore deposits. +Volcanoes erupt. +That's the planet that we live on. +It's immensely complex. +Now I don't expect all of you to see all the details here, but what I want you to see is this is about 10 percent of the processes that operate within the oceans almost continuously, and have for the last 4 billion years. +This is a system that's been around a very long time. +And these have all co-evolved. +What do I mean by that? +They interact with one another constantly. +All of them interact with one another. +So the complexity of this system that we're looking at, the one driven by the sun -- upper portion, mostly -- and the lower portion is partly driven by the input from heat below and by other processes. +This is very, very important because this is the system, this is the crucible, out of which life on the planet came, and it's now time for us to understand it. +We must understand it. +That's one of the themes that Sylvia reminds us about: understand this ocean of ours, this basic life support system, the dominant life support system on the planet. +Look at this complexity here. +This is only one variable. +If you can see the complexity, you can see how tiny, little eddies and large eddies and the motion -- this is just sea surface temperature, but it's immensely complicated. +Now a layer in, the other two or three hundred processes that are all interacting, partly as a function of temperature, partly as a function of all the other factors, and you've got a really complicated system. +That's our challenge, is to understand, understand this system in new and phenomenal ways. +And there's an urgency to this. +Part of the urgency comes from the fact that, of order, a billion people on the planet currently are undernourished or starving. +And part of the issue is for Cody -- who's here, 16 years old -- and I have permission to relay this number. +When he, 40 years from now, is the age of Nancy Brown, there are going to be another two and a half billion people on the planet. +We can't solve all the problems by looking only at the oceans, but if we don't understand the fundamental life support system of this planet much more thoroughly than we do now, then the stresses that we will face, and that Cody will face, and even Nancy, who's going to live till she's 98, will have really problems coping. +All right, let's talk about another perspective on the importance of the oceans. +Look at this diagram, which is showing warm waters in red, cool waters in blue, and on the continents, what you're seeing in bright green, is the growth of vegetation, and in olive green, the dieback of vegetation. +And in the lower left hand corner there's a clock ticking away from 1982 to 1998 and then cycling again. +What you'll see is that the rhythms of growth, of vegetation -- a subset of which is food on the continents -- is directly tied to the rhythms of the sea surface temperatures. +The oceans control, or at least significantly influence, correlate with, the growth patterns and the drought patterns and the rain patterns on the continents. +So people in Kansas, in a wheat field in Kansas, need to understand that the oceans are central to them as well. +Another complexity: this is the age of the oceans. +I'm going to layer in on top of this the tectonic plates. +The age of the ocean, the tectonic plates, gives rise to a totally new phenomenon that we have heard about in this conference. +And I share with you some very high-definition video that we collected in real time. +Seconds after this video was taken, people in Beijing, people in Sydney, people in Amsterdam, people in Washington D.C. were watching this. +Now you've heard of hydrothermal vents, but the other discovery is that deep below the sea floor, there is vast reservoir of microbial activity, which we have only just discovered and we have almost no way to study. +Some people have estimated that the biomass tied up in these microbes living in the pours and the cracks of the sea floor and below rival the total amount of living biomass at the surface of the planet. +It's an astonishing insight, and we have only found out about this recently. +This is very, very exciting. +It may be the next rainforest, in terms of pharmaceuticals. +We know little or nothing about it. +Well, Marcel Proust has this wonderful saying that, "The real voyage of discovery consists not so much in seeking new territory, but possibly in having new sets of eyes," new ways of seeing things, a new mindset. +And many of you remember the early stages of oceanography, when we had to use what we had at our fingertips. +And it wasn't easy. It wasn't easy in those days. +Some of you remember this, I'm sure. +And now, we have an entire suite of tools that are really pretty powerful -- ships, satellites, moorings. +But they don't quite cut it. They don't quite give us what we need. +And the program that I wanted to talk to you about just a little bit here, was funded, and it involves autonomous vehicles like the one running across the base of this image. +Modeling: on the right hand side, there's a very complex computational model. +On the left hand side, there's a new type of mooring, which I'll show you in just a second. +And on the basis of several points, the oceans are complex, and they're central to the life on earth. +They are changing rapidly, but not predictably. +And the models that we need to predict the future do not have enough data to refine them. +The computational power is amazing. +But without data, those models will never ever be predicted. +And that's what we really need. +For a variety of reasons they're dangerous, but we feel that OOI, this Ocean Observatory Initiative, which the National Science Foundation has begun to fund, has the potential to really transform things. +And the goal of the program is to launch an era of scientific discovery and understanding across and within the ocean basins, utilizing widely accessible, interactive telepresence. +It's a new world. +We will be present throughout the volume of the ocean, at will, communicating in real time. +And this is what the system involves, a number of sites in the southern hemisphere, shown in those circles. +And in the northern hemisphere there are four sites. +I won't talk a lot about most of them right here, but the one on the west coast, that's in the box, is called the regional scale nodes. +It was once called Neptune. +And let me show you what's behind it. +Fiber: next-generation way of communicating. +You can see the copper tips on these things. +You can transmit power, but the bandwidth is in those tiny, little threads smaller than the hair on your head in diameter. +And this particular set here can transmit something of the order of three to five terabits per second. +This is phenomenal bandwidth. +And this is what the planet looks like. +We are already laced up as if we're in a fiber optic corset, if you like. +This is what it looks like. +And the cables go really continent to continent. +It's a very powerful system, and most of our communications consist of it. +So this is the system that I'm talking about, off the west coast. It's coincident with the tectonic plate, the Juan de Fuca tectonic plate. +And it's going to deliver abundant power and unprecedented bandwidth across this entire volume -- in the overlying ocean, on the sea floor and below the sea floor. +Bandwidth and power and a wide variety of processes that will be operating. +This is what one of those primary nodes looks like, and it's like a sub station with power and bandwidth that can spread out over an area the size of Seattle. +And the kind of science that can be done will be determined by a variety of scientists who want to be involved and can bring the instrumentation to the table. +They will bring it and link it in. +It'll be, in a sense, like having time on a telescope, except you'll have your own port. +Climate change, ocean acidification, dissolved oxygen, carbon cycle, coastal upwelling, fishing dynamics -- the full spectrum of earth science and ocean science simultaneously in the same volume. +So anyone coming along later simply accesses the database and can draw down the information they need about anything that has taken place. +And this is just the first of these. +In conjunction with our Canadian colleagues, we've set this up. +Now I want to take you into the caldera. +On the left hand side there is a large volcano called Axial Seamount. +And we're going to go down into the Axial Seamount using animation. +Here's what this system is going to look like that we are funded to build at this point. +Very powerful. +That's an elevator that's constantly moving up and down, but it can be controlled by the folks on land who are responsible for it. +Or they can transfer control to someone in India or China who can take over for a while, because it's all going to be directly connected through the Internet. +There will be massive amounts of data flowing ashore, all available to anyone who has any interest in using it. +This is going to be much more powerful than having a single ship in a single location, then move to a new location. +We're flying across the caldera floor. +There is a number of robotic systems. +There's cameras that can be turned on and off at your will, if those are your experiments. +The kinds of systems that will be down there, the kinds of instruments that will be on the sea floor, consist of -- if you can read them there -- there's cameras, there's pressure sensors, fluorometers, there's seismometers. +It's a full spectrum of tools. +Now, that mound right there actually looks like this. +This is what it actually looks like. +And this is the kind of activity that we can see with high-definition video, because the bandwidth of these cables is so huge that we could have five to 10 stereo HD systems running continuously and, again, directed through robotic techniques from land. +Very, very powerful. +And these are the things that we're funded to do today. +So what can we actually do tomorrow? +We're about to ride the wave of technological opportunity. +There are emerging technologies throughout the field around oceanography, which we will incorporate into oceanography, and through that convergence, we will transform oceanography into something even more magical. +Robotics systems are just incredible these days, absolutely incredible. +And we will be bringing robotics of all sorts into the ocean. +Nanotechnology: this is a small generator. +It's smaller than a postage stamp, and it can generate power just by being attached to your shirt as you move. +Just as you move, it generates power. +There are many kinds of things that can be used in the ocean, continuously. +Imaging: Many of you know a good deal more about this type of thing than I, but stereo imaging at four times the definition that we have in HD will be routine within five years. +And this is the magic one. +As a result of the human genome process, we are in a situation where events that take place in the ocean -- like an erupting volcano, or something of that sort -- can actually be sampled. +We pump the fluid through one of these systems, and we press the button, and it's analyzed for the genomic character. +And that's transmitted back to land immediately. +So in the volume of the ocean, we will know, not just the physics and the chemistry, but the base of the food chain will be transparent to us with data on a continuous basis. +Grid computing: the power of grid computers is going to be just amazing here. +We will soon be using grid computing to do pretty much everything, like adjust the data and everything that goes with the data. +The power generation will come from the ocean itself. +And the next generation fiber will be simply magic. +It's far beyond what we currently have. +So the presence of the power and the bandwidth in the environment will allow all of these new technologies to converge in a manner that is just unprecedented. +So within five to seven years, I see us having a capacity to be completely present throughout the ocean and have all of that connected to the Internet, so we can reach many, many folks. +Delivering the power and the bandwidth into the ocean will dramatically accelerate adaptation. +Here's an example. +When earthquakes take place, massive amounts of these new microbes we've never seen before come out of the sea floor. +We have a way of addressing that, a new way of addressing that. +We've determined from the earthquake activity that you're seeing here that the top of that volcano is erupting, so we deploy the troops. +What are the troops? The troops are the autonomous vehicles, of course. +And they fly into the erupting volcano. +They sample the fluids coming out of the sea floor during an eruption, which have the microbes that have never been to the surface of the planet before. +They eject it to the surface where it floats, and it is picked up by an autonomous airplane, and it's brought back to the laboratory within 24 hours of the eruption. +This is doable. All the pieces are there. +A laboratory: many of you heard what happened on 9/7. +Some doctors in New York City removed the gallbladder of a woman in France. +We could do work on the sea floor that would be stunning, and it would be on live TV, if we have interesting things to show. +So we can bring an entirely new telepresence to the world, throughout the ocean. +This -- I've shown you sea floor -- but so the goal here is real time interaction with the oceans from anywhere on earth. +It's going to be amazing. +And as I go here, I just want to show you what we can bring into classrooms, and indeed, what we can bring into your pocket. +Many of you don't think of this yet, but the ocean will be in your pocket. +It won't be long. It won't be long. +So let me leave you then with a few words from another poet, if you'll forgive me. +In 1943, T.S. Eliot wrote the "Four Quartets." +He won the Nobel Prize for literature in 1948. +At the source of the longest river the voice of a hidden waterfall not known because not looked for, but heard, half heard in the stillness beneath the waves of the sea." +Thank you. +I want to start my talk today with two observations about the human species. +The first observation is something that you might think is quite obvious, and that's that our species, Homo sapiens, is actually really, really smart -- like, ridiculously smart -- like you're all doing things that no other species on the planet does right now. +And this is, of course, not the first time you've probably recognized this. +Of course, in addition to being smart, we're also an extremely vain species. +So we like pointing out the fact that we're smart. +You know, so I could turn to pretty much any sage from Shakespeare to Stephen Colbert to point out things like the fact that we're noble in reason and infinite in faculties and just kind of awesome-er than anything else on the planet when it comes to all things cerebral. +But of course, there's a second observation about the human species that I want to focus on a little bit more, and that's the fact that even though we're actually really smart, sometimes uniquely smart, we can also be incredibly, incredibly dumb when it comes to some aspects of our decision making. +Now I'm seeing lots of smirks out there. +Don't worry, I'm not going to call anyone in particular out on any aspects of your own mistakes. +But of course, just in the last two years we see these unprecedented examples of human ineptitude. +And we've watched as the tools we uniquely make to pull the resources out of our environment kind of just blow up in our face. +We've watched the financial markets that we uniquely create -- these markets that were supposed to be foolproof -- we've watched them kind of collapse before our eyes. +But both of these two embarrassing examples, I think, don't highlight what I think is most embarrassing about the mistakes that humans make, which is that we'd like to think that the mistakes we make are really just the result of a couple bad apples or a couple really sort of FAIL Blog-worthy decisions. +But it turns out, what social scientists are actually learning is that most of us, when put in certain contexts, will actually make very specific mistakes. +The errors we make are actually predictable. +We make them again and again. +And they're actually immune to lots of evidence. +When we get negative feedback, we still, the next time we're face with a certain context, tend to make the same errors. +And so this has been a real puzzle to me as a sort of scholar of human nature. +What I'm most curious about is, how is a species that's as smart as we are capable of such bad and such consistent errors all the time? +You know, we're the smartest thing out there, why can't we figure this out? +In some sense, where do our mistakes really come from? +And having thought about this a little bit, I see a couple different possibilities. +One possibility is, in some sense, it's not really our fault. +Because we're a smart species, we can actually create all kinds of environments that are super, super complicated, sometimes too complicated for us to even actually understand, even though we've actually created them. +We create financial markets that are super complex. +We create mortgage terms that we can't actually deal with. +And of course, if we are put in environments where we can't deal with it, in some sense makes sense that we actually might mess certain things up. +If this was the case, we'd have a really easy solution to the problem of human error. +We'd actually just say, okay, let's figure out the kinds of technologies we can't deal with, the kinds of environments that are bad -- get rid of those, design things better, and we should be the noble species that we expect ourselves to be. +But there's another possibility that I find a little bit more worrying, which is, maybe it's not our environments that are messed up. +Maybe it's actually us that's designed badly. +This is a hint that I've gotten from watching the ways that social scientists have learned about human errors. +And what we see is that people tend to keep making errors exactly the same way, over and over again. +It feels like we might almost just be built to make errors in certain ways. +This is a possibility that I worry a little bit more about, because, if it's us that's messed up, it's not actually clear how we go about dealing with it. +We might just have to accept the fact that we're error prone and try to design things around it. +So this is the question my students and I wanted to get at. +How can we tell the difference between possibility one and possibility two? +What we need is a population that's basically smart, can make lots of decisions, but doesn't have access to any of the systems we have, any of the things that might mess us up -- no human technology, human culture, maybe even not human language. +And so this is why we turned to these guys here. +These are one of the guys I work with. This is a brown capuchin monkey. +These guys are New World primates, which means they broke off from the human branch about 35 million years ago. +This means that your great, great, great great, great, great -- with about five million "greats" in there -- grandmother was probably the same great, great, great, great grandmother with five million "greats" in there as Holly up here. +You know, so you can take comfort in the fact that this guy up here is a really really distant, but albeit evolutionary, relative. +The good news about Holly though is that she doesn't actually have the same kinds of technologies we do. +You know, she's a smart, very cut creature, a primate as well, but she lacks all the stuff we think might be messing us up. +So she's the perfect test case. +What if we put Holly into the same context as humans? +Does she make the same mistakes as us? +Does she not learn from them? And so on. +And so this is the kind of thing we decided to do. +My students and I got very excited about this a few years ago. +We said, all right, let's, you know, throw so problems at Holly, see if she messes these things up. +First problem is just, well, where should we start? +Because, you know, it's great for us, but bad for humans. +We make a lot of mistakes in a lot of different contexts. +You know, where are we actually going to start with this? +And because we started this work around the time of the financial collapse, around the time when foreclosures were hitting the news, we said, hhmm, maybe we should actually start in the financial domain. +Maybe we should look at monkey's economic decisions and try to see if they do the same kinds of dumb things that we do. +Of course, that's when we hit a sort second problem -- a little bit more methodological -- which is that, maybe you guys don't know, but monkeys don't actually use money. I know, you haven't met them. +But this is why, you know, they're not in the queue behind you at the grocery store or the ATM -- you know, they don't do this stuff. +So now we faced, you know, a little bit of a problem here. +How are we actually going to ask monkeys about money if they don't actually use it? +So we said, well, maybe we should just, actually just suck it up and teach monkeys how to use money. +So that's just what we did. +What you're looking at over here is actually the first unit that I know of of non-human currency. +We weren't very creative at the time we started these studies, so we just called it a token. +But this is the unit of currency that we've taught our monkeys at Yale to actually use with humans, to actually buy different pieces of food. +It doesn't look like much -- in fact, it isn't like much. +Like most of our money, it's just a piece of metal. +As those of you who've taken currencies home from your trip know, once you get home, it's actually pretty useless. +It was useless to the monkeys at first before they realized what they could do with it. +When we first gave it to them in their enclosures, they actually kind of picked them up, looked at them. +They were these kind of weird things. +But very quickly, the monkeys realized that they could actually hand these tokens over to different humans in the lab for some food. +And so you see one of our monkeys, Mayday, up here doing this. +This is A and B are kind of the points where she's sort of a little bit curious about these things -- doesn't know. +There's this waiting hand from a human experimenter, and Mayday quickly figures out, apparently the human wants this. +Hands it over, and then gets some food. +It turns out not just Mayday, all of our monkeys get good at trading tokens with human salesman. +So here's just a quick video of what this looks like. +Here's Mayday. She's going to be trading a token for some food and waiting happily and getting her food. +Here's Felix, I think. He's our alpha male; he's a kind of big guy. +But he too waits patiently, gets his food and goes on. +So the monkeys get really good at this. +They're surprisingly good at this with very little training. +We just allowed them to pick this up on their own. +The question is: is this anything like human money? +Is this a market at all, or did we just do a weird psychologist's trick by getting monkeys to do something, looking smart, but not really being smart. +And so we said, well, what would the monkeys spontaneously do if this was really their currency, if they were really using it like money? +Well, you might actually imagine them to do all the kinds of smart things that humans do when they start exchanging money with each other. +You might have them start paying attention to price, paying attention to how much they buy -- sort of keeping track of their monkey token, as it were. +Do the monkeys do anything like this? +And so our monkey marketplace was born. +The way this works is that our monkeys normally live in a kind of big zoo social enclosure. +When they get a hankering for some treats, we actually allowed them a way out into a little smaller enclosure where they could enter the market. +The salesmen were students from my lab. +They dressed differently; they were different people. +And over time, they did basically the same thing so the monkeys could learn, you know, who sold what at what price -- you know, who was reliable, who wasn't, and so on. +And you can see that each of the experimenters is actually holding up a little, yellow food dish. +and that's what the monkey can for a single token. +So everything costs one token, but as you can see, sometimes tokens buy more than others, sometimes more grapes than others. +So I'll show you a quick video of what this marketplace actually looks like. +Here's a monkey-eye-view. Monkeys are shorter, so it's a little short. +But here's Honey. +She's waiting for the market to open a little impatiently. +All of a sudden the market opens. Here's her choice: one grapes or two grapes. +You can see Honey, very good market economist, goes with the guy who gives more. +She could teach our financial advisers a few things or two. +So not just Honey, most of the monkeys went with guys who had more. +Most of the monkeys went with guys who had better food. +When we introduced sales, we saw the monkeys paid attention to that. +They really cared about their monkey token dollar. +The more surprising thing was that when we collaborated with economists to actually look at the monkeys' data using economic tools, they basically matched, not just qualitatively, but quantitatively with what we saw humans doing in a real market. +So much so that, if you saw the monkeys' numbers, you couldn't tell whether they came from a monkey or a human in the same market. +And what we'd really thought we'd done is like we'd actually introduced something that, at least for the monkeys and us, works like a real financial currency. +Question is: do the monkeys start messing up in the same ways we do? +Well, we already saw anecdotally a couple of signs that they might. +One thing we never saw in the monkey marketplace was any evidence of saving -- you know, just like our own species. +The monkeys entered the market, spent their entire budget and then went back to everyone else. +The other thing we also spontaneously saw, embarrassingly enough, is spontaneous evidence of larceny. +The monkeys would rip-off the tokens at every available opportunity -- from each other, often from us -- you know, things we didn't necessarily think we were introducing, but things we spontaneously saw. +So we said, this looks bad. +Can we actually see if the monkeys are doing exactly the same dumb things as humans do? +One possibility is just kind of let the monkey financial system play out, you know, see if they start calling us for bailouts in a few years. +We were a little impatient so we wanted to sort of speed things up a bit. +So we said, let's actually give the monkeys the same kinds of problems that humans tend to get wrong in certain kinds of economic challenges, or certain kinds of economic experiments. +And so, since the best way to see how people go wrong is to actually do it yourself, I'm going to give you guys a quick experiment to sort of watch your own financial intuitions in action. +So imagine that right now I handed each and every one of you a thousand U.S. dollars -- so 10 crisp hundred dollar bills. +Take these, put it in your wallet and spend a second thinking about what you're going to do with it. +Because it's yours now; you can buy whatever you want. +Donate it, take it, and so on. +Sounds great, but you get one more choice to earn a little bit more money. +And here's your choice: you can either be risky, in which case I'm going to flip one of these monkey tokens. +If it comes up heads, you're going to get a thousand dollars more. +If it comes up tails, you get nothing. +So it's a chance to get more, but it's pretty risky. +Your other option is a bit safe. Your just going to get some money for sure. +I'm just going to give you 500 bucks. +You can stick it in your wallet and use it immediately. +So see what your intuition is here. +Most people actually go with the play-it-safe option. +Most people say, why should I be risky when I can get 1,500 dollars for sure? +This seems like a good bet. I'm going to go with that. +You might say, eh, that's not really irrational. +People are a little risk-averse. So what? +Well, the "so what?" comes when start thinking about the same problem set up just a little bit differently. +So now imagine that I give each and every one of you 2,000 dollars -- 20 crisp hundred dollar bills. +Now you can buy double to stuff you were going to get before. +Think about how you'd feel sticking it in your wallet. +And now imagine that I have you make another choice But this time, it's a little bit worse. +Now, you're going to be deciding how you're going to lose money, but you're going to get the same choice. +You can either take a risky loss -- so I'll flip a coin. If it comes up heads, you're going to actually lose a lot. +If it comes up tails, you lose nothing, you're fine, get to keep the whole thing -- or you could play it safe, which means you have to reach back into your wallet and give me five of those $100 bills, for certain. +And I'm seeing a lot of furrowed brows out there. +So maybe you're having the same intuitions as the subjects that were actually tested in this, which is when presented with these options, people don't choose to play it safe. +They actually tend to go a little risky. +The reason this is irrational is that we've given people in both situations the same choice. +It's a 50/50 shot of a thousand or 2,000, or just 1,500 dollars with certainty. +But people's intuitions about how much risk to take varies depending on where they started with. +So what's going on? +Well, it turns out that this seems to be the result of at least two biases that we have at the psychological level. +One is that we have a really hard time thinking in absolute terms. +You really have to do work to figure out, well, one option's a thousand, 2,000; one is 1,500. +Instead, we find it very easy to think in very relative terms as options change from one time to another. +So we think of things as, "Oh, I'm going to get more," or "Oh, I'm going to get less." +This is all well and good, except that changes in different directions actually effect whether or not we think options are good or not. +And this leads to the second bias, which economists have called loss aversion. +The idea is that we really hate it when things go into the red. +We really hate it when we have to lose out on some money. +And this means that sometimes we'll actually switch our preferences to avoid this. +What you saw in that last scenario is that subjects get risky because they want the small shot that there won't be any loss. +That means when we're in a risk mindset -- excuse me, when we're in a loss mindset, we actually become more risky, which can actually be really worrying. +These kinds of things play out in lots of bad ways in humans. +They're why stock investors hold onto losing stocks longer -- because they're evaluating them in relative terms. +They're why people in the housing market refused to sell their house -- because they don't want to sell at a loss. +The question we were interested in is whether the monkeys show the same biases. +If we set up those same scenarios in our little monkey market, would they do the same thing as people? +And so this is what we did, we gave the monkeys choices between guys who were safe -- they did the same thing every time -- or guys who were risky -- they did things differently half the time. +And then we gave them options that were bonuses -- like you guys did in the first scenario -- so they actually have a chance more, or pieces where they were experiencing losses -- they actually thought they were going to get more than they really got. +And so this is what this looks like. +We introduced the monkeys to two new monkey salesmen. +The guy on the left and right both start with one piece of grape, so it looks pretty good. +But they're going to give the monkeys bonuses. +The guy on the left is a safe bonus. +All the time, he adds one, to give the monkeys two. +The guy on the right is actually a risky bonus. +Sometimes the monkeys get no bonus -- so this is a bonus of zero. +Sometimes the monkeys get two extra. +For a big bonus, now they get three. +But this is the same choice you guys just faced. +Do the monkeys actually want to play it safe and then go with the guy who's going to do the same thing on every trial, or do they want to be risky and try to get a risky, but big, bonus, but risk the possibility of getting no bonus. +People here played it safe. +Turns out, the monkeys play it safe too. +Qualitatively and quantitatively, they choose exactly the same way as people, when tested in the same thing. +You might say, well, maybe the monkeys just don't like risk. +Maybe we should see how they do with losses. +And so we ran a second version of this. +Now, the monkeys meet two guys who aren't giving them bonuses; they're actually giving them less than they expect. +So they look like they're starting out with a big amount. +These are three grapes; the monkey's really psyched for this. +But now they learn these guys are going to give them less than they expect. +They guy on the left is a safe loss. +Every single time, he's going to take one of these away and give the monkeys just two. +the guy on the right is the risky loss. +Sometimes he gives no loss, so the monkeys are really psyched, but sometimes he actually gives a big loss, taking away two to give the monkeys only one. +And so what do the monkeys do? +Again, same choice; they can play it safe for always getting two grapes every single time, or they can take a risky bet and choose between one and three. +The remarkable thing to us is that, when you give monkeys this choice, they do the same irrational thing that people do. +They actually become more risky depending on how the experimenters started. +This is crazy because it suggests that the monkeys too are evaluating things in relative terms and actually treating losses differently than they treat gains. +So what does all of this mean? +Well, what we've shown is that, first of all, we can actually give the monkeys a financial currency, and they do very similar things with it. +They do some of the smart things we do, some of the kind of not so nice things we do, like steal it and so on. +But they also do some of the irrational things we do. +They systematically get things wrong and in the same ways that we do. +This is the first take-home message of the Talk, which is that if you saw the beginning of this and you thought, oh, I'm totally going to go home and hire a capuchin monkey financial adviser. +They're way cuter than the one at ... you know -- Don't do that; they're probably going to be just as dumb as the human one you already have. +So, you know, a little bad -- Sorry, sorry, sorry. +A little bad for monkey investors. +But of course, you know, the reason you're laughing is bad for humans too. +Because we've answered the question we started out with. +We wanted to know where these kinds of errors came from. +And we started with the hope that maybe we can sort of tweak our financial institutions, tweak our technologies to make ourselves better. +But what we've learn is that these biases might be a deeper part of us than that. +In fact, they might be due to the very nature of our evolutionary history. +You know, maybe it's not just humans at the right side of this chain that's duncey. +Maybe it's sort of duncey all the way back. +And this, if we believe the capuchin monkey results, means that these duncey strategies might be 35 million years old. +That's a long time for a strategy to potentially get changed around -- really, really old. +What do we know about other old strategies like this? +Well, one thing we know is that they tend to be really hard to overcome. +You know, think of our evolutionary predilection for eating sweet things, fatty things like cheesecake. +You can't just shut that off. +You can't just look at the dessert cart as say, "No, no, no. That looks disgusting to me." +We're just built differently. +We're going to perceive it as a good thing to go after. +My guess is that the same thing is going to be true when humans are perceiving different financial decisions. +When you're watching your stocks plummet into the red, when you're watching your house price go down, you're not going to be able to see that in anything but old evolutionary terms. +This means that the biases that lead investors to do badly, that lead to the foreclosure crisis are going to be really hard to overcome. +So that's the bad news. The question is: is there any good news? +I'm supposed to be up here telling you the good news. +Well, the good news, I think, is what I started with at the beginning of the Talk, which is that humans are not only smart; we're really inspirationally smart to the rest of the animals in the biological kingdom. +We're so good at overcoming our biological limitations -- you know, I flew over here in an airplane. +I didn't have to try to flap my wings. +I'm wearing contact lenses now so that I can see all of you. +I don't have to rely on my own near-sightedness. +We actually have all of these cases where we overcome our biological limitations through technology and other means, seemingly pretty easily. +But we have to recognize that we have those limitations. +And here's the rub. +It was Camus who once said that, "Man is the only species who refuses to be what he really is." +But the irony is that it might only be in recognizing our limitations that we can really actually overcome them. +The hope is that you all will think about your limitations, not necessarily as unovercomable, but to recognize them, accept them and then use the world of design to actually figure them out. +That might be the only way that we will really be able to achieve our own human potential and really be the noble species we hope to all be. +Thank you. +Last year when I was here, I was speaking to you about a swim which I did across the North Pole. +And while that swim took place three years ago, I can remember it as if it was yesterday. +I remember standing on the edge of the ice, about to dive into the water, and thinking to myself, I have never ever seen any place on this earth which is just so frightening. +The water is completely black. +The water is minus 1.7 degrees centigrade, or 29 degrees Fahrenheit. +It's flipping freezing in that water. +And then a thought came across my mind: if things go pear-shaped on this swim, how long will it take for my frozen body to sink the four and a half kilometers to the bottom of the ocean? +And then I said to myself, I've just got to get this thought out of my mind as quickly as possible. +And that swim took me 18 minutes and 50 seconds, and it felt like 18 days. +And I remember getting out of the water and my hands feeling so painful and looking down at my fingers, and my fingers were literally the size of sausages because -- you know, we're made partially of water -- when water freezes it expands, and so the cells in my fingers had frozen and expanded and burst. +And the most immediate thought when I came out of that water was the following: I'm never, ever going to do another cold water swim in my life again. +Anyway, last year, I heard about the Himalayas and the melting of the -- and the melting of the glaciers because of climate change. +I heard about this lake, Lake Imja. +This lake has been formed in the last couple of years because of the melting of the glacier. +The glacier's gone all the way up the mountain and left in its place this big lake. +And I firmly believe that what we're seeing in the Himalayas is the next great, big battleground on this earth. +Nearly two billion people -- so one in three people on this earth -- rely on the water from the Himalayas. +And with a population increasing as quickly as it is, and with the water supply from these glaciers -- because of climate change -- decreasing so much, I think we have a real risk of instability. +North, you've got China; south, you've India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, all these countries. +And so I decided to walk up to Mt. Everest, the highest mountain on this earth, and go and do a symbolic swim underneath the summit of Mt. Everest. +Now, I don't know if any of you have had the opportunity to go to Mt. Everest, but it's quite an ordeal getting up there. +28 great, big, powerful yaks carrying all the equipment up onto this mountain -- I don't just have my Speedo, but there's a big film crew who then send all the images around the world. +The other thing which was so challenging about this swim is not just the altitude. +I wanted to do the swim at 5,300 meters above sea level. +So it's right up in the heavens. +It's very, very difficult to breath. You get altitude sickness. +I feels like you've got a man standing behind you with a hammer just hitting your head all the time. +That's not the worst part of it. +The worst part was this year was the year where they decided to do a big cleanup operation on Mt. Everest. +Many, many people have died on Mt. Everest, and this was the year they decided to go and recover all the bodies of the mountaineers and then bring them down the mountain. +And we walked up this pathway, all the way up. +And to the right hand side of us was this great Khumbu Glacier. +And all the way along the glacier we saw these big pools of melting ice. +And then we got up to this small lake underneath the summit of Mt. Everest, and I prepared myself the same way as I've always prepared myself, for this swim which was going to be so very difficult. +I put on my iPod, I listened to some music, I got myself as aggressive as possible -- but controlled aggression -- and then I hurled myself into that water. +I swam as quickly as I could for the first hundred meters, and then I realized very, very quickly, I had a huge problem on my hands. +I could barely breathe. +I was gasping for air. +I then began to choke, and then it quickly led to me vomiting in the water. +And it all happened so quickly: I then -- I don't know how it happened -- but I went underwater. +And luckily, the water was quite shallow, and I was able to push myself off the bottom of the lake and get up and then take another gasp of air. +And then I said, carry on. Carry on. Carry on. +I carried on for another five or six strokes, and then I had nothing in my body, and I went down to the bottom of the lake. +And I don't where I got it from, but I was able to somehow pull myself up and as quickly as possible get to the side of the lake. +I've heard it said that drowning is the most peaceful death that you can have. +I have never, ever heard such utter bollocks. +It is the most frightening and panicky feeling that you can have. +I got myself to the side of the lake. +My crew grabbed me, and then we walked as quickly as we could down -- over the rubble -- down to our camp. +And there, we sat down, and we did a debrief about what had gone wrong there on Mt. Everest. +And my team just gave it to me straight. +They said, Lewis, you need to have a radical tactical shift if you want to do this swim. +Every single thing which you have learned in the past 23 years of swimming, you must forget. +Every single thing which you learned when you were serving in the British army, about speed and aggression, you put that to one side. +We want you to walk up the hill in another two days' time. +Take some time to rest and think about things. +We want you to walk up the mountain in two days' time, and instead of swimming fast, swim as slowly as possible. +Instead of swimming crawl, swim breaststroke. +And remember, never ever swim with aggression. +This is the time to swim with real humility. +And so we walked back up to the mountain two days later. +And I stood there on the edge of the lake, and I looked up at Mt. Everest -- and she is one of the most beautiful mountains on the earth -- and I said to myself, just do this slowly. +And I swam across the lake. +And I can't begin to tell you how good I felt when I came to the other side. +But I learned two very, very important lessons there on Mt. Everest, and I thank my team of Sherpas who taught me this. +The first one is that just because something has worked in the past so well, doesn't mean it's going to work in the future. +And similarly, now, before I do anything, I ask myself what type of mindset do I require to successfully complete a task. +The warning signs are all there. +When I was born, the world's population was 3.5 billion people. +We're now 6.8 billion people, and we're expected to be 9 billion people by 2050. +And then the second lesson, the radical, tactical shift. +And I've come here to ask you today: what radical tactical shift can you take in your relationship to the environment, which will ensure that our children and our grandchildren live in a safe world and a secure world, and most importantly, in a sustainable world? +And I ask you, please, to go away from here and think about that one radical tactical shift which you could make, which will make that big difference, and then commit a hundred percent to doing it. +Blog about it, tweet about it, talk about it, and commit a hundred percent, because very, very few things are impossible to achieve if we really put our whole minds to it. +So thank you very, very much. +I grew up on a small farm in Missouri. +We lived on less than a dollar a day for about 15 years. +I got a scholarship, went to university, studied international agriculture, studied anthropology, and decided I was going to give back. +I was going to work with small farmers. +I was going to help alleviate poverty. +I was going to work on international development, and then I took a turn and ended up here. +Now, if you get a Ph.D., and you decide not to teach, you don't always end up in a place like this. +It's a choice. You might end up driving a taxicab. +You could be in New York. +What I found was, I started working with refugees and famine victims -- small farmers, all, or nearly all -- who had been dispossessed and displaced. +Now, what I'd been trained to do was methodological research on such people. +So I did it: I found out how many women had been raped en route to these camps. +I found out how many people had been put in jail, how many family members had been killed. +I assessed how long they were going to stay and how much it would take to feed them. +And I got really good at predicting how many body bags you would need for the people who were going to die in these camps. +Now this is God's work, but it's not my work. +It's not the work I set out to do. +So I was at a Grateful Dead benefit concert on the rainforests in 1988. +I met a guy -- the guy on the left. +His name was Ben. +He said, "What can I do to save the rainforests?" +I said, "Well, Ben, what do you do?" +"I make ice cream." +So I said, "Well, you've got to make a rainforest ice cream. +And you've got to use nuts from the rainforests to show that forests are worth more as forests than they are as pasture." +He said, "Okay." +Within a year, Rainforest Crunch was on the shelves. +It was a great success. +We did our first million-dollars-worth of trade by buying on 30 days and selling on 21. +That gets your adrenaline going. +Then we had a four and a half million-dollar line of credit because we were credit-worthy at that point. +We had 15 to 20, maybe 22 percent of the global Brazil-nut market. +We paid two to three times more than anybody else. +Everybody else raised their prices to the gatherers of Brazil nuts because we would buy it otherwise. +A great success. +50 companies signed up, 200 products came out, generated 100 million in sales. +It failed. +Why did it fail? +Because the people who were gathering Brazil nuts weren't the same people who were cutting the forests. +And the people who made money from Brazil nuts were not the people who made money from cutting the forests. +We were attacking the wrong driver. +We needed to be working on beef. +We needed to be working on lumber. +We needed to be working on soy -- things that we were not focused on. +So let's go back to Sudan. +I often talk to refugees: "Why was it that the West didn't realize that famines are caused by policies and politics, not by weather?" +And this farmer said to me, one day, something that was very profound. +He said, "You can't wake a person who's pretending to sleep." +Okay. Fast forward. +We live on a planet. +We've got to wake up to the fact that we don't have any more and that this is a finite planet. +We know the limits of the resources we have. +We may be able to use them differently. +We may have some innovative, new ideas. +But in general, this is what we've got. +There's no more of it. +There's a basic equation that we can't get away from. +Population times consumption has got to have some kind of relationship to the planet, and right now, it's a simple "not equal." +Our work shows that we're living at about 1.3 planets. +Since 1990, we crossed the line of being in a sustainable relationship to the planet. +Now we're at 1.3. +If we were farmers, we'd be eating our seed. +For bankers, we'd be living off the principal, not the interest. +This is where we stand today. +A lot of people like to point to some place else as the cause of the problem. +It's always population growth. +Population growth's important, but it's also about how much each person consumes. +So when the average American consumes 43 times as much as the average African, we've got to think that consumption is an issue. +It's not just about population, and it's not just about them; it's about us. +But it's not just about people; it's about lifestyles. +There's very good evidence -- again, we don't necessarily have a peer-reviewed methodology that's bulletproof yet -- but there's very good evidence that the average cat in Europe has a larger environmental footprint in its lifetime than the average African. +You think that's not an issue going forward? +You think that's not a question as to how we should be using the Earth's resources? +Let's go back and visit our equation. +In 2000, we had six billion people on the planet. +They were consuming what they were consuming -- let's say one unit of consumption each. +We have six billion units of consumption. +By 2050, we're going to have nine billion people -- all the scientists agree. +They're all going to consume twice as much as they currently do -- scientists, again, agree -- because income is going to grow in developing countries five times what it is today -- on global average, about [2.9]. +So we're going to have 18 billion units of consumption. +Who have you heard talking lately that's said we have to triple production of goods and services? +But that's what the math says. +We're not going to be able to do that. +We can get productivity up. +We can get efficiency up. +But we've also got to get consumption down. +We need to use less to make more. +And then we need to use less again. +And then we need to consume less. +All of those things are part of that equation. +But it basically raises a fundamental question: should consumers have a choice about sustainability, about sustainable products? +Should you be able to buy a product that's sustainable sitting next to one that isn't, or should all the products on the shelf be sustainable? +If they should all be sustainable on a finite planet, how do you make that happen? +The average consumer takes 1.8 seconds in the U.S. +Okay, so let's be generous. +Let's say it's 3.5 seconds in Europe. +How do you evaluate all the scientific data around a product, the data that's changing on a weekly, if not a daily, basis? +How do you get informed? +You don't. +Here's a little question. +From a greenhouse gas perspective, is lamb produced in the U.K. +better than lamb produced in New Zealand, frozen and shipped to the U.K.? +Is a bad feeder lot operation for beef better or worse than a bad grazing operation for beef? +Do organic potatoes actually have fewer toxic chemicals used to produce them than conventional potatoes? +In every single case, the answer is "it depends." +It depends on who produced it and how, in every single instance. +And there are many others. +How is a consumer going to walk through this minefield? +They're not. +They may have a lot of opinions about it, but they're not going to be terribly informed. +Sustainability has got to be a pre-competitive issue. +It's got to be something we all care about. +And we need collusion. +We need groups to work together that never have. +We need Cargill to work with Bunge. +We need Coke to work with Pepsi. +We need Oxford to work with Cambridge. +We need Greenpeace to work with WWF. +Everybody's got to work together -- China and the U.S. +We need to begin to manage this planet as if our life depended on it, because it does, it fundamentally does. +But we can't do everything. +Even if we get everybody working on it, we've got to be strategic. +We need to focus on the where, the what and the who. +So, the where: We've identified 35 places globally that we need to work. +These are the places that are the richest in biodiversity and the most important from an ecosystem function point-of-view. +We have to work in these places. +We have to save these places if we want a chance in hell of preserving biodiversity as we know it. +We looked at the threats to these places. +These are the 15 commodities that fundamentally pose the biggest threats to these places because of deforestation, soil loss, water use, pesticide use, over-fishing, etc. +So we've got 35 places, we've got 15 priority commodities, who do we work with to change the way those commodities are produced? +Are we going to work with 6.9 billion consumers? +Let's see, that's about 7,000 languages, 350 major languages -- a lot of work there. +I don't see anybody actually being able to do that very effectively. +Are we going to work with 1.5 billion producers? +Again, a daunting task. +There must be a better way. +300 to 500 companies control 70 percent or more of the trade of each of the 15 commodities that we've identified as the most significant. +If we work with those, if we change those companies and the way they do business, then the rest will happen automatically. +So, we went through our 15 commodities. +This is nine of them. +We lined them up side-by-side, and we put the names of the companies that work on each of those. +And if you go through the first 25 or 30 names of each of the commodities, what you begin to see is, gosh, there's Cargill here, there's Cargill there, there's Cargill everywhere. +In fact, these names start coming up over and over again. +So we did the analysis again a slightly different way. +We said: if we take the top hundred companies, what percentage of all 15 commodities do they touch, buy or sell? +And what we found is it's 25 percent. +So 100 companies control 25 percent of the trade of all 15 of the most significant commodities on the planet. +We can get our arms around a hundred companies. +A hundred companies, we can work with. +Why is 25 percent important? +Because if these companies demand sustainable products, they'll pull 40 to 50 percent of production. +Companies can push producers faster than consumers can. +By companies asking for this, we can leverage production so much faster than by waiting for consumers to do it. +After 40 years, the global organic movement has achieved 0.7 of one percent of global food. +We can't wait that long. +We don't have that kind of time. +We need change that's going to accelerate. +Even working with individual companies We need to begin to work with industries. +So we've started roundtables where we bring together the entire value chain, from producers all the way to the retailers and brands. +We bring in civil society, we bring in NGOs, we bring in researchers and scientists to have an informed discussion -- sometimes a battle royale -- to figure out what are the key impacts of these products, what is a global benchmark, what's an acceptable impact, and design standards around that. +It's not all fun and games. +In salmon aquaculture, we kicked off a roundtable almost six years ago. +Eight entities came to the table. +We eventually got, I think, 60 percent of global production at the table and 25 percent of demand at the table. +Three of the original eight entities were suing each other. +And yet, next week, we launch globally verified, vetted and certified standards for salmon aquaculture. +It can happen. +So what brings the different entities to the table? +It's risk and demand. +For the big companies, it's reputational risk, but more importantly, they don't care what the price of commodities is. +If they don't have commodities, they don't have a business. +They care about availability, so the big risk for them is not having product at all. +For the producers, if a buyer wants to buy something produced a certain way, that's what brings them to the table. +So it's the demand that brings them to the table. +The good news is we identified a hundred companies two years ago. +In the last 18 months, we've signed agreements with 40 of those hundred companies to begin to work with them on their supply chain. +And in the next 18 months, we will have signed up to work with another 40, and we think we'll get those signed as well. +So we're pulling out all the stops. +We're using whatever leverage we have to bring them to the table. +One company we're working with that's begun -- in baby steps, perhaps -- but has begun this journey on sustainability is Cargill. +They've funded research that shows that we can double global palm oil production without cutting a single tree in the next 20 years, and do it all in Borneo alone by planting on land that's already degraded. +The study shows that the highest net present value for palm oil is on land that's been degraded. +They're also undertaking a study to look at all of their supplies of palm oil to see if they could be certified and what they would need to change in order to become third-party certified under a credible certification program. +Why is Cargill important? +Because Cargill has 20 to 25 percent of global palm oil. +If Cargill makes a decision, the entire palm oil industry moves, or at least 40 or 50 percent of it. +That's not insignificant. +More importantly, Cargill and one other company ship 50 percent of the palm oil that goes to China. +We don't have to change the way a single Chinese company works if we get Cargill to only send sustainable palm oil to China. +It's a pre-competitive issue. +All the palm oil going there is good. +Buy it. +Mars is also on a similar journey. +Now most people understand that Mars is a chocolate company, but Mars has made sustainability pledges to buy only certified product for all of its seafood. +It turns out Mars buys more seafood than Walmart because of pet food. +But they're doing some really interesting things around chocolate, and it all comes from the fact that Mars wants to be in business in the future. +And what they see is that they need to improve chocolate production. +On any given plantation, 20 percent of the trees produce 80 percent of the crop, so Mars is looking at the genome, they're sequencing the genome of the cocoa plant. +They're doing it with IBM and the USDA, and they're putting it in the public domain because they want everybody to have access to this data, because they want everybody to help them make cocoa more productive and more sustainable. +What they've realized is that if they can identify the traits on productivity and drought tolerance, they can produce 320 percent as much cocoa on 40 percent of the land. +The rest of the land can be used for something else. +It's more with less and less again. +That's what the future has got to be, and putting it in the public domain is smart. +They don't want to be an I.P. company; they want to be a chocolate company, but they want to be a chocolate company forever. +Now, the price of food, many people complain about, but in fact, the price of food is going down, and that's odd because in fact, consumers are not paying for the true cost of food. +If you take a look just at water, with four very common products, you look at how much a farmer produced to make those products, and then you look at how much water input was put into them, and then you look at what the farmer was paid. +If you divide the amount of water into what the farmer was paid, the farmer didn't receive enough money to pay a decent price for water in any of those commodities. +That is an externality by definition. +This is the subsidy from nature. +Coca-Cola, they've worked a lot on water, but right now, they're entering into 17-year contracts with growers in Turkey to sell juice into Europe, and they're doing that because they want to have a product that's closer to the European market. +But they're not just buying the juice; they're also buying the carbon in the trees to offset the shipment costs associated with carbon to get the product into Europe. +There's carbon that's being bought with sugar, with coffee, with beef. +This is called bundling. It's bringing those externalities back into the price of the commodity. +We need to take what we've learned in private, voluntary standards of what the best producers in the world are doing and use that to inform government regulation, so we can shift the entire performance curve. +We can't just focus on identifying the best; we've got to move the rest. +The issue isn't what to think, it's how to think. +These companies have begun to think differently. +They're on a journey; there's no turning back. +We're all on that same journey with them. +We have to really begin to change the way we think about everything. +Whatever was sustainable on a planet of six billion is not going to be sustainable on a planet with nine. +Thank you. +The global challenge that I want to talk to you about today rarely makes the front pages. +It, however, is enormous in both scale and importance. +Look, you all are very well traveled; this is TEDGlobal after all. +But I do hope to take you to some places you've never been to before. +So, let's start off in China. +This photo was taken two weeks ago. +Actually, one indication is that little boy on my husband's shoulders has just graduated from high school. +But this is Tiananmen Square. +Many of you have been there. It's not the real China. +Let me take you to the real China. +This is in the Dabian Mountains in the remote part of Hubei province in central China. +Dai Manju is 13 years old at the time the story starts. +She lives with her parents, her two brothers and her great-aunt. +They have a hut that has no electricity, no running water, no wristwatch, no bicycle. +And they share this great splendor with a very large pig. +Dai Manju was in sixth grade when her parents said, "We're going to pull you out of school because the 13-dollar school fees are too much for us. +You're going to be spending the rest of your life in the rice paddies. +Why would we waste this money on you?" +This is what happens to girls in remote areas. +Turns out that Dai Manju was the best pupil in her grade. +She still made the two-hour trek to the schoolhouse and tried to catch every little bit of information that seeped out of the doors. +We wrote about her in The New York Times. +We got a flood of donations -- mostly 13-dollar checks because New York Times readers are very generous in tiny amounts but then, we got a money transfer for $10,000 -- really nice guy. +We turned the money over to that man there, the principal of the school. +He was delighted. +He thought, "Oh, I can renovate the school. +I can give scholarships to all the girls, you know, if they work hard and stay in school. +So Dai Manju basically finished out middle school. +She went to high school. +She went to vocational school for accounting. +She scouted for jobs down in Guangdong province in the south. +She found a job, she scouted for jobs for her classmates and her friends. +She sent money back to her family. +They built a new house, this time with running water, electricity, a bicycle, no pig. +What we saw was a natural experiment. +It is rare to get an exogenous investment in girls' education. +And over the years, as we followed Dai Manju, we were able to see that she was able to move out of a vicious cycle and into a virtuous cycle. +She not only changed her own dynamic, she changed her household, she changed her family, her village. +The village became a real standout. +Of course, most of China was flourishing at the time, but they were able to get a road built to link them up to the rest of China. +And that brings me to my first major of two tenets of "Half the Sky." +And that is that the central moral challenge of this century is gender inequity. +In the 19th century, it was slavery. +In the 20th century, it was totalitarianism. +The cause of our time is the brutality that so many people face around the world because of their gender. +So some of you may be thinking, "Gosh, that's hyperbole. +She's exaggerating." +Well, let me ask you this question. +How many of you think there are more males or more females in the world? +Let me take a poll. How many of you think there are more males in the world? +Hands up, please. +How many of you think -- a few -- how many of you there are more females in the world? +Okay, most of you. +Well, you know this latter group, you're wrong. +There are, true enough, in Europe and the West, when women and men have equal access to food and health care, there are more women, we live longer. +But in most of the rest of the world, that's not the case. +In fact, demographers have shown that there are anywhere between 60 million and 100 million missing females in the current population. +And, you know, it happens for several reasons. +For instance, in the last half-century, more girls were discriminated to death than all the people killed on all the battlefields in the 20th century. +Sometimes it's also because of the sonogram. +Girls get aborted before they're even born when there are scarce resources. +This girl here, for instance, is in a feeding center in Ethiopia. +The entire center was filled with girls like her. +What's remarkable is that her brothers, in the same family, were totally fine. +In India, in the first year of life, from zero to one, boy and girl babies basically survive at the same rate because they depend upon the breast, and the breast shows no son preference. +From one to five, girls die at a 50 percent higher mortality rate than boys, in all of India. +The second tenet of "Half the Sky" is that, let's put aside the morality of all the right and wrong of it all, and just on a purely practical level, we think that one of the best ways to fight poverty and to fight terrorism is to educate girls and to bring women into the formal labor force. +Poverty, for instance. +There are three reasons why this is the case. +For one, overpopulation is one of the persistent causes of poverty. +And you know, when you educate a boy, his family tends to have fewer kids, but only slightly. +When you educate a girl, she tends to have significantly fewer kids. +The second reason is it has to do with spending. +It's kind of like the dirty, little secret of poverty, which is that, not only do poor people take in very little income, but also, the income that they take in, they don't spend it very wisely, and unfortunately, most of that spending is done by men. +So research has shown, if you look at people who live under two dollars a day -- one metric of poverty -- two percent of that take-home pay goes to this basket here, in education. +20 percent goes to a basket that is a combination of alcohol, tobacco, sugary drinks -- and prostitution and festivals. +If you just take four percentage points and put it into this basket, you would have a transformative effect. +The last reason has to do with women being part of the solution, not the problem. +You need to use scarce resources. +It's a waste of resources if you don't use someone like Dai Manju. +Bill Gates put it very well when he was traveling through Saudi Arabia. +He was speaking to an audience much like yourselves. +However, two-thirds of the way there was a barrier. +On this side was men, and then the barrier, and this side was women. +And someone from this side of the room got up and said, "Mr. Gates, we have here as our goal in Saudi Arabia to be one of the top 10 countries when it comes to technology. +Do you think we'll make it?" +So Bill Gates, as he was staring out at the audience, he said, "If you're not fully utilizing half the resources in your country, there is no way you will get anywhere near the top 10." +So here is Bill of Arabia. +So what would some of the specific challenges look like? +I would say, on the top of the agenda is sex trafficking. +And I'll just say two things about this. +The slavery at the peak of the slave trade in the 1780s: there were about 80,000 slaves transported from Africa to the New World. +Now, modern slavery: according to State Department rough statistics, there are about 800,000 -- 10 times the number -- that are trafficked across international borders. +And that does not even include those that are trafficked within country borders, which is a substantial portion. +And if you look at another factor, another contrast, a slave back then is worth about $40,000 in today's money. +Today, you can buy a girl trafficked for a few hundred dollars, which means she's actually more disposable. +But you know, there is progress being made in places like Cambodia and Thailand. +We don't have to expect a world where girls are bought and sold or killed. +The second item on the agenda is maternal mortality. +You know, childbirth in this part of the world is a wonderful event. +In Niger, one in seven women can expect to die during childbirth. +Around the world, one woman dies every minute and a half from childbirth. +You know, it's not as though we don't have the technological solution, but these women have three strikes against them: they are poor, they are rural and they are female. +You know, for every woman who does die, there are 20 who survive but end up with an injury. +And the most devastating injury is obstetric fistula. +It's a tearing during obstructed labor that leaves a woman incontinent. +Let me tell you about Mahabuba. +She lives in Ethiopia. +She was married against her will at age 13. +She got pregnant, ran to the bush to have the baby, but you know, her body was very immature, and she ended up having obstructed labor. +The baby died, and she ended up with a fistula. +So that meant she was incontinent; she couldn't control her wastes. +In a word, she stank. +The villagers thought she was cursed; they didn't know what to do with her. +So finally, they put her at the edge of the village in a hut. +They ripped off the door so that the hyenas would get her at night. +That night, there was a stick in the hut. +She fought off the hyenas with that stick. +And the next morning, she knew if she could get to a nearby village where there was a foreign missionary, she would be saved. +Because she had some damage to her nerves, she crawled all the way -- 30 miles -- to that doorstep, half dead. +The foreign missionary opened the door, knew exactly what had happened, took her to a nearby fistula hospital in Addis Ababa, and she was repaired with a 350-dollar operation. +The doctors and nurses there noticed that she was not only a survivor, she was really clever, and they made her a nurse. +So now, Mahabuba, she is saving the lives of hundreds, thousands, of women. +She has become part of the solution, not the problem. +She's moved out of a vicious cycle and into a virtuous cycle. +I've talked about some of the challenges, let me talk about some of the solutions, and there are predictable solutions. +I've hinted at them: education and also economic opportunity. +So of course, when you educate a girl, she tends to get married later on in life, she tends to have kids later on in life, she tends to have fewer kids, and those kids that she does have, she educates them in a more enlightened fashion. +With economic opportunity, it can be transformative. +Let me tell you about Saima. +She lives in a small village outside Lahore, Pakistan. +And at the time, she was miserable. +She was beaten every single day by her husband, who was unemployed. +He was kind of a gambler type -- and unemployable, therefore -- and took his frustrations out on her. +Well, when she had her second daughter, her mother in-law told her son, "I think you'd better get a second wife. +Saima's not going to produce you a son." +This is when she had her second daughter. +At the time, there was a microlending group in the village that gave her a 65-dollar loan. +Saima took that money, and she started an embroidery business. +The merchants liked her embroidery; it sold very well, and they kept asking for more. +And when she couldn't produce enough, she hired other women in the village. +Pretty soon she had 30 women in the village working for her embroidery business. +And then, when she had to transport all of the embroidery goods from the village to the marketplace, she needed someone to help her do the transport, so she hired her husband. +So now they're in it together. +He does the transportation and distribution, and she does the production and sourcing. +And now they have a third daughter, and the daughters, all of them, are being tutored in education because Saima knows what's really important. +Which brings me to the final element, which is education. +Larry Summers, when he was chief economist at the World Bank, once said that, "It may well be that the highest return on investment in the developing world is in girls' education." +Let me tell you about Beatrice Biira. +Beatrice was living in Uganda near the Congo border, and like Dai Manju, she didn't go to school. +Actually, she had never been to school, not to a lick, one day. +Her parents, again, said, "Why should we spend the money on her? +She's going to spend most of her life lugging water back and forth." +Well, it just so happens, at that time, there was a group in Connecticut called the Niantic Community Church Group in Connecticut. +They made a donation to an organization based in Arkansas called Heifer International. +Heifer sent two goats to Africa. +One of them ended up with Beatrice's parents, and that goat had twins. +The twins started producing milk. +They sold the milk for cash. +The cash started accumulating, and pretty soon the parents said, "You know, we've got enough money. Let's send Beatrice to school." +So at nine years of age, Beatrice started in first grade -- after all, she'd never been to a lick of school -- with a six year-old. +No matter, she was just delighted to be in school. +She rocketed to the top of her class. +She stayed at the top of her class through elementary school, middle school, and then in high school, she scored brilliantly on the national examinations so that she became the first person in her village, ever, to come to the United States on scholarship. +Two years ago, she graduated from Connecticut College. +On the day of her graduation, she said, "I am the luckiest girl alive because of a goat." +And that goat was $120. +So you see how transformative little bits of help can be. +But I want to give you a reality check. +Look: U.S. aid, helping people is not easy, and there have been books that have criticized U.S. aid. +There's Bill Easterly's book. +There's a book called "Dead Aid." +You know, the criticism is fair; it isn't easy. +You know, people say how half of all water well projects, a year later, are failed. +When I was in Zimbabwe, we were touring a place with the village chief -- he wanted to raise money for a secondary school -- and there was some construction a few yards away, and I said, "What's that?" +He sort of mumbled. +Turns out that it's a failed irrigation project. +A few yards away was a failed chicken coop. +One year, all the chickens died, and no one wanted to put the chickens in there. +It's true, but we think that you don't through the baby out with the bathwater; you actually improve. +You learn from your mistakes, and you continuously improve. +We also think that individuals can make a difference, and they should, because individuals, together, we can all help create a movement. +And a movement of men and women is what's needed to bring about social change, change that will address this great moral challenge. +So then, I ask, what's in it for you? +You're probably asking that. Why should you care? +I will just leave you with two things. +One is that research shows that once you have all of your material needs taken care of -- which most of us, all of us, here in this room do -- research shows that there are very few things in life that can actually elevate your level of happiness. +One of those things is contributing to a cause larger than yourself. +And the second thing, it's an anecdote that I'll leave you with. +And that is the story of an aid worker in Darfur. +Here was a woman who had worked in Darfur, seeing things that no human being should see. +Throughout her time there, she was strong, she was steadfast. +She never broke down. +And then she came back to the United States and was on break, Christmas break. +She was in her grandmother's backyard, and she saw something that made her break down in tears. +What that was was a bird feeder. +And she realized that she had the great fortune to be born in a country where we take security for granted, where we not only can feed, clothe and house ourselves, but also provide for wild birds so they don't go hungry in the winter. +And she realized that with that great fortune comes great responsibility. +And so, like her, you, me, we have all won the lottery of life. +And so the question becomes: how do we discharge that responsibility? +So, here's the cause. +Join the movement. +Feel happier and help save the world. +Thank you very much. +And so a year ago, I showed this off at a computer show called E3. +And this was a piece of technology with someone called Claire interacting with this boy. +And there was a huge row online about, "Hey, this can't be real." +And so I waited till now to have an actual demo of the real tech. +Now, this tech incorporates three big elements. +Now, I'll be honest with you and say that most of it is just a trick, but it's a trick that actually works. +So why don't we go over and have a look at the demo now. +This is Dimitri. +Dimitri, just waggle your arm around. +Now, you notice he's sitting. +There are no controllers, no keyboards, or mice, or joysticks, or joypads. +He is just going to use his hand, his body and his voice, just like humans interact with their hands, body and voice. +So let's move forward. +You're going to meet Milo for the first time. +We had to give him a problem because when we first created Milo, we realized that he came across as a little bit of a brat, to be honest with you. +He was quite a know-it-all, and he wanted to kind of make you laugh. +So the problem we introduced to him was this: he's just moved house. +He's moved from London to New England, over in America. +His parents are too busy to listen to his problems, and that's when he starts almost conjuring you up. +So here he is walking through the grass. +And you're able to interact with his world. +The cool thing is, what we're doing is we're changing the mind of Milo constantly. +That means no two people's Milos can be the same. +You're actually sculpting a human being here. +So, he's discovering the garden. +You're helping him discover the garden by just pointing out these snails. +Very simple at the start. +By the way, if you are a boy, it's snails; if you're a girl, it's butterflies because what we found was that girls hate snails. +So remember, this is the first time you've met him, and we really want to draw you in and make you more curious. +His face, by the way, is fully AI-driven. +We have complete control over his blush responses, the diameter of his nostrils to denote stress. +We actually do something called body matching. +If you're leaning forward, he will try and slightly change the neuro-linguistic nature of his face, because we went out with this strong idea: how can we make you believe that something's real? +Now we've used the hand. +The other thing to use is your body. +Why not just, instead of pushing left and right with a mouse or with a joypad, why not use your body just to lean on the chair -- again, relaxed? +You can lean back, but the camera will change its perspective depending on which way you're looking. +So Dimitri's now going to use -- he's used his hand; he's used his body. +He's now going to use the other thing which is essential, and that's his voice. +Now, the thing about voice is, our experience with voice recognition is pretty awful, isn't it? +It never works. +You order an airline ticket; you end up in Timbuktu. +So we've tackled that problem, and we've come up with a solution, which we'll see in a second. +Milo: I could just squish it. +Peter Molyneux: What are you going to do, Dimitri? +Female Voice: Squashing a snail may not seem important, but remember, even this choice will affect how Milo develops. +Do you want Milo to squash it? +When you see the microphone, say ... (PM: Squash.) ... yes to decide. +Dimitri: Go on, Milo. Squash it. +PM: No. That's the wrong thing to do. +Now look at his response. +He said, "Go on, Milo. Squash it." +What we're using there is, we're using something, a piece of technology called Tellme. +It's a company that Microsoft acquired some years ago. +We've got a database of words which we recognize. +We pick those words out. +We also reference that with the tonation database that we build up of Dimitri's voice, or the user's voice. +Now we need to have a bit more engagement, and again, what we can do is we can look at the body. +And we'll do that in a second. +Milo: I wonder how deep it is. +Deep. +PM: Okay. So what we're going to do now is teach Milo to skim stones. +We're actually teaching him. +It's very, very interesting that men, more than women, tend to be more competitive here. +They're fine with teaching Milo for the first few throws, but then they want to beat Milo, where women, they're more nurturing about this. +Okay, this is skimming stones. +How do you skim stones? +You stand up, and you skim the stone. +It's that simple. +Just recognizing your body, recognizing the body's motions, the tech, understanding that you've gone from sitting down to standing up. +Again, all of this is done in the way us humans do things, and that's crucially important if we want Milo to appear real. +Female Voice: See if you can inspire him to do any better. +Try hitting the boat. +Milo: Ahhh. So close. +PM: That's Dimitri at his most competitive. +Now beaten an 11-year-old child. Well done. +Milo: Okay. +PM: So, Milo's being called back in by his parents, giving us time to be alone and to help him out. +Basically -- the bit that we missed at the start -- his parents had asked him to clean up his room. +And we're going to help him with this now. +But this is going to be an introduction, and this is all about the deep psychology that we're trying to use. +We're trying to introduce you to what I believe is the most wonderful part, you being able to talk in your natural voice to Milo. +Now, to do that, we needed a set up, like a magician's trick. +And what we did was, we needed to give Milo this big problem. +So as Dimitri starts tidying up, you can overhear a conversation that Milo's having with his parents. +Milo's Mom: Oh, you've got gravy all over the floor. (Milo: I didn't mean to!) Milo's Mom: That carpet is brand new. +PM: So he's just spilled a plate of sausages on the floor, on the brand-new carpet. +We've all done it as parents; we've all done it as children. +Now's a chance for Dimitri to kind of reassure and calm Milo down. +It's all been too much for him. +He's just moved house. He's got no friends. +Now is the time when we open that portal and allow you to talk to Milo. +Female Voice: Why don't you try saying something encouraging to cheer Milo up. +Dimitri: Come on, Milo. You know what parents are like. +They're always getting stressed. +Milo: What do they want to come here for anyway? +We don't know anyone. +Dimitri: Well, you've got a new school to go to. +You're going to meet loads of cool, new friends. +Milo: I just really miss my old house, that's all. +Dimitri: Well, this is a pretty awesome house, Milo. +You've got a cool garden to play in and a pond. +Milo: It was good skimming stones. +This looks nice. +You cleaned up my room. +Thanks. +PM: So after three-quarters of an hour, he recognizes you. +And I promise you, if you're sitting in front of this screen, that is a truly wonderful moment. +And we're ready now to tell a story about his childhood and his life, and it goes on, and he has, you know, many adventures. +Some of those adventures are a little bit dark or on the darker side. +Some of those adventures are wonderfully encouraging -- he's got to go to school. +The cool thing is that we're doing as well: as you interact with him, you're able to put things into his world; he recognizes objects. +His mind is based in a cloud. +That means Milo's mind, as millions of people use it, will get smarter and cleverer. +He'll recognize more objects and thus understand more words. +But for me, this is a wonderful opportunity where technology, at last, can be connected with, where I am no longer restrained by the finger I hold in my hand -- as far as a computer game's concerned -- or by the blandness of not being noticed if you're watching a film or a book. +And I love those revolutions, and I love the future that Milo brings. +Thank you very much indeed. +This talk is about righting writing wrongs. +No, the sound's not faulty -- righting writing wrongs. +The Middle East is huge, and with all our problems, one thing's for sure: we love to laugh. +I think humor is a great way to celebrate our differences. +We need to take our responsibilities seriously, but not ourselves. +Don't get me wrong: it's not like we don't have comedy in the Middle East. +I grew up at a time when iconic actors from Kuwait, Syria, Egypt used laughter to unite the region, just as football can. +Now is the time for us to laugh at ourselves, before others can laugh with us. +This is the story of the rise and rise of stand-up comedy in the Middle East -- a stand-up uprising, if you will. +Working in London as TV maker and writer, I quickly realized that comedy connects audiences. +Now, the best breeding ground for good comic writing is the stand-up comedy circuit, where they just happen to say that you kill when you do well and you bomb when you do badly. +An unfortunate connection for us maybe, but it reminds me that we'd like to thank one man for, over the past decade, working tirelessly to support comedians all around the world, specifically comedians with a Middle Eastern background. +Like my good friends, Dean and Maysoon, at the bottom of the screen, who, two years after 9/11, started a festival to change the way Middle Easterners are perceived in the world. +It's still going strong, with positive press to die for. +Also, three guys working for years in Los Angeles, an Iranian, a Palestinian and an Egyptian, created the aptly named Axis of Evil comedy act. +And wherever they went, they killed. +Now, I didn't start this fire, but I did pour petrol on it. +I moved to Dubai as the head of original content for a Western TV network. +My job was to connect the brand with a Middle Eastern audience. +Now, the American head of programming wanted new local Arabic comedy. +In a thick Arabic accent, my brain went, "Berfect." +Now, I had friends in the U.S. +who had started a successful new tribe. +And I had every intention of taking this tribe from being outliers in the Middle East and pushing them over the tipping point towards success. +Now, as with any new idea, it wasn't easy. +I had four phases to this plan. +First, we'd need to buy content from the West and air it. +Then I'd bring my friends, and we'd show local amateurs how it's done. +We would film that and air it, and then I could work with the local amateurs and write new comedy. +I excitedly presented this to the big boss, and his reaction was, "Um, I don't get it." +So I retreated back to my cave and continued to support and produce comedy and let my friends use my couch as a regional operations hub. +Now, fast forward two years, to early 2007. +The earth rotated, as did our management, and as if by divine intervention, things came together to help this revolution take shape. +Here's how the dots connected. +First, the Axis guys recorded a Comedy Central special that aired in the States, and it was getting great hits on YouTube. +Our new French CEO believed in the power of positive PR ... +and ideas du bon marche. +Let's just say "value for money." +I produced in Dubai a show for Ahmed Ahmed to showcase his new Axis special to a packed room. +I invited our new CEO, and as soon as he realized we had a room packed full of laughing infidels, his reaction was very simple: "Let's make this happen. +And one more thing: No, don't F it up." +So I quickly went to work with a great team around me. +I happened to find a funny guy to present it in Arabic, who is originally Korean, a perfect fit for the Axis of Evil. +This is all true. +Now, while preparing for the tour, I had to remind the guys to be culturally sensitive. +I used the three Bs of stand-up don'ts as I call them in the Middle East: blue content, keep it clean; beliefs, not religion; and the third B, bolitics. +Stay away from bolitics in the Middle East. +Oh course, you might think, what's left without bolitics, sex and religion, how can you make people laugh? +I'd say, watch any successful well-written, family-friendly sitcom in the West for your answers. +Now, were the Axis successful? +In five countries, in just under a month, we had thousands of fanatical fans come and see them live. +We had millions see them on TV and on TV news. +In Jordan, we had His Majesty the King come and see them. +In fact, they were so successful that you could buy a pirated copy of their DVD, even before it was released in the Middle East. +So everywhere we went, we auditioned amateurs. +We filmed that process and aired a documentary. +I called it "Three Guys and Wonho." +It really is his name. +And all this TV and Internet exposure has led to a great many recruits to our cause. +In Dubai this year, we've just had the first all-women's, homegrown stand-up show. +And notice two of them are wearing headscarves, and yes, even they can laugh. +Dubai, to me, is like a hand that supports anyone who wants to make things happen. +20 years ago, no one had heard of it. +Look at it now. +With an inspirational leader, I think this year, the opening of the tallest tower in the world is like adding a finger to that hand, that points at all those who spread fallacious stories about us. +Now, in three short years, we've come a long way with stand-up comedy shows happening even in Saudi Arabia. +These comics are now going to the New York festival. +And the Lebanese, brilliant Lebanese, Nemr Abou Nassar, we featured in our first tour, has just been performing in L.A.'s legendary comedy clubs. +So clearly, from the inside, we are doing our best to change our image, and it's exploding. +So, as for the outsiders looking in, watch the CNN report on the second Amman Comedy Festival. +The reporter did a great job, and I thank her, but somebody forgot to send the positive PR email to the person operating the automatic news ticker that appears at the bottom. +For example, when Dean talks, the ticker says, "U.S.: Suspect gave 'actionable intel." +Well, if you're used to listening to comedians, then I'm not surprised. +Sadly, this leads me to another three Bs that represents how the media in the West talks about us as bombers, billionaires and belly dancers. +Enough. +We're not all angry fanatics who want to kill the infidel. +We have a positive story to tell and image to sell. +In fact, one thing's for sure, in my experience, we love to laugh like hell. +Here are three questions that I like to use to test the truthiness of our representation in any media story. +One: Is the Middle East being shown in a current time and correct context? +Two: Do the Middle Eastern characters laugh or smile without showing the whites of their eyes? +Three: Is the Middle Eastern character being played by one? +Clearly, there are wrongs that need to be righted. +We've started in our region. +My challenge to the rest of the world is please, start using positive Middle Eastern images in your stories. +For inspiration, go to one of our festivals, go online, drop us a line. +Let's change the narrative together and let's start righting writing wrongs. +I'd like to end, before going back to the Middle East, with a quote from one of the greatest Sheikhs to put quill to parchment. +As my father likes to call him, "Asheikh Azubare;" as my mother would say, "Shakespeare." +"And now we go in content to liberty and not to banishment." +Thank you. +I was one of the founding members of the Axis of Evil Comedy Tour. +The other founding members included Ahmed Ahmed, who is an Egyptian-American, who actually had the idea to go to the Middle East and try it out. +Before we went out as a tour, he went out solo and did it first. +Then there was Aron Kader, who was the Palestinian-American. +And then there was me, the Iranian-American of the group. +Now, being Iranian-American presents its own set of problems, as you know. +Those two countries aren't getting along these days. +So it causes a lot of inner conflict, you know, like part of me likes me, part of me hates me. +Part of me thinks I should have a nuclear program, the other part thinks I can't be trusted with one. +These are dilemmas I have every day. +But I was born in Iran; I'm now an American citizen, which means I have the American passport, which means I can travel. +Because if you only have the Iranian passport, you're kind of limited to the countries you can go to with open arms, you know -- Syria, Venezuela, North Korea. +So anyone who's gotten their passport in America will tell you, when you get your passport, it still says what country you were born in. +So I remember getting my American passport. +I was like, "Woohoo! I'm going to travel." +And I opened it up, it said, "Born in Iran." I'm like, "Oh, come on, man." +"I'm trying to go places." +But what's interesting is, I've never had trouble traveling in any other Western countries with my American passport, even though it says, "Born in Iran." No problems. +Where I've had some problems is some of the Arab countries, because I guess some of the Arab countries aren't getting along with Iran either. +And so I was in Kuwait recently, doing a comedy show with some other American comedians. +They all went through, and then the border patrol saw my American passport. +"Ah ha! American, great." +Then he opened it up. "Born in Iran? Wait." +And he started asking me questions. +He said, "What is your father's name?" +I said, "Well, he's passed away, but his name was Khosro." +He goes, "What is your grandfather's name?" +I said, "He passed away a long time ago. +His name was Jabbar." +He says, "You wait. I'll be back," and he walked away. +And I started freaking out, because I don't know what kind of crap my grandfather was into. +Thought the guy was going to come back and be like, "We've been looking for you for 200 years." +"Your grandfather has a parking violation. It's way overdue. +You owe us two billion dollars." +But as you can see, when I talk, I speak with an American accent, which you would think as an Iranian-American actor, I should be able to play any part, good, bad, what have you. +But a lot of times in Hollywood, when casting directors find out you're of Middle Eastern descent, they go, "Oh, you're Iranian. Great. +Can you say 'I will kill you in the name of Allah?'" "I could say that, but what if I were to say, 'Hello. I'm your doctor?'" They go, "Great. And then you hijack the hospital." +Like I think you're missing the point here. +Don't get me wrong, I don't mind playing bad guys. +I want to play a bad guy. I want to rob a bank. +I want to rob a bank in a film. I want to rob a bank in a film, but do it with a gun, with a gun, not with a bomb strapped around me, right. +Because I imagine the director: "Maz, I think your character would rob the bank with a bomb around him." +"Why would I do that? +If I want the money, why would I kill myself?" +Right. +"Gimme all your money, or I'll blow myself up." +"Well, then blow yourself up. +Just do it outside, please." +But the fact is, there's good people everywhere. +That's what I try and show in my stand-up. There's good people everywhere. +All it takes in one person to mess it up. +Like a couple months ago in Times Square in New York, there was this Pakistani Muslim guy who tried to blow up a car bomb. +Now, I happened to be in Times Square that night doing a comedy show. +And a few months before that, there was a white American guy in Austin, Texas who flew his airplane into the IRS building, and I happened to be in Austin that day doing a stand-up comedy show. +Now I'll tell you, as a Middle Eastern male, when you show up around a lot of these activities, you start feeling guilty at one point. +I was watching the news. I'm like, "Am I involved in this crap?" +"I didn't get the memo. What's going on?" +But what was interesting was, the Pakistani Muslim guy -- see he gives a bad name to Muslims and Middle Easterners and Pakistanis from all over the world. +And one thing that happened there was also the Pakistani Taliban took credit for that failed car bombing. +My question is: why would you take credit for a failed car bombing? +"We just wanted to say we tried." +"And furthermore, it is the thought that counts." +"And in conclusion, win some, lose some." +But what happened was, when the white guy flew his plane into the building, I know all my Middle Eastern and Muslim friends in the States were watching TV, going, "Please, don't be Middle Eastern. +Don't be Hassan. Don't be Hussein." +And the name came out Jack. I'm like, "Woooo! +That's not one of us." +But I kept watching the news in case they came back, they were like, "Before he did it, he converted to Islam." +"Damn it! Why Jack? Why?" +But the fact is, I've been lucky to get a chance to perform all over the world, and I did a lot of shows in the Middle East. +I just did a seven-country solo tour. +I was in Oman, and I was in Saudi Arabia. +I was in Dubai. +And it's great, there's good people everywhere. +And you learn great things about these places. +I encourage people always to go visit these places. +For example, Dubai -- cool place. +They're obsessed with having the biggest, tallest, longest, as we all know. +They have a mall there, the Dubai Mall. +It is so big, they have taxis in the mall. +I was walking. I heard "Beep, beep." +I'm like, "What are you doing here?" +He goes, "I'm going to the Zara store. It's three miles away. +Out of my way. Out of my way. Out of my way." +And what's crazy -- there's a recession going on, even in Dubai, but you wouldn't know by the prices. +Like in the Dubai Mall, they sell frozen yogurt by the gram. +It's like a drug deal. +I was walking by. The guy goes, "Psst. Habibi, my friend." +"You want some frozen yogurt? +Come here. Come here. Come here. +I have one gram, five gram, 10 gram. How many gram do you want?" +I bought five grams. 10 dollars. 10 dollars! I said, "What's in this?" +He's like, "Good stuff, man. Columbian. Top of the line. Top of the line." +The other thing you learn sometimes when you travel to these countries in the Middle East, sometimes in Latin American countries, South American countries -- a lot of times when they build stuff, there's no rules and regulations. +For example, I took my two year-old son to the playground at the Dubai Mall. +And I've taken my two year-old son to playgrounds all over the United States. +And when you put your two year-old on a slide in the United States, they put something on the slide to slow the kid down as he comes down the slide. +Not in the Middle East. +I put my two year-old on the slide; he went frrmrmm! He took off. +I went down. I go, "Where's my son?" +"On the third floor, sir. On the third floor." +"You take a taxi. You go to Zara. Make a left." +"Try the yogurt. It's very good. Little expensive." +But one of the things I try to do with my stand-up is to break stereotypes. +And I've been guilty of stereotyping as well. +I was in Dubai. And there's a lot of Indians who work in Dubai. +And they don't get paid that well. +And I got it in my head that all the Indians there must be workers. +And I forgot there's obviously successful Indians in Dubai as well. +I was doing a show, and they said, "We're going to send a driver to pick you up." +So I went down to the lobby, and I saw this Indian guy. +I go, "He's got to be my driver." +Because he was standing there in like a cheap suit, thin mustache, staring at me. +So I went over, "Excuse me, sir, are you my driver?" +He goes, "No, sir. I own the hotel." +I go, "I'm sorry. Then why were you staring at me?" +He goes, "I thought you were my driver." +I'll leave you guys with this: I try, with my stand-up, to break stereotypes, present Middle Easterners in a positive light -- Muslims in a positive light -- and I hope that in the coming years, more film and television programs come out of Hollywood presenting us in a positive light. +Who knows, maybe one day we'll even have our own James Bond, right. +"My name is Bond, Jamal Bond." +Til then, I'll keep telling jokes. I hope you keep laughing. +Have a good day. Thank you. +My name's Seth Priebatsch. I'm the chief ninja of SCVNGR. +I am a proud Princeton dropout. +Also proud to have relocated here to Boston, where I actually grew up. +Yeah, Boston. +Easy wins. I should just go and name the counties that we've got around here. +So, I'm also fairly determined to try and build a game layer on top of the world. +And this is sort of a new concept, and it's really important. +And so I say that I want to build a game layer on top of the world, but that's not quite true because it's already under construction; it's already happening. +And it looks like this right now. +It looks like the Web did back in 1997, right? +It's not very good. It's cluttered. +It's filled with lots of different things that, in short, aren't that fun. +There are credit card schemes and airline mile programs and coupon cards and all these loyalty schemes that actually do use game dynamics and actually are building the game layer: they just suck. +They're not very well designed, right? +So, that's unfortunate. +But luckily, as my favorite action hero, Bob the Builder, says, "We can do better. We can build this better." +And the tools, the resources that we use to build a game layer are game dynamics themselves. +And so, sort of, the crux of this presentation is going to go through four really important game dynamics, really interesting things, that, if you use consciously, you can use to influence behavior, both for good, for bad, for in-between. +Hopefully for good. +But this is sort of the important stages in which that framework will get built, and so we want to all be thinking about it consciously now. +Just before we jump into that, there's sort of a question of: why is this important? +I'm sort of making this claim that there is a game layer on top of the world, and that it's very important that we build it properly. +The reason that it's so important is that, the last decade, what we've seen has been building the social layer, has been this framework for connections, and construction on that layer is over, it's finished. +There's still a lot to explore. +There's still a lot of people who are trying to figure out social and how do we leverage this and how do we use this, but the framework itself is done, and it's called Facebook. +And that's okay, right? A lot of people are very happy with Facebook. +I like it quite a lot. +They've created this thing called the Open Graph, and they own all of our connections. +They own half a billion people. +And so when you want to build on the social layer, the framework has been decided; it is the Open Graph API. +And if you're happy with that, fantastic. +If you're not, too bad. There's nothing you can do. +But this next decade -- and that's a real thing. +I mean, we want to build frameworks in a way that makes it acceptable and makes it, you know, productive down the road. +So, the social layer is all about these connections. +The game layer is all about influence. +It's not about adding a social fabric to the Web and connecting you to other people everywhere you are and everywhere you go. +It's actually about using dynamics, using forces, to influence the behavior of where you are, what you do there, how you do it. +That's really, really powerful, and it's going to be more important than the social layer. +It's going to affect our lives more deeply and perhaps more invisibly. +And so it's incredibly critical that at this moment, while it's just getting constructed, while the frameworks like Facebook, like the Open Graph, are being created for the game layer equivalent, that we think about it very consciously, and that we do it in a way that is open, that is available, and that can be leveraged for good. +And so that's what I want to talk about for game dynamics, because construction has just begun, and the more consciously we can think about this, the better we'll be able to use it for anything that we want. +So like I said, the way that you go through and build on the game layer is not with glass and steel and cement. +And the resources that we use are not this two-dimensional swath of land that we have. +The resources are mindshare and the tools, the raw materials are these game dynamics. +So with that, you know, a couple game dynamics to talk about. +Four. Back at SCVNGR, we like to joke that with seven game dynamics, you can get anyone to do anything. +And so today, I'm going to show you four, because I hope to have a competitive advantage at the end of this, still. +So the first one, it's a very simple game dynamic. +It's called the appointment dynamic. +And this is a dynamic in which to succeed, players have to do something at a predefined time, generally at a predefined place. +And these dynamics are a little scary sometimes, because you think, you know, other people can be using forces that will manipulate how I interact: what I do, where I do it, when I do it. +So the first one -- the most famous appointment dynamic in the world -- is something called happy hour. +So I just recently dropped out of Princeton and actually ended up for the first time in a bar, and I saw these happy hour things all over the place, right. +And this is simply an appointment dynamic. +Come here at a certain time, get your drinks half off. +To win, all you have to do is show up at the right place at the right time. +This game dynamic is so powerful that it doesn't just influence our behavior, it's influenced our entire culture. +That's a really scary thought, that one game dynamic can change things so powerfully. +It also exists in more conventional game forms. +I'm sure you've all heard of Farmville by now. +If you haven't, I recommend playing it. +You won't do anything else with the rest of your day. +Farmville has more active users than Twitter. +It's incredibly powerful, and it has this dynamic where you have to return at a certain time to water your crops -- fake crops -- or they wilt. +And this is so powerful that, when they tweak their stats, when they say your crops wilt after eight hours, or after six hours, or after 24 hours, it changes the lifecycle of 70 million-some people during the day. +They will return like clockwork at different times. +So if they wanted the world to end, if they wanted productivity to stop, they could make this a 30-minute cycle, and no one could do anything else, right? +That's a little scary. +But this could also be used for good. +This is a local company called Vitality, and they've created a product to help people take their medicine on time. +That's an appointment. +It's something that people don't do very well. +And they have these GlowCaps, which, you know, flash and email you and do all sorts of cool things to remind you to take your medicine. +This is one that isn't a game yet, but really should be. +You should get points for doing this on time. +You should lose points for not doing this on time. +They should consciously recognize that they've built an appointment dynamic and leverage the games. +And then you can really achieve good in some interesting ways. +We're going to jump onto the next one, maybe. Yes. +Influence and status. +So this is one of the most famous game dynamics. +It's used all over the place. +It's used in your wallets, right now. +We all want that credit card on the far left because it's black. +And you see someone at CVS or -- not CVS -- at Christian Dior or something, and then ... +I don't know. I don't have a black card; I've got a debit card. +So they whip it out. And you see men, they have that black card. +I want that because that means that they're cooler than I am, and I need that. +And this is used in games as well. +"Modern Warfare," one of the most successful selling games of all time. +I'm only a level four, but I desperately want to be a level 10, because they've got that cool red badge thing, and that means that I am somehow better than everyone else. +And that's very powerful to me. Status is really good motivator. +It's also used in more conventional settings and can be used more consciously in conventional settings. +School -- and remember, I made it through one year, so I think I'm qualified to talk on school -- is a game, it's just not a terribly well-designed game, right. +There are levels. There are C. There are B. There is A. +There are statuses. I mean, what is valedictorian, but a status? +If we called valedictorian a "white knight paladin level 20," I think people would probably work a lot harder. +So school is a game, and there have been lots of experimentations on how we do this properly. +But let's use it consciously. Like why have games that you can lose? +Why go from an A to an F or a B to a C? +That sucks. Why not level-up? +And at Princeton, they've actually experimented with this, where they have quizzes where you gain experience points, and you level up from B to an A. +And it's very powerful. +It can be used in interesting ways. +The third one I want to talk about quickly is the progression dynamic, where you have to sort of make progress, you have to move through different steps in a very granular fashion. +This is used all over the place, including LinkedIn, where I am an un-whole individual. +I am only 85 percent complete on LinkedIn, and that bothers me. +And this is so deep-seated in our psyche that when we're presented with a progress bar and presented with easy, granular steps to take to try and complete that progress bar, we will do it. +We will find a way to move that blue line all the way to the right edge of the screen. +This is used in conventional games as well. +I mean, you see this is a paladin level 10, and that's a paladin level 20, and if you were going to fight, you know, orcs on the fields of Mordor against the Raz al Ghul, you'd probably want to be the bigger one, right. +I would. +And so people work very hard to level-up. +"World of Warcraft" is one of the most successful games of all time. +The average player spends something like six, six-and-a-half hours a day on it. +Their most dedicated players, it's like a full-time job. +It's insane. And they have these systems where you can level-up. +And that's a very powerful thing. Progression is powerful. +It can also be used in very compelling ways for good. +One of the things that we work on at SCVNGR is how do you use games to drive traffic and drive business to local businesses, to sort of something that is very key to the economy. +And here we have a game that people play. +They go places, they do challenges, they earn points. +And we've introduced a progression dynamic into it, where, by going to the same place over and over, by doing challenges, by engaging with the business, you move a green bar from the left edge of the screen to the right edge of the screen, and you eventually unlock rewards. +And this is powerful enough that we can see that it hooks people into these dynamics, pulls them back to the same local businesses, creates huge loyalty, creates engagement, and is able to drive meaningful revenue and fun and engagement to businesses. +These progression dynamics are powerful and can be used in the real world. +The final one I want to talk about -- and it's a great one to end on -- is this concept of communal discovery, a dynamic in which everyone has to work together to achieve something. +And communal discovery is powerful because it leverages the network that is society to solve problems. +This is used in some sort of famous consumer web stories, like Digg, which I'm sure you've all heard of. +Digg is a communal dynamic to try to find and source the best news, the most interesting stories. +And they made this into a game, initially. +They had a leader board, where, if you recommended the best stories, you would get points. +And that really motivated people to find the best stories. +But it became so powerful that there was actually a cabal, a group of people, the top seven on the leader board, who would work together to make sure they maintained that position. +And they would recommend other people's stories, and the game became more powerful than the goal. +And they actually had to end up shutting down the leader board because while it was effective, it was so powerful that it stopped sourcing the best stories and started having people work to maintain their leadership. +So we have to use this one carefully. +It's also used in things like McDonald's Monopoly, where the game is not the Monopoly game you're playing, but the sort of cottage industries that form to try and find Boardwalk, right. +And now they're just looking for a little sticker that says "Boardwalk." +But it can also be used to find real things. +This is the DARPA balloon challenge, where they hid a couple balloons all across the United States and said, "Use networks. +Try and find these balloons fastest, and the winner will get $40,000." +And the winner was actually a group out of MIT, where they created sort of a pyramid scheme, a network, where the first person to recommend the location of a balloon got $2,000 and anyone else to push that recommendation up also got a cut of it. +And in 12 hours, they were able to find all these balloons, all across the country, right. +Really powerful dynamic. +And so, I've got about 20 seconds left, so if I'm going to leave you with anything, last decade was the decade of social. +This next decade is the decade of games. +We use game dynamics to build on it. We build with mindshare. +We can influence behavior. +It is very powerful. It is very exciting. +Let's all build it together, let's do it well and have fun playing. +It feels like we're all suffering from information overload or data glut. +And the good news is there might be an easy solution to that, and that's using our eyes more. +So, visualizing information, so that we can see the patterns and connections that matter and then designing that information so it makes more sense, or it tells a story, or allows us to focus only on the information that's important. +Failing that, visualized information can just look really cool. +So, let's see. +This is the $Billion Dollar o-Gram, and this image arose out of frustration I had with the reporting of billion-dollar amounts in the press. +That is, they're meaningless without context: 500 billion for this pipeline, 20 billion for this war. +It doesn't make any sense, so the only way to understand it is visually and relatively. +So I scraped a load of reported figures from various news outlets and then scaled the boxes according to those amounts. +And the colors here represent the motivation behind the money. +So purple is "fighting," and red is "giving money away," and green is "profiteering." +And what you can see straight away is you start to have a different relationship to the numbers. +You can literally see them. +But more importantly, you start to see patterns and connections between numbers that would otherwise be scattered across multiple news reports. +Let me point out some that I really like. +This is OPEC's revenue, this green box here -- 780 billion a year. +And this little pixel in the corner -- three billion -- that's their climate change fund. +Americans, incredibly generous people -- over 300 billion a year, donated to charity every year, compared with the amount of foreign aid given by the top 17 industrialized nations at 120 billion. +Then of course, the Iraq War, predicted to cost just 60 billion back in 2003. +And it mushroomed slightly. Afghanistan and Iraq mushroomed now to 3,000 billion. +So now it's great because now we have this texture, and we can add numbers to it as well. +So we could say, well, a new figure comes out ... let's see African debt. +How much of this diagram do you think might be taken up by the debt that Africa owes to the West? +Let's take a look. +So there it is: 227 billion is what Africa owes. +And the recent financial crisis, how much of this diagram might that figure take up? +What has that cost the world? Let's take a look at that. +Dooosh -- Which I think is the appropriate sound effect for that much money: 11,900 billion. +So, by visualizing this information, we turned it into a landscape that you can explore with your eyes, a kind of map really, a sort of information map. +And when you're lost in information, an information map is kind of useful. +So I want to show you another landscape now. +We need to imagine what a landscape of the world's fears might look like. +Let's take a look. +This is Mountains Out of Molehills, a timeline of global media panic. +So, I'll label this for you in a second. +But the height here, I want to point out, is the intensity of certain fears as reported in the media. +Let me point them out. +So this, swine flu -- pink. +Bird flu. +SARS -- brownish here. Remember that one? +The millennium bug, terrible disaster. +These little green peaks are asteroid collisions. +And in summer, here, killer wasps. +So these are what our fears look like over time in our media. +But what I love -- and I'm a journalist -- and what I love is finding hidden patterns; I love being a data detective. +And there's a very interesting and odd pattern hidden in this data that you can only see when you visualize it. +Let me highlight it for you. +See this line, this is a landscape for violent video games. +As you can see, there's a kind of odd, regular pattern in the data, twin peaks every year. +If we look closer, we see those peaks occur at the same month every year. +Why? +Well, November, Christmas video games come out, and there may well be an upsurge in the concern about their content. +But April isn't a particularly massive month for video games. +Why April? +Well, in April 1999 was the Columbine shooting, and since then, that fear has been remembered by the media and echoes through the group mind gradually through the year. +You have retrospectives, anniversaries, court cases, even copy-cat shootings, all pushing that fear into the agenda. +And there's another pattern here as well. Can you spot it? +See that gap there? There's a gap, and it affects all the other stories. +Why is there a gap there? +You see where it starts? September 2001, when we had something very real to be scared about. +So, I've been working as a data journalist for about a year, and I keep hearing a phrase all the time, which is this: "Data is the new oil." +Data is the kind of ubiquitous resource that we can shape to provide new innovations and new insights, and it's all around us, and it can be mined very easily. +It's not a particularly great metaphor in these times, especially if you live around the Gulf of Mexico, but I would, perhaps, adapt this metaphor slightly, and I would say that data is the new soil. +Because for me, it feels like a fertile, creative medium. +Over the years, online, we've laid down a huge amount of information and data, and we irrigate it with networks and connectivity, and it's been worked and tilled by unpaid workers and governments. +And, all right, I'm kind of milking the metaphor a little bit. +But it's a really fertile medium, and it feels like visualizations, infographics, data visualizations, they feel like flowers blooming from this medium. +But if you look at it directly, it's just a lot of numbers and disconnected facts. +But if you start working with it and playing with it in a certain way, interesting things can appear and different patterns can be revealed. +Let me show you this. +Can you guess what this data set is? +What rises twice a year, once in Easter and then two weeks before Christmas, has a mini peak every Monday, and then flattens out over the summer? +I'll take answers. +(Audience: Chocolate.) David McCandless: Chocolate. +You might want to get some chocolate in. +Any other guesses? +(Audience: Shopping.) DM: Shopping. +Yeah, retail therapy might help. +(Audience: Sick leave.) DM: Sick leave. Yeah, you'll definitely want to take some time off. +Shall we see? +Who would do that? +So there's a titanic amount of data out there now, unprecedented. +But if you ask the right kind of question, or you work it in the right kind of way, interesting things can emerge. +So information is beautiful. Data is beautiful. +I wonder if I could make my life beautiful. +And here's my visual C.V. +I'm not quite sure I've succeeded. +Pretty blocky, the colors aren't that great. +But I wanted to convey something to you. +I started as a programmer, and then I worked as a writer for many years, about 20 years, in print, online and then in advertising, and only recently have I started designing. +And I've never been to design school. +I've never studied art or anything. +I just kind of learned through doing. +And when I started designing, I discovered an odd thing about myself. +I already knew how to design, but it wasn't like I was amazingly brilliant at it, but more like I was sensitive to the ideas of grids and space and alignment and typography. +It's almost like being exposed to all this media over the years had instilled a kind of dormant design literacy in me. +And I don't feel like I'm unique. +I feel that everyday, all of us now are being blasted by information design. +It's being poured into our eyes through the Web, and we're all visualizers now; we're all demanding a visual aspect to our information. +There's something almost quite magical about visual information. +It's effortless, it literally pours in. +And if you're navigating a dense information jungle, coming across a beautiful graphic or a lovely data visualization, it's a relief, it's like coming across a clearing in the jungle. +I was curious about this, so it led me to the work of a Danish physicist called Tor Norretranders, and he converted the bandwidth of the senses into computer terms. +So here we go. This is your senses, pouring into your senses every second. +Your sense of sight is the fastest. +It has the same bandwidth as a computer network. +Then you have touch, which is about the speed of a USB key. +And then you have hearing and smell, which has the throughput of a hard disk. +And then you have poor old taste, which is like barely the throughput of a pocket calculator. +And that little square in the corner, a naught .7 percent, that's the amount we're actually aware of. +So a lot of your vision -- the bulk of it is visual, and it's pouring in. +It's unconscious. +The eye is exquisitely sensitive to patterns in variations in color, shape and pattern. +It loves them, and it calls them beautiful. +It's the language of the eye. +If you combine the language of the eye with the language of the mind, which is about words and numbers and concepts, you start speaking two languages simultaneously, each enhancing the other. +So, you have the eye, and then you drop in the concepts. +And that whole thing -- it's two languages both working at the same time. +So we can use this new kind of language, if you like, to alter our perspective or change our views. +Let me ask you a simple question with a really simple answer: Who has the biggest military budget? +It's got to be America, right? +Massive. 609 billion in 2008 -- 607, rather. +So massive, in fact, that it can contain all the other military budgets in the world inside itself. +Gobble, gobble, gobble, gobble, gobble. +Now, you can see Africa's total debt there and the U.K. budget deficit for reference. +So that might well chime with your view that America is a sort of warmongering military machine, out to overpower the world with its huge industrial-military complex. +But is it true that America has the biggest military budget? +Because America is an incredibly rich country. +In fact, it's so massively rich that it can contain the four other top industrialized nations' economies inside itself, it's so vastly rich. +So its military budget is bound to be enormous. +So, to be fair and to alter our perspective, we have to bring in another data set, and that data set is GDP, or the country's earnings. +Who has the biggest budget as a proportion of GDP? +Let's have a look. +That changes the picture considerably. +Other countries pop into view that you, perhaps, weren't considering, and American drops into eighth. +Now you can also do this with soldiers. +Who has the most soldiers? It's got to be China. +Of course, 2.1 million. +Again, chiming with your view that China has a militarized regime ready to, you know, mobilize its enormous forces. +But of course, China has an enormous population. +So if we do the same, we see a radically different picture. +China drops to 124th. +It actually has a tiny army when you take other data into consideration. +So, absolute figures, like the military budget, in a connected world, don't give you the whole picture. +They're not as true as they could be. +We need relative figures that are connected to other data so that we can see a fuller picture, and then that can lead to us changing our perspective. +As Hans Rosling, the master, my master, said, "Let the dataset change your mindset." +And if it can do that, maybe it can also change your behavior. +Take a look at this one. +I'm a bit of a health nut. +I love taking supplements and being fit, but I can never understand what's going on in terms of evidence. +There's always conflicting evidence. +Should I take vitamin C? Should I be taking wheatgrass? +This is a visualization of all the evidence for nutritional supplements. +This kind of diagram is called a balloon race. +So the higher up the image, the more evidence there is for each supplement. +And the bubbles correspond to popularity as regards to Google hits. +So you can immediately apprehend the relationship between efficacy and popularity, but you can also, if you grade the evidence, do a "worth it" line. +So supplements above this line are worth investigating, but only for the conditions listed below, and then the supplements below the line are perhaps not worth investigating. +Now this image constitutes a huge amount of work. +We scraped like 1,000 studies from PubMed, the biomedical database, and we compiled them and graded them all. +And it was incredibly frustrating for me because I had a book of 250 visualizations to do for my book, and I spent a month doing this, and I only filled two pages. +But what it points to is that visualizing information like this is a form of knowledge compression. +It's a way of squeezing an enormous amount of information and understanding into a small space. +And once you've curated that data, and once you've cleaned that data, and once it's there, you can do cool stuff like this. +So I converted this into an interactive app, so I can now generate this application online -- this is the visualization online -- and I can say, "Yeah, brilliant." +So it spawns itself. +And then I can say, "Well, just show me the stuff that affects heart health." +So let's filter that out. +So heart is filtered out, so I can see if I'm curious about that. +I think, "No, no. I don't want to take any synthetics, I just want to see plants and -- just show me herbs and plants. I've got all the natural ingredients." +Now this app is spawning itself from the data. +The data is all stored in a Google Doc, and it's literally generating itself from that data. +So the data is now alive; this is a living image, and I can update it in a second. +New evidence comes out. I just change a row on a spreadsheet. +Doosh! Again, the image recreates itself. +So it's cool. +It's kind of living. +But it can go beyond data, and it can go beyond numbers. +I like to apply information visualization to ideas and concepts. +This is a visualization of the political spectrum, an attempt for me to try and understand how it works and how the ideas percolate down from government into society and culture, into families, into individuals, into their beliefs and back around again in a cycle. +What I love about this image is it's made up of concepts, it explores our worldviews and it helps us -- it helps me anyway -- to see what others think, to see where they're coming from. +And it feels just incredibly cool to do that. +What was most exciting for me designing this was that, when I was designing this image, I desperately wanted this side, the left side, to be better than the right side -- being a journalist, a Left-leaning person -- but I couldn't, because I would have created a lopsided, biased diagram. +So, in order to really create a full image, I had to honor the perspectives on the right-hand side and at the same time, uncomfortably recognize how many of those qualities were actually in me, which was very, very annoying and uncomfortable. +But not too uncomfortable, because there's something unthreatening about seeing a political perspective, versus being told or forced to listen to one. +You're capable of holding conflicting viewpoints joyously when you can see them. +It's even fun to engage with them because it's visual. +So that's what's exciting to me, seeing how data can change my perspective and change my mind midstream -- beautiful, lovely data. +So, just to wrap up, I wanted to say that it feels to me that design is about solving problems and providing elegant solutions, and information design is about solving information problems. +It feels like we have a lot of information problems in our society at the moment, from the overload and the saturation to the breakdown of trust and reliability and runaway skepticism and lack of transparency, or even just interestingness. +I mean, I find information just too interesting. +It has a magnetic quality that draws me in. +So, visualizing information can give us a very quick solution to those kinds of problems. +Even when the information is terrible, the visual can be quite beautiful. +Often we can get clarity or the answer to a simple question very quickly, like this one, the recent Icelandic volcano. +Which was emitting the most CO2? +Was it the planes or the volcano, the grounded planes or the volcano? +So we can have a look. +We look at the data and we see: Yep, the volcano emitted 150,000 tons; the grounded planes would have emitted 345,000 if they were in the sky. +So essentially, we had our first carbon-neutral volcano. +And that is beautiful. Thank you. +Come with me to the bottom of the world, Antarctica, the highest, driest, windiest, and yes, coldest region on Earth -- more arid than the Sahara and, in parts, colder than Mars. +The ice of Antarctica glows with a light so dazzling, it blinds the unprotected eye. +Early explorers rubbed cocaine in their eyes to kill the pain of it. +The weight of the ice is such that the entire continent sags below sea level, beneath its weight. +Yet, the ice of Antarctica is a calendar of climate change. +It records the annual rise and fall of greenhouse gases and temperatures going back before the onset of the last ice ages. +Nowhere on Earth offers us such a perfect record. +And here, scientists are drilling into the past of our planet to find clues to the future of climate change. +This past January, I traveled to a place called WAIS Divide, about 600 miles from the South Pole. +It is the best place on the planet, many say, to study the history of climate change. +There, about 45 scientists from the University of Wisconsin, the Desert Research Institute in Nevada and others have been working to answer a central question about global warming. +What is the exact relationship between levels of greenhouse gases and planetary temperatures? +It's urgent work. We know that temperatures are rising. +This past May was the warmest worldwide on record. +And we know that levels of greenhouse gases are rising too. +What we don't know is the exact, precise, immediate impact of these changes on natural climate patterns -- winds, ocean currents, precipitation rates, cloud formation, things that bear on the health and well-being of billions of people. +Their entire camp, every item of gear, was ferried 885 miles from McMurdo Station, the main U.S. supply base on the coast of Antarctica. +WAIS Divide itself though, is a circle of tents in the snow. +In blizzard winds, the crew sling ropes between the tents so that people can feel their way safely to the nearest ice house and to the nearest outhouse. +It snows so heavily there, the installation was almost immediately buried. +Indeed, the researchers picked this site because ice and snow accumulates here 10 times faster than anywhere else in Antarctica. +They have to dig themselves out every day. +It makes for an exotic and chilly commute. +But under the surface is a hive of industrial activity centered around an eight-million-dollar drill assembly. +Periodically, this drill, like a biopsy needle, plunges thousands of feet deep into the ice to extract a marrow of gases and isotopes for analysis. +Ten times a day, they extract the 10-foot long cylinder of compressed ice crystals that contain the unsullied air and trace chemicals laid down by snow, season after season for thousands of years. +It's really a time machine. +At the peak of activity earlier this year, the researchers lowered the drill an extra hundred feet deeper into the ice every day and another 365 years deeper into the past. +Periodically, they remove a cylinder of ice, like gamekeepers popping a spent shotgun shell from the barrel of a drill. +They inspect it, they check it for cracks, for drill damage, for spalls, for chips. +More importantly, they prepare it for inspection and analysis by 27 independent laboratories in the United States and Europe, who will examine it for 40 different trace chemicals related to climate, some in parts per quadrillion. +Yes, I said that with a Q, quadrillion. +They cut the cylinders up into three-foot sections for easier handling and shipment back to these labs, some 8,000 miles from the drill site. +Each cylinder is a parfait of time. +This ice formed as snow 15,800 years ago, when our ancestors were daubing themselves with paint and considering the radical new technology of the alphabet. +Bathed in polarized light and cut in cross-section, this ancient ice reveals itself as a mosaic of colors, each one showing how conditions at depth in the ice have affected this material at depths where pressures can reach a ton per square inch. +Every year, it begins with a snowflake, and by digging into fresh snow, we can see how this process is ongoing today. +This wall of undisturbed snow, back-lit by sunlight, shows the striations of winter and summer snow, layer upon layer. +Each storm scours the atmosphere, washing out dust, soot, trace chemicals, and depositing them on the snow pack year after year, millennia after millennia, creating a kind of periodic table of elements that at this point is more than 11,000 feet thick. +From this, we can detect an extraordinary number of things. +We can see the calcium from the world's deserts, soot from distant wildfires, methane as an indicator of the strength of a Pacific monsoon, all wafted on winds from warmer latitudes to this remote and very cold place. +Most importantly, these cylinders and this snow trap air. +Each cylinder is about 10 percent ancient air, a pristine time capsule of greenhouse gases -- carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide -- all unchanged from the day that snow formed and first fell. +And this is the object of their scrutiny. +But don't we already know what we need to know about greenhouse gases? +Why do we need to study this anymore? +Don't we already know how they affect temperatures? +Don't we already know the consequences of a changing climate on our settled civilization? +The truth is, we only know the outlines, and what we don't completely understand, we can't properly fix. +Indeed, we run the risk of making things worse. +Consider, the single most successful international environmental effort of the 20th century, the Montreal Protocol, in which the nations of Earth banded together to protect the planet from the harmful effects of ozone-destroying chemicals used at that time in air conditioners, refrigerators and other cooling devices. +We banned those chemicals, and we replaced them, unknowingly, with other substances that, molecule per molecule, are a hundred times more potent as heat-trapping, greenhouse gases than carbon dioxide. +This process requires extraordinary precautions. +The scientists must insure that the ice is not contaminated. +Moreover, in this 8,000-mile journey, they have to insure this ice doesn't melt. +Imagine juggling a snowball across the tropics. +They have to, in fact, make sure this ice never gets warmer than about 20 degrees below zero, otherwise, the key gases inside it will dissipate. +So, in the coldest place on Earth, they work inside a refrigerator. +As they handle the ice, in fact, they keep an extra pair of gloves warming in an oven, so that, when their work gloves freeze and their fingers stiffen, they can don a fresh pair. +They work against the clock and against the thermometer. +So far, they've packed up about 4,500 feet of ice cores for shipment back to the United States. +This past season, they manhandled them across the ice to waiting aircraft. +Antarctica was this planet's last empty quarter -- the blind spot in our expanding vision of the world. +Early explorers sailed off the edge of the map, and they found a place where the normal rules of time and temperature seem suspended. +Here, the ice seems a living presence. +The wind that rubs against it gives it voice. +It is a voice of experience. +It is a voice we should heed. +Thank you. +Cartoons are basically short stories. +I tried to find one that didn't have a whole lot of words. +Not all of them have happy endings. +So how did I get started cartooning? +I doodled a lot as a kid, and if you spend enough time doodling, sooner or later, something happens: all your career options run out. +So you have to make a living cartooning. +Actually, I fell in love with the ocean when I was a little boy, when I was about eight or nine. +And I was particularly fascinated with sharks. +This is some of my early work. +Eventually, my mom took the red crayon away, so it was [unclear]. +Before that day, this is how I saw the ocean. +It's just a big blue surface. +And this is how we've seen the ocean since the beginning of time. +It's a mystery. +There's been a lot of folklore developed around the ocean, mostly negative. +And that prompted people to make maps like this, with all kinds of wonderful detail on the land, but when you get to the waters edge, the ocean looks like one giant puddle of blue paint. +And this is the way I saw the ocean at school -- as if to say, "All geography and science lessons stop at water's edge. +This part's not going to be on the test." +But that day I flew low over the islands -- it was a family trip to the Caribbean, and I flew in a small plane low over the islands. +This is what I saw. I saw hills and valleys. +I saw forests and meadows. +I saw grottoes and secret gardens and places I'd love to hide as a kid, if I could only breathe underwater. +And best of all, I saw the animals. +I saw a manta ray that looked as big as the plane I was flying in. +And I flew over a lagoon with a shark in it, and that was the day that my comic strip about a shark was born. +So from that day on, I was an ordinary kid walking around on dry land, but my head was down there, underwater. +Up until that day, these were the animals that were most common in my life. +These were the ones I'd like to draw -- all variations of four legs and fur. +But when you got to the ocean, my imagination was no competition for nature. +Every time I'd come up with a crazy cartoon character on the drawing board, I'd find a critter in the ocean that was even crazier. +And the differences in scale between this tiny sea dragon and this enormous humpback whale was like something out of a science-fiction movie. +Whenever I talk to kids, I always like to tell them, the biggest animal that ever lived is still alive. +It's not a dinosaur; it's a whale, animals as big as office buildings still swimming around out there in our ocean. +Speaking of dinosaurs, sharks are basically the same fish they were 300 million years ago. +So if you ever fantasize about going back in time and seeing what a dinosaur looked like, that's what a dinosaur looks like. +So you have living dinosaurs and space aliens, animals that evolved in zero gravity in harsh conditions. +It's just incredible; no Hollywood designer could come up with something more interesting than that. +Or this fangtooth. The particles in the water make it look like it's floating in outer space. +Could you image if we looked through the Hubble Telescope and we saw that? +It would start a whole new space race. +But instead, we stick a camera in the deep ocean, and we see a fish, and it doesn't capture our imagination as a society. +We say to ourselves, "Maybe we can make fish sticks with it or something." +So, what I'd like to do now is try a little drawing. +So, I'm going to try to draw this fangtooth here. +I love to draw the deep sea fish, because they are so ugly, but beautiful in their own way. +Maybe we can give him a little bioluminescence here -- give him a headlight, maybe a brake light, turn signals. +But it's easy to see why these animals make such great cartoon characters, their shapes and sizes. +So some of them actually seem to have powers like superheroes in a comic book. +For instance, take these sea turtles. +They kind of have a sixth sense like Superman's x-ray vision. +They can sense the magnetic fields of the earth. +And they can use that sense to navigate hundreds of miles of open ocean. +I kind of give my turtle hands just to make them an easier cartoon character to work with. +Or take this sea cucumber. +It's not an animal we draw cartoons of or draw at all. +He's like an underwater Spiderman. +He shoots out these sticky webs to entangle his enemy. +Of course, sea cucumbers shoot them out their rears, which, in my opinion, makes them much more interesting a superhero. +He can't spin a web anytime; he's got to pull his pants down first. +Or the blowfish. +The blowfish is like the Incredible Hulk. +It can change its body into a big, intimidating fish in a matter of seconds. +I'm going to draw this blowfish uninflated. +And then I'm going to attempt onscreen animation here. +Let's see. +Try and inflate it. +"You talkin' to me?" See, he can inflate himself when he wants to be intimidating. +Or take this swordfish. +Could you imagine being born with a tool for a nose? +Do you think he wakes up in the morning, looks in the mirror and says, "Somebody's getting stabbed today." +Or this lionfish for instance. +Imagine trying to make friends covered with razor-sharp poisonous barbs. +It's not something you want to put on your Facebook page, right? +My characters are -- my lead character's a shark named Sherman. +He's a great white shark. +And I kind of broke the mold with Sherman. +I didn't want to go with this ruthless predator image. +He's kind of just out there making a living. +He's sort of a Homer Simpson with fins. +And then his sidekick is a sea turtle, as I mentioned before, named Filmore. +He uses his wonderful skills at navigation to wander the oceans, looking for a mate. +And he does manage to find them, but great navigation skills, lousy pick-up lines. +He never seems to settle on any particular girl. +I have a hermit crab named Hawthorne, who doesn't get a lot of respect as a hermit crab, so he kind of wishes he were a great white shark. +And then I'll introduce you to one more character, this guy, Ernest, who is basically a juvenile delinquent in a fish body. +So with characters, you can make stories. +Sometimes making a story is as easy as putting two characters in a room and seeing what happens. +So, imagine a great white shark and a giant squid in the same bathroom. +Or, sometimes I take them to places that people have never heard of because they're underwater. +For instance, I took them skiing in the Mid-Atlantic Range, which is this range of mountains in the middle of the Atlantic. +I've taken them to the Sea of Japan, where they met giant jellyfish. +I've taken them camping in the kelp forests of California. +This next one here, I did a story on the census of marine life. +And that was a lot of fun because, as most of you know, it's a real project we've heard about. +But it was a chance for me to introduce readers to a lot of crazy undersea characters. +So we start off the story with Ernest, who volunteers as a census taker. +He goes down and he meets this famous anglerfish. +Then he meets the yeti crab, the famous vampire squid -- elusive, hard to find -- and the Dumbo octopus, which looks so much like a cartoon in real life that really didn't have to change a thing when I drew it. +I did another story on marine debris. +I was speaking to a lot of my friends in the conservation business, and they -- I asked them, "So what's one issue you would like everyone to know more about?" +And they said -- this one friend of mine said, "I've got one word for you: plastic." +And I told him, "Well, I need something a little sexier than that. +Plastic just is not going to do it." +We sort of worked things out. +He wanted me to use words like polyvinyl chloride, which doesn't really work in voice balloons very well. +I couldn't fit them in. +So what I did was I made an adventure strip. +Basically, this bottle travels a long way. +What I'm trying to tell readers is that plastic doesn't really go away; it just continues to wash downstream. +And a lot of it ends up washing into the ocean, which is a great story if you attach a couple characters to it, especially if they can't stand each other, like these two. +So, I sent them to Boise, Idaho, where they dropped a plastic bottle into the Boise sewer system. +So that was basically a buddy story with a plastic bottle following along. +So a lot of people remember the plastic bottle anyway, but we really talked about marine debris and plastic in the course of that one. +The third storyline I did about a year and a half ago was probably my most difficult. +It was on shark finning, and I felt really strongly about this issue. +And I felt like, since my main character was a shark, the comic strip was a perfect vehicle for telling the public about this. +Now, finning is the act of taking a shark, cutting the valuable fins off and throwing the live animal back in the water. +It's cruel, it's wasteful. +There's nothing funny or entertaining about it, but I really wanted to take this issue on. +I had to kill my main character, who is a shark. +We start with Sherman in a Chinese restaurant, who gets a fortune that he's about to get caught by a trawler, which he does. +And then he dies. +He gets finned, and then he gets thrown overboard. +Ostensibly, he's dead now. +And so I killed a character that's been in the newspaper for 15 years. +So I got a lot of reader feedback on that one. +Meanwhile, the other characters are talking about shark fin soup. +I do three or four strips after that where we explore the finning issue and the shark fin soup issue. +Sherman's up in shark heaven. +This is what I love about comic strips, you know. +You really don't have to worry about the audience suspending its sense of disbelief because, if you start with a talking shark, readers pretty much check their disbelief at the door. +You can kind of do anything. +It becomes a near-death experience for Sherman. +Meanwhile, Ernest finds his fins on the internet. +There was a real website based in China that actually sold shark fins, so I kind of exposed that. +And he clicks the "buy now" button. +And voila, next-day air, they show up, and they surgically reattach them. +I ended that series with a kind of a mail-in petition that encouraged our National Marine Fishery Service, to force other countries to have a stronger stance with shark management. +Thanks. +I'd like to end with a little metaphor here. +I've been trying to think of a metaphor to represent Mission Blue, and this is what I came up with. +Imagine you're in an enormous room, and it's as dark as a cave. +And you can have anything in that room, anything you want, but you can't see anything. +You've been given one tool, a hammer. +So you wander around in the darkness, and you bump into something, and it feels like it's made of stone. +It's big, it's heavy. You can't carry it away, so you bang it with your hammer, and you break off a piece. +And you take the piece out into the daylight. +And you see you have a beautiful piece of white alabaster. +So you say to yourself, "Well, that's worth something." +So you go back into the room, and you break this thing to pieces, and you haul it away. +And you find other things, and you break that up, and you haul those away. +And you're getting all kinds of cool stuff. +And you hear other people doing the same thing. +So you get this sense of urgency, like you need to find as much stuff as possible as soon as possible. +And then some yells, "Stop!" +And they turn up the lights. +And you realize where you are; you're in the Louvre. +And you've taken all this complexity and beauty, and you've turned it into a cheap commodity. +And that's what we're doing with the ocean. +And part of what Mission Blue is about is yelling, "Stop!" +so that each of us -- explorer, scientist, cartoonist, singer, chef -- can turn up the lights in their own way. +And that's what I hope my comic strip does in a small way. +That's why I like what I do. +Thanks for listening. +So I'm going to talk to you about you about the political chemistry of oil spills and why this is an incredibly important, long, oily, hot summer, and why we need to keep ourselves from getting distracted. +But before I talk about the political chemistry, I actually need to talk about the chemistry of oil. +This is a photograph from when I visited Prudhoe Bay in Alaska in 2002 to watch the Minerals Management Service testing their ability to burn oil spills in ice. +And what you see here is, you see a little bit of crude oil, you see some ice cubes, and you see two sandwich baggies of napalm. +The napalm is burning there quite nicely. +And the thing is, is that oil is really an abstraction for us as the American consumer. +We're four percent of the world's population; we use 25 percent of the world's oil production. +And we don't really understand what oil is, until you check out its molecules, And you don't really understand that until you see this stuff burn. +So this is what happens as that burn gets going. +It takes off. It's a big woosh. +I highly recommend that you get a chance to see crude oil burn someday, because you will never need to hear another poli sci lecture on the geopolitics of oil again. +It'll just bake your retinas. +So there it is; the retinas are baking. +Let me tell you a little bit about this chemistry of oil. +Oil is a stew of hydrocarbon molecules. +It starts of with the very small ones, which are one carbon, four hydrogen -- that's methane -- it just floats off. +Then there's all sorts of intermediate ones with middle amounts of carbon. +You've probably heard of benzene rings; they're very carcinogenic. +And it goes all the way over to these big, thick, galumphy ones that have hundreds of carbons, and they have thousands of hydrogens, and they have vanadium and heavy metals and sulfur and all kinds of craziness hanging off the sides of them. +Those are called the asphaltenes; they're an ingredient in asphalt. +They're very important in oil spills. +Let me tell you a little bit about the chemistry of oil in water. +It is this chemistry that makes oil so disastrous. +Oil doesn't sink, it floats. +If it sank, it would be a whole different story as far as an oil spill. +And the other thing it does is it spreads out the moment it hits the water. +It spreads out to be really thin, so you have a hard time corralling it. +The next thing that happens is the light ends evaporate, and some of the toxic things float into the water column and kill fish eggs and smaller fish and things like that, and shrimp. +And then the asphaltenes -- and this is the crucial thing -- the asphaltenes get whipped by the waves into a frothy emulsion, something like mayonnaise. +It triples the amount of oily, messy goo that you have in the water, and it makes it very hard to handle. +It also makes it very viscous. +When the Prestige sank off the coast of Spain, there were big, floating cushions the size of sofa cushions of emulsified oil, with the consistency, or the viscosity, of chewing gum. +It's incredibly hard to clean up. +And every single oil is different when it hits water. +When the chemistry of the oil and water also hits our politics, it's absolutely explosive. +For the first time, American consumers will kind of see the oil supply chain in front of themselves. +They have a "eureka!" moment, when we suddenly understand oil in a different context. +So I'm going to talk just a little bit about the origin of these politics, because it's really crucial to understanding why this summer is so important, why we need to stay focused. +Nobody gets up in the morning and thinks, "Wow! I'm going to go buy some three-carbon-to-12-carbon molecules to put in my tank and drive happily to work." +No, they think, "Ugh. I have to go buy gas. +I'm so angry about it. The oil companies are ripping me off. +They set the prices, and I don't even know. +I am helpless over this." +And this is what happens to us at the gas pump -- and actually, gas pumps are specifically designed to diffuse that anger. +You might notice that many gas pumps, including this one, are designed to look like ATMs. +I've talked to engineers. That's specifically to diffuse our anger, because supposedly we feel good about ATMs. +That shows you how bad it is. +But actually, I mean, this feeling of helplessness comes in because most Americans actually feel that oil prices are the result of a conspiracy, not of the vicissitudes of the world oil market. +And that's actually very perverse. +Now there's another perverse thing about the way we buy gas, which is that we'd rather be doing anything else. +This is BP's gas station in downtown Los Angeles. +It is green. It is a shrine to greenishness. +"Now," you think, "why would something so lame work on people so smart?" +Well, the reason is, is because, when we're buying gas, we're very invested in this sort of cognitive dissonance. +I mean, we're angry at the one hand and we want to be somewhere else. +We don't want to be buying oil; we want to be doing something green. +And we get kind of in on our own con. +I mean -- and this is funny, it looks funny here. +But in fact, that's why the slogan "beyond petroleum" worked. +But it's an inherent part of our energy policy, which is we don't talk about reducing the amount of oil that we use. +We talk about energy independence. We talk about hydrogen cars. +We talk about biofuels that haven't been invented yet. +And so, cognitive dissonance is part and parcel of the way that we deal with oil, and it's really important to dealing with this oil spill. +Okay, so the politics of oil are very moral in the United States. +The oil industry is like a huge, gigantic octopus of engineering and finance and everything else, but we actually see it in very moral terms. +This is an early-on photograph -- you can see, we had these gushers. +Early journalists looked at these spills, and they said, "This is a filthy industry." +But they also saw in it that people were getting rich for doing nothing. +They weren't farmers, they were just getting rich for stuff coming out of the ground. +It's the "Beverly Hillbillies," basically. +But in the beginning, this was seen as a very morally problematic thing, long before it became funny. +And then, of course, there was John D. Rockefeller. +And the thing about John D. is that he went into this chaotic wild-east of oil industry, and he rationalized it into a vertically integrated company, a multinational. +It was terrifying; you think Walmart is a terrifying business model now, imagine what this looked like in the 1860s or 1870s. +And it also the kind of root of how we see oil as a conspiracy. +But what's really amazing is that Ida Tarbell, the journalist, went in and did a big expos of Rockefeller and actually got the whole antitrust laws put in place. +But in many ways, that image of the conspiracy still sticks with us. +And here's one of the things that Ida Tarbell said -- she said, "He has a thin nose like a thorn. +There were no lips. +There were puffs under the little colorless eyes with creases running from them." +Okay, so that guy is actually still with us. +I mean, this is a very pervasive -- this is part of our DNA. +And then there's this guy, okay. +So, you might be wondering why it is that, every time we have high oil prices or an oil spill, we call these CEOs down to Washington, and we sort of pepper them with questions in public and we try to shame them. +And this is something that we've been doing since 1974, when we first asked them, "Why are there these obscene profits?" +And we've sort of personalized the whole oil industry into these CEOs. +And we take it as, you know -- we look at it on a moral level, rather than looking at it on a legal and financial level. +So I'm saying this is kind of a distraction. +But it makes for good theater, and it's powerfully cathartic as you probably saw last week. +So the thing about water oil spills is that they are very politically galvanizing. +I mean, these pictures -- this is from the Santa Barbara spill. +You have these pictures of birds. +They really influence people. +When the Santa Barbara spill happened in 1969, it formed the environmental movement in its modern form. +It started Earth Day. +It also put in place the National Environmental Policy Act, the Clean Air Act, the Clean Water Act. +Everything that we are really stemmed from this period. +I think it's important to kind of look at these pictures of the birds and understand what happens to us. +Here we are normally; we're standing at the gas pump, and we're feeling kind of helpless. +We look at these pictures and we understand, for the first time, our role in this supply chain. +We connect the dots in the supply chain. +And we have this kind of -- as voters, we have kind of a "eureka!" moment. +This is why these moments of these oil spills are so important. +But it's also really important that we don't get distracted by the theater or the morals of it. +We actually need to go in and work on the roots of the problem. +One of the things that happened with the two previous oil spills was that we really worked on some of the symptoms. +We were very reactive, as opposed to being proactive about what happened. +And so what we did was, actually, we made moratoriums on the east and west coasts on drilling. +We stopped drilling in ANWR, but we didn't actually reduce the amount of oil that we consumed. +In fact, it's continued to increase. +The only thing that really reduces the amount of oil that we consume is much higher prices. +As you can see, our own production has fallen off as our reservoirs have gotten old and expensive to drill out. +We only have two percent of the world's oil reserves; 65 percent of them are in the Persian Gulf. +One of the things that's happened because of this is that, since 1969, the country of Nigeria, or the part of Nigeria that pumps oil, which is the delta -- which is two times the size of Maryland -- has had thousands of oil spills a year. +I mean, we've essentially been exporting oil spills when we import oil from places without tight environmental regulations. +That has been the equivalent of an Exxon Valdez spill every year since 1969. +And we can wrap our heads around the spills, because that's what we see here, but in fact, these guys actually live in a war zone. +There's a thousand battle-related deaths a year in this area twice the size of Maryland, and it's all related to the oil. +And these guys, I mean, if they were in the U.S., they might be actually here in this room. +They have degrees in political science, degrees in business -- they're entrepreneurs. They don't actually want to be doing what they're doing. +And it's sort of one of the other groups of people who pay a price for us. +The other thing that we've done, as we've continued to increase demand, is that we kind of play a shell game with the costs. +One of the places we put in a big oil project in Chad, with Exxon. +So the U.S. taxpayer paid for it; the World Bank, Exxon paid for it. +We put it in. There was a tremendous banditry problem. +I was there in 2003. +We were driving along this dark, dark road, and the guy in the green stepped out, and I was just like, "Ahhh! This is it." +And then the guy in the Exxon uniform stepped out, and we realized it was okay. +They have their own private sort of army around them at the oil fields. +But at the same time, Chad has become much more unstable, and we are not paying for that price at the pump. +We pay for it in our taxes on April 15th. +We do the same thing with the price of policing the Persian Gulf and keeping the shipping lanes open. +This is 1988 -- we actually bombed two Iranian oil platforms that year. +That was the beginning of an escalating U.S. involvement there that we do not pay for at the pump. +We pay for it on April 15th, and we can't even calculate the cost of this involvement. +The other place that is sort of supporting our dependence on oil and our increased consumption is the Gulf of Mexico, which was not part of the moratoriums. +Now what's happened in the Gulf of Mexico -- as you can see, this is the Minerals Management diagram of wells for gas and oil. +It's become this intense industrialized zone. +It doesn't have the same resonance for us that the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge has, but it should, I mean, it's a bird sanctuary. +Also, every time you buy gasoline in the United States, half of it is actually being refined along the coast, because the Gulf actually has about 50 percent of our refining capacity and a lot of our marine terminals as well. +So the people of the Gulf have essentially been subsidizing the rest of us through a less-clean environment. +And finally, American families also pay a price for oil. +If you look at people who make $50,000 a year, they have two kids, they might have three jobs or more, and then they have to really commute. +They're actually spending more on their car and fuel than they are on taxes or on health care. +And the same thing happens at the 50th percentile, around 80,000. +Gasoline costs are a tremendous drain on the American economy, but they're also a drain on individual families and it's kind of terrifying to think about what happens when prices get higher. +So, what I'm going to talk to you about now is: what do we have to do this time? +What are the laws? What do we have to do to keep ourselves focused? +One thing is -- we need to stay away from the theater. +We need to stay away from the moratoriums. +We need to focus really back again on the molecules. +The moratoriums are fine, but we do need to focus on the molecules on the oil. +One of the things that we also need to do, is we need to try to not kind of fool ourselves into thinking that you can have a green world, before you reduce the amount of oil that we use. +We need to focus on reducing the oil. +What you see in this top drawing is a schematic of how petroleum gets used in the U.S. economy. +It comes in on the side -- the useful stuff is the dark gray, and the un-useful stuff, which is called the rejected energy -- the waste, goes up to the top. +Now you can see that the waste far outweighs the actually useful amount. +And one of the things that we need to do is, not only fix the fuel efficiency of our vehicles and make them much more efficient, but we also need to fix the economy in general. +We need to remove the perverse incentives to use more fuel. +For example, we have an insurance system where the person who drives 20,000 miles a year pays the same insurance as somebody who drives 3,000. +We actually encourage people to drive more. +We have policies that reward sprawl -- we have all kinds of policies. +We need to have more mobility choices. +We need to make the gas price better reflect the real cost of oil. +And we need to shift subsidies from the oil industry, which is at least 10 billion dollars a year, into something that allows middle-class people to find better ways to commute. +Whether that's getting a much more efficient car and also kind of building markets for new cars and new fuels down the road, this is where we need to be. +We need to kind of rationalize this whole thing, and you can find more about this policy. +It's called STRONG, which is "Secure Transportation Reducing Oil Needs Gradually," and the idea is instead of being helpless, we need to be more strong. +They're up at NewAmerica.net. +What's important about these is that we try to move from feeling helpless at the pump, to actually being active and to really sort of thinking about who we are, having kind of that special moment, where we connect the dots actually at the pump. +Now supposedly, oil taxes are the third rail of American politics -- the no-fly zone. +Let me give you a little sense of how this would work. +This is a gas receipt, hypothetically, for a year from now. +The first thing that you have on the tax is -- you have a tax for a stronger America -- 33 cents. +So you're not helpless at the pump. +And the second thing that you have is a kind of warning sign, very similar to what you would find on a cigarette pack. +And what it says is, "The National Academy of Sciences estimates that every gallon of gas you burn in your car creates 29 cents in health care costs." +That's a lot. +And so this -- you can see that you're paying considerably less than the health care costs on the tax. +And also, the hope is that you start to be connected to the whole greater system. +And at the same time, you have a number that you can call to get more information on commuting, or a low-interest loan on a different kind of car, or whatever it is you're going to need to actually reduce your gasoline dependence. +With this whole sort of suite of policies, we could actually reduce our gasoline consumption -- or our oil consumption -- by 20 percent by 2020. +So, three million barrels a day. +But in order to do this, one of the things we really need to do, is we need to remember we are people of the hydrocarbon. +We need to keep or minds on the molecules and not get distracted by the theater, not get distracted by the cognitive dissonance of the green possibilities that are out there. +We need to kind of get down and do the gritty work of reducing our dependence upon this fuel and these molecules. +Thank you. +So I work in marketing, which I love, but my first passion was physics, a passion brought to me by a wonderful school teacher, when I had a little less gray hair. +So he taught me that physics is cool because it teaches us so much about the world around us. +And I'm going to spend the next few minutes trying to convince you that physics can teach us something about marketing. +So quick show of hands -- who studied some marketing in university? +Who studied some physics in university? +Pretty good. And at school? +Okay, lots of you. +So, hopefully this will bring back some happy, or possibly some slightly disturbing memories. +So, physics and marketing. +We'll start with something very simple -- Newton's Law: "The force equals mass times acceleration." +This is something that perhaps Turkish Airlines should have studied a bit more carefully before they ran this campaign. +But if we rearrange this formula quickly, we can get to acceleration equals force over mass, which means that for a larger particle -- a larger mass -- it requires more force to change its direction. +It's the same with brands: the more massive a brand, the more baggage it has, the more force is needed to change its positioning. +And that's one of the reasons why Arthur Andersen chose to launch Accenture rather than try to persuade the world that Andersen's could stand for something other than accountancy. +It explains why Hoover found it very difficult to persuade the world that it was more than vacuum cleaners, and why companies like Unilever and P&G keep brands separate, like Ariel and Pringles and Dove rather than having one giant parent brand. +So the physics is that the bigger the mass of an object the more force is needed to change its direction. +The marketing is, the bigger a brand, the more difficult it is to reposition it. +So think about a portfolio of brands or maybe new brands for new ventures. +Now, who remembers Heisenberg's uncertainty principle? +Getting a little more technical now. +So this says that it's impossible, by definition, to measure exactly the state -- i.e., the position -- and the momentum of a particle, because the act of measuring it, by definition, changes it. +So to explain that -- if you've got an elementary particle and you shine a light on it, then the photon of light has momentum, which knocks the particle, so you don't know where it was before you looked at it. +By measuring it, the act of measurement changes it. +The act of observation changes it. +It's the same in marketing. +So with the act of observing consumers, changes their behavior. +Think about the group of moms who are talking about their wonderful children in a focus group, and almost none of them buy lots of junk food. +And yet, McDonald's sells hundreds of millions of burgers every year. +Think about the people who are on accompanied shops in supermarkets, who stuff their trolleys full of fresh green vegetables and fruit, but don't shop like that any other day. +And if you think about the number of people who claim in surveys to regularly look for porn on the Web, it's very few. +Yet, at Google, we know it's the number-one searched for category. +So luckily, the science -- no, sorry -- the marketing is getting easier. +Luckily, with now better point-of-sale tracking, more digital media consumption, you can measure more what consumers actually do, rather than what they say they do. +So the physics is you can never accurately and exactly measure a particle, because the observation changes it. +The marketing is -- the message for marketing is -- that try to measure what consumers actually do, rather than what they say they'll do or anticipate they'll do. +So next, the scientific method -- an axiom of physics, of all science -- says you cannot prove a hypothesis through observation, you can only disprove it. +What this means is you can gather more and more data around a hypothesis or a positioning, and it will strengthen it, but it will not conclusively prove it. +And only one contrary data point can blow your theory out of the water. +So if we take an example -- Ptolemy had dozens of data points to support his theory that the planets would rotate around the Earth. +It only took one robust observation from Copernicus to blow that idea out of the water. +And there are parallels for marketing -- you can invest for a long time in a brand, but a single contrary observation of that positioning will destroy consumers' belief. +Take BP -- they spent millions of pounds over many years building up its credentials as an environmentally friendly brand, but then one little accident. +Think about Toyota. +It was, for a long time, revered as the most reliable of cars, and then they had the big recall incident. +And Tiger Woods, for a long time, the perfect brand ambassador. +Well, you know the story. +So the physics is that you cannot prove a hypothesis, but it's easy to disprove it -- any hypothesis is shaky. +And the marketing is that not matter how much you've invested in your brand, one bad week can undermine decades of good work. +So be really careful to try and avoid the screw-ups that can undermine your brand. +And lastly, to the slightly obscure world of entropy -- the second law of thermodynamics. +This says that entropy, which is a measure of the disorder of a system, will always increase. +The same is true of marketing. +If we go back 20 years, the one message pretty much controlled by one marketing manager could pretty much define a brand. +But where we are today, things have changed. +You can get a strong brand image or a message and put it out there like the Conservative Party did earlier this year with their election poster. +But then you lose control of it. +With the kind of digital comment creation and distribution tools that are available now to every consumer, it's impossible to control where it goes. +Your brand starts being dispersed, it gets more chaotic. +It's out of your control. +I actually saw him speak -- he did a good job. +But while this may be unsettling for marketers, it's actually a good thing. +This distribution of brand energy gets your brand closer to the people, more in with the people. +It makes this distribution of energy a democratizing force, which is ultimately good for your brand. +So, the lesson from physics is that entropy will always increase; it's a fundamental law. +The message for marketing is that your brand is more dispersed. +You can't fight it, so embrace it and find a way to work with it. +So to close, my teacher, Mr. Vutter, told me that physics is cool, and hopefully, I've convinced you that physics can teach all of us, even in the world of marketing, something special. +Thank you. +Martin Luther King did not say, "I have a nightmare," when he inspired the civil rights movements. +He said, "I have a dream." +And I have a dream. +I have a dream that we can stop thinking that the future will be a nightmare, and this is going to be a challenge, because, if you think of every major blockbusting film of recent times, nearly all of its visions for humanity are apocalyptic. +I think this film is one of the hardest watches of modern times, "The Road." +It's a beautiful piece of filmmaking, but everything is desolate, everything is dead. +And just a father and son trying to survive, walking along the road. +And I think the environmental movement of which I am a part of has been complicit in creating this vision of the future. +For too long, we have peddled a nightmarish vision of what's going to happen. +We have focused on the worst-case scenario. +We have focused on the problems. +And we have not thought enough about the solutions. +We've used fear, if you like, to grab people's attention. +And any psychologist will tell you that fear in the organism is linked to flight mechanism. +It's part of the fight and flight mechanism, that when an animal is frightened -- think of a deer. +A deer freezes very, very still, poised to run away. +And I think that's what we're doing when we're asking people to engage with our agenda around environmental degradation and climate change. +People are freezing and running away because we're using fear. +And I think the environmental movement has to grow up and start to think about what progress is. +What would it be like to be improving the human lot? +This is somehow appealing to human greed instead of fear -- that more is better. +Come on. In the Western world, we have enough. +Maybe some parts of the world don't, but we have enough. +And we've know for a long time that this is not a good measure of the welfare of nations. +In fact, the architect of our national accounting system, Simon Kuznets, in the 1930s, said that, "A nation's welfare can scarcely be inferred from their national income." +But we've created a national accounting system which is firmly based on production and producing stuff. +And indeed, this is probably historical, and it had its time. +In the second World War, we needed to produce a lot of stuff. +And indeed, we were so successful at producing certain types of stuff that we destroyed a lot of Europe, and we had to rebuild it afterwards. +And so our national accounting system became fixated on what we can produce. +But as early as 1968, this visionary man, Robert Kennedy, at the start of his ill-fated presidential campaign, gave the most eloquent deconstruction of gross national product that ever has been. +And he finished his talk with the phrase, that, "The gross national product measures everything except that which makes life worthwhile." +How crazy is that? That our measure of progress, our dominant measure of progress in society, is measuring everything except that which makes life worthwhile? +I believe, if Kennedy was alive today, he would be asking statisticians such as myself to go out and find out what makes life worthwhile. +He'd be asking us to redesign our national accounting system to be based upon such important things as social justice, sustainability and people's well-being. +And actually, social scientists have already gone out and asked these questions around the world. +This is from a global survey. +It's asking people, what do they want. +And unsurprisingly, people all around the world say that what they want is happiness, for themselves, for their families, their children, their communities. +Okay, they think money is slightly important. +It's there, but it's not nearly as important as happiness, and it's not nearly as important as love. +We all need to love and be loved in life. +It's not nearly as important as health. +We want to be healthy and live a full life. +These seem to be natural human aspirations. +Why are statisticians not measuring these? +Why are we not thinking of the progress of nations in these terms, instead of just how much stuff we have? +And really, this is what I've done with my adult life -- is think about how do we measure happiness, how do we measure well-being, how can we do that within environmental limits. +And we created, at the organization that I work for, the New Economics Foundation, something we call the Happy Planet Index, because we think people should be happy and the planet should be happy. +Why don't we create a measure of progress that shows that? +And what we do, is we say that the ultimate outcome of a nation is how successful is it at creating happy and healthy lives for its citizens. +That should be the goal of every nation on the planet. +But we have to remember that there's a fundamental input to that, and that is how many of the planet's resources we use. +We all have one planet. We all have to share it. +It is the ultimate scarce resource, the one planet that we share. +And economics is very interested in scarcity. +When it has a scarce resource that it wants to turn into a desirable outcome, it thinks in terms of efficiency. +It thinks in terms of how much bang do we get for our buck. +And this is a measure of how much well-being we get for our planetary resource use. +It is an efficiency measure. +And probably the easiest way to show you that, is to show you this graph. +Running horizontally along the graph, is "ecological footprint," which is a measure of how much resources we use and how much pressure we put on the planet. +More is bad. +Running vertically upwards, is a measure called "happy life years." +It's about the well-being of nations. +It's like a happiness adjusted life-expectancy. +It's like quality and quantity of life in nations. +And the yellow dot there you see, is the global average. +Now, there's a huge array of nations around that global average. +To the top right of the graph, are countries which are doing reasonably well and producing well-being, but they're using a lot of planet to get there. +They are the U.S.A., other Western countries going across in those triangles and a few Gulf states in there actually. +Conversely, at the bottom left of the graph, are countries that are not producing much well-being -- typically, sub-Saharan Africa. +In Hobbesian terms, life is short and brutish there. +The average life expectancy in many of these countries is only 40 years. +Malaria, HIV/AIDS are killing a lot of people in these regions of the world. +But now for the good news! +There are some countries up there, yellow triangles, that are doing better than global average, that are heading up towards the top left of the graph. +This is an aspirational graph. +We want to be top left, where good lives don't cost the earth. +They're Latin American. +The country on its own up at the top is a place I haven't been to. +Maybe some of you have. +Costa Rica. +Costa Rica -- average life expectancy is 78-and-a-half years. +That is longer than in the USA. +They are, according to the latest Gallup world poll, the happiest nation on the planet -- than anybody; more than Switzerland and Denmark. +They are the happiest place. +They are doing that on a quarter of the resources that are used typically in [the] Western world -- a quarter of the resources. +What's going on there? +What's happening in Costa Rica? +We can look at some of the data. +99 percent of their electricity comes from renewable resources. +Their government is one of the first to commit to be carbon neutral by 2021. +They abolished the army in 1949 -- 1949. +And they invested in social programs -- health and education. +They have one of the highest literacy rates in Latin America and in the world. +And they have that Latin vibe, don't they. +They have the social connectedness. +The challenge is, that possibly -- and the thing we might have to think about -- is that the future might not be North American, might not be Western European. +It might be Latin American. +And the challenge, really, is to pull the global average up here. +That's what we need to do. +And if we're going to do that, we need to pull countries from the bottom, and we need to pull countries from the right of the graph. +And then we're starting to create a happy planet. +That's one way of looking at it. +Another way of looking at it is looking at time trends. +We don't have good data going back for every country in the world, but for some of the richest countries, the OECD group, we do. +And this is the trend in well-being over that time, a small increase, but this is the trend in ecological footprint. +And so in strict happy-planet methodology, we've become less efficient at turning our ultimate scarce resource into the outcome we want to. +And the point really is, is that I think, probably everybody in this room would like society to get to 2050 without an apocalyptic something happening. +It's actually not very long away. +It's half a human lifetime away. +A child entering school today will be my age in 2050. +This is not the very distant future. +This is what the U.K. government target on carbon and greenhouse emissions looks like. +And I put it to you, that is not business as usual. +That is changing our business. +That is changing the way we create our organizations, we do our government policy and we live our lives. +And the point is, we need to carry on increasing well-being. +No one can go to the polls and say that quality of life is going to reduce. +None of us, I think, want human progress to stop. +I think we want it to carry on. +I think we want the lot of humanity to keep on increasing. +And I think this is where climate change skeptics and deniers come in. +I think this is what they want. They want quality of life to keep increasing. +They want to hold on to what they've got. +And if we're going to engage them, I think that's what we've got to do. +And that means we have to really increase efficiency even more. +Now that's all very easy to draw graphs and things like that, but the point is we need to turn those curves. +And this is where I think we can take a leaf out of systems theory, systems engineers, where they create feedback loops, put the right information at the right point of time. +Human beings are very motivated by the "now." +You put a smart meter in your home, and you see how much electricity you're using right now, how much it's costing you, your kids go around and turn the lights off pretty quickly. +What would that look like for society? +Why is it, on the radio news every evening, I hear the FTSE 100, the Dow Jones, the dollar pound ratio -- I don't even know which way the dollar pound ratio should go to be good news. +And why do I hear that? +Why don't I hear how much energy Britain used yesterday, or American used yesterday? +Did we meet our three percent annual target on reducing carbon emissions? +That's how you create a collective goal. +You put it out there into the media and start thinking about it. +And we need positive feedback loops for increasing well-being At a government level, they might create national accounts of well-being. +At a business level, you might look at the well-being of your employees, which we know is really linked to creativity, which is linked to innovation, and we're going to need a lot of innovation to deal with those environmental issues. +At a personal level, we need these nudges too. +Maybe we don't quite need the data, but we need reminders. +In the U.K., we have a strong public health message on five fruit and vegetables a day and how much exercise we should do -- never my best thing. +What are these for happiness? +What are the five things that you should do every day to be happier? +We did a project for the Government Office of Science a couple of years ago, a big program called the Foresight program -- lots and lots of people -- involved lots of experts -- everything evidence based -- a huge tome. +But a piece of work we did was on: what five positive actions can you do to improve well-being in your life? +And the point of these is they are, not quite, the secrets of happiness, but they are things that I think happiness will flow out the side from. +And the first of these is to connect, is that your social relationships are the most important cornerstones of your life. +Do you invest the time with your loved ones that you could do, and energy? +Keep building them. +The second one is be active. +The fastest way out of a bad mood: step outside, go for a walk, turn the radio on and dance. +Being active is great for our positive mood. +The third one is take notice. +How aware are you of things going on around the world, the seasons changing, people around you? +Do you notice what's bubbling up for you and trying to emerge? +Based on a lot of evidence for mindfulness, cognitive behavioral therapy, [very] strong for our well being. +The fourth is keep learning and keep is important -- learning throughout the whole life course. +Older people who keep learning and are curious, they have much better health outcomes than those who start to close down. +But it doesn't have to be formal learning; it's not knowledge based. +It's more curiosity. +It can be learning to cook a new dish, picking up an instrument you forgot as a child. +Keep learning. +And the final one is that most anti-economic of activities, but give. +Our generosity, our altruism, our compassion, are all hardwired to the reward mechanism in our brain. +We feel good if we give. +You can do an experiment where you give two groups of people a hundred dollars in the morning. +You tell one of them to spend it on themselves and one on other people. +You measure their happiness at the end of the day, those that have gone and spent on other people are much happier that those that spent it on themselves. +And these five ways, which we put onto these handy postcards, I would say, don't have to cost the earth. +They don't have any carbon content. +They don't need a lot of material goods to be satisfied. +And so I think it's really quite feasible that happiness does not cost the earth. +Now, Martin Luther King, on the eve of his death, gave an incredible speech. +He said, "I know there are challenges ahead, there may be trouble ahead, but I fear no one. I don't care. +I have been to the mountain top, and I have seen the Promised Land." +And not only that, we need to create a Great Transition to get there, and we need to pave that great transition with good things. +Human beings want to be happy. +Pave them with the five ways. +And we need to have signposts gathering people together and pointing them -- something like the Happy Planet Index. +And then I believe that we can all create a world we all want, where happiness does not cost the earth. +We live on a human-dominated planet, putting unprecedented pressure on the systems on Earth. +This is bad news, but perhaps surprising to you, it's also part of the good news. +We're the first generation -- thanks to science -- to be informed that we may be undermining the stability and the ability of planet Earth to support human development as we know it. +It's also good news, because the planetary risks we're facing are so large, that business as usual is not an option. +In fact, we're in a phase where transformative change is necessary, which opens the window for innovation, for new ideas and new paradigms. +This is a scientific journey on the challenges facing humanity in the global phase of sustainability. +On this journey, I'd like to bring, apart from yourselves, a good friend, a stakeholder, who's always absent when we deal with the negotiations on environmental issues, a stakeholder who refuses to compromise -- planet Earth. +So I thought I'd bring her with me today on stage, to have her as a witness of a remarkable journey, which humbly reminds us of the period of grace we've had over the past 10,000 years. +This is the living conditions on the planet over the last 100,000 years. +It's a very important period -- it's roughly half the period when we've been fully modern humans on the planet. +We've had the same, roughly, abilities that developed civilizations as we know it. +This is the environmental conditions on the planet. +Here, used as a proxy, temperature variability. +A thousand years into this period, we abandon our hunting and gathering patterns. +We go from a couple of million people to the seven billion people we are today. +The Mesopotamian culture: we invent agriculture, we domesticate animals and plants. +You have the Roman, the Greek and the story as you know it. +The only phase, as we know it that can support humanity. +The trouble is we're putting a quadruple sqeeze on this poor planet, a quadruple sqeeze, which, as its first squeeze, has population growth of course. +Now, this is not only about numbers; this is not only about the fact that we're seven billion people committed to nine billion people, it's an equity issue as well. +The majority of the environmental impacts on the planet have been caused by the rich minority, the 20 percent that jumped onto the industrial bandwagon in the mid-18th century. +The majority of the planet, aspiring for development, having the right for development, are in large aspiring for an unsustainable lifestyle, a momentous pressure. +Now, you would have wished the climate pressure to hit a strong planet, a resilient planet, but unfortunately, the third pressure is the ecosystem decline. +Never have we seen, in the past 50 years, such a sharp decline of ecosystem functions and services on the planet, one of them being the ability to regulate climate on the long term, in our forests, land and biodiversity. +The forth pressure is surprise, the notion and the evidence that we need to abandon our old paradigm, that ecosystems behave linearly, predictably, controllably in our -- so to say -- linear systems, and that in fact, surprise is universal, as systems tip over very rapidly, abruptly and often irreversibly. +This, dear friends, poses a human pressure on the planet of momentous scale. +We may, in fact, have entered a new geological era -- the Anthropocene, where humans are the predominant driver of change at a planetary level. +Now, as a scientist, what's the evidence for this? +Well, the evidence is, unfortunately, ample. +It's not only carbon dioxide that has this hockey stick pattern of accelerated change. +You can take virtually any parameter that matters for human well-being -- nitrous oxide, methane, deforestation, overfishing land degredation, loss of species -- they all show the same pattern over the past 200 years. +Simultaneously, they branch off in the mid-50s, 10 years after the Second World War, showing very clearly that the great acceleration of the human enterprise starts in the mid-50s. +You see, for the first time, an imprint on the global level. +Now, the system may gradually -- under pressure of climate change, erosion, biodiversity loss -- lose the depth of the cup, the resilience, but appear to be healthy and appear to suddenly, under a threshold, be tipping over. Upff. +Sorry. Changing state and literally ending up in an undesired situation, where new biophysical logic takes over, new species take over, and the system gets locked. +Do we have evidence of this? Yes, coral reef systems. +Biodiverse, low-nutrient, hard coral systems under multiple pressures of overfishing, unsustainable tourism, climate change. +A trigger and the system tips over, loses its resilience, soft corals take over, and we get undesired systems that cannot support economic and social development. +The Arctic -- a beautiful system -- a regulating biome at the planetary level, taking the knock after knock on climate change, appearing to be in a good state. +No scientist could predict that in 2007, suddenly, what could be crossing a threshold. +The system suddenly, very surprisingly, loses 30 to 40 percent of its summer ice cover. +And the drama is, of course, that when the system does this, the logic may change. +It may get locked in an undesired state, because it changes color, absorbs more energy, and the system may get stuck. +In my mind, the largest red flag warning for humanity that we are in a precarious situation. +As a sideline, you know that the only red flag that popped up here was a submarine from an unnamed country that planted a red flag at the bottom of the Arctic to be able to control the oil resources. +Now, if we have evidence, which we now have, that wetlands, forests, [unclear] monsoon system, the rainforests, behave in this nonlinear way. +30 or so scientists around the world gathered and asked a question for the first time, "Do we have to put the planet into the the pot?" +So we have to ask ourselves: are we threatening this extraordinarily stable Holocene state? +Are we in fact putting ourselves in a situation where we're coming too close to thresholds that could lead to deleterious and very undesired, if now catastrophic, change for human development? +You know, you don't want to stand there. +In fact, you're not even allowed to stand where this gentleman is standing, at the foaming, slippery waters at the threshold. +In fact, there's a fence quite upstream of this threshold, beyond which you are in a danger zone. +And this is the new paradigm, which we gathered two, three years back, recognizing that our old paradigm of just analyzing and pushing and predicting parameters into the future, aiming at minimalizing environmental impacts, is of the past. +Now we to ask ourselves: which are the large environmental processes that we have to be stewards of to keep ourselves safe in the Holocene? +And could we even, thanks to major advancements in Earth systems science, identify the thresholds, the points where we may expect nonlinear change? +And could we even define a planetary boundary, a fence, within which we then have a safe operating space for humanity? +This work, which was published in "Nature," late 2009, after a number of years of analysis, led to the final proposition that we can only find nine planetary boundaries with which, under active stewardship, would allow ourselves to have a safe operating space. +These include, of course, climate. +It may surprise you that it's not only climate. +But it shows that we are interconnected, among many systems on the planet, with the three big systems, climate change, stratospheric ozone depletion and ocean acidification being the three big systems, where the scientific evidence of large-scale thresholds in the paleo-record of the history of the planet. +And then we have two parameters which we were not able to quantify -- air pollution, including warming gases and air-polluting sulfates and nitrates, but also chemical pollution. +Together, these form an integrated whole for guiding human development in the Anthropocene, understanding that the planet is a complex self-regulating system. +In fact, most evidence indicates that these nine may behave as three Musketeers, "One for all. All for one." +You degrade forests, you go beyond the boundary on land, you undermine the ability of the climate system to stay stable. +The drama here is, in fact, that it may show that the climate challenge is the easy one, if you consider the whole challenge of sustainable development. +Now this is the Big Bang equivalent then of human development within the safe operating space of the planetary boundaries. +What you see here in black line is the safe operating space, the quantified boundaries, as suggested by this analysis. +The yellow dot in the middle here is our starting point, the pre-industrial point, where we're very safely in the safe operating space. +In the '50s, we start branching out. +In the '60s already, through the green revolution and the Haber-Bosch process of fixing nitrogen from the atmosphere -- you know, human's today take out more nitrogen from the atmosphere than the whole biosphere does naturally as a whole. +We don't transgress the climate boundary until the early '90s, actually, right after Rio. +And today, we are in a situation where we estimate that we've transgressed three boundaries, the rate of biodiversity loss, which is the sixth extinction period in the history of humanity -- one of them being the extinctions of the dinosaurs -- nitrogen and climate change. +But we still have some degrees of freedom on the others, but we are approaching fast on land, water, phosphorus and oceans. +But this gives a new paradigm to guide humanity, to put the light on our, so far overpowered industrial vehicle, which operates as if we're only on a dark, straight highway. +Now the question then is: how gloomy is this? +Is then sustainable development utopia? +Well, there's no science to suggest. +In fact, there is ample science to indicate that we can do this transformative change, that we have the ability to now move into a new innovative, a transformative gear, across scales. +The drama is, of course, is that 200 countries on this planet have to simultaneously start moving in the same direction. +We have to invest in persistence, in the ability of social systems and ecological systems to withstand shocks and still remain in that desired cup. +We have to invest in transformations capability, moving from crisis into innovation and the ability to rise after a crisis, and of course to adapt to unavoidable change. +This is a new paradigm. +We're not doing that at any scale on governance. +But is it happening anywhere? +Do we have any examples of success on this mind shift being applied at the local level? +Well, yes, in fact we do and the list can start becoming longer and longer. +The Australian Great Barrier Reef is another success story. +Under the realization from tourist operators, fishermen, the Australian Great Barrier Reef Authority and scientists that the Great Barrier Reef is doomed under the current governance regime. +Global change, beautification rack culture, overfishing and unsustainable tourism, all together placing this system in the realization of crisis. +But the window of opportunity was innovation and new mindset, which today has led to a completely new governance strategy to build resilience, acknowledge redundancy and invest in the whole system as an integrated whole, and then allow for much more redundancy in the system. +Sweden, the country I come from, has other examples, where wetlands in southern Sweden were seen as -- as in many countries -- as flood-prone polluted nuisance in the peri-urban regions. +But again, a crisis, new partnerships, actors locally, transforming these into a key component of sustainable urban planning. +So crisis leading into opportunities. +Now, what about the future? +Well, the future, of course, has one massive challenge, which is feeding a world of nine billion people. +We need nothing less than a new green revolution, and the planet boundaries shows that agriculture has to go from a source of greenhouse gases to a sink. +It has to basically do this on current land. +We cannot expand anymore, because it erodes the planetary boundaries. +We cannot continue consuming water as we do today, with 25 percent of world rivers not even reaching the ocean. +And we need a transformation. +But even on the hard policy area we have innovations. +We know that we have to move from our fossil dependence very quickly into a low-carbon economy in record time. +And what shall we do? +Everybody talks about carbon taxes -- it won't work -- emission schemes, but for example, one policy measure, feed-in tariffs on the energy system, which is already applied, from China doing it on offshore wind systems, all the way to the U.S. +where you give the guaranteed price for investment in renewable energy, but you can subsidize electricity to poor people. +You get people out of poverty. +You solve the climate issue with regards to the energy sector, while at the same time, stimulating innovation -- examples of things that can be out scaled quickly at the planetary level. +So there is -- no doubt -- opportunity here, and we can list many, many examples of transformative opportunities around the planet. +The key though in all of these, the red thread, is the shift in mindset, moving away from a situation where we simply are pushing ourselves into a dark future, where we instead backcast our future, and we say, "What is the playing field on the planet? +What are the planetary boundaries within which we can safely operate?" +and then backtrack innovations within that. +But of course, the drama is, it clearly shows that incremental change is not an option. +So, there is scientific evidence. +They sort of say the harsh news, that we are facing the largest transformative development since the industrialization. +In fact, what we have to do over the next 40 years is much more dramatic and more exciting than what we did when we moved into the situation we're in today. +Now, science indicates that, yes, we can achieve a prosperous future within the safe operating space, if we move simultaneously, collaborating on a global level, from local to global scale, in transformative options, which build resilience on a finite planet. +Thank you. +Tyler Dewar: The way I feel right now is that all of the other speakers have said exactly what I wanted to say. +And it seems that the only thing left for me to say is to thank you all for your kindness. +TD: But maybe in the spirit of appreciating the kindness of you all, I could share with you a little story about myself. +TD: From the time I was very young, onward, I was given a lot of different responsibilities, and it always seemed to me, when I was young, that everything was laid out before me. +All of the plans for me were already made. +I was given the clothes that I needed to wear and told where I needed to be, given these very precious and holy looking robes to wear, with the understanding that it was something sacred or important. +TD: But before that kind of formal lifestyle happened for me, I was living in eastern Tibet with my family. +And when I was seven years old, all of a sudden, a search party arrived at my home. +They were looking the next Karmapa, and I noticed they were talking to my mom and dad, and the news came to me that they were telling me that I was the Karmapa. +And these days, people ask me a lot, how did that feel. +How did that feel when they came and whisked you away, and your lifestyle completely changed? +And what I mostly say is that, at that time, it was a pretty interesting idea to me. +I thought that things would be pretty fun and there would be more things to play with. +TD: But it didn't turn out to be so fun and entertaining, as I thought it would have been. +I was placed in a pretty strictly controlled environment. +And immediately, a lot of different responsibilities, in terms of my education and so forth, were heaped upon me. +I was separated, largely, from my family, including my mother and father. +I didn't have have many personal friends to spend time with, but I was expected to perform these prescribed duties. +So it turned out that my fantasy about an entertaining life of being the Karmapa wasn't going to come true. +It more felt to be the case to me that I was being treated like a statue, and I was to sit in one place like a statue would. +TD: Nevertheless, I felt that, even though I've been separated from my loved ones -- and, of course, now I'm even further away. +When I was 14, I escaped from Tibet and became even further removed from my mother and father, my relatives, my friends and my homeland. +But nevertheless, there's no real sense of separation from me in my heart, in terms of the love that I feel for these people. +I feel, still, a very strong connection of love for all of these people and for the land. +TD: And I still do get to keep in touch with my mother and father, albeit infrequently. +I talk to my mother once in a blue moon on the telephone. +And my experience is that, when I'm talking to her, with every second that passes during our conversation, the feeling of love that binds us is bringing us closer and closer together. +TD: So those were just a few remarks about my personal background. +And in terms of other things that I wanted to share with you, in terms of ideas, I think it's wonderful to have a situation like this, where so many people from different backgrounds and places can come together, exchange their ideas and form relationships of friendship with each other. +And I think that's symbolic of what we're seeing in the world in general, that the world is becoming smaller and smaller, and that all of the peoples in the world are enjoying more opportunities for connection. +That's wonderful, but we should also remember that we should have a similar process happening on the inside. +Along with outward development and increase of opportunity, there should be inward development and deepening of our heart connections as well as our outward connections. +So we spoke and we heard some about design this week. +I think that it's important for us to remember that we need to keep pushing forward on the endeavor of the design of the heart. +We heard a lot about technology this week, and it's important for us to remember to invest a lot of our energy in improving the technology of the heart. +TD: So, even though I'm somewhat happy about the wonderful developments that are happening in the world, still, I feel a sense of impediment, when it comes to the ability that we have to connect with each other on a heart-to-heart, or a mind-to-mind, level. +I feel that there are some things that are getting in the way. +So it's an interesting paradox at play there. +But I had a really striking experience once, when a group from Afghanistan came to visit me, and we had a really interesting conversation. +TD: So we ended up talking about the Bamiyan Buddhas, which, as you know, were destroyed some years ago in Afghanistan. +But the basis of our conversation was the different approach to spirituality on the part of the Muslim and Buddhist traditions. +Of course, in Muslim, because of the teachings around the concept of idolatry, you don't find as many physical representations of divinity or of spiritual liberation as you do in the Buddhist tradition, where, of course, there are many statues of the Buddha that are highly revered. +So, we were talking about the differences between the traditions and what many people perceived as the tragedy of the destruction of the Bamiyan Buddhas, but I offered the suggestion that perhaps we could look at this in a positive way. +What we saw in the destruction of the Bamiyan Buddhas was the depletion of matter, some solid substance falling down and disintegrating. +Maybe we could look at that to be more similar to the falling of the Berlin Wall, where a divide that had kept two types of people apart had collapsed and opened up a door for further communication. +So I think that, in this way, it's always possible for us to derive something positive that can help us understand one another better. +TD: So, with regard to the development that we've been talking about here at this conference, I really feel that the development that we make shouldn't create a further burden for us as human beings, but should be used to improve our fundamental lifestyle of how we live in the world. +So, as we are climbing the tree, some of the things that we're doing in order to climb the tree are actually undermining the tree's very root. +And so, what I think it comes down to is a question of, not only having information of what's going on, but paying attention to that and letting that shift our motivation to become more sincere and genuinely positive. +We have hear, this week, about the horrible sufferings, for example, that so many women of the world are enduring day-to-day. +We have that information, but what often happens to us is that we don't really choose to pay attention to it. +We don't really choose to allow that to cause there to be a shift in our hearts. +So I think the way forward for the world -- one that will bring the path of outer development in harmony with the real root of happiness -- is that we allow the information that we have to really make a change in our heart. +TD: So I think that sincere motivation is very important for our future well-being, or deep sense of well-being as humans, and I think that means sinking in to whatever it is you're doing now. +Whatever work you're trying to do now to benefit the world, sink into that, get a full taste of that. +TD: So, since we've been here this week, we've taken millions of breaths, collectively, and perhaps we haven't witnessed any course changes happening in our lives, but we often miss the very subtle changes. +And I think that sometimes we develop grand concepts of what happiness might look like for us, but that, if we pay attention, we can see that there are little symbols of happiness in every breath that we take. +His Holiness the Karmapa: Tomorrow is my Talk. +TD: Lakshmi has worked incredibly hard, even in inviting me, let alone everything else that she has done to make this happen, and I was somewhat resistant at times, and I was also very nervous throughout this week. +I was feeling under the weather and dizzy and so forth, and people would ask me, why. +I would tell them, "It's because I have to talk tomorrow." +And so Lakshmi had to put up with me through all of that, but I very much appreciate the opportunity she's given me to be here. +And to you, everyone, thank you very much. +HH: Thank you very much. +Everyone, please think of your biggest personal goal. +For real -- you can take a second. You've got to feel this to learn it. +Take a few seconds and think of your personal biggest goal, okay? +Imagine deciding right now that you're going to do it. +Imagine telling someone that you meet today what you're going to do. +Imagine their congratulations, and their high image of you. +Doesn't it feel good to say it out loud? +Don't you feel one step closer already, like it's already becoming part of your identity? +Well, bad news: you should have kept your mouth shut, because that good feeling now will make you less likely to do it. +The repeated psychology tests have proven that telling someone your goal makes it less likely to happen. +Any time you have a goal, there are some steps that need to be done, some work that needs to be done in order to achieve it. +Ideally you would not be satisfied until you'd actually done the work. +But when you tell someone your goal and they acknowledge it, psychologists have found that it's called a "social reality." +The mind is kind of tricked into feeling that it's already done. +And then because you've felt that satisfaction, you're less motivated to do the actual hard work necessary. +So this goes against conventional wisdom that we should tell our friends our goals, right? +So they hold us to it. +So, let's look at the proof. +1926: Kurt Lewin, founder of social psychology, called this "substitution." +1933: Wera Mahler found when it was acknowledged by others, it felt real in the mind. +1982, Peter Gollwitzer wrote a whole book about this, and in 2009, he did some new tests that were published. +It goes like this: 163 people across four separate tests. +Everyone wrote down their personal goal. +Then half of them announced their commitment to this goal to the room, and half didn't. +Then everyone was given 45 minutes of work that would directly lead them towards their goal, but they were told that they could stop at any time. +Now, those who kept their mouths shut worked the entire 45 minutes on average, and when asked afterward, said that they felt that they had a long way to go still to achieve their goal. +But those who had announced it quit after only 33 minutes, on average, and when asked afterward, said that they felt much closer to achieving their goal. +So if this is true, what can we do? +Well, you could resist the temptation to announce your goal. +You can delay the gratification that the social acknowledgment brings, and you can understand that your mind mistakes the talking for the doing. +But if you do need to talk about something, you can state it in a way that gives you no satisfaction, such as, "I really want to run this marathon, so I need to train five times a week and kick my ass if I don't, okay?" +So audience, next time you're tempted to tell someone your goal, what will you say? +Exactly! Well done. +This strange-looking plant is called the Llareta. +What looks like moss covering rocks is actually a shrub comprised of thousands of branches, each containing clusters of tiny green leaves at the end and so densely packed together that you could actually stand on top of it. +This individual lives in the Atacama Desert in Chile, and it happens to be 3,000 years old. +It also happens to be a relative of parsley. +For the past five years, I've been researching, working with biologists and traveling all over the world to find continuously living organisms that are 2,000 years old and older. +The project is part art and part science. +There's an environmental component. +And I'm also trying to create a means in which to step outside our quotidian experience of time and to start to consider a deeper timescale. +I selected 2,000 years as my minimum age because I wanted to start at what we consider to be year zero and work backward from there. +What you're looking at now is a tree called Jomon Sugi, living on the remote island of Yakushima. +The tree was in part a catalyst for the project. +I'd been traveling in Japan without an agenda other than to photograph, and then I heard about this tree that is 2,180 years old and knew that I had to go visit it. +It wasn't until later, when I was actually back home in New York that I got the idea for the project. +So it was the slow churn, if you will. +I think it was my longstanding desire to bring together my interest in art, science and philosophy that allowed me to be ready when the proverbial light bulb went on. +So I started researching, and to my surprise, this project had never been done before in the arts or the sciences. +And -- perhaps naively -- I was surprised to find that there isn't even an area in the sciences that deals with this idea of global species longevity. +So what you're looking at here is the rhizocarpon geographicum, or map lichen, and this is around 3,000 years old and lives in Greenland, which is a long way to go for some lichens. +Visiting Greenland was more like traveling back in time than just traveling very far north. +It was very primal and more remote than anything I'd ever experienced before. +And this is heightened by a couple of particular experiences. +One was when I had been dropped off by boat on a remote fjord, only to find that the archeologists I was supposed to meet were nowhere to be found. +And it's not like you could send them a text or shoot them an e-mail, so I was literally left to my own devices. +But luckily, it worked out obviously, but it was a humbling experience to feel so disconnected. +And then a few days later, we had the opportunity to go fishing in a glacial stream near our campsite, where the fish were so abundant that you could literally reach into the stream and grab out a foot-long trout with your bare hands. +It was like visiting a more innocent time on the planet. +And then, of course, there's the lichens. +These lichens grow only one centimeter every hundred years. +I think that really puts human lifespans into a different perspective. +And what you're looking at here is an aerial photo take over eastern Oregon. +And if the title "Searching for Armillaria Death Rings," sounds ominous, it is. +The Armillaria is actually a predatory fungus, killing certain species of trees in the forest. +It's also more benignly known as the honey mushroom or the "humongous fungus" because it happens to be one of the world's largest organisms as well. +So with the help of some biologists studying the fungus, I got some maps and some GPS coordinates and chartered a plane and started looking for the death rings, the circular patterns in which the fungus kills the trees. +So I'm not sure if there are any in this photo, but I do know the fungus is down there. +And then this back down on the ground and you can see that the fungus is actually invading this tree. +So that white material that you see in between the bark and the wood is the mycelial felt of the fungus, and what it's doing -- it's actually slowly strangling the tree to death by preventing the flow of water and nutrients. +So this strategy has served it pretty well -- it's 2,400 years old. +And then from underground to underwater. +This is a Brain Coral living in Tobago that's around 2,000 years old. +And I had to overcome my fear of deep water to find this one. +This is at about 60 feet or 18 meters, depth. +And you'll see, there's some damage to the surface of the coral. +That was actually caused by a school of parrot fish that had started eating it, though luckily, they lost interest before killing it. +Luckily still, it seems to be out of harm's way of the recent oil spill. +But that being said, we just as easily could have lost one of the oldest living things on the planet, and the full impact of that disaster is still yet to be seen. +Now this is something that I think is one of the most quietly resilient things on the planet. +This is clonal colony of Quaking Aspen trees, living in Utah, that is literally 80,000 years old. +What looks like a forest is actually only one tree. +Imagine that it's one giant root system and each tree is a stem coming up from that system. +So what you have is one giant, interconnected, genetically identical individual that's been living for 80,000 years. +It also happens to be male and, in theory immortal. +This is a clonal tree as well. +This is the spruce Gran Picea, which at 9,550 years is a mere babe in the woods. +The location of this tree is actually kept secret for its own protection. +I spoke to the biologist who discovered this tree, and he told me that that spindly growth you see there in the center is most likely a product of climate change. +As it's gotten warmer on the top of the mountain, the vegetation zone is actually changing. +So we don't even necessarily have to have direct contact with these organisms to have a very real impact on them. +This is the Fortingall Yew -- no, I'm just kidding -- this is the Fortingall Yew. +But I put that slide in there because I'm often asked if there are any animals in the project. +And aside from coral, the answer is no. +Does anybody know how old the oldest tortoise is -- any guesses? +(Audience: 300.) Rachel Sussman: 300? No, 175 is the oldest living tortoise, so nowhere near 2,000. +And then, you might have heard of this giant clam that was discovered off the coast of northern Iceland that reached 405 years old. +However, it died in the lab as they were determining its age. +The most interesting discovery of late, I think is the so-called immortal jellyfish, which has actually been observed in the lab to be able to be able to revert back to the polyp state after reaching full maturity. +So that being said, it's highly unlikely that any jellyfish would survive that long in the wild. +And back to the yew here. +So as you can see, it's in a churchyard; it's in Scotland. It's behind a protective wall. +And there are actually a number or ancient yews in churchyards around the U.K., but if you do the math, you'll remember it's actually the yew trees that were there first, then the churches. +And now down to another part of the world. +I had the opportunity to travel around the Limpopo Province in South Africa with an expert in Baobab trees. +And we saw a number of them, and this is most likely the oldest. +It's around 2,000, and it's called the Sagole Baobab. +And you know, I think of all of these organisms as palimpsests. +They contain thousands of years of their own histories within themselves, and they also contain records of natural and human events. +And the Baobabs in particular are a great example of this. +You can see that this one has names carved into its trunk, but it also records some natural events. +So the Baobabs, as they get older, tend to get pulpy in their centers and hollow out. +And this can create great natural shelters for animals, but they've also been appropriated for some rather dubious human uses, including a bar, a prison and even a toilet inside of a tree. +And this brings me to another favorite of mine -- I think, because it is just so unusual. +This plant is called the Welwitschia, and it lives only in parts of coastal Namibia and Angola, where it's uniquely adapted to collect moisture from mist coming off the sea. +And what's more, it's actually a tree. +It's a primitive conifer. +You'll notice that it's bearing cones down the center. +And what looks like two big heaps of leaves, is actually two single leaves that get shredded up by the harsh desert conditions over time. +And it actually never sheds those leaves, so it also bears the distinction of having the longest leaves in the plant kingdom. +So his thought was that flooding in the north of Africa actually brought those coniferous trees down tens of thousands of years ago, and what resulted was this remarkable adaptation to this unique desert environment. +This is what I think is the most poetic of the oldest living things. +This is something called an underground forest. +So, I spoke to a botanist at the Pretoria Botanical Garden, who explained that certain species of trees have adapted to this region. +That way, when a fire roars through, it's the equivalent of getting your eyebrows singed. +The tree can easily recover. +These also tend to grow clonally, the oldest of which is 13,000 years old. +Back in the U.S., there's a couple plants of similar age. +This is the clonal Creosote bush, which is around 12,000 years old. +If you've been in the American West, you know the Creosote bush is pretty ubiquitous, but that being said, you see that this has this unique, circular form. +And what's happening is it's expanding slowly outwards from that original shape. +And it's one -- again, that interconnected root system, making it one genetically identical individual. +It also has a friend nearby -- well, I think they're friends. +This is the clonal Mojave yucca, it's about a mile away, and it's a little bit older than 12,000 years. +And you see it has that similar circular form. +And there's some younger clones dotting the landscape behind it. +And both of these, the yucca and the Creosote bush, live on Bureau of Land Management land, and that's very different from being protected in a national park. +In fact, this land is designated for recreational all-terrain vehicle use. +So, now I want to show what very well might be the oldest living thing on the planet. +This is Siberian Actinobacteria, which is between 400,000 and 600,000 years old. +This bacteria was discovered several years ago by a team of planetary biologists hoping to find clues to life on other planets by looking at one of the harshest conditions on ours. +And what they found, by doing research into the permafrost, was this bacteria. +But what's unique about it is that it's doing DNA repair below freezing. +And what that means is that it's not dormant -- it's actually been living and growing for half a million years. +It's also probably one the most vulnerable of the oldest living things, because if the permafrost melts, it won't survive. +This is a map that I've put together of the oldest living things, so you can get a sense of where they are; you see they're all over the world. +The blue flags represent things that I've already photographed, and the reds are places that I'm still trying to get to. +You'll see also, there's a flag on Antarctica. +I'm trying to travel there to find 5,000 year-old moss, which lives on the Antarctic Peninsula. +So, I probably have about two more years left on this project -- on this phase of the project, but after five years, I really feel like I know what's at the heart of this work. +The oldest living things in the world are a record and celebration of our past, a call to action in the present and a barometer of our future. +They've survived for millennia in desert, in the permafrost, at the tops of mountains and at the bottom of the ocean. +They've withstood untold natural perils and human encroachments, but now some of them are in jeopardy, and they can't just get up and get out of the way. +It's my hope that, by going to find these organisms, that I can help draw attention to their remarkable resilience and help play a part in insuring their continued longevity into the foreseeable future. +Thank you. +Well, that's kind of an obvious statement up there. +I started with that sentence about 12 years ago, and I started in the context of developing countries, but you're sitting here from every corner of the world. +So if you think of a map of your country, I think you'll realize that for every country on Earth, you could draw little circles to say, "These are places where good teachers won't go." +On top of that, those are the places from where trouble comes. +So we have an ironic problem -- good teachers don't want to go to just those places where they're needed the most. +I started in 1999 to try and address this problem with an experiment, which was a very simple experiment in New Delhi. +I basically embedded a computer into a wall of a slum in New Delhi. +The children barely went to school, they didn't know any English -- they'd never seen a computer before, and they didn't know what the internet was. +I connected high speed internet to it -- it's about three feet off the ground -- turned it on and left it there. +After this, we noticed a couple of interesting things, which you'll see. +But I repeated this all over India and then through a large part of the world and noticed that children will learn to do what they want to learn to do. +This is the first experiment that we did -- eight year-old boy on your right teaching his student, a six year-old girl, and he was teaching her how to browse. +This boy here in the middle of central India -- this is in a Rajasthan village, where the children recorded their own music and then played it back to each other and in the process, they've enjoyed themselves thoroughly. +They did all of this in four hours after seeing the computer for the first time. +In another South Indian village, these boys here had assembled a video camera and were trying to take the photograph of a bumble bee. +They downloaded it from Disney.com, or one of these websites, 14 days after putting the computer in their village. +So at the end of it, we concluded that groups of children can learn to use computers and the internet on their own, irrespective of who or where they were. +At that point, I became a little more ambitious and decided to see what else could children do with a computer. +We started off with an experiment in Hyderabad, India, where I gave a group of children -- they spoke English with a very strong Telugu accent. +I gave them a computer with a speech-to-text interface, which you now get free with Windows, and asked them to speak into it. +So when they spoke into it, the computer typed out gibberish, so they said, "Well, it doesn't understand anything of what we are saying." +So I said, "Yeah, I'll leave it here for two months. +Make yourself understood to the computer." +So the children said, "How do we do that." +And I said, "I don't know, actually." +And I left. +Two months later -- and this is now documented in the Information Technology for International Development journal -- that accents had changed and were remarkably close to the neutral British accent in which I had trained the speech-to-text synthesizer. +In other words, they were all speaking like James Tooley. +So they could do that on their own. +After that, I started to experiment with various other things that they might learn to do on their own. +I got an interesting phone call once from Columbo, from the late Arthur C. Clarke, who said, "I want to see what's going on." +And he couldn't travel, so I went over there. +He said two interesting things, "A teacher that can be replaced by a machine should be." +The second thing he said was that, "If children have interest, then education happens." +And I was doing that in the field, so every time I would watch it and think of him. +Arthur C. Clarke: And they can definitely help people, because children quickly learn to navigate the web and find things which interest them. +And when you've got interest, then you have education. +Sugata Mitra: I took the experiment to South Africa. +This is a 15 year-old boy. +Boy: ... just mention, I play games like animals, and I listen to music. +SM: And I asked him, "Do you send emails?" +And he said, "Yes, and they hop across the ocean." +This is in Cambodia, rural Cambodia -- a fairly silly arithmetic game, which no child would play inside the classroom or at home. +They would, you know, throw it back at you. +They'd say, "This is very boring." +If you leave it on the pavement and if all the adults go away, then they will show off with each other about what they can do. +This is what these children are doing. +They are trying to multiply, I think. +And all over India, at the end of about two years, children were beginning to Google their homework. +As a result, the teachers reported tremendous improvements in their English -- rapid improvement and all sorts of things. +They said, "They have become really deep thinkers and so on and so forth. +And indeed they had. +I mean, if there's stuff on Google, why would you need to stuff it into your head? +So at the end of the next four years, I decided that groups of children can navigate the internet to achieve educational objectives on their own. +At that time, a large amount of money had come into Newcastle University to improve schooling in India. +So Newcastle gave me a call. I said, "I'll do it from Delhi." +They said, "There's no way you're going to handle a million pounds-worth of University money sitting in Delhi." +So in 2006, I bought myself a heavy overcoat and moved to Newcastle. +I wanted to test the limits of the system. +The first experiment I did out of Newcastle was actually done in India. +And I set myself and impossible target: can Tamil speaking 12-year-old children in a South Indian village teach themselves biotechnology in English on their own? +And I thought, I'll test them, they'll get a zero -- I'll give the materials, I'll come back and test them -- they get another zero, I'll go back and say, "Yes, we need teachers for certain things." +I called in 26 children. +They all came in there, and I told them that there's some really difficult stuff on this computer. +I wouldn't be surprised if you didn't understand anything. +It's all in English, and I'm going. +So I left them with it. +I came back after two months, and the 26 children marched in looking very, very quiet. +I said, "Well, did you look at any of the stuff?" +They said, "Yes, we did." +"Did you understand anything?" "No, nothing." +So I said, "Well, how long did you practice on it before you decided you understood nothing?" +They said, "We look at it every day." +So I said, "For two months, you were looking at stuff you didn't understand?" +So a 12 year-old girl raises her hand and says, literally, "Apart from the fact that improper replication of the DNA molecule causes genetic disease, we've understood nothing else." +It took me three years to publish that. +It's just been published in the British Journal of Educational Technology. +One of the referees who refereed the paper said, "It's too good to be true," which was not very nice. +Well, one of the girls had taught herself to become the teacher. +And then that's her over there. +Remember, they don't study English. +I edited out the last bit when I asked, "Where is the neuron?" +and she says, "The neuron? The neuron," and then she looked and did this. +Whatever the expression, it was not very nice. +So their scores had gone up from zero to 30 percent, which is an educational impossibility under the circumstances. +But 30 percent is not a pass. +So I found that they had a friend, a local accountant, a young girl, and they played football with her. +I asked that girl, "Would you teach them enough biotechnology to pass?" +And she said, "How would I do that? I don't know the subject." +I said, "No, use the method of the grandmother." +She said, "What's that?" +I said, "Well, what you've got to do is stand behind them and admire them all the time. +Just say to them, 'That's cool. That's fantastic. +What is that? Can you do that again? Can you show me some more?'" She did that for two months. +The scores went up to 50, which is what the posh schools of New Delhi, with a trained biotechnology teacher were getting. +So I came back to Newcastle with these results and decided that there was something happening here that definitely was getting very serious. +So, having experimented in all sorts of remote places, I came to the most remote place that I could think of. +Approximately 5,000 miles from Delhi is the little town of Gateshead. +In Gateshead, I took 32 children and I started to fine-tune the method. +I made them into groups of four. +I said, "You make your own groups of four. +Each group of four can use one computer and not four computers." +Remember, from the Hole in the Wall. +"You can exchange groups. +You can walk across to another group, if you don't like your group, etc. +You can go to another group, peer over their shoulders, see what they're doing, come back to you own group and claim it as your own work." +And I explained to them that, you know, a lot of scientific research is done using that method. +The children enthusiastically got after me and said, "Now, what do you want us to do?" +I gave them six GCSE questions. +The first group -- the best one -- solved everything in 20 minutes. +The worst, in 45. +They used everything that they knew -- news groups, Google, Wikipedia, Ask Jeeves, etc. +The teachers said, "Is this deep learning?" +I said, "Well, let's try it. +I'll come back after two months. +We'll give them a paper test -- no computers, no talking to each other, etc." +The average score when I'd done it with the computers and the groups was 76 percent. +When I did the experiment, when I did the test, after two months, the score was 76 percent. +There was photographic recall inside the children, I suspect because they're discussing with each other. +A single child in front of a single computer will not do that. +I have further results, which are almost unbelievable, of scores which go up with time. +Because their teachers say that after the session is over, the children continue to Google further. +Here in Britain, I put out a call for British grandmothers, after my Kuppam experiment. +Well, you know, they're very vigorous people, British grandmothers. +200 of them volunteered immediately. +The deal was that they would give me one hour of broadband time, sitting in their homes, one day in a week. +So they did that, and over the last two years, over 600 hours of instruction has happened over Skype, using what my students call the granny cloud. +The granny cloud sits over there. +I can beam them to whichever school I want to. +Teacher: You can't catch me. +You say it. +You can't catch me. +Children: You can't catch me. +Teacher: I'm the gingerbread man. +Children: I'm the gingerbread man. +Teacher: Well done. Very good ... +SM: Back at Gateshead, a 10-year-old girl gets into the heart of Hinduism in 15 minutes. +You know, stuff which I don't know anything about. +Two children watch a TEDTalk. +They wanted to be footballers before. +After watching eight TEDTalks, he wants to become Leonardo da Vinci. +It's pretty simple stuff. +This is what I'm building now -- they're called SOLEs: Self Organized Learning Environments. +The furniture is designed so that children can sit in front of big, powerful screens, big broadband connections, but in groups. +If they want, they can call the granny cloud. +This is a SOLE in Newcastle. +The mediator is from Pune, India. +So how far can we go? One last little bit and I'll stop. +I went to Turin in May. +I sent all the teachers away from my group of 10 year-old students. +I speak only English, they speak only Italian, so we had no way to communicate. +I started writing English questions on the blackboard. +The children looked at it and said, "What?" +I said, "Well, do it." +They typed it into Google, translated it into Italian, went back into Italian Google. +Fifteen minutes later -- next question: where is Calcutta? +This one, they took only 10 minutes. +I tried a really hard one then. +Who was Pythagoras, and what did he do? +There was silence for a while, then they said, "You've spelled it wrong. +It's Pitagora." +And then, in 20 minutes, the right-angled triangles began to appear on the screens. +This sent shivers up my spine. +These are 10 year-olds. +Text: In another 30 minutes they would reach the Theory of Relativity. And then? +SM: So you know what's happened? +I think we've just stumbled across a self-organizing system. +A self-organizing system is one where a structure appears without explicit intervention from the outside. +Self-organizing systems also always show emergence, which is that the system starts to do things, which it was never designed for. +Which is why you react the way you do, because it looks impossible. +I think I can make a guess now -- education is self-organizing system, where learning is an emergent phenomenon. +It'll take a few years to prove it, experimentally, but I'm going to try. +But in the meanwhile, there is a method available. +One billion children, we need 100 million mediators -- there are many more than that on the planet -- 10 million SOLEs, 180 billion dollars and 10 years. +We could change everything. +Thanks. +The moment I say "school," so many memories come back to me. +It's like after every exam, when I walk out, the teacher would say, "Hey, come. +How did you do?" +I would say with a great smile, "I will definitely pass." +And I didn't understand why, in one hand they say, "Speak the truth," in the other hand, when you say the truth, they hated you. +So it went on like that, and I didn't know where else to find myself. +So I remember those nights I used to go to sleep with asking help from [the] Unknown because, for some reason, I couldn't believe what my father and mother hanged in the Puja room as a god, because my friend's family had something else as a god. +So I thought, "I guess I'll pray to [the] Unknown and ask help," and started getting help from everywhere, each and every corner of my life at that time. +My brothers started giving me a few tips about drawing and painting. +Then, when I was in eighth standard around 13 years old, I started working in a part-time job in one of the signboard artists called Putu. +And then school also started supporting me. +"Oh, he's bad at studies, but let him send to the drawing competitions." +So it was good to survive with that little tool that I found to find my own place in school. +And one of those competitions, I just won a small, little transistor Philips radio. +And I didn't have the patience to wait until I reached home. +So I just switched on in the train, loudly. +If you travel in Indian trains, you can see people listening to radio and, you know, even from their mobiles. +So at that time -- and I was 13 -- and I was listening to just radio, and someone happened to sit next to me, like these three people are sitting here. +You know, like just adjacent to me. +He just started asking, "Where did you buy the radio? How much is it?" +I said, "It's a prize from [an] art competition." +And he said, "Oh, I teach at a college of arts. +I think you should study in a school of art. +You just quit school and come there." +So, why I'm telling you this, you know, maybe, you know, whoever is sitting next to you can change your whole life -- it's possible. +It is that we need we need to be open and fine-tuned. +So that's what made me enter [the] college of arts after three attempts and just continue to inquire what I really want to do with art work, or art and finally I'm here in front of you. +When I look back, you know, on what happened between that time and now here -- the last 10/15 years -- I can see that most of the works revolve around three subjects, but it was not intentional. +And I just start out with a trace because I was thinking, "What really makes us?" -- you know, it's actually [the] past, what makes a person. +So I was thinking, but when you look at the past, the way to understand the past is only by the traces available, because we cannot go back [to] the past. +It can be ruins, or it can be music, or it can be painting or drawing or writing, whatever it is. +But it is just a kind of trace of that time. +And that fascinated me, to explore that territory. +So I was working on the line, but instead of working about traces, I started capturing traces. +So here are some of the works I would like to show you. +So this is called "Self In Progress." +It's just a trace of being in this body. +So here, what happened then, you know -- what I really enjoyed the most is that this sculpture is nothing but a trace of myself. +It's almost like a 3D photograph. +So there is an element of performance, and there is an element of sculpture, and there is an element of feeling one's self, so close to one's self. +So it's almost like fossils for the future. +And then moved slowly to explore the other possibilities of capturing traces. +So this is capturing the trace of a thumbprint because, knowingly or unknowingly, whatever we do, you know, we leave our traces here. +So I just thought, "I'm going to capture thumbprint, footprint, or whatever traces we leave as humans." +This is the trace of fire, this is the trace of sun. +Because when I was capturing traces, you know, this thought comes to me always: is it, only when the object touches the thing and it leaves the trace, or is there other ways to capture it?" +So this work is nothing but like -- because of the focal length of the lens, it just shows what is on the other side. +So I just put the paper on the focal length, which was an etching print, then I got the portrait of [the] sun from sunlight. +This is called "Dawn to Dawn." +What I did here, I just put like 10 feet [of] paper then put a coconut rope, and just burnt it. +So it took about 24 hours to get this line. +So wherever the fire is eating the paper, that's what becomes the work -- detail. +Even though we have traces when we try to understand them, the perception and context play a major role to understand it. +So do we really understand what it is, or are we trying to get what we think it is? +Then move towards questioning the perception because, even though there are traces, when you try to understand them, you know you play a major role. +So like let's say even a simple act. +How many of you saw a cow crossing in India while you were coming from Bangalore to Mysore? +Can you just raise the hand? +If you just ask an opinion of how, everyone can interpret it. +Like, let's say, if a schoolteacher says, she'll simply say, "To get to the other side." +Why the cow was crossing the road, you know. +The answer can be so different if Potter said it. +He would say, "For the greater good." +Martin Luther King would say, "I imagine a world where all cows will be free to cross the road, without having their motives called into question." +Imagine Moses comes now, and he sees the same cow walking around the street. +He would definitely say, "God came down from heaven, and he said unto the cow, 'Thou shalt cross the road.' And cow crossed the road, and there was much rejoicing as a holy cow." +Freud would say, "The fact that you're at all concerned reveals your underlying sexual insecurity." +If we ask Einstein, he would say, "Whether the cow crossed the road, or the road moved underneath the cow, depends on your frame of reference." +Or Buddha -- if he saw the same cow, he would say, "Asking this question denies your own nature [as a] cow." +So, what we see is just what we think often, and most of the time, we don't see what it is. +It just all depends on one's perception. +And context, what is really context? +You know, I could just show you this little piece of paper. +Because I always think meaning doesn't really exist. +The meaning of what we create in this world doesn't exist. +It's just created by the mind. +If you look at this piece of paper, this is the breadth and this is called length. +This is how we've been taught in school. +But if you tear it in the middle -- now, I didn't touch this breadth, but still, the meaning of this changes. +So what we conceive as a meaning is always not there; it's on the other side, even when we say dark, light, good, bad, tall, short -- all meaning it doesn't exist in reality. +It's just that being a human, the way we train to perceive the reality creates this meaning. +So this work from this period is mostly like -- you know, this is a work called "Light Makes Dark." +It's just captured through from the lamp. +So the lamp is not just giving a light, it's also giving a darkness. +So this is a work of art, which is just trying to explore that. +This is called "Limit Out." +This shows how limited our eye or hearing sense or touch -- do we really see? +This is an exact negative. +It's about six inches deep in the wall, but it just appears like it's coming out of the wall. +You know the wall is almost like -- this is the first skin, and this is the second, and there's a third, and each creates a meaning. +And we're just pulling the wall off the gallery. +Again, "Inward Out." +It's a full-figure cast from myself. +It's about eight inches deep. +When I was doing that, I always wondered since I've worked with creators -- and now you know, I've moved to questioning the perception -- whenever I see the bird flying in the sky, it just makes me feel like: is there anything behind, are there any traces up there, which as a human, we don't see them? +Is there any way to capture the thought into visual art? +I couldn't find it. +But a solution arrived after being quiet and not working for about six, seven months, in the restroom, when I was changing the air freshener that goes from solid substance to vapor. +It's called Odonil. +This is the work I made out of that material. +The process to get to make the sculpture was interesting, because I wrote to Balsara, who produces that air freshener called Odonil, saying, "Dear Sir, I am an artist. This is my catalogue. +Will you help me to make this sculpture?" +They never wrote back to me. +Then I thought, "I will go to the Small Scale Industries Facilitating Unit and ask help." +So I told them, "I'd like to start an air freshener company." +They said, "Of course. +This is the fee for the project report, and we will give you all the details," and they gave. +Finally, I went back to them and said, "It's not for starting the company, it's just to make my own work. +Please come for the show." +And they did. +And this work is in the Devi Art Foundation in Delhi. +In India, nobody really talks about works of art; they always talk about the appreciation of art. +You buy this for 3,000 rupees, it'll become 30,000 in two months. +This is the craft that was going on, but there are a few collectors who also collect art which can depreciate. +And this was collected by Anupam -- which is like, finally in the end, he will not have anything, because it will evaporate. +So this is after a few weeks, this is after a few months. +It's just all about questioning the preconceptions. +So if someone says, "Oh, I see the portrait," it may not be the portrait after a few months. +And if they say it's solid, it will not be solid, it will evaporate. +And if they say they don't get it, that's also not true, because it's in the air. +It's in the same gallery or in the same museum. +So they inhaled it, but they are not aware of it. +While I was doing that work, my mom and my dad, they were looking at it and they said, "Why do you deal with negative subjects all the time?" +And I was like, "What do you mean?" +"Light makes dark and now evaporating self. +Don't you think it remained something about death," they said. +"Of course not. For me," I'm thinking, "this is tucked in some small solid, but the moment it evaporates, it's merged with the whole." +But she said, "No. Still, I don't like it. +Can you make something from nothing as a sculptor?" +I said, "No, mom. It can't be. +Because we can create a sculpture by gathering dust together, or we can break the sculpture and get the dust, but there is nowhere that we can bring dust into the universe." +So, I did this work for her. +It's called "Emerging Angel." +This is the first day -- it just gives the appearance that one is becoming the other. +So, the same sculpture after a few days. +This is after 15/20 days. +Through that small little slit between the glass box and the wood, the air goes underneath the sculpture and creates the other one. +This gave me a greater faith. +That evaporating sculpture gave me a greater faith that maybe there is many more possibilities to capture [the] invisible. +So what you see now is called "Shadow Foreshadow." +And what I'd like to tell you is we don't see shadow, and we don't see light too; we see the source of the light. +We see where it's bouncing, but we don't see [them] as they exist. +You know, that's why the night sky, we see the sky as dark, but it's filled with light all the time. +When it's bounced on the moon, we see it. +The same thing in the darkroom. +The little dust particle will again, reflect the light, and we realize the existence of light. +So we don't see dark, we don't see light, we don't see gravity, we don't see electricity. +So, I just started doing this work to inquire further about how to sculpt the space between this object and there. +Because, as a visual artist, if I'm seeing this and I'm seeing that -- but how to sculpt this, you know? +If we sculpt this, this has two reference points. +The skin of this is also representing this. +And skin at the other end also represents the floor. +I did this as an experiment of casting the shadow. +So this is a corrugated box and its shadow. +Then the second one -- the moment you bring any invisible into the visible world it will have all the characteristics of the visible existence. +So that produced a shadow. +Then I thought, okay, let me sculpt that. +Then, again, that becomes an object. +Again, throwing light, then the third one. +So what you see is nothing but shadow of a shadow of a shadow. +And then again, at that point, there is no shadow. +I thought, "Oh, good. Work is finished." +You can see the detail. +This is called "Gravity." +It's called "Breath." It's just two holes on the gallery wall. +It's a false wall, which contains like 110 cubic feet. +So that hole actually makes the air come out and go in. +So where it's happening, we can see, but what is happening will remain invisible only. +This is from the show called "Invisible," at Talwar Gallery. +This is called "Kaayam." +Detail. +And what I'd like to tell you, our senses are so limited -- we cannot hear everything, we cannot see everything. +We don't feel, "I am touching the air," but if the breeze is a little more faster, then I can feel it. +So all of our construction of reality is through these limited senses. +So my request was like, is there any way to use all this as just a symbol or a sign? +And to really get to the point, we should move beyond, you know, go to the other side of the wall, like illogic, like are invisible. +Because when we see someone walks, we see the footprint. +But if we're just cutting that footprint from the whole thing and trying to analyze it, you will miss the point because the actual journey happens between those footprints, and the footprints are nothing but passing time. +Thank you. +My story is a little bit about war. +It's about disillusionment. +It's about death. +And it's about rediscovering idealism in all of that wreckage. +And perhaps also, there's a lesson about how to deal with our screwed-up, fragmenting and dangerous world of the 21st century. +I don't believe in straightforward narratives. +I don't believe in a life or history written as decision "A" led to consequence "B" led to consequence "C" -- these neat narratives that we're presented with, and that perhaps we encourage in each other. +I believe in randomness, and one of the reasons I believe that is because me becoming a diplomat was random. +I'm colorblind. +I was born unable to see most colors. +This is why I wear gray and black most of the time, and I have to take my wife with me to chose clothes. +And I'd always wanted to be a fighter pilot when I was a boy. +I loved watching planes barrel over our holiday home in the countryside. +And it was my boyhood dream to be a fighter pilot. +And I did the tests in the Royal Air Force to become a pilot, and sure enough, I failed. +I couldn't see all the blinking different lights, and I can't distinguish color. +So I had to choose another career, and this was in fact relatively easy for me, because I had an abiding passion all the way through my childhood, which was international relations. +As a child, I read the newspaper thoroughly. +I was fascinated by the Cold War, by the INF negotiations over intermediate-range nuclear missiles, the proxy war between the Soviet Union and the U.S. +in Angola or Afghanistan. +These things really interested me. +And so I decided quite at an early age I wanted to be a diplomat. +And I, one day, I announced this to my parents -- and my father denies this story to this day -- I said, "Daddy, I want to be a diplomat." +And he turned to me, and he said, "Carne, you have to be very clever to be a diplomat." +And my ambition was sealed. +In 1989, I entered the British Foreign Service. +That year, 5,000 people applied to become a diplomat, and 20 of us succeeded. +And as those numbers suggest, I was inducted into an elite and fascinating and exhilarating world. +Being a diplomat, then and now, is an incredible job, and I loved every minute of it -- I enjoyed the status of it. +I bought myself a nice suit and wore leather-soled shoes and reveled in this amazing access I had to world events. +I traveled to the Gaza Strip. +I headed the Middle East Peace Process section in the British Foreign Ministry. +I became a speechwriter for the British Foreign Secretary. +I met Yasser Arafat. +I negotiated with Saddam's diplomats at the U.N. +Later, I traveled to Kabul and served in Afghanistan after the fall of the Taliban. +And I would travel in a C-130 transport and go and visit warlords in mountain hideaways and negotiate with them about how we were going to eradicate Al Qaeda from Afghanistan, surrounded by my Special Forces escort, who, themselves, had to have an escort of a platoon of Royal Marines, because it was so dangerous. +And that was exciting -- that was fun. +It was really interesting. +And it's a great cadre of people, incredibly close-knit community of people. +And the pinnacle of my career, as it turned out, was when I was posted to New York. +I'd already served in Germany, Norway, various other places, but I was posted to New York to serve on the U.N. Security Council for the British delegation. +And my responsibility was the Middle East, which was my specialty. +And there, I dealt with things like the Middle East peace process, the Lockerbie issue -- we can talk about that later, if you wish -- but above all, my responsibility was Iraq and its weapons of mass destruction and the sanctions we placed on Iraq to oblige it to disarm itself of these weapons. +I was the chief British negotiator on the subject, and I was steeped in the issue. +And anyway, my tour -- it was kind of a very exciting time. +I mean it was very dramatic diplomacy. +We went through several wars during my time in New York. +I negotiated for my country the resolution in the Security Council of the 12th of September 2001 condemning the attacks of the day before, which were, of course, deeply present to us actually living in New York at the time. +So it was kind of the best of time, worst of times I lived the high-life. +Although I worked very long hours, I lived in a penthouse in Union Square. +I was a single British diplomat in New York City; you can imagine what that might have meant. +I had a good time. +But in 2002, when my tour came to an end, I decided I wasn't going to go back to the job that was waiting for me in London. +I decided to take a sabbatical, in fact, at the New School, Bruce. +In some inchoate, inarticulate way I realized that there was something wrong with my work, with me. +I was exhausted, and I was also disillusioned in a way I couldn't quite put my finger on. +And I decided to take some time out from work. +The Foreign Office was very generous. +You could take these special unpaid leave, as they called them, and yet remain part of the diplomatic service, but not actually do any work. +It was nice. +And eventually, I decided to take a secondment to join the U.N. in Kosovo, which was then under U.N. administration. +And two things happened in Kosovo, which kind of, again, shows the randomness of life, because these things turned out to be two of the pivots of my life and helped to deliver me to the next stage. +But they were random things. +One was that, in the summer of 2004, the British government, somewhat reluctantly, decided to have an official inquiry into the use of intelligence on WMD in the run up to the Iraq War, a very limited subject. +And I testified to that inquiry in secret. +I had been steeped in the intelligence on Iraq and its WMD, and my testimony to the inquiry said three things: that the government exaggerated the intelligence, which was very clear in all the years I'd read it. +And indeed, our own internal assessment was very clear that Iraq's WMD did not pose a threat to its neighbors, let alone to us. +Secondly, the government had ignored all available alternatives to war, which in some ways was a more discreditable thing still. +The third reason, I won't go into. +But anyway, I gave that testimony, and that presented me with a crisis. +What was I going to do? +This testimony was deeply critical of my colleagues, of my ministers, who had, in my view had perpetrated a war on a falsehood. +And so I was in crisis. +And this wasn't a pretty thing. +I moaned about it, I hesitated, I went on and on and on to my long-suffering wife, and eventually I decided to resign from the British Foreign Service. +I felt -- there's a scene in the Al Pacino movie "The Insider," which you may know, where he goes back to CBS after they've let him down over the tobacco guy, and he goes, "You know, I just can't do this anymore. Something's broken." +And it was like that for me. I love that movie. +I felt just something's broken. +I can't actually sit with my foreign minister or my prime minister again with a smile on my face and do what I used to do gladly for them. +So took a running leap and jumped over the edge of a cliff. +And it was a very, very uncomfortable, unpleasant feeling. +And I started to fall. +And today, that fall hasn't stopped; I'm still falling. +But, in a way, I've got used to the sensation of it. +And in a way, I kind of like the sensation of it a lot better than I like actually standing on top of the cliff, wondering what to do. +A second thing happened in Kosovo, which kind of -- I need a quick gulp of water, forgive me. +A second thing happened in Kosovo, which kind of delivered the answer, which I couldn't really answer, which is, "What do I do with my life?" +I love diplomacy -- I have no career -- I expected my entire life to be a diplomat, to be serving my country. +I wanted to be an ambassador, and my mentors, my heroes, people who got to the top of my profession, and here I was throwing it all away. +A lot of my friends were still in it. +My pension was in it. +And I gave it up. +And what was I going to do? +And that year, in Kosovo, this terrible, terrible thing happened, which I saw. +In March 2004, there were terrible riots all over the province -- as it then was -- of Kosovo. +18 people were killed. +It was anarchy. +And it's a very horrible thing to see anarchy, to know that the police and the military -- there were lots of military troops there -- actually can't stop that rampaging mob who's coming down the street. +And the only way that rampaging mob coming down the street will stop is when they decide to stop and when they've had enough burning and killing. +And that is not a very nice feeling to see, and I saw it. +And I went through it. I went through those mobs. +And with my Albanian friends, we tried to stop it, but we failed. +And that riot taught me something, which isn't immediately obvious and it's kind of a complicated story. +But one of the reasons that riot took place -- those riots, which went on for several days, took place -- was because the Kosovo people were disenfranchised from their own future. +There were diplomatic negotiations about the future of Kosovo going on then, and the Kosovo government, let alone the Kosovo people, were not actually participating in those talks. +There was this whole fancy diplomatic system, this negotiation process about the future of Kosovo, and the Kosovars weren't part of it. +And funnily enough, they were frustrated about that. +Those riots were part of the manifestation of that frustration. +It wasn't the only reason, and life is not simple, one reason narratives. +It was a complicated thing, and I'm not pretending it was more simple than it was. +But that was one of the reasons. +And that kind of gave me the inspiration -- or rather to be precise, it gave my wife the inspiration. +She said, "Why don't you advise the Kosovars? +Why don't you advise their government on their diplomacy?" +And the Kosovars were not allowed a diplomatic service. +They were not allowed diplomats. +They were not allowed a foreign office to help them deal with this immensely complicated process, which became known as the Final Status Process of Kosovo. +And so that was the idea. +That was the origin of the thing that became Independent Diplomat, the world's first diplomatic advisory group and a non-profit to boot. +And it began when I flew back from London after my time at the U.N. in Kosovo. +I flew back and had dinner with the Kosovo prime minister and said to him, "Look, I'm proposing that I come and advise you on the diplomacy. +I know this stuff. It's what I do. Why don't I come and help you?" +And he raised his glass of raki to me and said, "Yes, Carne. Come." +And I came to Kosovo and advised the Kosovo government. +Independent Diplomat ended up advising three successive Kosovo prime ministers and the multi-party negotiation team of Kosovo. +And Kosovo became independent. +Independent Diplomat is now established in five diplomatic centers around the world, and we're advising seven or eight different countries, or political groups, depending on how you wish to define them -- and I'm not big on definitions. +We're advising the Northern Cypriots on how to reunify their island. +We're advising the Burmese opposition, the government of Southern Sudan, which -- you heard it here first -- is going to be a new country within the next few years. +We're advising the Polisario Front of the Western Sahara, who are fighting to get their country back from Moroccan occupation after 34 years of dispossession. +We're advising various island states in the climate change negotiations, which is suppose to culminate in Copenhagen. +There's a bit of randomness here too because, when I was beginning Independent Diplomat, I went to a party in the House of Lords, which is a ridiculous place, but I was holding my drink like this, and I bumped into this guy who was standing behind me. +And we started talking, and he said -- I told him what I was doing, and I told him rather grandly I was going to establish Independent Diplomat in New York. +At that time there was just me -- and me and my wife were moving back to New York. +And he said, "Why don't you see my colleagues in New York?" +And it turned out he worked for an innovation company called ?What If!, which some of you have probably heard of. +And one thing led to another, and I ended up having a desk in ?What If! in New York, when I started Independent Diplomat. +And watching ?What If! +develop new flavors of chewing gum for Wrigley or new flavors for Coke actually helped me innovate new strategies for the Kosovars and for the Saharawis of the Western Sahara. +And Independent Diplomat, today, tries to incorporate some of the things I learned at ?What If!. +We all sit in one office and shout at each other across the office. +We all work on little laptops and try to move desks to change the way we think. +And we use naive experts who may know nothing about the countries we're dealing with, but may know something about something else to try to inject new thinking into the problems that we try to address for our clients. +It's not easy, because our clients, by definition, are having a difficult time, diplomatically. +There are, I don't know, some lessons from all of this, personal and political -- and in a way, they're the same thing. +The personal one is falling off a cliff is actually a good thing, and I recommend it. +And it's a good thing to do at least once in your life just to tear everything up and jump. +The second thing is a bigger lesson about the world today. +Independent Diplomat is part of a trend which is emerging and evident across the world, which is that the world is fragmenting. +States mean less than they used to, and the power of the state is declining. +That means the power of others things is rising. +Those other things are called non-state actors. +They may be corporations, they may be mafiosi, they may be nice NGOs, they may anything, any number of things. +We are living in a more complicated and fragmented world. +If governments are less able to affect the problems that affect us in the world, then that means, who is left to deal with them, who has to take greater responsibility to deal with them? +Us. +If they can't do it, who's left to deal with it? +We have no choice but to embrace that reality. +What this means is it's no longer good enough to say that international relations, or global affairs, or chaos in Somalia, or what's going on in Burma is none of your business, and that you can leave it to governments to get on with. +I can connect any one of you by six degrees of separation to the Al-Shabaab militia in Somalia. +Ask me how later, particularly if you eat fish, interestingly enough, but that connection is there. +We are all intimately connected. +And this isn't just Tom Friedman, it's actually provable in case after case after case. +What that means is, instead of asking your politicians to do things, you have to look to yourself to do things. +And Independent Diplomat is a kind of example of this in a sort of loose way. +There aren't neat examples, but one example is this: the way the world is changing is embodied in what's going on at the place I used to work -- the U.N. Security Council. +The U.N. was established in 1945. +Its charter is basically designed to stop conflicts between states -- interstate conflict. +Today, 80 percent of the agenda of the U.N. Security Council is about conflicts within states, involving non-state parties -- guerillas, separatists, terrorists, if you want to call them that, people who are not normal governments, who are not normal states. +That is the state of the world today. +Something's got to be done about this. +So I started off in a traditional mode. +Me and my colleagues at Independent Diplomat went around the U.N. Security Council. +We went around 70 U.N. member states -- the Kazaks, the Ethiopians, the Israelis -- you name them, we went to see them -- the secretary general, all of them, and said, "This is all wrong. +This is terrible that you don't consult these people who are actually affected. +You've got to institutionalize a system where you actually invite the Kosovars to come and tell you what they think. +This will allow you to tell me -- you can tell them what you think. +It'll be great. You can have an exchange. +You can actually incorporate these people's views into your decisions, which means your decisions will be more effective and durable." +Super-logical, you would think. +I mean, incredibly logical. So obvious, anybody could get it. +And of course, everybody got it. Everybody went, "Yes, of course, you're absolutely right. +Come back to us in maybe six months." +And of course, nothing happened -- nobody did anything. +The Security Council does its business in exactly the same way today that it did X number of years ago, when I was there 10 years ago. +So we looked at that observation of basically failure and thought, what can we do about it. +And I thought, I'm buggered if I'm going to spend the rest of my life lobbying for these crummy governments to do what needs to be done. +So what we're going to do is we're actually going to set up these meetings ourselves. +So now, Independent Diplomat is in the process of setting up meetings between the U.N. Security Council and the parties to the disputes that are on the agenda of the Security Council. +So we will be bringing Darfuri rebel groups, the Northern Cypriots and the Southern Cypriots, rebels from Aceh, and awful long laundry list of chaotic conflicts around the world. +And we will be trying to bring the parties to New York to sit down in a quiet room in a private setting with no press and actually explain what they want to the members of the U. N. Security Council, and for the members of the U.N. Security Council to explain to them what they want. +So there's actually a conversation, which has never before happened. +And of course, describing all this, any of you who know politics will think this is incredibly difficult, and I entirely agree with you. +The chances of failure are very high, but it certainly won't happen if we don't try to make it happen. +And my politics has changed fundamentally from when I was a diplomat to what I am today, and I think that outputs is what matters, not process, not technology, frankly, so much either. +Preach technology to all the Twittering members of all the Iranian demonstrations who are now in political prison in Tehran, where Ahmadinejad remains in power. +Technology has not delivered political change in Iran. +You've got to look at the outputs, and you got to say to yourself, "What can I do to produce that particular output?" +That is the politics of the 21st century, and in a way, Independent Diplomat embodies that fragmentation, that change, that is happening to all of us. +That's my story. Thanks. +I am a cultural omnivore, one whose daily commute is made possible by attachment to an iPod -- an iPod that contains Wagner and Mozart, pop diva Christina Aguilera, country singer Josh Turner, gangsta rap artist Kirk Franklin, concerti, symphonies and more and more. +I'm a voracious reader, a reader who deals with Ian McEwan down to Stephanie Meyer. +I have read the "Twilight" tetralogy. +And one who lives for my home theater, a home theater where I devour DVDs, video-on-demand and a lot of television. +For me, "Law and Order: SVU," Tine Fey and "30 Rock" and "Judge Judy" -- "The people are real, the cases are real, the rulings are final." +You know, frankly it's a sector that many of us who work in the field worry is being endangered and possibly dismantled by technology. +While we initially heralded the Internet as the fantastic new marketing device that was going to solve all our problems, we now realize that the Internet is, if anything, too effective in that regard. +Depending on who you read, an arts organization or an artist, who tries to attract the attention of a potential single ticket buyer, now competes with between three and 5,000 different marketing messages a typical citizen sees every single day. +We now know in fact that technology is our biggest competitor for leisure time. +Five years ago, Gen-X'ers spent 20.7 hours online and TV, the majority on TV. +Gen-Y'ers spent even more -- 23.8 hours, the majority online. +And now, a typical university entering student arrives at college already having spent 20,000 hours online and an additional 10,000 hours playing video games -- a stark reminder that we operate in a cultural context where video games now outsell music and movie recordings combined. +Moreover, we're afraid that technology has altered our very assumptions of cultural consumption. +Thanks to the Internet, we believe we can get anything we want whenever we want it, delivered to our own doorstep. +We can shop at three in the morning or eight at night, ordering jeans tailor-made for our unique body-types. +Expectations of personalization and customization that the live performing arts -- which have set curtain times, set venues, attendant inconveniences of travel, parking and the like -- simply cannot meet. +And we're all acutely aware: what's it going to mean in the future when we ask someone to pay a hundred dollars for a symphony, opera or ballet ticket, when that cultural consumer is used to downloading on the internet 24 hours a day for 99 cents a song or for free? +These are enormous questions for those of us who work in this terrain. +But as particular as they feel to us, we know we're not alone. +All of us are engaged in a seismic, fundamental realignment of culture and communications, a realignment that is shaking and decimating the newspaper industry, the magazine industry, the book and publishing industry and more. +Many of us shudder in the wake of the collapse of Tower Records and ask ourselves, "Are we next?" +Everyone I talk to in performing arts resonates to the words of Adrienne Rich, who, in "Dreams of a Common Language," wrote, "We are out in a country that has no language, no laws. +Whatever we do together is pure invention. +The maps they gave us are out of date by years." +And for those of you who love the arts, aren't you glad you invited me here to brighten your day? +Now, rather than saying that we're on the brink of our own annihilation, I prefer to believe that we are engaged in a fundamental reformation, a reformation like the religious Reformation of the 16th century. +The arts reformation, like the religious Reformation, is spurred in part by technology, with indeed, the printing press really leading the charge on the religious Reformation. +Both reformations were predicated on fractious discussion, internal self-doubt and massive realignment of antiquated business models. +And at heart, both reformations, I think were asking the questions: who's entitled to practice? +How are they entitled to practice? +And indeed, do we need anyone to intermediate for us in order to have an experience with a spiritual divine? +Chris Anderson, someone I trust you all know, editor-in-chief of Wired magazine and author of "The Long Tail," really was the first -- for me -- to nail a lot of this. +He wrote a long time ago, you know, thanks to the invention of the Internet, web technology, mini-cams and more, the means of artistic production have been democratized for the first time in all of human history. +In the 1930s, if any of you wanted to make a movie, you had to work for Warner Brothers or RKO because who could afford a movie set and lighting equipment and editing equipment and scoring and more? +And now who in this room doesn't know a 14 year-old hard at work on her second, third, or fourth movie? +Similarly, the means of artistic distribution have been democratized for the first time in human history. +Again, in the '30s, Warner Brothers, RKO did that for you. +Now, go to YouTube, Facebook; you have worldwide distribution without leaving the privacy of your own bedroom. +This double impact is occasioning a massive redefinition of the cultural market, a time when anyone is a potential author. +Frankly, what we're seeing now in this environment is a massive time, when the entire world is changing as we move from a time when audience numbers are plummeting. +But the number of arts participants, people who write poetry, who sing songs, who perform in church choirs, is exploding beyond our wildest imaginations. +This group, others have called the "pro ams," amateur artists doing work at a professional level. +You see them on YouTube, in dance competitions, film festivals and more. +They are radically expanding our notions of the potential of an aesthetic vocabulary, while they are challenging and undermining the cultural autonomy of our traditional institutions. +Ultimately, we now live in a world defined not by consumption, but by participation. +But I want to be clear, just as the religious Reformation did not spell the end to the formal Church or to the priesthood; I believe that our artistic institutions will continue to have importance. +They currently are the best opportunities for artists to have lives of economic dignity -- not opulence -- of dignity. +And they are the places where artists who deserve and want to work at a certain scale of resources will find a home. +But to view them as synonymous with the entirety of the arts community is, by far, too short-sighted. +Today's performers, like Rhodessa Jones, work in women's prisons, helping women prisoners articulate the pain of incarceration, while today's playwrights and directors work with youth gangs to find alternate channels to violence and more and more and more. +And indeed, I think, rather than being annihilated, the performing arts are posed on the brink of a time when we will be more important than we have ever been. +You know, we've said for a long time, we are critical to the health of the economic communities in your town. +And absolutely -- I hope you know that every dollar spent on a performing arts ticket in a community generates five to seven additional dollars for the local economy, dollars spent in restaurants or on parking, at the fabric stores where we buy fabric for costumes, the piano tuner who tunes the instruments and more. +But the arts are going to be more important to economies as we go forward, especially in industries we can't even imagine yet, just as they have been central to the iPod and the computer game industries, which few, if any of us come have foreseen 10 to 15 years ago. +Business leadership will depend more and more on emotional intelligence, the ability to listen deeply, to have empathy, to articulate change, to motivate others -- the very capacities that the arts cultivate with every encounter. +Especially now, as we all must confront the fallacy of a market-only orientation, uninformed by social conscience; we must seize and celebrate the power of the arts to shape our individual and national characters, and especially characters of the young people, who all too often, are subjected to bombardment of sensation, rather than digested experience. +The arts, whatever they do, whenever they call us together, invite us to look at our fellow human being with generosity and curiosity. +God knows, if we ever needed that capacity in human history, we need it now. +You know, we're bound together, not, I think by technology, entertainment and design, but by common cause. +We work to promote healthy vibrant societies, to ameliorate human suffering, to promote a more thoughtful, substantive, empathic world order. +I salute all of you as activists in that quest and urge you to embrace and hold dear the arts in your work, whatever your purpose may be. +I promise you the hand of the Doris Duke Charitable Foundation is stretched out in friendship for now and years to come. +And I thank you for your kindness and your patience in listening to me this afternoon. +Thank you, and godspeed. +If you really want to understand the problem that we're facing with the oceans, you have to think about the biology at the same time you think about the physics. +We can't solve the problems unless we start studying the ocean in a very much more interdisciplinary way. +So I'm going to demonstrate that through discussion of some of the climate change things that are going on in the ocean. +We'll look at sea level rise. +We'll look at ocean warming. +And then the last thing on the list there, ocean acidification -- if you were to ask me, you know, "What do you worry about the most? +What frightens you?" +for me, it's ocean acidification. +And this has come onto the stage pretty recently. +So I will spend a little time at the end. +I was in Copenhagen in December like a number of you in this room. +And I think we all found it, simultaneously, an eye-opening and a very frustrating experience. +I sat in this large negotiation hall, at one point, for three or four hours, without hearing the word "oceans" one time. +It really wasn't on the radar screen. +The nations that brought it up when we had the speeches of the national leaders -- it tended to be the leaders of the small island states, the low-lying island states. +And by this weird quirk of alphabetical order of the nations, a lot of the low-lying states, like Kiribati and Nauru, they were seated at the very end of these immensely long rows. +You know, they were marginalized in the negotiation room. +One of the problems is coming up with the right target. +It's not clear what the target should be. +And how can you figure out how to fix something if you don't have a clear target? +Now, you've heard about "two degrees": that we should limit temperature rise to no more than two degrees. +But there's not a lot of science behind that number. +We've also talked about concentrations of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. +Should it be 450? Should it be 400? +There's not a lot of science behind that one either. +Most of the science that is behind these numbers, these potential targets, is based on studies on land. +And I would say, for the people that work in the ocean and think about what the targets should be, we would argue that they must be much lower. +You know, from an oceanic perspective, 450 is way too high. +Now there's compelling evidence that it really needs to be 350. +We are, right now, at 390 parts per million of CO2 in the atmosphere. +We're not going to put the brakes on in time to stop at 450, so we've got to accept we're going to do an overshoot, and the discussion as we go forward has to focus on how far the overshoot goes and what's the pathway back to 350. +Now, why is this so complicated? +Why don't we know some of these things a little bit better? +Well, the problem is that we've got very complicated forces in the climate system. +There's all kinds of natural causes of climate change. +There's air-sea interactions. +Here in Galapagos, we're affected by El Ninos and La Nina. +But the entire planet warms up when there's a big El Nino. +Volcanoes eject aerosols into the atmosphere. +That changes our climate. +The ocean contains most of the exchangeable heat on the planet. +So anything that influences how ocean surface waters mix with the deep water changes the ocean of the planet. +And we know the solar output's not constant through time. +So those are all natural causes of climate change. +And then we have the human-induced causes of climate change as well. +We're changing the characteristics of the surface of the land, the reflectivity. +We inject our own aerosols into the atmosphere, and we have trace gases, and not just carbon dioxide -- it's methane, ozone, oxides of sulfur and nitrogen. +So here's the thing. It sounds like a simple question. +Is CO2 produced by man's activities causing the planet to warm up? +But to answer that question, to make a clear attribution to carbon dioxide, you have to know something about all of these other agents of change. +But the fact is we do know a lot about all of those things. +You know, thousands of scientists have been working on understanding all of these man-made causes and the natural causes. +And we've got it worked out, and we can say, "Yes, CO2 is causing the planet to warm up now." +Now, we have many ways to study natural variability. +I'll show you a few examples of this now. +This is the ship that I spent the last three months on in the Antarctic. +It's a scientific drilling vessel. +We go out for months at a time and drill into the sea bed to recover sediments that tell us stories of climate change, right. +Like one of the ways to understand our greenhouse future is to drill down in time to the last period where we had CO2 double what it is today. +And so that's what we've done with this ship. +This was -- this is south of the Antarctic Circle. +It looks downright tropical there. +One day where we had calm seas and sun, which was the reason I could get off the ship. +Most of the time it looked like this. +We had a waves up to 50 ft. +and winds averaging about 40 knots for most of the voyage and up to 70 or 80 knots. +So that trip just ended, and I can't show you too many results from that right now, but we'll go back one more year, to another drilling expedition I've been involved in. +This was led by Ross Powell and Tim Naish. +It's the ANDRILL project. +And we made the very first bore hole through the largest floating ice shelf on the planet. +This is a crazy thing, this big drill rig wrapped in a blanket to keep everybody warm, drilling at temperatures of minus 40. +And we drilled in the Ross Sea. +That's the Ross Sea Ice Shelf on the right there. +So, this huge floating ice shelf the size of Alaska comes from West Antarctica. +Now, West Antarctica is the part of the continent where the ice is grounded on sea floor as much as 2,000 meters deep. +So that ice sheet is partly floating, and it's exposed to the ocean, to the ocean heat. +This is the part of Antarctica that we worry about. +Because it's partly floating, you can imagine, is sea level rises a little bit, the ice lifts off the bed, and then it can break off and float north. +When that ice melts, sea level rises by six meters. +So we drill back in time to see how often that's happened, and exactly how fast that ice can melt. +Here's the cartoon on the left there. +We drilled through a hundred meters of floating ice shelf then through 900 meters of water and then 1,300 meters into the sea floor. +So it's the deepest geological bore hole ever drilled. +It took about 10 years to put this project together. +And here's what we found. +Now, there's 40 scientists working on this project, and people are doing all kinds of really complicated and expensive analyses. +But it turns out, you know, the thing that told the best story was this simple visual description. +You know, we saw this in the core samples as they came up. +We saw these alternations between sediments that look like this -- there's gravel and cobbles in there and a bunch of sand. +That's the kind of material in the deep sea. +It can only get there if it's carried out by ice. +So we know there's an ice shelf overhead. +And that alternates with a sediment that looks like this. +This is absolutely beautiful stuff. +This sediment is 100 percent made up of the shells of microscopic plants. +And these plants need sunlight, so we know when we find that sediment there's no ice overhead. +And we saw about 35 alternations between open water and ice-covered water, between gravels and these plant sediments. +So what that means is, what it tells us is that the Ross Sea region, this ice shelf, melted back and formed anew about 35 times. +And this is in the past four million years. +This was completely unexpected. +Nobody imagined that the West Antarctic Ice Sheet was this dynamic. +In fact, the lore for many years has been, "The ice formed many tens of millions of years ago, and it's been there ever since." +And now we know that in our recent past it melted back and formed again, and sea level went up and down, six meters at a time. +What caused it? +Well, we're pretty sure that it's very small changes in the amount of sunlight reaching Antarctica, just caused by natural changes in the orbit of the Earth. +But here's the key thing: you know, the other thing we found out is that the ice sheet passed a threshold, that the planet warmed up enough -- and the number's about one degree to one and a half degrees Centigrade -- the planet warmed up enough that it became ... +that ice sheet became very dynamic and was very easily melted. +And you know what? +We've actually changed the temperature in the last century just the right amount. +So many of us are convinced now that West Antarctica, the West Antarctic Ice Sheet, is starting to melt. +We do expect to see a sea-level rise on the order of one to two meters by the end of this century. +And it could be larger than that. +This is a serious consequence for nations like Kiribati, you know, where the average elevation is about a little over a meter above sea level. +Okay, the second story takes place here in Galapagos. +This is a bleached coral, coral that died during the 1982-'83 El Nino. +This is from Champion Island. +It's about a meter tall Pavona clavus colony. +And it's covered with algae. That's what happens. +When these things die, immediately, organisms come in and encrust and live on that dead surface. +And so, when a coral colony is killed by an El Nino event, it leaves this indelible record. +You can go then and study corals and figure out how often do you see this. +So one of the things thought of in the '80s was to go back and take cores of coral heads throughout the Galapagos and find out how often was there a devastating event. +And just so you know, 1982-'83, that El Nino killed 95 percent of all the corals here in Galapagos. +Then there was similar mortality in '97-'98. +And what we found after drilling back in time two to 400 years was that these were unique events. +We saw no other mass mortality events. +So these events in our recent past really are unique. +So they're either just truly monster El Ninos, or they're just very strong El Ninos that occurred against a backdrop of global warming. +Either case, it's bad news for the corals of the Galapagos Islands. +Here's how we sample the corals. +This is actually Easter Island. Look at this monster. +This coral is eight meters tall, right. +And it been growing for about 600 years. +Now, Sylvia Earle turned me on to this exact same coral. +And she was diving here with John Lauret -- I think it was 1994 -- and collected a little nugget and sent it to me. +And we started working on it, and we figured out we could tell the temperature of the ancient ocean from analyzing a coral like this. +So we have a diamond drill. +We're not killing the colony; we're taking a small core sample out of the top. +The core comes up as these cylindrical tubes of limestone. +And that material then we take back to the lab and analyze it. +You can see some of the coral cores there on the right. +So we've done that all over the Eastern Pacific. +We're starting to do it in the Western Pacific as well. +I'll take you back here to the Galapagos Islands. +And we've been working at this fascinating uplift here in Urbina Bay. +That the place where, during an earthquake in 1954, this marine terrace was lifted up out of the ocean very quickly, and it was lifted up about six to seven meters. +And so now you can walk through a coral reef without getting wet. +If you go on the ground there, it looks like this, and this is the grandaddy coral. +It's 11 meters in diameter, and we know that it started growing in the year 1584. +Imagine that. +And that coral was growing happily in those shallow waters, until 1954, when the earthquake happened. +Now the reason we know it's 1584 is that these corals have growth bands. +When you cut them, slice those cores in half and x-ray them, you see these light and dark bands. +Each one of those is a year. +We know these corals grow about a centimeter and a half a year. +And we just count on down to the bottom. +Then their other attribute is that they have this great chemistry. +We can analyze the carbonate that makes up the coral, and there's a whole bunch of things we can do. +But in this case, we measured the different isotopes of oxygen. +Their ratio tells us the water temperature. +In this example here, we had monitored this reef in Galapagos with temperature recorders, so we know the temperature of the water the coral's growing in. +Then after we harvest a coral, we measure this ratio, and now you can see, those curves match perfectly. +In this case, at these islands, you know, corals are instrumental-quality recorders of change in the water. +And of course, our thermometers only take us back 50 years or so here. +The coral can take us back hundreds and thousands of years. +So, what we do: we've merged a lot of different data sets. +It's not just my group; there's maybe 30 groups worldwide doing this. +But we get these instrumental- and near-instrumental-quality records of temperature change that go back hundreds of years, and we put them together. +Here's a synthetic diagram. +There's a whole family of curves here. +But what's happening: we're looking at the last thousand years of temperature on the planet. +And there's five or six different compilations there, But each one of those compilations reflects input from hundreds of these kinds of records from corals. +We do similar things with ice cores. +We work with tree rings. +And that's how we discover what is truly natural and how different is the last century, right? +And I chose this one because it's complicated and messy looking, right. +This is as messy as it gets. +You can see there's some signals there. +Some of the records show lower temperatures than others. +Some of them show greater variability. +But they all tell us what the natural variability is. +Some of them are from the northern hemisphere; some are from the entire globe. +But here's what we can say: what's natural in the last thousand years is that the planet was cooling down. +It was cooling down until about 1900 or so. +And there is natural variability caused by the Sun, caused by El Ninos. +A century-scale, decadal-scale variability, and we know the magnitude; it's about two-tenths to four-tenths of a degree Centigrade. +But then at the very end is where we have the instrumental record in black. +And there's the temperature up there in 2009. +You know, we've warmed the globe about a degree Centigrade in the last century, and there's nothing in the natural part of that record that resembles what we've seen in the last century. +You know, that's the strength of our argument, that we are doing something that's truly different. +So I'll close with a short discussion of ocean acidification. +I like it as a component of global change to talk about, because, even if you are a hard-bitten global warming skeptic, and I talk to that community fairly often, you cannot deny the simple physics of CO2 dissolving in the ocean. +You know, we're pumping out lots of CO2 into the atmosphere, from fossil fuels, from cement production. +Right now, about a third of that carbon dioxide is dissolving straight into the sea, right? +And as it does so, it makes the ocean more acidic. +So, you cannot argue with that. +That is what's happening right now, and it's a very different issue than the global warming issue. +It has many consequences. +There's consequences for carbonate organisms. +There are many organisms that build their shells out of calcium carbonate -- plants and animals both. +The main framework material of coral reefs is calcium carbonate. +That material is more soluble in acidic fluid. +So one of the things we're seeing is organisms are having to spend more metabolic energy to build and maintain their shells. +At some point, as this transience, as this CO2 uptake in the ocean continues, that material's actually going to start to dissolve. +And on coral reefs, where some of the main framework organisms disappear, we will see a major loss of marine biodiversity. +But it's not just the carbonate producers that are affected. +There's many physiological processes that are influenced by the acidity of the ocean. +So many reactions involving enzymes and proteins are sensitive to the acid content of the ocean. +So, all of these things -- greater metabolic demands, reduced reproductive success, changes in respiration and metabolism. +You know, these are things that we have good physiological reasons to expect to see stressed caused by this transience. +So we figured out some pretty interesting ways to track CO2 levels in the atmosphere, going back millions of years. +We used to do it just with ice cores, but in this case, we're going back 20 million years. +And we take samples of the sediment, and it tells us the CO2 level of the ocean, and therefore the CO2 level of the atmosphere. +And here's the thing: you have to go back about 15 million years to find a time when CO2 levels were about what they are today. +You have to go back about 30 million years to find a time when CO2 levels were double what they are today. +Now, what that means is that all of the organisms that live in the sea have evolved in this chemostatted ocean, with CO2 levels lower than they are today. +That's the reason that they're not able to respond or adapt to this rapid acidification that's going on right now. +So, Charlie Veron came up with this statement last year: "The prospect of ocean acidification may well be the most serious of all of the predicted outcomes of anthropogenic CO2 release." +And I think that may very well be true, so I'll close with this. +You know, we do need the protected areas, absolutely, but for the sake of the oceans, we have to cap or limit CO2 emissions as soon as possible. +Thank you very much. +If nothing else, at least I've discovered what it is we put our speakers through: sweaty palms, sleepless nights, a wholly unnatural fear of clocks. +I mean, it's quite brutal. +And I'm also a little nervous about this. +There are nine billion humans coming our way. +Now, the most optimistic dreams can get dented by the prospect of people plundering the planet. +But recently, I've become intrigued by a different way of thinking of large human crowds, because there are circumstances where they can do something really cool. +It's a phenomenon that I think any organization or individual can tap into. +It certainly impacted the way we think about TED's future, and perhaps the world's future overall. +So, let's explore. +The story starts with just a single person, a child, behaving a little strangely. +This kid is known online as Lil Demon. +He's doing tricks here, dance tricks, that probably no six-year-old in history ever managed before. +How did he learn them? +And what drove him to spend the hundreds of hours of practice this must have taken? +Here's a clue. +Lil Demon: Step your game up. Oh. Oh. Step your game up. Oh. Oh. Chris Anderson: So, that was sent to me by this man, a filmmaker, Jonathan Chu, who told me that was the moment he realized the Internet was causing dance to evolve. +This is what he said at TED in February. +In essence, dancers were challenging each other online to get better; incredible new dance skills were being invented; even the six-year-olds were joining in. +It felt like a revolution. +And so Jon had a brilliant idea: He went out to recruit the best of the best dancers off of YouTube to create this dance troupe -- The League of Extraordinary Dancers, the LXD. +I mean, these kids were web-taught, but they were so good that they got to play at the Oscars this year. +And at TED here in February, their passion and brilliance just took our breath away. +So, this story of the evolution of dance seems strangely familiar. +You know, a while after TEDTalks started taking off, we noticed that speakers were starting to spend a lot more time in preparation. +It was resulting in incredible new talks like these two. +... Months of preparation crammed into 18 minutes, raising the bar cruelly for the next generation of speakers, with the effects that we've seen this week. +It's not as if J.J. and Jill actually ended their talks saying, "Step your game up," but they might as well have. +So, in both of these cases, you've got these cycles of improvement, apparently driven by people watching web video. +What is going on here? +Well, I think it's the latest iteration of a phenomenon we can call "crowd-accelerated innovation." +And there are just three things you need for this thing to kick into gear. +You can think of them as three dials on a giant wheel. +You turn up the dials, the wheel starts to turn. +And the first thing you need is ... a crowd, a group of people who share a common interest. +The bigger the crowd, the more potential innovators there are. +That's important, but actually most people in the crowd occupy these other roles. +They're creating the ecosystem from which innovation emerges. +The second thing you need is light. +You need clear, open visibility of what the best people in that crowd are capable of, because that is how you will learn how you will be empowered to participate. +And third, you need desire. +You know, innovation's hard work. +It's based on hundreds of hours of research, of practice. +Absent desire, not going to happen. +Now, here's an example -- pre-Internet -- of this machine in action. +Dancers at a street corner -- it's a crowd, a small one, but they can all obviously see what each other can do. +And the desire part comes, I guess, from social status, right? +Best dancer walks tall, gets the best date. +There's probably going to be some innovation happening here. +But on the web, all three dials are ratcheted right up. +The dance community is now global. +There's millions connected. +And amazingly, you can still see what the best can do, because the crowd itself shines a light on them, either directly, through comments, ratings, email, Facebook, Twitter, or indirectly, through numbers of views, through links that point Google there. +So, it's easy to find the good stuff, and when you've found it, you can watch it in close-up repeatedly and read what hundreds of people have written about it. +That's a lot of light. +But the desire element is really dialed way up. +I mean, you might just be a kid with a webcam, but if you can do something that goes viral, you get to be seen by the equivalent of sports stadiums crammed with people. +You get hundreds of strangers writing excitedly about you. +And even if it's not that eloquent -- and it's not -- it can still really make your day. +So, this possibility of a new type of global recognition, I think, is driving huge amounts of effort. +And it's important to note that it's not just the stars who are benefiting: because you can see the best, everyone can learn. +Also, the system is self-fueling. +It's the crowd that shines the light and fuels the desire, but the light and desire are a lethal one-two combination that attract new people to the crowd. +So, this is a model that pretty much any organization could use to try and nurture its own cycle of crowd-accelerated innovation. +Invite the crowd, let in the light, dial up the desire. +And the hardest part about that is probably the light, because it means you have to open up, you have to show your stuff to the world. +It's by giving away what you think is your deepest secret that maybe millions of people are empowered to help improve it. +And, very happily, there's one class of people who really can't make use of this tool. +The dark side of the web is allergic to the light. +I don't think we're going to see terrorists, for example, publishing their plans online and saying to the world, "Please, could you help us to actually make them work this time?" +But you can publish your stuff online. +And if you can get that wheel to turn, look out. +So, at TED, we've become a little obsessed with this idea of openness. +In fact, my colleague, June Cohen, has taken to calling it "radical openness," because it works for us each time. +We opened up our talks to the world, and suddenly there are millions of people out there helping spread our speakers' ideas, and thereby making it easier for us to recruit and motivate the next generation of speakers. +By opening up our translation program, thousands of heroic volunteers -- some of them watching online right now, and thank you! -- have translated our talks into more than 70 languages, thereby tripling our viewership in non-English-speaking countries. +By giving away our TEDx brand, we suddenly have a thousand-plus live experiments in the art of spreading ideas. +And these organizers, they're seeing each other, they're learning from each other. +We are learning from them. +We're getting great talks back from them. +The wheel is turning. +Okay, step back a minute. +I mean, it's really not news for me to tell you that innovation emerges out of groups. +You know, we've heard that this week -- this romantic notion of the lone genius with the "eureka!" moment that changes the world is misleading. +Even he said that, and he would know. +We're a social species. +We spark off each other. +It's also not news to say that the Internet has accelerated innovation. +For the past 15 years, powerful communities have been connecting online, sparking off each other. +If you take programmers, you know, the whole open-source movement is a fantastic instance of crowd-accelerated innovation. +But what's key here is, the reason these groups have been able to connect is because their work output is of the type that can be easily shared digitally -- a picture, a music file, software. +And that's why what I'm excited about, and what I think is under-reported, is the significance of the rise of online video. +This is the technology that's going to allow the rest of the world's talents to be shared digitally, thereby launching a whole new cycle of crowd-accelerated innovation. +The first few years of the web were pretty much video-free, for this reason: video files are huge; the web couldn't handle them. +But in the last 10 years, bandwidth has exploded a hundredfold. +Suddenly, here we are. +Humanity watches 80 million hours of YouTube every day. +Cisco actually estimates that, within four years, more than 90 percent of the web's data will be video. +If it's all puppies, porn and piracy, we're doomed. +I don't think it will be. +Video is high-bandwidth for a reason. +It packs a huge amount of data, and our brains are uniquely wired to decode it. +Here, let me introduce you to Sam Haber. +He's a unicyclist. +Before YouTube, there was no way for him to discover his sport's true potential, because you can't communicate this stuff in words, right? +But looking at video clips posted by strangers, a world of possibility opens up for him. +Suddenly, he starts to emulate and then to innovate. +And a global community of unicyclists discover each other online, inspire each other to greatness. +And there are thousands of other examples of this happening -- of video-driven evolution of skills, ranging from the physical to the artful. +And I have to tell you, as a former publisher of hobbyist magazines, I find this strangely beautiful. +I mean, there's a lot of passion right here on this screen. +But if Rube Goldberg machines and video poetry aren't quite your cup of tea, how about this. +Jove is a website that was founded to encourage scientists to publish their peer-reviewed research on video. +There's a problem with a traditional scientific paper. +It can take months for a scientist in another lab to figure out how to replicate the experiments that are described in print. +Here's one such frustrated scientist, Moshe Pritsker, the founder of Jove. +He told me that the world is wasting billions of dollars on this. +But look at this video. +I mean, look: if you can show instead of just describing, that problem goes away. +So it's not far-fetched to say that, at some point, online video is going to dramatically accelerate scientific advance. +Here's another example that's close to our hearts at TED, where video is sometimes more powerful than print -- the sharing of an idea. +Why do people like watching TEDTalks? +All those ideas are already out there in print. +It's actually faster to read than to view. +Why would someone bother? +Well, so, there's some showing as well as telling. +But even leaving the screen out of it, there's still a lot more being transferred than just words. +And in that non-verbal portion, there's some serious magic. +Somewhere hidden in the physical gestures, the vocal cadence, the facial expressions, the eye contact, the passion, the kind of awkward, British body language, the sense of how the audience are reacting, there are hundreds of subconscious clues that go to how well you will understand, and whether you're inspired -- light, if you like, and desire. +Incredibly, all of this can be communicated on just a few square inches of a screen. +Reading and writing are actually relatively recent inventions. +Face-to-face communication has been fine-tuned by millions of years of evolution. +That's what's made it into this mysterious, powerful thing it is. +Someone speaks, there's resonance in all these receiving brains, the whole group acts together. +I mean, this is the connective tissue of the human superorganism in action. +It's probably driven our culture for millennia. +500 years ago, it ran into a competitor with a lethal advantage. +It's right here. +Print scaled. +The world's ambitious innovators and influencers now could get their ideas to spread far and wide, and so the art of the spoken word pretty much withered on the vine. +But now, in the blink of an eye, the game has changed again. +It's not too much to say that what Gutenberg did for writing, online video can now do for face-to-face communication. +So, that primal medium, which your brain is exquisitely wired for ... +that just went global. +Now, this is big. +We may have to reinvent an ancient art form. +I mean, today, one person speaking can be seen by millions, shedding bright light on potent ideas, creating intense desire for learning and to respond -- and in his case, intense desire to laugh. +For the first time in human history, talented students don't have to have their potential and their dreams written out of history by lousy teachers. +They can sit two feet in front of the world's finest. +Now, TED is just a small part of this. +I mean, the world's universities are opening up their curricula. +Thousands of individuals and organizations are sharing their knowledge and data online. +Thousands of people are figuring out new ways to learn and, crucially, to respond, completing the cycle. +And so, as we've thought about this, you know, it's become clear to us what the next stage of TED's evolution has to be. +TEDTalks can't be a one-way process, one-to-many. +Our future is many-to-many. +So, we're dreaming of ways to make it easier for you, the global TED community, to respond to speakers, to contribute your own ideas, maybe even your own TEDTalks, and to help shine a light on the very best of what's out there. +Because, if we can bubble up the very best from a vastly larger pool, this wheel turns. +Now, is it possible to imagine a similar process to this, happening to global education overall? +I mean, does it have to be this painful, top-down process? +Why not a self-fueling cycle in which we all can participate? +It's the participation age, right? +Schools can't be silos. +We can't stop learning at age 21. +What if, in the coming crowd of nine billion ... +what if that crowd could learn enough to be net contributors, instead of net plunderers? +That changes everything, right? +I mean, that would take more teachers than we've ever had. +But the good news is they are out there. +They're in the crowd, and the crowd is switching on lights, and we can see them for the first time, not as an undifferentiated mass of strangers, but as individuals we can learn from. +Who's the teacher? +You're the teacher. +You're part of the crowd that may be about to launch the biggest learning cycle in human history, a cycle capable of carrying all of us to a smarter, wiser, more beautiful place. +Here's a group of kids in a village in Pakistan near where I grew up. +Within five years, each of these kids is going to have access to a cellphone capable of full-on web video and capable of uploading video to the web. +I mean, is it crazy to think that this girl, in the back, at the right, in 15 years, might be sharing the idea that keeps the world beautiful for your grandchildren? +It's not crazy; it's actually happening right now. +I want to introduce you to a good friend of TED who just happens to live in Africa's biggest shantytown. +Christopher Makau: Hi. My name is Christopher Makau. +I'm one of the organizers of TEDxKibera. +There are so many good things which are happening right here in Kibera. +There's a self-help group. +They turned a trash place into a garden. +The same spot, it was a crime spot where people were being robbed. +They used the same trash to form green manure. +The same trash site is feeding more than 30 families. +We have our own film school. +They are using Flip cameras to record, edit, and reporting to their own channel, Kibera TV. +Because of a scarcity of land, we are using the sacks to grow vegetables, and also [we're] able to save on the cost of living. +Change happens when we see things in a different way. +Today, I see Kibera in a different way. +My message to TEDGlobal and the entire world is: Kibera is a hotbed of innovation and ideas. +CA: You know what? +I bet Chris has always been an inspiring guy. +What's new -- and it's huge -- is that, for the first time, we get to see him, and he can see us. +Right now, Chris and Kevin and Dennis and Dickson and their friends are watching us, in Nairobi, right now. +Guys, we've learned from you today. +Thank you. +And thank you. +Let's start with day and night. +Life evolved under conditions of light and darkness, light and then darkness. +And so plants and animals developed their own internal clocks so that they would be ready for these changes in light. +These are chemical clocks, and they're found in every known being that has two or more cells and in some that only have one cell. +It'll do this for weeks, until it kind of gradually loses the plot. +And it's incredible to watch, but there's nothing psychic or paranormal going on; it's simply that these crabs have internal cycles that correspond, usually, with what's going on around it. +So, we have this ability as well. +And in humans, we call it the "body clock." +You can see this most clearly when you take away someone's watch and you shut them into a bunker, deep underground, for a couple of months. People actually volunteer for this, and they usually come out kind of raving about their productive time in the hole. +So, no matter how atypical these subjects would have to be, they all show the same thing. +They get up just a little bit later every day -- say 15 minutes or so -- and they kind of drift all the way around the clock like this over the course of the weeks. +And so, in this way we know that they are working on their own internal clocks, rather than somehow sensing the day outside. +So fine, we have a body clock, and it turns out that it's incredibly important in our lives. +It's a huge driver for culture and I think that it's the most underrated force on our behavior. +We evolved as a species near the equator, and so we're very well-equipped to deal with 12 hours of daylight and 12 hours of darkness. +But of course, we've spread to every corner of the globe and in Arctic Canada, where I live, we have perpetual daylight in summer and 24 hours of darkness in winter. +So the culture, the northern aboriginal culture, traditionally has been highly seasonal. +In winter, there's a lot of sleeping going on; you enjoy your family life inside. +And in summer, it's almost manic hunting and working activity very long hours, very active. +So, what would our natural rhythm look like? +What would our sleeping patterns be in the sort of ideal sense? +Well, it turns out that when people are living without any sort of artificial light at all, they sleep twice every night. +They go to bed around 8:00 p.m. +until midnight and then again, they sleep from about 2:00 a.m. until sunrise. +And in-between, they have a couple of hours of sort of meditative quiet in bed. +And during this time, there's a surge of prolactin, the likes of which a modern day never sees. +The people in these studies report feeling so awake during the daytime, that they realize they're experiencing true wakefulness for the first time in their lives. +So, cut to the modern day. +We're living in a culture of jet lag, global travel, 24-hour business, shift work. +And you know, our modern ways of doing things have their advantages, but I believe we should understand the costs. +Thank you. +For the last 10 years, I've been spending my time trying to figure out how and why human beings assemble themselves into social networks. +And the kind of social network I'm talking about is not the recent online variety, but rather, the kind of social networks that human beings have been assembling for hundreds of thousands of years, ever since we emerged from the African savannah. +So, I form friendships and co-worker and sibling and relative relationships with other people who in turn have similar relationships with other people. +And this spreads on out endlessly into a distance. +And you get a network that looks like this. +Every dot is a person. +Every line between them is a relationship between two people -- different kinds of relationships. +And you can get this kind of vast fabric of humanity, in which we're all embedded. +And my colleague, James Fowler and I have been studying for quite sometime what are the mathematical, social, biological and psychological rules that govern how these networks are assembled and what are the similar rules that govern how they operate, how they affect our lives. +But recently, we've been wondering whether it might be possible to take advantage of this insight, to actually find ways to improve the world, to do something better, to actually fix things, not just understand things. +So one of the first things we thought we would tackle would be how we go about predicting epidemics. +And the current state of the art in predicting an epidemic -- if you're the CDC or some other national body -- is to sit in the middle where you are and collect data from physicians and laboratories in the field that report the prevalence or the incidence of certain conditions. +So, so and so patients have been diagnosed with something, or other patients have been diagnosed, and all these data are fed into a central repository, with some delay. +And if everything goes smoothly, one to two weeks from now you'll know where the epidemic was today. +And actually, about a year or so ago, there was this promulgation of the idea of Google Flu Trends, with respect to the flu, where by looking at people's searching behavior today, we could know where the flu -- what the status of the epidemic was today, what's the prevalence of the epidemic today. +But what I'd like to show you today is a means by which we might get not just rapid warning about an epidemic, but also actually early detection of an epidemic. +And, in fact, this idea can be used not just to predict epidemics of germs, but also to predict epidemics of all sorts of kinds. +A kind of a diffusion of innovation could be understood and predicted by the mechanism I'm going to show you now. +So, as all of you probably know, the classic way of thinking about this is the diffusion-of-innovation, or the adoption curve. +So here on the Y-axis, we have the percent of the people affected, and on the X-axis, we have time. +And at the very beginning, not too many people are affected, and you get this classic sigmoidal, or S-shaped, curve. +And the reason for this shape is that at the very beginning, let's say one or two people are infected, or affected by the thing and then they affect, or infect, two people, who in turn affect four, eight, 16 and so forth, and you get the epidemic growth phase of the curve. +And eventually, you saturate the population. +There are fewer and fewer people who are still available that you might infect, and then you get the plateau of the curve, and you get this classic sigmoidal curve. +And this holds for germs, ideas, product adoption, behaviors, and the like. +But things don't just diffuse in human populations at random. +They actually diffuse through networks. +Because, as I said, we live our lives in networks, and these networks have a particular kind of a structure. +Now if you look at a network like this -- this is 105 people. +And the lines represent -- the dots are the people, and the lines represent friendship relationships. +You might see that people occupy different locations within the network. +And there are different kinds of relationships between the people. +You could have friendship relationships, sibling relationships, spousal relationships, co-worker relationships, neighbor relationships and the like. +And different sorts of things spread across different sorts of ties. +For instance, sexually transmitted diseases will spread across sexual ties. +Or, for instance, people's smoking behavior might be influenced by their friends. +Or their altruistic or their charitable giving behavior might be influenced by their coworkers, or by their neighbors. +But not all positions in the network are the same. +So if you look at this, you might immediately grasp that different people have different numbers of connections. +Some people have one connection, some have two, some have six, some have 10 connections. +And this is called the "degree" of a node, or the number of connections that a node has. +But in addition, there's something else. +So, if you look at nodes A and B, they both have six connections. +But if you can see this image [of the network] from a bird's eye view, you can appreciate that there's something very different about nodes A and B. +So, let me ask you this -- I can cultivate this intuition by asking a question -- who would you rather be if a deadly germ was spreading through the network, A or B? +(Audience: B.) Nicholas Christakis: B, it's obvious. +B is located on the edge of the network. +Now, who would you rather be if a juicy piece of gossip were spreading through the network? +A. And you have an immediate appreciation that A is going to be more likely to get the thing that's spreading and to get it sooner by virtue of their structural location within the network. +A, in fact, is more central, and this can be formalized mathematically. +So if you saw them contract a germ or a piece of information, you would know that, soon enough, everybody was about to contract this germ or this piece of information. +And this would be much better than monitoring six randomly chosen people, without reference to the structure of the population. +And in fact, if you could do that, what you would see is something like this. +On the left-hand panel, again, we have the S-shaped curve of adoption. +In the dotted red line, we show what the adoption would be in the random people, and in the left-hand line, shifted to the left, we show what the adoption would be in the central individuals within the network. +On the Y-axis is the cumulative instances of contagion, and on the X-axis is the time. +And on the right-hand side, we show the same data, but here with daily incidence. +And what we show here is -- like, here -- very few people are affected, more and more and more and up to here, and here's the peak of the epidemic. +But shifted to the left is what's occurring in the central individuals. +And this difference in time between the two is the early detection, the early warning we can get, about an impending epidemic in the human population. +The problem, however, is that mapping human social networks is not always possible. +It can be expensive, not feasible, unethical, or, frankly, just not possible to do such a thing. +So, how can we figure out who the central people are in a network without actually mapping the network? +What we came up with was an idea to exploit an old fact, or a known fact, about social networks, which goes like this: Do you know that your friends have more friends than you do? +Your friends have more friends than you do, and this is known as the friendship paradox. +Imagine a very popular person in the social network -- like a party host who has hundreds of friends -- and a misanthrope who has just one friend, and you pick someone at random from the population; they were much more likely to know the party host. +And if they nominate the party host as their friend, that party host has a hundred friends, therefore, has more friends than they do. +And this, in essence, is what's known as the friendship paradox. +The friends of randomly chosen people have higher degree, and are more central than the random people themselves. +And you can get an intuitive appreciation for this if you imagine just the people at the perimeter of the network. +If you pick this person, the only friend they have to nominate is this person, who, by construction, must have at least two and typically more friends. +And that happens at every peripheral node. +And in fact, it happens throughout the network as you move in, everyone you pick, when they nominate a random -- when a random person nominates a friend of theirs, you move closer to the center of the network. +So, we thought we would exploit this idea in order to study whether we could predict phenomena within networks. +Because now, with this idea we can take a random sample of people, have them nominate their friends, those friends would be more central, and we could do this without having to map the network. +And we tested this idea with an outbreak of H1N1 flu at Harvard College in the fall and winter of 2009, just a few months ago. +We took 1,300 randomly selected undergraduates, we had them nominate their friends, and we followed both the random students and their friends daily in time to see whether or not they had the flu epidemic. +And we did this passively by looking at whether or not they'd gone to university health services. +And also, we had them [actively] email us a couple of times a week. +Exactly what we predicted happened. +So the random group is in the red line. +The epidemic in the friends group has shifted to the left, over here. +And the difference in the two is 16 days. +By monitoring the friends group, we could get 16 days advance warning of an impending epidemic in this human population. +Now, in addition to that, if you were an analyst who was trying to study an epidemic or to predict the adoption of a product, for example, what you could do is you could pick a random sample of the population, also have them nominate their friends and follow the friends and follow both the randoms and the friends. +Among the friends, the first evidence you saw of a blip above zero in adoption of the innovation, for example, would be evidence of an impending epidemic. +Or you could see the first time the two curves diverged, as shown on the left. +When did the randoms -- when did the friends take off and leave the randoms, and [when did] their curve start shifting? +And that, as indicated by the white line, occurred 46 days before the peak of the epidemic. +So this would be a technique whereby we could get more than a month-and-a-half warning about a flu epidemic in a particular population. +I should say that how far advanced a notice one might get about something depends on a host of factors. +It could depend on the nature of the pathogen -- different pathogens, using this technique, you'd get different warning -- or other phenomena that are spreading, or frankly, on the structure of the human network. +Now in our case, although it wasn't necessary, we could also actually map the network of the students. +So, this is a map of 714 students and their friendship ties. +And in a minute now, I'm going to put this map into motion. +We're going to take daily cuts through the network for 120 days. +The red dots are going to be cases of the flu, and the yellow dots are going to be friends of the people with the flu. +And the size of the dots is going to be proportional to how many of their friends have the flu. +So bigger dots mean more of your friends have the flu. +And if you look at this image -- here we are now in September the 13th -- you're going to see a few cases light up. +You're going to see kind of blooming of the flu in the middle. +Here we are on October the 19th. +The slope of the epidemic curve is approaching now, in November. +Bang, bang, bang, bang, bang -- you're going to see lots of blooming in the middle, and then you're going to see a sort of leveling off, fewer and fewer cases towards the end of December. +And this type of a visualization can show that epidemics like this take root and affect central individuals first, before they affect others. +Now, as I've been suggesting, this method is not restricted to germs, but actually to anything that spreads in populations. +Information spreads in populations, norms can spread in populations, behaviors can spread in populations. +And by behaviors, I can mean things like criminal behavior, or voting behavior, or health care behavior, like smoking, or vaccination, or product adoption, or other kinds of behaviors that relate to interpersonal influence. +If I'm likely to do something that affects others around me, this technique can get early warning or early detection about the adoption within the population. +The key thing is that for it to work, there has to be interpersonal influence. +It cannot be because of some broadcast mechanism affecting everyone uniformly. +Now the same insights can also be exploited -- with respect to networks -- can also be exploited in other ways, for example, in the use of targeting specific people for interventions. +So, for example, most of you are probably familiar with the notion of herd immunity. +So, if we have a population of a thousand people, and we want to make the population immune to a pathogen, we don't have to immunize every single person. +If we immunize 960 of them, it's as if we had immunized a hundred [percent] of them. +Because even if one or two of the non-immune people gets infected, there's no one for them to infect. +They are surrounded by immunized people. +So 96 percent is as good as 100 percent. +Well, some other scientists have estimated what would happen if you took a 30 percent random sample of these 1000 people, 300 people and immunized them. +Would you get any population-level immunity? +And the answer is no. +And similar ideas can be used, for instance, to target distribution of things like bed nets in the developing world. +If we could understand the structure of networks in villages, we could target to whom to give the interventions to foster these kinds of spreads. +Or, frankly, for advertising with all kinds of products. +If we could understand how to target, it could affect the efficiency of what we're trying to achieve. +And in fact, we can use data from all kinds of sources nowadays [to do this]. +This is a map of eight million phone users in a European country. +Every dot is a person, and every line represents a volume of calls between the people. +And we can use such data, that's being passively obtained, to map these whole countries and understand who is located where within the network. +Without actually having to query them at all, we can get this kind of a structural insight. +And other sources of information, as you're no doubt aware are available about such features, from email interactions, online interactions, online social networks and so forth. +And in fact, we are in the era of what I would call "massive-passive" data collection efforts. +They're all kinds of ways we can use massively collected data to create sensor networks to follow the population, understand what's happening in the population, and intervene in the population for the better. +Because these new technologies tell us not just who is talking to whom, but where everyone is, and what they're thinking based on what they're uploading on the Internet, and what they're buying based on their purchases. +And all this administrative data can be pulled together and processed to understand human behavior in a way we never could before. +So, for example, we could use truckers' purchases of fuel. +So the truckers are just going about their business, and they're buying fuel. +And we see a blip up in the truckers' purchases of fuel, and we know that a recession is about to end. +Or we can monitor the velocity with which people are moving with their phones on a highway, and the phone company can see, as the velocity is slowing down, that there's a traffic jam. +And they can feed that information back to their subscribers, but only to their subscribers on the same highway located behind the traffic jam! +Or we can monitor doctors prescribing behaviors, passively, and see how the diffusion of innovation with pharmaceuticals occurs within [networks of] doctors. +Or again, we can monitor purchasing behavior in people and watch how these types of phenomena can diffuse within human populations. +And there are three ways, I think, that these massive-passive data can be used. +One is fully passive, like I just described -- as in, for instance, the trucker example, where we don't actually intervene in the population in any way. +One is quasi-active, like the flu example I gave, where we get some people to nominate their friends and then passively monitor their friends -- do they have the flu, or not? -- and then get warning. +Or another example would be, if you're a phone company, you figure out who's central in the network and you ask those people, "Look, will you just text us your fever every day? +Just text us your temperature." +And collect vast amounts of information about people's temperature, but from centrally located individuals. +And be able, on a large scale, to monitor an impending epidemic with very minimal input from people. +Or, finally, it can be more fully active -- as I know subsequent speakers will also talk about today -- where people might globally participate in wikis, or photographing, or monitoring elections, and upload information in a way that allows us to pool information in order to understand social processes and social phenomena. +In fact, the availability of these data, I think, heralds a kind of new era of what I and others would like to call "computational social science." +It's sort of like when Galileo invented -- or, didn't invent -- came to use a telescope and could see the heavens in a new way, or Leeuwenhoek became aware of the microscope -- or actually invented -- and could see biology in a new way. +But now we have access to these kinds of data that allow us to understand social processes and social phenomena in an entirely new way that was never before possible. +And with this science, we can understand how exactly the whole comes to be greater than the sum of its parts. +And actually, we can use these insights to improve society and improve human well-being. +Thank you. +Now, since this is TEDGlobal, who can tell me what this is called in French? +I see you're all up on the history of hurdy-gurdy -- "vielle roue." +And in Spanish, "zanfona." +And in Italian, "ghironda," okay? +Hurdy-gurdy, or wheel fiddle. +So, these are the different kinds and shapes of the hurdy-gurdy. +The hurdy-gurdy is the only musical instrument that uses a crank to turn a wheel to rub strings, like the bow of a violin, to produce music. +It has three different kinds of strings. +The first string is the drone string, which plays a continuous sound like the bagpipe. +The second string is a melody string, which is played with a wooden keyboard tuned like a piano. +And the third string is pretty innovative. +It's also the only instrument that uses this kind of technique. +It activates what's called the buzzing bridge, or the dog. +When I turn the crank and I apply pressure, it makes a sound like a barking dog. +So all of this is pretty innovative, if you consider that the hurdy-gurdy appeared about a thousand years ago and it took two people to play it; one to turn the crank, and another person -- yes -- to play the melody by physically pulling up large wooden pegs. +Luckily, all of this changed a couple of centuries later. +So, one person could actually play and almost -- this is pretty heavy -- carry the hurdy-gurdy. +The hurdy-gurdy has been used, historically, through the centuries in mostly dance music because of the uniqueness of the melody combined with the acoustic boombox here. +And today, the hurdy-gurdy is used in all sorts of music -- traditional folk music, dance, contemporary and world music -- in the U.K., in France, in Spain and in Italy. +And this kind of hurdy-gurdy takes anywhere from three to five years [to order and receive it]. +It's made by specialized luthiers, also in Europe. +And it's very difficult to tune. +So without further ado, would you like to hear it? +(Audience: Yes.) Caroline Phillips: I didn't hear you. Would you like to hear it? (Audience: Yes!) CP: Okay. +There I go. +I'd like to sing in Basque, which is the language spoken in the Basque Country where I live, in the region in France and Spain. +[Basque] Thank you. +This is a song that I wrote based on traditional Basque rhythms. +And this is a song that has a kind of a Celtic feel. +Thank you. Thank you. +Hello. I would like to start my talk with actually two questions, and the first one is: How many people here actually eat pig meat? +Please raise your hand -- oh, that's a lot. +And how many people have actually seen a live pig producing this meat? +In the last year? +In the Netherlands -- where I come from -- you actually never see a pig, which is really strange, because, on a population of 16 million people, we have 12 million pigs. +And well, of course, the Dutch can't eat all these pigs. +They eat about one-third, and the rest is exported to all kinds of countries in Europe and the rest of the world. +A lot goes to the U.K., Germany. +And what I was curious about -- because historically, the whole pig would be used up until the last bit so nothing would be wasted -- and I was curious to find out if this was actually still the case. +And I spent about three years researching. +And I followed this one pig with number "05049," all the way up until the end and to what products it's made of. +And in these years, I met all kinds people like, for instance, farmers and butchers, which seems logical. +But I also met aluminum mold makers, ammunition producers and all kinds of people. +And what was striking to me is that the farmers actually had no clue what was made of their pigs, but the consumers -- as in us -- had also no idea of the pigs being in all these products. +So what I did is, I took all this research and I made it into a -- well, basically it's a product catalog of this one pig, and it carries a duplicate of his ear tag on the back. +And it consists of seven chapters -- the chapters are skin, bones, meat, internal organs, blood, fat and miscellaneous. +In total, they weigh 103.7 kilograms. +And to show you how often you actually meet part of this pig in a regular day, I want to show you some images of the book. +You probably start the day with a shower. +So, in soap, fatty acids made from boiling pork bone fat are used as a hardening agent, but also for giving it a pearl-like effect. +Then if you look around you in the bathroom, you see lots more products like shampoo, conditioner, anti-wrinkle cream, body lotion, but also toothpaste. +Then, so, before breakfast, you've already met the pig so many times. +Then, at breakfast, the pig that I followed, the hairs off the pig or proteins from the hairs off the pig were used as an improver of dough. +Well, that's what the producer says: it's "improving the dough, of course." +In low-fat butter, or actually in many low-fat products, when you take the fat out, you actually take the taste and the texture out. +So what they do is they put gelatin back in, in order to retain the texture. +Well, when you're off to work, under the road or under the buildings that you see, there might very well be cellular concrete, which is a very light kind of concrete that's actually got proteins from bones inside and it's also fully reusable. +In the train brakes -- at least in the German train brakes -- there's this part of the brake that's made of bone ash. +And in cheesecake and all kinds of desserts, like chocolate mousse, tiramisu, vanilla pudding, everything that's cooled in the supermarket, there's gelatin to make it look good. +Fine bone china -- this is a real classic. +Of course, the bone in fine-bone china gives it its translucency and also its strength, in order to make these really fine shapes, like this deer. +In interior decorating, the pig's actually quite there. +It's used in paint for the texture, but also for the glossiness. +In sandpaper, bone glue is actually the glue between the sand and the paper. +And then in paintbrushes, hairs are used because, apparently, they're very suitable for making paintbrushes because of their hard-wearing nature. +I was not planning on showing you any meat because, of course, half the book's meat and you probably all know what meats they are. +But I didn't want you to miss out on this one, because this, well, it's called "portion-controlled meat cuts." +And this is actually sold in the frozen area of the supermarket. +And what it is -- it's actually steak. +And this also actually happens with tuna and scallops. +So, with the steak, you might drink a beer. +In the brewing process, there's lots of cloudy elements in the beer, so to get rid of these cloudy elements, what some companies do is they pour the beer through a sort of gelatin sieve in order to get rid of that cloudiness. +This actually also goes for wine as well as fruit juice. +There's actually a company in Greece that produces these cigarettes that actually contain hemoglobin from pigs in the filter. +And according to them, this creates an artificial lung in the filter. +So, this is actually a healthier cigarette. +Injectable collagen -- or, since the '70s, collagen from pigs -- has been used for injecting into wrinkles. +And the reason for this is that pigs are actually quite close to human beings, so the collagen is as well. +Well, this must be the strangest thing I found. +This is a bullet coming from a very large ammunition company in the United States. +And while I was making the book, I contacted all the producers of products because I wanted them to send me the real samples and the real specimens. +So I sent this company an email saying, "Hello. I'm Christien. I'm doing this research. +And can you send me a bullet?" +And well, I didn't expect them to even answer my email. +But they answered and they said, "Why, thank you for your email. What an interesting story. +Are you in anyway related to the Dutch government?" +I thought that was really weird, as if the Dutch government sends emails to anyone. +So, the most beautiful thing I found -- at least what I think is the most beautiful -- in the book, is this heart valve. +It's actually a very low-tech and very high-tech product at the same time. +The low-tech bit is that it's literally a pig's heart valve mounted in the high-tech bit, which is a memory metal casing. +And what happens is this can be implanted into a human heart without open heart surgery. +And once it's in the right spot, they remove the outer shell, and the heart valve, well, it gets this shape and at that moment it starts beating, instantly. +It's really a sort of magical moment. +So this is actually a Dutch company, so I called them up, and I asked, "Can I borrow a heart valve from you?" +And the makers of this thing were really enthusiastic. +So they were like, "Okay, we'll put it in a jar for you with formalin, and you can borrow it." +Great -- and then I didn't hear from them for weeks, so I called, and I asked, "What's going on with the heart valve?" +And they said, "Well the director of the company decided not to let you borrow this heart valve, because want his product to be associated with pigs." +Well, the last product from the book that I'm showing you is renewable energy -- actually, to show that my first question, if pigs are still used up until the last bit, was still true. +Well it is, because everything that can't be used for anything else is made into a fuel that can be used as renewable energy source. +In total, I found 185 products. +And what they showed me is that, well, firstly, it's at least to say odd that we don't treat these pigs as absolute kings and queens. +And the second, is that we actually don't have a clue of what all these products that surround us are made of. +And you might think I'm very fond of pigs, but actually -- well, I am a little bit -- but I'm more fond of raw materials in general. +And I think that, in order to take better care of what's behind our products -- so, the livestock, the crops, the plants, the non-renewable materials, but also the people that produce these products -- the first step would actually be to know that they are there. +Thank you very much. +Just a few minutes ago, I took this picture about 10 blocks from here. +This is the Grand Cafe here in Oxford. +I took this picture because this turns out to be the first coffeehouse to open in England in 1650. +And the coffeehouse played such a big role in the birth of the Enlightenment, in part, because of what people were drinking there. +Because, before the spread of coffee and tea through British culture, what people drank -- both elite and mass folks drank -- day-in and day-out, from dawn until dusk was alcohol. +Alcohol was the daytime beverage of choice. +You would drink a little beer with breakfast and have a little wine at lunch, a little gin -- particularly around 1650 -- and top it off with a little beer and wine at the end of the day. +That was the healthy choice -- right -- because the water wasn't safe to drink. +And so, effectively until the rise of the coffeehouse, you had an entire population that was effectively drunk all day. +And you can imagine what that would be like, right, in your own life -- and I know this is true of some of you -- if you were drinking all day, and then you switched from a depressant to a stimulant in your life, you would have better ideas. +You would be sharper and more alert. +And so it's not an accident that a great flowering of innovation happened as England switched to tea and coffee. +But the other thing that makes the coffeehouse important is the architecture of the space. +It was a space where people would get together from different backgrounds, different fields of expertise, and share. +It was a space, as Matt Ridley talked about, where ideas could have sex. +This was their conjugal bed, in a sense -- ideas would get together there. +And an astonishing number of innovations from this period have a coffeehouse somewhere in their story. +I've been spending a lot of time thinking about coffeehouses for the last five years, because I've been kind of on this quest to investigate this question of where good ideas come from. +What are the environments that lead to unusual levels of innovation, unusual levels of creativity? +What's the kind of environmental -- what is the space of creativity? +Are there recurring patterns that we can learn from, that we can take and kind of apply to our own lives, or our own organizations, or our own environments to make them more creative and innovative? +And I think I've found a few. +But what you have to do to make sense of this and to really understand these principles is you have to do away with a lot of the way in which our conventional metaphors and language steers us towards certain concepts of idea-creation. +We have this very rich vocabulary to describe moments of inspiration. +We have the kind of the flash of insight, the stroke of insight, we have epiphanies, we have "eureka!" moments, we have the lightbulb moments, right? +All of these concepts, as kind of rhetorically florid as they are, share this basic assumption, which is that an idea is a single thing, it's something that happens often in a wonderful illuminating moment. +But in fact, what I would argue and what you really need to kind of begin with is this idea that an idea is a network on the most elemental level. +I mean, this is what is happening inside your brain. +An idea -- a new idea -- is a new network of neurons firing in sync with each other inside your brain. +It's a new configuration that has never formed before. +And the question is: how do you get your brain into environments where these new networks are going to be more likely to form? +And it turns out that, in fact, the kind of network patterns of the outside world mimic a lot of the network patterns of the internal world of the human brain. +So the metaphor I'd like the use I can take from a story of a great idea that's quite recent -- a lot more recent than the 1650s. +A wonderful guy named Timothy Prestero, who has a company called ... an organization called Design That Matters. +They decided to tackle this really pressing problem of, you know, the terrible problems we have with infant mortality rates in the developing world. +One of the things that's very frustrating about this is that we know, by getting modern neonatal incubators into any context, if we can keep premature babies warm, basically -- it's very simple -- we can halve infant mortality rates in those environments. +So, the technology is there. +These are standard in all the industrialized worlds. +And so you end up having this problem where you spend all this money getting aid and all these advanced electronics to these countries, and then it ends up being useless. +So what Prestero and his team decided to do is to look around and see: what are the abundant resources in these developing world contexts? +And what they noticed was they don't have a lot of DVRs, they don't have a lot of microwaves, but they seem to do a pretty good job of keeping their cars on the road. +There's a Toyota Forerunner on the street in all these places. +They seem to have the expertise to keep cars working. +So they started to think, "Could we build a neonatal incubator that's built entirely out of automobile parts?" +And this is what they ended up coming with. +It's called a "neonurture device." +From the outside, it looks like a normal little thing you'd find in a modern, Western hospital. +In the inside, it's all car parts. +It's got a fan, it's got headlights for warmth, it's got door chimes for alarm -- it runs off a car battery. +And so all you need is the spare parts from your Toyota and the ability to fix a headlight, and you can repair this thing. +Now, that's a great idea, but what I'd like to say is that, in fact, this is a great metaphor for the way that ideas happen. +We like to think our breakthrough ideas, you know, are like that $40,000, brand new incubator, state-of-the-art technology, but more often than not, they're cobbled together from whatever parts that happen to be around nearby. +We take ideas from other people, from people we've learned from, from people we run into in the coffee shop, and we stitch them together into new forms and we create something new. +That's really where innovation happens. +And that means that we have to change some of our models of what innovation and deep thinking really looks like, right. +I mean, this is one vision of it. +Another is Newton and the apple, when Newton was at Cambridge. +This is a statue from Oxford. +You know, you're sitting there thinking a deep thought, and the apple falls from the tree, and you have the theory of gravity. +In fact, the spaces that have historically led to innovation tend to look like this, right. +This is Hogarth's famous painting of a kind of political dinner at a tavern, but this is what the coffee shops looked like back then. +This is the kind of chaotic environment where ideas were likely to come together, where people were likely to have new, interesting, unpredictable collisions -- people from different backgrounds. +So, if we're trying to build organizations that are more innovative, we have to build spaces that -- strangely enough -- look a little bit more like this. +This is what your office should look like, is part of my message here. +And one of the problems with this is that people are actually -- when you research this field -- people are notoriously unreliable, when they actually kind of self-report on where they have their own good ideas, or their history of their best ideas. +And a few years ago, a wonderful researcher named Kevin Dunbar decided to go around and basically do the Big Brother approach to figuring out where good ideas come from. +He went to a bunch of science labs around the world and videotaped everyone as they were doing every little bit of their job. +So when they were sitting in front of the microscope, when they were talking to their colleague at the water cooler, and all these things. +And he recorded all of these conversations and tried to figure out where the most important ideas, where they happened. +And when we think about the classic image of the scientist in the lab, we have this image -- you know, they're pouring over the microscope, and they see something in the tissue sample. +And "oh, eureka," they've got the idea. +What happened actually when Dunbar kind of looked at the tape is that, in fact, almost all of the important breakthrough ideas did not happen alone in the lab, in front of the microscope. +They happened at the conference table at the weekly lab meeting, when everybody got together and shared their kind of latest data and findings, oftentimes when people shared the mistakes they were having, the error, the noise in the signal they were discovering. +And something about that environment -- and I've started calling it the "liquid network," where you have lots of different ideas that are together, different backgrounds, different interests, jostling with each other, bouncing off each other -- that environment is, in fact, the environment that leads to innovation. +The other problem that people have is they like to condense their stories of innovation down to kind of shorter time frames. +So they want to tell the story of the "eureka!" moment. +They want to say, "There I was, I was standing there and I had it all suddenly clear in my head." +But in fact, if you go back and look at the historical record, it turns out that a lot of important ideas have very long incubation periods -- I call this the "slow hunch." +We've heard a lot recently about hunch and instinct and blink-like sudden moments of clarity, but in fact, a lot of great ideas linger on, sometimes for decades, in the back of people's minds. +They have a feeling that there's an interesting problem, but they don't quite have the tools yet to discover them. +They spend all this time working on certain problems, but there's another thing lingering there that they're interested in, but they can't quite solve. +Darwin is a great example of this. +Darwin himself, in his autobiography, tells the story of coming up with the idea for natural selection as a classic "eureka!" moment. +He's in his study, it's October of 1838, and he's reading Malthus, actually, on population. +And all of a sudden, the basic algorithm of natural selection kind of pops into his head and he says, "Ah, at last, I had a theory with which to work." +That's in his autobiography. +About a decade or two ago, a wonderful scholar named Howard Gruber went back and looked at Darwin's notebooks from this period. +And Darwin kept these copious notebooks where he wrote down every little idea he had, every little hunch. +And what Gruber found was that Darwin had the full theory of natural selection for months and months and months before he had his alleged epiphany, reading Malthus in October of 1838. +There are passages where you can read it, and you think you're reading from a Darwin textbook, from the period before he has this epiphany. +And so what you realize is that Darwin, in a sense, had the idea, he had the concept, but was unable of fully thinking it yet. +And that is actually how great ideas often happen; they fade into view over long periods of time. +Now the challenge for all of us is: how do you create environments that allow these ideas to have this kind of long half-life, right? +It's hard to go to your boss and say, "I have an excellent idea for our organization. +It will be useful in 2020. +Could you just give me some time to do that?" +Now a couple of companies -- like Google -- they have innovation time off, 20 percent time, where, in a sense, those are hunch-cultivating mechanisms in an organization. +But that's a key thing. +And the other thing is to allow those hunches to connect with other people's hunches; that's what often happens. +You have half of an idea, somebody else has the other half, and if you're in the right environment, they turn into something larger than the sum of their parts. +So, in a sense, we often talk about the value of protecting intellectual property, you know, building barricades, having secretive R&D labs, patenting everything that we have, so that those ideas will remain valuable, and people will be incentivized to come up with more ideas, and the culture will be more innovative. +But I think there's a case to be made that we should spend at least as much time, if not more, valuing the premise of connecting ideas and not just protecting them. +And I'll leave you with this story, which I think captures a lot of these values, and it's just wonderful kind of tale of innovation and how it happens in unlikely ways. +It's October of 1957, and Sputnik has just launched, and we're in Laurel Maryland, at the applied physics lab associated with Johns Hopkins University. +And it's Monday morning, and the news has just broken about this satellite that's now orbiting the planet. +And of course, this is nerd heaven, right? +There are all these physics geeks who are there thinking, "Oh my gosh! This is incredible. I can't believe this has happened." +And two of them, two 20-something researchers at the APL are there at the cafeteria table having an informal conversation with a bunch of their colleagues. +And these two guys are named Guier and Weiffenbach. +And they start talking, and one of them says, "Hey, has anybody tried to listen for this thing? +There's this, you know, man-made satellite up there in outer space that's obviously broadcasting some kind of signal. +We could probably hear it, if we tune in." +And so they ask around to a couple of their colleagues, and everybody's like, "No, I hadn't thought of doing that. +That's an interesting idea." +And it turns out Weiffenbach is kind of an expert in microwave reception, and he's got a little antennae set up with an amplifier in his office. +And so Guier and Weiffenbach go back to Weiffenbach's office, and they start kind of noodling around -- hacking, as we might call it now. +And after a couple of hours, they actually start picking up the signal, because the Soviets made Sputnik very easy to track. +It was right at 20 MHz, so you could pick it up really easily, because they were afraid that people would think it was a hoax, basically. +So they made it really easy to find it. +So these two guys are sitting there listening to this signal, and people start kind of coming into the office and saying, "Wow, that's pretty cool. Can I hear? Wow, that's great." +And before long, they think, "Well jeez, this is kind of historic. +We may be the first people in the United States to be listening to this. +We should record it." +And so they bring in this big, clunky analog tape recorder and they start recording these little bleep, bleeps. +And they start writing the kind of date stamp, time stamps for each little bleep that they record. +And they they start thinking, "Well gosh, you know, we're noticing small little frequency variations here. +We could probably calculate the speed that the satellite is traveling, if we do a little basic math here using the Doppler effect." +And then they played around with it a little bit more, and they talked to a couple of their colleagues who had other kind of specialties. +And they said, "Jeez, you know, we think we could actually take a look at the slope of the Doppler effect to figure out the points at which the satellite is closest to our antennae and the points at which it's farthest away. +That's pretty cool." +And eventually, they get permission -- this is all a little side project that hadn't been officially part of their job description. +They get permission to use the new, you know, UNIVAC computer that takes up an entire room that they'd just gotten at the APL. +They run some more of the numbers, and at the end of about three or four weeks, turns out they have mapped the exact trajectory of this satellite around the Earth, just from listening to this one little signal, going off on this little side hunch that they'd been inspired to do over lunch one morning. +A couple weeks later their boss, Frank McClure, pulls them into the room and says, "Hey, you guys, I have to ask you something about that project you were working on. +You've figured out an unknown location of a satellite orbiting the planet from a known location on the ground. +Could you go the other way? +Could you figure out an unknown location on the ground, if you knew the location of the satellite?" +And they thought about it and they said, "Well, I guess maybe you could. Let's run the numbers here." +So they went back, and they thought about it. +And they came back and said, "Actually, it'll be easier." +And he said, "Oh, that's great. +Because see, I have these new nuclear submarines that I'm building. +And it's really hard to figure out how to get your missile so that it will land right on top of Moscow, if you don't know where the submarine is in the middle of the Pacific Ocean. +So we're thinking, we could throw up a bunch of satellites and use it to track our submarines and figure out their location in the middle of the ocean. +Could you work on that problem?" +And that's how GPS was born. +30 years later, Ronald Reagan actually opened it up and made it an open platform that anybody could kind of build upon and anybody could come along and build new technology that would create and innovate on top of this open platform, left it open for anyone to do pretty much anything they wanted with it. +And now, I guarantee you certainly half of this room, if not more, has a device sitting in their pocket right now that is talking to one of these satellites in outer space. +And I bet you one of you, if not more, has used said device and said satellite system to locate a nearby coffeehouse somewhere in the last -- in the last day or last week, right? +And that, I think, is a great case study, a great lesson in the power, the marvelous, kind of unplanned emergent, unpredictable power of open innovative systems. +When you build them right, they will be led to completely new directions that the creators never even dreamed of. +I mean, here you have these guys who basically thought they were just following this hunch, this little passion that had developed, then they thought they were fighting the Cold War, and then it turns out they're just helping somebody find a soy latte. +That is how innovation happens. +Chance favors the connected mind. +Thank you very much. +I want you to take a trip with me. +Picture yourself driving down a small road in Africa, and as you drive along, you look off to the side, and this is what you see: you see a field of graves. +And you stop, and you get out of your car and you take a picture. +And you go into the town, and you inquire, "What's going on here?" +and people are initially reluctant to tell you. +And then someone says, "These are the recent AIDS deaths in our community." +HIV isn't like other medical conditions; it's stigmatizing. +People are reluctant to talk about it -- there's a fear associated with it. +And I'm going to talk about HIV today, about the deaths, about the stigma. +It's a medical story, but more than that, it's a social story. +This map depicts the global distribution of HIV. +And as you can see, Africa has a disproportionate share of the infection. +There are 33 million people living with HIV in the world today. +Of these, two-thirds, 22 million are living in sub-Saharan Africa. +There are 1.4 million pregnant women in low- and middle-income countries living with HIV and of these, 90 percent are in sub-Saharan Africa. +We talk about things in relative terms. +And I'm going to talk about annual pregnancies and HIV-positive mothers. +The United States -- a large country -- each year, 7,000 mothers with HIV who give birth to a child. +But you go to Rwanda -- a very small country -- 8,000 mothers with HIV who are pregnant. +And then you go to Baragwanath Hospital, outside of Johannesburg in South Africa, and 8,000 HIV-positive pregnant women giving birth -- a hospital the same as a country. +And to realize that this is just the tip of an iceberg that when you compare everything here to South Africa, it just pales, because in South Africa, each year 300,000 mothers with HIV give birth to children. +So we talk about PMTCT, and we refer to PMTCT, prevention of mother to child transmission. +I think there's an assumption amongst most people in the public that if a mother is HIV-positive, she's going to infect her child. +The reality is really, very different. +In resource-rich countries, with all the tests and treatment we currently have, less than two percent of babies are born HIV-positive -- 98 percent of babies are born HIV-negative. +And yet, the reality in resource-poor countries, in the absence of tests and treatment, 40 percent -- 40 percent of children are infected -- 40 percent versus two percent -- an enormous difference. +So these programs -- and I'm going to refer to PMTCT though my talk -- these prevention programs, simply, they're the tests and the drugs that we give to mothers to prevent them from infecting their babies, and also the medicines we give to mothers to keep them healthy and alive to raise their children. +So it's the test a mother gets when she comes in. +It's the drugs she receives to protect the baby that's inside the uterus and during delivery. +It's the guidance she gets around infant feeding and safer sex. +It's an entire package of services, and it works. +So in the United States, since the advent of treatment in the middle of the 1990s, there's been an 80-percent decline in the number of HIV-infected children. +Less than 100 babies are born with HIV each year in the United States and yet, still, over 400,000 children are born every year in the world today with HIV. +What does that mean? +It means 1,100 children infected each day -- 1,100 children each day, infected with HIV. +And where do they come from? +Well, less than one comes from the United States. +One, on average, comes from Europe. +100 come from Asia and the Pacific. +And each day, a thousand babies -- a thousand babies are born each day with HIV in Africa. +So again, I look at the globe here and the disproportionate share of HIV in Africa. +And let's look at another map. +And here, again, we see Africa has a disproportionate share of the numbers of doctors. +That thin sliver you see here, that's Africa. +And it's the same with nurses. +The truth is sub-Saharan Africa has 24 percent of the global disease burden and yet only three percent of the world's health care workers. +That means doctors and nurses simply don't have the time to take care of patients. +A nurse in a busy clinic will see 50 to 100 patients in a day, which leaves her just minutes per patient -- minutes per patient. +And so when we look at these PMTCT programs, what does it mean? +Well, fortunately since 2001, we've got new treatments, new tests, and we're far more successful, but we don't have any more nurses. +And so these are the tests a nurse now has to do in those same few minutes. +It's not possible -- it doesn't work. +And so we need to find better ways of providing care. +This is a picture of a maternal health clinic in Africa -- mothers coming, pregnant and with their babies. +These women are here for care, but we know that just doing a test, just giving someone a drug, it's not enough. +Meds don't equal medical care. +Doctors and nurses, frankly, don't have the time or skills to tell people what to do in ways they understand. +I'm a doctor -- I tell people things to do, and I expect them to follow my guidance -- because I'm a doctor; I went to Harvard -- but the reality is, if I tell a patient, "You should have safer sex. +You should always use a condom," and yet, in her relationship, she's not empowered -- what's going to happen? +If I tell her to take her medicines every day and yet, no one in the household knows about her illness, so it's just not going to work. +And so we need to do more, we need to do it differently, we need to do it in ways that are affordable and accessible and can be taken to scale, which means it can be done everywhere. +So, I want to tell you a story -- I want to take you on a little trip. +Imagine yourself, if you can, you're a young woman in Africa, you're going to the hospital or clinic. +You go in for a test and you find out that you're pregnant, and you're delighted. +And then they give you another test and they tell you you're HIV-positive, and you're devastated. +And the nurse takes you into a room, and she tells you about the tests and HIV and the medicines you can take and how to take care of yourself and your baby, and you hear none of it. +All you're hearing is, "I'm going to die, and my baby is going to die." +And then you're out on the street, and you don't know where to go. +And you don't know who you can talk to, because the truth is, HIV is so stigmatizing that if you partner, your family, anyone in your home, you're likely to be thrown out without any means of support. +And this -- this is the face and story of HIV in Africa today. +But we're here to talk about possible solutions and some good news. +And I want to change the story a little bit. +Take the same mother, and the nurse, after she gives her her test, takes her to a room. +The door opens and there's a room full of mothers, mothers with babies, and they're sitting, and they're talking, they're listening. +They're drinking tea, they're having sandwiches. +And she goes inside, and woman comes up to her and says, "Welcome to mothers2mothers. +Have a seat. You're safe here. +We're all HIV-positive. +You're going to be okay. You're going to live. +Your baby is going to be HIV-negative." +We view mothers as a community's single greatest resource. +Mothers take care of the children, take care of the home. +So often the men are gone. +They're working, or they're not part of the household. +Our organization, mothers2mothers, enlists women with HIV as care providers. +We bring mothers who have HIV, who've been through these PMTCT programs in the very facilities, to come back and work side by side with doctors and nurses as part of the health care team. +These mothers, we call them mentor mothers, are able to engage women who, just like themselves, pregnant with babies, have found out about being HIV-positive, who need support and education. +And they support them around the diagnosis and educate them about how to take their medicines, how to take care of themselves, how to take care of their babies. +Consider: if you needed surgery, you would want the best possible technical surgeon, right? +But if you wanted to understand what that surgery would do to your life, you'd like to engage someone, someone who's had the procedure. +Patients are experts on their own experience, and they can share that experience with others. +This is the medical care that goes beyond just medicines. +So the mothers who work for us, they come from the communities in which they work. +They're hired -- they're paid as professional members of the health care teams, just like doctors and nurses. +And we open bank accounts for them and they're paid directly into the accounts, because their money's protected; the men can't take it away from them. +They go through two to three weeks of rigorous curriculum-based education, training. +Now, doctors and nurses -- they too get trained. +But so often, they only get trained once, so they're not aware of new medicines, new guidelines as they come out. +Our mentor mothers get trained every single year and retrained. +And so doctors and nurses -- they look up to them as experts. +Imagine that: a woman, a former patient, being able to educate her doctor for the first time and educate the other patients that she's taking care of. +Our organization has three goals. +The first, to prevent mother-to-child transmission. +The second: keep mothers healthy, keep mothers alive, keep the children alive -- no more orphans. +And the third, and maybe the most grand, is to find ways to empower women, enable them to fight the stigma and to live positive and productive lives with HIV. +So how do we do it? +Well, maybe the most important engagement is the one-to-one, seeing patients one-to-one, educating them, supporting them, explaining how they can take care of themselves. +We go beyond that; we try to bring in the husbands, the partners. +In Africa, it's very, very hard to engage men. +Men are not frequently part of pregnancy care. +But in Rwanda, in one country, they've got a policy that a woman can't come for care unless she brings the father of the baby with her -- that's the rule. +And so the father and the mother, together, go through the counseling and the testing. +The father and the mother, together, they get the results. +And this is so important in breaking through the stigma. +Disclosure is so central to prevention. +How do you have safer sex, how do you use a condom regularly if there hasn't been disclosure? +Disclosure is so important to treatment, because again, people need the support of family members and friends to take their medicines regularly. +We also work in groups. +Now the groups, it's not like me lecturing, but what happens is women, they come together -- under the support and guidance of our mentor mothers -- they come together, and they share their personal experiences. +And it's through the sharing that people get tactics of how to take care of themselves, how to disclose how to take medicines. +And then there's the community outreach, engaging women in their communities. +If we can change the way households believe and think, we can change the way communities believe and think. +And if we can change enough communities, we can change national attitudes. +We can change national attitudes to women and national attitudes to HIV. +The hardest barrier really is around stigma reduction. +We have the medicines, we have the tests, but how do you reduce the stigma? +And it's important about disclosure. +So, a couple years ago, one of the mentor mothers came back, and she told me a story. +She had been asked by one of the clients to go to the home of the client, because the client wanted to tell the mother and her brothers and sisters about her HIV status, and she was afraid to go by herself. +And so the mentor mother went along with. +And the patient walked into the house and said to her mother and siblings, "I have something to tell you. I'm HIV-positive." +And everybody was quiet. +And then her oldest brother stood up and said, "I too have something to tell you. +I'm HIV-positive. +I've been afraid to tell everybody." +And then this older sister stood up and said, "I too am living with the virus, and I've been ashamed." +And then her younger brother stood up and said, "I'm also positive. +I thought you were going to throw me out of the family." +And you see where this is going. +The last sister stood up and said, "I'm also positive. +I thought you were going to hate me." +And there they were, all of them together for the first time being able to share this experience for the first time and to support each other for the first time. +Female Narrator: Women come to us, and they are crying and scared. +I tell them my story, that I am HIV-positive, but my child is HIV-negative. +I tell them, "You are going to make it, and you will raise a healthy baby." +I am proof that there is hope. +Mitchell Besser: Remember the images I showed you of how few doctors and nurses there are in Africa. +And it is a crisis in health care systems. +Even as we have more tests and more drugs, we can't reach people; we don't have enough providers. +So we talk in terms of what we call task-shifting. +Task-shifting is traditionally when you take health care services from one provider and have another provider do it. +Typically, it's a doctor giving a job to a nurse. +And the issue in Africa is that there are fewer nurses, really than doctors, and so we need to find new paradigm for health care. +How do you build a better health care system? +We've chosen to redefine the health care system as a doctor, a nurse and a mentor mother. +And so what nurses do is that they ask the mentor mothers to explain how to take the drugs, the side effects. +They delegate education about infant feeding, family planning, safer sex, actions that nurses simple just don't have time for. +So we go back to the prevention of mother to child transmission. +The world is increasingly seeing these programs as the bridge to comprehensive maternal and child health. +And our organization helps women across that bridge. +The care doesn't stop when the baby's born -- we deal with the ongoing health of the mother and baby, ensuring that they live healthy, successful lives. +Our organization works on three levels. +The first, at the patient level -- mothers and babies keeping babies from getting HIV, keeping mothers healthy to raise them. +The second, communities -- empowering women. +They become leaders within their communities. +They change the way communities think -- we need to change attitudes to HIV. +We need to change attitudes to women in Africa. +We have to do that. +And then rework the level of the health care systems, building stronger health care systems. +Our health care systems are broken. +They're not going to work the way they're currently designed. +And so doctors and nurses who need to try to change people's behaviors don't have the skills, don't have the time -- our mentor mothers do. +And so in redefining the health care teams by bringing the mentor mothers in, we can do that. +I started the program in Capetown, South Africa back in 2001. +It was at that point, just the spark of an idea. +Referencing Steven Johnson's very lovely speech yesterday on where ideas come from, I was in the shower at the time -- I was alone. +The program is now working in nine countries, we have 670 program sites, we're seeing about 230,000 women every month, we're employing 1,600 mentor mothers, and last year, they enrolled 300,000 HIV-positive pregnant women and mothers. +That is 20 percent of the global HIV-positive pregnant women -- 20 percent of the world. +What's extraordinary is how simple the premise is. +Mothers with HIV caring for mothers with HIV. +Past patients taking care of present patients. +And empowerment through employment -- reducing stigma. +Female Narrator: There is hope, hope that one day we shall win this fight against HIV and AIDS. +Each person must know their HIV status. +Those who are HIV-negative must know how to stay negative. +Those who are HIV-infected must know how to take care of themselves. +HIV-positive pregnant women must get PMTCT services in order to have HIV-negative babies. +All of this is possible, if we each contribute to this fight. +MB: Simple solutions to complex problems. +Mothers caring for mothers. +It's transformational. +Thank you. +I'm going to share with you the story as to how I have become an HIV/AIDS campaigner. +And this is the name of my campaign: SING Campaign. +In November of 2003, I was invited to take part in the launch of Nelson Mandela's 46664 Foundation -- that is his HIV/AIDS foundation. +And 46664 is the number that Mandela had when he was imprisoned in Robben Island. +And that's me with Youssou N'Dour, onstage, having the time of my life. +The next day, all the artists were invited to join Mandela in Robben Island, where he was going to give a conference to the world's press, standing in front of his former prison cell. +You can see the bars of the window there. +It was quite a momentous occasion for all of us. +In that moment in time, Mandela told the world's press that there was a virtual genocide taking place in his country; that post-apartheid Rainbow Nation, a thousand people were dying on a daily basis and that the front line victims, the most vulnerable of all, were women and children. +This was a huge impact on my mind, because I am a woman and I am a mother, and I hadn't realized that the HIV/AIDS pandemic was directly affecting women in such a way. +And so I committed -- when I left South Africa, when I left Capetown, I told myself, "This is going to be something that I have to talk about. +I have to serve." +And so, subsequently I participated in every single 46664 event that I could take part in and gave news conferences, interviews, talking and using my platform as a musician, with my commitment to Mandela -- out of respect for the tremendous, unbelievable work that he had done. +Everyone in the world respects Nelson Mandela, everyone reveres Nelson Mandela. +But do they all know about what has been taking place in South Africa, his country, the country that had one of the highest incidents of transmission of the virus? +I think that if I went out into the street now and I told people what was happening there, they would be shocked. +I was very, very fortunate a couple of years later to have met Zackie Achmat, the founder of Treatment Action Campaign, an incredible campaigner and activist. +I met him at a 46664 event. +He was wearing a t-shirt like the one I wear now. +This is a tool -- this tells you I am in solidarity with people who have HIV, people who are living with HIV. +And in a way because of the stigma, by wearing this t-shirt I say, "Yes, we can talk about this issue. +It doesn't have to be in the closet." +I became a member of Treatment Action Campaign and I'm very proud to be a member of that incredible organization. +It's a grassroots campaign with 80 percent membership being women, most of whom are HIV-positive. +They work in the field. +They have tremendous outreach to the people who are living directly with the effects of the virus. +They have education programs. +They bring out the issues of stigma. +It's quite extraordinary what they do. +And yes, my SING Campaign has supported Treatment Action Campaign in the way that I have tried to raise awareness and to try to also raise funds. +A lot of the funding that I have managed to raise has gone directly to Treatment Action Campaign and the incredible work that they do, and are still continuing to do in South Africa. +So this is my SING Campaign. +SING Campaign is basically just me and about three or four wonderful people who help to support me. +I've traveled all over the world in the last two and a half years -- I went to about 12 different countries. +Here I am in Oslo in Norway, getting a nice, fat check; singing in Hong Kong, trying to get people to raise money. +Aaron Motsoaledi, the current health minister, attended that concert and I had an opportunity to meet with him, and he gave his absolute commitment to try to making a change, which is absolutely necessary. +This is in the Scottish Parliament. +I've subsequently become an envoy for Scotland and HIV. +And I was showing them my experiences and trying to, again, raise awareness. +And once again, in Edinburgh with the wonderful African Children's Choir who I simply adore. +And it's children like this, many of whom have been orphaned because of their family being affected by the AIDS virus. +I'm sitting here in New York with Michel Sidibe -- he's the director of UNAIDS. +And I'm very honored by the fact that Michel invited me, only a few months ago, to become a UNAIDS ambassador. +And in this way, I've been strengthening my platform and broadening my outreach. +The message that UNAIDS are currently sending out to the world is that we would like to see the virtual elimination of the transmission of the virus from mother to child by 2015. +It's a very ambitious goal but we believe it can be achieved with political will. +This can happen. +And here I am with a pregnant woman, who is HIV positive and we're smiling, both of us are smiling, because we're very confident, because we know that that young woman is receiving treatment so her life can be extended to take care of the baby she's about to give birth to. +And her baby will receive PMTCT, which will mean that that baby can be born free of the virus. +Now that is prevention at the very beginning of life. +It's one way to start looking at intervention with the AIDS pandemic. +Now, I just would like to finish off to tell you the little story about Avelile. +This is Avelile -- she goes with me wherever I go. +I tell her story to everyone because she represents one of millions of HIV/AIDS orphans. +Avelile's mother had HIV virus -- she died from AIDS-related illness. +Avelile had the virus, she was born with the virus. +And here she is at seven years old, weighing no more than a one year-old baby. +At this point in her life, she's suffering with full-blown AIDS and had pneumonia. +We met her in a hospital in the Eastern Cape and spent a whole afternoon with her -- an adorable child. +The doctors and nurses were phenomenal. +They put her on very special nutritious diet and took great care of her. +And we didn't know when we left the hospital -- because we filmed her story -- we didn't know if she was going to survive. +So, it was obviously -- it was a very emotional encounter and left us feeling very resonant with this direct experience, this one child, you know, that story. +Five months later, we went back to South Africa to meet Avelile again. +And I'm getting -- the hairs on my -- I don't know if you can see the hairs on my arms. +They're standing up because I know what I'm going to show you. +This is the transformation that took place. +Isn't it extraordinary? +That round of applause is actually for the doctors and nurses of the hospital who took care of Avelile. +And I take it that you appreciate that kind of transformation. +I think that's fair to say, it's almost everyone in the hall. +Thank you very much. +I am a Ph.D. student and that means I have a question: how can we make digital content graspable? +Because you see, on the one hand, there is the digital world and no question, many things are happening there right now. +And for us humans, it's not quite material, it's not really there -- it's virtual. +On the other hand, we humans, we live in a physical world. +It's rich, it tastes good, it feels good, it smells good. +So the question is: how do we get the stuff over from the digital into the physical? +That's my question. +If you look at the iPhone with its touch and the Wii with its bodily activity, you can see the tendency; it's getting physical. +The question is: what's next? +Now, I have three options that I would like to show you. +The first one is mass. +As humans, we are sensitive to where an object in our hand is heavy. +So, could we use that in mobile phones? +Let me show you the weight-shifting mobile. +It is a mobile phone-shaped box that has an iron weight inside, which we can move around, and you can feel where it's heavy. +We shift the gravitational center of it. +For example, we can augment digital content with physical mass. +So you move around the content on a display, but you can also feel where it is just from the weight of the device. +Another thing it's good for is navigation -- it can guide you around in a city. +It can tell you by its weight, "Okay, move right. Walk ahead. Make a left here." +And the good thing about that is you don't have to look at the device all the time; you have your eyes free to see the city. +Now, mass is the first thing; the second thing, that's shape. +We're also sensitive to the shape of objects we have in [our] hands. +So if I download an e-book and it has 20 pages -- well, they could be thin, right -- but if it has 500 pages, I want to feel that "Harry Potter" -- it's thick. So let me show you the shape-changing mobile. +Again, it's a mobile phone-shaped box, and this one can change its shape. +We can play with the shape itself. +For example, it can be thin in your pocket, which we of course want it to be; but then if you hold it in your hand, it can lean towards you, be thick. +It's like tapered to the downside. +If you change the grasp, it can adjust to that. +It's also useful if you want to put it down on your nightstand to watch a movie or use as an alarm clock, it stands. +It's fairly simple. +Another thing is, sometimes we watch things on a mobile phone, they are bigger than the phone itself. +So in that case -- like here, there's an app that's bigger than the phone's screen -- the shape of the phone could tell you, "Okay, off the screen right here, there is more content. +You can't see it, but it's there." +And you can feel that because it's thicker at that edge. +The shape is the second thing. +The third thing operates on a different level. +As humans, we are social, we are empathic, and that's great. +Wouldn't that be a way to make mobile phones more intuitive? +Think of a hamster in the pocket. +Well, I can feel it, it's doing all right -- I don't have to check it. +Let me show you the living mobile phone. +So, once again, mobile phone-shaped box, but this one, it has a breath and a heartbeat, and it feels very organic. +And you can tell, it's relaxed right now. +Oh now, missed call, a new call, new girlfriend maybe -- very exciting. How do we calm it down? +You give it a pat behind the ears, and everything is all right again. +So, that's very intuitive, and that's what we want. +So, what we have seen are three ways to make the digital graspable for us. +And I think making it physical is a good way to do that. +What's behind that is a postulation, namely that not humans should get much more technical in the future; rather than that, technology, a bit more human. +The Hindus say, "Nada brahma," one translation of which is, "The world is sound." +And in a way, that's true, because everything is vibrating. +In fact, all of you as you sit here right now are vibrating. +Every part of your body is vibrating at different frequencies. +So you are, in fact, a chord -- each of you an individual chord. +One definition of health may be that that chord is in complete harmony. +Your ears can't hear that chord; they can actually hear amazing things. Your ears can hear 10 octaves. +Incidentally, we see just one octave. +Your ears are always on -- you have no ear lids. +They work even when you sleep. +The smallest sound you can perceive moves your eardrum just four atomic diameters. +The loudest sound you can hear is a trillion times more powerful than that. +Ears are made not for hearing, but for listening. +Listening is an active skill, whereas hearing is passive, listening is something that we have to work at -- it's a relationship with sound. +And yet it's a skill that none of us are taught. +For example, have you ever considered that there are listening positions, places you can listen from? +Here are two of them. +Reductive listening is listening "for." +It reduces everything down to what's relevant and it discards everything that's not relevant. +Men typically listen reductively. +So he's saying, "I've got this problem." +He's saying, "Here's your solution. Thanks very much. Next." +That's the way we talk, right guys? +Expansive listening, on the other hand, is listening "with," not listening "for." +It's got no destination in mind -- it's just enjoying the journey. +Women typically listen expansively. +If you look at these two, eye contact, facing each other, possibly both talking at the same time. +Men, if you get nothing else out of this talk, practice expansive listening, and you can transform your relationships. +The trouble with listening is that so much of what we hear is noise, surrounding us all the time. +Noise like this, according to the European Union, is reducing the health and the quality of life of 25 percent of the population of Europe. +Two percent of the population of Europe -- that's 16 million people -- are having their sleep devastated by noise like that. +Noise kills 200,000 people a year in Europe. +It's a really big problem. +Now, when you were little, if you had noise and you didn't want to hear it, you'd stick your fingers in your ears and hum. +These days, you can do a similar thing, it just looks a bit cooler. +It looks a bit like this. +The trouble with widespread headphone use is it brings three really big health issues. +The first really big health issue is a word that Murray Schafer coined: "schizophonia." +It's a dislocation between what you see and what you hear. +So, we're inviting into our lives the voices of people who are not present with us. +I think there's something deeply unhealthy about living all the time in schizophonia. +The second problem that comes with headphone abuse is compression. +We squash music to fit it into our pocket and there is a cost attached to this. +Listen to this -- this is an uncompressed piece of music. +And now the same piece of music with 98 percent of the data removed. +I do hope that some of you at least can hear the difference between those two. +There is a cost of compression. +It makes you tired and irritable to have to make up all of that data. +You're having to imagine it. +It's not good for you in the long run. +The third problem with headphones is this: deafness -- noise-induced hearing disorder. +Ten million Americans already have this for one reason or another, but really worryingly, 16 percent -- roughly one in six -- of American teenagers suffer from noise-induced hearing disorder as a result of headphone abuse. +One study at an American university found that 61 percent of college freshmen had damaged hearing as a result of headphone abuse. +We may be raising an entire generation of deaf people. +Now that's a really serious problem. +I'll give you three quick tips to protect your ears and pass these on to your children, please. +Professional hearing protectors are great; I use some all the time. +If you're going to use headphones, buy the best ones you can afford because quality means you don't have to have it so loud. +If you can't hear somebody talking to you in a loud voice, it's too loud. +And thirdly, if you're in bad sound, it's fine to put your fingers in your ears or just move away from it. +Protect your ears in that way. +Let's move away from bad sound and look at some friends that I urge you to seek out. +WWB: Wind, water, birds -- stochastic natural sounds composed of lots of individual random events, all of it very healthy, all of it sound that we evolved to over the years. +Seek those sounds out; they're good for you and so it this. +Silence is beautiful. +The Elizabethans described language as decorated silence. +I urge you to move away from silence with intention and to design soundscapes just like works of art. +Have a foreground, a background, all in beautiful proportion. +It's fun to get into designing with sound. +If you can't do it yourself, get a professional to do it for you. +Sound design is the future, and I think it's the way we're going to change the way the world sounds. +I'm going to just run quickly through eight modalities, eight ways sound can improve health. +First, ultrasound: we're very familiar with it from physical therapy; it's also now being used to treat cancer. +Lithotripsy -- saving thousands of people a year from the scalpel by pulverizing stones with high-intensity sound. +Sound healing is a wonderful modality. +It's been around for thousands of years. +I do urge you to explore this. +There are great things being done there, treating now autism, dementia and other conditions. +And music, of course. Just listening to music is good for you, if it's music that's made with good intention, made with love, generally. +Devotional music, good -- Mozart, good. +There are all sorts of types of music that are very healthy. +And four modalities where you need to take some action and get involved. +First of all, listen consciously. +I hope that that after this talk you'll be doing that. +It's a whole new dimension to your life and it's wonderful to have that dimension. +Secondly, get in touch with making some sound -- create sound. +The voice is the instrument we all play, and yet how many of us are trained in using our voice? Get trained; learn to sing, learn to play an instrument. +Musicians have bigger brains -- it's true. +You can do this in groups as well. +It's a fantastic antidote to schizophonia; to make music and sound in a group of people, whichever style you enjoy particularly. +And let's take a stewarding role for the sound around us. +Protect your ears? Yes, absolutely. +Design soundscapes to be beautiful around you at home and at work. +And let's start to speak up when people are assailing us with the noise that I played you early on. +So I'm going to leave you with seven things you can do right now to improve your health with sound. +My vision is of a world that sounds beautiful and if we all start doing these things, we will take a very big step in that direction. +So I urge you to take that path. +I'm leaving you with a little more birdsong, which is very good for you. +I wish you sound health. +I got up this morning at 6:10 a.m. +after going to sleep at 12:45 a.m. +I was awakened once during the night. +My heart rate was 61 beats per minute -- my blood pressure, 127 over 74. +I had zero minutes of exercise yesterday, so my maximum heart rate during exercise wasn't calculated. +I had about 600 milligrams of caffeine, zero of alcohol. +And my score on the Narcissism Personality Index, or the NPI-16, is a reassuring 0.31. +We know that numbers are useful for us when we advertise, manage, govern, search. +I'm going to talk about how they're useful when we reflect, learn, remember and want to improve. +A few years ago, Kevin Kelly, my partner, and I noticed that people were subjecting themselves to regimes of quantitative measurement and self-tracking that went far beyond the ordinary, familiar habits such as stepping on a scale every day. +People were tracking their food via Twitter, their kids' diapers on their iPhone. +They were making detailed journals of their spending, their mood, their symptoms, their treatments. +Now, we know some of the technological facts that are driving this change in our lifestyle -- the uptake and diffusion of mobile devices, the exponential improvement in data storage and data processing, and the remarkable improvement in human biometric sensors. +This little black dot there is a 3D accelerometer. +It tracks your movement through space. +It is, as you can see, very small and also very cheap. +They're now down to well under a dollar a piece, and they're going into all kinds of devices. +But what's interesting is the incredible detailed information that you can get from just one sensor like this. +This kind of sensor is in the hit biometric device -- among early adopters at the moment -- the Fitbit. +This tracks your activity and also your sleep. +It has just that sensor in it. +You're probably familiar with the Nike+ system. +I just put it up because that little blue dot is the sensor. +It's really just a pressure sensor like the kind that's in a doorbell. +And Nike knows how to get your pace and distance from just that sensor. +This is the strap that people use to transmit heart-rate data to their Nike+ system. +This is a beautiful, new device that gives you detailed sleep tracking data, not just whether you're asleep or awake, but also your phase of sleep -- deep sleep, light sleep, REM sleep. +The sensor is just a little strip of metal in that headband there. +The rest of it is the bedside console; just for reference, this is a sleep tracking system from just a few years ago -- I mean, really until now. +And this is the sleep tracking system of today. +This just was presented at a health care conference in D.C. +Most of what you see there is an asthma inhaler, but the top is a very small GPS transceiver, which gives you the date and location of an asthma incident, giving you a new awareness of your vulnerability in relation to time and environmental factors. +Now, we know that new tools are changing our sense of self in the world -- these tiny sensors that gather data in nature, the ubiquitous computing that allows that data to be understood and used, and of course the social networks that allow people to collaborate and contribute. +But we think of these tools as pointing outward, as windows and I'd just like to invite you to think of them as also turning inward and becoming mirrors. +So that when we think about using them to get some systematic improvement, we also think about how they can be useful for self-improvement, for self-discovery, self-awareness, self-knowledge. +Here's a biometric device: a pair of Apple Earbuds. +Last year, Apple filed some patents to get blood oxygenation, heart rate and body temperature via the Earbuds. +What is this for? +What should it be for? +Some people will say it's for biometric security. +Some people will say it's for public health research. +Some people will say it's for avant-garde marketing research. +I'd like to tell you that it's also for self-knowledge. +And the self isn't the only thing; it's not even most things. +The self is just our operation center, our consciousness, our moral compass. +So, if we want to act more effectively in the world, we have to get to know ourselves better. +Thank you. +We live in in a remarkable time, the age of genomics. +Your genome is the entire sequence of your DNA. +Your sequence and mine are slightly different. +That's why we look different. +I've got brown eyes; you might have blue or gray. +But it's not just skin-deep. +The headlines tell us that genes can give us scary diseases, maybe even shape our personality, or give us mental disorders. +Our genes seem to have awesome power over our destinies. +And yet, I would like to think that I am more than my genes. +What do you guys think? +Are you more than your genes? +(Audience: Yes.) Yes? +I think some people agree with me. +I think we should make a statement. +I think we should say it all together. +All right: "I'm more than my genes" -- all together. +Everybody: I am more than my genes. +Sebastian Seung: What am I? +I am my connectome. +Now, since you guys are really great, maybe you can humor me and say this all together too. +Right. All together now. +Everybody: I am my connectome. +SS: That sounded great. +You know, you guys are so great, you don't even know what a connectome is, and you're willing to play along with me. +I could just go home now. +Well, so far only one connectome is known, that of this tiny worm. +Its modest nervous system consists of just 300 neurons. +And in the 1970s and '80s, a team of scientists mapped all 7,000 connections between the neurons. +In this diagram, every node is a neuron, and every line is a connection. +This is the connectome of the worm C. elegans. +Your connectome is far more complex than this because your brain contains 100 billion neurons and 10,000 times as many connections. +There's a diagram like this for your brain, but there's no way it would fit on this slide. +Your connectome contains one million times more connections than your genome has letters. +That's a lot of information. +What's in that information? +We don't know for sure, but there are theories. +Since the 19th century, neuroscientists have speculated that maybe your memories -- the information that makes you, you -- maybe your memories are stored in the connections between your brain's neurons. +And perhaps other aspects of your personal identity -- maybe your personality and your intellect -- maybe they're also encoded in the connections between your neurons. +And so now you can see why I proposed this hypothesis: I am my connectome. +I didn't ask you to chant it because it's true; I just want you to remember it. +And in fact, we don't know if this hypothesis is correct, because we have never had technologies powerful enough to test it. +Finding that worm connectome took over a dozen years of tedious labor. +And to find the connectomes of brains more like our own, we need more sophisticated technologies, that are automated, that will speed up the process of finding connectomes. +And in the next few minutes, I'll tell you about some of these technologies, which are currently under development in my lab and the labs of my collaborators. +Now you've probably seen pictures of neurons before. +You can recognize them instantly by their fantastic shapes. +They extend long and delicate branches, and in short, they look like trees. +But this is just a single neuron. +In order to find connectomes, we have to see all the neurons at the same time. +So let's meet Bobby Kasthuri, who works in the laboratory of Jeff Lichtman at Harvard University. +Bobby is holding fantastically thin slices of a mouse brain. +And we're zooming in by a factor of 100,000 times to obtain the resolution, so that we can see the branches of neurons all at the same time. +Except, you still may not really recognize them, and that's because we have to work in three dimensions. +If we take many images of many slices of the brain and stack them up, we get a three-dimensional image. +And still, you may not see the branches. +So we start at the top, and we color in the cross-section of one branch in red, and we do that for the next slice and for the next slice. +And we keep on doing that, slice after slice. +If we continue through the entire stack, we can reconstruct the three-dimensional shape of a small fragment of a branch of a neuron. +And we can do that for another neuron in green. +And you can see that the green neuron touches the red neuron at two locations, and these are what are called synapses. +Let's zoom in on one synapse, and keep your eyes on the interior of the green neuron. +You should see small circles -- these are called vesicles. +They contain a molecule know as a neurotransmitter. +And so when the green neuron wants to communicate, it wants to send a message to the red neuron, it spits out neurotransmitter. +At the synapse, the two neurons are said to be connected like two friends talking on the telephone. +So you see how to find a synapse. +How can we find an entire connectome? +Well, we take this three-dimensional stack of images and treat it as a gigantic three-dimensional coloring book. +We color every neuron in, in a different color, and then we look through all of the images, find the synapses and note the colors of the two neurons involved in each synapse. +If we can do that throughout all the images, we could find a connectome. +Now, at this point, you've learned the basics of neurons and synapses. +And so I think we're ready to tackle one of the most important questions in neuroscience: how are the brains of men and women different? +According to this self-help book, guys brains are like waffles; they keep their lives compartmentalized in boxes. +Girls' brains are like spaghetti; everything in their life is connected to everything else. +You guys are laughing, but you know, this book changed my life. +But seriously, what's wrong with this? +You already know enough to tell me -- what's wrong with this statement? +It doesn't matter whether you're a guy or girl, everyone's brains are like spaghetti. +Or maybe really, really fine capellini with branches. +Just as one strand of spaghetti contacts many other strands on your plate, one neuron touches many other neurons through their entangled branches. +One neuron can be connected to so many other neurons, because there can be synapses at these points of contact. +By now, you might have sort of lost perspective on how large this cube of brain tissue actually is. +And so let's do a series of comparisons to show you. +I assure you, this is very tiny. It's just six microns on a side. +So, here's how it stacks up against an entire neuron. +And you can tell that, really, only the smallest fragments of branches are contained inside this cube. +And a neuron, well, that's smaller than brain. +And that's just a mouse brain -- it's a lot smaller than a human brain. +So when show my friends this, sometimes they've told me, "You know, Sebastian, you should just give up. +Neuroscience is hopeless." +Because if you look at a brain with your naked eye, you don't really see how complex it is, but when you use a microscope, finally the hidden complexity is revealed. +In the 17th century, the mathematician and philosopher, Blaise Pascal, wrote of his dread of the infinite, his feeling of insignificance at contemplating the vast reaches of outer space. +And, as a scientist, I'm not supposed to talk about my feelings -- too much information, professor. +But may I? +I feel curiosity, and I feel wonder, but at times I have also felt despair. +Why did I choose to study this organ that is so awesome in its complexity that it might well be infinite? +It's absurd. +How could we even dare to think that we might ever understand this? +And yet, I persist in this quixotic endeavor. +And indeed, these days I harbor new hopes. +Someday, a fleet of microscopes will capture every neuron and every synapse in a vast database of images. +And some day, artificially intelligent supercomputers will analyze the images without human assistance to summarize them in a connectome. +I do not know, but I hope that I will live to see that day, because finding an entire human connectome is one of the greatest technological challenges of all time. +It will take the work of generations to succeed. +At the present time, my collaborators and I, what we're aiming for is much more modest -- just to find partial connectomes of tiny chunks of mouse and human brain. +But even that will be enough for the first tests of this hypothesis that I am my connectome. +For now, let me try to convince you of the plausibility of this hypothesis, that it's actually worth taking seriously. +As you grow during childhood and age during adulthood, your personal identity changes slowly. +Likewise, every connectome changes over time. +What kinds of changes happen? +Well, neurons, like trees, can grow new branches, and they can lose old ones. +Synapses can be created, and they can be eliminated. +And synapses can grow larger, and they can grow smaller. +Second question: what causes these changes? +Well, it's true. +To some extent, they are programmed by your genes. +But that's not the whole story, because there are signals, electrical signals, that travel along the branches of neurons and chemical signals that jump across from branch to branch. +These signals are called neural activity. +And there's a lot of evidence that neural activity is encoding our thoughts, feelings and perceptions, our mental experiences. +And there's a lot of evidence that neural activity can cause your connections to change. +And if you put those two facts together, it means that your experiences can change your connectome. +And that's why every connectome is unique, even those of genetically identical twins. +The connectome is where nature meets nurture. +And it might true that just the mere act of thinking can change your connectome -- an idea that you may find empowering. +What's in this picture? +A cool and refreshing stream of water, you say. +What else is in this picture? +Do not forget that groove in the Earth called the stream bed. +Without it, the water would not know in which direction to flow. +And with the stream, I would like to propose a metaphor for the relationship between neural activity and connectivity. +Neural activity is constantly changing. +It's like the water of the stream; it never sits still. +The connections of the brain's neural network determines the pathways along which neural activity flows. +And so the connectome is like bed of the stream; but the metaphor is richer than that, because it's true that the stream bed guides the flow of the water, but over long timescales, the water also reshapes the bed of the stream. +And as I told you just now, neural activity can change the connectome. +And if you'll allow me to ascend to metaphorical heights, I will remind you that neural activity is the physical basis -- or so neuroscientists think -- of thoughts, feelings and perceptions. +And so we might even speak of the stream of consciousness. +Neural activity is its water, and the connectome is its bed. +So let's return from the heights of metaphor and return to science. +Suppose our technologies for finding connectomes actually work. +How will we go about testing the hypothesis "I am my connectome?" +Well, I propose a direct test. +Let us attempt to read out memories from connectomes. +Consider the memory of long temporal sequences of movements, like a pianist playing a Beethoven sonata. +According to a theory that dates back to the 19th century, such memories are stored as chains of synaptic connections inside your brain. +Because, if the first neurons in the chain are activated, through their synapses they send messages to the second neurons, which are activated, and so on down the line, like a chain of falling dominoes. +And this sequence of neural activation is hypothesized to be the neural basis of those sequence of movements. +So one way of trying to test the theory is to look for such chains inside connectomes. +But it won't be easy, because they're not going to look like this. +They're going to be scrambled up. +So we'll have to use our computers to try to unscramble the chain. +And if we can do that, the sequence of the neurons we recover from that unscrambling will be a prediction of the pattern of neural activity that is replayed in the brain during memory recall. +And if that were successful, that would be the first example of reading a memory from a connectome. +What a mess -- have you ever tried to wire up a system as complex as this? +I hope not. +But if you have, you know it's very easy to make a mistake. +The branches of neurons are like the wires of the brain. +Can anyone guess: what's the total length of wires in your brain? +I'll give you a hint. It's a big number. +I estimate, millions of miles, all packed in your skull. +And if you appreciate that number, you can easily see there is huge potential for mis-wiring of the brain. +And indeed, the popular press loves headlines like, "Anorexic brains are wired differently," or "Autistic brains are wired differently." +These are plausible claims, but in truth, we can't see the brain's wiring clearly enough to tell if these are really true. +And so the technologies for seeing connectomes will allow us to finally read mis-wiring of the brain, to see mental disorders in connectomes. +Sometimes the best way to test a hypothesis is to consider its most extreme implication. +Philosophers know this game very well. +If you believe that I am my connectome, I think you must also accept the idea that death is the destruction of your connectome. +I mention this because there are prophets today who claim that technology will fundamentally alter the human condition and perhaps even transform the human species. +One of their most cherished dreams is to cheat death by that practice known as cryonics. +If you pay 100,000 dollars, you can arrange to have your body frozen after death and stored in liquid nitrogen in one of these tanks in an Arizona warehouse, awaiting a future civilization that is advanced to resurrect you. +Should we ridicule the modern seekers of immortality, calling them fools? +Or will they someday chuckle over our graves? +I don't know -- I prefer to test their beliefs, scientifically. +I propose that we attempt to find a connectome of a frozen brain. +We know that damage to the brain occurs after death and during freezing. +The question is: has that damage erased the connectome? +If it has, there is no way that any future civilization will be able to recover the memories of these frozen brains. +Resurrection might succeed for the body, but not for the mind. +On the other hand, if the connectome is still intact, we cannot ridicule the claims of cryonics so easily. +I've described a quest that begins in the world of the very small, and propels us to the world of the far future. +Connectomes will mark a turning point in human history. +As we evolved from our ape-like ancestors on the African savanna, what distinguished us was our larger brains. +We have used our brains to fashion ever more amazing technologies. +Eventually, these technologies will become so powerful that we will use them to know ourselves by deconstructing and reconstructing our own brains. +I believe that this voyage of self-discovery is not just for scientists, but for all of us. +And I'm grateful for the opportunity to share this voyage with you today. +Thank you. +So, I am a Jungian psychoanalyst, and I went to Afghanistan in January 2004, by chance, on an assignment for Medica Mondiale. +Jung in Afghanistan -- you get the picture. +Afghanistan is one of the poorest countries in the world, and 70 percent of the people are illiterate. +War and malnutrition kills people together with hope. +You may know this from the media, but what you may not know is that the average age of the Afghan people is 17 years old, which means they grow up in such an environment and -- I repeat myself -- in 30 years of war. +So this translates into ongoing violence, foreign interests, bribery, drugs, ethnic conflicts, bad health, shame, fear and cumulative traumatic experiences. +Local and foreign military are supposed to build peace together with the donors and the governmental and non-governmental organizations. +And people had hope, yes, but until they realized their situation worsens every day -- either because they are being killed or because, somehow, they are poorer than eight years ago. +One figure for that: 54 percent of the children under the age of five years suffer from malnutrition. +Yet, there is hope. +One day a man told me, "My future does not look brilliant, but I want to have a brilliant future for my son." +This is a picture I took in 2005, walking on Fridays over the hills in Kabul, and for me it's a symbolic picture of an open future for a young generation. +So, doctors prescribe medication. +And donors are supposed to bring peace by building schools and roads. +Military collect weapons, and depression stays intact. +Why? +Because people don't have tools to cope with it, to get over it. +So, soon after my arrival, I had confirmed something which I had already known; that my instruments come from the heart of modern Europe, yes. +However, what can wound us and our reaction to those wounds -- they are universal. +And the big challenge was how to understand the meaning of the symptom in this specific cultural context. +After a counseling session, a woman said to me, "Because you have felt me, I can feel myself again, and I want to participate again in my family life." +This was very important, because the family is central in Afghans' social system. +No one can survive alone. +And if people feel used, worthless and ashamed, because something horrible has happened to them, then they retreat, and they fall into social isolation, and they do not dare to tell this evil to other people or to their loved ones, because they do not want to burden them. +And very often violence is a way to cope with it. +Traumatized people also easily lose control -- symptoms are hyper-arousal and memory flashbacks -- so people are in a constant fear that those horrible feelings of that traumatic event might come back unexpectedly, suddenly, and they cannot control it. +To compensate this loss of inner control, they try to control the outside, very understandably -- mostly the family -- and unfortunately, this fits very well into the traditional side, regressive side, repressive side, restrictive side of the cultural context. +So, husbands start beating wives, mothers and fathers beat their children, and afterward, they feel awful. +They did not want to do this, it just happened -- they lost control. +The desperate try to restore order and normality, and if we are not able to cut this circle of violence, it will be transferred to the next generation without a doubt. +And partly this is already happening. +So everybody needs a sense for the future, and the Afghan sense of the future is shattered. +But let me repeat the words of the woman. +"Because you have felt me, I can feel myself again." +So the key here is empathy. +Somebody has to be a witness to what has happened to you. +Somebody has to feel how you felt. +And somebody has to see you and listen to you. +Everybody must be able to know what he or she has experienced is true, and this only goes with another person. +So everybody must be able to say, "This happened to me, and it did this with me, but I'm able to live with it, to cope with it, and to learn from it. +And I want to engage myself in the bright future for my children and the children of my children, and I will not marry-off my 13 year-old daughter," -- what happens too often in Afghanistan. +So something can be done, even in such extreme environments as Afghanistan. +And I started thinking about a counseling program. +But, of course, I needed help and funds. +And one evening, I was sitting next to a very nice gentleman in Kabul, and he asked what I thought would be good in Afghanistan. +And I explained to him quickly, I would train psycho-social counselors, I would open centers, and I explained to him why. +This man gave me his contact details at the end of the evening and said, "If you want to do this, call me." +At that time, it was the head of Caritas Germany. +So, I was able to launch a three-year project with Caritas Germany, and we trained 30 Afghan women and men, and we opened 15 counseling centers in Kabul. +This was our sign -- it's hand-painted, and we had 45 all over Kabul. +Eleven thousand people came -- more than that. +And 70 percent regained their lives. +This was a very exciting time, developing this with my wonderful Afghan team. +And they are working with me up to today. +We developed a culturally-sensitive psycho-social counseling approach. +So, from 2008 up until today, a substantial change and step forward has been taking place. +The European Union delegation in Kabul came into this and hired me to work inside the Ministry of Public Health, to lobby this approach -- we succeeded. +We revised the mental health component of the primary health care services by adding psycho-social care and psycho-social counselors to the system. +This means, certainly, to retrain all health staff. +But for that, we already have the training manuals, which are approved by the Ministry and moreover, this approach is now part of the mental health strategy in Afghanistan. +So we also have implemented it already in some selected clinics in three provinces, and you are the first to see the results. +We wanted to know if what is being done is effective. +And here you can see the patients all had symptoms of depression, moderate and severe. +And the red line is the treatment as usual -- medication with a medical doctor. +And all the symptoms stayed the same or even got worse. +And the green line is treatment with psycho-social counseling only, without medication. +And you can see the symptoms almost completely go away, and the psycho-social stress has dropped significantly, which is explicable, because you cannot take away the psycho-social stresses, but you can learn how to cope with them. +So this makes us very happy, because now we also have some evidence that this is working. +So here you see, this is a health facility in Northern Afghanistan, and every morning it looks like this all over. +And doctors usually have three to six minutes for the patients, but now this will change. +They go to the clinics, because they want to cure their immediate symptoms, and they will find somebody to talk to and discuss these issues and talk about what is burdening them and find solutions, develop their resources, learn tools to solve their family conflicts and gain some confidence in the future. +And I would like to share one short vignette. +One Hazara said to his Pashtun counselor, "If we were to have met some years ago, then we would have killed each other. +And now you are helping me to regain some confidence in the future." +And another counselor said to me after the training, "You know, I never knew why I survived the killings in my village, but now I know, because I am part of a nucleus of a new peaceful society in Afghanistan." +So I believe this kept me running. +And this is a really emancipatory and political contribution to peace and reconciliation. +And also -- I think -- without psycho-social therapy, and without considering this in all humanitarian projects, we cannot build-up civil societies. +I thought it was an idea worth spreading, and I think it must be, can be, could be replicated elsewhere. +I thank you for your attention. +Welcome to Thailand. +Now, when I was a young man -- 40 years ago, the country was very, very poor with lots and lots and lots of people living in poverty. +We decided to do something about it, but we didn't begin with a welfare program or a poverty reduction program. +But we began with a family-planning program, following a very successful maternal child health activity, sets of activities. +So basically, no one would accept family planning if their children didn't survive. +So the first step: get to the children, get to the mothers, and then follow up with family planning. +Not just child mortality alone, you need also family planning. +Now let me take you back as to why we needed to do it. +In my country, that was the case in 1974. +Seven children per family -- tremendous growth at 3.3 percent. +There was just no future. +We needed to reduce the population growth rate. +So we said, "Let's do it." +The women said, "We agree. We'll use pills, but we need a doctor to prescribe the pills," and we had very, very few doctors. +We didn't take no as an answer; we took no as a question. +We went to the nurses and the midwives, who were also women, and did a fantastic job at explaining how to use the pill. +That was wonderful, but it covered only 20 percent of the country. +What do we do for the other 80 percent -- leave them alone and say, "Well, they're not medical personnel." +No, we decided to do a bit more. +So we went to the ordinary people that you saw. +Actually, below that yellow sign -- I wish they hadn't wiped that, because there was "Coca-Cola" there. +We were so much bigger than Coca-Cola in those days. +And no difference, the people they chose were the people we chose. +They were well-known in the community, they knew that customers were always right, and they were terrific, and they practiced their family planning themselves. +So they could supply pills and condoms throughout the country, in every village of the country. +So there we are. We went to the people who were seen as the cause of the problem to be the solution. +Wherever there were people -- and you can see boats with the women, selling things -- here's the floating market selling bananas and crabs and also contraceptives -- wherever you find people, you'll find contraceptives in Thailand. +And then we decided, why not get to religion because in the Philippines, the Catholic Church was pretty strong, and Thai people were Buddhist. +We went to them and they said, "Look, could you help us?" +I'm there -- the one in blue, not the yellow -- holding a bowl of holy water for the monk to sprinkle holy water on pills and condoms for the sanctity of the family. +And this picture was sent throughout the country. +So some of the monks in the villages were doing the same thing themselves. +And the women were saying, "No wonder we have no side-effects. +It's been blessed." +That was their perception. +And then we went to teachers. +You need everybody to be involved in trying to provide whatever it is that make humanity a better place. +So we went to the teachers. +Over a quarter of a million were taught about family planning with a new alphabet -- A, B for birth, C for condom, I for IUD, V for vasectomy. +And then we had a snakes and ladders game, where you throw dice. +If you land on anything pro-family planning, you move ahead. +Like, "Mother takes the pill every night. +Very good, mother. Move ahead. +Uncle buys a condom. Very good, uncle. Move ahead. +Uncle gets drunk, doesn't use condom. Come back, start again." +Again, education, class entertainment. +And the kids were doing it in school too. +We had relay races with condoms, we had children's condom-blowing championship. +And before long, the condom was know as the girl's best friend. +In Thailand, for poor people, diamonds don't make it -- so the condom is the girl's best friend. +We introduced our first microcredit program in 1975, and the women who organized it said, "We only want to lend to women who practice family planning. +If you're pregnant, take care of your pregnancy. +If you're not pregnant, you can take a loan out from us." +And that was run by them. +And after 35/36 years, it's still going on. +It's a part of the Village Development Bank; it's not a real bank, but it's a fund -- microcredit. +And we didn't need a big organization to run it -- it was run by the villagers themselves. +And you probably hardly see a Thai man there, it's always women, women, women, women. +And then we thought we'd help America, because America's been helping everyone, whether they want help or not. +And this is on the Fourth of July. +We decided to provide vasectomy to all men, but in particular, American men to the front of the queue, right up to the Ambassador's residence during his [unclear]. +And the hotel gave us the ballroom for it -- very appropriate room. +And since it was near lunch time, they said, "All right, we'll give you some lunch. +Of course, it must be American cola. +You get two brands, Coke and Pepsi. +And then the food is either hamburger or hotdog." +And I thought a hotdog will be more symbolic. +And here is this, then, young man called Willy Bohm who worked for the USAID. +Obviously, he's had his vasectomy because his hotdog is half eaten, and he was very happy. +It made a lot of news in America, and it angered some people also. +I said, "Don't worry. Come over and I'll do the whole lot of you." +And what happened? +In all this thing, from seven children to 1.5 children, population growth rate of 3.3 to 0.5. +You could call it the Coca-Cola approach if you like -- it was exactly the same thing. +I'm not sure whether Coca-Cola followed us, or we followed Coca-Cola, but we're good friends. +And so that's the case of everyone joining in. +We didn't have a strong government. We didn't have lots of doctors. +But it's everybody's job who can change attitude and behavior. +Then AIDS came along and hit Thailand, and we had to stop doing a lot of good things to fight AIDS. +But unfortunately, the government was in denial, denial, denial. +So our work wasn't affected. +So I thought, "Well, if you can't go to the government, go to the military." +So I went to the military and asked to borrow 300 radio stations. +They have more than the government, and they've got more guns than the government. +So I asked them, could they help us in our fight against HIV. +And after I gave them statistics, they said, "Yes. Okay. You can use all the radio stations, television stations." +And that's when we went onto the airwaves. +And then we got a new prime minister soon after that. +And he said, "Mechai, could you come and join?" +He asked me in because he liked my wife a lot. +So I said, "Okay." +He became the chairman of the National AIDS Committee and increased the budget fifty-fold. +Every ministry, even judges, had to be involved in AIDS education -- everyone -- and we said the public, institutions, religious institutions, schools -- everyone was involved. +And here, every media person had to be trained for HIV. +And we gave every station half a minute extra for advertising to earn more money. +So they were happy with that. +And then AIDS education in all schools, starting from university. +And these are high school kids teaching high school kids. +And the best teachers were the girls, not the boys, and they were terrific. +And these girls who go around teaching about safe sex and HIV were known as Mother Theresa. +And then we went down one more step. +These are primary school kids -- third, fourth grade -- going to every household in the village, every household in the whole of Thailand, giving AIDS information and a condom to every household, given by these young kids. +And no parents objected, because we were trying to save lives, and this was a lifesaver. +And we said, "Everyone needs to be involved." +So you have the companies also realizing that sick staff don't work, and dead customers don't buy. +So they all trained. +And then we have this Captain Condom, with his Harvard MBA, going to schools and night spots. +And they loved him. You need a symbol of something. +In every country, every program, you need a symbol, and this is probably the best thing he's ever done with his MBA. +And then we gave condoms out everywhere on the streets -- everywhere, everywhere. +In taxis, you get condoms. +And also, in traffic, the policemen give you condoms -- our "cops and rubbers" programs. +So, can you imagine New York policemen giving out condoms? +Of course I can. And they'd enjoy it immensely; I see them standing around right now, everywhere. +Imagine if they had condoms, giving out to all sorts of people. +And then, new change, we had hair bands, clothing and the condom for your mobile phone during the rainy season. +And these were the condoms that we introduced. +One says, "Weapon of mass protection." +We found -- you know -- somebody here was searching for the weapon of mass destruction, but we have found the weapon of mass protection: the condom. +And then it says here, with the American flag, "Don't leave home without it." +But I have some to give out afterward. +But let me warn you, these are Thai-sized, so be very careful. +And so you can see that condoms can do so many things. +Look at this -- I gave this to Al Gore and to Bill Senior also. +Stop global warming; use condoms. +And then this is the picture I mentioned to you -- the weapon of mass protection. +And let the next Olympics save some lives. +Why just run around? +And then finally, in Thailand we're Buddhist, we don't have a God, so instead, we say, "In rubber we trust." +So you can see that we added everything to our endeavor to make life better for the people. +We had condoms in all the refrigerators in the hotels and the schools, because alcohol impairs judgment. +And then what happened? +After all this time, everybody joined in. +According to the U.N., new cases of HIV declined by 90 percent, and according to the World Bank, 7.7 million lives were saved. +Otherwise there wouldn't be many Thais walking around today. +So it just showed you, you could do something about it. +90 percent of the funding came from Thailand. +There was political commitment, some financial commitment, and everybody joined in the fight. +So just don't leave it to the specialists and doctors and nurses. +We all need to help. +And then we decided to help people out of poverty, now that we got AIDS somewhat out of the way -- this time, not with government alone, but in cooperation with the business community. +Because poor people are business people who lack business skills and access to credit. +Those are the things to be provided by the business community. +We're trying to turn them into barefoot entrepreneurs, little business people. +The only way out of poverty is through business enterprise. +So, that was done. +The money goes from the company into the village via tree-planting. +It's not a free gift. +They plant the trees, and the money goes into their microcredit fund, which we call the Village Development Bank. +Everybody joins in, and they feel they own the bank, because they have brought the money in. +And before you can borrow the money, you need to be trained. +And we believe if you want to help the poor, those who are living in poverty, access to credit must be a human right. +Access to credit must be a human right. +Otherwise they'll never get out of poverty. +And then before getting a loan, you must be trained. +Here's what we call a "barefoot MBA," teaching people how to do business so that, when they borrow money, they'll succeed with the business. +These are some of the businesses: mushrooms, crabs, vegetables, trees, fruits, and this is very interesting -- Nike ice cream and Nike biscuits; this is a village sponsored by Nike. +They said, "They should stop making shoes and clothes. +Make these better, because we can afford them." +And then we have silk, Thai silk. +Now we're making Scottish tartans, as you can see on the left, to sell to all people of Scottish ancestors. +So anyone sitting in and watching TV, get in touch with me. +And then this is our answer to Starbucks in Thailand -- "Coffee and Condoms." +See, Starbucks you awake, we keep you awake and alive. +That's the difference. +Can you imagine, at every Starbucks that you can also get condoms? +You can order your condoms with your with your cappuccino. +And then now, finally in education, we want to change the school as being underutilized into a place where it's a lifelong learning center for everyone. +We call this our School-Based Integrated Rural Development. +And it's a center, a focal point for economic and social development. +Re-do the school, make it serve the community needs. +And here is a bamboo building -- all of them are bamboo. +This is a geodesic dome made of bamboo. +And I'm sure Buckminster Fuller would be very, very proud to see a bamboo geodesic dome. +And we use vegetables around the school ground, so they raise their own vegetables. +And then, finally, I firmly believe, if we want the MDGs to work -- the Millennium Development Goals -- we need to add family planning to it. +Of course, child mortality first and then family planning -- everyone needs family planning service -- it's underutilized. +So we have now found the weapon of mass protection. +And we also ask the next Olympics to be involved in saving lives. +And then, finally, that is our network. +And these are our Thai tulips. +Thank you very much indeed. +So, I'd like to spend a few minutes with you folks today imagining what our planet might look like in a thousand years. +But before I do that, I need to talk to you about synthetic materials like plastics, which require huge amounts of energy to create and, because of their disposal issues, are slowly poisoning our planet. +I also want to tell you and share with you how my team and I have been using mushrooms over the last three years. +Not like that. We're using mushrooms to create an entirely new class of materials, which perform a lot like plastics during their use, but are made from crop waste and are totally compostable at the end of their lives. +But first, I need to talk to you about what I consider one of the most egregious offenders in the disposable plastics category. +This is a material you all know is Styrofoam, but I like to think of it as toxic white stuff. +In a single cubic foot of this material -- about what would come around your computer or large television -- you have the same energy content of about a liter and a half of petrol. +Yet, after just a few weeks of use, you'll throw this material in the trash. +And this isn't just found in packaging. +20 billion dollars of this material is produced every year, in everything from building materials to surfboards to coffee cups to table tops. +And that's not the only place it's found. +The EPA estimates, in the United States, by volume, this material occupies 25 percent of our landfills. +Even worse is when it finds its way into our natural environment -- on the side of the road or next to a river. +If it's not picked up by a human, like me and you, it'll stay there for thousands and thousands of years. +Perhaps even worse is when it finds its way into our oceans, like in the great plastic gyre, where these materials are being mechanically broken into smaller and smaller bits, but they're not really going away. +They're not biologically compatible. +They're basically fouling up Earth's respiratory and circulatory systems. +And because these materials are so prolific, because they're found in so many places, there's one other place you'll find this material, styrene, which is made from benzene, a known carcinogen. +You'll find it inside of you. +So, for all these reasons, I think we need better materials, and there are three key principles we can use to guide these materials. +The first is feedstocks. +Today, we use a single feedstock, petroleum, to heat our homes, power our cars and make most of the materials you see around you. +We recognize this is a finite resource, and it's simply crazy to do this, to put a liter and a half of petrol in the trash every time you get a package. +Second of all, we should really strive to use far less energy in creating these materials. +I say far less, because 10 percent isn't going to cut it. +We should be talking about half, a quarter, one-tenth the energy content. +And lastly, and I think perhaps most importantly, we should be creating materials that fit into what I call nature's recycling system. +This recycling system has been in place for the last billion years. +I fit into it, you fit into it, and a hundred years tops, my body can return to the Earth with no preprocessing. +Yet that packaging I got in the mail yesterday is going to last for thousands of years. +This is crazy. +But nature provides us with a really good model here. +When a tree's done using its leaves -- its solar collectors, these amazing molecular photon capturing devices -- at the end of a season, it doesn't pack them up, take them to the leaf reprocessing center and have them melted down to form new leaves. +It just drops them, the shortest distance possible, to the forest floor, where they're actually upcycled into next year's topsoil. +And this gets us back to the mushrooms. +Because in nature, mushrooms are the recycling system. +And what we've discovered is, by using a part of the mushroom you've probably never seen -- analogous to its root structure; it's called mycelium -- we can actually grow materials with many of the same properties of conventional synthetics. +Now, mycelium is an amazing material, because it's a self-assembling material. +It actually takes things we would consider waste -- things like seed husks or woody biomass -- and can transform them into a chitinous polymer, which you can form into almost any shape. +In our process, we basically use it as a glue. +And by using mycelium as a glue, you can mold things just like you do in the plastic industry, and you can create materials with many different properties, materials that are insulating, fire-resistant, materials that can absorb impacts, that can absorb acoustical impacts. +But these materials are grown from agricultural byproducts, not petroleum. +And because they're made of natural materials, they are 100 percent compostable in you own backyard. +So I'd like to share with you the four basic steps required to make these materials. +The first is selecting a feedstock, preferably something that's regional, that's in your area, right -- local manufacturing. +The next is actually taking this feedstock and putting in a tool, physically filling an enclosure, a mold, in whatever shape you want to get. +Then you actually grow the mycelium through these particles, and that's where the magic happens, because the organism is doing the work in this process, not the equipment. +The final step is, of course, the product, whether it's a packaging material, a table top, or building block. +Our vision is local manufacturing, like the local food movement, for production. +So we've created formulations for all around the world using regional byproducts. +If you're in China, you might use a rice husk or a cottonseed hull. +If you're in Northern Europe or North America, you can use things like buckwheat husks or oat hulls. +We then process these husks with some basic equipment. +And I want to share with you a quick video from our facility that gives you a sense of how this looks at scale. +So what you're seeing here is actually cotton hulls from Texas, in this case. +It's a waste product. +And what they're doing in our equipment is going through a continuous system, which cleans, cooks, cools and pasteurizes these materials, while also continuously inoculating them with our mycelium. +This gives us a continuous stream of material that we can put into almost any shape, though today we're making corner blocks. +And it's when this lid goes on the part, that the magic really starts. +Because the manufacturing process is our organism. +It'll actually begin to digest these wastes and, over the next five days, assemble them into biocomposites. +Our entire facility is comprised of thousands and thousands and thousands of these tools sitting indoors in the dark, quietly self-assembling materials -- and everything from building materials to, in this case, a packaging corner block. +So I've said a number of times that we grow materials. +And it's kind of hard to picture how that happens. +So my team has taken five days-worth of growth, a typical growth cycle for us, and condensed it into a 15-second time lapse. +And I want you to really watch closely these little white dots on the screen, because, over the five-day period, what they do is extend out and through this material, using the energy that's contained in these seed husks to build this chitinous polymer matrix. +This matrix self-assembles, growing through and around the particles, making millions and millions of tiny fibers. +And what parts of the seed husk we don't digest, actually become part of the final, physical composite. +So in front of your eyes, this part just self-assembled. +It actually takes a little longer. It takes five days. +But it's much faster than conventional farming. +The last step, of course, is application. +In this case, we've grown a corner block. +A major Fortune 500 furniture maker uses these corner blocks to protect their tables in shipment. +They used to use a plastic packaging buffer, but we were able to give them the exact same physical performance with our grown material. +Best of all, when it gets to the customer, it's not trash. +They can actually put this in their natural ecosystem without any processing, and it's going to improve the local soil. +So, why mycelium? +The first reason is local open feedstocks. +You want to be able to do this anywhere in the world and not worry about peak rice hull or peak cottonseed hulls, because you have multiple choices. +The next is self-assembly, because the organism is actually doing most of the work in this process. +You don't need a lot of equipment to set up a production facility. +So you can have lots of small facilities spread all across the world. +Biological yield is really important. +And because 100 percent of what we put in the tool become the final product, even the parts that aren't digested become part of the structure, we're getting incredible yield rates. +Natural polymers, well ... I think that's what's most important, because these polymers have been tried and tested in our ecosystem for the last billion years, in everything from mushrooms to crustaceans. +They're not going to clog up Earth's ecosystems. They work great. +And while, today, we can practically guarantee that yesterday's packaging is going to be here in 10,000 years, what I want to guarantee is that in 10,000 years, our descendants, our children's children, will be living happily and in harmony with a healthy Earth. +And I think that can be some really good news. +Thank you. +I want to talk to you today about prosperity, about our hopes for a shared and lasting prosperity. +And not just us, but the two billion people worldwide who are still chronically undernourished. +And hope actually is at the heart of this. +In fact, the Latin word for hope is at the heart of the word prosperity. +"Pro-speras," "speras," hope -- in accordance with our hopes and expectations. +The irony is, though, that we have cashed-out prosperity almost literally in terms of money and economic growth. +And recession, of course, isn't exactly a recipe for hope either, as we're busy finding out. +So we're caught in a kind of trap. +It's a dilemma, a dilemma of growth. +We can't live with it; we can't live without it. +Trash the system or crash the planet -- it's a tough choice; it isn't much of a choice. +And our best avenue of escape from this actually is a kind of blind faith in our own cleverness and technology and efficiency and doing things more efficiently. +Now I haven't got anything against efficiency. +And I think we are a clever species sometimes. +But I think we should also just check the numbers, take a reality check here. +So I want you to imagine a world, in 2050, of around nine billion people, all aspiring to Western incomes, Western lifestyles. +And I want to ask the question -- and we'll give them that two percent hike in income, in salary each year as well, because we believe in growth. +And I want to ask the question: how far and how fast would be have to move? +How clever would we have to be? +How much technology would we need in this world to deliver our carbon targets? +And here in my chart -- on the left-hand side is where we are now. +This is the carbon intensity of economic growth in the economy at the moment. +It's around about 770 grams of carbon. +In the world I describe to you, we have to be right over here at the right-hand side at six grams of carbon. +It's a 130-fold improvement, and that is 10 times further and faster than anything we've ever achieved in industrial history. +Maybe we can do it, maybe it's possible -- who knows? +Maybe we can even go further and get an economy that pulls carbon out of the atmosphere, which is what we're going to need to be doing by the end of the century. +But shouldn't we just check first that the economic system that we have is remotely capable of delivering this kind of improvement? +So I want to just spend a couple of minutes on system dynamics. +It's a bit complex, and I apologize for that. +What I'll try and do, is I'll try and paraphrase it is sort of human terms. +So it looks a little bit like this. +Firms produce goods for households -- that's us -- and provide us with incomes, and that's even better, because we can spend those incomes on more goods and services. +That's called the circular flow of the economy. +It looks harmless enough. +I just want to highlight one key feature of this system, which is the role of investment. +Now investment constitutes only about a fifth of the national income in most modern economies, but it plays an absolutely vital role. +And what it does essentially is to stimulate further consumption growth. +It does this in a couple of ways -- chasing productivity, which drives down prices and encourages us to buy more stuff. +But I want to concentrate on the role of investment in seeking out novelty, the production and consumption of novelty. +Joseph Schumpeter called this "the process of creative destruction." +It's a process of the production and reproduction of novelty, continually chasing expanding consumer markets, consumer goods, new consumer goods. +And this, this is where it gets interesting, because it turns out that human beings have something of an appetite for novelty. +We love new stuff -- new material stuff for sure -- but also new ideas, new adventures, new experiences. +But the materiality matters too, because in every society that anthropologists have looked at, material stuff operates as a kind of language -- a language of goods, a symbolic language that we use to tell each other stories -- stories, for example, about how important we are. +Status-driven, conspicuous consumption thrives from the language of novelty. +And here, all of a sudden, we have a system that is locking economic structure with social logic -- the economic institutions, and who we are as people, locked together to drive an engine of growth. +And this engine is not just economic value; it is pulling material resources relentlessly through the system, driven by our own insatiable appetites, driven in fact by a sense of anxiety. +Adam Smith, 200 years ago, spoke about our desire for a life without shame. +A life without shame: in his day, what that meant was a linen shirt, and today, well, you still need the shirt, but you need the hybrid car, the HDTV, two holidays a year in the sun, the netbook and iPad, the list goes on -- an almost inexhaustible supply of goods, driven by this anxiety. +And even if we don't want them, we need to buy them, because, if we don't buy them, the system crashes. +And to stop it crashing over the last two to three decades, we've expanded the money supply, expanded credit and debt, so that people can keep buying stuff. +And of course, that expansion was deeply implicated in the crisis. +But this -- I just want to show you some data here. +This is what it looks like, essentially, this credit and debt system, just for the U.K. +This was the last 15 years before the crash, and you can see there, consumer debt rose dramatically. +It was above the GDP for three years in a row just before the crisis. +And in the mean time, personal savings absolutely plummeted. +The savings ratio, net savings, were below zero in the middle of 2008, just before the crash. +This is people expanding debt, drawing down their savings, just to stay in the game. +This is a strange, rather perverse, story, just to put it in very simple terms. +It's a story about us, people, being persuaded to spend money we don't have on things we don't need to create impressions that won't last on people we don't care about. +But before we consign ourselves to despair, maybe we should just go back and say, "Did we get this right? +Is this really how people are? +Is this really how economies behave?" +And almost straightaway we actually run up against a couple of anomalies. +The first one is in the crisis itself. +In the crisis, in the recession, what do people want to do? +They want to hunker down, they want to look to the future. +They want to spend less and save more. +But saving is exactly the wrong thing to do from the system point of view. +Keynes called this the "paradox of thrift" -- saving slows down recovery. +And politicians call on us continually to draw down more debt, to draw down our own savings even further, just so that we can get the show back on the road, so we can keep this growth-based economy going. +It's an anomaly, it's a place where the system actually is at odds with who we are as people. +Here's another one -- completely different one: Why is it that we don't do the blindingly obvious things we should do to combat climate change, very, very simple things like buying energy-efficient appliances, putting in efficient lights, turning the lights off occasionally, insulating our homes? +These things save carbon, they save energy, they save us money. +So is it that, though they make perfect economic sense, we don't do them? +Well, I had my own personal insight into this a few years ago. +It was a Sunday evening, Sunday afternoon, and it was just after -- actually, to be honest, too long after -- we had moved into a new house. +And I had finally got around to doing some draft stripping, installing insulation around the windows and doors to keep out the drafts. +And my, then, five year-old daughter was helping me in the way that five year-olds do. +And we'd been doing this for a while, when she turned to me very solemnly and said, "Will this really keep out the giraffes?" +"Here they are, the giraffes." +You can hear the five-year-old mind working. +These ones, interestingly, are 400 miles north of here outside Barrow-in-Furness in Cumbria. +Goodness knows what they make of the Lake District weather. +But actually that childish misrepresentation stuck with me, because it suddenly became clear to me why we don't do the blindingly obvious things. +What is the objective? +"What is the objective of the consumer?" +Mary Douglas asked in an essay on poverty written 35 years ago. +"It is," she said, "to help create the social world and find a credible place in it." +That is a deeply humanizing vision of our lives, and it's a completely different vision than the one that lies at the heart of this economic model. +So who are we? +Who are these people? +Are we these novelty-seeking, hedonistic, selfish individuals? +Or might we actually occasionally be something like the selfless altruist depicted in Rembrandt's lovely, lovely sketch here? +Well psychology actually says there is a tension -- a tension between self-regarding behaviors and other regarding behaviors. +And these tensions have deep evolutionary roots, so selfish behavior is adaptive in certain circumstances -- fight or flight. +But other regarding behaviors are essential to our evolution as social beings. +And perhaps even more interesting from our point of view, another tension between novelty-seeking behaviors and tradition or conservation. +Novelty is adaptive when things are changing and you need to adapt yourself. +Tradition is essential to lay down the stability to raise families and form cohesive social groups. +So here, all of a sudden, we're looking at a map of the human heart. +And it reveals to us, suddenly, the crux of the matter. +What we've done is we've created economies. +We've created systems, which systematically privilege, encourage, one narrow quadrant of the human soul and left the others unregarded. +And in the same token, the solution becomes clear, because this isn't, therefore, about changing human nature. +It isn't, in fact, about curtailing possibilities. +It is about opening up. +It is about allowing ourselves the freedom to become fully human, recognizing the depth and the breadth of the human psyche and building institutions to protect Rembrandt's fragile altruist within. +What does all this mean for economics? +What would economies look like if we took that vision of human nature at their heart and stretched them along these orthogonal dimensions of the human psyche? +Well, it might look a little bit like the 4,000 community-interest companies that have sprung up in the U.K. over the last five years and a similar rise in B corporations in the United States, enterprises that have ecological and social goals written into their constitution at their heart -- companies, in fact, like this one, Ecosia. +And I just want to, very quickly, show you this. +Ecosia is an Internet search engine. +Internet search engines work by drawing revenues from sponsored links that appear when you do a search. +And Ecosia works in pretty much the same way. +So we can do that here -- we can just put in a little search term. +There you go, Oxford, that's where we are. See what comes up. +The difference with Ecosia though is that, in Ecosia's case, it draws the revenues in the same way, but it allocates 80 percent of those revenues to a rainforest protection project in the Amazon. +And we're going to do it. +We're just going to click on Naturejobs.uk. +In case anyone out there is looking for a job in a recession, that's the page to go to. +And what happened then was the sponsor gave revenues to Ecosia, and Ecosia is giving 80 percent of those revenues to a rainforest protection project. +It's taking profits from one place and allocating them into the protection of ecological resources. +It's a different kind of enterprise for a new economy. +It's a form, if you like, of ecological altruism -- perhaps something along those lines. Maybe it's that. +Whatever it is, whatever this new economy is, what we need the economy to do, in fact, is to put investment back into the heart of the model, to re-conceive investment. +Only now, investment isn't going to be about the relentless and mindless pursuit of consumption growth. +Investment has to be a different beast. +Investment has to be, in the new economy, protecting and nurturing the ecological assets on which our future depends. +It has to be about transition. +It has to be investing in low-carbon technologies and infrastructures. +We have to invest, in fact, in the idea of a meaningful prosperity, providing capabilities for people to flourish. +And of course, this task has material dimensions. +It would be nonsense to talk about people flourishing if they didn't have food, clothing and shelter. +But it's also clear that prosperity goes beyond this. +It has social and psychological aims -- family, friendship, commitments, society, participating in the life of that society. +And this too requires investment, investment -- for example, in places -- places where we can connect, places where we can participate, shared spaces, concert halls, gardens, public parks, libraries, museums, quiet centers, places of joy and celebration, places of tranquility and contemplation, sites for the "cultivation of a common citizenship," in Michael Sandel's lovely phrase. +An investment -- investment, after all, is just such a basic economic concept -- is nothing more nor less than a relationship between the present and the future, a shared present and a common future. +And we need that relationship to reflect, to reclaim hope. +So let me come back, with this sense of hope, to the two billion people still trying to live each day on less than the price of a skinny latte from the cafe next door. +What can we offer those people? +It's clear that we have a responsibility to help lift them out of poverty. +It's clear that we have a responsibility to make room for growth where growth really matters in those poorest nations. +And it's also clear that we will never achieve that unless we're capable of redefining a meaningful sense of prosperity in the richer nations, a prosperity that is more meaningful and less materialistic than the growth-based model. +So this is not just a Western post-materialist fantasy. +In fact, an African philosopher wrote to me, when "Prosperity Without Growth" was published, pointing out the similarities between this view of prosperity and the traditional African concept of ubuntu. +Ubuntu says, "I am because we are." +Prosperity is a shared endeavor. +Its roots are long and deep -- its foundations, I've tried to show, exist already, inside each of us. +So this is not about standing in the way of development. +It's not about overthrowing capitalism. +It's not about trying to change human nature. +What we're doing here is we're taking a few simple steps towards an economics fit for purpose. +And at the heart of that economics, we're placing a more credible, more robust, and more realistic vision of what it means to be human. +Thank you very much. +Chris Anderson: While they're taking the podium away, just a quick question. +First of all, economists aren't supposed to be inspiring, so you may need to work on the tone a little. +Can you picture the politicians ever buying into this? +I mean, can you picture a politician standing up in Britain and saying, "GDP fell two percent this year. Good news! +We're actually all happier, and a country's more beautiful, and our lives are better." +Tim Jackson: Well that's clearly not what you're doing. +You're not making news out of things falling down. +You're making news out of the things that tell you that we're flourishing. +Can I picture politicians doing it? +Actually, I already am seeing a little bit of it. +When we first started this kind of work, politicians would stand up, treasury spokesmen would stand up, and accuse us of wanting to go back and live in caves. +And actually in the period through which we've been working over the last 18 years -- partly because of the financial crisis and a little bit of humility in the profession of economics -- actually people are engaging in this issue in all sorts of countries around the world. +CA: But is it mainly politicians who are going to have to get their act together, or is it going to be more just civil society and companies? +TJ: It has to be companies. It has to be civil society. +But it has to have political leadership. +This is a kind of agenda, which actually politicians themselves are kind of caught in that dilemma, because they're hooked on the growth model themselves. +But actually opening up the space to think about different ways of governing, different kinds of politics, and creating the space for civil society and businesses to operate differently -- absolutely vital. +CA: And if someone could convince you that we actually can make the -- what was it? -- the 130-fold improvement in efficiency, of reduction of carbon footprint, would you then actually like that picture of economic growth into more knowledge-based goods? +TJ: I would still want to know that you could do that and get below zero by the end of the century, in terms of taking carbon out of the atmosphere, and solve the problem of biodiversity and reduce the impact on land use and do something about the erosion of topsoils and the quality of water. +If you can convince me we can do all that, then, yes, I would take the two percent. +CA: Tim, thank you for a very important talk. Thank you. +I've been fascinated for a lifetime by the beauty, form and function of giant bluefin tuna. +Bluefin are warmblooded like us. +They're the largest of the tunas, the second-largest fish in the sea -- bony fish. +They actually are a fish that is endothermic -- powers through the ocean with warm muscles like a mammal. +That's one of our bluefin at the Monterey Bay Aquarium. +You can see in its shape and its streamlined design it's powered for ocean swimming. +It flies through the ocean on its pectoral fins, gets lift, powers its movements with a lunate tail. +It's actually got a naked skin for most of its body, so it reduces friction with the water. +This is what one of nature's finest machines. +Now, bluefin were revered by Man for all of human history. +For 4,000 years, we fished sustainably for this animal, and it's evidenced in the art that we see from thousands of years ago. +Bluefin are in cave paintings in France. +They're on coins that date back 3,000 years. +This fish was revered by humankind. +It was fished sustainably till all of time, except for our generation. +Bluefin are pursued wherever they go -- there is a gold rush on Earth, and this is a gold rush for bluefin. +There are traps that fish sustainably up until recently. +And yet, the type of fishing going on today, with pens, with enormous stakes, is really wiping bluefin ecologically off the planet. +Now bluefin, in general, goes to one place: Japan. +Some of you may be guilty of having contributed to the demise of bluefin. +They're delectable muscle, rich in fat -- absolutely taste delicious. +And that's their problem; we're eating them to death. +Now in the Atlantic, the story is pretty simple. +Bluefin have two populations: one large, one small. +The North American population is fished at about 2,000 ton. +The European population and North African -- the Eastern bluefin tuna -- is fished at tremendous levels: 50,000 tons over the last decade almost every year. +The result is whether you're looking at the West or the Eastern bluefin population, there's been tremendous decline on both sides, as much as 90 percent if you go back with your baseline to 1950. +For that, bluefin have been given a status equivalent to tigers, to lions, to certain African elephants and to pandas. +These fish have been proposed for an endangered species listing in the past two months. +They were voted on and rejected just two weeks ago, despite outstanding science that shows from two committees this fish meets the criteria of CITES I. +And if it's tunas you don't care about, perhaps you might be interested that international long lines and pursing chase down tunas and bycatch animals such as leatherbacks, sharks, marlin, albatross. +These animals and their demise occurs in the tuna fisheries. +The challenge we face is that we know very little about tuna, and everyone in the room knows what it looks like when an African lion takes down its prey. +I doubt anyone has seen a giant bluefin feed. +This tuna symbolizes what's the problem for all of us in the room. +It's the 21st century, but we really have only just begun to really study our oceans in a deep way. +Technology has come of age that's allowing us to see the Earth from space and go deep into the seas remotely. +And we've got to use these technologies immediately to get a better understanding of how our ocean realm works. +Most of us from the ship -- even I -- look out at the ocean and see this homogeneous sea. +We don't know where the structure is. +We can't tell where are the watering holes like we can on an African plain. +We can't see the corridors, and we can't see what it is that brings together a tuna, a leatherback and an albatross. +We're only just beginning to understand how the physical oceanography and the biological oceanography come together to create a seasonal force that actually causes the upwelling that might make a hot spot a hope spot. +The reasons these challenges are great is that technically it's difficult to go to sea. +It's hard to study a bluefin on its turf, the entire Pacific realm. +It's really tough to get up close and personal with a mako shark and try to put a tag on it. +And then imagine being Bruce Mate's team from OSU, getting up close to a blue whale and fixing a tag on the blue whale that stays, an engineering challenge we've yet to really overcome. +So the story of our team, a dedicated team, is fish and chips. +We basically are taking the same satellite phone parts, or the same parts that are in your computer, chips. +We're putting them together in unusual ways, and this is taking us into the ocean realm like never before. +And for the first time, we're able to watch the journey of a tuna beneath the ocean using light and photons to measure sunrise and sunset. +Now, I've been working with tunas for over 15 years. +I have the privilege of being a partner with the Monterey Bay Aquarium. +We've actually taken a sliver of the ocean, put it behind glass, and we together have put bluefin tuna and yellowfin tuna on display. +When the veil of bubbles lifts every morning, we can actually see a community from the Pelagic ocean, one of the only places on Earth you can see giant bluefin swim by. +We can see in their beauty of form and function, their ceaseless activity. +They're flying through their space, ocean space. +And we can bring two million people a year into contact with this fish and show them its beauty. +Behind the scenes is a working lab at Stanford University partnered with the Monterey Bay Aquarium. +Here, for over 14 or 15 years, we've actually brought in both bluefin and yellowfin in captivity. +We'd been studying these fish, but first we had to learn how to husbandry them. +What do they like to eat? +What is it that they're happy with? +We go in the tanks with the tuna -- we touch their naked skin -- it's pretty amazing. It feels wonderful. +Jeff and Jason there, are scientists who are going to take a tuna and put it in the equivalent of a treadmill, a flume. +And that tuna thinks it's going to Japan, but it's staying in place. +We're actually measuring its oxygen consumption, its energy consumption. +We're taking this data and building better models. +And when I see that tuna -- this is my favorite view -- I begin to wonder: how did this fish solve the longitude problem before we did? +So take a look at that animal. +That's the closest you'll probably ever get. +Now, the activities from the lab have taught us now how to go out in the open ocean. +So in a program called Tag-A-Giant we've actually gone from Ireland to Canada, from Corsica to Spain. +We've fished with many nations around the world in an effort to basically put electronic computers inside giant tunas. +We've actually tagged 1,100 tunas. +And I'm going to show you three clips, because I tagged 1,100 tunas. +It's a very hard process, but it's a ballet. +We bring the tuna out, we measure it. +A team of fishers, captains, scientists and technicians work together to keep this animal out of the ocean for about four to five minutes. +We put water over its gills, give it oxygen. +And then with a lot of effort, after tagging, putting in the computer, making sure the stalk is sticking out so it senses the environment, we send this fish back into the sea. +And when it goes, we're always happy. +We see a flick of the tail. +And from our data that gets collected, when that tag comes back, because a fisher returns it for a thousand-dollar reward, we can get tracks beneath the sea for up to five years now, on a backboned animal. +Now sometimes the tunas are really large, such as this fish off Nantucket. +But that's about half the size of the biggest tuna we've ever tagged. +It takes a human effort, a team effort, to bring the fish in. +In this case, what we're going to do is put a pop-up satellite archival tag on the tuna. +This tag rides on the tuna, senses the environment around the tuna and actually will come off the fish, detach, float to the surface and send back to Earth-orbiting satellites position data estimated by math on the tag, pressure data and temperature data. +And so what we get then from the pop-up satellite tag is we get away from having to have a human interaction to recapture the tag. +Both the electronic tags I'm talking about are expensive. +These tags have been engineered by a variety of teams in North America. +They are some of our finest instruments, our new technology in the ocean today. +One community in general has given more to help us than any other community. +And that's the fisheries off the state of North Carolina. +There are two villages, Harris and Morehead City, every winter for over a decade, held a party called Tag-A-Giant, and together, fishers worked with us to tag 800 to 900 fish. +In this case, we're actually going to measure the fish. +We're going to do something that in recent years we've started: take a mucus sample. +Watch how shiny the skin is; you can see my reflection there. +And from that mucus, we can get gene profiles, we can get information on gender, checking the pop-up tag one more time, and then it's out in the ocean. +And this is my favorite. +With the help of my former postdoc, Gareth Lawson, this is a gorgeous picture of a single tuna. +This tuna is actually moving on a numerical ocean. +The warm is the Gulf Stream, the cold up there in the Gulf of Maine. +That's where the tuna wants to go -- it wants to forage on schools of herring -- but it can't get there. It's too cold. +But then it warms up, and the tuna pops in, gets some fish, maybe comes back to home base, goes in again and then comes back to winter down there in North Carolina and then on to the Bahamas. +And my favorite scene, three tunas going into the Gulf of Mexico. +Three tunas tagged. +Astronomically, we're calculating positions. +They're coming together. That could be tuna sex -- and there it is. +That is where the tuna spawn. +So from data like this, we're able now to put the map up, and in this map you see thousands of positions generated by this decade and a half of tagging. +And now we're showing that tunas on the western side go to the eastern side. +So two populations of tunas -- that is, we have a Gulf population, one that we can tag -- they go to the Gulf of Mexico, I showed you that -- and a second population. +Living amongst our tunas -- our North American tunas -- are European tunas that go back to the Med. +On the hot spots -- the hope spots -- they're mixed populations. +And so what we've done with the science is we're showing the International Commission, building new models, showing them that a two-stock no-mixing model -- to this day, used to reject the CITES treaty -- that model isn't the right model. +This model, a model of overlap, is the way to move forward. +So we can then predict where management places should be. +Places like the Gulf of Mexico and the Mediterranean are places where the single species, the single population, can be captured. +These become forthright in places we need to protect. +The center of the Atlantic where the mixing is, I could imagine a policy that lets Canada and America fish, because they manage their fisheries well, they're doing a good job. +But in the international realm, where fishing and overfishing has really gone wild, these are the places that we have to make hope spots in. +That's the size they have to be to protect the bluefin tuna. +Now in a second project called Tagging of Pacific Pelagics, we took on the planet as a team, those of us in the Census of Marine Life. +And, funded primarily through Sloan Foundation and others, we were able to actually go in, in our project -- we're one of 17 field programs and begin to take on tagging large numbers of predators, not just tunas. +That satellite tag will now have your shark phone home and send in a message. +And that shark leaping there, if you look carefully, has an antenna. +It's a free swimming shark with a satellite tag jumping after salmon, sending home its data. +Salmon sharks aren't the only sharks we tag. +But there goes salmon sharks with this meter-level resolution on an ocean of temperature -- warm colors are warmer. +Salmon sharks go down to the tropics to pup and come into Monterey. +Now right next door in Monterey and up at the Farallones are a white shark team led by Scott Anderson -- there -- and Sal Jorgensen. +They can throw out a target -- it's a carpet shaped like a seal -- and in will come a white shark, a curious critter that will come right up to our 16-ft. boat. +It's a several thousand-pound animal. +And we'll wind in the target. +And we'll place an acoustic tag that says, "OMSHARK 10165," or something like that, acoustically with a ping. +And then we'll put on a satellite tag that will give us the long-distance journeys with the light-based geolocation algorithms solved on the computer that's on the fish. +So in this case, Sal's looking at two tags there, and there they are: the white sharks of California going off to the white shark cafe and coming back. +We also tag makos with our NOAA colleagues, blue sharks. +And now, together, what we can see on this ocean of color that's temperature, we can see ten-day worms of makos and salmon sharks. +We have white sharks and blue sharks. +For the first time, an ecoscape as large as ocean-scale, showing where the sharks go. +The tuna team from TOPP has done the unthinkable: three teams tagged 1,700 tunas, bluefin, yellowfin and albacore all at the same time -- carefully rehearsed tagging programs in which we go out, pick up juvenile tunas, put in the tags that actually have the sensors, stick out the tuna and then let them go. +They get returned, and when they get returned, here on a NASA numerical ocean you can see bluefin in blue go across their corridor, returning to the Western Pacific. +Our team from UCSC has tagged elephant seals with tags that are glued on their heads, that come off when they slough. +These elephant seals cover half an ocean, take data down to 1,800 feet -- amazing data. +And then there's Scott Shaffer and our shearwaters wearing tuna tags, light-based tags, that now are going to take you from New Zealand to Monterey and back, journeys of 35,000 nautical miles we had never seen before. +But now with light-based geolocation tags that are very small, we can actually see these journeys. +Same thing with Laysan albatross who travel an entire ocean on a trip sometimes, up to the same zone the tunas use. +You can see why they might be caught. +Then there's George Schillinger and our leatherback team out of Playa Grande tagging leatherbacks that go right past where we are. +And Scott Benson's team that showed that leatherbacks go from Indonesia all the way to Monterey. +So what we can see on this moving ocean is we can finally see where the predators are. +We can actually see how they're using ecospaces as large as an ocean. +And from this information, we can begin to map the hope spots. +So this is just three years of data right here -- and there's a decade of this data. +We see the pulse and the seasonal activities that these animals are going on. +So what we're able to do with this information is boil it down to hot spots, 4,000 deployments, a huge herculean task, 2,000 tags in an area, shown here for the first time, off the California coast, that appears to be a gathering place. +And then for sort of an encore from these animals, they're helping us. +They're carrying instruments that are actually taking data down to 2,000 meters. +They're taking information from our planet at very critical places like Antarctica and the Poles. +Those are seals from many countries being released who are sampling underneath the ice sheets and giving us temperature data of oceanographic quality on both poles. +This data, when visualized, is captivating to watch. +We still haven't figured out best how to visualize the data. +And then, as these animals swim and give us the information that's important to climate issues, we also think it's critical to get this information to the public, to engage the public with this kind of data. +We did this with the Great Turtle Race -- tagged turtles, brought in four million hits. +And now with Google's Oceans, we can actually put a white shark in that ocean. +And when we do and it swims, we see this magnificent bathymetry that the shark knows is there on its path as it goes from California to Hawaii. +But maybe Mission Blue can fill in that ocean that we can't see. +We've got the capacity, NASA has the ocean. +We just need to put it together. +So in conclusion, we know where Yellowstone is for North America; it's off our coast. +We have the technology that's shown us where it is. +What we need to think about perhaps for Mission Blue is increasing the biologging capacity. +How is it that we can actually take this type of activity elsewhere? +And then finally -- to basically get the message home -- maybe use live links from animals such as blue whales and white sharks. +Make killer apps, if you will. +A lot of people are excited when sharks actually went under the Golden Gate Bridge. +Let's connect the public to this activity right on their iPhone. +That way we do away with a few internet myths. +So we can save the bluefin tuna. +We can save the white shark. +We have the science and technology. +Hope is here. Yes we can. +We need just to apply this capacity further in the oceans. +Thank you. +We are here today because [the] United Nations have defined goals for the progress of countries. +They're called Millennium Development Goals. +And the reason I really like these goals is that there are eight of them. +And by specifying eight different goals, the United Nations has said that there are so many things needed to change in a country in order to get the good life for people. +Look here -- you have to end poverty, education, gender, child and maternal health, control infections, protect the environment and get the good global links between nations in every aspect from aid to trade. +There's a second reason I like these development goals, and that is because each and every one is measured. +Take child mortality; the aim here is to reduce child mortality by two-thirds, from 1990 to 2015. +That's a four percent reduction per year -- and this, with measuring. +That's what makes the difference between political talking like this and really going for the important thing, a better life for people. +And what I'm so happy about with this is that we have already documented that there are many countries in Asia, in the Middle East, in Latin America and East Europe that [are] reducing with this rate. +And even mighty Brazil is going down with five percent per year, and Turkey with seven percent per year. +So there's good news. +But then I hear people saying, "There is no progress in Africa. +And there's not even statistics on Africa to know what is happening." +I'll prove them wrong on both points. +Come with me to the wonderful world of statistics. +I bring you to the webpage, ChildMortality.org, where you can take deaths in children below five years of age for all countries -- it's done by U.N. specialists. +And I will take Kenya as an example. +Here you see the data. +Don't panic -- don't panic now, I'll help you through this. +It looks nasty, like in college when you didn't like statistics. +But first thing, when you see dots like this, you have to ask yourself: from where do the data come? +What is the origin of the data? +Is it so that in Kenya, there are doctors and other specialists who write the death certificate at the death of the child and it's sent to the statistical office? +No -- low-income countries like Kenya still don't have that level of organization. +It exists, but it's not complete because so many deaths occur in the home with the family, and it's not registered. +What we rely on is not an incomplete system. +We have interviews, we have surveys. +And this is highly professional female interviewers who sit down for one hour with a woman and ask her about [her] birth history. +How many children did you have? +Are they alive? +If they died, at what age and what year? +And then this is done in a representative sample of thousands of women in the country and put together in what used to be called a demographic health survey report. +But these surveys are costly, so they can only be done [in] three- to five-year intervals. +But they have good quality. +So this is a limitation. +And all these colored lines here are results; each color is one survey. +But that's too complicated for today, so I'll simplify it for you, and I give you one average point for each survey. +This was 1977, 1988, 1992, '97 and 2002. +And when the experts in the U.N. +have got these surveys in place in their database, then they use advanced mathematical formulas to produce a trend line, and the trend line looks like this. +See here -- it's the best fit they can get of this point. +But watch out -- they continue the line beyond the last point out into nothing. +And they estimated that in 2008, Kenya had per child mortality of 128. +And I was sad, because we could see this reversal in Kenya with an increased child mortality in the 90s. +It was so tragic. +But in June, I got a mail in my inbox from Demographic Health Surveys, and it showed good news from Kenya. +I was so happy. +This was the estimate of the new survey. +Then it just took another three months for [the] U.N. to get it into their server, and on Friday we got the new trend line -- it was down here. +Isn't it nice -- isn't it nice, yeah? +I was actually, on Friday, sitting in front of my computer, and I saw the death rate fall from 128 to 84 just that morning. +So we celebrated. +But now, when you have this trend line, how do we measure progress? +I'm going into some details here, because [the] U.N. do it like this. +They start [in] 1990 -- they measure to 2009. +They say, "0.9 percent, no progress." +That's unfair. +As a professor, I think I have the right to propose something differently. +I would say, at least do this -- 10 years is enough to follow the trend. +It's two surveys, and you can see what's happening now. +They have 2.4 percent. +Had I been in the Ministry of Health in Kenya, I may have joined these two points. +So what I'm telling you is that we know the child mortality. +We have a decent trend. +It's coming into some tricky things then when we are measuring MDGs. +And the reason here for Africa is especially important, because '90s was a bad decade, not only in Kenya, but across Africa. +The HIV epidemic peaked. +There was resistance for the old malaria drugs, until we got the new drugs. +We got, later, the mosquito netting. +And there was socio-economic problems, which are now being solved at a much better scale. +So look at the average here -- this is the average for all of sub-Saharan Africa. +And [the] U.N. says it's a reduction with 1.8 percent. +Now this sounds a little theoretical, but it's not so theoretical. +You know, these economists, they love money, they want more and more of it, they want it to grow. +So they calculate the percent annual growth rate of [the] economy. +We in public health, we hate child death, so we want less and less and less of child deaths. +So we calculate the percent reduction per year, but it's sort of the same percentage. +If your economy grows with four percent, you ought to reduce child mortality four percent; if it's used well and people are really involved and can get the use of the resources in the way they want it. +So is this fair now to measure this over 19 years? +An economist would never do that. +I have just divided it into two periods. +In the 90s, only 1.2 percent, only 1.2 percent. +Whereas now, second gear -- it's like Africa had first gear, now they go into second gear. +But even this is not a fair representation of Africa, because it's an average, it's an average speed of reduction in Africa. +And look here when I take you into my bubble graphs. +Still here, child death per 1,000 on that axis. +Here we have [the] year. +And I'm now giving you a wider picture than the MDG. +I start 50 years ago when Africa celebrated independence in most countries. +I give you Congo, which was high, Ghana -- lower. And Kenya -- even lower. +And what has happened over the years since then? Here we go. +You can see, with independence, literacy improved and vaccinations started, smallpox was eradicated, hygiene was improved, and things got better. +But then, in the '80s, watch out here. +Congo got into civil war, and they leveled off here. +Ghana got very ahead, fast. +This was the backlash in Kenya, and Ghana bypassed, but then Kenya and Ghana go down together -- still a standstill in Congo. +That's where we are today. +You can see it doesn't make sense to make an average of this zero improvement and this very fast improvement. +Time has come to stop thinking about sub-Saharan Africa as one place. +Their countries are so different, and they merit to be recognized in the same way, as we don't talk about Europe as one place. +I can tell you that the economy in Greece and Sweden are very different -- everyone knows that. +And they are judged, each country, on how they are doing. +So let me show the wider picture. +My country, Sweden: 1800, we were up there. +What a strange personality disorder we must have, counting the children so meticulously in spite of a high child death rate. +It's very strange. It's sort of embarrassing. +But we had that habit in Sweden, you know, that we counted all the child deaths, even if we didn't do anything about it. +And then, you see, these were famine years. +These were bad years, and people got fed up with Sweden. +My ancestors moved to the United States. +And eventually, soon they started to get better and better here. +And here we got better education, and we got health service, and child mortality came down. +We never had a war; Sweden was in peace all this time. +But look, the rate of lowering in Sweden was not fast. +Sweden achieved a low child mortality because we started early. +We had primary school actually started in 1842. +And then you get that wonderful effect when we got female literacy one generation later. +You have to realize that the investments we do in progress are long-term investments. +It's not about just five years -- it's long-term investments. +And Sweden never reached [the] Millennium Development Goal rate, 3.1 percent when I calculated. +So we are off track -- that's what Sweden is. +But you don't talk about it so much. +We want others to be better than we were, and indeed, others have been better. +Let me show you Thailand, see what a success story, Thailand from the 1960s -- how they went down here and reached almost the same child mortality levels as Sweden. +And I'll give you another story -- Egypt, the most hidden, glorious success in public health. +Egypt was up here in 1960, higher than Congo. +The Nile Delta was a misery for children with diarrheal disease and malaria and a lot of problems. +And then they got the Aswan Dam. They got electricity in their homes, they increased education and they got primary health care. +And down they went, you know. +And they got safer water, they eradicated malaria. +And isn't it a success story. +Millennium Development Goal rates for child mortality is fully possible. +And the good thing is that Ghana today is going with the same rate as Egypt did at its fastest. +Kenya is now speeding up. +Here we have a problem. +We have a severe problem in countries which are at a standstill. +Now, let me now bring you to a wider picture, a wider picture of child mortality. +I'm going to show you the relationship between child mortality on this axis here -- this axis here is child mortality -- and here I have the family size. +The relationship between child mortality and family size. +One, two, three, four children per woman: six, seven, eight children per woman. +This is, once again, 1960 -- 50 years ago. +Each bubble is a country -- the color, you can see, a continent. +The dark blue here is sub-Saharan Africa. +And the size of the bubble is the population. +And these are the so-called "developing" countries. +They had high, or very high, child mortality and family size, six to eight. +And the ones over there, they were so-called Western countries. +They had low child mortality and small families. +What has happened? +What I want you [to do] now is to see with your own eyes the relation between fall in child mortality and decrease in family size. +I just want not to have any room for doubt -- you have to see that for yourself. +This is what happened. Now I start the world. +Here we come down with the eradication of smallpox, better education, health service. +It got down there -- China comes into the Western box here. +And here Brazil is in the Western Box. +India is approaching. The first African countries coming into the Western box, and we get a lot a new neighbors. +Welcome to a decent life. +Come on. We want everyone down there. +This is the vision we have, isn't it. +And look now, the first African countries here are coming in. +There we are today. +There is no such thing as a "Western world" and "developing world." +This is the report from [the] U.N., which came out on Friday. +It's very good -- "Levels and Trends in Child Mortality" -- except this page. +This page is very bad; it's a categorization of countries. +It labels "developing countries," -- I can read from the list here -- developing countries: Republic of Korea -- South Korea. +Huh? +They get Samsung, how can they be [a] developing country? +They have here Singapore. +They have the lowest child mortality in the world, Singapore. +They bypassed Sweden five years ago, and they are labeled a developing country. +They have here Qatar. +It's the richest country in the world with Al Jazeera. +How the heck could they be [a] developing country? +This is crap. +The rest here is good -- the rest is good. +We have to have a modern concept, which fits to the data. +And we have to realize that we are all going to into this, down to here. +What is the importance now with the relations here. +Look -- even if we look in Africa -- these are the African countries. +You can clearly see the relation with falling child mortality and decreasing family size, even within Africa. +It's very clear that this is what happens. +And a very important piece of research came out on Friday from the Institute of Health Metrics and Evaluation in Seattle showing that almost 50 percent of the fall in child mortality can be attributed to female education. +That is, when we get girls in school, we'll get an impact 15 to 20 years later, which is a secular trend which is very strong. +That's why we must have that long-term perspective, but we must measure the impact over 10-year periods. +It's fully possible to get child mortality down in all of these countries and to get them down in the corner where we all would like to live together. +And of course, lowering child mortality is a matter of utmost importance from humanitarian aspects. +It's a decent life for children, But it is also a strategic investment in the future of all mankind, because it's about the environment. +We will not be able to manage the environment and avoid the terrible climate crisis if we don't stabilize the world population. +Let's be clear about that. +And the way to do that, that is to get child mortality down, get access to family planning and behind that drive female education. +And that is fully possible. Let's do it. +Thank you very much. +Imagine, if you will -- a gift. +I'd like for you to picture it in your mind. +It's not too big -- about the size of a golf ball. +So envision what it looks like all wrapped up. +But before I show you what's inside, I will tell you, it's going to do incredible things for you. +It will bring all of your family together. +You will feel loved and appreciated like never before and reconnect with friends and acquaintances you haven't heard from in years. +Adoration and admiration will overwhelm you. +It will recalibrate what's most important in your life. +It will redefine your sense of spirituality and faith. +You'll have a new understanding and trust in your body. +You'll have unsurpassed vitality and energy. +You'll expand your vocabulary, meet new people, and you'll have a healthier lifestyle. +And get this -- you'll have an eight-week vacation of doing absolutely nothing. +You'll eat countless gourmet meals. +Flowers will arrive by the truckload. +People will say to you, "You look great. Have you had any work done?" +And you'll have a lifetime supply of good drugs. +You'll be challenged, inspired, motivated and humbled. +Your life will have new meaning. +Peace, health, serenity, happiness, nirvana. +The price? +$55,000, and that's an incredible deal. +By now I know you're dying to know what it is and where you can get one. +Does Amazon carry it? +Does it have the Apple logo on it? +Is there a waiting list? +Not likely. +This gift came to me about five months ago. +It looked more like this when it was all wrapped up -- not quite so pretty. +And this, and then this. +It was a rare gem -- a brain tumor, hemangioblastoma -- the gift that keeps on giving. +And while I'm okay now, I wouldn't wish this gift for you. +I'm not sure you'd want it. +But I wouldn't change my experience. +It profoundly altered my life in ways I didn't expect in all the ways I just shared with you. +So the next time you're faced with something that's unexpected, unwanted and uncertain, consider that it just may be a gift. +Sometimes I go browsing [through] a very old magazine. +I found this observation test about the story of the ark. +And the artist that drew this observation test did some errors, had some mistakes -- there are more or less 12 mistakes. +Some of them are very easy. +There is a funnel, an aerial part, a lamp and clockwork key on the ark. +Some of them are about the animals, the number. +But there is a much more fundamental mistake in the overall story of the ark that's not reported here. +And this problem is: where are the plants? +So now we have God that is going to submerge Earth permanently or at least for a very long period, and no one is taking care of plants. +Noah needed to take two of every kind of bird, of every kind of animal, of every kind of creature that moves, but no mention about plants. +Why? +In another part of the same story, all the living creatures are just the living creatures that came out from the ark, so birds, livestock and wild animals. +Plants are not living creatures -- this is the point. +That is a point that is not coming out from the Bible, but it's something that really accompanied humanity. +Let's have a look at this nice code that is coming from a Renaissance book. +Here we have the description of the order of nature. +It's a nice description because it's starting from left -- you have the stones -- immediately after the stones, the plants that are just able to live. +We have the animals that are able to live and to sense, and on the top of the pyramid, there is the man. +This is not the common man. +The "Homo studiosus" -- the studying man. +This is quite comforting for people like me -- I'm a professor -- this to be over there on the top of creation. +But it's something completely wrong. +You know very well about professors. +But it's also wrong about plants, because plants are not just able to live; they are able to sense. +They are much more sophisticated in sensing than animals. +Just to give you an example, every single root apex is able to detect and to monitor concurrently and continuously at least 15 different chemical and physical parameters. +And they also are able to show and to exhibit such a wonderful and complex behavior that can be described just with the term of intelligence. +Well, but this is something -- this underestimation of plants is something that is always with us. +Let's have a look at this short movie now. +We have David Attenborough. +Now David Attenborough is really a plant lover; he did some of the most beautiful movies about plant behavior. +Now, when he speaks about plants, everything is correct. +When he speaks about animals, [he] tends to remove the fact that plants exist. +The blue whale, the biggest creature that exists on the planet -- that is wrong, completely wrong. +The blue whale, it's a dwarf if compared with the real biggest creature that exists on the planet -- that is, this wonderful, magnificent Sequoiadendron giganteum. +And this is a living organism that has a mass of at least 2,000 tons. +Now, the story that plants are some low-level organisms has been formalized many times ago by Aristotle, that in "De Anima" -- that is a very influential book for the Western civilization -- wrote that the plants are on the edge between living and not living. +They have just a kind of very low-level soul. +It's called the vegetative soul, because they lack movement, and so they don't need to sense. +Let's see. +Okay, some of the movements of the plants are very well-known. +This is a very fast movement. +This is a Dionaea, a Venus fly trap hunting snails -- sorry for the snail. +This has been something that has been refused for centuries, despite the evidence. +No one can say that the plants were able to eat an animal, because it was against the order of nature. +But plants are also able to show a lot of movement. +Some of them are very well known, like the flowering. +It's just a question to use some techniques like the time lapse. +Some of them are much more sophisticated. +Look at this young bean that is moving to catch the light every time. +And it's really so graceful; it's like a dancing angel. +They are also able to play -- they are really playing. +These are young sunflowers, and what they are doing cannot be described with any other terms than playing. +They are training themselves, as many young animals do, to the adult life where they will be called to track the sun all the day. +They are able to respond to gravity, of course, so the shoots are growing against the vector of gravity and the roots toward the vector of gravity. +But they are also able to sleep. +This is one, Mimosa pudica. +So during the night, they curl the leaves and reduce the movement, and during the day, you have the opening of the leaves -- there is much more movement. +This is interesting because this sleeping machinery, it's perfectly conserved. +It's the same in plants, in insects and in animals. +And so if you need to study this sleeping problem, it's easy to study on plants, for example, than in animals and it's much more easy even ethically. +It's a kind of vegetarian experimentation. +Plants are even able to communicate -- they are extraordinary communicators. +They communicate with other plants. +They are able to distinguish kin and non-kin. +They communicate with plants of other species and they communicate with animals by producing chemical volatiles, for example, during the pollination. +Now with the pollination, it's a very serious issue for plants, because they move the pollen from one flower to the other, yet they cannot move from one flower to the other. +So they need a vector -- and this vector, it's normally an animal. +Many insects have been used by plants as vectors for the transport of the pollination, but not just insects; even birds, reptiles, and mammals like bats rats are normally used for the transportation of the pollen. +This is a serious business. +We have the plants that are giving to the animals a kind of sweet substance -- very energizing -- having in change this transportation of the pollen. +But some plants are manipulating animals, like in the case of orchids that promise sex and nectar and give in change nothing for the transportation of the pollen. +Now, there is a big problem behind all this behavior that we have seen. +How is it possible to do this without a brain? +We need to wait until 1880, when this big man, Charles Darwin, publishes a wonderful, astonishing book that starts a revolution. +The title is "The Power of Movement in Plants." +No one was allowed to speak about movement in plants before Charles Darwin. +In his book, assisted by his son, Francis -- who was the first professor of plant physiology in the world, in Cambridge -- they took into consideration every single movement for 500 pages. +And in the last paragraph of the book, it's a kind of stylistic mark, because normally Charles Darwin stored, in the last paragraph of a book, the most important message. +He wrote that, "It's hardly an exaggeration to say that the tip of the radical acts like the brain of one of the lower animals." +This is not a metaphor. +He wrote some very interesting letters to one of his friends who was J.D. Hooker, or at that time, president of the Royal Society, so the maximum scientific authority in Britain speaking about the brain in the plants. +Now, this is a root apex growing against a slope. +So you can recognize this kind of movement, the same movement that worms, snakes and every animal that are moving on the ground without legs is able to display. +And it's not an easy movement because, to have this kind of movement, you need to move different regions of the root and to synchronize these different regions without having a brain. +So we studied the root apex and we found that there is a specific region that is here, depicted in blue -- that is called the "transition zone." +And this region, it's a very small region -- it's less than one millimeter. +And in this small region you have the highest consumption of oxygen in the plants and more important, you have these kinds of signals here. +The signals that you are seeing here are action potential, are the same signals that the neurons of my brain, of our brain, use to exchange information. +Now we know that a root apex has just a few hundred cells that show this kind of feature, but we know how big the root apparatus of a small plant, like a plant of rye. +We have almost 14 million roots. +We have 11 and a half million root apex and a total length of 600 or more kilometers and a very high surface area. +Now let's imagine that each single root apex is working in network with all the others. +Here were have on the left, the Internet and on the right, the root apparatus. +They work in the same way. +They are a network of small computing machines, working in networks. +And why are they so similar? +Because they evolved for the same reason: to survive predation. +They work in the same way. +So you can remove 90 percent of the root apparatus and the plants [continue] to work. +You can remove 90 percent of the Internet and it is [continuing] to work. +So, a suggestion for the people working with networks: plants are able to give you good suggestions about how to evolve networks. +And another possibility is a technological possibility. +Let's imagine that we can build robots and robots that are inspired by plants. +Until now, the man was inspired just by man or the animals in producing a robot. +We have the animaloid -- and the normal robots inspired by animals, insectoid, so on. +We have the androids that are inspired by man. +But why have we not any plantoid? +Well, if you want to fly, it's good that you look at birds -- to be inspired by birds. +But if you want to explore soils, or if you want to colonize new territory, to best thing that you can do is to be inspired by plants that are masters in doing this. +We have another possibility we are working [on] in our lab, [which] is to build hybrids. +It's much more easy to build hybrids. +Hybrid means it's something that's half living and half machine. +It's much more easy to work with plants than with animals. +They have computing power, they have electrical signals. +The connection with the machine is much more easy, much more even ethically possible. +And these are three possibilities that we are working on to build hybrids, driven by algae or by the leaves at the end, by the most, most powerful parts of the plants, by the roots. +Well, thank you for your attention. +And before I finish, I would like to reassure that no snails were harmed in making this presentation. +Thank you. +One of my favorite parts of my job at the Gates Foundation is that I get to travel to the developing world, and I do that quite regularly. +And when I meet the mothers in so many of these remote places, I'm really struck by the things that we have in common. +They want what we want for our children and that is for their children to grow up successful, to be healthy, and to have a successful life. +But I also see lots of poverty, and it's quite jarring, both in the scale and the scope of it. +My first trip in India, I was in a person's home where they had dirt floors, no running water, no electricity, and that's really what I see all over the world. +So in short, I'm startled by all the things that they don't have. +But I am surprised by one thing that they do have: Coca-Cola. +Coke is everywhere. +In fact, when I travel to the developing world, Coke feels ubiquitous. +And so when I come back from these trips, and I'm thinking about development, and I'm flying home and I'm thinking, "We're trying to deliver condoms to people or vaccinations," you know, Coke's success kind of stops and makes you wonder: how is it that they can get Coke to these far-flung places? +If they can do that, why can't governments and NGOs do the same thing? +And I'm not the first person to ask this question. +But I think, as a community, we still have a lot to learn. +It's staggering, if you think about Coca-Cola. +They sell 1.5 billion servings every single day. +That's like every man, woman and child on the planet having a serving of Coke every week. +So why does this matter? +Well, if we're going to speed up the progress and go even faster on the set of Millennium Development Goals that we're set as a world, we need to learn from the innovators, and those innovators come from every single sector. +I feel that, if we can understand what makes something like Coca-Cola ubiquitous, we can apply those lessons then for the public good. +Coke's success is relevant, because if we can analyze it, learn from it, then we can save lives. +So that's why I took a bit of time to study Coke. +And I think there are really three things we can take away from Coca-Cola. +They take real-time data and immediately feed it back into the product. +They tap into local entrepreneurial talent, and they do incredible marketing. +So let's start with the data. +Now Coke has a very clear bottom line -- they report to a set of shareholders, they have to turn a profit. +So they take the data, and they use it to measure progress. +They have this very continuous feedback loop. +They learn something, they put it back into the product, they put it back into the market. +They have a whole team called "Knowledge and Insight." +It's a lot like other consumer companies. +So if you're running Namibia for Coca-Cola, and you have a 107 constituencies, you know where every can versus bottle of Sprite, Fanta or Coke was sold, whether it was a corner store, a supermarket or a pushcart. +So if sales start to drop, then the person can identify the problem and address the issue. +Let's contrast that for a minute to development. +In development, the evaluation comes at the very end of the project. +I've sat in a lot of those meetings, and by then, it is way too late to use the data. +I had somebody from an NGO once describe it to me as bowling in the dark. +They said, "You roll the ball, you hear some pins go down. +It's dark, you can't see which one goes down until the lights come on, and then you an see your impact." +Real-time data turns on the lights. +So what's the second thing that Coke's good at? +They're good at tapping into that local entrepreneurial talent. +Coke's been in Africa since 1928, but most of the time they couldn't reach the distant markets, because they had a system that was a lot like in the developed world, which was a large truck rolling down the street. +And in Africa, the remote places, it's hard to find a good road. +But Coke noticed something -- they noticed that local people were taking the product, buying it in bulk and then reselling it in these hard-to-reach places. +And so they took a bit of time to learn about that. +And they decided in 1990 that they wanted to start training the local entrepreneurs, giving them small loans. +They set them up as what they called micro-distribution centers, and those local entrepreneurs then hire sales people, who go out with bicycles and pushcarts and wheelbarrows to sell the product. +There are now some 3,000 of these centers employing about 15,000 people in Africa. +In Tanzania and Uganda, they represent 90 percent of Coke's sales. +Let's look at the development side. +What is it that governments and NGOs can learn from Coke? +Governments and NGOs need to tap into that local entrepreneurial talent as well, because the locals know how to reach the very hard-to-serve places, their neighbors, and they know what motivates them to make change. +I think a great example of this is Ethiopia's new health extension program. +The government noticed in Ethiopia that many of the people were so far away from a health clinic, they were over a day's travel away from a health clinic. +So if you're in an emergency situation -- or if you're a mom about to deliver a baby -- forget it, to get to the health care center. +They decided that wasn't good enough, so they went to India and studied the Indian state of Kerala that also had a system like this, and they adapted it for Ethiopia. +And in 2003, the government of Ethiopia started this new system in their own country. +They trained 35,000 health extension workers to deliver care directly to the people. +In just five years, their ratio went from one worker for every 30,000 people to one worker for every 2,500 people. +Now, think about how this can change people's lives. +Health extension workers can help with so many things, whether it's family planning, prenatal care, immunizations for the children, or advising the woman to get to the facility on time for an on-time delivery. +That is having real impact in a country like Ethiopia, and it's why you see their child mortality numbers coming down 25 percent from 2000 to 2008. +In Ethiopia, there are hundreds of thousands of children living because of this health extension worker program. +So what's the next step for Ethiopia? +Well, they're already starting talk about this. +They're starting to talk about, "How do you have the health community workers generate their own ideas? +How do you incent them based on the impact that they're getting out in those remote villages?" +That's how you tap into local entrepreneurial talent and you unlock people's potential. +The third component of Coke's success is marketing. +Ultimately, Coke's success depends on one crucial fact and that is that people want a Coca-Cola. +Now the reason these micro-entrepreneurs can sell or make a profit is they have to sell every single bottle in their pushcart or their wheelbarrow. +So, they rely on Coca-Cola in terms of its marketing, and what's the secret to their marketing? +Well, it's aspirational. +It is associated that product with a kind of life that people want to live. +So even though it's a global company, they take a very local approach. +Coke's global campaign slogan is "Open Happiness." +But they localize it. +And they don't just guess what makes people happy; they go to places like Latin America and they realize that happiness there is associated with family life. +And in South Africa, they associate happiness with seriti or community respect. +Now, that played itself out in the World Cup campaign. +Let's listen to this song that Coke created for it, "Wavin' Flag" by a Somali hip hop artist. +Well, they didn't stop there -- they localized it into 18 different languages. +And it went number one on the pop chart in 17 countries. +It reminds me of a song that I remember from my childhood, "I'd Like to Teach the World to Sing," that also went number one on the pop charts. +Both songs have something in common: that same appeal of celebration and unity. +So how does health and development market? +Well, it's based on avoidance, not aspirations. +I'm sure you've heard some of these messages. +"Use a condom, don't get AIDS." +"Wash you hands, you might not get diarrhea." +It doesn't sound anything like "Wavin' Flag" to me. +And I think we make a fundamental mistake -- we make an assumption, that we think that, if people need something, we don't have to make them want that. +And I think that's a mistake. +And there's some indications around the world that this is starting to change. +One example is sanitation. +We know that a million and a half children die a year from diarrhea and a lot of it is because of open defecation. +But there's a solution: you build a toilet. +But what we're finding around the world, over and over again, is, if you build a toilet and you leave it there, it doesn't get used. +People reuse it for a slab for their home. +They sometimes store grain in it. +I've even seen it used for a chicken coop. +But what does marketing really entail that would make a sanitation solution get a result in diarrhea? +Well, you work with the community. +You start to talk to them about why open defecation is something that shouldn't be done in the village, and they agree to that. +But then you take the toilet and you position it as a modern, trendy convenience. +One state in Northern India has gone so far as to link toilets to courtship. +And it works -- look at these headlines. +I'm not kidding. +Women are refusing to marry men without toilets. +No loo, no "I do." +Now, it's not just a funny headline -- it's innovative. It's an innovative marketing campaign. +But more importantly, it saves lives. +Take a look at this -- this is a room full of young men and my husband, Bill. +And can you guess what the young men are waiting for? +They're waiting to be circumcised. +Can you you believe that? +We know that circumcision reduces HIV infection by 60 percent in men. +And when we first heard this result inside the Foundation, I have to admit, Bill and I were scratching our heads a little bit and we were saying, "But who's going to volunteer for this procedure?" +But it turns out the men do, because they're hearing from their girlfriends that they prefer it, and the men also believe it improves their sex life. +So if we can start to understand what people really want in health and development, we can change communities and we can change whole nations. +Well, why is all of this so important? +So let's talk about what happens when this all comes together, when you tie the three things together. +And polio, I think, is one of the most powerful examples. +We've seen a 99 percent reduction in polio in 20 years. +So if you look back to 1988, there are about 350,000 cases of polio on the planet that year. +In 2009, we're down to 1,600 cases. +Well how did that happen? +Let's look at a country like India. +They have over a billion people in this country, but they have 35,000 local doctors who report paralysis, and clinicians, a huge reporting system in chemists. +They have two and a half million vaccinators. +But let me make the story a little bit more concrete for you. +Let me tell you the story of Shriram, an 18 month boy in Bihar, a northern state in India. +This year on August 8th, he felt paralysis and on the 13th, his parents took him to the doctor. +On August 14th and 15th, they took a stool sample, and by the 25th of August, it was confirmed he had Type 1 polio. +By August 30th, a genetic test was done, and we knew what strain of polio Shriram had. +Now it could have come from one of two places. +It could have come from Nepal, just to the north, across the border, or from Jharkhand, a state just to the south. +Luckily, the genetic testing proved that, in fact, this strand came north, because, had it come from the south, it would have had a much wider impact in terms of transmission. +So many more people would have been affected. +So what's the endgame? +Well on September 4th, there was a huge mop-up campaign, which is what you do in polio. +They went out and where Shriram lives, they vaccinated two million people. +So in less than a month, we went from one case of paralysis to a targeted vaccination program. +And I'm happy to say only one other person in that area got polio. +That's how you keep a huge outbreak from spreading, and it shows what can happen when local people have the data in their hands; they can save lives. +Now one of the challenges in polio, still, is marketing, but it might not be what you think. +It's not the marketing on the ground. +It's not telling the parents, "If you see paralysis, take your child to the doctor or get your child vaccinated." +We have a problem with marketing in the donor community. +The G8 nations have been incredibly generous on polio over the last 20 years, but we're starting to have something called polio fatigue and that is that the donor nations aren't willing to fund polio any longer. +So by next summer, we're sighted to run out of money on polio. +So we are 99 percent of the way there on this goal and we're about to run short of money. +And I think that if the marketing were more aspirational, if we could focus as a community on how far we've come and how amazing it would be to eradicate this disease, we could put polio fatigue and polio behind us. +And if we could do that, we could stop vaccinating everybody, worldwide, in all of our countries for polio. +And it would only be the second disease ever wiped off the face of the planet. +And we are so close. +And this victory is so possible. +So if Coke's marketers came to me and asked me to define happiness, I'd say my vision of happiness is a mother holding healthy baby in her arms. +To me, that is deep happiness. +And so if we can learn lessons from the innovators in every sector, then in the future we make together, that happiness can be just as ubiquitous as Coca-Cola. +Thank you. +I learned about the Haiti earthquake by Skype. +My wife sent me a message, "Whoa, earthquake," and then disappeared for 25 minutes. +It was 25 minutes of absolute terror that thousands of people across the U.S. felt. +I was afraid of a tsunami; what I didn't realize was there was a greater terror in Haiti, and that was building collapse. +We've all seen the photos of the collapsed buildings in Haiti. +These are shots my wife took a couple days after the quake, while I was making my way through the D.R. into the country. +This is the national palace -- the equivalent of the White House. +This is the largest supermarket in the Caribbean at peak shopping time. +This is a nurses' college -- there are 300 nurses studying. +The general hospital right next door emerged largely unscathed. +This is the Ministry of Economics and Finance. +We have all heard about the tremendous human loss in the earthquake in Haiti, but we haven't heard enough about why all those lives were lost. +We haven't heard about why the buildings failed. +After all, it was the buildings, not the earthquake, that killed 220,000 people, that injured 330,000, that displaced 1.3 million people, that cut off food and water and supplies for an entire nation. +This is the largest metropolitan-area disaster in decades, and it was not a natural disaster -- it was a disaster of engineering. +AIDG has worked in Haiti since 2007, providing engineering and business support to small businesses. +And after the quake, we started bringing in earthquake engineers to figure out why the buildings collapsed, to examine what was safe and what wasn't. +Working with MINUSTAH, which is the U.N. mission in Haiti, with the Ministry of Public Works, with different NGOs, we inspected over 1,500 buildings. +We inspected schools and private residencies. +We inspected medical centers and food warehouses. +We inspected government buildings. +This is the Ministry of Justice. +Behind that door is the National Judicial Archives. +The fellow in the door, Andre Filitrault -- who's the director of the Center for Interdisciplinary Earthquake Engineering Research at the University of Buffalo -- was examining it to see if it was safe to recover the archives. +Andre told me, after seeing these buildings fail again and again in the same way, that there is no new research here. +There is nothing here that we don't know. +Now there's a solution to all these problems. +And we know how to build properly. +The proof of this came in Chile, almost a month later, when 8.8 magnitude earthquake hit Chile. +That is 500 times the power of the 7.0 that hit Port-au-Prince -- 500 times the power, yet only under a thousand casualties. +Adjusted for population density, that is less than one percent of the impact of the Haitian quake. +What was the difference between Chile and Haiti? +Seismic standards and confined masonry, where the building acts as a whole -- walls and columns and roofs and slabs tied together to support each other -- instead of breaking off into separate members and failing. +If you look at this building in Chile, it's ripped in half, but it's not a pile of rubble. +Chileans have been building with confined masonry for decades. +Right now, AIDG is working with KPFF Consulting Engineers, Architecture for Humanity, to bring more confined masonry training into Haiti. +This is Xantus Daniel; he's a mason, just a general construction worker, not a foreman, who took one of our trainings. +On his last job he was working with his boss, and they started pouring the columns wrong. +He took his boss aside, and he showed him the materials on confined masonry. +He showed him, "You know, we don't have to do this wrong. +It won't cost us any more to do it the right way." +And they redid that building. +They tied the rebar right, they poured the columns right, and that building will be safe. +And every building that they build going forward will be safe. +To make sure these buildings are safe, it's not going to take policy -- it's going to take reaching out to the masons on the ground and helping them learn the proper techniques. +Now there are many groups doing this. +And the fellow in the vest there, Craig Toten, he has pushed forward to get documentation out to all the groups that are doing this. +Through Haiti Rewired, through Build Change, Architecture for Humanity, AIDG, there is the possibility to reach out to 30,000 -- 40,000 masons across the country and create a movement of proper building. +If you reach out to the people on the ground in this collaborative way it's extremely affordable. +For the billions spent on reconstruction, you can train masons for dollars on every house that they end up building over their lifetime. +Ultimately, there are two ways that you can rebuild Haiti; the way at the top is the way that Haiti's been building for decades. +The way at the top is a poorly constructed building that will fail. +The way at the bottom is a confined masonry building, where the walls are tied together, the building is symmetric, and it will stand up to an earthquake. +For all the disaster, there is an opportunity here to build better houses for the next generation, so that when the next earthquake hits, it is a disaster -- but not a tragedy. +I was informed by this kind of unoriginal and trite idea that new technologies were an opportunity for social transformation, which is what drove me then, and still, it's a delusion that drives me now. +I wanted to update what I've been doing since then -- but it's still the same theme song -- and introduce you to my lab and current work, which is the Environmental Health Clinic that I run at NYU. +And what it is -- it's a twist on health. +Because, really, what I'm trying to do now is redefine what counts as health. +It's a clinic like a health clinic at any other university, except people come to the clinic with environmental health concerns, and they walk out with prescriptions for things they can do to improve environmental health, as opposed to coming to a clinic with medical concerns and walking out with prescriptions for pharmaceuticals. +It's a handy-dandy quote from Hippocrates of the Hippocratic oath that says, "The greater part of the soul lays outside the body, treatment of the inner requires treatment of the outer." +But that suggests the issue that I'm trying to get at here, that we have an opportunity to redefine what is health. +Because this idea that health is internal and atomized and individual and pharmaceutical is largely an error. +And I would use this study, a recent study by Philip Landrigan, to motivate a different view of health, where he went to most of the pediatricians in Manhattan and the New York area and logged what they spent their patient hours on. +80 to 90 percent of their time was spent on five things. +Number one was asthma, number two was developmental delays, number three was 400-fold increases in rare childhood cancers in the last eight to 10, 15 years. +Number four and five were childhood obesity and diabetes-related issues. +So all of those -- what's common about all of those? +The environment is implicated, radically implicated, right. +This is not the germs that medicos were trained to deal with; this is a different definition of health, health that has a great advantage because it's external, it's shared, we can do something about it, as opposed to internal, genetically predetermined or individualized. +People who come to the clinic are called, not patients, but impatients, because they're too impatient to wait for legislative change to address local and environmental health issues. +And I meet them at the University, I also have a few field offices that I set up in various places that provide an immersion in some of the environmental challenges we face. +I like this one from the Belgian field office, where we met in a roundabout, precisely because the roundabout iconified the headless social movement that informs much social transformation, as opposed to the top-down control of red light traffic intersections. +In this case, of course, the roundabout with that micro-decisions being made in situ by people not being told what to do. +But, of course, affords greater throughput, fewer accidents, and an interesting model of social movement. +Some of the things that the monitoring protocols have developed: this is the tadpole bureaucrat protocol, or keeping tabs, if you will. +What they are is an addition of tadpoles that are named after a local bureaucrat whose decisions affect your water quality. +So an impatient concerned for water quality would raise a tadpole bureaucrat in a sample of water in which they're interested. +And we give them a couple of things to do that, to help them do companion animal devices while they're blogging and doing their email. +This is a tadpole walker to take your tadpole walking in the evening. +And the interesting thing that happens -- because we're using tadpoles, of course, because they have the most exquisite biosenses that we have, several orders of magnitude more sensitive than some of our senses for sensing, responding in a biologically meaningful way, to that whole class of industrial contaminants we call endocrine disruptors or hormone emulators. +But by taking your tadpole out for a walk in the evening -- there's a few action shots -- your neighbors are likely to say, "What are you doing?" +And then you have to introduce your tadpole and who it's named after. +You have to explain what you're doing and how the developmental events of a tadpole are, of course, very observable and they use the same T3-mediated hormones that we do. +And so next time your neighbor sees you they'll say, "How is that tadpole doing?" +And you can let them social network with your tadpole, because the Environmental Health Clinic has a social networking site for, not only impatients, humans, but non-humans, social networking for humans and non-humans. +And of course, these endocrine disruptors are things that are implicated in the breast cancer epidemic, the obesity epidemic, the two and a half year drop in the average age of onset of puberty in young girls and other related things. +The culmination of this is if you've successfully raised your tadpole, observing the behavioral and developmental events, you will then go and introduce your tadpole to its namesake and discuss the evidence that you've seen. +Another quick protocol -- and I'm going to go through these quickly, but just to give you the material sense of what we're doing here -- instead of asking you for urine samples, I'll ask you for a mouse sample. +Anyone here lucky enough to share, to cohabit with a mouse -- a domestic partnership with mice? +Very lucky. +Mice, of course, are the quintessential model organism. +They're even better models of environmental health, because not only the same mammalian biology, but they share your diet, largely. +They share your environmental stressors, the asbestos levels and lead levels, whatever you're exposed to. +And they're geographically more limited than you are, because we don't know if you've been exposed to persistent organic pollutants in your home, or occupationally or as a child. +Mice are a very good representation. +So it starts by building a better mousetrap, of course. +This is one of them. +Coping with environmental stressors is tricky. +Is anybody here on antidepressants? +There's a lot of people in Manhattan are. +And we were testing if the mice would also self-administer SSRIs. +So this was Prozac, this was Zoloft, this was a black jellybean and this was muscle relaxant, all of which were the medications that the impatient was taking. +So do you think the mice self-administered antidepressants? +What's the -- (Audience: Sure. Yes.) How did you know that? They did. +This was vodka and solution, gin and solution. +This guy also liked plain water and the muscle relaxant. +Where's our expert? +Vodka, gin -- (Audience: [unclear]) Yes. Yes. You know your mice well. +They did, yes. +So they drank as much vodka as they did plain water, which was interesting. +Then of course, it goes into the entrapment device. +There's an old cellphone in there -- a good use for old cellphones -- which dials the clinic, we go and pick up the mouse. +We take the blood sample and do the blood work and hair work on the mice. +And I want to sort of point out the big advantage of framing health in this external way. +But we do have a few prescription products through this. +It's very different from the medical model. +Anything you do to improve your water quality or air quality, or to understand it or to change it, the benefits are enjoyed by anyone you share that water quality or air quality with. +And that aggregating effect, that collective action effect, is actually something we can use to our advantage. +So I want to show you one prescription product in the clinic called the No Park. +This is a prescription to improve water quality. +Many impatients are very concerned for water quality and air quality. +What we do is we take a fire hydrant, a "no parking" space associated with a fire hydrant, and we prescribe the removal of the asphalt to create an engineered micro landscape, to create an infiltration opportunity. +That doesn't do a lot of good. +These are little opportunities to intercept those pollutants before they enter the harbor, and they're produced by impatients on various city blocks in some very interesting ways. +I just want to say it was sort of a rule of thumb though, there's about two or three fire hydrants on every city block. +By creating engineered micro landscapes to infiltrate in them, we don't prevent them from being used as emergency vehicle parking spaces, because, of course, a firetruck can come and park there. +They flatten a few plants. No big deal, they'll regenerate. +But if we did this in every single -- every fire hydrant we could redefine the emergency. +That 99 percent of the time when a firetruck is not parking there, it's infiltrating pollutants. +It's also increasing fixing CO2s, sequestering some of the airborne pollutants. +And aggregated, these smaller interceptions could actually infiltrate all the roadborne pollution that now runs into the estuary system, up to a seven inch rain event, up to a hundred-year storm. +So these are small actions that can amount to a significant effect to improve local environmental health. +This is one of the more ambitious ones. +What the climate crisis has revealed to us is a secondary, more insidious and more pervasive crisis, which is the crisis of agency, which is what to do. +Somehow buying a local lettuce, changing a light bulb, driving the speed limit, changing your tires regularly, doesn't seem sufficient in the face of climate crisis. +And this is an interesting icon that happened -- you remember these: fallout shelters. +What is the fallout shelter for the climate crisis? +This was civic mobilization. +Churches, school groups, hospitals, private residents -- everyone built one of these in a matter of months. +And they still remain as icons of civic response in the face of shared, uncertain, collective threat. +Fallout shelter for the climate crisis, I would say, looks something like this, or this, which is an intensive urban agriculture facility that's due to go on my lab building at NYU. +You can't actually build much on a roof, they're not designed for that. +So it's on legs, so it focuses all the load on the masonry walls and the columns. +It's built as a barn raising, using open source hardware. +This is the quarter-scale prototype that was functioning in Spain. +This is what it will look like, fingers crossed, NYU willing. +And what I want to show you is -- actually this is one of the components of it that we've just recently been testing -- which is a solar chimney -- we have got 17 of them now put around New York at the moment -- that passively draws air up. +You understand a solar chimney. +Hot air rises. +You put a bit of black plastic on the side of a building, it'll heat up, and you'll get passive airflow. +What we do is actually put a standard HVAC filter on the top of that. +That actually removes about 95 percent of the carbon black, that stuff that, with ozone, is responsible for about half of global warming's effects, because it changes, it settles on the snow, it changes the reflectors, it changes the transmission qualities of the atmosphere. +Carbon black is that grime that otherwise lodges in your pretty pink lungs, and it's associated with. +It's not good stuff, and it's from inefficient combustion, not from combustion itself. +When we put it through our solar chimney, we remove actually about 95 percent of that. +And then I swap it out with the students and actually re-release that carbon black. +And we make pencils the length of which measures the grime that we've pulled out of the air. +Here's one of them that we have up now. +Here's who put them up and who are avid pencil users. +Okay, so I want to show you just two more interfaces, because I think one of our big challenges is re-imagining our relationship to natural systems, not only through this model of twisted personalized health, but through the animals with whom we cohabit. +We are not alone; the animals are moving in. +In fact, urban migration now describes the movement of animals formerly known as wild into urban centers. +You know, coyote in Central Park, a whale in the Gowanus Canal, elk in Westchester County. +It's happening all over the Developed World, probably for loss of habitat, but also because our cities are a little bit more livable than they have been. +And every green space we create is an invitation for non-humans to cohabit with us. +But we've kind of lacked imagination in how we could do that well or interestingly. +And I want to show you a few of the technological interfaces that have been developed under the moniker of OOZ -- which is zoo backwards and without cages -- to try and reform that relationship. +This is communication technology for birds. It looks like this. +When a bird lands on it, they trigger a sound file. +This is actually in the Whitney Museum, where there were six of them, each of which had a different argument on it, different sound file. +They said things like this. +Recorded Voice: Here's what you need to do. +Go down there and buy some of those health food bars, the ones you call bird food, and bring it here and scatter it around. +There's a good person. +Natalie Jeremijenko: Okay. So there was several of these. +The birds were able to jump from one to the other. +These are just your average urban pigeon. +And an early test which argument elicited cooperative behavior from the people below -- about a hundred to one decided that this was the argument that worked best on us. +Recorded Voice: Tick, tick, tick. +That's the sound of genetic mutations of the avian flu becoming a deadly human flu. +Do you know what slows it down? +Healthy sub-populations of birds, increasing biodiversity generally. +It is in your interests that I'm healthy, happy, well-fed. +Hence, you could share some of your nutritional resources instead of monopolizing them. +That is, share your lunch. +NJ: It worked, and it's true. +The final project I'd like to show you is a new interface for fish that has just been launched -- it's actually officially launched next week -- with a wonderful commission from the Architectural League. +You may not have known that you need to communicate with fish, but there is now a device for you to do so. +It looks like this: buoys that float on the water, project three foot up, three foot down. +When a fish swims underneath, a light goes on. +This is what it looks like. +So there's another function on here. +This top light is -- I'm sorry if I'm making you seasick -- this top light is actually a water quality display that shifts from red, when the dissolved oxygen is low, to a blue/green, when its dissolved oxygen is high. +And then you can also text the fish. +So there's business cards down there that'll give you contact details. +And they text back. +When the buoys get your text, they wink at you twice to say, we've got your message. +But perhaps the most popular has been that we've got another array of these boys in the Bronx River, where the first beaver -- crazy as he is -- to have moved in and built a lodge in New York in 250 years, hangs out. +So updates from a beaver. +You can subscribe to updates from him. You can talk to him. +And what I like to think of is this is an interface that re-scripts how we interact with natural systems, specifically by changing who has information, where they have it, who can make sense of that information, and what you can do about it. +Instead of doing that actually, we've developed some fish sticks that you can feed the fish. +They're delicious. +They're cross-species delicious that is, delicious for humans and non-humans. +But they also have a chelating agent in them. +They're nutritionally appropriate, not like Doritos. +And so every time that desire to interact with the animals, which is at least as ubiquitous as that sign: "Do not feed the animals." +And there's about three of them on every New York City park. +And Yellowstone National Park, there's more "do not feed the animals" signs than there are animals you might wish to feed. +Displacement is not the way to deal with environmental issues. +And that's typically the paradigm under which we've operated. +By actually taking the opportunity that new technologies, new interactive technologies, present to re-script our interactions, to script them, not just as isolated, individuated interactions, but as collective aggregating actions that can amount to something, we can really begin to address some of our important environmental challenges. +Thank you. +Every presentation needs this slide in it. +It's beautiful, isn't it? +Do you see? +All the points, all the lines -- it's incredible. +It is the network; and in my case, the network has been important in media, because I get to connect to people. +Isn't it amazing? +Through that, I connect to people. +And the way that I've been doing it has been multifaceted. +For example, I get people to dress up their vacuum cleaners. +I put together projects like Earth Sandwich, where I ask people to try and simultaneously place two pieces of bread perfectly opposite each other on the Earth. +And people started laying bread in tribute, and eventually a team was able to do it between New Zealand and Spain. +It's pretty incredible -- the video's online. +Connecting to people in projects like YoungmeNowme for example. +In YoungmeNowme, the audience was asked to find a childhood photograph of themselves and restage it as an adult. +This is the same person -- top photo, James, bottom photo, [Jennifer]. +Poignant. +This was a Mother's Day gift. +Particularly creepy. +My favorite of these photos, which I couldn't find, is there's a picture of a 30 year-old woman or so with a little baby on her lap, and the next photo is a 220-lb man with a tiny, little old lady peaking over his shoulder. +But this project changed the way that I thought about connecting to people. +This is project called Ray. +And what happened was I was sent this piece of audio and had no idea who generated the audio. +Somebody said, "You have to listen to this." +And this is what came to me. +Recording: Hi, my name is Ray, and on yesterday my daughter called me because she was stressed out because of things that were going on on her job that she felt was quite unfair. +Being quite disturbed, she called for comfort, and I didn't really know what to tell her, because we have to deal with so much mess in our society. +So I was led to write this song just for her, just to give her some encouragement while dealing with stress and pressures on her job. +And I figured I'd put it on the Internet for all employees under stress to help you better deal with what you're going through on your job. +Here's how the song goes. +And let it give you some strength to get the next few moments on your job. +All right. Stay strong. Peace. +Ze Frank: So -- yeah. +No, no, no, shush. We've got to go quickly. +So I was so moved by this -- this is incredible. This was connecting, right. +This was, at a distance, realizing that someone was feeling something, wanting to affect them in a particular way, using media to do it, putting it online and realizing that there was a greater impact. +This was incredible; this is what I wanted to do. +So the first thing I thought of is we have to thank him. +And I asked my audience, I said, "Listen to this piece of audio. +We have to remix it. He's got a great voice. +It's actually in the key of B flat. +And have to do something with it." +Hundreds of remixes came back -- lots of different attempts. +One stood out in particular. +It was done by a guy named Goose. +That song -- Thank you. +So that song, somebody told me that it was at a baseball game in Kansas City. +In the end, it was one of the top downloads on a whole bunch of music streaming services. +And so I said, "Let's put this together in an album." +And the audience came together, and they designed an album cover. +And I said, "If you put it all on this, I'm going to deliver it to him, if you can figure out who this person is," because all I had was his name -- Ray -- and this little piece of audio and the fact that his daughter was upset. +In two weeks, they found him. +I received and email and it said, "Hi, I'm Ray. +I heard you were looking for me." +And I was like, "Yeah, Ray. +It's been an interesting two weeks." +And so I flew to St. Louis and met Ray, and he's a preacher -- among other things. +So but anyways, here's the thing -- is it reminds me of this, which is a sign that you see in Amsterdam on every street corner. +And it's sort of a metaphor for me for the virtual world. +I look at this photo, and he seems really interested in what's going on with that button, but it doesn't seem like he is really that interested in crossing the street. +And it makes me think of this. +On street corners everywhere, people are looking at their cell phones, and it's easy to dismiss this as some sort of bad trend in human culture. +But the truth is life is being lived there. +When they smile -- right, you've seen people stop -- all of a sudden, life is being lived there, somewhere up in that weird, dense network. +And this is it, right, to feel and be felt. +It's the fundamental force that we're all after. +We can build all sorts of environments to make it a little bit easier, but ultimately, what we're trying to do is really connect with one other person. +And that's not always going to happen in physical spaces. +It's also going to now happen in virtual spaces, and we have to get better at figuring that out. +I think, of the people that build all this technology in the network, a lot of them aren't very good at connecting with people. +This is kind of like something I used to do in third grade. +So here's a series of projects over the last few years where I've been inspired by trying to figure out how to really facilitate close connection. +Sometimes they're very, very simple things. +A Childhood Walk, which is a project where I ask people to remember a walk that they used to take as a child over and over again that was sort of meaningless -- like on the route to the bus stop, to a neighbor's house, and take it inside of Google Streetview. +And I promise you, if you take that walk inside Google Streetview, you come to a moment where something comes back and hits you in the face. +And I collected those moments -- the photos inside Google Streetview and the memories, specifically. +"Our conversation started with me saying, 'I'm bored,' and her replying, 'When I'm bored I eat pretzels.' I remember this distinctly because it came up a lot." +"Right after he told me and my brother he was going to be separating from my mom, I remember walking to a convenience store and getting a cherry cola." +"They used some of the morbidly artist footage, a close-up of Chad's shoes in the middle of the highway. +I guess the shoes came off when he was hit. +He slept over at my house once, and he left his pillow. +It had 'Chad' written in magic marker on it. +He died long after he left the pillow at my house, but we never got around to returning it." +Sometimes they're a little bit more abstract. +This is Pain Pack. +Right after September 11th, last year, I was thinking about pain and the way that we disperse it, the way that we excise it from our bodies. +So what I did is I opened up a hotline -- a hotline where people could leave voicemails of their pain, not necessarily related to that event. +And people called in and left messages like this. +Recording: Okay, here's something. +I'm not alone, and I am loved. +I'm really fortunate. +But sometimes I feel really lonely. +And when I feel that way even the smallest act of kindness can make me cry. +Like even people in convenience stores saying, "Have a nice day," when they're accidentally looking me in the eye. +ZF: So what I did was I took those voicemails, and with their permission, converted them to MP3s and distributed them to sound editors who created short sounds using just those voicemails. +And those were then distributed to DJs who have made hundreds of songs using that source material. +We don't have time to play much of it. +You can look at it online. +"From 52 to 48 with love" was a project around the time of the last election cycle, where McCain and Obama both, in their speeches after the election, talked about reconciliation, and I was like, "What the hell does that look like?" +So I thought, "Well let's just give it a try. +Let's have people hold up signs about reconciliation." +And so some really nice things came together. +"I voted blue. I voted red. +Together, for our future." +These are very, very cute little things right. +Some came from the winning party. +"Dear 48, I promise to listen to you, to fight for you, to respect you always." +Some came from the party who had just lost. +"From a 48 to a 52, may your party's leadership be as classy as you, but I doubt it." +But the truth was that as this start becoming popular, a couple rightwing blogs and some message boards apparently found it to be a little patronizing, which I could also see. +And so I started getting amazing amounts of hate mail, death threats even. +And one guy in particular kept on writing me these pretty awful messages, and he was dressed as Batman. +And he said, "I'm dressed as Batman to hide my identity." +Just in case I thought the real Batman was coming after me; which actually made me feel a little better -- like, "Phew, it's not him." +So what I did -- unfortunately, I was harboring all this kind of awful experience and this pain inside of me, and it started to eat away at my psyche. +And I was protecting the project from it, I realized. I was protecting it -- I didn't want this special, little group of photographs to get sullied in some way. +So what I did, I took all those emails, and I put them together into something called Angrigami, which was an origami template made out of this sort of vile stuff. +And I asked people to send me beautiful things made out of the Angrigami. +But this was the emotional moment. +One of my viewer's uncles died on a particular day and he chose to commemorate it with a piece of hate. +It's amazing. +The last thing I'm going to tell you about is a series of projects called Songs You Already Know, where the idea was, I was trying to figure out to address particular kinds of emotions with group projects. +So one of them was fairly straightforward. +A guy said that his daughter got scared at night and could I write a song for her, his daughter. +And I said, "Oh yeah, I'll try to write a mantra that she can sing to herself to help herself go to sleep." +And this was "Scared." +So the nice thing was is he walked by his daughter's room at some point, and she actually was singing that song to herself. +So I was like, "Awesome. This is great." +And then I got this email. And there's a little bit of a back story to this. +And I don't have much time. +But the idea was that at one point I did a project called Facebook Me Equals You, where I wanted to experience what it was like to live as another person. +So I asked for people's usernames and passwords to be sent to me. +And I got a lot, like 30 in a half an hour. +And I shut that part down. +And I chose two people to be, and I asked them to send me descriptions of how to act as them on Facebook. +One person sent me a very detailed description; the other person didn't. +And the person who didn't, it turned out, had just moved to a new city and taken on a new job. +So, you know, people were writing me and saying, "How's your new job?" +I was like, "I don't know. +Didn't know I had one." +But anyway, this same person, Laura, ended up emailing me a little bit after that project. +And I felt badly for not having done a good job. +And she said, "I'm really anxious, I just moved to a new town, I have this new job, and I've just had this incredible amount of anxiety." +So she had seen the "Scared" song and wondered if I could do something. +So I asked her, "What does it feel like when you feel this way?" +And she wrote a sort of descriptive set of what it felt like to have had this anxiety. +And so what I decided to do. +I said, "Okay, I'll think about it." +And so quietly in the background, I started sending people this. + Hey You're okay You'll be fine So I asked people whether they had basic audio capabilities, just so they could sing along to the song with headphones on, so I could just get their voices back. +And this is the kind of thing that I got back. +Recording: Hey You're okay You'll be fine ZF: So that's one of the better ones, really. +But what's awesome is, as I started getting more and more and more of them, all of a sudden I had 30, 40 voices from around the world. +And when you put them together, something magical happens, something absolutely incredible happens, and all of a sudden I get a chorus from around the world. +And what was really great is, I'm putting all this work together in the background, and Laura sent me a follow-up email because a good month had passed by. +And she said, "I know you've forgotten about me. +I just want to say thanks for even considering it." +And then a few days later I sent her this. +The stories we tell about each other matter very much. +The stories we tell ourselves about our own lives matter. +And most of all, I think the way that we participate in each other's stories is of deep importance. +I was six years old when I first heard stories about the poor. +Now I didn't hear those stories from the poor themselves, I heard them from my Sunday school teacher and Jesus, kind of via my Sunday school teacher. +I remember learning that people who were poor needed something material -- food, clothing, shelter -- that they didn't have. +And I also was taught, coupled with that, that it was my job -- this classroom full of five and six year-old children -- it was our job, apparently, to help. +This is what Jesus asked of us. +And then he said, "What you do for the least of these, you do for me." +Now I was pretty psyched. +I was very eager to be useful in the world -- I think we all have that feeling. +And also, it was kind of interesting that God needed help. +That was news to me, and it felt like it was a very important thing to get to participate in. +But I also learned very soon thereafter that Jesus also said, and I'm paraphrasing, the poor would always be with us. +This frustrated and confused me; I felt like I had been just given a homework assignment that I had to do, and I was excited to do, but no matter what I would do, I would fail. +So I felt confused, a little bit frustrated and angry, like maybe I'd misunderstood something here. +And I felt overwhelmed. +And for the first time, I began to fear this group of people and to feel negative emotion towards a whole group of people. +I imagined in my head, a kind of long line of individuals that were never going away, that would always be with us. +They were always going to ask me to help them and give them things, which I was excited to do, but I didn't know how it was going to work. +And I didn't know what would happen when I ran out of things to give, especially if the problem was never going away. +In the years following, the other stories I heard about the poor growing up were no more positive. +For example, I saw pictures and images frequently of sadness and suffering. +I heard about things that were going wrong in the lives of the poor. +I heard about disease, I heard about war -- they always seemed to be kind of related. +And in general, I got this sort of idea that the poor in the world lived lives that were wrought with suffering and sadness, devastation, hopelessness. +And after a while, I developed what I think many of us do, is this predictable response, where I started to feel bad every time I heard about them. +I started to feel guilty for my own relative wealth, because I wasn't doing more, apparently, to make things better. +And I even felt a sense of shame because of that. +And so naturally, I started to distance myself. +I stopped listening to their stories quite as closely as I had before. +And I stopped expecting things to really change. +Now I still gave -- on the outside it looked like I was still quite involved. +I gave of my time and my money, I gave when solutions were on sale. +The cost of a cup of coffee can save a child's life, right. +I mean who can argue with that? +I gave when I was cornered, when it was difficult to avoid and I gave, in general, when the negative emotions built up enough that I gave to relieve my own suffering, not someone else's. +The truth be told, I was giving out of that place, not out of a genuine place of hope and excitement to help and of generosity. +It became a transaction for me, became sort of a trade. +I was purchasing something -- I was buying my right to go on with my day and not necessarily be bothered by this bad news. +And I think the way that we go through that sometimes can, first of all, disembody a group of people, individuals out there in the world. +And it can also turn into a commodity, which is a very scary thing. +So as I did this, and as I think many of us do this, we kind of buy our distance, we kind of buy our right to go on with our day. +I think that exchange can actually get in the way of the very thing that we want most. +It can get in the way of our desire to really be meaningful and useful in another person's life and, in short to love. +Thankfully, a few years ago, things shifted for me because I heard this gentleman speak, Dr. Muhammad Yunus. +I know many in the room probably know exactly who he is, but to give the shorthand version for any who have not heard him speak, Dr. Yunus won the Nobel Peace Prize a few years ago for his work pioneering modern microfinance. +When I heard him speak, it was three years before that. +But basically, microfinance -- if this is new to you as well -- think of that as financial services for the poor. +Think of all the things you get at your bank and imagine those products and services tailored to the needs of someone living on a few dollars a day. +Dr. Yunus shared his story, explaining what that was, and what he had done with his Grameen Bank. +He also talked about, in particular, microlending, which is a tiny loan that could help someone start or grow a business. +Now, when I heard him speak, it was exciting for a number of reasons. +First and foremost, I learned about this new method of change in the world that, for once, showed me, maybe, a way to interact with someone and to give, to share of a resource in a way that wasn't weird and didn't make me feel bad -- that was exciting. +But more importantly, he told stories about the poor that were different than any stories I had heard before. +In fact, those individuals he talked about who were poor was sort of a side note. +He was talking about strong, smart, hardworking entrepreneurs who woke up every day and were doing things to make their lives and their family's lives better. +All they needed to do that more quickly and to do it better was a little bit of capital. +It was an amazing sort of insight for me. +And I, in fact, was so deeply moved by this -- it's hard to express now how much that affected me -- but I was so moved that I actually quit my job a few weeks later, and I moved to East Africa to try to see for myself what this was about. +For the first time, actually, in a long time I wanted to meet those individuals, I wanted to meet these entrepreneurs, and see for myself what their lives were actually about. +So I spent three months in Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania interviewing entrepreneurs that had received 100 dollars to start or grow a business. +And in fact, through those interactions, for the first time, I was starting to get to be friends with some of those people in that big amorphous group out there that was supposed to be far away. +I was starting to be friends and get to know their personal stories. +And over and over again, as I interviewed them and spent my days with them, I did hear stories of life change and amazing little details of change. +So I would hear from goat herders who had used that money that they had received to buy a few more goats. +Their business trajectory would change. +They would make a little bit more money; their standard of living would shift and would get better. +And they would make really interesting little adjustments in their lives, like they would start to send their children to school. +They might be able to buy mosquito nets. +Maybe they could afford a lock for the door and feel secure. +Maybe it was just that they could put sugar in their tea and offer that to me when I came as their guest and that made them feel proud. +But there were these beautiful details, even if I talked to 20 goat herders in a row, and some days that's what happened -- these beautiful details of life change that were meaningful to them. +That was another thing that really touched me. +It was really humbling to see for the first time, to really understand that even if I could have taken a magic wand and fixed everything, I probably would have gotten a lot wrong. +Because the best way for people to change their lives is for them to have control and to do that in a way that they believe is best for them. +So I saw that and it was very humbling. +Anyway, another interesting thing happened while I was there. +I never once was asked for a donation, which had kind of been my mode, right. +There's poverty, you give money to help -- no one asked me for a donation. +In fact, no one wanted me to feel bad for them at all. +If anything, they just wanted to be able to do more of what they were doing already and to build on their own capabilities. +So what I did hear, once in a while, was that people wanted a loan -- I thought that sounded very reasonable and really exciting. +And by the way, I was a philosophy and poetry major in school, so I didn't know the difference between profit and revenue when I went to East Africa. +I just got this impression that the money would work. +And my introduction to business was in these $100 little infuses of capital. +And I learned about profit and revenue, about leverage, all sorts of things, from farmers, from seamstresses, from goat herders. +So this idea that these new stories of business and hope might be shared with my friends and family, and through that, maybe we could get some of the money that they needed to be able to continue their businesses as loans, that's this little idea that turned into Kiva. +A few months later, I went back to Uganda with a digital camera and a basic website that my partner, Matthew, and I had kind of built, and took pictures of seven of my new friends, posted their stories, these stories of entrepreneurship, up on the website, spammed friends and family and said, "We think this is legal. +Haven't heard back yet from SEC on all the details, but do you say, do you want to help participate in this, provide the money that they need?" +The money came in basically overnight. +We sent it over to Uganda. +And over the next six months, a beautiful thing happened; the entrepreneurs received the money, they were paid, and their businesses, in fact, grew, and they were able to support themselves and change the trajectory of their lives. +In October of '05, after those first seven loans were paid, Matt and I took the word beta off of the site. +We said, "Our little experiment has been a success. +Let's start for real." That was our official launch. +And then that first year, October '05 through '06, Kiva facilitated $500,000 in loans. +The second year, it was a total of 15 million. +The third year, the total was up to around 40. +The fourth year, we were just short of 100. +And today, less than five years in, Kiva's facilitated more than 150 million dollars, in little 25-dollar bits, from lenders and entrepreneurs -- more than a million of those, collectively in 200 countries. +So that's where Kiva is today, just to bring you right up to the present. +And while those numbers and those statistics are really fun to talk about and they're interesting, to me, Kiva's really about stories. +It's about retelling the story of the poor, and it's about giving ourselves an opportunity to engage that validates their dignity, validates a partnership relationship, not a relationship that's based on the traditional sort of donor beneficiary weirdness that can happen. +But instead a relationship that can promote respect and hope and this optimism that together we can move forward. +I hope that Kiva can blur those lines. +Because as that happens, I think we can feel free to interact in a way that's more open, more just and more creative, to engage with each other and to help each other. +Imagine how you feel when you see somebody on street who is begging and you're about to approach them. +Imagine how you feel; and then imagine the difference when you might see somebody who has a story of entrepreneurship and hard work who wants to tell you about their business. +Maybe they're smiling, and they want to talk to you about what they've done. +Imagine if you could hear a story you didn't expect of somebody who wakes up every day and works very, very hard to make their life better. +These stories can really change the way that we think about each other. +And if we can catalyze a supportive community to come around these individuals and to participate in their story by lending a little bit of money, I think that can change the way we believe in each other and each other's potential. +Now for me, Kiva is just the beginning. +And as I look forward to what is next, it's been helpful to reflect on the things I've learned so far. +The first one is, as I mentioned, entrepreneurship was a new idea to me. +Kiva borrowers, as I interviewed them and got to know them over the last few years, have taught me what entrepreneurship is. +And I think, at its core, it's deciding that you want your life to be better. +You see an opportunity and you decide what you're going to do to try to seize that. +In short, it's deciding that tomorrow can better than today and going after that. +Second thing that I've learned is that loans are a very interesting tool for connectivity. +So they're not a donation. +Yeah, maybe it doesn't sound that much different. +But in fact, when you give something to someone and they say, "Thanks," and let you know how things go, that's one thing. +When you lend them money, and they slowly pay you back over time, you have this excuse to have an ongoing dialogue. +This continued attention -- this ongoing attention -- is a really big deal to build different kinds of relationships among us. +And then third, from what I've heard from the entrepreneurs I've gotten to know, when all else is equal, given the option to have just money to do what you need to do, or money plus the support and encouragement of a global community, people choose the community plus the money. +That's a much more meaningful combination, a more powerful combination. +So with that in mind, this particular incident has led to the things that I'm working on now. +I see entrepreneurs everywhere now, now that I'm tuned into this. +And one thing that I've seen is there are a lot of supportive communities that already exist in the world. +With social networks, it's an amazing way, growing the number of people that we all have around us in our own supportive communities, rapidly. +And so, as I have been thinking about this, I've been wondering: how can we engage these supportive communities to catalyze even more entrepreneurial ideas and to catalyze all of us to make tomorrow better than today? +As I've researched what's going on in the United States, a few interesting little insights have come up. +So one is that, of course, as we all might expect, many small businesses in the U.S. and all over the world still need money to grow and to do more of what they want to do or they might need money during a hard month. +But there's always a need for resources close by. +Another thing is, it turns out, those resources don't usually come from the places you might expect -- banks, venture capitalists, other organizations and support structures -- they come from friends and family. +Some statistics say 85 percent or more of funding for small businesses comes from friends and family. +That's around 130 billion dollars a year -- it's a lot. +And third, so as people are doing this friends and family fundraising process, it's very awkward, people don't know exactly what to ask for, how to ask, what to promise in return, even though they have the best of intentions and want to thank those people that are supporting them. +And it's investments, not donations, not loans, but investments that have a dynamic return. +So the mapping of participating in the story, it actually flows with the up and down. +So in short, it's a do-it-yourself tool for small businesses to raise these funds. +And what you can do is go onto the site, create a profile, create investment terms in a really easy way. +We make it really, really simple for me as well as anyone else who wants to use the site. +And we allow entrepreneurs to share a percentage of their revenues. +They can raise up to a million dollars from an unlimited number of unaccredited, unsophisticated investors -- everyday people, heaven forbid -- and they can share those returns over time -- again, whatever terms they set. +As investors choose to become involved based on those terms, they can either take their rewards back as cash, or they can decide in advance to give those returns away to a non-profit. +So they can be a cash, or a cause, investor. +So that's what I'm working on now. +And to close, I just want to say, look these are tools. +Right now, Profounder's right at the very beginning, and it's very palpable; it's very clear to me, that it's just a vessel, it's just a tool. +What we need are for people to care, to actually go use it, just like they've cared enough to use Kiva to make those connections. +But the good news is I don't think I need to stand here and convince you to care -- I'm not even going to try. +I don't think, even though we often hear, you know, hear the ethical and moral reasons, the religious reasons, "Here's why caring and giving will make you happier." +So what I think I can do today, that best thing I can give you -- I've given you my story, which is the best I can do. +And I think I can remind us that we do care. +I think we all already know that. +And I think we know that love is resilient enough for us to get out there and try. +Just a sec. +Thanks. +Thanks. +For me, the best way to be inspired to try is to stop and to listen to someone else's story. +And I'm grateful that I've gotten to do that here at TED. +And I'm grateful that whenever I do that, guaranteed, I am inspired -- I am inspired by the person I am listening to. +And I believe more and more every time I listen in that that person's potential to do great things in the world and in my own potential to maybe help. +And that -- forget the tools, forget the moving around of resources -- that stuff's easy. +Believing in each other, really being sure when push comes to shove that each one of us can do amazing things in the world, that is what can make our stories into love stories and our collective story into one that continually perpetuates hope and good things for all of us. +So that, this belief in each other, knowing that without a doubt and practicing that every day in whatever you do, that's what I believe will change the world and make tomorrow better than today. +Thank you. +This technology made a very important impact on us. +It changed the way our history developed. +But it's a technology so pervasive, so invisible, that we, for a long time, forgot to take it into account when we talked about human evolution. +But we see the results of this technology, still. +So let's make a little test. +So everyone of you turns to their neighbor please. +Turn and face your neighbors. +Please, also on the balcony. +Smile. Smile. Open the mouths. +Smile, friendly. +Do you -- Do you see any Canine teeth? +Count Dracula teeth in the mouths of your neighbors? +Of course not. +Because our dental anatomy is actually made, not for tearing down raw meat from bones or chewing fibrous leaves for hours. +It is made for a diet which is soft, mushy, which is reduced in fibers, which is very easily chewable and digestible. +Sounds like fast food, doesn't it. +It's for cooked food. +We carry in our face the proof that cooking, food transformation, made us what we are. +So I would suggest that we change how we classify ourselves. +We talk about ourselves as omnivores. +I would say, we should call ourselves coctivors -- from coquere, to cook. +We are the animals who eat cooked food. +No, no, no, no. Better -- to live of cooked food. +So cooking is a very important technology. +It's technology. +I don't know how you feel, but I like to cook for entertainment. +And you need some design to be successful. +So, cooking is a very important technology, because it allowed us to acquire what brought you all here: the big brain, this wonderful cerebral cortex we have. +Because brains are expensive. +Those have to pay tuition fees know. +But it's also, metabolically speaking, expensive. +You now, our brain is two to three percent of the body mass, but actually it uses 25 percent of the total energy we use. +It's very expensive. +Where does the energy come from. Of course, from food. +If we eat raw food, we cannot release really the energy. +So this ingenuity of our ancestors, to invent this most marvelous technology. +Invisible -- everyone of us does it every day, so to speak. +Cooking made it possible that mutations, natural selections, our environment, could develop us. +So if we think about this unleashing human potential, which was possible by cooking and food, why do we talk so badly about food? +Why is it always do and don'ts and it's good for you, it's not good for you? +I think the good news for me would be if we could go back and talk about the unleashing, the continuation of the unleashing of human potential. +Now, cooking allowed also that we became a migrant species. +We walked out of Africa two times. +We populated all the ecologies. +If you can cook, nothing can happen to you, because whatever you find, you will try to transform it. +It keeps also your brain working. +Now the very easy and simple technology which was developed actually runs after this formula. +Take something which looks like food, transform it, and it gives you a good, very easy, accessible energy. +This technology affected two organs, the brain and the gut, which it actually affected. +The brain could grow, but the gut actually shrunk. +Okay, it's not obvious to be honest. +But it shrunk to 60 percent of primate gut of my body mass. +So because of having cooked food, it's easier to digest. +Now having a large brain, as you know, is a big advantage, because you can actually influence your environment. +You can influence your own technologies you have invented. +You can continue to innovate and invent. +Now the big brain did this also with cooking. +But how did it actually run this show? +How did it actually interfere? +What kind of criteria did it use? +And this is actually taste reward and energy. +You know we have up to five tastes, three of them sustain us. +Sweet -- energy. +Umami -- this is a meaty taste. +You need proteins for muscles, recovery. +Salty, because you need salt, otherwise your electric body will not work. +And two tastes which protect you -- bitter and sour, which are against poisonous and rotten material. +But of course, they are hard-wired but we use them still in a sophisticated way. +Think about bittersweet chocolate; or think about the acidity of yogurt -- wonderful -- mixed with strawberry fruits. +So we can make mixtures of all this kind of thing because we know that, in cooking, we can transform it to the form. +Reward: this is a more complex and especially integrative form of our brain with various different elements -- the external states, our internal states, how do we feel, and so on are put together. +And something which maybe you don't like but you are so hungry that you really will be satisfied to eat. +So satisfaction was a very important part. +And as I say, energy was necessary. +Now how did the gut actually participate in this development? +And the gut is a silent voice -- it's going more for feelings. +I use the euphemism digestive comfort -- actually -- it's a digestive discomfort, which the gut is concerned with. +If you get a stomach ache, if you get a little bit bloated, was not the right food, was not the right cooking manipulation or maybe other things went wrong. +So my story is a tale of two brains, because it might surprise you, our gut has a full-fledged brain. +All the managers in the room say, "You don't tell me something new, because we know, gut feeling. +This is what we are using." +And actually you use it and it's actually useful. +Because our gut is connected to our emotional limbic system, they do speak with each other and make decisions. +to have a brain there is that, not only the big brain has to talk with the food, the food has to talk with the brain, because we have to learn actually how to talk to the brains. +Now if there's a gut brain, we should also learn to talk with this brain. +Now 150 years ago, anatomists described very, very carefully -- here is a model of a wall of a gut. +I took the three elements -- stomach, small intestine and colon. +And within this structure, you see these two pinkish layers, which are actually the muscle. +And between this muscle, they found nervous tissues, a lot of nervous tissues, which penetrate actually the muscle -- penetrate the submucosa, where you have all the elements for the immune system. +The gut is actually the largest immune system, defending your body. +It penetrates the mucosa. +This is the layer which actually touches the food you are swallowing and you digest, which is actually the lumen. +Now if you think about the gut, the gut is -- if you could stretch it -- 40 meters long, the length of a tennis court. +If we could unroll it, get out all the folds and so on, it would have 400 sq. meters of surface. +And now this brain takes care over this, to move it with the muscles and to do defend the surface and, of course, digest our food we cook. +So if we give you a specification, this brain, which is autonomous, have 500 million nerve cells, 100 million neurons -- so around the size of a cat brain, so there sleeps a little cat -- thinks for itself, optimizes whatever it digests. +It has 20 different neuron types. +It's got the same diversity you find actually in a pig brain, where you have 100 billion neurons. +It has autonomous organized microcircuits, has these programs which run. +It senses the food; it knows exactly what to do. +It senses it by chemical means and very importantly by mechanical means, because it has to move the food -- it has to mix all the various elements which we need for digestion. +This control of muscle is very, very important, because, you know, there can be reflexes. +If you don't like a food, especially if you're a child, you gag. +It's this brain which makes this reflex. +And then finally, it controls also the secretion of this molecular machinery, which actually digests the food we cook. +Now how do the two brains work with each other? +I took here a model from robotics -- it's called the Subsumption Architecture. +What it means is that we have a layered control system. +The lower layer, our gut brain, has its own goals -- digestion defense -- and we have the higher brain with the goal of integration and generating behaviors. +Now both look -- and this is the blue arrows -- both look to the same food, which is in the lumen and in the area of your intestine. +The big brain integrates signals, which come from the running programs of the lower brain, But subsumption means that the higher brain can interfere with the lower. +It can replace, or it can inhibit actually, signals. +So if we take two types of signals -- a hunger signal for example. +If you have an empty stomach, your stomach produces a hormone called ghrelin. +It's a very big signal; it's sent to the brain says, "Go and eat." +You have stop signals -- we have up to eight stop signals. +At least in my case, they are not listened to. +So what happens if the big brain in the integration overrides the signal? +So if you override the hunger signal, you can have a disorder, which is called anorexia. +Despite generating a healthy hunger signal, the big brain ignores it and activates different programs in the gut. +The more usual case is overeating. +It actually takes the signal and changes it, and we continue, even [though] our eight signals would say, "Stop, enough. +We have transferred enough energy." +Now the interesting thing is that, along this lower layer -- this gut -- the signal becomes stronger and stronger if undigested, but digestible, material could penetrate. +This we found from bariatric surgery. +That then the signal would be very, very high. +So now back to the cooking question and back to the design. +We have learned to talk to the big brain -- taste and reward, as you know. +Now what would be the language we have to talk to the gut brain that its signals are so strong that the big brain cannot ignore it? +Then we would generate something all of us would like to have -- a balance between the hunger and the satiation. +Now I give you, from our research, a very short claim. +This is fat digestion. +You have on your left an olive oil droplet, and this olive oil droplet gets attacked by enzymes. +This is an in vitro experiment. +It's very difficult to work in the intestine. +Now everyone would expect that when the degradation of the oil happens, when the constituents are liberated, they disappear, they go away because they [were] absorbed. +Actually, what happens is that a very intricate structure appears. +And I hope you can see that there are some ring-like structures in the middle image, which is water. +This whole system generates a huge surface to allow more enzymes to attack the remaining oil. +And finally, on your right side, you see a bubbly, cell-like structure appearing, from which the body will absorb the fat. +Now if we could take this language -- and this is a language of structures -- and make it longer-lasting, that it can go through the passage of the intestine, it would generate stronger signals. +So our research -- and I think the research also at the universities -- are now fixing on these points to say: how can we actually -- and this might sound trivial now to you -- how can we change cooking? +How can we cook that we have this language developed? +So what we have actually, it's not an omnivore's dilemma. +We have a coctivor's opportunity, because we have learned over the last two million years which taste and reward -- quite sophisticated to cook -- to please ourselves, to satisfy ourselves. +If we add the matrix, if we add the structure language, which we have to learn, when we learn it, then we can put it back; and around energy, we could generate a balance, which comes out from our really primordial operation: cooking. +So, to make cooking really a very important element, I would say even philosophers have to change and have to finally recognize that cooking is what made us. +So I would say, coquo ergo sum: I cook, therefore I am. +Thank you very much. +I'm a visual artist, and I'm also one of the co-founders of the Plastic Pollution Coalition. +I've been working with plastic bags, which I cut up and sew back together as my primary material for my artwork for the last 20 years. +I turn them into two and three-dimensional pieces and sculptures and installations. +Upon working with the plastic, after about the first eight years, some of my work started to fissure and break down into smaller little bits of plastic. +And I thought, "Great. +It's ephemeral just like us." +Upon educating myself a little further about plastics, I actually realized this was a bad thing. +It's a bad thing that plastic breaks down into smaller little bits, because it's always still plastic. +And what we're finding is that a lot of it is in the marine environment. +I then, in the last few years, learned about the Pacific garbage patch and the gyre. +And my initial reaction -- and I think this is a lot of people's first reaction to learning about it -- is, "Oh my God! +We've got to go out there and clean this thing up." +So I actually developed a proposal to go out with a cargo ship and two decommissioned fishing trawlers, a crane, a chipping machine and a cold-molding machine. +And my intention was to go out to the gyre, raise awareness about this issue and begin to pick up the plastic, chip it into little bits and cold mold it into bricks that could potentially be used as building materials in underdeveloped communities. +And the bigger picture is: we need to find a way to turn off the faucet. +We need to cut the spigot of single-use and disposable plastics, which are entering the marine environment every day on a global scale. +So in looking at that, I also realized that I was really angry. +I wasn't just concerned about plastic that you're trying to imagine out in the middle of the Pacific Ocean -- of which I have learned there are now 11 gyres, potentially, of plastic in five major oceans in the world. +It's not just that gyre of plastic that I'm concerned about -- it's the gyre of plastic in the supermarket. +I'd go to the supermarket and all of my food is packaged in plastic. +All of my beverages are packaged in plastic, even at the health food market. +I'm also concerned about the plastic in the refrigerator, and I'm concerned about the plastic and the toxins that leach from plastic into us and into our bodies. +So I came together with a group of other people who were all looking at this issue, and we created the Plastic Pollution Coalition. +We have many initiatives that we're working on, but some of them are very basic. +One is: if 80 to 90 percent of what we're finding in the ocean -- of the marine debris that we're finding in the ocean -- is plastic, then why don't we call it what it is. +It's plastic pollution. +Recycling -- everybody kind of ends their books about being sustainable and greening with the idea of recycling. +You put something in a bin and you don't have to think about it again. +What is the reality of that? +In the United States, less than seven percent of our plastics are recycled. +And if you really look into it, particularly when it comes to plastic bottles, most of it is only down-cycled, or incinerated, or shipped to China. +It is down-cycled and turned into lesser things, while a glass bottle can be a glass bottle again or can be used again -- a plastic bottle can never be a plastic bottle again. +So this is a big issue for us. +Another thing that we're looking at and asking people to think about is we've added a fourth R onto the front of the "Reduce, Reuse, Recycle," three R's, and that is refuse. +Whenever possible, refuse single-use and disposable plastics. +Alternatives exist; some of them are very old-school. +I myself am now collecting these cool Pyrex containers and using those instead of Glad and Tupperware containers to store food in. +And I know that I am doing a service to myself and my family. +It's very easy to pick up a stainless-steel bottle or a glass bottle, if you're traveling and you've forgotten to bring your stainless-steel bottle and fill that up with water or filtered water, versus purchasing plastic bottled water. +I guess what I want to say to everybody here -- and I know that you guys know a lot about this issue -- is that this is a huge problem in the oceans, but this is a problem that we've created as consumers and we can solve. +We can solve this by raising awareness of the issue and teaching people to choose alternatives. +So whenever possible, to choose alternatives to single-use plastics. +We can cut the stem -- tide the stem of this into our oceans and in doing so, save our oceans, save our planet, save ourselves. +Thank you. +So yeah, I'm a newspaper cartoonist -- political cartoonist. +I don't know if you've heard about it -- newspapers? +It's a sort of paper-based reader. +It's lighter than an iPad, it's a bit cheaper. +You know what they say? +They say the print media is dying -- who says that? Well, the media. +But this is no news, right? +You've read about it already. +Ladies and gentlemen, the world has gotten smaller. +I know it's a cliche, but look, look how small, how tiny it has gotten. +And you know the reason why, of course. +This is because of technology -- yeah. +Any computer designers in the room? +Yeah well, you guys are making my life miserable because track pads used to be round, a nice round shape. +That makes a good cartoon. +But what are you going to do with a flat track pad, those square things? +There's nothing I can do as a cartoonist. +Well, I know the world is flat now. +That's true. +And the Internet has reached every corner of the world, the poorest, the remotest places. +Every village in Africa now has a cyber cafe. +Don't go asking for a Frappuccino there. +So we are bridging the digital divide. +The Third World is connected, we are connected. +And what happens next? +Well, you've got mail. +Yeah. +Well, the Internet has empowered us. +It has empowered you, it has empowered me and it has empowered some other guys as well. +You know, these last two cartoons -- I did them live during a conference in Hanoi. +And they were not used to that in communist 2.0 Vietnam. +So I was cartooning live on a wide screen -- it was quite a sensation -- and then this guy came to me. +He was taking pictures of me and of my sketches, and I thought, "This is great, a Vietnamese fan." +And as he came the second day, I thought, "Wow, that's really a cartoon lover." +And on the third day, I finally understood, the guy was actually on duty. +So by now, there must be a hundred pictures of me smiling with my sketches in the files of the Vietnamese police. +No, but it's true: the Internet has changed the world. +It has rocked the music industry; it has changed the way we consume music. +For those of you old enough to remember, we used to have to go to the store to steal it. +And it has changed the way your future employer will look at your application. +So be careful with that Facebook account -- your momma told you, be careful. +And technology has set us free -- this is free WiFi. +But yeah, it has liberated us from the office desk. +This is your life, enjoy it. +In short, technology, the internet, they have changed our lifestyle. +Tech guru, like this man -- that a German magazine called the philosopher of the 21st century -- they are shaping the way we do things. +They are shaping the way we consume. +They are shaping our very desires. +You will not like it. +And technology has even changed our relationship to God. +Now I shouldn't get into this. +Religion and political cartoons, as you may have heard, make a difficult couple, ever since that day of 2005, when a bunch of cartoonists in Denmark drew cartoons that had repercussions all over the world -- demonstrations, fatwa, they provoked violence. People died in the violence. +This was so sickening; people died because of cartoons. +I mean -- I had the feeling at the time that cartoons had been used by both sides, actually. +They were used first by a Danish newspaper, which wanted to make a point on Islam. +A Danish cartoonist told me he was one of the 24 who received the assignment to draw the prophet -- 12 of them refused. Did you know that? +He told me, "Nobody has to tell me what I should draw. +This is not how it works." +And then, of course, they were used by extremists and politicians on the other side. +They wanted to stir up controversy. +You know the story. +We know that cartoons can be used as weapons. +History tells us, they've been used by the Nazis to attack the Jews. +And here we are now. +In the United Nations, half of the world is pushing to penalize the offense to religion -- they call it the defamation of religion -- while the other half of the world is fighting back in defense of freedom of speech. +So the clash of civilizations is here, and cartoons are at the middle of it? +This got me thinking. +Now you see me thinking at my kitchen table, and since you're in my kitchen, please meet my wife. +In 2006, a few months after, I went Ivory Coast -- Western Africa. +Now, talk of a divided place -- the country was cut in two. +You had a rebellion in the North, the government in the South -- the capital, Abidjan -- and in the middle, the French army. +This looks like a giant hamburger. +You don't want to be the ham in the middle. +I was there to report on that story in cartoons. +I've been doing this for the last 15 years; it's my side job, if you want. +So you see the style is different. +This is more serious than maybe editorial cartooning. +I went to places like Gaza during the war in 2009. +So this is really journalism in cartoons. +You'll hear more and more about it. +This is the future of journalism, I think. +And of course, I went to see the rebels in the north. +Those were poor guys fighting for their rights. +There was an ethnic side to this conflict as very often in Africa. +And I went to see the Dozo. +The Dozo, they are the traditional hunters of West Africa. +People fear them -- they help the rebellion a lot. +They are believed to have magical powers. +They can disappear and escape bullets. +I went to see a Dozo chief; he told me about his magical powers. +He said, "I can chop your head off right away and bring you back to life." +I said, "Well, maybe we don't have time for this right now." +"Another time." +So back in Abidjan, I was given a chance to lead a workshop with local cartoonists there and I thought, yes, in a context like this, cartoons can really be used as weapons against the other side. +I mean, the press in Ivory Coast was bitterly divided -- it was compared to the media in Rwanda before the genocide -- so imagine. +And what can a cartoonist do? +Sometimes editors would tell their cartoonists to draw what they wanted to see, and the guy has to feed his family, right? +So the idea was pretty simple. +We brought together cartoonists from all sides in Ivory Coast. +We took them away from their newspaper for three days. +And I asked them to do a project together, tackle the issues affecting their country in cartoons, yes, in cartoons. +Show the positive power of cartoons. +It's a great tool of communication for bad or for good. +And cartoons can cross boundaries, as you have seen. +And humor is a good way, I think, to address serious issues. +And I'm very proud of what they did. +I mean, they didn't agree with each other -- that was not the point. +And I didn't ask them to do nice cartoons. +The first day, they were even shouting at each other. +But they came up with a book, looking back at 13 years of political crisis in Ivory Coast. +So the idea was there. +And I've been doing projects like this, in 2009 in Lebanon, this year in Kenya, back in January. +In Lebanon, it was not a book. +The idea was to have -- the same principal, a divided country -- take cartoonists from all sides and let them do something together. +So in Lebanon, we enrolled the newspaper editors, and we got them to publish eight cartoonists from all sides all together on the same page, addressing the issue affecting Lebanon, like religion in politics and everyday life. +And it worked. +For three days, almost all the newspapers of Beirut published all those cartoonists together -- anti-government, pro-government, Christian, Muslim, of course, English-speaking, well, you name it. +So this was a great project. +And then in Kenya, what we did was addressing the issue of ethnicity, which is a poison in a lot of places in Africa. +And we did video clips -- you can see them if you go to YouTube/Kenyatoons. +So, preaching for freedom of speech is easy here, but as you have seen in contexts of repression or division, again, what can a cartoonist do? +He has to keep his job. +Well I believe that in any context anywhere, he always has the choice at least not to do a cartoon that will feed hatred. +And that's the message I try to convey to them. +I think we all always have the choice in the end not to do the bad thing. +But we need to support these [unclear], critical and responsible voices in Africa, in Lebanon, in your local newspaper, in the Apple store. +Today, tech companies are the world's largest editors. +They decide what is too offensive or too provocative for you to see. +So really, it's not about the freedom of cartoonists; it's about your freedoms. +And for dictators all over the world, the good news is when cartoonists, journalists and activists shut up. +Thank you. +The big residual is always value for money. +All the time we are trying to get value for money. +What we don't look for is value for many, while we are generating value for money. +Do we care about those four billion people whose income levels are less than two dollars a day, the so-called bottom of the pyramid? +What are the challenges in getting value for money as well as value for many? +We have described here in terms of the performance and the price. +If you have money, of course, you can get the value. +You can get a Mercedes for a very high price, very high performance. +But if you don't have money, what happens? +Well, you are to ride a bicycle, carrying your own weight and also some other weight, so that you can earn the bread for the day. +Well, poor do not remain poor; they become lower-middle-class. +And if they do so, then, of course, the conditions improve, and they start riding on scooters. +But the challenge is, again, they don't get much value, because they can't afford anything more than the scooter. +The issue is, at that price, can you give them some extra value? +A super value, in terms of their ability to ride in a car, to get that dignity, to get that safety, looks practically impossible, isn't it. +Now, this is something that we see on Indian streets all the time. +But many people see the same thing and think things differently, and one of them is here, Ratan Tata. +The great thing about our leaders is that, should they not only have passion in their belly, which practically all of them have, they're also very innovative. +An innovator is one who does not know it cannot be done. +They believe that things can be done. +But great leaders like Ratan have compassion. +And what you said, Lakshmi, is absolutely true: it's not just Ratan Tata, it's the house of Tatas over time. +Let me confirm what she said. +Yes, I went barefoot until I was 12. +I struggled to [unclear] day was a huge issue. +And when I finished my SSC, the eleventh standard, I stood eleventh among 125,000 students. +But I was about to leave the school, because my poor mother couldn't afford schooling. +And it was [unclear] Tata Trust, which gave me six rupees per month, almost a dollar per month for six years. +That's how I'm standing before you. +So that is the House of Tata. +Innovation, compassion and passion. +They combine all that. +And then he said, "Well, I must give them a car that they can afford, one lakh car, $2,000 car." +Of course, as soon as you say something like this people say it is impossible, and that's what was said by Suzuki. +He said, oh, probably he is going to build a three-wheeler with stepney. +And you can see the cartoon here. +Well they didn't build that. They built a proper car. Nano. +And mind you, I'm six feet half an inch, Ratan is taller than me, and we have ample space in the front and ample space in the back in this particular car. +And incredible car. +And of course, nothing succeeds like success; the cynics then turned around, and one after the other they also started saying, "Yes, we also want to make a car in the Nano Segment. +We'll manufacture a car in the Nano Segment." +How did this great story unfold, the making of Nano? +Let me tell you a bit about it. +For example, how we started: Ratan just began with a five-engineer team, young people in their mid-twenties. +And he said, "Well, I won't define the vehicle for you, but I will define the cost for you. +It is one lakh, 100,000 rupees, and you are to make it within that." +And he told them, "Question the unquestionable. +Stretch the envelope." +And at a point in time, he got so engrossed in the whole challenge, that he himself became a member of the team. +Can you believe it? +I still am told about this story of that single wiper design in which he participated. +Until midnight, he'd be thinking. +Early morning he'll be coming back with sort of solutions. +But who was the team leader? +The team leader was Girish Wagh, a 34 year-old boy in [unclear]. +And the Nano team average age was just 27 years. +And they did innovation in design and beyond. +Broke many norms of the standard conventions for the first time. +For example, that a two-cylinder gas engine was used in a car with a single balancer shaft. +Adhesives were replacing the rivets. +There was a co-creation, a huge co-creation, with vendors and suppliers. +All ideas on board were welcome. +100 vendors were co-located adjacent to the plant, and innovative business models for automobile dealerships were developed. +Imagine that a fellow who sells cloth, for example, will be selling Nano. +I mean, it was incredible innovation. +Seeking solutions for non-auto sectors. +It was an open innovation, ideas from all over were welcome. +The mechanism of helicopters seats and windows was used, by the way, as well as a dashboard that was inspired by two-wheelers. +The fuel lines and lamps were as in two-wheelers. +And the crux of the matter was, however, getting more from less. +All the time, you have been given an envelope. +You can't cross that envelope, which is 100,000 rupees, 2,000 dollars. +And therefore, each component had to have a dual functionality. +And the seat riser, for example, serving as a mounting for the seat as well as a structural part of the functional rigidity. +Half the number of parts are contained in Nano in comparison to a typical passenger car. +The length is smaller by eight percent by the way. +But the current entry-level cars in comparison to that is eight percent less, but 21 percent more inside space. +And what happened was that -- more from less -- you can see how much more for how much less. +When the Model T was launched -- and this is, by the way, all the figures that are adjusted to 2007 dollar prices -- Model T was 19,700 by Ford. +Volkswagon was 11,333. +And British Motor was around 11,000. +And Nano was, bang, 2,000 dollars. +This is why you started actually a new paradigm shift, where the same people who could not dream of sitting in a car, who were carrying their entire family in a scooter, started dreaming of being in a car. +And those dreams are getting fulfilled. +This is a photograph of a house and a driver and a car near my own home. +The driver's name is Naran. +He has bought his own Nano. +And you can see, there is a physical space that has been created for him, parking that car, along with the owner's car, but more importantly, they've created a space in their mind that "Yes, my chauffeur is going to come in his own car and park it." +And that's why I call it a transformational innovation. +It is not just technological, it is social innovation that we talk about. +And that is where, ladies and gentlemen, this famous theme of getting more from less for more becomes important. +I remember talking about this for the first time in Australia, about one and a half years ago, when their academy honored me with a fellowship. +And unbelievably, in 40 years, I was the first Indian to be honored. +And the title of my talk was therefore "Indian innovation from Gandhi to Gandhian engineering." +And I titled this more from less for more and more people as Gandhian engineering. +And Gandhian engineering, in my judgment, is the one which is going to take the world forward, is going to make a difference, not just for a few, but for everyone. +Let me move from mobility in a car to individual mobility for those unfortunates who have lost their legs. +Here is an American citizen and his son having an artificial foot. +What is its price? 20,000 dollars. +And of course, these feet are so designed that they can walk only on such perfect pavement or roads. +Unfortunately, that's not the case in India. +You can see him walk barefoot on an awkward land, sometimes in a marshy land, and so on and so forth. +More importantly, they not only walk far to work, and not only do they cycle to work, but they cycle for work, as you can see here. +And they climb up for their work. +You have to design an artificial foot for such conditions. +A challenge, of course. +Four billion people, their incomes are less then two dollars a day. +And if you talk about a 20,000-dollar shoe, you're talking about 10,000 days of income. +You just don't have it. +And therefore, you ought to look at alternatives. +And that is how Jaipur Foot was created in India. +It had a revolutionary prosthetic fitment and delivery system, a quick molding and modular components, enabling custom-made, on-the-spot limb fitments. +You could feel it actually in an hour, by the way, whereas the equivalent other feet took something like a day, as so on. +Outer socket made by using heated high-density polyethylene pipes, rather than using heated sheets. +And unique high-ankle design and human-like looks, [unclear] and functions. +And I like to show how it looks and how it works. +See, he jumps. You can see what stress it must have. +(Text: ... any person with a below the knee limb could do this. +... above the limb, yes, it would be difficult ... +"Did it hurt?" +"No ... not at all." +... he can run a kilometer in four minutes and 30 seconds ...) One kilometer in four minutes and 30 seconds. +So that's what it is all about. +And therefore Time took notice of this 28-dollar foot, basically. +An incredible story. +Let's move on to something else. +I've been talking about getting more from less for more. +Let's move to health. +We've talked about mobility and the rest of it, let's talk about health. +What's happening in the area of health? +You know, you have new diseases that require new drugs. +And if you look at the drug development 10 years ago and now, what has happened? +10 years ago, it used to cost about a quarter billion. +Today it costs 1.5 billion dollars. +Time taken for moving a molecule to marketplace, after all the human and animal testing, was 10 years, now it is 15 years. +Are you getting more drugs because you are spending more time and more money? +No, I'm sorry. +We used to have 40, now they have come down to 30. +So actually we are getting less from more for less and less people. +Why less and less people? Because it is so expensive, so very few will be able to basically afford that. +Let us just take an example. +Psoriasis is very dreadful disease of the skin. +The cost of treatment, 20,000 dollars. +1,000-dollar antibody injections under the skin, by the way, and 20 of them. +Time for development -- it took around 10 years and 700 million dollars. +Let's start in the spirit of more from less and more for more and start putting some targets. +For example, we don't want 20,000 dollars; we don't have it. +Can we do it [for] 100 dollars? +Time for development, not 10 years. +We are in a hurry. Five years. +Cost of development -- 300 million dollars. +Sorry. I can't spend more than 10 million dollars. +Looks absolutely audacious. +Looks absolutely ridiculous. +You know something? This has been achieved in India. +These targets have been achieved in India. +And how they have been achieved ... +Sir Francis Bacon once said, "When you wish to achieve results that have not been achieved before, it is an unwise fancy to think that they can be achieved by using methods that have been used before." +And therefore, the standard process, where you develop a molecule, put it into mice, into men, are not yielding those results -- the billions of dollars that have been spent. +The Indian cleverness was using its traditional knowledge, however, scientifically validating it and making that journey from men to mice to men, not molecule to mice to men, you know. +And that is how this difference has come. +And you can see this blending of traditional medicine, modern medicine, modern science. +I launched a big program [unclear] CSIR about nine years ago. +He is giving us not just for Psoriasis, for cancer and a whole range of things, changing the whole paradigm. +And you can see this Indian Psoriasis breakthrough obtained by this reverse form of [unclear] by doing things differently. +You can see before treatment and after treatment. +This is really getting more from less for more and more people, because these are all affordable treatments now. +Let me just remind you of what Mahatma Gandhi had said. +He had said, "Earth provides enough to satisfy every man's need, but not every man's greed." +So the message he was giving us was you must get more from less and less and less so that you can share it for more and more people, not only the current generation, but the future generations. +And he also said, "I would prize every invention of science made for the benefit for all." +So he was giving you the message that you must have it for more and more people, not just a few people. +And therefore, ladies and gentlemen, this is the theme, getting more from less for more. +And mind you, it is not getting just a little more for just a little less. +It's not about low cost. +It's about ultra-low cost. +You cannot say it's a mere treatment 10,000 dollars, but because you are poor I'll give it for 9,000. +Sorry, it doesn't work. You have to give it for 100 dollars, 200 dollars. +Is it possible? It has been made possible, by the way, for certain other different reasons. +So you are not talking about low cost, you are talking about ultra-low cost. +You are not talking about affordability, you are talking about extreme affordability. +Because of the four billion people whose income is under two dollars a day. +You're not talking exclusive innovation. +You're talking about inclusive innovation. +And therefore, you're not talking about incremental innovation, you're talking about disruptive innovation. +The ideas have to be such that you think in completely different terms. +And I would also add, it is not only getting more from less for more by more and more people, the whole world working for it. +I was very touched when I saw a breakthrough the other day. +You know, incubators for infants, for example. +They're not available in Africa. +They're not available in Indian villages. +And infants die. +And incubator costs 2,000 dollars. +And there's a 25-dollar incubator giving that performance that had been created. +And by whom? +By young students from Standford University on an extreme affordability project that they had, basically. +Their heart is in the right place, like Ratan Tata. +It's not just innovation, compassion and passion -- compassion in the heart and passion in the belly. +That's the new world that we want to create. +And that is why the message is that of Gandhian engineering. +Ladies and gentlemen, I'd like to end before time. +I was also afraid of those 18 minutes. +I've still one and a half to go. +The message, the final message, is this: India gave a great gift to the world. +What was that? +[In the] 20th century, we gave Gandhi to the world. +The 21st century gift, which is very, very important for the whole world, whether it is global economic meltdown, whether it is climate change -- any problem that you talk about is gaining more from less for more and more -- not only the current generations, for the future generations. +And that can come only from Gandhian engineering. +So ladies and gentlemen, I'm very happy to announce, this gift of the 21st century to the world from India, Gandhian engineering. +Lakshmi Pratury: Thank you, Dr. Mashelkar. (R.A. Mashelkar: Thank you very much.) LP: A quick question for you. +Now, when you were a young boy in this school, what were your thoughts, like what did you think you could become? +What do you think that drove you? +Was there a vision you had? What is it that drove you? +RAM: I'll tell you a story that drove me, that transformed my life. +I remember, I went to a poor school, because my mother could not gather the 21 rupees, that half a dollar that was required within the stipulated time. +It was [unclear] high school. +But it was a poor school with rich teachers, honestly. +And one of them was [unclear] who taught us physics. +One day he took us out into the sun and tried to show us how to find the focal length of a convex lens. +The lens was here. The piece of paper was there. He moved it up and down. +And there was a bright spot up there. +And then he said, "This is the focal length." +But then he held it for a little while, Lakshmi. +And then the paper burned. +When the paper burned, for some reason he turned to me, and he said, "Mashelkar, like this, if you do not diffuse your energies, if you focus your energies, you can achieve anything in the world." +That gave me a great message: focus and you can achieve. +I said, "Whoa, science is so wonderful, I have to become a scientist." +But more importantly, focus and you can achieve. +And that message, very frankly, is valuable for society today. +What does that focal length do? +It has parallel lines, which are sun rays. +And the property of parallel lines is that they never meet. +What does that convex lens do? +It makes them meet. +This is convex lens leadership. +You know what today's leadership is doing? Concave length. +They divide them farther. +So I learned the lesson of convex lens leadership from that. +And when I was at National Chemical Laboratory [unclear]. +When I was at Council of Scientific Industry Research -- 40 laboratories -- when two laboratories were not talking to each other, I would [unclear]. +And currently I'm president of Global Research Alliance, 60,000 scientists in nine counties, right from India to the U.S. +I'm trying to build a global team, which will look at the global grand challenges that the world is facing. +That was the lesson. That was the inspirational moment. +LP: Thank you very much. (RAM: Thank you.) +I'm going to talk to you about power in this 21st century. +And basically, what I'd like to tell you is that power is changing, and there are two types of changes I want to discuss. +One is power transition, which is change of power amongst states. +And there the simple version of the message is it's moving from West to East. +The other is power diffusion, the way power is moving from all states West or East to non-state actors. +Those two things are the huge shifts of power in our century. +And I want to tell you about them each separately and then how they interact and why, in the end, there may be some good news. +When we talk about power transition, we often talk about the rise of Asia. +It really should be called the recovery or return of Asia. +If we looked at the world in 1800, you'd find that more than half of the world's people lived in Asia and they made more than half the world's product. +Now fast forward to 1900: half the world's people -- more than half -- still live in Asia, but they're now making only a fifth of the world's product. +What happened? The Industrial Revolution, which meant that all of a sudden, Europe and America became the dominant center of the world. +What we're going to see in the 21st century is Asia gradually returning to being more than half of the world's population and more than half of the world's product. +That's important and it's an important shift. +But let me tell you a little bit about the other shift that I'm talking about, which is power diffusion. +To understand power diffusion put this in your mind: computing and communications costs have fallen a thousandfold between 1970 and the beginning of this century. +Now that's a big abstract number. +But to make it more real, if the price of an automobile had fallen as rapidly as the price of computing power, you could buy a car today for five dollars. +Now when the price of any technology declines that dramatically, the barriers to entry go down. +Anybody can play in the game. +So in 1970, if you wanted to communicate from Oxford to Johannesburg to New Delhi to Brasilia and anywhere simultaneously, you could do it. +The technology was there. +But to be able to do it, you had to be very rich -- a government, a multinational corporation, maybe the Catholic Church -- but you had to be pretty wealthy. +Now, anybody has that capacity, which previously was restricted by price just to a few actors. +If they have the price of entry into an Internet cafe -- the last time I looked, it was something like a pound an hour -- and if you have Skype, it's free. +So capabilities that were once restricted are now available to everyone. +And what that means is not that the age of the State is over. +The State still matters. +But the stage is crowded. +The State's not alone. There are many, many actors. +Some of that's good: Oxfam, a great non-governmental actor. +Some of it's bad: Al Qaeda, another non-governmental actor. +But think of what it does to how we think in traditional terms and concepts. +We think in terms of war and interstate war. +And you can think back to 1941 when the government of Japan attacked the United States at Pearl Harbor. +It's worth noticing that a non-state actor attacking the United States in 2001 killed more Americans than the government of Japan did in 1941. +You might think of that as the privatization of war. +So we're seeing a great change in terms of diffusion of power. +Now the problem is that we're not thinking about it in very innovative ways. +So let me step back and ask: what's power? +Power is simple the ability to affect others to get the outcomes you want, and you can do it in three ways. +You can do it with threats of coercion, "sticks," you can do it with payments, "carrots," or you can do it by getting others to want what you want. +And that ability to get others to want what you want, to get the outcomes you want without coercion or payment, is what I call soft power. +And that soft power has been much neglected and much misunderstood, and yet it's tremendously important. +Indeed, if you can learn to use more soft power, you can save a lot on carrots and sticks. +Traditionally, the way people thought about power was primarily in terms of military power. +For example, the great Oxford historian who taught here at this university, A.J.P. Taylor, defined a great power as a country able to prevail in war. +But we need a new narrative if we're to understand power in the 21st century. +It's not just prevailing at war, though war still persists. +It's not whose army wins; it's also whose story wins. +And we have to think much more in terms of narratives and whose narrative is going to be effective. +Now let me go back to the question of power transition between states and what's happening there. +the narratives that we use now tend to be the rise and fall of the great powers. +And the current narrative is all about the rise of China and the decline of the United States. +Indeed, with the 2008 financial crisis, many people said this was the beginning of the end of American power. +The tectonic plates of world politics were shifting. +And president Medvedev of Russia, for example, pronounced in 2008 this was the beginning of the end of United States power. +But in fact, this metaphor of decline is often very misleading. +If you look at history, in recent history, you'll see the cycles of belief in American decline come and go every 10 or 15 years or so. +In 1958, after the Soviets put up Sputnik, it was "That's the end of America." +In 1973, with the oil embargo and the closing of the gold window, that was the end of America. +In the 1980s, as America went through a transition in the Reagan period, between the rust belt economy of the midwest to the Silicon Valley economy of California, that was the end of America. +But in fact, what we've seen is none of those were true. +Indeed, people were over-enthusiastic in the early 2000s, thinking America could do anything, which led us into some disastrous foreign policy adventures, and now we're back to decline again. +The moral of this story is all these narratives about rise and fall and decline tell us a lot more about psychology than they do about reality. +If we try to focus on the reality, then what we need to focus on is what's really happening in terms of China and the United States. +Goldman Sachs has projected that China, the Chinese economy, will surpass that of the U.S. +by 2027. +So we've got, what, 17 more years to go or so before China's bigger. +Now someday, with a billion point three people getting richer, they are going to be bigger than the United States. +But be very careful about these projections such as the Goldman Sachs projection as though that gives you an accurate picture of power transition in this century. +Let me mention three reasons why it's too simple. +First of all, it's a linear projection. +You know, everything says, here's the growth rate of China, here's the growth rate of the U.S., here it goes -- straight line. +History is not linear. +There are often bumps along the road, accidents along the way. +The second thing is that the Chinese economy passes the U.S. economy in, let's say, 2030, which it may it, that will be a measure of total economic size, but not of per capita income -- won't tell you about the composition of the economy. +China still has large areas of underdevelopment and per capita income is a better measure of the sophistication of the economy. +And that the Chinese won't catch up or pass the Americans until somewhere in the latter part, after 2050, of this century. +The other point that's worth noticing is how one-dimensional this projection is. +You know, it looks at economic power measured by GDP. +Doesn't tell you much about military power, doesn't tell you very much about soft power. +It's all very one-dimensional. +And also, when we think about the rise of Asia, or return of Asia as I called it a little bit earlier, it's worth remembering Asia's not one thing. +If you're sitting in Japan, or in New Delhi, or in Hanoi, your view of the rise of China is a little different than if you're sitting in Beijing. +Indeed, one of the advantages that the Americans will have in terms of power in Asia is all those countries want an American insurance policy against the rise of China. +It's as though Mexico and Canada were hostile neighbors to the United States, which they're not. +So these simple projections of the Goldman Sachs type are not telling us what we need to know about power transition. +But you might ask, well so what in any case? +Why does it matter? Who cares? +Is this just a game that diplomats and academics play? +The answer is it matters quite a lot. +Because, if you believe in decline and you get the answers wrong on this, the facts, not the myths, you may have policies which are very dangerous. +Let me give you an example from history. +The Peloponnesian War was the great conflict in which the Greek city state system tore itself apart two and a half millennia ago. +What caused it? +Thucydides, the great historian of the the Peloponnesian War, said it was the rise in the power of Athens and the fear it created in Sparta. +Notice both halves of that explanation. +Many people argue that the 21st century is going to repeat the 20th century, in which World War One, the great conflagration in which the European state system tore itself apart and destroyed its centrality in the world, that that was caused by the rise in the power of Germany and the fear it created in Britain. +So there are people who are telling us this is going to be reproduced today, that what we're going to see is the same thing now in this century. +No, I think that's wrong. +It's bad history. +For one thing, Germany had surpassed Britain in industrial strength by 1900. +And as I said earlier, China has not passed the United States. +But also, if you have this belief and it creates a sense of fear, it leads to overreaction. +And the greatest danger we have of managing this power transition of the shift toward the East is fear. +To paraphrase Franklin Roosevelt from a different context, the greatest thing we have to fear is fear itself. +We don't have to fear the rise of China or the return of Asia. +And if we have policies in which we take it in that larger historical perspective, we're going to be able to manage this process. +Let me say a word now about the distribution of power and how it relates to power diffusion and then pull these two types together. +If you ask how is power distributed in the world today, it's distributed much like a three-dimensional chess game. +Top board: military power among states. +The United States is the only superpower, and it's likely to remain that way for two or three decades. +China's not going to replace the U.S. on this military board. +Middle board of this three-dimensional chess game: economic power among states. +Power is multi-polar. +There are balancers -- the U.S., Europe, China, Japan can balance each other. +The bottom board of this three-dimensional, the board of transnational relations, things that cross borders outside the control of governments, things like climate change, drug trade, financial flows, pandemics, all these things that cross borders outside the control of governments, there nobody's in charge. +It makes no sense to call this unipolar or multi-polar. +Power is chaotically distributed. +And the only way you can solve these problems -- and this is where many greatest challenges are coming in this century -- is through cooperation, through working together, which means that soft power becomes more important, that ability to organize networks to deal with these kinds of problems and to be able to get cooperation. +Another way of putting it is that as we think of power in the 21st century, we want to get away from the idea that power's always zero sum -- my gain is your loss and vice versa. +Power can also be positive sum, where your gain can be my gain. +If China develops greater energy security and greater capacity to deal with its problems of carbon emissions, that's good for us as well as good for China as well as good for everybody else. +So empowering China to deal with its own problems of carbon is good for everybody, and it's not a zero sum, I win, you lose. +It's one in which we can all gain. +So as we think about power in this century, we want to get away from this view that it's all I win, you lose. +Now I don't mean to be Pollyannaish about this. +Wars persist. Power persists. +Military power is important. +Keeping balances is important. +All this still persists. +Hard power is there, and it will remain. +But unless you learn how to mix hard power with soft power into strategies that I call smart power, you're not going to deal with the new kinds of problems that we're facing. +So the key question that we need to think about as we look at this is how do we work together to produce global public goods, things from which all of us can benefit? +How do we define our national interests so that it's not just zero sum, but positive sum. +In that sense, if we define our interests, for example, for the United States the way Britain defined its interests in the 19th century, keeping an open trading system, keeping a monetary stability, keeping freedom of the seas -- those were good for Britain, they were good for others as well. +And in the 21st century, you have to do an analog to that. +How do we produce global public goods, which are good for us, but good for everyone at the same time? +And that's going to be the good news dimension of what we need to think about as we think of power in the 21st century. +There are ways to define our interests in which, while protecting ourselves with hard power, we can organize with others in networks to produce, not only public goods, but ways that will enhance our soft power. +So if one looks at the statements that have been made about this, I am impressed that when Hillary Clinton described the foreign policy of the Obama administration, she said that the foreign policy of the Obama administration was going to be smart power, as she put it, "using all the tools in our foreign policy tool box." +And that's the good news I have. We can do that. +Thank you very much. +Sustainability represents the what, the where and the how of what is caught. +The who and the why are what's important to me. +I want to know the people behind my dinner choices. +I want to know how I impact them. +I want to know how they impact me. +I want to know why they fish. +I want to know how they rely on the water's bounty for their living. +Understanding all of this enables us to shift our perception of seafood away from a commodity to an opportunity to restore our ecosystem. +It allows for us to celebrate the seafood that we're also so fortunate to eat. +So what do we call this? +I think we call it restorative seafood. +Where sustainability is the capacity to endure and maintain, restorative is the ability to replenish and progress. +Restorative seafood allows for an evolving and dynamic system and acknowledges our relationship with the ocean as a resource, suggesting that we engage to replenish the ocean and to encourage its resiliency. +It is a more hopeful, it is a more human, and is a more useful way of understanding our environment. +Wallet guides -- standard issue by lots in the marine conservation world -- are very handy; they're a wonderful tool. +Green, yellow and red lists [of] seafood species. +The association is very easy: buy green, don't buy red, think twice about yellow. +But in my mind, it's really not enough to just eat green list. +We can't sustain this without the measure of our success really changing the fate of the species in the yellow and the red. +But what if we eat only in the green list? +You've got pole-caught yellowfin tuna here -- comes from sustainable stocks. +Pole caught -- no bycatch. +Great for fishermen. Lots of money. Supporting local economies. +But it's a lion of the sea. It's a top predator. +What's the context of this meal? +Am I sitting down in a steakhouse to a 16-ounce portion of this? +Do I do this three times a week? +I might still be in the green list, but I'm not doing myself, or you, or the oceans any favors. +The point is that we have to have a context, a gauge for our actions in all this. +Example: I've heard that red wine is great for my health -- antioxidants and minerals -- heart healthy. +That's great! I love red wine! +I'm going to drink so much of it. I'm going to be so healthy. +Well, how many bottles is it before you tell me that I have a problem? +Well folks, we have a protein problem. +We have lost this sensibility when it regards our food, and we are paying a cost. +The problem is we are hiding that cost beneath the waves. +We are hiding that cost behind the social acceptance of expanding waistlines. +And we are hiding that cost behind monster profits. +So the first thing about this idea of restorative seafood is that it really takes into account our needs. +Restorative seafood might best be represented not by Jaws, or by Flipper, or the Gordon's fisherman, but rather, by the Jolly Green Giant. +Vegetables: they might yet save the oceans. +Sylvia likes to say that blue is the new green. +Well I'd like to respectfully submit that broccoli green might then be the new blue. +We must continue to eat the best seafood possible, if at all. +But we also must eat it with a ton of vegetables. +The best part about restorative seafood though is that it comes on the half-shell with a bottle of Tabasco and lemon wedges. +It comes in a five-ounce portion of tilapia breaded with Dijon mustard and crispy, broiled breadcrumbs and a steaming pile of pecan quinoa pilaf with crunchy, grilled broccoli so soft and sweet and charred and smoky on the outside with just a hint of chili flake. +Whooo! +This is an easy sell. +And the best part is all of those ingredients are available to every family at the neighborhood Walmart. +Jamie Oliver is campaigning to save America from the way we eat. +Sylvia is campaigning to save the oceans from the way we eat. +There's a pattern here. +Forget nuclear holocaust; it's the fork that we have to worry about. +We have ravaged our Earth and then used the food that we've sourced to handicap ourselves in more ways than one. +So I think we have this whole eating thing wrong. +And so I think it's time we change what we expect from our food. +Sustainability is complicated but dinner is a reality that we all very much understand. +So let's start there. +There's been a lot of movement recently in greening our food systems. +Dan Barber and Alice Waters are leading passionately the green food Delicious Revolution. +But green foods often represent a way for us to disregard the responsibility as eaters. +Just because it comes from a green source doesn't mean we can treat it with disregard on the plate. +We have eco-friendly shrimp. +We can make them; we have that technology. +But we can never have any eco-friendly all-you-can-eat shrimp buffet. +It doesn't work. +Heart-healthy dinner is a very important part of restorative seafood. +While we try to manage declining marine populations, the media's recommending increased consumption of seafood. +Studies say that tens of thousands of American grandmothers, grandfathers, mothers and fathers might be around for another birthday if we included more seafood. +That's a reward I am not willing to pass up. +But it's not all about the seafood. +It's about the way that we look at our plates. +As a chef, I realize the easiest thing for me to do is reduce the portion sizes on my plate. +A couple things happened. +I made more money. +People started buying appetizers and salads, because they knew they weren't going to fill up on the entrees alone. +People spent more time engaging in their meals, engaging with each other over their meals. +People got, in short, more of what they came there for even though they got less protein. +They got more calories over the course of a diversified meal. +They got healthier. I made more money. +This is great. +Environmental consideration was served with every plate, but it was served with a heaping mound of consideration for human interests at the same time. +One of the other things we did was begin to diversify the species that we served -- small silverfish, anchovies, mackerel, sardines were uncommon. +Shellfish, mussels, oysters, clams, tilapia, char -- these were the common species. +We were directing tastes towards more resilience, more restorative options. +This is what we need to favor. +This is what the green list says. +But this is also how we can actually begin to restore our environment. +But what of those big predators, those fashionable species, that green list tuna that I was talking about earlier? +Well, if you must, I have a recipe for you. +It pretty much works with any big fish in the ocean, so here we go. +Start with a 16-ounce portion of big fish. +Get a knife. Cut it into four portions. +Put it on four plates. +Mound up those four plates with vegetables and then open up the very best bottle of Burgundy you have, light the candles and celebrate it. +Celebrate the opportunity you have to eat this. +Invite your friends and neighbors over and repeat once a year, maybe. +I expect a lot from food. +I expect health and joy and family and community. +I expect that producing ingredients, preparing dishes and eating meals is all part of the communion of human interests. +I was lucky enough that my father was a fantastic cook. +And he taught me very early on about the privilege that eating represents. +I remember well the meals of my childhood. +They were reasonable portions of protein served with copious quantities of vegetables and small amounts of starch, usually rice. +This is still how I largely eat today. +I get sick when I go to steakhouses. +I get the meat sweats. +It's like a hangover from protein. +It's disgusting. +But of all the dire news that you'll hear and that you have heard about the state of our oceans, I have the unfortunate burden of delivering to you possibly the very worst of it and that is this whole time your mother was right. +Eat your vegetables. +It's pretty straightforward. +So what are we looking for in a meal? +Well for health, I'm looking for wholesome ingredients that are good for my body. +For joy, I'm looking for butter and salt and sexy things that make things taste less like penance. +For family, I'm looking for recipes that genuflect to my own personal histories. +For community though, we start at the very beginning. +There's no escaping the fact that everything we eat has a global impact. +So try and learn as best you can what that impact is and then take the first step to minimize it. +We've seen an image of our blue planet, our world bank. +But it is more than just a repository of our resources; it's also the global geography of the communion we call dinner. +So if we all take only what we need, then we can begin to share the rest, we can begin to celebrate, we can begin to restore. +We need to savor vegetables. +We need to savor smaller portions of seafood. +And we need to save dinner. +Thank you. +I'm a bug lover, myself -- not from childhood, by the way, but rather late. +When I bachelored, majoring in zoology in Tel Aviv University, I kind of fell in love with bugs. +And then, within zoology, I took the course or the discipline of entomology, the science of insects. +And then I thought, myself, how can I be practical or help in the science of entomology? +And then I moved to the world of plant protection -- plant protection from insects, from bad bugs. +And then within plant protection, I came into the discipline of biological pest control which we actually define as the use of living organisms to reduce populations of noxious plant pests. +So it's a whole discipline in plant protection that's aiming at the reduction of chemicals. +And biological pest control, by the way, or these good bugs that we are talking about, they've existed in the world for thousands and thousands of years, for a long, long time. +But only in the last 120 years people started, or people knew more and more how to exploit, or how to use, this biological control phenomenon, or in fact, natural control phenomenon, to their own needs. +Because biological control phenomenon, you can see it in your backyard. +Just take a magnifying glass. You see what I have here? +That's a magnifier times 10. +Yeah, times 10. +Just open it. +You just twist leaves, and you see a whole new world of minute insects, or little spiders of one millimeter, one and a half, two millimeters long, and you can distinguish between the good ones and the bad ones. +So this phenomenon of natural control exists literally everywhere. +Here, in front of this building, I'm sure. +Just have a look at the plants. +So it's everywhere, and we need to know how to exploit it. +Well let us go hand by hand and browse through just a few examples. +What is a pest? +What damage [does] it actually inflict on the plant? +And what is the natural enemy, the biologically controlled agent, or the good bug, that we are talking about? +In general, I'm going to talk about insects and spiders, or mites, let us call them. +Insects, those six-legged organisms and spiders or mites, the eight-legged organisms. +Let's have a look at that. +Here is a pest, devastating pest, a spider mite, because it does a lot of webbing like a spider. +You see the mother in between and two daughters, probably on the left and right, and a single egg on the right-hand side. +And then you see what kind of damage it can inflict. +On your right-hand side you can see a cucumber leaf, and on the middle, cotton leaf, and on the left a tomato leaf with these little stipplings. +They can literally turn from green to white because of the sucking, piercing mouthparts of those spiders. +But here comes nature that provides us with a good spider. +This is a predatory mite -- just as small as a spider mite, by the way, one millimeter, two millimeters long, not more than that, running quickly, hunting, chasing the spider mites. +And here you can see this lady in action on your left-hand side -- just pierces, sucks the body fluids on the left-hand side of the pest mite. +And after five minutes, this is what you see: just a typical dead corpse, shriveled, sucked-out, dead corpse of the spider mite, and next to it, two satiated individuals of predatory mites, a mother on the left-hand side, a young nymph on the right-hand side. +By the way, a meal for them for 24 hours is about five individuals of the spider mites, of the bad mites, or 15 to 20 eggs of the pest mites. +By the way, they are hungry always. +And there is another example: aphids. +By the way, it's springtime now in Israel. +When temperature rises sharply, you can see those bad ones, those aphids, all over the plants, in your hibiscus, in your lantana, in the young, fresh foliage of the spring flush, so-called. +By the way, with aphids you have only females, like Amazons. +Females giving rise to females giving rise to other females. +No males at all. +Parthenogenesis, [as it] was so called. +And they are very happy with that, apparently. +Here we can see the damage. +Those aphids secrete some sticky, sugary liquid called honeydew, and this just globs the upper parts of the plant. +Here you see a typical cucumber leaf that turned actually from green to black because of a black fungus, sooty mold, which is covering it. +And here comes the salvation through this parasitic wasp. +Here we are not talking about a predator. +Here we are talking a parasite -- not a two-legged parasite, but an eight-legged parasite, of course. +This is a parasitic wasp, again, two millimeters long, slender, a very quick and sharp flier. +And here you can see this parasite in action, like in an acrobatic maneuver. +She stands vis-a-vis in front of the victim at the right-hand side, bending its abdomen and inserting a single egg, a single egg into the body fluids of the aphid. +By the way, the aphid tries to escape. +She kicks and bites and secretes different liquids, but nothing will happen, in fact. +Only the egg of the parasite will be inserted into the body fluids of the aphid. +And after a few days, depending upon temperature, the egg will hatch and the larva of this parasite will eat the aphid from the inside. +This is all natural. This is all natural. +This is not fiction, nothing at all. +Again, in your backyard, in your backyard. +But this is the end result. +This is the end result: Mummies -- M-U-M-M-Y. +This is the visual result of a dead aphid encompassing inside, in fact, a developing parasitoid that after a few minutes you see halfway out. +The birth is almost complete. +You can see, by the way, in different movies, etc., it takes just a few minutes. +And if this is a female, she'll immediately mate with a male and off she goes because time is very short. +This female can live only three to four days, and she needs to give rise to around 400 eggs. +That means she has 400 bad aphids to put her eggs into their body fluids. +And this is of course not the end of it. +There is a whole wealth of other natural enemies and this is just the last example. +Again, we'll start first with the pest: the thrips. +By the way, all these weird names -- I didn't bother you with the Latin names of these creatures, okay, just the popular names. +But this is a nice, slender, very bad pest. +If you can see this, sweet peppers. +This is not just an exotic, ornamental sweet pepper. +This is a sweet pepper which is not consumable because it is suffering from a viral disease transmitted by those thrip adults. +And here comes the natural enemy, minute pirate bug, "minute" because it is rather small. +Here you can see the adult, black, and two young ones. +And again, in action. +This adult pierces the thrips, sucking it within just several minutes, just going to the other prey, continuing all over the place. +And if we spread those minute pirate bugs, the good ones, for example, in a sweet pepper plot, they go to the flowers. +And look, this flower is flooded with predatory bugs, with the good ones after wiping out the bad ones, the thrips. +So this is a very positive situation, by the way. +No harm to the developing fruit. No harm to the fruit set. +Everything is just fine under these circumstances. +But again, the question is, here you saw them on a one-to-one basis -- the pest, the natural enemy. +What we do is actually this. +In Northeast Israel, in Kibbutz Sde Eliyahu, there is a facility that mass-produces those natural enemies. +In other words, what we do there, we amplify, we amplify the natural control, or the biological control phenomenon. +And in 30,000 square meters of state-of-the-art greenhouses, there, we are mass-producing those predatory mites, those minute pirate bugs, those parasitic wasps, etc., etc. +Many different parts. +By the way, they have a very nice landscape -- you see the Jordanian Mountains on the one hand and the Jordan Valley on the other hand, and a good, mild winter and a nice, hot summer, which is an excellent condition to mass-produce those creatures. +And by the way, mass-production -- it is not genetic manipulation. +There are no GMOs -- Genetically Modified Organisms -- whatsoever. +We take them from nature, and the only thing that we do, we give them the optimal conditions, under the greenhouses or in the climate rooms, in order to proliferate, multiply and reproduce. +And that's what we get, in fact. +You see under a microscope. +You see in the upper left corner, you see a single predatory mite. +And this is the whole bunch of predatory mites. +You see this ampoule. You see this one. +I have one gram of those predatory mites. +One gram's 80,000 individuals, 80,000 individuals are good enough to control one acre, 4,000 square meters, of a strawberry plot against spider mites for the whole season of almost one year. +And we can produce from this, believe you me, several dozens of kilograms on an annual basis. +So this is what I call amplification of the phenomenon. +And no, we do not disrupt the balance. +On the contrary, because we bring it to every cultural plot where the balance was already disrupted by the chemicals. +Here we come with those natural enemies in order to reverse a little bit of the wheel and to bring more natural balance to the agricultural plot by reducing those chemicals. +That's the whole idea. +And what is the impact? +In this table, you can actually see what is an impact of a successful biological control by good bugs. +For example, in Israel, where we employ more than 1,000 hectares -- 10,000 dunams in Israeli terms -- of biological pest controlling sweet pepper under protection, 75 percent of the pesticides were actually reduced. +And Israeli strawberries, even more -- 80 percent of the pesticides, especially those aimed against pest mites in strawberries. +So the impact is very strong. +And there goes the question, especially if you ask growers, agriculturists: Why biological control? +Why good bugs? +By the way, the number of answers you get equals the number of people you ask. +But if we go, for example, to this place, Southeast Israel, the Arava area above the Great Rift Valley, where the really top-notch -- the pearl of the Israeli agriculture is located, especially under greenhouse conditions, or under screenhouse conditions -- if you drive all the way to Eilat, you see this just in the middle of the desert. +And if you zoom in, you can definitely watch this, grandparents with their grandchildren, distributing the natural enemies, the good bugs, instead of wearing special clothes and gas masks and applying chemicals. +So safety, with respect to the application, why biological control. +Number two, many growers are in fact petrified from the idea of resistance, that the pests will become resistant to the chemicals, just in our case that bacteria becomes resistant to antibiotics. +It's the same, and it can happen very quickly. +Fortunately, in either biological control or even natural control, resistance is extremely rare. +It hardly happens. +Because this is evolution, this is the natural ratio, unlike resistance, which happens in the case of chemicals. +And thirdly, public demand. +Public demand -- the more the public demands the reduction of chemicals, the more growers become aware of the fact they should, wherever they can and wherever possible, replace the chemical control with biological control. +Even here, there is another grower, you see, very interested in the bugs, the bad ones and the good ones, wearing this magnifier already on her head, just walking safely in her crop. +Finally, I want to get actually to my vision, or in fact, to my dream. +Because, you see, this is the reality. +Have a look at the gap. +If we take the overall turnover of the biocontrol industry worldwide, it's 250 million dollars. +And look at the overall pesticide industry in all the crops throughout the world. +I think it's times 100 or something like that. +Twenty-five billion. +So there is a huge gap to bridge. +So actually, how can we do it? +How can we bridge, or let's say, narrow, this gap in the course of the years? +First of all, we need to find more robust, good and reliable biological solutions, more good bugs that we can either mass-produce or actually conserve in the field. +Secondly, to create even more intensive and strict public demand to reduction of chemicals in the agricultural fresh produce. +And thirdly, also to increase awareness by the growers to the potential of this industry. +And this gap really narrows. +Step by step, it does narrow. +So I think my last slide is: All we are saying, we can actually sing it: Give nature a chance. +So I'm saying it on behalf of all the biocontrol petitioners and implementers, in Israel and abroad, really give nature a chance. +Thank you. +Miwa Matreyek! +I love video games. +I'm also slightly in awe of them. +I'm in awe of their power in terms of imagination, in terms of technology, in terms of concept. +But I think, above all, I'm in awe at their power to motivate, to compel us, to transfix us, like really nothing else we've ever invented has quite done before. +And I think that we can learn some pretty amazing things by looking at how we do this. +And in particular, I think we can learn things about learning. +Now the video games industry is far and away the fastest growing of all modern media. +From about 10 billion in 1990, it's worth 50 billion dollars globally today, and it shows no sign of slowing down. +In four years' time, it's estimated it'll be worth over 80 billion dollars. +That's about three times the recorded music industry. +This is pretty stunning, but I don't think it's the most telling statistic of all. +The thing that really amazes me is that, today, people spend about eight billion real dollars a year buying virtual items that only exist inside video games. +This is a screenshot from the virtual game world, Entropia Universe. +Earlier this year, a virtual asteroid in it sold for 330,000 real dollars. +And this is a Titan class ship in the space game, EVE Online. +And this virtual object takes 200 real people about 56 days of real time to build, plus countless thousands of hours of effort before that. +And yet, many of these get built. +At the other end of the scale, the game Farmville that you may well have heard of, has 70 million players around the world and most of these players are playing it almost every day. +This may all sound really quite alarming to some people, an index of something worrying or wrong in society. +But we're here for the good news, and the good news is that I think we can explore why this very real human effort, this very intense generation of value, is occurring. +And by answering that question, I think we can take something extremely powerful away. +And I think the most interesting way to think about how all this is going on is in terms of rewards. +And specifically, it's in terms of the very intense emotional rewards that playing games offers to people both individually and collectively. +Now if we look at what's going on in someone's head when they are being engaged, two quite different processes are occurring. +On the one hand, there's the wanting processes. +This is a bit like ambition and drive -- I'm going to do that. I'm going to work hard. +On the other hand, there's the liking processes, fun and affection and delight and an enormous flying beast with an orc on the back. +It's a really great image. It's pretty cool. +It's from the game World of Warcraft with more than 10 million players globally, one of whom is me, another of whom is my wife. +And this kind of a world, this vast flying beast you can ride around, shows why games are so very good at doing both the wanting and the liking. +Because it's very powerful. It's pretty awesome. +It gives you great powers. +Your ambition is satisfied, but it's very beautiful. +It's a very great pleasure to fly around. +And so these combine to form a very intense emotional engagement. +But this isn't the really interesting stuff. +The really interesting stuff about virtuality is what you can measure with it. +Because what you can measure in virtuality is everything. +Every single thing that every single person who's ever played in a game has ever done can be measured. +The biggest games in the world today are measuring more than one billion points of data about their players, about what everybody does -- far more detail than you'd ever get from any website. +And this allows something very special to happen in games. +It's something called the reward schedule. +And by this, I mean looking at what millions upon millions of people have done and carefully calibrating the rate, the nature, the type, the intensity of rewards in games to keep them engaged over staggering amounts of time and effort. +Now, to try and explain this in sort of real terms, I want to talk about a kind of task that might fall to you in so many games. +Go and get a certain amount of a certain little game-y item. +Let's say, for the sake of argument, my mission is to get 15 pies and I can get 15 pies by killing these cute, little monsters. +Simple game quest. +Now you can think about this, if you like, as a problem about boxes. +I've got to keep opening boxes. +I don't know what's inside them until I open them. +And I go around opening box after box until I've got 15 pies. +Now, if you take a game like Warcraft, you can think about it, if you like, as a great box-opening effort. +The game's just trying to get people to open about a million boxes, getting better and better stuff in them. +This sounds immensely boring but games are able to make this process incredibly compelling. +And the way they do this is through a combination of probability and data. +Let's think about probability. +If we want to engage someone in the process of opening boxes to try and find pies, we want to make sure it's neither too easy, nor too difficult, to find a pie. +So what do you do? Well, you look at a million people -- no, 100 million people, 100 million box openers -- and you work out, if you make the pie rate about 25 percent -- that's neither too frustrating, nor too easy. +It keeps people engaged. +But of course, that's not all you do -- there's 15 pies. +Now, I could make a game called Piecraft, where all you had to do was get a million pies or a thousand pies. +That would be very boring. +Fifteen is a pretty optimal number. +You find that -- you know, between five and 20 is about the right number for keeping people going. +But we don't just have pies in the boxes. +There's 100 percent up here. +And what we do is make sure that every time a box is opened, there's something in it, some little reward that keeps people progressing and engaged. +In most adventure games, it's a little bit in-game currency, a little bit experience. +But we don't just do that either. +We also say there's going to be loads of other items of varying qualities and levels of excitement. +There's going to be a 10 percent chance you get a pretty good item. +There's going to be a 0.1 percent chance you get an absolutely awesome item. +And each of these rewards is carefully calibrated to the item. +And also, we say, "Well, how many monsters? Should I have the entire world full of a billion monsters?" +No, we want one or two monsters on the screen at any one time. +So I'm drawn on. It's not too easy, not too difficult. +So all this is very powerful. +But we're in virtuality. These aren't real boxes. +So we can do some rather amazing things. +We notice, looking at all these people opening boxes, that when people get to about 13 out of 15 pies, their perception shifts, they start to get a bit bored, a bit testy. +They're not rational about probability. +They think this game is unfair. +It's not giving me my last two pies. I'm going to give up. +If they're real boxes, there's not much we can do, but in a game we can just say, "Right, well. +When you get to 13 pies, you've got 75 percent chance of getting a pie now." +Keep you engaged. Look at what people do -- adjust the world to match their expectation. +Our games don't always do this. +And one thing they certainly do at the moment is if you got a 0.1 percent awesome item, they make very sure another one doesn't appear for a certain length of time to keep the value, to keep it special. +And the point is really that we evolved to be satisfied by the world in particular ways. +Over tens and hundreds of thousands of years, we evolved to find certain things stimulating, and as very intelligent, civilized beings, we're enormously stimulated by problem solving and learning. +But now, we can reverse engineer that and build worlds that expressly tick our evolutionary boxes. +So what does all this mean in practice? +Well, I've come up with seven things that, I think, show how you can take these lessons from games and use them outside of games. +The first one is very simple: experience bars measuring progress -- something that's been talked about brilliantly by people like Jesse Schell earlier this year. +It's already been done at the University of Indiana in the States, among other places. +It's the simple idea that instead of grading people incrementally in little bits and pieces, you give them one profile character avatar which is constantly progressing in tiny, tiny, tiny little increments which they feel are their own. +And everything comes towards that, and they watch it creeping up, and they own that as it goes along. +Second, multiple long and short-term aims -- 5,000 pies, boring, 15 pies, interesting. +So, you give people lots and lots of different tasks. +You say, it's about doing 10 of these questions, but another task is turning up to 20 classes on time, but another task is collaborating with other people, another task is showing you're working five times, another task is hitting this particular target. +You break things down into these calibrated slices that people can choose and do in parallel to keep them engaged and that you can use to point them towards individually beneficial activities. +Third, you reward effort. +It's your 100 percent factor. Games are brilliant at this. +Every time you do something, you get credit; you get a credit for trying. +You don't punish failure. You reward every little bit of effort -- a little bit of gold, a little bit of credit. You've done 20 questions -- tick. +It all feeds in as minute reinforcement. +Fourth, feedback. +This is absolutely crucial, and virtuality is dazzling at delivering this. +If you look at some of the most intractable problems in the world today that we've been hearing amazing things about, it's very, very hard for people to learn if they cannot link consequences to actions. +Pollution, global warming, these things -- the consequences are distant in time and space. +It's very hard to learn, to feel a lesson. +But if you can model things for people, if you can give things to people that they can manipulate and play with and where the feedback comes, then they can learn a lesson, they can see, they can move on, they can understand. +And fifth, the element of uncertainty. +Now this is the neurological goldmine, if you like, because a known reward excites people, but what really gets them going is the uncertain reward, the reward pitched at the right level of uncertainty, that they didn't quite know whether they were going to get it or not. +The 25 percent. This lights the brain up. +And if you think about using this in testing, in just introducing control elements of randomness in all forms of testing and training, you can transform the levels of people's engagement by tapping into this very powerful evolutionary mechanism. +When we don't quite predict something perfectly, we get really excited about it. +We just want to go back and find out more. +As you probably know, the neurotransmitter associated with learning is called dopamine. +It's associated with reward-seeking behavior. +And something very exciting is just beginning to happen in places like the University of Bristol in the U.K., where we are beginning to be able to model mathematically dopamine levels in the brain. +And what this means is we can predict learning, we can predict enhanced engagement, these windows, these windows of time, in which the learning is taking place at an enhanced level. +And two things really flow from this. +The first has to do with memory, that we can find these moments. +When someone is more likely to remember, we can give them a nugget in a window. +And the second thing is confidence, that we can see how game-playing and reward structures make people braver, make them more willing to take risks, more willing to take on difficulty, harder to discourage. +This can all seem very sinister. +But you know, sort of "our brains have been manipulated; we're all addicts." +The word "addiction" is thrown around. +There are real concerns there. +But the biggest neurological turn-on for people is other people. +This is what really excites us. +In reward terms, it's not money; it's not being given cash -- that's nice -- it's doing stuff with our peers, watching us, collaborating with us. +And I want to tell you a quick story about 1999 -- a video game called EverQuest. +And in this video game, there were two really big dragons, and you had to team up to kill them -- 42 people, up to 42 to kill these big dragons. +That's a problem because they dropped two or three decent items. +So players addressed this problem by spontaneously coming up with a system to motivate each other, fairly and transparently. +What happened was, they paid each other a virtual currency they called "dragon kill points." +And every time you turned up to go on a mission, you got paid in dragon kill points. +They tracked these on a separate website. +So they tracked their own private currency, and then players could bid afterwards for cool items they wanted -- all organized by the players themselves. +Now the staggering system, not just that this worked in EverQuest, but that today, a decade on, every single video game in the world with this kind of task uses a version of this system -- tens of millions of people. +And the success rate is at close to 100 percent. +This is a player-developed, self-enforcing, voluntary currency, and it's incredibly sophisticated player behavior. +And I just want to end by suggesting a few ways in which these principles could fan out into the world. +Let's start with business. +I mean, we're beginning to see some of the big problems around something like business are recycling and energy conservation. +We're beginning to see the emergence of wonderful technologies like real-time energy meters. +In terms of education, perhaps most obviously of all, we can transform how we engage people. +We can offer people the grand continuity of experience and personal investment. +We can break things down into highly calibrated small tasks. +We can use calculated randomness. +We can reward effort consistently as everything fields together. +And we can use the kind of group behaviors that we see evolving when people are at play together, these really quite unprecedentedly complex cooperative mechanisms. +Government, well, one thing that comes to mind is the U.S. government, among others, is literally starting to pay people to lose weight. +So we're seeing financial reward being used to tackle the great issue of obesity. +But again, those rewards could be calibrated so precisely if we were able to use the vast expertise of gaming systems to just jack up that appeal, to take the data, to take the observations, of millions of human hours and plow that feedback into increasing engagement. +And in the end, it's this word, "engagement," that I want to leave you with. +It's about how individual engagement can be transformed by the psychological and the neurological lessons we can learn from watching people that are playing games. +But it's also about collective engagement and about the unprecedented laboratory for observing what makes people tick and work and play and engage on a grand scale in games. +And if we can look at these things and learn from them and see how to turn them outwards, then I really think we have something quite revolutionary on our hands. +Thank you very much. +So there are a few things that bring us humans together in the way that an election does. +We stand in elections; we vote in elections; we observe elections. +Our democracies rely on elections. +We all understand why we have elections, and we all leave the house on the same day to go and vote. +We cherish the opportunity to have our say, to help decide the future of the country. +The fundamental idea is that politicians are given mandate to speak for us, to make decisions on our behalf that affect us all. +Without that mandate, they would be corrupt. +Well unfortunately, power corrupts, and so people will do lots of things to get power and to stay in power, including doing bad things to elections. +You see, even if the idea of the election is perfect, running a countrywide election is a big project, and big projects are messy. +Whenever there is an election, it seems like something always goes wrong, someone tries to cheat, or something goes accidentally awry -- a ballot box goes missing here, chads are left hanging over here. +To make sure as few things as possible go wrong, we have all these procedures around the election. +So for example, you come to the polling station, and a poll station worker asks for your ID before giving you a ballot form and asking you to go into a voting booth to fill out your vote. +When you come back out, you get to drop your vote into the ballot box where it mixes with all the other votes, so that no one knows how you voted. +Well, what I want us to think about for a moment is what happens after that, after you drop your vote into the ballot box. +And most people would go home and feel sure that their vote has been counted, because they trust that the election system works. +They trust that election workers and election observers do their jobs and do their jobs correctly. +The ballot boxes go to counting places. +They're unsealed and the votes are poured out and laboriously counted. +Most of us have to trust that that happens correctly for our own vote, and we all have to trust that that happens correctly for all the votes in the election. +So we have to trust a lot of people. +We have to trust a lot of procedures. +And sometimes we even have to trust computers. +So imagine hundreds of millions of voters casting hundreds of millions of votes, all to be counted correctly and all the things that can possibly go wrong causing all these bad headlines, and you cannot help but feel exhausted at the idea of trying to make elections better. +Well in the face of all these bad headlines, researchers have taken a step back and thought about how we can do elections differently. +They've zoomed out and looked at the big picture. +And the big picture is this: elections should be verifiable. +Voters should be able to check that their votes are counted correctly, without breaking election secrecy, which is so very important. +And that's the tough part. +How do we make an election system completely verifiable while keeping the votes absolutely secret? +Well, the way we've come up with uses computers but doesn't depend on them. +And the secret is the ballot form. +And if you look closely at these ballot forms, you'll notice that the candidate list is in a different order on each one. +And that means, if you mark your choices on one of them and then remove the candidate list, I won't be able to tell from the bit remaining what your vote is for. +And on each ballot form there is this encrypted value in the form of this 2D barcode on the right. +And there's some complicated cryptography going on in there, but what's not complicated is voting with one of these forms. +So we can let computers do all the complicated cryptography for us, and then we'll use the paper for verification. +So this is how you vote. +You get one of these ballot forms at random, and then you go into the voting booth, and you mark your choices, and you tear along a perforation. +And you shred the candidate list. +And the bit that remains, the one with your marks -- this is your encrypted vote. +So you let a poll station worker scan your encrypted vote. +And because it's encrypted, it can be submitted, stored and counted centrally and displayed on a website for anyone to see, including you. +So you take this encrypted vote home as your receipt. +And after the close of the election, you can check that your vote was counted by comparing your receipt to the vote on the website. +And remember, the vote is encrypted from the moment you leave the voting booth, so if an election official wants to find out how you voted, they will not be able to. +If the government wants to find out how you voted, they won't be able to. +No hacker can break in and find out how you voted. +No hacker can break in and change your vote, because then it won't match your receipt. +Votes can't go missing because then you won't find yours when you look for it. +But the election magic doesn't stop there. +Instead, we want to make the whole process so transparent that news media and international observers and anyone who wants to can download all the election data and do the count themselves. +They can check that all the votes were counted correctly. +They can check that the announced result of the election is the correct one. +And these are elections by the people, for the people. +So the next step for our democracies are transparent and verifiable elections. +Thank you. +I guess the story actually has to start maybe back in the the 1960s, when I was seven or eight years old, watching Jacques Cousteau documentaries on the living room floor with my mask and flippers on. +Then after every episode, I had to go up to the bathtub and swim around the bathtub and look at the drain, because that's all there was to look at. +And by the time I turned 16, I pursued a career in marine science, in exploration and diving, and lived in underwater habitats, like this one off the Florida Keys, for 30 days total. +Brian Skerry took this shot. Thanks, Brian. +And I've dived in deep-sea submersibles around the world. +And this one is the deepest diving submarine in the world, operated by the Japanese government. +And Sylvia Earle and I were on an expedition in this submarine 20 years ago in Japan. +And on my dive, I went down 18,000 feet, to an area that I thought would be pristine wilderness area on the sea floor. +But when I got there, I found lots of plastic garbage and other debris. +And it was really a turning point in my life, where I started to realize that I couldn't just go have fun doing science and exploration. +I needed to put it into a context. +I needed to head towards conservation goals. +So I began to work with National Geographic Society and others and led expeditions to Antarctica. +I led three diving expeditions to Antarctica. +Ten years ago was a seminal trip, where we explored that big iceberg, B-15, the largest iceberg in history, that broke off the Ross Ice Shelf. +And we developed techniques to dive inside and under the iceberg, such as heating pads on our kidneys with a battery that we dragged around, so that, as the blood flowed through our kidneys, it would get a little boost of warmth before going back into our bodies. +But after three trips to Antarctica, I decided that it might be nicer to work in warmer water. +And that same year, 10 years ago, I headed north to the Phoenix Islands. +And I'm going to tell you that story here in a moment. +But before I do, I just want you to ponder this graph for a moment. +You may have seen this in other forms, but the top line is the amount of protected area on land, globally, and it's about 12 percent. +And you can see that it kind of hockey sticks up around the 1960s and '70s, and it's on kind of a nice trajectory right now. +And that's probably because that's when everybody got aware of the environment and Earth Day and all the stuff that happened in the '60s with the Hippies and everything really did, I think, have an affect on global awareness. +But the ocean-protected area is basically flat line until right about now -- it appears to be ticking up. +And I do believe that we are at the hockey stick point of the protected area in the ocean. +I think we would have gotten there a lot earlier if we could see what happens in the ocean like we can see what happens on land. +But unfortunately, the ocean is opaque, and we can't see what's going on. +And therefore we're way behind on protection. +But scuba diving, submersibles and all the work that we're setting about to do here will help rectify that. +So where are the Phoenix Islands? +They were the world's largest marine-protected area up until last week when the Chagos Archipelago was declared. +It's in the mid-Pacific. It's about five days from anywhere. +If you want to get to the Phoenix Islands, it's five days from Fiji, it's five days from Hawaii, it's five days from Samoa. +It's out in the middle of the Pacific, right around the Equator. +I had never heard of the islands 10 years ago, nor the country, Kiribati, that owns them, till two friends of mine who run a liveaboard dive boat in Fiji said, "Greg, would you lead a scientific expedition up to these islands? +They've never been dived." +And I said, "Yeah. +But tell me where they are and the country that owns them." +So that's when I first learned of the Islands and had no idea what I was getting into. +But I was in for the adventure. +Let me give you a little peek here of the Phoenix Islands-protected area. +It's a very deep-water part of our planet. +The average depths are about 12,000 ft. +There's lots of seamounts in the Phoenix Islands, which are specifically part of the protected area. +Seamounts are important for biodiversity. +There's actually more mountains in the ocean than there are on land. +It's an interesting fact. +And the Phoenix Islands is very rich in those seamounts. +So it's a deep -- think about it in a big three-dimensional space, very deep three-dimensional space with herds of tuna, whales, all kinds of deep sea marine life like we've seen here before. +That's the vessel that we took up there for these studies, early on, and that's what the Islands look like -- you can see in the background. +They're very low to the water, and they're all uninhabited, except one island has about 35 caretakers on it. +And they've been uninhabited for most of time because even in the ancient days, these islands were too far away from the bright lights of Fiji and Hawaii and Tahiti for those ancient Polynesian mariners that were traversing the Pacific so widely. +But we got up there, and I had the unique and wonderful scientific opportunity and personal opportunity to get to a place that had never been dived and just get to an island and go, "Okay, where are we going to dive? +Let's try there," and then falling into the water. +Both my personal and my professional life changed. +Suddenly, I saw a world that I had never seen before in the ocean -- schools of fish that were so dense they dulled the penetration of sunlight from the surface, coral reefs that were continuous and solid and colorful, large fish everywhere, manta rays. +It was an ecosystem. Parrotfish spawning -- this is about 5,000 longnose parrotfish spawning at the entrance to one of the Phoenix Islands. +You can see the fish are balled up and then there's a little cloudy area there where they're exchanging the eggs and sperm for reproduction -- events that the ocean is supposed to do, but struggles to do in many places now because of human activity. +The Phoenix Islands and all the equatorial parts of our planet are very important for tuna fisheries, especially this yellowfin tuna that you see here. +Phoenix Islands is a major tuna location. +And sharks -- we had sharks on our early dives, up to 150 sharks at once, which is an indication of a very, very healthy, very strong, system. +So I thought the scenes of never-ending wilderness would go on forever, but they did finally come to an end. +And we explored the surface of the Islands as well -- very important bird nesting site, some of the most important bird-nesting sites in the Pacific, in the world. +And we finished our trip. +And that's the area again. +You can see the Islands -- there are eight islands -- that pop out of the water. +The peaks that don't come out of the water are the seamounts. +Remember, a seamount turns into an island when it hits the surface. +And what's the context of the Phoenix Islands? +Where do these exist? +Well they exist in the Republic of Kiribati, and Kiribati is located in the Central Pacific in three island groups. +In the west we have the Gilbert Islands. +In the center we have the Phoenix Islands, which is the subject that I'm talking about. +And then over to the east we have the Line Islands. +It's the largest atoll nation in the world. +And they have about 110,000 people spread out over 33 islands. +They control 3.4 million cubic miles of ocean, and that's between one and two percent of all the ocean water on the planet. +And when I was first going up there, I barely knew the name of this country 10 years ago, and people would ask me, "Why are you going to this place called Kiribati?" +And it reminded me of that old joke where the bank robber comes out of the courthouse handcuffed, and the reporter yells, "Hey, Willy. Why do you rob banks?" +And he says, "cause that's where all the money is." +And I would tell people, "Why do I go to Kiribati? +Because that's where all the ocean is." +They basically are one nation that controls most of the equatorial waters of the Central Pacific Ocean. +They're also a country that is in dire danger. +Sea levels are rising, and Kiribati, along with 42 other nations in the world, will be under water within 50 to 100 years due to climate change and the associated sea-level rise from thermal expansion and the melting of freshwater into the ocean. +The Islands rise only one to two meters above the surface. +Some of the islands have already gone under water. +And these nations are faced with a real problem. +We as a world are faced with a problem. +What do we do with displaced fellow Earthlings who no longer have a home on the planet? +The president of the Maldives conducted a mock cabinet meeting underwater recently to highlight the dire straits of these countries. +So it's something we need to focus on. +But back to the Phoenix Islands, which is the subject of this Talk. +After I got back, I said, okay, this is amazing, what we found. +I'd like to go back and share it with the government of Kiribati, who are over in Tarawa, the westernmost group. +So I started contacting them -- because they had actually given me a permit to do this -- and I said, "I want to come up and tell you what we found." +And for some reason they didn't want me to come, or it was hard to find a time and a place, and it took a while, but finally they said, "Okay, you can come. +But if you come, you have to buy lunch for everybody who comes to the seminar." +So I said, "Okay, I'm happy to buy lunch. +Just get whatever anybody wants." +So David Obura, a coral reef biologist, and I went to Tarawa, and we presented for two hours on the amazing findings of the Phoenix Islands. +And the country never knew this. They never had any data from this area. +They'd never had any information from the Phoenix Islands. +After the talk, the Minister of Fisheries walked up to me and he said, "Greg, do you realize that you are the first scientist who has ever come back and told us what they did?" +He said, "We often issue these permits to do research in our waters, but usually we get a note two or three years later, or a reprint. +But you're the first one who's ever come back and told us what you did. +And we really appreciate that. And we're buying you lunch today. +And are you free for dinner?" +And I was free for dinner, and I went out to dinner with the Minister of Fisheries in Kiribati. +And over the course of dinner, I learned that Kiribati gains most of its revenue -- it's a very poor country -- but it gains what revenue is has by selling access to foreign nations to take fish out of its waters, because Kiribati does not have the capacity to take the fish itself. +And the deal that they strike is the extracting country gives Kiribati five percent of the landed value. +So if the United States removes a million dollars' worth of lobsters from a reef, Kiribati gets 50,000 dollars. +And, you know, it didn't seem like a very good deal to me. +So I asked the Minister over dinner, I said, "Would you consider a situation where you would still get paid -- we do the math and figure out what the value of the resource is -- but you leave fish and the sharks and the shrimp in the water?" +He stopped, and he said, "Yes, we would like to do that to deal with our overfishing problem, and I think we would call it a reverse fishing license." +He coined the term "reverse fishing license." +So I said, "Yes, a 'reverse fishing license.'" So we walked away from this dinner really not knowing where to go at that point. +I went back to the States and started looking around to see if I could find examples where reverse fishing licenses had been issued, and it turned out there were none. +There were no oceanic deals where countries were compensated for not fishing. +It had occurred on land, in rainforests of South America and Africa, where landowners had been paid not to cut the trees down. +And Conservation International had struck some of those deals. +So I went to Conservation International and brought them in as a partner and went through the process of valuing the fishery resource, deciding how much Kiribati should be compensated, what the range of the fishes were, brought in a whole bunch of other partners -- the government of Australia, the government of New Zealand, the World Bank. +The Oak Foundation and National Geographic have been big funders of this as well. +And we basically founded the park on the idea of an endowment that would pay the equivalent lost fishing license fees to this very poor country to keep the area intact. +Halfway through this process, I met the president of Kiribati, President Anote Tong. +He's a really important leader, a real visionary, forward-thinking man, and he told me two things when I approached him. +He said, "Greg, there's two things I'd like you to do. +One is, remember I'm a politician, so you've got to go out and work with my ministers and convince the people of Kiribati that this is a good idea. +Secondly, I'd like you to create principles that will transcend my own presidency. +I don't want to do something like this if it's going to go away after I'm voted out of office." +So we had very strong leadership, very good vision and a lot of science, a lot of lawyers involved. +Many, many steps were taken to pull this off. +And it was primarily because Kiribati realized that this was in their own self-interest to do this. +They realized that this was a common cause that they had found with the conservation community. +Then in 2002, when this was all going full-swing, a coral-bleaching event happened in the Phoenix Islands. +Here's this resource that we're looking to save, and it turns out it's the hottest heating event that we can find on record. +The ocean heated up as it does sometimes, and the hot spot formed and stalled right over the Phoenix Islands for six months. +It was over 32 degrees Celsius for six months and it basically killed 60 percent of the coral. +So suddenly we had this area that we were protecting, but now it appeared to be dead, at least in the coral areas. +Of course the deep-sea areas and the open ocean areas were fine, but the coral, which everybody likes to look at, was in trouble. +Well, the good news is it's recovered and recovering fast, faster than any reef we've seen. +This picture was just taken by Brian Skerry a few months ago when we returned to the Phoenix Islands and discovered that, because it is a protected area and has healthy fish populations that keep the algae grazed down and keep the rest of the reef healthy, the coral is booming, is just booming back. +It's almost like if a person has multiple diseases, it's hard to get well, you might die, but if you only have one disease to deal with, you can get better. +And that's the story with climate-change heating. +It's the only threat, the only influence that the reef had to deal with. +There was no fishing, there was no pollution, there was no coastal development, and the reef is on a full-bore recovery. +Now I remember that dinner I had with the Minister of Fisheries 10 years ago when we first brought this up and I got quite animated during the dinner and said, "Well, I think that the conservation community might embrace this idea, Minister." +He paused and put his hands together and said, "Yes, Greg, but the devil will be in the details," he said. +And it certainly was. +The last 10 years have been detail after detail ranging from creating legislation to multiple research expeditions to communication plans, as I said, teams of lawyers, MOUs, creating the Phoenix Islands Trust Board. +And we are now in the process of raising the full endowment. +Kiribati has frozen extracting activities at its current state while we raise the endowment. +We just had our first PIPA Trust Board meeting three weeks ago. +So it's a fully functional up-and-running entity that negotiates the reverse fishing license with the country. +And the PIPA Trust Board holds that license and pays the country for this. +So it's a very solid, very well thought-out, very well grounded system, and it was a bottom-up system, and that was very important with this work, from the bottom up to secure this. +So the conditions for success here are listed. +You can read them yourselves. +But I would say the most important one in my mind was working within the market forces of the situation. +And that insured that we could move this forward and it would have both the self-interest of Kiribati as well as the self-interest of the world. +And I'll leave you with one final slide, that is: how do we scale this up? +How do we realize Sylvia's dream? +Where eventually do we take this? +Here's the Pacific with large MPAs and large conservation zones on it. +And as you can see, we have a patchwork across this ocean. +I've just described to you the one story behind that rectangular area in the middle, the Phoenix Islands, but every other green patch on that has its own story. +And what we need to do now is look at the whole Pacific Ocean in its entirety and make a network of MPAs across the Pacific so that we have our world's largest ocean protected and self-sustaining over time. +Thank you very much. +I have a doppelganger. +Dr. Gero is a brilliant but slightly mad scientist in the "Dragonball Z: Android Saga." +If you look very carefully, you see that his skull has been replaced with a transparent Plexiglas dome so that the workings of his brain can be observed and also controlled with light. +That's exactly what I do -- optical mind control. +But in contrast to my evil twin who lusts after world domination, my motives are not sinister. +I control the brain in order to understand how it works. +Now wait a minute, you may say, how can you go straight to controlling the brain without understanding it first? +Isn't that putting the cart before the horse? +Many neuroscientists agree with this view and think that understanding will come from more detailed observation and analysis. +They say, "If we could record the activity of our neurons, we would understand the brain." +But think for a moment what that means. +Even if we could measure what every cell is doing at all times, we would still have to make sense of the recorded activity patterns, and that's so difficult, chances are we'll understand these patterns just as little as the brains that produce them. +Take a look at what brain activity might look like. +In this simulation, each black dot is one nerve cell. +The dot is visible whenever a cell fires an electrical impulse. +There's 10,000 neurons here. +So you're looking at roughly one percent of the brain of a cockroach. +Your brains are about 100 million times more complicated. +Somewhere, in a pattern like this, is you, your perceptions, your emotions, your memories, your plans for the future. +But we don't know where, since we don't know how to read the pattern. +We don't understand the code used by the brain. +To make progress, we need to break the code. +But how? +An experienced code-breaker will tell you that in order to figure out what the symbols in a code mean, it's essential to be able to play with them, to rearrange them at will. +So in this situation too, to decode the information contained in patterns like this, watching alone won't do. +We need to rearrange the pattern. +In other words, instead of recording the activity of neurons, we need to control it. +It's not essential that we can control the activity of all neurons in the brain, just some. +The more targeted our interventions, the better. +And I'll show you in a moment how we can achieve the necessary precision. +And since I'm realistic, rather than grandiose, I don't claim that the ability to control the function of the nervous system will at once unravel all its mysteries. +But we'll certainly learn a lot. +Now, I'm by no means the first person to realize how powerful a tool intervention is. +The history of attempts to tinker with the function of the nervous system is long and illustrious. +It dates back at least 200 years, to Galvani's famous experiments in the late 18th century and beyond. +Galvani showed that a frog's legs twitched when he connected the lumbar nerve to a source of electrical current. +This experiment revealed the first, and perhaps most fundamental, nugget of the neural code: that information is written in the form of electrical impulses. +Galvani's approach of probing the nervous system with electrodes has remained state-of-the-art until today, despite a number of drawbacks. +Sticking wires into the brain is obviously rather crude. +It's hard to do in animals that run around, and there is a physical limit to the number of wires that can be inserted simultaneously. +So around the turn of the last century, I started to think, "Wouldn't it be wonderful if one could take this logic and turn it upside down?" +So instead of inserting a wire into one spot of the brain, re-engineer the brain itself so that some of its neural elements become responsive to diffusely broadcast signals such as a flash of light. +Such an approach would literally, in a flash of light, overcome many of the obstacles to discovery. +First, it's clearly a non-invasive, wireless form of communication. +And second, just as in a radio broadcast, you can communicate with many receivers at once. +You don't need to know where these receivers are, and it doesn't matter if these receivers move -- just think of the stereo in your car. +It gets even better, for it turns out that we can fabricate the receivers out of materials that are encoded in DNA. +So each nerve cell with the right genetic makeup will spontaneously produce a receiver that allows us to control its function. +I hope you'll appreciate the beautiful simplicity of this concept. +There's no high-tech gizmos here, just biology revealed through biology. +Now let's take a look at these miraculous receivers up close. +As we zoom in on one of these purple neurons, we see that its outer membrane is studded with microscopic pores. +Pores like these conduct electrical current and are responsible for all the communication in the nervous system. +But these pores here are special. +They are coupled to light receptors similar to the ones in your eyes. +Whenever a flash of light hits the receptor, the pore opens, an electrical current is switched on, and the neuron fires electrical impulses. +Because the light-activated pore is encoded in DNA, we can achieve incredible precision. +This is because, although each cell in our bodies contains the same set of genes, different mixes of genes get turned on and off in different cells. +You can exploit this to make sure that only some neurons contain our light-activated pore and others don't. +So in this cartoon, the bluish white cell in the upper-left corner does not respond to light because it lacks the light-activated pore. +The approach works so well that we can write purely artificial messages directly to the brain. +In this example, each electrical impulse, each deflection on the trace, is caused by a brief pulse of light. +And the approach, of course, also works in moving, behaving animals. +This is the first ever such experiment, sort of the optical equivalent of Galvani's. +It was done six or seven years ago by my then graduate student, Susana Lima. +Susana had engineered the fruit fly on the left so that just two out of the 200,000 cells in its brain expressed the light-activated pore. +You're familiar with these cells because they are the ones that frustrate you when you try to swat the fly. +They trained the escape reflex that makes the fly jump into the air and fly away whenever you move your hand in position. +And you can see here that the flash of light has exactly the same effect. +The animal jumps, it spreads its wings, it vibrates them, but it can't actually take off because the fly is sandwiched between two glass plates. +Now to make sure that this was no reaction of the fly to a flash it could see, Susana did a simple but brutally effective experiment. +She cut the heads off of her flies. +These headless bodies can live for about a day, but they don't do much. +They just stand around and groom excessively. +So it seems that the only trait that survives decapitation is vanity. +Anyway, as you'll see in a moment, Susana was able to turn on the flight motor of what's the equivalent of the spinal cord of these flies and get some of the headless bodies to actually take off and fly away. +They didn't get very far, obviously. +Since we took these first steps, the field of optogenetics has exploded. +And there are now hundreds of labs using these approaches. +And we've come a long way since Galvani's and Susana's first successes in making animals twitch or jump. +We can now actually interfere with their psychology in rather profound ways, as I'll show you in my last example, which is directed at a familiar question. +Life is a string of choices creating a constant pressure to decide what to do next. +We cope with this pressure by having brains, and within our brains, decision-making centers that I've called here the "Actor." +The Actor implements a policy that takes into account the state of the environment and the context in which we operate. +Our actions change the environment, or context, and these changes are then fed back into the decision loop. +Now to put some neurobiological meat on this abstract model, we constructed a simple one-dimensional world for our favorite subject, fruit flies. +Each chamber in these two vertical stacks contains one fly. +The left and the right halves of the chamber are filled with two different odors, and a security camera watches as the flies pace up and down between them. +Here's some such CCTV footage. +Whenever a fly reaches the midpoint of the chamber where the two odor streams meet, it has to make a decision. +It has to decide whether to turn around and stay in the same odor, or whether to cross the midline and try something new. +These decisions are clearly a reflection of the Actor's policy. +Now for an intelligent being like our fly, this policy is not written in stone but rather changes as the animal learns from experience. +We can incorporate such an element of adaptive intelligence into our model by assuming that the fly's brain contains not only an Actor, but a different group of cells, a "Critic," that provides a running commentary on the Actor's choices. +You can think of this nagging inner voice as sort of the brain's equivalent of the Catholic Church, if you're an Austrian like me, or the super-ego, if you're Freudian, or your mother, if you're Jewish. +Now obviously, the Critic is a key ingredient in what makes us intelligent. +So we set out to identify the cells in the fly's brain that played the role of the Critic. +And the logic of our experiment was simple. +We thought if we could use our optical remote control to activate the cells of the Critic, we should be able, artificially, to nag the Actor into changing its policy. +In other words, the fly should learn from mistakes that it thought it had made but, in reality, it had not made. +So we bred flies whose brains were more or less randomly peppered with cells that were light addressable. +And then we took these flies and allowed them to make choices. +And whenever they made one of the two choices, chose one odor, in this case the blue one over the orange one, we switched on the lights. +If the Critic was among the optically activated cells, the result of this intervention should be a change in policy. +The fly should learn to avoid the optically reinforced odor. +Here's what happened in two instances: We're comparing two strains of flies, each of them having about 100 light-addressable cells in their brains, shown here in green on the left and on the right. +What's common among these groups of cells is that they all produce the neurotransmitter dopamine. +But the identities of the individual dopamine-producing neurons are clearly largely different on the left and on the right. +Optically activating these hundred or so cells into two strains of flies has dramatically different consequences. +If you look first at the behavior of the fly on the right, you can see that whenever it reaches the midpoint of the chamber where the two odors meet, it marches straight through, as it did before. +Its behavior is completely unchanged. +But the behavior of the fly on the left is very different. +Whenever it comes up to the midpoint, it pauses, it carefully scans the odor interface as if it was sniffing out its environment, and then it turns around. +This means that the policy that the Actor implements now includes an instruction to avoid the odor that's in the right half of the chamber. +This means that the Critic must have spoken in that animal, and that the Critic must be contained among the dopamine-producing neurons on the left, but not among the dopamine producing neurons on the right. +Through many such experiments, we were able to narrow down the identity of the Critic to just 12 cells. +These 12 cells, as shown here in green, send the output to a brain structure called the "mushroom body," which is shown here in gray. +We know from our formal model that the brain structure at the receiving end of the Critic's commentary is the Actor. +So this anatomy suggests that the mushroom bodies have something to do with action choice. +Based on everything we know about the mushroom bodies, this makes perfect sense. +In fact, it makes so much sense that we can construct an electronic toy circuit that simulates the behavior of the fly. +In this electronic toy circuit, the mushroom body neurons are symbolized by the vertical bank of blue LEDs in the center of the board. +These LED's are wired to sensors that detect the presence of odorous molecules in the air. +Each odor activates a different combination of sensors, which in turn activates a different odor detector in the mushroom body. +So the pilot in the cockpit of the fly, the Actor, can tell which odor is present simply by looking at which of the blue LEDs lights up. +What the Actor does with this information depends on its policy, which is stored in the strengths of the connection, between the odor detectors and the motors that power the fly's evasive actions. +If the connection is weak, the motors will stay off and the fly will continue straight on its course. +If the connection is strong, the motors will turn on and the fly will initiate a turn. +Now consider a situation in which the motors stay off, the fly continues on its path and it suffers some painful consequence such as getting zapped. +In a situation like this, we would expect the Critic to speak up and to tell the Actor to change its policy. +We have created such a situation, artificially, by turning on the critic with a flash of light. +That caused a strengthening of the connections between the currently active odor detector and the motors. +So the next time the fly finds itself facing the same odor again, the connection is strong enough to turn on the motors and to trigger an evasive maneuver. +I don't know about you, but I find it exhilarating to see how vague psychological notions evaporate and give rise to a physical, mechanistic understanding of the mind, even if it's the mind of the fly. +This is one piece of good news. +The other piece of good news, for a scientist at least, is that much remains to be discovered. +In the experiments I told you about, we have lifted the identity of the Critic, but we still have no idea how the Critic does its job. +Come to think of it, knowing when you're wrong without a teacher, or your mother, telling you, is a very hard problem. +There are some ideas in computer science and in artificial intelligence as to how this might be done, but we still haven't solved a single example of how intelligent behavior springs from the physical interactions in living matter. +I think we'll get there in the not too distant future. +Thank you. +Well, there's lots to talk about, but I think I'm just going to play to start off. +So, I wanted to do something special today. +I want to debut a new song that I've been working on in the last five or six months. +And there's few things more thrilling than playing a song for the first time in front of an audience, especially when it's half-finished. +I'm kind of hoping some conversations here might help me finish it. +Because it gets into all sorts of crazy realms. +And so this is basically a song about loops, but not the kind of loops that I make up here. +They're feedback loops. +And in the audio world that's when the microphone gets too close to its sound source, and then it gets in this self-destructive loop that creates a very unpleasant sound. +And I'm going to demonstrate for you. +I'm not going to hurt you. Don't worry. +And I've been thinking about how that applies across a whole spectrum of realms, from, say, the ecological, okay. +There seems to be a rule in nature that if you get too close to where you came from, it gets ugly. +So like, you can't feed cows their own brains or you get mad cow disease, and inbreeding and incest and, let's see, what's the other one? +Biological -- there's autoimmune diseases, where the body attacks itself a little too overzealously and destroys the host, or the person. +And then -- okay, this is where we get to the song -- kind of bridges the gap to the emotional. +Because although I've used scientific terms in songs, it's very difficult sometimes to make them lyrical. +And there's some things you just don't need to have in songs. +So I'm trying to bridge this gap between this idea and this melody. +And so, I don't know if you've ever had this, but when I close my eyes sometimes and try to sleep, I can't stop thinking about my own eyes. +And it's like your eyes start straining to see themselves. +That's what it feels like to me. +It's not pleasant. +I'm sorry if I put that idea in your head. +It's impossible, of course, for your eyes to see themselves, but they seem to be trying. +So that's getting a little more closer to a personal experience. +Or ears being able to hear themselves -- it's just impossible. +That's the thing. +So, I've been working on this song that mentions these things and then also imagines a person who's been so successful at defending themselves from heartbreak that they're left to do the deed themselves, if that's possible. +And that's what the song is asking. +All right. +It doesn't have a name yet. +All right. +It's kind of cool. Songwriters can sort of get away with murder. +You can throw out crazy theories and not have to back it up with data or graphs or research. +But, you know, I think reckless curiosity would be what the world needs now, just a little bit. +I'm going to finish up with a song of mine called "Weather Systems." +So this is a story of a place that I now call home. +It's a story of public education and of rural communities and of what design might do to improve both. +So this is Bertie County, North Carolina, USA. +To give you an idea of the "where:" So here's North Carolina, and if we zoom in, Bertie County is in the eastern part of the state. +It's about two hours east driving-time from Raleigh. +And it's very flat. It's very swampy. +It's mostly farmland. +The entire county is home to just 20,000 people, and they're very sparsely distributed. +So there's only 27 people per square mile, which comes down to about 10 people per square kilometer. +Bertie County is kind of a prime example in the demise of rural America. +We've seen this story all over the country and even in places beyond the American borders. +We know the symptoms. +It's the hollowing out of small towns. +It's downtowns becoming ghost towns. +The brain drain -- where all of the most educated and qualified leave and never come back. +It's the dependence on farm subsidies and under-performing schools and higher poverty rates in rural areas than in urban. +And Bertie County is no exception to this. +Perhaps the biggest thing it struggles with, like many communities similar to it, is that there's no shared, collective investment in the future of rural communities. +Only 6.8 percent of all our philanthropic giving in the U.S. right now benefits rural communities, and yet 20 percent of our population lives there. +So Bertie County is not only very rural; it's incredibly poor. +It is the poorest county in the state. +It has one in three of its children living in poverty, and it's what is referred to as a "rural ghetto." +The economy is mostly agricultural. +The biggest crops are cotton and tobacco, and we're very proud of our Bertie County peanut. +The biggest employer is the Purdue chicken processing plant. +The county seat is Windsor. +This is like Times Square of Windsor that you're looking at right now. +It's home to only 2,000 people, and like a lot of other small towns it has been hollowed out over the years. +There are more buildings that are empty or in disrepair than occupied and in use. +You can count the number of restaurants in the county on one hand -- Bunn's Barbecue being my absolute favorite. +But in the whole county there is no coffee shop, there's no Internet cafe, there's no movie theater, there's no bookstore. +There isn't even a Walmart. +Racially, the county is about 60 percent African-American, but what happens in the public schools is most of the privileged white kids go to the private Lawrence Academy. +So the public school students are about 86 percent African-American. +And this is a spread from the local newspaper of the recent graduating class, and you can see the difference is pretty stark. +So to say that the public education system in Bertie County is struggling would be a huge understatement. +There's basically no pool of qualified teachers to pull from, and only eight percent of the people in the county have a bachelor's degree or higher. +So there isn't a big legacy in the pride of education. +In fact, two years ago, only 27 percent of all the third- through eighth-graders were passing the state standard in both English and math. +So it sounds like I'm painting a really bleak picture of this place, but I promise there is good news. +The biggest asset, in my opinion, one of the biggest assets in Bertie County right now is this man: This is Dr. Chip Zullinger, fondly known as Dr. Z. +He was brought in in October 2007 as the new superintendent to basically fix this broken school system. +And he previously was a superintendent in Charleston, South Carolina and then in Denver, Colorado. +He started some of the country's first charter schools in the late '80s in the U.S. +And he is an absolute renegade and a visionary, and he is the reason that I now live and work there. +So in February of 2009, Dr. Zullinger invited us, Project H Design -- which is a non-profit design firm that I founded -- to come to Bertie and to partner with him on the repair of this school district and to bring a design perspective to the repair of the school district. +And he invited us in particular because we have a very specific type of design process -- one that results in appropriate design solutions in places that don't usually have access to design services or creative capital. +Specifically, we use these six design directives, probably the most important being number two: we design with, not for -- in that, when we're doing humanitarian-focused design, it's not about designing for clients anymore. +It's about designing with people, and letting appropriate solutions emerge from within. +So at the time of being invited down there, we were based in San Francisco, and so we were going back and forth for basically the rest of 2009, spending about half our time in Bertie County. +And when I say we, I mean Project H, but more specifically, I mean myself and my partner, Matthew Miller, who's an architect and a sort of MacGyver-type builder. +So fast-forward to today, and we now live there. +I have strategically cut Matt's head out of this photo, because he would kill me if he knew I was using it because of the sweatsuits. +But this is our front porch. We live there. +We now call this place home. +Over the course of this year that we spent flying back and forth, we realized we had fallen in love with the place. +We had fallen in love with the place and the people and the work that we're able to do in a rural place like Bertie County, that, as designers and builders, you can't do everywhere. +There's space to experiment and to weld and to test things. +We have an amazing advocate in Dr. Zullinger. +There's a nobility of real, hands-on, dirt-under-your-fingernails work. +But beyond our personal reasons for wanting to be there, there is a huge need. +There is a total vacuum of creative capital in Bertie County. +There isn't a single licensed architect in the whole county. +And so we saw an opportunity to bring design as this untouched tool, something that Bertie County didn't otherwise have, and to be sort of the -- to usher that in as a new type of tool in their tool kit. +The initial goal became using design within the public education system in partnership with Dr. Zullinger -- that was why we were there. +But beyond that, we recognized that Bertie County, as a community, was in dire need of a fresh perspective of pride and connectedness and of the creative capital that they were so much lacking. +So the goal became, yes, to apply design within education, but then to figure out how to make education a great vehicle for community development. +So in order to do this, we've taken three different approaches to the intersection of design and education. +And I should say that these are three things that we've done in Bertie County, but I feel pretty confident that they could work in a lot of other rural communities around the U.S. and maybe even beyond. +So the first of the three is design for education. +This is the most kind of direct, obvious intersection of the two things. +It's the physical construction of improved spaces and materials and experiences for teachers and students. +This is in response to the awful mobile trailers and the outdated textbooks and the terrible materials that we're building schools out of these days. +And so this played out for us in a couple different ways. +The first was a series of renovations of computer labs. +So traditionally, the computer labs, particularly in an under-performing school like Bertie County, where they have to benchmark test every other week, the computer lab is a kill-and-drill testing facility. +You come in, you face the wall, you take your test and you leave. +So we wanted to change the way that students approach technology, to create a more convivial and social space that was more engaging, more accessible, and also to increase the ability for teachers to use these spaces for technology-based instruction. +So this is the lab at the high school, and the principal there is in love with this room. +Every time he has visitors, it's the first place that he takes them. +And this also meant the co-creation with some teachers of this educational playground system called the learning landscape. +It allows elementary-level students to learn core subjects through game play and activity and running around and screaming and being a kid. +So this game that the kids are playing here -- in this case they were learning basic multiplication through a game called Match Me. +And in Match Me, you take the class, divide it into two teams, one team on each side of the playground, and the teacher will take a piece of chalk and just write a number on each of the tires. +And then she'll call out a math problem -- so let's say four times four -- and then one student from each team has to compete to figure out that four times four is 16 and find the tire with the 16 on it and sit on it. +So the goal is to have all of your teammates sitting on the tires and then your team wins. +And the impact of the learning landscape has been pretty surprising and amazing. +So with design for education, I think the most important thing is to have a shared ownership of the solutions with the teachers, so that they have the incentive and the desire to use them. +So this is Mr. Perry. He's the assistant superintendent. +He came out for one of our teacher-training days and won like five rounds of Match Me in a row and was very proud of himself. +So the second approach is redesigning education itself. +This is the most complex. +It's a systems-level look at how education is administered and what is being offered and to whom. +So in many cases this is not so much about making change as it is creating the conditions under which change is possible and the incentive to want to make change, which is easier said than done in rural communities and in inside-the-box education systems in rural communities. +So for us, this was a graphic public campaign called Connect Bertie. +There are thousands of these blue dots all over the county. +And this was for a fund that the school district had to put a desktop computer and a broadband Internet connection in every home with a child in the public school system. +Right now I should say, there are only 10 percent of the houses that actually have an in-home Internet connection. +And the only places to get WiFi are in the school buildings, or at the Bojangles Fried Chicken joint, which I find myself squatting outside of a lot. +Aside from, you know, getting people excited and wondering what the heck these blue dots were all over the place, it asked the school system to envision how it might become a catalyst for a more connected community. +It asked them to reach outside of the school walls and to think about how they could play a role in the community's development. +So the first batch of computers are being installed later this summer, and we're helping Dr. Zullinger develop some strategies around how we might connect the classroom and the home to extend learning beyond the school day. +And then the third approach, which is what I'm most excited about, which is where we are now, is: design as education. +So "design as education" means that we could actually teach design within public schools, and not design-based learning -- not like "let's learn physics by building a rocket," but actually learning design-thinking coupled with real construction and fabrication skills put towards a local community purpose. +It also means that designers are no longer consultants, but we're teachers, and we are charged with growing creative capital within the next generation. +And what design offers as an educational framework is an antidote to all of the boring, rigid, verbal instruction that so many of these school districts are plagued by. +It's hands-on, it's in-your-face, it requires an active engagement, and it allows kids to apply all the core subject learning in real ways. +So we started thinking about the legacy of shop class and how shop class -- wood and metal shop class in particular -- historically, has been something intended for kids who aren't going to go to college. +It's a vocational training path. +It's working-class; it's blue-collar. +The projects are things like, let's make a birdhouse for your mom for Christmas. +And in recent decades, a lot of the funding for shop class has gone away entirely. +So we thought, what if you could bring back shop class, but this time orient the projects around things that the community needed, and to infuse shop class with a more critical and creative-design-thinking studio process. +So we took this kind of nebulous idea and have worked really closely with Dr. Zullinger for the past year on writing this as a one-year curriculum offered at the high school level to the junior class. +And so this starts in four weeks, at the end of the summer, and my partner and I, Matthew and I, just went through the arduous and totally convoluted process of getting certified as high school teachers to actually run it. +And this is what it looks like. +So over the course of two semesters, the Fall and the Spring, the students spend three hours a day every single day in our 4,500 square foot studio/shop space. +And then over the summer, they're offered a summer job. +They're paid as employees of Project H to be the construction crew with us to build these projects in the community. +So the first project, which will be built next summer, is an open-air farmers' market downtown, followed by bus shelters for the school bus system in the second year and home improvements for the elderly in the third year. +So these are real visible projects that hopefully the students can point to and say, "I built that, and I'm proud of it." +So I want you to meet three of our students. +This is Ryan. +She is 15 years old. +She loves agriculture and wants to be a high school teacher. +She wants to go to college, but she wants to come back to Bertie County, because that's where her family is from, where she calls home, and she feels very strongly about giving back to this place that she's been fairly fortunate in. +So what Studio H might offer her is a way to develop skills so that she might give back in the most meaningful way. +This is Eric. He plays for the football team. +He is really into dirtbike racing, and he wants to be an architect. +So for him, Studio H offers him a way to develop the skills he will need as an architect, everything from drafting to wood and metal construction to how to do research for a client. +And then this is Anthony. +He is 16 years old, loves hunting and fishing and being outside and doing anything with his hands, and so for him, Studio H means that he can stay interested in his education through that hands-on engagement. +He's interested in forestry, but he isn't sure, so if he ends up not going to college, he will have developed some industry-relevant skills. +What design and building really offers to public education is a different kind of classroom. +So this building downtown, which may very well become the site of our future farmers' market, is now the classroom. +And going out into the community and interviewing your neighbors about what kind of food they buy and from where and why -- that's a homework assignment. +And the ribbon-cutting ceremony at the end of the summer when they have built the farmers' market and it's open to the public -- that's the final exam. +And for the community, what design and building offers is real, visible, built progress. +It's one project per year, and it makes the youth the biggest asset and the biggest untapped resource in imagining a new future. +So we recognize that Studio H, especially in its first year, is a small story -- 13 students, it's two teachers, it's one project in one place. +But we feel like this could work in other places. +And I really, strongly believe in the power of the small story, because it is so difficult to do humanitarian work at a global scale. +Because, when you zoom out that far, you lose the ability to view people as humans. +Ultimately, design itself is a process of constant education for the people that we work with and for and for us as designers. +And let's face it, designers, we need to reinvent ourselves. +We need to re-educate ourselves around the things that matter, we need to work outside of our comfort zones more, and we need to be better citizens in our own backyard. +So while this is a very small story, we hope that it represents a step in the right direction for the future of rural communities and for the future of public education and hopefully also for the future of design. +Thank you. +Today I want to talk to you about ethnic conflict and civil war. +These are not normally the most cheerful of topics, nor do they generally generate the kind of good news that this conference is about. +Three things stand out: leadership, diplomacy and institutional design. +But let's start at the beginning. +Civil wars have made news headlines for many decades now, and ethnic conflicts in particular have been a near constant presence as a major international security threat. +For nearly two decades now, the news has been bad and the images have been haunting. +In Georgia, after years of stalemate, we saw a full-scale resurgence of violence in August, 2008. +This quickly escalated into a five-day war between Russia and Georgia, leaving Georgia ever more divided. +In Kenya, contested presidential elections in 2007 -- we just heard about them -- quickly led to high levels of inter-ethnic violence and the killing and displacement of thousands of people. +In Sri Lanka, a decades-long civil war between the Tamil minority and the Sinhala majority led to a bloody climax in 2009, after perhaps as many as 100,000 people had been killed since 1983. +In Kyrgyzstan, just over the last few weeks, unprecedented levels of violence occurred between ethnic Kyrgyz and ethnic Uzbeks. +Hundreds have been killed, and more than 100,000 displaced, including many ethnic Uzbeks who fled to neighboring Uzbekistan. +In the Middle East, conflict between Israelis and Palestinians continues unabated, and it becomes ever more difficult to see how, just how a possible, sustainable solution can be achieved. +Darfur may have slipped from the news headlines, but the killing and displacement there continues as well, and the sheer human misery that it creates is very hard to fathom. +And in Iraq, finally, violence is on the rise again, and the country has yet to form a government four months after its last parliamentary elections. +But hang on, this talk is to be about the good news. +So are these now the images of the past? +Well, notwithstanding the gloomy pictures from the Middle East, Darfur, Iraq, elsewhere, there is a longer-term trend that does represent some good news. +Over the past two decades, since the end of the Cold War, there has been an overall decline in the number of civil wars. +Since the high in the early 1990s, with about 50 such civil wars ongoing, we now have 30 percent fewer such conflicts today. +The number of people killed in civil wars also is much lower today than it was a decade ago or two. +But this trend is less unambiguous. +The highest level of deaths on the battlefield was recorded between 1998 and 2001, with about 80,000 soldiers, policemen and rebels killed every year. +The lowest number of combatant casualties occurred in 2003, with just 20,000 killed. +Despite the up and down since then, the overall trend -- and this is the important bit -- clearly points downward for the past two decades. +The news about civilian casualties is also less bad than it used to be. +From over 12,000 civilians deliberately killed in civil wars in 1997 and 1998, a decade later, this figure stands at 4,000. +This is a decrease by two-thirds. +This decline would be even more obvious if we factored in the genocide in Rwanda in 1994. +But then 800,000 civilians were slaughtered in a matter of just a few months. +This certainly is an accomplishment that must never be surpassed. +What is also important is to note that these figures only tell part of the story. +They exclude people that died as a consequence of civil war, from hunger or disease, for example. +And they also do not properly account for civilian suffering more generally. +Torture, rape and ethnic cleansing have become highly effective, if often non-lethal, weapons in civil war. +To put it differently, for the civilians that suffer the consequences of ethnic conflict and civil war, there is no good war and there is no bad peace. +Thus, even though every civilian killed, maimed, raped, or tortured is one too many, the fact that the number of civilian casualties is clearly lower today than it was a decade ago, is good news. +So, we have fewer conflicts today in which fewer people get killed. +And the big question, of course, is why? +In some cases, there is a military victory of one side. +This is a solution of sorts, but rarely is it one that comes without human costs or humanitarian consequences. +The defeat of the Tamil Tigers in Sri Lanka is perhaps the most recent example of this, but we have seen similar so-called military solutions in the Balkans, in the South Caucasus and across most of Africa. +At times, they are complimented by negotiated settlements, or at least cease-fire agreements, and peacekeepers are deployed. +But hardly ever do they represent a resounding success -- Bosnia and Herzegovina perhaps more so than Georgia. +But for many parts of Africa, a colleague of mine once put it this way, "The cease-fire on Tuesday night was reached just in time for the genocide to start on Wednesday morning." +But let's look at the good news again. +If there's no solution on the battlefield, three factors can account for the prevention of ethnic conflict and civil war, or for sustainable peace afterwards: leadership, diplomacy and institutional design. +Take the example of Northern Ireland. +Despite centuries of animosity, decades of violence and thousands of people killed, 1998 saw the conclusion of an historic agreement. +Its initial version was skillfully mediated by Senator George Mitchell. +Crucially, for the long-term success of the peace process in Northern Ireland, he imposed very clear conditions for the participation and negotiations. +Central among them, a commitment to exclusively peaceful means. +Subsequent revisions of the agreement were facilitated by the British and Irish governments, who never wavered in their determination to bring peace and stability to Northern Ireland. +The core institutions that were put in place in 1998 and their modifications in 2006 and 2008 were highly innovative and allowed all conflict parties to see their core concerns and demands addressed. +The agreement combines a power-sharing arrangement in Northern Ireland with cross-border institutions that link Belfast and Dublin and thus recognizes the so-called Irish dimension of the conflict. +And significantly, there's also a clear focus on both the rights of individuals and the rights of communities. +The provisions in the agreement may be complex, but so is the underlying conflict. +Perhaps most importantly, local leaders repeatedly rose to the challenge of compromise, not always fast and not always enthusiastically, but rise in the end they did. +Who ever could have imagined Ian Paisley and Martin McGuinness jointly governing Northern Ireland as First and Deputy First Minister? +But then, is Northern Ireland a unique example, or does this kind of explanation only hold more generally in democratic and developed countries? +By no means. +The ending of Liberia's long-lasting civil war in 2003 illustrates the importance of leadership, diplomacy and institutional design as much as the successful prevention of a full-scale civil war in Macedonia in 2001, or the successful ending of the conflict in Aceh in Indonesia in 2005. +In all three cases, local leaders were willing and able to make peace, the international community stood ready to help them negotiate and implement an agreement, and the institutions have lived up to the promise that they held on the day they were agreed. +Focusing on leadership, diplomacy and institutional design also helps explain failures to achieve peace, or to make it last. +The hopes that were vested in the Oslo Accords did not lead to an end of the Israeli/Palestinian conflict. +Not all the issues that needed to be resolved were actually covered in the agreements. +Rather, local leaders committed to revisiting them later on. +Yet instead of grasping this opportunity, local and international leaders soon disengaged and became distracted by the second Intifada, the events of 9/11 and the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq. +The comprehensive peace agreement for Sudan signed in 2005 turned out to be less comprehensive than envisaged, and its provisions may yet bear the seeds of a full-scale return to war between north and south. +Changes and shortcomings in leadership, more off than on international diplomacy and institutional failures account for this in almost equal measure. +Unresolved boundary issues, squabbles over oil revenues, the ongoing conflict in Darfur, escalating tribal violence in the south and generally weak state capacity across all of Sudan complete a very depressing picture of the state of affairs in Africa's largest country. +A final example: Kosovo. +The failure to achieve a negotiated solution for Kosovo and the violence, tension and de facto partition that resulted from it have their reasons in many, many different factors. +Central among them are three. +First, the intransigence of local leaders to settle for nothing less than their maximum demands. +Second, an international diplomatic effort that was hampered from the beginning by Western support for Kosovo's independence. +And third, a lack of imagination when it came to designing institutions that could have addressed the concerns of Serbs and Albanians alike. +So even in situations where outcomes are less than optimal, local leaders and international leaders have a choice, and they can make a difference for the better. +A cold war is not as good as a cold peace, but a cold peace is still better than a hot war. +Good news is also about learning the right lesson. +So what then distinguishes the Israeli/Palestinian conflict from that in Northern Ireland, or the civil war in Sudan from that in Liberia? +Both successes and failures teach us several critically important things that we need to bear in mind if we want the good news to continue. +First, leadership. +In the same way in which ethnic conflict and civil war are not natural but man-made disasters, their prevention and settlement does not happen automatically either. +Leadership needs to be capable, determined and visionary in its commitment to peace. +Leaders need to connect to each other and to their followers, and they need to bring them along on what is an often arduous journey into a peaceful future. +Second, diplomacy. +Diplomacy needs to be well resourced, sustained, and apply the right mix of incentives and pressures on leaders and followers. +It needs to help them reach an equitable compromise, and it needs to ensure that a broad coalition of local, regional and international supporters help them implement their agreement. +Third, institutional design. +Institutional design requires a keen focus on issues, innovative thinking and flexible and well-funded implementation. +Conflict parties need to move away from maximum demands and towards a compromise that recognizes each other's needs. +And they need to think about the substance of their agreement much more than about the labels they want to attach to them. +Conflict parties also need to be prepared to return to the negotiation table if the agreement implementation stalls. +For me personally, the most critical lesson of all is this: Local commitment to peace is all-important, but it is often not enough to prevent or end violence. +Yet, no amount of diplomacy or institutional design can make up for local failures and the consequences that they have. +Therefore, we must invest in developing leaders, leaders that have the skills, vision and determination to make peace. +Leaders, in other words, that people will trust and that they will want to follow even if that means making hard choices. +A final thought: Ending civil wars is a process that is fraught with dangers, frustrations and setbacks. +It often takes a generation to accomplish, but it also requires us, today's generation, to take responsibility and to learn the right lessons about leadership, diplomacy and institutional design, so that the child soldiers of today can become the children of tomorrow. +Thank you. +I'm here today to show my photographs of the Lakota. +Many of you may have heard of the Lakota, or at least the larger group of tribes called the Sioux. +The Lakota are one of many tribes that were moved off their land to prisoner of war camps now called reservations. +The Pine Ridge Reservation, the subject of today's slide show, is located about 75 miles southeast of the Black Hills in South Dakota. +It is sometimes referred to as Prisoner of War Camp Number 334, and it is where the Lakota now live. +Now, if any of you have ever heard of AIM, the American Indian Movement, or of Russell Means, or Leonard Peltier, or of the stand-off at Oglala, then you know that Pine Ridge is ground zero for Native issues in the U.S. +So I've been asked to talk a little bit today about my relationship with the Lakota, and that's a very difficult one for me. +Because, if you haven't noticed from my skin color, I'm white, and that is a huge barrier on a Native reservation. +You'll see a lot of people in my photographs today, and I've become very close with them, and they've welcomed me like family. +They've called me "brother" and "uncle" and invited me again and again over five years. +But on Pine Ridge, I will always be what is called "wasichu," and "wasichu" is a Lakota word that means "non-Indian," but another version of this word means "the one who takes the best meat for himself." +And that's what I want to focus on -- the one who takes the best part of the meat. +It means greedy. +So take a look around this auditorium today. +We are at a private school in the American West, sitting in red velvet chairs with money in our pockets. +And if we look at our lives, we have indeed taken the best part of the meat. +So let's look today at a set of photographs of a people who lost so that we could gain, and know that when you see these people's faces that these are not just images of the Lakota; they stand for all indigenous people. +On this piece of paper is the history the way I learned it from my Lakota friends and family. +The following is a time-line of treaties made, treaties broken and massacres disguised as battles. +I'll begin in 1824. +What is known as the Bureau of Indian Affairs was created within the War Department, setting an early tone of aggression in our dealings with the Native Americans. +1851: The first treaty of Fort Laramie was made, clearly marking the boundaries of the Lakota Nation. +According to the treaty, those lands are a sovereign nation. +If the boundaries of this treaty had held -- and there is a legal basis that they should -- then this is what the U.S. would look like today. +10 years later, the Homestead Act, signed by President Lincoln, unleashed a flood of white settlers into Native lands. +1863: An uprising of Santee Sioux in Minnesota ends with the hanging of 38 Sioux men, the largest mass execution in U.S. history. +The execution was ordered by President Lincoln only two days after he signed the Emancipation Proclamation. +1866: the beginning of the transcontinental railroad -- a new era. +We appropriated land for trails and trains to shortcut through the heart of the Lakota Nation. +The treaties were out the window. +In response, three tribes led by the Lakota chief Red Cloud attacked and defeated the U.S. army many times over. +I want to repeat that part. +The Lakota defeat the U.S. army. +1868: The second Fort Laramie Treaty clearly guarantees the sovereignty of the Great Sioux Nation and the Lakotas' ownership of the sacred Black Hills. +The government also promises land and hunting rights in the surrounding states. +We promise that the Powder River country will henceforth be closed to all whites. +The treaty seemed to be a complete victory for Red Cloud and the Sioux. +In fact, this is the only war in American history in which the government negotiated a peace by conceding everything demanded by the enemy. +1869: The transcontinental railroad was completed. +It began carrying, among other things, a large number of hunters who began the wholesale killing of buffalo, eliminating a source of food and clothing and shelter for the Sioux. +1871: The Indian Appropriation Act makes all Indians wards of the federal government. +In addition, the military issued orders forbidding western Indians from leaving reservations. +All western Indians at that point in time were now prisoners of war. +Also in 1871, we ended the time of treaty-making. +The problem with treaties is they allow tribes to exist as sovereign nations, and we can't have that. +We had plans. +1874: General George Custer announced the discovery of gold in Lakota territory, specifically the Black Hills. +The news of gold creates a massive influx of white settlers into Lakota Nation. +Custer recommends that Congress find a way to end the treaties with the Lakota as soon as possible. +1875: The Lakota war begins over the violation of the Fort Laramie Treaty. +1876: On July 26th on its way to attack a Lakota village, Custer's 7th Cavalry was crushed at the battle of Little Big Horn. +1877: The great Lakota warrior and chief named Crazy Horse surrendered at Fort Robinson. +He was later killed while in custody. +1877 is also the year we found a way to get around the Fort Laramie Treaties. +A new agreement was presented to Sioux chiefs and their leading men under a campaign known as "sell or starve:" Sign the paper, or no food for your tribe. +Only 10 percent of the adult male population signed. +The Fort Laramie Treaty called for at least three-quarters of the tribe to sign away land. +That clause was obviously ignored. +1887: The Dawes Act. +Communal ownership of reservation lands ends. +Reservations are cut up into 160-acre sections and distributed to individual Indians with the surplus disposed of. +Tribes lost millions of acres. +The American dream of individual land ownership turned out to be a very clever way to divide the reservation until nothing was left. +The move destroyed the reservations, making it easier to further subdivide and to sell with every passing generation. +Most of the surplus land and many of the plots within reservation boundaries are now in the hands of white ranchers. +Once again, the fat of the land goes to wasichu. +1890, a date I believe to be the most important in this slide show. +This is the year of the Wounded Knee Massacre. +On December 29th, U.S. troops surrounded a Sioux encampment at Wounded Knee Creek and massacred Chief Big Foot and 300 prisoners of war, using a new rapid-fire weapon that fired exploding shells called a Hotchkiss gun. +For this so-called "battle," 20 Congressional Medals of Honor for Valor were given to the 7th Cavalry. +To this day, this is the most Medals of Honor ever awarded for a single battle. +More Medals of Honor were given for the indiscriminate slaughter of women and children than for any battle in World War One, World War Two, Korea, Vietnam, Iraq or Afghanistan. +The Wounded Knee massacre is considered the end of the Indian wars. +Whenever I visit the site of the mass grave at Wounded Knee, I see it not just as a grave for the Lakota or for the Sioux, but as a grave for all indigenous peoples. +The holy man, Black Elk, said, "I did not know then how much was ended. +When I look back now from this high hill of my old age, I can still see the butchered women and children lying heaped and scattered all along the crooked gulch as plain as when I saw them with eyes still young. +And I can see that something else died there in the bloody mud and was buried in the blizzard: A people's dream died there, and it was a beautiful dream." +With this event, a new era in Native American history began. +Everything can be measured before Wounded Knee and after. +Because it was in this moment with the fingers on the triggers of the Hotchkiss guns that the U.S. government openly declared its position on Native rights. +They were tired of treaties. +They were tired of sacred hills. +They were tired of ghost dances. +And they were tired of all the inconveniences of the Sioux. +So they brought out their cannons. +"You want to be an Indian now?" they said, finger on the trigger. +1900: the U.S. Indian population reached its low point -- less than 250,000, compared to an estimated eight million in 1492. +Fast-forward. +1980: The longest running court case in U.S. history, the Sioux Nation v. the United States, was ruled upon by the U.S. Supreme Court. +The court determined that, when the Sioux were resettled onto reservations and seven million acres of their land were opened up to prospectors and homesteaders, the terms of the second Fort Laramie Treaty had been violated. +The court stated that the Black Hills were illegally taken and that the initial offering price plus interest should be paid to the Sioux Nation. +As payment for the Black Hills, the court awarded only 106 million dollars to the Sioux Nation. +The Sioux refused the money with the rallying cry, "The Black Hills are not for sale." +2010: Statistics about Native population today, more than a century after the massacre at Wounded Knee, reveal the legacy of colonization, forced migration and treaty violations. +Unemployment on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation fluctuates between 85 and 90 percent. +The housing office is unable to build new structures, and existing structures are falling apart. +Many are homeless, and those with homes are packed into rotting buildings with up to five families. +39 percent of homes on Pine Ridge have no electricity. +At least 60 percent of the homes on the reservation are infested with black mold. +More than 90 percent of the population lives below the federal poverty line. +The tuberculosis rate on Pine Ridge is approximately eight times higher than the U.S. national average. +The infant mortality rate is the highest on this continent and is about three times higher than the U.S. national average. +Cervical cancer is five times higher than the U.S. national average. +School dropout rate is up to 70 percent. +Teacher turnover is eight times higher than the U.S. national average. +Frequently, grandparents are raising their grandchildren because parents, due to alcoholism, domestic violence and general apathy, cannot raise them. +50 percent of the population over the age of 40 suffers from diabetes. +The life expectancy for men is between 46 and 48 years old -- roughly the same as in Afghanistan and Somalia. +The last chapter in any successful genocide is the one in which the oppressor can remove their hands and say, "My God, what are these people doing to themselves? +They're killing each other. +They're killing themselves while we watch them die." +This is how we came to own these United States. +This is the legacy of manifest destiny. +Prisoners are still born into prisoner-of-war camps long after the guards are gone. +These are the bones left after the best meat has been taken. +A long time ago, a series of events was set in motion by a people who look like me, by wasichu, eager to take the land and the water and the gold in the hills. +Those events led to a domino effect that has yet to end. +As removed as we the dominant society may feel from a massacre in 1890, or a series of broken treaties 150 years ago, I still have to ask you the question, how should you feel about the statistics of today? +What is the connection between these images of suffering and the history that I just read to you? +And how much of this history do you need to own, even? +Is any of this your responsibility today? +I have been told that there must be something we can do. +There must be some call to action. +Because for so long I've been standing on the sidelines content to be a witness, just taking photographs. +Because the solution seems so far in the past, I needed nothing short of a time machine to access them. +The suffering of indigenous peoples is not a simple issue to fix. +It's not something everyone can get behind the way they get behind helping Haiti, or ending AIDS, or fighting a famine. +The "fix," as it's called, may be much more difficult for the dominant society than, say, a $50 check or a church trip to paint some graffiti-covered houses, or a suburban family donating a box of clothes they don't even want anymore. +So where does that leave us? +Shrugging our shoulders in the dark? +The United States continues on a daily basis to violate the terms of the 1851 and 1868 Fort Laramie Treaties with the Lakota. +The call to action I offer today -- my TED wish -- is this: Honor the treaties. +Give back the Black Hills. +It's not your business what they do with them. +This cell phone started its trajectory in an artisanal mine in the Eastern Congo. +It's mined by armed gangs using slaves, child slaves, what the U.N. Security Council calls "blood minerals," then traveled into some components and ended up in a factory in Shinjin in China. +That factory -- over a dozen people have committed suicide already this year. +One man died after working a 36-hour shift. +We all love chocolate. +We buy it for our kids. +Eighty percent of the cocoa comes from Cote d'Ivoire and Ghana and it's harvested by children. +Cote d'Ivoire, we have a huge problem of child slaves. +Children have been trafficked from other conflict zones to come and work on the coffee plantations. +Heparin -- a blood thinner, a pharmaceutical product -- starts out in artisanal workshops like this in China, because the active ingredient comes from pigs' intestines. +Your diamond -- you've all heard, probably seen the movie "Blood Diamond." +This is a mine in Zimbabwe right now. +Cotton: Uzbekistan is the second biggest exporter of cotton on Earth. +Every year when it comes to the cotton harvest, the government shuts down the schools, puts the kids in buses, buses them to the cotton fields to spend three weeks harvesting the cotton. +It's forced child labor on an institutional scale. +And all of those products probably end their lives in a dump like this one in Manila. +These places, these origins, represent governance gaps. +That's the politest description I have for them. +These are the dark pools where global supply chains begin -- the global supply chains, which bring us our favorite brand name products. +Some of these governance gaps are run by rogue states. +Some of them are not states anymore at all. +They're failed states. +Some of them are just countries who believe that deregulation or no regulation is the best way to attract investment, promote trade. +Either way, they present us with a huge moral and ethical dilemma. +I know that none of us want to be accessories after the fact of a human rights abuse in a global supply chain. +But right now, most of the companies involved in these supply chains don't have any way of assuring us that nobody had to mortgage their future, nobody had to sacrifice their rights to bring us our favorite brand name product. +Now, I didn't come here to depress you about the state of the global supply chain. +We need a reality check. +We need to recognize just how serious a deficit of rights we have. +This is an independent republic, probably a failed state. +It's definitely not a democratic state. +And right now, that independent republic of the supply chain is not being governed in a way that would satisfy us, that we can engage in ethical trade or ethical consumption. +Now, that's not a new story. +You've seen the documentaries of sweatshops making garments all over the world, even in developed countries. +You want to see the classic sweatshop, meet me at Madison Square Garden, I'll take you down the street, and I'll show you a Chinese sweatshop. +But take the example of heparin. +It's a pharmaceutical product. +You expect that the supply chain that gets it to the hospital, probably squeaky clean. +The problem is that the active ingredient in there -- as I mentioned earlier -- comes from pigs. +The main American manufacturer of that active ingredient decided a few years ago to relocate to China because it's the world's biggest supplier of pigs. +And their factory in China -- which probably is pretty clean -- is getting all of the ingredients from backyard abattoirs, where families slaughter pigs and extract the ingredient. +So a couple of years ago, we had a scandal which killed about 80 people around the world, because of contaminants that crept into the heparin supply chain. +Worse, some of the suppliers realized that they could substitute a product which mimicked heparin in tests. +This substitute cost nine dollars a pound, whereas real heparin, the real ingredient, cost 900 dollars a pound. +A no-brainer. +The problem was that it killed more people. +And so you're asking yourself, "How come the U.S. Food and Drug Administration allowed this to happen? +How did the Chinese State Agency for Food and Drugs allow this to happen?" +And the answer is quite simple: the Chinese define these facilities as chemical facilities, not pharmaceutical facilities, so they don't audit them. +And the USFDA has a jurisdictional problem. +This is offshore. +They actually do conduct a few investigations overseas -- about a dozen a year -- maybe 20 in a good year. +There are 500 of these facilities producing active ingredients in China alone. +In fact, about 80 percent of the active ingredients in medicines now come from offshore, particularly China and India, and we don't have a governance system. +We don't have a regulatory system able to ensure that that production is safe. +We don't have a system to ensure that human rights, basic dignity, are ensured. +So at a national level -- and we work in about 60 different countries -- at a national level we've got a serious breakdown in the ability of governments to regulate production on their own soil. +And the real problem with the global supply chain is that it's supranational. +So governments who are failing, who are dropping the ball at a national level, have even less ability to get their arms around the problem at an international level. +And you can just look at the headlines. +Take Copenhagen last year -- complete failure of governments to do the right thing in the face of an international challenge. +Take the G20 meeting a couple of weeks ago -- stepped back from its commitments of just a few months ago. +You can take any one of the major global challenges we've discussed this week and ask yourself, where is the leadership from governments to step up and come up with solutions, responses, to those international problems? +And the simple answer is they can't. They're national. +Their voters are local. +They have parochial interests. +They can't subordinate those interests to the greater global public good. +So, if we're going to ensure the delivery of the key public goods at an international level -- in this case, in the global supply chain -- we have to come up with a different mechanism. +We need a different machine. +Fortunately, we have some examples. +In the 1990s, there were a whole series of scandals concerning the production of brand name goods in the U.S. -- child labor, forced labor, serious health and safety abuses. +And eventually President Clinton, in 1996, convened a meeting at the White House, invited industry, human rights NGOs, trade unions, the Department of Labor, got them all in a room and said, "Look, I don't want globalization to be a race to the bottom. +I don't know how to prevent that, but I'm at least going to use my good offices to get you folks together to come up with a response." +So they formed a White House task force, and they spent about three years arguing about who takes how much responsibility in the global supply chain. +Companies didn't feel it was their responsibility. +They don't own those facilities. +They don't employ those workers. +They're not legally liable. +Everybody else at the table said, "Folks, that doesn't cut it. +You have a custodial duty, a duty of care, to make sure that that product gets from wherever to the store in a way that allows us to consume it, without fear of our safety, or without having to sacrifice our conscience to consume that product." +So they agreed, "Okay, what we'll do is we agree on a common set of standards, code of conduct. +We'll apply that throughout our global supply chain regardless of ownership or control. +We'll make it part of the contract." +And that was a stroke of absolute genius, because what they did was they harnessed the power of the contract, private power, to deliver public goods. +And let's face it, the contract from a major multinational brand to a supplier in India or China has much more persuasive value than the local labor law, the local environmental regulations, the local human rights standards. +Those factories will probably never see an inspector. +If the inspector did come along, it would be amazing if they were able to resist the bribe. +Even if they did their jobs, and they cited those facilities for their violations, the fine would be derisory. +But you lose that contract for a major brand name, that's the difference between staying in business or going bankrupt. +That makes a difference. +So what we've been able to do is we've been able to harness the power and the influence of the only truly transnational institution in the global supply chain, that of the multinational company, and get them to do the right thing, get them to use that power for good, to deliver the key public goods. +Now of course, this doesn't come naturally to multinational companies. +They weren't set up to do this. They're set up to make money. +But they are extremely efficient organizations. +They have resources, and if we can add the will, the commitment, they know how to deliver that product. +Now, getting there is not easy. +Those supply chains I put up on the screen earlier, they're not there. +You need a safe space. +You need a place where people can come together, sit down without fear of judgment, without recrimination, to actually face the problem, agree on the problem and come up with solutions. +We can do it. The technical solutions are there. +The problem is the lack of trust, the lack of confidence, the lack of partnership between NGOs, campaign groups, civil society organizations and multinational companies. +If we can put those two together in a safe space, get them to work together, we can deliver public goods right now, or in extremely short supply. +It's crazy. +Multinationals are protecting human rights. +I know there's going to be disbelief. +You'll say, "How can we trust them?" +Well, we don't. +It's the old arms control phrase: "Trust, but verify." +So we audit. +We take their supply chain, we take all the factory names, we do a random sample, we send inspectors on an unannounced basis to inspect those facilities, and then we publish the results. +Transparency is absolutely critical to this. +You can call yourself responsible, but responsibility without accountability often doesn't work. +So what we're doing is, we're not only enlisting the multinationals, we're giving them the tools to deliver this public good -- respect for human rights -- and we're checking. +You don't need to believe me. You shouldn't believe me. +Go to the website. Look at the audit results. +Ask yourself, is this company behaving in a socially responsible way? +Can I buy that product without compromising my ethics? +That's the way the system works. +I hate the idea that governments are not protecting human rights around the world. +I hate the idea that governments have dropped this ball and I can't get used to the idea that somehow we can't get them to do their jobs. +I've been at this for 30 years, and in that time I've seen the ability, the commitment, the will of government to do this decline, and I don't see them making a comeback right now. +So we started out thinking this was a stopgap measure. +We're now thinking that, in fact, this is probably the start of a new way of regulating and addressing international challenges. +Call it network governance. Call it what you will. +The private actors, companies and NGOs, are going to have to get together to face the major challenges we are going to face. +Just look at pandemics -- swine flu, bird flu, H1N1. +Look at the health systems in so many countries. +Do they have the resources to face up to a serious pandemic? +No. +Could the private sector and NGOs get together and marshal a response? +Absolutely. +What they lack is that safe space to come together, agree and move to action. +That's what we're trying to provide. +I know as well that this often seems like an overwhelming level of responsibility for people to assume. +"You want me to deliver human rights throughout my global supply chain. +There are thousands of suppliers in there." +It seems too daunting, too dangerous, for any company to take on. +But there are companies. +We have 4,000 companies who are members. +Some of them are very, very large companies. +The sporting goods industry, in particular, stepped up to the plate and have done it. +The example, the role model, is there. +And whenever we discuss one of these problems that we have to address -- child labor in cottonseed farms in India -- this year we will monitor 50,000 cottonseed farms in India. +It seems overwhelming. +The numbers just make you want to zone out. +But we break it down to some basic realities. +And human rights comes down to a very simple proposition: can I give this person their dignity back? +Poor people, people whose human rights have been violated -- the crux of that is the loss of dignity, the lack of dignity. +It starts with just giving people back their dignity. +I was sitting in a slum outside Gurgaon just next to Delhi, one of the flashiest, brightest new cities popping up in India right now, and I was talking to workers who worked in garment sweatshops down the road, and I asked them what message they would like me to take to the brands. +They didn't say money. +They said, "The people who employ us treat us like we are less than human, like we don't exist. +Please ask them to treat us like human beings." +That's my simple understanding of human rights. +That's my simple proposition to you, my simple plea to every decision-maker in this room, everybody out there. +We can all make a decision to come together and pick up the balls and run with the balls that governments have dropped. +If we don't do it, we're abandoning hope, we're abandoning our essential humanity, and I know that's not a place we want to be, and we don't have to be there. +So I appeal to you. +Join us, come into that safe space, and let's start to make this happen. +Thank you very much. +Do you ever feel completely overwhelmed when you're faced with a complex problem? +Well, I hope to change that in less than three minutes. +So, I hope to convince you that complex doesn't always equal complicated. +So for me, a well-crafted baguette, fresh out of the oven, is complex, but a curry onion green olive poppy cheese bread is complicated. +I'm an ecologist, and I study complexity. I love complexity. +And I study that in the natural world, the interconnectedness of species. +So here's a food web, or a map of feeding links between species that live in Alpine Lakes in the mountains of California. +And this is what happens to that food web when it's stocked with non-native fish that never lived there before. +All the grayed-out species disappear. +Some are actually on the brink of extinction. +And lakes with fish have more mosquitos, even though they eat them. +These effects were all unanticipated, and yet we're discovering they're predictable. +So I want to share with you a couple key insights about complexity we're learning from studying nature that maybe are applicable to other problems. +First is the simple power of good visualization tools to help untangle complexity and just encourage you to ask questions you didn't think of before. +For example, you could plot the flow of carbon through corporate supply chains in a corporate ecosystem, or the interconnections of habitat patches for endangered species in Yosemite National Park. +And we're discovering, with our research, that's often very local to the node you care about within one or two degrees. +So the more you step back, embrace complexity, the better chance you have of finding simple answers, and it's often different than the simple answer that you started with. +So let's switch gears and look at a really complex problem courtesy of the U.S. government. +This is a diagram of the U.S. counterinsurgency strategy in Afghanistan. +It was front page of the New York Times a couple months ago. +Instantly ridiculed by the media for being so crazy complicated. +And the stated goal was to increase popular support for the Afghan government. +Clearly a complex problem, but is it complicated? +Well, when I saw this in the front page of the Times, I thought, "Great. Finally something I can relate to. +I can sink my teeth into this." +So let's do it. So here we go for the first time ever, a world premiere view of this spaghetti diagram as an ordered network. +The circled node is the one we're trying to influence -- popular support for the government. +And so now we can look one degrees, two degrees, three degrees away from that node and eliminate three-quarters of the diagram outside that sphere of influence. +Within that sphere, most of those nodes are not actionable, like the harshness of the terrain, and a very small minority are actual military actions. +Most are non-violent and they fall into two broad categories: active engagement with ethnic rivalries and religious beliefs and fair, transparent economic development and provisioning of services. +I don't know about this, but this is what I can decipher from this diagram in 24 seconds. +When you see a diagram like this, I don't want you to be afraid. +I want you to be excited. I want you to be relieved. +Because simple answers may emerge. +We're discovering in nature that simplicity often lies on the other side of complexity. +So for any problem, the more you can zoom out and embrace complexity, the better chance you have of zooming in on the simple details that matter most. +Thank you. +We've got a real problem with math education right now. +Basically, no one's very happy. +Those learning it think it's disconnected, uninteresting and hard. +Those trying to employ them think they don't know enough. +Governments realize that it's a big deal for our economies, but don't know how to fix it. +And teachers are also frustrated. +Yet math is more important to the world than at any point in human history. +So at one end we've got falling interest in education in math, and at the other end we've got a more mathematical world, a more quantitative world than we ever have had. +So what's the problem, why has this chasm opened up, and what can we do to fix it? +Well actually, I think the answer is staring us right in the face: Use computers. +I believe that correctly using computers is the silver bullet for making math education work. +So to explain that, let me first talk a bit about what math looks like in the real world and what it looks like in education. +See, in the real world math isn't necessarily done by mathematicians. +It's done by geologists, engineers, biologists, all sorts of different people -- modeling and simulation. +It's actually very popular. +But in education it looks very different -- dumbed-down problems, lots of calculating, mostly by hand. +Lots of things that seem simple and not difficult like in the real world, except if you're learning it. +And another thing about math: math sometimes looks like math -- like in this example here -- and sometimes it doesn't -- like "Am I drunk?" +And then you get an answer that's quantitative in the modern world. +You wouldn't have expected that a few years back. +But now you can find out all about -- unfortunately, my weight is a little higher than that, but -- all about what happens. +So let's zoom out a bit and ask, why are we teaching people math? +What's the point of teaching people math? +And in particular, why are we teaching them math in general? +Why is it such an important part of education as a sort of compulsory subject? +Over the years we've put so much in society into being able to process and think logically. It's part of human society. +It's very important to learn that math is a great way to do that. +So let's ask another question. +What is math? +What do we mean when we say we're doing math, or educating people to do math? +Well, I think it's about four steps, roughly speaking, starting with posing the right question. +What is it that we want to ask? What is it we're trying to find out here? +And this is the thing most screwed up in the outside world, beyond virtually any other part of doing math. +People ask the wrong question, and surprisingly enough, they get the wrong answer, for that reason, if not for others. +So the next thing is take that problem and turn it from a real world problem into a math problem. +That's stage two. +Once you've done that, then there's the computation step. +Turn it from that into some answer in a mathematical form. +And of course, math is very powerful at doing that. +And then finally, turn it back to the real world. +Did it answer the question? +And also verify it -- crucial step. +Now here's the crazy thing right now. +In math education, we're spending about perhaps 80 percent of the time teaching people to do step three by hand. +Yet, that's the one step computers can do better than any human after years of practice. +Instead, we ought to be using computers to do step three and using the students to spend much more effort on learning how to do steps one, two and four -- conceptualizing problems, applying them, getting the teacher to run them through how to do that. +See, crucial point here: math is not equal to calculating. +Math is a much broader subject than calculating. +Now it's understandable that this has all got intertwined over hundreds of years. +There was only one way to do calculating and that was by hand. +But in the last few decades that has totally changed. +We've had the biggest transformation of any ancient subject that I could ever imagine with computers. +Calculating was typically the limiting step, and now often it isn't. +So I think in terms of the fact that math has been liberated from calculating. +But that math liberation didn't get into education yet. +See, I think of calculating, in a sense, as the machinery of math. +It's the chore. +It's the thing you'd like to avoid if you can, like to get a machine to do. +It's a means to an end, not an end in itself, and automation allows us to have that machinery. +Computers allow us to do that -- and this is not a small problem by any means. +I estimated that, just today, across the world, we spent about 106 average world lifetimes teaching people how to calculate by hand. +That's an amazing amount of human endeavor. +So we better be damn sure -- and by the way, they didn't even have fun doing it, most of them -- so we better be damn sure that we know why we're doing that and it has a real purpose. +I think we should be assuming computers for doing the calculating and only doing hand calculations where it really makes sense to teach people that. +And I think there are some cases. +For example: mental arithmetic. +I still do a lot of that, mainly for estimating. +People say, "Is such and such true?" +And I'll say, "Hmm, not sure." I'll think about it roughly. +It's still quicker to do that and more practical. +So I think practicality is one case where it's worth teaching people by hand. +And then there are certain conceptual things that can also benefit from hand calculating, but I think they're relatively small in number. +One thing I often ask about is ancient Greek and how this relates. +See, the thing we're doing right now is we're forcing people to learn mathematics. +It's a major subject. +I'm not for one minute suggesting that, if people are interested in hand calculating or in following their own interests in any subject however bizarre -- they should do that. +That's absolutely the right thing, for people to follow their self-interest. +I was somewhat interested in ancient Greek, but I don't think that we should force the entire population to learn a subject like ancient Greek. +I don't think it's warranted. +So I have this distinction between what we're making people do and the subject that's sort of mainstream and the subject that, in a sense, people might follow with their own interest and perhaps even be spiked into doing that. +So what are the issues people bring up with this? +Well one of them is, they say, you need to get the basics first. +You shouldn't use the machine until you get the basics of the subject. +So my usual question is, what do you mean by "basics?" +Basics of what? +Are the basics of driving a car learning how to service it, or design it for that matter? +Are the basics of writing learning how to sharpen a quill? +I don't think so. +I think you need to separate the basics of what you're trying to do from how it gets done and the machinery of how it gets done and automation allows you to make that separation. +A hundred years ago, it's certainly true that to drive a car you kind of needed to know a lot about the mechanics of the car and how the ignition timing worked and all sorts of things. +But automation in cars allowed that to separate, so driving is now a quite separate subject, so to speak, from engineering of the car or learning how to service it. +So automation allows this separation and also allows -- in the case of driving, and I believe also in the future case of maths -- a democratized way of doing that. +It can be spread across a much larger number of people who can really work with that. +So there's another thing that comes up with basics. +People confuse, in my view, the order of the invention of the tools with the order in which they should use them for teaching. +So just because paper was invented before computers, it doesn't necessarily mean you get more to the basics of the subject by using paper instead of a computer to teach mathematics. +My daughter gave me a rather nice anecdote on this. +She enjoys making what she calls "paper laptops." +So I asked her one day, "You know, when I was your age, I didn't make these. +Why do you think that was?" +And after a second or two, carefully reflecting, she said, "No paper?" +If you were born after computers and paper, it doesn't really matter which order you're taught with them in, you just want to have the best tool. +So another one that comes up is "Computers dumb math down." +That somehow, if you use a computer, it's all mindless button-pushing, but if you do it by hand, it's all intellectual. +This one kind of annoys me, I must say. +Do we really believe that the math that most people are doing in school practically today is more than applying procedures to problems they don't really understand, for reasons they don't get? +I don't think so. +And what's worse, what they're learning there isn't even practically useful anymore. +Might have been 50 years ago, but it isn't anymore. +When they're out of education, they do it on a computer. +Just to be clear, I think computers can really help with this problem, actually make it more conceptual. +Now, of course, like any great tool, they can be used completely mindlessly, like turning everything into a multimedia show, like the example I was shown of solving an equation by hand, where the computer was the teacher -- show the student how to manipulate and solve it by hand. +This is just nuts. +Why are we using computers to show a student how to solve a problem by hand that the computer should be doing anyway? +All backwards. +Let me show you that you can also make problems harder to calculate. +See, normally in school, you do things like solve quadratic equations. +But you see, when you're using a computer, you can just substitute. +You can make it a quartic equation. Make it kind of harder, calculating-wise. +Same principles applied -- calculations, harder. +And problems in the real world look nutty and horrible like this. +They've got hair all over them. +They're not just simple, dumbed-down things that we see in school math. +And think of the outside world. +Do we really believe that engineering and biology and all of these other things that have so benefited from computers and maths have somehow conceptually gotten reduced by using computers? +I don't think so -- quite the opposite. +So the problem we've really got in math education is not that computers might dumb it down, but that we have dumbed-down problems right now. +Well, another issue people bring up is somehow that hand calculating procedures teach understanding. +So if you go through lots of examples, you can get the answer, you can understand how the basics of the system work better. +I think there is one thing that I think very valid here, which is that I think understanding procedures and processes is important. +But there's a fantastic way to do that in the modern world. +It's called programming. +Programming is how most procedures and processes get written down these days, and it's also a great way to engage students much more and to check they really understand. +If you really want to check you understand math then write a program to do it. +So programming is the way I think we should be doing that. +So to be clear, what I really am suggesting here is we have a unique opportunity to make maths both more practical and more conceptual, simultaneously. +I can't think of any other subject where that's recently been possible. +It's usually some kind of choice between the vocational and the intellectual. +But I think we can do both at the same time here. +And we open up so many more possibilities. +You can do so many more problems. +What I really think we gain from this is students getting intuition and experience in far greater quantities than they've ever got before. +And experience of harder problems -- being able to play with the math, interact with it, feel it. +We want people who can feel the math instinctively. +That's what computers allow us to do. +Another thing it allows us to do is reorder the curriculum. +Traditionally it's been by how difficult it is to calculate, but now we can reorder it by how difficult it is to understand the concepts, however hard the calculating. +So calculus has traditionally been taught very late. +Why is this? +Well, it's damn hard doing the calculations, that's the problem. +But actually many of the concepts are amenable to a much younger age group. +This was an example I built for my daughter. +And very, very simple. +We were talking about what happens when you increase the number of sides of a polygon to a very large number. +And of course, it turns into a circle. +And by the way, she was also very insistent on being able to change the color, an important feature for this demonstration. +You can see that this is a very early step into limits and differential calculus and what happens when you take things to an extreme -- and very small sides and a very large number of sides. +Very simple example. +That's a view of the world that we don't usually give people for many, many years after this. +And yet, that's a really important practical view of the world. +So one of the roadblocks we have in moving this agenda forward is exams. +In the end, if we test everyone by hand in exams, it's kind of hard to get the curricula changed to a point where they can use computers during the semesters. +And one of the reasons it's so important -- so it's very important to get computers in exams. +And then we can ask questions, real questions, questions like, what's the best life insurance policy to get? -- real questions that people have in their everyday lives. +And you see, this isn't some dumbed-down model here. +This is an actual model where we can be asked to optimize what happens. +How many years of protection do I need? +What does that do to the payments and to the interest rates and so forth? +Now I'm not for one minute suggesting it's the only kind of question that should be asked in exams, but I think it's a very important type that right now just gets completely ignored and is critical for people's real understanding. +So I believe [there is] critical reform we have to do in computer-based math. +We have got to make sure that we can move our economies forward, and also our societies, based on the idea that people can really feel mathematics. +This isn't some optional extra. +And the country that does this first will, in my view, leapfrog others in achieving a new economy even, an improved economy, an improved outlook. +In fact, I even talk about us moving from what we often call now the "knowledge economy" to what we might call a "computational knowledge economy," where high-level math is integral to what everyone does in the way that knowledge currently is. +We can engage so many more students with this, and they can have a better time doing it. +And let's understand: this is not an incremental sort of change. +We're trying to cross the chasm here between school math and the real-world math. +And you know if you walk across a chasm, you end up making it worse than if you didn't start at all -- bigger disaster. +No, what I'm suggesting is that we should leap off, we should increase our velocity so it's high, and we should leap off one side and go the other -- of course, having calculated our differential equation very carefully. +So I want to see a completely renewed, changed math curriculum built from the ground up, based on computers being there, computers that are now ubiquitous almost. +Calculating machines are everywhere and will be completely everywhere in a small number of years. +Now I'm not even sure if we should brand the subject as math, but what I am sure is it's the mainstream subject of the future. +Let's go for it, and while we're about it, let's have a bit of fun, for us, for the students and for TED here. +Thanks. +Delighted to be here and to talk to you about a subject dear to my heart, which is beauty. +I do the philosophy of art, aesthetics, actually, for a living. +I try to figure out intellectually, philosophically, psychologically, what the experience of beauty is, what sensibly can be said about it and how people go off the rails in trying to understand it. +Now this is an extremely complicated subject, in part because the things that we call beautiful are so different. +This brief list includes human beings, natural landforms, works of art and skilled human actions. +An account that explains the presence of beauty in everything on this list is not going to be easy. +I can, however, give you at least a taste of what I regard as the most powerful theory of beauty we yet have. +And we get it not from a philosopher of art, not from a postmodern art theorist or a bigwig art critic. +No, this theory comes from an expert on barnacles and worms and pigeon breeding, and you know who I mean: Charles Darwin. +Of course, a lot of people think they already know the proper answer to the question, "What is beauty?" +It's in the eye of the beholder. +It's whatever moves you personally. +Or, as some people, especially academics prefer, beauty is in the culturally conditioned eye of the beholder. +People agree that paintings or movies or music are beautiful because their cultures determine a uniformity of aesthetic taste. +Taste for both natural beauty and for the arts travel across cultures with great ease. +Beethoven is adored in Japan. +Peruvians love Japanese woodblock prints. +Inca sculptures are regarded as treasures in British museums, while Shakespeare is translated into every major language of the Earth. +Or just think about American jazz or American movies -- they go everywhere. +There are many differences among the arts, but there are also universal, cross-cultural aesthetic pleasures and values. +How can we explain this universality? +The best answer lies in trying to reconstruct a Darwinian evolutionary history of our artistic and aesthetic tastes. +We need to reverse-engineer our present artistic tastes and preferences and explain how they came to be engraved in our minds by the actions of both our prehistoric, largely pleistocene environments, where we became fully human, but also by the social situations in which we evolved. +This reverse engineering can also enlist help from the human record preserved in prehistory. +I mean fossils, cave paintings and so forth. +And it should take into account what we know of the aesthetic interests of isolated hunter-gatherer bands that survived into the 19th and the 20th centuries. +Now, I personally have no doubt whatsoever that the experience of beauty, with its emotional intensity and pleasure, belongs to our evolved human psychology. +The experience of beauty is one component in a whole series of Darwinian adaptations. +Beauty is an adaptive effect, which we extend and intensify in the creation and enjoyment of works of art and entertainment. +As many of you will know, evolution operates by two main primary mechanisms. +The first of these is natural selection -- that's random mutation and selective retention -- along with our basic anatomy and physiology -- the evolution of the pancreas or the eye or the fingernails. +Natural selection also explains many basic revulsions, such as the horrid smell of rotting meat, or fears, such as the fear of snakes or standing close to the edge of a cliff. +Natural selection also explains pleasures -- sexual pleasure, our liking for sweet, fat and proteins, which in turn explains a lot of popular foods, from ripe fruits through chocolate malts and barbecued ribs. +The other great principle of evolution is sexual selection, and it operates very differently. +The peacock's magnificent tail is the most famous example of this. +It did not evolve for natural survival. +In fact, it goes against natural survival. +No, the peacock's tail results from the mating choices made by peahens. +It's quite a familiar story. +It's women who actually push history forward. +Darwin himself, by the way, had no doubts that the peacock's tail was beautiful in the eyes of the peahen. +He actually used that word. +Now, keeping these ideas firmly in mind, we can say that the experience of beauty is one of the ways that evolution has of arousing and sustaining interest or fascination, even obsession, in order to encourage us toward making the most adaptive decisions for survival and reproduction. +Beauty is nature's way of acting at a distance, so to speak. +I mean, you can't expect to eat an adaptively beneficial landscape. +It would hardly do to eat your baby or your lover. +So evolution's trick is to make them beautiful, to have them exert a kind of magnetism to give you the pleasure of simply looking at them. +Consider briefly an important source of aesthetic pleasure, the magnetic pull of beautiful landscapes. +People in very different cultures all over the world tend to like a particular kind of landscape, a landscape that just happens to be similar to the pleistocene savannas where we evolved. +This landscape shows up today on calendars, on postcards, in the design of golf courses and public parks and in gold-framed pictures that hang in living rooms from New York to New Zealand. +It's a kind of Hudson River school landscape featuring open spaces of low grasses interspersed with copses of trees. +The trees, by the way, are often preferred if they fork near the ground, that is to say, if they're trees you could scramble up if you were in a tight fix. +The landscape shows the presence of water directly in view, or evidence of water in a bluish distance, indications of animal or bird life as well as diverse greenery and finally -- get this -- a path or a road, perhaps a riverbank or a shoreline, that extends into the distance, almost inviting you to follow it. +This landscape type is regarded as beautiful, even by people in countries that don't have it. +The ideal savanna landscape is one of the clearest examples where human beings everywhere find beauty in similar visual experience. +But, someone might argue, that's natural beauty. +How about artistic beauty? +Isn't that exhaustively cultural? +No, I don't think it is. +And once again, I'd like to look back to prehistory to say something about it. +It is widely assumed that the earliest human artworks are the stupendously skillful cave paintings that we all know from Lascaux and Chauvet. +Chauvet caves are about 32,000 years old, along with a few small, realistic sculptures of women and animals from the same period. +But artistic and decorative skills are actually much older than that. +Beautiful shell necklaces that look like something you'd see at an arts and crafts fair, as well as ochre body paint, have been found from around 100,000 years ago. +But the most intriguing prehistoric artifacts are older even than this. +I have in mind the so-called Acheulian hand axes. +The oldest stone tools are choppers from the Olduvai Gorge in East Africa. +They go back about two-and-a-half-million years. +These crude tools were around for thousands of centuries, until around 1.4 million years ago when Homo erectus started shaping single, thin stone blades, sometimes rounded ovals, but often in what are to our eyes an arresting, symmetrical pointed leaf or teardrop form. +These Acheulian hand axes -- they're named after St. Acheul in France, where finds were made in 19th century -- have been unearthed in their thousands, scattered across Asia, Europe and Africa, almost everywhere Homo erectus and Homo ergaster roamed. +Now, the sheer numbers of these hand axes shows that they can't have been made for butchering animals. +And the plot really thickens when you realize that, unlike other pleistocene tools, the hand axes often exhibit no evidence of wear on their delicate blade edges. +And some, in any event, are too big to use for butchery. +Their symmetry, their attractive materials and, above all, their meticulous workmanship are simply quite beautiful to our eyes, even today. +So what were these ancient -- I mean, they're ancient, they're foreign, but they're at the same time somehow familiar. +What were these artifacts for? +The best available answer is that they were literally the earliest known works of art, practical tools transformed into captivating aesthetic objects, contemplated both for their elegant shape and their virtuoso craftsmanship. +Hand axes mark an evolutionary advance in human history -- tools fashioned to function as what Darwinians call "fitness signals" -- that is to say, displays that are performances like the peacock's tail, except that, unlike hair and feathers, the hand axes are consciously cleverly crafted. +Competently made hand axes indicated desirable personal qualities -- intelligence, fine motor control, planning ability, conscientiousness and sometimes access to rare materials. +Over tens of thousands of generations, such skills increased the status of those who displayed them and gained a reproductive advantage over the less capable. +You know, it's an old line, but it has been shown to work -- "Why don't you come up to my cave, so I can show you my hand axes?" +Except, of course, what's interesting about this is that we can't be sure how that idea was conveyed, because the Homo erectus that made these objects did not have language. +It's hard to grasp, but it's an incredible fact. +This object was made by a hominid ancestor, Homo erectus or Homo ergaster, between 50,000 and 100,000 years before language. +Stretching over a million years, the hand axe tradition is the longest artistic tradition in human and proto-human history. +By the end of the hand axe epic, Homo sapiens -- as they were then called, finally -- were doubtless finding new ways to amuse and amaze each other by, who knows, telling jokes, storytelling, dancing, or hairstyling. +Yes, hairstyling -- I insist on that. +For us moderns, virtuoso technique is used to create imaginary worlds in fiction and in movies, to express intense emotions with music, painting and dance. +But still, one fundamental trait of the ancestral personality persists in our aesthetic cravings: the beauty we find in skilled performances. +From Lascaux to the Louvre to Carnegie Hall, human beings have a permanent innate taste for virtuoso displays in the arts. +We find beauty in something done well. +So the next time you pass a jewelry shop window displaying a beautifully cut teardrop-shaped stone, don't be so sure it's just your culture telling you that that sparkling jewel is beautiful. +Your distant ancestors loved that shape and found beauty in the skill needed to make it, even before they could put their love into words. +Is beauty in the eye of the beholder? +No, it's deep in our minds. +It's a gift handed down from the intelligent skills and rich emotional lives of our most ancient ancestors. +Our powerful reaction to images, to the expression of emotion in art, to the beauty of music, to the night sky, will be with us and our descendants for as long as the human race exists. +Thank you. +Mountain biking in Israel is something that I do with great passion and commitment. +And when I'm on my bike, I feel that I connect with the profound beauty of Israel, and I feel that I'm united with this country's history and biblical law. +And also, for me, biking is a matter of empowerment. +When I reach the summit of a steep mountain in the middle of nowhere, I feel young, invincible, eternal. +It's as if I'm connecting with some legacy or with some energy far greater than myself. +You can see my fellow riders at the end of the picture, looking at me with some concern. +And here is another picture of them. +Unfortunately, I cannot show their faces, neither can I disclose their true names, and that's because my fellow riders are juvenile inmates, offenders spending time in a correction facility about 20 minutes' ride from here -- well, like everything in Israel. +And I've been riding with these kids once a week, every Tuesday, rain or shine, for the last four years and by now, they've become a very big part of my life. +This story began four years ago. +The correction facility where they are locked up happens to be right in the middle of one of my usual trips, and it's surrounded by barbed wires and electric gates and armed guards. +So on one of these rides, I talked my way into the compound and went to see the warden. +I told the warden that I wanted to start a mountain biking club in this place and that basically I wanted to take the kids from here to there. +And I told him, "Let's find a way in which I'll be able to take out 10 kids once a week to ride with in the summer in the country." +And the warden was quite amused, and he told me he thought that I was a nut and he told me, "This place is a correction facility. These guys are serious offenders. +They are supposed to be locked up. +They aren't supposed to be out at large." +And yet, we began to talk about it, and one thing led to another. +And I can't see myself going into a state prison in New Jersey and making such a proposition, but this being Israel, the warden somehow made it happen. +And so two months later, we found ourselves "at large" -- myself, 10 juvenile inmates and a wonderful fellow named Russ, who became a very good friend of mine and my partner in this project. +In spite of all this splendor, the beginning was extremely frustrating. +Every small obstacle, every slight uphill, would cause these fellows to stop in their tracks and give up. +So we had a lot of this going on. +I found out that they had a very hard time dealing with frustration and difficulties -- not because they were physically unfit. +But that's one reason why they ended up where they were. +And I became increasingly more and more agitated, because I was there not only to be with them, but also to ride and create a team and I didn't know what to do. +Now, let me give you an example. +We're going downhill in some rocky terrain, and the front tire of Alex gets caught in one of these crevasses here. +So he crashes down, and he gets slightly injured, but this does not prevent him from jumping up and then starting to jump up and down on his bike and curse violently. +Then he throws his helmet in the air. +His backpack goes ballistic in some other direction. +And then he runs to the nearest tree and starts to break branches and throw rocks and curse like I've never heard. +And I'm just standing there, watching this scene with a complete disbelief, not knowing what to do. +I'm used to algorithms and data structures and super motivated students, and nothing in my background prepared me to deal with a raging, violent adolescent in the middle of nowhere. +And you have to realize that these incidents did not happen in convenient locations. +They happened in places like this, in the Judean Desert, 20 kilometers away from the nearest road. +And what you don't see in this picture is that somewhere between these riders there, there's a teenager sitting on a rock, saying, "I'm not moving from here. Forget it. +I've had it." +Well, that's a problem because one way or another, you have to get this guy moving because it's getting dark soon and dangerous. +It took me several such incidents to figure out what I was supposed to do. +At the beginning, it was a disaster. +I tried harsh words and threats and they took me nowhere. +That's what they had all their lives. +And at some point I found out, when a kid like this gets into a fit, the best thing that you can possibly do is stay as close as possible to this kid, which is difficult, because what you really want to do is go away. +But that's what he had all his life, people walking away from him. +So what you have to do is stay close and try to reach in and pet his shoulder or give him a piece of chocolate. +So I would say, "Alex, I know that it's terribly difficult. +Why don't you rest for a few minutes and then we'll go on." +"Go away you maniac-psychopath. +Why would you bring us to this goddamn place?" +And I would say, "Relax, Alex. +Here's a piece of chocolate." +And Alex would go, "Arrrrggg!" +Because you have to understand that on these rides we are constantly hungry -- and after the rides also. +And who is this guy, Alex, to begin with? +He's a 17-year-old. +When he was eight, someone put him on a boat in Odessa and sent him, shipped him to Israel on his own. +And he ended up in south Tel Aviv and did not have the good luck to be picked up by a [unclear] and roamed the streets and became a prominent gang member. +And he spent the last 10 years of his life in two places only, the slums and the state prison, where he spent the last two years before he ended up sitting on this rock there. +And so this kid was probably abused, abandoned, ignored, betrayed by almost every adult along the way. +So, for such a kid, when an adult that he learns to respect stays close to him and doesn't walk away from him in any situation, irrespective of how he behaves, it's a tremendous healing experience. +It's an act of unconditional acceptance, something that he never had. +I want to say a few words about vision. +When I started this program four years ago, I had this original plan of creating a team of winning underdogs. +I had an image of Lance Armstrong in my mind. +And it took me exactly two months of complete frustration to realize that this vision was misplaced, and that there was another vision supremely more important and more readily available. +It all of a sudden dawned on me, in this project, that the purpose of these rides should actually be to expose the kids to one thing only: love. +Love to the country, to the uphill and the downhill, to all the incredible creatures that surround us -- the animals, the plants, the insects -- love and respect to other fellow members in your team, in your biking team, and most importantly, love and respect to yourself, which is something that they badly miss. +Together with the kids, I also went through a remarkable transformation. +Now, I come from a cutthroat world of science and high technology. +I used to think that reason and logic and relentless drive were the only ways to make things happen. +All you have to do is play with it, change it a little bit, and come up with something that does help, that does work. +So right now, I feel more like these are my principles, and if you don't like them, I have others. +And one of these principles is focus. +Before each ride we sit together with the kids, and we give them one word to think about during the ride. +You have to focus their attention on something because so many things happen. +So these are words like "teamwork" or "endurance" or even complicated concepts like "resource allocation" or "perspective," a word that they don't understand. +You know, perspective is one of these critically important life-coping strategies that mountain biking can really teach you. +I tell kids when they struggle through some uphill and feel like they cannot take it anymore, it really helps to ignore the immediate obstacles and raise your head and look around and see how the vista around you grows. +It literally propels you upwards. +That's what perspective is all about. +Or you can also look back in time and realize that you've already conquered steeper mountains before. +And that's how they develop self-esteem. +Now, let me give you an example of how it works. +You stand with your bike at the beginning of February. +It's very cold, and you're standing in one of these rainy days, and it's drizzling and cold and chilly, and you're standing in, let's say, Yokneam. +And you look up at the sky through a hole in the clouds you see the monastery at the top of the Muhraka -- that's where you're supposed to climb now -- and you say, "There's no way that I could possibly get there." +And yet, two hours later you find yourself standing on the roof of this monastery, smeared with mud, blood and sweat. +And you look down at Yokneam; everything is so small and tiny. +And you say, "Hey, Alex. Look at this parking lot where we started. +It's that big. +I can't believe that I did it." +And that's the point when you start loving yourself. +And so we talked about these special words that we teach them. +And at the end of each ride, we sit together and share moments in which those special words of the day popped up and made a difference, and these discussions can be extremely inspiring. +In one of them, one of the kids once said, "When we were riding on this ridge overlooking the Dead Sea -- and he's talking about this spot here -- "I was reminded of the day when I left my village in Ethiopia and went away together with my brother. +We walked 120 kilometers until we reached Sudan. +This was the first place where we got some water and supplies." +And he goes on saying, and everyone looks at him like a hero, probably for the first time in his life. +And he says -- because I also have volunteers riding with me, adults, who are sitting there listening to him -- and he says, "And this was just the beginning of our ordeal until we ended up in Israel. +And only now," he says, "I'm beginning to understand where I am, and I actually like it." +Now I remember, when he said it, I felt goosebumps on my body, because he said it overlooking the Moab Mountains here in the background. +That's where Joshua descended and crossed the Jordan and led the people of Israel into the land of Canaan 3,000 years ago in this final leg of the journey from Africa. +And so, perspective and context and history play key roles in the way I plan my rides with the kids. +We visit Kibbutzim that were established by Holocaust survivors. +We explore ruins of Palestinian villages, and we discuss how they became ruins. +And we go through numerous remnants of Jewish settlements, Nabatic settlements, Canaanite settlements -- three-, four, five-thousand years old. +And through this tapestry, which is the history of this country, the kids acquire what is probably the most important value in education, and that is the understanding that life is complex, and there's no black and white. +And by appreciating complexity, they become more tolerant, and tolerance leads to hope. +I ride with these kids once a week, every Tuesday. +Here's a picture I took last Tuesday -- less than a week ago -- and I ride with them tomorrow also. +In every one of these rides I always end up standing in one of these incredible locations, taking in this incredible landscape around me, and I feel blessed and fortunate that I'm alive, and that I sense every fiber in my aching body. +And I feel blessed and fortunate that 15 years ago I had the courage to resign my tenured position at NYU and return to my home country where I can do these incredible rides with this group of troubled kids coming from Ethiopia and Morocco and Russia. +And I feel blessed and fortunate that every week, every Tuesday -- and actually every Friday also -- I can once again celebrate in the marrow of my bones the very essence of living in Israel on the edge. +Thank you. +I grew up in a very small village in Canada, and I'm an undiagnosed dyslexic. +I had a really hard time in school. +In fact, my mother told me eventually that I was the little kid in the village who cried all the way to school. +I ran away. +I left when I was 25 years old to go to Bali, and there I met my incredible wife, Cynthia, and together, over 20 years, we built an amazing jewelry business. +It was a fairy tale, and then we retired. +Then she took me to see a film that I really didn't want to see. +It ruined my life -- "The Inconvenient Truth" and Mr. Gore. +I have four kids, and even if part of what he says is true, they're not going to have the life that I had. +And I decided at that moment that I would spend the rest of my life doing whatever I could to improve their possibilities. +So here's the world, and here we are in Bali. +It's a tiny, little island -- 60 miles by 90 miles. +It has an intact Hindu culture. +Cynthia and I were there. +We had had a wonderful life there, and we decided to do something unusual. +We decided to give back locally. +And here it is: it's called the Green School. +I know it doesn't look like a school, but it is something we decided to do, and it is extremely, extremely green. +The classrooms have no walls. +The teacher is writing on a bamboo blackboard. +The desks are not square. +At Green School, the children are smiling -- an unusual thing for school, especially for me. +And we practice holism. +And for me it's just the idea that, if this little girl graduates as a whole person, chances are she'll demand a whole world -- a whole world -- to live on. +Our children spend 181 days going to school in a box. +The people that built my school also built the prison and the insane asylum out of the same materials. +So if this gentleman had had a holistic education, would he be sitting there? +Would he have had more possibilities in his life? +The classrooms have natural light. +They're beautiful. They're bamboo. +The breeze passes through them. +And when the natural breeze isn't enough, the kids deploy bubbles, but not the kind of bubbles you know. +These bubbles are made from natural cotton and rubber from the rubber tree. +So we basically turned the box into a bubble. +And these kids know that painless climate control may not be part of their future. +We pay the bill at the end of the month, but the people that are really going to pay the bill are our grandchildren. +We have to teach the kids that the world is not indestructible. +These kids did a little graffiti on their desks, and then they signed up for two extra courses. +The first one was called sanding and the second one was called re-waxing. +But since that happened, they own those desks. +They know they can control their world. +We're on the grid. We're not proud of it. +But an amazing alternative energy company in Paris is taking us off the grid with solar. +And this thing is the second vortex to be built in the world, in a two-and-a-half meter drop on a river. +When the turbine drops in, it will produce 8,000 watts of electricity, day and night. +And you know what these are. +There's nowhere to flush. +And as long as we're taking our waste and mixing it with a huge amount of water -- you're all really smart, just do the math. +How many people times how much water. +There isn't enough water. +These are compost toilets, and nobody at the school wanted to know about them, especially the principal. +And they work. People use them. People are okay. +It's something you should think about doing. +Not many things didn't work. +The beautiful canvas and rubber skylights got eaten by the sun in six months. +We had to replace them with recyclable plastic. +The teachers dragged giant PVC whiteboards into the classrooms. +So we had some good ideas: we took old automobile windshields, put paper behind them and created the first alternative to the whiteboard. +Green School sits in south-central Bali, and it's on 20 acres of rolling garden. +There's an amazing river traveling through it, and you can see there how we manage to get across the river. +I met a father the other day; he looked a little crazed. +I said, "Welcome to Green School." +He said, "I've been on an airplane for 24 hours." +I asked him, "Why?" +He said, "I had a dream once about a green school, and I saw a picture of this green school, I got on an airplane. +In August I'm bringing my sons." +This was a great thing. +But more than that, people are building green houses around Green School, so their kids can walk to school on the paths. +And people are bringing their green industries, hopefully their green restaurants, to the Green School. +It's becoming a community. +It's becoming a green model. +We had to look at everything. +No petrochemicals in the pavement. +No pavement. +These are volcanic stones laid by hand. +There are no sidewalks. +The sidewalks are gravel. They flood when it rains, but they're green. +This is the school buffalo. +He's planning to eat that fence for dinner. +All the fences at Green School are green. +And when the kindergarten kids recently moved their gate, they found out the fence was made out of tapioca. +They took the tapioca roots up to the kitchen, sliced them thinly and made delicious chips. +Landscaping. +We manage to keep the garden that was there running right up to the edge of each of the classrooms. +We dropped them gently in. +We made space for these guys who are Bali's last black pigs. +And the school cow is trying to figure out how to replace the lawnmower on the playing field. +These young ladies are living in a rice culture, but they know something that few people know in a rice culture. +They know how to plant organic rice, they know how to look after it, they know how to harvest and they know how to cook it. +They're part of the rice cycle and these skills will be valuable for them in their future. +This young man is picking organic vegetables. +We feed 400 people lunch every day and it's not a normal lunch. There's no gas. +Local Balinese women cook the food on sawdust burners using secrets that only their grandmothers know. +The food is incredible. +Green School is a place of pioneers, local and global. +And it's a kind of microcosm of the globalized world. +The kids are from 25 countries. +When I see them together, I know that they're working out how to live in the future. +Green School is going into its third year with 160 children. +It's a school where you do learn reading -- one of my favorites -- writing -- I was bad at it -- arithmetic. +But you also learn other things. +You learn bamboo building. +You practice ancient Balinese arts. +This is called mud wrestling in the rice fields. +The kids love it. +The mothers aren't quite convinced. +and we said, okay, local, what does "local" mean? +Local means that 20 percent of the population of the school has to be Balinese, and this was a really big commitment. +And we were right. +And people are coming forward from all over the world to support the Balinese Scholarship Fund, because these kids will be Bali's next green leaders. +The teachers are as diverse as the student body, and the amazing thing is that volunteers are popping up. +A man came from Java with a new kind of organic agriculture. +A woman came from Africa with music. +And together these volunteers and the teachers are deeply committed to creating a new generation of global, green leaders. +The Green School effect -- we don't know what it is. +We need someone to come and study it. +But what's happening, our learning-different kids -- dyslexic -- we've renamed them prolexic -- are doing well in these beautiful, beautiful classrooms. +And all the kids are thriving. +And how did we do all this? +On giant grass. +It's bamboo. +It comes out of the ground like a train. +It grows as high as a coconut tree in two months and three years later it can be harvested to build buildings like this. +It's as strong and dense as teak and it will hold up any roof. +When the architects came, they brought us these things, and you've probably seen things like this. +The yellow box was called the administration complex. +We squashed it, we rethought it, but mainly we renamed it "the heart of school," and that changed everything forever. +It's a double helix. +It has administrators in it and many, many other things. +And the problem of building it -- when the Balinese workers saw long reams of plans, they looked at them and said, "What's this?" +So we built big models. +We had them engineered by the engineers. +And Balinese carpenters like this measured them with their bamboo rulers, selected the bamboo and built the buildings using age-old techniques, mostly by hand. +It was chaos. +And the Balinese carpenters want to be as modern as we do, so they use metal scaffolding to build the bamboo building and when the scaffolding came down, we realized that we had a cathedral, a cathedral to green, and a cathedral to green education. +The heart of school has seven kilometers of bamboo in it. +From the time the foundations were finished, in three months it had roofs and floors. +It may not be the biggest bamboo building in the world, but many people believe that it's the most beautiful. +Is this doable in your community? +We believe it is. +Green School is a model we built for the world. +It's a model we built for Bali. +And you just have to follow these simple, simple rules: be local, let the environment lead and think about how your grandchildren might build. +So, Mr. Gore, thank you. +You ruined my life, but you gave me an incredible future. +And if you're interested in being involved in finishing Green School and building the next 50 around the world, please come and see us. +Thank you. +Today I'm going to take you on a voyage to some place so deep, so dark, so unexplored that we know less about it than we know about the dark side of the moon. +It's a place of myth and legend. +It's a place marked on ancient maps as "here be monsters." +It is a place where each new voyage of exploration brings back new discoveries of creatures so wondrous and strange that our forefathers would have considered them monstrous indeed. +Instead, they just make me green with envy that my colleague from IUCN was able to go on this journey to the south of Madagascar seamounts to actually take photographs and to see these wondrous creatures of the deep. +We are talking about the high seas. +The "high seas" is a legal term, but in fact, it covers 50 percent of the planet. +With an average depth of the oceans of 4,000 meters, in fact, the high seas covers and provides nearly 90 percent of the habitat for life on this Earth. +It is, in theory, the global commons, belonging to us all. +But in reality, it is managed by and for those who have the resources to go out and exploit it. +So today I'm going to take you on a voyage to cast light on some of the outdated myths and legends and assumptions that have kept us as the true stakeholders in the high seas in the dark. +We're going to voyage to some of these special places that we've been discovering in the past few years to show why we really need to care. +And then finally, we're going to try to develop and pioneer a new perspective on high seas governance that's rooted in ocean-basin-wide conservation, but framed in an arena of global norms of precaution and respect. +So here is a picture of the high seas as seen from above -- that area in the darker blue. +To me, as an international lawyer, this scared me far more than any of the creatures or the monsters we may have seen, for it belies the notion that you can actually protect the ocean, the global ocean, that provides us all with carbon storage, with heat storage, with oxygen, if you can only protect 36 percent. +This is indeed the true heart of the planet. +Some of the problems that we have to confront are that the current international laws -- for example, shipping -- provide more protection to the areas closest to shore. +For example, garbage discharge, something you would think just simply goes away, but the laws regulating ship discharge of garbage actually get weaker the further you are from shore. +As a result, we have garbage patches the size of twice-Texas. +It's unbelievable. +We used to think the solution to pollution was dilution, but that has proved to be no longer the case. +So what we have learned from social scientists and economists like Elinor Ostrom, who are studying the phenomenon of management of the commons on a local scale, is that there are certain prerequisites that you can put into place that enable you to manage and access open space for the good of one and all. +And these include a sense of shared responsibility, common norms that bind people together as a community. +Conditional access: You can invite people in, but they have to be able to play by the rules. +And of course, if you want people to play by the rules, you still need an effective system of monitoring and enforcement, for as we've discovered, you can trust, but you also need to verify. +What I'd also like to convey is that it is not all doom and gloom that we are seeing in the high seas. +For a group of very dedicated individuals -- scientists, conservationists, photographers and states -- were able to actually change a tragic trajectory that was destroying fragile seascapes such as this coral garden that you see in front of you. +That is, we're able to save it from a fate of deep-sea bottom trawling. +And how did we do that? +Well, as I said, we had a group of photographers that went out on board ships and actually photographed the activities in process. +But we also spent many hours in the basements of the United Nations, trying to work with governments to make them understand what was going on so far away from land that few of us had ever even imagined that these creatures existed. +So within three years, from 2003 to 2006, we were able to get norm in place that actually changed the paradigm of how fishers went about deep-sea bottom trawling. +Instead of "go anywhere, do anything you want," we actually created a regime that required prior assessment of where you're going and a duty to prevent significant harm. +In 2009, when the U.N. reviewed progress, they discovered that almost 100 million square-kilometers of seabed had been protected. +This does not mean that it's the final solution, or that this even provides permanent protection. +But what it does mean is that a group of individuals can form a community to actually shape the way high seas are governed, to create a new regime. +So I'm looking optimistically at our opportunities for creating a true, blue perspective for this beautiful planet. +Today, we're just going to voyage to a small sampling of some of these special areas, just to give you an idea of the flavor of the riches and wonders they do contain. +The Sargasso Sea, for example, is not a sea bounded by coastlines, but it is bounded by oceanic currents that contain and envelope this wealth of sargassum that grows and aggregates there. +It's also known as the spawning ground for eels from Northern European and Northern American rivers that are now so dwindling in numbers that they've actually stopped showing up in Stockholm, and five showed up in the U.K. just recently. +But the Sargasso Sea, the same way it aggregates sargassum weed, actually is pulling in the plastic from throughout the region. +This picture doesn't exactly show the plastics that I would like it to show, because I haven't been out there myself. +But there has just been a study that was released in February that showed there are 200,000 pieces of plastic per square-kilometer now floating in the surface of the Sargasso Sea, and that is affecting the habitat for the many species in their juvenile stages who come to the Sargasso Sea for its protection and its food. +The Sargasso Sea is also a wondrous place for the aggregation of these unique species that have developed to mimic the sargassum habitat. +It also provides a special habitat for these flying fish to lay their eggs. +But what I'd like to get from this picture is that we truly do have an opportunity to launch a global initiative for protection. +Thus, the government of Bermuda has recognized the need and its responsibility as having some of the Sargasso Sea within its national jurisdiction -- but the vast majority is beyond -- to help spearhead a movement to achieve protection for this vital area. +Spinning down to someplace a little bit cooler than here right now: the Ross Sea in the Southern Ocean. +It's actually a bay. +It's considered high seas, because the continent has been put off limits to territorial claims. +So anything in the water is treated as if it's the high seas. +But what makes the Ross Sea important is the vast sea of pack ice that in the spring and summer provides a wealth of phytoplankton and krill that supports what, till recently, has been a virtually intact near-shore ecosystem. +But unfortunately, CCAMLR, the regional commission in charge of conserving and managing fish stocks and other living marine resources, is unfortunately starting to give in to fishing interests and has authorized the expansion of toothfish fisheries in the region. +The captain of a New Zealand vessel who was just down there is reporting a significant decline in the number of the Ross Sea killer whales, who are directly dependent on the Antarctic toothfish as their main source of food. +Coming closer to here, the Costa Rica Dome is a recently discovered area -- potentially year-round habitat for blue whales. +There's enough food there to last them the summer and the winter long. +But what's unusual about the Costa Rica Dome is, in fact, it's not a permanent place. +It's an oceanographic phenomenon that shifts in time and space on a seasonal basis. +So, in fact, it's not permanently in the high seas. +It's not permanently in the exclusive economic zones of these five Central American countries, but it moves with the season. +As such, it does create a challenge to protect, but we also have a challenge protecting the species that move along with it. +We can use the same technologies that fishers use to identify where the species are, in order to close the area when it's most vulnerable, which may, in some cases, be year-round. +Getting closer to shore, where we are, this was in fact taken in the Galapagos. +Many species are headed through this region, which is why there's been so much attention put into conservation of the Eastern Tropical Pacific Seascape. +This is the initiative that's been coordinated by Conservation International with a variety of partners and governments to actually try to bring integrated management regime throughout the area. +That is, it provides a wonderful example of where you can go with a real regional initiative. +It's protecting five World Heritage sites. +Unfortunately, the World Heritage Convention does not recognize the need to protect areas beyond national jurisdiction, at present. +So a place like the Costa Rica Dome could not technically qualify the time it's in the high seas. +So what we've been suggesting is that we either need to amend the World Heritage Convention, so that it can adopt and urge universal protection of these World Heritage sites, or we need to change the name and call it Half-the-World Heritage Convention. +But what we also know is that species like these sea turtles do not stay put in the Eastern Tropical Pacific Seascape. +These happen to go down to a vast South Pacific Gyre, where they spend most of their time and often end up getting hooked like this, or as bycatch. +So what I'd really like to suggest is that we need to scale-up. +We need to work locally, but we also need to work ocean-basin-wide. +We have the tools and technologies now to enable us to take a broader ocean-basin-wide initiative. +We've heard about the Tagging of Pacific Predators project, one of the 17 Census of Marine Life projects. +It's provided us data like this, of tiny, little sooty shearwaters that make the entire ocean basin their home. +They fly 65,000 kilometers in less than a year. +So we have the tools and treasures coming from the Census of Marine Life. +And its culminating year that's going to be launched in October. +So stay tuned for further information. +What I find so exciting is that the Census of Marine Life has looked at more than the tagging of pacific predators; it's also looked in the really unexplored mid-water column, where creatures like this flying sea cucumber have been found. +And fortunately, we've been able, as IUCN, to team up with the Census of Marine Life and many of the scientists working there to actually try to translate much of this information to policymakers. +We have the support of governments now behind us. +We've been revealing this information through technical workshops. +And the exciting thing is that we do have sufficient information to move ahead to protect some of these significant hope spots, hotspots. +At the same time we're saying, "Yes, we need more. We need to move forward." +But many of you have said, if you get these marine protected areas, or a reasonable regime for high seas fisheries management in place, how are you going to enforce it? +Which leads me to my second passion besides ocean science, which is outer space technology. +I wanted to be an astronaut, so I've constantly followed what are the tools available to monitor Earth from outer space -- and that we have incredible tools like we've been learning about, in terms of being able to follow tagged species throughout their life-cycles in the open ocean. +We can also tag and track fishing vessels. +Many already have transponders on board that allow us to find out where they are and even what they're doing. +But not all the vessels have those to date. +It does not take too much rocket science to actually try to create new laws to mandate, if you're going to have the privilege of accessing our high seas resources, we need to know -- someone needs to know -- where you are and what you're doing. +So it brings me to my main take-home message, which is we can avert a tragedy of the commons. +We can stop the collision course of 50 percent of the planet with the high seas. +But we need to think broad-scale. We need to think globally. +We need to change how we actually go about managing these resources. +We need to get the new paradigm of precaution and respect. +And third is that we need to look at ocean-basin-wide management. +Our species are ocean-basin-wide. +Many of the deep-sea communities have genetic distribution that goes ocean-basin-wide. +We need to better understand, but we also need to start to manage and protect. +And in order to do that, you also need ocean-basin management regimes. +That is, we have regional management regimes within the exclusive economic zone, but we need to scale these up, we need to build their capacity, so they're like the Southern Ocean, where they do have the two-pronged fisheries and conservation organization. +So with that, I would just like to sincerely thank and honor Sylvia Earle for her wish, for it is helping us to put a face on the high seas and the deep seas beyond national jurisdiction. +It's helping to bring an incredible group of talented people together to really try to solve and penetrate these problems that have created our obstacles to management and rational use of this area that was once so far away and remote. +So on this tour, I hope I provided you with a new perspective of the high seas: one, that it is our home too, and that we need to work together if we are to make this a sustainable ocean future for us all. +Thank you. +So, a funny thing happened on my way to becoming a brilliant, world-class neuropsychologist: I had a baby. +And that's not to say I ever went on to become a brilliant, world-class neuropsychologist. +Sorry, TED. +But I did go on to be a reasonably astute, arguably world-class worrier. +One of my girlfriends in graduate school, Marie, said, "Kim, I figured it out. +It's not that you're more neurotic than everyone else; it's just that you're more honest about how neurotic you are." +So in the spirit of full disclosure, I brought some pictures to share. +Awwww. +I'll just say, July. +Zzzzzzip for safety. +Water wings -- an inch of water. +And then, finally, all suited up for the 90-minute drive to Copper Mountain. +So you can get kind of a feel for this. +So my baby, Vander, is eight years old now. +And, despite being cursed with my athletic inability, he plays soccer. +He's interested in playing football. +He wants to learn how to ride a unicycle. +So why would I worry? +Because this is what I do. This is what I teach. +It's what I study. It's what I treat. +And I know that kids get concussed every year. +In fact, more than four million people sustain a concussion every year, and these data are just among kids under 14 who were seen in emergency rooms. +And so when kids sustain a concussion, we talk about them getting dinged or getting their bell rung, but what is it that we're really talking about? +Let's take a look. +All right. "Starsky and Hutch," arguably, yes. +So a car accident. +Forty miles an hour into a fixed barrier -- 35 Gs. +A heavy weight boxer punches you straight in the face -- 58 Gs. +In case you missed it, we'll look again. +So look to the right-hand side of the screen. +What would you say? +How many Gs? +Close. +Seventy-two. +Would it be crazy to know, 103 Gs. +The average concussive impact is 95 Gs. +Now, when the kid on the right doesn't get up, we know they've had a concussion. +But how about the kid on the left, or the athlete that leaves the field of play? +How do we know if he or she has sustained a concussion? +How do we know that legislation that would require that they be pulled from play, cleared for return to play, applies to them? +The definition of concussion doesn't actually require a loss of consciousness. +It requires only a change in consciousness, and that can be any one of a number of symptoms, including feeling foggy, feeling dizzy, hearing a ringing in your ear, being more impulsive or hostile than usual. +So given all of that and given how darn neurotic I am, how do I get any sleep at all? +Because I know our brains are resilient. +They're designed to recover from an injury. +If, God forbid, any of us left here tonight and sustained a concussion, most of us would go on to fully recover inside of a couple hours to a couple of weeks. +But kids are more vulnerable to brain injury. +In fact, high school athletes are three times more likely to sustain catastrophic injuries relative even to their college-age peers, and it takes them longer to return to a symptom-free baseline. +After that first injury, their risk for second injury is exponentially greater. +From there, their risk for a third injury, greater still, and so on. +And here's the really alarming part: we don't fully understand the long-term impact of multiple injuries. +You guys may be familiar with this research that's coming out of the NFL. +In a nutshell, this research suggests that among retired NFL players with three or more career concussions, the incidents of early-onset dementing disease is much greater than it is for the general population. +So you've all seen that -- New York Times, you've seen it. +What you may not be familiar with is that this research was spearheaded by NFL wives who said, "Isn't it weird that my 46-year-old husband is forever losing his keys? +Isn't it weird that my 47-year-old husband is forever losing the car? +Isn't it weird that my 48-year-old husband is forever losing his way home in the car, from the driveway?" +So I may have forgotten to mention that my son is an only child. +So it's going to be really important that he be able to drive me around some day. +So how do we guarantee the safety of our kids? +How can we 100 percent guarantee the safety of our kids? +Let me tell you what I've come up with. +If only. +My little boy's right there, and he's like, "She's not kidding. +She's totally not kidding." +So in all seriousness, should my kid play football? +Should your kid play football? I don't know. +But I do know there are three things you can do. +The first: study up. +You have to be familiar with the issues we're talking about today. +There are some great resources out there. +The CDC has a program, Heads Up. +It's at CDC.gov. +Heads Up is specific to concussion in kids. +The second is a resource I'm personally really proud of. +We've just rolled this out in the last couple months -- CO Kids With Brain Injury. +This is a great resource for student athletes, teachers, parents, professionals, athletic and coaching staff. +It's a great place to start if you have questions. +The second thing is: speak up. +Just two weeks ago, a bill introduced by Senator Kefalas that would have required athletes, kids under 18, to wear a helmet when they're riding their bike died in committee. +It died in large part because it lacked constituent buy-in; it lacked stakeholder traction. +Now I'm not here to tell you what kind of legislation you should or shouldn't support, but I am going to tell you that, if it matters to you, your legislators need to know that. +Speak up also with coaching staff. +Ask about what kind of protective equipment is available. +What's the budget for protective equipment? +How old it is? +Maybe offer to spearhead a fundraiser to buy new gear -- which brings us to suit up. +Wear a helmet. +The only way to prevent a bad outcome is to prevent that first injury from happening. +Recently, one of my graduate students, Tom said, "Kim, I've decided to wear a bike helmet on my way to class." +And Tom knows that that little bit of foam in a bike helmet can reduce the G-force of impact by half. +Now I thought that it was because I have this totally compelling helmet crusade, right, this epiphany of Tom's. +As it turns out, it occurred to Tom that a $20 helmet is a good way to protect a $100,000 graduate education. +So, should Vander play football? +I can't say no, but I can guarantee that every time he leaves the house that kid's wearing a helmet -- like to the car, or at school. +So whether athlete, scholar, over-protected kid, neurotic mom, or otherwise, here's my baby, Vander, reminding you to mind your matter. +Thank you. +I woke up in the middle of the night with the sound of heavy explosion. +It was deep at night. +I do not remember what time it was. +I just remember the sound was so heavy and so very shocking. +Everything in my room was shaking -- my heart, my windows, my bed, everything. +I looked out the windows and I saw a full half-circle of explosion. +I thought it was just like the movies, but the movies had not conveyed them in the powerful image that I was seeing full of bright red and orange and gray, and a full circle of explosion. +And I kept on staring at it until it disappeared. +I went back to my bed, and I prayed, and I secretly thanked God that that missile did not land on my family's home, that it did not kill my family that night. +Thirty years have passed, and I still feel guilty about that prayer, for the next day, I learned that that missile landed on my brother's friend's home and killed him and his father, but did not kill his mother or his sister. +His mother showed up the next week at my brother's classroom and begged seven-year-old kids to share with her any picture they may have of her son, for she had lost everything. +This is not a story of a nameless survivor of war, and nameless refugees, whose stereotypical images we see in our newspapers and our TV with tattered clothes, dirty face, scared eyes. +This is not a story of a nameless someone who lived in some war, who we do not know their hopes, their dreams, their accomplishments, their families, their beliefs, their values. +This is my story. +I was that girl. +I am another image and vision of another survivor of war. +I am that refugee, and I am that girl. +You see, I grew up in war-torn Iraq, and I believe that there are two sides of wars and we've only seen one side of it. +We only talk about one side of it. +But there's another side that I have witnessed as someone who lived in it and someone who ended up working in it. +I grew up with the colors of war -- the red colors of fire and blood, the brown tones of earth as it explodes in our faces and the piercing silver of an exploded missile, so bright that nothing can protect your eyes from it. +I grew up with the sounds of war -- the staccato sounds of gunfire, the wrenching booms of explosions, ominous drones of jets flying overhead and the wailing warning sounds of sirens. +These are the sounds you would expect, but they are also the sounds of dissonant concerts of a flock of birds screeching in the night, the high-pitched honest cries of children and the thunderous, unbearable silence. +"War," a friend of mine said, "is not about sound at all. +It is actually about silence, the silence of humanity." +I have since left Iraq and founded a group called Women for Women International that ends up working with women survivors of wars. +In my travels and in my work, from Congo to Afghanistan, from Sudan to Rwanda, I have learned not only that the colors and the sounds of war are the same, but the fears of war are the same. +You know, there is a fear of dying, and do not believe any movie character where the hero is not afraid. +It is very scary to go through that feeling of "I am about to die" or "I could die in this explosion." +But there's also the fear of losing loved ones, and I think that's even worse. +It's too painful. You don't want to think about it. +But I think the worst kind of fear is the fear -- as Samia, a Bosnian woman, once told me, who survived the four-years besiege of Sarajevo; she said, "The fear of losing the 'I' in me, the fear of losing the 'I' in me." +That's what my mother in Iraq used to tell me. +It's like dying from inside-out. +A Palestinian woman once told me, "It is not about the fear of one death," she said, "sometimes I feel I die 10 times in one day," as she was describing the marches of soldiers and the sounds of their bullets. +She said, "But it's not fair, because there is only one life, and there should only be one death." +We have been only seeing one side of war. +We have only been discussing and consumed with high-level preoccupations over troop levels, drawdown timelines, surges and sting operations, when we should be examining the details of where the social fabric has been most torn, where the community has improvised and survived and shown acts of resilience and amazing courage just to keep life going. +We have been so consumed with seemingly objective discussions of politics, tactics, weapons, dollars and casualties. +This is the language of sterility. +How casually we treat casualties in the context of this topic. +This is where we conceive of rape and casualties as inevitabilities. +Eighty percent of refugees around the world are women and children. Oh. +Ninety percent of modern war casualties are civilians. +Seventy-five percent of them are women and children. +How interesting. +Oh, half a million women in Rwanda get raped in 100 days. +Or, as we speak now, hundreds of thousands of Congolese women are getting raped and mutilated. +How interesting. +These just become numbers that we refer to. +The front of wars is increasingly non-human eyes peering down on our perceived enemies from space, guiding missiles toward unseen targets, while the human conduct of the orchestra of media relations in the event that this particular drone attack hits a villager instead of an extremist. +It is a chess game. +You learn to play an international relations school on your way out and up to national and international leadership. +Checkmate. +We are missing a completely other side of wars. +We are missing my mother's story, who made sure with every siren, with every raid, with every cut off-of electricity, she played puppet shows for my brothers and I, so we would not be scared of the sounds of explosions. +That was her fight. +That was her resistance. +We are missing the story of Nehia, a Palestinian woman in Gaza who, the minute there was a cease-fire in the last year's war, she left out of home, collected all the flour and baked as much bread for every neighbor to have, in case there is no cease-fire the day after. +We are missing the stories of Violet, who, despite surviving genocide in the church massacre, she kept on going on, burying bodies, cleaning homes, cleaning the streets. +We are missing stories of women who are literally keeping life going in the midst of wars. +Do you know -- do you know that people fall in love in war and go to school and go to factories and hospitals and get divorced and go dancing and go playing and live life going? +And the ones who are keeping that life are women. +There are two sides of war. +There is a side that fights, and there is a side that keeps the schools and the factories and the hospitals open. +There is a side that is focused on winning battles, and there is a side that is focused on winning life. +There is a side that leads the front-line discussion, and there is a side that leads the back-line discussion. +There is a side that thinks that peace is the end of fighting, and there is a side that thinks that peace is the arrival of schools and jobs. +There is a side that is led by men, and there is a side that is led by women. +And in order for us to understand how do we build lasting peace, we must understand war and peace from both sides. +We must have a full picture of what that means. +In order for us to understand what actually peace means, we need to understand, as one Sudanese woman once told me, "Peace is the fact that my toenails are growing back again." +She grew up in Sudan, in Southern Sudan, for 20 years of war, where it killed one million people and displaced five million refugees. +Many women were taken as slaves by rebels and soldiers, as sexual slaves who were forced also to carry the ammunition and the water and the food for the soldiers. +So that woman walked for 20 years, so she would not be kidnapped again. +And only when there was some sort of peace, her toenails grew back again. +We need to understand peace from a toenail's perspective. +We need to understand that we cannot actually have negotiations of ending of wars or peace without fully including women at the negotiating table. +I find it amazing that the only group of people who are not fighting and not killing and not pillaging and not burning and not raping, and the group of people who are mostly -- though not exclusively -- who are keeping life going in the midst of war, are not included in the negotiating table. +And I do argue that women lead the back-line discussion, but there are also men who are excluded from that discussion. +The doctors who are not fighting, the artists, the students, the men who refuse to pick up the guns, they are, too, excluded from the negotiating tables. +There is no way we can talk about a lasting peace, building of democracy, sustainable economies, any kind of stabilities, if we do not fully include women at the negotiating table. +Not one, but 50 percent. +There is no way we can talk about the building of stability if we don't start investing in women and girls. +Did you know that one year of the world's military spending equals 700 years of the U.N. budget and equals 2,928 years of the U.N. budget allocated for women? +If we just reverse that distribution of funds, perhaps we could have a better lasting peace in this world. +And last, but not least, we need to invest in peace and women, not only because it is the right thing to do, not only because it is the right thing to do, for all of us to build sustainable and lasting peace today, but it is for the future. +A Congolese woman, who was telling me about how her children saw their father killed in front of them and saw her raped in front of them and mutilated in front of them, and her children saw their nine-year-old sibling killed in front of them, how they're doing okay right now. +She got into Women for Women International's program. +She got a support network. +She learned about her rights. +We taught her vocational and business skills. We helped her get a job. +She was earning 450 dollars. She was doing okay. +She was sending them to school. Have a new home. +She said, "But what I worry about the most is not any of that. +I worry that my children have hate in their hearts, and when they want to grow up, they want to fight again the killers of their father and their brother." +We need to invest in women, because that's our only chance to ensure that there is no more war in the future. +That mother has a better chance to heal her children than any peace agreement can do. +Are there good news? Of course, there are good news. There are lots of good news. +To start with, these women that I told you about are dancing and singing every single day, and if they can, who are we not to dance? +That girl that I told you about ended up starting Women for Women International Group that impacted one million people, sent 80 million dollars, and I started this from zero, nothing, nada, [unclear]. +They are women who are standing on their feet in spite of their circumstances, not because of it. +Think of how the world can be a much better place if, for a change, we have a better equality, we have equality, we have a representation and we understand war, both from the front-line and the back-line discussion. +Rumi, a 13th-century Sufi poet, says, "Out beyond the worlds of right-doings and wrong-doings, there is a field. +I will meet you there. +When the soul lies down in that grass, the world is too full to talk about. +Ideas, language, even the phrase 'each other' no longer makes any sense." +I humbly add -- humbly add -- that out beyond the worlds of war and peace, there is a field, and there are many women and men [who] are meeting there. +Let us make this field a much bigger place. +Let us all meet in that field. +Thank you. +So I'm going to talk about work; specifically, why people can't seem to get work done at work, which is a problem we all kind of have. +But let's sort of start at the beginning. +So, we have companies and non-profits and charities and all these groups that have employees or volunteers of some sort. +And they expect these people who work for them to do great work -- I would hope, at least. +At least good work, hopefully, at least it's good work -- hopefully great work. +And so what they typically do is they decide that all these people need to come together in one place to do that work. +So a company, or a charity, or an organization of any kind, unless you're working in Africa, if you're really lucky to do that -- most people have to go to an office every day. +And so these companies, they build offices. +They go out and they buy a building, or they rent a building, or they lease some space, and they fill this space with stuff. +They fill it with tables, or desks, chairs, computer equipment, software, Internet access, maybe a fridge, maybe a few other things, and they expect their employees, or their volunteers, to come to that location every day to do great work. +It seems like it's perfectly reasonable to ask that. +However, if you actually talk to people and even question yourself, and you ask yourself, where do you really want to go when you really need to get something done? +You'll find out that people don't say what businesses think they would say. +If you ask people the question: Where do you need to go when you need to get something done? +Typically, you get three different kinds of answers. +One is kind of a place or a location or a room. +Another one is a moving object, and a third is a time. +So here are some examples. +I've been asking people this question for about 10 years: "Where do you go when you really need to get something done?" +I'll hear things like, the porch, the deck, the kitchen. +I'll hear things like an extra room in the house, the basement, the coffee shop, the library. +And then you'll hear things like the train, a plane, a car -- so, the commute. +And then you'll hear people say, "Well, it doesn't really matter where I am, as long as it's early in the morning or late at night or on the weekends." +You almost never hear someone say, "The office." +But businesses are spending all this money on this place called the office, and they're making people go to it all the time, yet people don't do work in the office. +What is that about? +Why is that? Why is that happening? +And what you find out is, if you dig a little bit deeper, you find out that people -- this is what happens: People go to work, and they're basically trading in their work day for a series of "work moments" -- that's what happens at the office. +You don't have a work day anymore. You have work moments. +Then you've got 15 minutes, and someone pulls you aside and asks you a question, and before you know it, it's 5 p.m., and you look back on the day, and you realize that you didn't get anything done. +We've all been through this. +We probably went through it yesterday or the day before, or the day before that. +You look back on your day, and you're like, "I got nothing done today. +I was at work. I sat at my desk. I used my expensive computer. +I used the software they told me to use. +I went to these meetings I was asked to go to. +I did these conference calls. I did all this stuff. +But I didn't actually do anything. +I just did tasks. +I didn't actually get meaningful work done." +And what you find is that, especially with creative people -- designers, programmers, writers, engineers, thinkers -- that people really need long stretches of uninterrupted time You cannot ask somebody to be creative in 15 minutes and really think about a problem. +You might have a quick idea, but to be in deep thought about a problem and really consider a problem carefully, you need long stretches of uninterrupted time. +And even though the work day is typically eight hours, how many people here have ever had eight hours to themselves at the office? +How about seven hours? +Six? Five? Four? +When's the last time you had three hours to yourself at the office? +Two hours? One, maybe? +Very, very few people actually have long stretches of uninterrupted time at an office. +Now there are different kinds of distractions, but not the really bad distractions, which I'll talk about in a minute. +And this whole phenomenon of having short bursts of time to get things done reminds me of another thing that doesn't work when you're interrupted, and that is sleep. +I think that sleep and work are very closely related -- not because you can work while you're sleeping and sleep while you're working. +That's not really what I mean. +I'm talking specifically about the fact that sleep and work are phase-based, or stage-based, events. +Sleep is about sleep phases, or stages -- some people call them different things. +There are five of them, and in order to get to the really deep ones, the meaningful ones, you have to go through the early ones. +If you're interrupted while you're going through the early ones -- if someone bumps you in bed, or there's a sound, or whatever happens -- you don't just pick up where you left off. +If you're interrupted and woken up, you have to start again. +So you have to go back a few phases and start again. +And what ends up happening -- you might have days like this where you wake up at eight or seven in the morning, or whenever you get up, and you're like, "I didn't sleep very well. +I did the sleep thing -- I went to bed, I laid down, but I didn't really sleep." +People say you go "to" sleep, but you don't go to sleep, you go towards sleep; it takes a while. +You've got to go through phases and stuff, and if you're interrupted, you don't sleep well. +So does anyone here expect someone to sleep well if they're interrupted all night? +I don't think anyone would say yes. +Why do we expect people to work well if they're being interrupted all day at the office? +How can we possibly expect people to do their job if they go to the office and are interrupted? +That doesn't really seem like it makes a lot of sense, to me. +So what are the interruptions that happen at the office but not at other places? +Because in other places, you can have interruptions like the TV, or you could go for a walk, or there's a fridge downstairs, or you've got your own couch, or whatever you want to do. +If you talk to certain managers, they'll tell you that they don't want their employees to work at home because of these distractions. +They'll sometimes also say, "If I can't see the person, how do I know they're working?" +which is ridiculous, but that's one of the excuses that managers give. +And I'm one of these managers. I understand. I know how this goes. +We all have to improve on this sort of thing. +But oftentimes they'll cite distractions: "I can't let someone work at home. +They'll watch TV, or do this other thing." +It turns out those aren't the things that are distracting, Because those are voluntary distractions. +You decide when you want to be distracted by the TV, when you want to turn something on, or when you want to go downstairs or go for a walk. +At the office, most of the interruptions and distractions that really cause people not to get work done are involuntary. +So let's go through a couple of those. +Now, managers and bosses will often have you think that the real distractions at work are things like Facebook and Twitter and YouTube and other websites, and in fact, they'll go so far as to actually ban these sites at work. +Some of you may work at places where you can't get to certain sites. +I mean, is this China? What the hell is going on here? +You can't go to a website at work, and that's the problem? +That's why people aren't getting work done, because they're on Facebook and Twitter? +That's kind of ridiculous. It's a total decoy. +Today's Facebook and Twitter and YouTube, these things are just modern-day smoke breaks. +No one cared about letting people take a smoke break for 15 minutes 10 years ago, so why does anyone care if someone goes to Facebook or Twitter or YouTube here and there? +Those aren't the real problems in the office. +The real problems are what I like to call the M&Ms, the Managers and the Meetings. +Those are the real problems in the modern office today. +And this is why things don't get done at work, it's because of the M&Ms. +Now what's interesting is, if you listen to all the places that people talk about doing work, like at home, in the car, on a plane, late at night, or early in the morning, you don't find managers and meetings. +You find a lot of other distractions, but not managers and meetings. +So these are the things that you don't find elsewhere, but you do find at the office. +And managers are basically people whose job it is to interrupt people. +That's pretty much what managers are for. They're for interrupting people. +They don't really do the work, so they make sure everyone else is doing work, which is an interruption. +We have lots of managers in the world now, and a lot of people in the world, and a lot of interruptions by these managers. +They have to check in: "Hey, how's it going? +Show me what's up." This sort of thing. +They keep interrupting you at the wrong time, while you're actually trying to do something they're paying you to do, they tend to interrupt you. +That's kind of bad. +But what's even worse is the thing that managers do most of all, which is call meetings. +And meetings are just toxic, terrible, poisonous things during the day at work. +We all know this to be true, and you would never see a spontaneous meeting called by employees. +It doesn't work that way. +The manager calls the meeting so the employees can all come together, and it's an incredibly disruptive thing to do to people -- to say, "Hey look, we're going to bring 10 people together right now and have a meeting. +I don't care what you're doing, you've got to stop doing it, so you can have this meeting." +I mean, what are the chances that all 10 people are ready to stop? +What if they're thinking about something important, or doing important work? +All of a sudden you tell them they have to stop doing that to do something else. +So they go into a meeting room, they get together, and they talk about stuff that doesn't really matter, usually. +Because meetings aren't work. +Meetings are places to go to talk about things you're supposed to be doing later. +But meetings also procreate. +So one meeting tends to lead to another meeting, which leads to another meeting. +There's often too many people in the meetings, and they're very, very expensive to the organization. +Companies often think of a one-hour meeting as a one-hour meeting, but that's not true, unless there's only one person. +If there are 10 people, it's a 10-hour meeting, not a one-hour meeting. +It's 10 hours of productivity taken from the rest of the organization to have this one-hour meeting, which probably should have been handled by two or three people talking for a few minutes. +But instead, there's a long scheduled meeting, because meetings are scheduled the way software works, which is in increments of 15 minutes, or 30 minutes, or an hour. +You don't schedule an eight-hour meeting with Outlook; you can't. +You can go 15 minutes or 30 minutes or 45 minutes or an hour. +And so we tend to fill these times up when things should go really quickly. +So meetings and managers are two major problems in businesses today, especially at offices. +These things don't exist outside of the office. +So I have some suggestions to remedy the situation. +What can managers do -- enlightened managers, hopefully -- what can they do to make the office a better place for people to work, so it's not the last resort, but it's the first resort, so that people start to say, "When I really want to get stuff done, I go to the office." +Because the offices are well-equipped; everything is there for them to do the work. +But they don't want to go there right now, so how do we change that? +I have three suggestions to share with you. +I have about three minutes, so that'll fit perfectly. +We've all heard of the Casual Friday thing. +I don't know if people still do that. +But how about "No-talk Thursdays?" +Pick one Thursday once a month, and cut it in half, just the afternoon -- I'll make it easy for you. +So just the afternoon, one Thursday. +First Thursday of the month, just the afternoon, nobody in the office can talk to each other. +Just silence, that's it. +And what you'll find is that a tremendous amount of work gets done when no one talks to each other. +This is when people actually get stuff done, is when no one's bothering them or interrupting them. +Giving someone four hours of uninterrupted time is the best gift you can give anybody at work. +It's better than a computer, better than a new monitor, better than new software, or whatever people typically use. +Giving them four hours of quiet time at the office is going to be incredibly valuable. +If you try that, I think you'll agree, and hopefully you can do it more often. +So maybe it's every other week, or every week, once a week, afternoons no one can talk to each other. +That's something that you'll find will really, really work. +Another thing you can try, is switching from active communication and collaboration, which is like face-to-face stuff -- tapping people on the shoulder, saying hi to them, having meetings, and replace that with more passive models of communication, using things like email and instant messaging, or collaboration products, things like that. +Now some people might say email is really distracting, I.M. is really distracting, and these other things are really distracting, but they're distracting at a time of your own choice and your own choosing. +You can quit the email app; you can't quit your boss. +You can quit I.M.; you can't hide your manager. +You can put these things away, and then you can be interrupted on your own schedule, at your own time, when you're available, when you're ready to go again. +Because work, like sleep, happens in phases. +So you'll be going up, doing some work, and then you'll come down from that work, and then maybe it's time to check that email or I.M. +There are very, very few things that are that urgent, that need to happen, that need to be answered right this second. +So if you're a manager, start encouraging people to use more things like I.M. and email and other things that someone can put away and then get back to you on their own schedule. +And the last suggestion I have is that, if you do have a meeting coming up, if you have the power, just cancel it. +Just cancel that next meeting. +Today's Friday, usually people have meetings on Monday. +Just don't have it. +I don't mean move it; I mean just erase it from memory, it's gone. +And you'll find out that everything will be just fine. +All these discussions and decisions you thought you had to make at this one time at 9 a.m. on Monday, just forget about them, and things will be fine. +People will have a more open morning, they can actually think. +You'll find out all these things you thought you had to do, you don't actually have to do. +So those are just three quick suggestions I wanted to give you guys to think about. +I hope that some of these ideas were at least provocative enough for managers and bosses and business owners and organizers and people who are in charge of other people, to think about laying off a little bit, and giving people more time to get work done. +I think it'll all pay off in the end. +So, thanks for listening. +Thank you very much. +I have a few pictures, and I'll talk a little bit about how I'm able to do what I do. +All these houses are built from between 70 and 80 percent recycled material, stuff that was headed to the mulcher, the landfill, the burn pile. +It was all just gone. +This is the first house I built. +This double front door here with the three-light transom that was headed to the landfill. +Have a little turret there. +And then these buttons on the corbels here. +Right there -- those are hickory nuts. +And these buttons there -- those are chicken eggs. +Of course, first you have breakfast, and then you fill the shell full of Bondo and paint it and nail it up, and you have an architectural button in just a fraction of the time. +Then, this is a look at the inside. +You can see the three-light transom there with the eyebrow windows -- certainly an architectural antique headed to the landfill. +Even the lockset is probably worth 200 dollars. +Everything in the kitchen was salvaged. +There's a 1952 O'Keefe & Merritt stove, if you like to cook -- cool stove. +This is going up into the turret. +I got that staircase for 20 dollars, including delivery to my lot. +Then, looking up in the turret, you see there are bulges and pokes and sags and so forth. +Well, if that ruins your life, well then you shouldn't live there. +This is a laundry chute, and this right here is a shoe last. +And those are those cast-iron things you see at antique shops. +So I had one of those, so I made some low-tech gadgetry, there, where you just stomp on the shoe last and then the door flies open, you throw your laundry down. +And then if you're smart enough, it goes on a basket on top of the washer. +If not, it goes into the toilet. +This is a bathtub I made, made out of scrap two-by-four here. +Started with a rim there and then glued and nailed it up into a flat, corbelled it up and flipped it over, then did the two profiles on this side. +It's a two-person tub. +After all, it's not just a question of hygiene, but there's a possibility of recreation as well. +Then, this faucet here is just a piece of Osage Orange. +It looks a little phallic, but after all, it's a bathroom. +Then, this is a house based on a Budweiser can. +It doesn't look like a can of beer, but the design take-offs are absolutely unmistakable. +The barley hops design worked up into the eaves, then the dentil work comes directly off the can's red, white, blue and silver. +Then, these corbeles going down underneath the eaves are that little design that comes off the can. +I just put a can on a copier and kept enlarging it until I got the size I want. +Then, on the can it says, "This is the famous Budweiser beer, we know of no other beer, blah, blah, blah." +So we changed that and put, "This is the famous Budweiser house. +We don't know of any other house," and so forth and so on. +Then, this is a deadbolt. It's a fence from a 1930s shaper, which is a very angry woodworking machine. +And they gave me the fence, but they didn't give me the shaper, so we made a deadbolt out of it. +That'll keep bull elephants out, I promise. +And sure enough, we've had no problems with bull elephants. +The shower is intended to simulate a glass of beer. +We've got bubbles going up there, then suds at the top with lumpy tiles. +Where do you get lumpy tiles? Well, of course, you don't. +But I get a lot of toilets, and so you just dispatch a toilet with a hammer, and then you have lumpy tiles. +And then the faucet, there, is a beer tap. +Then, this panel of glass is the same panel of glass that occurs in every middle-class front door in America. +We're getting tired of it. It's kind of cliched now. +So if you put it in the front door, your design fails. +So don't put it in the front door; put it somewhere else. +It's a pretty panel of glass. +But then if you put it in the front door, people say, "Oh, you're trying to be like those guys, and you didn't make it." +So don't put it there. +Then, another bathroom upstairs. +This light up here is the same light that occurs in every middle-class foyer in America. +Don't put it in the foyer. +Put it in the shower, or in the closet, but not in the foyer. +Then, somebody gave me a bidet, so it got a bidet. +This little house here, those branches there are made out of Bois D'arc or Osage Orange, and these pictures will keep scrolling as I talk a little bit. +In order to do what I do, you have to understand what causes waste in the building industry. +Our housing has become a commodity, and I'll talk a little bit about that. +But the first cause of waste is probably even buried in our DNA. +Human beings have a need for maintaining consistency of the apperceptive mass. +What does that mean? +What it means is, for every perception we have, it needs to tally with the one like it before, or we don't have continuity, and we become a little bit disoriented. +So I can show you an object you've never seen before. +Oh, that's a cell phone. +But you've never seen this one before. +What you're doing is sizing up the pattern of structural features here, and then you go through your databanks -- brrrr, cell phone. +Oh, that's a cell phone. +If I took a bite out of it, you'd go, "Wait a second. +That's not a cell phone. +That's one of those new chocolate cell phones." +And you'd have to start a new category, right between cell phones and chocolate. +That's how we process information. +So you translate that to the building industry, if we have a wall of windowpanes and one pane is cracked, we go, "Oh, dear. That's cracked. Let's repair it. +Let's take it out. Throw it away so nobody can use it and put a new one in." +Because that's what you do with a cracked pane. +Never mind that it doesn't affect our lives at all. +It only rattles that expected pattern and unity of structural features. +However, if we took a small hammer, and we added cracks to all the other windows, then we have a pattern. +Because Gestalt Psychology emphasizes recognition of pattern over parts that comprise a pattern. +We'll go, "Ooh, that's nice." +So, that serves me every day. +Repetition creates pattern. +If I have a hundred of these, a hundred of those, it doesn't make any difference what these and those are. +If I can repeat anything, I have the possibility of a pattern from hickory nuts and chicken eggs, shards of glass, branches. +It doesn't make any difference. +That causes a lot of waste in the building industry. +Second is, Friedrich Nietzsche along about 1885 wrote a book titled "The Birth of Tragedy." +And in there he said that cultures tend to swing between one of two perspectives. +On the one hand, we have an Apollonian perspective, which is very crisp and premeditated and intellectualized and perfect. +On the other end of the spectrum, we have a Dionysian perspective, which is more given to the passions and intuition, tolerant of organic texture and human gesture. +So the way the Apollonian personality takes a picture, or hangs a picture, is they'll get out a transit and a laser level and a micrometer. +"Okay, honey. A thousandth of an inch to the left. +That's where we want the picture. Right. Perfect." +Predicated on plumb level, square and centered. +The Dionysian personality takes the picture and goes ... +That's the difference. +I feature blemish. +I feature organic process. +Dead-center John Dewey. +Apollonian mindset creates mountains of waste. +If something isn't perfect, if it doesn't line up with that premeditated model, dumpster. +"Oops, scratch, dumpster." +"Oops" this, "oops" that. "Landfill. Landfill. Landfill." +The third thing is arguably -- the Industrial Revolution started in the Renaissance with the rise of humanism, then got a little jump-start along about the French Revolution. +By the middle of the 19th century, it's in full flower. +And we have dumaflages and gizmos and contraptions that will do anything that we, up to that point, had to do my hand. +So now we have standardized materials. +Well, trees don't grow two inches by four inches, eight, ten and twelve feet tall. +We create mountains of waste. +And so if something isn't standard, "Oops, dumpster." "Oops" this. "Oops, warped." +If you buy a two-by-four and it's not straight, you can take it back. +"Oh, I'm so sorry, sir. We'll get you a straight one." +Well I feature all those warped things because repetition creates pattern, and it's from a Dionysian perspective. +The fourth thing is labor is disproportionately more expensive than materials. +Well, that's just a myth. +And here's a story: Jim Tulles, one of the guys I trained, I said, "Jim, it's time now. +I got a job for you as a foreman on a framing crew. It's time for you to go." +"Dan, I just don't think I'm ready." +"Jim, now it's time. You're the down, oh." +So we hired on. +And he was out there with his tape measure going through the trash heap, looking for header material, which is the board that goes over a door, thinking he'd impress his boss -- that's how we taught him to do it. +And the superintendent walked up and said, "What are you doing?" +"Oh, just looking for some header material," waiting for that kudos. +He said, "No, no. I'm not paying you to go through the trash. Get back to work." +And he had the wherewithal to say, he said, "You know, if you were paying me 300 dollars an hour, I can see how you might say that, but right now, I'm saving you five dollars a minute. +Do the math." +"Good call, Tulles. From now on, you guys hit this pile first." +And the irony is that he wasn't very good at math. +But once in a while you get access to the control room, and then you can kind of mess with the dials. +And that's what happened there. +The fifth thing is that maybe, after 2,500 years, Plato is still having his way with us in his notion of perfect forms. +He said that we have in our noggin the perfect idea of what we want, and we force environmental resources to accommodate that. +So we all have in our head the perfect house, the American dream, which is a house, the dream house. +The problem is we can't afford it. +So we have the American dream look-alike, which is a mobile home. +Now there's a blight on the planet. +It's a chattel mortgage, just like furniture, just like a car. +You write the check, and instantly it depreciates 30 percent. +After a year, you can't get insurance on everything you have in it, only on 70 percent. +Wired with 14-gauge wire typically. +Nothing wrong with that, unless you ask it to do what 12-gauge wire's supposed to do, and that's what happens. +It out-gasses formaldehyde so much so that there is a federal law in place to warn new mobile home buyers of the formaldehyde atmosphere danger. +Are we just being numbingly stupid? +The walls are this thick. +The whole thing has the structural value of corn. +"So I thought Palm Harbor Village was over there." +"No, no. We had a wind last night. +It's gone now." +Then when they degrade, what do you do with them? +Now, all that, that Apollonian, Platonic model, is what the building industry is predicated on, and there are a number of things that exacerbate that. +One is that all the professionals, all the tradesmen, vendors, inspectors, engineers, architects all think like this. +And then it works its way back to the consumer, who demands the same model. +It's a self-fulfilling prophecy. We can't get out of it. +Then here come the marketeers and the advertisers. +"Woo. Woohooo." +We buy stuff we didn't know we needed. +All we have to do is look at what one company did with carbonated prune juice. +How disgusting. +But you know what they did? They hooked a metaphor into it and said, "I drink Dr. Pepper ..." +And pretty soon, we're swilling that stuff by the lake-ful, by the billions of gallons. +It doesn't even have real prunes. Doesn't even keep you regular. +My oh my, that makes it worse. +And we get sucked into that faster than anything. +Then a man named Jean-Paul Sartre wrote a book titled "Being and Nothingness." +It's a pretty quick read. +You can snap through it in maybe two years if you read eight hours a day. +In there he talked about the divided self. +He said human beings act differently when they know they're alone than when they know somebody else is around. +So if I'm eating spaghetti, and I know I'm alone, I can eat like a backhoe. +I can wipe my mouth on my sleeve, napkin on the table, chew with my mouth open, make little noises, scratch wherever I want. +But as soon as you walk in, I go, "Ooh. Spaghetti sauce there." +Napkin in my lap, half bites, chew with my mouth closed, no scratching. +Now what I'm doing is fulfilling your expectations of how I should live my life. +I feel that expectation, and so I accommodate it, and I'm living my life according to what you expect me to do. +That happens in the building industry as well. +That's why all of our subdivisions look the same. +Sometimes we even have these formalized cultural expectations. +I'll bet all your shoes match. +Sure enough, we all buy into that, and with gated communities, we have a formalized expectation with a homeowners association. +Sometimes those guys are Nazis, my oh my. +That exacerbates and continues this model. +The last thing is gregariousness. +Human beings are a social species. +We like to hang together in groups, just like wildebeests, just like lions. +Wildebeests don't hang with lions because lions eat wildebeests. +Human beings are like that. +We do what that group does that we're trying to identify with. +And so you see this in junior high a lot. +Those kids, they'll work all summer long, kill themselves, so that they can afford one pair of designer jeans. +So along about September they can stride in and go, "I'm important today. +See, look, don't touch my designer jeans. +I see you don't have designer jeans. +You're not one of the beautiful people. +See, I'm one of the beautiful people. See my jeans?" +Right there is reason enough to have uniforms. +And so that happens in the building industry as well. +We have confused Maslow's hierarchy of needs just a little bit. +On the bottom tier we have basic needs -- shelter, clothing, food, water, mating and so forth. +Second, security. Third, relationships. +Fourth, status, self-esteem -- that is, vanity. +And we're taking vanity and shoving it down here. +And so we end up with vain decisions and we can't even afford our mortgage. +We can't even afford to eat anything except beans. +That is, our housing has become a commodity. +And it takes a little bit of nerve to dive into those primal, terrifying parts of ourselves and make our own decisions and not make our housing a commodity, but make it something that bubbles up from seminal sources. +That takes a little bit of nerve, and, darn it, once in a while you fail. +But that's okay. +If failure destroys you, then you can't do this. +I fail all the time, every day, and I've had some whopping failures, I promise, big, public, humiliating, embarrassing failures. +Everybody points and laughs, and they say, "He tried it a fifth time and it still didn't work. +What a moron." +Early on, contractors come by and say, "Dan, you're a cute little bunny, but you know, this just isn't going to work. +What don't you do this, and why don't you do that?" +And your instinct is to say, "Why don't you suck an egg?" +But you don't say that, because they're the guys you're targeting. +And so what we've done -- and this isn't just in housing. +It's in clothing and food and our transportation needs, our energy -- we sprawl just a little bit. +And when I get a little bit of press, I hear from people all over the world. +And we may have invented excess, but the problem of waste is worldwide. +We're in trouble. +And I don't wear ammo belts crisscrossing my chest and a red bandana, but we're clearly in trouble. +And what we need to do is reconnect with those really primal parts of ourselves and make some decisions and say, "You know, I think I would like to put CDs across the wall there. +What do you think, honey?" +If it doesn't work, take it down. +What we need to do is reconnect with who we really are, and that's thrilling indeed. +Thank you very much. +Hello. My name is Birke Baehr, and I'm 11 years old. +I came here today to talk about what's wrong with our food system. +First of all, I would like to say that I'm really amazed at how easily kids are led to believe all the marketing and advertising on TV, at public schools and pretty much everywhere else you look. +It seems to me like corporations are always trying to get kids, like me, to get their parents to buy stuff that really isn't good for us or the planet. +Little kids, especially, are attracted by colorful packaging and plastic toys. +I must admit, I used to be one of them. +I also used to think that all of our food came from these happy, little farms where pigs rolled in mud and cows grazed on grass all day. +What I discovered was this is not true. +I began to look into this stuff on the Internet, in books and in documentary films, in my travels with my family. +I discovered the dark side of the industrialized food system. +First, there's genetically engineered seeds and organisms. +That is when a seed is manipulated in a laboratory to do something not intended by nature -- like taking the DNA of a fish and putting it into the DNA of a tomato. Yuck. +Don't get me wrong, I like fish and tomatoes, but this is just creepy. +The seeds are then planted, then grown. +The food they produce have been proven to cause cancer and other problems in lab animals, and people have been eating food produced this way since the 1990s. +And most folks don't even know they exist. +Did you know rats that ate genetically engineered corn had developed signs of liver and kidney toxicity? +These include kidney inflammation and lesions and increased kidney weight. +Yet almost all the corn we eat has been altered genetically in some way. +And let me tell you, corn is in everything. +And don't even get me started on the Confined Animal Feeding Operations called CAFOS. +Conventional farmers use chemical fertilizers made from fossil fuels that they mix with the dirt to make plants grow. +They do this because they've stripped the soil from all nutrients from growing the same crop over and over again. +Next, more harmful chemicals are sprayed on fruits and vegetables, like pesticides and herbicides, to kill weeds and bugs. +When it rains, these chemicals seep into the ground, or run off into our waterways, poisoning our water too. +Then they irradiate our food, trying to make it last longer, so it can travel thousands of miles from where it's grown to the supermarkets. +So I ask myself, how can I change? How can I change these things? +This is what I found out. +I discovered that there's a movement for a better way. +Now a while back, I wanted to be an NFL football player. +I decided that I'd rather be an organic farmer instead. +Thank you. +And that way I can have a greater impact on the world. +This man, Joel Salatin, they call him a lunatic farmer because he grows against the system. +Since I'm home-schooled, I went to go hear him speak one day. +This man, this "lunatic farmer," doesn't use any pesticides, herbicides, or genetically modified seeds. +And so for that, he's called crazy by the system. +I want you to know that we can all make a difference by making different choices, by buying our food directly from local farmers, or our neighbors who we know in real life. +Some people say organic or local food is more expensive, but is it really? +With all these things I've been learning about the food system, it seems to me that we can either pay the farmer, or we can pay the hospital. +Now I know definitely which one I would choose. +I want you to know that there are farms out there -- like Bill Keener in Sequatchie Cove Farm in Tennessee -- whose cows do eat grass and whose pigs do roll in the mud, just like I thought. +Sometimes I go to Bill's farm and volunteer, so I can see up close and personal where the meat I eat comes from. +I want you to know that I believe kids will eat fresh vegetables and good food if they know more about it and where it really comes from. +I want you to know that there are farmers' markets in every community popping up. +I want you to know that me, my brother and sister actually like eating baked kale chips. +I try to share this everywhere I go. +Not too long ago, my uncle said that he offered my six-year-old cousin cereal. +He asked him if he wanted organic Toasted O's or the sugarcoated flakes -- you know, the one with the big striped cartoon character on the front. +My little cousin told his dad that he would rather have the organic Toasted O's cereal because Birke said he shouldn't eat sparkly cereal. +And that, my friends, is how we can make a difference one kid at a time. +So next time you're at the grocery store, think local, choose organic, know your farmer and know your food. +Thank you. +Well, the subject of difficult negotiation reminds me of one of my favorite stories from the Middle East, of a man who left to his three sons, 17 camels. +To the first son, he left half the camels; to the second son, he left a third of the camels; and to the youngest son, he left a ninth of the camels. +The three sons got into a negotiation -- 17 doesn't divide by two. +It doesn't divide by three. +It doesn't divide by nine. +Brotherly tempers started to get strained. +Finally, in desperation, they went and they consulted a wise old woman. +The wise old woman thought about their problem for a long time, and finally she came back and said, "Well, I don't know if I can help you, but at least, if you want, you can have my camel." +So then, they had 18 camels. +The first son took his half -- half of 18 is nine. +The second son took his third -- a third of 18 is six. +The youngest son took his ninth -- a ninth of 18 is two. +You get 17. +They had one camel left over. +They gave it back to the wise old woman. +Now, if you think about that story for a moment, I think it resembles a lot of the difficult negotiations we get involved in. +They start off like 17 camels, no way to resolve it. +Somehow, what we need to do is step back from those situations, like that wise old woman, look at the situation through fresh eyes and come up with an 18th camel. +Finding that 18th camel in the world's conflicts has been my life passion. +I basically see humanity a bit like those three brothers. +We're all one family. +We know that scientifically, thanks to the communications revolution, all the tribes on the planet -- all 15,000 tribes -- are in touch with each other. +And it's a big family reunion. +And yet, like many family reunions, it's not all peace and light. +There's a lot of conflict, and the question is: How do we deal with our differences? +How do we deal with our deepest differences, given the human propensity for conflict and the human genius at devising weapons of enormous destruction? +That's the question. +As I've spent the last better part of three decades, almost four, traveling the world, trying to work, getting involved in conflicts ranging from Yugoslavia to the Middle East to Chechnya to Venezuela -- some of the most difficult conflicts on the face of the planet -- I've been asking myself that question. +And I think I've found, in some ways, what is the secret to peace. +It's actually surprisingly simple. +It's not easy, but it's simple. +It's not even new. +It may be one of our most ancient human heritages. +The secret to peace is us. +It's us who act as a surrounding community around any conflict, who can play a constructive role. +Let me give you just a story, an example. +About 20 years ago, I was in South Africa, working with the parties in that conflict, and I had an extra month, so I spent some time living with several groups of San Bushmen. +I was curious about them, about the way in which they resolve conflict. +Because, after all, within living memory, they were hunters and gatherers, living pretty much like our ancestors lived for maybe 99 percent of the human story. +And all the men have these poison arrows that they use for hunting -- absolutely fatal. +So how do they deal with their differences? +Well, what I learned is, whenever tempers rise in those communities, someone goes and hides the poison arrows out in the bush, and then everyone sits around in a circle like this, and they sit and they talk and they talk. +It may take two days, three days, four days, but they don't rest until they find a resolution or better yet -- a reconciliation. +And if tempers are still too high, then they send someone off to visit some relatives, as a cooling-off period. +Well, that system is, I think, probably the system that kept us alive to this point, given our human tendencies. +That system, I call "the third side." +Because if you think about it, normally when we think of conflict, when we describe it, there's always two sides -- it's Arabs versus Israelis, labor versus management, husband versus wife, Republicans versus Democrats. +But what we don't often see is that there's always a third side, and the third side of the conflict is us, it's the surrounding community, it's the friends, the allies, the family members, the neighbors. +And we can play an incredibly constructive role. +Perhaps the most fundamental way in which the third side can help is to remind the parties of what's really at stake. +For the sake of the kids, for the sake of the family, for the sake of the community, for the sake of the future, let's stop fighting for a moment and start talking. +Because, the thing is, when we're involved in conflict, it's very easy to lose perspective. +It's very easy to react. +Human beings -- we're reaction machines. +And as the saying goes, when angry, you will make the best speech you will ever regret. And so the third side reminds us of that. +The third side helps us go to the balcony, which is a metaphor for a place of perspective, where we can keep our eyes on the prize. +Let me tell you a little story from my own negotiating experience. +Some years ago, I was involved as a facilitator in some very tough talks between the leaders of Russia and the leaders of Chechnya. +There was a war going on, as you know. +And we met in the Hague, in the Peace Palace, in the same room where the Yugoslav war-crimes tribunal was taking place. +And the talks got off to a rather rocky start when the vice president of Chechnya began by pointing at the Russians and said, "You should stay right here in your seats, because you're going to be on trial for war crimes." +And then he turned to me and said, "You're an American. +Look at what you Americans are doing in Puerto Rico." +And my mind started racing, "Puerto Rico? What do I know about Puerto Rico?" +I started reacting. +But then, I tried to remember to go to the balcony. +We're here to see if we can figure out a way to stop the suffering and the bloodshed in Chechnya." +The conversation got back on track. +That's the role of the third side, to help the parties go to the balcony. +Now let me take you, for a moment, to what's widely regarded as the world's most difficult conflict, or the most impossible conflict, the Middle East. +Question is: where's the third side there? +How could we possibly go to the balcony? +Now, I don't pretend to have an answer to the Middle East conflict, but I think I've got a first step -- literally, a first step -- something that any one of us could do as third-siders. +Let me just ask you one question first. +How many of you in the last years have ever found yourself worrying about the Middle East and wondering what anyone could do? +Just out of curiosity, how many of you? +OK, so the great majority of us. +And here, it's so far away. +Why do we pay so much attention to this conflict? +Is it the number of deaths? +There are a hundred times more people who die in a conflict in Africa than in the Middle East. +No, it's because of the story, because we feel personally involved in that story. +Whether we're Christians, Muslims or Jews, religious or non-religious, we feel we have a personal stake in it. +Stories matter; as an anthropologist, I know that. +Stories are what we use to transmit knowledge. +They give meaning to our lives. +That's what we tell here at TED, we tell stories. +Stories are the key. +And so my question is -- yes, let's try and resolve the politics there in the Middle East, but let's also take a look at the story. +Let's try to get at the root of what it's all about. +Let's see if we can apply the third side to it. +What would that mean? What is the story there? +Now, as anthropologists, we know that every culture has an origin story. +What's the origin story of the Middle East? +In a phrase, it's: Four thousand years ago, a man and his family walked across the Middle East, and the world has never been the same since. +That man, of course, was Abraham. +And what he stood for was unity, the unity of the family; he's the father of us all. +But it's not just what he stood for, it's what his message was. +His basic message was unity too, the interconnectedness of it all, the unity of it all. +And his basic value was respect, was kindness toward strangers. +That's what he's known for, his hospitality. +So in that sense, he's the symbolic third side of the Middle East. +He's the one who reminds us that we're all part of a greater whole. +Now, think about that for a moment. +Today, we face the scourge of terrorism. +What is terrorism? +Terrorism is basically taking an innocent stranger and treating them as an enemy whom you kill in order to create fear. +What's the opposite of terrorism? +It's taking an innocent stranger and treating them as a friend whom you welcome into your home, in order to sow and create understanding or respect, or love. +So what if, then, you took the story of Abraham, which is a third-side story, what if that could be -- because Abraham stands for hospitality -- what if that could be an antidote to terrorism? +What if that could be a vaccine against religious intolerance? +How would you bring that story to life? +Now, it's not enough just to tell a story. +That's powerful, but people need to experience the story. +They need to be able to live the story. +How would you do that? +And that was my thinking of how would you do that. +And that's what comes to the first step here. +Because the simple way to do that is: you go for a walk. +You go for a walk in the footsteps of Abraham. +You retrace the footsteps of Abraham. +Because walking has a real power. +You know, as an anthropologist, walking is what made us human. +It's funny -- when you walk, you walk side-by-side, in the same common direction. +Now if I were to come to you face-to-face and come this close to you, you would feel threatened. +But if I walk shoulder-to-shoulder, even touching shoulders, it's no problem. +Who fights while they walk? +That's why in negotiations, often, when things get tough, people go for walks in the woods. +So the idea came to me of, what about inspiring a path, a route -- think the Silk Route, think the Appalachian Trail -- that followed in the footsteps of Abraham? +People said, "That's crazy. You can't. +You can't retrace the footsteps of Abraham -- it's too insecure, you've got to cross all these borders, it goes across 10 different countries in the Middle East, because it unites them all." +And so we studied the idea at Harvard. +We did our due diligence. +And then a few years ago, a group of us, about 25 of us from 10 different countries, decided to see if we could retrace the footsteps of Abraham, going from his initial birthplace in the city of Urfa in Southern Turkey, Northern Mesopotamia. +And we then took a bus and took some walks and went to Harran, where, in the Bible, he sets off on his journey. +Then we crossed the border into Syria, went to Aleppo, which, turns out, is named after Abraham. +We went to Damascus, which has a long history associated with Abraham. +We then came to Northern Jordan, to Jerusalem -- which is all about Abraham -- to Bethlehem, and finally, to the place where he's buried, in Hebron. +So effectively, we went from womb to tomb. +We showed it could be done. It was an amazing journey. +Let me ask you a question. +How many of you have had the experience of being in a strange neighborhood or strange land, and a total stranger, perfect stranger, comes up to you and shows you some kindness -- maybe invites you into their home, gives you a drink, gives you a coffee, gives you a meal? +How many of you have ever had that experience? +That's the essence of the Abraham Path. +That's what you discover as you go into these villages in the Middle East where you expect hostility, and you get the most amazing hospitality, all associated with Abraham: "In the name of Father Ibrahim, let me offer you some food." +So what we discovered is that Abraham is not just a figure out of a book for those people; he's alive, he's a living presence. +And to make a long story short, in the last couple of years now, thousands of people have begun to walk parts of the path of Abraham in the Middle East, enjoying the hospitality of the people there. +They've begun to walk in Israel and Palestine, in Jordan, in Turkey, in Syria. +It's an amazing experience. +Men, women, young people, old people -- more women than men, actually, interestingly. +For those who can't walk, who are unable to get there right now, people started to organize walks in cities, in their own communities. +In Cincinnati, for instance, they organized a walk from a church to a mosque to a synagogue and all had an Abrahamic meal together. +It was Abraham Path Day. +In So Paulo, Brazil, it's become an annual event for thousands of people to run in a virtual Abraham Path Run, uniting the different communities. +The media love it; they really adore it. +They lavish attention on it because it's visual and it spreads the idea, this idea of Abrahamic hospitality, of kindness towards strangers. +And just a couple weeks ago, there was an NPR story on it. +Last month, there was a piece in the Manchester Guardian about it, two whole pages. +And they quoted a villager who said, "This walk connects us to the world." +He said, "It was like a light that went on in our lives -- it brought us hope." +And so that's what it's about. +But it's not just about psychology; it's about economics. +Because as people walk, they spend money. +And this woman right here, Um Ahmad, is a woman who lives on the path in Northern Jordan. +She's desperately poor. +She's partially blind, her husband can't work, she's got seven kids. +But what she can do is cook. +And so she's begun to cook for some groups of walkers who come through the village and have a meal in her home. +They sit on the floor -- she doesn't even have a tablecloth. +She makes the most delicious food, that's fresh from the herbs in the surrounding countryside. +And so more and more walkers have come, and lately she's begun to earn an income to support her family. +And so she told our team there, she said, "You have made me visible in a village where people were once ashamed to look at me." +That's the potential of the Abraham Path. +There are literally hundreds of those kinds of communities across the Middle East, across the path. +The potential is basically to change the game. +And to change the game, you have to change the frame, the way we see things -- to change the frame from hostility to hospitality, from terrorism to tourism. +And in that sense, the Abraham Path is a game-changer. +Let me just show you one thing. +I have a little acorn here that I picked up while I was walking on the path earlier this year. +Now, the acorn is associated with the oak tree, of course -- grows into an oak tree, which is associated with Abraham. +The path right now is like an acorn; it's still in its early phase. +What would the oak tree look like? +When I think back to my childhood, a good part of which I spent, after being born here in Chicago, I spent in Europe. +If you had been in the ruins of, say, London in 1945, or Berlin, and you had said, "Sixty years from now, this is going to be the most peaceful, prosperous part of the planet," people would have thought you were certifiably insane. +But they did it, thanks to a common identity, Europe, and a common economy. +So my question is, if it can be done in Europe, why not in the Middle East? +Why not, thanks to a common identity, which is the story of Abraham, and thanks to a common economy that would be based, in good part, on tourism? +So let me conclude, then, by saying that in the last 35 years, as I've worked in some of the most dangerous, difficult and intractable conflicts around the planet, I have yet to see one conflict that I felt could not be transformed. +It's not easy, of course. +But it's possible. +It was done in South Africa. +It was done in Northern Ireland. +It could be done anywhere. +It simply depends on us. +It depends on us taking the third side. +So let me invite you to consider taking the third side, even as a very small step. +We're about to take a break in a moment. +Just go up to someone who's from a different culture, a different country, a different ethnicity -- some difference -- and engage them in a conversation. +That's a third-side act. +That's walking Abraham's Path. +After a TED Talk, why not a TED Walk? +So let me just leave you with three things. +One is, the secret to peace is the third side. +The third side is us. +Each of us, with a single step, can take the world, can bring the world a step closer to peace. +There's an old African proverb that goes: "When spiderwebs unite, they can halt even the lion." +If we're able to unite our third-side webs of peace, we can even halt the lion of war. +Thank you very much. +Okay, I'm going to show you again something about our diets. +And I would like to know what the audience is, and so who of you ever ate insects? +That's quite a lot. +But still, you're not representing the overall population of the Earth. +Because there's 80 percent out there that really eats insects. +But this is quite good. +Why not eat insects? Well first, what are insects? +Insects are animals that walk around on six legs. +And here you see just a selection. +There's six million species of insects on this planet, six million species. +There's a few hundreds of mammals -- six million species of insects. +In fact, if we count all the individual organisms, we would come at much larger numbers. +In fact, of all animals on Earth, of all animal species, 80 percent walks on six legs. +But if we would count all the individuals, and we take an average weight of them, it would amount to something like 200 to 2,000 kilograms for each of you and me on Earth. +That means that in terms of biomass, insects are more abundant than we are, and we're not on a planet of men, but we're on a planet of insects. +Insects are not only there in nature, but they also are involved in our economy, usually without us knowing. +There was an estimation, a conservative estimation, a couple of years ago that the U.S. economy benefited by 57 billion dollars per year. +It's a number -- very large -- a contribution to the economy of the United States for free. +And so I looked up what the economy was paying for the war in Iraq in the same year. +It was 80 billion U.S. dollars. +Well we know that that was not a cheap war. +So insects, just for free, contribute to the economy of the United States with about the same order of magnitude, just for free, without everyone knowing. +And not only in the States, but in any country, in any economy. +What do they do? +They remove dung, they pollinate our crops. +A third of all the fruits that we eat are all a result of insects taking care of the reproduction of plants. +They control pests, and they're food for animals. +They're at the start of food chains. +Small animals eat insects. +Even larger animals eat insects. +But the small animals that eat insects are being eaten by larger animals, still larger animals. +And at the end of the food chain, we are eating them as well. +There's quite a lot of people that are eating insects. +And here you see me in a small, provincial town in China, Lijiang -- about two million inhabitants. +If you go out for dinner, like in a fish restaurant, where you can select which fish you want to eat, you can select which insects you would like to eat. +And they prepare it in a wonderful way. +And here you see me enjoying a meal with caterpillars, locusts, bee pupae -- delicacies. +And you can eat something new everyday. +There's more than 1,000 species of insects That's quite a bit more than just a few mammals that we're eating, like a cow or a pig or a sheep. +More than 1,000 species -- an enormous variety. +And now you may think, okay, in this provincial town in China they're doing that, but not us. +Well we've seen already that quite some of you already ate insects maybe occasionally, but I can tell you that every one of you is eating insects, without any exception. +You're eating at least 500 grams per year. +What are you eating? +Tomato soup, peanut butter, chocolate, noodles -- any processed food that you're eating contains insects, because insects are here all around us, and when they're out there in nature they're also in our crops. +Some fruits get some insect damage. +Those are the fruits, if they're tomato, that go to the tomato soup. +If they don't have any damage, they go to the grocery. +And that's your view of a tomato. +But there's tomatoes that end up in a soup, and as long as they meet the requirements of the food agency, there can be all kinds of things in there, no problem. +In fact, why would we put these balls in the soup, there's meat in there anyway? +In fact, all our processed foods contain more proteins than we would be aware of. +So anything is a good protein source already. +Now you may say, "Okay, so we're eating 500 grams just by accident." +We're even doing this on purpose. +In a lot of food items that we have -- I have only two items here on the slide -- pink cookies or surimi sticks or, if you like, Campari -- a lot of our food products that are of a red color are dyed with a natural dye. +The surimi sticks [of] crabmeat, or is being sold as crab meat, is white fish that's being dyed with cochineal. +Cochineal is a product of an insect that lives off these cacti. +It's being produced in large amounts, 150 to 180 metric tons per year in the Canary Islands in Peru, and it's big business. +One gram of cochineal costs about 30 euros. +One gram of gold is 30 euros. +So it's a very precious thing that we're using to dye our foods. +Now the situation in the world is going to change for you and me, for everyone on this Earth. +The human population is growing very rapidly and is growing exponentially. +Where, at the moment, we have something between six and seven billion people, it will grow to about nine billion in 2050. +That means that we have a lot more mouths to feed, and this is something that worries more and more people. +There was an FAO conference last October that was completely devoted to this. +How are we going to feed this world? +And if you look at the figures up there, it says that we have a third more mouths to feed, but we need an agricultural production increase of 70 percent. +And that's especially because this world population is increasing, and it's increasing, not only in numbers, but we're also getting wealthier, and anyone that gets wealthier starts to eat more and also starts to eat more meat. +And meat, in fact, is something that costs a lot of our agricultural production. +Our diet consists, [in] some part, of animal proteins, and at the moment, most of us here get it from livestock, from fish, from game. +And we eat quite a lot of it. +In the developed world it's on average 80 kilograms per person per year, which goes up to 120 in the United States and a bit lower in some other countries, but on average 80 kilograms per person per year. +In the developing world it's much lower. +It's 25 kilograms per person per year. +But it's increasing enormously. +In China in the last 20 years, it increased from 20 to 50, and it's still increasing. +So if a third of the world population is going to increase its meat consumption from 25 to 80 on average, and a third of the world population is living in China and in India, we're having an enormous demand on meat. +And of course, we are not there to say that's only for us, it's not for them. +They have the same share that we have. +Now to start with, I should say that we are eating way too much meat in the Western world. +We could do with much, much less -- and I know, I've been a vegetarian for a long time, and you can easily do without anything. +You'll get proteins in any kind of food anyway. +But then there's a lot of problems that come with meat production, and we're being faced with that more and more often. +The first problem that we're facing is human health. +Pigs are quite like us. +They're even models in medicine, and we can even transplant organs from a pig to a human. +That means that pigs also share diseases with us. +And a pig disease, a pig virus, and a human virus can both proliferate, and because of their kind of reproduction, they can combine and produce a new virus. +This has happened in the Netherlands in the 1990s during the classical swine fever outbreak. +You get a new disease that can be deadly. +We eat insects -- they're so distantly related from us that this doesn't happen. +So that's one point for insects. +And there's the conversion factor. +You take 10 kilograms of feed, you can get one kilogram of beef, but you can get nine kilograms of locust meat. +So if you would be an entrepreneur, what would you do? +With 10 kilograms of input, you can get either one or nine kg. of output. +So far we're taking the one, or up to five kilograms of output. +We're not taking the bonus yet. +We're not taking the nine kilograms of output yet. +So that's two points for insects. +And there's the environment. +If we take 10 kilograms of food -- and it results in one kilogram of beef, the other nine kilograms are waste, and a lot of that is manure. +If you produce insects, you have less manure per kilogram of meat that you produce. +So less waste. +Furthermore, per kilogram of manure, you have much, much less ammonia and fewer greenhouse gases when you have insect manure than when you have cow manure. +So you have less waste, and the waste that you have is not as environmental malign as it is with cow dung. +So that's three points for insects. +Now there's a big "if," of course, and it is if insects produce meat that is of good quality. +Well there have been all kinds of analyses and in terms of protein, or fat, or vitamins, it's very good. +In fact, it's comparable to anything we eat as meat at the moment. +And even in terms of calories, it is very good. +One kilogram of grasshoppers has the same amount of calories as 10 hot dogs, or six Big Macs. +So that's four points for insects. +I can go on, and I could make many more points for insects, but time doesn't allow this. +So the question is, why not eat insects? +I gave you at least four arguments in favor. +We'll have to. +Even if you don't like it, you'll have to get used to this because at the moment, 70 percent of all our agricultural land is being used to produce livestock. +That's not only the land where the livestock is walking and feeding, but it's also other areas where the feed is being produced and being transported. +We can increase it a bit at the expense of rainforests, but there's a limitation very soon. +And if you remember that we need to increase agricultural production by 70 percent, we're not going to make it that way. +We could much better change from meat, from beef, to insects. +And then 80 percent of the world already eats insects, so we are just a minority -- in a country like the U.K., the USA, the Netherlands, anywhere. +On the left-hand side, you see a market in Laos where they have abundantly present all kinds of insects that you choose for dinner for the night. +On the right-hand side you see a grasshopper. +So people there are eating them, not because they're hungry, but because they think it's a delicacy. +It's just very good food. +You can vary enormously. +It has many benefits. +In fact, we have delicacy that's very much like this grasshopper: shrimps, a delicacy being sold at a high price. +Who wouldn't like to eat a shrimp? +There are a few people who don't like shrimp, but shrimp, or crabs, or crayfish, are very closely related. +They are delicacies. +In fact, a locust is a "shrimp" of the land, and it would make very good into our diet. +So why are we not eating insects yet? +Well that's just a matter of mindset. +We're not used to it, and we see insects as these organisms that are very different from us. +That's why we're changing the perception of insects. +And I'm working very hard with my colleague, Arnold van Huis, in telling people what insects are, what magnificent things they are, what magnificent jobs they do in nature. +And in fact, without insects, we would not be here in this room, because if the insects die out, we will soon die out as well. +If we die out, the insects will continue very happily. +So we have to get used to the idea of eating insects. +And some might think, well they're not yet available. +Well they are. +There are entrepreneurs in the Netherlands that produce them, and one of them is here in the audience, Marian Peeters, who's in the picture. +I predict that later this year, you'll get them in the supermarkets -- not visible, but as animal protein in the food. +And maybe by 2020, you'll buy them just knowing that this is an insect that you're going to eat. +And they're being made in the most wonderful ways. +A Dutch chocolate maker. +So there's even a lot of design to it. +Well in the Netherlands, we have an innovative Minister of Agriculture, and she puts the insects on the menu in her restaurant in her ministry. +And when she got all the Ministers of Agriculture of the E.U. +over to the Hague recently, she went to a high-class restaurant, and they ate insects all together. +It's not something that is a hobby of mine. +It's really taken off the ground. +So why not eat insects? +You should try it yourself. +A couple of years ago, we had 1,750 people all together in a square in Wageningen town, and they ate insects at the same moment, and this was still big, big news. +I think soon it will not be big news anymore when we all eat insects, because it's just a normal way of doing. +So you can try it yourself today, and I would say, enjoy. +And I'm going to show to Bruno some first tries, and he can have the first bite. +Bruno Giussani: Look at them first. Look at them first. +Marcel Dicke: It's all protein. +BG: That's exactly the same [one] you saw in the video actually. +And it looks delicious. +They just make it [with] nuts or something. +MD: Thank you. +I'm here today to share with you an extraordinary journey - extraordinarily rewarding journey, actually - which brought me into training rats to save human lives by detecting landmines and tuberculosis. +As a child, I had two passions. +One was a passion for rodents. +I had all kinds of rats, mice, hamsters, gerbils, squirrels. +You name it, I bred it, and I sold them to pet shops. +I also had a passion for Africa. +Growing up in a multicultural environment, we had African students in the house, and I learned about their stories, so different backgrounds, dependency on imported know-how, goods, services, exuberant cultural diversity. +Africa was truly fascinating for me. +I became an industrial engineer, engineer in product development, and I focused on appropriate detection technologies, actually the first appropriate technologies for developing countries. +I started working in the industry, but I wasn't really happy to contribute to a material consumer society in a linear, extracting and manufacturing mode. +I quit my job to focus on the real world problem: landmines. +We're talking '95 now. +Princess Diana is announcing on TV that landmines form a structural barrier to any development, which is really true. +As long as these devices are there, or there is suspicion of landmines, you can't really enter into the land. +Actually, there was an appeal worldwide for new detectors sustainable in the environments where they're needed to produce, which is mainly in the developing world. +We chose rats. +Why would you choose rats? +Because, aren't they vermin? +Well, actually rats are, in contrary to what most people think about them, rats are highly sociable creatures. +And actually, our product -- what you see here. +There's a target somewhere here. +You see an operator, a trained African with his rats in front who actually are left and right. +There, the animal finds a mine. +It scratches on the soil. +And the animal comes back for a food reward. +Very, very simple. +Very sustainable in this environment. +Here, the animal gets its food reward. +And that's how it works. +Very, very simple. +Now why would you use rats? +Rats have been used since the '50s last century, in all kinds of experiments. +Rats have more genetic material allocated to olfaction than any other mammal species. +They're extremely sensitive to smell. +Moreover, they have the mechanisms to map all these smells and to communicate about it. +Now how do we communicate with rats? +Well don't talk rat, but we have a clicker, a standard method for animal training, which you see there. +A clicker, which makes a particular sound with which you can reinforce particular behaviors. +First of all, we associate the click sound with a food reward, which is smashed banana and peanuts together in a syringe. +Once the animal knows this, we make the task a bit more difficult. +It learns how to find the target smell in a cage with several holes, up to 10 holes. +Then the animal learns to walk on a leash in the open and find targets. +In the next step, animals learn to find real mines in real minefields. +They are tested and accredited according to International Mine Action Standards, just like dogs have to pass a test. +This consists of 400 square meters. +There's a number of mines placed blindly, and the team of trainer and their rat have to find all the targets. +If the animal does that, it gets a license as an accredited animal to be operational in the field -- just like dogs, by the way. +Maybe one slight difference: we can train rats at a fifth of the price of training the mining dog. +This is our team in Mozambique: one Tanzanian trainer, who transfers the skills to these three Mozambican fellows. +And you should see the pride in the eyes of these people. +They have a skill, which makes them much less dependent on foreign aid. +Moreover, this small team together with, of course, you need the heavy vehicles and the manual de-miners to follow-up. +But with this small investment in a rat capacity, we have demonstrated in Mozambique that we can reduce the cost-price per square meter up to 60 percent of what is currently normal -- two dollars per square meter, we do it at $1.18, and we can still bring that price down. +Question of scale. +If you can bring in more rats, we can actually make the output even bigger. +We have a demonstration site in Mozambique. +Eleven African governments have seen that they can become less dependent by using this technology. +They have signed the pact for peace and treaty in the Great Lakes region, and they endorse hero rats to clear their common borders of landmines. +But let me bring you to a very different problem. +And there's about 6,000 people last year that walked on a landmine, but worldwide last year, almost 1.9 million died from tuberculosis as a first cause of infection. +Especially in Africa where T.B. and HIV are strongly linked, there is a huge common problem. +Microscopy, the standard WHO procedure, reaches from 40 to 60 percent reliability. +In Tanzania -- the numbers don't lie -- 45 percent of people -- T.B. patients -- get diagnosed with T.B. before they die. +It means that, if you have T.B., you have more chance that you won't be detected, but will just die from T.B. secondary infections and so on. +And if, however, you are detected very early, diagnosed early, treatment can start, and even in HIV-positives, it makes sense. +You can actually cure T.B., even in HIV-positives. +So in our common language, Dutch, the name for T.B. +is "tering," which, etymologically, refers to the smell of tar. +Already the old Chinese and the Greek, Hippocrates, have actually published, documented, that T.B. can be diagnosed based on the volatiles exuding from patients. +So what we did is we collected some samples -- just as a way of testing -- from hospitals, trained rats on them and see if this works, and wonder, well, we can reach 89 percent sensitivity, 86 percent specificity using multiple rats in a row. +This is how it works, and really, this is a generic technology. +We're talking now explosives, tuberculosis, but can you imagine, you can actually put anything under there. +So how does it work? +You have a cassette with 10 samples. +You put these 10 samples at once in the cage. +An animal only needs two hundredths of a second to discriminate the scent, so it goes extremely fast. +Here it's already at the third sample. +This is a positive sample. +It gets a click sound and comes for the food reward. +And by doing so, very fast, we can have like a second-line opinion to see which patients are positive, which are negative. +Just as an indication, whereas a microscopist can process 40 samples in a day, a rat can process the same amount of samples in seven minutes only. +A cage like this -- A cage like this -- provided that you have rats, and we have now currently 25 tuberculosis rats -- a cage like this, operating throughout the day, can process 1,680 samples. +Can you imagine the potential offspring applications -- environmental detection of pollutants in soils, customs applications, detection of illicit goods in containers and so on. +But let's stick first to tuberculosis. +I just want to briefly highlight, the blue rods are the scores of microscopy only at the five clinics in Dar es Salaam on a population of 500,000 people, where 15,000 reported to get a test done. +Microscopy for 1,800 patients. +And by just presenting the samples once more to the rats and looping those results back, we were able to increase case detection rates by over 30 percent. +Throughout last year, we've been -- depending on which intervals you take -- we've been consistently increasing case detection rates in five hospitals in Dar es Salaam between 30 and 40 percent. +So this is really considerable. +Knowing that a missed patient by microscopy infects up to 15 people, healthy people, per year, you can be sure that we have saved lots of lives. +At least our hero rats have saved lots of lives. +The way forward for us is now to standardize this technology. +And there are simple things like, for instance, we have a small laser in the sniffer hole where the animal has to stick for five seconds. +So, to standardize this. +Also, to standardize the pellets, the food rewards, and to semi-automate this in order to replicate this on a much larger scale and affect the lives of many more people. +To conclude, there are also other applications at the horizon. +Here is a first prototype of our camera rat, which is a rat with a rat backpack with a camera that can go under rubble to detect for victims after earthquake and so on. +This is in a prototype stage. +We don't have a working system here yet. +To conclude, I would actually like to say, you may think this is about rats, these projects, but in the end it is about people. +It is about empowering vulnerable communities to tackle difficult, expensive and dangerous humanitarian detection tasks, and doing that with a local resource, plenty available. +So something completely different is to keep on challenging your perception about the resources surrounding you, whether they are environmental, technological, animal, or human. +And to respectfully harmonize with them in order to foster a sustainable world. +Thank you very much. +Restaurants and the food industry in general are pretty much the most wasteful industry in the world. +For every calorie of food that we consume here in Britain today, 10 calories are taken to produce it. +That's a lot. +I want to take something rather humble to discuss. +I found this in the farmers' market today, and if anybody wants to take it home and mash it later, you're very welcome to. +The humble potato -- and I've spent a long time, 25 years, preparing these. +And it pretty much goes through eight different forms in its lifetime. +First of all, it's planted, and that takes energy. +It grows and is nurtured. +It's then harvested. +It's then distributed, and distribution is a massive issue. +It's then sold and bought, and it's then delivered to me. +I basically take it, prepare it, and then people consume it -- hopefully they enjoy it. +The last stage is basically waste, and this is is pretty much where everybody disregards it. +There are different types of waste. +There's a waste of time; there's a waste of space; there's a waste of energy; and there's a waste of waste. +And every business I've been working on over the past five years, I'm trying to lower each one of these elements. +Okay, so you ask what a sustainable restaurant looks like. +Basically a restaurant just like any other. +This is the restaurant, Acorn House. +Front and back. +So let me run you through a few ideas. +Floor: sustainable, recyclable. +Chairs: recycled and recyclable. +Tables: Forestry Commission. +This is Norwegian Forestry Commission wood. +This bench, although it was uncomfortable for my mom -- she didn't like sitting on it, so she went and bought these cushions for me from a local jumble sale -- reusing, a job that was pretty good. +I hate waste, especially walls. +If they're not working, put a shelf on it, which I did, and that shows all the customers my products. +The whole business is run on sustainable energy. +This is powered by wind. All of the lights are daylight bulbs. +Paint is all low-volume chemical, which is very important when you're working in the room all the time. +I was experimenting with these -- I don't know if you can see it -- but there's a work surface there. +And that's a plastic polymer. +And I was thinking, well I'm trying to think nature, nature, nature. +But I thought, no, no, experiment with resins, experiment with polymers. +Will they outlive me? They probably might. +Right, here's a reconditioned coffee machine. +It actually looks better than a brand new one -- so looking good there. +Now reusing is vital. +And we filter our own water. +We put them in bottles, refrigerate them, and then we reuse that bottle again and again and again. +Here's a great little example. +If you can see this orange tree, it's actually growing in a car tire, which has been turned inside out and sewn up. +It's got my compost in it, which is growing an orange tree, which is great. +This is the kitchen, which is in the same room. +I basically created a menu that allowed people to choose the amount and volume of food that they wanted to consume. +Rather than me putting a dish down, they were allowed to help themselves to as much or as little as they wanted. +Okay, it's a small kitchen. It's about five square meters. +It serves 220 people a day. +We generate quite a lot of waste. +This is the waste room. +You can't get rid of waste. +But this story's not about eliminating it, it's about minimizing it. +In here, I have produce and boxes that are unavoidable. +I put my food waste into this dehydrating, desiccating macerator -- turns food into an inner material, which I can store and then compost later. +I compost it in this garden. +All of the soil you can see there is basically my food, which is generated by the restaurant, and it's growing in these tubs, which I made out of storm-felled trees and wine casks and all kinds of things. +Three compost bins -- go through about 70 kilos of raw vegetable waste a week -- really good, makes fantastic compost. +A couple of wormeries in there too. +And actually one of the wormeries was a big wormery. I had a lot of worms in it. +And I tried taking the dried food waste, putting it to the worms, going, "There you go, dinner." +It was like vegetable jerky, and killed all of them. +I don't know how many worms [were] in there, but I've got some heavy karma coming, I tell you. +What you're seeing here is a water filtration system. +This takes the water out of the restaurant, runs it through these stone beds -- this is going to be mint in there -- and I sort of water the garden with it. +And I ultimately want to recycle that, put it back into the loos, maybe wash hands with it, I don't know. +So, water is a very important aspect. +I started meditating on that and created a restaurant called Waterhouse. +If I could get Waterhouse to be a no-carbon restaurant that is consuming no gas to start with, that would be great. +I managed to do it. +This restaurant looks a little bit like Acorn House -- same chairs, same tables. +They're all English and a little bit more sustainable. +But this is an electrical restaurant. +The whole thing is electric, the restaurant and the kitchen. +And it's run on hydroelectricity, so I've gone from air to water. +Now it's important to understand that this room is cooled by water, heated by water, filters its own water, and it's powered by water. +It literally is Waterhouse. +The air handling system inside it -- I got rid of air-conditioning because I thought there was too much consumption going on there. +This is basically air-handling. +I'm taking the temperature of the canal outside, pumping it through the heat exchange mechanism, it's turning through these amazing sails on the roof, and that, in turn, is falling softly onto the people in the restaurant, cooling them, or heating them, as the need may be. +And this is an English willow air diffuser, and that's softly moving that air current through the room. +Very advanced, no air-conditioning -- I love it. +In the canal, which is just outside the restaurant, there is hundreds of meters of coil piping. +This takes the temperature of the canal and turns it into this four-degrees of heat exchange. +I have no idea how it works, but I paid a lot of money for it. +And what's great is one of the chefs who works in that restaurant lives on this boat -- it's off-grid; it generates all its own power. +He's growing all his own fruit, and that's fantastic. +There's no accident in names of these restaurants. +Acorn House is the element of wood; Waterhouse is the element of water; and I'm thinking, well, I'm going to be making five restaurants based on the five Chinese medicine acupuncture specialities. +I've got water and wood. I'm just about to do fire. +I've got metal and earth to come. +So you've got to watch your space for that. +Okay. So this is my next project. +Five weeks old, it's my baby, and it's hurting real bad. +The People's Supermarket. +So basically, the restaurants only really hit people who believed in what I was doing anyway. +What I needed to do was get food out to a broader spectrum of people. +So people -- i.e., perhaps, more working-class -- or perhaps people who actually believe in a cooperative. +This is a social enterprise, not-for-profit cooperative supermarket. +It really is about the social disconnect between food, communities in urban settings and their relationship to rural growers -- connecting communities in London to rural growers. +Really important. +So I'm committing to potatoes; I'm committing to milk; I'm committing to leeks and broccoli -- all very important stuff. +I've kept the tiles; I've kept the floors; I've kept the trunking; I've got in some recycled fridges; I've got some recycled tills; I've got some recycled trolleys. +I mean, the whole thing is is super-sustainable. +In fact, I'm trying and I'm going to make this the most sustainable supermarket in the world. +That's zero food waste. +And no one's doing that just yet. +In fact, Sainsbury's, if you're watching, let's have a go. Try it on. +I'm going to get there before you. +So nature doesn't create waste doesn't create waste as such. +Everything in nature is used up in a closed continuous cycle with waste being the end of the beginning, and that's been something that's been nurturing me for some time, and it's an important statement to understand. +If we don't stand up and make a difference and think about sustainable food, think about the sustainable nature of it, then we may fail. +But, I wanted to get up and show you that we can do it if we're more responsible. +Environmentally conscious businesses are doable. +They're here. You can see I've done three so far; I've got a few more to go. +The idea is embryonic. +I think it's important. +I think that if we reduce, reuse, refuse and recycle -- right at the end there -- recycling is the last point I want to make; but it's the four R's, rather than the three R's -- then I think we're going to be on our way. +So these three are not perfect -- they're ideas. +I think that there are many problems to come, but with help, I'm sure I'm going to find solutions. +And I hope you all take part. +Thank you very much. +It sure used to be a lot easier to be from Iceland, because until a couple of years ago, people knew hardly anything about us, and I could basically come out here and say only good things about us. +But in the last couple of years we've become infamous for a couple of things. +First, of course, the economic meltdown. +It actually got so bad that somebody put our country up for sale on eBay. +Ninety-nine pence was the starting price and no reserve. +Then there was the volcano that interrupted the travel plans of almost all of you and many of your friends, including President Obama. +By the way, the pronunciation is "Eyjafjallajokull." +None of your media got it right. +But I'm not here to share these stories about these two things exactly. +I'm here to tell you the story of Audur Capital, which is a financial firm founded by me and Kristin -- who you see in the picture -- in the spring of 2007, just over a year before the economic collapse hit. +Why would two women who were enjoying successful careers in investment banking in the corporate sector leave to found a financial services firm? +Well let it suffice to say that we felt a bit overwhelmed with testosterone. +And I'm not here to say that men are to blame for the crisis and what happened in my country. +But I can surely tell you that in my country, much like on Wall Street and the city of London and elsewhere, men were at the helm of the game of the financial sector, and that kind of lack of diversity and sameness leads to disastrous problems. +So we decided, a bit fed-up with this world and also with the strong feeling in our stomach that this wasn't sustainable, to found a financial services firm based on our values, and we decided to incorporate feminine values into the world of finance. +Raised quite a few eyebrows in Iceland. +We weren't known as the typical "women" women in Iceland up until then. +So it was almost like coming out of the closet to actually talk about the fact that we were women and that we believed that we had a set of values and a way of doing business that would be more sustainable than what we had experienced until then. +And we got a great group of people to join us -- principled people with great skills, and investors with a vision and values to match ours. +And together we got through the eye of the financial storm in Iceland without taking any direct losses to our equity or to the funds of our clients. +And although I want to thank the talented people of our company foremost for that -- and also there's a factor of luck and timing -- we are absolutely convinced that we did this because of our values. +So let me share with you our values. +We believe in risk awareness. +What does that mean? +We believe that you should always understand the risks that you're taking, and we will not invest in things we don't understand. +Not a complicated thing. +But in 2007, at the height of the sub-prime and all the complicated financial structures, it was quite opposite to the reckless risk-taking behaviors that we saw on the market. +And, although we do work in the financial sector, where Excel is king, we believe in emotional capital. +And we believe that doing emotional due diligence is just as important as doing financial due diligence. +It is actually people that make money and lose money, not Excel spreadsheets. +Last, but not least, we believe in profit with principles. +We care how we make our profit. +So while we want to make economic profit for ourselves and our customers, we are willing to do it with a long-term view, and we like to have a wider definition of profits than just the economic profit in the next quarter. +So we like to see profits, plus positive social and environmental benefits, when we invest. +But it wasn't just about the values, although we are convinced that they matter. +It was also about a business opportunity. +It's the female trend, and it's the sustainability trend, that are going to create some of the most interesting investment opportunities in the years to come. +The whole thing about the female trend is not about women being better than men; it is actually about women being different from men, bringing different values and different ways to the table. +So what do you get? You get better decision-making, and you get less herd behavior, and both of those things hit your bottom line with very positive results. +But one has to wonder, now that we've had this financial sector collapse upon us in Iceland -- and by the way, Europe looks pretty bad right now, and many would say that you in America are heading for some more trouble as well. +Now that we've had all that happen, and we have all this data out there telling us that it's much better to have diversity around the decision-making tables, will we see business and finance change? +Will government change? +Well I'll give you my straight talk about this. +I have days that I believe, but I have days that I'm full of doubt. +Have you seen the incredible urge out there to rebuild the very things that failed us? +Einstein said that this was the definition of insanity -- to do the same things over and over again, hoping for a different outcome. +So I guess the world is insane, because I see entirely too much of doing the same things over and over again, hoping that this time it's not going to collapse upon us. +I want to see more revolutionary thinking, and I remain hopeful. +Like TED, I believe in people. +And I know that consumers are becoming more conscious, and they are going to start voting with their wallets, and they are going to change the face of business and finance from the outside, if they don't do it from the inside. +But I'm more of the revolutionary, and I should be; I'm from Iceland. +We have a long history of strong, courageous, independent women, ever since the Viking age. +And I want to tell you when I first realized that women matter to the economy and to the society, I was seven -- it happened to be my mother's birthday -- October 24, 1975. +Women in Iceland took the day off. +From work or from home, they took the day off, and nothing worked in Iceland. +They marched into the center of Reykjavik, and they put women's issues onto the agenda. +And some say this was the start of a global movement. +For me it was the start of a long journey, but I decided that day to matter. +Five years later, Iceland elected Vigdis Finnbogadottir as their president -- first female to become head of state, single mom, a breast cancer survivor who had had one of her breasts removed. +And at one of the campaign sessions, she had one of her male contenders allude to the fact that she couldn't become president -- she was a woman, and even half a woman. +That night she won the election, because she came back -- not just because of his crappy behavior -- but she came back and said, "Well, I'm actually not going to breastfeed the Icelandic nation; I'm going to lead it." +So I've had incredibly many women role models that have influenced who I am and where I am today. +But in spite of that, I went through the first 10 or 15 years of my career mostly in denial of being a woman. +Started in corporate America, and I was absolutely convinced that it was just about the individual, that women and men would have just the same opportunities. +But I've come to conclude lately that it isn't like that. +We are not the same, and it's great. Because of our differences, we create and sustain life. +So we should embrace our difference and aim for challenge. +The final thought I want to leave with you is that I'm fed up with this tyranny of either/or choices in life -- either it's men or it's women. +We need to start embracing the beauty of balance. +So let's move away from thinking about business here and philanthropy there, and let's start thinking about doing good business. +That's how we change the world. That's the only sustainable future. +Thank you. +I grew up in New York City, between Harlem and the Bronx. +I've later come to know that to be the collective socialization of men, better known as the "man box." +See this man box has in it all the ingredients of how we define what it means to be a man. +Now I also want to say, without a doubt, there are some wonderful, wonderful, absolutely wonderful things about being a man. +But at the same time, there's some stuff that's just straight up twisted, and we really need to begin to challenge, look at it and really get in the process of deconstructing, redefining, what we come to know as manhood. +This is my two at home, Kendall and Jay. +They're 11 and 12. +Kendall's 15 months older than Jay. +There was a period of time when my wife -- her name is Tammie -- and I, we just got real busy and whip, bam, boom: Kendall and Jay. +And when they were about five and six, four and five, Jay could come to me, come to me crying. +It didn't matter what she was crying about, she could get on my knee, she could snot my sleeve up, just cry, cry it out. +Daddy's got you. That's all that's important. +Now Kendall on the other hand -- and like I said, he's only 15 months older than her -- he'd come to me crying, it's like as soon as I would hear him cry, a clock would go off. +I would give the boy probably about 30 seconds, which means, by the time he got to me, I was already saying things like, "Why are you crying? +Hold your head up. Look at me. +Explain to me what's wrong. +Tell me what's wrong. I can't understand you. +Why are you crying?" +And out of my own frustration of my role and responsibility of building him up as a man to fit into these guidelines and these structures that are defining this man box, I would find myself saying things like, "Just go in your room. +Just go on, go on in your room. +Sit down, get yourself together and come back and talk to me when you can talk to me like a --" what? +(Audience: Man.) Like a man. +And he's five years old. +And as I grow in life, I would say to myself, "My God, what's wrong with me? +What am I doing? Why would I do this?" +And I think back. +I think back to my father. +There was a time in my life where we had a very troubled experience in our family. +My brother, Henry, he died tragically when we were teenagers. +We lived in New York City, as I said. +We lived in the Bronx at the time, and the burial was in a place called Long Island, it was about two hours outside of the city. +And as we were preparing to come back from the burial, the cars stopped at the bathroom to let folks take care of themselves before the long ride back to the city. +And the limousine empties out. +My mother, my sister, my auntie, they all get out, but my father and I stayed in the limousine, and no sooner than the women got out, he burst out crying. +He didn't want cry in front of me, but he knew he wasn't going to make it back to the city, and it was better me than to allow himself to express these feelings and emotions in front of the women. +And this is a man who, 10 minutes ago, had just put his teenage son in the ground -- something I just can't even imagine. +The thing that sticks with me the most is that he was apologizing to me for crying in front of me, and at the same time, he was also giving me props, lifting me up, for not crying. +I come to also look at this as this fear that we have as men, this fear that just has us paralyzed, holding us hostage to this man box. +I can remember speaking to a 12-year-old boy, a football player, and I asked him, I said, "How would you feel if, in front of all the players, your coach told you you were playing like a girl?" +Now I expected him to say something like, I'd be sad; I'd be mad; I'd be angry, or something like that. +No, the boy said to me -- the boy said to me, "It would destroy me." +And I said to myself, "God, if it would destroy him to be called a girl, what are we then teaching him about girls?" +It took me back to a time when I was about 12 years old. +I grew up in tenement buildings in the inner city. +At this time we're living in the Bronx, and in the building next to where I lived there was a guy named Johnny. +He was about 16 years old, and we were all about 12 years old -- younger guys. +And he was hanging out with all us younger guys. +And this guy, he was up to a lot of no good. +He was the kind of kid who parents would have to wonder, "What is this 16-year-old boy doing with these 12-year-old boys?" +And he did spend a lot of time up to no good. +He was a troubled kid. +His mother had died from a heroin overdose. +He was being raised by his grandmother. +His father wasn't on the set. +His grandmother had two jobs. +He was home alone a lot. +But I've got to tell you, we young guys, we looked up to this dude, man. +He was cool. He was fine. +That's what the sisters said, "He was fine." +He was having sex. +We all looked up to him. +So one day, I'm out in front of the house doing something -- just playing around, doing something -- I don't know what. +He looks out his window; he calls me upstairs; he said, "Hey Anthony." +They called me Anthony growing up as a kid. +"Hey Anthony, come on upstairs." +Johnny call, you go. +So I run right upstairs. +As he opens the door, he says to me, "Do you want some?" +Now I immediately knew what he meant. +Because for me growing up at that time, and our relationship with this man box, "Do you want some?" meant one of two things: sex or drugs -- and we weren't doing drugs. +Now my box, my card, my man box card, was immediately in jeopardy. +Two things: One, I never had sex. +We don't talk about that as men. +You only tell your dearest, closest friend, sworn to secrecy for life, the first time you had sex. +For everybody else, we go around like we've been having sex since we were two. +There ain't no first time. +The other thing I couldn't tell him is that I didn't want any. +That's even worse. We're supposed to always be on the prowl. +Women are objects, especially sexual objects. +Anyway, so I couldn't tell him any of that. +So, like my mother would say, make a long story short, I just simply said to Johnny, "Yes." +He told me to go in his room. +I go in his room. On his bed is a girl from the neighborhood named Sheila. +She's 16 years old. +She's nude. +She's what I know today to be mentally ill, higher-functioning at times than others. +We had a whole choice of inappropriate names for her. +Anyway, Johnny had just gotten through having sex with her. +Well actually, he raped her, but he would say he had sex with her. +Because, while Sheila never said no, she also never said yes. +So he was offering me the opportunity to do the same. +So when I go in the room, I close the door. +Folks, I'm petrified. +I stand with my back to the door so Johnny can't bust in the room and see that I'm not doing anything, and I stand there long enough that I could have actually done something. +So now I'm no longer trying to figure out what I'm going to do; I'm trying to figure out how I'm going to get out of this room. +So in my 12 years of wisdom, I zip my pants down, I walk out into the room, and lo and behold to me, while I was in the room with Sheila, Johnny was back at the window calling guys up. +So now there's a living room full of guys. +It was like the waiting room in the doctor's office. +And they asked me how was it, and I say to them, "It was good," and I zip my pants up in front of them, and I head for the door. +Now I say this all with remorse, and I was feeling a tremendous amount of remorse at that time, but I was conflicted, because, while I was feeling remorse, I was excited, because I didn't get caught. +But I knew I felt bad about what was happening. +This fear, getting outside the man box, totally enveloped me. +It was way more important to me, about me and my man box card than about Sheila and what was happening to her. +See collectively, we as men are taught to have less value in women, to view them as property and the objects of men. +We see that as an equation that equals violence against women. +We as men, good men, the large majority of men, we operate on the foundation of this whole collective socialization. +We kind of see ourselves separate, but we're very much a part of it. +You see, we have to come to understand that less value, property and objectification is the foundation and the violence can't happen without it. +So we're very much a part of the solution as well as the problem. +The center for disease control says that men's violence against women is at epidemic proportions, is the number one health concern for women in this country and abroad. +So quickly, I'd like to just say, this is the love of my life, my daughter Jay. +The world I envision for her -- how do I want men to be acting and behaving? +I need you on board. I need you with me. +He said to me, "I would be free." +Thank you folks. +Now I'm going to give you a story. +It's an Indian story about an Indian woman and her journey. +Let me begin with my parents. +I'm a product of this visionary mother and father. +Many years ago, when I was born in the '50s -- '50s and '60s didn't belong to girls in India. +They belonged to boys. +They belonged to boys who would join business and inherit business from parents, and girls would be dolled up to get married. +My family, in my city, and almost in the country, was unique. +We were four of us, not one, and fortunately no boys. +We were four girls and no boys. +And my parents were part of a landed property family. +My father defied his own grandfather, almost to the point of disinheritance, because he decided to educate all four of us. +He sent us to one of the best schools in the city and gave us the best education. +As I've said, when we're born, we don't choose our parents, and when we go to school, we don't choose our school. +Children don't choose a school. +They just get the school which parents choose for them. +So this is the foundation time which I got. +I grew up like this, and so did my other three sisters. +And my father used to say at that time, "I'm going to spread all my four daughters in four corners of the world." +I don't know if he really meant [that], but it happened. +I'm the only one who's left in India. +One is a British, another is an American and the third is a Canadian. +So we are four of us in four corners of the world. +And since I said they're my role models, I followed two things which my father and mother gave me. +One, they said, "Life is on an incline. +You either go up, or you come down." +And the second thing, which has stayed with me, which became my philosophy of life, which made all the difference, is: 100 things happen in your life, good or bad. +Out of 100, 90 are your creation. +They're good. They're your creation. Enjoy it. +If they're bad, they're your creation. Learn from it. +Ten are nature-sent over which you can't do a thing. +It's like a death of a relative, or a cyclone, or a hurricane, or an earthquake. +You can't do a thing about it. +You've got to just respond to the situation. +But that response comes out of those 90 points. +Since I'm a product of this philosophy, of 90/10, and secondly, "life on an incline," that's the way I grew up to be valuing what I got. +I'm a product of opportunities, rare opportunities in the '50s and the '60s, which girls didn't get, and I was conscious of the fact that what my parents were giving me was something unique. +Because all of my best school friends were getting dolled up to get married with a lot of dowry, and here I was with a tennis racket and going to school and doing all kinds of extracurricular activities. +I thought I must tell you this. +Why I said this, is the background. +This is what comes next. +I joined the Indian Police Service as a tough woman, a woman with indefatigable stamina, because I used to run for my tennis titles, etc. +But I joined the Indian Police Service, and then it was a new pattern of policing. +For me the policing stood for power to correct, power to prevent and power to detect. +This is something like a new definition ever given in policing in India -- the power to prevent. +Because normally it was always said, power to detect, and that's it, or power to punish. +But I decided no, it's a power to prevent, because that's what I learned when I was growing up. +How do I prevent the 10 and never make it more than 10? +So this was how it came into my service, and it was different from the men. +I didn't want to make it different from the men, but it was different, because this was the way I was different. +And I redefined policing concepts in India. +I'm going to take you on two journeys, my policing journey and my prison journey. +What you see, if you see the title called "PM's car held." +This was the first time a prime minister of India was given a parking ticket. +That's the first time in India, and I can tell you, that's the last time you're hearing about it. +It'll never happen again in India, because now it was once and forever. +And the rule was, because I was sensitive, I was compassionate, I was very sensitive to injustice, and I was very pro-justice. +That's the reason, as a woman, I joined the Indian Police Service. +I had other options, but I didn't choose them. +So I'm going to move on. +This is about tough policing, equal policing. +Now I was known as "here's a woman that's not going to listen." +So I was sent to all indiscriminate postings, postings which others would say no. +I now went to a prison assignment as a police officer. +Normally police officers don't want to do prison. +They sent me to prison to lock me up, thinking, "Now there will be no cars and no VIPs to be given tickets to. +Let's lock her up." +Here I got a prison assignment. +This was a prison assignment which was one big den of criminals. +Obviously, it was. +But 10,000 men, of which only 400 were women -- 10,000 -- 9,000 plus about 600 were men. +Terrorists, rapists, burglars, gangsters -- some of them I'd sent to jail as a police officer outside. +And then how did I deal with them? +The first day when I went in, I didn't know how to look at them. +And I said, "Do you pray?" When I looked at the group, I said, "Do you pray?" +They saw me as a young, short woman wearing a pathan suit. +I said, "Do you pray?" +And they didn't say anything. +I said, "Do you pray? Do you want to pray?" +They said, "Yes." I said, "All right, let's pray." +I prayed for them, and things started to change. +This is a visual of education inside the prison. +Friends, this has never happened, where everybody in the prison studies. +I started this with community support. +Government had no budget. +It was one of the finest, largest volunteerism in any prison in the world. +This was initiated in Delhi prison. +You see one sample of a prisoner teaching a class. +These are hundreds of classes. +Nine to eleven, every prisoner went into the education program -- the same den in which they thought they would put me behind the bar and things would be forgotten. +We converted this into an ashram -- from a prison to an ashram through education. +I think that's the bigger change. +It was the beginning of a change. +Teachers were prisoners. Teachers were volunteers. +Books came from donated schoolbooks. +Stationery was donated. +Everything was donated, because there was no budget of education for the prison. +Now if I'd not done that, it would have been a hellhole. +That's the second landmark. +I want to show you some moments of history in my journey, which probably you would never ever get to see anywhere in the world. +One, the numbers you'll never get to see. +Secondly, this concept. +This was a meditation program inside the prison of over 1,000 prisoners. +One thousand prisoners who sat in meditation. +This was one of the most courageous steps I took as a prison governor. +And this is what transformed. +You want to know more about this, go and see this film, "Doing Time, Doing Vipassana." +You will hear about it, and you will love it. +And write to me on KiranBedi.com, and I'll respond to you. +Let me show you the next slide. +I took the same concept of mindfulness, because, why did I bring meditation into the Indian prison? +Because crime is a product of a distorted mind. +It was distortion of mind which needed to be addressed to control. +Not by preaching, not by telling, not by reading, but by addressing your mind. +I took the same thing to the police, because police, equally, were prisoners of their minds, and they felt as if it was "we" and "they," and that the people don't cooperate. +This worked. +This is a feedback box called a petition box. +This is a concept which I introduced to listen to complaints, listen to grievances. +This was a magic box. +This was a sensitive box. +This is how a prisoner drew how they felt about the prison. +If you see somebody in the blue -- yeah, this guy -- he was a prisoner, and he was a teacher. +And you see, everybody's busy. There was no time to waste. +Let me wrap it up. +I'm currently into movements, movements of education of the under-served children, which is thousands -- India is all about thousands. +Secondly is about the anti-corruption movement in India. +That's a big way we, as a small group of activists, have drafted an ombudsman bill for the government of India. +Friends, you will hear a lot about it. +That's the movement at the moment I'm driving, and that's the movement and ambition of my life. +Thank you very much. +Thank you. Thank you very much. Thank you. +Thank you. Thank you. Thank you. +We are now going through an amazing and unprecedented moment where the power dynamics between men and women are shifting very rapidly, and in many of the places where it counts the most, women are, in fact, taking control of everything. +In my mother's day, she didn't go to college. +Not a lot of women did. +And now, for every two men who get a college degree, three women will do the same. +Women, for the first time this year, became the majority of the American workforce. +And they're starting to dominate lots of professions -- doctors, lawyers, bankers, accountants. +Over 50 percent of managers are women these days, and in the 15 professions projected to grow the most in the next decade, all but two of them are dominated by women. +So the global economy is becoming a place where women are more successful than men, believe it or not, and these economic changes are starting to rapidly affect our culture -- what our romantic comedies look like, what our marriages look like, what our dating lives look like, and our new set of superheroes. +For a long time, this is the image of American manhood that dominated -- tough, rugged, in control of his own environment. +A few years ago, the Marlboro Man was retired and replaced by this much less impressive specimen, who is a parody of American manhood, and that's what we have in our commercials today. +The phrase "first-born son" is so deeply ingrained in our consciousness that this statistic alone shocked me. +In American fertility clinics, 75 percent of couples are requesting girls and not boys. +And in places where you wouldn't think, such as South Korea, India and China, the very strict patriarchal societies are starting to break down a little, and families are no longer strongly preferring first-born sons. +If you think about this, if you just open your eyes to this possibility and start to connect the dots, you can see the evidence everywhere. +You can see it in college graduation patterns, in job projections, in our marriage statistics, you can see it in the Icelandic elections, which you'll hear about later, and you can see it on South Korean surveys on son preference, that something amazing and unprecedented is happening with women. +Certainly this is not the first time that we've had great progress with women. +The '20s and the '60s also come to mind. +But the difference is that, back then, it was driven by a very passionate feminist movement that was trying to project its own desires, whereas this time, it's not about passion, and it's not about any kind of movement. +This is really just about the facts of this economic moment that we live in. +The 200,000-year period in which men have been top dog is truly coming to an end, believe it or not, and that's why I talk about the "end of men." +Now all you men out there, this is not the moment where you tune out or throw some tomatoes, because the point is that this is happening to all of us. +I myself have a husband and a father and two sons whom I dearly love. +And this is why I like to talk about this, because if we don't acknowledge it, then the transition will be pretty painful. +But if we do take account of it, then I think it will go much more smoothly. +I first started thinking about this about a year and a half ago. +I was reading headlines about the recession just like anyone else, and I started to notice a distinct pattern -- that the recession was affecting men much more deeply than it was affecting women. +And I remembered back to about 10 years ago when I read a book by Susan Faludi called "Stiffed: The Betrayal of the American Man," in which she described how hard the recession had hit men, and I started to think about whether it had gotten worse this time around in this recession. +And I realized that two things were different this time around. +The first was that these were no longer just temporary hits that the recession was giving men -- that this was reflecting a deeper underlying shift in our global economy. +And second, that the story was no longer just about the crisis of men, but it was also about what was happening to women. +And now look at this second set of slides. +These are headlines about what's been going on with women in the next few years. +These are things we never could have imagined a few years ago. +Women, a majority of the workplace. +And labor statistics: women take up most managerial jobs. +This second set of headlines -- you can see that families and marriages are starting to shift. +And look at that last headline -- young women earning more than young men. +That particular headline comes to me from a market research firm. +They were basically asked by one of their clients who was going to buy houses in that neighborhood in the future. +And they expected that it would be young families, or young men, just like it had always been. +But in fact, they found something very surprising. +It was young, single women who were the major purchasers of houses in the neighborhood. +And so they decided, because they were intrigued by this finding, to do a nationwide survey. +So they spread out all the census data, and what they found, the guy described to me as a shocker, which is that in 1,997 out of 2,000 communities, women, young women, were making more money than young men. +So here you have a generation of young women who grow up thinking of themselves as being more powerful earners than the young men around them. +Now, I've just laid out the picture for you, but I still haven't explained to you why this is happening. +And in a moment, I'm going to show you a graph, and what you'll see on this graph -- it begins in 1973, just before women start flooding the workforce, and it brings us up to our current day. +And basically what you'll see is what economists talk about as the polarization of the economy. +Now what does that mean? +It means that the economy is dividing into high-skill, high-wage jobs and low-skill, low-wage jobs -- and that the middle, the middle-skill jobs, and the middle-earning jobs, are starting to drop out of the economy. +This has been going on for 40 years now. +But this process is affecting men very differently than it's affecting women. +You'll see the women in red, and you'll see the men in blue. +You'll watch them both drop out of the middle class, but see what happens to women and see what happens to men. +There we go. +So watch that. You see them both drop out of the middle class. +Watch what happens to the women. Watch what happens to the men. +The men sort of stagnate there, while the women zoom up in those high-skill jobs. +So what's that about? +It looks like women got some power boost on a video game, or like they snuck in some secret serum into their birth-control pills that lets them shoot up high. +But of course, it's not about that. +What it's about is that the economy has changed a lot. +We used to have a manufacturing economy, which was about building goods and products, and now we have a service economy and an information and creative economy. +Those two economies require very different skills, and as it happens, women have been much better at acquiring the new set of skills than men have been. +It used to be that you were a guy who went to high school who didn't have a college degree, but you had a specific set of skills, and with the help of a union, you could make yourself a pretty good middle-class life. +But that really isn't true anymore. +This new economy is pretty indifferent to size and strength, which is what's helped men along all these years. +What the economy requires now is a whole different set of skills. +You basically need intelligence, you need an ability to sit still and focus, to communicate openly, to be able to listen to people and to operate in a workplace that is much more fluid than it used to be, and those are things that women do extremely well, as we're seeing. +If you look at management theory these days, it used to be that our ideal leader sounded something like General Patton, right? +You would be issuing orders from above. +You would be very hierarchical. +You would tell everyone below you what to do. +But that's not what an ideal leader is like now. +If you read management books now, a leader is somebody who can foster creativity, who can get his -- get the employees -- see, I still say "his" -- who can get the employees to talk to each other, who can basically build teams and get them to be creative. +And those are all things that women do very well. +And then on top of that, that's created a kind of cascading effect. +Women enter the workplace at the top, and then at the working class, all the new jobs that are created are the kinds of jobs that wives used to do for free at home. +So that's childcare, elder care and food preparation. +So those are all the jobs that are growing, and those are jobs that women tend to do. +Now one day it might be that mothers will hire an out-of-work, middle-aged, former steelworker guy to watch their children at home, and that would be good for the men, but that hasn't quite happened yet. +To see what's going to happen, you can't just look at the workforce that is now, you have to look at our future workforce. +And here the story is fairly simple. +Women are getting college degrees at a faster rate than men. +Why? This is a real mystery. +People have asked men, why don't they just go back to college, to community college, say, and retool themselves, learn a new set of skills? +Well it turns out that they're just very uncomfortable doing that. +They're used to thinking of themselves as providers, and they can't seem to build the social networks that allow them to get through college. +So for some reason men just don't end up going back to college. +And what's even more disturbing is what's happening with younger boys. +There's been about a decade of research about what people are calling the "boy crisis." +Now the boy crisis is this idea that very young boys, for whatever reason, are doing worse in school than very young girls, and people have theories about that. +Is it because we have an excessively verbal curriculum, and little girls are better at that than little boys? +Or that we require kids to sit still too much, and so boys initially feel like failures? +And some people say it's because, in 9th grade, boys start dropping out of school. +Because I'm writing a book about all this, I'm still looking into it, so I don't have the answer. +But in the mean time, I'm going to call on the worldwide education expert, who's my 10-year-old daughter, Noa, to talk to you about why the boys in her class do worse. +Noa: The girls are obviously smarter. +I mean they have much larger vocabulary. +They learn much faster. +They are more controlled. +On the board today for losing recess tomorrow, only boys. +Hanna Rosin: And why is that? +Noa: Why? They were just not listening to the class while the girls sat there very nicely. +HR: So there you go. +This whole thesis really came home to me when I went to visit a college in Kansas City -- working-class college. +Certainly, when I was in college, I had certain expectations about my life -- that my husband and I would both work, and that we would equally raise the children. +But these college girls had a completely different view of their future. +Basically, the way they said it to me is that they would be working 18 hours a day, that their husband would maybe have a job, but that mostly he would be at home taking care of the kiddies. +And this was kind of a shocker to me. +And then here's my favorite quote from one of the girls: "Men are the new ball and chain." +Now you laugh, but that quote has kind of a sting to it, right? +And I think the reason it has a sting is because thousands of years of history don't reverse themselves without a lot of pain, and that's why I talk about us all going through this together. +The night after I talked to these college girls, I also went to a men's group in Kansas, and these were exactly the kind of victims of the manufacturing economy which I spoke to you about earlier. +They were men who had been contractors, or they had been building houses and they had lost their jobs after the housing boom, and they were in this group because they were failing to pay their child support. +And the instructor was up there in the class explaining to them all the ways in which they had lost their identity in this new age. +He was telling them they no longer had any moral authority, that nobody needed them for emotional support anymore, and they were not really the providers. +So who were they? +And this was very disheartening for them. +And what he did was he wrote down on the board "$85,000," and he said, "That's her salary," and then he wrote down "$12,000." +"That's your salary. +So who's the man now?" he asked them. +"Who's the damn man? +She's the man now." +And that really sent a shudder through the room. +And that's part of the reason I like to talk about this, because I think it can be pretty painful, and we really have to work through it. +And the other reason it's kind of urgent is because it's not just happening in the U.S. +It's happening all over the world. +In India, poor women are learning English faster than their male counterparts in order to staff the new call centers that are growing in India. +In China, a lot of the opening up of private entrepreneurship is happening because women are starting businesses, small businesses, faster than men. +And here's my favorite example, which is in South Korea. +Over several decades, South Korea built one of the most patriarchal societies we know about. +They basically enshrined the second-class status of women in the civil code. +And if women failed to birth male children, they were basically treated like domestic servants. +And sometimes family would pray to the spirits to kill off a girl child so they could have a male child. +But over the '70s and '80s, the South Korea government decided they wanted to rapidly industrialize, and so what they did was, they started to push women into the workforce. +Now they've been asking a question since 1985: "How strongly do you prefer a first-born son?" +And now look at the chart. +That's from 1985 to 2003. +How much do you prefer a first-born son? +So you can see that these economic changes really do have a strong effect on our culture. +Now because we haven't fully processed this information, it's kind of coming back to us in our pop culture in these kind of weird and exaggerated ways, where you can see that the stereotypes are changing. +And so we have on the male side what one of my colleagues likes to call the "omega males" popping up, who are the males who are romantically challenged losers who can't find a job. +And they come up in lots of different forms. +So we have the perpetual adolescent. +We have the charmless misanthrope. +Then we have our Bud Light guy who's the happy couch potato. +And then here's a shocker: even America's most sexiest man alive, the sexiest man alive gets romantically played these days in a movie. +And then on the female side, you have the opposite, in which you have these crazy superhero women. +You've got Lady Gaga. +You've got our new James Bond, who's Angelina Jolie. +And it's not just for the young, right? +Even Helen Mirren can hold a gun these days. +And so it feels like we have to move from this place where we've got these uber-exaggerated images into something that feels a little more normal. +So for a long time in the economic sphere, we've lived with the term "glass ceiling." +Now I've never really liked this term. +For one thing, it puts men and women in a really antagonistic relationship with one another, because the men are these devious tricksters up there who've put up this glass ceiling. +And we're always below the glass ceiling, the women. +And we have a lot of skill and experience, but it's a trick, so how are you supposed to prepare to get through that glass ceiling? +And also, "shattering the glass ceiling" is a terrible phrase. +What crazy person would pop their head through a glass ceiling? +So the image that I like to think of, instead of glass ceiling, is the high bridge. +It's definitely terrifying to stand at the foot of a high bridge, but it's also pretty exhilarating, because it's beautiful up there, and you're looking out on a beautiful view. +And the great thing is there's no trick like with the glass ceiling. +There's no man or woman standing in the middle about to cut the cables. +There's no hole in the middle that you're going to fall through. +And the great thing is that you can take anyone along with you. +You can bring your husband along. +You can bring your friends, or your colleagues, or your babysitter to walk along with you. +And husbands can drag their wives across, if their wives don't feel ready. +But the point about the high bridge is that you have to have the confidence to know that you deserve to be on that bridge, that you have all the skills and experience you need in order to walk across the high bridge, but you just have to make the decision to take the first step and do it. +Thanks very much. +I have been teaching for a long time, and in doing so have acquired a body of knowledge about kids and learning that I really wish more people would understand about the potential of students. +In 1931, my grandmother -- bottom left for you guys over here -- graduated from the eighth grade. +She went to school to get the information because that's where the information lived. +It was in the books; it was inside the teacher's head; and she needed to go there to get the information, because that's how you learned. +Fast-forward a generation: this is the one-room schoolhouse, Oak Grove, where my father went to a one-room schoolhouse. +And he again had to travel to the school to get the information from the teacher, stored it in the only portable memory he has, which is inside his own head, and take it with him, because that is how information was being transported from teacher to student and then used in the world. +When I was a kid, we had a set of encyclopedias at my house. +It was purchased the year I was born, and it was extraordinary, because I did not have to wait to go to the library to get to the information. +The information was inside my house and it was awesome. +This was different than either generation had experienced before, and it changed the way I interacted with information even at just a small level. +But the information was closer to me. +I could get access to it. +In the time that passes between when I was a kid in high school and when I started teaching, we really see the advent of the Internet. +Right about the time that the Internet gets going as an educational tool, I take off from Wisconsin and move to Kansas, small town Kansas, where I had an opportunity to teach in a lovely, small-town, rural Kansas school district, where I was teaching my favorite subject, American government. +My first year -- super gung-ho -- going to teach American government, loved the political system. +Kids in the 12th grade: not exactly all that enthusiastic about the American government system. +Year two: learned a few things -- had to change my tactic. +And I put in front of them an authentic experience that allowed them to learn for themselves. +I didn't tell them what to do or how to do it. +I posed a problem in front of them, which was to put on an election forum for their own community. +They produced flyers. They called offices. +They checked schedules. They were meeting with secretaries. +They produced an election forum booklet for the entire town to learn more about their candidates. +They invited everyone into the school for an evening of conversation about government and politics and whether or not the streets were done well, and really had this robust experiential learning. +The older teachers -- more experienced -- looked at me and went, "Oh, there she is. That's so cute. She's trying to get that done." +"She doesn't know what she's in for." +But I knew that the kids would show up, and I believed it, and I told them every week what I expected out of them. +And that night, all 90 kids -- dressed appropriately, doing their job, owning it. +I had to just sit and watch. +It was theirs. It was experiential. It was authentic. +It meant something to them. +And they will step up. +From Kansas, I moved on to lovely Arizona, where I taught in Flagstaff for a number of years, this time with middle school students. +Luckily, I didn't have to teach them American government. +Could teach them the more exciting topic of geography. +Again, "thrilled" to learn. +But what was interesting about this position I found myself in in Arizona, was I had this really extraordinarily eclectic group of kids to work with in a truly public school, and we got to have these moments where we would get these opportunities. +And one opportunity was we got to go and meet Paul Rusesabagina, which is the gentleman that the movie "Hotel Rwanda" is based after. +And he was going to speak at the high school next door to us. +We could walk there. We didn't even have to pay for the buses. +There was no expense cost. Perfect field trip. +The problem then becomes how do you take seventh- and eighth-graders to a talk about genocide and deal with the subject in a way that is responsible and respectful, and they know what to do with it. +And so we chose to look at Paul Rusesabagina as an example of a gentleman who singularly used his life to do something positive. +I then challenged the kids to identify someone in their own life, or in their own story, or in their own world, that they could identify that had done a similar thing. +I asked them to produce a little movie about it. +It's the first time we'd done this. +Nobody really knew how to make these little movies on the computer, but they were into it. And I asked them to put their own voice over it. +It was the most awesome moment of revelation that when you ask kids to use their own voice and ask them to speak for themselves, what they're willing to share. +The last question of the assignment is: how do you plan to use your life to positively impact other people? +The things that kids will say when you ask them and take the time to listen is extraordinary. +Fast-forward to Pennsylvania, where I find myself today. +I teach at the Science Leadership Academy, which is a partnership school between the Franklin Institute and the school district of Philadelphia. +We are a nine through 12 public school, but we do school quite differently. +So what do you do when the information is all around you? +Why do you have kids come to school if they no longer have to come there to get the information? +In Philadelphia we have a one-to-one laptop program, so the kids are bringing in laptops with them everyday, taking them home, getting access to information. +And here's the thing that you need to get comfortable with when you've given the tool to acquire information to students, is that you have to be comfortable with this idea of allowing kids to fail as part of the learning process. +We deal right now in the educational landscape with an infatuation with the culture of one right answer that can be properly bubbled on the average multiple choice test, and I am here to share with you: it is not learning. +That is the absolute wrong thing to ask, to tell kids to never be wrong. +To ask them to always have the right answer doesn't allow them to learn. +So we did this project, and this is one of the artifacts of the project. +I almost never show them off because of the issue of the idea of failure. +My students produced these info-graphics as a result of a unit that we decided to do at the end of the year responding to the oil spill. +I asked them to take the examples that we were seeing of the info-graphics that existed in a lot of mass media, and take a look at what were the interesting components of it, and produce one for themselves of a different man-made disaster from American history. +And they had certain criteria to do it. +They were a little uncomfortable with it, because we'd never done this before, and they didn't know exactly how to do it. +They can talk -- they're very smooth, and they can write very, very well, but asking them to communicate ideas in a different way was a little uncomfortable for them. +But I gave them the room to just do the thing. +Go create. Go figure it out. +Let's see what we can do. +And the student that persistently turns out the best visual product did not disappoint. +This was done in like two or three days. +And this is the work of the student that consistently did it. +And when I sat the students down, I said, "Who's got the best one?" +And they immediately went, "There it is." +Didn't read anything. "There it is." +And I said, "Well what makes it great?" +And they're like, "Oh, the design's good, and he's using good color. +And there's some ... " And they went through all that we processed out loud. +And I said, "Go read it." +And they're like, "Oh, that one wasn't so awesome." +And then we went to another one -- it didn't have great visuals, but it had great information -- and spent an hour talking about the learning process, because it wasn't about whether or not it was perfect, or whether or not it was what I could create. +It asked them to create for themselves, and it allowed them to fail, process, learn from. +And when we do another round of this in my class this year, they will do better this time, because learning has to include an amount of failure, because failure is instructional in the process. +Ask them really interesting questions. +They will not disappoint. +Ask them to go to places, to see things for themselves, to actually experience the learning, to play, to inquire. +This is one of my favorite photos, because this was taken on Tuesday, when I asked the students to go to the polls. +This is Robbie, and this was his first day of voting, and he wanted to share that with everybody and do that. +But this is learning too, because we asked them to go out into real spaces. +The main point is that, if we continue to look at education as if it's about coming to school to get the information and not about experiential learning, empowering student voice and embracing failure, we're missing the mark. +And everything that everybody is talking about today isn't possible if we keep having an educational system that does not value these qualities, because we won't get there with a standardized test, and we won't get there with a culture of one right answer. +We know how to do this better, and it's time to do better. +Alisa Volkman: So this is where our story begins -- the dramatic moments of the birth of our first son, Declan. +Obviously a really profound moment, and it changed our lives in many ways. +It also changed our lives in many unexpected ways, and those unexpected ways we later reflected on, that eventually spawned a business idea between the two of us, and a year later, we launched Babble, a website for parents. +Rufus Griscom: Now I think of our story as starting a few years earlier. AV: That's true. +RG: You may remember, we fell head over heels in love. +AV: We did. +RG: We were at the time running a very different kind of website. +It was a website called Nerve.com, the tagline of which was "literate smut." +It was in theory, and hopefully in practice, a smart online magazine about sex and culture. +AV: That spawned a dating site. +But you can understand the jokes that we get. Sex begets babies. +You follow instructions on Nerve and you should end up on Babble, which we did. +And we might launch a geriatric site as our third. We'll see. +RG: But for us, the continuity between Nerve and Babble was not just the life stage thing, which is, of course, relevant, but it was really more about our desire to speak very honestly about subjects that people have difficulty speaking honestly about. +It seems to us that when people start dissembling, people start lying about things, that's when it gets really interesting. +That's a subject that we want to dive into. +And we've been surprised to find, as young parents, that there are almost more taboos around parenting than there are around sex. +AV: It's true. So like we said, the early years were really wonderful, but they were also really difficult. +And we feel like some of that difficulty was because of this false advertisement around parenting. +We subscribed to a lot of magazines, did our homework, but really everywhere you look around, we were surrounded by images like this. +And we went into parenting expecting our lives to look like this. +The sun was always streaming in, and our children would never be crying. +I would always be perfectly coiffed and well rested, and in fact, it was not like that at all. +RG: When we lowered the glossy parenting magazine that we were looking at, with these beautiful images, and looked at the scene in our actual living room, it looked a little bit more like this. +These are our three sons. +And of course, they're not always crying and screaming, but with three boys, there's a decent probability that at least one of them will not be comporting himself exactly as he should. +AV: Yes, you can see where the disconnect was happening for us. +We really felt like what we went in expecting had nothing to do with what we were actually experiencing, and so we decided we really wanted to give it to parents straight. +We really wanted to let them understand what the realities of parenting were in an honest way. +RG: So today, what we would love to do is share with you four parenting taboos. +And of course, there are many more than four things you can't say about parenting, but we would like to share with you today four that are particularly relevant for us personally. +So the first, taboo number one: you can't say you didn't fall in love with your baby in the very first minute. +I remember vividly, sitting there in the hospital. +We were in the process of giving birth to our first child. +AV: We, or I? +RG: I'm sorry. +Misuse of the pronoun. +Alisa was very generously in the process of giving birth to our first child -- (AV: Thank you.) -- and I was there with a catcher's mitt. +And I was there with my arms open. +So I was bracing myself for the moment. +The baby was coming, and I was ready for this Mack truck of love to just knock me off my feet. +And instead, when the baby was placed in my hands, it was an extraordinary moment. +This picture is from literally a few seconds after the baby was placed in my hands and I brought him over. +And you can see, our eyes were glistening. +I was overwhelmed with love and affection for my wife, with deep, deep gratitude that we had what appeared to be a healthy child. +And it was also, of course, surreal. +I mean, I had to check the tags and make sure. +I was incredulous, "Are you sure this is our child?" +And this was all quite remarkable. +But what I felt towards the child at that moment was deep affection, but nothing like what I feel for him now, five years later. +And so we've done something here that is heretical. +We have charted our love for our child over time. +This, as you know, is an act of heresy. +You're not allowed to chart love. +The reason you're not allowed to chart love is because we think of love as a binary thing. +You're either in love, or you're not in love. +You love, or you don't love. +And I think the reality is that love is a process, and I think the problem with thinking of love as something that's binary is that it causes us to be unduly concerned that love is fraudulent, or inadequate, or what have you. +And I think I'm speaking obviously here to the father's experience. +But I think a lot of men do go through this sense in the early months, maybe their first year, that their emotional response is inadequate in some fashion. +AV: Well, I'm glad Rufus is bringing this up, because you can notice where he dips in the first years where I think I was doing most of the work. +But we like to joke, in the first few months of all of our children's lives, this is Uncle Rufus. +RG: I'm a very affectionate uncle, very affectionate uncle. +AV: Yes, and I often joke with Rufus when he comes home that I'm not sure he would actually be able to find our child in a line-up amongst other babies. +So I actually threw a pop quiz here onto Rufus. +RG: Uh oh. +AV: I don't want to embarrass him too much. But I am going to give him three seconds. +RG: That is not fair. This is a trick question. He's not up there, is he? +AV: Our eight-week-old son is somewhere in here, and I want to see if Rufus can actually quickly identify him. +RG: The far left. AV: No! +RG: Cruel. +AV: Nothing more to be said. +I'll move on to taboo number two. +You can't talk about how lonely having a baby can be. +I enjoyed being pregnant. I loved it. +I felt incredibly connected to the community around me. +I felt like everyone was participating in my pregnancy, all around me, tracking it down till the actual due-date. +I felt like I was a vessel of the future of humanity. +That continued into the the hospital. It was really exhilarating. +I was shower with gifts and flowers and visitors. +It was a really wonderful experience, but when I got home, I suddenly felt very disconnected and suddenly shut in and shut out, and I was really surprised by those feelings. +I did expect it to be difficult, have sleepless nights, constant feedings, but I did not expect the feelings of isolation and loneliness that I experienced, and I was really surprised that no one had talked to me, that I was going to be feeling this way. +And I called my sister whom I'm very close to -- and had three children -- and I asked her, "Why didn't you tell me I was going to be feeling this way, that I was going to have these -- feeling incredibly isolated?" +And she said -- I'll never forget -- "It's just not something you want to say to a mother that's having a baby for the first time." +RG: And of course, we think it's precisely what you really should be saying to mothers who have kids for the first time. +And that this, of course, one of the themes for us is that we think that candor and brutal honesty is critical to us collectively being great parents. +And it's hard not to think that part of what leads to this sense of isolation is our modern world. +So Alisa's experience is not isolated. +So your 58 percent of mothers surveyed report feelings of loneliness. +Of those, 67 percent are most lonely when their kids are zero to five -- probably really zero to two. +In the process of preparing this, we looked at how some other cultures around the world because here in the Western world, less than 50 percent of us live near our family members, which I think is part of why this is such a tough period. +So to take one example among many: in Southern India there's a practice known as jholabhari, in which the pregnant woman, when she's seven or eight months pregnant, moves in with her mother and goes through a series of rituals and ceremonies, give birth and returns home to her nuclear family several months after the child is born. +And this is one of many ways that we think other cultures offset this kind of lonely period. +AV: So taboo number three: you can't talk about your miscarriage -- but today I'll talk about mine. +So after we had Declan, we kind of recalibrated our expectations. +We thought we actually could go through this again and thought we knew what we would be up against. +And we were grateful that I was able to get pregnant, and I soon learned that we were having a boy, and then when I was five months, we learned that we had lost our child. +This is actually the last little image we have of him. +And it was obviously a very difficult time -- really painful. +As I was working through that mourning process, I was amazed that I didn't want to see anybody. +I really wanted to crawl into a hole, and I didn't really know how I was going to work my way back into my surrounding community. +And I realize, I think, the way I was feeling that way, is on a really deep gut level, I was feeling a lot of shame and embarrassed, frankly, that, in some respects, I had failed at delivering what I'm genetically engineered to do. +And of course, it made me question, if I wasn't able to have another child, what would that mean for my marriage, and just me as a woman. +So it was a very difficult time. +As I started working through it more, I started climbing out of that hole and talking with other people. +I was really amazed by all the stories that started flooding in. +People I interacted with daily, worked with, was friends with, family members that I had known a long time, had never shared with me their own stories. +And I just remember feeling all these stories came out of the woodwork, and I felt like I happened upon this secret society of women that I now was a part of, which was reassuring and also really concerning. +And I think, miscarriage is an invisible loss. +There's not really a lot of community support around it. +There's really no ceremony, rituals, or rites. +And I think, with a death, you have a funeral, you celebrate the life, and there's a lot of community support, and it's something women don't have with miscarriage. +RG: Which is too bad because, of course, it's a very common and very traumatic experience. +Fifteen to 20 percent of all pregnancies result in miscarriage, and I find this astounding. +In a survey, 74 percent of women said that miscarriage, they felt, was partly their fault, which is awful. +And astoundingly, 22 percent said they would hide a miscarriage from their spouse. +So taboo number four: you can't say that your average happiness has declined since having a child. +The party line is that every single aspect of my life has just gotten dramatically better ever since I participated in the miracle that is childbirth and family. +I'll never forget, I remember vividly to this day, our first son, Declan, was nine months old, and I was sitting there on the couch, and I was reading Daniel Gilbert's wonderful book, "Stumbling on Happiness." +And I got about two-thirds of the way through, and there was a chart on the right-hand side -- on the right-hand page -- that we've labeled here "The Most Terrifying Chart Imaginable for a New Parent." +This chart is comprised of four completely independent studies. +Basically, there's this precipitous drop of marital satisfaction, which is closely aligned, we all know, with broader happiness, that doesn't rise again until your first child goes to college. +So I'm sitting here looking at the next two decades of my life, this chasm of happiness that we're driving our proverbial convertible straight into. +We were despondent. +AV: So you can imagine, I mean again, the first few months were difficult, but we'd come out of it, and were really shocked to see this study. +So we really wanted to take a deeper look at it in hopes that we would find a silver lining. +RG: And that's when it's great to be running a website for parents, because we got this incredible reporter to go and interview all the scientists who conducted these four studies. +We said, something is wrong here. +There's something missing from these studies. +It can't possibly be that bad. +So Liz Mitchell did a wonderful job with this piece, and she interviewed four scientists, and she also interviewed Daniel Gilbert, and we did indeed find a silver lining. +So this is our guess as to what this baseline of average happiness arguably looks like throughout life. +Average happiness is, of course, inadequate, because it doesn't speak to the moment-by-moment experience, and so this is what we think it looks like when you layer in moment-to-moment experience. +And so we all remember as children, the tiniest little thing -- and we see it on the faces of our children -- the teeniest little thing can just rocket them to these heights of just utter adulation, and then the next teeniest little thing can cause them just to plummet to the depths of despair. +And it's just extraordinary to watch, and we remember it ourselves. +And then, of course, as you get older, it's almost like age is a form of lithium. +As you get older, you become more stable. +And part of what happens, I think, in your '20s and '30s, is you start to learn to hedge your happiness. +You start to realize that "Hey, I could go to this live music event and have an utterly transforming experience that will cover my entire body with goosebumps, but it's more likely that I'll feel claustrophobic and I won't be able to get a beer. +So I'm not going to go. +I've got a good stereo at home. So, I'm not going to go." +So your average happiness goes up, but you lose those transcendent moments. +AV: Yeah, and then you have your first child, and then you really resubmit yourself to these highs and lows -- the highs being the first steps, the first smile, your child reading to you for the first time -- the lows being, our house, any time from six to seven every night. +But you realize you resubmit yourself to losing control in a really wonderful way, which we think provides a lot of meaning to our lives and is quite gratifying. +RG: And so in effect, we trade average happiness. +We trade the sort of security and safety of a certain level of contentment for these transcendent moments. +So where does that leave the two of us as a family with our three little boys in the thick of all this? +There's another factor in our case. +We have violated yet another taboo in our own lives, and this is a bonus taboo. +AV: A quick bonus taboo for you, that we should not be working together, especially with three children -- and we are. +RG: And we had reservations about this on the front end. +Everybody knows, you should absolutely not work with your spouse. +In fact, when we first went out to raise money to start Babble, the venture capitalists said, "We categorically don't invest in companies founded by husbands and wives, because there's an extra point of failure. +It's a bad idea. Don't do it." +And we obviously went forward. We did. +We raised the money, and we're thrilled that we did, because in this phase of one's life, the incredibly scarce resource is time. +And if you're really passionate about what you do every day -- which we are -- and you're also passionate about your relationship, this is the only way we know how to do it. +And so the final question that we would ask is: can we collectively bend that happiness chart upwards? +It's great that we have these transcendent moments of joy, but they're sometimes pretty quick. +And so how about that average baseline of happiness? +Can we move that up a little bit? +AV: And we kind of feel that the happiness gap, which we talked about, is really the result of walking into parenting -- and really any long-term partnership for that matter -- with the wrong expectations. +And if you have the right expectations and expectation management, we feel like it's going to be a pretty gratifying experience. +RG: And so this is what -- And we think that a lot of parents, when you get in there -- in our case anyway -- you pack your bags for a trip to Europe, and you're really excited to go. +Get out of the airplane, it turns out you're trekking in Nepal. +And trekking in Nepal is an extraordinary experience, particularly if you pack your bags properly and you know what you're getting in for and you're psyched. +So the point of all this for us today is not just hopefully honesty for the sake of honesty, but a hope that by being more honest and candid about these experiences, that we can all collectively bend that happiness baseline up a little bit. +RG + AV: Thank you. +So today I'm going to talk to you about the rise of collaborative consumption. +I'm going to explain what it is and try and convince you -- in just 15 minutes -- that this isn't a flimsy idea, or a short-term trend, but a powerful cultural and economic force reinventing not just what we consume, but how we consume. +Now I'm going to start with a deceptively simple example. +Hands up -- how many of you have books, CDs, DVDs, or videos lying around your house that you probably won't use again, but you can't quite bring yourself to throw away? +Can't see all the hands, but it looks like all of you, right? +On our shelves at home, we have a box set of the DVD series "24," season six to be precise. +I think it was bought for us around three years ago for a Christmas present. +Now my husband, Chris, and I love this show. +But let's face it, when you've watched it once maybe, or twice, you don't really want to watch it again, because you know how Jack Bauer is going to defeat the terrorists. +So there it sits on our shelves obsolete to us, but with immediate latent value to someone else. +Now before we go on, I have a confession to make. +I lived in New York for 10 years, and I am a big fan of "Sex and the City." +Now I'd love to watch the first movie again as sort of a warm-up to the sequel coming out next week. +So how easily could I swap our unwanted copy of "24" for a wanted copy of "Sex and the City?" +Now you may have noticed there's a new sector emerging called swap-trading. +Now the easiest analogy for swap-trading is like an online dating service for all your unwanted media. +What it does is use the Internet to create an infinite marketplace to match person A's "haves" with person C's "wants," whatever they may be. +The other week, I went on one of these sites, appropriately called Swaptree, and there were over 59,300 items that I could instantly swap for my copy of "24." +Lo and behold, there in Reseda, CA was Rondoron who wanted swap his or her "like new" copy of "Sex and the City" for my copy of "24." +So in other words, what's happening here is that Swaptree solves my carrying company's sugar rush problem, a problem the economists call "the coincidence of wants," in approximately 60 seconds. +What's even more amazing is it will print out a postage label on the spot, because it knows the way of the item. +Now there are layers of technical wonder behind sites such as Swaptree, but that's not my interest, and nor is swap trading, per se. +My passion, and what I've spent the last few years dedicated to researching, is the collaborative behaviors and trust-mechanics inherent in these systems. +When you think about it, it would have seemed like a crazy idea, even a few years ago, that I would swap my stuff with a total stranger whose real name I didn't know and without any money changing hands. +Yet 99 percent of trades on Swaptree happen successfully, and the one percent that receive a negative rating, it's for relatively minor reasons, like the item didn't arrive on time. +So what's happening here? +An extremely powerful dynamic that has huge commercial and cultural implications is at play. +Namely, that technology is enabling trust between strangers. +We now live in a global village where we can mimic the ties that used to happen face to face, but on a scale and in ways that have never been possible before. +So what's actually happening is that social networks and real-time technologies are taking us back. +We're bartering, trading, swapping, sharing, but they're being reinvented into dynamic and appealing forms. +What I find fascinating is that we've actually wired our world to share, whether that's our neighborhood, our school, our office, or our Facebook network, and that's creating an economy of "what's mine is yours." +I call this "groundswell collaborative consumption." +Now before I dig into the different systems of collaborative consumption, I'd like to try and answer the question that every author rightfully gets asked, which is, where did this idea come from? +Now I'd like to say I woke up one morning and said, "I'm going to write about collaborative consumption," but actually it was a complicated web of seemingly disconnected ideas. +Over the next minute, you're going to see a bit like a conceptual fireworks display of all the dots that went on in my head. +The first thing I began to notice: how many big concepts were emerging -- from the wisdom of crowds to smart mobs -- around how ridiculously easy it is to form groups for a purpose. +And linked to this crowd mania were examples all around the world -- from the election of a president to the infamous Wikipedia, and everything in between -- on what the power of numbers could achieve. +Now, you know when you learn a new word, and then you start to see that word everywhere? +That's what happened to me when I noticed that we are moving from passive consumers to creators, to highly enabled collaborators. +What's happening is the Internet is removing the middleman, so that anyone from a T-shirt designer to a knitter can make a living selling peer-to-peer. +And the ubiquitous force of this peer-to-peer revolution means that sharing is happening at phenomenal rates. +I mean, it's amazing to think that, in every single minute of this speech, 25 hours of YouTube video will be loaded. +Now what I find fascinating about these examples is how they're actually tapping into our primate instincts. +I mean, we're monkeys, and we're born and bred to share and cooperate. +And we were doing so for thousands of years, whether it's when we hunted in packs, or farmed in cooperatives, before this big system called hyper-consumption came along and we built these fences and created out own little fiefdoms. +But things are changing, and one of the reasons why is the digital natives, or Gen-Y. +They're growing up sharing -- files, video games, knowledge. +It's second nature to them. +So we, the millennials -- I am just a millennial -- are like foot soldiers, moving us from a culture of "me" to a culture of "we." +The reason why it's happening so fast is because of mobile collaboration. +We now live in a connected age where we can locate anyone, anytime, in real-time, from a small device in our hands. +All of this was going through my head towards the end of 2008, when, of course, the great financial crash happened. +Thomas Friedman is one of my favorite New York Times columnists, and he poignantly commented that 2008 is when we hit a wall, when Mother Nature and the market both said, "No more." +Now we rationally know that an economy built on hyper-consumption is a Ponzi scheme. It's a house of cards. +Yet, it's hard for us to individually know what to do. +So all of this is a lot of twittering, right? +Well it was a lot of noise and complexity in my head, until actually I realized it was happening because of four key drivers. +One, a renewed belief in the importance of community, and a very redefinition of what friend and neighbor really means. +A torrent of peer-to-peer social networks and real-time technologies, fundamentally changing the way we behave. +Three, pressing unresolved environmental concerns. +And four, a global recession that has fundamentally shocked consumer behaviors. +These four drivers are fusing together and creating the big shift -- away from the 20th century, defined by hyper-consumption, towards the 21st century, defined by collaborative consumption. +I generally believe we're at an inflection point where the sharing behaviors -- through sites such as Flickr and Twitter that are becoming second nature online -- are being applied to offline areas of our everyday lives. +From morning commutes to the way fashion is designed to the way we grow food, we are consuming and collaborating once again. +So my co-author, Roo Rogers, and I have actually gathered thousands of examples from all around the world of collaborative consumption. +And although they vary enormously in scale, maturity and purpose, when we dived into them, we realized that they could actually be organized into three clear systems. +The first is redistribution markets. +Redistribution markets, just like Swaptree, are when you take a used, or pre-owned, item and move it from where it's not needed to somewhere, or someone, where it is. +They're increasingly thought of as the fifth 'R' -- reduce, reuse, recycle, repair and redistribute -- because they stretch the life cycle of a product and thereby reduce waste. +The second is collaborative lifestyles. +This is the sharing of resources of things like money, skills and time. +I bet, in a couple of years, that phrases like "coworking" and "couchsurfing" and "time banks" are going to become a part of everyday vernacular. +One of my favorite examples of collaborative lifestyles is called Landshare. +It's a scheme in the U.K. +that matches Mr. Jones, with some spare space in his back garden, with Mrs. Smith, a would-be grower. +Together they grow their own food. +It's one of those ideas that's so simple, yet brilliant, you wonder why it's never been done before. +Now, the third system is product-service systems. +This is where you pay for the benefit of the product -- what it does for you -- without needing to own the product outright. +This idea is particularly powerful for things that have high-idling capacity. +And that can be anything from baby goods to fashions to -- how many of you have a power drill, own a power drill? Right. +That power drill will be used around 12 to 13 minutes in its entire lifetime. +It's kind of ridiculous, right? +Because what you need is the hole, not the drill. +So why don't you rent the drill, or, even better, rent out your own drill to other people and make some money from it? +These three systems are coming together, allowing people to share resources without sacrificing their lifestyles, or their cherished personal freedoms. +I'm not asking people to share nicely in the sandpit. +So I want to just give you an example of how powerful collaborative consumption can be to change behaviors. +The average car costs 8,000 dollars a year to run. +Yet, that car sits idle for 23 hours a day. +So when you consider these two facts, it starts to make a little less sense that we have to own one outright. +So this is where car-sharing companies such as Zipcar and GoGet come in. +In 2009, Zipcar took 250 participants from across 13 cities -- and they're all self-confessed car addicts and car-sharing rookies -- and got them to surrender their keys for a month. +Instead, these people had to walk, bike, take the train, or other forms of public transport. +They could only use their Zipcar membership when absolutely necessary. +The results of this challenge after just one month was staggering. +It's amazing that 413 lbs were lost just from the extra exercise. +But my favorite statistic is that 100 out of the 250 participants did not want their keys back. +In other words, the car addicts had lost their urge to own. +Now products-service systems have been around for years. +Just think of libraries and laundrettes. +But I think they're entering a new age, because technology makes sharing frictionless and fun. +There's a great quote that was written in the New York Times that said, "Sharing is to ownership what the iPod is to the 8-track, what solar power is to the coal mine." +I believe also, our generation, our relationship to satisfying what we want is far less tangible than any other previous generation. +I don't want the DVD; I want the movie it carries. +I don't want a clunky answering machine; I want the message it saves. +I don't want a CD; I want the music it plays. +In other words, I don't want stuff; I want the needs or experiences it fulfills. +This is fueling a massive shift from where usage trumps possessions -- or as Kevin Kelly, the editor of Wired magazine, puts it, "where access is better than ownership." +Now as our possessions dematerialize into the cloud, a blurry line is appearing between what's mine, what's yours, and what's ours. +I want to give you one example that shows how fast this evolution is happening. +This represents an eight-year time span. +We've gone from traditional car-ownership to car-sharing companies, such as Zipcar and GoGet, to ride-sharing platforms that match rides to the newest entry, which is peer-to-peer car rental, where you can actually make money out of renting that car that sits idle for 23 hours a day to your neighbor. +Now all of these systems require a degree of trust, and the cornerstone to this working is reputation. +Now in the old consumer system, our reputation didn't matter so much, because our credit history was far more important that any kind of peer-to-peer review. +But now with the Web, we leave a trail. +With every spammer we flag, with every idea we post, comment we share, we're actually signaling how well we collaborate, and whether we can or can't be trusted. +Let's go back to my first example, Swaptree. +I can see that Rondoron has completed 553 trades with a 100 percent success rate. +In other words, I can trust him or her. +Now mark my words, it's only a matter of time before we're going to be able to perform a Google-like search and see a cumulative picture of our reputation capital. +And this reputation capital will determine our access to collaborative consumption. +It's a new social currency, so to speak, that could become as powerful as our credit rating. +Now as a closing thought, I believe we're actually in a period where we're waking up from this humongous hangover of emptiness and waste, and we're taking a leap to create a more sustainable system built to serve our innate needs for community and individual identity. +I believe it will be referred to as a revolution, so to speak -- when society, faced with great challenges, made a seismic shift from individual getting and spending towards a rediscovery of collective good. +I'm on a mission to make sharing cool. +I'm on a mission to make sharing hip. +Because I really believe it can disrupt outdated modes of business, help us leapfrog over wasteful forms of hyper-consumption and teach us when enough really is enough. +Thank you very much. +Beverly Joubert: We are truly passionate about the African wilderness and protecting the African wilderness, and so what we've done is we've focused on iconic cats. +And I know, in the light of human suffering and poverty and even climate change, one would wonder, why worry about a few cats? +Well today we're here to share with you a message that we have learned from a very important and special character -- this leopard. +Dereck Joubert: Well, our lives have basically been like a super long episode of "CSI" -- something like 28 years. +In essence, what we've done is we've studied the science, we've looked at the behavior, we've seen over 2,000 kills by these amazing animals. +But one of the things that science really lets us down on is that personality, that individual personality that these animals have. +And here's a prime example. +We found this leopard in a 2,000-year-old baobab tree in Africa, the same tree that we found her mother in and her grandmother. +And she took us on a journey and revealed something very special to us -- her own daughter, eight days old. +And the minute we found this leopard, we realized that we needed to move in, and so we basically stayed with this leopard for the next four-and-a-half years -- following her every day, getting to know her, that individual personality of hers, and really coming to know her. +Now I'm destined to spend a lot of time with some unique, very, very special, individualistic and often seductive female characters. +Beverly's clearly one of them, and this little leopard, Legadema, is another, and she changed our lives. +BJ: Well we certainly did spend a lot of time with her -- in fact, more time than even her mother did. +When her mother would go off hunting, we would stay and film. +And early on, a lightning bolt hit a tree 20 paces away from us. +It was frightening, and it showered us with leaves and a pungent smell. +And of course, we were stunned for a while, but when we managed to get our wits about us, we looked at it and said, "My gosh, what's going to happen with that little cub? +She's probably going to forever associate that deafening crash with us." +Well, we needn't have worried. +She came charging out of the thicket straight towards us, sat next to us, shivering, with her back towards Dereck, and looking out. +And actually from that day on, she's been comfortable with us. +So we felt that that day was the day that she really earned her name. +We called her Legadema, which means, "light from the sky." +DJ: Now we've found these individualisms in all sorts of animals, in particular in the cats. +This particular one is called Eetwidomayloh, "he who greets with fire," and you can just see that about him, you know -- that's his character. +But only by getting up close to these animals and spending time with them can we actually even reach out and dig out these personal characters that they have. +BJ: But through our investigation, we have to seek the wildest places in Africa. +And right now this is in the Okavango Delta in Botswana. +Yes, it is swamp. We live in the swamp in a tent, but I must tell you, every day is exhilarating. +But also, our hearts are in our throats a huge amount of the time, because we're driving through water, and it's an unknown territory. +But we're really there seeking and searching and filming the iconic cats. +DJ: Now one of the big things, of course, everybody knows that cats hate water, and so this was a real revelation for us. +And we could only find this by pushing ourselves, by going where no sane person should go -- not without some prompting, by the way, from Beverly -- and just pushing the envelope, going out there, pushing our vehicle, pushing ourselves. +But we've managed to find that these lions are 15 percent bigger than any others, and they specialize in hunting buffalo in the water. +BJ: And then of course, the challenge is knowing when to turn around. +We don't always get that right, and on this particular day, we seriously underestimated the depth. +We got deeper and deeper, until it was at Dereck's chest-height. +Well then we hit a deep depression, and we seriously submerged the vehicle. +We actually managed to drown two million dollars' worth of camera gear. +We drowned our pride, I must tell you, which was really serious, and we seized the engine. +DJ: And of course, one of the rules that we have in the vehicle is that he who drowns the vehicle gets to swim with the crocodiles. +You will notice also that all of these images here are taken from the top angle by Beverly -- the dry top angle, by the way. +But all the places we get stuck in really have great views. +And it wasn't a moment, and these lions came back towards us, and Beverly was able to get a great photograph. +BJ: But we truly do spend day and night trying to capture unique footage. +And 20 years ago, we did a film called "Eternal Enemies" where we managed to capture this unusual disturbing behavior across two species -- lions and hyenas. +And surprisingly, it became a cult film. +And we can only work that out as people were seeing parallels between the thuggish side of nature and gang warfare. +DJ: It was amazing, because you can see that this lion is doing exactly what his name, Eetwidomayloh, represents. +He's focused on this hyena, and he is going to get it. +(Animal sounds) But that's, I think, what this is all about, is that these individuals have these personalities and characters. +But for us to get them, not only do we push ourselves, but we live by certain rules of engagement, which mean we can't interfere. +This sort of behavior has been going on for three, four, five million years, and we can't step in and say, "That's wrong, and that's right." +But that's not always easy for us. +BJ: So, as Dereck says, we have to work through extremes -- extreme temperatures, push ourselves at night. +Sleep deprivation is extreme. +We're on the edge through a large part of the time. +But, for 10 years, we tried to capture lions and elephants together -- and never ever managed until this particular night. +And I have to tell you that it was a disturbing night for me. +I had tears rolling down my cheeks. +I was shaking with anxiety, but I knew that [I had] to capture something that had never been seen before, had never been documented. +And I do believe you should stay with us. +DJ: The amazing thing about these moments -- and this is probably a highlight of our career -- is that you never know how it's going to end. +Many people believe, in fact, that death begins in the eyes, not in the heart, not in the lungs, and that's when people give up hope, or when any life form gives up hope. +And you can see the start of it here. +This elephant, against overwhelming odds, simply gives up hope. +But by the same token, you can get your hope back again. +So just when you think it's all over, something else happens, some spark gets into you, some sort of will to fight -- that iron will that we all have, that this elephant has, that conservation has, that big cats have. +Everything has that will to survive, to fight, to push through that mental barrier and to keep going. +And for us, in many ways, this elephant has become a symbol of inspiration for us, a symbol of that hope as we go forward in our work. +Now back to the leopard. +We were spending so much time with this leopard and getting to understand her individualism, her personal character, that maybe we were taking it a little bit far. +We were perhaps taking her for granted, and maybe she didn't like that that much. +This is about couples working together, and so I do need to say that within the vehicle we have quite strict territories, Beverly and I. +Beverly sits on the one side where all her camera gear is, and I'm on the other side where my space is. +These are precious to us, these divides. +BJ: But when this little cub saw that I had vacated my seat and climbed to the back to get some camera gear, she came in like a curious cat to come and investigate. +It was phenomenal, and we felt grateful that she trusted us to that extent. +But at the same time, we were concerned that if she created this as a habit and jumped into somebody else's car, it might not turn out the same way -- she might get shot for that. +So we knew we had to react quickly. +And the only way we thought we could without scaring her is to try and simulate a growl like her mother would make -- a hiss and a sound. +So Dereck turned on the heater fan in the car -- very innovative. +DJ: It was the only way for me to save the marriage, because Beverly felt she was being replaced, you see. +But really and truly, this was how this little leopard was displaying her individual personality. +But nothing prepared us for what happened next in our relationship with her, when she started hunting. +BJ: And on this first hunt, we truly were excited. +It was like watching a graduation ceremony. +We felt like we were surrogate parents. +And of course, we knew now that she was going to survive. +But only when we saw the tiny baby baboon clinging to the mother's fur did we realize that something very unique was taking place here with Legadema. +And of course, the baby baboon was so innocent, it didn't turn and run. +So what we watched over the next couple of hours was very unique. +It was absolutely amazing when she picked it up to safety, protecting it from the hyena. +And over the next five hours, she took care of it. +We realized that we actually don't know everything, and that nature is so unpredictable, we have to be open at all times. +DJ: Okay, so she was a little bit rough. +But in fact, what we were seeing here was interesting. +Because she is a cub wanting to play, but she was also a predator needing to kill, and yet conflicted in some way, because she was also an emerging mother. +She had this maternal instinct, much like a young girl on her way to womanhood, and so this really took us to this new level of understanding that personality. +BJ: And of course, through the night, they lay together. +They ended up sleeping for hours. +But I have to tell you -- everybody always asks, "What happened to the baby baboon?" +It did die, and we suspect it was from the freezing winter nights. +DJ: So at this stage, I guess, we had very, very firm ideas on what conservation meant. +We had to deal with these individual personalities. +We had to deal with them with respect and celebrate them. +And so we, with the National Geographic, formed the Big Cats Initiative to march forward into conservation, taking care of the big cats that we loved -- and then had an opportunity to look back over the last 50 years to see how well we had all collectively been doing. +So when Beverly and I were born, there were 450,000 lions, and today there are 20,000. +Tigers haven't fared any better -- 45,000 down to maybe 3,000. +BJ: And then cheetahs have crashed all the way down to 12,000. +Leopards have plummeted from 700,000 down to a mere 50,000. +Now in the extraordinary time that we have worked with Legadema -- which is really over a five-year period -- 10,000 leopards were legally shot by safari hunters. +And that's not the only leopards that were being killed through that period. +There's an immense amount of poaching as well, and so possibly the same amount. +It's simply not sustainable. +We admire them, and we fear them, and yet, as man, we want to steal their power. +It used to be the time where only kings wore a leopard skin, but now throughout rituals and ceremonies, traditional healers and ministers. +And of course, looking at this lion paw that has been skinned, it eerily reminds me of a human hand, and that's ironic, because their fate is in our hands. +DJ: There's a burgeoning bone trade. +South Africa just released some lion bones onto the market. +Lion bones and tiger bones look exactly the same, and so in a stroke, the lion bone industry is going to wipe out all the tigers. +So we have a real problem here, no more so than the lions do, the male lions. +So the 20,000 lion figure that you just saw is actually a red herring, because there may be 3,000 or 4,000 male lions, and they all are actually infected with the same disease. +I call it complacency -- our complacency. +Because there's a sport, there's an activity going on that we're all aware of, that we condone. +And that's probably because we haven't seen it like we are today. +BJ: And you have to know that, when a male lion is killed, it completely disrupts the whole pride. +A new male comes into the area and takes over the pride, and, of course, first of all kills all the cubs and possibly some of the females that are defending their cubs. +So we've estimated that between 20 [and] 30 lions are killed when one lion is hanging on a wall somewhere in a far-off place. +DJ: So what our investigations have shown is that these lions are essential. +They're essential to the habitat. +If they disappear, whole ecosystems in Africa disappear. +ecotourism revenue stream into Africa. +So this is not just a concern about lions; it's a concern about communities in Africa as well. +If they disappear, all of that goes away. +But what I'm more concerned about in many ways is that, as we de-link ourselves from nature, as we de-link ourselves spiritually from these animals, we lose hope, we lose that spiritual connection, our dignity, that thing within us that keeps us connected to the planet. +BJ: So you have to know, looking into the eyes of lions and leopards right now, it is all about critical awareness. +And so what we are doing, in February, we're bringing out a film called "The Last Lion," and "The Last Lion" is exactly what is happening right now. +That is the situation we're in -- the last lions. +That is, if we don't take action and do something, these plains will be completely devoid of big cats, and then, in turn, everything else will disappear. +And simply, if we can't protect them, we're going to have a job protecting ourselves as well. +DJ: And in fact, that original thing that we spoke about and designed our lives by -- that conservation was all about respect and celebration -- is probably true. That's really what it needs. +We need it. We respect and celebrate each other as a man and a woman, as a community and as part of this planet, and we need to continue that. +And Legadema? +Well we can report, in fact, that we're grandparents. +BJ/DJ: Thank you very much. +So for any of us in this room today, let's start out by admitting we're lucky. +We don't live in the world our mothers lived in, our grandmothers lived in, where career choices for women were so limited. +And if you're in this room today, most of us grew up in a world where we have basic civil rights, and amazingly, we still live in a world where some women don't have them. +But all that aside, we still have a problem, and it's a real problem. +And the problem is this: Women are not making it to the top of any profession anywhere in the world. +The numbers tell the story quite clearly. +190 heads of state -- nine are women. +Of all the people in parliament in the world, 13 percent are women. +In the corporate sector, women at the top, C-level jobs, board seats -- tops out at 15, 16 percent. +The numbers have not moved since 2002 and are going in the wrong direction. +And even in the non-profit world, a world we sometimes think of as being led by more women, women at the top: 20 percent. +We also have another problem, which is that women face harder choices between professional success and personal fulfillment. +A recent study in the U.S. showed that, of married senior managers, two-thirds of the married men had children and only one-third of the married women had children. +A couple of years ago, I was in New York, and I was pitching a deal, and I was in one of those fancy New York private equity offices you can picture. +And I'm in the meeting -- it's about a three-hour meeting -- and two hours in, there needs to be that bio break, and everyone stands up, and the partner running the meeting starts looking really embarrassed. +And I realized he doesn't know where the women's room is in his office. +So I start looking around for moving boxes, figuring they just moved in, but I don't see any. +And so I said, "Did you just move into this office?" +And he said, "No, we've been here about a year." +And I said, "Are you telling me that I am the only woman to have pitched a deal in this office in a year?" +And he looked at me, and he said, "Yeah. Or maybe you're the only one who had to go to the bathroom." +So the question is, how are we going to fix this? +How do we change these numbers at the top? +How do we make this different? +I want to start out by saying, I talk about this -- about keeping women in the workforce -- because I really think that's the answer. +In the high-income part of our workforce, in the people who end up at the top -- Fortune 500 CEO jobs, or the equivalent in other industries -- the problem, I am convinced, is that women are dropping out. +Now people talk about this a lot, and they talk about things like flextime and mentoring and programs companies should have to train women. +I want to talk about none of that today, even though that's all really important. +Today I want to focus on what we can do as individuals. +What are the messages we need to tell ourselves? +What are the messages we tell the women that work with and for us? +What are the messages we tell our daughters? +Now, at the outset, I want to be very clear that this speech comes with no judgments. +I don't have the right answer. +I don't even have it for myself. +I left San Francisco, where I live, on Monday, and I was getting on the plane for this conference. +And my daughter, who's three, when I dropped her off at preschool, did that whole hugging-the-leg, crying, "Mommy, don't get on the plane" thing. +This is hard. I feel guilty sometimes. +I know no women, whether they're at home or whether they're in the workforce, who don't feel that sometimes. +So I'm not saying that staying in the workforce is the right thing for everyone. +My talk today is about what the messages are if you do want to stay in the workforce, and I think there are three. +One, sit at the table. +Two, make your partner a real partner. +And three, don't leave before you leave. +Number one: sit at the table. +Just a couple weeks ago at Facebook, we hosted a very senior government official, and he came in to meet with senior execs from around Silicon Valley. +And everyone kind of sat at the table. +He had these two women who were traveling with him pretty senior in his department, and I kind of said to them, "Sit at the table. Come on, sit at the table," and they sat on the side of the room. +When I was in college, my senior year, I took a course called European Intellectual History. +Don't you love that kind of thing from college? +I wish I could do that now. +And I took it with my roommate, Carrie, who was then a brilliant literary student -- and went on to be a brilliant literary scholar -- and my brother -- smart guy, but a water-polo-playing pre-med, who was a sophomore. +The three of us take this class together. +And then Carrie reads all the books in the original Greek and Latin, goes to all the lectures. +I read all the books in English and go to most of the lectures. +My brother is kind of busy. +He reads one book of 12 and goes to a couple of lectures, marches himself up to our room a couple days before the exam to get himself tutored. +The three of us go to the exam together, and we sit down. +And we sit there for three hours -- and our little blue notebooks -- yes, I'm that old. +We walk out, we look at each other, and we say, "How did you do?" +And Carrie says, "Boy, I feel like I didn't really draw out the main point on the Hegelian dialectic." +And I say, "God, I really wish I had really connected John Locke's theory of property with the philosophers that follow." +And my brother says, "I got the top grade in the class." +"You got the top grade in the class? +You don't know anything." +The problem with these stories is that they show what the data shows: women systematically underestimate their own abilities. +If you test men and women, and you ask them questions on totally objective criteria like GPAs, men get it wrong slightly high, and women get it wrong slightly low. +Women do not negotiate for themselves in the workforce. +A study in the last two years of people entering the workforce out of college showed that 57 percent of boys entering, or men, I guess, are negotiating their first salary, and only seven percent of women. +And most importantly, men attribute their success to themselves, and women attribute it to other external factors. +If you ask men why they did a good job, they'll say, "I'm awesome. +Obviously. Why are you even asking?" +If you ask women why they did a good job, what they'll say is someone helped them, they got lucky, they worked really hard. +Why does this matter? +Boy, it matters a lot. +Because no one gets to the corner office by sitting on the side, not at the table, and no one gets the promotion if they don't think they deserve their success, or they don't even understand their own success. +I wish the answer were easy. +I wish I could go tell all the young women I work for, these fabulous women, "Believe in yourself and negotiate for yourself. +Own your own success." +I wish I could tell that to my daughter. +But it's not that simple. +Because what the data shows, above all else, is one thing, which is that success and likeability are positively correlated for men and negatively correlated for women. +And everyone's nodding, because we all know this to be true. +There's a really good study that shows this really well. +There's a famous Harvard Business School study on a woman named Heidi Roizen. +And she's an operator in a company in Silicon Valley, and she uses her contacts to become a very successful venture capitalist. +In 2002 -- not so long ago -- a professor who was then at Columbia University took that case and made it [Howard] Roizen. +And he gave the case out, both of them, to two groups of students. +He changed exactly one word: "Heidi" to "Howard." +But that one word made a really big difference. +He then surveyed the students, and the good news was the students, both men and women, thought Heidi and Howard were equally competent, and that's good. +The bad news was that everyone liked Howard. +He's a great guy. You want to work for him. +You want to spend the day fishing with him. +But Heidi? Not so sure. +She's a little out for herself. She's a little political. +You're not sure you'd want to work for her. +This is the complication. +We have to tell our daughters and our colleagues, we have to tell ourselves to believe we got the A, to reach for the promotion, to sit at the table, and we have to do it in a world where, for them, there are sacrifices they will make for that, even though for their brothers, there are not. +The saddest thing about all of this is that it's really hard to remember this. +And I'm about to tell a story which is truly embarrassing for me, but I think important. +I gave this talk at Facebook not so long ago to about 100 employees, and a couple hours later, there was a young woman who works there sitting outside my little desk, and she wanted to talk to me. +I said, okay, and she sat down, and we talked. +And she said, "I learned something today. +I learned that I need to keep my hand up." +"What do you mean?" +She said, "You're giving this talk, and you said you would take two more questions. +I had my hand up with many other people, and you took two more questions. +I put my hand down, and I noticed all the women did the same, and then you took more questions, only from the men." +We've got to get women to sit at the table. +Message number two: Make your partner a real partner. +I've become convinced that we've made more progress in the workforce than we have in the home. +The data shows this very clearly. +If a woman and a man work full-time and have a child, the woman does twice the amount of housework the man does, and the woman does three times the amount of childcare the man does. +So she's got three jobs or two jobs, and he's got one. +Who do you think drops out when someone needs to be home more? +The causes of this are really complicated, and I don't have time to go into them. +And I don't think Sunday football-watching and general laziness is the cause. +I think the cause is more complicated. +I think, as a society, we put more pressure on our boys to succeed than we do on our girls. +I know men that stay home and work in the home to support wives with careers, and it's hard. +When I go to the Mommy-and-Me stuff and I see the father there, I notice that the other mommies don't play with him. +And that's a problem, because we have to make it as important a job, because it's the hardest job in the world to work inside the home, for people of both genders, if we're going to even things out and let women stay in the workforce. +Studies show that households with equal earning and equal responsibility also have half the divorce rate. +And if that wasn't good enough motivation for everyone out there, they also have more -- how shall I say this on this stage? +They know each other more in the biblical sense as well. +Message number three: Don't leave before you leave. +I think there's a really deep irony to the fact that actions women are taking -- and I see this all the time -- with the objective of staying in the workforce actually lead to their eventually leaving. +Here's what happens: We're all busy. Everyone's busy. A woman's busy. +And she starts thinking about having a child, and from the moment she starts thinking about having a child, she starts thinking about making room for that child. +"How am I going to fit this into everything else I'm doing?" +And literally from that moment, she doesn't raise her hand anymore, she doesn't look for a promotion, she doesn't take on the new project, she doesn't say, "Me. I want to do that." +She starts leaning back. +One woman came to see me about this. +She looked a little young. +And I said, "So are you and your husband thinking about having a baby?" +And she said, "Oh no, I'm not married." +She didn't even have a boyfriend. +I said, "You're thinking about this just way too early." +But the point is that what happens once you start kind of quietly leaning back? +Everyone who's been through this -- and I'm here to tell you, once you have a child at home, your job better be really good to go back, because it's hard to leave that kid at home. +Your job needs to be challenging. +It needs to be rewarding. +You need to feel like you're making a difference. +And if two years ago you didn't take a promotion and some guy next to you did, if three years ago you stopped looking for new opportunities, you're going to be bored because you should have kept your foot on the gas pedal. +Don't leave before you leave. +Stay in. +Keep your foot on the gas pedal, until the very day you need to leave to take a break for a child -- and then make your decisions. +Don't make decisions too far in advance, particularly ones you're not even conscious you're making. +My generation really, sadly, is not going to change the numbers at the top. +They're just not moving. +We are not going to get to where 50 percent of the population -- in my generation, there will not be 50 percent of [women] at the top of any industry. +But I'm hopeful that future generations can. +I think a world where half of our countries and our companies were run by women, would be a better world. +It's not just because people would know where the women's bathrooms are, even though that would be very helpful. +I think it would be a better world. +I have two children. +I have a five-year-old son and a two-year-old daughter. +I want my son to have a choice to contribute fully in the workforce or at home, and I want my daughter to have the choice to not just succeed, but to be liked for her accomplishments. +Thank you. +So today, I'm going to tell you about some people who didn't move out of their neighborhoods. +The first one is happening right here in Chicago. +Brenda Palms-Farber was hired to help ex-convicts reenter society and keep them from going back into prison. +Currently, taxpayers spend about 60,000 dollars per year sending a person to jail. +We know that two-thirds of them are going to go back. +I find it interesting that, for every one dollar we spend, however, on early childhood education, like Head Start, we save 17 dollars on stuff like incarceration in the future. +Or -- think about it -- that 60,000 dollars is more than what it costs to send one person to Harvard as well. +But Brenda, not being phased by stuff like that, took a look at her challenge and came up with a not-so-obvious solution: create a business that produces skin care products from honey. +Okay, it might be obvious to some of you; it wasn't to me. +It's the basis of growing a form of social innovation that has real potential. +She hired seemingly unemployable men and women to care for the bees, harvest the honey and make value-added products that they marketed themselves, and that were later sold at Whole Foods. +She combined employment experience and training with life skills they needed, like anger-management and teamwork, and also how to talk to future employers about how their experiences actually demonstrated the lessons that they had learned and their eagerness to learn more. +Less than four percent of the folks that went through her program actually go back to jail. +So these young men and women learned job-readiness and life skills through bee keeping and became productive citizens in the process. +Talk about a sweet beginning. +Now, I'm going to take you to Los Angeles, and lots of people know that L.A. has its issues. +But I'm going to talk about L.A.'s water issues right now. +They have not enough water on most days and too much to handle when it rains. +Currently, 20 percent of California's energy consumption is used to pump water into mostly Southern California. +Their spending loads, loads, to channel that rainwater out into the ocean when it rains and floods as well. +Now Andy Lipkis is working to help L.A. cut infrastructure costs associated with water management and urban heat island -- linking trees, people and technology to create a more livable city. +All that green stuff actually naturally absorbs storm water, also helps cool our cities. +Because, come to think about it, do you really want air-conditioning, or is it a cooler room that you want? +How you get it shouldn't make that much of a difference. +So a few years ago, L.A. County decided that they needed to spend 2.5 billion dollars to repair the city schools. +And Andy and his team discovered that they were going to spend 200 million of those dollars on asphalt to surround the schools themselves. +And by presenting a really strong economic case, they convinced the L.A. government that replacing that asphalt with trees and other greenery, that the schools themselves would save the system more on energy than they spend on horticultural infrastructure. +So ultimately, 20 million square feet of asphalt was replaced or avoided, and electrical consumption for air-conditioning went down, while employment for people to maintain those grounds went up, resulting in a net-savings to the system, but also healthier students and schools system employees as well. +Now Judy Bonds is a coal miner's daughter. +Her family has eight generations in a town called Whitesville, West Virginia. +And if anyone should be clinging to the former glory of the coal mining history, and of the town, it should be Judy. +But the way coal is mined right now is different from the deep mines that her father and her father's father would go down into and that employed essentially thousands and thousands of people. +Now, two dozen men can tear down a mountain in several months, and only for about a few years' worth of coal. +That kind of technology is called "mountaintop removal." +It can make a mountain go from this to this in a few short months. +Just imagine that the air surrounding these places -- it's filled with the residue of explosives and coal. +When we visited, it gave some of the people we were with this strange little cough after being only there for just a few hours or so -- not just miners, but everybody. +And Judy saw her landscape being destroyed and her water poisoned. +And the coal companies just move on after the mountain was emptied, leaving even more unemployment in their wake. +But she also saw the difference in potential wind energy on an intact mountain, and one that was reduced in elevation by over 2,000 feet. +Three years of dirty energy with not many jobs, or centuries of clean energy with the potential for developing expertise and improvements in efficiency based on technical skills, and developing local knowledge about how to get the most out of that region's wind. +She calculated the up-front cost and the payback over time, and it's a net-plus on so many levels for the local, national and global economy. +It's a longer payback than mountaintop removal, but the wind energy actually pays back forever. +Now mountaintop removal pays very little money to the locals, and it gives them a lot of misery. +The water is turned into goo. +Most people are still unemployed, leading to most of the same kinds of social problems that unemployed people in inner cities also experience -- drug and alcohol abuse, domestic abuse, teen pregnancy and poor heath, as well. +Now Judy and I -- I have to say -- totally related to each other. +Not quite an obvious alliance. +I mean, literally, her hometown is called Whitesville, West Virginia. +I mean, they are not -- they ain't competing for the birthplace of hip hop title or anything like that. +But the back of my T-shirt, the one that she gave me, says, "Save the endangered hillbillies." +So homegirls and hillbillies we got it together and totally understand that this is what it's all about. +But just a few months ago, Judy was diagnosed with stage-three lung cancer. +Yeah. +And it has since moved to her bones and her brain. +And I just find it so bizarre that she's suffering from the same thing that she tried so hard to protect people from. +But her dream of Coal River Mountain Wind is her legacy. +And she might not get to see that mountaintop. +But rather than writing yet some kind of manifesto or something, she's leaving behind a business plan to make it happen. +That's what my homegirl is doing. +So I'm so proud of that. +But these three people don't know each other, but they do have an awful lot in common. +They're all problem solvers, and they're just some of the many examples that I really am privileged to see, meet and learn from in the examples of the work that I do now. +I was really lucky to have them all featured on my Corporation for Public Radio radio show called ThePromisedLand.org. +Now they're all very practical visionaries. +They take a look at the demands that are out there -- beauty products, healthy schools, electricity -- and how the money's flowing to meet those demands. +And when the cheapest solutions involve reducing the number of jobs, you're left with unemployed people, and those people aren't cheap. +In fact, they make up some of what I call the most expensive citizens, and they include generationally impoverished, traumatized vets returning from the Middle East, people coming out of jail. +And for the veterans in particular, the V.A. said there's a six-fold increase in mental health pharmaceuticals by vets since 2003. +I think that number's probably going to go up. +They're not the largest number of people, but they are some of the most expensive -- and in terms of the likelihood for domestic abuse, drug and alcohol abuse, poor performance by their kids in schools and also poor health as a result of stress. +So these three guys all understand how to productively channel dollars through our local economies to meet existing market demands, reduce the social problems that we have now and prevent new problems in the future. +And there are plenty of other examples like that. +One problem: waste handling and unemployment. +Even when we think or talk about recycling, lots of recyclable stuff ends up getting incinerated or in landfills and leaving many municipalities, diversion rates -- they leave much to be recycled. +And where is this waste handled? Usually in poor communities. +And we know that eco-industrial business, these kinds of business models -- there's a model in Europe called the eco-industrial park, where either the waste of one company is the raw material for another, or you use recycled materials to make goods that you can actually use and sell. +We can create these local markets and incentives for recycled materials to be used as raw materials for manufacturing. +And in my hometown, we actually tried to do one of these in the Bronx, but our mayor decided what he wanted to see was a jail on that same spot. +Fortunately -- because we wanted to create hundreds of jobs -- but after many years, the city wanted to build a jail. +They've since abandoned that project, thank goodness. +Another problem: unhealthy food systems and unemployment. +Working-class and poor urban Americans are not benefiting economically from our current food system. +It relies too much on transportation, chemical fertilization, big use of water and also refrigeration. +Mega agricultural operations often are responsible for poisoning our waterways and our land, and it produces this incredibly unhealthy product that costs us billions in healthcare and lost productivity. +And so we know "urban ag" is a big buzz topic this time of the year, but it's mostly gardening, which has some value in community building -- lots of it -- but it's not in terms of creating jobs or for food production. +The numbers just aren't there. +This can support seasonal farmers around metro areas who are losing out because they really can't meet the year-round demand for produce. +It's not a competition with rural farm; it's actually reinforcements. +It allies in a really positive and economically viable food system. +The goal is to meet the cities' institutional demands for hospitals, senior centers, schools, daycare centers, and produce a network of regional jobs, as well. +This is smart infrastructure. +And how we manage our built environment affects the health and well-being of people every single day. +Our municipalities, rural and urban, play the operational course of infrastructure -- things like waste disposal, energy demand, as well as social costs of unemployment, drop-out rates, incarceration rates and the impacts of various public health costs. +Smart infrastructure can provide cost-saving ways for municipalities to handle both infrastructure and social needs. +And we want to shift the systems that open the doors for people who were formerly tax burdens to become part of the tax base. +And imagine a national business model that creates local jobs and smart infrastructure to improve local economic stability. +So I'm hoping you can see a little theme here. +These examples indicate a trend. +I haven't created it, and it's not happening by accident. +I'm noticing that it's happening all over the country, and the good news is that it's growing. +And we all need to be invested in it. +It is an essential pillar to this country's recovery. +And I call it "hometown security." +The recession has us reeling and fearful, and there's something in the air these days that is also very empowering. +It's a realization that we are the key to our own recovery. +Now is the time for us to act in our own communities where we think local and we act local. +And when we do that, our neighbors -- be they next-door, or in the next state, or in the next country -- will be just fine. +The sum of the local is the global. +Hometown security means rebuilding our natural defenses, putting people to work, restoring our natural systems. +Hometown security means creating wealth here at home, instead of destroying it overseas. +Tackling social and environmental problems at the same time with the same solution yields great cost savings, wealth generation and national security. +Many great and inspiring solutions have been generated across America. +The challenge for us now is to identify and support countless more. +Now, hometown security is about taking care of your own, but it's not like the old saying, "charity begins at home." +I recently read a book called "Love Leadership" by John Hope Bryant. +And it's about leading in a world that really does seem to be operating on the basis of fear. +And reading that book made me reexamine that theory because I need to explain what I mean by that. +See, my dad was a great, great man in many ways. +He grew up in the segregated South, escaped lynching and all that during some really hard times, and he provided a really stable home for me and my siblings and a whole bunch of other people that fell on hard times. +But, like all of us, he had some problems. +And his was gambling, compulsively. +To him that phrase, "Charity begins at home," meant that my payday -- or someone else's -- would just happen to coincide with his lucky day. +So you need to help him out. +And sometimes I would loan him money from my after-school or summer jobs, and he always had the great intention of paying me back with interest, of course, after he hit it big. +And he did sometimes, believe it or not, at a racetrack in Los Angeles -- one reason to love L.A. -- back in the 1940s. +He made 15,000 dollars cash and bought the house that I grew up in. +So I'm not that unhappy about that. +But listen, I did feel obligated to him, and I grew up -- then I grew up. +And I'm a grown woman now, and I have learned a few things along the way. +To me, charity often is just about giving, because you're supposed to, or because it's what you've always done, or it's about giving until it hurts. +I'm about providing the means to build something that will grow and intensify its original investment and not just require greater giving next year -- I'm not trying to feed the habit. +I spent some years watching how good intentions for community empowerment, that were supposed to be there to support the community and empower it, actually left people in the same, if not worse, position that they were in before. +And over the past 20 years, we've spent record amounts of philanthropic dollars on social problems, yet educational outcomes, malnutrition, incarceration, obesity, diabetes, income disparity, they've all gone up with some exceptions -- in particular, infant mortality among people in poverty -- but it's a great world that we're bringing them into as well. +And I know a little bit about these issues, because, for many years, I spent a long time in the non-profit industrial complex, and I'm a recovering executive director, two years clean. +But during that time, I realized that it was about projects and developing them on the local level that really was going to do the right thing for our communities. +But I really did struggle for financial support. +The greater our success, the less money came in from foundations. +And I tell you, being on the TED stage and winning a MacArthur in the same exact year gave everyone the impression that I had arrived. +And by the time I'd moved on, I was actually covering a third of my agency's budget deficit with speaking fees. +And I think because early on, frankly, my programs were just a little bit ahead of their time. +But since then, the park that was just a dump and was featured at a TED2006 Talk became this little thing. +But I did in fact get married in it. +Over here. +There goes my dog who led me to the park in my wedding. +The South Bronx Greenway was also just a drawing on the stage back in 2006. +Since then, we got about 50 million dollars in stimulus package money to come and get here. +And we love this, because I love construction now, because we're watching these things actually happen. +So I want everyone to understand the critical importance of shifting charity into enterprise. +I started my firm to help communities across the country realize their own potential to improve everything about the quality of life for their people. +Hometown security is next on my to-do list. +What we need are people who see the value in investing in these types of local enterprises, who will partner with folks like me to identify the growth trends and climate adaptation as well as understand the growing social costs of business as usual. +We need to work together to embrace and repair our land, repair our power systems and repair ourselves. +It's time to stop building the shopping malls, the prisons, the stadiums and other tributes to all of our collective failures. +It is time that we start building living monuments to hope and possibility. +Thank you very much. +So, I'll start with this: a couple years ago, an event planner called me because I was going to do a speaking event. +And she called, and she said, "I'm really struggling with how to write about you on the little flyer." +And I thought, "Well, what's the struggle?" +And she said, "Well, I saw you speak, and I'm going to call you a researcher, I think, but I'm afraid if I call you a researcher, no one will come, because they'll think you're boring and irrelevant." +And I was like, "Okay." +And she said, "But the thing I liked about your talk is you're a storyteller. +So I think what I'll do is just call you a storyteller." +And of course, the academic, insecure part of me was like, "You're going to call me a what?" +And she said, "I'm going to call you a storyteller." +And I was like, "Why not 'magic pixie'?" +I was like, "Let me think about this for a second." +I tried to call deep on my courage. +And I thought, you know, I am a storyteller. +I'm a qualitative researcher. +I collect stories; that's what I do. +And maybe stories are just data with a soul. +And maybe I'm just a storyteller. +And so I said, "You know what? +Why don't you just say I'm a researcher-storyteller." +And she went, "Ha ha. There's no such thing." +So I'm a researcher-storyteller, and I'm going to talk to you today -- we're talking about expanding perception -- and so I want to talk to you and tell some stories about a piece of my research that fundamentally expanded my perception and really actually changed the way that I live and love and work and parent. +And this is where my story starts. +When I was a young researcher, doctoral student, my first year, I had a research professor who said to us, "Here's the thing, if you cannot measure it, it does not exist." +And I thought he was just sweet-talking me. +I was like, "Really?" and he was like, "Absolutely." +And so you have to understand that I have a bachelor's and a master's in social work, and I was getting my Ph.D. in social work, so my entire academic career was surrounded by people who kind of believed in the "life's messy, love it." +And I'm more of the, "life's messy, clean it up, organize it and put it into a bento box." +And so to think that I had found my way, to found a career that takes me -- really, one of the big sayings in social work is, "Lean into the discomfort of the work." +And I'm like, knock discomfort upside the head and move it over and get all A's. +That was my mantra. +So I was very excited about this. +And so I thought, you know what, this is the career for me, because I am interested in some messy topics. +But I want to be able to make them not messy. +I want to understand them. +I want to hack into these things that I know are important and lay the code out for everyone to see. +So where I started was with connection. +Because, by the time you're a social worker for 10 years, what you realize is that connection is why we're here. +It's what gives purpose and meaning to our lives. +This is what it's all about. +It doesn't matter whether you talk to people who work in social justice, mental health and abuse and neglect, what we know is that connection, the ability to feel connected, is -- neurobiologically that's how we're wired -- it's why we're here. +So I thought, you know what, I'm going to start with connection. +Well, you know that situation where you get an evaluation from your boss, and she tells you 37 things that you do really awesome, and one "opportunity for growth?" +And all you can think about is that opportunity for growth, right? +Well, apparently this is the way my work went as well, because, when you ask people about love, they tell you about heartbreak. +When you ask people about belonging, they'll tell you their most excruciating experiences of being excluded. +And when you ask people about connection, the stories they told me were about disconnection. +So very quickly -- really about six weeks into this research -- I ran into this unnamed thing that absolutely unraveled connection in a way that I didn't understand or had never seen. +And so I pulled back out of the research and thought, I need to figure out what this is. +And it turned out to be shame. +And shame is really easily understood as the fear of disconnection: Is there something about me that, if other people know it or see it, that I won't be worthy of connection? +The things I can tell you about it: It's universal; we all have it. +The only people who don't experience shame have no capacity for human empathy or connection. +No one wants to talk about it, and the less you talk about it, the more you have it. +What underpinned this shame, this "I'm not good enough," -- which, we all know that feeling: "I'm not blank enough. I'm not thin enough, rich enough, beautiful enough, smart enough, promoted enough." +The thing that underpinned this was excruciating vulnerability. +This idea of, in order for connection to happen, we have to allow ourselves to be seen, really seen. +And you know how I feel about vulnerability. I hate vulnerability. +And so I thought, this is my chance to beat it back with my measuring stick. +I'm going in, I'm going to figure this stuff out, I'm going to spend a year, I'm going to totally deconstruct shame, I'm going to understand how vulnerability works, and I'm going to outsmart it. +So I was ready, and I was really excited. +As you know, it's not going to turn out well. +You know this. +So, I could tell you a lot about shame, but I'd have to borrow everyone else's time. +But here's what I can tell you that it boils down to -- and this may be one of the most important things that I've ever learned in the decade of doing this research. +My one year turned into six years: Thousands of stories, hundreds of long interviews, focus groups. +At one point, people were sending me journal pages and sending me their stories -- thousands of pieces of data in six years. +And I kind of got a handle on it. +I kind of understood, this is what shame is, this is how it works. +There was only one variable that separated the people who have a strong sense of love and belonging and the people who really struggle for it. +And that was, the people who have a strong sense of love and belonging believe they're worthy of love and belonging. +That's it. +They believe they're worthy. +And to me, the hard part of the one thing that keeps us out of connection is our fear that we're not worthy of connection, was something that, personally and professionally, I felt like I needed to understand better. +So what I did is I took all of the interviews where I saw worthiness, where I saw people living that way, and just looked at those. +What do these people have in common? +I have a slight office supply addiction, but that's another talk. +So I had a manila folder, and I had a Sharpie, and I was like, what am I going to call this research? +And the first words that came to my mind were "whole-hearted." +These are whole-hearted people, living from this deep sense of worthiness. +So I wrote at the top of the manila folder, and I started looking at the data. +In fact, I did it first in a four-day, very intensive data analysis, where I went back, pulled the interviews, the stories, pulled the incidents. +What's the theme? What's the pattern? +My husband left town with the kids because I always go into this Jackson Pollock crazy thing, where I'm just writing and in my researcher mode. +And so here's what I found. +What they had in common was a sense of courage. +And I want to separate courage and bravery for you for a minute. +Courage, the original definition of courage, when it first came into the English language -- it's from the Latin word "cor," meaning "heart" -- and the original definition was to tell the story of who you are with your whole heart. +And so these folks had, very simply, the courage to be imperfect. +They had the compassion to be kind to themselves first and then to others, because, as it turns out, we can't practice compassion with other people if we can't treat ourselves kindly. +And the last was they had connection, and -- this was the hard part -- as a result of authenticity, they were willing to let go of who they thought they should be in order to be who they were, which you have to absolutely do that for connection. +The other thing that they had in common was this: They fully embraced vulnerability. +They believed that what made them vulnerable made them beautiful. +They didn't talk about vulnerability being comfortable, nor did they really talk about it being excruciating -- as I had heard it earlier in the shame interviewing. +They just talked about it being necessary. +They talked about the willingness to say, "I love you" first ... +the willingness to do something where there are no guarantees ... +the willingness to breathe through waiting for the doctor to call after your mammogram. +They're willing to invest in a relationship that may or may not work out. +They thought this was fundamental. +I personally thought it was betrayal. +I could not believe I had pledged allegiance to research, where our job -- you know, the definition of research is to control and predict, to study phenomena for the explicit reason to control and predict. +And now my mission to control and predict had turned up the answer that the way to live is with vulnerability and to stop controlling and predicting. +This led to a little breakdown -- -- which actually looked more like this. +And it did. +I call it a breakdown; my therapist calls it a spiritual awakening. +A spiritual awakening sounds better than breakdown, but I assure you, it was a breakdown. +And I had to put my data away and go find a therapist. +Let me tell you something: you know who you are when you call your friends and say, "I think I need to see somebody. +Do you have any recommendations?" +Because about five of my friends were like, "Wooo, I wouldn't want to be your therapist." +I was like, "What does that mean?" +And they're like, "I'm just saying, you know. +Don't bring your measuring stick." +I was like, "Okay." +So I found a therapist. +My first meeting with her, Diana -- I brought in my list of the way the whole-hearted live, and I sat down. +And she said, "How are you?" +And I said, "I'm great. I'm okay." +She said, "What's going on?" +And this is a therapist who sees therapists, because we have to go to those, because their B.S. meters are good. +And so I said, "Here's the thing, I'm struggling." +And she said, "What's the struggle?" +And I said, "Well, I have a vulnerability issue. +And I know that vulnerability is the core of shame and fear and our struggle for worthiness, but it appears that it's also the birthplace of joy, of creativity, of belonging, of love. +And I think I have a problem, and I need some help." +And I said, "But here's the thing: no family stuff, no childhood shit." +"I just need some strategies." +Thank you. +So she goes like this. +And then I said, "It's bad, right?" +And she said, "It's neither good nor bad." +"It just is what it is." +And I said, "Oh my God, this is going to suck." +And it did, and it didn't. +And it took about a year. +And you know how there are people that, when they realize that vulnerability and tenderness are important, that they surrender and walk into it. +A: that's not me, and B: I don't even hang out with people like that. +For me, it was a yearlong street fight. +It was a slugfest. +Vulnerability pushed, I pushed back. +I lost the fight, but probably won my life back. +And so then I went back into the research and spent the next couple of years really trying to understand what they, the whole-hearted, what choices they were making, and what we are doing with vulnerability. +Why do we struggle with it so much? +Am I alone in struggling with vulnerability? +No. +So this is what I learned. +We numb vulnerability -- when we're waiting for the call. +It was funny, I sent something out on Twitter and on Facebook that says, "How would you define vulnerability? +What makes you feel vulnerable?" +And within an hour and a half, I had 150 responses. +Because I wanted to know what's out there. +Having to ask my husband for help because I'm sick, and we're newly married; initiating sex with my husband; initiating sex with my wife; being turned down; asking someone out; waiting for the doctor to call back; getting laid off; laying off people. +This is the world we live in. +We live in a vulnerable world. +And one of the ways we deal with it is we numb vulnerability. +And I think there's evidence -- and it's not the only reason this evidence exists, but I think it's a huge cause -- We are the most in-debt ... +obese ... +addicted and medicated adult cohort in U.S. history. +The problem is -- and I learned this from the research -- that you cannot selectively numb emotion. +You can't say, here's the bad stuff. +Here's vulnerability, here's grief, here's shame, here's fear, here's disappointment. +I don't want to feel these. +I'm going to have a couple of beers and a banana nut muffin. +I don't want to feel these. +And I know that's knowing laughter. +I hack into your lives for a living. +God. +You can't numb those hard feelings without numbing the other affects, our emotions. +You cannot selectively numb. +So when we numb those, we numb joy, we numb gratitude, we numb happiness. +And then, we are miserable, and we are looking for purpose and meaning, and then we feel vulnerable, so then we have a couple of beers and a banana nut muffin. +And it becomes this dangerous cycle. +One of the things that I think we need to think about is why and how we numb. +And it doesn't just have to be addiction. +The other thing we do is we make everything that's uncertain certain. +Religion has gone from a belief in faith and mystery to certainty. +"I'm right, you're wrong. Shut up." +That's it. +Just certain. +The more afraid we are, the more vulnerable we are, the more afraid we are. +This is what politics looks like today. +There's no discourse anymore. +There's no conversation. +There's just blame. +You know how blame is described in the research? +A way to discharge pain and discomfort. +We perfect. +If there's anyone who wants their life to look like this, it would be me, but it doesn't work. +Because what we do is we take fat from our butts and put it in our cheeks. +Which just, I hope in 100 years, people will look back and go, "Wow." +And we perfect, most dangerously, our children. +Let me tell you what we think about children. +They're hardwired for struggle when they get here. +And when you hold those perfect little babies in your hand, our job is not to say, "Look at her, she's perfect. +My job is just to keep her perfect -- make sure she makes the tennis team by fifth grade and Yale by seventh." +That's not our job. +Our job is to look and say, "You know what? You're imperfect, and you're wired for struggle, but you are worthy of love and belonging." +That's our job. +Show me a generation of kids raised like that, and we'll end the problems, I think, that we see today. +We pretend that what we do doesn't have an effect on people. +We do that in our personal lives. +We do that corporate -- whether it's a bailout, an oil spill ... +a recall. +We pretend like what we're doing doesn't have a huge impact on other people. +I would say to companies, this is not our first rodeo, people. +We just need you to be authentic and real and say ... +"We're sorry. We'll fix it." +But there's another way, and I'll leave you with this. +This is what I have found: To let ourselves be seen, deeply seen, vulnerably seen ... +to love with our whole hearts, even though there's no guarantee -- and that's really hard, and I can tell you as a parent, that's excruciatingly difficult -- to practice gratitude and joy in those moments of terror, when we're wondering, "Can I love you this much? +Can I believe in this this passionately? +Can I be this fierce about this?" +just to be able to stop and, instead of catastrophizing what might happen, to say, "I'm just so grateful, because to feel this vulnerable means I'm alive." +And the last, which I think is probably the most important, is to believe that we're enough. +Because when we work from a place, I believe, that says, "I'm enough" ... +then we stop screaming and start listening, we're kinder and gentler to the people around us, and we're kinder and gentler to ourselves. +That's all I have. Thank you. +The first thing I want to do is say thank you to all of you. +The second thing I want to do is introduce my co-author and dear friend and co-teacher. +Ken and I have been working together for almost 40 years. +That's Ken Sharpe over there. +So there is among many people -- certainly me and most of the people I talk to -- a kind of collective dissatisfaction with the way things are working, with the way our institutions run. +Our kids' teachers seem to be failing them. +Our doctors don't know who the hell we are, and they don't have enough time for us. +We certainly can't trust the bankers, and we certainly can't trust the brokers. +They almost brought the entire financial system down. +And even as we do our own work, all too often, we find ourselves having to choose between doing what we think is the right thing and doing the expected thing, or the required thing, or the profitable thing. +So everywhere we look, pretty much across the board, we worry that the people we depend on don't really have our interests at heart. +Or if they do have our interests at heart, we worry that they don't know us well enough to figure out what they need to do in order to allow us to secure those interests. +They don't understand us. +They don't have the time to get to know us. +There are two kinds of responses that we make to this sort of general dissatisfaction. +If things aren't going right, the first response is: let's make more rules, let's set up a set of detailed procedures to make sure that people will do the right thing. +Give teachers scripts to follow in the classroom, so even if they don't know what they're doing and don't care about the welfare of our kids, as long as they follow the scripts, our kids will get educated. +Give judges a list of mandatory sentences to impose for crimes, so that you don't need to rely on judges using their judgment. +Instead, all they have to do is look up on the list what kind of sentence goes with what kind of crime. +Impose limits on what credit card companies can charge in interest and on what they can charge in fees. +More and more rules to protect us against an indifferent, uncaring set of institutions we have to deal with. +So we offer teachers bonuses if the kids they teach score passing grades on these big test scores that are used to evaluate the quality of school systems. +Rules and incentives -- "sticks" and "carrots." +We passed a bunch of rules to regulate the financial industry in response to the recent collapse. +There's the Dodd-Frank Act, there's the new Consumer Financial Protection Agency that is temporarily being headed through the backdoor by Elizabeth Warren. +Maybe these rules will actually improve the way these financial services companies behave. +We'll see. +In addition, we are struggling to find some way to create incentives for people in the financial services industry that will have them more interested in serving the long-term interests even of their own companies, rather than securing short-term profits. +So if we find just the right incentives, they'll do the right thing -- as I said -- selfishly, and if we come up with the right rules and regulations, they won't drive us all over a cliff. +And Ken [Sharpe] and I certainly know that you need to reign in the bankers. +If there is a lesson to be learned from the financial collapse it is that. +But what we believe, and what we argue in the book, is that there is no set of rules, no matter how detailed, no matter how specific, no matter how carefully monitored and enforced, there is no set of rules that will get us what we need. +Why? Because bankers are smart people. +And, like water, they will find cracks in any set of rules. +You design a set of rules that will make sure that the particular reason why the financial system "almost-collapse" can't happen again. +It is naive beyond description to think that having blocked this source of financial collapse, you have blocked all possible sources of financial collapse. +So it's just a question of waiting for the next one and then marveling at how we could have been so stupid as not to protect ourselves against that. +What we desperately need, beyond, or along with, better rules and reasonably smart incentives, is we need virtue. +We need character. +We need people who want to do the right thing. +And in particular, the virtue that we need most of all is the virtue that Aristotle called "practical wisdom." +Practical wisdom is the moral will to do the right thing and the moral skill to figure out what the right thing is. +So Aristotle was very interested in watching how the craftsmen around him worked. +And he was impressed at how they would improvise novel solutions to novel problems -- problems that they hadn't anticipated. +So one example is he sees these stonemasons working on the Isle of Lesbos, and they need to measure out round columns. +Well if you think about it, it's really hard to measure out round columns using a ruler. +So what do they do? +They fashion a novel solution to the problem. +They created a ruler that bends, what we would call these days a tape measure -- a flexible rule, a rule that bends. +And Aristotle said, "Hah, they appreciated that sometimes to design rounded columns, you need to bend the rule." +And Aristotle said often in dealing with other people, we need to bend the rules. +Dealing with other people demands a kind of flexibility that no set of rules can encompass. +Wise people know when and how to bend the rules. +Wise people know how to improvise. +The way my co-author , Ken, and I talk about it, they are kind of like jazz musicians. +The rules are like the notes on the page, and that gets you started, but then you dance around the notes on the page, coming up with just the right combination for this particular moment with this particular set of fellow players. +So for Aristotle, the kind of rule-bending, rule exception-finding and improvisation that you see in skilled craftsmen is exactly what you need to be a skilled moral craftsman. +And in interactions with people, almost all the time, it is this kind of flexibility that is required. +A wise person knows when to bend the rules. +A wise person knows when to improvise. +And most important, a wise person does this improvising and rule-bending in the service of the right aims. +If you are a rule-bender and an improviser mostly to serve yourself, what you get is ruthless manipulation of other people. +So it matters that you do this wise practice in the service of others and not in the service of yourself. +And so the will to do the right thing is just as important as the moral skill of improvisation and exception-finding. +Together they comprise practical wisdom, which Aristotle thought was the master virtue. +So I'll give you an example of wise practice in action. +It's the case of Michael. +Michael's a young guy. +He had a pretty low-wage job. +He was supporting his wife and a child, and the child was going to parochial school. +Then he lost his job. +He panicked about being able to support his family. +One night, he drank a little too much, and he robbed a cab driver -- stole 50 dollars. +He robbed him at gunpoint. +It was a toy gun. +He got caught. He got tried. +He got convicted. +The Pennsylvania sentencing guidelines required a minimum sentence for a crime like this of two years, 24 months. +The judge on the case, Judge Lois Forer thought that this made no sense. +He had never committed a crime before. +He was a responsible husband and father. +He had been faced with desperate circumstances. +All this would do is wreck a family. +And so she improvised a sentence -- 11 months, and not only that, but release every day to go to work. +Spend your night in jail, spend your day holding down a job. +He did. He served out his sentence. +He made restitution and found himself a new job. +And the family was united. +And it seemed on the road to some sort of a decent life -- a happy ending to a story involving wise improvisation from a wise judge. +But it turned out the prosecutor was not happy that Judge Forer ignored the sentencing guidelines and sort of invented her own, and so he appealed. +And he asked for the mandatory minimum sentence for armed robbery. +He did after all have a toy gun. +The mandatory minimum sentence for armed robbery is five years. +He won the appeal. +Michael was sentenced to five years in prison. +Judge Forer had to follow the law. +And by the way, this appeal went through after he had finished serving his sentence, so he was out and working at a job and taking care of his family and he had to go back into jail. +Judge Forer did what she was required to do, and then she quit the bench. +And Michael disappeared. +So that is an example, both of wisdom in practice and the subversion of wisdom by rules that are meant, of course, to make things better. +Now consider Ms. Dewey. +Ms. Dewey's a teacher in a Texas elementary school. +She found herself listening to a consultant one day who was trying to help teachers boost the test scores of the kids, so that the school would reach the elite category in percentage of kids passing big tests. +All these schools in Texas compete with one another to achieve these milestones, and there are bonuses and various other treats that come if you beat the other schools. +So here was the consultant's advice: first, don't waste your time on kids who are going to pass the test no matter what you do. +Second, don't waste your time on kids who can't pass the test no matter what you do. +Third, don't waste your time on kids who moved into the district too late for their scores to be counted. +Focus all of your time and attention on the kids who are on the bubble, the so-called "bubble kids" -- kids where your intervention can get them just maybe over the line from failing to passing. +So Ms. Dewey heard this, and she shook her head in despair while fellow teachers were sort of cheering each other on and nodding approvingly. +It's like they were about to go play a football game. +For Ms. Dewey, this isn't why she became a teacher. +Now Ken and I are not naive, and we understand that you need to have rules. +You need to have incentives. +People have to make a living. +But the problem with relying on rules and incentives is that they demoralize professional activity, and they demoralize professional activity in two senses. +First, they demoralize the people who are engaged in the activity. +Judge Forer quits, and Ms. Dewey in completely disheartened. +And second, they demoralize the activity itself. +The very practice is demoralized, and the practitioners are demoralized. +It creates people -- when you manipulate incentives to get people to do the right thing -- it creates people who are addicted to incentives. +That is to say, it creates people who only do things for incentives. +Now the striking thing about this is that psychologists have known this for 30 years. +Psychologists have known about the negative consequences of incentivizing everything for 30 years. +We know that if you reward kids for drawing pictures, they stop caring about the drawing and care only about the reward. +If you reward kids for reading books, they stop caring about what's in the books and only care about how long they are. +If you reward teachers for kids' test scores, they stop caring about educating and only care about test preparation. +If you were to reward doctors for doing more procedures -- which is the current system -- they would do more. +If instead you reward doctors for doing fewer procedures, they will do fewer. +What we want, of course, is doctors who do just the right amount of procedures and do the right amount for the right reason -- namely, to serve the welfare of their patients. +Psychologists have known this for decades, and it's time for policymakers to start paying attention and listen to psychologists a little bit, instead of economists. +And it doesn't have to be this way. +We think, Ken and I, that there are real sources of hope. +We identify one set of people in all of these practices who we call canny outlaws. +These are people who, being forced to operate in a system that demands rule-following and creates incentives, find away around the rules, find a way to subvert the rules. +So there are teachers who have these scripts to follow, and they know that if they follow these scripts, the kids will learn nothing. +And so what they do is they follow the scripts, but they follow the scripts at double-time and squirrel away little bits of extra time during which they teach in the way that they actually know is effective. +So these are little ordinary, everyday heroes, and they're incredibly admirable, but there's no way that they can sustain this kind of activity in the face of a system that either roots them out or grinds them down. +So canny outlaws are better than nothing, but it's hard to imagine any canny outlaw sustaining that for an indefinite period of time. +More hopeful are people we call system-changers. +These are people who are looking not to dodge the system's rules and regulations, but to transform the system, and we talk about several. +One in particular is a judge named Robert Russell. +And one day he was faced with the case of Gary Pettengill. +Pettengill was a 23-year-old vet who had planned to make the army a career, but then he got a severe back injury in Iraq, and that forced him to take a medical discharge. +He was married, he had a third kid on the way, he suffered from PTSD, in addition to the bad back, and recurrent nightmares, and he had started using marijuana to ease some of the symptoms. +He was only able to get part-time work because of his back, and so he was unable to earn enough to put food on the table and take care of his family. +So he started selling marijuana. +He was busted in a drug sweep. +His family was kicked out of their apartment, and the welfare system was threatening to take away his kids. +Under normal sentencing procedures, Judge Russell would have had little choice but to sentence Pettengill to serious jail-time as a drug felon. +But Judge Russell did have an alternative. +And that's because he was in a special court. +He was in a court called the Veterans' Court. +In the Veterans' Court -- this was the first of its kind in the United States. +Judge Russell created the Veterans' Court. +It was a court only for veterans who had broken the law. +And he had created it exactly because mandatory sentencing laws were taking the judgment out of judging. +No one wanted non-violent offenders -- and especially non-violent offenders who were veterans to boot -- to be thrown into prison. +They wanted to do something about what we all know, namely the revolving door of the criminal justice system. +And what the Veterans' Court did, was it treated each criminal as an individual, tried to get inside their problems, tried to fashion responses to their crimes that helped them to rehabilitate themselves, and didn't forget about them once the judgment was made. +Stayed with them, followed up on them, made sure that they were sticking to whatever plan had been jointly developed to get them over the hump. +There are now 22 cities that have Veterans' Courts like this. +Why has the idea spread? +Well, one reason is that Judge Russell has now seen 108 vets in his Veterans' Court as of February of this year, and out of 108, guess how many have gone back through the revolving door of justice into prison. +None. None. +Anyone would glom onto a criminal justice system that has this kind of a record. +So here's is a system-changer, and it seems to be catching. +There's a banker who created a for-profit community bank that encouraged bankers -- I know this is hard to believe -- encouraged bankers who worked there to do well by doing good for their low-income clients. +The bank helped finance the rebuilding of what was otherwise a dying community. +Though their loan recipients were high-risk by ordinary standards, the default rate was extremely low. +The bank was profitable. +The bankers stayed with their loan recipients. +They didn't make loans and then sell the loans. +They serviced the loans. +They made sure that their loan recipients were staying up with their payments. +Banking hasn't always been the way we read about it now in the newspapers. +Even Goldman Sachs once used to serve clients, before it turned into an institution that serves only itself. +Banking wasn't always this way, and it doesn't have to be this way. +So there are examples like this in medicine -- doctors at Harvard who are trying to transform medical education, so that you don't get a kind of ethical erosion and loss of empathy, which characterizes most medical students in the course of their medical training. +And the way they do it is to give third-year medical students patients who they follow for an entire year. +So the patients are not organ systems, and they're not diseases; they're people, people with lives. +And in order to be an effective doctor, you need to treat people who have lives and not just disease. +In addition to which there's an enormous amount of back and forth, mentoring of one student by another, of all the students by the doctors, and the result is a generation -- we hope -- of doctors who do have time for the people they treat. +We'll see. +So there are lots of examples like this that we talk about. +Each of them shows that it is possible to build on and nurture character and keep a profession true to its proper mission -- what Aristotle would have called its proper telos. +And Ken and I believe that this is what practitioners actually want. +People want to be allowed to be virtuous. +They want to have permission to do the right thing. +They don't want to feel like they need to take a shower to get the moral grime off their bodies everyday when they come home from work. +Aristotle thought that practical wisdom was the key to happiness, and he was right. +There's now a lot of research being done in psychology on what makes people happy, and the two things that jump out in study after study -- I know this will come as a shock to all of you -- the two things that matter most to happiness are love and work. +Love: managing successfully relations with the people who are close to you and with the communities of which you are a part. +Work: engaging in activities that are meaningful and satisfying. +If you have that, good close relations with other people, work that's meaningful and fulfilling, you don't much need anything else. +Well, to love well and to work well, you need wisdom. +Rules and incentives don't tell you how to be a good friend, how to be a good parent, how to be a good spouse, or how to be a good doctor or a good lawyer or a good teacher. +Rules and incentives are no substitutes for wisdom. +Indeed, we argue, there is no substitute for wisdom. +And so practical wisdom does not require heroic acts of self-sacrifice on the part of practitioners. +In giving us the will and the skill to do the right thing -- to do right by others -- practical wisdom also gives us the will and the skill to do right by ourselves. +Thanks. +My big idea is a very, very small idea that can unlock billions of big ideas that are at the moment dormant inside us. +And my little idea that will do that is sleep. +This is a room of type-A women. +This is a room of sleep-deprived women. +And I learned the hard way, the value of sleep. +Two-and-a-half years ago, I fainted from exhaustion. +I hit my head on my desk. I broke my cheekbone, I got five stitches on my right eye. +And I began the journey of rediscovering the value of sleep. +And in the course of that, I studied, I met with medical doctors, scientists, and I'm here to tell you that the way to a more productive, more inspired, more joyful life is getting enough sleep. +And we women are going to lead the way in this new revolution, this new feminist issue. +We are literally going to sleep our way to the top, literally. +Because unfortunately for men, sleep deprivation has become a virility symbol. +I was recently having dinner with a guy who bragged that he had only gotten four hours sleep the night before. +And I felt like saying to him -- but I didn't say it -- I felt like saying, "You know what? +If you had gotten five, this dinner would have been a lot more interesting." +There is now a kind of sleep deprivation one-upmanship. +Especially here in Washington, if you try to make a breakfast date, and you say, "How about eight o'clock?" +they're likely to tell you, "Eight o'clock is too late for me, but that's okay, I can get a game of tennis in and do a few conference calls and meet you at eight." +And they think that means that they are so incredibly busy and productive, but the truth is they're not, because we, at the moment, have had brilliant leaders in business, in finance, in politics, making terrible decisions. +So a high I.Q. +does not mean that you're a good leader, because the essence of leadership is being able to see the iceberg before it hits the Titanic. +And we've had far too many icebergs hitting our Titanics. +In fact, I have a feeling that if Lehman Brothers was Lehman Brothers and Sisters, they might still be around. +While all the brothers were busy just being hyper-connected 24/7, maybe a sister would have noticed the iceberg, because she would have woken up from a seven-and-a-half- or eight-hour sleep and have been able to see the big picture. +So as we are facing all the multiple crises in our world at the moment, what is good for us on a personal level, what's going to bring more joy, gratitude, effectiveness in our lives and be the best for our own careers is also what is best for the world. +So I urge you to shut your eyes and discover the great ideas that lie inside us, to shut your engines and discover the power of sleep. +Thank you. +You may have heard about the Koran's idea of paradise being 72 virgins, and I promise I will come back to those virgins. +But in fact, here in the northwest, we're living very close to the real Koranic idea of paradise, defined 36 times as "gardens watered by running streams." +Since I live on a houseboat on the running stream of Lake Union, this makes perfect sense to me. +But the thing is, how come it's news to most people? +I know many well-intentioned non-Muslims who've begun reading the Koran, but given up, disconcerted by its "otherness." +The historian Thomas Carlyle considered Muhammad one of the world's greatest heroes, yet even he called the Koran "as toilsome reading as I ever undertook, a wearisome, confused jumble." +Yet the fact that so few people do actually read the Koran is precisely why it's so easy to quote -- that is, to misquote. +Phrases and snippets taken out of context in what I call the "highlighter version," which is the one favored by both Muslim fundamentalists and anti-Muslim Islamophobes. +So this past spring, as I was gearing up to begin writing a biography of Muhammad, I realized I needed to read the Koran properly -- as properly as I could, that is. +My Arabic's reduced by now to wielding a dictionary, so I took four well-known translations and decided to read them side-by-side, verse-by-verse along with a transliteration and the original seventh-century Arabic. +Now I did have an advantage. +My last book was about the story behind the Shi'a-Sunni split, and for that I'd worked closely with the earliest Islamic histories, so I knew the events to which the Koran constantly refers, its frame of reference. +I knew enough, that is, to know that I'd be a tourist in the Koran -- an informed one, an experienced one even, but still an outsider, an agnostic Jew reading some else's holy book. +So I read slowly. +I'd set aside three weeks for this project, and that, I think, is what is meant by "hubris" -- -- because it turned out to be three months. +I did resist the temptation to skip to the back where the shorter and more clearly mystical chapters are. +But every time I thought I was beginning to get a handle on the Koran -- that feeling of "I get it now" -- it would slip away overnight, and I'd come back in the morning wondering if I wasn't lost in a strange land, and yet the terrain was very familiar. +The Koran declares that it comes to renew the message of the Torah and the Gospels. +So one-third of it reprises the stories of Biblical figures like Abraham, Moses, Joseph, Mary, Jesus. +God himself was utterly familiar from his earlier manifestation as Yahweh -- jealously insisting on no other gods. +The presence of camels, mountains, desert wells and springs took me back to the year I spent wandering the Sinai Desert. +And then there was the language, the rhythmic cadence of it, reminding me of evenings spent listening to Bedouin elders recite hours-long narrative poems entirely from memory. +And I began to grasp why it's said that the Koran is really the Koran only in Arabic. +Take the Fatihah, the seven-verse opening chapter that is the Lord's Prayer and the Shema Yisrael of Islam combined. +It's just 29 words in Arabic, but anywhere from 65 to 72 in translation. +And yet the more you add, the more seems to go missing. +The Arabic has an incantatory, almost hypnotic, quality that begs to be heard rather than read, felt more than analyzed. +It wants to be chanted out loud, to sound its music in the ear and on the tongue. +So the Koran in English is a kind of shadow of itself, or as Arthur Arberry called his version, "an interpretation." +But all is not lost in translation. +As the Koran promises, patience is rewarded, and there are many surprises -- a degree of environmental awareness, for instance, and of humans as mere stewards of God's creation, unmatched in the Bible. +And where the Bible is addressed exclusively to men, using the second and third person masculine, the Koran includes women -- talking, for instance, of believing men and believing women, honorable men and honorable women. +Or take the infamous verse about killing the unbelievers. +Yes, it does say that, but in a very specific context: the anticipated conquest of the sanctuary city of Mecca where fighting was usually forbidden, and the permission comes hedged about with qualifiers. +Not "You must kill unbelievers in Mecca," but you can, you are allowed to, but only after a grace period is over and only if there's no other pact in place and only if they try to stop you getting to the Kaaba, and only if they attack you first. +And even then -- God is merciful; forgiveness is supreme -- and so, essentially, better if you don't. +This was perhaps the biggest surprise -- how flexible the Koran is, at least in minds that are not fundamentally inflexible. +"Some of these verses are definite in meaning," it says, "and others are ambiguous." +The perverse at heart will seek out the ambiguities, trying to create discord by pinning down meanings of their own. +Only God knows the true meaning. +The phrase "God is subtle" appears again and again, and indeed, the whole of the Koran is far more subtle than most of us have been led to believe. +As in, for instance, that little matter of virgins and paradise. +Old-fashioned Orientalism comes into play here. +The word used four times is Houris, rendered as dark-eyed maidens with swelling breasts, or as fair, high-bosomed virgins. +Yet all there is in the original Arabic is that one word: Houris. +Not a swelling breast nor a high bosom in sight. +Now this may be a way of saying "pure beings" -- like in angels -- or it may be like the Greek Kouros or Kr, an eternal youth. +But the truth is nobody really knows, and that's the point. +Because the Koran is quite clear when it says that you'll be "a new creation in paradise" and that you will be "recreated in a form unknown to you," which seems to me a far more appealing prospect than a virgin. +And that number 72 never appears. +There are no 72 virgins in the Koran. +That idea only came into being 300 years later, and most Islamic scholars see it as the equivalent of people with wings sitting on clouds and strumming harps. +Paradise is quite the opposite. +It's not virginity; it's fecundity. +It's plenty. +It's gardens watered by running streams. +Thank you. +So I am a surgeon who studies creativity, and I have never had a patient tell me that "I really want you to be creative during surgery," and so I guess there's a little bit of irony to it. +I will say though that, after having done surgery a lot, it's somewhat similar to playing a musical instrument. +And for me, this sort of deep and enduring fascination with sound is what led me to both be a surgeon and also to study the science of sound, particularly music. +And so I'm going to try to talk to you over the next few minutes about my career in terms of how I'm able to actually try to study music and really try to grapple with all these questions of how the brain is able to be creative. +I've done most of this work at Johns Hopkins University, but also at the National Institute of Health where I was previously. +I'm going to go over some science experiments and try to cover three musical experiments. +I'm going to start off by playing a video for you. +And this video is a video of Keith Jarrett, who's a well-known jazz improviser and probably the most well-known, iconic example of someone who takes improvisation to a really higher level. +And he'll improvise entire concerts off the top of his head, and he'll never play it exactly the same way again, and so, as a form of intense creativity, I think this is a great example. +And so why don't we go and click the video. +It's really a remarkable, awesome thing that happens there. +I've always -- just as a listener, as just a fan -- I listen to that, and I'm just astounded. +I think -- how can this possibly be? +How can the brain generate that much information, that much music, spontaneously? +And so I set out with this concept, scientifically, that artistic creativity, it's magical, but it's not magic, meaning that it's a product of the brain. +There's not too many brain-dead people creating art. +And so with this notion that artistic creativity is in fact a neurologic product, I took this thesis that we could study it just like we study any other complex neurologic process. +And I think there's some sub-questions there that I put there. +Is it truly possible to study creativity scientifically? +And I think that's a good question. +And I'll tell you that most scientific studies of music, they're very dense, and when you actually go through them, it's very hard to recognize the music in it. +In fact, they seem to be very unmusical entirely and to miss the whole point of the music. +And so it brings the second question: Why should scientists study creativity? +Maybe we're not the right people to do it. +Well it may be, but I will say that, from a scientific perspective -- we talked a lot about innovation today -- the science of innovation, how much we understand about how the brain is able to innovate is in its infancy, and truly, we know very little about how we are able to be creative. +And so I think that we're going to see over the next 10, 20, 30 years a real science of creativity that's burgeoning and is going to flourish. +Because we now have new methods that can enable us to take this process of something like this, complex jazz improvisation, and study it rigorously. +And so it gets down to the brain. +And so all of us have this remarkable brain, which is poorly understood to say the least. +I think that neuroscientists have many more questions than answers, and I myself, I'm not going to give you many answers today, just ask a lot of questions. +And fundamentally that's what I do in my lab. +I ask questions about what is this brain doing to enable us to do this. +This is the main method that I use. This is called functional MRI. +If you've been in an MRI scanner, it's very much the same, but this one is outfitted in a special way to not just take pictures of your brain, but to also take pictures of active areas of the brain. +Now the way that's done is by the following. +There's something called BOLD imaging, which is Blood Oxygen Level Dependent imaging. +Now when you're in an fMRI scanner, you're in a big magnet that's aligning your molecules in certain areas. +When an area of the brain is active, meaning a neural area is active, it gets blood flow shunted to that area. +That blood flow causes an increase in local blood to that area with a deoxyhemoglobin change in concentration. +Deoxyhemoglobin can be detected by MRI, whereas oxyhemoglobin can't. +So through this method of inference -- and we're measuring blood flow, not neural activity -- we say that an area of the brain that's getting more blood was active during a particular task, and that's the crux of how fMRI works. +And it's been used since the '90s to study really complex processes. +Now I'm going to review a study that I did, which was jazz in an fMRI scanner. +And this was done with a colleague of mine, Alan Braun, at the NIH. +This is a short video of how we did this project. +Charles Limb: This is a plastic MIDI piano keyboard that we use for the jazz experiments. +And it's a 35-key keyboard that is designed to fit both inside the scanner, be magnetically safe, have minimal interference that would contribute to any artifact and have this cushion so that it can rest on the players' legs while they're lying down in the scanner, playing on their back. +And it works like this -- this doesn't actually produce any sound. +It sends out what's called a MIDI signal -- or a Musical Instrument Digital Interface -- through these wires into the box and then the computer, which then trigger high-quality piano samples like this. +CL: Okay, so it works. +And so through this piano keyboard, we now have the means to take a musical process and study it. +So what do you do now that you have this cool piano keyboard? +You can't just sort of -- "It's great we've got this keyboard." +We actually have to come up with a scientific experiment. +And so the experiment really rests on the following: What happens in the brain during something that's memorized and over-learned, and what happens in the brain during something that is spontaneously generated, or improvised, in a way that's matched motorically and in terms of lower-level sensory motor features? +And so, I have here what we call the "paradigms." +There's a scale paradigm, which is just playing a scale up and down, memorized. +And then there's improvising on a scale -- quarter notes, metronome, right hand -- scientifically very safe, but musically really boring. +And then there's the bottom one, which is called the jazz paradigm. +And so what we did was we brought professional jazz players to the NIH, and we had them memorize this piece of music on the left, the lower-left -- which is what you heard me playing -- and then we had them improvise to the same exact chord changes. +And if you can hit that lower-right sound icon, that's an example of what was recorded in the scanner. +So in the end, it's not the most natural environment, but they're able to play real music. +And I've listened to that solo 200 times, and I still like it. +And the musicians, they were comfortable in the end. +And so we first measured the number of notes. +Were they in fact just playing a lot more notes when they were improvising? +That was not what was going on. +And then we looked at the brain activity. +I'm going to try to condense this for you. +These are contrast maps that are showing subtractions between what changes when you're improvising versus when you're doing something memorized. +In red is an area that active in the prefrontal cortex, the frontal lobe of the brain, and in blue is this area that was deactivated. +And so we had this focal area called the medial prefrontal cortex that went way up in activity. +We had this broad patch of area called the lateral prefrontal cortex that went way down in activity, and I'll summarize that for you here. +Now these are multifunctional areas of the brain. +As I like to say, these are not the "jazz areas" of the brain. +They do a whole host of things that have to do with self-reflection, introspection, working memory and so forth. +Really, consciousness is seated in the frontal lobe. +But we have this combination of an area that's thought to be involved in self-monitoring, turning off, and this area that's thought to be autobiographical, or self-expressive, turning on. +And we think, at least in this preliminary -- it's one study; it's probably wrong, but it's one study -- we think that at least a reasonable hypothesis is that, to be creative, you have to have this weird dissociation in your frontal lobe. +One area turns on, and a big area shuts off, so that you're not inhibited, so that you're willing to make mistakes, so that you're not constantly shutting down all of these new generative impulses. +Now a lot of people know that music is not always a solo activity -- sometimes it's done communicatively. +And so the next question was: What happens when musicians are trading back and forth, something called "trading fours," which is something they do normally in a jazz experiment? +So this is a twelve-bar blues. +And I've broken it down into four-bar groups here, so you would know how you would trade. +Now what we did was we brought a musician into the scanner -- same way -- had them memorize this melody and then had another musician out in the control room trading back and forth interactively. +So this is a musician, Mike Pope, one of the world's best bassists and a fantastic piano player. +So he's now playing the piece that we just saw just a little better than I wrote it. +CL: Mike, come on in. Mike Pope: May the force be with you. +Nurse: Nothing's in your pockets, right Mike? +MP: Nope. Nothing's in my pockets. Nurse: Okay. +CL: You have to have the right attitude to agree to it. +It's kind of fun actually. +And so now we're playing back and forth. +He's in there. You can see his legs up there. +And then I'm in the control room here, playing back and forth. +Mike Pope: This is a pretty good representation of what it's like. +And it's good that it's not too quick. +The fact that we do it over and over again lets you acclimate to your surroundings. +So the hardest thing for me was the kinesthetic thing, of looking at my hands through two mirrors, laying on my back and not able to move at all except for my hand. +That was challenging. +But again, there were moments, for sure, there were moments of real, honest-to-God musical interplay, for sure. +CL: At this point, I'll take a few moments. +And so what you're seeing here -- and I'm doing a cardinal sin in science, which is to show you preliminary data. +This is one subject's data. +This is, in fact, Mike Pope's data. +So what am I showing you here? +When he was trading fours with me, improvising versus memorized, his language areas lit up, his Broca's area, which is inferior frontal gyrus on the left. +He actually had it also homologous on the right. +This is an area thought to be involved in expressive communication. +This whole notion that music is a language -- well maybe there's a neurologic basis to it in fact after all, and we can see it when two musicians are having a musical conversation. +And so we've done this actually on eight subjects now, and we're just getting all the data together, so hopefully we'll have something to say about it meaningfully. +Now when I think about improvisation and the language, well what's next? +Rap, of course, rap -- free-style. +And so I've always been fascinated by free-style. +And let's go ahead and play this video here. +There are, in fact, a lot of correlations between the two forms of music I think in different time periods. +In a lot a ways, rap serves the same social function that jazz used to serve. +So how do you study rap scientifically? +And my colleagues kind of think I'm crazy, but I think it's very viable. +And so this is what you do: you have a free-style artist come in and memorize a rap that you write for them, that they've never heard before, and then you have them free-style. +So I told my lab members that I would rap for TED, and they said, "No, you won't." +And then I thought -- But here's the thing. +With this big screen, you can all rap with me. Okay? +So what we had them do was memorize this lower-left sound icon, please. +This is the control condition. This is what they memorized. +So now, what's great about these free-stylers, they will get cued different words. +They don't know what's coming, but they'll hear something off the cuff. +Go ahead and hit that right sound icon. +They are going to be cued these three square words: "like," "not" and "head." +He doesn't know what's coming. +It's doing something that, neurologically, is remarkable. +Whether or not you like the music is irrelevant. +Creatively speaking, it's just a phenomenal thing. +This is a short video of how we actually do this in a scanner. +CL: We're here with Emmanuel. +CL: That was recorded in the scanner, by the way. +CL: That's Emmanuel in the scanner. +He's just memorized a rhyme for us. +Well, this is actually four rappers' brains. +And what we see, we do see language areas lighting up, but then -- eyes closed -- when you are free-styling versus memorizing, you've got major visual areas lighting up. +You've got major cerebellar activity, which is involved in motor coordination. +You have heightened brain activity when you're doing a comparable task, when that one task is creative and the other task is memorized. +It's very preliminary, but I think it's kind of cool. +So just to conclude, we've got a lot of questions to ask, and like I said, we'll ask questions here, not answer them. +But we want to get at the root of what is creative genius, neurologically, and I think, with these methods, we're getting close to being there. +And I think hopefully in the next 10, 20 years you'll actually see real, meaningful studies that say science has to catch up to art, and maybe we're starting now to get there. +And so I want to thank you for your time. I appreciate it. +There are two groups of women when it comes to screening mammography -- women in whom mammography works very well and has saved thousands of lives and women in whom it doesn't work well at all. +Do you know which group you're in? +If you don't, you're not alone. +Because the breast has become a very political organ. +The truth has become lost in all the rhetoric coming from the press, politicians, radiologists and medical imaging companies. +I will do my best this morning to tell you what I think is the truth. +But first, my disclosures. +I am not a breast cancer survivor. +I'm not a radiologist. +I don't have any patents, and I've never received any money from a medical imaging company, and I am not seeking your vote. +What I am is a doctor of internal medicine who became passionately interested in this topic about 10 years ago when a patient asked me a question. +She came to see me after discovering a breast lump. +Her sister had been diagnosed with breast cancer in her 40s. +She and I were both very pregnant at that time, and my heart just ached for her, imagining how afraid she must be. +Fortunately, her lump proved to be benign. +But she asked me a question: how confident was I that I would find a tumor early on her mammogram if she developed one? +So I studied her mammogram, and I reviewed the radiology literature, and I was shocked to discover that, in her case, our chances of finding a tumor early on the mammogram were less than the toss of a coin. +You may recall a year ago when a firestorm erupted after the United States Preventive Services Task Force reviewed the world's mammography screening literature and issued a guideline recommending against screening mammograms in women in their 40s. +Now everybody rushed to criticize the Task Force, even though most of them weren't in anyway familiar with the mammography studies. +It took the Senate just 17 days to ban the use of the guidelines in determining insurance coverage. +Radiologists were outraged by the guidelines. +The pre-eminent mammographer in the United States issued the following quote to the Washington Post. +The radiologists were, in turn, criticized for protecting their own financial self-interest. +But in my view, the radiologists are heroes. +There's a shortage of radiologists qualified to read mammograms, and that's because mammograms are one of the most complex of all radiology studies to interpret, and because radiologists are sued more often over missed breast cancer than any other cause. +But that very fact is telling. +Where there is this much legal smoke, there is likely to be some fire. +The factor most responsible for that fire is breast density. +Breast density refers to the relative amount of fat -- pictured here in yellow -- versus connective and epithelial tissues -- pictured in pink. +And that proportion is primarily genetically determined. +Two-thirds of women in their 40s have dense breast tissue, which is why mammography doesn't work as well in them. +And although breast density generally declines with age, up to a third of women retain dense breast tissue for years after menopause. +So how do you know if your breasts are dense? +Well, you need to read the details of your mammography report. +Radiologists classify breast density into four categories based on the appearance of the tissue on a mammogram. +If the breast is less than 25 percent dense, that's called fatty-replaced. +The next category is scattered fibroglandular densities, followed by heterogeneously dense and extremely dense. +And breasts that fall into these two categories are considered dense. +The problem with breast density is that it's truly the wolf in sheep's clothing. +Both tumors and dense breast tissue appear white on a mammogram, and the X-ray often can't distinguish between the two. +So it's easy to see this tumor in the upper part of this fatty breast. +But imagine how difficult it would be to find that tumor in this dense breast. +That's why mammograms find over 80 percent of tumors in fatty breasts, but as few as 40 percent in extremely dense breasts. +Now it's bad enough that breast density makes it hard to find a cancer, but it turns out that it's also a powerful predictor of your risk for breast cancer. +It's a stronger risk factor than having a mother or a sister with breast cancer. +At the time my patient posed this question to me, breast density was an obscure topic in the radiology literature, and very few women having mammograms, or the physicians ordering them, knew about this. +But what else could I offer her? +Mammograms have been around since the 1960's, and it's changed very little. +There have been surprisingly few innovations, until digital mammography was approved in 2000. +Digital mammography is still an X-ray of the breast, but the images can be stored and manipulated digitally, just like we can with a digital camera. +The U.S. has invested four billion dollars converting to digital mammography equipment, and what have we gained from that investment? +In a study funded by over 25 million taxpayer dollars, digital mammography was found to be no better over all than traditional mammography, and in fact, it was worse in older women. +But it was better in one group, and that was women under 50 who were pre-menopausal and had dense breasts, and in those women, digital mammography found twice as many cancers, but it still only found 60 percent. +So digital mammography has been a giant leap forward for manufacturers of digital mammography equipment, but it's been a very small step forward for womankind. +What about ultrasound? +Ultrasound generates more biopsies that are unnecessary relative to other technologies, so it's not widely used. +And MRI is exquisitely sensitive for finding tumors, but it's also very expensive. +If we think about disruptive technology, we see an almost ubiquitous pattern of the technology getting smaller and less expensive. +Think about iPods compared to stereos. +But it's the exact opposite in health care. +The machines get ever bigger and ever more expensive. +Screening the average young woman with an MRI is kind of like driving to the grocery store in a Hummer. +It's just way too much equipment. +One MRI scan costs 10 times what a digital mammogram costs. +And sooner or later, we're going to have to accept the fact that health care innovation can't always come at a much higher price. +Malcolm Gladwell wrote an article in the New Yorker on innovation, and he made the case that scientific discoveries are rarely the product of one individual's genius. +Rather, big ideas can be orchestrated, if you can simply gather people with different perspectives in a room and get them to talk about things that they don't ordinarily talk about. +It's like the essence of TED. +He quotes one innovator who says, "The only time a physician and a physicist get together is when the physicist gets sick." +This makes no sense, because physicians have all kinds of problems that they don't realize have solutions. +And physicists have all kinds of solutions for things that they don't realize are problems. +Now, take a look at this cartoon that accompanied Gladwell's article, and tell me if you see something disturbing about this depiction of innovative thinkers. +So if you will allow me a little creative license, I will tell you the story of the serendipitous collision of my patient's problem with a physicist's solution. +Shortly after her visit, I was introduced to a nuclear physicist at Mayo named Michael O'Conner, who was a specialist in cardiac imaging, something I had nothing to do with. +And he happened to tell me about a conference he'd just returned from in Israel, where they were talking about a new type of gamma detector. +Now gamma imaging has been around for a long time to image the heart, and it had even been tried to image the breast. +But the problem was that the gamma detectors were these huge, bulky tubes, and they were filled with these scintillating crystals, and you just couldn't get them close enough around the breast to find small tumors. +But the potential advantage was that gamma rays, unlike X-rays, are not influenced by breast density. +But this technology could not find tumors when they're small, and finding a small tumor is critical for survival. +If you can find a tumor when it's less than a centimeter, survival exceeds 90 percent, but drops off rapidly as tumor size increases. +But Michael told me about a new type of gamma detector that he'd seen, and this is it. +It's made not of a bulky tube, but of a thin layer of a semiconductor material that serves as the gamma detector. +And I started talking to him about this problem with breast density, and we realized that we might be able to get this detector close enough around the breast to actually find small tumors. +So after putting together a grid of these cubes with tape -- -- Michael hacked off the X-ray plate of a mammography machine that was about to be thrown out, and we attached the new detector, and we decided to call this machine Molecular Breast Imaging, or MBI. +This is an image from our first patient. +And you can see, using the old gamma technology, that it just looked like noise. +But using our new detector, we could begin to see the outline of a tumor. +So here we were, a nuclear physicist, an internist, soon joined by Carrie Hruska, a biomedical engineer, and two radiologists, and we were trying to take on the entrenched world of mammography with a machine that was held together by duct tape. +To say that we faced high doses of skepticism in those early years is just a huge understatement, but we were so convinced that we might be able to make this work that we chipped away with incremental modifications to this system. +This is our current detector. +And you can see that it looks a lot different. +The duct tape is gone, and we added a second detector on top of the breast, which has further improved our tumor detection. +So how does this work? +The patient receives an injection of a radio tracer that's taken up by rapidly proliferating tumor cells, but not by normal cells, and this is the key difference from mammography. +Mammography relies on differences in the appearance of the tumor from the background tissue, and we've seen that those differences can be obscured in a dense breast. +But MBI exploits the different molecular behavior of tumors, and therefore, it's impervious to breast density. +After the injection, the patient's breast is placed between the detectors. +And if you've ever had a mammogram -- if you're old enough to have had a mammogram -- you know what comes next: pain. +You may be surprised to know that mammography is the only radiologic study that's regulated by federal law, and the law requires that the equivalent of a 40-pound car battery come down on your breast during this study. +But with MBI, we use just light, pain-free compression. +And the detector then transmits the image to the computer. +So here's an example. +You can see, on the right, a mammogram showing a faint tumor, the edges of which are blurred by the dense tissue. +But the MBI image shows that tumor much more clearly, as well as a second tumor, which profoundly influence that patient's surgical options. +In this example, although the mammogram found one tumor, we were able to demonstrate three discrete tumors -- one is small as three millimeters. +Our big break came in 2004. +After we had demonstrated that we could find small tumors, we used these images to submit a grant to the Susan G. Komen Foundation. +And we were elated when they took a chance on a team of completely unknown investigators and funded us to study 1,000 women with dense breasts, comparing a screening mammogram to an MBI. +Of the tumors that we found, mammography found only 25 percent of those tumors. +MBI found 83 percent. +Here's an example from that screening study. +The digital mammogram was read as normal and shows lots of dense tissue, but the MBI shows an area of intense uptake, which correlated with a two-centimeter tumor. +In this case, a one-centimeter tumor. +And in this case, a 45-year-old medical secretary at Mayo, who had lost her mother to breast cancer when she was very young, wanted to enroll in our study. +And her mammogram showed an area of very dense tissue, but her MBI showed an area of worrisome uptake, which we can also see on a color image. +And this corresponded to a tumor the size of a golf ball. +But fortunately it was removed before it had spread to her lymph nodes. +So now that we knew that this technology could find three times more tumors in a dense breast, we had to solve one very important problem. +We had to figure out how to lower the radiation dose, and we have spent the last three years making modifications to every aspect of the imaging system to allow this. +And I'm very happy to report that we're now using a dose of radiation that is equivalent to the effective dose from one digital mammogram. +And at this low dose, we're continuing this screening study, and this image from three weeks ago in a 67-year-old woman shows a normal digital mammogram, but an MBI image showing an uptake that proved to be a large cancer. +So this is not just young women that it's benefiting. +It's also older women with dense tissue. +And we're now routinely using one-fifth the radiation dose that's used in any other type of gamma technology. +MBI generates four images per breast. +MRI generates over a thousand. +It takes a radiologist years of specialty training to become expert in differentiating the normal anatomic detail from the worrisome finding. +But I suspect even the non-radiologists in the room can find the tumor on the MBI image. +But this is why MBI is so potentially disruptive -- it's as accurate as MRI, it's far less complex to interpret, and it's a fraction of the cost. +But you can understand why there may be forces in the breast-imaging world who prefer the status quo. +After achieving what we felt were remarkable results, our manuscript was rejected by four journals. +After the fourth rejection, we requested reconsideration of the manuscript, because we strongly suspected that one of the reviewers who had rejected it had a financial conflict of interest in a competing technology. +Our manuscript was then accepted and will be published later this month in the journal Radiology. +We still need to complete the screening study using the low dose, and then our findings will need to be replicated at other institutions, and this could take five or more years. +If this technology is widely adopted, I will not benefit financially in any way, and that is very important to me, because it allows me to continue to tell you the truth. +But I recognize -- I recognize that the adoption of this technology will depend as much on economic and political forces as it will on the soundness of the science. +The MBI unit has now been FDA approved, but it's not yet widely available. +So until something is available for women with dense breasts, there are things that you should know to protect yourself. +First, know your density. +Ninety percent of women don't, and 95 percent of women don't know that it increases your breast cancer risk. +The State of Connecticut became the first and only state to mandate that women receive notification of their breast density after a mammogram. +I was at a conference of 60,000 people in breast-imaging last week in Chicago, and I was stunned that there was a heated debate as to whether we should be telling women what their breast density is. +Of course we should. +And if you don't know, please ask your doctor or read the details of your mammography report. +Second, if you're pre-menopausal, try to schedule your mammogram in the first two weeks of your menstrual cycle, when breast density is relatively lower. +Third, if you notice a persistent change in your breast, insist on additional imaging. +And fourth and most important, the mammography debate will rage on, but I do believe that all women 40 and older should have an annual mammogram. +Mammography isn't perfect, but it's the only test that's been proven to reduce mortality from breast cancer. +But this mortality banner is the very sword which mammography's most ardent advocates use to deter innovation. +Some women who develop breast cancer die from it many years later, and most women, thankfully, survive. +So it takes 10 or more years for any screening method to demonstrate a reduction in mortality from breast cancer. +Mammography's the only one that's been around long enough to have a chance of making that claim. +It is time for us to accept both the extraordinary successes of mammography and the limitations. +We need to individualize screening based on density. +For women without dense breasts, mammography is the best choice. +But for women with dense breasts; we shouldn't abandon screening altogether, we need to offer them something better. +The babies that we were carrying when my patient first asked me this question are now both in middle school, and the answer has been so slow to come. +She's given me her blessing to share this story with you. +After undergoing biopsies that further increased her risk for cancer and losing her sister to cancer, she made the difficult decision to have a prophylactic mastectomy. +We can and must do better, not just in time for her granddaughters and my daughters, but in time for you. +Thank you. +So the Awesome story: It begins about 40 years ago, when my mom and my dad came to Canada. +My mom left Nairobi, Kenya. +My dad left a small village outside of Amritsar, India. +And they got here in the late 1960s. +They settled in a shady suburb about an hour east of Toronto, and they settled into a new life. +They saw their first dentist, they ate their first hamburger, and they had their first kids. +My sister and I grew up here, and we had quiet, happy childhoods. +We had close family, good friends, a quiet street. +We grew up taking for granted a lot of the things that my parents couldn't take for granted when they grew up -- things like power always on in our houses, things like schools across the street and hospitals down the road and popsicles in the backyard. +We grew up, and we grew older. +I went to high school. +I graduated. +I moved out of the house, I got a job, I found a girl, I settled down -- and I realize it sounds like a bad sitcom or a Cat Stevens' song -- but life was pretty good. +Life was pretty good. +2006 was a great year. +Under clear blue skies in July in the wine region of Ontario, I got married, surrounded by 150 family and friends. +2007 was a great year. +I graduated from school, and I went on a road trip with two of my closest friends. +Here's a picture of me and my friend, Chris, on the coast of the Pacific Ocean. +We actually saw seals out of our car window, and we pulled over to take a quick picture of them and then blocked them with our giant heads. +So you can't actually see them, but it was breathtaking, believe me. +2008 and 2009 were a little tougher. +I know that they were tougher for a lot of people, not just me. +First of all, the news was so heavy. +2008, 2009 were heavy years for me for another reason, too. +I was going through a lot of personal problems at the time. +My marriage wasn't going well, and we just were growing further and further apart. +One day my wife came home from work and summoned the courage, through a lot of tears, to have a very honest conversation. +And she said, "I don't love you anymore," and it was one of the most painful things I'd ever heard and certainly the most heartbreaking thing I'd ever heard, until only a month later, when I heard something even more heartbreaking. +My friend Chris, who I just showed you a picture of, had been battling mental illness for some time. +And for those of you whose lives have been touched by mental illness, you know how challenging it can be. +I spoke to him on the phone at 10:30 p.m. +on a Sunday night. +We talked about the TV show we watched that evening. +And Monday morning, I found out that he disappeared. +Very sadly, he took his own life. +And it was a really heavy time. +And as these dark clouds were circling me, and I was finding it really, really difficult to think of anything good, I said to myself that I really needed a way to focus on the positive somehow. +So I came home from work one night, and I logged onto the computer, and I started up a tiny website called 1000awesomethings.com. +And slowly over time, I started putting myself in a better mood. +I mean, 50,000 blogs are started a day, and so my blog was just one of those 50,000. +And nobody read it except for my mom. +Although I should say that my traffic did skyrocket and go up by 100 percent when she forwarded it to my dad. +And then I got excited when it started getting tens of hits, and then I started getting excited when it started getting dozens and then hundreds and then thousands and then millions. +It started getting bigger and bigger and bigger. +And then I got a phone call, and the voice at the other end of the line said, "You've just won the Best Blog In the World award." +I was like, that sounds totally fake. +Which African country do you want me to wire all my money to? +But it turns out, I jumped on a plane, and I ended up walking a red carpet between Sarah Silverman and Jimmy Fallon and Martha Stewart. +And I went onstage to accept a Webby award for Best Blog. +And the surprise and just the amazement of that was only overshadowed by my return to Toronto, when, in my inbox, 10 literary agents were waiting for me to talk about putting this into a book. +Flash-forward to the next year and "The Book of Awesome" has now been number one on the bestseller list for 20 straight weeks. +But look, I said I wanted to do three things with you today. +I said I wanted to tell you the Awesome story, I wanted to share with you the three As of Awesome, and I wanted to leave you with a closing thought. +So let's talk about those three As. +Over the last few years, I haven't had that much time to really think. +But lately I have had the opportunity to take a step back and ask myself: "What is it over the last few years that helped me grow my website, but also grow myself?" +And I've summarized those things, for me personally, as three As. +They are Attitude, Awareness and Authenticity. +I'd love to just talk about each one briefly. +So Attitude: Look, we're all going to get lumps, and we're all going to get bumps. +None of us can predict the future, but we do know one thing about it and that's that it ain't gonna go according to plan. +We will all have high highs and big days and proud moments of smiles on graduation stages, father-daughter dances at weddings and healthy babies screeching in the delivery room, but between those high highs, we may also have some lumps and some bumps too. +It's sad, and it's not pleasant to talk about, but your husband might leave you, your girlfriend could cheat, your headaches might be more serious than you thought, or your dog could get hit by a car on the street. +It's not a happy thought, but your kids could get mixed up in gangs or bad scenes. +Your mom could get cancer, your dad could get mean. +And there are times in life when you will be tossed in the well, too, with twists in your stomach and with holes in your heart, and when that bad news washes over you, and when that pain sponges and soaks in, I just really hope you feel like you've always got two choices. +One, you can swirl and twirl and gloom and doom forever, or two, you can grieve and then face the future with newly sober eyes. +Having a great attitude is about choosing option number two, and choosing, no matter how difficult it is, no matter what pain hits you, choosing to move forward and move on and take baby steps into the future. +The second "A" is Awareness. +I love hanging out with three year-olds. +I love the way that they see the world, because they're seeing the world for the first time. +I love the way that they can stare at a bug crossing the sidewalk. +I love the way that they'll stare slack-jawed at their first baseball game with wide eyes and a mitt on their hand, soaking in the crack of the bat and the crunch of the peanuts and the smell of the hotdogs. +I love the way that they'll spend hours picking dandelions in the backyard and putting them into a nice centerpiece for Thanksgiving dinner. +I love the way that they see the world, because they're seeing the world for the first time. +Having a sense of awareness is just about embracing your inner three year-old. +Because you all used to be three years old. +That three-year-old boy is still part of you. +That three-year-old girl is still part of you. +They're in there. +And being aware is just about remembering that you saw everything you've seen So there was a time when it was your first time ever hitting a string of green lights on the way home from work. +There was the first time you walked by the open door of a bakery and smelt the bakery air, or the first time you pulled a 20-dollar bill out of your old jacket pocket and said, "Found money." +The last "A" is Authenticity. +And for this one, I want to tell you a quick story. +Let's go all the way back to 1932 when, on a peanut farm in Georgia, a little baby boy named Roosevelt Grier was born. +Roosevelt Grier, or Rosey Grier, as people used to call him, grew up and grew into a 300-pound, six-foot-five linebacker in the NFL. +He's number 76 in the picture. +Here he is pictured with the "fearsome foursome." +These were four guys on the L.A. Rams in the 1960s you did not want to go up against. +They were tough football players doing what they love, which was crushing skulls and separating shoulders on the football field. +But Rosey Grier also had another passion. +In his deeply authentic self, he also loved needlepoint. He loved knitting. +He said that it calmed him down, it relaxed him, it took away his fear of flying and helped him meet chicks. +That's what he said. +I mean, he loved it so much that, after he retired from the NFL, he started joining clubs. +And he even put out a book called "Rosey Grier's Needlepoint for Men." +It's a great cover. +If you notice, he's actually needlepointing his own face. +And so what I love about this story is that Rosey Grier is just such an authentic person, and that's what authenticity is all about. +It's just about being you and being cool with that. +And I think when you're authentic, you end up following your heart, and you put yourself in places and situations and in conversations that you love and that you enjoy. +You meet people that you like talking to. +You go places you've dreamt about. +And you end you end up following your heart and feeling very fulfilled. +So those are the three A's. +For the closing thought, I want to take you all the way back to my parents coming to Canada. +I don't know what it would feel like coming to a new country when you're in your mid-20s. +I don't know, because I never did it, but I would imagine that it would take a great attitude. +I would imagine that you'd have to be pretty aware of your surroundings and appreciating the small wonders that you're starting to see in your new world. +And I think you'd have to be really authentic, you'd have to be really true to yourself in order to get through what you're being exposed to. +I'd like to pause my TEDTalk for about 10 seconds right now, because you don't get many opportunities in life to do something like this, and my parents are sitting in the front row. +So I wanted to ask them to, if they don't mind, stand up. +And I just wanted to say thank you to you guys. +When I was growing up, my dad used to love telling the story of his first day in Canada. +And it's a great story, because what happened was he got off the plane at the Toronto airport, and he was welcomed by a non-profit group, which I'm sure someone in this room runs. +And this non-profit group had a big welcoming lunch for all the new immigrants to Canada. +And my dad says he got off the plane and he went to this lunch and there was this huge spread. +There was bread, there was those little, mini dill pickles, there was olives, those little white onions. +There was rolled up turkey cold cuts, rolled up ham cold cuts, rolled up roast beef cold cuts and little cubes of cheese. +There was tuna salad sandwiches and egg salad sandwiches and salmon salad sandwiches. +There was lasagna, there was casseroles, there was brownies, there was butter tarts, and there was pies, lots and lots of pies. +And when my dad tells the story, he says, "The craziest thing was, I'd never seen any of that before, except bread. +I didn't know what was meat, what was vegetarian. +I was eating olives with pie. +I just couldn't believe how many things you can get here." +When I was five years old, my dad used to take me grocery shopping, and he would stare in wonder at the little stickers that are on the fruits and vegetables. +He would say, "Look, can you believe they have a mango here from Mexico? +They've got an apple here from South Africa. +Can you believe they've got a date from Morocco?" +He's like, "Do you know where Morocco even is?" +And I'd say, "I'm five. I don't even know where I am. +Is this A&P?" +And he'd say, "I don't know where Morocco is either, but let's find out." +And so we'd buy the date, and we'd go home. +And we'd actually take an atlas off the shelf, and we'd flip through until we found this mysterious country. +And I'd say, "I don't believe that." +And he's like, "I don't believe it either. +Things are amazing. There's just so many things to be happy about." +When I stop to think about it, he's absolutely right. +There are so many things to be happy about. +We are the only species on the only life-giving rock in the entire universe that we've ever seen, capable of experiencing so many of these things. +I mean, we're the only ones with architecture and agriculture. +We're the only ones with jewelry and democracy. +We've got airplanes, highway lanes, interior design and horoscope signs. +We've got fashion magazines, house party scenes. +You can watch a horror movie with monsters. +You can go to a concert and hear guitars jamming. +We've got books, buffets and radio waves, wedding brides and rollercoaster rides. +You can sleep in clean sheets. +You can go to the movies and get good seats. +You can smell bakery air, walk around with rain hair, pop bubble wrap or take an illegal nap. +We've got all that, but we've only got 100 years to enjoy it. +And that's the sad part. +Life is so great that we only get such a short time to experience and enjoy all those tiny little moments that make it so sweet. +And that moment is right now, and those moments are counting down, and those moments are always, always, always fleeting. +You will never be as young as you are right now. +Thank you. +I'm actually here to make a challenge to people. +I know there have been many challenges made to people. +The one I'm going to make is that it is time for us to reclaim what peace really means. +Peace is not "Kumbaya, my Lord." +Peace is not the dove and the rainbow -- as lovely as they are. +When I see the symbols of the rainbow and the dove, I think of personal serenity. +I think of meditation. +I do not think about what I consider to be peace, which is sustainable peace with justice and equality. +It is a sustainable peace in which the majority of people on this planet have access to enough resources to live dignified lives, where these people have enough access to education and health care, so that they can live in freedom from want and freedom from fear. +This is called human security. +And I am not a complete pacifist like some of my really, really heavy-duty, non-violent friends, like Mairead McGuire. +I understand that humans are so "messed up" -- to use a nice word, because I promised my mom I'd stop using the F-bomb in public. +And I'm trying harder and harder. +Mom, I'm really trying. +We need a little bit of police; we need a little bit of military, but for defense. +We need to redefine what makes us secure in this world. +It is not arming our country to the teeth. +It is not getting other countries to arm themselves to the teeth with the weapons that we produce and we sell them. +It is using that money more rationally to make the countries of the world secure, to make the people of the world secure. +I was thinking about the recent ongoings in Congress, where the president is offering 8.4 billion dollars to try to get the START vote. +I certainly support the START vote. +But he's offering 84 billion dollars for the modernizing of nuclear weapons. +Do you know the figure that the U.N. talks about for fulfilling the Millennium Development Goals is 80 billion dollars? +Just that little bit of money, which to me, I wish it was in my bank account -- it's not, but ... +In global terms, it's a little bit of money. +But it's going to modernize weapons we do not need and will not be gotten rid of in our lifetime, unless we get up off our ... +and take action to make it happen, unless we begin to believe that all of the things that we've been hearing about in these last two days are elements of what come together to make human security. +It is saving the tigers. +It is stopping the tar sands. +It is having access to medical equipment that can actually tell who does have cancer. +It is all of those things. +It is using our money for all of those things. +It is about action. +I was in Hiroshima a couple of weeks ago, we're sitting there in front of thousands of people in the city, and there were about eight of us Nobel laureates. +And he's a bad guy. He's like a bad kid in church. +We're staring at everybody, waiting our turn to speak, and he leans over to me, and he says, "Jody, I'm a Buddhist monk." +I said, "Yes, Your Holiness. +Your robe gives it away." +He said, "You know that I kind of like meditation, and I pray." +I said, "That's good. That's good. +We need that in the world. +I don't follow that, but that's cool." +And he says, "But I have become skeptical. +I do not believe that meditation and prayer will change this world. +I think what we need is action." +His Holiness, in his robes, is my new action hero. +I spoke with Aung Sun Suu Kyi a couple of days ago. +As most of you know, she's a hero for democracy in her country, Burma. +You probably also know that she has spent 15 of the last 20 years imprisoned for her efforts to bring about democracy. +She was just released a couple of weeks ago, and we're very concerned to see how long she will be free, because she is already out in the streets in Rangoon, agitating for change. +She is already out in the streets, working with the party to try to rebuild it. +But I talked to her for a range of issues. +But one thing that I want to say, because it's similar to what His Holiness said. +She said, "You know, we have a long road to go to finally get democracy in my country. +But I don't believe in hope without endeavor. +I don't believe in the hope of change, unless we take action to make it so." +Here's another woman hero of mine. +She's my friend, Dr. Shirin Ebadi, the first Muslim woman to receive the Nobel Peace Prize. +She has been in exile for the last year and a half. +You ask her where she lives -- where does she live in exile? +She says the airports of the world. +She is traveling because she was out of the country at the time of the elections. +And instead of going home, she conferred with all the other women that she works with, who said to her, "Stay out. We need you out. +We need to be able to talk to you out there, so that you can give the message of what's happening here." +A year and a half -- she's out speaking on behalf of the other women in her country. +Wangari Maathai -- 2004 Peace laureate. +They call her the "Tree Lady," but she's more than the Tree Lady. +Working for peace is very creative. +It's hard work every day. +When she was planting those trees, I don't think most people understand that, at the same time, she was using the action of getting people together to plant those trees to talk about how to overcome the authoritarian government in her country. +People could not gather without getting busted and taken to jail. +But if they were together planting trees for the environment, it was okay -- creativity. +But it's not just iconic women like Shirin, like Aung Sun Suu Kyi, like Wangari Maathai -- it is other women in the world who are also struggling together to change this world. +The Women's League of Burma, 11 individual organizations of Burmese women came together because there's strength in numbers. +Working together is what changes our world. +The Million Signatures Campaign of women inside Burma working together to change human rights, to bring democracy to that country. +When one is arrested and taken to prison, another one comes out and joins the movement, recognizing that if they work together, they will ultimately bring change in their own country. +Mairead McGuire in the middle, Betty Williams on the right-hand side -- bringing peace to Northern Ireland. +I'll tell you the quick story. +An IRA driver was shot, and his car plowed into people on the side of the street. +There was a mother and three children. +The children were killed on the spot. +It was Mairead's sister. +Instead of giving in to grief, depression, defeat in the face of that violence, Mairead hooked up with Betty -- a staunch Protestant and a staunch Catholic -- and they took to the streets to say, "No more violence." +And they were able to get tens of thousands of, primarily, women, some men, in the streets to bring about change. +And they have been part of what brought peace to Northern Ireland, and they're still working on it, because there's still a lot more to do. +This is Rigoberta Menchu Tum. +She also received the Peace Prize. +She is now running for president. +She is educating the indigenous people of her country about what it means to be a democracy, about how you bring democracy to the country, about educating, about how to vote -- but that democracy is not just about voting; it's about being an active citizen. +That's what I got stuck doing -- the landmine campaign. +One of the things that made this campaign work is because we grew from two NGOs to thousands in 90 countries around the world, working together in common cause to ban landmines. +Some of the people who worked in our campaign could only work maybe an hour a month. +They could maybe volunteer that much. +There were others, like myself, who were full-time. +But it was the actions, together, of all of us that brought about that change. +In my view, what we need today is people getting up and taking action to reclaim the meaning of peace. +It's not a dirty word. +It's hard work every single day. +And if each of us who cares about the different things we care about got up off our butts and volunteered as much time as we could, we would change this world, we would save this world. +And we can't wait for the other guy. We have to do it ourselves. +Thank you. +I would like to tell you all that you are all actually cyborgs, but not the cyborgs that you think. +You're not RoboCop, and you're not Terminator, but you're cyborgs every time you look at a computer screen or use one of your cell phone devices. +So what's a good definition for cyborg? +Well, traditional definition is "an organism to which exogenous components have been added for the purpose of adapting to new environments." +That came from a 1960 paper on space travel, because, if you think about it, space is pretty awkward. +People aren't supposed to be there. +But humans are curious, and they like to add things to their bodies so they can go to the Alps one day and then become a fish in the sea the next. +So let's look at the concept of traditional anthropology. +Somebody goes to another country, says, "How fascinating these people are, how interesting their tools are, how curious their culture is." +And then they write a paper, and maybe a few other anthropologists read it, and we think it's very exotic. +Well, what's happening is that we've suddenly found a new species. +I, as a cyborg anthropologist, have suddenly said, "Oh, wow. Now suddenly we're a new form of Homo sapiens, and look at these fascinating cultures, and look at these curious rituals that everybody's doing around this technology. +They're clicking on things and staring at screens." +Now there's a reason why I study this, versus traditional anthropology. +And the reason is that tool use, in the beginning -- for thousands and thousands of years, everything has been a physical modification of self. +It has helped us to extend our physical selves, go faster, hit things harder, and there's been a limit on that. +But now what we're looking at is not an extension of the physical self, but an extension of the mental self, and because of that, we're able to travel faster, communicate differently. +And the other thing that happens is that we're all carrying around little Mary Poppins technology. +We can put anything we want into it, and it doesn't get heavier, and then we can take anything out. +What does the inside of your computer actually look like? +Well, if you print it out, it looks like a thousand pounds of material that you're carrying around all the time. +And if you actually lose that information, it means that you suddenly have this loss in your mind, that you suddenly feel like something's missing, except you aren't able to see it, so it feels like a very strange emotion. +The other thing that happens is that you have a second self. +Whether you like it or not, you're starting to show up online, and people are interacting with your second self when you're not there. +And so you have to be careful about leaving your front lawn open, which is basically your Facebook wall, so that people don't write on it in the middle of the night -- because it's very much the equivalent. +And suddenly we have to start to maintain our second self. +You have to present yourself in digital life in a similar way that you would in your analog life. +So, in the same way that you wake up, take a shower and get dressed, you have to learn to do that for your digital self. +And the problem is that a lot of people now, especially adolescents, have to go through two adolescences. +They have to go through their primary one, that's already awkward, and then they go through their second self's adolescence, and that's even more awkward because there's an actual history of what they've gone through online. +And anybody coming in new to technology is an adolescent online right now, and so it's very awkward, and it's very difficult for them to do those things. +So when I was little, my dad would sit me down at night and he would say, "I'm going to teach you about time and space in the future." +And I said, "Great." +And he said one day, "What's the shortest distance between two points?" +And I said, "Well, that's a straight line. You told me that yesterday." +I thought I was very clever. +He said, "No, no, no. Here's a better way." +He took a piece of paper, drew A and B on one side and the other and folded them together so where A and B touched. +And he said, "That is the shortest distance between two points." +And I said, "Dad, dad, dad, how do you do that?" +He said, "Well, you just bend time and space, it takes an awful lot of energy, and that's just how you do it." +And I said, "I want to do that." +And he said, "Well, okay." +And so, when I went to sleep for the next 10 or 20 years, I was thinking at night, "I want to be the first person to create a wormhole, to make things accelerate faster. +And I want to make a time machine." +I was always sending messages to my future self using tape recorders. +But then what I realized when I went to college is that technology doesn't just get adopted because it works. +It gets adopted because people use it and it's made for humans. +So I started studying anthropology. +And when I was writing my thesis on cell phones, I realized that everyone was carrying around wormholes in their pockets. +They weren't physically transporting themselves; they were mentally transporting themselves. +They would click on a button, and they would be connected as A to B immediately. +And I thought, "Oh, wow. I found it. This is great." +So over time, time and space have compressed because of this. +You can stand on one side of the world, whisper something and be heard on the other. +One of the other ideas that comes around is that you have a different type of time on every single device that you use. +Every single browser tab gives you a different type of time. +And because of that, you start to dig around for your external memories -- where did you leave them? +So now we're all these paleontologists that are digging for things that we've lost on our external brains that we're carrying around in our pockets. +And that incites a sort of panic architecture -- "Oh no, where's this thing?" +We're all "I Love Lucy" on a great assembly line of information, and we can't keep up. +And so what happens is, when we bring all that into the social space, we end up checking our phones all the time. +So we have this thing called ambient intimacy. +It's not that we're always connected to everybody, but at anytime we can connect to anyone we want. +And if you were able to print out everybody in your cell phone, the room would be very crowded. +These are the people that you have access to right now, in general -- all of these people, all of your friends and family that you can connect to. +And so there are some psychological effects that happen with this. +One I'm really worried about is that people aren't taking time for mental reflection anymore, and that they aren't slowing down and stopping, being around all those people in the room all the time that are trying to compete for their attention on the simultaneous time interfaces, paleontology and panic architecture. +They're not just sitting there. +And really, when you have no external input, that is a time when there is a creation of self, when you can do long-term planning, when you can try and figure out who you really are. +And then, once you do that, you can figure out how to present your second self in a legitimate way, instead of just dealing with everything as it comes in -- and oh, I have to do this, and I have to do this, and I have to do this. +And so this is very important. +I'm really worried that, especially kids today, they're not going to be dealing with this down-time, that they have an instantaneous button-clicking culture, and that everything comes to them, and that they become very excited about it and very addicted to it. +So if you think about it, the world hasn't stopped either. +It has its own external prosthetic devices, and these devices are helping us all to communicate and interact with each other. +But when you actually visualize it, all the connections that we're doing right now -- this is an image of the mapping of the Internet -- it doesn't look technological. +It actually looks very organic. +This is the first time in the entire history of humanity that we've connected in this way. +And it's not that machines are taking over. +It's that they're helping us to be more human, helping us to connect with each other. +The most successful technology gets out of the way and helps us live our lives. +And really, it ends up being more human than technology, because we're co-creating each other all the time. +And so this is the important point that I like to study: that things are beautiful, that it's still a human connection -- it's just done in a different way. +We're just increasing our humanness and our ability to connect with each other, regardless of geography. +So that's why I study cyborg anthropology. +Thank you. +If we look around us, much of what surrounds us started life as various rocks and sludge buried in the ground in various places in the world. +But, of course, they don't look like rocks and sludge now. +They look like TV cameras, monitors, annoying radio mics. +And so this magical transformation is what I was trying to get at with my project, which became known as the Toaster Project. +And it was also inspired by this quote from Douglas Adams, And the situation it describes is the hero of the book -- he's a 20th-century man -- finds himself alone on a strange planet populated only by a technologically primitive people. +But he didn't have Wikipedia. +So I thought, okay, I'll try and make an electric toaster from scratch. +I didn't have the rest of my life to do this project. +I had maybe nine months. +So I thought, okay, I'll start with five. +And these were steel, mica, plastic, copper and nickel. +So, starting with steel: how do you make steel? +I went and knocked on the door of the Rio Tinto Chair of Advanced Mineral Extraction at the Royal School of Mines and said, "How do you make steel?" +And Professor Cilliers was very kind and talked me through it. +And my vague rememberings from GCSE science -- well, steel comes from iron, so I phoned up an iron mine. +And said, "Hi, I'm trying to make a toaster. +Can I come up and get some iron?" +Unfortunately, when I got there -- emerges Ray. +He had misheard me and thought I was coming up because I was trying to make a poster, and so wasn't prepared to take me into the mines. +But after some nagging, I got him to do that. +Ray: It was Crease Limestone, and that was produced by sea creatures 350 million years ago in a nice, warm, sunny atmosphere. +When you study geology, you can see what's happened in the past, and there were terrific changes in the earth. +Thomas Thwaites: As you can see, they had the Christmas decorations up. +And of course, it wasn't actually a working mine anymore, because, though Ray was a miner there, the mine had closed and had been reopened as a kind of tourist attraction, because, of course, it can't compete on the scale of operations which are happening in South America, Australia, wherever. +But anyway, I got my suitcase of iron ore and dragged it back to London on the train, and then was faced with the problem: Okay, how do you make this rock into components for a toaster? +So I went back to Professor Cilliers, and he said, "Go to the library." +So I did and was looking through the undergraduate textbooks on metallurgy -- completely useless for what I was trying to do. +Because, of course, they don't actually tell you how to do it if you want to do it yourself and you don't have a smelting plant. +So I ended up going to the History of Science Library and looking at this book. +This is the first textbook on metallurgy written in the West, at least. +And there you can see that woodcut is basically what I ended up doing. +But instead of a bellows, I had a leaf blower. +And that was something that reoccurred throughout the project, was, the smaller the scale you want to work on, the further back in time you have to go. +And so this is after a day and about half a night smelting this iron. +I dragged out this stuff, and it wasn't iron. +But luckily, I found a patent online for industrial furnaces that use microwaves, and at 30 minutes at full power, and I was able to finish off the process. +So, my next -- The next thing I was trying to get was copper. +Again, this mine was once the largest copper mine in the world. +It's not anymore, but I found a retired geology professor to take me down, and he said, "Okay, I'll let you have some water from the mine." +And the reason I was interested in getting water is because water which goes through mines becomes kind of acidic and will start picking up, dissolving the minerals from the mine. +And a good example of this is the Rio Tinto, which is in Portugal. +As you can see, it's got lots and lots of minerals dissolved in it. +So many such that it's now just a home for bacteria who really like acidic, toxic conditions. +But anyway, the water I dragged back from the Isle of Anglesey where the mine was -- there was enough copper in it such that I could cast the pins of my metal electric plug. +So my next thing: I was off to Scotland to get mica. +And mica is a mineral which is a very good insulator and very good at insulating electricity. +That's me getting mica. +And the last material I'm going to talk about today is plastic, and, of course, my toaster had to have a plastic case. +Plastic is the defining feature of cheap electrical goods. +And so plastic comes from oil, so I phoned up BP and spent a good half an hour trying to convince the PR office at BP that it would be fantastic for them if they flew me to an oil rig and let me have a jug of oil. +BP obviously has a bit more on their mind now. +But even then they weren't convinced and said, "Okay, we'll phone you back" -- never did. +So I looked at other ways of making plastic. +And you can actually make plastic from obviously oils which come from plants, but also from starches. +So this is attempting to make potato starch plastic. +And for a while that was looking really good. +I poured it into the mold, which you can see there, which I've made from a tree trunk. +And it was looking good for a while, but I left it outside, because you had to leave it outside to dry, and unfortunately I came back and there were snails eating the unhydrolyzed bits of potato. +So kind of out of desperation, I decided that I could think laterally. +And geologists have actually christened -- well, they're debating whether to christen -- the age that we're living in -- they're debating whether to make it a new geological epoch called the Anthropocene, the age of Man. +And that's because geologists of the future would kind of see a sharp shift in the strata of rock that is being laid down now. +So suddenly, it will become kind of radioactive from Chernobyl and the 2,000 or so nuclear bombs that have been set off since 1945. +And there'd also be an extinction event -- like fossils would suddenly disappear. +And also, I thought that there would be synthetic polymers, plastics, embedded in the rock. +So I looked up a plastic -- so I decided that I could mine some of this modern-day rock. +And I went up to Manchester to visit a place called Axion Recycling. +And they're at the sharp end of what's called the WEEE, which is this European electrical and electronic waste directive. +And that was brought into force to try and deal with the mountain of stuff that is just being made and then living for a while in our homes and then going to landfill. +But this is it. +So there's a picture of my toaster. +That's it without the case on. +And there it is on the shelves. +Thanks. +Bruno Giussani: I'm told you did plug it in once. +TT: Yeah, I did plug it in. +I don't know if you could see, but I was never able to make insulation for the wires. +Kew Gardens were insistent that I couldn't come and hack into their rubber tree. +So the wires were uninsulated. +So there was 240 volts going through these homemade copper wires, homemade plug. +And for about five seconds, the toaster toasted, but then, unfortunately, the element kind of melted itself. +But I considered it a partial success, to be honest. +BG: Thomas Thwaites. TT: Thanks. +This room may appear to be holding 600 people, but there's actually so many more, because in each one of us there is a multitude of personalities. +I have two primary personalities that have been in conflict and conversation within me since I was a little girl. +I call them "the mystic" and "the warrior." +I was born into a family of politically active, intellectual atheists. +There was this equation in my family that went something like this: if you are intelligent, you therefore are not spiritual. +I was the freak of the family. +I was this weird little kid who wanted to have deep talks about the worlds that might exist beyond the ones that we perceive with our senses. +I wanted to know if what we human beings see and hear and think is a full and accurate picture of reality. +So, looking for answers, I went to Catholic mass. +I tagged along with my neighbors. +I read Sartre and Socrates. +And then a wonderful thing happened when I was in high school: Gurus from the East started washing up on the shores of America. +And I said to myself, "I wanna get me one of them." +And ever since, I've been walking the mystic path, trying to peer beyond what Albert Einstein called "the optical delusion of everyday consciousness." +So what did he mean by this? I'll show you. +Take a breath right now of this clear air in this room. +Now, see this strange, underwater, coral reef-looking thing? +It's actually a person's trachea, and those colored globs are microbes that are actually swimming around in this room right now, all around us. +If we're blind to this simple biology, imagine what we're missing at the smallest subatomic level right now and at the grandest cosmic levels. +My years as a mystic have made me question almost all my assumptions. +They've made me a proud I-don't-know-it-all. +Now when the mystic part of me jabbers on and on like this, the warrior rolls her eyes. +She's concerned about what's happening in this world right now. +She's worried. +She says, "Excuse me, I'm pissed off, and I know a few things, and we better get busy about them right now." +I've spent my life as a warrior, working for women's issues, working on political campaigns, being an activist for the environment. +And it can be sort of crazy-making, housing both the mystic and the warrior in one body. +I've always been attracted to those rare people who pull that off, who devote their lives to humanity with the grit of the warrior and the grace of the mystic -- people like Martin Luther King, Jr., who wrote, "I can never be what I ought to be until you are what you ought to be. +This," he wrote, "is the interrelated structure of reality." +Then Mother Teresa, another mystic warrior, who said, "The problem with the world is that we draw the circle of our family too small." +And Nelson Mandela, who lives by the African concept of "ubuntu," which means "I need you in order to be me, and you need me in order to be you." +Now we all love to trot out these three mystic warriors as if they were born with the saint gene. +But we all actually have the same capacity that they do, and we need to do their work now. +I'm deeply disturbed by the ways in which all of our cultures are demonizing "the Other" by the voice we're giving to the most divisive among us. +Listen to these titles of some of the bestselling books from both sides of the political divide here in the U.S. +"Liberalism Is a Mental Disorder," "Rush Limbaugh Is a Big Fat Idiot," "Pinheads and Patriots," "Arguing With Idiots." +They're supposedly tongue-in-cheek, but they're actually dangerous. +Now here's a title that may sound familiar, but whose author may surprise you: "Four-and-a-Half-Years of Struggle Against Lies, Stupidity and Cowardice." +Who wrote that? +That was Adolf Hitler's first title for "Mein Kampf" -- "My Struggle" -- the book that launched the Nazi party. +The worst eras in human history, whether in Cambodia or Germany or Rwanda, they start like this, with negative other-izing. +And then they morph into violent extremism. +This is why I'm launching a new initiative. +And it's to help all of us, myself included, to counteract the tendency to "otherize." +And I realize we're all busy people, so don't worry, you can do this on a lunch break. +I'm calling my initiative, "Take the Other to Lunch." +If you are a Republican, you can take a Democrat to lunch, or if you're a Democrat, think of it as taking a Republican to lunch. +Now if the idea of taking any of these people to lunch makes you lose your appetite, I suggest you start more local, because there is no shortage of the Other right in your own neighborhood. +Maybe that person who worships at the mosque, or the church or the synagogue, down the street. +Or someone from the other side of the abortion conflict. +Or maybe your brother-in-law who doesn't believe in global warming. +Anyone whose lifestyle may frighten you, or whose point of view makes smoke come out of your ears. +A couple of weeks ago, I took a Conservative Tea Party woman to lunch. +Now on paper, she passed my smoking ears test. +She's an activist from the Right, and I'm an activist from the Left. +And we used some guidelines to keep our conversation elevated, and you can use them too, because I know you're all going to take an Other to lunch. +So first of all, decide on a goal: to get to know one person from a group you may have negatively stereotyped. +And then, before you get together, agree on some ground rules. +My Tea Party lunchmate and I came up with these: don't persuade, defend or interrupt. +Be curious; be conversational; be real. +And listen. +From there, we dove in. +And we used these questions: Share some of your life experiences with me. +What issues deeply concern you? +And what have you always wanted to ask someone from the other side? +My lunch partner and I came away with some really important insights, and I'm going to share just one with you. +I think it has relevance to any problem between people anywhere. +I asked her why her side makes such outrageous allegations and lies about my side. +"What?" she wanted to know. +"Like we're a bunch of elitist, morally-corrupt terrorist-lovers." +Well, she was shocked. +She thought my side beat up on her side way more often, that we called them brainless, gun-toting racists, and we both marveled at the labels that fit none of the people we actually know. +And since we had established some trust, we believed in each other's sincerity. +We agreed we'd speak up in our own communities when we witnessed the kind of "otherizing" talk that can wound and fester into paranoia and then be used by those on the fringes to incite. +By the end of our lunch, we acknowledged each other's openness. +Neither of us had tried to change the other. +But we also hadn't pretended that our differences were just going to melt away after a lunch. +Instead, we had taken first steps together, past our knee-jerk reactions, to the ubuntu place, which is the only place where solutions to our most intractable-seeming problems will be found. +Who should you invite to lunch? +Next time you catch yourself in the act of otherizing, that will be your clue. +And what might happen at your lunch? +Will the heavens open and "We Are the World" play over the restaurant sound system? +Probably not. +Because ubuntu work is slow, and it's difficult. +It's two people dropping the pretense of being know-it-alls. +It's two people, two warriors, dropping their weapons and reaching toward each other. +Here's how the great Persian poet Rumi put it: "Out beyond ideas of wrong-doing and right-doing, there is a field. +I'll meet you there." +So I'm here to tell you that we have a problem with boys, and it's a serious problem with boys. +Their culture isn't working in schools, and I'm going to share with you ways that we can think about overcoming that problem. +First, I want to start by saying, this is a boy, and this is a girl, and this is probably stereotypically what you think of as a boy and a girl. +If I essentialize gender for you today, then you can dismiss what I have to say. +So I'm not going to do that. I'm not interested in doing that. +This is a different kind of boy and a different kind of girl. +So the point here is that not all boys exist within these rigid boundaries of what we think of as boys and girls, and not all girls exist within those rigid boundaries of what we think of as girls. +But, in fact, most boys tend to be a certain way, and most girls tend to be a certain way. +And the point is that, for boys, the way that they exist and the culture that they embrace isn't working well in schools now. +How do we know that? +The Hundred Girls Project tells us some really nice statistics. +For example, for every 100 girls that are suspended from school, there are 250 boys that are suspended from school. +For every 100 girls who are expelled from school, there are 335 boys who are expelled from school. +For every 100 girls in special education, there are 217 boys. +For every 100 girls with a learning disability, there are 276 boys. +For every 100 girls with an emotional disturbance diagnosed, we have 324 boys. +And by the way, all of these numbers are significantly higher if you happen to be black, if you happen to be poor, if you happen to exist in an overcrowded school. +And if you are a boy, you're four times as likely to be diagnosed with ADHD -- Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. +Now there is another side to this. +And it is important that we recognize that women still need help in school, that salaries are still significantly lower, even when controlled for job types, and that girls have continued to struggle in math and science for years. +That's all true. +Nothing about that prevents us from paying attention to the literacy needs of our boys between ages three and 13. +And so we should. +In fact, what we ought to do is take a page from their playbook, because the initiatives and programs that have been set in place for women in science and engineering and mathematics are fantastic. +They've done a lot of good for girls in these situations, and we ought to be thinking about how we can make that happen for boys too in their younger years. +Even in their older years, what we find is that there's still a problem. +When we look at the universities, 60 percent of baccalaureate degrees are going to women now, which is a significant shift. +And in fact, university administrators are a little uncomfortable about the idea that we may be getting close to 70 percent female population in universities. +This makes university administrators very nervous, because girls don't want to go to schools that don't have boys. +And so we're starting to see the establishment of men centers and men studies to think about how do we engage men in their experiences in the university. +If you talk to faculty, they may say, "Ugh. Yeah, well, they're playing video games, and they're gambling online all night long, and they're playing World of Warcraft, and that's affecting their academic achievement." +Guess what? +Video games are not the cause. +Video games are a symptom. +They were turned off a long time before they got here. +So let's talk about why they got turned off when they were between the ages of three and 13. +There are three reasons that I believe that boys are out of sync with the culture of schools today. +The first is zero tolerance. +A kindergarten teacher I know, her son donated all of his toys to her, and when he did, she had to go through and pull out all the little plastic guns. +You can't have plastic knives and swords and axes and all that kind of thing in a kindergarten classroom. +What is it that we're afraid that this young man is going to do with this gun? +I mean, really. +But here he stands as testament to the fact that you can't roughhouse on the playground today. +Now I'm not advocating for bullies. +I'm not suggesting that we need to be allowing guns and knives into school. +But when we say that an Eagle Scout in a high school classroom who has a locked parked car in the parking lot and a penknife in it has to be suspended from school, I think we may have gone a little too far with zero tolerance. +Another way that zero tolerance lives itself out is in the writing of boys. +In a lot of classrooms today you're not allowed to write about anything that's violent. +You're not allowed to write about anything that has to do with video games -- these topics are banned. +Boy comes home from school, and he says, "I hate writing." +"Why do you hate writing, son? What's wrong with writing?" +"Now I have to write what she tells me to write." +"Okay, what is she telling you to write?" +"Poems. I have to write poems. +And little moments in my life. +I don't want to write that stuff." +"All right. Well, what do you want to write? What do you want to write about?" +"I want to write about video games. I want to write about leveling-up. +I want to write about this really interesting world. +I want to write about a tornado that comes into our house and blows all the windows out and ruins all the furniture and kills everybody." +"All right. Okay." +You tell a teacher that, and they'll ask you, in all seriousness, "Should we send this child to the psychologist?" +And the answer is no, he's just a boy. +He's just a little boy. +It's not okay to write these kinds of things in classrooms today. +So that's the first reason: zero tolerance policies and the way they're lived out. +The next reason that boys' cultures are out of sync with school cultures: there are fewer male teachers. +Anybody who's over 15 doesn't know what this means, because in the last 10 years, the number of elementary school classroom teachers has been cut in half. +We went from 14 percent to seven percent. +That means that 93 percent of the teachers that our young men get in elementary classrooms are women. +Now what's the problem with this? +Women are great. Yep, absolutely. +But male role models for boys that say it's all right to be smart -- they've got dads, they've got pastors, they've got Cub Scout leaders, but ultimately, six hours a day, five days a week they're spending in a classroom, and most of those classrooms are not places where men exist. +And so they say, I guess this really isn't a place for boys. +This is a place for girls. +And I'm not very good at this, so I guess I'd better go play video games or get into sports, or something like that, because I obviously don't belong here. +Men don't belong here, that's pretty obvious. +So that may be a very direct way that we see it happen. +But less directly, the lack of male presence in the culture -- you've got a teachers' lounge, and they're having a conversation about Joey and Johnny who beat each other up on the playground. +"What are we going to do with these boys?" +The answer to that question changes depending on who's sitting around that table. +Are there men around that table? +Are there moms who've raised boys around that table? +You'll see, the conversation changes depending upon who's sitting around the table. +Third reason that boys are out of sync with school today: kindergarten is the old second grade, folks. +We have a serious compression of the curriculum happening out there. +When you're three, you better be able to write your name legibly, or else we'll consider it a developmental delay. +By the time you're in first grade, you should be able to read paragraphs of text with maybe a picture, maybe not, in a book of maybe 25 to 30 pages. +If you don't, we're probably going to be putting you into a Title 1 special reading program. +And if you ask Title 1 teachers, they'll tell you they've got about four or five boys for every girl that's in their program, in the elementary grades. +The reason that this is a problem is because the message that boys are getting is "you need to do what the teacher asks you to do all the time." +The teacher's salary depends on "No Child Left Behind" and "Race to the Top" and accountability and testing and all of this. +So she has to figure out a way to get all these boys through this curriculum -- and girls. +This compressed curriculum is bad for all active kids. +And what happens is, she says, "Please, sit down, be quiet, do what you're told, follow the rules, manage your time, focus, be a girl." +That's what she tells them. +Indirectly, that's what she tells them. +And so this is a very serious problem. Where is it coming from? +It's coming from us. +We want our babies to read when they are six months old. +Have you seen the ads? +We want to live in Lake Wobegon where every child is above average, but what this does to our children is really not healthy. +It's not developmentally appropriate, and it's particularly bad for boys. +So what do we do? +We need to meet them where they are. +We need to put ourselves into boy culture. +We need to change the mindset of acceptance in boys in elementary schools. +More specifically, we can do some very specific things. +We can design better games. +Most of the educational games that are out there today are really flashcards. +They're glorified drill and practice. +They don't have the depth, the rich narrative that really engaging video games have, that the boys are really interested in. +So we need to design better games. +We need to talk to teachers and parents and school board members and politicians. +We need to make sure that people see that we need more men in the classroom. +We need to look carefully at our zero tolerance policies. +Do they make sense? +We need to think about how to uncompress this curriculum if we can, trying to bring boys back into a space that is comfortable for them. +All of those conversations need to be happening. +There are some great examples out there of schools -- the New York Times just talked about a school recently. +A game designer from the New School put together a wonderful video gaming school. +But it only treats a few kids, and so this isn't very scalable. +We have to change the culture and the feelings that politicians and school board members and parents have about the way we accept and what we accept in our schools today. +We need to find more money for game design. +Because good games, really good games, cost money, and World of Warcraft has quite a budget. +Most of the educational games do not. +Where we started: my colleagues -- Mike Petner, Shawn Vashaw, myself -- we started by trying to look at the teachers' attitudes and find out how do they really feel about gaming, what do they say about it. +And we discovered that they talk about the kids in their school, who talk about gaming, in pretty demeaning ways. +They say, "Oh, yeah. They're always talking about that stuff. +They're talking about their little action figures and their little achievements or merit badges, or whatever it is that they get. +And they're always talking about this stuff." +And they say these things as if it's okay. +But if it were your culture, think of how that might feel. +It's very uncomfortable to be on the receiving end of that kind of language. +They're nervous about anything that has anything to do with violence because of the zero tolerance policies. +They are sure that parents and administrators will never accept anything. +So we really need to think about looking at teacher attitudes and finding ways to change the attitudes so that teachers are much more open and accepting of boy cultures in their classrooms. +Because, ultimately, if we don't, then we're going to have boys who leave elementary school saying, "Well I guess that was just a place for girls. +It wasn't for me. +So I've got to do gaming, or I've got to do sports." +If we change these things, if we pay attention to these things, and we re-engage boys in their learning, they will leave the elementary schools saying, "I'm smart." +Thank you. +I just did something I've never done before. +I spent a week at sea on a research vessel. +Now I'm not a scientist, but I was accompanying a remarkable scientific team from the University of South Florida who have been tracking the travels of BP's oil in the Gulf of Mexico. +This is the boat we were on, by the way. +The scientists I was with were not studying the effect of the oil and dispersants on the big stuff -- the birds, the turtles, the dolphins, the glamorous stuff. +They're looking at the really little stuff that gets eaten by the slightly less little stuff that eventually gets eaten by the big stuff. +And what they're finding is that even trace amounts of oil and dispersants can be highly toxic to phytoplankton, which is very bad news, because so much life depends on it. +So contrary to what we heard a few months back about how 75 percent of that oil sort of magically disappeared and we didn't have to worry about it, this disaster is still unfolding. +It's still working its way up the food chain. +Now this shouldn't come as a surprise to us. +Rachel Carson -- the godmother of modern environmentalism -- warned us about this very thing back in 1962. +She pointed out that the "control men" -- as she called them -- who carpet-bombed towns and fields with toxic insecticides like DDT, were only trying to kill the little stuff, the insects, not the birds. +But they forgot this: the fact that birds dine on grubs, that robins eat lots of worms now saturated with DDT. +And so, robin eggs failed to hatch, songbirds died en masse, towns fell silent. +Thus the title "Silent Spring." +I've been trying to pinpoint what keeps drawing me back to the Gulf of Mexico, because I'm Canadian, and I can draw no ancestral ties. +And I think what it is is I don't think we have fully come to terms with the meaning of this disaster, with what it meant to witness a hole ripped in our world, with what it meant to watch the contents of the Earth gush forth on live TV, 24 hours a day, for months. +But even more striking than the ferocious power emanating from that well was the recklessness with which that power was unleashed -- the carelessness, the lack of planning that characterized the operation from drilling to clean-up. +If there is one thing BP's watery improv act made clear, it is that, as a culture, we have become far too willing to gamble with things that are precious and irreplaceable, and to do so without a back-up plan, without an exit strategy. +And BP was hardly our first experience of this in recent years. +Our leaders barrel into wars, telling themselves happy stories about cakewalks and welcome parades. +Then, it is years of deadly damage control, Frankensteins of sieges and surges and counter-insurgencies, and once again, no exit strategy. +Our financial wizards routinely fall victim to similar overconfidence, convincing themselves that the latest bubble is a new kind of market -- the kind that never goes down. +And when it inevitably does, the best and the brightest reach for the financial equivalent of the junk shot -- in this case, throwing massive amounts of much-needed public money down a very different kind of hole. +As with BP, the hole does get plugged, at least temporarily, but not before exacting a tremendous price. +We have to figure out why we keep letting this happen, because we are in the midst of what may be our highest-stakes gamble of all -- deciding what to do, or not to do, about climate change. +Now as you know, a great deal of time is spent, in this country and around the world, inside the climate debate, on the question of, "What if the IPC scientists are all wrong?" +Now a far more relevant question -- as MIT physicist Evelyn Fox Keller puts it -- is, "What if those scientists are right?" +Better to err on the side of caution. +More overt, the burden of proving that a practice is safe should not be placed on the public that would be harmed, but rather on the industry that stands to profit. +But climate policy in the wealthy world -- to the extent that such a thing exists -- is not based on precaution, but rather on cost-benefit analysis -- finding the course of action that economists believe will have the least impact on our GDP. +So rather than asking, as precaution would demand, what can we do as quickly as possible to avoid potential catastrophe, we ask bizarre questions like this: "What is the latest possible moment we can wait before we begin seriously lowering emissions? +Can we put this off till 2020, 2030, 2050?" +Or we ask, "How much hotter can we let the planet get and still survive? +Can we go with two degrees, three degrees, or -- where we're currently going -- four degrees Celsius?" +It's coming from the economists imposing their mechanistic thinking on the science. +The fact is that we simply don't know when the warming that we create will be utterly overwhelmed by feedback loops. +So once again, why do we take these crazy risks with the precious? +A range of explanations may be popping into your mind by now, like "greed." +This is a popular explanation, and there's lots of truth to it, because taking big risks, as we all know, pays a lot of money. +Another explanation that you often hear for recklessness is hubris. +And greed and hubris are intimately intertwined when it comes to recklessness. +For instance, if you happen to be a 35-year-old banker taking home 100 times more than a brain surgeon, then you need a narrative, you need a story that makes that disparity okay. +And you actually don't have a lot of options. +You're either an incredibly good scammer, and you're getting away with it -- you gamed the system -- or you're some kind of boy genius, the likes of which the world has never seen. +Now both of these options -- the boy genius and the scammer -- are going to make you vastly overconfident and therefore more prone to taking even bigger risks in the future. +By the way, Tony Hayward, the former CEO of BP, had a plaque on his desk inscribed with this inspirational slogan: "What would you attempt to do if you knew you could not fail?" +Now this is actually a popular plaque, and this is a crowd of overachievers, so I'm betting that some of you have this plaque. +Don't feel ashamed. +So we have greed, we've got overconfidence/hubris, but since we're here at TEDWomen, let's consider one other factor that could be contributing in some small way to societal recklessness. +Now I'm not going to belabor this point, but studies do show that, as investors, women are much less prone to taking reckless risks than men, precisely because, as we've already heard, women tend not to suffer from overconfidence in the same way that men do. +So it turns out that being paid less and praised less has its upsides -- for society at least. +The flipside of this is that constantly being told that you are gifted, chosen and born to rule has distinct societal downsides. +And this problem -- call it the "perils of privilege" -- brings us closer, I think, to the root of our collective recklessness. +Because none of us -- at least in the global North -- neither men nor women, are fully exempt from this message. +Here's what I'm talking about. +Whether we actively believe them or consciously reject them, our culture remains in the grips of certain archetypal stories about our supremacy over others and over nature -- the narrative of the newly discovered frontier and the conquering pioneer, the narrative of manifest destiny, the narrative of apocalypse and salvation. +And just when you think these stories are fading into history, and that we've gotten over them, they pop up in the strangest places. +For instance, I stumbled across this advertisement outside the women's washroom in the Kansas City airport. +It's for Motorola's new Rugged cell phone, and yes, it really does say, "Slap Mother Nature in the face." +And I'm not just showing it to pick on Motorola -- that's just a bonus. +I'm showing it because -- they're not a sponsor, are they? -- because, in its own way, this is a crass version of our founding story. +We slapped Mother Nature around and won, and we always win, because dominating nature is our destiny. +But this is not the only fairytale we tell ourselves about nature. +There's another one, equally important, about how that very same Mother Nature is so nurturing and so resilient that we can never make a dent in her abundance. +Let's hear from Tony Hayward again. +"The Gulf of Mexico is a very big ocean. +The amount of oil and dispersants that we are putting into it is tiny in relation to the total water volume." +In other words, the ocean is big; she can take it. +It is this underlying assumption of limitlessness that makes it possible to take the reckless risks that we do. +Because this is our real master-narrative: however much we mess up, there will always be more -- more water, more land, more untapped resources. +A new bubble will replace the old one. +A new technology will come along to fix the messes we made with the last one. +In a way, that is the story of the settling of the Americas, the supposedly inexhaustible frontier to which Europeans escaped. +And it's also the story of modern capitalism, because it was the wealth from this land that gave birth to our economic system, one that cannot survive without perpetual growth and an unending supply of new frontiers. +Now the problem is that the story was always a lie. +The Earth always did have limits. +They were just beyond our sights. +And now we are hitting those limits on multiple fronts. +I believe that we know this, yet we find ourselves trapped in a kind of narrative loop. +Not only do we continue to tell and retell the same tired stories, but we are now doing so with a frenzy and a fury that, frankly, verges on camp. +How else to explain the cultural space occupied by Sarah Palin? +Now on the one hand, exhorting us to "drill, baby, drill," because God put those resources into the ground in order for us to exploit them, and on the other, glorying in the wilderness of Alaska's untouched beauty on her hit reality TV show. +The twin message is as comforting as it is mad. +Ignore those creeping fears that we have finally hit the wall. +There are still no limits. +There will always be another frontier. +So stop worrying and keep shopping. +Now, would that this were just about Sarah Palin and her reality TV show. +In environmental circles, we often hear that, rather than shifting to renewables, we are continuing with business as usual. +This assessment, unfortunately, is far too optimistic. +The truth is that we have already exhausted so much of the easily accessible fossil fuels that we have already entered a far riskier business era, the era of extreme energy. +So that means drilling for oil in the deepest water, including the icy Arctic seas, where a clean-up may simply be impossible. +It means large-scale hydraulic fracking for gas and massive strip-mining operations for coal, the likes of which we haven't yet seen. +And most controversially, it means the tar sands. +I'm always surprised by how little people outside of Canada know about the Alberta Tar Sands, which this year are projected to become the number one source of imported oil to the United States. +It's worth taking a moment to understand this practice, because I believe it speaks to recklessness and the path we're on like little else. +So this is where the tar sands live, under one of the last magnificent Boreal forests. +The oil is not liquid. +You can't just drill a hole and pump it out. +Tar sand's oil is solid, mixed in with the soil. +So to get at it, you first have to get rid of the trees. +Then, you rip off the topsoil and get at that oily sand. +The process requires a huge amount of water, which is then pumped into massive toxic tailing ponds. +That's very bad news for local indigenous people living downstream who are reporting alarmingly high cancer rates. +Now looking at these images, it's difficult to grasp the scale of this operation, which can already be seen from space and could grow to an area the size of England. +I find it helps actually to look at the dump trucks that move the earth, the largest ever built. +That's a person down there by the wheel. +My point is that this is not oil drilling. +It's not even mining. +It is terrestrial skinning. +Vast, vivid landscapes are being gutted, left monochromatic gray. +Now I should confess that as [far as] I'm concerned this would be an abomination if it emitted not one particle of carbon. +But the truth is that, on average, turning that gunk into crude oil produces about three times more greenhouse gas pollution than it does to produce conventional oil in Canada. +How else to describe this, but as a form of mass insanity? +Just when we know we need to be learning to live on the surface of our planet, off the power of sun, wind and waves, we are frantically digging to get at the dirtiest, highest-emitting stuff imaginable. +This is where our story of endless growth has taken us, to this black hole at the center of my country -- a place of such planetary pain that, like the BP gusher, one can only stand to look at it for so long. +As Jared Diamond and others have shown us, this is how civilizations commit suicide, by slamming their foot on the accelerator at the exact moment when they should be putting on the brakes. +The problem is that our master-narrative has an answer for that too. +At the very last minute, we are going to get saved just like in every Hollywood movie, just like in the Rapture. +But, of course, our secular religion is technology. +Now, you may have noticed more and more headlines like these. +The idea behind this form of "geoengineering" as it's called, is that, as the planet heats up, we may be able to shoot sulfates and aluminum particles into the stratosphere to reflect some of the sun's rays back to space, thereby cooling the planet. +The wackiest plan -- and I'm not making this up -- would put what is essentially a garden hose 18-and-a-half miles high into the sky, suspended by balloons, to spew sulfur dioxide. +So, solving the problem of pollution with more pollution. +Think of it as the ultimate junk shot. +The serious scientists involved in this research all stress that these techniques are entirely untested. +They don't know if they'll work, and they have no idea what kind of terrifying side effects they could unleash. +Nevertheless, the mere mention of geoengineering is being greeted in some circles, particularly media circles, with a relief tinged with euphoria. +An escape hatch has been reached. +A new frontier has been found. +Most importantly, we don't have to change our lifestyles after all. +You see, for some people, their savior is a guy in a flowing robe. +For other people, it's a guy with a garden hose. +We badly need some new stories. +We need stories that replace that linear narrative of endless growth with circular narratives that remind us that what goes around comes around. +That this is our only home. +There is no escape hatch. +Call it karma, call it physics, action and reaction, call it precaution -- the principle that reminds us that life is too precious to be risked for any profit. +Thank you. +You may not know this, but you are celebrating an anniversary with me. +I'm not married, but one year ago today, I woke up from a month-long coma, following a double lung transplant. +Crazy, I know. Insane. +Thank you. +Six years before that, I was starting my career as an opera singer in Europe, when I was diagnosed with idiopathic pulmonary hypertension -- also known as PH. +It happens when there's a thickening in the pulmonary veins, making the right side of the heart work overtime, and causing what I call the reverse-Grinch effect. +My heart was three-and-a-half sizes too big. +Physical activity becomes very difficult for people with this condition, and usually after two to five years, you die. +I went to see this specialist, and she was top-of-the-field and told me I had to stop singing. +She said, "Those high notes are going to kill you." +While she didn't have any medical evidence to back up her claim that there was a relationship between operatic arias and pulmonary hypertension, she was absolutely emphatic I was singing my own obituary. +I was very limited by my condition, physically. +But I was not limited when I sang, and as air came up from my lungs, through my vocal cords and passed my lips as sound, it was the closest thing I had ever come to transcendence. +And just because of someone's hunch, I wasn't going to give it up. +Thankfully, I met Reda Girgis, who is dry as toast, but he and his team at Johns Hopkins didn't just want me to survive, they wanted me to live a meaningful life. +This meant making trade-offs. +I come from Colorado. +It's a mile high, and I grew up there with my 10 brothers and sisters and two adoring parents. +Well, the altitude exacerbated my symptoms. +So I moved to Baltimore to be near my doctors and enrolled in a conservatory nearby. +I couldn't walk as much as I used to, so I opted for five-inch heels. +And I gave up salt, I went vegan, and I started taking huge doses of sildenafil, also known as Viagra. +My father and my grandfather were always looking for the newest thing in alternative or traditional therapies for PH, but after six months, I couldn't walk up a small hill. I couldn't climb a flight of stairs. +I could barely stand up without feeling like I was going to faint. +I had a heart catheterization, where they measure this internal arterial pulmonary pressure, which is supposed to be between 15 and 20. +Mine was 146. +I like to do things big, and it meant one thing: there is a big gun treatment for pulmonary hypertension called Flolan, and it's not just a drug; it's a way of life. +Doctors insert a catheter into your chest, which is attached to a pump that weighs about four-and-a-half pounds. +Every day, 24 hours, that pump is at your side, administering medicine directly to your heart, and it's not a particularly preferable medicine in many senses. +This is a list of the side effects: if you eat too much salt, like a peanut butter and jelly sandwich, you'll probably end up in the ICU. +If you go through a metal detector, you'll probably die. +If you get a bubble in your medicine -- because you have to mix it every morning -- and it stays in there, you probably die. +If you run out of medicine, you definitely die. +No one wants to go on Flolan. +But when I needed it, it was a godsend. +Within a few days, I could walk again. +Within a few weeks, I was performing, and in a few months, I debuted at the Kennedy Center. +The pump was a little bit problematic when performing, so I'd attach it to my inner thigh with the help of the girdle and an ACE bandage. +Literally hundreds of elevator rides were spent with me alone stuffing the pump into my Spanx, hoping the doors wouldn't open unexpectedly. +And the tubing coming out of my chest was a nightmare for costume designers. +I graduated from graduate school in 2006, and I got a fellowship to go back to Europe. +A few days after arriving, I met this wonderful, old conductor who started casting me in all of these roles. +And before long, I was commuting between Budapest, Milan and Florence. +Though I was attached to this ugly, unwanted, high-maintenance, mechanical pet, my life was kind of like the happy part in an opera -- very complicated, but in a good way. +Then in February of 2008, my grandfather passed away. +He was a big figure in all of our lives, and we loved him very much. +It certainly didn't prepare me for what came next. +Seven weeks later, I got a call from my family. +My father had been in a catastrophic car accident, and he died. +At 24, my death would have been entirely expected. +But his -- well, the only way I can articulate how it felt was that it precipitated my medical decline. +Against my doctors' and family's wishes, I needed to go back for the funeral. +I had to say goodbye in some way, shape or form. +But soon I was showing signs of right-heart failure, and I had to return to sea level, doing so knowing that I probably would never see my home again. +I canceled most of my engagements that summer, but I had one left in Tel Aviv, so I went. +After one performance, I could barely drag myself from the stage to the taxicab. +I sat down and felt the blood rush down from my face, and in the heat of the desert, I was freezing cold. +My fingers started turning blue, and I was like, "What is going on here?" +I heard my heart's valves snapping open and closed. +The cab stopped, and I pulled my body from it feeling each ounce of weight as I walked to the elevator. +I fell through my apartment door and crawled to the bathroom where I found my problem: I had forgotten to mix in the most important part of my medicine. +I was dying, and if I didn't mix that stuff up fast, I would never leave that apartment alive. +I started mixing, and I felt like everything was going to fall out through one hole or another, but I just kept on going. +Finally, with the last bottle in and the last bubble out, I attached the pump to the tubing and lay there hoping it would kick in soon enough. +If it didn't, I'd probably see my father sooner than I anticipated. +Thankfully, in a few minutes, I saw the signature hive-like rash appear on my legs, which is a side effect of the medication, and I knew I'd be okay. +We're not big on fear in my family, but I was scared. +I went back to the States, anticipating I'd return to Europe, but the heart catheterization showed that I wasn't going anywhere further that a flight-for-life from Johns Hopkins Hospital. +I performed here and there, but as my condition deteriorated, so did my voice. +My doctor wanted me to get on the list for a lung transplant. +I didn't. +I had two friends who had recently died months after having very challenging surgeries. +I knew another young man, though, who had PH who died while waiting for one. +I wanted to live. +I thought stem cells were a good option, but they hadn't developed to a point where I could take advantage of them yet. +I officially took a break from singing, and I went to the Cleveland Clinic to be reevaluated for the third time in five years, for transplant. +I was sitting there kind of unenthusiastically talking with the head transplant surgeon, and I asked him if I needed a transplant, what I could do to prepare. +He said, "Be happy. +A happy patient is a healthy patient." +It was like in one verbal swoop he had channeled my thoughts on life and medicine and Confucius. +I still didn't want a transplant, but in a month, I was back in the hospital with some severely edemic kankles -- very attractive. +And it was right-heart failure. +I finally decided it was time to take my doctor's advice. +It was time for me to go to Cleveland and to start the agonizing wait for a match. +But the next morning, while I was still in the hospital, I got a telephone call. +It was my doctor in Cleveland, Marie Budev. +And they had lungs. +It was a match. +They were from Texas. +And everybody was really happy for me, but me. +Because, despite their problems, I had spent my whole life training my lungs, and I was not particularly enthusiastic about giving them up. +I flew to Cleveland, and my family rushed there in hopes that they would meet me and say what we knew might be our final goodbye. +But organs don't wait, and I went into surgery before I could say goodbye. +The last thing I remember was lying on a white blanket, telling my surgeon that I needed to see my mother again, and to please try and save my voice. +I fell into this apocalyptic dream world. +During the thirteen-and-a-half-hour surgery, I flatlined twice, 40 quarts of blood were infused into my body. +And in my surgeon's 20-year career, he said it was among the most difficult transplants that he's ever performed. +They left my chest open for two weeks. +You could see my over-sized heart beating inside of it. +I was on a dozen machines that were keeping me alive. +An infection ravaged my skin. +I had hoped my voice would be saved, but my doctors knew that the breathing tubes going down my throat might have already destroyed it. +If they stayed in, there was no way I would ever sing again. +So my doctor got the ENT, the top guy at the clinic, to come down and give me surgery to move the tubes around my voice box. +He said it would kill me. +So my own surgeon performed the procedure in a last-ditch attempt to save my voice. +Though my mom couldn't say goodbye to me before the surgery, she didn't leave my side in the months of recovery that followed. +And if you want an example of perseverance, grit and strength in a beautiful, little package, it is her. +One year ago to this very day, I woke up. +I was 95 lbs. +There were a dozen tubes coming in and out of my body. +I couldn't walk, I couldn't talk, I couldn't eat, I couldn't move, I certainly couldn't sing, I couldn't even breathe, but when I looked up and I saw my mother, I couldn't help but smile. +Whether by a Mack truck or by heart failure or faulty lungs, death happens. +But life isn't really just about avoiding death, is it? +It's about living. +Medical conditions don't negate the human condition. +And when people are allowed to pursue their passions, doctors will find they have better, happier and healthier patients. +My parents were totally stressed out about me going and auditioning and traveling and performing all over the place, but they knew that it was much better for me to do that than be preoccupied with my own mortality all of the time. +And I'm so grateful they did. +This past summer, when I was running and singing and dancing and playing with my nieces and my nephews and my brothers and my sisters and my mother and my grandmother in the Colorado Rockies, I couldn't help but think of that doctor who told me that I couldn't sing. +And I wanted to tell her, and I want to tell you, we need to stop letting disease divorce us from our dreams. +When we do, we will find that patients don't just survive; we thrive. +And some of us might even sing. +[Singing: French] Thank you. +Thank you. +And I'd like to thank my pianist, Monica Lee. +Thank you so much. +Thank you. +I am honored to be here, and I'm honored to talk about this topic, which I think is of grave importance. +We've been talking a lot about the horrific impacts of plastic on the planet and on other species, but plastic hurts people too, especially poor people. +And both in the production of plastic, the use of plastic and the disposal of plastic, the people who have the bull's-eye on their foreheads are poor people. +People got very upset when the BP oil spill happened People thought about, "Oh, my God. +This is terrible, this oil -- it's in the water. +It's going to destroy the living systems there. +People are going to be hurt. +This is a terrible thing, that the oil is going to hurt the people in the Gulf." +What people don't think about is: what if the oil had made it safely to shore? +What if the oil actually got where it was trying to go? +Not only would it have been burned in engines and added to global warming, but there's a place called "Cancer Alley," and the reason it's called "Cancer Alley" is because the petrochemical industry takes that oil and turns it into plastic and, in the process, kills people. +It shortens the lives of the people who live there in the Gulf. +So oil and petrochemicals are not just a problem where there's a spill; they're a problem where there's not. +And what we don't often appreciate is the price that poor people pay for us to have these disposable products. +The other thing that we don't often appreciate is it's not just at the point of production that poor people suffer. +Poor people also suffer at the point of use. +Those of us who earn a certain income level, we have something called choice. +and not be poor and broke is so you can have choices, economic choices. +We actually get a chance to choose not to use products that have dangerous, poisonous plastic in them. +Other people who are poor don't have those choices. +So low-income people often are the ones who are buying the products that have those dangerous chemicals in them that their children are using. +Those are the people who wind up actually ingesting a disproportionate amount of this poisonous plastic and using it. +And people say, "Well, they should just buy a different product." +Well, the problem with being poor is you don't have those choices. +You often have to buy the cheapest products. +The cheapest products are often the most dangerous. +And if that weren't bad enough, if it wasn't just the production of plastic that's giving people cancer in places like "Cancer Alley" and shortening lives and hurting poor kids at the point of use, at the point of disposal, once again, it's poor people who bear the burden. +Often, we think we're doing a good thing. +You're in your office, and you're drinking your bottled water, or whatever it is, and you think to yourself, "Hey, I'm going to throw this away. +No, I'm going to be virtuous. +I'm going to put it in the blue bin." +You think, "I put mine in the blue bin," and then you look at your colleague and say, "Why, you cretin. +You put yours in the white bin." +And we use that as a moral tickle. +We feel so good about ourselves. +Maybe I'll feel good myself. +Not you, but I feel this way. +And so we kind of have this kind of moral feel-good moment. +I think in our minds we imagine somebody's going to take the little bottle, say, "Oh, little bottle. +We're so happy to see you, little bottle." +"You've served so well." +He's given a little bottle massage, a little bottle medal. +And say, "What would you like to do next?" +The little bottle says, "I just don't know." +But that's not actually what happens. +That bottle winds up getting burned. +Recycling of plastic in many developing countries means the incineration of the plastic, the burning of the plastic, which releases incredible toxic chemicals and, once again, kills people. +And so poor people who are making these products in petrochemical centers like "Cancer Alley," poor people who are consuming these products disproportionately, and then poor people, who even at the tail end of the recycling are having their lives shortened, are all being harmed greatly by this addiction that we have to disposability. +Now you think to yourself -- because I know how you are -- you say, "That sure is terrible for those poor people. +It's just awful, those poor people. +I hope someone does something to help them." +But what we don't understand is -- is, here we are in Los Angeles. +We worked very hard to get the smog reduction happening here in Los Angeles. +But guess what? +Because they're doing so much dirty production in Asia now, because the environmental laws don't protect the people in Asia now, almost all of the clean air gains and the toxic air gains that we've achieved here in California have been wiped out by dirty air coming over from Asia. +So, we all are being hit. We all are being impacted. +It's just the poor people get hit first and worst. +But the dirty production, the burning of toxins, the lack of environmental standards in Asia is actually creating so much dirty air pollution it's coming across the ocean and has erased our gains here in California. +We're back where we were in the 1970s. +And so we're on one planet, and we have to be able to get to the root of these problems. +Well the root of this problem, in my view, is the idea of disposability itself. +You see, if you understand the link between what we're doing to poison and pollute the planet and what we're doing to poor people, you arrive at a very troubling, but also very helpful, insight: In order to trash the planet, you have to trash people. +But if you create a world where you don't trash people, you can't trash the planet. +So now we are at a moment where the coming together of social justice as an idea and ecology as an idea, we finally can now see that they are really, at the end of the day, one idea. +And it's the idea that we don't have disposable anything. +We don't have disposable resources. +We don't have disposable species. +And we don't have disposable people either. +We don't have a throwaway planet, and we don't have throwaway children -- it's all precious. +And as we all begin to come back to that basic understanding, new opportunities for action begin to emerge. +Biomimicry, that is an emerging science, winds up being a very important social justice idea. +People who are just learning about this stuff, biomimicry means respecting the wisdom of all species. +Democracy, by the way, means respecting the wisdom of all people -- and we'll get to that. +But biomimicry means respecting the wisdom of all species. +It turns out we're a pretty clever species. +This big cortex, or whatever, we're pretty proud of ourselves. +But if we want to make something hard, we come up, "I know, I'm going to make a hard substance. +I know, I'm going to get vacuums and furnaces and drag stuff out of the ground and get things hot and poison and pollute, but I got this hard thing. +I'm so clever," and you look behind you, and there's destruction all around you. +But guess what? You're so clever, but you're not as clever as a clam. +A clamshell's hard. +There's no vacuums. There's no big furnaces. +There's no poison. There's no pollution. +It turns out that our other species has figured out a long time ago how to create many of the things that we need using biological processes that nature knows how to use well. +Well that insight of biomimicry, of our scientists finally realizing that we have as much to learn from other species. +I don't mean taking a mouse and sticking it with stuff. +I don't mean looking at it from that way -- abusing the little species. +I mean actually respecting them, respecting what they've achieved. +That's called biomimicry, and that opens the door to zero waste production, zero pollution production -- that we could actually enjoy a high quality of life, a high standard of living without trashing the planet. +Well that idea of biomimicry, respecting the wisdom of all species, combined with the idea of democracy and social justice, respecting the wisdom and the worth of all people, would give us a different society. +We would have a different economy. +We would have a green society that Dr. King would be proud of. +That should be the goal. +And the way that we get there is to first of all recognize that the idea of disposability not only hurts the species we've talked about, but it even corrupts our own society. +We're so proud to live here in California. +We just had this vote, and everybody's like, "Well, not in our state. +I don't know what those other states were doing." +Just so proud. +And, yeah, I'm proud, too. +But California, though we lead the world in some of the green stuff, we also, unfortunately, lead the world in some of the gulag stuff. +California has one of the highest incarceration rates of all the 50 states. +We have a moral challenge in this moment. +We are passionate about rescuing some dead materials from the landfill, but sometimes not as passionate about rescuing living beings, living people. +And I would say that we live in a country -- five percent of the world's population, 25 percent of the greenhouse gases, but also 25 percent of the world's prisoners. +One out of every four people locked up anywhere in the world is locked up right here in the United States. +So that is consistent with this idea that disposability is something we believe in. +And yet, as a movement that has to broaden its constituency, that has to grow, that has to reach out beyond our natural comfort zone, one of the challenges to the success of this movement, of getting rid of things like plastic and helping the economy shift, is people look at our movement with some suspicion. +And they ask a question, and the question is: How can these people be so passionate? +How can this movement be so passionate about saying we don't have throwaway stuff, no throwaway dead materials, and yet accept throwaway lives and throwaway communities like "Cancer Alley?" +And so we now get a chance to be truly proud of this movement. +When we take on topics like this, it gives us that extra call to reach out to other movements and to become more inclusive and to grow, and we can finally get out of this crazy dilemma that we've been in. +Most of you are good, softhearted people. +When you were younger, you cared about the whole world, and at some point somebody said you had to pick an issue, you had to boil your love down to an issue. +Can't love the whole world -- you've got to work on trees, or you've got to work on immigration. +You've got to shrink it down and be about one issue. +And really, they fundamentally told you, "Are you going to hug a tree, or are you going to hug a child? Pick. +Are you going to hug a tree, or are you going to hug a child? Pick." +Well, when you start working on issues like plastic, you realize that the whole thing is connected, and luckily most of us are blessed to have two arms. +We can hug both. +Thank you very much. +I will start by posing a little bit of a challenge: the challenge of dealing with data, data that we have to deal with in medical situations. +It's really a huge challenge for us. +And this is our beast of burden -- this is a Computer Tomography machine, a CT machine. +It's a fantastic device. +It uses X-rays, X-ray beams, that are rotating very fast around the human body. +It takes about 30 seconds to go through the whole machine and is generating enormous amounts of information that comes out of the machine. +So this is a fantastic machine that we can use for improving health care, but as I said, it's also a challenge for us. +And the challenge is really found in this picture here. +It's the medical data explosion that we're having right now. +We're facing this problem. +And let me step back in time. +Let's go back a few years in time and see what happened back then. +These machines that came out -- they started coming in the 1970s -- they would scan human bodies, and they would generate about 100 images of the human body. +And I've taken the liberty, just for clarity, to translate that to data slices. +That would correspond to about 50 megabytes of data, which is small when you think about the data we can handle today just on normal mobile devices. +If you translate that to phone books, it's about one meter of phone books in the pile. +Looking at what we're doing today with these machines that we have, we can, just in a few seconds, get 24,000 images out of a body, and that would correspond to about 20 gigabytes of data, or 800 phone books, and the pile would then be 200 meters of phone books. +What's about to happen -- and we're seeing this; it's beginning -- a technology trend that's happening right now is that we're starting to look at time-resolved situations as well. +So we're getting the dynamics out of the body as well. +And just assume that we will be collecting data during five seconds, and that would correspond to one terabyte of data -- that's 800,000 books and 16 kilometers of phone books. +That's one patient, one data set. +And this is what we have to deal with. +So this is really the enormous challenge that we have. +And already today -- this is 25,000 images. +Imagine the days when we had radiologists doing this. +They would put up 25,000 images, they would go like this, "25,0000, okay, okay. +There is the problem." +They can't do that anymore. That's impossible. +So we have to do something that's a little bit more intelligent than doing this. +So what we do is that we put all these slices together. +Imagine that you slice your body in all these directions, and then you try to put the slices back together again into a pile of data, into a block of data. +So this is really what we're doing. +So this gigabyte or terabyte of data, we're putting it into this block. +But of course, the block of data just contains the amount of X-ray that's been absorbed in each point in the human body. +So what we need to do is to figure out a way of looking at the things we do want to look at and make things transparent that we don't want to look at. +So transforming the data set into something that looks like this. +And this is a challenge. +This is a huge challenge for us to do that. +Using computers, even though they're getting faster and better all the time, it's a challenge to deal with gigabytes of data, terabytes of data and extracting the relevant information. +I want to look at the heart. +I want to look at the blood vessels. I want to look at the liver. +Maybe even find a tumor, in some cases. +So this is where this little dear comes into play. +This is my daughter. +This is as of 9 a.m. this morning. +She's playing a computer game. +She's only two years old, and she's having a blast. +So she's really the driving force behind the development of graphics-processing units. +As long as kids are playing computer games, graphics is getting better and better and better. +So please go back home, tell your kids to play more games, because that's what I need. +So what's inside of this machine is what enables me to do the things that I'm doing with the medical data. +So really what I'm doing is using these fantastic little devices. +And you know, going back maybe 10 years in time when I got the funding to buy my first graphics computer -- it was a huge machine. +It was cabinets of processors and storage and everything. +I paid about one million dollars for that machine. +That machine is, today, about as fast as my iPhone. +So every month there are new graphics cards coming out, and here is a few of the latest ones from the vendors -- NVIDIA, ATI, Intel is out there as well. +And you know, for a few hundred bucks you can get these things and put them into your computer, and you can do fantastic things with these graphics cards. +So this is really what's enabling us to deal with the explosion of data in medicine, together with some really nifty work in terms of algorithms -- compressing data, extracting the relevant information that people are doing research on. +So I'm going to show you a few examples of what we can do. +This is a data set that was captured using a CT scanner. +You can see that this is a full data [set]. +It's a woman. You can see the hair. +You can see the individual structures of the woman. +You can see that there is [a] scattering of X-rays on the teeth, the metal in the teeth. +That's where those artifacts are coming from. +But fully interactively on standard graphics cards on a normal computer, I can just put in a clip plane. +And of course all the data is inside, so I can start rotating, I can look at it from different angles, and I can see that this woman had a problem. +She had a bleeding up in the brain, and that's been fixed with a little stent, a metal clamp that's tightening up the vessel. +And just by changing the functions, then I can decide what's going to be transparent and what's going to be visible. +I can look at the skull structure, and I can see that, okay, this is where they opened up the skull on this woman, and that's where they went in. +So these are fantastic images. +They're really high resolution, and they're really showing us what we can do with standard graphics cards today. +Now we have really made use of this, and we have tried to squeeze a lot of data into the system. +And one of the applications that we've been working on -- and this has gotten a little bit of traction worldwide -- is the application of virtual autopsies. +So again, looking at very, very large data sets, and you saw those full-body scans that we can do. +We're just pushing the body through the whole CT scanner, and just in a few seconds we can get a full-body data set. +So this is from a virtual autopsy. +And you can see how I'm gradually peeling off. +First you saw the body bag that the body came in, then I'm peeling off the skin -- you can see the muscles -- and eventually you can see the bone structure of this woman. +Now at this point, I would also like to emphasize that, with the greatest respect for the people that I'm now going to show -- I'm going to show you a few cases of virtual autopsies -- so it's with great respect for the people that have died under violent circumstances that I'm showing these pictures to you. +In the forensic case -- and this is something that ... there's been approximately 400 cases so far just in the part of Sweden that I come from that has been undergoing virtual autopsies in the past four years. +So this will be the typical workflow situation. +The police will decide -- in the evening, when there's a case coming in -- they will decide, okay, is this a case where we need to do an autopsy? +So in the morning, in between six and seven in the morning, the body is then transported inside of the body bag to our center and is being scanned through one of the CT scanners. +And then the radiologist, together with the pathologist and sometimes the forensic scientist, looks at the data that's coming out, and they have a joint session. +And then they decide what to do in the real physical autopsy after that. +Now looking at a few cases, here's one of the first cases that we had. +You can really see the details of the data set. +It's very high-resolution, and it's our algorithms that allow us to zoom in on all the details. +And again, it's fully interactive, so you can rotate and you can look at things in real time on these systems here. +Without saying too much about this case, this is a traffic accident, a drunk driver hit a woman. +And it's very, very easy to see the damages on the bone structure. +And the cause of death is the broken neck. +And this women also ended up under the car, so she's quite badly beaten up by this injury. +Here's another case, a knifing. +And this is also again showing us what we can do. +It's very easy to look at metal artifacts that we can show inside of the body. +You can also see some of the artifacts from the teeth -- that's actually the filling of the teeth -- but because I've set the functions to show me metal and make everything else transparent. +Here's another violent case. This really didn't kill the person. +The person was killed by stabs in the heart, but they just deposited the knife by putting it through one of the eyeballs. +Here's another case. +It's very interesting for us to be able to look at things like knife stabbings. +Here you can see that knife went through the heart. +It's very easy to see how air has been leaking from one part to another part, which is difficult to do in a normal, standard, physical autopsy. +So it really, really helps the criminal investigation to establish the cause of death, and in some cases also directing the investigation in the right direction to find out who the killer really was. +Here's another case that I think is interesting. +Here you can see a bullet that has lodged just next to the spine on this person. +And what we've done is that we've turned the bullet into a light source, so that bullet is actually shining, and it makes it really easy to find these fragments. +During a physical autopsy, if you actually have to dig through the body to find these fragments, that's actually quite hard to do. +One of the things that I'm really, really happy to be able to show you here today is our virtual autopsy table. +It's a touch device that we have developed based on these algorithms, using standard graphics GPUs. +It actually looks like this, just to give you a feeling for what it looks like. +It really just works like a huge iPhone. +So we've implemented all the gestures you can do on the table, and you can think of it as an enormous touch interface. +So if you were thinking of buying an iPad, forget about it. This is what you want instead. +Steve, I hope you're listening to this, all right. +So it's a very nice little device. +So if you have the opportunity, please try it out. +It's really a hands-on experience. +So it gained some traction, and we're trying to roll this out and trying to use it for educational purposes, but also, perhaps in the future, in a more clinical situation. +There's a YouTube video that you can download and look at this, if you want to convey the information to other people about virtual autopsies. +Okay, now that we're talking about touch, let me move on to really "touching" data. +And this is a bit of science fiction now, so we're moving into really the future. +This is not really what the medical doctors are using right now, but I hope they will in the future. +So what you're seeing on the left is a touch device. +It's a little mechanical pen that has very, very fast step motors inside of the pen. +And so I can generate a force feedback. +So when I virtually touch data, it will generate forces in the pen, so I get a feedback. +So in this particular situation, it's a scan of a living person. +I have this pen, and I look at the data, and I move the pen towards the head, and all of a sudden I feel resistance. +So I can feel the skin. +If I push a little bit harder, I'll go through the skin, and I can feel the bone structure inside. +If I push even harder, I'll go through the bone structure, especially close to the ear where the bone is very soft. +And then I can feel the brain inside, and this will be the slushy like this. +So this is really nice. +And to take that even further, this is a heart. +And this is also due to these fantastic new scanners, that just in 0.3 seconds, I can scan the whole heart, and I can do that with time resolution. +So just looking at this heart, I can play back a video here. +And this is Karljohan, one of my graduate students who's been working on this project. +And he's sitting there in front of the Haptic device, the force feedback system, and he's moving his pen towards the heart, and the heart is now beating in front of him, so he can see how the heart is beating. +He's taken the pen, and he's moving it towards the heart, and he's putting it on the heart, and then he feels the heartbeats from the real living patient. +Then he can examine how the heart is moving. +He can go inside, push inside of the heart, and really feel how the valves are moving. +And this, I think, is really the future for heart surgeons. +I mean it's probably the wet dream for a heart surgeon to be able to go inside of the patient's heart before you actually do surgery, and do that with high-quality resolution data. +So this is really neat. +Now we're going even further into science fiction. +And we heard a little bit about functional MRI. +Now this is really an interesting project. +MRI is using magnetic fields and radio frequencies to scan the brain, or any part of the body. +So what we're really getting out of this is information of the structure of the brain, but we can also measure the difference in magnetic properties of blood that's oxygenated and blood that's depleted of oxygen. +That means that it's possible to map out the activity of the brain. +So this is something that we've been working on. +And you just saw Motts the research engineer, there, going into the MRI system, and he was wearing goggles. +So he could actually see things in the goggles. +So I could present things to him while he's in the scanner. +And this is a little bit freaky, because what Motts is seeing is actually this. +He's seeing his own brain. +So Motts is doing something here, and probably he is going like this with his right hand, because the left side is activated on the motor cortex. +And then he can see that at the same time. +These visualizations are brand new. +And this is something that we've been researching for a little while. +This is another sequence of Motts' brain. +And here we asked Motts to calculate backwards from 100. +So he's going "100, 97, 94." +And then he's going backwards. +And you can see how the little math processor is working up here in his brain and is lighting up the whole brain. +Well this is fantastic. We can do this in real time. +We can investigate things. We can tell him to do things. +You can also see that his visual cortex is activated in the back of the head, because that's where he's seeing, he's seeing his own brain. +And he's also hearing our instructions when we tell him to do things. +The signal is really deep inside of the brain as well, and it's shining through, because all of the data is inside this volume. +And in just a second here you will see -- okay, here. Motts, now move your left foot. +So he's going like this. +For 20 seconds he's going like that, and all of a sudden it lights up up here. +So we've got motor cortex activation up there. +So this is really, really nice, and I think this is a great tool. +And connecting also with the previous talk here, this is something that we could use as a tool to really understand how the neurons are working, how the brain is working, and we can do this with very, very high visual quality and very fast resolution. +Now we're also having a bit of fun at the center. +So this is a CAT scan -- Computer Aided Tomography. +So this is a lion from the local zoo outside of Norrkoping in Kolmarden, Elsa. +So she came to the center, and they sedated her and then put her straight into the scanner. +And then, of course, I get the whole data set from the lion. +And I can do very nice images like this. +I can peel off the layer of the lion. +I can look inside of it. +And we've been experimenting with this. +And I think this is a great application for the future of this technology, because there's very little known about the animal anatomy. +What's known out there for veterinarians is kind of basic information. +We can scan all sorts of things, all sorts of animals. +The only problem is to fit it into the machine. +So here's a bear. +It was kind of hard to get it in. +And the bear is a cuddly, friendly animal. +And here it is. Here is the nose of the bear. +And you might want to cuddle this one, until you change the functions and look at this. +So be aware of the bear. +So with that, I'd like to thank all the people who have helped me to generate these images. +It's a huge effort that goes into doing this, gathering the data and developing the algorithms, writing all the software. +So, some very talented people. +My motto is always, I only hire people that are smarter than I am and most of these are smarter than I am. +So thank you very much. +Some of the greatest innovations and developments in the world often happen at the intersection of two fields. +So tonight I'd like to tell you about the intersection that I'm most excited about at this very moment, which is entertainment and robotics. +So if we're trying to make robots that can be more expressive and that can connect better with us in society, maybe we should look to some of the human professionals of artificial emotion and personality that occur in the dramatic arts. +I'm also interested in creating new technologies for the arts and to attract people to science and technology. +Some people in the last decade or two have started creating artwork with technology. +With my new venture, Marilyn Monrobot, I would like to use art to create tech. +So we're based in New York City. +And if you're a performer that wants to collaborate with an adorable robot, or if you have a robot that needs entertainment representation, please contact me, the Bot-Agent. +The bot, our rising celebrity, also has his own Twitter account: @robotinthewild. +I'd like to introduce you to one of our first robots, Data. +He's named after the Star Trek character. +I think he's going to be super popular. +We've got the robot -- in his head is a database of a lot of jokes. +Now each of these jokes is labeled with certain attributes. +So it knows something about the subject; it knows about the length. +It knows how much it's moving. +And so it's going to try to watch your response. +I actually have no idea what my robot is going to do today. +It can also learn from you about the quality of its jokes and cater things, sort of like Netflix-style, over longer-term to different communities or audiences, children versus adults, different cultures. +You can learn something from the robot about the community that you're in. +And also I can use each one of you as the acting coach to our future robot companions. +Some of you in this middle section -- you have red/green paddles. +If you like what's going on, show the green. +If you don't like the subject or the performance, you can hold the red. +Now don't be shy. +It's just a robot. +It doesn't have feelings ... yet. +And the rest of you, you still count, you still matter. +There's also a microphone that's listening to the aggregate laughter and applause and booing -- I hope not -- to help make some of its next decisions. +Right, so, let the robot stand-up comedy begin. +Data: Hello TEDWomen. +It's an honor to be here. +You guys are looking good out there. +Ready for some jokes? +Audience: Yeah. +Data: Here's the first one. +Right, so, a doctor says to his patient, "I have bad news and worse news. +The bad news is that you only have 24 hours to live." +"That's terrible," said the patient. +"How can the news possibly be worse?" +"I've been trying to contact you since yesterday." +The Swiss have an interesting army. Five hundred years without a war. +Heather Knight: He's talking about the Swiss. +Data: Pretty lucky for them. +Ever see that little Swiss Army knife they have to fight with? +"Come on buddy, I have the toe clippers right here. +You get past me, the guy behind me has a spoon." +HK: He's a French robot. +Data: A couple of New Jersey hunters are out in the woods. +One of them falls to the ground. +He does not seem to be breathing. +The other guy whips out his cell phone and calls 911. +He gasps to the operator, "My friend is dead. +What can I do?" +The operator says, "Just take it easy. +I can help. +First, let's make sure he's dead." +There is a silence, and the operator hears a shot. +The guy's voice comes back on the line, "Okay, now what?" +Question: Why is television called a medium? +Anyone? +Because it's neither rare nor well done. +But to be completely honest with you, I kind of love television. +Any of you like television? Audience: Yes. +Data: I find it incredibly educational. +Actually, as soon as someone turns it on, I go into the other room and read. +That's all for now. +Was that okay for my first time? +You've been a great audience. +Thank you. +HK: Yay. +So this is actually the first time we've ever done live audience feedback to a performance. +So thank you all for being a part of it. +There's a lot more to come. +And we hope to learn a lot about robot expression. +Thank you very much. +The world is changing with really remarkable speed. +If you look at the chart at the top here, you'll see that in 2025, these Goldman Sachs projections suggest that the Chinese economy will be almost the same size as the American economy. +And if you look at the chart for 2050, it's projected that the Chinese economy will be twice the size of the American economy, and the Indian economy will be almost the same size as the American economy. +And we should bear in mind here that these projections were drawn up before the Western financial crisis. +A couple of weeks ago, I was looking at the latest projection by BNP Paribas for when China will have a larger economy than the United States. +Goldman Sachs projected 2027. +is 2020. +That's just a decade away. +China is going to change the world in two fundamental respects. +First of all, it's a huge developing country with a population of 1.3 billion people, which has been growing for over 30 years at around 10 percent a year. +And within a decade, it will have the largest economy in the world. +Never before in the modern era has the largest economy in the world been that of a developing country, rather than a developed country. +Secondly, for the first time in the modern era, the dominant country in the world -- which I think is what China will become -- will be not from the West and from very, very different civilizational roots. +Now, I know it's a widespread assumption in the West that as countries modernize, they also westernize. +This is an illusion. +It's an assumption that modernity is a product simply of competition, markets and technology. +It is not. It is also shaped equally by history and culture. +China is not like the West, and it will not become like the West. +It will remain in very fundamental respects very different. +Now the big question here is obviously, how do we make sense of China? +How do we try to understand what China is? +And the problem we have in the West at the moment, by and large, is that the conventional approach is that we understand it really in Western terms, using Western ideas. +We can't. +Now I want to offer you three building blocks for trying to understand what China is like, just as a beginning. +The first is this: that China is not really a nation-state. +Okay, it's called itself a nation-state for the last hundred years, but everyone who knows anything about China knows it's a lot older than this. +This was what China looked like with the victory of the Qin Dynasty in 221 B.C. at the end of the warring-state period -- the birth of modern China. +And you can see it against the boundaries of modern China. +Or immediately afterward, the Han Dynasty, still 2,000 years ago. +And you can see already it occupies most of what we now know as Eastern China, which is where the vast majority of Chinese lived then and live now. +Now what is extraordinary about this is, what gives China its sense of being China, what gives the Chinese the sense of what it is to be Chinese, comes not from the last hundred years, not from the nation-state period, which is what happened in the West, but from the period, if you like, of the civilization-state. +I'm thinking here, for example, of customs like ancestral worship, of a very distinctive notion of the state, likewise, a very distinctive notion of the family, social relationships like guanxi, Confucian values and so on. +These are all things that come from the period of the civilization-state. +In other words, China, unlike the Western states and most countries in the world, is shaped by its sense of civilization, its existence as a civilization-state, rather than as a nation-state. +And there's one other thing to add to this, and that is this: Of course we know China's big, huge, demographically and geographically, with a population of 1.3 billion people. +What we often aren't really aware of is the fact that China is extremely diverse and very pluralistic, and in many ways very decentralized. +You can't run a place on this scale simply from Beijing, even though we think this to be the case. +It's never been the case. +So this is China, a civilization-state, rather than a nation-state. +And what does it mean? +Well, I think it has all sorts of profound implications. +I'll give you two quick ones. +The first is that the most important political value for the Chinese is unity, is the maintenance of Chinese civilization. +You know, 2,000 years ago, Europe: breakdown -- the fragmentation of the Holy Roman Empire. +It divided, and it's remained divided ever since. +China, over the same time period, went in exactly the opposite direction, very painfully holding this huge civilization, civilization-state, together. +The second is maybe more prosaic, which is Hong Kong. +Do you remember the handover of Hong Kong by Britain to China in 1997? +You may remember what the Chinese constitutional proposition was. +One country, two systems. +And I'll lay a wager that barely anyone in the West believed them. +"Window dressing. +When China gets its hands on Hong Kong, that won't be the case." +Thirteen years on, the political and legal system in Hong Kong is as different now as it was in 1997. +We were wrong. Why were we wrong? +We were wrong because we thought, naturally enough, in nation-state ways. +Think of German unification, 1990. +What happened? +Well, basically the East was swallowed by the West. +One nation, one system. +That is the nation-state mentality. +But you can't run a country like China, a civilization-state, on the basis of one civilization, one system. +It doesn't work. +So actually the response of China to the question of Hong Kong -- as it will be to the question of Taiwan -- was a natural response: one civilization, many systems. +Let me offer you another building block to try and understand China -- maybe not sort of a comfortable one. +The Chinese have a very, very different conception of race to most other countries. +Do you know, of the 1.3 billion Chinese, over 90 percent of them think they belong to the same race, the Han? +Now, this is completely different from the world's [other] most populous countries. +India, the United States, Indonesia, Brazil -- all of them are multiracial. +The Chinese don't feel like that. +China is only multiracial really at the margins. +So the question is, why? +Well the reason, I think, essentially is, again, back to the civilization-state. +A history of at least 2,000 years, a history of conquest, occupation, absorption, assimilation and so on, led to the process by which, over time, this notion of the Han emerged -- of course, nurtured by a growing and very powerful sense of cultural identity. +Now the great advantage of this historical experience has been that, without the Han, China could never have held together. +The Han identity has been the cement which has held this country together. +The great disadvantage of it is that the Han have a very weak conception of cultural difference. +They really believe in their own superiority, and they are disrespectful of those who are not. +Hence their attitude, for example, to the Uyghurs and to the Tibetans. +Or let me give you my third building block, the Chinese state. +Now the relationship between the state and society in China is very different from that in the West. +Now we in the West overwhelmingly seem to think -- in these days at least -- that the authority and legitimacy of the state is a function of democracy. +The problem with this proposition is that the Chinese state enjoys more legitimacy and more authority amongst the Chinese than is true with any Western state. +And the reason for this is because -- well, there are two reasons, I think. +And it's obviously got nothing to do with democracy, because in our terms the Chinese certainly don't have a democracy. +And the reason for this is, firstly, because the state in China is given a very special -- it enjoys a very special significance as the representative, the embodiment and the guardian of Chinese civilization, of the civilization-state. +This is as close as China gets to a kind of spiritual role. +And the second reason is because, whereas in Europe and North America, the state's power is continuously challenged -- I mean in the European tradition, historically against the church, against other sectors of the aristocracy, against merchants and so on -- for 1,000 years, the power of the Chinese state has not been challenged. +It's had no serious rivals. +So you can see that the way in which power has been constructed in China is very different from our experience in Western history. +The result, by the way, is that the Chinese have a very different view of the state. +Whereas we tend to view it as an intruder, a stranger, certainly an organ whose powers need to be limited or defined and constrained, the Chinese don't see the state like that at all. +The Chinese view the state as an intimate -- not just as an intimate actually, as a member of the family -- not just in fact as a member of the family, but as the head of the family, the patriarch of the family. +This is the Chinese view of the state -- very, very different to ours. +It's embedded in society in a different kind of way to what is the case in the West. +And I would suggest to you that actually what we are dealing with here, in the Chinese context, is a new kind of paradigm, which is different from anything we've had to think about in the past. +Know that China believes in the market and the state. +I mean, Adam Smith, already writing in the late 18th century, said, "The Chinese market is larger and more developed and more sophisticated than anything in Europe." +And, apart from the Mao period, that has remained more or less the case ever since. +But this is combined with an extremely strong and ubiquitous state. +The state is everywhere in China. +I mean, it's leading firms -- many of them are still publicly owned. +Private firms, however large they are, like Lenovo, depend in many ways on state patronage. +Targets for the economy and so on are set by the state. +And the state, of course, its authority flows into lots of other areas -- as we are familiar with -- with something like the one-child policy. +Moreover, this is a very old state tradition, a very old tradition of statecraft. +I mean, if you want an illustration of this, the Great Wall is one. +But this is another, this is the Grand Canal, which was constructed in the first instance in the fifth century B.C. +and was finally completed in the seventh century A.D. +It went for 1,114 miles, linking Beijing with Hangzhou and Shanghai. +So there's a long history of extraordinary state infrastructural projects in China, which I suppose helps us to explain what we see today, which is something like the Three Gorges Dam and many other expressions of state competence within China. +So there we have three building blocks for trying to understand the difference that is China -- the civilization-state, the notion of race and the nature of the state and its relationship to society. +And yet we still insist, by and large, in thinking that we can understand China by simply drawing on Western experience, looking at it through Western eyes, using Western concepts. +If you want to know why we unerringly seem to get China wrong -- our predictions about what's going to happen to China are incorrect -- this is the reason. +Unfortunately, I think, I have to say that I think attitude towards China is that of a kind of little Westerner mentality. +It's kind of arrogant. +It's arrogant in the sense that we think that we are best, and therefore we have the universal measure. +And secondly, it's ignorant. +We refuse to really address the issue of difference. +You know, there's a very interesting passage in a book by Paul Cohen, the American historian. +And Paul Cohen argues that the West thinks of itself as probably the most cosmopolitan of all cultures. +But it's not. +In many ways, it's the most parochial, because for 200 years, the West has been so dominant in the world that it's not really needed to understand other cultures, other civilizations. +Because, at the end of the day, it could, if necessary by force, get its own way. +Whereas those cultures -- virtually the rest of the world, in fact, which have been in a far weaker position, vis-a-vis the West -- have been thereby forced to understand the West, because of the West's presence in those societies. +And therefore, they are, as a result, more cosmopolitan in many ways than the West. +I mean, take the question of East Asia. +East Asia: Japan, Korea, China, etc. -- a third of the world's population lives there. +Now the largest economic region in the world. +And I'll tell you now, that East Asianers, people from East Asia, are far more knowledgeable about the West than the West is about East Asia. +Now this point is very germane, I'm afraid, to the present. +Because what's happening? Back to that chart at the beginning, the Goldman Sachs chart. +What is happening is that, very rapidly in historical terms, the world is being driven and shaped, not by the old developed countries, but by the developing world. +We've seen this in terms of the G20 usurping very rapidly the position of the G7, or the G8. +And there are two consequences of this. +First, the West is rapidly losing its influence in the world. +There was a dramatic illustration of this actually a year ago -- Copenhagen, climate change conference. +Europe was not at the final negotiating table. +When did that last happen? +I would wager it was probably about 200 years ago. +And that is what is going to happen in the future. +And the second implication is that the world will inevitably, as a consequence, become increasingly unfamiliar to us, because it'll be shaped by cultures and experiences and histories that we are not really familiar with, or conversant with. +And at last, I'm afraid -- take Europe; America is slightly different -- but Europeans by and large, I have to say, are ignorant, are unaware about the way the world is changing. +Some people -- I've got an English friend in China, and he said, "The continent is sleepwalking into oblivion." +Well, maybe that's true, maybe that's an exaggeration. +But there's another problem which goes along with this -- that Europe is increasingly out of touch with the world -- and that is a sort of loss of a sense of the future. +I mean, Europe once, of course, once commanded the future in its confidence. +Take the 19th century, for example. +But this, alas, is no longer true. +If you want to feel the future, if you want to taste the future, try China -- there's old Confucius. +This is a railway station the likes of which you've never seen before. +It doesn't even look like a railway station. +This is the new [Wuhan] railway station for the high-speed trains. +China already has a bigger network than any other country in the world and will soon have more than all the rest of the world put together. +Or take this: now this is an idea, but it's an idea to be tried out shortly in a suburb of Beijing. +Here you have a megabus, on the upper deck carries about 2,000 people. +It travels on rails down a suburban road, and the cars travel underneath it. +And it does speeds of up to about 100 miles an hour. +Now this is the way things are going to move, because China has a very specific problem, which is different from Europe and different from the United States: China has huge numbers of people and no space. +So this is a solution to a situation where China's going to have many, many, many cities over 20 million people. +Okay, so how would I like to finish? +Well, what should our attitude be towards this world that we see very rapidly developing before us? +I think there will be good things about it and there will be bad things about it. +But I want to argue, above all, a big-picture positive for this world. +For 200 years, the world was essentially governed by a fragment of the human population. +That's what Europe and North America represented. +The arrival of countries like China and India -- between them 38 percent of the world's population -- and others like Indonesia and Brazil and so on, represent the most important single act of democratization in the last 200 years. +Civilizations and cultures, which had been ignored, which had no voice, which were not listened to, which were not known about, will have a different sort of representation in this world. +As humanists, we must welcome, surely, this transformation, and we will have to learn about these civilizations. +This big ship here was the one sailed in by Zheng He in the early 15th century on his great voyages around the South China Sea, the East China Sea and across the Indian Ocean to East Africa. +The little boat in front of it was the one in which, 80 years later, Christopher Columbus crossed the Atlantic. +Or, look carefully at this silk scroll made by ZhuZhou in 1368. +I think they're playing golf. +Christ, the Chinese even invented golf. +Welcome to the future. Thank you. +I'm going to be talking to you about how we can tap a really underutilized resource in health care, which is the patient, or, as I like to use the scientific term, people. +Because we are all patients, we are all people. +Even doctors are patients at some point. +So I want to talk about that as an opportunity that we really have failed to engage with very well in this country and, in fact, worldwide. +If you want to get at the big part -- I mean from a public health level, where my training is -- you're looking at behavioral issues. +You're looking at things where people are actually given information, and they're not following through with it. +It's a problem that manifests itself in diabetes, obesity, many forms of heart disease, even some forms of cancer -- when you think of smoking. +Those are all behaviors where people know what they're supposed to do. +They know what they're supposed to be doing, but they're not doing it. +Now behavior change is something that is a long-standing problem in medicine. +It goes all the way back to Aristotle. +And doctors hate it, right? +I mean, they complain about it all the time. +We talk about it in terms of engagement, or non-compliance. +When people don't take their pills, when people don't follow doctors' orders -- these are behavior problems. +But for as much as clinical medicine agonizes over behavior change, there's not a lot of work done in terms of trying to fix that problem. +So the crux of it comes down to this notion of decision-making -- giving information to people in a form that doesn't just educate them or inform them, but actually leads them to make better decisions, better choices in their lives. +One part of medicine, though, has faced the problem of behavior change pretty well, and that's dentistry. +Dentistry might seem -- and I think it is -- many dentists would have to acknowledge it's somewhat of a mundane backwater of medicine. +Not a lot of cool, sexy stuff happening in dentistry. +But they have really taken this problem of behavior change and solved it. +It's the one great preventive health success we have in our health care system. +People brush and floss their teeth. +They don't do it as much as they should, but they do it. +So I'm going to talk about one experiment that a few dentists in Connecticut cooked up about 30 years ago. +So this is an old experiment, but it's a really good one, because it was very simple, so it's an easy story to tell. +So these Connecticut dentists decided that they wanted to get people to brush their teeth and floss their teeth more often, and they were going to use one variable: they wanted to scare them. +They wanted to tell them how bad it would be if they didn't brush and floss their teeth. +They had a big patient population. +They divided them up into two groups. +They had a low-fear population, where they basically gave them a 13-minute presentation, all based in science, but told them that, if you didn't brush and floss your teeth, you could get gum disease. If you get gum disease, you will lose your teeth, but you'll get dentures, and it won't be that bad. +So that was the low-fear group. +The high-fear group, they laid it on really thick. +They showed bloody gums. +They showed puss oozing out from between their teeth. +They told them that their teeth were going to fall out. +They said that they could have infections that would spread from their jaws to other parts of their bodies, and ultimately, yes, they would lose their teeth. +They would get dentures, and if you got dentures, you weren't going to be able to eat corn-on-the-cob, you weren't going to be able to eat apples, you weren't going to be able to eat steak. +You'll eat mush for the rest of your life. +So go brush and floss your teeth. +That was the message. That was the experiment. +Now they measured one other variable. +They wanted to capture one other variable, which was the patients' sense of efficacy. +This was the notion of whether the patients felt that they actually would go ahead and brush and floss their teeth. +So they asked them at the beginning, "Do you think you'll actually be able to stick with this program?" +And the people who said, "Yeah, yeah. I'm pretty good about that," they were characterized as high efficacy, and the people who said, "Eh, I never get around to brushing and flossing as much as I should," they were characterized as low efficacy. +So the upshot was this. +The upshot of this experiment was that fear was not really a primary driver of the behavior at all. +The people who brushed and flossed their teeth were not necessarily the people who were really scared about what would happen -- it's the people who simply felt that they had the capacity to change their behavior. +So fear showed up as not really the driver. +It was the sense of efficacy. +So I want to isolate this, because it was a great observation -- 30 years ago, right, 30 years ago -- and it's one that's laid fallow in research. +It was a notion that really came out of Albert Bandura's work, who studied whether people could get a sense of empowerment. +The notion of efficacy basically boils down to one -- that if somebody believes that they have the capacity to change their behavior. +In health care terms, you could characterize this as whether or not somebody feels that they see a path towards better health, that they can actually see their way towards getting better health, and that's a very important notion. +It's an amazing notion. +We don't really know how to manipulate it, though, that well. +Except, maybe we do. +So fear doesn't work, right? Fear doesn't work. +And this is a great example of how we haven't learned that lesson at all. +This is a campaign from the American Diabetes Association. +This is still the way we're communicating messages about health. +I mean, I showed my three-year-old this slide last night, and he's like, "Papa, why is an ambulance in these people's homes?" +And I had to explain, "They're trying to scare people." +And I don't know if it works. +Now here's what does work: personalized information works. +Again, Bandura recognized this years ago, decades ago. +When you give people specific information about their health, where they stand, and where they want to get to, where they might get to, that path, that notion of a path -- that tends to work for behavior change. +So let me just spool it out a little bit. +So you start with personalized data, personalized information that comes from an individual, and then you need to connect it to their lives. +You need to connect it to their lives, hopefully not in a fear-based way, but one that they understand. +Okay, I know where I sit. I know where I'm situated. +And that doesn't just work for me in terms of abstract numbers -- this overload of health information that we're inundated with. +But it actually hits home. +It's not just hitting us in our heads; it's hitting us in our hearts. +There's an emotional connection to information because it's from us. +That information then needs to be connected to choices, needs to be connected to a range of options, directions that we might go to -- trade-offs, benefits. +Finally, we need to be presented with a clear point of action. +We need to connect the information always with the action, and then that action feeds back into different information, and it creates, of course, a feedback loop. +Now this is a very well-observed and well-established notion for behavior change. +But the problem is that things -- in the upper-right corner there -- personalized data, it's been pretty hard to come by. +It's a difficult and expensive commodity, until now. +So I'm going to give you an example, a very simple example of how this works. +So we've all seen these. These are the "your speed limit" signs. +You've seen them all around, especially these days as radars are cheaper. +And here's how they work in the feedback loop. +So you start with the personalized data where the speed limit on the road that you are at that point is 25, and, of course, you're going faster than that. +We always are. We're always going above the speed limit. +The choice in this case is pretty simple. +We either keep going fast, or we slow down. +We should probably slow down, and that point of action is probably now. +We should take our foot off the pedal right now, and generally we do. These things are shown to be pretty effective in terms of getting people to slow down. +They reduce speeds by about five to 10 percent. +They last for about five miles, in which case we put our foot back on the pedal. +But it works, and it even has some health repercussions. +Your blood pressure might drop a little bit. +Maybe there's fewer accidents, so there's public health benefits. +But by and large, this is a feedback loop that's so nifty and too rare. +Because in health care, most health care, the data is very removed from the action. +It's very difficult to line things up so neatly. +But we have an opportunity. +So I want to talk about, I want to shift now to think about how we deliver health information in this country, how we actually get information. +This is a pharmaceutical ad. +Actually, it's a spoof. It's not a real pharmaceutical ad. +Nobody's had the brilliant idea of calling their drug Havidol quite yet. +But it looks completely right. +So it's exactly the way we get health information and pharmaceutical information, and it just sounds perfect. +And then we turn the page of the magazine, and we see this -- now this is the page the FDA requires pharmaceutical companies to put into their ads, or to follow their ads, and to me, this is one of the most cynical exercises in medicine. +Because we know. +Who among us would actually say that people read this? +And who among us would actually say that people who do try to read this actually get anything out of it? +This is a bankrupt effort at communicating health information. +There is no good faith in this. +So this is a different approach. +This is an approach that has been developed by a couple researchers at Dartmouth Medical School, Lisa Schwartz and Steven Woloshin. +And they created this thing called the "drug facts box." +They took inspiration from, of all things, Cap'n Crunch. +They went to the nutritional information box and saw that what works for cereal, works for our food, actually helps people understand what's in their food. +God forbid we should use that same standard that we make Cap'n Crunch live by and bring it to drug companies. +So let me just walk through this quickly. +It says very clearly what the drug is for, specifically who it is good for, so you can start to personalize your understanding of whether the information is relevant to you or whether the drug is relevant to you. +You can understand exactly what the benefits are. +It isn't this kind of vague promise that it's going to work no matter what, but you get the statistics for how effective it is. +And finally, you understand what those choices are. +You can start to unpack the choices involved because of the side effects. +Every time you take a drug, you're walking into a possible side effect. +So it spells those out in very clean terms, and that works. +So I love this. I love that drug facts box. +And so I was thinking about, what's an opportunity that I could have to help people understand information? +What's another latent body of information that's out there that people are really not putting to use? +And so I came up with this: lab test results. +Blood test results are this great source of information. +They're packed with information. +They're just not for us. They're not for people. They're not for patients. +They go right to doctors. +And God forbid -- I think many doctors, if you really asked them, they don't really understand all this stuff either. +This is the worst presented information. +You ask Tufte, and he would say, "Yes, this is the absolute worst presentation of information possible." +What we did at Wired was we went, and I got our graphic design department to re-imagine these lab reports. +So that's what I want to walk you through. +So this is the general blood work before, and this is the after, this is what we came up with. +The after takes what was four pages -- that previous slide was actually the first of four pages of data that's just the general blood work. +It goes on and on and on, all these values, all these numbers you don't know. +This is our one-page summary. +We use the notion of color. +It's an amazing notion that color could be used. +So on the top-level you have your overall results, the things that might jump out at you from the fine print. +Then you can drill down and understand how actually we put your level in context, and we use color to illustrate exactly where your value falls. +In this case, this patient is slightly at risk of diabetes because of their glucose level. +Likewise, you can go over your lipids and, again, understand what your overall cholesterol level is and then break down into the HDL and the LDL if you so choose. +But again, always using color and personalized proximity to that information. +All those other values, all those pages and pages of values that are full of nothing, we summarize. +We tell you that you're okay, you're normal. +But you don't have to wade through it. You don't have to go through the junk. +And then we do two other very important things that kind of help fill in this feedback loop: we help people understand in a little more detail what these values are and what they might indicate. +And then we go a further step -- we tell them what they can do. +We give them some insight into what choices they can make, what actions they can take. +So that's our general blood work test. +Then we went to CRP test. +In this case, it's a sin of omission. +They have this huge amount of space, and they don't use it for anything, so we do. +Now the CRP test is often done following a cholesterol test, or in conjunction with a cholesterol test. +So we take the bold step of putting the cholesterol information on the same page, which is the way the doctor is going to evaluate it. +So we thought the patient might actually want to know the context as well. +It's a protein that shows up when your blood vessels might be inflamed, which might be a risk for heart disease. +What you're actually measuring is spelled out in clean language. +Then we use the information that's already in the lab report. +We use the person's age and their gender to start to fill in the personalized risks. +So we start to use the data we have to run a very simple calculation that's on all sorts of online calculators to get a sense of what the actual risk is. +The last one I'll show you is a PSA test. +Here's the before, and here's the after. +Now a lot of our effort on this one -- as many of you probably know, a PSA test is a very controversial test. +It's used to test for prostate cancer, but there are all sorts of reasons why your prostate might be enlarged. +And so we spent a good deal of our time indicating that. +We again personalized the risks. +So this patient is in their 50s, so we can actually give them a very precise estimate of what their risk for prostate cancer is. +In this case it's about 25 percent, based on that. +And then again, the follow-up actions. +So our cost for this was less than 10,000 dollars, all right. +That's what Wired magazine spent on this. +Why is Wired magazine doing this? +Quest Diagnostics and LabCorp, the two largest lab testing companies -- last year, they made profits of over 700 million dollars and over 500 million dollars respectively. +Now this is not a problem of resources; this is a problem of incentives. +We need to recognize that the target of this information should not be the doctor, should not be the insurance company. +It should be the patient. +It's the person who actually, in the end, is going to be having to change their lives and then start adopting new behaviors. +This is information that is incredibly powerful. +It's an incredibly powerful catalyst to change. +But we're not using it. It's just sitting there. +It's being lost. +So I want to just offer four questions that every patient should ask, because I don't actually expect people to start developing these lab test reports. +But you can create your own feedback loop. +Anybody can create their feedback loop by asking these simple questions: Can I have my results? +And the only acceptable answer is -- (Audience: Yes.) -- yes. +What does this mean? Help me understand what the data is. +What are my options? What choices are now on the table? +And then, what's next? +How do I integrate this information into the longer course of my life? +So I want to wind up by just showing that people have the capacity to understand this information. +This is not beyond the grasp of ordinary people. +You do not need to have the education level of people in this room. +Ordinary people are capable of understanding this information, if we only go to the effort of presenting it to them in a form that they can engage with. +And engagement is essential here, because it's not just giving them information; it's giving them an opportunity to act. +That's what engagement is. It's different from compliance. +It works totally different from the way we talk about behavior in medicine today. +And this information is out there. +I've been talking today about latent information, all this information that exists in the system that we're not putting to use. +But there are all sorts of other bodies of information that are coming online, and we need to recognize the capacity of this information to engage people, to help people and to change the course of their lives. +Thank you very much. +I was afraid of womanhood. +Not that I'm not afraid now, but I've learned to pretend. +I've learned to be flexible. +In fact, I've developed some interesting tools to help me deal with this fear. +Let me explain. +Back in the '50s and '60s, when I was growing up, little girls were supposed to be kind and thoughtful and pretty and gentle and soft, and we were supposed to fit into roles that were sort of shadowy -- really not quite clear what we were supposed to be. +There were plenty of role models all around us. +We had our mothers, our aunts, our cousins, our sisters, and of course, the ever-present media bombarding us with images and words, telling us how to be. +Now my mother was different. +She was a homemaker, but she and I didn't go out and do girlie things together, and she didn't buy me pink outfits. +Instead, she knew what I needed, and she bought me a book of cartoons. +And I just ate it up. +I drew, and I drew, and since I knew that humor was acceptable in my family, I could draw, do what I wanted to do, and not have to perform, not have to speak -- I was very shy -- and I could still get approval. +I was launched as a cartoonist. +Now when we're young, we don't always know. We know there are rules out there, but we don't always know -- we don't perform them right, even though we are imprinted at birth with these things, and we're told what the most important color in the world is. +We're told what shape we're supposed to be in. +We're told what to wear -- -- and how to do our hair -- -- and how to behave. +Now the rules that I'm talking about are constantly being monitored by the culture. +We're being corrected, and the primary policemen are women, because we are the carriers of the tradition. +We pass it down from generation to generation. +Not only that -- we always have this vague notion that something's expected of us. +And on top of all off these rules, they keep changing. +We don't know what's going on half the time, so it puts us in a very tenuous position. +Now if you don't like these rules, and many of us don't -- I know I didn't, and I still don't, even though I follow them half the time, not quite aware that I'm following them -- what better way than to change them [than] with humor? +Humor relies on the traditions of a society. +It takes what we know, and it twists it. +It takes the codes of behavior and the codes of dress, and it makes it unexpected, and that's what elicits a laugh. +Now what if you put together women and humor? +I think you can get change. +Because women are on the ground floor, and we know the traditions so well, we can bring a different voice to the table. +Now I started drawing in the middle of a lot of chaos. +I grew up not far from here in Washington D.C. +during the Civil Rights movement, the assassinations, the Watergate hearings and then the feminist movement, and I think I was drawing, trying to figure out what was going on. +And then also my family was in chaos, and I drew to try to bring my family together -- -- try to bring my family together with laughter. +It didn't work. +My parents got divorced, and my sister was arrested. +But I found my place. +I found that I didn't have to wear high heels, I didn't have to wear pink, and I could feel like I fit in. +Now when I was a little older, in my 20s, I realized there are not many women in cartooning. +And I thought, "Well, maybe I can break the little glass ceiling of cartooning," and so I did. I became a cartoonist. +And then I thought -- in my 40s I started thinking, "Well, why don't I do something? +I always loved political cartoons, so why don't I do something with the content of my cartoons to make people think about the stupid rules that we're following as well as laugh?" +Now my perspective is a particularly -- -- my perspective is a particularly American perspective. +I can't help it. I live here. +Even though I've traveled a lot, I still think like an American woman. +But I believe that the rules that I'm talking about are universal, of course -- that each culture has its different codes of behavior and dress and traditions, and each woman has to deal with these same things that we do here in the U.S. +Consequently, we have. +Women, because we're on the ground, we know the tradition. +We have amazing antennae. +Now my work lately has been to collaborate with international cartoonists, which I so enjoy, and it's given me a greater appreciation for the power of cartoons to get at the truth, to get at the issues quickly and succinctly. +And not only that, it can get to the viewer through not only the intellect, but through the heart. +My work also has allowed me to collaborate with women cartoonists from across the world -- countries such as Saudi Arabia, Iran, Turkey, Argentina, France -- and we have sat together and laughed and talked and shared our difficulties. +And these women are working so hard to get their voices heard in some very difficult circumstances. +But I feel blessed to be able to work with them. +And we talk about how women have such strong perceptions, because of our tenuous position and our role as tradition-keepers, that we can have the great potential to be change-agents. +And I think, I truly believe, that we can change this thing one laugh at a time. +Thank you. +My story actually began when I was four years old and my family moved to a new neighborhood in our hometown of Savannah, Georgia. +And this was the 1960s when actually all the streets in this neighborhood were named after Confederate war generals. +We lived on Robert E. Lee Boulevard. +And when I was five, my parents gave me an orange Schwinn Sting-Ray bicycle. +It had a swooping banana seat and those ape hanger handlebars that made the rider look like an orangutan. +That's why they were called ape hangers. +They were actually modeled on hotrod motorcycles of the 1960s, which I'm sure my mom didn't know. +And one day I was exploring this cul-de-sac hidden away a few streets away. +And I came back, and I wanted to turn around and get back to that street more quickly, so I decided to turn around in this big street that intersected our neighborhood, and wham! I was hit by a passing sedan. +My mangled body flew in one direction, my mangled bike flew in the other. +And I lay on the pavement stretching over that yellow line, and one of my neighbors came running over. +"Andy, Andy, how are you doing?" she said, using the name of my older brother. +"I'm Bruce," I said, and promptly passed out. +I broke my left femur that day -- it's the largest bone in your body -- and spent the next two months in a body cast that went from my chin to the tip of my toe to my right knee, and a steel bar went from my right knee to my left ankle. +And for the next 38 years, that accident was the only medically interesting thing that ever happened to me. +In fact, I made a living by walking. +I traveled around the world, entered different cultures, wrote a series of books about my travels, including "Walking the Bible." +I hosted a television show by that name on PBS. +I was, for all the world, the "walking guy." +Until, in May 2008, a routine visit to my doctor and a routine blood test produced evidence in the form of an alkaline phosphatase number that something might be wrong with my bones. +And my doctor, on a whim, sent me to get a full-body bone scan, which showed that there was some growth in my left leg. +That sent me to an X-ray, then to an MRI. +And one afternoon, I got a call from my doctor. +"The tumor in your leg is not consistent with a benign tumor." +I stopped walking, and it took my mind a second to convert that double negative into a much more horrifying negative. +I have cancer. +And to think that the tumor was in the same bone, in the same place in my body as the accident 38 years earlier -- it seemed like too much of a coincidence. +So that afternoon, I went back to my house, and my three year-old identical twin daughters, Eden and Tybee Feiler, came running to meet me. +They'd just turned three, and they were into all things pink and purple. +In fact, we called them Pinkalicious and Purplicious -- although I must say, our favorite nickname occurred on their birthday, April 15th. +When they were born at 6:14 and 6:46 on April 15, 2005, our otherwise grim, humorless doctor looked at his watch, and was like, "Hmm, April 15th -- tax day. +Early filer and late filer." +The next day I came to see him. I was like, "Doctor, that was a really good joke." +And he was like, "You're the writer, kid." +Anyway -- so they had just turned three, and they came and they were doing this dance they had just made up where they were twirling faster and faster until they tumbled to the ground, laughing with all the glee in the world. +I crumbled. +I kept imagining all the walks I might not take with them, the art projects I might not mess up, the boyfriends I might not scowl at, the aisles I might not walk down. +Would they wonder who I was, I thought. +Would they yearn for my approval, my love, my voice? +A few days later, I woke with an idea of how I might give them that voice. +I would reach out to six men from all parts of my life and ask them to be present in the passages of my daughters' lives. +"I believe my girls will have plenty of opportunities in their lives," I wrote these men. +"They'll have loving families and welcoming homes, but they may not have me. +They may not have their dad. +Will you help be their dad?" +And I said to myself I would call this group of men "the Council of Dads." +Now as soon as I had this idea, I decided I wouldn't tell my wife. Okay. +She's a very upbeat, naturally excited person. +There's this idea in this culture -- I don't have to tell you -- that you sort of "happy" your way through a problem. +We should focus on the positive. +My wife, as I said, she grew up outside of Boston. +She's got a big smile. She's got a big personality. +She's got big hair -- although, she told me recently, I can't say she has big hair, because if I say she has big hair, people will think she's from Texas. +And it's apparently okay to marry a boy from Georgia, but not to have hair from Texas. +And actually, in her defense, if she were here right now, she would point out that, when we got married in Georgia, there were three questions on the marriage certificate license, the third of which was, "Are you related?" +I said, "Look, in Georgia at least we want to know. +In Arkansas they don't even ask." +What I didn't tell her is, if she said, "Yes," you could jump. +You don't need the 30-day waiting period. +Because you don't need the get-to-know-you session at that point. +So I wasn't going to tell her about this idea, but the next day I couldn't control myself, I told her. +And she loved the idea, but she quickly started rejecting my nominees. +She was like, "Well, I love him, but I would never ask him for advice." +So it turned out that starting a council of dads was a very efficient way to find out what my wife really thought of my friends. +So we decided that we needed a set of rules, and we came up with a number. +And the first one was no family, only friends. +We thought our family would already be there. +Second, men only. +We were trying to fill the dad-space in the girls' lives. +And then third, sort of a dad for every side. +We kind of went through my personality and tried to get a dad who represented each different thing. +So what happened was I wrote a letter to each of these men. +And rather than send it, I decided to read it to them in person. +Linda, my wife, joked that it was like having six different marriage proposals. +I sort of friend-married each of these guys. +And the first of these guys was Jeff Schumlin. +Now Jeff led this trip I took to Europe when I graduated from high school in the early 1980s. +And on that first day we were in this youth hostel in a castle. +And I snuck out behind, and there was a moat, a fence and a field of cows. +And Jeff came up beside me and said, "So, have you ever been cow tipping?" +I was like, "Cow tipping? +He was like, "Yeah. Cows sleep standing up. +So if you approach them from behind, down wind, you can push them over and they go thud in the mud." +So before I had a chance to determine whether this was right or not, we had jumped the moat, we had climbed the fence, we were tiptoeing through the dung and approaching some poor, dozing cow. +So a few weeks after my diagnosis, we went up to Vermont, and I decided to put Jeff as the first person in the Council of Dads. +And we went to this apple orchard, and I read him this letter. +"Will you help be their dad?" +And I got to the end -- he was crying and I was crying -- and then he looked at me, and he said, "Yes." +I was like, "Yes?" +I kind of had forgotten there was a question at the heart of my letter. +And frankly, although I keep getting asked this, it never occurred to me that anybody would turn me down under the circumstances. +And then I asked him a question, which I ended up asking to all the dads and ended up really encouraging me to write this story down in a book. +And that was, "What's the one piece of advice you would give to my girls?" +And Jeff's advice was, "Be a traveller, not a tourist. +Get off the bus. Seek out what's different. +Approach the cow." +"So it's 10 years from now," I said, "and my daughters are about to take their first trip abroad, and I'm not here. +What would you tell them?" +He said, "I would approach this journey as a young child might approach a mud puddle. +You can bend over and look at your reflection in the mirror and maybe run your finger and make a small ripple, or you can jump in and thrash around and see what it feels like, what it smells like." +And as he talked he had that glint in his eye that I first saw back in Holland -- the glint that says, "Let's go cow tipping," even though we never did tip the cow, even though no one tips the cow, even though cows don't sleep standing up. +He said, "I want to see you back here girls, at the end of this experience, covered in mud." +Two weeks after my diagnosis, a biopsy confirmed I had a seven-inch osteosarcoma in my left femur. +Six hundred Americans a year get an osteosarcoma. +Eighty-five percent are under 21. +Only a hundred adults a year get one of these diseases. +Twenty years ago, doctors would have cut off my leg and hoped, and there was a 15 percent survival rate. +And then in the 1980's, they determined that one particular cocktail of chemo could be effective, and within weeks I had started that regimen. +And since we are in a medical room, I went through four and a half months of chemo. +Actually I had Cisplatin, Doxorubicin and very high-dose Methotrexate. +And then I had a 15-hour surgery in which my surgeon, Dr. John Healey at Memorial Sloan-Kettering Hospital in New York, took out my left femur and replaced it with titanium. +And if you did see the Sanjay special, you saw these enormous screws that they screwed into my pelvis. +Then he took my fibula from my calf, cut it out and then relocated it to my thigh, where it now lives. +And what he actually did was he de-vascularized it from my calf and re-vascularized it in my thigh and then connected it to the good parts of my knee and my hip. +And then he took out a third of my quadriceps muscle. +This is a surgery so rare only two human beings have survived it before me. +And my reward for surviving it was to go back for four more months of chemo. +It was, as we said in my house, a lost year. +Because in those opening weeks, we all had nightmares. +And one night I had a nightmare that I was walking through my house, sat at my desk and saw photographs of someone else's children sitting on my desk. +And I remember a particular one night that, when you told that story of -- I don't know where you are Dr. Nuland -- of William Sloane Coffin -- it made me think of it. +Because I was in the hospital after, I think it was my fourth round of chemo when my numbers went to zero, and I had basically no immune system. +And they put me in an infectious disease ward at the hospital. +And anybody who came to see me had to cover themselves in a mask and cover all of the extraneous parts of their body. +And one night I got a call from my mother-in-law that my daughters, at that time three and a half, were missing me and feeling my absence. +And I hung up the phone, and I put my face in my hands, and I screamed this silent scream. +And what you said, Dr. Nuland -- I don't know where you are -- made me think of this today. +Because the thought that came to my mind was that the feeling that I had was like a primal scream. +And what was so striking -- and one of the messages I want to leave you here with today -- is the experience. +As I became less and less human -- and at this moment in my life, I was probably 30 pounds less than I am right now. +Of course, I had no hair and no immune system. +They were actually putting blood inside my body. +At that moment I was less and less human, I was also, at the same time, maybe the most human I've ever been. +And what was so striking about that time was, instead of repulsing people, I was actually proving to be a magnet for people. +People were incredibly drawn. +When my wife and I had kids, we thought it would be all-hands-on-deck. +Instead, it was everybody running the other way. +And when I had cancer, we thought it'd be everybody running the other way. +Instead, it was all-hands-on-deck. +And when people came to me, rather than being incredibly turned off by what they saw -- I was like a living ghost -- they were incredibly moved to talk about what was going on in their own lives. +Cancer, I found, is a passport to intimacy. +It is an invitation, maybe even a mandate, to enter the most vital arenas of human life, the most sensitive and the most frightening, the ones that we never want to go to, but when we do go there, we feel incredibly transformed when we do. +And this also happened to my girls as they began to see, and, we thought, maybe became an ounce more compassionate. +One day, my daughter Tybee, Tybee came to me, and she said, "I have so much love for you in my body, daddy, I can't stop giving you hugs and kisses. +And when I have no more love left, I just drink milk, because that's where love comes from." +And one night my daughter Eden came to me. +And as I lifted my leg out of bed, she reached for my crutches and handed them to me. +In fact, if I cling to one memory of this year, it would be walking down a darkened hallway with five spongy fingers grasping the handle underneath my hand. +I didn't need the crutch anymore, I was walking on air. +And one of the profound things that happened was this act of actually connecting to all these people. +And it made me think -- and I'll just note for the record -- one word that I've only heard once actually was when we were all doing Tony Robbins yoga yesterday -- the one word that has not been mentioned in this seminar actually is the word "friend." +And yet from everything we've been talking about -- compliance, or addiction, or weight loss -- we now know that community is important, and yet it's one thing we don't actually bring in. +And there was something incredibly profound about sitting down with my closest friends and telling them what they meant to me. +And one of the things that I learned is that over time, particularly men, who used to be non-communicative, are becoming more and more communicative. +And that particularly happened -- there was one in my life -- is this Council of Dads that Linda said, what we were talking about, it's like what the moms talk about at school drop-off. +And no one captures this modern manhood to me more than David Black. +Now David is my literary agent. +He's about five-foot three and a half on a good day, standing fully upright in cowboy boots. +And on kind of the manly-male front, he answers the phone -- I can say this I guess because you've done it here -- he answers the phone, "Yo, motherfucker." +He gives boring speeches about obscure bottles of wine, and on his 50th birthday he bought a convertible sports car -- although, like a lot of men, he's impatient; he bought it on his 49th. +But like a lot of modern men, he hugs, he bakes, he leaves work early to coach Little League. +Someone asked me if he cried when I asked him to be in the council of dads. +I was like, "David cries when you invite him to take a walk." +But he's a literary agent, which means he's a broker of dreams in a world where most dreams don't come true. +And this is what we wanted him to capture -- what it means to have setbacks and then aspirations. +And I said, "What's the most valuable thing you can give to a dreamer?" +And he said, "A belief in themselves." +"But when I came to see you," I said, "I didn't believe in myself. +I was at a wall." +He said, "I don't see the wall," and I'm telling you the same, Don't see the wall. +You may encounter one from time to time, but you've got to find a way to get over it, around it, or through it. +But whatever you do, don't succumb to it. +Don't give in to the wall. +My home is not far from the Brooklyn Bridge, and during the year and a half I was on crutches, it became a sort of symbol to me. +So one day near the end of my journey, I said, "Come on girls, let's take a walk across the Brooklyn Bridge." +We set out on crutches. +I was on crutches, my wife was next to me, my girls were doing these rockstar poses up ahead. +And because walking was one of the first things I lost, I spent most of that year thinking about this most elemental of human acts. +Walking upright, we are told, is the threshold of what made us human. +And yet, for the four million years humans have been walking upright, the act is essentially unchanged. +As my physical therapist likes to say, "Every step is a tragedy waiting to happen." +You nearly fall with one leg, then you catch yourself with the other. +And the biggest consequence of walking on crutches -- as I did for a year and a half -- is that you walk slower. +You hurry, you get where you're going, but you get there alone. +You go slow, you get where you're going, but you get there with this community you built along the way. +At the risk of admission, I was never nicer than the year I was on crutches. +200 years ago, a new type of pedestrian appeared in Paris. +He was called a "flaneur," one who wanders the arcades. +And it was the custom of those flaneurs to show they were men of leisure by taking turtles for walks and letting the reptile set the pace. +And I just love this ode to slow moving. +And it's become my own motto for my girls. +Take a walk with a turtle. +Behold the world in pause. +And this idea of pausing may be the single biggest lesson I took from my journey. +There's a quote from Moses on the side of the Liberty Bell, and it comes from a passage in the book of Leviticus, that every seven years you should let the land lay fallow. +And every seven sets of seven years, the land gets an extra year of rest during which time all families are reunited and people surrounded with the ones they love. +That 50th year is called the jubilee year, and it's the origin of that term. +And though I'm shy of 50, it captures my own experience. +My lost year was my jubilee year. +By laying fallow, I planted the seeds for a healthier future and was reunited with the ones I love. +Come the one year anniversary of my journey, I went to see my surgeon, Dr. John Healey -- and by the way, Healey, great name for a doctor. +He's the president of the International Society of Limb Salvage, which is the least euphemistic term I've ever heard. +And I said, "Dr. Healey, if my daughters come to you one day and say, 'What should I learn from my daddy's story?' what would you tell them?" +He said, "I would tell them what I know, and that is everybody dies, but not everybody lives. +I want you to live." +I wrote a letter to my girls that appears at the end of my book, "The Council of Dads," and I listed these lessons, a few of which you've heard here today: Approach the cow, pack your flipflops, don't see the wall, live the questions, harvest miracles. +As I looked at this list -- to me it was sort of like a psalm book of living -- I realized, we may have done it for our girls, but it really changed us. +And that is, the secret of the Council of Dads, is that my wife and I did this in an attempt to help our daughters, but it really changed us. +So I stand here today as you see now, walking without crutches or a cane. +And last week I had my 18-month scans. +And as you all know, anybody with cancer has to get follow-up scans. +In my case it's quarterly. +And all the collective minds in this room, I dare say, can never find a solution for scan-xiety. +As I was going there, I was wondering, what would I say depending on what happened here. +I got good news that day, and I stand here today cancer-free, walking without aid and hobbling forward. +And she told me last night, in the three months since we've done it, we've gotten 300 people who've contributed to this program. +And the epidemiologists here will tell you, that's half the number of people who get the disease in one year in the United States. +So if you go to 23andMe, or if you go to councilofdads.com, you can click on a link. +And we encourage anybody to join this effort. +But I'll just close what I've been talking about by leaving you with this message: May you find an excuse to reach out to some long-lost pal, or to that college roommate, or to some person you may have turned away from. +May you find a mud puddle to jump in someplace, or find a way to get over, around, or through any wall that stands between you and one of your dreams. +And every now and then, find a friend, find a turtle, and take a long, slow walk. +Thank you very much. +I am passionate about the American landscape and how the physical form of the land, from the great Central Valley of California to the bedrock of Manhattan, has really shaped our history and our character. +But one thing is clear. +In the last 100 years alone, our country -- and this is a sprawl map of America -- our country has systematically flattened and homogenized the landscape to the point where we've forgotten our relationship with the plants and animals that live alongside us and the dirt beneath our feet. +And so, how I see my work contributing is sort of trying to literally re-imagine these connections and physically rebuild them. +This graph represents what we're dealing with now in the built environment. +And it's really a conflux of urban population rising, biodiversity plummeting and also, of course, sea levels rising and climate changing. +So when I also think about design, I think about trying to rework and re-engage the lines on this graph in a more productive way. +And you can see from the arrow here indicating "you are here," I'm trying to sort of blend and meld these two very divergent fields of urbanism and ecology, and sort of bring them together in an exciting new way. +So the era of big infrastructure is over. +I mean, these sort of top-down, mono-functional, capital-intensive solutions are really not going to cut it. +We need new tools and new approaches. +Similarly, the idea of architecture as this sort of object in the field, devoid of context, is really not the -- excuse me, it's fairly blatant -- is really not the approach that we need to take. +So we need new stories, new heroes and new tools. +So now I want to introduce you to my new hero in the global climate change war, and that is the eastern oyster. +So, albeit a very small creature and very modest, this creature is incredible, because it can agglomerate into these mega-reef structures. +It can grow; you can grow it; and -- did I mention? -- it's quite tasty. +So the oyster was the basis for a manifesto-like urban design project that I did about the New York Harbor called "oyster-tecture." +And the core idea of oyster-tecture is to harness the biological power of mussels, eelgrass and oysters -- species that live in the harbor -- and, at the same time, harness the power of people who live in the community towards making change now. +Here's a map of my city, New York City, showing inundation in red. +And what's circled is the site that I'm going to talk about, the Gowanus Canal and Governors Island. +If you look here at this map, showing everything in blue is out in the water, and everything in yellow is upland. +But you can see, even just intuit, from this map, that the harbor has dredged and flattened, and went from a rich, three-dimensional mosaic to flat muck in really a matter of years. +Another set of views of actually the Gowanus Canal itself. +Now the Gowanus is particularly smelly -- I will admit it. +There are problems of sewage overflow and contamination, but I would also argue that almost every city has this exact condition, and it's a condition that we're all facing. +And here's a map of that condition, showing the contaminants in yellow and green, exacerbated by this new flow of storm-surge and sea-level rise. +So we really had a lot to deal with. +When we started this project, one of the core ideas was to look back in history and try to understand what was there. +And you can see from this map, there's this incredible geographical signature of a series of islands that were out in the harbor and a matrix of salt marshes and beaches that served as natural wave attenuation for the upland settlement. +We also learned at this time that you could eat an oyster about the size of a dinner plate in the Gowanus Canal itself. +So our concept is really this back-to-the-future concept, harnessing the intelligence of that land settlement pattern. +And the idea has two core stages. +One is to develop a new artificial ecology, a reef out in the harbor, that would then protect new settlement patterns inland and the Gowanus. +Because if you have cleaner water and slower water, you can imagine a new way of living with that water. +So the project really addresses these three core issues in a new and exciting way, I think. +Here we are, back to our hero, the oyster. +And again, it's this incredibly exciting animal. +It accepts algae and detritus in one end, and through this beautiful, glamorous set of stomach organs, out the other end comes cleaner water. +And one oyster can filter up to 50 gallons of water a day. +Oyster reefs also covered about a quarter of our harbor and were capable of filtering water in the harbor in a matter of days. +They were key in our culture and our economy. +Basically, New York was built on the backs of oystermen, and our streets were literally built over oyster shells. +This image is an image of an oyster cart, which is now as ubiquitous as the hotdog cart is today. +So again, we got the short end of the deal there. +Finally, oysters can attenuate and agglomerate onto each other and form these amazing natural reef structures. +They really become nature's wave attenuators. +And they become the bedrock of any harbor ecosystem. +Many, many species depend on them. +So we were inspired by the oyster, but I was also inspired by the life cycle of the oyster. +It can move from a fertilized egg to a spat, which is when they're floating through the water, and when they're ready to attach onto another oyster, to an adult male oyster or female oyster, in a number of weeks. +We reinterpreted this life cycle on the scale of our sight and took the Gowanus as a giant oyster nursery where oysters would be grown up in the Gowanus, then paraded down in their spat stage and seeded out on the Bayridge Reef. +And so the core idea here was to hit the reset button and regenerate an ecology over time that was regenerative and cleaning and productive. +How does the reef work? Well, it's very, very simple. +A core concept here is that climate change isn't something that -- the answers won't land down from the Moon. +And with a $20 billion price tag, we should simply start and get to work with what we have now and what's in front of us. +So this image is simply showing -- it's a field of marine piles interconnected with this woven fuzzy rope. +What is fuzzy rope, you ask? +It's just that; it's this very inexpensive thing, available practically at your hardware store, and it's very cheap. +So we imagine that we would actually potentially even host a bake sale to start our new project. +So in the studio, rather than drawing, we began to learn how to knit. +The concept was to really knit this rope together and develop this new soft infrastructure for the oysters to grow on. +You can see in the diagram how it grows over time from an infrastructural space into a new public urban space. +And that grows over time dynamically with the threat of climate change. +It also creates this incredibly interesting, I think, new amphibious public space, where you can imagine working, you can imagine recreating in a new way. +In the end, what we realized we were making was a new blue-green watery park for the next watery century -- an amphibious park, if you will. +So get your Tevas on. +So you can imagine scuba diving here. +This is an image of high school students, scuba divers that we worked with on our team. +So you can imagine a sort of new manner of living with a new relationship with the water, and also a hybridizing of recreational and science programs in terms of monitoring. +Another new vocabulary word for the brave new world: this is the word "flupsy" -- it's short for "floating upwelling system." +And this glorious, readily available device is basically a floating raft with an oyster nursery below. +So the water is churned through this raft. +You can see the eight chambers on the side host little baby oysters and essentially force-feed them. +So rather than having 10 oysters, you have 10,000 oysters. +And then those spat are then seeded. +Here's the Gowanus future with the oyster rafts on the shorelines -- the flupsification of the Gowanus. +New word. +And also showing oyster gardening for the community along its edges. +And finally, how much fun it would be to watch the flupsy parade and cheer on the oyster spats as they go down to the reef. +I get asked two questions about this project. +One is: why isn't it happening now? +And the second one is: when can we eat the oysters? +And the answer is: not yet, they're working. +But we imagine, with our calculations, that by 2050, you might be able to sink your teeth into a Gowanus oyster. +To conclude, this is just one cross-section of one piece of city, but my dream is, my hope is, that when you all go back to your own cities that we can start to work together and collaborate on remaking and reforming a new urban landscape towards a more sustainable, a more livable and a more delicious future. +Thank you. +I'm going to have a pretty simple idea that I'm just going to tell you over and over until I get you to believe it, and that is all of us are makers. +I really believe that. +All of us are makers. +We're born makers. +We have this ability to make things, to grasp things with our hands. +We use words like "grasp" metaphorically to also think about understanding things. +We don't just live, but we make. +We create things. +Well I'm going to show you a group of makers from Maker Faire and various places. +It doesn't come out particularly well, but that's a particularly tall bicycle. +It's a scraper bike; it's called -- from Oakland. +And this is a particularly small scooter for a gentleman of this size. +But he's trying to power it, or motorize it, with a drill. +And the question he had is, "Can I do it? Can it be done?" +Apparently it can. +So makers are enthusiasts; they're amateurs; they're people who love doing what they do. +They don't always even know why they're doing it. +We have begun organizing makers at our Maker Faire. +There was one held in Detroit here last summer, and it will be held again next summer, at the Henry Ford. +But we hold them in San Francisco -- -- and in New York. +And it's a fabulous event to just meet and talk to these people who make things and are there to just show them to you and talk about them and have a great conversation. +Guy: I might get one of those. +Dale Dougherty: These are electric muffins. +Guy: Where did you guys get those? +Muffin: Will you glide with us? (Guy: No.) DD: I know Ford has new electric vehicles coming out. +We got there first. +Lady: Will you glide with us? +DD: This is something I call "swinging in the rain." +And you can barely see it, but it's -- a controller at top cycles the water to fall just before and after you pass through the bottom of the arc. +So imagine a kid: "Am I going to get wet? Am I going to get wet? +No, I didn't get wet. Am I going to get wet? Am I going to get wet?" +That's the experience of a clever ride. +And of course, we have fashion. +People are remaking things into fashion. +I don't know if this is called a basket-bra, but it ought to be something like that. +We have art students getting together, taking old radiator parts and doing an iron-pour to make something new out of it. +They did that in the summer, and it was very warm. +Now this one takes a little bit of explaining. +You know what those are, right? +Billy-Bob, or Billy Bass, or something like that. +Now the background is -- the guy who did this is a physicist. +And here he'll explain a little bit about what it does. +Richard Carter: I'm Richard Carter, and this is the Sashimi Tabernacle Choir. +Choir: When you hold me in your arms DD: This is all computer-controlled in an old Volvo. +Choir: I'm hooked on a feelin' I'm high on believin' That you're in love with me DD: So Richard came up from Houston last year to visit us in Detroit here and show the wonderful Sashimi Tabernacle Choir. +So, are you a maker? +How many people here would say you're a maker, if you raise your hand? +That's a pretty good -- but there's some of you out there that won't admit that you're makers. +And again, think about it. +You're makers of food; you're makers of shelter; you're makers of lots of different things, and partly what interests me today is you're makers of your own world, and particularly the role that technology has in your life. +You're really a driver or a passenger -- to use a Volkswagen phrase. +Makers are in control. +That's what fascinates them. That's why they do what they do. +They want to figure out how things work; they want to get access to it; and they want to control it. +They want to use it to their own purpose. +Makers today, to some degree, are out on the edge. +They're not mainstream. +They're a little bit radical. +They're a bit subversive in what they do. +But at one time, it was fairly commonplace to think of yourself as a maker. +It was not something you'd even remark upon. +And I found this old video. +And I'll tell you more about it, but just ... +Narrator: Of all things Americans are, we are makers. +With our strengths and our minds and spirit, we gather, we form, and we fashion. +Makers and shapers and put-it-togetherers. +DD: So it goes on to show you people making things out of wood, a grandfather making a ship in a bottle, a woman making a pie -- somewhat standard fare of the day. +But it was a sense of pride that we made things, that the world around us was made by us. +It didn't just exist. +We made it, and we were connected to it that way. +And I think that's tremendously important. +Now I'm going to tell you one funny thing about this. +This particular reel -- it's an industrial video -- but it was shown in drive-in theaters in 1961 -- in the Detroit area, in fact -- and it preceded Alfred Hitchcock's "Psycho." +So I like to think there was something going on there of the new generation of makers coming out of this, plus "Psycho." +This is Andrew Archer. +I met Andrew at one of our community meetings putting together Maker Faire. +Andrew had moved to Detroit from Duluth, Minnesota. +And I talked to his mom, and I ended up doing a story on him for a magazine called Kidrobot. +He's just a kid that grew up playing with tools instead of toys. +He liked to take things apart. +His mother gave him a part of the garage, and he collected things from yard sales, and he made stuff. +And then he didn't particularly like school that much, but he got involved in robotics competitions, and he realized he had a talent, and, more importantly, he had a real passion for it. +And he began building robots. +And when I sat down next to him, he was telling me about a company he formed, and he was building some robots for automobile factories to move things around on the factory floor. +And that's why he moved to Michigan. +But he also moved here to meet other people doing what he's doing. +And this kind of gets to this important idea today. +This is Jeff and Bilal and several others here in a hackerspace. +And there's about three hackerspaces or more in Detroit. +And there's probably even some new ones since I've been here last. +But these are like clubs -- they're sharing tools, sharing space, sharing expertise in what to make. +And so it's a very interesting phenomenon that's going across the world. +But essentially these are people that are playing with technology. +Let me say that again: playing. +They don't necessarily know what they're doing or why they're doing it. +They're playing to discover what the technology can do, and probably to discover what they can do themselves, what their own capabilities are. +Now the other thing that I think is taking off, another reason making is taking off today, is there's some great new tools out there. +And you can't see this very well on the screen, but Arduino -- Arduino is an open-source hardware platform. +It's a micro-controller. +If you don't know what those are, they're just the "brains." +So they're the brains of maker projects, and here's an example of one. +And I don't know if you can see it that well, but that's a mailbox -- so an ordinary mailbox and an Arduino. +So you figure out how to program this, and you put this in your mailbox. +And when someone opens your mailbox, you get a notification, an alert message goes to your iPhone. +Now that could be a dog door, it could be someone going somewhere where they shouldn't, like a little brother into a little sister's room. +There's all kinds of different things that you can imagine for that. +Now here's something -- a 3D printer. +That's another tool that's really taken off -- really, really interesting. +This is Makerbot. +And there are industrial versions of this -- about 20,000 dollars. +These guys came up with a kit version for 750 dollars, and that means that hobbyists and ordinary folks can get a hold of this and begin playing with 3D printers. +Now they don't know what they want to do with it, but they're going to figure it out. +They will only figure it out by getting their hands on it and playing with it. +One of the coolest things is, Makerbot sent out an upgrade, some new brackets for the box. +Well you printed out the brackets and then replaced the old brackets with the new ones. +Isn't that cool? +So makers harvest technology from all the places around us. +This is a radar speed detector that was developed from a Hot Wheels toy. +And they do interesting things. +They're really creating new areas and exploring areas that you might only think -- the military is doing drones -- well, there is a whole community of people building autonomous airplanes, or vehicles -- something that you could program to fly on its own, without a stick or anything, to figure out what path it's going. +Fascinating work they're doing. +We just had an issue on space exploration, DIY space exploration. +This is probably the best time in the history of mankind to love space. +You could build your own satellite and get it into space for like 8,000 dollars. +Think how much money and how many years it took NASA to get satellites into space. +In fact, these guys actually work for NASA, and they're trying to pioneer using off-the-shelf components, cheap things that aren't specialized that they can combine and send up into space. +Makers are a source of innovation, and I think it relates back to something like the birth of the personal computer industry. +This is Steve Wozniak. Where does he learn about computers? +It's the Homebrew Computer Club -- just like a hackerspace. +And he says, "I could go there all day long and talk to people and share ideas for free." +Well he did a little bit better than free. +But it's important to understand that a lot of the origins of our industries -- even like Henry Ford -- come from this idea of playing and figuring things out in groups. +Well, if I haven't convinced you that you're a maker, I hope I could convince you that our next generation should be makers, that kids are particularly interested in this, in this ability to control the physical world and be able to use things like micro-controllers and build robots. +And we've got to get this into schools, or into communities in many, many ways -- the ability to tinker, to shape and reshape the world around us. +There's a great opportunity today -- and that's what I really care about the most. +An the answer to the question: what will America make? +It's more makers. +Thank you very much. +I'm going to make an argument today that may seem a little bit crazy: social media and the end of gender. +Let me connect the dots. +I'm going to argue today that the social media applications that we all know and love, or love to hate, are actually going to help free us from some of the absurd assumptions that we have as a society about gender. +I think that social media is actually going to help us dismantle some of the silly and demeaning stereotypes that we see in media and advertising about gender. +If you hadn't noticed, our media climate generally provides a very distorted mirror of our lives and of our gender, and I think that's going to change. +Now most media companies -- television, radio, publishing, games, you name it -- they use very rigid segmentation methods in order to understand their audiences. +It's old-school demographics. +They come up with these very restrictive labels to define us. +Now the crazy thing is that media companies believe that if you fall within a certain demographic category then you are predictable in certain ways -- you have certain taste, that you like certain things. +And so the bizarre result of this is that most of our popular culture is actually based on these presumptions about our demographics. +Age demographics: the 18 to 49 demo has had a huge impact on all mass media programming in this country since the 1960s, when the baby boomers were still young. +Now they've aged out of that demographic, but it's still the case that powerful ratings companies like Nielson don't even take into account viewers of television shows over age 54. +In our media environment, it's as if they don't even exist. +Now, if you watch "Mad Men," like I do -- it's a popular TV show in the States -- Dr. Faye Miller does something called psychographics, which first came about in the 1960s, where you create these complex psychological profiles of consumers. +But psychographics really haven't had a huge impact on the media business. +It's really just been basic demographics. +So I'm at the Norman Lear Center at USC, and we've done a lot of research over the last seven, eight years on demographics and how they affect media and entertainment in this country and abroad. +And in the last three years, we've been looking specifically at social media to see what has changed, and we've discovered some very interesting things. +All the people who participate in social media networks belong to the same old demographic categories that media companies and advertisers have used in order to understand them. +But those categories mean even less now than they did before, because with online networking tools, it's much easier for us to escape some of our demographic boxes. +We're able to connect with people quite freely and to redefine ourselves online. +And we can lie about our age online, too, pretty easily. +We can also connect with people based on our very specific interests. +We don't need a media company to help do this for us. +So the traditional media companies, of course, are paying very close attention to these online communities. +They know this is the mass audience of the future; they need to figure it out. +But they're having a hard time doing it because they're still trying to use demographics in order to understand them, because that's how ad rates are still determined. +When they're monitoring your clickstream -- and you know they are -- they have a really hard time figuring out your age, your gender and your income. +They can make some educated guesses. +But they get a lot more information about what you do online, what you like, what interests you. +That's easier for them to find out than who you are. +And even though that's still sort of creepy, there is an upside to having your taste monitored. +Suddenly our taste is being respected in a way that it hasn't been before. +It had been presumed before. +So when you look online at the way people aggregate, they don't aggregate around age, gender and income. +They aggregate around the things they love, the things that they like, and if you think about it, shared interests and values are a far more powerful aggregator of human beings than demographic categories. +I'd much rather know whether you like "Buffy the Vampire Slayer" rather than how old you are. +That would tell me something more substantial about you. +Now there's something else that we've discovered about social media that's actually quite surprising. +It turns out that women are really driving the social media revolution. +If you look at the statistics -- these are worldwide statistics -- in every single age category, women actually outnumber men in their use of social networking technologies. +And then if you look at the amount of time that they spend on these sites, they truly dominate the social media space, which is a space that's having a huge impact on old media. +The question is: what sort of impact is this going to have on our culture, and what's it going to mean for women? +If the case is that social media is dominating old media and women are dominating social media, then does that mean that women are going to take over global media? +Are we suddenly going to see a lot more female characters in cartoons and in games and on TV shows? +Will the next big-budget blockbuster movies actually be chick flicks? +Could this be possible, that suddenly our media landscape will become a feminist landscape? +Well, I actually don't think that's going to be the case. +I think that media companies are going to hire a lot more women, because they realize this is important for their business, and I think that women are also going to continue to dominate the social media sphere. +But I think women are actually going to be -- ironically enough -- responsible for driving a stake through the heart of cheesy genre categories like the "chick flick" and all these other genre categories that presume that certain demographic groups like certain things -- that Hispanics like certain things, that young people like certain things. +This is far too simplistic. +The future entertainment media that we're going to see is going to be very data-driven, and it's going to be based on the information that we ascertain from taste communities online, where women are really driving the action. +So you may be asking, well why is it important that I know what entertains people? +Why should I know this? +Of course, old media companies and advertisers need to know this. +But my argument is that, if you want to understand the global village, it's probably a good idea that you figure out what they're passionate about, what amuses them, what they choose to do in their free time. +This is a very important thing to know about people. +I've spent most of my professional life researching media and entertainment and its impact on people's lives. +And I do it not just because it's fun -- though actually, it is really fun -- but also because our research has shown over and over again that entertainment and play have a huge impact on people's lives -- for instance, on their political beliefs and on their health. +And so, if you have any interest in understanding the world, looking at how people amuse themselves is a really good way to start. +So imagine a media atmosphere that isn't dominated by lame stereotypes about gender and other demographic characteristics. +Can you even imagine what that looks like? +I can't wait to find out what it looks like. +Thank you so much. +Running -- it's basically just right, left, right, left -- yeah? +I mean, we've been doing it for two million years, so it's kind of arrogant to assume that I've got something to say that hasn't been said and performed better a long time ago. +But the cool thing about running, as I've discovered, is that something bizarre happens in this activity all the time. +Case in point: A couple months ago, if you saw the New York City Marathon, I guarantee you, you saw something that no one has ever seen before. +An Ethiopian woman named Derartu Tulu turns up at the starting line. +She's 37 years old, she hasn't won a marathon of any kind in eight years, and a few months previously she almost died in childbirth. +Derartu Tulu was ready to hang it up and retire from the sport, but she decided she'd go for broke and try for one last big payday in the marquee event, the New York City Marathon. +Except -- bad news for Derartu Tulu -- some other people had the same idea, including the Olympic gold medalist and Paula Radcliffe, who is a monster, the fastest woman marathoner in history by far. +Only 10 minutes off the men's world record, Paula Radcliffe is essentially unbeatable. +That's her competition. +The gun goes off, and she's not even an underdog. +She's under the underdogs. +But the under-underdog hangs tough, and 22 miles into a 26-mile race, there is Derartu Tulu up there with the lead pack. +Now this is when something really bizarre happens. +Paula Radcliffe, the one person who is sure to snatch the big paycheck out of Derartu Tulu's under-underdog hands, suddenly grabs her leg and starts to fall back. +So we all know what to do in this situation, right? +You give her a quick crack in the teeth with your elbow and blaze for the finish line. +Derartu Tulu ruins the script. +Instead of taking off, she falls back, and she grabs Paula Radcliffe, says, "Come on. Come with us. You can do it." +So Paula Radcliffe, unfortunately, does it. +She catches up with the lead pack and is pushing toward the finish line. +But then she falls back again. +And the second time Derartu Tulu grabs her and tries to pull her. +And Paula Radcliffe at that point says, "I'm done. Go." +So that's a fantastic story, and we all know how it ends. +She loses the check, but she goes home with something bigger and more important. +Except Derartu Tulu ruins the script again -- instead of losing, she blazes past the lead pack and wins, wins the New York City Marathon, goes home with a big fat check. +It's a heartwarming story, but if you drill a little bit deeper, you've got to sort of wonder about what exactly was going on there. +When you have two outliers in one organism, it's not a coincidence. +When you have someone who is more competitive and more compassionate than anybody else in the race, again, it's not a coincidence. +You show me a creature with webbed feet and gills; somehow water's involved. +Someone with that kind of heart, there's some kind of connection there. +And the answer to it, I think, can be found down in the Copper Canyons of Mexico, where there's a tribe, a reclusive tribe, called the Tarahumara Indians. +Now the Tarahumara are remarkable for three things. +Number one is, they have been living essentially unchanged for the past 400 years. +When the conquistadors arrived in North America you had two choices: you either fight back and engage or you could take off. +The Mayans and Aztecs engaged, which is why there are very few Mayans and Aztecs. +The Tarahumara had a different strategy. +They took off and hid in this labyrinthine, networking, spiderwebbing system of canyons called the Copper Canyons, and there they remained since the 1600s -- essentially the same way they've always been. +The second thing remarkable about the Tarahumara is, deep into old age -- 70 to 80 years old -- these guys aren't running marathons; they're running mega-marathons. +They're not doing 26 miles; they're doing 100, 150 miles at a time, and apparently without injury, without problems. +They are free from all of these modern ailments. +So what's the connection? +Again, we're talking about outliers -- there's got to be some kind of cause and effect there. +Well, there are teams of scientists at Harvard and the University of Utah that are bending their brains to try to figure out what the Tarahumara have known forever. +They're trying to solve those same kinds of mysteries. +And once again, a mystery wrapped inside of a mystery -- perhaps the key to Derartu Tulu and the Tarahumara is wrapped in three other mysteries, which go like this: three things -- if you have the answer, come up and take the microphone, because nobody else knows the answer. +And if you know it, then you are smarter than anybody else on planet Earth. +Mystery number one is this: Two million years ago the human brain exploded in size. +Australopithecus had a tiny little pea brain. +Suddenly humans show up -- Homo erectus -- big, old melon-head. +To have a brain of that size, you need to have a source of condensed caloric energy. +In other words, early humans are eating dead animals -- no argument, that's a fact. +The only problem is, the first edged weapons only appeared about 200,000 years ago. +So, somehow, for nearly two million years, we are killing animals without any weapons. +Now we're not using our strength because we are the biggest sissies in the jungle. +Every other animal is stronger than we are -- they have fangs, they have claws, they have nimbleness, they have speed. +We think Usain Bolt is fast. Usain Bolt can get his ass kicked by a squirrel. +We're not fast. +That would be an Olympic event: turn a squirrel loose -- whoever catches the squirrel, you get a gold medal. +So no weapons, no speed, no strength, no fangs, no claws -- how were we killing these animals? Mystery number one. +Mystery number two: Women have been in the Olympics for quite some time now, but one thing that's remarkable about all women sprinters -- they all suck; they're terrible. +There's not a fast woman on the planet and there never has been. +The fastest woman to ever run a mile did it in 4:15. +I could throw a rock and hit a high school boy who can run faster than 4:15. +For some reason you guys are just really slow. +But you get to the marathon we were just talking about -- you guys have only been allowed to run the marathon for 20 years. +Because, prior to the 1980s, medical science said that if a woman tried to run 26 miles -- does anyone know what would happen if you tried to run 26 miles, why you were banned from the marathon before the 1980s? +(Audience Member: Her uterus would be torn.) Her uterus would be torn. +Yes. You would have torn reproductive organs. +The uterus would fall out, literally fall out of the body. +Now I've been to a lot of marathons, and I've yet to see any ... +So it's only been 20 years that women have been allowed to run the marathon. +In that very short learning curve, you guys have gone from broken organs up to the fact that you're only 10 minutes off the male world record. +Then you go beyond 26 miles, into the distance that medical science also told us would be fatal to humans -- remember Pheidippides died when he ran 26 miles -- you get to 50 and 100 miles, and suddenly it's a different game. +You can take a runner like Ann Trason, or Nikki Kimball, or Jenn Shelton, you put them in a race of 50 or 100 miles against anybody in the world I'll give you an example. +A couple years ago, Emily Baer signed up for a race called the Hardrock 100, which tells you all you need to know about the race. +They give you 48 hours to finish this race. +Well Emily Baer -- 500 runners -- she finishes in eighth place, in the top 10, even though she stopped at all the aid stations to breastfeed her baby during the race -- and yet, beat 492 other people. +So why is it that women get stronger as distances get longer? +The third mystery is this: At the University of Utah, they started tracking finishing times for people running the marathon. +And what they found is that, if you start running the marathon at age 19, you will get progressively faster, year by year, until you reach your peak at age 27. +And then after that, you succumb to the rigors of time. +And you'll get slower and slower, until eventually you're back to running the same speed you were at age 19. +So about seven years, eight years to reach your peak, and then gradually you fall off your peak, until you go back to the starting point. +You would think it might take eight years to go back to the same speed, maybe 10 years -- no, it's 45 years. +64-year-old men and women are running as fast as they were at age 19. +Now I defy you to come up with any other physical activity -- and please don't say golf -- something that actually is hard -- where geriatrics are performing as well as they did as teenagers. +So you have these three mysteries. +Is there one piece in the puzzle which might wrap all these things up? +You've got to be really careful any time someone looks back in prehistory and tries to give you some sort of global answer, because, it being prehistory, you can say whatever the hell you want and get away with it. +But I'll submit this to you: If you put one piece in the middle of this jigsaw puzzle, suddenly it all starts to form a coherent picture. +Maybe we evolved as a hunting pack animal. +Because the one advantage we have in the wilderness -- again, it's not our fangs and our claws and our speed -- the only thing we do really, really well is sweat. +We're really good at being sweaty and smelly. +Better than any other mammal on Earth, we can sweat really well. +But the advantage of that little bit of social discomfort is the fact that, when it comes to running under hot heat for long distances, we're superb, we're the best on the planet. +You take a horse on a hot day, and after about five or six miles, that horse has a choice. +It's either going to breathe or it's going to cool off, but it ain't doing both -- we can. +So what if we evolved as hunting pack animals? +What if the only natural advantage we had in the world was the fact that we could get together as a group, go out there on that African Savannah, pick out an antelope and go out as a pack and run that thing to death? +That's all we could do. +We could run really far on a hot day. +Well if that's true, a couple other things had to be true as well. +The key to being part of a hunting pack is the word "pack." +If you go out by yourself, and you try to chase an antelope, I guarantee you there's going to be two cadavers out there in the Savannah. +You need a pack to pull together. +You need to have those 64-, 65-year-olds who have been doing this for a long time to understand which antelope you're actually trying to catch. +The herd explodes and it gathers back again. +Those expert trackers have got to be part of the pack. +They can't be 10 miles behind. +You need to have the women and the adolescents there because the two times in your life you most benefit from animal protein is when you are a nursing mother and a developing adolescent. +It makes no sense to have the antelope over there dead and the people who want to eat it 50 miles away. +They need to be part of the pack. +You need to have those 27-year-old studs at the peak of their powers ready to drop the kill, and you need to have those teenagers there who are learning the whole thing all involved. +The pack stays together. +Another thing that has to be true about this pack: this pack cannot be really materialistic. +You can't be hauling all your crap around, trying to chase the antelope. +You can't be a pissed-off pack. You can't be bearing grudges, like, "I'm not chasing that guy's antelope. +He pissed me off. Let him go chase his own antelope." +The pack has got to be able to swallow its ego, be cooperative and pull together. +What you end up with, in other words, is a culture remarkably similar to the Tarahumara -- a tribe that has remained unchanged since the Stone Age. +It's a really compelling argument that maybe the Tarahumara are doing exactly what all of us had done for two million years, that it's us in modern times who have sort of gone off the path. +You know, we look at running as this kind of alien, foreign thing, this punishment you've got to do because you ate pizza the night before. +But maybe it's something different. +Maybe we're the ones who have taken this natural advantage we had and we spoiled it. +How do we spoil it? Well how do we spoil anything? +We try to cash in on it. +We try to can it and package it and make it "better" and sell it to people. +And what happened was we started creating these fancy cushioned things, which can make running "better," called running shoes. +The reason I get personally pissed-off about running shoes is because I bought a million of them and I kept getting hurt. +And I think that, if anybody in here runs -- and I just had a conversation with Carol; we talked for two minutes backstage, and she's talking about plantar fasciitis. +You talk to a runner, I guarantee, within 30 seconds, the conversation turns to injury. +So if humans evolved as runners, if that's our one natural advantage, why are we so bad at it? Why do we keep getting hurt? +Curious thing about running and running injuries is that the running injury is new to our time. +If you read folklore and mythology, any kind of myths, any kind of tall tales, running is always associated with freedom and vitality and youthfulness and eternal vigor. +It's only in our lifetime that running has become associated with fear and pain. +Geronimo used to say that, "My only friends are my legs. I only trust my legs." +That's because an Apache triathlon used to be you'd run 50 miles across the desert, engage in hand-to-hand combat, steal a bunch of horses and slap leather for home. +Geronimo was never saying, "Ah, you know something, my achilles -- I'm tapering. I got to take this week off," or "I need to cross-train. +I didn't do yoga. I'm not ready." +Humans ran and ran all the time. +We are here today. We have our digital technology. +All of our science comes from the fact that our ancestors were able to do something extraordinary every day, which was just rely on their naked feet and legs to run long distances. +So how do we get back to that again? +Well, I would submit to you the first thing is get rid of all packaging, all the sales, all the marketing. +Get rid of all the stinking running shoes. +Stop focusing on urban marathons, which, if you do four hours, you suck. +If you do 3:59:59, you're awesome, because you qualified for another race. +We need to get back to that sense of playfulness and joyfulness and, I would say, nakedness, that has made the Tarahumara one of the healthiest and serene cultures in our time. +So what's the benefit? So what? +So you burn off the Haagen-Dazs from the night before? +But maybe there's another benefit there as well. +Maybe there's something between what we are today and what the Tarahumara have always been. +I don't say let's go back to the Copper Canyons and live on corn and maize, which is the Tarahumara's preferred diet, but maybe there's somewhere in between. +And if we find that thing, maybe there is a big fat Nobel Prize out there. +Because if somebody could find a way to restore that natural ability that we all enjoyed for most of our existence, up until the 1970s or so, the benefits, social and physical and political and mental, could be astounding. +So what I've been seeing today is there is a growing subculture of barefoot runners, people who got rid of their shoes. +And what they have found uniformly is you get rid of the shoes, you get rid of the stress, you get rid of the injuries and the ailments. +And what you find is something the Tarahumara have known for a very long time, that this can be a whole lot of fun. +I've experienced it personally myself. +I was injured all my life, and then in my early 40s I got rid of my shoes and my running ailments have gone away too. +So hopefully it's something we can all benefit from. +And I appreciate you guys listening to this story. Thanks very much. +"What I Will" I will not dance to your war drum. +I will not lend my soul nor my bones to your war drum. +I will not dance to that beating. +I know that beat. +It is lifeless. +I know intimately that skin you are hitting. +It was alive once, hunted, stolen, stretched. +I will not dance to your drummed-up war. +I will not pop, spin, break for you. +I will not hate for you or even hate you. +I will not kill for you. +Especially I will not die for you. +I will not mourn the dead with murder nor suicide. +I will not side with you or dance to bombs because everyone is dancing. +Everyone can be wrong. +Life is a right, not collateral or casual. +I will not forget where I come from. +I will craft my own drum. +Gather my beloved near, and our chanting will be dancing. +Our humming will be drumming. +I will not be played. +I will not lend my name nor my rhythm to your beat. +I will dance and resist and dance and persist and dance. +This heartbeat is louder than death. +Your war drum ain't louder than this breath. Haaa. +What's up TED people? Let me hear you make some noise. +A bunch of pacifists. +Confused, aspiring pacifists. +I understand. +I've been wrong a lot lately. +Like a lot. +So I couldn't figure out what to read today. +I mean, I've been saying I've been prepping. +What that means is prepping my outfit, prepping options, trying to figure out what I'm coming behind and going in front of. +Poetry does that. +It preps you. It aims you. +So I am going to read a poem that was chosen just now. +But I'm going to need you to just sit for like 10 minutes and hold a woman who is not here. +Hold her now with you. +You don't need to say her name out loud, you can just hold her. +Are you holding her? +This is "Break Clustered." +All holy history banned. +Unwritten books predicted the future, projected the past. +But my head unwraps around what appears limitless, man's creative violence. +Whose son shall it be? +Which male child will perish a new day? +Our boys' deaths galvanize. +We cherish corpses. +We mourn women, complicated. +Bitches get beat daily. +Profits made, prophets ignored. +War and tooth, enameled salted lemon childhoods. +All colors run, none of us solid. +Don't look for shadow behind me. I carry it within. +I live cycles of light and darkness. +Rhythm is half silence. +I see now, I never was one and not the other. +Sickness, health, tender violence. +I think now I never was pure. +Before form I was storm, blind, ign'ant -- still am. +Human contracted itself blind, malignant. +I never was pure. +Girl spoiled before ripened. +Language can't math me. +I experience exponentially. +Everything is everything. +One woman loses 15, maybe 20, members of her family. +One woman loses six. +One woman loses her head. +One woman searches rubble. One woman feeds on trash. +One woman shoots her face. One woman shoots her husband. +One woman straps herself. +One woman gives birth to a baby. +One woman gives birth to borders. +One woman no longer believes love will ever find her. +One woman never did. +Where do refugee hearts go? +Broken, dissed, placed where they're not from, don't want to be missed. +Faced with absence. +We mourn each one or we mean nothing at all. +My spine curves spiral. +Precipice running to and running from human beings. +Cluster bombs left behind. +De facto landmines. +A smoldering grief. +Harvest contaminated tobacco. +Harvest bombs. +Harvest baby teeth. +Harvest palms, smoke. +Harvest witness, smoke. +Resolutions, smoke. +Salvation, smoke. +Redemption, smoke. +Breathe. +Do not fear what has blown up. +If you must, fear the unexploded. +Thank you. +What I thought I would do is I would start with a simple request. +I'd like all of you to pause for a moment, you wretched weaklings, and take stock of your miserable existence. +Now that was the advice that St. Benedict gave his rather startled followers in the fifth century. +It was the advice that I decided to follow myself when I turned 40. +Up until that moment, I had been that classic corporate warrior -- I was eating too much, I was drinking too much, I was working too hard and I was neglecting the family. +And I decided that I would try and turn my life around. +In particular, I decided I would try to address the thorny issue of work-life balance. +So I stepped back from the workforce, and I spent a year at home with my wife and four young children. +But all I learned about work-life balance from that year was that I found it quite easy to balance work and life when I didn't have any work. +Not a very useful skill, especially when the money runs out. +So I went back to work, and I've spent these seven years since struggling with, studying and writing about work-life balance. +And I have four observations I'd like to share with you today. +The first is: if society's to make any progress on this issue, we need an honest debate. +But the trouble is so many people talk so much rubbish about work-life balance. +All the discussions about flexi-time or dress-down Fridays or paternity leave only serve to mask the core issue, which is that certain job and career choices are fundamentally incompatible with being meaningfully engaged on a day-to-day basis with a young family. +Now the first step in solving any problem is acknowledging the reality of the situation you're in. +And the reality of the society that we're in is there are thousands and thousands of people out there leading lives of quiet, screaming desperation, where they work long, hard hours at jobs they hate to enable them to buy things they don't need to impress people they don't like. +It's my contention that going to work on Friday in jeans and [a] T-shirt isn't really getting to the nub of the issue. +The second observation I'd like to make is we need to face the truth that governments and corporations aren't going to solve this issue for us. +We should stop looking outside. +It's up to us as individuals to take control and responsibility for the type of lives that we want to lead. +If you don't design your life, someone else will design it for you, and you may just not like their idea of balance. +It's particularly important -- this isn't on the World Wide Web, is it? I'm about to get fired -- it's particularly important that you never put the quality of your life in the hands of a commercial corporation. +Now I'm not talking here just about the bad companies -- the "abattoirs of the human soul," as I call them. +I'm talking about all companies. +Because commercial companies are inherently designed to get as much out of you [as] they can get away with. +It's in their nature; it's in their DNA; it's what they do -- even the good, well-intentioned companies. +On the one hand, putting childcare facilities in the workplace is wonderful and enlightened. +On the other hand, it's a nightmare -- it just means you spend more time at the bloody office. +We have to be responsible for setting and enforcing the boundaries that we want in our life. +The third observation is we have to be careful with the time frame that we choose upon which to judge our balance. +Before I went back to work after my year at home, I sat down and I wrote out a detailed, step-by-step description of the ideal balanced day that I aspired to. +And it went like this: wake up well rested after a good night's sleep. +Have sex. +Walk the dog. +Have breakfast with my wife and children. +Have sex again. +Drive the kids to school on the way to the office. +Do three hours' work. +Play a sport with a friend at lunchtime. +Do another three hours' work. +Meet some mates in the pub for an early evening drink. +Drive home for dinner with my wife and kids. +Meditate for half an hour. +Have sex. +Walk the dog. Have sex again. +Go to bed. +How often do you think I have that day? +We need to be realistic. +You can't do it all in one day. +A day is too short; "after I retire" is too long. +There's got to be a middle way. +A fourth observation: We need to approach balance in a balanced way. +A friend came to see me last year -- and she doesn't mind me telling this story -- a friend came to see me last year and said, "Nigel, I've read your book. +And I realize that my life is completely out of balance. +It's totally dominated by work. +I work 10 hours a day; I commute two hours a day. +All of my relationships have failed. +There's nothing in my life apart from my work. +So I've decided to get a grip and sort it out. +So I joined a gym." +Now I don't mean to mock, but being a fit 10-hour-a-day office rat isn't more balanced; it's more fit. +Lovely though physical exercise may be, there are other parts to life -- there's the intellectual side; there's the emotional side; there's the spiritual side. +And to be balanced, I believe we have to attend to all of those areas -- not just do 50 stomach crunches. +Now that can be daunting. +Because people say, "Bloody hell mate, I haven't got time to get fit. +You want me to go to church and call my mother." +And I understand. +I truly understand how that can be daunting. +But an incident that happened a couple of years ago gave me a new perspective. +My wife, who is somewhere in the audience today, called me up at the office and said, "Nigel, you need to pick our youngest son" -- Harry -- "up from school." +Because she had to be somewhere else with the other three children for that evening. +So I left work an hour early that afternoon and picked Harry up at the school gates. +We walked down to the local park, messed around on the swings, played some silly games. +I then walked him up the hill to the local cafe, and we shared a pizza for two, then walked down the hill to our home, and I gave him his bath and put him in his Batman pajamas. +I then read him a chapter of Roald Dahl's "James and the Giant Peach." +I then put him to bed, tucked him in, gave him a kiss on his forehead and said, "Goodnight, mate," and walked out of his bedroom. +As I was walking out of his bedroom, he said, "Dad?" I went, "Yes, mate?" +He went, "Dad, this has been the best day of my life, ever." +I hadn't done anything, hadn't taken him to Disney World or bought him a Playstation. +Now my point is the small things matter. +Being more balanced doesn't mean dramatic upheaval in your life. +With the smallest investment in the right places, you can radically transform the quality of your relationships and the quality of your life. +Moreover, I think, it can transform society. +Because if enough people do it, we can change society's definition of success away from the moronically simplistic notion that the person with the most money when he dies wins, to a more thoughtful and balanced definition of what a life well lived looks like. +And that, I think, is an idea worth spreading. +Ever since I was a little girl seeing "Star Wars" for the first time, I've been fascinated by this idea of personal robots. +And as a little girl, I loved the idea of a robot that interacted with us much more like a helpful, trusted sidekick -- something that would delight us, enrich our lives and help us save a galaxy or two. +I knew robots like that didn't really exist, but I knew I wanted to build them. +So 20 years pass -- I am now a graduate student at MIT studying artificial intelligence, the year is 1997, and NASA has just landed the first robot on Mars. +But robots are still not in our home, ironically. +And I remember thinking about all the reasons why that was the case. +But one really struck me. +Robotics had really been about interacting with things, not with people -- certainly not in a social way that would be natural for us and would really help people accept robots into our daily lives. +For me, that was the white space; that's what robots could not do yet. +And so that year, I started to build this robot, Kismet, the world's first social robot. +Three years later -- a lot of programming, working with other graduate students in the lab -- Kismet was ready to start interacting with people. +Scientist: I want to show you something. +Kismet: Scientist: This is a watch that my girlfriend gave me. +Kismet: Scientist: Yeah, look, it's got a little blue light in it too. +I almost lost it this week. +Cynthia Breazeal: So Kismet interacted with people like kind of a non-verbal child or pre-verbal child, which I assume was fitting because it was really the first of its kind. +It didn't speak language, but it didn't matter. +This little robot was somehow able to tap into something deeply social within us -- and with that, the promise of an entirely new way we could interact with robots. +So over the past several years I've been continuing to explore this interpersonal dimension of robots, now at the media lab with my own team of incredibly talented students. +And one of my favorite robots is Leonardo. +We developed Leonardo in collaboration with Stan Winston Studio. +And so I want to show you a special moment for me of Leo. +This is Matt Berlin interacting with Leo, introducing Leo to a new object. +And because it's new, Leo doesn't really know what to make of it. +But sort of like us, he can actually learn about it from watching Matt's reaction. +Matt Berlin: Hello, Leo. +Leo, this is Cookie Monster. +Can you find Cookie Monster? +Leo, Cookie Monster is very bad. +He's very bad, Leo. +Cookie Monster is very, very bad. +He's a scary monster. +He wants to get your cookies. +CB: All right, so Leo and Cookie might have gotten off to a little bit of a rough start, but they get along great now. +So what I've learned through building these systems is that robots are actually a really intriguing social technology, where it's actually their ability to push our social buttons and to interact with us like a partner that is a core part of their functionality. +And with that shift in thinking, we can now start to imagine new questions, new possibilities for robots that we might not have thought about otherwise. +But what do I mean when I say "push our social buttons?" +Well, one of the things that we've learned is that, if we design these robots to communicate with us using the same body language, the same sort of non-verbal cues that people use -- like Nexi, our humanoid robot, is doing here -- what we find is that people respond to robots a lot like they respond to people. +People use these cues to determine things like how persuasive someone is, how likable, how engaging, how trustworthy. +It turns out it's the same for robots. +It's turning out now that robots are actually becoming a really interesting new scientific tool to understand human behavior. +To answer questions like, how is it that, from a brief encounter, we're able to make an estimate of how trustworthy another person is? +Mimicry's believed to play a role, but how? +Is it the mimicking of particular gestures that matters? +It turns out it's really hard to learn this or understand this from watching people because when we interact we do all of these cues automatically. +We can't carefully control them because they're subconscious for us. +But with the robot, you can. +And so in this video here -- this is a video taken from David DeSteno's lab at Northeastern University. +He's a psychologist we've been collaborating with. +There's actually a scientist carefully controlling Nexi's cues to be able to study this question. +And the bottom line is -- the reason why this works is because it turns out people just behave like people even when interacting with a robot. +So given that key insight, we can now start to imagine new kinds of applications for robots. +For instance, if robots do respond to our non-verbal cues, maybe they would be a cool, new communication technology. +So imagine this: What about a robot accessory for your cellphone? +You call your friend, she puts her handset in a robot, and, bam! You're a MeBot -- you can make eye contact, you can talk with your friends, you can move around, you can gesture -- maybe the next best thing to really being there, or is it? +To explore this question, my student, Siggy Adalgeirsson, did a study where we brought human participants, people, into our lab to do a collaborative task with a remote collaborator. +The task involved things like looking at a set of objects on the table, discussing them in terms of their importance and relevance to performing a certain task -- this ended up being a survival task -- and then rating them in terms of how valuable and important they thought they were. +The remote collaborator was an experimenter from our group who used one of three different technologies to interact with the participants. +The first was just the screen. +This is just like video conferencing today. +The next was to add mobility -- so, have the screen on a mobile base. +This is like, if you're familiar with any of the telepresence robots today -- this is mirroring that situation. +And then the fully expressive MeBot. +So after the interaction, we asked people to rate their quality of interaction with the technology, with a remote collaborator through this technology, in a number of different ways. +We looked at psychological involvement -- how much empathy did you feel for the other person? +We looked at overall engagement. +We looked at their desire to cooperate. +And this is what we see when they use just the screen. +It turns out, when you add mobility -- the ability to roll around the table -- you get a little more of a boost. +And you get even more of a boost when you add the full expression. +So it seems like this physical, social embodiment actually really makes a difference. +Now let's try to put this into a little bit of context. +Today we know that families are living further and further apart, and that definitely takes a toll on family relationships and family bonds over distance. +For me, I have three young boys, and I want them to have a really good relationship with their grandparents. +But my parents live thousands of miles away, so they just don't get to see each other that often. +We try Skype, we try phone calls, but my boys are little -- they don't really want to talk; they want to play. +So I love the idea of thinking about robots as a new kind of distance-play technology. +I imagine a time not too far from now -- my mom can go to her computer, open up a browser and jack into a little robot. +And as grandma-bot, she can now play, really play, with my sons, with her grandsons, in the real world with his real toys. +I could imagine grandmothers being able to do social-plays with their granddaughters, with their friends, and to be able to share all kinds of other activities around the house, like sharing a bedtime story. +And through this technology, being able to be an active participant in their grandchildren's lives in a way that's not possible today. +Let's think about some other domains, like maybe health. +So in the United States today, over 65 percent of people are either overweight or obese, and now it's a big problem with our children as well. +And we know that as you get older in life, if you're obese when you're younger, that can lead to chronic diseases that not only reduce your quality of life, but are a tremendous economic burden on our health care system. +But if robots can be engaging, if we like to cooperate with robots, if robots are persuasive, maybe a robot can help you maintain a diet and exercise program, maybe they can help you manage your weight. +Sort of like a digital Jiminy -- as in the well-known fairy tale -- a kind of friendly, supportive presence that's always there to be able to help you make the right decision in the right way at the right time to help you form healthy habits. +So we actually explored this idea in our lab. +This is a robot, Autom. +Cory Kidd developed this robot for his doctoral work. +And it was designed to be a robot diet-and-exercise coach. +It had a couple of simple non-verbal skills it could do. +It could make eye contact with you. +It could share information looking down at a screen. +You'd use a screen interface to enter information, like how many calories you ate that day, how much exercise you got. +And then it could help track that for you. +And the robot spoke with a synthetic voice to engage you in a coaching dialogue modeled after trainers and patients and so forth. +And it would build a working alliance with you through that dialogue. +It could help you set goals and track your progress, and it would help motivate you. +So an interesting question is, does the social embodiment really matter? Does it matter that it's a robot? +Is it really just the quality of advice and information that matters? +To explore that question, we did a study in the Boston area where we put one of three interventions in people's homes for a period of several weeks. +One case was the robot you saw there, Autom. +Another was a computer that ran the same touch-screen interface, ran exactly the same dialogues. +The quality of advice was identical. +And the third was just a pen and paper log, because that's the standard intervention you typically get when you start a diet-and-exercise program. +So one of the things we really wanted to look at was not how much weight people lost, but really how long they interacted with the robot. +Because the challenge is not losing weight, it's actually keeping it off. +And the longer you could interact with one of these interventions, well that's indicative, potentially, of longer-term success. +So the first thing I want to look at is how long, how long did people interact with these systems. +It turns out that people interacted with the robot significantly more, even though the quality of the advice was identical to the computer. +When it asked people to rate it on terms of the quality of the working alliance, people rated the robot higher and they trusted the robot more. +And when you look at emotional engagement, it was completely different. +People would name the robots. +They would dress the robots. +And even when we would come up to pick up the robots at the end of the study, they would come out to the car and say good-bye to the robots. +They didn't do this with a computer. +The last thing I want to talk about today is the future of children's media. +We know that kids spend a lot of time behind screens today, whether it's television or computer games or whatnot. +My sons, they love the screen. They love the screen. +But I want them to play; as a mom, I want them to play, like, real-world play. +So here's the first exploration of this idea, where characters can be physical or virtual, and where the digital content can literally come off the screen into the world and back. +I like to think of this as the Atari Pong of this blended-reality play. +But we can push this idea further. +What if -- Nathan: Here it comes. Yay! +CB: -- the character itself could come into your world? +It turns out that kids love it when the character becomes real and enters into their world. +And when it's in their world, they can relate to it and play with it in a way that's fundamentally different from how they play with it on the screen. +Another important idea is this notion of persistence of character across realities. +So changes that children make in the real world need to translate to the virtual world. +So here, Nathan has changed the letter A to the number 2. +You can imagine maybe these symbols give the characters special powers when it goes into the virtual world. +So they are now sending the character back into that world. +And now it's got number power. +And then finally, what I've been trying to do here is create a really immersive experience for kids, where they really feel like they are part of that story, a part of that experience. +And I really want to spark their imaginations the way mine was sparked as a little girl watching "Star Wars." +But I want to do more than that. +I actually want them to create those experiences. +I want them to be able to literally build their imagination into these experiences and make them their own. +So we've been exploring a lot of ideas in telepresence and mixed reality to literally allow kids to project their ideas into this space where other kids can interact with them and build upon them. +I really want to come up with new ways of children's media that foster creativity and learning and innovation. +I think that's very, very important. +So this is a new project. +We've invited a lot of kids into this space, and they think it's pretty cool. +But I can tell you, the thing that they love the most is the robot. +What they care about is the robot. +Robots touch something deeply human within us. +And so whether they're helping us to become creative and innovative, or whether they're helping us to feel more deeply connected despite distance, or whether they are our trusted sidekick who's helping us attain our personal goals in becoming our highest and best selves, for me, robots are all about people. +Thank you. +Hawa Abdi: Many people -- 20 years for Somalia -- [were] fighting. +So there was no job, no food. +Children, most of them, became very malnourished, like this. +Deqo Mohamed: So as you know, always in a civil war, the ones affected most [are] the women and children. +So our patients are women and children. +And they are in our backyard. +It's our home. We welcome them. +That's the camp that we have in now 90,000 people, where 75 percent of them are women and children. +Pat Mitchell: And this is your hospital. This is the inside. +HA: We are doing C-sections and different operations because people need some help. +There is no government to protect them. +DM: Every morning we have about 400 patients, maybe more or less. +But sometimes we are only five doctors and 16 nurses, and we are physically getting exhausted to see all of them. +But we take the severe ones, and we reschedule the other ones the next day. +It is very tough. +And as you can see, it's the women who are carrying the children; it's the women who come into the hospitals; it's the women [are] building the houses. +That's their house. +And we have a school. This is our bright -- we opened [in the] last two years [an] elementary school where we have 850 children, and the majority are women and girls. +PM: And the doctors have some very big rules about who can get treated at the clinic. +Would you explain the rules for admission? +HA: The people who are coming to us, we are welcoming. +We are sharing with them whatever we have. +But there are only two rules. +First rule: there is no clan distinguished and political division in Somali society. +[Whomever] makes those things we throw out. +The second: no man can beat his wife. +If he beat, we will put [him] in jail, and we will call the eldest people. +Until they identify this case, we'll never release him. +That's our two rules. +The other thing that I have realized, that the woman is the most strong person all over the world. +Because the last 20 years, the Somali woman has stood up. +They were the leaders, and we are the leaders of our community and the hope of our future generations. +We are not just the helpless and the victims of the civil war. +We can reconcile. +We can do everything. +DM: As my mother said, we are the future hope, and the men are only killing in Somalia. +So we came up with these two rules. +In a camp with 90,000 people, you have to come up with some rules or there is going to be some fights. +So there is no clan division, and no man can beat his wife. +And we have a little storage room where we converted a jail. +So if you beat your wife, you're going to be there. +So empowering the women and giving the opportunity -- we are there for them. They are not alone for this. +PM: You're running a medical clinic. +It brought much, much needed medical care to people who wouldn't get it. +You're also running a civil society. +You've created your own rules, in which women and children are getting a different sense of security. +Talk to me about your decision, Dr. Abdi, and your decision, Dr. Mohamed, to work together -- for you to become a doctor and to work with your mother in these circumstances. +HA: My age -- because I was born in 1947 -- we were having, at that time, government, law and order. +But one day, I went to the hospital -- my mother was sick -- and I saw the hospital, how they [were] treating the doctors, how they [are] committed to help the sick people. +I admired them, and I decided to become a doctor. +My mother died, unfortunately, when I was 12 years [old]. +Then my father allowed me to proceed [with] my hope. +My mother died in [a] gynecology complication, so I decided to become a gynecology specialist. +That's why I became a doctor. +So Dr. Deqo has to explain. +DM: For me, my mother was preparing [me] when I was a child to become a doctor, but I really didn't want to. +Maybe I should become an historian, or maybe a reporter. +I loved it, but it didn't work. +When the war broke out -- civil war -- I saw how my mother was helping and how she really needed the help, and how the care is essential to the woman to be a woman doctor in Somalia and help the women and children. +And I thought, maybe I can be a reporter and doctor gynecologist. +So I went to Russia, and my mother also, [during the] time of [the] Soviet Union. +So some of our character, maybe we will come with a strong Soviet background of training. +So that's how I decided [to do] the same. +My sister was different. +She's here. She's also a doctor. +She graduated in Russia also. +And to go back and to work with our mother is just what we saw in the civil war -- when I was 16, and my sister was 11, when the civil war broke out. +So it was the need and the people we saw in the early '90s -- that's what made us go back and work for them. +PM: So what is the biggest challenge working, mother and daughter, in such dangerous and sometimes scary situations? +HA: Yes, I was working in a tough situation, very dangerous. +And when I saw the people who needed me, I was staying with them to help, because I [could] do something for them. +Most people fled abroad. +But I remained with those people, and I was trying to do something -- [any] little thing I [could] do. +I succeeded in my place. +Now my place is 90,000 people who are respecting each other, who are not fighting. +But we try to stand on our feet, to do something, little things, we can for our people. +And I'm thankful for my daughters. +When they come to me, they help me to treat the people, to help. +They do everything for them. +They have done what I desire to do for them. +PM: What's the best part of working with your mother, and the most challenging part for you? +DM: She's very tough; it's most challenging. +She always expects us to do more. +And really when you think [you] cannot do it, she will push you, and I can do it. +That's the best part. +She shows us, trains us how to do and how to be better [people] and how to do long hours in surgery -- 300 patients per day, 10, 20 surgeries, and still you have to manage the camp -- that's how she trains us. +It is not like beautiful offices here, 20 patients, you're tired. +You see 300 patients, 20 surgeries and 90,000 people to manage. +PM: But you do it for good reasons. +Wait. Wait. +HA: Thank you. +DM: Thank you. +HA: Thank you very much. DM: Thank you very much. +I'd like to start with a couple of quick examples. +These are spinneret glands on the abdomen of a spider. +They produce six different types of silk, which is spun together into a fiber, tougher than any fiber humans have ever made. +The nearest we've come is with aramid fiber. +And to make that, it involves extremes of temperature, extremes of pressure and loads of pollution. +And yet the spider manages to do it at ambient temperature and pressure with raw materials of dead flies and water. +It does suggest we've still got a bit to learn. +This beetle can detect a forest fire at 80 kilometers away. +That's roughly 10,000 times the range of man-made fire detectors. +And what's more, this guy doesn't need a wire connected all the way back to a power station burning fossil fuels. +So these two examples give a sense of what biomimicry can deliver. +If we could learn to make things and do things the way nature does, we could achieve factor 10, factor 100, maybe even factor 1,000 savings in resource and energy use. +And if we're to make progress with the sustainability revolution, I believe there are three really big changes we need to bring about. +Firstly, radical increases in resource efficiency. +Secondly, shifting from a linear, wasteful, polluting way of using resources to a closed-loop model. +And thirdly, changing from a fossil fuel economy to a solar economy. +And for all three of these, I believe, biomimicry has a lot of the solutions that we're going to need. +You could look at nature as being like a catalog of products, and all of those have benefited from a 3.8-billion-year research and development period. +And given that level of investment, it makes sense to use it. +So I'm going to talk about some projects that have explored these ideas. +And let's start with radical increases in resource efficiency. +When we were working on the Eden Project, we had to create a very large greenhouse in a site that was not only irregular, but it was continually changing because it was still being quarried. +It was a hell of a challenge, and it was actually examples from biology that provided a lot of the clues. +So for instance, it was soap bubbles that helped us generate a building form that would work regardless of the final ground levels. +Studying pollen grains and radiolaria and carbon molecules helped us devise the most efficient structural solution using hexagons and pentagons. +The next move was that we wanted to try and maximize the size of those hexagons. +And to do that we had to find an alternative to glass, which is really very limited in terms of its unit sizes. +And in nature there are lots of examples of very efficient structures based on pressurized membranes. +So we started exploring this material called ETFE. +It's a high-strength polymer. +And what you do is you put it together in three layers, you weld it around the edge, and then you inflate it. +And the great thing about this stuff is you can make it in units of roughly seven times the size of glass, and it was only one percent of the weight of double-glazing. +So that was a factor-100 saving. +And what we found is that we got into a positive cycle in which one breakthrough facilitated another. +So with such large, lightweight pillows, we had much less steel. +With less steel we were getting more sunlight in, which meant we didn't have to put as much extra heat in winter. +And with less overall weight in the superstructure, there were big savings in the foundations. +And at the end of the project we worked out that the weight of that superstructure was actually less than the weight of the air inside the building. +So I think the Eden Project is a fairly good example of how ideas from biology can lead to radical increases in resource efficiency -- delivering the same function, but with a fraction of the resource input. +And actually there are loads of examples in nature that you could turn to for similar solutions. +So for instance, you could develop super-efficient roof structures based on giant Amazon water lilies, whole buildings inspired by abalone shells, super-lightweight bridges inspired by plant cells. +There's a world of beauty and efficiency to explore here using nature as a design tool. +So now I want to go onto talking about the linear-to-closed-loop idea. +The way we tend to use resources is we extract them, we turn them into short-life products and then dispose of them. +Nature works very differently. +In ecosystems, the waste from one organism becomes the nutrient for something else in that system. +And there are some examples of projects that have deliberately tried to mimic ecosystems. +And one of my favorites is called the Cardboard to Caviar Project by Graham Wiles. +And in their area they had a lot of shops and restaurants that were producing lots of food, cardboard and plastic waste. +It was ending up in landfills. +Now the really clever bit is what they did with the cardboard waste. +And I'm just going to talk through this animation. +So they were paid to collect it from the restaurants. +They then shredded the cardboard and sold it to equestrian centers as horse bedding. +When that was soiled, they were paid again to collect it. +They put it into worm recomposting systems, which produced a lot of worms, which they fed to Siberian sturgeon, which produced caviar, which they sold back to the restaurants. +So it transformed a linear process into a closed-loop model, and it created more value in the process. +Graham Wiles has continued to add more and more elements to this, turning waste streams into schemes that create value. +And just as natural systems tend to increase in diversity and resilience over time, there's a real sense with this project that the number of possibilities just continue increasing. +And I know it's a quirky example, but I think the implications of this are quite radical, because it suggests that we could actually transform a big problem -- waste -- into a massive opportunity. +And particularly in cities -- we could look at the whole metabolism of cities, and look at those as opportunities. +And that's what we're doing on the next project I'm going to talk about, the Mobius Project, where we're trying to bring together a number of activities, all within one building, so that the waste from one can be the nutrient for another. +And the kind of elements I'm talking about are, firstly, we have a restaurant inside a productive greenhouse, a bit like this one in Amsterdam called De Kas. +Then we would have an anaerobic digester, which could deal with all the biodegradable waste from the local area, turn that into heat for the greenhouse and electricity to feed back into the grid. +We'd have a water treatment system treating wastewater, turning that into fresh water and generating energy from the solids using just plants and micro-organisms. +We'd have a fish farm fed with vegetable waste from the kitchen and worms from the compost and supplying fish back to the restaurant. +And we'd also have a coffee shop, and the waste grains from that could be used as a substrate for growing mushrooms. +So you can see that we're bringing together cycles of food, energy and water and waste all within one building. +And just for fun, we've proposed this for a roundabout in central London, which at the moment is a complete eyesore. +Some of you may recognize this. +And with just a little bit of planning, we could transform a space dominated by traffic into one that provides open space for people, reconnects people with food and transforms waste into closed loop opportunities. +So the final project I want to talk about is the Sahara Forest Project, which we're working on at the moment. +It may come as a surprise to some of you to hear that quite large areas of what are currently desert were actually forested a fairly short time ago. +So for instance, when Julius Caesar arrived in North Africa, huge areas of North Africa were covered in cedar and cypress forests. +And during the evolution of life on the Earth, it was the colonization of the land by plants that helped create the benign climate we currently enjoy. +The converse is also true. +The more vegetation we lose, the more that's likely to exacerbate climate change and lead to further desertification. +And this animation, this shows photosynthetic activity over the course of a number of years, and what you can see is that the boundaries of those deserts shift quite a lot, and that raises the question of whether we can intervene at the boundary conditions to halt, or maybe even reverse, desertification. +And if you look at some of the organisms that have evolved to live in deserts, there are some amazing examples of adaptations to water scarcity. +This is the Namibian fog-basking beetle, and it's evolved a way of harvesting its own fresh water in a desert. +The way it does this is it comes out at night, crawls to the top of a sand dune, and because it's got a matte black shell, is able to radiate heat out to the night sky and become slightly cooler than its surroundings. +So when the moist breeze blows in off the sea, you get these droplets of water forming on the beetle's shell. +Just before sunrise, he tips his shell up, the water runs down into his mouth, has a good drink, goes off and hides for the rest of the day. +And the ingenuity, if you could call it that, goes even further. +Because if you look closely at the beetle's shell, there are lots of little bumps on that shell. +And those bumps are hydrophilic; they attract water. +Between them there's a waxy finish which repels water. +And the effect of this is that as the droplets start to form on the bumps, they stay in tight, spherical beads, which means they're much more mobile than they would be if it was just a film of water over the whole beetle's shell. +So even when there's only a small amount of moisture in the air, it's able to harvest that very effectively and channel it down to its mouth. +So amazing example of an adaptation to a very resource-constrained environment -- and in that sense, very relevant to the kind of challenges we're going to be facing over the next few years, next few decades. +We're working with the guy who invented the Seawater Greenhouse. +This is a greenhouse designed for arid coastal regions, and the way it works is that you have this whole wall of evaporator grills, and you trickle seawater over that so that wind blows through, it picks up a lot of moisture and is cooled in the process. +So inside it's cool and humid, which means the plants need less water to grow. +And then at the back of the greenhouse, it condenses a lot of that humidity as freshwater in a process that is effectively identical to the beetle. +And what they found with the first Seawater Greenhouse that was built was it was producing slightly more freshwater than it needed for the plants inside. +So they just started spreading this on the land around, and the combination of that and the elevated humidity had quite a dramatic effect on the local area. +This photograph was taken on completion day, and just one year later, it looked like that. +So it was like a green inkblot spreading out from the building turning barren land back into biologically productive land -- and in that sense, going beyond sustainable design to achieve restorative design. +So we were keen to scale this up and apply biomimicry ideas to maximize the benefits. +And when you think about nature, often you think about it as being all about competition. +But actually in mature ecosystems, you're just as likely to find examples of symbiotic relationships. +So an important biomimicry principle is to find ways of bringing technologies together in symbiotic clusters. +And the technology that we settled on as an ideal partner for the Seawater Greenhouse is concentrated solar power, which uses solar-tracking mirrors to focus the sun's heat to create electricity. +And just to give you some sense of the potential of CSP, consider that we receive 10,000 times as much energy from the sun every year as we use in energy from all forms -- 10,000 times. +So our energy problems are not intractable. +It's a challenge to our ingenuity. +And the kind of synergies I'm talking about are, firstly, both these technologies work very well in hot, sunny deserts. +CSP needs a supply of demineralized freshwater. +That's exactly what the Seawater Greenhouse produces. +CSP produces a lot of waste heat. +We'll be able to make use of all that to evaporate more seawater and enhance the restorative benefits. +And finally, in the shade under the mirrors, it's possible to grow all sorts of crops that would not grow in direct sunlight. +So this is how this scheme would look. +The idea is we create this long hedge of greenhouses facing the wind. +We'd have concentrated solar power plants at intervals along the way. +Some of you might be wondering what we would do with all the salts. +And with biomimicry, if you've got an underutilized resource, you don't think, "How am I going to dispose of this?" +You think, "What can I add to the system to create more value?" +And it turns out that different things crystallize out at different stages. +When you evaporate seawater, the first thing to crystallize out is calcium carbonate. +And that builds up on the evaporators -- and that's what that image on the left is -- gradually getting encrusted with the calcium carbonate. +So after a while, we could take that out, use it as a lightweight building block. +And if you think about the carbon in that, that would have come out of the atmosphere, into the sea and then locked away in a building product. +The next thing is sodium chloride. +You can also compress that into a building block, as they did here. +This is a hotel in Bolivia. +And then after that, there are all sorts of compounds and elements that we can extract, like phosphates, that we need to get back into the desert soils to fertilize them. +And there's just about every element of the periodic table in seawater. +So it should be possible to extract valuable elements like lithium for high-performance batteries. +And in parts of the Arabian Gulf, the seawater, the salinity is increasing steadily due to the discharge of waste brine from desalination plants. +And it's pushing the ecosystem close to collapse. +Now we would be able to make use of all that waste brine. +We could evaporate it to enhance the restorative benefits and capture the salts, transforming an urgent waste problem into a big opportunity. +Really the Sahara Forest Project is a model for how we could create zero-carbon food, abundant renewable energy in some of the most water-stressed parts of the planet as well as reversing desertification in certain areas. +So returning to those big challenges that I mentioned at the beginning: radical increases in resource efficiency, closing loops and a solar economy. +They're not just possible; they're critical. +And I firmly believe that studying the way nature solves problems will provide a lot of the solutions. +But perhaps more than anything, what this thinking provides is a really positive way of talking about sustainable design. +Far too much of the talk about the environment uses very negative language. +But here it's about synergies and abundance and optimizing. +And this is an important point. +Antoine de Saint-Exupery once said, "If you want to build a flotilla of ships, you don't sit around talking about carpentry. +No, you need to set people's souls ablaze with visions of exploring distant shores." +And that's what we need to do, so let's be positive, and let's make progress with what could be the most exciting period of innovation we've ever seen. +Thank you. +Thank you. +Thank you very much. +That was whistling. +I'm trying to do this in English. +What is a chubby, curly-haired guy from Holland -- why is he whistling? +Well actually, I've [been] whistling since the age of four, about four. +My dad was always whistling around the house, and I just thought that's part of communication in my family. +So I whistled along with him. +And actually, till I was 34, I always annoyed and irritated people with whistling, because, to be honest, my whistling is a kind of deviant behavior. +I whistled alone. I whistled in the classroom. +I whistled on [my] bike. I whistled everywhere. +And I also whistled at a Christmas Eve party with my family-in-law. +And they had some, in my opinion, terrible Christmas music. +And when I hear music that I don't like, I try to make it better. +So "Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer" -- you know it? +But it can also sound like this. +But during a Christmas party -- at dinner actually -- it's very annoying. +So my sister-in-law asked me a few times, "Please stop whistling." +And I just couldn't. +And at one point -- and I had some wine, I have to admit that -- at one point I said, "If there was a contest, I would join." +And two weeks later I received a text message: "You're going to America." +So, okay, I'm going to America. +I would love to, but why? +So I immediately called her up, of course. +She Googled, and she found this World Whistling Championship in America, of course. +She didn't expect me to go there. +And I would have lost my face. +I don't know if that's correct English. +But the Dutch people here will understand what I mean. +I lost my face. +And she thought, "He will never go there." +But actually I did. +So I went to Louisburg, North Carolina, southeast United States, and I entered the world of whistling. +And I also entered the world championship, and I won there in 2004. +That was great fun, of course. +And to defend my title -- like judokas do and sportsmen -- I thought, well let's go back in 2005, and I won again. +Then I couldn't participate for a few years. +And in 2008 I entered again in Japan, Tokyo, and I won again. +So what happened now is I'm standing here in Rotterdam, in the beautiful city, on a big stage, and I'm talking about whistling. +And actually I earn my money whistling at the moment. +So I quit my day job as a nurse. +And I try to live my dream -- well, actually, it was never my dream, but it sounds so good. +Okay, I'm not the only one whistling here. +You say, "Huh, what do you mean?" +Well actually, you are going to whistle along. +And then always the same thing happens: people are watching each other and think, "Oh, my God. +Why? Can I go away?" +No, you can't. +Actually it's very simple. +The track that I will whistle is called "Fte de la Belle." +It's about 80 minutes long. +No, no, no. It's four minutes long. +And I want to first rehearse with you your whistling. +So I whistle the tone. +Sorry. I forgot one thing. +You whistle the same tone as me. +I heard a wide variety of tones. +This is very promising. +This is very promising. +I'll ask the technicians to start the music. +And if it's started, I just point where you whistle along, and we will see what happens. +Oh, hah. +I'm so sorry, technicians. +I'm so used to that. +I start it myself. +Okay, here it is. +Okay. +It's easy, isn't it? +Now comes the solo. I propose I do that myself. +Max Westerman: Geert Chatrou, the World Champion [of] Whistling. +Geert Chatrou: Thank you. Thank you. +We're here to celebrate compassion. +But compassion, from my vantage point, has a problem. +As essential as it is across our traditions, as real as so many of us know it to be in particular lives, the word "compassion" is hollowed out in our culture, and it is suspect in my field of journalism. +It's seen as a squishy kumbaya thing, or it's seen as potentially depressing. +Karen Armstrong has told what I think is an iconic story of giving a speech in Holland and, after the fact, the word "compassion" was translated as "pity." +Now compassion, when it enters the news, too often comes in the form of feel-good feature pieces or sidebars about heroic people you could never be like or happy endings or examples of self-sacrifice that would seem to be too good to be true most of the time. +Our cultural imagination about compassion has been deadened by idealistic images. +And so what I'd like to do this morning for the next few minutes is perform a linguistic resurrection. +And I hope you'll come with me on my basic premise that words matter, that they shape the way we understand ourselves, the way we interpret the world and the way we treat others. +When this country first encountered genuine diversity in the 1960s, we adopted tolerance as the core civic virtue with which we would approach that. +Now the word "tolerance," if you look at it in the dictionary, connotes "allowing," "indulging" and "enduring." +In the medical context that it comes from, it is about testing the limits of thriving in an unfavorable environment. +Tolerance is not really a lived virtue; it's more of a cerebral ascent. +And it's too cerebral to animate guts and hearts and behavior when the going gets rough. +And the going is pretty rough right now. +I think that without perhaps being able to name it, we are collectively experiencing that we've come as far as we can with tolerance as our only guiding virtue. +Compassion is a worthy successor. +It is organic, across our religious, spiritual and ethical traditions, and yet it transcends them. +Compassion is a piece of vocabulary that could change us if we truly let it sink into the standards to which we hold ourselves and others, both in our private and in our civic spaces. +So what is it, three-dimensionally? +What are its kindred and component parts? +What's in its universe of attendant virtues? +To start simply, I want to say that compassion is kind. +Now "kindness" might sound like a very mild word, and it's prone to its own abundant cliche. +But kindness is an everyday byproduct of all the great virtues. +And it is a most edifying form of instant gratification. +Compassion is also curious. +Compassion cultivates and practices curiosity. +I love a phrase that was offered me by two young women who are interfaith innovators in Los Angeles, Aziza Hasan and Malka Fenyvesi. +They are working to create a new imagination about shared life among young Jews and Muslims, and as they do that, they cultivate what they call "curiosity without assumptions." +Well that's going to be a breeding ground for compassion. +Compassion can be synonymous with empathy. +It can be joined with the harder work of forgiveness and reconciliation, but it can also express itself in the simple act of presence. +It's linked to practical virtues like generosity and hospitality and just being there, just showing up. +I think that compassion also is often linked to beauty -- and by that I mean a willingness to see beauty in the other, not just what it is about them that might need helping. +I love it that my Muslim conversation partners often speak of beauty as a core moral value. +And in that light, for the religious, compassion also brings us into the territory of mystery -- encouraging us not just to see beauty, but perhaps also to look for the face of God in the moment of suffering, in the face of a stranger, in the face of the vibrant religious other. +I'm not sure if I can show you what tolerance looks like, but I can show you what compassion looks like -- because it is visible. +When we see it, we recognize it and it changes the way we think about what is doable, what is possible. +It is so important when we're communicating big ideas -- but especially a big spiritual idea like compassion -- to root it as we present it to others in space and time and flesh and blood -- the color and complexity of life. +And compassion does seek physicality. +I first started to learn this most vividly from Matthew Sanford. +And I don't imagine that you will realize this when you look at this photograph of him, but he's paraplegic. +He's been paralyzed from the waist down since he was 13, in a car crash that killed his father and his sister. +Matthew's legs don't work, and he'll never walk again, and -- and he does experience this as an "and" rather than a "but" -- and he experiences himself to be healed and whole. +And as a teacher of yoga, he brings that experience to others across the spectrum of ability and disability, health, illness and aging. +He says that he's just at an extreme end of the spectrum we're all on. +He's doing some amazing work now with veterans coming back from Iraq and Afghanistan. +And Matthew has made this remarkable observation that I'm just going to offer you and let it sit. +I can't quite explain it, and he can't either. +But he says that he has yet to experience someone who became more aware of their body, in all its frailty and its grace, without, at the same time, becoming more compassionate towards all of life. +Compassion also looks like this. +This is Jean Vanier. +Jean Vanier helped found the L'Arche communities, which you can now find all over the world, communities centered around life with people with mental disabilities -- mostly Down syndrome. +The communities that Jean Vanier founded, like Jean Vanier himself, exude tenderness. +"Tender" is another word I would love to spend some time resurrecting. +We spend so much time in this culture being driven and aggressive, and I spend a lot of time being those things too. +And compassion can also have those qualities. +But again and again, lived compassion brings us back to the wisdom of tenderness. +Jean Vanier says that his work, like the work of other people -- his great, beloved, late friend Mother Teresa -- is never in the first instance about changing the world; it's in the first instance about changing ourselves. +He's says that what they do with L'Arche is not a solution, but a sign. +Compassion is rarely a solution, but it is always a sign of a deeper reality, of deeper human possibilities. +And compassion is unleashed in wider and wider circles by signs and stories, never by statistics and strategies. +We need those things too, but we're also bumping up against their limits. +And at the same time that we are doing that, I think we are rediscovering the power of story -- that as human beings, we need stories to survive, to flourish, to change. +Our traditions have always known this, and that is why they have always cultivated stories at their heart and carried them forward in time for us. +There is, of course, a story behind the key moral longing and commandment of Judaism to repair the world -- tikkun olam. +And I'll never forget hearing that story from Dr. Rachel Naomi Remen, who told it to me as her grandfather told it to her, that in the beginning of the Creation something happened and the original light of the universe was shattered into countless pieces. +It lodged as shards inside every aspect of the Creation. +And that the highest human calling is to look for this light, to point at it when we see it, to gather it up, and in so doing, to repair the world. +Now this might sound like a fanciful tale. +Some of my fellow journalists might interpret it that way. +Rachel Naomi Remen says this is an important and empowering story for our time, because this story insists that each and every one of us, frail and flawed as we may be, inadequate as we may feel, has exactly what's needed to help repair the part of the world that we can see and touch. +Stories like this, signs like this, are practical tools in a world longing to bring compassion to abundant images of suffering that can otherwise overwhelm us. +Rachel Naomi Remen is actually bringing compassion back to its rightful place alongside science in her field of medicine in the training of new doctors. +This is going to change science, I believe, and it will change religion. +But here's a face from 20th century science that might surprise you in a discussion about compassion. +We all know about the Albert Einstein who came up with E = mc2. +We don't hear so much about the Einstein who invited the African American opera singer, Marian Anderson, to stay in his home when she came to sing in Princeton because the best hotel there was segregated and wouldn't have her. +We don't hear about the Einstein who used his celebrity to advocate for political prisoners in Europe or the Scottsboro boys in the American South. +Einstein believed deeply that science should transcend national and ethnic divisions. +But he watched physicists and chemists become the purveyors of weapons of mass destruction in the early 20th century. +He once said that science in his generation had become like a razor blade in the hands of a three-year-old. +And Einstein foresaw that as we grow more modern and technologically advanced, we need the virtues our traditions carry forward in time more, not less. +He liked to talk about the spiritual geniuses of the ages. +Some of his favorites were Moses, Jesus, Buddha, St. Francis of Assisi, Gandhi -- he adored his contemporary, Gandhi. +And Einstein said -- and I think this is a quote, again, that has not been passed down in his legacy -- that "these kinds of people are geniuses in the art of living, more necessary to the dignity, security and joy of humanity than the discoverers of objective knowledge." +Now invoking Einstein might not seem the best way to bring compassion down to earth and make it seem accessible to all the rest of us, but actually it is. +I want to show you the rest of this photograph, because this photograph is analogous to what we do to the word "compassion" in our culture -- we clean it up and we diminish its depths and its grounding in life, which is messy. +So in this photograph you see a mind looking out a window at what might be a cathedral -- it's not. +This is the full photograph, and you see a middle-aged man wearing a leather jacket, smoking a cigar. +And by the look of that paunch, he hasn't been doing enough yoga. +We put these two photographs side-by-side on our website, and someone said, "When I look at the first photo, I ask myself, what was he thinking? +And when I look at the second, I ask, what kind of person was he? What kind of man is this?" +Well, he was complicated. +He was incredibly compassionate in some of his relationships and terribly inadequate in others. +And it is much harder, often, to be compassionate towards those closest to us, which is another quality in the universe of compassion, on its dark side, that also deserves our serious attention and illumination. +Gandhi, too, was a real flawed human being. +So was Martin Luther King, Jr. So was Dorothy Day. +So was Mother Teresa. +So are we all. +And I want to say that it is a liberating thing to realize that that is no obstacle to compassion -- following on what Fred Luskin says -- that these flaws just make us human. +Our culture is obsessed with perfection and with hiding problems. +But what a liberating thing to realize that our problems, in fact, are probably our richest sources for rising to this ultimate virtue of compassion, towards bringing compassion towards the suffering and joys of others. +Rachel Naomi Remen is a better doctor because of her life-long struggle with Crohn's disease. +Einstein became a humanitarian, not because of his exquisite knowledge of space and time and matter, but because he was a Jew as Germany grew fascist. +And Karen Armstrong, I think you would also say that it was some of your very wounding experiences in a religious life that, with a zigzag, have led to the Charter for Compassion. +Compassion can't be reduced to sainthood any more than it can be reduced to pity. +So I want to propose a final definition of compassion -- this is Einstein with Paul Robeson by the way -- and that would be for us to call compassion a spiritual technology. +Now our traditions contain vast wisdom about this, and we need them to mine it for us now. +But compassion is also equally at home in the secular as in the religious. +So I will paraphrase Einstein in closing and say that humanity, the future of humanity, needs this technology as much as it needs all the others that have now connected us and set before us the terrifying and wondrous possibility of actually becoming one human race. +Thank you. +I want you to take a look at this baby. +What you're drawn to are her eyes and the skin you love to touch. +But today I'm going to talk to you about something you can't see -- what's going on up in that little brain of hers. +The modern tools of neuroscience are demonstrating to us that what's going on up there is nothing short of rocket science. +And what we're learning is going to shed some light on what the romantic writers and poets described as the "celestial openness" of the child's mind. +What we see here is a mother in India, and she's speaking Koro, which is a newly discovered language. +And she's talking to her baby. +What this mother -- and the 800 people who speak Koro in the world -- understands [is] that, to preserve this language, they need to speak it to the babies. +And therein lies a critical puzzle. +Why is it that you can't preserve a language by speaking to you and I, to the adults? +Well, it's got to do with your brain. +What we see here is that language has a critical period for learning. +The way to read this slide is to look at your age on the horizontal axis. +And you'll see on the vertical your skill at acquiring a second language. +Babies and children are geniuses until they turn seven, and then there's a systematic decline. +After puberty, we fall off the map. +No scientists dispute this curve, but laboratories all over the world are trying to figure out why it works this way. +Work in my lab is focused on the first critical period in development -- and that is the period in which babies try to master which sounds are used in their language. +We think, by studying how the sounds are learned, we'll have a model for the rest of language, and perhaps for critical periods that may exist in childhood for social, emotional and cognitive development. +So we've been studying the babies using a technique that we're using all over the world and the sounds of all languages. +The baby sits on a parent's lap, and we train them to turn their heads when a sound changes -- like from "ah" to "ee." +If they do so at the appropriate time, the black box lights up and a panda bear pounds a drum. +A six-monther adores the task. +What have we learned? +Well, babies all over the world are what I like to describe as "citizens of the world." +They can discriminate all the sounds of all languages, no matter what country we're testing and what language we're using, and that's remarkable because you and I can't do that. +We're culture-bound listeners. +We can discriminate the sounds of our own language, but not those of foreign languages. +So the question arises: when do those citizens of the world turn into the language-bound listeners that we are? +And the answer: before their first birthdays. +What you see here is performance on that head-turn task for babies tested in Tokyo and the United States, here in Seattle, as they listened to "ra" and "la" -- sounds important to English, but not to Japanese. +So at six to eight months the babies are totally equivalent. +Two months later something incredible occurs. +The babies in the United States are getting a lot better, babies in Japan are getting a lot worse, but both of those groups of babies are preparing for exactly the language that they are going to learn. +So the question is: what's happening during this critical two-month period? +This is the critical period for sound development, but what's going on up there? +So there are two things going on. +The first is that the babies are listening intently to us, and they're taking statistics as they listen to us talk -- they're taking statistics. +So listen to two mothers speaking motherese -- the universal language we use when we talk to kids -- first in English and then in Japanese. +English Mother: Ah, I love your big blue eyes -- so pretty and nice. +Japanese Mother: [Japanese] Patricia Kuhl: During the production of speech, when babies listen, what they're doing is taking statistics on the language that they hear. +And those distributions grow. +And what we've learned is that babies are sensitive to the statistics, and the statistics of Japanese and English are very, very different. +English has a lot of Rs and Ls. +The distribution shows. +And the distribution of Japanese is totally different, where we see a group of intermediate sounds, which is known as the Japanese "R." +So babies absorb the statistics of the language and it changes their brains; it changes them from the citizens of the world to the culture-bound listeners that we are. +But we as adults are no longer absorbing those statistics. +We're governed by the representations in memory that were formed early in development. +So what we're seeing here is changing our models of what the critical period is about. +We're arguing from a mathematical standpoint that the learning of language material may slow down when our distributions stabilize. +It's raising lots of questions about bilingual people. +Bilinguals must keep two sets of statistics in mind at once and flip between them, one after the other, depending on who they're speaking to. +So we asked ourselves, can the babies take statistics on a brand new language? +And we tested this by exposing American babies who'd never heard a second language to Mandarin for the first time during the critical period. +We knew that, when monolinguals were tested in Taipei and Seattle on the Mandarin sounds, they showed the same pattern. +Six to eight months, they're totally equivalent. +Two months later, something incredible happens. +But the Taiwanese babies are getting better, not the American babies. +What we did was expose American babies during this period to Mandarin. +It was like having Mandarin relatives come and visit for a month and move into your house and talk to the babies for 12 sessions. +Here's what it looked like in the laboratory. +Mandarin Speaker: [Mandarin] PK: So what have we done to their little brains? +We had to run a control group to make sure that just coming into the laboratory didn't improve your Mandarin skills. +So a group of babies came in and listened to English. +And we can see from the graph that exposure to English didn't improve their Mandarin. +But look at what happened to the babies exposed to Mandarin for 12 sessions. +They were as good as the babies in Taiwan who'd been listening for 10-and-a-half months. +What it demonstrated is that babies take statistics on a new language. +Whatever you put in front of them, they'll take statistics on. +But we wondered what role the human being played in this learning exercise. +So we ran another group of babies in which the kids got the same dosage, the same 12 sessions, but over a television set and another group of babies who had just audio exposure and looked at a teddy bear on the screen. +What did we do to their brains? +What you see here is the audio result -- no learning whatsoever -- and the video result -- no learning whatsoever. +It takes a human being for babies to take their statistics. +The social brain is controlling when the babies are taking their statistics. +We want to get inside the brain and see this thing happening as babies are in front of televisions, as opposed to in front of human beings. +Thankfully, we have a new machine, magnetoencephalography, that allows us to do this. +It looks like a hair dryer from Mars. +But it's completely safe, completely non-invasive and silent. +We're looking at millimeter accuracy with regard to spatial and millisecond accuracy using 306 SQUIDs -- these are Superconducting QUantum Interference Devices -- to pick up the magnetic fields that change as we do our thinking. +We're the first in the world to record babies in an MEG machine while they are learning. +So this is little Emma. +She's a six-monther. +And she's listening to various languages in the earphones that are in her ears. +You can see, she can move around. +We're tracking her head with little pellets in a cap, so she's free to move completely unconstrained. +It's a technical tour de force. +What are we seeing? +We're seeing the baby brain. +As the baby hears a word in her language the auditory areas light up, and then subsequently areas surrounding it that we think are related to coherence, getting the brain coordinated with its different areas, and causality, one brain area causing another to activate. +We are embarking on a grand and golden age of knowledge about child's brain development. +We're going to be able to see a child's brain as they experience an emotion, as they learn to speak and read, as they solve a math problem, as they have an idea. +And we're going to be able to invent brain-based interventions for children who have difficulty learning. +Just as the poets and writers described, we're going to be able to see, I think, that wondrous openness, utter and complete openness, of the mind of a child. +In investigating the child's brain, we're going to uncover deep truths about what it means to be human, and in the process, we may be able to help keep our own minds open to learning for our entire lives. +Thank you. +I've been spending a lot of time traveling around the world these days, talking to groups of students and professionals, and everywhere I'm finding that I hear similar themes. +On the one hand, people say, "The time for change is now." +They want to be part of it. +They talk about wanting lives of purpose and greater meaning. +But on the other hand, I hear people talking about fear, a sense of risk-aversion. +They say, "I really want to follow a life of purpose, but I don't know where to start. +I don't want to disappoint my family or friends." +I work in global poverty. +And they say, "I want to work in global poverty, but what will it mean about my career? +Will I be marginalized? +Will I not make enough money? +Will I never get married or have children?" +And as a woman who didn't get married until I was a lot older -- and I'm glad I waited -- -- and has no children, I look at these young people and I say, "Your job is not to be perfect. +Your job is only to be human. +And nothing important happens in life without a cost." +These conversations really reflect what's happening at the national and international level. +Our leaders and ourselves want everything, but we don't talk about the costs. +We don't talk about the sacrifice. +One of my favorite quotes from literature was written by Tillie Olsen, the great American writer from the South. +In a short story called "Oh Yes," she talks about a white woman in the 1950s who has a daughter who befriends a little African American girl, and she looks at her child with a sense of pride, but she also wonders, what price will she pay? +"Better immersion than to live untouched." +But the real question is, what is the cost of not daring? +What is the cost of not trying? +I've been so privileged in my life to know extraordinary leaders who have chosen to live lives of immersion. +One woman I knew who was a fellow at a program that I ran at the Rockefeller Foundation was named Ingrid Washinawatok. +She was a leader of the Menominee tribe, a Native American peoples. +And when we would gather as fellows, she would push us to think about how the elders in Native American culture make decisions. +And she said they would literally visualize the faces of children for seven generations into the future, looking at them from the Earth, and they would look at them, holding them as stewards for that future. +Ingrid understood that we are connected to each other, not only as human beings, but to every living thing on the planet. +And tragically, in 1999, when she was in Colombia working with the U'wa people, focused on preserving their culture and language, she and two colleagues were abducted and tortured and killed by the FARC. +And whenever we would gather the fellows after that, we would leave a chair empty for her spirit. +And more than a decade later, when I talk to NGO fellows, whether in Trenton, New Jersey or the office of the White House, and we talk about Ingrid, they all say that they're trying to integrate her wisdom and her spirit and really build on the unfulfilled work of her life's mission. +And when we think about legacy, I can think of no more powerful one, despite how short her life was. +And I've been touched by Cambodian women -- beautiful women, women who held the tradition of the classical dance in Cambodia. +And I met them in the early '90s. +In the 1970s, under the Pol Pot regime, the Khmer Rouge killed over a million people, and they focused and targeted the elites and the intellectuals, the artists, the dancers. +And at the end of the war, there were only 30 of these classical dancers still living. +And the women, who I was so privileged to meet when there were three survivors, told these stories about lying in their cots in the refugee camps. +They said they would try so hard to remember the fragments of the dance, hoping that others were alive and doing the same. +And one woman stood there with this perfect carriage, her hands at her side, and she talked about the reunion of the 30 after the war and how extraordinary it was. +And these big tears fell down her face, but she never lifted her hands to move them. +And the women decided that they would train not the next generation of girls, because they had grown too old already, but the next generation. +And I sat there in the studio watching these women clapping their hands -- beautiful rhythms -- as these little fairy pixies were dancing around them, wearing these beautiful silk colors. +And I thought, after all this atrocity, this is how human beings really pray. +Because they're focused on honoring what is most beautiful about our past and building it into the promise of our future. +And what these women understood is sometimes the most important things that we do and that we spend our time on are those things that we cannot measure. +I also have been touched by the dark side of power and leadership. +And I have learned that power, particularly in its absolute form, is an equal opportunity provider. +In 1986, I moved to Rwanda, and I worked with a very small group of Rwandan women to start that country's first microfinance bank. +And one of the women was Agnes -- there on your extreme left -- she was one of the first three women parliamentarians in Rwanda, and her legacy should have been to be one of the mothers of Rwanda. +We built this institution based on social justice, gender equity, this idea of empowering women. +But Agnes cared more about the trappings of power than she did principle at the end. +She was convicted of category one crimes of genocide. +And there is no group more vulnerable to those kinds of manipulations than young men. +I've heard it said that the most dangerous animal on the planet is the adolescent male. +And that, when they sit on those street corners and all they can think of in the future is no job, no education, no possibility, well then it's easy to understand how the greatest source of status can come from a uniform and a gun. +Sometimes very small investments can release enormous, infinite potential that exists in all of us. +One of the Acumen Fund fellows at my organization, Suraj Sudhakar, has what we call moral imagination -- the ability to put yourself in another person's shoes and lead from that perspective. +And he's been working with this young group of men who come from the largest slum in the world, Kibera. +And they're incredible guys. +And together they started a book club for a hundred people in the slums, and they're reading many TED authors and liking it. +And then they created a business plan competition. +Then they decided that they would do TEDx's. +And I have learned so much from Chris and Kevin and Alex and Herbert and all of these young men. +Alex, in some ways, said it best. +He said, "We used to feel like nobodies, but now we feel like somebodies." +And I think we have it all wrong when we think that income is the link. +What we really yearn for as human beings is to be visible to each other. +And the reason these young guys told me that they're doing these TEDx's is because they were sick and tired of the only workshops coming to the slums being those workshops focused on HIV, or at best, microfinance. +And they wanted to celebrate what's beautiful about Kibera and Mathare -- the photojournalists and the creatives, the graffiti artists, the teachers and the entrepreneurs. +And they're doing it. +And my hat's off to you in Kibera. +My own work focuses on making philanthropy more effective and capitalism more inclusive. +At Acumen Fund, we take philanthropic resources and we invest what we call patient capital -- money that will invest in entrepreneurs who see the poor not as passive recipients of charity, but as full-bodied agents of change who want to solve their own problems and make their own decisions. +We leave our money for 10 to 15 years, and when we get it back, we invest in other innovations that focus on change. +I know it works. +We've invested more than 50 million dollars in 50 companies, and those companies have brought another 200 million dollars into these forgotten markets. +This year alone, they've delivered 40 million services like maternal health care and housing, emergency services, solar energy, so that people can have more dignity in solving their problems. +Patient capital is uncomfortable for people searching for simple solutions, easy categories, because we don't see profit as a blunt instrument. +But we find those entrepreneurs who put people and the planet before profit. +And ultimately, we want to be part of a movement that is about measuring impact, measuring what is most important to us. +And my dream is we'll have a world one day where we don't just honor those who take money and make more money from it, but we find those individuals who take our resources and convert it into changing the world in the most positive ways. +And it's only when we honor them and celebrate them and give them status that the world will really change. +Last May I had this extraordinary 24-hour period where I saw two visions of the world living side-by-side -- one based on violence and the other on transcendence. +I happened to be in Lahore, Pakistan on the day that two mosques were attacked by suicide bombers. +And the reason these mosques were attacked is because the people praying inside were from a particular sect of Islam who fundamentalists don't believe are fully Muslim. +And not only did those suicide bombers take a hundred lives, but they did more, because they created more hatred, more rage, more fear and certainly despair. +But less than 24 hours, I was 13 miles away from those mosques, visiting one of our Acumen investees, an incredible man, Jawad Aslam, who dares to live a life of immersion. +Born and raised in Baltimore, he studied real estate, worked in commercial real estate, and after 9/11 decided he was going to Pakistan to make a difference. +For two years, he hardly made any money, a tiny stipend, but he apprenticed with this incredible housing developer named Tasneem Saddiqui. +And he had a dream that he would build a housing community on this barren piece of land using patient capital, but he continued to pay a price. +He stood on moral ground and refused to pay bribes. +It took almost two years just to register the land. +But I saw how the level of moral standard can rise from one person's action. +Today, 2,000 people live in 300 houses in this beautiful community. +And there's schools and clinics and shops. +But there's only one mosque. +And so I asked Jawad, "How do you guys navigate? This is a really diverse community. +Who gets to use the mosque on Fridays?" +He said, "Long story. +It was hard, it was a difficult road, but ultimately the leaders of the community came together, realizing we only have each other. +And we decided that we would elect the three most respected imams, and those imams would take turns, they would rotate who would say Friday prayer. +But the whole community, all the different sects, including Shi'a and Sunni, would sit together and pray." +We need that kind of moral leadership and courage in our worlds. +We face huge issues as a world -- the financial crisis, global warming and this growing sense of fear and otherness. +And every day we have a choice. +We can take the easier road, the more cynical road, which is a road based on sometimes dreams of a past that never really was, a fear of each other, distancing and blame. +Or we can take the much more difficult path of transformation, transcendence, compassion and love, but also accountability and justice. +I had the great honor of working with the child psychologist Dr. Robert Coles, who stood up for change during the Civil Rights movement in the United States. +And he tells this incredible story about working with a little six-year-old girl named Ruby Bridges, the first child to desegregate schools in the South -- in this case, New Orleans. +And he said that every day this six-year-old, dressed in her beautiful dress, would walk with real grace through a phalanx of white people screaming angrily, calling her a monster, threatening to poison her -- distorted faces. +And every day he would watch her, and it looked like she was talking to the people. +And he would say, "Ruby, what are you saying?" +And she'd say, "I'm not talking." +And finally he said, "Ruby, I see that you're talking. +What are you saying?" +And she said, "Dr. Coles, I am not talking; I'm praying." +And he said, "Well, what are you praying?" +And she said, "I'm praying, 'Father, forgive them, for they know not what they are doing.'" At age six, this child was living a life of immersion, and her family paid a price for it. +But she became part of history and opened up this idea that all of us should have access to education. +My final story is about a young, beautiful man named Josephat Byaruhanga, who was another Acumen Fund fellow, who hails from Uganda, a farming community. +And we placed him in a company in Western Kenya, just 200 miles away. +And he said to me at the end of his year, "Jacqueline, it was so humbling, because I thought as a farmer and as an African I would understand how to transcend culture. +But especially when I was talking to the African women, I sometimes made these mistakes -- it was so hard for me to learn how to listen." +And he said, "So I conclude that, in many ways, leadership is like a panicle of rice. +Because at the height of the season, at the height of its powers, it's beautiful, it's green, it nourishes the world, it reaches to the heavens." +And he said, "But right before the harvest, it bends over with great gratitude and humility to touch the earth from where it came." +We need leaders. +We ourselves need to lead from a place that has the audacity to believe we can, ourselves, extend the fundamental assumption that all men are created equal to every man, woman and child on this planet. +And we need to have the humility to recognize that we cannot do it alone. +Robert Kennedy once said that "few of us have the greatness to bend history itself, but each of us can work to change a small portion of events." +And it is in the total of all those acts that the history of this generation will be written. +Our lives are so short, and our time on this planet is so precious, and all we have is each other. +So may each of you live lives of immersion. +They won't necessarily be easy lives, but in the end, it is all that will sustain us. +Thank you. +I'm speaking to you about what I call the "mesh." +It's essentially a fundamental shift in our relationship with stuff, with the things in our lives. +And it's starting to look at -- not always and not for everything -- but in certain moments of time, access to certain kinds of goods and service will trump ownership of them. +easily shared. +And we come from a long tradition of sharing. +We've shared transportation. +We've shared wine and food and other sorts of fabulous experiences in coffee bars in Amsterdam. +We've also shared other sorts of entertainment -- sports arenas, public parks, concert halls, libraries, universities. +All these things are share-platforms, but sharing ultimately starts and ends with what I refer to as the "mother of all share-platforms." +And as I think about the mesh and I think about, well, what's driving it, how come it's happening now, I think there's a number of vectors that I want to give you as background. +One is the recession -- that the recession has caused us to rethink our relationship with the things in our lives relative to the value -- so starting to align the value with the true cost. +Secondly, population growth and density into cities. +More people, smaller spaces, less stuff. +Climate change: we're trying to reduce the stress in our personal lives and in our communities and on the planet. +Also, there's been this recent distrust of big brands, global big brands, in a bunch of different industries, and that's created an opening. +Research is showing here, in the States, and in Canada and Western Europe, that most of us are much more open to local companies, or brands that maybe we haven't heard of. +Whereas before, we went with the big brands that we were sure we trusted. +And last is that we're more connected now to more people on the planet than ever before -- except for if you're sitting next to someone. +The other thing that's worth considering is that we've made a huge investment over decades and decades, and tens of billions of dollars that now is our inheritance. +It's a physical infrastructure that allows us to get from point A to point B and move things that way. +It's also -- Web and mobile allow us to be connected and create all kinds of platforms and systems, and the investment of those technologies and that infrastructure is really our inheritance. +It allows us to engage in really new and interesting ways. +And so for me, a mesh company, the "classic" mesh company, brings together these three things: our ability to connect to each other -- most of us are walking around with these mobile devices that are GPS-enabled and Web-enabled -- allows us to find each other and find things in time and space. +And so that sets up for making access to get goods and services more convenient and less costly in many cases than owning them. +For example, I want to use Zipcar. +How many people here have experienced car-sharing or bike-sharing? +Wow, that's great. Okay, thank you. +Basically Zipcar is the largest car-sharing company in the world. +They did not invent car-sharing. +Car-sharing was actually invented in Europe. +One of the founders went to Switzerland, saw it implemented someplace, said, "Wow, that looks really cool. +I think we can do that in Cambridge," brought it to Cambridge and they started -- two women -- Robin Chase being the other person who started it. +Zipcar got some really important things right. +First, they really understood that a brand is a voice and a product is a souvenir. +And so they were very clever about the way that they packaged car-sharing. +They made it sexy. They made it fresh. +They made it aspirational. +If you were a member of the club, when you're a member of a club, you're a Zipster. +The cars they picked didn't look like ex-cop cars that were hollowed out or something. +They picked these sexy cars. +They targeted to universities. +They made sure that the demographic for who they were targeting and the car was all matching. +It was a very nice experience, and the cars were clean and reliable, and it all worked. +And so from a branding perspective, they got a lot right. +But they understood fundamentally that they are not a car company. +They understand that they are an information company. +Because when we buy a car we go to the dealer once, we have an interaction, and we're chow -- usually as quickly as possible. +But when you're sharing a car and you have a car-share service, you might use an E.V. to commute, you get a truck because you're doing a home project. +When you pick your aunt up at the airport, you get a sedan. +And you're going to the mountains to ski, you get different accessories put on the car for doing that sort of thing. +Meanwhile, these guys are sitting back, collecting all sorts of data about our behavior and how we interact with the service. +And so it's not only an option for them, but I believe it's an imperative for Zipcar and other mesh companies to actually just wow us, to be like a concierge service. +Because we give them so much information, and they are entitled to really see how it is that we're moving. +They're in really good shape to anticipate what we're going to want next. +And so what percent of the day do you think the average person uses a car? +What percentage of the time? +Any guesses? +Those are really very good. +I was imagining it was like 20 percent when I first started. +The number across the U.S. and Western Europe is eight percent. +And so basically even if you think it's 10 percent, 90 percent of the time, something that costs us a lot of money -- personally, and also we organize our cities around it and all sorts of things -- 90 percent of the time it's sitting around. +So for this reason, I think one of the other themes with the mesh is essentially that, if we squeeze hard on things that we've thrown away, there's a lot of value in those things. +What set up with Zipcar -- Zipcar started in 2000. +In the last year, 2010, two car companies started, one that's in the U.K. called WhipCar, and the other one, RelayRides, in the U.S. +They're both peer-to-peer car-sharing services, because the two things that really work for car-sharing is, one, the car has to be available, and two, it's within one or two blocks of where you stand. +Well the car that's one or two blocks from your home or your office is probably your neighbor's car, and it's probably also available. +So people have created this business. +Zipcar started a decade earlier, in 2000. +It took them six years to get 1,000 cars in service. +WhipCar, which started April of last year, it took them six months to get 1,000 cars in the service. +So, really interesting. +People are making anywhere between 200 and 700 dollars a month letting their neighbors use their car when they're not using it. +So it's like vacation rentals for cars. +Since I'm here -- and I hope some people in the audience are in the car business -- -- I'm thinking that, coming from the technology side of things -- we saw cable-ready TVs and WiFi-ready Notebooks -- it would be really great if, any minute now, you guys could start rolling share-ready cars off. +Because it just creates more flexibility. +It allows us as owners to have other options. +And I think we're going there anyway. +We have experiences in our lives, certainly, when sharing has been irresistible. +It's just, how do we make that recurrent and scale it? +We know also, because we're connected in social networks, that it's easy to create delight in one little place. +It's contagious because we're all connected to each other. +So if I have a terrific experience and I tweet it, or I tell five people standing next to me, news travels. +The opposite, as we know, is also true, often more true. +So here we have LudoTruck, which is in L.A., doing the things that gourmet food trucks do, and they've gathered quite a following. +In general, and maybe, again, it's because I'm a tech entrepreneur, I look at things as platforms. +Platforms are invitations. +So creating Craigslist or iTunes and the iPhone developer network, there are all these networks -- Facebook as well. +These platforms invite all sorts of developers and all sorts of people to come with their ideas and their opportunity to create and target an application for a particular audience. +And honestly, it's full of surprises. +Because I don't think any of us in this room could have predicted the sorts of applications that have happened at Facebook, around Facebook, for example, two years ago, when Mark announced that they were going to go with a platform. +So in this way, I think that cities are platforms, and certainly Detroit is a platform. +The invitation of bringing makers and artists and entrepreneurs -- it really helps stimulate this fiery creativity and helps a city to thrive. +It's inviting participation, and cities have, historically, invited all sorts of participation. +Now we're saying that there's other options as well. +So, for example, city departments can open up transit data. +Google has made available transit data API. +And so there's about seven or eight cities already in the U.S. +that have provided the transit data, and different developers are building applications. +So I was having a coffee in Portland, and half-of-a-latte in and the little board in the cafe all of a sudden starts showing me that the next bus is coming in three minutes and the train is coming in 16 minutes. +And so it's reliable, real data that's right in my face, where I am, so I can finish the latte. +There's this fabulous opportunity we have across the U.S. now: about 21 percent of vacant commercial and industrial space. +That space is not vital. +The areas around it lack vitality and vibrancy and engagement. +There's this thing -- how many people here have heard of pop-up stores or pop-up shops? +Oh, great. So I'm a big fan of this. +And this is a very mesh-y thing. +Essentially, there are all sorts of restaurants in Oakland, near where I live. +There's a pop-up general store every three weeks, and they do a fantastic job of making a very social event happening for foodies. +Super fun, and it happens in a very transitional neighborhood. +Subsequent to that, after it's been going for about a year now, they actually started to lease and create and extend. +An area that was edgy-artsy is now starting to become much cooler and engage a lot more people. +So this is an example. +The Crafty Fox is this woman who's into crafts, and she does these pop-up crafts fairs around London. +But these sorts of things are happening in many different environments. +From my perspective, one of the things pop-up stores do is create perishability and urgency. +It creates two of the favorite words of any businessperson: sold out. +And the opportunity to really focus trust and attention is a wonderful thing. +So a lot of what we see in the mesh, and a lot of what we have in the platform that we built allows us to define, refine and scale. +It allows us to test things as an entrepreneur, to go to market, to be in conversation with people, listen, refine something and go back. +It's very cost-effective, and it's very mesh-y. +The infrastructure enables that. +In closing, and as we're moving towards the end, I just also want to encourage -- and I'm willing to share my failures as well, though not from the stage. +I would just like to say that one of the big things, when we look at waste and when we look at ways that we can really be generous and contribute to each other, but also move to create a better economic situation and a better environmental situation, is by sharing failures. +And one quick example is Velib, in 2007, came forward in Paris with a very bold proposition, a very big bike-sharing service. +They made a lot of mistakes. +They had some number of big successes. +But they were very transparent, or they had to be, in the way that they exposed what worked and didn't work. +And so B.C. in Barcelona and B-cycle and Boris Bikes in London -- no one has had to repeat the version 1.0 screw-ups and expensive learning exercises that happened in Paris. +So the opportunity when we're connected is also to share failures and successes. +We're at the very beginning of something that, what we're seeing and the way that mesh companies are coming forward, is inviting, it's engaging, but it's very early. +I have a website -- it's a directory -- and it started with about 1,200 companies, and in the last two-and-a-half months it's up to about 3,300 companies. +And it grows on a very regular daily basis. +But it's very much at the beginning. +So I just want to welcome all of you onto the ride. +And thank you very much. +Pat Mitchell: What is the story of this pin? +Madeleine Albright: This is "Breaking the Glass Ceiling." +PM: Oh. +That was well chosen, I would say, for TEDWomen. +MA: Most of the time I spend when I get up in the morning is trying to figure out what is going to happen. +And none of this pin stuff would have happened if it hadn't been for Saddam Hussein. +I'll tell you what happened. +I went to the United Nations as an ambassador, and it was after the Gulf War, and I was an instructed ambassador. +And the cease-fire had been translated into a series of sanctions resolutions, and my instructions were to say perfectly terrible things about Saddam Hussein constantly, which he deserved -- he had invaded another country. +And so all of a sudden, a poem appeared in the papers in Baghdad comparing me to many things, but among them an "unparalleled serpent." +And so I happened to have a snake pin. +So I wore it when we talked about Iraq. +And when I went out to meet the press, they zeroed in, said, "Why are you wearing that snake pin?" +I said, "Because Saddam Hussein compared me to an unparalleled serpent." +And then I thought, well this is fun. +So I went out and I bought a lot of pins that would, in fact, reflect what I thought we were going to do on any given day. +So that's how it all started. +PM: So how large is the collection? +MA: Pretty big. +It's now traveling. +At the moment it's in Indianapolis, but it was at the Smithsonian. +And it goes with a book that says, "Read My Pins." +PM: So is this a good idea. +I remember when you were the first woman as Secretary of State, and there was a lot of conversation always about what you were wearing, how you looked -- the thing that happens to a lot of women, especially if they're the first in a position. +So how do you feel about that -- the whole -- MA: Well, it's pretty irritating actually because nobody ever describes what a man is wearing. +But people did pay attention to what clothes I had. +What was interesting was that, before I went up to New York as U.N. ambassador, I talked to Jeane Kirkpatrick, who'd been ambassador before me, and she said, "You've got to get rid of your professor clothes. +Go out and look like a diplomat." +So that did give me a lot of opportunities to go shopping. +But still, there were all kinds of questions about -- "did you wear a hat?" "How short was your skirt?" +And one of the things -- if you remember Condoleezza Rice was at some event and she wore boots, and she got criticized over that. +And no guy ever gets criticized. But that's the least of it. +PM: It is, for all of us, men and women, finding our ways of defining our roles, and doing them in ways that make a difference in the world and shape the future. +How did you handle that balance between being the tough diplomatic and strong voice of this country to the rest of the world and also how you felt about yourself as a mother, a grandmother, nurturing ... +and so how did you handle that? +MA: Well the interesting part was I was asked what it was like to be the first woman Secretary of State a few minutes after I'd been named. +And I said, "Well I've been a woman for 60 years, but I've only been Secretary of State for a few minutes." +So it evolved. +But basically I love being a woman. +And so what happened -- and I think there will probably be some people in the audience that will identify with this -- I went to my first meeting, first at the U.N., and that's when this all started, because that is a very male organization. +And I'm sitting there -- there are 15 members of the Security Council -- so 14 men sat there staring at me, and I thought -- well you know how we all are. +You want to get the feeling of the room, and "do people like me?" +and "will I really say something intelligent?" +And all of a sudden I thought, "Well, wait a minute. +And so that happened more at various times, but I really think that there was a great advantage in many ways to being a woman. +I think we are a lot better at personal relationships, and then have the capability obviously of telling it like it is when it's necessary. +But I have to tell you, I have my youngest granddaughter, when she turned seven last year, said to her mother, my daughter, "So what's the big deal about Grandma Maddie being Secretary of State? +Only girls are Secretary of State." +PM: Because in her lifetime -- MA: That would be so. +PM: What a change that is. +As you travel now all over the world, which you do frequently, how do you assess this global narrative around the story of women and girls? +Where are we? +MA: I think we're slowly changing, but obviously there are whole pockets in countries where nothing is different. +And therefore it means that we have to remember that, while many of us have had huge opportunities -- and Pat, you have been a real leader in your field -- is that there are a lot of women that are not capable of worrying and taking care of themselves and understanding that women have to help other women. +So I think that it behooves us -- those of us that live in various countries where we do have economic and political voice -- that we need to help other women. +And I really dedicated myself to that, both at the U.N. and then as Secretary of State. +PM: And did you get pushback from making that a central tenant of foreign policy? +MA: From some people. +I think that they thought that it was a soft issue. +The bottom line that I decided was actually women's issues are the hardest issues, because they are the ones that have to do with life and death in so many aspects, and because, as I said, it is really central to the way that we think about things. +Now for instance, some of the wars that took place when I was in office, a lot of them, the women were the main victims of it. +For instance, when I started, there were wars in the Balkans. +The women in Bosnia were being raped. +We then managed to set up a war crimes tribunal to deal specifically with those kinds of issues. +And by the way, one of the things that I did at that stage was, I had just arrived at the U.N., and when I was there, there were 183 countries in the U.N. +Now there are 192. +But it was one of the first times that I didn't have to cook lunch myself. +So I said to my assistant, "Invite the other women permanent representatives." +And I thought when I'd get to my apartment that there'd be a lot of women there. +I get there, and there are six other women, out of 183. +So the countries that had women representatives were Canada, Kazakhstan, Philippines, Trinidad Tobago, Jamaica, Lichtenstein and me. +So being an American, I decided to set up a caucus. +And so we set it up, and we called ourselves the G7. +PM: Is that "Girl 7?" MA: Girl 7. +And we lobbied on behalf of women's issues. +So we managed to get two women judges on this war crimes tribunal. +And then what happened was that they were able to declare that rape was a weapon of war, that it was against humanity. +Now you were at those negotiating tables when they weren't, when there was maybe you -- one voice, maybe one or two others. +Do you believe, and can you tell us why, there is going to be a significant shift in things like violence and peace and conflict and resolution on a sustainable basis? +MA: Well I do think, when there are more women, that the tone of the conversation changes, and also the goals of the conversation change. +But it doesn't mean that the whole world would be a lot better if it were totally run by women. +If you think that, you've forgotten high school. +But the bottom line is that there is a way, when there are more women at the table, that there's an attempt to develop some understanding. +So for instance, what I did when I went to Burundi, we'd got Tutsi and Hutu women together to talk about some of the problems that had taken place in Rwanda. +And so I think the capability of women to put themselves -- I think we're better about putting ourselves into the other guy's shoes and having more empathy. +I think it helps in terms of the support if there are other women in the room. +When I was Secretary of State, there were only 13 other women foreign ministers. +And so it was nice when one of them would show up. +For instance, she is now the president of Finland, but Tarja Halonen was the foreign minister of Finland and, at a certain stage, head of the European Union. +And it was really terrific. +Because one of the things I think you'll understand. +We went to a meeting, and the men in my delegation, when I would say, "Well I feel we should do something about this," and they'd say, "What do you mean, you feel?" +And so then Tarja was sitting across the table from me. +And all of a sudden we were talking about arms control, and she said, "Well I feel we should do this." +And my male colleagues kind of got it all of a sudden. +But I think it really does help to have a critical mass of women in a series of foreign policy positions. +The other thing that I think is really important: A lot of national security policy isn't just about foreign policy, but it's about budgets, military budgets, and how the debts of countries work out. +So if you have women in a variety of foreign policy posts, they can support each other when there are budget decisions being made in their own countries. +PM: So how do we get this balance we're looking for, then, in the world? +More women's voices at the table? +More men who believe that the balance is best? +MA: Well I think one of the things -- I'm chairman of the board of an organization called the National Democratic Institute that works to support women candidates. +I think that we need to help in other countries to train women to be in political office, to figure out how they can in fact develop political voices. +I think we also need to be supportive when businesses are being created and just make sure that women help each other. +Now I have a saying that I feel very strongly about, because I am of a certain age where, when I started in my career, believe it or not, there were other women who criticized me: "Why aren't you in the carpool line?" +or "Aren't your children suffering because you're not there all the time?" +And I think we have a tendency to make each other feel guilty. +In fact, I think "guilt" is every woman's middle name. +And so I think what needs to happen is we need to help each other. +And my motto is that there's a special place in hell for women who don't help each other. +PM: Well Secretary Albright, I guess you'll be going to heaven. +Thank you for joining us today. +MA: Thank you all. Thanks Pat. +It's Monday morning. +In Washington, the president of the United States is sitting in the Oval Office, assessing whether or not to strike Al Qaeda in Yemen. +At Number 10 Downing Street, David Cameron is trying to work out whether to cut more public sector jobs in order to stave off a double-dip recession. +In Madrid, Maria Gonzalez is standing at the door, listening to her baby crying and crying, trying to work out whether she should let it cry until it falls asleep or pick it up and hold it. +We face momentous decisions with important consequences throughout our lives, and we have strategies for dealing with these decisions. +We talk things over with our friends, we scour the Internet, we search through books. +But still, even in this age of Google and TripAdvisor and Amazon Recommends, it's still experts that we rely upon most -- especially when the stakes are high and the decision really matters. +Because in a world of data deluge and extreme complexity, we believe that experts are more able to process information than we can -- that they are able to come to better conclusions than we could come to on our own. +And in an age that is sometimes nowadays frightening or confusing, we feel reassured by the almost parental-like authority of experts who tell us so clearly what it is we can and cannot do. +But I believe that this is a big problem, a problem with potentially dangerous consequences for us as a society, as a culture and as individuals. +It's not that experts have not massively contributed to the world -- of course they have. +The problem lies with us: we've become addicted to experts. +We've become addicted to their certainty, their assuredness, their definitiveness, and in the process, we have ceded our responsibility, substituting our intellect and our intelligence for their supposed words of wisdom. +We've surrendered our power, trading off our discomfort with uncertainty for the illusion of certainty that they provide. +This is no exaggeration. +In a recent experiment, a group of adults had their brains scanned in an MRI machine as they were listening to experts speak. +The results were quite extraordinary. +As they listened to the experts' voices, the independent decision-making parts of their brains switched off. +It literally flat-lined. +And they listened to whatever the experts said and took their advice, however right or wrong. +But experts do get things wrong. +Did you know that studies show that doctors misdiagnose four times out of 10? +Did you know that if you file your tax returns yourself, you're statistically more likely to be filing them correctly than if you get a tax adviser to do it for you? +And then there's, of course, the example that we're all too aware of: financial experts getting it so wrong that we're living through the worst recession since the 1930s. +For the sake of our health, our wealth and our collective security, it's imperative that we keep the independent decision-making parts of our brains switched on. +So in order to help you understand where I'm coming from, let me bring you into my world, the world of experts. +Now there are, of course, exceptions, wonderful, civilization-enhancing exceptions. +But what my research has shown me is that experts tend on the whole to form very rigid camps, that within these camps, a dominant perspective emerges that often silences opposition, that experts move with the prevailing winds, often hero-worshipping their own gurus. +Alan Greenspan's proclamations that the years of economic growth would go on and on, not challenged by his peers, until after the crisis, of course. +You see, we also learn that experts are located, are governed, by the social and cultural norms of their times -- whether it be the doctors in Victorian England, say, who sent women to asylums for expressing sexual desire, or the psychiatrists in the United States who, up until 1973, were still categorizing homosexuality as a mental illness. +The study showed that food companies exaggerated typically seven times more than an independent study. +And we've also got to be aware that experts, of course, also make mistakes. +They make mistakes every single day -- mistakes born out of carelessness. +A recent study in the Archives of Surgery reported surgeons removing healthy ovaries, operating on the wrong side of the brain, carrying out procedures on the wrong hand, elbow, eye, foot, and also mistakes born out of thinking errors. +A common thinking error of radiologists, for example -- when they look at CT scans -- is that they're overly influenced by whatever it is that the referring physician has said that he suspects the patient's problem to be. +So if a radiologist is looking at the scan of a patient with suspected pneumonia, say, what happens is that, if they see evidence of pneumonia on the scan, they literally stop looking at it -- thereby missing the tumor sitting three inches below on the patient's lungs. +I've shared with you so far some insights into the world of experts. +These are, of course, not the only insights I could share, but I hope they give you a clear sense at least of why we need to stop kowtowing to them, why we need to rebel and why we need to switch our independent decision-making capabilities on. +But how can we do this? +Well for the sake of time, I want to focus on just three strategies. +First, we've got to be ready and willing to take experts on and dispense with this notion of them as modern-day apostles. +This doesn't mean having to get a Ph.D. +in every single subject, you'll be relieved to hear. +But it does mean persisting in the face of their inevitable annoyance when, for example, we want them to explain things to us in language that we can actually understand. +Why was it that, when I had an operation, my doctor said to me, "Beware, Ms. Hertz, of hyperpyrexia," when he could have just as easily said, "Watch out for a high fever." +You see, being ready to take experts on is about also being willing to dig behind their graphs, their equations, their forecasts, their prophecies, and being armed with the questions to do that -- questions like: What are the assumptions that underpin this? +What is the evidence upon which this is based? +What has your investigation focused on? +And what has it ignored? +It recently came out that experts trialing drugs before they come to market typically trial drugs first, primarily on male animals and then, primarily on men. +It seems that they've somehow overlooked the fact that over half the world's population are women. +And women have drawn the short medical straw because it now turns out that many of these drugs don't work nearly as well on women as they do on men -- and the drugs that do work well work so well that they're actively harmful for women to take. +Being a rebel is about recognizing that experts' assumptions and their methodologies can easily be flawed. +Second, we need to create the space for what I call "managed dissent." +All the research now shows us that this actually makes us smarter. +Encouraging dissent is a rebellious notion because it goes against our very instincts, which are to surround ourselves with opinions and advice that we already believe or want to be true. +And that's why I talk about the need to actively manage dissent. +Google CEO Eric Schmidt is a practical practitioner of this philosophy. +In meetings, he looks out for the person in the room -- arms crossed, looking a bit bemused -- and draws them into the discussion, trying to see if they indeed are the person with a different opinion, so that they have dissent within the room. +Managing dissent is about recognizing the value of disagreement, discord and difference. +But we need to go even further. +We need to fundamentally redefine who it is that experts are. +The conventional notion is that experts are people with advanced degrees, fancy titles, diplomas, best-selling books -- high-status individuals. +But just imagine if we were to junk this notion of expertise as some sort of elite cadre and instead embrace the notion of democratized expertise -- whereby expertise was not just the preserve of surgeons and CEO's, but also shop-girls -- yeah. +By leveraging and by embracing the expertise within the company, Best Buy was able to discover, for example, that the store that it was going to open in China -- its big, grand store -- was not going to open on time. +Because when it asked its staff, all its staff, to place their bets on whether they thought the store would open on time or not, a group from the finance department placed all their chips on that not happening. +It turned out that they were aware, as no one else within the company was, of a technological blip that neither the forecasting experts, nor the experts on the ground in China, were even aware of. +The strategies that I have discussed this evening -- embracing dissent, taking experts on, democratizing expertise, rebellious strategies -- are strategies that I think would serve us all well to embrace as we try to deal with the challenges of these very confusing, complex, difficult times. +For now, more than ever, is not the time to be blindly following, blindly accepting, blindly trusting. +Now is the time to face the world with eyes wide open -- yes, using experts to help us figure things out, for sure -- I don't want to completely do myself out of a job here -- but being aware of their limitations and, of course, also our own. +Thank you. +Our face is hugely important because it's the external, visual part that everybody else sees. +Let's not forget it's a functional entity. +We have strong skull bones that protect the most important organ in our body: the brain. +It's where our senses are located, our special senses -- our vision, our speech, our hearing, our smell, our taste. +And this bone is peppered, as you can see, with the light shining through the skull with cavities, the sinuses, which warm and moisten the air we breathe. +But also imagine if they were filled with solid bone -- our head would be dead weight, we wouldn't be able to hold it erect, we wouldn't be able to look at the world around us. +This woman is slowly dying because the benign tumors in her facial bones have completely obliterated her mouth and her nose so she can't breathe and eat. +Attached to the facial bones that define our face's structure are the muscles that deliver our facial expression, our universal language of expression, our social-signaling system. +And overlying this is the skin drape, which is a hugely complex three-dimensional structure -- taking right-angled bends here and there, having thin areas like the eyelids, thick areas like the cheek, different colors. +And then we have the sensual factor of the face. +Where do we like to kiss people? +On the lips. Nibble the ears maybe. +It's the face where we're attracted to with that. +But let's not forget the hair. +You're looking at the image on your left-hand side -- that's my son with his eyebrows present. +Look how odd he looks with the eyebrows missing. +There's a definite difference. +And imagine if he had hair sprouting from the middle of his nose, he'd look even odder still. +Dysmorphophobia is an extreme version of the fact that we don't see ourselves as others see us. +It's a shocking truth that we only see mirror images of ourselves, and we only see ourselves in freeze-frame photographic images that capture a mere fraction of the time that we live. +Dysmorphophobia is a perversion of this where people who may be very good looking regard themselves as hideously ugly and are constantly seeking surgery to correct their facial appearance. +They don't need this. They need psychiatric help. +Max has kindly donated his photograph to me. +He doesn't have dysmorphophobia, but I'm using his photograph to illustrate the fact that he looks exactly like a dysmorphophobic. +In other words, he looks entirely normal. +Age is another thing when our attitude toward our appearance changes. +So children judge themselves, learn to judge themselves, by the behavior of adults around them. +Here's a classic example: Rebecca has a benign blood vessel tumor that's growing out through her skull, has obliterated her nose, and she's having difficulty seeing. +As you can see, it's blocking her vision. +She's also in danger, when she damages this, of bleeding profusely. +Our research has shown that the parents and close loved ones of these children adore them. +They've grown used to their face; they think they're special. +Actually, sometimes the parents argue about whether these children should have the lesion removed. +And occasionally they suffer intense grief reactions because the child they've grown to love has changed so dramatically and they don't recognize them. +But other adults say incredibly painful things. +They say, "How dare you take this child out of the house and terrify other people. +Shouldn't you be doing something about this? Why haven't you had it removed?" +And other children in curiosity come up and poke the lesion, because -- a natural curiosity. +And that obviously alerts the child to their unusual nature. +After surgery, everything normalizes. +The adults behave more naturally, and the children play more readily with other children. +As teenagers -- just think back to your teenage years -- we're going through a dramatic and often disproportionate change in our facial appearance. +We're trying to struggle to find our identity. +We crave the approval of our peers. +So our facial appearance is vital to us as we're trying to project ourselves to the world. +Just remember that single acne spot that crippled you for several days. +How long did you spend looking in the mirror every day, practicing your sardonic look, practicing your serious look, trying to look like Sean Connery, as I did, trying to raise one eyebrow? +It's a crippling time. +I've chosen to show this profile view of Sue because what it shows is her lower jaw jutting forward and her lower lip jutting forward. +I'd like you all in the audience now to push your lower jaw forward. +Turn to the person next to you, push your lower jaws forward. Turn to the person next to you and look at them -- they look miserable. +That's exactly what people used to say to Sue. +She wasn't miserable at all. +But people used to say to her, "Why are you so miserable?" +People were making misjudgments all the time on her mood. +Teachers and peers were underestimating her; she was teased at school. +So she chose to have facial surgery. +After the facial surgery, she said, "My face now reflects my personality. +People know now that I'm enthusiastic, that I'm a happy person." +And that's the change that can be achieved for teenagers. +Is this change, though, a real change, or is it a figment of the imagination of the patient themselves? +Well we studied teenagers' attitudes to photographs of patients having this corrective facial surgery. +And what we found was -- we jumbled up the photographs so they couldn't recognize the before and after -- what we found was that the patients were regarded as being more attractive after the surgery. +Well that's not surprising, but we also asked them to judge them on honesty, intelligence, friendliness, violence. +They were all perceived as being less than normal in all those characteristics -- more violent, etc. -- before the surgery. +After the surgery, they were perceived as being more intelligent, more friendly, more honest, less violent -- and yet we hadn't operated on their intellect or their character. +When people get older, they don't necessarily choose to follow this kind of surgery. +Their presence in the consultation suite is a result of the slings and arrows of outrageous fortune. +What happens to them is that they may have suffered cancer or trauma. +So this is a photograph of Henry, two weeks after he had a malignant cancer removed from the left side of his face -- his cheekbone, his upper jaw, his eye-socket. +He looks pretty good at this stage. +But over the course of the next 15 years he had 14 more operations, as the disease ravaged his face and destroyed my reconstruction regularly. +I learned a huge amount from Henry. +Henry taught me that you can carry on working. +He worked as an advocate. He continued to play cricket. +He enjoyed life to the full, and this was probably because he had a successful, fulfilling job and a caring family and was able to participate socially. +He maintained a calm insouciance. +I don't say he overcame this; he didn't overcome it. +This was something more than that. He ignored it. +He ignored the disfigurement that was happening in his life and carried on oblivious to it. +And that's what these people can do. +Henriapi illustrates this phenomenon as well. +This is a man in his 20s whose first visit out of Nigeria was with this malignant cancer that he came to the United Kingdom to have operated on. +It was my longest operation. +It took 23 hours. I did it with my neurosurgeon. +We removed all the bones at the right side of his face -- his eye, his nose, the skull bones, the facial skin -- and reconstructed him with tissue from the back. +He continued to work as a psychiatric nurse. +He got married. He had a son called Jeremiah. +And again, he said, "This painting of me with my son Jeremiah shows me as the successful man that I feel that I am." +His facial disfigurement did not affect him because he had the support of a family; he had a successful, fulfilling job. +So we've seen that we can change people's faces. +But when we change people's faces, are we changing their identity -- for better or for worse? +For instance, there are two different types of facial surgery. +We can categorize it like that. +We can say there are patients who choose to have facial surgery -- like Sue. +When they have facial surgery, they feel their lives have changed because other people perceive them as better people. +They don't feel different. +They feel that they've actually gained what they never had, that their face now reflects their personality. +And actually that's probably the difference between cosmetic surgery and this kind of surgery. +Because you might say, "Well, this type of surgery might be regarded as cosmetic." +If you do cosmetic surgery, patients are often less happy. +They're trying to achieve difference in their lives. +Sue wasn't trying to achieve difference in her life. +She was just trying to achieve the face that matched her personality. +But then we have other people who don't choose to have facial surgery. +They're people who have their face shot off. +I'll move it off, and we'll have a blank slide for those who are squeamish amongst you. +They have it forced upon them. +And again, as I told you, if they have a caring family and good work life, then they can lead normal and fulfilled lives. +Their identity doesn't change. +Is this business about appearance and preoccupation with it a Western phenomenon? +Muzetta's family give the lie to this. +This is a little Bangladeshi girl from the east end of London who's got a huge malignant tumor on the right side of her face, which has already made her blind and which is rapidly growing and is going to kill her shortly. +After she had surgery to remove the tumor, her parents dressed her in this beautiful green velvet dress, a pink ribbon in her hair, and they wanted the painting to be shown around the world, despite the fact that they were orthodox Muslims and the mother wore a full burqa. +So it's not simply a Western phenomenon. +We make judgments on people's faces all the time. +It's been going on since we can think of Lombroso and the way he would define criminal faces. +He said you could see criminal faces, judging them just on the photographs that were showed. +Good-looking people are always judged as being more friendly. +We look at O.J. -- he's a good-looking guy. +We'd like to spend time with him. He looks friendly. +Now we know that he's a convicted wife-batterer, and actually he's not the good guy. +And beauty doesn't equate to goodness, and certainly doesn't equate to contentment. +So we've talked about the static face and judging the static face, but actually, we're more comfortable with judging the moving face. +We think we can judge people on their expressions. +U.K. jurors in the U.K. justice system like to see a live witness to see whether they can pick up the telltale signs of mendacity -- the blink, the hesitation. +And so they want to see live witnesses. +Todorov tells us that, in a tenth of a second, we can make a judgment on somebody's face. +Are we uncomfortable with this image? Yes, we are. +Would we be happy if our doctor's face, our lawyer's face, our financial adviser's face was covered? +We'd be pretty uncomfortable. +But are we good at making the judgments on facial appearance and movement? +The truth is that there's a five-minute rule, not the tenth-of-a-second rule like Todorov, but a five-minute rule. +If you spend five minutes with somebody, you start looking beyond their facial appearance, and the people who you're initially attracted to may seem boring and you lose interest in them, and the people who you didn't immediately seek out, because you didn't find them particularly attractive, become attractive people because of their personality. +So we've talked a lot about facial appearance. +I now want to share a little bit of the surgery that we do -- where we're at and where we're going. +This is an image of Ann who's had her right jaw removed and the base of her skull removed. +And you can see in the images afterward, we've managed to reconstruct her successfully. +But that's not good enough. +This is what Ann wants. She wants to be out kayaking, she wants to be out climbing mountains. +And that's what she achieved, and that's what we have to get to. +This is a horrific image, so I'm putting my hand up now. +This is a photograph of Adi, a Nigerian bank manager who had his face shot off in an armed robbery. +And he lost his lower jaw, his lip, his chin and his upper jaw and teeth. +This is the bar that he set for us. +"I want to look like this. This is how I looked before." +So with modern technology, we used computers to make models. +We made a model of the jaw without bone in it. +We then bent a plate up to it. +We put it in place so we knew it was an accurate position. +We then put bone and tissue from the back. +Here you can see the plate holding it, and you can see the implants being put in -- so that in one operation we achieve this and this. +So the patient's life is restored. +That's the good news. +However, his chin skin doesn't look the same as it did before. +It's skin from his back. +It's thicker, it's darker, it's coarser, it doesn't have the contours. +And that's where we're failing, and that's where we need the face transplant. +The face transplant has a role probably in burns patients to replace the skin. +We can replace the underlying skeletal structure, but we're still not good at replacing the facial skin. +So it's very valuable to have that tool in our armamentarium. +But the patients are going to have to take drugs that suppress their immune system for the rest of their lives. +What does that mean? +They have an increased risk of infection, an increased risk of malignancy. +We also don't know what they feel about recognition and identity. +Bernard Devauchelle and Sylvie Testelin, who did the first operation, are studying that. +Donors are going to be short on the ground, because how many people want to have their loved one's face removed at the point of death? +So there are going to be problems with face transplantation. +So the better news is the future's almost here -- and the future is tissue engineering. +Just imagine, I can make a biologically-degradable template. +I can put it in place where it's meant to be. +I can sprinkle a few cells, stem cells from the patient's own hip, a little bit of genetically engineered protein, and lo and behold, leave it for four months and the face is grown. +This is a bit like a Julia Child recipe. +But we've still got problems. +We've got mouth cancer to solve. +We're still not curing enough patients -- it's the most disfiguring cancer. +We're still not reconstructing them well enough. +In the U.K. we have an epidemic of facial injuries among young people. +We still can't get rid of scars. +We need to do research. +And the best news of all is that surgeons know that we need to do research. +And we've set up charities that will help us fund the clinical research to determine the best treatment practice now and better treatment into the future, so we don't just sit on our laurels and say, "Okay, we're doing okay. +Let's leave it as it is." +Thank you very much indeed. +As a child, I was raised by native Hawaiian elders -- three old women who took care of me while my parents worked. +The year is 1963. +We're at the ocean. +It's twilight. +We're watching the rising of the stars and the shifting of the tides. +It's a stretch of beach we know so well. +The smooth stones on the sand are familiar to us. +If you saw these women on the street in their faded clothes, you might dismiss them as poor and simple. +That would be a mistake. +These women are descendants of Polynesian navigators, trained in the old ways by their elders, and now they're passing it on to me. +They teach me the names of the winds and the rains, of astronomy according to a genealogy of stars. +There's a new moon on the horizon. +Hawaiians say it's a good night for fishing. +They begin to chant. +[Hawaiian chant] When they finish, they sit in a circle and ask me to come to join them. +They want to teach me about my destiny. +I thought every seven-year-old went through this. +"Baby girl, someday the world will be in trouble. +People will forget their wisdom. +It will take elders' voices from the far corners of the world to call the world into balance. +You will go far away. +It will sometimes be a lonely road. +We will not be there. +But you will look into the eyes of seeming strangers, and you will recognize your ohana, your family. +And it will take all of you. +It will take all of you." +These words, I hold onto all my life. +Because the idea of doing it alone terrifies me. +The year is 2007. +I'm on a remote island in Micronesia. +Satawal is one half-mile long by one mile wide. +It's the home of my mentor. +His name is Pius Mau Piailug. +Mau is a palu, a navigator priest. +He's also considered the greatest wave finder in the world. +There are fewer than a handful of palu left on this island. +Their tradition is so extraordinary that these mariners sailed three million square miles across the Pacific without the use of instruments. +They could synthesize patterns in nature using the rising and setting of stars, the sequence and direction of waves, the flight patterns of certain birds. +Even the slightest hint of color on the underbelly of a cloud would inform them and help them navigate with the keenest accuracy. +When Western scientists would join Mau on the canoe and watch him go into the hull, it appeared that an old man was going to rest. +In fact, the hull of the canoe is the womb of the vessel. +It is the most accurate place to feel the rhythm and sequence and direction of waves. +Mau was, in fact, gathering explicit data using his entire body. +It's what he had been trained to do since he was five years old. +Now science may dismiss this methodology, but Polynesian navigators use it today because it provides them an accurate determination of the angle and direction of their vessel. +The palu also had an uncanny ability to forecast weather conditions days in advance. +Sometimes I'd be with Mau on a cloud-covered night and we'd sit at the easternmost coast of the island, and he would look out, and then he would say, "Okay, we go." +He saw that first glint of light -- he knew what the weather was going to be three days from now. +Their achievements, intellectually and scientifically, are extraordinary, and they are so relevant for these times that we are in when we are riding out storms. +We are in such a critical moment of our collective history. +They have been compared to astronauts -- these elder navigators who sail vast open oceans in double-hulled canoes thousands of miles from a small island. +Their canoes, our rockets; their sea, our space. +The wisdom of these elders is not a mere collection of stories about old people in some remote spot. +This is part of our collective narrative. +It's humanity's DNA. +We cannot afford to lose it. +The year is 2010. +Just as the women in Hawaii that raised me predicted, the world is in trouble. +We live in a society bloated with data, yet starved for wisdom. +We're connected 24/7, yet anxiety, fear, depression and loneliness is at an all-time high. +We must course-correct. +An African shaman said, "Your society worships the jester while the king stands in plain clothes." +The link between the past and the future is fragile. +This I know intimately, because even as I travel throughout the world to listen to these stories and record them, I struggle. +I am haunted by the fact that I no longer remember the names of the winds and the rains. +Mau passed away five months ago, but his legacy and lessons live on. +And I am reminded that throughout the world there are cultures with vast sums of knowledge in them, as potent as the Micronesian navigators, that are going dismissed, that this is a testament to brilliant, brilliant technology and science and wisdom that is vanishing rapidly. +Because when an elder dies a library is burned, and throughout the world, libraries are ablaze. +I am grateful for the fact that I had a mentor like Mau who taught me how to navigate. +And I realize through a lesson that he shared that we continue to find our way. +And this is what he said: "The island is the canoe; the canoe, the island." +And what he meant was, if you are voyaging and far from home, your very survival depends on everyone aboard. +You cannot make the voyage alone, you were never meant to. +This whole notion of every man for himself is completely unsustainable. +It always was. +So in closing I would offer you this: The planet is our canoe, and we are the voyagers. +True navigation begins in the human heart. +It's the most important map of all. +Together, may we journey well. +I admit that I'm a little bit nervous here because I'm going to say some radical things, about how we should think about cancer differently, to an audience that contains a lot of people who know a lot more about cancer than I do. +But I will also contest that I'm not as nervous as I should be because I'm pretty sure I'm right about this. +And that this, in fact, will be the way that we treat cancer in the future. +In order to talk about cancer, I'm going to actually have to -- let me get the big slide here. +First, I'm going to try to give you a different perspective of genomics. +I want to put it in perspective of the bigger picture of all the other things that are going on -- and then talk about something you haven't heard so much about, which is proteomics. +Having explained those, that will set up for what I think will be a different idea about how to go about treating cancer. +So let me start with genomics. +It is the hot topic. +It is the place where we're learning the most. +This is the great frontier. +But it has its limitations. +And in particular, you've probably all heard the analogy that the genome is like the blueprint of your body, and if that were only true, it would be great, but it's not. +It's like the parts list of your body. +It doesn't say how things are connected, what causes what and so on. +So if I can make an analogy, let's say that you were trying to tell the difference between a good restaurant, a healthy restaurant and a sick restaurant, and all you had was the list of ingredients that they had in their larder. +So it might be that, if you went to a French restaurant and you looked through it and you found they only had margarine and they didn't have butter, you could say, "Ah, I see what's wrong with them. +I can make them healthy." +And there probably are special cases of that. +You could certainly tell the difference between a Chinese restaurant and a French restaurant by what they had in a larder. +So the list of ingredients does tell you something, and sometimes it tells you something that's wrong. +If they have tons of salt, you might guess they're using too much salt, or something like that. +But it's limited, because really to know if it's a healthy restaurant, you need to taste the food, you need to know what goes on in the kitchen, you need the product of all of those ingredients. +So if I look at a person and I look at a person's genome, it's the same thing. +The part of the genome that we can read is the list of ingredients. +And so indeed, there are times when we can find ingredients that [are] bad. +Cystic fibrosis is an example of a disease where you just have a bad ingredient and you have a disease, and we can actually make a direct correspondence between the ingredient and the disease. +But most things, you really have to know what's going on in the kitchen, because, mostly, sick people used to be healthy people -- they have the same genome. +So the genome really tells you much more about predisposition. +So what you can tell is you can tell the difference between an Asian person and a European person by looking at their ingredients list. +But you really for the most part can't tell the difference between a healthy person and a sick person -- except in some of these special cases. +So why all the big deal about genetics? +Well first of all, it's because we can read it, which is fantastic. +It is very useful in certain circumstances. +It's also the great theoretical triumph of biology. +It's the one theory that the biologists ever really got right. +It's fundamental to Darwin and Mendel and so on. +And so it's the one thing where they predicted a theoretical construct. +So Mendel had this idea of a gene as an abstract thing, and Darwin built a whole theory that depended on them existing, and then Watson and Crick actually looked and found one. +So this happens in physics all the time. +You predict a black hole, and you look out the telescope and there it is, just like you said. +But it rarely happens in biology. +So this great triumph -- it's so good, there's almost a religious experience in biology. +And Darwinian evolution is really the core theory. +So the other reason it's been very popular is because we can measure it, it's digital. +And in fact, thanks to Kary Mullis, you can basically measure your genome in your kitchen with a few extra ingredients. +So for instance, by measuring the genome, we've learned a lot about how we're related to other kinds of animals by the closeness of our genome, or how we're related to each other -- the family tree, or the tree of life. +There's a huge amount of information about the genetics just by comparing the genetic similarity. +Now of course, in medical application, that is very useful because it's the same kind of information that the doctor gets from your family medical history -- except probably, your genome knows much more about your medical history than you do. +And so by reading the genome, we can find out much more about your family than you probably know. +And so we can discover things that probably you could have found by looking at enough of your relatives, but they may be surprising. +I did the 23andMe thing and was very surprised to discover that I am fat and bald. +But sometimes you can learn much more useful things about that. +But mostly what you need to know, to find out if you're sick, is not your predispositions, but it's actually what's going on in your body right now. +So to do that, what you really need to do, you need to look at the things that the genes are producing and what's happening after the genetics, and that's what proteomics is about. +Just like genome mixes the study of all the genes, proteomics is the study of all the proteins. +And the proteins are all of the little things in your body that are signaling between the cells -- actually, the machines that are operating -- that's where the action is. +Basically, a human body is a conversation going on, both within the cells and between the cells, and they're telling each other to grow and to die, and when you're sick, something's gone wrong with that conversation. +And so the trick is -- unfortunately, we don't have an easy way to measure these like we can measure the genome. +So the problem is that measuring -- if you try to measure all the proteins, it's a very elaborate process. +It requires hundreds of steps, and it takes a long, long time. +And it matters how much of the protein it is. +It could be very significant that a protein changed by 10 percent, so it's not a nice digital thing like DNA. +And basically our problem is somebody's in the middle of this very long stage, they pause for just a moment, and they leave something in an enzyme for a second, and all of a sudden all the measurements from then on don't work. +And so then people get very inconsistent results when they do it this way. +People have tried very hard to do this. +I tried this a couple of times and looked at this problem and gave up on it. +I kept getting this call from this oncologist named David Agus. +And Applied Minds gets a lot of calls from people who want help with their problems, and I didn't think this was a very likely one to call back, so I kept on giving him to the delay list. +And then one day, I get a call from John Doerr, Bill Berkman and Al Gore on the same day saying return David Agus's phone call. +So I was like, "Okay. This guy's at least resourceful." +So we started talking, and he said, "I really need a better way to measure proteins." +I'm like, "Looked at that. Been there. +Not going to be easy." +He's like, "No, no. I really need it. +I mean, I see patients dying every day because we don't know what's going on inside of them. +We have to have a window into this." +And he took me through specific examples of when he really needed it. +And I realized, wow, this would really make a big difference, if we could do it, and so I said, "Well, let's look at it." +Applied Minds has enough play money that we can go and just work on something without getting anybody's funding or permission or anything. +So we started playing around with this. +And as we did it, we realized this was the basic problem -- that taking the sip of coffee -- that there were humans doing this complicated process and that what really needed to be done was to automate this process like an assembly line and build robots that would measure proteomics. +And so we did that, and working with David, we made a little company called Applied Proteomics eventually, which makes this robotic assembly line, which, in a very consistent way, measures the protein. +And I'll show you what that protein measurement looks like. +Basically, what we do is we take a drop of blood out of a patient, and we sort out the proteins in the drop of blood according to how much they weigh, how slippery they are, and we arrange them in an image. +And so we can look at literally hundreds of thousands of features at once out of that drop of blood. +And we can take a different one tomorrow, and you will see your proteins tomorrow will be different -- they'll be different after you eat or after you sleep. +They really tell us what's going on there. +And so this picture, which looks like a big smudge to you, is actually the thing that got me really thrilled about this and made me feel like we were on the right track. +So if I zoom into that picture, I can just show you what it means. +We sort out the proteins -- from left to right is the weight of the fragments that we're getting, and from top to bottom is how slippery they are. +So we're zooming in here just to show you a little bit of it. +And so each of these lines represents some signal that we're getting out of a piece of a protein. +And you can see how the lines occur in these little groups of bump, bump, bump, bump, bump. +And that's because we're measuring the weight so precisely that -- carbon comes in different isotopes, so if it has an extra neutron on it, we actually measure it as a different chemical. +So we're actually measuring each isotope as a different one. +And so that gives you an idea of how exquisitely sensitive this is. +So seeing this picture is sort of like getting to be Galileo and looking at the stars and looking through the telescope for the first time, and suddenly you say, "Wow, it's way more complicated than we thought it was." +But we can see that stuff out there and actually see features of it. +So this is the signature out of which we're trying to get patterns. +So what we do with this is, for example, we can look at two patients, one that responded to a drug and one that didn't respond to a drug, and ask, "What's going on differently inside of them?" +And so we can make these measurements precisely enough that we can overlay two patients and look at the differences. +So here we have Alice in green and Bob in red. +We overlay them. This is actual data. +And you can see, mostly it overlaps and it's yellow, but there's some things that just Alice has and some things that just Bob has. +And if we find a pattern of things of the responders to the drug, we see that in the blood, they have the condition that allows them to respond to this drug. +We might not even know what this protein is, but we can see it's a marker for the response to the disease. +So this already, I think, is tremendously useful in all kinds of medicine. +But I think this is actually just the beginning of how we're going to treat cancer. +So let me move to cancer. +The thing about cancer -- when I got into this, I really knew nothing about it, but working with David Agus, I started watching how cancer was actually being treated and went to operations where it was being cut out. +And as I looked at it, to me it didn't make sense how we were approaching cancer, and in order to make sense of it, I had to learn where did this come from. +We're treating cancer almost like it's an infectious disease. +We're treating it as something that got inside of you that we have to kill. +So this is the great paradigm. +This is another case where a theoretical paradigm in biology really worked -- was the germ theory of disease. +So what doctors are mostly trained to do is diagnose -- that is, put you into a category and apply a scientifically proven treatment for that diagnosis -- and that works great for infectious diseases. +So if we put you in the category of you've got syphilis, we can give you penicillin. +We know that that works. +If you've got malaria, we give you quinine or some derivative of it. +And so that's the basic thing doctors are trained to do, and it's miraculous in the case of infectious disease -- how well it works. +And many people in this audience probably wouldn't be alive if doctors didn't do this. +But now let's apply that to systems diseases like cancer. +The problem is that, in cancer, there isn't something else that's inside of you. +It's you; you're broken. +That conversation inside of you got mixed up in some way. +So how do we diagnose that conversation? +Well, right now what we do is we divide it by part of the body -- you know, where did it appear? -- and we put you in different categories according to the part of the body. +And then we do a clinical trial for a drug for lung cancer and one for prostate cancer and one for breast cancer, and we treat these as if they're separate diseases and that this way of dividing them had something to do with what actually went wrong. +And of course, it really doesn't have that much to do with what went wrong because cancer is a failure of the system. +And in fact, I think we're even wrong when we talk about cancer as a thing. +I think this is the big mistake. +I think cancer should not be a noun. +We should talk about cancering as something we do, not something we have. +And so those tumors, those are symptoms of cancer. +And so your body is probably cancering all the time, but there are lots of systems in your body that keep it under control. +And so to give you an idea of an analogy of what I mean by thinking of cancering as a verb, imagine we didn't know anything about plumbing, and the way that we talked about it, we'd come home and we'd find a leak in our kitchen and we'd say, "Oh, my house has water." +We might divide it -- the plumber would say, "Well, where's the water?" +"Well, it's in the kitchen." "Oh, you must have kitchen water." +That's kind of the level at which it is. +"Kitchen water, well, first of all, we'll go in there and we'll mop out a lot of it. +And then we know that if we sprinkle Drano around the kitchen, that helps. +Whereas living room water, it's better to do tar on the roof." +And it sounds silly, but that's basically what we do. +And I'm not saying you shouldn't mop up your water if you have cancer, but I'm saying that's not really the problem; that's the symptom of the problem. +What we really need to get at is the process that's going on, and that's happening at the level of the proteonomic actions, happening at the level of why is your body not healing itself in the way that it normally does? +Because normally, your body is dealing with this problem all the time. +So your house is dealing with leaks all the time, but it's fixing them. It's draining them out and so on. +So what we need is to have a causative model of what's actually going on, and proteomics actually gives us the ability to build a model like that. +David got me invited to give a talk at National Cancer Institute and Anna Barker was there. +And so I gave this talk and said, "Why don't you guys do this?" +And Anna said, "Because nobody within cancer would look at it this way. +But what we're going to do, is we're going to create a program for people outside the field of cancer to get together with doctors who really know about cancer and work out different programs of research." +We're doing it in mice first, and we will kill a lot of mice in the process of doing this, but they will die for a good cause. +And we will actually try to get to the point where we have a predictive model where we can understand, when cancer happens, what's actually happening in there and which treatment will treat that cancer. +So let me just end with giving you a little picture of what I think cancer treatment will be like in the future. +So I think eventually, once we have one of these models for people, which we'll get eventually -- I mean, our group won't get all the way there -- but eventually we'll have a very good computer model -- sort of like a global climate model for weather. +It has lots of different information about what's the process going on in this proteomic conversation on many different scales. +And so we will simulate in that model for your particular cancer -- and this also will be for ALS, or any kind of system neurodegenerative diseases, things like that -- we will simulate specifically you, not just a generic person, but what's actually going on inside you. +And in that simulation, what we could do is design for you specifically a sequence of treatments, and it might be very gentle treatments, very small amounts of drugs. +It might be things like, don't eat that day, or give them a little chemotherapy, maybe a little radiation. +Of course, we'll do surgery sometimes and so on. +But design a program of treatments specifically for you and help your body guide back to health -- guide your body back to health. +Because your body will do most of the work of fixing it if we just sort of prop it up in the ways that are wrong. +We put it in the equivalent of splints. +And so your body basically has lots and lots of mechanisms for fixing cancer, and we just have to prop those up in the right way and get them to do the job. +And so I believe that this will be the way that cancer will be treated in the future. +It's going to require a lot of work, a lot of research. +There will be many teams like our team that work on this. +But I think eventually, we will design for everybody a custom treatment for cancer. +So thank you very much. +Angella Ahn: Thank you. +Thank you so much. +We are so honored to be here at TEDWomen, sharing our music with you. +What an exciting and inspiring event. +What you just heard is "Skylife" by David Balakrishnan. +We want to play you one more selection. +It's by Astor Piazzolla, an Argentine composer. +And we talk about different ideas -- he had this idea that he thought music should be from the heart. +This was in the middle of the 20th century when music from the heart, beautiful music, wasn't the most popular thing in the classical music world. +It was more atonal and twelve-tone. +And he insisted on beautiful music. +So this is "Oblivion" by Astor Piazzolla. +Thank you. +Ten years ago exactly, I was in Afghanistan. +I was covering the war in Afghanistan, and I witnessed, as a reporter for Al Jazeera, the amount of suffering and destruction that emerged out of a war like that. +Then, two years later, I covered another war -- the war in Iraq. +I was placed at the center of that war because I was covering the war from the northern part of Iraq. +And the war ended with a regime change, like the one in Afghanistan. +And that regime that we got rid of was actually a dictatorship, an authoritarian regime, that for decades created a great sense of paralysis within the nation, within the people themselves. +However, the change that came through foreign intervention created even worse circumstances for the people and deepened the sense of paralysis and inferiority in that part of the world. +For decades, we have lived under authoritarian regimes -- in the Arab world, in the Middle East. +These regimes created something within us during this period. +I'm 43 years old right now. +For the last 40 years, I have seen almost the same faces for kings and presidents ruling us -- old, aged, authoritarian, corrupt situations -- regimes that we have seen around us. +And for a moment I was wondering, are we going to live in order to see real change happening on the ground, a change that does not come through foreign intervention, through the misery of occupation, through nations invading our land and deepening the sense of inferiority sometimes? +The Iraqis: yes, they got rid of Saddam Hussein, but when they saw their land occupied by foreign forces they felt very sad, they felt that their dignity had suffered. +And this is why they revolted. +This is why they did not accept. +And actually other regimes, they told their citizens, "Would you like to see the situation of Iraq? +Would you like to see civil war, sectarian killing? +Would you like to see destruction? +Would you like to see foreign troops on your land?" +And the people thought for themselves, "Maybe we should live with this kind of authoritarian situation that we find ourselves in, instead of having the second scenario." +That was one of the worst nightmares that we have seen. +For 10 years, unfortunately we have found ourselves reporting images of destruction, images of killing, of sectarian conflicts, images of violence, emerging from a magnificent piece of land, a region that one day was the source of civilizations and art and culture for thousands of years. +Now I am here to tell you that the future that we were dreaming for has eventually arrived. +A new generation, well-educated, connected, inspired by universal values and a global understanding, has created a new reality for us. +We have found a new way to express our feelings and to express our dreams: these young people who have restored self-confidence in our nations in that part of the world, who have given us new meaning for freedom and empowered us to go down to the streets. +Nothing happened. No violence. Nothing. +Just step out of your house, raise your voice and say, "We would like to see the end of the regime." +This is what happened in Tunisia. +Over a few days, the Tunisian regime that invested billions of dollars in the security agencies, billions of dollars in maintaining, trying to maintain, its prisons, collapsed, disappeared, because of the voices of the public. +People who were inspired to go down to the streets and to raise their voices, they tried to kill. +The intelligence agencies wanted to arrest people. +They found something called Facebook. +They found something called Twitter. +They were surprised by all of these kinds of issues. +And they said, "These kids are misled." +Therefore, they asked their parents to go down to the streets and collect them, bring them back home. +This is what they were telling. This is their propaganda. +"Bring these kids home because they are misled." +But yes, these youth who have been inspired by universal values, who are idealistic enough to imagine a magnificent future and, at the same time, realistic enough to balance this kind of imagination and the process leading to it -- not using violence, not trying to create chaos -- these young people, they did not go home. +Parents actually went to the streets and they supported them. +And this is how the revolution was born in Tunisia. +We in Al Jazeera were banned from Tunisia for years, and the government did not allow any Al Jazeera reporter to be there. +But we found that these people in the street, all of them are our reporters, feeding our newsroom with pictures, with videos and with news. +And suddenly that newsroom in Doha became a center that received all this kind of input from ordinary people -- people who are connected and people who have ambition and who have liberated themselves from the feeling of inferiority. +And then we took that decision: We are unrolling the news. +We are going to be the voice for these voiceless people. +We are going to spread the message. +Yes, some of these young people are connected to the Internet, but the connectivity in the Arab world is very little, is very small, because of many problems that we are suffering from. +But Al Jazeera took the voice from these people and we amplified [it]. +We put it in every sitting room in the Arab world -- and internationally, globally, through our English channel. +And then people started to feel that there's something new happening. +And then Zine al-Abidine Ben Ali decided to leave. +And then Egypt started, and Hosni Mubarak decided to leave. +And now Libya as you see it. +And then you have Yemen. +And you have many other countries trying to see and to rediscover that feeling of, "How do we imagine a future which is magnificent and peaceful and tolerant?" +I want to tell you something, that the Internet and connectivity has created [a] new mindset. +But this mindset has continued to be faithful to the soil and to the land that it emerged from. +And while this was the major difference between many initiatives before to create change, before we thought, and governments told us -- and even sometimes it was true -- that change was imposed on us, and people rejected that, because they thought that it is alien to their culture. +Always, we believed that change will spring from within, that change should be a reconciliation with culture, cultural diversity, with our faith in our tradition and in our history, but at the same time, open to universal values, connected with the world, tolerant to the outside. +And this is the moment that is happening right now in the Arab world. +This is the right moment, and this is the actual moment that we see all of these meanings meet together and then create the beginning of this magnificent era that will emerge from the region. +How did the elite deal with that -- the so-called political elite? +In front of Facebook, they brought the camels in Tahrir Square. +In front of Al Jazeera, they started creating tribalism. +And then when they failed, they started speaking about conspiracies that emerged from Tel Aviv and Washington in order to divide the Arab world. +They started telling the West, "Be aware of Al-Qaeda. +Al-Qaeda is taking over our territories. +These are Islamists trying to create new Imaras. +Be aware of these people who [are] coming to you in order to ruin your great civilization." +Fortunately, people right now cannot be deceived. +Because this corrupt elite in that region has lost even the power of deception. +They could not, and they cannot, imagine how they could really deal with this reality. +They have lost. +They have been detached from their people, from the masses, and now we are seeing them collapsing one after the other. +Al Jazeera is not a tool of revolution. +We do not create revolutions. +However, when something of that magnitude happens, we are at the center of the coverage. +We were banned from Egypt, and our correspondents, some of them were arrested. +But most of our camera people and our journalists, they went underground in Egypt -- voluntarily -- to report what happened in Tahrir Square. +For 18 days, our cameras were broadcasting, live, the voices of the people in Tahrir Square. +I remember one night when someone phoned me on my cellphone -- ordinary person who I don't know -- from Tahrir Square. +He told me, "We appeal to you not to switch off the cameras. +If you switch off the cameras tonight, there will be a genocide. +You are protecting us by showing what is happening at Tahrir Square." +I felt the responsibility to phone our correspondents there and to phone our newsroom and to tell them, "Make your best not to switch off the cameras at night, because the guys there really feel confident when someone is reporting their story -- and they feel protected as well." +So we have a chance to create a new future in that part of the world. +We have a chance to go and to think of the future as something which is open to the world. +Let us not repeat the mistake of Iran, of [the] Mosaddeq revolution. +Let us free ourselves -- especially in the West -- from thinking about that part of the world based on oil interest, or based on interests of the illusion of stability and security. +The stability and security of authoritarian regimes cannot create but terrorism and violence and destruction. +Let us accept the choice of the people. +Let us not pick and choose who we would like to rule their future. +The future should be ruled by people themselves, even sometimes if they are voices that might now scare us. +Let us support these people. +Let us stand for them. +And let us give up our narrow selfishness in order to embrace change, and in order to celebrate with the people of that region a great future and hope and tolerance. +The future has arrived, and the future is now. +I thank you very much. +Thank you very much. +Chris Anderson: I just have a couple of questions for you. +Thank you for coming here. +How would you characterize the historical significance of what's happened? +Is this a story-of-the-year, a story-of-the-decade or something more? +Wadah Khanfar: Actually, this may be the biggest story that we have ever covered. +We have covered many wars. +We have covered a lot of tragedies, a lot of problems, a lot of conflict zones, a lot of hot spots in the region, because we were centered at the middle of it. +But this is a story -- it is a great story; it is beautiful. +It is not something that you only cover because you have to cover a great incident. +You are witnessing change in history. +You are witnessing the birth of a new era. +And this is what the story's all about. +CA: There are a lot of people in the West who are still skeptical, or think this may just be an intermediate stage before much more alarming chaos. +You really believe that if there are democratic elections in Egypt now, that a government could emerge that espouses some of the values you've spoken about so inspiringly? +In my opinion, these people are much more wiser than, not only the political elite, even the intellectual elite, even opposition leaders including political parties. +At this moment in time, the youth in the Arab world are much more wiser and capable of creating the change than the old -- including the political and cultural and ideological old regimes. +CA: We are not to get involved politically and interfere in that way. +What should people here at TED, here in the West, do if they want to connect or make a difference and they believe in what's happening here? +WK: I think we have discovered a very important issue in the Arab world -- that people care, people care about this great transformation. +Mohamed Nanabhay who's sitting with us, the head of Aljazeera.net, he told me that a 2,500 percent increase of accessing our website from various parts of the world. +Fifty percent of it is coming from America. +Because we discovered that people care, and people would like to know -- they are receiving the stream through our Internet. +Unfortunately in the United States, we are not covering but Washington D.C. at this moment in time for Al Jazeera English. +But I can tell you, this is the moment to celebrate through connecting ourselves with those people in the street and expressing our support to them and expressing this kind of feeling, universal feeling, of supporting the weak and the oppressed to create a much better future for all of us. +CA: Well Wadah, a group of members of the TED community, TEDxCairo, are meeting as we speak. +They've had some speakers there. +I believe they've heard your talk. +Thank you for inspiring them and for inspiring all of us. +Thank you so much. +Two weeks ago I was in my studio in Paris, and the phone rang and I heard, "Hey, JR, you won the TED Prize 2011. +You have to make a wish to save the world." +I was lost. +I mean, I can't save the world. Nobody can. +The world is fucked up. +Come on, you have dictators ruling the world, population is growing by millions, there's no more fish in the sea, the North Pole is melting and as the last TED Prize winner said, we're all becoming fat. +Except maybe French people. +Whatever. +So I called back and I told her, "Look, Amy, tell the TED guys I just won't show up. +I can't do anything to save the world." +She said, "Hey, JR, your wish is not to save the world, but to change the world." +"Oh, all right." +"That's cool." +I mean, technology, politics, business do change the world -- not always in a good way, but they do. +What about art? +Could art change the world? +I started when I was 15 years old. +And at that time, I was not thinking about changing the world. +I was doing graffiti -- writing my name everywhere, using the city as a canvas. +I was going in the tunnels of Paris, on the rooftops with my friends. +Each trip was an excursion, was an adventure. +It was like leaving our mark on society, to say, "I was here," on the top of a building. +So when I found a cheap camera on the subway, I started documenting those adventures with my friends and gave them back as photocopies -- really small photos just that size. +That's how, at 17 years old, I started pasting them. +And I did my first "expo de rue," which means sidewalk gallery. +And I framed it with color so you would not confuse it with advertising. +I mean, the city's the best gallery I could imagine. +I would never have to make a book and then present it to a gallery and let them decide if my work was nice enough to show it to people. +I would control it directly with the public in the streets. +So that's Paris. +I would change -- depending on the places I would go -- the title of the exhibition. +That's on the Champs-Elysees. +I was quite proud of that one. +Because I was just 18 and I was just up there on the top of the Champs-Elysees. +Then when the photo left, the frame was still there. +November 2005: the streets are burning. +A large wave of riots had broken into the first projects of Paris. +Everyone was glued to the TV, watching disturbing, frightening images taken from the edge of the neighborhood. +I mean, these kids, without control, throwing Molotov cocktails, attacking the cops and the firemen, looting everything they could in the shops. +These were criminals, thugs, dangerous, destroying their own environment. +And then I saw it -- could it be possible? -- my photo on a wall revealed by a burning car -- a pasting I'd done a year earlier -- an illegal one -- still there. +I mean, these were the faces of my friends. +I know those guys. +All of them are not angels, but they're not monsters either. +So it was kind of weird to see those images and those eyes stare back at me through a television. +So I went back there with a 28 mm lens. +It was the only one I had at that time. +But with that lens, you have to be as close as 10 inches from the person. +So you can do it only with their trust. +So I took full portraits of people from Le Bosquet. +They were making scary faces to play the caricature of themselves. +And then I pasted huge posters everywhere in the bourgeois area of Paris with the name, age, even building number of these guys. +A year later, the exhibition was displayed in front of the city hall of Paris. +And we go from thug images, who've been stolen and distorted by the media, who's now proudly taking over his own image. +That's where I realized the power of paper and glue. +So could art change the world? +A year later, I was listening to all the noise about the Middle East conflict. +I mean, at that time, trust me, they were only referring to the Israeli and Palestinian conflict. +So with my friend Marco, we decided to go there and see who are the real Palestinians and who are the real Israelis. +Are they so different? +When we got there, we just went in the street, started talking with people everywhere, and we realized that things were a bit different from the rhetoric we heard in the media. +So we decided to take portraits of Palestinians and Israelis doing the same jobs -- taxi-driver, lawyer, cooks. +Asked them to make a face as a sign of commitment. +Not a smile -- that really doesn't tell about who you are and what you feel. +They all accepted to be pasted next to the other. +I decided to paste in eight Israeli and Palestinian cities and on both sides of the wall. +We launched the biggest illegal art exhibition ever. +We called the project Face 2 Face. +The experts said, "No way. +The people will not accept. +The army will shoot you, and Hamas will kidnap you." +We said, "Okay, let's try and push as far as we can." +I love the way that people will ask me, "How big will my photo be?" +"It will be as big as your house." +When we did the wall, we did the Palestinian side. +So we arrived with just our ladders and we realized that they were not high enough. +And so Palestinians guys say, "Calm down. No wait. I'm going to find you a solution." +So he went to the Church of Nativity and brought back an old ladder that was so old that it could have seen Jesus being born. +We did Face 2 Face with only six friends, two ladders, two brushes, a rented car, a camera and 20,000 square feet of paper. +We had all sorts of help from all walks of life. +Okay, for example, that's Palestine. +We're in Ramallah right now. +We're pasting portraits -- so both portraits in the streets in a crowded market. +People come around us and start asking, "What are you doing here?" +"Oh, we're actually doing an art project and we are pasting an Israeli and a Palestinian doing the same job. +And those ones are actually two taxi-drivers." +And then there was always a silence. +"You mean you're pasting an Israeli face -- doing a face -- right here?" +"Well, yeah, yeah, that's part of the project." +And I would always leave that moment, and we would ask them, "So can you tell me who is who?" +And most of them couldn't say. +We even pasted on Israeli military towers, and nothing happened. +When you paste an image, it's just paper and glue. +People can tear it, tag on it, or even pee on it -- some are a bit high for that, I agree -- but the people in the street, they are the curator. +The rain and the wind will take them off anyway. +They are not meant to stay. +But exactly four years after, the photos, most of them are still there. +Face 2 Face demonstrated that what we thought impossible was possible -- and, you know what, even easy. +We didn't push the limit; we just showed that they were further than anyone thought. +In the Middle East, I experienced my work in places without [many] museums. +So the reactions in the street were kind of interesting. +So I decided to go further in this direction and go in places where there were zero museums. +When you go in these developing societies, women are the pillars of their community, but the men are still the ones holding the streets. +So we were inspired to create a project where men will pay tribute to women by posting their photos. +I called that project Women Are Heroes. +When I listened to all the stories everywhere I went on the continents, I couldn't always understand the complicated circumstances of their conflict. +I just observed. +Sometimes there was no words, no sentence, just tears. +I just took their pictures and pasted them. +Women Are Heroes took me around the world. +Most of the places I went to, I decided to go there because I've heard about it through the media. +So for example, in June 2008, I was watching TV in Paris, and then I heard about this terrible thing that happened in Rio de Janeiro -- the first favela of Brazil named Providencia. +Three kids -- that was three students -- were [detained] by the army because they were not carrying their papers. +And the army took them, and instead of bringing them to the police station, they brought them to an enemy favela where they get chopped into pieces. +I was shocked. +All Brazil was shocked. +I heard it was one of the most violent favelas, because the largest drug cartel controls it. +So I decided to go there. +When I arrived -- I mean, I didn't have any contact with any NGO. +There was none in place -- no association, no NGOs, nothing -- no eyewitnesses. +So we just walked around, and we met a woman, and I showed her my book. +And she said, "You know what? +We're hungry for culture. +We need culture out there." +So I went out and I started with the kids. +I just took a few photos of the kids, and the next day I came with the posters and we pasted them. +The day after, I came back and they were already scratched. +But that's okay. +I wanted them to feel that this art belongs to them. +Then the next day, I held a meeting on the main square and some women came. +They were all linked to the three kids that got killed. +There was the mother, the grandmother, the best friend -- they all wanted to shout the story. +After that day, everyone in the favela gave me the green light. +I took more photos, and we started the project. +The drug lords were kind of worried about us filming in the place, so I told them, "You know what? +I'm not interested in filming the violence and the weapons. +You see that enough in the media. +What I want to show is the incredible life and energy. +I've been seeing it around me the last few days." +So that's a really symbolic pasting, because that's the first one we did that you couldn't see from the city. +And that's where the three kids got arrested, and that's the grandmother of one of them. +And on that stairs, that's where the traffickers always stand and there's a lot of exchange of fire. +Everyone there understood the project. +And then we pasted everywhere -- the whole hill. +What was interesting is that the media couldn't get in. +I mean, you should see that. +They would have to film us from a really long distance by helicopter and then have a really long lens, and we would see ourselves, on TV, pasting. +And they would put a number: "Please call this number if you know what's going on in Providencia." +We just did a project and then left so the media wouldn't know. +So how can we know about the project? +So they had to go and find the women and get an explanation from them. +So you create a bridge between the media and the anonymous women. +We kept traveling. +We went to Africa, Sudan, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Kenya. +In war-torn places like Monrovia, people come straight to you. +I mean, they want to know what you're up to. +They kept asking me, "What is the purpose of your project? +Are you an NGO? Are you the media?" +Art. Just doing art. +Some people question, "Why is it in black and white? +Don't you have color in France?" +Or they tell you, "Are these people all dead?" +Some who understood the project would explain it to others. +And to a man who did not understand, I heard someone say, "You know, you've been here for a few hours trying to understand, discussing with your fellows. +During that time, you haven't thought about what you're going to eat tomorrow. +This is art." +I think it's people's curiosity that motivates them to come into the projects. +And then it becomes more. +It becomes a desire, a need, an armor. +On this bridge that's in Monrovia, ex-rebel soldiers helped us pasting a portrait of a woman that might have been raped during the war. +Women are always the first ones targeted during conflict. +This is Kibera, Kenya, one of the largest slums of Africa. +You might have seen images about the post-election violence that happened there in 2008. +This time we covered the roofs of the houses, but we didn't use paper, because paper doesn't prevent the rain from leaking inside the house -- vinyl does. +Then art becomes useful. +So the people kept it. +You know what I love is, for example, when you see the biggest eye there, there are so [many] houses inside. +And I went there a few months ago -- photos are still there -- and it was missing a piece of the eye. +So I asked the people what happened. +"Oh, that guy just moved." +When the roofs were covered, a woman said as a joke, "Now God can see me." +When you look at Kibera now, they look back. +Okay, India. +Before I start that, just so you know, each time we go to a place, we don't have authorization, so we set up like commandos -- we're a group of friends who arrive there, and we try to paste on the walls. +But there are places where you just can't paste on a wall. +In India it was just impossible to paste. +I heard culturally and because of the law, they would just arrest us at the first pasting. +So we decided to paste white, white on the walls. +So imagine white guys pasting white papers. +So people would come to us and ask us, "Hey, what are you up to?" +"Oh, you know, we're just doing art." "Art?" +Of course, they were confused. +But you know how India has a lot of dust in the streets, and the more dust you would have going up in the air, on the white paper you can almost see, but there is this sticky part like when you reverse a sticker. +So the more dust you have, the more it will reveal the photo. +So we could just walk in the street during the next days and the photos would get revealed by themselves. +Thank you. +So we didn't get caught this time. +Each project -- that's a film from Women Are Heroes. +Okay. +For each project we do a film. +And most of what you see -- that's a trailer from "Women Are Heroes" -- its images, photography, taken one after the other. +And the photos kept traveling even without us. +Hopefully, you'll see the film, and you'll understand the scope of the project and what the people felt when they saw those photos. +Because that's a big part of it. There's layers behind each photo. +Behind each image is a story. +Women Are Heroes created a new dynamic in each of the communities, and the women kept that dynamic after we left. +For example, we did books -- not for sale -- that all the community would get. +But to get it, they would have to [get] it signed by one of the women. +We did that in most of the places. +We go back regularly. +And so in Providencia, for example, in the favela, we have a cultural center running there. +In Kibera, each year we cover more roofs. +Because of course, when we left, the people who were just at the edge of the project said, "Hey, what about my roof?" +So we decided to come the year after and keep doing the project. +A really important point for me is that I don't use any brand or corporate sponsors. +So I have no responsibility to anyone but myself and the subjects. +And that is for me one of the more important things in the work. +I think, today, as important as the result is the way you do things. +And that has always been a central part of the work. +And what's interesting is that fine line that I have with images and advertising. +We just did some pasting in Los Angeles on another project in the last weeks. +And I was even invited to cover the MOCA museum. +But yesterday the city called them and said, "Look, you're going to have to tear it down. +Because this can be taken for advertising, and because of the law, it has to be taken down." +But tell me, advertising for what? +The people I photograph were proud to participate in the project and to have their photo in the community. +But they asked me for a promise basically. +They asked me, "Please, make our story travel with you." +So I did. That's Paris. +That's Rio. +In each place, we built exhibitions with a story, and the story traveled. +You understand the full scope of the project. +That's London. +New York. +And today, they are with you in Long Beach. +All right, recently I started a public art project where I don't use my artwork anymore. +I use Man Ray, Helen Levitt, Giacomelli, other people's artwork. +It doesn't matter today if it's your photo or not. +The importance is what you do with the images, the statement it makes where it's pasted. +So for example, I pasted the photo of the minaret in Switzerland a few weeks after they voted the law forbidding minarets in the country. +This image of three men wearing gas masks was taken in Chernobyl originally, and I pasted it in Southern Italy, where the mafia sometimes bury the garbage under the ground. +In some ways, art can change the world. +Art is not supposed to change the world, to change practical things, but to change perceptions. +Art can change the way we see the world. +Art can create an analogy. +Actually the fact that art cannot change things makes it a neutral place for exchanges and discussions, and then enables you to change the world. +When I do my work, I have two kinds of reactions. +People say, "Oh, why don't you go in Iraq or Afghanistan. +They would be really useful." +Or, "How can we help?" +I presume that you belong to the second category, and that's good, because for that project, I'm going to ask you to take the photos and paste them. +So now my wish is: (mock drum roll) I wish for you to stand up for what you care about by participating in a global art project, and together we'll turn the world inside out. +And this starts right now. +Yes, everyone in the room. +Everyone watching. +I wanted that wish to actually start now. +So a subject you're passionate about, a person who you want to tell their story or even your own photos -- tell me what you stand for. +Take the photos, the portraits, upload it -- I'll give you all the details -- and I'll send you back your poster. Join by groups and reveal things to the world. +The full data is on the website -- insideoutproject.net -- that is launching today. +What we see changes who we are. +When we act together, the whole thing is much more than the sum of the parts. +So I hope that, together, we'll create something that the world will remember. +And this starts right now and depends on you. +Thank you. +Thank you. +This is Revolution 2.0. +No one was a hero. No one was a hero. +Because everyone was a hero. +Everyone has done something. +We all use Wikipedia. +If you think of the concept of Wikipedia where everyone is collaborating on content, and at the end of the day you've built the largest encyclopedia in the world. +From just an idea that sounded crazy, you have the largest encyclopedia in the world. +And in the Egyptian revolution, the Revolution 2.0, everyone has contributed something, small or big. They contributed something -- to bring us one of the most inspiring stories in the history of mankind when it comes to revolutions. +It was actually really inspiring to see all these Egyptians completely changing. +If you look at the scene, Egypt, for 30 years, had been in a downhill -- going into a downhill. +Everything was going bad. +Everything was going wrong. +We only ranked high when it comes to poverty, corruption, lack of freedom of speech, lack of political activism. +Those were the achievements of our great regime. +Yet, nothing was happening. +And it's not because people were happy or people were not frustrated. +In fact, people were extremely frustrated. +But the reason why everyone was silent is what I call the psychological barrier of fear. +Everyone was scared. +Not everyone. There were actually a few brave Egyptians that I have to thank for being so brave -- going into protests as a couple of hundred, getting beaten up and arrested. +But in fact, the majority were scared. +Everyone did not want really to get in trouble. +A dictator cannot live without the force. +They want to make people live in fear. +And that psychological barrier of fear had worked for so many years, and here comes the Internet, technology, BlackBerry, SMS. +It's helping all of us to connect. +Platforms like YouTube, Twitter, Facebook were helping us a lot because it basically gave us the impression that, "Wow, I'm not alone. +There are a lot of people who are frustrated." +There are lots of people who are frustrated. +There are lots of people who actually share the same dream. +There are lots of people who care about their freedom. +They probably have the best life in the world. +They are living in happiness. They are living in their villas. +They are happy. They don't have problems. +But they are still feeling the pain of the Egyptian. +A lot of us, we're not really happy when we see a video of an Egyptian man who's eating the trash while others are stealing billions of Egyptian pounds from the wealth of the country. +The Internet has played a great role, helping these people to speak up their minds, to collaborate together, to start thinking together. +It was an educational campaign. +Khaled Saeed was killed in June 2010. +I still remember the photo. +I still remember every single detail of that photo. +The photo was horrible. +He was tortured, brutally tortured to death. +But then what was the answer of the regime? +"He choked on a pile of hash" -- that was their answer: "He's a criminal. +He's someone who escaped from all these bad things." +But people did not relate to this. +People did not believe this. +Because of the Internet, the truth prevailed and everyone knew the truth. +And everyone started to think that "this guy could be my brother." +He was a middle-class guy. +His photo was remembered by all of us. +A page was created. +An anonymous administrator was basically inviting people to join the page, and there was no plan. +"What are we going to do?" "I don't know." +In a few days, tens of thousands of people there -- angry Egyptians who were asking the ministry of interior affairs, "Enough. +Get those who killed this guy. +To just bring them to justice." +But of course, they don't listen. +It was an amazing story -- how everyone started feeling the ownership. +Everyone was an owner in this page. +People started contributing ideas. +In fact, one of the most ridiculous ideas was, "Hey, let's have a silent stand. +Let's get people to go in the street, face the sea, their back to the street, dressed in black, standing up silently for one hour, doing nothing and then just leaving, going back home." +For some people, that was like, "Wow, silent stand. +And next time it's going to be vibration." +People were making fun of the idea. +But actually when people went to the street -- the first time it was thousands of people in Alexandria -- it felt like -- it was amazing. It was great because it connected people from the virtual world, bringing them to the real world, sharing the same dream, the same frustration, the same anger, the same desire for freedom. +And they were doing this thing. +But did the regime learn anything? Not really. +They were actually attacking them. +They were actually abusing them, despite the fact of how peaceful these guys were -- they were not even protesting. +And things had developed until the Tunisian revolution. +This whole page was, again, managed by the people. +In fact, the anonymous admin job was to collect ideas, help people to vote on them and actually tell them what they are doing. +People were taking shots and photos; people were reporting violations of human rights in Egypt; people were suggesting ideas, they were actually voting on ideas, and then they were executing the ideas; people were creating videos. +Everything was done by the people to the people, and that's the power of the Internet. +There was no leader. +The leader was everyone on that page. +The Tunisian experiment, as Amir was saying, inspired all of us, showed us that there is a way. +Yes we can. We can do it. +We have the same problems; we can just go in the streets. +And when I saw the street on the 25th, I went back and said, "Egypt before the 25th is never going to be Egypt after the 25th. +The revolution is happening. +This is not the end, this is the beginning of the end." +I was detained on the 27th night. +Thank God I announced the locations and everything. +But they detained me. +And I'm not going to talk about my experience, because this is not about me. +I was detained for 12 days, blindfolded, handcuffed. +And I did not really hear anything. I did not know anything. +I was not allowed to speak with anyone. +And I went out. +The next day I was in Tahrir. +Seriously, with the amount of change I had noticed in this square, I thought it was 12 years. +I never had in my mind to see this Egyptian, the amazing Egyptian. +The fear is no longer fear. +It's actually strength -- it's power. +People were so empowered. +It was amazing how everyone was so empowered and now asking for their rights. +Completely opposite. +Extremism became tolerance. +Who would [have] imagined before the 25th, if I tell you that hundreds of thousands of Christians are going to pray and tens of thousands of Muslims are going to protect them, and then hundreds of thousands of Muslims are going to pray and tens of thousands of Christians are going to protect them -- this is amazing. +All the stereotypes that the regime was trying to put on us through their so-called propaganda, or mainstream media, are proven wrong. +This whole revolution showed us how ugly such a regime was and how great and amazing the Egyptian man, the Egyptian woman, how simple and amazing these people are whenever they have a dream. +When I saw that, I went back and I wrote on Facebook. +And that was a personal belief, regardless of what's going on, regardless of the details. +I said that, "We are going to win. +We are going to win because we don't understand politics. +We're going to win because we don't play their dirty games. +We're going to win because we don't have an agenda. +We're going to win because the tears that come from our eyes actually come from our hearts. +We're going to win because we have dreams. +We're going to win because we are willing to stand up for our dreams." +And that's actually what happened. We won. +And that's not because of anything, but because we believed in our dream. +The winning here is not the whole details of what's going to happen in the political scene. +The winning is the winning of the dignity of every single Egyptian. +Actually, I had this taxi driver telling me, "Listen, I am breathing freedom. +I feel that I have dignity that I have lost for so many years." +For me that's winning, regardless of all the details. +My last word to you is a statement I believe in, which Egyptians have proven to be true, that the power of the people is much stronger than the people in power. +Thanks a lot. +Well, this is about state budgets. +This is probably the most boring topic of the whole morning. +But I want to tell you, I think it's an important topic that we need to care about. +State budgets are big, big money -- I'll show you the numbers -- and they get very little scrutiny. +The understanding is very low. +Many of the people involved have special interests or short-term interests that get them not thinking about what the implications of the trends are. +And these budgets are the key for our future; they're the key for our kids. +Most education funding -- whether it's K through 12, or the great universities or community colleges -- most of the money for those things is coming out of these state budgets. +But we have a problem. +Here's the overall picture. +U.S. economy is big -- 14.7 trillion. +Now out of that pie, the government spends 36 percent. +So this is combining the federal level, which is the largest, the state level and the local level. +And it's really in this combined way that you get an overall sense of what's going on, because there's a lot of complex things like Medicaid and research money that flow across those boundaries. +But we're spending 36 percent. +Well what are we taking in? +Simple business question. +Answer is 26 percent. +Now this leaves 10 percent deficit, sort of a mind-blowing number. +And some of that, in fact, is due to the fact that we've had an economic recession. +Receipts go down, some spending programs go up, but most of it is not because of that. +Most of it is because of ways that the liabilities are building up and the trends, and that creates a huge challenge. +In fact, this is the forecast picture. +There are various things in here: I could say we might raise more revenue, or medical innovation will make the spending even higher. +It is an increasingly difficult picture, even assuming the economy does quite well -- probably better than it will do. +This is what you see at this overall level. +Now how did we get here? +How could you have a problem like this? +After all, at least on paper, there's this notion that these state budgets are balanced. +Only one state says they don't have to balance the budget. +But what this means actually is that there's a pretense. +There's no real, true balancing going on, and in a sense, the games they play to hide that actually obscure the topic so much that people don't see things that are actually pretty straight-forward challenges. +When Jerry Brown was elected, this was the challenge that was put to him. +That is, through various gimmicks and things, a so-called balanced budget had led him to have 25 billion missing out of the 76 billion in proposed spending. +Now he's put together some thoughts: About half of that he'll cut, another half, perhaps in a very complex set of steps, taxes will be approved. +But even so, as you go out into those future years, various pension costs, health costs go up enough, and the revenue does not go up enough. +So you get a big squeeze. +What were those things that allowed us to hide this? +Well, some really nice little tricks. +And these were somewhat noticed. +The paper said, "It's not really balanced. +It's got holes. +It perpetuates deficit spending. +It's riddled with gimmicks." +And really when you get down to it, the guys at Enron never would have done this. +This is so blatant, so extreme. +Is anyone paying attention to some of the things these guys do? +They borrow money. +They're not supposed to, but they figure out a way. +They make you pay more in withholding just to help their cash flow out. +They sell off the assets. +They defer the payments. +They sell off the revenues from tobacco. +And California's not unique. +In fact, there's about five states that are worse and only really four states that don't face this big challenge. +So it's systemic across the entire country. +It really comes from the fact that certain long-term obligations -- health care, where innovation makes it more expensive, early retirement and pension, where the age structure gets worse for you, and just generosity -- that these mis-accounting things allow to develop over time, that you've got a problem. +This is the retiree health care benefits. +Three million set aside, 62 billion dollar liability -- much worse than the car companies. +And everybody looked at that and knew that that was headed toward a huge problem. +The forecast for the medical piece alone is to go from 26 percent of the budget to 42 percent. +Well what's going to give? +Well in order to accommodate that, you would have to cut education spending in half. +It really is this young versus the old to some degree. +If you don't change that revenue picture, if you don't solve what you're doing in health care, you're going to be deinvesting in the young. +The great University of California university system, the great things that have gone on, won't happen. +So far it's meant layoffs, increased class sizes. +Within the education community there's this discussion of, "Should it just be the young teachers who get laid off, or the less good teachers who get laid off?" +And there's a discussion: if you're going to increase class sizes, where do you do that? How much effect does that have? +And unfortunately, as you get into that, people get confused and think, well maybe you think that's okay. +In fact, no, education spending should not be cut. +There's ways, if it's temporary, to minimize the impact, but it's a problem. +It's also really a problem for where we need to go. +Technology has a role to play. +Well we need money to experiment with that, to get those tools in there. +There's the idea of paying teachers for effectiveness, measuring them, giving them feedback, taking videos in the classroom. +That's something I think is very, very important. +Well you have to allocate dollars for that system and for that incentive pay. +In a situation where you have growth, you put the new money into this. +Or even if you're flat, you might shift money into it. +But with the type of cuts we're talking about, it will be far, far harder to get these incentives for excellence, or to move over to use technology in the new way. +So what's going on? +Where's the brain trust that's in error here? +Well there really is no brain trust. +It's sort of the voters. It's sort of us showing up. +Just look at this spending. +California will spend over 100 billion, Microsoft, 38, Google, about 19. +The amount of IQ in good numeric analysis, both inside Google and Microsoft and outside, with analysts and people of various opinions -- should they have spent on that? +No, they wasted their money on this. What about this thing? -- it really is quite phenomenal. +Everybody has an opinion. +There's great feedback. +And the numbers are used to make decisions. +If you go over the education spending and the health care spending -- particularly these long-term trends -- you don't have that type of involvement on a number that's more important in terms of equity, in terms of learning. +So what do we need to do? +We need better tools. +We can get some things out on the Internet. +I'm going to use my website to put up some things that will give the basic picture. +We need lots more. +There's a few good books, one about school spending and where the money comes from -- how that's changed over time, and the challenge. +We need better accounting. +We need to take the fact that the current employees, the future liabilities they create, that should come out of the current budget. +We need to understand why they've done the pension accounting the way they have. +It should be more like private accounting. +It's the gold standard. +And finally, we need to really reward politicians. +Whenever they say there's these long-term problems, we can't say, "Oh, you're the messenger with bad news? +We just shot you." +In fact, there are some like these: Erskine Bowles, Alan Simpson and others, who have gone through and given proposals for this overall federal health-spending state-level problem. +But in fact, their work was sort of pushed off. +In fact, the week afterwards, some tax cuts were done that made the situation even worse than their assumptions. +So we need these pieces. +Now I think this is a solvable problem. +It's a great country with lots of people. +But we have to draw those people in, because this is about education. +And just look at what happened with the tuitions with the University of California and project that out for another three, four, five years -- it's unaffordable. +And that's the kind of thing -- the investment in the young -- that makes us great, allows us to contribute. +It allows us to do the art, the biotechnology, the software and all those magic things. +And so the bottom line is we need to care about state budgets because they're critical for our kids and our future. +Thank you. +There's actually a major health crisis today in terms of the shortage of organs. +The fact is that we're living longer. +Medicine has done a much better job of making us live longer, and the problem is, as we age, our organs tend to fail more, and so currently there are not enough organs to go around. +In fact, in the last 10 years, the number of patients requiring an organ has doubled, while in the same time, the actual number of transplants has barely gone up. +So this is now a public health crisis. +So that's where this field comes in that we call the field of regenerative medicine. +It really involves many different areas. +You can use, actually, scaffolds, biomaterials -- they're like the piece of your blouse or your shirt -- but specific materials you can actually implant in patients and they will do well and help you regenerate. +Or we can use cells alone, either your very own cells or different stem cell populations. +Or we can use both. +We can use, actually, biomaterials and the cells together. +And that's where the field is today. +But it's actually not a new field. +Interestingly, this is a book that was published back in 1938. +It's titled "The Culture of Organs." +The first author, Alexis Carrel, a Nobel Prize winner. +He actually devised some of the same technologies used today for suturing blood vessels, and some of the blood vessel grafts we use today were actually designed by Alexis. +But I want you to note his co-author: Charles Lindbergh. +That's the same Charles Lindbergh who actually spent the rest of his life working with Alexis at the Rockefeller Institute in New York in the area of the culture of organs. +So if the field's been around for so long, why so few clinical advances? +And that really has to do to many different challenges. +But if I were to point to three challenges, the first one is actually the design of materials that could go in your body and do well over time. +And many advances now, we can do that fairly readily. +The second challenge was cells. +We could not get enough of your cells to grow outside of your body. +Over the last 20 years, we've basically tackled that. +Many scientists can now grow many different types of cells. +Plus we have stem cells. +But even now, 2011, there's still certain cells that we just can't grow from the patient. +Liver cells, nerve cells, pancreatic cells -- we still can't grow them even today. +And the third challenge is vascularity, the actual supply of blood to allow those organs or tissues to survive once we regenerate them. +So we can actually use biomaterials now. +This is actually a biomaterial. +We can weave them, knit them, or we can make them like you see here. +This is actually like a cotton candy machine. +You saw the spray going in. +That was like the fibers of the cotton candy creating this structure, this tubularized structure, which is a biomaterial that we can then use to help your body regenerate using your very own cells to do so. +And that's exactly what we did here. +This is actually a patient who [was] presented with a deceased organ, and we then created one of these smart biomaterials, and then we then used that smart biomaterial to replace and repair that patient's structure. +What we did was we actually used the biomaterial as a bridge so that the cells in the organ could walk on that bridge, if you will, and help to bridge the gap to regenerate that tissue. +And you see that patient now six months after with an X-ray showing you the regenerated tissue, which is fully regenerated when you analyze it under the microscope. +We can also use cells alone. +These are actually cells that we obtained. +These are stem cells that we create from specific sources, and we can drive them to become heart cells, and they start beating in culture. +So they know what to do. +The cells genetically know what to do, and they start beating together. +Now today, many clinical trials are using different kinds of stem cells for heart disease. +So that's actually now in patients. +Or if we're going to use larger structures to replace larger structures, we can then use the patient's own cells, or some cell population, and the biomaterials, the scaffolds, together. +So the concept here: so if you do have a deceased or injured organ, we take a very small piece of that tissue, less than half the size of a postage stamp. +We then tease the cells apart, we grow the cells outside the body. +We then take a scaffold, a biomaterial -- again, looks very much like a piece of your blouse or your shirt -- we then shape that material, and we then use those cells to coat that material one layer at a time -- very much like baking a layer cake, if you will. +We then place it in an oven-like device, and we're able to create that structure and bring it out. +This is actually a heart valve that we've engineered, and you can see here, we have the structure of the heart valve and we've seeded that with cells, and then we exercise it. +So you see the leaflets opening and closing -- of this heart valve that's currently being used experimentally to try to get it to further studies. +Another technology that we have used in patients actually involves bladders. +We actually take a very small piece of the bladder from the patient -- less than half the size of a postage stamp. +We then grow the cells outside the body, take the scaffold, coat the scaffold with the cells -- the patient's own cells, two different cell types. +We then put it in this oven-like device. +It has the same conditions as the human body -- 37 degrees centigrade, 95 percent oxygen. +A few weeks later, you have your engineered organ that we're able to implant back into the patient. +For these specific patients, we actually just suture these materials. +We use three-dimensional imagining analysis, but we actually created these biomaterials by hand. +But we now have better ways to create these structures with the cells. +We use now some type of technologies, where for solid organs, for example, like the liver, what we do is we take discard livers. +As you know, a lot of organs are actually discarded, not used. +So we can take these liver structures, which are not going to be used, and we then put them in a washing machine-like structure that will allow the cells to be washed away. +Two weeks later, you have something that looks like a liver. +You can hold it like a liver, but it has no cells; it's just a skeleton of the liver. +And we then can re-perfuse the liver with cells, preserving the blood vessel tree. +So we actually perfuse first the blood vessel tree with the patient's own blood vessel cells, and we then infiltrate the parenchyma with the liver cells. +And we now have been able just to show the creation of human liver tissue just this past month using this technology. +Another technology that we've used is actually that of printing. +This is actually a desktop inkjet printer, but instead of using ink, we're using cells. +And you can actually see here the printhead going through and printing this structure, and it takes about 40 minutes to print this structure. +And there's a 3D elevator that then actually goes down one layer at a time each time the printhead goes through. +And then finally you're able to get that structure out. +You can pop that structure out of the printer and implant it. +And this is actually a piece of bone that I'm going to show you in this slide that was actually created with this desktop printer and implanted as you see here. +That was all new bone that was implanted using these techniques. +Another more advanced technology we're looking at right now, our next generation of technologies, are more sophisticated printers. +This particular printer we're designing now is actually one where we print right on the patient. +So what you see here -- I know it sounds funny, but that's the way it works. +Because in reality, what you want to do is you actually want to have the patient on the bed with the wound, and you have a scanner, basically like a flatbed scanner. +That's what you see here on the right side. +You see a scanner technology that first scans the wound on the patient and then it comes back with the printheads actually printing the layers that you require on the patients themselves. +This is how it actually works. +Here's the scanner going through, scanning the wound. +Once it's scanned, it sends information in the correct layers of cells where they need to be. +And now you're going to see here a demo of this actually being done in a representative wound. +And we actually do this with a gel so that you can lift the gel material. +So once those cells are on the patient they will stick where they need to be. +And this is actually new technology still under development. +We're also working on more sophisticated printers. +Because in reality, our biggest challenge are the solid organs. +I don't know if you realize this, but 90 percent of the patients on the transplant list are actually waiting for a kidney. +Patients are dying every day because we don't have enough of those organs to go around. +So this is more challenging -- large organ, vascular, a lot of blood vessel supply, a lot of cells present. +So the strategy here is -- this is actually a CT scan, an X-ray -- and we go layer by layer, using computerized morphometric imaging analysis and 3D reconstruction to get right down to those patient's own kidneys. +We then are able to actually image those, do 360 degree rotation to analyze the kidney in its full volumetric characteristics, and we then are able to actually take this information and then scan this in a printing computerized form. +So we go layer by layer through the organ, analyzing each layer as we go through the organ, and we then are able to send that information, as you see here, through the computer and actually design the organ for the patient. +This actually shows the actual printer. +And this actually shows that printing. +In fact, we actually have the printer right here. +So while we've been talking today, you can actually see the printer back here in the back stage. +That's actually the actual printer right now, and that's been printing this kidney structure that you see here. +It takes about seven hours to print a kidney, so this is about three hours into it now. +And Dr. Kang's going to walk onstage right now, and we're actually going to show you one of these kidneys that we printed a little bit earlier today. +Put a pair of gloves here. +Thank you. +Go backwards. +So, these gloves are a little bit small on me, but here it is. +You can actually see that kidney as it was printed earlier today. +Has a little bit of consistency to it. +This is Dr. Kang who's been working with us on this project, and part of our team. +Thank you, Dr. Kang. I appreciate it. +So this is actually a new generation. +This is actually the printer that you see here onstage. +And this is actually a new technology we're working on now. +In reality, we now have a long history of doing this. +I'm going to share with you a clip in terms of technology we have had in patients now for a while. +And this is actually a very brief clip -- only about 30 seconds -- of a patient who actually received an organ. +Luke Massella: I was really sick. I could barely get out of bed. +I was missing school. It was pretty much miserable. +I couldn't go out and play basketball at recess without feeling like I was going to pass out when I got back inside. +I felt so sick. +I was facing basically a lifetime of dialysis, and I don't even like to think about what my life would be like if I was on that. +So after the surgery, life got a lot better for me. +I was able to do more things. +I was able to wrestle in high school. +I became the captain of the team, and that was great. +I was able to be a normal kid with my friends. +And because they used my own cells to build this bladder, it's going to be with me. +I've got it for life, so I'm all set. +Juan Enriquez: These experiments sometimes work, and it's very cool when they do. +Luke, come up please. +So Luke, before last night, when's the last time you saw Tony? +LM: Ten years ago, when I had my surgery -- and it's really great to see him. +JE: And tell us a little bit about what you're doing. +LM: Well right now I'm in college at the University of Connecticut. +I'm a sophomore and studying communications, TV and mass media, and basically trying to live life like a normal kid, which I always wanted growing up. +But it was hard to do that when I was born with spina bifida and my kidneys and bladder weren't working. +I went through about 16 surgeries, and it seemed impossible to do that when I was in kidney failure when I was 10. +And this surgery came along and basically made me who I am today and saved my life. +JE: And Tony's done hundreds of these? +LM: What I know from, he's working really hard in his lab and coming up with crazy stuff. +I know I was one of the first 10 people to have this surgery. +And when I was 10, I didn't realize how amazing it was. +I was a little kid, and I was like, "Yeah. I'll have that. I'll have that surgery." +All I wanted to do was to get better, and I didn't realize how amazing it really was until now that I'm older and I see the amazing things that he's doing. +JE: When you got this call out of the blue -- Tony's really shy, and it took a lot of convincing to get somebody as modest as Tony to allow us to bring Luke. +So Luke, you go to your communications professors -- you're majoring in communications -- and you ask them for permission to come to TED, which might have a little bit to do with communications, and what was their reaction? +LM: Most of my professors were all for it, and they said, "Bring pictures and show me the clips online," and "I'm happy for you." +There were a couple that were a little stubborn, but I had to talk to them. +I pulled them aside. +JE: Well, it's an honor and a privilege to meet you. +Thank you so much. (LM: Thank you so much.) JE: Thank you, Tony. +So I was born on the last day of the last year of the '70s. +I was raised on "Free to be you and me" -- hip-hop -- not as many woohoos for hip-hop in the house. +Thank you. Thank you for hip-hop -- and Anita Hill. +My parents were radicals -- who became, well, grown-ups. +My dad facetiously says, "We wanted to save the world, and instead we just got rich." +We actually just got "middle class" in Colorado Springs, Colorado, but you get the picture. +I was raised with a very heavy sense of unfinished legacy. +At this ripe old age of 30, I've been thinking a lot about what it means to grow up in this horrible, beautiful time, and I've decided, for me, it's been a real journey and paradox. +The first paradox is that growing up is about rejecting the past and then promptly reclaiming it. +Feminism was the water I grew up in. +When I was just a little girl, my mom started what is now the longest-running women's film festival in the world. +So while other kids were watching sitcoms and cartoons, I was watching very esoteric documentaries made by and about women. +You can see how this had an influence. +But she was not the only feminist in the house. +My dad actually resigned from the male-only business club in my hometown because he said he would never be part of an organization that would one day welcome his son, but not his daughter. +He's actually here today. +The trick here is my brother would become an experimental poet, not a businessman, but the intention was really good. +In any case, I didn't readily claim the feminist label, even though it was all around me, because I associated it with my mom's women's groups, her swishy skirts and her shoulder pads -- none of which had much cachet in the hallways of Palmer High School where I was trying to be cool at the time. +But I suspected there was something really important about this whole feminism thing, so I started covertly tiptoeing into my mom's bookshelves and picking books off and reading them -- never, of course, admitting that I was doing so. +I didn't actually claim the feminist label until I went to Barnard College and I heard Amy Richards and Jennifer Baumgardner speak for the first time. +They were the co-authors of a book called "Manifesta." +So what very profound epiphany, you might ask, was responsible for my feminist click moment? +Fishnet stockings. +Jennifer Baumgardner was wearing them. +I thought they were really hot. +I decided, okay, I can claim the feminist label. +Now I tell you this -- I tell you this at the risk of embarrassing myself, because I think part of the work of feminism is to admit that aesthetics, that beauty, that fun do matter. +There are lots of very modern political movements that have caught fire in no small part because of cultural hipness. +Anyone heard of these two guys as an example? +So my feminism is very indebted to my mom's, but it looks very different. +My mom says, "patriarchy." +I say, "intersectionality." +So race, class, gender, ability, all of these things go into our experiences of what it means to be a woman. +Pay equity? Yes. Absolutely a feminist issue. +But for me, so is immigration. Thank you. +My mom says, "Protest march." +I say, "Online organizing." +I co-edit, along with a collective of other super-smart, amazing women, a site called Feministing.com. +We are the most widely read feminist publication ever, and I tell you this because I think it's really important to see that there's a continuum. +Feminist blogging is basically the 21st century version of consciousness raising. +But we also have a straightforward political impact. +Feministing has been able to get merchandise pulled off the shelves of Walmart. +We got a misogynist administrator sending us hate-mail fired from a Big Ten school. +And one of our biggest successes is we get mail from teenage girls in the middle of Iowa who say, "I Googled Jessica Simpson and stumbled on your site. +I realized feminism wasn't about man-hating and Birkenstocks." +So we're able to pull in the next generation in a totally new way. +My mom says, "Gloria Steinem." +I say, "Samhita Mukhopadhyay, Miriam Perez, Ann Friedman, Jessica Valenti, Vanessa Valenti, and on and on and on and on." +We don't want one hero. +We don't want one icon. +We don't want one face. +We are thousands of women and men across this country doing online writing, community organizing, changing institutions from the inside out -- all continuing the incredible work that our mothers and grandmothers started. +Thank you. +Which brings me to the second paradox: sobering up about our smallness and maintaining faith in our greatness all at once. +Many in my generation -- because of well-intentioned parenting and self-esteem education -- were socialized to believe that we were special little snowflakes -- who were going to go out and save the world. +These are three words many of us were raised with. +We walk across graduation stages, high on our overblown expectations, and when we float back down to earth, we realize we don't know what the heck it means to actually save the world anyway. +The mainstream media often paints my generation as apathetic, and I think it's much more accurate to say we are deeply overwhelmed. +And there's a lot to be overwhelmed about, to be fair -- an environmental crisis, wealth disparity in this country unlike we've seen since 1928, and globally, a totally immoral and ongoing wealth disparity. +Xenophobia's on the rise. The trafficking of women and girls. +It's enough to make you feel very overwhelmed. +I experienced this firsthand myself when I graduated from Barnard College in 2002. +I was fired up; I was ready to make a difference. +I went out and I worked at a non-profit, I went to grad school, I phone-banked, I protested, I volunteered, and none of it seemed to matter. +And on a particularly dark night of December of 2004, I sat down with my family, and I said that I had become very disillusioned. +I admitted that I'd actually had a fantasy -- kind of a dark fantasy -- of writing a letter about everything that was wrong with the world and then lighting myself on fire on the White House steps. +My mom took a drink of her signature Sea Breeze, her eyes really welled with tears, and she looked right at me and she said, "I will not stand for your desperation." +She said, "You are smarter, more creative and more resilient than that." +Which brings me to my third paradox. +Growing up is about aiming to succeed wildly and being fulfilled by failing really well. +There's a writer I've been deeply influenced by, Parker Palmer, and he writes that many of us are often whiplashed "between arrogant overestimation of ourselves and a servile underestimation of ourselves." +You may have guessed by now, I did not light myself on fire. +I did what I know to do in desperation, which is write. +I wrote the book I needed to read. +I wrote a book about eight incredible people all over this country doing social justice work. +I wrote about Nia Martin-Robinson, the daughter of Detroit and two civil rights activists, who's dedicating her life to environmental justice. +I wrote about Emily Apt who initially became a caseworker in the welfare system because she decided that was the most noble thing she could do, but quickly learned, not only did she not like it, but she wasn't really good at it. +Instead, what she really wanted to do was make films. +So she made a film about the welfare system and had a huge impact. +I wrote about Maricela Guzman, the daughter of Mexican immigrants, who joined the military so she could afford college. +She was actually sexually assaulted in boot camp and went on to co-organize a group called the Service Women's Action Network. +What I learned from these people and others was that I couldn't judge them based on their failure to meet their very lofty goals. +Many of them are working in deeply intractable systems -- the military, congress, the education system, etc. +But what they managed to do within those systems was be a humanizing force. +And at the end of the day, what could possibly be more important than that? +Cornel West says, "Of course it's a failure. +But how good a failure is it?" +This isn't to say we give up our wildest, biggest dreams. +It's to say we operate on two levels. +On one, we really go after changing these broken systems of which we find ourselves a part. +But on the other, we root our self-esteem in the daily acts of trying to make one person's day more kind, more just, etc. +So when I was a little girl, I had a couple of very strange habits. +One of them was I used to lie on the kitchen floor of my childhood home, and I would suck the thumb of my left hand and hold my mom's cold toes with my right hand. +I was listening to her talk on the phone, which she did a lot. +She was talking about board meetings, she was founding peace organizations, she was coordinating carpools, she was consoling friends -- all these daily acts of care and creativity. +And surely, at three and four years old, I was listening to the soothing sound of her voice, but I think I was also getting my first lesson in activist work. +The activists I interviewed had nothing in common, literally, except for one thing, which was that they all cited their mothers as their most looming and important activist influences. +So often, particularly at a young age, we look far afield for our models of the meaningful life, and sometimes they're in our own kitchens, talking on the phone, making us dinner, doing all that keeps the world going around and around. +My mom and so many women like her have taught me that life is not about glory, or certainty, or security even. +It's about embracing the paradox. +It's about acting in the face of overwhelm. +And it's about loving people really well. +And at the end of the day, these things make for a lifetime of challenge and reward. +Thank you. +Khan Academy is most known for its collection of videos, so before I go any further, let me show you a little bit of a montage. +Salman Khan: So the hypotenuse is now going to be five. +This animal's fossils are only found in this area of South America -- a nice clean band here -- and this part of Africa. +We can integrate over the surface, and the notation usually is a capital sigma. +National Assembly: They create the Committee of Public Safety, which sounds like a very nice committee. +Notice, this is an aldehyde, and it's an alcohol. +Start differentiating into effector and memory cells. +A galaxy. Hey! There's another galaxy. Oh, look! There's another galaxy. +And for dollars, is their 30 million, plus the 20 million dollars from the American manufacturer. +If this does not blow your mind, then you have no emotion. +SK: We now have on the order of 2,200 videos, covering everything from basic arithmetic, all the way to vector calculus, and some of the stuff that you saw up there. +We have a million students a month using the site, watching on the order of 100 to 200,000 videos a day. +But what we're going to talk about in this is how we're going to the next level. +But before I do that, I want to talk a little bit about really just how I got started. +And some of you all might know, about five years ago, I was an analyst at a hedge fund, and I was in Boston, and I was tutoring my cousins in New Orleans, remotely. +And I started putting the first YouTube videos up, really just as a kind of nice-to-have, just kind of a supplement for my cousins, something that might give them a refresher or something. +And as soon as I put those first YouTube videos up, something interesting happened. +Actually, a bunch of interesting things happened. +The first was the feedback from my cousins. +They told me that they preferred me on YouTube than in person. +And once you get over the backhanded nature of that, there was actually something very profound there. +They were saying that they preferred the automated version of their cousin to their cousin. +At first it's very unintuitive, but when you think about it from their point of view, it makes a ton of sense. +You have this situation where now they can pause and repeat their cousin, without feeling like they're wasting my time. +If they have to review something that they should have learned a couple of weeks ago, or maybe a couple of years ago, they don't have to be embarrassed and ask their cousin. +They can just watch those videos; if they're bored, they can go ahead. +They can watch at their own time and pace. +Probably the least-appreciated aspect of this is the notion that the very first time that you're trying to get your brain around a new concept, the very last thing you need is another human being saying, "Do you understand this?" +And that's what was happening with the interaction with my cousins before, and now they can just do it in the intimacy of their own room. +The other thing that happened is -- I put them on YouTube just -- I saw no reason to make it private, so I let other people watch it, and then people started stumbling on it, and I started getting some comments and some letters and all sorts of feedback from random people around the world. +These are just a few. +This is actually from one of the original calculus videos. +Someone wrote it on YouTube, it was a YouTube comment: "First time I smiled doing a derivative." +Let's pause here. +This person did a derivative, and then they smiled. +In response to that same comment -- this is on the thread, you can go on YouTube and look at the comments -- someone else wrote: "Same thing here. +I actually got a natural high and a good mood for the entire day, since I remember seeing all of this matrix text in class, and here I'm all like, 'I know kung fu.'" We get a lot of feedback along those lines. +This clearly was helping people. +But then, as the viewership kept growing and kept growing, I started getting letters from people, and it was starting to become clear that it was more than just a nice-to-have. +This is just an excerpt from one of those letters: "My 12 year-old son has autism, and has had a terrible time with math. +We have tried everything, viewed everything, bought everything. +We stumbled on your video on decimals, and it got through. +Then we went on to the dreaded fractions. Again, he got it. +We could not believe it. +He is so excited." +And so you can imagine, here I was, an analyst at a hedge fund -- it was very strange for me to do something of social value. +But I was excited, so I kept going. +And then a few other things started to dawn on me; that not only would it help my cousins right now, or these people who were sending letters, but that this content will never grow old, that it could help their kids or their grandkids. +If Isaac Newton had done YouTube videos on calculus, I wouldn't have to. +Assuming he was good. We don't know. +The other thing that happened -- and even at this point, I said, "OK, maybe it's a good supplement. It's good for motivated students. +It's good for maybe home-schoolers." +But I didn't think it would somehow penetrate the classroom. +Then I started getting letters from teachers, and the teachers would write, saying, "We've used your videos to flip the classroom. +You've given the lectures, so now what we do --" And this could happen in every classroom in America tomorrow -- "what I do is I assign the lectures for homework, and what used to be homework, I now have the students doing in the classroom." +And I want to pause here -- I want to pause here, because there's a couple of interesting things. +One, when those teachers are doing that, there's the obvious benefit -- the benefit that now their students can enjoy the videos in the way that my cousins did, they can pause, repeat at their own pace, at their own time. +They took a fundamentally dehumanizing experience -- 30 kids with their fingers on their lips, not allowed to interact with each other. +A teacher, no matter how good, has to give this one-size-fits-all lecture to 30 students -- blank faces, slightly antagonistic -- and now it's a human experience, now they're actually interacting with each other. +So once the Khan Academy -- I quit my job, and we turned into a real organization -- we're a not-for-profit -- the question is, how do we take this to the next level? +How do we take what those teachers were doing to its natural conclusion? +And so, what I'm showing over here, these are actual exercises that I started writing for my cousins. +The ones I started were much more primitive. +This is a more competent version of it. +But the paradigm here is, we'll generate as many questions as you need, until you get that concept, until you get 10 in a row. +And the Khan Academy videos are there. +You get hints, the actual steps for that problem, if you don't know how to do it. +The paradigm here seems like a very simple thing: 10 in a row, you move on. But it's fundamentally different than what's happening in classrooms right now. +In a traditional classroom, you have homework, lecture, homework, lecture, and then you have a snapshot exam. +And that exam, whether you get a 70 percent, an 80 percent, a 90 percent or a 95 percent, the class moves on to the next topic. +And even that 95 percent student -- what was the five percent they didn't know? +Maybe they didn't know what happens when you raise something to the zeroth power. +Then you build on that in the next concept. +That's analogous to -- imagine learning to ride a bicycle. +Maybe I give you a lecture ahead of time, and I give you a bicycle for two weeks, then I come back after two weeks, and say, "Well, let's see. You're having trouble taking left turns. +You can't quite stop. You're an 80 percent bicyclist." +So I put a big "C" stamp on your forehead -- and then I say, "Here's a unicycle." +But as ridiculous as that sounds, that's exactly what's happening in our classrooms right now. +And the idea is you fast forward and good students start failing algebra all of the sudden, and start failing calculus all of the sudden, despite being smart, despite having good teachers, and it's usually because they have these Swiss cheese gaps that kept building throughout their foundation. +So our model is: learn math the way you'd learn anything, like riding a bicycle. +Stay on that bicycle. Fall off that bicycle. +Do it as long as necessary, until you have mastery. +The traditional model, it penalizes you for experimentation and failure, but it does not expect mastery. +We encourage you to experiment. We encourage you to fail. +But we do expect mastery. +This is just another one of the modules. +This is trigonometry. +This is shifting and reflecting functions. +And they all fit together. +We have about 90 of these right now. +You can go to the site right now, it's all free, not trying to sell anything. +But the general idea is that they all fit into this knowledge map. +That top node right there, that's literally single-digit addition, it's like one plus one is equal to two. +The paradigm is, once you get 10 in a row on that, it keeps forwarding you to more and more advanced modules. +Further down the knowledge map, we're getting into more advanced arithmetic. +Further down, you start getting into pre-algebra and early algebra. +Further down, you start getting into algebra one, algebra two, a little bit of precalculus. +And the idea is, from this we can actually teach everything -- well, everything that can be taught in this type of a framework. +So you can imagine -- and this is what we are working on -- from this knowledge map, you have logic, you have computer programming, you have grammar, you have genetics, all based off of that core of, if you know this and that, now you're ready for this next concept. +Now that can work well for an individual learner, and I encourage you to do it with your kids, but I also encourage everyone in the audience to do it yourself. +It'll change what happens at the dinner table. +But what we want to do is use the natural conclusion of the flipping of the classroom that those early teachers had emailed me about. +And so what I'm showing you here, this is data from a pilot in the Los Altos school district, where they took two fifth-grade classes and two seventh-grade classes, and completely gutted their old math curriculum. +These kids aren't using textbooks, or getting one-size-fits-all lectures. +They're doing Khan Academy, that software, for roughly half of their math class. +I want to be clear: we don't view this as a complete math education. +And so the paradigm is the teacher walks in every day, every kid works at their own pace -- this is actually a live dashboard from the Los Altos school district -- and they look at this dashboard. +Every row is a student. +Every column is one of those concepts. +Green means the student's already proficient. +Blue means they're working on it -- no need to worry. +Red means they're stuck. +And what the teacher does is literally just say, "Let me intervene on the red kids." +Or even better, "Let me get one of the green kids, who are already proficient in that concept, to be the first line of attack, and actually tutor their peer." +Now, I come from a very data-centric reality, so we don't want that teacher to even go and intervene and have to ask the kid awkward questions: "What don't you understand? What do you understand?" and all the rest. +So our paradigm is to arm teachers with as much data as possible -- data that, in any other field, is expected, in finance, marketing, manufacturing -- so the teachers can diagnose what's wrong with the students so they can make their interaction as productive as possible. +Now teachers know exactly what the students have been up to, how long they've spent each day, what videos they've watched, when did they pause the videos, what did they stop watching, what exercises are they using, what have they focused on? +The outer circle shows what exercises they were focused on. +The inner circle shows the videos they're focused on. +The data gets pretty granular, so you can see the exact problems the student got right or wrong. +Red is wrong, blue is right. +The leftmost question is the first one the student attempted. +They watched the video over there. +And you can see, eventually they were able to get 10 in a row. +It's almost like you can see them learning over those last 10 problems. +They also got faster -- the height is how long it took them. +When you talk about self-paced learning, it makes sense for everyone -- in education-speak, "differentiated learning" -- but it's kind of crazy, what happens when you see it in a classroom. +Because every time we've done this, in every classroom we've done, over and over again, if you go five days into it, there's a group of kids who've raced ahead and a group who are a little bit slower. +In a traditional model, in a snapshot assessment, you say, "These are the gifted kids, these are the slow kids. +Maybe they should be tracked differently. +Maybe we should put them in different classes." +But when you let students work at their own pace -- we see it over and over again -- you see students who took a little bit extra time on one concept or the other, but once they get through that concept, they just race ahead. +And so the same kids that you thought were slow six weeks ago, you now would think are gifted. +And we're seeing it over and over again. +It makes you really wonder how much all of the labels maybe a lot of us have benefited from were really just due to a coincidence of time. +Now as valuable as something like this is in a district like Los Altos, our goal is to use technology to humanize, not just in Los Altos, but on a global scale, what's happening in education. +And that brings up an interesting point. +A lot of the effort in humanizing the classroom is focused on student-to-teacher ratios. +In our mind, the relevant metric is: student-to-valuable-human-time- with-the-teacher ratio. +So in a traditional model, most of the teacher's time is spent doing lectures and grading and whatnot. +Maybe five percent of their time is sitting next to students and working with them. +Now, 100 percent of their time is. +So once again, using technology, not just flipping the classroom, you're humanizing the classroom, I'd argue, by a factor of five or 10. +As valuable as that is in Los Altos, imagine what it does to the adult learner, who's embarrassed to go back and learn stuff they should have known before going back to college. +Imagine what it does to a street kid in Calcutta, who has to help his family during the day, and that's the reason he or she can't go to school. +Now they can spend two hours a day and remediate, or get up to speed and not feel embarrassed about what they do or don't know. +Now imagine what happens where -- we talked about the peers teaching each other inside of a classroom. +But this is all one system. +There's no reason why you can't have that peer-to-peer tutoring beyond that one classroom. +Imagine what happens if that student in Calcutta all of the sudden can tutor your son, or your son can tutor that kid in Calcutta. +And I think what you'll see emerging is this notion of a global one-world classroom. +And that's essentially what we're trying to build. +Thank you. +BG: I've seen some things you're doing in the system, that have to do with motivation and feedback -- energy points, merit badges. +Tell me what you're thinking there. +SK: Oh yeah. No, we have an awesome team working on it. +I have to be clear, it's not just me anymore. +I'm still doing all the videos, but we have a rock-star team doing the software. +We've put a bunch of game mechanics in there, where you get badges, we're going to start having leader boards by area, you get points. +It's actually been pretty interesting. +Just the wording of the badging, or how many points you get for doing something, we see on a system-wide basis, like tens of thousands of fifth-graders or sixth-graders going one direction or another, depending what badge you give them. +BG: And the collaboration you're doing with Los Altos, how did that come about? +SK: Los Altos, it was kind of crazy. +Once again, I didn't expect it to be used in classrooms. +Someone from their board came and said, "What would you do if you had carte Blanche in a classroom?" +I said, "Well, every student would work at their own pace, on something like this, we'd give a dashboard." +They said, "This is kind of radical. We have to think about it." +Me and the rest of the team were like, "They're never going to want to do this." +But literally the next day they were like, "Can you start in two weeks?" +BG: So fifth-grade math is where that's going on right now? +SK: It's two fifth-grade classes and two seventh-grade classes. +They're doing it at the district level. +I think what they're excited about is they can follow these kids, not only in school; on Christmas, we saw some of the kids were doing it. +We can track everything, track them as they go through the entire district. +Through the summers, as they go from one teacher to the next, you have this continuity of data that even at the district level, they can see. +BG: So some of those views we saw were for the teacher to go in and track actually what's going on with those kids. +So you're getting feedback on those teacher views to see what they think they need? +SK: Oh yeah. Most of those were specs by the teachers. +We made some of those for students so they could see their data, but we have a very tight design loop with the teachers themselves. +And they're saying, "Hey, this is nice, but --" Like that focus graph, a lot of the teachers said, "I have a feeling a lot of the kids are jumping around and not focusing on one topic." +So we made that focus diagram. +So it's all been teacher-driven. It's been pretty crazy. +BG: Is this ready for prime time? +Do you think a lot of classes next school year should try this thing out? +SK: Yeah, it's ready. +We've got a million people on the site already, so we can handle a few more. +No, no reason why it really can't happen in every classroom in America tomorrow. +BG: And the vision of the tutoring thing. +The idea there is, if I'm confused about a topic, somehow right in the user interface, I'd find people who are volunteering, maybe see their reputation, and I could schedule and connect up with those people? +SK: Absolutely. And this is something I recommend everyone in this audience do. +Those dashboards the teachers have, you can go log in right now and you can essentially become a coach for your kids, your nephews, your cousins, or maybe some kids at the Boys and Girls Club. +And yeah, you can start becoming a mentor, a tutor, really immediately. +But yeah, it's all there. +BG: Well, it's amazing. +I think you just got a glimpse of the future of education. +BG: Thank you. SK: Thank you. +Mark Zuckerberg, a journalist was asking him a question about the news feed. +And the journalist was asking him, "Why is this so important?" +And Zuckerberg said, "A squirrel dying in your front yard may be more relevant to your interests right now than people dying in Africa." +And I want to talk about what a Web based on that idea of relevance might look like. +So when I was growing up in a really rural area in Maine, the Internet meant something very different to me. +It meant a connection to the world. +It meant something that would connect us all together. +And I was sure that it was going to be great for democracy and for our society. +But there's this shift in how information is flowing online, and it's invisible. +And if we don't pay attention to it, it could be a real problem. +So I first noticed this in a place I spend a lot of time -- my Facebook page. +I'm progressive, politically -- big surprise -- but I've always gone out of my way to meet conservatives. +I like hearing what they're thinking about; I like seeing what they link to; I like learning a thing or two. +And so I was surprised when I noticed one day that the conservatives had disappeared from my Facebook feed. +And what it turned out was going on was that Facebook was looking at which links I clicked on, and it was noticing that, actually, I was clicking more on my liberal friends' links than on my conservative friends' links. +And without consulting me about it, it had edited them out. +They disappeared. +So Facebook isn't the only place that's doing this kind of invisible, algorithmic editing of the Web. +Google's doing it too. +If I search for something, and you search for something, even right now at the very same time, we may get very different search results. +Even if you're logged out, one engineer told me, there are 57 signals that Google looks at -- everything from what kind of computer you're on to what kind of browser you're using to where you're located -- that it uses to personally tailor your query results. +Think about it for a second: there is no standard Google anymore. +And you know, the funny thing about this is that it's hard to see. +You can't see how different your search results are from anyone else's. +But a couple of weeks ago, I asked a bunch of friends to Google "Egypt" and to send me screen shots of what they got. +So here's my friend Scott's screen shot. +And here's my friend Daniel's screen shot. +When you put them side-by-side, you don't even have to read the links to see how different these two pages are. +But when you do read the links, it's really quite remarkable. +Daniel didn't get anything about the protests in Egypt at all in his first page of Google results. +Scott's results were full of them. +And this was the big story of the day at that time. +That's how different these results are becoming. +So it's not just Google and Facebook either. +This is something that's sweeping the Web. +There are a whole host of companies that are doing this kind of personalization. +Yahoo News, the biggest news site on the Internet, is now personalized -- different people get different things. +Huffington Post, the Washington Post, the New York Times -- all flirting with personalization in various ways. +And this moves us very quickly toward a world in which the Internet is showing us what it thinks we want to see, but not necessarily what we need to see. +As Eric Schmidt said, "It will be very hard for people to watch or consume something that has not in some sense been tailored for them." +So I do think this is a problem. +And I think, if you take all of these filters together, you take all these algorithms, you get what I call a filter bubble. +And your filter bubble is your own personal, unique universe of information that you live in online. +And what's in your filter bubble depends on who you are, and it depends on what you do. +But the thing is that you don't decide what gets in. +And more importantly, you don't actually see what gets edited out. +was discovered by some researchers at Netflix. +And they were looking at the Netflix queues, and they noticed something kind of funny that a lot of us probably have noticed, which is there are some movies that just sort of zip right up and out to our houses. +They enter the queue, they just zip right out. +So "Iron Man" zips right out, and "Waiting for Superman" can wait for a really long time. +What they discovered was that in our Netflix queues there's this epic struggle going on between our future aspirational selves and our more impulsive present selves. +You know we all want to be someone who has watched "Rashomon," but right now we want to watch "Ace Ventura" for the fourth time. +So the best editing gives us a bit of both. +It gives us a little bit of Justin Bieber and a little bit of Afghanistan. +It gives us some information vegetables; it gives us some information dessert. +And the challenge with these kinds of algorithmic filters, these personalized filters, is that, because they're mainly looking at what you click on first, it can throw off that balance. +And instead of a balanced information diet, you can end up surrounded by information junk food. +What this suggests is actually that we may have the story about the Internet wrong. +In a broadcast society -- this is how the founding mythology goes -- in a broadcast society, there were these gatekeepers, the editors, and they controlled the flows of information. +And along came the Internet and it swept them out of the way, and it allowed all of us to connect together, and it was awesome. +But that's not actually what's happening right now. +What we're seeing is more of a passing of the torch from human gatekeepers to algorithmic ones. +And the thing is that the algorithms don't yet have the kind of embedded ethics that the editors did. +So if algorithms are going to curate the world for us, if they're going to decide what we get to see and what we don't get to see, then we need to make sure that they're not just keyed to relevance. +We need to make sure that they also show us things that are uncomfortable or challenging or important -- this is what TED does -- other points of view. +And the thing is, we've actually been here before as a society. +In 1915, it's not like newspapers were sweating a lot about their civic responsibilities. +Then people noticed that they were doing something really important. +That, in fact, you couldn't have a functioning democracy if citizens didn't get a good flow of information, that the newspapers were critical because they were acting as the filter, and then journalistic ethics developed. +It wasn't perfect, but it got us through the last century. +And so now, we're kind of back in 1915 on the Web. +And we need the new gatekeepers to encode that kind of responsibility into the code that they're writing. +I know that there are a lot of people here from Facebook and from Google -- Larry and Sergey -- people who have helped build the Web as it is, and I'm grateful for that. +But we really need you to make sure that these algorithms have encoded in them a sense of the public life, a sense of civic responsibility. +We need you to make sure that they're transparent enough that we can see what the rules are that determine what gets through our filters. +And we need you to give us some control so that we can decide what gets through and what doesn't. +Because I think we really need the Internet to be that thing that we all dreamed of it being. +We need it to connect us all together. +We need it to introduce us to new ideas and new people and different perspectives. +And it's not going to do that if it leaves us all isolated in a Web of one. +Thank you. +Imagine if you could record your life -- everything you said, everything you did, available in a perfect memory store at your fingertips, so you could go back and find memorable moments and relive them, or sift through traces of time and discover patterns in your own life that previously had gone undiscovered. +Well that's exactly the journey that my family began five and a half years ago. +This is my wife and collaborator, Rupal. +And on this day, at this moment, we walked into the house with our first child, our beautiful baby boy. +And we walked into a house with a very special home video recording system. +Man: Okay. +Deb Roy: This moment and thousands of other moments special for us were captured in our home because in every room in the house, if you looked up, you'd see a camera and a microphone, and if you looked down, you'd get this bird's-eye view of the room. +Here's our living room, the baby bedroom, kitchen, dining room and the rest of the house. +And all of these fed into a disc array that was designed for a continuous capture. +So here we are flying through a day in our home as we move from sunlit morning through incandescent evening and, finally, lights out for the day. +Over the course of three years, we recorded eight to 10 hours a day, amassing roughly a quarter-million hours of multi-track audio and video. +So you're looking at a piece of what is by far the largest home video collection ever made. +And what this data represents for our family at a personal level, the impact has already been immense, and we're still learning its value. +Countless moments of unsolicited natural moments, not posed moments, are captured there, and we're starting to learn how to discover them and find them. +But there's also a scientific reason that drove this project, which was to use this natural longitudinal data to understand the process of how a child learns language -- that child being my son. +And so with many privacy provisions put in place to protect everyone who was recorded in the data, we made elements of the data available to my trusted research team at MIT so we could start teasing apart patterns in this massive data set, trying to understand the influence of social environments on language acquisition. +So we're looking here at one of the first things we started to do. +This is my wife and I cooking breakfast in the kitchen, and as we move through space and through time, a very everyday pattern of life in the kitchen. +In order to convert this opaque, 90,000 hours of video into something that we could start to see, we use motion analysis to pull out, as we move through space and through time, what we call space-time worms. +So with that technology and that data and the ability to, with machine assistance, transcribe speech, we've now transcribed well over seven million words of our home transcripts. +And with that, let me take you now for a first tour into the data. +So you've all, I'm sure, seen time-lapse videos where a flower will blossom as you accelerate time. +I'd like you to now experience the blossoming of a speech form. +My son, soon after his first birthday, would say "gaga" to mean water. +And over the course of the next half-year, he slowly learned to approximate the proper adult form, "water." +So we're going to cruise through half a year in about 40 seconds. +No video here, so you can focus on the sound, the acoustics, of a new kind of trajectory: gaga to water. +Baby: Gagagagagaga Gaga gaga gaga guga guga guga wada gaga gaga guga gaga wader guga guga water water water water water water water water water. +DR: He sure nailed it, didn't he. +So he didn't just learn water. +Over the course of the 24 months, the first two years that we really focused on, this is a map of every word he learned in chronological order. +And because we have full transcripts, we've identified each of the 503 words that he learned to produce by his second birthday. +He was an early talker. +And so we started to analyze why. +Why were certain words born before others? +This is one of the first results that came out of our study a little over a year ago that really surprised us. +The way to interpret this apparently simple graph is, on the vertical is an indication of how complex caregiver utterances are based on the length of utterances. +And the [horizontal] axis is time. +And all of the data, we aligned based on the following idea: Every time my son would learn a word, we would trace back and look at all of the language he heard that contained that word. +And we would plot the relative length of the utterances. +And what we found was this curious phenomena, that caregiver speech would systematically dip to a minimum, making language as simple as possible, and then slowly ascend back up in complexity. +And the amazing thing was that bounce, that dip, lined up almost precisely with when each word was born -- word after word, systematically. +So it appears that all three primary caregivers -- myself, my wife and our nanny -- were systematically and, I would think, subconsciously restructuring our language to meet him at the birth of a word and bring him gently into more complex language. +And the implications of this -- there are many, but one I just want to point out, is that there must be amazing feedback loops. +Of course, my son is learning from his linguistic environment, but the environment is learning from him. +That environment, people, are in these tight feedback loops and creating a kind of scaffolding that has not been noticed until now. +But that's looking at the speech context. +What about the visual context? +We're not looking at -- think of this as a dollhouse cutaway of our house. +We've taken those circular fish-eye lens cameras, and we've done some optical correction, and then we can bring it into three-dimensional life. +So welcome to my home. +This is a moment, one moment captured across multiple cameras. +The reason we did this is to create the ultimate memory machine, where you can go back and interactively fly around and then breathe video-life into this system. +What I'm going to do is give you an accelerated view of 30 minutes, again, of just life in the living room. +That's me and my son on the floor. +And there's video analytics that are tracking our movements. +My son is leaving red ink. I am leaving green ink. +We're now on the couch, looking out through the window at cars passing by. +And finally, my son playing in a walking toy by himself. +Now we freeze the action, 30 minutes, we turn time into the vertical axis, and we open up for a view of these interaction traces we've just left behind. +And we see these amazing structures -- these little knots of two colors of thread we call "social hot spots." +The spiral thread we call a "solo hot spot." +And we think that these affect the way language is learned. +What we'd like to do is start understanding the interaction between these patterns and the language that my son is exposed to to see if we can predict how the structure of when words are heard affects when they're learned -- so in other words, the relationship between words and what they're about in the world. +So here's how we're approaching this. +In this video, again, my son is being traced out. +He's leaving red ink behind. +And there's our nanny by the door. +Nanny: You want water? (Baby: Aaaa.) Nanny: All right. (Baby: Aaaa.) DR: She offers water, and off go the two worms over to the kitchen to get water. +And what we've done is use the word "water" to tag that moment, that bit of activity. +And now we take the power of data and take every time my son ever heard the word water and the context he saw it in, and we use it to penetrate through the video and find every activity trace that co-occurred with an instance of water. +And what this data leaves in its wake is a landscape. +We call these wordscapes. +This is the wordscape for the word water, and you can see most of the action is in the kitchen. +That's where those big peaks are over to the left. +And just for contrast, we can do this with any word. +We can take the word "bye" as in "good bye." +And we're now zoomed in over the entrance to the house. +And we look, and we find, as you would expect, a contrast in the landscape where the word "bye" occurs much more in a structured way. +So we're using these structures to start predicting the order of language acquisition, and that's ongoing work now. +In my lab, which we're peering into now, at MIT -- this is at the media lab. +This has become my favorite way of videographing just about any space. +Three of the key people in this project, Philip DeCamp, Rony Kubat and Brandon Roy are pictured here. +Philip has been a close collaborator on all the visualizations you're seeing. +And so our effort took an unexpected turn. +Think of mass media as providing common ground and you have the recipe for taking this idea to a whole new place. +We've started analyzing television content using the same principles -- analyzing event structure of a TV signal -- episodes of shows, commercials, all of the components that make up the event structure. +And we're now, with satellite dishes, pulling and analyzing a good part of all the TV being watched in the United States. +And you don't have to now go and instrument living rooms with microphones to get people's conversations, you just tune into publicly available social media feeds. +So we're pulling in about three billion comments a month, and then the magic happens. +And the same idea now can be built up. +And we get this wordscape, except now words are not assembled in my living room. +Instead, the context, the common ground activities, are the content on television that's driving the conversations. +And what we're seeing here, these skyscrapers now, are commentary that are linked to content on television. +Same concept, but looking at communication dynamics in a very different sphere. +And so fundamentally, rather than, for example, measuring content based on how many people are watching, this gives us the basic data for looking at engagement properties of content. +And just like we can look at feedback cycles and dynamics in a family, we can now open up the same concepts and look at much larger groups of people. +This is a subset of data from our database -- just 50,000 out of several million -- and the social graph that connects them through publicly available sources. +And if you put them on one plain, a second plain is where the content lives. +So we have the programs and the sporting events and the commercials, and all of the link structures that tie them together make a content graph. +And then the important third dimension. +Each of the links that you're seeing rendered here is an actual connection made between something someone said and a piece of content. +And there are, again, now tens of millions of these links that give us the connective tissue of social graphs and how they relate to content. +And we can now start to probe the structure in interesting ways. +So if we, for example, trace the path of one piece of content that drives someone to comment on it, and then we follow where that comment goes, and then look at the entire social graph that becomes activated and then trace back to see the relationship between that social graph and content, a very interesting structure becomes visible. +We call this a co-viewing clique, a virtual living room if you will. +And there are fascinating dynamics at play. +It's not one way. +A piece of content, an event, causes someone to talk. +They talk to other people. +That drives tune-in behavior back into mass media, and you have these cycles that drive the overall behavior. +Another example -- very different -- another actual person in our database -- and we're finding at least hundreds, if not thousands, of these. +We've given this person a name. +This is a pro-amateur, or pro-am media critic who has this high fan-out rate. +So a lot of people are following this person -- very influential -- and they have a propensity to talk about what's on TV. +So this person is a key link in connecting mass media and social media together. +One last example from this data: Sometimes it's actually a piece of content that is special. +So if we go and look at this piece of content, President Obama's State of the Union address from just a few weeks ago, and look at what we find in this same data set, at the same scale, the engagement properties of this piece of content are truly remarkable. +A nation exploding in conversation in real time in response to what's on the broadcast. +And of course, through all of these lines are flowing unstructured language. +We can X-ray and get a real-time pulse of a nation, real-time sense of the social reactions in the different circuits in the social graph being activated by content. +So, to summarize, the idea is this: As our world becomes increasingly instrumented and we have the capabilities to collect and connect the dots between what people are saying and the context they're saying it in, what's emerging is an ability to see new social structures and dynamics that have previously not been seen. +It's like building a microscope or telescope and revealing new structures about our own behavior around communication. +And I think the implications here are profound, whether it's for science, for commerce, for government, or perhaps most of all, for us as individuals. +And so just to return to my son, when I was preparing this talk, he was looking over my shoulder, and I showed him the clips I was going to show to you today, and I asked him for permission -- granted. +And he was quiet for a moment. +And I thought, "What am I thinking? +He's five years old. He's not going to understand this." +And just as I was having that thought, he looked up at me and said, "So that when I grow up, I can show this to my kids?" +And I thought, "Wow, this is powerful stuff." +So I want to leave you with one last memorable moment from our family. +This is the first time our son took more than two steps at once -- captured on film. +And I really want you to focus on something as I take you through. +It's a cluttered environment; it's natural life. +My mother's in the kitchen, cooking, and, of all places, in the hallway, I realize he's about to do it, about to take more than two steps. +And so you hear me encouraging him, realizing what's happening, and then the magic happens. +Listen very carefully. +About three steps in, he realizes something magic is happening, and the most amazing feedback loop of all kicks in, and he takes a breath in, and he whispers "wow" and instinctively I echo back the same. +And so let's fly back in time to that memorable moment. +DR: Hey. +Come here. +Can you do it? +Oh, boy. +Can you do it? +Baby: Yeah. +DR: Ma, he's walking. +DR: Thank you. +This is a river. +This is a stream. +This is a river. +This is happening all over the country. +There are tens of thousands of miles of dewatered streams in the United States. +On this map, the colored areas represent water conflicts. +Similar problems are emerging in the east as well. +The reasons vary state to state, but mostly in the details. +There are 4,000 miles of dewatered streams in Montana alone. +They would ordinarily support fish and other wildlife. +They're the veins of the ecosystem, and they're often empty veins. +I want to tell you the story of just one of these streams because it's an archetype for the larger story. +This is Prickly Pear Creek. +It runs through a populated area from East Helena to Lake Helena. +It supports wild fish including cutthroat, brown and rainbow trout. +Nearly every year for more than a hundred years, it's looked like this in the summer. +How did we get here? +Well, it started back in the late 1800s when people started settling in places like Montana. +In short, there was a lot of water and there weren't very many people. +But as more people showed up wanting water, the folks who were there first got a little concerned, and in 1865, Montana passed its first water law. +It basically said, everybody near the stream can share in the stream. +Oddly, a lot of people showed up wanting to share the stream, and the folks who were there first got concerned enough to bring out their lawyers. +There were precedent-setting suits in 1870 and 1872, both involving Prickly Pear Creek. +And in 1921, the Montana Supreme Court ruled in a case involving Prickly Pear that the folks who were there first had the first, or "senior water rights." +These senior water rights are key. +The problem is that all over the west now it looks like this. +Some of these creeks have claims for 50 to 100 times more water than is actually in the stream. +And the senior water rights holders, if they don't use their water right, they risk losing their water right, along with the economic value that goes with it. +So they have no incentive to conserve. +So it's not just about the number of people; the system itself creates a disincentive to conserve because you can lose your water right if you don't use it. +So after decades of lawsuits and 140 years, now, of experience, we still have this. +It's a broken system. +There's a disincentive to conserve, because, if you don't use your water right, you can lose your water right. +And I'm sure you all know, this has created significant conflicts between the agricultural and environmental communities. +Okay. Now I'm going to change gears here. +Most of you will be happy to know that the rest of the presentation's free, and some of you'll be happy to know that it involves beer. +There's another thing happening around the country, which is that companies are starting to get concerned about their water footprint. +They're concerned about securing an adequate supply of water, they're trying to be really efficient with their water use, and they're concerned about how their water use affects the image of their brand. +Well, it's a national problem, but I'm going to tell you another story from Montana, and it involves beer. +I bet you didn't know, it takes about 5 pints of water to make a pint of beer. +If you include all the drain, it takes more than a hundred pints of water to make a pint of beer. +Now the brewers in Montana have already done a lot to reduce their water consumption, but they still use millions of gallons of water. +I mean, there's water in beer. +So what can they do about this remaining water footprint that can have serious effects on the ecosystem? +These ecosystems are really important to the Montana brewers and their customers. +After all, there's a strong correlation between water and fishing, and for some, there's a strong correlation between fishing and beer. +So the Montana brewers and their customers are concerned, and they're looking for some way to address the problem. +So how can they address this remaining water footprint? +Remember Prickly Pear. +Up until now, business water stewardship has been limited to measuring and reducing, and we're suggesting that the next step is to restore. +Remember Prickly Pear. +It's a broken system. +You've got a disincentive to conserve, because if you don't use your water right, you risk losing your water right. +Well, we decided to connect these two worlds -- the world of the companies with their water footprints and the world of the farmers with their senior water rights on these creeks. +In some states, senior water rights holders can leave their water in-stream while legally protecting it from others and maintaining their water right. +After all, it is their water right, and if they want to use that water right to help the fish grow in the stream, it's their right to do so. +But they have no incentive to do so. +So, working with local water trusts, we created an incentive to do so. +We pay them to leave their water in-stream. +That's what's happening here. +This individual has made the choice and is closing this water diversion, leaving the water in the stream. +He doesn't lose the water right, he just chooses to apply that right, or some portion of it, to the stream, instead of to the land. +Because he's the senior water rights holder, he can protect the water from other users in the stream. +Okay? +He gets paid to leave the water in the stream. +This guy's measuring the water that this leaves in the stream. +We then take the measured water, we divide it into thousand-gallon increments. +Each increment gets a serial number and a certificate, and then the brewers and others buy those certificates as a way to return water to these degraded ecosystems. +The brewers pay to restore water to the stream. +It provides a simple, inexpensive and measurable way to return water to these degraded ecosystems, while giving farmers an economic choice and giving businesses concerned about their water footprints an easy way to deal with them. +After 140 years of conflict and 100 years of dry streams, a circumstance that litigation and regulation has not solved, we put together a market-based, willing buyer, willing seller solution -- a solution that does not require litigation. +It's about giving folks concerned about their water footprints a real opportunity to put water where it's critically needed, into these degraded ecosystems, while at the same time providing farmers a meaningful economic choice about how their water is used. +These transactions create allies, not enemies. +They connect people rather than dividing them. +And they provide needed economic support for rural communities. +And most importantly, it's working. +We've returned more than four billion gallons of water to degraded ecosystems. +We've connected senior water rights holders with brewers in Montana, with hotels and tea companies in Oregon and with high-tech companies that use a lot of water in the Southwest. +And when we make these connections, we can and we do turn this into this. +Thank you very much. +When I got my current job, I was given a good piece of advice, which was to interview three politicians every day. +And from that much contact with politicians, I can tell you they're all emotional freaks of one sort or another. +They have what I called "logorrhea dementia," which is they talk so much they drive themselves insane. +But what they do have is incredible social skills. +When you meet them, they lock into you, they look you in the eye, they invade your personal space, they massage the back of your head. +I had dinner with a Republican senator several months ago who kept his hand on my inner thigh throughout the whole meal -- squeezing it. +I once -- this was years ago -- I saw Ted Kennedy and Dan Quayle meet in the well of the Senate. +And they were friends, and they hugged each other and they were laughing, and their faces were like this far apart. +And they were moving and grinding and moving their arms up and down each other. +And I was like, "Get a room. I don't want to see this." +But they have those social skills. +Another case: Last election cycle, I was following Mitt Romney around New Hampshire, and he was campaigning with his five perfect sons: Bip, Chip, Rip, Zip, Lip and Dip. +And he's going into a diner. +And he goes into the diner, introduces himself to a family and says, "What village are you from in New Hampshire?" +And then he describes the home he owned in their village. +And so he goes around the room, and then as he's leaving the diner, he first-names almost everybody he's just met. +I was like, "Okay, that's social skill." +But the paradox is, when a lot of these people slip into the policy-making mode, that social awareness vanishes and they start talking like accountants. +So in the course of my career, I have covered a series of failures. +We sent economists in the Soviet Union with privatization plans when it broke up, and what they really lacked was social trust. +We invaded Iraq with a military oblivious to the cultural and psychological realities. +We had a financial regulatory regime based on the assumptions that traders were rational creatures who wouldn't do anything stupid. +For 30 years, I've been covering school reform and we've basically reorganized the bureaucratic boxes -- charters, private schools, vouchers -- but we've had disappointing results year after year. +And the fact is, people learn from people they love. +And if you're not talking about the individual relationship between a teacher and a student, you're not talking about that reality. +But that reality is expunged from our policy-making process. +And so that's led to a question for me: Why are the most socially-attuned people on earth completely dehumanized when they think about policy? +And I came to the conclusion, this is a symptom of a larger problem. +That, for centuries, we've inherited a view of human nature based on the notion that we're divided selves, that reason is separated from the emotions and that society progresses to the extent that reason can suppress the passions. +And it's led to a view of human nature that we're rational individuals who respond in straightforward ways to incentives, and it's led to ways of seeing the world where people try to use the assumptions of physics to measure how human behavior is. +And it's produced a great amputation, a shallow view of human nature. +We're really good at talking about material things, but we're really bad at talking about emotions. +We're really good at talking about skills and safety and health; we're really bad at talking about character. +Alasdair MacIntyre, the famous philosopher, said that, "We have the concepts of the ancient morality of virtue, honor, goodness, but we no longer have a system by which to connect them." +And so this has led to a shallow path in politics, but also in a whole range of human endeavors. +You can see it in the way we raise our young kids. +You go to an elementary school at three in the afternoon and you watch the kids come out, and they're wearing these 80-pound backpacks. +If the wind blows them over, they're like beetles stuck there on the ground. +You see these cars that drive up -- usually it's Saabs and Audis and Volvos, because in certain neighborhoods it's socially acceptable to have a luxury car, so long as it comes from a country hostile to U.S. foreign policy -- that's fine. +They get picked up by these creatures I've called uber-moms, who are highly successful career women who have taken time off to make sure all their kids get into Harvard. +And you can usually tell the uber-moms because they actually weigh less than their own children. +So at the moment of conception, they're doing little butt exercises. +Babies flop out, they're flashing Mandarin flashcards at the things. +Driving them home, and they want them to be enlightened, so they take them to Ben & Jerry's ice cream company with its own foreign policy. +In one of my books, I joke that Ben & Jerry's should make a pacifist toothpaste -- doesn't kill germs, just asks them to leave. +It would be a big seller. +And they go to Whole Foods to get their baby formula, and Whole Foods is one of those progressive grocery stores where all the cashiers look like they're on loan from Amnesty International. +They buy these seaweed-based snacks there called Veggie Booty with Kale, which is for kids who come home and say, "Mom, mom, I want a snack that'll help prevent colon-rectal cancer." +And so the kids are raised in a certain way, jumping through achievement hoops of the things we can measure -- SAT prep, oboe, soccer practice. +They get into competitive colleges, they get good jobs, and sometimes they make a success of themselves in a superficial manner, and they make a ton of money. +And sometimes you can see them at vacation places like Jackson Hole or Aspen. +And they've become elegant and slender -- they don't really have thighs; they just have one elegant calve on top of another. +They have kids of their own, and they've achieved a genetic miracle by marrying beautiful people, so their grandmoms look like Gertrude Stein, their daughters looks like Halle Berry -- I don't know how they've done that. +They get there and they realize it's fashionable now to have dogs a third as tall as your ceiling heights. +So they've got these furry 160-pound dogs -- all look like velociraptors, all named after Jane Austen characters. +And then when they get old, they haven't really developed a philosophy of life, but they've decided, "I've been successful at everything; I'm just not going to die." +And so they hire personal trainers; they're popping Cialis like breath mints. +You see them on the mountains up there. +They're cross-country skiing up the mountain with these grim expressions that make Dick Cheney look like Jerry Lewis. +And as they whiz by you, it's like being passed by a little iron Raisinet going up the hill. +And so this is part of what life is, but it's not all of what life is. +And over the past few years, I think we've been given a deeper view of human nature and a deeper view of who we are. +And it's not based on theology or philosophy, it's in the study of the mind, across all these spheres of research, from neuroscience to the cognitive scientists, behavioral economists, psychologists, sociology, we're developing a revolution in consciousness. +And when you synthesize it all, it's giving us a new view of human nature. +And far from being a coldly materialistic view of nature, it's a new humanism, it's a new enchantment. +And I think when you synthesize this research, you start with three key insights. +The first insight is that while the conscious mind writes the autobiography of our species, the unconscious mind does most of the work. +And so one way to formulate that is the human mind can take in millions of pieces of information a minute, of which it can be consciously aware of about 40. +And this leads to oddities. +One of my favorite is that people named Dennis are disproportionately likely to become dentists, people named Lawrence become lawyers, because unconsciously we gravitate toward things that sound familiar, which is why I named my daughter President of the United States Brooks. +Another finding is that the unconscious, far from being dumb and sexualized, is actually quite smart. +So one of the most cognitively demanding things we do is buy furniture. +It's really hard to imagine a sofa, how it's going to look in your house. +And the way you should do that is study the furniture, let it marinate in your mind, distract yourself, and then a few days later, go with your gut, because unconsciously you've figured it out. +The second insight is that emotions are at the center of our thinking. +People with strokes and lesions in the emotion-processing parts of the brain are not super smart, they're actually sometimes quite helpless. +And the "giant" in the field is in the room tonight and is speaking tomorrow morning -- Antonio Damasio. +And one of the things he's really shown us is that emotions are not separate from reason, but they are the foundation of reason because they tell us what to value. +And so reading and educating your emotions is one of the central activities of wisdom. +Now I'm a middle-aged guy. +I'm not exactly comfortable with emotions. +One of my favorite brain stories described these middle-aged guys. +They put them into a brain scan machine -- this is apocryphal by the way, but I don't care -- and they had them watch a horror movie, and then they had them describe their feelings toward their wives. +And the brain scans were identical in both activities. +It was just sheer terror. +So me talking about emotion is like Gandhi talking about gluttony, but it is the central organizing process of the way we think. +It tells us what to imprint. +The brain is the record of the feelings of a life. +And the third insight is that we're not primarily self-contained individuals. +We're social animals, not rational animals. +We emerge out of relationships, and we are deeply interpenetrated, one with another. +And so when we see another person, we reenact in our own minds what we see in their minds. +When we watch a car chase in a movie, it's almost as if we are subtly having a car chase. +When we watch pornography, it's a little like having sex, though probably not as good. +And we see this when lovers walk down the street, when a crowd in Egypt or Tunisia gets caught up in an emotional contagion, the deep interpenetration. +And this revolution in who we are gives us a different way of seeing, I think, politics, a different way, most importantly, of seeing human capital. +We are now children of the French Enlightenment. +We believe that reason is the highest of the faculties. +But I think this research shows that the British Enlightenment, or the Scottish Enlightenment, with David Hume, Adam Smith, actually had a better handle on who we are -- that reason is often weak, our sentiments are strong, and our sentiments are often trustworthy. +And this work corrects that bias in our culture, that dehumanizing bias. +It gives us a deeper sense of what it actually takes for us to thrive in this life. +When we think about human capital we think about the things we can measure easily -- things like grades, SAT's, degrees, the number of years in schooling. +What it really takes to do well, to lead a meaningful life, are things that are deeper, things we don't really even have words for. +And so let me list just a couple of the things I think this research points us toward trying to understand. +The first gift, or talent, is mindsight -- the ability to enter into other people's minds and learn what they have to offer. +Babies come with this ability. +Meltzoff, who's at the University of Washington, leaned over a baby who was 43 minutes old. +He wagged his tongue at the baby. +The baby wagged her tongue back. +Babies are born to interpenetrate into Mom's mind and to download what they find -- their models of how to understand reality. +In the United States, 55 percent of babies have a deep two-way conversation with Mom and they learn models to how to relate to other people. +And those people who have models of how to relate have a huge head start in life. +Scientists at the University of Minnesota did a study in which they could predict with 77 percent accuracy, at age 18 months, who was going to graduate from high school, based on who had good attachment with mom. +Twenty percent of kids do not have those relationships. +They are what we call avoidantly attached. +They have trouble relating to other people. +They go through life like sailboats tacking into the wind -- wanting to get close to people, but not really having the models of how to do that. +And so this is one skill of how to hoover up knowledge, one from another. +A second skill is equipoise, the ability to have the serenity to read the biases and failures in your own mind. +So for example, we are overconfidence machines. +Ninety-five percent of our professors report that they are above-average teachers. +Ninety-six percent of college students say they have above-average social skills. +Time magazine asked Americans, "Are you in the top one percent of earners?" +Nineteen percent of Americans are in the top one percent of earners. +This is a gender-linked trait, by the way. +Men drown at twice the rate of women, because men think they can swim across that lake. +But some people have the ability and awareness of their own biases, their own overconfidence. +They have epistemological modesty. +They are open-minded in the face of ambiguity. +They are able to adjust strength of the conclusions to the strength of their evidence. +They are curious. +And these traits are often unrelated and uncorrelated with IQ. +The third trait is metis, what we might call street smarts -- it's a Greek word. +It's a sensitivity to the physical environment, the ability to pick out patterns in an environment -- derive a gist. +One of my colleagues at the Times did a great story about soldiers in Iraq who could look down a street and detect somehow whether there was an IED, a landmine, in the street. +They couldn't tell you how they did it, but they could feel cold, they felt a coldness, and they were more often right than wrong. +The third is what you might call sympathy, the ability to work within groups. +And that comes in tremendously handy, because groups are smarter than individuals. +And face-to-face groups are much smarter than groups that communicate electronically, because 90 percent of our communication is non-verbal. +And the effectiveness of a group is not determined by the IQ of the group; it's determined by how well they communicate, how often they take turns in conversation. +Then you could talk about a trait like blending. +Any child can say, "I'm a tiger," pretend to be a tiger. +It seems so elementary. +But in fact, it's phenomenally complicated to take a concept "I" and a concept "tiger" and blend them together. +But this is the source of innovation. +What Picasso did, for example, was take the concept "Western art" and the concept "African masks" and blend them together -- not only the geometry, but the moral systems entailed in them. +And these are skills, again, we can't count and measure. +And then the final thing I'll mention is something you might call limerence. +And this is not an ability; it's a drive and a motivation. +The conscious mind hungers for success and prestige. +The unconscious mind hungers for those moments of transcendence, when the skull line disappears and we are lost in a challenge or a task -- when a craftsman feels lost in his craft, when a naturalist feels at one with nature, when a believer feels at one with God's love. +That is what the unconscious mind hungers for. +And many of us feel it in love when lovers feel fused. +And one of the most beautiful descriptions I've come across in this research of how minds interpenetrate was written by a great theorist and scientist named Douglas Hofstadter at the University of Indiana. +He was married to a woman named Carol, and they had a wonderful relationship. +When their kids were five and two, Carol had a stroke and a brain tumor and died suddenly. +And Hofstadter wrote a book called "I Am a Strange Loop." +In the course of that book, he describes a moment -- just months after Carol has died -- he comes across her picture on the mantel, or on a bureau in his bedroom. +And here's what he wrote: "I looked at her face, and I looked so deeply that I felt I was behind her eyes. +I realized that, though Carol had died, that core piece of her had not died at all, but had lived on very determinedly in my brain." +The Greeks say we suffer our way to wisdom. +Through his suffering, Hofstadter understood how deeply interpenetrated we are. +Through the policy failures of the last 30 years, we have come to acknowledge, I think, how shallow our view of human nature has been. +And now as we confront that shallowness and the failures that derive from our inability to get the depths of who we are, comes this revolution in consciousness -- these people in so many fields exploring the depth of our nature and coming away with this enchanted, this new humanism. +And when Freud discovered his sense of the unconscious, it had a vast effect on the climate of the times. +Now we are discovering a more accurate vision of the unconscious, of who we are deep inside, and it's going to have a wonderful and profound and humanizing effect on our culture. +Thank you. +I want to ask you all to consider for a second the very simple fact that, by far, most of what we know about the universe comes to us from light. +We can stand on the Earth and look up at the night sky and see stars with our bare eyes. +The Sun burns our peripheral vision. +We see light reflected off the Moon. +And in the time since Galileo pointed that rudimentary telescope at the celestial bodies, the known universe has come to us through light, across vast eras in cosmic history. +And with all of our modern telescopes, we've been able to collect this stunning silent movie of the universe -- these series of snapshots that go all the way back to the Big Bang. +And yet, the universe is not a silent movie because the universe isn't silent. +I'd like to convince you that the universe has a soundtrack and that soundtrack is played on space itself, because space can wobble like a drum. +It can ring out a kind of recording throughout the universe of some of the most dramatic events as they unfold. +Now we'd like to be able to add to a kind of glorious visual composition that we have of the universe -- a sonic composition. +And while we've never heard the sounds from space, we really should, in the next few years, start to turn up the volume on what's going on out there. +So in this ambition to capture songs from the universe, we turn our focus to black holes and the promise they have, because black holes can bang on space-time like mallets on a drum and have a very characteristic song, which I'd like to play for you -- some of our predictions for what that song will be like. +Now black holes are dark against a dark sky. +We can't see them directly. +They're not brought to us with light, at least not directly. +We can see them indirectly, because black holes wreak havoc on their environment. +They destroy stars around them. +They churn up debris in their surroundings. +But they won't come to us directly through light. +We might one day see a shadow a black hole can cast on a very bright background, but we haven't yet. +And yet black holes may be heard even if they're not seen, and that's because they bang on space-time like a drum. +Now we owe the idea that space can ring like a drum to Albert Einstein -- to whom we owe so much. +Einstein realized that if space were empty, if the universe were empty, it would be like this picture, except for maybe without the helpful grid drawn on it. +But if we were freely falling through the space, even without this helpful grid, we might be able to paint it ourselves, because we would notice that we traveled along straight lines, undeflected straight paths through the universe. +Einstein also realized -- and this is the real meat of the matter -- that if you put energy or mass in the universe, it would curve space, and a freely falling object would pass by, let's say, the Sun and it would be deflected along the natural curves in the space. +It was Einstein's great general theory of relativity. +Now even light will be bent by those paths. +And you can be bent so much that you're caught in orbit around the Sun, as the Earth is, or the Moon around the Earth. +These are the natural curves in space. +It wasn't Einstein who realized this, it was Karl Schwarzschild who was a German Jew in World War I -- joined the German army already an accomplished scientist, working on the Russian front. +I like to imagine Schwarzschild in the war in the trenches calculating ballistic trajectories for cannon fire, and then, in between, calculating Einstein's equations -- as you do in the trenches. +And he was reading Einstein's recently published general theory of relativity, and he was thrilled by this theory. +And he quickly surmised an exact mathematical solution that described something very extraordinary: curves so strong that space would rain down into them, space itself would curve like a waterfall flowing down the throat of a hole. +And even light could not escape this current. +Light would be dragged down the hole as everything else would be, and all that would be left would be a shadow. +Now he wrote to Einstein, and he said, "As you will see, the war has been kind to me enough. +Despite the heavy gunfire, I've been able to get away from it all and walk through the land of your ideas." +And Einstein was very impressed with his exact solution, and I should hope also the dedication of the scientist. +This is the hardworking scientist under harsh conditions. +And he took Schwarzschild's idea to the Prussian Academy of Sciences the next week. +But Einstein always thought black holes were a mathematical oddity. +He did not believe they existed in nature. +He thought nature would protect us from their formation. +It was decades before the term "black hole" was coined and people realized that black holes are real astrophysical objects -- in fact they're the death state of very massive stars that collapse catastrophically at the end of their lifetime. +Now our Sun will not collapse to a black hole. +It's actually not massive enough. +But if we did a little thought experiment -- as Einstein was very fond of doing -- we could imagine putting the Sun crushed down to six kilometers, and putting a tiny little Earth around it in orbit, maybe 30 kilometers outside of the black-hole sun. +And it would be self-illuminated, because now the Sun's gone, we have no other source of light -- so let's make our little Earth self-illuminated. +And you would realize you could put the Earth in a happy orbit even 30 km outside of this crushed black hole. +This crushed black hole actually would fit inside Manhattan, more or less. +It might spill off into the Hudson a little bit before it destroyed the Earth. +But basically that's what we're talking about. +We're talking about an object that you could crush down to half the square area of Manhattan. +So we move this Earth very close -- 30 kilometers outside -- and we notice it's perfectly fine orbiting around the black hole. +There's a sort of myth that black holes devour everything in the universe, but you actually have to get very close to fall in. +But what's very impressive is that, from our vantage point, we can always see the Earth. +It cannot hide behind the black hole. +The light from the Earth, some of it falls in, but some of it gets lensed around and brought back to us. +So you can't hide anything behind a black hole. +If this were Battlestar Galactica and you're fighting the Cylons, don't hide behind the black hole. +They can see you. +Now, our Sun will not collapse to a black hole -- it's not massive enough -- but there are tens of thousands of black holes in our galaxy. +And if one were to eclipse the Milky Way, this is what it would look like. +We would see a shadow of that black hole against the hundred billion stars in the Milky Way Galaxy and its luminous dust lanes. +And if we were to fall towards this black hole, we would see all of that light lensed around it, and we could even start to cross into that shadow and really not notice that anything dramatic had happened. +It would be bad if we tried to fire our rockets and get out of there because we couldn't, anymore than light can escape. +But even though the black hole is dark from the outside, it's not dark on the inside, because all of the light from the galaxy can fall in behind us. +And even though, due to a relativistic effect known as time dilation, our clocks would seem to slow down relative to galactic time, it would look as though the evolution of the galaxy had been sped up and shot at us, right before we were crushed to death by the black hole. +It would be like a near-death experience where you see the light at the end of the tunnel, but it's a total death experience. +And there's no way of telling anybody about the light at the end of the tunnel. +Now we've never seen a shadow like this of a black hole, but black holes can be heard, even if they're not seen. +Imagine now taking an astrophysically realistic situation -- imagine two black holes that have lived a long life together. +Maybe they started as stars and collapsed to two black holes -- each one 10 times the mass of the Sun. +So now we're going to crush them down to 60 kilometers across. +They can be spinning hundreds of times a second. +At the end of their lives, they're going around each other very near the speed of light. +So they're crossing thousands of kilometers in a fraction of a second, and as they do so, they not only curve space, but they leave behind in their wake a ringing of space, an actual wave on space-time. +Space squeezes and stretches as it emanates out from these black holes banging on the universe. +And they travel out into the cosmos at the speed of light. +This computer simulation is due to a relativity group at NASA Goddard. +It took almost 30 years for anyone in the world to crack this problem. +This was one of the groups. +It shows two black holes in orbit around each other, again, with these helpfully painted curves. +And if you can see -- it's kind of faint -- but if you can see the red waves emanating out, those are the gravitational waves. +They're literally the sounds of space ringing, and they will travel out from these black holes at the speed of light as they ring down and coalesce to one spinning, quiet black hole at the end of the day. +If you were standing near enough, your ear would resonate with the squeezing and stretching of space. +You would literally hear the sound. +Now of course, your head would be squeezed and stretched unhelpfully, so you might have trouble understanding what's going on. +But I'd like to play for you the sound that we predict. +This is from my group -- a slightly less glamorous computer modeling. +Imagine a lighter black hole falling into a very heavy black hole. +The sound you're hearing is the light black hole banging on space each time it gets close. +If it gets far away, it's a little too quiet. +But it comes in like a mallet, and it literally cracks space, wobbling it like a drum. +And we can predict what the sound will be. +We know that, as it falls in, it gets faster and it gets louder. +And eventually, we're going to hear the little guy just fall into the bigger guy. +Then it's gone. +Now I've never heard it that loud -- it's actually more dramatic. +At home it sounds kind of anticlimactic. +It's sort of like ding, ding, ding. +This is another sound from my group. +No, I'm not showing you any images, because black holes don't leave behind helpful trails of ink, and space is not painted, showing you the curves. +But if you were to float by in space on a space holiday and you heard this, you want to get moving. +Want to get away from the sound. +Both black holes are moving. +Both black holes are getting closer together. +In this case, they're both wobbling quite a lot. +And then they're going to merge. +Now it's gone. +Now that chirp is very characteristic of black holes merging -- that it chirps up at the end. +Now that's our prediction for what we'll see. +Luckily we're at this safe distance in Long Beach, California. +And surely, somewhere in the universe two black holes have merged. +And surely, the space around us is ringing after traveling maybe a million light years, or a million years, at the speed of light to get to us. +But the sound is too quiet for any of us to ever hear. +There are very industrious experiments being built on Earth -- one called LIGO -- which will detect deviations in the squeezing and stretching of space at less than the fraction of a nucleus of an atom over four kilometers. +It's a remarkably ambitious experiment, and it's going to be at advanced sensitivity within the next few years -- to pick this up. +There's also a mission proposed for space, which hopefully will launch in the next ten years, called LISA. +And LISA will be able to see super-massive black holes -- black holes millions or billions of times the mass of the Sun. +In this Hubble image, we see two galaxies. +They look like they're frozen in some embrace. +And each one probably harbors a super-massive black hole at its core. +But they're not frozen; they're actually merging. +These two black holes are colliding, and they will merge over a billion-year time scale. +It's beyond our human perception to pick up a song of that duration. +But LISA could see the final stages of two super-massive black holes earlier in the universe's history, the last 15 minutes before they fall together. +And it's not just black holes, but it's also any big disturbance in the universe -- and the biggest of them all is the Big Bang. +When that expression was coined, it was derisive -- like, "Oh, who would believe in a Big Bang?" +But now it actually might be more technically accurate because it might bang. +It might make a sound. +This animation from my friends at Proton Studios shows looking at the Big Bang from the outside. +We don't ever want to do that actually. We want to be inside the universe because there's no such thing as standing outside the universe. +So imagine you're inside the Big Bang. +It's everywhere, it's all around you, and the space is wobbling chaotically. +Fourteen billion years pass and this song is still ringing all around us. +Galaxies form, and generations of stars form in those galaxies, and around one star, at least one star, is a habitable planet. +And here we are frantically building these experiments, doing these calculations, writing these computer codes. +Imagine a billion years ago, two black holes collided. +That song has been ringing through space for all that time. +We weren't even here. +It gets closer and closer -- 40,000 years ago, we're still doing cave paintings. +It's like hurry, build your instruments. +It's getting closer and closer, and in 20 ... +whatever year it will be when our detectors are finally at advanced sensitivity -- we'll build them, we'll turn on the machines and, bang, we'll catch it -- the first song from space. +If it was the Big Bang we were going to pick up, it would sound like this. +It's a terrible sound. +It's literally the definition of noise. +It's white noise; it's such a chaotic ringing. +But it's around us everywhere, presumably, if it hasn't been wiped out by some other process in the universe. +And if we pick it up, it will be music to our ears because it will be the quiet echo of that moment of our creation, of our observable universe. +So within the next few years, we'll be able to turn up the soundtrack a little bit, render the universe in audio. +But if we detect those earliest moments, it'll bring us that much closer to an understanding of the Big Bang, which brings us that much closer to asking some of the hardest, most elusive, questions. +If we run the movie of our universe backwards, we know that there was a Big Bang in our past, and we might even hear the cacophonous sound of it, but was our Big Bang the only Big Bang? +I mean we have to ask, has it happened before? +Will it happen again? +I mean, in the spirit of rising to TED's challenge to reignite wonder, we can ask questions, at least for this last minute, that honestly might evade us forever. +But we have to ask: Is it possible that our universe is just a plume off of some greater history? +So we have to wonder, if there is a multiverse, in some other patch of that multiverse, are there creatures? +Here's my multiverse creatures. +Are there other creatures in the multiverse, wondering about us and wondering about their own origins? +And if they are, I can imagine them as we are, calculating, writing computer code, building instruments, trying to detect that faintest sound of their origins and wondering who else is out there. +Thank you. Thank you. +There's a beautiful statement on the screen that says, "Light creates ambiance, light makes the feel of a space, and light is also the expression of structure." +Well, that was not by me. +That was, of course, by Le Corbusier, the famous architect. +And here you can see what he meant in one of his beautiful buildings -- the chapel Notre Dame Du Haut De Ronchamp -- where he creates this light that he could only make because there's also dark. +And I think that is the quintessence of this 18-minute talk -- that there is no good lighting that is healthy and for our well-being without proper darkness. +So this is how we normally would light our offices. +We have codes and standards that tell us that the lights should be so much Lux and of great uniformity. +This is how we create uniform lighting from one wall to the other in a regular grid of lamps. +And that is quite different from what I just showed you from Le Corbusier. +If we would apply these codes and standards to the Pantheon in Rome, it would never have looked like this, because this beautiful light feature that goes around there all by itself can only appear because there is also darkness in that same building. +And the same is more or less what Santiago Calatrava said when he said, "Light: I make it in my buildings for comfort." +And he didn't mean the comfort of a five-course dinner as opposed to a one-course meal, but he really meant the comfort of the quality of the building for the people. +He meant that you can see the sky and that you can experience the sun. +And he created these gorgeous buildings where you can see the sky, and where you can experience the sun, that give us a better life in the built environment, just because of the relevance of light in its brightness and also in its shadows. +And what it all boils down to is, of course, the sun. +And this image of the Sun may suggest that the Sun is something evil and aggressive, but we should not forget that all energy on this planet actually comes from the Sun, and light is only a manifestation of that energy. +The sun is for dynamics, for color changes. +So in an indirect way, you can see the sun. +And what they did is they created an integral building element to improve the quality of the space that surrounds the visitors of the museum. +They created this shade that you can see here, which actually covers the sun, but opens up to the good light from the sky. +And here you can see how they really crafted a beautiful design process with physical models, with quantitative as well as qualitative methods, to come to a final solution that is truly integrated and completely holistic with the architecture. +They allowed themselves a few mistakes along the way. +As you can see here, there's some direct light on the floor, but they could easily figure out where that comes from. +And they allow people in that building to really enjoy the sun, the good part of the sun. +And enjoying the sun can be in many different ways, of course. +It can be just like this, or maybe like this, which is rather peculiar, but this is in 1963 -- the viewing of a sun eclipse in the United States. +And it's just a bit bright up there, so these people have found a very intriguing solution. +This is, I think, a very illustrative image of what I try to say -- that the beautiful dynamics of sun, bringing these into the building, creates a quality of our built environment that truly enhances our lives. +And this is all about darkness as much as it is about lightness, of course, because otherwise you don't see these dynamics. +As opposed to the first office that I showed you in the beginning of the talk, this is a well-known office, which is the Weidt Group. +They are in green energy consulting, or something like that. +And they really practice what they preach because this office doesn't have any electric lighting at all. +It has only, on one side, this big, big glass window that helps to let the sunlight enter deep into the space and create a beautiful quality there and a great dynamic range. +So it can be very dim over there, and you do your work, and it can be very bright over there, and you do your work. +But actually, the human eye turns out to be remarkably adaptable to all these different light conditions that together create an environment that is never boring and that is never dull, and therefore helps us to enhance our lives. +I really owe a short introduction of this man to you. +This is Richard Kelly who was born 100 years ago, which is the reason I bring him up now, because it's kind of an anniversary year. +In the 1930s, Richard Kelly was the first person to really describe a methodology of modern lighting design. +And he coined three terms, which are "focal glow," "ambient luminescence" and "play of the brilliants" -- three very distinctly different ideas about light in architecture that all together make up this beautiful experience. +So to begin with, focal glow. +He meant something like this -- where the light gives direction to the space and helps you to get around. +Or something like this, which is the lighting design he did for General Motors, for the car showroom. +And you enter that space, and you feel like, "Wow! This is so impressive," just because of this focal point, this huge light source in the middle. +To me, it is something from theater, and I will get back to that a little bit later. +It's the spotlight on the artist that helps you to focus. +It could also be the sunlight that breaks through the clouds and lights up a patch of the land, highlighting it compared to the dim environment. +Or it can be in today's retail, in the shopping environment -- lighting the merchandise and creating accents that help you to get around. +Ambient luminescence is something very different. +Richard Kelly saw it as something infinite, something without any focus, something where all details actually dissolve in infinity. +And I see it as a very comfortable kind of light that really helps us to relax and to contemplate. +It could also be something like this: the National Museum of Science in London, where this blue is embracing all the exhibitions and galleries in one large gesture. +And then finally, Kelly's play of brilliants added to that really some play, I think, of the skyline of Hong Kong, or perhaps the chandelier in the opera house, or in the theater here, which is the decoration, the icing on the cake, something playful, something that is just an addition to the architectural environment, I would say. +These three distinct elements, together, make a lighting environment that helps us to feel better. +And we can only create these out of darkness. +And I will explain that further. +And I guess that is something that Richard Kelly, here on the left, was explaining to Ludwig Mies van Der Rohe. +And behind them, you see that Seagram Building that later turned into an icon of modern lighting design. +Those times, there were some early attempts also for light therapy already. +You can see here a photo from the United States Library of Medicine, where people are put in the sun to get better. +It's a little bit of a different story, this health aspect of light, than what I'm telling you today. +In today's modern medicine, there is a real understanding of light in an almost biochemical way. +And there is the idea that, when we look at things, it is the yellow light that helps us the most, that we are the most sensitive for. +But our circadian rhythms, which are the rhythms that help us to wake and sleep and be alert and relaxed and so forth and so on, they are much more triggered by blue light. +And by modulating the amount of blue in our environment, we can help people to relax, or to be alert, to fall asleep, or to stay awake. +And that is how, maybe in the near future, light can help hospitals to make people better sooner, recover them quicker. +Maybe in the airplane, we can overcome jet lag like that. +Perhaps in school, we can help children to learn better because they concentrate more on their work. +And you can imagine a lot more applications. +But I would like to talk further about the combination of light and darkness as a quality in our life. +So light is, of course, for social interaction also -- to create relationships with all the features around us. +It is the place where we gather around when we have to say something to each other. +And it is all about this planet. +But when you look at this planet at night, it looks like this. +And I think this is the most shocking image in my talk today. +Because all this light here goes up to the sky. +It never reaches the ground where it was meant for. +It never is to the benefit of people. +It only spoils the darkness. +So at a global scale, it looks like this. +And, I mean, that is quite amazing, what you see here -- how much light goes up into the sky and never reaches the ground. +Because if we look at the Earth the way it should be, it would be something like this very inspiring image where darkness is for our imagination and for contemplation and to help us to relate to everything. +The world is changing though, and urbanization is a big driver of everything. +I took this photo two weeks ago in Guangzhou, and I realized that 10 years ago, there was nothing like this, of these buildings. +It was just a much smaller city, and the pace of urbanization is incredible and enormous. +And we have to understand these main questions: How do people move through these new urban spaces? +How do they share their culture? +How do we tackle things like mobility? +And how can light help there? +Because the new technologies, they seem to be in a really interesting position to contribute to the solutions of urbanization and to provide us with better environments. +It's not that long ago that our lighting was just done with these kinds of lamps. +And of course, we had the metal-halide lamps and fluorescent lamps and things like that. +Now we have LED, but here you see the latest one, and you see how incredibly small it is. +And this is exactly what offers us a unique opportunity, because this tiny, tiny size allows us to put the light wherever we really need it. +And we can actually leave it out where it's not needed at all and where we can preserve darkness. +So that is a really interesting proposition, I think, and a new way of lighting the architectural environment with our well-being in mind. +The problem is, though, that I wanted to explain to you how this really works -- but I can have four of these on my finger, so you would not be able to really see them. +So I asked our laboratory to do something about it, and they said, "Well, we can do something." +They created for me the biggest LED in the world especially for TEDx in Amsterdam. +So here it is. +It's the same thing as you can see over there -- just 200 times bigger. +And I will very quickly show you how it works. +So just to explain. +Now, every LED that is made these days gives blue light. +Now, this is not very pleasant and comfortable. +And for that reason, we cover the LED with a phosphor cap. +And the phosphor is excited by the blue and makes the light white and warm and pleasant. +And then when you add the lens to that, you can bundle the light and send it wherever you need it without any need to spill any light to the sky or anywhere else. +So you can preserve the darkness and make the light. +I just wanted to show that to you so you understand how this works. +Thank you. +We can go further. +So we have to rethink the way we light our cities. +We have to think again about light as a default solution. +Why are all these motorways permanently lit? +Is it really needed? +Can we maybe be much more selective and create better environments that also benefit from darkness? +Can we be much more gentle with light? +Like here -- this is a very low light level actually. +Can we engage people more in the lighting projects that we create, so they really want to connect with it, like here? +Or can we create simply sculptures that are very inspiring to be in and to be around? +And can we preserve the darkness? +Because to find a place like this today on Earth is really very, very challenging. +And to find a starry sky like this is even more difficult. +Even in the oceans, we are creating a lot of light that we could actually ban also for animal life to have a much greater well-being. +And it's known that migrating birds, for example, get very disoriented because of these offshore platforms. +And we discovered that when we make those lights green, the birds, they actually go the right way. +They are not disturbed anymore. +And it turns out once again that spectral sensitivity is very important here. +In all of these examples, I think, we should start making the light out of darkness, and use the darkness as a canvas -- like the visual artists do, like Edward Hopper in this painting. +I think that there is a lot of suspense in this painting. +I think, when I see it, I start to think, who are those people? +Where have they come from? Where are they going? +What just happened? What will be happening in the next five minutes? +And it only embodies all these stories and all this suspense because of the darkness and the light. +Edward Hopper was a real master in creating the narration by working with light and dark. +And we can learn from that and create more interesting and inspiring architectural environments. +We can do that in commercial spaces like this. +And you can still also go outside and enjoy the greatest show in the universe, which is, of course, the universe itself. +So I give you this wonderful, informative image of the sky, ranging from the inner city, where you may see one or two stars and nothing else, all the way to the rural environments, where you can enjoy this great and gorgeous and beautiful performance of the constellations and the stars. +In architecture, it works just the same. +By appreciating the darkness when you design the light, you create much more interesting environments that truly enhance our lives. +This is the most well-known example, Tadao Ando's Church of the Light. +But I also think of Peter Zumthor's spa in Vals, where light and dark, in very gentle combinations, alter each other to define the space. +Or Richard MacCormac's Southwark tube station in London, where you can really see the sky, even though you are under the ground. +And finally, I want to point out that a lot of this inspiration comes from theater. +And I think it's fantastic that we are today experiencing TEDx in a theater for the first time because I think we really owe to the theater a big thanks. +It wouldn't be such an inspiring scenography without this theater. +And I think the theater is a place where we truly enhance life with light. +Thank you very much. +If I should have a daughter, instead of "Mom," she's going to call me "Point B," because that way she knows that no matter what happens, at least she can always find her way to me. +And I'm going to paint solar systems on the backs of her hands so she has to learn the entire universe before she can say, "Oh, I know that like the back of my hand." +And she's going to learn that this life will hit you hard in the face, wait for you to get back up just so it can kick you in the stomach. +But getting the wind knocked out of you is the only way to remind your lungs how much they like the taste of air. +There is hurt, here, that cannot be fixed by Band-Aids or poetry. +So the first time she realizes that Wonder Woman isn't coming, I'll make sure she knows she doesn't have to wear the cape all by herself, because no matter how wide you stretch your fingers, your hands will always be too small to catch all the pain you want to heal. +Believe me, I've tried. +"And, baby," I'll tell her, don't keep your nose up in the air like that. +I know that trick; I've done it a million times. +You're just smelling for smoke so you can follow the trail back to a burning house, so you can find the boy who lost everything in the fire to see if you can save him. +Or else find the boy who lit the fire in the first place, to see if you can change him. +But I know she will anyway, so instead I'll always keep an extra supply of chocolate and rain boots nearby, because there is no heartbreak that chocolate can't fix. +Okay, there's a few that chocolate can't fix. +But that's what the rain boots are for, because rain will wash away everything, if you let it. +I want her to look at the world through the underside of a glass-bottom boat, to look through a microscope at the galaxies that exist on the pinpoint of a human mind, because that's the way my mom taught me. +That there'll be days like this. +There'll be days like this, my momma said. +When you open your hands to catch and wind up with only blisters and bruises; when you step out of the phone booth and try to fly and the very people you want to save are the ones standing on your cape; when your boots will fill with rain, and you'll be up to your knees in disappointment. +And those are the very days you have all the more reason to say thank you. +Because there's nothing more beautiful than the way the ocean refuses to stop kissing the shoreline, no matter how many times it's sent away. +You will put the wind in win some, lose some. +You will put the star in starting over, and over. +And no matter how many land mines erupt in a minute, be sure your mind lands on the beauty of this funny place called life. +And yes, on a scale from one to over-trusting, I am pretty damn naive. +But I want her to know that this world is made out of sugar. +It can crumble so easily, but don't be afraid to stick your tongue out and taste it. +"Baby," I'll tell her, "remember, your momma is a worrier, and your poppa is a warrior, and you are the girl with small hands and big eyes who never stops asking for more." +Remember that good things come in threes and so do bad things. +Always apologize when you've done something wrong, but don't you ever apologize for the way your eyes refuse to stop shining. +Your voice is small, but don't ever stop singing. +And when they finally hand you heartache, when they slip war and hatred under your door and offer you handouts on street-corners of cynicism and defeat, you tell them that they really ought to meet your mother. +Thank you. Thank you. +Thank you. +Thanks. +Thank you. +All right, so I want you to take a moment, and I want you to think of three things that you know to be true. +They can be about whatever you want -- technology, entertainment, design, your family, what you had for breakfast. +The only rule is don't think too hard. +Okay, ready? Go. +Okay. +So here are three things I know to be true. +I know that Jean-Luc Godard was right when he said that, "A good story has a beginning, a middle and an end, although not necessarily in that order." +I know that I'm incredibly nervous and excited to be up here, which is greatly inhibiting my ability to keep it cool. +And I know that I have been waiting all week to tell this joke. +Why was the scarecrow invited to TED? +Because he was out standing in his field. +I'm sorry. +Okay, so these are three things I know to be true. +But there are plenty of things I have trouble understanding. +So I write poems to figure things out. +Sometimes the only way I know how to work through something is by writing a poem. +Sometimes I get to the end of the poem, look back and go, "Oh, that's what this is all about," and sometimes I get to the end of the poem and haven't solved anything, but at least I have a new poem out of it. +Spoken-word poetry is the art of performance poetry. +I tell people it involves creating poetry that doesn't just want to sit on paper, that something about it demands it be heard out loud or witnessed in person. +When I was a freshman in high school, I was a live wire of nervous hormones. +And I was underdeveloped and over-excitable. +And despite my fear of ever being looked at for too long, I was fascinated by the idea of spoken-word poetry. +I felt that my two secret loves, poetry and theater, had come together, had a baby, a baby I needed to get to know. +So I decided to give it a try. +My first spoken-word poem, packed with all the wisdom of a 14-year-old, was about the injustice of being seen as unfeminine. +The poem was very indignant, and mainly exaggerated, but the only spoken-word poetry that I had seen up until that point was mainly indignant, so I thought that's what was expected of me. +The first time that I performed, the audience of teenagers hooted and hollered their sympathy, and when I came off the stage, I was shaking. +I felt this tap on my shoulder, and I turned around to see this giant girl in a hoodie sweatshirt emerge from the crowd. +She was maybe eight feet tall and looked like she could beat me up with one hand, but instead she just nodded at me and said, "Hey, I really felt that. Thanks." +And lightning struck. +I was hooked. +I discovered this bar on Manhattan's Lower East Side that hosted a weekly poetry open Mic, and my bewildered, but supportive, parents took me to soak in every ounce of spoken word that I could. +I was the youngest by at least a decade, but somehow the poets at the Bowery Poetry Club didn't seem bothered by the 14-year-old wandering about. +In fact, they welcomed me. +And it was here, listening to these poets share their stories, that I learned that spoken-word poetry didn't have to be indignant, it could be fun or painful or serious or silly. +The Bowery Poetry Club became my classroom and my home, and the poets who performed encouraged me to share my stories as well. +Never mind the fact that I was 14. +They told me, "Write about being 14." +So I did and stood amazed every week when these brilliant, grown-up poets laughed with me and groaned their sympathy and clapped and told me, "Hey, I really felt that too." +Now I can divide my spoken-word journey into three steps. +Step one was the moment I said, "I can. I can do this." +And that was thanks to a girl in a hoodie. +Step two was the moment I said, "I will. I will continue. +I love spoken word. I will keep coming back week after week." +And step three began when I realized I didn't have to write indignant poems, if that's not what I was. +There were things that were specific to me, and the more that I focused on those things, the weirder my poetry got, but the more that it felt like mine. +It's not just the adage "Write what you know." +It's about gathering up all of the knowledge and experience you've collected up to now to help you dive into the things you don't know. +I use poetry to help me work through what I don't understand, but I show up to each new poem with a backpack full of everywhere else that I've been. +When I got to university, I met a fellow poet who shared my belief in the magic of spoken-word poetry. +And actually, Phil Kaye and I coincidentally also share the same last name. +When I was in high school I had created Project V.O.I.C.E. +as a way to encourage my friends to do spoken word with me. +But Phil and I decided to reinvent Project V.O.I.C.E., this time changing the mission to using spoken-word poetry as a way to entertain, educate and inspire. +We stayed full-time students, but in between we traveled, performing and teaching nine-year-olds to MFA candidates, from California to Indiana to India to a public high school just up the street from campus. +And we saw over and over the way that spoken-word poetry cracks open locks. +But it turns out sometimes, poetry can be really scary. +Turns out sometimes, you have to trick teenagers into writing poetry. +So I came up with lists. Everyone can write lists. +And the first list that I assign is "10 Things I Know to be True." +And here's what happens, you would discover it too if we all started sharing our lists out loud. +At a certain point, you would realize that someone has the exact same thing, or one thing very similar, to something on your list. +And then someone else has something the complete opposite of yours. +Third, someone has something you've never even heard of before. +Fourth, someone has something you thought you knew everything about, but they're introducing a new angle of looking at it. +And I tell people that this is where great stories start from -- these four intersections of what you're passionate about and what others might be invested in. +And most people respond really well to this exercise. +But one of my students, a freshman named Charlotte, was not convinced. +Charlotte was very good at writing lists, but she refused to write any poems. +"Miss," she'd say, "I'm just not interesting. +I don't have anything interesting to say." +So I assigned her list after list, and one day I assigned the list "10 Things I Should Have Learned by Now." +Number three on Charlotte's list was, "I should have learned not to crush on guys three times my age." +I asked her what that meant, and she said, "Miss, it's kind of a long story." +And I said, "Charlotte, it sounds pretty interesting to me." +And so she wrote her first poem, a love poem unlike any I had ever heard before. +And the poem began, "Anderson Cooper is a gorgeous man." +"Did you see him on 60 Minutes, racing Michael Phelps in a pool -- nothing but swim trunks on -- diving in the water, determined to beat this swimming champion? +After the race, he tossed his wet, cloud-white hair and said, 'You're a god.' No, Anderson, you're the god." +Now, I know that the number one rule to being cool is to seem unfazed, to never admit that anything scares you or impresses you or excites you. +Somebody once told me it's like walking through life like this. +You protect yourself from all the unexpected miseries or hurt that might show up. +But I try to walk through life like this. +And yes, that means catching all of those miseries and hurt, but it also means that when beautiful, amazing things just fall out of the sky, I'm ready to catch them. +I use spoken word to help my students rediscover wonder, to fight their instincts to be cool and unfazed and, instead, actively pursue being engaged with what goes on around them, so that they can reinterpret and create something from it. +It's not that I think that spoken-word poetry is the ideal art form. +I'm always trying to find the best way to tell each story. +I write musicals; I make short films alongside my poems. +But I teach spoken-word poetry because it's accessible. +Not everyone can read music or owns a camera, but everyone can communicate in some way, and everyone has stories that the rest of us can learn from. +Plus, spoken-word poetry allows for immediate connection. +It's not uncommon to feel like you're alone or that nobody understands you, but spoken word teaches that if you have the ability to express yourself and the courage to present those stories and opinions, you could be rewarded with a room full of your peers, or your community, who will listen. +And maybe even a giant girl in a hoodie who will connect with what you've shared. +And that is an amazing realization to have, especially when you're 14. +Plus, now with YouTube, that connection's not even limited to the room we're in. +I'm so lucky that there's this archive of performances that I can share with my students. +It allows for even more opportunities for them to find a poet or a poem that they connect to. +Once you've figured this out, it is tempting to keep writing the same poem, or keep telling the same story, over and over, once you've figured out that it will gain you applause. +It's not enough to just teach that you can express yourself. +You have to grow and explore and take risks and challenge yourself. +And that is step three: infusing the work you're doing with the specific things that make you you, even while those things are always changing. +Because step three never ends. +But you don't get to start on step three, until you take step one first: "I can." +I travel a lot while I'm teaching, and I don't always get to watch all of my students reach their step three, but I was very lucky with Charlotte, that I got to watch her journey unfold the way it did. +I watched her realize that, by putting the things that she knows to be true into the work she's doing, she can create poems that only Charlotte can write, about eyeballs and elevators and Dora the Explorer. +And I'm trying to tell stories only I can tell -- like this story. +I spent a lot of time thinking about the best way to tell this story, and I wondered if the best way was going to be a PowerPoint, a short film -- And where exactly was the beginning, the middle or the end? +I wondered whether I'd get to the end of this talk and finally have figured it all out, or not. +And I always thought that my beginning was at the Bowery Poetry Club, but it's possible that it was much earlier. +In preparing for TED, I discovered this diary page in an old journal. +I think December 54th was probably supposed to be 24th. +It's clear that when I was a child, I definitely walked through life like this. +I think that we all did. +I would like to help others rediscover that wonder -- to want to engage with it, to want to learn, to want to share what they've learned, what they've figured out to be true and what they're still figuring out. +So I'd like to close with this poem. +When they bombed Hiroshima, the explosion formed a mini-supernova, so every living animal, human or plant that received direct contact with the rays from that sun was instantly turned to ash. +And what was left of the city soon followed. +The long-lasting damage of nuclear radiation caused an entire city and its population to turn into powder. +When I was born, my mom says I looked around the whole hospital room with a stare that said, "This? I've done this before." +She says I have old eyes. +When my Grandpa Genji died, I was only five years old, but I took my mom by the hand and told her, "Don't worry, he'll come back as a baby." +And yet, for someone who's apparently done this already, I still haven't figured anything out yet. +My knees still buckle every time I get on a stage. +My self-confidence can be measured out in teaspoons mixed into my poetry, and it still always tastes funny in my mouth. +But in Hiroshima, some people were wiped clean away, leaving only a wristwatch or a diary page. +So no matter that I have inhibitions to fill all my pockets, I keep trying, hoping that one day I'll write a poem I can be proud to let sit in a museum exhibit as the only proof I existed. +My parents named me Sarah, which is a biblical name. +In the original story, God told Sarah she could do something impossible, and -- she laughed, because the first Sarah, she didn't know what to do with impossible. +And me? Well, neither do I, but I see the impossible every day. +Impossible is trying to connect in this world, trying to hold onto others while things are blowing up around you, knowing that while you're speaking, they aren't just waiting for their turn to talk -- they hear you. +They feel exactly what you feel at the same time that you feel it. +It's what I strive for every time I open my mouth -- that impossible connection. +There's this piece of wall in Hiroshima that was completely burnt black by the radiation. +But on the front step, a person who was sitting there blocked the rays from hitting the stone. +The only thing left now is a permanent shadow of positive light. +After the A-bomb, specialists said it would take 75 years for the radiation-damaged soil of Hiroshima City to ever grow anything again. +But that spring, there were new buds popping up from the earth. +When I meet you, in that moment, I'm no longer a part of your future. +I start quickly becoming part of your past. +But in that instant, I get to share your present. +And you, you get to share mine. +And that is the greatest present of all. +So if you tell me I can do the impossible -- I'll probably laugh at you. +I don't know if I can change the world yet, because I don't know that much about it -- and I don't know that much about reincarnation either, but if you make me laugh hard enough, sometimes I forget what century I'm in. +This isn't my first time here. This isn't my last time here. +These aren't the last words I'll share. +But just in case, I'm trying my hardest to get it right this time around. +Thank you. +Thank you. +Thank you. +I was only four years old when I saw my mother load a washing machine for the very first time in her life. +That was a great day for my mother. +My mother and father had been saving money for years to be able to buy that machine, and the first day it was going to be used, even Grandma was invited to see the machine. +And Grandma was even more excited. +Throughout her life she had been heating water with firewood, and she had hand washed laundry for seven children. +And now she was going to watch electricity do that work. +My mother carefully opened the door, and she loaded the laundry into the machine, like this. +And then, when she closed the door, Grandma said, "No, no, no, no. +Let me, let me push the button." +And Grandma pushed the button, and she said, "Oh, fantastic! +I want to see this! Give me a chair! +Give me a chair! I want to see it," and she sat down in front of the machine, and she watched the entire washing program. +She was mesmerized. +To my grandmother, the washing machine was a miracle. +Today, in Sweden and other rich countries, people are using so many different machines. +Look, the homes are full of machines. +I can't even name them all. +And they also, when they want to travel, they use flying machines that can take them to remote destinations. +And yet, in the world, there are so many people who still heat the water on fire, and they cook their food on fire. +Sometimes they don't even have enough food, and they live below the poverty line. +There are two billion fellow human beings who live on less than two dollars a day. +And the richest people over there -- there's one billion people -- and they live above what I call the "air line," because they spend more than $80 a day on their consumption. +But this is just one, two, three billion people, and obviously there are seven billion people in the world, so there must be one, two, three, four billion people more who live in between the poverty and the air line. +They have electricity, but the question is, how many have washing machines? +I've done the scrutiny of market data, and I've found that, indeed, the washing machine has penetrated below the air line, and today there's an additional one billion people out there who live above the "wash line." +And they consume more than $40 per day. +So two billion have access to washing machines. +And the remaining five billion, how do they wash? +Or, to be more precise, how do most of the women in the world wash? +Because it remains hard work for women to wash. +They wash like this: by hand. +It's a hard, time-consuming labor, which they have to do for hours every week. +And sometimes they also have to bring water from far away to do the laundry at home, or they have to bring the laundry away to a stream far off. +And they want the washing machine. +They don't want to spend such a large part of their life doing this hard work with so relatively low productivity. +And there's nothing different in their wish than it was for my grandma. +Look here, two generations ago in Sweden -- picking water from the stream, heating with firewood and washing like that. +They want the washing machine in exactly the same way. +But when I lecture to environmentally-concerned students, they tell me, "No, everybody in the world cannot have cars and washing machines." +How can we tell this woman that she ain't going to have a washing machine? +And then I ask my students, I've asked them -- over the last two years I've asked, "How many of you doesn't use a car?" +And some of them proudly raise their hand and say, "I don't use a car." +And then I put the really tough question: "How many of you hand-wash your jeans and your bed sheets?" +And no one raised their hand. +Even the hardcore in the green movement use washing machines. +So how come [this is] something that everyone uses and they think others will not stop it? What is special with this? +I had to do an analysis about the energy used in the world. +Here we are. +Look here, you see the seven billion people up there: the air people, the wash people, the bulb people and the fire people. +One unit like this is an energy unit of fossil fuel -- oil, coal or gas. +That's what most of electricity and the energy in the world is. +And it's 12 units used in the entire world, and the richest one billion, they use six of them. +Half of the energy is used by one seventh of the world's population. +And these ones who have washing machines, but not a house full of other machines, they use two. +This group uses three, one each. +And they also have electricity. +And over there they don't even use one each. +That makes 12 of them. +But the main concern for the environmentally-interested students -- and they are right -- is about the future. +What are the trends? If we just prolong the trends, without any real advanced analysis, to 2050, there are two things that can increase the energy use. +First, population growth. +Second, economic growth. +Population growth will mainly occur among the poorest people here because they have high child mortality and they have many children per woman. +And [with] that you will get two extra, but that won't change the energy use very much. +What will happen is economic growth. +The best of here in the emerging economies -- I call them the New East -- they will jump the air line. +"Wopp!" they will say. +And they will start to use as much as the Old West are doing already. +And these people, they want the washing machine. +I told you. They'll go there. +And they will double their energy use. +And we hope that the poor people will get into the electric light. +And they'll get a two-child family without a stop in population growth. +But the total energy consumption will increase to 22 units. +And these 22 units -- still the richest people use most of it. +So what needs to be done? +Because the risk, the high probability of climate change is real. +It's real. +Of course they must be more energy-efficient. +They must change behavior in some way. +They must also start to produce green energy, much more green energy. +But until they have the same energy consumption per person, they shouldn't give advice to others -- what to do and what not to do. +Here we can get more green energy all over. +This is what we hope may happen. +It's a real challenge in the future. +But I can assure you that this woman in the favela in Rio, she wants a washing machine. +She's very happy about her minister of energy that provided electricity to everyone -- so happy that she even voted for her. +And she became Dilma Rousseff, the president-elect of one of the biggest democracies in the world -- moving from minister of energy to president. +If you have democracy, people will vote for washing machines. +They love them. +And what's the magic with them? +My mother explained the magic with this machine the very, very first day. +She said, "Now Hans, we have loaded the laundry. +The machine will make the work. +And now we can go to the library." +Because this is the magic: you load the laundry, and what do you get out of the machine? +You get books out of the machines, children's books. +And mother got time to read for me. +She loved this. I got the "ABC's" -- this is where I started my career as a professor, when my mother had time to read for me. +And she also got books for herself. +She managed to study English and learn that as a foreign language. +And she read so many novels, so many different novels here. +And we really, we really loved this machine. +And what we said, my mother and me, "Thank you industrialization. +Thank you steel mill. +Thank you power station. +And thank you chemical processing industry that gave us time to read books." +Thank you very much. +Today I want to talk about design, but not design as we usually think about it. +I want to talk about what is happening now in our scientific, biotechnological culture, where, for really the first time in history, we have the power to design bodies, to design animal bodies, to design human bodies. +In the history of our planet, there have been three great waves of evolution. +The first wave of evolution is what we think of as Darwinian evolution. +So, as you all know, species lived in particular ecological niches and particular environments, and the pressures of those environments selected which changes, through random mutation in species, were going to be preserved. +Then human beings stepped out of the Darwinian flow of evolutionary history and created the second great wave of evolution, which was we changed the environment in which we evolved. +We altered our ecological niche by creating civilization. +And that has been the second great -- couple 100,000 years, 150,000 years -- flow of our evolution. +By changing our environment, we put new pressures on our bodies to evolve. +Whether it was through settling down in agricultural communities, all the way through modern medicine, we have changed our own evolution. +Now we're entering a third great wave of evolutionary history, which has been called many things: "intentional evolution," "evolution by design" -- very different than intelligent design -- whereby we are actually now intentionally designing and altering the physiological forms that inhabit our planet. +So I want to take you through a kind of whirlwind tour of that and then at the end talk a little bit about what some of the implications are for us and for our species, as well as our cultures, because of this change. +Now we actually have been doing it for a long time. +We started selectively breeding animals many, many thousands of years ago. +And if you think of dogs for example, dogs are now intentionally-designed creatures. +There isn't a dog on this earth that's a natural creature. +Dogs are the result of selectively breeding traits that we like. +But we had to do it the hard way in the old days by choosing offspring that looked a particular way and then breeding them. +We don't have to do it that way anymore. +This is a beefalo. +A beefalo is a buffalo-cattle hybrid. +And they are now making them, and someday, perhaps pretty soon, you will have beefalo patties in your local supermarket. +This is a geep, a goat-sheep hybrid. +The scientists that made this cute little creature ended up slaughtering it and eating it afterwards. +I think they said it tasted like chicken. +This is a cama. +A cama is a camel-llama hybrid, created to try to get the hardiness of a camel with some of the personality traits of a llama. +And they are now using these in certain cultures. +Then there's the liger. +This is the largest cat in the world -- the lion-tiger hybrid. +It's bigger than a tiger. +And in the case of the liger, there actually have been one or two that have been seen in the wild. +But these were created by scientists using both selective breeding and genetic technology. +And then finally, everybody's favorite, the zorse. +None of this is Photoshopped. These are real creatures. +And so one of the things we've been doing is using genetic enhancement, or genetic manipulation, of normal selective breeding pushed a little bit through genetics. +And if that were all this was about, then it would be an interesting thing. +But something much, much more powerful is happening now. +These are normal mammalian cells genetically engineered with a bioluminescent gene taken out of deep-sea jellyfish. +We all know that some deep-sea creatures glow. +Well, they've now taken that gene, that bioluminescent gene, and put it into mammal cells. +These are normal cells. +And what you see here is these cells glowing in the dark under certain wavelengths of light. +Once they could do that with cells, they could do it with organisms. +So they did it with mouse pups, kittens. +And by the way, the reason the kittens here are orange and these are green is because that's a bioluminescent gene from coral, while this is from jellyfish. +They did it with pigs. +They did it with puppies. +And, in fact, they did it with monkeys. +And if you can do it with monkeys -- though the great leap in trying to genetically manipulate is actually between monkeys and apes -- if they can do it in monkeys, they can probably figure out how to do it in apes, which means they can do it in human beings. +In other words, it is theoretically possible that before too long we will be biotechnologically capable of creating human beings that glow in the dark. +Be easier to find us at night. +And in fact, right now in many states, you can go out and you can buy bioluminescent pets. +These are zebra fish. They're normally black and silver. +These are zebra fish that have been genetically engineered to be yellow, green, red, and they are actually available now in certain states. +Other states have banned them. +Nobody knows what to do with these kinds of creatures. +There is no area of the government -- not the EPA or the FDA -- that controls genetically-engineered pets. +And so some states have decided to allow them, some states have decided to ban them. +Some of you may have read about the FDA's consideration right now of genetically-engineered salmon. +The salmon on top is a genetically engineered Chinook salmon, using a gene from these salmon and from one other fish that we eat, to make it grow much faster using a lot less feed. +And right now the FDA is trying to make a final decision on whether, pretty soon, you could be eating this fish -- it'll be sold in the stores. +And before you get too worried about it, here in the United States, the majority of food you buy in the supermarket already has genetically-modified components to it. +So even as we worry about it, we have allowed it to go on in this country -- much different in Europe -- without any regulation, and even without any identification on the package. +These are all the first cloned animals of their type. +He actually was the first person to clone a dog, which is a very difficult thing to do, because dog genomes are very plastic. +This is Prometea, the first cloned horse. +It's a Haflinger horse cloned in Italy, a real "gold ring" of cloning, because there are many horses that win important races who are geldings. +In other words, the equipment to put them out to stud has been removed. +But if you can clone that horse, you can have both the advantage of having a gelding run in the race and his identical genetic duplicate can then be put out to stud. +These were the first cloned calves, the first cloned grey wolves, and then, finally, the first cloned piglets: Alexis, Chista, Carrel, Janie and Dotcom. +In addition, we've started to use cloning technology to try to save endangered species. +This is the use of animals now to create drugs and other things in their bodies that we want to create. +So with antithrombin in that goat -- that goat has been genetically modified so that the molecules of its milk actually include the molecule of antithrombin that GTC Genetics wants to create. +These are two creatures that were created in order to save endangered species. +The guar is an endangered Southeast Asian ungulate. +A somatic cell, a body cell, was taken from its body, gestated in the ovum of a cow, and then that cow gave birth to a guar. +Same thing happened with the mouflon, where it's an endangered species of sheep. +It was gestated in a regular sheep body, which actually raises an interesting biological problem. +We have two kinds of DNA in our bodies. +We have our nucleic DNA that everybody thinks of as our DNA, but we also have DNA in our mitochondria, which are the energy packets of the cell. +That DNA is passed down through our mothers. +So really, what you end up having here is not a guar and not a mouflon, but a guar with cow mitochondria, and therefore cow mitochondrial DNA, and a mouflon with another species of sheep's mitochondrial DNA. +These are really hybrids, not pure animals. +And it raises the question of how we're going to define animal species in the age of biotechnology -- a question that we're not really sure yet how to solve. +This lovely creature is an Asian cockroach. +And what they've done here is they've put electrodes in its ganglia and its brain and then a transmitter on top, and it's on a big computer tracking ball. +And now, using a joystick, they can send this creature around the lab and control whether it goes left or right, forwards or backwards. +They've created a kind of insect bot, or bugbot. +It gets worse than that -- or perhaps better than that. +This actually is one of DARPA's very important -- DARPA is the Defense Research Agency -- one of their projects. +These goliath beetles are wired in their wings. +They have a computer chip strapped to their backs, and they can fly these creatures around the lab. +They can make them go left, right. They can make them take off. +They can't actually make them land. +They put them about one inch above the ground, and then they shut everything off and they go pfft. +But it's the closest they can get to a landing. +And in fact, this technology has gotten so developed that this creature -- this is a moth -- this is the moth in its pupa stage, and that's when they put the wires in and they put in the computer technology, so that when the moth actually emerges as a moth, it is already prewired. +The wires are already in its body, and they can just hook it up to their technology, and now they've got these bugbots that they can send out for surveillance. +They can put little cameras on them and perhaps someday deliver other kinds of ordinance to warzones. +It's not just insects. +This is the ratbot, or the robo-rat by Sanjiv Talwar at SUNY Downstate. +Again, it's got technology -- it's got electrodes going into its left and right hemispheres; it's got a camera on top of its head. +The scientists can make this creature go left, right. +They have it running through mazes, controlling where it's going. +They've now created an organic robot. +The graduate students in Sanjiv Talwar's lab said, "Is this ethical? +We've taken away the autonomy of this animal." +I'll get back to that in a minute. +There's also been work done with monkeys. +This is Miguel Nicolelis of Duke. +He took owl monkeys, wired them up so that a computer watched their brains while they moved, especially looking at the movement of their right arm. +The computer learned what the monkey brain did to move its arm in various ways. +They then hooked it up to a prosthetic arm, which you see here in the picture, put the arm in another room. +Pretty soon, the computer learned, by reading the monkey's brainwaves, to make that arm in the other room do whatever the monkey's arm did. +Then he put a video monitor in the monkey's cage that showed the monkey this prosthetic arm, and the monkey got fascinated. +The monkey recognized that whatever she did with her arm, this prosthetic arm would do. +And eventually she was moving it and moving it, and eventually stopped moving her right arm and, staring at the screen, could move the prosthetic arm in the other room only with her brainwaves -- which means that monkey became the first primate in the history of the world to have three independent functional arms. +And it's not just technology that we're putting into animals. +This is Thomas DeMarse at the University of Florida. +He took 20,000 and then 60,000 disaggregated rat neurons -- so these are just individual neurons from rats -- put them on a chip. +They self-aggregated into a network, became an integrated chip. +And he used that as the IT piece of a mechanism which ran a flight simulator. +So now we have organic computer chips made out of living, self-aggregating neurons. +Finally, Mussa-Ivaldi of Northwestern took a completely intact, independent lamprey eel brain. +This is a brain from a lamprey eel. +It's photophilic. +So now we have a complete living lamprey eel brain. +Is it thinking lamprey eel thoughts, sitting there in its nutrient medium? +I don't know, but in fact it is a fully living brain that we have managed to keep alive to do our bidding. +So, we are now at the stage where we are creating creatures for our own purposes. +This is a mouse created by Charles Vacanti of the University of Massachusetts. +He altered this mouse so that it was genetically engineered to have skin that was less immunoreactive to human skin, put a polymer scaffolding of an ear under it and created an ear that could then be taken off the mouse and transplanted onto a human being. +Genetic engineering coupled with polymer physiotechnology coupled with xenotransplantation. +This is where we are in this process. +Finally, not that long ago, Craig Venter created the first artificial cell, where he took a cell, took a DNA synthesizer, which is a machine, created an artificial genome, put it in a different cell -- the genome was not of the cell he put it in -- and that cell then reproduced as the other cell. +In other words, that was the first creature in the history of the world that had a computer as its parent -- it did not have an organic parent. +And so, asks The Economist: "The first artificial organism and its consequences." +So you may have thought that the creation of life was going to happen in something that looked like that. +But in fact, that's not what Frankenstein's lab looks like. +This is what Frankenstein's lab looks like. +This is a DNA synthesizer, and here at the bottom are just bottles of A, T, C and G -- the four chemicals that make up our DNA chain. +And so, we need to ask ourselves some questions. +For the first time in the history of this planet, we are able to directly design organisms. +We can manipulate the plasmas of life with unprecedented power, and it confers on us a responsibility. +Is everything okay? +Is it okay to manipulate and create whatever creatures we want? +Do we have free reign to design animals? +Do we get to go someday to Pets 'R' Us and say, "Look, I want a dog. +I'd like it to have the head of a Dachshund, the body of a retriever, maybe some pink fur, and let's make it glow in the dark"? +Does industry get to create creatures who, in their milk, in their blood, and in their saliva and other bodily fluids, create the drugs and industrial molecules we want and then warehouse them as organic manufacturing machines? +Do we get to create organic robots, where we remove the autonomy from these animals and turn them just into our playthings? +And then the final step of this, once we perfect these technologies in animals and we start using them in human beings, what are the ethical guidelines that we will use then? +It's already happening. It's not science fiction. +We are not only already using these things in animals, some of them we're already beginning to use on our own bodies. +We are now taking control of our own evolution. +We are directly designing the future of the species of this planet. +It confers upon us an enormous responsibility that is not just the responsibility of the scientists and the ethicists who are thinking about it and writing about it now. +It is the responsibility of everybody because it will determine what kind of planet and what kind of bodies we will have in the future. +Thanks. +(Singing ends) Pep Rosenfeld: Folks, you've just met Claron McFadden. +She is a world-class soprano singer who studied in Rochester, New York. +Her celebrated operatic roles are numerous and varied. +In August 2007, Claron was awarded the Amsterdam Prize for the Arts, winning praise for her brilliance, her amazing and extensively wide repertoire and her vivid stage personality. +Please welcome Claron McFadden. +Claron McFadden: The human voice: mysterious, spontaneous, primal. +For me, the human voice is the vessel on which all emotions travel -- except, perhaps, jealousy. +And the breath, the breath is the captain of that vessel. +A child is born, takes its first breath -- And we behold the wondrous beauty of vocal expression -- mysterious, spontaneous and primal. +A few years ago, I did a meditation retreat in Thailand. +I wanted a place where I would have total silence and total solitude. +I spent two weeks at this retreat in my own little hut -- no music, no nothing -- sounds of nature, trying to find the essence of concentration, being in the moment. +On my last day, the woman who looked after the place, she came and we spoke for a minute, and then she said to me, "Would you sing something for me?" +And I thought, but this is a place of total quiet and silence. +I can't make noise. +She said, "Please, sing for me." +So I closed my eyes, I took breath and the first thing that came up and out was "Summertime," Porgy and Bess. +Summertime and the livin' is easy. +Fish are jumpin' and the cotton is high. +Oh, your daddy's rich and your ma is good-lookin'. +So hush little baby, don't you cry. +And I opened my eyes, and I saw that she had her eyes closed. +And after a moment, she opened her eyes and she looked at me and she said, "It's like meditation." +And in that moment I understood that everything I had gone to Thailand to look for, to search for, I had it already in my singing -- the calm, but alertness, the focus, but awareness, and being totally in the moment. +When you're totally in the moment -- when I'm totally in the moment, the vessel of expression is open. +The emotions can flow from me to you and back. +It's an extremely profound experience. +There's a piece by a composer, an American composer called John Cage. +It's called "Aria." +It was written for an amazing singer called Cathy Berberian. +And the thing about this piece that's so special -- if you see it behind me -- it's not notated in any way. +No notes, no flats, no sharps. +But it's a kind of structure. +And the singer, within this structure, has total freedom to be creative, spontaneous. +For example, there are different colors and each color gets a different type of singing -- pop, country and western, opera, jazz -- and you just have to be consistent with that color. +You see there are different lines. +You choose in your own tempo in your own way to follow the line, but you must respect it, more or less. +And these little dots, these represent a sort of sound that's not a vocal, not a lyrical way of expressing the voice. +Using the body -- it could be sneezing, it could be coughing, animals -- (Audience member coughs) Exactly. Clapping, whatever. +And there's different text. +There's Armenian, Russian, French, English, Italian. +So within this structure, one is free. +To me, this piece is an ode to the voice, because it's mysterious, as we can see. +It's quite spontaneous. +And it's primal. +So I would like to share this piece with you, It's "Aria," of John Cage. +(Robotic voice) No other way Dans l'espace, so help (Makes the sound of a kiss) +I know what you're thinking. +You think I've lost my way, and somebody's going to come on the stage in a minute and guide me gently back to my seat. +I get that all the time in Dubai. +"Here on holiday are you, dear?" +"Come to visit the children? +How long are you staying?" +Well actually, I hope for a while longer yet. +I have been living and teaching in the Gulf for over 30 years. +And in that time, I have seen a lot of changes. +Now that statistic And I want to talk to you today about language loss and the globalization of English. +I want to tell you about my friend who was teaching English to adults in Abu Dhabi. +And one fine day, she decided to take them into the garden to teach them some nature vocabulary. +But it was she who ended up learning all the Arabic words for the local plants, as well as their uses -- medicinal uses, cosmetics, cooking, herbal. +How did those students get all that knowledge? +Of course, from their grandparents and even their great-grandparents. +It's not necessary to tell you how important it is to be able to communicate across generations. +But sadly, today, languages are dying at an unprecedented rate. +A language dies every 14 days. +Now, at the same time, English is the undisputed global language. +Could there be a connection? +Well I don't know. +But I do know that I've seen a lot of changes. +When I first came out to the Gulf, I came to Kuwait in the days when it was still a hardship post. +Actually, not that long ago. +That is a little bit too early. +But nevertheless, I was recruited by the British Council, along with about 25 other teachers. +And we were the first non-Muslims to teach in the state schools there in Kuwait. +We were brought to teach English because the government wanted to modernize the country and to empower the citizens through education. +And of course, the U.K. benefited from some of that lovely oil wealth. +Okay. +Now this is the major change that I've seen -- how teaching English has morphed from being a mutually beneficial practice to becoming a massive international business that it is today. +No longer just a foreign language on the school curriculum, and no longer the sole domain of mother England, it has become a bandwagon for every English-speaking nation on earth. +And why not? +After all, the best education -- according to the latest World University Rankings -- is to be found in the universities of the U.K. and the U.S. +So everybody wants to have an English education, naturally. +But if you're not a native speaker, you have to pass a test. +Now can it be right to reject a student on linguistic ability alone? +Perhaps you have a computer scientist who's a genius. +Would he need the same language as a lawyer, for example? +Well, I don't think so. +We English teachers reject them all the time. +We put a stop sign, and we stop them in their tracks. +They can't pursue their dream any longer, 'til they get English. +Now let me put it this way: if I met a monolingual Dutch speaker who had the cure for cancer, would I stop him from entering my British University? +I don't think so. +But indeed, that is exactly what we do. +We English teachers are the gatekeepers. +And you have to satisfy us first that your English is good enough. +Now it can be dangerous to give too much power to a narrow segment of society. +Maybe the barrier would be too universal. +Okay. +"what about the research? +It's all in English." +So the books are in English, the journals are done in English, but that is a self-fulfilling prophecy. +It feeds the English requirement. +And so it goes on. +I ask you, what happened to translation? +If you think about the Islamic Golden Age, there was lots of translation then. +They translated from Latin and Greek into Arabic, into Persian, and then it was translated on into the Germanic languages of Europe and the Romance languages. +And so light shone upon the Dark Ages of Europe. +Now don't get me wrong; I am not against teaching English, all you English teachers out there. +I love it that we have a global language. +We need one today more than ever. +But I am against using it as a barrier. +Do we really want to end up with 600 languages and the main one being English, or Chinese? +We need more than that. Where do we draw the line? +This system equates intelligence with a knowledge of English, which is quite arbitrary. +And I want to remind you that the giants upon whose shoulders today's intelligentsia stand did not have to have English, they didn't have to pass an English test. +Case in point, Einstein. +He, by the way, was considered remedial at school because he was, in fact, dyslexic. +But fortunately for the world, he did not have to pass an English test. +Because they didn't start until 1964 with TOEFL, the American test of English. +Now it's exploded. +There are lots and lots of tests of English. +And millions and millions of students take these tests every year. +Now you might think, you and me, "Those fees aren't bad, they're okay," but they are prohibitive to so many millions of poor people. +So immediately, we're rejecting them. +It brings to mind a headline I saw recently: "Education: The Great Divide." +Now I get it, I understand why people would want to focus on English. +They want to give their children the best chance in life. +And to do that, they need a Western education. +Because, of course, the best jobs go to people out of the Western Universities, that I put on earlier. +It's a circular thing. +Okay. +Let me tell you a story about two scientists, two English scientists. +They were doing an experiment to do with genetics and the forelimbs and the hind limbs of animals. +But they couldn't get the results they wanted. +They really didn't know what to do, until along came a German scientist who realized that they were using two words for forelimb and hind limb, whereas genetics does not differentiate and neither does German. +So bingo, problem solved. +If you can't think a thought, you are stuck. +But if another language can think that thought, then, by cooperating, we can achieve and learn so much more. +My daughter came to England from Kuwait. +She had studied science and mathematics in Arabic. +It's an Arabic-medium school. +She had to translate it into English at her grammar school. +And she was the best in the class at those subjects. +Which tells us that when students come to us from abroad, we may not be giving them enough credit for what they know, and they know it in their own language. +When a language dies, we don't know what we lose with that language. +This is -- I don't know if you saw it on CNN recently -- they gave the Heroes Award to a young Kenyan shepherd boy who couldn't study at night in his village, like all the village children, because the kerosene lamp, it had smoke and it damaged his eyes. +And anyway, there was never enough kerosene, because what does a dollar a day buy for you? +So he invented a cost-free solar lamp. +And now the children in his village get the same grades at school as the children who have electricity at home. +When he received his award, he said these lovely words: "The children can lead Africa from what it is today, a dark continent, to a light continent." +A simple idea, but it could have such far-reaching consequences. +People who have no light, whether it's physical or metaphorical, cannot pass our exams, and we can never know what they know. +Let us not keep them and ourselves in the dark. +Let us celebrate diversity. +Mind your language. +Use it to spread great ideas. +Thank you very much. +Adrian Kohler: Well, we're here today to talk about the evolution of a puppet horse. +Basil Jones: But actually we're going to start this evolution with a hyena. +AK: The ancestor of the horse. +Okay, we'll do something with it. +The hyena is the ancestor of the horse because it was part of a production called "Faustus in Africa," a Handspring Production from 1995, where it had to play draughts with Helen of Troy. +This production was directed by South African artist and theater director, William Kentridge. +So it needed a very articulate front paw. +But, like all puppets, it has other attributes. +BJ: One of them is breath, and it kind of breathes. +AK: Haa haa haaa. +BJ: Breath is really important for us. +It's the kind of original movement for any puppet for us onstage. +It's the thing that distinguishes the puppet -- AK: Oops. +BJ: From an actor. +Puppets always have to try to be alive. +It's their kind of ur-story onstage, that desperation to live. +AK: Yeah, it's basically a dead object, as you can see, and it only lives because you make it. +An actor struggles to die onstage, but a puppet has to struggle to live. +And in a way that's a metaphor for life. +BJ: So every moment it's on the stage, it's making the struggle. +So we call this a piece of emotional engineering that uses up-to-the-minute 17th century technology -- to turn nouns into verbs. +AK: Well actually I prefer to say that it's an object constructed out of wood and cloth with movement built into it to persuade you to believe that it has life. +BJ: Okay so. +AK: It has ears that move passively when the head goes. +BJ: And it has these bulkheads made out of plywood, covered with fabric -- curiously similar, in fact, to the plywood canoes that Adrian's father used to make when he was a boy in their workshop. +AK: In Port Elizabeth, the village outside Port Elizabeth in South Africa. +BJ: His mother was a puppeteer. +And when we met at art school and fell in love in 1971, I hated puppets. +I really thought they were so beneath me. +I wanted to become an avant-garde artist -- and Punch and Judy was certainly not where I wanted to go. +And, in fact, it took about 10 years to discover the Bambara Bamana puppets of Mali in West Africa, where there's a fabulous tradition of puppetry, to learn a renewed, or a new, respect for this art form. +AK: So in 1981, I persuaded Basil and some friends of mine to form a puppet company. +And 20 years later, miraculously, we collaborated with a company from Mali, the Sogolon Marionette Troupe of Bamako, where we made a piece about a tall giraffe. +It was just called "Tall Horse," which was a life-sized giraffe. +BJ: And here again, you see the same structure. +The bulkheads have now turned into hoops of cane, but it's ultimately the same structure. +It's got two people inside it on stilts, which give them the height, and somebody in the front who's using a kind of steering wheel to move that head. +AK: The person in the hind legs is also controlling the tail, a bit like the hyena -- same mechanism, just a bit bigger. +And he's controlling the ear movement. +BJ: So this production was seen by Tom Morris of the National Theatre in London. +And just around that time, his mother had said, "Have you seen this book by Michael Morpurgo called 'War Horse'?" +AK: It's about a boy who falls in love with a horse. +The horse is sold to the First World War, and he joins up to find his horse. +BJ: So Tom gave us a call and said, "Do you think you could make us a horse for a show to happen at the National Theatre?" +AK: It seemed a lovely idea. +BJ: But it had to ride. It had to have a rider. +AK: It had to have a rider, and it had to participate in cavalry charges. +A play about early 20th century plowing technology and cavalry charges was a little bit of a challenge for the accounting department at the National Theatre in London. +But they agreed to go along with it for a while. +So we began with a test. +BJ: This is Adrian and Thys Stander, who went on to actually design the cane system for the horse, and our next-door neighbor Katherine, riding on a ladder. +The weight is really difficult when it's up above your head. +AK: And once we put Katherine through that particular brand of hell, we knew that we might be able to make a horse, which could be ridden. +So we made a model. +This is a cardboard model, a little bit smaller than the hyena. +You'll notice that the legs are plywood legs and the canoe structure is still there. +BJ: And the two manipulators are inside. +But we didn't realize at the time that we actually needed a third manipulator, because we couldn't manipulate the neck from inside and walk the horse at the same time. +AK: We started work on the prototype after the model was approved, and the prototype took a bit longer than we anticipated. +We had to throw out the plywood legs and make new cane ones. +And we had a crate built for it. +It had to be shipped to London. +We were going to test-drive it on the street outside of our house in Cape Town, and it got to midnight and we hadn't done that yet. +BJ: So we got a camera, and we posed the puppet in various galloping stances. +And we sent it off to the National Theatre, hoping that they believed that we created something that worked. +AK: A month later, we were there in London with this big box and a studio full of people about to work with us. +BJ: About 40 people. +AK: We were terrified. +We opened the lid, we took the horse out, and it did work; it walked and it was able to be ridden. +Here I have an 18-second clip of the very first walk of the prototype. +This is in the National Theatre studio, the place where they cook new ideas. +It had by no means got the green light yet. +The choreographer, Toby Sedgwick, invented a beautiful sequence where the baby horse, which was made out of sticks and bits of twigs, grew up into the big horse. +And Nick Starr, the director of the National Theatre, saw that particular moment, he was standing next to me -- he nearly wet himself. +And so the show was given the green light. +And we went back to Cape Town and redesigned the horse completely. +Here is the plan. +And here is our factory in Cape Town where we make horses. +You can see quite a lot of skeletons in the background there. +The horses are completely handmade. +There is very little 20th century technology in them. +We used a bit of laser cutting on the plywood and some of the aluminum pieces. +But because they have to be light and flexible, and each one of them is different, they can't be mass-produced, unfortunately. +So here are some half-finished horses ready to be worked in London. +And now we would like to introduce you to Joey. +Joey boy, you there? +Joey. +Joey. +Joey, come here. +No, no, I haven't got it. +He's got it; it's in his pocket. +BJ: Joey. +AK: Joey, Joey, Joey, Joey. +Come here. Stand here where people can see you. +Move around. Come on. +I'd just like to describe -- I won't talk too loud. He might get irritated. +Here, Craig is working the head. +He has bicycle brake cables going down to the head control in his hand. +Each one of them operates either an ear, separately, or the head, up and down. +But he also controls the head directly by using his hand. +The ears are obviously a very important emotional indicator of the horse. +When they point right back, the horse is fearful or angry, depending upon what's going on in front of him, around him. +Or, when he's more relaxed, the head comes down and the ears listen, either side. +Horses' hearing is very important. +It's almost more important than their eyesight. +Over here, Tommy's got what you call the heart position. +He's working the leg. +You see the string tendon from the hyena, the hyena's front leg, automatically pulls the hoop up. +Horses are so unpredictable. +The way a hoof comes up with a horse immediately gives you the feeling that it's a convincing horse action. +The hind legs have got the same action. +BJ: And Mikey also has, in his fingers, the ability to move the tail from left to right, and up and down with the other hand. +And together, there's quite a complex possibility of tail expression. +AK: You want to say something about the breathing? +BJ: We had a big challenge with breathing. +Adrian thought that he was going to have to split the chest of the puppet in two and make it breathe like that -- because that's how a horse would breathe, with an expanded chest. +But we realized that, if that were to be happening, you wouldn't, as an audience, see the breath. +So he made a channel in here, and the chest moves up and down in that channel. +So it's anti-naturalistic really, the up and down movement, but it feels like breath. +And it's very, very simple because all that happens is that the puppeteer breathes with his knees. +AK: Other emotional stuff. +If I were to touch the horse here on his skin, the heart puppeteer can shake the body from inside and get the skin to quiver. +You'll notice, of course, that the puppet is made out of cane lines. +And I would like you to believe that it was an aesthetic choice, that I was making a three-dimensional drawing of a horse that somehow moves in space. +But of course, it was the cane is light, the cane is flexible, the cane is durable and the cane is moldable. +And so it was a very practical reason why it was made of cane. +The skin itself is made out of a see-through nylon mesh, which, if the lighting designer wants the horse to almost disappear, she can light the background and the horse becomes ghostlike. +You see the skeletal structure of it. +Or if you light it from above, it becomes more solid. +Again, that was a practical consideration. +The guys inside the horse have to be able to see out. +They have to be able to act along with their fellow actors in the production. +And it's very much an in-the-moment activity that they're engaged in. +It's three heads making one character. +But now we would like you to put Joey through some paces. +And plant. +Thank you. +And now just -- All the way from sunny California we have Zem Joaquin who's going to ride the horse for us. +So we would like to stress that the performance you see in the horse is three guys who have studied horse behavior incredibly thoroughly. +BJ: Not being able to talk to one another while they're onstage because they're mic'd. +The sound that that very large chest makes, of the horse -- the whinnying and the nickering and everything -- that starts usually with one performer, carries on with a second person and ends with a third. +AK: Mikey Brett from Leicestershire. +Mikey Brett, Craig, Leo, Zem Joaquin and Basil and me. +Thank you. Thank you. +As a boy, I loved cars. +When I turned 18, I lost my best friend to a car accident. +Like this. +And then I decided I'd dedicate my life to saving one million people every year. +Now I haven't succeeded, so this is just a progress report, but I'm here to tell you a little bit about self-driving cars. +I saw the concept first in the DARPA Grand Challenges where the U.S. government issued a prize to build a self-driving car that could navigate a desert. +And even though a hundred teams were there, these cars went nowhere. +So we decided at Stanford to build a different self-driving car. +We built the hardware and the software. +We made it learn from us, and we set it free in the desert. +And the unimaginable happened: it became the first car to ever return from a DARPA Grand Challenge, winning Stanford 2 million dollars. +Yet I still hadn't saved a single life. +Since, our work has focused on building driving cars that can drive anywhere by themselves -- any street in California. +We've driven 140,000 miles. +Our cars have sensors by which they magically can see everything around them and make decisions about every aspect of driving. +It's the perfect driving mechanism. +We've driven in cities, like in San Francisco here. +We've driven from San Francisco to Los Angeles on Highway 1. +We've encountered joggers, busy highways, toll booths, and this is without a person in the loop; the car just drives itself. +In fact, while we drove 140,000 miles, people didn't even notice. +Mountain roads, day and night, and even crooked Lombard Street in San Francisco. +Sometimes our cars get so crazy, they even do little stunts. +Man: Oh, my God. +What? +Second Man: It's driving itself. +Sebastian Thrun: Now I can't get my friend Harold back to life, but I can do something for all the people who died. +Do you know that driving accidents are the number one cause of death for young people? +And do you realize that almost all of those are due to human error and not machine error, and can therefore be prevented by machines? +Do you realize that you, TED users, spend an average of 52 minutes per day in traffic, wasting your time on your daily commute? +You could regain this time. +This is four billion hours wasted in this country alone. +And it's 2.4 billion gallons of gasoline wasted. +Now I think there's a vision here, a new technology, and I'm really looking forward to a time when generations after us look back at us and say how ridiculous it was that humans were driving cars. +Thank you. +I wanted to be a rock star. +I dreamed of it, and that's all I dreamed of. +To be more accurate, I wanted to be a pop star. +This was in the late '80s. +And mostly I wanted to be the fifth member of Depeche Mode or Duran Duran. +They wouldn't have me. +I didn't read music, but I played synthesizers and drum machines. +And I grew up in this little farming town in northern Nevada. +And I was certain that's what my life would be. +And when I went to college at the University of Nevada, Las Vegas when I was 18, I was stunned to find that there was not a Pop Star 101, or even a degree program for that interest. +And the choir conductor there knew that I sang and invited me to come and join the choir. +And I said, "Yes, I would love to do that. It sounds great." +And I left the room and said, "No way." +The choir people in my high school were pretty geeky, and there was no way I was going to have anything to do with those people. +And about a week later, a friend of mine came to me and said, "Listen, you've got to join choir. +At the end of the semester, we're taking a trip to Mexico, all expenses paid. +And the soprano section is just full of hot girls." +And so I figured for Mexico and babes, I could do just about anything. +And I went to my first day in choir, and I sat down with the basses and sort of looked over my shoulder to see what they were doing. +They opened their scores, the conductor gave the downbeat, and boom, they launched into the Kyrie from the "Requiem" by Mozart. +In my entire life I had seen in black and white, and suddenly everything was in shocking Technicolor. +The most transformative experience I've ever had -- in that single moment, hearing dissonance and harmony and people singing, people together, the shared vision. +And I felt for the first time in my life that I was part of something bigger than myself. +And there were a lot of cute girls in the soprano section, as it turns out. +I decided to write a piece for choir a couple of years later as a gift to this conductor who had changed my life. +I had learned to read music by then, or slowly learning to read music. +And that piece was published, and then I wrote another piece, and that got published. +And then I started conducting, and I ended up doing my master's degree at the Juilliard School. +And I find myself now in the unlikely position of standing in front of all of you as a professional classical composer and conductor. +Well a couple of years ago, a friend of mine emailed me a link, a YouTube link, and said, "You have got to see this." +And it was this young woman who had posted a fan video to me, singing the soprano line to a piece of mine called "Sleep." +Britlin Losee: Hi Mr. Eric Whitacre. +My name is Britlin Losee, and this is a video that I'd like to make for you. +Here's me singing "Sleep." +I'm a little nervous, just to let you know. + If there are noises in the night Eric Whitacre: I was thunderstruck. +Britlin was so innocent and so sweet, and her voice was so pure. +And I even loved seeing behind her; I could see the little teddy bear sitting on the piano behind her in her room. +Such an intimate video. +And I had this idea: if I could get 50 people to all do this same thing, sing their parts -- soprano, alto, tenor and bass -- wherever they were in the world, post their videos to YouTube, we could cut it all together and create a virtual choir. +So I wrote on my blog, "OMG OMG." +I actually wrote, "OMG," hopefully for the last time in public ever. +And I sent out this call to singers. +And I made free the download of the music to a piece that I had written in the year 2000 called "Lux Aurumque," which means "light and gold." +And lo and behold, people started uploading their videos. +Now I should say, before that, what I did is I posted a conductor track of myself conducting. +And it's in complete silence when I filmed it, because I was only hearing the music in my head, imagining the choir that would one day come to be. +Afterwards, I played a piano track underneath so that the singers would have something to listen to. +And then as the videos started to come in ... +This is Cheryl Ang from Singapore. +This is Evangelina Etienne from Massachusetts. +Stephen Hanson from Sweden. +This is Jamal Walker from Dallas, Texas. +There was even a little soprano solo in the piece, and so I had auditions. +And a number of sopranos uploaded their parts. +I was told later, and also by lots of singers who were involved in this, that they sometimes recorded 50 or 60 different takes until they got just the right take -- they uploaded it. +Here's our winner of the soprano solo. +This is Melody Myers from Tennessee. +I love the little smile she does right over the top of the note -- like, "No problem, everything's fine." +And from the crowd emerged this young man, Scott Haines. +And he said, "Listen, this is the project I've been looking for my whole life. +I'd like to be the person to edit this all together." +I said, "Thank you, Scott. I'm so glad that you found me." +And Scott aggregated all of the videos. +He scrubbed the audio. +He made sure that everything lined up. +And then we posted this video to YouTube about a year and a half ago. +This is "Lux Aurumque" sung by the Virtual Choir. +I'll stop it there in the interest of time. +Thank you. Thank you. +Thank you. +So there's more. There's more. +Thank you so much. +And I had the same reaction you did. +I actually was moved to tears when I first saw it. +I just couldn't believe the poetry of all of it -- these souls all on their own desert island, sending electronic messages in bottles to each other. +And the video went viral. +We had a million hits in the first month and got a lot of attention for it. +And because of that, then a lot of singers started saying, "All right, what's Virtual Choir 2.0?" +And so I decided for Virtual Choir 2.0 that I would choose the same piece that Britlin was singing, "Sleep," which is another work that I wrote in the year 2000 -- poetry by my dear friend Charles Anthony Silvestri. +And again, I posted a conductor video, and we started accepting submissions. +This time we got some more mature members. +And some younger members. +Soprano: Upon my pillow Safe in bed EW: That's Georgie from England. She's only nine. +Isn't that the sweetest thing you've ever seen? +Someone did all eight videos -- a bass even singing the soprano parts. +This is Beau Awtin. +Beau Awtin: Safe in bed EW: And our goal -- it was sort of an arbitrary goal -- there was an MTV video where they all sang "Lollipop" and they got people from all over the world to just sing that little melody. +And there were 900 people involved in that. +So I told the singers, "That's our goal. +That's the number for us to beat." +And we just closed submissions January 10th, and our final tally was 2,051 videos from 58 different countries. +Thank you. +From Malta, Madagascar, Thailand, Vietnam, Jordan, Egypt, Israel, as far north as Alaska and as far south as New Zealand. +And we also put a page on Facebook for the singers to upload their testimonials, what it was like for them, their experience singing it. +And I've just chosen a few of them here. +"My sister and I used to sing in choirs together constantly. +Now she's an airman in the air force constantly traveling. +It's so wonderful to sing together again!" +I love the idea that she's singing with her sister. +"Aside from the beautiful music, it's great just to know I'm part of a worldwide community of people I never met before, but who are connected anyway." +And my personal favorite, "When I told my husband that I was going to be a part of this, he told me that I did not have the voice for it." +Yeah, I'm sure a lot of you have heard that too. +Me too. +"It hurt so much, and I shed some tears, but something inside of me wanted to do this despite his words. +It is a dream come true to be part of this choir, as I've never been part of one. +When I placed a marker on the Google Earth Map, I had to go with the nearest city, which is about 400 miles away from where I live. +As I am in the Great Alaskan Bush, satellite is my connection to the world." +So two things struck me deeply about this. +The first is that human beings will go to any lengths necessary to find and connect with each other. +It doesn't matter the technology. +And the second is that people seem to be experiencing an actual connection. +It wasn't a virtual choir. +There are people now online that are friends; they've never met. +But, I know myself too, I feel this virtual esprit de corps, if you will, with all of them. +I feel a closeness to this choir -- almost like a family. +What I'd like to close with then today is the first look at "Sleep" by Virtual Choir 2.0. +This will be a premiere today. +We're not finished with the video yet. +You can imagine, with 2,000 synchronized YouTube videos, the render time is just atrocious. +But we do have the first three minutes. +And it's a tremendous honor for me to be able to show it to you here first. +You're the very first people to see this. +This is "Sleep," the Virtual Choir. +Thank you very much. Thank you. Thank you. +I'm a huge believer in hands-on education. +But you have to have the right tools. +If I'm going to teach my daughter about electronics, I'm not going to give her a soldering iron. +And similarly, she finds prototyping boards really frustrating for her little hands. +So my wonderful student Sam and I decided to look at the most tangible thing we could think of: Play-Doh. +And so we spent a summer looking at different Play-Doh recipes. +And these recipes probably look really familiar to any of you who have made homemade play-dough -- pretty standard ingredients you probably have in your kitchen. +We have two favorite recipes -- one that has these ingredients and a second that had sugar instead of salt. +And they're great. We can make great little sculptures with these. +But the really cool thing about them is when we put them together. +You see that really salty Play-Doh? +Well, it conducts electricity. +And this is nothing new. +It turns out that regular Play-Doh that you buy at the store conducts electricity, and high school physics teachers have used that for years. +But our homemade play-dough actually has half the resistance of commercial Play-Doh. +And that sugar dough? +Well it's 150 times more resistant to electric current than that salt dough. +So what does that mean? +Well it means if you them together you suddenly have circuits -- circuits that the most creative, tiny, little hands can build on their own. +And so I want to do a little demo for you. +So if I take this salt dough, again, it's like the play-dough you probably made as kids, and I plug it in -- it's a two-lead battery pack, simple battery pack, you can buy them at Radio Shack and pretty much anywhere else -- we can actually then light things up. +But if any of you have studied electrical engineering, we can also create a short circuit. +If I push these together, the light turns off. +Right, the current wants to run through the play-dough, not through that LED. +If I separate them again, I have some light. +Well now if I take that sugar dough, the sugar dough doesn't want to conduct electricity. +It's like a wall to the electricity. +If I place that between, now all the dough is touching, but if I stick that light back in, I have light. +In fact, I could even add some movement to my sculptures. +If I want a spinning tail, let's grab a motor, put some play-dough on it, stick it on and we have spinning. +And once you have the basics, we can make a slightly more complicated circuit. +We call this our sushi circuit. It's very popular with kids. +I plug in again the power to it. +And now I can start talking about parallel and series circuits. +I can start plugging in lots of lights. +And we can start talking about things like electrical load. +What happens if I put in lots of lights and then add a motor? +It'll dim. +We can even add microprocessors and have this as an input and create squishy sound music that we've done. +You could do parallel and series circuits for kids using this. +So this is all in your home kitchen. +We've actually tried to turn it into an electrical engineering lab. +We have a website, it's all there. These are the home recipes. +We've got some videos. You can make them yourselves. +And it's been really fun since we put them up to see where these have gone. +We've had a mom in Utah who used them with her kids, to a science researcher in the U.K., and curriculum developers in Hawaii. +So I would encourage you all to grab some Play-Doh, grab some salt, grab some sugar and start playing. +We don't usually think of our kitchen as an electrical engineering lab or little kids as circuit designers, but maybe we should. +Have fun. Thank you. +Ten years ago, on a Tuesday morning, I conducted a parachute jump at Fort Bragg, North Carolina. +It was a routine training jump, like many more I'd done since I became a paratrooper 27 years before. +We went down to the airfield early because this is the Army and you always go early. +You do some routine refresher training, and then you go to put on your parachute and a buddy helps you. +And you put on the T-10 parachute. +And you're very careful how you put the straps, particularly the leg straps because they go between your legs. +And then you put on your reserve, and then you put on your heavy rucksack. +And then a jumpmaster comes, and he's an experienced NCO in parachute operations. +He checks you out, he grabs your adjusting straps and he tightens everything so that your chest is crushed, your shoulders are crushed down, and, of course, he's tightened so your voice goes up a couple octaves as well. +Then you sit down, and you wait a little while, because this is the Army. +Then you load the aircraft, and then you stand up and you get on, and you kind of lumber to the aircraft like this, in a line of people, and you sit down on canvas seats on either side of the aircraft. +And you wait a little bit longer, because this is the Air Force teaching the Army how to wait. +Then you take off. +And it's painful enough now -- and I think it's designed this way -- it's painful enough so you want to jump. +You didn't really want to jump, but you want out. +So you get in the aircraft, you're flying along, and at 20 minutes out, these jumpmasters start giving you commands. +They give 20 minutes -- that's a time warning. +You sit there, OK. +Then they give you 10 minutes. +And of course, you're responding with all of these. +And that's to boost everybody's confidence, to show that you're not scared. +Then they give you, "Get ready." +Then they go, "Outboard personnel, stand up." +If you're an outboard personnel, now you stand up. +If you're an inboard personnel, stand up. +And then you hook up, and you hook up your static line. +And at that point, you think, "Hey, guess what? +I'm probably going to jump. +There's no way to get out of this at this point." +You go through some additional checks, and then they open the door. +And this was that Tuesday morning in September, and it was pretty nice outside. +So nice air comes flowing in. +The jumpmasters start to check the door. +And then when it's time to go, a green light goes and the jumpmaster goes, "Go." +The first guy goes, and you're just in line, and you just kind of lumber to the door. +Jump is a misnomer; you fall. +You fall outside the door, you're caught in the slipstream. +The first thing you do is lock into a tight body position -- head down in your chest, your arms extended, put over your reserve parachute. +You do that because, 27 years before, an airborne sergeant had taught me to do that. +I have no idea whether it makes any difference, but he seemed to make sense, and I wasn't going to test the hypothesis that he'd be wrong. +And then you wait for the opening shock for your parachute to open. +If you don't get an opening shock, you don't get a parachute -- you've got a whole new problem set. +But typically you do; typically it opens. +And of course, if your leg straps aren't set right, at that point you get another little thrill. +Boom. +So then you look around, you're under a canopy and you say, "This is good." +Now you prepare for the inevitable. +You are going to hit the ground. +You can't delay that much. +And you really can't decide where you hit very much, because they pretend you can steer, but you're being delivered. +So you look around, where you're going to land, you try to make yourself ready. +And then as you get close, you lower your rucksack below you on a lowering line, so that it's not on you when you land, and you prepare to do a parachute-landing fall. +Now the Army teaches you to do five points of performance -- the toes of your feet, your calves, your thighs, your buttocks and your push-up muscles. +It's this elegant little land, twist and roll. +And that's not going to hurt. +In 30-some years of jumping, I never did one. +I always landed like a watermelon out of a third floor window. +And as soon as I hit, the first thing I did is I'd see if I'd broken anything that I needed. +I'd shake my head, and I'd ask myself the eternal question: "Why didn't I go into banking?" +And I'd look around, and then I'd see another paratrooper, a young guy or girl, and they'd have pulled out their M4 carbine and they'd be picking up their equipment. +They'd be doing everything that we had taught them. +And I realized that, if they had to go into combat, they would do what we had taught them and they would follow leaders. +And I realized that, if they came out of combat, it would be because we led them well. +And I was hooked again on the importance of what I did. +So now I do that Tuesday morning jump, but it's not any jump -- that was September 11th, 2001. +And when we took off from the airfield, America was at peace. +When we landed on the drop-zone, everything had changed. +And what we thought about the possibility of those young soldiers going into combat as being theoretical was now very, very real -- and leadership seemed important. +But things had changed; I was a 46-year-old brigadier general. +I'd been successful, but things changed so much that I was going to have to make some significant changes, and on that morning, I didn't know it. +I was raised with traditional stories of leadership: Robert E. Lee, John Buford at Gettysburg. +And I also was raised with personal examples of leadership. +This was my father in Vietnam. +And I was raised to believe that soldiers were strong and wise and brave and faithful; they didn't lie, cheat, steal or abandon their comrades. +And I still believe real leaders are like that. +But in my first 25 years of career, I had a bunch of different experiences. +One of my first battalion commanders, I worked in his battalion for 18 months and the only conversation he ever had with Lt. McChrystal was at mile 18 of a 25-mile road march, and he chewed my ass for about 40 seconds. +And I'm not sure that was real interaction. +But then a couple of years later, when I was a company commander, I went out to the National Training Center. +And we did an operation, and my company did a dawn attack -- you know, the classic dawn attack: you prepare all night, move to the line of departure. +And I had an armored organization at that point. +We move forward, and we get wiped out -- I mean, wiped out immediately. +The enemy didn't break a sweat doing it. +And after the battle, they bring this mobile theater and they do what they call an "after action review" to teach you what you've done wrong. +Sort of leadership by humiliation. +They put a big screen up, and they take you through everything: "and then you didn't do this, and you didn't do this, etc." +I walked out feeling as low as a snake's belly in a wagon rut. +And I saw my battalion commander, because I had let him down. +And I went up to apologize to him, and he said, "Stanley, I thought you did great." +And in one sentence, he lifted me, put me back on my feet, and taught me that leaders can let you fail and yet not let you be a failure. +When 9/11 came, 46-year-old Brig. Gen. McChrystal sees a whole new world. +First, the things that are obvious, that you're familiar with: the environment changed -- the speed, the scrutiny, the sensitivity of everything now is so fast, sometimes it evolves faster than people have time to really reflect on it. +But everything we do is in a different context. +More importantly, the force that I led was spread over more than 20 countries. +And instead of being able to get all the key leaders for a decision together in a single room and look them in the eye and build their confidence and get trust from them, I'm now leading a force that's dispersed, and I've got to use other techniques. +I've got to use video teleconferences, I've got to use chat, I've got to use email, I've got to use phone calls -- I've got to use everything I can, not just for communication, but for leadership. +A 22-year-old individual operating alone, thousands of miles from me, has got to communicate to me with confidence. +I have to have trust in them and vice versa. +And I also have to build their faith. +And that's a new kind of leadership for me. +We had one operation where we had to coordinate it from multiple locations. +An emerging opportunity came -- didn't have time to get everybody together. +So we had to get complex intelligence together, we had to line up the ability to act. +It was sensitive, we had to go up the chain of command, convince them that this was the right thing to do and do all of this on electronic medium. +We failed. +The mission didn't work. +And so now what we had to do is I had to reach out to try to rebuild the trust of that force, rebuild their confidence -- me and them, and them and me, and our seniors and us as a force -- all without the ability to put a hand on a shoulder. +Entirely new requirement. +Also, the people had changed. +You probably think that the force that I led was all steely-eyed commandos with big knuckle fists carrying exotic weapons. +In reality, much of the force I led looked exactly like you. +It was men, women, young, old -- not just from military; from different organizations, many of them detailed to us just from a handshake. +And so instead of giving orders, you're now building consensus and you're building a sense of shared purpose. +Probably the biggest change was understanding that the generational difference, the ages, had changed so much. +I went down to be with a Ranger platoon on an operation in Afghanistan, and on that operation, a sergeant in the platoon had lost about half his arm throwing a Taliban hand grenade back at the enemy after it had landed in his fire team. +We talked about the operation, and then at the end I did what I often do with a force like that. +I asked, "Where were you on 9/11?" +And one young Ranger in the back -- his hair's tousled and his face is red and windblown from being in combat in the cold Afghan wind -- he said, "Sir, I was in the sixth grade." +And it reminded me that we're operating a force that must have shared purpose and shared consciousness, and yet he has different experiences, in many cases a different vocabulary, a completely different skill set in terms of digital media than I do and many of the other senior leaders. +And yet, we need to have that shared sense. +It also produced something which I call an inversion of expertise, because we had so many changes at the lower levels in technology and tactics and whatnot, that suddenly the things that we grew up doing wasn't what the force was doing anymore. +So how does a leader stay credible and legitimate when they haven't done what the people you're leading are doing? +And it's a brand new leadership challenge. +And it forced me to become a lot more transparent, a lot more willing to listen, a lot more willing to be reverse-mentored from lower. +And yet, again, you're not all in one room. +Then another thing. +There's an effect on you and on your leaders. +There's an impact, it's cumulative. +You don't reset, or recharge your battery every time. +I stood in front of a screen one night in Iraq with one of my senior officers and we watched a firefight from one of our forces. +And I remembered his son was in our force. +And I said, "John, where's your son? And how is he?" +And he said, "Sir, he's fine. Thanks for asking." +I said, "Where is he now?" +And he pointed at the screen, he said, "He's in that firefight." +Think about watching your brother, father, daughter, son, wife in a firefight in real time and you can't do anything about it. +Think about knowing that over time. +And it's a new cumulative pressure on leaders. +And you have to watch and take care of each other. +I probably learned the most about relationships. +I learned they are the sinew which hold the force together. +I grew up much of my career in the Ranger regiment. +And every morning in the Ranger regiment, every Ranger -- and there are more than 2,000 of them -- says a six-stanza Ranger creed. +You may know one line of it, it says, "I'll never leave a fallen comrade to fall into the hands of the enemy." +And it's not a mindless mantra, and it's not a poem. +It's a promise. +Every Ranger promises every other Ranger, "No matter what happens, no matter what it costs me, if you need me, I'm coming." +And every Ranger gets that same promise from every other Ranger. +Think about it. It's extraordinarily powerful. +It's probably more powerful than marriage vows. +And they've lived up to it, which gives it special power. +And so the organizational relationship that bonds them is just amazing. +And I learned personal relationships were more important than ever. +And having that kind of relationship, for me, turned out to be critical at many points in my career. +And I learned that you have to give that in this environment, because it's tough. +That was my journey. +I hope it's not over. +I came to believe that a leader isn't good because they're right; they're good because they're willing to learn and to trust. +This isn't easy stuff. +It's not like that electronic abs machine where, 15 minutes a month, you get washboard abs. +And it isn't always fair. +You can get knocked down, and it hurts and it leaves scars. +But if you're a leader, the people you've counted on will help you up. +And if you're a leader, the people who count on you need you on your feet. +Thank you. +So what does the happiest man in the world look like? +He certainly doesn't look like me. +He looks like this. +His name is Matthieu Ricard. +So how do you get to be the happiest man in the world? +Well it turns out there is a way to measure happiness in the brain. +And you do that by measuring the relative activation of the left prefrontal cortex in the fMRI, versus the right prefrontal cortex. +And Matthieu's happiness measure is off the charts. +He's by far the happiest man ever measured by science. +Which leads us to a question: What was he thinking when he was being measured? +Perhaps something very naughty. +Actually, he was meditating on compassion. +Matthieu's own experience is that compassion is the happiest state ever. +Reading about Matthieu was one of the pivotal moments of my life. +My dream is to create the conditions for world peace in my lifetime -- and to do that by creating the conditions for inner peace and compassion on a global scale. +And learning about Matthieu gave me a new angle to look at my work. +Matthieu's brain scan shows that compassion is not a chore. +Compassion is something that creates happiness. +Compassion is fun. +And that mind-blowing insight changes the entire game. +Because if compassion was a chore, nobody's going to do it, except maybe the Dalai Lama or something. +But if compassion was fun, everybody's going to do it. +Therefore, to create the conditions for global compassion, all we have to do is to reframe compassion as something that is fun. +But fun is not enough. +What if compassion is also profitable? +What if compassion is also good for business? +Then, every boss, every manager in the world, will want to have compassion -- like this. +That would create the conditions for world peace. +So, I started paying attention to what compassion looks like in a business setting. +Fortunately, I didn't have to look very far. +Because what I was looking for was right in front of my eyes -- in Google, my company. +I know there are other compassionate companies in the world, but Google is the place I'm familiar with because I've been there for 10 years, so I'll use Google as the case study. +Google is a company born of idealism. +It's a company that thrives on idealism. +And maybe because of that, compassion is organic and widespread company-wide. +In Google, expressions of corporate compassion almost always follow the same pattern. +It's sort of a funny pattern. +It starts with a small group of Googlers taking the initiative to do something. +And they don't usually ask for permission; they just go ahead and do it, and then other Googlers join in, and it just gets bigger and bigger. +And sometimes it gets big enough to become official. +So in other words, it almost always starts from the bottom up. +And let me give you some examples. +The first example is the largest annual community event -- where Googlers from around the world donate their labor to their local communities -- was initiated and organized by three employees before it became official, because it just became too big. +Another example, three Googlers -- a chef, an engineer and, most funny, a massage therapist -- three of them, they learned about a region in India where 200,000 people live without a single medical facility. +So what do they do? +They just go ahead and start a fundraiser. +And they raise enough money to build this hospital -- the first hospital of its kind for 200,000 people. +During the Haiti earthquake, a number of engineers and product managers spontaneously came together and stayed overnight to build a tool to allow earthquake victims to find their loved ones. +And expressions of compassion are also found in our international offices. +In China for example, one mid-level employee initiated the largest social action competition in China, involving more than 1,000 schools in China, working on issues such as education, poverty, health care and the environment. +There is so much organic social action all around Google that the company decided to form a social responsibility team just to support these efforts. +And this idea, again, came from the grassroots, from two Googlers who wrote their own job descriptions and volunteered themselves for the job. +And I found it fascinating that the social responsibility team was not formed as part of some grand corporate strategy. +It was two persons saying, "Let's do this," and the company said, "Yes." +So it turns out that Google is a compassionate company, because Googlers found compassion to be fun. +But again, fun is not enough. +There are also real business benefits. +So what are they? +The first benefit of compassion is that it creates highly effective business leaders. +What does that mean? +There are three components of compassion. +There is the affective component, which is, "I feel for you." +There is the cognitive component, which is, "I understand you." +And there is a motivational component, which is, "I want to help you." +So what has this got to do with business leadership? +According to a very comprehensive study led by Jim Collins, and documented in the book "Good to Great," it takes a very special kind of leader to bring a company from goodness to greatness. +And he calls them "Level 5 leaders." +These are leaders who, in addition to being highly capable, possess two important qualities, and they are humility and ambition. +These are leaders who are highly ambitious for the greater good. +And because they're ambitious for a greater good, they feel no need to inflate their own egos. +And they, according to the research, make the best business leaders. +And if you look at these qualities in the context of compassion, we find that the cognitive and affective components of compassion -- understanding people and empathizing with people -- inhibits, tones down, what I call the excessive self-obsession that's in us, therefore creating the conditions for humility. +The motivational component of compassion creates ambition for greater good. +In other words, compassion is the way to grow Level 5 leaders. +And this is the first compelling business benefit. +The second compelling benefit of compassion is that it creates an inspiring workforce. +Employees mutually inspire each other towards greater good. +It creates a vibrant, energetic community where people admire and respect each other. +I mean, you come to work in the morning, and you work with three guys who just up and decide to build a hospital in India. +It's like how can you not be inspired by those people -- your own coworkers? +So this mutual inspiration promotes collaboration, initiative and creativity. +It makes us a highly effective company. +So, having said all that, what is the secret formula for brewing compassion in the corporate setting? +In our experience, there are three ingredients. +The first ingredient is to create a culture of passionate concern for the greater good. +So always think: how is your company and your job serving the greater good? +Or, how can you further serve the greater good? +This awareness of serving the greater good is very self-inspiring and it creates fertile ground for compassion to grow in. +That's one. +The second ingredient is autonomy. +So in Google, there's a lot of autonomy. +And one of our most popular managers jokes that, this is what he says, "Google is a place where the inmates run the asylum." +And he considers himself one of the inmates. +If you already have a culture of compassion and idealism and you let your people roam free, they will do the right thing in the most compassionate way. +The third ingredient is to focus on inner development and personal growth. +Leadership training in Google, for example, places a lot of emphasis on the inner qualities, such as self-awareness, self-mastery, empathy and compassion, because we believe that leadership begins with character. +We even created a seven-week curriculum on emotion intelligence, which we jokingly call "Searching Inside Yourself." +It's less naughty than it sounds. +So I'm an engineer by training, but I'm one of the creators and instructors of this course, which I find kind of funny, because this is a company that trusts an engineer to teach emotion intelligence. +What a company. +So "Search Inside Yourself" -- how does it work? +It works in three steps. +The first step is attention training. +Attention is the basis of all higher cognitive and emotional abilities. +Therefore, any curriculum for training emotion intelligence has to begin with attention training. +The idea here is to train attention to create a quality of mind that is calm and clear at the same time. +And this creates the foundation for emotion intelligence. +The second step follows the first step. +The second step is developing self-knowledge and self-mastery. +So using the supercharged attention from step one, we create a high-resolution perception into the cognitive and emotive processes. +What does that mean? +It means being able to observe our thought stream and the process of emotion with high clarity, objectivity and from a third-person perspective. +And once you can do that, you create the kind of self-knowledge that enables self-mastery. +The third step, following the second step, is to create new mental habits. +What does that mean? Imagine this. +Imagine whenever you meet any other person, any time you meet a person, your habitual, instinctive first thought is, "I want you to be happy. +I want you to be happy." +Imagine you can do that. +Having this habit, this mental habit, changes everything at work. +Because this good will is unconsciously picked up by other people, and it creates trust, and trust creates a lot of good working relationships. +And this also creates the conditions for compassion in the workplace. +Someday, we hope to open-source "Search Inside Yourself" so that everybody in the corporate world will at least be able to use it as a reference. +And in closing, I want to end the same place I started, with happiness. +I want to quote this guy -- the guy in robes, not the other guy -- the Dalai Lama, who said, "If you want others to be happy, practice compassion. +If you want to be happy, practice compassion." +I found this to be true, both on the individual level and at a corporate level. +And I hope that compassion will be both fun and profitable for you too. +Thank you. +Can any of you remember what you wanted to be when you were 17? +Do you know what I wanted to be? +I wanted to be a biker chick. +I wanted to race cars, and I wanted to be a cowgirl, and I wanted to be Mowgli from "The Jungle Book." +Because they were all about being free, the wind in your hair -- just to be free. +And on my seventeenth birthday, my parents, knowing how much I loved speed, gave me one driving lesson for my seventeenth birthday. +Not that we could have afforded I drive, but to give me the dream of driving. +And on my seventeenth birthday, I accompanied my little sister in complete innocence, as I always had all my life -- my visually impaired sister -- to go to see an eye specialist. +Because big sisters are always supposed to support their little sisters. +And my little sister wanted to be a pilot -- God help her. +So I used to get my eyes tested just for fun. +And on my seventeenth birthday, after my fake eye exam, the eye specialist just noticed it happened to be my birthday. +And he said, "So what are you going to do to celebrate?" +And I took that driving lesson, and I said, "I'm going to learn how to drive." +And then there was a silence -- one of those awful silences when you know something's wrong. +And he turned to my mother, and he said, "You haven't told her yet?" +On my seventeenth birthday, as Janis Ian would best say, I learned the truth at 17. +I am, and have been since birth, legally blind. +And you know, how on earth did I get to 17 and not know that? +Well, if anybody says country music isn't powerful, let me tell you this: I got there because my father's passion for Johnny Cash and a song, "A Boy Named Sue." +I'm the eldest of three. I was born in 1971. +And very shortly after my birth, my parents found out I had a condition called ocular albinism. +And what the hell does that mean to you? +So let me just tell you, the great part of all of this? +I can't see this clock and I can't see the timing, so holy God, woohoo! I might buy some more time. +But more importantly, let me tell you -- I'm going to come up really close here. Don't freak out, Pat. +Hey. +See this hand? +Beyond this hand is a world of Vaseline. +Every man in this room, even you, Steve, is George Clooney. +And every woman, you are so beautiful. +And when I want to look beautiful, I step three feet away from the mirror, and I don't have to see these lines etched in my face from all the squinting I've done all my life from all the dark lights. +The really strange part is that, at three and a half, just before I was going to school, my parents made a bizarre, unusual and incredibly brave decision. +No special needs schools. +No labels. +No limitations. +My ability and my potential. +And they decided to tell me that I could see. +So just like Johnny Cash's Sue, a boy given a girl's name, I would grow up and learn from experience how to be tough and how to survive, when they were no longer there to protect me, or just take it all away. +But more significantly, they gave me the ability to believe, totally, to believe that I could. +And so when I heard that eye specialist tell me all the things, a big fat "no," everybody imagines I was devastated. +And don't get me wrong, because when I first heard it -- aside from the fact that I thought he was insane -- I got that thump in my chest, just that "huh?" +But very quickly I recovered. It was like that. +The first thing I thought about was my mom, who was crying over beside me. +And I swear to God, I walked out of his office, "I will drive. I will drive. +You're mad. I'll drive. I know I can drive." +And with the same dogged determination that my father had bred into me since I was such a child -- he taught me how to sail, knowing I could never see where I was going, I could never see the shore, and I couldn't see the sails, and I couldn't see the destination. +But he told me to believe and feel the wind in my face. +And that wind in my face made me believe that he was mad and I would drive. +And for the next 11 years, I swore nobody would ever find out that I couldn't see, because I didn't want to be a failure, and I didn't want to be weak. +And I believed I could do it. +So I rammed through life as only a Casey can do. +And I was an archeologist, and then I broke things. +And then I managed a restaurant, and then I slipped on things. +And then I was a masseuse. And then I was a landscape gardener. +And then I went to business school. +And you know, disabled people are hugely educated. +And then I went in and I got a global consulting job with Accenture. +And they didn't even know. +And it's extraordinary how far belief can take you. +In 1999, two and a half years into that job, something happened. +Wonderfully, my eyes decided, enough. +And temporarily, very unexpectedly, they dropped. +And I'm in one of the most competitive environments in the world, where you work hard, play hard, you gotta be the best, you gotta be the best. +And two years in, I really could see very little. +And I found myself in front of an HR manager in 1999, saying something I never imagined that I would say. +I was 28 years old. +I had built a persona all around what I could and couldn't do. +And I simply said, "I'm sorry. +I can't see, and I need help." +Asking for help can be incredibly difficult. +And you all know what it is. You don't need to have a disability to know that. +We all know how hard it is to admit weakness and failure. +And it's frightening, isn't it? +But all that belief had fueled me so long. +And can I tell you, operating in the sighted world when you can't see, it's kind of difficult -- it really is. +Can I tell you, airports are a disaster. +Oh, for the love of God. +And please, any designers out there? +OK, designers, please put up your hands, even though I can't even see you. +I always end up in the gents' toilets. +And there's nothing wrong with my sense of smell. +But can I just tell you, the little sign for a gents' toilet or a ladies' toilet is determined by a triangle. +Have you ever tried to see that if you have Vaseline in front of your eyes? +It's such a small thing, right? +And you know how exhausting it can be to try to be perfect when you're not, or to be somebody that you aren't? +And so after admitting I couldn't see to HR, they sent me off to an eye specialist. +And I had no idea that this man was going to change my life. +But before I got to him, I was so lost. +I had no idea who I was anymore. +And that eye specialist, he didn't bother testing my eyes. +God no, it was therapy. +And he asked me several questions, of which many were, "Why? +Why are you fighting so hard not to be yourself? +And do you love what you do, Caroline?" +And you know, when you go to a global consulting firm, they put a chip in your head, and you're like, "I love Accenture. I love Accenture. I love my job. I love Accenture. +I love Accenture. I love Accenture. I love my job. I love Accenture." To leave would be failure. +And he said, "Do you love it?" +I couldn't even speak I was so choked up. +I just was so -- how do I tell him? +And then he said to me, "What did you want to be when you were little?" +Now listen, I wasn't going to say to him, "Well, I wanted to race cars and motorbikes." +Hardly appropriate at this moment in time. +He thought I was mad enough anyway. +And as I left his office, he called me back and he said, "I think it's time. +I think it's time to stop fighting and do something different." +And that door closed. +And that silence just outside a doctor's office, that many of us know. +And my chest ached. +And I had no idea where I was going. I had no idea. +But I did know the game was up. +And I went home, and, because the pain in my chest ached so much, I thought, "I'll go out for a run." +Really not a very sensible thing to do. +And I went on a run that I know so well. +I know this run so well, by the back of my hand. +I always run it perfectly fine. +I count the steps and the lampposts and all those things that visually impaired people have a tendency to have a lot of meetings with. +And there was a rock that I always missed. +And I'd never fallen on it, never. +And there I was crying away, and smash, bash on my rock. +Broken, fallen over on this rock in the middle of March in 2000, typical Irish weather on a Wednesday -- gray, snot, tears everywhere, ridiculously self-pitying. +And I was floored, and I was broken, and I was angry. +And I didn't know what to do. +And I sat there for quite some time going, "How am I going to get off this rock and go home? +Because who am I going to be? +What am I going to be?" +And I thought about my dad, and I thought, "Good God, I'm so not Sue now." +And I kept thinking over and over in my mind, what had happened? Where did it go wrong? Why didn't I understand? +And you know, the extraordinary part of it is I just simply had no answers. +I had lost my belief. +Look where my belief had brought me to. +And now I had lost it. And now I really couldn't see. +I was crumpled. +And then I remember thinking about that eye specialist asking me, "What do you want to be? What do you want to be? +What did you want to be when you were little? Do you love what you do? +Do something different. What do you want to be? +Do something different. What do you want to be?" +And really slowly, slowly, slowly, it happened. +And it did happen this way. +And then the minute it came, it blew up in my head and bashed in my heart -- something different. +"Well, how about Mowgli from 'The Jungle Book'? +You don't get more different than that." +And the moment, and I mean the moment, the moment that hit me, I swear to God, it was like woo hoo! You know -- something to believe in. +And nobody can tell me no. +Yes, you can say I can't be an archeologist. +But you can't tell me, no, I can't be Mowgli, because guess what? +Nobody's ever done it before, so I'm going to go do it. +And it doesn't matter whether I'm a boy or a girl, I'm just going to scoot. +And so I got off that rock, and, oh my God, did I run home. +And I sprinted home, and I didn't fall, and I didn't crash. +And I ran up the stairs, and there was one of my favorite books of all time, "Travels on My Elephant" by Mark Shand -- I don't know if any of you know it. +And I grabbed this book off, and I'm sitting on the couch going, "I know what I'm going to do. +I know how to be Mowgli. +I'm going to go across India on the back of an elephant. +I'm going to be an elephant handler." +And I had no idea how I was going to be an elephant handler. +From global management consultant to elephant handler. +I had no idea how. I had no idea how you hire an elephant, get an elephant. +I didn't speak Hindi. I'd never been to India. Hadn't a clue. +But I knew I would. +Because, when you make a decision at the right time and the right place, God, that universe makes it happen for you. +Nine months later, after that day on snot rock, I had the only blind date in my life with a seven and a half foot elephant called Kanchi. +And together we would trek a thousand kilometers across India. +The most powerful thing of all, it's not that I didn't achieve before then. Oh my God, I did. +But you know, I was believing in the wrong thing. +Because I wasn't believing in me, really me, all the bits of me -- all the bits of all of us. +Do you know how much of us all pretend to be somebody we're not? +And you know what, when you really believe in yourself and everything about you, it's extraordinary what happens. +And you know what, that trip, that thousand kilometers, it raised enough money for 6,000 cataract eye operations. +Six thousand people got to see because of that. +When I came home off that elephant, do you know what the most amazing part was? +I chucked in my job at Accenture. +I left, and I became a social entrepreneur, and I set up an organization with Mark Shand called Elephant Family, which deals with Asian elephant conservation. +And I set up Kanchi, because my organization was always going to be named after my elephant, because disability is like the elephant in the room. +And I wanted to make you see it in a positive way -- no charity, no pity. +But I wanted to work only and truly with business and media leadership to totally reframe disability in a way that was exciting and possible. +It was extraordinary. +That's what I wanted to do. +And I never thought about noes anymore, or not seeing, or any of that kind of nothing. +It just seemed that it was possible. +And you know, the oddest part is, when I was on my way traveling here to TED, I'll be honest, I was petrified. +And I speak, but this is an amazing audience, and what am I doing here? +But as I was traveling here, you'll be very happy to know, I did use my white symbol stick cane, because it's really good to skip queues in the airport. +And I got my way here being happily proud that I couldn't see. +And the one thing is that a really good friend of mine, he texted me on the way over, knowing I was scared. +Even though I present confident, I was scared. +He said, "Be you." +And so here I am. +This is me, all of me. +And I have learned, you know what, cars and motorbikes and elephants, that's not freedom. +Being absolutely true to yourself is freedom. +And I never needed eyes to see -- never. +I simply needed vision and belief. +And if you truly believe -- and I mean believe from the bottom of your heart -- you can make change happen. +And we need to make it happen, because every single one of us -- woman, man, gay, straight, disabled, perfect, normal, whatever -- everyone of us must be the very best of ourselves. +I no longer want anybody to be invisible. +We all have to be included. +And stop with the labels, the limiting. +Losing of labels, because we are not jam jars. +We are extraordinary, different, wonderful people. +Thank you. +Thank you. +First, a video. +Yes, it is a scrambled egg. +But as you look at it, I hope you'll begin to feel just slightly uneasy. +Because you may notice that what's actually happening is that the egg is unscrambling itself. +And you'll now see the yolk and the white have separated. +And now they're going to be poured back into the egg. +And we all know in our heart of hearts that this is not the way the universe works. +A scrambled egg is mush -- tasty mush -- but it's mush. +An egg is a beautiful, sophisticated thing that can create even more sophisticated things, such as chickens. +And we know in our heart of hearts that the universe does not travel from mush to complexity. +In fact, this gut instinct is reflected in one of the most fundamental laws of physics, the second law of thermodynamics, or the law of entropy. +What that says basically is that the general tendency of the universe is to move from order and structure to lack of order, lack of structure -- in fact, to mush. +And that's why that video feels a bit strange. +And yet, look around us. +What we see around us is staggering complexity. +Eric Beinhocker estimates that in New York City alone, there are some 10 billion SKUs, or distinct commodities, being traded. +That's hundreds of times as many species as there are on Earth. +And they're being traded by a species of almost seven billion individuals, who are linked by trade, travel, and the Internet into a global system of stupendous complexity. +So here's a great puzzle: in a universe ruled by the second law of thermodynamics, how is it possible to generate the sort of complexity I've described, the sort of complexity represented by you and me and the convention center? +Well, the answer seems to be, the universe can create complexity, but with great difficulty. +there appear what my colleague, Fred Spier, calls "Goldilocks conditions" -- not too hot, not too cold, just right for the creation of complexity. +And slightly more complex things appear. +And where you have slightly more complex things, you can get slightly more complex things. +And in this way, complexity builds stage by stage. +Each stage is magical because it creates the impression of something utterly new appearing almost out of nowhere in the universe. +We refer in big history to these moments as threshold moments. +And at each threshold, the going gets tougher. +The complex things get more fragile, more vulnerable; the Goldilocks conditions get more stringent, and it's more difficult to create complexity. +Now, we, as extremely complex creatures, desperately need to know this story of how the universe creates complexity despite the second law, and why complexity means vulnerability and fragility. +And that's the story that we tell in big history. +But to do it, you have do something that may, at first sight, seem completely impossible. +You have to survey the whole history of the universe. +So let's do it. +Let's begin by winding the timeline back 13.7 billion years, to the beginning of time. +Around us, there's nothing. +There's not even time or space. +Imagine the darkest, emptiest thing you can and cube it a gazillion times and that's where we are. +And then suddenly, bang! A universe appears, an entire universe. +And we've crossed our first threshold. +The universe is tiny; it's smaller than an atom. +It's incredibly hot. +It contains everything that's in today's universe, so you can imagine, it's busting. +And it's expanding at incredible speed. +And at first, it's just a blur, but very quickly distinct things begin to appear in that blur. +Within the first second, energy itself shatters into distinct forces including electromagnetism and gravity. +And energy does something else quite magical: it congeals to form matter -- quarks that will create protons and leptons that include electrons. +And all of that happens in the first second. +Now we move forward 380,000 years. +That's twice as long as humans have been on this planet. +And now simple atoms appear of hydrogen and helium. +Now I want to pause for a moment, 380,000 years after the origins of the universe, because we actually know quite a lot about the universe at this stage. +We know above all that it was extremely simple. +It consisted of huge clouds of hydrogen and helium atoms, and they have no structure. +They're really a sort of cosmic mush. +But that's not completely true. +Recent studies by satellites such as the WMAP satellite have shown that, in fact, there are just tiny differences in that background. +What you see here, the blue areas are about a thousandth of a degree cooler than the red areas. +These are tiny differences, but it was enough for the universe to move on to the next stage of building complexity. +And this is how it works. +Gravity is more powerful where there's more stuff. +So where you get slightly denser areas, gravity starts compacting clouds of hydrogen and helium atoms. +So we can imagine the early universe breaking up into a billion clouds. +We have our first stars. +From about 200 million years after the Big Bang, stars begin to appear all through the universe, billions of them. +And the universe is now significantly more interesting and more complex. +Stars will create the Goldilocks conditions for crossing two new thresholds. +When very large stars die, they create temperatures so high that protons begin to fuse in all sorts of exotic combinations, to form all the elements of the periodic table. +If, like me, you're wearing a gold ring, it was forged in a supernova explosion. +So now the universe is chemically more complex. +And in a chemically more complex universe, it's possible to make more things. +And what starts happening is that, around young suns, young stars, all these elements combine, they swirl around, the energy of the star stirs them around, they form particles, they form snowflakes, they form little dust motes, they form rocks, they form asteroids, and eventually, they form planets and moons. +And that is how our solar system was formed, four and a half billion years ago. +Rocky planets like our Earth are significantly more complex than stars because they contain a much greater diversity of materials. +So we've crossed a fourth threshold of complexity. +Now, the going gets tougher. +The next stage introduces entities that are significantly more fragile, significantly more vulnerable, but they're also much more creative and much more capable of generating further complexity. +I'm talking, of course, about living organisms. +Living organisms are created by chemistry. +We are huge packages of chemicals. +So, chemistry is dominated by the electromagnetic force. +That operates over smaller scales than gravity, which explains why you and I are smaller than stars or planets. +Now, what are the ideal conditions for chemistry? +What are the Goldilocks conditions? +Well, first, you need energy, but not too much. +In the center of a star, there's so much energy that any atoms that combine will just get busted apart again. +But not too little. +In intergalactic space, there's so little energy that atoms can't combine. +What you want is just the right amount, and planets, it turns out, are just right, because they're close to stars, but not too close. +You also need a great diversity of chemical elements, and you need liquids, such as water. +Why? +Well, in gases, atoms move past each other so fast that they can't hitch up. +In solids, atoms are stuck together, they can't move. +In liquids, they can cruise and cuddle and link up to form molecules. +Now, where do you find such Goldilocks conditions? +Well, planets are great, and our early Earth was almost perfect. +It was just the right distance from its star to contain huge oceans of liquid water. +And deep beneath those oceans, at cracks in the Earth's crust, you've got heat seeping up from inside the Earth, and you've got a great diversity of elements. +So at those deep oceanic vents, fantastic chemistry began to happen, and atoms combined in all sorts of exotic combinations. +But of course, life is more than just exotic chemistry. +How do you stabilize those huge molecules that seem to be viable? +Well, it's here that life introduces an entirely new trick. +You don't stabilize the individual; you stabilize the template, the thing that carries information, and you allow the template to copy itself. +And DNA, of course, is the beautiful molecule that contains that information. +You'll be familiar with the double helix of DNA. +Each rung contains information. +So, DNA contains information about how to make living organisms. +And DNA also copies itself. +So, it copies itself and scatters the templates through the ocean. +So the information spreads. +Notice that information has become part of our story. +The real beauty of DNA though is in its imperfections. +As it copies itself, once in every billion rungs, there tends to be an error. +And what that means is that DNA is, in effect, learning. +It's accumulating new ways of making living organisms because some of those errors work. +So DNA's learning and it's building greater diversity and greater complexity. +And we can see this happening over the last four billion years. +For most of that time of life on Earth, living organisms have been relatively simple -- single cells. +But they had great diversity, and, inside, great complexity. +Then from about 600 to 800 million years ago, multi-celled organisms appear. +You get fungi, you get fish, you get plants, you get amphibia, you get reptiles, and then, of course, you get the dinosaurs. +And occasionally, there are disasters. +Sixty-five million years ago, an asteroid landed on Earth near the Yucatan Peninsula, creating conditions equivalent to those of a nuclear war, and the dinosaurs were wiped out. +Terrible news for the dinosaurs, but great news for our mammalian ancestors, who flourished in the niches left empty by the dinosaurs. +And we human beings are part of that creative evolutionary pulse that began 65 million years ago with the landing of an asteroid. +Humans appeared about 200,000 years ago. +And I believe we count as a threshold in this great story. +Let me explain why. +We've seen that DNA learns in a sense, it accumulates information. +But it is so slow. +DNA accumulates information through random errors, some of which just happen to work. +But DNA had actually generated a faster way of learning: it had produced organisms with brains, and those organisms can learn in real time. +They accumulate information, they learn. +The sad thing is, when they die, the information dies with them. +Now what makes humans different is human language. +We are blessed with a language, a system of communication, so powerful and so precise that we can share what we've learned with such precision that it can accumulate in the collective memory. +And that means it can outlast the individuals who learned that information, and it can accumulate from generation to generation. +And that's why, as a species, we're so creative and so powerful, and that's why we have a history. +We seem to be the only species in four billion years to have this gift. +I call this ability collective learning. +It's what makes us different. +We can see it at work in the earliest stages of human history. +We evolved as a species in the savanna lands of Africa, but then you see humans migrating into new environments, into desert lands, into jungles, into the Ice Age tundra of Siberia -- tough, tough environment -- into the Americas, into Australasia. +Each migration involved learning -- learning new ways of exploiting the environment, new ways of dealing with their surroundings. +Then 10,000 years ago, exploiting a sudden change in global climate with the end of the last ice age, humans learned to farm. +Farming was an energy bonanza. +And exploiting that energy, human populations multiplied. +Human societies got larger, denser, more interconnected. +And then from about 500 years ago, humans began to link up globally through shipping, through trains, through telegraph, through the Internet, until now we seem to form a single global brain of almost seven billion individuals. +And that brain is learning at warp speed. +And in the last 200 years, something else has happened. +We've stumbled on another energy bonanza in fossil fuels. +So fossil fuels and collective learning together explain the staggering complexity we see around us. +So -- Here we are, back at the convention center. +We've been on a journey, a return journey, of 13.7 billion years. +I hope you agree this is a powerful story. +And it's a story in which humans play an astonishing and creative role. +But it also contains warnings. +Collective learning is a very, very powerful force, and it's not clear that we humans are in charge of it. +I remember very vividly as a child growing up in England, living through the Cuban Missile Crisis. +For a few days, the entire biosphere seemed to be on the verge of destruction. +And the same weapons are still here, and they are still armed. +If we avoid that trap, others are waiting for us. +We're burning fossil fuels at such a rate that we seem to be undermining the Goldilocks conditions that made it possible for human civilizations to flourish over the last 10,000 years. +So what big history can do is show us the nature of our complexity and fragility and the dangers that face us, but it can also show us our power with collective learning. +And now, finally -- this is what I want. +I want my grandson, Daniel, and his friends and his generation, throughout the world, to know the story of big history, and to know it so well that they understand both the challenges that face us and the opportunities that face us. +And that's why a group of us are building a free, online syllabus in big history for high-school students throughout the world. +We believe that big history will be a vital intellectual tool for them, as Daniel and his generation face the huge challenges and also the huge opportunities ahead of them at this threshold moment in the history of our beautiful planet. +I thank you for your attention. +How often do we hear that people just don't care? +How many times have you been told that real, substantial change isn't possible because most people are too selfish, too stupid or too lazy to try to make a difference in their community? +I propose to you today that apathy as we think we know it doesn't actually exist, but rather, that people do care, but that we live in a world that actively discourages engagement by constantly putting obstacles and barriers in our way. +And I'll give you some examples of what I mean. +Let's start with city hall. +You ever see one of these before? +This is a newspaper ad. +It's a notice of a zoning application change for a new office building so the neighborhood knows what's happening. +As you can see, it's impossible to read. +You need to get halfway down to even find out which address they're talking about, and then farther down, in tiny 10-point font, to find out how to actually get involved. +Imagine if the private sector advertised in the same way -- if Nike wanted to sell a pair of shoes and put an ad in the paper like that. +Now that would never happen. +You'll never see an ad like that because Nike actually wants you to buy their shoes. +Whereas the city of Toronto clearly doesn't want you involved with the planning process, otherwise their ads would look something like this -- with all the information basically laid out clearly. +As long as the city's putting out notices like this to try to get people engaged, then of course people aren't going to be engaged. +But that's not apathy; that's intentional exclusion. +Public space. +The manner in which we mistreat our public spaces is a huge obstacle towards any type of progressive political change because we've essentially put a price tag on freedom of expression. +Whoever has the most money gets the loudest voice, dominating the visual and mental environment. +The problem with this model is that there are some amazing messages that need to be said that aren't profitable to say. +So you're never going to see them on a billboard. +The media plays an important role in developing our relationship with political change, mainly by ignoring politics and focusing on celebrities and scandals, but even when they do talk about important political issues, they do it in a way that I feel discourages engagement. +And I'll give you an example: the Now magazine from last week -- progressive, downtown weekly in Toronto. +This is the cover story. +It's an article about a theater performance, and it starts with basic information about where it is, in case you actually want to go and see it after you've read the article -- where, the time, the website. +Same with this -- it's a movie review, an art review, a book review -- where the reading is in case you want to go. +A restaurant -- you might not want to just read about it, maybe you want to go to the restaurant. +So they tell you where it is, what the prices are, the address, the phone number, etc. +Then you get to their political articles. +Here's a great article about an important election race that's happening. +It talks about the candidates -- written very well -- but no information, no follow-up, no websites for the campaigns, no information about when the debates are, where the campaign offices are. +Here's another good article about a new campaign opposing privatization of transit without any contact information for the campaign. +The message seems to be that the readers are most likely to want to eat, maybe read a book, maybe see a movie, but not be engaged in their community. +And you might think this is a small thing, but I think it's important because it sets a tone and it reinforces the dangerous idea that politics is a spectator sport. +Heroes: How do we view leadership? +Look at these 10 movies. What do they have in common? +Anyone? +They all have heroes who were chosen. +Someone came up to them and said, "You're the chosen one. +There's a prophesy. You have to save the world." +And then someone goes off and saves the world because they've been told to, with a few people tagging along. +This helps me understand why a lot of people have trouble seeing themselves as leaders because it sends all the wrong messages about what leadership is about. +A heroic effort is a collective effort, number one. +Number two, it's imperfect; it's not very glamorous, and it doesn't suddenly start and suddenly end. +It's an ongoing process your whole life. +But most importantly, it's voluntary. +It's voluntary. +As long as we're teaching our kids that heroism starts when someone scratches a mark on your forehead, or someone tells you that you're part of a prophecy, they're missing the most important characteristic of leadership, which is that it comes from within. +It's about following your own dreams -- uninvited, uninvited -- and then working with others to make those dreams come true. +Political parties: oh boy. +Political parties could and should be one of the basic entry points for people to get engaged in politics. +Instead, they've become, sadly, uninspiring and uncreative organizations that rely so heavily on market research and polling and focus groups that they end up all saying the same thing, pretty much regurgitating back to us what we already want to hear at the expense of putting forward bold and creative ideas. +And people can smell that, and it feeds cynicism. +Charitable status: Groups who have charitable status in Canada aren't allowed to do advocacy. +This is a huge problem and a huge obstacle to change because it means that some of the most passionate and informed voices are completely silenced, especially during election time. +Which leads us to the last one, which is our elections. +As you may have noticed, our elections in Canada are a complete joke. +We use out-of-date systems that are unfair and create random results. +Canada's currently led by a party that most Canadians didn't actually want. +How can we honestly and genuinely encourage more people to vote when votes don't count in Canada? +You add all this up together and of course people are apathetic. +It's like trying to run into a brick wall. +Now I'm not trying to be negative by throwing all these obstacles out and explaining what's in our way. +Quite the opposite: I actually think people are amazing and smart and that they do care. +But that, as I said, we live in this environment where all these obstacles are being put in our way. +As long as we believe that people, our own neighbors, are selfish, stupid or lazy, then there's no hope. +But we can change all those things I mentioned. +We can open up city hall. +We can reform our electoral systems. +We can democratize our public spaces. +My main message is, if we can redefine apathy, not as some kind of internal syndrome, but as a complex web of cultural barriers that reinforces disengagement, and if we can clearly define, we can clearly identify, what those obstacles are, and then if we can work together collectively to dismantle those obstacles, then anything is possible. +Thank you. +I am the daughter of a forger, not just any forger ... +When you hear the word "forger," you often understand "mercenary." +You understand "forged currency," "forged pictures." +My father is no such man. +For 30 years of his life, he made false papers -- never for himself, always for other people, and to come to the aid of the persecuted and the oppressed. +Let me introduce him. +Here is my father at age 19. +It all began for him during World War II, when at age 17 he found himself thrust into a forged documents workshop. +He quickly became the false papers expert of the Resistance. +And it's not a banal story -- after the liberation he continued to make false papers until the '70s. +When I was a child I knew nothing about this, of course. +This is me in the middle making faces. +I grew up in the Paris suburbs and I was the youngest of three children. +I had a "normal" dad like everybody else, apart from the fact that he was 30 years older than ... +well, he was basically old enough to be my grandfather. +Anyway, he was a photographer and a street educator, and he always taught us to obey the law very strictly. +And, of course, he never talked about his past life when he was a forger. +There was, however, an incident I'm going to tell you about, that perhaps could have led me suspect something. +I was in high school and got a bad grade, a rare event for me, so I decided to hide it from my parents. +In order to do that, I set out to forge their signature. +I started working on my mother's signature, because my father's is absolutely impossible to forge. +So, I got working. I took some sheets of paper and started practicing, practicing, practicing, until I reached what I thought was a steady hand, and went into action. +Later, while checking my school bag, my mother got hold of my school assignment and immediately saw that the signature was forged. +She yelled at me like she never had before. +I went to hide in my bedroom, under the blankets, and then I waited for my father to come back from work with, one could say, much apprehension. +I heard him come in. +I remained under the blankets. He entered my room, sat on the corner of the bed, and he was silent, so I pulled the blanket from my head, and when he saw me he started laughing. +He was laughing so hard, he could not stop and he was holding my assignment in his hand. +Then he said, "But really, Sarah, you could have worked harder! Can't you see it's really too small?" +Indeed, it's rather small. +I was born in Algeria. +There I would hear people say my father was a "moudjahid" and that means "fighter." +Later on, in France, I loved eavesdropping on grownups' conversations, and I would hear all sorts of stories about my father's previous life, especially that he had "done" World War II, that he had "done" the Algerian war. +And in my head I would be thinking that "doing" a war meant being a soldier. +But knowing my father, and how he kept saying that he was a pacifist and non-violent, I found it very hard to picture him with a helmet and gun. +And indeed, I was very far from the mark. +One day, while my father was working on a file for us to obtain French nationality, I happened to see some documents that caught my attention. +These are real! +These are mine, I was born an Argentinean. +But the document I happened to see that would help us build a case for the authorities was a document from the army that thanked my father for his work on behalf of the secret services. +And then, suddenly, I went "wow!" +My father, a secret agent? +It was very James Bond. +I wanted to ask him questions, which he didn't answer. +And later, I told myself that one day I would have to question him. +And then I became a mother and had a son, and finally decided it was time -- that he absolutely had to talk to us. +I had become a mother and he was celebrating his 77th birthday, and suddenly I was very, very afraid. +I feared he'd go and take his silences with him, and take his secrets with him. +I managed to convince him that it was important for us, but possibly also for other people that he shared his story. +He decided to tell it to me and I made a book, from which I'm going to read you some excerpts later. +So, his story. My father was born in Argentina. +His parents were of Russian descent. +The whole family came to settle in France in the '30s. +His parents were Jewish, Russian and above all, very poor. +So at the age of 14 my father had to work. +And with his only diploma, his primary education certificate, he found himself working at a dyer - dry cleaner. +That's where he discovered something totally magical, and when he talks about it, it's fascinating -- it's the magic of dyeing chemistry. +During that time the war was happening and his mother was killed when he was 15. +This coincided with the time when he threw himself body and soul into chemistry because it was the only consolation for his sadness. +All day he would ask many questions to his boss to learn, to accumulate more and more knowledge, and at night, when no one was looking, he'd put his experience to practice. +He was mostly interested in ink bleaching. +All this to tell you that if my father became a forger, actually, it was almost by accident. +His family was Jewish, so they were hounded. +Finally they were all arrested and taken to the Drancy camp and they managed to get out at the last minute thanks to their Argentinean papers. +Well, they were out, but they were always in danger. The big "Jew" stamp was still on their papers. +It was my grandfather who decided they needed false documents. +My father had been instilled with such respect for the law that although he was being persecuted, he'd never thought of false papers. +But it was he who went to meet a man from the Resistance. +In those times documents had hard covers, they were filled in by hand, and they stated your job. +In order to survive, he needed to be working. He asked the man to write "dyer." +Suddenly the man looked very, very interested. +As a "dyer," do you know how to bleach ink marks? +Of course he knew. +And suddenly the man started explaining that actually the whole Resistance had a huge problem: even the top experts could not manage to bleach an ink, called "indelible," the "Waterman" blue ink. +And my father immediately replied that he knew exactly how to bleach it. +Now, of course, the man was very impressed with this young man of 17 who could immediately give him the formula, so he recruited him. +And actually, without knowing it, my father had invented something we can find in every schoolchild's pencil case: the so-called "correction pen." +But it was only the beginning. +That's my father. +As soon as he got to the lab, even though he was the youngest, he immediately saw that there was a problem with the making of forged documents. +All the movements stopped at falsifying. +But demand was ever-growing and it was difficult to tamper with existing documents. +He told himself it was necessary to make them from scratch. +He started a press. He started photoengraving. +He started making rubber stamps. +He started inventing all kind of things -- with some materials he invented a centrifuge using a bicycle wheel. +Anyway, he had to do all this because he was completely obsessed with output. +He had made a simple calculation: In one hour he could make 30 forged documents. +If he slept one hour, 30 people would die. +This sense of responsibility for other people's lives when he was just 17 -- and also his guilt for being a survivor, since he had escaped the camp when his friends had not -- stayed with him all his life. +And this is maybe what explains why, for 30 years, he continued to make false papers at the expense of all kinds of sacrifices. +I'd like to talk about those sacrifices, because there were many. +There were obviously financial sacrifices because he always refused to be paid. +To him, being paid would have meant being a mercenary. +If he had accepted payment, he wouldn't be able to say "yes" or "no" depending on what he deemed a just or unjust cause. +So he was a photographer by day, and a forger by night for 30 years. +He was broke all of the time. +Then there were the emotional sacrifices: How can one live with a woman while having so many secrets? +How can one explain what one does at night in the lab, every single night? +Of course, there was another kind of sacrifice involving his family that I understood much later. +One day my father introduced me to my sister. +He also explained to me that I had a brother, too, and the first time I saw them I must have been three or four, and they were 30 years older than me. +They are both in their sixties now. +In order to write the book, I asked my sister questions. I wanted to know who my father was, who was the father she had known. +She explained that the father that she'd had would tell them he'd come and pick them up on Sunday to go for a walk. +They would get all dressed up and wait for him, but he would almost never come. +He'd say, "I'll call." He wouldn't call. +And then he would not come. +Then one day he totally disappeared. +Time passed, and they thought he had surely forgotten them, at first. +Then as time passed, at the end of almost two years, they thought, "Well, perhaps our father has died." +And then I understood that asking my father so many questions was stirring up a whole past he probably didn't feel like talking about because it was painful. +And while my half brother and sister thought they'd been abandoned, orphaned, my father was making false papers. +And if he did not tell them, it was of course to protect them. +After the liberation he made false papers to allow the survivors of concentration camps to immigrate to Palestine before the creation of Israel. +And then, as he was a staunch anti-colonialist, he made false papers for Algerians during the Algerian war. +After the Algerian war, at the heart of the international resistance movements, and the whole world came knocking at his door. +In Africa there were countries fighting for their independence: Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Angola. +And then my father connected with Nelson Mandela's anti-apartheid party. +He made false papers for persecuted black South Africans. +There was also Latin America. +My father helped those who resisted dictatorships in the Dominican Republic, Haiti, and then it was the turn of Brazil, Argentina, Venezuela, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Colombia, Peru, Uruguay, Chile and Mexico. +Then there was the Vietnam War. +My father made false papers for the American deserters who did not wish to take up arms against the Vietnamese. +Europe was not spared either. +My father made false papers for the dissidents against Franco in Spain, Salazar in Portugal, against the colonels' dictatorship in Greece, and even in France. +There, just once, it happened in May of 1968. +My father watched, benevolently, of course, the demonstrations of the month of May, but his heart was elsewhere, and so was his time because he had over 15 countries to serve. +Once, though, he agreed to make false papers for someone you might recognize. +He was much younger in those days, and my father agreed to make false papers to enable him to come back and speak at a meeting. +He told me that those false papers were the most media-relevant and the least useful he'd had to make in all his life. +But, he agreed to do it, even though Daniel Cohn-Bendit's life was not in danger, just because it was a good opportunity to mock the authorities, and to show them that there's nothing more porous than borders -- and that ideas have no borders. +All my childhood, while my friends' dads would tell them Grimm's fairy tales, my father would tell me stories about very unassuming heroes with unshakeable utopias who managed to make miracles. +And those heroes did not need an army behind them. +Anyhow, nobody would have followed them, except for a handful [of] men and women of conviction and courage. +I understood much later that actually it was his own story my father would tell me to get me to sleep. +I asked him whether, considering the sacrifices he had to make, he ever had any regrets. +He said no. +He told me that he would have been unable to witness or submit to injustice without doing anything. +He was persuaded, and he's still convinced that another world is possible -- a world where no one would ever need a forger. +He's still dreaming about it. +My father is here in the room today. +His name is Adolfo Kaminsky and I'm going to ask him to stand up. +Thank you. +Roger Ebert: These are my words, but this is not my voice. +This is Alex, the best computer voice I've been able to find, which comes as standard equipment on every Macintosh. +For most of my life, I never gave a second thought to my ability to speak. +It was like breathing. +In those days, I was living in a fool's paradise. +After surgeries for cancer took away my ability to speak, eat or drink, I was forced to enter this virtual world in which a computer does some of my living for me. +For several days now, we have enjoyed brilliant and articulate speakers here at TED. +I used to be able to talk like that. +Maybe I wasn't as smart, but I was at least as talkative. +I want to devote my talk today to the act of speaking itself, and how the act of speaking or not speaking is tied so indelibly to one's identity as to force the birth of a new person when it is taken away. +However, I've found that listening to a computer voice for any great length of time can be monotonous. +So I've decided to recruit some of my TED friends to read my words aloud for me. +I will start with my wife, Chaz. +Chaz Ebert: It was Chaz who stood by my side through three attempts to reconstruct my jaw and restore my ability to speak. +Going into the first surgery for a recurrence of salivary cancer in 2006, I expected to be out of the hospital in time to return to my movie review show, 'Ebert and Roeper at the Movies.' I had pre-taped enough shows to get me through six weeks of surgery and recuperation. +The doctors took a fibula bone from my leg and some tissue from my shoulder to fashion into a new jaw. +My tongue, larynx and vocal cords were still healthy and unaffected. +CE: I was optimistic, and all was right with the world. +The first surgery was a great success. +I saw myself in the mirror and I looked pretty good. +Two weeks later, I was ready to return home. +I was using my iPod to play the Leonard Cohen song 'I'm Your Man' for my doctors and nurses. +Suddenly, I had an episode of catastrophic bleeding. +My carotid artery had ruptured. +Thank God I was still in my hospital room and my doctors were right there. +Chaz told me that if that song hadn't played for so long, I might have already been in the car, on the way home, and would have died right there and then. +So thank you, Leonard Cohen, for saving my life. +There was a second surgery -- which held up for five or six days and then it also fell apart. +And then a third attempt, which also patched me back together pretty well, until it failed. +A doctor from Brazil said he had never seen anyone survive a carotid artery rupture. +And before I left the hospital, after a year of being hospitalized, I had seven ruptures of my carotid artery. +There was no particular day when anyone told me I would never speak again; it just sort of became obvious. +Human speech is an ingenious manipulation of our breath within the sound chamber of our mouth and respiratory system. +We need to be able to hold and manipulate that breath in order to form sounds. +Therefore, the system must be essentially airtight in order to capture air. +Because I had lost my jaw, I could no longer form a seal, and therefore my tongue and all of my other vocal equipment was rendered powerless. +Dean Ornish: At first for a long time, I wrote messages in notebooks. +Then I tried typing words on my laptop and using its built in voice. +This was faster, and nobody had to try to read my handwriting. +I tried out various computer voices that were available online, and for several months I had a British accent, which Chaz called Sir Lawrence." +"It was the clearest I could find. +Then Apple released the Alex voice, which was the best I'd heard. +It knew things like the difference between an exclamation point and a question mark. +When it saw a period, it knew how to make a sentence sound like it was ending instead of staying up in the air. +There are all sorts of html codes you can use to control the timing and inflection of computer voices, and I've experimented with them. +For me, they share a fundamental problem: they're too slow. +When I find myself in a conversational situation, I need to type fast and to jump right in. +People don't have the time or the patience to wait for me to fool around with the codes for every word or phrase. +But what value do we place on the sound of our own voice? +How does that affect who you are as a person? +When people hear Alex speaking my words, do they experience a disconnect? +Does that create a separation or a distance from one person to the next? +How did I feel not being able to speak? +I felt, and I still feel, a lot of distance from the human mainstream. +I've become uncomfortable when I'm separated from my laptop. +Even then, I'm aware that most people have little patience for my speaking difficulties. +So Chaz suggested finding a company that could make a customized voice using my TV show voice from a period of 30 years. +At first I was against it. +I thought it would be creepy to hear my own voice coming from a computer. +There was something comforting about a voice that was not my own. +But I decided then to just give it a try. +So we contacted a company in Scotland that created personalized computer voices. +They'd never made one from previously-recorded materials. +All of their voices had been made by a speaker recording original words in a control booth. +But they were willing to give it a try. +So I sent them many hours of recordings of my voice, including several audio commentary tracks that I'd made for movies on DVDs. +And it sounded like me, it really did. +There was a reason for that; it was me. +But it wasn't that simple. +The tapes from my TV show weren't very useful because there were too many other kinds of audio involved -- movie soundtracks, for example, or Gene Siskel arguing with me -- and my words often had a particular emphasis that didn't fit into a sentence well enough. +I'll let you hear a sample of that voice. +These are a few of the comments I recorded for use when Chaz and I appeared on the Oprah Winfrey program. +And here's the voice we call Roger Jr. +or Roger 2.0. +Roger 2.0: Oprah, I can't tell you how great it is to be back on your show. +We have been talking for a long time, and now here we are again. +This is the first version of my computer voice. +It still needs improvement, but at least it sounds like me and not like HAL 9000. +When I heard it the first time, it sent chills down my spine. +When I type anything, this voice will speak whatever I type. +When I read something, it will read in my voice. +I have typed these words in advance, as I didn't think it would be thrilling to sit here watching me typing. +The voice was created by a company in Scotland named CereProc. +It makes me feel good that many of the words you are hearing were first spoken while I was commenting on "Casablanca" and "Citizen Kane." +This is the first voice they've created for an individual. +There are several very good voices available for computers, but they all sound like somebody else, while this voice sounds like me. +I plan to use it on television, radio and the Internet. +People who need a voice should know that most computers already come with built-in speaking systems. +Many blind people use them to read pages on the Web to themselves. +But I've got to say, in first grade, they said I talked too much, and now I still can. +Roger Ebert: As you can hear, it sounds like me, but the words jump up and down. +The flow isn't natural. +The good people in Scotland are still improving my voice, and I'm optimistic about it. +But so far, the Apple Alex voice is the best one I've heard. +I wrote a blog about it and actually got a comment from the actor who played Alex. +He said he recorded many long hours in various intonations to be used in the voice. +A very large sample is needed. +John Hunter: All my life I was a motormouth. +Now I have spoken my last words, and I don't even remember for sure what they were. +I feel like the hero of that Harlan Ellison story titled "I Have No Mouth and I Must Scream." +On Wednesday, David Christian explained to us what a tiny instant the human race represents in the time-span of the universe. +For almost all of its millions and billions of years, there was no life on Earth at all. +For almost all the years of life on Earth, there was no intelligent life. +Only after we learned to pass knowledge from one generation to the next, did civilization become possible. +In cosmological terms, that was about 10 minutes ago. +Finally came mankind's most advanced and mysterious tool, the computer. +That has mostly happened in my lifetime. +Some of the famous early computers were being built in my hometown of Urbana, the birthplace of HAL 9000. +When I heard the amazing talk by Salman Khan on Wednesday, about the Khan Academy website that teaches hundreds of subjects to students all over the world, I had a flashback. +It was about 1960. +As a local newspaper reporter still in high school, I was sent over to the computer lab of the University of Illinois to interview the creators of something called PLATO. +The initials stood for Programmed Logic for Automated Teaching Operations. +This was a computer-assisted instruction system, which in those days ran on a computer named ILLIAC. +The programmers said it could assist students in their learning. +I doubt, on that day 50 years ago, they even dreamed of what Salman Khan has accomplished. +But that's not the point. +The point is PLATO was only 50 years ago, an instant in time. +It continued to evolve and operated in one form or another on more and more sophisticated computers, until only five years ago. +I have learned from Wikipedia that, starting with that humble beginning, PLATO established forums, message boards, online testing, email, chat rooms, picture languages, instant messaging, remote screen sharing and multiple-player games. +Since the first Web browser was also developed in Urbana, it appears that my hometown in downstate Illinois was the birthplace of much of the virtual, online universe we occupy today. +But I'm not here from the Chamber of Commerce. +I'm here as a man who wants to communicate. +All of this has happened in my lifetime. +I started writing on a computer back in the 1970s when one of the first Atech systems was installed at the Chicago Sun-Times. +I was in line at Radio Shack to buy one of the first Model 100's. +And when I told the people in the press room at the Academy Awards that they'd better install some phone lines for Internet connections, they didn't know what I was talking about. +When I bought my first desktop, it was a DEC Rainbow. +Does anybody remember that?" +"The Sun Times sent me to the Cannes Film Festival with a portable computer the size of a suitcase named the Porteram Telebubble. +I joined CompuServe when it had fewer numbers than I currently have followers on Twitter. +CE: All of this has happened in the blink of an eye. +It is unimaginable what will happen next. +It makes me incredibly fortunate to live at this moment in history. +Indeed, I am lucky to live in history at all, because without intelligence and memory there is no history. +For billions of years, the universe evolved completely without notice. +Now we live in the age of the Internet, which seems to be creating a form of global consciousness. +And because of it, I can communicate as well as I ever could. +We are born into a box of time and space. +We use words and communication to break out of it and to reach out to others. +For me, the Internet began as a useful tool and now has become something I rely on for my actual daily existence. +I cannot speak; I can only type so fast. +Computer voices are sometimes not very sophisticated, but with my computer, I can communicate more widely than ever before. +I feel as if my blog, my email, Twitter and Facebook have given me a substitute for everyday conversation. +They aren't an improvement, but they're the best I can do. +They give me a way to speak. +Not everybody has the patience of my wife, Chaz. +But online, everybody speaks at the same speed. +This whole adventure has been a learning experience. +Every time there was a surgery that failed, I was left with a little less flesh and bone. +Now I have no jaw left at all. +While harvesting tissue from both my shoulders, the surgeries left me with back pain and reduced my ability to walk easily. +Ironic that my legs are fine, and it's my shoulders that slow up my walk. +When you see me today, I look like the Phantom of the Opera. +But no you don't. +It is human nature to look at someone like me and assume I have lost some of my marbles. +People -- People talk loudly -- I'm so sorry. +Excuse me. +People talk loudly and slowly to me. +Sometimes they assume I am deaf. +There are people who don't want to make eye contact. +Believe me, he didn't mean this as -- anyway, let me just read it. +You should never let your wife read something like this. +It is human nature to look away from illness. +We don't enjoy a reminder of our own fragile mortality. +That's why writing on the Internet has become a lifesaver for me. +My ability to think and write have not been affected. +And on the Web, my real voice finds expression. +I have also met many other disabled people who communicate this way. +One of my Twitter friends can type only with his toes. +One of the funniest blogs on the Web is written by a friend of mine named Smartass Cripple. +Google him and he will make you laugh. +All of these people are saying, in one way or another, that what you see is not all you get. +So I have not come here to complain. +I have much to make me happy and relieved. +I seem, for the time being, to be cancer-free. +I am writing as well as ever. +I am productive. +If I were in this condition at any point before a few cosmological instants ago, I would be as isolated as a hermit. +I would be trapped inside my head. +Because of the rush of human knowledge, because of the digital revolution, I have a voice, and I do not need to scream. +RE: Wait. I have one more thing to add. +A guy goes into a psychiatrist. +The psychiatrist says, "You're crazy." +The guy says, "I want a second opinion." +The psychiatrist says, "All right, you're ugly." +You all know the test for artificial intelligence -- the Turing test. +A human judge has a conversation with a human and a computer. +If the judge can't tell the machine apart from the human, the machine has passed the test. +I now propose a test for computer voices -- the Ebert test. +If a computer voice can successfully tell a joke and do the timing and delivery as well as Henny Youngman, then that's the voice I want. +Hi, my name is Marcin -- farmer, technologist. +I was born in Poland, now in the U.S. +I started a group called Open Source Ecology. +We've identified the 50 most important machines that we think it takes for modern life to exist -- things from tractors, bread ovens, circuit makers. +Then we set out to create an open source, DIY, do it yourself version that anyone can build and maintain at a fraction of the cost. +We call this the Global Village Construction Set. +So let me tell you a story. +So I finished my 20s with a Ph.D. in fusion energy, and I discovered I was useless. +I had no practical skills. +The world presented me with options, and I took them. +I guess you can call it the consumer lifestyle. +So I started a farm in Missouri and learned about the economics of farming. +I bought a tractor -- then it broke. +I paid to get it repaired -- then it broke again. +Then pretty soon, I was broke too. +I realized that the truly appropriate, low-cost tools that I needed to start a sustainable farm and settlement just didn't exist yet. +I needed tools that were robust, modular, highly efficient and optimized, low-cost, made from local and recycled materials that would last a lifetime, not designed for obsolescence. +I found that I would have to build them myself. +So I did just that. +And I tested them. +And I found that industrial productivity can be achieved on a small scale. +So then I published the 3D designs, schematics, instructional videos and budgets on a wiki. +Then contributors from all over the world began showing up, prototyping new machines during dedicated project visits. +So far, we have prototyped eight of the 50 machines. +And now the project is beginning to grow on its own. +We know that open source has succeeded with tools for managing knowledge and creativity. +And the same is starting to happen with hardware too. +We're focusing on hardware because it is hardware that can change people's lives in such tangible material ways. +If we can lower the barriers to farming, building, manufacturing, then we can unleash just massive amounts of human potential. +That's not only in the developing world. +Our tools are being made for the American farmer, builder, entrepreneur, maker. +We've seen lots of excitement from these people, who can now start a construction business, parts manufacturing, organic CSA or just selling power back to the grid. +Our goal is a repository of published designs so clear, so complete, that a single burned DVD is effectively a civilization starter kit. +I've planted a hundred trees in a day. +I've pressed 5,000 bricks in one day from the dirt beneath my feet and built a tractor in six days. +From what I've seen, this is only the beginning. +If this idea is truly sound, then the implications are significant. +A greater distribution of the means of production, environmentally sound supply chains, and a newly relevant DIY maker culture can hope to transcend artificial scarcity. +We're exploring the limits of what we all can do to make a better world with open hardware technology. +Thank you. +So I was privileged to train in transplantation under two great surgical pioneers: Thomas Starzl, who performed the world's first successful liver transplant in 1967, and Sir Roy Calne, who performed the first liver transplant in the U.K. +in the following year. +I returned to Singapore and, in 1990, performed Asia's first successful cadaveric liver transplant procedure, but against all odds. +Now when I look back, the transplant was actually the easiest part. +Next, raising the money to fund the procedure. +But perhaps the most challenging part was to convince the regulators -- a matter which was debated in the parliament -- that a young female surgeon be allowed the opportunity to pioneer for her country. +But 20 years on, my patient, Surinder, is Asia's longest surviving cadaveric liver transplant to date. +And perhaps more important, I am the proud godmother to her 14 year-old son. +But not all patients on the transplant wait list are so fortunate. +The truth is, there are just simply not enough donor organs to go around. +As the demand for donor organs continues to rise, in large part due to the aging population, the supply has remained relatively constant. +In the United States alone, 100,000 men, women and children are on the waiting list for donor organs, and more than a dozen die each day because of a lack of donor organs. +The transplant community has actively campaigned in organ donation. +And the gift of life has been extended from brain-dead donors to living, related donors -- relatives who might donate an organ or a part of an organ, like a split liver graft, to a relative or loved one. +But as there was still a dire shortage of donor organs, the gift of life was then extended from living, related donors to now living, unrelated donors. +And this then has given rise to unprecedented and unexpected moral controversy. +How can one distinguish a donation that is voluntary and altruistic from one that is forced or coerced from, for example, a submissive spouse, an in-law, a servant, a slave, an employee? +Where and how can we draw the line? +In my part of the world, too many people live below the poverty line. +And in some areas, the commercial gifting of an organ in exchange for monetary reward has led to a flourishing trade in living, unrelated donors. +Shortly after I performed the first liver transplant, I received my next assignment, and that was to go to the prisons to harvest organs from executed prisoners. +I was also pregnant at the time. +Pregnancies are meant to be happy and fulfilling moments in any woman's life. +But my joyful period was marred by solemn and morbid thoughts -- thoughts of walking through the prison's high-security death row, as this was the only route to take me to the makeshift operating room. +And at each time, I would feel the chilling stares of condemned prisoners' eyes follow me. +No doubt, I was informed, the consent had been obtained. +But, in my life, the one fulfilling skill that I had was now invoking feelings of conflict -- conflict ranging from extreme sorrow and doubt at dawn to celebratory joy at engrafting the gift of life at dusk. +In my team, the lives of one or two of my colleagues were tainted by this experience. +Some of us may have been sublimated, but really none of us remained the same. +I was troubled that the retrieval of organs from executed prisoners was at least as morally controversial as the harvesting of stem cells from human embryos. +And in my mind, I realized as a surgical pioneer that the purpose of my position of influence was surely to speak up for those who have no influence. +It made me wonder if there could be a better way -- a way to circumvent death and yet deliver the gift of life that might exponentially impact millions of patients worldwide. +Now just about that time, the practice of surgery evolved from big to small, from wide open incisions to keyhole procedures, tiny incisions. +And in transplantation, concepts shifted from whole organs to cells. +In 1988, at the University of Minnesota, I participated in a small series of whole organ pancreas transplants. +I witnessed the technical difficulty. +And this inspired in my mind a shift from transplanting whole organs to perhaps transplanting cells. +I thought to myself, why not take the individual cells out of the pancreas -- the cells that secrete insulin to cure diabetes -- and transplant these cells? -- technically a much simpler procedure than having to grapple with the complexities of transplanting a whole organ. +And at that time, stem cell research had gained momentum, following the isolation of the world's first human embryonic stem cells in the 1990s. +The observation that stem cells, as master cells, could give rise to a whole variety of different cell types -- heart cells, liver cells, pancreatic islet cells -- captured the attention of the media and the imagination of the public. +I too was fascinated by this new and disruptive cell technology, and this inspired a shift in my mindset, from transplanting whole organs to transplanting cells. +And I focused my research on stem cells as a possible source for cell transplants. +Today we realize that there are many different types of stem cells. +Embryonic stem cells have occupied center stage, chiefly because of their pluripotency -- that is their ease in differentiating into a variety of different cell types. +But the moral controversy surrounding embryonic stem cells -- the fact that these cells are derived from five-day old human embryos -- has encouraged research into other types of stem cells. +Now to the ridicule of my colleagues, I inspired my lab to focus on what I thought was the most non-controversial source of stem cells, adipose tissue, or fat, yes fat -- nowadays available in abundant supply -- you and I, I think, would be very happy to get rid of anyway. +Fat-derived stem cells are adult stem cells. +And adult stem cells are found in you and me -- in our blood, in our bone marrow, in our fat, our skin and other organs. +And as it turns out, fat is one of the best sources of adult stem cells. +But adult stem cells are not embryonic stem cells. +And here is the limitation: adult stem cells are mature cells, and, like mature human beings, these cells are more restricted in their thought and more restricted in their behavior and are unable to give rise to the wide variety of specialized cell types, as embryonic stem cells [can]. +But in 2007, two remarkable individuals, Shinya Yamanaka of Japan and Jamie Thomson of the United States, made an astounding discovery. +They discovered that adult cells, taken from you and me, could be reprogrammed back into embryonic-like cells, which they termed IPS cells, or induced pluripotent stem cells. +And so guess what, scientists around the world and in the labs are racing to convert aging adult cells -- aging adult cells from you and me -- they are racing to reprogram these cells back into more useful IPS cells. +And in our lab, we are focused on taking fat and reprogramming mounds of fat into fountains of youthful cells -- cells that we may use to then form other, more specialized, cells, which one day may be used as cell transplants. +If this research is successful, it may then reduce the need to research and sacrifice human embryos. +Indeed, there is a lot of hype, but also hope that the promise of stem cells will one day provide cures for a whole range of conditions. +Heart disease, stroke, diabetes, spinal cord injury, muscular dystrophy, retinal eye diseases -- are any of these conditions relevant, personally, to you? +In May 2006, something horrible happened to me. +I was about to start a robotic operation, but stepping out of the elevator into the bright and glaring lights of the operating room, I realized that my left visual field was fast collapsing into darkness. +Earlier that week, I had taken a rather hard knock during late spring skiing -- yes, I fell. +And I started to see floaters and stars, which I casually dismissed as too much high-altitude sun exposure. +What happened to me might have been catastrophic, if not for the fact that I was in reach of good surgical access. +And I had my vision restored, but not before a prolonged period of convalescence -- three months -- in a head down position. +This experience taught me to empathize more with my patients, and especially those with retinal diseases. +37 million people worldwide are blind, and 127 million more suffer from impaired vision. +Stem cell-derived retinal transplants, now in a research phase, may one day restore vision, or part vision, to millions of patients with retinal diseases worldwide. +Indeed, we live in both challenging as well as exciting times. +As the world population ages, scientists are racing to discover new ways to enhance the power of the body to heal itself through stem cells. +It is a fact that when our organs or tissues are injured, our bone marrow releases stem cells into our circulation. +And these stem cells then float in the bloodstream and hone in to damaged organs to release growth factors to repair the damaged tissue. +Stem cells may be used as building blocks to repair damaged scaffolds within our body, or to provide new liver cells to repair damaged liver. +As we speak, there are 117 or so clinical trials researching the use of stem cells for liver diseases. +What lies ahead? +Heart disease is the leading cause of death worldwide. +1.1 million Americans suffer heart attacks yearly. +4.8 million suffer cardiac failure. +Stem cells may be used to deliver growth factors to repair damaged heart muscle or be differentiated into heart muscle cells to restore heart function. +There are 170 clinical trials investigating the role of stem cells in heart disease. +While still in a research phase, stem cells may one day herald a quantum leap in the field of cardiology. +Stem cells provide hope for new beginnings -- small, incremental steps, cells rather than organs, repair rather than replacement. +Stem cell therapies may one day reduce the need for donor organs. +Powerful new technologies always present enigmas. +As we speak, the world's first human embryonic stem cell trial for spinal cord injury is currently underway following the USFDA approval. +And in the U.K., neural stem cells to treat stroke are being investigated in a phase one trial. +The research success that we celebrate today has been made possible by the curiosity and contribution and commitment of individual scientists and medical pioneers. +Each one has his story. +My story has been about my journey from organs to cells -- a journey through controversy, inspired by hope -- hope that, as we age, you and I may one day celebrate longevity with an improved quality of life. +Thank you. +My students often ask me, "What is sociology?" +And I tell them, "It's the study of the way in which human beings are shaped by things that they don't see." +And they say, "So how can I be a sociologist? +How can I understand those invisible forces?" +And I say, "Empathy. +Start with empathy. +It all begins with empathy. +Take yourself out of your shoes, put yourself into the shoes of another person." +Here, I'll give you an example. +So I imagine my life: if a hundred years ago China had been the most powerful nation in the world and they came to the United States in search of coal, and they found it, and, in fact, they found lots of it right here. +And pretty soon, they began shipping that coal, ton by ton, rail car by rail car, boatload by boatload, back to China and elsewhere around the world. +And they got fabulously wealthy in doing so. +And they built beautiful cities all powered on that coal. +And back here in the United States, we saw economic despair, deprivation. +This is what I saw. +I saw people struggling to get by, not knowing what was what and what was next. +And then I asked myself the question. +I say, "How's it possible that we could be so poor here in the United States, because the coal is such a wealthy resource, it's so much money?" +And I realized, because the Chinese ingratiated themselves with a small ruling class here in the United States who stole all of that money and all of that wealth for themselves. +And the rest of us, the vast majority of us, struggle to get by. +And the Chinese gave this small ruling elite loads of military weapons and sophisticated technology in order to ensure that people like me would not speak out against this relationship. +Does this sound familiar? +And they did things like train Americans to help protect the coal. +And everywhere, were symbols of the Chinese -- everywhere, a constant reminder. +And back in China, what do they say in China? +Nothing. They don't talk about us. They don't talk about the coal. +If you ask them, they'll say, "Well, you know the coal, we need the coal. +I mean, come on, I'm not going to turn down my thermostat. +You can't expect that." +And so I get angry, and I get pissed, as do lots of average people. +And we fight back, and it gets really ugly. +And the Chinese respond in a very ugly way. +And before we know it, they send in the tanks and then send in the troops, and lots of people are dying, and it's a very, very difficult situation. +Can you imagine what you would feel if you were in my shoes? +Can you imagine walking out of this building and seeing a tank sitting out there or a truck full of soldiers? +And just imagine what you would feel. +Because you know why they're here, and you know what they're doing here. +And you just feel the anger and you feel the fear. +If you can, that's empathy -- that's empathy. +You've left your shoes, and you've stood in mine. +And you've got to feel that. +Okay, so that's the warm up. +That's the warm up. +Now we're going to have the real radical experiment. +And so for the remainder of my talk, what I want you to do is put yourselves in the shoes of an ordinary Arab Muslim living in the Middle East -- in particular, in Iraq. +And so to help you, perhaps you're a member of this middle class family in Baghdad -- and what you want is the best for your kids. +You want your kids to have a better life. +And you watch the news, you pay attention, you read the newspaper, you go down to the coffee shop with your friends, and you read the newspapers from around the world. +And sometimes you even watch satellite, CNN, from the United States. +So you have a sense of what the Americans are thinking. +But really, you just want a better life for yourself. +That's what you want. +You're Arab Muslim living in Iraq. +You want a better life for yourself. +So here, let me help you. +Let me help you with some things that you might be thinking. +Number one: this incursion into your land these past 20 years, and before, the reason anyone is interested in your land, and particularly the United States, it's oil. +It's all about oil; you know that, everybody knows that. +People here back in the United States know it's about oil. +It's because somebody else has a design for your resource. +It's your resource; it's not somebody else's. +It's your land; it's your resource. +Somebody else has a design for it. +And you know why they have a design? +You know why they have their eyes set on it? +Because they have an entire economic system that's dependent on that oil -- foreign oil, oil from other parts of the world that they don't own. +And what else do you think about these people? +The Americans, they're rich. +Come on, they live in big houses, they have big cars, they all have blond hair, blue eyes, they're happy. +You think that. It's not true, of course, but that's the media impression, and that's like what you get. +And they have big cities, and the cities are all dependent on oil. +And back home, what do you see? +Poverty, despair, struggle. +Look, you don't live in a wealthy country. +This is Iraq. +This is what you see. +You see people struggling to get by. +I mean, it's not easy; you see a lot of poverty. +And you feel something about this. +These people have designs for your resource, and this is what you see? +Something else you see that you talk about -- Americans don't talk about this, but you do. +There's this thing, this militarization of the world, and it's centered right in the United States. +And the United States is responsible for almost one half of the world's military spending -- four percent of the world's population. +And you feel it; you see it every day. +It's part of your life. +And you talk about it with your friends. +You read about it. +And back when Saddam Hussein was in power, the Americans didn't care about his crimes. +When he was gassing the Kurds and gassing Iran, they didn't care about it. +When oil was at stake, somehow, suddenly, things mattered. +And what you see, something else, the United States, the hub of democracy around the world, they don't seem to really be supporting democratic countries all around the world. +There are a lot of countries, oil-producing countries, that aren't very democratic, but supported by the United States. +That's odd. +Oh, these incursions, these two wars, the 10 years of sanctions, the eight years of occupation, the insurgency that's been unleashed on your people, the tens of thousands, the hundreds of thousands of civilian deaths, all because of oil. +You can't help but think that. +You talk about it. +It's in the forefront of your mind always. +You say, "How is that possible?" +And this man, he's every man -- your grandfather, your uncle, your father, your son, your neighbor, your professor, your student. +Once a life of happiness and joy and suddenly, pain and sorrow. +Everyone in your country has been touched by the violence, the bloodshed, the pain, the horror, everybody. +Not a single person in your country has not been touched. +But there's something else. +There's something else about these people, these Americans who are there. +There's something else about them that you see -- they don't see themselves. +And what do you see? They're Christians. +They're Christians. +They worship the Christian God, they have crosses, they carry Bibles. +Their Bibles have a little insignia that says "U.S. Army" on them. +And their leaders, their leaders: before they send their sons and daughters off to war in your country -- and you know the reason -- before they send them off, they go to a Christian church, and they pray to their Christian God, and they ask for protection and guidance from that god. +Why? +Well, obviously, when people die in the war, they are Muslims, they are Iraqis -- they're not Americans. +You don't want Americans to die. Protect our troops. +And you feel something about that -- of course you do. +And they do wonderful things. +You read about it, you hear about it. +They're there to build schools and help people, and that's what they want to do. +They do wonderful things, but they also do the bad things, and you can't tell the difference. +And this guy, you get a guy like Lt. Gen. William Boykin. +I mean, here's a guy who says that your God is a false God. +Your God's an idol; his God is the true God. +The solution to the problem in the Middle East, according to him, is to convert you all to Christianity -- just get rid of your religion. +And you know that. Americans don't read about this guy. +They don't know anything about him, but you do. +You pass it around. You pass his words around. +I mean this is serious. You're afraid. +He was one of the leading commanders in the second invasion of Iraq. +And you're thinking, "God, if this guy is saying that, then all the soldiers must be saying that." +And this word here, George Bush called this war a crusade. +Man, the Americans, they're just like, "Ah, crusade. +Whatever. I don't know." +You know what it means. +It's a holy war against Muslims. +Look, invade, subdue them, take their resources. +If they won't submit, kill them. +That's what this is about. +And you're thinking, "My God, these Christians are coming to kill us." +This is frightening. +You feel frightened. Of course you feel frightened. +And this man, Terry Jones: I mean here's a guy who wants to burn Korans, right? +And the Americans: "Ah, he's a knucklehead. +He's a former hotel manager; he's got three-dozen members of his church." +They laugh him off. You don't laugh him off. +Because in the context of everything else, all the pieces fit. +I mean, of course, this is how Americans take it, so people all over the Middle East, not just in your country, are protesting. +"He wants to burn Korans, our holy book. +These Christians, who are these Christians? +They're so evil, they're so mean -- this is what they're about." +This is what you're thinking as an Arab Muslim, as an Iraqi. +Of course you're going to think this. +And then your cousin says, "Hey cuz, check out this website. +You've got to see this -- Bible Boot Camp. +These Christians are nuts. +They're training their little kids to be soldiers for Jesus. +And they take these little kids and they run them through these things till they teach them how to say, "Sir, yes, sir," and things like grenade toss and weapons care and maintenance. +And go to the website. +It says "U.S. Army" right on it. +I mean, these Christians, they're nuts. How would they do this to their little kids?" +And you're reading this website. +And of course, Christians back in the United States, or anybody, says, "Ah, this is some little, tiny church in the middle of nowhere." +You don't know that. +For you, this is like all Christians. +It's all over the Web, Bible Boot Camp. +And look at this: they even teach their kids -- they train them in the same way the U.S. Marines train. +Isn't that interesting. +And it scares you, and it frightens you. +So these guys, you see them. +You see, I, Sam Richards, I know who these guys are. +They're my students, my friends. +I know what they're thinking: "You don't know." +When you see them, they're something else, they're something else. +That's what they are to you. +We don't see it that way in the United States, but you see it that way. +So here. +Of course, you got it wrong. +You're generalizing. It's wrong. +You don't understand the Americans. +It's not a Christian invasion. +We're not just there for oil; we're there for lots of reasons. +You have it wrong. You've missed it. +And of course, most of you don't support the insurgency; you don't support killing Americans; you don't support the terrorists. +Of course you don't. Very few people do. +But some of you do. +And this is a perspective. +Okay, so now, here's what we're going to do. +Step outside of your shoes that you're in right now and step back into your normal shoes. +So everyone's back in the room, okay. +Now here comes the radical experiment. +So we're all back home. +This photo: this woman, man, I feel her. +I feel her. +She's my sister, my wife, my cousin, my neighbor. +She's anybody to me. +These guys standing there, everybody in the photo, I feel this photo, man. +So here's what I want you to do. +Let's go back to my first example of the Chinese. +So I want you to go there. +So it's all about coal, and the Chinese are here in the United States. +And what I want you to do is picture her as a Chinese woman receiving a Chinese flag because her loved one has died in America in the coal uprising. +And the soldiers are Chinese, and everybody else is Chinese. +As an American, how do you feel about this picture? +What do you think about that scene? +Okay, try this. Bring it back. +This is the scene here. +It's an American, American soldiers, American woman who lost her loved one in the Middle East -- in Iraq or Afghanistan. +Now, put yourself in the shoes, go back to the shoes of an Arab Muslim living in Iraq. +What are you feeling and thinking about this photo, about this woman? +Okay, now follow me on this, because I'm taking a big risk here. +And so I'm going to invite you to take a risk with me. +These gentlemen here, they're insurgents. +They were caught by the American soldiers, trying to kill Americans. +And maybe they succeeded. Maybe they succeeded. +Put yourself in the shoes of the Americans who caught them. +Can you feel the rage? +Can you feel that you just want to take these guys and wring their necks? +Can you go there? +It shouldn't be that difficult. +You just -- oh, man. +Now, put yourself in their shoes. +Are they brutal killers or patriotic defenders? +Which one? +Can you feel their anger, their fear, their rage at what has happened in their country? +Can you imagine that maybe one of them in the morning bent down to their child and hugged their child and said, "Dear, I'll be back later. +I'm going out to defend your freedom, your lives. +I'm going out to look out for us, the future of our country." +Can you imagine that? +Can you imagine saying that? +Can you go there? +What do you think they're feeling? +You see, that's empathy. +It's also understanding. +Now, you might ask, "Okay, Sam, so why do you do this sort of thing? +Why would you use this example of all examples?" +And I say, because ... because. +You're allowed to hate these people. +You're allowed to just hate them with every fiber of your being. +And if I can get you to step into their shoes and walk an inch, one tiny inch, then imagine the kind of sociological analysis that you can do in all other aspects of your life. +You can walk a mile when it comes to understanding why that person's driving 40 miles per hour in the passing lane, or your teenage son, or your neighbor who annoys you by cutting his lawn on Sunday mornings. +Whatever it is, you can go so far. +And this is what I tell my students: step outside of your tiny, little world. +Step inside of the tiny, little world of somebody else. +And then do it again and do it again and do it again. +And suddenly all these tiny, little worlds, they come together in this complex web. +And they build a big, complex world. +And suddenly, without realizing it, you're seeing the world differently. +Everything has changed. +Everything in your life has changed. +And that's, of course, what this is about. +Attend to other lives, other visions. +Listen to other people, enlighten ourselves. +I'm not saying that I support the terrorists in Iraq, but as a sociologist, what I am saying is I understand. +And now perhaps -- perhaps -- you do too. +Thank you. +So it's 1995, I'm in college, and a friend and I go on a road trip from Providence, Rhode Island to Portland, Oregon. +And you know, we're young and unemployed, so we do the whole thing on back roads through state parks and national forests -- basically the longest route we can possibly take. +And somewhere in the middle of South Dakota, I turn to my friend and I ask her a question that's been bothering me for 2,000 miles. +"What's up with the Chinese character I keep seeing by the side of the road?" +My friend looks at me totally blankly. +There's actually a gentleman in the front row who's doing a perfect imitation of her look. +And I'm like, "You know, all the signs we keep seeing with the Chinese character on them." +She just stares at me for a few moments, and then she cracks up, because she figures out what I'm talking about. +And what I'm talking about is this. +Right, the famous Chinese character for picnic area. +I've spent the last five years of my life thinking about situations exactly like this -- why we sometimes misunderstand the signs around us, and how we behave when that happens, and what all of this can tell us about human nature. +In other words, as you heard Chris say, I've spent the last five years thinking about being wrong. +This might strike you as a strange career move, but it actually has one great advantage: no job competition. +In fact, most of us do everything we can to avoid thinking about being wrong, or at least to avoid thinking about the possibility that we ourselves are wrong. +We get it in the abstract. +We all know everybody in this room makes mistakes. +The human species, in general, is fallible -- okay fine. +But when it comes down to me, right now, to all the beliefs I hold, here in the present tense, suddenly all of this abstract appreciation of fallibility goes out the window -- and I can't actually think of anything I'm wrong about. +And the thing is, the present tense is where we live. +We go to meetings in the present tense; we go on family vacations in the present tense; we go to the polls and vote in the present tense. +So effectively, we all kind of wind up traveling through life, trapped in this little bubble of feeling very right about everything. +I think this is a problem. +I think it's a problem for each of us as individuals, in our personal and professional lives, and I think it's a problem for all of us collectively as a culture. +So what I want to do today is, first of all, talk about why we get stuck inside this feeling of being right. +And second, why it's such a problem. +And finally, I want to convince you that it is possible to step outside of that feeling and that if you can do so, it is the single greatest moral, intellectual and creative leap you can make. +So why do we get stuck in this feeling of being right? +One reason, actually, has to do with a feeling of being wrong. +So let me ask you guys something -- or actually, let me ask you guys something, because you're right here: How does it feel -- emotionally -- how does it feel to be wrong? +Dreadful. Thumbs down. +Embarrassing. Okay, wonderful, great. +Dreadful, thumbs down, embarrassing -- thank you, these are great answers, but they're answers to a different question. +You guys are answering the question: How does it feel to realize you're wrong? +Realizing you're wrong can feel like all of that and a lot of other things, right? +I mean it can be devastating, it can be revelatory, it can actually be quite funny, like my stupid Chinese character mistake. +But just being wrong doesn't feel like anything. +I'll give you an analogy. +Do you remember that Loony Tunes cartoon where there's this pathetic coyote who's always chasing and never catching a roadrunner? +In pretty much every episode of this cartoon, there's a moment where the coyote is chasing the roadrunner and the roadrunner runs off a cliff, which is fine -- he's a bird, he can fly. +But the thing is, the coyote runs off the cliff right after him. +And what's funny -- at least if you're six years old -- is that the coyote's totally fine too. +He just keeps running -- right up until the moment that he looks down and realizes that he's in mid-air. +That's when he falls. +When we're wrong about something -- not when we realize it, but before that -- we're like that coyote after he's gone off the cliff and before he looks down. +You know, we're already wrong, we're already in trouble, but we feel like we're on solid ground. +So I should actually correct something I said a moment ago. +It does feel like something to be wrong; it feels like being right. +So this is one reason, a structural reason, why we get stuck inside this feeling of rightness. +I call this error blindness. +Most of the time, we don't have any kind of internal cue to let us know that we're wrong about something, until it's too late. +But there's a second reason that we get stuck inside this feeling as well -- and this one is cultural. +Think back for a moment to elementary school. +You're sitting there in class, and your teacher is handing back quiz papers, and one of them looks like this. +This is not mine, by the way. +So there you are in grade school, and you know exactly what to think about the kid who got this paper. +It's the dumb kid, the troublemaker, the one who never does his homework. +So by the time you are nine years old, you've already learned, first of all, that people who get stuff wrong are lazy, irresponsible dimwits -- and second of all, that the way to succeed in life is to never make any mistakes. +We learn these really bad lessons really well. +And a lot of us -- and I suspect, especially a lot of us in this room -- deal with them by just becoming perfect little A students, perfectionists, over-achievers. +Right, Mr. CFO, astrophysicist, ultra-marathoner? +You're all CFO, astrophysicists, ultra-marathoners, it turns out. +Okay, so fine. +Except that then we freak out at the possibility that we've gotten something wrong. +Because according to this, getting something wrong means there's something wrong with us. +So we just insist that we're right, because it makes us feel smart and responsible and virtuous and safe. +So let me tell you a story. +A couple of years ago, a woman comes into Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center for a surgery. +Beth Israel's in Boston. +It's the teaching hospital for Harvard -- one of the best hospitals in the country. +So this woman comes in and she's taken into the operating room. +She's anesthetized, the surgeon does his thing -- stitches her back up, sends her out to the recovery room. +Everything seems to have gone fine. +And she wakes up, and she looks down at herself, and she says, "Why is the wrong side of my body in bandages?" +Well the wrong side of her body is in bandages because the surgeon has performed a major operation on her left leg instead of her right one. +When the vice president for health care quality at Beth Israel spoke about this incident, he said something very interesting. +He said, "For whatever reason, the surgeon simply felt that he was on the correct side of the patient." +The point of this story is that trusting too much in the feeling of being on the correct side of anything can be very dangerous. +This internal sense of rightness that we all experience so often is not a reliable guide to what is actually going on in the external world. +And when we act like it is, and we stop entertaining the possibility that we could be wrong, well that's when we end up doing things like dumping 200 million gallons of oil into the Gulf of Mexico, or torpedoing the global economy. +So this is a huge practical problem. +But it's also a huge social problem. +Think for a moment about what it means to feel right. +It means that you think that your beliefs just perfectly reflect reality. +And when you feel that way, you've got a problem to solve, which is, how are you going to explain all of those people who disagree with you? +It turns out, most of us explain those people the same way, by resorting to a series of unfortunate assumptions. +The first thing we usually do when someone disagrees with us is we just assume they're ignorant. +They don't have access to the same information that we do, and when we generously share that information with them, they're going to see the light and come on over to our team. +When that doesn't work, when it turns out those people have all the same facts that we do and they still disagree with us, then we move on to a second assumption, which is that they're idiots. +They have all the right pieces of the puzzle, and they are too moronic to put them together correctly. +And when that doesn't work, when it turns out that people who disagree with us have all the same facts we do and are actually pretty smart, then we move on to a third assumption: they know the truth, and they are deliberately distorting it for their own malevolent purposes. +So this is a catastrophe. +This attachment to our own rightness keeps us from preventing mistakes when we absolutely need to and causes us to treat each other terribly. +But to me, what's most baffling and most tragic about this is that it misses the whole point of being human. +It's like we want to imagine that our minds are just these perfectly translucent windows and we just gaze out of them and describe the world as it unfolds. +And we want everybody else to gaze out of the same window and see the exact same thing. +That is not true, and if it were, life would be incredibly boring. +The miracle of your mind isn't that you can see the world as it is. +It's that you can see the world as it isn't. +We can remember the past, and we can think about the future, and we can imagine what it's like to be some other person in some other place. +And we all do this a little differently, which is why we can all look up at the same night sky and see this and also this and also this. +And yeah, it is also why we get things wrong. +1,200 years before Descartes said his famous thing about "I think therefore I am," this guy, St. Augustine, sat down and wrote "Fallor ergo sum" -- "I err therefore I am." +Augustine understood that our capacity to screw up, it's not some kind of embarrassing defect in the human system, something we can eradicate or overcome. +It's totally fundamental to who we are. +Because, unlike God, we don't really know what's going on out there. +And unlike all of the other animals, we are obsessed with trying to figure it out. +To me, this obsession is the source and root of all of our productivity and creativity. +Last year, for various reasons, I found myself listening to a lot of episodes of the Public Radio show This American Life. +And so I'm listening and I'm listening, and at some point, I start feeling like all the stories are about being wrong. +And my first thought was, "I've lost it. +I've become the crazy wrongness lady. +I just imagined it everywhere," which has happened. +But a couple of months later, I actually had a chance to interview Ira Glass, who's the host of the show. +And I mentioned this to him, and he was like, "No actually, that's true. +In fact," he says, "as a staff, we joke that every single episode of our show has the same crypto-theme. +And the crypto-theme is: 'I thought this one thing was going to happen and something else happened instead.' And the thing is," says Ira Glass, "we need this. +We need these moments of surprise and reversal and wrongness to make these stories work." +And for the rest of us, audience members, as listeners, as readers, we eat this stuff up. +We love things like plot twists and red herrings and surprise endings. +When it comes to our stories, we love being wrong. +But, you know, our stories are like this because our lives are like this. +We think this one thing is going to happen and something else happens instead. +George Bush thought he was going to invade Iraq, find a bunch of weapons of mass destruction, liberate the people and bring democracy to the Middle East. +And something else happened instead. +And Hosni Mubarak thought he was going to be the dictator of Egypt for the rest of his life, until he got too old or too sick and could pass the reigns of power onto his son. +And something else happened instead. +And maybe you thought you were going to grow up and marry your high school sweetheart and move back to your hometown and raise a bunch of kids together. +And something else happened instead. +And I have to tell you that I thought I was writing an incredibly nerdy book about a subject everybody hates for an audience that would never materialize. +And something else happened instead. +I mean, this is life. +For good and for ill, we generate these incredible stories about the world around us, and then the world turns around and astonishes us. +No offense, but this entire conference is an unbelievable monument to our capacity to get stuff wrong. +We just spent an entire week talking about innovations and advancements and improvements, but you know why we need all of those innovations and advancements and improvements? +Because half the stuff that's the most mind-boggling and world-altering -- TED 1998 -- eh. +Didn't really work out that way, did it? +Where's my jet pack, Chris? +So here we are again. +And that's how it goes. +We come up with another idea. +We tell another story. +We hold another conference. +The theme of this one, as you guys have now heard seven million times, is the rediscovery of wonder. +And to me, if you really want to rediscover wonder, you need to step outside of that tiny, terrified space of rightness and look around at each other and look out at the vastness and complexity and mystery of the universe and be able to say, "Wow, I don't know. +Maybe I'm wrong." +Thank you. +Thank you guys. +I'm very fortunate to be here. +I feel so fortunate. +I've been so impressed by the kindness expressed to me. +I called my wife Leslie, and I said, "You know, there's so many good people trying to do so much good. +It feels like I've landed in a colony of angels." +It's a true feeling. +But let me get to the talk -- I see the clock is running. +I'm a public school teacher, and I just want to share a story of my superintendent. +Her name is Pam Moran in Albemarle County, Virginia, the foothills of the Blue Ridge Mountains. +And she's a very high-tech superintendent. +She uses smart boards, she blogs, she Tweets, she does Facebook, she does all this sort of high-tech stuff. +She's a technology leader and instructional leader. +But in her office, there's this old wooden, weather-worn table, kitchen table -- peeling green paint, it's kind of rickety. +And I said, "Pam, you're such a modern, cutting-edge person. +Why is this old table in your office?" +And she told me, she said, "You know, I grew up in Southwestern Virginia, in the coal mines and the farmlands of rural Virginia, and this table was in my grandfather's kitchen. +And we'd come in from playing, he'd come in from plowing and working, and we'd sit around that table every night. +And as I grew up, I heard so much knowledge and so many insights and so much wisdom come out around this table, I began to call it the wisdom table. +And when he passed on, I took this table with me and brought it to my office, and it reminds me of him. +It reminds me of what goes on around an empty space sometimes." +The project I'm going to tell you about is called the World Peace Game, and essentially it is also an empty space. +And I'd like to think of it as a 21st century wisdom table, really. +It all started back in 1977. +I was a young man, and I had been dropping in and out of college. +And my parents were very patient, but I had been doing intermittent sojourns to India on a mystical quest. +And I remember the last time I came back from India -- in my long white flowing robes and my big beard and my John Lennon glasses -- and I said to my father, "Dad, I think I've just about found spiritual enlightenment." +He said, "Well there's one more thing you need to find." +I said, "What is that, dad?" "A job." +And so they pleaded with me to get a degree in something. +So I got a degree and it turned out to be education. +It was an experimental education program. +It could have been dentistry, but the word "experimental" was in it, and so that's what I had to go for. +And I guess they were hard up for teachers because the supervisor, her name was Anna Aro, said I had the job teaching gifted children. +And I was so shocked, so stunned, I got up and said, "Well, thank you, but what do I do?" +Gifted education hadn't really taken hold too much. +There weren't really many materials or things to use. +And I said, "What do I do?" +And her answer shocked me. It stunned me. +Her answer set the template for the entire career I was to have after that. +She said, "What do you want to do?" +And that question cleared the space. +There was no program directive, no manual to follow, no standards in gifted education in that way. +And she cleared such a space that I endeavored from then on to clear a space for my students, an empty space, whereby they could create and make meaning out of their own understanding. +So this happened in 1978, and I was teaching many years later, and a friend of mine introduced me to a young filmmaker. +His name is Chris Farina. +Chris Farina is here today at his own cost. +Chris, could you stand up and let them see you -- a young, visionary filmmaker who's made a film. +This film is called "World Peace and Other 4th Grade Achievements." +He proposed the film to me -- it's a great title. +He proposed the film to me, and I said, "Yeah, maybe it'll be on local TV, and we can say hi to our friends." +But the film has really gone places. +Now it's still in debt, but Chris has managed, through his own sacrifice, to get this film out. +So we made a film and it turns out to be more than a story about me, more than a story about one teacher. +It's a story that's a testament to teaching and teachers. +And it's a beautiful thing. +And the strange thing is, when I watch the film -- I have the eerie sensation of seeing it -- I saw myself literally disappear. +What I saw was my teachers coming through me. +I saw my geometry teacher in high school, Mr. Rucell's wry smile under his handlebar mustache. +That's the smile I use -- that's his smile. +I saw Jan Polo's flashing eyes. +And they weren't flashing in anger, they were flashing in love, intense love for her students. +And I have that kind of flash sometimes. +And I saw Miss Ethel J. Banks who wore pearls and high-heels to elementary school every day. +And you know, she had that old-school teacher stare. +You know the one. +"And I'm not even talking about you behind me, because I've got eyes in the back of my head." +You know that teacher? +I didn't use that stare very often, but I do have it in my repertoire. +And Miss Banks was there as a great mentor for me. +And then I saw my own parents, my first teachers. +My father, very inventive, spatial thinker. +That's my brother Malcolm there on the right. +And my mother, who taught me in fourth grade in segregated schools in Virginia, who was my inspiration. +And really, I feel as though, when I see the film -- I have a gesture she does, like this -- I feel like I am a continuation of her gesture. +I am one of her teaching gestures. +And the beautiful thing was, I got to teach my daughter in elementary school, Madeline. +And so that gesture of my mother's continues through many generations. +It's an amazing feeling to have that lineage. +And so I'm here standing on the shoulders of many people. +I'm not here alone. +There are many people on this stage right now. +And so this World Peace Game I'd like to tell you about. +It started out like this: it's just a four-foot by five-foot plywood board in an inner-city urban school, 1978. +I was creating a lesson for students on Africa. +We put all the problems of the world there, and I thought, let's let them solve it. +I didn't want to lecture or have just book reading. +I wanted to have them be immersed and learn the feeling of learning through their bodies. +So I thought, well they like to play games. +I'll make something -- I didn't say interactive; we didn't have that term in 1978 -- but something interactive. +And so we made the game, and it has since evolved to a four-foot by four-foot by four-foot Plexiglass structure. +And it has four Plexiglass layers. +There's an outer space layer with black holes and satellites and research satellites and asteroid mining. +There's an air and space level with clouds that are big puffs of cotton we push around and territorial air spaces and air forces, a ground and sea level with thousands of game pieces on it -- even an undersea level with submarines and undersea mining. +There are four countries around the board. +The kids make up the names of the countries -- some are rich; some are poor. +They have different assets, commercial and military. +And each country has a cabinet. +There's a Prime Minister, Secretary of State, Minister of Defense and a CFO, or Comptroller. +I choose the Prime Minister based on my relationship with them. +I offer them the job, they can turn it down, and then they choose their own cabinet. +There's a World Bank, arms dealers and a United Nations. +There's also a weather goddess who controls a random stock market and random weather. +That's not all. +And then there's a 13-page crisis document with 50 interlocking problems. +So that, if one thing changes, everything else changes. +I throw them into this complex matrix, and they trust me because we have a deep, rich relationship together. +And so with all these crises, we have -- let's see -- ethnic and minority tensions; we have chemical and nuclear spills, nuclear proliferation. +There's oil spills, environmental disasters, water rights disputes, breakaway republics, famine, endangered species and global warming. +If Al Gore is here, I'm going to send my fourth-graders from Agnor-Hurt and Venable schools to you because they solved global warming in a week. +And they've done it several times too. +So I also have in the game a saboteur -- some child -- it's basically a troublemaker -- and I have my troublemaker put to use because they, on the surface, are trying to save the world and their position in the game. +But they're also trying to undermine everything in the game. +And they do it secretly through misinformation and ambiguities and irrelevancies, trying to cause everyone to think more deeply. +The saboteur is there, and we also read from Sun Tzu's "The Art of War." +Fourth-graders understand it -- nine years old -- and they handle that and use that the paths to power and destruction, the path to war. +They learn to overlook short-sighted reactions and impulsive thinking, to think in a long-term, more consequential way. +Stewart Brand is here, and one of the ideas for this game came from him with a CoEvolution Quarterly article on a peace force. +And in the game, sometimes students actually form a peace force. +I'm just a clock watcher. +I'm just a clarifier. I'm just a facilitator. +The students run the game. +I have no chance to make any policy whatsoever once they start playing. +So I'll just share with you ... +Boy: The World Peace Game is serious. +You're actually getting taught something like how to take care of the world. +See, Mr. Hunter is doing that because he says his time has messed up a lot, and he's trying to tell us how to fix that problem. +John Hunter: I offered them a -- Actually, I can't tell them anything because I don't know the answer. +And I admit the truth to them right up front: I don't know. +And because I don't know, they've got to dig up the answer. +And so I apologize to them as well. +I say, "I'm so sorry, boys and girls, but the truth is we have left this world to you in such a sad and terrible shape, and we hope you can fix it for us, and maybe this game will help you learn how to do it." +It's a sincere apology, and they take it very seriously. +Now you may be wondering what all this complexity looks like. +Well when we have the game start, here's what you see. +JH: All right, we're going into negotiations as of now. Go. +JH: My question to you is, who's in charge of that classroom? +It's a serious question: who is really in charge? +I've learned to cede control of the classroom over to the students over time. +There's a trust and an understanding and a dedication to an ideal that I simply don't have to do what I thought I had to do as a beginning teacher: control every conversation and response in the classroom. +It's impossible. Their collective wisdom is much greater than mine, and I admit it to them openly. +So I'll just share with you some stories very quickly of some magical things that have happened. +In this game we had a little girl, and she was the Defense Minister of the poorest nation. +And the Defense Minister -- she had the tank corps and Air Force and so forth. +And she was next door to a very wealthy, oil-rich neighbor. +Without provocation, suddenly she attacked, against her Prime Minister's orders, the next-door neighbor's oil fields. +She marched into the oil field reserves, surrounded it, without firing a shot, and secured it and held it. +And that neighbor was unable to conduct any military operations because their fuel supply was locked up. +We were all upset with her, "Why are you doing this? +This is the World Peace Game. What is wrong with you?" +This was a little girl and, at nine years old, she held her pieces and said, "I know what I'm doing." +To her girlfriends she said that. +That's a breach there. +And we learned in this, you don't really ever want to cross a nine year-old girl with tanks. +They are the toughest opponents. +And we were very upset. +I thought I was failing as a teacher. Why would she do this? +But come to find out, a few game days later -- and there are turns where we take negotiation from a team -- actually there's a negotiation period with all teams, and each team takes a turn, then we go back in negotiation, around and around, so each turn around is one game day. +So a few game days later it came to light that we found out this major country was planning a military offensive to dominate the entire world. +Had they had their fuel supplies, they would have done it. +She was able to see the vectors and trend lines and intentions long before any of us and understand what was going to happen and made a philosophical decision to attack in a peace game. +Now she used a small war to avert a larger war, so we stopped and had a very good philosophical discussion about whether that was right, conditional good, or not right. +That's the kind of thinking that we put them in, the situations. +I could not have designed that in teaching it. +It came about spontaneously through their collective wisdom. +Another example, a beautiful thing happened. +We have a letter in the game. +If you're a military commander and you wage troops -- the little plastic toys on the board -- and you lose them, I put in a letter. +You have to write a letter to their parents -- the fictional parents of your fictional troops -- explaining what happened and offering your condolences. +So you have a little bit more thought before you commit to combat. +And so we had this situation come up -- last summer actually, at Agnor-Hurt School in Albemarle County -- and one of our military commanders got up to read that letter and one of the other kids said, "Mr. Hunter, let's ask -- there's a parent over there." +There was a parent visiting that day, just sitting in the back of the room. +"Let's ask that mom to read the letter. +It'll be more realer if she reads it." +So we did, we asked her, and she gamely picked up the letter. +"Sure." She started reading. She read one sentence. +She read two sentences. +By the third sentence, she was in tears. +I was in tears. +Everybody understood that when we lose somebody, the winners are not gloating. +We all lose. +And it was an amazing occurrence and an amazing understanding. +I'll show you what my friend David says about this. +He's been in many battles. +David: We've really had enough of people attacking. +I mean, we've been lucky [most of] the time. +But now I'm feeling really weird because I'm living what Sun Tzu said one week. +One week he said, "Those who go into battle and win will want to go back, and those who lose in battle will want to go back and win." +And so I've been winning battles, so I'm going into battles, more battles. +And I think it's sort of weird to be living what Sun Tzu said. +JH: I get chills every time I see that. +That's the kind of engagement you want to have happen. +And I can't design that, I can't plan that, and I can't even test that. +But it's self-evident assessment. +We know that's an authentic assessment of learning. +We have a lot of data, but I think sometimes we go beyond data with the real truth of what's going on. +So I'll just share a third story. +This is about my friend Brennan. +We had played the game one session after school for many weeks, about seven weeks, and we had essentially solved all 50 of the interlocking crises. +The way the game is won is all 50 problems have to be solved and every country's asset value has to be increased above its starting point. +Some are poor, some are wealthy. There are billions. +The World Bank president was a third-grader one time. +He says, "How many zeros in a trillion? I've got to calculate that right away." +But he was setting fiscal policy in that game for high school players who were playing with him. +So the team that was the poorest had gotten even poorer. +There was no way they could win. +And we were approaching four o'clock, our cut-off time -- there was about a minute left -- and despair just settled over the room. +I thought, I'm failing as a teacher. +I should have gotten it so they could have won. +They shouldn't be failing like this. +I've failed them. +And I was just feeling so sad and dejected. +And suddenly, Brennan walked over to my chair and he grabbed the bell, the bell I ring to signal a change or a reconvening of cabinets, and he ran back to his seat, rang the bell. +Everybody ran to his chair: there was screaming; there was yelling, waving of their dossiers. +They get these dossiers full of secret documents. +They were gesticulating; they were running around. +I didn't know what they were doing. I'd lost control of my classroom. +Principal walks in, I'm out of a job. +The parents were looking in the window. +And Brennan runs back to his seat. Everybody runs back to their seat. +He rings the bell again. He says, "We have" -- and there's 12 seconds left on the clock -- "we have, all nations, pooled all our funds together. +And we've got 600 billion dollars. +We're going to offer it as a donation to this poor country. +And if they accept it, it'll raise their asset value and we can win the game. +Will you accept it?" +And there are three seconds left on the clock. +Everybody looks at this prime minister of that country, and he says, "Yes." +And the game is won. +Spontaneous compassion that could not be planned for, that was unexpected and unpredictable. +Every game we play is different. +Some games are more about social issues, some are more about economic issues. +Some games are more about warfare. +But I don't try to deny them that reality of being human. +I allow them to go there and, through their own experience, learn, in a bloodless way, how not to do what they consider to be the wrong thing. +And they find out what is right their own way, their own selves. +And so in this game, I've learned so much from it, but I would say that if only they could pick up a critical thinking tool or creative thinking tool from this game and leverage something good for the world, they may save us all. +If only. +And on behalf of all of my teachers on whose shoulders I'm standing, thank you. Thank you. Thank you. +I would like to talk today about what I think is one of the greatest adventures human beings have embarked upon, which is the quest to understand the universe and our place in it. +My own interest in this subject, and my passion for it, began rather accidentally. +I had bought a copy of this book, "The Universe and Dr. Einstein" -- a used paperback from a secondhand bookstore in Seattle. +A few years after that, in Bangalore, I was finding it hard to fall asleep one night, and I picked up this book, thinking it would put me to sleep in 10 minutes. +And as it happened, I read it from midnight to five in the morning in one shot. +And I was left with this intense feeling of awe and exhilaration at the universe and our own ability to understand as much as we do. +And that feeling hasn't left me yet. +That feeling was the trigger for me to actually change my career -- from being a software engineer to become a science writer -- so that I could partake in the joy of science, and also the joy of communicating it to others. +And that feeling also led me to a pilgrimage of sorts, to go literally to the ends of the earth to see telescopes, detectors, instruments that people are building, or have built, in order to probe the cosmos in greater and greater detail. +So it took me from places like Chile -- the Atacama Desert in Chile -- to Siberia, to underground mines in the Japanese Alps, in Northern America, all the way to Antarctica and even to the South Pole. +And today I would like to share with you some images, some stories of these trips. +I have been basically spending the last few years documenting the efforts of some extremely intrepid men and women who are putting, literally at times, their lives at stake working in some very remote and very hostile places so that they may gather the faintest signals from the cosmos in order for us to understand this universe. +And I first begin with a pie chart -- and I promise this is the only pie chart in the whole presentation -- but it sets up the state of our knowledge of the cosmos. +All the theories in physics that we have today properly explain what is called normal matter -- the stuff that we're all made of -- and that's four percent of the universe. +Astronomers and cosmologists and physicists think that there is something called dark matter in the universe, which makes up 23 percent of the universe, and something called dark energy, which permeates the fabric of space-time, that makes up another 73 percent. +So if you look at this pie chart, 96 percent of the universe, at this point in our exploration of it, is unknown or not well understood. +And most of the experiments, telescopes that I went to see are in some way addressing this question, these two twin mysteries of dark matter and dark energy. +I will take you first to an underground mine in Northern Minnesota where people are looking for something called dark matter. +And the idea here is that they are looking for a sign of a dark matter particle hitting one of their detectors. +So they go deep inside mines to find a kind of environmental silence that will allow them to hear the ping of a dark matter particle hitting their detector. +And I went to see one of these experiments, and this is actually -- you can barely see it, and the reason for that is it's entirely dark in there -- this is a cavern that was left behind by the miners who left this mine in 1960. +And physicists came and started using it sometime in the 1980s. +And the miners in the early part of the last century worked, literally, in candlelight. +And today, you would see this inside the mine, half a mile underground. +This is one of the largest underground labs in the world. +And, among other things, they're looking for dark matter. +There is another way to search for dark matter, which is indirectly. +If dark matter exists in our universe, in our galaxy, then these particles should be smashing together and producing other particles that we know about -- one of them being neutrinos. +And neutrinos you can detect by the signature they leave when they hit water molecules. +When a neutrino hits a water molecule it emits a kind of blue light, a flash of blue light, and by looking for this blue light, you can essentially understand something about the neutrino and then, indirectly, something about the dark matter that might have created this neutrino. +But you need very, very large volumes of water in order to do this. +You need something like tens of megatons of water -- almost a gigaton of water -- in order to have any chance of catching this neutrino. +And where in the world would you find such water? +Well the Russians have a tank in their own backyard. +This is Lake Baikal. +It is the largest lake in the world. It's 800 km long. +It's about 40 to 50 km wide in most places, and one to two kilometers deep. +And what the Russians are doing is they're building these detectors and immersing them about a kilometer beneath the surface of the lake so that they can watch for these flashes of blue light. +And this is the scene that greeted me when I landed there. +This is Lake Baikal in the peak of the Siberian winter. +The lake is entirely frozen. +And the line of black dots that you see in the background, that's the ice camp where the physicists are working. +The reason why they have to work in winter is because they don't have the money to work in summer and spring, which, if they did that, they would need ships and submersibles to do their work. +So they wait until winter -- the lake is completely frozen over -- and they use this meter-thick ice as a platform on which to establish their ice camp and do their work. +So this is the Russians working on the ice in the peak of the Siberian winter. +They have to drill holes in the ice, dive down into the water -- cold, cold water -- to get hold of the instrument, bring it up, do any repairs and maintenance that they need to do, put it back and get out before the ice melts. +Because that phase of solid ice lasts for two months and it's full of cracks. +And you have to imagine, there's an entire sea-like lake underneath, moving. +I still don't understand this one Russian man working in his bare chest, but that tells you how hard he was working. +And these people, a handful of people, have been working for 20 years, looking for particles that may or may not exist. +And they have dedicated their lives to it. +And just to give you an idea, they have spent 20 million over 20 years. +It's very harsh conditions. +They work on a shoestring budget. +The toilets there are literally holes in the ground covered with a wooden shack. +And it's that basic, but they do this every year. +From Siberia to the Atacama Desert in Chile, to see something called The Very Large Telescope. +The Very Large Telescope is one of these things that astronomers do -- they name their telescopes rather unimaginatively. +I can tell you for a fact, that the next one that they're planning is called The Extremely Large Telescope. +And you wouldn't believe it, but the one after that is going to be called The Overwhelmingly Large Telescope. +But nonetheless, it's an extraordinary piece of engineering. +These are four 8.2 meter telescopes. +And these telescopes, among other things, they're being used to study how the expansion of the universe is changing with time. +And the more you understand that, the better you would understand what this dark energy that the universe is made of is all about. +And one piece of engineering that I want to leave you with as regards this telescope is the mirror. +And that's the kind of polishing that these mirrors have endured. +An extraordinary set of telescopes. +Here's another view of the same. +The reason why you have to build these telescopes in places like the Atacama Desert is because of the high altitude desert. +The dry air is really good for telescopes, and also, the cloud cover is below the summit of these mountains so that the telescopes have about 300 days of clear skies. +Finally, I want to take you to Antarctica. +I want to spend most of my time on this part of the world. +This is cosmology's final frontier. +Some of the most amazing experiments, some of the most extreme experiments, are being done in Antarctica. +I was there to view something called a long-duration balloon flight, which basically takes telescopes and instruments all the way to the upper atmosphere, the upper stratosphere, 40 km up. +And that's where they do their experiments, and then the balloon, the payload, is brought down. +So this is us landing on the Ross Ice Shelf in Antarctica. +That's an American C-17 cargo plane that flew us from New Zealand to McMurdo in Antarctica. +And here we are about to board our bus. +And I don't know if you can read the lettering, but it says, "Ivan the Terribus." +And that's taking us to McMurdo. +And this is the scene that greets you in McMurdo. +And you barely might be able to make out this hut here. +This hut was built by Robert Falcon Scott and his men when they first came to Antarctica on their first expedition to go to the South Pole. +Because it's so cold, the entire contents of that hut is still as they left it, with the remnants of the last meal they cooked still there. +It's an extraordinary place. +This is McMurdo itself. About a thousand people work here in summer, and about 200 in winter when it's completely dark for six months. +I was here to see the launch of this particular type of instrument. +This is a cosmic ray experiment that has been launched all the way to the upper-stratosphere to an altitude of 40 km. +What I want you to imagine is this is two tons in weight. +So you're using a balloon to carry something that is two tons all the way to an altitude of 40 km. +And the engineers, the technicians, the physicists have all got to assemble on the Ross Ice Shelf, because Antarctica -- I won't go into the reasons why -- but it's one of the most favorable places for doing these balloon launches, except for the weather. +The weather, as you can imagine, this is summer, and you're standing on 200 ft of ice. +And there's a volcano behind, which has glaciers at the very top. +And what they have to do is they have to assemble the entire balloon -- the fabric, parachute and everything -- on the ice and then fill it up with helium. +And that process takes about two hours. +And the weather can change as they're putting together this whole assembly. +For instance, here they are laying down the balloon fabric behind, which is eventually going to be filled up with helium. +Those two trucks you see at the very end carry 12 tanks each of compressed helium. +Now, in case the weather changes before the launch, they have to actually pack everything back up into their boxes and take it out back to McMurdo Station. +And this particular balloon, because it has to launch two tons of weight, is an extremely huge balloon. +The fabric alone weighs two tons. +In order to minimize the weight, it's very thin, it's as thin as a sandwich wrapper. +And if they have to pack it back, they have to put it into boxes and stamp on it so that it fits into the box again -- except, when they did it first, it would have been done in Texas. +Here, they can't do it with the kind shoes they're wearing, so they have to take their shoes off, get barefoot into the boxes, in this cold, and do that kind of work. +That's the kind of dedication these people have. +Here's the balloon being filled up with helium, and you can see it's a gorgeous sight. +Here's a scene that shows you the balloon and the payload end-to-end. +So the balloon is being filled up with helium on the left-hand side, and the fabric actually runs all the way to the middle where there's a piece of electronics and explosives being connected to a parachute, and then the parachute is then connected to the payload. +And remember, all this wiring is being done by people in extreme cold, in sub-zero temperatures. +They're wearing about 15 kg of clothing and stuff, but they have to take their gloves off in order to do that. +And I would like to share with you a launch. +Radio: Okay, release the balloon, release the balloon, release the balloon. +Anil Ananthaswamy: And I'll finally like to leave you with two images. +This is an observatory in the Himalayas, in Ladakh in India. +And the thing I want you to look at here is the telescope on the right-hand side. +And on the far left there is a 400 year-old Buddhist monastery. +This is a close-up of the Buddhist monastery. +And I was struck by the juxtaposition of these two enormous disciplines that humanity has. +One is exploring the cosmos on the outside, and the other one is exploring our interior being. +And both require silence of some sort. +And what struck me was every place that I went to to see these telescopes, the astronomers and cosmologists are in search of a certain kind of silence, whether it's silence from radio pollution or light pollution or whatever. +And it was very obvious that, if we destroy these silent places on Earth, we will be stuck on a planet without the ability to look outwards, because we will not be able to understand the signals that come from outer space. +Thank you. +So security is two different things: it's a feeling, and it's a reality. +And they're different. +You could feel secure even if you're not. +And you can be secure even if you don't feel it. +Really, we have two separate concepts mapped onto the same word. +And what I want to do in this talk is to split them apart -- figuring out when they diverge and how they converge. +And language is actually a problem here. +There aren't a lot of good words for the concepts we're going to talk about. +So if you look at security from economic terms, it's a trade-off. +Every time you get some security, you're always trading off something. +Whether this is a personal decision -- whether you're going to install a burglar alarm in your home -- or a national decision -- where you're going to invade some foreign country -- you're going to trade off something, either money or time, convenience, capabilities, maybe fundamental liberties. +And the question to ask when you look at a security anything is not whether this makes us safer, but whether it's worth the trade-off. +You've heard in the past several years, the world is safer because Saddam Hussein is not in power. +That might be true, but it's not terribly relevant. +The question is, was it worth it? +And you can make your own decision, and then you'll decide whether the invasion was worth it. +That's how you think about security -- in terms of the trade-off. +Now there's often no right or wrong here. +Some of us have a burglar alarm system at home, and some of us don't. +And it'll depend on where we live, whether we live alone or have a family, how much cool stuff we have, how much we're willing to accept the risk of theft. +In politics also, there are different opinions. +A lot of times, these trade-offs are about more than just security, and I think that's really important. +Now people have a natural intuition about these trade-offs. +We make them every day -- last night in my hotel room, when I decided to double-lock the door, or you in your car when you drove here, when we go eat lunch and decide the food's not poison and we'll eat it. +We make these trade-offs again and again, multiple times a day. +We often won't even notice them. +They're just part of being alive; we all do it. +Every species does it. +Imagine a rabbit in a field, eating grass, and the rabbit's going to see a fox. +That rabbit will make a security trade-off: "Should I stay, or should I flee?" +And if you think about it, the rabbits that are good at making that trade-off will tend to live and reproduce, and the rabbits that are bad at it will get eaten or starve. +So you'd think that us, as a successful species on the planet -- you, me, everybody -- would be really good at making these trade-offs. +Yet it seems, again and again, that we're hopelessly bad at it. +And I think that's a fundamentally interesting question. +I'll give you the short answer. +The answer is, we respond to the feeling of security and not the reality. +Now most of the time, that works. +Most of the time, feeling and reality are the same. +Certainly that's true for most of human prehistory. +We've developed this ability because it makes evolutionary sense. +One way to think of it is that we're highly optimized for risk decisions that are endemic to living in small family groups in the East African highlands in 100,000 B.C. +2010 New York, not so much. +Now there are several biases in risk perception. +A lot of good experiments in this. +And you can see certain biases that come up again and again. +So I'll give you four. +We tend to exaggerate spectacular and rare risks and downplay common risks -- so flying versus driving. +The unknown is perceived to be riskier than the familiar. +One example would be, people fear kidnapping by strangers when the data supports kidnapping by relatives is much more common. +This is for children. +Third, personified risks are perceived to be greater than anonymous risks -- so Bin Laden is scarier because he has a name. +And the fourth is people underestimate risks in situations they do control and overestimate them in situations they don't control. +So once you take up skydiving or smoking, you downplay the risks. +If a risk is thrust upon you -- terrorism was a good example -- you'll overplay it because you don't feel like it's in your control. +There are a bunch of other of these biases, these cognitive biases, that affect our risk decisions. +There's the availability heuristic, which basically means we estimate the probability of something by how easy it is to bring instances of it to mind. +So you can imagine how that works. +If you hear a lot about tiger attacks, there must be a lot of tigers around. +You don't hear about lion attacks, there aren't a lot of lions around. +This works until you invent newspapers. +Because what newspapers do is they repeat again and again rare risks. +I tell people, if it's in the news, don't worry about it. +Because by definition, news is something that almost never happens. +When something is so common, it's no longer news -- car crashes, domestic violence -- those are the risks you worry about. +We're also a species of storytellers. +We respond to stories more than data. +And there's some basic innumeracy going on. +I mean, the joke "One, Two, Three, Many" is kind of right. +We're really good at small numbers. +One mango, two mangoes, three mangoes, 10,000 mangoes, 100,000 mangoes -- it's still more mangoes you can eat before they rot. +So one half, one quarter, one fifth -- we're good at that. +One in a million, one in a billion -- they're both almost never. +So we have trouble with the risks that aren't very common. +And what these cognitive biases do is they act as filters between us and reality. +And the result is that feeling and reality get out of whack, they get different. +Now you either have a feeling -- you feel more secure than you are. +There's a false sense of security. +Or the other way, and that's a false sense of insecurity. +I write a lot about "security theater," which are products that make people feel secure, but don't actually do anything. +There's no real word for stuff that makes us secure, but doesn't make us feel secure. +Maybe it's what the CIA's supposed to do for us. +So back to economics. +If economics, if the market, drives security, and if people make trade-offs based on the feeling of security, then the smart thing for companies to do for the economic incentives are to make people feel secure. +And there are two ways to do this. +One, you can make people actually secure and hope they notice. +Or two, you can make people just feel secure and hope they don't notice. +So what makes people notice? +Well a couple of things: understanding of the security, of the risks, the threats, the countermeasures, how they work. +But if you know stuff, you're more likely to have your feelings match reality. +Enough real world examples helps. +Now we all know the crime rate in our neighborhood, because we live there, and we get a feeling about it that basically matches reality. +Security theater's exposed when it's obvious that it's not working properly. +Okay, so what makes people not notice? +Well, a poor understanding. +If you don't understand the risks, you don't understand the costs, you're likely to get the trade-off wrong, and your feeling doesn't match reality. +Not enough examples. +There's an inherent problem with low probability events. +If, for example, terrorism almost never happens, it's really hard to judge the efficacy of counter-terrorist measures. +This is why you keep sacrificing virgins, and why your unicorn defenses are working just great. +There aren't enough examples of failures. +Also, feelings that are clouding the issues -- the cognitive biases I talked about earlier, fears, folk beliefs, basically an inadequate model of reality. +So let me complicate things. +I have feeling and reality. +I want to add a third element. I want to add model. +Feeling and model in our head, reality is the outside world. +It doesn't change; it's real. +So feeling is based on our intuition. +Model is based on reason. +That's basically the difference. +In a primitive and simple world, there's really no reason for a model because feeling is close to reality. +You don't need a model. +But in a modern and complex world, you need models to understand a lot of the risks we face. +There's no feeling about germs. +You need a model to understand them. +So this model is an intelligent representation of reality. +It's, of course, limited by science, by technology. +We couldn't have a germ theory of disease before we invented the microscope to see them. +It's limited by our cognitive biases. +But it has the ability to override our feelings. +Where do we get these models? We get them from others. +We get them from religion, from culture, teachers, elders. +A couple years ago, I was in South Africa on safari. +The tracker I was with grew up in Kruger National Park. +He had some very complex models of how to survive. +And it depended on if you were attacked by a lion or a leopard or a rhino or an elephant -- and when you had to run away, and when you couldn't run away, and when you had to climb a tree -- when you could never climb a tree. +I would have died in a day, but he was born there, and he understood how to survive. +I was born in New York City. +I could have taken him to New York, and he would have died in a day. +Because we had different models based on our different experiences. +Models can come from the media, from our elected officials. +Think of models of terrorism, child kidnapping, airline safety, car safety. +Models can come from industry. +The two I'm following are surveillance cameras, ID cards, quite a lot of our computer security models come from there. +A lot of models come from science. +Health models are a great example. +Think of cancer, of bird flu, swine flu, SARS. +All of our feelings of security about those diseases come from models given to us, really, by science filtered through the media. +So models can change. +Models are not static. +As we become more comfortable in our environments, our model can move closer to our feelings. +So an example might be, if you go back 100 years ago when electricity was first becoming common, there were a lot of fears about it. +I mean, there were people who were afraid to push doorbells, because there was electricity in there, and that was dangerous. +For us, we're very facile around electricity. +We change light bulbs without even thinking about it. +Our model of security around electricity is something we were born into. +It hasn't changed as we were growing up. +And we're good at it. +Or think of the risks on the Internet across generations -- how your parents approach Internet security, versus how you do, versus how our kids will. +Models eventually fade into the background. +Intuitive is just another word for familiar. +So as your model is close to reality, and it converges with feelings, you often don't know it's there. +So a nice example of this came from last year and swine flu. +When swine flu first appeared, the initial news caused a lot of overreaction. +Now it had a name, which made it scarier than the regular flu, even though it was more deadly. +And people thought doctors should be able to deal with it. +So there was that feeling of lack of control. +And those two things made the risk more than it was. +As the novelty wore off, the months went by, there was some amount of tolerance, people got used to it. +There was no new data, but there was less fear. +By autumn, people thought the doctors should have solved this already. +And there's kind of a bifurcation -- people had to choose between fear and acceptance -- actually fear and indifference -- they kind of chose suspicion. +And when the vaccine appeared last winter, there were a lot of people -- a surprising number -- who refused to get it -- as a nice example of how people's feelings of security change, how their model changes, sort of wildly with no new information, with no new input. +This kind of thing happens a lot. +I'm going to give one more complication. +We have feeling, model, reality. +I have a very relativistic view of security. +I think it depends on the observer. +And most security decisions have a variety of people involved. +And stakeholders with specific trade-offs will try to influence the decision. +And I call that their agenda. +And you see agenda -- this is marketing, this is politics -- trying to convince you to have one model versus another, trying to convince you to ignore a model and trust your feelings, marginalizing people with models you don't like. +This is not uncommon. +An example, a great example, is the risk of smoking. +In the history of the past 50 years, the smoking risk shows how a model changes, and it also shows how an industry fights against a model it doesn't like. +Compare that to the secondhand smoke debate -- probably about 20 years behind. +Think about seat belts. +When I was a kid, no one wore a seat belt. +Nowadays, no kid will let you drive if you're not wearing a seat belt. +Compare that to the airbag debate -- probably about 30 years behind. +All examples of models changing. +What we learn is that changing models is hard. +Models are hard to dislodge. +If they equal your feelings, you don't even know you have a model. +And there's another cognitive bias I'll call confirmation bias, where we tend to accept data that confirms our beliefs and reject data that contradicts our beliefs. +So evidence against our model, we're likely to ignore, even if it's compelling. +It has to get very compelling before we'll pay attention. +New models that extend long periods of time are hard. +Global warming is a great example. +We're terrible at models that span 80 years. +We can do to the next harvest. +We can often do until our kids grow up. +But 80 years, we're just not good at. +So it's a very hard model to accept. +We can have both models in our head simultaneously, right, that kind of problem where we're holding both beliefs together, right, the cognitive dissonance. +Eventually, the new model will replace the old model. +Strong feelings can create a model. +September 11th created a security model in a lot of people's heads. +Also, personal experiences with crime can do it, personal health scare, a health scare in the news. +You'll see these called flashbulb events by psychiatrists. +They can create a model instantaneously, because they're very emotive. +So in the technological world, we don't have experience to judge models. +And we rely on others. We rely on proxies. +I mean, this works as long as it's to correct others. +We rely on government agencies to tell us what pharmaceuticals are safe. +I flew here yesterday. +I didn't check the airplane. +I relied on some other group to determine whether my plane was safe to fly. +We're here, none of us fear the roof is going to collapse on us, not because we checked, but because we're pretty sure the building codes here are good. +It's a model we just accept pretty much by faith. +And that's okay. +Now, what we want is people to get familiar enough with better models -- have it reflected in their feelings -- to allow them to make security trade-offs. +Now when these go out of whack, you have two options. +One, you can fix people's feelings, directly appeal to feelings. +It's manipulation, but it can work. +The second, more honest way is to actually fix the model. +Change happens slowly. +The smoking debate took 40 years, and that was an easy one. +Some of this stuff is hard. +I mean really though, information seems like our best hope. +And I lied. +Remember I said feeling, model, reality; I said reality doesn't change. It actually does. +We live in a technological world; reality changes all the time. +So we might have -- for the first time in our species -- feeling chases model, model chases reality, reality's moving -- they might never catch up. +We don't know. +But in the long-term, both feeling and reality are important. +And I want to close with two quick stories to illustrate this. +1982 -- I don't know if people will remember this -- there was a short epidemic of Tylenol poisonings in the United States. +It's a horrific story. Someone took a bottle of Tylenol, put poison in it, closed it up, put it back on the shelf. +Someone else bought it and died. +This terrified people. +There were a couple of copycat attacks. +There wasn't any real risk, but people were scared. +And this is how the tamper-proof drug industry was invented. +Those tamper-proof caps, that came from this. +It's complete security theater. +As a homework assignment, think of 10 ways to get around it. +I'll give you one, a syringe. +But it made people feel better. +It made their feeling of security more match the reality. +Last story, a few years ago, a friend of mine gave birth. +I visit her in the hospital. +It turns out when a baby's born now, they put an RFID bracelet on the baby, put a corresponding one on the mother, so if anyone other than the mother takes the baby out of the maternity ward, an alarm goes off. +I said, "Well, that's kind of neat. +I wonder how rampant baby snatching is out of hospitals." +I go home, I look it up. +It basically never happens. +But if you think about it, if you are a hospital, and you need to take a baby away from its mother, out of the room to run some tests, you better have some good security theater, or she's going to rip your arm off. +So it's important for us, those of us who design security, who look at security policy, or even look at public policy in ways that affect security. +It's not just reality; it's feeling and reality. +What's important is that they be about the same. +It's important that, if our feelings match reality, we make better security trade-offs. +Thank you. +I thought I would talk a little bit about how nature makes materials. +I brought along with me an abalone shell. +This abalone shell is a biocomposite material that's 98 percent by mass calcium carbonate and two percent by mass protein. +Yet, it's 3,000 times tougher than its geological counterpart. +And a lot of people might use structures like abalone shells, like chalk. +I've been fascinated by how nature makes materials, and there's a lot of sequence to how they do such an exquisite job. +Part of it is that these materials are macroscopic in structure, but they're formed at the nanoscale. +They're formed at the nanoscale, and they use proteins that are coded by the genetic level that allow them to build these really exquisite structures. +So something I think is very fascinating is what if you could give life to non-living structures, like batteries and like solar cells? +What if they had some of the same capabilities that an abalone shell did, in terms of being able to build really exquisite structures at room temperature and room pressure, using non-toxic chemicals and adding no toxic materials back into the environment? +So that's the vision that I've been thinking about. +And so what if you could grow a battery in a Petri dish? +Or, what if you could give genetic information to a battery so that it could actually become better as a function of time, and do so in an environmentally friendly way? +And so, going back to this abalone shell, besides being nano-structured, one thing that's fascinating, is when a male and a female abalone get together, they pass on the genetic information that says, "This is how to build an exquisite material. +Here's how to do it at room temperature and pressure, using non-toxic materials." +Same with diatoms, which are shown right here, which are glasseous structures. +Every time the diatoms replicate, they give the genetic information that says, "Here's how to build glass in the ocean that's perfectly nano-structured. +And you can do it the same, over and over again." +So what if you could do the same thing with a solar cell or a battery? +I like to say my favorite biomaterial is my four year-old. +But anyone who's ever had, or knows, small children knows they're incredibly complex organisms. +And so if you wanted to convince them to do something they don't want to do, it's very difficult. +So when we think about future technologies, we actually think of using bacteria and virus, simple organisms. +Can you convince them to work with a new toolbox, so that they can build a structure that will be important to me? +Also, when we think about future technologies, we start with the beginning of Earth. +Basically, it took a billion years to have life on Earth. +And very rapidly, they became multi-cellular, they could replicate, they could use photosynthesis as a way of getting their energy source. +But it wasn't until about 500 million years ago -- during the Cambrian geologic time period -- that organisms in the ocean started making hard materials. +Before that, they were all soft, fluffy structures. +And it was during this time that there was increased calcium and iron and silicon in the environment, and organisms learned how to make hard materials. +And so that's what I would like be able to do -- convince biology to work with the rest of the periodic table. +Now if you look at biology, there's many structures like DNA and antibodies and proteins and ribosomes that you've heard about that are already nano-structured. +So nature already gives us really exquisite structures on the nanoscale. +What if we could harness them and convince them to not be an antibody that does something like HIV? +But what if we could convince them to build a solar cell for us? +So here are some examples: these are some natural shells. +There are natural biological materials. +The abalone shell here -- and if you fracture it, you can look at the fact that it's nano-structured. +There's diatoms made out of SIO2, and they're magnetotactic bacteria that make small, single-domain magnets used for navigation. +What all these have in common is these materials are structured at the nanoscale, and they have a DNA sequence that codes for a protein sequence that gives them the blueprint to be able to build these really wonderful structures. +Now, going back to the abalone shell, the abalone makes this shell by having these proteins. +These proteins are very negatively charged. +And they can pull calcium out of the environment, put down a layer of calcium and then carbonate, calcium and carbonate. +It has the chemical sequences of amino acids, which says, "This is how to build the structure. +Here's the DNA sequence, here's the protein sequence in order to do it." +And so here's the periodic table. +And I absolutely love the periodic table. +Every year for the incoming freshman class at MIT, I have a periodic table made that says, "Welcome to MIT. Now you're in your element." +And you flip it over, and it's the amino acids with the PH at which they have different charges. +And so I give this out to thousands of people. +And I know it says MIT, and this is Caltech, but I have a couple extra if people want it. +And I was really fortunate to have President Obama visit my lab this year on his visit to MIT, and I really wanted to give him a periodic table. +So I stayed up at night, and I talked to my husband, "How do I give President Obama a periodic table? +What if he says, 'Oh, I already have one,' or, 'I've already memorized it'?" And so he came to visit my lab and looked around -- it was a great visit. +And then afterward, I said, "Sir, I want to give you the periodic table in case you're ever in a bind and need to calculate molecular weight." +And I thought molecular weight sounded much less nerdy than molar mass. +And so he looked at it, and he said, "Thank you. I'll look at it periodically." +And later in a lecture that he gave on clean energy, he pulled it out and said, "And people at MIT, they give out periodic tables." +So basically what I didn't tell you is that about 500 million years ago, organisms starter making materials, but it took them about 50 million years to get good at it. +It took them about 50 million years to learn how to perfect how to make that abalone shell. +And that's a hard sell to a graduate student. "I have this great project -- 50 million years." +And so we had to develop a way of trying to do this more rapidly. +And so we use a virus that's a non-toxic virus called M13 bacteriophage that's job is to infect bacteria. +Well it has a simple DNA structure that you can go in and cut and paste additional DNA sequences into it. +And by doing that, it allows the virus to express random protein sequences. +And this is pretty easy biotechnology. +And you could basically do this a billion times. +And so you can go in and have a billion different viruses that are all genetically identical, but they differ from each other based on their tips, on one sequence that codes for one protein. +Now if you take all billion viruses, and you can put them in one drop of liquid, you can force them to interact with anything you want on the periodic table. +And through a process of selection evolution, you can pull one out of a billion that does something that you'd like it to do, like grow a battery or grow a solar cell. +So basically, viruses can't replicate themselves; they need a host. +Once you find that one out of a billion, you infect it into a bacteria, and you make millions and billions of copies of that particular sequence. +And so the other thing that's beautiful about biology is that biology gives you really exquisite structures with nice link scales. +And these viruses are long and skinny, and we can get them to express the ability to grow something like semiconductors or materials for batteries. +Now this is a high-powered battery that we grew in my lab. +We engineered a virus to pick up carbon nanotubes. +So one part of the virus grabs a carbon nanotube. +The other part of the virus has a sequence that can grow an electrode material for a battery. +And then it wires itself to the current collector. +And so through a process of selection evolution, we went from being able to have a virus that made a crummy battery to a virus that made a good battery to a virus that made a record-breaking, high-powered battery that's all made at room temperature, basically at the bench top. +And that battery went to the White House for a press conference. +I brought it here. +You can see it in this case -- that's lighting this LED. +Now if we could scale this, you could actually use it to run your Prius, which is my dream -- to be able to drive a virus-powered car. +But it's basically -- you can pull one out of a billion. +You can make lots of amplifications to it. +Basically, you make an amplification in the lab, and then you get it to self-assemble into a structure like a battery. +We're able to do this also with catalysis. +This is the example of photocatalytic splitting of water. +And what we've been able to do is engineer a virus to basically take dye-absorbing molecules and line them up on the surface of the virus so it acts as an antenna, and you get an energy transfer across the virus. +And then we give it a second gene to grow an inorganic material that can be used to split water into oxygen and hydrogen that can be used for clean fuels. +And I brought an example with me of that today. +My students promised me it would work. +These are virus-assembled nanowires. +When you shine light on them, you can see them bubbling. +In this case, you're seeing oxygen bubbles come out. +And basically, by controlling the genes, you can control multiple materials to improve your device performance. +The last example are solar cells. +You can also do this with solar cells. +We've been able to engineer viruses to pick up carbon nanotubes and then grow titanium dioxide around them -- and use as a way of getting electrons through the device. +And what we've found is through genetic engineering, we can actually increase the efficiencies of these solar cells to record numbers for these types of dye-sensitized systems. +And I brought one of those as well that you can play around with outside afterward. +So this is a virus-based solar cell. +Through evolution and selection, we took it from an eight percent efficiency solar cell to an 11 percent efficiency solar cell. +So I hope that I've convinced you that there's a lot of great, interesting things to be learned about how nature makes materials -- and taking it the next step to see if you can force, or whether you can take advantage of how nature makes materials, to make things that nature hasn't yet dreamed of making. +Thank you. +So for the past year and a half, my team at Push Pop Press and Charlie Melcher and Melcher Media have been working on creating the first feature-length interactive book. +It's called "Our Choice" and the author is Al Gore. +It's the sequel to "An Inconvenient Truth," and it explores all the solutions that will solve the climate crisis. +The book starts like this. This is the cover. +As the globe spins, we can see our location, and we can open the book and swipe through the chapters to browse the book. +Or, we can scroll through the pages at the bottom. +And if we wanted to zoom into a page, we can just open it up. +And anything you see in the book, you can pick up with two fingers and lift off the page and open up. +And if you want to go back and read the book again, you just fold it back up and put it back on the page. +And so this works the same way; you pick it up and pop it open. +Al Gore: I consider myself among the majority who look at windmills and feel they're a beautiful addition to the landscape. +Mike Matas: And so throughout the whole book, Al Gore will walk you through and explain the photos. +This photo, you can you can even see on an interactive map. +Zoom into it and see where it was taken. +And throughout the book, there's over an hour of documentary footage and interactive animations. +So you can open this one. +AG: Most modern wind turbines consist of a large ... +MM: It starts playing immediately. +And while it's playing, we can pinch and peak back at the page, and the movie keeps playing. +Or we can zoom out to the table of contents, and the video keeps playing. +But one of the coolest things in this book are the interactive infographics. +This one shows the wind potential all around the United States. +But instead of just showing us the information, we can take our finger and explore, and see, state by state, exactly how much wind potential there is. +We can do the same for geothermal energy and solar power. +This is one of my favorites. +So this shows ... +When the wind is blowing, any excess energy coming from the windmill is diverted into the battery. +And as the wind starts dying down, any excess energy will be diverted back into the house -- the lights never go out. +And this whole book, it doesn't just run on the iPad. +It also runs on the iPhone. +And so you can start reading on your iPad in your living room and then pick up where you left off on the iPhone. +And it works the exact same way. +You can pinch into any page. +Open it up. +So that's Push Pop Press' first title, Al Gore's "Our Choice." +Thank you. +Chris Anderson: That's spectacular. +Do you want to be a publisher, a technology licenser? +What is the business here? +Is this something that other people can do? +MM: Yeah, we're building a tool that makes it really easy for publishers right now to build this content. +So Melcher Media's team, who's on the East coast -- and we're on the West coast, building the software -- takes our tool and, every day, drags in images and text. +CA: So you want to license this software to publishers to make books as beautiful as that? (MM: Yes.) All right. Mike, thanks so much. +MM: Thank you. (CA: Good luck.) +My name is Arvind Gupta, and I'm a toymaker. +I've been making toys for the last 30 years. +The early '70s, I was in college. +It was a very revolutionary time. +It was a political ferment, so to say -- students out in the streets of Paris, revolting against authority. +America was jolted by the anti-Vietnam movement, the Civil Rights movement. +In India, we had the Naxalite movement, the [unclear] movement. +But you know, when there is a political churning of society, it unleashes a lot of energy. +The National Movement of India was testimony to that. +Lots of people resigned from well-paid jobs and jumped into the National Movement. +Now in the early '70s, one of the great programs in India was to revitalize primary science in village schools. +There was a person, Anil Sadgopal, did a Ph.D. from Caltech and returned back as a molecular biologist in India's cutting-edge research institute, the TIFR. +At 31, he was not able to relate the kind of [unclear] research, which he was doing with the lives of the ordinary people. +So he designed and went and started a village science program. +Many people were inspired by this. +The slogan of the early '70s was "Go to the people. +Live with them; love them. +Start from what they know. Build on what they have." +This was kind of the defining slogan. +Well I took one year. +I joined Telco, made TATA trucks, pretty close to Pune. +I worked there for two years, and I realized that I was not born to make trucks. +Often one doesn't know what one wants to do, but it's good enough to know what you don't want to do. +So I took one year off, and I went to this village science program. +And it was a turning point. +It was a very small village -- a weekly bazaar where people, just once in a week, they put in all the vats. +So I said, "I'm going to spend a year over here." +So I just bought one specimen of everything which was sold on the roadside. +And one thing which I found was this black rubber. +This is called a cycle valve tube. +When you pump in air in a bicycle, you use a bit of this. +And some of these models -- so you take a bit of this cycle valve tube, you can put two matchsticks inside this, and you make a flexible joint. +It's a joint of tubes. You start by teaching angles -- an acute angle, a right angle, an obtuse angle, a straight angle. +It's like its own little coupling. +If you have three of them, and you loop them together, well you make a triangle. +With four, you make a square, you make a pentagon, you make a hexagon, you make all these kind of polygons. +And they have some wonderful properties. +If you look at the hexagon, for instance, it's like an amoeba, which is constantly changing its own profile. +You can just pull this out, this becomes a rectangle. +You give it a push, this becomes a parallelogram. +But this is very shaky. +Look at the pentagon, for instance, pull this out -- it becomes a boat shape trapezium. +Push it and it becomes house shaped. +This becomes an isosceles triangle -- again, very shaky. +This square might look very square and prim. +Give it a little push -- this becomes a rhombus. +It becomes kite-shaped. +But give a child a triangle, he can't do a thing to it. +Why use triangles? +Because triangles are the only rigid structures. +We can't make a bridge with squares because the train would come, it would start doing a jig. +Ordinary people know about this because if you go to a village in India, they might not have gone to engineering college, but no one makes a roof placed like this. +Because if they put tiles on top, it's just going to crash. +They always make a triangular roof. +Now this is people science. +And if you were to just poke a hole over here and put a third matchstick, you'll get a T joint. +And if I were to poke all the three legs of this in the three vertices of this triangle, I would make a tetrahedron. +So you make all these 3D shapes. +You make a tetrahedron like this. +And once you make these, you make a little house. +Put this on top. +You can make a joint of four. You can make a joint of six. +You just need a ton. +Now this was -- you make a joint of six, you make an icosahedron. +You can play around with it. +This makes an igloo. +Now this is in 1978. +I was a 24-year-old young engineer. +And I thought this was so much better than making trucks. +If you, as a matter of fact, put four marbles inside, you simulate the molecular structure of methane, CH4. +Four atoms of hydrogen, the four points of the tetrahedron, which means the little carbon atom. +Well since then, I just thought that I've been really privileged to go to over 2,000 schools in my country -- village schools, government schools, municipal schools, Ivy League schools -- I've been invited by most of them. +And every time I go to a school, I see a gleam in the eyes of the children. +I see hope. I see happiness in their faces. +Children want to make things. Children want to do things. +Now this, we make lots and lots of pumps. +Now this is a little pump with which you could inflate a balloon. +It's a real pump. You could actually pop the balloon. +And we have a slogan that the best thing a child can do with a toy is to break it. +So all you do is -- it's a very kind of provocative statement -- this old bicycle tube and this old plastic [unclear] This filling cap will go very snugly into an old bicycle tube. +And this is how you make a valve. +You put a little sticky tape. +This is one-way traffic. +Well we make lots and lots of pumps. +And this is the other one -- that you just take a straw, and you just put a stick inside and you make two half-cuts. +Now this is what you do, is you bend both these legs into a triangle, and you just wrap some tape around. +And this is the pump. +And now, if you have this pump, it's like a great, great sprinkler. +It's like a centrifuge. +If you spin something, it tends to fly out. +Well in terms of -- if you were in Andhra Pradesh, you would make this with the palmyra leaf. +Many of our folk toys have great science principles. +If you spin-top something, it tends to fly out. +If I do it with both hands, you can see this fun Mr. Flying Man. +Right. +This is a toy which is made from paper. It's amazing. +There are four pictures. +You see insects, you see frogs, snakes, eagles, butterflies, frogs, snakes, eagles. +Here's a paper which you could [unclear] -- designed by a mathematician at Harvard in 1928, Arthur Stone, documented by Martin Gardner in many of his many books. +But this is great fun for children. +They all study about the food chain. +The insects are eaten by the frogs; the frogs are eaten by the snakes; the snakes are eaten by the eagles. +And this can be, if you had a whole photocopy paper -- A4 size paper -- you could be in a municipal school, you could be in a government school -- a paper, a scale and a pencil -- no glue, no scissors. +In three minutes, you just fold this up. +And what you could use it for is just limited by your imagination. +If you take a smaller paper, you make a smaller flexagon. +With a bigger one, you make a bigger one. +Now this is a pencil with a few slots over here. +And you put a little fan here. +And this is a hundred-year-old toy. +There have been six major research papers on this. +There's some grooves over here, you can see. +And if I take a reed -- if I rub this, something very amazing happens. +Six major research papers on this. +As a matter of fact, Feynman, as a child, was very fascinated by this. +He wrote a paper on this. +And you don't need the three billion-dollar Hadron Collider for doing this. This is there for every child, and every child can enjoy this. +If you want to put a colored disk, well all these seven colors coalesce. +And this is what Newton talked about 400 years back, that white light's made of seven colors, just by spinning this around. +This is a straw. +What we've done, we've just sealed both the ends with tape, nipped the right corner and the bottom left corner, so there's holes in the opposite corners, there's a little hole over here. +This is a kind of a blowing straw. +I just put this inside this. +There's a hole here, and I shut this. +And this costs very little money to make -- great fun for children to do. +What we do is make a very simple electric motor. +Now this is the simplest motor on Earth. +The most expensive thing is the battery inside this. +If you have a battery, it costs five cents to make it. +This is an old bicycle tube, which gives you a broad rubber band, two safety pins. +This is a permanent magnet. +Whenever current flows through the coil, this becomes an electromagnet. +It's the interaction of both these magnets which makes this motor spin. +We made 30,000. +Teachers who have been teaching science for donkey years, they just muck up the definition and they spit it out. +When teachers make it, children make it. +You can see a gleam in their eye. +They get a thrill of what science is all about. +And this science is not a rich man's game. +In a democratic country, science must reach to our most oppressed, to the most marginalized children. +This program started with 16 schools and spread to 1,500 government schools. +Over 100,000 children learn science this way. +And we're just trying to see possibilities. +Look, this is the tetrapak -- awful materials from the point of view of the environment. +There are six layers -- three layers of plastic, aluminum -- which are are sealed together. +They are fused together, so you can't separate them. +Now you can just make a little network like this and fold them and stick them together and make an icosahedron. +So something which is trash, which is choking all the seabirds, you could just recycle this into a very, very joyous -- all the platonic solids can be made with things like this. +This is a little straw, and what you do is you just nip two corners here, and this becomes like a baby crocodile's mouth. +You put this in your mouth, and you blow. +It's children's delight, a teacher's envy, as they say. +You're not able to see how the sound is produced, because the thing which is vibrating goes inside my mouth. +I'm going to keep this outside, to blow out. I'm going to suck in air. +So no one actually needs to muck up the production of sound with wire vibrations. +The other is that you keep blowing at it, keep making the sound, and you keep cutting it. +And something very, very nice happens. +And when you get a very small one -- This is what the kids teach you. You can also do this. +Well before I go any further, this is something worth sharing. +This is a touching slate meant for blind children. +This is strips of Velcro, this is my drawing slate, and this is my drawing pen, which is basically a film box. +It's basically like a fisherman's line, a fishing line. +And this is wool over here. +If I crank the handle, all the wool goes inside. +And what a blind child can do is to just draw this. +Wool sticks on Velcro. +There are 12 million blind children in our country -- who live in a world of darkness. +And this has come as a great boon to them. +There's a factory out there making our children blind, not able to provide them with food, not able to provide them with vitamin A. +But this has come as a great boon for them. +There are no patents. Anyone can make it. +This is very, very simple. +You can see, this is the generator. It's a crank generator. +These are two magnets. +This is a large pulley made by sandwiching rubber between two old CDs. +Small pulley and two strong magnets. +And this fiber turns a wire attached to an LED. +If I spin this pulley, the small one's going to spin much faster. +There will be a spinning magnetic field. +Lines, of course, would be cut, the force will be generated. +And you can see, this LED is going to glow. +So this is a small crank generator. +Well, this is, again, it's just a ring, a steel ring with steel nuts. +And what you can do is just, if you give it a twirl, well they just keep going on. +And imagine a bunch of kids standing in a circle and just waiting for the steel ring to be passed on. +And they'd be absolutely joyous playing with this. +Well in the end, what we can also do: we use a lot of old newspapers to make caps. +This is worthy of Sachin Tendulkar. +It's a great cricket cap. When first you see Nehru and Gandhi, this is the Nehru cap -- just half a newspaper. +We make lots of toys with newspapers, and this is one of them. +And this is -- you can see -- this is a flapping bird. +All of our old newspapers, we cut them into little squares. +And if you have one of these birds -- children in Japan have been making this bird for many, many years. +And you can see, this is a little fantail bird. +Well in the end, I'll just end with a story. +This is called "The Captain's Hat Story." +The captain was a captain of a sea-going ship. +It goes very slowly. +And there were lots of passengers on the ship, and they were getting bored, so the captain invited them on the deck. +"Wear all your colorful clothes and sing and dance, and I'll provide you with good food and drinks." +And the captain would wear a cap everyday and join in the regalia. +The first day, it was a huge umbrella cap, like a captain's cap. +That night, when the passengers would be sleeping, he would give it one more fold, and the second day, he would be wearing a fireman's cap -- with a little shoot just like a designer cap, because it protects the spinal cord. +And the second night, he would take the same cap and give it another fold. +And the third day, it would be a Shikari cap -- just like an adventurer's cap. +And the third night, he would give it two more folds -- and this is a very, very famous cap. +If you've seen any of our Bollywood films, this is what the policeman wears, it's called a zapalu cap. +It's been catapulted to international glory. +And we must not forget that he was the captain of the ship. +So that's a ship. +And now the end: everyone was enjoying the journey very much. +They were singing and dancing. +Suddenly there was a storm and huge waves. +And all the ship can do is to dance and pitch along with the waves. +A huge wave comes and slaps the front and knocks it down. +And another one comes and slaps the aft and knocks it down. +And there's a third one over here. +This swallows the bridge and knocks it down. +And the ship sinks, and the captain has lost everything, but for a life jacket. +Thank you so much. +Phyllis Rodriguez: We are here today because of the fact that we have what most people consider an unusual friendship. +And it is. +And yet, it feels natural to us now. +I first learned that my son had been in the World Trade Center on the morning of September 11th, 2001. +We didn't know if he had perished yet until 36 hours later. +At the time, we knew that it was political. +We were afraid of what our country was going to do in the name of our son -- my husband, Orlando, and I and our family. +And when I saw it -- and yet, through the shock, the terrible shock, and the terrible explosion in our lives, literally, we were not vengeful. +And a couple of weeks later when Zacarias Moussaoui was indicted on six counts of conspiracy to commit terrorism, and the U.S. government called for a death penalty for him, if convicted, my husband and I spoke out in opposition to that, publicly. +Through that and through human rights groups, we were brought together with several other victims' families. +When I saw Aicha in the media, coming over when her son was indicted, and I thought, "What a brave woman. +Someday I want to meet that woman when I'm stronger." +I was still in deep grief; I knew I didn't have the strength. +I knew I would find her someday, or we would find each other. +Because, when people heard that my son was a victim, I got immediate sympathy. +But when people learned what her son was accused of, she didn't get that sympathy. +But her suffering is equal to mine. +So we met in November 2002, and Aicha will now tell you how that came about. +Aicha el-Wafi: Good afternoon, ladies and gentlemen. +I am the mother of Zacarias Moussaoui. +And I asked the Organization of Human Rights to put me in touch with the parents of the victims. +So they introduced me to five families. +And I saw Phyllis, and I watched her. +She was the only mother in the group. +The others were brothers, sisters. +And I saw in her eyes that she was a mother, just like me. +I suffered a lot as a mother. +I was married when I was 14. +I lost a child when I was 15, a second child when I was 16. +So the story with Zacarias was too much really. +And I still suffer, because my son is like he's buried alive. +I know she really cried for her son. +But she knows where he is. +My son, I don't know where he is. +I don't know if he's alive. I don't know if he's tortured. +I don't know what happened to him. +So that's why I decided to tell my story, so that my suffering is something positive for other women. +For all the women, all the mothers that give life, you can give back, you can change. +It's up to us women, because we are women, because we love our children. +We must be hand-in-hand and do something together. +It's not against women, it's for us, for us women, for our children. +I talk against violence, against terrorism. +I go to schools to talk to young, Muslim girls so they don't accept to be married against their will very young. +So if I can save one of the young girls, and avoid that they get married and suffer as much as I did, well this is something good. +This is why I'm here in front of you. +But we were all so nervous. +"Why does she want to meet us?" +And then she was nervous. +"Why did we want to meet her?" +What did we want from each other? +Before we knew each others' names, or anything, we had embraced and wept. +Then we sat in a circle with support, with help, from people experienced in this kind of reconciliation. +And Aicha started, and she said, "I don't know if my son is guilty or innocent, but I want to tell you how sorry I am for what happened to your families. +I know what it is to suffer, and I feel that if there is a crime, a person should be tried fairly and punished." +But she reached out to us in that way, and it was, I'd like to say, it was an ice-breaker. +And what happened then is we all told our stories, and we all connected as human beings. +By the end of the afternoon -- it was about three hours after lunch -- we'd felt as if we'd known each other forever. +Now what I learned from her, is a woman, not only who could be so generous under these present circumstances and what it was then, and what was being done to her son, but the life she's had. +I never had met someone with such a hard life, from such a totally different culture and environment from my own. +And I feel that we have a special connection, which I value very much. +And I think it's all about being afraid of the other, but making that step and then realizing, "Hey, this wasn't so hard. +Who else can I meet that I don't know, or that I'm so different from?" +So, Aicha, do you have a couple of words for conclusion? +Because our time is up. +AW: I wanted to say that we have to try to know other people, the other. +You have to be generous, and your hearts must be generous, your mind must be generous. +You must be tolerant. +You have to fight against violence. +And I hope that someday we'll all live together in peace and respecting each other. +This is what I wanted to say. +So as a fashion designer, I've always tended to think of materials something like this, or this, or maybe this. +But then I met a biologist, and now I think of materials like this -- green tea, sugar, a few microbes and a little time. +I'm essentially using a kombucha recipe, which is a symbiotic mix of bacteria, yeasts and other micro-organisms, which spin cellulose in a fermentation process. +Over time, these tiny threads form in the liquid into layers and produce a mat on the surface. +So we start by brewing the tea. +I brew up to about 30 liters of tea at a time, and then while it's still hot, add a couple of kilos of sugar. +We stir this in until it's completely dissolved and then pour it into a growth bath. +We need to check that the temperature has cooled to below 30 degrees C. +And then we're ready to add the living organism. +And along with that, some acetic acid. +And once you get this process going, you can actually recycle your previous fermented liquid. +We need to maintain an optimum temperature for the growth. +And I use a heat mat to sit the bath on and a thermostat to regulate it. +And actually, in hot weather, I can just grow it outside. +So this is my mini fabric farm. +After about three days, the bubbles will appear on the surface of the liquid. +So this is telling us that the fermentation is in full swing. +And the bacteria are feeding on the sugar nutrients in the liquid. +So they're spinning these tiny nano fibers of pure cellulose. +And they're sticking together, forming layers and giving us a sheet on the surface. +After about two to three weeks, we're looking at something which is about an inch in thickness. +So the bath on the left is after five days, and on the right, after 10. +And this is a static culture. +You don't have to do anything to it; you just literally watch it grow. +It doesn't need light. +And when it's ready to harvest, you take it out of the bath and you wash it in cold, soapy water. +At this point, it's really heavy. +It's over 90 percent water, so we need to let that evaporate. +So I spread it out onto a wooden sheet. +Again, you can do that outside and just let it dry in the air. +And as it's drying, it's compressing, so what you're left with, depending on the recipe, is something that's either like a really light-weight, transparent paper, or something which is much more like a flexible vegetable leather. +And then you can either cut that out and sew it conventionally, or you can use the wet material to form it around a three-dimensional shape. +And as it evaporates, it will knit itself together, forming seams. +So the color in this jacket is coming purely from green tea. +I guess it also looks a little bit like human skin, which intrigues me. +Since it's organic, I'm really keen to try and minimize the addition of any chemicals. +I can make it change color without using dye by a process of iron oxidation. +Using fruit and vegetable staining, create organic patterning. +And using indigo, make it anti-microbial. +And in fact, cotton would take up to 18 dips in indigo to achieve a color this dark. +And because of the super-absorbency of this kind of cellulose, it just takes one, and a really short one at that. +What I can't yet do is make it water-resistant. +So if I was to walk outside in the rain wearing this dress today, I would immediately start to absorb huge amounts of water. +The dress would get really heavy, and eventually the seams would probably fall apart -- leaving me feeling rather naked. +Possibly a good performance piece, but definitely not ideal for everyday wear. +What I'm looking for is a way to give the material the qualities that I need. +So what I want to do is say to a future bug, "Spin me a thread. +Align it in this direction. +Make it hydrophobic. +And while you're at it, just form it around this 3D shape." +Bacterial cellulose is actually already being used for wound healing, and possibly in the future for biocompatible blood vessels, possibly even replacement bone tissue. +But with synthetic biology, we can actually imagine engineering this bacterium to produce something that gives us the quality, quantity and shape of material that we desire. +Obviously, as a designer, that's really exciting because then I start to think, wow, we could actually imagine growing consumable products. +What excites me about using microbes is their efficiency. +So we only grow what we need. +There's no waste. +And in fact, we could make it from a waste stream -- so for example, a waste sugar stream from a food processing plant. +Finally, at the end of use, we could biodegrade it naturally along with your vegetable peelings. +What I'm not suggesting is that microbial cellulose is going to be a replacement for cotton, leather or other textile materials. +But I do think it could be quite a smart and sustainable addition to our increasingly precious natural resources. +Ultimately, maybe it won't even be fashion where we see these microbes have their impact. +We could, for example, imagine growing a lamp, a chair, a car or maybe even a house. +So I guess what my question to you is: in the future, what would you choose to grow? +Thank you very much. +Bruno Giussani: Suzanne, just a curiosity, what you're wearing is not random. (Suzanne Lee: No.) This is one of the jackets you grew? +SL: Yes, it is. +It's probably -- part of the project's still in process because this one is actually biodegrading in front of your eyes. +It's absorbing my sweat, and it's feeding on it. +BG: Okay, so we'll let you go and save it, and rescue it. +Suzanne Lee. (SL: Thank you.) +The universe is really big. +We live in a galaxy, the Milky Way Galaxy. +There are about a hundred billion stars in the Milky Way Galaxy. +And if you take a camera and you point it at a random part of the sky, and you just keep the shutter open, as long as your camera is attached to the Hubble Space Telescope, it will see something like this. +Every one of these little blobs is a galaxy roughly the size of our Milky Way -- a hundred billion stars in each of those blobs. +There are approximately a hundred billion galaxies in the observable universe. +100 billion is the only number you need to know. +The age of the universe, between now and the Big Bang, is a hundred billion in dog years. +Which tells you something about our place in the universe. +One thing you can do with a picture like this is simply admire it. +It's extremely beautiful. +I've often wondered, what is the evolutionary pressure that made our ancestors in the Veldt adapt and evolve to really enjoy pictures of galaxies when they didn't have any. +But we would also like to understand it. +As a cosmologist, I want to ask, why is the universe like this? +One big clue we have is that the universe is changing with time. +If you looked at one of these galaxies and measured its velocity, it would be moving away from you. +And if you look at a galaxy even farther away, it would be moving away faster. +So we say the universe is expanding. +What that means, of course, is that, in the past, things were closer together. +In the past, the universe was more dense, and it was also hotter. +If you squeeze things together, the temperature goes up. +That kind of makes sense to us. +The thing that doesn't make sense to us as much is that the universe, at early times, near the Big Bang, was also very, very smooth. +You might think that that's not a surprise. +The air in this room is very smooth. +You might say, "Well, maybe things just smoothed themselves out." +But the conditions near the Big Bang are very, very different than the conditions of the air in this room. +In particular, things were a lot denser. +The gravitational pull of things was a lot stronger near the Big Bang. +What you have to think about is we have a universe with a hundred billion galaxies, a hundred billion stars each. +At early times, those hundred billion galaxies were squeezed into a region about this big -- literally -- at early times. +And you have to imagine doing that squeezing without any imperfections, without any little spots where there were a few more atoms than somewhere else. +Because if there had been, they would have collapsed under the gravitational pull into a huge black hole. +Keeping the universe very, very smooth at early times is not easy; it's a delicate arrangement. +It's a clue that the early universe is not chosen randomly. +There is something that made it that way. +We would like to know what. +So part of our understanding of this was given to us by Ludwig Boltzmann, an Austrian physicist in the 19th century. +And Boltzmann's contribution was that he helped us understand entropy. +You've heard of entropy. +It's the randomness, the disorder, the chaoticness of some systems. +Boltzmann gave us a formula -- engraved on his tombstone now -- that really quantifies what entropy is. +And it's basically just saying that entropy is the number of ways we can rearrange the constituents of a system so that you don't notice, so that macroscopically it looks the same. +If you have the air in this room, you don't notice each individual atom. +A low entropy configuration is one in which there's only a few arrangements that look that way. +A high entropy arrangement is one that there are many arrangements that look that way. +This is a crucially important insight because it helps us explain the second law of thermodynamics -- the law that says that entropy increases in the universe, or in some isolated bit of the universe. +The reason why entropy increases is simply because there are many more ways to be high entropy than to be low entropy. +That's a wonderful insight, but it leaves something out. +This insight that entropy increases, by the way, is what's behind what we call the arrow of time, the difference between the past and the future. +Every difference that there is between the past and the future is because entropy is increasing -- the fact that you can remember the past, but not the future. +The fact that you are born, and then you live, and then you die, always in that order, that's because entropy is increasing. +Boltzmann explained that if you start with low entropy, it's very natural for it to increase because there's more ways to be high entropy. +What he didn't explain was why the entropy was ever low in the first place. +The fact that the entropy of the universe was low was a reflection of the fact that the early universe was very, very smooth. +We'd like to understand that. +That's our job as cosmologists. +Unfortunately, it's actually not a problem that we've been giving enough attention to. +It's not one of the first things people would say, if you asked a modern cosmologist, "What are the problems we're trying to address?" +One of the people who did understand that this was a problem was Richard Feynman. +50 years ago, he gave a series of a bunch of different lectures. +He gave the popular lectures that became "The Character of Physical Law." +He gave lectures to Caltech undergrads that became "The Feynman Lectures on Physics." +He gave lectures to Caltech graduate students that became "The Feynman Lectures on Gravitation." +In every one of these books, every one of these sets of lectures, he emphasized this puzzle: Why did the early universe have such a small entropy? +So he says -- I'm not going to do the accent -- he says, "For some reason, the universe, at one time, had a very low entropy for its energy content, and since then the entropy has increased. +The arrow of time cannot be completely understood until the mystery of the beginnings of the history of the universe are reduced still further from speculation to understanding." +So that's our job. +We want to know -- this is 50 years ago, "Surely," you're thinking, "we've figured it out by now." +It's not true that we've figured it out by now. +The reason the problem has gotten worse, rather than better, is because in 1998 we learned something crucial about the universe that we didn't know before. +We learned that it's accelerating. +The universe is not only expanding. +If you look at the galaxy, it's moving away. +If you come back a billion years later and look at it again, it will be moving away faster. +Individual galaxies are speeding away from us faster and faster so we say the universe is accelerating. +Unlike the low entropy of the early universe, even though we don't know the answer for this, we at least have a good theory that can explain it, if that theory is right, and that's the theory of dark energy. +It's just the idea that empty space itself has energy. +In every little cubic centimeter of space, whether or not there's stuff, whether or not there's particles, matter, radiation or whatever, there's still energy, even in the space itself. +And this energy, according to Einstein, exerts a push on the universe. +It is a perpetual impulse that pushes galaxies apart from each other. +Because dark energy, unlike matter or radiation, does not dilute away as the universe expands. +The amount of energy in each cubic centimeter remains the same, even as the universe gets bigger and bigger. +This has crucial implications for what the universe is going to do in the future. +For one thing, the universe will expand forever. +Back when I was your age, we didn't know what the universe was going to do. +Some people thought that the universe would recollapse in the future. +Einstein was fond of this idea. +But if there's dark energy, and the dark energy does not go away, the universe is just going to keep expanding forever and ever and ever. +14 billion years in the past, 100 billion dog years, but an infinite number of years into the future. +Meanwhile, for all intents and purposes, space looks finite to us. +Space may be finite or infinite, but because the universe is accelerating, there are parts of it we cannot see and never will see. +There's a finite region of space that we have access to, surrounded by a horizon. +So even though time goes on forever, space is limited to us. +Finally, empty space has a temperature. +In the 1970s, Stephen Hawking told us that a black hole, even though you think it's black, it actually emits radiation when you take into account quantum mechanics. +The curvature of space-time around the black hole brings to life the quantum mechanical fluctuation, and the black hole radiates. +A precisely similar calculation by Hawking and Gary Gibbons showed that if you have dark energy in empty space, then the whole universe radiates. +The energy of empty space brings to life quantum fluctuations. +And so even though the universe will last forever, and ordinary matter and radiation will dilute away, there will always be some radiation, some thermal fluctuations, even in empty space. +So what this means is that the universe is like a box of gas that lasts forever. +Well what is the implication of that? +That implication was studied by Boltzmann back in the 19th century. +He said, well, entropy increases because there are many, many more ways for the universe to be high entropy, rather than low entropy. +But that's a probabilistic statement. +It will probably increase, and the probability is enormously huge. +It's not something you have to worry about -- the air in this room all gathering over one part of the room and suffocating us. +It's very, very unlikely. +Except if they locked the doors and kept us here literally forever, that would happen. +Everything that is allowed, every configuration that is allowed to be obtained by the molecules in this room, would eventually be obtained. +So Boltzmann says, look, you could start with a universe that was in thermal equilibrium. +He didn't know about the Big Bang. He didn't know about the expansion of the universe. +He thought that space and time were explained by Isaac Newton -- they were absolute; they just stuck there forever. +So his idea of a natural universe was one in which the air molecules were just spread out evenly everywhere -- the everything molecules. +But if you're Boltzmann, you know that if you wait long enough, the random fluctuations of those molecules will occasionally bring them into lower entropy configurations. +And then, of course, in the natural course of things, they will expand back. +So it's not that entropy must always increase -- you can get fluctuations into lower entropy, more organized situations. +Well if that's true, Boltzmann then goes onto invent two very modern-sounding ideas -- the multiverse and the anthropic principle. +He says, the problem with thermal equilibrium is that we can't live there. +Remember, life itself depends on the arrow of time. +We would not be able to process information, metabolize, walk and talk, if we lived in thermal equilibrium. +So if you imagine a very, very big universe, an infinitely big universe, with randomly bumping into each other particles, there will occasionally be small fluctuations in the lower entropy states, and then they relax back. +But there will also be large fluctuations. +Occasionally, you will make a planet or a star or a galaxy or a hundred billion galaxies. +So Boltzmann says, we will only live in the part of the multiverse, in the part of this infinitely big set of fluctuating particles, where life is possible. +That's the region where entropy is low. +Maybe our universe is just one of those things that happens from time to time. +Now your homework assignment is to really think about this, to contemplate what it means. +Carl Sagan once famously said that "in order to make an apple pie, you must first invent the universe." +But he was not right. +In Boltzmann's scenario, if you want to make an apple pie, you just wait for the random motion of atoms to make you an apple pie. +That will happen much more frequently than the random motions of atoms making you an apple orchard and some sugar and an oven, and then making you an apple pie. +So this scenario makes predictions. +And the predictions are that the fluctuations that make us are minimal. +The good news is that, therefore, this scenario does not work; it is not right. +This scenario predicts that we should be a minimal fluctuation. +Even if you left our galaxy out, you would not get a hundred billion other galaxies. +And Feynman also understood this. +Feynman says, "From the hypothesis that the world is a fluctuation, all the predictions are that if we look at a part of the world we've never seen before, we will find it mixed up, and not like the piece we've just looked at -- high entropy. +If our order were due to a fluctuation, we would not expect order anywhere but where we have just noticed it. +We therefore conclude the universe is not a fluctuation." +So that's good. The question is then what is the right answer? +If the universe is not a fluctuation, why did the early universe have a low entropy? +And I would love to tell you the answer, but I'm running out of time. +Here is the universe that we tell you about, versus the universe that really exists. +I just showed you this picture. +The universe is expanding for the last 10 billion years or so. +It's cooling off. +But we now know enough about the future of the universe to say a lot more. +If the dark energy remains around, the stars around us will use up their nuclear fuel, they will stop burning. +They will fall into black holes. +We will live in a universe with nothing in it but black holes. +That universe will last 10 to the 100 years -- a lot longer than our little universe has lived. +The future is much longer than the past. +But even black holes don't last forever. +They will evaporate, and we will be left with nothing but empty space. +That empty space lasts essentially forever. +However, you notice, since empty space gives off radiation, there's actually thermal fluctuations, and it cycles around all the different possible combinations of the degrees of freedom that exist in empty space. +So even though the universe lasts forever, there's only a finite number of things that can possibly happen in the universe. +They all happen over a period of time equal to 10 to the 10 to the 120 years. +So here's two questions for you. +Number one: If the universe lasts for 10 to the 10 to the 120 years, why are we born in the first 14 billion years of it, in the warm, comfortable afterglow of the Big Bang? +Why aren't we in empty space? +You might say, "Well there's nothing there to be living," but that's not right. +You could be a random fluctuation out of the nothingness. +Why aren't you? +More homework assignment for you. +So like I said, I don't actually know the answer. +I'm going to give you my favorite scenario. +Either it's just like that. There is no explanation. +This is a brute fact about the universe that you should learn to accept and stop asking questions. +Or maybe the Big Bang is not the beginning of the universe. +An egg, an unbroken egg, is a low entropy configuration, and yet, when we open our refrigerator, we do not go, "Hah, how surprising to find this low entropy configuration in our refrigerator." +That's because an egg is not a closed system; it comes out of a chicken. +Maybe the universe comes out of a universal chicken. +Maybe there is something that naturally, through the growth of the laws of physics, gives rise to universe like ours in low entropy configurations. +If that's true, it would happen more than once; we would be part of a much bigger multiverse. +That's my favorite scenario. +So the organizers asked me to end with a bold speculation. +My bold speculation is that I will be absolutely vindicated by history. +And 50 years from now, all of my current wild ideas will be accepted as truths by the scientific and external communities. +We will all believe that our little universe is just a small part of a much larger multiverse. +And even better, we will understand what happened at the Big Bang in terms of a theory that we will be able to compare to observations. +This is a prediction. I might be wrong. +But we've been thinking as a human race about what the universe was like, why it came to be in the way it did for many, many years. +It's exciting to think we may finally know the answer someday. +Thank you. +It's great being here at TED. +You know, I think there might be some presentations that will go over my head, but the most amazing concepts are the ones that go right under my feet. +The little things in life, sometimes that we forget about, like pollination, that we take for granted. +And you can't tell the story about pollinators -- bees, bats, hummingbirds, butterflies -- without telling the story about the invention of flowers and how they co-evolved over 50 million years. +I've been filming time-lapse flowers 24 hours a day, seven days a week, for over 35 years. +To watch them move is a dance I'm never going to get tired of. +It fills me with wonder, and it opens my heart. +Beauty and seduction, I believe, is nature's tool for survival, because we will protect what we fall in love with. +Their relationship is a love story that feeds the Earth. +It reminds us that we are a part of nature, and we're not separate from it. +When I heard about the vanishing bees, Colony Collapse Disorder, it motivated me to take action. +We depend on pollinators for over a third of the fruits and vegetables we eat. +And many scientists believe it's the most serious issue facing mankind. +It's like the canary in the coalmine. +If they disappear, so do we. +It reminds us that we are a part of nature and we need to take care of it. +What motivated me to film their behavior was something that I asked my scientific advisers: "What motivates the pollinators?" +Well, their answer was, "It's all about risk and reward." +Like a wide-eyed kid, I'd say, "Why is that?" +And they'd say, "Well, because they want to survive." +I go, "Why?" +"Well, in order to reproduce." +"Well, why?" +And I thought that they'd probably say, "Well, it's all about sex." +And Chip Taylor, our monarch butterfly expert, he replied, "Nothing lasts forever. +Everything in the universe wears out." +And that blew my mind. +Because I realized that nature had invented reproduction as a mechanism for life to move forward, as a life force that passes right through us and makes us a link in the evolution of life. +Rarely seen by the naked eye, this intersection between the animal world and the plant world is truly a magic moment. +It's the mystical moment where life regenerates itself, over and over again. +So here is some nectar from my film. +I hope you'll drink, tweet and plant some seeds to pollinate a friendly garden. +And always take time to smell the flowers, and let it fill you with beauty, and rediscover that sense of wonder. +Here are some images from the film. +Thank you. +Thank you very much. +Thank you. +My journey to become a polar specialist, photographing, specializing in the polar regions, began when I was four years old, when my family moved from southern Canada to Northern Baffin Island, up by Greenland. +There we lived with the Inuit in the tiny Inuit community of 200 Inuit people, where [we] were one of three non-Inuit families. +And in this community, we didn't have a television; we didn't have computers, obviously, radio. +We didn't even have a telephone. +All of my time was spent outside with the Inuit, playing. +The snow and the ice were my sandbox, and the Inuit were my teachers. +And that's where I became truly obsessed with this polar realm. +And I knew someday that I was going to do something that had to do with trying to share news about it and protect it. +I'd like to share with you, for just two minutes only, some images, a cross-section of my work, to the beautiful music by Brandi Carlile, "Have You Ever." +I don't know why National Geographic has done this, they've never done this before, but they're allowing me to show you a few images from a coverage that I've just completed that is not published yet. +National Geographic doesn't do this, so I'm very excited to be able to share this with you. +And what these images are -- you'll see them at the start of the slide show -- there's only about four images -- but it's of a little bear that lives in the Great Bear Rainforest. +It's pure white, but it's not a polar bear. +It's a spirit bear, or a Kermode bear. +There are only 200 of these bears left. +They're more rare than the panda bear. +I sat there on the river for two months without seeing one. +I thought, my career's over. +I proposed this stupid story to National Geographic. +What in the heck was I thinking? +So I had two months to sit there and figure out different ways of what I was going to do in my next life, after I was a photographer, because they were going to fire me. +Because National Geographic is a magazine; they remind us all the time: they publish pictures, not excuses. +And after two months of sitting there -- one day, thinking that it was all over, this incredible big white male came down, right beside me, three feet away from me, and he went down and grabbed a fish and went off in the forest and ate it. +And then I spent the entire day living my childhood dream of walking around with this bear through the forest. +He went through this old-growth forest and sat up beside this 400-year-old culturally modified tree and went to sleep. +And I actually got to sleep within three feet of him, just in the forest, and photograph him. +So I'm very excited to be able to show you those images and a cross-section of my work that I've done on the polar regions. +Please enjoy. +My clock is ticking. OK, let's stop. +Thank you very much. I appreciate it. +We're inundated with news all the time that the sea ice is disappearing and it's at its lowest level. +And in fact, scientists were originally saying sea ice is going to disappear in the next hundred years, then they said 50 years. +Now they're saying the sea ice in the Arctic, the summertime extent is going to be gone in the next four to 10 years. +And what does that mean? +After a while of reading this in the news, it just becomes news. +You glaze over with it. +And what I'm trying to do with my work is put faces to this. +And I want people to understand and get the concept that, if we lose ice, we stand to lose an entire ecosystem. +Projections are that we could lose polar bears, they could become extinct in the next 50 to 100 years. +And there's no better, sexier, more beautiful, charismatic megafauna species for me to hang my campaign on. +Polar bears are amazing hunters. +This was a bear I sat with for a while on the shores. +There was no ice around. +But this glacier caved into the water and a seal got on it. +And this bear swam out to that seal -- 800 lb. bearded seal -- grabbed it, swam back and ate it. +And he was so full, he was so happy and so fat eating this seal, that, as I approached him -- about 20 feet away -- to get this picture, his only defense was to keep eating more seal. +And as he ate, he was so full -- he probably had about 200 lbs of meat in his belly -- and as he ate inside one side of his mouth, he was regurgitating out the other side of his mouth. +So as long as these bears have any bit of ice they will survive, but it's the ice that's disappearing. +We're finding more and more dead bears in the Arctic. +When I worked on polar bears as a biologist 20 years ago, we never found dead bears. +And in the last four or five years, we're finding dead bears popping up all over the place. +We're seeing them in the Beaufort Sea, floating in the open ocean where the ice has melted out. +I found a couple in Norway last year. We're seeing them on the ice. +These bears are already showing signs of the stress of disappearing ice. +Here's a mother and her two year-old cub were traveling on a ship a hundred miles offshore in the middle of nowhere, and they're riding on this big piece of glacier ice, which is great for them; they're safe at this point. +They're not going to die of hypothermia. +They're going to get to land. +But unfortunately, 95 percent of the glaciers in the Arctic are also receding right now to the point that the ice is ending up on land and not injecting any ice back into the ecosystem. +These ringed seals, these are the "fatsicles" of the Arctic. +These little, fat dumplings, 150-pound bundles of blubber are the mainstay of the polar bear. +And they're not like the harbor seals that you have here. +These ringed seals also live out their entire life cycle associated and connected to sea ice. +They give birth inside the ice, and they feed on the Arctic cod that live under the ice. +And here's a picture of sick ice. +This is a piece of multi-year ice that's 12 years old. +And what scientists didn't predict is that, as this ice melts, these big pockets of black water are forming and they're grabbing the sun's energy and accelerating the melting process. +And here we are diving in the Beaufort Sea. +The visibility's 600 ft.; we're on our safety lines; the ice is moving all over the place. +I wish I could spend half an hour telling you about how we almost died on this dive. +But what's important in this picture is that you have a piece of multi-year ice, that big chunk of ice up in the corner. +In that one single piece of ice, you have 300 species of microorganisms. +And in the spring, when the sun returns to the ice, it forms the phytoplankton, grows under that ice, and then you get bigger sheets of seaweed, and then you get the zooplankton feeding on all that life. +So really what the ice does is it acts like a garden. +It acts like the soil in a garden. It's an inverted garden. +Losing that ice is like losing the soil in a garden. +Here's me in my office. +I hope you appreciate yours. +This is after an hour under the ice. +I can't feel my lips; my face is frozen; I can't feel my hands; I can't feel my feet. +And I've come up, and all I wanted to do was get out of the water. +After an hour in these conditions, it's so extreme that, when I go down, almost every dive I vomit into my regulator because my body can't deal with the stress of the cold on my head. +And so I'm just so happy that the dive is over. +I get to hand my camera to my assistant, and I'm looking up at him, and I'm going, "Woo. Woo. Woo." +Which means, "Take my camera." +And he thinks I'm saying, "Take my picture." +So we had this little communication breakdown. +But it's worth it. +I'm going to show you pictures of beluga whales, bowhead whales, and narwhals, and polar bears, and leopard seals today, but this picture right here means more to me than any other I've ever made. +I dropped down in this ice hole, just through that hole that you just saw, and I looked up under the underside of the ice, and I was dizzy; I thought I had vertigo. +I got very nervous -- no rope, no safety line, the whole world is moving around me -- and I thought, "I'm in trouble." +But what happened is that the entire underside was full of these billions of amphipods and copepods moving around and feeding on the underside of the ice, giving birth and living out their entire life cycle. +This is the foundation of the whole food chain in the Arctic, right here. +And when you have low productivity in this, in ice, the productivity in copepods go down. +This is a bowhead whale. +Supposedly, science is stating that it could be the oldest living animal on earth right now. +This very whale right here could be over 250 years old. +This whale could have been born around the start of the Industrial Revolution. +It could have survived 150 years of whaling. +And now its biggest threat is the disappearance of ice in the North because of the lives that we're leading in the South. +Narwhals, these majestic narwhals with their eight-foot long ivory tusks, don't have to be here; they could be out on the open water. +But they're forcing themselves to come up in these tiny little ice holes where they can breathe, catch a breath, because right under that ice are all the swarms of cod. +And the cod are there because they are feeding on all the copepods and amphipods. +Alright, my favorite part. +When I'm on my deathbed, I'm going to remember one story more than any other. +Even though that spirit bear moment was powerful, I don't think I'll ever have another experience like I did with these leopard seals. +Leopard seals, since the time of Shackleton, have had a bad reputation. +They've got that wryly smile on their mouth. +They've got those black sinister eyes and those spots on their body. +They look positively prehistoric and a bit scary. +And tragically in [2003], a scientist was taken down and drowned, and she was being consumed by a leopard seal. +And people were like, "We knew they were vicious. We knew they were." +And so people love to form their opinions. +And that's when I got a story idea: I want to go to Antarctica, get in the water with as many leopard seals as I possibly can and give them a fair shake -- find out if they really are these vicious animals, or if they're misunderstood. +So this is that story. +Oh, and they also happen to eat Happy Feet. +As a species, as humans, we like to say penguins are really cute, therefore, leopard seals eat them, so leopard seals are ugly and bad. +It doesn't work that way. +The penguin doesn't know it's cute, and the leopard seal doesn't know it's kind of big and monstrous. +This is just the food chain unfolding. +They're also big. +They're not these little harbor seals. +They are 12 ft. long, a thousand pounds. +And they're also curiously aggressive. +You get 12 tourists packed into a Zodiac, floating in these icy waters, and a leopard seal comes up and bites the pontoon. +The boat starts to sink, they race back to the ship and get to go home and tell the stories of how they got attacked. +All the leopard seal was doing -- it's just biting a balloon. +It just sees this big balloon in the ocean -- it doesn't have hands -- it's going to take a little bite, the boat pops, and off they go. +So after five days of crossing the Drake Passage -- isn't that beautiful -- after five days of crossing the Drake Passage, we have finally arrived at Antarctica. +I'm with my Swedish assistant and guide. +His name is Goran Ehlme from Sweden -- Goran. +And he has a lot of experience with leopard seals. I have never seen one. +So we come around the cove in our little Zodiac boat, and there's this monstrous leopard seal. +And even in his voice, he goes, "That's a bloody big seal, ya." +And this seal is taking this penguin by the head, and it's flipping it back and forth. +And what it's trying to do is turn that penguin inside-out, so it can eat the meat off the bones, and then it goes off and gets another one. +And so this leopard seal grabbed another penguin, came under the boat, the Zodiac, starting hitting the hull of the boat. +And we're trying to not fall in the water. +And we sit down, and that's when Goran said to me, "This is a good seal, ya. +It's time for you to get in the water." +And I looked at Goran, and I said to him, "Forget that." +But I think I probably used a different word starting with the letter "F." +But he was right. +He scolded me out, and said, "This is why we're here. +And you purposed this stupid story to National Geographic. +And now you've got to deliver. +And you can't publish excuses." +So I had such dry mouth -- probably not as bad as now -- but I had such, such dry mouth. +And my legs were just trembling. I couldn't feel my legs. +I put my flippers on. I could barely part my lips. +I put my snorkel in my mouth, and I rolled over the side of the Zodiac into the water. +And this was the first thing she did. +She came racing up to me, engulfed my whole camera -- and her teeth are up here and down here -- but Goran, before I had gotten in the water, had given me amazing advice. +He said, "If you get scared, you close your eyes, ya, and she'll go away." +So that's all I had to work with at that point. +But I just started to shoot these pictures. +So she did this threat display for a few minutes, and then the most amazing thing happened -- she totally relaxed. +She went off, she got a penguin. +She stopped about 10 feet away from me, and she sat there with this penguin, the penguin's flapping, and she let's it go. +The penguin swims toward me, takes off. +She grabs another one. She does this over and over. +And it dawned on me that she's trying to feed me a penguin. +Why else would she release these penguins at me? +And after she did this four or five times, she swam by me with this dejected look on her face. +You don't want to be too anthropomorphic, but I swear that she looked at me like, "This useless predator's going to starve in my ocean." +So realizing I couldn't catch swimming penguins, she'd get these other penguins and bring them slowly towards me, bobbing like this, and she'd let them go. +This didn't work. +I was laughing so hard and so emotional that my mask was flooding, because I was crying underwater, just because it was so amazing. +And so that didn't work. +So then she'd get another penguin and try this ballet-like sexy display sliding down this iceberg like this. And she would sort of bring them over to me and offer it to me. +This went on for four days. +This just didn't happen a couple of times. +And then so she realized I couldn't catch live ones, so she brought me dead penguins. +Now I've got four or five penguins floating around my head, and I'm just sitting there shooting away. +And she would often stop and have this dejected look on her face like, "Are you for real?" +Because she can't believe I can't eat this penguin. +Because in her world, you're either breeding or you're eating -- and I'm not breeding, so ... +And then that wasn't enough; she started to flip penguins onto my head. +She was trying to force-feed me. She's pushing me around. +She's trying to force-feed my camera, which is every photographer's dream. +And she would get frustrated; she'd blow bubbles in my face. +She would, I think, let me know that I was going to starve. +But yet she didn't stop. +She would not stop trying to feed me penguins. +And on the last day with this female where I thought I had pushed her too far, I got nervous because she came up to me, she rolled over on her back, and she did this deep, guttural jackhammer sound, this gok-gok-gok-gok. +And I thought, she's about to bite. +She's about to let me know she's too frustrated with me. +What had happened was another seal had snuck in behind me, and she did that to threat display. +She chased that big seal away, went and got its penguin and brought it to me. +That wasn't the only seal I got in the water with. +I got in the water with 30 other leopard seals, and I never once had a scary encounter. +They are the most remarkable animals I've ever worked with, and the same with polar bears. +And just like the polar bears, these animals depend on an icy environment. +I get emotional. Sorry. +It's a story that lives deep in my heart, and I'm proud to share this with you. +And I'm so passionate about it. +Anybody want to come with me to Antarctica or the Arctic, I'll take you; let's go. +We've got to get the story out now. Thank you very much. +Thank you. +Thank you. +Thank you. Thanks very much. +Thank you. +Thank you. +I'm thrilled to be here. +I'm going to talk about a new, old material that still continues to amaze us, and that might impact the way we think about material science, high technology -- and maybe, along the way, also do some stuff for medicine and for global health and help reforestation. +So that's kind of a bold statement. +I'll tell you a little bit more. +This material actually has some traits that make it seem almost too good to be true. +It's sustainable; it's a sustainable material that is processed all in water and at room temperature -- and is biodegradable with a clock, so you can watch it dissolve instantaneously in a glass of water or have it stable for years. +It's edible; it's implantable in the human body without causing any immune response. +It actually gets reintegrated in the body. +And it's technological, so it can do things like microelectronics, and maybe photonics do. +And the material looks something like this. +In fact, this material you see is clear and transparent. +The components of this material are just water and protein. +So this material is silk. +So it's kind of different from what we're used to thinking about silk. +So the question is, how do you reinvent something that has been around for five millennia? +The process of discovery, generally, is inspired by nature. +And so we marvel at silk worms -- the silk worm you see here spinning its fiber. +The silk worm does a remarkable thing: it uses these two ingredients, protein and water, that are in its gland, to make a material that is exceptionally tough for protection -- so comparable to technical fibers like Kevlar. +And so in the reverse engineering process that we know about, and that we're familiar with, for the textile industry, the textile industry goes and unwinds the cocoon and then weaves glamorous things. +We want to know how you go from water and protein to this liquid Kevlar, to this natural Kevlar. +So the insight is how do you actually reverse engineer this and go from cocoon to gland and get water and protein that is your starting material. +And this is an insight that came, about two decades ago, from a person that I'm very fortunate to work with, David Kaplan. +And so we get this starting material. +And so this starting material is back to the basic building block. +And then we use this to do a variety of things -- like, for example, this film. +And we take advantage of something that is very simple. +The recipe to make those films is to take advantage of the fact that proteins are extremely smart at what they do. +They find their way to self-assemble. +So the recipe is simple: you take the silk solution, you pour it, and you wait for the protein to self-assemble. +And then you detach the protein and you get this film, as the proteins find each other as the water evaporates. +But I mentioned that the film is also technological. +And so what does that mean? +It means that you can interface it with some of the things that are typical of technology, like microelectronics and nanoscale technology. +And the image of the DVD here is just to illustrate a point that silk follows very subtle topographies of the surface, which means that it can replicate features on the nanoscale. +So it would be able to replicate the information that is on the DVD. +And we can store information that's film with water and protein. +So we tried something out, and we wrote a message in a piece of silk, which is right here, and the message is over there. +And much like in the DVD, you can read it out optically. +And this requires a stable hand, so this is why I decided to do it onstage in front of a thousand people. +So let me see. +So as you see the film go in transparently through there, and then ... +And the most remarkable feat is that my hand actually stayed still long enough to do that. +So once you have these attributes of this material, then you can do a lot of things. +It's actually not limited to films. +And so the material can assume a lot of formats. +And then you go a little crazy, and so you do various optical components or you do microprism arrays, like the reflective tape that you have on your running shoes. +Or you can do beautiful things that, if the camera can capture, you can make. +You can add a third dimensionality to the film. +And if the angle is right, you can actually see a hologram appear in this film of silk. +But you can do other things. +You can imagine that then maybe you can use a pure protein to guide light, and so we've made optical fibers. +But silk is versatile and it goes beyond optics. +And you can think of different formats. +So for instance, if you're afraid of going to the doctor and getting stuck with a needle, we do microneedle arrays. +What you see there on the screen is a human hair superimposed on the needle that's made of silk -- just to give you a sense of size. +You can do bigger things. +You can do gears and nuts and bolts -- that you can buy at Whole Foods. +And the gears work in water as well. +So you think of alternative mechanical parts. +And maybe you can use that liquid Kevlar if you need something strong to replace peripheral veins, for example, or maybe an entire bone. +And so you have here a little example of a small skull -- what we call mini Yorick. +But you can do things like cups, for example, and so, if you add a little bit of gold, if you add a little bit of semiconductors you could do sensors that stick on the surfaces of foods. +You can do electronic pieces that fold and wrap. +Or if you're fashion forward, some silk LED tattoos. +So there's versatility, as you see, in the material formats, that you can do with silk. +But there are still some unique traits. +I mean, why would you want to do all these things for real? +I mentioned it briefly at the beginning; the protein is biodegradable and biocompatible. +And you see here a picture of a tissue section. +And so what does that mean, that it's biodegradable and biocompatible? +You can implant it in the body without needing to retrieve what is implanted. +Which means that all the devices that you've seen before and all the formats, in principle, can be implanted and disappear. +And what you see there in that tissue section, in fact, is you see that reflector tape. +So, much like you're seen at night by a car, then the idea is that you can see, if you illuminate tissue, you can see deeper parts of tissue because there is that reflective tape there that is made out of silk. +And you see there, it gets reintegrated in tissue. +And reintegration in the human body is not the only thing, but reintegration in the environment is important. +So you have a clock, you have protein, and now a silk cup like this can be thrown away without guilt -- unlike the polystyrene cups that unfortunately fill our landfills everyday. +It's edible, so you can do smart packaging around food that you can cook with the food. +It doesn't taste good, so I'm going to need some help with that. +But probably the most remarkable thing is that it comes full circle. +Silk, during its self-assembly process, acts like a cocoon for biological matter. +And so if you change the recipe, and you add things when you pour -- so you add things to your liquid silk solution -- where these things are enzymes or antibodies or vaccines, the self-assembly process preserves the biological function of these dopants. +So it makes the materials environmentally active and interactive. +So that screw that you thought about beforehand can actually be used to screw a bone together -- a fractured bone together -- and deliver drugs at the same, while your bone is healing, for example. +Or you could put drugs in your wallet and not in your fridge. +So we've made a silk card with penicillin in it. +And we stored penicillin at 60 degrees C, so 140 degrees Fahrenheit, for two months without loss of efficacy of the penicillin. +And so that could be --- that could be potentially a good alternative to solar powered refrigerated camels. And of course, there's no use in storage if you can't use [it]. +And so there is this other unique material trait that these materials have, that they're programmably degradable. +And so what you see there is the difference. +In the top, you have a film that has been programmed not to degrade, and in the bottom, a film that has been programmed to degrade in water. +And what you see is that the film on the bottom releases what is inside it. +So it allows for the recovery of what we've stored before. +And so this allows for a controlled delivery of drugs and for reintegration in the environment in all of these formats that you've seen. +So the thread of discovery that we have really is a thread. +Thank you. +When I was a child, I always wanted to be a superhero. +I wanted to save the world and make everyone happy. +But I knew that I'd need superpowers to make my dreams come true. +So I used to embark on these imaginary journeys to find intergalactic objects from planet Krypton, which was a lot of fun, but didn't yield much result. +When I grew up and realized that science fiction was not a good source for superpowers, I decided instead to embark on a journey of real science, to find a more useful truth. +I started my journey in California, with a UC Berkeley 30-year longitudinal study that examined the photos of students in an old yearbook, and tried to measure their success and well-being throughout their life. +By measuring the students' smiles, researchers were able to predict how fulfilling and long-lasting a subject's marriage would be, how well she would score on standardized tests of well-being, and how inspiring she would be to others. +In another yearbook, I stumbled upon Barry Obama's picture. +When I first saw his picture, I thought that his superpowers came from his super collar. +But now I know it was all in his smile. +Another aha! moment came from a 2010 Wayne State University research project that looked into pre-1950s baseball cards of Major League players. +The researchers found that the span of a player's smile could actually predict the span of his life. +Players who didn't smile in their pictures lived an average of only 72.9 years, where players with beaming smiles lived an average of almost 80 years. +The good news is that we're actually born smiling. +Using 3D ultrasound technology, we can now see that developing babies appear to smile, even in the womb. +When they're born, babies continue to smile -- initially, mostly in their sleep. +And even blind babies smile to the sound of the human voice. +Smiling is one of the most basic, biologically uniform expressions of all humans. +In studies conducted in Papua New Guinea, Paul Ekman, the world's most renowned researcher on facial expressions, found that even members of the Fore tribe, who were completely disconnected from Western culture, and also known for their unusual cannibalism rituals, attributed smiles to descriptions of situations the same way you and I would. +So from Papua New Guinea to Hollywood all the way to modern art in Beijing, we smile often, and use smiles to express joy and satisfaction. +How many people here in this room smile more than 20 times per day? +Raise your hand if you do. Oh, wow. +Outside of this room, more than a third of us smile more than 20 times per day, whereas less than 14 percent of us smile less than five. +In fact, those with the most amazing superpowers are actually children, who smile as many as 400 times per day. +Have you ever wondered why being around children, who smile so frequently, makes you smile very often? +A recent study at Uppsala University in Sweden found that it's very difficult to frown when looking at someone who smiles. +You ask why? +Because smiling is evolutionarily contagious, and it suppresses the control we usually have on our facial muscles. +Mimicking a smile and experiencing it physically helps us understand whether our smile is fake or real, so we can understand the emotional state of the smiler. +In a recent mimicking study at the University of Clermont-Ferrand in France, subjects were asked to determine whether a smile was real or fake while holding a pencil in their mouth to repress smiling muscles. +Without the pencil, subjects were excellent judges, but with the pencil in their mouth -- when they could not mimic the smile they saw -- their judgment was impaired. +In addition to theorizing on evolution in "The Origin of Species," Charles Darwin also wrote the facial feedback response theory. +His theory states that the act of smiling itself actually makes us feel better, rather than smiling being merely a result of feeling good. +In his study, Darwin actually cited a French neurologist, Guillaume Duchenne, who sent electric jolts to facial muscles to induce and stimulate smiles. +Please, don't try this at home. +In a related German study, researchers used fMRI imaging to measure brain activity before and after injecting Botox to suppress smiling muscles. +The finding supported Darwin's theory, by showing that facial feedback modifies the neural processing of emotional content in the brain, in a way that helps us feel better when we smile. +Smiling stimulates our brain reward mechanism in a way that even chocolate -- a well-regarded pleasure inducer -- cannot match. +British researchers found that one smile can generate the same level of brain stimulation as up to 2,000 bars of chocolate. +Wait -- The same study found that smiling is as stimulating as receiving up to 16,000 pounds sterling in cash. +That's like 25 grand a smile. +It's not bad. +And think about it this way: 25,000 times 400 -- quite a few kids out there feel like Mark Zuckerberg every day. +And unlike lots of chocolate, lots of smiling can actually make you healthier. +Smiling can help reduce the level of stress-enhancing hormones like cortisol, adrenaline and dopamine, increase the level of mood-enhancing hormones like endorphins, and reduce overall blood pressure. +And if that's not enough, smiling can actually make you look good in the eyes of others. +A recent study at Penn State University found that when you smile, you don't only appear to be more likable and courteous, but you actually appear to be more competent. +I decided when I was asked to do this that what I really wanted to talk about was my friend Richard Feynman. +I was one of the fortunate few that really did get to know him and enjoyed his presence. +And I'm going to tell you the Richard Feynman that I knew. +I'm sure there are other people here who could tell you about the Richard Feynman they knew, and it would probably be a different Richard Feynman. +Richard Feynman was a very complex man. +He was a man of many, many parts. +He was, of course, foremost, a very, very, very great scientist. +He was an actor. You saw him act. +I also had the good fortune to be in those lectures, up in the balcony. +They were fantastic. +He was a philosopher; he was a drum player; he was a teacher par excellence. +Richard Feynman was also a showman, an enormous showman. +He was brash, irreverent -- he was full of macho, a kind of macho one-upmanship. +He loved intellectual battle. +He had a gargantuan ego. +But the man had somehow a lot of room at the bottom. +And what I mean by that is a lot of room, in my case -- I can't speak for anybody else -- but in my case, a lot of room for another big ego. +Well, not as big as his, but fairly big. +I always felt good with Dick Feynman. +It was always fun to be with him. +He always made me feel smart. +How can somebody like that make you feel smart? +Somehow he did. +He made me feel smart. He made me feel he was smart. +He made me feel we were both smart, and the two of us could solve any problem whatever. +And in fact, we did sometimes do physics together. +We never published a paper together, but we did have a lot of fun. +He loved to win. +With these little macho games we would sometimes play -- and he didn't only play them with me, he played them with all sorts of people -- he would almost always win. +But when he didn't win, when he lost, he would laugh and seem to have just as much fun as if he had won. +I remember once he told me a story about a joke that the students played on him. +They took him -- I think it was for his birthday -- they took him for lunch. +They took him for lunch to a sandwich place in Pasadena. +It may still exist; I don't know. +Celebrity sandwiches was their thing. +You could get a Marilyn Monroe sandwich. +You could get a Humphrey Bogart sandwich. +The students went there in advance, and they arranged that they would all order Feynman sandwiches. +One after another, they came in and ordered Feynman sandwiches. +Feynman loved this story. +He told me this story, and he was really happy and laughing. +When he finished the story, I said to him, "Dick, I wonder what would be the difference between a Feynman sandwich and a Susskind sandwich." +And without skipping a beat at all, he said, "Well, they'd be about the same. +The only difference is a Susskind sandwich would have a lot more ham," ham, as in bad actor. +Well, I happened to have been very quick that day, and I said, "Yeah, but a lot less baloney." +The truth of the matter is that a Feynman sandwich had a load of ham, but absolutely no baloney. +What Feynman hated worse than anything else was intellectual pretense -- phoniness, false sophistication, jargon. +I remember sometime during the '80s, the mid-'80s, Dick and I and Sidney Coleman would meet a couple of times up in San Francisco at some very rich guy's house -- up in San Francisco for dinner. +And the last time the rich guy invited us, he also invited a couple of philosophers. +These guys were philosophers of mind. +Their specialty was the philosophy of consciousness. +And they were full of all kinds of jargon. +I'm trying to remember the words -- "monism," "dualism," categories all over the place. +I didn't know what those things meant, neither did Dick -- neither did Sydney for that matter. +And what did we talk about? +Well, what do you talk about when you talk about minds? +One thing, there's one obvious thing to talk about -- can a machine become a mind? +Can you build a machine that thinks like a human being, that is conscious? +We sat around and we talked about this -- we of course never resolved it. +But the trouble with the philosophers is that they were philosophizing when they should have been science-iphizing. +It's a scientific question after all. +And this was a very, very dangerous thing to do around Dick Feynman. +Feynman let them have it -- both barrels, right between the eyes. +It was brutal; it was funny -- ooh, it was funny. +But it was really brutal. +He really popped their balloon. +But the amazing thing was -- Feynman had to leave a little early. +He wasn't feeling too well, so he left a little bit early. +And Sidney and I were left there with the two philosophers. +And the amazing thing is these guys were flying. +They were so happy. +They had met the great man; they had been instructed by the great man; they had an enormous amount of fun having their faces shoved in the mud, and it was something special. +I realized there was something just extraordinary about Feynman, even when he did what he did. +Dick, he was my friend. I did call him Dick. +Dick and I had a certain, a little bit of a rapport. +I think it may have been a special rapport that he and I had. +We liked each other; we liked the same kind of things. +I also liked the kind of intellectual macho games. +Sometimes I would win, mostly he would win, but we both enjoyed them. +And Dick became convinced at some point that he and I had some kind of similarity of personality. +I don't think he was right. +I think the only point of similarity between us is we both like to talk about ourselves. +But he was convinced of this. +And he was curious. +The man was incredibly curious. +And he wanted to understand what it was and why it was that there was this funny connection. +And one day we were walking. We were in France. +We were in Les Houches. +We were up in the mountains, 1976. +We were up in the mountains, and Feynman said to me, he said, "Leonardo." +The reason he called me Leonardo is because we were in Europe and he was practicing his French. +And he said, "Leonardo, were you closer to your mother or to you father when you were a kid?" +And I said, "Well, my real hero was my father. +He was a working man, had a fifth grade education. +He was a master mechanic, and he taught me how to use tools. +He taught me all sorts of things about mechanical things. +He even taught me the Pythagorean theorem. +He didn't call it the hypotenuse, he called it the shortcut distance." +And Feynman's eyes just opened up. +He went off like a light bulb. +And he said he had had basically exactly the same relationship with his father. +In fact, he had been convinced at one time that, to be a good physicist, that it was very important to have had that kind of relationship with your father. +I apologize for the sexist conversation here, but this is the way it really happened. +He said that he had been absolutely convinced that this was necessary -- the necessary part of the growing up of a young physicist. +Being Dick, he, of course, wanted to check this. +He wanted to go out and do an experiment. +So, well he did. +He went out and did an experiment. +He asked all his friends that he thought were good physicists, "Was it your mom or your pop that influenced you?" +And to a man -- they were all men -- to a man, every single one of them said, "My mother." +There went that theory down the trashcan of history. +But he was very excited that he had finally met somebody who had the same experience with my father as he had with his father. +And for some time, he was convinced this was the reason we got along so well. +I don't know. Maybe. Who knows? +But let me tell you a little bit about Feynman the physicist. +Feynman's style -- no, style is not the right word. +Style makes you think of the bow tie he might have worn or the suit he was wearing. +There's something much deeper than that, but I can't think of another word for it. +Feynman's scientific style was always to look for the simplest, most elementary solution to a problem that was possible. +If it wasn't possible, you had to use something fancier. +But no doubt part of this was his great joy and pleasure in showing people that he could think more simply than they could. +But he also deeply believed, he truly believed, that if you couldn't explain something simply you didn't understand it. +In the 1950s, people were trying to figure out how superfluid helium worked. +There was a theory. +It was due to a Russian mathematical physicist, and it was a complicated theory. +I'll tell you what that theory was soon enough. +It was a terribly complicated theory full of very difficult integrals and formulas and mathematics and so forth. +And it sort of worked, but it didn't work very well. +The only way it worked is when the helium atoms were very, very far apart. +The helium atoms had to be very far apart. +And unfortunately, the helium atoms in liquid helium are right on top of each other. +Feynman decided, as a sort of amateur helium physicist, that he would try to figure it out. +He had an idea, a very clear idea. +He would try to figure out what the quantum wave function of this huge number of atoms looked like. +He would try to visualize it, guided by a small number of simple principles. +The small number of simple principles were very, very simple. +The first one was that when helium atoms touch each other, they repel. +The implication of that is that the wave function has to go to zero, it has to vanish when the helium atoms touch each other. +The other fact is that the ground state, the lowest energy state of a quantum system, the wave function is always very smooth -- has the minimum number of wiggles. +So he sat down -- and I imagine he had nothing more than a simple piece of paper and a pencil -- and he tried to write down, and did write down, the simplest function that he could think of which had the boundary conditions that the wave function vanish when things touch and is smooth in between. +He wrote down a simple thing. +It was so simple, in fact, that I suspect a really smart high school student, who didn't even have calculus, could understand what he wrote down. +The thing was that that simple thing that he wrote down explained everything that was known at the time about liquid helium and then some. +I've always wondered whether the professionals, the real professional helium physicists, were just a little bit embarrassed by this. +They had their super-powerful technique, and they couldn't do as well. +Incidentally, I'll tell you what that super-powerful technique was. +It was the technique of Feynman diagrams. +He did it again in 1968. +In 1968, in my own university -- I wasn't there at the time -- but in 1968, they were exploring the structure of the proton. +The proton is obviously made of a whole bunch of little particles. +This was more or less known. +And the way to analyze it was, of course, Feynman diagrams. +That's what Feynman diagrams were constructed for -- to understand particles. +The experiments that were going on were very simple. +You simply take the proton, and you hit it really sharply with an electron. +This was the thing the Feynman diagrams were for. +The only problem was that Feynman diagrams are complicated. +They're difficult integrals. +If you could do all of them, you would have a very precise theory. +But you couldn't; they were just too complicated. +People were trying to do them. +You could do a one loop diagram. Don't worry about one loop. +One loop, two loops -- maybe you could do a three loop diagram, but beyond that, you couldn't do anything. +Feynman said, "Forget all of that. +Just think of the proton as an assemblage of little particles -- a swarm of little particles." +He called them partons. He called them partons. +He said, "Just think of it as a swarm of partons moving real fast." +Because they're moving real fast, relativity says the internal motions go very slow. +The electron hits it suddenly. +It's like taking a very sudden snapshot of the proton. +What do you see? +You see a frozen bunch of partons. +They don't move, and because they don't move during the course of the experiment, you don't have to worry about how they're moving. +You don't have to worry about the forces between them. +You just get to think of it as a population of frozen partons. +This was the key to analyzing these experiments. +Extremely effective, it really did -- somebody said the word revolution is a bad word. +I suppose it is, so I won't say revolution -- but it certainly evolved very, very deeply our understanding of the proton, and of particles beyond that. +Well, I had some more that I was going to tell you about my connection with Feynman, what he was like, but I see I have exactly half a minute. +So I think I'll just finish up by saying I actually don't think Feynman would have liked this event. +I think he would have said, "I don't need this." +But how should we honor Feynman? +How should we really honor Feynman? +I think the answer is we should honor Feynman by getting as much baloney out of our own sandwiches as we can. +Thank you. +Think about your day for a second. +You woke up, felt fresh air on your face as you walked out the door, encountered new colleagues and had great discussions, and felt in awe when you found something new. +But I bet there's something you didn't think about today -- something so close to home that you probably don't think about it very often at all. +And that's that all the sensations, feelings, decisions and actions are mediated by the computer in your head called the brain. +Now the brain may not look like much from the outside -- a couple pounds of pinkish-gray flesh, amorphous -- but the last hundred years of neuroscience have allowed us to zoom in on the brain, and to see the intricacy of what lies within. +And they've told us that this brain is an incredibly complicated circuit made out of hundreds of billions of cells called neurons. +Now unlike a human-designed computer, where there's a fairly small number of different parts -- we know how they work, because we humans designed them -- the brain is made out of thousands of different kinds of cells, maybe tens of thousands. +They come in different shapes; they're made out of different molecules. +And they project and connect to different brain regions, and they also change different ways in different disease states. +Let's make it concrete. +There's a class of cells, a fairly small cell, an inhibitory cell, that quiets its neighbors. +It's one of the cells that seems to be atrophied in disorders like schizophrenia. +It's called the basket cell. +And this cell is one of the thousands of kinds of cell that we are learning about. +New ones are being discovered everyday. +As just a second example: these pyramidal cells, large cells, they can span a significant fraction of the brain. +They're excitatory. +And these are some of the cells that might be overactive in disorders such as epilepsy. +Every one of these cells is an incredible electrical device. +They receive input from thousands of upstream partners and compute their own electrical outputs, which then, if they pass a certain threshold, will go to thousands of downstream partners. +And this process, which takes just a millisecond or so, happens thousands of times a minute in every one of your 100 billion cells, as long as you live and think and feel. +So how are we going to figure out what this circuit does? +Ideally, we could go through the circuit and turn these different kinds of cell on and off and see whether we could figure out which ones contribute to certain functions and which ones go wrong in certain pathologies. +If we could activate cells, we could see what powers they can unleash, what they can initiate and sustain. +If we could turn them off, then we could try and figure out what they're necessary for. +And that's a story I'm going to tell you about today. +And honestly, where we've gone through over the last 11 years, through an attempt to find ways of turning circuits and cells and parts and pathways of the brain on and off, both to understand the science and also to confront some of the issues that face us all as humans. +Now before I tell you about the technology, the bad news is that a significant fraction of us in this room, if we live long enough, will encounter, perhaps, a brain disorder. +Already, a billion people have had some kind of brain disorder that incapacitates them, and the numbers don't do it justice though. +These disorders -- schizophrenia, Alzheimer's, depression, addiction -- they not only steal our time to live, they change who we are. +They take our identity and change our emotions and change who we are as people. +Now in the 20th century, there was some hope that was generated through the development of pharmaceuticals for treating brain disorders, and while many drugs have been developed that can alleviate symptoms of brain disorders, practically none of them can be considered to be cured. +And part of that's because we're bathing the brain in the chemical. +This elaborate circuit made out of thousands of different kinds of cell is being bathed in a substance. +That's also why, perhaps, most of the drugs, and not all, on the market can present some kind of serious side effect too. +Now some people have gotten some solace from electrical stimulators that are implanted in the brain. +And for Parkinson's disease, Cochlear implants, these have indeed been able to bring some kind of remedy to people with certain kinds of disorder. +But electricity also will go in all directions -- the path of least resistance, which is where that phrase, in part, comes from. +And it also will affect normal circuits as well as the abnormal ones that you want to fix. +So again, we're sent back to the idea of ultra-precise control. +Could we dial-in information precisely where we want it to go? +So when I started in neuroscience 11 years ago, I had trained as an electrical engineer and a physicist, and the first thing I thought about was, if these neurons are electrical devices, all we need to do is to find some way of driving those electrical changes at a distance. +If we could turn on the electricity in one cell, but not its neighbors, that would give us the tool we need to activate and shut down these different cells, figure out what they do and how they contribute to the networks in which they're embedded. +And also it would allow us to have the ultra-precise control we need in order to fix the circuit computations that have gone awry. +Now how are we going to do that? +Well there are many molecules that exist in nature, which are able to convert light into electricity. +You can think of them as little proteins that are like solar cells. +If we can install these molecules in neurons somehow, then these neurons would become electrically drivable with light. +And their neighbors, which don't have the molecule, would not. +There's one other magic trick you need to make this all happen, and that's the ability to get light into the brain. +And to do that -- the brain doesn't feel pain -- you can put -- taking advantage of all the effort that's gone into the Internet and communications and so on -- optical fibers connected to lasers that you can use to activate, in animal models for example, in pre-clinical studies, these neurons and to see what they do. +So how do we do this? +Around 2004, in collaboration with Gerhard Nagel and Karl Deisseroth, this vision came to fruition. +There's a certain alga that swims in the wild, and it needs to navigate towards light in order to photosynthesize optimally. +And it senses light with a little eye-spot, which works not unlike how our eye works. +In its membrane, or its boundary, it contains little proteins that indeed can convert light into electricity. +So these molecules are called channelrhodopsins. +And each of these proteins acts just like that solar cell that I told you about. +When blue light hits it, it opens up a little hole and allows charged particles to enter the eye-spot, and that allows this eye-spot to have an electrical signal just like a solar cell charging up a battery. +So what we need to do is to take these molecules and somehow install them in neurons. +And because it's a protein, it's encoded for in the DNA of this organism. +So all we've got to do is take that DNA, put it into a gene therapy vector, like a virus, and put it into neurons. +So it turned out that this was a very productive time in gene therapy, and lots of viruses were coming along. +So this turned out to be very simple to do. +And early in the morning one day in the summer of 2004, we gave it a try, and it worked on the first try. +You take this DNA and you put it into a neuron. +The neuron uses its natural protein-making machinery to fabricate these little light-sensitive proteins and install them all over the cell, like putting solar panels on a roof, and the next thing you know, you have a neuron which can be activated with light. +So this is very powerful. +One of the tricks you have to do is to figure out how to deliver these genes to the cells that you want and not all the other neighbors. +And you can do that; you can tweak the viruses so they hit just some cells and not others. +And there's other genetic tricks you can play in order to get light-activated cells. +This field has now come to be known as optogenetics. +And just as one example of the kind of thing you can do, you can take a complex network, use one of these viruses to deliver the gene just to one kind of cell in this dense network. +And then when you shine light on the entire network, just that cell type will be activated. +So for example, lets sort of consider that basket cell I told you about earlier -- the one that's atrophied in schizophrenia and the one that is inhibitory. +If we can deliver that gene to these cells -- and they're not going to be altered by the expression of the gene, of course -- and then flash blue light over the entire brain network, just these cells are going to be driven. +And when the light turns off, these cells go back to normal, so they don't seem to be averse against that. +Not only can you use this to study what these cells do, what their power is in computing in the brain, but you can also use this to try to figure out -- well maybe we could jazz up the activity of these cells, if indeed they're atrophied. +Now I want to tell you a couple of short stories about how we're using this, both at the scientific, clinical and pre-clinical levels. +One of the questions we've confronted is, what are the signals in the brain that mediate the sensation of reward? +Because if you could find those, those would be some of the signals that could drive learning. +The brain will do more of whatever got that reward. +And also these are signals that go awry in disorders such as addiction. +So if we could figure out what cells they are, we could maybe find new targets for which drugs could be designed or screened against, or maybe places where electrodes could be put in for people who have very severe disability. +So to do that, we came up with a very simple paradigm in collaboration with the Fiorella group, where one side of this little box, if the animal goes there, the animal gets a pulse of light in order to make different cells in the brain sensitive to light. +So if these cells can mediate reward, the animal should go there more and more. +And so that's what happens. +This animal's going to go to the right-hand side and poke his nose there, and he gets a flash of blue light every time he does that. +And he'll do that hundreds and hundreds of times. +These are the dopamine neurons, which some of you may have heard about, in some of the pleasure centers in the brain. +Now we've shown that a brief activation of these is enough, indeed, to drive learning. +Now we can generalize the idea. +Instead of one point in the brain, we can devise devices that span the brain, that can deliver light into three-dimensional patterns -- arrays of optical fibers, each coupled to its own independent miniature light source. +And then we can try to do things in vivo that have only been done to-date in a dish -- like high-throughput screening throughout the entire brain for the signals that can cause certain things to happen. +Or that could be good clinical targets for treating brain disorders. +And one story I want to tell you about is how can we find targets for treating post-traumatic stress disorder -- a form of uncontrolled anxiety and fear. +And one of the things that we did was to adopt a very classical model of fear. +This goes back to the Pavlovian days. +It's called Pavlovian fear conditioning -- where a tone ends with a brief shock. +The shock isn't painful, but it's a little annoying. +And over time -- in this case, a mouse, which is a good animal model, commonly used in such experiments -- the animal learns to fear the tone. +The animal will react by freezing, sort of like a deer in the headlights. +Now the question is, what targets in the brain can we find that allow us to overcome this fear? +So what we do is we play that tone again after it's been associated with fear. +But we activate targets in the brain, different ones, using that optical fiber array I told you about in the previous slide, in order to try and figure out which targets can cause the brain to overcome that memory of fear. +And so this brief video shows you one of these targets that we're working on now. +This is an area in the prefrontal cortex, a region where we can use cognition to try to overcome aversive emotional states. +And the animal's going to hear a tone -- and a flash of light occurred there. +There's no audio on this, but you can see the animal's freezing. +This tone used to mean bad news. +And there's a little clock in the lower left-hand corner, so you can see the animal is about two minutes into this. +And now this next clip is just eight minutes later. +And the same tone is going to play, and the light is going to flash again. +Okay, there it goes. Right now. +And now you can see, just 10 minutes into the experiment, that we've equipped the brain by photoactivating this area to overcome the expression of this fear memory. +Now over the last couple of years, we've gone back to the tree of life because we wanted to find ways to turn circuits in the brain off. +If we could do that, this could be extremely powerful. +If you can delete cells just for a few milliseconds or seconds, you can figure out what necessary role they play in the circuits in which they're embedded. +And we've now surveyed organisms from all over the tree of life -- every kingdom of life except for animals, we see slightly differently. +And we found all sorts of molecules, they're called halorhodopsins or archaerhodopsins, that respond to green and yellow light. +And they do the opposite thing of the molecule I told you about before with the blue light activator channelrhodopsin. +Let's give an example of where we think this is going to go. +Consider, for example, a condition like epilepsy, where the brain is overactive. +Now if drugs fail in epileptic treatment, one of the strategies is to remove part of the brain. +But that's obviously irreversible, and there could be side effects. +What if we could just turn off that brain for a brief amount of time, until the seizure dies away, and cause the brain to be restored to its initial state -- sort of like a dynamical system that's being coaxed down into a stable state. +So this animation just tries to explain this concept where we made these cells sensitive to being turned off with light, and we beam light in, and just for the time it takes to shut down a seizure, we're hoping to be able to turn it off. +And so we don't have data to show you on this front, but we're very excited about this. +Now I want to close on one story, which we think is another possibility -- which is that maybe these molecules, if you can do ultra-precise control, can be used in the brain itself to make a new kind of prosthetic, an optical prosthetic. +I already told you that electrical stimulators are not uncommon. +Seventy-five thousand people have Parkinson's deep-brain stimulators implanted. +Maybe 100,000 people have Cochlear implants, which allow them to hear. +There's another thing, which is you've got to get these genes into cells. +And new hope in gene therapy has been developed because viruses like the adeno-associated virus, which probably most of us around this room have, and it doesn't have any symptoms, which have been used in hundreds of patients to deliver genes into the brain or the body. +And so far, there have not been serious adverse events associated with the virus. +There's one last elephant in the room, the proteins themselves, which come from algae and bacteria and fungi, and all over the tree of life. +Most of us don't have fungi or algae in our brains, so what is our brain going to do if we put that in? +Are the cells going to tolerate it? Will the immune system react? +In its early days -- these have not been done on humans yet -- but we're working on a variety of studies to try and examine this, and so far we haven't seen overt reactions of any severity to these molecules or to the illumination of the brain with light. +So it's early days, to be upfront, but we're excited about it. +I wanted to close with one story, which we think could potentially be a clinical application. +Now there are many forms of blindness where the photoreceptors, our light sensors that are in the back of our eye, are gone. +And the retina, of course, is a complex structure. +Now let's zoom in on it here, so we can see it in more detail. +The photoreceptor cells are shown here at the top, and then the signals that are detected by the photoreceptors are transformed by various computations until finally that layer of cells at the bottom, the ganglion cells, relay the information to the brain, where we see that as perception. +In many forms of blindness, like retinitis pigmentosa, or macular degeneration, the photoreceptor cells have atrophied or been destroyed. +Now how could you repair this? +It's not even clear that a drug could cause this to be restored, because there's nothing for the drug to bind to. +On the other hand, light can still get into the eye. +The eye is still transparent and you can get light in. +So what if we could just take these channelrhodopsins and other molecules and install them on some of these other spare cells and convert them into little cameras. +And because there's so many of these cells in the eye, potentially, they could be very high-resolution cameras. +So this is some work that we're doing. +It's being led by one of our collaborators, Alan Horsager at USC, and being sought to be commercialized by a start-up company Eos Neuroscience, which is funded by the NIH. +And what you see here is a mouse trying to solve a maze. +It's a six-arm maze. And there's a bit of water in the maze to motivate the mouse to move, or he'll just sit there. +And the goal, of course, of this maze is to get out of the water and go to a little platform that's under the lit top port. +Now mice are smart, so this mouse solves the maze eventually, but he does a brute-force search. +He's swimming down every avenue until he finally gets to the platform. +So he's not using vision to do it. +These different mice are different mutations that recapitulate different kinds of blindness that affect humans. +And so we're being careful in trying to look at these different models so we come up with a generalized approach. +So how are we going to solve this? +We're going to do exactly what we outlined in the previous slide. +We're going to take these blue light photosensors and install them on a layer of cells in the middle of the retina in the back of the eye and convert them into a camera -- just like installing solar cells all over those neurons to make them light sensitive. +Light is converted to electricity on them. +So this mouse was blind a couple weeks before this experiment and received one dose of this photosensitive molecule in a virus. +And now you can see, the animal can indeed avoid walls and go to this little platform and make cognitive use of its eyes again. +And to point out the power of this: these animals are able to get to that platform just as fast as animals that have seen their entire lives. +So this pre-clinical study, I think, bodes hope for the kinds of things we're hoping to do in the future. +To close, I want to point out that we're also exploring new business models for this new field of neurotechnology. +We're developing these tools, but we share them freely with hundreds of groups all over the world, so people can study and try to treat different disorders. +And our hope is that, by figuring out brain circuits at a level of abstraction that lets us repair them and engineer them, we can take some of these intractable disorders that I told you about earlier, practically none of which are cured, and in the 21st century make them history. +Thank you. +Juan Enriquez: So some of the stuff is a little dense. +But the implications of being able to control seizures or epilepsy with light instead of drugs, and being able to target those specifically is a first step. +The second thing that I think I heard you say is you can now control the brain in two colors, like an on/off switch. +Ed Boyden: That's right. +JE: Which makes every impulse going through the brain a binary code. +EB: Right, yeah. +So with blue light, we can drive information, and it's in the form of a one. +And by turning things off, it's more or less a zero. +So our hope is to eventually build brain coprocessors that work with the brain so we can augment functions in people with disabilities. +JE: And in theory, that means that, as a mouse feels, smells, hears, touches, you can model it out as a string of ones and zeros. +EB: Sure, yeah. We're hoping to use this as a way of testing what neural codes can drive certain behaviors and certain thoughts and certain feelings, and use that to understand more about the brain. +JE: Does that mean that some day you could download memories and maybe upload them? +EB: Well that's something we're starting to work on very hard. +We're now working on some work where we're trying to tile the brain with recording elements too. +So we can record information and then drive information back in -- sort of computing what the brain needs in order to augment its information processing. +JE: Well, that might change a couple things. Thank you. (EB: Thank you.) +Hello, my name is Thomas Heatherwick. +I have a studio in London that has a particular approach to designing buildings. +When I was growing up, I was exposed to making and crafts and materials and invention on a small scale. +And I was there looking at the larger scale of buildings and finding that the buildings that were around me and that were being designed and that were there in the publications I was seeing felt soulless and cold. +And there on the smaller scale, the scale of an earring or a ceramic pot or a musical instrument, was a materiality and a soulfulness. +And this influenced me. +The first building I built was 20 years ago. +And since, in the last 20 years, I've developed a studio in London. +Sorry, this was my mother, by the way, in her bead shop in London. +I spent a lot of time counting beads and things like that. +I'm just going to show, for people who don't know my studio's work, a few projects that we've worked on. +This is a hospital building. +This is a shop for a bag company. +This is studios for artists. +This is a sculpture made from a million yards of wire and 150,000 glass beads the size of a golf ball. +And this is a window display. +And this is pair of cooling towers for an electricity substation next to St. Paul's Cathedral in London. +And this is a temple in Japan for a Buddhist monk. +And this is a cafe by the sea in Britain. +And just very quickly, something we've been working on very recently is we were commissioned by the mayor of London to design a new bus that gave the passenger their freedom again. +Because the original Routemaster bus that some of you may be familiar with, which had this open platform at the back -- in fact, I think all our Routemasters are here in California now actually. +But they aren't in London. +And so you're stuck on a bus. +And if the bus is going to stop and it's three yards away from the bus stop, you're just a prisoner. +But the mayor of London wanted to reintroduce buses with this open platform. +So we've been working with Transport for London, and that organization hasn't actually been responsible as a client for a new bus for 50 years. +And so we've been very lucky to have a chance to work. +The brief is that the bus should use 40 percent less energy. +So it's got hybrid drive. +And we've been working to try to improve everything from the fabric to the format and structure and aesthetics. +I was going to show four main projects. +And this is a project for a bridge. +And so we were commissioned to design a bridge that would open. +And openings seemed -- everyone loves opening bridges, but it's quite a basic thing. +I think we all kind of stand and watch. +But the bridges that we saw that opened and closed -- I'm slightly squeamish -- but I once saw a photograph of a footballer who was diving for a ball. +And as he was diving, someone had stamped on his knee, and it had broken like this. +And then we looked at these kinds of bridges and just couldn't help feeling that it was a beautiful thing that had broken. +And so this is in Paddington in London. +And it's a very boring bridge, as you can see. +It's just steel and timber. +But instead of what it is, our focus was on the way it worked. +So we liked the idea that the two farthest bits of it would end up kissing each other. +We actually had to halve its speed, because everyone was too scared when we first did it. +So that's it speeded up. +A project that we've been working on very recently is to design a new biomass power station -- so a power station that uses organic waste material. +In the news, the subject of where our future water is going to come from and where our power is going to come from is in all the papers all the time. +And we used to be quite proud of the way we generated power. +But recently, any annual report of a power company doesn't have a power station on it. +It has a child running through a field, or something like that. +And so when a consortium of engineers approached us and asked us to work with them on this power station, our condition was that we would work with them and that, whatever we did, we were not just going to decorate a normal power station. +And instead, we had to learn -- we kind of forced them to teach us. +And so we spent time traveling with them and learning about all the different elements, and finding that there were plenty of inefficiencies that weren't being capitalized on. +That just taking a field and banging all these things out isn't necessarily the most efficient way that they could work. +So we looked at how we could compose all those elements -- instead of just litter, create one composition. +And what we found -- this area is one of the poorest parts of Britain. +It was voted the worst place in Britain to live. +And there are 2,000 new homes being built next to this power station. +So it felt this has a social dimension. +It has a symbolic importance. +And we should be proud of where our power is coming from, rather than something we are necessarily ashamed of. +So we were looking at how we could make a power station, that, instead of keeping people out and having a big fence around the outside, could be a place that pulls you in. +And it has to be -- I'm trying to get my -- 250 feet high. +So it felt that what we could try to do is make a power park and actually bring the whole area in, and using the spare soil that's there on the site, we could make a power station that was silent as well. +Because just that soil could make the acoustic difference. +And we also found that we could make a more efficient structure and have a cost-effective way of making a structure to do this. +The finished project is meant to be more than just a power station. +It has a space where you could have a bar mitzvah at the top. +And it's a power park. +So people can come and really experience this and also look out all around the area, and use that height that we have to have for its function. +In Shanghai, we were invited to build -- well we weren't invited; what am I talking about. +We won the competition, and it was painful to get there. +So we won the competition to build the U.K. pavilion. +And an expo is a totally bonkers thing. +There's 250 pavilions. +It's the world's biggest ever expo that had ever happened. +So there are up to a million people there everyday. +And 250 countries all competing. +And the British government saying, "You need to be in the top five." +And so that became the governmental goal -- is, how do you stand out in this chaos, which is an expo of stimulus? +So our sense was we had to do one thing, and only one thing, instead of trying to have everything. +And so what we also felt was that whatever we did we couldn't do a cheesy advert for Britain. +But the thing that was true, the expo was about the future of cities, and particularly the Victorians pioneered integrating nature into the cities. +And the world's first public park of modern times was in Britain. +And the world's first major botanical institution is in London, and they have this extraordinary project where they've been collecting 25 percent of all the world's plant species. +So we suddenly realized that there was this thing. +And everyone agrees that trees are beautiful, and I've never met anyone who says, "I don't like trees." +And the same with flowers. +I've never met anyone who says, "I don't like flowers." +But we realized that seeds -- there's been this very serious project happening -- but that seeds -- at these major botanical gardens, seeds aren't on show. +But you just have to go to a garden center, and they're in little paper packets. +But this phenomenal project's been happening. +So we realized we had to make a project that would be seeds, some kind of seed cathedral. +But how could we show these teeny-weeny things? +And the film "Jurassic Park" actually really helped us. +Because the DNA of the dinosaur that was trapped in the amber gave us some kind of clue that these tiny things could be trapped and be made to seem precious, rather than looking like nuts. +So the challenge was, how are we going to bring light and expose these things? +We didn't want to make a separate building and have separate content. +So we were trying to think, how could we make a whole thing emanate. +By the way, we had half the budget of the other Western nations. +So that was also in the mix with the site the size of a football pitch. +And so there was one particular toy that gave us a clue. +Voice Over: The new Play-Doh Mop Top Hair Shop. +Song: We've got the Mop Tops, the Play-Doh Mop Tops Just turn the chair and grow Play-Doh hair They're the Mop Tops Thomas Heatherwick: Okay, you get the idea. +So the idea was to take these 66,000 seeds that they agreed to give us, and to take each seed and trap it in this precious optical hair and grow that through this box, very simple box element, and make it a building that could move in the wind. +So the whole thing can gently move when the wind blows. +And inside, the daylight -- each one is an optic and it brings light into the center. +And by night, artificial light in each one emanates and comes out to the outside. +And to make the project affordable, we focused our energy. +Instead of building a building as big as the football pitch, we focused it on this one element. +And the government agreed to do that and not do anything else, and focus our energy on that. +And so the rest of the site was a public space. +And with a million people there a day, it just felt like offering some public space. +We worked with an AstroTurf manufacturer to develop a mini-me version of the seed cathedral, so that, even if you're partially-sighted, that it was kind of crunchy and soft, that piece of landscape that you see there. +And then, you know when a pet has an operation and they shave a bit of the skin and get rid of the fur -- in order to get you to go into the seed cathedral, in effect, we've shaved it. +And inside there's nothing; there's no famous actor's voice; there's no projections; there's no televisions; there's no color changing. +There's just silence and a cool temperature. +And if a cloud goes past, you can see a cloud on the tips where it's letting the light through. +This is the only project that we've done where the finished thing looked more like a rendering than our renderings. +A key thing was how people would interact. +I mean, in a way it was the most serious thing you could possible do at the expo. +And I just wanted to show you. +The British government -- any government is potentially the worst client in the world you could ever possibly want to have. +And there was a lot of terror. +But there was an underlying support. +And so there was a moment when suddenly -- actually, the next thing. +This is the head of U.K. Trade and Investment, who was our client, with the Chinese children, using the landscape. +Children: One, two, three, go. +TH: I'm sorry about my stupid voice there. +So finally, texture is something. +In the projects we've been working on, these slick buildings, where they might be a fancy shape, but the materiality feels the same, is something that we've been trying to research really, and explore alternatives. +And the project that we're building in Malaysia is apartment buildings for a property developer. +And it's in a piece of land that's this site. +And the mayor of Kuala Lumpur said that, if this developer would give something that gave something back to the city, they would give them more gross floor area, buildable. +So there was an incentive for the developer to really try to think about what would be better for the city. +And the conventional thing with apartment buildings in this part of the world is you have your tower, and you squeeze a few trees around the edge, and you see cars parked. +It's actually only the first couple of floors that you really experience, and the rest of it is just for postcards. +The lowest value is actually the bottom part of a tower like this. +So if we could chop that away and give the building a small bottom, we could take that bit and put it at the top where the greater commercial value is for a property developer. +And by linking these together, we could have 90 percent of the site as a rainforest, instead of only 10 percent of scrubby trees and bits of road around buildings. +So we're building these buildings. +They're actually identical, so it's quite cost-effective. +They're just chopped at different heights. +But the key part is trying to give back an extraordinary piece of landscape, rather than engulf it. +And that's my final slide. +Thank you. +Thank you. +June Cohen: So thank you. Thank you, Thomas. You're a delight. +Since we have an extra minute here, I thought perhaps you could tell us a little bit about these seeds, which maybe came from the shaved bit of the building. +TH: These are a few of the tests we did when we were building the structure. +So there were 66,000 of these. +This optic was 22 feet long. +And so the daylight was just coming -- it was caught on the outside of the box and was coming down to illuminate each seed. +Waterproofing the building was a bit crazy. +Because it's quite hard to waterproof buildings anyway, but if you say you're going to drill 66,000 holes in it -- we had quite a time. +There was one person in the contractors who was the right size -- and it wasn't a child -- who could fit between them for the final waterproofing of the building. +JC: Thank you, Thomas. +I'm a pediatrician and an anesthesiologist, so I put children to sleep for a living. +And I'm an academic, so I put audiences to sleep for free. +But what I actually mostly do is I manage the pain management service at the Packard Children's Hospital up at Stanford in Palo Alto. +And it's from the experience from about 20 or 25 years of doing that that I want to bring to you the message this morning, that pain is a disease. +Now most of the time, you think of pain as a symptom of a disease, and that's true most of the time. +It's the symptom of a tumor or an infection or an inflammation or an operation. +But about 10 percent of the time, after the patient has recovered from one of those events, pain persists. +It persists for months and oftentimes for years, and when that happens, it is its own disease. +And before I tell you about how it is that we think that happens and what we can do about it, I want to show you how it feels for my patients. +So imagine, if you will, that I'm stroking your arm with this feather, as I'm stroking my arm right now. +Now, I want you to imagine that I'm stroking it with this. +Please keep your seat. +A very different feeling. +Now what does it have to do with chronic pain? +Imagine, if you will, these two ideas together. +Imagine what your life would be like if I were to stroke it with this feather, but your brain was telling you that this is what you are feeling -- and that is the experience of my patients with chronic pain. +In fact, imagine something even worse. +Imagine I were to stroke your child's arm with this feather, and their brain [was] telling them that they were feeling this hot torch. +That was the experience of my patient, Chandler, whom you see in the photograph. +As you can see, she's a beautiful, young woman. +She was 16 years old last year when I met her, and she aspired to be a professional dancer. +And during the course of one of her dance rehearsals, she fell on her outstretched arm and sprained her wrist. +Now you would probably imagine, as she did, that a wrist sprain is a trivial event in a person's life. +Wrap it in an ACE bandage, take some ibuprofen for a week or two, and that's the end of the story. +But in Chandler's case, that was the beginning of the story. +This is what her arm looked like when she came to my clinic about three months after her sprain. +You can see that the arm is discolored, purplish in color. +It was cadaverically cold to the touch. +The muscles were frozen, paralyzed -- dystonic is how we refer to that. +The pain had spread from her wrist to her hands, to her fingertips, from her wrist up to her elbow, almost all the way to her shoulder. +But the worst part was, not the spontaneous pain that was there 24 hours a day. +The worst part was that she had allodynia, the medical term for the phenomenon that I just illustrated with the feather and with the torch. +The lightest touch of her arm -- the touch of a hand, the touch even of a sleeve, of a garment, as she put it on -- caused excruciating, burning pain. +How can the nervous system get this so wrong? +How can the nervous system misinterpret an innocent sensation like the touch of a hand and turn it into the malevolent sensation of the touch of the flame? +Well you probably imagine that the nervous system in the body is hardwired like your house. +In your house, wires run in the wall, from the light switch to a junction box in the ceiling and from the junction box to the light bulb. +And when you turn the switch on, the light goes on. +And when you turn the switch off, the light goes off. +So people imagine the nervous system is just like that. +If you hit your thumb with a hammer, these wires in your arm -- that, of course, we call nerves -- transmit the information into the junction box in the spinal cord where new wires, new nerves, take the information up to the brain where you become consciously aware that your thumb is now hurt. +But the situation, of course, in the human body is far more complicated than that. +These cells, called glial cells, were once thought to be unimportant structural elements of the spinal cord that did nothing more than hold all the important things together, like the nerves. +But it turns out the glial cells have a vital role in the modulation, amplification and, in the case of pain, the distortion of sensory experiences. +These glial cells become activated. +Their DNA starts to synthesize new proteins, which spill out and interact with adjacent nerves, and they start releasing their neurotransmitters, and those neurotransmitters spill out and activate adjacent glial cells, and so on and so forth, until what we have is a positive feedback loop. +It's almost as if somebody came into your home and rewired your walls so that the next time you turned on the light switch, the toilet flushed three doors down, or your dishwasher went on, or your computer monitor turned off. +That's crazy, but that's, in fact, what happens with chronic pain. +And that's why pain becomes its own disease. +The nervous system has plasticity. +It changes, and it morphs in response to stimuli. +Well, what do we do about that? +What can we do in a case like Chandler's? +We treat these patients in a rather crude fashion at this point in time. +We treat them with symptom-modifying drugs -- painkillers -- which are, frankly, not very effective for this kind of pain. +We take nerves that are noisy and active that should be quiet, and we put them to sleep with local anesthetics. +And most importantly, what we do is we use a rigorous, and often uncomfortable, process of physical therapy and occupational therapy to retrain the nerves in the nervous system to respond normally to the activities and sensory experiences that are part of everyday life. +And we support all of that with an intensive psychotherapy program to address the despondency, despair and depression that always accompanies severe, chronic pain. +It's successful, as you can see from this video of Chandler, who, two months after we first met her, is now doings a back flip. +And I had lunch with her yesterday because she's a college student studying dance at Long Beach here, and she's doing absolutely fantastic. +But the future is actually even brighter. +So I have hope that in the future, the prophetic words of George Carlin will be realized, who said, "My philosophy: No pain, no pain." +Thank you very much. +So I want to take you on a trip to an alien world. +And it's not a trip that requires light-years of travel, but it's to a place where it's defined by light. +So it's a little-appreciated fact that most of the animals in our ocean make light. +I've spent most of my career studying this phenomenon called bioluminescence. +I study it because I think understanding it is critical to understanding life in the ocean where most bioluminescence occurs. +I also use it as a tool for visualizing and tracking pollution. +But mostly I'm entranced by it. +Since my my first dive in a deep-diving submersible, when I went down and turned out the lights and saw the fireworks displays, I've been a bioluminescence junky. +But I would come back from those dives and try to share the experience with words, and they were totally inadequate to the task. +I needed some way to share the experience directly. +And the first time I figured out that way was in this little single-person submersible called Deep Rover. +This next video clip, you're going to see how we stimulated the bioluminescence. +And the first thing you're going to see is a transect screen that is about a meter across. +Narrator: In front of the sub, a mess screen will come into contact with the soft-bodied creatures of the deep sea. +With the sub's lights switched off, it is possible to see their bioluminescence -- the light produced when they collide with the mesh. +This is the first time it has ever been recorded. +Edith Widder: So I recorded that with an intensified video camera that has about the sensitivity of the fully dark-adapted human eye. +Which means that really is what you would see if you took a dive in a submersible. +But just to try to prove that fact to you, I've brought along some bioluminescent plankton in what is undoubtedly a foolhardy attempt at a live demonstration. +So, if we could have the lights down and have it as dark in here as possible, I have a flask that has bioluminescent plankton in it. +And you'll note there's no light coming from them right now, either because they're dead -- or because I need to stir them up in some way for you to see what bioluminescence really looks like. +Oops. Sorry. +I spend most of my time working in the dark; I'm used to that. +Okay. +So that light was made by a bioluminescent dinoflagellate, a single-celled alga. +So why would a single-celled alga need to be able to produce light? +Well, it uses it to defend itself from its predators. +The flash is like a scream for help. +It's what's known as a bioluminescent burglar alarm, and just like the alarm on your car or your house, it's meant to cast unwanted attention onto the intruder, thereby either leading to his capture or scaring him away. +There's a lot of animals that use this trick, for example this black dragonfish. +It's got a light organ under its eye. +It's got a chin barbel. +It's got a lot of other light organs you can't see, but you'll see in here in a minute. +So we had to chase this in the submersible for quite sometime, because the top speed of this fish is one knot, which was the top speed of the submersible. +But it was worth it, because we caught it in a special capture device, brought it up into the lab on the ship, and then everything on this fish lights up. +It's unbelievable. +The light organs under the eyes are flashing. +That chin barbel is flashing. +It's got light organs on its belly that are flashing, fin lights. +It's a scream for help; it's meant to attract attention. +It's phenomenal. +And you normally don't get to see this because we've exhausted the luminescence when we bring them up in nets. +There's other ways you can defend yourself with light. +For example, this shrimp releases its bioluminescent chemicals into the water just the way a squid or an octopus would release an ink cloud. +This blinds or distracts the predator. +This little squid is called the fire shooter because of its ability to do this. +Now it may look like a tasty morsel, or a pig's head with wings -- but if it's attacked, it puts out a barrage of light -- in fact, a barrage of photon torpedoes. +I just barely got the lights out in time for you to be able to see those gobs of light hitting the transect screen and then just glowing. +It's phenomenal. +So there's a lot of animals in the open ocean -- most of them that make light. +And we have a pretty good idea, for most of them, why. +They use it for finding food, for attracting mates, for defending against predators. +But when you get down to the bottom of the ocean, that's where things get really strange. +And some of these animals are probably inspiration for the things you saw in "Avatar," but you don't have to travel to Pandora to see them. +They're things like this. +This is a golden coral, a bush. +It grows very slowly. +In fact, it's thought that some of these are as much as 3,000 years old, which is one reason that bottom trawling should not be allowed. +The other reason is this amazing bush glows. +So if you brush up against it, any place you brushed against it, you get this twinkling blue-green light that's just breathtaking. +And you see things like this. +This looks like something out of a Dr. Seuss book -- just all manner of creatures all over this thing. +And these are flytrap anemones. +Now if you poke it, it pulls in its tentacles. +But if you keep poking it, it starts to produce light. +And it actually ends up looking like a galaxy. +It produces these strings of light, presumably as some form of defense. +There are starfish that can make light. +And there are brittle stars that produce bands of light that dance along their arms. +This looks like a plant, but it's actually an animal. +And it anchors itself in the sand by blowing up a balloon on the end of its stock. +So it can actually hold itself in very strong currents, as you see here. +But if we collect it very gently, and we bring it up into the lab and just squeeze it at the base of the stock, it produces this light that propagates from stem to the plume, changing color as it goes, from green to blue. +Colorization and sound effects added for you viewing pleasure. +But we have no idea why it does that. +Here's another one. This is also a sea pen. +It's got a brittle star hitching a ride. +It's a green saber of light. +And like the one you just saw, it can produce these as bands of light. +So if I squeeze the base, the bands go from base to tip. +If I squeeze the tip, they go from tip to base. +So what do you think happens if you squeeze it in the middle? +I'd be very interested in your theories about what that's about. +So there's a language of light in the deep ocean, and we're just beginning to understand it, and one way we're going about that is we're imitating a lot of these displays. +This is an optical lure that I've used. +We call it the electronic jellyfish. +It's just 16 blue LEDs that we can program to do different types of displays. +And we view it with a camera system I developed called Eye-in-the-Sea that uses far red light that's invisible to most animals, so it's unobtrusive. +So I just want to show you some of the responses we've elicited from animals in the deep sea. +So the camera's black and white. +It's not high-resolution. +And what you're seeing here is a bait box with a bunch of -- like the cockroaches of the ocean -- there are isopods all over it. +And right in the front is the electronic jellyfish. +And when it starts flashing, it's just going to be one of the LEDs that's flashing very fast. +But as soon as it starts to flash -- and it's going to look big, because it blooms on the camera -- I want you to look right here. +There's something small there that responds. +We're talking to something. +It looks like a little of string pearls basically -- in fact, three strings of pearls. +And this was very consistent. +This was in the Bahamas at about 2,000 feet. +We basically have a chat room going on here, because once it gets started, everybody's talking. +And I think this is actually a shrimp that's releasing its bioluminescent chemicals into the water. +But the cool thing is, we're talking to it. +We don't know what we're saying. +Personally, I think it's something sexy. +And then finally, I want to show you some responses that we recorded with the world's first deep-sea webcam, which we had installed in Monterey Canyon last year. +We've only just begun to analyze all of this data. +This is going to be a glowing source first, which is like bioluminescent bacteria. +And it is an optical cue that there's carrion on the bottom of the ocean. +So this scavenger comes in, which is a giant sixgill shark. +And I can't claim for sure that the optical source brought it in, because there's bait right there. +But if it had been following the odor plume, it would have come in from the other direction. +And it does actually seem to be trying to eat the electronic jellyfish. +That's a 12-foot-long giant sixgill shark. +Okay, so this next one is from the webcam, and it's going to be this pinwheel display. +And this is a burglar alarm. +And that was a Humboldt squid, a juvenile Humboldt squid, about three feet long. +This is at 3,000 feet in Monterey Canyon. +But if it's a burglar alarm, you wouldn't expect it to attack the jellyfish directly. +It's supposed to be attacking what's attacking the jellyfish. +But we did see a bunch of responses like this. +This guy is a little more contemplative. +"Hey, wait a minute. +There's supposed to be something else there." +He's thinking about it. +But he's persistent. +He keeps coming back. +And then he goes away for a few seconds to think about it some more, and thinks, "Maybe if I come in from a different angle." +Nope. +So we are starting to get a handle on this, but only just the beginnings. +We need more eyes on the process. +So if any of you ever get a chance to take a dive in a submersible, by all means, climb in and take the plunge. +This is something that should be on everybody's bucket list, because we live on an ocean planet. +More than 90 percent, 99 percent, of the living space on our planet is ocean. +It's a magical place filled with breathtaking light shows and bizarre and wondrous creatures, alien life forms that you don't have to travel to another planet to see. +But if you do take the plunge, please remember to turn out the lights. +But I warn you, it's addictive. +Thank you. +I'm used to thinking of the TED audience as a wonderful collection of some of the most effective, intelligent, intellectual, savvy, worldly and innovative people in the world. +And I think that's true. +However, I also have reason to believe that many, if not most, of you are actually tying your shoes incorrectly. +Now I know that seems ludicrous. +I know that seems ludicrous. +And believe me, I lived the same sad life until about three years ago. +And what happened to me was I bought, what was for me, a very expensive pair of shoes. +But those shoes came with round nylon laces, and I couldn't keep them tied. +So I went back to the store and said to the owner, "I love the shoes, but I hate the laces." +He took a look and said, "Oh, you're tying them wrong." +Now up until that moment, I would have thought that, by age 50, one of the life skills that I had really nailed was tying my shoes. +But not so -- let me demonstrate. +This is the way that most of us were taught to tie our shoes. +Now as it turns out -- thank you. +Wait, there's more. +As it turns out -- there's a strong form and a weak form of this knot, and we were taught the weak form. +And here's how to tell. +If you pull the strands at the base of the knot, you will see that the bow will orient itself down the long axis of the shoe. +That's the weak form of the knot. +But not to worry. +If we start over and simply go the other direction around the bow, we get this, the strong form of the knot. +And if you pull the cords under the knot, you will see that the bow orients itself along the transverse axis of the shoe. +This is a stronger knot. +It will come untied less often. +It will let you down less, and not only that, it looks better. +We're going to do this one more time. +Start as usual -- go the other way around the loop. +This is a little hard for children, but I think you can handle it. +Pull the knot. +There it is: the strong form of the shoe knot. +Now, in keeping with today's theme, I'd like to point out -- something you already know -- that sometimes a small advantage someplace in life can yield tremendous results someplace else. +Live long and prosper. +So I think data can actually make us more human. +We're collecting and creating all kinds of data about how we're living our lives, and it's enabling us to tell some amazing stories. +Recently, a wise media theorist Tweeted, "The 19th century culture was defined by the novel, the 20th century culture was defined by the cinema, and the culture of the 21st century will be defined by the interface." +And I believe this is going to prove true. +Our lives are being driven by data, and the presentation of that data is an opportunity for us to make some amazing interfaces that tell great stories. +So I'm going to show you a few of the projects that I've been working on over the last couple years that reflect on our lives and our systems. +This is a project called Flight Patterns. +What you're looking at is airplane traffic over North America for a 24-hour period. +As you see, everything starts to fade to black, and you see people going to sleep. +Followed by that, you see on the West coast planes moving across, the red-eye flights to the East coast. +And you'll see everybody waking up on the East coast, followed by European flights coming in the upper right-hand corner. +Everybody's moving from the East coast to the West coast. +You see San Francisco and Los Angeles start to make their journeys down to Hawaii in the lower left-hand corner. +I think it's one thing to say there's 140,000 planes being monitored by the federal government at any one time, and it's another thing to see that system as it ebbs and flows. +This is a time-lapse image of that exact same data, but I've color-coded it by type, so you can see the diversity of aircraft that are in the skies above us. +And I started making these, and I put them into Google Maps and allow you to zoom in and see individual airports and the patterns that are occurring there. +So here we can see the white represents low altitudes, and the blue are higher altitudes. +And you can zoom in. This is taking a look at Atlanta. +You can see this is a major shipping airport, and there's all kinds of activity there. +You can also toggle between altitude for model and manufacturer. +See again, the diversity. +And you can scroll around and see some of the different airports and the different patterns that they have. +This is scrolling up the East coast. +You can see some of the chaos that's happening in New York with the air traffic controllers having to deal with all those major airports next to each other. +So zooming back out real quick, we see, again, the U.S. -- you get Florida down in the right-hand corner. +Moving across to the West coast, you see San Francisco and Los Angeles -- big low-traffic zones across Nevada and Arizona. +And that's us down there in L.A. and Long Beach on the bottom. +I started taking a look as well at different perimeters, because you can choose what you want to pull out from the data. +This is looking at ascending versus descending flights. +And you can see, over time, the ways the airports change. +You see the holding patterns that start to develop in the bottom of the screen. +And you can see, eventually the airport actually flips directions. +So this is another project that I worked on with the Sensible Cities Lab at MIT. +This is visualizing international communications. +So it's how New York communicates with other international cities. +And we set this up as a live globe in the Museum of Modern Art in New York for the Design the Elastic Mind exhibition. +And it had a live feed with a 24-hour offset, so you could see the changing relationship and some demographic info coming through AT&T's data and revealing itself. +This is another project I worked on with Sensible Cities Lab and CurrentCity.org. +And it's visualizing SMS messages being sent in the city of Amsterdam. +So you're seeing the daily ebb and flow of people sending SMS messages from different parts of the city, until we approach New Year's Eve, where everybody says, "Happy New Year!" +So this is an interactive tool that you can move around and see different parts of the city. +This is looking at another event. This is called Queen's Day. +So again, you get this daily ebb and flow of people sending SMS messages from different parts of the city. +And then you're going to see people start to gather in the center of the city to celebrate the night before, which happens right here. +And then you can see people celebrating the next day. +And you can pause it and step back and forth and see different phases. +So now on to something completely different. +Some of you may recognize this. +This is Baron Wolfgang von Kempelen's mechanical chess playing machine. +And it's this amazing robot that plays chess extremely well, except for one thing: it's not a robot at all. +There's actually a legless man that sits in that box and controls this chess player. +This was the inspiration for a web service by Amazon called the Mechanical Turk -- named after this guy. +And it's based on the premise that there are certain things that are easy for people, but really difficult for computers. +So they made this web service and said, "Any programmer can write a piece of software and tap into the minds of thousands of people." +The nerdy side of me thought, "Wow, this is amazing. +I can tap into thousands of people's minds." +And the other nerdy side of me thought, "This is horrible. This is completely bizarre. +What does this mean for the future of mankind, where we're all plugged into this borg?" +I was probably being a little extreme. +But what does this mean when we have no context for what it is that we're working on, and we're just doing these little labors? +So I created this drawing tool. +I asked people to draw a sheep facing to the left. +And I said, "I'll pay you two cents for your contribution." +And I started collecting sheep. +And I collected a lot, a lot of different sheep. +Lots of sheep. +I took the first 10,000 sheep that I collected, and I put them on a website called TheSheepMarket.com where you can actually buy collections of 20 sheep. +You can't pick individual sheep, but you can buy a single plate block of stamps as a commodity. +And juxtaposed against this grid, you see actually, by rolling over each individual one, the humanity behind this hugely mechanical process. +I think there's something really interesting to watching people as they go through this creative toil -- something we can all relate to, this creative process of trying to come up with something from nothing. +I think it was really interesting to juxtapose this humanity versus this massive distributed grid. +Kind of amazing what some people did. +So here's a few statistics from the project. +Approximate collection rate of 11 sheep per hour, which would make a working wage of 69 cents per hour. +There were 662 rejected sheep that didn't meet "sheep-like" criteria and were thrown out of the flock. +The amount of time spent drawing ranged from four seconds to 46 minutes. +That gives you an idea of the different types of motivations and dedication. +And there were 7,599 people that contributed to the project, or were unique IP addresses -- so about how many people contributed. +But only one of them out of the 7,599 said this. +Which I was pretty surprised by. +I expected people to be wondering, "Why did I draw a sheep?" +And I think it's a pretty valid question. +And there's a lot of reasons why I chose sheep. +Sheep were the first animal to be raised from mechanically processed byproducts, the first to be selectively bred for production traits, the first animal to be cloned. +Obviously, we think of sheep as followers. +And there's this reference to "Le Petit Prince" where the narrator asks the prince to draw a sheep. +He draws sheep after sheep. +The narrator's only appeased when he draws a box. +And he says, "It's not about a scientific rendering of a sheep. +It's about your own interpretation and doing something different." +And I like that. +So this is a clip from Charlie Chaplin's "Modern Times." +It's showing Charlie Chaplin dealing with some of the major changes during the Industrial Revolution. +So there were no longer shoe makers, but now there are people slapping soles on people's shoes. +And the whole idea of one's relationship to their work changed a lot. +So I thought this was an interesting clip to divide into 16 pieces and feed into the Mechanical Turk with a drawing tool. +This basically allowed -- what you see on the left side is the original frame, and on the right side you see that frame as interpreted by 16 people who have no idea what it is they're doing. +And this was the inspiration for a project that I worked on with my friend Takashi Kawashima. +We decided to use the Mechanical Turk for exactly what it was meant for, which is making money. +So we took a hundred dollar bill and divided it into 10,000 teeny pieces, and we fed those into the Mechanical Turk. +We asked people to draw what it was that they saw. +But here there was no sheep-like criteria. +People, if they drew a stick figure or a smiley face, it actually made it into the bill. +So what you see is actually a representation of how well people did what it was they were asked to do. +So we took these hundred dollar bills, and we put them on a website called TenThousandsCents.com, where you can browse through and see all the individual contributions. +And you can also trade real hundred-dollar bills for fake hundred-dollar bills and make a donation to the Hundred Dollar Laptop Project, which is now known as One Laptop Per Child. +This is again showing all the different contributions. +You see some people did beautiful stipple renderings, like this one on top -- spent a long time making realistic versions. +And other people would draw stick figures or smiley faces. +Here on the right-hand side in the middle you see this one guy writing, "$0.01!!! Really?" +That's all I'm getting paid for this? +So the last Mechanical Turk project I'm going to talk to you about is called Bicycle Built for 2000. +This is a collaboration with my friend Daniel Massey. +You may recognize these two guys. +This is Max Mathews and John Kelly from Bell Labs in the '60s, where they created the song "Daisy Bell," which was the world's first singing computer. +You may recognize it from "2001: A Space Odyssey." +When HAL's dying at the end of the film he starts singing this song, as a reference to when computers became human. +So we resynthesized this song. +This is what that sounded like. +We broke down all the individual notes in the singing as well as the phonemes in the singing. +Daisy Bell: Daisy, Daisy ... Aaron Koblin: And we took all of those individual pieces, and we fed them into another Turk request. +This is what it would look like if you went to the site. +You type in your code, but you first test your mic. +You'd be fed a simple audio clip. +And then you'd do your best to recreate that with your own voice. +After previewing it and confirming it's what you submitted, you could submit it into the Mechanical Turk with no other context. +And this is what we first got back from the very first set of submissions. +We wanted to see how this applies to collaborative, distributed music making, where nobody has any idea what it is they're working on. +So if you go to the BicycleBuiltforTwoThousand.com you can actually hear what all this sounds like together. +I'm sorry for this. +And I was writing software to visualize laser scanners. +So basically motion through 3D space. +And this was seen by a director in L.A. named James Frost who said, "Wait a minute. +You mean we can shoot a music video without actually using any video?" +So we did exactly that. +We made a music video for one of my favorite bands, Radiohead. +And I think one of my favorite parts of this project was not just shooting a video with lasers, but we also open sourced it, and we made it released as a Google Code project, where people could download a bunch of the data and some source code to build their own versions of it. +And people were making some amazing things. +This is actually two of my favorites: the pin-board Thom Yorke and a LEGO Thom Yorke. +A whole YouTube channel of people submitting really interesting content. +More recently, somebody even 3D-printed Thom Yorke's head, which is a little creepy, but pretty cool. +So with everybody making so much amazing stuff and actually understanding what it was they were working on, I was really interested in trying to make a collaborative project where people were working together to build something. +And I met a music video director named Chris Milk. +And we started bouncing around ideas to make a collaborative music video project. +But we knew we really needed the right person to kind of rally behind and build something for. +So we put the idea on the back burner for a few months. +And he ended up talking to Rick Rubin, who was finishing up Johnny Cash's final album called "Ain't No Grave." +The lyrics to the leading track are "Ain't no grave can hold my body down." +So we thought this was the perfect project to build a collaborative memorial and a virtual resurrection for Johnny Cash. +So I teamed up with my good friend Ricardo Cabello, also known as Mr. doob, who's a much better programmer than I am, and he made this amazing Flash drawing tool. +As you know, an animation is a series of images. +So what we did was cross-cut a bunch of archival footage of Johnny Cash, and at eight frames a second, we allowed individuals to draw a single frame that would get woven into this dynamically changing music video. +So I don't have time to play the entire thing for you, but I want to show you two short clips. +One is the beginning of the music video. +And that's going to be followed by a short clip of people who have already contributed to the project talking about it briefly. +Collaborator: I felt really sad when he died. +And I just thought it'd be wonderful, it'd be really nice to contribute something to his memory. +Collaborator Two: It really allows this last recording of his to be a living, breathing memorial. +Collaborator Three: For all of the frames to be drawn by fans, each individual frame, it's got a very powerful feeling to it. +Collaborator Four: I've seen everybody from Japan, Venezuela, to the States, to Knoxville, Tennessee. +Collaborator Five: As much as is different from frame to frame, it really is personal. +Collaborator Six: Watching the video in my room, I could see me not understanding at the beginning of it. +And I just worked and worked through problems, until my little wee battles that I was fighting within the picture all began to resolve themselves. +You can actually see the point when I know what I'm doing, and a lot of light and dark comes into it. +And in a weird way, that's what I actually like about Johnny Cash's music as well. +It's the sum total of his life, all the things that had happened -- the bad things, the good things. +You're hearing a person's life. +AK: So if you go to the website JohnnyCashProject.com, what you'll see is the video playing above. +And below it are all the individual frames that people have been submitting to the project. +So this isn't finished at all, but it's an ongoing project where people can continue to collaborate. +If you roll over any one of those individual thumbnails, you can see the person who drew that individual thumbnail and where they were located. +And if you find one that you're interested in, you can actually click on it and open up an information panel where you're able to rate that frame, which helps it bubble up to the top. +And you can also see the way that it was drawn. +Again, you can get the playback and personal contribution. +In addition to that, it's listed, the artist's name, the location, how long they spent drawing it. +And you can pick a style. So this one was tagged "Abstract." +But there's a bunch of different styles. +And you can sort the video a number of different ways. +You can say, "I want to see the pointillist version or the sketchy version or the realistic version. +And then this is, again, the abstract version, which ends up getting a little bit crazy. +So the last project I want to talk to you about is another collaboration with Chris Milk. +And this is called "The Wilderness Downtown." +It's an online music video for the Arcade Fire. +Chris and I were really amazed by the potential now with modern web browsers, where you have HTML5 audio and video and the power of JavaScript to render amazingly fast. +And we wanted to push the idea of the music video that was meant for the Web beyond the four-by-three or sixteen-by-nine window and try to make it play out and choreograph throughout the screen. +But most importantly, I think, we really wanted to make an experience that was unlike the Johnny Cash Project, where you had a small group of people spending a lot of time to contribute something for everyone. +What if we had a very low commitment, but delivered something individually unique to each person who contributed? +So the project starts off by asking you to enter the address of the home where you grew up. +And you type in the address -- it actually creates a music video specifically for you, pulling in Google maps and Streetview images into the experience itself. +So this should really be seen at home with you typing in your own address, but I'm going to give you a little preview of what you can expect. +And as we collect more and more personally and socially relevant data, we have an opportunity, and maybe even an obligation, to maintain the humanity and tell some amazing stories as we explore and collaborate together. +Thanks a lot. +over the next 18 minutes a pretty incredible idea. +Actually, it's a really big idea. +But to get us started, I want to ask if everyone could just close your eyes for two seconds and try and think of a technology or a bit of science that you think has changed the world. +Now I bet, in this audience, you're thinking of some really incredible technology, some stuff that I haven't even heard of, I'm absolutely sure. +But I'm also sure, pretty sure, that absolutely nobody is thinking of this. +This is a polio vaccine. +And it's a great thing actually that nobody's had to think about it here today because it means that we can take this for granted. +This is a great technology. +We can take it completely for granted. +But it wasn't always that way. +Even here in California, if we were to go back just a few years, it was a very different story. +People were terrified of this disease. +They were terrified of polio, and it would cause public panic. +And it was because of scenes like this. +In this scene, people are living in an iron lung. +These are people who were perfectly healthy two or three days before, and then two days later, they can no longer breathe, and this polio virus has paralyzed not only their arms and their legs, but also their breathing muscles. +And they were going to spend the rest of their lives, usually, in this iron lung to breathe for them. +This disease was terrifying. +There was no cure, and there was no vaccine. +The disease was so terrifying that the president of the United States launched an extraordinary national effort to find a way to stop it. +Twenty years later, they succeeded and developed the polio vaccine. +It was hailed as a scientific miracle in the late 1950s. +Finally, a vaccine that could stop this awful disease, and here in the United States it had an incredible impact. +As you can see, the virus stopped, and it stopped very, very fast. +But this wasn't the case everywhere in the world. +And it happened so fast in the United States, however, that even just last month Jon Stewart said this: Jon Stewart: Where is polio still active? +Because I thought that had been eradicated in the way that smallpox had been eradicated. +Bruce Aylward: Oops. Jon, polio's almost been eradicated. +But the reality is that polio still exists today. +We made this map for Jon to try to show him exactly where polio still exists. +This is the picture. +There's not very much left in the world. +But the reason there's not very much left is because there's been an extraordinary public/private partnership working behind the scenes, almost unknown, I'm sure to most of you here today. +It's been working for 20 years to try and eradicate this disease, and it's got it down to these few cases that you can see here on this graphic. +But just last year, we had an incredible shock and realized that almost just isn't good enough with a virus like polio. +And this is the reason: in two countries that hadn't had this disease for more than probably a decade, on opposite sides of the globe, there was suddenly terrible polio outbreaks. +Hundreds of people were paralyzed. +Hundreds of people died -- children as well as adults. +And in both cases, we were able to use genetic sequencing to look at the polio viruses, and we could tell these viruses were not from these countries. +They had come from thousands of miles away. +And in one case, it originated on another continent. +And not only that, but when they came into these countries, then they got on commercial jetliners probably and they traveled even farther to other places like Russia, where, for the first time in over a decade last year, children were crippled and paralyzed by a disease that they had not seen for years. +Now all of these outbreaks that I just showed you, these are under control now, and it looks like they'll probably stop very, very quickly. +But the message was very clear. +Polio is still a devastating, explosive disease. +It's just happening in another part of the world. +And our big idea is that the scientific miracle of this decade should be the complete eradication of poliomyelitis. +So I want to tell you a little bit about what this partnership, the Polio Partnership, is trying to do. +We're not trying to control polio. +We're not trying to get it down to just a few cases, because this disease is like a root fire; it can explode again if you don't snuff it out completely. +So what we're looking for is a permanent solution. +We want a world in which every child, just like you guys, can take for granted So we're looking for a permanent solution, and this is where we get lucky. +This is one of the very few viruses in the world where there are big enough cracks in its armor that we can try to do something truly extraordinary. +This virus can only survive in people. +It can't live for a very long time in people. +It doesn't survive in the environment hardly at all. +And we've got pretty good vaccines, as I've just showed you. +So we are trying to wipe out this virus completely. +What the polio eradication program is trying to do is to kill the virus itself that causes polio everywhere on Earth. +Now we don't have a great track record when it comes to doing something like this, to eradicating diseases. +It's been tried six times in the last century, and it's been successful exactly once. +And this is because disease eradication, it's still the venture capital of public health. +The risks are massive, but the pay-off -- economic, humanitarian, motivational -- it's absolutely huge. +One congressman here in the United States thinks that the entire investment that the U.S. put into smallpox eradication pays itself off every 26 days -- in foregone treatment costs and vaccination costs. +And if we can finish polio eradication, the poorest countries in the world are going to save over 50 billion dollars in the next 25 years alone. +So those are the kind of stakes that we're after. +But smallpox eradication was hard; it was very, very hard. +And polio eradication, in many ways, is even tougher, and there's a few reasons for that. +The first is that, when we started trying to eradicate polio about 20 years ago, more than twice as many countries were infected than had been when we started off with smallpox. +And there were more than 10 times as many people living in these countries. +So it was a massive effort. +The second challenge we had was -- in contrast to the smallpox vaccine, which was very stable, and a single dose protected you for life -- the polio vaccine is incredibly fragile. +It deteriorates so quickly in the tropics that we've had to put this special vaccine monitor on every single vial so that it will change very quickly when it's exposed to too much heat, and we can tell that it's not a good vaccine to use on a child -- it's not potent; it's not going to protect them. +Even then, kids need many doses of the vaccine. +But the third challenge we have -- and probably even bigger one, the biggest challenge -- is that, in contrast to smallpox where you could always see your enemy -- every single person almost who was infected with smallpox had this telltale rash. +So you could get around the disease; you could vaccinate around the disease and cut it off. +With polio it's almost completely different. +The vast majority of people who are infected with the polio virus show absolutely no sign of the disease. +So you can't see the enemy most of the time, and as a result, we've needed a very different approach to eradicate polio than what was done with smallpox. +We've had to create one of the largest social movements in history. +There's over 10 million people, probably 20 million people, largely volunteers, who have been working over the last 20 years in what has now been called the largest internationally-coordinated operation in peacetime. +These people, these 20 million people, vaccinate over 500 million children every single year, multiple times at the peak of our operation. +Now giving the polio vaccine is simple. +It's just two drops, like that. +But reaching 500 million people is much, much tougher. +And these vaccinators, these volunteers, they have got to dive headlong into some of the toughest, densest urban slums in the world. +They've got to trek under sweltering suns to some of the most remote, difficult to reach places in the world. +And they also have to dodge bullets, because we have got to operate during shaky cease-fires and truces to try and vaccinate children, even in areas affected by conflict. +One reporter who was watching our program in Somalia about five years ago -- a place which has eradicated polio, not once, but twice, because they got reinfected. +He was sitting outside of the road, watching one of these polio campaigns unfold, and a few months later he wrote: "This is foreign aid at its most heroic." +And these heroes, they come from every walk of life, all sorts of backgrounds. +But one of the most extraordinary is Rotary International. +This is a group whose million-strong army of volunteers have been working to eradicate polio for over 20 years. +They're right at the center of the whole thing. +Now it took years to build up the infrastructure for polio eradication -- more than 15 years, much longer than it should have -- but once it was built, the results were striking. +Within a couple of years, every country that started polio eradication rapidly eradicated all three of their polio viruses, with the exception of four countries that you see here. +And in each of those, it was only part of the country. +And then, by 1999, one of the three polio viruses that we were trying to eradicate had been completely eradicated worldwide -- proof of concept. +And then today, there's been a 99 percent reduction -- greater than 99 percent reduction -- in the number of children who are being paralyzed by this awful disease. +When we started, over 20 years ago, 1,000 children were being paralyzed every single day by this virus. +Last year, it was 1,000. +And at the same time, the polio eradication program has been working to help with a lot of other areas. +It's been working to help control pandemic flu, SARS for example. +It's also tried to save children by doing other things -- giving vitamin A drops, giving measles shots, giving bed nets against malaria even during some of these campaigns. +But the most exciting thing that the polio eradication program has been doing has been to force us, the international community, to reach every single child, every single community, the most vulnerable people in the world, with the most basic of health services, irrespective of geography, poverty, culture and even conflict. +So things were looking very exciting, and then about five years ago, this virus, this ancient virus, started to fight back. +The first problem we ran into was that, in these last four countries, the strongholds of this virus, we just couldn't seem to get the virus rooted out. +And then to make the matters even worse, the virus started to spread out of these four places, especially northern India and northern Nigeria, into much of Africa, Asia, and even into Europe, causing horrific outbreaks in places that had not seen this disease for decades. +And then, in one of the most important, tenacious and toughest reservoirs of the polio virus in the world, we found that our vaccine was working half as well as it should have. +In conditions like this, the vaccine just couldn't get the grip it needed to in the guts of these children and protect them the way that it needed to. +Now at that time, there was a great, as you can imagine, frustration -- let's call it frustration -- it started to grow very, very quickly. +And all of a sudden, some very important voices in the world of public health started to say, "Hang on. +We should abandon this idea of eradication. +Let's settle for control -- that's good enough." +Now as seductive as the idea of control sounds, it's a false premise. +The brutal truth is, if we don't have the will or the skill, or even the money that we need to reach children, the most vulnerable children in the world, with something as simple as an oral polio vaccine, then pretty soon, more than 200,000 children are again going to be paralyzed by this disease every single year. +There's absolutely no question. +These are children like Umar. +Umar is seven years old, and he's from northern Nigeria. +He lives in a family home there with his eight brothers and sisters. +Umar also has polio. +Umar was paralyzed for life. +His right leg was paralyzed in 2004. +This leg, his right leg, now takes an awful beating because he has to half-crawl, because it's faster to move that way to keep up with his friends, keep up with his brothers and sisters, than to get up on his crutches and walk. +But Umar is a fantastic student. He's an incredible kid. +As you probably can't see the detail here, but this is his report card, and you'll see, he's got perfect scores. +He got 100 percent in all the important things, like nursery rhymes, for example there. +But you know I'd love to be able to tell you that Umar is a typical kid with polio these days, but it's not true. +Umar is an exceptional kid in exceptional circumstances. +The reality of polio today is something very different. +Polio strikes the poorest communities in the world. +It leaves their children paralyzed, and it drags their families deeper into poverty, because they're desperately searching and they're desperately spending the little bit of savings that they have, trying in vain to find a cure for their children. +We think children deserve better. +And so when the going got really tough in the polio eradication program about two years ago, when people were saying, "We should call it off," the Polio Partnership decided to buckle down once again and try and find innovative new solutions, new ways to get to the children that we were missing again and again. +In northern India, we started mapping the cases using satellite imaging like this, so that we could guide our investments and vaccinator shelters, so we could get to the millions of children on the Koshi River basin where there are no other health services. +In northern Nigeria, the political leaders and the traditional Muslim leaders, they got directly involved in the program to help solve the problems of logistics and community confidence. +And now they've even started using these devices -- speaking of cool technology -- these little devices, little GIS trackers like this, which they put into the vaccine carriers of their vaccinators. +And then they can track them, and at the end of the day, they look and see, did these guys get every single street, every single house. +This is the kind of commitment now we're seeing to try and reach all of the children we've been missing. +And in Afghanistan, we're trying new approaches -- access negotiators. +We're working closely with the International Committee of the Red Cross to ensure that we can reach every child. +But as we tried these extraordinary things, as people went to this trouble to try and rework their tactics, we went back to the vaccine -- it's a 50-year-old vaccine -- and we thought, surely we can make a better vaccine, so that when they finally get to these kids, we can have a better bang for our buck. +And this started an incredible collaboration with industry, and within six months, we were testing a new polio vaccine that targeted, just two years ago, the last two types of polio in the world. +Now June the ninth, 2009, we got the first results from the first trial with this vaccine, and it turned out to be a game-changer. +The new vaccine had twice the impact on these last couple of viruses as the old vaccine had, and we immediately started using this. +Well, in a couple of months we had to get it out of production. +And it started rolling off the production lines and into the mouths of children around the world. +And we didn't start with the easy places. +The first place this vaccine was used was in southern Afghanistan, because it's in places like that where kids are going to benefit the most from technologies like this. +Now here at TED, over the last couple of days, I've seen people challenging the audience again and again to believe in the impossible. +So this morning at about seven o'clock, I decided that we'd try to drive Chris and the production crew here berserk by downloading all of our data from India again, so that you could see something that's just unfolding today, which proves that the impossible is possible. +And only two years ago, people were saying that this is impossible. +Now remember, northern India is the perfect storm when it comes to polio. +Over 500,000 children are born in the two states that have never stopped polio -- Uttar Pradesh and Bihar -- 500,000 children every single month. +Sanitation is terrible, and our old vaccine, you remember, worked half as well as it should have. +And yet, the impossible is happening. +Today marks exactly six months -- and for the first time in history, not a single child has been paralyzed in Uttar Pradesh or Bihar. +India's not unique. +In Umar's home country of Nigeria, a 95 percent reduction in the number of children paralyzed by polio last year. +And in the last six months, we've had less places reinfected by polio than at any other time in history. +Ladies and gentlemen, with a combination of smart people, smart technology and smart investments, polio can now be eradicated anywhere. +We have major challenges, you can imagine, to finish this job, but as you've also seen, it's doable, it has great secondary benefits, and polio eradication is a great buy. +And as long as any child anywhere is paralyzed by this virus, it's a stark reminder that we are failing, as a society, to reach children with the most basic of services. +And for that reason, polio eradication: it's the ultimate in equity and it's the ultimate in social justice. +The huge social movement that's been involved in polio eradication is ready to do way more for these children. +It's ready to reach them with bed nets, with other things. +But capitalizing on their enthusiasm, capitalizing on their energy means finishing the job that they started 20 years ago. +Finishing polio is a smart thing to do, and it's the right thing to do. +Now we're in tough times economically. +But as David Cameron of the United Kingdom said about a month ago when he was talking about polio, "There's never a wrong time to do the right thing." +Finishing polio eradication is the right thing to do. +And we are at a crossroads right now in this great effort over the last 20 years. +We have a new vaccine, we have new resolve, and we have new tactics. +We have the chance to write an entirely new polio-free chapter in human history. +But if we blink now, we will lose forever the chance to eradicate an ancient disease. +Here's a great idea to spread: End polio now. +Help us tell the story. +Help us build the momentum so that very soon every child, every parent everywhere can also take for granted a polio-free life forever. +Thank you. +Bill Gates: Well Bruce, where do you think the toughest places are going to be? +Where would you say we need to be the smartest? +BA: The four places where you saw, that we've never stopped -- northern Nigeria, northern India, the southern corner of Afghanistan and bordering areas of Pakistan -- they're going to be the toughest. +But the interesting thing is, of those three, India's looking real good, as you just saw in the data. +And Afghanistan, Afghanistan, we think has probably stopped polio repeatedly. +It keeps getting reinfected. +So the tough ones: going to get the top of Nigeria finished and getting Pakistan finished. +They're going to be the tough ones. +BG: Now what about the money? +Give us a sense of how much the campaign costs a year. +And is it easy to raise that money? +And what's it going to be like the next couple of years? +BA: It's interesting. +We spend right now about 750 million to 800 million dollars a year. +That's what it costs to reach 500 million children. +It sounds like a lot of money; it is a lot of money. +But when you're reaching 500 million children multiple times -- 20, 30 cents to reach a child -- that's not very much money. +But right now we don't have enough of that. +We have a big gap in that money. We're cutting corners, and every time we cut corners, more places get infected that shouldn't have, and it just slows us down. +And that great buy costs us a little bit more. +BG: Well, hopefully we'll get the word out, and the governments will keep their generosity up. +So good luck. We're all in this with you. +Thank you. (BA: Thank you.) +The story I wanted to share with you today is my challenge as an Iranian artist, as an Iranian woman artist, as an Iranian woman artist living in exile. +Well, it has its pluses and minuses. +On the dark side, politics doesn't seem to escape people like me. +Every Iranian artist, in one form or another, is political. +Politics have defined our lives. +If you're living in Iran, you're facing censorship, harassment, arrest, torture -- at times, execution. +If you're living outside like me, you're faced with life in exile -- the pain of the longing and the separation from your loved ones and your family. +Therefore, we don't find the moral, emotional, psychological and political space to distance ourselves from the reality of social responsibility. +Oddly enough, an artist such as myself finds herself also in the position of being the voice, the speaker of my people, even if I have, indeed, no access to my own country. +Also, people like myself, we're fighting two battles on different grounds. +We're being critical of the West, the perception of the West about our identity -- about the image that is constructed about us, about our women, about our politics, about our religion. +We are there to take pride and insist on respect. +And at the same time, we're fighting another battle. +That is our regime, our government -- our atrocious government, [that] has done every crime in order to stay in power. +Our artists are at risk. +We are in a position of danger. +We pose a threat to the order of the government. +But ironically, this situation has empowered all of us, because we are considered, as artists, central to the cultural, political, social discourse in Iran. +We are there to inspire, to provoke, to mobilize, to bring hope to our people. +We are the reporters of our people, and are communicators to the outside world. +Art is our weapon. +Culture is a form of resistance. +I envy sometimes the artists of the West for their freedom of expression. +For the fact that they can distance themselves from the question of politics. +From the fact that they are only serving one audience, mainly the Western culture. +But also, I worry about the West, because often in this country, in this Western world that we have, culture risks being a form of entertainment. +Our people depend on our artists, and culture is beyond communication. +My journey as an artist started from a very, very personal place. +I did not start to make social commentary about my country. +The first one that you see in front of you is actually when I first returned to Iran after being separated for a good 12 years. +It was after the Islamic Revolution of 1979. +While I was absent from Iran, the Islamic Revolution had descended on Iran and had entirely transformed the country from Persian to the Islamic culture. +I came mainly to be reunited with my family and to reconnect in a way that I found my place in the society. +But instead, I found a country that was totally ideological and that I didn't recognize anymore. +More so, I became very interested, as I was facing my own personal dilemmas and questions, I became immersed in the study of the Islamic Revolution -- how, indeed, it had incredibly transformed the lives of Iranian women. +I found the subject of Iranian women immensely interesting, in the way the women of Iran, historically, seemed to embody the political transformation. +So in a way, by studying a woman, you can read the structure and the ideology of the country. +So I made a group of work that at once faced my own personal questions in life, and yet it brought my work into a larger discourse -- the subject of martyrdom, the question of those who willingly stand in that intersection of love of God, faith, but violence and crime and cruelty. +For me, this became incredibly important. +And yet, I had an unusual position toward this. +I was an outsider who had come back to Iran to find my place, but I was not in a position to be critical of the government or the ideology of the Islamic Revolution. +This changed slowly as I found my voice and I discovered things that I didn't know I would discover. +So my art became slightly more critical. +My knife became a little sharper. +And I fell into a life in exile. +I am a nomadic artist. +I work in Morocco, in Turkey, in Mexico. +I go everywhere to make believe it's Iran. +Now I am making films. +Last year, I finished a film called "Women Without Men." +"Women Without Men" returns to history, but another part of our Iranian history. +It goes to 1953 when American CIA exercised a coup and removed a democratically elected leader, Dr. Mossadegh. +The book is written by an Iranian woman, Shahrnush Parsipur. +It's a magical realist novel. +This book is banned, and she spent five years in prison. +I made this film because I felt it's important for it to speak to the Westerners about our history as a country. +That all of you seem to remember Iran after the Islamic Revolution. +That Iran was once a secular society, and we had democracy, and this democracy was stolen from us by the American government, by the British government. +This film also speaks to the Iranian people in asking them to return to their history and look at themselves before they were so Islamicized -- in the way we looked, in the way we played music, in the way we had intellectual life. +And most of all, in the way that we fought for democracy. +These are some of the shots actually from my film. +These are some of the images of the coup. +And we made this film in Casablanca, recreating all the shots. +This film tried to find a balance between telling a political story, but also a feminine story. +Being a visual artist, indeed, I am foremost interested to make art -- to make art that transcends politics, religion, the question of feminism, and become an important, timeless, universal work of art. +The challenge I have is how to do that. +How to tell a political story but an allegorical story. +How to move you with your emotions, but also make your mind work. +These are some of the images and the characters of the film. +Now comes the green movement -- the summer of 2009, as my film is released -- the uprising begins in the streets of Tehran. +What is unbelievably ironic is the period that we tried to depict in the film, the cry for democracy and social justice, repeats itself now again in Tehran. +The green movement significantly inspired the world. +It brought a lot of attention to all those Iranians who stand for basic human rights and struggle for democracy. +What was most significant for me was, once again, the presence of the women. +They're absolutely inspirational for me. +If in the Islamic Revolution, the images of the woman portrayed were submissive and didn't have a voice, now we saw a new idea of feminism in the streets of Tehran -- women who were educated, forward thinking, non-traditional, sexually open, fearless and seriously feminist. +These women and those young men united Iranians across the world, inside and outside. +I then discovered why I take so much inspiration from Iranian women. +That, under all circumstances, they have pushed the boundary. +They have confronted the authority. +They have broken every rule in the smallest and the biggest way. +And once again, they proved themselves. +I stand here to say that Iranian women have found a new voice, and their voice is giving me my voice. +And it's a great honor to be an Iranian woman and an Iranian artist, even if I have to operate in the West only for now. +Thank you so much. +A few weeks ago, I had a chance to go to Saudi Arabia. +And the first thing I wanted to do as a Muslim was go to Mecca and visit the Kaaba, the holiest shrine of Islam. +And I did that; I put on my ritualistic dress; I went to the holy mosque; I did my prayers; I observed all the rituals. +And meanwhile, besides all the spirituality, there was one mundane detail in the Kaaba that was pretty interesting for me. +There was no separation of sexes. +In other words, men and women were worshiping all together. +They were together while doing the tawaf, the circular walk around the Kaaba. +They were together while praying. +And if you wonder why this is interesting at all, you have to see the rest of Saudi Arabia because it's a country which is strictly divided between the sexes. +In other words, as men, you are not simply supposed to be in the same physical space with women. +And I noticed this in a very funny way. +I left the Kaaba to eat something in downtown Mecca. +I headed to the nearest Burger King restaurant. +And I went there -- I noticed that there was a male section, which was carefully separated from the female section. +And I had to pay, order and eat at the male section. +"It's funny," I said to myself, "You can mingle with the opposite sex at the holy Kaaba, but not at the Burger King." +Quite ironic. +Ironic, and it's also, I think, quite telling. +Because the Kaaba and the rituals around it are relics from the earliest phase of Islam, that of prophet Muhammad. +And if there was a big emphasis at the time to separate men from women, the rituals around the Kaaba could have been designed accordingly. +But apparently that was not an issue at the time. +So the rituals came that way. +This is also, I think, confirmed by the fact that the seclusion of women in creating a divided society is something that you also do not find in the Koran, the very core of Islam -- the divine core of Islam that all Muslims, and equally myself, believe. +And I think it's not an accident that you don't find this idea in the very origin of Islam. +Because many scholars who study the history of Islamic thought -- Muslim scholars or Westerners -- think that actually the practice of dividing men and women physically came as a later development in Islam, as Muslims adopted some preexisting cultures and traditions of the Middle East. +Seclusion of women was actually a Byzantine and Persian practice, and Muslims adopted that and made that a part of their religion. +And actually this is just one example of a much larger phenomenon. +What we call today Islamic Law, and especially Islamic culture -- and there are many Islamic cultures actually; the one in Saudi Arabia is much different from where I come from in Istanbul or Turkey. +But still, if you're going to speak about a Muslim culture, this has a core, the divine message, which began the religion, but then many traditions, perceptions, many practices were added on top of it. +And these were traditions of the Middle East -- medieval traditions. +And there are two important messages, or two lessons, to take from that reality. +First of all, Muslims -- pious, conservative, believing Muslims who want to be loyal to their religion -- should not cling onto everything in their culture, thinking that that's divinely mandated. +Maybe some things are bad traditions and they need to be changed. +On the other hand, the Westerners who look at Islamic culture and see some troubling aspects should not readily conclude that this is what Islam ordains. +Maybe it's a Middle Eastern culture that became confused with Islam. +There is a practice called female circumcision. +It's something terrible, horrible. +It is basically an operation to deprive women of sexual pleasure. +And Westerners, Europeans or Americans, who didn't know about this before faced this practice within some of the Muslim communities who migrated from North Africa. +And they've thought, "Oh, what a horrible religion that is which ordains something like that." +But actually when you look at female circumcision, you see that it has nothing to do with Islam, it's just a North African practice, which predates Islam. +It was there for thousands of years. +And quite tellingly, some Muslims do practice that. +The Muslims in North Africa, not in other places. +But also the non-Muslim communities of North Africa -- the Animists, even some Christians and even a Jewish tribe in North Africa is known to practice female circumcision. +So what might look like a problem within Islamic faith might turn out to be a tradition that Muslims have subscribed to. +The same thing can be said for honor killings, which is a recurrent theme in the Western media -- and which is, of course, a horrible tradition. +And we see truly in some Muslim communities that tradition. +But in the non-Muslim communities of the Middle East, such as some Christian communities, Eastern communities, you see the same practice. +We had a tragic case of an honor killing within Turkey's Armenian community just a few months ago. +Now these are things about general culture, but I'm also very much interested in political culture and whether liberty and democracy is appreciated, or whether there's an authoritarian political culture in which the state is supposed to impose things on the citizens. +And it is no secret that many Islamic movements in the Middle East tend to be authoritarian, and some of the so-called "Islamic regimes" such as Saudi Arabia, Iran and the worst case was the Taliban in Afghanistan -- they are pretty authoritarian. No doubt about that. +For example, in Saudi Arabia there is a phenomenon called the religious police. +And the religious police imposes the supposed Islamic way of life on every citizen, by force -- like women are forced to cover their heads -- wear the hijab, the Islamic head cover. +Now that is pretty authoritarian, and that's something I'm very much critical of. +But when I realized that the non-Muslim, or the non-Islamic-minded actors in the same geography, sometimes behaved similarly, I realized that the problem maybe lies in the political culture of the whole region, not just Islam. +Let me give you an example: in Turkey where I come from, which is a very hyper-secular republic, until very recently we used to have what I call secularism police, which would guard the universities against veiled students. +In other words, they would force students to uncover their heads, and I think forcing people to uncover their head is as tyrannical as forcing them to cover it. +It should be the citizen's decision. +But when I saw that, I said, "Maybe the problem is just an authoritarian culture in the region, and some Muslims have been influenced by that. +But the secular-minded people can be influenced by that. +Maybe it's a problem of the political culture, and we have to think about how to change that political culture." +Now these are some of the questions I had in mind a few years ago when I sat down to write a book. +I said, "Well I will make a research about how Islam actually came to be what it is today, and what roads were taken and what roads could have been taken." +The name of the book is "Islam Without Extremes: A Muslim Case for Liberty." +And as the subtitle suggests, I looked at Islamic tradition and the history of Islamic thought from the perspective of individual liberty, and I tried to find what are the strengths with regard to individual liberty. +And there are strengths in Islamic tradition. +Islam actually, as a monotheistic religion, which defined man as a responsible agent by itself, created the idea of the individual in the Middle East and saved it from the communitarianism, the collectivism of the tribe. +You can derive many ideas from that. +But besides that, I also saw problems within Islamic tradition. +But one thing was curious: most of those problems turn out to be problems that emerged later, not from the very divine core of Islam, the Koran, but from, again, traditions and mentalities, or the interpretations of the Koran that Muslims made in the Middle Ages. +The Koran, for example, doesn't condone stoning. +There is no punishment on apostasy. +There is no punishment on personal things like drinking. +These things which make Islamic Law, the troubling aspects of Islamic Law, were later developed into later interpretations of Islam. +Which means that Muslims can, today, look at those things and say, "Well, the core of our religion is here to stay with us. +It's our faith, and we will be loyal to it. +But we can change how it was interpreted, because it was interpreted according to the time and milieu in the Middle Ages. +Now we are living in a different world with different values and different political systems." +That interpretation is quite possible and feasible. +Now if I were the only person thinking that way, we would be in trouble. +But that's not the case at all. +Actually, from the 19th century on, there's a whole revisionist, reformist -- whatever you call it -- a trend in Islamic thinking. +And these were intellectuals or statesmen of the 19th century, and later, 20th century, which looked at Europe basically and saw that Europe has many things to admire, like science and technology. +But not just that; also democracy, parliament, the idea of representation, the idea of equal citizenship. +These Muslim thinkers and intellectuals and statesmen of the 19th century looked at Europe, saw these things. +They said, "Why don't we have these things?" +And they looked back at Islamic tradition, they saw that there are problematic aspects, but they're not the core of the religion, so maybe they can be re-understood, and the Koran can be reread in the modern world. +That trend is generally called Islamic modernism, and it was advanced by intellectuals and statesmen, not just as an intellectual idea though, but also as a political program. +And that's why actually in the 19th century the Ottoman Empire, which then covered the whole Middle East, made very important reforms -- reforms like giving Christians and Jews an equal citizenship status, accepting a constitution, accepting a representative parliament, advancing the idea of freedom of religion. +And that's why the Ottoman Empire in its last decades turned into a proto-democracy, a constitutional monarchy, and freedom was a very important political value at the time. +Similarly, in the Arab world, there was what the great Arab historian Albert Hourani defines as the Liberal Age. +He has a book, "Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age," and the Liberal Age, he defines as 19th century and early 20th century. +Quite notably, this was the dominant trend in the early 20th century among Islamic thinkers and statesmen and theologians. +But there is a very curious pattern in the rest of the 20th century, because we see a sharp decline in this Islamic modernist line. +And in place of that, what happens is that Islamism grows as an ideology which is authoritarian, which is quite strident, which is quite anti-Western, and which wants to shape society based on a utopian vision. +So Islamism is the problematic idea that really created a lot of problems in the 20th century Islamic world. +And even the very extreme forms of Islamism led to terrorism in the name of Islam -- which is actually a practice that I think is against Islam, but some, obviously, extremists did not think that way. +But there is a curious question: If Islamic modernism was so popular in the 19th and early 20th centuries, why did Islamism become so popular in the rest of the 20th century? +And this is a question, I think, which needs to be discussed carefully. +And in my book, I went into that question as well. +And actually you don't need to be a rocket scientist to understand that. +You just look at the political history of the 20th century, and you see things have changed a lot. +The context has changed. +In the 19th century, when Muslims were looking at Europe as an example, they were independent; they were more self-confident. +In the early 20th century, with the fall of the Ottoman Empire, the whole Middle East was colonized. +And when you have colonization what do you have? +You have anti-colonization. +So Europe is not just an example now to emulate; it's an enemy to fight and to resist. +So there's a very sharp decline in liberal ideas in the Muslim world, and what you see is more of a defensive, rigid, reactionary strain, which led to Arab socialism, Arab nationalism and ultimately to the Islamist ideology. +And when the colonial period ended, what you had in place of that was, generally, secular dictators, which say they're a country, but did not bring democracy to the country, and established their own dictatorship. +And I think the West, at least some powers in the West, particularly the United States, made the mistake of supporting those secular dictators, thinking that they were more helpful for their interests. +But the fact that those dictators suppressed democracy in their country and suppressed Islamic groups in their country actually made the Islamists much more strident. +So in the 20th century, you had this vicious cycle in the Arab world where you have a dictatorship suppressing its own people including the Islamic-pious, and they're reacting in reactionary ways. +There was one country, though, which was able to escape or stay away from that vicious cycle. +And that's the country where I come from; that's Turkey. +Turkey has never been colonized, so it remained as an independent nation after the fall of the Ottoman Empire. +That's one thing to remember. +They did not share the same anti-colonial hype that you can find in some other countries in the region. +Secondly, and most importantly, Turkey became a democracy earlier than any of the countries we are talking about. +In 1950, Turkey had the first free and fair elections, which ended the more autocratic secular regime, which was the beginning of Turkey. +And the pious Muslims in Turkey saw that they can change the political system by voting. +And they realize that democracy is something that is compatible with Islam, compatible with their values, and they've been supportive of democracy. +That's an experience that not every other Muslim nation in the Middle East had until very recently. +Secondly, in the past two decades, thanks to globalization, thanks to the market economy, thanks to the rise of a middle-class, we in Turkey see what I define as a rebirth of Islamic modernism. +Now there's the more urban middle-class pious Muslims who, again, look at their tradition and see that there are some problems in the tradition, and they understand that they need to be changed and questioned and reformed. +And they look at Europe, and they see an example, again, to follow. +They see an example, at least, to take some inspiration from. +That's why the E.U. process, Turkey's effort to join the E.U., has been supported inside Turkey by the Islamic-pious, while some secular nations were against that. +Well that process has been a little bit blurred by the fact that not all Europeans are that welcoming -- but that's another discussion. +But the pro-E.U. sentiment in Turkey in the past decade has become almost an Islamic cause and supported by the Islamic liberals and the secular liberals as well, of course. +And thanks to that, Turkey has been able to reasonably create a success story in which Islam and the most pious understandings of Islam have become part of the democratic game, and even contributes to the democratic and economic advance of the country. +And this has been an inspiring example right now for some of the Islamic movements or some of the countries in the Arab world. +You must have all seen the Arab Spring, which began in Tunis and in Egypt. +And Arab masses just revolted against their dictators. +They were asking for democracy; they were asking for freedom. +And they did not turn out to be the Islamist boogyman that the dictators were always using to justify their regime. +They said that "we want freedom; we want democracy. +We are Muslim believers, but we want to be living as free people in free societies." +Of course, this is a long road. +Democracy is not an overnight achievement; it's a process. +But this is a promising era in the Muslim world. +And I believe that the Islamic modernism which began in the 19th century, but which had a setback in the 20th century because of the political troubles of the Muslim world, is having a rebirth. +And I think the getaway message from that would be that Islam, despite some of the skeptics in the West, has the potential in itself to create its own way to democracy, create its own way to liberalism, create its own way to freedom. +They just should be allowed to work for that. +Thanks so much. +Many believe driving is an activity solely reserved for those who can see. +A blind person driving a vehicle safely and independently was thought to be an impossible task, until now. +Hello, my name is Dennis Hong, and we're bringing freedom and independence to the blind by building a vehicle for the visually impaired. +So before I talk about this car for the blind, let me briefly tell you about another project that I worked on called the DARPA Urban Challenge. +Now this was about building a robotic car that can drive itself. +You press start, nobody touches anything, and it can reach its destination fully autonomously. +So in 2007, our team won half a million dollars by placing third place in this competition. +So about that time, the National Federation of the Blind, or NFB, challenged the research committee about who can develop a car that lets a blind person drive safely and independently. +We decided to give it a try, because we thought, "Hey, how hard could it be?" +We have already an autonomous vehicle. +We just put a blind person in it and we're done, right? +We couldn't have been more wrong. +What NFB wanted was not a vehicle that can drive a blind person around, but a vehicle where a blind person can make active decisions and drive. +So we had to throw everything out the window and start from scratch. +So to test this crazy idea, we developed a small dune buggy prototype vehicle to test the feasibility. +And in the summer of 2009, we invited dozens of blind youth from all over the country and gave them a chance to take it for a spin. +It was an absolutely amazing experience. +But the problem with this car was it was designed to only be driven in a very controlled environment, in a flat, closed-off parking lot -- even the lanes defined by red traffic cones. +So with this success, we decided to take the next big step, to develop a real car that can be driven on real roads. +So how does it work? +Well, it's a rather complex system, but let me try to explain it, maybe simplify it. +So we have three steps. +We have perception, computation and non-visual interfaces. +Now obviously the driver cannot see, so the system needs to perceive the environment and gather information for the driver. +For that, we use an initial measurement unit. +So it measures acceleration, angular acceleration -- like a human ear, inner ear. +We fuse that information with a GPS unit to get an estimate of the location of the car. +We also use two cameras to detect the lanes of the road. +And we also use three laser range finders. +The lasers scan the environment to detect obstacles -- a car approaching from the front, the back and also any obstacles that run into the roads, any obstacles around the vehicle. +So all this vast amount of information is then fed into the computer, and the computer can do two things. +One is, first of all, process this information to have an understanding of the environment -- these are the lanes of the road, there's the obstacles -- and convey this information to the driver. +The system is also smart enough to figure out the safest way to operate the car. +So we can also generate instructions on how to operate the controls of the vehicle. +But the problem is this: How do we convey this information and instructions to a person who cannot see fast enough and accurate enough so he can drive? +So for this, we developed many different types of non-visual user interface technology. +So starting from a three-dimensional ping sound system, a vibrating vest, a click wheel with voice commands, a leg strip, even a shoe that applies pressure to the foot. +But today we're going to talk about three of these non-visual user interfaces. +Now the first interface is called a DriveGrip. +So these are a pair of gloves, and it has vibrating elements on the knuckle part so you can convey instructions about how to steer -- the direction and the intensity. +Another device is called SpeedStrip. +So this is a chair -- as a matter of fact, it's actually a massage chair. +We gut it out, and we rearrange the vibrating elements in different patterns, and we actuate them to convey information about the speed, and also instructions how to use the gas and the brake pedal. +So over here, you can see how the computer understands the environment, and because you cannot see the vibration, we actually put red LED's on the driver so that you can see what's happening. +This is the sensory data, and that data is transferred to the devices through the computer. +So these two devices, DriveGrip and SpeedStrip, are very effective. +But the problem is these are instructional cue devices. +So this is not really freedom, right? +The computer tells you how to drive -- turn left, turn right, speed up, stop. +We call this the "backseat-driver problem." +So we're moving away from the instructional cue devices, and we're now focusing more on the informational devices. +A good example for this informational non-visual user interface is called AirPix. +So think of it as a monitor for the blind. +So it's a small tablet, has many holes in it, and compressed air comes out, so it can actually draw images. +So even though you are blind, you can put your hand over it, you can see the lanes of the road and obstacles. +Actually, you can also change the frequency of the air coming out and possibly the temperature. +So it's actually a multi-dimensional user interface. +So here you can see the left camera, the right camera from the vehicle and how the computer interprets that and sends that information to the AirPix. +For this, we're showing a simulator, a blind person driving using the AirPix. +This simulator was also very useful for training the blind drivers and also quickly testing different types of ideas for different types of non-visual user interfaces. +So basically that's how it works. +So just a month ago, on January 29th, we unveiled this vehicle for the very first time to the public at the world-famous Daytona International Speedway during the Rolex 24 racing event. +We also had some surprises. Let's take a look. +Announcer: This is an historic day in January. +He's coming up to the grandstand, fellow Federationists. +There's the grandstand now. +And he's [unclear] following that van that's out in front of him. +Well there comes the first box. +Now let's see if Mark avoids it. +He does. He passes it on the right. +Third box is out. The fourth box is out. +And he's perfectly making his way between the two. +He's closing in on the van to make the moving pass. +Well this is what it's all about, this kind of dynamic display of audacity and ingenuity. +He's approaching the end of the run, makes his way between the barrels that are set up there. +Dennis Hong: I'm so happy for you. +Mark's going to give me a ride back to the hotel. +Mark Riccobono: Yes. +DH: So since we started this project, we've been getting hundreds of letters, emails, phone calls from people from all around the world. +Letters thanking us, but sometimes you also get funny letters like this one: "Now I understand why there is Braille on a drive-up ATM machine." +But sometimes -- But sometimes I also do get -- I wouldn't call it hate mail -- but letters of really strong concern: "Dr. Hong, are you insane, trying to put blind people on the road? +You must be out of your mind." +But this vehicle is a prototype vehicle, and it's not going to be on the road until it's proven as safe as, or safer than, today's vehicle. +And I truly believe that this can happen. +But still, will the society, would they accept such a radical idea? +How are we going to handle insurance? +How are we going to issue driver's licenses? +There's many of these different kinds of hurdles besides technology challenges that we need to address before this becomes a reality. +Of course, the main goal of this project is to develop a car for the blind. +But potentially more important than this is the tremendous value of the spin-off technology that can come from this project. +The sensors that are used can see through the dark, the fog and rain. +And together with this new type of interfaces, we can use these technologies and apply them to safer cars for sighted people. +Or for the blind, everyday home appliances -- in the educational setting, in the office setting. +Just imagine, in a classroom a teacher writes on the blackboard and a blind student can see what's written and read using these non-visual interfaces. +This is priceless. +So today, the things I've showed you today, is just the beginning. +Thank you very much. +I spent the best part of last year working on a documentary about my own happiness -- trying to see if I can actually train my mind in a particular way, like I can train my body, so I can end up with an improved feeling of overall well-being. +Then this January, my mother died, and pursuing a film like that just seemed the last thing that was interesting to me. +So in a very typical, silly designer fashion, after years worth of work, pretty much all I have to show for it are the titles for the film. +They were still done when I was on sabbatical with my company in Indonesia. +We can see the first part here was designed here by pigs. +It was a little bit too funky, and we wanted a more feminine point of view and employed a duck who did it in a much more fitting way -- fashion. +My studio in Bali was only 10 minutes away from a monkey forest, and monkeys, of course, are supposed to be the happiest of all animals. +So we trained them to be able to do three separate words, to lay out them properly. +You can see, there still is a little bit of a legibility problem there. +The serif is not really in place. +So of course, what you don't do properly yourself is never deemed done really. +So this is us climbing onto the trees and putting it up over the Sayan Valley in Indonesia. +In that year, what I did do a lot was look at all sorts of surveys, looking at a lot of data on this subject. +And it turns out that men and women report very, very similar levels of happiness. +This is a very quick overview of all the studies that I looked at. +That climate plays no role. +That if you live in the best climate, in San Diego in the United States, or in the shittiest climate, in Buffalo, New York, you are going to be just as happy in either place. +If you make more than 50,000 bucks a year in the U.S., any salary increase you're going to experience will have only a tiny, tiny influence on your overall well-being. +Black people are just as happy as white people are. +If you're old or young it doesn't really make a difference. +If you're ugly or if you're really, really good-looking it makes no difference whatsoever. +You will adapt to it and get used to it. +If you have manageable health problems it doesn't really matter. +Now this does matter. +So now the woman on the right is actually much happier than the guy on the left -- meaning that, if you have a lot of friends, and you have meaningful friendships, that does make a lot of difference. +As well as being married -- you are likely to be much happier than if you are single. +A fellow TED speaker, Jonathan Haidt, came up with this beautiful little analogy between the conscious and the unconscious mind. +He says that the conscious mind is this tiny rider on this giant elephant, the unconscious. +And the rider thinks that he can tell the elephant what to do, but the elephant really has his own ideas. +If I look at my own life, I'm born in 1962 in Austria. +I, of course, and all of us, are very much in charge of these big decisions in our lives. +We live where we want to be -- at least in the West. +We become what we really are interested in. +We choose our own profession, and we choose our own partners. +And so it's quite surprising that many of us let our unconscious influence those decisions in ways that we are not quite aware of. +If you look at the statistics and you see that the guy called George, when he decides on where he wants to live -- is it Florida or North Dakota? -- he goes and lives in Georgia. +And if you look at a guy called Dennis, when he decides what to become -- is it a lawyer, or does he want to become a doctor or a teacher? -- best chance is that he wants to become a dentist. +And if Paula decides should she marry Joe or Jack, somehow Paul sounds the most interesting. +And so even if we make those very important decisions for very silly reasons, it remains statistically true that there are more Georges living in Georgia and there are more Dennises becoming dentists and there are more Paulas who are married to Paul than statistically viable. +Now I, of course, thought, "Well this is American data," and I thought, "Well, those silly Americans. +They get influenced by things that they're not aware of. +This is just completely ridiculous." +Then, of course, I looked at my mom and my dad -- Karolina and Karl, and grandmom and granddad, Josefine and Josef. +So I am looking still for a Stephanie. +I'll figure something out. +I'm a big list maker, so I came up with a list. +One of them is to think without pressure. +This is a project we're working on right now with a very healthy deadline. +It's a book on culture, and, as you can see, culture is rapidly drifting around. +Doing things like I'm doing right now -- traveling to Cannes. +The example I have here is a chair that came out of the year in Bali -- clearly influenced by local manufacturing and culture, not being stuck behind a single computer screen all day long and be here and there. +Quite consciously, design projects that need an incredible amount of various techniques, just basically to fight straightforward adaptation. +Being close to the content -- that's the content really is close to my heart. +This is a bus, or vehicle, for a charity, for an NGO that wants to double the education budget in the United States -- carefully designed, so, by two inches, it still clears highway overpasses. +Having end results -- things that come back from the printer well, like this little business card for an animation company called Sideshow on lenticular foils. +Working on projects that actually have visible impacts, like a book for a deceased German artist whose widow came to us with the requirement to make her late husband famous. +It just came out six months ago, and it's getting unbelievable traction right now in Germany. +And I think that his widow is going to be very successful on her quest. +And lately, to be involved in projects where I know about 50 percent of the project technique-wise and the other 50 percent would be new. +So in this case, it's an outside projection for Singapore on these giant Times Square-like screens. +And I of course knew stuff, as a designer, about typography, even though we worked with those animals not so successfully. +But I didn't quite know all that much about movement or film. +And from that point of view we turned it into a lovely project. +But also because the content was very close. +In this case, "Keeping a Diary Supports Personal Development" -- I've been keeping a diary since I was 12. +And I've found that it influenced my life and work in a very intriguing way. +In this case also because it's part of one of the many sentiments that we build the whole series on -- that all the sentiments originally had come out of the diary. +Thank you so much. +Power. +That is the word that comes to mind. +We're the new technologists. +We have a lot of data, so we have a lot of power. +How much power do we have? +Scene from a movie: "Apocalypse Now" -- great movie. +We've got to get our hero, Captain Willard, to the mouth of the Nung River so he can go pursue Colonel Kurtz. +The way we're going to do this is fly him in and drop him off. +So the scene: the sky is filled with this fleet of helicopters carrying him in. +And there's this loud, thrilling music in the background, this wild music. + Dum da ta da dum Dum da ta da dum Da ta da da That's a lot of power. +That's the kind of power I feel in this room. +That's the kind of power we have because of all of the data that we have. +Let's take an example. +What can we do with just one person's data? +What can we do with that guy's data? +I can look at your financial records. +I can tell if you pay your bills on time. +I know if you're good to give a loan to. +I can look at your medical records; I can see if your pump is still pumping -- see if you're good to offer insurance to. +I can look at your clicking patterns. +When you come to my website, I actually know what you're going to do already because I've seen you visit millions of websites before. +And I'm sorry to tell you, you're like a poker player, you have a tell. +I can tell with data analysis what you're going to do before you even do it. +I know what you like. I know who you are, and that's even before I look at your mail or your phone. +Those are the kinds of things we can do with the data that we have. +But I'm not actually here to talk about what we can do. +I'm here to talk about what we should do. +What's the right thing to do? +Now I see some puzzled looks like, "Why are you asking us what's the right thing to do? +We're just building this stuff. Somebody else is using it." +Fair enough. +But it brings me back. +I think about World War II -- some of our great technologists then, some of our great physicists, studying nuclear fission and fusion -- just nuclear stuff. +We gather together these physicists in Los Alamos to see what they'll build. +We want the people building the technology thinking about what we should be doing with the technology. +So what should we be doing with that guy's data? +Should we be collecting it, gathering it, so we can make his online experience better? +So we can make money? +So we can protect ourselves if he was up to no good? +Or should we respect his privacy, protect his dignity and leave him alone? +Which one is it? +How should we figure it out? +I know: crowdsource. Let's crowdsource this. +So to get people warmed up, let's start with an easy question -- something I'm sure everybody here has an opinion about: iPhone versus Android. +Let's do a show of hands -- iPhone. +Uh huh. +Android. +You'd think with a bunch of smart people we wouldn't be such suckers just for the pretty phones. +Next question, a little bit harder. +Should we be collecting all of that guy's data to make his experiences better and to protect ourselves in case he's up to no good? +Or should we leave him alone? +Collect his data. +Leave him alone. +You're safe. It's fine. +Okay, last question -- harder question -- when trying to evaluate what we should do in this case, should we use a Kantian deontological moral framework, or should we use a Millian consequentialist one? +Kant. +Mill. +Not as many votes. +Yeah, that's a terrifying result. +Terrifying, because we have stronger opinions about our hand-held devices than about the moral framework we should use to guide our decisions. +How do we know what to do with all the power we have if we don't have a moral framework? +We know more about mobile operating systems, but what we really need is a moral operating system. +What's a moral operating system? +We all know right and wrong, right? +You feel good when you do something right, you feel bad when you do something wrong. +Our parents teach us that: praise with the good, scold with the bad. +But how do we figure out what's right and wrong? +And from day to day, we have the techniques that we use. +Maybe we just follow our gut. +Maybe we take a vote -- we crowdsource. +Or maybe we punt -- ask the legal department, see what they say. +In other words, it's kind of random, kind of ad hoc, how we figure out what we should do. +And maybe, if we want to be on surer footing, what we really want is a moral framework that will help guide us there, that will tell us what kinds of things are right and wrong in the first place, and how would we know in a given situation what to do. +So let's get a moral framework. +We're numbers people, living by numbers. +How can we use numbers as the basis for a moral framework? +I know a guy who did exactly that. +A brilliant guy -- he's been dead 2,500 years. +Plato, that's right. +Remember him -- old philosopher? +You were sleeping during that class. +And Plato, he had a lot of the same concerns that we did. +He was worried about right and wrong. +He wanted to know what is just. +But he was worried that all we seem to be doing is trading opinions about this. +He says something's just. She says something else is just. +It's kind of convincing when he talks and when she talks too. +I'm just going back and forth; I'm not getting anywhere. +I don't want opinions; I want knowledge. +I want to know the truth about justice -- like we have truths in math. +In math, we know the objective facts. +Take a number, any number -- two. +Favorite number. I love that number. +There are truths about two. +If you've got two of something, you add two more, you get four. +That's true no matter what thing you're talking about. +It's an objective truth about the form of two, the abstract form. +When you have two of anything -- two eyes, two ears, two noses, just two protrusions -- those all partake of the form of two. +They all participate in the truths that two has. +They all have two-ness in them. +And therefore, it's not a matter of opinion. +What if, Plato thought, ethics was like math? +What if there were a pure form of justice? +What if there are truths about justice, and you could just look around in this world and see which things participated, partook of that form of justice? +Then you would know what was really just and what wasn't. +It wouldn't be a matter of just opinion or just appearances. +That's a stunning vision. +I mean, think about that. How grand. How ambitious. +That's as ambitious as we are. +He wants to solve ethics. +He wants objective truths. +If you think that way, you have a Platonist moral framework. +If you don't think that way, well, you have a lot of company in the history of Western philosophy, because the tidy idea, you know, people criticized it. +Aristotle, in particular, he was not amused. +He thought it was impractical. +Aristotle said, "We should seek only so much precision in each subject as that subject allows." +Aristotle thought ethics wasn't a lot like math. +He thought ethics was a matter of making decisions in the here-and-now using our best judgment to find the right path. +If you think that, Plato's not your guy. +But don't give up. +Maybe there's another way that we can use numbers as the basis of our moral framework. +How about this: What if in any situation you could just calculate, look at the choices, measure out which one's better and know what to do? +That sound familiar? +That's a utilitarian moral framework. +John Stuart Mill was a great advocate of this -- nice guy besides -- and only been dead 200 years. +So basis of utilitarianism -- I'm sure you're familiar at least. +The three people who voted for Mill before are familiar with this. +But here's the way it works. +What if morals, what if what makes something moral is just a matter of if it maximizes pleasure and minimizes pain? +It does something intrinsic to the act. +It's not like its relation to some abstract form. +It's just a matter of the consequences. +You just look at the consequences and see if, overall, it's for the good or for the worse. +That would be simple. Then we know what to do. +Let's take an example. +Suppose I go up and I say, "I'm going to take your phone." +Not just because it rang earlier, but I'm going to take it because I made a little calculation. +I thought, that guy looks suspicious. +And what if he's been sending little messages to Bin Laden's hideout -- or whoever took over after Bin Laden -- and he's actually like a terrorist, a sleeper cell. +I'm going to find that out, and when I find that out, I'm going to prevent a huge amount of damage that he could cause. +That has a very high utility to prevent that damage. +And compared to the little pain that it's going to cause -- because it's going to be embarrassing when I'm looking on his phone and seeing that he has a Farmville problem and that whole bit -- that's overwhelmed by the value of looking at the phone. +If you feel that way, that's a utilitarian choice. +But maybe you don't feel that way either. +Maybe you think, it's his phone. +It's wrong to take his phone because he's a person and he has rights and he has dignity, and we can't just interfere with that. +He has autonomy. +It doesn't matter what the calculations are. +There are things that are intrinsically wrong -- like lying is wrong, like torturing innocent children is wrong. +Kant was very good on this point, and he said it a little better than I'll say it. +He said we should use our reason to figure out the rules by which we should guide our conduct, and then it is our duty to follow those rules. +It's not a matter of calculation. +So let's stop. +We're right in the thick of it, this philosophical thicket. +And this goes on for thousands of years, because these are hard questions, and I've only got 15 minutes. +So let's cut to the chase. +How should we be making our decisions? +Is it Plato, is it Aristotle, is it Kant, is it Mill? +What should we be doing? What's the answer? +What's the formula that we can use in any situation to determine what we should do, whether we should use that guy's data or not? +What's the formula? +There's not a formula. +There's not a simple answer. +Ethics is hard. +Ethics requires thinking. +And that's uncomfortable. +I know; I spent a lot of my career in artificial intelligence, trying to build machines that could do some of this thinking for us, that could give us answers. +But they can't. +You can't just take human thinking and put it into a machine. +We're the ones who have to do it. +Happily, we're not machines, and we can do it. +Not only can we think, we must. +Hannah Arendt said, "The sad truth is that most evil done in this world is not done by people who choose to be evil. +It arises from not thinking." +That's what she called the "banality of evil." +And the response to that is that we demand the exercise of thinking from every sane person. +So let's do that. Let's think. +In fact, let's start right now. +Every person in this room do this: think of the last time you had a decision to make where you were worried to do the right thing, where you wondered, "What should I be doing?" +Bring that to mind, and now reflect on that and say, "How did I come up that decision? +What did I do? Did I follow my gut? +Did I have somebody vote on it? Or did I punt to legal?" +Or now we have a few more choices. +"Did I evaluate what would be the highest pleasure like Mill would? +Or like Kant, did I use reason to figure out what was intrinsically right?" +Think about it. Really bring it to mind. This is important. +It is so important we are going to spend 30 seconds of valuable TEDTalk time doing nothing but thinking about this. +Are you ready? Go. +Stop. Good work. +What you just did, that's the first step towards taking responsibility for what we should do with all of our power. +Now the next step -- try this. +Go find a friend and explain to them how you made that decision. +Not right now. Wait till I finish talking. +Do it over lunch. +And don't just find another technologist friend; find somebody different than you. +Find an artist or a writer -- or, heaven forbid, find a philosopher and talk to them. +In fact, find somebody from the humanities. +Why? Because they think about problems differently than we do as technologists. +Just a few days ago, right across the street from here, there was hundreds of people gathered together. +It was technologists and humanists at that big BiblioTech Conference. +And they gathered together because the technologists wanted to learn what it would be like to think from a humanities perspective. +You have someone from Google talking to someone who does comparative literature. +You're thinking about the relevance of 17th century French theater -- how does that bear upon venture capital? +Well that's interesting. That's a different way of thinking. +And when you think in that way, you become more sensitive to the human considerations, which are crucial to making ethical decisions. +So imagine that right now you went and you found your musician friend. +And you're telling him what we're talking about, about our whole data revolution and all this -- maybe even hum a few bars of our theme music. + Dum ta da da dum dum ta da da dum Well, your musician friend will stop you and say, "You know, the theme music for your data revolution, that's an opera, that's Wagner. +It's based on Norse legend. +It's Gods and mythical creatures fighting over magical jewelry." +That's interesting. +Now it's also a beautiful opera, and we're moved by that opera. +We're moved because it's about the battle between good and evil, about right and wrong. +And we care about right and wrong. +We care what happens in that opera. +We care what happens in "Apocalypse Now." +And we certainly care what happens with our technologies. +We have so much power today, it is up to us to figure out what to do, and that's the good news. +We're the ones writing this opera. +This is our movie. +We figure out what will happen with this technology. +We determine how this will all end. +Thank you. +When I was growing up in Montana, I had two dreams. +I wanted to be a paleontologist, a dinosaur paleontologist, and I wanted to have a pet dinosaur. +And so that's what I've been striving for all of my life. +I was very fortunate early in my career. +I was fortunate in finding things. +I wasn't very good at reading things. +In fact, I don't read much of anything. +I am extremely dyslexic, and so reading is the hardest thing I do. +But instead, I go out and I find things. +Then I just pick things up. +I basically practice for finding money on the street. +And I wander about the hills, and I have found a few things. +And I have been fortunate enough to find things like the first eggs in the Western hemisphere and the first baby dinosaurs in nests, the first dinosaur embryos and massive accumulations of bones. +And it happened to be at a time when people were just starting to begin to realize that dinosaurs weren't the big, stupid, green reptiles that people had thought for so many years. +People were starting to get an idea that dinosaurs were special. +And so, at that time, I was able to make some interesting hypotheses along with my colleagues. +We were able to actually say that dinosaurs -- based on the evidence we had -- that dinosaurs built nests and lived in colonies and cared for their young, brought food to their babies and traveled in gigantic herds. +So it was pretty interesting stuff. +I have gone on to find more things and discover that dinosaurs really were very social. +We have found a lot of evidence that dinosaurs changed from when they were juveniles to when they were adults. +The appearance of them would have been different -- which it is in all social animals. +In social groups of animals, the juveniles always look different than the adults. +The adults can recognize the juveniles; the juveniles can recognize the adults. +And so we're making a better picture of what a dinosaur looks like. +And they didn't just all chase Jeeps around. +But it is that social thing that I guess attracted Michael Crichton. +And in his book, he talked about the social animals. +And then Steven Spielberg, of course, depicts these dinosaurs as being very social creatures. +The theme of this story is building a dinosaur, and so we come to that part of "Jurassic Park." +Michael Crichton really was one of the first people to talk about bringing dinosaurs back to life. +You all know the story, right. +I mean, I assume everyone here has seen "Jurassic Park." +And you take your DNA back to the laboratory and you clone it. +And I guess you inject it into maybe an ostrich egg, or something like that, and then you wait, and, lo and behold, out pops a little baby dinosaur. +And everybody's happy about that. +And they're happy over and over again. +They keep doing it; they just keep making these things. +And then, then, then, and then ... +Then the dinosaurs, being social, act out their socialness, and they get together, and they conspire. +And, of course, that's what makes Steven Spielberg's movie -- conspiring dinosaurs chasing people around. +So I assume everybody knows that if you actually had a piece of amber and it had an insect in it, and you drilled into it, and you got something out of that insect, and you cloned it, and you did it over and over and over again, you'd have a room full of mosquitos. +And probably a whole bunch of trees as well. +Now if you want dinosaur DNA, I say go to the dinosaur. +So that's what we've done. +Back in 1993 when the movie came out, we actually had a grant from the National Science Foundation to attempt to extract DNA from a dinosaur, and we chose the dinosaur on the left, a Tyrannosaurus rex, which was a very nice specimen. +And one of my former doctoral students, Dr. Mary Schweitzer, actually had the background to do this sort of thing. +And so she looked into the bone of this T. rex, one of the thigh bones, and she actually found some very interesting structures in there. +They found these red circular-looking objects, and they looked, for all the world, like red blood cells. +And they're in what appear to be the blood channels that go through the bone. +And so she thought, well, what the heck. +So she sampled some material out of it. +Now it wasn't DNA; she didn't find DNA. +But she did find heme, which is the biological foundation of hemoglobin. +And that was really cool. +That was interesting. +That was -- here we have 65-million-year-old heme. +Well we tried and tried and we couldn't really get anything else out of it. +So a few years went by, and then we started the Hell Creek Project. +And the Hell Creek Project was this massive undertaking to get as many dinosaurs as we could possibly find, and hopefully find some dinosaurs that had more material in them. +And out in eastern Montana there's a lot of space, a lot of badlands, and not very many people, and so you can go out there and find a lot of stuff. +And we did find a lot of stuff. +We found a lot of Tyrannosaurs, but we found one special Tyrannosaur, and we called it B-rex. +And B-rex was found under a thousand cubic yards of rock. +It wasn't a very complete T. rex, and it wasn't a very big T. rex, but it was a very special B-rex. +And I and my colleagues cut into it, and we were able to determine, by looking at lines of arrested growth, some lines in it, that B-rex had died at the age of 16. +We don't really know how long dinosaurs lived, because we haven't found the oldest one yet. +But this one died at the age of 16. +We gave samples to Mary Schweitzer, and she was actually able to determine that B-rex was a female based on medullary tissue found on the inside of the bone. +Medullary tissue is the calcium build-up, the calcium storage basically, when an animal is pregnant, when a bird is pregnant. +So here was the character that linked birds and dinosaurs. +But Mary went further. +She took the bone, and she dumped it into acid. +Now we all know that bones are fossilized, and so if you dump it into acid, there shouldn't be anything left. +But there was something left. +There were blood vessels left. +There were flexible, clear blood vessels. +And so here was the first soft tissue from a dinosaur. +It was extraordinary. +But she also found osteocytes, which are the cells that laid down the bones. +And try and try, we could not find DNA, but she did find evidence of proteins. +But we thought maybe -- well, we thought maybe that the material was breaking down after it was coming out of the ground. +We thought maybe it was deteriorating very fast. +And so we built a laboratory in the back of an 18-wheeler trailer, and actually took the laboratory to the field where we could get better samples. +And we did. We got better material. +The cells looked better. +The vessels looked better. +Found the protein collagen. +I mean, it was wonderful stuff. +But it's not dinosaur DNA. +So we have discovered that dinosaur DNA, and all DNA, just breaks down too fast. +We're just not going to be able to do what they did in "Jurassic Park." +We're not going to be able to make a dinosaur based on a dinosaur. +But birds are dinosaurs. +Birds are living dinosaurs. +We actually classify them as dinosaurs. +We now call them non-avian dinosaurs and avian dinosaurs. +So the non-avian dinosaurs are the big clunky ones that went extinct. +Avian dinosaurs are our modern birds. +So we don't have to make a dinosaur because we already have them. +I know, you're as bad as the sixth-graders. +The sixth-graders look at it and they say, "No." +"You can call it a dinosaur, but look at the velociraptor: the velociraptor is cool." +"The chicken is not." +So this is our problem, as you can imagine. +The chicken is a dinosaur. +I mean it really is. +You can't argue with it because we're the classifiers and we've classified it that way. +But the sixth-graders demand it. +"Fix the chicken." +So that's what I'm here to tell you about: how we are going to fix a chicken. +So we have a number of ways that we actually can fix the chicken. +Because evolution works, we actually have some evolutionary tools. +We'll call them biological modification tools. +We have selection. +And we know selection works. +We started out with a wolf-like creature and we ended up with a Maltese. +I mean, that's -- that's definitely genetic modification. +Or any of the other funny-looking little dogs. +We also have transgenesis. +Transgenesis is really cool too. +That's where you take a gene out of one animal and stick it in another one. +That's how people make GloFish. +You take a glow gene out of a coral or a jellyfish and you stick it in a zebrafish, and, puff, they glow. +And that's pretty cool. +And they obviously make a lot of money off of them. +And now they're making Glow-rabbits and Glow-all-sorts-of-things. +I guess we could make a glow chicken. +But I don't think that'll satisfy the sixth-graders either. +But there's another thing. +There's what we call atavism activation. +And atavism activation is basically -- an atavism is an ancestral characteristic. +You heard that occasionally children are born with tails, and it's because it's an ancestral characteristic. +And so there are a number of atavisms that can happen. +Snakes are occasionally born with legs. +And here's an example. +This is a chicken with teeth. +A fellow by the name of Matthew Harris at the University of Wisconsin in Madison actually figured out a way to stimulate the gene for teeth, and so was able to actually turn the tooth gene on and produce teeth in chickens. +Now that's a good characteristic. +We can save that one. +We know we can use that. +We can make a chicken with teeth. +That's getting closer. +That's better than a glowing chicken. +A friend of mine, a colleague of mine, Dr. Hans Larsson at McGill University, is actually looking at atavisms. +And he's looking at them by looking at the embryo genesis of birds and actually looking at how they develop, and he's interested in how birds actually lost their tail. +He's also interested in the transformation of the arm, the hand, to the wing. +He's looking for those genes as well. +And I said, "Well, if you can find those, I can just reverse them and make what I need to make for the sixth-graders." +And so he agreed. +And so that's what we're looking into. +If you look at dinosaur hands, a velociraptor has that cool-looking hand with the claws on it. +Archaeopteryx, which is a bird, a primitive bird, still has that very primitive hand. +But as you can see, the pigeon, or a chicken or anything else, another bird, has kind of a weird-looking hand, because the hand is a wing. +But the cool thing is that, if you look in the embryo, as the embryo is developing the hand actually looks pretty much like the archaeopteryx hand. +It has the three fingers, the three digits. +But a gene turns on that actually fuses those together. +And so what we're looking for is that gene. +We want to stop that gene from turning on, fusing those hands together, so we can get a chicken that hatches out with a three-fingered hand, like the archaeopteryx. +And the same goes for the tails. +Birds have basically rudimentary tails. +And so we know that in embryo, as the animal is developing, it actually has a relatively long tail. +But a gene turns on and resorbs the tail, gets rid of it. +So that's the other gene we're looking for. +We want to stop that tail from resorbing. +So what we're trying to do really is take our chicken, modify it and make the chickenosaurus. +It's a cooler-looking chicken. +But it's just the very basics. +So that really is what we're doing. +And people always say, "Why do that? +Why make this thing? +What good is it?" +Well, that's a good question. +Actually, I think it's a great way to teach kids about evolutionary biology and developmental biology and all sorts of things. +And quite frankly, I think if Colonel Sanders was to be careful how he worded it, he could actually advertise an extra piece. +Anyway -- When our dino-chicken hatches, it will be, obviously, the poster child, or what you might call a poster chick, for technology, entertainment and design. +Thank you. +This story is about taking imagination seriously. +Fourteen years ago, I first encountered this ordinary material, fishnet, used the same way for centuries. +Today, I'm using it to create permanent, billowing, voluptuous forms the scale of hard-edged buildings in cities around the world. +I was an unlikely person to be doing this. +I never studied sculpture, engineering or architecture. +In fact, after college I applied to seven art schools and was rejected by all seven. +I went off on my own to become an artist, and I painted for 10 years, when I was offered a Fulbright to India. +Promising to give exhibitions of paintings, I shipped my paints and arrived in Mahabalipuram. +The deadline for the show arrived -- my paints didn't. +I had to do something. +This fishing village was famous for sculpture. +So I tried bronze casting. +But to make large forms was too heavy and expensive. +I went for a walk on the beach, watching the fishermen bundle their nets into mounds on the sand. +I'd seen it every day, but this time I saw it differently -- a new approach to sculpture, a way to make volumetric form without heavy solid materials. +My first satisfying sculpture was made in collaboration with these fishermen. +It's a self-portrait titled "Wide Hips." +We hoisted them on poles to photograph. +I discovered their soft surfaces revealed every ripple of wind in constantly changing patterns. +I was mesmerized. +I continued studying craft traditions and collaborating with artisans, next in Lithuania with lace makers. +I liked the fine detail it gave my work, but I wanted to make them larger -- to shift from being an object you look at to something you could get lost in. +Returning to India to work with those fishermen, we made a net of a million and a half hand-tied knots -- installed briefly in Madrid. +Thousands of people saw it, and one of them was the urbanist Manual Sola-Morales who was redesigning the waterfront in Porto, Portugal. +He asked if I could build this as a permanent piece for the city. +I didn't know if I could do that and preserve my art. +Durable, engineered, permanent -- those are in opposition to idiosyncratic, delicate and ephemeral. +For two years, I searched for a fiber that could survive ultraviolet rays, salt, air, pollution, and at the same time remain soft enough to move fluidly in the wind. +We needed something to hold the net up out there in the middle of the traffic circle. +So we raised this 45,000-pound steel ring. +We had to engineer it to move gracefully in an average breeze and survive in hurricane winds. +But there was no engineering software to model something porous and moving. +I found a brilliant aeronautical engineer who designs sails for America's Cup racing yachts named Peter Heppel. +He helped me tackle the twin challenges of precise shape and gentle movement. +I couldn't build this the way I knew because hand-tied knots weren't going to withstand a hurricane. +So I developed a relationship with an industrial fishnet factory, learned the variables of their machines, and figured out a way to make lace with them. +There was no language to translate this ancient, idiosyncratic handcraft into something machine operators could produce. +So we had to create one. +Three years and two children later, we raised this 50,000-square-foot lace net. +It was hard to believe that what I had imagined was now built, permanent and had lost nothing in translation. +This intersection had been bland and anonymous. +Now it had a sense of place. +I walked underneath it for the first time. +As I watched the wind's choreography unfold, I felt sheltered and, at the same time, connected to limitless sky. +My life was not going to be the same. +I want to create these oases of sculpture in spaces of cities around the world. +I'm going to share two directions that are new in my work. +Historic Philadelphia City Hall: its plaza, I felt, needed a material for sculpture that was lighter than netting. +So we experimented with tiny atomized water particles to create a dry mist that is shaped by the wind and in testing, discovered that it can be shaped by people who can interact and move through it without getting wet. +I'm using this sculpture material to trace the paths of subway trains above ground in real time -- like an X-ray of the city's circulatory system unfolding. +Next challenge, the Biennial of the Americas in Denver asked, could I represent the 35 nations of the Western hemisphere and their interconnectedness in a sculpture? +I didn't know where to begin, but I said yes. +I read about the recent earthquake in Chile and the tsunami that rippled across the entire Pacific Ocean. +It shifted the Earth's tectonic plates, sped up the planet's rotation and literally shortened the length of the day. +So I contacted NOAA, and I asked if they'd share their data on the tsunami, and translated it into this. +Its title: "1.26" refers to the number of microseconds that the Earth's day was shortened. +I couldn't build this with a steel ring, the way I knew. +Its shape was too complex now. +So I replaced the metal armature with a soft, fine mesh of a fiber 15 times stronger than steel. +The sculpture could now be entirely soft, which made it so light it could tie in to existing buildings -- literally becoming part of the fabric of the city. +There was no software that could extrude these complex net forms and model them with gravity. +So we had to create it. +Then I got a call from New York City asking if I could adapt these concepts to Times Square or the High Line. +This new soft structural method enables me to model these and build these sculptures at the scale of skyscrapers. +They don't have funding yet, but I dream now of bringing these to cities around the world where they're most needed. +Fourteen years ago, I searched for beauty in the traditional things, in craft forms. +Now I combine them with hi-tech materials and engineering to create voluptuous, billowing forms the scale of buildings. +My artistic horizons continue to grow. +I'll leave you with this story. +I got a call from a friend in Phoenix. +An attorney in the office who'd never been interested in art, never visited the local art museum, dragged everyone she could from the building and got them outside to lie down underneath the sculpture. +There they were in their business suits, laying in the grass, noticing the changing patterns of wind beside people they didn't know, sharing the rediscovery of wonder. +Thank you. +Thank you. Thank you. +Thank you. +Thank you. Thank you. +From all outward appearances, John had everything going for him. +He had just signed the contract to sell his New York apartment at a six-figure profit, and he'd only owned it for five years. +The school where he graduated from with his master's had just offered him a teaching appointment, which meant not only a salary, but benefits for the first time in ages. +And yet, despite everything going really well for John, he was struggling, fighting addiction and a gripping depression. +On the night of June 11th, 2003, he climbed up to the edge of the fence on the Manhattan Bridge and he leaped to the treacherous waters below. +Remarkably -- no, miraculously -- he lived. +And that's actually where our story begins. +Because once John committed himself to putting his life back together -- first physically, then emotionally, and then spiritually -- he found that there were very few resources available to someone who has attempted to end their life in the way that he did. +Research shows that 19 out of 20 people who attempt suicide will fail. +But the people who fail are 37 times more likely to succeed the second time. +This truly is an at-risk population with very few resources to support them. +And what happens when people try to assemble themselves back into life, because of our taboos around suicide, we're not sure what to say, and so quite often we say nothing. +And that furthers the isolation that people like John found themselves in. +I know John's story very well because I'm John. +And this is, today, the first time in any sort of public setting I've ever acknowledged the journey that I have been on. +As the Trevor Project says, it gets better. +It gets way better. +And I'm choosing to come out of a totally different kind of closet today to encourage you, to urge you, that if you are someone who has contemplated or attempted suicide, or you know somebody who has, talk about it; get help. +It's a conversation worth having and an idea worth spreading. +Thank you. +A couple of years ago when I was attending the TED Conference in Long Beach, I met Harriet. +We'd actually met online before -- not the way you're thinking. +We were actually introduced because we both knew Linda Avey, one of the founders of the first online personal genomic companies. +And because we shared our genetic information with Linda, she could see that Harriet and I shared a very rare type of mitochondrial DNA -- Haplotype K1a1b1a -- which meant that we were distantly related. +We actually share the same genealogy with Ozzie the iceman. +So Ozzie, Harriet and me. +And being the current day, of course, we started our own Facebook group. +You're all welcome to join. +And when I met Harriet in person the next year at the TED Conference, she'd gone online and ordered our own happy Haplotype T-shirts. +Now why am I telling you this story, and what does this have to do with the future of health? +Well the way I met Harriet is actually an example of how leveraging cross-disciplinary, exponentially-growing technologies is affecting our future of health and wellness -- from low-cost gene analysis to the ability to do powerful bio-informatics to the connection of the Internet and social networking. +What I'd like to talk about today is understanding these exponential technologies. +We often think linearly. +But if you think about it, if you have a lily pad and it just divided every single day -- two, four, eight, 16 -- in 15 days you have 32,000. +What do you think you have in a month? We're at a billion. +So if we start to think exponentially, we can see how this is starting to affect all the technologies around us. +And one of the major things we can do we've talked a bit about here today is moving the curve to the left. +We spend most of our money on the last 20 percent of life. +What if we could spend and incentivize positions in the health care system and our own self to move the curve to the left and improve our health, leveraging technology as well? +Now my favorite technology, example of exponential technology, we all have in our pocket. +So if you think about it, these are really dramatically improving. +I mean this is the iPhone 4. +Imagine what the iPhone 8 will be able to do. +Now, I've gained some insight into this. +I've been the track share for the medicine portion of a new institution called Singularity University based in Silicon Valley. +And we bring together every summer about 100 very talented students from around the world. +And we look at these exponential technologies from medicine, biotech, artificial intelligence, robotics, nanotechnology, space, and address how can we cross-train and leverage these to impact major unmet goals. +We also have seven-day executive programs. +And coming up next month is actually Future Med, a program to help cross-train and leverage technologies into medicine. +Now I mentioned the phone. +These mobile phones have over 20,000 different mobile apps available -- to the point where there's one out of the U.K. +where you can pee on a little chip connected to your iPhone and check yourself for an STD. +I don't know if I'd try that yet, but that's available. +There are all other sorts of applications, merging your phone and diagnostics, for example -- measuring your blood glucose on your iPhone and sending that, potentially, to your physician so they can better understand and you can better understand your blood sugars as a diabetic. +So let's see now how exponential technologies are taking health care. +Let's start with faster. +Well it's no secret that computers, through Moore's law, are speeding up faster and faster. +We have the ability to do more powerful things with them. +They're really approaching, in many cases surpassing, the ability of the human mind. +But where I think computational speed is most applicable is in that of imaging. +The ability now to look inside the body in real time with very high resolution is really becoming incredible. +And we're layering multiple technologies -- PET scans, CT scans and molecular diagnostics -- to find and to seek things at different levels. +Here you're going to see the very highest resolution MRI scan done today, reconstructed of Marc Hodosh, the curator of TEDMED. +And now we can see inside of the brain with a resolution and ability that was never before available, and essentially learn how to reconstruct, and maybe even re-engineer, or backwards engineer, the brain so we can better understand pathology, disease and therapy. +We can look inside with real time fMRI -- in the brain at real time. +And by understanding these sorts of processes and these sorts of connections, we're going to understand the effects of medication or meditation and better personalize and make effective, for example, psychoactive drugs. +The scanners for these are getting small, less expensive and more portable. +And this sort of data explosion available from these is really almost becoming a challenge. +The scan of today takes up about 800 books, or 20 gigabytes. +The scan in a couple of years will be one terabyte, or 800,000 books. +How do you leverage that information? +Let's get personal. I won't ask who here's had a colonoscopy, but if you're over age 50, it's time for your screening colonoscopy. +How would you like to avoid the pointy end of the stick? +Well now there's essentially a virtual colonoscopy. +Compare those two pictures, and now as a radiologist, you can essentially fly through your patient's colon and, augmenting that with artificial intelligence, identify potentially, as you see here, a lesion. +Oh, we might have missed it, but using A.I. on top of radiology, we can find lesions that were missed before. +And maybe this will encourage people to get colonoscopies that wouldn't have otherwise. +And this is an example of this paradigm shift. +We're moving to this integration of biomedicine, information technology, wireless and, I would say, mobile now -- this era of digital medicine. +So even my stethoscope is now digital. +And of course, there's an app for that. +We're moving, obviously, to the era of the tricorder. +So the handheld ultrasound is basically surpassing and supplanting the stethoscope. +These are now at a price point of -- what used to be 100,000 euros or a couple of hundred-thousand dollars -- for about 5,000 dollars, I can have the power of a very powerful diagnostic device in my hand. +And merging this now with the advent of electronic medical records -- in the United States, we're still less than 20 percent electronic. +Here in the Netherlands, I think it's more than 80 percent. +But now that we're switching to merging medical data, making it available electronically, we can crowd source that information, and now as a physician, I can access my patients' data from wherever I am just through my mobile device. +And now, of course, we're in the era of the iPad, even the iPad 2. +And just last month the first FDA-approved application was approved to allow radiologists to do actual reading on these sorts of devices. +So certainly, the physicians of today, including myself, are completely reliable on these devices. +And as you saw just about a month ago, Watson from IBM beat the two champions in "Jeopardy." +So I want you to imagine when in a couple of years, when we've started to apply this cloud-based information, when we really have the A.I. physician and leverage our brains to connectivity to make decisions and diagnostics at a level never done. +Already today, you don't need to go to your physician in many cases. +Only for about 20 percent of actual visits do you have to lay hands on the patient. +We're now in the era of virtual visits -- from sort of the Skype-type visits you can do with American Well, to Cisco that's developed a very complex health presence system. +The ability to interact with your health care provider is different. +And these are being augmented even by our devices again today. +Here my friend Jessica sent me a picture of her head laceration so I can save her a trip to the emergency room -- I can do some diagnostics that way. +Or might we be able to leverage today's gaming technology, like the Microsoft Kinect, and hack that to enable diagnostics, for example, in diagnosing stroke, using simple motion detection, using hundred-dollar devices. +We can actually now visit our patients robotically -- this is the RP7; if I'm a hematologist, visit another clinic, visit a hospital. +These will be augmented by a whole suite of tools actually in the home now. +So imagine we already have wireless scales. +You can step on the scale. +You can Tweet your weight to your friends, and they can keep you in line. +We have wireless blood pressure cuffs. +A whole gamut of these technologies are being put together. +So instead of wearing these kludgy devices, we can put on a simple patch. +This was developed by colleagues at Stanford, called the iRhythm -- completely supplants the prior technology at a much lower price point with much more effectivity. +Now we're also in the era, today, of quantified self. +Consumers now can buy basically hundred-dollar devices, like this little FitBit. +I can measure my steps, my caloric outtake. +I can get insight into that on a daily basis. +I can share that with my friends, with my physician. +There's watches coming out that will measure your heart rate, the Zeo sleep monitors, a whole suite of tools that can enable you to leverage and have insight into your own health. +And as we start to integrate this information, we're going to know better what to do with it and how better to have insight into our own pathologies, health and wellness. +There's even mirrors today that can pick up your pulse rate. +And I would argue, in the future, we'll have wearable devices in our clothes, monitoring ourselves 24/7. +And just like we have the OnStar system in cars, your red light might go on -- it won't say "check engine" though. +It's going to be "check your body" light, and go in and get it taken care of. +Probably in a few years, you'll check into your mirror and it's going to be diagnosing you. +For those of you with kiddos at home, how would you like to have the wireless diaper that supports your ... +too much information, I think, than you might need. +But it's going to be here. +Now we've heard a lot today about new technology and connection. +And I think some of these technologies will enable us to be more connected with our patients, and take more time and actually do the important human touch elements of medicine, as augmented by these sorts of technologies. +Now we've talked about augmenting the patient, to some degree. +How about augmenting the physician? +We're now in the era of super-enabling the surgeon who can now go inside the body and do things with robotic surgery, which is here today, at a level that was not really possible even five years ago. +Now this is being augmented with further layers of technology like augmented reality. +So the surgeon can see inside the patient, through their lens, where the tumor is, where the blood vessels are. +This can be integrated with decisions support. +A surgeon in New York can be helping a surgeon in Amsterdam, for example. +And we're entering an era of really, truly scarless surgery called NOTES, where the robotic endoscope can come out the stomach and pull out that gallbladder all in a scarless way and robotically. +And this is called NOTES, and this is coming -- basically scarless surgery, as mediated by robotic surgery. +Now how about controlling other elements? +For those who have disabilities -- the paraplegic -- there's the era of brain-computer interface, or BCI, where chips have been put on the motor cortex of completely quadriplegic patients and they can control a curser or a wheelchair or, eventually, a robotic arm. +And these devices are getting smaller and going into more and more of these patients. +So we're really entering the era of wearable robotics actually. +If you haven't lost a limb -- you've had a stroke, for example -- you can wear these augmented limbs. +Or if you're a paraplegic -- like I've visited the folks at Berkley Bionics -- they've developed eLEGS. +I took this video last week. Here's a paraplegic patient actually walking by strapping on these exoskeletons. +He's otherwise completely wheelchair-bound. +And now this is the early era of wearable robotics. +And I think by leveraging these sorts of technologies, we're going to change the definition of disability to in some cases be superability, or super-enabling. +This is Aimee Mullins, who lost her lower limbs as a young child, and Hugh Herr, who's a professor at MIT who lost his limbs in a climbing accident. +And now both of these can climb better, move faster, swim differently with their prosthetics than us normal-abled persons. +Now how about other exponentials? +Clearly the obesity trend is exponentially going in the wrong direction, including with huge costs. +But the trend in medicine actually is to get exponentially smaller. +So a few examples: we're now in the era of "Fantastic Voyage," the iPill. +You can swallow this completely integrated device. +It can take pictures of your GI system, help diagnose and treat as it moves through your GI tract. +We get into even smaller micro-robots that will eventually autonomously move through your system again and be able to do things that surgeons can't do in a much less invasive manner. +Sometimes these might self-assemble in your GI system and be augmented in that reality. +On the cardiac side, pacemakers are getting smaller and much easier to place so you don't need to train an interventional cardiologist to place them. +And they're going to be wirelessly telemetered again to your mobile devices so you can go places and be monitored remotely. +These are shrinking even further. +Here's one that's in prototyping by Medtronic that's smaller than a penny. +Artificial retinas, the ability to put these arrays on the back of the eyeball and allow the blind to see. +Again, in early trials, but moving into the future. +These are going to be game changing. +Or for those of us who are sighted, how about having the assisted-living contact lens? +BlueTooth, WiFi available -- beams back images to your eye. +Now if you have trouble maintaining your diet, it might help to have some extra imagery to remind you how many calories are going to be coming at you. +How about enabling the pathologist to use their cell phone again to see at a microscopic level and to lumber that data back to the cloud and make better diagnostics? +In fact, the whole era of laboratory medicine is completely changing. +We can now leverage microfluidics, like this chip made by Steve Quake at Stanford. +Microfluidics can replace an entire lab of technicians. +Put it on a chip, enable thousands of tests to be done at the point of care, anywhere in the world. +And this is really going to leverage technology to the rural and the under-served and enable what used to be thousand-dollar tests to be done at pennies and at the point of care. +If we go down the small pathway a little bit farther, we're entering the era of nanomedicine, the ability to make devices super small to the point where we can design red blood cells or microrobots that will monitor our blood system or immune system, or even those that might clear out the clots from our arteries. +Now how about exponentially cheaper? +Not something we usually think about in the era of medicine, but hard disks used to be 3,400 dollars for 10 megabytes -- exponentially cheaper. +In genomics now, the genome cost about a billion dollars about 10 years ago when the first one came out. +We're now approaching essentially a thousand-dollar genome -- probably next year to two years, probably a hundred-dollar genome. +What are we going to do with hundred-dollar genomes? +And soon we'll have millions of these tests available. +And that's when it gets interesting, when we start to crowdsource that information. +And we enter the era of true personalized medicine -- the right drug for the right person at the right time -- instead of what we're doing today, which is the same drug for everybody -- sort of blockbuster drug medications, medications which don't work for you, the individual. +And many, many different companies are working on leveraging these approaches. +And I'll also show you a simple example, from 23andMe again. +My data indicates that I've got about average risk for developing macular degeneration, a kind of blindness. +But if I take that same data, upload it to deCODEme, I can look at my risk for sample type 2 diabetes. +I'm at almost twice the risk for type 2 diabetes. +I might want to watch how much dessert I have at the lunch break for example. +It might change my behavior. +Leveraging my knowledge of my pharmacogenomics -- how my genes modulate, what my drugs do and what doses I need are going to become increasingly important, and once in the hands of the individual and the patient, will make better drug dosing and selection available. +So again, it's not just genes, it's multiple details -- our habits, our environmental exposure. +When was the last time your physician asked you where you've lived? +Geomedicine: where you've lived, what you've been exposed to, can dramatically affect your health. +We can capture that information. +So genomics, proteomics, the environment, all this data streaming at us individually and us, as poor physicians, how do we manage it? +Well we're now entering the era of systems medicine, or systems biology, where we can start to integrate all of this information. +And by looking at the patterns, for example, in our blood of 10,000 biomarkers in a single test, we can start to look at these little patterns and detect disease at a much earlier stage. +This has been called by Lee Hood, the father of the field, P4 medicine. +We're going to be predictive; we're going to know what you're likely to have. +We can be preventative; that prevention can be personalized; and more importantly, it's going to become increasingly participatory. +Through websites like Patients Like Me or managing your data on Microsoft HealthVault or Google Health, leveraging this together in participatory ways is going to become increasingly important. +So I'll finish up with exponentially better. +We'd like to get therapies better and more effective. +Now today we treat high blood pressure mostly with pills. +What if we take a new device and knock out the nerve vessels that help mediate blood pressure and in a single therapy to cure hypertension? +This is a new device that is essentially doing that. +It should be on the market within a year or two. +How about more targeted therapies for cancer? +Right, I'm an oncologist and I have to say most of what we give is actually poison. +We've learned at Stanford and other places that we can discover cancer stem cells, the ones that seem to be really responsible for disease relapse. +So if you think of cancer as a weed, we often can whack the weed away. +It seems to shrink, but it often comes back. +So we're attacking the wrong target. +The cancer stem cells remain, and the tumor can return months or years later. +We're now learning to identify the cancer stem cells and identify those as targets and go for the long-term cure. +And we're entering the era of personalized oncology, the ability to leverage all of this data together, analyze the tumor and come up with a real, specific cocktail for the individual patient. +Now I'll close with regenerative medicine. +So I've studied a lot about stem cells -- embryonic stem cells are particularly powerful. +We also have adult stem cells throughout our body. +We use those in my field of bone marrow transplantation. +Geron, just last year, started the first trial using human embryonic stem cells to treat spinal cord injuries. +Still a Phase I trial, but evolving. +We've been actually using adult stem cells now in clinical trials for about 15 years to approach a whole range of topics, particularly in cardiovascular disease. +We take our own bone marrow cells and treat a patient with a heart attack, we can see much improved heart function and actually better survival using our own bone marrow drive cells after a heart attack. +I invented a device called the MarrowMiner, a much less invasive way for harvesting bone marrow. +It's now been FDA approved, and it'll hopefully be on the market in the next year or so. +Hopefully you can appreciate the device there curving through the patient's body and removing the patient's bone marrow, instead of with 200 punctures, with just a single puncture under local anesthesia. +But where is stem cell therapy really going? +If you think about it, every cell in your body has the same DNA as you had when you were an embryo. +We can now reprogram your skin cells to actually act like a pluripotent embryonic stem cell and to utilize those potentially to treat multiple organs in that same patient -- making your own personalized stem cell lines. +And I think they'll be a new era of your own stem cell banking to have in the freezer your own cardiac cells, myocytes and neural cells to use them in the future, should you need them. +And we're integrating this now with a whole era of cellular engineering, and integrating exponential technologies for essentially 3D organ printing -- replacing the ink with cells and essentially building and reconstructing a 3D organ. +That's where things are going to head -- still very early days. +But I think, as integration of exponential technologies, this is the example. +So in close, as you think about technology trends and how to impact health and medicine, we're entering an era of miniaturization, decentralization and personalization. +And I think by pulling these things together, if we can start to think about how to understand and leverage these, we're going to empower the patient, enable the doctor, enhance wellness and begin to cure the well before they get sick. +Because I know as a doctor, if someone comes to me with Stage I disease, I'm thrilled -- we can often cure them. +But often it's too late and it's Stage III or IV cancer, for example. +So by leveraging these technologies together, I think we'll enter a new era that I like to call Stage 0 medicine. +And as a cancer doctor, I'm looking forward to being out of a job. +Thanks very much. +Host: Thank you. Thank you. +Take a bow. Take a bow. +I'm here today to start a revolution. +Now before you get up in arms, or you break into song, or you pick a favorite color, I want to define what I mean by revolution. +By revolution, I mean a drastic and far-reaching change in the way we think and behave -- the way we think and the way we behave. +Now why, Steve, why do we need a revolution? +We need a revolution because things aren't working; they're just not working. +And that makes me really sad because I'm sick and tired of things not working. +You know, I'm sick and tired of us not living up to our potential. +I'm sick and tired of us being last. +And we are last place in so many things -- for example, social factors. +We're last place in Europe in innovation. +There we are right at the end, right at the bottom, last place as a culture that doesn't value innovation. +We're last place in health care, and that's important for a sense of well-being. +And there we are, not just last in the E.U., we're last in Europe, at the very bottom. +And worst of all, it just came out three weeks ago, many of you have seen it, The Economist. +We're the saddest place on Earth, relative to GDP per capita -- the saddest place on Earth. +That's social. Let's look at education. +Where do we rank three weeks ago in another report by the OECD? +Last in reading, math and science. Last. +Business: The lowest perception in the E.U. +that entrepreneurs provide benefits to society. +Why as a result, what happens? +The lowest percentage of entrepreneurs starting businesses. +And this is despite the fact that everybody knows that small business is the engine of economies. +We hire the most people; we create the most taxes. +So if our engine's broken, guess what? +Last in Europe GDP per capita. +Last. +So it's no surprise, guys, that 62 percent of Bulgarians are not optimistic about the future. +We're unhappy, we have bad education, and we have the worst businesses. +And these are facts, guys. +This isn't story tale; it's not make-believe. +It's not. +It's not a conspiracy I have got against Bulgaria. These are facts. +So I think it should be really, really clear that our system is broken. +The way we think, the way we behave, our operating system of behaving is broken. +We need a drastic change in the way we think and behave to transform Bulgaria for the better, for ourselves, for our friends, for our family and for our future. +How did this happen? +Let's be positive now. We're going to get positive. How did this happen? +I think we're last because -- and this is going to be drastic to some of you -- because we are handicapping ourselves. +We're holding ourselves back because we don't value play. +I said "play," all right. +In case some of you forgot what play is, this is what play looks like. +Babies play, kids play, adults play. +We don't value play. +In fact, we devalue play. +And we devalue it in three areas. +Let's go back to the same three areas. +Social: 45 years of what? +Of communism -- of valuing the society and the state over the individual and squashing, inadvertently, creativity, individual self-expression and innovation. +And instead, what do we value? +Because it's shown the way we apply, generate and use knowledge is affected by our social and institutional context, which told us what in communism? +To be serious. +To be really, really serious. +It did. +Be serious. +I can't tell you how many times I've been scolded in the park for letting my kids play on the ground. +Heaven forbid they play in the dirt, the kal, or even worse, lokvi, water -- that will kill them. +I have been told by babas and dyados that we shouldn't let our kids play so much because life is serious and we need to train them for the seriousness of life. +We have a serious meme running through. +It's a social gene running through us. +It's a serious gene. +It's 45 years of it that's created what I call the "baba factor." +And here's how it works. +Step one: woman says, "I want to have a baby. Iskam baby." +Step two: we get the baby. Woohoo! +But then what happens in step three? +I want to go back to work because I need to further my career or I just want to go have coffees. +I'm going to give bebko to baba. +But we need to remember that baba's been infected by the serious meme for 45 years. +So what happens? +She passes that virus on to baby, and it takes a really, really, really long time -- as the redwood trees -- for that serious meme to get out of our operating system. +What happens then? +It goes into education where we have an antiquated education system that has little changed for 100 years, that values rote learning, memorization and standardization, and devalues self-expression, self-exploration, questioning, creativity and play. +It's a crap system. +True story: I went looking for a school for my kid. +We went to this prestigious little school and they say they're going to study math 10 times a week and science eight times a week and reading five times a day and all this stuff. +And we said, "Well what about play and recess?" +And they said, "Ha. There won't be a single moment in the schedule." +And we said, "He's five." +What a crime. What a crime. +And it's a crime that our education system is so serious because education is serious that we're creating mindless, robotic workers to put bolts in pre-drilled holes. +But I'm sorry, the problems of today are not the problems of the Industrial Revolution. +We need adaptability, the ability to learn how to be creative and innovative. +We don't need mechanized workers. +But no, now our meme goes into work where we don't value play. +We create robotic workers that we treat like assets, to lever and just throw away. +What are qualities of a Bulgarian work? +Autocratic -- do what I say because I'm the chef. +I'm the boss and I know better than you. +Untrusting -- you're obviously a criminal, so I'm going to install cameras. +Controlling -- you're obviously an idiot, so I'm going to make a zillion little processes for you to follow so you don't step out of the box. +So they're restrictive -- don't use your mobile phone, don't use your laptop, don't search the Internet, don't be on I.M. +That's somehow unprofessional and bad. +And at the end of the day, it's unfulfilling because you're controlled, you're restricted, you're not valued and you're not having any fun. +In social, in education and in our business, don't value play. +And that's why we're last, because we don't value play. +And you can say, "That's ridiculous, Steve. What a dumb idea. +It can't be because of play. +Just play, that's a stupid thing." +We have the serious meme in us. +Well I'm going to say no. +And I will prove it to you in the next part of the speech -- that play is the catalyst, it is the revolution, that we can use to transform Bulgaria for the better. +Play: our brains are hardwired for play. +Evolution has selected, over millions and billions of years, for play in animals and in humans. +And you know what? +Evolution does a really, really good job of deselecting traits that aren't advantageous to us and selecting traits for competitive advantage. +Nature isn't stupid, and it selected for play. +Throughout the animal kingdom, for example: ants. Ants play. +Maybe you didn't know that. +But when they're playing, they're learning the social order and dynamics of things. +Rats play, but what you might not have known is that rats that play more have bigger brains and they learn tasks better, skills. +Kittens play. We all know kittens play. +But what you may not know is that kittens deprived of play are unable to interact socially. +They can still hunt, but they can't be social. +Bears play. +But what you may not know is that bears that play more survive longer. +It's not the bears that learn how to fish better. +It's the ones that play more. +And a final really interesting study -- it's been shown, a correlation between play and brain size. +The more you play, the bigger the brains there are. +Dolphins, pretty big brains, play a lot. +But who do you think with the biggest brains are the biggest players? +Yours truly: humans. +Kids play, we play -- of every nationality, of every race, of every color, of every religion. +It's a universal thing -- we play. +And it's not just kids, it's adults too. +Really cool term: neoteny -- the retention of play and juvenile traits in adults. +And who are the biggest neotenists? +Humans. We play sports. +We do it for fun, or as Olympians, or as professionals. +We play musical instruments. +We dance, we kiss, we sing, we just goof around. +We're designed by nature to play from birth to old age. +We're designed to do that continuously -- to play and play a lot and not stop playing. +It is a huge benefit. +Just like there's benefits to animals, there's benefits to humans. +For example, it's been shown to stimulate neural growth in the amygdala, in the area where it controls emotions. +It's been shown to promote pre-frontal cortex development where a lot of cognition is happening. +As a result, what happens? +We develop more emotional maturity if we play more. +We develop better decision-making ability if we play more. +These guys are facts. +It's not fiction, it's not story tales, it's not make-believe; it's cold, hard science. +These are the benefits to play. +It is a genetic birthright that we have, like walking or speaking or seeing. +And if we handicap ourselves with play, we handicap ourselves as if we would with any other birthright that we have. +We hold ourselves back. +Little exercise just for a second: close your eyes and try to imagine a world without play. +Imagine a world without theater, without the arts, without song, without dancing, without soccer, without football, without laughter. +What does this world look like? +It's pretty bleak. +It's pretty glum. +Now imagine your workplace. +Is it fun? Is it playful? +Or maybe the workplace of your friends -- here we're forward thinking. +Is it fun? Is it playful? +Or is it crap? Is it autocratic, controlling, restrictive and untrusting and unfulfilling? +We have this concept that the opposite of play is work. +We even feel guilty if we're seen playing at work. +"Oh, my colleagues see me laughing. I must not have enough work," or, "Oh, I've got to hide because my boss might see me. +He's going to think I'm not working hard." +But I have news for you: our thinking is backwards. +The opposite of play is not work. +The opposite of play is depression. It's depression. +In fact, play improves our work. +Just like there's benefits for humans and animals, there's benefits for play at work. +For example, it stimulates creativity. +It increases our openness to change. +It improves our ability to learn. +It provides a sense of purpose and mastery -- two key motivational things that increase productivity, through play. +So before you start thinking of play as just not serious, play doesn't mean frivolous. +You know, the professional athlete that loves skiing, he's serious about it, but he loves it. +He's having fun, he's in the groove, he's in the flow. +A doctor might be serious, but laughter's still a great medicine. +Our thinking is backwards. +We shouldn't be feeling guilty. +We should be celebrating play. +Quick example from the corporate world. +FedEx, easy motto: people, service, profit. +If you treat your people like people, if you treat them great, they're happier, they're fulfilled, they have a sense of mastery and purpose. +What happens? They give better service -- not worse, but better. +And when customers call for service and they're dealing with happy people that can make decisions and are fulfilled, how do the customers feel? They feel great. +And what do great customers do, great-feeling customers? +They buy more of your service and they tell more of their friends, which leads to more profit. +People, service, profit. +Play increases productivity, not decreases. +And you're going to say, "Gee, that can work for FedEx out there in the United States, but it can't work in Bulgaria. +No way. We're different." +It does work in Bulgaria, you guys. Two reasons. +One, play is universal. +There's nothing weird about Bulgarians that we can't play, besides the serious meme that we have to kick out. +Two, I've tried it. I've tried at Sciant. +When I got there, we had zero happy customers. +Not one customer would refer us. +I asked them all. +We had marginal profit -- I did. +We had marginal profits, and we had unhappy stakeholders. +Through some basic change, change like improving transparency, change like promoting self-direction and collaboration, encouraging collaboration, not autocracy, the things like having a results-focus. +I don't care when you get in in the morning. I don't care when you leave. +I care that your customer and your team is happy and you're organized with that. +Why do I care if you get in at nine o'clock? +Basically promoting fun. +Through promoting fun and a great environment, we were able to transform Sciant and, in just three short years -- sounds like a long time, but change is slow -- every customer, from zero to every customer referring us, above average profits for the industry and happy stakeholders. +And you can say, "Well how do you know they're happy?" +Well we did win, every year that we entered, one of the rankings for best employer for small business. +Independent analysis from anonymous employees on their surveys. +It does, and it can, work in Bulgaria. +There's nothing holding us back, except our own mentality about play. +So some steps that we can take -- to finish up -- how to make this revolution through play. +First of all, you have to believe me. +If you don't believe me, well just go home and think about it some more or something. +Second of all, if you don't have the feeling of play in you, you need to rediscover play. +Whatever it was that as a kid you used to enjoy, that you enjoyed only six months ago, but now that you've got that promotion you can't enjoy, because you feel like you have to be serious, rediscover it. +I don't care if it's mountain biking or reading a book or playing a game. +Rediscover that because you're the leaders, the innovation leaders, the thought leaders. +You're the ones that have to go back to the office or talk to your friends and ignite the fire of change in the play revolution. +You guys have to, and if you're not feeling it, your colleagues, your employees, aren't going to feel it. +You've got to go back and say, "Hey, I'm going to trust you." +Weird concept: I hired you; I should trust you. +I'm going to let you make decisions. I'm going to empower you, and I'm going to delegate to the lowest level, rather than the top. +I'm going to encourage constructive criticism. +I'm going to let you challenge authority. +Because it's by challenging the way things are always done is that we are able to break out of the rut that we're in and create innovative solutions to problems of today. +We're not always right as leaders. +We're going to eradicate fear. +Fear is the enemy of play. +And we're going to do things like eliminate restrictions. +You know what, let them use their mobile phone for personal calls -- heaven forbid. +Let them be on the Internet. +Let them be on instant messengers. +Let them take long lunches. +Lunch is like the recess for work. +It's when you go out in the world and you recharge your brain, you meet your friends, you have a beer, you have some food, you talk, you get some synergy of ideas that maybe you wouldn't have had before. +Let them do it. Give them some freedom, and in general, let them play. Let them have fun at the workplace. +We spend so much of our lives at the workplace, and it's supposed to be, what, a miserable grind, so that 20 years from now, we wake up and say, "Is this it? +Is that all there was?" +Unacceptable. Nepriemliv. +So in summary, we need a drastic change in the way we think and behave, but we don't need a workers' revolution. +We don't need a workers' revolution. +What we need is a players' uprising. +What we need is a players' uprising. +What we need is a players' uprising. +Seriously, we need to band together. +Today is the start of the uprising. +But what you need to do is fan the flames of the revolution. +You need to go and share your ideas and your success stories of what worked about reinvigorating our lives, our schools, and our work with play; about how play promotes a sense of promise and self-fulfillment; of how play promotes innovation and productivity, and, ultimately, how play creates meaning. +Because we can't do it alone. We have to do it together, and together, if we do this and share these ideas on play, we can transform Bulgaria for the better. +Thank you. +Text: BeatJazz. +BeatJazz is: 1. Live looping, 2. Jazz improvisation And 3. "Gestural" sound design. +Accelerometers on each hand read hand position. +The color of the lights indicates which sound I am playing. +Red = Drums, Blue = Bass, Green = Chords, Orange = Leads, Purple = Pads The mouthpiece consists of ... +a button, two guitar picks and lots of hot glue. +The heads-up display is a smartphone that displays system parameters. +Why? +To atomize music culture so that ALL past, present and future genres can be studied and abstracted, live. +And "BeatJazzers" become as common as D.J.'s. +But mostly ... +to MAKE the future rather than wait for it. +Thank you. +Imagining a solo cello concert, one would most likely think of Johann Sebastian Bach unaccompanied cello suites. +As a child studying these eternal masterpieces, Bach's music would intermingle with the singing voices of Muslim prayers from the neighboring Arab village of the northern Kibbutz in Israel where I grew up. +Late at night, after hours of practicing, I would listen to Janis Joplin and Billie Holiday as the sounds of tango music would be creeping from my parents' stereo. +It all became music to me. +I didn't hear the boundaries. +I still start every day practicing playing Bach. +His music never ceases to sound fresh and surprising to me. +But as I was moving away from the traditional classical repertoire and trying to find new ways of musical expression, I realized that with today's technological resources, there's no reason to limit what can be produced at one time from a single string instrument. +The power and coherency that comes from one person hearing, perceiving and playing all the voices makes a very different experience. +The excitement of a great orchestra performance comes from the attempt to have a collective of musicians producing one unified whole concept. +The excitement from using multi-tracking, the way I did in the piece you will hear next, comes from the attempt to build and create a whole universe with many diverse layers, all generated from a single source. +My cello and my voice are layered to create this large sonic canvas. +When composers write music for me, I ask them to forget what they know about the cello. +I hope to arrive at new territories to discover sounds I have never heard before. +I want to create endless possibilities with this cello. +I become the medium through which the music is being channeled, and in the process, when all is right, the music is transformed and so am I. +Space, we all know what it looks like. +We've been surrounded by images of space our whole lives, from the speculative images of science fiction to the inspirational visions of artists to the increasingly beautiful pictures made possible by complex technologies. +But whilst we have an overwhelmingly vivid visual understanding of space, we have no sense of what space sounds like. +And indeed, most people associate space with silence. +But the story of how we came to understand the universe is just as much a story of listening as it is by looking. +And yet despite this, hardly any of us have ever heard space. +How many of you here could describe the sound of a single planet or star? +Well in case you've ever wondered, this is what the Sun sounds like. +This is the planet Jupiter. +(Soft crackling) And this is the space probe Cassini pirouetting through the ice rings of Saturn. +This is a a highly condensed clump of neutral matter, spinning in the distant universe. +So my artistic practice is all about listening to the weird and wonderful noises emitted by the magnificent celestial objects that make up our universe. +And you may wonder, how do we know what these sounds are? +How can we tell the difference between the sound of the Sun and the sound of a pulsar? +Well the answer is the science of radio astronomy. +Radio astronomers study radio waves from space using sensitive antennas and receivers, which give them precise information about what an astronomical object is and where it is in our night sky. +And just like the signals that we send and receive here on Earth, we can convert these transmissions into sound using simple analog techniques. +And therefore, it's through listening that we've come to uncover some of the universe's most important secrets -- its scale, what it's made of and even how old it is. +So today, I'm going to tell you a short story of the history of the universe through listening. +It's punctuated by three quick anecdotes, which show how accidental encounters with strange noises gave us some of the most important information we have about space. +Now this story doesn't start with vast telescopes or futuristic spacecraft, but a rather more humble technology -- and in fact, the very medium which gave us the telecommunications revolution that we're all part of today: the telephone. +It's 1876, it's in Boston, and this is Alexander Graham Bell who was working with Thomas Watson on the invention of the telephone. +A key part of their technical set up was a half-mile long length of wire, which was thrown across the rooftops of several houses in Boston. +The line carried the telephone signals that would later make Bell a household name. +But like any long length of charged wire, it also inadvertently became an antenna. +Thomas Watson spent hours listening to the strange crackles and hisses and chirps and whistles that his accidental antenna detected. +Now you have to remember, this is 10 years before Heinrich Hertz proved the existence of radio waves -- 15 years before Nikola Tesla's four-tuned circuit -- nearly 20 years before Marconi's first broadcast. +So Thomas Watson wasn't listening to us. +We didn't have the technology to transmit. +So what were these strange noises? +Watson was in fact listening to very low-frequency radio emissions caused by nature. +Some of the crackles and pops were lightning, but the eerie whistles and curiously melodious chirps had a rather more exotic origin. +Using the very first telephone, Watson was in fact dialed into the heavens. +As he correctly guessed, some of these sounds were caused by activity on the surface of the Sun. +It was a solar wind interacting with our ionosphere that he was listening to -- a phenomena which we can see at the extreme northern and southern latitudes of our planet as the aurora. +So whilst inventing the technology that would usher in the telecommunications revolution, Watson had discovered that the star at the center of our solar system emitted powerful radio waves. +He had accidentally been the first person to tune in to them. +Fast-forward 50 years, and Bell and Watson's technology has completely transformed global communications. +But going from slinging some wire across rooftops in Boston to laying thousands and thousands of miles of cable on the Atlantic Ocean seabed is no easy matter. +And so before long, Bell were looking to new technologies to optimize their revolution. +Radio could carry sound without wires. +But the medium is lossy -- it's subject to a lot of noise and interference. +So Bell employed an engineer to study those noises, to try and find out where they came from, with a view towards building the perfect hardware codec, which would get rid of them so they could think about using radio for the purposes of telephony. +Most of the noises that the engineer, Karl Jansky, investigated were fairly prosaic in origin. +They turned out to be lightning or sources of electrical power. +But there was one persistent noise that Jansky couldn't identify, and it seemed to appear in his radio headset four minutes earlier each day. +Now any astronomer will tell you, this is the telltale sign of something that doesn't originate from Earth. +Jansky had made a historic discovery, that celestial objects could emit radio waves as well as light waves. +Fifty years on from Watson's accidental encounter with the Sun, Jansky's careful listening ushered in a new age of space exploration: the radio astronomy age. +Over the next few years, astronomers connected up their antennas to loudspeakers and learned about our radio sky, about Jupiter and the Sun, by listening. +Let's jump ahead again. +It's 1964, and we're back at Bell Labs. +And once again, two scientists have got a problem with noise. +Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson were using the horn antenna at Bell's Holmdel laboratory to study the Milky Way with extraordinary precision. +They were really listening to the galaxy in high fidelity. +There was a glitch in their soundtrack. +A mysterious persistent noise was disrupting their research. +It was in the microwave range, and it appeared to be coming from all directions simultaneously. +Now this didn't make any sense, and like any reasonable engineer or scientist, they assumed that the problem must be the technology itself, it must be the dish. +There were pigeons roosting in the dish. +And so perhaps once they cleaned up the pigeon droppings, get the disk kind of operational again, normal operations would resume. +But the noise didn't disappear. +The mysterious noise that Penzias and Wilson were listening to turned out to be the oldest and most significant sound that anyone had ever heard. +It was cosmic radiation left over from the very birth of the universe. +This was the first experimental evidence that the Big Bang existed and the universe was born at a precise moment some 14.7 billion years ago. +So our story ends at the beginning -- the beginning of all things, the Big Bang. +This is the noise that Penzias and Wilson heard -- the oldest sound that you're ever going to hear, the cosmic microwave background radiation left over from the Big Bang. +Thanks. +My name is Emiliano Salinas and I'm going to talk about the role we members of society play in the violent atmosphere this country is living in right now. +I was born in 1976. +I grew up in a traditional Mexican family. +As a child, I had a pretty normal life: I would go to school, play with my friends and cousins. +But then my father became President of Mexico and my life changed. +What I'm about to say, at least some of what I'm about to say, will cause controversy. +Firstly, because I'm the one who's going to say it. +And secondly, because what I'm going to say is true, and it will make a lot of people nervous because it's something we don't want to hear. +But it's imperative that we listen because it's undeniable and definitive. +It will also make members of criminal organizations nervous for the same reasons. +I'm going to talk about the role we members of society play in this phenomenon, and about four different response levels we citizens have against violence. +I know many will find it difficult to separate the fact that I'm Carlos Salinas de Gortari's son from the fact that I'm a citizen concerned about the country's current situation. +Don't worry. +It's not necessary for understanding the importance of what I'm going to say. +I think we have a problem in Mexico. +We have a big problem. +I think there's consensus on this. +No one argues -- we all agree there's a problem. +What we don't agree on is what the problem actually is. +Is it the Zetas? The drug traffickers? The government? +Corruption? Poverty? Or is it something else? +I think none of these is the problem. +I don't mean they don't deserve attention. +But we won't be able to take care of any of those things if we don't solve the real problem we have in Mexico first. +The real problem we have is most of us Mexicans, we believe we are victims of our circumstances. +We are a country of victims. +Historically, we've always acted as victims of something or somebody. +We were victims of the Spaniards. +Then we were victims of the French. +Then we were victims of Don Porfirio. +Then we were victims of the PRI. +Even of Salinas. +And of El Peje. +And now of the Zetas and the traffickers and the criminals and the kidnappers ... +Hold on! Wait a minute! +What if none of these things is the problem? +The problem is not the things we feel victims of. +The problem is that we play the role of victims. +We need to open our eyes and see that we are not victims. +If only we stopped feeling like victims, if we stopped acting as victims, our country would change so much! +I'm going to talk about how to go from a society that acts as a victim of circumstances to a responsible, involved society that takes the future of its country in its own hands. +I'm going to talk about four different levels of civil response against violence, from weakest to strongest. +The first level, the weakest level of civil response against violence, is denial and apathy. +Today, much of Mexican society is in denial of the situation we're going through. +We want to go on with our daily life even though we are not living under normal circumstances. +Daily life in our country is, to say the least, under extraordinary, exceptional circumstances. +It's like someone who has a serious illness and pretends it's the flu and it will just go away. +We want to pretend that Mexico has the flu. +But it doesn't. +Mexico has cancer. +And if we don't do something about it, the cancer will end up killing it. +We need to move Mexican society from denial and apathy to the next level of citizen response, which is, effectively, recognition. +And that recognition will sow fear -- recognizing the seriousness of the situation. +But, fear is better than apathy because fear makes us do something. +Many people in Mexico are afraid today. +We're very afraid. +And we're acting out of that fear. +And let me tell you what the problem is with acting out of fear -- and this is the second level of civil response: fear. +Let's think about Mexican streets: they're unsafe because of violence, so people stay at home. +Does that make streets more or less safe? +Less safe! +So streets become more desolate and unsafe, so we stay home more -- which makes streets even more desolate and unsafe, and we stay home even more. +This vicious circle ends up with the whole population stuck inside their houses, scared to death -- even more afraid than when we were out on the streets. +We need to confront this fear. +We need to move Mexican society, the members of society who are at this level, to the next level, which is action. +We need to face our fears and take back our streets, our cities, our neighborhoods. +For many people, acting involves courage. +We go from fear to courage. +They say, "I can't take it anymore. +Let's do something about it." +Recently -- this is a sensitive figure -- 35 public lynchings have been recorded so far in 2010 in Mexico. +Usually it's one or two a year. +Now we're experiencing one every week. +This shows that society is desperate and it's taking the law into its own hands. +Unfortunately, violent action -- though action is better than no action -- but taking part in it only disguises violence. +If I'm violent with you and you respond with violence, you become part of the violence and you just disguise my violence. +So civil action is vital, but it's also vital to take people who are at the level of courage and violent action to the next level, which is non-violent action. +It's pacific, coordinated civil action, which doesn't mean passive action. +It means it's determined and effective, but not violent. +There are examples of this kind of action in Mexico. +Two years ago, in Galena City, Chihuahua, a member of the community was kidnapped, Eric Le Barn. +His brothers, Benjamn and Julin, got together with the rest of the community to think of the best course of action: to pay the ransom, to take up arms and go after the kidnappers or to ask the government for help. +In the end, Benjamn and Julin decided the best thing they could do was to organize the community and act together. +So what did they do? +They mobilized the whole community of Le Barn to go to Chihuahua, where they organized a sit-in in the central park of the city. +They sent a message to the kidnappers: "If you want your ransom come and get it. +We'll be waiting for you right here." +They stayed there. +Seven days later, Eric was set free and was able to return home. +This is an example of what an organized society can do, a society that acts. +Of course, criminals can respond. +And in this case, they did. +On July 7th, 2009, Benjamn Le Barn was murdered. +But Julin Le Barn keeps working and he has been mobilizing communities in Chihuahua for over a year. +And for over a year he has known that a price has been put on his head. +But he keeps fighting. +He keeps organizing. +He keeps mobilizing. +These heroic acts are present all over the country. +With a thousand Julins working together, Mexico would be a very different country. +And they're out there! +They just have to raise their hands. +I was born in Mexico, I grew up in Mexico and along the way, I learned to love Mexico. +I think anyone who has stepped foot on this land -- not to mention all Mexican people -- will agree that it's not difficult to love Mexico. +I've traveled a lot and nowhere else have I found the passion Mexicans have. +That devotion we feel for the national football team. +That devotion we show in helping victims of disasters, such as the earthquake in 1985 or this year's floods. +The passion with which we've been singing the national anthem since we were kids. +When we thought Masiosare was the strange enemy, and we sang, with a childlike heart, "a soldier in each son." +I think the biggest insult, the worst way you can offend a Mexican is to insult their mother. +A mother is the most sacred thing in life. +Mexico is our mother and today she cries out for her children. +We are going through the darkest moment in our recent history. +Our mother, Mexico, is being violated before our very eyes. +What are we going to do? +Masiosare, the strange enemy, is here. +Where is the soldier in each son? +Mahatma Gandhi, one of the greatest civil fighters of all time, said, "Be the change you wish to see in the world." +Today in Mexico we're asking for Gandhis. +We need Gandhis. +We need men and women who love Mexico and who are willing to take action. +This is a call for every true Mexican to join this initiative. +We're facing a very powerful opponent. +But we are many more. +They can take a man's life. +Anyone can kill me, or you, or you. +But no one can kill the spirit of true Mexicans. +The battle is won, but we still have to fight it. +2000 years ago, the Roman poet Juvenal said something that today echoes in the heart of every true Mexican. +He said, "Count it the greatest sin to prefer life to honor, and for the sake of living to lose what makes life worth living." +Thank you. +I'd like to begin with a thought experiment. +Imagine that it's 4,000 years into the future. +Civilization as we know it has ceased to exist -- no books, no electronic devices, no Facebook or Twitter. +All knowledge of the English language and the English alphabet has been lost. +Now imagine archeologists digging through the rubble of one of our cities. +What might they find? +Well perhaps some rectangular pieces of plastic with strange symbols on them. +Perhaps some circular pieces of metal. +Maybe some cylindrical containers with some symbols on them. +And perhaps one archeologist becomes an instant celebrity when she discovers -- buried in the hills somewhere in North America -- massive versions of these same symbols. +Now let's ask ourselves, what could such artifacts say about us to people 4,000 years into the future? +This is no hypothetical question. +In fact, this is exactly the kind of question we're faced with when we try to understand the Indus Valley civilization, which existed 4,000 years ago. +The Indus civilization was roughly contemporaneous with the much better known Egyptian and the Mesopotamian civilizations, but it was actually much larger than either of these two civilizations. +It occupied the area of approximately one million square kilometers, covering what is now Pakistan, Northwestern India and parts of Afghanistan and Iran. +Given that it was such a vast civilization, you might expect to find really powerful rulers, kings, and huge monuments glorifying these powerful kings. +In fact, what archeologists have found is none of that. +They've found small objects such as these. +Here's an example of one of these objects. +Well obviously this is a replica. +But who is this person? +A king? A god? +A priest? +Or perhaps an ordinary person like you or me? +We don't know. +But the Indus people also left behind artifacts with writing on them. +Well no, not pieces of plastic, but stone seals, copper tablets, pottery and, surprisingly, one large sign board, which was found buried near the gate of a city. +Now we don't know if it says Hollywood, or even Bollywood for that matter. +In fact, we don't even know what any of these objects say, and that's because the Indus script is undeciphered. +We don't know what any of these symbols mean. +The symbols are most commonly found on seals. +So you see up there one such object. +It's the square object with the unicorn-like animal on it. +Now that's a magnificent piece of art. +So how big do you think that is? +Perhaps that big? +Or maybe that big? +Well let me show you. +Here's a replica of one such seal. +It's only about one inch by one inch in size -- pretty tiny. +So what were these used for? +We know that these were used for stamping clay tags that were attached to bundles of goods that were sent from one place to the other. +So you know those packing slips you get on your FedEx boxes? +These were used to make those kinds of packing slips. +You might wonder what these objects contain in terms of their text. +Perhaps they're the name of the sender or some information about the goods that are being sent from one place to the other -- we don't know. +We need to decipher the script to answer that question. +Deciphering the script is not just an intellectual puzzle; it's actually become a question that's become deeply intertwined with the politics and the cultural history of South Asia. +In fact, the script has become a battleground of sorts between three different groups of people. +First, there's a group of people who are very passionate in their belief that the Indus script does not represent a language at all. +These people believe that the symbols are very similar to the kind of symbols you find on traffic signs or the emblems you find on shields. +There's a second group of people who believe that the Indus script represents an Indo-European language. +If you look at a map of India today, you'll see that most of the languages spoken in North India belong to the Indo-European language family. +So some people believe that the Indus script represents an ancient Indo-European language such as Sanskrit. +There's a last group of people who believe that the Indus people were the ancestors of people living in South India today. +These people believe that the Indus script represents an ancient form of the Dravidian language family, which is the language family spoken in much of South India today. +And the proponents of this theory point to that small pocket of Dravidian-speaking people in the North, actually near Afghanistan, and they say that perhaps, sometime in the past, Dravidian languages were spoken all over India and that this suggests that the Indus civilization is perhaps also Dravidian. +Which of these hypotheses can be true? +We don't know, but perhaps if you deciphered the script, you would be able to answer this question. +But deciphering the script is a very challenging task. +First, there's no Rosetta Stone. +I don't mean the software; I mean an ancient artifact that contains in the same text both a known text and an unknown text. +We don't have such an artifact for the Indus script. +And furthermore, we don't even know what language they spoke. +And to make matters even worse, most of the text that we have are extremely short. +So as I showed you, they're usually found on these seals that are very, very tiny. +And so given these formidable obstacles, one might wonder and worry whether one will ever be able to decipher the Indus script. +In the rest of my talk, I'd like to tell you about how I learned to stop worrying and love the challenge posed by the Indus script. +I've always been fascinated by the Indus script ever since I read about it in a middle school textbook. +And why was I fascinated? +Well it's the last major undeciphered script in the ancient world. +My career path led me to become a computational neuroscientist, so in my day job, I create computer models of the brain to try to understand how the brain makes predictions, how the brain makes decisions, how the brain learns and so on. +But in 2007, my path crossed again with the Indus script. +That's when I was in India, and I had the wonderful opportunity to meet with some Indian scientists who were using computer models to try to analyze the script. +And so it was then that I realized there was an opportunity for me to collaborate with these scientists, and so I jumped at that opportunity. +And I'd like to describe some of the results that we have found. +Or better yet, let's all collectively decipher. +Are you ready? +The first thing that you need to do when you have an undeciphered script is try to figure out the direction of writing. +Here are two texts that contain some symbols on them. +Can you tell me if the direction of writing is right to left or left to right? +I'll give you a couple of seconds. +Okay. Right to left, how many? Okay. +Okay. Left to right? +Oh, it's almost 50/50. Okay. +The answer is: if you look at the left-hand side of the two texts, you'll notice that there's a cramping of signs, and it seems like 4,000 years ago, when the scribe was writing from right to left, they ran out of space. +And so they had to cram the sign. +One of the signs is also below the text on the top. +This suggests the direction of writing was probably from right to left, and so that's one of the first things we know, that directionality is a very key aspect of linguistic scripts. +And the Indus script now has this particular property. +What other properties of language does the script show? +Languages contain patterns. +If I give you the letter Q and ask you to predict the next letter, what do you think that would be? +Most of you said U, which is right. +Now if I asked you to predict one more letter, what do you think that would be? +Now there's several thoughts. There's E. It could be I. It could be A, but certainly not B, C or D, right? +The Indus script also exhibits similar kinds of patterns. +There's a lot of text that start with this diamond-shaped symbol. +And this in turn tends to be followed by this quotation marks-like symbol. +And this is very similar to a Q and U example. +This symbol can in turn be followed by these fish-like symbols and some other signs, but never by these other signs at the bottom. +And furthermore, there's some signs that really prefer the end of texts, such as this jar-shaped sign, and this sign, in fact, happens to be the most frequently occurring sign in the script. +Given such patterns, here was our idea. +The idea was to use a computer to learn these patterns, and so we gave the computer the existing texts. +And the computer learned a statistical model of which symbols tend to occur together and which symbols tend to follow each other. +Given the computer model, we can test the model by essentially quizzing it. +So we could deliberately erase some symbols, and we can ask it to predict the missing symbols. +Here are some examples. +You may regard this as perhaps the most ancient game of Wheel of Fortune. +What we found was that the computer was successful in 75 percent of the cases in predicting the correct symbol. +In the rest of the cases, typically the second best guess or third best guess was the right answer. +There's also practical use for this particular procedure. +There's a lot of these texts that are damaged. +Here's an example of one such text. +And we can use the computer model now to try to complete this text and make a best guess prediction. +Here's an example of a symbol that was predicted. +And this could be really useful as we try to decipher the script by generating more data that we can analyze. +Now here's one other thing you can do with the computer model. +So imagine a monkey sitting at a keyboard. +I think you might get a random jumble of letters that looks like this. +Such a random jumble of letters is said to have a very high entropy. +This is a physics and information theory term. +But just imagine it's a really random jumble of letters. +How many of you have ever spilled coffee on a keyboard? +You might have encountered the stuck-key problem -- so basically the same symbol being repeated over and over again. +This kind of a sequence is said to have a very low entropy because there's no variation at all. +Language, on the other hand, has an intermediate level of entropy; it's neither too rigid, nor is it too random. +What about the Indus script? +Here's a graph that plots the entropies of a whole bunch of sequences. +At the very top you find the uniformly random sequence, which is a random jumble of letters -- and interestingly, we also find the DNA sequence from the human genome and instrumental music. +And both of these are very, very flexible, which is why you find them in the very high range. +At the lower end of the scale, you find a rigid sequence, a sequence of all A's, and you also find a computer program, in this case in the language Fortran, which obeys really strict rules. +Linguistic scripts occupy the middle range. +Now what about the Indus script? +We found that the Indus script actually falls within the range of the linguistic scripts. +When this result was first published, it was highly controversial. +There were people who raised a hue and cry, and these people were the ones who believed that the Indus script does not represent language. +I even started to get some hate mail. +My students said that I should really seriously consider getting some protection. +Who'd have thought that deciphering could be a dangerous profession? +What does this result really show? +It shows that the Indus script shares an important property of language. +So, as the old saying goes, if it looks like a linguistic script and it acts like a linguistic script, then perhaps we may have a linguistic script on our hands. +What other evidence is there that the script could actually encode language? +Well linguistic scripts can actually encode multiple languages. +So for example, here's the same sentence written in English and the same sentence written in Dutch using the same letters of the alphabet. +If you don't know Dutch and you only know English and I give you some words in Dutch, you'll tell me that these words contain some very unusual patterns. +Some things are not right, and you'll say these words are probably not English words. +The same thing happens in the case of the Indus script. +The computer found several texts -- two of them are shown here -- that have very unusual patterns. +So for example the first text: there's a doubling of this jar-shaped sign. +This sign is the most frequently-occurring sign in the Indus script, and it's only in this text that it occurs as a doubling pair. +Why is that the case? +We went back and looked at where these particular texts were found, and it turns out that they were found very, very far away from the Indus Valley. +They were found in present day Iraq and Iran. +And why were they found there? +What I haven't told you is that the Indus people were very, very enterprising. +They used to trade with people pretty far away from where they lived, and so in this case, they were traveling by sea all the way to Mesopotamia, present-day Iraq. +And what seems to have happened here is that the Indus traders, the merchants, were using this script to write a foreign language. +It's just like our English and Dutch example. +And that would explain why we have these strange patterns that are very different from the kinds of patterns you see in the text that are found within the Indus Valley. +This suggests that the same script, the Indus script, could be used to write different languages. +The results we have so far seem to point to the conclusion that the Indus script probably does represent language. +If it does represent language, then how do we read the symbols? +That's our next big challenge. +So you'll notice that many of the symbols look like pictures of humans, of insects, of fishes, of birds. +Most ancient scripts use the rebus principle, which is, using pictures to represent words. +So as an example, here's a word. +Can you write it using pictures? +I'll give you a couple seconds. +Got it? +Okay. Great. +Here's my solution. +You could use the picture of a bee followed by a picture of a leaf -- and that's "belief," right. +There could be other solutions. +In the case of the Indus script, the problem is the reverse. +You have to figure out the sounds of each of these pictures such that the entire sequence makes sense. +So this is just like a crossword puzzle, except that this is the mother of all crossword puzzles because the stakes are so high if you solve it. +My colleagues, Iravatham Mahadevan and Asko Parpola, have been making some headway on this particular problem. +And I'd like to give you a quick example of Parpola's work. +Here's a really short text. +It contains seven vertical strokes followed by this fish-like sign. +And I want to mention that these seals were used for stamping clay tags that were attached to bundles of goods, so it's quite likely that these tags, at least some of them, contain names of merchants. +And it turns out that in India there's a long tradition of names being based on horoscopes and star constellations present at the time of birth. +In Dravidian languages, the word for fish is "meen" which happens to sound just like the word for star. +And so seven stars would stand for "elu meen," which is the Dravidian word for the Big Dipper star constellation. +Similarly, there's another sequence of six stars, and that translates to "aru meen," which is the old Dravidian name for the star constellation Pleiades. +And finally, there's other combinations, such as this fish sign with something that looks like a roof on top of it. +And that could be translated into "mey meen," which is the old Dravidian name for the planet Saturn. +So that was pretty exciting. +It looks like we're getting somewhere. +But does this prove that these seals contain Dravidian names based on planets and star constellations? +Well not yet. +So we have no way of validating these particular readings, but if more and more of these readings start making sense, and if longer and longer sequences appear to be correct, then we know that we are on the right track. +Today, we can write a word such as TED in Egyptian hieroglyphics and in cuneiform script, because both of these were deciphered in the 19th century. +The decipherment of these two scripts enabled these civilizations to speak to us again directly. +The Mayans started speaking to us in the 20th century, but the Indus civilization remains silent. +Why should we care? +The Indus civilization does not belong to just the South Indians or the North Indians or the Pakistanis; it belongs to all of us. +These are our ancestors -- yours and mine. +They were silenced by an unfortunate accident of history. +If we decipher the script, we would enable them to speak to us again. +What would they tell us? +What would we find out about them? About us? +I can't wait to find out. +Thank you. +So I'm going to tell you a little bit about reimagining food. +I've been interested in food for a long time. +I taught myself to cook with a bunch of big books like this. +I went to chef school in France. +And there is a way the world both envisions food, the way the world writes about food and learns about food. +And it's largely what you would find in these books. +And it's a wonderful thing. +But there's some things that have been going on since this idea of food was established. +In the last 20 years, people have realized that science has a tremendous amount to do with food. +In fact, understanding why cooking works requires knowing the science of cooking -- some of the chemistry, some of the physics and so forth. +But that's not in any of those books. +There's also a tremendous number of techniques that chefs have developed, some about new aesthetics, new approaches to food. +There's a chef in Spain named Ferran Adria. +He's developed a very avant-garde cuisine. +A guy in England called Heston Blumenthal, he's developed his avant-garde cuisine. +None of the techniques that these people have developed over the course of the last 20 years is in any of those books. +None of them are taught in cooking schools. +In order to learn them, you have to go work in those restaurants. +And finally, there's the old way of viewing food is the old way. +And so a few years ago -- fours years ago, actually -- I set out to say, is there a way we can communicate science and technique and wonder? +Is there a way we can show people food in a way they have not seen it before? +So we tried, and I'll show you what we came up with. +This is a picture called a cutaway. +This is actually the first picture I took in the book. +The idea here is to explain what happens when you steam broccoli. +And this magic view allows you to see all of what's happening while the broccoli steams. +Then each of the different little pieces around it explain some fact. +And the hope was two-fold. +One is you can actually explain what happens when you steam broccoli. +But the other thing is that maybe we could seduce people into stuff that was a little more technical, maybe a little bit more scientific, maybe a little bit more chef-y than they otherwise would have. +Because with that beautiful photo, maybe I can also package this little box here that talks about how steaming and boiling actually take different amounts of time. +Steaming ought to be faster. +It turns out it isn't because of something called film condensation, and this explains that. +Well, that first cutaway picture worked, so we said, "Okay, let's do some more." +So here's another one. +We discovered why woks are the shape they are. +This shaped wok doesn't work very well; this caught fire three times. +But we had a philosophy, which is it only has to look good for a thousandth of a second. +And one of our canning cutaways. +Once you start cutting things in half, you kind of get carried away, so you see we cut the jars in half as well as the pan. +And each of these text blocks explains a key thing that's going on. +In this case, boiling water canning is for canning things that are already pretty acidic. +You don't have to heat them up as hot as you would something you do pressure canning because bacterial spores can't grow in the acid. +So this is great for pickled vegetables, which is what we're canning here. +Here's our hamburger cutaway. +One of our philosophies in the book is that no dish is really intrinsically any better than any other dish. +So you can lavish all the same care, all the same technique, on a hamburger as you would on some much more fancy dish. +And if you do lavish as much technique as possible, and you try to make the highest quality hamburger, it gets to be a little bit involved. +The New York Times ran a piece after my book was delayed and it was called "The Wait for the 30-Hour Hamburger Just Got Longer." +Because our hamburger recipe, our ultimate hamburger recipe, if you make the buns and you marinate the meat and you do all this stuff, it does take about 30 hours. +Of course, you're not actually working the whole time. +Most of the time is kind of sitting there. +The point of this cutaway is to show people a view of hamburgers they haven't seen before and to explain the physics of hamburgers and the chemistry of hamburgers, because, believe it or not, there is something to the physics and chemistry -- in particular, those flames underneath the burger. +Most of the characteristic char-grilled taste doesn't come from the wood or the charcoal. +Buying mesquite charcoal will not actually make that much difference. +Mostly it comes from fat pyrolyzing, or burning. +So it's the fat that drips down and flares up that causes the characteristic taste. +Now you might wonder, how do we make these cutaways? +Most people assume we use Photoshop. +And the answer is: no, not really; we use a machine shop. +And it turns out, the best way to cut things in half is to actually cut them in half. +So we have two halves of one of the best kitchens in the world. +We cut a $5,000 restaurant oven in half. +The manufacturer said, "What would it take for you to cut one in half?" +I said, "It would have to show up free." +And so it showed up, we used it a little while, we cut it in half. +Now you can also see a little bit how we did some of these shots. +We would glue a piece of Pyrex or heat-resistant glass in front. +We used a red, very high-temperature silicon to do that. +The great thing is, when you cut something in half, you have another half. +So you photograph that in exactly the same position, and then you can substitute in -- and that part does use Photoshop -- just the edges. +So it's very much like in a Hollywood movie where a guy flies through the air, supported by wires, and then they take the wires away digitally so you're flying through the air. +In most cases, though, there was no glass. +Like for the hamburger, we just cut the damn barbecue. +And so those coals that kept falling off the edge, we kept having to put them back up. +But again, it only has to work for a thousandth of a second. +The wok shot caught fire three times. +What happens when you have your wok cut in half is the oil goes down into the fire and whoosh! +One of our cooks lost his eyebrows that way. +But hey, they grow back. +In addition to cutaways, we also explain physics. +This is Fourier's law of heat conduction. +It's a partial differential equation. +We have the only cookbook in the world that has partial differential equations in it. +But to make them palatable, we cut it out of a steel plate and put it in front of a fire and photographed it like this. +We've got lots of little tidbits in the book. +Everybody knows that your various appliances have wattage, right? +But you probably don't know that much about James Watt. +But now you will; we put a biography of James Watt in. +It's a little couple paragraphs to explain why we call that unit of heat the watt, and where he got his inspiration. +It turned out he was hired by a Scottish distillery to understand why they were burning so damn much peat to distill the whiskey. +We also did a lot of calculation. +I personally wrote thousands of lines of code to write this cookbook. +Here's a calculation that shows how the intensity of a barbecue, or other radiant heat source, goes as you move away from it. +So as you move vertically away from this surface, the heat falls off. +As you move side to side, it moves off. +That horn-shaped region is what we call the sweet spot. +That's the place where the heat is even to within 10 percent. +So that's the place where you really want to cook. +And it's got this funny horn-shaped thing, which as far as I know, again, the first cookbook to ever do this. +Now it may also be the last cookbook that ever does it. +You know, there's two ways you can make a product. +You can do lots of market research and do focus groups and figure out what people really want, or you can just kind of go for it and make the book you want and hope other people like it. +Here's a step-by-step that shows grinding hamburger. +If you really want great hamburger, it turns out it makes a difference if you align the grain. +And it's really simple, as you can see here. +As it comes out of the grinder, you just have a little tray, and you just take it off in little passes, build it up, slice it vertically. +Here's the final hamburger. +This is the 30-hour hamburger. +We make every aspect of this burger. +The lettuce has got liquid smoke infused into it. +We also have things about how to make the bun. +There's a mushroom, ketchup -- it goes on and on. +Now watch closely. This is popcorn. I'll explain it here. +The popcorn is illustrating a key thing in physics. +Isn't that beautiful? +We have a very high-speed camera, which we had lots of fun with on the book. +The key physics principle here is when water boils to steam it expands by a factor of 1,600. +That's what's happening to the water inside that popcorn. +So it's a great illustration of that. +Now I'm going to close with a video that is kind of unusual. +We have a chapter on gels. +And because people watch Mythbusters and CSI, I thought, well, let's put in a recipe for a ballistics gelatin. +Well, if you have a high-speed camera, and you have a block of ballistics gelatin lying around, pretty soon somebody does this. +Now the amazing thing here is that a ballistics gelatin is supposed to mimic what happens to human flesh when you get shot -- that's why you shouldn't get shot. +The other amazing thing is, when this ballistics gelatin comes down, it falls back down as a nice block. +Anyway, here's the book. +Here it is. +2,438 pages. +And they're nice big pages too. +A friend of mine complained that this was too big and too pretty to go in the kitchen, so there's a sixth volume that has washable, waterproof paper. +Do you know how many species of flowering plants there are? +There are a quarter of a million -- at least those are the ones we know about -- a quarter of a million species of flowering plants. +And flowers are a real bugger. +They're really difficult for plants to produce. +They take an enormous amount of energy and a lot of resources. +Why would they go to that bother? +And the answer of course, like so many things in the world, is sex. +I know what's on your mind when you're looking at these pictures. +And the reason that sexual reproduction is so important -- there are lots of other things that plants can do to reproduce. +You can take cuttings; they can sort of have sex with themselves; they can pollinate themselves. +But they really need to spread their genes to mix with other genes so that they can adapt to environmental niches. +Evolution works that way. +Now the way that plants transmit that information is through pollen. +Some of you may have seen some of these pictures before. +As I say, every home should have a scanning electron microscope to be able to see these. +And there is as many different kinds of pollen as there are flowering plants. +And that's actually rather useful for forensics and so on. +Most pollen that causes hay fever for us is from plants that use the wind to disseminate the pollen, and that's a very inefficient process, which is why it gets up our noses so much. +Because you have to chuck out masses and masses of it, hoping that your sex cells, your male sex cells, which are held within the pollen, will somehow reach another flower just by chance. +So all the grasses, which means all of the cereal crops, and most of the trees have wind-borne pollen. +But most species actually use insects to do their bidding, and that's more intelligent in a way, because the pollen, they don't need so much of it. +The insects and other species can take the pollen, transfer it directly to where it's required. +So we're aware, obviously, of the relationship between insects and plants. +There's a symbiotic relationship there, whether it's flies or birds or bees, they're getting something in return, and that something in return is generally nectar. +Sometimes that symbiosis has led to wonderful adaptations -- the hummingbird hawk-moth is beautiful in its adaptation. +The plant gets something, and the hawk-moth spreads the pollen somewhere else. +Plants have evolved to create little landing strips here and there for bees that might have lost their way. +There are markings on many plants that look like other insects. +These are the anthers of a lily, cleverly done so that when the unsuspecting insect lands on it, the anther flips up and whops it on the back with a great load of pollen that it then goes to another plant with. +And there's an orchid that might look to you as if it's got jaws, and in a way, it has; it forces the insect to crawl out, getting covered in pollen that it takes somewhere else. +Orchids: there are 20,000, at least, species of orchids -- amazingly, amazingly diverse. +And they get up to all sorts of tricks. +They have to try and attract pollinators to do their bidding. +This orchid, known as Darwin's orchid, because it's one that he studied and made a wonderful prediction when he saw it -- you can see that there's a very long nectar tube that descends down from the orchid. +And basically what the insect has to do -- we're in the middle of the flower -- it has to stick its little proboscis right into the middle of that and all the way down that nectar tube to get to the nectar. +And Darwin said, looking at this flower, "I guess something has coevolved with this." +And sure enough, there's the insect. +And I mean, normally it kind of rolls it away, but in its erect form, that's what it looks like. +Now you can imagine that if nectar is such a valuable thing and expensive for the plant to produce and it attracts lots of pollinators, then, just as in human sex, people might start to deceive. +They might say, "I've got a bit of nectar. Do you want to come and get it?" +Now this is a plant. +This is a plant here that insects in South Africa just love, and they've evolved with a long proboscis to get the nectar at the bottom. +And this is the mimic. +So this is a plant that is mimicking the first plant. +And here is the long-probosced fly that has not gotten any nectar from the mimic, because the mimic doesn't give it any nectar. It thought it would get some. +Now deceit carries on through the plant kingdom. +This flower with its black dots: they might look like black dots to us, but if I tell you, to a male insect of the right species, that looks like two females who are really, really hot to trot. +And when the insect gets there and lands on it, dousing itself in pollen, of course, that it's going to take to another plant, if you look at the every-home-should-have-one scanning electron microscope picture, you can see that there are actually some patterning there, which is three-dimensional. +So it probably even feels good for the insect, as well as looking good. +And these electron microscope pictures -- here's one of an orchid mimicking an insect -- you can see that different parts of the structure have different colors and different textures to our eye, have very, very different textures to what an insect might perceive. +And this one is evolved to mimic a glossy metallic surface you see on some beetles. +And under the scanning electron microscope, you can see the surface there -- really quite different from the other surfaces we looked at. +Sometimes the whole plant mimics an insect, even to us. +I mean, I think that looks like some sort of flying animal or beast. +It's a wonderful, amazing thing. +This one's clever. It's called obsidian. +I think of it as insidium sometimes. +To the right species of bee, this looks like another very aggressive bee, and it goes and bonks it on the head lots and lots of times to try and drive it away, and, of course, covers itself with pollen. +The other thing it does is that this plant mimics another orchid that has a wonderful store of food for insects. +And this one doesn't have anything for them. +So it's deceiving on two levels -- fabulous. +Here we see ylang ylang, the component of many perfumes. +I actually smelt someone with some on earlier. +And the flowers don't really have to be that gaudy. +They're sending out a fantastic array of scent to any insect that'll have it. +This one doesn't smell so good. +This is a flower that really, really smells pretty nasty and is designed, again, evolved, to look like carrion. +So flies love this. +They fly in and they pollinate. +This, which is helicodiceros, is also known as dead horse arum. +I don't know what a dead horse actually smells like, but this one probably smells pretty much like it. +It's really horrible. +And blowflies just can't help themselves. +They fly into this thing, and they fly all the way down it. +They lay their eggs in it, thinking it's a nice bit of carrion, and not realizing that there's no food for the eggs, that the eggs are going to die, but the plant, meanwhile, has benefited, because the bristles release and the flies disappear to pollinate the next flower -- fantastic. +Here's arum, arum maculatum, "lords and ladies," or "cuckoo-pint" in this country. +I photographed this thing last week in Dorset. +This thing heats up by about 15 degrees above ambient temperature -- amazing. +And if you look down into it, there's this sort of dam past the spadix, flies get attracted by the heat -- which is boiling off volatile chemicals, little midges -- and they get trapped underneath in this container. +They drink this fabulous nectar and then they're all a bit sticky. +At night they get covered in pollen, which showers down over them, and then the bristles that we saw above, they sort of wilt and allow all these midges out, covered in pollen -- fabulous thing. +Now if you think that's fabulous, this is one of my great favorites. +This is the philodendron selloum. +For anyone here from Brazil, you'll know about this plant. +This is the most amazing thing. +That sort of phallic bit there is about a foot long. +And it does something that no other plant that I know of does, and that is that when it flowers -- that's the spadix in the middle there -- for a period of about two days, it metabolizes in a way which is rather similar to mammals. +So instead of having starch, which is the food of plants, it takes something rather similar to brown fat and burns it at such a rate that it's burning fat, metabolizing, about the rate of a small cat. +And that's twice the energy output, weight for weight, than a hummingbird -- absolutely astonishing. +This thing does something else which is unusual. +Not only will it raise itself to 115 Fahrenheit, 43 or 44 degrees Centigrade, for two days, but it keeps constant temperature. +There's a thermoregulation mechanism in there that keeps constant temperature. +"Now why does it do this," I hear you ask. +Now wouldn't you know it, there's some beetles that just love to make love at that temperature. +And they get inside, and they get it all on. +And the plant showers them with pollen, and off they go and pollinate. +And what a wonderful thing it is. +Now most pollinators that we think about are insects, but actually in the tropics, many birds and butterflies pollinate. +And many of the tropical flowers are red, and that's because butterflies and birds see similarly to us, we think, and can see the color red very well. +But if you look at the spectrum, birds and us, we see red, green and blue and see that spectrum. +Insects see green, blue and ultraviolet, and they see various shades of ultraviolet. +So there's something that goes on off the end there. +"And wouldn't it be great if we could somehow see what that is," I hear you ask. +Well yes we can. +So what is an insect seeing? +Last week I took these pictures of rock rose, helianthemum, in Dorset. +These are little yellow flowers like we all see, little yellow flowers all over the place. +And this is what it looks like with visible light. +This is what it looks like if you take out the red. +Most bees don't perceive red. +And then I put some ultraviolet filters on my camera and took a very, very long exposure with the particular frequencies of ultraviolet light and this is what I got. +And that's a real fantastic bull's eye. +Now we don't know exactly what a bee sees, any more than you know what I'm seeing when I call this red. +We can't know what's going on in -- let alone an insect's -- another human being's mind. +But the contrast will look something like that, so standing out a lot from the background. +Here's another little flower -- different range of ultraviolet frequencies, different filters to match the pollinators. +And that's the sort of thing that it would be seeing. +Just in case you think that all yellow flowers have this property -- no flower was damaged in the process of this shot; it was just attached to the tripod, not killed -- then under ultraviolet light, look at that. +And that could be the basis of a sunscreen because sunscreens work by absorbing ultraviolet light. +So maybe the chemical in that would be useful. +Finally, there's one of evening primrose that Bjorn Rorslett from Norway sent me -- fantastic hidden pattern. +And I love the idea of something hidden. +I think there's something poetic here, that these pictures taken with ultraviolet filter, the main use of that filter is for astronomers to take pictures of Venus -- actually the clouds of Venus. +That's the main use of that filter. +Venus, of course, is the god of love and fertility, which is the flower story. +Thank you very much. +There was a time in my life when everything seemed perfect. +Everywhere I went, I felt at home. +Everyone I met, I felt I knew them for as long as I could remember. +And I want to share with you how I came to that place and what I've learned since I left it. +This is where it began. +And it raises an existential question, which is, if I'm having this experience of complete connection and full consciousness, why am I not visible in the photograph, and where is this time and place? +This is Los Angeles, California, where I live. +This is a police photo. That's actually my car. +We're less than a mile from one of the largest hospitals in Los Angeles, called Cedars-Sinai. +And the situation is that a car full of paramedics on their way home from the hospital after work have run across the wreckage, and they've advised the police that there were no survivors inside the car, that the driver's dead, that I'm dead. +And the police are waiting for the fire department to arrive to cut apart the vehicle to extract the body of the driver. +And when they do, they find that behind the glass, they find me. +And my skull's crushed and my collar bone is crushed; all but two of my ribs, my pelvis and both arms -- they're all crushed, but there is still a pulse. +And they get me to that nearby hospital, Cedars-Sinai, where that night I receive, because of my internal bleeding, 45 units of blood -- which means full replacements of all the blood in me -- before they're able to staunch the flow. +I'm put on full life support, and I have a massive stroke, and my brain drops into a coma. +Now comas are measured on a scale from 15 down to three. +Fifteen is a mild coma. Three is the deepest. +And if you look, you'll see that there's only one way you can score three. +It's essentially there's no sign of life from outside at all. +I spent more than a month in a Glasgow Coma Scale three, and it is inside that deepest level of coma, on the rim between my life and my death, that I'm experiencing the full connection and full consciousness of inner space. +Now to put this into a broader context, I want you to imagine that you are an eternal alien watching the Earth from outer space, and your favorite show on intergalactic satellite television is the Earth channel, and your favorite show is the Human Show. +And the reason I think it would be so interesting to you is because consciousness is so interesting. +It's so unpredictable and so fragile. +And this is how we began. +We all began in the Awash Valley in Ethiopia. +The show began with tremendous special effects, because there were catastrophic climate shifts -- which sort of sounds interesting as a parallel to today. +So we actually grew our consciousness in response to this global threat. +Now you also continue to watch as consciousness evolved to the point that here in India, in Madhya Pradesh, there's one of the two oldest known pieces of rock art found. +It's a cupule that took 40 to 50,000 blows with a stone tool to create, and it's the first known expression of art on the planet. +And the reason it connects us with consciousness today is that all of us still today, the very first shape we draw as a child is a circle. +And then the next thing we do is we put a dot in the center of the circle. +We create an eye -- and the eye that evolves through all of our history. +There's the Egyptian god Horus, which symbolizes prosperity, wisdom and health. +And that comes down right way to the present with the dollar bill in the United States, which has on it an eye of providence. +So watching all of this show from outer space, you think we get it, we understand that the most precious resource on the blue planet is our consciousness. +Because it's the first thing we draw; we surround ourselves with images of it; it's probably the most common image on the planet. +But we don't. We take our consciousness for granted. +While I was producing in Los Angeles, I never thought about it for a second. +Until it was stripped from me, I never thought about it. +And what I've learned since that event and during my recovery is that consciousness is under threat on this planet in ways it's never been under threat before. +These are just some examples. +And the reason I'm so honored to be here to talk today in India is because India has the sad distinction of being the head injury capital of the world. +That statistic is so sad. +There is no more drastic and sudden gap created between potential and actual mind than a severe head injury. +Each one can entail up to a decade of rehabilitation, which means that India, unless something changes, is accumulating a need for millennia of rehabilitation. +What you find in the United States is an injury every 20 seconds -- that's one and a half million every year -- stroke every 40 seconds, Alzheimer's disease, every 70 seconds somebody succumbs to that. +All of these represent gaps between potential mind and actual mind. +And here are some of the other categories, if you look at the whole planet. +The World Health Organization tells us that depression is the number one disease on Earth in terms of years lived with disability. +We find that the number two source of disability is depression in the age group of 15 to 44. +Our children are becoming depressed at an alarming rate. +I discovered during my recovery the third leading cause of death amongst teenagers is suicide. +If you look at some of these other items -- concussions. +Half of E.R. admissions from adolescents are for concussions. +If I talk about migraine, 40 percent of the population suffer episodic headaches. +Fifteen percent suffer migraines that wipe them out for days on end. +All of this is leading -- computer addiction, just to cover that: the most frequent thing we do is use digital devices. +The average teenager sends 3,300 texts every [month]. +We're talking about a society that is retreating into depression and disassociation when we are potentially confronting the next great catastrophic climate shift. +So what you'd be wondering, watching the Human Show, is are we going to confront and address the catastrophic climate shift that may be heading our way by growing our consciousness, or are we going to continue to retreat? +And that then might lead you to watch an episode one day of Cedars-Sinai medical center and a consideration of the difference between potential mind and actual mind. +This is a dense array EEG MRI tracking 156 channels of information. +It's not my EEG at Cedars; it's your EEG tonight and last night. +It's the what our minds do every night to digest the day and to prepare to bridge from the potential mind when we're asleep to the actual mind when we awaken the following morning. +This is how I was when I returned from the hospital after nearly four months. +The horseshoe shape you can see on my skull is where they operated and went inside my brain to do the surgeries they needed to do to rescue my life. +But if you look into the eye of consciousness, that single eye you can see, I'm looking down, but let me tell you how I felt at that point. +I didn't feel empty; I felt everything simultaneously. +I felt empty and full, hot and cold, euphoric and depressed because the brain is the world's first fully functional quantum computer; it can occupy multiple states at the same time. +And with all the internal regulators of my brain damaged, I felt everything simultaneously. +But let's swivel around and look at me frontally. +This is now flash-forward to the point in time where I've been discharged by the health system. +Look into those eyes. I'm not able to focus those eyes. +I'm not able to follow a line of text in a book. +But the system has moved me on because, as my family started to discover, there is no long-term concept in the health care system. +Neurological damage, 10 years of rehab, requires a long-term perspective. +But let's take a look behind my eyes. +This is a gamma radiation spec scan that uses gamma radiation to map three-dimensional function within the brain. +It requires a laboratory to see it in three dimension, but in two dimensions I think you can see the beautiful symmetry and illumination of a normal mind at work. +Here's my brain. +That is the consequence of more than a third of the right side of my brain being destroyed by the stroke. +So my family, as we moved forward and discovered that the health care system had moved us by, had to try to find solutions and answers. +And during that process -- it took many years -- one of the doctors said that my recovery, my degree of advance, since the amount of head injury I'd suffered, was miraculous. +And that was when I started to write a book, because I didn't think it was miraculous. +I thought there were miraculous elements, but I also didn't think it was right that one should have to struggle and search for answers when this is a pandemic within our society. +So from this experience of my recovery, I want to share four particular aspects -- I call them the four C's of consciousness -- that helped me grow my potential mind back towards the actual mind that I work with every day. +The first C is cognitive training. +Unlike the smashed glass of my car, plasticity of the brain means that there was always a possibility, with treatment, to train the brain so that you can regain and raise your level of awareness and consciousness. +Plasticity means that there was always hope for our reason -- hope for our ability to rebuild that function. +Indeed, the mind can redefine itself, and this is demonstrated by two specialists called Hagen and Silva back in the 1970's. +The global perspective is that up to 30 percent of children in school have learning weaknesses that are not self-correcting, but with appropriate treatment, they can be screened for and detected and corrected and avoid their academic failure. +But what I discovered is it's almost impossible to find anyone who provides that treatment or care. +Here's what my neuropsychologist provided for me when I actually found somebody who could apply it. +I'm not a doctor, so I'm not going to talk about the various subtests. +Let's just talk about full-scale I.Q. +Full-scale I.Q. is the mental processing -- how fast you can acquire information, retain it and retrieve it -- that is essential for success in life today. +And you can see here there are three columns. +Untestable -- that's when I'm in my coma. +And then I creep up to the point that I get a score of 79, which is just below average. +In the health care system, if you touch average, you're done. +That's when I was discharged from the system. +What does average I.Q. really mean? +It meant that when I was given two and a half hours to take a test that anyone here would take in 50 minutes, I might score an F. +This is a very, very low level in order to be kicked out of the health care system. +Then I underwent cognitive training. +And let me show you what happened to the right-hand column when I did my cognitive training over a period of time. +This is not supposed to occur. +I.Q. is supposed to stabilize and solidify at the age of eight. +Now the Journal of the National Medical Association gave my memoir a full clinical review, which is very unusual. +I'm not a doctor. I have no medical background whatsoever. +But they felt the evidences that there was important, valuable information in the book, and they commented about it when they gave the full peer review to it. +But they asked one question. They said, "Is this repeatable?" +That was a fair question because my memoir was simply how I found solutions that worked for me. +The answer is yes, and for the first time, it's my pleasure to be able to share two examples. +Here's somebody, what they did as they went through cognitive training at ages seven and 11. +And here's another person in, call it, high school and college. +And this person is particularly interesting. +I won't go into the intrascatter that's in the subtests, but they still had a neurologic issue. +But that person could be identified as having a learning disability. +And with accommodation, they went on to college and had a full life in terms of their opportunities. +Second aspect: I still had crushing migraine headaches. +Two elements that worked for me here are -- the first is 90 percent, I learned, of head and neck pain is through muscular-skeletal imbalance. +The craniomandibular system is critical to that. +And when I underwent it and found solutions, this is the interrelationship between the TMJ and the teeth. +Up to 30 percent of the population have a disorder, disease or dysfunction in the jaw that affects the entire body. +I was fortunate to find a dentist who applied this entire universe of technology you're about to see to establish that if he repositioned my jaw, the headaches pretty much resolved, but that then my teeth weren't in the right place. +He then held my jaw in the right position while orthodontically he put my teeth into correct alignment. +So my teeth actually hold my jaw in the correct position. +This affected my entire body. +That tiny misalignment. +Bear in mind, there are no nerves in the teeth. +That's why the same between the before and after that this shows, it's hard to see the difference. +Now just trying putting a few grains of sand between your teeth and see the difference it makes. +I still had migraine headaches. +The next issue that resolved was that, if 90 percent of head and neck pain is caused by imbalance, the other 10 percent, largely -- if you set aside aneurysms, brain cancer and hormonal issues -- is the circulation. +Imagine the blood flowing through your body -- I was told at UCLA Medical Center -- as one sealed system. +There's a big pipe with the blood flowing through it, and around that pipe are the nerves drawing their nutrient supply from the blood. +That's basically it. +If you press on a hose pipe in a sealed system, it bulges someplace else. +If that some place else where it bulges is inside the biggest nerve in your body, your brain, you get a vascular migraine. +This is a level of pain that's only known to other people who suffer vascular migraines. +Using this technology, this is mapping in three dimensions. +This is an MRI MRA MRV, a volumetric MRI. +Using this technology, the specialists at UCLA Medical Center were able to identify where that compression in the hose pipe was occurring. +A vascular surgeon removed most of the first rib on both sides of my body. +And in the following months and years, I felt the neurological flow of life itself returning. +Communication, the next C. This is critical. +All consciousness is about communication. +And here, by great fortune, one of my father's clients had a husband who worked at the Alfred Mann Foundation for Scientific Research. +Alfred Mann is a brilliant physicist and innovator who's fascinated with bridging gaps in consciousness, whether to restore hearing to the deaf, vision to the blind or movement to the paralyzed. +And I'm just going to give you an example today of movement to the paralyzed. +I've brought with me, from Southern California, the FM device. +This is it being held in the hand. +It weighs less than a gram. +So two of them implanted in the body would weigh less than a dime. +Five of them would still weigh less than a rupee coin. +Where does it go inside the body? +It has been simulated and tested to endure in the body corrosion-free for over 80 years. +So it goes in and it stays there. +Here are the implantation sites. +The concept that they're working towards -- and they have working prototypes -- is that we placed it throughout the motor points of the body where they're needed. +The main unit will then go inside the brain. +An FM device in the cortex of the brain, the motor cortex, will send signals in real time to the motor points in the relevant muscles so that the person will be able to move their arm, let's say, in real time, if they've lost control of their arm. +And other FM devices implanted in fingertips, on contacting a surface, will send a message back to the sensory cortex of the brain, so that the person feels a sense of touch. +Is this science fiction? No, because I'm wearing the first application of this technology. +I don't have the ability to control my left foot. +A radio device is controlling every step I take, and a sensor picks up my foot for me every time I walk. +And in closing, I want to share the personal reason why this meant so much to me and changed the direction of my life. +In my coma, one of the presences I sensed was someone I felt was a protector. +And when I came out of my coma, I recognized my family, but I didn't remember my own past. +Gradually, I remembered the protector was my wife. +And I whispered the good news through my broken jaw, which was wired shut, to my night nurse. +And the following morning, my mother came to explain that I'd not always been in this bed, in this room, that I'd been working in film and television and that I had been in a crash and that, yes, I was married, but Marcy had been killed instantly in the crash. +And during my time in coma, she had been laid to rest in her hometown of Phoenix. +Now in the dark years that followed, I had to work out what remained for me if everything that made today special was gone. +And as I discovered these threats to consciousness and how they are surrounding the world and enveloping the lives of more and more people every day, I discovered what truly remained. +I believe that we can overcome the threats to our consciousness, that the Human Show can stay on the air for millennia to come. +I believe that we can all rise and shine. +Thank you very much. +Lakshmi Pratury: Just stay for a second. Just stay here for a second. +You know, when I heard Simon's -- please sit down; I just want to talk to him for a second -- when I read his book, I went to LA to meet him. +And so I was sitting in this restaurant, waiting for a man to come by who obviously would have some difficulty ... +I don't know what I had in my mind. +And he was walking around. +I didn't expect that person that I was going to meet to be him. +And then we met and we talked, and I'm like, he doesn't look like somebody who was built out of nothing. +And then I was amazed at what role technology played in your recovery. +And we have his book outside in the bookshop. +The thing that amazed me is the painstaking detail with which he has written every hospital he has been to, every treatment he got, every near-miss he had, and how accidentally he stumbled upon innovations. +So I think this one detail went past people really quick. +Tell a little bit about what you're wearing on your leg. +Simon Lewis: I knew when I was timing this that there wouldn't be time for me to do anything about -- Well this is it. This is the control unit. +And this records every single step I've taken for, ooh, five or six years now. +And if I do this, probably the mic won't hear it. +That little chirp followed by two chirps is now switched on. +When I press it again, it'll chirp three times, and that'll mean that it's armed and ready to go. +And that's my friend. I mean, I charge it every night. +And it works. It works. +And what I would love to add because I didn't have time ... +What does it do? Well actually, I'll show you down here. +This down here, if the camera can see that, that is a small antenna. +Underneath my heel, there is a sensor that detects when my foot leaves the ground -- what's called the heel lift. +This thing blinks all the time; I'll leave it out, so you might be able to see it. +But this is blinking all the time. It's sending signals in real time. +And if you walk faster, if I walk faster, it detects what's called the time interval, which is the interval between each heel lift. +And it accelerates the amount and level of the stimulation. +The other things they've worked on -- I didn't have time to say this in my talk -- is they've restored functional hearing to thousands of deaf people. +I could tell you the story: this was going to be an abandoned technology, but Alfred Mann met the doctor who was going to retire, [Dr. Schindler.] And he was going to retire -- all the technology was going to be lost, because not a single medical manufacturer would take it on because it was a small issue. +But there's millions of deaf people in the world, and the Cochlear implant has given hearing to thousands of deaf people now. +It works. +And the other thing is they're working on artificial retinas for the blind. +And this, this is the implantable generation. +Because what I didn't say in my talk is this is actually exoskeletal. +I should clarify that. +Because the first generation is exoskeletal, it's wrapped around the leg, around the affected limb. +I must tell you, they're an amazing -- there's a hundred people who work in that building -- engineers, scientists, and other team members -- all the time. +Alfred Mann has set up this foundation to advance this research because he saw there's no way venture capital would come in for something like this. +The audience is too small. +You'd think, there's plenty of paralyzed people in the world, but the audience is too small, and the amount of research, the time it takes, the FDA clearances, the payback time is too long for V.C. to be interested. +So he saw a need and he stepped in. +He's a very, very remarkable man. +He's done a lot of very cutting-edge science. +LP: So when you get a chance, spend some time with Simon. +Thank you. Thank you. +So I begin with an advertisement inspired by George Orwell that Apple ran in 1984. +Big Brother: We are one people with one will, one resolve, one cause. +Our enemies shall talk themselves to death, and we will fight them with their own confusion. +We shall prevail. +Narrator: On January 24th, Apple Computer will introduce Macintosh. +And you'll see why 1984 won't be like "1984." +Rebecca MacKinnon: So the underlying message of this video remains very powerful even today. +Technology created by innovative companies will set us all free. +Fast-forward more than two decades: Apple launches the iPhone in China and censors the Dalai Lama out along with several other politically sensitive applications at the request of the Chinese government for its Chinese app store. +The American political cartoonist Mark Fiore also had his satire application censored in the United States because some of Apple's staff were concerned it would be offensive to some groups. +His app wasn't reinstated until he won the Pulitzer Prize. +The German magazine Stern, a news magazine, had its app censored because the Apple nannies deemed it to be a little bit too racy for their users, and despite the fact that this magazine is perfectly legal for sale on newsstands throughout Germany. +And more controversially, recently, Apple censored a Palestinian protest app after the Israeli government voiced concerns that it might be used to organize violent attacks. +So here's the thing. +We have a situation where private companies are applying censorship standards that are often quite arbitrary and generally more narrow than the free speech constitutional standards that we have in democracies. +Or they're responding to censorship requests by authoritarian regimes that do not reflect consent of the governed. +Or they're responding to requests and concerns by governments that have no jurisdiction over many, or most, of the users and viewers who are interacting with the content in question. +So here's the situation. +In a pre-Internet world, sovereignty over our physical freedoms, or lack thereof, was controlled almost entirely by nation-states. +But now we have this new layer of private sovereignty in cyberspace. +And their decisions about software coding, engineering, design, terms of service all act as a kind of law that shapes what we can and cannot do with our digital lives. +And their sovereignties, cross-cutting, globally interlinked, can in some ways challenge the sovereignties of nation-states in very exciting ways, but sometimes also act to project and extend it at a time when control over what people can and cannot do with information has more effect than ever on the exercise of power in our physical world. +After all, even the leader of the free world needs a little help from the sultan of Facebookistan if he wants to get reelected next year. +And these platforms were certainly very helpful to activists in Tunisia and Egypt this past spring and beyond. +As Wael Ghonim, the Google-Egyptian-executive by day, secret-Facebook-activist by night, famously said to CNN after Mubarak stepped down, "If you want to liberate a society, just give them the Internet." +But overthrowing a government is one thing and building a stable democracy is a bit more complicated. +On the left there's a photo taken by an Egyptian activist who was part of the storming of the Egyptian state security offices in March. +And many of the agents shredded as many of the documents as they could and left them behind in piles. +But some of the files were left behind intact, and activists, some of them, found their own surveillance dossiers full of transcripts of their email exchanges, their cellphone text message exchanges, even Skype conversations. +And one activist actually found a contract from a Western company for the sale of surveillance technology to the Egyptian security forces. +And Egyptian activists are assuming that these technologies for surveillance are still being used by the transitional authorities running the networks there. +And in Tunisia, censorship actually began to return in May -- not nearly as extensively as under President Ben Ali. +But you'll see here a blocked page of what happens when you try to reach certain Facebook pages and some other websites that the transitional authorities have determined might incite violence. +In protest over this, blogger Slim Amamou, who had been jailed under Ben Ali and then became part of the transitional government after the revolution, he resigned in protest from the cabinet. +But there's been a lot of debate in Tunisia about how to handle this kind of problem. +In fact, on Twitter, there were a number of people who were supportive of the revolution who said, "Well actually, we do want democracy and free expression, but there is some kinds of speech that need to be off-bounds because it's too violent and it might be destabilizing for our democracy. +But the problem is, how do you decide who is in power to make these decisions and how do you make sure that they do not abuse their power? +As Riadh Guerfali, the veteran digital activist from Tunisia, remarked over this incident, "Before, things were simple: you had the good guys on one side and the bad guys on the other. +Today, things are a lot more subtle." +Welcome to democracy, our Tunisian and Egyptian friends. +The reality is that even in democratic societies today, we do not have good answers for how you balance the need for security and law enforcement on one hand and protection of civil liberties and free speech on the other in our digital networks. +In fact, in the United States, whatever you may think of Julian Assange, even people who are not necessarily big fans of his are very concerned about the way in which the United States government and some companies have handled Wikileaks. +Amazon webhosting dropped Wikileaks as a customer after receiving a complaint from U.S. Senator Joe Lieberman, despite the fact that Wikileaks had not been charged, let alone convicted, of any crime. +So we assume that the Internet is a border-busting technology. +This is a map of social networks worldwide, and certainly Facebook has conquered much of the world -- which is either a good or a bad thing, depending on how you like the way Facebook manages its service. +But borders do persist in some parts of cyberspace. +In Brazil and Japan, it's for unique cultural and linguistic reasons. +But if you look at China, Vietnam and a number of the former Soviet states, what's happening there is more troubling. +You have a situation where the relationship between government and local social networking companies is creating a situation where, effectively, the empowering potential of these platforms is being constrained because of these relationships between companies and government. +Now in China, you have the "great firewall," as it's well-known, that blocks Facebook and Twitter and now Google+ and many of the other overseas websites. +And that's done in part with the help from Western technology. +But that's only half of the story. +The other part of the story are requirements that the Chinese government places on all companies operating on the Chinese Internet, known as a system of self-discipline. +In plain English, that means censorship and surveillance of their users. +And this is a ceremony I actually attended in 2009 where the Internet Society of China presented awards to the top 20 Chinese companies that are best at exercising self-discipline -- i.e. policing their content. +And Robin Li, CEO of Baidu, China's dominant search engine, was one of the recipients. +In Russia, they do not generally block the Internet and directly censor websites. +But this is a website called Rospil that's an anti-corruption site. +This has a chilling effect on people's ability to use the Internet to hold government accountable. +So we have a situation in the world today where in more and more countries the relationship between citizens and governments is mediated through the Internet, which is comprised primarily of privately owned and operated services. +So the important question, I think, is not this debate over whether the Internet is going to help the good guys more than the bad guys. +Of course, it's going to empower whoever is most skilled at using the technology and best understands the Internet in comparison with whoever their adversary is. +The most urgent question we need to be asking today is how do we make sure that the Internet evolves in a citizen-centric manner. +Because I think all of you will agree that the only legitimate purpose of government is to serve citizens, and I would argue that the only legitimate purpose of technology is to improve our lives, not to manipulate or enslave us. +So the question is, we know how to hold government accountable. +We don't necessarily always do it very well, but we have a sense of what the models are, politically and institutionally, to do that. +How do you hold the sovereigns of cyberspace accountable to the public interest when most CEO's argue that their main obligation is to maximize shareholder profit? +And government regulation often isn't helping all that much. +You have situations, for instance, in France where president Sarkozy tells the CEO's of Internet companies, "We're the only legitimate representatives of the public interest." +And here in the United Kingdom there's also concern over a law called the Digital Economy Act that's placing more onus on private intermediaries to police citizen behavior. +So what we need to recognize is that if we want to have a citizen-centric Internet in the future, we need a broader and more sustained Internet freedom movement. +After all, companies didn't stop polluting groundwater as a matter of course, or employing 10-year-olds as a matter of course, just because executives woke up one day and decided it was the right thing to do. +It was the result of decades of sustained activism, shareholder advocacy and consumer advocacy. +Similarly, governments don't enact intelligent environmental and labor laws just because politicians wake up one day. +It's the result of very sustained and prolonged political activism that you get the right regulations, and that you get the right corporate behavior. +We need to make the same approach with the Internet. +We also are going to need political innovation. +Eight hundred years ago, approximately, the barons of England decided that the Divine Right of Kings was no longer working for them so well, and they forced King John to sign the Magna Carta, which recognized that even the king who claimed to have divine rule still had to abide by a basic set of rules. +This set off a cycle of what we can call political innovation, which led eventually to the idea of consent of the governed -- which was implemented for the first time by that radical revolutionary government in America across the pond. +So now we need to figure out how to build consent of the networked. +And what does that look like? +At the moment, we still don't know. +But it's going to require innovation that's not only going to need to focus on politics, on geopolitics, but it's also going to need to deal with questions of business management, investor behavior, consumer choice and even software design and engineering. +Each and every one of us has a vital part to play in building the kind of world in which government and technology serve the world's people and not the other way around. +Thank you very much. +Have you ever wondered why extremism seems to have been on the rise in Muslim-majority countries over the course of the last decade? +Have you ever wondered how such a situation can be turned around? +Have you ever looked at the Arab uprisings and thought, "How could we have predicted that?" +or "How could we have better prepared for that?" +Well my personal story, my personal journey, what brings me to the TED stage here today, is a demonstration of exactly what's been happening in Muslim-majority countries over the course of the last decades, at least, and beyond. +I want to share some of that story with you, but also some of my ideas around change and the role of social movements in creating change in Muslim-majority societies. +So let me begin by first of all giving a very, very brief history of time, if I may indulge. +In medieval societies there were defined allegiances. +An identity was defined primarily by religion. +And then we moved on into an era in the 19th century with the rise of a European nation-state where identities and allegiances were defined by ethnicity. +So identity was primarily defined by ethnicity, and the nation-state reflected that. +In the age of globalization, we moved on. +I call it the era of citizenship -- where people could be from multi-racial, multi-ethnic backgrounds, but all be equal as citizens in a state. +You could be American-Italian; you could be American-Irish; you could be British-Pakistani. +But I believe now that we're moving into a new age, and that age The New York Times dubbed recently as "the age of behavior." +How I define the age of behavior is a period of transnational allegiances, where identity is defined more so by ideas and narratives. +And these ideas and narratives that bump people across borders are increasingly beginning to affect the way in which people behave. +Now this is not all necessarily good news, because it's also my belief that hatred has gone global just as much as love. +And that's something which I'd like to elaborate on. +If we look at Islamists, if we look at the phenomenon of far-right fascists, one thing they've been very good at, one thing that they've actually been exceeding in, is communicating across borders, using technologies to organize themselves, to propagate their message and to create truly global phenomena. +Now I should know, because for 13 years of my life, I was involved in an extreme Islamist organization. +And I was actually a potent force in spreading ideas across borders, and I witnessed the rise of Islamist extremism as distinct from Islam the faith, and the way in which it influenced my co-religionists across the world. +And my story, my personal story, is truly evidence for the age of behavior that I'm attempting to elaborate upon here. +I was, by the way -- I'm an Essex lad, born and raised in Essex in the U.K. +Anyone who's from England knows the reputation we have from Essex. +But having been born in Essex, at the age of 16, I joined an organization. +At the age of 17, I was recruiting people from Cambridge University to this organization. +At the age of 19, I was on the national leadership of this organization in the U.K. +At the age of 21, I was co-founding this organization in Pakistan. +At the age of 22, I was co-founding this organization in Denmark. +By the age of 24, I found myself convicted in prison in Egypt, being blacklisted from three countries in the world for attempting to overthrow their governments, being subjected to torture in Egyptian jails and sentenced to five years as a prisoner of conscience. +Now that journey, and what took me from Essex all the way across the world -- by the way, we were laughing at democratic activists. +We felt they were from the age of yesteryear. +We felt that they were out of date. +I learned how to use email from the extremist organization that I used. +I learned how to effectively communicate across borders without being detected. +Eventually I was detected, of course, in Egypt. +But the way in which I learned to use technology to my advantage was because I was within an extremist organization that was forced to think beyond the confines of the nation-state. +The age of behavior: where ideas and narratives were increasingly defining behavior and identity and allegiances. +So as I said, we looked to the status quo and ridiculed it. +And it's not just Islamist extremists that did this. +But even if you look across the mood music in Europe of late, far-right fascism is also on the rise. +A form of anti-Islam rhetoric is also on the rise and it's transnational. +And the consequences that this is having is that it's affecting the political climate across Europe. +What's actually happening is that what were previously localized parochialisms, individual or groupings of extremists who were isolated from one another, have become interconnected in a globalized way and have thus become, or are becoming, mainstream. +Because the Internet and connection technologies are connecting them across the world. +If you look at the rise of far-right fascism across Europe of late, you will see some things that are happening that are influencing domestic politics, yet the phenomenon is transnational. +In certain countries, mosque minarets are being banned. +In others, headscarves are being banned. +In others, kosher and halal meat are being banned, as we speak. +And on the flip side, we have transnational Islamist extremists doing the same thing across their own societies. +And so they are pockets of parochialism that are being connected in a way that makes them feel like they are mainstream. +Now that never would have been possible before. +They would have felt isolated, until these sorts of technologies came around and connected them in a way that made them feel part of a larger phenomenon. +Where does that leave democracy aspirants? +Well I believe they're getting left far behind. +And I'll give you an example here at this stage. +If any of you remembers the Christmas Day bomb plot: there's a man called Anwar al-Awlaki. +As an American citizen, ethnically a Yemeni, in hiding currently in Yemen, who inspired a Nigerian, son of the head of Nigeria's national bank. +This Nigerian student studied in London, trained in Yemen, boarded a flight in Amsterdam to attack America. +In the meanwhile, was represented by his father, the head of the Nigerian bank, warning the CIA that his own son was about to attack, and this warning fell on deaf ears. +The Old mentality with a capital O, as represented by the nation-state, not yet fully into the age of behavior, not recognizing the power of transnational social movements, got left behind. +And the Christmas Day bomber almost succeeded in attacking the United States of America. +Again with the example of the far right: that we find, ironically, xenophobic nationalists are utilizing the benefits of globalization. +So why are they succeeding? +And why are democracy aspirants falling behind? +Well we need to understand the power of the social movements who understand this. +And a social movement is comprised, in my view, it's comprised of four main characteristics. +It's comprised of ideas and narratives and symbols and leaders. +I'll talk you through one example, and that's the example that everyone here will be aware of, and that's the example of Al-Qaeda. +If I asked you to think of the ideas of Al-Qaeda, that's something that comes to your mind immediately. +If I ask you to think of their narratives -- the West being at war with Islam, the need to defend Islam against the West -- these narratives, they come to your mind immediately. +Incidentally, the difference between ideas and narratives: the idea is the cause that one believes in; and the narrative is the way to sell that cause -- the propaganda, if you like, of the cause. +So the ideas and the narratives of Al-Qaeda come to your mind immediately. +If I ask you to think of their symbols and their leaders, they come to your mind immediately. +One of their leaders was killed in Pakistan recently. +So these symbols and these leaders come to your mind immediately. +And that's the power of social movements. +They're transnational, and they bond around these ideas and narratives and these symbols and these leaders. +However, if I ask your minds to focus currently on Pakistan, and I ask you to think of the symbols and the leaders for democracy in Pakistan today, you'll be hard pressed to think beyond perhaps the assassination of Benazir Bhutto. +Which means, by definition, that particular leader no longer exists. +One of the problems we're facing is, in my view, that there are no globalized, youth-led, grassroots social movements advocating for democratic culture across Muslim-majority societies. +There is no equivalent of the Al-Qaeda, without the terrorism, There are no ideas and narratives and leaders and symbols advocating the democratic culture on the ground. +So that begs the next question. +Why is it that extremist organizations, whether of the far-right or of the Islamist extremism -- Islamism meaning those who wish to impose one version of Islam over the rest of society -- why is it that they are succeeding in organizing in a globalized way, whereas those who aspire to democratic culture are falling behind? +And I believe that's for four reasons. +I believe, number one, it's complacency. +Because those who aspire to democratic culture are in power, or have societies that are leading globalized, powerful societies, powerful countries. +And that level of complacency means they don't feel the need to advocate for that culture. +The second, I believe, is political correctness. +That we have a hesitation in espousing the universality of democratic culture because we are associating that -- we associate believing in the universality of our values -- with extremists. +Yet actually, whenever we talk about human rights, we do say that human rights are universal. +But actually going out to propagate that view is associated with either neoconservativism or with Islamist extremism. +To go around saying that I believe democratic culture is the best that we've arrived at as a form of political organizing is associated with extremism. +And the third, democratic choice in Muslim-majority societies has been relegated to a political choice, meaning political parties in many of these societies ask people to vote for them as the democratic party, but then the other parties ask them to vote for them as the military party -- wanting to rule by military dictatorship. +And then you have a third party saying, "Vote for us; we'll establish a theocracy." +So democracy has become merely one political choice among many other forms of political choices available in those societies. +And what happens as a result of this is, when those parties are elected, and inevitably they fail, or inevitably they make political mistakes, democracy takes the blame for their political mistakes. +And then people say, "We've tried democracy. It doesn't really work. +Let's bring the military back again." +And the fourth reason, I believe, is what I've labeled here on the slide as the ideology of resistance. +What I mean by that is, if the world superpower today was a communist, it would be much easier for democracy activists to use democracy activism as a form of resistance against colonialism, than it is today with the world superpower being America, occupying certain lands and also espousing democratic ideals. +So roughly these four reasons make it a lot more difficult for democratic culture to spread as a civilizational choice, not merely as a political choice. +When talking about those reasons, let's break down certain preconceptions. +Is it just about grievances? +Is it just about a lack of education? +Well statistically, the majority of those who join extremist organizations are highly educated. +Statistically, they are educated, on average, above the education levels of Western society. +Anecdotally, we can demonstrate that if poverty was the only factor, well Bin Laden is from one of the richest families in Saudi Arabia. +His deputy, Ayman al-Zawahiri, was a pediatrician -- not an ill-educated man. +International aid and development has been going on for years, but extremism in those societies, in many of those societies, has been on the rise. +And what I believe is missing is genuine grassroots activism on the ground, in addition to international aid, in addition to education, in addition to health. +is propagating a genuine demand for democracy on the ground. +And this is where I believe neoconservatism had it upside-down. +Neoconservatism had the philosophy that you go in with a supply-led approach to impose democratic values from the top down. +Whereas Islamists and far-right organizations, for decades, have been building demand for their ideology on the grassroots. +They've been building civilizational demand for their values on the grassroots, and we've been seeing those societies slowly transition to societies that are increasingly asking for a form of Islamism. +Mass movements in Pakistan have been represented after the Arab uprisings claiming for some form of theocracy, rather than for a democratic uprising. +Because since pre-partition, they've been building demand for their ideology on the ground. +And what's needed is a genuine transnational youth-led movement that works to actively advocate for the democratic culture -- which is necessarily more than just elections. +But without freedom of speech, you can't have free and fair elections. +Without human rights, you don't have the protection granted to you to campaign. +Without freedom of belief, you don't have the right to join organizations. +So what's needed is those organizations on the ground advocating for the democratic culture itself to create the demand on the ground for this culture. +What that will do is avoid the problem I was talking about earlier, where currently we have political parties presenting democracy as merely a political choice in those societies alongside other choices such as military rule and theocracy. +Whereas if we start building this demand on the ground on a civilizational level, rather than merely on a political level, a level above politics -- movements that are not political parties, but are rather creating this civilizational demand for this democratic culture. +What we'll have in the end is this ideal that you see on the slide here -- the ideal that people should vote in an existing democracy, not for a democracy. +But to get to that stage, where democracy builds the fabric of society and the political choices within that fabric, but are certainly not theocratic and military dictatorship -- i.e. you're voting in a democracy, in an existing democracy, and that democracy is not merely one of the choices at the ballot box. +To get to that stage, we genuinely need to start building demand in those societies on the ground. +Now to conclude, how does that happen? +Well, Egypt is a good starting point. +The Arab uprisings have demonstrated that this is already beginning. +But what happened in the Arab uprisings and what happened in Egypt was particularly cathartic for me. +What happened there was a political coalition gathered together for a political goal, and that was to remove the leader. +We need to move one step beyond that now. +We need to see how we can help those societies move from political coalitions, loosely based political coalitions, to civilizational coalitions that are working for the ideals and narratives of the democratic culture on the ground. +Because it's not enough to remove a leader or ruler or dictator. +That doesn't guarantee that what comes next will be a society built on democratic values. +But generally, the trends that start in Egypt have historically spread across the MENA region, the Middle East and North Africa region. +So when Arab socialism started in Egypt, it spread across the region. +In the '80s and '90s when Islamism started in the region, it spread across the MENA region as a whole. +And the aspiration that we have at the moment -- as young Arabs are proving today and instantly rebranding themselves as being prepared to die for more than just terrorism -- is that there is a chance that democratic culture can start in the region and spread across to the rest of the countries that are surrounding that. +But that will require helping these societies transition from having merely political coalitions to building genuinely grassroots-based social movements that advocate for the democratic culture. +And we've made a start for that in Pakistan with a movement called Khudi, where we are working on the ground to encourage the youth to create genuine buy-in for the democratic culture. +And it's with that thought that I'll end. +And my time is up, and thank you for your time. +It's the Second World War. +A German prison camp. +And this man, Archie Cochrane, is a prisoner of war and a doctor, and he has a problem. +The problem is that the men under his care are suffering from an excruciating and debilitating condition that Archie doesn't really understand. +The symptoms are this horrible swelling up of fluids under the skin. +But he doesn't know whether it's an infection, whether it's to do with malnutrition. +He doesn't know how to cure it. +And he's operating in a hostile environment. +And people do terrible things in wars. +The German camp guards, they've got bored. +They've taken to just firing into the prison camp at random for fun. +On one particular occasion, one of the guards threw a grenade into the prisoners' lavatory while it was full of prisoners. +He said he heard suspicious laughter. +And Archie Cochrane, as the camp doctor, was one of the first men in to clear up the mess. +And one more thing: Archie was suffering from this illness himself. +So the situation seemed pretty desperate. +But Archie Cochrane was a resourceful person. +He'd already smuggled vitamin C into the camp, and now he managed to get hold of supplies of marmite on the black market. +Now some of you will be wondering what marmite is. +Marmite is a breakfast spread beloved of the British. +It looks like crude oil. +It tastes ... +zesty. +And importantly, it's a rich source of vitamin B12. +So Archie splits the men under his care as best he can into two equal groups. +He gives half of them vitamin C. +He gives half of them vitamin B12. +He very carefully and meticulously notes his results in an exercise book. +And after just a few days, it becomes clear that whatever is causing this illness, marmite is the cure. +So Cochrane then goes to the Germans who are running the prison camp. +Now you've got to imagine at the moment -- forget this photo, imagine this guy with this long ginger beard and this shock of red hair. +He hasn't been able to shave -- a sort of Billy Connolly figure. +Cochrane, he starts ranting at these Germans in this Scottish accent -- in fluent German, by the way, but in a Scottish accent -- and explains to them how German culture was the culture that gave Schiller and Goethe to the world. +And he can't understand how this barbarism can be tolerated, and he vents his frustrations. +And then he goes back to his quarters, breaks down and weeps because he's convinced that the situation is hopeless. +But a young German doctor picks up Archie Cochrane's exercise book and says to his colleagues, "This evidence is incontrovertible. +If we don't supply vitamins to the prisoners, it's a war crime." +And the next morning, supplies of vitamin B12 are delivered to the camp, and the prisoners begin to recover. +Now I'm not telling you this story because I think Archie Cochrane is a dude, although Archie Cochrane is a dude. +I'm not even telling you the story because I think we should be running more carefully controlled randomized trials in all aspects of public policy, although I think that would also be completely awesome. +I'm telling you this story because Archie Cochrane, all his life, fought against a terrible affliction, and he realized it was debilitating to individuals and it was corrosive to societies. +And he had a name for it. +He called it the God complex. +Now I can describe the symptoms of the God complex very, very easily. +So the symptoms of the complex are, no matter how complicated the problem, you have an absolutely overwhelming belief that you are infallibly right in your solution. +Now Archie was a doctor, so he hung around with doctors a lot. +And doctors suffer from the God complex a lot. +Now I'm an economist, I'm not a doctor, but I see the God complex around me all the time in my fellow economists. +I see it in our business leaders. +I see it in the politicians we vote for -- people who, in the face of an incredibly complicated world, are nevertheless absolutely convinced that they understand the way that the world works. +And you know, with the future billions that we've been hearing about, the world is simply far too complex to understand in that way. +Well let me give you an example. +Imagine for a moment that, instead of Tim Harford in front of you, there was Hans Rosling presenting his graphs. +You know Hans: the Mick Jagger of TED. +And he'd be showing you these amazing statistics, these amazing animations. +And they are brilliant; it's wonderful work. +But a typical Hans Rosling graph: think for a moment, not what it shows, but think instead about what it leaves out. +So it'll show you GDP per capita, population, longevity, that's about it. +So three pieces of data for each country -- three pieces of data. +Three pieces of data is nothing. +I mean, have a look at this graph. +This is produced by the physicist Cesar Hidalgo. +He's at MIT. +Now you won't be able to understand a word of it, but this is what it looks like. +Cesar has trolled the database of over 5,000 different products, and he's used techniques of network analysis to interrogate this database and to graph relationships between the different products. +And it's wonderful, wonderful work. +You show all these interconnections, all these interrelations. +And I think it'll be profoundly useful in understanding how it is that economies grow. +Brilliant work. +Cesar and I tried to write a piece for The New York Times Magazine explaining how this works. +And what we learned is Cesar's work is far too good to explain in The New York Times Magazine. +Five thousand products -- that's still nothing. +Five thousand products -- imagine counting every product category in Cesar Hidalgo's data. +Imagine you had one second per product category. +In about the length of this session, you would have counted all 5,000. +Now imagine doing the same thing for every different type of product on sale in Walmart. +There are 100,000 there. It would take you all day. +Now imagine trying to count every different specific product and service on sale in a major economy such as Tokyo, London or New York. +It's even more difficult in Edinburgh because you have to count all the whisky and the tartan. +If you wanted to count every product and service on offer in New York -- there are 10 billion of them -- it would take you 317 years. +This is how complex the economy we've created is. +And I'm just counting toasters here. +I'm not trying to solve the Middle East problem. +The complexity here is unbelievable. +And just a piece of context -- the societies in which our brains evolved had about 300 products and services. +You could count them in five minutes. +So this is the complexity of the world that surrounds us. +This perhaps is why we find the God complex so tempting. +We tend to retreat and say, "We can draw a picture, we can post some graphs, we get it, we understand how this works." +And we don't. +We never do. +Now I'm not trying to deliver a nihilistic message here. +I'm not trying to say we can't solve complicated problems in a complicated world. +We clearly can. +But the way we solve them is with humility -- to abandon the God complex and to actually use a problem-solving technique that works. +And we have a problem-solving technique that works. +Now you show me a successful complex system, and I will show you a system that has evolved through trial and error. +Here's an example. +This baby was produced through trial and error. +I realize that's an ambiguous statement. +Maybe I should clarify it. +This baby is a human body: it evolved. +What is evolution? +Over millions of years, variation and selection, variation and selection -- trial and error, trial and error. +And it's not just biological systems that produce miracles through trial and error. +You could use it in an industrial context. +So let's say you wanted to make detergent. +Let's say you're Unilever and you want to make detergent in a factory near Liverpool. +How do you do it? +Well you have this great big tank full of liquid detergent. +You pump it at a high pressure through a nozzle. +You create a spray of detergent. +Then the spray dries. It turns into powder. +It falls to the floor. +You scoop it up. You put it in cardboard boxes. +You sell it at a supermarket. +You make lots of money. +How do you design that nozzle? +It turns out to be very important. +Now if you ascribe to the God complex, what you do is you find yourself a little God. +You find yourself a mathematician; you find yourself a physicist -- somebody who understands the dynamics of this fluid. +And he will, or she will, calculate the optimal design of the nozzle. +Now Unilever did this and it didn't work -- too complicated. +Even this problem, too complicated. +But the geneticist Professor Steve Jones describes how Unilever actually did solve this problem -- trial and error, variation and selection. +You take a nozzle and you create 10 random variations on the nozzle. +You try out all 10; you keep the one that works best. +You create 10 variations on that one. +You try out all 10. You keep the one that works best. +You try out 10 variations on that one. +You see how this works, right? +And after 45 generations, you have this incredible nozzle. +It looks a bit like a chess piece -- functions absolutely brilliantly. +We have no idea why it works, no idea at all. +And the moment you step back from the God complex -- let's just try to have a bunch of stuff; let's have a systematic way of determining what's working and what's not -- you can solve your problem. +Now this process of trial and error is actually far more common in successful institutions than we care to recognize. +And we've heard a lot about how economies function. +The U.S. economy is still the world's greatest economy. +How did it become the world's greatest economy? +I could give you all kinds of facts and figures about the U.S. economy, but I think the most salient one is this: ten percent of American businesses disappear every year. +That is a huge failure rate. +It's far higher than the failure rate of, say, Americans. +Ten percent of Americans don't disappear every year. +Which leads us to conclude American businesses fail faster than Americans, and therefore American businesses are evolving faster than Americans. +And eventually, they'll have evolved to such a high peak of perfection that they will make us all their pets -- if, of course, they haven't already done so. +I sometimes wonder. +But it's this process of trial and error that explains this great divergence, this incredible performance of Western economies. +It didn't come because you put some incredibly smart person in charge. +It's come through trial and error. +Now I've been sort of banging on about this for the last couple of months, and people sometimes say to me, "Well Tim, it's kind of obvious. +Obviously trial and error is very important. +Obviously experimentation is very important. +Now why are you just wandering around saying this obvious thing?" +So I say, okay, fine. +You think it's obvious? +I will admit it's obvious when schools start teaching children that there are some problems that don't have a correct answer. +Stop giving them lists of questions every single one of which has an answer. +And there's an authority figure in the corner behind the teacher's desk who knows all the answers. +And if you can't find the answers, you must be lazy or stupid. +When schools stop doing that all the time, I will admit that, yes, it's obvious that trial and error is a good thing. +When a politician stands up campaigning for elected office and says, "I want to fix our health system. +I want to fix our education system. +I have no idea how to do it. +I have half a dozen ideas. +We're going to test them out. They'll probably all fail. +Then we'll test some other ideas out. +We'll find some that work. We'll build on those. +We'll get rid of the ones that don't." -- when a politician campaigns on that platform, and more importantly, when voters like you and me are willing to vote for that kind of politician, then I will admit that it is obvious that trial and error works, and that -- thank you. +Until then, until then I'm going to keep banging on about trial and error and why we should abandon the God complex. +Because it's so hard to admit our own fallibility. +It's so uncomfortable. +And Archie Cochrane understood this as well as anybody. +There's this one trial he ran many years after World War II. +He wanted to test out the question of, where is it that patients should recover from heart attacks? +Should they recover in a specialized cardiac unit in hospital, or should they recover at home? +All the cardiac doctors tried to shut him down. +They had the God complex in spades. +They knew that their hospitals were the right place for patients, and they knew it was very unethical to run any kind of trial or experiment. +Nevertheless, Archie managed to get permission to do this. +He ran his trial. +And after the trial had been running for a little while, he gathered together all his colleagues around his table, and he said, "Well, gentlemen, we have some preliminary results. +They're not statistically significant. +But we have something. +And it turns out that you're right and I'm wrong. +It is dangerous for patients to recover from heart attacks at home. +They should be in hospital." +And there's this uproar, and all the doctors start pounding the table and saying, "We always said you were unethical, Archie. +You're killing people with your clinical trials. You need to shut it down now. +Shut it down at once." +And there's this huge hubbub. +Archie lets it die down. +And then he says, "Well that's very interesting, gentlemen, because when I gave you the table of results, I swapped the two columns around. +It turns out your hospitals are killing people, and they should be at home. +Would you like to close down the trial now, or should we wait until we have robust results?" +rolls through the meeting room. +But Cochrane would do that kind of thing. +And the reason he would do that kind of thing is because he understood it feels so much better to stand there and say, "Here in my own little world, I am a god, I understand everything. +I do not want to have my opinions challenged. +I do not want to have my conclusions tested." +It feels so much more comfortable simply to lay down the law. +Cochrane understood that uncertainty, that fallibility, that being challenged, they hurt. +And you sometimes need to be shocked out of that. +Now I'm not going to pretend that this is easy. +It isn't easy. +It's incredibly painful. +And since I started talking about this subject and researching this subject, I've been really haunted by something a Japanese mathematician said on the subject. +So shortly after the war, this young man, Yutaka Taniyama, developed this amazing conjecture called the Taniyama-Shimura Conjecture. +It turned out to be absolutely instrumental many decades later in proving Fermat's Last Theorem. +In fact, it turns out it's equivalent to proving Fermat's Last Theorem. +You prove one, you prove the other. +But it was always a conjecture. +Taniyama tried and tried and tried and he could never prove that it was true. +And shortly before his 30th birthday in 1958, Yutaka Taniyama killed himself. +His friend, Goro Shimura -- who worked on the mathematics with him -- many decades later, reflected on Taniyama's life. +He said, "He was not a very careful person as a mathematician. +He made a lot of mistakes. +But he made mistakes in a good direction. +I tried to emulate him, but I realized it is very difficult to make good mistakes." +Thank you. +Pat Mitchell: You have brought us images from the Yemen Times. +And take us through those, and introduce us to another Yemen. +Nadia Al-Sakkaf: Well, I'm glad to be here. +And I would like to share with you all some of the pictures that are happening today in Yemen. +This picture shows a revolution started by women, and it shows women and men leading a mixed protest. +The other picture is the popularity of the real need for change. +So many people are there. +The intensity of the upspring. +This picture shows that the revolution has allowed opportunities for training, for education. +These women are learning about first aid and their rights according to the constitution. +I love this picture. +I just wanted to show that over 60 percent of the Yemeni population are 15 years and below. +And they were excluded from decision-making, and now they are in the forefront of the news, raising the flag. +English -- you will see, this is jeans and tights, and an English expression -- the ability to share with the world what is going on in our own country. +And expression also, it has brought talents. +Yemenis are using cartoons and art, paintings, comics, to tell the world and each other about what's going on. +Obviously, there's always the dark side of it. +And this is just one of the less-gruesome pictures of the revolution and the cost that we have to pay. +The solidarity of millions of Yemenis across the country just demanding the one thing. +And finally, lots of people are saying that Yemen's revolution is going to break the country. +Is it going to be so many different countries? +Is it going to be another Somalia? +But we want to tell the world that, no, under the one flag, we'll still remain as Yemeni people. +PM: Thank you for those images, Nadia. +And they do, in many ways, tell a different story than the story of Yemen, the one that is often in the news. +And yet, you yourself defy all those characterizations. +So let's talk about the personal story for a moment. +Your father is murdered. +The Yemen Times already has a strong reputation in Yemen as an independent English language newspaper. +How did you then make the decision and assume the responsibilities of running a newspaper, especially in such times of conflict? +NA: Well, let me first warn you that I'm not the traditional Yemeni girl. +I've guessed you've already noticed this by now. +In Yemen, most women are veiled and they are sitting behind doors and not very much part of the public life. +But there's so much potential. +I wish I could show you my Yemen. +I wish you could see Yemen through my eyes. +Then you would know that there's so much to it. +And I was privileged because I was born into a family, my father would always encourage the boys and the girls. +He would say we are equal. +And he was such an extraordinary man. +And even my mother -- I owe it to my family. +A story: I studied in India. +And in my third year, I started becoming confused because I was Yemeni, but I was also mixing up with a lot of my friends in college. +And I went back home and I said, "Daddy, I don't know who I am. +I'm not a Yemeni; I'm not an Indian." +And he said, "You are the bridge." +And that is something I will keep in my heart forever. +So since then I've been the bridge, and a lot of people have walked over me. +PM: I don't think so. NA: But it just helps tell that some people are change agents in the society. +And when I became editor-in-chief after my brother actually -- my father passed away in 1999, and then my brother until 2005 -- and everybody was betting that I will not be able to do it. +"What's this young girl coming in and showing off because it's her family business," or something. +It was very hard at first. +I didn't want to clash with people. +But with all due respect to all the men, and the older men especially, they did not want me around. +It was very hard, you know, to impose my authority. +But a woman's got to do what a woman's got to do. +And in the first year, I had to fire half of the men. +Brought in more women. +Brought in younger men. +And we have a more gender-balanced newsroom today. +The other thing is that it's about professionalism. +It's about proving who you are and what you can do. +And I don't know if I'm going to be boasting now, but in 2006 alone, we won three international awards. +One of them is the IPI Free Media Pioneer Award. +So that was the answer to all the Yemeni people. +And I want to score a point here, because my husband is in the room over there. +If you could please stand up, [unclear]. +He has been very supportive of me. +PM: And we should point out that he works with you as well at the paper. +But in assuming this responsibility and going about it as you have, you have become a bridge between an older and traditional society and the one that you are now creating at the paper. +And so along with changing who worked there, you must have come up against another positioning that we always run into, in particular with women, and it has to do with outside image, dress, the veiled woman. +So how have you dealt with this on a personal level as well as the women who worked for you? +NA: As you know, the image of a lot of Yemeni women is a lot of black and covered, veiled women. +And this is true. +And a lot of it is because women are not able, are not free, to show their face to their self. +It's a lot of traditional imposing coming by authority figures such as the men, the grandparents and so on. +And it's economic empowerment and the ability for a woman to say, "I am as much contributing to this family, or more, than you are." +And the more empowered the women become, the more they are able to remove the veil, for example, or to drive their own car or to have a job or to be able to travel. +So the other face of Yemen is actually one that lies behind the veil, and it's economic empowerment mostly that allows the woman to just uncover it. +And I have done this throughout my work. +I've tried to encourage young girls. +We started with, you can take it off in the office. +And then after that, you can take it off on assignments. +Because I didn't believe a journalist can be a journalist with -- how can you talk to people if you have your face covered? -- and so on; it's just a movement. +And I am a role model in Yemen. +A lot of people look up to me. +A lot of young girls look up to me. +And I need to prove to them that, yes, you can still be married, you can still be a mother, and you can still be respected within the society, but at the same time, that doesn't mean you [should] just be one of the crowd. +You can be yourself and have your face. +PM: But by putting yourself personally out there -- both projecting a different image of Yemeni women, but also what you have made possible for the women who work at the paper -- has this put you in personal danger? +NA: Well the Yemen Times, across 20 years, has been through so much. +We've suffered prosecution; the paper was closed down more than three times. +It's an independent newspaper, but tell that to the people in charge. +They think that if there's anything against them, then we are being an opposition newspaper. +And very, very difficult times. +Some of my reporters were arrested. +We had some court cases. +My father was assassinated. +Today, we are in a much better situation. +We've created the credibility. +And in times of revolution or change like today, it is very important for independent media to have a voice. +It's very important for you to go to YemenTimes.com, and it's very important to listen to our voice. +And this is probably something I'm going to share with you in Western media probably -- and how there's a lot of stereotypes -- thinking of Yemen in one single frame: this is what Yemen is all about. +And that's not fair. +It's not fair for me; it's not fair for my country. +A lot of reporters come to Yemen and they want to write a story on Al-Qaeda or terrorism. +And I just wanted to share with you: there's one reporter that came. +He wanted to do a documentary on what his editors wanted. +And he ended up writing about a story that even surprised me -- hip hop -- that there are young Yemeni men who express themselves through dancing and puchu puchu. +That thing. (PM: Rap. Break dancing.) Yeah, break dancing. +I'm not so old. +I'm just not in touch. +PM: Yes, you are. +Actually, that's a documentary that's available online; the video's online. +NA: ShaketheDust.org. +PM: "Shake the Dust." (NA: "Shake the Dust.") PM: ShaketheDust.org. +And it definitely does give a different image of Yemen. +You spoke about the responsibility of the press. +NA: Well there is a saying that says, "You fear what you don't know, and you hate what you fear." +So it's about the lack of research, basically. +It's almost, "Do your homework," -- some involvement. +And you cannot do parachute reporting -- just jump into a country for two days and think that you've done your homework and a story. +So I wish that the world would know my Yemen, my country, my people. +I am an example, and there are others like me. +We may not be that many, but if we are promoted as a good, positive example, there will be others -- men and women -- who can eventually bridge the gap -- again, coming to the bridge -- between Yemen and the world and telling first about recognition and then about communication and compassion. +I think Yemen is going to be in a very bad situation in the next two or three years. +It's natural. +But after the two years, which is a price we are willing to pay, we are going to stand up again on our feet, but in the new Yemen with a younger and more empowered people -- democratic. +PM: Nadia, I think you've just given us a very different view of Yemen. +And certainly you yourself and what you do have given us a view of the future that we will embrace and be grateful for. +And the very best of luck to you. +YemenTimes.com. +NA: On Twitter also. +PM: So you are plugged in. +I love the Internet. +It's true. +Think about everything it has brought us. +Think about all the services we use, all the connectivity, all the entertainment, all the business, all the commerce. +And it's happening during our lifetimes. +I'm pretty sure that one day we'll be writing history books hundreds of years from now. This time our generation will be remembered as the generation that got online, the generation that built something really and truly global. +But yes, it's also true that the Internet has problems, very serious problems, problems with security and problems with privacy. +I've spent my career fighting these problems. +So let me show you something. +This here is Brain. +This is a floppy disk -- five and a quarter-inch floppy disk infected by Brain.A. +It's the first virus we ever found for PC computers. +And we actually know where Brain came from. +We know because it says so inside the code. +Let's take a look. +All right. +That's the boot sector of an infected floppy, and if we take a closer look inside, we'll see that right there, it says, "Welcome to the dungeon." +And then it continues, saying, 1986, Basit and Amjad. +And Basit and Amjad are first names, Pakistani first names. +In fact, there's a phone number and an address in Pakistan. +Now, 1986. +Now it's 2011. +That's 25 years ago. +The PC virus problem is 25 years old now. +So half a year ago, I decided to go to Pakistan myself. +So let's see, here's a couple of photos I took while I was in Pakistan. +This is from the city of Lahore, which is around 300 kilometers south from Abbottabad, where Bin Laden was caught. +Here's a typical street view. +And here's the street or road leading to this building, which is 730 Nizam block at Allama Iqbal Town. +And I knocked on the door. +You want to guess who opened the door? +Basit and Amjad; they are still there. +So here standing up is Basit. +Sitting down is his brother Amjad. +These are the guys who wrote the first PC virus. +Now of course, we had a very interesting discussion. +I asked them why. +I asked them how they feel about what they started. +And I got some sort of satisfaction from learning that both Basit and Amjad had had their computers infected dozens of times by completely unrelated other viruses over these years. +So there is some sort of justice in the world after all. +Now, the viruses that we used to see in the 1980s and 1990s obviously are not a problem any more. +So let me just show you a couple of examples of what they used to look like. +What I'm running here is a system that enables me to run age-old programs on a modern computer. +So let me just mount some drives. Go over there. +What we have here is a list of old viruses. +So let me just run some viruses on my computer. +For example, let's go with the Centipede virus first. +And you can see at the top of the screen, there's a centipede scrolling across your computer when you get infected by this one. +You know that you're infected because it actually shows up. +Here's another one. This is the virus called Crash, invented in Russia in 1992. +Let me show you one which actually makes some sound. +(Siren noise) And the last example, guess what the Walker virus does? +Yes, there's a guy walking across your screen once you get infected. +So it used to be fairly easy to know that you're infected by a virus, when the viruses were written by hobbyists and teenagers. +Today, they are no longer being written by hobbyists and teenagers. +Today, viruses are a global problem. +What we have here in the background is an example of our systems that we run in our labs, where we track virus infections worldwide. +So we can actually see in real time that we've just blocked viruses in Sweden and Taiwan and Russia and elsewhere. +In fact, if I just connect back to our lab systems through the Web, we can see in real time just some kind of idea of how many viruses, how many new examples of malware we find every single day. +Here's the latest virus we've found, in a file called Server.exe. +And we found it right over here three seconds ago -- the previous one, six seconds ago. +And if we just scroll around, it's just massive. +We find tens of thousands, even hundreds of thousands. +And that's the last 20 minutes of malware every single day. +So where are all these coming from then? +Well today, it's the organized criminal gangs writing these viruses because they make money with their viruses. +It's gangs like -- let's go to GangstaBucks.com. +This is a website operating in Moscow where these guys are buying infected computers. +So if you are a virus writer and you're capable of infecting Windows computers, but you don't know what to do with them, you can sell those infected computers -- somebody else's computers -- to these guys. +And they'll actually pay you money for those computers. +So how do these guys then monetize those infected computers? +Well there's multiple different ways, such as banking trojans, which will steal money from your online banking accounts when you do online banking, or keyloggers. +Keyloggers silently sit on your computer, hidden from view, and they record everything you type. +So you're sitting on your computer and you're doing Google searches. +Every single Google search you type is saved and sent to the criminals. +Every single email you write is saved and sent to the criminals. +Same thing with every single password and so on. +But the thing that they're actually looking for most are sessions where you go online and do online purchases in any online store. +Because when you do purchases in online stores, you will be typing in your name, the delivery address, your credit card number and the credit card security codes. +And here's an example of a file we found from a server a couple of weeks ago. +That's the credit card number, that's the expiration date, that's the security code, and that's the name of the owner of the card. +Once you gain access to other people's credit card information, you can just go online and buy whatever you want with this information. +And that, obviously, is a problem. +We now have a whole underground marketplace and business ecosystem built around online crime. +One example of how these guys actually are capable of monetizing their operations: we go and have a look at the pages of INTERPOL and search for wanted persons. +We find guys like Bjorn Sundin, originally from Sweden, and his partner in crime, also listed on the INTERPOL wanted pages, Mr. Shaileshkumar Jain, a U.S. citizen. +These guys were running an operation called I.M.U., a cybercrime operation through which they netted millions. +They are both right now on the run. +Nobody knows where they are. +U.S. officials, just a couple of weeks ago, froze a Swiss bank account belonging to Mr. Jain, and that bank account had 14.9 million U.S. dollars on it. +So the amount of money online crime generates is significant. +And that means that the online criminals can actually afford to invest into their attacks. +We know that online criminals are hiring programmers, hiring testing people, testing their code, having back-end systems with SQL databases. +And they can afford to watch how we work -- like how security people work -- and try to work their way around any security precautions we can build. +They also use the global nature of Internet to their advantage. +I mean, the Internet is international. +That's why we call it the Internet. +And if you just go and take a look at what's happening in the online world, here's a video built by Clarified Networks, which illustrates how one single malware family is able to move around the world. +This operation, believed to be originally from Estonia, moves around from one country to another as soon as the website is tried to shut down. +So you just can't shut these guys down. +They will switch from one country to another, from one jurisdiction to another -- moving around the world, using the fact that we don't have the capability to globally police operations like this. +So the Internet is as if someone would have given free plane tickets to all the online criminals of the world. +Now, criminals who weren't capable of reaching us before can reach us. +So how do you actually go around finding online criminals? +How do you actually track them down? +Let me give you an example. +What we have here is one exploit file. +Here, I'm looking at the Hex dump of an image file, which contains an exploit. +And that basically means, if you're trying to view this image file on your Windows computer, it actually takes over your computer and runs code. +Now, if you'll take a look at this image file -- well there's the image header, and there the actual code of the attack starts. +And that code has been encrypted, so let's decrypt it. +It has been encrypted with XOR function 97. +You just have to believe me, it is, it is. +And we can go here and actually start decrypting it. +Well the yellow part of the code is now decrypted. +And I know, it doesn't really look much different from the original. +But just keep staring at it. +You'll actually see that down here you can see a Web address: unionseek.com/d/ioo.exe And when you view this image on your computer it actually is going to download and run that program. +And that's a backdoor which will take over your computer. +But even more interestingly, if we continue decrypting, we'll find this mysterious string, which says O600KO78RUS. +That code is there underneath the encryption as some sort of a signature. +It's not used for anything. +And I was looking at that, trying to figure out what it means. +So obviously I Googled for it. +I got zero hits; wasn't there. +So I spoke with the guys at the lab. +And we have a couple of Russian guys in our labs, and one of them mentioned, well, it ends in RUS like Russia. +And 78 is the city code for the city of St. Petersburg. +For example, you can find it from some phone numbers and car license plates and stuff like that. +So I went looking for contacts in St. Petersburg, and through a long road, we eventually found this one particular website. +Here's this Russian guy who's been operating online for a number of years who runs his own website, and he runs a blog under the popular Live Journal. +And on this blog, he blogs about his life, about his life in St. Petersburg -- he's in his early 20s -- about his cat, about his girlfriend. +And he drives a very nice car. +In fact, this guy drives a Mercedes-Benz S600 V12 with a six-liter engine with more than 400 horsepower. +Now that's a nice car for a 20-something year-old kid in St. Petersburg. +How do I know about this car? +Because he blogged about the car. +He actually had a car accident. +In downtown St. Petersburg, he actually crashed his car into another car. +And he put blogged images about the car accident -- that's his Mercedes -- right here is the Lada Samara he crashed into. +And you can actually see that the license plate of the Samara ends in 78RUS. +And if you actually take a look at the scene picture, you can see that the plate of the Mercedes is O600KO78RUS. +Now I'm not a lawyer, but if I would be, this is where I would say, "I rest my case." +So what happens when online criminals are caught? +Well in most cases it never gets this far. +The vast majority of the online crime cases, we don't even know which continent the attacks are coming from. +And even if we are able to find online criminals, quite often there is no outcome. +The local police don't act, or if they do, there's not enough evidence, or for some reason we can't take them down. +I wish it would be easier; unfortunately it isn't. +But things are also changing at a very rapid pace. +You've all heard about things like Stuxnet. +So if you look at what Stuxnet did is that it infected these. +That's a Siemens S7-400 PLC, programmable logic [controller]. +And this is what runs our infrastructure. +This is what runs everything around us. +PLC's, these small boxes which have no display, no keyboard, which are programmed, are put in place, and they do their job. +For example, the elevators in this building most likely are controlled by one of these. +And when Stuxnet infects one of these, that's a massive revolution on the kinds of risks we have to worry about. +Because everything around us is being run by these. +I mean, we have critical infrastructure. +You go to any factory, any power plant, any chemical plant, any food processing plant, you look around -- everything is being run by computers. +Everything is being run by computers. +Everything is reliant on these computers working. +We have become very reliant on Internet, on basic things like electricity, obviously, on computers working. +And this really is something which creates completely new problems for us. +We must have some way of continuing to work even if computers fail. +So preparedness means that we can do stuff even when the things we take for granted aren't there. +It's actually very basic stuff -- thinking about continuity, thinking about backups, thinking about the things that actually matter. +Now I told you -- I love the Internet. I do. +Think about all the services we have online. +Think about if they are taken away from you, if one day you don't actually have them for some reason or another. +I see beauty in the future of the Internet, but I'm worried that we might not see that. +I'm worried that we are running into problems because of online crime. +Online crime is the one thing that might take these things away from us. +I've spent my life defending the Net, and I do feel that if we don't fight online crime, we are running a risk of losing it all. +We have to do this globally, and we have to do it right now. +What we need is more global, international law enforcement work to find online criminal gangs -- these organized gangs that are making millions out of their attacks. +That's much more important than running anti-viruses or running firewalls. +What actually matters is actually finding the people behind these attacks, and even more importantly, we have to find the people who are about to become part of this online world of crime, but haven't yet done it. +We have to find the people with the skills, but without the opportunities and give them the opportunities to use their skills for good. +Thank you very much. +Embracing otherness. +When I first heard this theme, I thought, well, embracing otherness is embracing myself. +And the journey to that place of understanding and acceptance has been an interesting one for me, and it's given me an insight into the whole notion of self, which I think is worth sharing with you today. +We each have a self, but I don't think that we're born with one. +You know how newborn babies believe they're part of everything; they're not separate? +Well that fundamental sense of oneness is lost on us very quickly. +It's like that initial stage is over -- oneness: infancy, unformed, primitive. +It's no longer valid or real. +What is real is separateness, and at some point in early babyhood, the idea of self starts to form. +Our little portion of oneness is given a name, is told all kinds of things about itself, and these details, opinions and ideas become facts, which go towards building ourselves, our identity. +And that self becomes the vehicle for navigating our social world. +But the self is a projection based on other people's projections. +Is it who we really are? +Or who we really want to be, or should be? +So this whole interaction with self and identity was a very difficult one for me growing up. +The self that I attempted to take out into the world was rejected over and over again. +And my panic at not having a self that fit, and the confusion that came from my self being rejected, created anxiety, shame and hopelessness, which kind of defined me for a long time. +But in retrospect, the destruction of my self was so repetitive that I started to see a pattern. +The self changed, got affected, broken, destroyed, but another one would evolve -- sometimes stronger, sometimes hateful, sometimes not wanting to be there at all. +The self was not constant. +And how many times would my self have to die before I realized that it was never alive in the first place? +I grew up on the coast of England in the '70s. +My dad is white from Cornwall, and my mom is black from Zimbabwe. +Even the idea of us as a family was challenging to most people. +But nature had its wicked way, and brown babies were born. +But from about the age of five, I was aware that I didn't fit. +I was the black atheist kid in the all-white Catholic school run by nuns. +I was an anomaly, and my self was rooting around for definition and trying to plug in. +Because the self likes to fit, to see itself replicated, to belong. +That confirms its existence and its importance. +And it is important. +It has an extremely important function. +Without it, we literally can't interface with others. +We can't hatch plans and climb that stairway of popularity, of success. +But my skin color wasn't right. +My hair wasn't right. +My history wasn't right. +My self became defined by otherness, which meant that, in that social world, I didn't really exist. +And I was "other" before being anything else -- even before being a girl. +I was a noticeable nobody. +Another world was opening up around this time: performance and dancing. +That nagging dread of self-hood didn't exist when I was dancing. +I'd literally lose myself. +And I was a really good dancer. +I would put all my emotional expression into my dancing. +I could be in the movement in a way that I wasn't able to be in my real life, in myself. +And at 16, I stumbled across another opportunity, and I earned my first acting role in a film. +I can hardly find the words to describe the peace I felt when I was acting. +My dysfunctional self could actually plug in to another self, not my own, and it felt so good. +It was the first time that I existed inside a fully-functioning self -- one that I controlled, that I steered, that I gave life to. +But the shooting day would end, and I'd return to my gnarly, awkward self. +By 19, I was a fully-fledged movie actor, but still searching for definition. +I applied to read anthropology at university. +Dr. Phyllis Lee gave me my interview, and she asked me, "How would you define race?" +Well, I thought I had the answer to that one, and I said, "Skin color." +"So biology, genetics?" she said. +"Because, Thandie, that's not accurate. +Because there's actually more genetic difference between a black Kenyan and a black Ugandan than there is between a black Kenyan and, say, a white Norwegian. +Because we all stem from Africa. +So in Africa, there's been more time to create genetic diversity." +In other words, race has no basis in biological or scientific fact. +On the one hand, result. +Right? +On the other hand, my definition of self just lost a huge chunk of its credibility. +But what was credible, what is biological and scientific fact, is that we all stem from Africa -- in fact, from a woman called Mitochondrial Eve who lived 160,000 years ago. +And race is an illegitimate concept which our selves have created based on fear and ignorance. +Strangely, these revelations didn't cure my low self-esteem, that feeling of otherness. +My desire to disappear was still very powerful. +I had a degree from Cambridge; I had a thriving career, but my self was a car crash, and I wound up with bulimia and on a therapist's couch. +And of course I did. +I still believed my self was all I was. +I still valued self-worth above all other worth, and what was there to suggest otherwise? +We've created entire value systems and a physical reality to support the worth of self. +Look at the industry for self-image and the jobs it creates, the revenue it turns over. +We'd be right in assuming that the self is an actual living thing. +But it's not. It's a projection which our clever brains create in order to cheat ourselves from the reality of death. +But there is something that can give the self ultimate and infinite connection -- and that thing is oneness, our essence. +The self's struggle for authenticity and definition will never end unless it's connected to its creator -- to you and to me. +And that can happen with awareness -- awareness of the reality of oneness and the projection of self-hood. +For a start, we can think about all the times when we do lose ourselves. +It happens when I dance, when I'm acting. +I'm earthed in my essence, and my self is suspended. +In those moments, I'm connected to everything -- the ground, the air, the sounds, the energy from the audience. +All my senses are alert and alive in much the same way as an infant might feel -- that feeling of oneness. +And when I'm acting a role, I inhabit another self, and I give it life for awhile, because when the self is suspended so is divisiveness and judgment. +And I've played everything from a vengeful ghost in the time of slavery to Secretary of State in 2004. +And no matter how other these selves might be, they're all related in me. +And I honestly believe the key to my success as an actor and my progress as a person has been the very lack of self that used to make me feel so anxious and insecure. +I always wondered why I could feel others' pain so deeply, why I could recognize the somebody in the nobody. +It's because I didn't have a self to get in the way. +I thought I lacked substance, and the fact that I could feel others' meant that I had nothing of myself to feel. +The thing that was a source of shame was actually a source of enlightenment. +And when I realized and really understood that my self is a projection and that it has a function, a funny thing happened. +I stopped giving it so much authority. +I give it its due. +I take it to therapy. +I've become very familiar with its dysfunctional behavior. +But I'm not ashamed of my self. +In fact, I respect my self and its function. +And over time and with practice, I've tried to live more and more from my essence. +And if you can do that, incredible things happen. +Because, hey, if we're all living in ourselves and mistaking it for life, then we're devaluing and desensitizing life. +And in that disconnected state, yeah, we can build factory farms with no windows, destroy marine life and use rape as a weapon of war. +So here's a note to self: The cracks have started to show in our constructed world, and oceans will continue to surge through the cracks, and oil and blood, rivers of it. +Crucially, we haven't been figuring out how to live in oneness with the Earth and every other living thing. +We've just been insanely trying to figure out how to live with each other -- billions of each other. +Only we're not living with each other; our crazy selves are living with each other and perpetuating an epidemic of disconnection. +Let's live with each other and take it a breath at a time. +If we can get under that heavy self, light a torch of awareness, and find our essence, our connection to the infinite and every other living thing. +We knew it from the day we were born. +Let's not be freaked out by our bountiful nothingness. +It's more a reality than the ones our selves have created. +Imagine what kind of existence we can have if we honor inevitable death of self, appreciate the privilege of life and marvel at what comes next. +Simple awareness is where it begins. +Thank you for listening. +This is a photograph by the artist Michael Najjar, and it's real, in the sense that he went there to Argentina to take the photo. +But it's also a fiction. There's a lot of work that went into it after that. +And what he's done is he's actually reshaped, digitally, all of the contours of the mountains to follow the vicissitudes of the Dow Jones index. +So what you see, that precipice, that high precipice with the valley, is the 2008 financial crisis. +The photo was made when we were deep in the valley over there. +I don't know where we are now. +This is the Hang Seng index for Hong Kong. +And similar topography. +I wonder why. +And this is art. This is metaphor. +But I think the point is that this is metaphor with teeth, and it's with those teeth that I want to propose today that we rethink a little bit about the role of contemporary math -- not just financial math, but math in general. +That its transition from being something that we extract and derive from the world to something that actually starts to shape it -- the world around us and the world inside us. +And it's specifically algorithms, which are basically the math that computers use to decide stuff. +They acquire the sensibility of truth because they repeat over and over again, and they ossify and calcify, and they become real. +And I was thinking about this, of all places, on a transatlantic flight a couple of years ago, because I happened to be seated next to a Hungarian physicist about my age and we were talking about what life was like during the Cold War for physicists in Hungary. +And I said, "So what were you doing?" +And he said, "Well we were mostly breaking stealth." +And I said, "That's a good job. That's interesting. +How does that work?" +And to understand that, you have to understand a little bit about how stealth works. +And so -- this is an over-simplification -- but basically, it's not like you can just pass a radar signal right through 156 tons of steel in the sky. +It's not just going to disappear. +But if you can take this big, massive thing, and you could turn it into a million little things -- something like a flock of birds -- well then the radar that's looking for that has to be able to see every flock of birds in the sky. +And if you're a radar, that's a really bad job. +And he said, "Yeah." He said, "But that's if you're a radar. +So we didn't use a radar; we built a black box that was looking for electrical signals, electronic communication. +And whenever we saw a flock of birds that had electronic communication, we thought, 'Probably has something to do with the Americans.'" And I said, "Yeah. +That's good. +So you've effectively negated 60 years of aeronautic research. +What's your act two? +What do you do when you grow up?" +And he said, "Well, financial services." +And I said, "Oh." +Because those had been in the news lately. +And I said, "How does that work?" +And he said, "Well there's 2,000 physicists on Wall Street now, and I'm one of them." +And I said, "What's the black box for Wall Street?" +And he said, "It's funny you ask that, because it's actually called black box trading. +And it's also sometimes called algo trading, algorithmic trading." +And algorithmic trading evolved in part because institutional traders have the same problems that the United States Air Force had, which is that they're moving these positions -- whether it's Proctor & Gamble or Accenture, whatever -- they're moving a million shares of something through the market. +And if they do that all at once, it's like playing poker and going all in right away. +You just tip your hand. +And so they have to find a way -- and they use algorithms to do this -- to break up that big thing into a million little transactions. +And the magic and the horror of that is that the same math that you use to break up the big thing into a million little things can be used to find a million little things and sew them back together and figure out what's actually happening in the market. +So if you need to have some image of what's happening in the stock market right now, what you can picture is a bunch of algorithms that are basically programmed to hide, and a bunch of algorithms that are programmed to go find them and act. +And all of that's great, and it's fine. +And that's 70 percent of the United States stock market, 70 percent of the operating system formerly known as your pension, your mortgage. +And what could go wrong? +What could go wrong is that a year ago, nine percent of the entire market just disappears in five minutes, and they called it the Flash Crash of 2:45. +All of a sudden, nine percent just goes away, and nobody to this day can even agree on what happened because nobody ordered it, nobody asked for it. +Nobody had any control over what was actually happening. +All they had was just a monitor in front of them that had the numbers on it and just a red button that said, "Stop." +And that's the thing, is that we're writing things, we're writing these things that we can no longer read. +And we've rendered something illegible, and we've lost the sense of what's actually happening And we're starting to make our way. +There's a company in Boston called Nanex, and they use math and magic and I don't know what, and they reach into all the market data and they find, actually sometimes, some of these algorithms. +And when they find them they pull them out and they pin them to the wall like butterflies. +And they do what we've always done when confronted with huge amounts of data that we don't understand -- which is that they give them a name and a story. +So this is one that they found, they called the Knife, the Carnival, the Boston Shuffler, Twilight. +And the gag is that, of course, these aren't just running through the market. +You can find these kinds of things wherever you look, once you learn how to look for them. +You can find it here: this book about flies that you may have been looking at on Amazon. +You may have noticed it when its price started at 1.7 million dollars. +It's out of print -- still ... +If you had bought it at 1.7, it would have been a bargain. +A few hours later, it had gone up to 23.6 million dollars, plus shipping and handling. +And the question is: Nobody was buying or selling anything; what was happening? +And you see this behavior on Amazon as surely as you see it on Wall Street. +And when you see this kind of behavior, what you see is the evidence of algorithms in conflict, algorithms locked in loops with each other, without any human oversight, without any adult supervision to say, "Actually, 1.7 million is plenty." +And as with Amazon, so it is with Netflix. +And so Netflix has gone through several different algorithms over the years. +They started with Cinematch, and they've tried a bunch of others -- there's Dinosaur Planet; there's Gravity. +They're using Pragmatic Chaos now. +Pragmatic Chaos is, like all of Netflix algorithms, trying to do the same thing. +It's trying to get a grasp on you, on the firmware inside the human skull, so that it can recommend what movie you might want to watch next -- which is a very, very difficult problem. +But the difficulty of the problem and the fact that we don't really quite have it down, it doesn't take away from the effects Pragmatic Chaos has. +Pragmatic Chaos, like all Netflix algorithms, determines, in the end, 60 percent of what movies end up being rented. +So one piece of code with one idea about you is responsible for 60 percent of those movies. +But what if you could rate those movies before they get made? +Wouldn't that be handy? +Well, a few data scientists from the U.K. are in Hollywood, and they have "story algorithms" -- a company called Epagogix. +And you can run your script through there, and they can tell you, quantifiably, that that's a 30 million dollar movie or a 200 million dollar movie. +And the thing is, is that this isn't Google. +This isn't information. +These aren't financial stats; this is culture. +And what you see here, or what you don't really see normally, is that these are the physics of culture. +And if these algorithms, like the algorithms on Wall Street, just crashed one day and went awry, how would we know? +What would it look like? +And they're in your house. They're in your house. +These are two algorithms competing for your living room. +These are two different cleaning robots that have very different ideas about what clean means. +And you can see it if you slow it down and attach lights to them, and they're sort of like secret architects in your bedroom. +And the idea that architecture itself is somehow subject to algorithmic optimization is not far-fetched. +It's super-real and it's happening around you. +You feel it most when you're in a sealed metal box, a new-style elevator; they're called destination-control elevators. +These are the ones where you have to press what floor you're going to go to before you get in the elevator. +And it uses what's called a bin-packing algorithm. +So none of this mishegas of letting everybody go into whatever car they want. +Everybody who wants to go to the 10th floor goes into car two, and everybody who wants to go to the third floor goes into car five. +And the problem with that is that people freak out. +People panic. +And you see why. You see why. +It's because the elevator is missing some important instrumentation, like the buttons. +Like the things that people use. +All it has is just the number that moves up or down and that red button that says, "Stop." +And this is what we're designing for. +We're designing for this machine dialect. +And how far can you take that? How far can you take it? +You can take it really, really far. +So let me take it back to Wall Street. +Because the algorithms of Wall Street are dependent on one quality above all else, which is speed. +And they operate on milliseconds and microseconds. +And just to give you a sense of what microseconds are, it takes you 500,000 microseconds just to click a mouse. +But if you're a Wall Street algorithm and you're five microseconds behind, you're a loser. +And you think of the Internet as this kind of distributed system. +And of course, it is, but it's distributed from places. +In New York, this is where it's distributed from: the Carrier Hotel located on Hudson Street. +And this is really where the wires come right up into the city. +And the reality is that the further away you are from that, you're a few microseconds behind every time. +These guys down on Wall Street, Marco Polo and Cherokee Nation, they're eight microseconds behind all these guys going into the empty buildings being hollowed out up around the Carrier Hotel. +And that's going to keep happening. +We're going to keep hollowing them out, because you, inch for inch and pound for pound and dollar for dollar, none of you could squeeze revenue out of that space like the Boston Shuffler could. +But if you zoom out, if you zoom out, you would see an 825-mile trench between New York City and Chicago that's been built over the last few years by a company called Spread Networks. +This is a fiber optic cable that was laid between those two cities to just be able to traffic one signal 37 times faster than you can click a mouse -- just for these algorithms, just for the Carnival and the Knife. +And when you think about this, that we're running through the United States with dynamite and rock saws so that an algorithm can close the deal three microseconds faster, all for a communications framework that no human will ever know, that's a kind of manifest destiny; and we'll always look for a new frontier. +Unfortunately, we have our work cut out for us. +This is just theoretical. +This is some mathematicians at MIT. +And the truth is I don't really understand a lot of what they're talking about. +It involves light cones and quantum entanglement, and I don't really understand any of that. +But I can read this map, and what this map says is that, if you're trying to make money on the markets where the red dots are, that's where people are, where the cities are, you're going to have to put the servers where the blue dots are to do that most effectively. +And the thing that you might have noticed about those blue dots is that a lot of them are in the middle of the ocean. +So that's what we'll do: we'll build bubbles or something, or platforms. +We'll actually part the water to pull money out of the air, because it's a bright future if you're an algorithm. +And it's not the money that's so interesting actually. +It's what the money motivates, that we're actually terraforming the Earth itself with this kind of algorithmic efficiency. +And in that light, you go back and you look at Michael Najjar's photographs, and you realize that they're not metaphor, they're prophecy. +They're prophecy for the kind of seismic, terrestrial effects of the math that we're making. +And the landscape was always made by this sort of weird, uneasy collaboration between nature and man. +But now there's this third co-evolutionary force: algorithms -- the Boston Shuffler, the Carnival. +And we will have to understand those as nature, and in a way, they are. +Thank you. +It is a dream of mankind to fly like a bird. +Birds are very agile. +They fly, not with rotating components, so they fly only by flapping their wings. +So we looked at the birds, and we tried to make a model that is powerful, ultralight, and it must have excellent aerodynamic qualities that would fly by its own and only by flapping its wings. +So what would be better than to use the herring gull, in its freedom, circling and swooping over the sea, and to use this as a role model? +So we bring a team together. +There are generalists and also specialists in the field of aerodynamics, in the field of building gliders. +And the task was to build an ultralight indoor-flying model that is able to fly over your heads. +So be careful later on. +And this was one issue: to build it that lightweight that no one would be hurt if it fell down. +So why do we do all this? +We are a company in the field of automation, and we'd like to do very lightweight structures because that's energy efficient, and we'd like to learn more about pneumatics and air flow phenomena. +So I now would like you to put your seat belts on and put your hats on. +So maybe we'll try it once -- to fly a SmartBird. +Thank you. +(Applause ends) So we can now look at the SmartBird. +So here is one without a skin. +We have a wingspan of about two meters. +The length is one meter and six, and the weight is only 450 grams. +And it is all out of carbon fiber. +In the middle we have a motor, and we also have a gear in it, and we use the gear to transfer the circulation of the motor. +So within the motor, we have three Hall sensors, so we know exactly where the wing is. +And if we now beat up and down -- (Mechanical sounds) We have the possibility to fly like a bird. +So if you go down, you have the large area of propulsion, and if you go up, the wings are not that large, and it is easier to get up. +So, the next thing we did, or the challenges we did, was to coordinate this movement. +We have to turn it, go up and go down. +We have a split wing. +With the split wing, we get the lift at the upper wing, and we get the propulsion at the lower wing. +Also, we see how we measure the aerodynamic efficiency. +We had knowledge about the electromechanical efficiency and then we can calculate the aerodynamic efficiency. +So therefore, it rises up from passive torsion to active torsion, from 30 percent up to 80 percent. +Next thing we have to do, we have to control and regulate the whole structure. +Only if you control and regulate it, you will get that aerodynamic efficiency. +So the overall consumption of energy is about 25 watts at takeoff and 16 to 18 watts in flight. +Thank you. +Bruno Giussani: Markus, we should fly it once more. +Markus Fischer: Yeah, sure. +The question today is not: Why did we invade Afghanistan? +The question is: why are we still in Afghanistan one decade later? +Why are we spending $135 billion? +Why have we got 130,000 troops on the ground? +Why were more people killed last month than in any preceding month of this conflict? +How has this happened? +The last 20 years has been the age of intervention, and Afghanistan is simply one act in a five-act tragedy. +We came out of the end of the Cold War in despair. +We faced Rwanda; we faced Bosnia, and then we rediscovered our confidence. +In the third act, we went into Bosnia and Kosovo and we seemed to succeed. +In the fourth act, with our hubris, our overconfidence developing, we invaded Iraq and Afghanistan, and in the fifth act, we plunged into a humiliating mess. +So the question is: What are we doing? +Why are we still stuck in Afghanistan? +And the answer, of course, that we keep being given is as follows: we're told that we went into Afghanistan because of 9/11, and that we remain there because the Taliban poses an existential threat to global security. +In the words of President Obama, "If the Taliban take over again, they will invite back Al-Qaeda, who will try to kill as many of our people as they possibly can." +And that it wasn't until 2009, when President Obama signed off on a surge, that we finally had, in the words of Secretary Clinton, "the strategy, the leadership and the resources." +So, as the president now reassures us, we are on track to achieve our goals. +All of this is wrong. +Every one of those statements is wrong. +Afghanistan does not pose an existential threat to global security. +It is extremely unlikely the Taliban would ever be able to take over the country -- extremely unlikely they'd be able to seize Kabul. +They simply don't have a conventional military option. +And even if they were able to do so, even if I'm wrong, it's extremely unlikely the Taliban would invite back Al-Qaeda. +From the Taliban's point of view, that was their number one mistake last time. +If they hadn't invited back Al-Qaeda, they would still be in power today. +And even if I'm wrong about those two things, even if they were able to take back the country, even if they were to invite back Al-Qaeda, it's extremely unlikely that Al-Qaeda would significantly enhance its ability to harm the United States or harm Europe. +Because this isn't the 1990s anymore. +If the Al-Qaeda base was to be established near Ghazni, we would hit them very hard, and it would be very, very difficult for the Taliban to protect them. +Furthermore, it's simply not true that what went wrong in Afghanistan is the light footprint. +In my experience, in fact, the light footprint was extremely helpful. +And these troops that we brought in -- it's a great picture of David Beckham there on the sub-machine gun -- made the situation worse, not better. +When I walked across Afghanistan in the winter of 2001-2002, what I saw was scenes like this. +A girl, if you're lucky, in the corner of a dark room -- lucky to be able to look at the Koran. +But in those early days when we're told we didn't have enough troops and enough resources, we made a lot of progress in Afghanistan. +Within a few months, there were two and a half million more girls in school. +In Sangin where I was sick in 2002, the nearest health clinic was within three days walk. +Today, there are 14 health clinics in that area alone. +There was amazing improvements. +We went from almost no Afghans having mobile telephones during the Taliban to a situation where, almost overnight, three million Afghans had mobile telephones. +And we had progress in the free media. +We had progress in elections -- all of this with the so-called light footprint. +But when we began to bring more money, when we began to invest more resources, things got worse, not better. How? +Well first see, if you put 125 billion dollars a year into a country like Afghanistan where the entire revenue of the Afghan state is one billion dollars a year, you drown everything. +It's not simply corruption and waste that you create; you essentially replace the priorities of the Afghan government, the elected Afghan government, with the micromanaging tendencies of foreigners on short tours with their own priorities. +And the same is true for the troops. +When I walked across Afghanistan, I stayed with people like this. +This is Commandant Haji Malem Mohsin Khan of Kamenj. +Commandant Haji Malem Mohsin Khan of Kamenj was a great host. +He was very generous, like many of the Afghans I stayed with. +But he was also considerably more conservative, considerably more anti-foreign, considerably more Islamist than we'd like to acknowledge. +This man, for example, Mullah Mustafa, tried to shoot me. +And the reason I'm looking a little bit perplexed in this photograph is I was somewhat frightened, and I was too afraid on this occasion to ask him, having run for an hour through the desert and taken refuge in this house, why he had turned up and wanted to have his photograph taken with me. +But 18 months later, I asked him why he had tried to shoot me. +And Mullah Mustafa -- he's the man with the pen and paper -- explained that the man sitting immediately to the left as you look at the photograph, Nadir Shah had bet him that he couldn't hit me. +Now this is not to say Afghanistan is a place full of people like Mullah Mustafa. +It's not; it's a wonderful place full of incredible energy and intelligence. +But it is a place where the putting-in of the troops has increased the violence rather than decreased it. +2005, Anthony Fitzherbert, an agricultural engineer, could travel through Helmand, could stay in Nad Ali, Sangin and Ghoresh, which are now the names of villages where fighting is taking place. +Today, he could never do that. +So the idea that we deployed the troops to respond to the Taliban insurgency is mistaken. +Rather than preceding the insurgency, the Taliban followed the troop deployment, and as far as I'm concerned, the troop deployment caused their return. +Now is this a new idea? +No, there have been any number of people saying this over the last seven years. +I ran a center at Harvard from 2008 to 2010, and there were people like Michael Semple there who speak Afghan languages fluently, who've traveled to almost every district in the country. +Andrew Wilder, for example, born on the Pakistan-Iranian border, served his whole life in Pakistan and Afghanistan. +Paul Fishstein who began working there in 1978 -- worked for Save the Children, ran the Afghan research and evaluation unit. +These are people who were able to say consistently that the increase in development aid was making Afghanistan less secure, not more secure -- that the counter-insurgency strategy was not working and would not work. +And yet, nobody listened to them. +Instead, there was a litany of astonishing optimism. +Beginning in 2004, every general came in saying, "I've inherited a dismal situation, but finally I have the right resources and the correct strategy, which will deliver," in General Barno's word in 2004, the "decisive year." +Well guess what? It didn't. +But it wasn't sufficient to prevent General Abuzaid saying that he had the strategy and the resources to deliver, in 2005, the "decisive year." +Or General David Richards to come in 2006 and say he had the strategy and the resources to deliver the "crunch year." +Or in 2007, the Norwegian deputy foreign minister, Espen Eide, to say that that would deliver the "decisive year." +Or in 2008, Major General Champoux to come in and say he would deliver the "decisive year." +Or in 2009, my great friend, General Stanley McChrystal, who said that he was "knee-deep in the decisive year." +Or in 2010, the U.K. foreign secretary, David Miliband, who said that at last we would deliver the "decisive year." +And you'll be delighted to hear in 2011, today, that Guido Westerwelle, the German foreign minister, assures us that we are in the "decisive year." +How do we allow any of this to happen? +Well the answer, of course, is, if you spend 125 billion or 130 billion dollars a year in a country, you co-opt almost everybody. +Even the aid agencies, who begin to receive an enormous amount of money from the U.S. and the European governments to build schools and clinics, are somewhat disinclined to challenge the idea that Afghanistan is an existential threat to global security. +They're worried, in other words, that if anybody believes that it wasn't such a threat -- Oxfam, Save the Children wouldn't get the money to build their hospitals and schools. +It's also very difficult to confront a general with medals on his chest. +It's very difficult for a politician, because you're afraid that many lives have been lost in vain. +You feel deep, deep guilt. +You exaggerate your fears, and you're terrified about the humiliation of defeat. +What is the solution to this? +Well the solution to this is we need to find a way that people like Michael Semple, or those other people, who are telling the truth, who know the country, who've spent 30 years on the ground -- and most importantly of all, the missing component of this -- Afghans themselves, who understand what is going on. +We need to somehow get their message to the policymakers. +And this is very difficult to do because of our structures. +The first thing we need to change is the structures of our government. +Very, very sadly, our foreign services, the United Nations, the military in these countries have very little idea of what's going on. +The average British soldier is on a tour of only six months; Italian soldiers, on tours of four months; the American military, on tours of 12 months. +Diplomats are locked in embassy compounds. +When they go out, they travel in these curious armored vehicles with these somewhat threatening security teams who ready 24 hours in advance who say you can only stay on the ground for an hour. +In the British embassy in Afghanistan in 2008, an embassy of 350 people, there were only three people who could speak Dari, the main language of Afghanistan, at a decent level. +And there was not a single Pashto speaker. +In the Afghan section in London responsible for governing Afghan policy on the ground, I was told last year that there was not a single staff member of the foreign office in that section who had ever served on a posting in Afghanistan. +So we need to change that institutional culture. +And I could make the same points about the United States and the United Nations. +Secondly, we need to aim off of the optimism of the generals. +We need to make sure that we're a little bit suspicious, that we understand that optimism is in the DNA of the military, that we don't respond to it with quite as much alacrity. +And thirdly, we need to have some humility. +We need to begin from the position that our knowledge, our power, our legitimacy is limited. +This doesn't mean that intervention around the world is a disaster. +It isn't. +Bosnia and Kosovo were signal successes, great successes. +Today when you go to Bosnia it is almost impossible to believe that what we saw in the early 1990s happened. +It's almost impossible to believe the progress we've made since 1994. +Refugee return, which the United Nations High Commission for Refugees thought would be extremely unlikely, has largely happened. +A million properties have been returned. +Borders between the Bosniak territory and the Bosnian-Serb territory have calmed down. +The national army has shrunk. +The crime rates in Bosnia today are lower than they are in Sweden. +This has been done by an incredible, principled effort by the international community, and, of course, above all, by Bosnians themselves. +But you need to look at context. +And this is what we've lost in Afghanistan and Iraq. +And finally, we need to understand that in Bosnia and Kosovo, a lot of the secret of what we did, a lot of the secret of our success, was our humility -- was the tentative nature of our engagement. +We criticized people a lot in Bosnia for being quite slow to take on war criminals. +We criticized them for being quite slow to return refugees. +But that slowness, that caution, the fact that President Clinton initially said that American troops would only be deployed for a year, turned out to be a strength, and it helped us to put our priorities right. +One of the saddest things about our involvement in Afghanistan is that we've got our priorities out of sync. +We're not matching our resources to our priorities. +Because if what we're interested in is terrorism, Pakistan is far more important than Afghanistan. +If what we're interested in is regional stability, Egypt is far more important. +If what we're worried about is poverty and development, sub-Saharan Africa is far more important. +This doesn't mean that Afghanistan doesn't matter, but that it's one of 40 countries in the world with which we need to engage. +So if I can finish with a metaphor for intervention, what we need to think of is something like mountain rescue. +Why mountain rescue? +Because when people talk about intervention, they imagine that some scientific theory -- the Rand Corporation goes around counting 43 previous insurgencies producing mathematical formula saying you need one trained counter-insurgent for every 20 members of the population. +This is the wrong way of looking at it. +You need to look at it in the way that you look at mountain rescue. +When you're doing mountain rescue, you don't take a doctorate in mountain rescue, you look for somebody who knows the terrain. +It's about context. +You understand that you can prepare, but the amount of preparation you can do is limited -- you can take some water, you can have a map, you can have a pack. +And the key to this is a guide who has been on that mountain, in every temperature, at every period -- a guide who, above all, knows when to turn back, who doesn't press on relentlessly when conditions turn against them. +What we look for in firemen, in climbers, in policemen, and what we should look for in intervention, is intelligent risk takers -- not people who plunge blind off a cliff, not people who jump into a burning room, but who weigh their risks, weigh their responsibilities. +Because the worst thing we have done in Afghanistan is this idea that failure is not an option. +It makes failure invisible, inconceivable and inevitable. +And if we can resist this crazy slogan, we shall discover -- in Egypt, in Syria, in Libya, and anywhere else we go in the world -- that if we can often do much less than we pretend, we can do much more than we fear. +Thank you very much. +Thank you. Thank you very much. +Thank you. Thank you very much. +Thank you. Thank you. Thank you. +Thank you. +Thank you. Thank you. +Thank you. +Bruno Giussani: Rory, you mentioned Libya at the end. +Just briefly, what's your take on the current events there and the intervention? +Rory Stewart: Okay, I think Libya poses the classic problem. +The problem in Libya is that we are always pushing for the black or white. +We imagine there are only two choices: either full engagement and troop deployment or total isolation. +And we are always being tempted up to our neck. +We put our toes in and we go up to our neck. +What we should have done in Libya is we should have stuck to the U.N. resolution. +We should have limited ourselves very, very strictly to the protection of the civilian population in Benghazi. +We could have done that. +We set up a no-fly zone within 48 hours because Gaddafi had no planes within 48 hours. +Instead of which, we've allowed ourselves to be tempted towards regime change. +In doing so, we've destroyed our credibility with the Security Council, which means it's very difficult to get a resolution on Syria, and we're setting ourselves up again for failure. +Once more, humility, limits, honesty, realistic expectations and we could have achieved something to be proud of. +BG: Rory, thank you very much. +RS: Thank you. (BG: Thank you.) +Cities are the crucible of civilization. +They have been expanding, urbanization has been expanding, at an exponential rate in the last 200 years so that by the second part of this century, the planet will be completely dominated by cities. +Cities are the origins of global warming, impact on the environment, health, pollution, disease, finance, economies, energy -- they're all problems that are confronted by having cities. +That's where all these problems come from. +And the tsunami of problems that we feel we're facing in terms of sustainability questions are actually a reflection of the exponential increase in urbanization across the planet. +Here's some numbers. +Two hundred years ago, the United States was less than a few percent urbanized. +It's now more than 82 percent. +The planet has crossed the halfway mark a few years ago. +China's building 300 new cities in the next 20 years. +Now listen to this: Every week for the foreseeable future, until 2050, every week more than a million people are being added to our cities. +This is going to affect everything. +Everybody in this room, if you stay alive, is going to be affected by what's happening in cities in this extraordinary phenomenon. +However, cities, despite having this negative aspect to them, are also the solution. +Because cities are the vacuum cleaners and the magnets that have sucked up creative people, creating ideas, innovation, wealth and so on. +So we have this kind of dual nature. +And so there's an urgent need for a scientific theory of cities. +Now these are my comrades in arms. +This work has been done with an extraordinary group of people, and they've done all the work, and I'm the great bullshitter that tries to bring it all together. +So here's the problem: This is what we all want. +The 10 billion people on the planet in 2050 want to live in places like this, having things like this, doing things like this, with economies that are growing like this, not realizing that entropy produces things like this, this, this and this. +And the question is: Is that what Edinburgh and London and New York are going to look like in 2050, or is it going to be this? +That's the question. +I must say, many of the indicators look like this is what it's going to look like, but let's talk about it. +So my provocative statement is that we desperately need a serious scientific theory of cities. +And scientific theory means quantifiable -- relying on underlying generic principles that can be made into a predictive framework. +That's the quest. +Is that conceivable? +Are there universal laws? +So here's two questions that I have in my head when I think about this problem. +The first is: Are cities part of biology? +Is London a great big whale? +Is Edinburgh a horse? +Is Microsoft a great big anthill? +What do we learn from that? +We use them metaphorically -- the DNA of a company, the metabolism of a city, and so on -- is that just bullshit, metaphorical bullshit, or is there serious substance to it? +And if that is the case, how come that it's very hard to kill a city? +You could drop an atom bomb on a city, and 30 years later it's surviving. +Very few cities fail. +All companies die, all companies. +And if you have a serious theory, you should be able to predict when Google is going to go bust. +So is that just another version of this? +Well we understand this very well. +That is, you ask any generic question about this -- how many trees of a given size, how many branches of a given size does a tree have, how many leaves, what is the energy flowing through each branch, what is the size of the canopy, what is its growth, what is its mortality? +We have a mathematical framework based on generic universal principles that can answer those questions. +And the idea is can we do the same for this? +So the route in is recognizing one of the most extraordinary things about life, is that it is scalable, it works over an extraordinary range. +This is just a tiny range actually: It's us mammals; we're one of these. +The same principles, the same dynamics, the same organization is at work in all of these, including us, and it can scale over a range of 100 million in size. +And that is one of the main reasons life is so resilient and robust -- scalability. +We're going to discuss that in a moment more. +But you know, at a local level, you scale; everybody in this room is scaled. +That's called growth. +Here's how you grew. +Rat, that's a rat -- could have been you. +We're all pretty much the same. +And you see, you're very familiar with this. +You grow very quickly and then you stop. +And that line there is a prediction from the same theory, based on the same principles, that describes that forest. +And here it is for the growth of a rat, and those points on there are data points. +This is just the weight versus the age. +And you see, it stops growing. +Very, very good for biology -- also one of the reasons for its great resilience. +Very, very bad for economies and companies and cities in our present paradigm. +This is what we believe. +This is what our whole economy is thrusting upon us, particularly illustrated in that left-hand corner: hockey sticks. +This is a bunch of software companies -- and what it is is their revenue versus their age -- all zooming away, and everybody making millions and billions of dollars. +Okay, so how do we understand this? +So let's first talk about biology. +This is explicitly showing you how things scale, and this is a truly remarkable graph. +What is plotted here is metabolic rate -- how much energy you need per day to stay alive -- versus your weight, your mass, for all of us bunch of organisms. +And it's plotted in this funny way by going up by factors of 10, otherwise you couldn't get everything on the graph. +And what you see if you plot it in this slightly curious way is that everybody lies on the same line. +Despite the fact that this is the most complex and diverse system in the universe, there's an extraordinary simplicity being expressed by this. +It's particularly astonishing because each one of these organisms, each subsystem, each cell type, each gene, has evolved in its own unique environmental niche with its own unique history. +And yet, despite all of that Darwinian evolution and natural selection, they've been constrained to lie on a line. +Something else is going on. +Before I talk about that, I've written down at the bottom there the slope of this curve, this straight line. +It's three-quarters, roughly, which is less than one -- and we call that sublinear. +And here's the point of that. +It says that, if it were linear, the steepest slope, then doubling the size you would require double the amount of energy. +But it's sublinear, and what that translates into is that, if you double the size of the organism, you actually only need 75 percent more energy. +So a wonderful thing about all of biology is that it expresses an extraordinary economy of scale. +The bigger you are systematically, according to very well-defined rules, less energy per capita. +Now any physiological variable you can think of, any life history event you can think of, if you plot it this way, looks like this. +There is an extraordinary regularity. +So you tell me the size of a mammal, I can tell you at the 90 percent level everything about it in terms of its physiology, life history, etc. +And the reason for this is because of networks. +All of life is controlled by networks -- from the intracellular through the multicellular through the ecosystem level. +And you're very familiar with these networks. +That's a little thing that lives inside an elephant. +And here's the summary of what I'm saying. +If you take those networks, this idea of networks, and you apply universal principles, mathematizable, universal principles, all of these scalings and all of these constraints follow, including the description of the forest, the description of your circulatory system, the description within cells. +One of the things I did not stress in that introduction was that, systematically, the pace of life decreases as you get bigger. +Heart rates are slower; you live longer; diffusion of oxygen and resources across membranes is slower, etc. +The question is: Is any of this true for cities and companies? +So is London a scaled up Birmingham, which is a scaled up Brighton, etc., etc.? +Is New York a scaled up San Francisco, which is a scaled up Santa Fe? +Don't know. We will discuss that. +But they are networks, and the most important network of cities is you. +Cities are just a physical manifestation of your interactions, our interactions, and the clustering and grouping of individuals. +Here's just a symbolic picture of that. +And here's scaling of cities. +This shows that in this very simple example, which happens to be a mundane example of number of petrol stations as a function of size -- plotted in the same way as the biology -- you see exactly the same kind of thing. +There is a scaling. +That is that the number of petrol stations in the city is now given to you when you tell me its size. +The slope of that is less than linear. +There is an economy of scale. +Less petrol stations per capita the bigger you are -- not surprising. +But here's what's surprising. +It scales in the same way everywhere. +This is just European countries, but you do it in Japan or China or Colombia, always the same with the same kind of economy of scale to the same degree. +And any infrastructure you look at -- whether it's the length of roads, length of electrical lines -- anything you look at has the same economy of scale scaling in the same way. +It's an integrated system that has evolved despite all the planning and so on. +But even more surprising is if you look at socio-economic quantities, quantities that have no analog in biology, that have evolved when we started forming communities eight to 10,000 years ago. +The top one is wages as a function of size plotted in the same way. +And the bottom one is you lot -- super-creatives plotted in the same way. +And what you see is a scaling phenomenon. +But most important in this, the exponent, the analog to that three-quarters for the metabolic rate, is bigger than one -- it's about 1.15 to 1.2. +Here it is, which says that the bigger you are the more you have per capita, unlike biology -- higher wages, more super-creative people per capita as you get bigger, more patents per capita, more crime per capita. +And we've looked at everything: more AIDS cases, flu, etc. +And here, they're all plotted together. +Just to show you what we plotted, here is income, GDP -- GDP of the city -- crime and patents all on one graph. +And you can see, they all follow the same line. +And here's the statement. +If you double the size of a city from 100,000 to 200,000, from a million to two million, 10 to 20 million, it doesn't matter, then systematically you get a 15 percent increase in wages, wealth, number of AIDS cases, number of police, anything you can think of. +It goes up by 15 percent, and you have a 15 percent savings on the infrastructure. +This, no doubt, is the reason why a million people a week are gathering in cities. +Because they think that all those wonderful things -- like creative people, wealth, income -- is what attracts them, forgetting about the ugly and the bad. +What is the reason for this? +Well I don't have time to tell you about all the mathematics, but underlying this is the social networks, because this is a universal phenomenon. +This 15 percent rule is true no matter where you are on the planet -- Japan, Chile, Portugal, Scotland, doesn't matter. +Always, all the data shows it's the same, despite the fact that these cities have evolved independently. +Something universal is going on. +The universality, to repeat, is us -- that we are the city. +And it is our interactions and the clustering of those interactions. +So there it is, I've said it again. +So if it is those networks and their mathematical structure, unlike biology, which had sublinear scaling, economies of scale, you had the slowing of the pace of life as you get bigger. +If it's social networks with super-linear scaling -- more per capita -- then the theory says that you increase the pace of life. +The bigger you are, life gets faster. +On the left is the heart rate showing biology. +On the right is the speed of walking in a bunch of European cities, showing that increase. +Lastly, I want to talk about growth. +This is what we had in biology, just to repeat. +Economies of scale gave rise to this sigmoidal behavior. +You grow fast and then stop -- part of our resilience. +That would be bad for economies and cities. +And indeed, one of the wonderful things about the theory is that if you have super-linear scaling from wealth creation and innovation, then indeed you get, from the same theory, a beautiful rising exponential curve -- lovely. +And in fact, if you compare it to data, it fits very well with the development of cities and economies. +But it has a terrible catch, and the catch is that this system is destined to collapse. +And it's destined to collapse for many reasons -- kind of Malthusian reasons -- that you run out of resources. +And how do you avoid that? Well we've done it before. +What we do is, as we grow and we approach the collapse, a major innovation takes place and we start over again, and we start over again as we approach the next one, and so on. +So there's this continuous cycle of innovation that is necessary in order to sustain growth and avoid collapse. +The catch, however, to this is that you have to innovate faster and faster and faster. +So the image is that we're not only on a treadmill that's going faster, but we have to change the treadmill faster and faster. +We have to accelerate on a continuous basis. +And the question is: Can we, as socio-economic beings, avoid a heart attack? +So lastly, I'm going to finish up in this last minute or two asking about companies. +See companies, they scale. +The top one, in fact, is Walmart on the right. +It's the same plot. +This happens to be income and assets versus the size of the company as denoted by its number of employees. +We could use sales, anything you like. +There it is: after some little fluctuations at the beginning, when companies are innovating, they scale beautifully. +And we've looked at 23,000 companies in the United States, may I say. +And I'm only showing you a little bit of this. +What is astonishing about companies is that they scale sublinearly like biology, indicating that they're dominated, not by super-linear innovation and ideas; they become dominated by economies of scale. +In that interpretation, by bureaucracy and administration, and they do it beautifully, may I say. +So if you tell me the size of some company, some small company, I could have predicted the size of Walmart. +If it has this sublinear scaling, the theory says we should have sigmoidal growth. +There's Walmart. Doesn't look very sigmoidal. +That's what we like, hockey sticks. +But you notice, I've cheated, because I've only gone up to '94. +Let's go up to 2008. +That red line is from the theory. +So if I'd have done this in 1994, I could have predicted what Walmart would be now. +And then this is repeated across the entire spectrum of companies. +There they are. That's 23,000 companies. +They all start looking like hockey sticks, they all bend over, and they all die like you and me. +Thank you. +I'm going to talk today about the pleasures of everyday life. +But I want to begin with a story of an unusual and terrible man. +This is Hermann Goering. +Goering was Hitler's second in command in World War II, his designated successor. +And like Hitler, Goering fancied himself a collector of art. +He went through Europe, through World War II, stealing, extorting and occasionally buying various paintings for his collection. +And what he really wanted was something by Vermeer. +Hitler had two of them, and he didn't have any. +So he finally found an art dealer, a Dutch art dealer named Han van Meegeren, who sold him a wonderful Vermeer for the cost of what would now be 10 million dollars. +And it was his favorite artwork ever. +World War II came to an end, and Goering was captured, tried at Nuremberg and ultimately sentenced to death. +Then the Allied forces went through his collections and found the paintings and went after the people who sold it to him. +And at some point the Dutch police came into Amsterdam and arrested Van Meegeren. +Van Meegeren was charged with the crime of treason, which is itself punishable by death. +Six weeks into his prison sentence, van Meegeren confessed. +But he didn't confess to treason. +He said, "I did not sell a great masterpiece to that Nazi. +I painted it myself; I'm a forger." +Now nobody believed him. +And he said, "I'll prove it. +Bring me a canvas and some paint, and I will paint a Vermeer much better than I sold that disgusting Nazi. +I also need alcohol and morphine, because it's the only way I can work." +So they brought him in. +He painted a beautiful Vermeer. +And then the charges of treason were dropped. +He had a lesser charge of forgery, got a year sentence and died a hero to the Dutch people. +There's a lot more to be said about van Meegeren, but I want to turn now to Goering, who's pictured here being interrogated at Nuremberg. +Now Goering was, by all accounts, a terrible man. +Even for a Nazi, he was a terrible man. +His American interrogators described him as an amicable psychopath. +But you could feel sympathy for the reaction he had when he was told that his favorite painting was actually a forgery. +According to his biographer, "He looked as if for the first time he had discovered there was evil in the world." +And he killed himself soon afterwards. +He had discovered after all that the painting he thought was this was actually that. +It looked the same, but it had a different origin, it was a different artwork. +It wasn't just him who was in for a shock. +Once van Meegeren was on trial, he couldn't stop talking. +And he boasted about all the great masterpieces that he himself had painted that were attributed to other artists. +In particular, "The Supper at Emmaus" which was viewed as Vermeer's finest masterpiece, his best work -- people would come [from] all over the world to see it -- was actually a forgery. +It was not that painting, but that painting. +And when that was discovered, it lost all its value and was taken away from the museum. +Why does this matter? +I'm a psychologists -- why do origins matter so much? +Why do we respond so much to our knowledge of where something comes from? +Well there's an answer that many people would give. +Many sociologists like Veblen and Wolfe would argue that the reason why we take origins so seriously is because we're snobs, because we're focused on status. +Among other things, if you want to show off how rich you are, how powerful you are, it's always better to own an original than a forgery because there's always going to be fewer originals than forgeries. +I don't doubt that that plays some role, but what I want to convince you of today is that there's something else going on. +I want to convince you that humans are, to some extent, natural born essentialists. +What I mean by this is we don't just respond to things as we see them, or feel them, or hear them. +Rather, our response is conditioned on our beliefs, about what they really are, what they came from, what they're made of, what their hidden nature is. +I want to suggest that this is true, not just for how we think about things, but how we react to things. +So I want to suggest that pleasure is deep -- and that this isn't true just for higher level pleasures like art, but even the most seemingly simple pleasures are affected by our beliefs about hidden essences. +So take food. +Would you eat this? +Well, a good answer is, "It depends. What is it?" +Some of you would eat it if it's pork, but not beef. +Some of you would eat it if it's beef, but not pork. +Few of you would eat it if it's a rat or a human. +Some of you would eat it only if it's a strangely colored piece of tofu. +That's not so surprising. +But what's more interesting is how it tastes to you will depend critically on what you think you're eating. +So one demonstration of this was done with young children. +How do you make children not just be more likely to eat carrots and drink milk, but to get more pleasure from eating carrots and drinking milk -- to think they taste better? +It's simple, you tell them they're from McDonald's. +They believe McDonald's food is tastier, and it leads them to experience it as tastier. +How do you get adults to really enjoy wine? +It's very simple: pour it from an expensive bottle. +There are now dozens, perhaps hundreds of studies showing that if you believe you're drinking the expensive stuff, it tastes better to you. +This was recently done with a neuroscientific twist. +They get people into a fMRI scanner, and while they're lying there, through a tube, they get to sip wine. +In front of them on a screen is information about the wine. +Everybody, of course, drinks exactly the same wine. +But if you believe you're drinking expensive stuff, parts of the brain associated with pleasure and reward light up like a Christmas tree. +It's not just that you say it's more pleasurable, you say you like it more, you really experience it in a different way. +Or take sex. +These are stimuli I've used in some of my studies. +And if you simply show people these pictures, they'll say these are fairly attractive people. +But how attractive you find them, how sexually or romantically moved you are by them, rests critically on who you think you're looking at. +You probably think the picture on the left is male, the one on the right is female. +If that belief turns out to be mistaken, it will make a difference. +It will make a difference if they turn out to be much younger or much older than you think they are. +It will make a difference if you were to discover that the person you're looking at with lust is actually a disguised version of your son or daughter, your mother or father. +Knowing somebody's your kin typically kills the libido. +Maybe one of the most heartening findings from the psychology of pleasure is there's more to looking good than your physical appearance. +If you like somebody, they look better to you. +This is why spouses in happy marriages tend to think that their husband or wife looks much better than anyone else thinks that they do. +A particularly dramatic example of this comes from a neurological disorder known as Capgras syndrome. +So Capgras syndrome is a disorder where you get a specific delusion. +Sufferers of Capgras syndrome believe that the people they love most in the world have been replaced by perfect duplicates. +Now often, a result of Capgras syndrome is tragic. +People have murdered those that they loved, believing that they were murdering an imposter. +But there's at least one case where Capgras syndrome had a happy ending. +This was recorded in 1931. +"Research described a woman with Capgras syndrome who complained about her poorly endowed and sexually inadequate lover." +But that was before she got Capgras syndrome. +After she got it, "She was happy to report that she has discovered that he possessed a double who was rich, virile, handsome and aristocratic." +Of course, it was the same man, but she was seeing him in different ways. +As a third example, consider consumer products. +So one reason why you might like something is its utility. +You can put shoes on your feet; you can play golf with golf clubs; and chewed up bubble gum doesn't do anything at all for you. +But each of these three objects has value above and beyond what it can do for you based on its history. +The golf clubs were owned by John F. Kennedy and sold for three-quarters of a million dollars at auction. +The bubble gum was chewed up by pop star Britney Spears and sold for several hundreds of dollars. +And in fact, there's a thriving market in the partially eaten food of beloved people. +The shoes are perhaps the most valuable of all. +According to an unconfirmed report, a Saudi millionaire offered 10 million dollars for this pair of shoes. +They were the ones thrown at George Bush at an Iraqi press conference several years ago. +Now this attraction to objects doesn't just work for celebrity objects. +Each one of us, most people, have something in our life that's literally irreplaceable, in that it has value because of its history -- maybe your wedding ring, maybe your child's baby shoes -- so that if it was lost, you couldn't get it back. +You could get something that looked like it or felt like it, but you couldn't get the same object back. +With my colleagues George Newman and Gil Diesendruck, we've looked to see what sort of factors, what sort of history, matters for the objects that people like. +So in one of our experiments, we asked people to name a famous person who they adored, a living person they adored. +So one answer was George Clooney. +Then we asked them, "How much would you pay for George Clooney's sweater?" +And the answer is a fair amount -- more than you would pay for a brand new sweater or a sweater owned by somebody who you didn't adore. +Then we asked other groups of subjects -- we gave them different restrictions and different conditions. +So for instance, we told some people, "Look, you can buy the sweater, but you can't tell anybody you own it, and you can't resell it." +That drops the value of it, suggesting that that's one reason why we like it. +But what really causes an effect is you tell people, "Look, you could resell it, you could boast about it, but before it gets to you, it's thoroughly washed." +That causes a huge drop in the value. +As my wife put it, "You've washed away the Clooney cooties." +So let's go back to art. +I would love a Chagall. I love the work of Chagall. +If people want to get me something at the end of the conference, you could buy me a Chagall. +But I don't want a duplicate, even if I can't tell the difference. +That's not because, or it's not simply because, I'm a snob and want to boast about having an original. +Rather, it's because I want something that has a specific history. +In the case of artwork, the history is special indeed. +The philosopher Denis Dutton in his wonderful book "The Art Instinct" makes the case that, "The value of an artwork is rooted in assumptions about the human performance underlying its creation." +And that could explain the difference between an original and a forgery. +They may look alike, but they have a different history. +The original is typically the product of a creative act, the forgery isn't. +I think this approach can explain differences in people's taste in art. +This is a work by Jackson Pollock. +Who here likes the work of Jackson Pollock? +Okay. Who here, it does nothing for them? +They just don't like it. +I use Jackson Pollock on purpose as an example because there's a young American artist who paints very much in the style of Jackson Pollock, and her work was worth many tens of thousands of dollars -- in large part because she's a very young artist. +This is Marla Olmstead who did most of her work when she was three years old. +The interesting thing about Marla Olmstead is her family made the mistake of inviting the television program 60 Minutes II into their house to film her painting. +And they then reported that her father was coaching her. +When this came out on television, the value of her art dropped to nothing. +It was the same art, physically, but the history had changed. +I've been focusing now on the visual arts, but I want to give two examples from music. +This is Joshua Bell, a very famous violinist. +And the Washington Post reporter Gene Weingarten decided to enlist him for an audacious experiment. +The question is: How much would people like Joshua Bell, the music of Joshua Bell, if they didn't know they were listening to Joshua Bell? +So he got Joshua Bell to take his million dollar violin down to a Washington D.C. subway station and stand in the corner and see how much money he would make. +And here's a brief clip of this. +(Violin music) After being there for three-quarters of an hour, he made 32 dollars. +Not bad. It's also not good. +Apparently to really enjoy the music of Joshua Bell, you have to know you're listening to Joshua Bell. +He actually made 20 dollars more than that, but he didn't count it. +Because this woman comes up -- you see at the end of the video -- she comes up. +She had heard him at the Library of Congress a few weeks before at this extravagant black-tie affair. +So she's stunned that he's standing in a subway station. +So she's struck with pity. +She reaches into her purse and hands him a 20. +The second example from music is from John Cage's modernist composition, "4'33"." +As many of you know, this is the composition where the pianist sits at a bench, opens up the piano and sits and does nothing for four minutes and 33 seconds -- that period of silence. +And people have different views on this. +But what I want to point out is you can buy this from iTunes. +For a dollar 99, you can listen to that silence, which is different than other forms of silence. +Now I've been talking so far about pleasure, but what I want to suggest is that everything I've said applies as well to pain. +And how you think about what you're experiencing, your beliefs about the essence of it, affect how it hurts. +One lovely experiment was done by Kurt Gray and Dan Wegner. +What they did was they hooked up Harvard undergraduates to an electric shock machine. +And they gave them a series of painful electric shocks. +So it was a series of five painful shocks. +Half of them are told that they're being given the shocks by somebody in another room, but the person in the other room doesn't know they're giving them shocks. +There's no malevolence, they're just pressing a button. +The first shock is recorded as very painful. +The second shock feels less painful, because you get a bit used to it. +The third drops, the fourth, the fifth. +The pain gets less. +In the other condition, they're told that the person in the next room is shocking them on purpose -- knows they're shocking them. +The first shock hurts like hell. +The second shock hurts just as much, and the third and the fourth and the fifth. +It hurts more if you believe somebody is doing it to you on purpose. +The most extreme example of this is that in some cases, pain under the right circumstances can transform into pleasure. +Humans have this extraordinarily interesting property that will often seek out low-level doses of pain in controlled circumstances and take pleasure from it -- as in the eating of hot chili peppers and roller coaster rides. +The point was nicely summarized by the poet John Milton who wrote, "The mind is its own place, and in itself can make a heaven of hell, a hell of heaven." +And I'll end with that. Thank you. +Well after many years working in trade and economics, four years ago, I found myself working on the front lines of human vulnerability. +And I found myself in the places where people are fighting every day to survive and can't even obtain a meal. +This red cup comes from Rwanda from a child named Fabian. +And I carry this around as a symbol, really, of the challenge and also the hope. +Because one cup of food a day changes Fabian's life completely. +But what I'd like to talk about today about a billion people on Earth -- or one out of every seven -- woke up and didn't even know how to fill this cup. +One out of every seven people. +First, I'll ask you: Why should you care? +Why should we care? +For most people, if they think about hunger, they don't have to go far back on their own family history -- maybe in their own lives, or their parents' lives, or their grandparents' lives -- to remember an experience of hunger. +I rarely find an audience where people can go back very far without that experience. +Some are driven by compassion, feel it's perhaps one of the fundamental acts of humanity. +As Gandhi said, "To a hungry man, a piece of bread is the face of God." +Others worry about peace and security, stability in the world. +We saw the food riots in 2008, after what I call the silent tsunami of hunger swept the globe when food prices doubled overnight. +The destabilizing effects of hunger are known throughout human history. +One of the most fundamental acts of civilization is to ensure people can get enough food. +Others think about Malthusian nightmares. +Will we be able to feed a population that will be nine billion in just a few decades? +This is not a negotiable thing, hunger. +People have to eat. +There's going to be a lot of people. +This is jobs and opportunity all the way up and down the value chain. +But I actually came to this issue in a different way. +This is a picture of me and my three children. +In 1987, I was a new mother with my first child and was holding her and feeding her when an image very similar to this came on the television. +And this was yet another famine in Ethiopia. +One two years earlier had killed more than a million people. +But it never struck me as it did that moment, because on that image was a woman trying to nurse her baby, and she had no milk to nurse. +And the baby's cry really penetrated me, as a mother. +And I thought, there's nothing more haunting than the cry of a child that cannot be returned with food -- the most fundamental expectation of every human being. +And it was at that moment that I just was filled with the challenge and the outrage that actually we know how to fix this problem. +This isn't one of those rare diseases that we don't have the solution for. +We know how to fix hunger. +A hundred years ago, we didn't. +We actually have the technology and systems. +And I was just struck that this is out of place. +At our time in history, these images are out of place. +Well guess what? +This is last week in northern Kenya. +Yet again, the face of starvation at large scale with more than nine million people wondering if they can make it to the next day. +In fact, what we know now is that every 10 seconds we lose a child to hunger. +This is more than HIV/AIDS, malaria and tuberculosis combined. +And we know that the issue is not just production of food. +One of my mentors in life was Norman Borlaug, my hero. +But today I'm going to talk about access to food, because actually this year and last year and during the 2008 food crisis, there was enough food on Earth for everyone to have 2,700 kilocalories. +So why is it that we have a billion people who can't find food? +And I also want to talk about what I call our new burden of knowledge. +In 2008, Lancet compiled all the research and put forward the compelling evidence that if a child in its first thousand days -- from conception to two years old -- does not have adequate nutrition, the damage is irreversible. +Their brains and bodies will be stunted. +And here you see a brain scan of two children -- one who had adequate nutrition, another, neglected and who was deeply malnourished. +And we can see brain volumes up to 40 percent less in these children. +And in this slide you see the neurons and the synapses of the brain don't form. +And what we know now is this has huge impact on economies, which I'll talk about later. +But also the earning potential of these children is cut in half in their lifetime due to the stunting that happens in early years. +So this burden of knowledge drives me. +Because actually we know how to fix it very simply. +And yet, in many places, a third of the children, by the time they're three already are facing a life of hardship due to this. +I'd like to talk about some of the things I've seen on the front lines of hunger, some of the things I've learned in bringing my economic and trade knowledge and my experience in the private sector. +I'd like to talk about where the gap of knowledge is. +Well first, I'd like to talk about the oldest nutritional method on Earth, breastfeeding. +You may be surprised to know that a child could be saved every 22 seconds if there was breastfeeding in the first six months of life. +But in Niger, for example, less than seven percent of the children are breastfed for the first six months of life, exclusively. +In Mauritania, less than three percent. +This is something that can be transformed with knowledge. +This message, this word, can come out that this is not an old-fashioned way of doing business; it's a brilliant way of saving your child's life. +And so today we focus on not just passing out food, but making sure the mothers have enough enrichment, and teaching them about breastfeeding. +The second thing I'd like to talk about: If you were living in a remote village somewhere, your child was limp, and you were in a drought, or you were in floods, or you were in a situation where there wasn't adequate diversity of diet, what would you do? +Do you think you could go to the store and get a choice of power bars, like we can, and pick the right one to match? +Well I find parents out on the front lines very aware their children are going down for the count. +And I go to those shops, if there are any, or out to the fields to see what they can get, and they cannot obtain the nutrition. +Even if they know what they need to do, it's not available. +And I'm very excited about this, because one thing we're working on is transforming the technologies that are very available in the food industry to be available for traditional crops. +And this is made with chickpeas, dried milk and a host of vitamins, matched to exactly what the brain needs. +It costs 17 cents for us to produce this as, what I call, food for humanity. +We did this with food technologists in India and Pakistan -- really about three of them. +99 percent of the kids who get this. +One package, 17 cents a day -- their malnutrition is overcome. +So I am convinced that if we can unlock the technologies that are commonplace in the richer world to be able to transform foods. +And this is climate-proof. +It doesn't need to be refrigerated, it doesn't need water, which is often lacking. +And these types of technologies, I see, have the potential to transform the face of hunger and nutrition, malnutrition out on the front lines. +The next thing I want to talk about is school feeding. +Eighty percent of the people in the world have no food safety net. +When disaster strikes -- the economy gets blown, people lose a job, floods, war, conflict, bad governance, all of those things -- there is nothing to fall back on. +And usually the institutions -- churches, temples, other things -- do not have the resources to provide a safety net. +What we have found working with the World Bank is that the poor man's safety net, the best investment, is school feeding. +And if you fill the cup with local agriculture from small farmers, you have a transformative effect. +Many kids in the world can't go to school because they have to go beg and find a meal. +But when that food is there, it's transformative. +It costs less than 25 cents a day to change a kid's life. +But what is most amazing is the effect on girls. +In countries where girls don't go to school and you offer a meal to girls in school, we see enrollment rates about 50 percent girls and boys. +We see a transformation in attendance by girls. +And there was no argument, because it's incentive. +Families need the help. +And we find that if we keep girls in school later, they'll stay in school until they're 16, and won't get married if there's food in school. +Or if they get an extra ration of food at the end of the week -- it costs about 50 cents -- will keep a girl in school, and they'll give birth to a healthier child, because the malnutrition is sent generation to generation. +We know that there's boom and bust cycles of hunger. +We know this. +Right now on the Horn of Africa, we've been through this before. +So is this a hopeless cause? +Absolutely not. +I'd like to talk about what I call our warehouses for hope. +Cameroon, northern Cameroon, boom and bust cycles of hunger every year for decades. +Food aid coming in every year when people are starving during the lean seasons. +Well two years ago, we decided, let's transform the model of fighting hunger, and instead of giving out the food aid, we put it into food banks. +And we said, listen, during the lean season, take the food out. +You manage, the village manages these warehouses. +And during harvest, put it back with interest, food interest. +So add in five percent, 10 percent more food. +For the past two years, 500 of these villages where these are have not needed any food aid -- they're self-sufficient. +And the food banks are growing. +And they're starting school feeding programs for their children by the people in the village. +But they've never had the ability to build even the basic infrastructure or the resources. +I love this idea that came from the village level: three keys to unlock that warehouse. +Food is gold there. +And simple ideas can transform the face, not of small areas, of big areas of the world. +I'd like to talk about what I call digital food. +Technology is transforming the face of food vulnerability in places where you see classic famine. +Amartya Sen won his Nobel Prize for saying, "Guess what, famines happen in the presence of food because people have no ability to buy it." +We certainly saw that in 2008. +We're seeing that now in the Horn of Africa where food prices are up 240 percent in some areas over last year. +Food can be there and people can't buy it. +Well this picture -- I was in Hebron in a small shop, this shop, where instead of bringing in food, we provide digital food, a card. +It says "bon appetit" in Arabic. +And the women can go in and swipe and get nine food items. +They have to be nutritious, and they have to be locally produced. +And what's happened in the past year alone is the dairy industry -- where this card's used for milk and yogurt and eggs and hummus -- the dairy industry has gone up 30 percent. +The shopkeepers are hiring more people. +It is a win-win-win situation that starts the food economy moving. +We now deliver food in over 30 countries over cell phones, transforming even the presence of refugees in countries, and other ways. +What if from the women in Africa who cannot sell any food -- there's no roads, there's no warehouses, there's not even a tarp to pick the food up with -- what if we give the enabling environment for them to provide the food to feed the hungry children elsewhere? +And Purchasing for Progress today is in 21 countries. +And guess what? +In virtually every case, when poor farmers are given a guaranteed market -- if you say, "We will buy 300 metric tons of this. +We'll pick it up. We'll make sure it's stored properly." -- their yields have gone up two-, three-, fourfold and they figure it out, because it's the first guaranteed opportunity they've had in their life. +And we're seeing people transform their lives. +Today, food aid, our food aid -- huge engine -- 80 percent of it is bought in the developing world. +Total transformation that can actually transform the very lives that need the food. +Now you'd ask, can this be done at scale? +These are great ideas, village-level ideas. +Well I'd like to talk about Brazil, because I've taken a journey to Brazil over the past couple of years, when I read that Brazil was defeating hunger faster than any nation on Earth right now. +And what I've found is, rather than investing their money in food subsidies and other things, they invested in a school feeding program. +And they require that a third of that food come from the smallest farmers who would have no opportunity. +And they're doing this at huge scale after President Lula declared his goal of ensuring everyone had three meals a day. +And this zero hunger program costs .5 percent of GDP and has lifted many millions of people out of hunger and poverty. +It is transforming the face of hunger in Brazil, and it's at scale, and it's creating opportunities. +I've gone out there; I've met with the small farmers who have built their livelihoods on the opportunity and platform provided by this. +Now if we look at the economic imperative here, this isn't just about compassion. +The fact is studies show that the cost of malnutrition and hunger -- the cost to society, the burden it has to bear -- is on average six percent, and in some countries up to 11 percent, of GDP a year. +And if you look at the 36 countries with the highest burden of malnutrition, that's 260 billion lost from a productive economy every year. +Well, the World Bank estimates it would take about 10 billion dollars -- 10.3 -- to address malnutrition in those countries. +You look at the cost-benefit analysis, and my dream is to take this issue, not just from the compassion argument, but to the finance ministers of the world, and say we cannot afford to not invest in the access to adequate, affordable nutrition for all of humanity. +The amazing thing I've found is nothing can change on a big scale without the determination of a leader. +When a leader says, "Not under my watch," everything begins to change. +And the world can come in with enabling environments and opportunities to do this. +And the fact that France has put food at the center of the G20 is really important. +Because food is one issue that cannot be solved person by person, nation by nation. +We have to stand together. +And we're seeing nations in Africa. +WFP's been able to leave 30 nations because they have transformed the face of hunger in their nations. +What I would like to offer here is a challenge. +I believe we're living at a time in human history where it's just simply unacceptable that children wake up and don't know where to find a cup of food. +Not only that, transforming hunger is an opportunity, but I think we have to change our mindsets. +I am so honored to be here with some of the world's top innovators and thinkers. +And I would like you to join with all of humanity to draw a line in the sand and say, "No more. +No more are we going to accept this." +And we want to tell our grandchildren that there was a terrible time in history where up to a third of the children had brains and bodies that were stunted, but that exists no more. +Thank you. +We are losing our listening. +We spend roughly 60 percent of our communication time listening, but we're not very good at it. +We retain just 25 percent of what we hear. +Now not you, not this talk, but that is generally true. +Let's define listening as making meaning from sound. +It's a mental process, and it's a process of extraction. +We use some pretty cool techniques to do this. +One of them is pattern recognition. +(Crowd Noise) So in a cocktail party like this, if I say, "David, Sara, pay attention," some of you just sat up. +We recognize patterns to distinguish noise from signal, and especially our name. +Differencing is another technique we use. +If I left this pink noise on for more than a couple of minutes, you would literally cease to hear it. +We listen to differences, we discount sounds that remain the same. +And then there is a whole range of filters. +These filters take us from all sound down to what we pay attention to. +Most people are entirely unconscious of these filters. +But they actually create our reality in a way, because they tell us what we're paying attention to right now. +Give you one example of that: Intention is very important in sound, in listening. +When I married my wife, I promised her that I would listen to her every day as if for the first time. +Now that's something I fall short of on a daily basis. +But it's a great intention to have in a relationship. +But that's not all. +Sound places us in space and in time. +If you close your eyes right now in this room, you're aware of the size of the room from the reverberation and the bouncing of the sound off the surfaces. +And you're aware of how many people are around you because of the micro-noises you're receiving. +And sound places us in time as well, because sound always has time embedded in it. +In fact, I would suggest that our listening is the main way that we experience the flow of time from past to future. +So, "Sonority is time and meaning" -- a great quote. +I said at the beginning, we're losing our listening. +Why did I say that? +Well there are a lot of reasons for this. +First of all, we invented ways of recording -- first writing, then audio recording and now video recording as well. +The premium on accurate and careful listening has simply disappeared. +Secondly, the world is now so noisy, with this cacophony going on visually and auditorily, it's just hard to listen; it's tiring to listen. +Many people take refuge in headphones, but they turn big, public spaces like this, shared soundscapes, into millions of tiny, little personal sound bubbles. +In this scenario, nobody's listening to anybody. +We're becoming impatient. +We don't want oratory anymore, we want sound bites. +And the art of conversation is being replaced -- dangerously, I think -- by personal broadcasting. +I don't know how much listening there is in this conversation, which is sadly very common, especially in the U.K. +We're becoming desensitized. +Our media have to scream at us with these kinds of headlines in order to get our attention. +And that means it's harder for us to pay attention to the quiet, the subtle, the understated. +This is a serious problem that we're losing our listening. +This is not trivial. +Because listening is our access to understanding. +Conscious listening always creates understanding. +And only without conscious listening can these things happen -- a world where we don't listen to each other at all, is a very scary place indeed. +So I'd like to share with you five simple exercises, tools you can take away with you, to improve your own conscious listening. +Would you like that? +(Audience: Yes.) Good. +The first one is silence. +Just three minutes a day of silence is a wonderful exercise to reset your ears and to recalibrate so that you can hear the quiet again. +If you can't get absolute silence, go for quiet, that's absolutely fine. +Second, I call this the mixer. +So even if you're in a noisy environment like this -- and we all spend a lot of time in places like this -- listen in the coffee bar to how many channels of sound can I hear? +How many individual channels in that mix am I listening to? +You can do it in a beautiful place as well, like in a lake. +How many birds am I hearing? +Where are they? Where are those ripples? +It's a great exercise for improving the quality of your listening. +Third, this exercise I call savoring, and this is a beautiful exercise. +It's about enjoying mundane sounds. +This, for example, is my tumble dryer. +It's a waltz. +One, two, three. One, two, three. One, two, three. +I love it. +Or just try this one on for size. +(Coffee grinder) Wow! +So mundane sounds can be really interesting if you pay attention. +I call that the hidden choir. +It's around us all the time. +The next exercise is probably the most important of all of these, if you just take one thing away. +This is listening positions -- the idea that you can move your listening position to what's appropriate to what you're listening to. +This is playing with those filters. +Do you remember, I gave you those filters at the beginning. +It's starting to play with them as levers, to get conscious about them and to move to different places. +These are just some of the listening positions, or scales of listening positions, that you can use. +There are many. +Have fun with that. It's very exciting. +And finally, an acronym. +You can use this in listening, in communication. +If you're in any one of those roles -- and I think that probably is everybody who's listening to this talk -- the acronym is RASA, which is the Sanskrit word for juice or essence. +And RASA stands for Receive, which means pay attention to the person; Appreciate, making little noises like "hmm," "oh," "okay"; Summarize, the word "so" is very important in communication; and Ask, ask questions afterward. +Now sound is my passion, it's my life. +I wrote a whole book about it. So I live to listen. +That's too much to ask from most people. +But I believe that every human being needs to listen consciously in order to live fully -- connected in space and in time to the physical world around us, connected in understanding to each other, not to mention spiritually connected, because every spiritual path I know of has listening and contemplation at its heart. +That's why we need to teach listening in our schools as a skill. +Why is it not taught? It's crazy. +And if we can teach listening in our schools, we can take our listening off that slippery slope to that dangerous, scary world that I talked about and move it to a place where everybody is consciously listening all the time -- or at least capable of doing it. +Now I don't know how to do that, but this is TED, and I think the TED community is capable of anything. +So I invite you to connect with me, connect with each other, take this mission out and let's get listening taught in schools, and transform the world in one generation to a conscious listening world -- a world of connection, a world of understanding and a world of peace. +Thank you for listening to me today. +By the end of this year, there'll be nearly a billion people on this planet that actively use social networking sites. +The one thing that all of them have in common is that they're going to die. +While that might be a somewhat morbid thought, I think it has some really profound implications that are worth exploring. +What first got me thinking about this was a blog post authored earlier this year by Derek K. Miller, who was a science and technology journalist who died of cancer. +And what Miller did was have his family and friends write a post that went out shortly after he died. +Here's what he wrote in starting that out. +He said, "Here it is. I'm dead, and this is my last post to my blog. +In advance, I asked that once my body finally shut down from the punishments of my cancer, then my family and friends publish this prepared message I wrote -- the first part of the process of turning this from an active website to an archive." +Now, while as a journalist, Miller's archive may have been better written and more carefully curated than most, the fact of the matter is that all of us today are creating an archive that's something completely different than anything that's been created by any previous generation. +Consider a few stats for a moment. +Right now there are 48 hours of video being uploaded to YouTube every single minute. +There are 200 million Tweets being posted every day. +And the average Facebook user is creating 90 pieces of content each month. +So when you think about your parents or your grandparents, at best they may have created some photos or home videos, or a diary that lives in a box somewhere. +But today we're all creating this incredibly rich digital archive that's going to live in the cloud indefinitely, years after we're gone. +And I think that's going to create some incredibly intriguing opportunities for technologists. +Now to be clear, I'm a journalist and not a technologist, so what I'd like to do briefly is paint a picture of what the present and the future are going to look like. +Now we're already seeing some services that are designed to let us decide what happens to our online profile and our social media accounts after we die. +One of them actually, fittingly enough, found me when I checked into a deli at a restaurant in New York on foursquare. +Adam Ostrow: Hello. +Death: Adam? +AO: Yeah. +Death: Death can catch you anywhere, anytime, even at the Organic. +AO: Who is this? +Death: Go to ifidie.net before it's too late. +Adam Ostrow: Kind of creepy, right? +So what that service does, quite simply, is let you create a message or a video that can be posted to Facebook after you die. +Another service right now is called 1,000 Memories. +And what this lets you do is create an online tribute to your loved ones, complete with photos and videos and stories that they can post after you die. +But what I think comes next is far more interesting. +Now a lot of you are probably familiar with Deb Roy who, back in March, demonstrated how he was able to analyze more than 90,000 hours of home video. +I think as machines' ability to understand human language and process vast amounts of data continues to improve, it's going to become possible to analyze an entire life's worth of content -- the Tweets, the photos, the videos, the blog posts -- that we're producing in such massive numbers. +And I think as that happens, it's going to become possible for our digital personas to continue to interact in the real world long after we're gone thanks to the vastness of the amount of content we're creating and technology's ability to make sense of it all. +Now we're already starting to see some experiments here. +One service called My Next Tweet analyzes your entire Twitter stream, everything you've posted onto Twitter, to make some predictions as to what you might say next. +Well right now, as you can see, the results can be somewhat comical. +You can imagine what something like this might look like five, 10 or 20 years from now as our technical capabilities improve. +Taking it a step further, MIT's media lab is working on robots that can interact more like humans. +But what if those robots were able to interact based on the unique characteristics of a specific person based on the hundreds of thousands of pieces of content that person produces in their lifetime? +Finally, think back to this famous scene from election night 2008 back in the United States, where CNN beamed a live hologram of hip hop artist will.i.am into their studio for an interview with Anderson Cooper. +What if we were able to use that same type of technology to beam a representation of our loved ones into our living rooms -- interacting in a very lifelike way based on all the content they created while they were alive? +I think that's going to become completely possible as the amount of data we're producing and technology's ability to understand it both expand exponentially. +Now in closing, I think what we all need to be thinking about is if we want that to become our reality -- and if so, what it means for a definition of life and everything that comes after it. +Thank you very much. +Do you know that we have 1.4 million cellular radio masts deployed worldwide? +And these are base stations. +And we also have more than five billion of these devices here. +These are cellular mobile phones. +And with these mobile phones, we transmit more than 600 terabytes of data every month. +This is a 6 with 14 zeroes -- a very large number. +And wireless communications has become a utility like electricity and water. +We use it everyday. We use it in our everyday lives now -- in our private lives, in our business lives. +And we even have to be asked sometimes, very kindly, to switch off the mobile phone at events like this for good reasons. +And it's this importance why I decided to look into the issues that this technology has, because it's so fundamental to our lives. +And one of the issues is capacity. +The way we transmit wireless data is by using electromagnetic waves -- in particular, radio waves. +And radio waves are limited. +They are scarce; they are expensive; and we only have a certain range of it. +And it's this limitation that doesn't cope with the demand of wireless data transmissions and the number of bytes and data which are transmitted every month. +And we are simply running out of spectrum. +There's another problem. +That is efficiency. +These 1.4 million cellular radio masts, or base stations, consume a lot of energy. +And mind you, most of the energy is not used to transmit the radio waves, it is used to cool the base stations. +Then the efficiency of such a base station is only at about five percent. +And that creates a big problem. +Then there's another issue that you're all aware of. +You have to switch off your mobile phone during flights. +In hospitals, they are security issues. +And security is another issue. +These radio waves penetrate through walls. +They can be intercepted, and somebody can make use of your network if he has bad intentions. +So these are the main four issues. +But on the other hand, we have 14 billion of these: light bulbs, light. +And light is part of the electromagnetic spectrum. +So let's look at this in the context of the entire electromagnetic spectrum, where we have gamma rays. +You don't want to get close to gamma rays, it could be dangerous. +X-rays, useful when you go to hospitals. +Then there's ultraviolet light. +it's good for a nice suntan, but otherwise dangerous for the human body. +Infrared -- due to eye safety regulations, can be only used with low power. +And then we have the radio waves, they have the issues I've just mentioned. +And in the middle there, we have this visible light spectrum. +It's light, and light has been around for many millions of years. +And in fact, it has created us, has created life, has created all the stuff of life. +So it's inherently safe to use. +And wouldn't it be great to use that for wireless communications? +Not only that, I compared [it to] the entire spectrum. +I compared the radio waves spectrum -- the size of it -- with the size of the visible light spectrum. +And guess what? +We have 10,000 times more of that spectrum, which is there for us to use. +So not only do we have this huge amount of spectrum, let's compare that with a number I've just mentioned. +We have 1.4 million expensively deployed, inefficient radio cellular base stations. +And multiply that by 10,000, then you end up at 14 billion. +14 billion is the number of light bulbs installed already. +So we have the infrastructure there. +Look at the ceiling, you see all these light bulbs. +Go to the main floor, you see these light bulbs. +Can we use them for communications? +Yes. +What do we need to do? +The one thing we need to do is we have to replace these inefficient incandescent light bulbs, florescent lights, with this new technology of LED, LED light bulbs. +An LED is a semiconductor. It's an electronic device. +And it has a very nice acute property. +Its intensity can be modulated at very high speeds, and it can be switched off at very high speeds. +And this is a fundamental basic property that we exploit with our technology. +So let's show how we do that. +Let's go to the closest neighbor to the visible light spectrum -- go to remote controls. +You all know remote controls have an infrared LED -- basically you switch on the LED, and if it's off, you switch it off. +And it creates a simple, low-speed data stream in 10,000 bits per second, 20,000 bits per second. +Not usable for a YouTube video. +What we have done is we have developed a technology with which we can furthermore replace the remote control of our light bulb. +We transmit with our technology, not only a single data stream, we transmit thousands of data streams in parallel, at even higher speeds. +And the technology we have developed -- it's called SIM OFDM. +And it's spacial modulation -- these are the only technical terms, I'm not going into details -- but this is how we enabled that light source to transmit data. +You will say, "Okay, this is nice -- a slide created in 10 minutes." +But not only that. +What we've done is we have also developed a demonstrator. +And I'm showing for the first time in public this visible light demonstrator. +And what we have here is no ordinary desk lamp. +We fit in an LED light bulb, worth three U.S. dollars, put in our signal processing technology. +And then what we have here is a little hole. +And the light goes through that hole. +There's a receiver. +The receiver will convert these little, subtle changes in the amplitude that we create there into an electrical signal. +And that signal is then converted back to a high-speed data stream. +In the future we hope that we can integrate this little hole into these smart phones. +And not only integrate a photo detector here, but maybe use the camera inside. +So what happens when I switch on that light? +As you would expect, it's a light, a desk lamp. +Put your book beneath it and you can read. +It's illuminating the space. +But at the same time, you see this video coming up here. +And that's a video, a high-definition video that is transmitted through that light beam. +You're critical. +You think, "Ha, ha, ha. +This is a smart academic doing a little bit of tricks here." +But let me do this. +Once again. +Still don't believe? +It is this light that transmits this high-definition video in a split stream. +And if you look at the light, it is illuminating as you would expect. +You don't notice with your human eye. +You don't notice the subtle changes in the amplitude that we impress onto this light bulb. +It's serving the purpose of illumination, but at the same time, we are able to transmit this data. +And you see, even light from the ceiling comes down here to the receiver. +It can ignore that constant light, because all the receiver's interested in are subtle changes. +You also have a critical question now, and you say, "Okay, do I have to have the light on all the time to have this working?" +And the answer is yes. +But, you can dim down the light to a level that it appears to be off. +And you are still able to transmit data -- that's possible. +So I've mentioned to you the four challenges. +Capacity: We have 10,000 times more spectrum, 10,000 times more LEDs installed already in the infrastructure there. +You would agree with me, hopefully, there's no issue of capacity anymore. +Efficiency: This is data through illumination -- it's first of all an illumination device. +And if you do the energy budget, the data transmission comes for free -- highly energy efficient. +I don't mention the high energy efficiency of these LED light bulbs. +If the whole world would deploy them, you would save hundreds of power plants. +That's aside. +And then I've mentioned the availability. +You will agree with me that we have lights in the hospital. +You need to see what to do. +You have lights in an aircraft. +So it's everywhere in a day there is light. +Look around. Everywhere. Look at your smart phone. +It has a flashlight, an LED flashlight. +These are potential sources for high-speed data transmission. +And then there's security. +You would agree with me that light doesn't penetrate through walls. +So no one, if I have a light here, if I have secure data, no one on the other side of this room through that wall would be able to read that data. +And there's only data where there is light. +So if I don't want that receiver to receive the data, then what I could do, turn it away. +So the data goes in that direction, not there anymore. +Now we can in fact see where the data is going to. +So for me, the applications of it, to me, are beyond imagination at the moment. +We have had a century of very nice, smart application developers. +And you only have to notice, where we have light, there is a potential way to transmit data. +But I can give you a few examples. +Well you may see the impact already now. +This is a remote operated vehicle beneath the ocean. +And they use light to illuminate space down there. +And this light can be used to transmit wireless data that these things [use] to communicate with each other. +Intrinsically safe environments like this petrochemical plant -- you can't use RF, it may generate antenna sparks, but you can use light -- you see plenty of light there. +In hospitals, for new medical instruments; in streets for traffic control. +Cars have LED-based headlights, LED-based back lights, and cars can communicate with each other and prevent accidents in the way that they exchange information. +Traffic lights can communicate to the car and so on. +And then you have these millions of street lamps deployed around the world. +And every street lamp could be a free access point. +We call it, in fact, a Li-Fi, And then we have these aircraft cabins. +There are hundreds of lights in an aircraft cabin, and each of these lights could be a potential transmitter of wireless data. +So you could enjoy your most favorite TED video on your long flight back home. +Online life. So that is a vision, I think, that is possible. +So, all we would need to do is to fit a small microchip to every potential illumination device. +And this would then combine two basic functionalities: illumination and wireless data transmission. +And it's this symbiosis that I personally believe could solve the four essential problems that face us in wireless communication these days. +And in the future, you would not only have 14 billion light bulbs, you may have 14 billion Li-Fis deployed worldwide -- for a cleaner, a greener, and even a brighter future. +Thank you. +Each of you possesses the most powerful, dangerous and subversive trait that natural selection has ever devised. +It's a piece of neural audio technology for rewiring other people's minds. +I'm talking about your language, of course, because it allows you to implant a thought from your mind directly into someone else's mind, and they can attempt to do the same to you, without either of you having to perform surgery. +Instead, when you speak, you're actually using a form of telemetry not so different from the remote control device for your television. +It's just that, whereas that device relies on pulses of infrared light, your language relies on pulses, discrete pulses, of sound. +And just as you use the remote control device to alter the internal settings of your television to suit your mood, you use your language to alter the settings inside someone else's brain to suit your interests. +Languages are genes talking, getting things that they want. +And just imagine the sense of wonder in a baby when it first discovers that, merely by uttering a sound, it can get objects to move across a room as if by magic, and maybe even into its mouth. +Now language's subversive power has been recognized throughout the ages in censorship, in books you can't read, phrases you can't use and words you can't say. +In fact, the Tower of Babel story in the Bible is a fable and warning about the power of language. +According to that story, early humans developed the conceit that, by using their language to work together, they could build a tower that would take them all the way to heaven. +Now God, angered at this attempt to usurp his power, destroyed the tower, and then to ensure that it would never be rebuilt, he scattered the people by giving them different languages -- confused them by giving them different languages. +And this leads to the wonderful irony that our languages exist to prevent us from communicating. +Even today, we know that there are words we cannot use, phrases we cannot say, because if we do so, we might be accosted, jailed, or even killed. +And all of this from a puff of air emanating from our mouths. +Now all this fuss about a single one of our traits tells us there's something worth explaining. +And that is how and why did this remarkable trait evolve, and why did it evolve only in our species? +Now it's a little bit of a surprise that to get an answer to that question, we have to go to tool use in the chimpanzees. +Now these chimpanzees are using tools, and we take that as a sign of their intelligence. +But if they really were intelligent, why would they use a stick to extract termites from the ground rather than a shovel? +And if they really were intelligent, why would they crack open nuts with a rock? +Why wouldn't they just go to a shop and buy a bag of nuts that somebody else had already cracked open for them? +Why not? I mean, that's what we do. +Now the reason the chimpanzees don't do that is that they lack what psychologists and anthropologists call social learning. +They seem to lack the ability to learn from others by copying or imitating or simply watching. +As a result, they can't improve on others' ideas or learn from others' mistakes -- benefit from others' wisdom. +And so they just do the same thing over and over and over again. +In fact, we could go away for a million years and come back and these chimpanzees would be doing the same thing with the same sticks for the termites and the same rocks to crack open the nuts. +Now this may sound arrogant, or even full of hubris. +How do we know this? +Because this is exactly what our ancestors, the Homo erectus, did. +These upright apes evolved on the African savanna about two million years ago, and they made these splendid hand axes that fit wonderfully into your hands. +But if we look at the fossil record, we see that they made the same hand axe over and over and over again for one million years. +You can follow it through the fossil record. +Now if we make some guesses about how long Homo erectus lived, what their generation time was, that's about 40,000 generations of parents to offspring, and other individuals watching, in which that hand axe didn't change. +It's not even clear that our very close genetic relatives, the Neanderthals, had social learning. +Sure enough, their tools were more complicated than those of Homo erectus, but they too showed very little change over the 300,000 years or so that those species, the Neanderthals, lived in Eurasia. +Okay, so what this tells us is that, contrary to the old adage, "monkey see, monkey do," the surprise really is that all of the other animals really cannot do that -- at least not very much. +And even this picture has the suspicious taint of being rigged about it -- something from a Barnum & Bailey circus. +But by comparison, we can learn. +We can learn by watching other people and copying or imitating what they can do. +We can then choose, from among a range of options, the best one. +We can benefit from others' ideas. +We can build on their wisdom. +And as a result, our ideas do accumulate, and our technology progresses. +And this cumulative cultural adaptation, as anthropologists call this accumulation of ideas, is responsible for everything around you in your bustling and teeming everyday lives. +I mean the world has changed out of all proportion to what we would recognize even 1,000 or 2,000 years ago. +And all of this because of cumulative cultural adaptation. +The chairs you're sitting in, the lights in this auditorium, my microphone, the iPads and iPods that you carry around with you -- all are a result of cumulative cultural adaptation. +Now to many commentators, cumulative cultural adaptation, or social learning, is job done, end of story. +Our species can make stuff, therefore we prospered in a way that no other species has. +In fact, we can even make the "stuff of life" -- as I just said, all the stuff around us. +But in fact, it turns out that some time around 200,000 years ago, when our species first arose and acquired social learning, that this was really the beginning of our story, not the end of our story. +Because our acquisition of social learning would create a social and evolutionary dilemma, the resolution of which, it's fair to say, would determine not only the future course of our psychology, but the future course of the entire world. +And most importantly for this, it'll tell us why we have language. +And the reason that dilemma arose is, it turns out, that social learning is visual theft. +If I can learn by watching you, I can steal your best ideas, and I can benefit from your efforts, without having to put in the time and energy that you did into developing them. +If I can watch which lure you use to catch a fish, or I can watch how you flake your hand axe to make it better, or if I follow you secretly to your mushroom patch, I can benefit from your knowledge and wisdom and skills, and maybe even catch that fish before you do. +Social learning really is visual theft. +And in any species that acquired it, it would behoove you to hide your best ideas, lest somebody steal them from you. +And so some time around 200,000 years ago, our species confronted this crisis. +And we really had only two options for dealing with the conflicts that visual theft would bring. +One of those options was that we could have retreated into small family groups. +Because then the benefits of our ideas and knowledge would flow just to our relatives. +Had we chosen this option, sometime around 200,000 years ago, we would probably still be living like the Neanderthals were when we first entered Europe 40,000 years ago. +And this is because in small groups there are fewer ideas, there are fewer innovations. +And small groups are more prone to accidents and bad luck. +So if we'd chosen that path, our evolutionary path would have led into the forest -- and been a short one indeed. +The other option we could choose was to develop the systems of communication that would allow us to share ideas and to cooperate amongst others. +Choosing this option would mean that a vastly greater fund of accumulated knowledge and wisdom would become available to any one individual than would ever arise from within an individual family or an individual person on their own. +Well, we chose the second option, and language is the result. +Language evolved to solve the crisis of visual theft. +Language is a piece of social technology for enhancing the benefits of cooperation -- for reaching agreements, for striking deals and for coordinating our activities. +And you can see that, in a developing society that was beginning to acquire language, not having language would be a like a bird without wings. +Just as wings open up this sphere of air for birds to exploit, language opened up the sphere of cooperation for humans to exploit. +And we take this utterly for granted, because we're a species that is so at home with language, but you have to realize that even the simplest acts of exchange that we engage in are utterly dependent upon language. +And to see why, consider two scenarios from early in our evolution. +Let's imagine that you are really good at making arrowheads, but you're hopeless at making the wooden shafts with the flight feathers attached. +Two other people you know are very good at making the wooden shafts, but they're hopeless at making the arrowheads. +So what you do is -- one of those people has not really acquired language yet. +And let's pretend the other one is good at language skills. +So what you do one day is you take a pile of arrowheads, and you walk up to the one that can't speak very well, and you put the arrowheads down in front of him, hoping that he'll get the idea that you want to trade your arrowheads for finished arrows. +But he looks at the pile of arrowheads, thinks they're a gift, picks them up, smiles and walks off. +Now you pursue this guy, gesticulating. +A scuffle ensues and you get stabbed with one of your own arrowheads. +Okay, now replay this scene now, and you're approaching the one who has language. +You put down your arrowheads and say, "I'd like to trade these arrowheads for finished arrows. I'll split you 50/50." +The other one says, "Fine. Looks good to me. +We'll do that." +Now the job is done. +Once we have language, we can put our ideas together and cooperate to have a prosperity that we couldn't have before we acquired it. +And this is why our species has prospered around the world while the rest of the animals sit behind bars in zoos, languishing. +That's why we build space shuttles and cathedrals while the rest of the world sticks sticks into the ground to extract termites. +All right, if this view of language and its value in solving the crisis of visual theft is true, any species that acquires it should show an explosion of creativity and prosperity. +And this is exactly what the archeological record shows. +If you look at our ancestors, the Neanderthals and the Homo erectus, our immediate ancestors, they're confined to small regions of the world. +But when our species arose about 200,000 years ago, sometime after that we quickly walked out of Africa and spread around the entire world, occupying nearly every habitat on Earth. +Now whereas other species are confined to places that their genes adapt them to, with social learning and language, we could transform the environment to suit our needs. +And so we prospered in a way that no other animal has. +Language really is the most potent trait that has ever evolved. +It is the most valuable trait we have for converting new lands and resources into more people and their genes that natural selection has ever devised. +Language really is the voice of our genes. +Now having evolved language, though, we did something peculiar, even bizarre. +As we spread out around the world, we developed thousands of different languages. +Currently, there are about seven or 8,000 different languages spoken on Earth. +Now you might say, well, this is just natural. +As we diverge, our languages are naturally going to diverge. +But the real puzzle and irony is that the greatest density of different languages on Earth is found where people are most tightly packed together. +If we go to the island of Papua New Guinea, we can find about 800 to 1,000 distinct human languages, different human languages, spoken on that island alone. +There are places on that island where you can encounter a new language every two or three miles. +Now, incredible as this sounds, I once met a Papuan man, and I asked him if this could possibly be true. +And he said to me, "Oh no. +They're far closer together than that." +And it's true; there are places on that island where you can encounter a new language in under a mile. +And this is also true of some remote oceanic islands. +And so it seems that we use our language, not just to cooperate, but to draw rings around our cooperative groups and to establish identities, and perhaps to protect our knowledge and wisdom and skills from eavesdropping from outside. +And we know this because when we study different language groups and associate them with their cultures, we see that different languages slow the flow of ideas between groups. +They slow the flow of technologies. +And they even slow the flow of genes. +Now I can't speak for you, but it seems to be the case that we don't have sex with people we can't talk to. +Now we have to counter that, though, against the evidence we've heard that we might have had some rather distasteful genetic dalliances with the Neanderthals and the Denisovans. +Okay, this tendency we have, this seemingly natural tendency we have, towards isolation, towards keeping to ourselves, crashes head first into our modern world. +This remarkable image is not a map of the world. +In fact, it's a map of Facebook friendship links. +And when you plot those friendship links by their latitude and longitude, it literally draws a map of the world. +Our modern world is communicating with itself and with each other more than it has at any time in its past. +And that communication, that connectivity around the world, that globalization now raises a burden. +Because these different languages impose a barrier, as we've just seen, to the transfer of goods and ideas and technologies and wisdom. +And they impose a barrier to cooperation. +And nowhere do we see that more clearly than in the European Union, whose 27 member countries speak 23 official languages. +The European Union is now spending over one billion euros annually translating among their 23 official languages. +That's something on the order of 1.45 billion U.S. dollars on translation costs alone. +Now think of the absurdity of this situation. +If 27 individuals from those 27 member states sat around table, speaking their 23 languages, some very simple mathematics will tell you that you need an army of 253 translators to anticipate all the pairwise possibilities. +The European Union employs a permanent staff of about 2,500 translators. +And in 2007 alone -- and I'm sure there are more recent figures -- something on the order of 1.3 million pages were translated into English alone. +And so if language really is the solution to the crisis of visual theft, if language really is the conduit of our cooperation, the technology that our species derived to promote the free flow and exchange of ideas, in our modern world, we confront a question. +And that question is whether in this modern, globalized world we can really afford to have all these different languages. +To put it this way, nature knows no other circumstance in which functionally equivalent traits coexist. +One of them always drives the other extinct. +And we see this in the inexorable march towards standardization. +There are lots and lots of ways of measuring things -- weighing them and measuring their length -- but the metric system is winning. +There are lots and lots of ways of measuring time, but a really bizarre base 60 system known as hours and minutes and seconds is nearly universal around the world. +There are many, many ways of imprinting CDs or DVDs, but those are all being standardized as well. +And you can probably think of many, many more in your own everyday lives. +And so our modern world now is confronting us with a dilemma. +And it's the dilemma that this Chinese man faces, who's language is spoken by more people in the world than any other single language, and yet he is sitting at his blackboard, converting Chinese phrases into English language phrases. +Thank you. +Matt Ridley: Mark, one question. +Svante found that the FOXP2 gene, which seems to be associated with language, was also shared in the same form in Neanderthals as us. +Do we have any idea how we could have defeated Neanderthals if they also had language? +Mark Pagel: This is a very good question. +So many of you will be familiar with the idea that there's this gene called FOXP2 that seems to be implicated in some ways in the fine motor control that's associated with language. +The reason why I don't believe that tells us that the Neanderthals had language is -- here's a simple analogy: Ferraris are cars that have engines. +My car has an engine, but it's not a Ferrari. +Now the simple answer then is that genes alone don't, all by themselves, determine the outcome of very complicated things like language. +What we know about this FOXP2 and Neanderthals is that they may have had fine motor control of their mouths -- who knows. +But that doesn't tell us they necessarily had language. +MR: Thank you very much indeed. +Humans in the developed world spend more than 90 percent of their lives indoors, where they breathe in and come into contact with trillions of life forms invisible to the naked eye: microorganisms. +Buildings are complex ecosystems that are an important source of microbes that are good for us, and some that are bad for us. +What determines the types and distributions of microbes indoors? +Buildings are colonized by airborne microbes that enter through windows and through mechanical ventilation systems. +And they are brought inside by humans and other creatures. +The fate of microbes indoors depends on complex interactions with humans, and with the human-built environment. +And today, architects and biologists are working together to explore smart building design that will create healthy buildings for us. +We spend an extraordinary amount of time in buildings that are extremely controlled environments, like this building here -- environments that have mechanical ventilation systems that include filtering, heating and air conditioning. +Given the amount of time that we spend indoors, it's important to understand how this affects our health. +At the Biology and the Built Environment Center, we carried out a study in a hospital where we sampled air and pulled the DNA out of microbes in the air. +And we looked at three different types of rooms. +We looked at rooms that were mechanically ventilated, which are the data points in the blue. +We looked at rooms that were naturally ventilated, where the hospital let us turn off the mechanical ventilation in a wing of the building and pry open the windows that were no longer operable, but they made them operable for our study. +And we also sampled the outdoor air. +If you look at the x-axis of this graph, you'll see that what we commonly want to do -- which is keeping the outdoors out -- we accomplished that with mechanical ventilation. +So if you look at the green data points, which is air that's outside, you'll see that there's a large amount of microbial diversity, or variety of microbial types. +But if you look at the blue data points, which is mechanically ventilated air, it's not as diverse. +But being less diverse is not necessarily good for our health. +If you look at the y-axis of this graph, you'll see that, in the mechanically ventilated air, you have a higher probability of encountering a potential pathogen, or germ, than if you're outdoors. +So to understand why this was the case, we took our data and put it into an ordination diagram, which is a statistical map that tells you something about how related the microbial communities are in the different samples. +The data points that are closer together have microbial communities that are more similar than data points that are far apart. +And the first things that you can see from this graph is, if you look at the blue data points, which are the mechanically ventilated air, they're not simply a subset of the green data points, which are the outdoor air. +What we've found is that mechanically ventilated air looks like humans. +It has microbes on it that are commonly associated with our skin and with our mouth, our spit. +And this is because we're all constantly shedding microbes. +So all of you right now are sharing your microbes with one another. +And when you're outdoors, that type of air has microbes that are commonly associated with plant leaves and with dirt. +Why does this matter? +It matters because the health care industry is the second most energy intensive industry in the United States. +Hospitals use two and a half times the amount of energy as office buildings. +And the model that we're working with in hospitals, and also with many, many different buildings, is to keep the outdoors out. +And this model may not necessarily be the best for our health. +And given the extraordinary amount of nosocomial infections, or hospital-acquired infections, this is a clue that it's a good time to reconsider our current practices. +So just as we manage national parks, where we promote the growth of some species and we inhibit the growth of others, we're working towards thinking about buildings using an ecosystem framework where we can promote the kinds of microbes that we want to have indoors. +I've heard somebody say that you're as healthy as your gut. +And for this reason, many people eat probiotic yogurt so they can promote a healthy gut flora. +And what we ultimately want to do is to be able to use this concept to promote a healthy group of microorganisms inside. +Thank you. +For a long time, there was me, and my body. +Me was composed of stories, of cravings, of strivings, of desires of the future. +Me was trying not to be an outcome of my violent past, but the separation that had already occurred between me and my body was a pretty significant outcome. +Me was always trying to become something, somebody. +Me only existed in the trying. +My body was often in the way. +Me was a floating head. +For years, I actually only wore hats. +It was a way of keeping my head attached. +It was a way of locating myself. +I worried that [if] I took my hat off I wouldn't be here anymore. +I actually had a therapist who once said to me, "Eve, you've been coming here for two years, and, to be honest, it never occurred to me that you had a body." +All this time I lived in the city because, to be honest, I was afraid of trees. +I never had babies because heads cannot give birth. +Babies actually don't come out of your mouth. +As I had no reference point for my body, I began to ask other women about their bodies -- in particular, their vaginas, because I thought vaginas were kind of important. +This led to me writing "The Vagina Monologues," which led to me obsessively and incessantly talking about vaginas everywhere I could. +I did this in front of many strangers. +One night on stage, I actually entered my vagina. +It was an ecstatic experience. +It scared me, it energized me, and then I became a driven person, a driven vagina. +I began to see my body like a thing, a thing that could move fast, like a thing that could accomplish other things, many things, all at once. +I began to see my body like an iPad or a car. +I would drive it and demand things from it. +It had no limits. It was invincible. +It was to be conquered and mastered like the Earth herself. +I didn't heed it; no, I organized it and I directed it. +I didn't have patience for my body; I snapped it into shape. +I was greedy. +I took more than my body had to offer. +If I was tired, I drank more espressos. +If I was afraid, I went to more dangerous places. +Oh sure, sure, I had moments of appreciation of my body, the way an abusive parent can sometimes have a moment of kindness. +My father was really kind to me on my 16th birthday, for example. +I heard people murmur from time to time that I should love my body, so I learned how to do this. +I was a vegetarian, I was sober, I didn't smoke. +But all that was just a more sophisticated way to manipulate my body -- a further disassociation, like planting a vegetable field on a freeway. +As a result of me talking so much about my vagina, many women started to tell me about theirs -- their stories about their bodies. +Actually, these stories compelled me around the world, and I've been to over 60 countries. +I heard thousands of stories, and I have to tell you, there was always this moment where the women shared with me that particular moment when she separated from her body -- when she left home. +I heard about women being molested in their beds, flogged in their burqas, left for dead in parking lots, acid burned in their kitchens. +Some women became quiet and disappeared. +Other women became mad, driven machines like me. +In the middle of my traveling, I turned 40 and I began to hate my body, which was actually progress, because at least my body existed enough to hate it. +Well my stomach -- it was my stomach I hated. +It was proof that I had not measured up, that I was old and not fabulous and not perfect or able to fit into the predetermined corporate image in shape. +My stomach was proof that I had failed, that it had failed me, that it was broken. +My life became about getting rid of it and obsessing about getting rid of it. +In fact, it became so extreme I wrote a play about it. +But the more I talked about it, the more objectified and fragmented my body became. +It became entertainment; it became a new kind of commodity, something I was selling. +Then I went somewhere else. +I went outside what I thought I knew. +I went to the Democratic Republic of Congo. +And I heard stories that shattered all the other stories. +I heard stories that got inside my body. +I heard about a little girl who couldn't stop peeing on herself because so many grown soldiers had shoved themselves inside her. +I heard an 80-year-old woman whose legs were broken and pulled out of her sockets and twisted up on her head as the soldiers raped her like that. +There are thousands of these stories, and many of the women had holes in their bodies -- holes, fistula -- that were the violation of war -- holes in the fabric of their souls. +These stories saturated my cells and nerves, and to be honest, I stopped sleeping for three years. +All the stories began to bleed together. +The raping of the Earth, the pillaging of minerals, the destruction of vaginas -- none of these were separate anymore from each other or me. +Militias were raping six-month-old babies so that countries far away could get access to gold and coltan for their iPhones and computers. +My body had not only become a driven machine, but it was responsible now for destroying other women's bodies in its mad quest to make more machines to support the speed and efficiency of my machine. +Then I got cancer -- or I found out I had cancer. +It arrived like a speeding bird smashing into a windowpane. +Suddenly, I had a body, a body that was pricked and poked and punctured, a body that was cut wide open, a body that had organs removed and transported and rearranged and reconstructed, a body that was scanned and had tubes shoved down it, a body that was burning from chemicals. +Cancer exploded the wall of my disconnection. +I suddenly understood that the crisis in my body was the crisis in the world, and it wasn't happening later, it was happening now. +In his new and visionary book, "New Self, New World," the writer Philip Shepherd says, "If you are divided from your body, you are also divided from the body of the world, which then appears to be other than you or separate from you, rather than the living continuum to which you belong." +Before cancer, the world was something other. +It was as if I was living in a stagnant pool and cancer dynamited the boulder that was separating me from the larger sea. +Now I am swimming in it. +Now I lay down in the grass and I rub my body in it, and I love the mud on my legs and feet. +Now I make a daily pilgrimage to visit a particular weeping willow by the Seine, and I hunger for the green fields in the bush outside Bukavu. +And when it rains hard rain, I scream and I run in circles. +I know that everything is connected, and the scar that runs the length of my torso is the markings of the earthquake. +And I am there with the three million in the streets of Port-au-Prince. +And the fire that burned in me on day three through six of chemo is the fire that is burning in the forests of the world. +I know that the abscess that grew around my wound after the operation, the 16 ounces of puss, is the contaminated Gulf of Mexico, and there were oil-drenched pelicans inside me and dead floating fish. +And the catheters they shoved into me without proper medication made me scream out the way the Earth cries out from the drilling. +In my second chemo, my mother got very sick and I went to see her. +And in the name of connectedness, the only thing she wanted before she died was to be brought home by her beloved Gulf of Mexico. +So we brought her home, and I prayed that the oil wouldn't wash up on her beach before she died. +And gratefully, it didn't. +And she died quietly in her favorite place. +And a few weeks later, I was in New Orleans, and this beautiful, spiritual friend told me she wanted to do a healing for me. +And I was honored. +And I went to her house, and it was morning, and the morning New Orleans sun was filtering through the curtains. +And my friend was preparing this big bowl, and I said, "What is it?" +And she said, "It's for you. +The flowers make it beautiful, and the honey makes it sweet." +And I said, "But what's the water part?" +And in the name of connectedness, she said, "Oh, it's the Gulf of Mexico." +And I said, "Of course it is." +And the other women arrived and they sat in a circle, and Michaela bathed my head with the sacred water. +And she sang -- I mean her whole body sang. +And the other women sang and they prayed for me and my mother. +And as the warm Gulf washed over my naked head, I realized that it held the best and the worst of us. +It was the greed and recklessness that led to the drilling explosion. +It was all the lies that got told before and after. +It was the honey in the water that made it sweet, it was the oil that made it sick. +It was my head that was bald -- and comfortable now without a hat. +It was my whole self melting into Michaela's lap. +It was the tears that were indistinguishable from the Gulf that were falling down my cheek. +It was finally being in my body. +It was the sorrow that's taken so long. +It was finding my place and the huge responsibility that comes with connection. +It was the continuing devastating war in the Congo and the indifference of the world. +It was the Congolese women who are now rising up. +It was my mother leaving, just at the moment that I was being born. +It was the realization that I had come very close to dying -- in the same way that the Earth, our mother, is barely holding on, in the same way that 75 percent of the planet are hardly scraping by, in the same way that there is a recipe for survival. +What I learned is it has to do with attention and resources that everybody deserves. +It was advocating friends and a doting sister. +It was wise doctors and advanced medicine and surgeons who knew what to do with their hands. +It was underpaid and really loving nurses. +It was magic healers and aromatic oils. +It was people who came with spells and rituals. +It was having a vision of the future and something to fight for, because I know this struggle isn't my own. +It was a million prayers. +It was a thousand hallelujahs and a million oms. +It was a lot of anger, insane humor, a lot of attention, outrage. +It was energy, love and joy. +It was all these things. +It was all these things. +It was all these things in the water, in the world, in my body. +So today, I want us to reflect on the demise of guys. +Guys are flaming out academically; they're wiping out socially with girls and sexually with women. +Other than that, there's not much of a problem. +So what's the data? +So the data on dropping out is amazing. +Boys are 30 percent more likely than girls to drop out of school. +In Canada, five boys drop out for every three girls. +Girls outperform boys now at every level, from elementary school to graduate school. +There's a 10 percent differential between getting BA's and all graduate programs, with guys falling behind girls. +Two-thirds of all students in special ed. remedial programs are guys. +And as you all know, boys are five times more likely than girls to be labeled as having attention deficit disorder -- and therefore we drug them with Ritalin. +What's the evidence of wiping out? +First, it's a new fear of intimacy. +Intimacy means physical, emotional connection with somebody else -- and especially with somebody of the opposite sex who gives off ambiguous, contradictory, phosphorescent signals. +And every year there's research done on self-reported shyness among college students. +And we're seeing a steady increase among males. +And this is two kinds. +It's a social awkwardness. +The old shyness was a fear of rejection. +It's a social awkwardness like you're a stranger in a foreign land. +They don't know what to say, they don't know what to do, especially one-on-one [with the] opposite sex. +They don't know the language of face contact, the non-verbal and verbal set of rules that enable you to comfortably talk to somebody else, listen to somebody else. +There's something I'm developing here called social intensity syndrome, which tries to account for why guys really prefer male bonding over female mating. +It turns out, from earliest childhood, boys, and then men, prefer the company of guys -- physical company. +And there's actually a cortical arousal we're looking at, because guys have been with guys in teams, in clubs, in gangs, in fraternities, especially in the military, and then in pubs. +And this peaks at Super Bowl Sunday when guys would rather be in a bar with strangers, watching a totally overdressed Aaron Rodgers of the Green Bay Packers, rather than Jennifer Lopez totally naked in the bedroom. +The problem is they now prefer [the] asynchronistic Internet world to the spontaneous interaction in social relationships. +What are the causes? Well, it's an unintended consequence. +I think it's excessive Internet use in general, excessive video gaming, excessive new access to pornography. +The problem is these are arousal addictions. +Drug addiction, you simply want more. +Arousal addiction, you want different. +Drugs, you want more of the same -- different. +So you need the novelty in order for the arousal to be sustained. +And the problem is the industry is supplying it. +Jane McGonigal told us last year that by the time a boy is 21, he's played 10,000 hours of video games, most of that in isolation. +As you remember, Cindy Gallop said men don't know the difference between making love and doing porn. +The average boy now watches 50 porn video clips a week. +And there's some guy watching a hundred, obviously. +And the porn industry is the fastest growing industry in America -- 15 billion annually. +For every 400 movies made in Hollywood, there are 11,000 now made porn videos. +So the effect, very quickly, is it's a new kind of arousal. +Boys' brains are being digitally rewired in a totally new way for change, novelty, excitement and constant arousal. +That means they're totally out of sync in traditional classes, which are analog, static, interactively passive. +They're also totally out of sync in romantic relationships, which build gradually and subtly. +So what's the solution? It's not my job. +I'm here to alarm. It's your job to solve. +No offense to banana slug owners. Thank you. +Climate change is already a heavy topic, and it's getting heavier because we're understanding that we need to do more than we are. +We're understanding, in fact, that those of us who live in the developed world need to be really pushing towards eliminating our emissions. +That's, to put it mildly, not what's on the table now. +And it tends to feel a little overwhelming when we look at what is there in reality today and the magnitude of the problem that we face. +And when we have overwhelming problems in front of us, we tend to seek simple answers. +And I think this is what we've done with climate change. +We look at where the emissions are coming from -- they're coming out of our tailpipes and smokestacks and so forth, and we say, okay, well the problem is that they're coming out of fossil fuels that we're burning, so therefore, the answer must be to replace those fossil fuels with clean sources of energy. +And while, of course, we do need clean energy, I would put to you that it's possible that by looking at climate change as a clean energy generation problem, we're in fact setting ourselves up not to solve it. +And the reason why is that we live on a planet that is rapidly urbanizing. +That shouldn't be news to any of us. +However, it's hard sometimes to remember the extent of that urbanization. +By mid-century, we're going to have about eight billion -- perhaps more -- people living in cities or within a day's travel of one. +We will be an overwhelmingly urban species. +In order to provide the kind of energy that it would take for eight billion people living in cities that are even somewhat like the cities that those of us in the global North live in today, we would have to generate an absolutely astonishing amount of energy. +It may be possible that we are not even able to build that much clean energy. +So if we're seriously talking about tackling climate change on an urbanizing planet, we need to look somewhere else for the solution. +The solution, in fact, may be closer to hand than we think, because all of those cities we're building are opportunities. +Every city determines to a very large extent the amount of energy used by its inhabitants. +We tend to think of energy use as a behavioral thing -- I choose to turn this light switch on -- but really, enormous amounts of our energy use are predestined by the kinds of communities and cities that we live in. +And the correlation, of course, is that denser places tend to have lower emissions -- which isn't really all that difficult to figure out, if you think about it. +Basically, we substitute, in our lives, access to the things we want. +We go out there and we hop in our cars and we drive from place to place. +And we're basically using mobility to get the access we need. +But when we live in a denser community, suddenly what we find, of course, is that the things we need are close by. +And since the most sustainable trip is the one that you never had to make in the first place, suddenly our lives become instantly more sustainable. +And it is possible, of course, to increase the density of the communities around us. +Some places are doing this with new eco districts, developing whole new sustainable neighborhoods, which is nice work if you can get it, but most of the time, what we're talking about is, in fact, reweaving the urban fabric that we already have. +So we're talking about things like infill development: really sharp little changes to where we have buildings, where we're developing. +Urban retrofitting: creating different sorts of spaces and uses out of places that are already there. +Increasingly, we're realizing that we don't even need to densify an entire city. +What we need instead is an average density that rises to a level where we don't drive as much and so on. +And that can be done by raising the density in very specific spots a whole lot. +So you can think of it as tent poles that actually raise the density of the entire city. +And we find that when we do that, we can, in fact, have a few places that are really hyper-dense within a wider fabric of places that are perhaps a little more comfortable and achieve the same results. +And this is a huge, huge energy savings, because what comes out of our tailpipe is really just the beginning of the story with climate emissions from cars. +We have the manufacture of the car, the disposal of the car, all of the parking and freeways and so on. +When you can get rid of all of those because somebody doesn't use any of them really, you find that you can actually cut transportation emissions as much as 90 percent. +And people are embracing this. +All around the world, we're seeing more and more people embrace this walkshed life. +People are saying that it's moving from the idea of the dream home to the dream neighborhood. +And when you layer that over with the kind of ubiquitous communications that we're starting to see, what you find is, in fact, even more access suffused into spaces. +Some of it's transportation access. +This is a Mapnificent map that shows me, in this case, how far I can get from my home in 30 minutes using public transportation. +Some of it is about walking. It's not all perfect yet. +This is Google Walking Maps. +I asked how to do the greater Ridgeway, and it told me to go via Guernsey. +It did tell me that this route maybe missing sidewalks or pedestrian paths, though. +But the technologies are getting better, and we're starting to really kind of crowdsource this navigation. +And as we just heard earlier, of course, we're also learning how to put information on dumb objects. +Things that don't have any wiring in them at all, we're learning how to include in these systems of notation and navigation. +Part of what we're finding with this is that what we thought was the major point of manufacturing and consumption, which is to get a bunch of stuff, is not, in fact, how we really live best in dense environments. +What we're finding is that what we want is access to the capacities of things. +My favorite example is a drill. Who here owns a drill, a home power drill? +Okay. I do too. +The average home power drill is used somewhere between six and 20 minutes in its entire lifetime, depending on who you ask. +And so what we do is we buy these drills that have a potential capacity of thousands of hours of drill time, use them once or twice to put a hole in the wall and let them sit. +Our cities, I would put to you, are stockpiles of these surplus capacities. +And while we could try and figure out new ways to use those capacities -- such as cooking or making ice sculptures or even a mafia hit -- what we probably will find is that, in fact, turning those products into services that we have access to when we want them, is a far smarter way to go. +And in fact, even space itself is turning into a service. +We're finding that people can share the same spaces, do stuff with vacant space. +Buildings are becoming bundles of services. +So we have new designs that are helping us take mechanical things that we used to spend energy on -- like heating, cooling etc. -- and turn them into things that we avoid spending energy on. +So we light our buildings with daylight. +We cool them with breezes. We heat them with sunshine. +In fact, when we use all these things, what we've found is that, in some cases, energy use in a building can drop as much as 90 percent. +Which brings on another threshold effect I like to call furnace dumping, which is, quite simply, if you have a building that doesn't need to be heated with a furnace, you save a whole bunch of money up front. +These things actually become cheaper to build than the alternatives. +Now when we look at being able to slash our product use, slash our transportation use, slash our building energy use, all of that is great, but it still leaves something behind. +And if we're going to really, truly become sustainable cities, we need to think a little differently. +This is one way to do it. +This is Vancouver's propaganda about how green a city they are. +And certainly lots of people have taken to heart this idea that a sustainable city is covered in greenery. +So we have visions like this. +We have visions like this. We have visions like this. +Now all of these are fine projects, but they really have missed an essential point, which is it's not about the leaves above, it's about the systems below. +Do they, for instance, capture rainwater so that we can reduce water use? +Water is energy intensive. +Do they, perhaps, include green infrastructure, so that we can take runoff and water that's going out of our houses and clean it and filter it and grow urban street trees? +Do they connect us back to the ecosystems around us by, for example, connecting us to rivers and allowing for restoration? +Do they allow for pollination, pollinator pathways that bees and butterflies and such can come back into our cities? +Do they even take the very waste matter that we have from food and fiber and so forth, and turn it back into soil and sequester carbon -- take carbon out of the air in the process of using our cities? +I would submit to you that all of these things are not only possible, they're being done right now, and that it's a darn good thing. +Because right now, our economy by and large operates as Paul Hawken said, "by stealing the future, selling it in the present and calling it GDP." +And if we have another eight billion or seven billion, or six billion, even, people, living on a planet where their cities also steal the future, we're going to run out of future really fast. +But if we think differently, I think that, in fact, we can have cities that are not only zero emissions, but have unlimited possibilities as well. +Thank you very much. +For as long as I can remember, I have felt a very deep connection to animals and to the ocean. +And at this age, my personal idol was Flipper the dolphin. +And when I first learned about endangered species, I was truly distressed to know that every day, animals were being wiped off the face of this Earth forever. +And I wanted to do something to help, but I always wondered: What could one person possibly do to make a difference? +And it would be 30 years, but I would eventually get the answer to that question. +When these heartbreaking images of oiled birds finally began to emerge from the Gulf of Mexico last year during the horrific BP oil spill, a German biologist by the name of Silvia Gaus was quoted as saying, "We should just euthanize all oiled birds, because studies have shown that fewer than one percent of them survive after being released." +And I could not disagree more. +In addition, I believe that every oiled animal deserves a second chance at life. +And I want to tell you why I feel so strongly about this. +On June 23, 2000, a ship named the Treasure sank off the coast of Cape Town, South Africa, spilling 1,300 tons of fuel, which polluted the habitats of nearly half the entire world population of African penguins. +Now, the ship sank between Robben Island to the south, and Dassen Island to the north -- two of the penguins' main breeding islands. +And exactly six years and three days earlier, on June 20, 1994, a ship named the Apollo Sea sank near Dassen Island, oiling 10,000 penguins, half of which died. +Now when the Treasure sank in 2000, it was the height of the best breeding season scientists had ever recorded for the African penguin, which at the time, was listed as a threatened species. +And soon, nearly 20,000 penguins were covered with this toxic oil. +The local seabird rescue center, named SANCCOB, immediately launched a massive rescue operation, and this soon would become the largest animal rescue ever undertaken. +At the time, I was working down the street. +I was a penguin aquarist at the New England Aquarium. +And exactly 11 years ago yesterday, the phone rang in the penguin office. +And with that call, my life would change forever. +It was Estelle van Der Merwe calling from SANCCOB, saying, "Please come help. +We have thousands of oiled penguins and thousands of willing but completely inexperienced volunteers. +And we need penguin experts to come train and supervise them." +So two days later, I was on a plane headed for Cape Town with a team of penguin specialists. +And the scene inside of this building was devastating and surreal. +In fact, many people compared it to a war zone. +Last week, a 10-year-old girl asked me: "What did it feel like when you first walked into that building and saw so many oiled penguins?" +And this is what happened. +I was instantly transported back to that moment in time. +Penguins are very vocal birds and really, really noisy, so I expected to walk into this building and be met with this cacophony of honking and braying and squawking. +But instead, when we stepped through those doors and into the building, it was eerily silent. +So it was very clear these were stressed, sick, traumatized birds. +The other thing that was so striking was the sheer number of volunteers. +Up to 1,000 people a day came to the rescue center. +Eventually, over the course of this rescue, more than 12-and-a-half thousand volunteers came from all over the world to Cape Town, to help save these birds. +And the amazing thing was that not one of them had to be there. +Yet they were. +So for the few of us that were there in a professional capacity, this extraordinary volunteer response to this animal crisis was profoundly moving and awe-inspiring. +So the day after we arrived, two of us from the aquarium were put in charge of room two. +Room two had more than 4,000 oiled penguins in it. +Now, mind you -- three days earlier, we had 60 penguins under our care, so we were definitely overwhelmed and just a bit terrified -- at least I was. +Personally, I really didn't know if I was capable of handling such a monstrous task. +And collectively, we really didn't know if we could pull this off. +Because we all knew that just six years earlier, half as many penguins had been oiled and rescued, and only half of them had survived. +So would it be humanly possible to save this many oiled penguins? +We just did not know. +But what gave us hope were these incredibly dedicated and brave volunteers, three of whom here are force-feeding penguins. +You may notice they're wearing very thick gloves. +And what you should know about African penguins is that they have razor-sharp beaks. +And before long, our bodies were covered head to toe with these nasty wounds inflicted by the terrified penguins. +Now the day after we arrived, a new crisis began to unfold. +The oil slick was now moving north towards Dassen Island, and the rescuers despaired, because they knew if the oil hit, it would not be possible to rescue any more oiled birds. +And there really were no good solutions. +But then finally, one of the researchers threw out this crazy idea. +He said, "OK, why don't we try and collect the birds at the greatest risk of getting oiled" -- they collected 20,000 -- "and we'll ship them 500 miles up the coast to Port Elizabeth in these open-air trucks, and release them into the clean waters there and let them swim back home?" +So three of those penguins -- Peter, Pamela and Percy -- wore satellite tags, and the researchers crossed their fingers and hoped that by the time they got back home, the oil would be cleaned up from their islands. +And luckily, the day they arrived, it was. +So it had been a huge gamble, but it had paid off. +And so they know now that they can use this strategy in future oil spills. +So in wildlife rescue as in life, we learn from each previous experience, and we learn from both our successes and our failures. +And the main thing learned during the Apollo Sea rescue in '94 was that most of those penguins had died due to the unwitting use of poorly ventilated transport boxes and trucks, because they just had not been prepared to deal with so many oiled penguins at once. +So in these six years between these two oil spills, they've built thousands of these well-ventilated boxes. +And as a result, during the Treasure rescue, just 160 penguins died during the transport process, as opposed to 5,000. +So this alone was a huge victory. +Something else learned during the Apollo rescue was how to train the penguins to take fish freely from their hands, using these training boxes. +And we used this technique again during the Treasure rescue. +But an interesting thing was noted during the training process. +The first penguins to make that transition to free feeding were the ones that had a metal band on their wing from the Apollo Sea spill six years earlier. +So penguins learn from previous experience, too. +So all of those penguins had to have the oil meticulously cleaned from their bodies. +It would take two people at least an hour just to clean one penguin. +When you clean a penguin, you first have to spray it with a degreaser. +And this brings me to my favorite story from the Treasure rescue. +About a year prior to this oil spill, a 17-year-old student had invented a degreaser. +And they'd been using it at SANCCOB with great success, so they began using it during the Treasure rescue. +But partway through, they ran out. +So in a panic, Estelle from SANCCOB called the student and said, "Please, you have to make more!" +So he raced to the lab and made enough to clean the rest of the birds. +So I just think it is the coolest thing that a teenager invented a product that helped save the lives of thousands of animals. +So what happened to those 20,000 oiled penguins? +And was Silvia Gaus right? +Should we routinely euthanize all oiled birds because most of them are going to die anyway? +Well, she could not be more wrong. +After half a million hours of grueling volunteer labor, more than 90 percent of those oiled penguins were successfully returned to the wild. +And we know from follow-up studies that they have lived just as long as never-oiled penguins, and bred nearly as successfully. +And in addition, about 3,000 penguin chicks were rescued and hand raised. +And again, we know from long-term monitoring that more of these hand-raised chicks survive to adulthood and breeding age than do parent-raised chicks. +Armed with this knowledge, SANCCOB has a chick-bolstering project, and every year, they rescue and raise abandoned chicks, and they have a very impressive, 80 percent success rate. +This is critically important, because one year ago, the African penguin was declared endangered. +And they could be extinct in less than 10 years if we don't do something now to protect them. +So what did I learn from this intense and unforgettable experience? +Personally, I learned that I am capable of handling so much more than I ever dreamed possible. +And I learned that one person can make a huge difference. +Just look at that 17-year-old. +And when we come together and work as one, we can achieve extraordinary things. +And truly, to be a part of something so much larger than yourself is the most rewarding experience you can possibly have. +So I'd like to leave you with one final thought and a challenge, if you will. +My mission as The Penguin Lady is to raise awareness and funding to protect penguins. +But why should any of you care about penguins? +Well, you should care because they're an indicator species. +And simply put: if penguins are dying, it means our oceans are dying. +And we ultimately will be affected, because, as Sylvia Earle says, "The oceans are our life-support system." +And the two main threats to penguins today are overfishing and global warming. +And these are two things that each one of us actually has the power to do something about. +So if we each do our part, together, we can make a difference, and we can help keep penguins from going extinct. +Humans have always been the greatest threat to penguins, but we are now their only hope. +Thank you. +I was basically concerned about what was going on in the world. +I couldn't understand the starvation, the destruction, the killing of innocent people. +Making sense of those things is a very difficult thing to do. +And when I was 12, I became an actor. +I was bottom of the class. I haven't got any qualifications. +I was told I was dyslexic. +In fact, I have got qualifications. +I got a D in pottery, which was the one thing that I did get -- which was useful, obviously. +And so concern is where all of this comes from. +And then, being an actor, I was doing these different kinds of things, and I felt the content of the work that I was involved in really wasn't cutting it, that there surely had to be more. +And at that point, I read a book by Frank Barnaby, this wonderful nuclear physicist, and he said that media had a responsibility, that all sectors of society had a responsibility to try and progress things and move things forward. +And that fascinated me, because I'd been messing around with a camera most of my life. +And then I thought, well maybe I could do something. +Maybe I could become a filmmaker. +Maybe I can use the form of film constructively to in some way make a difference. +Maybe there's a little change I can get involved in. +So I started thinking about peace, and I was obviously, as I said to you, very much moved by these images, trying to make sense of that. +Could I go and speak to older and wiser people who would tell me how they made sense of the things that are going on? +Because it's obviously incredibly frightening. +But I realized that, having been messing around with structure as an actor, that a series of sound bites in itself wasn't enough, that there needed to be a mountain to climb, there needed to be a journey that I had to take. +And if I took that journey, no matter whether it failed or succeeded, it would be completely irrelevant. +The point was that I would have something to hook the questions of -- is humankind fundamentally evil? +Is the destruction of the world inevitable? Should I have children? +Is that a responsible thing to do? Etc., etc. +So I was thinking about peace, and then I was thinking, well where's the starting point for peace? +And that was when I had the idea. +There was no starting point for peace. +There was no day of global unity. +There was no day of intercultural cooperation. +There was no day when humanity came together, separate in all of those things and just shared it together -- that we're in this together, and that if we united and we interculturally cooperated, then that might be the key to humanity's survival. +That might shift the level of consciousness around the fundamental issues that humanity faces -- if we did it just for a day. +So obviously we didn't have any money. +I was living at my mom's place. +And we started writing letters to everybody. +You very quickly work out what is it that you've got to do to fathom that out. +How do you create a day voted by every single head of state in the world to create the first ever Ceasefire Nonviolence Day, the 21st of September? +And I wanted it to be the 21st of September because it was my granddad's favorite number. +He was a prisoner of war. +He saw the bomb go off at Nagasaki. +It poisoned his blood. He died when I was 11. +So he was like my hero. +And the reason why 21 was the number is 700 men left, 23 came back, two died on the boat and 21 hit the ground. +And that's why we wanted it to be the 21st of September as the date of peace. +So we began this journey, and we launched it in 1999. +And we wrote to heads of state, their ambassadors, Nobel Peace laureates, NGOs, faiths, various organizations -- literally wrote to everybody. +And very quickly, some letters started coming back. +And we started to build this case. +And I remember the first letter. +One of the first letters was from the Dalai Lama. +And of course we didn't have the money; we were playing guitars and getting the money for the stamps that we were sending out all of [this mail]. +A letter came through from the Dalai Lama saying, "This is an amazing thing. Come and see me. +I'd love to talk to you about the first ever day of peace." +And we didn't have money for the flight. +And I rang Sir Bob Ayling, who was CEO of BA at the time, and said, "Mate, we've got this invitation. +Could you give me a flight? Because we're going to go see him." +And of course, we went and saw him and it was amazing. +And then Dr. Oscar Arias came forward. +And actually, let me go back to that slide, because when we launched it in 1999 -- this idea to create the first ever day of ceasefire and non-violence -- we invited thousands of people. +Well not thousands -- hundreds of people, lots of people -- all the press, because we were going to try and create the first ever World Peace Day, a peace day. +And we invited everybody, and no press showed up. +There were 114 people there -- they were mostly my friends and family. +And that was kind of like the launch of this thing. +But it didn't matter because we were documenting, and that was the thing. +For me, it was really about the process. +It wasn't about the end result. +And that's the beautiful thing about the camera. +They used to say the pen is mightier than the sword. I think the camera is. +And just staying in the moment with it was a beautiful thing and really empowering actually. +So anyway, we began the journey. +And here you see people like Mary Robinson, I went to see in Geneva. +I'm cutting my hair, it's getting short and long, because every time I saw Kofi Annan, I was so worried that he thought I was a hippie that I cut it, and that was kind of what was going on. +Yeah, I'm not worried about it now. +So Mary Robinson, she said to me, "Listen, this is an idea whose time has come. This must be created." +Kofi Annan said, "This will be beneficial to my troops on the ground." +The OAU at the time, led by Salim Ahmed Salim, said, "I must get the African countries involved." +Dr. Oscar Arias, Nobel Peace laureate, president now of Costa Rica, said, "I'll do everything that I can." +So I went and saw Amr Moussa at the League of Arab States. +I met Mandela at the Arusha peace talks, and so on and so on and so on -- while I was building the case to prove whether this idea would make sense. +And then we were listening to the people. We were documenting everywhere. +76 countries in the last 12 years, I've visited. +And I've always spoken to women and children wherever I've gone. +I've recorded 44,000 young people. +I've recorded about 900 hours of their thoughts. +I'm really clear about how young people feel when you talk to them about this idea of having a starting point for their actions for a more peaceful world through their poetry, their art, their literature, their music, their sport, whatever it might be. +And we were listening to everybody. +And it was an incredibly thing, working with the U.N. +and working with NGOs and building this case. +I felt that I was presenting a case on behalf of the global community to try and create this day. +And the stronger the case and the more detailed it was, the better chance we had of creating this day. +And it was this stuff, this, where I actually was in the beginning kind of thinking no matter what happened, it didn't actually matter. +It didn't matter if it didn't create a day of peace. +The fact is that, if I tried and it didn't work, then I could make a statement about how unwilling the global community is to unite -- until, it was in Somalia, picking up that young girl. +And this young child who'd taken about an inch and a half out of her leg with no antiseptic, and that young boy who was a child soldier, who told me he'd killed people -- he was about 12 -- these things made me realize that this was not a film that I could just stop. +And that actually, at that moment something happened to me, which obviously made me go, "I'm going to document. +If this is the only film that I ever make, I'm going to document until this becomes a reality." +Because we've got to stop, we've got to do something where we unite -- separate from all the politics and religion that, as a young person, is confusing me. +I don't know how to get involved in that process. +And then on the seventh of September, I was invited to New York. +The Costa Rican government and the British government had put forward to the United Nations General Assembly, with 54 co-sponsors, the idea of the first ever Ceasefire Nonviolence Day, the 21st of September, as a fixed calendar date, and it was unanimously adopted by every head of state in the world. +Yeah, but there were hundreds of individuals, obviously, who made that a reality. +And thank you to all of them. +That was an incredible moment. +I was at the top of the General Assembly just looking down into it and seeing it happen. +And as I mentioned, when it started, we were at the Globe, and there was no press. +And now I was thinking, "Well, the press it really going to hear this story." +And suddenly, we started to institutionalize this day. +Kofi Annan invited me on the morning of September the 11th to do a press conference. +And it was 8:00 AM when I stood there. +And I was waiting for him to come down, and I knew that he was on his way. +And obviously he never came down. The statement was never made. +The world was never told there was a day of global ceasefire and nonviolence. +And it was obviously a tragic moment for the thousands of people who lost their lives, there and then subsequently all over the world. +It never happened. +And I remember thinking, "This is exactly why, actually, we have to work even harder. +And we have to make this day work. +It's been created; nobody knows. +But we have to continue this journey, and we have to tell people, and we have to prove it can work." +And I left New York freaked, but actually empowered. +And I felt inspired by the possibilities that if it did, then maybe we wouldn't see things like that. +I remember putting that film out and going to cynics. +I was showing the film, and I remember being in Israel and getting it absolutely slaughtered by some guys having watched the film -- that it's just a day of peace, it doesn't mean anything. +It's not going to work; you're not going to stop the fighting in Afghanistan; the Taliban won't listen, etc., etc. +It's just symbolism. +And that was even worse than actually what had just happened in many ways, because it couldn't not work. +I'd spoken in Somalia, Burundi, Gaza, the West Bank, India, Sri Lanka, Congo, wherever it was, and they'd all tell me, "If you can create a window of opportunity, we can move aid, we can vaccinate children. +Children can lead their projects. +They can unite. They can come together. If people would stop, lives will be saved." +That's what I'd heard. +And I'd heard that from the people who really understood what conflict was about. +And so I went back to the United Nations. +I decided that I'd continue filming and make another movie. +And I went back to the U.N. for another couple of years. +We started moving around the corridors of the U.N. system, governments and NGOs, trying desperately to find somebody to come forward and have a go at it, see if we could make it possible. +And after lots and lots of meetings obviously, I'm delighted that this man, Ahmad Fawzi, one of my heroes and mentors really, he managed to get UNICEF involved. +And UNICEF, God bless them, they said, "Okay, we'll have a go." +And then UNAMA became involved in Afghanistan. +It was historical. Could it work in Afghanistan with UNAMA and WHO and civil society, etc., etc., etc.? +And I was getting it all on film and I was recording it, and I was thinking, "This is it. This is the possibility of it maybe working. +But even if it doesn't, at least the door is open and there's a chance." +And so I went back to London, and I went and saw this chap, Jude Law. +And I saw him because he was an actor, I was an actor, I had a connection to him, because we needed to get to the press, we needed this attraction, we needed the media to be involved. +Because if we start pumping it up a bit maybe more people would listen and there'd be more -- when we got into certain areas, maybe there would be more people interested. +And maybe we'd be helped financially a little bit more, which had been desperately difficult. +I won't go into that. +So Jude said, "Okay, I'll do some statements for you." +While I was filming these statements, he said to me, "Where are you going next?" +I said, "I'm going to go to Afghanistan." He said, "Really?" +And I could sort of see a little look in his eye of interest. +So I said to him, "Do you want to come with me? +It'd be really interesting if you came. +It would help and bring attention. +And that attention would help leverage the situation, as well as all of the other sides of it." +I think there's a number of pillars to success. +One is you've got to have a great idea. +The other is you've got to have a constituency, you've got to have finance, and you've got to be able to raise awareness. +And actually I could never raise awareness by myself, no matter what I'd achieved. +So these guys were absolutely crucial. +So he said yes, and we found ourselves in Afghanistan. +It was a really incredible thing that when we landed there, I was talking to various people, and they were saying to me, "You've got to get everybody involved here. +You can't just expect it to work. You have to get out and work." +And we did, and we traveled around, and we spoke to elders, we spoke to doctors, we spoke to nurses, we held press conferences, we went out with soldiers, we sat down with ISAF, we sat down with NATO, we sat down with the U.K. government. +I mean, we basically sat down with everybody -- in and out of schools with ministers of education, holding these press conferences, which of course, now were loaded with press, everybody was there. +There was an interest in what was going on. +This amazing woman, Fatima Gailani, was absolutely instrumental in what went on as she was the spokesperson for the resistance against the Russians. +And her Afghan network was just absolutely everywhere. +And she was really crucial in getting the message in. +And then we went home. We'd sort of done it. +We had to wait now and see what happened. +And I got home, and I remember one of the team bringing in a letter to me from the Taliban. +And that letter basically said, "We'll observe this day. +We will observe this day. +We see it as a window of opportunity. +And we will not engage. We're not going to engage." +And that meant that humanitarian workers wouldn't be kidnapped or killed. +And then suddenly, I obviously knew at this point, there was a chance. +And days later, 1.6 million children were vaccinated against polio as a consequence of everybody stopping. +And like the General Assembly, obviously the most wonderful, wonderful moment. +And so then we wrapped the film up and we put it together because we had to go back. +We put it into Dari and Pashto. We put it in the local dialects. +We went back to Afghanistan, because the next year was coming, and we wanted to support. +But more importantly, we wanted to go back, because these people in Afghanistan were the heroes. +They were the people who believed in peace and the possibilities of it, etc., etc. -- and they made it real. +And we wanted to go back and show them the film and say, "Look, you guys made this possible. And thank you very much." +And we gave the film over. +Obviously it was shown, and it was amazing. +And then that year, that year, 2008, this ISAF statement from Kabul, Afghanistan, September 17th: "General Stanley McChrystal, commander of international security assistance forces in Afghanistan, announced today ISAF will not conduct offensive military operations on the 21st of September." +They were saying they would stop. +And then there was this other statement that came out from the U.N. Department of Security and Safety saying that, in Afghanistan, because of this work, the violence was down by 70 percent. +70 percent reduction in violence on this day at least. +And that completely blew my mind almost more than anything. +And I remember being stuck in New York, this time because of the volcano, which was obviously much less harmful. +And I was there thinking about what was going on. +And I kept thinking about this 70 percent. +70 percent reduction in violence -- in what everyone said was completely impossible and you couldn't do. +And that made me think that, if we can get 70 percent in Afghanistan, then surely we can get 70 percent reduction everywhere. +We have to go for a global truce. +We have to utilize this day of ceasefire and nonviolence and go for a global truce, go for the largest recorded cessation of hostilities, both domestically and internationally, ever recorded. +That's exactly what we must do. +And on the 21st of September this year, we're going to launch that campaign at the O2 Arena to go for that process, to try and create the largest recorded cessation of hostilities. +And we will utilize all kinds of things -- have a dance and social media and visiting on Facebook and visit the website, sign the petition. +And it's in the six official languages of the United Nations. +And we'll globally link with government, inter-government, non-government, education, unions, sports. +And you can see the education box there. +We've got resources at the moment in 174 countries trying to get young people to be the driving force behind the vision of that global truce. +And obviously the life-saving is increased, the concepts help. +Linking up with the Olympics -- I went and saw Seb Coe. I said, "London 2012 is about truce. +Ultimately, that's what it's about." +Why don't we all team up? Why don't we bring truce to life? +Why don't you support the process of the largest ever global truce? +We'll make a new film about this process. +We'll utilize sport and football. +On the Day of Peace, there's thousands of football matches all played, from the favelas of Brazil to wherever it might be. +So, utilizing all of these ways to inspire individual action. +And ultimately, we have to try that. +We have to work together. +I was with Brahimi, Ambassador Brahimi. +I think he's one of the most incredible men in relation to international politics -- in Afghanistan, in Iraq. +He's an amazing man. +And I sat with him a few weeks ago. +And I said to him, "Mr. Brahimi, is this nuts, going for a global truce? +Is this possible? Is it really possible that we could do this?" +He said, "It's absolutely possible." +I said, "What would you do? +Would you go to governments and lobby and use the system?" +He said, "No, I'd talk to the individuals." +It's all about the individuals. +It's all about you and me. +It's all about partnerships. +It's about your constituencies; it's about your businesses. +Because together, by working together, I seriously think we can start to change things. +And there's a wonderful man sitting in this audience, and I don't know where he is, who said to me a few days ago -- because I did a little rehearsal -- and he said, "I've been thinking about this day and imagining it as a square with 365 squares, and one of them is white." +And it then made me think about a glass of water, which is clear. +If you put one drop, one drop of something, in that water, it'll change it forever. +By working together, we can create peace one day. +Thank you TED. Thank you. +Thank you. +Thanks a lot. +Thank you very much. Thank you. +Planetary systems outside our own are like distant cities whose lights we can see twinkling, but whose streets we can't walk. +By studying those twinkling lights though, we can learn about how stars and planets interact to form their own ecosystem and make habitats that are amenable to life. +In this image of the Tokyo skyline, I've hidden data from the newest planet-hunting space telescope on the block, the Kepler Mission. +Can you see it? +There we go. +This is just a tiny part of the sky the Kepler stares at, where it searches for planets by measuring the light from over 150,000 stars, all at once, every half hour, and very precisely. +And what we're looking for is the tiny dimming of light that is caused by a planet passing in front of one of these stars and blocking some of that starlight from getting to us. +In just over two years of operations, we've found over 1,200 potential new planetary systems around other stars. +To give you some perspective, in the previous two decades of searching, we had only known about 400 prior to Kepler. +When we see these little dips in the light, we can determine a number of things. +For one thing, we can determine that there's a planet there, but also how big that planet is and how far it is away from its parent star. +That distance is really important because it tells us how much light the planet receives overall. +And that distance and knowing that amount of light is important because it's a little like you or I sitting around a campfire: You want to be close enough to the campfire so that you're warm, but not so close that you're too toasty and you get burned. +However, there's more to know about your parent star than just how much light you receive overall. +And I'll tell you why. +This is our star. This is our Sun. +It's shown here in visible light. +That's the light that you can see with your own human eyes. +You'll notice that it looks pretty much like the iconic yellow ball -- that Sun that we all draw when we're children. +But you'll notice something else, and that's that the face of the Sun has freckles. +These freckles are called sunspots, and they are just one of the manifestations of the Sun's magnetic field. +They also cause the light from the star to vary. +And we can measure this very, very precisely with Kepler and trace their effects. +However, these are just the tip of the iceberg. +If we had UV eyes or X-ray eyes, we would really see the dynamic and dramatic effects of our Sun's magnetic activity -- the kind of thing that happens on other stars as well. +Just think, even when it's cloudy outside, these kind of events are happening in the sky above you all the time. +And so, we can't really look at planets around other stars in the same kind of detail that we can look at planets in our own solar system. +I'm showing here Venus, Earth and Mars -- three planets in our own solar system that are roughly the same size, but only one of which is really a good place to live. +But what we can do in the meantime is measure the light from our stars and learn about this relationship between the planets and their parent stars to suss out clues about which planets might be good places to look for life in the universe. +Kepler won't find a planet around every single star it looks at. +But really, every measurement it makes is precious, because it's teaching us about the relationship between stars and planets, and how it's really the starlight that sets the stage for the formation of life in the universe. +While it's Kepler the telescope, the instrument that stares, it's we, life, who are searching. +Thank you. +So the type of magic I like, and I'm a magician, is magic that uses technology to create illusions. +So I would like to show you something I've been working on. +It's an application that I think will be useful for artists -- multimedia artists in particular. +It synchronizes videos across multiple screens of mobile devices. +I borrowed these three iPods from people here in the audience to show you what I mean. +And I'm going to use them to tell you a little bit about my favorite subject: deception. +One of my favorite magicians is Karl Germain. +He had this wonderful trick where a rosebush would bloom right in front of your eyes. +But it was his production of a butterfly that was the most beautiful. +Announcer: Ladies and gentlemen, the creation of life. +Marco Tempest: When asked about deception, he said this: Announcer: Magic is the only honest profession. +A magician promises to deceive you -- and he does. +MT: I like to think of myself as an honest magician. +I use a lot of tricks, which means that sometimes I have to lie to you. +Now I feel bad about that. +But people lie every day. +Hold on. +Phone: Hey, where are you? +MT: Stuck in traffic. I'll be there soon. +You've all done it. +Right: I'll be ready in just a minute, darling. +Center: It's just what I've always wanted. +Left: You were great. +MT: Deception, it's a fundamental part of life. +Now polls show that men tell twice as many lies as women -- assuming the women they asked told the truth. +We deceive to gain advantage and to hide our weaknesses. +The Chinese general Sun Tzu said that all war was based on deception. +Oscar Wilde said the same thing of romance. +Some people deceive for money. +Let's play a game. +Three cards, three chances. +Announcer: One five will get you 10, 10 will get you 20. +Now, where's the lady? +Where is the queen? +MT: This one? +Sorry. You lose. +Well, I didn't deceive you. +You deceived yourself. +Self-deception. +That's when we convince ourselves that a lie is the truth. +Sometimes it's hard to tell the two apart. +Compulsive gamblers are experts at self-deception. +(Slot machine) They believe they can win. +They forget the times they lose. +The brain is very good at forgetting. +Bad experiences are quickly forgotten. +Bad experiences quickly disappear. +Which is why in this vast and lonely cosmos, we are so wonderfully optimistic. +Our self-deception becomes a positive illusion -- why movies are able to take us onto extraordinary adventures; why we believe Romeo when he says he loves Juliet; and why single notes of music, when played together, become a sonata and conjure up meaning. +That's "Clair De lune." +Its composer, called Debussy, said that art was the greatest deception of all. +Art is a deception that creates real emotions -- a lie that creates a truth. +And when you give yourself over to that deception, it becomes magic. +Thank you. Thank you very much. +So, I was in the hospital for a long time. +And a few years after I left, I went back, and the chairman of the burn department was very excited to see me -- said, "Dan, I have a fantastic new treatment for you." +I was very excited. I walked with him to his office. +And he explained to me that, when I shave, I have little black dots on the left side of my face where the hair is, but on the right side of my face I was badly burned so I have no hair, and this creates lack of symmetry. +And what's the brilliant idea he had? +He was going to tattoo little black dots on the right side of my face and make me look very symmetric. +It sounded interesting. He asked me to go and shave. +Let me tell you, this was a strange way to shave, because I thought about it and I realized that the way I was shaving then would be the way I would shave for the rest of my life -- because I had to keep the width the same. +When I got back to his office, I wasn't really sure. +I said, "Can I see some evidence for this?" +So he showed me some pictures of little cheeks with little black dots -- not very informative. +I said, "What happens when I grow older and my hair becomes white? +What would happen then?" +"Oh, don't worry about it," he said. +"We have lasers; we can whiten it out." +But I was still concerned, so I said, "You know what, I'm not going to do it." +And then came one of the biggest guilt trips of my life. +This is coming from a Jewish guy, all right, so that means a lot. +And he said, "Dan, what's wrong with you? +Do you enjoy looking non-symmetric? +Do you have some kind of perverted pleasure from this? +Do women feel pity for you and have sex with you more frequently?" +None of those happened. +And this was very surprising to me, because I've gone through many treatments -- there were many treatments I decided not to do -- and I never got this guilt trip to this extent. +But I decided not to have this treatment. +And I went to his deputy and asked him, "What was going on? +Where was this guilt trip coming from?" +And he explained that they have done this procedure on two patients already, and they need the third patient for a paper they were writing. +Now you probably think that this guy's a schmuck. +Right, that's what he seems like. +But let me give you a different perspective on the same story. +A few years ago, I was running some of my own experiments in the lab. +And when we run experiments, we usually hope that one group will behave differently than another. +So we had one group that I hoped their performance would be very high, another group that I thought their performance would be very low, and when I got the results, that's what we got -- I was very happy -- aside from one person. +There was one person in the group that was supposed to have very high performance that was actually performing terribly. +And he pulled the whole mean down, destroying my statistical significance of the test. +So I looked carefully at this guy. +He was 20-some years older than anybody else in the sample. +And I remembered that the old and drunken guy came one day to the lab wanting to make some easy cash and this was the guy. +"Fantastic!" I thought. "Let's throw him out. +Who would ever include a drunken guy in a sample?" +But a couple of days later, we thought about it with my students, and we said, "What would have happened if this drunken guy was not in that condition? +What would have happened if he was in the other group? +Would we have thrown him out then?" +We probably wouldn't have looked at the data at all, and if we did look at the data, we'd probably have said, "Fantastic! What a smart guy who is performing this low," because he would have pulled the mean of the group lower, giving us even stronger statistical results than we could. +So we decided not to throw the guy out and to rerun the experiment. +But you know, these stories, and lots of other experiments that we've done on conflicts of interest, basically kind of bring two points to the foreground for me. +The first one is that in life we encounter many people who, in some way or another, try to tattoo our faces. +They just have the incentives that get them to be blinded to reality and give us advice that is inherently biased. +And I'm sure that it's something that we all recognize, and we see that it happens. +Maybe we don't recognize it every time, but we understand that it happens. +The most difficult thing, of course, is to recognize that sometimes we too are blinded by our own incentives. +And that's a much, much more difficult lesson to take into account. +Because we don't see how conflicts of interest work on us. +When I was doing these experiments, in my mind, I was helping science. +I was eliminating the data to get the true pattern of the data to shine through. +I wasn't doing something bad. +In my mind, I was actually a knight trying to help science move along. +But this was not the case. +I was actually interfering with the process with lots of good intentions. +And I think the real challenge is to figure out where are the cases in our lives where conflicts of interest work on us, and try not to trust our own intuition to overcome it, but to try to do things that prevent us from falling prey to these behaviors, because we can create lots of undesirable circumstances. +I do want to leave you with one positive thought. +I mean, this is all very depressing, right -- people have conflicts of interest, we don't see it, and so on. +The positive perspective, I think, of all of this is that, if we do understand when we go wrong, if we understand the deep mechanisms of why we fail and where we fail, we can actually hope to fix things. +And that, I think, is the hope. Thank you very much. +What I want to talk to you about is what we can learn from studying the genomes of living people and extinct humans. +But before doing that, I just briefly want to remind you about what you already know: that our genomes, our genetic material, are stored in almost all cells in our bodies in chromosomes in the form of DNA, which is this famous double-helical molecule. +And the genetic information is contained in the form of a sequence of four bases abbreviated with the letters A, T, C and G. +And the information is there twice -- one on each strand -- which is important, because when new cells are formed, these strands come apart, new strands are synthesized with the old ones as templates in an almost perfect process. +But nothing, of course, in nature is totally perfect, so sometimes an error is made and a wrong letter is built in. +And we can then see the result of such mutations when we compare DNA sequences among us here in the room, for example. +If we compare my genome to the genome of you, approximately every 1,200, 1,300 letters will differ between us. +And these mutations accumulate approximately as a function of time. +So if we add in a chimpanzee here, we will see more differences. +Approximately one letter in a hundred will differ from a chimpanzee. +And if you're then interested in the history of a piece of DNA, or the whole genome, you can reconstruct the history of the DNA with those differences you observe. +And generally we depict our ideas about this history in the form of trees like this. +In this case, it's very simple. +The two human DNA sequences go back to a common ancestor quite recently. +Farther back is there one shared with chimpanzees. +And because these mutations happen approximately as a function of time, you can transform these differences to estimates of time, where the two humans, typically, will share a common ancestor about half a million years ago, and with the chimpanzees, it will be in the order of five million years ago. +So what has now happened in the last few years is that there are account technologies around that allow you to see many, many pieces of DNA very quickly. +So we can now, in a matter of hours, determine a whole human genome. +Each of us, of course, contains two human genomes -- one from our mothers and one from our fathers. +And they are around three billion such letters long. +And we will find that the two genomes in me, or one genome of mine we want to use, will have about three million differences in the order of that. +And what you can then also begin to do is to say, "How are these genetic differences distributed across the world?" +And if you do that, you find a certain amount of genetic variation in Africa. +And if you look outside Africa, you actually find less genetic variation. +This is surprising, of course, because in the order of six to eight times fewer people live in Africa than outside Africa. +Yet the people inside Africa have more genetic variation. +Moreover, almost all these genetic variants we see outside Africa have closely related DNA sequences that you find inside Africa. +But if you look in Africa, there is a component of the genetic variation that has no close relatives outside. +So a model to explain this is that a part of the African variation, but not all of it, [has] gone out and colonized the rest of the world. +And together with the methods to date these genetic differences, this has led to the insight that modern humans -- humans that are essentially indistinguishable from you and me -- evolved in Africa, quite recently, between 100 and 200,000 years ago. +And later, between 100 and 50,000 years ago or so, went out of Africa to colonize the rest of the world. +So what I often like to say is that, from a genomic perspective, we are all Africans. +We either live inside Africa today, or in quite recent exile. +Another consequence of this recent origin of modern humans is that genetic variants are generally distributed widely in the world, in many places, and they tend to vary as gradients, from a bird's-eye perspective at least. +And since there are many genetic variants, and they have different such gradients, this means that if we determine a DNA sequence -- a genome from one individual -- we can quite accurately estimate where that person comes from, provided that its parents or grandparents haven't moved around too much. +But does this then mean, as many people tend to think, that there are huge genetic differences between groups of people -- on different continents, for example? +Well we can begin to ask those questions also. +There is, for example, a project that's underway to sequence a thousand individuals -- their genomes -- from different parts of the world. +They've sequenced 185 Africans from two populations in Africa. +[They've] sequenced approximately equally [as] many people in Europe and in China. +And we can begin to say how much variance do we find, how many letters that vary in at least one of those individual sequences. +And it's a lot: 38 million variable positions. +But we can then ask: Are there any absolute differences between Africans and non-Africans? +Perhaps the biggest difference most of us would imagine existed. +And with absolute difference -- and I mean a difference where people inside Africa at a certain position, where all individuals -- 100 percent -- have one letter, and everybody outside Africa has another letter. +And the answer to that, among those millions of differences, is that there is not a single such position. +This may be surprising. +Maybe a single individual is misclassified or so. +So we can relax the criterion a bit and say: How many positions do we find where 95 percent of people in Africa have one variant, 95 percent another variant, and the number of that is 12. +So this is very surprising. +It means that when we look at people and see a person from Africa and a person from Europe or Asia, we cannot, for a single position in the genome with 100 percent accuracy, predict what the person would carry. +And only for 12 positions can we hope to be 95 percent right. +This may be surprising, because we can, of course, look at these people and quite easily say where they or their ancestors came from. +So what this means now is that those traits we then look at and so readily see -- facial features, skin color, hair structure -- are not determined by single genes with big effects, but are determined by many different genetic variants that seem to vary in frequency between different parts of the world. +There is another thing with those traits that we so easily observe in each other that I think is worthwhile to consider, and that is that, in a very literal sense, they're really on the surface of our bodies. +They are what we just said -- facial features, hair structure, skin color. +There are also a number of features that vary between continents like that that have to do with how we metabolize food that we ingest, or that have to do with how our immune systems deal with microbes that try to invade our bodies. +But so those are all parts of our bodies where we very directly interact with our environment, in a direct confrontation, if you like. +It's easy to imagine how particularly those parts of our bodies were quickly influenced by selection from the environment and shifted frequencies of genes that are involved in them. +But if we look on other parts of our bodies where we don't directly interact with the environment -- our kidneys, our livers, our hearts -- there is no way to say, by just looking at these organs, where in the world they would come from. +So there's another interesting thing that comes from this realization that humans have a recent common origin in Africa, and that is that when those humans emerged around 100,000 years ago or so, they were not alone on the planet. +There were other forms of humans around, most famously perhaps, Neanderthals -- these robust forms of humans, compared to the left here with a modern human skeleton on the right -- that existed in Western Asia and Europe since several hundreds of thousands of years. +So an interesting question is, what happened when we met? +What happened to the Neanderthals? +And to begin to answer such questions, my research group -- since over 25 years now -- works on methods to extract DNA from remains of Neanderthals and extinct animals that are tens of thousands of years old. +So this involves a lot of technical issues in how you extract the DNA, how you convert it to a form you can sequence. +You have to work very carefully to avoid contamination of experiments with DNA from yourself. +And you can begin to compare it to the genomes of people who live today. +And one question that you may then want to ask is, what happened when we met? +Did we mix or not? +And the way to ask that question is to look at the Neanderthal that comes from Southern Europe and compare it to genomes of people who live today. +So we then look to do this with pairs of individuals, starting with two Africans, looking at the two African genomes, finding places where they differ from each other, and in each case ask: What is a Neanderthal like? +Does it match one African or the other African? +We would expect there to be no difference, because Neanderthals were never in Africa. +They should be equal, have no reason to be closer to one African than another African. +And that's indeed the case. +Statistically speaking, there is no difference in how often the Neanderthal matches one African or the other. +But this is different if we now look at the European individual and an African. +Then, significantly more often, does a Neanderthal match the European rather than the African. +The same is true if we look at a Chinese individual versus an African, the Neanderthal will match the Chinese individual more often. +This may also be surprising because the Neanderthals were never in China. +So the model we've proposed to explain this is that when modern humans came out of Africa sometime after 100,000 years ago, they met Neanderthals. +Presumably, they did so first in the Middle East, where there were Neanderthals living. +If they then mixed with each other there, then those modern humans that became the ancestors of everyone outside Africa carried with them this Neanderthal component in their genome to the rest of the world. +So that today, the people living outside Africa have about two and a half percent of their DNA from Neanderthals. +So having now a Neanderthal genome on hand as a reference point and having the technologies to look at ancient remains and extract the DNA, we can begin to apply them elsewhere in the world. +And it was well enough preserved so we could determine the DNA from this individual, even to a greater extent than for the Neanderthals actually, and start relating it to the Neanderthal genome and to people today. +And we found that this individual shared a common origin for his DNA sequences with Neanderthals around 640,000 years ago. +And further back, 800,000 years ago is there a common origin with present day humans. +So this individual comes from a population that shares an origin with Neanderthals, but far back and then have a long independent history. +We call this group of humans, that we then described for the first time from this tiny, tiny little piece of bone, the Denisovans, after this place where they were first described. +So we can then ask for Denisovans the same things as for the Neanderthals: Did they mix with ancestors of present day people? +If we ask that question, and compare the Denisovan genome to people around the world, we surprisingly find no evidence of Denisovan DNA in any people living even close to Siberia today. +But we do find it in Papua New Guinea and in other islands in Melanesia and the Pacific. +So this presumably means that these Denisovans had been more widespread in the past, since we don't think that the ancestors of Melanesians were ever in Siberia. +So from studying these genomes of extinct humans, we're beginning to arrive at a picture of what the world looked like when modern humans started coming out of Africa. +In the West, there were Neanderthals; in the East, there were Denisovans -- maybe other forms of humans too that we've not yet described. +We don't know quite where the borders between these people were, but we know that in Southern Siberia, there were both Neanderthals and Denisovans at least at some time in the past. +Then modern humans emerged somewhere in Africa, came out of Africa, presumably in the Middle East. +They meet Neanderthals, mix with them, continue to spread over the world, and somewhere in Southeast Asia, they meet Denisovans and mix with them and continue on out into the Pacific. +And then these earlier forms of humans disappear, but they live on a little bit today in some of us -- in that people outside of Africa have two and a half percent of their DNA from Neanderthals, and people in Melanesia actually have an additional five percent approximately from the Denisovans. +Does this then mean that there is after all some absolute difference between people outside Africa and inside Africa in that people outside Africa have this old component in their genome from these extinct forms of humans, whereas Africans do not? +Well I don't think that is the case. +Presumably, modern humans emerged somewhere in Africa. +They spread across Africa also, of course, and there were older, earlier forms of humans there. +And since we mixed elsewhere, I'm pretty sure that one day, when we will perhaps have a genome of also these earlier forms in Africa, we will find that they have also mixed with early modern humans in Africa. +So to sum up, what have we learned from studying genomes of present day humans and extinct humans? +We learn perhaps many things, but one thing that I find sort of important to mention is that I think the lesson is that we have always mixed. +We mixed with these earlier forms of humans, wherever we met them, and we mixed with each other ever since. +Thank you for your attention. +I'm a filmmaker. +For the last 8 years, I have dedicated my life to documenting the work of Israelis and Palestinians who are trying to end the conflict using peaceful means. +When I travel with my work across Europe and the United States, one question always comes up: Where is the Palestinian Gandhi? +Why aren't Palestinians using nonviolent resistance? +The challenge I face when I hear this question is that often I have just returned from the Middle East where I spent my time filming dozens of Palestinians who are using nonviolence to defend their lands and water resources from Israeli soldiers and settlers. +These leaders are trying to forge a massive national nonviolent movement to end the occupation and build peace in the region. +Yet, most of you have probably never heard about them. +This divide between what's happening on the ground and perceptions abroad is one of the key reasons why we don't have yet a Palestinian peaceful resistance movement that has been successful. +So I'm here today to talk about the power of attention, the power of your attention, and the emergence and development of nonviolent movements in the West Bank, Gaza and elsewhere -- but today, my case study is going to be Palestine. +I believe that what's mostly missing for nonviolence to grow is not for Palestinians to start adopting nonviolence, but for us to start paying attention to those who already are. +Allow me to illustrate this point by taking you to this village called Budrus. +About seven years ago, they faced extinction, because Israel announced it would build a separation barrier, and part of this barrier would be built on top of the village. +They would lose 40 percent of their land and be surrounded, so they would lose free access to the rest of the West Bank. +Through inspired local leadership, they launched a peaceful resistance campaign to stop that from happening. +Let me show you some brief clips, so you have a sense for what that actually looked like on the ground. +Palestinian Woman: We were told the wall would separate Palestine from Israel. +Here in Budrus, we realized the wall would steal our land. +Israeli Man: The fence has, in fact, created a solution to terror. +Man: Today you're invited to a peaceful march. +You are joined by dozens of your Israeli brothers and sisters. +Israeli Activist: Nothing scares the army more than nonviolent opposition. +Woman: We saw the men trying to push the soldiers, but none of them could do that. +But I think the girls could do it. +Fatah Party Member: We must empty our minds of traditional thinking. +Hamas Party Member: We were in complete harmony, and we wanted to spread it to all of Palestine. +Chanting: One united nation. +Fatah, Hamas and the Popular Front! +News Anchor: The clashes over the fence continue. +Reporter: Israeli border police were sent to disperse the crowd. +They were allowed to use any force necessary. +Man: These are live bullets. +It's like Fallujah. Shooting everywhere. +Israeli Activist: I was sure we were all going to die. +But there were others around me who weren't even cowering. +Israeli Soldier: A nonviolent protest is not going to stop the [unclear]. +Protester: This is a peaceful march. +There is no need to use violence. +Chanting: We can do it! We can do it! +We can do it! +Julia Bacha: When I first heard about the story of Budrus, I was surprised that the international media had failed to cover the extraordinary set of events that happened seven years ago, in 2003. +What was even more surprising was the fact that Budrus was successful. +The residents, after 10 months of peaceful resistance, convinced the Israeli government to move the route of the barrier off their lands and to the green line, which is the internationally recognized boundary between Israel and the Palestinian Territories. +The resistance in Budrus has since spread to villages across the West Bank and to Palestinian neighborhoods in Jerusalem. +Yet the media remains mostly silent on these stories. +This silence carries profound consequences for the likelihood that nonviolence can grow, or even survive, in Palestine. +Violent resistance and nonviolent resistance share one very important thing in common; they are both a form of theater seeking an audience to their cause. +If violent actors are the only ones constantly getting front-page covers and attracting international attention to the Palestinian issue, it becomes very hard for nonviolent leaders to make the case to their communities that civil disobedience is a viable option in addressing their plight. +The power of attention is probably going to come as no surprise to the parents in the room. +The surest way to make your child throw increasingly louder tantrums is by giving him attention the first time he throws a fit. +The tantrum will become what childhood psychologists call a functional behavior, since the child has learned that he can get parental attention out of it. +Parents can incentivize or disincentivize behavior simply by giving or withdrawing attention to their children. +But that's true for adults too. +In fact, the behavior of entire communities and countries can be influenced, depending on where the international community chooses to focus its attention. +I believe that at the core of ending the conflict in the Middle East and bringing peace is for us to transform nonviolence into a functional behavior by giving a lot more attention to the nonviolent leaders on the ground today. +In the course of taking my film to villages in the West Bank, in Gaza and in East Jerusalem, I have seen the impact that even one documentary film can have in influencing the transformation. +In a village called Wallajeh, which sits very close to Jerusalem, the community was facing a very similar plight to Budrus. +They were going to be surrounded, lose a lot of their lands and not have freedom of access, either to the West Bank or Jerusalem. +They had been using nonviolence for about two years but had grown disenchanted since nobody was paying attention. +So we organized a screening. +A week later, they held the most well-attended and disciplined demonstration to date. +The organizers say that the villagers, upon seeing the story of Budrus documented in a film, felt that there were indeed people following what they were doing, that people cared. +So they kept on going. +On the Israeli side, there is a new peace movement called Solidariot, which means solidarity in Hebrew. +The leaders of this movement have been using Budrus as one of their primary recruiting tools. +They report that Israelis who had never been active before, upon seeing the film, understand the power of nonviolence and start joining their activities. +The examples of Wallajeh and the Solidariot movement show that even a small-budget independent film can play a role in transforming nonviolence into a functional behavior. +Now imagine the power that big media players could have if they started covering the weekly nonviolent demonstrations happening in villages like Bil'in, Ni'lin, Wallajeh, in Jerusalem neighborhoods like Sheikh Jarrah and Silwan -- the nonviolent leaders would become more visible, valued and effective in their work. +I believe that the most important thing is to understand that if we don't pay attention to these efforts, they are invisible, and it's as if they never happened. +But I have seen first hand that if we do, they will multiply. +If they multiply, their influence will grow in the overall Israeli-Palestinian conflict. +And theirs is the kind of influence that can finally unblock the situation. +These leaders have proven that nonviolence works in places like Budrus. +Let's give them attention so they can prove it works everywhere. +Thank you. +Today I'd like to show you the future of the way we make things. +I believe that soon our buildings and machines will be self-assembling, replicating and repairing themselves. +So I'm going to show you what I believe is the current state of manufacturing, and then compare that to some natural systems. +So in the current state of manufacturing, we have skyscrapers -- two and a half years [of assembly time], 500,000 to a million parts, fairly complex, new, exciting technologies in steel, concrete, glass. +We have exciting machines that can take us into space -- five years [of assembly time], 2.5 million parts. +But on the other side, if you look at the natural systems, we have proteins that have two million types, can fold in 10,000 nanoseconds, or DNA with three billion base pairs we can replicate in roughly an hour. +So there's all of this complexity in our natural systems, but they're extremely efficient, far more efficient than anything we can build, far more complex than anything we can build. +They're far more efficient in terms of energy. +They hardly ever make mistakes. +And they can repair themselves for longevity. +So there's something super interesting about natural systems. +And if we can translate that into our built environment, then there's some exciting potential for the way that we build things. +And I think the key to that is self-assembly. +So if we want to utilize self-assembly in our physical environment, I think there's four key factors. +The first is that we need to decode all of the complexity of what we want to build -- so our buildings and machines. +And we need to decode that into simple sequences -- basically the DNA of how our buildings work. +Then we need programmable parts that can take that sequence and use that to fold up, or reconfigure. +We need some energy that's going to allow that to activate, allow our parts to be able to fold up from the program. +And we need some type of error correction redundancy to guarantee that we have successfully built what we want. +So I'm going to show you a number of projects that my colleagues and I at MIT are working on to achieve this self-assembling future. +The first two are the MacroBot and DeciBot. +So these projects are large-scale reconfigurable robots -- 8 ft., 12 ft. long proteins. +They're embedded with mechanical electrical devices, sensors. +You decode what you want to fold up into, into a sequence of angles -- so negative 120, negative 120, 0, 0, 120, negative 120 -- something like that; so a sequence of angles, or turns, and you send that sequence through the string. +Each unit takes its message -- so negative 120 -- it rotates to that, checks if it got there and then passes it to its neighbor. +So these are the brilliant scientists, engineers, designers that worked on this project. +And I think it really brings to light: Is this really scalable? +I mean, thousands of dollars, lots of man hours made to make this eight-foot robot. +Can we really scale this up? Can we really embed robotics into every part? +The next one questions that and looks at passive nature, or passively trying to have reconfiguration programmability. +But it goes a step further, and it tries to have actual computation. +It basically embeds the most fundamental building block of computing, the digital logic gate, directly into your parts. +So this is a NAND gate. +You have one tetrahedron which is the gate that's going to do your computing, and you have two input tetrahedrons. +One of them is the input from the user, as you're building your bricks. +The other one is from the previous brick that was placed. +And then it gives you an output in 3D space. +So what this means is that the user can start plugging in what they want the bricks to do. +It computes on what it was doing before and what you said you wanted it to do. +And now it starts moving in three-dimensional space -- so up or down. +So on the left-hand side, [1,1] input equals 0 output, which goes down. +On the right-hand side, [0,0] input is a 1 output, which goes up. +And so what that really means is that our structures now contain the blueprints of what we want to build. +So they have all of the information embedded in them of what was constructed. +So that means that we can have some form of self-replication. +In this case I call it self-guided replication, because your structure contains the exact blueprints. +If you have errors, you can replace a part. +All the local information is embedded to tell you how to fix it. +So you could have something that climbs along and reads it and can output at one to one. +It's directly embedded; there's no external instructions. +So the last project I'll show is called Biased Chains, and it's probably the most exciting example that we have right now of passive self-assembly systems. +So it takes the reconfigurability and programmability and makes it a completely passive system. +So basically you have a chain of elements. +Each element is completely identical, and they're biased. +So each chain, or each element, wants to turn right or left. +So as you assemble the chain, you're basically programming it. +You're telling each unit if it should turn right or left. +So when you shake the chain, it then folds up into any configuration that you've programmed in -- so in this case, a spiral, or in this case, two cubes next to each other. +So you can basically program any three-dimensional shape -- or one-dimensional, two-dimensional -- up into this chain completely passively. +So what does this tell us about the future? +I think that it's telling us that there's new possibilities for self-assembly, replication, repair in our physical structures, our buildings, machines. +There's new programmability in these parts. +And from that you have new possibilities for computing. +We'll have spatial computing. +Imagine if our buildings, our bridges, machines, all of our bricks could actually compute. +That's amazing parallel and distributed computing power, new design possibilities. +So it's exciting potential for this. +So I think these projects I've showed here are just a tiny step towards this future, if we implement these new technologies for a new self-assembling world. +Thank you. +I want to address the issue of compassion. +Compassion has many faces. +Some of them are fierce; some of them are wrathful; some of them are tender; some of them are wise. +A line that the Dalai Lama once said, he said, "Love and compassion are necessities. +They are not luxuries. +Without them, humanity cannot survive." +And I would suggest, it is not only humanity that won't survive, but it is all species on the planet, as we've heard today. +It is the big cats, and it's the plankton. +Two weeks ago, I was in Bangalore in India. +I was so privileged to be able to teach in a hospice on the outskirts of Bangalore. +And early in the morning, I went into the ward. +In that hospice, there were 31 men and women who were actively dying. +And I walked up to the bedside of an old woman who was breathing very rapidly, fragile, obviously in the latter phase of active dying. +I looked into her face. +I looked into the face of her son sitting next to her, and his face was just riven with grief and confusion. +And I remembered a line from the Mahabharata, the great Indian epic: "What is the most wondrous thing in the world, Yudhisthira?" +And Yudhisthira replied, "The most wondrous thing in the world is that all around us people can be dying and we don't realize it can happen to us." +I looked up. +Tending those 31 dying people were young women from villages around Bangalore. +I looked into the face of one of these women, and I saw in her face the strength that arises when natural compassion is really present. +I watched her hands as she bathed an old man. +My gaze went to another young woman as she wiped the face of another dying person. +And it reminded me of something that I had just been present for. +Every year or so, I have the privilege of taking clinicians into the Himalayas and the Tibetan Plateau. +And we run clinics in these very remote regions where there's no medical care whatsoever. +And on the first day at Simikot in Humla, far west of Nepal, the most impoverished region of Nepal, an old man came in clutching a bundle of rags. +And he walked in, and somebody said something to him, we realized he was deaf, and we looked into the rags, and there was this pair of eyes. +The rags were unwrapped from a little girl whose body was massively burned. +Again, the eyes and hands of Avalokiteshvara. +It was the young women, the health aids, who cleaned the wounds of this baby and dressed the wounds. +I know those hands and eyes; they touched me as well. +They touched me at that time. +They have touched me throughout my 68 years. +They touched me when I was four and I lost my eyesight and was partially paralyzed. +And my family brought in a woman whose mother had been a slave to take care of me. +And that woman did not have sentimental compassion. +She had phenomenal strength. +And it was really her strength, I believe, that became the kind of mudra and imprimatur that has been a guiding light in my life. +So we can ask: What is compassion comprised of? +And there are various facets. +And there's referential and non-referential compassion. +But first, compassion is comprised of that capacity to see clearly into the nature of suffering. +It is that ability to really stand strong and to recognize also that I'm not separate from this suffering. +But that is not enough, because compassion, which activates the motor cortex, means that we aspire, we actually aspire to transform suffering. +And if we're so blessed, we engage in activities that transform suffering. +But compassion has another component, and that component is really essential. +That component is that we cannot be attached to outcome. +Now I worked with dying people for over 40 years. +I had the privilege of working on death row in a maximum security [prison] for six years. +And I realized so clearly in bringing my own life experience, from working with dying people and training caregivers, that any attachment to outcome would distort deeply my own capacity to be fully present to the whole catastrophe. +And when I worked in the prison system, it was so clear to me, this: that many of us in this room, and almost all of the men that I worked with on death row, the seeds of their own compassion had never been watered. +That compassion is actually an inherent human quality. +It is there within every human being. +But the conditions for compassion to be activated, to be aroused, are particular conditions. +I had that condition, to a certain extent, from my own childhood illness. +Eve Ensler, whom you'll hear later, has had that condition activated amazingly in her through the various waters of suffering that she has been through. +And what is fascinating is that compassion has enemies, and those enemies are things like pity, moral outrage, fear. +And you know, we have a society, a world, that is paralyzed by fear. +And in that paralysis, of course, our capacity for compassion is also paralyzed. +The very word terror is global. +The very feeling of terror is global. +So our work, in a certain way, is to address this imago, this kind of archetype that has pervaded the psyche of our entire globe. +Now we know from neuroscience that compassion has some very extraordinary qualities. +For example: A person who is cultivating compassion, when they are in the presence of suffering, they feel that suffering a lot more than many other people do. +However, they return to baseline a lot sooner. +This is called resilience. +Many of us think that compassion drains us, but I promise you it is something that truly enlivens us. +Another thing about compassion is that it really enhances what's called neural integration. +It hooks up all parts of the brain. +Another, which has been discovered by various researchers at Emory and at Davis and so on, is that compassion enhances our immune system. +Hey, we live in a very noxious world. +Most of us are shrinking in the face of psycho-social and physical poisons, of the toxins of our world. +But compassion, the generation of compassion, actually mobilizes our immunity. +You know, if compassion is so good for us, I have a question. +Why don't we train our children in compassion? +If compassion is so good for us, why don't we train our health care providers in compassion so that they can do what they're supposed to do, which is to really transform suffering? +And if compassion is so good for us, why don't we vote on compassion? +Why don't we vote for people in our government based on compassion, so that we can have a more caring world? +In Buddhism, we say, "it takes a strong back and a soft front." +It takes tremendous strength of the back to uphold yourself in the midst of conditions. +And that is the mental quality of equanimity. +But it also takes a soft front -- the capacity to really be open to the world as it is, to have an undefended heart. +And the archetype of this in Buddhism is Avalokiteshvara, Kuan-Yin. +It's a female archetype: she who perceives the cries of suffering in the world. +She stands with 10,000 arms, and in every hand, there is an instrument of liberation, and in the palm of every hand, there are eyes, and these are the eyes of wisdom. +I say that, for thousands of years, women have lived, exemplified, met in intimacy, the archetype of Avalokitesvara, of Kuan-Yin, she who perceives the cries of suffering in the world. +Women have manifested for thousands of years the strength arising from compassion in an unfiltered, unmediated way in perceiving suffering as it is. +They have infused societies with kindness, and we have really felt that as woman after woman has stood on this stage in the past day and a half. +And they have actualized compassion through direct action. +Jody Williams called it: It's good to meditate. +I'm sorry, you've got to do a little bit of that, Jody. +Step back, give your mother a break, okay. +But the other side of the equation is you've got to come out of your cave. +You have to come into the world like Asanga did, who was looking to realize Maitreya Buddha after 12 years sitting in the cave. +He said, "I'm out of here." +He's going down the path. +He sees something in the path. +He looks, it's a dog, he drops to his knees. +He sees that the dog has this big wound on its leg. +The wound is just filled with maggots. +He puts out his tongue in order to remove the maggots, so as not to harm them. +And at that moment, the dog transformed into the Buddha of love and kindness. +I believe that women and girls today have to partner in a powerful way with men -- with their fathers, with their sons, with their brothers, with the plumbers, the road builders, the caregivers, the doctors, the lawyers, with our president, and with all beings. +The women in this room are lotuses in a sea of fire. +May we actualize that capacity for women everywhere. +Thank you. +I didn't always love unintended consequences, but I've really learned to appreciate them. +I've learned that they're really the essence of what makes for progress, even when they seem to be terrible. +And I'd like to review just how unintended consequences Let's go to 40,000 years before the present, to the time of the cultural explosion, when music, art, technology, so many of the things that we're enjoying today, so many of the things that are being demonstrated at TED were born. +And the anthropologist Randall White has made a very interesting observation: that if our ancestors 40,000 years ago had been able to see what they had done, they wouldn't have really understood it. +They were responding to immediate concerns. +They were making it possible for us to do what they do, and yet, they didn't really understand how they did it. +Now let's advance to 10,000 years before the present. +And this is when it really gets interesting. +What about the domestication of grains? +What about the origins of agriculture? +What would our ancestors 10,000 years ago if they really had technology assessment? +And I could just imagine the committees reporting back to them on where agriculture was going to take humanity, at least in the next few hundred years. +It was really bad news. +First of all, worse nutrition, maybe shorter life spans. +It was simply awful for women. +The skeletal remains from that period have shown that they were grinding grain morning, noon and night. +And politically, it was awful. +It was the beginning of a much higher degree of inequality among people. +If there had been rational technology assessment then, I think they very well might have said, "Let's call the whole thing off." +Even now, our choices are having unintended effects. +Historically, for example, chopsticks -- according to one Japanese anthropologist who wrote a dissertation about it at the University of Michigan -- resulted in long-term changes in the dentition, in the teeth, of the Japanese public. +And we are also changing our teeth right now. +There is evidence that the human mouth and teeth are growing smaller all the time. +That's not necessarily a bad unintended consequence. +But I think from the point of view of a Neanderthal, there would have been a lot of disapproval of the wimpish choppers that we now have. +So these things are kind of relative to where you or your ancestors happen to stand. +In the ancient world there was a lot of respect for unintended consequences, and there was a very healthy sense of caution, reflected in the Tree of Knowledge, in Pandora's Box, and especially in the myth of Prometheus that's been so important in recent metaphors about technology. +And that's all very true. +The physicians of the ancient world -- especially the Egyptians, who started medicine as we know it -- were very conscious of what they could and couldn't treat. +And the translations of the surviving texts say, "This I will not treat. This I cannot treat." +They were very conscious. +So were the followers of Hippocrates. +The Hippocratic manuscripts also -- repeatedly, according to recent studies -- show how important it is not to do harm. +More recently, Harvey Cushing, who really developed neurosurgery as we know it, who changed it from a field of medicine that had a majority of deaths resulting from surgery to one in which there was a hopeful outlook, he was very conscious that he was not always going to do the right thing. +But he did his best, and he kept meticulous records that let him transform that branch of medicine. +Now if we look forward a bit to the 19th century, we find a new style of technology. +What we find is, no longer simple tools, but systems. +We find more and more complex arrangements of machines that make it harder and harder to diagnose what's going on. +And the first people who saw that were the telegraphers of the mid-19th century, who were the original hackers. +Thomas Edison would have been very, very comfortable in the atmosphere of a software firm today. +And these hackers had a word for those mysterious bugs in telegraph systems that they called bugs. +That was the origin of the word "bug." +This consciousness, though, was a little slow to seep through the general population, even people who were very, very well informed. +Samuel Clemens, Mark Twain, was a big investor in the most complex machine of all times -- at least until 1918 -- registered with the U.S. Patent Office. +That was the Paige typesetter. +The Paige typesetter had 18,000 parts. +The patent had 64 pages of text and 271 figures. +It was such a beautiful machine because it did everything that a human being did in setting type -- including returning the type to its place, which was a very difficult thing. +And Mark Twain, who knew all about typesetting, really was smitten by this machine. +Unfortunately, he was smitten in more ways than one, because it made him bankrupt, and he had to tour the world speaking to recoup his money. +And this was an important thing about 19th century technology, that all these relationships among parts could make the most brilliant idea fall apart, even when judged by the most expert people. +Now there is something else, though, in the early 20th century that made things even more complicated. +And that was that safety technology itself could be a source of danger. +The lesson of the Titanic, for a lot of the contemporaries, was that you must have enough lifeboats for everyone on the ship. +And this was the result of the tragic loss of lives of people who could not get into them. +However, there was another case, the Eastland, a ship that capsized in Chicago Harbor in 1915, and it killed 841 people -- that was 14 more than the passenger toll of the Titanic. +The reason for it, in part, was the extra life boats that were added that made this already unstable ship even more unstable. +And that again proves that when you're talking about unintended consequences, it's not that easy to know the right lessons to draw. +It's really a question of the system, how the ship was loaded, the ballast and many other things. +So the 20th century, then, saw how much more complex reality was, but it also saw a positive side. +It saw that invention could actually benefit from emergencies. +It could benefit from tragedies. +And my favorite example of that -- which is not really widely known as a technological miracle, but it may be one of the greatest of all times, was the scaling up of penicillin in the Second World War. +Penicillin was discovered in 1928, but even by 1940, no commercially and medically useful quantities of it were being produced. +A number of pharmaceutical companies were working on it. +They were working on it independently, and they weren't getting anywhere. +And the Government Research Bureau brought representatives together and told them that this is something that has to be done. +And not only did they do it, but within two years, they scaled up penicillin from preparation in one-liter flasks to 10,000-gallon vats. +That was how quickly penicillin was produced and became one of the greatest medical advances of all time. +In the Second World War, too, the existence of solar radiation was demonstrated by studies of interference that was detected by the radar stations of Great Britain. +So there were benefits in calamities -- benefits to pure science, as well as to applied science and medicine. +Now when we come to the period after the Second World War, unintended consequences get even more interesting. +Well, technology to the rescue. +So chemists got to work, and they developed a bactericide that became widely used in those systems. +But something else happened in the early 1980s, and that was that there was a mysterious epidemic of failures of tape drives all over the United States. +And IBM, which made them, just didn't know what to do. +They commissioned a group of their best scientists to investigate, and what they found was that all these tape drives were located near ventilation ducts. +What happened was the bactericide was formulated with minute traces of tin. +And these tin particles were deposited on the tape heads and were crashing the tape heads. +So they reformulated the bactericide. +But what's interesting to me is that this was the first case of a mechanical device suffering, at least indirectly, from a human disease. +So it shows that we're really all in this together. +In fact, it also shows something interesting, that although our capabilities and technology have been expanding geometrically, unfortunately, our ability to model their long-term behavior, which has also been increasing, has been increasing only arithmetically. +So one of the characteristic problems of our time is how to close this gap between capabilities and foresight. +One other very positive consequence of 20th century technology, though, was the way in which other kinds of calamities could lead to positive advances. +There are two historians of business at the University of Maryland, Brent Goldfarb and David Kirsch, who have done some extremely interesting work, much of it still unpublished, on the history of major innovations. +They have combined the list of major innovations, and they've discovered that the greatest number, the greatest decade, for fundamental innovations, as reflected in all of the lists that others have made -- a number of lists that they have merged -- was the Great Depression. +And nobody knows just why this was so, but one story can reflect something of it. +It was the origin of the Xerox copier, which celebrated its 50th anniversary last year. +And Chester Carlson, the inventor, was a patent attorney. +He really was not intending to work in patent research, but he couldn't really find an alternative technical job. +So this was the best job he could get. +He was upset by the low quality and high cost of existing patent reproductions, and so he started to develop a system of dry photocopying, which he patented in the late 1930s -- and which became the first dry photocopier that was commercially practical in 1960. +So we see that sometimes, as a result of these dislocations, as a result of people leaving their original intended career and going into something else where their creativity could make a difference, that depressions and all kinds of other unfortunate events can have a paradoxically stimulating effect on creativity. +What does this mean? +It means, I think, that we're living in a time of unexpected possibilities. +Think of the financial world, for example. +The mentor of Warren Buffett, Benjamin Graham, developed his system of value investing as a result of his own losses in the 1929 crash. +And he published that book in the early 1930s, and the book still exists in further editions and is still a fundamental textbook. +So many important creative things can happen when people learn from disasters. +Now think of the large and small plagues that we have now -- bed bugs, killer bees, spam -- and it's very possible that the solutions to those will really extend well beyond the immediate question. +If we think, for example, of Louis Pasteur, who in the 1860s was asked to study the diseases of silk worms for the silk industry, and his discoveries were really the beginning of the germ theory of disease. +So very often, some kind of disaster -- sometimes the consequence, for example, of over-cultivation of silk worms, which was a problem in Europe at the time -- can be the key to something much bigger. +So this means that we need to take a different view of unintended consequences. +We need to take a really positive view. +We need to see what they can do for us. +We need to learn from those figures that I mentioned. +We need to learn, for example, from Dr. Cushing, who killed patients in the course of his early operations. +He had to have some errors. He had to have some mistakes. +And he learned meticulously from his mistakes. +And as a result, when we say, "This isn't brain surgery," that pays tribute to how difficult it was for anyone to learn from their mistakes in a field of medicine that was considered so discouraging in its prospects. +And we can also remember how the pharmaceutical companies were willing to pool their knowledge, to share their knowledge, in the face of an emergency, which they hadn't really been for years and years. +They might have been able to do it earlier. +The message, then, for me, about unintended consequences is chaos happens; let's make better use of it. +Thank you very much. +What I'm going to try and do in the next 15 minutes or so is tell you about an idea of how we're going to make matter come alive. +Now this may seem a bit ambitious, but when you look at yourself, you look at your hands, you realize that you're alive. +So this is a start. +Now this quest started four billion years ago on planet Earth. +There's been four billion years of organic, biological life. +And as an inorganic chemist, my friends and colleagues make this distinction between the organic, living world and the inorganic, dead world. +And what I'm going to try and do is plant some ideas about how we can transform inorganic, dead matter into living matter, into inorganic biology. +Before we do that, I want to kind of put biology in its place. +And I'm absolutely enthralled by biology. +I love to do synthetic biology. +I love things that are alive. +I love manipulating the infrastructure of biology. +But within that infrastructure, we have to remember that the driving force of biology is really coming from evolution. +And evolution, although it was established well over 100 years ago by Charles Darwin and a vast number of other people, evolution still is a little bit intangible. +And when I talk about Darwinian evolution, I mean one thing and one thing only, and that is survival of the fittest. +And so forget about evolution in a kind of metaphysical way. +Think about evolution in terms of offspring competing, and some winning. +So bearing that in mind, as a chemist, I wanted to ask myself the question frustrated by biology: What is the minimal unit of matter that can undergo Darwinian evolution? +And this seems quite a profound question. +And as a chemist, we're not used to profound questions every day. +So when I thought about it, then suddenly I realized that biology gave us the answer. +And in fact, the smallest unit of matter that can evolve independently is, in fact, a single cell -- a bacteria. +So this raises three really important questions: What is life? +Is biology special? +Biologists seem to think so. +Is matter evolvable? +Now if we answer those questions in reverse order, the third question -- is matter evolvable? -- if we can answer that, then we're going to know how special biology is, and maybe, just maybe, we'll have some idea of what life really is. +So here's some inorganic life. +This is a dead crystal, and I'm going to do something to it, and it's going to become alive. +And you can see, it's kind of pollinating, germinating, growing. +This is an inorganic tube. +And all these crystals here under the microscope were dead a few minutes ago, and they look alive. +Of course, they're not alive. +It's a chemistry experiment where I've made a crystal garden. +But when I saw this, I was really fascinated, because it seemed lifelike. +And as I pause for a few seconds, have a look at the screen. +You can see there's architecture growing, filling the void. +And this is dead. +So I was positive that, if somehow we can make things mimic life, let's go one step further. +Let's see if we can actually make life. +But there's a problem, because up until maybe a decade ago, we were told that life was impossible and that we were the most incredible miracle in the universe. +In fact, we were the only people in the universe. +Now, that's a bit boring. +So as a chemist, I wanted to say, "Hang on. What is going on here? +Is life that improbable?" +And this is really the question. +I think that perhaps the emergence of the first cells was as probable as the emergence of the stars. +And in fact, let's take that one step further. +Let's say that if the physics of fusion is encoded into the universe, maybe the physics of life is as well. +And so the problem with chemists -- and this is a massive advantage as well -- is we like to focus on our elements. +In biology, carbon takes center stage. +And in a universe where carbon exists and organic biology, then we have all this wonderful diversity of life. +In fact, we have such amazing lifeforms that we can manipulate. +We're awfully careful in the lab to try and avoid various biohazards. +Well what about matter? +If we can make matter alive, would we have a matterhazard? +So think, this is a serious question. +If your pen could replicate, that would be a bit of a problem. +So we have to think differently if we're going to make stuff come alive. +And we also have to be aware of the issues. +But before we can make life, let's think for a second what life really is characterized by. +And forgive the complicated diagram. +This is just a collection of pathways in the cell. +And the cell is obviously for us a fascinating thing. +Synthetic biologists are manipulating it. +Chemists are trying to study the molecules to look at disease. +And you have all these pathways going on at the same time. +You have regulation; information is transcribed; catalysts are made; stuff is happening. +But what does a cell do? +Well it divides, it competes, it survives. +And I think that is where we have to start in terms of thinking about building from our ideas in life. +But what else is life characterized by? +Well, I like think of it as a flame in a bottle. +And so what we have here is a description of single cells replicating, metabolizing, burning through chemistries. +And so we have to understand that if we're going to make artificial life or understand the origin of life, we need to power it somehow. +So before we can really start to make life, we have to really think about where it came from. +And Darwin himself mused in a letter to a colleague that he thought that life probably emerged in some warm little pond somewhere -- maybe not in Scotland, maybe in Africa, maybe somewhere else. +But the real honest answer is, we just don't know, because there is a problem with the origin. +Imagine way back, four and a half billion years ago, there is a vast chemical soup of stuff. +And from this stuff we came. +So when you think about the improbable nature of what I'm going to tell you in the next few minutes, just remember, we came from stuff on planet Earth. +And we went through a variety of worlds. +The RNA people would talk about the RNA world. +We somehow got to proteins and DNA. +We then got to the last ancestor. +Evolution kicked in -- and that's the cool bit. +And here we are. +But there's a roadblock that you can't get past. +You can decode the genome, you can look back, you can link us all together by a mitochondrial DNA, but we can't get further than the last ancestor, the last visible cell that we could sequence or think back in history. +So we don't know how we got here. +So there are two options: intelligent design, direct and indirect -- so God, or my friend. +Now talking about E.T. putting us there, or some other life, just pushes the problem further on. +I'm not a politician, I'm a scientist. +The other thing we need to think about is the emergence of chemical complexity. +This seems most likely. +So we have some kind of primordial soup. +And this one happens to be a good source of all 20 amino acids. +And somehow these amino acids are combined, and life begins. +But life begins, what does that mean? +What is life? What is this stuff of life? +So in the 1950s, Miller-Urey did their fantastic chemical Frankenstein experiment, where they did the equivalent in the chemical world. +They took the basic ingredients, put them in a single jar and ignited them and put a lot of voltage through. +And they had a look at what was in the soup, and they found amino acids, but nothing came out, there was no cell. +So the whole area's been stuck for a while, and it got reignited in the '80s when analytical technologies and computer technologies were coming on. +In my own laboratory, the way we're trying to create inorganic life is by using many different reaction formats. +So what we're trying to do is do reactions -- not in one flask, but in tens of flasks, and connect them together, as you can see with this flow system, all these pipes. +We can do it microfluidically, we can do it lithographically, we can do it in a 3D printer, we can do it in droplets for colleagues. +And the key thing is to have lots of complex chemistry just bubbling away. +But that's probably going to end in failure, so we need to be a bit more focused. +And the answer, of course, lies with mice. +This is how I remember what I need as a chemist. +I say, "Well I want molecules." +But I need a metabolism, I need some energy. +I need some information, and I need a container. +Because if I want evolution, I need containers to compete. +So if you have a container, it's like getting in your car. +"This is my car, and I'm going to drive around and show off my car." +And I imagine you have a similar thing in cellular biology with the emergence of life. +So these things together give us evolution, perhaps. +And the way to test it in the laboratory is to make it minimal. +So what we're going to try and do is come up with an inorganic Lego kit of molecules. +And so forgive the molecules on the screen, but these are a very simple kit. +There's only maybe three or four different types of building blocks present. +And we can aggregate them together and make literally thousands and thousands of really big nano-molecular molecules the same size of DNA and proteins, but there's no carbon in sight. +Carbon is banned. +And so with this Lego kit, we have the diversity required for complex information storage without DNA. +But we need to make some containers. +And just a few months ago in my lab, we were able to take these very same molecules and make cells with them. +And you can see on the screen a cell being made. +And we're now going to put some chemistry inside and do some chemistry in this cell. +And all I wanted to show you is we can set up molecules in membranes, in real cells, and then it sets up a kind of molecular Darwinism, a molecular survival of the fittest. +And this movie here shows this competition between molecules. +Molecules are competing for stuff. +They're all made of the same stuff, but they want their shape to win. +They want their shape to persist. +And that is the key. +If we can somehow encourage these molecules to talk to each other and make the right shapes and compete, they will start to form cells that will replicate and compete. +If we manage to do that, forget the molecular detail. +Let's zoom out to what that could mean. +So we have this special theory of evolution that applies only to organic biology, to us. +If we could get evolution into the material world, then I propose we should have a general theory of evolution. +And that's really worth thinking about. +Does evolution control the sophistication of matter in the universe? +Is there some driving force through evolution that allows matter to compete? +So that means we could then start to develop different platforms for exploring this evolution. +So imagine we make a little cell. +We want to put it out in the environment, and we want it to be powered by the Sun. +What we do is we evolve it in a box with a light on. +And we don't use design anymore. We find what works. +We should take our inspiration from biology. +Biology doesn't care about the design unless it works. +So this will reorganize the way we design things. +But not only just that, we will start to think about how we can start to develop a symbiotic relationship with biology. +Wouldn't it be great if you could take these artificial biological cells and fuse them with biological ones to correct problems that we couldn't really deal with? +The real issue in cellular biology is we are never going to understand everything, because it's a multidimensional problem put there by evolution. +Evolution cannot be cut apart. +You need to somehow find the fitness function. +And the profound realization for me is that, if this works, the concept of the selfish gene gets kicked up a level, and we really start talking about selfish matter. +And what does that mean in a universe where we are right now the highest form of stuff? +You're sitting on chairs. +They're inanimate, they're not alive. +But you are made of stuff, and you are using stuff, and you enslave stuff. +So using evolution in biology, and in inorganic biology, for me is quite appealing, quite exciting. +And we're really becoming very close to understanding the key steps that makes dead stuff come alive. +And again, when you're thinking about how improbable this is, remember, five billion years ago, we were not here, and there was no life. +So what will that tell us about the origin of life and the meaning of life? +But perhaps, for me as a chemist, I want to keep away from general terms; I want to think about specifics. +So what does it mean about defining life? +We really struggle to do this. +And I think, if we can make inorganic biology, and we can make matter become evolvable, that will in fact define life. +I propose to you that matter that can evolve is alive, and this gives us the idea of making evolvable matter. +Thank you very much. +Chris Anderson: Just a quick question on timeline. +You believe you're going to be successful in this project? +When? +Lee Cronin: So many people think that life took millions of years to kick in. +We're proposing to do it in just a few hours, once we've set up the right chemistry. +CA: And when do you think that will happen? +LC: Hopefully within the next two years. +CA: That would be a big story. +In your own mind, what do you believe the chances are that walking around on some other planet is non-carbon-based life, walking or oozing or something? +LC: I think it's 100 percent. +Because the thing is, we are so chauvinistic to biology, if you take away carbon, there's other things that can happen. +So the other thing that if we were able to create life that's not based on carbon, maybe we can tell NASA what really to look for. +Don't go and look for carbon, go and look for evolvable stuff. +CA: Lee Cronin, good luck. (LC: Thank you very much.) +Hi everyone. +I'm an artist and a dad -- second time around. +Thank you. +And I want to share with you my latest art project. +It's a children's book for the iPad. +It's a little quirky and silly. +It's called "Pop-It," And it's about the things little kids do with their parents. +So this is about potty training -- as most of you, I hope, know. +You can tickle the rug. +You can make the baby poop. +You can do all those fun things. +You can burst bubbles. +You can draw, as everyone should. +But you know, I have a problem with children's books: I think they're full of propaganda. +At least an Indian trying to get one of these American books in Park Slope, forget it. +It's not the way I was brought up. +So I said, "I'm going to counter this with my own propaganda." +If you notice carefully, it's a homosexual couple bringing up a child. +You don't like it? +Shake it, and you have a lesbian couple. +Shake it, and you have a heterosexual couple. +You know, I don't even believe in the concept of an ideal family. +I have to tell you about my childhood. +I went to this very proper Christian school taught by nuns, fathers, brothers, sisters. +Basically, I was brought up to be a good Samaritan, and I am. +And I'd go at the end of the day to a traditional Hindu house, which was probably the only Hindu house in a predominantly Islamic neighborhood. +Basically, I celebrated every religious function. +In fact, when there was a wedding in our neighborhood, all of us would paint our houses for the wedding. +I remember we cried profusely when the little goats we played with in the summer became biriani. +We all had to fast during Ramadan. +It was a very beautiful time. +But I must say, I'll never forget, when I was 13 years old, this happened. +Babri Masjid -- one of the most beautiful mosques in India, built by King Babur, I think, in the 16th century -- was demolished by Hindu activists. +This caused major riots in my city. +And for the first time, I was affected by this communal unrest. +My little five-year-old kid neighbor comes running in, and he says, "Rags, Rags. +You know the Hindus are killing us Muslims. Be careful." +I'm like, "Dude, I'm Hindu." +He's like, "Huh!" +You know, my work is inspired by events such as this. +Even in my gallery shows, I try and revisit historic events like Babri Masjid, distill only its emotional residue and image my own life. +Imagine history being taught differently. +Remember that children's book where you shake and the sexuality of the parents change? +I have another idea. +It's a children's book about Indian independence -- very patriotic. +But when you shake it, you get Pakistan's perspective. +Shake it again, and you get the British perspective. +You have to separate fact from bias, right. +Even my books on children have cute, fuzzy animals. +But they're playing geopolitics. +They're playing out Israel-Palestine, India-Pakistan. +You know, I'm making a very important argument. +And my argument [is] that the only way for us to teach creativity is by teaching children perspectives at the earliest stage. +After all, children's books are manuals on parenting, so you better give them children's books that teach them perspectives. +And conversely, only when you teach perspectives will a child be able to imagine and put themselves in the shoes of someone who is different from them. +I'm making an argument that art and creativity are very essential tools in empathy. +You know, I can't promise my child a life without bias -- we're all biased -- but I promise to bias my child with multiple perspectives. +Thank you very much. +My topic is economic growth in China and India. +And the question I want to explore with you is whether or not democracy has helped or has hindered economic growth. +You may say this is not fair, because I'm selecting two countries to make a case against democracy. +Actually, exactly the opposite is what I'm going to do. +I'm going to use these two countries to make an economic argument for democracy, rather than against democracy. +The first question there is why China has grown so much faster than India. +Over the last 30 years, in terms of the GDP growth rates, China has grown at twice the rate of India. +In the last five years, the two countries have begun to converge somewhat in economic growth. +But over the last 30 years, China undoubtedly has done much better than India. +One simple answer is China has Shanghai and India has Mumbai. +Look at the skyline of Shanghai. +This is the Pudong area. +The picture on India is the Dharavi slum of Mumbai in India. +The idea there behind these two pictures is that the Chinese government can act above rule of law. +It can plan for the long-term benefits of the country and in the process, evict millions of people -- that's just a small technical issue. +Whereas in India, you cannot do that, because you have to listen to the public. +You're being constrained by the public's opinion. +Even Prime Minister Manmohan Singh agrees with that view. +In an interview printed in the financial press of India, He said that he wants to make Mumbai another Shanghai. +This is an Oxford-trained economist steeped in humanistic values, and yet he agrees with the high-pressure tactics of Shanghai. +So let me call it the Shanghai model of economic growth, that emphasizes the following features for promoting economic development: infrastructures, airports, highways, bridges, things like that. +And you need a strong government to do that, because you cannot respect private property rights. +You cannot be constrained by the public's opinion. +You need also state ownership, especially of land assets, in order to build and roll out infrastructures very quickly. +The implication of that model is that democracy is a hindrance for economic growth, rather than a facilitator of economic growth. +Here's the key question. +Just how important are infrastructures for economic growth? +This is a key issue. +If you believe that infrastructures are very important for economic growth, then you would argue a strong government is necessary to promote growth. +If you believe that infrastructures are not as important as many people believe, then you will put less emphasis on strong government. +So to illustrate that question, let me give you two countries. +And for the sake of brevity, I'll call one country Country 1 and the other country Country 2. +Country 1 has a systematic advantage over Country 2 in infrastructures. +Country 1 has more telephones, and Country 1 has a longer system of railways. +So if I were to ask you, "Which is China and which is India, and which country has grown faster?" +if you believe in the infrastructure view, then you will say, "Country 1 must be China. +They must have done better, in terms of economic growth. +And Country 2 is possibly India." +Actually the country with more telephones is the Soviet Union, and the data referred to 1989. +After the country reported very impressive statistics on telephones, the country collapsed. +That's not too good. +The picture there is Khrushchev. +I know that in 1989 he no longer ruled the Soviet Union, but that's the best picture that I can find. +Telephones, infrastructures do not guarantee you economic growth. +Country 2, that has fewer telephones, is China. +Since 1989, the country has performed at a double-digit rate every year for the last 20 years. +If you know nothing about China and the Soviet Union other than the fact about their telephones, you would have made a poor prediction about their economic growth in the next two decades. +Country 1, that has a longer system of railways, is actually India. +And Country 2 is China. +This is a very little known fact about the two countries. +Yes, today China has a huge infrastructure advantage over India. +But for many years, until the late 1990s, China had an infrastructure disadvantage vis-a-vis India. +In developing countries, the most common mode of transportation is the railways, and the British built a lot of railways in India. +India is the smaller of the two countries, and yet it had a longer system of railways until the late 1990s. +So clearly, infrastructure doesn't explain why China did better before the late 1990s, as compared with India. +In fact, if you look at the evidence worldwide, the evidence is more supportive of the view that the infrastructure are actually the result of economic growth. +The economy grows, government accumulates more resources, and the government can invest in infrastructure -- rather than infrastructure being a cause for economic growth. +And this is clearly the story of the Chinese economic growth. +Let me look at this question more directly. +Is democracy bad for economic growth? +Now let's turn to two countries, Country A and Country B. +Country A, in 1990, had about $300 per capita GDP as compared with Country B, which had $460 in per capita GDP. +By 2008, Country A has surpassed Country B with $700 per capita GDP as compared with $650 per capita GDP. +Both countries are in Asia. +If I were to ask you, "Which are the two Asian countries? +And which one is a democracy?" +you may argue, "Well, maybe Country A is China and Country B is India." +In fact, Country A is democratic India, and Country B is Pakistan -- the country that has a long period of military rule. +And it's very common that we compare India with China. +That's because the two countries have about the same population size. +But the more natural comparison is actually between India and Pakistan. +Those two countries are geographically similar. +They have a complicated, but shared common history. +By that comparison, democracy looks very, very good in terms of economic growth. +So why do economists fall in love with authoritarian governments? +One reason is the East Asian Model. +In East Asia, we have had successful economic growth stories such as Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong and Singapore. +Some of these economies were ruled by authoritarian governments in the 60s and 70s and 1980s. +The problem with that view is like asking all the winners of lotteries, "Have you won the lottery?" +And they all tell you, "Yes, we have won the lottery." +And then you draw the conclusion the odds of winning the lottery are 100 percent. +The reason is you never go and bother to ask the losers who also purchased lottery tickets and didn't end up winning the prize. +For each of these successful authoritarian governments in East Asia, there's a matched failure. +Korea succeeded, North Korea didn't. +Taiwan succeeded, China under Mao Zedong didn't. +Burma didn't succeed. +The Philippines didn't succeed. +If you look at the statistical evidence worldwide, there's really no support for the idea that authoritarian governments hold a systematic edge over democracies in terms of economic growth. +So the East Asian model has this massive selection bias -- it is known as selecting on a dependent variable, something we always tell our students to avoid. +So exactly why did China grow so much faster? +I will take you to the Cultural Revolution, when China went mad, and compare that country's performance with India under Indira Gandhi. +The question there is: Which country did better, China or India? +China was during the Cultural Revolution. +It turns out even during the Cultural Revolution, China out-perfomed India in terms of GDP growth by an average of about 2.2 percent every year in terms of per capita GDP. +So that's when China was mad. +The whole country went mad. +It must mean that the country had something so advantageous to itself in terms of economic growth to overcome the negative effects of the Cultural Revolution. +The advantage the country had was human capital -- nothing else but human capital. +This is the world development index indicator data in the early 1990s. +And this is the earliest data that I can find. +The adult literacy rate in China is 77 percent as compared with 48 percent in India. +The contrast in literacy rates is especially sharp between Chinese women and Indian women. +I haven't told you about the definition of literacy. +In China, the definition of literacy is the ability to read and write 1,500 Chinese characters. +In India, the definition of literacy, operating definition of literacy, is the ability, the grand ability, to write your own name in whatever language you happen to speak. +The gap between the two countries in terms of literacy is much more substantial than the data here indicated. +If you go to other sources of data such as Human Development Index, that data series, go back to the early 1970s, you see exactly the same contrast. +China held a huge advantage in terms of human capital vis-a-vis India. +Life expectancies: as early as 1965, China had a huge advantage in life expectancy. +On average, as a Chinese in 1965, you lived 10 years more than an average Indian. +So if you have a choice between being a Chinese and being an Indian, you would want to become a Chinese in order to live 10 years longer. +If you made that decision in 1965, the down side of that is the next year we have the Cultural Revolution. +So you have to always think carefully about these decisions. +If you cannot chose your nationality, then you will want to become an Indian man. +Because, as an Indian man, you have about two years of life expectancy advantage vis-a-vis Indian women. +This is an extremely strange fact. +It's very rare among countries to have this kind of pattern. +It shows the systematic discrimination and biases in the Indian society against women. +The good news is, by 2006, India has closed the gap between men and women in terms of life expectancy. +Today, Indian women have a sizable life expectancy edge over Indian men. +So India is reverting to the normal. +But India still has a lot of work to do in terms of gender equality. +These are the two pictures taken of garment factories in Guangdong Province and garment factories in India. +In China, it's all women. +60 to 80 percent of the workforce in China is women in the coastal part of the country, whereas in India, it's all men. +Financial Times printed this picture of an Indian textile factory with the title, "India Poised to Overtake China in Textile." +By looking at these two pictures, I say no, it won't overtake China for a while. +If you look at other East Asian countries, women there play a hugely important role in terms of economic take-off -- in terms of creating the manufacturing miracle associated with East Asia. +India still has a long way to go to catch up with China. +Then the issue is, what about the Chinese political system? +You talk about human capital, you talk about education and public health. +What about the political system? +Isn't it true that the one-party political system has facilitated economic growth in China? +Actually, the answer is more nuanced and subtle than that. +It depends on a distinction that you draw between statics of the political system and the dynamics of the political system. +Statically, China is a one-party system, authoritarian -- there's no question about it. +Dynamically, it has changed over time to become less authoritarian and more democratic. +When you explain change -- for example, economic growth; economic growth is about change -- when you explain change, you use other things that have changed to explain change, rather than using the constant to explain change. +Sometimes a fixed effect can explain change, but a fixed effect only explains changes in interaction with the things that change. +In terms of the political changes, they have introduced village elections. +They have increased the security of proprietors. +And they have increased the security with long-term land leases. +There are also financial reforms in rural China. +There is also a rural entrepreneurial revolution in China. +To me, the pace of political changes is too slow, too gradual. +And my own view is the country is going to face some substantial challenges, because they have not moved further and faster on political reforms. +But nevertheless, the system has moved in a more liberal direction, moved in a more democratic direction. +You can apply exactly the same dynamic perspective on India. +In fact, when India was growing at a Hindu rate of growth -- about one percent, two percent a year -- that was when India was least democratic. +Indira Gandhi declared emergency rule in 1975. +The Indian government owned and operated all the TV stations. +A little-known fact about India in the 1990s is that the country not only has undertaken economic reforms, the country has also undertaken political reforms by introducing village self-rule, privatization of media and introducing freedom of information acts. +So the dynamic perspective fits both with China and in India in terms of the direction. +Why do many people believe that India is still a growth disaster? +One reason is they are always comparing India with China. +But China is a superstar in terms of economic growth. +If you are a NBA player and you are always being compared to Michael Jordan, you're going to look not so impressive. +But that doesn't mean that you're a bad basketball player. +Comparing with a superstar is the wrong benchmark. +In fact, if you compare India with the average developing country, even before the more recent period of acceleration of Indian growth -- now India is growing between eight and nine percent -- even before this period, India was ranked fourth in terms of economic growth among emerging economies. +This is a very impressive record indeed. +Let's think about the future: the dragon vis-a-vis the elephant. +Which country has the growth momentum? +China, I believe, still has some of the excellent raw fundamentals -- mostly the social capital, the public health, the sense of egalitarianism that you don't find in India. +But I believe that India has the momentum. +It has the improving fundamentals. +The government has invested in basic education, has invested in basic health. +I believe the government should do more, but nevertheless, the direction it is moving in is the right direction. +India has the right institutional conditions for economic growth, whereas China is still struggling with political reforms. +I believe that the political reforms are a must for China to maintain its growth. +And it's very important to have political reforms, to have widely shared benefits of economic growth. +I don't know whether that's going to happen or not, but I'm an optimist. +Hopefully, five years from now, I'm going to report to TEDGlobal that political reforms will happen in China. +Thank you very much. +Now this is a very un-TED-like thing to do, but let's kick off the afternoon with a message from a mystery sponsor. +Anonymous: Dear Fox News, it has come to our unfortunate attention that both the name and nature of Anonymous has been ravaged. +We are everyone. We are no one. +We are anonymous. We are legion. +We do not forgive. We do not forget. +We are but the base of chaos. +Misha Glenny: Anonymous, ladies and gentlemen -- a sophisticated group of politically motivated hackers who have emerged in 2011. +And they're pretty scary. +You never know when they're going to attack next, who or what the consequences will be. +But interestingly, they have a sense of humor. +These guys hacked into Fox News' Twitter account to announce President Obama's assassination. +Now you can imagine the panic that would have generated in the newsroom at Fox. +"What do we do now? +Put on a black armband, or crack open the champagne?" +And of course, who could escape the irony of a member of Rupert Murdoch's News Corp. +being a victim of hacking for a change. +Sometimes you turn on the news and you say, "Is there anyone left to hack?" +Sony Playstation Network -- done, the government of Turkey -- tick, Britain's Serious Organized Crime Agency -- a breeze, the CIA -- falling off a log. +In fact, a friend of mine from the security industry told me the other day that there are two types of companies in the world: those that know they've been hacked, and those that don't. +I mean three companies providing cybersecurity services to the FBI have been hacked. +Is nothing sacred anymore, for heaven's sake? +Anyway, this mysterious group Anonymous -- and they would say this themselves -- they are providing a service by demonstrating how useless companies are at protecting our data. +But there is also a very serious aspect to Anonymous -- they are ideologically driven. +They claim that they are battling a dastardly conspiracy. +They say that governments are trying to take over the Internet and control it, and that they, Anonymous, are the authentic voice of resistance -- be it against Middle Eastern dictatorships, against global media corporations, or against intelligence agencies, or whoever it is. +And their politics are not entirely unattractive. +Okay, they're a little inchoate. +There's a strong whiff of half-baked anarchism about them. +But one thing is true: we are at the beginning of a mighty struggle for control of the Internet. +The Web links everything, and very soon it will mediate most human activity. +Because the Internet has fashioned a new and complicated environment for an old-age dilemma that pits the demands of security with the desire for freedom. +Now this is a very complicated struggle. +And unfortunately, for mortals like you and me, we probably can't understand it very well. +Nonetheless, in an unexpected attack of hubris a couple of years ago, I decided I would try and do that. +And I sort of get it. +These were the various things that I was looking at as I was trying to understand it. +So there you are. +And as you see, in the middle, there is our old friend, the hacker. +The hacker is absolutely central to many of the political, social and economic issues affecting the Net. +And so I thought to myself, "Well, these are the guys who I want to talk to." +And what do you know, nobody else does talk to the hackers. +They're completely anonymous, as it were. +So despite the fact that we are beginning to pour billions, hundreds of billions of dollars, into cybersecurity -- for the most extraordinary technical solutions -- no one wants to talk to these guys, the hackers, who are doing everything. +Instead, we prefer these really dazzling technological solutions, which cost a huge amount of money. +And so nothing is going into the hackers. +Well, I say nothing, but actually there is one teeny weeny little research unit in Turin, Italy called the Hackers Profiling Project. +And they are doing some fantastic research into the characteristics, into the abilities and the socialization of hackers. +But because they're a U.N. operation, maybe that's why governments and corporations are not that interested in them. +Because it's a U.N. operation, of course, it lacks funding. +But I think they're doing very important work. +Because where we have a surplus of technology in the cybersecurity industry, we have a definite lack of -- call me old-fashioned -- human intelligence. +Now, so far I've mentioned the hackers Anonymous who are a politically motivated hacking group. +Of course, the criminal justice system treats them as common old garden criminals. +But interestingly, Anonymous does not make use of its hacked information for financial gain. +But what about the real cybercriminals? +Well real organized crime on the Internet goes back about 10 years when a group of gifted Ukrainian hackers developed a website, which led to the industrialization of cybercrime. +Welcome to the now forgotten realm of CarderPlanet. +This is how they were advertising themselves a decade ago on the Net. +Now CarderPlanet was very interesting. +Cybercriminals would go there to buy and sell stolen credit card details, to exchange information about new malware that was out there. +And remember, this is a time when we're seeing for the first time so-called off-the-shelf malware. +This is ready for use, out-of-the-box stuff, which you can deploy even if you're not a terribly sophisticated hacker. +And so CarderPlanet became a sort of supermarket for cybercriminals. +And its creators were incredibly smart and entrepreneurial, because they were faced with one enormous challenge as cybercriminals. +And that challenge is: How do you do business, how do you trust somebody on the Web who you want to do business with when you know that they're a criminal? +It's axiomatic that they're dodgy, and they're going to want to try and rip you off. +So the family, as the inner core of CarderPlanet was known, came up with this brilliant idea called the escrow system. +They appointed an officer who would mediate between the vendor and the purchaser. +The vendor, say, had stolen credit card details; the purchaser wanted to get a hold of them. +The purchaser would send the administrative officer some dollars digitally, and the vendor would sell the stolen credit card details. +And the officer would then verify if the stolen credit card worked. +And if they did, he then passed on the money to the vendor and the stolen credit card details to the purchaser. +And it was this which completely revolutionized cybercrime on the Web. +And after that, it just went wild. +We had a champagne decade for people who we know as Carders. +Now I spoke to one of these Carders who we'll call RedBrigade -- although that wasn't even his proper nickname -- but I promised I wouldn't reveal who he was. +And he explained to me how in 2003 and 2004 he would go on sprees in New York, taking out $10,000 from an ATM here, $30,000 from an ATM there, using cloned credit cards. +He was making, on average a week, $150,000 -- tax free of course. +And he said that he had so much money stashed in his upper-East side apartment at one point that he just didn't know what to do with it and actually fell into a depression. +But that's a slightly different story, which I won't go into now. +Now the interesting thing about RedBrigade is that he wasn't an advanced hacker. +He sort of understood the technology, and he realized that security was very important if you were going to be a Carder, but he didn't spend his days and nights bent over a computer, eating pizza, drinking coke and that sort of thing. +He was out there on the town having a fab time enjoying the high life. +And this is because hackers are only one element in a cybercriminal enterprise. +And often they're the most vulnerable element of all. +And I want to explain this to you by introducing you to six characters who I met while I was doing this research. +Dimitry Golubov, aka SCRIPT -- born in Odessa, Ukraine in 1982. +Now he developed his social and moral compass on the Black Sea port during the 1990s. +This was a sink-or-swim environment where involvement in criminal or corrupt activities was entirely necessary if you wanted to survive. +As an accomplished computer user, what Dimitry did was to transfer the gangster capitalism of his hometown onto the Worldwide Web. +And he did a great job in it. +You have to understand though that from his ninth birthday, the only environment he knew was gangsterism. +He knew no other way of making a living and making money. +Then we have Renukanth Subramaniam, aka JiLsi -- founder of DarkMarket, born in Colombo, Sri Lanka. +As an eight year-old, he and his parents fled the Sri Lankan capital because Singhalese mobs were roaming the city, looking for Tamils like Renu to murder. +At 11, he was interrogated by the Sri Lankan military, accused of being a terrorist, and his parents sent him on his own to Britain as a refugee seeking political asylum. +At 13, with only little English and being bullied at school, he escaped into a world of computers where he showed great technical ability, but he was soon being seduced by people on the Internet. +He was convicted of mortgage and credit card fraud, and he will be released from Wormwood Scrubs jail in London in 2012. +Matrix001, who was an administrator at DarkMarket. +Born in Southern Germany to a stable and well-respected middle class family, his obsession with gaming as a teenager led him to hacking. +And he was soon controlling huge servers around the world where he stored his games that he had cracked and pirated. +His slide into criminality was incremental. +And when he finally woke up to his situation and understood the implications, he was already in too deep. +Max Vision, aka ICEMAN -- mastermind of CardersMarket. +Born in Meridian, Idaho. +Max Vision was one of the best penetration testers working out of Santa Clara, California in the late 90s for private companies and voluntarily for the FBI. +Now in the late 1990s, he discovered a vulnerability on all U.S. government networks, and he went in and patched it up -- because this included nuclear research facilities -- sparing the American government a huge security embarrassment. +But also, because he was an inveterate hacker, he left a tiny digital wormhole through which he alone could crawl. +But this was spotted by an eagle-eye investigator, and he was convicted. +At his open prison, he came under the influence of financial fraudsters, and those financial fraudsters persuaded him to work for them on his release. +And this man with a planetary-sized brain is now serving a 13-year sentence in California. +Adewale Taiwo, aka FreddyBB -- master bank account cracker from Abuja in Nigeria. +He set up his prosaically entitled newsgroup, bankfrauds@yahoo.co.uk before arriving in Britain in 2005 to take a Masters in chemical engineering at Manchester University. +He impressed in the private sector, developing chemical applications for the oil industry while simultaneously running a worldwide bank and credit card fraud operation that was worth millions until his arrest in 2008. +And then finally, Cagatay Evyapan, aka Cha0 -- one of the most remarkable hackers ever, from Ankara in Turkey. +He combined the tremendous skills of a geek with the suave social engineering skills of the master criminal. +One of the smartest people I've ever met. +He also had the most effective virtual private network security arrangement the police have ever encountered amongst global cybercriminals. +Now the important thing about all of these people is they share certain characteristics despite the fact that they come from very different environments. +They are all people who learned their hacking skills in their early to mid-teens. +They are all people who demonstrate advanced ability in maths and the sciences. +Remember that, when they developed those hacking skills, their moral compass had not yet developed. +And most of them, with the exception of SCRIPT and Cha0, they did not demonstrate any real social skills in the outside world -- only on the Web. +And the other thing is the high incidence of hackers like these who have characteristics which are consistent with Asperger's syndrome. +Now I discussed this with Professor Simon Baron-Cohen who's the professor of developmental psychopathology at Cambridge. +And he has done path-breaking work on autism and confirmed, also for the authorities here, that Gary McKinnon -- who is wanted by the United States for hacking into the Pentagon -- suffers from Asperger's and a secondary condition of depression. +And Baron-Cohen explained that certain disabilities can manifest themselves in the hacking and computing world as tremendous skills, and that we should not be throwing in jail people who have such disabilities and skills because they have lost their way socially or been duped. +Now I think we're missing a trick here, because I don't think people like Max Vision should be in jail. +And let me be blunt about this. +In China, in Russia and in loads of other countries that are developing cyber-offensive capabilities, this is exactly what they are doing. +They are recruiting hackers both before and after they become involved in criminal and industrial espionage activities -- are mobilizing them on behalf of the state. +We need to engage and find ways of offering guidance to these young people, because they are a remarkable breed. +And if we rely, as we do at the moment, solely on the criminal justice system and the threat of punitive sentences, we will be nurturing a monster we cannot tame. +Thank you very much for listening. +Chris Anderson: So your idea worth spreading is hire hackers. +How would someone get over that kind of fear that the hacker they hire might preserve that little teensy wormhole? +MG: I think to an extent, you have to understand that it's axiomatic among hackers that they do that. +They're just relentless and obsessive about what they do. +But all of the people who I've spoken to who have fallen foul of the law, they have all said, "Please, please give us a chance to work in the legitimate industry. +We just never knew how to get there, what we were doing. +We want to work with you." +Chris Anderson: Okay, well that makes sense. Thanks a lot Misha. +My name is Kate Hartman. +And I like to make devices that play with the ways that we relate and communicate. +So I'm specifically interested in how we, as humans, relate to ourselves, each other and the world around us. +So just to give you a bit of context, as June said, I'm an artist, a technologist and an educator. +I teach courses in physical computing and wearable electronics. +And much of what I do is either wearable or somehow related to the human form. +And so anytime I talk about what I do, I like to just quickly address the reason why bodies matter. +And it's pretty simple. +Everybody's got one -- all of you. +I can guarantee, everyone in this room, all of you over there, the people in the cushy seats, the people up top with the laptops -- we all have bodies. +Don't be ashamed. +It's something that we have in common and they act as our primary interfaces for the world. +And so when working as an interaction designer, or as an artist who deals with participation -- creating things that live on, in or around the human form -- it's really a powerful space to work within. +So within my own work, I use a broad range of materials and tools. +So I communicate through everything from radio transceivers to funnels and plastic tubing. +And to tell you a bit about the things that I make, the easiest place to start the story is with a hat. +And so it all started several years ago, late one night when I was sitting on the subway, riding home, and I was thinking. +And I tend to be a person who thinks too much and talks too little. +And so I was thinking about how it might be great if I could just take all these noises -- like all these sounds of my thoughts in my head -- if I could just physically extricate them and pull them out in such a form that I could share them with somebody else. +And so I went home, and I made a prototype of this hat. +And I called it the Muttering Hat, because it emitted these muttering noises that were kind of tethered to you, but you could detach them and share them with somebody else. +So I make other hats as well. +This one is called the Talk to Yourself Hat. +It's fairly self-explanatory. +It physically carves out conversation space for one. +And when you speak out loud, the sound of your voice is actually channeled back into your own ears. +And so when I make these things, it's really not so much about the object itself, but rather the negative space around the object. +So what happens when a person puts this thing on? +What kind of an experience do they have? +And how are they transformed by wearing it? +So many of these devices really kind of focus on the ways in which we relate to ourselves. +So this particular device is called the Gut Listener. +And it is a tool that actually enables one to listen to their own innards. +And so some of these things are actually more geared toward expression and communication. +And so the Inflatable Heart is an external organ that can be used by the wearer to express themselves. +So they can actually inflate it and deflate it according to their emotions. +So they can express everything from admiration and lust to anxiety and angst. +And some of these are actually meant to mediate experiences. +So the Discommunicator is a tool for arguments. +And so actually it allows for an intense emotional exchange, but is serves to absorb the specificity of the words that are delivered. +And in the end, some of these things just act as invitations. +So the Ear Bender literally puts something out there so someone can grab your ear and say what they have to say. +So even though I'm really interested in the relationship between people, I also consider the ways in which we relate to the world around us. +And so when I was first living in New York City a few years back, I was thinking a lot about the familiar architectural forms that surrounded me and how I would like to better relate to them. +And I thought, "Well, hey! +Maybe if I want to better relate to walls, maybe I need to be more wall-like myself." +So I made a wearable wall that I could wear as a backpack. +And so I would put it on and sort of physically transform myself so that I could either contribute to or critique the spaces that surrounded me. +And so jumping off of that, thinking beyond the built environment into the natural world, I have this ongoing project called Botanicalls -- which actually enables houseplants to tap into human communication protocols. +So when a plant is thirsty, it can actually make a phone call or post a message to a service like Twitter. +And so this really shifts the human/plant dynamic, because a single house plant can actually express its needs to thousands of people at the same time. +And so kind of thinking about scale, my most recent obsession is actually with glaciers -- of course. +And so glaciers are these magnificent beings, and there's lots of reasons to be obsessed with them, but what I'm particularly interested in is in human-glacier relations. +Because there seems to be an issue. +The glaciers are actually leaving us. +They're both shrinking and retreating -- and some of them have disappeared altogether. +And so I actually live in Canada now, so I've been visiting one of my local glaciers. +And this one's particularly interesting, because, of all the glaciers in North America, it receives the highest volume of human traffic in a year. +They actually have these buses that drive up and over the lateral moraine and drop people off on the surface of the glacier. +And this has really gotten me thinking about this experience of the initial encounter. +When I meet a glacier for the very first time, what do I do? +There's no kind of social protocol for this. +I really just don't even know how to say hello. +Do I carve a message in the snow? +Or perhaps I can assemble one out of dot and dash ice cubes -- ice cube Morse code. +Or perhaps I need to make myself a speaking tool, like an icy megaphone that I can use to amplify my voice when I direct it at the ice. +But really the most satisfying experience I've had is the act of listening, which is what we need in any good relationship. +And I was really struck by how much it affected me. +This very basic shift in my physical orientation helped me shift my perspective in relation to the glacier. +And so since we use devices to figure out how to relate to the world these days, I actually made a device called the Glacier Embracing Suit. +And so this is constructed out of a heat reflected material that serves to mediate the difference in temperature between the human body and the glacial ice. +And once again, it's this invitation that asks people to lay down on the glacier and give it a hug. +So, yea, this is actually just the beginning. +These are initial musings for this project. +And just as with the wall, how I wanted to be more wall-like, with this project, I'd actually like to take more a of glacial pace. +And so my intent is to actually just take the next 10 years and go on a series of collaborative projects where I work with people from different disciplines -- artists, technologists, scientists -- to kind of work on this project of how we can improve human-glacier relations. +Thanks. +Ladies and gentlemen, I present to you the human genome. +Chromosome one -- top left, bottom right -- are the sex chromosomes. +Women have two copies of that big X chromosome; men have the X and, of course, that small copy of the Y. +Sorry boys, but it's just a tiny little thing that makes you different. +So if you zoom in on this genome, then what you see, of course, is this double-helix structure -- the code of life spelled out with these four biochemical letters, or we call them bases: A, C, G and T. +How many are there in the human genome? Three billion. +Is that a big number? +Well, everybody can throw around big numbers. +But in fact, if I were to place one base on each pixel of this 1280x800-resolution screen, we would need 3,000 screens to take a look at the genome. +So it's really quite big. +And perhaps because of its size, a group of people -- all, by the way, with Y chromosomes -- decided they would want to sequence it. +And so 15 years, actually, and about four billion dollars later, the genome was sequenced and published. +In 2003, the final version was published, and they keep working on it. +That was all done on a machine like this. +It costs about a dollar for each base -- a very slow way of doing it. +Well, folks, I'm here to tell you that the world has completely changed, and none of you know about it. +So now what we do is take a genome, we make maybe 50 copies of it, we cut all those copies up into little 50-base reads, and then we sequence them, massively parallel. +Then we bring that into software and reassemble it, and tell you what the story is. +So to give you a picture of what this looks like, the Human Genome Project: 3 gigabases, right? +One run on one of these modern machines: 200 gigabases in a week. +And that 200 is going to change to 600 this summer, and there's no sign of this pace slowing. +The price of a base, to sequence a base, has fallen 100 million times. +That's the equivalent of you filling up your car with gas in 1998, waiting until 2011, and now you can drive to Jupiter and back twice. +World population, PC placements, the archive of all of medical literature, Moore's law, the old way of sequencing, and here's all the new stuff. +Guys, this is a long scale; you don't typically see lines that go up like that. +So the worldwide capacity to sequence human genomes is something like 50,000 to 100,000 human genomes this year. +We know this based on the machines that are being placed. +This is expected to double, triple or maybe quadruple year over year for the foreseeable future. +In fact, there's one lab in particular that represents 20 percent of all that capacity: It's called the Beijing Genomics Institute. +The Chinese are absolutely winning this race to the new Moon, by the way. +What does this mean for medicine? +So a woman, age 37, presents with stage 2 estrogen receptor-positive breast cancer. +She is treated with surgery, chemotherapy and radiation. +She goes home. +Two years later, she comes back with stage 3C ovarian cancer, unfortunately; treated again with surgery and chemotherapy. +She comes back three years later at age 42 with more ovarian cancer, more chemotherapy. +Six months later, she comes back with acute myeloid leukemia. +She goes into respiratory failure and dies eight days later. +So first: the way in which this woman was treated, in as little as 10 years, will look like bloodletting. +And it's because of people like my colleague, Rick Wilson, at the Genome Institute at Washington University, who decided to take a look at this woman postmortem. +And he took skin cells, healthy skin and cancerous bone marrow, and sequenced the whole genomes of both of them in a couple of weeks, no big deal. +Then he compared those two genomes in software, and what he found, among other things, was a deletion -- a 2,000-base deletion across three billion bases in a particular gene called TP53. +If you have this deleterious mutation in this gene, you're 90 percent likely to get cancer in your life. +So unfortunately, this doesn't help this woman, but it does have severe -- profound, if you will -- implications to her family. +I mean, if they have the same mutation, and they get this genetic test and they understand it, then they can get regular screens and can catch cancer early, and potentially live a significantly longer life. +Let me introduce you to the Beery twins, diagnosed with cerebral palsy at the age of two. +Their mom is a very brave woman who didn't believe it; the symptoms weren't matching up. +And through some heroic efforts and a lot of Internet searching, she was able to convince the medical community that, in fact, they had something else. +They had dopa-responsive dystonia. +And so they were given L-Dopa, and their symptoms did improve, but they weren't totally asymptomatic. +Significant problems remained. +Turns out the gentleman in this picture is a guy named Joe Beery, who was lucky enough to be the CIO of a company called Life Technologies. +They're one of two companies that makes these massive whole-genome sequencing tools. +And so he got his kids sequenced. +What they found was a series of mutations in a gene called SPR, which is responsible for producing serotonin, among other things. +So on top of L-Dopa, they gave these kids a serotonin precursor drug, and they're effectively normal now. +Guys, this would never have happened without whole-genome sequencing. +At the time -- this was a few years ago -- it cost $100,000. +Today it's $10,000, next year, $1,000, the year after, $100, give or take a year. +That's how fast this is moving. +So here's little Nick -- likes Batman and squirt guns. +And it turns out Nick shows up at the children's hospital with this distended belly, like a famine victim. +And it's not that he's not eating; it's that when he eats, his intestine basically opens up and feces spill out into his gut. +So a hundred surgeries later, he looks at his mom and says, "Mom, please pray for me. +I'm in so much pain." +His pediatrician happens to have a background in clinical genetics and he has no idea what's going on, but he says, "Let's get this kid's genome sequenced." +And what they find is a single-point mutation in a gene responsible for controlling programmed cell death. +So the theory is that he's having some immunological reaction to what's going on -- to the food, essentially. +And that's a natural reaction, which causes some programmed cell death, but the gene that regulates that down is broken. +And so this informs, among other things, of course, a treatment for bone marrow transplant, which he undertakes. +And after nine months of grueling recovery, he's now eating steak with A1 sauce. +The prospect of using the genome as a universal diagnostic is upon us today. +Today. It's here. +And what it means for all of us is that everybody in this room could live an extra 5, 10, 20 years, just because of this one thing. +Which is a fantastic story, unless you think about humanity's footprint on the planet, and our ability to keep up food production. +So it turns out that the very same technology is also being used to grow new lines of corn, wheat, soybean and other crops that are highly tolerant of drought, of flood, of pests and pesticides. +Now, look -- as long as we continue to increase the population, we'll have to continue to grow and eat genetically modified foods. +And that's the only position I'll take today. +Unless there's anybody in the audience who'd like to volunteer to stop eating? +None, not one. +This is a typewriter, a staple of every desktop for decades. +And, in fact, the typewriter was essentially deleted by this thing. +And then more general versions of word processors came about. +But ultimately, it was a disruption on top of a disruption. +It was Bob Metcalfe inventing the Ethernet, and the connection of all these computers that fundamentally changed everything. +Suddenly we had Netscape, we had Yahoo. +And we had, indeed, the entire dot-com bubble. +Not to worry though, that was quickly rescued by the iPod, Facebook and, indeed, Angry Birds. +Look, this is where we are today. +This is the genomic revolution today. This is where we are. +What I'd like you to consider is: What does it mean when these dots don't represent the individual bases of your genome, but they connect to genomes all across the planet? +I just recently had to buy life insurance, and I was required to answer: A. I have never had a genetic test; B. I've had one, here you go; or C. I've had one and I'm not telling. +Thankfully, I was able to answer A, and I say that honestly, in case my life insurance agent is listening. +But what would have happened if I had said C? +Consumer applications for genomics will flourish. +Do you want to see if you're genetically compatible with your girlfriend? +DNA sequencing on your iPhone? There's an app for that. +Personalized genomic massage, anyone? +There's already a lab today that tests for allele 334 of the AVPR1 gene, the so-called cheating gene. +So anybody who's here today with your significant other, just turn over to them, swab their mouth, send it to the lab and you'll know for sure. +Do you really want to elect a president whose genome suggests cardiomyopathy? +Think of it -- it's 2016, and the leading candidate releases not only her four years of back-tax returns, but also her personal genome. +And it looks really good. +Then she challenges all her competitors to do the same. +Do you think that's not going to happen? +Do you think it would have helped John McCain? +How many people in the audience have the last name Resnick, like me? +Raise your hand. +Anybody? Nobody. +Typically, there's one or two. +So my father's father was one of 10 Resnick brothers. +They all hated each other, and all moved to different parts of the planet. +So it's likely I'm related to every Resnick that I ever meet, but I don't know. So imagine if my genome were De-identified, sitting in software, And a third cousin's genome was also sitting there, and there was software that could compare the two and make these associations. +Not hard to imagine. My company has software that does this right now. +Imagine one more thing, that that software is able to ask both parties for mutual consent: "Would you be willing to meet your third cousin?" +And if we both say yes -- voil! +Welcome to Chromosomally LinkedIn. +Now this is probably a good thing, right? +Bigger clan gatherings and so on. +But maybe it's a bad thing as well. +How many fathers in the room? Raise your hands. +OK, so experts think that one to three percent of you are not actually the father of your child. +Look -- These genomes, these 23 chromosomes, they don't in any way represent the quality of our relationships or the nature of our society -- at least not yet. +And like any new technology, it's really in humanity's hands to wield it for the betterment of mankind And so I urge you all to wake up and to tune in and to influence the genomic revolution that's happening all around you. +Thank you. +I want to say that really and truly, after these incredible speeches and ideas that are being spread, I am in the awkward position of being here to talk to you today about television. +So most everyone watches TV. +We like it. We like some parts of it. +Here in America, people actually love TV. +The average American watches TV for almost 5 hours a day. +Okay? +Now I happen to make my living these days in television, so for me, that's a good thing. +But a lot of people don't love it so much. +They, in fact, berate it. +They call it stupid, and worse, believe me. +My mother, growing up, she called it the "idiot box." +But my idea today is not to debate whether there's such a thing as good TV or bad TV; my idea today is to tell you that I believe television has a conscience. +So why I believe that television has a conscience is that I actually believe that television directly reflects the moral, political, social and emotional need states of our nation -- that television is how we actually disseminate our entire value system. +So all these things are uniquely human, and they all add up to our idea of conscience. +Now today, we're not talking about good and bad TV. +We're talking about popular TV. +We're talking about top-10 Nielsen-rated shows over the course of 50 years. +How do these Nielsen ratings reflect not just what you've heard about, which is the idea of our social, collective unconscious, but how do these top-10 Nielsen-rated shows over 50 years reflect the idea of our social conscience? +How does television evolve over time, and what does this say about our society? +Now speaking of evolution, from basic biology, you probably remember that the animal kingdom, including humans, have four basic primal instincts. +You have hunger; you have sex; you have power; and you have the urge for acquisitiveness. +As humans, what's important to remember is that we've developed, we've evolved over time to temper, or tame, these basic animal instincts. +We have the capacity to laugh and cry. +We feel awe, we feel pity. +That is separate and apart from the animal kingdom. +The other thing about human beings is that we love to be entertained. +We love to watch TV. +This is something that clearly separates us from the animal kingdom. +Animals might love to play, but they don't love to watch. +So I had an ambition to discover what could be understood from this uniquely human relationship between television programs and the human conscious. +Why has television entertainment evolved the way it has? +I kind of think of it as this cartoon devil or angel sitting on our shoulders. +Is television literally functioning as our conscience, tempting us and rewarding us at the same time? +So to begin to answer these questions, we did a research study. +We went back 50 years to the 1959/1960 television season. +We surveyed the top-20 Nielsen shows every year for 50 years -- a thousand shows. +We talked to over 3,000 individuals -- almost 3,600 -- aged 18 to 70, and we asked them how they felt emotionally. +How did you feel watching every single one of these shows? +Did you feel a sense of moral ambiguity? +Did you feel outrage? Did you laugh? +What did this mean for you? +So to our global TED audiences, I want to say that this was a U.S. sample. +But as you can see, these emotional need states are truly universal. +And on a factual basis, over 80 percent of the U.S.'s most popular shows are exported around the world. +So I really hope our global audiences can relate. +Two acknowledgments before our first data slide: For inspiring me to even think about the idea of conscience and the tricks that conscience can play on us on a daily basis, I thank legendary rabbi, Jack Stern. +And for the way in which I'm going to present the data, I want to thank TED community superstar Hans Rosling, who you may have just seen. +Okay, here we go. +So here you see, from 1960 to 2010, the 50 years of our study. +Two things we're going to start with -- the inspiration state and the moral ambiguity state, which, for this purpose, we defined inspiration as television shows that uplift me, that make me feel much more positive about the world. +Moral ambiguity are televisions shows in which I don't understand the difference between right and wrong. +As we start, you see in 1960 inspiration is holding steady. +That's what we're watching TV for. +Moral ambiguity starts to climb. +Right at the end of the 60s, moral ambiguity is going up, inspiration is kind of on the wane. +Why? +The Cuban Missile Crisis, JFK is shot, the Civil Rights movement, race riots, the Vietnam War, MLK is shot, Bobby Kennedy is shot, Watergate. +Look what happens. +In 1970, inspiration plummets. +Moral ambiguity takes off. +They cross, but Ronald Reagan, a telegenic president, is in office. +It's trying to recover. +But look, it can't: AIDS, Iran-Contra, the Challenger disaster, Chernobyl. +Moral ambiguity becomes the dominant meme in television from 1990 for the next 20 years. +Take a look at this. +This chart is going to document a very similar trend. +But in this case, we have comfort -- the bubble in red -- social commentary and irreverence in blue and green. +Now this time on TV you have "Bonanza," don't forget, you have "Gunsmoke," you have "Andy Griffith," you have domestic shows all about comfort. +This is rising. Comfort stays whole. +Irreverence starts to rise. +Social commentary is all of a sudden spiking up. +You get to 1969, and look what happens. +You have comfort, irreverence, and social commentary, not only battling it out in our society, but you literally have two establishment shows -- "Gunsmoke" and "Gomer Pyle" -- in 1969 are the number-two- and number-three-rated television shows. +What's number one? +The socially irreverent hippie show, "Rowan and Martin's Laugh-In." +They're all living together, right. +Viewers had responded dramatically. +Look at this green spike in 1966 to a bellwether show. +When you guys hear this industry term, a breakout hit, what does that mean? +It means in the 1966 television season, The "Smothers Brothers" came out of nowhere. +This was the first show that allowed viewers to say, "My God, I can comment on how I feel about the Vietnam War, about the presidency, through television?" +That's what we mean by a breakout show. +So then, just like the last chart, look what happens. +In 1970, the dam bursts. The dam bursts. +Comfort is no longer why we watch television. +Social commentary and irreverence rise throughout the 70s. +Now look at this. +The 70s means who? Norman Lear. +You have "All in the Family," "Sanford and Son," and the dominant show -- in the top-10 for the entire 70s -- "MAS*H." +In the entire 50 years of television that we studied, seven of 10 shows ranked most highly for irreverence appeared on air during the Vietnam War, five of the top-10 during the Nixon administration. +Only one generation, 20 years in, and we discovered, Wow! TV can do that? +It can make me feel this? +It can change us? +So to this very, very savvy crowd, I also want to note the digital folks did not invent disruptive. +Archie Bunker was shoved out of his easy chair along with the rest of us 40 years ago. +This is a quick chart. Here's another attribute: fantasy and imagination, which are shows defined as, "takes me out of my everyday realm" and "makes me feel better." +That's mapped against the red dot, unemployment, which is a simple Bureau of Labor Department statistic. +You'll see that every time fantasy and imagination shows rise, it maps to a spike in unemployment. +Do we want to see shows about people saving money and being unemployed? +No. In the 70s you have the bellwether show "The Bionic Woman" that rocketed into the top-10 in 1973, followed by the "Six Million-Dollar Man" and "Charlie's Angels." +Another spike in the 1980s -- another spike in shows about control and power. +What were those shows? +Glamorous and rich. +"Dallas," "Fantasy Island." +Incredible mapping of our national psyche with some hard and fast facts: unemployment. +So here you are, in my favorite chart, because this is our last 20 years. +Whether or not you're in my business, you have surely heard or read of the decline of the thing called the three-camera sitcom and the rise of reality TV. +Well, as we say in the business, X marks the spot. +The 90s -- the big bubbles of humor -- we're watching "Friends," "Frasier," "Cheers" and "Seinfeld." +Everything's good, low unemployment. +But look: X marks the spot. +In 2001, the September 2001 television season, humor succumbs to judgment once and for all. +Why not? +We had a 2000 presidential election decided by the Supreme Court. +We had the bursting of the tech bubble. +We had 9/11. +Anthrax becomes part of the social lexicon. +Look what happens when we keep going. +At the turn of the century, the Internet takes off, reality television has taken hold. +What do people want in their TV then? +I would have thought revenge or nostalgia. +Give me some comfort; my world is falling apart. +No, they want judgment. +I can vote you off the island. +I can keep Sarah Palin's daughter dancing. +I can choose the next American Idol. You're fired. +That's all great, right? +So as dramatically different as these television shows, pure entertainment, have been over the last 50 years -- what did I start with? -- one basic instinct remains. +We're animals, we need our moms. +There has not been a decade of television without a definitive, dominant TV mom. +The 1950s: June Cleever in the original comfort show, "Leave it to Beaver." +Lucille Ball kept us laughing through the rise of social consciousness in the 60s. +Maude Findlay, the epitome of the irreverent 1970s, who tackled abortion, divorce, even menopause on TV. +The 1980s, our first cougar was given to us in the form of Alexis Carrington. +Murphy Brown took on a vice president when she took on the idea of single parenthood. +This era's mom, Bree Van de Kamp. +Now I don't know if this is the devil or the angel sitting on our conscience, sitting on television's shoulders, but I do know that I absolutely love this image. +So to you all, the women of TEDWomen, the men of TEDWomen, the global audiences of TEDWomen, thank you for letting me present my idea about the conscience of television. +But let me also thank the incredible creators who get up everyday to put their ideas on our television screens throughout all these ages of television. +They give it life on television, for sure, but it's you as viewers, through your collective social consciences, that give it life, longevity, power or not. +So thanks very much. +Let's talk about billions. +Let's talk about past and future billions. +We know that about 106 billion people have ever lived. +And we know that most of them are dead. +And we also know that most of them live or lived in Asia. +And we also know that most of them were or are very poor -- did not live for very long. +Let's talk about billions. +Let's talk about the 195,000 billion dollars of wealth in the world today. +We know that most of that wealth was made after the year 1800. +And we know that most of it is currently owned by people we might call Westerners: Europeans, North Americans, Australasians. +19 percent of the world's population today, Westerners own two-thirds of its wealth. +Economic historians call this "The Great Divergence." +And this slide here is the best simplification of the Great Divergence story I can offer you. +It's basically two ratios of per capita GDP, per capita gross domestic product, so average income. +One, the red line, is the ratio of British to Indian per capita income. +And the blue line is the ratio of American to Chinese. +And this chart goes back to 1500. +And you can see here that there's an exponential Great Divergence. +They start off pretty close together. +In fact, in 1500, the average Chinese was richer than the average North American. +When you get to the 1970s, which is where this chart ends, the average Briton is more than 10 times richer than the average Indian. +And that's allowing for differences in the cost of living. +It's based on purchasing power parity. +The average American is nearly 20 times richer than the average Chinese by the 1970s. +So why? +This wasn't just an economic story. +If you take the 10 countries that went on to become the Western empires, in 1500 they were really quite tiny -- five percent of the world's land surface, 16 percent of its population, maybe 20 percent of its income. +By 1913, these 10 countries, plus the United States, controlled vast global empires -- 58 percent of the world's territory, about the same percentage of its population, and a really huge, nearly three-quarters share of global economic output. +And notice, most of that went to the motherland, to the imperial metropoles, not to their colonial possessions. +Now you can't just blame this on imperialism -- though many people have tried to do so -- for two reasons. +One, empire was the least original thing that the West did after 1500. +Everybody did empire. +They beat preexisting Oriental empires like the Mughals and the Ottomans. +So it really doesn't look like empire is a great explanation for the Great Divergence. +In any case, as you may remember, the Great Divergence reaches its zenith in the 1970s, some considerable time after decolonization. +This is not a new question. +Samuel Johnson, the great lexicographer, [posed] it through his character Rasselas in his novel "Rasselas, Prince of Abissinia," published in 1759. +"By what means are the Europeans thus powerful; or why, since they can so easily visit Asia and Africa for trade or conquest, cannot the Asiaticks and Africans invade their coasts, plant colonies in their ports, and give laws to their natural princes? +The same wind that carries them back would bring us thither?" +That's a great question. +Unlike Rasselas, Muteferrika had an answer to that question, which was correct. +He said it was "because they have laws and rules invented by reason." +It's not geography. +You may think we can explain the Great Divergence in terms of geography. +We know that's wrong, because we conducted two great natural experiments in the 20th century to see if geography mattered more than institutions. +We took all the Germans, we divided them roughly in two, and we gave the ones in the East communism, and you see the result. +Within an incredibly short period of time, people living in the German Democratic Republic produced Trabants, the Trabbi, one of the world's worst ever cars, while people in the West produced the Mercedes Benz. +If you still don't believe me, we conducted the experiment also in the Korean Peninsula. +And we decided we'd take Koreans in roughly the same geographical place with, notice, the same basic traditional culture, and we divided them in two, and we gave the Northerners communism. +And the result is an even bigger divergence in a very short space of time than happened in Germany. +Not a big divergence in terms of uniform design for border guards admittedly, but in almost every other respect, it's a huge divergence. +Which leads me to think that neither geography nor national character, popular explanations for this kind of thing, are really significant. +It's the ideas. +It's the institutions. +This must be true because a Scotsman said it. +And I think I'm the only Scotsman here at the Edinburgh TED. +So let me just explain to you that the smartest man ever was a Scotsman. +He was Adam Smith -- not Billy Connolly, not Sean Connery -- though he is very smart indeed. +Smith -- and I want you to go and bow down before his statue in the Royal Mile; it's a wonderful statue -- Smith, in the "Wealth of Nations" published in 1776 -- that's the most important thing that happened that year ... +You bet. +There was a little local difficulty in some of our minor colonies, but ... +"China seems to have been long stationary, and probably long ago acquired that full complement of riches which is consistent with the nature of its laws and institutions. +But this complement may be much inferior to what, with other laws and institutions, the nature of its soil, climate, and situation might admit of." +That is so right and so cool. +And he said it such a long time ago. +But you know, this is a TED audience, and if I keep talking about institutions, you're going to turn off. +So I'm going to translate this into language that you can understand. +Let's call them the killer apps. +I want to explain to you that there were six killer apps that set the West apart from the rest. +And they're kind of like the apps on your phone, in the sense that they look quite simple. +They're just icons; you click on them. +But behind the icon, there's complex code. +It's the same with institutions. +There are six which I think explain the Great Divergence. +One, competition. +Two, the scientific revolution. +Three, property rights. +Four, modern medicine. +Five, the consumer society. +And six, the work ethic. +You can play a game and try and think of one I've missed at, or try and boil it down to just four, but you'll lose. +Let me very briefly tell you what I mean by this, synthesizing the work of many economic historians in the process. +Competition means, not only were there a hundred different political units in Europe in 1500, but within each of these units, there was competition between corporations as well as sovereigns. +The ancestor of the modern corporation, the City of London Corporation, existed in the 12th century. +Nothing like this existed in China, where there was one monolithic state covering a fifth of humanity, and anyone with any ambition had to pass one standardized examination, which took three days and was very difficult and involved memorizing vast numbers of characters and very complex Confucian essay writing. +The scientific revolution was different from the science that had been achieved in the Oriental world in a number of crucial ways, the most important being that, through the experimental method, it gave men control over nature in a way that had not been possible before. +Example: Benjamin Robins's extraordinary application of Newtonian physics to ballistics. +Once you do that, your artillery becomes accurate. +Think of what that means. +That really was a killer application. +Meanwhile, there's no scientific revolution anywhere else. +The Ottoman Empire's not that far from Europe, but there's no scientific revolution there. +In fact, they demolish Taqi al-Din's observatory, because it's considered blasphemous to inquire into the mind of God. +Property rights: It's not the democracy, folks; it's having the rule of law based on private property rights. +That's what makes the difference between North America and South America. +You could turn up in North America having signed a deed of indenture saying, "I'll work for nothing for five years. +You just have to feed me." +But at the end of it, you've got a hundred acres of land. +That's the land grant on the bottom half of the slide. +That's not possible in Latin America where land is held onto by a tiny elite descended from the conquistadors. +And you can see here the huge divergence that happens in property ownership between North and South. +Most people in rural North America owned some land by 1900. +Hardly anyone in South America did. +That's another killer app. +Modern medicine in the late 19th century began to make major breakthroughs against the infectious diseases that killed a lot of people. +And this was another killer app -- the very opposite of a killer, because it doubled, and then more than doubled, human life expectancy. +It even did that in the European empires. +Even in places like Senegal, beginning in the early 20th century, there were major breakthroughs in public health, and life expectancy began to rise. +It doesn't rise any faster after these countries become independent. +The empires weren't all bad. +The consumer society is what you need for the Industrial Revolution to have a point. +You need people to want to wear tons of clothes. +You've all bought an article of clothing in the last month; I guarantee it. +That's the consumer society, and it propels economic growth more than even technological change itself. +Japan was the first non-Western society to embrace it. +The alternative, which was proposed by Mahatma Gandhi, was to institutionalize and make poverty permanent. +Very few Indians today wish that India had gone down Mahatma Gandhi's road. +Finally, the work ethic. +Max Weber thought that was peculiarly Protestant. +He was wrong. +Any culture can get the work ethic if the institutions are there to create the incentive to work. +We know this because today the work ethic is no longer a Protestant, Western phenomenon. +In fact, the West has lost its work ethic. +Today, the average Korean works a thousand hours more a year than the average German -- a thousand. +And this is part of a really extraordinary phenomenon, and that is the end of the Great Divergence. +Who's got the work ethic now? +Take a look at mathematical attainment by 15 year-olds. +At the top of the international league table according to the latest PISA study, is the Shanghai district of China. +The gap between Shanghai and the United Kingdom and the United States is as big as the gap between the U.K. and the U.S. +and Albania and Tunisia. +You probably assume that because the iPhone was designed in California but assembled in China that the West still leads in terms of technological innovation. +You're wrong. +In terms of patents, there's no question that the East is ahead. +Not only has Japan been ahead for some time, South Korea has gone into third place, and China is just about to overtake Germany. +Why? +Because the killer apps can be downloaded. +It's open source. +Any society can adopt these institutions, and when they do, they achieve what the West achieved after 1500 -- only faster. +This is the Great Reconvergence, and it's the biggest story of your lifetime. +Because it's on your watch that this is happening. +It's our generation that is witnessing the end of Western predominance. +The average American used to be more than 20 times richer than the average Chinese. +Now it's just five times, and soon it will be 2.5 times. +So I want to end with three questions for the future billions, just ahead of 2016, when the United States will lose its place as number one economy to China. +The first is, can you delete these apps, and are we in the process of doing so in the Western world? +The second question is, does the sequencing of the download matter? +And could Africa get that sequencing wrong? +One obvious implication of modern economic history is that it's quite hard to transition to democracy before you've established secure private property rights. +Warning: that may not work. +And third, can China do without killer app number three? +That's the one that John Locke systematized when he said that freedom was rooted in private property rights and the protection of law. +That's the basis for the Western model of representative government. +Now this picture shows the demolition of the Chinese artist Ai Weiwei's studio in Shanghai earlier this year. +He's now free again, having been detained, as you know, for some time. +But I don't think his studio has been rebuilt. +Winston Churchill once defined civilization in a lecture he gave in the fateful year of 1938. +And I think these words really nail it: "It means a society based upon the opinion of civilians. +It means that violence, the rule of warriors and despotic chiefs, the conditions of camps and warfare, of riot and tyranny, give place to parliaments where laws are made, and independent courts of justice in which over long periods those laws are maintained. +That is civilization -- and in its soil grow continually freedom, comfort and culture," what all TEDsters care about most. +"When civilization reigns in any country, a wider and less harassed life is afforded to the masses of the people." +That's so true. +I don't think the decline of Western civilization is inevitable, because I don't think history operates in this kind of life-cycle model, beautifully illustrated by Thomas Cole's "Course of Empire" paintings. +That's not the way history works. +That's not the way the West rose, and I don't think it's the way the West will fall. +The West may collapse very suddenly. +Complex civilizations do that, because they operate, most of the time, on the edge of chaos. +That's one of the most profound insights to come out of the historical study of complex institutions like civilizations. +No, we may hang on, despite the huge burdens of debt that we've accumulated, despite the evidence that we've lost our work ethic and other parts of our historical mojo. +But one thing is for sure, the Great Divergence is over, folks. +Thanks very much. +Bruno Giussani: Niall, I am just curious about your take on the other region of the world that's booming, which is Latin America. +What's your view on that? +Niall Ferguson: Well I really am not just talking about the rise of the East; I'm talking about the rise of the Rest, and that includes South America. +I once asked one of my colleagues at Harvard, "Hey, is South America part of the West?" +He was an expert in Latin American history. +He said, "I don't know; I'll have to think about that." +That tells you something really important. +I think if you look at what is happening in Brazil in particular, but also Chile, which was in many ways the one that led the way in transforming the institutions of economic life, there's a very bright future indeed. +So my story really is as much about that convergence in the Americas as it's a convergence story in Eurasia. +BG: And there is this impression that North America and Europe are not really paying attention to these trends. +Mostly they're worried about each other. +The Americans think that the European model is going to crumble tomorrow. +The Europeans think that the American budget is going to explode tomorrow. +And that's all we seem to be caring about recently. +NF: I think the fiscal crisis that we see in the developed World right now -- both sides of the Atlantic -- is essentially the same thing taking different forms in terms of political culture. +And it's a crisis that has its structural facet -- it's partly to do with demographics. +But it's also, of course, to do with the massive crisis that followed excessive leverage, excessive borrowing in the private sector. +That crisis, which has been the focus of so much attention, including by me, I think is an epiphenomenon. +The financial crisis is really a relatively small historic phenomenon, which has just accelerated this huge shift, which ends half a millennium of Western ascendancy. +I think that's its real importance. +BG: Niall, thank you. (NF: Thank you very much, Bruno.) +Erez Lieberman Aiden: Everyone knows that a picture is worth a thousand words. +But we at Harvard were wondering if this was really true. +So we assembled a team of experts, spanning Harvard, MIT, The American Heritage Dictionary, The Encyclopedia Britannica and even our proud sponsors, the Google. +And we cogitated about this for about four years. +And we came to a startling conclusion. +Ladies and gentlemen, a picture is not worth a thousand words. +In fact, we found some pictures that are worth 500 billion words. +Jean-Baptiste Michel: So how did we get to this conclusion? +So Erez and I were thinking about ways to get a big picture of human culture and human history: change over time. +So many books actually have been written over the years. +So we were thinking, well the best way to learn from them is to read all of these millions of books. +Now of course, if there's a scale for how awesome that is, that has to rank extremely, extremely high. +Now the problem is there's an X-axis for that, which is the practical axis. +This is very, very low. +Now people tend to use an alternative approach, which is to take a few sources and read them very carefully. +This is extremely practical, but not so awesome. +What you really want to do is to get to the awesome yet practical part of this space. +So it turns out there was a company across the river called Google who had started a digitization project a few years back that might just enable this approach. +They have digitized millions of books. +So what that means is, one could use computational methods to read all of the books in a click of a button. +That's very practical and extremely awesome. +ELA: Let me tell you a little bit about where books come from. +Since time immemorial, there have been authors. +These authors have been striving to write books. +And this became considerably easier with the development of the printing press some centuries ago. +Since then, the authors have won on 129 million distinct occasions, publishing books. +Now if those books are not lost to history, then they are somewhere in a library, and many of those books have been getting retrieved from the libraries and digitized by Google, which has scanned 15 million books to date. +Now when Google digitizes a book, they put it into a really nice format. +Now we've got the data, plus we have metadata. +We have information about things like where was it published, who was the author, when was it published. +And what we do is go through all of those records and exclude everything that's not the highest quality data. +What we're left with is a collection of five million books, 500 billion words, a string of characters a thousand times longer than the human genome -- a text which, when written out, would stretch from here to the Moon and back 10 times over -- a veritable shard of our cultural genome. +Of course what we did when faced with such outrageous hyperbole ... +was what any self-respecting researchers would have done. +We took a page out of XKCD, and we said, "Stand back. +We're going to try science." +JM: Now of course, we were thinking, well let's just first put the data out there for people to do science to it. +Now we're thinking, what data can we release? +Well of course, you want to take the books and release the full text of these five million books. +Now Google, and Jon Orwant in particular, told us a little equation that we should learn. +So you have five million, that is, five million authors and five million plaintiffs is a massive lawsuit. +So, although that would be really, really awesome, again, that's extremely, extremely impractical. +Now again, we kind of caved in, and we did the very practical approach, which was a bit less awesome. +We said, well instead of releasing the full text, we're going to release statistics about the books. +So take for instance "A gleam of happiness." +It's four words; we call that a four-gram. +We're going to tell you how many times a particular four-gram appeared in books in 1801, 1802, 1803, all the way up to 2008. +That gives us a time series of how frequently this particular sentence was used over time. +We do that for all the words and phrases that appear in those books, and that gives us a big table of two billion lines that tell us about the way culture has been changing. +ELA: So those two billion lines, we call them two billion n-grams. +What do they tell us? +Well the individual n-grams measure cultural trends. +Let me give you an example. +Let's suppose that I am thriving, then tomorrow I want to tell you about how well I did. +And so I might say, "Yesterday, I throve." +Alternatively, I could say, "Yesterday, I thrived." +Well which one should I use? +How to know? +As of about six months ago, the state of the art in this field is that you would, for instance, go up to the following psychologist with fabulous hair, and you'd say, "Steve, you're an expert on the irregular verbs. +What should I do?" +And he'd tell you, "Well most people say thrived, but some people say throve." +And you also knew, more or less, that if you were to go back in time 200 years and ask the following statesman with equally fabulous hair, "Tom, what should I say?" +He'd say, "Well, in my day, most people throve, but some thrived." +So now what I'm just going to show you is raw data. +Two rows from this table of two billion entries. +What you're seeing is year by year frequency of "thrived" and "throve" over time. +Now this is just two out of two billion rows. +So the entire data set is a billion times more awesome than this slide. +JM: Now there are many other pictures that are worth 500 billion words. +For instance, this one. +If you just take influenza, you will see peaks at the time where you knew big flu epidemics were killing people around the globe. +ELA: If you were not yet convinced, sea levels are rising, so is atmospheric CO2 and global temperature. +JM: You might also want to have a look at this particular n-gram, and that's to tell Nietzsche that God is not dead, although you might agree that he might need a better publicist. +ELA: You can get at some pretty abstract concepts with this sort of thing. +For instance, let me tell you the history of the year 1950. +Pretty much for the vast majority of history, no one gave a damn about 1950. +In 1700, in 1800, in 1900, no one cared. +Through the 30s and 40s, no one cared. +Suddenly, in the mid-40s, there started to be a buzz. +People realized that 1950 was going to happen, and it could be big. +But nothing got people interested in 1950 like the year 1950. +People were walking around obsessed. +They couldn't stop talking about all the things they did in 1950, all the things they were planning to do in 1950, all the dreams of what they wanted to accomplish in 1950. +In fact, 1950 was so fascinating that for years thereafter, people just kept talking about all the amazing things that happened, in '51, '52, '53. +Finally in 1954, someone woke up and realized that 1950 had gotten somewhat pass. +And just like that, the bubble burst. +And the story of 1950 is the story of every year that we have on record, with a little twist, because now we've got these nice charts. +And because we have these nice charts, we can measure things. +We can say, "Well how fast does the bubble burst?" +And it turns out that we can measure that very precisely. +Equations were derived, graphs were produced, and the net result is that we find that the bubble bursts faster and faster with each passing year. +We are losing interest in the past more rapidly. +JM: Now a little piece of career advice. +So for those of you who seek to be famous, we can learn from the 25 most famous political figures, authors, actors and so on. +So if you want to become famous early on, you should be an actor, because then fame starts rising by the end of your 20s -- you're still young, it's really great. +Now if you can wait a little bit, you should be an author, because then you rise to very great heights, like Mark Twain, for instance: extremely famous. +But if you want to reach the very top, you should delay gratification and, of course, become a politician. +So here you will become famous by the end of your 50s, and become very, very famous afterward. +So scientists also tend to get famous when they're much older. +Like for instance, biologists and physics tend to be almost as famous as actors. +One mistake you should not do is become a mathematician. +If you do that, you might think, "Oh great. I'm going to do my best work when I'm in my 20s." +But guess what, nobody will really care. +ELA: There are more sobering notes among the n-grams. +For instance, here's the trajectory of Marc Chagall, an artist born in 1887. +And this looks like the normal trajectory of a famous person. +He gets more and more and more famous, except if you look in German. +If you look in German, you see something completely bizarre, something you pretty much never see, which is he becomes extremely famous and then all of a sudden plummets, going through a nadir between 1933 and 1945, before rebounding afterward. +And of course, what we're seeing is the fact Marc Chagall was a Jewish artist in Nazi Germany. +Now these signals are actually so strong that we don't need to know that someone was censored. +We can actually figure it out using really basic signal processing. +Here's a simple way to do it. +Well, a reasonable expectation is that somebody's fame in a given period of time should be roughly the average of their fame before and their fame after. +So that's sort of what we expect. +And we compare that to the fame that we observe. +And we just divide one by the other to produce something we call a suppression index. +If the suppression index is very, very, very small, then you very well might be being suppressed. +If it's very large, maybe you're benefiting from propaganda. +JM: Now you can actually look at the distribution of suppression indexes over whole populations. +So for instance, here -- this suppression index is for 5,000 people picked in English books where there's no known suppression -- it would be like this, basically tightly centered on one. +What you expect is basically what you observe. +This is distribution as seen in Germany -- very different, it's shifted to the left. +People talked about it twice less as it should have been. +But much more importantly, the distribution is much wider. +There are many people who end up on the far left on this distribution who are talked about 10 times fewer than they should have been. +But then also many people on the far right who seem to benefit from propaganda. +This picture is the hallmark of censorship in the book record. +ELA: So culturomics is what we call this method. +It's kind of like genomics. +Except genomics is a lens on biology through the window of the sequence of bases in the human genome. +Culturomics is similar. +It's the application of massive-scale data collection analysis to the study of human culture. +Here, instead of through the lens of a genome, through the lens of digitized pieces of the historical record. +The great thing about culturomics is that everyone can do it. +Why can everyone do it? +Everyone can do it because three guys, Jon Orwant, Matt Gray and Will Brockman over at Google, saw the prototype of the Ngram Viewer, and they said, "This is so fun. +We have to make this available for people." +So in two weeks flat -- the two weeks before our paper came out -- they coded up a version of the Ngram Viewer for the general public. +And so you too can type in any word or phrase that you're interested in and see its n-gram immediately -- also browse examples of all the various books in which your n-gram appears. +JM: Now this was used over a million times on the first day, and this is really the best of all the queries. +So people want to be their best, put their best foot forward. +But it turns out in the 18th century, people didn't really care about that at all. +They didn't want to be their best, they wanted to be their beft. +So what happened is, of course, this is just a mistake. +It's not that strove for mediocrity, it's just that the S used to be written differently, kind of like an F. +Now of course, Google didn't pick this up at the time, so we reported this in the science article that we wrote. +But it turns out this is just a reminder that, although this is a lot of fun, when you interpret these graphs, you have to be very careful, and you have to adopt the base standards in the sciences. +ELA: People have been using this for all kinds of fun purposes. +Actually, we're not going to have to talk, we're just going to show you all the slides and remain silent. +This person was interested in the history of frustration. +There's various types of frustration. +If you stub your toe, that's a one A "argh." +If the planet Earth is annihilated by the Vogons to make room for an interstellar bypass, that's an eight A "aaaaaaaargh." +This person studies all the "arghs," from one through eight A's. +And it turns out that the less-frequent "arghs" are, of course, the ones that correspond to things that are more frustrating -- except, oddly, in the early 80s. +We think that might have something to do with Reagan. +JM: There are many usages of this data, but the bottom line is that the historical record is being digitized. +Google has started to digitize 15 million books. +That's 12 percent of all the books that have ever been published. +It's a sizable chunk of human culture. +There's much more in culture: there's manuscripts, there newspapers, there's things that are not text, like art and paintings. +These all happen to be on our computers, on computers across the world. +And when that happens, that will transform the way we have to understand our past, our present and human culture. +Thank you very much. +I am a reformed marketer, and I now work in international development. +In October, I spent some time in the Democratic Republic of Congo, which is the [second] largest country in Africa. +In fact, it's as large as Western Europe, but it only has 300 miles of paved roads. +The DRC is a dangerous place. +In the past 10 years, five million people have died due to a war in the east. +But war isn't the only reason that life is difficult in the DRC. +There are many health issues as well. +In fact, the HIV prevalence rate is 1.3 percent among adults. +This might not sound like a large number, but in a country with 76 million people, it means there are 930,000 that are infected. +And due to the poor infrastructure, only 25 percent of those are receiving the life-saving drugs that they need. +Which is why, in part, donor agencies provide condoms at low or no cost. +And so while I was in the DRC, I spent a lot of time talking to people about condoms, including Damien. +Damien runs a hotel outside of Kinshasa. +It's a hotel that's only open until midnight, so it's not a place that you stay. +But it is a place where sex workers and their clients come. +Now Damien knows all about condoms, but he doesn't sell them. +He said there's just not in demand. +It's not surprising, because only three percent of people in the DRC use condoms. +Joseph and Christine, who run a pharmacy where they sell a number of these condoms, said despite the fact that donor agencies provide them at low or no cost, and they have marketing campaigns that go along with them, their customers don't buy the branded versions. +They like the generics. +And as a marketer, I found that curious. +And so I started to look at what the marketing looked like. +And it turns out that there are three main messages used by the donor agencies for these condoms: fear, financing and fidelity. +They name the condoms things like Vive, "to live" or Trust. +They package it with the red ribbon that reminds us of HIV, put it in boxes that remind you who paid for them, show pictures of your wife or husband and tell you to protect them or to act prudently. +Now these are not the kinds of things that someone is thinking about just before they go get a condom. +What is it that you think about just before you get a condom? +Sex! +And the private companies that sell condoms in these places, they understand this. +Their marketing is slightly different. +The name might not be much different, but the imagery sure is. +Some brands are aspirational, and certainly the packaging is incredibly provocative. +And this made me think that perhaps the donor agencies had just missed out on a key aspect of marketing: understanding who's the audience. +And for donor agencies, unfortunately, the audience tends to be people that aren't even in the country they're working [in]. +It's people back home, people that support their work, people like these. +But if what we're really trying to do is stop the spread of HIV, we need to think about the customer, the people whose behavior needs to change -- the couples, the young women, the young men -- whose lives depend on it. +And so the lesson is this: it doesn't really matter what you're selling; you just have to think about who is your customer, and what are the messages that are going to get them to change their behavior. +It might just save their lives. +Thank you. +Everyone's familiar with cancer, but we don't normally think of cancer as being a contagious disease. +The Tasmanian devil has shown us that, not only can cancer be a contagious disease, but it can also threaten an entire species with extinction. +So first of all, what is a Tasmanian devil? +Many of you might be familiar with Taz, the cartoon character, the one that spins around and around and around. +But not many people know that there actually is a real animal called the Tasmanian devil, and it's the world's largest carnivorous marsupial. +A marsupial is a mammal with a pouch like a kangaroo. +The Tasmanian devil got its name from the terrifying nocturnal scream that it makes. +The Tasmanian devil is predominantly a scavenger, and it uses its powerful jaws and its sharp teeth to chomp on the bones of rotting dead animals. +[The] Tasmanian devil is found only on the island of Tasmania, which is that small island just to the south of the mainland of Australia. +And despite their ferocious appearance, Tasmanian devils are actually quite adorable little animals. +In fact, growing up in Tasmania, it always was incredibly exciting when we got a chance to see a Tasmanian devil in the wild. +But the Tasmanian devil population has been undergoing a really extremely fast decline. +And in fact, there's concern that the species could go extinct in the wild within 20 to 30 years. +And the reason for that is the emergence of a new disease, a contagious cancer. +The story begins in 1996 when a wildlife photographer took this photograph here of a Tasmanian devil with a large tumor on its face. +At the time, this was thought to be a one-off. +Animals, just like humans, sometimes get strange tumors. +However, we now believe that this is the first sighting of a new disease, which is now an epidemic spreading through Tasmania. +The disease was first sighted in the northeast of Tasmania in 1996 and has spread across Tasmania like a huge wave. +Now there's only a small part of the population, which remains unaffected. +This disease appears first as tumors, usually on the face or inside the mouth of affected Tasmanian devils. +These tumors inevitably grow into larger tumors, such as these ones here. +And the next image I'm going to show is quite gruesome. +But inevitably, these tumors progress towards being enormous, ulcerating tumors like this one here. +This one in particular sticks in my mind, because this is the first case of this disease that I saw myself. +And I remember the horror of seeing this little female devil with this huge ulcerating, foul-smelling tumor inside her mouth that had actually cracked off her entire lower jaw. +She hadn't eaten for days. +Her guts were swimming with parasitic worms. +Her body was riddled with secondary tumors. +And yet, she was feeding three little baby Tasmanian devils in her pouch. +Of course, they died along with the mother. +They were too young to survive without their mother. +In fact, in the area where she comes from, more than 90 percent of the Tasmanian devil population has already died of this disease. +Scientists around the world were intrigued by this cancer, this infectious cancer, that was spreading through the Tasmanian devil population. +And our minds immediately turned to cervical cancer in women, which is spread by a virus, and to the AIDS epidemic, which is associated with a number of different types of cancer. +All the evidence suggested that this devil cancer was spread by a virus. +However, we now know -- and I'll tell you right now -- that we know that this cancer is not spread by a virus. +In fact, the infectious agent of disease in this cancer is something altogether more sinister, and something that we hadn't really thought of before. +But in order for me to explain what that is, I need to spend just a couple of minutes talking more about cancer itself. +Cancer is a disease that affects millions of people around the world every year. +One in three people in this room will develop cancer at some stage in their lives. +I myself had a tumor removed from my large intestine when I was only 14. +Cancer occurs when a single cell in your body acquires a set of random mutations in important genes that cause that cell to start to produce more and more and more copies of itself. +Paradoxically, once established, natural selection actually favors the continued growth of cancer. +Natural selection is survival of the fittest. +And when you have a population of fast-dividing cancer cells, if one of them acquires new mutations, which allow them to grow more quickly, acquire nutrients more successfully, invade the body, they'll be selected for by evolution. +That's why cancer is such a difficult disease to treat. +It evolves. +Throw a drug at it, and resistant cells will grow back. +An amazing fact is that, given the right environment and the right nutrients, a cancer cell has the potential to go on growing forever. +However cancer is constrained by living inside our bodies, and its continued growth, its spreading through our bodies and eating away at our tissues, leads to the death of the cancer patient and also to the death of the cancer itself. +So cancer could be thought of as a strange, short-lived, self-destructive life form -- an evolutionary dead end. +But that is where the Tasmanian devil cancer has acquired an absolutely amazing evolutionary adaptation. +And the answer came from studying the Tasmanian devil cancer's DNA. +This was work from many people, but I'm going to explain it through a confirmatory experiment that I did a few years ago. +The next slide is going to be gruesome. +This is Jonas. +He's a Tasmanian devil that we found with a large tumor on his face. +And being a geneticist, I'm always interested to look at DNA and mutations. +So I took this opportunity to collect some samples from Jonas' tumor and also some samples from other parts of his body. +I took these back to the lab. +I extracted DNA from them. +And when I looked at the sequence of the DNA, and compared the sequence of Jonas' tumor to that of the rest of his body, I discovered that they had a completely different genetic profile. +In fact, Jonas and his tumor were as different from each other as you and the person sitting next to you. +What this told us was that Jonas' tumor did not arise from cells of his own body. +In fact, more genetic profiling told us that this tumor in Jonas actually probably first arose from the cells of a female Tasmanian devil -- and Jonas was clearly a male. +So how come a tumor that arose from the cells of another individual is growing on Jonas' face? +Well the next breakthrough came from studying hundreds of Tasmanian devil cancers from all around Tasmania. +We found that all of these cancers shared the same DNA. +Think about that for a minute. +That means that all of these cancers actually are the same cancer that arose once from one individual devil, that have broken free of that first devil's body and spread through the entire Tasmanian devil population. +But how can a cancer spread in a population? +Well the final piece of the puzzle came when we remember how devils behave when they meet each other in the wild. +They tend to bite each other, often quite ferociously and usually on the face. +We think that cancer cells actually come off the tumor, get into the saliva. +When the devil bites another devil, it actually physically implants living cancer cells into the next devil, so the tumor continues to grow. +So this Tasmanian devil cancer is perhaps the ultimate cancer. +It's not constrained by living within the body that gave rise to it. +It spreads through the population, has mutations that allow it to evade the immune system, and it's the only cancer that we know of that's threatening an entire species with extinction. +But if this can happen in Tasmanian devils, why hasn't it happened in other animals or even humans? +Well the answer is, it has. +This is Kimbo. +He's a dog that belongs to a family in Mombasa in Kenya. +Last year, his owner noticed some blood trickling from his genital region. +She took him to the vet and the vet discovered something quite disgusting. +And if you're squeamish, please look away now. +He discovered this, a huge bleeding tumor at the base of Kimbo's penis. +The vet diagnosed this as transmissible venereal tumor, a sexually transmitted cancer that affects dogs. +And just as the Tasmanian devil cancer is contagious through the spread of living cancer cells, so is this dog cancer. +But this dog cancer is quite remarkable, because it spread all around the world. +And in fact, these same cells that are affecting Kimbo here are also found affecting dogs in New York City, in mountain villages in the Himalayas and in Outback Australia. +We also believe this cancer might be very old. +In fact, genetic profiling tells that it may be tens of thousands of years old, which means that this cancer may have first arisen from the cells of a wolf that lived alongside the Neanderthals. +This cancer is remarkable. +It's the oldest mammalian-derived life form that we know of. +It's a living relic of the distant past. +So we've seen that this can happen in animals. +Could cancers be contagious between people? +Well this is a question which fascinated Chester Southam, a cancer doctor in the 1950s. +Ad he decided to put this to the test by actually deliberately inoculating people with cancer from somebody else. +And this is a photograph of Dr. Southam in 1957 injecting cancer into a volunteer, who in this case was an inmate in Ohio State Penitentiary. +Most of the people that Dr. Southam injected did not go on to develop cancer from the injected cells. +But a small number of them did, and they were mostly people who were otherwise ill -- whose immune systems were probably compromised. +What this tells us, ethical issues aside, is that ... +it's probably extremely rare for cancers to be transferred between people. +However, under some circumstances, it can happen. +And I think that this is something that oncologists and epidemiologists should be aware of in the future. +So just finally, cancer is an inevitable outcome of the ability of our cells to divide and to adapt to their environments. +But that does not mean that we should give up hope in the fight against cancer. +In fact, I believe, given more knowledge of the complex evolutionary processes that drive cancer's growth, we can defeat cancer. +My personal aim is to defeat the Tasmanian devil cancer. +Let's prevent the Tasmanian devil from being the first animal to go extinct from cancer. +Thank you. +So I just want to tell you my story. +I spend a lot of time teaching adults how to use visual language and doodling in the workplace. +And naturally, I encounter a lot of resistance, because it's considered to be anti-intellectual and counter to serious learning. +But I have a problem with that belief, because I know that doodling has a profound impact on the way that we can process information and the way that we can solve problems. +So I was curious about why there was a disconnect between the way our society perceives doodling and the way that the reality is. +So I discovered some very interesting things. +For example, there's no such thing as a flattering definition of a doodle. +In the 17th century, a doodle was a simpleton or a fool -- as in Yankee Doodle. +In the 18th century, it became a verb, and it meant to swindle or ridicule or to make fun of someone. +In the 19th century, it was a corrupt politician. +And today, we have what is perhaps our most offensive definition, at least to me, which is the following: To doodle officially means to dawdle, to dilly dally, to monkey around, to make meaningless marks, to do something of little value, substance or import, and -- my personal favorite -- to do nothing. +No wonder people are averse to doodling at work. +Doing nothing at work is akin to masturbating at work; it's totally inappropriate. +Additionally, I've heard horror stories from people whose teachers scolded them, of course, for doodling in classrooms. +And they have bosses who scold them for doodling in the boardroom. +There is a powerful cultural norm against doodling in settings in which we are supposed to learn something. +And unfortunately, the press tends to reinforce this norm when they're reporting on a doodling scene -- of an important person at a confirmation hearing and the like -- they typically use words like "discovered" or "caught" or "found out," as if there's some sort of criminal act being committed. +And additionally, there is a psychological aversion to doodling -- thank you, Freud. +In the 1930s, Freud told us all that you could analyze people's psyches based on their doodles. +This is not accurate, but it did happen to Tony Blair at the Davos Forum in 2005, when his doodles were, of course, "discovered" and he was labeled the following things. +Now it turned out to be Bill Gates' doodle. +And Bill, if you're here, nobody thinks you're megalomaniacal. +But that does contribute to people not wanting to share their doodles. +And here is the real deal. Here's what I believe. +I think that our culture is so intensely focused on verbal information that we're almost blinded to the value of doodling. +And I'm not comfortable with that. +And so because of that belief that I think needs to be burst, I'm here to send us all hurtling back to the truth. +And here's the truth: doodling is an incredibly powerful tool, and it is a tool that we need to remember and to re-learn. +So here's a new definition for doodling. +And I hope there's someone in here from The Oxford English Dictionary, because I want to talk to you later. +Here's the real definition: Doodling is really to make spontaneous marks to help yourself think. +That is why millions of people doodle. +Here's another interesting truth about the doodle: People who doodle when they're exposed to verbal information retain more of that information than their non-doodling counterparts. +We think doodling is something you do when you lose focus, but in reality, it is a preemptive measure to stop you from losing focus. +Additionally, it has a profound effect on creative problem-solving and deep information processing. +There are four ways that learners intake information so that they can make decisions. +They are visual, auditory, reading and writing and kinesthetic. +Now in order for us to really chew on information and do something with it, we have to engage at least two of those modalities, or we have to engage one of those modalities coupled with an emotional experience. +The incredible contribution of the doodle is that it engages all four learning modalities simultaneously with the possibility of an emotional experience. +That is a pretty solid contribution for a behavior equated with doing nothing. +This is so nerdy, but this made me cry when I discovered this. +So they did anthropological research into the unfolding of artistic activity in children, and they found that, across space and time, all children exhibit the same evolution in visual logic as they grow. +In other words, they have a shared and growing complexity in visual language that happens in a predictable order. +And I think that is incredible. +I think that means doodling is native to us and we simply are denying ourselves that instinct. +And finally, a lot a people aren't privy to this, but the doodle is a precursor to some of our greatest cultural assets. +This is but one: this is Frank Gehry the architect's precursor to the Guggenheim in Abu Dhabi. +So here is my point: Under no circumstances should doodling be eradicated from a classroom or a boardroom or even the war room. +On the contrary, doodling should be leveraged in precisely those situations where information density is very high and the need for processing that information is very high. +And I will go you one further. +Because doodling is so universally accessible and it is not intimidating as an art form, it can be leveraged as a portal through which we move people into higher levels of visual literacy. +My friends, the doodle has never been the nemesis of intellectual thought. +In reality, it is one of its greatest allies. +Thank you. +A few months ago, a 40 year-old woman came to an emergency room in a hospital close to where I live, and she was brought in confused. +Her blood pressure was an alarming 230 over 170. +Within a few minutes, she went into cardiac collapse. +She was resuscitated, stabilized, whisked over to a CAT scan suite right next to the emergency room, because they were concerned about blood clots in the lung. +And the CAT scan revealed no blood clots in the lung, but it showed bilateral, visible, palpable breast masses, breast tumors, that had metastasized widely all over the body. +And the real tragedy was, if you look through her records, she had been seen in four or five other health care institutions in the preceding two years. +Four or five opportunities to see the breast masses, touch the breast mass, intervene at a much earlier stage than when we saw her. +Ladies and gentlemen, that is not an unusual story. +Unfortunately, it happens all the time. +I joke, but I only half joke, that if you come to one of our hospitals missing a limb, no one will believe you till they get a CAT scan, MRI or orthopedic consult. +I am not a Luddite. +I teach at Stanford. +I'm a physician practicing with cutting-edge technology. +But I'd like to make the case to you in the next 17 minutes that when we shortcut the physical exam, when we lean towards ordering tests instead of talking to and examining the patient, we not only overlook simple diagnoses that can be diagnosed at a treatable, early stage, but we're losing much more than that. +We're losing a ritual. +We're losing a ritual that I believe is transformative, transcendent, and is at the heart of the patient-physician relationship. +This may actually be heresy to say this at TED, but I'd like to introduce you to the most important innovation, I think, in medicine to come in the next 10 years, and that is the power of the human hand -- to touch, to comfort, to diagnose and to bring about treatment. +I'd like to introduce you first to this person whose image you may or may not recognize. +This is Sir Arthur Conan Doyle. +Since we're in Edinburgh, I'm a big fan of Conan Doyle. +You might not know that Conan Doyle went to medical school here in Edinburgh, and his character, Sherlock Holmes, was inspired by Sir Joseph Bell. +Joseph Bell was an extraordinary teacher by all accounts. +And Conan Doyle, writing about Bell, described the following exchange between Bell and his students. +So picture Bell sitting in the outpatient department, students all around him, patients signing up in the emergency room and being registered and being brought in. +And a woman comes in with a child, and Conan Doyle describes the following exchange. +The woman says, "Good Morning." +Bell says, "What sort of crossing did you have on the ferry from Burntisland?" +She says, "It was good." +And he says, "What did you do with the other child?" +She says, "I left him with my sister at Leith." +And he says, "And did you take the shortcut down Inverleith Row to get here to the infirmary?" +She says, "I did." +And he says, "Would you still be working at the linoleum factory?" +And she says, "I am." +And Bell then goes on to explain to the students. +He says, "You see, when she said, 'Good morning,' I picked up her Fife accent. +And the nearest ferry crossing from Fife is from Burntisland. +And so she must have taken the ferry over. +You notice that the coat she's carrying is too small for the child who is with her, and therefore, she started out the journey with two children, but dropped one off along the way. +You notice the clay on the soles of her feet. +Such red clay is not found within a hundred miles of Edinburgh, except in the botanical gardens. +And therefore, she took a short cut down Inverleith Row to arrive here. +And finally, she has a dermatitis on the fingers of her right hand, a dermatitis that is unique to the linoleum factory workers in Burntisland." +And when Bell actually strips the patient, begins to examine the patient, you can only imagine how much more he would discern. +And as a teacher of medicine, as a student myself, I was so inspired by that story. +But you might not realize that our ability to look into the body in this simple way, using our senses, is quite recent. +The picture I'm showing you is of Leopold Auenbrugger who, in the late 1700s, discovered percussion. +And the story is that Leopold Auenbrugger was the son of an innkeeper. +And his father used to go down into the basement to tap on the sides of casks of wine to determine how much wine was left and whether to reorder. +And so when Auenbrugger became a physician, he began to do the same thing. +He began to tap on the chests of his patients, on their abdomens. +And it was followed a year or two later by Laennec discovering the stethoscope. +Laennec, it is said, was walking in the streets of Paris and saw two children playing with a stick. +One was scratching at the end of the stick, another child listened at the other end. +And Laennec thought this would be a wonderful way to listen to the chest or listen to the abdomen using what he called "the cylinder." +Later he renamed it the stethoscope. +And that is how stethoscope and auscultation was born. +So within a few years, in the late 1800s, early 1900s, all of a sudden, the barber surgeon had given way to the physician who was trying to make a diagnosis. +If you'll recall, prior to that time, no matter what ailed you, you went to see the barber surgeon who wound up cupping you, bleeding you, purging you. +And, oh yes, if you wanted, he would give you a haircut -- short on the sides, long in the back -- and pull your tooth while he was at it. +He made no attempt at diagnosis. +In fact, some of you might well know that the barber pole, the red and white stripes, represents the blood bandages of the barber surgeon, and the receptacles on either end represent the pots in which the blood was collected. +But the arrival of auscultation and percussion represented a sea change, a moment when physicians were beginning to look inside the body. +And this particular painting, I think, represents the pinnacle, the peak, of that clinical era. +This is a very famous painting: "The Doctor" by Luke Fildes. +Luke Fildes was commissioned to paint this by Tate, who then established the Tate Gallery. +And Tate asked Fildes to paint a painting of social importance. +And it's interesting that Fildes picked this topic. +Fildes' oldest son, Philip, died at the age of nine on Christmas Eve after a brief illness. +And Fildes was so taken by the physician who held vigil at the bedside for two, three nights, that he decided that he would try and depict the physician in our time -- almost a tribute to this physician. +And hence the painting "The Doctor," a very famous painting. +It's been on calendars, postage stamps in many different countries. +I've often wondered, what would Fildes have done had he been asked to paint this painting in the modern era, in the year 2011? +Would he have substituted a computer screen for where he had the patient? +I've gotten into some trouble in Silicon Valley for saying that the patient in the bed has almost become an icon for the real patient who's in the computer. +I've actually coined a term for that entity in the computer. +I call it the iPatient. +The iPatient is getting wonderful care all across America. +The real patient often wonders, where is everyone? +When are they going to come by and explain things to me? +Who's in charge? +There's a real disjunction between the patient's perception and our own perceptions as physicians of the best medical care. +I want to show you a picture of what rounds looked like when I was in training. +The focus was around the patient. +We went from bed to bed. The attending physician was in charge. +Too often these days, rounds look very much like this, where the discussion is taking place in a room far away from the patient. +The discussion is all about images on the computer, data. +And the one critical piece missing is that of the patient. +Now I've been influenced in this thinking by two anecdotes that I want to share with you. +One had to do with a friend of mine who had a breast cancer, had a small breast cancer detected -- had her lumpectomy in the town in which I lived. +This is when I was in Texas. +And she then spent a lot of time researching to find the best cancer center in the world to get her subsequent care. +And she found the place and decided to go there, went there. +Which is why I was surprised a few months later to see her back in our own town, getting her subsequent care with her private oncologist. +And I pressed her, and I asked her, "Why did you come back and get your care here?" +And she was reluctant to tell me. +She said, "The cancer center was wonderful. +It had a beautiful facility, giant atrium, valet parking, a piano that played itself, a concierge that took you around from here to there. +But," she said, "but they did not touch my breasts." +Now you and I could argue that they probably did not need to touch her breasts. +They had her scanned inside out. +They understood her breast cancer at the molecular level; they had no need to touch her breasts. +But to her, it mattered deeply. +It was enough for her to make the decision to get her subsequent care with her private oncologist who, every time she went, examined both breasts including the axillary tail, examined her axilla carefully, examined her cervical region, her inguinal region, did a thorough exam. +And to her, that spoke of a kind of attentiveness that she needed. +I was very influenced by that anecdote. +I was also influenced by another experience that I had, again, when I was in Texas, before I moved to Stanford. +I had a reputation as being interested in patients with chronic fatigue. +This is not a reputation you would wish on your worst enemy. +I say that because these are difficult patients. +They have often been rejected by their families, have had bad experiences with medical care and they come to you fully prepared for you to join the long list of people who's about to disappoint them. +And I learned very early on with my first patient that I could not do justice to this very complicated patient with all the records they were bringing in a new patient visit of 45 minutes. +There was just no way. +And if I tried, I'd disappoint them. +And so I hit on this method where I invited the patient to tell me the story for their entire first visit, and I tried not to interrupt them. +We know the average American physician interrupts their patient in 14 seconds. +And if I ever get to heaven, it will be because I held my piece for 45 minutes and did not interrupt my patient. +I then scheduled the physical exam for two weeks hence, and when the patient came for the physical, I was able to do a thorough physical, because I had nothing else to do. +I like to think that I do a thorough physical exam, but because the whole visit was now about the physical, I could do an extraordinarily thorough exam. +And I remember my very first patient in that series continued to tell me more history during what was meant to be the physical exam visit. +And I began my ritual. +I always begin with the pulse, then I examine the hands, then I look at the nail beds, then I slide my hand up to the epitrochlear node, and I was into my ritual. +And when my ritual began, this very voluble patient began to quiet down. +And I remember having a very eerie sense that the patient and I had slipped back into a primitive ritual in which I had a role and the patient had a role. +And when I was done, the patient said to me with some awe, "I have never been examined like this before." +Now if that were true, it's a true condemnation of our health care system, because they had been seen in other places. +I then proceeded to tell the patient, once the patient was dressed, the standard things that the person must have heard in other institutions, which is, "This is not in your head. +This is real. +The good news, it's not cancer, it's not tuberculosis, it's not coccidioidomycosis or some obscure fungal infection. +The bad news is we don't know exactly what's causing this, but here's what you should do, here's what we should do." +And I would lay out all the standard treatment options that the patient had heard elsewhere. +And I always felt that if my patient gave up the quest for the magic doctor, the magic treatment and began with me on a course towards wellness, it was because I had earned the right to tell them these things by virtue of the examination. +Something of importance had transpired in the exchange. +I took this to my colleagues at Stanford in anthropology and told them the same story. +And they immediately said to me, "Well you are describing a classic ritual." +And they helped me understand that rituals are all about transformation. +We marry, for example, with great pomp and ceremony and expense to signal our departure from a life of solitude and misery and loneliness to one of eternal bliss. +I'm not sure why you're laughing. +That was the original intent, was it not? +We signal transitions of power with rituals. +We signal the passage of a life with rituals. +Rituals are terribly important. +They're all about transformation. +Well I would submit to you that the ritual of one individual coming to another and telling them things that they would not tell their preacher or rabbi, and then, incredibly on top of that, disrobing and allowing touch -- I would submit to you that that is a ritual of exceeding importance. +And if you shortchange that ritual by not undressing the patient, by listening with your stethoscope on top of the nightgown, by not doing a complete exam, you have bypassed on the opportunity to seal the patient-physician relationship. +I am a writer, and I want to close by reading you a short passage that I wrote that has to do very much with this scene. +I'm an infectious disease physician, and in the early days of HIV, before we had our medications, I presided over so many scenes like this. +I remember, every time I went to a patient's deathbed, whether in the hospital or at home, I remember my sense of failure -- the feeling of I don't know what I have to say; I don't know what I can say; I don't know what I'm supposed to do. +And out of that sense of failure, I remember, I would always examine the patient. +I would pull down the eyelids. +I would look at the tongue. +I would percuss the chest. I would listen to the heart. +I would feel the abdomen. +I remember so many patients, their names still vivid on my tongue, their faces still so clear. +I remember so many huge, hollowed out, haunted eyes staring up at me as I performed this ritual. +And then the next day, I would come, and I would do it again. +And I wanted to read you this one closing passage about one patient. +"I recall one patient who was at that point no more than a skeleton encased in shrinking skin, unable to speak, his mouth crusted with candida that was resistant to the usual medications. +When he saw me on what turned out to be his last hours on this earth, his hands moved as if in slow motion. +And as I wondered what he was up to, his stick fingers made their way up to his pajama shirt, fumbling with his buttons. +I realized that he was wanting to expose his wicker-basket chest to me. +It was an offering, an invitation. +I did not decline. +I percussed. I palpated. I listened to the chest. +I think he surely must have known by then that it was vital for me just as it was necessary for him. +Neither of us could skip this ritual, which had nothing to do with detecting rales in the lung, or finding the gallop rhythm of heart failure. +No, this ritual was about the one message that physicians have needed to convey to their patients. +Although, God knows, of late, in our hubris, we seem to have drifted away. +We seem to have forgotten -- as though, with the explosion of knowledge, the whole human genome mapped out at our feet, we are lulled into inattention, forgetting that the ritual is cathartic to the physician, necessary for the patient -- forgetting that the ritual has meaning and a singular message to convey to the patient. +And the message, which I didn't fully understand then, even as I delivered it, and which I understand better now is this: I will always, always, always be there. +I will see you through this. +I will never abandon you. +I will be with you through the end." +Thank you very much. +What I want to talk about today is one idea. +It's an idea for a new kind of school, which turns on its head much of our conventional thinking about what schools are for and how they work. +And it might just be coming to a neighborhood near you soon. +Where it comes from is an organization called the Young Foundation, which, over many decades, has come up with many innovations in education, like the Open University and things like Extended Schools, Schools for Social Entrepreneurs, Summer Universities and the School of Everything. +And about five years ago, we asked what was the most important need for innovation in schooling here in the U.K. +And we felt the most important priority was to bring together two sets of problems. +One was large numbers of bored teenagers who just didn't like school, couldn't see any relationship between what they learned in school and future jobs. +And employers who kept complaining that the kids coming out of school weren't actually ready for real work, didn't have the right attitudes and experience. +And so we try to ask: What kind of school would have the teenagers fighting to get in, not fighting to stay out? +And we called it a studio school to go back to the original idea of a studio in the Renaissance where work and learning are integrated. +You work by learning, and you learn by working. +And the design we came up with had the following characteristics. +First of all, we wanted small schools -- about 300, 400 pupils -- 14 to 19 year-olds, and critically, about 80 percent of the curriculum done not through sitting in classrooms, but through real-life, practical projects, working on commission to businesses, NGO's and others. +That every pupil would have a coach, as well as teachers, who would have timetables much more like a work environment in a business. +And all of this will be done within the public system, funded by public money, but independently run. +And all at no extra cost, no selection, and allowing the pupils the route into university, even if many of them would want to become entrepreneurs and have manual jobs as well. +Underlying it was some very simple ideas that large numbers of teenagers learn best by doing things, they learn best in teams and they learn best by doing things for real -- all the opposite of what mainstream schooling actually does. +Now that was a nice idea, so we moved into the rapid prototyping phase. +We tried it out, first in Luton -- famous for its airport and not much else, I fear -- and in Blackpool -- famous for its beaches and leisure. +And what we found -- and we got quite a lot of things wrong and then improved them -- but we found that the young people loved it. +They found it much more motivational, much more exciting than traditional education. +Now not surprisingly, that influenced some people to think we were onto something. +The minister of education down south in London described himself as a "big fan." +And the business organizations thought we were onto something in terms of a way of preparing children much better for real-life work today. +And indeed, the head of the Chambers of Commerce is now the chairman of the Studio Schools Trust and helping it, not just with big businesses, but small businesses all over the country. +We started with two schools. +That's grown this year to about 10. +And next year, we're expecting about 35 schools open across England, and another 40 areas want to have their own schools opening -- a pretty rapid spread of this idea. +Interestingly, it's happened almost entirely without media coverage. +It's happened almost entirely without big money behind it. +It spread almost entirely through word of mouth, virally, across teachers, parents, people involved in education. +And it spread because of the power of an idea -- so the very, very simple idea about turning education on its head and putting the things which were marginal, things like working in teams, doing practical projects, and putting them right at the heart of learning, rather than on the edges. +Now there's a whole set of new schools opening up this autumn. +This is one from Yorkshire where, in fact, my nephew, I hope, will be able to attend it. +And this one is focused on creative and media industries. +Other ones have a focus on health care, tourism, engineering and other fields. +We think we're onto something. +It's not perfect yet, but we think this is one idea which can transform the lives of thousands, possibly millions, of teenagers who are really bored by schooling. +It doesn't animate them. +They're not like all of you who can sit in rows and hear things said to you for hour after hour. +They want to do things, they want to get their hands dirty, they want education to be for real. +And my hope is that some of you out there may be able to help us. +We feel we're on the beginning of a journey of experiment and improvement to turn the Studio School idea into something which is present, not as a universal answer for every child, but at least as an answer for some children in every part of the world. +And I hope that a few of you at least can help us make that happen. +Thank you very much. +I was born in Switzerland and raised in Ghana, West Africa. +Ghana felt safe to me as a child. +I was free, I was happy. +The early 70s marked a time of musical and artistic excellence in Ghana. +But then by the end of the decade, the country had fallen back into political instability and mismanagement. +In 1979, I witnessed my first military coup. +We the children had gathered at a friend's house. +It was a dimly lit shack. +There was a beaten up black and white television flickering in the background, and a former head of state and general was being blindfolded and tied to the pole. +The firing squad aimed, fired -- the general was dead. +Now this was being broadcast live. +And shortly after, we left the country, and we returned to Switzerland. +Now Europe came as a shock to me, and I think I started feeling the need to shed my skin in order to fit in. +I wanted to blend in like a chameleon. +I think it was a tactic of survival. +And it worked, or so I believed. +So here I was in 2008 wondering where I was in my life. +And I felt I was being typecast as an actor. +I was always playing the exotic African. +I was playing the violent African, the African terrorist. +And I was thinking, how many terrorists could I possibly play before turning into one myself? +And I had become ashamed of the other, the African in me. +And fortunately I decided in 2008 to return to Ghana, after 28 years of absence. +I wanted to document on film the 2008 presidential elections. +And there, I started by searching for the footprints in my childhood. +And before I even knew it, I was suddenly on a stage surrounded by thousands of cheering people during a political rally. +And I realized that, when I'd left the country, free and fair elections in a democratic environment were a dream. +And now that I'd returned, that dream had become reality, though a fragile reality. +And I was thinking, was Ghana searching for its identity like I was looking for my identity? +Was what was happening in Ghana a metaphor for what was happening in me? +And it was as if through the standards of my Western life, I hadn't lived up to my full potential. +I mean, nor had Ghana, even though we had been trying very hard. +Now in 1957, Ghana was the first sub-Saharan country to gain its independence. +In the late 50s, Ghana and Singapore had the same GDP. +I mean, today, Singapore is a First World country and Ghana is not. +But maybe it was time to prove to myself, yes, it's important to understand the past, it is important to look at it in a different light, but maybe we should look at the strengths in our own culture and build on those foundations in the present. +So here I was, December 7th, 2008. +The polling stations opened to the voters at 7:00 AM, but voters, eager to take their own political fate into their hands, were starting to line up at 4:00 AM in the morning. +And they had traveled from near, they had traveled from far, because they wanted to make their voices heard. +And I asked one of the voters, I said, "Whom are you going to vote for?" +And he said, "I'm sorry, I can't tell you." +He said that his vote was in his heart. +And I understood, this was their election, and they weren't going to let anyone take it away from them. +Now the first round of the voting didn't bring forth a clear winner -- so nobody had achieved the absolute majority -- so voting went into a second round three weeks later. +The candidates were back on the road; they were campaigning. +The rhetoric of the candidates, of course, changed. +The heat was on. +And then the cliche came to haunt us. +There were claims of intimidation at the polling stations, of ballot boxes being stolen. +Inflated results started coming in and the mob was starting to get out of control. +We witnessed the eruption of violence in the streets. +People were being beaten brutally. +The army started firing their guns. People were scrambling. +It was complete chaos. +And my heart sank, because I thought, here we are again. +Here is another proof that the African is not capable of governing himself. +And not only that, I am documenting it -- documenting my own cultural shortcomings. +So when the echo of the gunshots had lingered, it was soon drowned by the chanting of the mob, and I didn't believe what I was hearing. +They were chanting, "We want peace. +We want peace." +And I realized it had to come from the people. +After all, they decide, and they did. +So the sounds that were before distorted and loud, were suddenly a melody. +The sounds of the voices were harmonious. +So it could happen. +A democracy could be upheld peacefully. +It could be, by the will of the masses who were now urgently pressing with all their heart and all their will for peace. +Now here's an interesting comparison. +We in the West, we preach the values, the golden light of democracy, that we are the shining example of how it's done. +But when it comes down to it, Ghana found itself in the same place in which the U.S. election stalled in the 2000 presidential elections -- Bush versus Gore. +But instead of the unwillingness of the candidates to allow the system to proceed and the people to decide, Ghana honored democracy and its people. +It didn't leave it up to the Supreme Court to decide; the people did. +Now the second round of voting did not bring forth a clear winner either. +I mean, it was so incredibly close. +The electoral commissioner declared, with the consent of the parties, to run an unprecedented second re-run. +So the people went back to the polls to determine their own president, not the legal system. +And guess what, it worked. +The defeated candidate gave up power and made way for Ghana to move into a new democratic cycle. +I mean, at the absolute time for the absolute need of democracy, they did not abuse their power. +The belief in true democracy and in the people runs deep, proving that the African is capable of governing himself. +Now the uphill battle for Ghana and for Africa is not over, but I have proof that the other side of democracy exists, and that we must not take it for granted. +Now I have learned that my place is not just in the West or in Africa, and I'm still searching for my identity, but I saw Ghana create democracy better. +Ghana taught me to look at people differently and to look at myself differently. +And yes, we Africans can. +Thank you. +So I'm a doctor, but I kind of slipped sideways into research, and now I'm an epidemiologist. +And nobody really knows what epidemiology is. +Epidemiology is the science of how we know in the real world if something is good for you or bad for you. +And it's best understood through example as the science of those crazy, wacky newspaper headlines. +And these are just some of the examples. +These are from the Daily Mail. Every country in the world has a newspaper like this. +It has this bizarre, ongoing philosophical project of dividing all the inanimate objects in the world into the ones that either cause or prevent cancer. +So here are some of the things they said cause cancer recently: divorce, Wi-Fi, toiletries and coffee. +Here are some of the things they say prevents cancer: crusts, red pepper, licorice and coffee. +So already you can see there are contradictions. +Coffee both causes and prevents cancer. +And as you start to read on, you can see that maybe there's some kind of political valence behind some of this. +So for women, housework prevents breast cancer, but for men, shopping could make you impotent. +So we know that we need to start unpicking the science behind this. +And what I hope to show is that unpicking dodgy claims, unpicking the evidence behind dodgy claims, isn't a kind of nasty carping activity; it's socially useful, but it's also an extremely valuable explanatory tool. +Because real science is all about critically appraising the evidence for somebody else's position. +That's what happens in academic journals. +That's what happens at academic conferences. +The Q&A session after a post-op presents data is often a blood bath. +And nobody minds that. We actively welcome it. +It's like a consenting intellectual S&M activity. +So what I'm going to show you is all of the main things, all of the main features of my discipline -- evidence-based medicine. +And I will talk you through all of these and demonstrate how they work, exclusively using examples of people getting stuff wrong. +So we'll start with the absolute weakest form of evidence known to man, and that is authority. +In science, we don't care how many letters you have after your name. +In science, we want to know what your reasons are for believing something. +How do you know that something is good for us or bad for us? +But we're also unimpressed by authority, because it's so easy to contrive. +This is somebody called Dr. Gillian McKeith Ph.D, or, to give her full medical title, Gillian McKeith. +Again, every country has somebody like this. +She is our TV diet guru. +She has massive five series of prime-time television, giving out very lavish and exotic health advice. +She, it turns out, has a non-accredited correspondence course Ph.D. +from somewhere in America. +She also boasts that she's a certified professional member of the American Association of Nutritional Consultants, which sounds very glamorous and exciting. +You get a certificate and everything. +This one belongs to my dead cat Hetti. She was a horrible cat. +You just go to the website, fill out the form, give them $60, and it arrives in the post. +Now that's not the only reason that we think this person is an idiot. +She also goes and says things like, you should eat lots of dark green leaves, because they contain lots of chlorophyll, and that will really oxygenate your blood. +And anybody who's done school biology remembers that chlorophyll and chloroplasts only make oxygen in sunlight, and it's quite dark in your bowels after you've eaten spinach. +Next, we need proper science, proper evidence. +So, "Red wine can help prevent breast cancer." +This is a headline from the Daily Telegraph in the U.K. +"A glass of red wine a day could help prevent breast cancer." +So you go and find this paper, and what you find is it is a real piece of science. +It is a description of the changes in one enzyme when you drip a chemical extracted from some red grape skin onto some cancer cells in a dish on a bench in a laboratory somewhere. +And that's a really useful thing to describe in a scientific paper, but on the question of your own personal risk of getting breast cancer if you drink red wine, it tells you absolutely bugger all. +Actually, it turns out that your risk of breast cancer actually increases slightly with every amount of alcohol that you drink. +So what we want is studies in real human people. +And here's another example. +This is from Britain's leading diet and nutritionist in the Daily Mirror, which is our second biggest selling newspaper. +"An Australian study in 2001 found that olive oil in combination with fruits, vegetables and pulses offers measurable protection against skin wrinklings." +And then they give you advice: "If you eat olive oil and vegetables, you'll have fewer skin wrinkles." +And they very helpfully tell you how to go and find the paper. +So you go and find the paper, and what you find is an observational study. +Obviously nobody has been able to go back to 1930, get all the people born in one maternity unit, and half of them eat lots of fruit and veg and olive oil, and then half of them eat McDonald's, and then we see how many wrinkles you've got later. +You have to take a snapshot of how people are now. +And what you find is, of course, people who eat veg and olive oil have fewer skin wrinkles. +But that's because people who eat fruit and veg and olive oil, they're freaks, they're not normal, they're like you; they come to events like this. +They are posh, they're wealthy, they're less likely to have outdoor jobs, they're less likely to do manual labor, they have better social support, they're less likely to smoke -- so for a whole host of fascinating, interlocking social, political and cultural reasons, they are less likely to have skin wrinkles. +That doesn't mean that it's the vegetables or the olive oil. +So ideally what you want to do is a trial. +And everybody thinks they're very familiar with the idea of a trial. +Trials are very old. The first trial was in the Bible -- Daniel 1:12. +It's very straightforward -- you take a bunch of people, you split them in half, you treat one group one way, you treat the other group the other way, and a little while later, you follow them up and see what happened to each of them. +So I'm going to tell you about one trial, which is probably the most well-reported trial in the U.K. news media over the past decade. +And this is the trial of fish oil pills. +And the claim was fish oil pills improve school performance and behavior in mainstream children. +And they said, "We've done a trial. +All the previous trials were positive, and we know this one's gonna be too." +That should always ring alarm bells. +Because if you already know the answer to your trial, you shouldn't be doing one. +Either you've rigged it by design, or you've got enough data so there's no need to randomize people anymore. +So this is what they were going to do in their trial. +They were taking 3,000 children, they were going to give them all these huge fish oil pills, six of them a day, and then a year later, they were going to measure their school exam performance and compare their school exam performance against what they predicted their exam performance would have been if they hadn't had the pills. +Now can anybody spot a flaw in this design? +And no professors of clinical trial methodology are allowed to answer this question. +So there's no control; there's no control group. +But that sounds really techie. +That's a technical term. +The kids got the pills, and then their performance improved. +What else could it possibly be if it wasn't the pills? +They got older. We all develop over time. +And of course, also there's the placebo effect. +The placebo effect is one of the most fascinating things in the whole of medicine. +It's not just about taking a pill, and your performance and your pain getting better. +It's about our beliefs and expectations. +It's about the cultural meaning of a treatment. +And this has been demonstrated in a whole raft of fascinating studies comparing one kind of placebo against another. +So we know, for example, that two sugar pills a day are a more effective treatment for getting rid of gastric ulcers than one sugar pill. +Two sugar pills a day beats one sugar pill a day. +And that's an outrageous and ridiculous finding, but it's true. +So we know that our beliefs and expectations can be manipulated, which is why we do trials where we control against a placebo -- where one half of the people get the real treatment and the other half get placebo. +But that's not enough. +What I've just shown you are examples of the very simple and straightforward ways that journalists and food supplement pill peddlers and naturopaths can distort evidence for their own purposes. +What I find really fascinating is that the pharmaceutical industry uses exactly the same kinds of tricks and devices, but slightly more sophisticated versions of them, in order to distort the evidence that they give to doctors and patients, and which we use to make vitally important decisions. +So firstly, trials against placebo: everybody thinks they know that a trial should be a comparison of your new drug against placebo. +But actually in a lot of situations that's wrong. +Because often we already have a very good treatment that is currently available, so we don't want to know that your alternative new treatment is better than nothing. +We want to know that it's better than the best currently available treatment that we have. +And yet, repeatedly, you consistently see people doing trials still against placebo. +And you can get license to bring your drug to market with only data showing that it's better than nothing, which is useless for a doctor like me trying to make a decision. +But that's not the only way you can rig your data. +You can also rig your data by making the thing you compare your new drug against really rubbish. +You can give the competing drug in too low a dose, so that people aren't properly treated. +You can give the competing drug in too high a dose, so that people get side effects. +And this is exactly what happened which antipsychotic medication for schizophrenia. +20 years ago, a new generation of antipsychotic drugs were brought in and the promise was that they would have fewer side effects. +So people set about doing trials of these new drugs against the old drugs, but they gave the old drugs in ridiculously high doses -- 20 milligrams a day of haloperidol. +And it's a foregone conclusion, if you give a drug at that high a dose, that it will have more side effects and that your new drug will look better. +10 years ago, history repeated itself, interestingly, when risperidone, which was the first of the new-generation antipscyhotic drugs, came off copyright, so anybody could make copies. +Everybody wanted to show that their drug was better than risperidone, so you see a bunch of trials comparing new antipsychotic drugs against risperidone at eight milligrams a day. +Again, not an insane dose, not an illegal dose, but very much at the high end of normal. +And so you're bound to make your new drug look better. +And so it's no surprise that overall, industry-funded trials are four times more likely to give a positive result than independently sponsored trials. +But -- and it's a big but -- it turns out, when you look at the methods used by industry-funded trials, that they're actually better than independently sponsored trials. +And yet, they always manage to to get the result that they want. +So how does this work? +How can we explain this strange phenomenon? +Well it turns out that what happens is the negative data goes missing in action; it's withheld from doctors and patients. +And this is the most important aspect of the whole story. +It's at the top of the pyramid of evidence. +We need to have all of the data on a particular treatment to know whether or not it really is effective. +And there are two different ways that you can spot whether some data has gone missing in action. +You can use statistics, or you can use stories. +I personally prefer statistics, so that's what I'm going to do first. +This is something called funnel plot. +And a funnel plot is a very clever way of spotting if small negative trials have disappeared, have gone missing in action. +So this is a graph of all of the trials that have been done on a particular treatment. +And as you go up towards the top of the graph, what you see is each dot is a trial. +And as you go up, those are the bigger trials, so they've got less error in them. +So they're less likely to be randomly false positives, randomly false negatives. +So they all cluster together. +The big trials are closer to the true answer. +Then as you go further down at the bottom, what you can see is, over on this side, the spurious false negatives, and over on this side, the spurious false positives. +If there is publication bias, if small negative trials have gone missing in action, you can see it on one of these graphs. +So you can see here that the small negative trials that should be on the bottom left have disappeared. +This is a graph demonstrating the presence of publication bias in studies of publication bias. +And I think that's the funniest epidemiology joke that you will ever hear. +That's how you can prove it statistically, but what about stories? +Well they're heinous, they really are. +This is a drug called reboxetine. +This is a drug that I myself have prescribed to patients. +And I'm a very nerdy doctor. +I hope I try to go out of my way to try and read and understand all the literature. +I read the trials on this. They were all positive. They were all well-conducted. +I found no flaw. +Unfortunately, it turned out, that many of these trials were withheld. +In fact, 76 percent of all of the trials that were done on this drug were withheld from doctors and patients. +Now if you think about it, if I tossed a coin a hundred times, and I'm allowed to withhold from you the answers half the times, then I can convince you that I have a coin with two heads. +If we remove half of the data, we can never know what the true effect size of these medicines is. +And this is not an isolated story. +Around half of all of the trial data on antidepressants has been withheld, but it goes way beyond that. +The Nordic Cochrane Group were trying to get a hold of the data on that to bring it all together. +The Cochrane Groups are an international nonprofit collaboration that produce systematic reviews of all of the data that has ever been shown. +And they need to have access to all of the trial data. +But the companies withheld that data from them, and so did the European Medicines Agency for three years. +This is a problem that is currently lacking a solution. +And to show how big it goes, this is a drug called Tamiflu, which governments around the world have spent billions and billions of dollars on. +And they spend that money on the promise that this is a drug which will reduce the rate of complications with flu. +We already have the data showing that it reduces the duration of your flu by a few hours. +But I don't really care about that. Governments don't care about that. +I'm very sorry if you have the flu, I know it's horrible, but we're not going to spend billions of dollars trying to reduce the duration of your flu symptoms by half a day. +We prescribe these drugs, we stockpile them for emergencies on the understanding that they will reduce the number of complications, which means pneumonia and which means death. +The infectious diseases Cochrane Group, which are based in Italy, has been trying to get the full data in a usable form out of the drug companies so that they can make a full decision about whether this drug is effective or not, and they've not been able to get that information. +This is undoubtedly the single biggest ethical problem facing medicine today. +We cannot make decisions in the absence of all of the information. +So it's a little bit difficult from there to spin in some kind of positive conclusion. +But I would say this: I think that sunlight is the best disinfectant. +All of these things are happening in plain sight, and they're all protected by a force field of tediousness. +And I think, with all of the problems in science, one of the best things that we can do is to lift up the lid, finger around in the mechanics and peer in. +Thank you very much. +The night before I was heading for Scotland, I was invited to host the final of "China's Got Talent" show in Shanghai with the 80,000 live audience in the stadium. +Guess who was the performing guest? +Susan Boyle. +And I told her, "I'm going to Scotland the next day." +She sang beautifully, and she even managed to say a few words in Chinese: So it's not like "hello" or "thank you," that ordinary stuff. +It means "green onion for free." +Why did she say that? +Because it was a line from our Chinese parallel Susan Boyle -- a 50-some year-old woman, a vegetable vendor in Shanghai, who loves singing Western opera, but she didn't understand any English or French or Italian, so she managed to fill in the lyrics with vegetable names in Chinese. +And the last sentence of Nessun Dorma that she was singing in the stadium was "green onion for free." +So [as] Susan Boyle was saying that, 80,000 live audience sang together. +That was hilarious. +So I guess both Susan Boyle and this vegetable vendor in Shanghai belonged to otherness. +They were the least expected to be successful in the business called entertainment, yet their courage and talent brought them through. +And a show and a platform gave them the stage to realize their dreams. +Well, being different is not that difficult. +We are all different from different perspectives. +But I think being different is good, because you present a different point of view. +You may have the chance to make a difference. +My generation has been very fortunate to witness and participate in the historic transformation of China that has made so many changes in the past 20, 30 years. +I remember that in the year of 1990, when I was graduating from college, I was applying for a job in the sales department of the first five-star hotel in Beijing, Great Wall Sheraton -- it's still there. +So after being interrogated by this Japanese manager for a half an hour, he finally said, "So, Miss Yang, do you have any questions to ask me?" +I summoned my courage and poise and said, "Yes, but could you let me know, what actually do you sell?" +I didn't have a clue what a sales department was about in a five-star hotel. +That was the first day I set my foot in a five-star hotel. +Around the same time, I was going through an audition -- the first ever open audition by national television in China -- with another thousand college girls. +The producer told us they were looking for some sweet, innocent and beautiful fresh face. +So when it was my turn, I stood up and said, "Why [do] women's personalities on television always have to be beautiful, sweet, innocent and, you know, supportive? +Why can't they have their own ideas and their own voice?" +I thought I kind of offended them. +But actually, they were impressed by my words. +And so I was in the second round of competition, and then the third and the fourth. +After seven rounds of competition, I was the last one to survive it. +So I was on a national television prime-time show. +And believe it or not, that was the first show on Chinese television that allowed its hosts to speak out of their own minds without reading an approved script. +And my weekly audience at that time was between 200 to 300 million people. +Well after a few years, I decided to go to the U.S. and Columbia University to pursue my postgraduate studies, and then started my own media company, which was unthought of during the years that I started my career. +So we do a lot of things. +I've interviewed more than a thousand people in the past. +And sometimes I have young people approaching me say, "Lan, you changed my life," and I feel proud of that. +But then we are also so fortunate to witness the transformation of the whole country. +I was in Beijing's bidding for the Olympic Games. +I was representing the Shanghai Expo. +I saw China embracing the world and vice versa. +But then sometimes I'm thinking, what are today's young generation up to? +How are they different, and what are the differences they are going to make to shape the future of China, or at large, the world? +So today I want to talk about young people through the platform of social media. +First of all, who are they? [What] do they look like? +Well this is a girl called Guo Meimei -- 20 years old, beautiful. +She showed off her expensive bags, clothes and car on her microblog, which is the Chinese version of Twitter. +And she claimed to be the general manager of Red Cross at the Chamber of Commerce. +She didn't realize that she stepped on a sensitive nerve and aroused national questioning, almost a turmoil, against the credibility of Red Cross. +The controversy was so heated that the Red Cross had to open a press conference to clarify it, and the investigation is going on. +So far, as of today, we know that she herself made up that title -- probably because she feels proud to be associated with charity. +All those expensive items were given to her as gifts by her boyfriend, who used to be a board member in a subdivision of Red Cross at Chamber of Commerce. +It's very complicated to explain. +But anyway, the public still doesn't buy it. +It is still boiling. +It shows us a general mistrust of government or government-backed institutions, which lacked transparency in the past. +And also it showed us the power and the impact of social media as microblog. +Microblog boomed in the year of 2010, with visitors doubled and time spent on it tripled. +Sina.com, a major news portal, alone has more than 140 million microbloggers. +On Tencent, 200 million. +The most popular blogger -- it's not me -- it's a movie star, and she has more than 9.5 million followers, or fans. +About 80 percent of those microbloggers are young people, under 30 years old. +And because, as you know, the traditional media is still heavily controlled by the government, social media offers an opening to let the steam out a little bit. +But because you don't have many other openings, the heat coming out of this opening is sometimes very strong, active and even violent. +So through microblogging, we are able to understand Chinese youth even better. +So how are they different? +First of all, most of them were born in the 80s and 90s, under the one-child policy. +And because of selected abortion by families who favored boys to girls, now we have ended up with 30 million more young men than women. +That could pose a potential danger to the society, but who knows; we're in a globalized world, so they can look for girlfriends from other countries. +Most of them have fairly good education. +The illiteracy rate in China among this generation is under one percent. +In cities, 80 percent of kids go to college. +But they are facing an aging China with a population above 65 years old coming up with seven-point-some percent this year, and about to be 15 percent by the year of 2030. +And you know we have the tradition that younger generations support the elders financially, and taking care of them when they're sick. +So it means young couples will have to support four parents who have a life expectancy of 73 years old. +So making a living is not that easy for young people. +College graduates are not in short supply. +In urban areas, college graduates find the starting salary is about 400 U.S. dollars a month, while the average rent is above $500. +So what do they do? They have to share space -- squeezed in very limited space to save money -- and they call themselves "tribe of ants." +And for those who are ready to get married and buy their apartment, they figured out they have to work for 30 to 40 years to afford their first apartment. +That ratio in America would only cost a couple five years to earn, but in China it's 30 to 40 years with the skyrocketing real estate price. +Among the 200 million migrant workers, 60 percent of them are young people. +They find themselves sort of sandwiched between the urban areas and the rural areas. +Most of them don't want to go back to the countryside, but they don't have the sense of belonging. +They work for longer hours with less income, less social welfare. +And they're more vulnerable to job losses, subject to inflation, tightening loans from banks, appreciation of the renminbi, or decline of demand from Europe or America for the products they produce. +Last year, though, an appalling incident in a southern OEM manufacturing compound in China: 13 young workers in their late teens and early 20s committed suicide, just one by one like causing a contagious disease. +But they died because of all different personal reasons. +But this whole incident aroused a huge outcry from society about the isolation, both physical and mental, of these migrant workers. +For those who do return back to the countryside, they find themselves very welcome locally, because with the knowledge, skills and networks they have learned in the cities, with the assistance of the Internet, they're able to create more jobs, upgrade local agriculture and create new business in the less developed market. +So for the past few years, the coastal areas, they found themselves in a shortage of labor. +These diagrams show a more general social background. +The first one is the Engels coefficient, which explains that the cost of daily necessities has dropped its percentage all through the past decade, in terms of family income, to about 37-some percent. +But then in the last two years, it goes up again to 39 percent, indicating a rising living cost. +The Gini coefficient has already passed the dangerous line of 0.4. +Now it's 0.5 -- even worse than that in America -- showing us the income inequality. +And so you see this whole society getting frustrated about losing some of its mobility. +And also, the bitterness and even resentment towards the rich and the powerful is quite widespread. +So any accusations of corruption or backdoor dealings between authorities or business would arouse a social outcry or even unrest. +So through some of the hottest topics on microblogging, we can see what young people care most about. +Social justice and government accountability runs the first in what they demand. +For the past decade or so, a massive urbanization and development have let us witness a lot of reports on the forced demolition of private property. +And it has aroused huge anger and frustration among our young generation. +Sometimes people get killed, and sometimes people set themselves on fire to protest. +So when these incidents are reported more and more frequently on the Internet, people cry for the government to take actions to stop this. +So the good news is that earlier this year, the state council passed a new regulation on house requisition and demolition and passed the right to order forced demolition from local governments to the court. +Similarly, many other issues concerning public safety is a hot topic on the Internet. +We heard about polluted air, polluted water, poisoned food. +And guess what, we have faked beef. +They have sorts of ingredients that you brush on a piece of chicken or fish, and it turns it to look like beef. +And then lately, people are very concerned about cooking oil, because thousands of people have been found [refining] cooking oil from restaurant slop. +So all these things have aroused a huge outcry from the Internet. +And fortunately, we have seen the government responding more timely and also more frequently to the public concerns. +While young people seem to be very sure about their participation in public policy-making, but sometimes they're a little bit lost in terms of what they want for their personal life. +China is soon to pass the U.S. +as the number one market for luxury brands -- that's not including the Chinese expenditures in Europe and elsewhere. +But you know what, half of those consumers are earning a salary below 2,000 U.S. dollars. +They're not rich at all. +They're taking those bags and clothes as a sense of identity and social status. +And this is a girl explicitly saying on a TV dating show that she would rather cry in a BMW than smile on a bicycle. +But of course, we do have young people who would still prefer to smile, whether in a BMW or [on] a bicycle. +So in the next picture, you see a very popular phenomenon called "naked" wedding, or "naked" marriage. +It does not mean they will wear nothing in the wedding, but it shows that these young couples are ready to get married without a house, without a car, without a diamond ring and without a wedding banquet, to show their commitment to true love. +And also, people are doing good through social media. +And the first picture showed us that a truck caging 500 homeless and kidnapped dogs for food processing was spotted and stopped on the highway with the whole country watching through microblogging. +People were donating money, dog food and offering volunteer work to stop that truck. +And after hours of negotiation, 500 dogs were rescued. +And here also people are helping to find missing children. +A father posted his son's picture onto the Internet. +After thousands of resends in relay, the child was found, and we witnessed the reunion of the family through microblogging. +So happiness is the most popular word we have heard through the past two years. +Happiness is not only related to personal experiences and personal values, but also, it's about the environment. +People are thinking about the following questions: Are we going to sacrifice our environment further to produce higher GDP? +How are we going to perform our social and political reform to keep pace with economic growth, to keep sustainability and stability? +And also, how capable is the system of self-correctness to keep more people content with all sorts of friction going on at the same time? +I guess these are the questions people are going to answer. +And our younger generation are going to transform this country while at the same time being transformed themselves. +Thank you very much. +So I have a strange career. +I know it because people come up to me, like colleagues, and say, "Chris, you have a strange career." +And I can see their point, because I started my career as a theoretical nuclear physicist. +And I was thinking about quarks and gluons and heavy ion collisions, and I was only 14 years old. +No, no, I wasn't 14 years old. +But after that, I actually had my own lab in the computational neuroscience department, and I wasn't doing any neuroscience. +Later, I would work on evolutionary genetics, and I would work on systems biology. +But I'm going to tell you about something else today. +I'm going to tell you about how I learned something about life. +And I was actually a rocket scientist. +I wasn't really a rocket scientist, but I was working at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in sunny California where it's warm; whereas now I'm in the mid-West, and it's cold. +But it was an exciting experience. +One day a NASA manager comes into my office, sits down and says, "Can you please tell us, how do we look for life outside Earth?" +And that came as a surprise to me, because I was actually hired to work on quantum computation. +Yet, I had a very good answer. +I said, "I have no idea." +And he told me, "Biosignatures, we need to look for a biosignature." +And I said, "What is that?" +And he said, "It's any measurable phenomenon that allows us to indicate the presence of life." +And I said, "Really? +Because isn't that easy? +I mean, we have life. +Can't you apply a definition, like for example, a Supreme Court-like definition of life?" +And then I thought about it a little bit, and I said, "Well, is it really that easy? +Because, yes, if you see something like this, then all right, fine, I'm going to call it life -- no doubt about it. +But here's something." +And he goes, "Right, that's life too. I know that." +Except, if you think life is also defined by things that die, you're not in luck with this thing, because that's actually a very strange organism. +It grows up into the adult stage like that and then goes through a Benjamin Button phase, and actually goes backwards and backwards until it's like a little embryo again, and then actually grows back up, and back down and back up -- sort of yo-yo -- and it never dies. +So it's actually life, but it's actually not as we thought life would be. +And then you see something like that. +And he was like, "My God, what kind of a life form is that?" +Anyone know? +It's actually not life, it's a crystal. +So once you start looking and looking at smaller and smaller things -- so this particular person wrote a whole article and said, "Hey, these are bacteria." +Except, if you look a little bit closer, you see, in fact, that this thing is way too small to be anything like that. +So he was convinced, but, in fact, most people aren't. +And then, of course, NASA also had a big announcement, and President Clinton gave a press conference, about this amazing discovery of life in a Martian meteorite. +Except that nowadays, it's heavily disputed. +If you take the lesson of all these pictures, then you realize, well actually maybe it's not that easy. +Maybe I do need a definition of life in order to make that kind of distinction. +So can life be defined? +Well how would you go about it? +Well of course, you'd go to Encyclopedia Britannica and open at L. +No, of course you don't do that; you put it somewhere in Google. +And then you might get something. +And what you might get -- and anything that actually refers to things that we are used to, you throw away. +And then you might come up with something like this. +And it says something complicated with lots and lots of concepts. +Who on Earth would write something as convoluted and complex and inane? +Oh, it's actually a really, really, important set of concepts. +So I'm highlighting just a few words and saying definitions like that rely on things that are not based on amino acids or leaves or anything that we are used to, but in fact on processes only. +And if you take a look at that, this was actually in a book that I wrote that deals with artificial life. +And that explains why that NASA manager was actually in my office to begin with. +Because the idea was that, with concepts like that, maybe we can actually manufacture a form of life. +And so if you go and ask yourself, "What on Earth is artificial life?", let me give you a whirlwind tour of how all this stuff came about. +And it started out quite a while ago when someone wrote one of the first successful computer viruses. +And for those of you who aren't old enough, you have no idea how this infection was working -- namely, through these floppy disks. +But the interesting thing about these computer virus infections was that, if you look at the rate at which the infection worked, they show this spiky behavior that you're used to from a flu virus. +And it is in fact due to this arms race between hackers and operating system designers that things go back and forth. +And the result is kind of a tree of life of these viruses, a phylogeny that looks very much like the type of life that we're used to, at least on the viral level. +So is that life? Not as far as I'm concerned. +Why? Because these things don't evolve by themselves. +In fact, they have hackers writing them. +But the idea was taken very quickly a little bit further when a scientist working at the Scientific Institute decided, "Why don't we try to package these little viruses in artificial worlds inside of the computer and let them evolve?" +And this was Steen Rasmussen. +And he designed this system, but it really didn't work, because his viruses were constantly destroying each other. +But there was another scientist who had been watching this, an ecologist. +And he went home and says, "I know how to fix this." +And he wrote the Tierra system, and, in my book, is in fact one of the first truly artificial living systems -- except for the fact that these programs didn't really grow in complexity. +So having seen this work, worked a little bit on this, this is where I came in. +And I decided to create a system that has all the properties that are necessary to see the evolution of complexity, more and more complex problems constantly evolving. +And of course, since I really don't know how to write code, I had help in this. +I had two undergraduate students at California Institute of Technology that worked with me. +That's Charles Offria on the left, Titus Brown on the right. +They are now actually respectable professors at Michigan State University, but I can assure you, back in the day, we were not a respectable team. +And I'm really happy that no photo survives of the three of us anywhere close together. +But what is this system like? +Well I can't really go into the details, but what you see here is some of the entrails. +But what I wanted to focus on is this type of population structure. +There's about 10,000 programs sitting here. +And all different strains are colored in different colors. +And as you see here, there are groups that are growing on top of each other, because they are spreading. +Any time there is a program that's better at surviving in this world, due to whatever mutation it has acquired, it is going to spread over the others and drive the others to extinction. +So I'm going to show you a movie where you're going to see that kind of dynamic. +And these kinds of experiments are started with programs that we wrote ourselves. +We write our own stuff, replicate it, and are very proud of ourselves. +And we put them in, and what you see immediately is that there are waves and waves of innovation. +By the way, this is highly accelerated, so it's like a thousand generations a second. +But immediately the system goes like, "What kind of dumb piece of code was this? +This can be improved upon in so many ways so quickly." +So you see waves of new types taking over the other types. +And this type of activity goes on for quite awhile, until the main easy things have been acquired by these programs. +And then you see sort of like a stasis coming on where the system essentially waits for a new type of innovation, like this one, which is going to spread over all the other innovations that were before and is erasing the genes that it had before, until a new type of higher level of complexity has been achieved. +And this process goes on and on and on. +So what we see here is a system that lives in very much the way we're used to life [going.] But what the NASA people had asked me really was, "Do these guys have a biosignature? +Can we measure this type of life? +Because if we can, maybe we have a chance of actually discovering life somewhere else without being biased by things like amino acids." +So I said, "Well, perhaps we should construct a biosignature based on life as a universal process. +In fact, it should perhaps make use of the concepts that I developed just in order to sort of capture what a simple living system might be." +And the thing I came up with -- I have to first give you an introduction about the idea, and maybe that would be a meaning detector, rather than a life detector. +And the way we would do that -- I would like to find out how I can distinguish text that was written by a million monkeys, as opposed to text that [is] in our books. +And I would like to do it in such a way that I don't actually have to be able to read the language, because I'm sure I won't be able to. +As long as I know that there's some sort of alphabet. +So here would be a frequency plot of how often you find each of the 26 letters of the alphabet in a text written by random monkeys. +And obviously each of these letters comes off about roughly equally frequent. +But if you now look at the same distribution in English texts, it looks like that. +And I'm telling you, this is very robust across English texts. +And if I look at French texts, it looks a little bit different, or Italian or German. +They all have their own type of frequency distribution, but it's robust. +It doesn't matter whether it writes about politics or about science. +It doesn't matter whether it's a poem or whether it's a mathematical text. +It's a robust signature, and it's very stable. +As long as our books are written in English -- because people are rewriting them and recopying them -- it's going to be there. +So that inspired me to think about, well, what if I try to use this idea in order, not to detect random texts from texts with meaning, but rather detect the fact that there is meaning in the biomolecules that make up life. +But first I have to ask: what are these building blocks, like the alphabet, elements that I showed you? +Well it turns out, we have many different alternatives for such a set of building blocks. +We could use amino acids, we could use nucleic acids, carboxylic acids, fatty acids. +In fact, chemistry's extremely rich, and our body uses a lot of them. +So that we actually, to test this idea, first took a look at amino acids and some other carboxylic acids. +And here's the result. +Here is, in fact, what you get if you, for example, look at the distribution of amino acids on a comet or in interstellar space or, in fact, in a laboratory, where you made very sure that in your primordial soup that there is not living stuff in there. +What you find is mostly glycine and then alanine and there's some trace elements of the other ones. +That is also very robust -- what you find in systems like Earth where there are amino acids, but there is no life. +But suppose you take some dirt and dig through it and then put it into these spectrometers, because there's bacteria all over the place; or you take water anywhere on Earth, because it's teaming with life, and you make the same analysis; the spectrum looks completely different. +Of course, there is still glycine and alanine, but in fact, there are these heavy elements, these heavy amino acids, that are being produced because these are valuable to the organism. +And some other ones that are not used in the set of 20, they will not appear at all in any type of concentration. +So this also turns out to be extremely robust. +It doesn't matter what kind of sediment you're using to grind up, whether it's bacteria or any other plants or animals. +Anywhere there's life, you're going to have this distribution, as opposed to that distribution. +And it is detectable not just in amino acids. +Now you could ask: well, what about these Avidians? +The Avidians being the denizens of this computer world where they are perfectly happy replicating and growing in complexity. +So this is the distribution that you get if, in fact, there is no life. +They have about 28 of these instructions. +And if you have a system where they're being replaced one by the other, it's like the monkeys writing on a typewriter. +Each of these instructions appears with roughly the equal frequency. +But if you now take a set of replicating guys like in the video that you saw, it looks like this. +So there are some instructions that are extremely valuable to these organisms, and their frequency is going to be high. +And there's actually some instructions that you only use once, if ever. +So they are either poisonous or really should be used at less of a level than random. +In this case, the frequency is lower. +And so now we can see, is that really a robust signature? +I can tell you indeed it is, because this type of spectrum, just like what you've seen in books, and just like what you've seen in amino acids, it doesn't really matter how you change the environment, it's very robust; it's going to reflect the environment. +So I'm going to show you now a little experiment that we did. +And I have to explain to you, the top of this graph shows you that frequency distribution that I talked about. +Here, in fact, that's the lifeless environment where each instruction occurs at an equal frequency. +And below there, I show, in fact, the mutation rate in the environment. +And I'm starting this at a mutation rate that is so high that, even if you would drop a replicating program that would otherwise happily grow up to fill the entire world, if you drop it in, it gets mutated to death immediately. +So there is no life possible at that type of mutation rate. +But then I'm going to slowly turn down the heat, so to speak, and then there's this viability threshold where now it would be possible for a replicator to actually live. +And indeed, we're going to be dropping these guys into that soup all the time. +So let's see what that looks like. +So first, nothing, nothing, nothing. +Too hot, too hot. +Now the viability threshold is reached, and the frequency distribution has dramatically changed and, in fact, stabilizes. +And now what I did there is, I was being nasty, I just turned up the heat again and again. +And of course, it reaches the viability threshold. +And I'm just showing this to you again because it's so nice. +You hit the viability threshold. +The distribution changes to "alive!" +And then, once you hit the threshold where the mutation rate is so high that you cannot self-reproduce, you cannot copy the information forward to your offspring without making so many mistakes that your ability to replicate vanishes. +And then that signature is lost. +What do we learn from that? +Well, I think we learn a number of things from that. +Because it really only has to do with these concepts of information, of storing information within physical substrates -- anything: bits, nucleic acids, anything that's an alphabet -- and make sure that there's some process so that this information can be stored for much longer than you would expect the time scales for the deterioration of information. +And if you can do that, then you have life. +So the first thing that we learn is that it is possible to define life in terms of processes alone, without referring at all to the type of things that we hold dear, as far as the type of life on Earth is. +And that in a sense removes us again, like all of our scientific discoveries, or many of them -- it's this continuous dethroning of man -- of how we think we're special because we're alive. +Well we can make life. We can make life in the computer. +Granted, it's limited, but we have learned what it takes in order to actually construct it. +Now we don't know that there's life then, but we could say, "Well at least I'm going to have to take a look very precisely at this chemical and see where it comes from." +And that might be our chance of actually discovering life when we cannot visibly see it. +And so that's really the only take-home message that I have for you. +Life can be less mysterious than we make it out to be when we try to think about how it would be on other planets. +And if we remove the mystery of life, then I think it is a little bit easier for us to think about how we live, and how perhaps we're not as special as we always think we are. +And I'm going to leave you with that. +And thank you very much. +What's in the box? +Whatever it is must be pretty important, because I've traveled with it, moved it, from apartment to apartment to apartment. +Sound familiar? +Did you know that we Americans have about three times the amount of space we did 50 years ago? +Three times. +So you'd think, with all this extra space, we'd have plenty of room for all our stuff. +Nope. +There's a new industry in town, a 22 billion-dollar, 2.2 billion sq. ft. industry: that of personal storage. +So we've got triple the space, but we've become such good shoppers that we need even more space. +So where does this lead? +Lots of credit card debt, huge environmental footprints, and perhaps not coincidentally, our happiness levels flat-lined over the same 50 years. +Well I'm here to suggest there's a better way, that less might actually equal more. +I bet most of us have experienced at some point the joys of less: college -- in your dorm, traveling -- in a hotel room, camping -- rig up basically nothing, maybe a boat. +Whatever it was for you, I bet that, among other things, this gave you a little more freedom, a little more time. +So I'm going to suggest that less stuff and less space are going to equal a smaller footprint. +It's actually a great way to save you some money. +And it's going to give you a little more ease in your life. +So I started a project called Life Edited at lifeedited.org to further this conversation and to find some great solutions in this area. +First up: crowd-sourcing my 420 sq. ft. apartment in Manhattan with partners Mutopo and Jovoto.com. +I wanted it all -- home office, sit down dinner for 10, room for guests, and all my kite surfing gear. +With over 300 entries from around the world, I got it, my own little jewel box. +By buying a space that was 420 sq. ft. +instead of 600, immediately I'm saving 200 grand. +Smaller space is going to make for smaller utilities -- save some more money there, but also a smaller footprint. +And because it's really designed around an edited set of possessions -- my favorite stuff -- and really designed for me, I'm really excited to be there. +So how can you live little? +Three main approaches. +First of all, you have to edit ruthlessly. +We've got to clear the arteries of our lives. +And that shirt that I hadn't worn in years? +It's time for me to let it go. +We've got to cut the extraneous out of our lives, and we've got to learn to stem the inflow. +We need to think before we buy. +Ask ourselves, "Is that really going to make me happier? Truly?" +By all means, we should buy and own some great stuff. +But we want stuff that we're going to love for years, not just stuff. +Secondly, our new mantra: small is sexy. +We want space efficiency. +We want things that are designed for how they're used the vast majority of the time, not that rare event. +Why have a six burner stove when you rarely use three? +So we want things that nest, we want things that stack, and we want it digitized. +You can take paperwork, books, movies, and you can make it disappear -- it's magic. +Finally, we want multifunctional spaces and housewares -- a sink combined with a toilet, a dining table becomes a bed -- same space, a little side table stretches out to seat 10. +In the winning Life Edited scheme in a render here, we combine a moving wall with transformer furniture to get a lot out of the space. +Look at the coffee table -- it grows in height and width to seat 10. +My office folds away, easily hidden. +My bed just pops out of the wall with two fingers. +Guests? Move the moving wall, have some fold-down guest beds. +And of course, my own movie theater. +So I'm not saying that we all need to live in 420 sq. ft. +But consider the benefits of an edited life. +Go from 3,000 to 2,000, from 1,500 to 1,000. +Most of us, maybe all of us, are here pretty happily for a bunch of days with a couple of bags, maybe a small space, a hotel room. +So when you go home and you walk through your front door, take a second and ask yourselves, "Could I do with a little life editing? +Would that give me a little more freedom? +Maybe a little more time?" +What's in the box? +It doesn't really matter. +I know I don't need it. +What's in yours? +Maybe, just maybe, less might equal more. +So let's make room for the good stuff. +Thank you. +I'm a garbage man. +And you might find it interesting that I became a garbage man, because I absolutely hate waste. +I hope, within the next 10 minutes, to change the way you think about a lot of the stuff in your life. +And I'd like to start at the very beginning. +Think back when you were just a kid. +How did look at the stuff in your life? +Perhaps it was like these toddler rules: It's my stuff if I saw it first. +The entire pile is my stuff if I'm building something. +The more stuff that's mine, the better. +And of course, it's your stuff if it's broken. +Well after spending about 20 years in the recycling industry, it's become pretty clear to me that we don't necessarily leave these toddler rules behind as we develop into adults. +And let me tell you why I have that perspective. +at our recycling plants around the world we handle about one million pounds of people's discarded stuff. +Now a million pounds a day sounds like a lot of stuff, but it's a tiny drop of the durable goods that are disposed each and every year around the world -- well less than one percent. +In fact, the United Nations estimates that there's about 85 billion pounds a year of electronics waste that gets discarded around the world each and every year -- and that's one of the most rapidly growing parts of our waste stream. +And if you throw in other durable goods like automobiles and so forth, that number well more than doubles. +And of course, the more developed the country, the bigger these mountains. +Now when you see these mountains, most people think of garbage. +We see above-ground mines. +And the reason we see mines is because there's a lot of valuable raw materials that went into making all of this stuff in the first place. +And it's becoming increasingly important that we figure out how to extract these raw materials from these extremely complicated waste streams. +Because as we've heard all week at TED, the world's getting to be a smaller place with more people in it who want more and more stuff. +And of course, they want the toys and the tools that many of us take for granted. +And what goes into making those toys and tools that we use every single day? +It's mostly many types of plastics and many types of metals. +And the metals, we typically get from ore that we mine in ever widening mines and ever deepening mines around the world. +And the plastics, we get from oil, which we go to more remote locations and drill ever deeper wells to extract. +And these practices have significant economic and environmental implications that we're already starting to see today. +The good news is we are starting to recover materials from our end-of-life stuff and starting to recycle our end-of-life stuff, particularly in regions of the world like here in Europe that have recycling policies in place that require that this stuff be recycled in a responsible manner. +Most of what's extracted from our end-of-life stuff, if it makes it to a recycler, are the metals. +To put that in perspective -- and I'm using steel as a proxy here for metals, because it's the most common metal -- if your stuff makes it to a recycler, probably over 90 percent of the metals are going to be recovered and reused for another purpose. +Plastics are a whole other story: well less than 10 percent are recovered. +In fact, it's more like five percent. +Most of it's incinerated or landfilled. +Now most people think that's because plastics are a throw-away material, have very little value. +But actually, plastics are several times more valuable than steel. +And there's more plastics produced and consumed around the world on a volume basis every year than steel. +So why is such a plentiful and valuable material not recovered at anywhere near the rate of the less valuable material? +Well it's predominantly because metals are very easy to recycle from other materials and from one another. +They have very different densities. +They have different electrical and magnetic properties. +And they even have different colors. +So it's very easy for either humans or machines to separate these metals from one another and from other materials. +Plastics have overlapping densities over a very narrow range. +They have either identical or very similar electrical and magnetic properties. +And any plastic can be any color, as you probably well know. +So the traditional ways of separating materials just simply don't work for plastics. +Another consequence of metals being so easy to recycle by humans is that a lot of our stuff from the developed world -- and sadly to say, particularly from the United States, where we don't have any recycling policies in place like here in Europe -- finds its way to developing countries for low-cost recycling. +People, for as little as a dollar a day, pick through our stuff. +They extract what they can, which is mostly the metals -- circuit boards and so forth -- and they leave behind mostly what they can't recover, which is, again, mostly the plastics. +Or they burn the plastics to get to the metals in burn houses like you see here. +And they extract the metals by hand. +Now while this may be the low-economic-cost solution, this is certainly not the low-environmental or human health-and-safety solution. +I call this environmental arbitrage. +And it's not fair, it's not safe and it's not sustainable. +Now because the plastics are so plentiful -- and by the way, those other methods don't lead to the recovery of plastics, obviously -- but people do try to recover the plastics. +This is just one example. +This is a photo I took standing on the rooftops of one of the largest slums in the world in Mumbai, India. +They store the plastics on the roofs. +They bring them below those roofs into small workshops like these, and people try very hard to separate the plastics, by color, by shape, by feel, by any technique they can. +And sometimes they'll resort to what's known as the "burn and sniff" technique where they'll burn the plastic and smell the fumes to try to determine the type of plastic. +None of these techniques result in any amount of recycling in any significant way. +And by the way, please don't try this technique at home. +So what are we to do about this space-age material, at least what we used to call a space-aged material, these plastics? +Well I certainly believe that it's far too valuable and far too abundant to keep putting back in the ground or certainly send up in smoke. +So about 20 years ago, I literally started in my garage tinkering around, trying to figure out how to separate these very similar materials from each other, and eventually enlisted a lot of my friends, in the mining world actually, and in the plastics world, and we started going around to mining laboratories around the world. +Because after all, we're doing above-ground mining. +And we eventually broke the code. +This is the last frontier of recycling. +It's the last major material to be recovered in any significant amount on the Earth. +And we finally figured out how to do it. +And in the process, we started recreating how the plastics industry makes plastics. +The traditional way to make plastics is with oil or petrochemicals. +You breakdown the molecules, you recombine them in very specific ways, to make all the wonderful plastics that we enjoy each and every day. +We said, there's got to be a more sustainable way to make plastics. +And not just sustainable from an environmental standpoint, sustainable from an economic standpoint as well. +Well a good place to start is with waste. +It certainly doesn't cost as much as oil, and it's plentiful, as I hope that you've been able to see from the photographs. +And because we're not breaking down the plastic into molecules and recombining them, we're using a mining approach to extract the materials. +We have significantly lower capital costs in our plant equipment. +We have enormous energy savings. +I don't know how many other projects on the planet right now can save 80 to 90 percent of the energy compared to making something the traditional way. +And instead of plopping down several hundred million dollars to build a chemical plant that will only make one type of plastic for its entire life, our plants can make any type of plastic we feed them. +And we make a drop-in replacement for that plastic that's made from petrochemicals. +Our customers get to enjoy huge CO2 savings. +They get to close the loop with their products. +And they get to make more sustainable products. +In the short time period I have, I want to show you a little bit of a sense about how we do this. +It starts with metal recyclers who shred our stuff into very small bits. +They recover the metals and leave behind what's called shredder residue -- it's their waste -- a very complex mixture of materials, but predominantly plastics. +We take out the things that aren't plastics, such as the metals they missed, carpeting, foam, rubber, wood, glass, paper, you name it. +Even an occasional dead animal, unfortunately. +And it goes in the first part of our process here, which is more like traditional recycling. +We're sieving the material, we're using magnets, we're using air classification. +It looks like the Willy Wonka factory at this point. +At the end of this process, we have a mixed plastic composite: many different types of plastics and many different grades of plastics. +This goes into the more sophisticated part of our process, and the really hard work, multi-step separation process begins. +We grind the plastic down to about the size of your small fingernail. +We use a very highly automated process to sort those plastics, not only by type, but by grade. +And out the end of that part of the process come little flakes of plastic: one type, one grade. +We then use optical sorting to color sort this material. +We blend it in 50,000-lb. blending silos. +We push that material to extruders where we melt it, push it through small die holes, make spaghetti-like plastic strands. +And we chop those strands into what are called pellets. +And this becomes the currency of the plastics industry. +This is the same material that you would get from oil. +And today, we're producing it from your old stuff, and it's going right back into your new stuff. +So now, instead of your stuff ending up on a hillside in a developing country or literally going up in smoke, you can find your old stuff back on top of your desk in new products, in your office, or back at work in your home. +And these are just a few examples of companies that are buying our plastic, replacing virgin plastic, to make their new products. +So I hope I've changed the way you look at at least some of the stuff in your life. +We took our clues from mother nature. +Mother nature wastes very little, reuses practically everything. +And I hope that you stop looking at yourself as a consumer -- that's a label I've always hated my entire life -- and think of yourself as just using resources in one form, until they can be transformed to another form for another use later in time. +And finally, I hope you agree with me to change that last toddler rule just a little bit to: "If it's broken, it's my stuff." +Thank you for your time. +I am a conductor, and I'm here today to talk to you about trust. +My job depends upon it. +There has to be, between me and the orchestra, an unshakable bond of trust, born out of mutual respect, through which we can spin a musical narrative that we all believe in. +Now in the old days, conducting, music making, was less about trust and more, frankly, about coercion. +Up to and around about the Second World War, conductors were invariably dictators -- these tyrannical figures who would rehearse, not just the orchestra as a whole, but individuals within it, within an inch of their lives. +But I'm happy to say now that the world has moved on, music has moved on with it. +We now have a more democratic view and way of making music -- a two-way street. +I, as the conductor, have to come to the rehearsal with a cast-iron sense of the outer architecture of that music, within which there is then immense personal freedom for the members of the orchestra to shine. +For myself, of course, I have to completely trust my body language. +That's all I have at the point of sale. +It's silent gesture. +I can hardly bark out instructions while we're playing. +Ladies and gentlemen, the Scottish Ensemble. +So in order for all this to work, obviously I have got to be in a position of trust. +I have to trust the orchestra, and, even more crucially, I have to trust myself. +Think about it: when you're in a position of not trusting, what do you do? +You overcompensate. +And in my game, that means you overgesticulate. +You end up like some kind of rabid windmill. +And the bigger your gesture gets, the more ill-defined, blurry and, frankly, useless it is to the orchestra. +You become a figure of fun. There's no trust anymore, only ridicule. +And I remember at the beginning of my career, again and again, on these dismal outings with orchestras, I would be going completely insane on the podium, trying to engender a small scale crescendo really, just a little upsurge in volume. +Bugger me, they wouldn't give it to me. +I spent a lot of time in those early years weeping silently in dressing rooms. +And how futile seemed the words of advice to me from great British veteran conductor Sir Colin Davis who said, "Conducting, Charles, is like holding a small bird in your hand. +If you hold it too tightly, you crush it. +If you hold it too loosely, it flies away." +I have to say, in those days, I couldn't really even find the bird. +Now a fundamental and really viscerally important experience for me, in terms of music, has been my adventures in South Africa, the most dizzyingly musical country on the planet in my view, but a country which, through its musical culture, has taught me one fundamental lesson: that through music making can come deep levels of fundamental life-giving trust. +Back in 2000, I had the opportunity to go to South Africa to form a new opera company. +So I went out there, and I auditioned, mainly in rural township locations, right around the country. +I heard about 2,000 singers and pulled together a company of 40 of the most jaw-droppingly amazing young performers, the majority of whom were black, but there were a handful of white performers. +Now it emerged early on in the first rehearsal period that one of those white performers had, in his previous incarnation, been a member of the South African police force. +And in the last years of the old regime, he would routinely be detailed to go into the township to aggress the community. +Now you can imagine what this knowledge did to the temperature in the room, the general atmosphere. +Let's be under no illusions. +In South Africa, the relationship most devoid of trust is that between a white policeman and the black community. +So how do we recover from that, ladies and gentlemen? +Simply through singing. +We sang, we sang, we sang, and amazingly new trust grew, and indeed friendship blossomed. +And that showed me such a fundamental truth, that music making and other forms of creativity can so often go to places where mere words cannot. +So we got some shows off the ground. We started touring them internationally. +One of them was "Carmen." +We then thought we'd make a movie of "Carmen," which we recorded and shot outside on location in the township outside Cape Town called Khayelitsha. +The piece was sung entirely in Xhosa, which is a beautifully musical language, if you don't know it. +It's called "U-Carmen e-Khayelitsha" -- literally "Carmen of Khayelitsha." +I want to play you a tiny clip of it now for no other reason than to give you proof positive that there is nothing tiny about South African music making. +Something which I find utterly enchanting about South African music making is that it's so free. +South Africans just make music really freely. +And I think, in no small way, that's due to one fundamental fact: they're not bound to a system of notation. +They don't read music. +They trust their ears. +You can teach a bunch of South Africans a tune in about five seconds flat. +And then, as if by magic, they will spontaneously improvise a load of harmony around that tune because they can. +Now those of us that live in the West, if I can use that term, I think have a much more hidebound attitude or sense of music -- that somehow it's all about skill and systems. +Therefore it's the exclusive preserve of an elite, talented body. +And yet, ladies and gentlemen, every single one of us on this planet probably engages with music on a daily basis. +And if I can broaden this out for a second, I'm willing to bet that every single one of you sitting in this room would be happy to speak with acuity, with total confidence, about movies, probably about literature. +But how many of you would be able to make a confident assertion about a piece of classical music? +Why is this? +And what I'm going to say to you now is I'm just urging you to get over this supreme lack of self-confidence, to take the plunge, to believe that you can trust your ears, you can hear some of the fundamental muscle tissue, fiber, DNA, what makes a great piece of music great. +I've got a little experiment I want to try with you. +Did you know that TED is a tune? +A very simple tune based on three notes -- T, E, D. +Now hang on a minute. +I know you're going to say to me, "T doesn't exist in music." +Well ladies and gentlemen, there's a time-honored system, which composers have been using for hundreds of years, which proves actually that it does. +If I sing you a musical scale: A, B, C, D, E, F, G -- and I just carry on with the next set of letters in the alphabet, same scale: H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, T -- there you go. +T, see it's the same as F in music. +So T is F. +So T, E, D is the same as F, E, D. +Now that piece of music that we played at the start of this session had enshrined in its heart the theme, which is TED. +Have a listen. +Do you hear it? +Or do I smell some doubt in the room? +Okay, we'll play it for you again now, and we're going to highlight, we're going to poke out the T, E, D. +If you'll pardon the expression. +Oh my goodness me, there it was loud and clear, surely. +I think we should make this even more explicit. +Ladies and gentlemen, it's nearly time for tea. +Would you reckon you need to sing for your tea, I think? +I think we need to sing for our tea. +We're going to sing those three wonderful notes: T, E, D. +Will you have a go for me? +Audience: T, E, D. +Charles Hazlewood: Yeah, you sound a bit more like cows really than human beings. +Shall we try that one again? +And look, if you're adventurous, you go up the octave. +T, E, D. +Audience: T, E, D. +CH: Once more with vim. (Audience: T, E, D.) There I am like a bloody windmill again, you see. +Now we're going to put that in the context of the music. +The music will start, and then at a signal from me, you will sing that. +One more time, with feeling, ladies and gentlemen. +You won't make the key otherwise. +Well done, ladies and gentlemen. +It wasn't a bad debut for the TED choir, not a bad debut at all. +Now there's a project that I'm initiating at the moment that I'm very excited about and wanted to share with you, because it is all about changing perceptions, and, indeed, building a new level of trust. +The youngest of my children was born with cerebral palsy, which as you can imagine, if you don't have an experience of it yourself, is quite a big thing to take on board. +But the gift that my gorgeous daughter has given me, aside from her very existence, is that it's opened my eyes to a whole stretch of the community that was hitherto hidden, the community of disabled people. +And I found myself looking at the Paralympics and thinking how incredible how technology's been harnessed to prove beyond doubt that disability is no barrier to the highest levels of sporting achievement. +Of course there's a grimmer side to that truth, which is that it's actually taken decades for the world at large to come to a position of trust, to really believe that disability and sports can go together in a convincing and interesting fashion. +So I find myself asking: where is music in all of this? +You can't tell me that there aren't millions of disabled people, in the U.K. alone, with massive musical potential. +So I decided to create a platform for that potential. +It's going to be Britain's first ever national disabled orchestra. +It's called Paraorchestra. +I'm going to show you a clip now of the very first improvisation session that we had. +It was a really extraordinary moment. +Just me and four astonishingly gifted disabled musicians. +Normally when you improvise -- and I do it all the time around the world -- there's this initial period of horror, like everyone's too frightened to throw the hat into the ring, an awful pregnant silence. +Then suddenly, as if by magic, bang! We're all in there and it's complete bedlam. You can't hear anything. +No one's listening. No one's trusting. +No one's responding to each other. +Now in this room with these four disabled musicians, within five minutes a rapt listening, a rapt response and some really insanely beautiful music. +Nicholas:: My name's Nicholas McCarthy. +I'm 22, and I'm a left-handed pianist. +And I was born without my left hand -- right hand. +Can I do that one again? +Lyn: When I'm making music, I feel like a pilot in the cockpit flying an airplane. +I become alive. +Clarence: I would rather be able to play an instrument again than walk. +There's so much joy and things I could get from playing an instrument and performing. +It's removed some of my paralysis. +CH: I only wish that some of those musicians were here with us today, so you could see at firsthand how utterly extraordinary they are. +Paraorchestra is the name of that project. +If any of you thinks you want to help me in any way to achieve what is a fairly impossible and implausible dream still at this point, please let me know. +Now my parting shot comes courtesy of the great Joseph Haydn, wonderful Austrian composer in the second half of the 18th century -- spent the bulk of his life in the employ of Prince Nikolaus Esterhazy, along with his orchestra. +Now this prince loved his music, but he also loved the country castle that he tended to reside in most of the time, which is just on the Austro-Hungarian border, a place called Esterhazy -- a long way from the big city of Vienna. +Now one day in 1772, the prince decreed that the musicians' families, the orchestral musicians' families, were no longer welcome in the castle. +They weren't allowed to stay there anymore; they had to be returned to Vienna -- as I say, an unfeasibly long way away in those days. +You can imagine, the musicians were disconsolate. +Haydn remonstrated with the prince, but to no avail. +So given the prince loved his music, Haydn thought he'd write a symphony to make the point. +And we're going to play just the very tail end of this symphony now. +And you'll see the orchestra in a kind of sullen revolt. +I'm pleased to say, the prince did take the tip from the orchestral performance, and the musicians were reunited with their families. +But I think it sums up my talk rather well, this, that where there is trust, there is music -- by extension life. +Where there is no trust, the music quite simply withers away. +What is going on in this baby's mind? +If you'd asked people this 30 years ago, most people, including psychologists, would have said that this baby was irrational, illogical, egocentric -- that he couldn't take the perspective of another person or understand cause and effect. +In the last 20 years, developmental science has completely overturned that picture. +So in some ways, we think that this baby's thinking is like the thinking of the most brilliant scientists. +Let me give you just one example of this. +One thing that this baby could be thinking about, that could be going on in his mind, is trying to figure out what's going on in the mind of that other baby. +After all, one of the things that's hardest for all of us to do is to figure out what other people are thinking and feeling. +And maybe the hardest thing of all is to figure out that what other people think and feel isn't actually exactly like what we think and feel. +Anyone who's followed politics can testify to how hard that is for some people to get. +We wanted to know if babies and young children could understand this really profound thing about other people. +Now the question is: How could we ask them? +Babies, after all, can't talk, and if you ask a three year-old to tell you what he thinks, what you'll get is a beautiful stream of consciousness monologue about ponies and birthdays and things like that. +So how do we actually ask them the question? +Well it turns out that the secret was broccoli. +What we did -- Betty Rapacholi, who was one of my students, and I -- was actually to give the babies two bowls of food: one bowl of raw broccoli and one bowl of delicious goldfish crackers. +Now all of the babies, even in Berkley, like the crackers and don't like the raw broccoli. +But then what Betty did was to take a little taste of food from each bowl. +And she would act as if she liked it or she didn't. +So half the time, she acted as if she liked the crackers and didn't like the broccoli -- just like a baby and any other sane person. +But half the time, what she would do is take a little bit of the broccoli and go, "Mmmmm, broccoli. +I tasted the broccoli. Mmmmm." +And then she would take a little bit of the crackers, and she'd go, "Eww, yuck, crackers. +I tasted the crackers. Eww, yuck." +So she'd act as if what she wanted was just the opposite of what the babies wanted. +We did this with 15 and 18 month-old babies. +And then she would simply put her hand out and say, "Can you give me some?" +So the question is: What would the baby give her, what they liked or what she liked? +And the remarkable thing was that 18 month-old babies, just barely walking and talking, would give her the crackers if she liked the crackers, but they would give her the broccoli if she liked the broccoli. +On the other hand, 15 month-olds would stare at her for a long time if she acted as if she liked the broccoli, like they couldn't figure this out. +But then after they stared for a long time, they would just give her the crackers, what they thought everybody must like. +So there are two really remarkable things about this. +The first one is that these little 18 month-old babies have already discovered this really profound fact about human nature, that we don't always want the same thing. +And what's more, they felt that they should actually do things to help other people get what they wanted. +Even more remarkably though, the fact that 15 month-olds didn't do this suggests that these 18 month-olds had learned this deep, profound fact about human nature in the three months from when they were 15 months old. +So children both know more and learn more than we ever would have thought. +And this is just one of hundreds and hundreds of studies over the last 20 years that's actually demonstrated it. +The question you might ask though is: Why do children learn so much? +And how is it possible for them to learn so much in such a short time? +I mean, after all, if you look at babies superficially, they seem pretty useless. +And actually in many ways, they're worse than useless, because we have to put so much time and energy into just keeping them alive. +But if we turn to evolution for an answer to this puzzle of why we spend so much time taking care of useless babies, it turns out that there's actually an answer. +If we look across many, many different species of animals, not just us primates, but also including other mammals, birds, even marsupials like kangaroos and wombats, it turns out that there's a relationship between how long a childhood a species has and how big their brains are compared to their bodies and how smart and flexible they are. +And sort of the posterbirds for this idea are the birds up there. +On one side is a New Caledonian crow. +And crows and other corvidae, ravens, rooks and so forth, are incredibly smart birds. +They're as smart as chimpanzees in some respects. +And this is a bird on the cover of science who's learned how to use a tool to get food. +On the other hand, we have our friend the domestic chicken. +And chickens and ducks and geese and turkeys are basically as dumb as dumps. +So they're very, very good at pecking for grain, and they're not much good at doing anything else. +Well it turns out that the babies, the New Caledonian crow babies, are fledglings. +They depend on their moms to drop worms in their little open mouths for as long as two years, which is a really long time in the life of a bird. +Whereas the chickens are actually mature within a couple of months. +So childhood is the reason why the crows end up on the cover of Science and the chickens end up in the soup pot. +There's something about that long childhood that seems to be connected to knowledge and learning. +Well what kind of explanation could we have for this? +Well some animals, like the chicken, seem to be beautifully suited to doing just one thing very well. +So they seem to be beautifully suited to pecking grain in one environment. +Other creatures, like the crows, aren't very good at doing anything in particular, but they're extremely good at learning about laws of different environments. +And of course, we human beings are way out on the end of the distribution like the crows. +We have bigger brains relative to our bodies by far than any other animal. +We're smarter, we're more flexible, we can learn more, we survive in more different environments, we migrated to cover the world and even go to outer space. +And our babies and children are dependent on us for much longer than the babies of any other species. +My son is 23. +And at least until they're 23, we're still popping those worms into those little open mouths. +All right, why would we see this correlation? +Well an idea is that that strategy, that learning strategy, is an extremely powerful, great strategy for getting on in the world, but it has one big disadvantage. +And that one big disadvantage is that, until you actually do all that learning, you're going to be helpless. +So you don't want to have the mastodon charging at you and be saying to yourself, "A slingshot or maybe a spear might work. Which would actually be better?" +You want to know all that before the mastodons actually show up. +And the way the evolutions seems to have solved that problem is with a kind of division of labor. +So the idea is that we have this early period when we're completely protected. +We don't have to do anything. All we have to do is learn. +And then as adults, we can take all those things that we learned when we were babies and children and actually put them to work to do things out there in the world. +So one way of thinking about it is that babies and young children are like the research and development division of the human species. +So they're the protected blue sky guys who just have to go out and learn and have good ideas, and we're production and marketing. +We have to take all those ideas that we learned when we were children and actually put them to use. +If this is true, if these babies are designed to learn -- and this evolutionary story would say children are for learning, that's what they're for -- we might expect that they would have really powerful learning mechanisms. +And in fact, the baby's brain seems to be the most powerful learning computer on the planet. +But real computers are actually getting to be a lot better. +And there's been a revolution in our understanding of machine learning recently. +And it all depends on the ideas of this guy, the Reverend Thomas Bayes, who was a statistician and mathematician in the 18th century. +And essentially what Bayes did was to provide a mathematical way using probability theory to characterize, describe, the way that scientists find out about the world. +So what scientists do is they have a hypothesis that they think might be likely to start with. +They go out and test it against the evidence. +The evidence makes them change that hypothesis. +Then they test that new hypothesis and so on and so forth. +And what Bayes showed was a mathematical way that you could do that. +And that mathematics is at the core of the best machine learning programs that we have now. +And some 10 years ago, I suggested that babies might be doing the same thing. +So if you want to know what's going on underneath those beautiful brown eyes, I think it actually looks something like this. +This is Reverend Bayes's notebook. +So I think those babies are actually making complicated calculations with conditional probabilities that they're revising to figure out how the world works. +All right, now that might seem like an even taller order to actually demonstrate. +Because after all, if you ask even grownups about statistics, they look extremely stupid. +How could it be that children are doing statistics? +So to test this we used a machine that we have called the Blicket Detector. +This is a box that lights up and plays music when you put some things on it and not others. +And using this very simple machine, my lab and others have done dozens of studies showing just how good babies are at learning about the world. +Let me mention just one that we did with Tumar Kushner, my student. +If I showed you this detector, you would be likely to think to begin with that the way to make the detector go would be to put a block on top of the detector. +But actually, this detector works in a bit of a strange way. +Because if you wave a block over the top of the detector, something you wouldn't ever think of to begin with, the detector will actually activate two out of three times. +Whereas, if you do the likely thing, put the block on the detector, it will only activate two out of six times. +So the unlikely hypothesis actually has stronger evidence. +It looks as if the waving is a more effective strategy than the other strategy. +So we did just this; we gave four year-olds this pattern of evidence, and we just asked them to make it go. +And sure enough, the four year-olds used the evidence to wave the object on top of the detector. +Now there are two things that are really interesting about this. +The first one is, again, remember, these are four year-olds. +They're just learning how to count. +But unconsciously, they're doing these quite complicated calculations that will give them a conditional probability measure. +And the other interesting thing is that they're using that evidence to get to an idea, get to a hypothesis about the world, that seems very unlikely to begin with. +And in studies we've just been doing in my lab, similar studies, we've show that four year-olds are actually better at finding out an unlikely hypothesis than adults are when we give them exactly the same task. +So in these circumstances, the children are using statistics to find out about the world, but after all, scientists also do experiments, and we wanted to see if children are doing experiments. +When children do experiments we call it "getting into everything" or else "playing." +And there's been a bunch of interesting studies recently that have shown this playing around is really a kind of experimental research program. +Here's one from Cristine Legare's lab. +What Cristine did was use our Blicket Detectors. +And what she did was show children that yellow ones made it go and red ones didn't, and then she showed them an anomaly. +And what you'll see is that this little boy will go through five hypotheses in the space of two minutes. +Boy: How about this? +Same as the other side. +Alison Gopnik: Okay, so his first hypothesis has just been falsified. +Boy: This one lighted up, and this one nothing. +AG: Okay, he's got his experimental notebook out. +Boy: What's making this light up. +I don't know. +AG: Every scientist will recognize that expression of despair. +Boy: Oh, it's because this needs to be like this, and this needs to be like this. +AG: Okay, hypothesis two. +Boy: That's why. +Oh. +AG: Now this is his next idea. +He told the experimenter to do this, to try putting it out onto the other location. +Not working either. +Boy: Oh, because the light goes only to here, not here. +Oh, the bottom of this box has electricity in here, but this doesn't have electricity. +AG: Okay, that's a fourth hypothesis. +Boy: It's lighting up. +So when you put four. +So you put four on this one to make it light up and two on this one to make it light up. +AG: Okay,there's his fifth hypothesis. +Now that is a particularly -- that is a particularly adorable and articulate little boy, but what Cristine discovered is this is actually quite typical. +If you look at the way children play, when you ask them to explain something, what they really do is do a series of experiments. +This is actually pretty typical of four year-olds. +Well, what's it like to be this kind of creature? +What's it like to be one of these brilliant butterflies who can test five hypotheses in two minutes? +Well, if you go back to those psychologists and philosophers, a lot of them have said that babies and young children were barely conscious if they were conscious at all. +And I think just the opposite is true. +I think babies and children are actually more conscious than we are as adults. +Now here's what we know about how adult consciousness works. +And adults' attention and consciousness look kind of like a spotlight. +So what happens for adults is we decide that something's relevant or important, we should pay attention to it. +Our consciousness of that thing that we're attending to becomes extremely bright and vivid, and everything else sort of goes dark. +And we even know something about the way the brain does this. +So what happens when we pay attention is that the prefrontal cortex, the sort of executive part of our brains, sends a signal that makes a little part of our brain much more flexible, more plastic, better at learning, and shuts down activity in all the rest of our brains. +So we have a very focused, purpose-driven kind of attention. +If we look at babies and young children, we see something very different. +I think babies and young children seem to have more of a lantern of consciousness than a spotlight of consciousness. +So babies and young children are very bad at narrowing down to just one thing. +But they're very good at taking in lots of information from lots of different sources at once. +And if you actually look in their brains, you see that they're flooded with these neurotransmitters that are really good at inducing learning and plasticity, and the inhibitory parts haven't come on yet. +So when we say that babies and young children are bad at paying attention, what we really mean is that they're bad at not paying attention. +So they're bad at getting rid of all the interesting things that could tell them something and just looking at the thing that's important. +That's the kind of attention, the kind of consciousness, that we might expect from those butterflies who are designed to learn. +And what happens then is not that our consciousness contracts, it expands, so that those three days in Paris seem to be more full of consciousness and experience than all the months of being a walking, talking, faculty meeting-attending zombie back home. +And by the way, that coffee, that wonderful coffee you've been drinking downstairs, actually mimics the effect of those baby neurotransmitters. +So what's it like to be a baby? +It's like being in love in Paris for the first time after you've had three double-espressos. +That's a fantastic way to be, but it does tend to leave you waking up crying at three o'clock in the morning. +Now it's good to be a grownup. +I don't want to say too much about how wonderful babies are. +It's good to be a grownup. +We can do things like tie our shoelaces and cross the street by ourselves. +And it makes sense that we put a lot of effort into making babies think like adults do. +But if what we want is to be like those butterflies, to have open-mindedness, open learning, imagination, creativity, innovation, maybe at least some of the time we should be getting the adults to start thinking more like children. +When I was little -- and by the way, I was little once -- my father told me a story about an 18th century watchmaker. +And what this guy had done: he used to produce these fabulously beautiful watches. +And one day, one of his customers came into his workshop and asked him to clean the watch that he'd bought. +And the guy took it apart, and one of the things he pulled out was one of the balance wheels. +And as he did so, his customer noticed that on the back side of the balance wheel was an engraving, were words. +And he said to the guy, "Why have you put stuff on the back that no one will ever see?" +And the watchmaker turned around and said, "God can see it." +Now I'm not in the least bit religious, neither was my father, but at that point, I noticed something happening here. +I felt something in this plexus of blood vessels and nerves, and there must be some muscles in there as well somewhere, I guess. +But I felt something. +And it was a physiological response. +And from that point on, from my age at the time, I began to think of things in a different way. +And as I took on my career as a designer, I began to ask myself the simple question: Do we actually think beauty, or do we feel it? +Now you probably know the answer to this already. +You probably think, well, I don't know which one you think it is, but I think it's about feeling beauty. +And so I then moved on into my design career and began to find some exciting things. +One of the most early work was done in automotive design -- some very exciting work was done there. +And during a lot of this work, we found something, or I found something, that really fascinated me, and maybe you can remember it. +Do you remember when lights used to just go on and off, click click, when you closed the door in a car? +And then somebody, I think it was BMW, introduced a light that went out slowly. +Remember that? +I remember it clearly. +Do you remember the first time you were in a car and it did that? +I remember sitting there thinking, this is fantastic. +In fact, I've never found anybody that doesn't like the light that goes out slowly. +I thought, well what the hell's that about? +So I started to ask myself questions about it. +And the first was, I'd ask other people: "Do you like it?" "Yes." +"Why?" And they'd say, "Oh, it feels so natural," or, "It's nice." +I thought, well that's not good enough. +Can we cut down a little bit further, because, as a designer, I need the vocabulary, I need the keyboard, of how this actually works. +And so I did some experiments. +And I suddenly realized that there was something that did exactly that -- light to dark in six seconds -- exactly that. +Do you know what it is? Anyone? +You see, using this bit, the thinky bit, the slow bit of the brain -- using that. +And this isn't a think, it's a feel. +And would you do me a favor? +For the next 14 minutes or whatever it is, will you feel stuff? +I don't need you to think so much as I want you to feel it. +I felt a sense of relaxation tempered with anticipation. +And that thing that I found was the cinema or the theater. +It's actually just happened here -- light to dark in six seconds. +And when that happens, are you sitting there going, "No, the movie's about to start," or are you going, "That's fantastic. I'm looking forward to it. +I get a sense of anticipation"? +Now I'm not a neuroscientist. +I don't know even if there is something called a conditioned reflex. +But it might be. +Because the people I speak to in the northern hemisphere that used to go in the cinema get this. +And some of the people I speak to that have never seen a movie or been to the theater don't get it in the same way. +Everybody likes it, but some like it more than others. +So this leads me to think of this in a different way. +We're not feeling it. We're thinking beauty is in the limbic system -- if that's not an outmoded idea. +These are the bits, the pleasure centers, and maybe what I'm seeing and sensing and feeling is bypassing my thinking. +The wiring from your sensory apparatus to those bits is shorter than the bits that have to pass through the thinky bit, the cortex. +They arrive first. +So how do we make that actually work? +And how much of that reactive side of it is due to what we already know, or what we're going to learn, about something? +This is one of the most beautiful things I know. +It's a plastic bag. +And when I looked at it first, I thought, no, there's no beauty in that. +Then I found out, post exposure, that this plastic bag if I put it into a filthy puddle or a stream filled with coliforms and all sorts of disgusting stuff, that that filthy water will migrate through the wall of the bag by osmosis and end up inside it as pure, potable drinking water. +And all of a sudden, this plastic bag was extremely beautiful to me. +Now I'm going to ask you again to switch on the emotional bit. +Would you mind taking the brain out, and I just want you to feel something. +Look at that. What are you feeling about it? +Is it beautiful? Is it exciting? +I'm watching your faces very carefully. +There's some rather bored-looking gentlemen and some slightly engaged-looking ladies who are picking up something off that. +Maybe there's an innocence to it. +Now I'm going to tell you what it is. Are you ready? +This is the last act on this Earth of a little girl called Heidi, five years old, before she died of cancer to the spine. +It's the last thing she did, the last physical act. +Look at that picture. +Look at the innocence. Look at the beauty in it. +Is it beautiful now? +Stop. Stop. How do you feel? +Where are you feeling this? +I'm feeling it here. I feel it here. +And I'm watching your faces, because your faces are telling me something. +The lady over there is actually crying, by the way. +But what are you doing? +I watch what people do. +I watch faces. +I watch reactions. +Because I have to know how people react to things. +And one of the most common faces on something faced with beauty, something stupefyingly delicious, is what I call the OMG. +And by the way, there's no pleasure in that face. +It's not a "this is wonderful!" +The eyebrows are doing this, the eyes are defocused, and the mouth is hanging open. +That's not the expression of joy. +There's something else in that. +There's something weird happening. +So pleasure seems to be tempered by a whole series of different things coming in. +Poignancy is a word I love as a designer. +It means something triggering a big emotional response, often quite a sad emotional response, but it's part of what we do. +It isn't just about nice. +And this is the dilemma, this is the paradox, of beauty. +Sensorily, we're taking in all sorts of things -- mixtures of things that are good, bad, exciting, frightening -- to come up with that sensorial exposure, that sensation of what's going on. +Pathos appears obviously as part of what you just saw in that little girl's drawing. +And also triumph, this sense of transcendence, this "I never knew that. Ah, this is something new." +And that's packed in there as well. +And as we assemble these tools, from a design point of view, I get terribly excited about it, because these are things, as we've already said, they're arriving at the brain, it would seem, before cognition, before we can manipulate them -- electrochemical party tricks. +Now what I'm also interested in is: Is it possible to separate intrinsic and extrinsic beauty? +By that, I mean intrinsically beautiful things, just something that's exquisitely beautiful, that's universally beautiful. +Very hard to find. Maybe you've got some examples of it. +Very hard to find something that, to everybody, is a very beautiful thing, without a certain amount of information packed in there before. +So a lot of it tends to be extrinsic. +It's mediated by information before the comprehension. +Or the information's added on at the back, like that little girl's drawing that I showed you. +Now when talking about beauty you can't get away from the fact that a lot experiments have been done in this way with faces and what have you. +And one of the most tedious ones, I think, was saying that beauty was about symmetry. +Well it obviously isn't. +This is a more interesting one where half faces were shown to some people, and then to add them into a list of most beautiful to least beautiful and then exposing a full face. +And they found that it was almost exact coincidence. +So it wasn't about symmetry. +In fact, this lady has a particularly asymmetrical face, of which both sides are beautiful. +But they're both different. +And as a designer, I can't help meddling with this, so I pulled it to bits and sort of did stuff like this, and tried to understand what the individual elements were, but feeling it as I go. +Now I can feel a sensation of delight and beauty if I look at that eye. +I'm not getting it off the eyebrow. +And the earhole isn't doing it to me at all. +So I don't know how much this is helping me, but it's helping to guide me to the places where the signals are coming off. +And as I say, I'm not a neuroscientist, but to understand how I can start to assemble things that will very quickly bypass this thinking part and get me to the enjoyable precognitive elements. +Anais Nin and the Talmud have told us time and time again that we see things not as they are, but as we are. +So I'm going to shamelessly expose something to you, which is beautiful to me. +And this is the F1 MV Agusta. +Ahhhh. +It is really -- I mean, I can't express to you how exquisite this object is. +But I also know why it's exquisite to me, because it's a palimpsest of things. +It's masses and masses of layers. +This is just the bit that protrudes into our physical dimension. +It's something much bigger. +Layer after layer of legend, sport, details that resonate. +I mean, if I just go through some of them now -- I know about laminar flow when it comes to air-piercing objects, and that does it consummately well, you can see it can. +So that's getting me excited. +And I feel that here. +This bit, the big secret of automotive design -- reflection management. +It's not about the shapes, it's how the shapes reflect light. +Now that thing, light flickers across it as you move, so it becomes a kinetic object, even though it's standing still -- managed by how brilliantly that's done on the reflection. +This little relief on the footplate, by the way, to a rider means there's something going on underneath it -- in this case, a drive chain running at 300 miles and hour probably, taking the power from the engine. +I'm getting terribly excited as my mind and my eyes flick across these things. +Titanium lacquer on this. +I can't tell you how wonderful this is. +That's how you stop the nuts coming off at high speed on the wheel. +I'm really getting into this now. +And of course, a racing bike doesn't have a prop stand, but this one, because it's a road bike, it all goes away and it folds into this little gap. +So it disappears. +And then I can't tell you how hard it is to do that radiator, which is curved. +Why would you do that? +Because I know we need to bring the wheel farther into the aerodynamics. +So it's more expensive, but it's wonderful. +And to cap it all, brand royalty -- Agusta, Count Agusta, from the great histories of this stuff. +The bit that you can't see is the genius that created this. +Massimo Tamburini. +They call him "The Plumber" in Italy, as well as "Maestro," because he actually is engineer and craftsman and sculptor at the same time. +There's so little compromise on this, you can't see it. +But unfortunately, the likes of me and people that are like me have to deal with compromise all the time with beauty. +We have to deal with it. +So I have to work with a supply chain, and I've got to work with the technologies, and I've got to work with everything else all the time, and so compromises start to fit into it. +And so look at her. +I've had to make a bit of a compromise there. +I've had to move that part across, but only a millimeter. +No one's noticed, have they yet? +Did you see what I did? +I moved three things by a millimeter. +Pretty? Yes. +Beautiful? Maybe lesser. +But then, of course, the consumer says that doesn't really matter. +So that's okay, isn't it? +Another millimeter? +No one's going to notice those split lines and changes. +It's that easy to lose beauty, because beauty's incredibly difficult to do. +And only a few people can do it. +And a focus group cannot do it. +And a team rarely can do it. +It takes a central cortex, if you like, to be able to orchestrate all those elements at the same time. +This is a beautiful water bottle -- some of you know of it -- done by Ross Lovegrove, the designer. +This is pretty close to intrinsic beauty. This one, as long as you know what water is like then you can experience this. +It's lovely because it is an embodiment of something refreshing and delicious. +I might like it more than you like it, because I know how bloody hard it is to do it. +It's stupefyingly difficult to make something that refracts light like that, that comes out of the tool correctly, that goes down the line without falling over. +Underneath this, like the story of the swan, is a million things very difficult to do. +So all hail to that. +It's a fantastic example, a simple object. +And the one I showed you before was, of course, a massively complex one. +And they're working in beauty in slightly different ways because of it. +You all, I guess, like me, enjoy watching a ballet dancer dance. +And part of the joy of it is, you know the difficulty. +You also may be taking into account the fact that it's incredibly painful. +Anybody seen a ballet dancer's toes when they come out of the points? +While she's doing these graceful arabesques and plies and what have you, something horrible's going on down here. +The comprehension of it leads us to a greater and heightened sense of the beauty of what's actually going on. +Now I'm using microseconds wrongly here, so please ignore me. +But what I have to do now, feeling again, what I've got to do is to be able to supply enough of these enzymes, of these triggers into something early on in the process, that you pick it up, not through your thinking, but through your feeling. +So we're going to have a little experiment. +Right, are you ready? I'm going to show you something for a very, very brief moment. +Are you ready? Okay. +Did you think that was a bicycle when I showed it to you at the first flash? +It's not. +Tell me something, did you think it was quick when you first saw it? Yes you did. +Did you think it was modern? Yes you did. +That blip, that information, shot into you before that. +And because your brain starter motor began there, now it's got to deal with it. +And the great thing is, this motorcycle has been styled this way specifically to engender a sense that it's green technology and it's good for you and it's light and it's all part of the future. +So is that wrong? +Well in this case it isn't, because it's a very, very ecologically-sound piece of technology. +But you're a slave of that first flash. +We are slaves to the first few fractions of a second -- and that's where much of my work has to win or lose, on a shelf in a shop. +It wins or loses at that point. +You may see 50, 100, 200 things on a shelf as you walk down it, but I have to work within that domain, to ensure that it gets you there first. +And finally, the layer that I love, of knowledge. +Some of you, I'm sure, will be familiar with this. +What's incredible about this, and the way I love to come back to it, is this is taking something that you hate or bores you, folding clothes, and if you can actually do this -- who can actually do this? Anybody try to do this? +Yeah? +It's fantastic, isn't it? +Look at that. Do you want to see it again? +No time. It says I have two minutes left, so we can't do this. +But just go to the Web, YouTube, pull it down, "folding T-shirt." +That's how underpaid younger-aged people have to fold your T-shirt. +You didn't maybe know it. +But how do you feel about it? +It feels fantastic when you do it, you look forward to doing it, and when you tell somebody else about it -- like you probably have -- you look really smart. +The knowledge bubble that sits around the outside, the stuff that costs nothing, because that knowledge is free -- bundle that together and where do we come out? +Form follows function? +Only sometimes. Only sometimes. +Form is function. Form is function. +It informs, it tells us, it supplies us answers before we've even thought about it. +And so I've stopped using words like "form," and I've stopped using words like "function" as a designer. +What I try to pursue now is the emotional functionality of things. +Because if I can get that right, I can make them wonderful, and I can make them repeatedly wonderful. +And you know what those products and services are, because you own some of them. +They're the things that you'd snatch if the house was on fire. +Forming the emotional bond between this thing and you is an electrochemical party trick that happens before you even think about it. +Thank you very much. +Well we all know the World Wide Web has absolutely transformed publishing, broadcasting, commerce and social connectivity, but where did it all come from? +And I'll quote three people: Vannevar Bush, Doug Engelbart and Tim Berners-Lee. +So let's just run through these guys. +This is Vannevar Bush. +Vannevar Bush was the U.S. government's chief scientific adviser during the war. +And in 1945, he published an article in a magazine called Atlantic Monthly. +And the article was called "As We May Think." +And what Vannevar Bush was saying was the way we use information is broken. +We don't work in terms of libraries and catalog systems and so forth. +The brain works by association. +With one item in its thought, it snaps instantly to the next item. +And the way information is structured is totally incapable of keeping up with this process. +And so he suggested a machine, and he called it the memex. +And the memex would link information, one piece of information to a related piece of information and so forth. +Now this was in 1945. +A computer in those days was something the secret services used to use for code breaking. +And nobody knew anything about it. +So this was before the computer was invented. +And he proposed this machine called the memex. +And he had a platform where you linked information to other information, and then you could call it up at will. +So spinning forward, one of the guys who read this article was a guy called Doug Engelbart, and he was a U.S. Air Force officer. +And he was reading it in their library in the Far East. +And he was so inspired by this article, it kind of directed the rest of his life. +And by the mid-60s, he was able to put this into action when he worked at the Stanford Research Lab in California. +He built a system. +The system was designed to augment human intelligence, it was called. +And in a premonition of today's world of cloud computing and softwares of service, his system was called NLS for oN-Line System. +And this is Doug Engelbart. +He was giving a presentation at the Fall Joint Computer Conference in 1968. +What he showed -- he sat on a stage like this, and he demonstrated this system. +He had his head mic like I've got. +And he works this system. +And you can see, he's working between documents and graphics and so forth. +And he's driving it all with this platform here, with a five-finger keyboard and the world's first computer mouse, which he specially designed in order to do this system. +So this is where the mouse came from as well. +So this is Doug Engelbart. +The trouble with Doug Engelbart's system was that the computers in those days cost several million pounds. +So for a personal computer, a few million pounds was like having a personal jet plane; it wasn't really very practical. +But spin on to the 80s when personal computers did arrive, then there was room for this kind of system on personal computers. +And my company, OWL built a system called Guide for the Apple Macintosh. +And we delivered the world's first hypertext system. +And this began to get a head of steam. +Apple introduced a thing called HyperCard, and they made a bit of a fuss about it. +They had a 12-page supplement in the Wall Street Journal the day it launched. +The magazines started to cover it. +Byte magazine and Communications at the ACM had special issues covering hypertext. +We developed a PC version of this product as well as the Macintosh version. +And our PC version became quite mature. +These are some examples of this system in action in the late 80s. +You were able to deliver documents, were able to do it over networks. +We developed a system such that it had a markup language based on html. +We called it hml: hypertext markup language. +And the system was capable of doing very, very large documentation systems over computer networks. +So I took this system to a trade show in Versailles near Paris in late November 1990. +And I was approached by a nice young man called Tim Berners-Lee who said, "Are you Ian Ritchie?" and I said, "Yeah." +And he said, "I need to talk to you." +And he told me about his proposed system called the World Wide Web. +And I thought, well, that's got a pretentious name, especially since the whole system ran on his computer in his office. +But he was completely convinced that his World Wide Web would take over the world one day. +And he tried to persuade me to write the browser for it, because his system didn't have any graphics or fonts or layout or anything; it was just plain text. +I thought, well, you know, interesting, but a guy from CERN, he's not going to do this. +So we didn't do it. +In the next couple of years, the hypertext community didn't recognize him either. +In 1992, his paper was rejected for the Hypertext Conference. +In 1993, there was a table at the conference in Seattle, and a guy called Marc Andreessen was demonstrating his little browser for the World Wide Web. +And I saw it, and I thought, yep, that's it. +And the very next year, in 1994, we had the conference here in Edinburgh, and I had no opposition in having Tim Berners-Lee as the keynote speaker. +So that puts me in pretty illustrious company. +There was a guy called Dick Rowe who was at Decca Records and turned down The Beatles. +There was a guy called Gary Kildall who went flying his plane when IBM came looking for an operating system for the IBM PC, and he wasn't there, so they went back to see Bill Gates. +And the 12 publishers who turned down J.K. Rowling's Harry Potter, I guess. +On the other hand, there's Marc Andreessen who wrote the world's first browser for the World Wide Web. +And according to Fortune magazine, he's worth 700 million dollars. +But is he happy? +Okay, now I don't want to alarm anybody in this room, but it's just come to my attention that the person to your right is a liar. +Also, the person to your left is a liar. +Also the person sitting in your very seats is a liar. +We're all liars. +What I'm going to do today is I'm going to show you what the research says about why we're all liars, how you can become a liespotter and why you might want to go the extra mile and go from liespotting to truth seeking, and ultimately to trust building. +Now, speaking of trust, ever since I wrote this book, "Liespotting," no one wants to meet me in person anymore, no, no, no, no, no. +They say, "It's okay, we'll email you." +I can't even get a coffee date at Starbucks. +My husband's like, "Honey, deception? +Maybe you could have focused on cooking. How about French cooking?" +So before I get started, what I'm going to do is I'm going to clarify my goal for you, which is not to teach a game of Gotcha. +Liespotters aren't those nitpicky kids, those kids in the back of the room that are shouting, "Gotcha! Gotcha! +Your eyebrow twitched. You flared your nostril. +I watch that TV show 'Lie To Me.' I know you're lying." +No, liespotters are armed with scientific knowledge of how to spot deception. +They use it to get to the truth, and they do what mature leaders do everyday; they have difficult conversations with difficult people, sometimes during very difficult times. +And they start up that path by accepting a core proposition, and that proposition is the following: Lying is a cooperative act. +Think about it, a lie has no power whatsoever by its mere utterance. +Its power emerges when someone else agrees to believe the lie. +So I know it may sound like tough love, but look, if at some point you got lied to, it's because you agreed to get lied to. +Truth number one about lying: Lying's a cooperative act. +Now not all lies are harmful. +Sometimes we're willing participants in deception for the sake of social dignity, maybe to keep a secret that should be kept secret, secret. +We say, "Nice song." +"Honey, you don't look fat in that, no." +Or we say, favorite of the digiratti, "You know, I just fished that email out of my Spam folder. +So sorry." +But there are times when we are unwilling participants in deception. +And that can have dramatic costs for us. +Last year saw 997 billion dollars in corporate fraud alone in the United States. +That's an eyelash under a trillion dollars. +That's seven percent of revenues. +Deception can cost billions. +Think Enron, Madoff, the mortgage crisis. +Or in the case of double agents and traitors, like Robert Hanssen or Aldrich Ames, lies can betray our country, they can compromise our security, they can undermine democracy, they can cause the deaths of those that defend us. +Deception is actually serious business. +This con man, Henry Oberlander, he was such an effective con man, British authorities say he could have undermined the entire banking system of the Western world. +And you can't find this guy on Google; you can't find him anywhere. +He was interviewed once, and he said the following. +He said, "Look, I've got one rule." +And this was Henry's rule, he said, "Look, everyone is willing to give you something. +They're ready to give you something for whatever it is they're hungry for." +And that's the crux of it. +If you don't want to be deceived, you have to know, what is it that you're hungry for? +And we all kind of hate to admit it. +We wish we were better husbands, better wives, smarter, more powerful, taller, richer -- the list goes on. +Lying is an attempt to bridge that gap, to connect our wishes and our fantasies about who we wish we were, how we wish we could be, with what we're really like. +And boy are we willing to fill in those gaps in our lives with lies. +On a given day, studies show that you may be lied to anywhere from 10 to 200 times. +Now granted, many of those are white lies. +But in another study, it showed that strangers lied three times within the first 10 minutes of meeting each other. +Now when we first hear this data, we recoil. +We can't believe how prevalent lying is. +We're essentially against lying. +But if you look more closely, the plot actually thickens. +We lie more to strangers than we lie to coworkers. +Extroverts lie more than introverts. +Men lie eight times more about themselves than they do other people. +Women lie more to protect other people. +If you're an average married couple, you're going to lie to your spouse in one out of every 10 interactions. +Now, you may think that's bad. +If you're unmarried, that number drops to three. +Lying's complex. +It's woven into the fabric of our daily and our business lives. +We're deeply ambivalent about the truth. +We parse it out on an as-needed basis, sometimes for very good reasons, other times just because we don't understand the gaps in our lives. +That's truth number two about lying. +We're against lying, but we're covertly for it in ways that our society has sanctioned for centuries and centuries and centuries. +It's as old as breathing. +It's part of our culture, it's part of our history. +Think Dante, Shakespeare, the Bible, News of the World. +Lying has evolutionary value to us as a species. +Researchers have long known that the more intelligent the species, the larger the neocortex, the more likely it is to be deceptive. +Now you might remember Koko. +Does anybody remember Koko the gorilla who was taught sign language? +Koko was taught to communicate via sign language. +Here's Koko with her kitten. +It's her cute little, fluffy pet kitten. +Koko once blamed her pet kitten for ripping a sink out of the wall. +We're hardwired to become leaders of the pack. +It's starts really, really early. +How early? +Well babies will fake a cry, pause, wait to see who's coming and then go right back to crying. +One-year-olds learn concealment. +Two-year-olds bluff. +Five-year-olds lie outright. +They manipulate via flattery. +Nine-year-olds, masters of the cover-up. +By the time you enter college, you're going to lie to your mom in one out of every five interactions. +By the time we enter this work world and we're breadwinners, we enter a world that is just cluttered with Spam, fake digital friends, partisan media, ingenious identity thieves, world-class Ponzi schemers, a deception epidemic -- in short, what one author calls a post-truth society. +It's been very confusing for a long time now. +What do you do? +Well, there are steps we can take to navigate our way through the morass. +Trained liespotters get to the truth 90 percent of the time. +The rest of us, we're only 54 percent accurate. +Why is it so easy to learn? +There are good liars and bad liars. There are no real original liars. +We all make the same mistakes. We all use the same techniques. +So what I'm going to do is I'm going to show you two patterns of deception. +And then we're going to look at the hot spots and see if we can find them ourselves. +We're going to start with speech. +Bill Clinton: I want you to listen to me. +I'm going to say this again. +I did not have sexual relations with that woman, Miss Lewinsky. +I never told anybody to lie, not a single time, never. +And these allegations are false. +And I need to go back to work for the American people. +Thank you. +Pamela Meyer: Okay, what were the telltale signs? +Well first we heard what's known as a non-contracted denial. +Studies show that people who are overdetermined in their denial will resort to formal rather than informal language. +We also heard distancing language: "that woman." +We know that liars will unconsciously distance themselves from their subject, using language as their tool. +Now if Bill Clinton had said, "Well, to tell you the truth ..." +or Richard Nixon's favorite, "In all candor ..." +he would have been a dead giveaway for any liespotter that knows that qualifying language, as it's called, qualifying language like that, further discredits the subject. +Now if he had repeated the question in its entirety, or if he had peppered his account with a little too much detail -- and we're all really glad he didn't do that -- he would have further discredited himself. +Freud had it right. +Freud said, look, there's much more to it than speech: "No mortal can keep a secret. +If his lips are silent, he chatters with his fingertips." +And we all do it no matter how powerful you are. +We all chatter with our fingertips. +I'm going to show you Dominique Strauss-Kahn with Obama who's chattering with his fingertips. +Now this brings us to our next pattern, which is body language. +With body language, here's what you've got to do. +You've really got to just throw your assumptions out the door. +Let the science temper your knowledge a little bit. +Because we think liars fidget all the time. +Well guess what, they're known to freeze their upper bodies when they're lying. +We think liars won't look you in the eyes. +Well guess what, they look you in the eyes a little too much just to compensate for that myth. +We think warmth and smiles convey honesty, sincerity. +But a trained liespotter can spot a fake smile a mile away. +Can you all spot the fake smile here? +You can consciously contract the muscles in your cheeks. +But the real smile's in the eyes, the crow's feet of the eyes. +They cannot be consciously contracted, especially if you overdid the Botox. +Don't overdo the Botox; nobody will think you're honest. +Now we're going to look at the hot spots. +Can you tell what's happening in a conversation? +Can you start to find the hot spots to see the discrepancies between someone's words and someone's actions? +Now, I know it seems really obvious, but when you're having a conversation with someone you suspect of deception, attitude is by far the most overlooked but telling of indicators. +An honest person is going to be cooperative. +They're going to show they're on your side. +They're going to be enthusiastic. +They're going to be willing and helpful to getting you to the truth. +They're going to be willing to brainstorm, name suspects, provide details. +They're going to say, "Hey, maybe it was those guys in payroll that forged those checks." +They're going to be infuriated if they sense they're wrongly accused throughout the entire course of the interview, not just in flashes; they'll be infuriated throughout the entire course of the interview. +And if you ask someone honest what should happen to whomever did forge those checks, an honest person is much more likely to recommend strict rather than lenient punishment. +Now let's say you're having that exact same conversation with someone deceptive. +That person may be withdrawn, look down, lower their voice, pause, be kind of herky-jerky. +Ask a deceptive person to tell their story, they're going to pepper it with way too much detail in all kinds of irrelevant places. +And then they're going to tell their story in strict chronological order. +And what a trained interrogator does is they come in and in very subtle ways over the course of several hours, they will ask that person to tell that story backwards, and then they'll watch them squirm, and track which questions produce the highest volume of deceptive tells. +Why do they do that? Well, we all do the same thing. +We rehearse our words, but we rarely rehearse our gestures. +We say "yes," we shake our heads "no." +We tell very convincing stories, we slightly shrug our shoulders. +We commit terrible crimes, and we smile at the delight in getting away with it. +Now, that smile is known in the trade as "duping delight." +And we're going to see that in several videos moving forward, but we're going to start -- for those of you who don't know him, this is presidential candidate John Edwards who shocked America by fathering a child out of wedlock. +We're going to see him talk about getting a paternity test. +See now if you can spot him saying, "yes" while shaking his head "no," slightly shrugging his shoulders. +John Edwards: I'd be happy to participate in one. +I know that it's not possible that this child could be mine, because of the timing of events. +So I know it's not possible. +Happy to take a paternity test, and would love to see it happen. +Interviewer: Are you going to do that soon? Is there somebody -- JE: Well, I'm only one side. I'm only one side of the test. +But I'm happy to participate in one. +PM: Okay, those head shakes are much easier to spot once you know to look for them. +There are going to be times when someone makes one expression while masking another that just kind of leaks through in a flash. +Murderers are known to leak sadness. +Your new joint venture partner might shake your hand, celebrate, go out to dinner with you and then leak an expression of anger. +And we're not all going to become facial expression experts overnight here, but there's one I can teach you that's very dangerous and it's easy to learn, and that's the expression of contempt. +Now with anger, you've got two people on an even playing field. +It's still somewhat of a healthy relationship. +But when anger turns to contempt, you've been dismissed. +It's associated with moral superiority. +And for that reason, it's very, very hard to recover from. +Here's what it looks like. +It's marked by one lip corner pulled up and in. +It's the only asymmetrical expression. +And in the presence of contempt, whether or not deception follows -- and it doesn't always follow -- look the other way, go the other direction, reconsider the deal, say, "No thank you. I'm not coming up for just one more nightcap. Thank you." +Science has surfaced many, many more indicators. +We know, for example, we know liars will shift their blink rate, point their feet towards an exit. +They will take barrier objects and put them between themselves and the person that is interviewing them. +They'll alter their vocal tone, often making their vocal tone much lower. +Now here's the deal. +These behaviors are just behaviors. +They're not proof of deception. +They're red flags. +We're human beings. +We make deceptive flailing gestures all over the place all day long. +They don't mean anything in and of themselves. +But when you see clusters of them, that's your signal. +Look, listen, probe, ask some hard questions, get out of that very comfortable mode of knowing, walk into curiosity mode, ask more questions, have a little dignity, treat the person you're talking to with rapport. +Don't try to be like those folks on "Law & Order" and those other TV shows that pummel their subjects into submission. +Don't be too aggressive, it doesn't work. +Now, we've talked a little bit about how to talk to someone who's lying and how to spot a lie. +And as I promised, we're now going to look at what the truth looks like. +But I'm going to show you two videos, two mothers -- one is lying, one is telling the truth. +And these were surfaced by researcher David Matsumoto in California. +And I think they're an excellent example of what the truth looks like. +This mother, Diane Downs, shot her kids at close range, drove them to the hospital while they bled all over the car, claimed a scraggy-haired stranger did it. +And you'll see when you see the video, she can't even pretend to be an agonizing mother. +What you want to look for here is an incredible discrepancy between horrific events that she describes and her very, very cool demeanor. +And if you look closely, you'll see duping delight throughout this video. +Diane Downs: At night when I close my eyes, I can see Christie reaching her hand out to me while I'm driving, and the blood just kept coming out of her mouth. +And that -- maybe it'll fade too with time -- but I don't think so. +That bothers me the most. +PM: Now I'm going to show you a video of an actual grieving mother, Erin Runnion, confronting her daughter's murderer and torturer in court. +Here you're going to see no false emotion, just the authentic expression of a mother's agony. +Erin Runnion: I wrote this statement on the third anniversary of the night you took my baby, and you hurt her, and you crushed her, you terrified her until her heart stopped. +And she fought, and I know she fought you. +But I know she looked at you with those amazing brown eyes, and you still wanted to kill her. +And I don't understand it, and I never will. +PM: Okay, there's no doubting the veracity of those emotions. +Now the technology around what the truth looks like is progressing on, the science of it. +We know, for example, that we now have specialized eye trackers and infrared brain scans, MRI's that can decode the signals that our bodies send out when we're trying to be deceptive. +And these technologies are going to be marketed to all of us as panaceas for deceit, and they will prove incredibly useful some day. +But you've got to ask yourself in the meantime: Who do you want on your side of the meeting, someone who's trained in getting to the truth or some guy who's going to drag a 400-pound electroencephalogram through the door? +Liespotters rely on human tools. +They know, as someone once said, "Character's who you are in the dark." +And what's kind of interesting is that today, we have so little darkness. +Our world is lit up 24 hours a day. +It's transparent with blogs and social networks broadcasting the buzz of a whole new generation of people that have made a choice to live their lives in public. +It's a much more noisy world. +So one challenge we have is to remember, oversharing, that's not honesty. +Our manic tweeting and texting can blind us to the fact that the subtleties of human decency -- character integrity -- that's still what matters, that's always what's going to matter. +So in this much noisier world, it might make sense for us to be just a little bit more explicit about our moral code. +When you combine the science of recognizing deception with the art of looking, listening, you exempt yourself from collaborating in a lie. +You start up that path of being just a little bit more explicit, because you signal to everyone around you, you say, "Hey, my world, our world, it's going to be an honest one. +My world is going to be one where truth is strengthened and falsehood is recognized and marginalized." +And when you do that, the ground around you starts to shift just a little bit. +And that's the truth. Thank you. +So I'm here to explain why I'm wearing these ninja pajamas. +And to do that, I'd like to talk first about environmental toxins in our bodies. +So some of you may know about the chemical Bisphenol A, BPA. +It's a material hardener and synthetic estrogen that's found in the lining of canned foods and some plastics. +So BPA mimics the body's own hormones and causes neurological and reproductive problems. +And it's everywhere. +A recent study found BPA in 93 percent of people six and older. +But it's just one chemical. +The Center for Disease Control in the U.S. +says we have 219 toxic pollutants in our bodies, and this includes preservatives, pesticides and heavy metals like lead and mercury. +To me, this says three things. +First, don't become a cannibal. +Second, we are both responsible for and the victims of our own pollution. +And third, our bodies are filters and storehouses for environmental toxins. +So what happens to all these toxins when we die? +The short answer is: They return to the environment in one way or another, continuing the cycle of toxicity. +But our current funeral practices make the situation much worse. +If you're cremated, all those toxins I mentioned are released into the atmosphere. +And this includes 5,000 pounds of mercury from our dental fillings alone every year. +And in a traditional American funeral, a dead body is covered with fillers and cosmetics to make it look alive. +It's then pumped with toxic formaldehyde to slow decomposition -- a practice which causes respiratory problems and cancer in funeral personnel. +So by trying to preserve our dead bodies, we deny death, poison the living and further harm the environment. +Green or natural burials, which don't use embalming, are a step in the right direction, but they don't address the existing toxins in our bodies. +I think there's a better solution. +I'm an artist, so I'd like to offer a modest proposal at the intersection of art, science and culture. +The Infinity Burial Project, an alternative burial system that uses mushrooms to decompose and clean toxins in bodies. +The Infinity Burial Project began a few years ago with a fantasy to create the Infinity Mushroom -- a new hybrid mushroom that would decompose bodies, clean the toxins and deliver nutrients to plant roots, leaving clean compost. +But I learned it's nearly impossible to create a new hybrid mushroom. +I also learned that some of our tastiest mushrooms can clean environmental toxins in soil. +So I thought maybe I could train an army of toxin-cleaning edible mushrooms to eat my body. +So today, I'm collecting what I shed or slough off -- my hair, skin and nails -- and I'm feeding these to edible mushrooms. +As the mushrooms grow, I pick the best feeders to become Infinity Mushrooms. +It's a kind of imprinting and selective breeding process for the afterlife. +So when I die, the Infinity Mushrooms will recognize my body and be able to eat it. +All right, so for some of you, this may be really, really out there. +Just a little. +I realize this is not the kind of relationship that we usually aspire to have with our food. +We want to eat, not be eaten by, our food. +But as I watch the mushrooms grow and digest my body, I imagine the Infinity Mushroom as a symbol of a new way of thinking about death and the relationship between my body and the environment. +See for me, cultivating the Infinity Mushroom is more than just scientific experimentation or gardening or raising a pet, it's a step towards accepting the fact that someday I will die and decay. +It's also a step towards taking responsibility for my own burden on the planet. +Growing a mushroom is also part of a larger practice of cultivating decomposing organisms called decompiculture, a concept that was developed by an entomologist, Timothy Myles. +The Infinity Mushroom is a subset of decompiculture I'm calling body decompiculture and toxin remediation -- the cultivation of organisms that decompose and clean toxins in bodies. +And now about these ninja pajamas. +Once it's completed, I plan to integrate the Infinity Mushrooms into a number of objects. +First, a burial suit infused with mushroom spores, the Mushroom Death Suit. +I'm wearing the second prototype of this burial suit. +It's covered with a crocheted netting that is embedded with mushroom spores. +The dendritic pattern you see mimics the growth of mushroom mycelia, which are the equivalent of plant roots. +I'm also making a decompiculture kit, a cocktail of capsules that contain Infinity Mushroom spores and other elements that speed decomposition and toxin remediation. +These capsules are embedded in a nutrient-rich jelly, a kind of second skin, which dissolves quickly and becomes baby food for the growing mushrooms. +So I plan to finish the mushroom and decompiculture kit in the next year or two, and then I'd like to begin testing them, first with expired meat from the market and then with human subjects. +And believe it or not, a few people have offered to donate their bodies to the project to be eaten by mushrooms. +What I've learned from talking to these folks is that we share a common desire to understand and accept death and to minimize the impact of our death on the environment. +I wanted to cultivate this perspective just like the mushrooms, so I formed the Decompiculture Society, a group of people called decompinauts who actively explore their postmortem options, seek death acceptance and cultivate decomposing organisms like the Infinity Mushroom. +The Decompiculture Society shares a vision of a cultural shift, from our current culture of death denial and body preservation to one of decompiculture, a radical acceptance of death and decomposition. +Accepting death means accepting that we are physical beings who are intimately connected to the environment, as the research on environmental toxins confirms. +And the saying goes, we came from dust and will return to dust. +And once we understand that we're connected to the environment, we see that the survival of our species depends on the survival of the planet. +I believe this is the beginning of true environmental responsibility. +Thank you. +I'd like to take you to another world. +And I'd like to share a 45 year-old love story with the poor, living on less than one dollar a day. +I went to a very elitist, snobbish, expensive education in India, and that almost destroyed me. +I was all set to be a diplomat, teacher, doctor -- all laid out. +Then, I don't look it, but I was the Indian national squash champion for three years. +The whole world was laid out for me. +Everything was at my feet. +I could do nothing wrong. +And then I thought out of curiosity I'd like to go and live and work and just see what a village is like. +So in 1965, I went to what was called the worst Bihar famine in India, and I saw starvation, death, people dying of hunger, for the first time. +It changed my life. +I came back home, told my mother, "I'd like to live and work in a village." +Mother went into a coma. +"What is this? +The whole world is laid out for you, the best jobs are laid out for you, and you want to go and work in a village? +I mean, is there something wrong with you?" +I said, "No, I've got the best eduction. +It made me think. +And I wanted to give something back in my own way." +"What do you want to do in a village? +No job, no money, no security, no prospect." +I said, "I want to live and dig wells for five years." +"Dig wells for five years? +You went to the most expensive school and college in India, and you want to dig wells for five years?" +She didn't speak to me for a very long time, because she thought I'd let my family down. +But then, I was exposed to the most extraordinary knowledge and skills that very poor people have, which are never brought into the mainstream -- which is never identified, respected, applied on a large scale. +And I thought I'd start a Barefoot College -- college only for the poor. +What the poor thought was important would be reflected in the college. +I went to this village for the first time. +Elders came to me and said, "Are you running from the police?" +I said, "No." +"You failed in your exam?" +I said, "No." +"You didn't get a government job?" I said, "No." +"What are you doing here? +Why are you here? +The education system in India makes you look at Paris and New Delhi and Zurich; what are you doing in this village? +Is there something wrong with you you're not telling us?" +I said, "No, I want to actually start a college only for the poor. +What the poor thought was important would be reflected in the college." +So the elders gave me some very sound and profound advice. +They said, "Please, don't bring anyone with a degree and qualification into your college." +So it's the only college in India where, if you should have a Ph.D. or a Master's, you are disqualified to come. +You have to be a cop-out or a wash-out or a dropout to come to our college. +You have to work with your hands. +You have to have a dignity of labor. +You have to show that you have a skill that you can offer to the community and provide a service to the community. +So we started the Barefoot College, and we redefined professionalism. +Who is a professional? +A professional is someone who has a combination of competence, confidence and belief. +A water diviner is a professional. +A traditional midwife is a professional. +A traditional bone setter is a professional. +These are professionals all over the world. +You find them in any inaccessible village around the world. +And we thought that these people should come into the mainstream and show that the knowledge and skills that they have is universal. +It needs to be used, needs to be applied, needs to be shown to the world outside -- that these knowledge and skills are relevant even today. +So the college works following the lifestyle and workstyle of Mahatma Gandhi. +You eat on the floor, you sleep on the floor, you work on the floor. +There are no contracts, no written contracts. +You can stay with me for 20 years, go tomorrow. +And no one can get more than $100 a month. +You come for the money, you don't come to Barefoot College. +You come for the work and the challenge, you'll come to the Barefoot College. +That is where we want you to try crazy ideas. +Whatever idea you have, come and try it. +It doesn't matter if you fail. +Battered, bruised, you start again. +It's the only college where the teacher is the learner and the learner is the teacher. +And it's the only college where we don't give a certificate. +You are certified by the community you serve. +You don't need a paper to hang on the wall to show that you are an engineer. +So when I said that, they said, "Well show us what is possible. What are you doing? +This is all mumbo-jumbo if you can't show it on the ground." +So we built the first Barefoot College in 1986. +It was built by 12 Barefoot architects who can't read and write, built on $1.50 a sq. ft. +150 people lived there, worked there. +They got the Aga Khan Award for Architecture in 2002. +But then they suspected, they thought there was an architect behind it. +I said, "Yes, they made the blueprints, but the Barefoot architects actually constructed the college." +We are the only ones who actually returned the award for $50,000, because they didn't believe us, and we thought that they were actually casting aspersions on the Barefoot architects of Tilonia. +I asked a forester -- high-powered, paper-qualified expert -- I said, "What can you build in this place?" +He had one look at the soil and said, "Forget it. No way. +Not even worth it. +No water, rocky soil." +I was in a bit of a spot. +And I said, "Okay, I'll go to the old man in village and say, 'What should I grow in this spot?'" He looked quietly at me and said, "You build this, you build this, you put this, and it'll work." +This is what it looks like today. +Went to the roof, and all the women said, "Clear out. +The men should clear out because we don't want to share this technology with the men. +This is waterproofing the roof." +It is a bit of jaggery, a bit of urens and a bit of other things I don't know. +But it actually doesn't leak. +Since 1986, it hasn't leaked. +This technology, the women will not share with the men. +It's the only college which is fully solar-electrified. +All the power comes from the sun. +45 kilowatts of panels on the roof. +And everything works off the sun for the next 25 years. +So long as the sun shines, we'll have no problem with power. +But the beauty is that is was installed by a priest, a Hindu priest, who's only done eight years of primary schooling -- never been to school, never been to college. +He knows more about solar than anyone I know anywhere in the world guaranteed. +Food, if you come to the Barefoot College, is solar cooked. +But the people who fabricated that solar cooker are women, illiterate women, who actually fabricate the most sophisticated solar cooker. +It's a parabolic Scheffler solar cooker. +Unfortunately, they're almost half German, they're so precise. +You'll never find Indian women so precise. +Absolutely to the last inch, they can make that cooker. +And we have 60 meals twice a day of solar cooking. +We have a dentist -- she's a grandmother, illiterate, who's a dentist. +She actually looks after the teeth of 7,000 children. +Barefoot technology: this was 1986 -- no engineer, no architect thought of it -- but we are collecting rainwater from the roofs. +Very little water is wasted. +All the roofs are connected underground to a 400,000 liter tank, and no water is wasted. +If we have four years of drought, we still have water on the campus, because we collect rainwater. +60 percent of children don't go to school, because they have to look after animals -- sheep, goats -- domestic chores. +So we thought of starting a school at night for the children. +Because the night schools of Tilonia, over 75,000 children have gone through these night schools. +Because it's for the convenience of the child; it's not for the convenience of the teacher. +And what do we teach in these schools? +Democracy, citizenship, how you should measure your land, what you should do if you're arrested, what you should do if your animal is sick. +This is what we teach in the night schools. +But all the schools are solar-lit. +Every five years we have an election. +Between six to 14 year-old children participate in a democratic process, and they elect a prime minister. +The prime minister is 12 years old. +She looks after 20 goats in the morning, but she's prime minister in the evening. +She has a cabinet, a minister of education, a minister for energy, a minister for health. +And they actually monitor and supervise 150 schools for 7,000 children. +She got the World's Children's Prize five years ago, and she went to Sweden. +First time ever going out of her village. +Never seen Sweden. +Wasn't dazzled at all by what was happening. +And the Queen of Sweden, who's there, turned to me and said, "Can you ask this child where she got her confidence from? +She's only 12 years old, and she's not dazzled by anything." +And the girl, who's on her left, turned to me and looked at the queen straight in the eye and said, "Please tell her I'm the prime minister." +Where the percentage of illiteracy is very high, we use puppetry. +Puppets is the way we communicate. +You have Jokhim Chacha who is 300 years old. +He is my psychoanalyst. He is my teacher. +He's my doctor. He's my lawyer. +He's my donor. +He actually raises money, solves my disputes. +He solves my problems in the village. +If there's tension in the village, if attendance at the schools goes down and there's a friction between the teacher and the parent, the puppet calls the teacher and the parent in front of the whole village and says, "Shake hands. +The attendance must not drop." +These puppets are made out of recycled World Bank reports. +So this decentralized, demystified approach of solar-electrifying villages, we've covered all over India from Ladakh up to Bhutan -- all solar-electrified villages by people who have been trained. +And we went to Ladakh, and we asked this woman -- this, at minus 40, you have to come out of the roof, because there's no place, it was all snowed up on both sides -- and we asked this woman, "What was the benefit you had from solar electricity?" +And she thought for a minute and said, "It's the first time I can see my husband's face in winter." +Went to Afghanistan. +One lesson we learned in India was men are untrainable. +Men are restless, men are ambitious, men are compulsively mobile, and they all want a certificate. +All across the globe, you have this tendency of men wanting a certificate. +Why? Because they want to leave the village and go to a city, looking for a job. +So we came up with a great solution: train grandmothers. +What's the best way of communicating in the world today? +Television? No. +Telegraph? No. +Telephone? No. +Tell a woman. +So we went to Afghanistan for the first time, and we picked three women and said, "We want to take them to India." +They said, "Impossible. They don't even go out of their rooms, and you want to take them to India." +I said, "I'll make a concession. I'll take the husbands along as well." +So I took the husbands along. +Of course, the women were much more intelligent than the men. +how do we train these women? +Sign language. +You don't choose the written word. +You don't choose the spoken word. +You use sign language. +And in six months they can become solar engineers. +They go back and solar-electrify their own village. +This woman went back and solar-electrified the first village, set up a workshop -- the first village ever to be solar-electrified in Afghanistan [was] by the three women. +This woman is an extraordinary grandmother. +55 years old, and she's solar-electrified 200 houses for me in Afghanistan. +And they haven't collapsed. +She actually went and spoke to an engineering department in Afghanistan and told the head of the department the difference between AC and DC. +He didn't know. +Those three women have trained 27 more women and solar-electrified 100 villages in Afghanistan. +We went to Africa, and we did the same thing. +All these women sitting at one table from eight, nine countries, all chatting to each other, not understanding a word, because they're all speaking a different language. +But their body language is great. +They're speaking to each other and actually becoming solar engineers. +I went to Sierra Leone, and there was this minister driving down in the dead of night -- comes across this village. +Comes back, goes into the village, says, "Well what's the story?" +They said, "These two grandmothers ... " "Grandmothers?" The minister couldn't believe what was happening. +"Where did they go?" "Went to India and back." +Went straight to the president. +He said, "Do you know there's a solar-electrified village in Sierra Leone?" +He said, "No." Half the cabinet went to see the grandmothers the next day. +"What's the story." +So he summoned me and said, "Can you train me 150 grandmothers?" +I said, "I can't, Mr. President. +But they will. The grandmothers will." +So he built me the first Barefoot training center in Sierra Leone. +And 150 grandmothers have been trained in Sierra Leone. +Gambia: we went to select a grandmother in Gambia. +Went to this village. +I knew which woman I would like to take. +The community got together and said, "Take these two women." +I said, "No, I want to take this woman." +They said, "Why? She doesn't know the language. You don't know her." +I said, "I like the body language. I like the way she speaks." +"Difficult husband; not possible." +Called the husband, the husband came, swaggering, politician, mobile in his hand. "Not possible." +"Why not?" "The woman, look how beautiful she is." +I said, "Yeah, she is very beautiful." +"What happens if she runs off with an Indian man?" +That was his biggest fear. +I said, "She'll be happy. She'll ring you up on the mobile." +She went like a grandmother and came back like a tiger. +She walked out of the plane and spoke to the whole press as if she was a veteran. +She handled the national press, and she was a star. +And when I went back six months later, I said, "Where's your husband?" +"Oh, somewhere. It doesn't matter." +Success story. +I'll just wind up by saying that I think you don't have to look for solutions outside. +Look for solutions within. +And listen to people. They have the solutions in front of you. +They're all over the world. +Don't even worry. +Don't listen to the World Bank, listen to the people on the ground. +They have all the solutions in the world. +I'll end with a quotation by Mahatma Gandhi. +"First they ignore you, then they laugh at you, then they fight you, and then you win." +Thank you. +Why can't we solve these problems? +We know what they are. +Something always seems to stop us. +Why? +I remember March the 15th, 2000. +The B15 iceberg broke off the Ross Ice Shelf. +In the newspaper it said "it was all part of a normal process." +A little bit further on in the article it said "a loss that would normally take the ice shelf 50-100 years to replace." +That same word, "normal," had two different, almost opposite meanings. +If we walk into the B15 iceberg when we leave here today, we're going to bump into something a thousand feet tall, 76 miles long, 17 miles wide, and it's going to weigh two gigatons. +I'm sorry, there's nothing normal about this. +And yet I think it's this perspective of us as humans to look at our world through the lens of normal is one of the forces that stops us developing real solutions. +Only 90 days after this, arguably the greatest discovery of the last century occurred. +It was the sequencing for the first time of the human genome. +This is the code that's in every single one of our 50 trillion cells that makes us who we are and what we are. +And if we just take one cell's worth of this code and unwind it, it's a meter long, two nanometers thick. +Two nanometers is 20 atoms in thickness. +And I wondered, what if the answer to some of our biggest problems could be found in the smallest of places, where the difference between what is valuable and what is worthless is merely the addition or subtraction of a few atoms? +And what if we could get exquisite control over the essence of energy, the electron? +So I started to go around the world finding the best and brightest scientists I could at universities whose collective discoveries have the chance to take us there, and we formed a company to build on their extraordinary ideas. +Six and a half years later, a hundred and eighty researchers, they have some amazing developments in the lab, and I will show you three of those today, such that we can stop burning up our planet and instead, we can generate all the energy we need right where we are, cleanly, safely, and cheaply. +Think of the space that we spend most of our time. +A tremendous amount of energy is coming at us from the sun. +We like the light that comes into the room, but in the middle of summer, all that heat is coming into the room that we're trying to keep cool. +In winter, exactly the opposite is happening. +We're trying to heat up the space that we're in, and all that is trying to get out through the window. +Wouldn't it be really great if the window could flick back the heat into the room if we needed it or flick it away before it came in? +One of the materials that can do this is a remarkable material, carbon, that has changed its form in this incredibly beautiful reaction where graphite is blasted by a vapor, and when the vaporized carbon condenses, it condenses back into a different form: chickenwire rolled up. +But this chickenwire carbon, called a carbon nanotube, is a hundred thousand times smaller than the width of one of your hairs. +It's a thousand times more conductive than copper. +How is that possible? +One of the things about working at the nanoscale is things look and act very differently. +You think of carbon as black. +Carbon at the nanoscale is actually transparent and flexible. +And when it's in this form, if I combine it with a polymer and affix it to your window when it's in its colored state, it will reflect away all heat and light, and when it's in its bleached state it will let all the light and heat through and any combination in between. +To change its state, by the way, takes two volts from a millisecond pulse. +And once you've changed its state, it stays there until you change its state again. +As we were working on this incredible discovery at University of Florida, we were told to go down the corridor to visit another scientist, and he was working on a pretty incredible thing. +Imagine if we didn't have to rely on artificial lighting to get around at night. +We'd have to see at night, right? +This lets you do it. +It's a nanomaterial, two nanomaterials, a detector and an imager. +The total width of it is 600 times smaller than the width of a decimal place. +And it takes all the infrared available at night, converts it into an electron in the space of two small films, and is enabling you to play an image which you can see through. +I'm going to show to TEDsters, the first time, this operating. +Firstly I'm going to show you the transparency. +Transparency is key. +It's a film that you can look through. +And then I'm going to turn the lights out. +And you can see, off a tiny film, incredible clarity. +As we were working on this, it dawned on us: this is taking infrared radiation, wavelengths, and converting it into electrons. +What if we combined it with this? +Suddenly you've converted energy into an electron on a plastic surface that you can stick on your window. +But because it's flexible, it can be on any surface whatsoever. +The power plant of tomorrow is no power plant. +We talked about generating and using. +We want to talk about storing energy, and unfortunately the best thing we've got going is something that was developed in France a hundred and fifty years ago, the lead acid battery. +In terms of dollars per what's stored, it's simply the best. +Knowing that we're not going to put fifty of these in our basements to store our power, we went to a group at University of Texas at Dallas, and we gave them this diagram. +It was in actually a diner outside of Dallas/Fort Worth Airport. +We said, "Could you build this?" +And these scientists, instead of laughing at us, said, "Yeah." +And what they built was eBox. +EBox is testing new nanomaterials to park an electron on the outside, hold it until you need it, and then be able to release it and pass it off. +Being able to do that means that I can generate energy cleanly, efficiently and cheaply right where I am. +It's my energy. +And if I don't need it, I can convert it back up on the window to energy, light, and beam it, line of site, to your place. +And for that I do not need an electric grid between us. +The grid of tomorrow is no grid, and energy, clean efficient energy, will one day be free. +If you do this, you get the last puzzle piece, which is water. +Each of us, every day, need just eight glasses of this, because we're human. +When we run out of water, as we are in some parts of the world and soon to be in other parts of the world, we're going to have to get this from the sea, and that's going to require us to build desalination plants. +19 trillion dollars is what we're going to have to spend. +These also require tremendous amounts of energy. +In fact, it's going to require twice the world's supply of oil to run the pumps to generate the water. +We're simply not going to do that. +But in a world where energy is freed and transmittable easily and cheaply, we can take any water wherever we are and turn it into whatever we need. +I'm glad to be working with incredibly brilliant and kind scientists, no kinder than many of the people in the world, but they have a magic look at the world. +And I'm glad to see their discoveries coming out of the lab and into the world. +It's been a long time in coming for me. +18 years ago, I saw a photograph in the paper. +It was taken by Kevin Carter who went to the Sudan to document their famine there. +I've carried this photograph with me every day since then. +It's a picture of a little girl dying of thirst. +By any standard this is wrong. +It's just wrong. +We can do better than this. +We should do better than this. +And whenever I go round to somebody who says, "You know what, you're working on something that's too difficult. +It'll never happen. You don't have enough money. +You don't have enough time. +There's something much more interesting around the corner," I say, "Try saying that to her." +That's what I say in my mind. And I just say "thank you," and I go on to the next one. +This is why we have to solve our problems, and I know the answer as to how is to be able to get exquisite control over a building block of nature, the stuff of life: the simple electron. +Thank you. +Good afternoon. +If you have followed diplomatic news in the past weeks, you may have heard of a kind of crisis between China and the U.S. +regarding cyberattacks against the American company Google. +Many things have been said about this. +Some people have called a cyberwar what may actually be just a spy operation -- and obviously, a quite mishandled one. +However, this episode reveals the growing anxiety in the Western world regarding these emerging cyber weapons. +It so happens that these weapons are dangerous. +They're of a new nature: they could lead the world into a digital conflict that could turn into an armed struggle. +These virtual weapons can also destroy the physical world. +In 1982, in the middle of the Cold War in Soviet Siberia, a pipeline exploded with a burst of 3 kilotons, the equivalent of a fourth of the Hiroshima bomb. +Now we know today -- this was revealed by Thomas Reed, Ronald Reagan's former U.S. Air Force Secretary -- this explosion was actually the result of a CIA sabotage operation, in which they had managed to infiltrate the IT management systems of that pipeline. +More recently, the U.S. government revealed that in September 2008, more than 3 million people in the state of Espirito Santo in Brazil were plunged into darkness, victims of a blackmail operation from cyber pirates. +Even more worrying for the Americans, in December 2008 the holiest of holies, the IT systems of CENTCOM, the central command managing the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, may have been infiltrated by hackers who used these: plain but infected USB keys. +And with these keys, they may have been able to get inside CENTCOM's systems, to see and hear everything, and maybe even infect some of them. +As a result, the Americans take the threat very seriously. +I'll quote General James Cartwright, Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, who says in a report to Congress that cyberattacks could be as powerful as weapons of mass destruction. +Moreover, the Americans have decided to spend over 30 billion dollars in the next five years to build up their cyberwar capabilities. +And across the world today, we see a sort of cyber arms race, with cyberwar units built up by countries like North Korea or even Iran. +Yet, what you'll never hear from spokespeople from the Pentagon or the French Department of Defence is that the question isn't really who's the enemy, but actually the very nature of cyber weapons. +And to understand why, we must look at how, through the ages, military technologies have maintained or destroyed world peace. +For example, if we'd had TEDxParis 350 years ago, we would have talked about the military innovation of the day -- the massive Vauban-style fortifications -- and we could have predicted a period of stability in the world or in Europe. +which was indeed the case in Europe between 1650 and 1750. +Similarly, if we'd had this talk 30 or 40 years ago, we would have seen how the rise of nuclear weapons, and the threat of mutually assured destruction they imply, prevents a direct fight between the two superpowers. +However, if we'd had this talk 60 years ago, we would have seen how the emergence of new aircraft and tank technologies, which give the advantage to the attacker, make the Blitzkrieg doctrine very credible and thus create the possibility of war in Europe. +So military technologies can influence the course of the world, can make or break world peace -- and there lies the issue with cyber weapons. +The first issue: Imagine a potential enemy announcing they're building a cyberwar unit, but only for their country's defense. +Okay, but what distinguishes it from an offensive unit? +It gets even more complicated when the doctrines of use become ambiguous. +Just 3 years ago, both the U.S. and France were saying they were investing militarily in cyberspace, strictly to defend their IT systems. +But today both countries say the best defense is to attack. +And so, they're joining China, whose doctrine of use for 15 years has been both defensive and offensive. +The second issue: Your country could be under cyberattack with entire regions plunged into total darkness, and you may not even know who's attacking you. +Cyber weapons have this peculiar feature: they can be used without leaving traces. +This gives a tremendous advantage to the attacker, because the defender doesn't know who to fight back against. +And if the defender retaliates against the wrong adversary, they risk making one more enemy and ending up diplomatically isolated. +This issue isn't just theoretical. +In May 2007, Estonia was the victim of cyberattacks, that damaged its communication and banking systems. +Estonia accused Russia. +But NATO, though it defends Estonia, reacted very prudently. Why? +Because NATO couldn't be 100% sure that the Kremlin was indeed behind these attacks. +So to sum up, on the one hand, when a possible enemy announces they're building a cyberwar unit, you don't know whether it's for attack or defense. +On the other hand, we know that these weapons give an advantage to attacking. +In a major article published in 1978, Professor Robert Jervis of Columbia University in New York described a model to understand how conflicts could arise. +In this context, when you don't know if the potential enemy is preparing for defense or attack, and if the weapons give an advantage to attacking, then this environment is most likely to spark a conflict. +This is the environment that's being created by cyber weapons today, and historically it was the environment in Europe at the onset of World War I. +So cyber weapons are dangerous by nature, but in addition, they're emerging in a much more unstable environment. +If you remember the Cold War, it was a very hard game, but a stable one played only by two players, which allowed for some coordination between the two superpowers. +Today we're moving to a multipolar world in which coordination is much more complicated, as we have seen at Copenhagen. +And this coordination may become even trickier with the introduction of cyber weapons. +Why? Because no nation knows for sure whether its neighbor is about to attack. +So nations may live under the threat of what Nobel Prize winner Thomas Schelling called the "reciprocal fear of surprise attack," as I don't know if my neighbor is about to attack me or not -- I may never know -- so I might take the upper hand and attack first. +Just last week, in a New York Times article dated January 26, 2010, it was revealed for the first time that officials at the National Security Agency were considering the possibility of preemptive attacks in cases where the U.S. was about to be cyberattacked. +And these preemptive attacks might not just remain in cyberspace. +In May 2009, General Kevin Chilton, commander of the U.S. nuclear forces, stated that in the event of cyberattacks against the U.S., all options would be on the table. +Cyber weapons do not replace conventional or nuclear weapons -- they just add a new layer to the existing system of terror. +The information technologies Jol de Rosnay was talking about, which were historically born from military research, are today on the verge of developing an offensive capability of destruction, which could tomorrow, if we're not careful, completely destroy world peace. +Thank you. +So today, I would like to talk with you about bionics, which is the popular term for the science of replacing part of a living organism with a mechatronic device, or a robot. +It is essentially the stuff of life meets machine. +And specifically, I'd like to talk with you about how bionics is evolving for people with arm amputations. +This is our motivation. +Arm amputation causes a huge disability. +I mean, the functional impairment is clear. +Our hands are amazing instruments. +And when you lose one, far less both, it's a lot harder to do the things we physically need to do. +There's also a huge emotional impact. +And actually, I spend as much of my time in clinic dealing with the emotional adjustment of patients as with the physical disability. +And finally, there's a profound social impact. +We talk with our hands. +We greet with our hands. +And we interact with the physical world with our hands. +And when they're missing, it's a barrier. +Arm amputation is usually caused by trauma, with things like industrial accidents, motor vehicle collisions or, very poignantly, war. +There are also some children who are born without arms, called congenital limb deficiency. +Unfortunately, we don't do great with upper-limb prosthetics. +There are two general types. +They're called body-powered prostheses, which were invented just after the Civil War, refined in World War I and World War II. +Here you see a patent for an arm in 1912. +It's not a lot different than the one you see on my patient. +They work by harnessing shoulder power. +So when you squish your shoulders, they pull on a bicycle cable. +And that bicycle cable can open or close a hand or a hook or bend an elbow. +And we still use them commonly, because they're very robust and relatively simple devices. +The state of the art is what we call myoelectric prostheses. +These are motorized devices that are controlled by little electrical signals from your muscle. +Every time you contract a muscle, it emits a little electricity that you can record with antennae or electrodes and use that to operate the motorized prosthesis. +They work pretty well for people who have just lost their hand, because your hand muscles are still there. +You squeeze your hand, these muscles contract. +You open it, these muscles contract. +So it's intuitive, and it works pretty well. +Well how about with higher levels of amputation? +Now you've lost your arm above the elbow. +You're missing not only these muscles, but your hand and your elbow too. +What do you do? +Well our patients have to use very code-y systems of using just their arm muscles to operate robotic limbs. +We have robotic limbs. +There are several available on the market, and here you see a few. +They contain just a hand that will open and close, a wrist rotator and an elbow. +There's no other functions. +If they did, how would we tell them what to do? +We built our own arm at the Rehab Institute of Chicago where we've added some wrist flexion and shoulder joints to get up to six motors, or six degrees of freedom. +And we've had the opportunity to work with some very advanced arms that were funded by the U.S. military, using these prototypes, that had up to 10 different degrees of freedom including movable hands. +But at the end of the day, how do we tell these robotic arms what to do? +How do we control them? +Well we need a neural interface, a way to connect to our nervous system or our thought processes so that it's intuitive, it's natural, like for you and I. +Well the body works by starting a motor command in your brain, going down your spinal cord, out the nerves and to your periphery. +And your sensation's the exact opposite. +You touch yourself, there's a stimulus that comes up those very same nerves back up to your brain. +When you lose your arm, that nervous system still works. +Those nerves can put out command signals. +And if I tap the nerve ending on a World War II vet, he'll still feel his missing hand. +So you might say, let's go to the brain and put something in the brain to record signals, or in the end of the peripheral nerve and record them there. +And these are very exciting research areas, but it's really, really hard. +You have to put in hundreds of microscopic wires to record from little tiny individual neurons -- ordinary fibers that put out tiny signals that are microvolts. +And it's just too hard to use now and for my patients today. +So we developed a different approach. +We're using a biological amplifier to amplify these nerve signals -- muscles. +Muscles will amplify the nerve signals about a thousand-fold, so that we can record them from on top of the skin, like you saw earlier. +So our approach is something we call targeted reinnervation. +Imagine, with somebody who's lost their whole arm, we still have four major nerves that go down your arm. +And we take the nerve away from your chest muscle and let these nerves grow into it. +Now you think, "Close hand," and a little section of your chest contracts. +You think, "Bend elbow," a different section contracts. +And we can use electrodes or antennae to pick that up and tell the arm to move. +That's the idea. +So this is the first man that we tried it on. +His name is Jesse Sullivan. +He's just a saint of a man -- 54-year-old lineman who touched the wrong wire and had both of his arms burnt so badly they had to be amputated at the shoulder. +Jesse came to us at the RIC to be fit with these state-of-the-art devices, and here you see them. +I'm still using that old technology with a bicycle cable on his right side. +And he picks which joint he wants to move with those chin switches. +On the left side he's got a modern motorized prosthesis with those three joints, and he operates little pads in his shoulder that he touches to make the arm go. +And Jesse's a good crane operator, and he did okay by our standards. +He also required a revision surgery on his chest. +And that gave us the opportunity to do targeted reinnervation. +So my colleague, Dr. Greg Dumanian, did the surgery. +First, we cut away the nerve to his own muscle, then we took the arm nerves and just kind of had them shift down onto his chest and closed him up. +And after about three months, the nerves grew in a little bit and we could get a twitch. +And after six months, the nerves grew in well, and you could see strong contractions. +And this is what it looks like. +This is what happens when Jesse thinks open and close his hand, or bend or straighten your elbow. +You can see the movements on his chest, and those little hash marks are where we put our antennae, or electrodes. +And I challenge anybody in the room to make their chest go like this. +His brain is thinking about his arm. +He has not learned how to do this with the chest. +There is not a learning process. +That's why it's intuitive. +So here's Jesse in our first little test with him. +On the left-hand side, you see his original prosthesis, and he's using those switches to move little blocks from one box to the other. +He's had that arm for about 20 months, so he's pretty good with it. +On the right side, two months after we fit him with his targeted reinnervation prosthesis -- which, by the way, is the same physical arm, just programmed a little different -- you can see that he's much faster and much smoother as he moves these little blocks. +And we're only able to use three of the signals at this time. +Then we had one of those little surprises in science. +So we're all motivated to get motor commands to drive robotic arms. +And after a few months, you touch Jesse on his chest, and he felt his missing hand. +His hand sensation grew into his chest again probably because we had also taken away a lot of fat, so the skin was right down to the muscle and deinnervated, if you would, his skin. +So you touch Jesse here, he feels his thumb; you touch it here, he feels his pinky. +He feels light touch down to one gram of force. +He feels hot, cold, sharp, dull, all in his missing hand, or both his hand and his chest, but he can attend to either. +So this is really exciting for us, because now we have a portal, a portal, or a way to potentially give back sensation, so that he might feel what he touches with his prosthetic hand. +Imagine sensors in the hand coming up and pressing on this new hand skin. +So it was very exciting. +We've also gone on with what was initially our primary population of people with above-the-elbow amputations. +And here we deinnervate, or cut the nerve away, just from little segments of muscle and leave others alone that give us our up-down signals and two others that will give us a hand open and close signal. +This was one of our first patients, Chris. +You see him with his original device on the left there after eight months of use, and on the right, it is two months. +He's about four or five times as fast with this simple little performance metric. +All right. +So one of the best parts of my job is working with really great patients who are also our research collaborators. +And we're fortunate today to have Amanda Kitts come and join us. +Please welcome Amanda Kitts. +So Amanda, would you please tell us how you lost your arm? +Amanda Kitts: Sure. In 2006, I had a car accident. +And I was driving home from work, and a truck was coming the opposite direction, came over into my lane, ran over the top of my car and his axle tore my arm off. +Todd Kuiken: Okay, so after your amputation, you healed up. +And you've got one of these conventional arms. +Can you tell us how it worked? +AK: Well, it was a little difficult, because all I had to work with was a bicep and a tricep. +So for the simple little things like picking something up, I would have to bend my elbow, and then I would have to cocontract to get it to change modes. +When I did that, I had to use my bicep to get the hand to close, use my tricep to get it to open, cocontract again to get the elbow to work again. +TK: So it was a little slow? +AK: A little slow, and it was just hard to work. +You had to concentrate a whole lot. +TK: Okay, so I think about nine months later that you had the targeted reinnervation surgery, took six more months to have all the reinnervation. +Then we fit her with a prosthesis. +And how did that work for you? +AK: It works good. +I was able to use my elbow and my hand simultaneously. +I could work them just by my thoughts. +So I didn't have to do any of the cocontracting and all that. +TK: A little faster? +AK: A little faster. And much more easy, much more natural. +TK: Okay, this was my goal. +For 20 years, my goal was to let somebody [be] able to use their elbow and hand in an intuitive way and at the same time. +And we now have over 50 patients around the world who have had this surgery, including over a dozen of our wounded warriors in the U.S. armed services. +The success rate of the nerve transfers is very high. +It's like 96 percent. +Because we're putting a big fat nerve onto a little piece of muscle. +And it provides intuitive control. +Our functional testing, those little tests, all show that they're a lot quicker and a lot easier. +And the most important thing is our patients have appreciated it. +So that was all very exciting. +But we want to do better. +There's a lot of information in those nerve signals, and we wanted to get more. +You can move each finger. You can move your thumb, your wrist. +Can we get more out of it? +So we did some experiments where we saturated our poor patients with zillions of electrodes and then had them try to do two dozen different tasks -- from wiggling a finger to moving a whole arm to reaching for something -- and recorded this data. +And then we used some algorithms that are a lot like speech recognition algorithms, called pattern recognition. +See. +And here you can see, on Jesse's chest, when he just tried to do three different things, you can see three different patterns. +But I can't put in an electrode and say, "Go there." +So we collaborated with our colleagues in University of New Brunswick, came up with this algorithm control, which Amanda can now demonstrate. +AK: So I have the elbow that goes up and down. +I have the wrist rotation that goes -- and it can go all the way around. +And I have the wrist flexion and extension. +And I also have the hand closed and open. +TK: Thank you, Amanda. +Now this is a research arm, but it's made out of commercial components from here down and a few that I've borrowed from around the world. +It's about seven pounds, which is probably about what my arm would weigh if I lost it right here. +Obviously, that's heavy for Amanda. +And in fact, it feels even heavier, because it's not glued on the same. +She's carrying all the weight through harnesses. +So the exciting part isn't so much the mechatronics, but the control. +So we've developed a small microcomputer that is blinking somewhere behind her back and is operating this all by the way she trains it to use her individual muscle signals. +So Amanda, when you first started using this arm, how long did it take to use it? +AK: It took just about probably three to four hours to get it to train. +I had to hook it up to a computer, so I couldn't just train it anywhere. +So if it stopped working, I just had to take it off. +So now it's able to train with just this little piece on the back. +I can wear it around. +If it stops working for some reason, I can retrain it. +Takes about a minute. +TK: So we're really excited, because now we're getting to a clinically practical device. +And that's where our goal is -- to have something clinically pragmatic to wear. +We've also had Amanda able to use some of our more advanced arms that I showed you earlier. +Here's Amanda using an arm made by DEKA Research Corporation. +And I believe Dean Kamen presented it at TED a few years ago. +So Amanda, you can see, has really good control. +It's all the pattern recognition. +And it now has a hand that can do different grasps. +What we do is have the patient go all the way open and think, "What hand grasp pattern do I want?" +It goes into that mode, and then you can do up to five or six different hand grasps with this hand. +Amanda, how many were you able to do with the DEKA arm? +AK: I was able to get four. +I had the key grip, I had a chuck grip, I had a power grasp and I had a fine pinch. +But my favorite one was just when the hand was open, because I work with kids, and so all the time you're clapping and singing, so I was able to do that again, which was really good. +TK: That hand's not so good for clapping. +AK: Can't clap with this one. +TK: All right. So that's exciting on where we may go with the better mechatronics, if we make them good enough to put out on the market and use in a field trial. +I want you to watch closely. +Claudia: Oooooh! +TK: That's Claudia, and that was the first time she got to feel sensation through her prosthetic. +She had a little sensor at the end of her prosthesis that then she rubbed over different surfaces, and she could feel different textures of sandpaper, different grits, ribbon cable, as it pushed on her reinnervated hand skin. +She said that when she just ran it across the table, it felt like her finger was rocking. +So that's an exciting laboratory experiment on how to give back, potentially, some skin sensation. +But here's another video that shows some of our challenges. +This is Jesse, and he's squeezing a foam toy. +And the harder he squeezes -- you see a little black thing in the middle that's pushing on his skin proportional to how hard he squeezes. +But look at all the electrodes around it. +I've got a real estate problem. +You're supposed to put a bunch of these things on there, but our little motor's making all kinds of noise right next to my electrodes. +So we're really challenged on what we're doing there. +The future is bright. +We're excited about where we are and a lot of things we want to do. +So for example, one is to get rid of my real estate problem and get better signals. +We want to develop these little tiny capsules about the size of a piece of risotto that we can put into the muscles and telemeter out the EMG signals, so that it's not worrying about electrode contact. +And we can have the real estate open to try more sensation feedback. +We want to build a better arm. +This arm -- they're always made for the 50th percentile male -- which means they're too big for five-eighths of the world. +So rather than a super strong or super fast arm, we're making an arm that is -- we're starting with, the 25th percentile female -- that will have a hand that wraps around, opens all the way, two degrees of freedom in the wrist and an elbow. +So it'll be the smallest and lightest and the smartest arm ever made. +Once we can do it that small, it's a lot easier making them bigger. +So those are just some of our goals. +And we really appreciate you all being here today. +I'd like to tell you a little bit about the dark side, with yesterday's theme. +So Amanda came jet-lagged, she's using the arm, and everything goes wrong. +There was a computer spook, a broken wire, a converter that sparked. +We took out a whole circuit in the hotel and just about put on the fire alarm. +And none of those problems could I have dealt with, but I have a really bright research team. +And thankfully Dr. Annie Simon was with us and worked really hard yesterday to fix it. +That's science. +And fortunately, it worked today. +So thank you very much. +What you just heard are the interactions of barometric pressure, wind and temperature readings that were recorded of Hurricane Noel in 2007. +The musicians played off a three-dimensional graph of weather data like this. +Every single bead, every single colored band, represents a weather element that can also be read as a musical note. +I find weather extremely fascinating. +Weather is an amalgam of systems that is inherently invisible to most of us. +So I use sculpture and music to make it, not just visible, but also tactile and audible. +All of my work begins very simple. +I extract information from a specific environment using very low-tech data collecting devices -- generally anything I can find in the hardware store. +I then compare my information to the things I find on the Internet -- satellite images, weather data from weather stations as well as offshore buoys. +That's both historical as well as real data. +And then I compile all of these numbers on these clipboards that you see here. +These clipboards are filled with numbers. +And from all of these numbers, I start with only two or three variables. +That begins my translation process. +My translation medium is a very simple basket. +A basket is made up of horizontal and vertical elements. +When I assign values to the vertical and horizontal elements, I can use the changes of those data points over time to create the form. +I use natural reed, because natural reed has a lot of tension in it that I cannot fully control. +That means that it is the numbers that control the form, not me. +What I come up with are forms like these. +These forms are completely made up of weather data or science data. +Every colored bead, every colored string, represents a weather element. +And together, these elements, not only construct the form, but they also reveal behavioral relationships that may not come across through a two-dimensional graph. +When you step closer, you actually see that it is indeed all made up of numbers. +The vertical elements are assigned a specific hour of the day. +So all the way around, you have a 24-hour timeline. +But it's also used to assign a temperature range. +On that grid, I can then weave the high tide readings, water temperature, air temperature and Moon phases. +I also translate weather data into musical scores. +And musical notation allows me a more nuanced way of translating information without compromising it. +So all of these scores are made up of weather data. +Every single color, dot, every single line, is a weather element. +And together, these variables construct a score. +I use these scores to collaborate with musicians. +This is the 1913 Trio performing one of my pieces at the Milwaukee Art Museum. +Meanwhile, I use these scores as blueprints to translate into sculptural forms like this, that function still in the sense of being a three-dimensional weather visualization, but now they're embedding the visual matrix of the musical score, so it can actually be read as a musical score. +What I love about this work is that it challenges our assumptions of what kind of visual vocabulary belongs in the world of art, versus science. +This piece here is read very differently depending on where you place it. +You place it in an art museum, it becomes a sculpture. +You place it in a science museum, it becomes a three-dimensional visualization of data. +You place it in a music hall, it all of a sudden becomes a musical score. +And I really like that, because the viewer is really challenged as to what visual language is part of science versus art versus music. +The other reason why I really like this is because it offers an alternative entry point into the complexity of science. +And not everyone has a Ph.D. in science. +So for me, that was my way into it. +Thank you. +You all know the truth of what I'm going to say. +I think the intuition that inequality is divisive and socially corrosive has been around since before the French Revolution. +What's changed is we now can look at the evidence, we can compare societies, more and less equal societies, and see what inequality does. +I'm going to take you through that data and then explain why the links I'm going to be showing you exist. +But first, see what a miserable lot we are. +I want to start though with a paradox. +This shows you life expectancy against gross national income -- how rich countries are on average. +And you see the countries on the right, like Norway and the USA, are twice as rich as Israel, Greece, Portugal on the left. +And it makes no difference to their life expectancy at all. +There's no suggestion of a relationship there. +But if we look within our societies, there are extraordinary social gradients in health running right across society. +This, again, is life expectancy. +These are small areas of England and Wales -- the poorest on the right, the richest on the left. +A lot of difference between the poor and the rest of us. +Even the people just below the top have less good health than the people at the top. +So income means something very important within our societies, and nothing between them. +The explanation of that paradox is that, within our societies, we're looking at relative income or social position, social status -- where we are in relation to each other and the size of the gaps between us. +And as soon as you've got that idea, you should immediately wonder: what happens if we widen the differences, or compress them, make the income differences bigger or smaller? +And that's what I'm going to show you. +I'm not using any hypothetical data. +I'm taking data from the U.N. -- it's the same as the World Bank has -- on the scale of income differences in these rich developed market democracies. +The measure we've used, because it's easy to understand and you can download it, is how much richer the top 20 percent than the bottom 20 percent in each country. +And you see in the more equal countries on the left -- Japan, Finland, Norway, Sweden -- the top 20 percent are about three and a half, four times as rich as the bottom 20 percent. +But on the more unequal end -- U.K., Portugal, USA, Singapore -- the differences are twice as big. +On that measure, we are twice as unequal as some of the other successful market democracies. +Now I'm going to show you what that does to our societies. +We collected data on problems with social gradients, the kind of problems that are more common at the bottom of the social ladder. +Internationally comparable data on life expectancy, on kids' maths and literacy scores, on infant mortality rates, homicide rates, proportion of the population in prison, teenage birthrates, levels of trust, obesity, mental illness -- which in standard diagnostic classification includes drug and alcohol addiction -- and social mobility. +We put them all in one index. +They're all weighted equally. +Where a country is is a sort of average score on these things. +And there, you see it in relation to the measure of inequality I've just shown you, which I shall use over and over again in the data. +The more unequal countries are doing worse on all these kinds of social problems. +It's an extraordinarily close correlation. +But if you look at that same index of health and social problems in relation to GNP per capita, gross national income, there's nothing there, no correlation anymore. +We were a little bit worried that people might think we'd been choosing problems to suit our argument and just manufactured this evidence, so we also did a paper in the British Medical Journal on the UNICEF index of child well-being. +It has 40 different components put together by other people. +It contains whether kids can talk to their parents, whether they have books at home, what immunization rates are like, whether there's bullying at school. +Everything goes into it. +Here it is in relation to that same measure of inequality. +Kids do worse in the more unequal societies. +Highly significant relationship. +But once again, if you look at that measure of child well-being, in relation to national income per person, there's no relationship, no suggestion of a relationship. +What all the data I've shown you so far says is the same thing. +The average well-being of our societies is not dependent any longer on national income and economic growth. +That's very important in poorer countries, but not in the rich developed world. +But the differences between us and where we are in relation to each other now matter very much. +I'm going to show you some of the separate bits of our index. +Here, for instance, is trust. +It's simply the proportion of the population who agree most people can be trusted. +It comes from the World Values Survey. +You see, at the more unequal end, it's about 15 percent of the population who feel they can trust others. +But in the more equal societies, it rises to 60 or 65 percent. +And if you look at measures of involvement in community life or social capital, very similar relationships closely related to inequality. +I may say, we did all this work twice. +We did it first on these rich, developed countries, and then as a separate test bed, we repeated it all on the 50 American states -- asking just the same question: do the more unequal states do worse on all these kinds of measures? +So here is trust from a general social survey of the federal government related to inequality. +Very similar scatter over a similar range of levels of trust. +Same thing is going on. +Basically we found that almost anything that's related to trust internationally is related to trust amongst the 50 states in that separate test bed. +We're not just talking about a fluke. +This is mental illness. +WHO put together figures using the same diagnostic interviews on random samples of the population to allow us to compare rates of mental illness in each society. +This is the percent of the population with any mental illness in the preceding year. +And it goes from about eight percent up to three times that -- whole societies with three times the level of mental illness of others. +And again, closely related to inequality. +This is violence. +These red dots are American states, and the blue triangles are Canadian provinces. +But look at the scale of the differences. +It goes from 15 homicides per million up to 150. +This is the proportion of the population in prison. +There's a about a tenfold difference there, log scale up the side. +But it goes from about 40 to 400 people in prison. +That relationship is not mainly driven by more crime. +In some places, that's part of it. +But most of it is about more punitive sentencing, harsher sentencing. +And the more unequal societies are more likely also to retain the death penalty. +Here we have children dropping out of high school. +Again, quite big differences. +Extraordinarily damaging, if you're talking about using the talents of the population. +This is social mobility. +It's actually a measure of mobility based on income. +Basically, it's asking: do rich fathers have rich sons and poor fathers have poor sons, or is there no relationship between the two? +And at the more unequal end, fathers' income is much more important -- in the U.K., USA. +And in Scandinavian countries, fathers' income is much less important. +There's more social mobility. +And as we like to say -- and I know there are a lot of Americans in the audience here -- if Americans want to live the American dream, they should go to Denmark. +I've shown you just a few things in italics here. +I could have shown a number of other problems. +They're all problems that tend to be more common at the bottom of the social gradient. +But there are endless problems with social gradients that are worse in more unequal countries -- not just a little bit worse, but anything from twice as common to 10 times as common. +Think of the expense, the human cost of that. +I want to go back though to this graph that I showed you earlier where we put it all together to make two points. +One is that, in graph after graph, we find the countries that do worse, whatever the outcome, seem to be the more unequal ones, and the ones that do well seem to be the Nordic countries and Japan. +So what we're looking at is general social disfunction related to inequality. +It's not just one or two things that go wrong, it's most things. +The other really important point I want to make on this graph is that, if you look at the bottom, Sweden and Japan, they're very different countries in all sorts of ways. +The position of women, how closely they keep to the nuclear family, are on opposite ends of the poles in terms of the rich developed world. +But another really important difference is how they get their greater equality. +Sweden has huge differences in earnings, and it narrows the gap through taxation, general welfare state, generous benefits and so on. +Japan is rather different though. +It starts off with much smaller differences in earnings before tax. +It has lower taxes. +It has a smaller welfare state. +And in our analysis of the American states, we find rather the same contrast. +There are some states that do well through redistribution, some states that do well because they have smaller income differences before tax. +So we conclude that it doesn't much matter how you get your greater equality, as long as you get there somehow. +I am not talking about perfect equality, I'm talking about what exists in rich developed market democracies. +Another really surprising part of this picture is that it's not just the poor who are affected by inequality. +There seems to be some truth in John Donne's "No man is an island." +And in a number of studies, it's possible to compare how people do in more and less equal countries at each level in the social hierarchy. +This is just one example. +It's infant mortality. +Some Swedes very kindly classified a lot of their infant deaths according to the British register of general socioeconomic classification. +And so it's anachronistically a classification by fathers' occupations, so single parents go on their own. +But then where it says "low social class," that's unskilled manual occupations. +It goes through towards the skilled manual occupations in the middle, then the junior non-manual, going up high to the professional occupations -- doctors, lawyers, directors of larger companies. +You see there that Sweden does better than Britain all the way across the social hierarchy. +The biggest differences are at the bottom of society. +But even at the top, there seems to be a small benefit to being in a more equal society. +We show that on about five different sets of data covering educational outcomes and health in the United States and internationally. +And that seems to be the general picture -- that greater equality makes most difference at the bottom, but has some benefits even at the top. +But I should say a few words about what's going on. +I think I'm looking and talking about the psychosocial effects of inequality. +More to do with feelings of superiority and inferiority, of being valued and devalued, respected and disrespected. +And of course, those feelings of the status competition that comes out of that drives the consumerism in our society. +It also leads to status insecurity. +We worry more about how we're judged and seen by others, whether we're regarded as attractive, clever, all that kind of thing. +The social-evaluative judgments increase, the fear of those social-evaluative judgments. +Interestingly, some parallel work going on in social psychology: some people reviewed 208 different studies in which volunteers had been invited into a psychological laboratory and had their stress hormones, their responses to doing stressful tasks, measured. +And in the review, what they were interested in seeing is what kind of stresses most reliably raise levels of cortisol, the central stress hormone. +And the conclusion was it was tasks that included social-evaluative threat -- threats to self-esteem or social status in which others can negatively judge your performance. +Those kind of stresses have a very particular effect on the physiology of stress. +Now we have been criticized. +Of course, there are people who dislike this stuff and people who find it very surprising. +I should tell you though that when people criticize us for picking and choosing data, we never pick and choose data. +We have an absolute rule that if our data source has data for one of the countries we're looking at, it goes into the analysis. +Our data source decides whether it's reliable data, we don't. +Otherwise that would introduce bias. +What about other countries? +There are 200 studies of health in relation to income and equality in the academic peer-reviewed journals. +This isn't confined to these countries here, hiding a very simple demonstration. +The same countries, the same measure of inequality, one problem after another. +Why don't we control for other factors? +Well we've shown you that GNP per capita doesn't make any difference. +And of course, others using more sophisticated methods in the literature have controlled for poverty and education and so on. +What about causality? +Correlation in itself doesn't prove causality. +We spend a good bit of time. +And indeed, people know the causal links quite well in some of these outcomes. +The big change in our understanding of drivers of chronic health in the rich developed world is how important chronic stress from social sources is affecting the immune system, the cardiovascular system. +Or for instance, the reason why violence becomes more common in more unequal societies is because people are sensitive to being looked down on. +I should say that to deal with this, we've got to deal with the post-tax things and the pre-tax things. +We've got to constrain income, the bonus culture incomes at the top. +I think we must make our bosses accountable to their employees in any way we can. +I think the take-home message though is that we can improve the real quality of human life by reducing the differences in incomes between us. +Suddenly we have a handle on the psychosocial well-being of whole societies, and that's exciting. +Thank you. +Thank you. +It's a real pleasure to be here. +I last did a TED Talk I think about seven years ago or so. +I talked about spaghetti sauce. +And so many people, I guess, watch those videos. +People have been coming up to me ever since to ask me questions about spaghetti sauce, which is a wonderful thing in the short term -- but it's proven to be less than ideal over seven years. +And so I though I would come and try and put spaghetti sauce behind me. +The theme of this morning's session is Things We Make. +And so I thought I would tell a story about someone who made one of the most precious objects of his era. +And the man's name is Carl Norden. +Carl Norden was born in 1880. +And he was Swiss. +And of course, the Swiss can be divided into two general categories: those who make small, exquisite, expensive objects and those who handle the money of those who buy small, exquisite, expensive objects. +And Carl Norden is very firmly in the former camp. +He's an engineer. +He goes to the Federal Polytech in Zurich. +In fact, one of his classmates is a young man named Lenin who would go on to break small, expensive, exquisite objects. +And he's a Swiss engineer, Carl. +And I mean that in its fullest sense of the word. +In any case, Carl Norden emigrates to the United States just before the First World War and sets up shop on Lafayette Street in downtown Manhattan. +And he becomes obsessed with the question of how to drop bombs from an airplane. +Now if you think about it, in the age before GPS and radar, that was obviously a really difficult problem. +It's a complicated physics problem. +You've got a plane that's thousands of feet up in the air, going at hundreds of miles an hour, and you're trying to drop an object, a bomb, towards some stationary target in the face of all kinds of winds and cloud cover and all kinds of other impediments. +And all sorts of people, moving up to the First World War and between the wars, tried to solve this problem, and nearly everybody came up short. +The bombsights that were available were incredibly crude. +But Carl Norden is really the one who cracks the code. +And he comes up with this incredibly complicated device. +It weighs about 50 lbs. +It's called the Norden Mark 15 bombsight. +And it has all kinds of levers and ball-bearings and gadgets and gauges. +And he makes this complicated thing. +And what he allows people to do is he makes the bombardier take this particular object, visually sight the target, because they're in the Plexiglas cone of the bomber, and then they plug in the altitude of the plane, the speed of the plane, the speed of the wind and the coordinates of the target. +And the bombsight will tell him when to drop the bomb. +And as Norden famously says, "Before that bombsight came along, bombs would routinely miss their target by a mile or more." +But he said, with the Mark 15 Norden bombsight, he could drop a bomb into a pickle barrel at 20,000 ft. +Now I cannot tell you how incredibly excited the U.S. military was by the news of the Norden bombsight. +It was like manna from heaven. +Here was an army that had just had experience in the First World War, where millions of men fought each other in the trenches, getting nowhere, making no progress, and here someone had come up with a device that allowed them to fly up in the skies high above enemy territory and destroy whatever they wanted with pinpoint accuracy. +And the U.S. military spends 1.5 billion dollars -- billion dollars in 1940 dollars -- developing the Norden bombsight. +And to put that in perspective, the total cost of the Manhattan project was three billion dollars. +Half as much money was spent on this Norden bombsight as was spent on the most famous military-industrial project of the modern era. +And there were people, strategists, within the U.S. military who genuinely thought that this single device was going to spell the difference between defeat and victory when it came to the battle against the Nazis and against the Japanese. +And for Norden as well, this device had incredible moral importance, because Norden was a committed Christian. +In fact, he would always get upset when people referred to the bombsight as his invention, because in his eyes, only God could invent things. +He was simply the instrument of God's will. +And what was God's will? +Well God's will was that the amount of suffering in any kind of war be reduced to as small an amount as possible. +And what did the Norden bombsight do? +Well it allowed you to do that. +It allowed you to bomb only those things that you absolutely needed and wanted to bomb. +So in the years leading up to the Second World War, the U.S. military buys 90,000 of these Norden bombsights at a cost of $14,000 each -- again, in 1940 dollars, that's a lot of money. +And they trained 50,000 bombardiers on how to use them -- long extensive, months-long training sessions -- because these things are essentially analog computers; they're not easy to use. +And they make every one of those bombardiers take an oath, to swear that if they're ever captured, they will not divulge a single detail of this particular device to the enemy, because it's imperative the enemy not get their hands on this absolutely essential piece of technology. +And whenever the Norden bombsight is taken onto a plane, it's escorted there by a series of armed guards. +And it's carried in a box with a canvas shroud over it. +And the box is handcuffed to one of the guards. +It's never allowed to be photographed. +And there's a little incendiary device inside of it, so that, if the plane ever crashes, it will be destroyed and there's no way the enemy can ever get their hands on it. +The Norden bombsight is the Holy Grail. +So what happens during the Second World War? +Well, it turns out it's not the Holy Grail. +In practice, the Norden bombsight can drop a bomb into a pickle barrel at 20,000 ft., but that's under perfect conditions. +And of course, in wartime, conditions aren't perfect. +First of all, it's really hard to use -- really hard to use. +And not all of the people who are of those 50,000 men who are bombardiers have the ability to properly program an analog computer. +Secondly, it breaks down a lot. +It's full of all kinds of gyroscopes and pulleys and gadgets and ball-bearings, and they don't work as well as they ought to in the heat of battle. +Thirdly, when Norden was making his calculations, he assumed that a plane would be flying at a relatively slow speed at low altitudes. +Well in a real war, you can't do that; you'll get shot down. +So they started flying them at high altitudes at incredibly high speeds. +And the Norden bombsight doesn't work as well under those conditions. +But most of all, the Norden bombsight required the bombardier to make visual contact with the target. +But of course, what happens in real life? +There are clouds, right. +It needs cloudless sky to be really accurate. +Well how many cloudless skies do you think there were above Central Europe between 1940 and 1945? +Not a lot. +And then to give you a sense of just how inaccurate the Norden bombsight was, there was a famous case in 1944 where the Allies bombed a chemical plant in Leuna, Germany. +And the chemical plant comprised 757 acres. +And over the course of 22 bombing missions, the Allies dropped 85,000 bombs on this 757 acre chemical plant, using the Norden bombsight. +Well what percentage of those bombs do you think actually landed inside the 700-acre perimeter of the plant? +10 percent. 10 percent. +And of those 10 percent that landed, 16 percent didn't even go off; they were duds. +The Leuna chemical plant, after one of the most extensive bombings in the history of the war, was up and running within weeks. +And by the way, all those precautions to keep the Norden bombsight out of the hands of the Nazis? +Well it turns out that Carl Norden, as a proper Swiss, was very enamored of German engineers. +So in the 1930s, he hired a whole bunch of them, including a man named Hermann Long who, in 1938, gave a complete set of the plans for the Norden bombsight to the Nazis. +So they had their own Norden bombsight throughout the entire war -- which also, by the way, didn't work very well. +So why do we talk about the Norden bombsight? +Well because we live in an age where there are lots and lots of Norden bombsights. +We live in a time where there are all kinds of really, really smart people running around, saying that they've invented gadgets that will forever change our world. +They've invented websites that will allow people to be free. +They've invented some kind of this thing, or this thing, or this thing that will make our world forever better. +If you go into the military, you'll find lots of Carl Nordens as well. +If you go to the Pentagon, they will say, "You know what, now we really can put a bomb inside a pickle barrel at 20,000 ft." +And you know what, it's true; they actually can do that now. +But we need to be very clear about how little that means. +In the Iraq War, at the beginning of the first Iraq War, the U.S. military, the air force, sent two squadrons of F-15E Fighter Eagles to the Iraqi desert equipped with these five million dollar cameras that allowed them to see the entire desert floor. +And their mission was to find and to destroy -- remember the Scud missile launchers, those surface-to-air missiles that the Iraqis were launching at the Israelis? +The mission of the two squadrons was to get rid of all the Scud missile launchers. +And so they flew missions day and night, and they dropped thousands of bombs, and they fired thousands of missiles in an attempt to get rid of this particular scourge. +And after the war was over, there was an audit done -- as the army always does, the air force always does -- and they asked the question: how many Scuds did we actually destroy? +You know what the answer was? +Zero, not a single one. +Now why is that? +Is it because their weapons weren't accurate? +Oh no, they were brilliantly accurate. +They could have destroyed this little thing right here from 25,000 ft. +The issue was they didn't know where the Scud launchers were. +The problem with bombs and pickle barrels is not getting the bomb inside the pickle barrel, it's knowing how to find the pickle barrel. +That's always been the harder problem when it comes to fighting wars. +Or take the battle in Afghanistan. +What is the signature weapon of the CIA's war in Northwest Pakistan? +It's the drone. What is the drone? +Well it is the grandson of the Norden Mark 15 bombsight. +It is this weapon of devastating accuracy and precision. +And over the course of the last six years in Northwest Pakistan, the CIA has flown hundreds of drone missiles, and it's used those drones to kill 2,000 suspected Pakistani and Taliban militants. +Now what is the accuracy of those drones? +Well it's extraordinary. +We think we're now at 95 percent accuracy when it comes to drone strikes. +95 percent of the people we kill need to be killed, right? +That is one of the most extraordinary records in the history of modern warfare. +But do you know what the crucial thing is? +In that exact same period that we've been using these drones with devastating accuracy, the number of attacks, of suicide attacks and terrorist attacks, against American forces in Afghanistan has increased tenfold. +As we have gotten more and more efficient in killing them, they have become angrier and angrier and more and more motivated to kill us. +I have not described to you a success story. +I've described to you the opposite of a success story. +And this is the problem with our infatuation with the things we make. +We think the things we make can solve our problems, but our problems are much more complex than that. +The issue isn't the accuracy of the bombs you have, it's how you use the bombs you have, and more importantly, whether you ought to use bombs at all. +There's a postscript to the Norden story of Carl Norden and his fabulous bombsight. +And that is, on August 6, 1945, a B-29 bomber called the Enola Gay flew over Japan and, using a Norden bombsight, dropped a very large thermonuclear device on the city of Hiroshima. +And as was typical with the Norden bombsight, the bomb actually missed its target by 800 ft. +But of course, it didn't matter. +And that's the greatest irony of all when it comes to the Norden bombsight. +the air force's 1.5 billion dollar bombsight was used to drop its three billion dollar bomb, which didn't need a bombsight at all. +Meanwhile, back in New York, no one told Carl Norden that his bombsight was used over Hiroshima. +He was a committed Christian. +He thought he had designed something that would reduce the toll of suffering in war. +It would have broken his heart. +I moved to Boston 10 years ago from Chicago, with an interest in cancer and in chemistry. +You might know that chemistry is the science of making molecules or, to my taste, new drugs for cancer. +And you might also know that, for science and medicine, Boston is a bit of a candy store. +You can't roll a stop sign in Cambridge without hitting a graduate student. +The bar is called the Miracle of Science. +The billboards say "Lab Space Available." +And it's fair to say that in these 10 years, we've witnessed absolutely the start of a scientific revolution -- that of genome medicine. +We know more about the patients that enter our clinic now than ever before. +And we're able, finally, to answer the question that's been so pressing for so many years: Why do I have cancer? +This information is also pretty staggering. +You might know that, so far, in just the dawn of this revolution, we know that there are perhaps 40,000 unique mutations affecting more than 10,000 genes, and that there are 500 of these genes that are bona-fide drivers, causes of cancer. +Yet comparatively, we have about a dozen targeted medications. +And this inadequacy of cancer medicine really hit home when my father was diagnosed with pancreatic cancer. +We didn't fly him to Boston. +We didn't sequence his genome. +It's been known for decades what causes this malignancy. +It's three proteins: ras, myc, p53. +This is old information we've known since about the 80s, yet there's no medicine I can prescribe to a patient with this or any of the numerous solid tumors caused by these three ... +Horsemen of the Apocalypse that is cancer. +There's no ras, no myc, no p53 drug. +And you might fairly ask: Why is that? +And the very unsatisfying yet scientific answer is: it's too hard. +That for whatever reason, these three proteins have entered a space, in the language of our field, that's called the undruggable genome -- which is like calling a computer unsurfable or the Moon unwalkable. +It's a horrible term of trade. +But what it means is that we've failed to identify a greasy pocket in these proteins, into which we, like molecular locksmiths, can fashion an active, small, organic molecule or drug substance. +Now, as I was training in clinical medicine and hematology and oncology and stem-cell transplantation, what we had instead, cascading through the regulatory network at the FDA, were these substances: arsenic, thalidomide, and this chemical derivative of nitrogen mustard gas. +And this is the 21st century. +Now, BRD4 is an interesting protein. +You might ask: with all the things cancer's trying to do to kill our patient, how does it remember it's cancer? +When it winds up its genome, divides into two cells and unwinds again, why does it not turn into an eye, into a liver, as it has all the genes necessary to do this? +It remembers that it's cancer. +And the reason is that cancer, like every cell in the body, places little molecular bookmarks, little Post-it notes, that remind the cell, "I'm cancer; I should keep growing." +And those Post-it notes involve this and other proteins of its class -- so-called bromodomains. +So we developed an idea, a rationale, that perhaps if we made a molecule that prevented the Post-it note from sticking by entering into the little pocket at the base of this spinning protein, then maybe we could convince cancer cells, certainly those addicted to this BRD4 protein, that they're not cancer. +And so we started to work on this problem. +We developed libraries of compounds and eventually arrived at this and similar substances called JQ1. +Now, not being a drug company, we could do certain things, we had certain flexibilities, that I respect that a pharmaceutical industry doesn't have. +We just started mailing it to our friends. +I have a small lab. +We thought we'd just send it to people and see how the molecule behaves. +We sent it to Oxford, England, where a group of talented crystallographers provided this picture, which helped us understand exactly how this molecule is so potent for this protein target. +It's what we call a perfect fit of shape complementarity, or hand in glove. +Now, this is a very rare cancer, this BRD4-addicted cancer. +And so we worked with samples of material that were collected by young pathologists at Brigham and Women's Hospital. +And as we treated these cells with this molecule, we observed something really striking. +The cancer cells -- small, round and rapidly dividing, grew these arms and extensions. +They were changing shape. +In effect, the cancer cell was forgetting it was cancer and becoming a normal cell. +This got us very excited. +The next step would be to put this molecule into mice. +The only problem was there's no mouse model of this rare cancer. +And so at the time we were doing this research, I was caring for a 29-year-old firefighter from Connecticut who was very much at the end of life with this incurable cancer. +This BRD4-addicted cancer was growing throughout his left lung. +And he had a chest tube in that was draining little bits of debris. +And every nursing shift, we would throw this material out. +And so we approached this patient and asked if he would collaborate with us. +Could we take this precious and rare cancerous material from this chest tube and drive it across town and put it into mice and try to do a clinical trial at a stage that with a prototype drug, well, that would be, of course, impossible and, rightly, illegal to do in humans. +And he obliged us. +At the Lurie Family Center for Animal Imaging, our colleague, Andrew Kung, grew this cancer successfully in mice without ever touching plastic. +And you can see this PET scan of a mouse -- what we call a pet PET. +The cancer is growing as this red, huge mass in the hind limb of this animal. +And as we treat it with our compound, this addiction to sugar, this rapid growth, faded. +And on the animal on the right, you see that the cancer was responding. +We've completed, now, clinical trials in four mouse models of this disease. +And every time, we see the same thing. +The mice with this cancer that get the drug live, and the ones that don't rapidly perish. +So we started to wonder, what would a drug company do at this point? +Well, they probably would keep this a secret until they turn the prototype drug into an active pharmaceutical substance. +So we did just the opposite. +We published a paper that described this finding at the earliest prototype stage. +We gave the world the chemical identity of this molecule, typically a secret in our discipline. +We told people exactly how to make it. +We gave them our email address, suggesting that if they write us, we'll send them a free molecule. +We basically tried to create the most competitive environment for our lab as possible. +And this was, unfortunately, successful. +Because now, we've shared this molecule, just since December of last year, with 40 laboratories in the United States and 30 more in Europe -- many of them pharmaceutical companies, seeking now to enter this space, to target this rare cancer that, thankfully right now, is quite desirable to study in that industry. +But the science that's coming back from all of these laboratories about the use of this molecule has provided us insights we might not have had on our own. +Leukemia cells treated with this compound turn into normal white blood cells. +Mice with multiple myeloma, an incurable malignancy of the bone marrow, respond dramatically to the treatment with this drug. +You might know that fat has memory. +I'll nicely demonstrate that for you. In fact, this molecule prevents this adipocyte, this fat stem cell, from remembering how to make fat, such that mice on a high-fat diet, like the folks in my hometown of Chicago -- fail to develop fatty liver, which is a major medical problem. +For all the reasons you see listed here, we think there's a great opportunity for academic centers to participate in this earliest, conceptually tricky and creative discipline of prototype drug discovery. +So what next? +We have this molecule, but it's not a pill yet. +It's not orally bioavailable. +We need to fix it so we can deliver it to our patients. +And everyone in the lab, especially following the interaction with these patients, feels quite compelled to deliver a drug substance based on this molecule. +It's here where I'd say that we could use your help and your insights, your collaborative participation. +Unlike a drug company, we don't have a pipeline that we can deposit these molecules into. +We don't have a team of salespeople and marketeers to tell us how to position this drug against the other. +What we do have is the flexibility of an academic center to work with competent, motivated, enthusiastic, hopefully well-funded people to carry these molecules forward into the clinic while preserving our ability to share the prototype drug worldwide. +This molecule will soon leave our benches and go into a small start-up company called Tensha Therapeutics. +I want to leave you with just two ideas. +The first is: if anything is unique about this research, it's less the science than the strategy. +This, for us, was a social experiment -- an experiment in "What would happen if we were as open and honest at the earliest phase of discovery chemistry research as we could be?" +This string of letters and numbers and symbols and parentheses that can be texted, I suppose, or Twittered worldwide, is the chemical identity of our pro compound. +It's the information that we most need from pharmaceutical companies, the information on how these early prototype drugs might work. +Yet this information is largely a secret. +And so we seek, really, to download from the amazing successes of the computer-science industry, two principles -- that of open source and that of crowdsourcing -- to quickly, responsibly accelerate the delivery of targeted therapeutics to patients with cancer. +Now, the business model involves all of you. +This research is funded by the public. +It's funded by foundations. +And one thing I've learned in Boston is that you people will do anything for cancer, and I love that. +You bike across the state, you walk up and down the river. +I've never seen, really, anywhere, this unique support for cancer research. +And so I want to thank you for your participation, your collaboration and most of all, for your confidence in our ideas. +I am a papercutter. +I cut stories. +So my process is very straightforward. +I take a piece of paper, I visualize my story, sometimes I sketch, sometimes I don't. +And as my image is already inside the paper, I just have to remove what's not from that story. +So I didn't come to papercutting in a straight line. +In fact, I see it more as a spiral. +I was not born with a blade in my hand. +And I don't remember papercutting as a child. +As a teenager, I was sketching, drawing, and I wanted to be an artist. +But I was also a rebel. +And I left everything and went for a long series of odd jobs. +So among them, I have been a shepherdess, a truck driver, a factory worker, a cleaning lady. +I worked in tourism for one year in Mexico, one year in Egypt. +I moved for two years in Taiwan. +And then I settled in New York where I became a tour guide. +And I still worked as a tour leader, traveled back and forth in China, Tibet and Central Asia. +So of course, it took time, and I was nearly 40, and I decided it's time to start as an artist. +I chose papercutting because paper is cheap, it's light, and you can use it in a lot of different ways. +And I chose the language of silhouette because graphically it's very efficient. +And it's also just getting to the essential of things. +So the word "silhouette" comes from a minister of finance, Etienne de Silhouette. +And he slashed so many budgets that people said they couldn't afford paintings anymore, and they needed to have their portrait "a la silhouette." +So I made series of images, cuttings, and I assembled them in portfolios. +And people told me -- like these 36 views of the Empire State building -- they told me, "You're making artist books." +So artist books have a lot of definitions. +They come in a lot of different shapes. +But to me, they are fascinating objects to visually narrate a story. +They can be with words or without words. +And I have a passion for images and for words. +I love pun and the relation to the unconscious. +I love oddities of languages. +And everywhere I lived, I learned the languages, but never mastered them. +So I'm always looking for the false cognates or identical words in different languages. +So as you can guess, my mother tongue is French. +And my daily language is English. +So I did a series of work where it was identical words in French and in English. +So one of these works is the "Spelling Spider." +So the Spelling Spider is a cousin of the spelling bee. +But it's much more connected to the Web. +And this spider spins a bilingual alphabet. +So you can read "architecture active" or "active architecture." +So this spider goes through the whole alphabet with identical adjectives and substantives. +So if you don't know one of these languages, it's instant learning. +And one ancient form of the book is scrolls. +So scrolls are very convenient, because you can create a large image on a very small table. +So the unexpected consequences of that is that you only see one part of your image, so it makes a very freestyle architecture. +And I'm making all those kinds of windows. +So it's to look beyond the surface. +It's to have a look at different worlds. +And very often I've been an outsider. +So I want to see how things work and what's happening. +So each window is an image and is a world that I often revisit. +And I revisit this world thinking about the image or clich about what we want to do, and what are the words, colloquialisms, that we have with the expressions. +It's all if. +So what if we were living in balloon houses? +It would make a very uplifting world. +And we would leave a very low footprint on the planet. +It would be so light. +So sometimes I view from the inside, like EgoCentriCity and the inner circles. +Sometimes it's a global view, to see our common roots and how we can use them to catch dreams. +And we can use them also as a safety net. +And my inspirations are very eclectic. +I'm influenced by everything I read, everything I see. +I have some stories that are humorous, like "Dead Beats." +Other ones are historical. +Here it's "CandyCity." +It's a non-sugar-coated history of sugar. +It goes from slave trade to over-consumption of sugar with some sweet moments in between. +And sometimes I have an emotional response to news, such as the 2010 Haitian earthquake. +Other times, it's not even my stories. +People tell me their lives, their memories, their aspirations, and I create a mindscape. +I channel their history [so that] they have a place to go back to look at their life and its possibilities. +I call them Freudian cities. +I cannot speak for all my images, so I'll just go through a few of my worlds just with the title. +"ModiCity." +"ElectriCity." +"MAD Growth on Columbus Circle." +"ReefCity." +"A Web of Time." +"Chaos City." +"Daily Battles." +"FeliCity." +"Floating Islands." +And at one point, I had to do "The Whole Nine Yards." +So it's actually a papercut that's nine yards long. +So in life and in papercutting, everything is connected. +One story leads to another. +I was also interested in the physicality of this format, because you have to walk to see it. +And parallel to my cutting is my running. +I started with small images, I started with a few miles. +Larger images, I started to run marathons. +Then I went to run 50K, then 60K. +Then I ran 50 miles -- ultramarathons. +And I still feel I'm running, it's just the training to become a long-distance papercutter. +And running gives me a lot of energy. +Here is a three-week papercutting marathon at the Museum of Arts and Design in New York City. +The result is "Hells and Heavens." +It's two panels 13 ft. high. +They were installed in the museum on two floors, but in fact, it's a continuous image. +And I call it "Hells and Heavens" because it's daily hells and daily heavens. +There is no border in between. +Some people are born in hells, and against all odds, they make it to heavens. +Other people make the opposite trip. +That's the border. +You have sweatshops in hells. +You have people renting their wings in the heavens. +And then you have all those individual stories where sometimes we even have the same action, and the result puts you in hells or in heavens. +So the whole "Hells and Heavens" is about free will and determinism. +And in papercutting, you have the drawing as the structure itself. +So you can take it off the wall. +Here it's an artist book installation called "Identity Project." +It's not autobiographical identities. +They are more our social identities. +And then you can just walk behind them and try them on. +So it's like the different layers of what we are made of and what we present to the world as an identity. +That's another artist book project. +In fact, in the picture, you have two of them. +It's one I'm wearing and one that's on exhibition at the Center for Books Arts in New York City. +Why do I call it a book? +It's called "Fashion Statement," and there are quotes about fashion, so you can read it, and also, because the definition of artist book is very generous. +So artist books, you take them off the wall. +You take them for a walk. +You can also install them as public art. +Here it's in Scottsdale, Arizona, and it's called "Floating Memories." +So it's regional memories, and they are just randomly moved by the wind. +I love public art. +And I entered competitions for a long time. +After eight years of rejection, I was thrilled to get my first commission with the Percent for Art in New York City. +It was for a merger station for emergency workers and firemen. +I made an artist book that's in stainless steel instead of paper. +I called it "Working in the Same Direction." +But I added weathervanes on both sides to show that they cover all directions. +With public art, I could also make cut glass. +Here it's faceted glass in the Bronx. +And each time I make public art, I want something that's really relevant to the place it's installed. +So for the subway in New York, I saw a correspondence between riding the subway and reading. +It is travel in time, travel on time. +And Bronx literature, it's all about Bronx writers and their stories. +Another glass project is in a public library in San Jose, California. +So I made a vegetable point of view of the growth of San Jose. +So I started in the center with the acorn for the Ohlone Indian civilization. +Then I have the fruit from Europe for the ranchers. +And then the fruit of the world for Silicon Valley today. +And it's still growing. +So the technique, it's cut, sandblasted, etched and printed glass into architectural glass. +And outside the library, I wanted to make a place to cultivate your mind. +I took library material that had fruit in their title and I used them to make an orchard walk with these fruits of knowledge. +I also planted the bibliotree. +So it's a tree, and in its trunk you have the roots of languages. +And it's all about international writing systems. +And on the branches you have library material growing. +You can also have function and form with public art. +So in Aurora, Colorado it's a bench. +But you have a bonus with this bench. +Because if you sit a long time in summer in shorts, you will walk away with temporary branding of the story element on your thighs. +Another functional work, it's in the south side of Chicago for a subway station. +And it's called "Seeds of the Future are Planted Today." +It's a story about transformation and connections. +So it acts as a screen to protect the rail and the commuter, and not to have objects falling on the rails. +To be able to change fences and window guards into flowers, it's fantastic. +And here I've been working for the last three years with a South Bronx developer to bring art to life to low-income buildings and affordable housing. +So each building has its own personality. +And sometimes it's about a legacy of the neighborhood, like in Morrisania, about the jazz history. +And for other projects, like in Paris, it's about the name of the street. +It's called Rue des Prairies -- Prairie Street. +So I brought back the rabbit, the dragonfly, to stay in that street. +And in 2009, I was asked to make a poster to be placed in the subway cars in New York City for a year. +So that was a very captive audience. +And I wanted to give them an escape. +I created "All Around Town." +It is a papercutting, and then after, I added color on the computer. +So I can call it techno-crafted. +And along the way, I'm kind of making papercuttings and adding other techniques. +But the result is always to have stories. +So the stories, they have a lot of possibilities. +They have a lot of scenarios. +I don't know the stories. +I take images from our global imagination, from clich, from things we are thinking about, from history. +And everybody's a narrator, because everybody has a story to tell. +But more important is everybody has to make a story to make sense of the world. +And in all these universes, it's like imagination is the vehicle to be transported with, but the destination is our minds and how we can reconnect with the essential and with the magic. +And it's what story cutting is all about. +Hi there. I'm Hasan. I'm an artist. +And usually when I tell people I'm an artist, they just look at me and say, "Do you paint?" +or "What kind of medium do you work in?" +Well most of my work that I work with is really a little bit about methodologies of working rather than actually a specific discipline or a specific technique. +So what I'm really interested in is creative problem solving. +And I had a little bit of a problem a few years ago. +So let me show you a little of that. +So it started over here. +And this is the Detroit airport in June 19th of 2002. +I was flying back to the U.S. from an exhibition overseas. +And as I was coming back, well I was taken by the FBI, met by an FBI agent, and went into a little room and he asked me all sorts of questions -- "Where were you? What were you doing? Who were you talking with? +Why were you there? Who pays for your trips?" -- all these little details. +And then literally just out of nowhere, the guy asks me, "Where were you September 12th?" +And when most of us get asked, "Where were you September 12th?" +or any date for that fact, it's like, "I don't exactly remember, but I can look it up for you." +So I pulled out my little PDA, and I said, "Okay, let's look up my appointments for September 12th." +I had September 12th -- from 10:00 a.m. to 10:30 a.m., I paid my storage bill. +From 10:30 a.m. to 12:00 p.m., I met with Judith who was one of my graduate students at the time. +From 12:00 p.m. to 3:00 p.m., I taught my intro class, 3:00 p.m. to 6:00 p.m., I taught my advanced class. +"Where were you the 11th?" "Where were you the 10th?" +"Where were you the 29th? the 30th?" +"Where were you October 5th?" +We read about six months of my calendar. +And I don't think he was expecting me to have such detailed records of what I did. +But good thing I did, because I don't look good in orange. +So he asked me -- "So this storage unit that you paid the rent on, what did you have in it?" +This was in Tampa, Florida, so I was like, "Winter clothes that I have no use for in Florida. +Furniture that I can't fit in my ratty apartment. +Just assorted garage sale junk, because I'm a pack rat." +And he looks at me really confused and says, "No explosives?" +I was like, "No, no. I'm pretty certain there were no explosives. +And if there were, I would have remembered that one." +And he's still a little confused, but I think that anyone who talks to me for more than a couple of minutes realizes I'm not exactly a terrorist threat. +And so we're sitting there, and eventually after about an hour, hour and a half of just going back and forth, he says, "Okay, I have enough information here. +I'm going to pass this onto the Tampa office. They're the ones who initiated this. +They'll follow up with you, and we'll take care of it." +I was like, "Great." +So I got home and the phone rings, and a man introduced himself. +Basically this is the FBI offices in Tampa where I spent six months of my life -- back and forth, not six months continuously. +By the way, you folks know that in the United States, you can't take photographs of federal buildings, but Google can do it for you. +So to the folks from Google, thank you. +So I spent a lot of time in this building. +Questions like: "Have you ever witnessed or participated in any act that may be detrimental to the United States or a foreign nation?" +And you also have to consider the state of mind you're in when you're doing this. +You're basically face-to-face with someone that essentially decides life or death. +Or questions such as -- actually, during the polygraph, which was how it finally ended after nine consecutive of them -- one of the polygraph questions was ... +well the first one was, "Is your name Hasan?" "Yes." +"Are we in Florida?" "Yes." "Is today Tuesday?" "Yes." +Because you have to base it on a yes or no. +Then, of course, the next question is: "Do you belong to any groups that wish to harm the United States?" +I work at a university. +So I was like, "Maybe you want to ask some of my colleagues that directly." +But they said, "Okay, aside from what we had discussed, do you belong to any groups that wish to harm the United States?" +I was like, "No." +So at the end of six months of this and nine consecutive polygraphs, they said, "Hey, everything's fine." +I was like, "I know. That's what I've been trying to tell you guys all along. +I know everything's fine." +So they're looking at me really odd. +And it's like, "Guys, I travel a lot." +This is with the FBI. +And I was like, "All we need is Alaska not to get the last memo, and here we go all over again." +And there was a sincere concern there. +And he was like, "You know, if you get into trouble, give us a call -- we'll take care of it." +So ever since then, before I would go anywhere, I would call the FBI. +I would tell them, "Hey guys, this is where I'm going. This is my flight. +Northwest flight seven coming into Seattle on March 12th" or whatever. +A couple weeks later, I'd call again, let them know. +It wasn't that I had to, but I chose to. +Just wanted to say, "Hey guys. +Don't want to make it look like I'm making any sudden moves." +"I don't want you guys to think that I'm about to flee. +Just letting you know. Heads up." +And so I just kept doing this over and over and over. +And then the phone calls turned into emails, and the emails got longer and longer and longer ... +with pictures, with travel tips. +Then I'd make websites. +And then I built this over here. Let me go back to it over here. +So I actually designed this back in 2003. +So this kind of tracks me at any given moment. +I wrote some code for my mobile phone. +Basically, what I decided is okay guys, you want to watch me, that's cool. +But I'll watch myself. It's okay. +You don't have to waste your energy or your resources. +And I'll help you out. +So in the process, I start thinking, well what else might they know about me? +Well they probably have all my flight records, so I decided to put all my flight records from birth online. +So you can see, Delta 1252 going from Kansas City to Atlanta. +And then you see, these are some of the meals that I've been fed on the planes. +This was on Delta 719 going from JFK to San Francisco. +See that? They won't let me on a plane with that, but they'll give it to me on the plane. +These are the airports that I hang out in, because I like airports. +That's Kennedy airport, May 19th, Tuesday. +This is in Warsaw. +Singapore. You can see, they're kind of empty. +These images are shot really anonymously to the point where it could be anyone. +But if you can cross-reference this with the other data, then you're basically replaying the roll of the FBI agent and putting it all together. +And when you're in a situation where you have to justify every moment of your existence, you're put in the situation where you react in a very different manner. +At the time that this was going on, the last thing on my mind was "art project." +I was certainly not thinking, hey, I got new work here. +But after going through this, after realizing, well what just happened? +And after piecing together this, this and this, this way of actually trying to figure out what happened for myself eventually evolved into this, and it actually became this project. +So these are the stores that I shop in -- some of them -- because they need to know. +This is me buying some duck flavored paste at the Ranch 99 in Daly City on Sunday, November 15th. +At Coreana Supermarket buying my kimchi because I like kimchi. +And I bought some crabs too right around there, and some chitlins at the Safeway in Emoryville. +And laundry too. Laundry detergent at West Oakland -- East Oakland, sorry. +And then my pickled jellyfish at the Hong Kong Supermarket on Route 18 in East Brunswick. +Now if you go to my bank records, it'll actually show something from there, so you know that, on May 9th, that I bought $14.79 in fuel from Safeway Vallejo. +So not only that I'm giving this information here and there, but now there's a third party, an independent third party, my bank, that's verifying that, yes indeed, I was there at this time. +So there's points, and these points are actually being cross-referenced. +And there's a verification taking place. +Sometimes they're really small purchases. +So 34 cents foreign transaction fee. +All of these are extracted directly from my bank accounts, and everything pops up right away. +Sometimes there's a lot of information. +This is exactly where my old apartment in San Francisco was. +And then sometimes you get this. +Sometimes you just get this, just an empty hallway in Salt Lake City, January 22nd. +And I can tell you exactly who I was with, where I was, because this is what I had to do with the FBI. +I had to tell them every little detail of everything. +I spend a lot of time on the road. +This is a parking lot in Elko, Nevada off of Route 80 at 8:01 p.m. on August 19th. +I spend a lot of time in gas stations too -- empty train stations. +So there's multiple databases. +And there's thousands and thousands and thousands of images. +There's actually 46,000 images right now on my site, and the FBI has seen all of them -- at least I trust they've seen all of them. +And then sometimes you don't get much information at all, you just get this empty bed. +And sometimes you get a lot of text information and no visual information. +So you get something like this. +This, by the way, is the location of my favorite sandwich shop in California -- Vietnamese sandwich. +So there's different categorizations of meals eaten outside empty train stations, empty gas stations. +These are some of the meals that I've been cooking at home. +So how do you know these are meals eaten at home? +Well the same plate shows up a whole bunch of times. +So again, you have to do some detective work here. +So sometimes the databases get so specific. +These are all tacos eaten in Mexico City near a train station on July fifth to July sixth. +At 11:39 a.m. was this one. +At 1:56 p.m. was this one. At 4:59 p.m. was this one. +So I time-stamp my life every few moments. +Every few moments I shoot the image. +Now it's all done on my iPhone, and it all goes straight up to my server, and my server does all the backend work and categorizes things and puts everything together. +They need to know where I'm doing my business, because they want to know about my business. +So on December 4th, I went here. +And on Sunday, June 14th at 2009 -- this was actually about two o'clock in the afternoon in Skowhegan, Maine -- this was my apartment there. +So what you're basically seeing here is all bits and pieces and all this information. +If you go to my site, there's tons of things. +And really, it's not the most user-friendly interface. +It's actually quite user-unfriendly. +And one of the reasons, also being part of the user-unfriendliness, is that everything is there, but you have to really work through it. +So by me putting all this information out there, what I'm basically telling you is I'm telling you everything. +But in this barrage of noise that I'm putting out, I actually live an incredibly anonymous and private life. +And you know very little about me actually. +And really so I've come to the conclusion that the way you protect your privacy, particularly in an era where everything is cataloged and everything is archived and everything is recorded, there's no need to delete information anymore. +So what do you do when everything is out there? +Well you have to take control over it. +And if I give you this information directly, it's a very different type of identity than if you were to try to go through and try to get bits and pieces. +The other thing that's also interesting that's going on here is the fact that intelligence agencies -- and it doesn't matter who they are -- they all operate in an industry where their commodity is information, or restricted access to information. +And the reason their information has any value is, well, because no one else has access to it. +And by me cutting out the middle man and giving it straight to you, the information that the FBI has has no value, so thus devaluing their currency. +And I understand that, on an individual level, it's purely symbolic. +But if 300 million people in the U.S. +started doing this, we would have to redesign the entire intelligence system from the ground up. +Because it just wouldn't work if everybody was sharing everything. +And we're getting to that. +When I first started this project, people were looking at me and saying, "Why would you want to tell everybody what you're doing, where you're at? +Why are you posting these photos?" +This was an age before people were Tweeting everywhere and 750 million people were posting status messages or poking people. +So in a way, I'm glad that I'm completely obsolete. +I'm still doing this project, but it is obsolete, because you're all doing it. +This is something that we all are doing on a daily basis, whether we're aware of it or not. +So we're creating our own archives and so on. +And you know, some of my friends have always said, "Hey, you're just paranoid. Why are you doing this? +Because no one's really watching. +No one's really going to bother you." +So one of the things that I do is I actually look through my server logs very carefully. +Because it's about surveillance. +I'm watching who's watching me. +And I came up with these. +So these are some of my sample logs. +And just little bits and pieces, and you can see some of the things there. +And I cleaned up the list a little bit so you can see. +So you can see that the Homeland Security likes to come by -- Department of Homeland Security. +You can see the National Security Agency likes to come by. +I actually moved very close to them. I live right down the street from them now. +Central Intelligence Agency. +Executive Office of the President. +Not really sure why they show up, but they do. +I think they kind of like to look at art. +And I'm glad that we have patrons of the arts in these fields. +So thank you very much. I appreciate it. +Bruno Giussani: Hasan, just curious. +You said, "Now everything automatically goes from my iPhone," but actually you do take the pictures and put on information. +So how many hours of the day does that take? +HE: Almost none. +It's no different than sending a text. +It's no different than checking an email. +It's one of those things, we got by just fine before we had to do any of those. +So it's just become another day. +I mean, when we update a status message, we don't really think about how long that's going to take. +So it's really just a matter of my phone clicking a couple of clicks, send, and then it's done. +And everything's automated at the other end. +BG: On the day you are in a place where there is no coverage, the FBI gets crazy? +HE: Well it goes to the last point that I was at. +So it holds onto the very last point. +So if I'm on a 12-hour flight, you'll see the last airport that I departed from. +BG: Hasan, thank you very much. (HE: Thank you.) +Is there anything unique about human beings? +There is. +We're the only creatures with fully developed moral sentiments. +We're obsessed with morality as social creatures. +We need to know why people are doing what they're doing. +And I personally am obsessed with morality. +It was all due to this woman, Sister Mary Marastela, also known as my mom. +As an altar boy, I breathed in a lot of incense, and I learned to say phrases in Latin, but I also had time to think about whether my mother's top-down morality applied to everybody. +I saw that people who were religious and non-religious were equally obsessed with morality. +I thought, maybe there's some earthly basis for moral decisions. +But I wanted to go further than to say our brains make us moral. +I want to know if there's a chemistry of morality. +I want to know if there was a moral molecule. +After 10 years of experiments, I found it. +Would you like to see it? I brought some with me. +This little syringe contains the moral molecule. +It's called oxytocin. +So oxytocin is a simple and ancient molecule found only in mammals. +In rodents, it was known to make mothers care for their offspring, and in some creatures, allowed for toleration of burrowmates. +But in humans, it was only known to facilitate birth and breastfeeding in women, and is released by both sexes during sex. +So I had this idea that oxytocin might be the moral molecule. +I did what most of us do -- I tried it on some colleagues. +One of them told me, "Paul, that is the world's stupidist idea. +It is," he said, "only a female molecule. +It can't be that important." +But I countered, "Well men's brains make this too. +There must be a reason why." +But he was right, it was a stupid idea. +But it was testably stupid. +In other words, I thought I could design an experiment to see if oxytocin made people moral. +Turns out it wasn't so easy. +First of all, oxytocin is a shy molecule. +Baseline levels are near zero, without some stimulus to cause its release. +And when it's produced, it has a three-minute half-life, and degrades rapidly at room temperature. +So this experiment would have to cause a surge of oxytocin, have to grab it fast and keep it cold. +I think I can do that. +Now luckily, oxytocin is produced both in the brain and in the blood, so I could do this experiment without learning neurosurgery. +Then I had to measure morality. +So taking on Morality with a capital M is a huge project. +So I started smaller. +I studied one single virtue: trustworthiness. +Why? I had shown in the early 2000s that countries with a higher proportion of trustworthy people are more prosperous. +So in these countries, more economic transactions occur and more wealth is created, alleviating poverty. +So poor countries are by and large low trust countries. +So if I understood the chemistry of trustworthiness, I might help alleviate poverty. +But I'm also a skeptic. +I don't want to just ask people, "Are you trustworthy?" +So instead I use the Jerry Maguire approach to research. +If you're so virtuous, show me the money. +So what we do in my lab is we tempt people with virtue and vice by using money. +Let me show you how we do that. +So we recruit some people for an experiment. +They all get $10 if they agree to show up. +We give them lots of instruction, and we never ever deceive them. +Then we match them in pairs by computer. +And in that pair, one person gets a message saying, "Do you want to give up some of your $10 you earned for being here and ship it to someone else in the lab?" +The trick is you can't see them, you can't talk to them. +You only do it one time. +Now whatever you give up gets tripled in the other person's account. +You're going to make them a lot wealthier. +And they get a message by computer saying person one sent you this amount of money. +Do you want to keep it all, or do you want to send some amount back? +So think about this experiment for minute. +You're going to sit on these hard chairs for an hour and a half. +Some mad scientist is going to jab your arm with a needle and take four tubes of blood. +And now you want me to give up this money and ship it to a stranger? +So this was the birth of vampire economics. +Make a decision and give me some blood. +So in fact, experimental economists had run this test around the world, and for much higher stakes, and the consensus view was that the measure from the first person to the second was a measure of trust, and the transfer from the second person back to the first measured trustworthiness. +But in fact, economists were flummoxed on why the second person would ever return any money. +They assumed money is good, why not keep it all? +That's not what we found. +We found 90 percent of the first decision-makers sent money, and of those who received money, 95 percent returned some of it. +But why? +Well by measuring oxytocin we found that the more money the second person received, the more their brain produced oxytocin, and the more oxytocin on board, the more money they returned. +So we have a biology of trustworthiness. +But wait. What's wrong with this experiment? +Two things. +One is that nothing in the body happens in isolation. +So we measured nine other molecules that interact with oxytocin, but they didn't have any effect. +But the second is that I still only had this indirect relationship between oxytocin and trustworthiness. +I didn't know for sure oxytocin caused trustworthiness. +So to make the experiment, I knew I'd have to go into the brain and manipulate oxytocin directly. +I used everything short of a drill to get oxytocin into my own brain. +And I found I could do it with a nasal inhaler. +So along with colleagues in Zurich, we put 200 men on oxytocin or placebo, had that same trust test with money, and we found that those on oxytocin not only showed more trust, we can more than double the number of people who sent all their money to a stranger -- all without altering mood or cognition. +So oxytocin is the trust molecule, but is it the moral molecule? +Using the oxytocin inhaler, we ran more studies. +We showed that oxytocin infusion increases generosity in unilateral monetary transfers by 80 percent. +We showed it increases donations to charity by 50 percent. +We've also investigated non-pharmacologic ways to raise oxytocin. +These include massage, dancing and praying. +Yes, my mom was happy about that last one. +And whenever we raise oxytocin, people willingly open up their wallets and share money with strangers. +But why do they do this? +What does it feel like when your brain is flooded with oxytocin? +To investigate this question, we ran an experiment where we had people watch a video of a father and his four year-old son, and his son has terminal brain cancer. +After they watched the video, we had them rate their feelings and took blood before and after to measure oxytocin. +The change in oxytocin predicted their feelings of empathy. +So it's empathy that makes us connect to other people. +It's empathy that makes us help other people. +It's empathy that makes us moral. +Now this idea is not new. +A then unknown philosopher named Adam Smith wrote a book in 1759 called "The Theory of Moral Sentiments." +In this book, Smith argued that we are moral creatures, not because of a top-down reason, but for a bottom-up reason. +He said we're social creatures, so we share the emotions of others. +So if I do something that hurts you, I feel that pain. +So I tend to avoid that. +If I do something that makes you happy, I get to share your joy. +So I tend to do those things. +Now this is the same Adam Smith who, 17 years later, would write a little book called "The Wealth of Nations" -- the founding document of economics. +But he was, in fact, a moral philosopher, and he was right on why we're moral. +I just found the molecule behind it. +But knowing that molecule is valuable, because it tells us how to turn up this behavior and what turns it off. +In particular, it tells us why we see immorality. +So to investigate immorality, let me bring you back now to 1980. +I'm working at a gas station on the outskirts of Santa Barbara, California. +You sit in a gas station all day, you see lots of morality and immorality, let me tell you. +So one Sunday afternoon, a man walks into my cashier's booth with this beautiful jewelry box. +Opens it up and there's a pearl necklace inside. +And he said, "Hey, I was in the men's room. +I just found this. What do you think we should do with it?" +"I don't know, put it in the lost and found." +"Well this is very valuable. +We have to find the owner for this." I said, "Yea." +So we're trying to decide what to do with this, and the phone rings. +And a man says very excitedly, "I was in your gas station a while ago, and I bought this jewelry for my wife, and I can't find it." +I said, "Pearl necklace?" "Yeah." +"Hey, a guy just found it." +"Oh, you're saving my life. Here's my phone number. +Tell that guy to wait half an hour. +I'll be there and I'll give him a $200 reward." +Great, so I tell the guy, "Look, relax. +Get yourself a fat reward. Life's good." +He said, "I can't do it. +I have this job interview in Galena in 15 minutes, and I need this job, I've got to go." +Again he asked me, "What do you think we should do?" +I'm in high school. I have no idea. +So I said, "I'll hold it for you." +He said, "You know, you've been so nice, let's split the reward." +I'll give you the jewelry, you give me a hundred dollars, and when the guy comes ... " You see it. I was conned. +So this is a classic con called the pigeon drop, and I was the pigeon. +So the way many cons work is not that the conman gets the victim to trust him, it's that he shows he trusts the victim. +Now we know what happens. +The victim's brain releases oxytocin, and you're opening up your wallet or purse, giving away the money. +So who are these people who manipulate our oxytocin systems? +We found, testing thousands of individuals, that five percent of the population don't release oxytocin on stimulus. +So if you trust them, their brains don't release oxytocin. +If there's money on the table, they keep it all. +So there's a technical word for these people in my lab. +We call them bastards. +These are not people you want to have a beer with. +They have many of the attributes of psychopaths. +Now there are other ways the system can be inhibited. +One is through improper nurturing. +So we've studied sexually abused women, and about half those don't release oxytocin on stimulus. +You need enough nurturing for this system to develop properly. +Also, high stress inhibits oxytocin. +So we all know this, when we're really stressed out, we're not acting our best. +There's another way oxytocin is inhibited, which is interesting -- through the action of testosterone. +So we, in experiments, have administered testosterone to men. +And instead of sharing money, they become selfish. +But interestingly, high testosterone males are also more likely to use their own money to punish others for being selfish. +Now think about this. It means, within our own biology, we have the yin and yang of morality. +We have oxytocin that connects us to others, makes us feel what they feel. +And we have testosterone. +And men have 10 times the testosterone as women, so men do this more than women -- we have testosterone that makes us want to punish people who behave immorally. +We don't need God or government telling us what to do. +It's all inside of us. +So you may be wondering: these are beautiful laboratory experiments, do they really apply to real life? +Yeah, I've been worrying about that too. +So I've gone out of the lab to see if this really holds in our daily lives. +So last summer, I attended a wedding in Southern England. +200 people in this beautiful Victorian mansion. +I didn't know a single person. +And I drove up in my rented Vauxhall. +And I took out a centrifuge and dry ice and needles and tubes. +And I took blood from the bride and the groom and the wedding party and the family and the friends before and immediately after the vows. +And guess what? +Weddings cause a release of oxytocin, but they do so in a very particular way. +Who is the center of the wedding solar system? +The bride. +She had the biggest increase in oxytocin. +Who loves the wedding almost as much as the bride? +Her mother, that's right. +Her mother was number two. +Then the groom's father, then the groom, then the family, then the friends -- arrayed around the bride like planets around the Sun. +So I think it tells us that we've designed this ritual to connect us to this new couple, connect us emotionally. +Why? Because we need them to be successful at reproducing to perpetuate the species. +I also worried that my trust experiments with small amounts of money didn't really capture how often we actually trust our lives to strangers. +So even though I have a fear of heights, I recently strapped myself to another human being and stepped out of an airplane at 12,000 ft. +I took my blood before and after, and I had a huge spike of oxytocin. +And there are so many ways we can connect to people. +For example, through social media. +Many people are Tweeting right now. +So we investigated the role of social media and found the using social media produced a solid double-digit increase in oxytocin. +So I ran this experiment recently for the Korean Broadcasting System. +And they had the reporters and their producers participate. +And one of these guys, he must have been 22, he had 150 percent spike in oxytocin. +I mean, astounding; no one has this. +So he was using social media in private. +When I wrote my report to the Koreans, I said, "Look, I don't know what this guy was doing," but my guess was interacting with his mother or his girlfriend. +They checked. +He was interacting on his girlfriend's Facebook page. +There you go. That's connection. +So there's tons of ways that we can connect to other people, and it seems to be universal. +Two weeks ago, I just got back from Papua New Guinea where I went up to the highlands -- very isolated tribes of subsistence farmers living as they have lived for millenia. +There are 800 different languages in the highlands. +These are the most primitive people in the world. +And they indeed also release oxytocin. +So oxytocin connects us to other people. +Oxytocin makes us feel what other people feel. +And it's so easy to cause people's brains to release oxytocin. +I know how to do it, and my favorite way to do it is, in fact, the easiest. +Let me show it to you. +Come here. Give me a hug. +There you go. +So my penchant for hugging other people has earned me the nickname Dr. Love. +I'm happy to share a little more love in the world, it's great, but here's your prescription from Dr. Love: eight hugs a day. +We have found that people who release more oxytocin are happier. +And they're happier because they have better relationships of all types. +Dr. Love says eight hugs a day. +Eight hugs a day -- you'll be happier and the world will be a better place. +Of course, if you don't like to touch people, I can always shove this up your nose. +Thank you. +What is it about flying cars? +We've wanted to do this for about a hundred years. +And there are historic attempts that have had some level of technical success. +But we haven't yet gotten to the point where on your way here this morning you see something that really, truly seamlessly integrates the two-dimensional world that we're comfortable in with the three-dimensional sky above us -- that, I don't know about you, but I really enjoy spending time in. +So instead of trying to make a car that can fly, we decided to try to make a plane that could drive. +And the result is the Terrafugia Transition. +It's a two-seat, single-engine airplane that works just like any other small airplane. +You take off and land at a local airport. +Then once you're on the ground, you fold up the wings, drive it home, park it in your garage. +And it works. +After two years of an innovative design and construction process, the proof of concept made its public debut in 2008. +Now like with anything that's really different from the status quo, it didn't always go so well testing that aircraft. +And we discovered that it's a very good thing that, when you go home with something that's been broken, you've actually learned a lot more than when you managed to tick off all of your test objectives the first time through. +Still, we very much wanted to see the aircraft that we'd all helped build in the air, off the ground, like it was supposed to be. +And on our third high-speed testing deployment on a bitter cold morning in upstate New York, we got to do that for the first time. +The picture behind me was snapped by the copilot in our chase aircraft just moments after the wheels got off the ground for the first time. +And we were all very flattered to see that image become a symbol of accomplishing something that people had thought was impossible really the world over. +The FAA, about a year ago, gave us an exemption for the Transition to allow us to have an additional 110 lbs. +within the light sport aircraft category. +Now that doesn't sound like a lot, but it's very important, because being able to deliver the Transition as a light sport aircraft makes it simpler for us to certify it, but it also makes it much easier for you to learn how to fly it. +A sport pilot can be certificated in as little as 20 hours of flight time. +And at 110 lbs., that's very important for solving the other side of the equation -- driving. +It turns out that driving, with its associated design implementation and regulatory hurdles, is actually a harder problem to solve than flying. +For those of us that spend most of our lives on the ground, this may be counter-intuitive, but driving has potholes, cobblestones, pedestrians, other drivers and a rather long and detailed list of federal motor vehicle safety standards to contend with. +We have a carbon fiber safety cage that protects the occupants for less than 10 percent of the weight of a traditional steel chassis in a car. +Now this also, as good as it is, wasn't quite enough. +The regulations for vehicles on the road weren't written with an airplane in mind. +So we did need a little bit of support from the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. +Now you may have seen in the news recently, they came through with us at the end of last month with a few special exemptions that will allow the Transition to be sold in the same category as SUVs and light trucks. +As a multi-purpose passenger vehicle, it is now officially "designed for occasional off-road use." +Now let's see it in action. +You can see there the wings folded up just along the side of the plane. +You're not powering the propeller, you're powering the wheels. +And it is under seven feet tall, so it will fit in a standard construction garage. +And that's the automated wing-folding mechanism. +That's real time. +You just push a few buttons in the cockpit, and the wings come out. +Once they're fully deployed, there's a mechanical lock that goes into place, again, from inside the cockpit. +And they're now fully capable of handling any of the loads you would see in flight -- just like putting down your convertible top. +And you're all thinking what your neighbors would think of seeing that. +Test Pilot: Until the vehicle flies, 75 percent of your risk is that first flight. +Radio: It actually flew. Yes. +Radio 2: That was gorgeous. +Radio: What did you think of that? +That was beautiful from up here, I tell you. +AMD: See, we're all exceedingly excited about that little bunny hop. +And our test pilot gave us the best feedback you can get from a test pilot after a first flight, which was that it was "remarkably unremarkable." +He would go onto tell us that the Transition had been the easiest airplane to land that he'd flown in his entire 30-year career as a test pilot. +So despite making something that is seemingly revolutionary, we really focused on doing as little new as possible. +We leverage a lot of technology from the state-of-the-art in general aviation and from automotive racing. +When we do have to do something truly out-of-the-box, we use an incremental design, build, test, redesign cycle that lets us reduce risk in baby steps. +Now since we started Terrafugia about 6 years ago, we've had a lot of those baby steps. +We've gone from being three of us working in the basement at MIT while we were still in graduate school to about two-dozen of us working in an initial production facility outside of Boston. +Still, if everything goes to our satisfaction with the testing and construction of the two production prototypes that we're working on right now, those first deliveries to the, about a hundred, people who have reserved an airplane at this point should begin at the end of next year. +The Transition will cost in line with other small airplanes. +And I'm certainly not out to replace your Chevy, but I do think that the Transition should be your next airplane. +Here's why. +While nearly all of the commercial air travel in the world goes through a relatively small number of large hub airports, there is a huge underutilized resource out there. +There are thousands of local airstrips that don't see nearly as many aircraft operations a day as they could. +On average, there's one within 20 to 30 miles of wherever you are in the United States. +The Transition gives you a safer, more convenient and more fun way of using this resource. +For those of you who aren't yet pilots, there's four main reasons why those of us who are don't fly as much as we'd like to: the weather, primarily, cost, long door-to-door travel time and mobility at your destination. +Now, bad weather comes in, just land, fold up the wings, drive home. +Doesn't matter if it rains a little, you have a windshield wiper. +Instead of paying to keep your airplane in a hanger, park it in your garage. +And the unleaded automotive fuel that we use is both cheaper and better for the environment than traditional avgas. +Door-to-door travel time is reduced, because now, instead of lugging bags, finding a parking space, taking off your shoes or pulling your airplane out of the hanger, you're now just spending that time getting to where you want to go. +And mobility to your destination is clearly solved. +Just fold up the wings and keep going. +The Transition simultaneously expands our horizons while making the world a smaller, more accessible place. +It also continues to be a fabulous adventure. +I hope you'll each take a moment to think about how you could use something like this to give yourself more access to your own world, and to make your own travel more convenient and more fun. +Thank you for giving me the opportunity to share it with you. +I'm a neuroscientist. +And in neuroscience, we have to deal with many difficult questions about the brain. +But I want to start with the easiest question and the question you really should have all asked yourselves at some point in your life, because it's a fundamental question if we want to understand brain function. +And that is, why do we and other animals have brains? +Not all species on our planet have brains, so if we want to know what the brain is for, let's think about why we evolved one. +Now you may reason that we have one to perceive the world or to think, and that's completely wrong. +If you think about this question for any length of time, it's blindingly obvious why we have a brain. +We have a brain for one reason and one reason only, and that's to produce adaptable and complex movements. +There is no other reason to have a brain. +Think about it. +Movement is the only way you have of affecting the world around you. +Now that's not quite true. There's one other way, and that's through sweating. +But apart from that, everything else goes through contractions of muscles. +So think about communication -- speech, gestures, writing, sign language -- they're all mediated through contractions of your muscles. +So it's really important to remember that sensory, memory and cognitive processes are all important, but they're only important to either drive or suppress future movements. +There can be no evolutionary advantage to laying down memories of childhood or perceiving the color of a rose if it doesn't affect the way you're going to move later in life. +Now for those who don't believe this argument, we have trees and grass on our planet without the brain, but the clinching evidence is this animal here -- the humble sea squirt. +Rudimentary animal, has a nervous system, swims around in the ocean in its juvenile life. +And at some point of its life, it implants on a rock. +And the first thing it does in implanting on that rock, which it never leaves, is to digest its own brain and nervous system for food. +So once you don't need to move, you don't need the luxury of that brain. +And this animal is often taken as an analogy to what happens at universities when professors get tenure, but that's a different subject. +So I am a movement chauvinist. +I believe movement is the most important function of the brain -- don't let anyone tell you that it's not true. +Now if movement is so important, how well are we doing understanding how the brain controls movement? +And the answer is we're doing extremely poorly; it's a very hard problem. +But we can look at how well we're doing by thinking about how well we're doing building machines which can do what humans can do. +Think about the game of chess. +How well are we doing determining what piece to move where? +If you pit Garry Kasparov here, when he's not in jail, against IBM's Deep Blue, well the answer is IBM's Deep Blue will occasionally win. +And I think if IBM's Deep Blue played anyone in this room, it would win every time. +That problem is solved. +What about the problem of picking up a chess piece, dexterously manipulating it and putting it back down on the board? +If you put a five year-old child's dexterity against the best robots of today, the answer is simple: the child wins easily. +There's no competition at all. +Now why is that top problem so easy and the bottom problem so hard? +One reason is a very smart five year-old could tell you the algorithm for that top problem -- look at all possible moves to the end of the game and choose the one that makes you win. +So it's a very simple algorithm. +Now of course there are other moves, but with vast computers we approximate and come close to the optimal solution. +When it comes to being dexterous, it's not even clear what the algorithm is you have to solve to be dexterous. +And we'll see you have to both perceive and act on the world, which has a lot of problems. +But let me show you cutting-edge robotics. +Now a lot of robotics is very impressive, but manipulation robotics is really just in the dark ages. +So this is the end of a Ph.D. project from one of the best robotics institutes. +And the student has trained this robot to pour this water into a glass. +It's a hard problem because the water sloshes about, but it can do it. +But it doesn't do it with anything like the agility of a human. +Now if you want this robot to do a different task, that's another three-year Ph.D. program. +There is no generalization at all from one task to another in robotics. +Now we can compare this to cutting-edge human performance. +So what I'm going to show you is Emily Fox winning the world record for cup stacking. +Now the Americans in the audience will know all about cup stacking. +It's a high school sport where you have 12 cups you have to stack and unstack against the clock in a prescribed order. +And this is her getting the world record in real time. +And she's pretty happy. +We have no idea what is going on inside her brain when she does that, and that's what we'd like to know. +So in my group, what we try to do is reverse engineer how humans control movement. +And it sounds like an easy problem. +You send a command down, it causes muscles to contract. +Your arm or body moves, and you get sensory feedback from vision, from skin, from muscles and so on. +The trouble is these signals are not the beautiful signals you want them to be. +So one thing that makes controlling movement difficult is, for example, sensory feedback is extremely noisy. +Now by noise, I do not mean sound. +We use it in the engineering and neuroscience sense meaning a random noise corrupting a signal. +So the old days before digital radio when you were tuning in your radio and you heard "crrcckkk" on the station you wanted to hear, that was the noise. +But more generally, this noise is something that corrupts the signal. +So for example, if you put your hand under a table and try to localize it with your other hand, you can be off by several centimeters due to the noise in sensory feedback. +Similarly, when you put motor output on movement output, it's extremely noisy. +Forget about trying to hit the bull's eye in darts, just aim for the same spot over and over again. +You have a huge spread due to movement variability. +And more than that, the outside world, or task, is both ambiguous and variable. +The teapot could be full, it could be empty. +It changes over time. +So we work in a whole sensory movement task soup of noise. +Now this noise is so great that society places a huge premium on those of us who can reduce the consequences of noise. +So if you're lucky enough to be able to knock a small white ball into a hole several hundred yards away using a long metal stick, our society will be willing to reward you with hundreds of millions of dollars. +Now what I want to convince you of is the brain also goes through a lot of effort to reduce the negative consequences of this sort of noise and variability. +And to do that, I'm going to tell you about a framework which is very popular in statistics and machine learning of the last 50 years called Bayesian decision theory. +And it's more recently a unifying way to think about how the brain deals with uncertainty. +And the fundamental idea is you want to make inferences and then take actions. +So let's think about the inference. +You want to generate beliefs about the world. +So what are beliefs? +Beliefs could be: where are my arms in space? +Am I looking at a cat or a fox? +But we're going to represent beliefs with probabilities. +So we're going to represent a belief with a number between zero and one -- zero meaning I don't believe it at all, one means I'm absolutely certain. +And numbers in between give you the gray levels of uncertainty. +And the key idea to Bayesian inference is you have two sources of information from which to make your inference. +You have data, and data in neuroscience is sensory input. +So I have sensory input, which I can take in to make beliefs. +But there's another source of information, and that's effectively prior knowledge. +You accumulate knowledge throughout your life in memories. +And the point about Bayesian decision theory is it gives you the mathematics of the optimal way to combine your prior knowledge with your sensory evidence to generate new beliefs. +And I've put the formula up there. +I'm not going to explain what that formula is, but it's very beautiful. +And it has real beauty and real explanatory power. +And what it really says, and what you want to estimate, is the probability of different beliefs given your sensory input. +So let me give you an intuitive example. +Imagine you're learning to play tennis and you want to decide where the ball is going to bounce as it comes over the net towards you. +There are two sources of information Bayes' rule tells you. +There's sensory evidence -- you can use visual information auditory information, and that might tell you it's going to land in that red spot. +But you know that your senses are not perfect, and therefore there's some variability of where it's going to land shown by that cloud of red, representing numbers between 0.5 and maybe 0.1. +That information is available in the current shot, but there's another source of information not available on the current shot, but only available by repeated experience in the game of tennis, and that's that the ball doesn't bounce with equal probability over the court during the match. +If you're playing against a very good opponent, they may distribute it in that green area, which is the prior distribution, making it hard for you to return. +Now both these sources of information carry important information. +And what Bayes' rule says is that I should multiply the numbers on the red by the numbers on the green to get the numbers of the yellow, which have the ellipses, and that's my belief. +So it's the optimal way of combining information. +Now I wouldn't tell you all this if it wasn't that a few years ago, we showed this is exactly what people do when they learn new movement skills. +And what it means is we really are Bayesian inference machines. +As we go around, we learn about statistics of the world and lay that down, but we also learn about how noisy our own sensory apparatus is, and then combine those in a real Bayesian way. +Now a key part to the Bayesian is this part of the formula. +And what this part really says is I have to predict the probability of different sensory feedbacks given my beliefs. +So that really means I have to make predictions of the future. +And I want to convince you the brain does make predictions of the sensory feedback it's going to get. +And moreover, it profoundly changes your perceptions by what you do. +And to do that, I'll tell you about how the brain deals with sensory input. +So you send a command out, you get sensory feedback back, and that transformation is governed by the physics of your body and your sensory apparatus. +But you can imagine looking inside the brain. +And here's inside the brain. +You might have a little predictor, a neural simulator, of the physics of your body and your senses. +So as you send a movement command down, you tap a copy of that off and run it into your neural simulator to anticipate the sensory consequences of your actions. +So as I shake this ketchup bottle, I get some true sensory feedback as the function of time in the bottom row. +And if I've got a good predictor, it predicts the same thing. +Well why would I bother doing that? +I'm going to get the same feedback anyway. +Well there's good reasons. +Imagine, as I shake the ketchup bottle, someone very kindly comes up to me and taps it on the back for me. +Now I get an extra source of sensory information due to that external act. +So I get two sources. +I get you tapping on it, and I get me shaking it, but from my senses' point of view, that is combined together into one source of information. +Now there's good reason to believe that you would want to be able to distinguish external events from internal events. +Because external events are actually much more behaviorally relevant than feeling everything that's going on inside my body. +So one way to reconstruct that is to compare the prediction -- which is only based on your movement commands -- with the reality. +Any discrepancy should hopefully be external. +So as I go around the world, I'm making predictions of what I should get, subtracting them off. +Everything left over is external to me. +What evidence is there for this? +Well there's one very clear example where a sensation generated by myself feels very different then if generated by another person. +And so we decided the most obvious place to start was with tickling. +It's been known for a long time, you can't tickle yourself as well as other people can. +But it hasn't really been shown, it's because you have a neural simulator, simulating your own body and subtracting off that sense. +So we can bring the experiments of the 21st century by applying robotic technologies to this problem. +And in effect, what we have is some sort of stick in one hand attached to a robot, and they're going to move that back and forward. +And then we're going to track that with a computer and use it to control another robot, which is going to tickle their palm with another stick. +And then we're going to ask them to rate a bunch of things including ticklishness. +I'll show you just one part of our study. +And here I've taken away the robots, but basically people move with their right arm sinusoidally back and forward. +And we replay that to the other hand with a time delay. +Either no time delay, in which case light would just tickle your palm, or with a time delay of two-tenths of three-tenths of a second. +So the important point here is the right hand always does the same things -- sinusoidal movement. +The left hand always is the same and puts sinusoidal tickle. +All we're playing with is a tempo causality. +And as we go from naught to 0.1 second, it becomes more ticklish. +As you go from 0.1 to 0.2, it becomes more ticklish at the end. +And by 0.2 of a second, it's equivalently ticklish to the robot that just tickled you without you doing anything. +So whatever is responsible for this cancellation is extremely tightly coupled with tempo causality. +And based on this illustration, we really convinced ourselves in the field that the brain's making precise predictions and subtracting them off from the sensations. +Now I have to admit, these are the worst studies my lab has ever run. +Because the tickle sensation on the palm comes and goes, you need large numbers of subjects with these stars making them significant. +So we were looking for a much more objective way to assess this phenomena. +And in the intervening years I had two daughters. +And one thing you notice about children in backseats of cars on long journeys, which started with one of them doing something to the other, the other retaliating. +It quickly escalates. +And children tend to get into fights which escalate in terms of force. +Now when I screamed at my children to stop, sometimes they would both say to me the other person hit them harder. +Now I happen to know my children don't lie, so I thought, as a neuroscientist, it was important how I could explain how they were telling inconsistent truths. +And we hypothesize based on the tickling study that when one child hits another, they generate the movement command. +They predict the sensory consequences and subtract it off. +So they actually think they've hit the person less hard than they have -- rather like the tickling. +Whereas the passive recipient doesn't make the prediction, feels the full blow. +So if they retaliate with the same force, the first person will think it's been escalated. +So we decided to test this in the lab. +Now we don't work with children, we don't work with hitting, but the concept is identical. +We bring in two adults. We tell them they're going to play a game. +And so here's player one and player two sitting opposite to each other. +And the game is very simple. +We started with a motor with a little lever, a little force transfuser. +And we use this motor to apply force down to player one's fingers for three seconds and then it stops. +And that player's been told, remember the experience of that force and use your other finger to apply the same force down to the other subject's finger through a force transfuser -- and they do that. +And player two's been told, remember the experience of that force. +Use your other hand to apply the force back down. +And so they take it in turns to apply the force they've just experienced back and forward. +But critically, they're briefed about the rules of the game in separate rooms. +So they don't know the rules the other person's playing by. +And what we've measured is the force as a function of terms. +And if we look at what we start with, a quarter of a Newton there, a number of turns, perfect would be that red line. +And what we see in all pairs of subjects is this -- a 70 percent escalation in force on each go. +So it really suggests, when you're doing this -- based on this study and others we've done -- that the brain is canceling the sensory consequences and underestimating the force it's producing. +So it re-shows the brain makes predictions and fundamentally changes the precepts. +So we've made inferences, we've done predictions, now we have to generate actions. +And what Bayes' rule says is, given my beliefs, the action should in some sense be optimal. +But we've got a problem. +Tasks are symbolic -- I want to drink, I want to dance -- but the movement system has to contract 600 muscles in a particular sequence. +And there's a big gap between the task and the movement system. +So it could be bridged in infinitely many different ways. +So think about just a point to point movement. +I could choose these two paths out of an infinite number of paths. +Having chosen a particular path, I can hold my hand on that path as infinitely many different joint configurations. +And I can hold my arm in a particular joint configuration either very stiff or very relaxed. +So I have a huge amount of choice to make. +Now it turns out, we are extremely stereotypical. +We all move the same way pretty much. +And so it turns out we're so stereotypical, our brains have got dedicated neural circuitry to decode this stereotyping. +So if I take some dots and set them in motion with biological motion, your brain's circuitry would understand instantly what's going on. +Now this is a bunch of dots moving. +You will know what this person is doing, whether happy, sad, old, young -- a huge amount of information. +If these dots were cars going on a racing circuit, you would have absolutely no idea what's going on. +So why is it that we move the particular ways we do? +Well let's think about what really happens. +Maybe we don't all quite move the same way. +Maybe there's variation in the population. +And maybe those who move better than others have got more chance of getting their children into the next generation. +So in evolutionary scales, movements get better. +And perhaps in life, movements get better through learning. +So what is it about a movement which is good or bad? +Imagine I want to intercept this ball. +Here are two possible paths to that ball. +Well if I choose the left-hand path, I can work out the forces required in one of my muscles as a function of time. +But there's noise added to this. +So what I actually get, based on this lovely, smooth, desired force, is a very noisy version. +So if I pick the same command through many times, I will get a different noisy version each time, because noise changes each time. +So what I can show you here is how the variability of the movement will evolve if I choose that way. +If I choose a different way of moving -- on the right for example -- then I'll have a different command, different noise, playing through a noisy system, very complicated. +All we can be sure of is the variability will be different. +If I move in this particular way, I end up with a smaller variability across many movements. +So if I have to choose between those two, I would choose the right one because it's less variable. +And the fundamental idea is you want to plan your movements so as to minimize the negative consequence of the noise. +And one intuition to get is actually the amount of noise or variability I show here gets bigger as the force gets bigger. +So you want to avoid big forces as one principle. +So we've shown that using this, we can explain a huge amount of data -- that exactly people are going about their lives planning movements so as to minimize negative consequences of noise. +So I hope I've convinced you the brain is there and evolved to control movement. +And it's an intellectual challenge to understand how we do that. +But it's also relevant for disease and rehabilitation. +There are many diseases which effect movement. +And hopefully if we understand how we control movement, we can apply that to robotic technology. +And finally, I want to remind you, when you see animals do what look like very simple tasks, the actual complexity of what is going on inside their brain is really quite dramatic. +Thank you very much. +Chris Anderson: Quick question for you, Dan. +So you're a movement -- (DW: Chauvinist.) -- chauvinist. +Does that mean that you think that the other things we think our brains are about -- the dreaming, the yearning, the falling in love and all these things -- are a kind of side show, an accident? +DW: No, no, actually I think they're all important to drive the right movement behavior to get reproduction in the end. +So I think people who study sensation or memory without realizing why you're laying down memories of childhood. +The fact that we forget most of our childhood, for example, is probably fine, because it doesn't effect our movements later in life. +You only need to store things which are really going to effect movement. +CA: So you think that people thinking about the brain, and consciousness generally, could get real insight by saying, where does movement play in this game? +DW: So people have found out for example that studying vision in the absence of realizing why you have vision is a mistake. +You have to study vision with the realization of how the movement system is going to use vision. +And it uses it very differently once you think about it that way. +CA: Well that was quite fascinating. Thank you very much indeed. +So magic is a very introverted field. +While scientists regularly publish their latest research, we magicians do not like to share our methods and secrets. +That's true even amongst peers. +But if you look at creative practice as a form of research, or art as a form of R&D for humanity, then how could a cyber illusionist like myself share his research? +Now my own speciality is combining digital technology and magic. +And about three years ago, I started an exercise in openness and inclusiveness by reaching out into the open-source software community to create new digital tools for magic -- tools that could eventually be shared with other artists to start them off further on in the process and to get them to the poetry faster. +Today, I'd like to show you something which came out of these collaborations. +It's an augmented reality projection tracking and mapping system, or a digital storytelling tool. +Could we bring down the lights please? Thank you. +So let's give this a try. +And I'm going to use it to give you my take on the stuff of life. +Terribly sorry. I forgot the floor. +Wake up. +Hey. +Come on. +Please. +Come on. +Ah, sorry about that. +Forgot this. +Give it another try. +Okay. +He figured out the system. +Uh oh. +All right. Let's try this. +Come on. +Hey. +You heard her, go ahead. +Bye-bye. +So historically there has been a huge divide between what people consider to be non-living systems on one side, and living systems on the other side. +So we go from, say, this beautiful and complex crystal as non-life, and this rather beautiful and complex cat on the other side. +Over the last hundred and fifty years or so, science has kind of blurred this distinction between non-living and living systems, and now we consider that there may be a kind of continuum that exists between the two. +We'll just take one example here: a virus is a natural system, right? +But it's very simple. It's very simplistic. +It doesn't really satisfy all the requirements, it doesn't have all the characteristics of living systems and is in fact a parasite on other living systems in order to, say, reproduce and evolve. +But what we're going to be talking about here tonight are experiments done on this sort of non-living end of this spectrum -- so actually doing chemical experiments in the laboratory, mixing together nonliving ingredients to make new structures, and that these new structures might have some of the characteristics of living systems. +Really what I'm talking about here is trying to create a kind of artificial life. +So what are these characteristics that I'm talking about? These are them. +We consider first that life has a body. +Now this is necessary to distinguish the self from the environment. +Life also has a metabolism. Now this is a process by which life can convert resources from the environment into building blocks so it can maintain and build itself. +Life also has a kind of inheritable information. +Now we, as humans, we store our information as DNA in our genomes and we pass this information on to our offspring. +If we couple the first two -- the body and the metabolism -- we can come up with a system that could perhaps move and replicate, and if we coupled these now to inheritable information, we can come up with a system that would be more lifelike, and would perhaps evolve. +And so these are the things we will try to do in the lab, make some experiments that have one or more of these characteristics of life. +So how do we do this? Well, we use a model system that we term a protocell. +In the laboratory what we want to do is much the same, but with on the order of tens of different types of molecules -- so a drastic reduction in complexity, but still trying to produce something that looks lifelike. +And so what we do is, we start simple and we work our way up to living systems. +Consider for a moment this quote by Leduc, a hundred years ago, considering a kind of synthetic biology: "The synthesis of life, should it ever occur, will not be the sensational discovery which we usually associate with the idea." +That's his first statement. So if we actually create life in the laboratories, it's probably not going to impact our lives at all. +So we start simple, we make some structures that may have some of these characteristics of life, and then we try to develop that to become more lifelike. +This is how we can start to make a protocell. +We use this idea called self-assembly. +What that means is, I can mix some chemicals together in a test tube in my lab, and these chemicals will start to self-associate to form larger and larger structures. +So say on the order of tens of thousands, hundreds of thousands of molecules will come together to form a large structure that didn't exist before. +And in this particular example, what I took is some membrane molecules, mixed those together in the right environment, and within seconds it forms these rather complex and beautiful structures here. +These membranes are also quite similar, morphologically and functionally, to the membranes in your body, and we can use these, as they say, to form the body of our protocell. +Likewise, we can work with oil and water systems. +As you know, when you put oil and water together, they don't mix, but through self-assembly we can get a nice oil droplet to form, and we can actually use this as a body for our artificial organism or for our protocell, as you will see later. +So that's just forming some body stuff, right? +Some architectures. +What about the other aspects of living systems? +So we came up with this protocell model here that I'm showing. +We started with a natural occurring clay called montmorillonite. +This is natural from the environment, this clay. +It forms a surface that is, say, chemically active. +It could run a metabolism on it. +Certain kind of molecules like to associate with the clay. For example, in this case, RNA, shown in red -- this is a relative of DNA, it's an informational molecule -- it can come along and it starts to associate with the surface of this clay. +This structure, then, can organize the formation of a membrane boundary around itself, so it can make a body of liquid molecules around itself, and that's shown in green here on this micrograph. +So just through self-assembly, mixing things together in the lab, we can come up with, say, a metabolic surface with some informational molecules attached inside of this membrane body, right? +So we're on a road towards living systems. +But if you saw this protocell, you would not confuse this with something that was actually alive. +It's actually quite lifeless. Once it forms, it doesn't really do anything. +So, something is missing. +Some things are missing. +So some things that are missing is, for example, if you had a flow of energy through a system, what we'd want is a protocell that can harvest some of that energy in order to maintain itself, much like living systems do. +So we came up with a different protocell model, and this is actually simpler than the previous one. +In this protocell model, it's just an oil droplet, but a chemical metabolism inside that allows this protocell to use energy to do something, to actually become dynamic, as we'll see here. +You add the droplet to the system. +It's a pool of water, and the protocell starts moving itself around in the system. +Okay? Oil droplet forms through self-assembly, has a chemical metabolism inside so it can use energy, and it uses that energy to move itself around in its environment. +As we heard earlier, movement is very important in these kinds of living systems. +It is moving around, exploring its environment, and remodeling its environment, as you see, by these chemical waves that are forming by the protocell. +So it's acting, in a sense, like a living system trying to preserve itself. +We take this same moving protocell here, and we put it in another experiment, get it moving. Then I'm going to add some food to the system, and you'll see that in blue here, right? +So I add some food source to the system. +The protocell moves. It encounters the food. +It reconfigures itself and actually then is able to climb to the highest concentration of food in that system and stop there. +Alright? So not only do we have this system that has a body, it has a metabolism, it can use energy, it moves around. +It can sense its local environment and actually find resources in the environment to sustain itself. +Now, this doesn't have a brain, it doesn't have a neural system. This is just a sack of chemicals that is able to have this interesting and complex lifelike behavior. +If we count the number of chemicals in that system, actually, including the water that's in the dish, we have five chemicals that can do this. +So then we put these protocells together in a single experiment to see what they would do, and depending on the conditions, we have some protocells on the left that are moving around and it likes to touch the other structures in its environment. +On the other hand we have two moving protocells that like to circle each other, and they form a kind of a dance, a complex dance with each other. +Right? So not only do individual protocells have behavior, what we've interpreted as behavior in this system, but we also have basically population-level behavior similar to what organisms have. +So now that you're all experts on protocells, we're going to play a game with these protocells. +We're going to make two different kinds. +Protocell A has a certain kind of chemistry inside that, when activated, the protocell starts to vibrate around, just dancing. +So remember, these are primitive things, so dancing protocells, that's very interesting to us. The second protocell has a different chemistry inside, and when activated, the protocells all come together and they fuse into one big one. Right? +And we just put these two together in the same system. +So there's population A, there's population B, and then we activate the system, and protocell Bs, they're the blue ones, they all come together. They fuse together to form one big blob, and the other protocell just dances around. And this just happens until all of the energy in the system is basically used up, and then, game over. +So then I repeated this experiment a bunch of times, and one time something very interesting happened. +So, I added these protocells together to the system, and protocell A and protocell B fused together to form a hybrid protocell AB. +That didn't happen before. There it goes. +There's a protocell AB now in this system. +Protocell AB likes to dance around for a bit, while protocell B does the fusing, okay? +But then something even more interesting happens. +Watch when these two large protocells, the hybrid ones, fuse together. +Now we have a dancing protocell and a self-replication event. Right. Just with blobs of chemicals, again. +So the way this works is, you have a simple system of five chemicals here, a simple system here. When they hybridize, you then form something that's different than before, it's more complex than before, and you get the emergence of another kind of lifelike behavior which in this case is replication. +Certainly, there were molecules present on the early Earth, but they wouldn't have been these pure compounds that we worked with in the lab and I showed in these experiments. +Rather, they'd be a real complex mixture of all kinds of stuff, because uncontrolled chemical reactions produce a diverse mixture of organic compounds. +Think of it like a primordial ooze, okay? +And it's a pool that's too difficult to fully characterize, even by modern methods, and the product looks brown, like this tar here on the left. A pure compound is shown on the right, for contrast. +So this is similar to what happens when you take pure sugar crystals in your kitchen, you put them in a pan, and you apply energy. +You turn up the heat, you start making or breaking chemical bonds in the sugar, forming a brownish caramel, right? +If you let that go unregulated, you'll continue to make and break chemical bonds, forming an even more diverse mixture of molecules that then forms this kind of black tarry stuff in your pan, right, that's difficult to wash out. So that's what the origin of life would have looked like. +You needed to get life out of this junk that is present on the early Earth, four, 4.5 billion years ago. +So the challenge then is, throw away all your pure chemicals in the lab, and try to make some protocells with lifelike properties from this kind of primordial ooze. +So we're able to then see the self-assembly of these oil droplet bodies again that we've seen previously, and the black spots inside of there represent this kind of black tar -- this diverse, very complex, organic black tar. +And we put them into one of these experiments, as you've seen earlier, and then we watch lively movement that comes out. +They look really good, very nice movement, and also they appear to have some kind of behavior where they kind of circle around each other and follow each other, similar to what we've seen before -- but again, working with just primordial conditions, no pure chemicals. +These are also, these tar-fueled protocells, are also able to locate resources in their environment. +I'm going to add some resource from the left, here, that defuses into the system, and you can see, they really like that. +They become very energetic, and able to find the resource in the environment, similar to what we saw before. +But again, these are done in these primordial conditions, really messy conditions, not sort of sterile laboratory conditions. +These are very dirty little protocells, as a matter of fact. But they have lifelike properties, is the point. +So, doing these artificial life experiments helps us define a potential path between non-living and living systems. +And not only that, but it helps us broaden our view of what life is and what possible life there could be out there -- life that could be very different from life that we find here on Earth. +And that leads me to the next term, which is "weird life." +This is a term by Steve Benner. +Well, they came up with three very general criteria. First is -- and they're listed here. +The first is, the system has to be in non-equilibrium. That means the system cannot be dead, in a matter of fact. +Basically what that means is, you have an input of energy into the system that life can use and exploit to maintain itself. +This is similar to having the Sun shining on the Earth, driving photosynthesis, driving the ecosystem. +Without the Sun, there's likely to be no life on this planet. +Secondly, life needs to be in liquid form, so that means even if we had some interesting structures, interesting molecules together but they were frozen solid, then this is not a good place for life. +And thirdly, we need to be able to make and break chemical bonds. And again this is important because life transforms resources from the environment into building blocks so it can maintain itself. +Now today, I told you about very strange and weird protocells -- some that contain clay, some that have primordial ooze in them, some that have basically oil instead of water inside of them. +Most of these don't contain DNA, but yet they have lifelike properties. +But these protocells satisfy these general requirements of living systems. +So by making these chemical, artificial life experiments, we hope not only to understand something fundamental about the origin of life and the existence of life on this planet, but also what possible life there could be out there in the universe. Thank you. +Hi. Today, I'm going to take you through glimpses of about eight of my projects, done in collaboration with Danish artist Soren Pors. +We call ourselves Pors and Rao, and we live and work in India. +I'd like to begin with my very first object, which I call "The Uncle Phone." +And it was inspired by my uncle's peculiar habit of constantly asking me to do things for him, almost like I were an extension of his body -- to turn on the lights or to bring him a glass of water, a pack of cigarettes. +And as I grew up, it became worse and worse, And I started to think of it as a form of control. +But of course, I could never say anything, because the uncle is a respected figure in the Indian family. +And the situation that irked me and mystified me the most was his use of a landline telephone. +He would hold on to the receiver and expect me to dial a number for him. +And so as a response and as a gift to my uncle, I made him "The Uncle Phone." +It's so long that it requires two people to use it. +It's exactly the way my uncle uses a phone that's designed for one person. +But the problem is that, when I left home and went to college, I started missing his commands. +And so I made him a golden typewriter through which he could dispense his commands to nephews and nieces around the world as an email. +So what he had to do was take a piece of paper, roll it into the carriage, type his email or command and pull the paper out. +This device would automatically send the intended person the letter as an email. +So here you can see, we embedded a lot of electronics that understands all of the mechanical actions and converts it to digital. +So my uncle is only dealing with a mechanical interface. +And of course, the object had to be very grand and have a sense of ritualism, the way my uncle likes it. +The next work is a sound-sensitive installation that we affectionately call "The Pygmies." +And we wanted to work with a notion of being surrounded by a tribe of very shy, sensitive and sweet creatures. +So how it works is we have these panels, which we have on the wall, and behind them, we have these little creatures which hide. +And as soon as it's silent, they sort of creep out. +And if it's even more silent, they stretch their necks out. +And at the slightest sound, they hide back again. +So we had these panels on three walls of a room. +And we had over 500 of these little pygmies hiding behind them. +So this is how it works. +This is a video prototype. +So when it's quiet, it's sort of coming out from behind the panels. +And they hear like humans do, or real creatures do. +So they get immune to sounds that scare them after awhile. +And they don't react to background sounds. +You'll hear a train in moment that they don't react to. +But they react to foreground sounds. You'll hear that in a second. +So we worked very hard to make them as lifelike as possible. +So each pygmy has its own behavior, psyche, mood swings, personalities and so on. +So this is a very early prototype. +Of course, it got much better after that. +And we made them react to people, but we found that people were being quite playful and childlike with them. +This is a video installation called "The Missing Person." +And we were quite intrigued with playing with the notion of invisibility. +How would it be possible to experience a sense of invisibility? +So we worked with a company that specializes in camera surveillance, and we asked them to develop a piece of software with us, using a camera that could look at people in the room, track them and replace one person with the background, rendering them invisible. +So I'm just going to show you a very early prototype. +On the right side you can see my colleague Soren, who's actually in the space. +And on the left side, you'll see the processed video where the camera has made him invisible. +Soren enters the room. Pop! He goes invisible. +And you can see that the camera is tracking him and erasing. +It's a very early video, so we haven't yet dealt with the overlap and all of that, but that got refined pretty soon, later. +So how we used it was in a room where we had a camera looking into the space, and we had one monitor, one on each wall. +And as people walked into the room, they would see themselves in the monitor, except with one difference: one person was constantly invisible wherever they moved in the room. +So this is a work called "The Sun Shadow." +And it was almost like a sheet of paper, like a cutout of a childlike drawing of an oil spill or a sun. +And from the front, this object appeared to be very strong and robust, and from the side, it almost seemed very weak. +So people would walking into the room and they'd almost ignore it, thinking it was some crap laying around. +But as soon as they passed by, it would start to climb up the wall in jerky fashion. +And it would get exhausted, and it would collapse every time. +So this work is a caricature of an upside-down man. +His head is so heavy, full of heavy thoughts, that it's sort of fallen into his hat, and his body's grown out of him almost like a plant. +Well what he does is he moves around in a very drunken fashion on his head in a very unpredictable and extremely slow movement. +And it's kind of constrained by that circle. +Because if that circle weren't there, and the floor was very even, it would start to wander about in the space. +And there's no wires. +So I'll just show you an instance -- so when people enter the room, it activates this object. +And it very slowly, over a few minutes, sort of painfully goes up, and then it gains momentum and it looks like it's almost about to fall. +And this is an important moment, because we wanted to instill in the viewer an instinct to almost go and help, or save the subject. +But it doesn't really need it, because it, again, sort of manages to pull itself up. +So this work was a real technical challenge for us, and we worked very hard, like most of our works, over years to get the mechanics right and the equilibrium and the dynamics. +And it was very important for us to establish the exact moment that it would fall, because if we made it in a way that it would topple over, then it would damage itself, and if it didn't fall enough, it wouldn't instill that fatalism, or that sense of wanting to go and help it. +So I'm going to show you a very quick video where we are doing a test scenario -- it's much faster. +That's my colleague. He's let it go. +Now he's getting nervous, so he's going to go catch it. +But he doesn't need to, because it manages to lift itself up on its own. +So this is a work that we were very intrigued with, working with the aesthetic of fur embedded with thousands of tiny different sizes of fiber optics, which twinkle like the night sky. +And it's at the scale of the night sky. +So we wrapped this around a blob-like form, which is in the shape of a teddy bear, which was hanging from the ceiling. +And the idea was to sort of contrast something very cold and distant and abstract like the universe into the familiar form of a teddy bear, which is very comforting and intimate. +And the idea was that at some point you would stop looking at the form of a teddy bear and you would almost perceive it to be a hole in the space, and as if you were looking out into the twinkling night sky. +So this is the last work, and a work in progress, and it's called "Space Filler." +Well imagine a small cube that's about this big standing in front of you in the middle of the room, and as you approached it, it tried to intimidate you by growing into a cube that's twice its height and [eight] times its volume. +And so this object is constantly expanding and contracting to create a dynamic with people moving around it -- almost like it were trying to conceal a secret within its seams or something. +So we work with a lot of technology, but we don't really love technology, because it gives us a lot of pain in our work over years and years. +But we use it because we're interested in the way that it can help us to express the emotions and behavioral patterns in these creatures that we create. +And once a creature pops into our minds, it's almost like the process of creation is to discover the way this creature really wants to exist and what form it wants to take and what way it wants to move. +Thank you. +I'd like to start with a short story. +It's about a little boy whose father was a history buff and who used to take him by the hand to visit the ruins of an ancient metropolis on the outskirts of their camp. +They would always stop by to visit these huge winged bulls that used to guard the gates of that ancient metropolis, and the boy used to be scared of these winged bulls, but at the same time they excited him. +And the dad used to use those bulls to tell the boy stories about that civilization and their work. +Let's fast-forward to the San Francisco Bay Area many decades later, where I started a technology company that brought the world its first 3D laser scanning system. +Let me show you how it works. +Female Voice: Long range laser scanning by sending out a pulse that's a laser beam of light. +The system measures the beam's time of flight, recording the time it takes for the light to hit a surface and make its return. +With two mirrors, the scanner calculates the beam's horizontal and vertical angles, giving accurate x, y, and z coordinates. +The point is then recorded into a 3D visualization program. +All of this happens in seconds. +Ben Kacyra: You can see here, these systems are extremely fast. +They collect millions of points at a time with very high accuracy and very high resolution. +A surveyor with traditional survey tools would be hard-pressed to produce maybe 500 points in a whole day. +These babies would be producing something like ten thousand points a second. +So, as you can imagine, this was a paradigm shift in the survey and construction as well as in reality capture industry. +Approximately ten years ago, my wife and I started a foundation to do good, and right about that time, the magnificent Bamiyan Buddhas, hundred and eighty foot tall in Afghanistan, were blown up by the Taliban. +They were gone in an instant. +And unfortunately, there was no detailed documentation of these Buddhas. +This clearly devastated me, and I couldn't help but wonder about the fate of my old friends, the winged bulls, and the fate of the many, many heritage sites all over the world. +Both my wife and I were so touched by this that we decided to expand the mission of our foundation to include digital heritage preservation of world sites. +We called the project CyArk, which stands for Cyber Archive. +To date, with the help of a global network of partners, we've completed close to fifty projects. +Let me show you some of them: Chichen Itza, Rapa Nui -- and what you're seeing here are the cloud of points -- Babylon, Rosslyn Chapel, Pompeii, and our latest project, Mt. Rushmore, which happened to be one of our most challenging projects. +As you see here, we had to develop a special rig to bring the scanner up close and personal. +The results of our work in the field are used to produce media and deliverables to be used by conservators and researchers. +We also produce media for dissemination to the public -- free through the CyArk website. +These would be used for education, cultural tourism, etc. +What you're looking at in here is a 3D viewer that we developed that would allow the display and manipulation of [the] cloud of points in real time, cutting sections through them and extracting dimensions. +This happens to be the cloud of points for Tikal. +In here you see a traditional 2D architectural engineering drawing that's used for preservation, and of course we tell the stories through fly-throughs. +And here, this is a fly-through the cloud of points of Tikal, and here you see it rendered and photo-textured with the photography that we take of the site. +And so this is not a video. +This is actual 3D points with two to three millimeter accuracy. +And of course the data can be used to develop 3D models that are very accurate and very detailed. +And here you're looking at a model that's extracted from the cloud of points for Stirling Castle. +It's used for studies, for visualization, as well as for education. +And finally, we produce mobile apps that include narrated virtual tools. +The more I got involved in the heritage field, the more it became clear to me that we are losing the sites and the stories faster than we can physically preserve them. +Of course, earthquakes and all the natural phenomena -- floods, tornadoes, etc. -- take their toll. +However, what occurred to me was human-caused destruction, which was not only causing a significant portion of the destruction, but actually it was accelerating. +This includes arson, urban sprawl, acid rain, not to mention terrorism and wars. +It was getting more and more apparent that we're fighting a losing battle. +We're losing our sites and the stories, and basically we're losing a piece -- and a significant piece -- of our collective memory. +Imagine us as a human race not knowing where we came from. +Luckily, in the last two or three decades, digital technologies have been developing that have helped us to develop tools that we've brought to bear in the digital preservation, in our digital preservation war. +This includes, for example, the 3D laser scanning systems, ever more powerful personal computers, 3D graphics, high-definition digital photography, not to mention the Internet. +Because of this accelerated pace of destruction, it became clear to us that we needed to challenge ourselves and our partners to accelerate our work. +And we created a project we call the CyArk 500 Challenge -- and that is to digitally preserve 500 World Heritage Sites in five years. +We do have the technology that's scaleable, and our network of global partners has been expanding and can be expanded at a rapid rate, so we're comfortable that this task can be accomplished. +However, to me, the 500 is really just the first 500. +In order to sustain our work into the future, we use technology centers where we partner with local universities and colleges to take the technology to them, whereby they then can help us with digital preservation of their heritage sites, and at the same time, it gives them the technology to benefit from in the future. +Let me close with another short story. +Two years ago, we were approached by a partner of ours to digitally preserve an important heritage site, a UNESCO heritage site in Uganda, the Royal Kasubi Tombs. +The work was done successfully in the field, and the data was archived and publicly disseminated through the CyArk website. +Last March, we received very sad news. +The Royal Tombs had been destroyed by suspected arson. +A few days later, we received a call: "Is the data available and can it be used for reconstruction?" +Our answer, of course, was yes. +Let me leave you with a final thought. +Our heritage is much more than our collective memory -- it's our collective treasure. +We owe it to our children, our grandchildren and the generations we will never meet to keep it safe and to pass it along. +Thank you. +Thank you. +Thank you. +Thank you. +Well, I'm staying here because we wanted to demonstrate to you the power of this technology and so, while I've been speaking, you have been scanned. +The two wizards that I have that are behind the curtain will help me bring the results on the screen. +This is all in 3D and of course you can fly through the cloud of points. +You can look at it from on top, from the ceiling. +You can look from different vantage points, but I'm going to ask Doug to zoom in on an individual in the crowd, just to show the amount of detail that we can create. +So you have been digitally preserved in about four minutes. +I'd like to thank the wizards here. +We were very lucky to have two of our partners participate in this: the Historic Scotland, and the Glasgow School of Art. +I'd like to also thank personally the efforts of David Mitchell, who is the Director of Conservation at Historic Scotland. +David. +And Doug Pritchard, who's the Head of Visualization at the Glasgow School of Art. +Let's give them a hand. +Thank you. +Humans have long held a fascination for the human brain. +We chart it, we've described it, we've drawn it, we've mapped it. +Now just like the physical maps of our world that have been highly influenced by technology -- think Google Maps, think GPS -- the same thing is happening for brain mapping through transformation. +So let's take a look at the brain. +Most people, when they first look at a fresh human brain, they say, "It doesn't look what you're typically looking at when someone shows you a brain." +Typically, what you're looking at is a fixed brain. It's gray. +And this outer layer, this is the vasculature, which is incredible, around a human brain. +This is the blood vessels. +20 percent of the oxygen coming from your lungs, 20 percent of the blood pumped from your heart, is servicing this one organ. +That's basically, if you hold two fists together, it's just slightly larger than the two fists. +Scientists, sort of at the end of the 20th century, learned that they could track blood flow to map non-invasively where activity was going on in the human brain. +So for example, they can see in the back part of the brain, which is just turning around there. +There's the cerebellum; that's keeping you upright right now. +It's keeping me standing. It's involved in coordinated movement. +On the side here, this is temporal cortex. +This is the area where primary auditory processing -- so you're hearing my words, you're sending it up into higher language processing centers. +Towards the front of the brain is the place in which all of the more complex thought, decision making -- it's the last to mature in late adulthood. +This is where all your decision-making processes are going on. +It's the place where you're deciding right now you probably aren't going to order the steak for dinner. +So if you take a deeper look at the brain, one of the things, if you look at it in cross-section, what you can see is that you can't really see a whole lot of structure there. +But there's actually a lot of structure there. +It's cells and it's wires all wired together. +So about a hundred years ago, some scientists invented a stain that would stain cells. +And that's shown here in the the very light blue. +You can see areas where neuronal cell bodies are being stained. +And what you can see is it's very non-uniform. You see a lot more structure there. +So the outer part of that brain is the neocortex. +It's one continuous processing unit, if you will. +But you can also see things underneath there as well. +And all of these blank areas are the areas in which the wires are running through. +They're probably less cell dense. +So there's about 86 billion neurons in our brain. +And as you can see, they're very non-uniformly distributed. +And how they're distributed really contributes to their underlying function. +And of course, as I mentioned before, since we can now start to map brain function, we can start to tie these into the individual cells. +So let's take a deeper look. +Let's look at neurons. +So as I mentioned, there are 86 billion neurons. +There are also these smaller cells as you'll see. +These are support cells -- astrocytes glia. +And the nerves themselves are the ones who are receiving input. +They're storing it, they're processing it. +Each neuron is connected via synapses to up to 10,000 other neurons in your brain. +And each neuron itself is largely unique. +The unique character of both individual neurons and neurons within a collection of the brain are driven by fundamental properties of their underlying biochemistry. +These are proteins. +They're proteins that are controlling things like ion channel movement. +They're controlling who nervous system cells partner up with. +And they're controlling basically everything that the nervous system has to do. +So if we zoom in to an even deeper level, all of those proteins are encoded by our genomes. +We each have 23 pairs of chromosomes. +We get one from mom, one from dad. +And on these chromosomes are roughly 25,000 genes. +They're encoded in the DNA. +And the nature of a given cell driving its underlying biochemistry is dictated by which of these 25,000 genes are turned on and at what level they're turned on. +And so our project is seeking to look at this readout, understanding which of these 25,000 genes is turned on. +So in order to undertake such a project, we obviously need brains. +So we sent our lab technician out. +We were seeking normal human brains. +What we actually start with is a medical examiner's office. +This a place where the dead are brought in. +We are seeking normal human brains. +There's a lot of criteria by which we're selecting these brains. +We want to make sure that we have normal humans between the ages of 20 to 60, they died a somewhat natural death with no injury to the brain, no history of psychiatric disease, no drugs on board -- we do a toxicology workup. +And we're very careful about the brains that we do take. +We're also selecting for brains in which we can get the tissue, we can get consent to take the tissue within 24 hours of time of death. +Because what we're trying to measure, the RNA -- which is the readout from our genes -- is very labile, and so we have to move very quickly. +One side note on the collection of brains: because of the way that we collect, and because we require consent, we actually have a lot more male brains than female brains. +Males are much more likely to die an accidental death in the prime of their life. +And men are much more likely to have their significant other, spouse, give consent than the other way around. +So the first thing that we do at the site of collection is we collect what's called an MR. +This is magnetic resonance imaging -- MRI. +It's a standard template by which we're going to hang the rest of this data. +So we collect this MR. +And you can think of this as our satellite view for our map. +The next thing we do is we collect what's called a diffusion tensor imaging. +This maps the large cabling in the brain. +And again, you can think of this as almost mapping our interstate highways, if you will. +The brain is removed from the skull, and then it's sliced into one-centimeter slices. +And those are frozen solid, and they're shipped to Seattle. +And in Seattle, we take these -- this is a whole human hemisphere -- and we put them into what's basically a glorified meat slicer. +There's a blade here that's going to cut across a section of the tissue and transfer it to a microscope slide. +We're going to then apply one of those stains to it, and we scan it. +And then what we get is our first mapping. +So this is where experts come in and they make basic anatomic assignments. +You could consider this state boundaries, if you will, those pretty broad outlines. +From this, we're able to then fragment that brain into further pieces, which then we can put on a smaller cryostat. +And this is just showing this here -- this frozen tissue, and it's being cut. +This is 20 microns thin, so this is about a baby hair's width. +And remember, it's frozen. +And so you can see here, old-fashioned technology of the paintbrush being applied. +We take a microscope slide. +Then we very carefully melt onto the slide. +This will then go onto a robot that's going to apply one of those stains to it. +And our anatomists are going to go in and take a deeper look at this. +So again this is what they can see under the microscope. +You can see collections and configurations of large and small cells in clusters and various places. +And from there it's routine. They understand where to make these assignments. +And they can make basically what's a reference atlas. +This is a more detailed map. +Our scientists then use this to go back to another piece of that tissue and do what's called laser scanning microdissection. +So the technician takes the instructions. +They scribe along a place there. +And then the laser actually cuts. +You can see that blue dot there cutting. And that tissue falls off. +You can see on the microscope slide here, that's what's happening in real time. +There's a container underneath that's collecting that tissue. +We take that tissue, we purify the RNA out of it using some basic technology, and then we put a florescent tag on it. +We take that tagged material and we put it on to something called a microarray. +Now this may look like a bunch of dots to you, but each one of these individual dots is actually a unique piece of the human genome that we spotted down on glass. +This has roughly 60,000 elements on it, so we repeatedly measure various genes of the 25,000 genes in the genome. +And when we take a sample and we hybridize it to it, we get a unique fingerprint, if you will, quantitatively of what genes are turned on in that sample. +Now we do this over and over again, this process for any given brain. +We're taking over a thousand samples for each brain. +This area shown here is an area called the hippocampus. +It's involved in learning and memory. +And it contributes to about 70 samples of those thousand samples. +So each sample gets us about 50,000 data points with repeat measurements, a thousand samples. +So roughly, we have 50 million data points for a given human brain. +We've done right now two human brains-worth of data. +We've put all of that together into one thing, and I'll show you what that synthesis looks like. +It's basically a large data set of information that's all freely available to any scientist around the world. +They don't even have to log in to come use this tool, mine this data, find interesting things out with this. +So here's the modalities that we put together. +You'll start to recognize these things from what we've collected before. +Here's the MR. It provides the framework. +There's an operator side on the right that allows you to turn, it allows you to zoom in, it allows you to highlight individual structures. +But most importantly, we're now mapping into this anatomic framework, which is a common framework for people to understand where genes are turned on. +So the red levels are where a gene is turned on to a great degree. +Green is the sort of cool areas where it's not turned on. +And each gene gives us a fingerprint. +And remember that we've assayed all the 25,000 genes in the genome and have all of that data available. +So what can scientists learn about this data? +We're just starting to look at this data ourselves. +There's some basic things that you would want to understand. +Two great examples are drugs, Prozac and Wellbutrin. +These are commonly prescribed antidepressants. +Now remember, we're assaying genes. +Genes send the instructions to make proteins. +Proteins are targets for drugs. +So drugs bind to proteins and either turn them off, etc. +So if you want to understand the action of drugs, you want to understand how they're acting in the ways you want them to, and also in the ways you don't want them to. +In the side effect profile, etc., you want to see where those genes are turned on. +And for the first time, we can actually do that. +We can do that in multiple individuals that we've assayed too. +So now we can look throughout the brain. +We can see this unique fingerprint. +And we get confirmation. +We get confirmation that, indeed, the gene is turned on -- for something like Prozac, in serotonergic structures, things that are already known be affected -- but we also get to see the whole thing. +We also get to see areas that no one has ever looked at before, and we see these genes turned on there. +It's as interesting a side effect as it could be. +One other thing you can do with such a thing is you can, because it's a pattern matching exercise, because there's unique fingerprint, we can actually scan through the entire genome and find other proteins that show a similar fingerprint. +So if you're in drug discovery, for example, you can go through an entire listing of what the genome has on offer to find perhaps better drug targets and optimize. +Most of you are probably familiar with genome-wide association studies in the form of people covering in the news saying, "Scientists have recently discovered the gene or genes which affect X." +And so these kinds of studies are routinely published by scientists and they're great. They analyze large populations. +They look at their entire genomes, and they try to find hot spots of activity that are linked causally to genes. +But what you get out of such an exercise is simply a list of genes. +It tells you the what, but it doesn't tell you the where. +And so it's very important for those researchers that we've created this resource. +Now they can come in and they can start to get clues about activity. +They can start to look at common pathways -- other things that they simply haven't been able to do before. +So I think this audience in particular can understand the importance of individuality. +And I think every human, we all have different genetic backgrounds, we all have lived separate lives. +But the fact is our genomes are greater than 99 percent similar. +We're similar at the genetic level. +And what we're finding is actually, even at the brain biochemical level, we are quite similar. +And so this shows it's not 99 percent, but it's roughly 90 percent correspondence at a reasonable cutoff, so everything in the cloud is roughly correlated. +And then we find some outliers, some things that lie beyond the cloud. +And those genes are interesting, but they're very subtle. +So I think it's an important message to take home today that even though we celebrate all of our differences, we are quite similar even at the brain level. +Now what do those differences look like? +This is an example of a study that we did to follow up and see what exactly those differences were -- and they're quite subtle. +These are things where genes are turned on in an individual cell type. +These are two genes that we found as good examples. +One is called RELN -- it's involved in early developmental cues. +DISC1 is a gene that's deleted in schizophrenia. +These aren't schizophrenic individuals, but they do show some population variation. +And so what you're looking at here in donor one and donor four, which are the exceptions to the other two, that genes are being turned on in a very specific subset of cells. +It's this dark purple precipitate within the cell that's telling us a gene is turned on there. +Whether or not that's due to an individual's genetic background or their experiences, we don't know. +Those kinds of studies require much larger populations. +So I'm going to leave you with a final note about the complexity of the brain and how much more we have to go. +I think these resources are incredibly valuable. +They give researchers a handle on where to go. +But we only looked at a handful of individuals at this point. +We're certainly going to be looking at more. +I'll just close by saying that the tools are there, and this is truly an unexplored, undiscovered continent. +This is the new frontier, if you will. +And so for those who are undaunted, but humbled by the complexity of the brain, the future awaits. +Thanks. +I started Improv Everywhere about 10 years ago when I moved to New York City with an interest in acting and comedy. +Because I was new to the city, I didn't have access to a stage, so I decided to create my own in public places. +So the first project we're going to take a look at is the very first No Pants Subway Ride. +Now this took place in January of 2002. +And this woman is the star of the video. +She doesn't know she's being filmed. +She's being filmed with a hidden camera. +This is on the 6 train in New York City. +And this is the first stop along the line. +These are two Danish guys who come out and sit down next to the hidden camera. +And that's me right there in a brown coat. +It's about 30 degrees outside. +I'm wearing a hat. I'm wearing a scarf. +And the girl's going to notice me right here. +And as you'll see now, I'm not wearing pants. +So at this point -- at this point she's noticed me, but in New York there's weirdos on any given train car. +One person's not that unusual. +She goes back to reading her book, which is unfortunately titled "Rape." +So she's noticed the unusual thing, but she's gone back to her normal life. +Now in the meantime, I have six friends who are waiting at the next six consecutive stops in their underwear as well. +They're going to be entering this car one by one. +We'll act as though we don't know each other. +And we'll act as if it's just an unfortunate mistake we've made, forgetting our pants on this cold January day. +So at this point, she decides to put the rape book away. +And she decides to be a little bit more aware of her surroundings. +Now in the meantime, the two Danish guys to the left of the camera, they're cracking up. +They think this is the funniest thing they've ever seen before. +And watch her make eye contact with them right about now. +And I love that moment in this video, because before it became a shared experience, it was something that was maybe a little bit scary, or something that was at least confusing to her. +And then once it became a shared experience, it was funny and something that she could laugh at. +So the train is now pulling into the third stop along the 6 line. +So the video won't show everything. +This goes on for another four stops. +A total of seven guys enter anonymously in their underwear. +At the eighth stop, a girl came in with a giant duffel bag and announced she had pants for sale for a dollar -- like you might sell batteries or candy on the train. +We all very matter of factly bought a pair of pants, put them on and said, "Thank you. That's exactly what I needed today," and then exited without revealing what had happened and went in all different directions. +Thank you. +So that's a still from the video there. +And I love that girl's reaction so much. +And watching that videotape later that day inspired me to keep doing what I do. +And really one of the points of Improv Everywhere is to cause a scene in a public place that is a positive experience for other people. +It's a prank, but it's a prank that gives somebody a great story to tell. +And her reaction inspired me to do a second annual No Pants Subway Ride. +And we've continued to do it every year. +This January, we did the 10th annual No Pants Subway Ride where a diverse group of 3,500 people rode the train in their underwear in New York -- almost every single train line in the city. +And also in 50 other cities around the world, people participated. +As I started taking improv class at the Upright Citizens Brigade Theater and meeting other creative people and other performers and comedians, I started amassing a mailing list of people who wanted to do these types of projects. +So I could do more large-scale projects. +Well one day I was walking through Union Square, and I saw this building, which had just been built in 2005. +And there was a girl in one of the windows and she was dancing. +And it was very peculiar, because it was dark out, but she was back-lit with florescent lighting, and she was very much onstage, and I couldn't figure out why she was doing it. +After about 15 seconds, her friend appeared -- she had been hiding behind a display -- and they laughed and hugged each other and ran away. +So it seemed like maybe she had been dared to do this. +So I got inspired by that. +Looking at the entire facade -- there were 70 total windows -- and I knew what I had to do. +So this project is called Look Up More. We had 70 actors dress in black. +This was completely unauthorized. +We didn't let the stores know we were coming. +And I stood in the park giving signals. +The first signal was for everybody to hold up these four-foot tall letters that spelled out "Look Up More," the name of the project. +The second signal was for everybody to do Jumping jacks together. +You'll see that start right here. +And then we had dancing. We had everyone dance. +And then we had dance solos where only one person would dance and everybody would point to them. +So then I gave a new hand signal, which signaled the next soloist down below in Forever 21, and he danced. +There were several other activities. +We had people jumping up and down, people dropping to the ground. +And I was standing just anonymously in a sweatshirt, putting my hand on and off of a trashcan to signal the advancement. +And because it was in Union Square Park, right by a subway station, there were hundreds of people by the end who stopped and looked up and watched what we were doing. +There's a better photo of it. +So that particular event was inspired by a moment that I happened to stumble upon. +The next project I want to show was given to me in an email from a stranger. +A high school kid in Texas wrote me in 2006 and said, "You should get as many people as possible to put on blue polo shirts and khaki pants and go into a Best Buy and stand around." +So I wrote this high school kid back immediately, and I said, "Yes, you are correct. +I think I'll try to do that this weekend. Thank you." +So here's the video. +So again, this is 2005. +This is the Best Buy in New York City. +We had about 80 people show up to participate, entering one-by-one. +There was an eight year-old girl, a 10 year-old girl. +There was also a 65 year-old man who participated. +So a very diverse group of people. +And I told people, "Don't work. Don't actually do work. +But also, don't shop. +Just stand around and don't face products." +Now you can see the regular employees by the ones that have the yellow tags on their shirt. +Everybody else is one of our actors. +The lower level employees thought it was very funny. +And in fact, several of them went to go get their camera from the break room and took photos with us. +A lot of them made jokes about trying to get us to go to the back to get heavy television sets for customers. +The managers and the security guards, on the other hand, did not find it particularly funny. +You can see them in this footage. +They're wearing either a yellow shirt or a black shirt. +And we were there probably 10 minutes before the managers decided to dial 911. +So they started running around telling everybody the cops were coming, watch out, the cops were coming. +And you can see the cops in this footage right here. +That's a cop wearing black right there, being filmed with a hidden camera. +Ultimately, the police had to inform Best Buy management that it was not, in fact, illegal to wear a blue polo shirt and khaki pants. +Thank you. +So we had been there for 20 minutes; we were happy to exit the store. +One thing the managers were trying to do was to track down our cameras. +And they caught a couple of my guys who had hidden cameras in duffel bags. +But the one camera guy they never caught was the guy that went in just with a blank tape and went over to the Best Buy camera department and just put his tape in one of their cameras and pretended to shop. +So I like that concept of using their own technology against them. +I think our best projects are ones that are site specific and happen at a particular place for a reason. +And one morning, I was riding the subway. +I had to make a transfer at the 53rd St. stop where there are these two giant escalators. +And it's a very depressing place to be in the morning, it's very crowded. +So I decided to try and stage something that could make it as happy as possible for one morning. +So this was in the winter of 2009 -- 8:30 in the morning. +It's morning rush hour. +It's very cold outside. +People are coming in from Queens, transferring from the E train to the 6 train. +And they're going up these giant escalators on their way to their jobs. +Thank you. +So there's a photograph that illustrates it a little bit better. +He gave 2,000 high fives that day, and he washed his hands before and afterward and did not get sick. +And that was done also without permission, although no one seemed to care. +So I'd say over the years, one of the most common criticisms I see of Improv Everywhere left anonymously on YouTube comments is: "These people have too much time on their hands." +And you know, not everybody's going to like everything you do, and I've certainly developed a thick skin thanks to Internet comments, but that one's always bothered me, because we don't have too much time on our hands. +The participants at Improv Everywhere events have just as much leisure time as any other New Yorkers, they just occasionally choose to spend it in an unusual way. +You know, every Saturday and Sunday, hundreds of thousands of people each fall gather in football stadiums to watch games. +And I've never seen anybody comment, looking at a football game, saying, "All those people in the stands, they have too much time on their hands." +And of course they don't. +It's a perfectly wonderful way to spent a weekend afternoon, watching a football game in a stadium. +But I think it's also a perfectly valid way to spend an afternoon freezing in place with 200 people in the Grand Central terminal or dressing up like a ghostbuster and running through the New York Public Library. +Or listening to the same MP3 as 3,000 other people and dancing silently in a park, or bursting into song in a grocery store as part of a spontaneous musical, or diving into the ocean in Coney Island wearing formal attire. +You know, as kids, we're taught to play. +And we're never given a reason why we should play. +It's just acceptable that play is a good thing. +And I think that's sort of the point of Improv Everywhere. +It's that there is no point and that there doesn't have to be a point. +We don't need a reason. +As long as it's fun and it seems like it's going to be a funny idea and it seems like the people who witness it will also have a fun time, then that's enough for us. +And I think, as adults, we need to learn that there's no right or wrong way to play. +Thank you very much. +[music by Moby] [Grand Canyon] Narrator: Many of the tests are conducted while Yves is strapped onto the wing, because Yves' body is an integral part of the aircraft. +[Wind tunnel tests] Narrator: The wing has no steering controls, no flaps, no rudder. +Yves uses his body to steer the wing. +Stefan Von Bergen: Well, he turns by just putting his head on one or the other side. +And sometimes he assists that with his hands, sometimes even with the leg. +He's acting as a human fuselage, so to say. +And that's quite unique. +Narrator: When he arches his back, he gains altitude. +When he pushes his shoulders forward, he goes into a dive. +[Swiss Alps] [Strait of Gibraltar crossing] [English Channel crossing] Commentator One: There he goes. +There is Yves Rossy. +And I think the wing is open. +So our first critical moment, it's open. +He is down. Is he flying? +Commentator Two: It looks like he's stabilized. +He's starting to make his climb. +Commentator One: There's that 90 degree turn. +He's out over the channel. +There is Yves Rossy. +There is no turning back now. +He is over the English Channel and under way. +Ladies and gentlemen, a historic flight has begun. +Commentator Two: And as he approaches the ground, he's going to pull down on those toggles to flare, slow himself down just a little bit, and then come in for a nice landing. +Commentator One: There he is. +Yves Rossy has landed in England. +Bruno Giussani: And now he's in Edinburgh. Yves Rossy! +And his equipment as well. +Yves, welcome. It is quite amazing. +Those sequences were shot over the last three years in various moments of your activities. +And there were many, many others. +So it's possible to fly almost like a bird. +What is it like to be up there? +Yves Rossy: It's fun. It's fun. +I don't have feathers. +But I feel like a bird sometimes. +It's really an unreal feeling, because normally you have a big thing, a plane, around you. +And when I strap just this little harness, this little wing, I really have the feeling of being a bird. +BG: How did you start to become Jetman? +YR: It was about 20 years ago, when I discovered free falling. +When you go out of an airplane, you are almost naked. +You take a position like that. +And especially when you take a tracking position, you have the feeling that you are flying. +And that's the nearest thing to the dream. +You have no machine around you. +You are just in the element. +It's very short and only in one direction. +So the idea was, okay, keep that feeling of freedom, but change the vector and increase the time. +BG: So I'm kind of curious, what's your top speed? +YR: It's about 300 km per hour before looping. +That means about 190 miles per hour. +BG: What's the weight of the equipment you're carrying? +YR: When I exit full of kerosene, I'm about 55 kilos. +I have 55 kilos on my back. +BG: And you're not piloting? +There is no handle, no steering, nothing? +It is purely your body, and the wings become part of the body and vice versa? +YR: That's really the goal, because if you put in steering, then you reinvent the airplane. +And I wanted to keep this freedom of movement. +And it's really like the kid playing the airplane. +I want to go down like that. +And up I climb, I turn. +It's really pure flying. +It's not steering, it's flight. +BG: What kind of training do you do, you personally, for that? +YR: Actually, I try to stay just fit. +I don't do special physical training. +I just try to keep my mobility through new activities. +For example, last winter I began with kite surfing. +So, new things. +So you have to adapt. +I'm quite an experienced manager of systems as a pilot, but this is, really -- You need fluidity, you need to be agile and also to adapt really fast. +BG: Somebody in the audience asked me, "How does he breathe up there?" +Because you're going fast and you're up at 3,000 meters or so. +YR: Okay, up to 3,000 meters, it's not such a big problem with oxygen. +But for example, bikers, they have the same speed. +Just with the helmet, integral helmet, it's really no problem to breathe. +BG: Describe for me the equipment, since you have it here. +So Breitling's four engines. +YR: Yeah, two-meter span. +Ultra-stable profile. +Four little engines, 22 kilos thrust each, turbines, working with kerosene. +Harness, parachute. +My only instruments are an altimeter and time. +I know I have about eight minutes fuel. +So I just check before it's finished. +And yeah, that's all. +Two parachutes. +That means, if I have a problem with the first one I pull, I still have the possibility to open the second one. +And this is my life. +That's the real important thing about safety. +I did use that during these last 15 years about 20 times. +Never with that type of wing, but at the beginning. +I can release my wing when I am in a spin or unstable. +BG: We saw the 2009 crossing of the Gibraltar Strait where you lost control and then you dived down into the clouds and in the ocean. +So that was one of those cases where you let the wings go, right? +YR: Yeah. I did try in the clouds, but you lose orientation completely. +So I did try to take, again, a climb altitude. +I thought, okay, I will go out. +But most probably, I did something like that. +BG: Something that is not very safe, the image. +YR: You feel great, but -- But you have not the right altitude. +So the next thing I saw was just blue. +It was the sea. +I have also an audible altimeter. +So I was at my minimum altitude in that vector -- fast -- so I pulled that. +And then I did open my chute. +BG: So the wings have their own parachute, and you have your two parachutes. +YR: Exactly. There is a rescue parachute for the wing for two reasons: so I can repair it afterward and especially so nobody takes that, just on his head. +BG: I see. Maybe come back here. +This is risky stuff indeed. +People have died trying to do this kind of thing. +And you don't look like a crazy guy; you're a Swiss airline pilot, so you're rather a checklist kind of guy. +I assume you have standards. +YR: Yeah. I have no checklist for that. +BG: Let's not tell your employer. +YR: No, that's really two worlds. +Civil aviation is something that we know very well. +We have a hundred years of experience. +And you can adapt really precisely. +With that, I have to adapt to something new. +That means improvise. +So it's really a play between these two approaches. +Something that I know very well, these principles. +For example, we have two engines on an Airbus; with only one engine, you can fly it. +So plan B, always a plan B. +In a fighter, you have an ejection seat. +That's my ejection seat. +So I have the approach of a professional pilot with the respect of a pioneer in front of Mother Nature. +BG: It's well said. +What happens if one of the engines stops? +YR: I do a roll. +And then I stabilize, and according to my altitude, I continue on two or three engines. +It's sometimes possible. +It's quite complicated to explain, but according to which regime I was, I can continue on two and try to get a nice place to land, and then I open my parachute. +BG: So the beginning of the flight is actually you jump off a plane or a helicopter, and you go on a dive and accelerate the engines, and then you basically take off mid-air somewhere. +And then the landing, as we have seen, arriving on this side of the Channel, is through a parachute. +So just as a curiosity, where did you land when you flew over the Grand Canyon? +Did you land on the rim, down at the bottom? +YR: It was down on the bottom. +And I came back afterward on the sled of the helicopter back. +But it was too stony and full of cactus on top. +BG: That's exactly why I asked the question. +YR: And also, the currents are quite funny there. +There is big thermal activity, big difference in altitude also. +So it was much safer for me to land at the bottom. +BG: I think that right now, many people are asking, "When are you developing a double-seater so they can fly with you?" +YR: I have a standard answer. +Have you ever seen tandem birds? +BG: Perfect answer. +BG: Yves, one last question. +What's next for you? What's next for Jetman? +YR: First, to instruct a younger guy. +I want to share it, to do formation flights. +And I plan to start from a cliff, like catapulted from a cliff. +BG: So instead of jumping off a plane, yes? +YR: Yes, with the final goal to take off, but with initial speed. +Really, I go step by step. +It seems a little bit crazy, but it's not. +It's possible to start already now, it's just too dangerous. +Thanks to the increasing technology, better technology, it will be safe. +And I hope it will be for everybody. +BG: Yves, thank you very much. Yves Rossy. +I've always had a fascination for computers and technology, and I made a few apps for the iPhone, iPod Touch, and iPad. +I'd like to share a couple with you today. +My first app was a unique fortune teller called Earth Fortune that would display different colors of earth depending on what your fortune was. +My favorite and most successful app is Bustin Jieber, which is which is a Justin Bieber Whac-A-Mole. +I created it because a lot of people at school disliked Justin Bieber a little bit, so I decided to make the app. +So I went to work programming it, and I released it just before the holidays in 2010. +A lot of people ask me, how did I make these? +A lot of times it's because the person who asked the question wants to make an app also. +A lot of kids these days like to play games, but now they want to make them, and it's difficult, because not many kids know where to go to find out how to make a program. +I mean, for soccer, you could go to a soccer team. +For violin, you could get lessons for a violin. +But what if you want to make an app? +And their parents, the kid's parents might have done some of these things when they were young, but not many parents have written apps. Where do you go to find out how to make an app? +Well, this is how I approached it. This is what I did. +First of all, I've been programming in multiple other programming languages to get the basics down, such as Python, C, Java, etc. +And then Apple released the iPhone, and with it, the iPhone software development kit, and the software development kit is a suite of tools for creating and programming an iPhone app. +This opened up a whole new world of possibilities for me, and after playing with the software development kit a little bit, I made a couple apps, I made some test apps. +One of them happened to be Earth Fortune, and I was ready to put Earth Fortune on the App Store, and so I persuaded my parents to pay the 99 dollar fee to be able to put my apps on the App Store. +They agreed, and now I have apps on the App Store. +I've gotten a lot of interest and encouragement from my family, friends, teachers and even people at the Apple Store, and that's been a huge help to me. +I've gotten a lot of inspiration from Steve Jobs, and I've started an app club at school, and a teacher at my school is kindly sponsoring my app club. +Any student at my school can come and learn how to design an app. +This is so I can share my experiences with others. +There's these programs called the iPad Pilot Program, and some districts have them. +I'm fortunate enough to be part of one. +A big challenge is, how should the iPads be used, and what apps should we put on the iPads? +So we're getting feedback from teachers at the school to see what kind of apps they'd like. +When we design the app and we sell it, it will be free to local districts and other districts that we sell to, all the money from that will go into the local ed foundations. +These days, students usually know a little bit more than teachers with the technology. So -- -- sorry -- -- so this is a resource to teachers, and educators should recognize this resource and make good use of it. +I'd like to finish up by saying what I'd like to do in the future. +First of all, I'd like to create more apps, more games. +I'm working with a third party company to make an app. +I'd like to get into Android programming and development, and I'd like to continue my app club, and find other ways for students to share knowledge with others. Thank you. +Have you ever wanted to stay young a little longer and put off aging? +This is a dream of the ages. +But scientists have for a long time thought this just was never going to be possible. +They thought you just wear out, there's nothing you can do about it -- kind of like an old shoe. +But if you look in nature, you see that different kinds of animals can have really different lifespans. +Now these animals are different from one another, because they have different genes. +So that suggests that somewhere in these genes, somewhere in the DNA, are genes for aging, genes that allow them to have different lifespans. +So if there are genes like that, then you can imagine that, if you could change one of the genes in an experiment, an aging gene, maybe you could slow down aging and extend lifespan. +And if you could do that, then you could find the genes for aging. +And if they exist and you can find them, then maybe one could eventually do something about it. +So we've set out to look for genes that control aging. +And we didn't study any of these animals. +Instead, we studied a little, tiny, round worm called C. elegans, which is just about the size of a comma in a sentence. +And we were really optimistic that we could find something because there had been a report of a long-lived mutant. +So we started to change genes at random, looking for long-lived animals. +And we were very lucky to find that mutations that damage one single gene called daf-2 doubled the lifespan of the little worm. +So you can see in black, after a month -- they're very short-lived; that's why we like to study them for studies of aging -- in black, after a month, the normal worms are all dead. +But at that time, most of the mutant worms are still alive. +And it isn't until twice as long that they're all dead. +And now I want to show what they actually look like in this movie here. +So the first thing you're going to see is the normal worm when it's about college student age -- a young adult. +It's quite a cute little fellow. +And next you're going to see the long-lived mutant when it's young. +So this animal is going to live twice as long. +Is it miserable? It doesn't seem to be. +It's active. You can't tell the difference really. +And they can be completely fertile -- have the same number of progeny as the normal worms do. +Now get out your handkerchiefs here. +You're going to see, in just two weeks, the normal worms are old. +You can see the little head moving down at the bottom there. +But everything else is just lying there. +The animal's clearly in the nursing home. +And if you look at the tissues of the animal, they're starting to deteriorate. +You know, even if you've never seen one of these little C. elegans -- which probably most of you haven't seen one -- you can tell they're old -- isn't that interesting? +So there's something about aging that's kind of universal. +And now here is the daf-2 mutant. +One gene is changed out of 20,000, and look at it. +It's the same age, but it's not in the nursing home; it's going skiing. +This is what's really cool: it's aging more slowly. +It takes this worm two days to age as much as the normal worm ages in one day. +And when I tell people about this, they tend to think of maybe an 80 or 90 year-old person who looks really good for being 90 or 80. +But it's really more like this: let's say you're a 30 year-old guy -- or in your 30s -- and you're a bachelor and you're dating people. +And you meet someone you really like, you get to know her. +And you're in a restaurant, and you say, "Well how old are you?" +She says, "I'm 60." +That's what it's like. And you would never know. +You would never know, until she told you. +Okay. +So what is the daf-2 gene? +Well as you know, genes, which are part of the DNA, they're instructions to make a protein that does something. +And the daf-2 gene encodes a hormone receptor. +So what you see in the picture there is a cell with a hormone receptor in red punching through the edge of the cell. +So part of it is like a baseball glove. +Part of it's on the outside, and it's catching the hormone as it comes by in green. +And the other part is on the inside where it sends signals into the cell. +Okay, so what is the daf-2 receptor telling the inside of the cell? +I just told you that, if you make a mutation in the daf-2 gene cell, that you get a receptor that doesn't work as well; the animal lives longer. +So that means that the normal function of this hormone receptor is to speed up aging. +That's what that arrow means. +It speeds up aging. It makes it go faster. +So it's like the animal has the grim reaper inside of itself, speeding up aging. +So this is altogether really, really interesting. +It says that aging is subject to control by the genes, and specifically by hormones. +So what kind of hormones are these? +There's lots of hormones. There's testosterone, adrenalin. +You know about a lot of them. +These hormones are similar to hormones that we have in our bodies. +The daf-2 hormone receptor is very similar to the receptor for the hormone insulin and IGF-1. +Now you've all heard of at least insulin. +Insulin is a hormone that promotes the uptake of nutrients into your tissues after you eat a meal. +And the hormone IGF-1 promotes growth. +So these functions were known for these hormones for a long time, but our studies suggested that maybe they had a third function that nobody knew about -- maybe they also affect aging. +And it's looking like that's the case. +So after we made our discoveries with little C. elegans, people who worked on other kinds of animals started asking, if we made the same daf-2 mutation, the hormone receptor mutation, in other animals, will they live longer? +And that is the case in flies. +If you change this hormone pathway in flies, they live longer. +And also in mice -- and mice are mammals like us. +So it's an ancient pathway, because it must have arisen a long time ago in evolution such that it still works in all these animals. +And also, the common precursor also gave rise to people. +So maybe it's working in people the same way. +And there are hints of this. +So for example, there was one study that was done in a population of Ashkenazi Jews in New York City. +And just like any population, most of the people live to be about 70 or 80, but some live to be 90 or 100. +And what they found was that people who lived to 90 or 100 were more likely to have daf-2 mutations -- that is, changes in the gene that encodes the receptor for IGF-1. +And these changes made the gene not act as well as the normal gene would have acted. +It damaged the gene. +So those are hints suggesting that humans are susceptible to the effects of the hormones for aging. +So the next question, of course, is: Is there any effect on age-related disease? +As you age, you're much more likely to get cancer, Alzheimer's disease, heart disease, all sorts of diseases. +It turns out that these long-lived mutants are more resistant to all these diseases. +They hardly get cancer, and when they do it's not as severe. +So it's really interesting, and it makes sense in a way, that they're still young, so why would they be getting diseases of aging until their old? +So it suggests that, if we could have a therapeutic or a pill to take to replicate some of these effects in humans, maybe we would have a way of combating lots of different age-related diseases all at once. +So how can a hormone ultimately affect the rate of aging? +How could that work? +Well it turns out that in the daf-2 mutants, a whole lot of genes are switched on in the DNA that encode proteins that protect the cells and the tissues, and repair damage. +And the way that they're switched on is by a gene regulator protein called FOXO. +So in a daf-2 mutant -- you see that I have the X drawn here through the receptor. +The receptor isn't working as well. +Under those conditions, the FOXO protein in blue has gone into the nucleus -- that little compartment there in the middle of the cell -- and it's sitting down on a gene binding to it. +You see one gene. There are lots of genes actually that bind on FOXO. +And it's just sitting on one of them. +So FOXO turns on a lot of genes. +And the genes it turns on includes antioxidant genes, genes I call carrot-giver genes, whose protein products actually help other proteins to function well -- to fold correctly and function correctly. +And it can also escort them to the garbage cans of the cell and recycle them if they're damaged. +DNA repair genes are more active in these animals. +And the immune system is more active. +And many of these different genes, we've shown, actually contribute to the long lifespan of the daf-2 mutant. +So it's really interesting. +These animals have within them the latent capacity to live much longer than they normally do. +They have the ability to protect themselves from many kinds of damage, which we think makes them live longer. +So what about the normal worm? +Well when the daf-2 receptor is active, then it triggers a series of events that prevent FOXO from getting into the nucleus where the DNA is. +So it can't turn the genes on. +That's how it works. That's why we don't see the long lifespan, until we have the daf-2 mutant. +But what good is this for the worm? +Well we think that insulin and IGF-1 hormones are hormones that are particularly active under favorable conditions -- in the good times -- when food is plentiful and there's not a lot of stress in the environment. +Then they promote the uptake of nutrients. +You can store the food, use it for energy, grow, etc. +But what we think is that, under conditions of stress, the levels of these hormones drop -- for example, having limited food supply. +And that, we think, is registered by the animal as a danger signal, a signal that things are not okay and that it should roll out its protective capacity. +So it activates FOXO, FOXO goes to the DNA, and that triggers the expression of these genes that improves the ability of the cell to protect itself and repair itself. +And that's why we think the animals live longer. +So you can think of FOXO as being like a building superintendent. +So maybe he's a little bit lazy, but he's there, he's taking care of the building. +But it's deteriorating. +And then suddenly, he learns that there's going to be a hurricane. +So he doesn't actually do anything himself. +He gets on the telephone -- just like FOXO gets on the DNA -- and he calls up the roofer, the window person, the painter, the floor person. +And they all come and they fortify the house. +And then the hurricane comes through, and the house is in much better condition than it would normally have been in. +And not only that, it can also just last longer, even if there isn't a hurricane. +So that's the concept here for how we think this life extension ability exists. +Now the really cool thing about FOXO is that there are different forms of it. +We all have FOXO genes, but we don't all have exactly the same form of the FOXO gene. +Just like we all have eyes, but some of us have blue eyes and some of us have brown eyes. +And there are certain forms of the FOXO gene that have found to be more frequently present in people who live to be 90 or 100. +And that's the case all over the world, as you can see from these stars. +And each one of these stars represents a population where scientists have asked, "Okay, are there differences in the type of FOXO genes among people who live a really long time?" and there are. +We don't know the details of how this works, but we do know then that FOXO genes can impact the lifespan of people. +And that means that, maybe if we tweak it a little bit, we can increase the health and longevity of people. +So this is really exciting to me. +A FOXO is a protein that we found in these little, round worms to affect lifespan, and here it affects lifespan in people. +So we've been trying in our lab now to develop drugs that will activate this FOXO cell using human cells now in order to try and come up with drugs that will delay aging and age-related diseases. +And I'm really optimistic that this is going to work. +There are lots of different proteins that are known to affect aging. +And for at least one of them, there is a drug. +There's one called TOR, which is another nutrient sensor, like the insulin pathway. +And mutations that damage the TOR gene -- just like the daf-2 mutations -- extend lifespan in worms and flies and mice. +But in this case, there's already a drug called rapamycin that binds to the TOR protein and inhibits its activity. +And you can take rapamycin and give it to a mouse -- even when it's pretty old, like age 60 for a human, that old for a mouse -- if you give the mouse rapamycin, it will live longer. +Now I don't want you all to go out taking rapamycin. +It is a drug for people, but the reason is it suppresses the immune system. +So people take it to prevent organ transplants from being rejected. +So this may not be the perfect drug for staying young longer. +But still, here in the year 2011, there's a drug that you can give to mice at a pretty old age that will extend their lifespan, which comes out of this science that's been done in all these different animals. +So I'm really optimistic, and I think it won't be too long, I hope, before this age-old dream begins to come true. +Thank you. +Matt Ridley: Thank you, Cynthia. +Let me get this straight. +Although you're looking for a drug that can solve aging in old men like me, what you could do now pretty well in the lab, if you were allowed ethically, is start a human life from scratch with altered genes that would make it live for a lot longer? +CK: Ah, so the kinds of drugs I was talking about would not change the genes, they would just bind to the protein itself and change its activity. +So if you stop taking the drug, the protein would go back to normal. +You could change the genes in principle. +There isn't the technology to do that. +But I don't think that's a good idea. +And the reason is that these hormones, like the insulin and the IGF hormones and the TOR pathway, they're essential. +If you knock them out completely, then you're very sick. +So it might be that you would just have to fine tune it very carefully to get the benefits without getting any problems. +And I think that's much better, that kind of control would be much better as a drug. +And also, there are other ways of activating FOXO that don't even involve insulin or IGF-1 that might even be safer. +MR: I wasn't suggesting that I was going to go and do it, but ... +There's a phenomenon which you have written about and spoken about, which is a negligible senescence. +There are some creatures on this planet already that don't really do aging. +Just move to one side for us, if you would. +CK: There are. There are some animals that don't seem to age. +For example, there are some tortoises called Blanding's turtles. +And they grow to be about this size. +And they've been tagged, and they've been found to be 70 years old. +And when you look at these 70 year-old turtles, you can't tell the difference, just by looking, between those turtles and 20 year-old turtles. +And the 70 year-old ones, actually they're better at scouting out the good nesting places, and they also have more progeny every year. +And there are other examples of these kinds of animals, like turns, certain kinds of birds are like this. +And nobody knows if they really can live forever, or what keeps them from aging. +It's not clear. +If you look at birds, which live a long time, cells from the birds tend to be more resistant to a lot of different environmental stresses like high temperature or hydrogen peroxide, things like that. +And our long-lived mutants are too. +They're more resistant to these kinds of stresses. +So it could be that the pathways that I've been talking about, which are set to run really quickly in the worm, have a different normal set point in something like a bird, so that a bird can live a lot longer. +And maybe they're even set really differently in animals with no senescence at all -- but we don't know. +MR: But what you're talking about here is not extending human lifespan by preventing death, so much as extending human youthspan. +CK: Yes, that's right. +It's more like, say, if you were a dog. +You notice that you're getting old, and you look at your human and you think, "Why isn't this human getting old?" +They're not getting old in the dog's lifespan. +It's more like that. +But now we're the human looking out and imagining a different human. +MR: Thank you very much indeed, Cynthia Kenyon. +I'd like to apologize, first of all, to all of you because I have no form of PowerPoint presentation. +So what I'm going to do is, every now and again, I will make this gesture, and in a moment of PowerPoint democracy, you can imagine what you'd like to see. +I do a radio show. +The radio show is called "The Infinite Monkey Cage." +It's about science, it's about rationalism. +So therefore, we get a lot of complaints every single week -- complaints including one we get very often, which is to say the very title, "Infinite Monkey Cage," celebrates the idea of vivisection. +We have made it quite clear to these people that an infinite monkey cage is roomy. +We also had someone else who said, "'The Infinite Monkey Cage' idea is ridiculous. +An infinite number of monkeys could never write the works of Shakespeare. +We know this because they did an experiment." +Yes, they gave 12 monkeys a typewriter for a week, and after a week, they only used it as a bathroom. +So the main element though, the main complaint we get -- and one that I find most worrying -- is that people say, "Oh, why do you insist on ruining the magic? +You bring in science, and it ruins the magic." +Now I'm an arts graduate; I love myth and magic and existentialism and self-loathing. +That's what I do. +But I also don't understand how it does ruin the magic. +All of the magic, I think, that may well be taken away by science is then replaced by something as wonderful. +Astrology, for instance: like many rationalists, I'm a Pisces. +Now astrology -- we remove the banal idea that your life could be predicted; that you'll, perhaps today, meet a lucky man who's wearing a hat. +That is gone. +But if we want to look at the sky and see predictions, we still can. +We can see predictions of galaxies forming, of galaxies colliding into each other, of new solar systems. +This is a wonderful thing. +If the Sun could one day -- and indeed the Earth, in fact -- if the Earth could read its own astrological, astronomical chart, one day it would say, "Not a good day for making plans. +You'll been engulfed by a red giant." +And that to me as well, that if you think I'm worried about losing worlds, well Many Worlds theory -- one of the most beautiful, fascinating, sometimes terrifying ideas from the quantum interpretation -- is a wonderful thing. +That every person here, every decision that you've made today, every decision you've made in your life, you've not really made that decision, but in fact, every single permutation of those decisions is made, each one going off into a new universe. +That is a wonderful idea. +If you ever think that your life is rubbish, always remember there's another you that's made much worse decisions than that. +If you ever think, "Ah, I want to end it all," don't end it all. +Remember that in the majority of universes, you don't even exist in the first place. +This to me, in its own strange way, is very, very comforting. +Now reincarnation, that's another thing gone -- the afterlife. +But it's not gone. +Science actually says we will live forever. +Well, there is one proviso. +We won't actually live forever. You won't live forever. +Your consciousness, the you-ness of you, the me-ness of me -- that gets this one go. +But every single thing that makes us, every atom in us, has already created a myriad of different things and will go on to create a myriad of new things. +We have been mountains and apples and pulsars and other people's knees. +Who knows, maybe one of your atoms was once Napoleon's knee. +That is a good thing. +Unlike the occupants of the universe, the universe itself is not wasteful. +We are all totally recyclable. +And when we die, we don't even have to be placed in different refuse sacs. +This is a wonderful thing. +Understanding, to me, does not remove the wonder and the joy. +For instance, my wife could turn to me and she may say, "Why do you love me?" +And I can with all honesty look her in the eye and say, "Because our pheromones matched our olfactory receptors." +Though I'll probably also say something about her hair and personality as well. +And that is a wonderful thing there. +Love does not die because of that thing. +Pain doesn't go away either. +This is a terrible thing, even though I understand pain. +If someone punches me -- and because of my personality, this is recently a regular occurrence -- I understand where the pain comes from. +It is basically momentum to energy where the four-vector is constant -- that's what it is. +But at no point can I react and go, "Ha! Is that the best momentum-to-energy fourth vector constant you've got?" +No, I just spit out a tooth. +And that is all of these different things -- the love for my child. +I have a son. His name is Archie. +I'm very lucky, because he's better than all the other children. +Now I know you don't think that. +You may well have your own children and think, "Oh no, my child's best." +That's the wonderful thing about evolution -- the predilection to believe that our child is best. +Now in many ways, that's just a survival thing. +The fact we see here is the vehicle for our genes, and therefore we love it. +But we don't notice that bit; we just unconditionally love. +That is a wonderful thing. +Though I should say that my son is best and is better than your children. +I've done some tests. +And all of these things to me give such joy and excitement and wonder. +Even quantum mechanics can give you an excuse for bad housework, for instance. +Perhaps you've been at home for a week on your own. +You house is in a terrible state. +Your partner is about to return. +You think, what should I do? +Do nothing. +All you have to do is, when she walks in, using a quantum interpretation, say, "I'm so sorry. +I stopped observing the house for a moment, and when I started observing again, everything had happened." +That's the strong anthropic principle of vacuuming. +For me, it's a very, very important thing. +Even on my journey up here -- the joy that I have on my journey up here every single time. +If you actually think, you remove the myth and there is still something wonderful. +I'm sitting on a train. +Every time I breathe in, I'm breathing in a million-billion-billion atoms of oxygen. +I'm sitting on a chair. +Even though I know the chair is made of atoms and therefore actually in many ways empty space, I find it comfortable. +I look out the window, and I realize that every single time we stop and I look out that window, framed in that window, wherever we are, I am observing more life than there is in the rest of the known universe beyond the planet Earth. +If you go to the safari parks on Saturn or Jupiter, you will be disappointed. +And I realize I'm observing this with the brain, the human brain, the most complex thing in the known universe. +That, to me, is an incredible thing. +And do you know what, that might be enough. +Steven Weinberg, the Nobel laureate, once said, "The more the universe seems comprehensible, the more it seems pointless." +Now for some people, that seems to lead to an idea of nihilism. +But for me, it doesn't. That is a wonderful thing. +I'm glad the universe is pointless. +It means if I get to the end of my life, the universe can't turn to me and go, "What have you been doing, you idiot? +That's not the point." +I can make my own purpose. +You can make your own purpose. +We have the individual power to go, "This is what I want to do." +And in a pointless universe, that, to me, is a wonderful thing. +I have chosen to make silly jokes about quantum mechanics and the Copenhagen interpretation. +You, I imagine, can do much better things with your time. +Thank you very much. Goodbye. +Let me introduce to you Rezero. +This little fellow was developed by a group of 10 undergraduate students at the Autonomous Systems Laboratory Our robot belongs to a family of robots called Ballbots. +Instead of wheels, a Ballbot is balancing and moving on one single ball. +The main characteristics of such a system is that there's one sole contact point to the ground. +This means that the robot is inherently unstable. +It's like when I am trying to stand on one foot. +You might ask yourself, what's the usefulness of a robot that's unstable? +Now we'll explain that in a second. +Let me first explain how Rezero actually keeps his balance. +Rezero keeps his balance by constantly measuring his pitch angle with a sensor. +He then counteracts and avoids toppling over by turning the motors appropriately. +This happens 160 times per second, and if anything fails in this process, Rezero would immediately fall to the ground. +Now to move and to balance, Rezero needs to turn the ball. +The ball is driven by three special wheels that allow Rezero to move into any direction and also move around his own axis at the same time. +Due to his instability, Rezero is always in motion. Now here's the trick. +It's indeed exactly this instability that allows a robot to move very [dynamically]. +Let's play a little. +You may have wondered what happens if I give the robot a little push. +In this mode, he's trying to maintain his position. +For the next demo, I'd like you to introduce to my colleagues Michael, on the computer, and Thomas who's helping me onstage. +In the next mode, Rezero is passive, and we can move him around. +With almost no force I can control his position and his velocity. +I can also make him spin. +In the next mode, we can get Rezero to follow a person. +He's now keeping a constant distance to Thomas. +This works with a laser sensor that's mounted on top of Rezero. +With the same method, we can also get him to circle a person. +We call this the orbiting mode. +All right, thank you, Thomas. +Now, what's the use of this technology? +For now, it's an experiment, but let me show you some possible future applications. +Rezero could be used in exhibitions or parks. +With a screen it could inform people or show them around in a fun and entertaining way. +In a hospital, this device could be used to carry around medical equipment. +Due to the Ballbot system, it has a very small footprint and it's also easy to move around. +And of course, who wouldn't like to take a ride on one of these. +And these are more practical applications. +But there's also a certain beauty within this technology. +Thank you. +Thank you. +Ladies and gentlemen, gather around. +I would love to share with you a story. +Once upon a time in 19th century Germany, there was the book. +Now during this time, the book was the king of storytelling. +It was venerable. +It was ubiquitous. +But it was a little bit boring. +Because in its 400 years of existence, storytellers never evolved the book as a storytelling device. +But then one author arrived, and he changed the game forever. +His name was Lothar, Lothar Meggendorfer. +Lothar Meggendorfer put his foot down, and he said, "Genug ist genug!" +He grabbed his pen, he snatched his scissors. +This man refused to fold to the conventions of normalcy and just decided to fold. +History would know Lothar Meggendorfer as -- who else? -- the world's first true inventor of the children's pop-up book. +For this delight and for this wonder, people rejoiced. +They were happy because the story survived, and that the world would keep on spinning. +Lothar Meggendorfer wasn't the first to evolve the way a story was told, and he certainly wasn't the last. +Whether storytellers realized it or not, they were channeling Meggendorfer's spirit when they moved opera to vaudville, radio news to radio theater, film to film in motion to film in sound, color, 3D, on VHS and on DVD. +There seemed to be no cure for this Meggendorferitis. +And things got a lot more fun when the Internet came around. +Because, not only could people broadcast their stories throughout the world, but they could do so using what seemed to be an infinite amount of devices. +For example, one company would tell a story of love through its very own search engine. +One Taiwanese production studio would interpret American politics in 3D. +And one man would tell the stories of his father by using a platform called Twitter to communicate the excrement his father would gesticulate. +And after all this, everyone paused; they took a step back. +They realized that, in 6,000 years of storytelling, they've gone from depicting hunting on cave walls to depicting Shakespeare on Facebook walls. +And this was a cause for celebration. +The art of storytelling has remained unchanged. +And for the most part, the stories are recycled. +But the way that humans tell the stories has always evolved with pure, consistent novelty. +And they remembered a man, one amazing German, every time a new storytelling device popped up next. +And for that, the audience -- the lovely, beautiful audience -- would live happily ever after. +When I graduated UCLA, I moved to northern California, and I lived in a little town called Elk on the Mendocino coast, and I didn't have a phone or TV, but I had U.S. mail, and life was good back then, if you could remember it. +It would take me a month to shoot a four-minute roll of film, because that's all I could afford. +I've been shooting time-lapse flowers continuously, non-stop, 24 hours a day, seven days a week, for over 30 years, and to see them move is a dance I'll never get tired of. +Their beauty immerses us with color, taste, touch. +It also provides a third of the food we eat. +Beauty and seduction is nature's tools for survival, because we protect what we fall in love with. +It opens our hearts, and makes us realize we are a part of nature and we're not separate from it. +When we see ourselves in nature, it also connects us to every one of us, because it's clear that it's all connected in one. +When people see my images, a lot of times they'll say, "Oh my God." Have you ever wondered what that meant? +The "oh" means it caught your attention, makes you present, makes you mindful. +The "my" means it connects with something deep inside your soul. +It creates a gateway for your inner voice to rise up and be heard. And "God"? +God is that personal journey we all want to be on, to be inspired, to feel like we're connected to a universe that celebrates life. +Did you know that 80 percent of the information we receive comes through our eyes? +And if you compare light energy to musical scales, it would only be one octave that the naked eye could see, which is right in the middle? +And aren't we grateful for our brains that can, you know, take this electrical impulse that comes from light energy to create images in order for us to explore our world? +And aren't we grateful that we have hearts that can feel these vibrations in order for us to allow ourselves to feel the pleasure and the beauty of nature? +Nature's beauty is a gift that cultivates appreciation and gratitude. +So I have a gift I want to share with you today, a project I'm working on called Happiness Revealed, and it'll give us a glimpse into that perspective from the point of view of a child and an elderly man of that world. +Elderly Man: You think this is just another day in your life? +It's not just another day. It's the one day that is given to you today. +It's given to you. It's a gift. +It's the only gift that you have right now, and the only appropriate response is gratefulness. +If you do nothing else but to cultivate that response to the great gift that this unique day is, if you learn to respond as if it were the first day in your life and the very last day, then you will have spent this day very well. +Begin by opening your eyes and be surprised that you have eyes you can open, that incredible array of colors that is constantly offered to us for pure enjoyment. +Look at the sky. +We so rarely look at the sky. +We so rarely note how different it is from moment to moment, with clouds coming and going. +We just think of the weather, and even with the weather, we don't think of all the many nuances of weather. +We just think of good weather and bad weather. +This day, right now, has unique weather, maybe a kind that will never exactly in that form come again. +That formation of clouds in the sky will never be the same as it is right now. +Open your eyes. Look at that. +Look at the faces of people whom you meet. +Each one has an incredible story behind their face, a story that you could never fully fathom, not only their own story, but the story of their ancestors. +We all go back so far, and in this present moment, on this day, all the people you meet, all that life from generations and from so many places all over the world flows together and meets you here like a life-giving water, if you only open your heart and drink. +Open your heart to the incredible gifts that civilization gives to us. +You flip a switch and there is electric light. +You turn a faucet and there is warm water and cold water, and drinkable water. +It's a gift that millions and millions in the world will never experience. +So these are just a few of an enormous number of gifts to which we can open your heart. +And so I wish you that you will open your heart to all these blessings, and let them flow through you, that everyone whom you will meet on this day will be blessed by you, just by your eyes, by your smile, by your touch, just by your presence. +Let the gratefulness overflow into blessing all around you, and then it will really be a good day. Louie Schwartzberg: Thank you. +Thank you very much. +I, like many of you, am one of the two billion people on Earth who live in cities. +And there are days -- I don't know about the rest of you guys -- but there are days when I palpably feel how much I rely on other people for pretty much everything in my life. +And some days, that can even be a little scary. +But what I'm here to talk to you about today is how that same interdependence is actually an extremely powerful social infrastructure that we can actually harness to help heal some of our deepest civic issues, if we apply open source collaboration. +A couple of years ago, I read an article by New York Times writer Michael Pollan in which he argued that growing even some of our own food is one of the best things that we can do for the environment. +Now at the time that I was reading this, it was the middle of the winter and I definitely did not have room for a lot of dirt in my New York City apartment. +So I was basically just willing to settle for just reading the next Wired magazine and finding out how the experts were going to figure out how to solve all these problems for us in the future. +But that was actually exactly the point that Michael Pollan was making in this article -- was it's precisely when we hand over the responsibility for all these things to specialists that we cause the kind of messes that we see with the food system. +So, I happen to know a little bit from my own work about how NASA has been using hydroponics to explore growing food in space. +And you can actually get optimal nutritional yield by running a kind of high-quality liquid soil over plants' root systems. +Now to a vegetable plant, my apartment has got to be about as foreign as outer space. +But I can offer some natural light and year-round climate control. +Fast-forward two years later: we now have window farms, which are vertical, hydroponic platforms for food-growing indoors. +And the way it works is that there's a pump at the bottom, which periodically sends some of this liquid nutrient solution up to the top, which then trickles down through plants' root systems that are suspended in clay pellets -- so there's no dirt involved. +Now light and temperature vary with each window's microclimate, so a window farm requires a farmer, and she must decide what kind of crops she is going to put in her window farm, and whether she is going to feed her food organically. +Back at the time, a window farm was no more than a technically complex idea that was going to require a lot of testing. +And I really wanted it to be an open project, because hydroponics is one of the fastest growing areas of patenting in the United States right now and could possibly become another area like Monsanto, where we have a lot of corporate intellectual property in the way of people's food. +So I decided that, instead of creating a product, what I was going to do was open this up to a whole bunch of co-developers. +The first few systems that we created, they kind of worked. +We were actually able to grow about a salad a week in a typical New York City apartment window. +And we were able to grow cherry tomatoes and cucumbers, all kinds of stuff. +But the first few systems were these leaky, loud power-guzzlers that Martha Stewart would definitely never have approved. +So to bring on more co-developers, what we did was we created a social media site on which we published the designs, we explained how they worked, and we even went so far as to point out everything that was wrong with these systems. +And then we invited people all over the world to build them and experiment with us. +So actually now on this website, we have 18,000 people. +And we have window farms all over the world. +What we're doing is what NASA or a large corporation would call R&D, or research and development. +But what we call it is R&D-I-Y, or research and develop it yourself. +So for example, Jackson came along and suggested that we use air pumps instead of water pumps. +It took building a whole bunch of systems to get it right, but once we did, we were able to cut our carbon footprint nearly in half. +Tony in Chicago has been taking on growing experiments, like lots of other window farmers, and he's been able to get his strawberries to fruit for nine months of the year in low-light conditions by simply changing out the organic nutrients. +And window farmers in Finland have been customizing their window farms for the dark days of the Finnish winters by outfitting them with LED grow lights that they're now making open source and part of the project. +So window farms have been evolving through a rapid versioning process similar to software. +And with every open source project, the real benefit is the interplay between the specific concerns of people customizing their systems for their own particular concerns and the universal concerns. +So my core team and I are able to concentrate on the improvements that really benefit everyone. +And we're able to look out for the needs of newcomers. +So for do-it-yourselfers, we provide free, very well-tested instructions so that anyone, anywhere around the world, can build one of these systems for free. +And there's a patent pending on these systems as well that's held by the community. +And to fund the project, we partner to create products that we then sell to schools and to individuals who don't have time to build their own systems. +Now within our community, a certain culture has appeared. +In our culture, it is better to be a tester who supports someone else's idea than it is to be just the idea guy. +What we get out of this project is we get support for our own work, as well as an experience of actually contributing to the environmental movement in a way other than just screwing in new light bulbs. +But I think that Eileen expresses best what we really get out of this, which is the actual joy of collaboration. +So she expresses here what it's like to see someone halfway across the world having taken your idea, built upon it and then acknowledging you for contributing. +If we really want to see the kind of wide consumer behavior change that we're all talking about as environmentalists and food people, maybe we just need to ditch the term "consumer" and get behind the people who are doing stuff. +Open source projects tend to have a momentum of their own. +And what we're seeing is that R&D-I-Y has moved beyond just window farms and LEDs into solar panels and aquaponic systems. +And we're building upon innovations of generations who went before us. +And we're looking ahead at generations who really need us to retool our lives now. +So we ask that you join us in rediscovering the value of citizens united, and to declare that we are all still pioneers. +If your life were a book and you were the author, how would you want your story to go? +That's the question that changed my life forever. +Growing up in the hot Last Vegas desert, all I wanted was to be free. +I would daydream about traveling the world, living in a place where it snowed, and I would picture all of the stories that I would go on to tell. +At the age of 19, the day after I graduated high school, I moved to a place where it snowed and I became a massage therapist. +With this job all I needed were my hands and my massage table by my side and I could go anywhere. +For the first time in my life, I felt free, independent and completely in control of my life. +That is, until my life took a detour. +I went home from work early one day with what I thought was the flu, and less than 24 hours later I was in the hospital on life support with less than a two percent chance of living. +It wasn't until days later as I lay in a coma that the doctors diagnosed me with bacterial meningitis, a vaccine-preventable blood infection. +Over the course of two and a half months I lost my spleen, my kidneys, the hearing in my left ear and both of my legs below the knee. +When my parents wheeled me out of the hospital I felt like I had been pieced back together like a patchwork doll. +I thought the worst was over until weeks later when I saw my new legs for the first time. +The calves were bulky blocks of metal with pipes bolted together for the ankles and a yellow rubber foot with a raised rubber line from the toe to the ankle to look like a vein. +I didn't know what to expect, but I wasn't expecting that. +With my mom by my side and tears streaming down our faces, I strapped on these chunky legs and I stood up. +They were so painful and so confining that all I could think was, how am I ever going to travel the world in these things? +How was I ever going to live the life full of adventure and stories, as I always wanted? +And how was I going to snowboard again? +That day, I went home, I crawled into bed and this is what my life looked like for the next few months: me passed out, escaping from reality, with my legs resting by my side. +I was absolutely physically and emotionally broken. +But I knew that in order to move forward, I had to let go of the old Amy and learn to embrace the new Amy. +And that is when it dawned on me that I didn't have to be five-foot-five anymore. +I could be as tall as I wanted! +Or as short as I wanted, depending on who I was dating. +And if I snowboarded again, my feet aren't going to get cold. +And best of all, I thought, I can make my feet the size of all the shoes that are on the sales rack. And I did! +So there were benefits here. +It was this moment that I asked myself that life-defining question: If my life were a book and I were the author, how would I want the story to go? +And I began to daydream. +I daydreamed like I did as a little girl and I imagined myself walking gracefully, helping other people through my journey and snowboarding again. +And I didn't just see myself carving down a mountain of powder, I could actually feel it. +I could feel the wind against my face and the beat of my racing heart as if it were happening in that very moment. +And that is when a new chapter in my life began. +I was so shocked, I was just as shocked as everybody else, and I was so discouraged, but I knew that if I could find the right pair of feet that I would be able to do this again. +And this is when I learned that our borders and our obstacles can only do two things: one, stop us in our tracks or two, force us to get creative. +I did a year of research, still couldn't figure out what kind of legs to use, couldn't find any resources that could help me. +So I decided to make a pair myself. +My leg maker and I put random parts together and we made a pair of feet that I could snowboard in. +As you can see, rusted bolts, rubber, wood and neon pink duct tape. +And yes, I can change my toenail polish. +It was these legs and the best 21st birthday gift I could ever receive a new kidney from my dad that allowed me to follow my dreams again. +I started snowboarding, then I went back to work, then I went back to school. +Then in 2005 I cofounded a nonprofit organization for youth and young adults with physical disabilities so they could get involved with action sports. +From there, I had the opportunity to go to South Africa, where I helped to put shoes on thousands of children's feet so they could attend school. +And just this past February, I won two back-to-back World Cup gold medals which made me the highest ranked adaptive female snowboarder in the world. +Eleven years ago, when I lost my legs, I had no idea what to expect. +But if you ask me today, if I would ever want to change my situation, I would have to say no. +Because my legs haven't disabled me, if anything they've enabled me. +They've forced me to rely on my imagination and to believe in the possibilities, and that's why I believe that our imaginations can be used as tools for breaking through borders, because in our minds, we can do anything and we can be anything. +It's believing in those dreams and facing our fears head-on that allows us to live our lives beyond our limits. +And although today is about innovation without borders, I have to say that in my life, innovation has only been possible because of my borders. +I've learned that borders are where the actual ends, but also where the imagination and the story begins. +It's not about breaking down borders. +It's about pushing off of them and seeing what amazing places they might bring us. +Thank you. +So that's Johnny Depp, of course. +And that's Johnny Depp's shoulder. +And that's Johnny Depp's famous shoulder tattoo. +Some of you might know that, in 1990, Depp got engaged to Winona Ryder, and he had tattooed on his right shoulder "Winona forever." +And then three years later -- which in fairness, kind of is forever by Hollywood standards -- they broke up, and Johnny went and got a little bit of repair work done. +And now his shoulder says, "Wino forever." +So like Johnny Depp, and like 25 percent of Americans between the ages of 16 and 50, I have a tattoo. +I first started thinking about getting it in my mid-20s, but I deliberately waited a really long time. +Because we all know people who have gotten tattoos when they were 17 or 19 or 23 and regretted it by the time they were 30. +That didn't happen to me. +I got my tattoo when I was 29, and I regretted it instantly. +And by "regretted it," I mean that I stepped outside of the tattoo place -- this is just a couple miles from here down on the Lower East Side -- and I had a massive emotional meltdown in broad daylight on the corner of East Broadway and Canal Street. +Which is a great place to do it because nobody cares. +And then I went home that night, and I had an even larger emotional meltdown, which I'll say more about in a minute. +And this was all actually quite shocking to me, because prior to this moment, I had prided myself on having absolutely no regrets. +I made a lot of mistakes and dumb decisions, of course. +I do that hourly. +But I had always felt like, look, you know, I made the best choice I could make given who I was then, given the information I had on hand. +I learned a lesson from it. +It somehow got me to where I am in life right now. +And okay, I wouldn't change it. +In other words, I had drunk our great cultural Kool-Aid about regret, which is that lamenting things that occurred in the past is an absolute waste of time, that we should always look forward and not backward, and that one of the noblest and best things we can do is strive to live a life free of regrets. +This idea is nicely captured by this quote: "Things without all remedy should be without regard; what's done is done." +And it seems like kind of an admirable philosophy at first -- something we might all agree to sign onto ... +until I tell you who said it. +Right, so this is Lady MacBeth basically telling her husband to stop being such a wuss for feeling bad about murdering people. +And as it happens, Shakespeare was onto something here, as he generally was. +Because the inability to experience regret is actually one of the diagnostic characteristics of sociopaths. +It's also, by the way, a characteristic of certain kinds of brain damage. +So people who have damage to their orbital frontal cortex seem to be unable to feel regret in the face of even obviously very poor decisions. +So if, in fact, you want to live a life free of regret, there is an option open to you. +It's called a lobotomy. +But if you want to be fully functional and fully human and fully humane, I think you need to learn to live, not without regret, but with it. +So let's start off by defining some terms. +What is regret? +Regret is the emotion we experience when we think that our present situation could be better or happier if we had done something different in the past. +So in other words, regret requires two things. +It requires, first of all, agency -- we had to make a decision in the first place. +And second of all, it requires imagination. +We need to be able to imagine going back and making a different choice, and then we need to be able to kind of spool this imaginary record forward and imagine how things would be playing out in our present. +And in fact, the more we have of either of these things -- the more agency and the more imagination with respect to a given regret, the more acute that regret will be. +So let's say for instance that you're on your way to your best friend's wedding and you're trying to get to the airport and you're stuck in terrible traffic, and you finally arrive at your gate and you've missed your flight. +You're going to experience more regret in that situation if you missed your flight by three minutes than if you missed it by 20. +Why? +Well because, if you miss your flight by three minutes, it is painfully easy to imagine that you could have made different decisions that would have led to a better outcome. +"I should have taken the bridge and not the tunnel. +I should have gone through that yellow light." +These are the classic conditions that create regret. +We feel regret when we think we are responsible for a decision that came out badly, but almost came out well. +Now within that framework, we can obviously experience regret about a lot of different things. +This session today is about behavioral economics. +And most of what we know about regret comes to us out of that domain. +We have a vast body of literature on consumer and financial decisions and the regrets associated with them -- buyer's remorse, basically. +But then finally, it occurred to some researchers to step back and say, well okay, but overall, what do we regret most in life? +Here's what the answers turn out to look like. +So top six regrets -- the things we regret most in life: Number one by far, education. +33 percent of all of our regrets pertain to decisions we made about education. +We wish we'd gotten more of it. +We wish we'd taken better advantage of the education that we did have. +We wish we'd chosen to study a different topic. +Others very high on our list of regrets include career, romance, parenting, various decisions and choices about our sense of self and how we spend our leisure time -- or actually more specifically, how we fail to spend our leisure time. +The remaining regrets pertain to these things: finance, family issues unrelated to romance or parenting, health, friends, spirituality and community. +So in other words, we know most of what we know about regret by the study of finance. +But it turns out, when you look overall at what people regret in life, you know what, our financial decisions don't even rank. +They account for less than three percent of our total regrets. +So if you're sitting there stressing about large cap versus small cap, or company A versus company B, or should you buy the Subaru or the Prius, you know what, let it go. +Odds are, you're not going to care in five years. +But for these things that we actually do really care about and do experience profound regret around, what does that experience feel like? +We all know the short answer. +It feels terrible. Regret feels awful. +But it turns out that regret feels awful in four very specific and consistent ways. +So the first consistent component of regret is basically denial. +When I went home that night after getting my tattoo, I basically stayed up all night. +And for the first several hours, there was exactly one thought in my head. +And the thought was, "Make it go away!" +This is an unbelievably primitive emotional response. +I mean, it's right up there with, "I want my mommy!" +We're not trying to solve the problem. +We're not trying to understand how the problem came about. +We just want it to vanish. +The second characteristic component of regret is a sense of bewilderment. +So the other thing I thought about there in my bedroom that night was, "How could I have done that? +What was I thinking?" +This real sense of alienation from the part of us that made a decision we regret. +We can't identify with that part. +We don't understand that part. +And we certainly don't have any empathy for that part -- which explains the third consistent component of regret, which is an intense desire to punish ourselves. +That's why, in the face of our regret, the thing we consistently say is, "I could have kicked myself." +The fourth component here is that regret is what psychologists call perseverative. +To perseverate means to focus obsessively and repeatedly on the exact same thing. +Now the effect of perseveration is to basically take these first three components of regret and put them on an infinite loop. +So it's not that I sat there in my bedroom that night, thinking, "Make it go away." +It's that I sat there and I thought, "Make it go away. Make it go away. +Make it go away. Make it go away." +So if you look at the psychological literature, these are the four consistent defining components of regret. +But I want to suggest that there's also a fifth one. +And I think of this as a kind of existential wake-up call. +That night in my apartment, after I got done kicking myself and so forth, I lay in bed for a long time, and I thought about skin grafts. +And then I thought about how, much as travel insurance doesn't cover acts of God, probably my health insurance did not cover acts of idiocy. +In point of fact, no insurance covers acts of idiocy. +The whole point of acts of idiocy is that they leave you totally uninsured; they leave you exposed to the world and exposed to your own vulnerability and fallibility in face of, frankly, a fairly indifferent universe. +This is obviously an incredibly painful experience. +And I think it's particularly painful for us now in the West in the grips of what I sometimes think of as a Control-Z culture -- Control-Z like the computer command, undo. +We're incredibly used to not having to face life's hard realities, in a certain sense. +We think we can throw money at the problem or throw technology at the problem -- we can undo and unfriend and unfollow. +And the problem is that there are certain things that happen in life that we desperately want to change and we cannot. +Sometimes instead of Control-Z, we actually have zero control. +And for those of us who are control freaks and perfectionists -- and I know where of I speak -- this is really hard, because we want to do everything ourselves and we want to do it right. +Now there is a case to be made that control freaks and perfectionists should not get tattoos, and I'm going to return to that point in a few minutes. +But first I want to say that the intensity and persistence with which we experience these emotional components of regret is obviously going to vary depending on the specific thing that we're feeling regretful about. +So for instance, here's one of my favorite automatic generators of regret in modern life. +Text: Relpy to all. +And the amazing thing about this really insidious technological innovation is that even just with this one thing, we can experience a huge range of regret. +You can accidentally hit "reply all" to an email and torpedo a relationship. +Or you can just have an incredibly embarrassing day at work. +Or you can have your last day at work. +And this doesn't even touch on the really profound regrets of a life. +Because of course, sometimes we do make decisions that have irrevocable and terrible consequences, either for our own or for other people's health and happiness and livelihoods, and in the very worst case scenario, even their lives. +Now obviously, those kinds of regrets are incredibly piercing and enduring. +I mean, even the stupid "reply all" regrets can leave us in a fit of excruciating agony for days. +So how are we supposed to live with this? +I want to suggest that there's three things that help us to make our peace with regret. +And the first of these is to take some comfort in its universality. +If you Google regret and tattoo, you will get 11.5 million hits. +The FDA estimates that of all the Americans who have tattoos, 17 percent of us regret getting them. +That is Johnny Depp and me and our seven million friends. +And that's just regret about tattoos. +We are all in this together. +The second way that we can help make our peace with regret is to laugh at ourselves. +Now in my case, this really wasn't a problem, because it's actually very easy to laugh at yourself when you're 29 years old and you want your mommy because you don't like your new tattoo. +But it might seem like a kind of cruel or glib suggestion when it comes to these more profound regrets. +I don't think that's the case though. +All of us who've experienced regret that contains real pain and real grief understand that humor and even black humor plays a crucial role in helping us survive. +It connects the poles of our lives back together, the positive and the negative, and it sends a little current of life back into us. +The third way that I think we can help make our peace with regret is through the passage of time, which, as we know, heals all wounds -- except for tattoos, which are permanent. +So it's been several years since I got my own tattoo. +And do you guys just want to see it? +All right. +Actually, you know what, I should warn you, you're going to be disappointed. +Because it's actually not that hideous. +I didn't tattoo Marilyn Manson's face on some indiscreet part of myself or something. +When other people see my tattoo, for the most part they like how it looks. +It's just that I don't like how it looks. +And as I said earlier, I'm a perfectionist. +But I'll let you see it anyway. +This is my tattoo. +I can guess what some of you are thinking. +So let me reassure you about something. +Some of your own regrets are also not as ugly as you think they are. +I got this tattoo because I spent most of my 20s living outside the country and traveling. +And when I came and settled in New York afterward, I was worried that I would forget some of the most important lessons that I learned during that time. +Specifically the two things I learned about myself that I most didn't want to forget was how important it felt to keep exploring and, simultaneously, how important it is to somehow keep an eye on your own true north. +And what I loved about this image of the compass was that I felt like it encapsulated both of these ideas in one simple image. +And I thought it might serve as a kind of permanent mnemonic device. +Well it did. +But it turns out, it doesn't remind me of the thing I thought it would; it reminds me constantly of something else instead. +It actually reminds me of the most important lesson regret can teach us, which is also one of the most important lessons life teaches us. +And ironically, I think it's probably the single most important thing I possibly could have tattooed onto my body -- partly as a writer, but also just as a human being. +Here's the thing, if we have goals and dreams, and we want to do our best, and if we love people and we don't want to hurt them or lose them, we should feel pain when things go wrong. +The point isn't to live without any regrets. +The point is to not hate ourselves for having them. +The lesson that I ultimately learned from my tattoo and that I want to leave you with today is this: We need to learn to love the flawed, imperfect things that we create and to forgive ourselves for creating them. +Regret doesn't remind us that we did badly. +It reminds us that we know we can do better. +Thank you. +Good afternoon. +As you're all aware, we face difficult economic times. +I come to you with a modest proposal for easing the financial burden. +This idea came to me while talking to a physicist friend of mine at MIT. +He was struggling to explain something to me: a beautiful experiment that uses lasers to cool down matter. +Now he confused me from the very start, because light doesn't cool things down. +It makes it hotter. It's happening right now. +The reason that you can see me standing here is because this room is filled with more than 100 quintillion photons, and they're moving randomly through the space, near the speed of light. +All of them are different colors, they're rippling with different frequencies, and they're bouncing off every surface, including me, and some of those are flying directly into your eyes, and that's why your brain is forming an image of me standing here. +Now a laser is different. +It also uses photons, but they're all synchronized, and if you focus them into a beam, what you have is an incredibly useful tool. +The control of a laser is so precise that you can perform surgery inside of an eye, you can use it to store massive amounts of data, and you can use it for this beautiful experiment that my friend was struggling to explain. +First you trap atoms in a special bottle. +It uses electromagnetic fields to isolate the atoms from the noise of the environment. +And the atoms themselves are quite violent, but if you fire lasers that are precisely tuned to the right frequency, an atom will briefly absorb those photons and tend to slow down. +Little by little it gets colder until eventually it approaches absolute zero. +Now if you use the right kind of atoms and you get them cold enough, something truly bizarre happens. +It's no longer a solid, a liquid or a gas. +It enters a new state of matter called a superfluid. +The atoms lose their individual identity, and the rules from the quantum world take over, and that's what gives superfluids such spooky properties. +For example, if you shine light through a superfluid, it is able to slow photons down to 60 kilometers per hour. +Another spooky property is that it flows with absolutely no viscosity or friction, so if you were to take the lid off that bottle, it won't stay inside. +A thin film will creep up the inside wall, flow over the top and right out the outside. +Now of course, the moment that it does hit the outside environment, and its temperature rises by even a fraction of a degree, it immediately turns back into normal matter. +Superfluids are one of the most fragile things we've ever discovered. +And this is the great pleasure of science: the defeat of our intuition through experimentation. +But the experiment is not the end of the story, because you still have to transmit that knowledge to other people. +I have a Ph.D in molecular biology. +I still barely understand what most scientists are talking about. +So as my friend was trying to explain that experiment, it seemed like the more he said, the less I understood. +Because if you're trying to give someone the big picture of a complex idea, to really capture its essence, the fewer words you use, the better. +In fact, the ideal may be to use no words at all. +I remember thinking, my friend could have explained that entire experiment with a dance. +Of course, there never seem to be any dancers around when you need them. +Now, the idea is not as crazy as it sounds. +I started a contest four years ago called Dance Your Ph.D. +Instead of explaining their research with words, scientists have to explain it with dance. +Now surprisingly, it seems to work. +Dance really can make science easier to understand. +But don't take my word for it. +Go on the Internet and search for "Dance Your Ph.D." +There are hundreds of dancing scientists waiting for you. +The most surprising thing that I've learned while running this contest is that some scientists are now working directly with dancers on their research. +For example, at the University of Minnesota, there's a biomedical engineer named David Odde, and he works with dancers to study how cells move. +They do it by changing their shape. +When a chemical signal washes up on one side, it triggers the cell to expand its shape on that side, because the cell is constantly touching and tugging at the environment. +So that allows cells to ooze along in the right directions. +But what seems so slow and graceful from the outside is really more like chaos inside, because cells control their shape with a skeleton of rigid protein fibers, and those fibers are constantly falling apart. +But just as quickly as they explode, more proteins attach to the ends and grow them longer, so it's constantly changing just to remain exactly the same. +Now, David builds mathematical models of this and then he tests those in the lab, but before he does that, he works with dancers to figure out what kinds of models to build in the first place. +It's basically efficient brainstorming, and when I visited David to learn about his research, he used dancers to explain it to me rather than the usual method: PowerPoint. +And this brings me to my modest proposal. +I think that bad PowerPoint presentations are a serious threat to the global economy. +Now it does depend on how you measure it, of course, but one estimate has put the drain at 250 million dollars per day. +Of course, that's just the time we're losing sitting through presentations. +There are other costs, because PowerPoint is a tool, and like any tool, it can and will be abused. +To borrow a concept from my country's CIA, it helps you to soften up your audience. +It distracts them with pretty pictures, irrelevant data. +It allows you to create the illusion of competence, the illusion of simplicity, and most destructively, the illusion of understanding. +So now my country is 15 trillion dollars in debt. +Our leaders are working tirelessly to try and find ways to save money. +One idea is to drastically reduce public support for the arts. +For example, our National Endowment for the Arts, with its $150 million budget, slashing that program would immediately reduce the national debt by about one one-thousandth of a percent. +One certainly can't argue with those numbers. +However, once we eliminate public funding for the arts, there will be some drawbacks. +The artists on the street will swell the ranks of the unemployed. +Many will turn to drug abuse and prostitution, and that will inevitably lower property values in urban neighborhoods. +All of this could wipe out the savings we're hoping to make in the first place. +I shall now, therefore, humbly propose my own thoughts, which I hope will not be liable to the least objection. +Once we eliminate public funding for the artists, let's put them back to work by using them instead of PowerPoint. +As a test case, I propose we start with American dancers. +After all, they are the most perishable of their kind, prone to injury and very slow to heal due to our health care system. +Rather than dancing our Ph.Ds, we should use dance to explain all of our complex problems. +Imagine our politicians using dance to explain why we must invade a foreign country or bail out an investment bank. +It's sure to help. +Of course someday, in the deep future, a technology of persuasion even more powerful than PowerPoint may be invented, rendering dancers unnecessary as tools of rhetoric. +However, I trust that by that day, we shall have passed this present financial calamity. +Perhaps by then we will be able to afford the luxury of just sitting in an audience with no other purpose than to witness the human form in motion. +Now when we think of our senses, we don't usually think of the reasons why they probably evolved, from a biological perspective. +We don't really think of the evolutionary need to be protected by our senses, but that's probably why our senses really evolved -- to keep us safe, to allow us to live. +Really when we think of our senses, or when we think of the loss of the sense, we really think about something more like this: the ability to touch something luxurious, to taste something delicious, to smell something fragrant, to see something beautiful. +This is what we want out of our senses. +We want beauty; we don't just want function. +And when it comes to sensory restoration, we're still very far away from being able to provide beauty. +And that's what I'd like to talk to you a little bit about today. +Likewise for hearing. +When we think about why we hear, we don't often think about the ability to hear an alarm or a siren, although clearly that's an important thing. +Really what we want to hear is music. +So many of you know that that's Beethoven's Seventh Symphony. +Many of you know that he was deaf, or near profoundly deaf, when he wrote that. +Now I'd like to impress upon you how unusual it is that we can hear music. +Music is just one of the strangest things that there is. +It's acoustic vibrations in the air, little waves of energy in the air that tickle our eardrum. +Somehow in tickling our eardrum that transmits energy down our hearing bones, which get converted to a fluid impulse inside the cochlea and then somehow converted into an electrical signal in our auditory nerves that somehow wind up in our brains as a perception of a song or a beautiful piece of music. +That process is entirely abstract and very, very unusual. +And we could discuss that topic alone for days to really try to figure out, how is it that we hear something that's emotional from something that starts out as a vibration in the air? +Turns out that if you have hearing loss, most people that lose their hearing lose it at what's called the cochlea, the inner ear. +And it's at the hair cell level that they do this. +Now if you had to pick a sense to lose, I have to be very honest with you and say, we're better at restoring hearing than we are at restoring any sense that there is. +In fact, nothing even actually comes close to our ability to restore hearing. +And as a physician and a surgeon, I can confidently tell my patients that if you had to pick a sense to lose, we are the furthest along medically and surgically with hearing. +As a musician, I can tell you that if I had to have a cochlear implant, I'd be heartbroken. I'd just be plainly heartbroken, because I know that music would never sound the same to me. +Now this is a video that I'm going to show you of a girl who's born deaf. +She's in a very supportive environment. +Her mother's doing everything she can. +Okay, play that video please. +Mother: That's an owl. +Owl, yeah. +Owl. Owl. +Yeah. +Baby. Baby. +You want it? +Charles Limb: Now despite everything going for this child in terms of family support and simple infused learning, there is a limitation to what a child who's deaf, an infant who was born deaf, has in this world in terms of social, educational, vocational opportunities. +I'm not saying that they can't live a beautiful, wonderful life. +I'm saying that they're going to face obstacles that most people who have normal hearing will not have to face. +Now hearing loss and the treatment for hearing loss has really evolved in the past 200 years. +I mean literally, they used to do things like stick ear-shaped objects onto your ears and stick funnels in. +And that was the best you could do for hearing loss. +Back then you couldn't even look at the eardrum. +So it's not too surprising that there were no good treatments for hearing loss. +And now today we have the modern multi-channel cochlear implant, which is an outpatient procedure. +It's surgically placed inside the inner ear. +It takes about an hour and a half to two hours, depending on where it's done, under general anesthesia. +And in the end, you achieve something like this where an electrode array is inserted inside the cochlea. +Now actually, this is quite crude in comparison to our regular inner ear. +But here is that same girl who is implanted now. +This is her 10 years later. +And this is a video that was taken by my surgical mentor, Dr. John Niparko, who implanted her. +If we could play this video please. +John Niparko: So you've written two books? +Girl: I have written two books. (Mother: Was the other one a book or a journal entry?) Girl: No, the other one was a book. (Mother: Oh, okay.) JN: Well this book has seven chapters, and the last chapter is entitled "The Good Things About Being Deaf." +Do you remember writing that chapter? +Girl: Yes I do. I remember writing every chapter. +JN: Yeah. +Girl: Well sometimes my sister can be kind of annoying. +So it comes in handy to not be annoyed by her. +JN: I see. And who is that? +Girl: Holly. (JN: Okay.) Mother: Her sister. (JN: Her sister.) Girl: My sister. +JN: And how can you avoid being annoyed by her? +Girl: I just take off my CI, and I don't hear anything. +It comes in handy. +JN: So you don't want to hear everything that's out there? +Girl: No. +CL: And so she's phenomenal. +And there's no way that you can't look at that as an overwhelming success. +It is. It's a huge success story in modern medicine. +However, despite this incredible facility that some cochlear implant users display with language, you turn on the radio and all of a sudden they can't hear music almost at all. +In fact, most implant users really struggle and dislike music because it sounds so bad. +And so when it comes to this idea of restoring beauty to somebody's life, we have a long way to go when it comes to audition. +Now there are a lot of reasons for that. +I mentioned earlier the fact that music is a different capacity because it's abstract. +Language is very different. Language is very precise. +In fact, the whole reason we use it is because it has semantic-specificity. +When you say a word, what you care is that word was perceived correctly. +You don't care that the word sounded pretty when it was spoken. +Music is entirely different. +When you hear music, if it doesn't sound good, what's the point? +There's really very little point in listening to music when it doesn't sound good to you. +The acoustics of music are much harder than those of language. +And you can see on this figure, that the frequency range and the decibel range, the dynamic range of music is far more heterogeneous. +So if we had to design a perfect cochlear implant, what we would try to do is target it to be able to allow music transmission. +Because I always view music as the pinnacle of hearing. +If you can hear music, you should be able to hear anything. +Now the problems begin first with pitch perception. +I mean, most of us know that pitch is a fundamental building block of music. +And without the ability to perceive pitch well, music and melody is a very difficult thing to do -- forget about a harmony and things like that. +Now this is a MIDI arrangement of Rachmaninoff's Prelude. +Now if we could just play this. +Okay, now if we consider that in a cochlear implant patient pitch perception could be off as much as two octaves, let's see what happens here when we randomize this to within one semitone. +We would be thrilled if we had one semitone pitch perception in cochlear implant users. +Go ahead and play this one. +Now my goal in showing you that is to show you that music is not robust to degradation. +You distort it a little bit, especially in terms of pitch, and you've changed it. +And it might be that you kind of like that. +That's kind of hypnotic. +But it certainly wasn't the way the music was intended. +And you're not hearing the same thing that most people who have normal hearing are hearing. +Now the other issue comes with, not just the ability to tell pitches apart, but the ability to tell sounds apart. +Most cochlear implant users cannot tell the difference between an instrument. +If we could play these two sound clips in succession. +The trumpet. +And the second one. +That's a violin. +These have similar wave forms. They're both sustained instruments. +Cochlear implant users cannot tell the difference between these instruments. +The sound quality, or the sound of the sound is how I like to describe timbre, tone color -- they cannot tell these things whatsoever. +This implant is not transmitting the quality of music that usually provides things like warmth. +Now if you look at the brain of an individual who has a cochlear implant and you have them listen to speech, have them listen to rhythm and have them listen to melody, what you find is that the auditory cortex is the most active during speech. +You would think that because these implants are optimized for speech, they were designed for speech. +But actually if you look at melody, what you find is that there's very little cortical activity in implant users compared with normal hearing controls. +So for whatever reason, this implant is not successfully stimulating auditory cortices during melody perception. +Now the next question is, well how does it really sound? +Now we've been doing some studies to really get a sense of what sound quality is like for these implant users. +I'm going to play you two clips of Usher, one which is normal and one which has almost no high frequencies, almost no low frequencies and not even that many mid frequencies. +Go ahead and play that. +(Limited Frequency Music) I had patients tell me that those sound the same. +They cannot differentiate sound quality differences between those two clips. +Again, we are very, very far away in just getting to where we want to get to. +Now the question comes to mind: Is there any hope? +And yes, there is hope. +Now I don't know if anybody knows who this is. +This is ... does somebody know? +This is Beethoven. +Now why would we know what Beethoven's skull looks like? +Because his grave was exhumed. +And it turns out that his temporal bones were harvested when he died to try to look at the cause of his deafness, which is why he has molding clay and his skull is bulging out on the side there. +But Beethoven composed music long after he lost his hearing. +What that suggests is that, even in the case of hearing loss, the capacity for music remains. +The brains remain hardwired for music. +I've been very lucky to work with Dr. David Ryugo where I've been working on deaf cats that are white and trying to figure out what happens when we give them cochlear implants. +This is a cat that's been trained to respond to a trumpet for food. +Text: Beethoven doesn't excite her. +The "1812 Overture" isn't worth waking for. +But she jumps to action when called to duty! +CL: Now I'm not suggesting that the cat is hearing that trumpet the way we're hearing it. +I'm suggesting that with training you can imbue a musical sound with significance, even in a cat. +If we were to direct efforts towards training cochlear implant users to hear music -- because right now there's virtually no effort put towards that, no rehabilitative strategies, very little in the way of technological advances to actually improve music -- we would come a long way. +Now I want to show you one last video. +And this is of a student of mine named Joseph who I had the good fortune to work with for three years in my lab. +He's deaf, and he learned to play the piano after he received the cochlear implant. +And here's a video of Joseph. +Joseph: I was born in 1986. +And at about four months old, I was diagnosed with profoundly severe hearing loss. +Not long after, I was fitted with hearing aids. +But although these hearing aids were the most powerful hearing aids on the market at the time, they weren't very helpful. +So as a result, I had to rely on lip reading a lot, and I couldn't really hear what people were saying. +When I was 12 years old, I was one of the first few people in Singapore who underwent cochlear implantation. +And not long after I got my cochlear implant, I started learning how to play piano. +And it was absolutely wonderful. +Since then, I've never looked back. +CL: Joseph is phenomenal. He's brilliant. +He is now a medical student at Yale University, and he's contemplating a surgical career -- one of the first deaf individuals to consider a career in surgery. +There are almost no deaf surgeons anywhere. +And this is really unheard of stuff, and this is all because of this technology. +And the fact that he can play the piano like that is a testament to his brain. +Truth of the matter is you can play the piano without a cochlear implant, because all you have to do is press the keys at the right time. +You don't actually have to hear it. +I know he doesn't hear well, because I've heard him do Karaoke. +And it's one of the most awful things -- heartwarming, but awful. +And so there is certainly a lot of hope, but there's a lot more that needs to be done. +So I just want to conclude with the following words. +When it comes to restoration of hearing, we have certainly come a long way, a remarkably long way. +And we have a much longer way to go when it comes to the idea of restoring perfect hearing. +And let me tell you right now, it's fine that we would all be very happy with speech. +But I tell you, if we lost our hearing, if anyone here suddenly lost your hearing, you would want perfect hearing back. +You wouldn't want decent hearing, you would want perfect hearing. +Restoration of basic sensory function is critical. +And I don't mean to understate how important it is to restore basic function. +But it's really restoration of the ability to perceive beauty where we can get inspiring. +And I don't think that we should give up on beauty. +And I want to thank you for your time. +Good afternoon, I'm proud to be here at TEDxKrakow. +I'll try to speak a little bit today about a phenomenon which can, and actually is changing the world, and whose name is people power. +I'll start with an anecdote, or for those of you who are Monty Python lovers, a Monty Python type of sketch. +It is December 15, 2010. +Somebody gives you a bet: you will look at a crystal ball, and you will see the future; the future will be accurate. +But you need to share it with the world. +OK, curiosity killed the cat, you take the bet, you look at the crystal ball. +One hour later, you're sitting in a building of the national TV, in a top show, and you tell the story. +Before the end of 2011, Ben Ali, and Mubarak, and Gaddafi would be down, and prosecuted. +Saleh of Yemen and Assad of Syria would be either challenged, or already on their knees. +Osama bin Laden would be dead, and Ratko Mladic would be in the Hague. +Now, the anchor watches you with a strange gaze on his face. +And then, on top of it you add: "And thousands of young people from Athens, Madrid and New York will demonstrate for social justice, claiming they are inspired by Arabs." +Next thing you know, two guys in white appear, they give you the strange t-shirt, take you to the nearest mental institution. +So I would like to speak a little bit about the phenomenon which is behind what already seems to be a very bad year for bad guys. +And this phenomenon is called people power. +Well, people power has been there for a while. +It helped Gandhi kick the Brits from India, it helped Martin Luther King win his historic racial struggle. +It helped a local, Lech Walesa, to kick out one million Soviet troops from Poland, and in beginning the end of the Soviet Union as we know it. +So what's new in it? What seems to be very new, which is the idea I would like to share with you today, is that there is a set of rules and skills which can be learned and taught in order to perform successful nonviolent struggle. +If this is true, we can help these movements. +Well, the first one - analytic skills. +I'll try where it all started in the Middle East. +And for so many years, we were living with a completely wrong perception of the Middle East. +It was looking like the frozen region. Literally a refrigerator. +And there were only two types of meal there. +Steak, which stands for a Mubarak-Ben Ali type of military police dictatorship, or a potato, which stands for a Tehran type of theocracies. +And everybody was amazed when the refrigerator opened, and millions of young, mainly secular people stepped out to do the change. Guess what - they didn't watch the demographics. +What is the average age of an Egyptian? 24. +How long was Mubarak in power? 31. +So, this system was just obsolete, they expired. +And young people of the Arab world have awakened one morning, and understood that power lies in their hands. +The rest is the year in front of us. And guess what? The same Generation Y, with their rules, with their tools, with their games, and with their language, which sounds a little bit strange to me. +I'm 38 now. +And can you look at the age of the people on the streets of Europe? +It seems that Generation Y is coming. +Now, let me set another example. +I'm meeting different people throughout the world, and they are, you know, academics, and professors, and doctors, and they will always talk conditions. +They will say: "People power will work only if the regime is not too oppressive." +They will say: "People power will work, if the annual income of the country is between X and Z." +They will say: "People power will work only if there is a foreign pressure." +They will say: "People power will work only if there is no oil." +And, I mean, there is a set of conditions. +Well, the news here is that your skills during the conflict seem to be more important than the conditions. +Namely, the skills of unity, planning, and maintaining nonviolent discipline. +Let me give you an example. +I come from a country called Serbia. +It took us 10 years to unite 18 opposition party leaders, with their big egos, behind one single candidate against the Balkan dictator Slobodan Milosevic. +Guess what? That was the day of his defeat. +You look at the Egyptians, they fight on Tahrir Square, they get rid of their individual symbols, they appear on the street only with the flag of Egypt. +I will give you a counter-example. +You see nine presidential candidates running against Lukashenko, you all know the outcome. +So unity is a big thing. And this can be achieved. +Same with planning. Somebody has lied to you about the successful and spontaneous nonviolent revolution. +That thing doesn't exist in the world. +Whenever you see young people in front of the row trying to fraternize with the police or military, somebody was thinking about it before. +Now, at the end, nonviolent discipline. +And this is probably the game-changer. +If you maintain nonviolent discipline, you'll exclusively win. +You have 100,000 people in a nonviolent march, one idiot or agent-provocateur throwing a stone. +Guess what takes all the cameras. +One single act of violence can literally destroy your movement. +Now, let me move to another place. +It's the selection of strategies and tactics. +There are certain rules in nonviolent struggle you may follow. +First, you start small. +Second, you pick the battles you can win. +It's only 200 of us in this room. +We won't call for the march of a million. +But what if we organized the spraying of graffiti throughout the night, all over Krakow. The city will know. +So, we pick tactics accommodated to the event, especially this thing we call the small tactics of dispersion. +They're very useful in violent oppression. +It was on Tahrir square, where the international community was constantly frightened that, you know, the Islamists will overtake the revolution. +What they organized -- Christians protecting Muslims where they are praying, a Coptic wedding cheered by thousands of Muslims, the world has just changed the picture, but somebody was thinking about this previously. +So there are so many things you can do instead of getting into one place, shouting, and you know, showing off in front of the security forces. +Now, there is also another very important dynamic. +And this is a dynamic that analysts normally don't see. +This is the dynamic between fear and apathy on the one side, and enthusiasm and humor on another side. +So, it works like in a video game. +You have the fear high, you have status quo. +You have the enthusiasm higher, you see the fear is starting to melt. +Day two, you see people running towards the police instead of from the police, in Egypt. +You can tell that something is happening there. +And then, it's about the humor. Humor is such a powerful game-changer, and of course, it was very big in Poland. +You know, we were just a small group of crazy students in Serbia when we made this big skit. +We put the big petrol barrel with a portrait of Mr. President on it, in the middle of the Main Street. +There was a hole in the top. +So you could literally come, put a coin in, get a baseball bat, and hit his face. +Sounds loud. And within minutes, we were sitting in a nearby caf having coffee, and there was a queue of people waiting to do this lovely thing. +Well, that's just the beginning of the show. +The real show starts when the police appears. +"What will they do?" Arrest us? We were nowhere to be seen. +We were like three blocks away, observing it from our espresso bar. +Arrest the shoppers, with kids? Doesn't make sense. +Of course, you could bet, they did the most stupid thing. +They arrested the barrel. +And now, the picture of the smashed face on the barrel, with the policemen dragging it to the police car, that was the best day for newspaper photographers that they will ever have. +So, I mean, these are the things you can do. +And you can always use humor. +There is also one big thing about humor, it really hurts. +Because these guys really are taking themselves too seriously. +When you start to mock them, it hurts. +Now, everybody is talking about His Majesty, the Internet, and it is also a very useful skill. +But don't rush to label things like "a Facebook Revolution," "Twitter Revolution." +Don't mix the tools with the substance. +It is true that the Internet and the new media are very useful in making things faster and cheaper. +They also make it a bit safer for the participants, because they give partial anonymity. +We're watching the great example of something else the Internet can do. +It can put the price tag of state-sponsored violence over a nonviolent protester. +This is the famous group "We are all Khaled Said," made by Wael Ghonim in Egypt, and his friend. +This is the mutilated face of the guy who was beaten by the police. +This is how he became known to the public, and this is what probably became the straw that broke the camel's back. +But here is also the bad news. +The nonviolent struggle is won in the real world, in the streets. +You will never change your society towards democracy, or, you know, the economy, if you sit down and click. +There are risks to be taken, and there are living people who are winning the struggle. +Well, the million-dollar question. What will happen in the Arab world? +And though young people from the Arab world were pretty successful in bringing down three dictators, shaking the region, kind of persuading the clever kings from Jordan and Morocco to do substantial reforms, it is yet to be seen what will be the outcome. +Whether the Egyptians and Tunisians will make it through the transition, or this will end in bloody ethnic and religious conflicts, whether the Syrians will maintain nonviolent discipline, faced with a brutal daily violence which kills thousands already, or they will slip into violent struggle and make ugly civil war. +Will these revolutions be pushed through the transitions and democracy or be overtaken by the military or extremists of all kinds? +We cannot tell. +The same works for the Western sector, where you can see all these excited young people protesting around the world, occupying this, occupying that. +Are they going to become the world wave? +Are they going to find their skills, their enthusiasm, and their strategy to find what they really want and push for the reform, or will they just stay complaining about the endless list of the things they hate? +This is the difference between the two paths. +Now, what do the statistics have? +My friend Maria Stephan's book talks a lot about violent and nonviolent struggle, and there are some shocking data. +If you look at the last 35 years and different social transitions, from dictatorship to democracy, you will see that, out of 67 different cases, in 50 of these cases it was nonviolent struggle which was the key power. +This is one more reason to look at this phenomenon, this is one more reason to look at Generation Y. +Enough for me to give them credit, and hope that they will find their skills and their courage to use nonviolent struggle and thus fix at least a part of the mess our generation is making in this world. +Thank you. +How many of you had to fill out some sort of web form where you've been asked to read a distorted sequence of characters like this? +How many of you found it really, really annoying? +Okay, outstanding. So I invented that. +Or I was one of the people who did it. +That thing is called a CAPTCHA. +And the reason it is there is to make sure you, the entity filling out the form, are actually a human and not some sort of computer program that was written to submit the form millions and millions of times. +The reason it works is because humans, at least non-visually-impaired humans, have no trouble reading these distorted squiggly characters, whereas computer programs simply can't do it as well yet. +So for example, in the case of Ticketmaster, the reason you have to type these distorted characters is to prevent scalpers from writing a program that can buy millions of tickets, two at a time. +CAPTCHAs are used all over the Internet. +And since they're used so often, a lot of times the precise sequence of random characters that is shown to the user is not so fortunate. +So this is an example from the Yahoo registration page. +The random characters that happened to be shown to the user were W, A, I, T, which, of course, spell a word. +But the best part is the message that the Yahoo help desk got about 20 minutes later. +Text: "Help! I've been waiting for over 20 minutes, and nothing happens." +This person thought they needed to wait. +This of course, is not as bad as this poor person. +CAPTCHA Project is something that we did here at Carnegie Melllon over 10 years ago, and it's been used everywhere. +Let me now tell you about a project that we did a few years later, which is sort of the next evolution of CAPTCHA. +This is a project that we call reCAPTCHA, which is something that we started here at Carnegie Mellon, then we turned it into a startup company. +And then about a year and a half ago, Google actually acquired this company. +So let me tell you what this project started. +So this project started from the following realization: It turns out that approximately 200 million CAPTCHAs are typed everyday by people around the world. +When I first heard this, I was quite proud of myself. +I thought, look at the impact that my research has had. +But then I started feeling bad. +See here's the thing, each time you type a CAPTCHA, essentially you waste 10 seconds of your time. +And if you multiply that by 200 million, you get that humanity as a whole is wasting about 500,000 hours every day typing these annoying CAPTCHAs. +So then I started feeling bad. +And then I started thinking, well, of course, we can't just get rid of CAPTCHAs, because the security of the Web sort of depends on them. +But then I started thinking, is there any way we can use this effort for something that is good for humanity? +So see, here's the thing. +While you're typing a CAPTCHA, during those 10 seconds, your brain is doing something amazing. +Your brain is doing something that computers cannot yet do. +So can we get you to do useful work for those 10 seconds? +Another way of putting it is, is there some humongous problem that we cannot yet get computers to solve, yet we can split into tiny 10-second chunks such that each time somebody solves a CAPTCHA they solve a little bit of this problem? +And the answer to that is "yes," and this is what we're doing now. +So what you may not know is that nowadays while you're typing a CAPTCHA, not only are you authenticating yourself as a human, but in addition you're actually helping us to digitize books. +So let me explain how this works. +So there's a lot of projects out there trying to digitize books. +Google has one. The Internet Archive has one. +Amazon, now with the Kindle, is trying to digitize books. +Basically the way this works is you start with an old book. +You've seen those things, right? Like a book? +So you start with a book, and then you scan it. +Now scanning a book is like taking a digital photograph of every page of the book. +It gives you an image for every page of the book. +This is an image with text for every page of the book. +The next step in the process is that the computer needs to be able to decipher all of the words in this image. +That's using a technology called OCR, for optical character recognition, which takes a picture of text and tries to figure out what text is in there. +Now the problem is that OCR is not perfect. +Especially for older books where the ink has faded and the pages have turned yellow, OCR cannot recognize a lot of the words. +For example, for things that were written more than 50 years ago, the computer cannot recognize about 30 percent of the words. +So what we're doing now is we're taking all of the words that the computer cannot recognize and we're getting people to read them for us while they're typing a CAPTCHA on the Internet. +So the next time you type a CAPTCHA, these words that you're typing are actually words that are coming from books that are being digitized that the computer could not recognize. +And now the reason we have two words nowadays instead of one is because, you see, one of the words is a word that the system just got out of a book, But since it doesn't know the answer for it, it cannot grade it for you. +So what we do is we give you another word, one for which the system does know the answer. +We don't tell you which one's which, and we say, please type both. +And if you type the correct word for the one for which the system already knows the answer, it assumes you are human, and it also gets some confidence that you typed the other word correctly. +And if we repeat this process to like 10 different people and all of them agree on what the new word is, then we get one more word digitized accurately. +So this is how the system works. +And basically, since we released it about three or four years ago, a lot of websites have started switching from the old CAPTCHA where people wasted their time to the new CAPTCHA where people are helping to digitize books. +So for example, Ticketmaster. +So every time you buy tickets on Ticketmaster, you help to digitize a book. +Facebook: Every time you add a friend or poke somebody, you help to digitize a book. +Twitter and about 350,000 other sites are all using reCAPTCHA. +And in fact, the number of sites that are using reCAPTCHA is so high that the number of words that we're digitizing per day is really, really large. +It's about 100 million a day, which is the equivalent of about two and a half million books a year. +And this is all being done one word at a time by just people typing CAPTCHAs on the Internet. +Now of course, since we're doing so many words per day, funny things can happen. +And this is especially true because now we're giving people two randomly chosen English words next to each other. +So funny things can happen. +For example, we presented this word. +It's the word "Christians"; there's nothing wrong with it. +But if you present it along with another randomly chosen word, bad things can happen. +So we get this. (Text: bad christians) But it's even worse, because the particular website where we showed this actually happened to be called The Embassy of the Kingdom of God. +Oops. +Here's another really bad one. +JohnEdwards.com (Text: Damn liberal) So we keep on insulting people left and right everyday. +Now, of course, we're not just insulting people. +See here's the thing, since we're presenting two randomly chosen words, interesting things can happen. +So this actually has given rise to a really big Internet meme that tens of thousands of people have participated in, which is called CAPTCHA art. +I'm sure some of you have heard about it. +Here's how it works. +Imagine you're using the Internet and you see a CAPTCHA that you think is somewhat peculiar, like this CAPTCHA. (Text: invisible toaster) Then what you're supposed to do is you take a screen shot of it. +Then of course, you fill out the CAPTCHA because you help us digitize a book. +and then you draw something that is related to it. +That's how it works. +There are tens of thousands of these. +Some of them are very cute. (Text: clenched it) Some of them are funnier. +(Text: stoned founders) And some of them, like paleontological shvisle, they contain Snoop Dogg. +Okay, so this is my favorite number of reCAPTCHA. +So this is the favorite thing that I like about this whole project. +This is the number of distinct people that have helped us digitize at least one word out of a book through reCAPTCHA: 750 million, which is a little over 10 percent of the world's population, has helped us digitize human knowledge. +And it is numbers like these that motivate my research agenda. +It's weird; they were all done with about 100,000 people. +And the reason for that is because, before the Internet, coordinating more than 100,000 people, let alone paying them, was essentially impossible. +But now with the Internet, I've just shown you a project where we've gotten 750 million people to help us digitize human knowledge. +So the question that motivates my research is, if we can put a man on the Moon with 100,000, what can we do with 100 million? +So based on this question, we've had a lot of different projects that we've been working on. +Let me tell you about one that I'm most excited about. +This is something that we've been semi-quietly working on for the last year and a half or so. +It hasn't yet been launched. It's called Duolingo. +Since it hasn't been launched, shhhhh! +Yeah, I can trust you'll do that. +So this is the project. Here's how it started. +It started with me posing a question to my graduate student, Severin Hacker. +Okay, that's Severin Hacker. +So I posed the question to my graduate student. +By the way, you did hear me correctly; his last name is Hacker. +So I posed this question to him: How can we get 100 million people translating the Web into every major language for free? +Okay, so there's a lot of things to say about this question. +First of all, translating the Web. +So right now the Web is partitioned into multiple languages. +A large fraction of it is in English. +If you don't know any English, you can't access it. +But there's large fractions in other different languages, and if you don't know those languages, you can't access it. +So I would like to translate all of the Web, or at least most of the Web, into every major language. +So that's what I would like to do. +Now some of you may say, why can't we use computers to translate? +Why can't we use machine translation? +Machine translation nowadays is starting to translate some sentences here and there. +Why can't we use it to translate the whole Web? +Well the problem with that is that it's not yet good enough and it probably won't be for the next 15 to 20 years. +It makes a lot of mistakes. +Even when it doesn't make a mistake, since it makes so many mistakes, you don't know whether to trust it or not. +So let me show you an example of something that was translated with a machine. +Actually it was a forum post. +It was somebody who was trying to ask a question about JavaScript. +It was translated from Japanese into English. +So I'll just let you read. +This person starts apologizing for the fact that it's translated with a computer. +So the next sentence is is going to be the preamble to the question. +So he's just explaining something. +Remember, it's a question about JavaScript. +(Text: At often, the goat-time install a error is vomit.) Then comes the first part of the question. +(Text: How many times like the wind, a pole, and the dragon?) Then comes my favorite part of the question. +(Text: This insult to father's stones?) And then comes the ending, which is my favorite part of the whole thing. +(Text: Please apologize for your stupidity. There are a many thank you.) Okay, so computer translation, not yet good enough. +So back to the question. +So we need people to translate the whole Web. +So now the next question you may have is, well why can't we just pay people to do this? +We could pay professional language translators to translate the whole Web. +We could do that. +Unfortunately, it would be extremely expensive. +For example, translating a tiny, tiny fraction of the whole Web, Wikipedia, into one other language, Spanish. +Wikipedia exists in Spanish, but it's very small compared to the size of English. +It's about 20 percent of the size of English. +If we wanted to translate the other 80 percent into Spanish, it would cost at least 50 million dollars -- and this is at even the most exploited, outsourcing country out there. +So it would be very expensive. +So what we want to do is we want to get 100 million people translating the Web into every major language for free. +Now if this is what you want to do, you pretty quickly realize you're going to run into two pretty big hurdles, two big obstacles. +The first one is a lack of bilinguals. +So I don't even know if there exists 100 million people out there using the Web who are bilingual enough to help us translate. +That's a big problem. +The other problem you're going to run into is a lack of motivation. +How are we going to motivate people to actually translate the Web for free? +Normally, you have to pay people to do this. +So how are we going to motivate them to do it for free? +Now when we were starting to think about this, we were blocked by these two things. +But then we realized, there's actually a way to solve both these problems with the same solution. +There's a way to kill two birds with one stone. +And that is to transform language translation into something that millions of people want to do, and that also helps with the problem of lack of bilinguals, and that is language education. +So it turns out that today, there are over 1.2 billion people learning a foreign language. +People really, really want to learn a foreign language. +And it's not just because they're being forced to do so in school. +For example, in the United States alone, there are over five million people who have paid over $500 for software to learn a new language. +So people really, really want to learn a new language. +So what we've been working on for the last year and a half is a new website -- it's called Duolingo -- where the basic idea is people learn a new language for free while simultaneously translating the Web. +And so basically they're learning by doing. +So the way this works is whenever you're a just a beginner, we give you very, very simple sentences. +There's, of course, a lot of very simple sentences on the Web. +We give you very, very simple sentences along with what each word means. +And as you translate them, and as you see how other people translate them, you start learning the language. +And as you get more and more advanced, we give you more and more complex sentences to translate. +But at all times, you're learning by doing. +Now the crazy thing about this method is that it actually really works. +First of all, people are really, really learning a language. +We're mostly done building it, and now we're testing it. +People really can learn a language with it. +And they learn it about as well as the leading language learning software. +So people really do learn a language. +And not only do they learn it as well, but actually it's way more interesting. +Because you see with Duolingo, people are actually learning with real content. +As opposed to learning with made-up sentences, people are learning with real content, which is inherently interesting. +So people really do learn a language. +But perhaps more surprisingly, the translations that we get from people using the site, even though they're just beginners, the translations that we get are as accurate as those of professional language translators, which is very surprising. +So let me show you one example. +This is a sentence that was translated from German into English. +The top is the German. +The middle is an English translation that was done by somebody who was a professional English translator who we paid 20 cents a word for this translation. +And the bottom is a translation by users of Duolingo, none of whom knew any German before they started using the site. +You can see, it's pretty much perfect. +Now of course, we play a trick here to make the translations as good as professional language translators. +We combine the translations of multiple beginners to get the quality of a single professional translator. +Now even though we're combining the translations, the site actually can translate pretty fast. +So let me show you, this is our estimates of how fast we could translate Wikipedia from English into Spanish. +Remember, this is 50 million dollars-worth of value. +So if we wanted to translate Wikipedia into Spanish, we could do it in five weeks with 100,000 active users. +And we could do it in about 80 hours with a million active users. +Since all the projects that my group has worked on so far have gotten millions of users, we're hopeful that we'll be able to translate extremely fast with this project. +Now the thing that I'm most excited about with Duolingo is I think this provides a fair business model for language education. +So here's the thing: The current business model for language education is the student pays, and in particular, the student pays Rosetta Stone 500 dollars. +That's the current business model. +The problem with this business model is that 95 percent of the world's population doesn't have 500 dollars. +So it's extremely unfair towards the poor. +This is totally biased towards the rich. +Now see, in Duolingo, because while you learn you're actually creating value, you're translating stuff -- which for example, we could charge somebody for translations. +So this is how we could monetize this. +Since people are creating value while they're learning, they don't have to pay their money, they pay with their time. +But the magical thing here is that they're paying with their time, but that is time that would have had to have been spent anyways learning the language. +So the nice thing about Duolingo is I think it provides a fair business model -- one that doesn't discriminate against poor people. +So here's the site. Thank you. +So here's the site. +We haven't yet launched, but if you go there, you can sign up to be part of our private beta, which is probably going to start in about three or four weeks. +We haven't yet launched this Duolingo. +By the way, I'm the one talking here, but actually Duolingo is the work of a really awesome team, some of whom are here. +So thank you. +I'm here to spread the word about the magnificence of spiders and how much we can learn from them. +Spiders are truly global citizens. +You can find spiders in nearly every terrestrial habitat. +This red dot marks the Great Basin of North America, and I'm involved with an alpine biodiversity project there with some collaborators. +Here's one of our field sites, and just to give you a sense of perspective, this little blue smudge here, that's one of my collaborators. +This is a rugged and barren landscape, yet there are quite a few spiders here. +Turning rocks over revealed this crab spider grappling with a beetle. +Spiders are not just everywhere, but they're extremely diverse. +There are over 40,000 described species of spiders. +To put that number into perspective, here's a graph comparing the 40,000 species of spiders to the 400 species of primates. +There are two orders of magnitude more spiders than primates. +Spiders are also extremely old. +On the bottom here, this is the geologic timescale, and the numbers on it indicate millions of years from the present, so the zero here, that would be today. +So what this figure shows is that spiders date back to almost 380 million years. +To put that into perspective, this red vertical bar here marks the divergence time of humans from chimpanzees, a mere seven million years ago. +All spiders make silk at some point in their life. +Most spiders use copious amounts of silk, and silk is essential to their survival and reproduction. +Even fossil spiders can make silk, as we can see from this impression of a spinneret on this fossil spider. +So this means that both spiders and spider silk have been around for 380 million years. +It doesn't take long from working with spiders to start noticing how essential silk is to just about every aspect of their life. +Spiders use silk for many purposes, including the trailing safety dragline, wrapping eggs for reproduction, protective retreats and catching prey. +There are many kinds of spider silk. +For example, this garden spider can make seven different kinds of silks. +When you look at this orb web, you're actually seeing many types of silk fibers. +The frame and radii of this web is made up of one type of silk, while the capture spiral is a composite of two different silks: the filament and the sticky droplet. +How does an individual spider make so many kinds of silk? +To answer that, you have to look a lot closer at the spinneret region of a spider. +So silk comes out of the spinnerets, and for those of us spider silk biologists, this is what we call the "business end" of the spider. We spend long days ... +Hey! Don't laugh. That's my life. +We spend long days and nights staring at this part of the spider. +And this is what we see. +You can see multiple fibers coming out of the spinnerets, because each spinneret has many spigots on it. +Each of these silk fibers exits from the spigot, and if you were to trace the fiber back into the spider, what you would find is that each spigot connects to its own individual silk gland. A silk gland kind of looks like a sac with a lot of silk proteins stuck inside. +So if you ever have the opportunity to dissect an orb-web-weaving spider, and I hope you do, what you would find is a bounty of beautiful, translucent silk glands. +Inside each spider, there are hundreds of silk glands, sometimes thousands. +These can be grouped into seven categories. +They differ by size, shape, and sometimes even color. +In an orb-web-weaving spider, you can find seven types of silk glands, and what I have depicted here in this picture, let's start at the one o'clock position, there's tubuliform silk glands, which are used to make the outer silk of an egg sac. +There's the aggregate and flagelliform silk glands which combine to make the sticky capture spiral of an orb web. +Pyriform silk glands make the attachment cement -- that's the silk that's used to adhere silk lines to a substrate. +There's also aciniform silk, which is used to wrap prey. +Minor ampullate silk is used in web construction. +And the most studied silk line of them all: major ampullate silk. +This is the silk that's used to make the frame and radii of an orb web, and also the safety trailing dragline. +But what, exactly, is spider silk? +Spider silk is almost entirely protein. +There are several features that all these silks have in common. They all have a common design, such as they're all very long -- they're sort of outlandishly long compared to other proteins. +They're very repetitive, and they're very rich in the amino acids glycine and alanine. +To give you an idea of what a spider silk protein looks like, this is a dragline silk protein, it's just a portion of it, from the black widow spider. +This is the kind of sequence that I love looking at day and night. So what you're seeing here is the one letter abbreviation for amino acids, and I've colored in the glycines with green, and the alanines in red, and so you can see it's just a lot of G's and A's. +You can also see that there's a lot of short sequence motifs that repeat over and over and over again, so for example there's a lot of what we call polyalanines, or iterated A's, AAAAA. There's GGQ. There's GGY. +You can think of these short motifs that repeat over and over again as words, and these words occur in sentences. +So for example this would be one sentence, and you would get this sort of green region and the red polyalanine, that repeats over and over and over again, and you can have that hundreds and hundreds and hundreds of times within an individual silk molecule. +Silks made by the same spider can have dramatically different repeat sequences. +At the top of the screen, you're seeing the repeat unit from the dragline silk of a garden argiope spider. +It's short. And on the bottom, this is the repeat sequence for the egg case, or tubuliform silk protein, for the exact same spider. And you can see how dramatically different these silk proteins are -- so this is sort of the beauty of the diversification of the spider silk gene family. +You can see that the repeat units differ in length. They also differ in sequence. +So I've colored in the glycines again in green, alanine in red, and the serines, the letter S, in purple. And you can see that the top repeat unit can be explained almost entirely by green and red, and the bottom repeat unit has a substantial amount of purple. +What silk biologists do is we try to relate these sequences, these amino acid sequences, to the mechanical properties of the silk fibers. +Now, it's really convenient that spiders use their silk completely outside their body. +This makes testing spider silk really, really easy to do in the laboratory, because we're actually, you know, testing it in air that's exactly the environment that spiders are using their silk proteins. +So this makes quantifying silk properties by methods such as tensile testing, which is basically, you know, tugging on one end of the fiber, very amenable. +Here are stress-strain curves generated by tensile testing five fibers made by the same spider. +So what you can see here is that the five fibers have different behaviors. +Specifically, if you look on the vertical axis, that's stress. If you look at the maximum stress value for each of these fibers, you can see that there's a lot of variation, and in fact dragline, or major ampullate silk, is the strongest of these fibers. +We think that's because the dragline silk, which is used to make the frame and radii for a web, needs to be very strong. +On the other hand, if you were to look at strain -- this is how much a fiber can be extended -- if you look at the maximum value here, again, there's a lot of variation and the clear winner is flagelliform, or the capture spiral filament. +In fact, this flagelliform fiber can actually stretch over twice its original length. +So silk fibers vary in their strength and also their extensibility. +In the case of the capture spiral, it needs to be so stretchy to absorb the impact of flying prey. +If it wasn't able to stretch so much, then basically when an insect hit the web, it would just trampoline right off of it. +So if the web was made entirely out of dragline silk, an insect is very likely to just bounce right off. But by having really, really stretchy capture spiral silk, the web is actually able to absorb the impact of that intercepted prey. +There's quite a bit of variation within the fibers that an individual spider can make. +We call that the tool kit of a spider. +That's what the spider has to interact with their environment. +But how about variation among spider species, so looking at one type of silk and looking at different species of spiders? +This is an area that's largely unexplored but here's a little bit of data I can show you. +This is the comparison of the toughness of the dragline spilk spun by 21 species of spiders. +Some of them are orb-weaving spiders and some of them are non-orb-weaving spiders. +It's been hypothesized that orb-weaving spiders, like this argiope here, should have the toughest dragline silks because they must intercept flying prey. +What you see here on this toughness graph is the higher the black dot is on the graph, the higher the toughness. +The 21 species are indicated here by this phylogeny, this evolutionary tree, that shows their genetic relationships, and I've colored in yellow the orb-web-weaving spiders. +If you look right here at the two red arrows, they point to the toughness values for the draglines of nephila clavipes and araneus diadematus. +These are the two species of spiders for which the vast majority of time and money on synthetic spider silk research has been to replicate their dragline silk proteins. +Yet, their draglines are not the toughest. +In fact, the toughest dragline in this survey is this one right here in this white region, a non orb-web-weaving spider. +This is the dragline spun by scytodes, the spitting spider. +Scytodes doesn't use a web at all to catch prey. Instead, scytodes sort of lurks around and waits for prey to get close to it, and then immobilizes prey by spraying a silk-like venom onto that insect. +Think of hunting with silly string. +That's how scytodes forages. +We don't really know why scytodes needs such a tough dragline, but it's unexpected results like this that make bio-prospecting so exciting and worthwhile. +It frees us from the constraints of our imagination. +Now I'm going to mark on the toughness values for nylon fiber, bombyx -- or domesticated silkworm silk -- wool, Kevlar, and carbon fibers. +And what you can see is that nearly all the spider draglines surpass them. +It's the combination of strength, extensibility and toughness that makes spider silk so special, and that has attracted the attention of biomimeticists, so people that turn to nature to try to find new solutions. +Spider silks also have a lot of potential for their anti-ballistic capabilities. +Silks could be incorporated into body and equipment armor that would be more lightweight and flexible than any armor available today. +In addition to these biomimetic applications of spider silks, personally, I find studying spider silks just fascinating in and of itself. +I love when I'm in the laboratory, a new spider silk sequence comes in. +That's just the best. It's like the spiders are sharing an ancient secret with me, and that's why I'm going to spend the rest of my life studying spider silk. +The next time you see a spider web, please, pause and look a little closer. +You'll be seeing one of the most high-performance materials known to man. +To borrow from the writings of a spider named Charlotte, silk is terrific. +Thank you. +Okay, I have no idea what we're going to play. +I won't be able to tell you what it is until it happens. +I didn't realize there was going to be a little music before. +So I think I'm going to start with what I just heard. +Okay, so first of all, let's welcome Mr. Jamire Williams on the drums, Burniss Travis on the bass, and Mr. Christian Sands on the piano. +So the bandstand, as we call it, this is an incredible space. +It is really a sacred space. +And one of the things that is really sacred about it is that you have no opportunity to think about the future, or the past. +You really are alive right here in this moment. +There are so many decisions being made when you walk on the bandstand. +We had no idea what key we were going to play in. +In the middle, we sort of made our way into a song called "Titi Boom." +But that could have happened -- maybe, maybe not. +Everyone's listening. We're responding. +You have no time for projected ideas. +So the idea of a mistake: From the perspective of a jazz musician, it's easier to talk about someone else's mistake. +So the way I perceive a mistake when I'm on the bandstand -- first of all, we don't really see it as a mistake. +The only mistake lies in that I'm not able to perceive what it is that someone else did. +Every "mistake" is an opportunity in jazz. +So it's hard to even describe what a funny note would be. +So for example, if I played a color, like we were playing on a palette, that sounded like this ... +So if Christian played a note -- like play an F. +See, these are all right inside of the color palette. +If you played an E. +See, these all lie right inside of this general emotional palette that we were painting. +If you played an F# though, to most people's ears, they would perceive that as a mistake. +So I'm going to show you, we're going to play just for a second. +And we're going to play on this palette. +And at some point, Christian will introduce this note. +And we won't react to it. +He'll introduce it for a second and then I'll stop, I'll talk for a second. +We'll see what happens when we play with this palette. +So someone could conceptually perceive that as a mistake. +The only way that I would say it was a mistake is in that we didn't react to it. +It was an opportunity that was missed. +So it's unpredictable. We'll paint this palette again. +He'll play it. I don't know how we'll react to it, but something will change. +We'll all accept his ideas, or not. +So you see, he played this note. +I ended up creating a melody out of it. +The texture changed in the drums this time. +It got a little bit more rhythmic, a little bit more intense in response to how I responded to it. +So there is no mistake. +The only mistake is if I'm not aware, if each individual musician is not aware and accepting enough of his fellow band member to incorporate the idea and we don't allow for creativity. +So jazz, this bandstand is absolutely amazing. +It's a very purifying experience. +And I know that I speak for all of us when I tell you that we don't take it for granted. +We know that to be able to come on the bandstand and play music is a blessing. +So how does this all relate to behavioral finance? +Well we're jazz musicians, so stereotypically we don't have a great relationship to finance. +Anyway, I just wanted to sort of point out the way that we handle it. +And the other dynamic of it is that we don't micromanage in jazz. +You have some people who do. +But what that does is it actually limits the artistic possibilities. +If I come up and I dictate to the band that I want to play like this and I want the music to go this way, and I just jump right in ... +ready, just play some time. +One, two, one, two, three, four. +It's kind of chaotic because I'm bullying my ideas. +I'm telling them, "You come with me over this way." +If I really want the music to go there, the best way for me to do it is to listen. +This is a science of listening. +It has far more to do with what I can perceive than what it is that I can do. +So if I want the music to get to a certain level of intensity, the first step for me is to be patient, to listen to what's going on and pull from something that's going on around me. +When you do that, you engage and inspire the other musicians and they give you more, and gradually it builds. +Watch. One, two, a one, two, three, four. +Totally different experience when I'm pulling ideas. +It's much more organic. It's much more nuanced. +It's not about bullying my vision or anything like that. +It's about being here in the moment, accepting one another and allowing creativity to flow. +Thank you. +My travels to Afghanistan began many, many years ago on the eastern border of my country, my homeland, Poland. +I was walking through the forests of my grandmother's tales. +A land where every field hides a grave, where millions of people have been deported or killed in the 20th century. +Behind the destruction, I found a soul of places. +I met humble people. +I heard their prayer and ate their bread. +Then I have been walking East for 20 years -- from Eastern Europe to Central Asia -- through the Caucasus Mountains, Middle East, North Africa, Russia. +And I ever met more humble people. +And I shared their bread and their prayer. +This is why I went to Afghanistan. +One day, I crossed the bridge over the Oxus River. +I was alone on foot. +And the Afghan soldier was so surprised to see me that he forgot to stamp my passport. +But he gave me a cup of tea. +And I understood that his surprise was my protection. +So I have been walking and traveling, by horses, by yak, by truck, by hitchhiking, from Iran's border to the bottom, to the edge of the Wakhan Corridor. +And in this way I could find noor, the hidden light of Afghanistan. +My only weapon was my notebook and my Leica. +I heard prayers of the Sufi -- humble Muslims, hated by the Taliban. +Hidden river, interconnected with the mysticism from Gibraltar to India. +The mosque where the respectful foreigner is showered with blessings and with tears, and welcomed as a gift. +What do we know about the country and the people that we pretend to protect, about the villages where the only one medicine to kill the pain and to stop the hunger is opium? +These are opium-addicted people on the roofs of Kabul 10 years after the beginning of our war. +These are the nomad girls who became prostitutes for Afghan businessmen. +What do we know about the women 10 years after the war? +Clothed in this nylon bag, made in China, with the name of burqa. +I saw one day, the largest school in Afghanistan, a girls' school. +13,000 girls studying here in the rooms underground, full of scorpions. +And their love [for studying] was so big that I cried. +What do we know about the death threats by the Taliban nailed on the doors of the people who dare to send their daughters to school as in Balkh? +The region is not secure, but full of the Taliban, and they did it. +My aim is to give a voice to the silent people, to show the hidden lights behind the curtain of the great game, the small worlds ignored by the media and the prophets of a global conflict. +Thanks. +I want to talk to you about one of the biggest myths in medicine, and that is the idea that all we need are more medical breakthroughs and then all of our problems will be solved. +Our society loves to romanticize the idea of the single, solo inventor who, working late in the lab one night, makes an earthshaking discovery, and voila, overnight everything's changed. +That's a very appealing picture, however, it's just not true. +In fact, medicine today is a team sport. +And in many ways, it always has been. +I'd like to share with you a story about how I've experienced this very dramatically in my own work. +I'm a surgeon, and we surgeons have always had this special relationship with light. +When I make an incision inside a patient's body, it's dark. +We need to shine light to see what we're doing. +And this is why, traditionally, surgeries have always started so early in the morning -- to take advantage of daylight hours. +And if you look at historical pictures of the early operating rooms, they have been on top of buildings. +For example, this is the oldest operating room in the Western world, in London, where the operating room is actually on top of a church with a skylight coming in. +And then this is a picture of one of the most famous hospitals in America. +This is Mass General in Boston. +And do you know where the operating room is? +Here it is on the top of the building with plenty of windows to let light in. +So nowadays in the operating room, we no longer need to use sunlight. +And because we no longer need to use sunlight, we have very specialized lights that are made for the operating room. +We have an opportunity to bring in other kinds of lights -- lights that can allow us to see what we currently don't see. +And this is what I think is the magic of fluorescence. +So let me back up a little bit. +When we are in medical school, we learn our anatomy from illustrations such as this where everything's color-coded. +Nerves are yellow, arteries are red, veins are blue. +That's so easy anybody could become a surgeon, right? +However, when we have a real patient on the table, this is the same neck dissection -- not so easy to tell the difference between different structures. +We heard over the last couple days what an urgent problem cancer still is in our society, what a pressing need it is for us to not have one person die every minute. +Well if cancer can be caught early, enough such that someone can have their cancer taken out, excised with surgery, I don't care if it has this gene or that gene, or if it has this protein or that protein, it's in the jar. +It's done, it's out, you're cured of cancer. +This is how we excise cancers. +We do our best, based upon our training and the way the cancer looks and the way it feels and its relationship to other structures and all of our experience, we say, you know what, the cancer's gone. +We've made a good job. We've taken it out. +That's what the surgeon is saying in the operating room when the patient's on the table. +But then we actually don't know that it's all out. +We actually have to take samples from the surgical bed, what's left behind in the patient, and then send those bits to the pathology lab. +In the meanwhile, the patient's on the operating room table. +The nurses, anesthesiologist, the surgeon, all the assistants are waiting around. +And we wait. +The pathologist takes that sample, freezes it, cuts it, looks in the microscope one by one and then calls back into the room. +And that may be 20 minutes later per piece. +So if you've sent three specimens, it's an hour later. +And very often they say, "You know what, points A and B are okay, but point C, you still have some residual cancer there. +Please go cut that piece out." +So we go back and we do that again, and again. +And this whole process: "Okay you're done. +We think the entire tumor is out." +But very often several days later, the patient's gone home, we get a phone call: "I'm sorry, once we looked at the final pathology, once we looked at the final specimen, we actually found that there's a couple other spots where the margins are positive. +There's still cancer in your patient." +So now you're faced with telling your patient, first of all, that they may need another surgery, or that they need additional therapy such as radiation or chemotherapy. +So wouldn't it be better if we could really tell, if the surgeon could really tell, whether or not there's still cancer on the surgical field? +I mean, in many ways, the way that we're doing it, we're still operating in the dark. +So in 2004, during my surgical residency, I had the great fortune to meet Dr. Roger Tsien, who went on to win the Nobel Prize for chemistry in 2008. +Roger and his team were working on a way to detect cancer, and they had a very clever molecule that they had come up with. +The molecule they had developed had three parts. +The main part of it is the blue part, polycation, and it's basically very sticky to every tissue in your body. +So imagine that you make a solution full of this sticky material and inject it into the veins of someone who has cancer, everything's going to get lit up. +Nothing will be specific. +There's no specificity there. +So they added two additional components. +The first one is a polyanionic segment, which basically acts as a non-stick backing like the back of a sticker. +So when those two are together, the molecule is neutral and nothing gets stuck down. +And the two pieces are then linked by something that can only be cut if you have the right molecular scissors -- for example, the kind of protease enzymes that tumors make. +So here in this situation, if you make a solution full of this three-part molecule along with the dye, which is shown in green, and you inject it into the vein of someone who has cancer, normal tissue can't cut it. +The molecule passes through and gets excreted. +However, in the presence of the tumor, now there are molecular scissors that can break this molecule apart right there at the cleavable site. +And now, boom, the tumor labels itself and it gets fluorescent. +So here's an example of a nerve that has tumor surrounding it. +Can you tell where the tumor is? +I couldn't when I was working on this. +But here it is. It's fluorescent. +Now it's green. +See, so every single one in the audience now can tell where the cancer is. +We can tell in the operating room, in the field, at a molecular level, where is the cancer and what the surgeon needs to do and how much more work they need to do to cut that out. +And the cool thing about fluorescence is that it's not only bright, it actually can shine through tissue. +The light that the fluorescence emits can go through tissue. +So even if the tumor is not right on the surface, you'll still be able to see it. +In this movie, you can see that the tumor is green. +There's actually normal muscle on top of it. See that? +And I'm peeling that muscle away. +But even before I peel that muscle away, you saw that there was a tumor underneath. +So that's the beauty of having a tumor that's labeled with fluorescent molecules. +That you can, not only see the margins right there on a molecular level, but you can see it even if it's not right on the top -- even if it's beyond your field of view. +And this works for metastatic lymph nodes also. +Sentinel lymph node dissection has really changed the way that we manage breast cancer, melanoma. +Women used to get really debilitating surgeries to excise all of the axillary lymph nodes. +But when sentinel lymph node came into our treatment protocol, the surgeon basically looks for the single node that is the first draining lymph node of the cancer. +And then if that node has cancer, the woman would go on to get the axillary lymph node dissection. +So what that means is if the lymph node did not have cancer, the woman would be saved from having unnecessary surgery. +But sentinel lymph node, the way that we do it today, is kind of like having a road map just to know where to go. +So if you're driving on the freeway and you want to know where's the next gas station, you have a map to tell you that that gas station is down the road. +It doesn't tell you whether or not the gas station has gas. +You have to cut it out, bring it back home, cut it up, look inside and say, "Oh yes, it does have gas." +So that takes more time. +Patients are still on the operating room table. +Anesthesiologists, surgeons are waiting around. +That takes time. +So with our technology, we can tell right away. +You see a lot of little, roundish bumps there. +Some of these are swollen lymph nodes that look a little larger than others. +Who amongst us hasn't had swollen lymph nodes with a cold? +That doesn't mean that there's cancer inside. +Well with our technology, the surgeon is able to tell immediately which nodes have cancer. +I won't go into this very much, but our technology, besides being able to tag tumor and metastatic lymph nodes with fluorescence, we can also use the same smart three-part molecule to tag gadolinium onto the system so you can do this noninvasively. +The patient has cancer, you want to know if the lymph nodes have cancer even before you go in. +Well you can see this on an MRI. +So in surgery, it's important to know what to cut out. +But equally important is to preserve things that are important for function. +So it's very important to avoid inadvertent injury. +And what I'm talking about are nerves. +Nerves, if they are injured, can cause paralysis, can cause pain. +In the setting of prostate cancer, up to 60 percent of men after prostate cancer surgery may have urinary incontinence and erectile disfunction. +That's a lot of people to have a lot of problems -- and this is even in so-called nerve-sparing surgery, which means that the surgeon is aware of the problem, and they are trying to avoid the nerves. +But you know what, these little nerves are so small, in the context of prostate cancer, that they are actually never seen. +They are traced just by their known anatomical path along vasculature. +And they're known because somebody has decided to study them, which means that we're still learning about where they are. +Crazy to think that we're having surgery, we're trying to excise cancer, we don't know where the cancer is. +We're trying to preserve nerves; we can't see where they are. +So I said, wouldn't it be great if we could find a way to see nerves with fluorescence? +And at first this didn't get a lot of support. +People said, "We've been doing it this way for all these years. +What's the problem? +We haven't had that many complications." +But I went ahead anyway. +And Roger helped me. +And he brought his whole team with him. +So there's that teamwork thing again. +And we eventually discovered molecules that were specifically labeling nerves. +And when we made a solution of this, tagged with the fluorescence and injected in the body of a mouse, their nerves literally glowed. +You can see where they are. +Here you're looking at a sciatic nerve of a mouse, and you can see that that big, fat portion you can see very easily. +But in fact, at the tip of that where I'm dissecting now, there's actually very fine arborizations that can't really be seen. +You see what looks like little Medusa heads coming out. +We have been able to see nerves for facial expression, for facial movement, for breathing -- every single nerve -- nerves for urinary function around the prostate. +We've been able to see every single nerve. +When we put these two probes together ... +So here's a tumor. +Do you guys know where the margins of this tumor is? +Now you do. +What about the nerve that's going into this tumor? +That white portion there is easy to see. +But what about the part that goes into the tumor? +Do you know where it's going? +Now you do. +Basically, we've come up with a way to stain tissue and color-code the surgical field. +This was a bit of a breakthrough. +I think that it'll change the way that we do surgery. +We published our results in the proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences and in Nature Biotechnology. +We received commentary in Discover magazine, in The Economist. +And we showed it to a lot of my surgical colleagues. +They said, "Wow! +I have patients who would benefit from this. +I think that this will result in my surgeries with a better outcome and fewer complications." +What needs to happen now is further development of our technology along with development of the instrumentation that allows us to see this sort of fluorescence in the operating room. +The eventual goal is that we'll get this into patients. +However, we've discovered that there's actually no straightforward mechanism to develop a molecule for one-time use. +Understandably, the majority of the medical industry is focused on multiple-use drugs, such as long-term daily medications. +We are focused on making this technology better. +We're focused on adding drugs, adding growth factors, killing nerves that are causing problems and not the surrounding tissue. +We know that this can be done and we're committed to doing it. +I'd like to leave you with this final thought. +Successful innovation is not a single breakthrough. +It is not a sprint. +It is not an event for the solo runner. +Successful innovation is a team sport, it's a relay race. +It requires one team for the breakthrough and another team to get the breakthrough accepted and adopted. +And this takes the long-term steady courage of the day-in day-out struggle to educate, to persuade and to win acceptance. +And that is the light that I want to shine on health and medicine today. +Thank you very much. +I'm here to talk to you about the economic invisibility of nature. +The bad news is that mother nature's back office isn't working yet, so those invoices don't get issued. +But we need to do something about this problem. +I began my life as a markets professional and continued to take an interest, but most of my recent effort has been looking at the value of what comes to human beings from nature, and which doesn't get priced by the markets. +A project called TEEB was started in 2007, and it was launched by a group of environment ministers of the G8+5. +And their basic inspiration was a stern review of Lord Stern. +They asked themselves a question: If economics could make such a convincing case for early action on climate change, well why can't the same be done for conservation? +Why can't an equivalent case be made for nature? +And the answer is: Yeah, it can. +But it's not that straightforward. +Biodiversity, the living fabric of this planet, is not a gas. +It exists in many layers, ecosystems, species and genes across many scales -- international, national, local, community -- and doing for nature what Lord Stern and his team did for nature is not that easy. +And yet, we began. +We began the project with an interim report, which quickly pulled together a lot of information that had been collected on the subject by many, many researchers. +And amongst our compiled results was the startling revelation that, in fact, we were losing natural capital -- the benefits that flow from nature to us. +We were losing it at an extraordinary rate -- in fact, of the order of two to four trillion dollars-worth of natural capital. +This came out in 2008, which was, of course, around the time that the banking crisis had shown that we had lost financial capital of the order of two and a half trillion dollars. +So this was comparable in size to that kind of loss. +We then have gone on since to present for [the] international community, for governments, for local governments and for business and for people, for you and me, a whole slew of reports, which were presented at the U.N. last year, which address the economic invisibility of nature and describe what can be done to solve it. +What is this about? +A picture that you're familiar with -- the Amazon rainforests. +It's a massive store of carbon, it's an amazing store of biodiversity, but what people don't really know is this also is a rain factory. +Because the northeastern trade winds, as they go over the Amazonas, effectively gather the water vapor. +Something like 20 billion tons per day of water vapor is sucked up by the northeastern trade winds, and eventually precipitates in the form of rain across the La Plata Basin. +This rainfall cycle, this rainfall factory, effectively feeds an agricultural economy of the order of 240 billion dollars-worth in Latin America. +But the question arises: Okay, so how much do Uruguay, Paraguay, Argentina and indeed the state of Mato Grosso in Brazil pay for that vital input to that economy to the state of Amazonas, which produces that rainfall? +And the answer is zilch, exactly zero. +That's the economic invisibility of nature. +That can't keep going on, because economic incentives and disincentives are very powerful. +Economics has become the currency of policy. +And unless we address this invisibility, we are going to get the results that we are seeing, which is a gradual degradation and loss of this valuable natural asset. +It's not just about the Amazonas, or indeed about rainforests. +No matter what level you look at, whether it's at the ecosystem level or at the species level or at the genetic level, we see the same problem again and again. +So rainfall cycle and water regulation by rainforests at an ecosystem level. +At the species level, it's been estimated that insect-based pollination, bees pollinating fruit and so on, is something like 190 billion dollars-worth. +That's something like eight percent of the total agricultural output globally. +It completely passes below the radar screen. +But when did a bee actually ever give you an invoice? +Or for that matter, if you look at the genetic level, 60 percent of medicines were prospected, were found first as molecules in a rainforest or a reef. +Once again, most of that doesn't get paid. +And that brings me to another aspect of this, which is, to whom should this get paid? +That genetic material probably belonged, if it could belong to anyone, to a local community of poor people who parted with the knowledge that helped the researchers to find the molecule, which then became the medicine. +They were the ones that didn't get paid. +And if you look at the species level, you saw about fish. +Today, the depletion of ocean fisheries is so significant that effectively it is effecting the ability of the poor, the artisanal fisher folk and those who fish for their own livelihoods, to feed their families. +Something like a billion people depend on fish, the quantity of fish in the oceans. +A billion people depend on fish for their main source for animal protein. +And at this rate at which we are losing fish, it is a human problem of enormous dimensions, a health problem of a kind we haven't seen before. +That's the difference. +Because these are important benefits for the poor. +And you can't really have a proper model for development if at the same time you're destroying or allowing the degradation of the very asset, the most important asset, which is your development asset, that is ecological infrastructure. +How bad can things get? +Well here a picture of something called the mean species abundance. +It's basically a measure of how many tigers, toads, ticks or whatever on average of biomass of various species are around. +The green represents the percentage. +If you start green, it's like 80 to 100 percent. +If it's yellow, it's 40 to 60 percent. +And these are percentages versus the original state, so to speak, the pre-industrial era, 1750. +Now I'm going to show you how business as usual will affect this. +And just watch the change in colors in India, China, Europe, sub-Saharan Africa as we move on and consume global biomass at a rate which is actually not going to be able to sustain us. +See that again. +The only places that remain green -- and that's not good news -- is, in fact, places like the Gobi Desert, like the tundra and like the Sahara. +But that doesn't help because there were very few species and volume of biomass there in the first place. +This is the challenge. +The reason this is happening boils down, in my mind, to one basic problem, which is our inability to perceive the difference between public benefits and private profits. +We tend to constantly ignore public wealth simply because it is in the common wealth, it's common goods. +But of course, if you look at exactly what those profits are, almost 8,000 of those dollars are, in fact, subsidies. +So you compare the two sides of the coin and you find that it's more like 1,200 to 600. +That's not that hard. +But on the other hand, if you start measuring, how much would it actually cost to restore the land of the shrimp farm back to productive use? +Once salt deposition and chemical deposition has had its effects, that answer is more like $12,000 of cost. +And if you see the benefits of the mangrove in terms of the storm protection and cyclone protection that you get and in terms of the fisheries, the fish nurseries, that provide fish for the poor, that answer is more like $11,000. +So now look at the different lens. +If you look at the lens of public wealth as against the lens of private profits, you get a completely different answer, which is clearly conservation makes more sense, and not destruction. +So is this just a story from South Thailand? +Sorry, this is a global story. +And here's what the same calculation looks like, which was done recently -- well I say recently, over the last 10 years -- by a group called TRUCOST. +And they calculated for the top 3,000 corporations, what are the externalities? +In other words, what are the costs of doing business as usual? +This is not illegal stuff, this is basically business as usual, which causes climate-changing emissions, which have an economic cost. +It causes pollutants being issued, which have an economic cost, health cost and so on. +Use of freshwater. +If you drill water to make coke near a village farm, that's not illegal, but yes, it costs the community. +Can we stop this, and how? +I think the first point to make is that we need to recognize natural capital. +Basically the stuff of life is natural capital, and we need to recognize and build that into our systems. +When we measure GDP as a measure of economic performance at the national level, we don't include our biggest asset at the country level. +When we measure corporate performances, we don't include our impacts on nature and what our business costs society. +That has to stop. +In fact, this was what really inspired my interest in this phase. +I began a project way back called the Green Accounting Project. +That was in the early 2000s when India was going gung-ho about GDP growth as the means forward -- looking at China with its stellar growths of eight, nine, 10 percent and wondering, why can we do the same? +And a few friends of mine and I decided this doesn't make sense. +This is going to create more cost to society and more losses. +So we decided to do a massive set of calculations and started producing green accounts for India and its states. +That's how my interests began and went to the TEEB project. +Calculating this at the national level is one thing, and it has begun. +And the World Bank has acknowledged this and they've started a project called WAVES -- Wealth Accounting and Valuation of Ecosystem Services. +But calculating this at the next level, that means at the business sector level, is important. +And actually we've done this with the TEEB project. +We've done this for a very difficult case, which was for deforestation in China. +This is important, because in China in 1997, the Yellow River actually went dry for nine months causing severe loss of agriculture output and pain and loss to society. +Just a year later the Yangtze flooded, causing something like 5,500 deaths. +So clearly there was a problem with deforestation. +It was associated largely with the construction industry. +And the Chinese government responded sensibly and placed a ban on felling. +So in fact, the price of timber in the Beijing marketplace ought to have been three-times what it was had it reflected the true pain and the costs to the society within China. +Of course, after the event one can be wise. +The way to do this is to do it on a company basis, to take leadership forward, and to do it for as many important sectors which have a cost, and to disclose these answers. +Someone once asked me, "Who is better or worse, is it Unilever or is it P&G when it comes to their impact on rainforests in Indonesia?" +And I couldn't answer because neither of these companies, good though they are and professional though they are, do not calculate or disclose their externalities. +But if we look at companies like PUMA -- Jochen Zeitz, their CEO and chairman, once challenged me at a function, saying that he's going to implement my project before I finish it. +Well I think we kind of did it at the same time, but he's done it. +He's basically worked the cost to PUMA. +PUMA has 2.7 billion dollars of turnover, 300 million dollars of profits, 200 million dollars after tax, 94 million dollars of externalities, cost to business. +Now that's not a happy situation for them, but they have the confidence and the courage to come forward and say, "Here's what we are measuring. +We are measuring it because we know that you cannot manage what you do not measure." +That's an example, I think, for us to look at and for us to draw comfort from. +If more companies did this, and if more sectors engaged this as sectors, you could have analysts, business analysts, and you could have people like us and consumers and NGOs actually look and compare the social performance of companies. +Today we can't yet do that, but I think the path is laid out. +This can be done. +And I'm delighted that the Institute of Chartered Accountants in the U.K. +has already set up a coalition to do this, an international coalition. +The other favorite, if you like, solution for me is the creation of green carbon markets. +And by the way, these are my favorites -- externalities calculation and green carbon markets. +TEEB has more than a dozen separate groups of solutions including protected area evaluation and payments for ecosystem services and eco-certification and you name it, but these are the favorites. +What's green carbon? +Today what we have is basically a brown carbon marketplace. +It's about energy emissions. +The European Union ETS is the main marketplace. +It's not doing too well. We've over-issued. +A bit like inflation: you over-issue currency, you get what you see, declining prices. +But that's all about energy and industry. +But what we're missing is also some other emissions like black carbon, that is soot. +What we're also missing is blue carbon, which, by the way, is the largest store of carbon -- more than 55 percent. +Thankfully, the flux, in other words, the flow of emissions from the ocean to the atmosphere and vice versa, is more or less balanced. +In fact, what's being absorbed is something like 25 percent of our emissions, which then leads to acidification or lower alkalinity in oceans. +More of that in a minute. +And finally, there's deforestation, and there's emission of methane from agriculture. +Green carbon, which is the deforestation and agricultural emissions, and blue carbon together comprise 25 percent of our emissions. +We have the means already in our hands, through a structure, through a mechanism, called REDD Plus -- a scheme for the reduced emissions from deforestation and forest degradation. +And already Norway has contributed a billion dollars each towards Indonesia and Brazil to implement this Red Plus scheme. +So we actually have some movement forward. +But the thing is to do a lot more of that. +Will this solve the problem? Will economics solve everything? +Well I'm afraid not. +There is an area that is the oceans, coral reefs. +As you can see, they cut across the entire globe all the way from Micronesia across Indonesia, Malaysia, India, Madagascar and to the West of the Caribbean. +These red dots, these red areas, basically provide the food and livelihood for more than half a billion people. +So that's almost an eighth of society. +So in selecting targets of 450 parts per million and selecting two degrees at the climate negotiations, what we have done is we've made an ethical choice. +We've actually kind of made an ethical choice in society to not have coral reefs. +Well what I will say to you in parting is that we may have done that. +Let's think about it and what it means, but please, let's not do more of that. +Because mother nature only has that much in ecological infrastructure and that much natural capital. +I don't think we can afford too much of such ethical choices. +Thank you. +Ben Roche: So I'm Ben, by the way. +Homaro Cantu: And I'm Homaro. +HC: So our diners started to get bored with this idea, and we decided to give them the same course twice, so here we actually took an element from the maki roll and and took a picture of a dish and then basically served that picture with the dish. +So this dish in particular is basically champagne with seafood. +The champagne grapes that you see are actually carbonated grapes. A little bit of seafood and some crme fraiche and the picture actually tastes exactly like the dish. BR: But it's not all just edible pictures. +We decided to do something a little bit different and transform flavors that were very familiar -- so in this case, we have carrot cake. +So we take a carrot cake, put it in a blender, and we have kind of like a carrot cake juice, and then that went into a balloon frozen in liquid nitrogen to create this hollow shell of carrot cake ice cream, I guess, and it comes off looking like, you know, Jupiter's floating around your plate. +So yeah, we're transforming things into something that you have absolutely no reference for. +BR: That's not it, though. +Instead of making foods that look like things that you wouldn't eat, we decided to make ingredients look like dishes that you know. +So this is a plate of nachos. +The difference between our nachos and the other guy's nachos, is that this is actually a dessert. +So the chips are candied, the ground beef is made from chocolate, and the cheese is made from a shredded mango sorbet that gets shredded into liquid nitrogen to look like cheese. +And after doing all of this dematerialization and reconfiguring of this, of these ingredients, we realized that it was pretty cool, because as we served it, we learned that the dish actually behaves like the real thing, where the cheese begins to melt. +So when you're looking at this thing in the dining room, you have this sensation that this is actually a plate of nachos, and it's not really until you begin tasting it that you realize this is a dessert, and it's just kind of like a mind-ripper. +HC: So we had been creating all of these dishes out of a kitchen that was more like a mechanic's shop than a kitchen, and the next logical step for us was to install a state-of-the-art laboratory, and that's what we have here. +So we put this in the basement, and we got really serious about food, like serious experimentation. +HC: Let's talk about flavor transformation, and let's actually make some cool stuff. +You see a cow with its tongue hanging out. +What I see is a cow about to eat something delicious. What is that cow eating? +And why is it delicious? +So the cow, basically, eats three basic things in their feed: corn, beets, and barley, and so what I do is I actually challenge my staff with these crazy, wild ideas. Can we take what the cow eats, remove the cow, and then make some hamburgers out of that? +And basically the reaction tends to be kind of like this. BR: Yeah, that's our chef de cuisine, Chris Jones. This is not the only guy that just flips out when we assign a ridiculous task, but a lot of these ideas, they're hard to understand. +They're hard to just get automatically. +There's a lot of research and a lot of failure, trial and error -- I guess, more error -- that goes into each and every dish, so we don't always get it right, and it takes a while for us to be able to explain that to people. +HC: So, after about a day of Chris and I staring at each other, we came up with something that was pretty close to the hamburger patty, and as you can see it basically forms like hamburger meat. +This is made from three ingredients: beets, barley, corn, and so it actually cooks up like hamburger meat, looks and tastes like hamburger meat, and not only that, but it's basically removing the cow from the equation. +So replicating food, taking it into that next level is where we're going. +BR: And it's definitely the world's first bleeding veggie burger, which is a cool side effect. +And a miracle berry, if you're not familiar with it, is a natural ingredient, and it contains a special property. +It's a glycoprotein called miraculin, a naturally occurring thing. It still freaks me out every time I eat it, but it has a unique ability to mask certain taste receptors on your tongue, so that primarily sour taste receptors, so normally things that would taste very sour or tart, somehow begin to taste very sweet. +HC: You're about to eat a lemon, and now it tastes like lemonade. +Let's just stop and think about the economic benefits of something like that. +We could eliminate sugar across the board for all confectionary products and sodas, and we can replace it with all-natural fresh fruit. +BR: So you see us here cutting up some watermelon. The idea with this is that we're going to eliminate tons of food miles, wasted energy, and overfishing of tuna by creating tuna, or any exotic produce or item from a very far-away place, with local, organic produce; so we have a watermelon from Wisconsin. +HC: So if miracle berries take sour things and turn them into sweet things, we have this other pixie dust that we put on the watermelon, and it makes it go from sweet to savory. +So after we do that, we put it into a vacuum bag, add a little bit of seaweed, some spices, and we roll it, and this starts taking on the appearance of tuna. +So the key now is to make it behave like tuna. +BR: And then after a quick dip into some liquid nitrogen to get that perfect sear, we really have something that looks, tastes and behaves like the real thing. +HC: So the key thing to remember here is, we don't really care what this tuna really is. +As long as it's good for you and good for the environment, it doesn't matter. +But where is this going? +How can we take this idea of tricking your tastebuds and leapfrog it into something that we can do today that could be a disruptive food technology? +So here's the next challenge. +I told the staff, let's just take a bunch of wild plants, think of them as food ingredients. As long as they're non-poisonous to the human body, go out around Chicago sidewalks, take it, blend it, cook it and then have everybody flavor-trip on it at Moto. +So we really had to think about new, creative ways to flavor, new ways to cook and to change texture -- and that was the main issue with this challenge. +HC: So this is where we step into the future and we leapfrog ahead. +So developing nations and first-world nations, imagine if you could take these wild plants and consume them, food miles would basically turn into food feet. +This disruptive mentality of what food is would essentially open up the encyclopedia of what raw ingredients are, even if we just swapped out, say, one of these for flour, that would eliminate so much energy and so much waste. +And to give you a simple example here as to what we actually fed these customers, there's a bale of hay there and some crab apples. +And basically we took hay and crab apples and made barbecue sauce out of those two ingredients. +People swore they were eating barbecue sauce, and this is free food. +BR: Thanks, guys. +I'm actually going to share something with you I haven't talked about probably in more than 10 years. +So bear with me as I take you through this journey. +When I was 22 years old, I came home from work, put a leash on my dog and went for my usual run. +I had no idea that at that moment my life was going to change forever. +While I was preparing my dog for the run, a man was finishing drinking at a bar, picked up his car keys, got into a car and headed south, or wherever he was. +I was running across the street, and the only thing that I actually remember is feeling like a grenade went off in my head. +And I remember putting my hands on the ground and feeling my life's blood emptying out of my neck and my mouth. +What had happened is he ran a red light and hit me and my dog. +She ended up underneath the car. +I flew out in front of the car, and then he ran over my legs. +My left leg got caught up in the wheel well -- spun it around. +The bumper of the car hit my throat, slicing it open. +I ended up with blunt chest trauma. +Your aorta comes up behind your heart. +It's your major artery, and it was severed, so my blood was gurgling out of my mouth. +It foamed, and horrible things were happening to me. +I had no idea what was going on, but strangers intervened, kept my heart moving, beating. +I say moving because it was quivering and they were trying to put a beat back into it. +Somebody was smart and put a Bic pen in my neck to open up my airway so that I could get some air in there. +And my lung collapsed, so somebody cut me open and put a pin in there as well to stop that catastrophic event from happening. +Somehow I ended up at the hospital. +I was wrapped in ice and then eventually put into a drug-induced coma. +18 months later I woke up. +I was blind, I couldn't speak, and I couldn't walk. +I was 64 lbs. +The hospital really has no idea what to do with people like that. +And in fact, they started to call me a Gomer. +That's another story we won't even get into. +I had so many surgeries to put my neck back together, to repair my heart a few times. +Some things worked, some things didn't. +I had lots of titanium put in me, cadaver bones to try to get my feet moving the right way. +And I ended up with a plastic nose, porcelain teeth and all kinds of other things. +But eventually I started to look human again. +But it's hard sometimes to talk about these things, so bear with me. +I had more than 50 surgeries. +But who's counting? +So eventually, the hospital decided it was time for me to go. +They needed to open up space for somebody else that they thought could come back from whatever they were going through. +Everybody lost faith in me being able to recover. +So they basically put a map up on the wall, threw a dart, and it landed at a senior home here in Colorado. +And I know all of you are scratching your head: "A senior citizens' home? What in the world are you going to do there?" +But if you think about all of the skills and talent that are in this room right now, that's what a senior home has. +So there were all these skills and talents that these seniors had. +The one advantage that they had over most of you is wisdom, because they had a long life. +And I needed that wisdom at that moment in my life. +But imagine what it was like for them when I showed up at their doorstep? +At that point, I had gained four pounds, so I was 68 lbs. +I was bald. +I was wearing hospital scrubs. +And somebody donated tennis shoes for me. +And I had a white cane in one hand and a suitcase full of medical records in another hand. +And so the senior citizens realized that they needed to have an emergency meeting. +So they pulled back and they were looking at each other, and they were going, "Okay, what skills do we have in this room? +This kid needs a lot of work." +So they eventually started matching their talents and skills to all of my needs. +But one of the first things they needed to do was assess what I needed right away. +I needed to figure out how to eat like a normal human being, since I'd been eating through a tube in my chest and through my veins. +So I had to go through trying to eat again. +And they went through that process. +And then they had to figure out: "Well she needs furniture. +She is sleeping in the corner of this apartment." +So they went to their storage lockers and all gathered their extra furniture -- gave me pots and pans, blankets, everything. +And then the next thing that I needed was a makeover. +So out went the green scrubs and in came the polyester and floral prints. +We're not going to talk about the hairstyles that they tried to force on me once my hair grew back. +But I did say no to the blue hair. +So eventually what went on is they decided that, well I need to learn to speak. +So you can't be an independent person if you're not able to speak and can't see. +So they figured not being able to see is one thing, but they need to get me to talk. +So while Sally, the office manager, was teaching me to speak in the day -- it's hard, because when you're a kid, you take things for granted. +You learn things unconsciously. +But for me, I was an adult and it was embarrassing, and I had to learn how to coordinate my new throat with my tongue and my new teeth and my lips, and capture the air and get the word out. +So I acted like a two-year-old and refused to work. +But the men had a better idea. +They were going to make it fun for me. +So they were teaching me cuss word Scrabble at night, and then, secretly, how to swear like a sailor. +So I'm going to just leave it to your imagination as to what my first words were when Sally finally got my confidence built. +So I moved on from there. +And a former teacher who happened to have Alzheimer's took on the task of teaching me to write. +The redundancy was actually good for me. +So we'll just keep moving on. +One of the pivotal times for me was actually learning to cross a street again as a blind person. +So close your eyes. +Now imagine you have to cross a street. +You don't know how far that street is and you don't know if you're going straight and you hear cars whizzing back and forth, and you had a horrible accident that landed you in this situation. +So there were two obstacles I had to get through. +One was post-traumatic stress disorder. +And every time I approached the corner or the curb I would panic. +And the second one was actually trying to figure out how to cross that street. +So one of the seniors just came up to me, and she pushed me up to the corner and she said, "When you think it's time to go, just stick the cane out there. +If it's hit, don't cross the street." +Made perfect sense. +But by the third cane that went whizzing across the road, they realized that they needed to put the resources together, and they raised funds so that I could go to the Braille Institute and actually gain the skills to be a blind person, and also to go get a guide dog who transformed my life. +And I was able to return to college because of the senior citizens who invested in me, and also the guide dog and skill set I had gained. +10 years later I gained my sight back. +Not magically. +I opted in for three surgeries, and one of them was experimental. +It was actually robotic surgery. +They removed a hematoma from behind my eye. +The biggest change for me was that the world moved forward, that there were innovations and all kinds of new things -- cellphones, laptops, all these things that I had never seen before. +And as a blind person, your visual memory fades and is replaced with how you feel about things and how things sound and how things smell. +So one day I was in my room and I saw this thing sitting in my room and I thought it was a monster. +So I was walking around it. +And I go, "I'm just going to touch it." +And I touched it and I went, "Oh my God, it's a laundry basket." +So everything is different when you're a sighted person because you take that for granted. +But when you're blind, you have the tactile memory for things. +The biggest change for me was looking down at my hands and seeing that I'd lost 10 years of my life. +I thought that time had stood still for some reason and moved on for family and friends. +But when I looked down, I realized that time marched on for me too and that I needed to get caught up, so I got going on it. +We didn't have words like crowd-sourcing and radical collaboration when I had my accident. +But the concept held true -- people working with people to rebuild me; people working with people to re-educate me. +I wouldn't be standing here today if it wasn't for extreme radical collaboration. +Thank you so much. +I'm here to talk about the wonder and the mystery of conscious minds. +The wonder is about the fact that we all woke up this morning and we had with it the amazing return of our conscious mind. +We recovered minds with a complete sense of self and a complete sense of our own existence, yet we hardly ever pause to consider this wonder. +We should, in fact, because without having this possibility of conscious minds, we would have no knowledge whatsoever about our humanity; we would have no knowledge whatsoever about the world. +We would have no pains, but also no joys. +We would have no access to love or to the ability to create. +And of course, Scott Fitzgerald said famously that "he who invented consciousness would have a lot to be blamed for." +But he also forgot that without consciousness, he would have no access to true happiness and even the possibility of transcendence. +So much for the wonder, now for the mystery. +This is a mystery that has really been extremely hard to elucidate. +All the way back into early philosophy and certainly throughout the history of neuroscience, this has been one mystery that has always resisted elucidation, has got major controversies. +And there are actually many people that think we should not even touch it; we should just leave it alone, it's not to be solved. +I don't believe that, and I think the situation is changing. +It would be ridiculous to claim that we know how we make consciousness in our brains, but we certainly can begin to approach the question, and we can begin to see the shape of a solution. +And one more wonder to celebrate is the fact that we have imaging technologies that now allow us to go inside the human brain and be able to do, for example, what you're seeing right now. +These are images that come from Hanna Damasio's lab, and which show you, in a living brain, the reconstruction of that brain. +And this is a person who is alive. +This is not a person that is being studied at autopsy. +And even more -- and this is something that one can be really amazed about -- is what I'm going to show you next, which is going underneath the surface of the brain and actually looking in the living brain at real connections, real pathways. +So all of those colored lines correspond to bunches of axons, the fibers that join cell bodies to synapses. +And I'm sorry to disappoint you, they don't come in color. +But at any rate, they are there. +The colors are codes for the direction, from whether it is back to front or vice versa. +At any rate, what is consciousness? +What is a conscious mind? +And we could take a very simple view and say, well, it is that which we lose when we fall into deep sleep without dreams, or when we go under anesthesia, and it is what we regain when we recover from sleep or from anesthesia. +But what is exactly that stuff that we lose under anesthesia, or when we are in deep, dreamless sleep? +Well first of all, it is a mind, which is a flow of mental images. +And of course consider images that can be sensory patterns, visual, such as you're having right now in relation to the stage and me, or auditory images, as you are having now in relation to my words. +That flow of mental images is mind. +But there is something else that we are all experiencing in this room. +We are not passive exhibitors of visual or auditory or tactile images. +We have selves. +We have a Me that is automatically present in our minds right now. +We own our minds. +And we have a sense that it's everyone of us that is experiencing this -- not the person who is sitting next to you. +So in order to have a conscious mind, you have a self within the conscious mind. +So a conscious mind is a mind with a self in it. +The self introduces the subjective perspective in the mind, and we are only fully conscious when self comes to mind. +So what we need to know to even address this mystery is, number one, how are minds are put together in the brain, and, number two, how selves are constructed. +Now the first part, the first problem, is relatively easy -- it's not easy at all -- but it is something that has been approached gradually in neuroscience. +And it's quite clear that, in order to make minds, we need to construct neural maps. +So imagine a grid, like the one I'm showing you right now, and now imagine, within that grid, that two-dimensional sheet, imagine neurons. +And picture, if you will, a billboard, a digital billboard, where you have elements that can be either lit or not. +And depending on how you create the pattern of lighting or not lighting, the digital elements, or, for that matter, the neurons in the sheet, you're going to be able to construct a map. +This, of course, is a visual map that I'm showing you, but this applies to any kind of map -- auditory, for example, in relation to sound frequencies, or to the maps that we construct with our skin in relation to an object that we palpate. +Now to bring home the point of how close it is -- the relationship between the grid of neurons and the topographical arrangement of the activity of the neurons and our mental experience -- I'm going to tell you a personal story. +So if I cover my left eye -- I'm talking about me personally, not all of you -- if I cover my left eye, I look at the grid -- pretty much like the one I'm showing you. +Everything is nice and fine and perpendicular. +But sometime ago, I discovered that if I cover my left eye, instead what I get is this. +I look at the grid and I see a warping at the edge of my central-left field. +Very odd -- I've analyzed this for a while. +But sometime ago, through the help of an opthamologist colleague of mine, Carmen Puliafito, who developed a laser scanner of the retina, I found out the the following. +If I scan my retina through the horizontal plane that you see there in the little corner, what I get is the following. +On the right side, my retina is perfectly symmetrical. +You see the going down towards the fovea where the optic nerve begins. +But on my left retina there is a bump, which is marked there by the red arrow. +And it corresponds to a little cyst that is located below. +And that is exactly what causes the warping of my visual image. +So just think of this: you have a grid of neurons, and now you have a plane mechanical change in the position of the grid, and you get a warping of your mental experience. +So this is how close your mental experience and the activity of the neurons in the retina, which is a part of the brain located in the eyeball, or, for that matter, a sheet of visual cortex. +So from the retina you go onto visual cortex. +And of course, the brain adds on a lot of information to what is going on in the signals that come from the retina. +And in that image there, you see a variety of islands of what I call image-making regions in the brain. +You have the green for example, that corresponds to tactile information, or the blue that corresponds to auditory information. +And something else that happens is that those image-making regions where you have the plotting of all these neural maps, can then provide signals to this ocean of purple that you see around, which is the association cortex, where you can make records of what went on in those islands of image-making. +And the great beauty is that you can then go from memory, out of those association cortices, and produce back images in the very same regions that have perception. +So think about how wonderfully convenient and lazy the brain is. +So it provides certain areas for perception and image-making. +And those are exactly the same that are going to be used for image-making when we recall information. +So far the mystery of the conscious mind is diminishing a little bit because we have a general sense of how we make these images. +But what about the self? +The self is really the elusive problem. +And for a long time, people did not even want to touch it, because they'd say, "How can you have this reference point, this stability, that is required to maintain the continuity of selves day after day?" +And I thought about a solution to this problem. +It's the following. +We generate brain maps of the body's interior and use them as the reference for all other maps. +So let me tell you just a little bit about how I came to this. +I came to this because, if you're going to have a reference that we know as self -- the Me, the I in our own processing -- we need to have something that is stable, something that does not deviate much from day to day. +Well it so happens that we have a singular body. +We have one body, not two, not three. +And so that is a beginning. +There is just one reference point, which is the body. +But then, of course, the body has many parts, and things grow at different rates, and they have different sizes and different people; however, not so with the interior. +The things that have to do with what is known as our internal milieu -- for example, the whole management of the chemistries within our body are, in fact, extremely maintained day after day for one very good reason. +If you deviate too much in the parameters that are close to the midline of that life-permitting survival range, you go into disease or death. +So we have an in-built system within our own lives that ensures some kind of continuity. +I like to call it an almost infinite sameness from day to day. +Because if you don't have that sameness, physiologically, you're going to be sick or you're going to die. +So that's one more element for this continuity. +And the final thing is that there is a very tight coupling between the regulation of our body within the brain and the body itself, unlike any other coupling. +So for example, I'm making images of you, but there's no physiological bond between the images I have of you as an audience and my brain. +However, there is a close, permanently maintained bond between the body regulating parts of my brain and my own body. +So here's how it looks. Look at the region there. +There is the brain stem in between the cerebral cortex and the spinal cord. +And it is within that region that I'm going to highlight now that we have this housing of all the life-regulation devices of the body. +What happens then actually is that you lose the grounding of the self, you have no longer access to any feeling of your own existence, and, in fact, there can be images going on, being formed in the cerebral cortex, except you don't know they're there. +You have, in effect, lost consciousness when you have damage to that red section of the brain stem. +But if you consider the green part of the brain stem, nothing like that happens. +It is that specific. +So in that green component of the brain stem, if you damage it, and often it happens, what you get is complete paralysis, but your conscious mind is maintained. +You feel, you know, you have a fully conscious mind that you can report very indirectly. +This is a horrific condition. You don't want to see it. +And people are, in fact, imprisoned within their own bodies, but they do have a mind. +There was a very interesting film, one of the rare good films done about a situation like this, by Julian Schnabel some years ago about a patient that was in that condition. +So now I'm going to show you a picture. +I promise not to say anything about this, except this is to frighten you. +It's just to tell you that in that red section of the brain stem, there are, to make it simple, all those little squares that correspond to modules that actually make brain maps of different aspects of our interior, different aspects of our body. +They are exquisitely topographic and they are exquisitely interconnected in a recursive pattern. +So what is the picture that we get here? +Look at "cerebral cortex," look at "brain stem," look at "body," and you get the picture of the interconnectivity in which you have the brain stem providing the grounding for the self in a very tight interconnection with the body. +And you have the cerebral cortex providing the great spectacle of our minds with the profusion of images that are, in fact, the contents of our minds and that we normally pay most attention to, as we should, because that's really the film that is rolling in our minds. +But look at the arrows. +They're not there for looks. +They're there because there's this very close interaction. +You cannot have a conscious mind if you don't have the interaction between cerebral cortex and brain stem. +You cannot have a conscious mind if you don't have the interaction between the brain stem and the body. +Another thing that is interesting is that the brain stem that we have is shared with a variety of other species. +So throughout vertebrates, the design of the brain stem is very similar to ours, which is one of the reasons why I think those other species have conscious minds like we do. +Except that they're not as rich as ours, because they don't have a cerebral cortex like we do. +That's where the difference is. +And I strongly disagree with the idea that consciousness should be considered as the great product of the cerebral cortex. +Only the wealth of our minds is, not the very fact that we have a self that we can refer to our own existence, and that we have any sense of person. +Now there are three levels of self to consider -- the proto, the core and the autobiographical. +The first two are shared with many, many other species, and they are really coming out largely of the brain stem and whatever there is of cortex in those species. +It's the autobiographical self which some species have, I think. +Cetaceans and primates have also an autobiographical self to a certain degree. +And everybody's dogs at home have an autobiographical self to a certain degree. +But the novelty is here. +The autobiographical self is built on the basis of past memories and memories of the plans that we have made; it's the lived past and the anticipated future. +And the autobiographical self has prompted extended memory, reasoning, imagination, creativity and language. +And out of that came the instruments of culture -- religions, justice, trade, the arts, science, technology. +And it is within that culture that we really can get -- and this is the novelty -- something that is not entirely set by our biology. +It is developed in the cultures. +It developed in collectives of human beings. +And this is, of course, the culture where we have developed something that I like to call socio-cultural regulation. +And finally, you could rightly ask, why care about this? +Why care if it is the brain stem or the cerebral cortex and how this is made? +Three reasons. First, curiosity. +Primates are extremely curious -- and humans most of all. +And if we are interested, for example, in the fact that anti-gravity is pulling galaxies away from the Earth, why should we not be interested in what is going on inside of human beings? +Second, understanding society and culture. +We should look at how society and culture in this socio-cultural regulation are a work in progress. +And finally, medicine. +Let's not forget that some of the worst diseases of humankind are diseases such as depression, Alzheimer's disease, drug addiction. +Think of strokes that can devastate your mind or render you unconscious. +You have no prayer of treating those diseases effectively and in a non-serendipitous way if you do not know how this works. +So that's a very good reason beyond curiosity to justify what we're doing, and to justify having some interest in what is going on in our brains. +Thank you for your attention. +Do you remember the story of Odysseus and the Sirens from high school or junior high school? +There was this hero, Odysseus, who's heading back home after the Trojan War. +And he's standing on the deck of his ship, he's talking to his first mate, and he's saying, "Tomorrow, we will sail past those rocks, and on those rocks sit some beautiful women called Sirens. +And these women sing an enchanting song, a song so alluring that all sailors who hear it crash into the rocks and die." +Now you would expect, given that, that they would choose an alternate route around the Sirens, but instead Odysseus says, "I want to hear that song. +And so what I'm going to do is I'm going to pour wax in the ears of you and all the men -- stay with me -- so that you can't hear the song, and then I'm going to have you tie me to the mast so that I can listen and we can all sail by unaffected." +So this is a captain putting the life of every single person on the ship at risk so that he can hear a song. +And I'd like to think if this was the case, they probably would have rehearsed it a few times. +Odysseus would have said, "Okay, let's do a dry run. +You tie me to the mast, and I'm going to beg and plead. +And no matter what I say, you cannot untie me from the mast. +All right, so tie me to the mast." +And the first mate takes a rope and ties Odysseus to the mast in a nice knot. +And Odysseus does his best job playacting and says, "Untie me. Untie me. +I want to hear that song. Untie me." +And the first mate wisely resists and doesn't untie Odysseus. +And then Odysseus says, "I see that you can get it. +All right, untie me now and we'll get some dinner." +And the first mate hesitates. +He's like, "Is this still the rehearsal, or should I untie him?" +And the first mate thinks, "Well, I guess at some point the rehearsal has to end." +So he unties Odysseus, and Odysseus flips out. +He's like, "You idiot. You moron. +If you do that tomorrow, I'll be dead, you'll be dead, every single one of the men will be dead. +Now just don't untie me no matter what." +He throws the first mate to the ground. +This repeats itself through the night -- rehearsal, tying to the mast, conning his way out of it, beating the poor first mate up mercilessly. +Hilarity ensues. +Tying yourself to a mast is perhaps the oldest written example of what psychologists call a commitment device. +A commitment device is a decision that you make with a cool head to bind yourself so that you don't do something regrettable when you have a hot head. +Because there's two heads inside one person when you think about it. +Scholars have long invoked this metaphor of two selves when it comes to questions of temptation. +There is first, the present self. +This is like Odysseus when he's hearing the song. +He just wants to get to the front row. +He just thinks about the here and now and the immediate gratification. +But then there's this other self, the future self. +This is Odysseus as an old man who wants nothing more than to retire in a sunny villa with his wife Penelope outside of Ithaca -- the other one. +So why do we need commitment devices? +Well resisting temptation is hard, as the 19th century English economist Nassau William Senior said, "To abstain from the enjoyment which is in our power, or to seek distant rather than immediate results, are among the most painful exertions of the human will." +If you set goals for yourself and you're like a lot of other people, you probably realize it's not that your goals are physically impossible that's keeping you from achieving them, it's that you lack the self-discipline to stick to them. +It's physically possible to lose weight. +It's physically possible to exercise more. +But resisting temptation is hard. +The other reason that it's difficult to resist temptation is because it's an unequal battle between the present self and the future self. +I mean, let's face it, the present self is present. +It's in control. It's in power right now. +It has these strong, heroic arms that can lift doughnuts into your mouth. +And the future self is not even around. +It's off in the future. It's weak. +It doesn't even have a lawyer present. +There's nobody to stick up for the future self. +And so the present self can trounce all over its dreams. +So there's this battle between the two selves that's being fought, and we need commitment devices to level the playing field between the two. +Now I'm a big fan of commitment devices actually. +Tying yourself to the mast is the oldest one, but there are other ones such as locking a credit card away with a key or not bringing junk food into the house so you won't eat it or unplugging your Internet connection so you can use your computer. +I was creating commitment devices of my own long before I knew what they were. +So when I was a starving post-doc at Columbia University, I was deep in a publish-or-perish phase of my career. +I had to write five pages a day towards papers or I would have to give up five dollars. +And when you try to execute these commitment devices, you realize the devil is really in the details. +Because it's not that easy to get rid of five dollars. +I mean, you can't burn it; that's illegal. +And I thought, well I could give it to a charity or give it to my wife or something like that. +But then I thought, oh, I'm sending myself mixed messages. +Because not writing is bad, but giving to charity is good. +So then I would kind of justify not writing by giving a gift. +And then I kind of flipped that around and thought, well I could give it to the neo-Nazis. +But then I was like, that's more bad than writing is good, and so that wouldn't work. +So ultimately, I just decided I would leave it in an envelope on the subway. +Sometimes a good person would find it, sometimes a bad person would find it. +On average, it was just a completely pointless exchange of money that I would regret. +Such it is with commitment devices. +But despite my like for them, there's two nagging concerns that I've always had about commitment devices, and you might feel this if you use them yourself. +So the first is, when you've got one of these devices going, such as this contract to write everyday or pay, it's just a constant reminder that you have no self-control. +You're just telling yourself, "Without you, commitment device, I am nothing, I have no self-discipline." +And then when you're ever in a situation where you don't have a commitment device in place -- like, "Oh my God, that person's offering me a doughnut, and I have no defense mechanism," -- you just eat it. +So I don't like the way that they take the power away from you. +I think self-discipline is something, it's like a muscle. +The more you exercise it, the stronger it gets. +The other problem with commitment devices is that you can always weasel your way out of them. +You say, "Well, of course I can't write today, because I'm giving a TEDTalk and I have five media interviews, and then I'm going to a cocktail party and then I'll be drunk after that. +And so there's no way that this is going to work." +So in effect, you are like Odysseus and the first mate in one person. +You're putting yourself, you're binding yourself, and you're weaseling your way out of it, and then you're beating yourself up afterwards. +So I've been working for about a decade now on finding other ways to change people's relationship to the future self without using commitment devices. +In particular, I'm interested in the relationship to the future financial self. +And this is a timely issue. +I'm talking about the topic of saving. +Now saving is a classic two selves problem. +The present self does not want to save at all. +It wants to consume. +Whereas the future self wants the present self to save. +So this is a timely problem. +We look at the savings rate and it has been declining since the 1950s. +At the same time, the Retirement Risk Index, the chance of not being able to meet your needs in retirement, has been increasing. +And we're at a situation now where for every three baby boomers, the McKinsey Global Institute predicts that two will not be able to meet their pre-retirement needs while they're in retirement. +So what can we do about this? +There's a philosopher, Derek Parfit, who said some words that were inspiring to my coauthors and I. +He said that, "We might neglect our future selves because of some failure of belief or imagination." +That is to say, we somehow might not believe that we're going to get old, or we might not be able to imagine that we're going to get old some day. +On the one hand, it sounds ridiculous. +Of course, we know that we're going to get old. +But aren't there things that we believe and don't believe at the same time? +So my coauthors and I have used computers, the greatest tool of our time, to assist people's imagination and help them imagine what it might be like to go into the future. +And I'll show you some of these tools right here. +The first is called the distribution builder. +It shows people what the future might be like by showing them a hundred equally probable outcomes that might be obtained in the future. +Each outcome is shown by one of these markers, and each sits on a row that represents a level of wealth and retirement. +Being up at the top means that you're enjoying a high income in retirement. +Being down at the bottom means that you're struggling to make ends meet. +When you make an investment, what you're really saying is, "I accept that any one of these 100 things could happen to me and determine my wealth." +Now you can try to move your outcomes around. +You can try to manipulate your fate, like this person is doing, but it costs you something to do it. +It means that you have to save more today. +Once you find an investment that you're happy with, what people do is they click "done" and the markers begin to disappear, slowly, one by one. +It simulates what it is like to invest in something and to watch that investment pan out. +At the end, there will only be one marker left standing and it will determine our wealth in retirement. +Yes, this person retired at 150 percent of their working income in retirement. +They're making more money while retired than they were making while they were working. +If you're like most people, just seeing that gave you a small sense of elation and joy -- just to think about making 50 percent more money in retirement than before. +However, had you ended up on the very bottom, it might have given you a slight sense of dread and/or nausea thinking about struggling to get by in retirement. +By using this tool over and over and simulating outcome after outcome, people can understand that the investments and savings that they undertake today determine their well-being in the future. +Now people are motivated through emotions, but different people find different things motivating. +This is a simulation that uses graphics, but other people find motivating what money can buy, not just numbers. +So here I made a distribution builder where instead of showing numerical outcomes, I show people what those outcomes will get you, in particular apartments that you can afford if you're retiring on 3,000, 2,500, 2,000 dollars per month and so on. +As you move down the ladder of apartments, you see that they get worse and worse. +Some of them look like places I lived in as a graduate student. +And as you get to the very bottom, you're faced with the unfortunate reality that if you don't save anything for retirement, you won't be able to afford any housing at all. +Those are actual pictures of actual apartments renting for that amount as advertised on the Internet. +The last thing I'll show you, the last behavioral time machine, is something that I created with Hal Hershfield, who was introduced to me by my coauthor on a previous project, Bill Sharpe. +And what it is is an exploration into virtual reality. +So what we do is we take pictures of people -- in this case, college-age people -- and we use software to age them and show these people what they'll look like when they're 60, 70, 80 years old. +And we try to test whether actually assisting your imagination by looking at the face of your future self can change you investment behavior. +So this is one of our experiments. +Here we see the face of the young subject on the left. +He's given a control that allows him to adjust his savings rate. +As he moves his savings rate down, it means that he's saving zero when it's all the way here at the left. +You can see his current annual income -- this is the percentage of his paycheck that he can take home today -- is quite high, 91 percent, but his retirement income is quite low. +He's going to retire on 44 percent of what he earned while he was working. +If he saves the maximum legal amount, his retirement income goes up, but he's unhappy because now he has less money on the left-hand side to spend today. +Other conditions show people the future self. +And from the future self's point of view, everything is in reverse. +If you save very little, the future self is unhappy living on 44 percent of the income. +Whereas if the present self saves a lot, the future self is delighted, where the income is close up near 100 percent. +To bring this to a wider audience, I've been working with Hal and Allianz to create something we call the behavioral time machine, in which you not only get to see yourself in the future, but you get to see anticipated emotional reactions to different levels of retirement wealth. +So for instance, here is somebody using the tool. +And just watch the facial expressions as they move the slider. +The younger face gets happier and happier, saving nothing. +The older face is miserable. +And slowly, slowly we're bringing it up to a moderate savings rate. +And then it's a high savings rate. +The younger face is getting unhappy. +The older face is quite pleased with the decision. +We're going to see if this has an effect on what people do. +And what's nice about it is it's not something that biasing people actually, because as one face smiles, the other face frowns. +It's not telling you which way to put the slider, it's just reminding you that you are connected to and legally tied to this future self. +Your decisions today are going to determine its well-being. +And that's something that's easy to forget. +This use of virtual reality is not just good for making people look older. +There are programs you can get to see how people might look if they smoke, if they get too much exposure to the sun, if they gain weight and so on. +And what's good is, unlike in the experiments that Hal and myself ran with Russ Smith, you don't have to program these by yourself in order to see the virtual reality. +There are applications you can get on smartphones for just a few dollars that do the same thing. +This is actually a picture of Hal, my coauthor. +You might recognize him from the previous demos. +And just for kicks we ran his picture through the balding, aging and weight gain software to see how he would look. +Hal is here, so I think we owe it to him as well as yourself to disabuse you of that last image. +And I'll close it there. +On behalf of Hal and myself, I wish all the best to your present and future selves. +Thank you. +I've been in Afghanistan for 21 years. +I work for the Red Cross and I'm a physical therapist. +My job is to make arms and legs -- well it's not completely true. +We do more than that. +We provide the patients, the Afghan disabled, first with the physical rehabilitation then with the social reintegration. +It's a very logical plan, but it was not always like this. +For many years, we were just providing them with artificial limbs. +It took quite many years for the program to become what it is now. +Today, I would like to tell you a story, the story of a big change, and the story of the people who made this change possible. +I arrived in Afghanistan in 1990 to work in a hospital for war victims. +And then, not only for war victims, but it was for any kind of patient. +I was also working in the orthopedic center, we call it. +This is the place where we make the legs. +At that time I found myself in a strange situation. +I felt not quite ready for that job. +There was so much to learn. +There were so many things new to me. +But it was a terrific job. +But as soon as the fighting intensified, the physical rehabilitation was suspended. +There were many other things to do. +So the orthopedic center was closed because physical rehabilitation was not considered a priority. +It was a strange sensation. +Anyway, you know every time I make this speech -- it's not the first time -- but it's an emotion. +It's something that comes out from the past. +It's 21 years, but they are still all there. +Anyway, in 1992, the Mujahideen took all Afghanistan. +And the orthopedic center was closed. +I was assigned to work for the homeless, for the internally displaced people. +But one day, something happened. +I was coming back from a big food distribution in a mosque where tens and tens of people were squatting in terrible conditions. +I wanted to go home. I was driving. +You know, when you want to forget, you don't want to see things, so you just want to go to your room, to lock yourself inside and say, "That's enough." +A bomb fell not far from my car -- well, far enough, but big noise. +And everybody disappeared from the street. +The cars disappeared as well. +I ducked. +And only one figure remained in the middle of the road. +It was a man in a wheelchair desperately trying to move away. +Well I'm not a particularly brave person, I have to confess it, but I could not just ignore him. +So I stopped the car and I went to help. +The man was without legs and only with one arm. +Behind him there was a child, his son, red in the face in an effort to push the father. +So I took him into a safe place. +And I ask, "What are you doing out in the street in this situation?" +"I work," he said. +I wondered, what work? +And then I ask an even more stupid question: "Why don't you have the prostheses? +Why don't you have the artificial legs?" +And he said, "The Red Cross has closed." +Well without thinking, I told him "Come tomorrow. +We will provide you with a pair of legs." +The man, his name was Mahmoud, and the child, whose name was Rafi, left. +And then I said, "Oh, my God. What did I say? +The center is closed, no staff around. +Maybe the machinery is broken. +Who is going to make the legs for him?" +So I hoped that he would not come. +This is the streets of Kabul in those days. +So I said, "Well I will give him some money." +And so the following day, I went to the orthopedic center. +And I spoke with a gatekeeper. +I was ready to tell him, "Listen, if someone such-and-such comes tomorrow, please tell him that it was a mistake. +Nothing can be done. +Give him some money." +But Mahmoud and his son were already there. +And they were not alone. +There were 15, maybe 20, people like him waiting. +And there was some staff too. +Among them there was my right-hand man, Najmuddin. +And the gatekeeper told me, "They come everyday to see if the center will open." +I said, "No. +We have to go away. We cannot stay here." +They were bombing -- not very close -- but you could hear the noise of the bombs. +So, "We cannot stay here, it's dangerous. +It's not a priority." +But Najmuddin told me, "Listen now, we're here." +At least we can start repairing the prostheses, the broken prostheses of the people and maybe try to do something for people like Mahmoud." +I said, "No, please. We cannot do that. +It's really dangerous. +We have other things to do." +But they insisted. +When you have 20 people in front of you, looking at you and you are the one who has to decide ... +So we started doing some repairs. +Also one of the physical therapists reported that Mahmoud could be provided with a leg, but not immediately. +The legs were swollen and the knees were stiff, so he needed a long preparation. +Believe me, I was worried because I was breaking the rules. +I was doing something that I was not supposed to do. +In the evening, I went to speak with the bosses at the headquarters, and I told them -- I lied -- I told them, "Listen, we are going to start a couple of hours per day, just a few repairs." +Maybe some of them are here now. +So we started. +I was working, I was going everyday to work for the homeless. +And Najmuddin was staying there, doing everything and reporting on the patients. +He was telling me, "Patients are coming." +We knew that many more patients could not come, prevented by the fighting. +But people were coming. +And Mahmoud was coming every day. +And slowly, slowly week after week his legs were improving. +The stump or cast prosthesis was made, and he was starting the real physical rehabilitation. +He was coming every day, crossing the front line. +A couple of times I crossed the front line in the very place where Mahmoud and his son were crossing. +I tell you, it was something so sinister that I was astonished he could do it every day. +But finally, the great day arrived. +Mahmoud was going to be discharged with his new legs. +It was April, I remember, a very beautiful day. +April in Kabul is beautiful, full of roses, full of flowers. +We could not possibly stay indoors, with all these sandbags at the windows. +Very sad, dark. +So we chose a small spot in the garden. +And Mahmoud put on his prostheses, the other patients did the same, and they started practicing for the last time before being discharged. +Suddenly, they started fighting. +Two groups of Mujahideen started fighting. +We could hear in the air the bullets passing. +So we dashed, all of us, towards the shelter. +Mahmoud grabbed his son, I grabbed someone else. +Everybody was grabbing something. +And we ran. +You know, 50 meters can be a long distance if you are totally exposed, but we managed to reach the shelter. +Inside, all of us panting, I sat a moment and I heard Rafi telling his father, "Father, you can run faster than me." +And Mahmoud, "Of course I can. +I can run, and now you can go to school. +No need of staying with me all the day pushing my wheelchair." +Later on, we took them home. +And I will never forget Mahmoud and his son walking together pushing the empty wheelchair. +And then I understood, physical rehabilitation is a priority. +Dignity cannot wait for better times. +From that day on, we never closed a single day. +Well sometimes we were suspended for a few hours, but we never, we never closed it again. +I met Mahmoud one year later. +He was in good shape -- a bit thinner. +He needed to change his prostheses -- a new pair of prostheses. +I asked about his son. +He told me, "He's at school. He'd doing quite well." +But I understood he wanted to tell me something. +So I asked him, "What is that?" +He was sweating. +He was clearly embarrassed. +And he was standing in front of me, his head down. +He said, "You have taught me to walk. +Thank you very much. +Now help me not to be a beggar anymore." +That was the job. +"My children are growing. +I feel ashamed. +I don't want them to be teased at school by the other students." +I said, "Okay." +I thought, how much money do I have in my pocket? +Just to give him some money. +It was the easiest way. +He read my mind, and he said, "I ask for a job." +And then he added something I will never forget for the rest of my life. +He said, "I am a scrap of a man, but if you help me, I'm ready to do anything, even if I have to crawl on the ground." +And then he sat down. +I sat down too with goosebumps everywhere. +Legless, with only one arm, illiterate, unskilled -- what job for him? +Najmuddin told me, "Well we have a vacancy in the carpentry shop." +"What?" I said, "Stop." +"Well yes, we need to increase the production of feet. +We need to employ someone to glue and to screw the sole of the feet. +We need to increase the production." +"Excuse me?" +I could not believe. +And then he said, "No, we can modify the workbench maybe to put a special stool, a special anvil, special vice, and maybe an electric screwdriver." +I said, "Listen, it's insane. +And it's even cruel to think of anything like this. +That's a production line and a very fast one. +It's cruel to offer him a job knowing that he's going to fail." +But with Najmuddin, we cannot discuss. +So the only things I could manage to obtain was a kind of a compromise. +Only one week -- one week try and not a single day more. +One week later, Mahmoud was the fastest in the production line. +I told Najmuddin, "That's a trick. +I can't believe it." +The production was up 20 percent. +"It's a trick, it's a trick," I said. +And then I asked for verification. +It was true. +The comment of Najmuddin was Mahmoud has something to prove. +I understood that I was wrong again. +Mahmoud had looked taller. +I remember him sitting behind the workbench smiling. +He was a new man, taller again. +Of course, I understood that what made him stand tall -- yeah they were the legs, thank you very much -- but as a first step, it was the dignity. +He has regained his full dignity thanks to that job. +So of course, I understood. +And then we started a new policy -- a new policy completely different. +We decided to employ as many disabled as possible to train them in any possible job. +It became a policy of "positive discrimination," we call it now. +And you know what? +It's good for everybody. +Everybody benefits from that -- those employed, of course, because they get a job and dignity. +But also for the newcomers. +They are 7,000 every year -- people coming for the first time. +And you should see the faces of these people when they realize that those assisting them are like them. +Sometimes you see them, they look, "Oh." +And you see the faces. +And then the surprise turns into hope. +And it's easy for me as well to train someone who has already passed through the experience of disability. +Poof, they learn much faster -- the motivation, the empathy they can establish with the patient is completely different, completely. +Scraps of men do not exist. +People like Mahmoud are agents of change. +And when you start changing, you cannot stop. +So employing people, yes, but also we started programming projects of microfinance, education. +And when you start, you cannot stop. +So you do vocational training, home education for those who cannot go to school. +Physical therapies can be done, not only in the orthopedic center, but also in the houses of the people. +There is always a better way to do things. +That's Najmuddin, the one with the white coat. +Terrible Najmuddin, is that one. +I have learned a lot from people like Najmuddin, Mahmoud, Rafi. +They are my teachers. +I have a wish, a big wish, that this way of working, this way of thinking, is going to be implemented in other countries. +There are plenty of countries at war like Afghanistan. +It is possible and it is not difficult. +All we have to do is to listen to the people that we are supposed assist, to make them part of the decision-making process and then, of course, to adapt. +This is my big wish. +Well don't think that the changes in Afghanistan are over; not at all. We are going on. +Recently we have just started a program, a sport program -- basketball for wheelchair users. +We transport the wheelchairs everywhere. +We have several teams in the main part of Afghanistan. +At the beginning, when Anajulina told me, "We would like to start it," I hesitated. +I said, "No," you can imagine. +I said, "No, no, no, no, we can't." +And then I asked the usual question: "Is it a priority? +Is it really necessary?" +Well now you should see me. +I never miss a single training session. +The night before a match I'm very nervous. +And you should see me during the match. +I shout like a true Italian. +What's next? What is going to be the next change? +Well I don't know yet, but I'm sure Najmuddin and his friends, they have it already in mind. +That was my story. Thank you very much. +There have been many revolutions over the last century, but perhaps none as significant as the longevity revolution. +We are living on average today 34 years longer than our great-grandparents did. +Think about that. +That's an entire second adult lifetime that's been added to our lifespan. +And yet, for the most part, our culture has not come to terms with what this means. +We're still living with the old paradigm of age as an arch. +That's the metaphor, the old metaphor. +You're born, you peak at midlife and decline into decrepitude. +Age as pathology. +But many people today -- philosophers, artists, doctors, scientists -- are taking a new look at what I call the third act, the last three decades of life. +They realize that this is actually a developmental stage of life with its own significance -- as different from midlife as adolescence is from childhood. +And they are asking -- we should all be asking -- how do we use this time? +How do we live it successfully? +What is the appropriate new metaphor for aging? +I've spent the last year researching and writing about this subject. +And I have come to find that a more appropriate metaphor for aging is a staircase -- the upward ascension of the human spirit, bringing us into wisdom, wholeness and authenticity. +Age not at all as pathology; age as potential. +And guess what? +This potential is not for the lucky few. +It turns out, most people over 50 feel better, are less stressed, are less hostile, less anxious. +We tend to see commonalities more than differences. +Some of the studies even say we're happier. +This is not what I expected, trust me. +I come from a long line of depressives. +As I was approaching my late 40s, when I would wake up in the morning my first six thoughts would all be negative. +And I got scared. +I thought, oh my gosh. +I'm going to become a crotchety old lady. +But now that I am actually smack-dab in the middle of my own third act, I realize I've never been happier. +I have such a powerful feeling of well-being. +And I've discovered that when you're inside oldness, as opposed to looking at it from the outside, fear subsides. +You realize, you're still yourself -- maybe even more so. +Picasso once said, "It takes a long time to become young." +I don't want to romanticize aging. +Obviously, there's no guarantee that it can be a time of fruition and growth. +Some of it is a matter of luck. +Some of it, obviously, is genetic. +One third of it, in fact, is genetic. +And there isn't much we can do about that. +But that means that two-thirds of how well we do in the third act, we can do something about. +We're going to discuss what we can do to make these added years really successful and use them to make a difference. +Now let me say something about the staircase, which may seem like an odd metaphor for seniors given the fact that many seniors are challenged by stairs. +Myself included. +As you may know, the entire world operates on a universal law: entropy, the second law of thermodynamics. +Entropy means that everything in the world, everything, is in a state of decline and decay, the arch. +There's only one exception to this universal law, and that is the human spirit, which can continue to evolve upwards -- the staircase -- bringing us into wholeness, authenticity and wisdom. +And here's an example of what I mean. +This upward ascension can happen even in the face of extreme physical challenges. +About three years ago, I read an article in the New York Times. +It was about a man named Neil Selinger -- 57 years old, a retired lawyer -- who had joined the writers group at Sarah Lawrence where he found his writer's voice. +Two years later, he was diagnosed with ALS, commonly known as Lou Gehrig's disease. +It's a terrible disease. It's fatal. +It wastes the body, but the mind remains intact. +In this article, Mr. Selinger wrote the following to describe what was happening to him. +And I quote, "As my muscles weakened, my writing became stronger. +As I slowly lost my speech, I gained my voice. +As I diminished, I grew. +As I lost so much, I finally started to find myself." +Neil Selinger, to me, is the embodiment of mounting the staircase in his third act. +Now we're all born with spirit, all of us, but sometimes it gets tamped down beneath the challenges of life, violence, abuse, neglect. +Perhaps our parents suffered from depression. +Perhaps they weren't able to love us beyond how we performed in the world. +Perhaps we still suffer from a psychic pain, a wound. +Perhaps we feel that many of our relationships have not had closure. +And so we can feel unfinished. +Perhaps the task of the third act is to finish up the task of finishing ourselves. +For me, it began as I was approaching my third act, my 60th birthday. +How was I supposed to live it? +What was I supposed to accomplish in this final act? +And I realized that, in order to know where I was going, I had to know where I'd been. +And so I went back and I studied my first two acts, trying to see who I was then, who I really was -- not who my parents or other people told me I was, or treated me like I was. +But who was I? Who were my parents -- not as parents, but as people? +Who were my grandparents? +How did they treat my parents? +These kinds of things. +I discovered a couple of years later that this process that I had gone through is called by psychologists "doing a life review." +And they say it can give new significance and clarity and meaning to a person's life. +You may discover, as I did, that a lot of things that you used to think were your fault, a lot of things you used to think about yourself, really had nothing to do with you. +It wasn't your fault; you're just fine. +And you're able to go back and forgive them and forgive yourself. +You're able to free yourself from your past. +You can work to change your relationship to your past. +Now while I was writing about this, I came upon a book called "Man's Search for Meaning" by Viktor Frankl. +Viktor Frankl was a German psychiatrist who'd spent five years in a Nazi concentration camp. +And he wrote that, while he was in the camp, he could tell, should they ever be released, which of the people would be okay and which would not. +And he wrote this: "Everything you have in life can be taken from you except one thing, your freedom to choose how you will respond to the situation. +This is what determines the quality of the life we've lived -- not whether we've been rich or poor, famous or unknown, healthy or suffering. +What determines our quality of life is how we relate to these realities, what kind of meaning we assign them, what kind of attitude we cling to about them, what state of mind we allow them to trigger." +Perhaps the central purpose of the third act is to go back and to try, if appropriate, to change our relationship to the past. +It turns out that cognitive research shows when we are able to do this, it manifests neurologically -- neural pathways are created in the brain. +You see, if you have, over time, reacted negatively to past events and people, neural pathways are laid down by chemical and electrical signals that are sent through the brain. +And over time, these neural pathways become hardwired, they become the norm -- even if it's bad for us because it causes us stress and anxiety. +If however, we can go back and alter our relationship, re-vision our relationship to past people and events, neural pathways can change. +And if we can maintain the more positive feelings about the past, that becomes the new norm. +It's like resetting a thermostat. +It's not having experiences that make us wise, it's reflecting on the experiences that we've had that makes us wise -- and that helps us become whole, brings wisdom and authenticity. +It helps us become what we might have been. +Women start off whole, don't we? +I mean, as girls, we start off feisty -- "Yeah, who says?" +We have agency. +We are the subjects of our own lives. +But very often, many, if not most of us, when we hit puberty, we start worrying about fitting in and being popular. +And we become the subjects and objects of other people's lives. +But now, in our third acts, it may be possible for us to circle back to where we started and know it for the first time. +And if we can do that, it will not just be for ourselves. +Older women are the largest demographic in the world. +If we can go back and redefine ourselves and become whole, this will create a cultural shift in the world, and it will give an example to younger generations so that they can reconceive their own lifespan. +Thank you very much. +There's a poem written by a very famous English poet at the end of the 19th century. +It was said to echo in Churchill's brain in the 1930s. +And the poem goes: "On the idle hill of summer, lazy with the flow of streams, hark I hear a distant drummer, drumming like a sound in dreams, far and near and low and louder on the roads of earth go by, dear to friend and food to powder, soldiers marching, soon to die." +Those who are interested in poetry, the poem is "A Shropshire Lad" written by A.E. Housman. +But what Housman understood, and you hear it in the symphonies of Nielsen too, was that the long, hot, silvan summers of stability of the 19th century were coming to a close, and that we were about to move into one of those terrifying periods of history when power changes. +And these are always periods, ladies and gentlemen, accompanied by turbulence, and all too often by blood. +And my message for you is that I believe we are condemned, if you like, to live at just one of those moments in history when the gimbals upon which the established order of power is beginning to change and the new look of the world, the new powers that exist in the world, are beginning to take form. +And these are -- and we see it very clearly today -- nearly always highly turbulent times, highly difficult times, and all too often very bloody times. +By the way, it happens about once every century. +You might argue that the last time it happened -- and that's what Housman felt coming and what Churchill felt too -- was that when power passed from the old nations, the old powers of Europe, across the Atlantic to the new emerging power of the United States of America -- the beginning of the American century. +And of course, into the vacuum where the too-old European powers used to be were played the two bloody catastrophes of the last century -- the one in the first part and the one in the second part: the two great World Wars. +Mao Zedong used to refer to them as the European civil wars, and it's probably a more accurate way of describing them. +Well, ladies and gentlemen, we live at one of those times. +But for us, I want to talk about three factors today. +And the first of these, the first two of these, is about a shift in power. +And the second is about some new dimension which I want to refer to, which has never quite happened in the way it's happening now. +But let's talk about the shifts of power that are occurring to the world. +And what is happening today is, in one sense, frightening because it's never happened before. +We have seen lateral shifts of power -- the power of Greece passed to Rome and the power shifts that occurred during the European civilizations -- but we are seeing something slightly different. +For power is not just moving laterally from nation to nation. +It's also moving vertically. +What's happening today is that the power that was encased, held to accountability, held to the rule of law, within the institution of the nation state has now migrated in very large measure onto the global stage. +The globalization of power -- we talk about the globalization of markets, but actually it's the globalization of real power. +And where, at the nation state level that power is held to accountability subject to the rule of law, on the international stage it is not. +These live in a global space which is largely unregulated, not subject to the rule of law, and in which people may act free of constraint. +Now that suits the powerful up to a moment. +The revelation of 9/11 is that even if you are the most powerful nation on earth, nevertheless, those who inhabit that space can attack you even in your most iconic of cities one bright September morning. +It's said that something like 60 percent of the four million dollars that was taken to fund 9/11 actually passed through the institutions of the Twin Towers which 9/11 destroyed. +You see, our enemies also use this space -- the space of mass travel, the Internet, satellite broadcasters -- to be able to get around their poison, which is about destroying our systems and our ways. +Sooner or later, sooner or later, the rule of history is that where power goes governance must follow. +And if it is therefore the case, as I believe it is, that one of the phenomenon of our time is the globalization of power, then it follows that one of the challenges of our time is to bring governance to the global space. +And I believe that the decades ahead of us now will be to a greater or lesser extent turbulent the more or less we are able to achieve that aim: to bring governance to the global space. +Now notice, I'm not talking about government. +I'm not talking about setting up some global democratic institution. +My own view, by the way, ladies and gentlemen, is that this is unlikely to be done by spawning more U.N. institutions. +If we didn't have the U.N., we'd have to invent it. +The world needs an international forum. +It needs a means by which you can legitimize international action. +But when it comes to governance of the global space, my guess is this won't happen through the creation of more U.N. institutions. +It will actually happen by the powerful coming together and making treaty-based systems, treaty-based agreements, to govern that global space. +And if you look, you can see them happening, already beginning to emerge. +The World Trade Organization: treaty-based organization, entirely treaty-based, and yet, powerful enough to hold even the most powerful, the United States, to account if necessary. +Kyoto: the beginnings of struggling to create a treaty-based organization. +The G20: we know now that we have to put together an institution which is capable of bringing governance to that financial space for financial speculation. +And that's what the G20 is, a treaty-based institution. +Now there's a problem there, and we'll come back to it in a minute, which is that if you bring the most powerful together to make the rules in treaty-based institutions, to fill that governance space, then what happens to the weak who are left out? +And that's a big problem, and we'll return to it in just a second. +So there's my first message, that if you are to pass through these turbulent times more or less turbulently, then our success in doing that will in large measure depend on our capacity to bring sensible governance to the global space. +And watch that beginning to happen. +My second point is, and I know I don't have to talk to an audience like this about such a thing, but power is not just shifting vertically, it's also shifting horizontally. +You might argue that the story, the history of civilizations, has been civilizations gathered around seas -- with the first ones around the Mediterranean, the more recent ones in the ascendents of Western power around the Atlantic. +Well it seems to me that we're now seeing a fundamental shift of power, broadly speaking, away from nations gathered around the Atlantic [seaboard] to the nations gathered around the Pacific rim. +Now that begins with economic power, but that's the way it always begins. +You already begin to see the development of foreign policies, the augmentation of military budgets occurring in the other growing powers in the world. +I think actually this is not so much a shift from the West to the East; something different is happening. +My guess is, for what it's worth, is that the United States will remain the most powerful nation on earth for the next 10 years, 15, but the context in which she holds her power has now radically altered; it has radically changed. +We are coming out of 50 years, most unusual years, of history in which we have had a totally mono-polar world, in which every compass needle for or against has to be referenced by its position to Washington -- a world bestrode by a single colossus. +But that's not a usual case in history. +In fact, what's now emerging is the much more normal case of history. +You're beginning to see the emergence of a multi-polar world. +Up until now, the United States has been the dominant feature of our world. +They will remain the most powerful nation, but they will be the most powerful nation in an increasingly multi-polar world. +And you begin to see the alternative centers of power building up -- in China, of course, though my own guess is that China's ascent to greatness is not smooth. +It's going to be quite grumpy as China begins to democratize her society after liberalizing her economy. +But that's a subject of a different discussion. +You see India, you see Brazil. +You see increasingly that the world now looks actually, for us Europeans, much more like Europe in the 19th century. +Europe in the 19th century: a great British foreign secretary, Lord Canning, used to describe it as the "European concert of powers." +There was a balance, a five-sided balance. +Britain always played to the balance. +If Paris got together with Berlin, Britain got together with Vienna and Rome to provide a counterbalance. +Now notice, in a period which is dominated by a mono-polar world, you have fixed alliances -- NATO, the Warsaw Pact. +A fixed polarity of power means fixed alliances. +But a multiple polarity of power means shifting and changing alliances. +And that's the world we're coming into, in which we will increasingly see that our alliances are not fixed. +Canning, the great British foreign secretary once said, "Britain has a common interest, but no common allies." +And we will see increasingly that even we in the West will reach out, have to reach out, beyond the cozy circle of the Atlantic powers to make alliances with others if we want to get things done in the world. +Note, that when we went into Libya, it was not good enough for the West to do it alone; we had to bring others in. +We had to bring, in this case, the Arab League in. +My guess is Iraq and Afghanistan are the last times when the West has tried to do it themselves, and we haven't succeeded. +My guess is that we're reaching the beginning of the end of 400 years -- I say 400 years because it's the end of the Ottoman Empire -- of the hegemony of Western power, Western institutions and Western values. +You know, up until now, if the West got its act together, it could propose and dispose in every corner of the world. +But that's no longer true. +Take the last financial crisis after the Second World War. +The West got together -- the Bretton Woods Institution, World Bank, International Monetary Fund -- the problem solved. +Now we have to call in others. +Now we have to create the G20. +Now we have to reach beyond the cozy circle of our Western friends. +Let me make a prediction for you, which is probably even more startling. +I suspect we are now reaching the end of 400 years when Western power was enough. +People say to me, "The Chinese, of course, they'll never get themselves involved in peace-making, multilateral peace-making around the world." +Oh yes? Why not? +How many Chinese troops are serving under the blue beret, serving under the blue flag, serving under the U.N. command in the world today? +3,700. +How many Americans? 11. +What is the largest naval contingent tackling the issue of Somali pirates? +The Chinese naval contingent. +Of course they are, they are a mercantilist nation. +They want to keep the sea lanes open. +Increasingly, we are going to have to do business with people with whom we do not share values, but with whom, for the moment, we share common interests. +It's a whole new different way of looking at the world that is now emerging. +And here's the third factor, which is totally different. +Today in our modern world, because of the Internet, because of the kinds of things people have been talking about here, everything is connected to everything. +We are now interdependent. +We are now interlocked, as nations, as individuals, in a way which has never been the case before, never been the case before. +The interrelationship of nations, well it's always existed. +Diplomacy is about managing the interrelationship of nations. +But now we are intimately locked together. +You get swine flu in Mexico, it's a problem for Charles de Gaulle Airport 24 hours later. +Lehman Brothers goes down, the whole lot collapses. +There are fires in the steppes of Russia, food riots in Africa. +We are all now deeply, deeply, deeply interconnected. +And what that means is the idea of a nation state acting alone, not connected with others, not working with others, is no longer a viable proposition. +Because the actions of a nation state are neither confined to itself, nor is it sufficient for the nation state itself to control its own territory, because the effects outside the nation state are now beginning to affect what happens inside them. +I was a young soldier in the last of the small empire wars of Britain. +At that time, the defense of my country was about one thing and one thing only: how strong was our army, how strong was our air force, how strong was our navy and how strong were our allies. +That was when the enemy was outside the walls. +Now the enemy is inside the walls. +It's no longer the case that the security of a country is simply a matter for its soldiers and its ministry of defense. +It's its capacity to lock together its institutions. +And this tells you something very important. +It tells you that, in fact, our governments, vertically constructed, constructed on the economic model of the Industrial Revolution -- vertical hierarchy, specialization of tasks, command structures -- have got the wrong structures completely. +You in business know that the paradigm structure of our time, ladies and gentlemen, is the network. +It's your capacity to network that matters, both within your governments and externally. +So here is Ashdown's third law. +By the way, don't ask me about Ashdown's first law and second law because I haven't invented those yet; it always sounds better if there's a third law, doesn't it? +Ashdown's third law is that in the modern age, where everything is connected to everything, the most important thing about what you can do is what you can do with others. +The most important bit about your structure -- whether you're a government, whether you're an army regiment, whether you're a business -- is your docking points, your interconnectors, your capacity to network with others. +You understand that in industry; governments don't. +But now one final thing. +If it is the case, ladies and gentlemen -- and it is -- that we are now locked together in a way that has never been quite the same before, then it's also the case that we share a destiny with each other. +Suddenly and for the very first time, collective defense, the thing that has dominated us as the concept of securing our nations, is no longer enough. +It used to be the case that if my tribe was more powerful than their tribe, I was safe; if my country was more powerful than their country, I was safe; my alliance, like NATO, was more powerful than their alliance, I was safe. +It is no longer the case. +The advent of the interconnectedness and of the weapons of mass destruction means that, increasingly, I share a destiny with my enemy. +When I was a diplomat negotiating the disarmament treaties with the Soviet Union in Geneva in the 1970s, we succeeded because we understood we shared a destiny with them. +Collective security is not enough. +Peace has come to Northern Ireland because both sides realized that the zero-sum game couldn't work. +They shared a destiny with their enemies. +One of the great barriers to peace in the Middle East is that both sides, both Israel and, I think, the Palestinians, do not understand that they share a collective destiny. +And so suddenly, ladies and gentlemen, what has been the proposition of visionaries and poets down the ages becomes something we have to take seriously as a matter of public policy. +I started with a poem, I'll end with one. +The great poem of John Donne's. +"Send not for whom the bell tolls." +The poem is called "No Man is an Island." +And it goes: "Every man's death affected me, for I am involved in mankind, send not to ask for whom the bell tolls, it tolls for thee." +For John Donne, a recommendation of morality. +For us, I think, part of the equation for our survival. +Thank you very much. +There's currently over a thousand TEDTalks on the TED website. +And I guess many of you here think that this is quite fantastic -- except for me. I don't agree with this. +I think we have a situation here. +Because if you think about it, 1,000 TEDTalks, that's over 1,000 ideas worth spreading. +How on earth are you going to spread a thousand ideas? +Even if you just try to get all of those ideas into your head by watching all those thousand TED videos, it would actually currently take you over 250 hours to do so. +And I did a little calculation of this. +The damage to the economy for each one who does this is around $15,000. +So having seen this danger to the economy, I thought, we need to find a solution to this problem. +Here's my approach to it all. +If you look at the current situation, you have a thousand TEDTalks. +Each of those TEDTalks has an average length of about 2,300 words. +Now take this together and you end up with 2.3 million words of TEDTalks, which is about three Bibles-worth of content. +The obvious question here is, does a TEDTalk really need 2,300 words? +Isn't there something shorter? +I mean, if you have an idea worth spreading, surely you can put it into something shorter than 2,300 words. +The only question is, how short can you get? +What's the minimum amount of words you would need to do a TEDTalk? +While I was pondering this question, I came across this urban legend about Ernest Hemingway, who allegedly said that these six words here: "For sale: baby shoes, never worn," were the best novel he had ever written. +And I also encountered a project called Six-Word Memoirs where people were asked, take your whole life and please sum this up into six words, such as these here: "Found true love, married someone else." +Or "Living in existential vacuum; it sucks." +I actually like that one. +So if a novel can be put into six words and a whole memoir can be put into six words, you don't need more than six words for a TEDTalk. +We could have been done by lunch here. +I mean ... +And if you did this for all thousand TEDTalks, you would get from 2.3 million words down to 6,000. +So I thought this was quite worthwhile. +So I started asking all my friends, please take your favorite TEDTalk and put that into six words. +So here are some of the results that I received. I think they're quite nice. +For example, Dan Pink's talk on motivation, which was pretty good if you haven't seen it: "Drop carrot. Drop stick. Bring meaning." +It's what he's basically talking about in those 18 and a half minutes. +Or some even included references to the speakers, such as Nathan Myhrvold's speaking style, or the one of Tim Ferriss, which might be considered a bit strenuous at times. +The challenge here is, if I try to systematically do this, I would probably end up with a lot of summaries, but not with many friends in the end. +So I had to find a different method, preferably involving total strangers. +And luckily there's a website for that called Mechanical Turk, which is a website where you can post tasks that you don't want to do yourself, such as "Please summarize this text for me in six words." +And I didn't allow any low-cost countries to work on this, but I found out I could get a six-word summary for just 10 cents, which I think is a pretty good price. +Even then, unfortunately, it's not possible to summarize each TEDTalk individually. +Because if you do the math, you have a thousand TEDTalks, the pay 10 cents each; you have to do more than one summary for each of those talks, because some of them will probably be, or are, really bad. +So I would end up paying hundreds of dollars. +So I thought of a different way by thinking, well, the talks revolve around certain themes. +So what if I don't let people summarize individual TEDTalks to six words, but give them 10 TEDTalks at the same time and say, "Please do a six-word summary for that one." +I would cut my costs by 90 percent. +So for $60, I could summarize a thousand TEDTalks into just 600 summaries, which would actually be quite nice. +Now some of you might actually right now be thinking, It's downright crazy to have 10 TEDTalks summarized into just six words. +But it's actually not, because there's an example by statistics professor, Hans Rosling. +I guess many of you have seen one or more of his talks. +He's got eight talks online, and those talks can basically be summed up into just four words, because that's all he's basically showing us, our intuition is really bad. +He always proves us wrong. +So people on the Internet, some didn't do so well. +I mean, when I asked them to summarize the 10 TEDTalks at the same time, some took the easy route out. +They just had some general comment. +There were others, and I found this quite cheeky. +They used their six words to talk back to me and ask me if I'd been too much on Google lately. +And finally also, I never understood this, some people really came up with their own version of the truth. +I don't know any TEDTalk that contains this. +But, oh well. In the end, however, and this is really amazing, for each of those 10 TEDTalk clusters that I submitted, I actually received meaningful summaries. +Here are some of my favorites. +For example, for all the TEDTalks around food, someone summed this up into: "Food shaping body, brains and environment," which I think is pretty good. +Or happiness: "Striving toward happiness = moving toward unhappiness." +So here I was. +I had started out with a thousand TEDTalks and I had 600 six-word summaries for those. +Actually it sounded nice in the beginning, but when you look at 600 summaries, it's quite a lot. +It's a huge list. +So I thought, I probably have to take this one step further here and create summaries of the summaries -- and this is exactly what I did. +So I took the 600 summaries that I had, put them into nine groups according to the ratings that the talks had originally received on TED.com and asked people to do summaries of those. +Again, there were some misunderstandings. +For example, when I had a cluster of all the beautiful talks, someone thought I was just trying to find the ultimate pick-up line. +But in the end, amazingly, again, people were able to do it. +For example, all the courageous TEDTalks: "People dying," or "People suffering," was also one, "with easy solutions around." +Or the recipe for the ultimate jaw-dropping TEDTalk: "Flickr photos of intergalactic classical composer." +I mean that's the essence of it all. +Now I had my nine groups, but, I mean, it's already quite a reduction. +But of course, once you are that far, you're not really satisfied. +I wanted to go all the way, all the way down the distillery, starting out with a thousand TEDTalks. +I wanted to have a thousand TEDTalks summarized into just six words -- which would be a 99.9997 percent reduction in content. +And I would only pay $99.50 -- so stay even below a hundred dollars for it. +So I had 50 overall summaries done. +This time I paid 25 cents because I thought the task was a bit harder. +And unfortunately when I first received the answers -- and here you'll see six of the answers -- I was a bit disappointed. +Because I think you'll agree, they all summarize some aspect of TED, but to me they felt a bit bland, or they just had a certain aspect of TED in them. +So I was almost ready to give up when one night I played around with these sentences and found out that there's actually a beautiful solution in here. +So here it is, a crowd-sourced, six-word summary of a thousand TEDTalks at the value of $99.50: "Why the worry? I'd rather wonder." +Thank you very much. +Lauren Hodge: If you were going to a restaurant and wanted a healthier option, which would you choose, grilled or fried chicken? +Now most people would answer grilled, and it's true that grilled chicken does contain less fat and fewer calories. +However, grilled chicken poses a hidden danger. +The hidden danger is heterocyclic amines -- specifically phenomethylimidazopyridine, or PhIP -- which is the immunogenic or carcinogenic compound. +A carcinogen is any substance or agent that causes abnormal growth of cells, which can also cause them to metastasize or spread. +They are also organic compounds in which one or more of the hydrogens in ammonia is replaced with a more complex group. +Studies show that antioxidants are known to decrease these heterocyclic amines. +However, no studies exist yet that show how or why. +These here are five different organizations that classify carcinogens. +And as you can see, none of the organizations consider the compounds to be safe, which justifies the need to decrease them in our diet. +Now you might wonder how a 13 year-old girl could come up with this idea. +And I was led to it through a series of events. +I first learned about it through a lawsuit I read about in my doctor's office -- which was between the Physician's Committee for Responsible Medicine and seven different fast food restaurants. +They weren't sued because there was carcinogens in the chicken, but they were sued because of California's Proposition 65, which stated that if there's anything dangerous in the products then the companies had to give a clear warning. +So I was very surprised about this. +And I was wondering why nobody knew more about this dangerous grilled chicken, which doesn't seem very harmful. +But then one night, my mom was cooking grilled chicken for dinner, and I noticed that the edges of the chicken, which had been marinated in lemon juice, turned white. +And later in biology class, I learned that it's due to a process called denaturing, which is where the proteins will change shape and lose their ability to chemically function. +So I combined these two ideas and I formulated a hypothesis, saying that, could possibly the carcinogens be decreased due to a marinade and could it be due to the differences in PH? +So my idea was born, and I had the project set up and a hypothesis, so what was my next step? +Well obviously I had to find a lab to work at because I didn't have the equipment in my school. +I thought this would be easy, but I emailed about 200 different people within a five-hour radius of where I lived, and I got one positive response that said that they could work with me. +Most of the others either never responded back, said they didn't have the time or didn't have the equipment and couldn't help me. +So it was a big commitment to drive to the lab to work multiple times. +However, it was a great opportunity to work in a real lab -- so I could finally start my project. +The first stage was completed at home, which consisted of marinating the chicken, grilling the chicken, amassing it and preparing it to be transported to the lab. +The second stage was completed at the Penn State University main campus lab, which is where I extracted the chemicals, changed the PH so I could run it through the equipment and separated the compounds I needed from the rest of the chicken. +The final stages, when I ran the samples through a high-pressure liquid chromatography mass spectrometer, which separated the compounds and analyzed the chemicals and told me exactly how much carcinogens I had in my chicken. +So when I went through the data, I had very surprising results, because I found that four out of the five marinating ingredients actually inhibited the carcinogen formation. +When compared with the unmarinated chicken, which is what I used as my control, I found that lemon juice worked by far the best, which decreased the carcinogens by about 98 percent. +The saltwater marinade and the brown sugar marinade also worked very well, decreasing the carcinogens by about 60 percent. +Olive oil slightly decreased the PhIP formation, but it was nearly negligible. +And the soy sauce results were inconclusive because of the large data range, but it seems like soy sauce actually increased the potential carcinogens. +Another important factor that I didn't take into account initially was the time cooked. +And I found that if you increase the time cooked, the amount of carcinogens rapidly increases. +So the best way to marinate chicken, based on this, is to, not under-cook, but definitely don't over-cook and char the chicken, and marinate in either lemon juice, brown sugar or saltwater. +Based on these findings, I have a question for you. +Would you be willing to make a simple change in your diet that could potentially save your life? +Now I'm not saying that if you eat grilled chicken that's not marinated, you're definitely going to catch cancer and die. +However, anything you can do to decrease the risk of potential carcinogens can definitely increase the quality of lifestyle. +Is it worth it to you? +How will you cook your chicken now? +Shree Bose: Hi everyone. I'm Shree Bose. +I was the 17-18 year-old age category winner and then the grand prize winner. +And I want all of you to imagine a little girl holding a dead blue spinach plant. +And she's standing in front of you and she's explaining to you that little kids will eat their vegetables if they're different colors. +Sounds ridiculous, right. +But that was me years ago. +And that was my first science fair project. +It got a bit more complicated from there. +My older brother Panaki Bose spent hours of his time explaining atoms to me when I barely understood basic algebra. +My parents suffered through many more of my science fair projects, including a remote controlled garbage can. +And then came the summer after my freshman year, when my grandfather passed away due to cancer. +And I remember watching my family go through that and thinking that I never wanted another family to feel that kind of loss. +So, armed with all the wisdom of freshman year biology, I decided I wanted to do cancer research at 15. +Good plan. +So I started emailing all of these professors in my area asking to work under their supervision in a lab. +Got rejected by all except one. +And then went on, my next summer, to work under Dr. Basu at the UNT Health Center at Fort Worth, Texas. +And that is where the research began. +So ovarian cancer is one of those cancers that most people don't know about, or at least don't pay that much attention to. +But yet, it's the fifth leading cause of cancer deaths among women in the United States. +In fact, one in 70 women will be diagnosed with ovarian cancer. +One in 100 will die from it. +Chemotherapy, one of the most effective ways used to treat cancer today, involves giving patients really high doses of chemicals to try and kill off cancer cells. +Cisplatin is a relatively common ovarian cancer chemotherapy drug -- a relatively simple molecule made in the lab that messes with the DNA of cancer cells and causes them to kill themselves. +Sounds great, right? +But here's the problem: sometimes patients become resistant to the drug, and then years after they've been declared to be cancer free, they come back. +And this time, they no longer respond to the drug. +It's a huge problem. +In fact, it's one of the biggest problems with chemotherapy today. +So we wanted to figure out how these ovarian cancer cells are becoming resistant to this drug called Cisplatin. +And we wanted to figure this out, because if we could figure that out, then we might be able to prevent that resistance from ever happening. +So that's what we set out to do. +And we thought it had something to do with this protein called AMP kinase, an energy protein. +So we ran all of these tests blocking the protein, and we saw this huge shift. +I mean, on the slide, you can see that on our sensitive side, these cells that are responding to the drug, when we start blocking the protein, the number of dying cells -- those colored dots -- they're going down. +But then on this side, with the same treatment, they're going up -- interesting. +But those are dots on a screen for you; what exactly does that mean? +Well basically that means that this protein is changing from the sensitive cell to the resistant cell. +And in fact, it might be changing the cells themselves to make the cells resistant. +And that's huge. +In fact, it means that if a patient comes in and they're resistant to this drug, then if we give them a chemical to block this protein, then we can treat them again with the same drug. +And that's huge for chemotherapy effectiveness -- possibly for many different types of cancer. +So that was my work, and it was my way of reimagining the future for future research, with figuring out exactly what this protein does, but also for the future of chemotherapy effectiveness -- so maybe all grandfathers with cancer have a little bit more time to spend with their grandchildren. +But my work wasn't just about the research. +It was about finding my passion. +That's why being the grand prize winner of the Google Global Science Fair -- cute picture, right -- it was so exciting to me and it was such an amazing honor. +And ever since then, I've gotten to do some pretty cool stuff -- from getting to meet the president to getting to be on this stage to talk to all of you guys. +But like I said, my journey wasn't just about the research, it was about finding my passion, and it was about making my own opportunities when I didn't even know what I was doing. +It was about inspiration and determination and never giving up on my interest for science and learning and growing. +After all, my story begins with a dried, withered spinach plant and it's only getting better from there. +Thank you. +Naomi Shah: Hi everyone. I'm Naomi Shah, and today I'll be talking to you about my research involving indoor air quality and asthmatic patients. +1.6 million deaths worldwide. +One death every 20 seconds. +People spend over 90 percent of their lives indoors. +And the economic burden of asthma exceeds that of HIV and tuberculosis combined. +Now these statistics had a huge impact on me, but what really sparked my interest in my research was watching both my dad and my brother suffer from chronic allergies year-round. +It confused me; why did these allergy symptoms persist well past the pollen season? +With this question in mind, I started researching, and I soon found that indoor air pollutants were the culprit. +As soon as I realized this, I investigated the underlying relationship between four prevalent air pollutants and their affect on the lung health of asthmatic patients. +At first, I just wanted to figure out which of these four pollutants have the largest negative health impact on the lung health of asthmatic patients. +But soon after, I developed a novel mathematical model that essentially quantifies the effect of these environmental pollutants on the lung health of asthmatic patients. +And it surprises me that no model currently exists that quantifies the effect of environmental factors on human lung health, because that relationship seems so important. +So with that in mind, I started researching more, I started investigating more, and I became very passionate. +Because I realized that if we could find a way to target remediation, we could also find a way to treat asthmatic patients more effectively. +For example, volatile organic compounds are chemical pollutants that are found in our schools, homes and workplaces. +They're everywhere. +These chemical pollutants are currently not a criteria air pollutant, as defined by the U.S. Clean Air Act. +Which is surprising to me, because these chemical pollutants, through my research, I show that they had a very large negative impact on the lung health of asthmatic patients and thus should be regulated. +So today I want to show you my interactive software model that I created. +I'm going to show it to you on my laptop. +And I have a volunteer subject in the audience today, Julie. +And all of Julie's data has been pre-entered into my interactive software model. +And this can be used by anyone. +So I want you to imagine that you're in Julie's shoes, or someone who's really close to you who suffers from asthma or another lung disorder. +So Julie's going to her doctor's office to get treated for her asthma. +And the doctor has her sit down, and he takes her peak expiratory flow rate -- which is essentially her exhalation rate, or the amount of air that she can breathe out in one breath. +So that peak expiratory flow rate, I've entered it up into the interactive software model. +I've also entered in her age, her gender and her height. +I've assumed that she lives in an average household with average air pollutant levels. +So any user can come in here and click on "lung function report" and it'll take them to this report that I created. +And this report really drives home the crux of my research. +So what it shows -- if you want to focus on that top graph in the right-hand corner -- it shows Julie's actual peak expiratory flow rate in the yellow bar. +This is the measurement that she took in her doctor's office. +In the blue bar at the bottom of the graph, it shows what her peak expiratory flow rate, what her exhalation rate or lung health, should be based on her age, gender and height. +So the doctor sees this difference between the yellow bar and the blue bar, and he says, "Wow, we need to give her steroids, medication and inhalers." +But I want everyone here to reimagine a world where instead of prescribing steroids, inhalers and medication, the doctor turns to Julie and says, "Why don't you go home and clean out your air filters. +Clean out the air ducts in your home, in your workplace, in your school. +Stop the use of incense and candles. +And if you're remodeling your house, take out all the carpeting and put in hardwood flooring." +Because these solutions are natural, these solutions are sustainable, and these solutions are long-term investments -- long-term investments that we're making for our generation and for future generations. +Because these environmental solutions that Julie can make in her home, her workplace and her school are impacting everyone that lives around her. +So I'm very passionate about this research and I really want to continue it and expand it to more disorders besides asthma, more respiratory disorders, as well as more pollutants. +But before I end my talk today, I want to leave you with one saying. +And that saying is that genetics loads the gun, but the environment pulls the trigger. +And that made a huge impact on me when I was doing this research. +Because what I feel, is a lot of us think that the environment is at a macro level, that we can't do anything to change our air quality or to change the climate or anything. +But if each one of us takes initiative in our own home, in our own school and in our own workplace, we can make a huge difference in air quality. +Because remember, we spend 90 percent of our lives indoors. +And air quality and air pollutants have a huge impact on the lung health of asthmatic patients, anyone with a respiratory disorder and really all of us in general. +So I want you to reimagine a world with better air quality, better quality of life and better quality of living for everyone including our future generations. +Thank you. +Lisa Ling: Right. +Can I have Shree and Lauren come up really quickly? +Your Google Science Fair champions. +Your winners. +We who are diplomats, we are trained to deal with conflicts between states and issues between states. +And I can tell you, our agenda is full. +There is trade, there is disarmament, there is cross-border relations. +But the picture is changing, and we are seeing that there are new key players coming onto the scene. +We loosely call them "groups." +They may represent social, religious, political, economic, military realities. +And we struggle with how to deal with them. +The rules of engagement: how to talk, when to talk, and how to deal with them. +Let me show you a slide here which illustrates the character of conflicts since 1946 until today. +You see the green is a traditional interstate conflict, the ones we used to read about. +The red is modern conflict, conflicts within states. +These are quite different, and they are outside the grasp of modern diplomacy. +And the core of these key actors are groups who represent different interests inside countries. +And the way they deal with their conflicts rapidly spreads to other countries. +So in a way, it is everybody's business. +Another acknowledgment we've seen during these years, recent years, is that very few of these domestic interstate, intrastate conflicts can be solved militarily. +They may have to be dealt with with military means, but they cannot be solved by military means. +They need political solutions. +And we, therefore, have a problem, because they escape traditional diplomacy. +And we have among states a reluctance in dealing with them. +Plus, during the last decade, we've been in the mode where dealing with groups was conceptually and politically dangerous. +After 9/11, either you were with us or against us. +It was black or white. +And groups are very often immediately label terrorists. +And who would talk to terrorists? +The West, as I would see it, comes out of that decade weakened, because we didn't understand the group. +So we've spent more time on focusing on why we should not talk to others than finding out how we talk to others. +Now I'm not naive. +You cannot talk to everybody all the time. +And there are times you should walk. +And sometimes military intervention is necessary. +I happen to believe that Libya was necessary and that military intervention in Afghanistan was also necessary. +And my country relies on its security through military alliance, that's clear. +But still we have a large deficit in dealing with and understanding modern conflict. +Let us turn to Afghanistan. +10 years after that military intervention, that country is far from secure. +The situation, to be honest, is very serious. +Now again, the military is necessary, but the military is no problem-solver. +When I first came to Afghanistan in 2005 as a foreign minister, I met the commander of ISAF, the international troops. +And he told me that, "This can be won militarily, minister. +We just have to persevere." +Now four COM ISAF's later, we hear a different message: "This cannot be won militarily. +We need military presence, but we need to move to politics. +We can only solve this through a political solution. +And it is not us who will solve it; Afghans have to solve it." +But then they need a different political process than the one they were given in 2001, 2002. +They need an inclusive process where the real fabric of this very complicated society can deal with their issues. +Everybody seems to agree with that. +It was very controversial to say three, four, five years ago. +Now everybody agrees. +But now, as we prepare to talk, we understand how little we know. +Because we didn't talk. +We didn't grasp what was going on. +The International Committee of the Red Cross, the ICRC, is talking to everyone, and it is doing so because it is neutral. +And that's one reason why that organization probably is the best informed key player to understand modern conflict -- because they talk. +My point is that you don't have to be neutral to talk. +And you don't have to agree when you sit down with the other side. +And you can always walk. +But if you don't talk, you can't engage the other side. +And the other side which you're going to engage is the one with whom you profoundly disagree. +Prime Minister Rabin said when he engaged the Oslo process, "You don't make peace with your friends, you make peace with your enemies." +It's hard, but it is necessary. +Let me go one step further. +This is Tahrir Square. +There's a revolution going on. +The Arab Spring is heading into fall and is moving into winter. +It will last for a long, long time. +And who knows what it will be called in the end. +That's not the point. +The point is that we are probably seeing, for the first time in the history of the Arab world, a revolution bottom-up -- people's revolution. +Social groups are taking to the streets. +And we find out in the West that we know very little about what's happening. +Because we never talk to the people in these countries. +Most governments followed the dictate of the authoritarian leaders to stay away from these different groups, because they were terrorists. +So now that they are emerging in the street and we salute the democratic revolution, we find out how little we know. +Right now, the discussion goes, "Should we talk to the Muslim Brotherhood? +Should we talk to Hamas? +If we talk to them, we may legitimize them." +I think that is wrong. +If you talk in the right way, you make it very clear that talking is not agreeing. +And how can we tell the Muslim Brotherhood, as we should, that they must respect minority rights, if we don't accept majority rights? +Because they may turn out to be a majority. +How can we escape [having] a double-standard, if we at the same time preach democracy and at the same time don't want to deal with the groups that are representative? +How will we ever be interlocutors? +Now my diplomats are instructed to talk to all these groups. +But talking can be done in different ways. +We make a distinction between talking from a diplomatic level and talking at the political level. +Now talking can be accompanied with aid or not with aid. +Talking can be accompanied with inclusion or not inclusion. +There's a big array of the ways of dealing with this. +So if we refuse to talk to these new groups that are going to be dominating the news in years to come, we will further radicalization, I believe. +We will make the road from violent activities into politics harder to travel. +And if we cannot demonstrate to these groups that if you move towards democracy, if you move towards taking part in civilized and normal standards among states, there are some rewards on the other side. +The paradox here is that the last decade probably was a lost decade for making progress on this. +And the paradox is that the decade before the last decade was so promising -- and for one reason primarily. +And the reason is what happened in South Africa: Nelson Mandela. +When Mandela came out of prison after 27 years of captivity, if he had told his people, "It's time to take up the arms, it's time to fight," he would have been followed. +And I think the international community would have said, "Fair enough. +It's their right to fight." +Now as you know, Mandela didn't do that. +In his memoirs, "Long Road to Freedom," he wrote that he survived during those years of captivity because he always decided to look upon his oppressor as also being a human being, also being a human being. +So he engaged a political process of dialogue, not as a strategy of the weak, but as a strategy of the strong. +And he engaged talking profoundly by settling some of the most tricky issues through a truth and reconciliation process where people came and talked. +Now South African friends will know that was very painful. +So what can we learn from all of this? +Dialogue is not easy -- not between individuals, not between groups, not between governments -- but it is very necessary. +If we're going to deal with political conflict-solving of conflicts, if we're going to understand these new groups which are coming from bottom-up, supported by technology, which is available to all, we diplomats cannot be sitting back in the banquets believing that we are doing interstate relations. +We have to connect with these profound changes. +And what is dialogue really about? +When I enter into dialogue, I really hope that the other side would pick up my points of view, that I would impress upon them my opinions and my values. +I cannot do that unless I send the signals that I will be open to listen to the other side's signals. +We need a lot more training on how to do that and a lot more practice on how that can take problem-solving forward. +We know from our personal experiences that it's easy sometimes just to walk, and sometimes you may need to fight. +And I wouldn't say that is the wrong thing in all circumstances. +Sometimes you have to. +But that strategy seldom takes you very far. +The alternative is a strategy of engagement and principled dialogue. +And I believe we need to strengthen this approach in modern diplomacy, not only between states, but also within states. +We are seeing some new signs. +We could never have done the convention against anti-personnel landmines and the convention that is banning cluster munitions unless we had done diplomacy differently, by engaging with civil society. +All of a sudden, NGOs were not only standing in the streets, crying their slogans, but they were taking [them] into the negotiations, partly because they represented the victims of these weapons. +And they brought their knowledge. +And there was an interaction between diplomacy and the power coming bottom-up. +This is perhaps a first element of a change. +In the future, I believe, we should draw examples from these different illustrations, not to have diplomacy which is disconnected from people and civil society. +And we have to go also beyond traditional diplomacy to the survival issue of our times, climate change. +How are we going to solve climate change through negotiations, unless we are able to make civil society and people, not part of the problem, but part of the solution? +It is going to demand an inclusive process of diplomacy very different from the one we are practicing today as we are heading to new rounds of difficult climate negotiations, but when we move toward something which has to be much more along a broad mobilization. +It's crucial to understand, I believe, because of technology and because of globalization, societies from bottom-up. +We as diplomats need to know the social capital of communities. +What is it that makes people trust each other, not only between states, but also within states? +What is the legitimacy of diplomacy, of the the solution we devise as diplomats if they cannot be reflected and understood by also these broader forces of societies that we now very loosely call groups? +The good thing is that we are not powerless. +We have never had as many means of communication, means of being connected, means of reaching out, means of including. +The diplomatic toolbox is actually full of different tools we can use to strengthen our communication. +But the problem is that we are coming out of a decade where we had a fear of touching it. +Now, I hope, in the coming years, that we are able to demonstrate through some concrete examples that fear is receding and that we can take courage from that alliance with civil society in different countries to support their problem-solving, among the Afghans, inside the Palestinian population, between the peoples of Palestine and Israel. +And as we try to understand this broad movement across the Arab world, we are not powerless. +We need to improve the necessary skills, and we need the courage to use them. +In my country, I have seen how the council of Islamist groups and Christian groups came together, not as a government initiative, but they came together on their own initiative to establish contact and dialogue in times where things were pretty low-key tension. +And when tension increased, they already had that dialogue, and that was a strength to deal with different issues. +Our modern Western societies are more complex than before, in this time of migration. +How are we going to settle and build a bigger "We" to deal with our issues if we don't improve our skills of communication? +So there are many reasons, and for all of these reasons, this is time and this is why we must talk. +Thank you for your attention. +Cholera was reported in Haiti for the first time in over 50 years last October. +There was no way to predict how far it would spread through water supplies and how bad the situation would get. +And not knowing where help was needed always ensured that help was in short supply in the areas that needed it most. +We've gotten good at predicting and preparing for storms before they take innocent lives and cause irreversible damage, but we still can't do that with water, and here's why. +Right now, if you want to test water in the field, you need a trained technician, expensive equipment like this, and you have to wait about a day for chemical reactions to take place and provide results. +It's too slow to get a picture of conditions on the ground before they change, too expensive to implement in all the places that require testing. +And it ignores the fact that, in the meanwhile, people still need to drink water. +Most of the information that we collected on the cholera outbreak didn't come from testing water; it came from forms like this, which documented all the people we failed to help. +Countless lives have been saved by canaries in coalmines -- a simple and invaluable way for miners to know whether they're safe. +I've been inspired by that simplicity as I've been working on this problem with some of the most hardworking and brilliant people I've ever known. +We think there's a simpler solution to this problem -- one that can be used by people who face conditions like this everyday. +It's in its early stages, but this is what it looks like right now. +We call it the Water Canary. +It's a fast, cheap device that answers an important question: Is this water contaminated? +It doesn't require any special training. +And instead of waiting for chemical reactions to take place, it uses light. +That means there's no waiting for chemical reactions to take place, no need to use reagents that can run out and no need to be an expert to get actionable information. +To test water, you simply insert a sample and, within seconds, it either displays a red light, indicating contaminated water, or a green light, indicating the sample is safe. +This will make it possible for anyone to collect life-saving information and to monitor water quality conditions as they unfold. +We're also, on top of that, integrating wireless networking into an affordable device with GPS and GSM. +What that means is that each reading can be automatically transmitted to servers to be mapped in real time. +With enough users, maps like this will make it possible to take preventive action, containing hazards before they turn into emergencies that take years to recover from. +And then, instead of taking days to disseminate this information to the people who need it most, it can happen automatically. +We've seen how distributed networks, big data and information can transform society. +I think it's time for us to apply them to water. +Our goal over the next year is to get Water Canary ready for the field and to open-source the hardware so that anyone can contribute to the development and the evaluation, so we can tackle this problem together. +Thank you. +I'm going to start here. +This is a hand-lettered sign that appeared in a mom and pop bakery in my old neighborhood in Brooklyn a few years ago. +The store owned one of those machines that can print on plates of sugar. +And kids could bring in drawings and have the store print a sugar plate for the top of their birthday cake. +But unfortunately, one of the things kids liked to draw was cartoon characters. +They liked to draw the Little Mermaid, they'd like to draw a smurf, they'd like to draw Micky Mouse. +But it turns out to be illegal to print a child's drawing of Micky Mouse onto a plate of sugar. +And it's a copyright violation. +And policing copyright violations for children's birthday cakes was such a hassle that the College Bakery said, "You know what, we're getting out of that business. +If you're an amateur, you don't have access to our machine anymore. +If you want a printed sugar birthday cake, you have to use one of our prefab images -- only for professionals." +So there's two bills in Congress right now. +One is called SOPA, the other is called PIPA. +SOPA stands for the Stop Online Piracy Act. +It's from the Senate. +PIPA is short for PROTECTIP, which is itself short for Preventing Real Online Threats to Economic Creativity and Theft of Intellectual Property -- because the congressional aides who name these things have a lot of time on their hands. +And what SOPA and PIPA want to do is they want to do this. +They want to raise the cost of copyright compliance to the point where people simply get out of the business of offering it as a capability to amateurs. +Now the way they propose to do this is to identify sites that are substantially infringing on copyright -- although how those sites are identified is never fully specified in the bills -- and then they want to remove them from the domain name system. +They want to take them out of the domain name system. +Now the domain name system is the thing that turns human-readable names, like Google.com, into the kinds of addresses machines expect -- 74.125.226.212. +Now the problem with this model of censorship, of identifying a site and then trying to remove it from the domain name system, is that it won't work. +And you'd think that would be a pretty big problem for a law, but Congress seems not to have let that bother them too much. +Now the reason it won't work is that you can still type 74.125.226.212 into the browser or you can make it a clickable link and you'll still go to Google. +So the policing layer around the problem becomes the real threat of the act. +Now to understand how Congress came to write a bill that won't accomplish its stated goals, but will produce a lot of pernicious side effects, you have to understand a little bit about the back story. +And the back story is this: SOPA and PIPA, as legislation, were drafted largely by media companies that were founded in the 20th century. +The 20th century was a great time to be a media company, because the thing you really had on your side was scarcity. +If you were making a TV show, it didn't have to be better than all other TV shows ever made; it only had to be better than the two other shows that were on at the same time -- which is a very low threshold of competitive difficulty. +Which meant that if you fielded average content, you got a third of the U.S. public for free -- tens of millions of users for simply doing something that wasn't too terrible. +This is like having a license to print money and a barrel of free ink. +But technology moved on, as technology is wont to do. +And slowly, slowly, at the end of the 20th century, that scarcity started to get eroded -- and I don't mean by digital technology; I mean by analog technology. +Cassette tapes, video cassette recorders, even the humble Xerox machine created new opportunities for us to behave in ways that astonished the media business. +Because it turned out we're not really couch potatoes. +We don't really like to only consume. +We do like to consume, but every time one of these new tools came along, it turned out we also like to produce and we like to share. +And this freaked the media businesses out -- it freaked them out every time. +Jack Valenti, who was the head lobbyist for the Motion Picture Association of America, once likened the ferocious video cassette recorder to Jack the Ripper and poor, helpless Hollywood to a woman at home alone. +That was the level of rhetoric. +And so the media industries begged, insisted, demanded that Congress do something. +And Congress did something. +By the early 90s, Congress passed the law that changed everything. +And that law was called the Audio Home Recording Act of 1992. +What the Audio Home Recording Act of 1992 said was, look, if people are taping stuff off the radio and then making mixtapes for their friends, that is not a crime. That's okay. +Taping and remixing and sharing with your friends is okay. +If you make lots and lots of high quality copies and you sell them, that's not okay. +But this taping business, fine, let it go. +And they thought that they clarified the issue, because they'd set out a clear distinction between legal and illegal copying. +But that wasn't what the media businesses wanted. +They had wanted Congress to outlaw copying full-stop. +So when the Audio Home Recording Act of 1992 was passed, the media businesses gave up on the idea of legal versus illegal distinctions for copying because it was clear that if Congress was acting in their framework, they might actually increase the rights of citizens to participate in our own media environment. +So they went for plan B. +It took them a while to formulate plan B. +Plan B appeared in its first full-blown form in 1998 -- something called the Digital Millennium Copyright Act. +It was a complicated piece of legislation, a lot of moving parts. +But the main thrust of the DMCA was that it was legal to sell you uncopyable digital material -- except that there's no such things as uncopyable digital material. +It would be, as Ed Felton once famously said, "Like handing out water that wasn't wet." +Bits are copyable. That's what computers do. +That is a side effect of their ordinary operation. +So in order to fake the ability to sell uncopyable bits, the DMCA also made it legal to force you to use systems that broke the copying function of your devices. +Every DVD player and game player and television and computer you brought home -- no matter what you thought you were getting when you bought it -- could be broken by the content industries, if they wanted to set that as a condition of selling you the content. +And to make sure you didn't realize, or didn't enact their capabilities as general purpose computing devices, they also made it illegal for you to try to reset the copyability of that content. +The DMCA marks the moment when the media industries gave up on the legal system of distinguishing between legal and illegal copying and simply tried to prevent copying through technical means. +Now the DMCA had, and is continuing to have, a lot of complicated effects, but in this one domain, limiting sharing, it has mostly not worked. +And the main reason it hasn't worked is the Internet has turned out to be far more popular and far more powerful than anyone imagined. +that was nothing compared to what we're seeing now with the Internet. +We are in a world where most American citizens over the age of 12 share things with each other online. +We share written things, we share images, we share audio, we share video. +Some of the stuff we share is stuff we've made. +Some of the stuff we share is stuff we've found. +Some of the stuff we share is stuff we've made out of what we've found, and all of it horrifies those industries. +So PIPA and SOPA are round two. +Now the mechanism, as I said, for doing this, is you need to take out anybody pointing to those IP addresses. +You need to take them out of search engines, you need to take them out of online directories, you need to take them out of user lists. +And because the biggest producers of content on the Internet are not Google and Yahoo, they're us, we're the people getting policed. +Because in the end, the real threat to the enactment of PIPA and SOPA is our ability to share things with one another. +So what PIPA and SOPA risk doing is taking a centuries-old legal concept, innocent until proven guilty, and reversing it -- guilty until proven innocent. +You can't share until you show us that you're not sharing something we don't like. +Suddenly, the burden of proof for legal versus illegal falls affirmatively on us and on the services that might be offering us any new capabilities. +And if it costs even a dime to police a user, that will crush a service with a hundred million users. +So this is the Internet they have in mind. +Imagine this sign everywhere -- except imagine it doesn't say College Bakery, imagine it says YouTube and Facebook and Twitter. +Imagine it says TED, because the comments can't be policed at any acceptable cost. +The real effects of SOPA and PIPA are going to be different than the proposed effects. +The threat, in fact, is this inversion of the burden of proof, where we suddenly are all treated like thieves at every moment we're given the freedom to create, to produce or to share. +And the people who provide those capabilities to us -- the YouTubes, the Facebooks, the Twitters and TEDs -- are in the business of having to police us, or being on the hook for contributory infringement. +There's two things you can do to help stop this -- a simple thing and a complicated thing, an easy thing and a hard thing. +The simple thing, the easy thing, is this: if you're an American citizen, call your representative, call your senator. +When you look at the people who co-signed on the SOPA bill, people who've co-signed on PIPA, what you see is that they have cumulatively received millions and millions of dollars from the traditional media industries. +You don't have millions and millions of dollars, but you can call your representatives, and you can remind them that you vote, and you can ask not to be treated like a thief, and you can suggest that you would prefer that the Internet not be broken. +And if you're not an American citizen, you can contact American citizens that you know and encourage them to do the same. +Because this seems like a national issue, but it is not. +These industries will not be content with breaking our Internet. +If they break it, they will break it for everybody. +That's the easy thing. +That's the simple thing. +The hard thing is this: get ready, because more is coming. +SOPA is simply a reversion of COICA, which was purposed last year, which did not pass. +And all of this goes back to the failure of the DMCA to disallow sharing as a technical means. +And the DMCA goes back to the Audio Home Recording Act, which horrified those industries. +Because the whole business of actually suggesting that someone is breaking the law and then gathering evidence and proving that, that turns out to be really inconvenient. +"We'd prefer not to do that," says the content industries. +And what they want is not to have to do that. +They don't want legal distinctions between legal and illegal sharing. +They just want the sharing to go away. +PIPA and SOPA are not oddities, they're not anomalies, they're not events. +They're the next turn of this particular screw, which has been going on 20 years now. +And if we defeat these, as I hope we do, more is coming. +Because until we convince Congress that the way to deal with copyright violation is the way copyright violation was dealt with with Napster, with YouTube, which is to have a trial with all the presentation of evidence and the hashing out of facts and the assessment of remedies that goes on in democratic societies. +That's the way to handle this. +In the meantime, the hard thing to do is to be ready. +Because that's the real message of PIPA and SOPA. +Time Warner has called and they want us all back on the couch, just consuming -- not producing, not sharing -- and we should say, "No." +Thank you. +What I'm going to do is, I'm going to explain to you an extreme green concept that was developed at NASA's Glenn Research Center in Cleveland, Ohio. +But before I do that, we have to go over the definition of what green is, 'cause a lot of us have a different definition of it. +Green. The product is created through environmentally and socially conscious means. +There's plenty of things that are being called green now. +What does it actually mean? +We use three metrics to determine green. +The first metric is: Is it sustainable? +Which means, are you preserving what you are doing for future use or for future generations? +Is it alternative? Is it different than what is being used today, or does it have a lower carbon footprint than what's used conventionally? +And three: Is it renewable? +Does it come from Earth's natural replenishing resources, such as sun, wind and water? +Now, my task at NASA is to develop the next generation of aviation fuels. +Extreme green. Why aviation? +The field of aviation uses more fuel than just about every other combined. We need to find an alternative. +Also it's a national aeronautics directive. +One of the national aeronautics goals is to develop the next generation of fuels, biofuels, using domestic and safe, friendly resources. +Now, combating that challenge we have to also meet the big three metric Actually, extreme green for us is all three together; that's why you see the plus there. I was told to say that. +So it has to be the big three at GRC. That's another metric. +Ninety-seven percent of the world's water is saltwater. +How about we use that? Combine that with number three. +Do not use arable land. +Because crops are already growing on that land that's very scarce around the world. +Number two: Don't compete with food crops. +That's already a well established entity, they don't need another entry. +And lastly the most precious resource we have on this Earth is fresh water. Don't use fresh water. +If 97.5 percent of the world's water is saltwater, 2.5 percent is fresh water. Less than a half percent of that is accessible for human use. +But 60 percent of the population lives within that one percent. +So, combating my problem was, now I have to be extreme green and meet the big three. Ladies and gentlemen, welcome to the GreenLab Research Facility. +This is a facility dedicated to the next generation of aviation fuels using halophytes. +A halophyte is a salt-tolerating plant. +Most plants don't like salt, but halophytes tolerate salt. +We also are using weeds and we are also using algae. +The good thing about our lab is, we've had 3,600 visitors in the last two years. +Why do you think that's so? +Because we are on to something special. +So, in the lower you see the GreenLab obviously, and on the right hand side you'll see algae. +If you are into the business of the next generation of aviation fuels, algae is a viable option, there's a lot of funding right now, and we have an algae to fuels program. +There's two types of algae growing. +One is a closed photobioreactor that you see here, and what you see on the other side is our species we are currently using a species called Scenedesmus dimorphus. +Our job at NASA is to take the experimental and computational and make a better mixing for the closed photobioreactors. +Now the problems with closed photobioreactors are: They are quite expensive, they are automated, and it's very difficult to get them in large scale. +So on large scale what do they use? +We use open pond systems. Now, around the world they are growing algae, with this racetrack design that you see here. Looks like an oval with a paddle wheel and mixes really well, but when it gets around the last turn, which I call turn four it's stagnant. +We actually have a solution for that. +In the GreenLab in our open pond system we use something that happens in nature: waves. +We actually use wave technology on our open pond systems. +We have 95 percent mixing and our lipid content is higher than a closed photobioreactor system, which we think is significant. +There is a drawback to algae, however: It's very expensive. +Is there a way to produce algae inexpensively? +And the answer is: yes. +We do the same thing we do with halophytes, and that is: climatic adaptation. +In our GreenLab we have six primary ecosystems that range from freshwater all the way to saltwater. +What we are trying to do is to come up with a single species that can survive anywhere in the world, where there's barren desert. +We are being very successful so far. +Now, here's one of the problems. +If you are a farmer, you need five things to be successful: You need seeds, you need soil, you need water and you need sun, and the last thing that you need is fertilizer. +Most people use chemical fertilizers. But guess what? +We do not use chemical fertilizer. +Wait a second! I just saw lots of greenery in your GreenLab. You have to use fertilizer. +Believe it or not, in our analysis of our saltwater ecosystems 80 percent of what we need are in these tanks themselves. +The 20 percent that's missing is nitrogen and phosphorous. +We have a natural solution: fish. +No we don't cut up the fish and put them in there. +Fish waste is what we use. As a matter of fact we use freshwater mollies, that we've used our climatic adaptation technique from freshwater all the way to seawater. +Freshwater mollies: cheap, they love to make babies, and they love to go to the bathroom. +And the more they go to the bathroom, the more fertilizer we get, the better off we are, believe it or not. +It should be noted that we use sand as our soil, regular beach sand. Fossilized coral. +So a lot of people ask me, "How did you get started?" +Well, we got started in what we call the indoor biofuels lab. +It's a seedling lab. We have 26 different species of halophytes, and five are winners. What we do here is actually it should be called a death lab, 'cause we try to kill the seedlings, make them rough and then we come to the GreenLab. +What you see in the lower corner is a wastewater treatment plant experiment that we are growing, a macro-algae that I'll talk about in a minute. +And lastly, it's me actually working in the lab to prove to you I do work, I don't just talk about what I do. +Here's the plant species. Salicornia virginica. +It's a wonderful plant. I love that plant. +Everywhere we go we see it. It's all over the place, from Maine all the way to California. We love that plant. +Second is Salicornia bigelovii. Very difficult to get around the world. +It is the highest lipid content that we have, but it has a shortcoming: It's short. +Now you take europaea, which is the largest or the tallest plant that we have. +And what we are trying to do with natural selection or adaptive biology combine all three to make a high-growth, high-lipid plant. +Next, when a hurricane decimated the Delaware Bay soybean fields gone we came up with an idea: Can you have a plant that has a land reclamation positive in Delaware? And the answer is yes. +It's called seashore mallow. Kosteletzkya virginica say that five times fast if you can. +This is a 100 percent usable plant. The seeds: biofuels. The rest: cattle feed. +It's there for 10 years; it's working very well. +Now we get to Chaetomorpha. +This is a macro-algae that loves excess nutrients. If you are in the aquarium industry you know we use it to clean up dirty tanks. +This species is so significant to us. +The properties are very close to plastic. +We are trying right now to convert this macro-algae into a bioplastic. +If we are successful, we will revolutionize the plastics industry. +So, we have a seed to fuel program. +We have to do something with this biomass that we have. +And so we do G.C. extraction, lipid optimization, so on and so forth, because our goal really is to come up with the next generation of aviation fuels, aviation specifics, so on and so forth. +So far we talked about water and fuel, but along the way we found out something interesting about Salicornia: It's a food product. +So we talk about ideas worth spreading, right? +How about this: In sub-Saharan Africa, next to the sea, saltwater, barren desert, how about we take that plant, plant it, half use for food, half use for fuel. +We can make that happen, inexpensively. +You can see there's a greenhouse in Germany that sells it as a health food product. +This is harvested, and in the middle here is a shrimp dish, and it's being pickled. +So I have to tell you a joke. Salicornia is known as sea beans, saltwater asparagus and pickle weed. +So we are pickling pickle weed in the middle. +Oh, I thought it was funny. And at the bottom is seaman's mustard. It does make sense, this is a logical snack. You have mustard, you are a seaman, you see the halophyte, you mix it together, it's a great snack with some crackers. +And last, garlic with Salicornia, which is what I like. +So, water, fuel and food. +None of this is possible without the GreenLab team. +Just like the Miami Heat has the big three, we have the big three at NASA GRC. +That's myself, professor Bob Hendricks, our fearless leader, and Dr. Arnon Chait. +The backbone of the GreenLab is students. +Over the last two years we've had 35 different students from around the world working at GreenLab. +As a matter fact my division chief says a lot, "You have a green university." +I say, "I'm okay with that, 'cause we are nurturing the next generation of extreme green thinkers, which is significant." +So, in first summary I presented to you what we think is a global solution for food, fuel and water. +There's something missing to be complete. +Clearly we use electricity. We have a solution for you We're using clean energy sources here. +So, we have two wind turbines connected to the GreenLab, we have four or five more hopefully coming soon. +We are also using something that is quite interesting there is a solar array field at NASA's Glenn Research Center, hasn't been used for 15 years. +Along with some of my electrical engineering colleagues, we realized that they are still viable, so we are refurbishing them right now. +In about 30 days or so they'll be connected to the GreenLab. +And the reason why you see red, red and yellow, is a lot of people think NASA employees don't work on Saturday This is a picture taken on Saturday. +There are no cars around, but you see my truck in yellow. I work on Saturday. This is a proof to you that I'm working. +'Cause we do what it takes to get the job done, most people know that. +Here's a concept with this: We are using the GreenLab for a micro-grid test bed for the smart grid concept in Ohio. +We have the ability to do that, and I think it's going to work. +So, GreenLab Research Facility. +A self-sustainable renewable energy ecosystem was presented today. +We really, really hope this concept catches on worldwide. +We think we have a solution for food, water, fuel and now energy. Complete. +It's extreme green, it's sustainable, alternative and renewable and it meets the big three at GRC: Don't use arable land, don't compete with food crops, and most of all, don't use fresh water. +So I get a lot of questions about, "What are you doing in that lab?" +And I usually say, "None of your business, that's what I'm doing in the lab." And believe it or not, my number one goal for working on this project is I want to help save the world. +Is there a real you? +This might seem to you like a very odd question. +Because, you might ask, how do we find the real you, how do you know what the real you is? +And so forth. +But the idea that there must be a real you, surely that's obvious. +If there's anything real in the world, it's you. +Well, I'm not quite sure. +At least we have to understand a bit better what that means. +Now certainly, I think there are lots of things in our culture around us which sort of reinforce the idea that for each one of us, we have a kind of a core, an essence. +There is something about what it means to be you which defines you, and it's kind of permanent and unchanging. +The most kind of crude way in which we have it, are things like horoscopes. +You know, people are very wedded to these, actually. +People put them on their Facebook profile as though they are meaningul, you even know your Chinese horoscope as well. +There are also more scientific versions of this, all sorts of ways of profiling personality type, such as the Myers-Briggs tests, for example. +I don't know if you've done those. +A lot of companies use these for recruitment. +You answer a lot of questions, and this is supposed to reveal something about your core personality. +And of course, the popular fascination with this is enormous. +In magazines like this, you'll see, in the bottom left corner, they'll advertise in virtually every issue some kind of personality thing. +And if you pick up one of those magazines, it's hard to resist, isn't it? +Doing the test to find what is your learning style, what is your loving style, or what is your working style? +Are you this kind of person or that? +So I think that we have a common-sense idea that there is a kind of core or essence of ourselves to be discovered. +And that this is kind of a permanent truth about ourselves, something that's the same throughout life. +Well, that's the idea I want to challenge. +And I have to say now, I'll say it a bit later, but I'm not challenging this just because I'm weird, the challenge actually has a very, very long and distinguished history. +Here's the common-sense idea. +There is you. +You are the individuals you are, and you have this kind of core. +Now in your life, what happens is that you, of course, accumulate different experiences and so forth. +So you have memories, and these memories help to create what you are. +You have desires, maybe for a cookie, maybe for something that we don't want to talk about at 11 o'clock in the morning in a school. +You will have beliefs. +This is a number plate from someone in America. +I don't know whether this number plate, which says "messiah 1," indicates that the driver believes in the messiah, or that they are the messiah. +Either way, they have beliefs about messiahs. +We have knowledge. +We have sensations and experiences as well. +It's not just intellectual things. +So this is kind of the common-sense model, I think, of what a person is. +There is a person who has all the things that make up our life experiences. +But the suggestion I want to put to you today is that there's something fundamentally wrong with this model. +And I can show you what's wrong with one click. +Which is there isn't actually a "you" at the heart of all these experiences. +Strange thought? Well, maybe not. +What is there, then? +Well, clearly there are memories, desires, intentions, sensations, and so forth. +But what happens is these things exist, and they're kind of all integrated, they're overlapped, they're connected in various different ways. +They're connecting partly, and perhaps even mainly, because they all belong to one body and one brain. +But there's also a narrative, a story we tell about ourselves, the experiences we have when we remember past things. +We do things because of other things. +So what we desire is partly a result of what we believe, and what we remember is also informing us what we know. +And so really, there are all these things, like beliefs, desires, sensations, experiences, they're all related to each other, and that just is you. +In some ways, it's a small difference from the common-sense understanding. +In some ways, it's a massive one. +It's the shift between thinking of yourself as a thing which has all the experiences of life, and thinking of yourself as simply that collection of all experiences in life. +You are the sum of your parts. +Now those parts are also physical parts, of course, brains, bodies and legs and things, but they aren't so important, actually. +If you have a heart transplant, you're still the same person. +If you have a memory transplant, are you the same person? +If you have a belief transplant, would you be the same person? +Now this idea, that what we are, the way to understand ourselves, is as not of some permanent being, which has experiences, but is kind of a collection of experiences, might strike you as kind of weird. +But actually, I don't think it should be weird. +In a way, it's common sense. +Because I just invite you to think about, by comparison, think about pretty much anything else in the universe, maybe apart from the very most fundamental forces or powers. +Let's take something like water. +Now my science isn't very good. +We might say something like water has two parts hydrogen and one parts oxygen, right? +We all know that. +I hope no one in this room thinks that what that means is there is a thing called water, and attached to it are hydrogen and oxygen atoms, and that's what water is. +Of course we don't. +We understand, very easily, very straightforwardly, that water is nothing more than the hydrogen and oxygen molecules suitably arranged. +Everything else in the universe is the same. +There's no mystery about my watch, for example. +We say the watch has a face, and hands, and a mechanism and a battery, But what we really mean is, we don't think there is a thing called the watch to which we then attach all these bits. +We understand very clearly that you get the parts of the watch, you put them together, and you create a watch. +Now if everything else in the universe is like this, why are we different? +Why think of ourselves as somehow not just being a collection of all our parts, but somehow being a separate, permanent entity which has those parts? +Now this view is not particularly new, actually. +It has quite a long lineage. +You find it in Buddhism, you find it in 17th, 18th-century philosophy going through to the current day, people like Locke and Hume. +But interestingly, it's also a view increasingly being heard reinforced by neuroscience. +This is Paul Broks, he's a clinical neuropsychologist, and he says this: "We have a deep intuition that there is a core, an essence there, and it's hard to shake off, probably impossible to shake off, I suspect. +But it's true that neuroscience shows that there is no centre in the brain where things do all come together." +So when you look at the brain, and you look at how the brain makes possible a sense of self, you find that there isn't a central control spot in the brain. +There is no kind of center where everything happens. +There are lots of different processes in the brain, all of which operate, in a way, quite independently. +But it's because of the way that they relate that we get this sense of self. +The term I use in the book, I call it the ego trick. +It's like a mechanical trick. +It's not that we don't exist, it's just that the trick is to make us feel that inside of us is something more unified than is really there. +Now you might think this is a worrying idea. +You might think that if it's true, that for each one of us there is no abiding core of self, no permanent essence, does that mean that really, the self is an illusion? +Does it mean that we really don't exist? +There is no real you. +Well, a lot of people actually do use this talk of illusion and so forth. +These are three psychologists, Thomas Metzinger, Bruce Hood, Susan Blackmore, a lot of these people do talk the language of illusion, the self is an illusion, it's a fiction. +But I don't think this is a very helpful way of looking at it. +Go back to the watch. +The watch isn't an illusion, because there is nothing to the watch other than a collection of its parts. +In the same way, we're not illusions either. +The fact that we are, in some ways, just this very, very complex collection, ordered collection of things, does not mean we're not real. +I can give you a very sort of rough metaphor for this. +Let's take something like a waterfall. +These are the Iguazu Falls, in Argentina. +Now if you take something like this, you can appreciate the fact that in lots of ways, there's nothing permanent about this. +For one thing, it's always changing. +The waters are always carving new channels. +with changes and tides and the weather, some things dry up, new things are created. +Of course the water that flows through the waterfall is different every single instance. +But it doesn't mean that the Iguazu Falls are an illusion. +It doesn't mean it's not real. +What it means is we have to understand what it is as something which has a history, has certain things that keep it together, but it's a process, it's fluid, it's forever changing. +Now that, I think, is a model for understanding ourselves, and I think it's a liberating model. +Because if you think that you have this fixed, permanent essence, which is always the same, throughout your life, no matter what, in a sense you're kind of trapped. +You're born with an essence, that's what you are until you die, if you believe in an afterlife, maybe you continue. +But if you think of yourself as being, in a way, not a thing as such, but a kind of a process, something that is changing, then I think that's quite liberating. +Because unlike the the waterfalls, we actually have the capacity to channel the direction of our development for ourselves to a certain degree. +Now we've got to be careful here, right? +If you watch the X-Factor too much, you might buy into this idea that we can all be whatever we want to be. +That's not true. +I've heard some fantastic musicians this morning, and I am very confident that I could in no way be as good as them. +I could practice hard and maybe be good, but I don't have that really natural ability. +There are limits to what we can achieve. +There are limits to what we can make of ourselves. +But nevertheless, we do have this capacity to, in a sense, shape ourselves. +The true self, as it were then, is not something that is just there for you to discover, you don't sort of look into your soul and find your true self, What you are partly doing, at least, is actually creating your true self. +And this, I think, is very, very significant, particularly at this stage of life you're at. +You'll be aware of the fact how much of you changed over recent years. +If you have any videos of yourself, three or four years ago, you probably feel embarrassed because you don't recognize yourself. +So I want to get that message over, that what we need to do is think about ourselves as things that we can shape, and channel and change. +This is the Buddha, again: "Well-makers lead the water, fletchers bend the arrow, carpenters bend a log of wood, wise people fashion themselves." +And that's the idea I want to leave you with, that your true self is not something that you will have to go searching for, as a mystery, and maybe never ever find. +To the extent you have a true self, it's something that you in part discover, but in part create. +and that, I think, is a liberating and exciting prospect. +Thank you very much. +It is actually a reality today that you can download products from the Web -- product data, I should say, from the Web -- perhaps tweak it and personalize it to your own preference or your own taste, and have that information sent to a desktop machine that will fabricate it for you on the spot. +We can actually build for you, very rapidly, a physical object. +And the reason we can do this is through an emerging technology called additive manufacturing, or 3D printing. +This is a 3D printer. +They have been around for almost 30 years now, which is quite amazing to think of, but they're only just starting to filter into the public arena. +And typically, you would take data, like the data of a pen here, which would be a geometric representation of that product in 3D, and we would pass that data with material into a machine. +And a process that would happen in the machine would mean layer by layer that product would be built. +And we can take out the physical product, and ready to use, or to, perhaps, assemble into something else. +But if these machines have been around for almost 30 years, why don't we know about them? +Because typically they've been too inefficient, inaccessible, they've not been fast enough, they've been quite expensive. +But today, it is becoming a reality that they are now becoming successful. +Many barriers are breaking down. +That means that you guys will soon be able to access one of these machines, if not this minute. +And it will change and disrupt the landscape of manufacturing, and most certainly our lives, our businesses and the lives of our children. +So how does it work? +It typically reads CAD data, which is a product design data created on professional product design programs. +And here you can see an engineer -- it could be an architect or it could be a professional product designer -- create a product in 3D. +And this data gets sent to a machine that slices the data into two-dimensional representations of that product all the way through -- almost like slicing it like salami. +And that data, layer by layer, gets passed through the machine, starting at the base of the product and depositing material, layer upon layer, infusing the new layer of materials to the old layer in an additive process. +And this material that's deposited either starts as a liquid form or a material powder form. +And the bonding process can happen by either melting and depositing or depositing then melting. +In this case, we can see a laser sintering machine developed by EOS. +It's actually using a laser to fuse the new layer of material to the old layer. +And over time -- quite rapidly actually, in a number of hours -- we can build a physical product, ready to take out of the machine and use. +And this is quite an extraordinary idea, but it is reality today. +So all these products that you can see on the screen were made in the same way. +They were all 3D printed. +And you can see, they're ranging from shoes, rings that were made out of stainless steal, phone covers out of plastic, all the way through to spinal implants, for example, that were created out of medical-grade titanium, and engine parts. +But what you'll notice about all of these products is they're very, very intricate. +The design is quite extraordinary. +Because we're taking this data in 3D form, slicing it up before it gets past the machine, we can actually create structures that are more intricate than any other manufacturing technology -- or, in fact, are impossible to build in any other way. +And you can create parts with moving components, hinges, parts within parts. +So in some cases, we can abolish totally the need for manual labor. +It sounds great. +It is great. +We can have 3D printers today that build structures like these. +This is almost three meters high. +And this was built by depositing artificial sandstone layer upon layer in layers of about five millimeters to 10 mm in thickness -- slowly growing this structure. +This was created by an architectural firm called Shiro. +And you can actually walk into it. +And on the other end of the spectrum, this is a microstructure. +It's created depositing layers of about four microns. +So really the resolution is quite incredible. +The detail that you can get today is quite amazing. +So who's using it? +Typically, because we can create products very rapidly, it's been used by product designers, or anyone who wanted to prototype a product and very quickly create or reiterate a design. +And actually what's quite amazing about this technology as well is that you can create bespoke products en masse. +There's very little economies of scale. +So you can now create one-offs very easily. +Architects, for example, they want to create prototypes of buildings. +Again you can see, this is a building of the Free University in Berlin and it was designed by Foster and Partners. +Again, not buildable in any other way. +And very hard to even create this by hand. +Now this is an engine component. +It was developed by a company called Within Technologies and 3T RPD. +It's very, very, very detailed inside with the design. +Now 3D printing can break away barriers in design which challenge the constraints of mass production. +If we slice into this product which is actually sitting here, you can see that it has a number of cooling channels pass through it, which means it's a more efficient product. +You can't create this with standard manufacturing techniques even if you tried to do it manually. +It's more efficient because we can now create all these cavities within the object that cool fluid. +And it's used by aerospace and automotive. +It's a lighter part and it uses less material waste. +So it's overall performance and efficiency just exceeds standard mass produced products. +And then taking this idea of creating a very detailed structure, we can apply it to honeycomb structures and use them within implants. +Typically an implant is more effective within the body if it's more porous, because our body tissue will grow into it. +There's a lower chance of rejection. +But it's very hard to create that in standard ways. +With 3D printing, we're seeing today that we can create much better implants. +And in fact, because we can create bespoke products en masse, one-offs, we can create implants that are specific to individuals. +So as you can see, this technology and the quality of what comes out of the machines is fantastic. +And we're starting to see it being used for final end products. +And in fact, as the detail is improving, the quality is improving, the price of the machines are falling and they're becoming quicker. +They're also now small enough to sit on a desktop. +You can buy a machine today for about $300 that you can create yourself, which is quite incredible. +But then it begs the question, why don't we all have one in our home? +Because, simply, most of us here today don't know how to create the data that a 3D printer reads. +If I gave you a 3D printer, you wouldn't know how to direct it to make what you want it to. +But there are more and more technologies, software and processes today that are breaking down those barriers. +I believe we're at a tipping point where this is now something that we can't avoid. +This technology is really going to disrupt the landscape of manufacturing and, I believe, cause a revolution in manufacturing. +So today, you can download products from the Web -- anything you would have on your desktop, like pens, whistles, lemon squeezers. +You can use software like Google SketchUp to create products from scratch very easily. +3D printing can be also used to download spare parts from the Web. +So imagine you have, say, a Hoover in your home and it has broken down. You need a spare part, but you realize that Hoover's been discontinued. +Can you imagine going online -- this is a reality -- and finding that spare part from a database of geometries of that discontinued product and downloading that information, that data, and having the product made for you at home, ready to use, on your demand? +And in fact, because we can create spare parts with things the machines are quite literally making themselves. +You're having machines fabricate themselves. +These are parts of a RepRap machine, which is a kind of desktop printer. +But what interests my company the most is the fact that you can create individual unique products en masse. +There's no need to do a run of thousands of millions or send that product to be injection molded in China. +You can just make it physically on the spot. +Which means that we can now present to the public the next generation of customization. +This is something that is now possible today, that you can direct personally how you want your products to look. +We're all familiar with the idea of customization or personalization. +Brands like Nike are doing it. +It's all over the Web. +In fact, every major household name is allowing you to interact with their products on a daily basis -- all the way from Smart Cars to Prada to Ray Ban, for example. +But this is not really mass customization; it's known as variant production, variations of the same product. +What you could do is really influence your product now and shape-manipulate your product. +Imagine that you can now engage with a brand and interact, so that you can pass your personal attributes to the products that you're about to buy. +You can today download a product with software like this, view the product in 3D. +This is the sort of 3D data that a machine will read. +This is a lamp. +And you can start iterating the design. +You can direct what color that product will be, perhaps what material. +And also, you can engage in shape manipulation of that product, but within boundaries that are safe. +Because obviously the public are not professional product designers. +The piece of software will keep an individual within the bounds of the possible. +And when somebody is ready to purchase the product in their personalized design, they click "Enter" and this data gets converted into the data that a 3D printer reads and gets passed to a 3D printer, perhaps on someone's desktop. +But I don't think that that's immediate. +I don't think that will happen soon. +What's more likely, and we're seeing it today, is that data gets sent to a local manufacturing center. +This means lower carbon footprint. +We're now, instead of shipping a product across the world, we're sending data across the Internet. +Here's the product being built. +You can see, this came out of the machine in one piece and the electronics were inserted later. +It's this lamp, as you can see here. +So as long as you have the data, you can create the part on demand. +And you don't necessarily need to use this for just aesthetic customization, you can use it for functional customization, scanning parts of the body and creating things that are made to fit. +So we can run this through to something like prosthetics, which is highly specialized to an individual's handicap. +Or we can create very specific prosthetics for that individual. +Scanning teeth today, you can have your teeth scanned and dental coatings made in this way to fit you. +While you wait at the dentist, a machine will quietly be creating this for you ready to insert in the teeth. +And the idea of now creating implants, scanning data, an MRI scan of somebody can now be converted into 3D data and we can create very specific implants for them. +And applying this to the idea of building up what's in our bodies. +You know, this is pair of lungs and the bronchial tree. +It's very intricate. +You couldn't really create this or simulate it in any other way. +But with MRI data, we can just build the product, as you can see, very intricately. +Using this process, pioneers in the industry are layering up cells today. +So one of the pioneers, for example, is Dr. Anthony Atala, and he has been working on layering cells to create body parts -- bladders, valves, kidneys. +Now this is not something that's ready for the public, but it is in working progress. +So just to finalize, we're all individual. +We all have different preferences, different needs. +We like different things. +We're all different sizes and our companies the same. +Businesses want different things. +Without a doubt in my mind, I believe that this technology is going to cause a manufacturing revolution and will change the landscape of manufacturing as we know it. +Thank you. +The maxim, "Know thyself" has been around since the ancient Greeks. +Some attribute this golden world knowledge to Plato, others to Pythagoras. +But the truth is it doesn't really matter which sage said it first, because it's still sage advice, even today. +"Know thyself." +It's pithy almost to the point of being meaningless, but it rings familiar and true, doesn't it? +"Know thyself." +I understand this timeless dictum as a statement about the problems, or more exactly the confusions, of consciousness. +I've always been fascinated with knowing the self. +This fascination led me to submerge myself in art, study neuroscience and later to become a psychotherapist. +Today I combine all my passions as the CEO of InteraXon, a thought-controlled computing company. +My goal, quite simply, is to help people become more in tune with themselves. +I take it from this little dictum, "Know thyself." +If you think about it, this imperative is kind of the defining characteristic of our species, isn't it? +I mean, it's self-awareness that separates Homo sapiens from earlier instances of our mankind. +Today we're often too busy tending to our iPhones and iPods to really stop and get to know ourselves. +Under the deluge of minute-to-minute text conversations, emails, relentless exchange of media channels and passwords and apps and reminders and Tweets and tags, we lose sight of what all this fuss is supposed to be about in the first place: ourselves. +Much of the time we're transfixed by all of the ways we can reflect ourselves into the world. +And we can barely find the time to reflect deeply back in on our own selves. +We've cluttered ourselves up with all this. +And we feel like we have to get far, far away to a secluded retreat, leaving it all behind. +So we go far away to the top of a mountain, assuming that perching ourselves on a piece is bound to give us the respite we need to sort the clutter, the chaotic everyday, and find ourselves again. +But on that mountain where we gain that beautiful peace of mind, what are we really achieving? +It's really only a successful escape. +Think of the term we use, "Retreat." +This is the term that armies use when they've lost a battle. +It means we've got to get out of here. +Is this how we feel about the pressures of our world, that in order to get inside ourselves, you have to run for the hills? +And the problem with escaping your day-to-day life is that you have to come home eventually. +So when you think about it, we're almost like a tourist visiting ourselves over there. +And eventually that vacation's got to come to an end. +So my question to you is, can we find ways to know ourselves without the escape? +Can we redefine our relationship with the technologized world in order to have the heightened sense of self-awareness that we seek? +Can we live here and now in our wired web and still follow those ancient instructions, "Know thyself?" +I say the answer is yes. +And I'm here today to share a new way that we're working with technology to this end to get familiar with our inner self like never before -- humanizing technology and furthering that age-old quest of ours to more fully know the self. +It's called thought-controlled computing. +You may or may not have noticed that I'm wearing a tiny electrode on my forehead. +This is actually a brainwave sensor that's reading the electrical activity of my brain as I give this talk. +These brainwaves are being analyzed and we can see them as a graph. +Let me show you what it looks like. +That blue line there is my brainwave. +It's the direct signal being recorded from my head, rendered in real time. +The green and red bars show that same signal displayed by frequency, with lower frequencies here and higher frequencies up here. +You're actually looking inside my head as I speak. +These graphs are compelling, they're undulating, but from a human's perspective, they're actually not very useful. +That's why we've spent a lot of time thinking about how to make this data meaningful to the people who use it. +For instance, what if I could use this data to find out how relaxed I am at any moment? +Or what if I can take that information and put it into an organic shape up on the screen? +The shape on the right over here has become an indicator of what's going on in my head. +The more relaxed I am, the more the energy's going to fall through it. +I may also be interested in knowing how focused I am, so I can put my level of attention into the circuit board on the other side. +And the more focused my brain is, the more the circuit board is going to surge with energy. +Ordinarily, I would have no way of knowing how focused or relaxed I was in any tangible way. +As we know, our feelings about how we're feeling are notoriously unreliable. +We've all had stress creep up on us without even noticing it until we lost it on someone who didn't deserve it, and then we realize that we probably should have checked in with ourselves a little earlier. +This new awareness opens up vast possibilities for applications that help improve our lives and ourselves. +We're trying to create technology that uses the insights to make our work more efficient, our breaks more relaxing and our connections deeper and more fulfilling than ever. +I'm going to share some of these visions with you in a bit, but first I want to take a look at how we got here. +By the way, feel free to check in on my head at any time. +My team at InteraXon and I have been developing throught-controlled application for almost a decade now. +In the first phase of development we were really enthused by all the things we could control with our mind. +We were making things activate, light up and work just by thinking. +We were transcending the space between the mind and the device. +We brought to life a vast array of prototypes and products that you could control with your mind, like thought-controlled home appliances or slot car games or video games or a levitating chair. +We created technology and applications that engaged people's imaginations, and it was really exciting. +And then we were asked to do something really big for the Olympics. +We were invited to create a massive installation at the Vancouver 2010 winter Olympics, were used in Vancouver, got to control the lighting on the C.N. Tower, the Canadian Parliament buildings and Niagara Falls from all the way across the country using their minds. +Over 17 days at the Olympics 7,000 visitors from all over the world actually got to individually control the light from the C.N. Tower, parliament and Niagara in real time with their minds from across the country, 3,000 km away. +So controlling stuff with your mind is pretty cool. +But we're always interested in multi-tiered levels of human interaction. +And so we began looking into inventing thought-controlled applications in a more complex frame than just control. +And that was responsiveness. +We realized that we had a system that allowed technology to know something about you. +And it could join into the relationship with you. +We created the responsive room where the lights music and blinds adjusted to your state. +They followed these little shifts in your mental activity. +So as you settled into relaxation at the end of a hard day, on the couch in our office, the music would mellow with you. +When you read, the desk lamp would get brighter. +If you nod off, the system would know, dimming to darkness as you do. +We then realized that if technology could know something about you and use it to help you, there's an even more valuable application than that. +That you could know something about yourself. +We could know sides of ourselves that were all but invisible and come to see things that were previously hidden. +Let me show you an example of what I'm talking about here. +Here's an application that I created for the iPad. +So the goal of the original game Zen Bound is to wrap a rope around a wooden form. +So you use it with your headset. +The headset connects wirelessly to an iPad or a smartphone. +In that headset you have fabric sensors on your forehead and above the ear. +In the original Zen Bound game, you play it by scrolling your fingers over the pad. +In the game that we created, of course, you control the wooden form that's on the screen there with your mind. +As you focus on the wooden form, it rotates. +The more you focus, the faster the rotation. +This is for real. +This is not a fake. +What's really interesting to me though is at the end of the game you get stats and feedback about how you did. +You have graphs and charts that tell you how your brain was doing -- not just how much rope you used or what your high score is, but what was going on inside of your mind. +And this is valuable feedback that we can use to understand what's going on inside of ourselves. +I like to call this "intra-active." +Normally we think about technology as interactive. +This technology is intra-active. +It understands what's inside of you and builds a sort of responsive relationship between you and your technology so that you can use this information to move you forward. +So you can use this information to understand you in a responsive loop. +At InteraXon, intra-active technology is one of our really defining mandates. +It's how we understand the world inside and reflect it outside into this tight loop. +For example, thought-controlled computing can teach children with ADD how to improve their focus. +With ADD, children have a low proportion of beta waves for focus states and a high proportion of theta states. +So you can create applications that reward focused brain states. +So you can imagine kids playing video games with their brain waves and improving their ADD symptoms as they do it. +This can be as effective as Ritalin. +Perhaps even more importantly, thought-controlled computing can give children with ADD insights into their own fluctuating mental states, so they can better understand themselves and their learning needs. +The way these children will be able to use their new awareness to improve themselves will upend many of the damaging and widespread social stigmas that people who are diagnosed as different are challenged with. +We can peer inside our heads and interact with what was once locked away from us, what once mystified and separated us. +Brainwave technology can understand us, anticipate our emotions and find the best solutions for our needs. +Imagine this collected awareness of the individual computed and reflected across an entire lifespan. +Imagine the insights that you can gain from this kind of second sight. +It would be like plugging into your own personal Google. +On the subject of Google, today you can search and tag images based on the thoughts and feelings you had while you watched them. +You can tag pictures of baby animals as happy, or whatever baby animals are to you, and then you can search that database, navigating with your feelings, rather than the keywords that just hint at them. +Or you could tag Facebook photos with the emotions that you had associated with those memories and then instantly prioritize the streams that catch your attention, just like this. +Humanizing technology is about taking what's already natural about the human-tech experience and building technology seamlessly in tandem with it. +As it aligns with our human behaviors, it can allow us to make better sense of what we do and, more importantly, why, creating a big picture out of all the important little details that make up who we are. +With humanized technology we can monitor the quality of your sleep cycles. +When our productivity starts to slacken, we can go back to that data and see how we can make more effective balance between work and play. +Do you know what causes fatigue in you or what brings out your energetic self, what triggers cause you to be depressed or what fun things are going to bring you out of that funk? +Imagine if you had access to data that allowed you to rank on a scale of overall happiness which people in your life made you the happiest, or what activities brought you joy. +Would you make more time for those people? Would you prioritize? +Would you get a divorce? +What thought-controlled computing can allow you to do is build colorful layered pictures of our lives. +And with this, we can get the skinny on our psychological happenings and build a story of our behaviors over time. +We can begin to see the underlying narratives that propel us forward and tell us about what's going on. +And from this, we can learn how to change the plot, the outcome and the character of our personal stories. +Two millennia ago, those Greeks had some powerful insights. +They knew that a fundamental piece falls into place when you start to live out their little phrase, when you come into contact with yourself. +They understood the power of human narrative and the value that we place on humans as changing, evolving and growing. +But they understood something more fundamental -- the sheer joy in discovery, the delight and fascination that we get from the world and being ourselves in it, the richness that we get from seeing, feeling and knowing the lives that we are. +My mom's an artist, and as a child I'd often see her bring things to life with the stroke of a brush. +One moment it was all white space, pure possibility. +The next, it was alive with her colorful ideas and expressions. +As I sat easel-side, watching her transform canvas after canvas, I learned that you could create your own world. +I learned that our own inner worlds -- our ideas, emotions and imaginations -- were, in fact, not bound by our brains and bodies. +If you could think it, if you could discover it, you could bring it to life. +To me, thought-controlled computing is as simple and powerful as a paintbrush -- one more tool to unlock and enliven the hidden worlds within us. +I look forward to the day that I can sit beside you, easel-side, watching the world that we can create with our new toolboxes and the discoveries that we can make about ourselves. +Thank you. +We do not invest in victims, we invest in survivors. +And in ways both big and small, the narrative of the victim shapes the way we see women. +You can't count what you don't see. +And we don't invest in what's invisible to us. +But this is the face of resilience. +Six years ago, I started writing about women entrepreneurs during and after conflict. +I set out to write a compelling economic story, one that had great characters, that no one else was telling, and one that I thought mattered. +And that turned out to be women. +I had left ABC news and a career I loved at the age of 30 for business school, a path I knew almost nothing about. +None of the women I had grown up with in Maryland had graduated from college, let alone considered business school. +But they had hustled to feed their kids and pay their rent. +And I saw from a young age that having a decent job and earning a good living made the biggest difference for families who were struggling. +So if you're going to talk about jobs, then you have to talk about entrepreneurs. +And if you're talking about entrepreneurs in conflict and post-conflict settings, then you must talk about women, because they are the population you have left. +Rwanda in the immediate aftermath of the genocide was 77 percent female. +I want to introduce you to some of those entrepreneurs I've met and share with you some of what they've taught me over the years. +I went to Afghanistan in 2005 to work on a Financial Times piece, and there I met Kamila, a young women who told me she had just turned down a job with the international community that would have paid her nearly $2,000 a month -- an astronomical sum in that context. +And she had turned it down, she said, because she was going to start her next business, an entrepreneurship consultancy that would teach business skills to men and women all around Afghanistan. +Business, she said, was critical to her country's future. +Because long after this round of internationals left, business would help keep her country peaceful and secure. +And she said business was even more important for women because earning an income earned respect and money was power for women. +So I was amazed. +I mean here was a girl who had never lived in peace time who somehow had come to sound like a candidate from "The Apprentice." +So I asked her, "How in the world do you know this much about business? +Why are you so passionate?" +She said, "Oh Gayle, this is actually my third business. +My first business was a dressmaking business I started under the Taliban. +And that was actually an excellent business, because we provided jobs for women all around our neighborhood. +And that's really how I became an entrepreneur." +Think about this: Here were girls who braved danger to become breadwinners during years in which they couldn't even be on their streets. +And at a time of economic collapse when people sold baby dolls and shoe laces and windows and doors just to survive, these girls made the difference between survival and starvation for so many. +I couldn't leave the story, and I couldn't leave the topic either, because everywhere I went I met more of these women who no one seemed to know about, or even wish to. +I went on to Bosnia, and early on in my interviews I met with an IMF official who said, "You know, Gayle, I don't think we actually have women in business in Bosnia, but there is a lady selling cheese nearby on the side of the road. +So maybe you could interview her." +So I went out reporting and within a day I met Narcisa Kavazovic who at that point was opening a new factory on the war's former front lines in Sarajevo. +She had started her business squatting in an abandoned garage, sewing sheets and pillow cases she would take to markets all around the city so that she could support the 12 or 13 family members who were counting on her for survival. +By the time we met, she had 20 employees, most of them women, who were sending their boys and their girls to school. +And she was just the start. +I met women running essential oils businesses, wineries and even the country's largest advertising agency. +So these stories together became the Herald Tribune business cover. +And when this story posted, I ran to my computer to send it to the IMF official. +And I said, "Just in case you're looking for entrepreneurs to feature at your next investment conference, here are a couple of women." +But think about this. +The IMF official is hardly the only person to automatically file women under micro. +The biases, whether intentional or otherwise, are pervasive, and so are the misleading mental images. +If you see the word "microfinance," what comes to mind? +Most people say women. +And if you see the word "entrepreneur," most people think men. +Why is that? +Because we aim low and we think small when it comes to women. +Microfinance is an incredibly powerful tool that leads to self-sufficiency and self-respect, but we must move beyond micro-hopes and micro-ambitions for women, because they have so much greater hopes for themselves. +They want to move from micro to medium and beyond. +And in many places, they're there. +In the U.S., women-owned businesses will create five and a half million new jobs by 2018. +In South Korea and Indonesia, women own nearly half a million firms. +China, women run 20 percent of all small businesses. +And in the developing world overall, That figure is 40 to 50 percent. +Nearly everywhere I go, I meet incredibly interesting entrepreneurs who are seeking access to finance, access to markets and established business networks. +They are often ignored because they're harder to help. +It is much riskier to give a 50,000 dollar loan than it is to give a 500 dollar loan. +And as the World Bank recently noted, women are stuck in a productivity trap. +Those in small businesses can't get the capital they need to expand and those in microbusiness can't grow out of them. +Recently I was at the State Department in Washington and I met an incredibly passionate entrepreneur from Ghana. +She sells chocolates. +And she had come to Washington, not seeking a handout and not seeking a microloan. +The great news is we already know what works. +Theory and empirical evidence Have already taught us. +We don't need to invent solutions because we have them -- cash flow loans based in income rather than assets, loans that use secure contracts rather than collateral, because women often don't own land. +And Kiva.org, the microlender, is actually now experimenting with crowdsourcing small and medium sized loans. +And that's just to start. +Recently it has become very much in fashion to call women "the emerging market of the emerging market." +I think that is terrific. +You know why? +Because -- and I say this as somebody who worked in finance -- 500 billion dollars at least has gone into the emerging markets in the past decade. +Because investors saw the potential for return at a time of slowing economic growth, and so they created financial products and financial innovation tailored to the emerging markets. +How wonderful would it be if we were prepared to replace all of our lofty words with our wallets and invest 500 billion dollars unleashing women's economic potential? +Just think of the benefits when it comes to jobs, productivity, employment, child nutrition, maternal mortality, literacy and much, much more. +Because, as the World Economic Forum noted, smaller gender gaps are directly correlated with increased economic competitiveness. +And not one country in all the world has eliminated its economic participation gap -- not one. +So the great news is this is an incredible opportunity. +We have so much room to grow. +So you see, this is not about doing good, this is about global growth and global employment. +It is about how we invest and it's about how we see women. +And women can no longer be both half the population and a special interest group. +Oftentimes I get into very interesting discussions with reporters who say to me, "Gayle, these are great stories, but you're really writing about the exceptions." +Now that makes me pause for just a couple reasons. +First of all, for exceptions, there are a lot of them and they're important. +Secondly, when we talk about men who are succeeding, we rightly consider them icons or pioneers or innovators to be emulated. +And when we talk about women, they are either exceptions to be dismissed or aberrations to be ignored. +And finally, there is no society anywhere in all the world that is not changed except by its most exceptional. +So why wouldn't we celebrate and elevate these change makers and job creators rather than overlook them? +This topic of resilience is very personal to me and in many ways has shaped my life. +My mom was a single mom who worked at the phone company during the day and sold Tupperware at night so that I could have every opportunity possible. +We shopped double coupons and layaway and consignment stores, and when she got sick with stage four breast cancer and could no longer work, we even applied for food stamps. +And when I would feel sorry for myself as nine or 10 year-old girls do, she would say to me, "My dear, on a scale of major world tragedies, yours is not a three." +And when I was applying to business school and felt certain I couldn't do it and nobody I knew had done it, I went to my aunt who survived years of beatings at the hand of her husband and escaped a marriage of abuse with only her dignity intact. +And she told me, "Never import other people's limitations." +First of all, no one turns down a Fulbright, and secondly, McDonald's is always hiring." +"You will find a job. Take the leap." +The women in my family are not exceptions. +The women in this room and watching in L.A. +and all around the world are not exceptions. +We are not a special interest group. +We are the majority. +And for far too long, we have underestimated ourselves and been undervalued by others. +It is time for us to aim higher when it comes to women, to invest more and to deploy our dollars to benefit women all around the world. +We can make a difference, and make a difference, not just for women, but for a global economy that desperately needs their contributions. +Together we can make certain that the so-called exceptions begin to rule. +When we change the way we see ourselves, others will follow. +And it is time for all of us to think bigger. +Thank you very much. +I want to talk to you about, or share with you, a breakthrough new approach for managing items of inventory inside of a warehouse. +We're talking about a pick, pack and ship setting here. +So as a hint, this solution involves hundreds of mobile robots, sometimes thousands of mobile robots, moving around a warehouse. And I'll get to the solution. +But for a moment, just think about the last time that you ordered something online. +You were sitting on your couch and you decided that you absolutely had to have this red t-shirt. +So click! you put it into your shopping cart. +And then you decided that green pair of pants looks pretty good too click! +And maybe a blue pair of shoes click! +So at this point you've assembled your order. +You didn't stop to think for a moment that that might not be a great outfit. +But you hit "submit order." +And two days later, this package shows up on your doorstep. +And you open the box and you're like, wow, there's my goo. +Did you ever stop to think about how those items of inventory actually found their way inside that box in the warehouse? +So I'm here to tell you it's that guy right there. +So deep in the middle of that picture, you see a classic pick-pack worker in a distribution or order fulfillments setting. +Classically these pick workers will spend 60 or 70 percent of their day wandering around the warehouse. +They'll often walk as much as 5 or 10 miles in pursuit of those items of inventory. +Not only is this an unproductive way to fill orders, it also turns out to be an unfulfilling way to fill orders. +So let me tell you where I first bumped into this problem. +I was out in the Bay area in '99, 2000, the dot com boom. +I worked for a fabulously spectacular flame-out called Webvan. +This company raised hundreds of millions of dollars with the notion that we will deliver grocery orders online. +And it really came down to the fact that we couldn't do it cost effectively. +Turns out e-commerce was something that was very hard and very costly. +In this particular instance we were trying to assemble 30 items of inventory into a few totes, onto a van to deliver to the home. +And when you think about it, it was costing us 30 dollars. +Imagine, we had an 89 can of soup that was costing us one dollar to pick and pack into that tote. +And that's before we actually tried to deliver it to the home. +So long story short, during my one year at Webvan, what I realized by talking to all the material-handling providers was that there was no solution designed specifically to solve each base picking. +Red item, green, blue, getting those three things in a box. +So we said, there's just got to be a better way to do this. +Existing material handling was set up to pump pallets and cases of goo to retail stores. +Of course Webvan went out of business, and about a year and a half later, I was still noodling on this problem. It was still nagging at me. +And I started thinking about it again. +And I said, let me just focus briefly on what I wanted as a pick worker, or my vision for how it should work. +I said, let's focus on the problem. +I have an order here and what I want to do is I want to put red, green and blue in this box right here. +What I need is a system where I put out my hand and poof! the product shows up and I pack it into the order, and now we're thinking, this would be a very operator-centric approach to solving the problem. +This is what I need. What technology is available to solve this problem? +But as you can see, orders can come and go, products can come and go. +It allows us to focus on making the pick worker the center of the problem, and providing them the tools to make them as productive as possible. +So how did I arrive at this notion? +Well, actually it came from a brainstorming exercise, probably a technique that many of you use, It's this notion of testing your ideas. +Take a blank sheet, of course, but then test your ideas at the limits infinity, zero. +In this particular case, we challenged ourselves with the idea: What if we had to build a distribution center in China, where it's a very, very low-cost market? +And say, labor is cheap, land is cheap. +And we said specifically, "What if it was zero dollars an hour for direct labor and we could build a million- square-foot distribution center?" +So naturally that led to ideas that said, "Let's put lots of people in the warehouse." +And I said, "Hold on, zero dollars per hour, what I would do is 'hire' 10,000 workers to come to the warehouse every morning at 8 a.m., walk into the warehouse and pick up one item of inventory and then just stand there. +So you hold Captain Crunch, you hold the Mountain Dew, you hold the Diet Coke. +If I need it, I'll call you, otherwise just stand there. +But when I need Diet Coke and I call it, you guys talk amongst yourselves. +Diet Coke walks up to the front pick it, put it in the tote, away it goes." +Wow, what if the products could walk and talk on their own? +That's a very interesting, very powerful way that we could potentially organize this warehouse. +So of course, labor isn't free, on that practical versus awesome spectrum. +So we said mobile shelving We'll put them on mobile shelving. +We'll use mobile robots and we'll move the inventory around. +And so we got underway on that and then I'm sitting on my couch in 2008. +Did any of you see the Beijing Olympics, the opening ceremonies? +I about fell out of my couch when I saw this. +I'm like, that was the idea! +(Laughter and Applause) We'll put thousands of people on the warehouse floor, the stadium floor. +But interestingly enough, this actually relates to the idea in that these guys were creating some incredibly powerful, impressive digital art, all without computers, I'm told, it was all peer-to-peer coordination and communication. +You stand up, I'll squat down. +And they made some fabulous art. +It speaks to the power of emergence in systems when you let things start to talk with each other. +So that was a little bit of the journey. +So of course, now what became the practical reality of this idea? +Here is a warehouse. +It's a pick, pack and ship center that has about 10,000 different SKUs. +We'll call them red pens, green pens, yellow Post-It Notes. +We send the little orange robots out to pick up the blue shelving pods. +And we deliver them to the side of the building. +So all the pick workers now get to stay on the perimeter. +And the game here is to pick up the shelves, take them down the highway and deliver them straight to the pick worker. +This pick worker's life is completely different. +Rather than wandering around the warehouse, she gets to stay still in a pick station like this and every product in the building can now come to her. +So the process is very productive. +Reach in, pick an item, scan the bar code, pack it out. +By the time you turn around, there's another product there ready to be picked and packed. +So what we've done is take out all of the non-value added walking, searching, wasting, waited time, and we've developed a very high-fidelity way to pick these orders, where you point at it with a laser, scan the UPC barcode, and then indicate with a light which box it needs to go into. +So more productive, more accurate and, it turns out, it's a more interesting office environment for these pick workers. +They actually complete the whole order. +So they do red, green and blue, not just a part of the order. +And they feel a little bit more in control of their environment. +So the side effects of this approach are what really surprised us. +We knew it was going to be more productive. +But we didn't realize just how pervasive this way of thinking extended to other functions in the warehouse. +But what effectively this approach is doing inside of the DC is turning it into a massively parallel processing engine. +So this is again a cross-fertilization of ideas. +Here's a warehouse and we're thinking about parallel processing supercomputer architectures. +The notion here is that you have 10 workers on the right side of the screen that are now all independent autonomous pick workers. +If the worker in station three decides to leave and go to the bathroom, it has no impact on the productivity of the other nine workers. +Contrast that, for a moment, with the traditional method of using a conveyor. +When one person passes the order to you, you put something in and pass it downstream. +Everyone has to be in place for that serial process to work. +This becomes a more robust way to think about the warehouse. +And then underneath the hoods gets interesting in that we're tracking the popularity of the products. +And we're using dynamic and adaptive algorithms to tune the floor of the warehouse. +So what you see here potentially the week leading up to Valentine's Day. +All that pink chalky candy has moved to the front of the building and is now being picked into a lot of orders in those pick stations. +Come in two days after Valentine's Day, and that candy, the leftover candy, has all drifted to the back of the warehouse and is occupying the cooler zone on the thermal map there. +One other side effect of this approach using the parallel processing is these things can scale to ginormous. +So whether you're doing two pick stations, 20 pick stations, or 200 pick stations, the path planning algorithms and all of the inventory algorithms just work. +In this example you see that the inventory has now occupied all the perimeter of the building because that's where the pick stations were. +They sorted it out for themselves. +So I'll conclude with just one final video that shows how this comes to bear on the pick worker's actual day in the life of. +So as we mentioned, the process is to move inventory along the highway and then find your way into these pick stations. +And our software in the background understands what's going on in each station, we direct the pods across the highway and we're attempting to get into a queuing system to present the work to the pick worker. +What's interesting is we can even adapt the speed of the pick workers. +The faster pickers get more pods and the slower pickers get few. +But this pick worker now is literally having that experience that we described before. +She puts out her hand. The product jumps into it. +Or she has to reach in and get it. +She scans it and she puts it in the bucket. +And all of the rest of the technology is kind of behind the scenes. +So she gets to now focus on the picking and packing portion of her job. +Never has any idle time, never has to leave her mat. +And actually we think not only a more productive and more accurate way to fill orders. +We think it's a more fulfilling way to fill orders. +The reason we can say that, though, is that workers in a lot of these buildings now compete for the privilege of working in the Kiva zone that day. +And sometimes we'll catch them on testimonial videos saying such things as, they have more energy after the day to play with their grandchildren, or in one case a guy said, "the Kiva zone is so stress-free that I've actually stopped taking my blood pressure medication." +That was at a pharmaceutical distributor, so they told us not to use that video. +So what I wanted to leave you with today is the notion that when you let things start to think and walk and talk on their own, interesting processes and productivities can emerge. +And now I think next time you go to your front step and pick up that box that you just ordered online, you break it open and the goo is in there, you'll have some wonderment as to whether a robot assisted in the picking and packing of that order. +Thank you. +As the highest military commander of the Netherlands, with troops stationed around the world, I'm really honored to be here today. +When I look around this TEDxAmsterdam venue, I see a very special audience. +You are the reason why I said yes to the invitation to come here today. +When I look around, I see people who want to make a contribution. +I see people who want to make a better world, by doing groundbreaking scientific work, by creating impressive works of art, by writing critical articles or inspiring books, by starting up sustainable businesses. +And you all have chosen your own instruments to fulfill this mission of creating a better world. +Some chose the microscope as their instrument. +Others chose dancing or painting, or making music like we just heard. +Some chose the pen. +Others work through the instrument of money. +Ladies and gentlemen, I made a different choice. +Thanks. +Ladies and gentlemen ... +I share your goals. +I share the goals of the speakers you heard before. +I did not choose to take up the pen, the brush, the camera. +I chose this instrument. +I chose the gun. +For you, and you heard already, being so close to this gun may make you feel uneasy. +It may even feel scary. +A real gun at a few feet's distance. +Let us stop for a moment and feel this uneasiness. +You could even hear it. +Let us cherish the fact that probably most of you have never been close to a gun. +It means the Netherlands is a peaceful country. +The Netherlands is not at war. +It means soldiers are not needed to patrol our streets. +Guns are not a part of our lives. +In many countries, it is a different story. +In many countries, people are confronted with guns. +They are oppressed. +They are intimidated -- by warlords, by terrorists, by criminals. +Weapons can do a lot of harm. +They are the cause of much distress. +Why then am I standing before you with this weapon? +Why did I choose the gun as my instrument? +Today I want to tell you why. +Today I want to tell you why I chose the gun to create a better world. +And I want to tell you how this gun can help. +My story starts in the city of Nijmegen in the east of the Netherlands, the city where I was born. +My father was a hardworking baker, but when he had finished work in the bakery, he often told me and my brother stories. +And most of the time, he told me this story I'm going to share with you now. +The story of what happened when he was a conscripted soldier in the Dutch armed forces at the beginning of the Second World War. +The Nazis invaded the Netherlands. +Their grim plans were evident. +They meant to rule by means of repression. +Diplomacy had failed to stop the Germans. +Only brute force remained. +It was our last resort. +My father was there to provide it. +As the son of a farmer who knew how to hunt, my father was an excellent marksman. +When he aimed, he never missed. +At this decisive moment in Dutch history my father was positioned on the bank of the river Waal near the city of Nijmegen. +He had a clear shot at the German soldiers who came to occupy a free country, his country, our country. +He fired. Nothing happened. +He fired again. +No German soldier fell to the ground. +My father had been given an old gun that could not even reach the opposite riverbank. +Hitler's troops marched on, and there was nothing my father could do about it. +Until the day my father died, he was frustrated about missing these shots. +He could have done something. +But with an old gun, not even the best marksman in the armed forces could have hit the mark. +So this story stayed with me. +Then in high school, I was gripped by the stories of the Allied soldiers -- soldiers who left the safety of their own homes and risked their lives to liberate a country and a people that they didn't know. +They liberated my birth town. +It was then that I decided I would take up the gun -- out of respect and gratitude for those men and women who came to liberate us. +From the awareness that sometimes only the gun can stand between good and evil. +And that is why I took up the gun -- not to shoot, not to kill, not to destroy, but to stop those who would do evil, to protect the vulnerable, to defend democratic values, to stand up for the freedom we have to talk here today in Amsterdam about how we can make the world a better place. +Ladies and gentlemen, I do not stand here today to tell you about the glory of weapons. +I do not like guns. +And once you have been under fire yourself, it brings home even more clearly that a gun is not some macho instrument to brag about. +I stand here today to tell you about the use of the gun as an instrument of peace and stability. +The gun may be one of the most important instruments of peace and stability that we have in this world. +Now this may sound contradictory to you. +But not only have I seen with my own eyes during my deployments in Lebanon, Sarajevo and as the Netherlands' Chief of Defence, this is also supported by cold, hard statistics. +Violence has declined dramatically over the last 500 years. +Despite the pictures we are shown daily in the news, wars between developed countries are no longer commonplace. +The murder rate in Europe has dropped by a factor of 30 since the Middle Ages. +And occurrences of civil war and repression have declined since the end of the Cold War. +Statistics show that we are living in a relatively peaceful era. +Why? +Why has violence decreased? +Has the human mind changed? +Well, we were talking about the human mind this morning. +Did we simply lose our beastly impulses for revenge, for violent rituals, for pure rage? +Or is there something else? +In other words, a state monopoly that has the use of violence well under control. +Such a state monopoly on violence, first of all, serves as a reassurance. +It removes the incentive for an arms race between potentially hostile groups in our societies. +Secondly, the presence of penalties that outweigh the benefits of using violence tips the balance even further. +Abstaining from violence becomes more profitable than starting a war. +Now nonviolence starts to work like a flywheel. +It enhances peace even further. +Where there is no conflict, trade flourishes. +And trade is another important incentive against violence. +With trade, there's mutual interdependency and mutual gain between parties. +And when there is mutual gain, both sides stand to lose more than they would gain if they started a war. +War is simply no longer the best option, and that is why violence has decreased. +This, ladies and gentlemen, is the rationale behind the existence of my armed forces. +The armed forces implement the state monopoly on violence. +We do this in a legitimized way only after our democracy has asked us to do so. +It is this legitimate, controlled use of the gun that has contributed greatly to reducing the statistics of war, conflict and violence around the globe. +It is this participation in peacekeeping missions that has led to the resolution of many civil wars. +My soldiers use the gun as an instrument of peace. +And this is exactly why failed states are so dangerous. +Failed states have no legitimized, democratically controlled use of force. +Failed states do not know of the gun as an instrument of peace and stability. +That is why failed states can drag down a whole region into chaos and conflict. +That is why spreading the concept of the constitutional state is such an important aspect of our foreign missions. +That is why we are trying to build a judicial system right now in Afghanistan. +That is why we train police officers, we train judges, we train public prosecutors around the world. +And that is why -- and in the Netherlands, we are very unique in that -- that is why the Dutch constitution states that one of the main tasks of the armed forces is to uphold and promote the international rule of law. +Ladies and gentlemen, looking at this gun, we are confronted with the ugly side of the human mind. +Every day I hope that politicians, diplomats, development workers can turn conflict into peace and threat into hope. +And I hope that one day armies can be disbanded and humans will find a way of living together without violence and oppression. +But until that day comes, we will have to make ideals and human failure meet somewhere in the middle. +Until that day comes, I stand for my father who tried to shoot the Nazis with an old gun. +I stand for my men and women who are prepared to risk their lives for a less violent world for all of us. +I stand for this soldier who suffered partial hearing loss and sustained permanent injuries to her leg, when she was hit by a rocket on a mission in Afghanistan. +Ladies and gentlemen, until the day comes when we can do away with the gun, I hope we all agree that peace and stability do not come free of charge. +It takes hard work, often behind the scenes. +It takes good equipment and well-trained, dedicated soldiers. +I hope you will support the efforts of our armed forces to train soldiers like this young captain and provide her with a good gun, instead of the bad gun my father was given. +I hope you will support our soldiers when they are out there, when they come home and when they are injured and need our care. +They put their lives on the line, for us, for you, and we cannot let them down. +I hope you will respect my soldiers, this soldier with this gun. +Because she wants a better world. +Because she makes an active contribution to a better world, just like all of us here today. +Thank you very much. +Everybody in our society's life is touched by cancer -- if not personally, then through a loved one, a family member, colleague, friend. +And once our lives are touched by cancer, we quickly learn that there are basically three weapons, or three tools, that are available to fight the disease: surgery, radiation and chemotherapy. +And once we get involved in the therapeutic decisions, again either personally or with our loved ones and family members, we also very quickly learn the benefits, the trade-offs and the limitations of these tools. +I'm very thankful to Jay and to Mark and the TEDMED team for inviting me today to describe a fourth tool, a new tool, that we call Tumor Treating Fields. +Tumor Treating Fields were invented by Dr. Yoram Palti, professor emeritus at the Technion in Israel. +And they use low-intensity electric fields to fight cancer. +To understand how Tumor Treating Fields work, we first need to understand what are electric fields. +Let me first address a few popular misconceptions. +First of all, electric fields are not an electric current that is coursing through the tissue. +Electric fields are not ionizing radiation, like X-rays or proton beams, that bombard tissue to disrupt DNA. +And electric fields are not magnetism. +What electric fields are are a field of forces. +And these forces act on, attract, bodies that have an electrical charge. +The best way to visualize an electric field is to think of gravity. +Gravity is also a field of forces that act on masses. +We can all picture astronauts in space. +They float freely in three dimensions without any forces acting on them. +But as that space shuttle returns to Earth, and as the astronauts enter the Earth's gravitational field, they begin to see the effects of gravity. +They begin to be attracted towards Earth. +And as they land, they're fully aligned in the gravitational field. +We're, of course, all stuck in the Earth's gravitational field right now. +That's why you're all in your chairs. +And that's why we have to use our muscle energy to stand up, to walk around and to lift things. +In cancer, cells rapidly divide and lead to uncontrolled tumor growth. +We can think of a cell from an electrical perspective as if it's a mini space station. +And in that space station we have the genetic material, the chromosomes, within a nucleus. +And out in the cytoplasmic soup we have special proteins that are required for cell division that float freely in this soup in three dimensions. +Importantly, those special proteins are among the most highly charged objects in our body. +As cell division begins the nucleus disintegrates, the chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell and those special proteins undergo a three-dimensional sequence whereby they attach and they literally click into place end-on-end to form chains. +These chains then progress and attach to the genetic material and pull the genetic material from one cell into two cells. +And this is exactly how one cancer cell becomes two cancer cells, two cancer cells become four cancer cells, and we have ultimately uncontrolled tumor growth. +Tumor Treating Fields use externally placed transducers attached to a field generator to create an artificial electric field on that space station. +And when that cellular space station is within the electric field, it acts on those highly charged proteins and aligns them. +And it prevents them from forming those chains, those mitotic spindles, that are necessary to pull the genetic material into the daughter cells. +What we see is that the cells will attempt to divide for several hours. +And they will either enter into this so-called cellular suicide, programmed cell death, or they will form unhealthy daughter cells and enter into apoptosis once they have divided. +And we can observe this. +What I'm going to show you next are two in vitro experiments. +This is cultures, identical cultures, of cervical cancer cells. +And we've stained these cultures with a green florescent dye so that we can look at these proteins that form these chains. +The first clip shows a normal cell division without the Tumor Treating Fields. +What we see are, first of all, a very active culture, a lot of divisions, and then very clear nuclei once the cells have separated. +And we can see them dividing throughout. +When we apply the fields -- again, in the identical time-scale to the identical culture -- you're going to see something different. +The cells round up for division, but they're very static in that position. +We'll see two cells in the upper part of the screen attempting to divide. +The one within the circle manages. +But see how much of the protein is still throughout the nucleus, even in the dividing cell. +The one up there can't divide at all. +And then this bubbling, this membrane bubbling, is the hallmark of apoptosis in this cell. +Formation of healthy mitotic spindles is necessary for division in all cell types. +We've applied Tumor Treating Fields to over 20 different cancers in the lab, and we see this effect in all of them. +Now importantly, these Tumor Treating Fields have no effect on normal undividing cells. +10 years ago, Dr. Palti founded a company called Novocure to develop his discovery into a practical therapy for patients. +In that time, Novocure's developed two systems -- one system for cancers in the head and another system for cancers in the trunk of the body. +The first cancer that we have focused on is the deadly brain cancer, GBM. +GBM affects about 10,000 people in the U.S. each year. +It's a death sentence. +The expected five year survival is less than five percent. +And the typical patient with optimal therapy survives just a little over a year, and only about seven months from the time that the cancer is first treated and then comes back and starts growing again. +Novocure conducted its first phase three randomized trial in patients with recurrent GBM. +So these are patients who had received surgery, high dose radiation to the head and first-line chemotherapy, and that had failed and their tumors had grown back. +We divided the patients into two groups. +The first group received second-line chemotherapy, which is expected to double the life expectancy, versus no treatment at all. +And then the second group received only Tumor Treating Field therapy. +What we saw in that trial is that that the life expectancies of both groups -- so the chemotherapy treated group and the Tumor Treating Field group -- was the same. +But importantly, the Tumor Treating Field group suffered none of the side effects typical of chemotherapy patients. +They had no pain, suffered none of the infections. +They had no nausea, diarrhea, constipation, fatigue that would be expected. +Based on this trial, in April of this year, the FDA approved Tumor Treating Fields for the treatment of patients with recurrent GBM. +Importantly, it was the first time ever that the FDA included in their approval of an oncology treatment a quality of life claim. +So I'm going to show you now one of the patients from this trial. +Robert Dill-Bundi is a famous Swiss cycling champion. +He won the gold medal in Moscow in the 4,000 meter pursuit. +And five years ago, Robert was diagnosed with GBM. +He received the standard treatments. +He received surgery. +He received high dose radiation to the head. +And he received first-line chemotherapy. +A year after this treatment -- in fact, this is his baseline MRI. +You can see that the black regions in the upper right quadrant are the areas where he had surgery. +And a year after that treatment, his tumor grew back with a vengeance. +That cloudy white mass that you see is the recurrence of the tumor. +At this point, he was told by his doctors that he had about 3 months to live. +He entered our trial. +And here we can see him getting the therapy. +First of all, these electrodes are noninvasive. +They're attached to the skin in the area of the tumor. +Here you can see that a technician is placing them on there much like bandages. +The patients learn to do this themselves And then the patients can undergo all the activities of their daily life. +There's none of the tiredness. +There's none of what is called the "chemo head." +There's no sensation. +It doesn't interfere with computers or electrical equipment. +And the therapy is delivered continuously at home, without having to go into the hospital either periodically or continually. +These are Robert's MRIs, again, under only TTField treatment. +This is a therapy that takes time to work. +It's a medical device; it works when it's on. +But what we can see is, by month six, the tumor has responded and it's begun to melt away. +It's still there. +By month 12, we could argue whether there's a little bit of material around the edges, but it's essentially completely gone. +It's now five years since Robert's diagnosis, and he's alive, but importantly, he's healthy and he's at work. +I'm going to let him, in this very short clip, describe his impressions of the therapy in his own words. +Robert Dill-Bundi: My quality of life, I rate what I have today a bit different than what most people would assume. +I am the happiest, the happiest person in the world. +And every single morning I appreciate life. +Every night I fall asleep very well, and I am, I repeat, the happiest man in the world, and I'm thankful I am alive. +BD: Novocure's also working on lung cancer as the second target. +We've run a phase two trial in Switzerland on, again, recurrent patients -- patients who have received standard therapy and whose cancer has come back. +I'm going to show you another clip of a woman named Lydia. +Lydia's a 66 year-old farmer in Switzerland. +She was diagnosed with lung cancer five years ago. +She underwent four different regimes of chemotherapy over two years, none of which had an effect. +Her cancer continued to grow. +Three years ago, she entered the Novocure lung cancer trial. +You can see, in her case, she's wearing her transducer arrays, one of the front of her chest, one on the back, and then the second pair side-to-side over the liver. +You can see the Tumor Treating Field field generator, but importantly you can also see that she is living her life. +She is managing her farm. +She's interacting with her kids and her grand kids. +And when we talked to her, she said that when she was undergoing chemotherapy, she had to go to the hospital every month for her infusions. +Her whole family suffered as her side effect profile came and went. +Now she can run all of the activities of her farm. +It's only the beginning. +In the lab, we've observed tremendous synergies between chemotherapy and Tumor Treating Fields. +There's research underway now at Harvard Medical School to pick the optimum pairs to maximize that benefit. +We also believe that Tumor Treating Fields will work with radiation and interrupt the self-repair mechanisms that we have. +There's now a new research project underway at the Karolinska in Sweden to prove that hypothesis. +We have more trials planned for lung cancer, pancreatic cancer, ovarian cancer and breast cancer. +And I firmly believe that in the next 10 years Tumor Treating Fields will be a weapon available to doctors and patients for all of these most-difficult-to-treat solid tumors. +I'm also very hopeful that in the next decades, we will make big strides on reducing that death rate that has been so challenging in this disease. +Thank you. +When I was seven years old and my sister was just five years old, we were playing on top of a bunk bed. +I was two years older than my sister at the time -- I mean, I'm two years older than her now -- but at the time it meant she had to do everything that I wanted to do, and I wanted to play war. +So we were up on top of our bunk beds. +And on one side of the bunk bed, I had put out all of my G.I. Joe soldiers and weaponry. +And on the other side were all my sister's My Little Ponies ready for a cavalry charge. +There are differing accounts of what actually happened that afternoon, but since my sister is not here with us today, let me tell you the true story -- which is my sister's a little on the clumsy side. +Somehow, without any help or push from her older brother at all, Amy disappeared off of the top of the bunk bed and landed with this crash on the floor. +I nervously peered over the side of the bed to see what had befallen my fallen sister and saw that she had landed painfully on her hands and knees on all fours on the ground. +I was nervous because my parents had charged me with making sure that my sister and I played as safely and as quietly as possible. +And I saw my sister's face, this wail of pain and suffering and surprise threatening to erupt from her mouth and wake my parents from the long winter's nap for which they had settled. +So I did the only thing my frantic seven year-old brain could think to do to avert this tragedy. +And if you have children, you've seen this hundreds of times. +I said, "Amy, wait. Don't cry. Did you see how you landed? +No human lands on all fours like that. +Amy, I think this means you're a unicorn." +Now, that was cheating, because there was nothing she would want more than not to be Amy the hurt five year-old little sister, but Amy the special unicorn. +Of course, this option was open to her brain at no point in the past. +And you could see how my poor, manipulated sister faced conflict, as her little brain attempted to devote resources to feeling the pain and suffering and surprise she just experienced, or contemplating her new-found identity as a unicorn. +And the latter won. +Instead of crying or ceasing our play, instead of waking my parents, with all the negative consequences for me, a smile spread across her face and she scrambled back up onto the bunk bed with all the grace of a baby unicorn -- with one broken leg. +What we stumbled across at this tender age of just five and seven -- we had no idea at the time -- was was going be at the vanguard of a scientific revolution occurring two decades later in the way that we look at the human brain. +We had stumbled across something called positive psychology, which is the reason I'm here today and the reason that I wake up every morning. +When I started talking about this research outside of academia, with companies and schools, the first thing they said to never do is to start with a graph. +The first thing I want to do is start with a graph. +This graph looks boring, but it is the reason I get excited and wake up every morning. +And this graph doesn't even mean anything; it's fake data. +What we found is -- If I got this data studying you, I would be thrilled, because there's a trend there, and that means that I can get published, which is all that really matters. +There is one weird red dot above the curve, there's one weirdo in the room -- I know who you are, I saw you earlier -- that's no problem. +That's no problem, as most of you know, because I can just delete that dot. +I can delete that dot because that's clearly a measurement error. +And we know that's a measurement error because it's messing up my data. +So one of the first things we teach people in economics, statistics, business and psychology courses is how, in a statistically valid way, do we eliminate the weirdos. +How do we eliminate the outliers so we can find the line of best fit? +Which is fantastic if I'm trying to find out how many Advil the average person should be taking -- two. +But if I'm interested in your potential, or for happiness or productivity or energy or creativity, we're creating the cult of the average with science. +If I asked a question like, "How fast can a child learn how to read in a classroom?" +"How fast does the average child learn how to read in that classroom?" +and we tailor the class towards the average. +If you fall below the average, then psychologists get thrilled, because that means you're depressed or have a disorder, or hopefully both. +We're hoping for both because our business model is, if you come into a therapy session with one problem, we want to make sure you leave knowing you have ten, so you keep coming back. +We'll go back into your childhood if necessary, but eventually we want to make you normal again. +But normal is merely average. +And positive psychology posits that if we study what is merely average, we will remain merely average. +Then instead of deleting those positive outliers, what I intentionally do is come into a population like this one and say, why? +Why are some of you high above the curve in terms of intellectual, athletic, musical ability, creativity, energy levels, resiliency in the face of challenge, sense of humor? +Whatever it is, instead of deleting you, what I want to do is study you. +Because maybe we can glean information, not just how to move people up to the average, but move the entire average up in our companies and schools worldwide. +The reason this graph is important to me is, on the news, the majority of the information is not positive. +in fact it's negative. +Most of it's about murder, corruption, diseases, natural disasters. +And very quickly, my brain starts to think that's the accurate ratio of negative to positive in the world. +This creates "the medical school syndrome." +During the first year of medical training, as you read through a list of all the symptoms and diseases, suddenly you realize you have all of them. +I have a brother in-law named Bobo, which is a whole other story. +Bobo married Amy the unicorn. +Bobo called me on the phone -- from Yale Medical School, and Bobo said, "Shawn, I have leprosy." +Which, even at Yale, is extraordinarily rare. +But I had no idea how to console poor Bobo because he had just gotten over an entire week of menopause. +We're finding it's not necessarily the reality that shapes us, but the lens through which your brain views the world that shapes your reality. +And if we can change the lens, not only can we change your happiness, we can change every single educational and business outcome at the same time. +I applied to Harvard on a dare. +I didn't expect to get in, and my family had no money for college. +When I got a military scholarship two weeks later, they let me go. +Something that wasn't even a possibility became a reality. +I assumed everyone there would see it as a privilege as well, that they'd be excited to be there. +Even in a classroom full of people smarter than you, I felt you'd be happy just to be in that classroom. +But what I found is, while some people experience that, when I graduated after my four years and then spent the next eight years living in the dorms with the students -- Harvard asked me to; I wasn't that guy. +I was an officer to counsel students through the difficult four years. +When I first went in there, I walked into the freshmen dining hall, which is where my friends from Waco, Texas, which is where I grew up -- I know some of you know this. +When they'd visit, they'd look around, and say, "This dining hall looks like something out of Hogwart's." +It does, because that was Hogwart's and that's Harvard. +And when they see this, they say, "Why do you waste your time studying happiness at Harvard? +What does a Harvard student possibly have to be unhappy about?" +Embedded within that question is the key to understanding the science of happiness. +Because what that question assumes is that our external world is predictive of our happiness levels, when in reality, if I know everything about your external world, I can only predict 10% of your long-term happiness. +90 percent of your long-term happiness is predicted not by the external world, but by the way your brain processes the world. +And if we change it, if we change our formula for happiness and success, we can change the way that we can then affect reality. +What we found is that only 25% of job successes are predicted by IQ, 75 percent of job successes are predicted by your optimism levels, your social support and your ability to see stress as a challenge instead of as a threat. +I talked to a New England boarding school, probably the most prestigious one, and they said, "We already know that. +So every year, instead of just teaching our students, we have a wellness week. +And we're so excited. Monday night we have the world's leading expert will speak about adolescent depression. +Tuesday night it's school violence and bullying. +Wednesday night is eating disorders. +Thursday night is illicit drug use. +And Friday night we're trying to decide between risky sex or happiness." +I said, "That's most people's Friday nights." +Which I'm glad you liked, but they did not like that at all. +Silence on the phone. +And into the silence, I said, "I'd be happy to speak at your school, but that's not a wellness week, that's a sickness week. +You've outlined all the negative things that can happen, but not talked about the positive." +The absence of disease is not health. +Here's how we get to health: We need to reverse the formula for happiness and success. +In the last three years, I've traveled to 45 countries, working with schools and companies in the midst of an economic downturn. +And I found that most companies and schools follow a formula for success, which is this: If I work harder, I'll be more successful. +And if I'm more successful, then I'll be happier. +That undergirds most of our parenting and managing styles, the way that we motivate our behavior. +And the problem is it's scientifically broken and backwards for two reasons. +Every time your brain has a success, you just changed the goalpost of what success looked like. +You got good grades, now you have to get better grades, you got into a good school and after you get into a better one, you got a good job, now you have to get a better job, you hit your sales target, we're going to change it. +And if happiness is on the opposite side of success, your brain never gets there. +We've pushed happiness over the cognitive horizon, as a society. +And that's because we think we have to be successful, then we'll be happier. +But our brains work in the opposite order. +If you can raise somebody's level of positivity in the present, then their brain experiences what we now call a happiness advantage, which is your brain at positive performs significantly better than at negative, neutral or stressed. +Your intelligence rises, your creativity rises, your energy levels rise. +In fact, we've found that every single business outcome improves. +Your brain at positive is 31% more productive than your brain at negative, neutral or stressed. +You're 37% better at sales. +Doctors are 19 percent faster, more accurate at coming up with the correct diagnosis when positive instead of negative, neutral or stressed. +Which means we can reverse the formula. +If we can find a way of becoming positive in the present, then our brains work even more successfully as we're able to work harder, faster and more intelligently. +We need to be able to reverse this formula so we can start to see what our brains are actually capable of. +Because dopamine, which floods into your system when you're positive, has two functions. +Not only does it make you happier, it turns on all of the learning centers in your brain allowing you to adapt to the world in a different way. +We've found there are ways that you can train your brain to be able to become more positive. +In just a two-minute span of time done for 21 days in a row, we can actually rewire your brain, allowing your brain to actually work more optimistically and more successfully. +We've done these things in research now in every company that I've worked with, getting them to write down three new things that they're grateful for for 21 days in a row, three new things each day. +And at the end of that, their brain starts to retain a pattern of scanning the world not for the negative, but for the positive first. +Journaling about one positive experience you've had over the past 24 hours allows your brain to relive it. +Exercise teaches your brain that your behavior matters. +We find that meditation allows your brain to get over the cultural ADHD that we've been creating by trying to do multiple tasks at once and allows our brains to focus on the task at hand. +And finally, random acts of kindness are conscious acts of kindness. +We get people, when they open up their inbox, to write one positive email praising or thanking somebody in their support network. +And by doing these activities and by training your brain just like we train our bodies, what we've found is we can reverse the formula for happiness and success, and in doing so, not only create ripples of positivity, but a real revolution. +Thank you very much. +I'm going to talk to you today about the design of medical technology for low resource settings. +I study health systems in these countries. +And one of the major gaps in care, almost across the board, is access to safe surgery. +Now one of the major bottlenecks that we've found that's sort of preventing both the access in the first place and the safety of those surgeries that do happen is anesthesia. +And actually, it's the model that we expect to work for delivering anesthesia in these environments. +Here we have a scene that you would find in any operating room across the U.S. or any other developed country. +In the background there is a very sophisticated anesthesia machine. +And this machine is able to enable surgery and save lives because it was designed with this environment in mind. +In order to operate, this machine needs a number of things that this hospital has to offer. +It needs an extremely well-trained anesthesiologist with years of training with complex machines to help her monitor the flows of the gas and keep her patients safe and anesthetized throughout the surgery. +It's a delicate machine running on computer algorithms, and it needs special care, TLC, to keep it up and running, and it's going to break pretty easily. +And when it does, it needs a team of biomedical engineers who understand its complexities, can fix it, can source the parts and keep it saving lives. +It's a pretty expensive machine. +It needs a hospital whose budget can allow it to support one machine costing upwards of 50 or $100,000. +And perhaps most obviously, and perhaps most importantly -- and the path to concepts that we've heard about kind of illustrate this -- it needs infrastructure that can supply an uninterrupted source of electricity, of compressed oxygen and other medical supplies that are so critical to the functioning of this machine. +In other words, this machine requires a lot of stuff that this hospital cannot offer. +This is the electrical supply for a hospital in rural Malawi. +In this hospital, there is one person qualified to deliver anesthesia, and she's qualified because she has 12, maybe 18 months of training in anesthesia. +In the hospital and in the entire region there's not a single biomedical engineer. +So when this machine breaks, the machines they have to work with break, they've got to try and figure it out, but most of the time, that's the end of the road. +Those machines go the proverbial junkyard. +And the price tag of the machine that I mentioned could represent maybe a quarter or a third of the annual operating budget for this hospital. +And finally, I think you can see that infrastructure is not very strong. +This hospital is connected to a very weak power grid, one that goes down frequently. +So it runs frequently, the entire hospital, just on a generator. +And you can imagine, the generator breaks down or runs out of fuel. +And the World Bank sees this and estimates that a hospital in this setting in a low-income country can expect up to 18 power outages per month. +Similarly compressed oxygen and other medical supplies are really a luxury and can often be out of stock for months or even a year. +So it seems crazy, but the model that we have right now is taking those machines that were designed for that first environment that I showed you and donating or selling them to hospitals in this environment. +It's not just inappropriate, it becomes really unsafe. +One of our partners at Johns Hopkins was observing surgeries in Sierra Leone about a year ago. +And the first surgery of the day happened to be an obstetrical case. +A woman came in, she needed an emergency C-section to save her life and the life of her baby. +And everything began pretty auspiciously. +The surgeon was on call and scrubbed in. +The nurse was there. +She was able to anesthetize her quickly, and it was important because of the emergency nature of the situation. +And everything began well until the power went out. +And now in the middle of this surgery, the surgeon is racing against the clock to finish his case, which he can do -- he's got a headlamp. +But the nurse is literally running around a darkened operating theater trying to find anything she can use to anesthetize her patient, to keep her patient asleep. +Because her machine doesn't work when there's no power. +And now this routine surgery that many of you have probably experienced, and others are probably the product of, has now become a tragedy. +And what's so frustrating is this is not a singular event; this happens across the developing world. +35 million surgeries are attempted every year without safe anesthesia. +My colleague, Dr. Paul Fenton, was living this reality. +He was the chief of anesthesiology in a hospital in Malawi, a teaching hospital. +He went to work every day in an operating theater like this one, trying to deliver anesthesia and teach others how to do so using that same equipment that became so unreliable, and frankly unsafe, in his hospital. +And after umpteen surgeries and, you can imagine, really unspeakable tragedy, he just said, "That's it. I'm done. That's enough. +There has to be something better." +So he took a walk down the hall to where they threw all those machines that had just crapped out on them -- I think that's the scientific term -- and he just started tinkering. +He took one part from here and another from there, and he tried to come up with a machine that would work in the reality that he was facing. +And what he came up with was this guy, the prototype for the Universal Anesthesia Machine -- a machine that would work and anesthetize his patients no matter the circumstances that his hospital had to offer. +Here it is back at home at that same hospital, developed a little further, 12 years later, working on patients from pediatrics to geriatrics. +Now let me show you a little bit about how this machine works. +Voila! +Here she is. +When you have electricity, everything in this machine begins in the base. +There's a built-in oxygen concentrator down there. +Now you've heard me mention oxygen a few times at this point. +Essentially, to deliver anesthesia, you want as pure oxygen as possible, because eventually you're going to dilute it essentially with the gas. +And the mixture that the patient inhales needs to be at least a certain percentage oxygen or else it can become dangerous. +But so in here when there's electricity, the oxygen concentrator takes in room air. +Now we know room air is gloriously free, it is abundant, and it's already 21 percent oxygen. +So all this concentrator does is take that room air in, filter it and send 95 percent pure oxygen up and across here where it mixes with the anesthetic agent. +Now before that mixture hits the patient's lungs, it's going to pass by here -- you can't see it, but there's an oxygen sensor here -- that's going to read out on this screen the percentage of oxygen being delivered. +Now if you don't have power, or, God forbid, the power cuts out in the middle of surgery, this machine transitions automatically, without even having to touch it, to drawing in room air from this inlet. +Everything else is the same. +The only difference is that now you're only working with 21 percent oxygen. +Now that used to be a dangerous guessing game, because you only knew if you had given too little oxygen once something bad happened. +But we've put a long-life battery backup on here. +This is the only part that's battery backed up. +But this gives control to the provider, whether there's power or not, because they can adjust the flow based on the percentage of oxygen they see that they're giving their patient. +In both cases, whether you have power or not, sometimes the patient needs help breathing. +It's just a reality of anesthesia. The lungs can be paralyzed. +And so we've just added this manual bellows. +We've seen surgeries for three or four hours to ventilate the patient on this. +So it's a straightforward machine. +I shudder to say simple; it's straightforward. +And it's by design. +And you do not need to be a highly trained, specialized anesthesiologist to use this machine, which is good because, in these rural district hospitals, you're not going to get that level of training. +It's also designed for the environment that it will be used in. +This is an incredibly rugged machine. +It has to stand up to the heat and the wear and tear that happens in hospitals in these rural districts. +And so it's not going to break very easily, but if it does, virtually every piece in this machine can be swapped out and replaced with a hex wrench and a screwdriver. +And finally, it's affordable. +This machine comes in at an eighth of the cost of the conventional machine that I showed you earlier. +So in other words, what we have here is a machine that can enable surgery and save lives because it was designed for its environment, just like the first machine I showed you. +But we're not content to stop there. +Is it working? +Is this the design that's going to work in place? +Well we've seen good results so far. +This is in 13 hospitals in four countries, and since 2010, we've done well over 2,000 surgeries with no clinically adverse events. +So we're thrilled. +This really seems like a cost-effective, scalable solution to a problem that's really pervasive. +But we still want to be sure that this is the most effective and safe device that we can be putting into hospitals. +So to do that we've launched a number of partnerships with NGOs and universities to gather data on the user interface, on the types of surgeries it's appropriate for and ways we can enhance the device itself. +One of those partnerships is with Johns Hopkins just here in Baltimore. +They have a really cool anesthesia simulation lab out in Baltimore. +So we're taking this machine and recreating some of the operating theater crises that this machine might face in one of the hospitals that it's intended for, and in a contained, safe environment, evaluating its effectiveness. +We're then able to compare the results from that study with real world experience, because we're putting two of these in hospitals that Johns Hopkins works with in Sierra Leone, including the hospital where that emergency C-section happened. +So I've talked a lot about anesthesia, and I tend to do that. +I think it is incredibly fascinating and an important component of health. +And it really seems peripheral, we never think about it, until we don't have access to it, and then it becomes a gatekeeper. +Who gets surgery and who doesn't? +Who gets safe surgery and who doesn't? +But you know, it's just one of so many ways that design, appropriate design, can have an impact on health outcomes. +Thank you very much. +When we park in a big parking lot, how do we remember where we parked our car? +Here's the problem facing Homer. +And we're going to try to understand what's happening in his brain. +So we'll start with the hippocampus, shown in yellow, which is the organ of memory. +If you have damage there, like in Alzheimer's, you can't remember things including where you parked your car. +It's named after Latin for "seahorse," which it resembles. +And like the rest of the brain, it's made of neurons. +So the human brain has about a hundred billion neurons in it. +And the neurons communicate with each other by sending little pulses or spikes of electricity via connections to each other. +The hippocampus is formed of two sheets of cells, which are very densely interconnected. +And scientists have begun to understand how spatial memory works by recording from individual neurons in rats or mice while they forage or explore an environment looking for food. +So we're going to imagine we're recording from a single neuron in the hippocampus of this rat here. +And when it fires a little spike of electricity, there's going to be a red dot and a click. +So what we see is that this neuron knows whenever the rat has gone into one particular place in its environment. +And it signals to the rest of the brain by sending a little electrical spike. +So we could show the firing rate of that neuron as a function of the animal's location. +And if we record from lots of different neurons, we'll see that different neurons fire when the animal goes in different parts of its environment, like in this square box shown here. +So together they form a map for the rest of the brain, telling the brain continually, "Where am I now within my environment?" +Place cells are also being recorded in humans. +So epilepsy patients sometimes need the electrical activity in their brain monitoring. +And some of these patients played a video game where they drive around a small town. +And place cells in their hippocampi would fire, become active, start sending electrical impulses whenever they drove through a particular location in that town. +So how does a place cell know where the rat or person is within its environment? +Well these two cells here show us that the boundaries of the environment are particularly important. +So the one on the top likes to fire sort of midway between the walls of the box that their rat's in. +And when you expand the box, the firing location expands. +The one below likes to fire whenever there's a wall close by to the south. +And if you put another wall inside the box, then the cell fires in both place wherever there's a wall to the south as the animal explores around in its box. +So this predicts that sensing the distances and directions of boundaries around you -- extended buildings and so on -- is particularly important for the hippocampus. +And indeed, on the inputs to the hippocampus, cells are found which project into the hippocampus, which do respond exactly to detecting boundaries or edges at particular distances and directions from the rat or mouse as it's exploring around. +And the cell on the right there fires whenever there's a boundary to the south, whether it's the drop at the edge of the table or a wall or even the gap between two tables that are pulled apart. +So that's one way in which we think place cells determine where the animal is as it's exploring around. +We can also test where we think objects are, like this goal flag, in simple environments -- or indeed, where your car would be. +So we can have people explore an environment and see the location they have to remember. +And then, if we put them back in the environment, generally they're quite good at putting a marker down where they thought that flag or their car was. +But on some trials, we could change the shape and size of the environment like we did with the place cell. +In that case, we can see how where they think the flag had been changes as a function of how you change the shape and size of the environment. +And what you see, for example, if the flag was where that cross was in a small square environment, and then if you ask people where it was, but you've made the environment bigger, where they think the flag had been stretches out in exactly the same way that the place cell firing stretched out. +It's as if you remember where the flag was by storing the pattern of firing across all of your place cells at that location, and then you can get back to that location by moving around so that you best match the current pattern of firing of your place cells with that stored pattern. +That guides you back to the location that you want to remember. +But we also know where we are through movement. +So if we take some outbound path -- perhaps we park and we wander off -- we know because our own movements, which we can integrate over this path roughly what the heading direction is to go back. +And place cells also get this kind of path integration input from a kind of cell called a grid cell. +Now grid cells are found, again, on the inputs to the hippocampus, and they're a bit like place cells. +But now as the rat explores around, each individual cell fires in a whole array of different locations which are laid out across the environment in an amazingly regular triangular grid. +And if you record from several grid cells -- shown here in different colors -- each one has a grid-like firing pattern across the environment, and each cell's grid-like firing pattern is shifted slightly relative to the other cells. +So the red one fires on this grid and the green one on this one and the blue on on this one. +So together, it's as if the rat can put a virtual grid of firing locations across its environment -- a bit like the latitude and longitude lines that you'd find on a map, but using triangles. +And as it moves around, the electrical activity can pass from one of these cells to the next cell to keep track of where it is, so that it can use its own movements to know where it is in its environment. +Do people have grid cells? +So we can put people in an MRI scanner and have them do a little video game like the one I showed you and look for this signal. +And indeed, you do see it in the human entorhinal cortex, which is the same part of the brain that you see grid cells in rats. +So back to Homer. +He's probably remembering where his car was in terms of the distances and directions to extended buildings and boundaries around the location where he parked. +And that would be represented by the firing of boundary-detecting cells. +He's also remembering the path he took out of the car park, which would be represented in the firing of grid cells. +Now both of these kinds of cells can make the place cells fire. +And he can return to the location where he parked by moving so as to find where it is that best matches the firing pattern of the place cells in his brain currently with the stored pattern where he parked his car. +And that guides him back to that location irrespective of visual cues like whether his car's actually there. +Maybe it's been towed. +But he knows where it was, so he knows to go and get it. +So beyond spatial memory, if we look for this grid-like firing pattern throughout the whole brain, we see it in a whole series of locations which are always active when we do all kinds of autobiographical memory tasks, like remembering the last time you went to a wedding, for example. +So it may be that the neural mechanisms for representing the space around us are also used for generating visual imagery so that we can recreate the spatial scene, at least, of the events that have happened to us when we want to imagine them. +So if this was happening, your memories could start by place cells activating each other via these dense interconnections and then reactivating boundary cells to create the spatial structure of the scene around your viewpoint. +And grid cells could move this viewpoint through that space. +Another kind of cell, head direction cells, which I didn't mention yet, they fire like a compass according to which way you're facing. +They could define the viewing direction from which you want to generate an image for your visual imagery, so you can imagine what happened when you were at this wedding, for example. +So this is just one example of a new era really in cognitive neuroscience where we're beginning to understand psychological processes like how you remember or imagine or even think in terms of the actions of the billions of individual neurons that make up our brains. +Thank you very much. +What I want to talk to you about today is some of the problems that the military of the Western world -- Australia, United States, U.K. and so on -- face in some of the deployments that they're dealing with in the modern world at this time. +If you think about the sorts of things that we've sent Australian military personnel to in recent years, we've got obvious things like Iraq and Afghanistan, but you've also got things like East Timor and the Solomon Islands and so on. +And a lot of these deployments that we're actually sending military personnel to these days aren't traditional wars. +In fact, a lot of the jobs that we're asking the military personnel to do in these situations are ones that, in their own countries, in Australia, the United States and so on, would actually be done by police officers. +And so there's a bunch of problems that come up for military personnel in these situations, because they're doing things that they haven't really been trained for, and they're doing things that those who do them in their own countries are trained very differently for and equipped very differently for. +Now there's a bunch of reasons why we actually do send military personnel rather than police to do these jobs. +If Australia had to send a thousand people tomorrow to West Papua for example, we don't have a thousand police officers hanging around that could just go tomorrow and we do have a thousand soldiers that could go. +So when we have to send someone, we send the military -- because they're there, they're available and, heck, they're used to going off and doing these things and living by themselves and not having all this extra support. +So they are able to do it in that sense. +But they aren't trained in the same way that police officers are and they're certainly not equipped in the same way police officers are. +And so this has raised a bunch of problems for them when dealing with these sorts of issues. +One particular thing that's come up that I am especially interested in is the question of whether, when we're sending military personnel to do these sorts of jobs, we ought to be equipping them differently, and in particular, whether we ought to be giving them access to some of the sorts of non-lethal weapons that police have. +Since they're doing some of these same jobs, maybe they should have some of those things. +And of course, there's a range of places where you'd think those things would be really useful. +So for example, when you've got military checkpoints. +If people are approaching these checkpoints and the military personnel there are unsure whether this person's hostile or not. +Say this person approaching here, and they say, "Well is this a suicide bomber or not? +Have they got something hidden under their clothing? What's going to happen?" +They don't know whether this person's hostile or not. +If this person doesn't follow directions, then they may end up shooting them and then find out afterward either, yes, we shot the right person, or, no, this was just an innocent person who didn't understand what was going on. +So if they had non-lethal weapons then they would say, "Well we can use them in that sort of situation. +If we shoot someone who wasn't hostile, at least we haven't killed them." +Another situation. +This photo is actually from one of the missions in the Balkans in the late 1990s. +Situation's a little bit different where perhaps they know someone who's hostile, where they've got someone shooting at them or doing something else that's clearly hostile, throwing rocks, whatever. +But if they respond, there's a range of other people around, who are innocent people who might also get hurt -- be collateral damage that the military often doesn't want to talk about. +So again, they would say, "Well if we have access to non-lethal weapons, if we've got someone we know is hostile, we can do something to deal with them and know that if we hit anyone else around the place, at least, again, we're not going to kill them." +Another suggestion has been, since we're putting so many robots in the field, we can see the time coming where they're actually going to be sending robots out in the field that are autonomous. +They're going to make their own decisions about who to shoot and who not to shoot without a human in the loop. +And so the suggestion is, well hey, if we're going to send robots out and allow them to do this, maybe it would be a good idea, again, with these things if they were armed with non-lethal weapons so that if the robot makes a bad decision and shoots the wrong person, again, they haven't actually killed them. +Now there's a whole range of different sorts of non-lethal weapons, some of which are obviously available now, some of which they're developing. +So you've got traditional things like pepper spray, O.C. spray up at the top there, or Tasers over here. +The one on the top right here is actually a dazzling laser intended to just blind the person momentarily and disorient them. +You've got non-lethal shotgun rounds that contain rubber pellets instead of the traditional metal ones. +And this one in the middle here, the large truck, is actually called the Active Denial System -- something the U.S. military is working on at the moment. +It's essentially a big microwave transmitter. +It's sort of your classic idea of a heat ray. +It goes out to a really long distance, compared to any of these other sorts of things. +And anybody who is hit with this feels this sudden burst of heat and just wants to get out of the way. +It is a lot more sophisticated than a microwave oven, but it is basically boiling the water molecules in the very surface level of your skin. +So you feel this massive heat, and you go, "I want to get out of the way." +And they're thinking, well this will be really useful in places like where we need to clear a crowd out of a particular area, if the crowd is being hostile. +If we need to keep people away from a particular place, we can do that with these sorts of things. +So obviously there's a whole range of different sorts of non-lethal weapons we could give military personnel and there's a whole range of situations where they're looking a them and saying, "Hey, these things could be really useful." +But as I said, the military and the police are very different. +Yes, you don't have to look very hard at this to recognize the fact that they might be very different. +In particular, the attitude to the use of force and the way they're trained to use force is especially different. +The police -- and knowing because I've actually helped to train police -- police, in particular Western jurisdictions at least, are trained to de-escalate force, to try and avoid using force wherever possible, and to use lethal force only as an absolute last resort. +Military personnel are being trained for war, so they're trained that, as soon as things go bad, their first response is lethal force. +The moment the fecal matter hits the rotating turbine, you can start shooting at people. +So their attitudes to the use of lethal force are very different, and I think it's fairly obvious that their attitude to the use of non-lethal weapons would also be very different from what it is with the police. +And since we've already had so many problems with police use of non-lethal weapons in various ways, I thought it would be a really good idea to look at some of those things and try to relate it to the military context. +And I was really surprised when I started to do this, to see that, in fact, even those people who were advocating the use of non-lethal weapons by the military hadn't actually done that. +They generally seem to think, "Well, why would we care what's happened with the police? +We're looking at something different," and didn't seem to recognize, in fact, they were looking at pretty much the same stuff. +So I actually started to investigate some of those issues and have a look at the way that police use non-lethal weapons when they're introduced and some of the problems that might arise out of those sorts of things when they actually do introduce them. +And of course, being Australian, I started looking at stuff in Australia, knowing, again, from my own experience about various times when non-lethal weapons have been introduced in Australia. +So one of the things I particularly looked at was the use of O.C. spray, oleoresin capsicum spray, pepper spray, by Australian police and seeing when that had been introduced, what had happened and those sorts of issues. +And one study that I found, a particularly interesting one, was actually in Queensland, because they had a trial period for the use of pepper spray before they actually introduced it more broadly. +And I went and had a look at some of the figures here. +Now when they introduced O.C. spray in Queensland, they were really explicit. +The police minister had a whole heap of public statements made about it. +They were saying, "This is explicitly intended to give police an option between shouting and shooting. +This is something they can use instead of a firearm in those situations where they would have previously had to shoot someone." +So I went and looked at all of these police shooting figures. +And you can't actually find them very easily for individual Australian states. +I could only find these ones. +This is from a Australian Institute of Criminology report. +As you can see from the fine print, if you can read it at the top: "Police shooting deaths" means not just people who have been shot by police, but people who have shot themselves in the presence of police. +But this is the figures across the entire country. +And the red arrow represents the point where Queensland actually said, "Yes, this is where we're going to give all police officers across the entire state access to O.C. spray." +So you can see there were six deaths sort of leading up to it every year for a number of years. +There was a spike, of course, a few years before, but that wasn't actually Queensland. +Anyone know where that was? Wasn't Port Arthur, no. +Victoria? Yes, correct. +That spike was all Victoria. +So it wasn't that Queensland had a particular problem with deaths from police shootings and so on. +So six shootings across the whole country, fairly consistently over the years before. +So the next two years were the years they studied -- 2001, 2002. +Anyone want to take a stab at the number of times, given how they've introduced this, the number of times police in Queensland used O.C. spray in that period? +Hundreds? One, three. +Thousand is getting better. +Explicitly introduced as an alternative to the use of lethal force -- an alternative between shouting and shooting. +I'm going to go out on a limb here and say that if Queensland police didn't have O.C. spray, they wouldn't have shot 2,226 people in those two years. +In fact, if you have a look at the studies that they were looking at, the material they were collecting and examining, you can see the suspects were only armed in about 15 percent of cases where O.C. spray was used. +This person is not doing anything violent, but they just won't do what we want them to. +They're not obeying the directions that we're giving them, so we'll give them a shot of the O.C. spray. +That'll speed them up. Everything will work out better that way. +This was something explicitly introduced to be an alternative to firearms, but it's being routinely used to deal with a whole range of other sorts of problems. +Now one of the particular issues that comes up with military use of non-lethal weapons -- and people when they're actually saying, "Well hey, there might be some problems" -- there's a couple of particular problems that get focused on. +One of those problems is that non-lethal weapons may be used indiscriminately. +One of the fundamental principles of military use of force is that you have to be discriminate. +You have to be careful about who you're shooting at. +So one of the problems that's been suggested with non-lethal weapons is that they might be used indiscriminately -- that you use them against a whole range of people because you don't have to worry so much anymore. +And in fact, one particular instance where I think that actually happens where you can look at it was the Dubrovka Theatre siege in Moscow in 2002, which probably a lot of you, unlike most of my students at ADFA, are actually old enough to remember. +So Chechens had come in and taken control of the theater. +They were holding something like 700 people hostage. +They'd released a bunch of people, but they still had about 700 people hostage. +And the Russian special military police, special forces, Spetsnaz, came in and actually stormed the theater. +And the way they did it was to pump the whole thing full of anesthetic gas. +And it turned out that lots of these hostages actually died as a result of inhaling the gas. +It was used indiscriminately. +They pumped the whole theater full of the gas. +And it's no surprise that people died, because you don't know how much of this gas each person is going to inhale, what position they're going to fall in when they become unconscious and so on. +There were, in fact, only a couple of people who got shot in this episode. +So when they had a look at it afterward, there were only a couple of people who'd apparently been shot by the hostage takers or shot by the police forces coming in and trying to deal with the situation. +Virtually everybody that got killed got killed from inhaling the gas. +The final toll of hostages is a little unclear, but it's certainly a few more than that, because there were other people who died over the next few days. +So this was one particular problem they talked about, that it might be used indiscriminately. +The people you're going to be shooting at aren't going to be able to get out of the way. +They're not going to be aware of what's happening and you can kill them better. +And in fact, that's exactly what happened here. +The hostage takers who had been rendered unconscious by the gas were not taken into custody, they were simply shot in the head. +So this non-lethal weapon was being used, in fact, in this case as a lethal force multiplier to make killing more effective in this particular situation. +Another problem that I just want to quickly mention is that there's a whole heap of problems with the way that people actually get taught to use non-lethal weapons and get trained about them and then get tested and so on. +Because they get tested in nice, safe environments. +And people get taught to use them in nice, safe environments like this, where you can see exactly what's going on. +The person who's spraying the O.C. spray is wearing a rubber glove to make sure they don't get contaminated and so on. +But they don't ever get used like that. +They get used out in the real world, like in Texas, like this. +I confess, this particular case was actually one that piqued my interest in this. +It happened while I was working as a research fellow at the U.S. Naval Academy. +And news reports started coming up about this situation where this woman was arguing with the police officer. +She wasn't violent. +In fact, he was probably six inches taller than me, and she was about this tall. +And eventually she said to him "Well I'm going to get back in my car." +And he says, "If you get back into your car, I'm going to tase you." +And she says, "Oh, go ahead. Tase me." And so he does. +And it's all captured by the video camera running in the front of the police car. +So she's 72, and it's seen that this is the most appropriate way of dealing with her. +And other examples of the same sorts of things with other people where you think where you think, "Is this really an appropriate way to use non-lethal weapons?" +"Police chief fires Taser into 14 year-old girl's head." +"She was running away. What else was I suppose to do?" +Or Florida: "Police Taser six year-old boy at elementary school." +And they clearly learned a lot from it because in the same district, "Police review policy after children shocked: 2nd child shocked by Taser stun gun within weeks." +Same police district. +Another child within weeks of Tasering the six year-old boy. +Just in case you think it's only going to happen in the United States, it happened in Canada as well. +And a colleague of mine sent me this one from London. +But my personal favorite of these ones, I have to confess, does actually come from the United States: "Officers Taser 86 year-old disabled woman in her bed." +I checked the reports on this one. +I looked at it. I was really surprised. +Apparently she took up a more threatening position in her bed. +I kid you not. That's exactly what it said. +"She took up a more threatening position in her bed." +Okay. +But I'd remind you what I'm talking about, I'm talking about military uses of non-lethal weapons. +So why is this relevant? +Because police are actually more restrained in the use of force than the military are. +They're trained to be more restrained in the use of force than the military are. +They're trained to think more, to try and de-escalate. +So if you have these problems with police officers with non-lethal weapons, what on earth would make you think it's going to be better with military personnel? +The last thing that I would just like to say, when I'm talking to the police about what a perfect non-lethal weapon would look like, they almost inevitably say the same thing. +They say, "Well, it's got to be something that's nasty enough that people don't want to be hit with this weapon. +So if you threaten to use it, people are going to comply with it, but it's also going to be something that doesn't leave any lasting effects." +In other words, your perfect non-lethal weapon is something that's perfect for abuse. +What would these guys have done if they'd had access to Tasers or to a manned, portable version of the Active Denial System -- a small heat ray that you can use on people and not worry about it. +So I think, yes, there may be ways that non-lethal weapons are going to be great in these situations, but there's also a whole heap of problems that need to be considered as well. +Thanks very much. +Both myself and my brother belong to the under 30 demographic, which Pat said makes 70 percent, but according to our statistics it makes 60 percent of the region's population. +Qatar is no exception to the region. +It's a very young nation led by young people. +We have been reminiscing about the latest technologies and the iPods, and for me the abaya, my traditional dress that I'm wearing today. +Now this is not a religious garment, nor is it a religious statement. +Instead, it's a diverse cultural statement that we choose to wear. +Now I remember a few years ago, a journalist asked Dr. Sheikha, who's sitting here, president of Qatar University -- who, by the way, is a woman -- he asked her whether she thought the abaya hindered or infringed her freedom in any way. +Her answer was quite the contrary. +Instead, she felt more free, more free because she could wear whatever she wanted under the abaya. +She could come to work in her pajamas and nobody would care. +Not that you do; I'm just saying. +My point is here, people have a choice -- just like the Indian lady could wear her sari or the Japanese woman could wear her kimono. +We are changing our culture from within, but at the same time we are reconnecting with our traditions. +We know that modernization is happening. +And yes, Qatar wants to be a modern nation. +But at the same time we are reconnecting and reasserting our Arab heritage. +It's important for us to grow organically. +And we continuously make the conscious decision to reach that balance. +In fact, research has shown that the more the world is flat, if I use Tom Friedman's analogy, or global, the more and more people are wanting to be different. +And for us young people, they're looking to become individuals and find their differences amongst themselves. +Which is why I prefer the Richard Wilk analogy of globalizing the local and localizing the global. +We don't want to be all the same, but we want to respect each other and understand each other. +And therefore tradition becomes more important, not less important. +Life necessitates a universal world, however, we believe in the security of having a local identity. +And this is what the leaders of this region are trying to do. +We're trying to be part of this global village, but at the same time we're revising ourselves through our cultural institutions and cultural development. +I'm a representation of that phenomenon. +And I think a lot of people in this room, I can see a lot of you are in the same position as myself. +And I'm sure, although we can't see the people in Washington, they are in the same position. +We're continuously trying to straddle different worlds, different cultures and trying to meet the challenges of a different expectation from ourselves and from others. +So I want to ask a question: What should culture in the 21st century look like? +In a time where the world is becoming personalized, when the mobile phone, the burger, the telephone, everything has its own personal identity, how should we perceive ourselves and how should we perceive others? +How does that impact our desert culture? +I'm not sure of how many of you in Washington are aware of the cultural developments happening in the region and, the more recent, Museum of Islamic Art opened in Qatar in 2008. +I myself am personalizing these cultural developments, but I also understand that this has to be done organically. +Yes, we do have all the resources that we need in order to develop new cultural institutions, but what I think is more important is that we are very fortunate to have visionary leaders who understand that this can't happen from outside, it has to come from within. +And guess what? +You might be surprised to know that most people in the Gulf who are leading these cultural initiatives happen to be women. +I want to ask you, why do you think this is? +Is it because it's a soft option; we have nothing else to do? +No, I don't think so. +I think that women in this part of the world realize that culture is an important component to connect people both locally and regionally. +It's a natural component for bringing people together, discussing ideas -- in the same way we're doing here at TED. +We're here, we're part of a community, sharing out ideas and discussing them. +Art becomes a very important part of our national identity. +The existential and social and political impact an artist has on his nation's development of cultural identity is very important. +You know, art and culture is big business. +Ask me. +Ask the chairpersons and CEOs of Sotheby's and Christie's. +Ask Charles Saatchi about great art. +They make a lot of money. +So I think women in our society are becoming leaders, because they realize that for their future generations, it's very important to maintain our cultural identities. +Why else do Greeks demand the return of the Elgin Marbles? +And why is there an uproar when a private collector tries to sell his collection to a foreign museum? +Why does it take me months on end to get an export license from London or New York in order to get pieces into my country? +In few hours, Shirin Neshat, my friend from Iran who's a very important artist for us will be talking to you. +She lives in New York City, but she doesn't try to be a Western artist. +Instead, she tries to engage in a very important dialogue about her culture, nation and heritage. +She does that through important visual forms of photography and film. +In the same way, Qatar is trying to grow its national museums through an organic process from within. +Our mission is of cultural integration and independence. +We don't want to have what there is in the West. +We don't want their collections. +We want to build our own identities, our own fabric, create an open dialogue so that we share our ideas and share yours with us. +In a few days, we will be opening the Arab Museum of Modern Art. +We have done extensive research to ensure that Arab and Muslim artists, and Arabs who are not Muslims -- not all Arabs are Muslims, by the way -- but we make sure that they are represented in this new institution. +This institution is government-backed and it has been the case for the past three decades. +We will open the museum in a few days, and I welcome all of you to get on Qatar Airways and come and join us. +Now this museum is just as important to us as the West. +Some of you might have heard of the Algerian artist Baya Mahieddine, but I doubt a lot of people know that this artist worked in Picasso's studio in Paris in the 1930s. +For me it was a new discovery. +And I think with time, in the years to come we'll be learning a lot about our Picassos, our Legers and our Cezannes. +We do have artists, but unfortunately we have not discovered them yet. +Now visual expression is just one form of culture integration. +We have realized that recently more and more people are using the means of YouTube and social networking to express their stories, share their photos and tell their own stories through their own voices. +In a similar way, we have created the Doha Film Institute. +Now the Doha Film Institute is an organization to teach people about film and filmmaking. +Last year we didn't have one Qatari woman filmmaker. +Today I am proud to say we have trained and educated over 66 Qatari women filmmakers to edit, tell their own stories in their own voices. +Now if you'll allow me, I would love to share a one-minute film that has proven to show that a 60-sec film can be as powerful as a haiku in telling a big picture. +And this is one of our filmmakers' products. +Boy: Hey listen! Did you know that the stocks are up? +Who are you playing? +Girl: Uncle Khaled. Here, put on the headscarf. +Khaled: Why would I want to put it on? +Girl: Do as you're told, young girl. +Boy: No, you play mom and I play dad. (Girl: But it's my game.) Play by yourself then. +Girl: Women! One word and they get upset. +Useless. +Thank you. Thank you! +SM: Going back to straddling between East and West, last month we had our second Doha Tribeca Film Festival here in Doha. +The Doha Tribeca Film Festival was held at our new cultural hub, Katara. +It attracted 42,000 people, and we showcased 51 films. +Now the Doha Tribeca Film Festival is not an imported festival, but rather an important festival between the cities of New York and Doha. +It's important for two things. +First, it allows us to showcase our Arab filmmakers and voices to one of the most cosmopolitan cities in the world, New York City. +At the same time, we are inviting them to come and explore our part of the world. +They're learning our culture, our language, our heritage and realizing we're just as different and just the same as each other. +Now over and over again, people have said, "Let's build bridges," and frankly, I want to do more than that. +I would like break the walls of ignorance between East and West -- no, not the soft option that we have discussed before, but rather the soft power that Joseph Nye has spoken about before. +Culture's a very important tool to bring people together. +We should not underestimate it. +"Know thyself," that is the journey of self-expression and self-realization that we are traveling. +Now I don't pretend to have all the answers, but I know that me as an individual and we as a nation welcome this community of ideas worth spreading. +This is a very interesting journey. +I welcome you on board for us to engage and discuss new ideas of how to bring people together through cultural initiatives and discussions. +Familiarity destroys and trumps fear. Try it. +Ladies and gentlemen, thank you very much. Shokran. +Shall I ask for a show of hands or a clapping of people in different generations? +I'm interested in how many are three to 12 years old. +None, huh? +All right. +I'm going to talk about dinosaurs. +Do you remember dinosaurs when you were that age? +Dinosaurs are kind of funny, you know. +We're going to kind of go in a different direction right now. +I hope you all realize that. +So I'll just give you my message up front: Try not to go extinct. +That's it. +People ask me a lot -- in fact, one of the most asked questions I get is, why do children like dinosaurs so much? +What's the fascination? +And I usually just say, "Well dinosaurs were big, different and gone." +They're all gone. +Well that's not true, but we'll get to the goose in a minute. +So that's sort of the theme: big, different and gone. +The title of my talk: Shape-shifting Dinosaurs: The Cause of a Premature Extinction. +Now I assume that we remember dinosaurs. +And there's lots of different shapes. +Lots of different kinds. +A long time ago, back in the early 1900s, museums were out looking for dinosaurs. +They went out and gathered them up. +And this is an interesting story. +Every museum wanted a little bigger or better one than anybody else had. +So if the museum in Toronto went out and collected a Tyrannosaur, a big one, then the museum in Ottawa wanted a bigger one and a better one. +And that happened for all museums. +So everyone was out looking for all these bigger and better dinosaurs. +And this was in the early 1900s. +By about 1970, some scientists were sitting around and they thought, "What in the world? +Look at these dinosaurs. +They're all big. +Where are all the little ones?" +And they thought about it and they even wrote papers about it: "Where are the little dinosaurs?" +Well, go to a museum, you'll see, see how many baby dinosaurs there are. +People assumed -- and this was actually a problem -- people assumed that if they had little dinosaurs, if they had juvenile dinosaurs, they'd be easy to identify. +You'd have a big dinosaur and a littler dinosaur. +But all they had were big dinosaurs. +And it comes down to a couple of things. +First off, scientists have egos, and scientists like to name dinosaurs. +They like to name anything. +Everybody likes to have their own animal that they named. +And so every time they found something that looked a little different, they named it something different. +And what happened, of course, is we ended up with a whole bunch of different dinosaurs. +In 1975, a light went on in somebody's head. +Dr. Peter Dodson at the University of Pennsylvania actually realized that dinosaurs grew kind of like birds do, which is different than the way reptiles grow. +And in fact, he used the cassowary as an example. +And it's kind of cool -- if you look at the cassowary, or any of the birds that have crests on their heads, they actually grow to about 80 percent adult size before the crest starts to grow. +Now think about that. +They're basically retaining their juvenile characteristics very late in what we call ontogeny. +So allometric cranial ontogeny is relative skull growth. +So you can see that if you actually found one that was 80 percent grown and you didn't know that it was going to grow up to a cassowary, you would think they were two different animals. +So this was a problem, and Peter Dodson pointed this out using some duck-billed dinosaurs then called Hypacrosaurus. +And he showed that if you were to take a baby and an adult and make an average of what it should look like, if it grew in sort of a linear fashion, it would have a crest about half the size of the adult. +But the actual sub-adult at 65 percent had no crest at all. +So this was interesting. +So this is where people went astray again. +I mean, if they'd have just taken that, taken Peter Dodson's work, and gone on with that, then we would have a lot less dinosaurs than we have. +But scientists have egos; they like to name things. +And so they went on naming dinosaurs because they were different. +Now we have a way of actually testing to see whether a dinosaur, or any animal, is a young one or an older one. +And that's by actually cutting into their bones. +But cutting into the bones of a dinosaur is hard to do, as you can imagine, because in museums bones are precious. +You go into a museum and they take really good care of them. +They put them in foam, little containers. +They're very well taken care of. +They don't like it if you come in and want to saw them open and look inside. +So they don't normally let you do that. +But I have a museum and I collect dinosaurs and I can saw mine open. +So that's what I do. +So if you cut open a little dinosaur, it's very spongy inside like A. +And if you cut into an older dinosaur, it's very massive. +You can tell it's mature bone. +So it's real easy to tell them apart. +So what I want to do is show you these. +In North America in the Northern Plains of the United States and the Southern Plains of Alberta and Saskatchewan, there's this unit of rock called the Hell Creek Formation that produces the last dinosaurs that lived on Earth. +And there are 12 of them that everyone recognizes -- I mean the 12 primary dinosaurs that went extinct. +And so we will evaluate them. +And that's sort of what I've been doing. +So my students, my staff, we've been cutting them open. +Now as you can imagine, cutting open a leg bone is one thing, but when you go to a museum and say, "You don't mind if I cut open your dinosaur's skull do you?" +they say, "Go away." +So here are 12 dinosaurs. +And we want to look at these three first. +So these are dinosaurs that are called Pachycephalosaurs. +And everybody knows that these three animals are related. +And the assumption is is that they're related like cousins or whatever. +But no one ever considered that they might be more closely related. +In other words, people looked at them and they saw the differences. +And you all know that if you are going to determine whether you're related to your brother or your sister, you can't do it by looking at differences. +You can only determine relatedness by looking for similarities. +So people were looking at these and they were talking about how different they are. +Pachycephalosaurus has a big, thick dome on its head, and it's got some little bumps on the back of its head, and it's got a bunch of gnarly things on the end of its nose. +And then Stygimoloch, another dinosaur from the same age, lived at the same time, has spikes sticking out the back of its head. +It's got a little, tiny dome, and it's got a bunch of gnarly stuff on its nose. +And then there's this thing called Dracorex, Hogwart's Eye. +Guess where that came from? Dragon. +So here's a dinosaur that has spikes sticking out of its head, no dome and gnarly stuff on its nose. +Nobody noticed the gnarly stuff sort of looked alike. +But they did look at these three and they said, "These are three different dinosaurs, and Dracorex is probably the most primitive of them. +And the other one is more primitive than the other. +It's unclear to me how they actually sorted these three of them out. +But if you line them up, if you just take those three skulls and just line them up, they line up like this. +Dracorex is the littlest one, Stygimoloch is the middle size one, Pachycephalosaurus is the largest one. +And one would think, that should give me a clue. +But it didn't give them a clue. +Because, well we know why. +Scientists like to name things. +So if we cut open Dracorex -- I cut open our Dracorex -- and look, it was spongy inside, really spongy inside. +I mean, it is a juvenile and it's growing really fast. +So it is going to get bigger. +If you cut open Stygimoloch, it is doing the same thing. +The dome, that little dome, is growing really fast. +It's inflating very fast. +What's interesting is the spike on the back of the Dracorex was growing very fast as well. +The spikes on the back of the Stygimoloch are actually resorbing, which means they're getting smaller as that dome is getting bigger. +And if we look at Pachycephalosaurus, Pachycephalosaurus has a solid dome and its little bumps on the back of its head were also resorbing. +So just with these three dinosaurs, you can easily -- as a scientist -- we can easily hypothesize that it is just a growth series of the same animal. +Which of course means that Stygimoloch and Dracorex are extinct. +Okay. +Which of course means we have 10 primary dinosaurs to deal with. +So a colleague of mine at Berkley, he and I were looking at Triceratops. +And before the year 2000 -- now remember, Triceratops was first found in the 1800s -- before 2000, no one had ever seen a juvenile Triceratops. +There's a Triceratops in every museum in the world, but no one had ever collected a juvenile. +And we know why, right? +Because everybody wants to have a big one. +So everyone had a big one. +So we went out and collected a whole bunch of stuff and we found a whole bunch of little ones. +They're everywhere. They're all over the place. +So we have a whole bunch of them at our museum. +And everybody says it's because I have a little museum. +When you have a little museum, you have little dinosaurs. +If you look at the Triceratops, you can see it's changing, it's shape-shifting. +As the juveniles are growing up, their horns actually curve backwards. +And then as they grow older, the horns grow forward. +And that's pretty cool. +If you look along the edge of the frill, they have these little triangular bones that actually grow big as triangles and then they flatten against the frill pretty much like the spikes do on the Pachycephalosaurs. +And then, because the juveniles are in my collection, I cut them open and look inside. +And the little one is really spongy. +And the middle size one is really spongy. +But what was interesting was the adult Triceratops was also spongy. +And this is a skull that is two meters long. +It's a big skull. +But there's another dinosaur that is found in this formation that looks like a Triceratops, except it's bigger, and it's called Torosaurus. +And Torosaurus, when we cut into it, has mature bone. +But it's got these big holes in its shield. +And everybody says, "A Triceratops and a Torosaurus can't possibly be the same animal because one of them's bigger than the other one." +"And it has holes in its frill." +And I said, "Well do we have any juvenile Torosauruses?" +And they said, "Well no, but it has holes in its frill." +So one of my graduate students, John Scannella, looked through our whole collection and he actually discovered that the hole starting to form in Triceratops and, of course it's open, in Torosaurus -- so he found the transitional ones between Triceratops and Torosaurus, which was pretty cool. +So now we know that Torosaurus is actually a grownup Triceratops. +Now when we name dinosaurs, when we name anything, the original name gets to stick and the second name is thrown out. +So Torosaurus is extinct. +Triceratops, if you've heard the news, a lot of the newscasters got it all wrong. +They thought Torosaurus should be kept and Triceratops thrown out, but that's not going to happen. +All right, so we can do this with a bunch of dinosaurs. +I mean, here's Edmontosaurus and Anatotitan. +Anatotitan: giant duck. +It's a giant duck-bill dinosaur. +Here's another one. +So we look at the bone histology. +The bone histology tells us that Edmontosaurus is a juvenile, or at least a sub-adult, and the other one is an adult and we have an ontogeny. +And we get rid of Anatotitan. +So we can just keep doing this. +And the last one is T. Rex. +So there's these two dinosaurs, T. Rex and Nanotyrannus. +Again, makes you wonder. +But they had a good question. +They were looking at them and they said, "One's got 17 teeth, and the biggest one's got 12 teeth. +And that doesn't make any sense at all, because we don't know of any dinosaurs that gain teeth as they get older. +So it must be true -- they must be different." +So we cut into them. +And sure enough, Nanotyrannus has juvenile bone and the bigger one has more mature bone. +It looks like it could still get bigger. +And at the Museum of the Rockies where we work, I have four T. Rexes, so I can cut a whole bunch of them. +But I didn't have to cut any of them really, because I just lined up their jaws and it turned out the biggest one had 12 teeth and the next smallest one had 13 and the next smallest had 14. +And of course, Nano has 17. +And we just went out and looked at other people's collections and we found one that has sort of 15 teeth. +So again, real easy to say that Tyrannosaurus ontogeny included Nanotyrannus, and therefore we can take out another dinosaur. +So when it comes down to our end cretaceous, we have seven left. +And that's a good number. +That's a good number to go extinct, I think. +Now as you can imagine, this is not very popular with fourth-graders. +Fourth-graders love their dinosaurs, they memorize them. +And they're not happy with this. +Thank you very much. +How many of you are completely comfortable with calling yourselves a leader? +I've asked that question all across the country, and everywhere I ask it, no matter where, there's a huge portion of the audience that won't put up their hand. +And I've come to realize that we have made leadership into something bigger than us; something beyond us. +We've made it about changing the world. +We've taken this title of "leader" and treat it as something that one day we're going to deserve. +But to give it to ourselves right now means a level of arrogance or cockiness that we're not comfortable with. +And I worry sometimes that we spend so much time celebrating amazing things that hardly anybody can do, that we've convinced ourselves those are the only things worth celebrating. +We start to devalue the things we can do every day, We take moments where we truly are a leader and we don't let ourselves take credit for it, or feel good about it. +I've been lucky enough over the last 10 years to work with amazing people who've helped me redefine leadership in a way that I think has made me happier. +With my short time today, I want to share with you the one story that is probably most responsible for that redefinition. +I went to a little school called Mount Allison University in Sackville, New Brunswick. +And on my last day there, a girl came up to me and said, "I remember the first time I met you." +And she told me a story that had happened four years earlier. +She said, "On the day before I started university, I was in the hotel room with my mom and dad, and I was so scared and so convinced that I couldn't do this, that I wasn't ready for university, that I just burst into tears. +My mom and dad were amazing. +They were like, "We know you're scared, but let's just go tomorrow, go to the first day, and if at any point you feel as if you can't do this, that's fine; tell us, and we'll take you home. +We love you no matter what.'" She says, "So I went the next day. +I was in line for registration, and I looked around and just knew I couldn't do it; I wasn't ready. +I knew I had to quit. +I made that decision and as soon as I made it, an incredible feeling of peace came over me. +I turned to my mom and dad to tell them we needed to go home, and at that moment, you came out of the student union building wearing the stupidest hat I've ever seen in my life." "It was awesome. +And you had a big sign promoting Shinerama," -- which is Students Fighting Cystic Fibrosis, a charity I've worked with for years -- "And you had a bucketful of lollipops. +You were handing the lollipops out to people in line, and talking about Shinerama. +All of the sudden, you got to me, and you just stopped. +He turned beet red, he wouldn't even look at me. He just kind of held the lollipop out like this." +"I felt so bad for this dude that I took the lollipop. +As soon as I did, you got this incredibly severe look on your face, looked at my mom and dad and said, 'Look at that! Look at that! +First day away from home, and already she's taking candy from a stranger?'" She said, "Everybody lost it. +Twenty feet in every direction, everyone started to howl. +I know this is cheesy, and I don't know why I'm telling you this, but in that moment when everyone was laughing, I knew I shouldn't quit. +I knew I was where I was supposed to be; I knew I was home. +And I haven't spoken to you once in the four years since that day. +But I heard that you were leaving, and I had to come and tell you you've been an incredibly important person in my life. +I'm going to miss you. Good luck." +And she walks away, and I'm flattened. +She gets six feet away, turns around, smiles and goes, "You should probably know this, too: I'm still dating that guy, four years later." A year and a half after I moved to Toronto, I got an invitation to their wedding. +Here's the kicker: I don't remember that. +I have no recollection of that moment. +I've searched my memory banks, because that is funny and I should remember doing it and I don't. +How many of you guys have a lollipop moment, a moment where someone said or did something that you feel fundamentally made your life better? +All right. How many of you have told that person they did it? +See, why not? We celebrate birthdays, where all you have to do is not die for 365 days -- Yet we let people who have made our lives better walk around without knowing it. +Every single one of you has been the catalyst for a lollipop moment. +You've made someone's life better by something you said or did. +If you think you haven't, think of all the hands that didn't go up when I asked. +You're just one of the people who hasn't been told. +It's scary to think of ourselves as that powerful, frightening to think we can matter that much to other people. +As long as we make leadership something bigger than us, as long as we keep leadership beyond us and make it about changing the world, we give ourselves an excuse not to expect it every day, from ourselves and from each other. +Marianne Williamson said, "Our greatest fear is not that we are inadequate. +[It] is that we are powerful beyond measure. +It is our light and not our darkness that frightens us." +My call to action today is that we need to get over our fear of how extraordinarily powerful we can be in each other's lives. +We need to get over it so we can move beyond it, and our little brothers and sisters and one day our kids -- or our kids right now -- can watch and start to value the impact we can have on each other's lives, more than money and power and titles and influence. +We need to redefine leadership as being about lollipop moments -- how many of them we create, how many we acknowledge, how many of them we pay forward and how many we say thank you for. +Because we've made leadership about changing the world, and there is no world. There's only six billion understandings of it. +And if you change one person's understanding of it, understanding of what they're capable of, understanding of how much people care about them, understanding of how powerful an agent for change they can be in this world, you've changed the whole thing. +And if we can understand leadership like that, I think if we can redefine leadership like that, I think we can change everything. +And it's a simple idea, but I don't think it's a small one. +I want to thank you so much for letting me share it with you today. +Penelope Jagessar Chaffer: I was going to ask if there's a doctor in the house. +No, I'm just joking. +It's interesting, because it was six years ago when I was pregnant with my first child that I discovered that the most commonly used preservative in baby care products mimics estrogen when it gets into the human body. +Now it's very easy actually to get a chemical compound from products into the human body through the skin. +And these preservatives had been found in breast cancer tumors. +That was the start of my journey to make this film, "Toxic Baby." +And it doesn't take much time to discover some really astonishing statistics with this issue. +One is that you and I all have between 30 to 50,000 chemicals in our bodies that our grandparents didn't have. +And many of these chemicals are now linked to the skyrocketing incidents of chronic childhood disease that we're seeing across industrialized nations. +I'll show you some statistics. +So for example, in the United Kingdom, the incidence of childhood leukemia has risen by 20 percent just in a generation. +Very similar statistic for childhood cancer in the U.S. +In Canada, we're now looking at one in 10 Canadian children with asthma. +That's a four-fold increase. +Again, similar story around the world. +In the United States, probably the most astonishing statistic is a 600 percent increase in autism and autistic spectrum disorders and other learning disabilities. +Again, we're seeing that trend across Europe, across North America. +And in Europe, there's certain parts of Europe, where we're seeing a four-fold increase in certain genital birth defects. +Interestingly, one of those birth defects has seen a 200 percent increase in the U.S. +So a real skyrocketing of chronic childhood disease that includes other things like obesity and juvenile diabetes, premature puberty. +So it's interesting for me, when I'm looking for someone who can really talk to me and talk to an audience about these things, that probably one of the most important people in the world who can discuss toxicity in babies is expert in frogs. +Tyrone Hayes: It was a surprise to me as well that I would be talking about pesticides, that I'd be talking about public health, because, in fact, I never thought I would do anything useful. +Frogs. +In fact, my involvement in the whole pesticide issue was sort of a surprise as well when I was approached by the largest chemical company in the world and they asked me if I would evaluate how atrazine affected amphibians, or my frogs. +It turns out, atrazine is the largest selling product for the largest chemical company in the world. +It's the number one contaminant of groundwater, drinking water, rain water. +In 2003, after my studies, it was banned in the European Union, but in that same year, the United States EPA re-registered the compound. +We were a bit surprised when we found out that when we exposed frogs to very low levels of atrazine -- 0.1 parts per billion -- that it produced animals that look like this. +These are the dissected gonads of an animal that has two testes, two ovaries, another large testis, more ovaries, which is not normal ... +even for amphibians. +In some cases, another species like the North American Leopard Frog showed that males exposed to atrazine grew eggs in their testes. +And you can see these large, yolked-up eggs bursting through the surface of this male's testes. +Now my wife tells me, and I'm sure Penelope can as well, that there's nothing more painful than childbirth -- which that I'll never experience, I can't really argue that -- but I would guess that a dozen chicken eggs in my testicle would probably be somewhere in the top five. +In recent studies that we've published, we've shown that some of these animals when they're exposed to atrazine, some of the males grow up and completely become females. +So these are actually two brothers consummating a relationship. +And not only do these genetic males mate with other males, they actually have the capacity to lay eggs even though they're genetic males. +What we proposed, and what we've now generated support for, is that what atrazine is doing is wreaking havoc causing a hormone imbalance. +Normally the testes should make testosterone, the male hormone. +But what atrazine does is it turns on an enzyme, the machinery if you will, aromatase, that converts testosterone into estrogen. +And as a result, these exposed males lose their testosterone, they're chemically castrated, and they're subsequently feminized because now they're making the female hormone. +Now this is what brought me to the human-related issues. +Because it turns out that the number one cancer in women, breast cancer, is regulated by estrogen and by this enzyme aromatase. +So when you develop a cancerous cell in your breast, aromatase converts androgens into estrogens, and that estrogen turns on or promotes the growth of that cancer so that it turns into a tumor and spreads. +In fact, this aromatase is so important in breast cancer that the latest treatment for breast cancer is a chemical called letrozole, which blocks aromatase, blocks estrogen, so that if you developed a mutated cell, it doesn't grow into a tumor. +Now what's interesting is, of course, that we're still using 80 million pounds of atrazine, the number one contaminant in drinking water, that does the opposite -- turns on aromatase, increases estrogen and promotes tumors in rats and is associated with tumors, breast cancer, in humans. +What's interesting is, in fact, the same company that sold us 80 million pounds of atrazine, the breast cancer promoter, now sells us the blocker -- the exact same company. +And so I find it interesting that instead of treating this disease by preventing exposure to the chemicals that promote it, we simply respond by putting more chemicals into the environment. +PJC: So speaking of estrogen, one of the other compounds that Tyrone talks about in the film is something called bisphenol A, BPA, which has been in the news recently. +It's a plasticizer. +It's a compound that's found in polycarbonate plastic, which is what baby bottles are made out of. +And what's interesting about BPA is that it's such a potent estrogen that it was actually once considered for use as a synthetic estrogen in hormone placement therapy. +And there have been many, many, many studies that have shown that BPA leaches from babies' bottles into the formula, into the milk, and therefore into the babies. +So we're dosing our babies, our newborns, our infants, with a synthetic estrogen. +Now two weeks ago or so, the European Union passed a law banning the use of BPA in babies' bottles and sippy cups. +And for those of you who are not parents, sippy cups are those little plastic things that your child graduates to after using bottles. +But just two weeks before that, the U.S. Senate refused to even debate the banning of BPA in babies' bottles and sippy cups. +So it really makes you realize the onus on parents to have to look at this and regulate this and police this in their own lives and how astonishing that is. +PJC: With many plastic baby bottles now proven to leak the chemical bisphenol A, it really shows how sometimes it is only a parent's awareness that stands between chemicals and our children. +The baby bottle scenario proves that we can prevent unnecessary exposure. +However, if we parents are unaware, we are leaving our children to fend for themselves. +TH: And what Penelope says here is even more true. +For those of you who don't know, we're in the middle of the sixth mass extinction. +Scientists agree now. +We are losing species from the Earth faster than the dinosaurs disappeared, and leading that loss are amphibians. +80 percent of all amphibians are threatened and in come decline. +And I believe, many scientists believe that pesticides are an important part of that decline. +In part, amphibians are good indicators and more sensitive because they don't have protection from contaminants in the water -- no eggshells, no membranes and no placenta. +In fact, our invention -- by "our" I mean we mammals -- one of our big inventions was the placenta. +But we also start out as aquatic organisms. +But it turns out that this ancient structure that separates us from other animals, the placenta, cannot evolve or adapt fast enough because of the rate that we're generating new chemicals that it's never seen before. +The evidence of that is that studies in rats, again with atrazine, show that the hormone imbalance atrazine generates causes abortion. +Because maintaining a pregnancy is dependent on hormones. +Of those rats that don't abort, atrazine causes prostate disease in the pups so the sons are born with an old man's disease. +Of those that don't abort, atrazine causes impaired mammary, or breast, development in the exposed daughters in utero, so that their breast don't develop properly. +And as a result, when those rats grow up, their pups experience retarded growth and development because they can't make enough milk to nourish their pups. +So the pup you see on the bottom is affected by atrazine that its grandmother was exposed to. +And given the life of many of these chemicals, generations, years, dozens of years, that means that we right now are affecting the health of our grandchildren's grandchildren by things that we're putting into the environment today. +And this is not just philosophical, it's already known, that chemicals like diethylstilbestrol and estrogen, PCBs, DDT cross the placenta and effectively determine the likelihood of developing breast cancer and obesity and diabetes already when the baby's in the womb. +In addition to that, after the baby's born, our other unique invention as mammals is that we nourish our offspring after they're born. +We already know that chemicals like DDT and DES and atrazine can also pass over into milk, again, affecting our babies even after their born. +PJC: So when Tyrone tells me that the placenta is an ancient organ, I'm thinking, how do I demonstrate that? +How do you show that? +And it's interesting when you make a film like this, because you're stuck trying to visualize science that there's no visualization for. +And I have to take a little bit of artistic license. +Old man: Placenta control. +What is it? +Oh what? +Puffuffuff, what? +Perflourooctanoic acid. +Blimey. +Never heard of it. +PJC: And neither had I actually before I started making this film. +And so when you realize that chemicals can pass the placenta and go into your unborn child, it made me start to think, what would my fetus say to me? +What would our unborn children say to us when they have an exposure that's happening everyday, day after day? +Child: Today, I had some octyphenols, some artificial musks and some bisphenol A. +Help me. +PJC: It's a very profound notion to know that we as women are at the vanguard of this. +This is our issue, because we collect these compounds our entire life and then we end up dumping it and dumping them into our unborn children. +We are in effect polluting our children. +And this was something that was really brought home to me a year ago when I found out I was pregnant and the first scan revealed that my baby had a birth defect associated with exposure to estrogenic chemicals in the womb and the second scan revealed no heartbeat. +So my child's death, my baby's death, really brought home the resonance of what I was trying to make in this film. +And it's sometimes a weird place when the communicator becomes part of the story, which is not what you originally intend. +And so when Tyrone talks about the fetus being trapped in a contaminated environment, this is my contaminated environment. +This is my toxic baby. +And that's something that's just profound and sad, but astonishing because so many of us don't actually know this. +And perhaps it's the connection to our next generation -- like my wife and my beautiful daughter here about 13 years ago -- perhaps it's that connection that makes women activists in this particular area. +But for the men here, I want to say it's not just women and children that are at risk. +And the frogs that are exposed to atrazine, the testes are full of holes and spaces, because the hormone imbalance, instead of allowing sperm to be generated, such as in the testis here, the testicular tubules end up empty and fertility goes down by as much as 50 percent. +It's not just my work in amphibians, but similar work has been shown in fish in Europe, holes in the testes and absence of sperm in reptiles in a group from South America and in rats, an absence of sperm in the testicular tubules as well. +And of course, we don't do these experiments in humans, but just by coincidence, my colleague has shown that men who have low sperm count, low semen quality have significantly more atrazine in their urine. +These are just men who live in an agricultural community. +Men who actually work in agriculture have much higher levels of atrazine. +And the men who actually apply atrazine have even more atrazine in their urine, up to levels that are 24,000 times what we know to be active are present in the urine of these men. +Of course, most of them, 90 percent are Mexican, Mexican-American. +And it's not just atrazine they're exposed to. +They're exposed to chemicals like chloropicrin, which was originally used as a nerve gas. +And many of these workers have life expectancies of only 50. +It shouldn't come to any surprise that the things that happen in wildlife are also a warning to us, just like Rachel Carson and others have warned. +As evident in this slide from Lake Nabugabo in Uganda, the agricultural runoff from this crop, which goes into these buckets, is the sole source of drinking, cooking and bathing water for this village. +Now if I told the men in this village that the frogs have pour immune function and eggs developing in their testes, the connection between environmental health and public health would be clear. +You would not drink water that you knew was having this kind of impact on the wildlife that lived in it. +The problem is, in my village, Oakland, in most of our villages, we don't see that connection. +We turn on the faucet, the water comes out, we assume it's safe, and we assume that we are masters of our environment, rather than being part of it. +PJC: So it doesn't take much to realize that actually this is an environmental issue. +And I kept thinking over and over again this question. +We know so much about global warming and climate change, and yet, we have no concept of what I've been calling internal environmentalism. +We know what we're putting out there, we have a sense of those repercussions, but we are so ignorant of this sense of what happens when we put things, or things are put into our bodies. +And my urging is that when we think about environmental issues that we remember that it's not just about melting glaciers and ice caps, but it's also about our children as well. +Thank you. +Every year in the United States alone, 2,077,000 couples make a legal and spiritual decision to spend the rest of their lives together ... +and not to have sex with anyone else, ever. +He buys a ring, she buys a dress. +They go shopping for all sorts of things. +She takes him to Arthur Murray for ballroom dancing lessons. +And the big day comes. +And they'll stand before God and family and some guy her dad once did business with, and they'll vow that nothing, not abject poverty, not life-threatening illness, not complete and utter misery will ever put the tiniest damper on their eternal love and devotion. +These optimistic young bastards promise to honor and cherish each other through hot flashes and mid-life crises and a cumulative 50-lb. weight gain, until that far-off day when one of them is finally able to rest in peace. +You know, because they can't hear the snoring anymore. +And then they'll get stupid drunk and smash cake in each others' faces and do the "Macarena," and we'll be there showering them with towels and toasters and drinking their free booze and throwing birdseed at them every single time -- even though we know, statistically, half of them will be divorced within a decade. +Of course, the other half won't, right? +They'll keep forgetting anniversaries and arguing about where to spend holidays and debating which way the toilet paper should come off of the roll. +And some of them will even still be enjoying each others' company when neither of them can chew solid food anymore. +And researchers want to know why. +I mean, look, it doesn't take a double-blind, placebo-controlled study to figure out what makes a marriage not work. +Disrespect, boredom, too much time on Facebook, having sex with other people. +But you can have the exact opposite of all of those things -- respect, excitement, a broken Internet connection, mind-numbing monogamy -- and the thing still can go to hell in a hand basket. +So what's going on when it doesn't? +What do the folks who make it all the way to side-by-side burial plots What are they doing right? +What can we learn from them? +And if you're still happily sleeping solo, why should you stop what you're doing and make it your life's work to find that one special person that you can annoy for the rest of your life? +Well researchers spend billions of your tax dollars trying to figure that out. +They stalk blissful couples and they study their every move and mannerism. +And they try to pinpoint what it is that sets them apart from their miserable neighbors and friends. +And it turns out, the success stories share a few similarities, actually, beyond they don't have sex with other people. +For instance, in the happiest marriages, the wife is thinner and better looking than the husband. +Obvious, right. +It's obvious that this leads to marital bliss because, women, we care a great deal about being thin and good looking, whereas men mostly care about sex ... +ideally with women who are thinner and better looking than they are. +The beauty of this research though is that no one is suggesting that women have to be thin to be happy; we just have to be thinner than our partners. +So instead of all that laborious dieting and exercising, we just need to wait for them to get fat, maybe bake a few pies. +This is good information to have, and it's not that complicated. +Research also suggests that the happiest couples are the ones that focus on the positives. +For example, the happy wife. +Instead of pointing out her husband's growing gut or suggesting he go for a run, she might say, "Wow, honey, thank you for going out of your way to make me relatively thinner." +These are couples who can find good in any situation. +"Yeah, it was devastating when we lost everything in that fire, but it's kind of nice sleeping out here under the stars, and it's a good thing you've got all that body fat to keep us warm." +One of my favorite studies found that the more willing a husband is to do house work, the more attractive his wife will find him. +Because we needed a study to tell us this. +But here's what's going on here. +The more attractive she finds him, the more sex they have; the more sex they have, the nicer he is to her; the nicer he is to her, the less she nags him about leaving wet towels on the bed -- and ultimately, they live happily ever after. +In other words, men, you might want to pick it up a notch in the domestic department. +Here's an interesting one. +One study found that people who smile in childhood photographs are less likely to get a divorce. +This is an actual study, and let me clarify. +The researchers were not looking at documented self-reports of childhood happiness or even studying old journals. +The data were based entirely on whether people looked happy in these early pictures. +Now I don't know how old all of you are, but when I was a kid, your parents took pictures with a special kind of camera that held something called film, and, by God, film was expensive. +They didn't take 300 shots of you in that rapid-fire digital video mode and then pick out the nicest, smileyest one for the Christmas card. +Oh no. +They dressed you up, they lined you up, and you smiled for the fucking camera like they told you to or you could kiss your birthday party goodbye. +But still, I have a huge pile of fake happy childhood pictures and I'm glad they make me less likely than some people to get a divorce. +So what else can you do to safeguard your marriage? +Do not win an Oscar for best actress. +I'm serious. +Bettie Davis, Joan Crawford, Hallie Berry, Hillary Swank, Sandra Bullock, Reese Witherspoon, all of them single soon after taking home that statue. +They actually call it the Oscar curse. +It is the marriage kiss of death and something that should be avoided. +And it's not just successfully starring in films that's dangerous. +It turns out, merely watching a romantic comedy causes relationship satisfaction to plummet. +Apparently, the bitter realization that maybe it could happen to us, but it obviously hasn't and it probably never will, makes our lives seem unbearably grim in comparison. +And theoretically, I suppose if we opt for a film where someone gets brutally murdered or dies in a fiery car crash, we are more likely to walk out of that theater feeling like we've got it pretty good. +Drinking alcohol, it seems, is bad for your marriage. +Yeah. +I can't tell you anymore about that one because I stopped reading it at the headline. +But here's a scary one: Divorce is contagious. +That's right -- when you have a close couple friend split up, it increases your chances of getting a divorce by 75 percent. +Now I have to say, I don't get this one at all. +My husband and I have watched quite a few friends divide their assets and then struggle with being our age and single in an age of sexting and Viagra and eHarmony. +And I'm thinking they've done more for my marriage than a lifetime of therapy ever could. +So now you may be wondering, why does anyone get married ever? +Well the U.S. federal government counts more than a thousand legal benefits to being someone's spouse -- a list that includes visitation rights in jail, but hopefully you'll never need that one. +But beyond the profound federal perks, married people make more money. +We're healthier, physically and emotionally. +We produce happier, more stable and more successful kids. +We have more sex than our supposedly swinging single friends -- believe it or not. +We even live longer, which is a pretty compelling argument for marrying someone you like a lot in the first place. +The bottom line is, whether you're in it or you're searching for it, I believe marriage is an institution worth pursuing and protecting. +So I hope you'll use the information I've given you today to weigh your personal strengths against your own risk factors. +For instance, in my marriage, I'd say I'm doing okay. +One the one hand, I have a husband who's annoyingly lean and incredibly handsome. +So I'm obviously going to need fatten him up. +And like I said, we have those divorced friends who may secretly or subconsciously be trying to break us up. +So we have to keep an eye on that. +And we do like a cocktail or two. +On the other hand, I have the fake happy picture thing. +And also, my husband does a lot around the house, and would happily never see another romantic comedy as long as he lives. +So I've got all those things going for me. +But just in case, I plan to work extra hard to not win an Oscar anytime soon. +And for the good of your relationships, I would encourage you to do the same. +I'll see you at the bar. +Basking sharks are awesome creatures. They are just magnificent. +They grow 10 meters long. +Some say bigger. +They might weigh up to two tons. +Some say up to five tons. +They're the second largest fish in the world. +They're also harmless plankton-feeding animals. +And they are thought to be able to filter a cubic kilometer of water every hour and can feed on 30 kilos of zoo plankton a day to survive. +They're fantastic creatures. +And we're very lucky in Ireland, we have plenty of basking sharks and plenty of opportunities to study them. +This is an old woodcut from the 17, 1800s. +So they were very important, and they were important for the oil out of their liver. +A third of the size of the basking shark is their liver, and it's full of oil. +You get gallons of oil from their liver. +And that oil was used especially for lighting, but also for dressing wounds and other things. +In fact, the streetlights in 1742 of Galway, Dublin and Waterford were linked with sunfish oil. +And "sunfish" is one of the words for basking sharks. +So they were incredibly important animals. +They've been around a long time, have been very important to coast communities. +Probably the best documented basking shark fishery in the world is that from Achill Island. +This is Keem Bay up in Achill Island. +And sharks used to come into the bay. +And the fishermen would tie a net off the headland, string it out along the other net. +And as the shark came round, it would hit the net, the net would collapse on it. +It would often drown and suffocate. +Or at times, they would row out in their small currachs and kill it with a lance through the back of the neck. +And then they'd tow the sharks back to Purteen Harbor, boil them up, use the oil. +They used to use the flesh as well for fertilizer and also would fin the sharks. +This is probably the biggest threat to sharks worldwide -- it is the finning of sharks. +We're often all frightened of sharks thanks to "Jaws." +Maybe five or six people get killed by sharks every year. +There was someone recently, wasn't there? Just a couple weeks ago. +We kill about 100 million sharks a year. +So I don't know what the balance is, but I think sharks have got more right to be fearful of us than we have of them. +It was a well-documented fishery, and as you can see here, it peaked in the 50s where they were killing 1,500 sharks a year. +And it declined very fast -- a classic boom and bust fishery, which suggests that a stock has been depleted or there's low reproductive rates. +And they killed about 12,000 sharks in this period, literally just by stringing a manila rope off the tip of Keem Bay at Achill Island. +Sharks were still killed up into the mid-80s, especially after places like Dunmore East in County Waterford. +And about two and a half, 3,000 sharks were killed up till '85, many by Norwegian vessels. +The black, you can't really see this, but these are Norwegian basking shark hunting vessels, and the black line in the crow's nest signifies this is a shark vessel rather than a whaling vessel. +The importance of basking sharks to the coast communities is recognized through the language. +Now I don't pretend to have any Irish, but in Kerry they were often known as "Ainmhide na seolta," the monster with the sails. +And another title would be "Liop an da lapa," the unwieldy beast with two fins. +"Liabhan mor," suggesting a big animal. +Or my favorite, "Liabhan chor greine," the great fish of the sun. +And that's a lovely, evocative name. +On Tory Island, which is a strange place anyway, they were known as muldoons, and no one seems to know why. +Hope there's no one from Tory here; lovely place. +But more commonly all around the island, they were known as the sunfish. +And this represents their habit of basking on the surface when the sun is out. +There's great concern that basking sharks are depleted all throughout the world. +Some people say it's not population decline. +It might be a change in the distribution of plankton. +And it's been suggested that basking sharks would make fantastic indicators of climate change, because they're basically continuous plankton recorders swimming around with their mouth open. +They're now listed as vulnerable under the IUCN. +There's also moves in Europe to try and stop catching them. +There's now a ban on catching them and even landing them and even landing ones that are caught accidentally. +They're not protected in Ireland. +In fact, they have no legislative status in Ireland whatsoever, despite our importance for the species and also the historical context within which basking sharks reside. +We know very little about them. +And most of what we do know is based on their habit of coming to the surface. +And we try to guess what they're doing from their behavior on the surface. +I only found out last year, at a conference on the Isle of Man, just how unusual it is to live somewhere where basking sharks regularly, frequently and predictably come to the surface to "bask." +And it's a fantastic opportunity in science to see and experience basking sharks, and they are awesome creatures. +And it gives us a fantastic opportunity to actually study them, to get access to them. +So what we've been doing a couple of years -- but last year was a big year -- is we started tagging sharks so we could try to get some idea of sight fidelity and movements and things like that. +So we concentrated mainly in North Donegal and West Kerry as the two areas where I was mainly active. +And we tagged them very simply, not very hi-tech, with a big, long pole. +This is a beachcaster rod with a tag on the end. +Go up in your boat and tag the shark. +And we were very effective. +We tagged 105 sharks last summer. +We got 50 in three days off Inishowen Peninsula. +Half the challenge is to get access, is to be in the right place at the right time. +But it's a very simple and easy technique. +I'll show you what they look like. +We use a pole camera on the boat to actually film shark. +One is to try and work out the gender of the shark. +We also deployed a couple of satellite tags, so we did use hi-tech stuff as well. +These are archival tags. +So what they do is they store the data. +A satellite tag only works when the air is clear of the water and can send a signal to the satellite. +And of course, sharks, fish, are underwater most of the time. +So this tag actually works out the locations of shark depending on the timing and the setting of the sun, plus water temperature and depth. +And you have to kind of reconstruct the path. +What happens is that you set the tag to detach from the shark after a fixed period, in this case it was eight months, and literally to the day the tag popped off, drifted up, said hello to the satellite and sent, not all the data, but enough data for us to use. +And this is the only way to really work out the behavior and the movements when they're under water. +And here's a couple of maps that we've done. +That one, you can see that we tagged both off Kerry. +And basically it spent all its time, the last eight months, in Irish waters. +Christmas day it was out on the shelf edge. +And here's one that we haven't ground-truthed it yet with sea surface temperature and water depth, but again, the second shark kind of spent most of its time in and around the Irish Sea. +Colleagues from the Isle of Man last year actually tagged one shark that went from the Isle of Man all the way out to Nova Scotia in about 90 days. +That's nine and a half thousand kilometers. We never thought that happened. +Another colleague in the States tagged about 20 sharks off Massachusetts, and his tags didn't really work. +All he knows is where he tagged them and he knows where they popped off. +And his tags popped off in the Caribbean and even in Brazil. +And we thought that basking sharks were temperate animals and only lived in our latitude. +But in actual fact, they're obviously crossing the Equator as well. +So very simple things like that, we're trying to learn about basking sharks. +One thing that I think is a very surprising and strange thing is just how low the genetic diversity of sharks are. +Now I'm not a geneticist, so I'm not going to pretend to understand the genetics. +And that's why it's great to have collaboration. +Whereas I'm a field person, I get panic attacks if I have to spend too many hours in a lab with a white coat on -- take me away. +So we can work with geneticists who understand that. +So when they looked at the genetics of basking sharks, they found that the diversity was incredibly low. +If you look at the first line really, you can see that all these different shark species are all quite similar. +I think this means basically that they're all sharks and they've come from a common ancestry. +If you look at nucleotide diversity, which is more genetics that are passed on through parents, you can see that basking sharks, if you look at the first study, was an order of magnitude less diversity than other shark species. +And you see that this work was done in 2006. +Before 2006, we had no idea of the genetic variability of basking sharks. +We had no idea, did they distinguish into different populations? +Were there subpopulations? +And of course, that's very important if you want to know what the population size is and the status of the animals. +So Les Noble in Aberdeen kind of found this a bit unbelievable really. +So he did another study using microsatellites, which are much more expensive, much more time consuming, and, to his surprise, came up with almost identical results. +So it does seem to be that basking sharks, for some reason, have incredibly low diversity. +And it's thought maybe it was a bottleneck, a genetic bottleneck thought to be 12,000 years ago, and this has caused a very low diversity. +And yet, if you look at whale sharks, which is the other plankton eating large shark, its diversity is much greater. +So it doesn't really make sense at all. +They found that there was no genetic differentiation between any of the world's oceans of basking sharks. +So even though basking sharks are found throughout the world, you couldn't tell the difference genetically from one from the Pacific, the Atlantic, New Zealand, or from Ireland, South Africa. +They all basically seem the same. +But again, it's kind of surprising. You wouldn't really expect that. +I don't understand this. I don't pretend to understand this. +And I suspect most geneticists don't understand it either, but they produce the numbers. +So you can actually estimate the population size based on the diversity of the genetics. +And Rus Hoelzel came up with an effective population size: 8,200 animals. +That's it. +8,000 animals in the world. +You're thinking, "That's just ridiculous. No way." +So Les did a finer study and he found out it came out about 9,000. +And using different microsatellites gave the different results. +But the average of all these studies came out -- the mean is about 5,000, which I personally don't believe, but then I am a skeptic. +But even if you toss a few numbers around, you're probably talking of an effective population of about 20,000 animals. +Do you remember how many they killed off Achill there in the 70s and the 50s? +So what it tells us actually is that there's actually a risk of extinction of this species because its population is so small. +In fact, of those 20,000, 8,000 were thought to be females. +There's only 8,000 basking shark females in the world? +I don't know. I don't believe it. +The problem with this is they were constrained with samples. +They didn't get enough samples to really explore the genetics in enough detail. +So where do you get samples from for your genetic analysis? +Well one obvious source is dead sharks, Dead sharks washed up. +We might get two or three dead sharks washed up in Ireland a year, if we're kind of lucky. +Another source would be fisheries bycatch. +We were getting quite a few caught in surface drift nets. +That's banned now, and that'll be good news for the sharks. +And some are caught in nets, in trawls. +This is a shark that was actually landed in Howth just before Christmas, illegally, because you're not allowed to do that under E.U. law, and was actually sold for eight euros a kilo as shark steak. +They even put a recipe up on the wall, until they were told this was illegal. +And they actually did get a fine for that. +So if you look at all those studies I showed you, the total number of samples worldwide is 86 at present. +So it's very important work, and they can ask some really good questions, and they can tell us about population size and subpopulations and structure, but they're constrained by lack of samples. +Now when we were out tagging our sharks, this is how we tagged them on the front of a RIB -- get in there fast -- occasionally the sharks do react. +And on one occasion when we were up in Malin Head up in Donegal, a shark smacked the side of the boat with his tail, more, I think, in startle to the fact that a boat came near it, rather than the tag going in. +And that was fine. We got wet. No problem. +And then when myself and Emmett got back to Malin Head, to the pier, I noticed some black slime on the front of the boat. +And I remembered -- I used to spend a lot of time out on commercial fishing boats -- I remember fishermen telling me they can always tell when a basking shark's been caught in the net because it leaves this black slime behind. +So I was thinking that must have come from the shark. +Now we had an interest in getting tissue samples for genetics because we knew they were very valuable. +And we would use conventional methods -- I have a crossbow, you see the crossbow in my hand there, which we use to sample whales and dolphins for genetic studies as well. +So I tried that, I tried many techniques. +All it was doing was breaking my arrows because the shark skin is just so strong. +There was no way we were going to get a sample from that. +So that wasn't going to work. +So when I saw the black slime on the bow of the boat, I thought, "If you take what you're given in this world ..." +So I scraped it off. +And I had a little tube with alcohol in it to send to the geneticists. +So I scraped the slime off and I sent it off to Aberdeen. +And I said, "You might try that." +And they sat on it for months actually. +It was only because we had a conference on the Isle of Man. +But I kept emailing, saying, "Have you had a chance to look at my slime yet?" +And he was like, "Yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah. Later, later, later." +Anyway he thought he'd better do it, because I never met him before and he might lose face if he hadn't done the thing I sent him. +And he was amazed that they actually got DNA from the slime. +And they amplified it and they tested it and they found, yes, this was actually basking shark DNA, which was got from the slime. +And so he was all very excited. +It became known as Simon's shark slime. +And I thought, "Hey, you know, I can build on this." +So we thought, okay, we're going to try to get out and get some slime. +So having spent three and a half thousand on satellite tags, I then thought I'd invest 7.95 -- the price is still on it -- in my local hardware store in Kilrush for a mop handle and even less money on some oven cleaners. +And I wrapped the oven cleaner around the end of the mop handle and was desperate, desperate to have an opportunity to get some sharks. +Now this was into August now, and normally sharks peak at June, July. +And you rarely see them. +You can only rarely be in the right place to find sharks into August. +So we were desperate. +So we rushed out to Blasket as soon as we heard there were sharks there and managed to find some sharks. +So by just rubbing the mop handle down the shark as it swam under the boat -- you see, here's a shark that's running under the boat here -- we managed to collect slime. +And here it is. +Look at that lovely, black shark slime. +And in about half an hour, we got five samples, five individual sharks, were sampled using Simon's shark slime sampling system. +I've been working on whales and dolphins in Ireland for 20 years now, and they're kind of a bit more dramatic. +You probably saw the humpback whale footage that we got there a month or two ago off County Wexford. +And you always think you might have some legacy you can leave the world behind. +And I was thinking of humpback whales breaching and dolphins. +But hey, sometimes these things are sent to you and you just have to take them when they come. +So this is possibly going to be my legacy -- Simon's shark slime. +So we got more money this year to carry on collecting more and more samples. +And one thing that is kind of very useful is that we use a pole cameras -- this is my colleague Joanne with a pole camera -- where you can actually look underneath the shark. +And what you're trying to look at is the males have claspers, which kind of dangle out behind the back of the shark. +So you can quite easily tell the gender of the shark. +So if we can tell the gender of the shark before we sample it, we can tell the geneticist this was taken from a male or a female. +Because at the moment, they actually have no way genetically of telling the difference between a male and a female, which I found absolutely staggering, because they don't know what primers to look for. +And being able to tell the gender of a shark has got very important for things like policing the trade in basking shark and other species through societies, because it is illegal to trade any sharks. +And they are caught and they are on the market. +So as a field biologist, you just want to get encounters with these animals. +You want to learn as much as you can. +They're often quite brief. They're often very seasonally constrained. +And you just want to learn as much as you can as soon as you can. +But isn't it fantastic that you can then offer these samples and opportunities to other disciplines, such as geneticists, who can gain so much more from that. +So as I said, these things are sent to you in strange ways. Grab them while you can. +I'll take that as my scientific legacy. +Hopefully I might get something a bit more dramatic and romantic before I die. +But for the time being, thank you for that. +And keep an eye out for sharks. +If you're more interested, we have a basking shark website now just set up. +So thank you and thank you for listening. +The humanitarian model has barely changed since the early 20th century. +Its origins are firmly rooted in the analog age. +And there is a major shift coming on the horizon. +The catalyst for this change was the major earthquake that struck Haiti on the 12th of January in 2010. +Haiti was a game changer. +The earthquake destroyed the capital of Port-au-Prince, claiming the lives of some 320,000 people, rendering homeless about 1.2 million people. +Government institutions were completely decapitated, including the presidential palace. +I remember standing on the roof of the Ministry of Justice in downtown Port-au-Prince. +It was about two meters high, completely squashed by the violence of the earthquake. +For those of us on the ground in those early days, it was clear for even the most disaster-hardened veterans that Haiti was something different. +Haiti was something we hadn't seen before. +But Haiti provided us with something else unprecedented. +Haiti allowed us to glimpse into a future of what disaster response might look like in a hyper-connected world where people have access to mobile smart devices. +Because out of the urban devastation in Port-au-Prince came a torrent of SMS texts -- people crying for help, beseeching us for assistance, sharing data, offering support, looking for their loved ones. +This was a situation that traditional aid agencies had never before encountered. +We were in one of the poorest countries on the planet, but 80 percent of the people had mobile devices in their hands. +And we were unprepared for this, and they were shaping the aid effort. +Outside Haiti also, things were looking different. +Back in Haiti, people were increasingly turning to the medium of SMS. +People that were hungry and hurting were signaling their distress, were signaling their need for help. +On street sides all over Port-au-Prince, entrepreneurs sprung up offering mobile phone charging stations. +They understood more than we did people's innate need to be connected. +Never having been confronted with this type of situation before, we wanted to try and understand how we could tap into this incredible resource, how we could really leverage this incredible use of mobile technology and SMS technology. +We started talking with a local telecom provider called Voil, which is a subsidiary of Trilogy International. +We had basically three requirements. +We wanted to communicate in a two-way form of communication. +We didn't want to shout; we needed to listen as well. +We wanted to be able to target specific geographic communities. +We didn't need to talk to the whole country at the same time. +And we wanted it to be easy to use. +Out of this rubble of Haiti and from this devastation came something that we call TERA -- the Trilogy Emergency Response Application -- which has been used to support the aid effort ever since. +It has been used to help communities prepare for disasters. +It has been used to signal early warning in advance of weather-related disasters. +It's used for public health awareness campaigns such as the prevention of cholera. +And it is even used for sensitive issues such as building awareness around gender-based violence. +But does it work? +We have just published an evaluation of this program, and the evidence that is there for all to see is quite remarkable. +Some 74 percent of people received the data. +Those who were intended to receive the data, 74 percent of them received it. +96 percent of them found it useful. +83 percent of them took action -- evidence that it is indeed empowering. +And 73 percent of them shared it. +The TERA system was developed from Haiti with support of engineers in the region. +It is a user-appropriate technology that has been used for humanitarian good to great effect. +Technology is transformational. +Right across the developing world, citizens and communities are using technology to enable them to bring about change, positive change, in their own communities. +The grassroots has been strengthened through the social power of sharing and they are challenging the old models, the old analog models of control and command. +One illustration of the transformational power of technology is in Kibera. +Kibera is one of Africa's largest slums. +It's on the outskirts of Nairobi, the capital city of Kenya. +It's home to an unknown number of people -- some say between 250,000 and 1.2 million. +If you were to arrive in Nairobi today and pick up a tourist map, Kibera is represented as a lush, green national park devoid of human settlement. +Young people living in Kibera in their community, with simple handheld devices, GPS handheld devices and SMS-enabled mobile phones, have literally put themselves on the map. +They have collated crowd-sourced data and rendered the invisible visible. +People like Josh and Steve are continuing to layer information upon information, real-time information, Tweet it and text it onto these maps for all to use. +You can find out about the latest impromptu music session. +You can find out about the latest security incident. +You can find out about places of worship. +You can find out about the health centers. +You can feel the dynamism of this living, breathing community. +They also have their own news network on YouTube with 36,000 viewers at the moment. +They're showing us what can be done with mobile, digital technologies. +They're showing that the magic of technology can bring the invisible visible. +And they are giving a voice to themselves. +They are telling their own story, bypassing the official narrative. +And we're seeing from all points on the globe similar stories. +In Mongolia for instance, where 30 percent of the people are nomadic, SMS information systems are being used to track migration and weather patterns. +SMS is even used to hold herder summits from remote participation. +And if people are migrating into urban, unfamiliar, concrete environments, they can also be helped in anticipation with social supporters ready and waiting for them based on SMS knowledge. +In Nigeria, open-source SMS tools are being used by the Red Cross community workers to gather information from the local community in an attempt to better understand and mitigate the prevalence of malaria. +My colleague, Jason Peat, who runs this program, tells me it's 10 times faster and 10 times cheaper than the traditional way of doing things. +And not only is it empowering to the communities, but really importantly, this information stays in the community where it is needed to formulate long-term health polices. +We are on a planet of seven billion people, five billion mobile subscriptions. +By 2015, there will be three billion smartphones in the world. +The U.N. broadband commission has recently set targets to help broadband access in 50 percent of the Developing World, compared to 20 percent today. +We are hurtling towards a hyper-connected world where citizens from all cultures and all social strata will have access to smart, fast mobile devices. +People are understanding, from Cairo to Oakland, that there are new ways to come together, there are new ways to mobilize, there are new ways to influence. +A transformation is coming which needs to be understood by the humanitarian structures and humanitarian models. +The collective voices of people needs to be more integrated through new technologies into the organizational strategies and plans of actions and not just recycled for fundraising or marketing. +We need to, for example, embrace the big data, the knowledge that is there from market leaders who understand what it means to use and leverage big data. +One idea that I'd like you to consider, for instance, is to take a look at our IT departments. +They're normally backroom or basement hardware service providers, but they need to be elevated to software strategists. +We need people in our organizations who know what it's like to work with big data. +We need technology as a core organizational principle. +We need technological strategists in the boardroom who can ask and answer the question, "What would Amazon or Google do with all of this data?" +and convert it to humanitarian good. +It has always been the elusive ideal to ensure full participation of people affected by disasters in the humanitarian effort. +We now have the tools. We now have the possibilities. +There are no more reasons not to do it. +I believe we need to bring the humanitarian world from analog to digital. +Thank you very much. +The world's largest and most devastating environmental and industrial project is situated in the heart of the largest and most intact forest in the world, Canada's boreal forest. +It stretches right across northern Canada, in Labrador, it's home to the largest remaining wild caribou herd in the world, the George River caribou herd, numbering approximately 400,000 animals. +Unfortunately, when I was there I couldn't find one of them, but you have the antlers as proof. +All across the boreal, we're blessed with this incredible abundance of wetlands. +Wetlands globally are one of the most endangered ecosystems. +They're absolutely critical ecosystems, they clean air, they clean water, they sequester large amounts of greenhouse gases, and they're home to a huge diversity of species. +In the boreal, they are also the home where almost 50 percent of the 800 bird species found in North America migrate north to breed and raise their young. +In Ontario, the boreal marches down south to the north shore of Lake Superior. +And these incredibly beautiful boreal forests were the inspiration for some of the most famous art in Canadian history, the Group of Seven were very inspired by this landscape, and so the boreal is not just a really key part of our natural heritage, but also an important part of our cultural heritage. +In Manitoba, this is an image from the east side of Lake Winnipeg, and this is the home of the newly designated UNESCO Cultural Heritage site. +In the North, the boreal is bordered by the tundra, and just below that, in Yukon, we have this incredible valley, the Tombstone Valley. +And the Tombstone Valley is home to the Porcupine caribou herd. +Now you've probably heard about the Porcupine caribou herd in the context of its breeding ground in Arctic National Wildlife Refuge. +Well, the wintering ground is also critical and it also is not protected, and is potentially, could be potentially, exploited for gas and mineral rights. +The western border of the boreal in British Columbia is marked by the Coast Mountains, and on the other side of those mountains is the greatest remaining temperate rainforest in the world, the Great Bear Rainforest, and we'll discuss that in a few minutes in a bit more detail. +All across the boreal, it's home for a huge incredible range of indigenous peoples, and a rich and varied culture. +And I think that one of the reasons why so many of these groups have retained a link to the past, know their native languages, the songs, the dances, the traditions, I think part of that reason is because of the remoteness, the span and the wilderness of this almost 95 percent intact ecosystem. +And I think particularly now, as we see ourselves in a time of environmental crisis, we can learn so much from these people who have lived so sustainably in this ecosystem for over 10,000 years. +In the heart of this ecosystem is the very antithesis of all of these values that we've been talking about, and I think these are some of the core values that make us proud to be Canadians. +This is the Alberta tar sands, the largest oil reserves on the planet outside of Saudi Arabia. +Trapped underneath the boreal forest and wetlands of northern Alberta are these vast reserves of this sticky, tar-like bitumen. +And the mining and the exploitation of that is creating devastation on a scale that the planet has never seen before. +I want to try to convey some sort of a sense of the size of this. +If you look at that truck there, it is the largest truck of its kind of the planet. +It is a 400-ton-capacity dump truck and its dimensions are 45 feet long by 35 feet wide and 25 feet high. +If I stand beside that truck, my head comes to around the bottom of the yellow part of that hubcap. +Within the dimensions of that truck, you could build a 3,000-square-foot two-story home quite easily. I did the math. +So instead of thinking of that as a truck, think of that as a 3,000-square-foot home. +That's not a bad size home. +And line those trucks/homes back and forth across there from the bottom all the way to the top. +And then think of how large that very small section of one mine is. +Now, you can apply that same kind of thinking here as well. +Now, here you see -- of course, as you go further on, these trucks become like a pixel. +Again, imagine those all back and forth there. +How large is that one portion of a mine? +That would be a huge, vast metropolitan area, probably much larger than the city of Victoria. +And this is just one of a number of mines, 10 mines so far right now. +This is one section of one mining complex, and there are about another 40 or 50 in the approval process. +No tar sands mine has actually ever been denied approval, so it is essentially a rubber stamp. +The other method of extraction is what's called the in-situ. +And here, massive amounts of water are super-heated and pumped through the ground, through these vasts networks of pipelines, seismic lines, drill paths, compressor stations. +And even though this looks maybe not quite as repugnant as the mines, it's even more damaging in some ways. +It impacts and fragments a larger part of the wilderness, where there is 90 percent reduction of key species, like woodland caribou and grizzly bears, and it consumes even more energy, more water, and produces at least as much greenhouse gas. +So these in-situ developments are at least as ecologically damaging as the mines. +The oil produced from either method produces more greenhouse gas emissions than any other oil. +This is one of the reasons why it's called the world's dirtiest oil. +It's also one of the reasons why it is the largest and fastest-growing single source of carbon in Canada, and it is also a reason why Canada is now number three in terms of producing carbon per person. +The tailings ponds are the largest toxic impoundments on the planet. +Oil sands -- or rather I should say tar sands -- "oil sands" is a P.R.-created term so that the oil companies wouldn't be trying to promote something that sounds like a sticky tar-like substance that's the world's dirtiest oil. +So they decided to call it oil sands. +The tar sands consume more water than any other oil process, three to five barrels of water are taken, polluted and then returned into tailings ponds, the largest toxic impoundments on the planet. +SemCrude, just one of the licensees, in just one of their tailings ponds, dumps 250,000 tons of this toxic gunk every single day. +That's creating the largest toxic impoundments in the history of the planet. +So far, this is enough toxin to cover the face of Lake Eerie a foot deep. +And the tailings ponds range in size up to 9,000 acres. +That's two-thirds the size of the entire island of Manhattan. +That's like from Wall Street at the southern edge of Manhattan up to maybe 120th Street. +So this is an absolutely -- this is one of the larger tailings ponds. +This might be, what? I don't know, half the size of Manhattan. +And you can see in the context, it's just a relatively small section of one of 10 mining complexes and another 40 to 50 on stream to be approved soon. +And of course, these tailings ponds -- well, you can't see many ponds from outer space and you can see these, so maybe we should stop calling them ponds -- these massive toxic wastelands are built unlined and on the banks of the Athabasca River. +And the Athabasca River drains downstream to a range of Aboriginal communities. +In Fort Chippewa, the 800 people there, are finding toxins in the food chain, this has been scientifically proven. +The tar sands toxins are in the food chain, and this is causing cancer rates up to 10 times what they are in the rest of Canada. +In spite of that, people have to live, have to eat this food in order to survive. +The incredibly high price of flying food into these remote Northern Aboriginal communities and the high rate of unemployment makes this an absolute necessity for survival. +And not that many years ago, I was lent a boat by a First Nations man. +And he said, "When you go out on the river, do not under any circumstances eat the fish. +It's carcinogenic." +And yet, on the front porch of that man's cabin, I saw four fish. He had to feed his family to survive. +And as a parent, I just can't imagine what that does to your soul. +And that's what we're doing. +The boreal forest is also perhaps our best defense against global warming and climate change. +The boreal forest sequesters more carbon than any other terrestrial ecosystem. +And this is absolutely key. +So what we're doing is, we're taking the most concentrated greenhouse gas sink, twice as much greenhouse gases are sequestered in the boreal per acre than the tropical rainforests. +And what we're doing is we're destroying this carbon sink, turning it into a carbon bomb. +And we're replacing that with the largest industrial project in the history of the world, which is producing the most high-carbon greenhouse gas emitting oil in the world. +And we're doing this on the second largest oil reserves on the planet. +This is one of the reasons why Canada, originally a climate change hero -- we were one of the first signatories of the Kyoto Accord. +Now we're the country that has full-time lobbyists in the European Union and Washington, D.C. +Just 70 miles downstream is the world's largest freshwater delta, the Peace-Athabasca Delta, the only one at the juncture of all four migratory flyways. +This is a globally significant wetland, perhaps the greatest on the planet. +Incredible habitat for half the bird species you find in North America, migrating here. +And also the last refuge for the largest herd of wild bison, and also, of course, critical habitat for another whole range of other species. +But it too is being threatened by the massive amount of water being drawn from the Athabasca, which feeds these wetlands, and also the incredible toxic burden of the largest toxic unlined impoundments on the planet, which are leaching in to the food chain for all the species downstream. +So as bad as all that is, things are going to get much worse, much, much worse. +This is the infrastructure as we see it about now. +This is what's planned for 2015. +Here you see the route down the Mackenzie Valley. +This would put a pipeline to take natural gas from the Beaufort Sea through the heart of the third largest watershed basin in the world, and the only one which is 95 percent intact. +And building a pipeline with an industrial highway would change forever this incredible wilderness, which is a true rarity on the planet today. +And the Great Bear Rainforest is generally considered to be the largest coastal temperate rainforest ecosystem in the world. +When one of these tar sands tankers, carrying the dirtiest oil, 10 times as much as the Exxon Valdez, eventually hits a rock and goes down, we're going to have one of the worst ecological disasters this planet has ever seen. +And here we have the plan out to 2030. +What they're proposing is an almost four-times increase in production, and that would industrialize an area the size of Florida. +In doing so, we'll be removing a large part of our greatest carbon sink and replacing it with the most high greenhouse gas emission oil in the future. +The world does not need any more tar mines. +The world does not need any more pipelines to wed our addiction to fossil fuels. +And the world certainly does not need the largest toxic impoundments to grow and multiply and further threaten the downstream communities. +And let's face it, we all live downstream in an era of global warming and climate change. +What we need, is we all need to act to ensure that Canada respects the massive amounts of freshwater that we hold in this country. +We need to ensure that these wetlands and forests that are our best and greatest and most critical defense against global warming are protected, and we are not releasing that carbon bomb into the atmosphere. +And we need to all gather together and say no to the tar sands. +And we can do that. There is a huge network all over the world fighting to stop this project. +And I quite simply think that this is not something that should be decided just in Canada. +Everyone in this room, everyone across Canada, everyone listening to this presentation has a role to play and, I think, a responsibility. +Because what we do here is going to change our history, it's going to color our possibility to survive, and for our children to survive and have a rich future. +We have an incredible gift in the boreal, an incredible opportunity to preserve our best defense against global warming, but we could let that slip away. +The tar sands could threaten not just a large section of the boreal. +It compromises the life and the health of some of our most underprivileged and vulnerable people, the Aboriginal communities that have so much to teach us. +It could destroy the Athabasca Delta, the largest and possibly greatest freshwater delta in the planet. +It could destroy the Great Bear Rainforest, the largest temperate rainforest in the world. +And it could have huge impacts on the future of the agricultural heartland of North America. +Thank you so much. +The things we make have one supreme quality -- they live longer than us. +We perish, they survive; we have one life, they have many lives, and in each life they can mean different things. +Which means that, while we all have one biography, they have many. +I want this morning to talk about the story, the biography -- or rather the biographies -- of one particular object, one remarkable thing. +It doesn't, I agree, look very much. +It's about the size of a rugby ball. +It's made of clay, and it's been fashioned into a cylinder shape, covered with close writing and then baked dry in the sun. +And as you can see, it's been knocked about a bit, which is not surprising because it was made two and a half thousand years ago and was dug up in 1879. +But today, this thing is, I believe, a major player in the politics of the Middle East. +And it's an object with fascinating stories and stories that are by no means over yet. +The story begins in the Iran-Iraq war and that series of events that culminated in the invasion of Iraq by foreign forces, the removal of a despotic ruler and instant regime change. +And I want to begin with one episode from that sequence of events that most of you would be very familiar with, Belshazzar's feast -- because we're talking about the Iran-Iraq war of 539 BC. +And the parallels between the events of 539 BC and 2003 and in between are startling. +What you're looking at is Rembrandt's painting, now in the National Gallery in London, illustrating the text from the prophet Daniel in the Hebrew scriptures. +And you all know roughly the story. +Belshazzar, the son of Nebuchadnezzar, Nebuchadnezzar who'd conquered Israel, sacked Jerusalem and captured the people and taken the Jews back to Babylon. +Not only the Jews, he'd taken the temple vessels. +He'd ransacked, desecrated the temple. +And the great gold vessels of the temple in Jerusalem had been taken to Babylon. +Belshazzar, his son, decides to have a feast. +And in order to make it even more exciting, he added a bit of sacrilege to the rest of the fun, and he brings out the temple vessels. +He's already at war with the Iranians, with the king of Persia. +And that night, Daniel tells us, at the height of the festivities a hand appeared and wrote on the wall, "You are weighed in the balance and found wanting, and your kingdom is handed over to the Medes and the Persians." +And that very night Cyrus, king of the Persians, entered Babylon and the whole regime of Belshazzar fell. +It is, of course, a great moment in the history of the Jewish people. +It's a great story. It's story we all know. +"The writing on the wall" is part of our everyday language. +What happened next was remarkable, and it's where our cylinder enters the story. +Cyrus, king of the Persians, has entered Babylon without a fight -- the great empire of Babylon, which ran from central southern Iraq to the Mediterranean, falls to Cyrus. +And Cyrus makes a declaration. +And that is what this cylinder is, the declaration made by the ruler guided by God who had toppled the Iraqi despot and was going to bring freedom to the people. +In ringing Babylonian -- it was written in Babylonian -- he says, "I am Cyrus, king of all the universe, the great king, the powerful king, king of Babylon, king of the four quarters of the world." +They're not shy of hyperbole as you can see. +This is probably the first real press release by a victorious army that we've got. +And it's written, as we'll see in due course, by very skilled P.R. consultants. +So the hyperbole is not actually surprising. +And what is the great king, the powerful king, the king of the four quarters of the world going to do? +He goes on to say that, having conquered Babylon, he will at once let all the peoples that the Babylonians -- Nebuchadnezzar and Belshazzar -- have captured and enslaved go free. +He'll let them return to their countries. +And more important, he will let them all recover the gods, the statues, the temple vessels that had been confiscated. +All the peoples that the Babylonians had repressed and removed will go home, and they'll take with them their gods. +And they'll be able to restore their altars and to worship their gods in their own way, in their own place. +This is the decree, this object is the evidence for the fact that the Jews, after the exile in Babylon, the years they'd spent sitting by the waters of Babylon, weeping when they remembered Jerusalem, those Jews were allowed to go home. +They were allowed to return to Jerusalem and to rebuild the temple. +It's a central document in Jewish history. +And the Book of Chronicles, the Book of Ezra in the Hebrew scriptures reported in ringing terms. +This is the Jewish version of the same story. +"Thus said Cyrus, king of Persia, 'All the kingdoms of the earth have the Lord God of heaven given thee, and he has charged me to build him a house in Jerusalem. +Who is there among you of his people? +The Lord God be with him, and let him go up.'" "Go up" -- aaleh. +The central element, still, of the notion of return, a central part of the life of Judaism. +As you all know, that return from exile, the second temple, reshaped Judaism. +And that change, that great historic moment, was made possible by Cyrus, the king of Persia, reported for us in Hebrew in scripture and in Babylonian in clay. +Two great texts, what about the politics? +What was going on was the fundamental shift in Middle Eastern history. +The empire of Iran, the Medes and the Persians, united under Cyrus, became the first great world empire. +Cyrus begins in the 530s BC. +And by the time of his son Darius, the whole of the eastern Mediterranean is under Persian control. +This empire is, in fact, the Middle East as we now know it, and it's what shapes the Middle East as we now know it. +It was the largest empire the world had known until then. +Much more important, it was the first multicultural, multifaith state on a huge scale. +And it had to be run in a quite new way. +It had to be run in different languages. +The fact that this decree is in Babylonian says one thing. +And it had to recognize their different habits, different peoples, different religions, different faiths. +All of those are respected by Cyrus. +Cyrus sets up a model of how you run a great multinational, multifaith, multicultural society. +And the result of that was an empire that included the areas you see on the screen, and which survived for 200 years of stability until it was shattered by Alexander. +It left a dream of the Middle East as a unit, and a unit where people of different faiths could live together. +The Greek invasions ended that. +And of course, Alexander couldn't sustain a government and it fragmented. +But what Cyrus represented remained absolutely central. +The Greek historian Xenophon wrote his book "Cyropaedia" promoting Cyrus as the great ruler. +And throughout European culture afterward, Cyrus remained the model. +This is a 16th century image to show you how widespread his veneration actually was. +And Xenophon's book on Cyrus on how you ran a diverse society was one of the great textbooks that inspired the Founding Fathers of the American Revolution. +Jefferson was a great admirer -- the ideals of Cyrus obviously speaking to those 18th century ideals of how you create religious tolerance in a new state. +Meanwhile, back in Babylon, things had not been going well. +After Alexander, the other empires, Babylon declines, falls into ruins, and all the traces of the great Babylonian empire are lost -- until 1879 when the cylinder is discovered by a British Museum exhibition digging in Babylon. +And it enters now another story. +It enters that great debate in the middle of the 19th century: Are the scriptures reliable? Can we trust them? +We only knew about the return of the Jews and the decree of Cyrus from the Hebrew scriptures. +No other evidence. +Suddenly, this appeared. +And great excitement to a world where those who believed in the scriptures had had their faith in creation shaken by evolution, by geology, here was evidence that the scriptures were historically true. +It's a great 19th century moment. +But -- and this, of course, is where it becomes complicated -- the facts were true, hurrah for archeology, but the interpretation was rather more complicated. +Because the cylinder account and the Hebrew Bible account differ in one key respect. +The Babylonian cylinder is written by the priests of the great god of Bablyon, Marduk. +And, not surprisingly, they tell you that all this was done by Marduk. +"Marduk, we hold, called Cyrus by his name." +Marduk takes Cyrus by the hand, calls him to shepherd his people and gives him the rule of Babylon. +Marduk tells Cyrus that he will do these great, generous things of setting the people free. +And this is why we should all be grateful to and worship Marduk. +The Hebrew writers in the Old Testament, you will not be surprised to learn, take a rather different view of this. +For them, of course, it can't possibly by Marduk that made all this happen. +It can only be Jehovah. +And so in Isaiah, we have the wonderful texts giving all the credit of this, not to Marduk but to the Lord God of Israel -- the Lord God of Israel who also called Cyrus by name, also takes Cyrus by the hand and talks of him shepherding his people. +It's a remarkable example of two different priestly appropriations of the same event, two different religious takeovers of a political fact. +God, we know, is usually on the side of the big battalions. +The question is, which god was it? +And the debate unsettles everybody in the 19th century to realize that the Hebrew scriptures are part of a much wider world of religion. +And it's quite clear the cylinder is older than the text of Isaiah, and yet, Jehovah is speaking in words very similar to those used by Marduk. +And there's a slight sense that Isaiah knows this, because he says, this is God speaking, of course, "I have called thee by thy name though thou hast not known me." +I think it's recognized that Cyrus doesn't realize that he's acting under orders from Jehovah. +And equally, he'd have been surprised that he was acting under orders from Marduk. +Because interestingly, of course, Cyrus is a good Iranian with a totally different set of gods who are not mentioned in any of these texts. +That's 1879. +40 years on and we're in 1917, and the cylinder enters a different world. +This time, the real politics of the contemporary world -- the year of the Balfour Declaration, the year when the new imperial power in the Middle East, Britain, decides that it will declare a Jewish national home, it will allow the Jews to return. +And the response to this by the Jewish population in Eastern Europe is rhapsodic. +And across Eastern Europe, Jews display pictures of Cyrus and of George V side by side -- the two great rulers who have allowed the return to Jerusalem. +And the Cyrus cylinder comes back into public view and the text of this as a demonstration of why what is going to happen after the war is over in 1918 is part of a divine plan. +You all know what happened. +The state of Israel is setup, and 50 years later, in the late 60s, it's clear that Britain's role as the imperial power is over. +And another story of the cylinder begins. +The region, the U.K. and the U.S. decide, has to be kept safe from communism, and the superpower that will be created to do this would be Iran, the Shah. +And so the Shah invents an Iranian history, or a return to Iranian history, that puts him in the center of a great tradition and produces coins showing himself with the Cyrus cylinder. +When he has his great celebrations in Persepolis, he summons the cylinder and the cylinder is lent by the British Museum, goes to Tehran, and is part of those great celebrations of the Pahlavi dynasty. +Cyrus cylinder: guarantor of the Shah. +10 years later, another story: Iranian Revolution, 1979. +Islamic revolution, no more Cyrus; we're not interested in that history, we're interested in Islamic Iran -- until Iraq, the new superpower that we've all decided should be in the region, attacks. +Then another Iran-Iraq war. +And it becomes critical for the Iranians to remember their great past, their great past when they fought Iraq and won. +It becomes critical to find a symbol that will pull together all Iranians -- Muslims and non-Muslims, Christians, Zoroastrians, Jews living in Iran, people who are devout, not devout. +And the obvious emblem is Cyrus. +So when the British Museum and Tehran National Musuem cooperate and work together, as we've been doing, the Iranians ask for one thing only as a loan. +It's the only object they want. +They want to borrow the Cyrus cylinder. +And last year, the Cyrus cylinder went to Tehran for the second time. +It's shown being presented here, put into its case by the director of the National Museum of Tehran, one of the many women in Iran in very senior positions, Mrs. Ardakani. +It was a huge event. +This is the other side of that same picture. +It's seen in Tehran by between one and two million people in the space of a few months. +This is beyond any blockbuster exhibition in the West. +And it's the subject of a huge debate about what this cylinder means, what Cyrus means, but above all, Cyrus as articulated through this cylinder -- Cyrus as the defender of the homeland, the champion, of course, of Iranian identity and of the Iranian peoples, tolerant of all faiths. +And in the current Iran, Zoroastrians and Christians have guaranteed places in the Iranian parliament, something to be very, very proud of. +To see this object in Tehran, thousands of Jews living in Iran came to Tehran to see it. +It became a great emblem, a great subject of debate about what Iran is at home and abroad. +Is Iran still to be the defender of the oppressed? +Will Iran set free the people that the tyrants have enslaved and expropriated? +This is heady national rhetoric, and it was all put together in a great pageant launching the return. +Here you see this out-sized Cyrus cylinder on the stage with great figures from Iranian history gathering to take their place in the heritage of Iran. +It was a narrative presented by the president himself. +And for me, to take this object to Iran, to be allowed to take this object to Iran was to be allowed to be part of an extraordinary debate led at the highest levels about what Iran is, what different Irans there are and how the different histories of Iran might shape the world today. +It's a debate that's still continuing, and it will continue to rumble, because this object is one of the great declarations of a human aspiration. +It stands with the American constitution. +It certainly says far more about real freedoms than Magna Carta. +It is a document that can mean so many things, for Iran and for the region. +A replica of this is at the United Nations. +In New York this autumn, it will be present when the great debates about the future of the Middle East take place. +And I want to finish by asking you what the next story will be in which this object figures. +It will appear, certainly, in many more Middle Eastern stories. +And what story of the Middle East, what story of the world, do you want to see reflecting what is said, what is expressed in this cylinder? +The right of peoples to live together in the same state, worshiping differently, freely -- a Middle East, a world, in which religion is not the subject of division or of debate. +In the world of the Middle East at the moment, the debates are, as you know, shrill. +But I think it's possible that the most powerful and the wisest voice of all of them may well be the voice of this mute thing, the Cyrus cylinder. +Thank you. +Gabriel Garca Mrquez is one of my favorite writers, for his storytelling, but even more, I think, for the beauty and precision of his prose. +And whether it's the opening line from "One Hundred Years of Solitude" or the fantastical stream of consciousness in "Autumn of the Patriarch," where the words rush by, page after page of unpunctuated imagery sweeping the reader along like some wild river twisting through a primal South American jungle, reading Mrquez is a visceral experience. +Which struck me as particularly remarkable during one session with the novel when I realized that I was being swept along on this remarkable, vivid journey in translation. +Now I was a comparative literature major in college, which is like an English major, only instead of being stuck studying Chaucer for three months, we got to read great literature in translation from around the world. +And as great as these books were, you could always tell that you were getting close to the full effect. +But not so with Mrquez who once praised his translator's versions as being better than his own, which is an astonishing compliment. +So when I heard that the translator, Gregory Rabassa, had written his own book on the subject, I couldn't wait to read it. +It's called apropos of the Italian adage that I lifted from his forward, "If This Be Treason." +And it's a charming read. +It's highly recommended for anyone who's interested in the translator's art. +But the reason that I mention it is that early on, Rabassa offers this elegantly simple insight: "Every act of communication is an act of translation." +Now maybe that's been obvious to all of you for a long time, but for me, as often as I'd encountered that exact difficulty on a daily basis, I had never seen the inherent challenge of communication in so crystalline a light. +Ever since I can remember thinking consciously about such things, communication has been my central passion. +Even as a child, I remember thinking that what I really wanted most in life was to be able to understand everything and then to communicate it to everyone else. +So no ego problems. +It's funny, my wife, Daisy, whose family is littered with schizophrenics -- and I mean littered with them -- once said to me, "Chris, I already have a brother who thinks he's God. +I don't need a husband who wants to be." +Anyway, as I plunged through my 20s ever more aware of how unobtainable the first part of my childhood ambition was, it was that second part, being able to successfully communicate to others whatever knowledge I was gaining, where the futility of my quest really set in. +Time after time, whenever I set out to share some great truth with a soon-to-be grateful recipient, it had the opposite effect. +Interestingly, when your opening line of communication is, "Hey, listen up, because I'm about to drop some serious knowledge on you," it's amazing how quickly you'll discover both ice and the firing squad. +Finally, after about 10 years of alienating friends and strangers alike, I finally got it, a new personal truth all my own, that if I was going to ever communicate well with other people the ideas that I was gaining, I'd better find a different way of going about it. +And that's when I discovered comedy. +Now comedy travels along a distinct wavelength from other forms of language. +If I had to place it on an arbitrary spectrum, I'd say it falls somewhere between poetry and lies. +And I'm not talking about all comedy here, because, clearly, there's plenty of humor that colors safely within the lines of what we already think and feel. +What I want to talk about is the unique ability that the best comedy and satire has at circumventing our ingrained perspectives -- comedy as the philosopher's stone. +It takes the base metal of our conventional wisdom and transforms it through ridicule into a different way of seeing and ultimately being in the world. +Because that's what I take from the theme of this conference: Gained in Translation. +That it's about communication that doesn't just produce greater understanding within the individual, but leads to real change. +Which in my experience means communication that manages to speak to and expand our concept of self-interest. +Now I'm big on speaking to people's self-interest because we're all wired for that. +It's part of our survival package, and that's why it's become so important for us, and that's why we're always listening at that level. +And also because that's where, in terms of our own self-interest, we finally begin to grasp our ability to respond, our responsibility to the rest of the world. +Now as to what I mean by the best comedy and satire, I mean work that comes first and foremost from a place of honesty and integrity. +Now if you think back on Tina Fey's impersonations on Saturday Night Live of the newly nominated vice presidential candidate Sarah Palin, they were devastating. +Fey demonstrated far more effectively than any political pundit the candidate's fundamental lack of seriousness, cementing an impression that the majority of the American public still holds today. +And the key detail of this is that Fey's scripts weren't written by her and they weren't written by the SNL writers. +They were lifted verbatim from Palin's own remarks. +Here was a Palin impersonator quoting Palin word for word. +Now that's honesty and integrity, and it's also why Fey's performances left such a lasting impression. +On the other side of the political spectrum, the first time that I heard Rush Limbaugh refer to presidential hopeful John Edwards as the Breck girl I knew that he'd made a direct hit. +Now it's not often that I'm going to associate the words honesty and integrity with Limbaugh, but it's really hard to argue with that punchline. +The description perfectly captured Edwards' personal vanity. +And guess what? +That ended up being the exact personality trait that was at the core of the scandal that ended his political career. +Now The Daily Show with John Stewart is by far the most -- it's by far the most well-documented example of the effectiveness of this kind of comedy. +Survey after survey, from Pew Research to the Annenberg Center for Public Policy, has found that Daily Show viewers are better informed about current events than the viewers of all major network and cable news shows. +Now whether this says more about the conflict between integrity and profitability of corporate journalism than it does about the attentiveness of Stewart's viewers, the larger point remains that Stewart's material is always grounded in a commitment to the facts -- not because his intent is to inform. It's not. +His intent is to be funny. +It just so happens that Stewart's brand of funny doesn't work unless the facts are true. +And the result is great comedy that's also an information delivery system that scores markedly higher in both credibility and retention than the professional news media. +Now this is doubly ironic when you consider that what gives comedy its edge at reaching around people's walls is the way that it uses deliberate misdirection. +A great piece of comedy is a verbal magic trick, where you think it's going over here and then all of a sudden you're transported over here. +And there's this mental delight that's followed by the physical response of laughter, which, not coincidentally, releases endorphins in the brain. +And just like that, you've been seduced into a different way of looking at something because the endorphins have brought down your defenses. +This is the exact opposite of the way that anger and fear and panic, all of the flight-or-fight responses, operate. +Flight-or-fight releases adrenalin, which throws our walls up sky-high. +And the comedy comes along, dealing with a lot of the same areas where our defenses are the strongest -- race, religion, politics, sexuality -- only by approaching them through humor instead of adrenalin, we get endorphins and the alchemy of laughter turns our walls into windows, revealing a fresh and unexpected point of view. +Now let me give you an example from my act. +I have some material about the so-called radical gay agenda, which starts off by asking, how radical is the gay agenda? +Because from what I can tell, the three things gay Americans seem to want most are to join the military, get married and start a family. +Three things I've tried to avoid my entire life. +Have at it you radical bastards. The field is yours. +And that's followed by these lines about gay adoption: What is the problem with gay adoption? +Why is this remotely controversial? +If you have a baby and you think that baby's gay, you should be allowed to put it up for adoption. +You have given birth to an abomination. +Remove it from your household. +Now by taking the biblical epithet "abomination" and attaching it to the ultimate image of innocence, a baby, this joke short circuits the emotional wiring behind the debate and it leaves the audience with the opportunity, through their laughter, to question its validity. +Misdirection isn't the only trick that comedy has up its sleeve. +Economy of language is another real strong suit of great comedy. +There are few phrases that pack a more concentrated dose of subject and symbol than the perfect punchline. +Bill Hicks -- and if you don't know his work, you should really Google him -- Hicks had a routine about getting into one of those childhood bragging contests on the playground, where finally the other kid says to him, "Huh? Well my dad can beat up your dad," to which Hicks replies, "Really? How soon?" +That's an entire childhood in three words. +Not to mention what it reveals about the adult who's speaking them. +And one last powerful attribute that comedy has as communication is that it's inherently viral. +People can't wait to pass along that new great joke. +And this isn't some new phenomenon of our wired world. +Comedy has been crossing country with remarkable speed way before the Internet, social media, even cable TV. +Back in 1980 when comedian Richard Pryor accidentally set himself on fire during a freebasing accident, I was in Los Angeles the day after it happened and then I was in Washington D.C. two days after that. +And I heard the exact same punchline on both coasts -- something about the Ignited Negro College Fund. +Clearly, it didn't come out of a Tonight Show monologue. +And my guess here -- and I have no research on this -- is that if you really were to look back at it and if you could research it, you'd find out that comedy is the second oldest viral profession. +First there were drums and then knock-knock jokes. +But it's when you put all of these elements together -- when you get the viral appeal of a great joke with a powerful punchline that's crafted from honesty and integrity, it can have a real world impact at changing a conversation. +Now I have a close friend, Joel Pett, who's the editorial cartoonist for the Lexington Herald-Leader. +And he used to be the USA Today Monday morning guy. +I was visiting with Joel the weekend before the Copenhagen conference on climate change opened in December of 2009. +So we started talking about climate change. +And it turned out that Joel and I were both bothered by the same thing, which was how so much of the debate was still focused on the science and how complete it was or wasn't, which, to both of us, seems somewhat intentionally off point. +Because first of all, there's this false premise that such a thing as complete science exists. +Now Governor Perry of my newly-adopted state of Texas was pushing this same line this past summer at the beginning of his oops-fated campaign for the Republican presidential nomination, proclaiming over and over that the science wasn't complete at the same time that 250 out of 254 counties in the state of Texas were on fire. +And Perry's policy solution was to ask the people of Texas to pray for rain. +Personally, I was praying for four more fires so we could finally complete the damn science. +But back in 2009, the question Joel and I kept turning over and over was why this late in the game so much energy was being spent talking about the science when the policies necessary to address climate change were unequivocally beneficial for humanity in the long run regardless of the science. +So we tossed it back and forth until Joel came up with this. +Cartoon: "What if it's a big hoax and we create a better world for nothing?" +You've got to love that idea. +How about that? How about we create a better world for nothing? +Not for God, not for country, not for profit -- just as a basic metric for global decision-making. +And this cartoon hit the bull's eye. +Shortly after the conference was over, Joel got a request for a signed copy from the head of the EPA in Washington whose wall it now hangs on. +And not long after that, he got another request for a copy from the head of the EPA in California who used it as part of her presentation at an international conference on climate change in Sacramento last year. +And it didn't stop there. +To date, Joel's gotten requests from over 40 environmental groups, in the United States, Canada and Europe. +And earlier this year, he got a request from the Green Party in Australia who used it in their campaign where it became part of the debate that resulted in the Australian parliament adopting the most rigorous carbon tax regime of any country in the world. +That is a lot of punch for 14 words. +So my suggestion to those of you out here who are seriously focused on creating a better world is to take a little bit of time each day and practice thinking funny, because you might just find the question that you've been looking for. +Thank you. +I'm going to talk today about saving more, but not today, tomorrow. +I'm going to talk about Save More Tomorrow. +It's a program that Richard Thaler from the University of Chicago and I devised maybe 15 years ago. +The program, in a sense, is an example of behavioral finance on steroids -- how we could really use behavioral finance. +Now you might ask, what is behavioral finance? +So let's think about how we manage our money. +Let's start with mortgages. +It's kind of a recent topic, at least in the U.S. +A lot of people buy the biggest house they can afford, and actually slightly bigger than that. +And then they foreclose. +And then they blame the banks for being the bad guys who gave them the mortgages. +Let's also think about how we manage risks -- for example, investing in the stock market. +Two years ago, three years ago, about four years ago, markets did well. +We were risk takers, of course. +Then market stocks seize and we're like, "Wow. +These losses, they feel, emotionally, they feel very different from what we actually thought about it when markets were going up." +So we're probably not doing a great job when it comes to risk taking. +How many of you have iPhones? +Anyone? Wonderful. +I would bet many more of you insure your iPhone -- you're implicitly buying insurance by having an extended warranty. +What if you lose your iPhone? +What if you do this? +How many of you have kids? +Anyone? +Keep your hands up if you have sufficient life insurance. +I see a lot of hands coming down. +I would predict, if you're a representative sample, that many more of you insure your iPhones than your lives, even when you have kids. +We're not doing that well when it comes to insurance. +The average American household spends 1,000 dollars a year on lotteries. +And I know it sounds crazy. +How many of you spend a thousand dollars a year on lotteries? +No one. +So that tells us that the people not in this room are spending more than a thousand to get the average to a thousand. +Low-income people spend a lot more than a thousand on lotteries. +So where does it take us? +We're not doing a great job managing money. +Behavioral finance is really a combination of psychology and economics, trying to understand the money mistakes people make. +And I can keep standing here for the 12 minutes and 53 seconds that I have left and make fun of all sorts of ways we manage money, and at the end you're going to ask, "How can we help people?" +And that's what I really want to focus on today. +How do we take an understanding of the money mistakes people make, and then turning the behavioral challenges into behavioral solutions? +And what I'm going to talk about today is Save More Tomorrow. +I want to address the issue of savings. +We have on the screen a representative sample of 100 Americans. +And we're going to look at their saving behavior. +First thing to notice is, half of them do not even have access to a 401 plan. +They cannot make savings easy. +They cannot have money go away from their paycheck into a 401 plan before they see it, before they can touch it. +What about the remaining half of the people? +Some of them elect not to save. +They're just too lazy. +They never get around to logging into a complicated website and doing 17 clicks to join the 401 plan. +And then they have to decide how they're going to invest in their 52 choices, and they never heard about what is a money market fund. +And they get overwhelmed and the just don't join. +How many people end up saving to a 401 plan? +One third of Americans. +Two thirds are not saving now. +Are they saving enough? +Take out those who say they save too little. +One out of 10 are saving enough. +Nine out of 10 either cannot save through their 401 plan, decide not to save -- or don't decide -- or save too little. +We think we have a problem of people saving too much. +Let's look at that. +We have one person -- well, actually we're going to slice him in half because it's less than one percent. +Roughly half a percent of Americans feel that they save too much. +What are we going to do about it? +That's what I really want to focus on. +We have to understand why people are not saving, and then we can hopefully flip the behavioral challenges into behavioral solutions, and then see how powerful it might be. +So let me divert for a second as we're going to identify the problems, the challenges, the behavioral challenges, that prevent people from saving. +I'm going to divert and talk about bananas and chocolate. +Suppose we had another wonderful TED event next week. +And during the break there would be a snack and you could choose bananas or chocolate. +How many of you think you would like to have bananas during this hypothetical TED event next week? +Who would go for bananas? +Wonderful. +I predict scientifically 74 percent of you will go for bananas. +Well that's at least what one wonderful study predicted. +And then count down the days and see what people ended up eating. +The same people that imagined themselves eating the bananas ended up eating chocolates a week later. +Self-control is not a problem in the future. +It's only a problem now when the chocolate is next to us. +What does it have to do with time and savings, this issue of immediate gratification? +Or as some economists call it, present bias. +We think about saving. We know we should be saving. +We know we'll do it next year, but today let us go and spend. +Christmas is coming, we might as well buy a lot of gifts for everyone we know. +So this issue of present bias causes us to think about saving, but end up spending. +Let me now talk about another behavioral obstacle to saving having to do with inertia. +But again, a little diversion to the topic of organ donation. +Wonderful study comparing different countries. +We're going to look at two similar countries, Germany and Austria. +And in Germany, if you would like to donate your organs -- God forbid something really bad happens to you -- when you get your driving license or an I.D., you check the box saying, "I would like to donate my organs." +Not many people like checking boxes. +It takes effort. You need to think. +Twelve percent do. +Austria, a neighboring country, slightly similar, slightly different. +What's the difference? +Well, you still have choice. +You will decide whether you want to donate your organs or not. +But when you get your driving license, you check the box if you do not want to donate your organ. +Nobody checks boxes. +That's kind of too much effort. +One percent check the box. The rest do nothing. +Doing nothing is very common. +Not many people check boxes. +What are the implications to saving lives and having organs available? +In Germany, 12 percent check the box. +Twelve percent are organ donors. +Huge shortage of organs, God forbid, if you need one. +In Austria, again, nobody checks the box. +Therefore, 99 percent of people are organ donors. +Inertia, lack of action. +What is the default setting if people do nothing, if they keep procrastinating, if they don't check the boxes? +Very powerful. +We're going to talk about what happens if people are overwhelmed and scared to make their 401 choices. +Are we going to make them automatically join the plan, or are they going to be left out? +In too many 401 plans, if people do nothing, it means they're not saving for retirement, if they don't check the box. +And checking the box takes effort. +So we've chatted about a couple of behavioral challenges. +One more before we flip the challenges into solutions, having to do with monkeys and apples. +No, no, no, this is a real study and it's got a lot to do with behavioral economics. +One group of monkeys gets an apple, they're pretty happy. +The other group gets two apples, one is taken away. +They still have an apple left. +They're really mad. +Why have you taken our apple? +This is the notion of loss aversion. +We hate losing stuff, even if it doesn't mean a lot of risk. +You would hate to go to the ATM, take out 100 dollars and notice that you lost one of those $20 bills. +It's very painful, even though it doesn't mean anything. +Those 20 dollars might have been a quick lunch. +So this notion of loss aversion kicks in when it comes to savings too, because people, mentally and emotionally and intuitively frame savings as a loss because I have to cut my spending. +So we talked about all sorts of behavioral challenges having to do with savings eventually. +Whether you think about immediate gratification, and the chocolates versus bananas, it's just painful to save now. +It's a lot more fun to spend now. +We talked about inertia and organ donations and checking the box. +If people have to check a lot of boxes to join a 401 plan, they're going to keep procrastinating and not join. +And last, we talked about loss aversion, and the monkeys and the apples. +If people frame mentally saving for retirement as a loss, they're not going to be saving for retirement. +So we've got these challenges, and what Richard Thaler and I were always fascinated by -- take behavioral finance, make it behavioral finance on steroids or behavioral finance 2.0 or behavioral finance in action -- flip the challenges into solutions. +And we came up with an embarrassingly simple solution called Save More, not today, Tomorrow. +How is it going to solve the challenges we chatted about? +If you think about the problem of bananas versus chocolates, we think we're going to eat bananas next week. +We think we're going to save more next year. +Save More Tomorrow invites employees to save more maybe next year -- sometime in the future when we can imagine ourselves eating bananas, volunteering more in the community, exercising more and doing all the right things on the planet. +Now we also talked about checking the box and the difficulty of taking action. +Save More Tomorrow makes it easy. +It's an autopilot. +Once you tell me you would like to save more in the future, let's say every January you're going to be saving more automatically and it's going to go away from your paycheck to the 401 plan before you see it, before you touch it, before you get the issue of immediate gratification. +But what are we going to do about the monkeys and loss aversion? +Next January comes and people might feel that if they save more, they have to spend less, and that's painful. +Well, maybe it shouldn't be just January. +Maybe we should make people save more when they make more money. +That way, when they make more money, when they get a pay raise, they don't have to cut their spending. +They take a little bit of the increase in the paycheck home and spend more -- take a little bit of the increase and put it in a 401 plan. +So that is the program, embarrassingly simple, but as we're going to see, extremely powerful. +We first implemented it, Richard Thaler and I, back in 1998. +Mid-sized company in the Midwest, blue collar employees struggling to pay their bills repeatedly told us they cannot save more right away. +Saving more today is not an option. +We invited them to save three percentage points more every time they get a pay raise. +And here are the results. +We're seeing here a three and a half-year period, four pay raises, people who were struggling to save, were saving three percent of their paycheck, three and a half years later saving almost four times as much, almost 14 percent. +And there's shoes and bicycles and things on this chart because I don't want to just throw numbers in a vacuum. +I want, really, to think about the fact that saving four times more is a huge difference in terms of the lifestyle that people will be able to afford. +It's real. +It's not just numbers on a piece of paper. +Whereas with saving three percent, people might have to add nice sneakers so they can walk, because they won't be able to afford anything else, when they save 14 percent they might be able to maybe have nice dress shoes to walk to the car to drive. +This is a real difference. +By now, about 60 percent of the large companies actually have programs like this in place. +It's been part of the Pension Protection Act. +And needless to say that Thaler and I have been blessed to be part of this program and make a difference. +Let me wrap with two key messages. +One is behavioral finance is extremely powerful. +This is just one example. +Message two is there's still a lot to do. +This is really the tip of the iceberg. +If you think about people and mortgages and buying houses and then not being able to pay for it, we need to think about that. +If you're thinking about people taking too much risk and not understanding how much risk they're taking or taking too little risk, we need to think about that. +If you think about people spending a thousand dollars a year on lottery tickets, we need to think about that. +The average actually, the record is in Singapore. +The average household spends $4,000 a year on lottery tickets. +We've got a lot to do, a lot to solve, also in the retirement area when it comes to what people do with their money after retirement. +One last question: How many of you feel comfortable that as you're planning for retirement you have a really solid plan when you're going to retire, when you're going to claim Social Security benefits, what lifestyle to expect, how much to spend every month so you're not going to run out of money? +How many of you feel you have a solid plan for the future when it comes to post-retirement decisions. +One, two, three, four. +Less than three percent of a very sophisticated audience. +Behavioral finance has a long way. +There's a lot of opportunities to make it powerful again and again and again. +Thank you. +I'm a computer science professor, and my area of expertise is computer and information security. +When I was in graduate school, I had the opportunity to overhear my grandmother describing to one of her fellow senior citizens what I did for a living. +Apparently, I was in charge of making sure that no one stole the computers from the university. And, you know, that's a perfectly reasonable thing for her to think, because I told her I was working in computer security, and it was interesting to get her perspective. +But that's not the most ridiculous thing I've ever heard anyone say about my work. +I'm going to get back to this notion of being able to get a virus from your computer, in a serious way. +None of the work is my work. It's all work that my colleagues have done, and I actually asked them for their slides and incorporated them into this talk. +So the first one I'm going to talk about are implanted medical devices. +Now medical devices have come a long way technologically. +You can see in 1926 the first pacemaker was invented. +1960, the first internal pacemaker was implanted, hopefully a little smaller than that one that you see there, and the technology has continued to move forward. +In 2006, we hit an important milestone from the perspective of computer security. +And why do I say that? +Because that's when implanted devices inside of people started to have networking capabilities. +Now what a research team did was they got their hands on what's called an ICD. +This is a defibrillator, and this is a device that goes into a person to control their heart rhythm, and these have saved many lives. +They launched many, many successful attacks. +One that I'll highlight here is changing the patient's name. +I don't know why you would want to do that, but I sure wouldn't want that done to me. +And they were able to change therapies, including disabling the device -- and this is with a real, commercial, off-the-shelf device -- simply by performing reverse engineering and sending wireless signals to it. +There was a piece on NPR that some of these ICDs could actually have their performance disrupted simply by holding a pair of headphones onto them. +Now, wireless and the Internet can improve health care greatly. +Okay, let me shift gears and show you another target. +I'm going to show you a few different targets like this, and that's my talk. So we'll look at automobiles. +This is a car, and it has a lot of components, a lot of electronics in it today. +In fact, it's got many, many different computers inside of it, more Pentiums than my lab did when I was in college, and they're connected by a wired network. +There's also a wireless network in the car, which can be reached from many different ways. +So there's Bluetooth, there's the FM and XM radio, there's actually wi-fi, there's sensors in the wheels that wirelessly communicate the tire pressure to a controller on board. +The modern car is a sophisticated multi-computer device. +And what happens if somebody wanted to attack this? +Well, that's what the researchers that I'm going to talk about today did. +They basically stuck an attacker on the wired network and on the wireless network. +Now, they have two areas they can attack. +One is short-range wireless, where you can actually communicate with the device from nearby, either through Bluetooth or wi-fi, and the other is long-range, where you can communicate with the car through the cellular network, or through one of the radio stations. +Think about it. When a car receives a radio signal, it's processed by software. +That software has to receive and decode the radio signal, and then figure out what to do with it, even if it's just music that it needs to play on the radio, and that software that does that decoding, if it has any bugs in it, could create a vulnerability for somebody to hack the car. +The way that the researchers did this work is, they read the software in the computer chips that were in the car, and then they used sophisticated reverse engineering tools to figure out what that software did, and then they found vulnerabilities in that software, and then they built exploits to exploit those. +They actually carried out their attack in real life. +They bought two cars, and I guess they have better budgets than I do. +The first threat model was to see what someone could do if an attacker actually got access to the internal network on the car. +Okay, so think of that as, someone gets to go to your car, they get to mess around with it, and then they leave, and now, what kind of trouble are you in? +The other threat model is that they contact you in real time over one of the wireless networks like the cellular, or something like that, never having actually gotten physical access to your car. +This is what their setup looks like for the first model, where you get to have access to the car. +They put a laptop, and they connected to the diagnostic unit on the in-car network, and they did all kinds of silly things, like here's a picture of the speedometer showing 140 miles an hour when the car's in park. +Once you have control of the car's computers, you can do anything. +Now you might say, "Okay, that's silly." +Well, what if you make the car always say it's going 20 miles an hour slower than it's actually going? +You might produce a lot of speeding tickets. +Then they went out to an abandoned airstrip with two cars, the target victim car and the chase car, and they launched a bunch of other attacks. +One of the things they were able to do from the chase car is apply the brakes on the other car, simply by hacking the computer. +They were able to disable the brakes. +They also were able to install malware that wouldn't kick in and wouldn't trigger until the car was doing something like going over 20 miles an hour, or something like that. +The results are astonishing, and when they gave this talk, even though they gave this talk at a conference to a bunch of computer security researchers, everybody was gasping. +They were able to take over a bunch of critical computers inside the car: the brakes computer, the lighting computer, the engine, the dash, the radio, etc., and they were able to perform these on real commercial cars that they purchased using the radio network. +They were able to compromise every single one of the pieces of software that controlled every single one of the wireless capabilities of the car. +All of these were implemented successfully. +How would you steal a car in this model? +Well, you compromise the car by a buffer overflow of vulnerability in the software, something like that. +You use the GPS in the car to locate it. +You remotely unlock the doors through the computer that controls that, start the engine, bypass anti-theft, and you've got yourself a car. +Surveillance was really interesting. +The authors of the study have a video where they show themselves taking over a car and then turning on the microphone in the car, and listening in on the car while tracking it via GPS on a map, and so that's something that the drivers of the car would never know was happening. +Am I scaring you yet? +I've got a few more of these interesting ones. +These are ones where I went to a conference, and my mind was just blown, and I said, "I have to share this with other people." +This was Fabian Monrose's lab at the University of North Carolina, and what they did was something intuitive once you see it, but kind of surprising. +They videotaped people on a bus, and then they post-processed the video. +What you see here in number one is a reflection in somebody's glasses of the smartphone that they're typing in. +I'll show you two more. One is P25 radios. +P25 radios are used by law enforcement and all kinds of government agencies and people in combat to communicate, and there's an encryption option on these phones. +This is what the phone looks like. It's not really a phone. +It's more of a two-way radio. +Motorola makes the most widely used one, and you can see that they're used by Secret Service, they're used in combat, it's a very, very common standard in the U.S. and elsewhere. +So one question the researchers asked themselves is, could you block this thing, right? +because these are first responders? +So, would a terrorist organization want to black out the ability of police and fire to communicate at an emergency? +They found that there's this GirlTech device used for texting that happens to operate at the same exact frequency as the P25, and they built what they called My First Jammer. If you look closely at this device, it's got a switch for encryption or cleartext. +Let me advance the slide, and now I'll go back. +You see the difference? +This is plain text. This is encrypted. +There's one little dot that shows up on the screen, and one little tiny turn of the switch. +And so the researchers asked themselves, "I wonder how many times very secure, important, sensitive conversations are happening on these two-way radios where they forget to encrypt and they don't notice that they didn't encrypt?" +So they bought a scanner. These are perfectly legal and they run at the frequency of the P25, and what they did is they hopped around frequencies and they wrote software to listen in. +If they found encrypted communication, they stayed on that channel and they wrote down, that's a channel that these people communicate in, these law enforcement agencies, and they went to 20 metropolitan areas and listened in on conversations that were happening at those frequencies. +They found that in every metropolitan area, they would capture over 20 minutes a day of cleartext communication. +And what kind of things were people talking about? +Well, they found the names and information about confidential informants. They found information that was being recorded in wiretaps, a bunch of crimes that were being discussed, sensitive information. +It was mostly law enforcement and criminal. +They went and reported this to the law enforcement agencies, after anonymizing it, and the vulnerability here is simply the user interface wasn't good enough. If you're talking about something really secure and sensitive, it should be really clear to you that this conversation is encrypted. +That one's pretty easy to fix. +The last one I thought was really, really cool, and I just had to show it to you, it's probably not something that you're going to lose sleep over like the cars or the defibrillators, but it's stealing keystrokes. +Now, we've all looked at smartphones upside down. +Every security expert wants to hack a smartphone, and we tend to look at the USB port, the GPS for tracking, the camera, the microphone, but no one up till this point had looked at the accelerometer. +The accelerometer is the thing that determines the vertical orientation of the smartphone. +And so they had a simple setup. +They put a smartphone next to a keyboard, and they had people type, and then their goal was to use the vibrations that were created by typing to measure the change in the accelerometer reading to determine what the person had been typing. +Now, when they tried this on an iPhone 3GS, this is a graph of the perturbations that were created by the typing, and you can see that it's very difficult to tell when somebody was typing or what they were typing, but the iPhone 4 greatly improved the accelerometer, and so the same measurement produced this graph. +And then there's the attack phase, where you get somebody to type something in, you don't know what it was, but you use your model that you created in the training phase to figure out what they were typing. +They had pretty good success. This is an article from the USA Today. +They typed in, "The Illinois Supreme Court has ruled that Rahm Emanuel is eligible to run for Mayor of Chicago" see, I tied it in to the last talk "and ordered him to stay on the ballot." +Now, the system is interesting, because it produced "Illinois Supreme" and then it wasn't sure. +The model produced a bunch of options, and this is the beauty of some of the A.I. techniques, is that computers are good at some things, humans are good at other things, take the best of both and let the humans solve this one. +Don't waste computer cycles. +A human's not going to think it's the Supreme might. +It's the Supreme Court, right? +And so, together we're able to reproduce typing simply by measuring the accelerometer. +Why does this matter? Well, in the Android platform, for example, the developers have a manifest where every device on there, the microphone, etc., has to register if you're going to use it so that hackers can't take over it, but nobody controls the accelerometer. +So what's the point? You can leave your iPhone next to someone's keyboard, and just leave the room, and then later recover what they did, even without using the microphone. +If someone is able to put malware on your iPhone, they could then maybe get the typing that you do whenever you put your iPhone next to your keyboard. +So they ran the Pac-Man game. +What does this all mean? +Well, I think that society tends to adopt technology really quickly. I love the next coolest gadget. +What we can do is be aware that devices can be compromised, and anything that has software in it is going to be vulnerable. It's going to have bugs. +Thank you very much. +The oceans cover some 70 percent of our planet. +And I think Arthur C. Clarke probably had it right when he said that perhaps we ought to call our planet Planet Ocean. +And the oceans are hugely productive, as you can see by the satellite image of photosynthesis, the production of new life. +In fact, the oceans produce half of the new life every day on Earth as well as about half the oxygen that we breathe. +In addition to that, it harbors a lot of the biodiversity on Earth, and much of it we don't know about. +But I'll tell you some of that today. +That also doesn't even get into the whole protein extraction that we do from the ocean. +That's about 10 percent of our global needs and 100 percent of some island nations. +If you were to descend into the 95 percent of the biosphere that's livable, it would quickly become pitch black, interrupted only by pinpoints of light from bioluminescent organisms. +And if you turn the lights on, you might periodically see spectacular organisms swim by, because those are the denizens of the deep, the things that live in the deep ocean. +And eventually, the deep sea floor would come into view. +This type of habitat covers more of the Earth's surface than all other habitats combined. +And yet, we know more about the surface of the Moon and about Mars than we do about this habitat, despite the fact that we have yet to extract a gram of food, a breath of oxygen or a drop of water from those bodies. +And so 10 years ago, an international program began called the Census of Marine Life, which set out to try and improve our understanding of life in the global oceans. +It involved 17 different projects around the world. +As you can see, these are the footprints of the different projects. +And I hope you'll appreciate the level of global coverage that it managed to achieve. +It all began when two scientists, Fred Grassle and Jesse Ausubel, met in Woods Hole, Massachusetts where both were guests at the famed oceanographic institute. +And Fred was lamenting the state of marine biodiversity and the fact that it was in trouble and nothing was being done about it. +Well, from that discussion grew this program that involved 2,700 scientists from more than 80 countries around the world who engaged in 540 ocean expeditions at a combined cost of 650 million dollars to study the distribution, diversity and abundance of life in the global ocean. +And so what did we find? +We found spectacular new species, the most beautiful and visually stunning things everywhere we looked -- from the shoreline to the abyss, form microbes all the way up to fish and everything in between. +And the limiting step here wasn't the unknown diversity of life, but rather the taxonomic specialists who can identify and catalog these species that became the limiting step. +They, in fact, are an endangered species themselves. +There are actually four to five new species described everyday for the oceans. +And as I say, it could be a much larger number. +Now, I come from Newfoundland in Canada -- It's an island off the east coast of that continent -- where we experienced one of the worst fishing disasters in human history. +And so this photograph shows a small boy next to a codfish. +It's around 1900. +Now, when I was a boy of about his age, I would go out fishing with my grandfather and we would catch fish about half that size. +And I thought that was the norm, because I had never seen fish like this. +If you were to go out there today, 20 years after this fishery collapsed, if you could catch a fish, which would be a bit of a challenge, it would be half that size still. +So what we're experiencing is something called shifting baselines. +Our expectations of what the oceans can produce is something that we don't really appreciate because we haven't seen it in our lifetimes. +Now most of us, and I would say me included, think that human exploitation of the oceans really only became very serious in the last 50 to, perhaps, 100 years or so. +The census actually tried to look back in time, using every source of information they could get their hands on. +And so anything from restaurant menus to monastery records to ships' logs to see what the oceans looked like. +Because science data really goes back to, at best, World War II, for the most part. +And so what they found, in fact, is that exploitation really began heavily with the Romans. +And so at that time, of course, there was no refrigeration. +So fishermen could only catch what they could either eat or sell that day. +But the Romans developed salting. +And with salting, it became possible to store fish and to transport it long distances. +And so began industrial fishing. +And so these are the sorts of extrapolations that we have of what sort of loss we've had relative to pre-human impacts on the ocean. +They range from 65 to 98 percent for these major groups of organisms, as shown in the dark blue bars. +Now for those species the we managed to leave alone, that we protect -- for example, marine mammals in recent years and sea birds -- there is some recovery. +So it's not all hopeless. +But for the most part, we've gone from salting to exhausting. +Now this other line of evidence is a really interesting one. +It's from trophy fish caught off the coast of Florida. +And so this is a photograph from the 1950s. +I want you to notice the scale on the slide, because when you see the same picture from the 1980s, we see the fish are much smaller and we're also seeing a change in terms of the composition of those fish. +By 2007, the catch was actually laughable in terms of the size for a trophy fish. +But this is no laughing matter. +The oceans have lost a lot of their productivity and we're responsible for it. +So what's left? Actually quite a lot. +There's a lot of exciting things, and I'm going to tell you a little bit about them. +And I want to start with a bit on technology, because, of course, this is a TED Conference and you want to hear something on technology. +So one of the tools that we use to sample the deep ocean are remotely operated vehicles. +So these are tethered vehicles we lower down to the sea floor where they're our eyes and our hands for working on the sea bottom. +So a couple of years ago, I was supposed to go on an oceanographic cruise and I couldn't go because of a scheduling conflict. +But through a satellite link I was able to sit at my study at home with my dog curled up at my feet, a cup of tea in my hand, and I could tell the pilot, "I want a sample right there." +And that's exactly what the pilot did for me. +That's the sort of technology that's available today that really wasn't available even a decade ago. +So it allows us to sample these amazing habitats that are very far from the surface and very far from light. +And so one of the tools that we can use to sample the oceans is acoustics, or sound waves. +And the advantage of sound waves is that they actually pass well through water, unlike light. +And so we can send out sound waves, they bounce off objects like fish and are reflected back. +And so in this example, a census scientist took out two ships. +One would send out sound waves that would bounce back. +They would be received by a second ship, and that would give us very precise estimates, in this case, of 250 billion herring in a period of about a minute. +And that's an area about the size of Manhattan Island. +And to be able to do that is a tremendous fisheries tool, because knowing how many fish are there is really critical. +We can also use satellite tags to track animals as they move through the oceans. +And so for animals that come to the surface to breathe, such as this elephant seal, it's an opportunity to send data back to shore and tell us where exactly it is in the ocean. +And so from that we can produce these tracks. +For example, the dark blue shows you where the elephant seal moved in the north Pacific. +Now I realize for those of you who are colorblind, this slide is not very helpful, but stick with me nonetheless. +For animals that don't surface, we have something called pop-up tags, which collect data about light and what time the sun rises and sets. +And then at some period of time it pops up to the surface and, again, relays that data back to shore. +Because GPS doesn't work under water. That's why we need these tools. +And so from this we're able to identify these blue highways, these hot spots in the ocean, that should be real priority areas for ocean conservation. +Now one of the other things that you may think about is that, when you go to the supermarket and you buy things, they're scanned. +And so there's a barcode on that product that tells the computer exactly what the product is. +Geneticists have developed a similar tool called genetic barcoding. +And what barcoding does is use a specific gene called CO1 that's consistent within a species, but varies among species. +And so what that means is we can unambiguously identify which species are which even if they look similar to each other, but may be biologically quite different. +Now one of the nicest examples I like to cite on this is the story of two young women, high school students in New York City, who worked with the census. +They went out and collected fish from markets and from restaurants in New York City and they barcoded it. +Well what they found was mislabeled fish. +So for example, they found something which was sold as tuna, which is very valuable, was in fact tilapia, which is a much less valuable fish. +They also found an endangered species sold as a common one. +So barcoding allows us to know what we're working with and also what we're eating. +The Ocean Biogeographic Information System is the database for all the census data. +It's open access; you can all go in and download data as you wish. +And it contains all the data from the census plus other data sets that people were willing to contribute. +And so what you can do with that is to plot the distribution of species and where they occur in the oceans. +What I've plotted up here is the data that we have on hand. +This is where our sampling effort has concentrated. +Now what you can see is we've sampled the area in the North Atlantic, in the North Sea in particular, and also the east coast of North America fairly well. +That's the warm colors which show a well-sampled region. +The cold colors, the blue and the black, show areas where we have almost no data. +So even after a 10-year census, there are large areas that still remain unexplored. +Now there are a group of scientists living in Texas, working in the Gulf of Mexico who decided really as a labor of love to pull together all the knowledge they could about biodiversity in the Gulf of Mexico. +And so they put this together, a list of all the species, where they're known to occur, and it really seemed like a very esoteric, scientific type of exercise. +But then, of course, there was the Deep Horizon oil spill. +So all of a sudden, this labor of love for no obvious economic reason has become a critical piece of information in terms of how that system is going to recover, how long it will take and how the lawsuits and the multi-billion-dollar discussions that are going to happen in the coming years are likely to be resolved. +So what did we find? +Well, I could stand here for hours, but, of course, I'm not allowed to do that. +But I will tell you some of my favorite discoveries from the census. +So one of the things we discovered is where are the hot spots of diversity? +Where do we find the most species of ocean life? +And what we find if we plot up the well-known species is this sort of a distribution. +And what we see is that for coastal tags, for those organisms that live near the shoreline, they're most diverse in the tropics. +This is something we've actually known for a while, so it's not a real breakthrough. +What is really exciting though is that the oceanic tags, or the ones that live far from the coast, are actually more diverse at intermediate latitudes. +This is the sort of data, again, that managers could use if they want to prioritize areas of the ocean that we need to conserve. +You can do this on a global scale, but you can also do it on a regional scale. +And that's why biodiversity data can be so valuable. +Now while a lot of the species we discovered in the census are things that are small and hard to see, that certainly wasn't always the case. +For example, while it's hard to believe that a three kilogram lobster could elude scientists, it did until a few years ago when South African fishermen requested an export permit and scientists realized that this was something new to science. +Similarly this Golden V kelp collected in Alaska just below the low water mark is probably a new species. +Even though it's three meters long, it actually, again, eluded science. +Now this guy, this bigfin squid, is seven meters in length. +But to be fair, it lives in the deep waters of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, so it was a lot harder to find. +But there's still potential for discovery of big and exciting things. +This particular shrimp, we've dubbed it the Jurassic shrimp, it's thought to have gone extinct 50 years ago -- at least it was, until the census discovered it was living and doing just fine off the coast of Australia. +And it shows that the ocean, because of its vastness, can hide secrets for a very long time. +So, Steven Spielberg, eat your heart out. +If we look at distributions, in fact distributions change dramatically. +And so one of the records that we had was this sooty shearwater, which undergoes these spectacular migrations all the way from New Zealand all the way up to Alaska and back again in search of endless summer as they complete their life cycles. +We also talked about the White Shark Cafe. +This is a location in the Pacific where white shark converge. +We don't know why they converge there, we simply don't know. +That's a question for the future. +One of the things that we're taught in high school is that all animals require oxygen in order to survive. +Now this little critter, it's only about half a millimeter in size, not terribly charismatic. +But it was only discovered in the early 1980s. +But the really interesting thing about it is that, a few years ago, census scientists discovered that this guy can thrive in oxygen-poor sediments in the deep Mediterranean Sea. +So now they know that, in fact, animals can live without oxygen, at least some of them, and that they can adapt to even the harshest of conditions. +If you were to suck all the water out of the ocean, this is what you'd be left behind with, and that's the biomass of life on the sea floor. +Now what we see is huge biomass towards the poles and not much biomass in between. +We found life in the extremes. +And so there were new species that were found that live inside ice and help to support an ice-based food web. +And we also found this spectacular yeti crab that lives near boiling hot hydrothermal vents at Easter Island. +And this particular species really captured the public's attention. +We also found the deepest vents known yet -- 5,000 meters -- the hottest vents at 407 degrees Celsius -- vents in the South Pacific and also in the Arctic where none had been found before. +So even new environments are still within the domain of the discoverable. +Now in terms of the unknowns, there are many. +And I'm just going to summarize just a few of them very quickly for you. +First of all, we might ask, how many fishes in the sea? +We actually know the fishes better than we do any other group in the ocean other than marine mammals. +And so we can actually extrapolate based on rates of discovery how many more species we're likely to discover. +And from that, we actually calculate that we know about 16,500 marine species and there are probably another 1,000 to 4,000 left to go. +So we've done pretty well. +We've got about 75 percent of the fish, maybe as much as 90 percent. +But the fishes, as I say, are the best known. +So our level of knowledge is much less for other groups of organisms. +Now this figure is actually based on a brand new paper that's going to come out in the journal PLoS Biology. +And what is does is predict how many more species there are on land and in the ocean. +And what they found is that they think that we know of about nine percent of the species in the ocean. +That means 91 percent, even after the census, still remain to be discovered. +And so that turns out to be about two million species once all is said and done. +So we still have quite a lot of work to do in terms of unknowns. +Now this bacterium is part of mats that are found off the coast of Chile. +And these mats actually cover an area the size of Greece. +And so this particular bacterium is actually visible to the naked eye. +But you can imagine the biomass that represents. +But the really intriguing thing about the microbes is just how diverse they are. +A single drop of seawater could contain 160 different types of microbes. +And the oceans themselves are thought potentially to contain as many as a billion different types. +So that's really exciting. What are they all doing out there? +We actually don't know. +The most exciting thing, I would say, about this census is the role of global science. +And so as we see in this image of light during the night, there are lots of areas of the Earth where human development is much greater and other areas where it's much less, but between them we see large dark areas of relatively unexplored ocean. +The other point I'd like to make about this is that this ocean's interconnected. +Marine organisms do not care about international boundaries; they move where they will. +And so the importance then of global collaboration becomes all the more important. +We've lost a lot of paradise. +For example, these tuna that were once so abundant in the North Sea are now effectively gone. +There were trawls taken in the deep sea in the Mediterranean, which collected more garbage than they did animals. +And that's the deep sea, that's the environment that we consider to be among the most pristine left on Earth. +And there are a lot of other pressures. +Ocean acidification is a really big issue that people are concerned with, as well as ocean warming, and the effects they're going to have on coral reefs. +On the scale of decades, in our lifetimes, we're going to see a lot of damage to coral reefs. +And I could spend the rest of my time, which is getting very limited, going through this litany of concerns about the ocean, but I want to end on a more positive note. +And so the grand challenge then is to try and make sure that we preserve what's left, because there is still spectacular beauty. +And the oceans are so productive, there's so much going on in there that's of relevance to humans that we really need to, even from a selfish perspective, try to do better than we have in the past. +So we need to recognize those hot spots and do our best to protect them. +When we look at pictures like this, they take our breath away, in addition to helping to give us breath by the oxygen that the oceans provide. +Census scientists worked in the rain, they worked in the cold, they worked under water and they worked above water trying to illuminate the wondrous discovery, the still vast unknown, the spectacular adaptations that we see in ocean life. +So whether you're a yak herder living in the mountains of Chile, whether you're a stockbroker in New York City or whether you're a TEDster living in Edinburgh, the oceans matter. +And as the oceans go so shall we. +Thanks for listening. +Let me begin with four words that will provide the context for this week, four words that will come to define this century. +Here they are: The Earth is full. +It's full of us, it's full of our stuff, full of our waste, full of our demands. +Yes, we are a brilliant and creative species, but we've created a little too much stuff -- so much that our economy is now bigger than its host, our planet. +This is not a philosophical statement, this is just science based in physics, chemistry and biology. +There are many science-based analyses of this, but they all draw the same conclusion -- that we're living beyond our means. +The eminent scientists of the Global Footprint Network, for example, calculate that we need about 1.5 Earths to sustain this economy. +In other words, to keep operating at our current level, we need 50 percent more Earth than we've got. +In financial terms, this would be like always spending 50 percent more than you earn, going further into debt every year. +But of course, you can't borrow natural resources, so we're burning through our capital, or stealing from the future. +So when I say full, I mean really full -- well past any margin for error, well past any dispute about methodology. +What this means is our economy is unsustainable. +I'm not saying it's not nice or pleasant or that it's bad for polar bears or forests, though it certainly is. +What I'm saying is our approach is simply unsustainable. +In other words, thanks to those pesky laws of physics, when things aren't sustainable, they stop. +But that's not possible, you might think. +We can't stop economic growth. +Because that's what will stop: economic growth. +It will stop because of the end of trade resources. +It will stop because of the growing demand of us on all the resources, all the capacity, all the systems of the Earth, which is now having economic damage. +When we think about economic growth stopping, we go, "That's not possible," because economic growth is so essential to our society that is is rarely questioned. +Although growth has certainly delivered many benefits, it is an idea so essential that we tend not to understand the possibility of it not being around. +Even though it has delivered many benefits, it is based on a crazy idea -- the crazy idea being that we can have infinite growth on a finite planet. +And I'm here to tell you the emperor has no clothes. +That the crazy idea is just that, it is crazy, and with the Earth full, it's game over. +Come on, you're thinking. +That's not possible. +Technology is amazing. People are innovative. +There are so many ways we can improve the way we do things. +We can surely sort this out. +That's all true. +Well, it's mostly true. +We are certainly amazing, and we regularly solve complex problems with amazing creativity. +So if our problem was to get the human economy down from 150 percent to 100 percent of the Earth's capacity, we could do that. +The problem is we're just warming up this growth engine. +We plan to take this highly-stressed economy and make it twice as big and then make it four times as big -- not in some distant future, but in less than 40 years, in the life time of most of you. +China plans to be there in just 20 years. +The only problem with this plan is that it's not possible. +In response, some people argue, but we need growth, we need it to solve poverty. +We need it to develop technology. +We need it to keep social stability. +I find this argument fascinating, as though we can kind of bend the rules of physics to suit our needs. +It's like the Earth doesn't care what we need. +Mother nature doesn't negotiate; she just sets rules and describes consequences. +And these are not esoteric limits. +This is about food and water, soil and climate, the basic practical and economic foundations of our lives. +So the idea that we can smoothly transition to a highly-efficient, solar-powered, knowledge-based economy transformed by science and technology so that nine billion people can live in 2050 a life of abundance and digital downloads is a delusion. +It's not that it's not possible to feed, clothe and house us all and have us live decent lives. +It certainly is. +But the idea that we can gently grow there with a few minor hiccups is just wrong, and it's dangerously wrong, because it means we're not getting ready for what's really going to happen. +See what happens when you operate a system past its limits and then keep on going at an ever-accelerating rate is that the system stops working and breaks down. +And that's what will happen to us. +Many of you will be thinking, but surely we can still stop this. +If it's that bad, we'll react. +Let's just think through that idea. +Now we've had 50 years of warnings. +We've had science proving the urgency of change. +We've had economic analysis pointing out that, not only can we afford it, it's cheaper to act early. +And yet, the reality is we've done pretty much nothing to change course. +We're not even slowing down. +Last year on climate, for example, we had the highest global emissions ever. +The story on food, on water, on soil, on climate is all much the same. +I actually don't say this in despair. +I've done my grieving about the loss. +I accept where we are. +It is sad, but it is what it is. +But it is also time that we ended our denial and recognized that we're not acting, we're not close to acting and we're not going to act until this crisis hits the economy. +And that's why the end of growth is the central issue and the event that we need to get ready for. +So when does this transition begin? +When does this breakdown begin? +In my view, it is well underway. +I know most people don't see it that way. +We tend to look at the world, not as the integrated system that it is, but as a series of individual issues. +We see the Occupy protests, we see spiraling debt crises, we see growing inequality, we see money's influence on politics, we see resource constraint, food and oil prices. +But we see, mistakenly, each of these issues as individual problems to be solved. +In fact, it's the system in the painful process of breaking down -- our system, of debt-fueled economic growth, of ineffective democracy, of overloading planet Earth, is eating itself alive. +I could give you countless studies and evidence to prove this, but I won't because, if you want to see it, that evidence is all around you. +I want to talk to you about fear. +I want to do so because, in my view, the most important issue we face is how we respond to this question. +The crisis is now inevitable. +This issue is, how will we react? +Of course, we can't know what will happen. +The future is inherently uncertain. +But let's just think through what the science is telling us is likely to happen. +Imagine our economy when the carbon bubble bursts, when the financial markets recognize that, to have any hope of preventing the climate spiraling out of control, the oil and coal industries are finished. +Imagine China, India and Pakistan going to war as climate impacts generate conflict over food and water. +Imagine the Middle East without oil income, but with collapsing governments. +Imagine our highly-tuned, just-in-time food industry and our highly-stressed agricultural system failing and supermarket shelves emptying. +Imagine 30 percent unemployment in America as the global economy is gripped by fear and uncertainty. +Now imagine what that means for you, your family, your friends, your personal financial security. +Imagine what it means for your personal security as a heavily armed civilian population gets angrier and angrier about why this was allowed to happen. +When the system was so clearly breaking down, Mom and Dad, what did you do, what were you thinking?" +So how do you feel when the lights go out on the global economy in your mind, when your assumptions about the future fade away and something very different emerges? +Just take a moment and take a breath and think, what do you feel at this point? +Perhaps denial. +Perhaps anger. +Maybe fear. +Of course, we can't know what's going to happen and we have to live with uncertainty. +But when we think about the kind of possibilities I paint, we should feel a bit of fear. +We are in danger, all of us, and we've evolved to respond to danger with fear to motivate a powerful response, to help us bravely face a threat. +But this time it's not a tiger at the cave mouth. +You can't see the danger at your door. +But if you look, you can see it at the door of your civilization. +That's why we need to feel our response now while the lights are still on, because if we wait until the crisis takes hold, we may panic and hide. +If we feel it now and think it through, we will realize we have nothing to fear but fear itself. +Yes, things will get ugly, and it will happen soon -- certainly in our lifetime -- but we are more than capable of getting through everything that's coming. +You see, those people that have faith that humans can solve any problem, that technology is limitless, that markets can be a force for good, are in fact right. +The only thing they're missing is that it takes a good crisis to get us going. +When we feel fear and we fear loss we are capable of quite extraordinary things. +Think about war. +After the bombing of Pearl Harbor, it just took four days for the government to ban the production of civilian cars and to redirect the auto industry, and from there to rationing of food and energy. +Think about how a company responds to a bankruptcy threat and how a change that seemed impossible just gets done. +Think about how an individual responds to a diagnosis of a life-threatening illness and how lifestyle changes that previously were just too difficult suddenly become relatively easy. +We are smart, in fact, we really are quite amazing, but we do love a good crisis. +And the good news, this one's a monster. +Sure, if we get it wrong, we could face the end of this civilization, but if we get it right, it could be the beginning of civilization instead. +And how cool would it be to tell your grandchildren that you were part of that? +There's certainly no technical or economic barrier in the way. +Scientists like James Hansen tell us we may need to eliminate net CO2 emissions from the economy in just a few decades. +I wanted to know what that would take, so I worked with professor Jorgen Randers from Norway to find the answer. +We developed a plan called "The One Degree War Plan" -- so named because of the level of mobilization and focus required. +To my surprise, eliminating net CO2 emissions from the economy in just 20 years is actually pretty easy and pretty cheap, not very cheap, but certainly less than the cost of a collapsing civilization. +We didn't calculate that precisely, but we understand that's very expensive. +You can read the details, but in summary, we can transform our economy. +We can do it with proven technology. +We can do it at an affordable cost. +We can do it with existing political structures. +The only thing we need to change is how we think and how we feel. +And this is where you come in. +When we think about the future I paint, of course we should feel a bit of fear. +But fear can be paralyzing or motivating. +We need to accept the fear and then we need to act. +We need to act like the future depends on it. +We need to act like we only have one planet. +We can do this. +I know the free market fundamentalists will tell you that more growth, more stuff and nine billion people going shopping is the best we can do. +They're wrong. +We can be more, we can be much more. +We have achieved remarkable things since working out how to grow food some 10,000 years ago. +We've built a powerful foundation of science, knowledge and technology -- more than enough to build a society where nine billion people can lead decent, meaningful and satisfying lives. +The Earth can support that if we choose the right path. +We can choose this moment of crisis to ask and answer the big questions of society's evolution -- like, what do we want to be when we grow up, when we move past this bumbling adolescence where we think there are no limits and suffer delusions of immortality? +Well it's time to grow up, to be wiser, to be calmer, to be more considered. +Like generations before us, we'll be growing up in war -- not a war between civilizations, but a war for civilization, for the extraordinary opportunity to build a society which is stronger and happier and plans on staying around into middle age. +We can choose life over fear. +We can do what we need to do, but it will take every entrepreneur, every artist, every scientist, every communicator, every mother, every father, every child, every one of us. +This could be our finest hour. +Thank you. +Good morning. +I'm here today to talk about autonomous flying beach balls. +No, agile aerial robots like this one. +I'd like to tell you a little bit about the challenges in building these, and some of the terrific opportunities for applying this technology. +So these robots are related to unmanned aerial vehicles. +However, the vehicles you see here are big. +They weigh thousands of pounds, are not by any means agile. +They're not even autonomous. +In fact, many of these vehicles are operated by flight crews that can include multiple pilots, operators of sensors, and mission coordinators. +What we're interested in is developing robots like this -- and here are two other pictures -- of robots that you can buy off the shelf. +So these are helicopters with four rotors, and they're roughly a meter or so in scale, and weigh several pounds. +And so we retrofit these with sensors and processors, and these robots can fly indoors. +Without GPS. +The robot I'm holding in my hand is this one, and it's been created by two students, Alex and Daniel. +So this weighs a little more than a tenth of a pound. +It consumes about 15 watts of power. +And as you can see, it's about eight inches in diameter. +So let me give you just a very quick tutorial on how these robots work. +So it has four rotors. +If you spin these rotors at the same speed, the robot hovers. +If you increase the speed of each of these rotors, then the robot flies up, it accelerates up. +Of course, if the robot were tilted, inclined to the horizontal, then it would accelerate in this direction. +So to get it to tilt, there's one of two ways of doing it. +So in this picture, you see that rotor four is spinning faster and rotor two is spinning slower. +And when that happens, there's a moment that causes this robot to roll. +And the other way around, if you increase the speed of rotor three and decrease the speed of rotor one, then the robot pitches forward. +And then finally, if you spin opposite pairs of rotors faster than the other pair, then the robot yaws about the vertical axis. +So an on-board processor essentially looks at what motions need to be executed and combines these motions, and figures out what commands to send to the motors -- 600 times a second. +That's basically how this thing operates. +So one of the advantages of this design is when you scale things down, the robot naturally becomes agile. +So here, R is the characteristic length of the robot. +It's actually half the diameter. +And there are lots of physical parameters that change as you reduce R. +The one that's most important is the inertia, or the resistance to motion. +So it turns out the inertia, which governs angular motion, scales as a fifth power of R. +So the smaller you make R, the more dramatically the inertia reduces. +So as a result, the angular acceleration, denoted by the Greek letter alpha here, goes as 1 over R. +It's inversely proportional to R. +The smaller you make it, the more quickly you can turn. +So this should be clear in these videos. +On the bottom right, you see a robot performing a 360-degree flip in less than half a second. +Multiple flips, a little more time. +So here the processes on board are getting feedback from accelerometers and gyros on board, and calculating, like I said before, commands at 600 times a second, to stabilize this robot. +So on the left, you see Daniel throwing this robot up into the air, and it shows you how robust the control is. +No matter how you throw it, the robot recovers and comes back to him. +So why build robots like this? +Well, robots like this have many applications. +You can send them inside buildings like this, as first responders to look for intruders, maybe look for biochemical leaks, gaseous leaks. +You can also use them for applications like construction. +So here are robots carrying beams, columns and assembling cube-like structures. +I'll tell you a little bit more about this. +The robots can be used for transporting cargo. +So one of the problems with these small robots is their payload-carrying capacity. +So you might want to have multiple robots carry payloads. +This is a picture of a recent experiment we did -- actually not so recent anymore -- in Sendai, shortly after the earthquake. +So robots like this could be sent into collapsed buildings, to assess the damage after natural disasters, or sent into reactor buildings, to map radiation levels. +So one fundamental problem that the robots have to solve if they are to be autonomous, is essentially figuring out how to get from point A to point B. +So this gets a little challenging, because the dynamics of this robot are quite complicated. +In fact, they live in a 12-dimensional space. +So we use a little trick. +We take this curved 12-dimensional space, and transform it into a flat, four-dimensional space. +And that four-dimensional space consists of X, Y, Z, and then the yaw angle. +And so what the robot does, is it plans what we call a minimum-snap trajectory. So to remind you of physics: You have position, derivative, velocity; then acceleration; and then comes jerk, and then comes snap. +So this robot minimizes snap. +So what that effectively does, is produce a smooth and graceful motion. +And it does that avoiding obstacles. +So these minimum-snap trajectories in this flat space are then transformed back into this complicated 12-dimensional space, which the robot must do for control and then execution. +So let me show you some examples of what these minimum-snap trajectories look like. +And in the first video, you'll see the robot going from point A to point B, through an intermediate point. +(Whirring noise) So the robot is obviously capable of executing any curve trajectory. +So these are circular trajectories, where the robot pulls about two G's. +Here you have overhead motion capture cameras on the top that tell the robot where it is 100 times a second. +It also tells the robot where these obstacles are. +And the obstacles can be moving. +And here, you'll see Daniel throw this hoop into the air, while the robot is calculating the position of the hoop, and trying to figure out how to best go through the hoop. +So as an academic, we're always trained to be able to jump through hoops to raise funding for our labs, and we get our robots to do that. +So another thing the robot can do is it remembers pieces of trajectory that it learns or is pre-programmed. +So here, you see the robot combining a motion that builds up momentum, and then changes its orientation and then recovers. +So it has to do this because this gap in the window is only slightly larger than the width of the robot. +So just like a diver stands on a springboard and then jumps off it to gain momentum, and then does this pirouette, this two and a half somersault through and then gracefully recovers, this robot is basically doing that. +So it knows how to combine little bits and pieces of trajectories to do these fairly difficult tasks. +So I want change gears. +So one of the disadvantages of these small robots is its size. +And I told you earlier that we may want to employ lots and lots of robots to overcome the limitations of size. +So one difficulty is: How do you coordinate lots of these robots? +And so here, we looked to nature. +So I want to show you a clip of Aphaenogaster desert ants, in Professor Stephen Pratt's lab, carrying an object. +So this is actually a piece of fig. +Actually you take any object coated with fig juice, and the ants will carry it back to the nest. +So these ants don't have any central coordinator. +They sense their neighbors. +There's no explicit communication. +But because they sense the neighbors and because they sense the object, they have implicit coordination across the group. +So this is the kind of coordination we want our robots to have. +So when we have a robot which is surrounded by neighbors -- and let's look at robot I and robot J -- what we want the robots to do, is to monitor the separation between them, as they fly in formation. +And then you want to make sure that this separation is within acceptable levels. +So again, the robots monitor this error and calculate the control commands 100 times a second, 600 times a second. +So this also has to be done in a decentralized way. +Again, if you have lots and lots of robots, it's impossible to coordinate all this information centrally fast enough in order for the robots to accomplish the task. +Plus, the robots have to base their actions only on local information -- what they sense from their neighbors. +And then finally, we insist that the robots be agnostic to who their neighbors are. +So this is what we call anonymity. +So what I want to show you next is a video of 20 of these little robots, flying in formation. +They're monitoring their neighbors' positions. +They're maintaining formation. +The formations can change. +They can be planar formations, they can be three-dimensional formations. +As you can see here, they collapse from a three-dimensional formation into planar formation. +And to fly through obstacles, they can adapt the formations on the fly. +So again, these robots come really close together. +As you can see in this figure-eight flight, they come within inches of each other. +And despite the aerodynamic interactions with these propeller blades, they're able to maintain stable flight. +So once you know how to fly in formation, you can actually pick up objects cooperatively. +So this just shows that we can double, triple, quadruple the robots' strength, by just getting them to team with neighbors, as you can see here. +One of the disadvantages of doing that is, as you scale things up -- so if you have lots of robots carrying the same thing, you're essentially increasing the inertia, and therefore you pay a price; they're not as agile. +But you do gain in terms of payload-carrying capacity. +Another application I want to show you -- again, this is in our lab. +This is work done by Quentin Lindsey, who's a graduate student. +So his algorithm essentially tells these robots how to autonomously build cubic structures from truss-like elements. +So his algorithm tells the robot what part to pick up, when, and where to place it. +So in this video you see -- and it's sped up 10, 14 times -- you see three different structures being built by these robots. +And again, everything is autonomous, and all Quentin has to do is to give them a blueprint of the design that he wants to build. +So all these experiments you've seen thus far, all these demonstrations, have been done with the help of motion-capture systems. +So what happens when you leave your lab, and you go outside into the real world? +And what if there's no GPS? +So this robot is actually equipped with a camera, and a laser rangefinder, laser scanner. +And it uses these sensors to build a map of the environment. +What that map consists of are features -- like doorways, windows, people, furniture -- and it then figures out where its position is, with respect to the features. +So there is no global coordinate system. +The coordinate system is defined based on the robot, where it is and what it's looking at. +And it navigates with respect to those features. +So I want to show you a clip of algorithms developed by Frank Shen and Professor Nathan Michael, that shows this robot entering a building for the very first time, and creating this map on the fly. +So the robot then figures out what the features are, it builds the map, it figures out where it is with respect to the features, and then estimates its position 100 times a second, allowing us to use the control algorithms that I described to you earlier. +So this robot is actually being commanded remotely by Frank, but the robot can also figure out where to go on its own. +So suppose I were to send this into a building, and I had no idea what this building looked like. +I can ask this robot to go in, create a map, and then come back and tell me what the building looks like. +So here, the robot is not only solving the problem of how to go from point A to point B in this map, but it's figuring out what the best point B is at every time. +So essentially it knows where to go to look for places that have the least information, and that's how it populates this map. +So I want to leave you with one last application. +And there are many applications of this technology. +I'm a professor, and we're passionate about education. +Robots like this can really change the way we do K-12 education. +But we're in Southern California, close to Los Angeles, so I have to conclude with something focused on entertainment. +I want to conclude with a music video. +I want to introduce the creators, Alex and Daniel, who created this video. +So before I play this video, I want to tell you that they created it in the last three days, after getting a call from Chris. +And the robots that play in the video are completely autonomous. +You will see nine robots play six different instruments. +And of course, it's made exclusively for TED 2012. +Let's watch. +A tourist is backpacking through the highlands of Scotland, and he stops at a pub to get a drink. +And the only people in there is a bartender and an old man nursing a beer. +And he orders a pint, and they sit in silence for a while. +And suddenly the old man turns to him and goes, "You see this bar? +I built this bar with my bare hands from the finest wood in the county. +Gave it more love and care than my own child. +But do they call me MacGregor the bar builder? No." +Points out the window. +"You see that stone wall out there? +I built that stone wall with my bare hands. +Found every stone, placed them just so through the rain and the cold. +But do they call me MacGregor the stone wall builder? No." +Points out the window. +"You see that pier on the lake out there? +I built that pier with my bare hands. +Drove the pilings against the tide of the sand, plank by plank. +But do they call me MacGregor the pier builder? No. +But you fuck one goat ... " Storytelling -- is joke telling. +It's knowing your punchline, your ending, knowing that everything you're saying, from the first sentence to the last, is leading to a singular goal, and ideally confirming some truth that deepens our understandings of who we are as human beings. +We all love stories. +We're born for them. +Stories affirm who we are. +We all want affirmations that our lives have meaning. +And nothing does a greater affirmation than when we connect through stories. +It can cross the barriers of time, past, present and future, and allow us to experience the similarities between ourselves and through others, real and imagined. +The children's television host Mr. Rogers always carried in his wallet a quote from a social worker that said, "Frankly, there isn't anyone you couldn't learn to love once you've heard their story." +And the way I like to interpret that is probably the greatest story commandment, which is "Make me care" -- please, emotionally, intellectually, aesthetically, just make me care. +We all know what it's like to not care. +You've gone through hundreds of TV channels, just switching channel after channel, and then suddenly you actually stop on one. +It's already halfway over, but something's caught you and you're drawn in and you care. +That's not by chance, that's by design. +So it got me thinking, what if I told you my history was story, how I was born for it, how I learned along the way this subject matter? +And to make it more interesting, we'll start from the ending and we'll go to the beginning. +And so if I were going to give you the ending of this story, it would go something like this: And that's what ultimately led me to speaking to you here at TED about story. +And the most current story lesson that I've had was completing the film I've just done this year in 2012. +The film is "John Carter." It's based on a book called "The Princess of Mars," which was written by Edgar Rice Burroughs. +And Edgar Rice Burroughs actually put himself as a character inside this movie, and as the narrator. +And he's summoned by his rich uncle, John Carter, to his mansion with a telegram saying, "See me at once." +But once he gets there, he's found out that his uncle has mysteriously passed away and been entombed in a mausoleum on the property. +Butler: You won't find a keyhole. +Thing only opens from the inside. +He insisted, no embalming, no open coffin, no funeral. +You don't acquire the kind of wealth your uncle commanded by being like the rest of us, huh? +Come, let's go inside. +AS: What this scene is doing, and it did in the book, is it's fundamentally making a promise. +It's making a promise to you that this story will lead somewhere that's worth your time. +And that's what all good stories should do at the beginning, is they should give you a promise. +You could do it an infinite amount of ways. +Sometimes it's as simple as "Once upon a time ... " These Carter books always had Edgar Rice Burroughs as a narrator in it. +And I always thought it was such a fantastic device. +It's like a guy inviting you around the campfire, or somebody in a bar saying, "Here, let me tell you a story. +It didn't happen to me, it happened to somebody else, but it's going to be worth your time." +A well told promise is like a pebble being pulled back in a slingshot and propels you forward through the story to the end. +In 2008, I pushed all the theories that I had on story at the time to the limits of my understanding on this project. +(Mechanical Sounds) And that is all that love's about And we'll recall when time runs out That it only AS: Storytelling without dialogue. +It's the purest form of cinematic storytelling. +It's the most inclusive approach you can take. +It confirmed something I really had a hunch on, is that the audience actually wants to work for their meal. +They just don't want to know that they're doing that. +That's your job as a storyteller, is to hide the fact that you're making them work for their meal. +We're born problem solvers. +We're compelled to deduce and to deduct, because that's what we do in real life. +It's this well-organized absence of information that draws us in. +There's a reason that we're all attracted to an infant or a puppy. +It's not just that they're damn cute; it's because they can't completely express what they're thinking and what their intentions are. +And it's like a magnet. +We can't stop ourselves from wanting to complete the sentence and fill it in. +I first started really understanding this storytelling device when I was writing with Bob Peterson on "Finding Nemo." +And we would call this the unifying theory of two plus two. +Make the audience put things together. +Don't give them four, give them two plus two. +The elements you provide and the order you place them in is crucial to whether you succeed or fail at engaging the audience. +Editors and screenwriters have known this all along. +It's the invisible application that holds our attention to story. +I don't mean to make it sound like this is an actual exact science, it's not. +That's what's so special about stories, they're not a widget, they aren't exact. +Stories are inevitable, if they're good, but they're not predictable. +I took a seminar in this year with an acting teacher named Judith Weston. +And I learned a key insight to character. +She believed that all well-drawn characters have a spine. +And the idea is that the character has an inner motor, a dominant, unconscious goal that they're striving for, an itch that they can't scratch. +She gave a wonderful example of Michael Corleone, Al Pacino's character in "The Godfather," and that probably his spine was to please his father. +And it's something that always drove all his choices. +Even after his father died, he was still trying to scratch that itch. +I took to this like a duck to water. +Wall-E's was to find the beauty. +Marlin's, the father in "Finding Nemo," was to prevent harm. +And Woody's was to do what was best for his child. +And these spines don't always drive you to make the best choices. +Sometimes you can make some horrible choices with them. +I'm really blessed to be a parent, and watching my children grow, I really firmly believe that you're born with a temperament and you're wired a certain way, and you don't have any say about it, and there's no changing it. +All you can do is learn to recognize it and own it. +And some of us are born with temperaments that are positive, some are negative. +But a major threshold is passed when you mature enough to acknowledge what drives you and to take the wheel and steer it. +As parents, you're always learning who your children are. +They're learning who they are. +And you're still learning who you are. +So we're all learning all the time. +And that's why change is fundamental in story. +If things go static, stories die, because life is never static. +In 1998, I had finished writing "Toy Story" and "A Bug's Life" and I was completely hooked on screenwriting. +So I wanted to become much better at it and learn anything I could. +So I researched everything I possibly could. +And I finally came across this fantastic quote by a British playwright, William Archer: "Drama is anticipation mingled with uncertainty." +It's an incredibly insightful definition. +When you're telling a story, have you constructed anticipation? +In the short-term, have you made me want to know what will happen next? +But more importantly, have you made me want to know how it will all conclude in the long-term? +Have you constructed honest conflicts with truth that creates doubt in what the outcome might be? +An example would be in "Finding Nemo," in the short tension, you were always worried, would Dory's short-term memory make her forget whatever she was being told by Marlin. +But under that was this global tension of will we ever find Nemo in this huge, vast ocean? +In our earliest days at Pixar, before we truly understood the invisible workings of story, we were simply a group of guys just going on our gut, going on our instincts. +And it's interesting to see how that led us places that were actually pretty good. +You've got to remember that in this time of year, 1993, what was considered a successful animated picture was "The Little Mermaid," "Beauty and the Beast," "Aladdin," "Lion King." +So when we pitched "Toy Story" to Tom Hanks for the first time, he walked in and he said, "You don't want me to sing, do you?" +And I thought that epitomized perfectly what everybody thought animation had to be at the time. +But we really wanted to prove that you could tell stories completely different in animation. +We didn't have any influence then, so we had a little secret list of rules that we kept to ourselves. +And they were: No songs, no "I want" moment, no happy village, no love story. +And the irony is that, in the first year, our story was not working at all and Disney was panicking. +So they privately got advice from a famous lyricist, who I won't name, and he faxed them some suggestions. +And we got a hold of that fax. +And the fax said, there should be songs, there should be an "I want" song, there should be a happy village song, there should be a love story and there should be a villain. +And thank goodness we were just too young, rebellious and contrarian at the time. +That just gave us more determination to prove that you could build a better story. +And a year after that, we did conquer it. +And it just went to prove that storytelling has guidelines, not hard, fast rules. +Another fundamental thing we learned was about liking your main character. +And we had naively thought, well Woody in "Toy Story" has to become selfless at the end, so you've got to start from someplace. +So let's make him selfish. And this is what you get. +(Voice Over) Woody: What do you think you're doing? +Off the bed. +Hey, off the bed! +Mr. Potato Head: You going to make us, Woody? +Woody: No, he is. +Slinky? Slink ... Slinky! +Get up here and do your job. +Are you deaf? +I said, take care of them. +Slinky: I'm sorry, Woody, but I have to agree with them. +I don't think what you did was right. +Woody: What? Am I hearing correctly? +You don't think I was right? +Who said your job was to think, Spring Wiener? +AS: So how do you make a selfish character likable? +We realized, you can make him kind, generous, funny, considerate, as long as one condition is met for him, is that he stays the top toy. +And that's what it really is, is that we all live life conditionally. +We're all willing to play by the rules and follow things along, as long as certain conditions are met. +After that, all bets are off. +And before I'd even decided to make storytelling my career, I can now see key things that happened in my youth that really sort of opened my eyes to certain things about story. +In 1986, I truly understood the notion of story having a theme. +And that was the year that they restored and re-released "Lawrence of Arabia." +And I saw that thing seven times in one month. +I couldn't get enough of it. +I could just tell there was a grand design under it -- in every shot, every scene, every line. +Yet, on the surface it just seemed to be depicting his historical lineage of what went on. +Yet, there was something more being said. What exactly was it? +And it wasn't until, on one of my later viewings, that the veil was lifted and it was in a scene where he's walked across the Sinai Desert and he's reached the Suez Canal, and I suddenly got it. +Boy: Hey! Hey! Hey! Hey! +Cyclist: Who are you? +Who are you? +AS: That was the theme: Who are you? +Here were all these seemingly disparate events and dialogues that just were chronologically telling the history of him, but underneath it was a constant, a guideline, a road map. +Everything Lawrence did in that movie was an attempt for him to figure out where his place was in the world. +A strong theme is always running through a well-told story. +When I was five, I was introduced to possibly the most major ingredient that I feel a story should have, but is rarely invoked. +And this is what my mother took me to when I was five. +Thumper: Come on. It's all right. +Look. +The water's stiff. +Bambi: Yippee! +Thumper: Some fun, huh, Bambi? +Come on. Get up. +Like this. +Ha ha. No, no, no. +AS: I walked out of there wide-eyed with wonder. +And that's what I think the magic ingredient is, the secret sauce, is can you invoke wonder. +Wonder is honest, it's completely innocent. +It can't be artificially evoked. +For me, there's no greater ability than the gift of another human being giving you that feeling -- to hold them still just for a brief moment in their day and have them surrender to wonder. +When it's tapped, the affirmation of being alive, it reaches you almost to a cellular level. +And when an artist does that to another artist, it's like you're compelled to pass it on. +It's like a dormant command that suddenly is activated in you, like a call to Devil's Tower. +Do unto others what's been done to you. +The best stories infuse wonder. +When I was four years old, I have a vivid memory of finding two pinpoint scars on my ankle and asking my dad what they were. +And he said I had a matching pair like that on my head, but I couldn't see them because of my hair. +And he explained that when I was born, I was born premature, that I came out much too early, and I wasn't fully baked; I was very, very sick. +And when the doctor took a look at this yellow kid with black teeth, he looked straight at my mom and said, "He's not going to live." +And I was in the hospital for months. +And many blood transfusions later, I lived, and that made me special. +I don't know if I really believe that. +I don't know if my parents really believe that, but I didn't want to prove them wrong. +Whatever I ended up being good at, I would strive to be worthy of the second chance I was given. +Marlin: There, there, there. +It's okay, daddy's here. +Daddy's got you. +I promise, I will never let anything happen to you, Nemo. +AS: And that's the first story lesson I ever learned. +Use what you know. Draw from it. +It doesn't always mean plot or fact. +It means capturing a truth from your experiencing it, expressing values you personally feel deep down in your core. +And that's what ultimately led me to speaking to you here at TEDTalk today. +Thank you. +What do I know that would cause me, a reticent, Midwestern scientist, to get myself arrested in front of the White House protesting? +And what would you do if you knew what I know? +Let's start with how I got to this point. +I was lucky to grow up at a time when it was not difficult for the child of a tenant farmer to make his way to the state university. +And I was really lucky to go to the University of Iowa where I could study under Professor James Van Allen who built instruments for the first U.S. satellites. +Professor Van Allen told me about observations of Venus, that there was intense microwave radiation. +Did it mean that Venus had an ionosphere? +Or was Venus extremely hot? +The right answer, confirmed by the Soviet Venera spacecraft, was that Venus was very hot -- 900 degrees Fahrenheit. +And it was kept hot by a thick carbon dioxide atmosphere. +I was fortunate to join NASA and successfully propose an experiment to fly to Venus. +Our instrument took this image of the veil of Venus, which turned out to be a smog of sulfuric acid. +But while our instrument was being built, I became involved in calculations of the greenhouse effect here on Earth, because we realized that our atmospheric composition was changing. +Eventually, I resigned as principal investigator on our Venus experiment because a planet changing before our eyes is more interesting and important. +Its changes will affect all of humanity. +The greenhouse effect had been well understood for more than a century. +British physicist John Tyndall, in the 1850's, made laboratory measurements of the infrared radiation, which is heat. +And he showed that gasses such as CO2 absorb heat, thus acting like a blanket warming Earth's surface. +I worked with other scientists to analyze Earth climate observations. +In 1981, we published an article in Science magazine concluding that observed warming of 0.4 degrees Celsius in the prior century was consistent with the greenhouse effect of increasing CO2. +That Earth would likely warm in the 1980's, and warming would exceed the noise level of random weather by the end of the century. +We also said that the 21st century would see shifting climate zones, creation of drought-prone regions in North America and Asia, erosion of ice sheets, rising sea levels and opening of the fabled Northwest Passage. +All of these impacts have since either happened or are now well under way. +That paper was reported on the front page of the New York Times and led to me testifying to Congress in the 1980's, testimony in which I emphasized that global warming increases both extremes of the Earth's water cycle. +Heatwaves and droughts on one hand, directly from the warming, but also, because a warmer atmosphere holds more water vapor with its latent energy, rainfall will become in more extreme events. +There will be stronger storms and greater flooding. +Global warming hoopla became time-consuming and distracted me from doing science -- partly because I had complained that the White House altered my testimony. +So I decided to go back to strictly doing science and leave the communication to others. +By 15 years later, evidence of global warming was much stronger. +Most of the things mentioned in our 1981 paper were facts. +I had the privilege to speak twice to the president's climate task force. +But energy policies continued to focus on finding more fossil fuels. +By then we had two grandchildren, Sophie and Connor. +I decided that I did not want them in the future to say, "Opa understood what was happening, but he didn't make it clear." +So I decided to give a public talk criticizing the lack of an appropriate energy policy. +I gave the talk at the University of Iowa in 2004 and at the 2005 meeting of the American Geophysical Union. +This led to calls from the White House to NASA headquarters and I was told that I could not give any talks or speak with the media without prior explicit approval by NASA headquarters. +After I informed the New York Times about these restrictions, NASA was forced to end the censorship. +But there were consequences. +I had been using the first line of the NASA mission statement, "To understand and protect the home planet," to justify my talks. +Soon the first line of the mission statement was deleted, never to appear again. +Over the next few years I was drawn more and more into trying to communicate the urgency of a change in energy policies, while still researching the physics of climate change. +Let me describe the most important conclusion from the physics -- first, from Earth's energy balance and, second, from Earth's climate history. +Adding CO2 to the air is like throwing another blanket on the bed. +It reduces Earth's heat radiation to space, so there's a temporary energy imbalance. +More energy is coming in than going out, until Earth warms up enough to again radiate to space as much energy as it absorbs from the Sun. +So the key quantity is Earth's energy imbalance. +Is there more energy coming in than going out? +If so, more warming is in the pipeline. +It will occur without adding any more greenhouse gasses. +Now finally, we can measure Earth's energy imbalance precisely by measuring the heat content in Earth's heat reservoirs. +The biggest reservoir, the ocean, was the least well measured, until more than 3,000 Argo floats were distributed around the world's ocean. +These floats reveal that the upper half of the ocean is gaining heat at a substantial rate. +The deep ocean is also gaining heat at a smaller rate, and energy is going into the net melting of ice all around the planet. +And the land, to depths of tens of meters, is also warming. +The total energy imbalance now is about six-tenths of a watt per square meter. +That may not sound like much, but when added up over the whole world, it's enormous. +It's about 20 times greater than the rate of energy use by all of humanity. +It's equivalent to exploding 400,000 Hiroshima atomic bombs per day 365 days per year. +That's how much extra energy Earth is gaining each day. +This imbalance, if we want to stabilize climate, means that we must reduce CO2 from 391 ppm, parts per million, back to 350 ppm. +That is the change needed to restore energy balance and prevent further warming. +Climate change deniers argue that the Sun is the main cause of climate change. +But the measured energy imbalance occurred during the deepest solar minimum in the record, when the Sun's energy reaching Earth was least. +Yet, there was more energy coming in than going out. +This shows that the effect of the Sun's variations on climate is overwhelmed by the increasing greenhouse gasses, mainly from burning fossil fuels. +Now consider Earth's climate history. +These curves for global temperature, atmospheric CO2 and sea level were derived from ocean cores and Antarctic ice cores, from ocean sediments and snowflakes that piled up year after year over 800,000 years forming a two-mile thick ice sheet. +As you see, there's a high correlation between temperature, CO2 and sea level. +Careful examination shows that the temperature changes slightly lead the CO2 changes by a few centuries. +Climate change deniers like to use this fact to confuse and trick the public by saying, "Look, the temperature causes CO2 to change, not vice versa." +But that lag is exactly what is expected. +Small changes in Earth's orbit that occur over tens to hundreds of thousands of years alter the distribution of sunlight on Earth. +When there is more sunlight at high latitudes in summer, ice sheets melt. +Shrinking ice sheets make the planet darker, so it absorbs more sunlight and becomes warmer. +A warmer ocean releases CO2, just as a warm Coca-Cola does. +And more CO2 causes more warming. +So CO2, methane, and ice sheets were feedbacks that amplified global temperature change causing these ancient climate oscillations to be huge, even though the climate change was initiated by a very weak forcing. +The important point is that these same amplifying feedbacks will occur today. +The physics does not change. +As Earth warms, now because of extra CO2 we put in the atmosphere, ice will melt, and CO2 and methane will be released by warming ocean and melting permafrost. +While we can't say exactly how fast these amplifying feedbacks will occur, it is certain they will occur, unless we stop the warming. +There is evidence that feedbacks are already beginning. +Precise measurements by GRACE, the gravity satellite, reveal that both Greenland and Antarctica are now losing mass, several hundred cubic kilometers per year. +And the rate has accelerated since the measurements began nine years ago. +Methane is also beginning to escape from the permafrost. +What sea level rise can we look forward to? +The last time CO2 was 390 ppm, today's value, sea level was higher by at least 15 meters, 50 feet. +Where you are sitting now would be under water. +Most estimates are that, this century, we will get at least one meter. +I think it will be more if we keep burning fossil fuels, perhaps even five meters, which is 18 feet, this century or shortly thereafter. +The important point is that we will have started a process that is out of humanity's control. +Ice sheets would continue to disintegrate for centuries. +There would be no stable shoreline. +The economic consequences are almost unthinkable. +Hundreds of New Orleans-like devastations around the world. +What may be more reprehensible, if climate denial continues, is extermination of species. +The monarch butterfly could be one of the 20 to 50 percent of all species that the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change estimates will be ticketed for extinction by the end of the century if we stay on business-as-usual fossil fuel use. +Global warming is already affecting people. +The Texas, Oklahoma, Mexico heatwave and drought last year, Moscow the year before and Europe in 2003, were all exceptional events, more than three standard deviations outside the norm. +Fifty years ago, such anomalies covered only two- to three-tenths of one percent of the land area. +In recent years, because of global warming, they now cover about 10 percent -- an increase by a factor of 25 to 50. +So we can say with a high degree of confidence that the severe Texas and Moscow heatwaves were not natural; they were caused by global warming. +An important impact, if global warming continues, will be on the breadbasket of our nation and the world, the Midwest and Great Plains, which are expected to become prone to extreme droughts, worse than the Dust Bowl, within just a few decades, if we let global warming continue. +How did I get dragged deeper and deeper into an attempt to communicate, giving talks in 10 countries, getting arrested, burning up the vacation time that I had accumulated over 30 years? +More grandchildren helped me along. +Jake is a super-positive, enthusiastic boy. +Here at age two and a half years, he thinks he can protect his two and a half-day-old little sister. +It would be immoral to leave these young people with a climate system spiraling out of control. +Now the tragedy about climate change is that we can solve it with a simple, honest approach of a gradually rising carbon fee collected from fossil fuel companies and distributed 100 percent electronically every month to all legal residents on a per capita basis, with the government not keeping one dime. +Most people would get more in the monthly dividend than they'd pay in increased prices. +This fee and dividend would stimulate the economy and innovations, creating millions of jobs. +It is the principal requirement for moving us rapidly to a clean energy future. +Several top economists are coauthors on this proposition. +Jim DiPeso of Republicans for Environmental Protection describes it thusly: "Transparent. Market-based. +Does not enlarge government. +Leaves energy decisions to individual choices. +Sounds like a conservative climate plan." +This path, if continued, guarantees that we will pass tipping points leading to ice sheet disintegration that will accelerate out of control of future generations. +A large fraction of species will be committed to extinction. +And increasing intensity of droughts and floods will severely impact breadbaskets of the world, causing massive famines and economic decline. +Imagine a giant asteroid on a direct collision course with Earth. +That is the equivalent of what we face now. +Yet, we dither, taking no action to divert the asteroid, even though the longer we wait, the more difficult and expensive it becomes. +If we had started in 2005, it would have required emission reductions of three percent per year to restore planetary energy balance and stabilize climate this century. +If we start next year, it is six percent per year. +If we wait 10 years, it is 15 percent per year -- extremely difficult and expensive, perhaps impossible. +But we aren't even starting. +So now you know what I know that is moving me to sound this alarm. +Clearly, I haven't gotten this message across. +The science is clear. +I need your help to communicate the gravity and the urgency of this situation and its solutions more effectively. +We owe it to our children and grandchildren. +Thank you. +I want to discuss with you this afternoon why you're going to fail to have a great career. I'm an economist. +End of the day, it's ready for dismal remarks. +I only want to talk to those of you who want a great career. +I know some of you have already decided you want a good career. +You're going to fail, too. +Because -- goodness, you're all cheery about failing. Canadian group, undoubtedly. Those trying to have good careers are going to fail, because, really, good jobs are now disappearing. +There are great jobs and great careers, and then there are the high-workload, high-stress, bloodsucking, soul-destroying kinds of jobs, and practically nothing in-between. +So people looking for good jobs are going to fail. +I want to talk about those looking for great jobs, great careers, and why you're going to fail. +First reason is that no matter how many times people tell you, "If you want a great career, you have to pursue your passion, you have to pursue your dreams, you have to pursue the greatest fascination in your life," you hear it again and again, and then you decide not to do it. +It doesn't matter how many times you download Steven J.'s Stanford commencement address, you still look at it and decide not to do it. +I'm not quite sure why you decide not to do it. +You're too lazy to do it. It's too hard. +You're afraid if you look for your passion and don't find it, you'll feel like you're an idiot, so then you make excuses about why you're not going to look for your passion. +They are excuses, ladies and gentlemen. +We're going to go through a whole long list -- your creativity in thinking of excuses not to do what you really need to do if you want to have a great career. +So, for example, one of your great excuses is: "Well, great careers are really and truly, for most people, just a matter of luck. So I'm going to stand around, I'm going to try to be lucky, and if I'm lucky, I'll have a great career. +If not, I'll have a good career." +But a good career is an impossibility, so that's not going to work. +Then, your other excuse is, "Yes, there are special people who pursue their passions, but they are geniuses. +They are Steven J. I'm not a genius. +When I was five, I thought I was a genius, but my professors have beaten that idea out of my head long since." "And now I know I am completely competent." +Now, you see, if this was 1950, being completely competent -- that would have given you a great career. +But guess what? This is almost 2012, and saying to the world, "I am totally, completely competent," is damning yourself with the faintest of praise. +And then, of course, another excuse: "Well, I would do this, I would do this, but, but -- well, after all, I'm not weird. +Everybody knows that people who pursue their passions are somewhat obsessive. A little strange. Hmm? Hmm? Okay? +You know, a fine line between madness and genius. +"I'm not weird. I've read Steven J.'s biography. +Oh my goodness -- I'm not that person. I am nice. +I am normal. +I'm a nice, normal person, and nice, normal people -- don't have passion." +"Ah, but I still want a great career. +I'm not prepared to pursue my passion, so I know what I'm going to do, because I have a solution. +I have a strategy. +It's the one Mommy and Daddy told me about. +Mommy and Daddy told me that if I worked hard, I'd have a good career. So, if you work hard and have a good career, if you work really, really, really hard, you'll have a great career. +Doesn't that, like, mathematically make sense?" +Hmm. Not. +But you've managed to talk yourself into that. +You know what? Here's a little secret: You want to work? You want to work really, really, really hard? +You know what? You'll succeed. +The world will give you the opportunity to work really, really, really, really hard. +But, are you so sure that that's going to give you a great career, when all the evidence is to the contrary? +So let's deal with those of you who are trying to find your passion. +You actually understand that you really had better do it, never mind the excuses. +You're trying to find your passion -- and you're so happy. +You found something you're interested in. +"I have an interest! I have an interest!" You tell me. +You say, "I have an interest!" I say, "That's wonderful! +And what are you trying to tell me?" +"Well, I have an interest." +I say, "Do you have passion?" +"I have an interest," you say. +"Your interest is compared to what?" +"Well, I'm interested in this." +"And what about the rest of humanity's activities?" +"I'm not interested in them." +"You've looked at them all, have you?" +"No. Not exactly." +Passion is your greatest love. +Passion is the thing that will help you create the highest expression of your talent. +Passion, interest -- it's not the same thing. +Are you really going to go to your sweetie and say, "Marry me! You're interesting." Won't happen, and you will die alone. what you want, what you want, is passion. It is beyond interest. +You need 20 interests, and then one of them, one of them might grab you, one of them might engage you more than anything else, and then you may have found your greatest love, in comparison to all the other things that interest you, and that's what passion is. +I have a friend, proposed to his sweetie. +He was an economically rational person. +He said to his sweetie, "Let us marry. +Let us merge our interests." +Yes, he did. +"I love you truly," he said. "I love you deeply. +I love you more than any other woman I've ever encountered. +I love you more than Mary, Jane, Susie, Penelope, Ingrid, Gertrude, Gretel -- I was on a German exchange program then. +I love you more than --" All right. She left the room halfway through his enumeration of his love for her. +After he got over his surprise at being, you know, turned down, he concluded he'd had a narrow escape from marrying an irrational person. +Although, he did make a note to himself that the next time he proposed, it was perhaps not necessary to enumerate all of the women he had auditioned for the part. But the point stands. +You must look for alternatives so that you find your destiny, or are you afraid of the word "destiny"? +Does the word "destiny" scare you? +That's what we're talking about. +And if you don't find the highest expression of your talent, if you settle for "interesting," what the hell ever that means, do you know what will happen at the end of your long life? +Your friends and family will be gathered in the cemetery, and there beside your gravesite will be a tombstone, and inscribed on that tombstone it will say, "Here lies a distinguished engineer, who invented Velcro." +But what that tombstone should have said, in an alternative lifetime, what it should have said if it was your highest expression of talent, was, "Here lies the last Nobel Laureate in Physics, who formulated the Grand Unified Field Theory and demonstrated the practicality of warp drive." +Velcro, indeed! One was a great career. +One was a missed opportunity. +But then, there are some of you who, in spite of all these excuses, you will find, you will find your passion. +And you'll still fail. +I want to be a great parent, and I will not sacrifice them on the altar of great accomplishment." +What do you want me to say? +Now, do you really want me to say now, tell you, "Really, I swear I don't kick children." Look at the worldview you've given yourself. +You're a hero no matter what. And I, by suggesting ever so delicately that you might want a great career, must hate children. +I don't hate children. I don't kick them. +Yes, there was a little kid wandering through this building when I came here, and no, I didn't kick him. Course, I had to tell him the building was for adults only, and to get out. +He mumbled something about his mother, and I told him she'd probably find him outside anyway. +Last time I saw him, he was on the stairs crying. What a wimp. But what do you mean? That's what you expect me to say. +Do you really think it's appropriate that you should actually take children and use them as a shield? +You know what will happen someday, you ideal parent, you? +The kid will come to you someday and say, "I know what I want to be. +I know what I'm going to do with my life." +You are so happy. +It's the conversation a parent wants to hear, because your kid's good in math, and you know you're going to like what comes next. +Says your kid, "I have decided I want to be a magician. +I want to perform magic tricks on the stage." +And what do you say? +You say, you say, "That's risky, kid. +Might fail, kid. Don't make a lot of money at that, kid. +I don't know, kid, you should think about that again, kid. +You're so good at math, why don't you --" The kid interrupts you and says, "But it is my dream. It is my dream to do this." +And what are you going to say? +You know what you're going to say? +"Look kid. I had a dream once, too, but -- So how are you going to finish the sentence with your "but"? +"But. I had a dream too, once, kid, but I was afraid to pursue it." +Or are you going to tell him this: "I had a dream once, kid. +But then, you were born." Do you really want to use your family, do you really ever want to look at your spouse and your kid, and see your jailers? +There was something you could have said to your kid, when he or she said, "I have a dream." +You could have said -- looked the kid in the face and said, "Go for it, kid! +Just like I did." +But you won't be able to say that, because you didn't. So you can't. And so the sins of the parents are visited on the poor children. +Why will you seek refuge in human relationships as your excuse not to find and pursue your passion? +You know why. +In your heart of hearts, you know why, and I'm being deadly serious. +You know why you would get all warm and fuzzy and wrap yourself up in human relationships. +It is because you are -- you know what you are. +You're afraid to pursue your passion. +You're afraid to look ridiculous. +You're afraid to try. You're afraid you may fail. +Great friend, great spouse, great parent, great career. +Is that not a package? Is that not who you are? +How can you be one without the other? +But you're afraid. +And that's why you're not going to have a great career. Unless -- "unless," that most evocative of all English words -- "unless." +But the "unless" word is also attached to that other, most terrifying phrase, "If only I had ..." +"If only I had ..." +If you ever have that thought ricocheting in your brain, it will hurt a lot. +So, those are the many reasons why you are going to fail to have a great career. +Unless -- Unless. +Thank you. +I have a question for you: Are you religious? +Please raise your hand right now if you think of yourself as a religious person. +Let's see, I'd say about three or four percent. +I had no idea there were so many believers at a TED Conference. +Okay, here's another question: Do you think of yourself as spiritual in any way, shape or form? Raise your hand. +Okay, that's the majority. +My Talk today is about the main reason, or one of the main reasons, why most people consider themselves to be spiritual in some way, shape or form. +My Talk today is about self-transcendence. +It's just a basic fact about being human that sometimes the self seems to just melt away. +And when that happens, the feeling is ecstatic and we reach for metaphors of up and down to explain these feelings. +We talk about being uplifted or elevated. +Now it's really hard to think about anything abstract like this without a good concrete metaphor. +So here's the metaphor I'm offering today. +Think about the mind as being like a house with many rooms, most of which we're very familiar with. +But sometimes it's as though a doorway appears from out of nowhere and it opens onto a staircase. +We climb the staircase and experience a state of altered consciousness. +In 1902, the great American psychologist William James wrote about the many varieties of religious experience. +He collected all kinds of case studies. +He quoted the words of all kinds of people who'd had a variety of these experiences. +One of the most exciting to me is this young man, Stephen Bradley, had an encounter, he thought, with Jesus in 1820. +And here's what Bradley said about it. +Stephen Bradley: I thought I saw the savior in human shape for about one second in the room, with arms extended, appearing to say to me, "Come." +The next day I rejoiced with trembling. +My happiness was so great that I said I wanted to die. +This world had no place in my affections. +Previous to this time, I was very selfish and self-righteous. +But now I desired the welfare of all mankind and could, with a feeling heart, forgive my worst enemies. +JH: So note how Bradley's petty, moralistic self just dies on the way up the staircase. +And on this higher level he becomes loving and forgiving. +The world's many religions have found so many ways to help people climb the staircase. +Some shut down the self using meditation. +Others use psychedelic drugs. +This is from a 16th century Aztec scroll showing a man about to eat a psilocybin mushroom and at the same moment get yanked up the staircase by a god. +Others use dancing, spinning and circling to promote self-transcendence. +But you don't need a religion to get you through the staircase. +Lots of people find self-transcendence in nature. +Others overcome their self at raves. +But here's the weirdest place of all: war. +So many books about war say the same thing, that nothing brings people together like war. +And that bringing them together opens up the possibility of extraordinary self-transcendent experiences. +I'm going to play for you an excerpt from this book by Glenn Gray. +Gray was a soldier in the American army in World War II. +And after the war he interviewed a lot of other soldiers and wrote about the experience of men in battle. +Here's a key passage where he basically describes the staircase. +Glenn Gray: Many veterans will admit that the experience of communal effort in battle has been the high point of their lives. +"I" passes insensibly into a "we," "my" becomes "our" and individual faith loses its central importance. +I believe that it is nothing less than the assurance of immortality that makes self-sacrifice at these moments so relatively easy. +I may fall, but I do not die, for that which is real in me goes forward and lives on in the comrades for whom I gave up my life. +JH: So what all of these cases have in common is that the self seems to thin out, or melt away, and it feels good, it feels really good, in a way totally unlike anything we feel in our normal lives. +It feels somehow uplifting. +This idea that we move up was central in the writing of the great French sociologist Emile Durkheim. +Durkheim even called us Homo duplex, or two-level man. +The lower level he called the level of the profane. +Now profane is the opposite of sacred. +It just means ordinary or common. +And in our ordinary lives we exist as individuals. +We want to satisfy our individual desires. +We pursue our individual goals. +But sometimes something happens that triggers a phase change. +Individuals unite into a team, a movement or a nation, which is far more than the sum of its parts. +Durkheim called this level the level of the sacred because he believed that the function of religion was to unite people into a group, into a moral community. +Durkheim believed that anything that unites us takes on an air of sacredness. +And once people circle around some sacred object or value, they'll then work as a team and fight to defend it. +Durkheim wrote about a set of intense collective emotions that accomplish this miracle of E pluribus unum, of making a group out of individuals. +Think of the collective joy in Britain on the day World War II ended. +Think of the collective anger in Tahrir Square, which brought down a dictator. +And think of the collective grief in the United States that we all felt, that brought us all together, after 9/11. +So let me summarize where we are. +I'm saying that the capacity for self-transcendence is just a basic part of being human. +I'm offering the metaphor of a staircase in the mind. +I'm saying we are Homo duplex and this staircase takes us up from the profane level to the level of the sacred. +When we climb that staircase, self-interest fades away, we become just much less self-interested, and we feel as though we are better, nobler and somehow uplifted. +So here's the million-dollar question for social scientists like me: Is the staircase a feature of our evolutionary design? +Is it a product of natural selection, like our hands? +Or is it a bug, a mistake in the system -- this religious stuff is just something that happens when the wires cross in the brain -- Jill has a stroke and she has this religious experience, it's just a mistake? +Well many scientists who study religion take this view. +The New Atheists, for example, argue that religion is a set of memes, sort of parasitic memes, that get inside our minds and make us do all kinds of crazy religious stuff, self-destructive stuff, like suicide bombing. +And after all, how could it ever be good for us to lose ourselves? +How could it ever be adaptive for any organism to overcome self-interest? +Well let me show you. +In "The Descent of Man," Charles Darwin wrote a great deal about the evolution of morality -- where did it come from, why do we have it. +Darwin noted that many of our virtues are of very little use to ourselves, but they're of great use to our groups. +He wrote about the scenario in which two tribes of early humans would have come in contact and competition. +He said, "If the one tribe included a great number of courageous, sympathetic and faithful members who are always ready to aid and defend each other, this tribe would succeed better and conquer the other." +He went on to say that "Selfish and contentious people will not cohere, and without coherence nothing can be effected." +In other words, Charles Darwin believed in group selection. +Now this idea has been very controversial for the last 40 years, but it's about to make a major comeback this year, especially after E.O. Wilson's book comes out in April, making a very strong case that we, and several other species, are products of group selection. +But really the way to think about this is as multilevel selection. +So look at it this way: You've got competition going on within groups and across groups. +So here's a group of guys on a college crew team. +Within this team there's competition. +There are guys competing with each other. +The slowest rowers, the weakest rowers, are going to get cut from the team. +And only a few of these guys are going to go on in the sport. +Maybe one of them will make it to the Olympics. +So within the team, their interests are actually pitted against each other. +And sometimes it would be advantageous for one of these guys to try to sabotage the other guys. +Maybe he'll badmouth his chief rival to the coach. +But while that competition is going on within the boat, this competition is going on across boats. +And once you put these guys in a boat competing with another boat, now they've got no choice but to cooperate because they're all in the same boat. +They can only win if they all pull together as a team. +I mean, these things sound trite, but they are deep evolutionary truths. +The main argument against group selection has always been that, well sure, it would be nice to have a group of cooperators, but as soon as you have a group of cooperators, they're just going to get taken over by free-riders, individuals that are going to exploit the hard work of the others. +Let me illustrate this for you. +Suppose we've got a group of little organisms -- they can be bacteria, they can be hamsters; it doesn't matter what -- and let's suppose that this little group here, they evolved to be cooperative. +Well that's great. They graze, they defend each other, they work together, they generate wealth. +And as you'll see in this simulation, as they interact they gain points, as it were, they grow, and when they've doubled in size, you'll see them split, and that's how they reproduce and the population grows. +But suppose then that one of them mutates. +There's a mutation in the gene and one of them mutates to follow a selfish strategy. +It takes advantage of the others. +And so when a green interacts with a blue, you'll see the green gets larger and the blue gets smaller. +So here's how things play out. +We start with just one green, and as it interacts it gains wealth or points or food. +And in short order, the cooperators are done for. +The free-riders have taken over. +If a group cannot solve the free-rider problem then it cannot reap the benefits of cooperation and group selection cannot get started. +But there are solutions to the free-rider problem. +It's not that hard a problem. +In fact, nature has solved it many, many times. +And nature's favorite solution is to put everyone in the same boat. +For example, why is it that the mitochondria in every cell has its own DNA, totally separate from the DNA in the nucleus? +It's because they used to be separate free-living bacteria and they came together and became a superorganism. +Somehow or other -- maybe one swallowed another; we'll never know exactly why -- but once they got a membrane around them, they were all in the same membrane, now all the wealth-created division of labor, all the greatness created by cooperation, stays locked inside the membrane and we've got a superorganism. +And now let's rerun the simulation putting one of these superorganisms into a population of free-riders, of defectors, of cheaters and look what happens. +A superorganism can basically take what it wants. +It's so big and powerful and efficient that it can take resources from the greens, from the defectors, the cheaters. +And pretty soon the whole population is actually composed of these new superorganisms. +What I've shown you here is sometimes called a major transition in evolutionary history. +Darwin's laws don't change, but now there's a new kind of player on the field and things begin to look very different. +Now this transition was not a one-time freak of nature that just happened with some bacteria. +It happened again about 120 or a 140 million years ago when some solitary wasps began creating little simple, primitive nests, or hives. +Once several wasps were all together in the same hive, they had no choice but to cooperate, because pretty soon they were locked into competition with other hives. +And the most cohesive hives won, just as Darwin said. +These early wasps gave rise to the bees and the ants that have covered the world and changed the biosphere. +And it happened again, even more spectacularly, in the last half-million years when our own ancestors became cultural creatures, they came together around a hearth or a campfire, they divided labor, they began painting their bodies, they spoke their own dialects, and eventually they worshiped their own gods. +Once they were all in the same tribe, they could keep the benefits of cooperation locked inside. +And they unlocked the most powerful force ever known on this planet, which is human cooperation -- a force for construction and destruction. +Of course, human groups are nowhere near as cohesive as beehives. +Human groups may look like hives for brief moments, but they tend to then break apart. +We're not locked into cooperation the way bees and ants are. +In fact, often, as we've seen happen in a lot of the Arab Spring revolts, often those divisions are along religious lines. +Nonetheless, when people do come together and put themselves all into the same movement, they can move mountains. +Look at the people in these photos I've been showing you. +Do you think they're there pursuing their self-interest? +Or are they pursuing communal interest, which requires them to lose themselves and become simply a part of a whole? +Okay, so that was my Talk delivered in the standard TED way. +And now I'm going to give the whole Talk over again in three minutes in a more full-spectrum sort of way. +Jonathan Haidt: We humans have many varieties of religious experience, as William James explained. +One of the most common is climbing the secret staircase and losing ourselves. +The staircase takes us from the experience of life as profane or ordinary upwards to the experience of life as sacred, or deeply interconnected. +We are Homo duplex, as Durkheim explained. +And we are Homo duplex because we evolved by multilevel selection, as Darwin explained. +I can't be certain if the staircase is an adaptation rather than a bug, but if it is an adaptation, then the implications are profound. +If it is an adaptation, then we evolved to be religious. +I don't mean that we evolved to join gigantic organized religions. +Those things came along too recently. +I mean that we evolved to see sacredness all around us and to join with others into teams and circle around sacred objects, people and ideas. +This is why politics is so tribal. +Politics is partly profane, it's partly about self-interest, but politics is also about sacredness. +It's about joining with others to pursue moral ideas. +It's about the eternal struggle between good and evil, and we all believe we're on the good team. +And most importantly, if the staircase is real, it explains the persistent undercurrent of dissatisfaction in modern life. +Because human beings are, to some extent, hivish creatures like bees. +We're bees. We busted out of the hive during the Enlightenment. +We broke down the old institutions and brought liberty to the oppressed. +We unleashed Earth-changing creativity and generated vast wealth and comfort. +Nowadays we fly around like individual bees exulting in our freedom. +But sometimes we wonder: Is this all there is? +What should I do with my life? +What's missing? +What's missing is that we are Homo duplex, but modern, secular society was built to satisfy our lower, profane selves. +It's really comfortable down here on the lower level. +Come, have a seat in my home entertainment center. +One great challenge of modern life is to find the staircase amid all the clutter and then to do something good and noble once you climb to the top. +I see this desire in my students at the University of Virginia. +They all want to find a cause or calling that they can throw themselves into. +They're all searching for their staircase. +And that gives me hope because people are not purely selfish. +Most people long to overcome pettiness and become part of something larger. +And this explains the extraordinary resonance of this simple metaphor conjured up nearly 400 years ago. +"No man is an island entire of itself. +Every man is a piece of the continent, a part of the main." +JH: Thank you. +The recent debate over copyright laws like SOPA in the United States and the ACTA agreement in Europe has been very emotional. +And I think some dispassionate, quantitative reasoning could really bring a great deal to the debate. +I'd therefore like to propose that we employ, we enlist, the cutting edge field of copyright math whenever we approach this subject. +For instance, just recently the Motion Picture Association revealed that our economy loses 58 billion dollars a year to copyright theft. +Now rather than just argue about this number, a copyright mathematician will analyze it and he'll soon discover that this money could stretch from this auditorium all the way across Ocean Boulevard to the Westin, and then to Mars ... +... if we use pennies. +Now this is obviously a powerful, some might say dangerously powerful, insight. +But it's also a morally important one. +Because this isn't just the hypothetical retail value of some pirated movies that we're talking about, but this is actual economic losses. +This is the equivalent to the entire American corn crop failing along with all of our fruit crops, as well as wheat, tobacco, rice, sorghum -- whatever sorghum is -- losing sorghum. +But identifying the actual losses to the economy is almost impossible to do unless we use copyright math. +Now music revenues are down by about eight billion dollars a year since Napster first came on the scene. +So that's a chunk of what we're looking for. +But total movie revenues across theaters, home video and pay-per-view are up. +And TV, satellite and cable revenues are way up. +Other content markets like book publishing and radio are also up. +So this small missing chunk here is puzzling. +Since the big content markets have grown in line with historic norms, it's not additional growth that piracy has prevented, but copyright math tells us it must therefore be foregone growth in a market that has no historic norms -- one that didn't exist in the 90's. +What we're looking at here is the insidious cost of ringtone piracy. +50 billion dollars of it a year, which is enough, at 30 seconds a ringtone, that could stretch from here to Neanderthal times. +It's true. +I have Excel. +The movie folks also tell us that our economy loses over 370,000 jobs to content theft, which is quite a lot when you consider that, back in '98, the Bureau of Labor Statistics indicated that the motion picture and video industries were employing 270,000 people. +Other data has the music industry at about 45,000 people. +And so the job losses that came with the Internet and all that content theft, have therefore left us with negative employment in our content industries. +And this is just one of the many mind-blowing statistics that copyright mathematicians have to deal with every day. +And some people think that string theory is tough. +Now this is a key number from the copyright mathematicians' toolkit. +It's the precise amount of harm that comes to media companies whenever a single copyrighted song or movie gets pirated. +Hollywood and Congress derived this number mathematically back when they last sat down to improve copyright damages and made this law. +Some people think this number's a little bit large, but copyright mathematicians who are media lobby experts are merely surprised that it doesn't get compounded for inflation every year. +Now when this law first passed, the world's hottest MP3 player could hold just 10 songs. +And it was a big Christmas hit. +Because what little hoodlum wouldn't want a million and a half bucks-worth of stolen goods in his pocket. +These days an iPod Classic can hold 40,000 songs, which is to say eight billion dollars-worth of stolen media. +Or about 75,000 jobs. +Now you might find copyright math strange, but that's because it's a field that's best left to experts. +So that's it for now. +I hope you'll join me next time when I will be making an equally scientific and fact-based inquiry into the cost of alien music piracy to he American economy. +Thank you very much. +Thank you. +I'm going to tell you a little bit about my TEDxHouston Talk. +I woke up the morning after I gave that talk with the worst vulnerability hangover of my life. +And I actually didn't leave my house for about three days. +The first time I left was to meet a friend for lunch. +And when I walked in, she was already at the table. +I sat down, and she said, "God, you look like hell." +I said, "Thanks. I feel really -- I'm not functioning." +And she said, "What's going on?" +And I said, "I just told 500 people that I became a researcher to avoid vulnerability. +And that when being vulnerable emerged from my data, as absolutely essential to whole-hearted living, I told these 500 people that I had a breakdown. +I had a slide that said 'Breakdown.' At what point did I think that was a good idea?" +And she said, "I saw your talk live-streamed. +It was not really you. +It was a little different than what you usually do. +But it was great." +And I said, "This can't happen. +YouTube, they're putting this thing on YouTube. +And we're going to be talking about 600, 700 people." +And she said, "Well, I think it's too late." +And I said, "Let me ask you something." +And she said, "Yeah." +I said, "Do you remember when we were in college, really wild and kind of dumb?" +She said, "Yeah." +I said, "Remember when we'd leave a really bad message on our ex-boyfriend's answering machine? +Then we'd have to break into his dorm room and then erase the tape?" +And she goes, "Uh... no." +Of course, the only thing I could say at that point was, "Yeah, me neither. +Yeah -- me neither." +And I'm thinking to myself, "Bren, what are you doing? +Why did you bring this up? Have you lost your mind? +Your sisters would be perfect for this." +So I looked back up and she said, "Are you really going to try to break in and steal the video before they put it on YouTube?" +And I said, "I'm just thinking about it a little bit." +She said, "You're like the worst vulnerability role model ever." +Then I looked at her and I said something that at the time felt a little dramatic, but ended up being more prophetic than dramatic. +"If 500 turns into 1,000 or 2,000, my life is over." +I had no contingency plan for four million. +And my life did end when that happened. +But I want to talk about what I've learned. +There's two things that I've learned in the last year. +The first is: vulnerability is not weakness. +And that myth is profoundly dangerous. +Let me ask you honestly -- and I'll give you this warning, I'm trained as a therapist, so I can out-wait you uncomfortably -- so if you could just raise your hand that would be awesome -- how many of you honestly, when you're thinking about doing or saying something vulnerable think, "God, vulnerability is weakness." +How many of you think of vulnerability and weakness synonymously? +The majority of people. +Now let me ask you this question: This past week at TED, how many of you, when you saw vulnerability up here, thought it was pure courage? +Vulnerability is not weakness. +I define vulnerability as emotional risk, exposure, uncertainty. +It fuels our daily lives. +And I've come to the belief -- this is my 12th year doing this research -- that vulnerability is our most accurate measurement of courage -- to be vulnerable, to let ourselves be seen, to be honest. +One of the weird things that's happened is, after the TED explosion, I got a lot of offers to speak all over the country -- everyone from schools and parent meetings to Fortune 500 companies. +And so many of the calls went like this, "Dr. Brown, we loved your TED talk. +We'd like you to come in and speak. +We'd appreciate it if you wouldn't mention vulnerability or shame." +What would you like for me to talk about? +There's three big answers. +This is mostly, to be honest with you, from the business sector: innovation, creativity and change. +So let me go on the record and say, vulnerability is the birthplace of innovation, creativity and change. +To create is to make something that has never existed before. +There's nothing more vulnerable than that. +Adaptability to change is all about vulnerability. +The second thing, in addition to really finally understanding the relationship between vulnerability and courage, the second thing I learned, is this: We have to talk about shame. +And I'm going to be really honest with you. +When I became a "vulnerability researcher" and that became the focus because of the TED talk -- and I'm not kidding. +I'll give you an example. +About three months ago, I was in a sporting goods store buying goggles and shin guards and all the things that parents buy at the sporting goods store. +About from a hundred feet away, this is what I hear: "Vulnerability TED! Vulnerability TED!" +I'm a fifth-generation Texan. +Our family motto is "Lock and load." +I am not a natural vulnerability researcher. +So I'm like, just keep walking, she's on my six. +And then I hear, "Vulnerability TED!" +I turn around, I go, "Hi." +She's right here and she said, "You're the shame researcher who had the breakdown." +At this point, parents are, like, pulling their children close. +"Look away." +And I'm so worn out at this point in my life, I look at her and I actually say, "It was a fricking spiritual awakening." +And she looks back and does this, "I know." +And she said, "We watched your TED talk in my book club. +Then we read your book and we renamed ourselves 'The Breakdown Babes.'" And she said, "Our tagline is: 'We're falling apart and it feels fantastic.'" You can only imagine what it's like for me in a faculty meeting. +So when I became Vulnerability TED, like an action figure -- Like Ninja Barbie, but I'm Vulnerability TED -- I thought, I'm going to leave that shame stuff behind, because I spent six years studying shame before I started writing and talking about vulnerability. +And I thought, thank God, because shame is this horrible topic, no one wants to talk about it. +It's the best way to shut people down on an airplane. +"What do you do?" "I study shame." "Oh." +And I see you. +But in surviving this last year, I was reminded of a cardinal rule -- not a research rule, but a moral imperative from my upbringing -- "you've got to dance with the one who brung ya". +And I did not learn about vulnerability and courage and creativity and innovation from studying vulnerability. +I learned about these things from studying shame. +And so I want to walk you in to shame. +Jungian analysts call shame the swampland of the soul. +And we're going to walk in. +And the purpose is not to walk in and construct a home and live there. +It is to put on some galoshes -- and walk through and find our way around. +Here's why. +We heard the most compelling call ever to have a conversation in this country, and I think globally, around race, right? +Yes? We heard that. +Yes? +Cannot have that conversation without shame. +Because you cannot talk about race without talking about privilege. +And when people start talking about privilege, they get paralyzed by shame. +We heard a brilliant simple solution to not killing people in surgery, which is, have a checklist. +You can't fix that problem without addressing shame, because when they teach those folks how to suture, they also teach them how to stitch their self-worth to being all-powerful. +And all-powerful folks don't need checklists. +And I had to write down the name of this TED Fellow so I didn't mess it up here. +Myshkin Ingawale, I hope I did right by you. +I saw the TED Fellows my first day here. +And he got up and he explained how he was driven to create some technology to help test for anemia, because people were dying unnecessarily. +And he said, "I saw this need. +So you know what I did? I made it." +And everybody just burst into applause, and they were like "Yes!" +And he said, "And it didn't work. +And then I made it 32 more times, and then it worked." +You know what the big secret about TED is? +I can't wait to tell people this. +I guess I'm doing it right now. +This is like the failure conference. +No, it is. +You know why this place is amazing? +Because very few people here are afraid to fail. +And no one who gets on the stage, so far that I've seen, has not failed. +I've failed miserably, many times. +I don't think the world understands that, because of shame. +There's a great quote that saved me this past year by Theodore Roosevelt. +A lot of people refer to it as the "Man in the Arena" quote. +And it goes like this: "It is not the critic who counts. +It is not the man who sits and points out how the doer of deeds could have done things better and how he falls and stumbles. +The credit goes to the man in the arena whose face is marred with dust and blood and sweat. +But when he's in the arena, at best, he wins, and at worst, he loses, but when he fails, when he loses, he does so daring greatly." +And that's what this conference, to me, is about. +Life is about daring greatly, about being in the arena. +When you walk up to that arena and you put your hand on the door, and you think, "I'm going in and I'm going to try this," shame is the gremlin who says, "Uh, uh. +You're not good enough. +You never finished that MBA. Your wife left you. +I know your dad really wasn't in Luxembourg, he was in Sing Sing. +I know those things that happened to you growing up. +I know you don't think that you're pretty, smart, talented or powerful enough. +I know your dad never paid attention, even when you made CFO." +Shame is that thing. +And if we can quiet it down and walk in and say, "I'm going to do this," we look up and the critic that we see pointing and laughing, 99 percent of the time is who? +Us. +Shame drives two big tapes -- "never good enough" -- and, if you can talk it out of that one, "who do you think you are?" +The thing to understand about shame is, it's not guilt. +Shame is a focus on self, guilt is a focus on behavior. +Shame is "I am bad." +Guilt is "I did something bad." +How many of you, if you did something that was hurtful to me, would be willing to say, "I'm sorry. I made a mistake?" +How many of you would be willing to say that? +Guilt: I'm sorry. I made a mistake. +Shame: I'm sorry. I am a mistake. +There's a huge difference between shame and guilt. +And here's what you need to know. +Shame is highly, highly correlated with addiction, depression, violence, aggression, bullying, suicide, eating disorders. +And here's what you even need to know more. +Guilt, inversely correlated with those things. +The ability to hold something we've done or failed to do up against who we want to be is incredibly adaptive. +It's uncomfortable, but it's adaptive. +The other thing you need to know about shame is it's absolutely organized by gender. +If shame washes over me and washes over Chris, it's going to feel the same. +Everyone sitting in here knows the warm wash of shame. +We're pretty sure that the only people who don't experience shame are people who have no capacity for connection or empathy. +Which means, yes, I have a little shame; no, I'm a sociopath. +So I would opt for, yes, you have a little shame. +Shame feels the same for men and women, but it's organized by gender. +For women, the best example I can give you is Enjoli, the commercial. +"I can put the wash on the line, pack the lunches, hand out the kisses and be at work at five to nine. +I can bring home the bacon, fry it up in the pan and never let you forget you're a man." +For women, shame is, do it all, do it perfectly and never let them see you sweat. +I don't know how much perfume that commercial sold, but I guarantee you, it moved a lot of antidepressants and anti-anxiety meds. +Shame, for women, is this web of unobtainable, conflicting, competing expectations about who we're supposed to be. +And it's a straight-jacket. +For men, shame is not a bunch of competing, conflicting expectations. +Shame is one, do not be perceived as what? +Weak. +I did not interview men for the first four years of my study. +It wasn't until a man looked at me after a book signing, and said, "I love what say about shame, I'm curious why you didn't mention men." +And I said, "I don't study men." +And he said, "That's convenient." +And I said, "Why?" +And he said, "Because you say to reach out, tell our story, be vulnerable. +But you see those books you just signed for my wife and my three daughters?" +I said, "Yeah." +"They'd rather me die on top of my white horse than watch me fall down. +When we reach out and be vulnerable, we get the shit beat out of us. +And don't tell me it's from the guys and the coaches and the dads. +Because the women in my life are harder on me than anyone else." +So I started interviewing men and asking questions. +And what I learned is this: You show me a woman who can actually sit with a man in real vulnerability and fear, I'll show you a woman who's done incredible work. +You show me a man who can sit with a woman who's just had it, she can't do it all anymore, and his first response is not, "I unloaded the dishwasher!" +But he really listens -- because that's all we need -- I'll show you a guy who's done a lot of work. +Shame is an epidemic in our culture. +And to get out from underneath it -- to find our way back to each other, we have to understand how it affects us and how it affects the way we're parenting, the way we're working, the way we're looking at each other. +Very quickly, some research by Mahalik at Boston College. +He asked, what do women need to do to conform to female norms? +The top answers in this country: nice, thin, modest and use all available resources for appearance. +When he asked about men, what do men in this country need to do to conform with male norms, the answers were: always show emotional control, work is first, pursue status and violence. +If we're going to find our way back to each other, we have to understand and know empathy, because empathy's the antidote to shame. +If you put shame in a Petri dish, it needs three things to grow exponentially: secrecy, silence and judgment. +If you put the same amount in a Petri dish and douse it with empathy, it can't survive. +The two most powerful words when we're in struggle: me too. +And so I'll leave you with this thought. +If we're going to find our way back to each other, vulnerability is going to be that path. +And I know it's seductive to stand outside the arena, because I think I did it my whole life, and think to myself, I'm going to go in there and kick some ass when I'm bulletproof and when I'm perfect. +And that is seductive. +But the truth is, that never happens. +And even if you got as perfect as you could and as bulletproof as you could possibly muster when you got in there, that's not what we want to see. +We want you to go in. +We want to be with you and across from you. +And we just want, for ourselves and the people we care about and the people we work with, to dare greatly. +So thank you all very much. I really appreciate it. +I'm a believer. +I'm a believer in global warming, and my record is good on the subject. +But my subject is national security. +We have to get off of oil purchased from the enemy. +I'm talking about OPEC oil. +And let me take you back 100 years to 1912. +You're probably thinking that was my birth year. +It wasn't. It was 1928. +But go back to 1912, 100 years ago, and look at that point what we, our country, was faced with. +It's the same energy question that you're looking at today, but it's different sources of fuel. +A hundred years ago we were looking at coal, of course, and we were looking at whale oil and we were looking at crude oil. +At that point, we were looking for a fuel that was cleaner, it was cheaper, and it wasn't ours though, it was theirs. +So at that point, 1912, we selected crude oil over whale oil and some more coal. +But as we moved on to the period now, 100 years later, we're back really at another decision point. +What is the decision point? +It's what we're going to use in the future. +So from here, it's pretty clear to me, we would prefer to have cleaner, cheaper, domestic, ours -- and we have that, we have that -- which is natural gas. +So here you are, that the cost of all this to the world is 89 million barrels of oil, give or take a few barrels, every day. +And the cost annually is three trillion dollars. +And one trillion of that goes to OPEC. +That has got to be stopped. +Now if you look at the cost of OPEC, it cost seven trillion dollars -- on the Milken Institute study last year -- seven trillion dollars since 1976, is what we paid for oil from OPEC. +Now that includes the cost of military and the cost of the fuel both. +But it's the greatest transfer of wealth, from one group to another in the history of mankind. +And it continues. +Now when you look at where is the transfer of wealth, you can see here that we have the arrows going into the Mid-East and away from us. +And with that, we have found ourselves to be the world's policemen. +We are policing the world, and how are we doing that? +I know the response to this. +I would bet there aren't 10 percent of you in the room that know how many aircraft carriers there are in the world. +Raise your hand if you think you know. +There are 12. +One is under construction by the Chinese and the other 11 belong to us. +Why do we have 11 aircraft carriers? +Do we have a corner on the market? +Are we smarter than anybody else? I'm not sure. +If you look at where they're located -- and on this slide it's the red blobs on there -- there are five that are operating in the Mid-East, and the rest of them are in the United States. +They just move back to the Mid-East and those come back. +So actually most of the 11 we have are tied up in the Mid-East. +Why? Why are they in the Mid-East? +They're there to control, keep the shipping lanes open and make oil available. +And the United States uses about 20 million barrels a day, which is about 25 percent of all the oil used everyday in the world. +And we're doing it with four percent of the population. +Somehow that doesn't seem right. +That's not sustainable. +So where do we go from here? +Does that continue? +Yes, it's going to continue. +The slide you're looking at here is 1990 to 2040. +Over that period you are going to double your demand. +And when you look at what we're using the oil for, 70 percent of it is used for transportation fuel. +So when somebody says, "Let's go more nuclear, let's go wind, let's go solar," fine; I'm for anything American, anything American. +But if you're going to do anything about the dependency on foreign oil, you have to address transportation. +So here we are using 20 million barrels a day -- producing eight, importing 12, and from the 12, five comes from OPEC. +When you look at the biggest user and the second largest user, we use 20 million barrels and the Chinese use 10. +The Chinese have a little bit better plan -- or they have a plan; we have no plan. +In the history of America, we've never had an energy plan. +We don't even realize the resources that we have available to us. +If you take the last 10 years and bring forward, you've transferred to OPEC a trillion dollars. +If you go forward the next 10 years and cap the price of oil at 100 dollars a barrel, you will pay 2.2 trillion. +That's not sustainable either. +But the days of cheap oil are over. +They're over. +They make it very clear to you, the Saudis do, they have to have 94 dollars a barrel to make their social commitments. +Now I had people in Washington last week told me, he said, "The Saudis can produce the oil for five dollars a barrel. +That has nothing to do with it. +It's what they have to pay for is what we are going to pay for oil." +There is no free market for oil. +The oil is priced off the margin. +And the OPEC nations are the ones that price the oil. +So where are we headed from here? +We're headed to natural gas. +Natural gas will do everything we want it to do. +It's 130 octane fuel. +It's 25 percent cleaner than oil. +It's ours, we have an abundance of it. +And it does not require a refinery. +It comes out of the ground at 130 octane. +Run it through the separator and you're ready to use it. +It's going to be very simple for us to use. +It's going to be simple to accomplish this. +You're going to find, and I'll tell you in just a minute, what you're looking for to make it happen. +But here you can look at the list. +Natural gas will fit all of those. +It will replace or be able to be used for that. +It's for power generation, transportation, it's peaking fuel, it's all those. +Do we have enough natural gas? +Look at the bar on the left. It's 24 trillion. +It's what we use a year. +Go forward and the estimates that you have from the EIA and onto the industry estimates -- the industry knows what they're talking about -- we've got 4,000 trillion cubic feet of natural gas that's available to us. +How does that translate to barrels of oil equivalent? +It would be three times what the Saudis claim they have. +And they claim they have 250 billion barrels of oil, which I do not believe. +I think it's probably 175 billion barrels. +But anyway, whether they say they're right or whatever, we have plenty of natural gas. +So I have tried to target on where we use the natural gas. +And where I've targeted is on the heavy-duty trucks. +There are eight million of them. +You take eight million trucks -- these are 18-wheelers -- and take them to natural gas, reduce carbon by 30 percent, it is cheaper and it will cut our imports three million barrels. +So you will cut 60 percent off of OPEC There are 250 million vehicles in America. +So what you have is natural gas is the bridge fuel, is the way I see it. +I don't have to worry about the bridge to where at my age. +That's your concern. +But when you look at the natural gas we have it could very well be the bridge to natural gas, because you have plenty of natural gas. +But as I said, I'm for anything American. +Now let me take you -- I've been a realist -- I went from theorist early to realist. +I'm back to theorist again. +If you look at the world, you have methane hydrates in the ocean around every continent. +So I think I've made my point that we have to get on our own resources in America. +If we do -- it's costing us a billion dollars a day for oil. +And yet, we have no energy plan. +So there's nothing going on that impresses me in Washington on that plan, other than I'm trying to focus on that eight million 18-wheelers. +If we could do that, I think we would take our first step to an energy plan. +If we did, we could see that our own resources are easier to use than anybody can imagine. +Thank you. +Chris Anderson: Thanks for that. +So from your point of view, you had this great Pickens Plan that was based on wind energy, and you abandoned it basically because the economics changed. +What happened? +TBP: I lost 150 million dollars. +That'll make you abandon something. +No, what happened to us, Chris, is that power, it's priced off the margin. +And so the margin is natural gas. +And at the time I went into the wind business, natural gas was nine dollars. +Today it's two dollars and forty cents. +You cannot do a wind deal under six dollars an MCF. +CA: So what happened was that, through increased ability to use fracking technology, the calculated reserves of natural gas kind of exploded and the price plummeted, which made wind uncompetitive. +In a nutshell that's what happened? +TBP: That's what happened. +We found out that we could go to the source rock, which were the carboniferous shales in the basins. +The first one was Barnett Shale in Texas and then the Marcellus up in the Northeast across New York, Pennsylvania, West Virginia; and Haynesville in Louisiana. +This stuff is everywhere. +We are overwhelmed with natural gas. +CA: And now you're a big investor in that and bringing that to market? +TBP: Well you say a big investor. +It's my life. +I'm a geologist, got out of school in '51, and I've been in the industry my entire life. +Now I do own stocks. +I'm not a big natural gas producer. +Somebody the other day said I was the second largest natural gas producer in the United States. +Don't I wish. +But no, I'm not. I own stocks. +But I also am in the fueling business. +CA: But natural gas is a fossil fuel. +You burn it, you release CO2. +So you believe in the threat of climate change. +Why doesn't that prospect concern you? +TBP: Well you're going to have to use something. +What do you have to replace it? +CA: No, no. The argument that it's a bridge fuel makes sense, because the amount of CO2 per unit of energy is lower than oil and coal, correct? +And so everyone can be at least happy to see a shift from coal or oil to natural gas. +But if that's it and that becomes the reason that renewables don't get invested in, then, long-term, we're screwed anyway, right? +TBP: Well I'm not ready to give up, but Jim and I talked there as he left, and I said, "How do you feel about natural gas?" +And he said, "Well it's a bridge fuel, is what it is." +And I said, "Bridge to what? +Where are we headed?" +See but again, I told you, I don't have to worry with that. +You all do. +CA: But I don't think that's right, Boone. +I think you're a person who believes in your legacy. +You've made the money you need. +You're one of the few people in a position to really swing the debate. +Do you support the idea of some kind of price on carbon? +Does that make sense? +TBP: I don't like that because it ends up the government is going to run the program. +I can tell you it will be a failure. +The government is not successful on these things. +They just aren't, it's a bad deal. +Look at Solyndra, or whatever it was. +I mean, that was told to be a bad idea 10 times, they went ahead and did it anyway. +But that only blew out 500 million. +I think it's closer to a billion. +But Chris, I think where we're headed, the long-term, I don't mind going back to nuclear. +And I can tell you what the last page of the report that will take them five years to write will be. +One, don't build a reformer on a fault. +And number two, do not build a reformer on the ocean. +And now I think reformers are safe. +Move them inland and on very stable ground and build the reformers. +There isn't anything wrong with nuke. +You're going to have to have energy. There is no question. +You can't -- okay. +CA: One of the questions from the audience is, with fracking and the natural gas process, what about the problem of methane leaking from that, methane being a worse global warming gas than CO2? +Is that a concern? +TBP: Fracking? What is fracking? +CA: Fracking. +TBP: I'm teasing. +CA: We've got a little bit of accent incompatibility here, you know. +TBP: No, let me tell you, I've told you what my age was. +I got out of school in '51. +I witnessed my first frack job at border Texas in 1953. +Fracking came out in '47, and don't believe for a minute when our president gets up there and says the Department of Energy 30 years ago developed fracking. +I don't know what in the hell he's talking about. +I mean seriously, the Department of Energy did not have anything to do with fracking. +The first frack job was in '47. +I saw my first one in '53. +I've fracked over 3,000 wells in my life. +Never had a problem with messing up an aquifer or anything else. +Now the largest aquifer in North America is from Midland, Texas to the South Dakota border, across eight states -- big aquifer: Ogallala, Triassic age. +There had to have been 800,000 wells fracked in Oklahoma, Texas, Kansas in that aquifer. +There's no problems. +I don't understand why the media is focused on Eastern Pennsylvania. +CA: All right, so you don't support a carbon tax of any kind or a price on carbon. +Your picture then I guess of how the world eventually gets off fossil fuels is through innovation ultimately, that we'll someday make solar and nuclear cost competitive? +TBP: Solar and wind, Jim and I agreed on that in 13 seconds. +That is, it's going to be a small part, because you can't rely on it. +CA: So how does the world get off fossil fuels? +TBP: How do we get there? +We have so much natural gas, a day will not come where you say, "Well let's don't use that anymore." +You'll keep using it. It is the cleanest of all. +And if you look at California, they use 2,500 buses. +LAMTA have been on natural gas for 25 years. +The Ft. Worth T has been on it for 25 years. +Why? Air quality was the reason they used natural gas and got away from diesel. +Why are all the trash trucks today in Southern California on natural gas? +It's because of air quality. +I know what you're telling me, and I'm not disagreeing with you. +How in the hell can we get off the natural gas at some point? +And I say, that is your problem. +CA: All right, so it's the bridge fuel. +What is at the other end of that bridge is for this audience to figure out. +If someone comes to you with a plan that really looks like it might be part of this solution, are you ready to invest in those technologies, even if they aren't maximized for profits, they might be maximized for the future health of the planet? +TBP: I lost 150 million on the wind, okay. +Yeah, sure, I'm game for it. +Because, again, I'm trying to get energy solved for America. +And anything American will work for me. +CA: Boone, I really, really appreciate you coming here, engaging in this conversation. +I think there's a lot of people who will want to engage with you. +And that was a real gift you gave this audience. +Thank you so much. (TBP: You bet, Chris. Thank you.) +One out of two of you women will be impacted by cardiovascular disease in your lifetime. +So this is the leading killer of women. +It's a closely held secret for reasons I don't know. +In addition to making this personal -- so we're going to talk about your relationship with your heart and all women's relationship with their heart -- we're going to wax into the politics. +Because the personal, as you know, is political. +And not enough is being done about this. +And as we have watched women conquer breast cancer through the breast cancer campaign, this is what we need to do now with heart. +Since 1984, more women die in the U.S. than men. +So where we used to think of heart disease as being a man's problem primarily -- which that was never true, but that was kind of how everybody thought in the 1950s and '60s, and it was in all the textbooks. +It's certainly what I learned when I was training. +If we were to remain sexist, and that was not right, but if we were going to go forward and be sexist, it's actually a woman's disease. +So it's a woman's disease now. +And one of the things that you see is that male line, the mortality is going down, down, down, down, down. +And you see the female line since 1984, the gap is widening. +More and more women, two, three, four times more women, dying of heart disease than men. +And that's too short of a time period for all the different risk factors that we know to change. +So what this really suggested to us at the national level was that diagnostic and therapeutic strategies, which had been developed in men, by men, for men for the last 50 years -- and they work pretty well in men, don't they? -- weren't working so well for women. +So that was a big wake-up call in the 1980's. +Heart disease kills more women at all ages than breast cancer. +And the breast cancer campaign -- again, this is not a competition. +We're trying to be as good as the breast cancer campaign. +We need to be as good as the breast cancer campaign to address this crisis. +Now sometimes when people see this, I hear this gasp. +We can all think of someone, often a young woman, who has been impacted by breast cancer. +We often can't think of a young woman who has heart disease. +I'm going to tell you why. +Heart disease kills people, often very quickly. +So the first time heart disease strikes in women and men, half of the time it's sudden cardiac death -- no opportunity to say good-bye, no opportunity to take her to the chemotherapy, no opportunity to help her pick out a wig. +Breast cancer, mortality is down to four percent. +And that is the 40 years that women have advocated. +Betty Ford, Nancy Reagan stood up and said, "I'm a breast cancer survivor," and it was okay to talk about it. +And then physicians have gone to bat. +We've done the research. +We have effective therapies now. +Women are living longer than ever. +That has to happen in heart disease, and it's time. +It's not happening, and it's time. +We owe an incredible debt of gratitude to these two women. +As Barbara depicted in one of her amazing movies, "Yentl," she portrayed a young woman who wanted an education. +And she wanted to study the Talmud. +And so how did she get educated then? +She had to impersonate a man. +She had to look like a man. +She had to make other people believe that she looked like a man and she could have the same rights that the men had. +Bernadine Healy, Dr. Healy, was a cardiologist. +And right around that time, in the 1980's, that we saw women and heart disease deaths going up, up, up, up, up, she wrote an editorial in the New England Journal of Medicine and said, the Yentl syndrome. +Women are dying of heart disease, two, three, four times more than men. +Mortality is not going down, it's going up. +And she questioned, she hypothesized, is this a Yentl syndrome? +And here's what the story is. +Is it because women don't look like men, they don't look like that male-pattern heart disease that we've spent the last 50 years understanding and getting really good diagnostics and really good therapeutics, and therefore, they're not recognized for their heart disease. +And they're just passed. +They don't get treated, they don't get detected, they don't get the benefit of all the modern medicines. +Doctor Healy then subsequently became the first female director of our National Institutes of Health. +And this is the biggest biomedical enterprise research in the world. +And it funds a lot of my research. +It funds research all over the place. +It was a very big deal for her to become director. +And she started, in the face of a lot of controversy, the Women's Health Initiative. +And every woman in the room here has benefited from that Women's Health Initiative. +It told us about hormone replacement therapy. +It's informed us about osteoporosis. +It informed us about breast cancer, colon cancer in women. +So a tremendous fund of knowledge despite, again, that so many people told her not to do it, it was too expensive. +And the under-reading was women aren't worth it. +She was like, "Nope. Sorry. Women are worth it." +Well there was a little piece of that Women's Health Initiative that went to National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, which is the cardiology part of the NIH. +And we got to do the WISE study -- and the WISE stands for Women's Ischemia Syndrome Evaluation -- and I have chaired this study for the last 15 years. +It was a study to specifically ask, what's going on with women? +Why are more and more women dying of ischemic heart disease? +So in the WISE, 15 years ago, we started out and said, "Well wow, there's a couple of key observations and we should probably follow up on that." +And our colleagues in Washington, D.C. +You're going to find some interesting analogies in this physiology. +So I'll describe the male-pattern heart attack first. +Hollywood heart attack. Ughhhh. +Horrible chest pain. +EKG goes pbbrrhh, so the doctors can see this hugely abnormal EKG. +There's a big clot in the middle of the artery. +And they go up to the cath lab and boom, boom, boom get rid of the clot. +That's a man heart attack. +Some women have those heart attacks, but a whole bunch of women have this kind of heart attack, where it erodes, doesn't completely fill with clot, symptoms are subtle, EKG findings are different -- female-pattern. +So what do you think happens to these gals? +They're often not recognized, sent home. +I'm not sure what it was. Might have been gas. +So we picked up on that and we said, "You know, we now have the ability to look inside human beings with these special catheters called IVUS: intravascular ultrasound." +And we said, "We're going to hypothesize that the fatty plaque in women is actually probably different, and deposited differently, than men." +And because of the common knowledge of how women and men get fat. +When we watch people become obese, where do men get fat? +Right here, it's just a focal -- right there. +Where do women get fat? +All over. +Cellulite here, cellulite here. +So we said, "Look, women look like they're pretty good about putting kind of the garbage away, smoothly putting it away. +Men just have to dump it in a single area." +So we said, "Let's look at these." +And so the yellow is the fatty plaque, and panel A is a man. +And you can see, it's lumpy bumpy. +He's got a beer belly in his coronary arteries. +Panel B is the woman, very smooth. +She's just laid it down nice and tidy. +And if you did that angiogram, which is the red, you can see the man's disease. +So 50 years of honing and crafting these angiograms, we easily recognize male-pattern disease. +Kind of hard to see that female-pattern disease. +So that was a discovery. +Now what are the implications of that? +Well once again, women get the angiogram and nobody can tell that they have a problem. +So we are working now on a non-invasive -- again, these are all invasive studies. +Ideally you would love to do all this non-invasively. +And again, 50 years of good non-invasive stress testing, we're pretty good at recognizing male-pattern disease with stress tests. +So this is cardiac magnetic resonance imaging. +We're doing this at the Cedars-Sinai Heart Institute in the Women's Heart Center. +We selected this for the research. +This is not in your community hospital, but we would hope to translate this. +And we're about two and a half years into a five-year study. +This was the only modality that can see the inner lining of the heart. +And if you look carefully, you can see that there's a black blush right there. +And that is microvascular obstruction. +The syndrome, the female-pattern now is called microvascular coronary dysfunction, or obstruction. +The second reason we really liked MRI is that there's no radiation. +So unlike the CAT scans, X-rays, thalliums, for women whose breast is in the way of looking at the heart, every time we order something that has even a small amount of radiation, we say, "Do we really need that test?" +So we're very excited about M.R. +You can't go and order it yet, but this is an area of active inquiry where actually studying women is going to advance the field for women and men. +What are the downstream consequences then, when female-pattern heart disease is not recognized? +This is a figure from an editorial that I published in the European Heart Journal this last summer. +And it was just a pictogram to sort of show why more women are dying of heart disease, despite these good treatments that we know and we have work. +And when the woman has male-pattern disease -- so she looks like Barbara in the movie -- they get treated. +And when you have female-pattern and you look like a woman, as Barbara does here with her husband, they don't get the treatment. +These are our life-saving treatments. +And those little red boxes are deaths. +So those are the consequences. +And that is female-pattern and why we think the Yentl syndrome actually is explaining a lot of these gaps. +There's been wonderful news also about studying women, finally, in heart disease. +And one of the the cutting-edge areas that we're just incredibly excited about is stem cell therapy. +If you ask, what is the big difference between women and men physiologically? +Why are there women and men? +Because women bring new life into the world. +That's all stem cells. +So we hypothesized that female stem cells might be better at identifying the injury, doing some cellular repair or even producing new organs, which is one of the things that we're trying to do with stem cell therapy. +These are female and male stem cells. +And if you had an injured organ, if you had a heart attack and we wanted to repair that injured area, do you want those robust, plentiful stem cells on the top? +Or do you want these guys, that look like they're out to lunch? +And some of our investigative teams have demonstrated that female stem cells -- and this is in animals and increasingly we're showing this in humans -- that female stem cells, when put even into a male body, do better than male stem cells going into a male body. +One of the things that we say about all of this female physiology -- because again, as much as we're talking about women and heart disease, women do, on average, have better longevity than men -- is that unfolding the secrets of female physiology and understanding that is going to help men and women. +So this is not a zero-sum game in anyway. +Okay, so here's where we started. +And remember, paths crossed in 1984, and more and more women were dying of cardiovascular disease. +What has happened in the last 15 years with this work? +We are bending the curve. +We're bending the curve. +So just like the breast cancer story, doing research, getting awareness going, it works, you just have to get it going. +Now are we happy with this? +We still have two to three more women dying for every man. +And I would propose, with the better longevity that women have overall, that women probably should theoretically do better, if we could just get treated. +So this is where we are, but we have a long row to hoe. +We've worked on this for 15 years. +And I've told you, we've been working on male-pattern heart disease for 50 years. +So we're 35 years behind. +And we'd like to think it's not going to take 35 years. +And in fact, it probably won't. +But we cannot stop now. +Too many lives are at stake. +So what do we need to do? +You now, hopefully, have a more personal relationship with your heart. +Women have heard the call for breast cancer and they have come out for awareness campaigns. +The women are very good about getting mammograms now. +And women do fundraising. +Women participate. +They have put their money where their mouth is and they have done advocacy and they have joined campaigns. +This is what we need to do with heart disease now. +And it's political. +Women's health, from a federal funding standpoint, sometimes it's popular, sometimes it's not so popular. +So we have these feast and famine cycles. +So I implore you to join the Red Dress Campaign in this fundraising. +Breast cancer, as we said, kills women, but heart disease kills a whole bunch more. +So if we can be as good as breast cancer and give women this new charge, we have a lot of lives to save. +So thank you for your attention. +So my name is Taylor Wilson. +I am 17 years old and I am a nuclear physicist, which may be a little hard to believe, but I am. +And I would like to make the case that nuclear fusion will be that point, that the bridge that T. Boone Pickens talked about will get us to. +So nuclear fusion is our energy future. +And the second point, making the case that kids can really change the world. +So you may ask -- You may ask me, well how do you know what our energy future is? +Well I built a fusion reactor when I was 14 years old. +That is the inside of my nuclear fusion reactor. +I started building this project when I was about 12 or 13 years old. +I decided I wanted to make a star. +Now most of you are probably saying, well there's no such thing as nuclear fusion. +I don't see any nuclear power plants with fusion energy. +Well it doesn't break even. +It doesn't produce more energy out than I put in, but it still does some pretty cool stuff. +And I assembled this in my garage, and it now lives in the physics department of the University of Nevada, Reno. +And it slams together deuterium, which is just hydrogen with an extra neutron in it. +So this is similar to the reaction of the proton chain that's going on inside the Sun. +And I'm slamming it together so hard that that hydrogen fuses together, and in the process it has some byproducts, and I utilize those byproducts. +So this previous year, I won the Intel International Science and Engineering Fair. +I developed a detector that replaces the current detectors that Homeland Security has. +For hundreds of dollars, I've developed a system that exceeds the sensitivity of detectors that are hundreds of thousands of dollars. +I built this in my garage. +And I've developed a system to produce medical isotopes. +Instead of requiring multi-million-dollar facilities I've developed a device that, on a very small scale, can produce these isotopes. +So that's my fusion reactor in the background there. +That is me at the control panel of my fusion reactor. +Oh, by the way, I make yellowcake in my garage, so my nuclear program is as advanced as the Iranians. +So maybe I don't want to admit to that. +This is me at CERN in Geneva, Switzerland, which is the preeminent particle physics laboratory in the world. +And this is me with President Obama, showing him my Homeland Security research. +So in about seven years of doing nuclear research, I started out with a dream to make a "star in a jar," a star in my garage, and I ended up meeting the president and developing things that I think can change the world, and I think other kids can too. +So thank you very much. +I'm here to give you your recommended dietary allowance of poetry. +And the way I'm going to do that is present to you five animations of five of my poems. +And let me just tell you a little bit of how that came about. +Because the mixing of those two media is a sort of unnatural or unnecessary act. +But when I was United States Poet Laureate -- and I love saying that. +It's a great way to start sentences. +When I was him back then, I was approached by J. Walter Thompson, the ad company, and they were hired sort of by the Sundance Channel. +And the idea was to have me record some of my poems and then they would find animators to animate them. +And I was initially resistant, because I always think poetry can stand alone by itself. +Attempts to put my poems to music have had disastrous results, in all cases. +And the poem, if it's written with the ear, already has been set to its own verbal music as it was composed. +And surely, if you're reading a poem that mentions a cow, you don't need on the facing page a drawing of a cow. +I mean, let's let the reader do a little work. +But I relented because it seemed like an interesting possibility, and also I'm like a total cartoon junkie since childhood. +I think more influential than Emily Dickinson or Coleridge or Wordsworth on my imagination were Warner Brothers, Merrie Melodies and Loony Tunes cartoons. +Bugs Bunny is my muse. +And this way poetry could find its way onto television of all places. +And I'm pretty much all for poetry in public places -- poetry on buses, poetry on subways, on billboards, on cereal boxes. +When I was Poet Laureate, there I go again -- I can't help it, it's true -- I created a poetry channel on Delta Airlines that lasted for a couple of years. +So you could tune into poetry as you were flying. +And my sense is, it's a good thing to get poetry off the shelves and more into public life. +Start a meeting with a poem. That would be an idea you might take with you. +When you get a poem on a billboard or on the radio or on a cereal box or whatever, it happens to you so suddenly that you don't have time to deploy your anti-poetry deflector shields that were installed in high school. +So let us start with the first one. +It's a little poem called "Budapest," and in it I reveal, or pretend to reveal, the secrets of the creative process. +Narration: "Budapest." +My pen moves along the page like the snout of a strange animal shaped like a human arm and dressed in the sleeve of a loose green sweater. +I watch it sniffing the paper ceaselessly, intent as any forager that has nothing on its mind but the grubs and insects that will allow it to live another day. +It wants only to be here tomorrow, dressed perhaps in the sleeve of a plaid shirt, nose pressed against the page, writing a few more dutiful lines while I gaze out the window and imagine Budapest or some other city where I have never been. +BC: So that makes it seem a little easier. +Writing is not actually as easy as that for me. +But I like to pretend that it comes with ease. +One of my students came up after class, an introductory class, and she said, "You know, poetry is harder than writing," which I found both erroneous and profound. +So I like to at least pretend it just flows out. +A friend of mine has a slogan; he's another poet. +He says that, "If at first you don't succeed, hide all evidence you ever tried." +The next poem is also rather short. +Poetry just says a few things in different ways. +And I think you could boil this poem down to saying, "Some days you eat the bear, other days the bear eats you." +And it uses the imagery of dollhouse furniture. +Narration: "Some Days." +Some days I put the people in their places at the table, bend their legs at the knees, if they come with that feature, and fix them into the tiny wooden chairs. +All afternoon they face one another, the man in the brown suit, the woman in the blue dress -- perfectly motionless, perfectly behaved. +But other days I am the one who is lifted up by the ribs then lowered into the dining room of a dollhouse to sit with the others at the long table. +Very funny. +But how would you like it if you never knew from one day to the next if you were going to spend it striding around like a vivid god, your shoulders in the clouds, or sitting down there amidst the wallpaper staring straight ahead with your little plastic face? +BC: There's a horror movie in there somewhere. +The next poem is called forgetfulness, and it's really just a kind of poetic essay on the subject of mental slippage. +And the poem begins with a certain species of forgetfulness that someone called literary amnesia, in other words, forgetting the things that you have read. +Narration: "Forgetfulness." +The name of the author is the first to go, followed obediently by the title, the plot, the heartbreaking conclusion, the entire novel, which suddenly becomes one you have never read, never even heard of. +It is as if, one by one, the memories you used to harbor decided to retire to the southern hemisphere of the brain to a little fishing village where there are no phones. +Long ago, you kissed the names of the nine muses good-bye and you watched the quadratic equation pack its bag. +And even now, as you memorize the order of the planets, something else is slipping away, a state flower perhaps, the address of an uncle, the capital of Paraguay. +Whatever it is you are struggling to remember, it is not poised on the tip of your tongue, not even lurking in some obscure corner of your spleen. +It has floated away down a dark mythological river whose name begins with an L as far as you can recall, well on your own way to oblivion where you will join those who have forgotten even how to swim and how to ride a bicycle. +No wonder you rise in the middle of the night to look up the date of a famous battle in a book on war. +No wonder the Moon in the window seems to have drifted out of a love poem that you used to know by heart. +BC: The next poem is called "The Country" and it's based on, when I was in college I met a classmate who remains to be a friend of mine. +He lived, and still does, in rural Vermont. +I lived in New York City. +And we would visit each other. +And when I would go up to the country, he would teach me things like deer hunting, which meant getting lost with a gun basically -- and trout fishing and stuff like that. +And then he'd come down to New York City and I'd teach him what I knew, which was largely smoking and drinking. +And in that way we traded lore with each other. +The poem that's coming up is based on him trying to tell me a little something about a domestic point of etiquette in country living that I had a very hard time, at first, processing. +It's called "The Country." +Narration: "The Country." +I wondered about you when you told me never to leave a box of wooden strike-anywhere matches just lying around the house, because the mice might get into them and start a fire. +But your face was absolutely straight when you twisted the lid down on the round tin where the matches, you said, are always stowed. +Who could sleep that night? +Who could whisk away the thought of the one unlikely mouse padding along a cold water pipe behind the floral wallpaper, gripping a single wooden match between the needles of his teeth? +Who could not see him rounding a corner, the blue tip scratching against rough-hewn beam, the sudden flare and the creature, for one bright, shining moment, suddenly thrust ahead of his time -- now a fire-starter, now a torch-bearer in a forgotten ritual, little brown druid illuminating some ancient night? +And who could fail to notice, lit up in the blazing insulation, the tiny looks of wonderment on the faces of his fellow mice -- one-time inhabitants of what once was your house in the country? +BC: Thank you. +Thank you. And the last poem is called "The Dead." +I wrote this after a friend's funeral, but not so much about the friend as something the eulogist kept saying, as all eulogists tend to do, which is how happy the deceased would be to look down and see all of us assembled. +And that to me was a bad start to the afterlife, having to witness your own funeral and feel gratified. +So the little poem is called "The Dead." +Narration: "The Dead." +The dead are always looking down on us, they say. +While we are putting on our shoes or making a sandwich, they are looking down through the glass-bottom boats of heaven as they row themselves slowly through eternity. +They watch the tops of our heads moving below on Earth. +And when we lie down in a field or on a couch, drugged perhaps by the hum of a warm afternoon, they think we are looking back at them, which makes them lift their oars and fall silent and wait like parents for us to close our eyes. +BC: I'm not sure if other poems will be animated. +It took a long time -- I mean, it's rather uncommon to have this marriage -- a long time to put those two together. +But then again, it took us a long time to put the wheel and the suitcase together. +I mean, we had the wheel for some time. +And schlepping is an ancient and honorable art. +I just have time to read a more recent poem to you. +If it has a subject, the subject is adolescence. +And it's addressed to a certain person. +It's called "To My Favorite 17-Year-Old High School Girl." +"Do you realize that if you had started building the Parthenon on the day you were born, you would be all done in only one more year? +Of course, you couldn't have done that all alone. +So never mind; you're fine just being yourself. +You're loved for just being you. +But did you know that at your age Judy Garland was pulling down 150,000 dollars a picture, Joan of Arc was leading the French army to victory and Blaise Pascal had cleaned up his room -- no wait, I mean he had invented the calculator? +Of course, there will be time for all that later in your life, after you come out of your room and begin to blossom, or at least pick up all your socks. +For some reason I keep remembering that Lady Jane Grey was queen of England when she was only 15. +But then she was beheaded, so never mind her as a role model. +A few centuries later, when he was your age, Franz Schubert was doing the dishes for his family, but that did not keep him from composing two symphonies, four operas and two complete masses as a youngster. +But of course, that was in Austria at the height of Romantic lyricism, not here in the suburbs of Cleveland. +Frankly, who cares if Annie Oakley was a crack shot at 15 or if Maria Callas debuted as Tosca at 17? +We think you're special just being you -- playing with your food and staring into space. +By the way, I lied about Schubert doing the dishes, but that doesn't mean he never helped out around the house." +Thank you. Thank you. +Thanks. +Look, I had second thoughts, really, about whether I could talk about this to such a vital and alive audience as you guys. +Then I remembered the quote from Gloria Steinem, which goes, "The truth will set you free, but first it will piss you off." So -- So with that in mind, I'm going to set about trying to do those things here, and talk about dying in the 21st century. +Now the first thing that will piss you off, undoubtedly, is that all of us are, in fact, going to die in the 21st century. +There will be no exceptions to that. +There are, apparently, about one in eight of you who think you're immortal, on surveys, but -- Unfortunately, that isn't going to happen. +While I give this talk, in the next 10 minutes, a hundred million of my cells will die, and over the course of today, 2,000 of my brain cells will die and never come back, so you could argue that the dying process starts pretty early in the piece. +Anyway, the second thing I want to say about dying in the 21st century, apart from it's going to happen to everybody, is it's shaping up to be a bit of a train wreck for most of us, unless we do something to try and reclaim this process from the rather inexorable trajectory that it's currently on. +So there you go. That's the truth. +No doubt that will piss you off, and now let's see whether we can set you free. I don't promise anything. +Now, as you heard in the intro, I work in intensive care, and I think I've kind of lived through the heyday of intensive care. It's been a ride, man. +This has been fantastic. +We have machines that go ping. +There's many of them up there. +And we have some wizard technology which I think has worked really well, and over the course of the time I've worked in intensive care, the death rate for males in Australia has halved, and intensive care has had something to do with that. +Certainly, a lot of the technologies that we use have got something to do with that. +So we have had tremendous success, and we kind of got caught up in our own success quite a bit, and we started using expressions like "lifesaving." +I really apologize to everybody for doing that, because obviously, we don't. +What we do is prolong people's lives, and delay death, and redirect death, but we can't, strictly speaking, save lives on any sort of permanent basis. +And what's really happened over the period of time that I've been working in intensive care is that the people whose lives we started saving back in the '70s, '80s, and '90s, are now coming to die in the 21st century of diseases that we no longer have the answers to in quite the way we did then. +So what's happening now is there's been a big shift in the way that people die, and most of what they're dying of now isn't as amenable to what we can do as what it used to be like when I was doing this in the '80s and '90s. +So we kind of got a bit caught up with this, and we haven't really squared with you guys about what's really happening now, and it's about time we did. +I kind of woke up to this bit in the late '90s when I met this guy. +This guy is called Jim, Jim Smith, and he looked like this. +I was called down to the ward to see him. +His is the little hand. +I was called down to the ward to see him by a respiratory physician. +He said, "Look, there's a guy down here. +He's got pneumonia, and he looks like he needs intensive care. +His daughter's here and she wants everything possible to be done." +Which is a familiar phrase to us. +So I go down to the ward and see Jim, and his skin his translucent like this. +You can see his bones through the skin. +He's very, very thin, and he is, indeed, very sick with pneumonia, and he's too sick to talk to me, so I talk to his daughter Kathleen, and I say to her, "Did you and Jim ever talk about what you would want done if he ended up in this kind of situation?" +And she looked at me and said, "No, of course not!" +I thought, "Okay. Take this steady." +And I got talking to her, and after a while, she said to me, "You know, we always thought there'd be time." +Jim was 94. And I realized that something wasn't happening here. +There wasn't this dialogue going on that I imagined was happening. +So a group of us started doing survey work, and we looked at four and a half thousand nursing home residents in Newcastle, in the Newcastle area, and discovered that only one in a hundred of them had a plan about what to do when their hearts stopped beating. +One in a hundred. +And only one in 500 of them had plan about what to do if they became seriously ill. +And I realized, of course, this dialogue is definitely not occurring in the public at large. +Now, I work in acute care. +This is John Hunter Hospital. +And I thought, surely, we do better than that. +And we didn't find a single record of any preference about goals, treatments or outcomes from any of the sets of notes initiated by a doctor or by a patient. +So we started to realize that we had a problem, and the problem is more serious because of this. +What we know is that obviously we are all going to die, but how we die is actually really important, obviously not just to us, but also to how that features in the lives of all the people who live on afterwards. +And, if that wasn't bad enough, of course, all of this is rapidly progressing towards the fact that many of you, in fact, about one in 10 of you at this point, will die in intensive care. +In the U.S., it's one in five. +In Miami, it's three out of five people die in intensive care. +So this is the sort of momentum that we've got at the moment. +The reason why this is all happening is due to this, and I do have to take you through what this is about. +These are the four ways to go. +So one of these will happen to all of us. +The ones you may know most about are the ones that are becoming increasingly of historical interest: sudden death. +It's quite likely in an audience this size this won't happen to anybody here. +Sudden death has become very rare. +The death of Little Nell and Cordelia and all that sort of stuff just doesn't happen anymore. +The dying process of those with terminal illness that we've just seen occurs to younger people. +By the time you've reached 80, this is unlikely to happen to you. +Only one in 10 people who are over 80 will die of cancer. +The big growth industry are these. +What you die of is increasing organ failure, with your respiratory, cardiac, renal, whatever organs packing up. Each of these would be an admission to an acute care hospital, at the end of which, or at some point during which, somebody says, enough is enough, and we stop. +Enjoying it so far? Sorry, I just feel such a, I feel such a Cassandra here. +What can I say that's positive? What's positive is that this is happening at very great age, now. +We are all, most of us, living to reach this point. +You know, historically, we didn't do that. +This is what happens to you when you live to be a great age, and unfortunately, increasing longevity does mean more old age, not more youth. +I'm sorry to say that. What we did, anyway, look, what we did, we didn't just take this lying down at John Hunter Hospital and elsewhere. +We've started a whole series of projects to try and look about whether we could, in fact, involve people much more in the way that things happen to them. +She's the one he's looking at, and [she's] the one he's coming for. Can you see that? +She looks terrified. +It's an amazing picture. +Anyway, we had a major cultural issue. +Clearly, people didn't want us to talk about death, or, we thought that. +So with loads of funding from the Federal Government and the local Health Service, we introduced a thing at John Hunter called Respecting Patient Choices. +We trained hundreds of people to go to the wards and talk to people about the fact that they would die, and what would they prefer under those circumstances. +They loved it. The families and the patients, they loved it. +Ninety-eight percent of people really thought this just should have been normal practice, and that this is how things should work. +And when they expressed wishes, all of those wishes came true, as it were. +We were able to make that happen for them. +But then, when the funding ran out, we went back to look six months later, and everybody had stopped again, and nobody was having these conversations anymore. +So that was really kind of heartbreaking for us, because we thought this was going to really take off. +The cultural issue had reasserted itself. +So here's the pitch: I think it's important that we don't just get on this freeway to ICU without thinking hard about whether or not that's where we all want to end up, particularly as we become older and increasingly frail and ICU has less and less and less to offer us. +There has to be a little side road off there for people who don't want to go on that track. +And I have one small idea, and one big idea about what could happen. +And this is the small idea. +The small idea is, let's all of us engage more with this in the way that Jason has illustrated. +Why can't we have these kinds of conversations with our own elders and people who might be approaching this? +There are a couple of things you can do. +One of them is, you can, just ask this simple question. This question never fails. +"In the event that you became too sick to speak for yourself, who would you like to speak for you?" +That's a really important question to ask people, because giving people the control over who that is produces an amazing outcome. +The second thing you can say is, "Have you spoken to that person about the things that are important to you so that we've got a better idea of what it is we can do?" +So that's the little idea. +The big idea, I think, is more political. +I think we have to get onto this. +I suggested we should have Occupy Death. +My wife said, "Yeah, right, sit-ins in the mortuary. +Yeah, yeah. Sure." So that one didn't really run, but I was very struck by this. +Now, I'm an aging hippie. +I do think we have to get political and start to reclaim this process from the medicalized model in which it's going. +Now, listen, that sounds like a pitch for euthanasia. +I want to make it absolutely crystal clear to you all, I hate euthanasia. I think it's a sideshow. +I don't think euthanasia matters. +I actually think that, in places like Oregon, where you can have physician-assisted suicide, you take a poisonous dose of stuff, only half a percent of people ever do that. +I'm more interested in what happens to the 99.5 percent of people who don't want to do that. +I think most people don't want to be dead, but I do think most people want to have some control over how their dying process proceeds. +So I'm an opponent of euthanasia, but I do think we have to give people back some control. +It deprives euthanasia of its oxygen supply. +I think we should be looking at stopping the want for euthanasia, not for making it illegal or legal or worrying about it at all. +This is a quote from Dame Cicely Saunders, whom I met when I was a medical student. +She founded the hospice movement. +And she said, "You matter because you are, and you matter to the last moment of your life." +And I firmly believe that that's the message that we have to carry forward. +Thank you. +The electricity powering the lights in this theater was generated just moments ago. +Because the way things stand today, electricity demand must be in constant balance with electricity supply. +If in the time that it took me to walk out here on this stage, some tens of megawatts of wind power stopped pouring into the grid, the difference would have to be made up from other generators immediately. +But coal plants, nuclear plants can't respond fast enough. +A giant battery could. +With a giant battery, we'd be able to address the problem of intermittency that prevents wind and solar from contributing to the grid in the same way that coal, gas and nuclear do today. +You see, the battery is the key enabling device here. +With it, we could draw electricity from the sun even when the sun doesn't shine. +And that changes everything. +Because then renewables such as wind and solar come out from the wings, here to center stage. +Today I want to tell you about such a device. +It's called the liquid metal battery. +It's a new form of energy storage that I invented at MIT along with a team of my students and post-docs. +Now the theme of this year's TED Conference is Full Spectrum. +The OED defines spectrum as "The entire range of wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation, from the longest radio waves to the shortest gamma rays of which the range of visible light is only a small part." +So I'm not here today only to tell you how my team at MIT has drawn out of nature a solution to one of the world's great problems. +I want to go full spectrum and tell you how, in the process of developing this new technology, we've uncovered some surprising heterodoxies that can serve as lessons for innovation, ideas worth spreading. +And you know, if we're going to get this country out of its current energy situation, we can't just conserve our way out; we can't just drill our way out; we can't bomb our way out. +We're going to do it the old-fashioned American way, we're going to invent our way out, working together. +Now let's get started. +The battery was invented about 200 years ago by a professor, Alessandro Volta, at the University of Padua in Italy. +His invention gave birth to a new field of science, electrochemistry, and new technologies such as electroplating. +Perhaps overlooked, Volta's invention of the battery for the first time also demonstrated the utility of a professor. +Until Volta, nobody could imagine a professor could be of any use. +Here's the first battery -- a stack of coins, zinc and silver, separated by cardboard soaked in brine. +This is the starting point for designing a battery -- two electrodes, in this case metals of different composition, and an electrolyte, in this case salt dissolved in water. +The science is that simple. +Admittedly, I've left out a few details. +Now I've taught you that battery science is straightforward and the need for grid-level storage is compelling, but the fact is that today there is simply no battery technology capable of meeting the demanding performance requirements of the grid -- namely uncommonly high power, long service lifetime and super-low cost. +We need to think about the problem differently. +We need to think big, we need to think cheap. +So let's abandon the paradigm of let's search for the coolest chemistry and then hopefully we'll chase down the cost curve by just making lots and lots of product. +Instead, let's invent to the price point of the electricity market. +So that means that certain parts of the periodic table are axiomatically off-limits. +This battery needs to be made out of earth-abundant elements. +I say, if you want to make something dirt cheap, make it out of dirt -- preferably dirt that's locally sourced. +And we need to be able to build this thing using simple manufacturing techniques and factories that don't cost us a fortune. +So about six years ago, I started thinking about this problem. +And in order to adopt a fresh perspective, I sought inspiration from beyond the field of electricity storage. +In fact, I looked to a technology that neither stores nor generates electricity, but instead consumes electricity, huge amounts of it. +I'm talking about the production of aluminum. +The process was invented in 1886 by a couple of 22-year-olds -- Hall in the United States and Heroult in France. +And just a few short years following their discovery, aluminum changed from a precious metal costing as much as silver to a common structural material. +You're looking at the cell house of a modern aluminum smelter. +It's about 50 feet wide and recedes about half a mile -- row after row of cells that, inside, resemble Volta's battery, with three important differences. +Volta's battery works at room temperature. +It's fitted with solid electrodes and an electrolyte that's a solution of salt and water. +The Hall-Heroult cell operates at high temperature, a temperature high enough that the aluminum metal product is liquid. +The electrolyte is not a solution of salt and water, but rather salt that's melted. +It's this combination of liquid metal, molten salt and high temperature that allows us to send high current through this thing. +Today, we can produce virgin metal from ore at a cost of less than 50 cents a pound. +That's the economic miracle of modern electrometallurgy. +It is this that caught and held my attention to the point that I became obsessed with inventing a battery that could capture this gigantic economy of scale. +And I did. +I made the battery all liquid -- liquid metals for both electrodes and a molten salt for the electrolyte. +I'll show you how. +So I put low-density liquid metal at the top, put a high-density liquid metal at the bottom, and molten salt in between. +So now, how to choose the metals? +For me, the design exercise always begins here with the periodic table, enunciated by another professor, Dimitri Mendeleyev. +Everything we know is made of some combination of what you see depicted here. +And that includes our own bodies. +I recall the very moment one day when I was searching for a pair of metals that would meet the constraints of earth abundance, different, opposite density and high mutual reactivity. +I felt the thrill of realization when I knew I'd come upon the answer. +Magnesium for the top layer. +And antimony for the bottom layer. +You know, I've got to tell you, one of the greatest benefits of being a professor: colored chalk. +So to produce current, magnesium loses two electrons to become magnesium ion, which then migrates across the electrolyte, accepts two electrons from the antimony, and then mixes with it to form an alloy. +The electrons go to work in the real world out here, powering our devices. +Now to charge the battery, we connect a source of electricity. +It could be something like a wind farm. +And then we reverse the current. +And this forces magnesium to de-alloy and return to the upper electrode, restoring the initial constitution of the battery. +And the current passing between the electrodes generates enough heat to keep it at temperature. +It's pretty cool, at least in theory. +But does it really work? +So what to do next? +We go to the laboratory. +Now do I hire seasoned professionals? +No, I hire a student and mentor him, teach him how to think about the problem, to see it from my perspective and then turn him loose. +This is that student, David Bradwell, who, in this image, appears to be wondering if this thing will ever work. +What I didn't tell David at the time was I myself wasn't convinced it would work. +But David's young and he's smart and he wants a Ph.D., and he proceeds to build -- He proceeds to build the first ever liquid metal battery of this chemistry. +And based on David's initial promising results, which were paid with seed funds at MIT, I was able to attract major research funding from the private sector and the federal government. +And that allowed me to expand my group to 20 people, a mix of graduate students, post-docs and even some undergraduates. +And I was able to attract really, really good people, people who share my passion for science and service to society, not science and service for career building. +And if you ask these people why they work on liquid metal battery, their answer would hearken back to President Kennedy's remarks at Rice University in 1962 when he said -- and I'm taking liberties here -- "We choose to work on grid-level storage, not because it is easy, but because it is hard." +So this is the evolution of the liquid metal battery. +We start here with our workhorse one watt-hour cell. +I called it the shotglass. +We've operated over 400 of these, perfecting their performance with a plurality of chemistries -- not just magnesium and antimony. +Along the way we scaled up to the 20 watt-hour cell. +I call it the hockey puck. +And we got the same remarkable results. +And then it was onto the saucer. +That's 200 watt-hours. +The technology was proving itself to be robust and scalable. +But the pace wasn't fast enough for us. +So a year and a half ago, David and I, along with another research staff-member, formed a company to accelerate the rate of progress and the race to manufacture product. +So today at LMBC, we're building cells 16 inches in diameter with a capacity of one kilowatt-hour -- 1,000 times the capacity of that initial shotglass cell. +We call that the pizza. +And then we've got a four kilowatt-hour cell on the horizon. +It's going to be 36 inches in diameter. +We call that the bistro table, but it's not ready yet for prime-time viewing. +And one variant of the technology has us stacking these bistro tabletops into modules, aggregating the modules into a giant battery that fits in a 40-foot shipping container for placement in the field. +And this has a nameplate capacity of two megawatt-hours -- two million watt-hours. +That's enough energy to meet the daily electrical needs of 200 American households. +So here you have it, grid-level storage: silent, emissions-free, no moving parts, remotely controlled, designed to the market price point without subsidy. +So what have we learned from all this? +So what have we learned from all this? +Let me share with you some of the surprises, the heterodoxies. +They lie beyond the visible. +Temperature: Conventional wisdom says set it low, at or near room temperature, and then install a control system to keep it there. +Avoid thermal runaway. +Liquid metal battery is designed to operate at elevated temperature with minimum regulation. +Our battery can handle the very high temperature rises that come from current surges. +Scaling: Conventional wisdom says reduce cost by producing many. +Liquid metal battery is designed to reduce cost by producing fewer, but they'll be larger. +And finally, human resources: Conventional wisdom says hire battery experts, seasoned professionals, who can draw upon their vast experience and knowledge. +To develop liquid metal battery, I hired students and post-docs and mentored them. +In a battery, I strive to maximize electrical potential; when mentoring, I strive to maximize human potential. +So you see, the liquid metal battery story is more than an account of inventing technology, it's a blueprint for inventing inventors, full-spectrum. +You should be nice to nerds. +In fact, I'd go so far as to say, if you don't already have a nerd in your life, you should get one. +I'm just saying. +Scientists and engineers change the world. +I'd like to tell you about a magical place called DARPA where scientists and engineers defy the impossible and refuse to fear failure. +Now these two ideas are connected more than you may realize, because when you remove the fear of failure, impossible things suddenly become possible. +If you want to know how, ask yourself this question: What would you attempt to do if you knew you could not fail? +If you really ask yourself this question, you can't help but feel uncomfortable. +I feel a little uncomfortable. +Because when you ask it, you begin to understand how the fear of failure constrains you, how it keeps us from attempting great things, and life gets dull, amazing things stop happening. +Sure, good things happen, but amazing things stop happening. +Now I should be clear, I'm not encouraging failure, I'm discouraging fear of failure. +Because it's not failure itself that constrains us. +The path to truly new, never-been-done-before things always has failure along the way. +We're tested. +And in part, that testing feels an appropriate part of achieving something great. +Clemenceau said, "Life gets interesting when we fail, because it's a sign that we've surpassed ourselves." +In 1895, Lord Kelvin declared that heavier-than-air flying machines were impossible. +In October of 1903, the prevailing opinion of expert aerodynamicists was that maybe in 10 million years we could build an aircraft that would fly. +And two months later on December 17th, Orville Wright powered the first airplane across a beach in North Carolina. +The flight lasted 12 seconds and covered 120 feet. +That was 1903. +One year later, the next declarations of impossibilities began. +Ferdinand Foch, a French army general credited with having one of the most original and subtle minds in the French army, said, "Airplanes are interesting toys, but of no military value." +40 years later, aero experts coined the term transonic. +They debated, should it have one S or two? +You see, they were having trouble in this flight regime, and it wasn't at all clear that we could fly faster than the speed of sound. +In 1947, there was no wind tunnel data beyond Mach 0.85. +And yet, on Tuesday, October 14th, 1947, Chuck Yeager climbed into the cockpit of his Bell X-1 and he flew towards an unknown possibility, and in so doing, he became the first pilot to fly faster than the speed of sound. +Six of eight Atlas rockets blew up on the pad. +After 11 complete mission failures, we got our first images from space. +And on that first flight we got more data than in all U-2 missions combined. +It took a lot of failures to get there. +Since we took to the sky, we have wanted to fly faster and farther. +And to do so, we've had to believe in impossible things. +And we've had to refuse to fear failure. +That's still true today. +Today, we don't talk about flying transonically, or even supersonically, we talk about flying hypersonically -- not Mach 2 or Mach 3, Mach 20. +At Mach 20, we can fly from New York to Long Beach in 11 minutes and 20 seconds. +At that speed, the surface of the airfoil is the temperature of molten steel -- 3,500 degrees Fahrenheit -- like a blast furnace. +We are essentially burning the airfoil as we fly it. +And we are flying it, or trying to. +DARPA's hypersonic test vehicle is the fastest maneuvering aircraft ever built. +It's boosted to near-space atop a Minotaur IV rocket. +Now the Minotaur IV has too much impulse, so we have to bleed it off by flying the rocket at an 89 degree angle of attack for portions of the trajectory. +That's an unnatural act for a rocket. +The third stage has a camera. +We call it rocketcam. +And it's pointed at the hypersonic glider. +This is the actual rocketcam footage from flight one. +Now to conceal the shape, we changed the aspect ratio a little bit. +But this is what it looks like from the third stage of the rocket looking at the unmanned glider as it heads into the atmosphere back towards Earth. +We've flown twice. +In the first flight, no aerodynamic control of the vehicle. +But we collected more hypersonic flight data than in 30 years of ground-based testing combined. +And in the second flight, three minutes of fully-controlled, aerodynamic flight at Mach 20. +We must fly again, because amazing, never-been-done-before things require that you fly. +You can't learn to fly at Mach 20 unless you fly. +And while there's no substitute for speed, maneuverability is a very close second. +If a Mach 20 glider takes 11 minutes and 20 seconds to get from New York to Long Beach, a hummingbird would take, well, days. +You see, hummingbirds are not hypersonic, but they are maneuverable. +In fact, the hummingbird is the only bird that can fly backwards. +It can fly up, down, forwards, backwards, even upside-down. +And so if we wanted to fly in this room or places where humans can't go, we'd need an aircraft small enough and maneuverable enough to do so. +This is a hummingbird drone. +It can fly in all directions, even backwards. +It can hover and rotate. +This prototype aircraft is equipped with a video camera. +It weighs less than one AA battery. +It does not eat nectar. +In 2008, it flew for a whopping 20 seconds, a year later, two minutes, then six, eventually 11. +Many prototypes crashed -- many. +But there's no way to learn to fly like a hummingbird unless you fly. +It's beautiful, isn't it. +Wow. +It's great. +Matt is the first ever hummingbird pilot. +Failure is part of creating new and amazing things. +We cannot both fear failure and make amazing new things -- like a robot with the stability of a dog on rough terrain, or maybe even ice; a robot that can run like a cheetah, or climb stairs like a human with the occasional clumsiness of a human. +Or perhaps, Spider Man will one day be Gecko Man. +A gecko can support its entire body weight with one toe. +One square millimeter of a gecko's footpad has 14,000 hair-like structures called setae. +They are used to help it grip to surfaces using intermolecular forces. +Today we can manufacture structures that mimic the hairs of a gecko's foot. +The result, a four-by-four-inch artificial nano-gecko adhesive. +can support a static load of 660 pounds. +That's enough to stick six 42-inch plasma TV's to your wall, no nails. +So much for Velcro, right? +And it's not just passive structures, it's entire machines. +This is a spider mite. +It's one millimeter long, but it looks like Godzilla next to these micromachines. +In the world of Godzilla spider mites, we can make millions of mirrors, each one-fifth the diameter of a human hair, moving at hundreds of thousands of times per second to make large screen displays, so that we can watch movies like "Godzilla" in high-def. +And if we can build machines at that scale, what about Eiffel Tower-like trusses at the microscale? +Today we are making metals that are lighter than Styrofoam, so light they can sit atop a dandelion puff and be blown away with a wisp of air -- so light that you can make a car that two people can lift, but so strong that it has the crash-worthiness of an SUV. +From the smallest wisp of air to the powerful forces of nature's storms. +There are 44 lightning strikes per second around the globe. +Each lightning bolt heats the air to 44,000 degrees Fahrenheit -- hotter than the surface of the Sun. +What if we could use these electromagnetic pulses as beacons, beacons in a moving network of powerful transmitters? +Experiments suggest that lightning could be the next GPS. +Electrical pulses form the thoughts in our brains. +Using a grid the size of your thumb, with 32 electrodes on the surface of his brain, Tim uses his thoughts to control an advanced prosthetic arm. +And his thoughts made him reach for Katie. +This is the first time a human has controlled a robot with thought alone. +And it is the first time that Tim has held Katie's hand in seven years. +That moment mattered to Tim and Katie, and this green goo may someday matter to you. +This green goo is perhaps the vaccine that could save your life. +It was made in tobacco plants. +Tobacco plants can make millions of doses of vaccine in weeks instead of months, and it might just be the first healthy use of tobacco ever. +And if it seems far-fetched that tobacco plants could make people healthy, what about gamers that could solve problems that experts can't solve? +Last September, the gamers of Foldit solved the three-dimensional structure of the retroviral protease that contributes to AIDS in rhesus monkeys. +Now understanding this structure is very important for developing treatments. +For 15 years, it was unsolved in the scientific community. +The gamers of Foldit solved it in 15 days. +Now they were able to do so by working together. +They were able to work together because they're connected by the Internet. +And others, also connected to the Internet, used it as an instrument of democracy. +And together they changed the fate of their nation. +The Internet is home to two billion people, or 30 percent of the world's population. +It allows us to contribute and to be heard as individuals. +It allows us to amplify our voices and our power as a group. +But it too had humble beginnings. +In 1969, the internet was but a dream, a few sketches on a piece of paper. +And then on October 29th, the first packet-switched message was sent from UCLA to SRI. +The first two letters of the word "Login," that's all that made it through -- an L and an O -- and then a buffer overflow crashed the system. +Two letters, an L and an O, now a worldwide force. +So who are these scientists and engineers at a magical place called DARPA? +They are nerds, and they are heroes among us. +They challenge existing perspectives at the edges of science and under the most demanding of conditions. +They remind us that we can change the world if we defy the impossible and we refuse to fear failure. +They remind us that we all have nerd power. +Sometimes we just forget. +You see, there was a time when you weren't afraid of failure, when you were a great artist or a great dancer and you could sing, you were good at math, you could build things, you were an astronaut, an adventurer, Jacques Cousteau, you could jump higher, run faster, kick harder than anyone. +You believed in impossible things and you were fearless. +You were totally and completely in touch with your inner superhero. +Scientists and engineers can indeed change the world. +So can you. +You were born to. +So go ahead, ask yourself, what would you attempt to do if you knew you could not fail? +Now I want to say, this is not easy. +It's hard to hold onto this feeling, really hard. +I guess in some way, I sort of believe it's supposed to be hard. +Doubt and fear always creep in. +We think someone else, someone smarter than us, someone more capable, someone with more resources will solve that problem. +But there isn't anyone else; there's just you. +And if we're lucky, in that moment, someone steps into that doubt and fear, takes a hand and says, "Let me help you believe." +Jason Harley did that for me. +Jason started at DARPA on March 18th, 2010. +He was with our transportation team. +I saw Jason nearly every day, sometimes twice a day. +And more so than most, he saw the highs and the lows, the celebrations and the disappointments. +And on one particularly dark day for me, Jason sat down and he wrote an email. +He was encouraging, but firm. +And when he hit send, he probably didn't realize what a difference it would make. +It mattered to me. +In that moment and still today when I doubt, when I feel afraid, when I need to reconnect with that feeling, I remember his words, they were so powerful. +Text: "There is only time enough to iron your cape and back to the skies for you." + Superhero, superhero. Superhero, superhero. Superhero, superhero. Superhero, superhero. Superhero, superhero. Voice: Because that's what being a superhero is all about. +RD: "There is only time enough to iron your cape and back to the skies for you." +And remember, be nice to nerds. +Thank you. Thank you. +Chris Anderson: Regina, thank you. +I have a couple of questions. +So that glider of yours, the Mach 20 glider, the first one, no control, it ended up in the Pacific I think somewhere. +RD: Yeah, yeah. It did. (CA: What happened on that second flight?) Yeah, it also went into the Pacific. (CA: But this time under control?) We didn't fly it into the Pacific. +No, there are multiple portions of the trajectory that are demanding in terms of really flying at that speed. +And so in the second flight, we were able to get three minutes of fully aerodynamic control of the vehicle before we lost it. +CA: I imagine you're not planning to open up to passenger service from New York to Long Beach anytime soon. +RD: It might be a little warm. +CA: What do you picture that glider being used for? +RD: Well our responsibility is to develop the technology for this. +How it's ultimately used will be determined by the military. +Now the purpose of the vehicle though, the purpose of the technology, is to be able to reach anywhere in the world in less than 60 minutes. +CA: And to carry a payload of more than a few pounds? (RD: Yeah.) Like what's the payload it could carry? +RD: Well I don't think we ultimately know what it will be, right. +We've got to fly it first. +CA: But not necessarily just a camera? +RD: No, not necessarily just a camera. +CA: It's amazing. +The hummingbird? +RD: Yeah? +CA: I'm curious, you started your beautiful sequence on flight with a plane kind of trying to flap its wings and failing horribly, and there haven't been that many planes built since that flap wings. +Why did we think that this was the time to go biomimicry and copy a hummingbird? +Isn't that a very expensive solution for a small maneuverable flying object? +RD: So I mean, in part, we wondered if it was possible to do it. +And you have to revisit these questions over time. +The folks at AeroVironment tried 300 or more different wing designs, 12 different forms of the avionics. +It took them 10 full prototypes to get something that would actually fly. +But there's something really interesting about a flying machine that looks like something you'd recognize. +So we often talk about stealth as a means for avoiding any type of sensing, but when things looks just natural, you also don't see them. +CA: Ah. So it's not necessarily just the performance. +It's partly the look. (RD: Sure.) It's actually, "Look at that cute hummingbird flying into my headquarters." +Because I think, as well as the awe of looking at that, I'm sure some people here are thinking, technology catches up so quick, how long is it before some crazed geek with a little remote control flies one through a window of the White House? +I mean, do you worry about the Pandora's box issue here? +RD: Well look, our singular mission is the creation and prevention of strategic surprise. +That's what we do. +It would be inconceivable for us to do that work if we didn't make people excited and uncomfortable with the things that we do at the same time. +It's just the nature of what we do. +Now our responsibility is to push that edge. +And we have to be, of course, mindful and responsible of how the technology is developed and ultimately used, but we can't simply close our eyes and pretend that it isn't advancing; it's advancing. +CA: I mean, you're clearly a really inspiring leader. +And you persuade people to go to these great feats of invention, but at a personal level, in a way I can't imagine doing your job. +Do you wake up in the night sometimes, just asking questions about the possibly unintended consequences of your team's brilliance? +RD: Sure. +I think you couldn't be human if you didn't ask those questions. +CA: How do you answer them? +RD: Well I don't always have answers for them, right. +I think that we learn as time goes on. +My job is one of the most exhilarating jobs you could have. +I work with some of the most amazing people. +And with that exhilaration, comes a really deep sense of responsibility. +And so you have on the one hand this tremendous lift of what's possible and this tremendous seriousness of what it means. +CA: Regina, that was jaw-dropping, as they say. +Thank you so much for coming to TED. (RD: Thank you.) +Many times I go around the world to speak, and people ask me questions about the challenges, my moments, some of my regrets. +1998: A single mother of four, three months after the birth of my fourth child, I went to do a job as a research assistant. +I went to Northern Liberia. +And as part of the work, the village would give you lodgings. +And they gave me lodging with a single mother and her daughter. +This girl happened to be the only girl in the entire village who had made it to the ninth grade. +She was the laughing stock of the community. +Her mother was often told by other women, "You and your child will die poor." +After two weeks of working in that village, it was time to go back. +The mother came to me, knelt down, and said, "Leymah, take my daughter. +I wish for her to be a nurse." +Dirt poor, living in the home with my parents, I couldn't afford to. +With tears in my eyes, I said, "No." +Two months later, I go to another village on the same assignment and they asked me to live with the village chief. +The women's chief of the village has this little girl, fair color like me, totally dirty. +And all day she walked around only in her underwear. +When I asked, "Who is that?" +She said, "That's Wei. +The meaning of her name is pig. +Her mother died while giving birth to her, and no one had any idea who her father was." +For two weeks, she became my companion, slept with me. +I bought her used clothes and bought her her first doll. +The night before I left, she came to the room and said, "Leymah, don't leave me here. +I wish to go with you. +I wish to go to school." +Dirt poor, no money, living with my parents, I again said, "No." +Two months later, both of those villages fell into another war. +Till today, I have no idea where those two girls are. +Fast-forward, 2004: In the peak of our activism, the minister of Gender Liberia called me and said, "Leymah, I have a nine-year-old for you. +I want you to bring her home because we don't have safe homes." +The story of this little girl: She had been raped by her paternal grandfather every day for six months. +She came to me bloated, very pale. +Every night I'd come from work and lie on the cold floor. +She'd lie beside me and say, "Auntie, I wish to be well. +I wish to go to school." +2010: A young woman stands before President Sirleaf and gives her testimony of how she and her siblings live together, their father and mother died during the war. +She's 19; her dream is to go to college to be able to support them. +She's highly athletic. +One of the things that happens is that she applies for a scholarship. +Full scholarship. She gets it. +Her dream of going to school, her wish of being educated, is finally here. +She goes to school on the first day. +The director of sports who's responsible for getting her into the program asks her to come out of class. +And for the next three years, her fate will be having sex with him every day, as a favor for getting her in school. +Globally, we have policies, international instruments, work leaders. +Great people have made commitments -- we will protect our children from want and from fear. +The U.N. has the Convention on the Rights of the Child. +Countries like America, we've heard things like No Child Left Behind. +Other countries come with different things. +There is a Millennium Development called Three that focuses on girls. +All of these great works by great people aimed at getting young people to where we want to get them globally, I think, has failed. +In Liberia, for example, the teenage pregnancy rate is three to every 10 girls. +Teen prostitution is at its peak. +In one community, we're told, you wake up in the morning and see used condoms like used chewing gum paper. +Girls as young as 12 being prostituted for less than a dollar a night. +It's disheartening, it's sad. +And then someone asked me, just before my TEDTalk, a few days ago, "So where is the hope?" +Several years ago, a few friends of mine decided we needed to bridge the disconnect between our generation and the generation of young women. +It's not enough to say you have two Nobel laureates from the Republic of Liberia when your girls' kids are totally out there and no hope, or seemingly no hope. +We created a space called the Young Girls Transformative Project. +We go into rural communities and all we do, like has been done in this room, is create the space. +When these girls sit, you unlock intelligence, you unlock passion, you unlock commitment, you unlock focus, you unlock great leaders. +Today, we've worked with over 300. +And some of those girls who walked in the room very shy have taken bold steps, as young mothers, to go out there and advocate for the rights of other young women. +One young woman I met, teen mother of four, never thought about finishing high school, graduated successfully; never thought about going to college, enrolled in college. +One day she said to me, "My wish is to finish college and be able to support my children." +She's at a place where she can't find money to go to school. +She sells water, sells soft drinks and sells recharge cards for cellphones. +And you would think she would take that money and put it back into her education. +Juanita is her name. +She takes that money and finds single mothers in her community to send back to school. +Says, "Leymah, my wish is to be educated. +And if I can't be educated, when I see some of my sisters being educated, my wish has been fulfilled. +I wish for a better life. +I wish for food for my children. +I wish that sexual abuse and exploitation in schools would stop." +This is the dream of the African girl. +Several years ago, there was one African girl. +This girl had a son who wished for a piece of doughnut because he was extremely hungry. +Angry, frustrated, really upset about the state of her society and the state of her children, this young girl started a movement, a movement of ordinary women banding together to build peace. +I will fulfill the wish. +This is another African girl's wish. +I failed to fulfill the wish of those two girls. +I failed to do this. +These were the things that were going through the head of this other young woman -- I failed, I failed, I failed. +So I will do this. +Women came out, protested a brutal dictator, fearlessly spoke. +Not only did the wish of a piece of doughnut come true, the wish of peace came true. +This young woman wished also to go to school. +She went to school. +This young woman wished for other things to happen, it happened for her. +Today, this young woman is me, a Nobel laureate. +I'm now on a journey to fulfill the wish, in my tiny capacity, of little African girls -- the wish of being educated. +We set up a foundation. +We're giving full four-year scholarships to girls from villages that we see with potential. +I don't have much to ask of you. +Will you journey with me to help that girl, be it an African girl or an American girl or a Japanese girl, fulfill her wish, fulfill her dream, achieve that dream? +Let's journey together. Let's journey together. +Thank you. +Chris Anderson: Thank you so much. +Right now in Liberia, what do you see as the main issue that troubles you? +LG: I've been asked to lead the Liberian Reconciliation Initiative. +As part of my work, I'm doing these tours in different villages and towns -- 13, 15 hours on dirt roads -- and there is no community that I've gone into that I haven't seen intelligent girls. +But sadly, the vision of a great future, or the dream of a great future, is just a dream, because you have all of these vices. +Teen pregnancy, like I said, is epidemic. +So what troubles me is that I was at that place and somehow I'm at this place, and I just don't want to be the only one at this place. +I'm looking for ways for other girls to be with me. +I want to look back 20 years from now and see that there's another Liberian girl, Ghanaian girl, Nigerian girl, Ethiopian girl standing on this TED stage. +And maybe, just maybe, saying, "Because of that Nobel laureate I'm here today." +So I'm troubled when I see them like there's no hope. +But I'm also not pessimistic, because I know it doesn't take a lot to get them charged up. +CA: And in the last year, tell us one hopeful thing that you've seen happening. +LG: I can tell you many hopeful things that I've seen happening. +But in the last year, where President Sirleaf comes from, her village, we went there to work with these girls. +And we could not find 25 girls in high school. +All of these girls went to the gold mine, and they were predominantly prostitutes doing other things. +We took 50 of those girls and we worked with them. +And this was at the beginning of elections. +This is one place where women were never -- even the older ones barely sat in the circle with the men. +These girls banded together and formed a group and launched a campaign for voter registration. +This is a real rural village. +And the theme they used was: "Even pretty girls vote." +They were able to mobilize young women. +But not only did they do that, they went to those who were running for seats to ask them, "What is it that you will give the girls of this community when you win?" +And one of the guys who already had a seat was very -- because Liberia has one of the strongest rape laws, and he was one of those really fighting in parliament to overturn that law because he called it barbaric. +Rape is not barbaric, but the law, he said, was barbaric. +And when the girls started engaging him, he was very hostile towards them. +These little girls turned to him and said, "We will vote you out of office." +He's out of office today. +CA: Leymah, thank you. Thank you so much for coming to TED. +LG: You're welcome. (CA: Thank you.) +Marco Tempest: What I'd like to show you today is something in the way of an experiment. +Today's its debut. +It's a demonstration of augmented reality. +And the visuals you're about to see are not prerecorded. +They are live and reacting to me in real time. +I like to think of it as a kind of technological magic. +So fingers crossed. +And keep your eyes on the big screen. +Augmented reality is the melding of the real world with computer-generated imagery. +It seems the perfect medium to investigate magic and ask, why, in a technological age, we continue to have this magical sense of wonder. +Magic is deception, but it is a deception we enjoy. +To enjoy being deceived, an audience must first suspend its disbelief. +It was the poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge who first suggested this receptive state of mind. +Samuel Taylor Coleridge: I try to convey a semblance of truth in my writing to produce for these shadows of the imagination a willing suspension of disbelief that, for a moment, constitutes poetic faith. +MT: This faith in the fictional is essential for any kind of theatrical experience. +Without it, a script is just words. +Augmented reality is just the latest technology. +And sleight of hand is just an artful demonstration of dexterity. +We are all very good at suspending our disbelief. +We do it every day, while reading novels, watching television or going to the movies. +We willingly enter fictional worlds where we cheer our heroes and cry for friends we never had. +Without this ability there is no magic. +It was Jean Robert-Houdin, France's greatest illusionist, who first recognized the role of the magician as a storyteller. +He said something that I've posted on the wall of my studio. +Jean Robert-Houdin: A conjurer is not a juggler. +He is an actor playing the part of a magician. +MT: Which means magic is theater and every trick is a story. +The tricks of magic follow the archetypes of narrative fiction. +There are tales of creation and loss, death and resurrection, and obstacles that must be overcome. +Now many of them are intensely dramatic. +Magicians play with fire and steel, defy the fury of the buzzsaw, dare to catch a bullet or attempt a deadly escape. +But audiences don't come to see the magician die, they come to see him live. +Because the best stories always have a happy ending. +The tricks of magic have one special element. +They are stories with a twist. +Now Edward de Bono argued that our brains are pattern matching machines. +He said that magicians deliberately exploit the way their audiences think. +Edward de Bono: Stage magic relies almost wholly on the momentum error. +The audience is led to make assumptions or elaborations that are perfectly reasonable, but do not, in fact, match what is being done in front of them. +MT: In that respect, magic tricks are like jokes. +Jokes lead us down a path to an expected destination. +But when the scenario we have imagined suddenly flips into something entirely unexpected, we laugh. +The same thing happens when people watch magic tricks. +The finale defies logic, gives new insight into the problem, and audiences express their amazement with laughter. +It's fun to be fooled. +One of the key qualities of all stories is that they're made to be shared. +We feel compelled to tell them. +When I do a trick at a party -- that person will immediately pull their friend over and ask me to do it again. +They want to share the experience. +That makes my job more difficult, because, if I want to surprise them, I need to tell a story that starts the same, but ends differently -- a trick with a twist on a twist. +It keeps me busy. +Now experts believe that stories go beyond our capacity for keeping us entertained. +We think in narrative structures. +We connect events and emotions and instinctively transform them into a sequence that can be easily understood. +It's a uniquely human achievement. +We all want to share our stories, whether it is the trick we saw at the party, the bad day at the office or the beautiful sunset we saw on vacation. +Today, thanks to technology, we can share those stories as never before, by email, Facebook, blogs, tweets, on TED.com. +The tools of social networking, these are the digital campfires around which the audience gathers to hear our story. +We turn facts into similes and metaphors, and even fantasies. +We polish the rough edges of our lives so that they feel whole. +Our stories make us the people we are and, sometimes, the people we want to be. +They give us our identity and a sense of community. +And if the story is a good one, it might even make us smile. +Thank you. +Thank you. +Hi. +I did that for two reasons. +First of all, I wanted to give you a good visual first impression. +But the main reason I did it is that that's what happens to me when I'm forced to wear a Lady Gaga skanky mic. +I'm used to a stationary mic. +It's the sensible shoe of public address. +But you clamp this thing on my head, and something happens. +I just become skanky. +So I'm sorry about that. +And I'm already off-message. +Ladies and gentlemen, I have devoted the past 25 years of my life to designing books. +("Yes, BOOKS. You know, the bound volumes with ink on paper. +You cannot turn them off with a switch. +Tell your kids.") It all sort of started as a benign mistake, like penicillin. What I really wanted was to be a graphic designer at one of the big design firms in New York City. +But upon arrival there, in the fall of 1986, and doing a lot of interviews, I found that the only thing I was offered was to be Assistant to the Art Director at Alfred A. Knopf, a book publisher. +Now I was stupid, but not so stupid that I turned it down. +I had absolutely no idea what I was about to become part of, and I was incredibly lucky. +Soon, it had occurred to me what my job was. +My job was to ask this question: "What do the stories look like?" +Because that is what Knopf is. +It is the story factory, one of the very best in the world. +We bring stories to the public. +The stories can be anything, and some of them are actually true. +But they all have one thing in common: They all need to look like something. +They all need a face. +Why? To give you a first impression of what you are about to get into. +A book designer gives form to content, but also manages a very careful balance between the two. +Now, the first day of my graphic design training at Penn State University, the teacher, Lanny Sommese, came into the room and he drew a picture of an apple on the blackboard, and wrote the word "Apple" underneath, and he said, "OK. Lesson one. Listen up." +And he covered up the picture and he said, "You either say this," and then he covered up the word, "or you show this. +But you don't do this." +Because this is treating your audience like a moron. +And they deserve better. +And lo and behold, soon enough, I was able to put this theory to the test on two books that I was working on for Knopf. +The first was Katharine Hepburn's memoirs, and the second was a biography of Marlene Dietrich. +Now the Hepburn book was written in a very conversational style, it was like she was sitting across a table telling it all to you. +The Dietrich book was an observation by her daughter; it was a biography. +So the Hepburn story is words and the Dietrich story is pictures, and so we did this. +So there you are. +Pure content and pure form, side by side. +No fighting, ladies. +("What's a Jurassic Park?") Now, what is the story here? +Someone is re-engineering dinosaurs by extracting their DNA from prehistoric amber. +Genius! +Now, luckily for me, I live and work in New York City, where there are plenty of dinosaurs. +So, I went to the Museum of Natural History, and I checked out the bones, and I went to the gift shop, and I bought a book. +And I was particularly taken with this page of the book, and more specifically the lower right-hand corner. +I had no idea what I was doing, I had no idea where I was going, but at some point, I stopped -- when to keep going would seem like I was going too far. +And what I ended up with was a graphic representation of us seeing this animal coming into being. +We're in the middle of the process. +And then I just threw some typography on it. +Very basic stuff, slightly suggestive of public park signage. +Everybody in house loved it, and so off it goes to the author. +And even back then, Michael was on the cutting edge. +("Michael Crichton responds by fax:") ("Wow! Fucking Fantastic Jacket") That was a relief to see that pour out of the machine. +I miss Michael. +And sure enough, somebody from MCA Universal calls our legal department to see if they can maybe look into buying the rights to the image, just in case they might want to use it. +Well, they used it. +And I was thrilled. +We all know it was an amazing movie, and it was so interesting to see it go out into the culture and become this phenomenon and to see all the different permutations of it. +But not too long ago, I came upon this on the Web. +No, that is not me. +But whoever it is, I can't help but thinking they woke up one day like, "Oh my God, that wasn't there last night. Ooooohh! +I was so wasted." +But if you think about it, from my head to my hands to his leg. +That's a responsibility. +And it's a responsibility that I don't take lightly. +The book designer's responsibility is threefold: to the reader, to the publisher and, most of all, to the author. +I want you to look at the author's book and say, "Wow! I need to read that." +David Sedaris is one of my favorite writers, and the title essay in this collection is about his trip to a nudist colony. +And the reason he went is because he had a fear of his body image, and he wanted to explore what was underlying that. +For me, it was simply an excuse to design a book that you could literally take the pants off of. +But when you do, you don't get what you expect. +You get something that goes much deeper than that. +And David especially loved this design because at book signings, which he does a lot of, he could take a magic marker and do this. +Hello! +Augusten Burroughs wrote a memoir called ["Dry"], and it's about his time in rehab. +In his 20s, he was a hotshot ad executive, and as Mad Men has told us, a raging alcoholic. +He did not think so, however, but his coworkers did an intervention and they said, "You are going to rehab, or you will be fired and you will die." +Now to me, this was always going to be a typographic solution, what I would call the opposite of Type 101. +What does that mean? +Usually on the first day of Introduction to Typography, you get the assignment of, select a word and make it look like what it says it is. So that's Type 101, right? +Very simple stuff. +This is going to be the opposite of that. +I want this book to look like it's lying to you, desperately and hopelessly, the way an alcoholic would. +The answer was the most low-tech thing you can imagine. +I set up the type, I printed it out on an Epson printer with water-soluble ink, taped it to the wall and threw a bucket of water at it. Presto! +Then when we went to press, the printer put a spot gloss on the ink and it really looked like it was running. +Not long after it came out, Augusten was waylaid in an airport and he was hiding out in the bookstore spying on who was buying his books. +And this woman came up to it, and she squinted, and she took it to the register, and she said to the man behind the counter, "This one's ruined." +And the guy behind the counter said, "I know, lady. They all came in that way." +Now, that's a good printing job. +A book cover is a distillation. +It is a haiku, if you will, of the story. +This particular story by Osama Tezuka is his epic life of the Buddha, and it's eight volumes in all. But the best thing is when it's on your shelf, you get a shelf life of the Buddha, moving from one age to the next. +All of these solutions derive their origins from the text of the book, but once the book designer has read the text, then he has to be an interpreter and a translator. +This story was a real puzzle. +This is what it's about. +("Intrigue and murder among 16th century Ottoman court painters.") All right, so I got a collection of the paintings together and I looked at them and I deconstructed them and I put them back together. +And so, here's the design, right? +And so here's the front and the spine, and it's flat. +But the real story starts when you wrap it around a book and put it on the shelf. +Ahh! We come upon them, the clandestine lovers. Let's draw them out. +Huhh! They've been discovered by the sultan. +He will not be pleased. +Huhh! And now the sultan is in danger. +And now, we have to open it up to find out what's going to happen next. +Try experiencing that on a Kindle. +Don't get me started. +Seriously. +Much is to be gained by eBooks: ease, convenience, portability. +But something is definitely lost: tradition, a sensual experience, the comfort of thingy-ness -- a little bit of humanity. +Do you know what John Updike used to do the first thing when he would get a copy of one of his new books from Alfred A. Knopf? +He'd smell it. +Then he'd run his hand over the rag paper, and the pungent ink and the deckled edges of the pages. +All those years, all those books, he never got tired of it. +Now, I am all for the iPad, but trust me -- smelling it will get you nowhere. +Now the Apple guys are texting, "Develop odor emission plug-in." +And the last story I'm going to talk about is quite a story. +A woman named Aomame in 1984 Japan finds herself negotiating down a spiral staircase off an elevated highway. When she gets to the bottom, she can't help but feel that, all of a sudden, she's entered a new reality that's just slightly different from the one that she left, but very similar, but different. +And so, we're talking about parallel planes of existence, sort of like a book jacket and the book that it covers. +So how do we show this? +We go back to Hepburn and Dietrich, but now we merge them. +So we're talking about different planes, different pieces of paper. +So this is on a semi-transparent piece of velum. +It's one part of the form and content. +When it's on top of the paper board, which is the opposite, it forms this. +So even if you don't know anything about this book, you are forced to consider a single person straddling two planes of existence. +And the object itself invited exploration interaction, consideration and touch. +This debuted at number two on the New York Times Best Seller list. +This is unheard of, both for us the publisher, and the author. +We're talking a 900-page book that is as weird as it is compelling, and featuring a climactic scene in which a horde of tiny people emerge from the mouth of a sleeping girl and cause a German Shepherd to explode. +Not exactly Jackie Collins. +Fourteen weeks on the Best Seller list, eight printings, and still going strong. +So even though we love publishing as an art, we very much know it's a business too, and that if we do our jobs right and get a little lucky, that great art can be great business. +So that's my story. To be continued. +What does it look like? +Yes. It can, it does and it will, but for this book designer, page-turner, notes in the margins-taker, ink-sniffer, the story looks like this. +Thank you. +Tonight, I want to have a conversation about this incredible global issue that's at the intersection of land use, food and environment, something we can all relate to, and what I've been calling the other inconvenient truth. +But first, I want to take you on a little journey. +Let's first visit our planet, but at night, and from space. +This is what our planet looks like from outer space at nighttime, if you were to take a satellite and travel around the planet. And the thing you would notice first, of course, is how dominant the human presence on our planet is. +We see cities, we see oil fields, you can even make out fishing fleets in the sea, that we are dominating much of our planet, and mostly through the use of energy that we see here at night. +But let's go back and drop it a little deeper and look during the daytime. +What we see during the day is our landscapes. +This is part of the Amazon Basin, a place called Rondnia in the south-center part of the Brazilian Amazon. +If you look really carefully in the upper right-hand corner, you're going to see a thin white line, which is a road that was built in the 1970s. +If we come back to the same place in 2001, what we're going to find is that these roads spurt off more roads, and more roads after that, at the end of which is a small clearing in the rainforest where there are going to be a few cows. +These cows are used for beef. We're going to eat these cows. +And these cows are eaten basically in South America, in Brazil and Argentina. They're not being shipped up here. +But this kind of fishbone pattern of deforestation is something we notice a lot of around the tropics, especially in this part of the world. +If we go a little bit further south in our little tour of the world, we can go to the Bolivian edge of the Amazon, here also in 1975, and if you look really carefully, there's a thin white line through that kind of seam, and there's a lone farmer out there in the middle of the primeval jungle. +Let's come back again a few years later, here in 2003, and we'll see that that landscape actually looks a lot more like Iowa than it does like a rainforest. +In fact, what you're seeing here are soybean fields. +These soybeans are being shipped to Europe and to China as animal feed, especially after the mad cow disease scare about a decade ago, where we don't want to feed animals animal protein anymore, because that can transmit disease. +Instead, we want to feed them more vegetable proteins. +So soybeans have really exploded, showing how trade and globalization are really responsible for the connections to rainforests and the Amazon -- an incredibly strange and interconnected world that we have today. +Well, again and again, what we find as we look around the world in our little tour of the world is that landscape after landscape after landscape have been cleared and altered for growing food and other crops. +So one of the questions we've been asking is, how much of the world is used to grow food, and where is it exactly, and how can we change that into the future, and what does it mean? +Well, our team has been looking at this on a global scale, using satellite data and ground-based data kind of to track farming on a global scale. +And this is what we found, and it's startling. +This map shows the presence of agriculture on planet Earth. +The green areas are the areas we use to grow crops, like wheat or soybeans or corn or rice or whatever. +That's 16 million square kilometers' worth of land. +If you put it all together in one place, it'd be the size of South America. +The second area, in brown, is the world's pastures and rangelands, where our animals live. +That area's about 30 million square kilometers, or about an Africa's worth of land, a huge amount of land, and it's the best land, of course, is what you see. And what's left is, like, the middle of the Sahara Desert, or Siberia, or the middle of a rain forest. +We're using a planet's worth of land already. +If we look at this carefully, we find it's about 40 percent of the Earth's land surface is devoted to agriculture, and it's 60 times larger than all the areas we complain about, our suburban sprawl and our cities where we mostly live. +Half of humanity lives in cities today, but a 60-times-larger area is used to grow food. +So this is an amazing kind of result, and it really shocked us when we looked at that. +So we're using an enormous amount of land for agriculture, but also we're using a lot of water. +This is a photograph flying into Arizona, and when you look at it, you're like, "What are they growing here?" It turns out they're growing lettuce in the middle of the desert using water sprayed on top. +Now, the irony is, it's probably sold in our supermarket shelves in the Twin Cities. +But what's really interesting is, this water's got to come from some place, and it comes from here, the Colorado River in North America. +Well, the Colorado on a typical day in the 1950s, this is just, you know, not a flood, not a drought, kind of an average day, it looks something like this. +But if we come back today, during a normal condition to the exact same location, this is what's left. +The difference is mainly irrigating the desert for food, or maybe golf courses in Scottsdale, you take your pick. +Well, this is a lot of water, and again, we're mining water and using it to grow food, and today, if you travel down further down the Colorado, it dries up completely and no longer flows into the ocean. +We've literally consumed an entire river in North America for irrigation. +Well, that's not even the worst example in the world. +This probably is: the Aral Sea. +Now, a lot you will remember this from your geography classes. +This is in the former Soviet Union in between Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan, one of the great inland seas of the world. +But there's kind of a paradox here, because it looks like it's surrounded by desert. Why is this sea here? +The reason it's here is because, on the right-hand side, you see two little rivers kind of coming down through the sand, feeding this basin with water. +Those rivers are draining snowmelt from mountains far to the east, where snow melts, it travels down the river through the desert, and forms the great Aral Sea. +Well, in the 1950s, the Soviets decided to divert that water to irrigate the desert to grow cotton, believe it or not, in Kazakhstan, to sell cotton to the international markets to bring foreign currency into the Soviet Union. +They really needed the money. +Well, you can imagine what happens. You turn off the water supply to the Aral Sea, what's going to happen? +Here it is in 1973, 1986, 1999, 2004, and about 11 months ago. +It's pretty extraordinary. +Now a lot of us in the audience here live in the Midwest. +Imagine that was Lake Superior. +Imagine that was Lake Huron. +It's an extraordinary change. +This is not only a change in water and where the shoreline is, this is a change in the fundamentals of the environment of this region. +Let's start with this. +The Soviet Union didn't really have a Sierra Club. +Let's put it that way. +So what you find in the bottom of the Aral Sea ain't pretty. +There's a lot of toxic waste, a lot of things that were dumped there that are now becoming airborne. +One of those small islands that was remote and impossible to get to was a site of Soviet biological weapons testing. +You can walk there today. +Weather patterns have changed. +Nineteen of the unique 20 fish species found only in the Aral Sea are now wiped off the face of the Earth. +This is an environmental disaster writ large. +But let's bring it home. +This is a picture that Al Gore gave me a few years ago that he took when he was in the Soviet Union a long, long time ago, showing the fishing fleets of the Aral Sea. +You see the canal they dug? +They were so desperate to try to, kind of, float the boats into the remaining pools of water, but they finally had to give up because the piers and the moorings simply couldn't keep up with the retreating shoreline. +I don't know about you, but I'm terrified that future archaeologists will dig this up and write stories about our time in history, and wonder, "What were you thinking?" +Well, that's the future we have to look forward to. +We already use about 50 percent of the Earth's fresh water that's sustainable, and agriculture alone is 70 percent of that. +So we use a lot of water, a lot of land for agriculture. +We also use a lot of the atmosphere for agriculture. +Usually when we think about the atmosphere, we think about climate change and greenhouse gases, and mostly around energy, but it turns out agriculture is one of the biggest emitters of greenhouse gases too. +If you look at carbon dioxide from burning tropical rainforest, or methane coming from cows and rice, or nitrous oxide from too many fertilizers, it turns out agriculture is 30 percent of the greenhouse gases going into the atmosphere from human activity. +That's more than all our transportation. +It's more than all our electricity. +It's more than all other manufacturing, in fact. +It's the single largest emitter of greenhouse gases of any human activity in the world. +And yet, we don't talk about it very much. +So we have this incredible presence today of agriculture dominating our planet, whether it's 40 percent of our land surface, 70 percent of the water we use, 30 percent of our greenhouse gas emissions. +We've doubled the flows of nitrogen and phosphorus around the world simply by using fertilizers, causing huge problems of water quality from rivers, lakes, and even oceans, and it's also the single biggest driver of biodiversity loss. +So without a doubt, agriculture is the single most powerful force unleashed on this planet since the end of the ice age. No question. +And it rivals climate change in importance. +And they're both happening at the same time. +But what's really important here to remember is that it's not all bad. It's not that agriculture's a bad thing. +In fact, we completely depend on it. +It's not optional. It's not a luxury. It's an absolute necessity. +We have to provide food and feed and, yeah, fiber and even biofuels to something like seven billion people in the world today, and if anything, we're going to have the demands on agriculture increase into the future. It's not going to go away. +It's going to get a lot bigger, mainly because of growing population. We're seven billion people today heading towards at least nine, probably nine and a half before we're done. +More importantly, changing diets. +As the world becomes wealthier as well as more populous, we're seeing increases in dietary consumption of meat, which take a lot more resources than a vegetarian diet does. +So more people, eating more stuff, and richer stuff, and of course having an energy crisis at the same time, where we have to replace oil with other energy sources that will ultimately have to include some kinds of biofuels and bio-energy sources. +So you put these together. It's really hard to see how we're going to get to the rest of the century without at least doubling global agricultural production. +Well, how are we going to do this? How are going to double global ag production around the world? +Well, we could try to farm more land. +This is an analysis we've done, where on the left is where the crops are today, on the right is where they could be based on soils and climate, assuming climate change doesn't disrupt too much of this, which is not a good assumption. +We could farm more land, but the problem is the remaining lands are in sensitive areas. +They have a lot of biodiversity, a lot of carbon, things we want to protect. +So we could grow more food by expanding farmland, but we'd better not, because it's ecologically a very, very dangerous thing to do. +Instead, we maybe want to freeze the footprint of agriculture and farm the lands we have better. +This is work that we're doing to try to highlight places in the world where we could improve yields without harming the environment. +The green areas here show where corn yields, just showing corn as an example, are already really high, probably the maximum you could find on Earth today for that climate and soil, but the brown areas and yellow areas are places where we're only getting maybe 20 or 30 percent of the yield you should be able to get. +You see a lot of this in Africa, even Latin America, but interestingly, Eastern Europe, where Soviet Union and Eastern Bloc countries used to be, is still a mess agriculturally. +Now, this would require nutrients and water. +It's going to either be organic or conventional or some mix of the two to deliver that. +Plants need water and nutrients. +But we can do this, and there are opportunities to make this work. +But we have to do it in a way that is sensitive to meeting the food security needs of the future and the environmental security needs of the future. +We have to figure out how to make this tradeoff between growing food and having a healthy environment work better. +Right now, it's kind of an all-or-nothing proposition. +We can grow food in the background -- that's a soybean field and in this flower diagram, it shows we grow a lot of food, but we don't have a lot clean water, we're not storing a lot of carbon, we don't have a lot of biodiversity. +In the foreground, we have this prairie that's wonderful from the environmental side, but you can't eat anything. What's there to eat? +We need to figure out how to bring both of those together into a new kind of agriculture that brings them all together. +Now, when I talk about this, people often tell me, "Well, isn't blank the answer?" -- organic food, local food, GMOs, new trade subsidies, new farm bills -- and yeah, we have a lot of good ideas here, but not any one of these is a silver bullet. +In fact, what I think they are is more like silver buckshot. +And I love silver buckshot. You put it together and you've got something really powerful, but we need to put them together. +Now, having this conversation has been really hard, and we've been trying very hard to bring these key points to people to reduce the controversy, to increase the collaboration. +I want to show you a short video that does kind of show our efforts right now to bring these sides together into a single conversation. So let me show you that. +("Institute on the Environment, University of Minnesota: Driven to Discover") ("The world population is growing by 75 million people each year. +That's almost the size of Germany. +Today, we're nearing 7 billion people. +At this rate, we'll reach 9 billion people by 2040. +And we all need food. +But how? +How do we feed a growing world without destroying the planet? +We already know climate change is a big problem. +But it's not the only problem. +We need to face 'the other inconvenient truth.' A global crisis in agriculture. +Population growth + meat consumption + dairy consumption + energy costs + bioenergy production = stress on natural resources. +More than 40% of Earth's land has been cleared for agriculture. +Global croplands cover 16 million km. +That's almost the size of South America. +Global pastures cover 30 million km. +That's the size of Africa. +Agriculture uses 60 times more land than urban and suburban areas combined. +Irrigation is the biggest use of water on the planet. +We use 2,800 cubic kilometers of water on crops every year. +That's enough to fill 7,305 Empire State Buildings every day. +Today, many large rivers have reduced flows. +Some dry up altogether. +Look at the Aral Sea, now turned to desert. +Or the Colorado River, which no longer flows to the ocean. +Fertilizers have more than doubled the phosphorus and nitrogen in the environment. +The consequence? +Widespread water pollution and massive degradation of lakes and rivers. +Surprisingly, agriculture is the biggest contributor to climate change. +It generates 30% of greenhouse gas emissions. +That's more than the emissions from all electricity and industry, or from all the world's planes, trains and automobiles. +Most agricultural emissions come from tropical deforestation, methane from animals and rice fields, and nitrous oxide from over-fertilizing. +There is nothing we do that transforms the world more than agriculture. +And there's nothing we do that is more crucial to our survival. +Here's the dilemma... +As the world grows by several billion more people, We'll need to double, maybe even triple, global food production. +So where do we go from here? +We need a bigger conversation, an international dialogue. +We need to invest in real solutions: incentives for farmers, precision agriculture, new crop varieties, drip irrigation, gray water recycling, better tillage practices, smarter diets. +We need everyone at the table. +Advocates of commercial agriculture, environmental conservation, and organic farming... +must work together. +There is no single solution. +We need collaboration, imagination, determination, because failure is not an option. +How do we feed the world without destroying it? +Yeah, so we face one of the greatest grand challenges in all of human history today: the need to feed nine billion people and do so sustainably and equitably and justly, at the same time protecting our planet for this and future generations. +This is going to be one of the hardest things we ever have done in human history, and we absolutely have to get it right, and we have to get it right on our first and only try. +So thanks very much. +Today, I'd like to talk with you about something that should be a totally uncontroversial topic. +But, unfortunately, it's become incredibly controversial. +This year, if you think about it, over a billion couples will have sex with one another. +Couples like this one, and this one, and this one, and, yes, even this one. +And my idea is this -- all these men and women should be free to decide whether they do or do not want to conceive a child. +And they should be able to use one of these birth control methods to act on their decision. +Now, I think you'd have a hard time finding many people who disagree with this idea. +Over one billion people use birth control without any hesitation at all. +They want the power to plan their own lives and to raise healthier, better educated and more prosperous families. +But, for an idea that is so broadly accepted in private, birth control certainly generates a lot of opposition in public. +Some people think when we talk about contraception that it's code for abortion, which it's not. +Some people -- let's be honest -- they're uncomfortable with the topic because it's about sex. +Some people worry that the real goal of family planning is to control populations. +These are all side issues that have attached themselves to this core idea that men and women should be able to decide when they want to have a child. +And as a result, birth control has almost completely and totally disappeared from the global health agenda. +The victims of this paralysis are the people of sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. +Here in Germany, the proportion of people that use contraception is about 66 percent. +That's about what you'd expect. +In El Salvador, very similar, 66 percent. +Thailand, 64 percent. +But let's compare that to other places, like Uttar Pradesh, one of the largest states in India. +In fact, if Uttar Pradesh was its own country, it would be the fifth largest country in the world. +Their contraception rate -- 29 percent. +Nigeria, the most populous country in Africa, 10 percent. +Chad, 2 percent. +Let's just take one country in Africa, Senegal. +Their rate is about 12 percent. +But why is it so low? +One reason is that the most popular contraceptives are rarely available. +Women in Africa will tell you over and over again that what they prefer today is an injectable. +They get it in their arm -- and they go about four times a year, they have to get it every three months -- to get their injection. +The reason women like it so much in Africa is they can hide it from their husbands, who sometimes want a lot of children. +The problem is every other time a woman goes into a clinic in Senegal, that injection is stocked out. +It's stocked out 150 days out of the year. +So can you imagine the situation -- she walks all this way to go get her injection. +She leaves her field, sometimes leaves her children, and it's not there. +And she doesn't know when it's going to be available again. +This is the same story across the continent of Africa today. +And so what we've created as a world has become a life-and-death crisis. +There are 100,000 women [per year] who say they don't want to be pregnant and they die in childbirth -- 100,000 women a year. +There are another 600,000 women [per year] who say they didn't want to be pregnant in the first place, and they give birth to a baby and her baby dies in that first month of life. +I know everyone wants to save these mothers and these children. +But somewhere along the way, we got confused by our own conversation. +And we stopped trying to save these lives. +So if we're going to make progress on this issue, we have to be really clear about what our agenda is. +We're not talking about abortion. +We're not talking about population control. +What I'm talking about is giving women the power to save their lives, to save their children's lives and to give their families the best possible future. +Now, as a world, there are lots of things we have to do in the global health community if we want to make the world better in the future -- things like fight diseases. +So many children today die of diarrhea, as you heard earlier, and pneumonia. +They kill literally millions of children a year. +We also need to help small farmers -- farmers who plow small plots of land in Africa -- so that they can grow enough food to feed their children. +And we have to make sure that children are educated around the world. +But one of the simplest and most transformative things we can do is to give everybody access to birth control methods that almost all Germans have access to and all Americans, at some point, they use these tools during their life. +And I think as long as we're really clear about what our agenda is, there's a global movement waiting to happen and ready to get behind this totally uncontroversial idea. +When I grew up, I grew up in a Catholic home. +I still consider myself a practicing Catholic. +My mom's great-uncle was a Jesuit priest. +My great-aunt was a Dominican nun. +She was a schoolteacher and a principal her entire life. +In fact, she's the one who taught me as a young girl how to read. +I was very close to her. +And I went to Catholic schools for my entire childhood until I left home to go to university. +In my high school, Ursuline Academy, the nuns made service and social justice a high priority in the school. +Today, in the [Gates] Foundation's work, I believe I'm applying the lessons that I learned in high school. +So, in the tradition of Catholic scholars, the nuns also taught us to question received teachings. +And one of the teachings that we girls and my peers questioned was is birth control really a sin? +Because I think one of the reasons we have this huge discomfort talking about contraception is this lingering concern that if we separate sex from reproduction, we're going to promote promiscuity. +And I think that's a reasonable question to be asked about contraception -- what is its impact on sexual morality? +But, like most women, my decision about birth control had nothing to do with promiscuity. +I had a plan for my future. I wanted to go to college. +I studied really hard in college, and I was proud to be one of the very few female computer science graduates at my university. +I wanted to have a career, so I went on to business school and I became one of the youngest female executives at Microsoft. +I still remember, though, when I left my parents' home to move across the country to start this new job at Microsoft. +They had sacrificed a lot to give me five years of higher education. +But they said, as I left home -- and I literally went down the front steps, down the porch at home -- and they said, "Even though you've had this great education, if you decide to get married and have kids right away, that's OK by us, too." +They wanted me to do the thing that would make me the very happiest. +I was free to decide what that would be. +It was an amazing feeling. +In fact, I did want to have kids -- but I wanted to have them when I was ready. +And so now, Bill and I have three. +And when our eldest daughter was born, we weren't, I would say, exactly sure how to be great parents. +Maybe some of you know that feeling. +And so we waited a little while before we had our second child. +And it's no accident that we have three children that are spaced three years apart. +Now, as a mother, what do I want the very most for my children? +I want them to feel the way I did -- like they can do anything they want to do in life. +And so, what has struck me as I've travelled the last decade for the foundation around the world is that all women want that same thing. +Last year, I was in Nairobi, in the slums, in one called Korogocho -- which literally means when translated, "standing shoulder to shoulder." +And I spoke with this women's group that's pictured here. +And the women talked very openly about their family life in the slums, what it was like. +And they talked quite intimately about what they did for birth control. +Marianne, in the center of the screen in the red sweater, she summed up that entire two-hour conversation in a phrase that I will never forget. +She said, "I want to bring every good thing to this child before I have another." +And I thought -- that's it. +That's universal. +We all want to bring every good thing to our children. +But what's not universal is our ability to provide every good thing. +So many women suffer from domestic violence. +And they can't even broach the subject of contraception, even inside their own marriage. +There are many women who lack basic education. +Even many of the women who do have knowledge and do have power don't have access to contraceptives. +For 250 years, parents around the world have been deciding to have smaller families. +This trend has been steady for a quarter of a millennium, across cultures and across geographies, with the glaring exception of sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. +The French started bringing down their family size in the mid-1700s. +And over the next 150 years, this trend spread all across Europe. +The surprising thing to me, as I learned this history, was that it spread not along socioeconomic lines but around cultural lines. +People who spoke the same language made that change as a group. +They made the same choice for their family, whether they were rich or whether they were poor. +The reason that trend toward smaller families spread was that this whole way was driven by an idea -- the idea that couples can exercise conscious control over how many children they have. +This is a very powerful idea. +It means that parents have the ability to affect the future, not just accept it as it is. +In France, the average family size went down every decade for 150 years in a row until it stabilized. +It took so long back then because the contraceptives weren't that good. +In Germany, this transition started in the 1880s, and it took just 50 years for family size to stabilize in this country. +And in Asia and Latin America, the transition started in the 1960s, and it happened much faster because of modern contraception. +I think, as we go through this history, it's important to pause for a moment and to remember why this has become such a contentious issue. +It's because some family planning programs resorted to unfortunate incentives and coercive policies. +For instance, in the 1960s, India adopted very specific numeric targets and they paid women to accept having an IUD placed in their bodies. +Now, Indian women were really smart in this situation. +When they went to get an IUD inserted, they got paid six rupees. +And so what did they do? +They waited a few hours or a few days, and they went to another service provider and had the IUD removed for one rupee. +For decades in the United States, African-American women were sterilized without their consent. +The procedure was so common it became known as the Mississippi appendectomy -- a tragic chapter in my country's history. +And as recently as the 1990s, in Peru, women from the Andes region were given anesthesia and they were sterilized without their knowledge. +The most startling thing about this is that these coercive policies weren't even needed. +They were carried out in places where parents already wanted to lower their family size. +Because in region after region, again and again, parents have wanted to have smaller families. +There's no reason to believe that African women have innately different desires. +Given the option, they will have fewer children. +The question is: will we invest in helping all women get what they want now? +Or, are we going to condemn them to some century-long struggle, as if this was still revolutionary France and the best method was coitus interruptus? +Empowering parents -- it doesn't need justification. +But here's the thing -- our desire to bring every good thing to our children is a force for good throughout the world. +It's what propels societies forward. +In that same slum in Nairobi, I met a young businesswoman, and she was making backpacks out of her home. +She and her young kids would go to the local jeans factory and collect scraps of denim. +She'd create these backpacks and resell them. +And when I talked with her, she had three children, and I asked her about her family. +And she said she and her husband decided that they wanted to stop having children after their third one. +And so when I asked her why, she simply said, "Well, because I couldn't run my business if I had another child." +And she explained the income that she was getting out of her business afforded her to be able to give an education to all three of her children. +She was incredibly optimistic about her family's future. +This is the same mental calculus that hundreds of millions of men and women have gone through. +And evidence proves that they have it exactly right. +They are able to give their children more opportunities by exercising control over when they have them. +In Bangladesh, there's a district called Matlab. +It's where researchers have collected data on over 180,000 inhabitants since 1963. +In the global health community, we like to say it's one of the longest pieces of research that's been running. +We have so many great health statistics. +In one of the studies, what did they do? +Half the villagers were chosen to get contraceptives. +They got education and access to contraception. +Twenty years later, following those villages, what we learned is that they had a better quality of life than their neighbors. +The families were healthier. +The women were less likely to die in childbirth. +Their children were less likely to die in the first thirty days of life. +The children were better nourished. +The families were also wealthier. +The adult women's wages were higher. +Households had more assets -- things like livestock or land or savings. +Finally, their sons and daughters had more schooling. +So when you multiply these types of effects over millions of families, the product can be large-scale economic development. +People talk about the Asian economic miracle of the 1980s -- but it wasn't really a miracle. +One of the leading causes of economic growth across that region was this cultural trend towards smaller families. +Sweeping changes start at the individual family level -- the family making a decision about what's best for their children. +When they make that change and that decision, those become sweeping regional and national trends. +When families in sub-Saharan Africa are given the opportunity to make those decisions for themselves, I think it will help spark a virtuous cycle of development in communities across the continent. +We can help poor families build a better future. +We can insist that all people have the opportunity to learn about contraceptives and have access to the full variety of methods. +I think the goal here is really clear: universal access to birth control that women want. +And for that to happen, it means that both rich and poor governments alike must make contraception a total priority. +We can do our part, in this room and globally, by talking about the hundreds of millions of families that don't have access to contraception today and what it would do to change their lives if they did have access. +I think if Marianne and the members of her women's group can talk about this openly and have this discussion out amongst themselves and in public, we can, too. +And we need to start now. +Because like Marianne, we all want to bring every good thing to our children. +And where is the controversy in that? +Thank you. +Chris Anderson: Thank you. +I have some questions for Melinda. +Thank you for your courage and everything else. +So, Melinda, in the last few years I've heard a lot of smart people say something to the effect of, "We don't need to worry about the population issue anymore. +Family sizes are coming down naturally all over the world. +We're going to peak at nine or 10 billion. And that's it." +Are they wrong? +Melinda Gates: If you look at the statistics across Africa, they are wrong. +And I think we need to look at it, though, from a different lens. +We need to look at it from the ground upwards. +I think that's one of the reasons we got ourselves in so much trouble on this issue of contraception. +We looked at it from top down and said we want to have different population numbers over time. +Yes, we care about the planet. Yes, we need to make the right choices. +But the choices have to be made at the family level. +And it's only by giving people access and letting them choose what to do that you get those sweeping changes that we have seen globally -- except for sub-Saharan Africa and those places in South Asia and Afghanistan. +CA: Some people on the right in America and in many conservative cultures around the world might say something like this: "It's all very well to talk about saving lives and empowering women and so on. +But, sex is sacred. +What you're proposing is going to increase the likelihood that lots of sex happens outside marriage. +And that is wrong." +What would you say to them? +MG: I would say that sex is absolutely sacred. +And it's sacred in Germany, and it's sacred in the United States, and it's sacred in France and so many places around the world. +And the fact that 98 percent of women in my country who are sexually experienced say they use birth control doesn't make sex any less sacred. +It just means that they're getting to make choices about their lives. +And I think in that choice, we're also honoring the sacredness of the family and the sacredness of the mother's life and the childrens' lives by saving their lives. +To me, that's incredibly sacred, too. +CA: So what is your foundation doing to promote this issue? +And what could people here and people listening on the web -- what would you like them to do? +MG: I would say this -- join the conversation. +We've listed the website up here. Join the conversation. +Tell your story about how contraception has either changed your life or somebody's life that you know. +And say that you're for this. +We need a groundswell of people saying, "This makes sense. +We've got to give all women access -- no matter where they live." +And one of the things that we're going to do is do a large event July 11 in London, with a whole host of countries, a whole host of African nations, to all say we're putting this back on the global health agenda. +We're going to commit resources to it, and we're going to do planning from the bottom up with governments to make sure that women are educated -- so that if they want the tool, they have it, and that they have lots of options available either through their local healthcare worker or their local community rural clinic. +CA: Melinda, I'm guessing that some of those nuns who taught you at school are going to see this TED Talk at some point. +Are they going to be horrified, or are they cheering you on? +MG: I know they're going to see the TED Talk because they know that I'm doing it and I plan to send it to them. +And, you know, the nuns who taught me were incredibly progressive. +I hope that they'll be very proud of me for living out what they taught us about social justice and service. +I have come to feel incredibly passionate about this issue because of what I've seen in the developing world. +And for me, this topic has become very close to heart because you meet these women and they are so often voiceless. +And yet they shouldn't be -- they should have a voice, they should have access. +And so I hope they'll feel that I'm living out what I've learned from them and from the decades of work that I've already done at the foundation. +CA: So, you and your team brought together today an amazing group of speakers to whom we're all grateful. +Did you learn anything? +MG: Oh my gosh, I learned so many things. I have so many follow-up questions. +And I think a lot of this work is a journey. +You heard the discussion about the journey through energy, or the journey through social design, or the journey in the coming and saying, "Why aren't there any women on this platform?" +And I think for all of us who work on these development issues, you learn by talking to other people. +You learn by doing. You learn by trying and making mistakes. +And it's the questions you ask. +Sometimes it's the questions you ask that helps lead to the answer the next person that can help you answer it. +So I have lots of questions for the panelists from today. +And I thought it was just an amazing day. +CA: Melinda, thank you for inviting all of us on this journey with you. +Thank you so much. MG: Great. Thanks, Chris. +I had a plan, and I never ever thought it would have anything to do with the banjo. +Little did I know what a huge impact it would have on me one night when I was at a party and I heard a sound coming out of a record player in the corner of a room. +And it was Doc Watson singing and playing "Shady Grove." + Shady Grove, my little love Shady Grove, my darlin' Shady Grove, my little love Going back to Harlan That sound was just so beautiful, the sound of Doc's voice and the rippling groove of the banjo. +And after being totally and completely obsessed with the mammoth richness and history of Chinese culture, it was like this total relief to hear something so truly American and so truly awesome. +I knew I had to take a banjo with me to China. +So before going to law school in China I bought a banjo, I threw it in my little red truck and I traveled down through Appalachia and I learned a bunch of old American songs, and I ended up in Kentucky at the International Bluegrass Music Association Convention. +And I was sitting in a hallway one night and a couple girls came up to me. +And they said, "Hey, do you want to jam?" +And I was like, "Sure." +So I picked up my banjo and I nervously played four songs that I actually knew with them. +And a record executive walked up to me and invited me to Nashville, Tennessee to make a record. +It's been eight years, and I can tell you that I didn't go to China to become a lawyer. +In fact, I went to Nashville. +And after a few months I was writing songs. +And the first song I wrote was in English, and the second one was in Chinese. +[Chinese] Outside your door the world is waiting. +Inside your heart a voice is calling. +The four corners of the world are watching, so travel daughter, travel. +Go get it, girl. +It's really been eight years since that fated night in Kentucky. +And I've played thousands of shows. +And I've collaborated with so many incredible, inspirational musicians around the world. +And I see the power of music. +I see the power of music to connect cultures. +I see it when I stand on a stage in a bluegrass festival in east Virginia and I look out at the sea of lawn chairs and I bust out into a song in Chinese. +[Chinese] And everybody's eyes just pop wide open like it's going to fall out of their heads. +And they're like, "What's that girl doing?" +And then they come up to me after the show and they all have a story. +They all come up and they're like, "You know, my aunt's sister's babysitter's dog's chicken went to China and adopted a girl." +And I tell you what, it like everybody's got a story. +It's just incredible. +And then I go to China and I stand on a stage at a university and I bust out into a song in Chinese and everybody sings along and they roar with delight at this girl with the hair and the instrument, and she's singing their music. +And I see, even more importantly, the power of music to connect hearts. +Like the time I was in Sichuan Province and I was singing for kids in relocation schools in the earthquake disaster zone. +And this little girl comes up to me. +[Chinese] "Big sister Wong," Washburn, Wong, same difference. +"Big sister Wong, can I sing you a song that my mom sang for me before she was swallowed in the earthquake?" +And I sat down, she sat on my lap. +She started singing her song. +And the warmth of her body and the tears rolling down her rosy cheeks, and I started to cry. +And the light that shone off of her eyes And in that moment, we weren't our American selves, we weren't our Chinese selves, we were just mortals sitting together in that light that keeps us here. +I want to dwell in that light with you and with everyone. +And I know U.S.-China relations doesn't need another lawyer. +Thank you. +This is Shivdutt Yadav, and he's from Uttar Pradesh, India. +Now Shivdutt was visiting the local land registry office in Uttar Pradesh, and he discovered that official records were listing him as dead. +His land was no longer registered in his name. +His brothers, Chandrabhan and Phoolchand, were also listed as dead. +Family members had bribed officials to interrupt the hereditary transfer of land by having the brothers declared dead, allowing them to inherit their father's share of the ancestral farmland. +Because of this, all three brothers and their families had to vacate their home. +According to the Yadav family, the local court has been scheduling a case review since 2001, but a judge has never appeared. +There are several instances in Uttar Pradesh of people dying before their case is given a proper review. +Shivdutt's father's death and a want for his property led to this corruption. +He was laid to rest in the Ganges River, where the dead are cremated along the banks of the river or tied to heavy stones and sunk in the water. +Photographing these brothers was a disorienting exchange because on paper they don't exist, and a photograph is so often used as an evidence of life. +Yet, these men remain dead. +This quandary led to the title of the project, which considers in many ways that we are all the living dead and that we in some ways represent ghosts of the past and the future. +So this story is the first of 18 chapters in my new body of work titled "A Living Man Declared Dead and Other Chapters." +And for this work, I traveled around the world over a four-year period researching and recording bloodlines and their related stories. +I was interested in ideas surrounding fate and whether our fate is determined by blood, chance or circumstance. +The subjects I documented ranged from feuding families in Brazil to victims of genocide in Bosnia to the first woman to hijack an airplane and the living dead in India. +In each chapter, you can see the external forces of governance, power and territory or religion colliding with the internal forces of psychological and physical inheritance. +Each work that I make is comprised of three segments. +On the left are one or more portrait panels in which I systematically order the members of a given bloodline. +This is followed by a text panel, it's designed in scroll form, in which I construct the narrative at stake. +And then on the right is what I refer to as a footnote panel. +It's a space that's more intuitive in which I present fragments of the story, beginnings of other stories, photographic evidence. +And it's meant to kind of reflect how we engage with histories or stories on the Internet, in a less linear form. +So it's more disordered. +And this disorder is in direct contrast to the unalterable order of a bloodline. +In my past projects I've often worked in serial form, documenting things that have the appearance of being comprehensive through a determined title and a determined presentation, but in fact, are fairly abstract. +In this project I wanted to work in the opposite direction and find an absolute catalog, something that I couldn't interrupt, curate or edit by choice. +This led me to blood. +A bloodline is determined and ordered. +But the project centers on the collision of order and disorder -- the order of blood butting up against the disorder represented in the often chaotic and violent stories that are the subjects of my chapters. +In chapter two, I photograph the descendants of Arthur Ruppin. +He was sent in 1907 to Palestine by the Zionist organization to look at areas for Jewish settlement and acquire land for Jewish settlement. +He oversaw land acquisition on behalf of the Palestine Land Development Company whose work led to the establishment of a Jewish state. +Through my research at the Zionist Archives in Jerusalem, I wanted to look at the early paperwork of the establishment of the Jewish state. +And I found these maps which you see here. +And these are studies commissioned by the Zionist organization for alternative areas for Jewish settlement. +In this, I was interested in the consequences of geography and imagining how the world would be different if Israel were in Uganda, which is what these maps demonstrate. +These archives in Jerusalem, they maintain a card index file of the earliest immigrants and applicants for immigration to Palestine, and later Israel, from 1919 to 1965. +Chapter three: Joseph Nyamwanda Jura Ondijo treated patients outside of Kisumu, Kenya for AIDS, tuberculosis, infertility, mental illness, evil spirits. +He's most often paid for his services in cash, cows or goats. +But sometimes when his female patients can't afford his services, their families give the women to Jura in exchange for medical treatment. +As a result of these transactions, Jura has nine wives, 32 children and 63 grandchildren. +In his bloodline you see the children and grandchildren here. +Two of his wives were brought to him suffering from infertility and he cured them, three for evil spirits, one for an asthmatic condition and severe chest pain and two wives Ondijo claims he took for love, paying their families a total of 16 cows. +One wife deserted him and another passed away during treatment for evil spirits. +Polygamy is widely practiced in Kenya. +It's common among a privileged class capable of paying numerous dowries and keeping multiple homes. +Instances of prominent social and political figures in polygamous relationships has led to the perception of polygamy as a symbol of wealth, status and power. +You may notice in several of the chapters that I photographed there are empty portraits. +These empty portraits represent individuals, living individuals, who couldn't be present. +And the reasons for their absence are given in my text panel. +They include dengue fever, imprisonment, army service, women not allowed to be photographed for religious and cultural reasons. +And in this particular chapter, it's children whose mothers wouldn't allow them to travel to the photographic shoot for fear that their fathers would kidnap them during it. +Twenty-four European rabbits were brought to Australia in 1859 by a British settler for sporting purposes, for hunting. +And within a hundred years, that population of 24 had exploded to half a billion. +The European rabbit has no natural predators in Australia, and it competes with native wildlife and damages native plants and degrades the land. +Since the 1950s, Australia has been introducing lethal diseases into the wild rabbit population to control growth. +These rabbits were bred at a government facility, Biosecurity Queensland, where they bred three bloodlines of rabbits and have infected them with a lethal disease and are monitoring their progress to see if it will effectively kill them. +So they're testing its virulence. +During the course of this trial, all of the rabbits died, except for a few, which were euthanized. +Haigh's Chocolate, in collaboration with the Foundation for Rabbit-Free Australia, stopped all production of the Easter Bunny in chocolate and has replaced it with the Easter Bilby. +Now this was done to counter the annual celebration of rabbits and presumably make the public more comfortable with the killing of rabbits and promote an animal that's native to Australia, and actually an animal that is threatened by the European rabbit. +In chapter seven, I focus on the effects of a genocidal act on one bloodline. +So over a two-day period, six individuals from this bloodline were killed in the Srebrenica massacre. +This is the only work in which I visually represent the dead. +But I only represent those that were killed in the Srebrenica massacre, which is recorded as the largest mass murder in Europe since the Second World War. +And during this massacre, 8,000 Bosnian Muslim men and boys were systematically executed. +So when you look at a detail of this work, you can see, the man on the upper-left is the father of the woman sitting next to him. +Her name is Zumra. +She is followed by her four children, all of whom were killed in the Srebrenica massacre. +Following those four children is Zumra's younger sister who is then followed by her children who were killed as well. +During the time I was in Bosnia, the mortal remains of Zumra's eldest son were exhumed from a mass grave. +And I was therefore able to photograph the fully assembled remains. +However, the other individuals are represented by these blue slides, which show tooth and bone samples that were matched to DNA evidence collected from family members to prove they were the identities of those individuals. +They've all been given a proper burial, so what remains are these blue slides at the International Commission for Missing Persons. +These are personal effects dug up from a mass grave that are awaiting identification from family members and graffiti at the Potochari battery factory, which was where the Dutch U.N. soldiers were staying, and also the Serbian soldiers later during the times of the executions. +This is video footage used at the Milosevic trial, which from top to bottom shows a Serbian scorpion unit being blessed by an Orthodox priest before rounding up the boys and men and killing them. +Chapter 15 is more of a performance piece. +I solicited China's State Council Information Office in 2009 to select a multi-generational bloodline to represent China for this project. +They chose a large family from Beijing for its size, and they declined to give me any further reasoning for their choice. +This is one of the rare situations where I have no empty portraits. +Everyone showed up. +You can also see the evolution of the one-child-only policy as it travels through the bloodline. +Previously known as the Department of Foreign Propaganda, the State Council Information Office is responsible for all of China's external publicity operations. +It controls all foreign media and image production outside of China from foreign media working within China. +It also monitors the Internet and instructs local media on how to handle any potentially controversial issues, including Tibet, ethnic minorities, Human Rights, religion, democracy movements and terrorism. +For the footnote panel in this work, this office instructed me to photograph their central television tower in Beijing. +And I also photographed the gift bag they gave me when I left. +These are the descendants of Hans Frank who was Hitler's personal legal advisor and governor general of occupied Poland. +Now this bloodline includes numerous empty portraits, highlighting a complex relationship to one's family history. +The reasons for these absences include people who declined participation. +There's also parents who participated who wouldn't let their children participate because they thought they were too young to decide for themselves. +Another section of the family presented their clothing, as opposed to their physical presence, because they didn't want to be identified with the past that I was highlighting. +And finally, another individual sat for me from behind and later rescinded his participation, so I had to pixelate him out so he's unrecognizable. +In the footnote panel that accompanies this work I photographed an official Adolph Hitler postage stamp and an imitation of that stamp produced by British Intelligence with Hans Frank's image on it. +It was released in Poland to create friction between Frank and Hitler, so that Hitler would imagine Frank was trying to usurp his power. +Again, talking about fate, I was interested in the stories and fate of particular works of art. +These paintings were taken by Hans Frank during the time of the Third Reich. +And I'm interested in the impact of their absence and presence through time. +They are Leonardo da Vinci's "Lady With an Ermine," Rembrandt's "Landscape With Good Samaritan" and Raphael's "Portrait of a Youth," which has never been found. +Chapter 12 highlights people being born into a battle that is not of their making, but becomes their own. +So this is the Ferraz family and the Novaes family. +And they are in an active blood feud. +This feud has been going on since 1991 in Northeast Brazil in Pernambuco, and it involved the deaths of 20 members of the families and 40 others associated with the feud, including hired hit men, innocent bystanders and friends. +Tensions between these two families date back to 1913 when there was a dispute over local political power. +But it got violent in the last two decades and includes decapitation and the death of two mayors. +Installed into a protective wall surrounding the suburban home of Louis Novaes, who's the head of the Novaes family, are these turret holes, which were used for shooting and looking. +Brazil's northeast state of Pernambuco is one of the nation's most violent regions. +It's rooted in a principle of retributive justice, or an eye for an eye, so retaliatory killings have led to several deaths in the area. +This story, like many of the stories in my chapters, reads almost as an archetypal episode, like something out of Shakespeare, that's happening now and will happen again in the future. +I'm interested in these ideas of repetition. +So after I returned home, I received word that one member of the family had been shot 30 times in the face. +Chapter 17 is an exploration of the absence of a bloodline and the absence of a history. +Children at this Ukrainian orphanage are between the ages of six and 16. +This piece is ordered by age because it can't be ordered by blood. +In a 12-month period when I was at the orphanage, only one child had been adopted. +Children have to leave the orphanage at age 16, despite the fact that there's often nowhere for them to go. +It's commonly reported in Ukraine that children, when leaving the orphanage are targeted for human trafficking, child pornography and prostitution. +Many have to turn to criminal activity for their survival, and high rates of suicide are recorded. +This is a boys' bedroom. +There's an insufficient supply of beds at the orphanage and not enough warm clothing. +Children bathe infrequently because the hot water isn't turned on until October. +This is a girls' bedroom. +And the director listed the orphanage's most urgent needs as an industrial size washing machine and dryer, four vacuum cleaners, two computers, a video projector, a copy machine, winter shoes and a dentist's drill. +This photograph, which I took at the orphanage of one of the classrooms, shows a sign which I had translated when I got home. +And it reads: "Those who do not know their past are not worthy of their future." +There are many more chapters in this project. +This is just an abridged rendering of over a thousand images. +And this mass pile of images and stories forms an archive. +And within this accumulation of images and texts, I'm struggling to find patterns and imagine that the narratives that surround the lives we lead are just as coded as blood itself. +But archives exist because there's something that can't necessarily be articulated. +Something is said in the gaps between all the information that's collected. +And there's this relentless persistence of birth and death and an unending collection of stories in between. +It's almost machine-like the way people are born and people die, and the stories keep coming and coming. +And in this, I'm considering, is this actual accumulation leading to some sort of evolution, or are we on repeat over and over again? +Thank you. +A few months ago the Nobel Prize in physics was awarded to two teams of astronomers for a discovery that has been hailed as one of the most important astronomical observations ever. +Now the idea of a multiverse is a strange one. +I mean, most of us were raised to believe that the word "universe" means everything. +And I say most of us with forethought, as my four-year-old daughter has heard me speak of these ideas since she was born. +And last year I was holding her and I said, "Sophia, I love you more than anything in the universe." +And she turned to me and said, "Daddy, universe or multiverse?" +But barring such an anomalous upbringing, it is strange to imagine other realms separate from ours, most with fundamentally different features, that would rightly be called universes of their own. +And yet, speculative though the idea surely is, I aim to convince you that there's reason for taking it seriously, as it just might be right. +I'm going to tell the story of the multiverse in three parts. +In part one, I'm going to describe those Nobel Prize-winning results and to highlight a profound mystery which those results revealed. +In part two, I'll offer a solution to that mystery. +It's based on an approach called string theory, and that's where the idea of the multiverse will come into the story. +Finally, in part three, I'm going to describe a cosmological theory called inflation, which will pull all the pieces of the story together. +Okay, part one starts back in 1929 when the great astronomer Edwin Hubble realized that the distant galaxies were all rushing away from us, establishing that space itself is stretching, it's expanding. +Now this was revolutionary. +The prevailing wisdom was that on the largest of scales the universe was static. +But even so, there was one thing that everyone was certain of: The expansion must be slowing down. +That, much as the gravitational pull of the Earth slows the ascent of an apple tossed upward, the gravitational pull of each galaxy on every other must be slowing the expansion of space. +Now let's fast-forward to the 1990s when those two teams of astronomers I mentioned at the outset were inspired by this reasoning to measure the rate at which the expansion has been slowing. +And they did this by painstaking observations of numerous distant galaxies, allowing them to chart how the expansion rate has changed over time. +Here's the surprise: They found that the expansion is not slowing down. +Instead they found that it's speeding up, going faster and faster. +That's like tossing an apple upward and it goes up faster and faster. +Now if you saw an apple do that, you'd want to know why. +What's pushing on it? +Similarly, the astronomers' results are surely well-deserving of the Nobel Prize, but they raised an analogous question. +What force is driving all galaxies to rush away from every other at an ever-quickening speed? +Well the most promising answer comes from an old idea of Einstein's. +You see, we are all used to gravity being a force that does one thing, pulls objects together. +But in Einstein's theory of gravity, his general theory of relativity, gravity can also push things apart. +How? Well according to Einstein's math, if space is uniformly filled with an invisible energy, sort of like a uniform, invisible mist, then the gravity generated by that mist would be repulsive, repulsive gravity, which is just what we need to explain the observations. +Because the repulsive gravity of an invisible energy in space -- we now call it dark energy, but I've made it smokey white here so you can see it -- its repulsive gravity would cause each galaxy to push against every other, driving expansion to speed up, not slow down. +And this explanation represents great progress. +But I promised you a mystery here in part one. +Here it is. +When the astronomers worked out how much of this dark energy must be infusing space to account for the cosmic speed up, look at what they found. +This number is small. +Expressed in the relevant unit, it is spectacularly small. +And the mystery is to explain this peculiar number. +We want this number to emerge from the laws of physics, but so far no one has found a way to do that. +Now you might wonder, should you care? +Maybe explaining this number is just a technical issue, a technical detail of interest to experts, but of no relevance to anybody else. +Well it surely is a technical detail, but some details really matter. +Some details provide windows into uncharted realms of reality, and this peculiar number may be doing just that, as the only approach that's so far made headway to explain it invokes the possibility of other universes -- an idea that naturally emerges from string theory, which takes me to part two: string theory. +So hold the mystery of the dark energy in the back of your mind as I now go on to tell you three key things about string theory. +First off, what is it? +Well it's an approach to realize Einstein's dream of a unified theory of physics, a single overarching framework that would be able to describe all the forces at work in the universe. +And the central idea of string theory is quite straightforward. +It says that if you examine any piece of matter ever more finely, at first you'll find molecules and then you'll find atoms and subatomic particles. +But the theory says that if you could probe smaller, much smaller than we can with existing technology, you'd find something else inside these particles -- a little tiny vibrating filament of energy, a little tiny vibrating string. +And just like the strings on a violin, they can vibrate in different patterns producing different musical notes. +These little fundamental strings, when they vibrate in different patterns, they produce different kinds of particles -- so electrons, quarks, neutrinos, photons, all other particles would be united into a single framework, as they would all arise from vibrating strings. +It's a compelling picture, a kind of cosmic symphony, where all the richness that we see in the world around us emerges from the music that these little, tiny strings can play. +But there's a cost to this elegant unification, because years of research have shown that the math of string theory doesn't quite work. +It has internal inconsistencies, unless we allow for something wholly unfamiliar -- extra dimensions of space. +That is, we all know about the usual three dimensions of space. +And you can think about those as height, width and depth. +But string theory says that, on fantastically small scales, there are additional dimensions crumpled to a tiny size so small that we have not detected them. +But even though the dimensions are hidden, they would have an impact on things that we can observe because the shape of the extra dimensions constrains how the strings can vibrate. +And in string theory, vibration determines everything. +So particle masses, the strengths of forces, and most importantly, the amount of dark energy would be determined by the shape of the extra dimensions. +So if we knew the shape of the extra dimensions, we should be able to calculate these features, calculate the amount of dark energy. +The challenge is we don't know the shape of the extra dimensions. +All we have is a list of candidate shapes allowed by the math. +Now when these ideas were first developed, there were only about five different candidate shapes, so you can imagine analyzing them one-by-one to determine if any yield the physical features we observe. +But over time the list grew as researchers found other candidate shapes. +From five, the number grew into the hundreds and then the thousands -- A large, but still manageable, collection to analyze, since after all, graduate students need something to do. +But then the list continued to grow into the millions and the billions, until today. +The list of candidate shapes has soared to about 10 to the 500. +So, what to do? +Well some researchers lost heart, concluding that was so many candidate shapes for the extra dimensions, each giving rise to different physical features, string theory would never make definitive, testable predictions. +But others turned this issue on its head, taking us to the possibility of a multiverse. +Here's the idea. +Maybe each of these shapes is on an equal footing with every other. +Each is as real as every other, in the sense that there are many universes, each with a different shape, for the extra dimensions. +And this radical proposal has a profound impact on this mystery: the amount of dark energy revealed by the Nobel Prize-winning results. +Because you see, if there are other universes, and if those universes each have, say, a different shape for the extra dimensions, then the physical features of each universe will be different, and in particular, the amount of dark energy in each universe will be different. +Which means that the mystery of explaining the amount of dark energy we've now measured would take on a wholly different character. +In this context, the laws of physics can't explain one number for the dark energy because there isn't just one number, there are many numbers. +Which means we have been asking the wrong question. +It's that the right question to ask is, why do we humans find ourselves in a universe with a particular amount of dark energy we've measured instead of any of the other possibilities that are out there? +And that's a question on which we can make headway. +Because those universes that have much more dark energy than ours, whenever matter tries to clump into galaxies, the repulsive push of the dark energy is so strong that it blows the clump apart and galaxies don't form. +And in those universes that have much less dark energy, well they collapse back on themselves so quickly that, again, galaxies don't form. +And without galaxies, there are no stars, no planets and no chance for our form of life to exist in those other universes. +So we find ourselves in a universe with the particular amount of dark energy we've measured simply because our universe has conditions hospitable to our form of life. +And that would be that. +Mystery solved, multiverse found. +Now some find this explanation unsatisfying. +We're used to physics giving us definitive explanations for the features we observe. +But the point is, if the feature you're observing can and does take on a wide variety of different values across the wider landscape of reality, then thinking one explanation for a particular value is simply misguided. +An early example comes from the great astronomer Johannes Kepler who was obsessed with understanding a different number -- why the Sun is 93 million miles away from the Earth. +And he worked for decades trying to explain this number, but he never succeeded, and we know why. +Kepler was asking the wrong question. +We now know that there are many planets at a wide variety of different distances from their host stars. +So hoping that the laws of physics will explain one particular number, 93 million miles, well that is simply wrongheaded. +Instead the right question to ask is, why do we humans find ourselves on a planet at this particular distance, instead of any of the other possibilities? +And again, that's a question we can answer. +Those planets which are much closer to a star like the Sun would be so hot that our form of life wouldn't exist. +And those planets that are much farther away from the star, well they're so cold that, again, our form of life would not take hold. +So we find ourselves on a planet at this particular distance simply because it yields conditions vital to our form of life. +And when it comes to planets and their distances, this clearly is the right kind of reasoning. +The point is, when it comes to universes and the dark energy that they contain, it may also be the right kind of reasoning. +One key difference, of course, is we know that there are other planets out there, but so far I've only speculated on the possibility that there might be other universes. +So to pull it all together, we need a mechanism that can actually generate other universes. +And that takes me to my final part, part three. +Because such a mechanism has been found by cosmologists trying to understand the Big Bang. +You see, when we speak of the Big Bang, we often have an image of a kind of cosmic explosion that created our universe and set space rushing outward. +But there's a little secret. +The Big Bang leaves out something pretty important, the Bang. +It tells us how the universe evolved after the Bang, but gives us no insight into what would have powered the Bang itself. +And this gap was finally filled by an enhanced version of the Big Bang theory. +It's called inflationary cosmology, which identified a particular kind of fuel that would naturally generate an outward rush of space. +The fuel is based on something called a quantum field, but the only detail that matters for us is that this fuel proves to be so efficient that it's virtually impossible to use it all up, which means in the inflationary theory, the Big Bang giving rise to our universe is likely not a one-time event. +Instead the fuel not only generated our Big Bang, but it would also generate countless other Big Bangs, each giving rise to its own separate universe with our universe becoming but one bubble in a grand cosmic bubble bath of universes. +And now, when we meld this with string theory, here's the picture we're led to. +Each of these universes has extra dimensions. +The extra dimensions take on a wide variety of different shapes. +The different shapes yield different physical features. +And we find ourselves in one universe instead of another simply because it's only in our universe that the physical features, like the amount of dark energy, are right for our form of life to take hold. +And this is the compelling but highly controversial picture of the wider cosmos that cutting-edge observation and theory have now led us to seriously consider. +One big remaining question, of course, is, could we ever confirm the existence of other universes? +Well let me describe one way that might one day happen. +The inflationary theory already has strong observational support. +Going further, if there are other universes, the theory predicts that every so often those universes can collide. +And if our universe got hit by another, that collision would generate an additional subtle pattern of temperature variations across space that we might one day be able to detect. +And so exotic as this picture is, it may one day be grounded in observations, establishing the existence of other universes. +I'll conclude with a striking implication of all these ideas for the very far future. +You see, we learned that our universe is not static, that space is expanding, that that expansion is speeding up and that there might be other universes all by carefully examining faint pinpoints of starlight coming to us from distant galaxies. +But because the expansion is speeding up, in the very far future, those galaxies will rush away so far and so fast that we won't be able to see them -- not because of technological limitations, but because of the laws of physics. +The light those galaxies emit, even traveling at the fastest speed, the speed of light, will not be able to overcome the ever-widening gulf between us. +So astronomers in the far future looking out into deep space will see nothing but an endless stretch of static, inky, black stillness. +And they will conclude that the universe is static and unchanging and populated by a single central oasis of matter that they inhabit -- a picture of the cosmos that we definitively know to be wrong. +Now maybe those future astronomers will have records handed down from an earlier era, like ours, attesting to an expanding cosmos teeming with galaxies. +But would those future astronomers believe such ancient knowledge? +Or would they believe in the black, static empty universe that their own state-of-the-art observations reveal? +I suspect the latter. +Which means that we are living through a remarkably privileged era when certain deep truths about the cosmos are still within reach of the human spirit of exploration. +It appears that it may not always be that way. +Because today's astronomers, by turning powerful telescopes to the sky, have captured a handful of starkly informative photons -- a kind of cosmic telegram billions of years in transit. +and the message echoing across the ages is clear. +Sometimes nature guards her secrets with the unbreakable grip of physical law. +Sometimes the true nature of reality beckons from just beyond the horizon. +Thank you very much. +Chris Anderson: Brian, thank you. +The range of ideas you've just spoken about are dizzying, exhilarating, incredible. +How do you think of where cosmology is now, in a sort of historical side? +Are we in the middle of something unusual historically in your opinion? +BG: Well it's hard to say. +When we learn that astronomers of the far future may not have enough information to figure things out, the natural question is, maybe we're already in that position and certain deep, critical features of the universe already have escaped our ability to understand because of how cosmology evolves. +So from that perspective, maybe we will always be asking questions and never be able to fully answer them. +On the other hand, we now can understand how old the universe is. +We can understand how to understand the data from the microwave background radiation that was set down 13.72 billion years ago -- and yet, we can do calculations today to predict how it will look and it matches. +Holy cow! That's just amazing. +So on the one hand, it's just incredible where we've gotten, but who knows what sort of blocks we may find in the future. +CA: You're going to be around for the next few days. +Maybe some of these conversations can continue. +Thank you. Thank you, Brian. (BG: My pleasure.) +It's a great honor to be here. +It's a great honor to be here talking about cities, talking about the future of cities. +It's great to be here as a mayor. +I really do believe that mayors have the political position to really change people's lives. +That's the place to be. +And it's great to be here as the mayor of Rio. +Rio's a beautiful city, a vibrant place, special place. +Actually, you're looking at a guy who has the best job in the world. +And I really wanted to share with you a very special moment of my life and the history of the city of Rio. +Announcer: And now, ladies and gentlemen, the envelope containing the result. +Jacques Rogge: I have the honor to announce that the games of the 31st Olympiad are awarded to the city of Rio de Janeiro. +EP: Okay, that's very touching, very emotional, but it was not easy to get there. +Actually it was a very hard challenge. +We had to beat the European monarchy. +This is Juan Carlos, king of Spain. +We had to beat the powerful Japanese with all of their technology. +We had to beat the most powerful man in the world defending his own city. +So it was not easy at all. +And actually this last guy here said a phrase a few years ago that I think fits perfectly to the situation of Rio winning the Olympic bid. +We really showed that, yes, we can. +And really, this is the reason I came here tonight. +I came here tonight to tell you that things can be done, that you don't have always to be rich or powerful to get things on the way, that cities are a great challenge. +It's a difficult task to deal with cities. +But with some original ways of getting things done, with some basic commandments, you can really get cities to be a great, great place to live. +I want you all to imagine Rio. +You probably think about a city full of energy, a vibrant city full of green. +And nobody showed that better than Carlos Saldanha in last year's "Rio." +Bird: This is incredible. +EP: Okay, some parts of Rio are pretty much like that, but it's not like that everywhere. +We're like every big city in the world. +We've got lots of people, pollution, cars, concrete, lots of concrete. +These pictures I'm showing here, they are some pictures from Madureira. +It's like the heart of the suburb in Rio. +And I want to use an example of Rio that we're doing in Madureira, in this region, to see what we should think as our first commandment. +So every time you see a concrete jungle like that, what you've got to do is find open spaces. +If you don't have open spaces, you've got to go there and open spaces. +So go inside these open spaces and make it that people can get inside and use those spaces. +This is going to be the third largest park in Rio by June this year. +It's going to be a place where people can meet, where you can put nature. +The temperature's going to drop two, three degrees centigrade. +So the first commandment I want to leave you tonight is, a city of the future has to be environmentally friendly. +Every time you think of a city, you've got to think green. +You've got to think green and green. +So moving to our second commandment that I wanted to show you. +Let's think that cities are made of people, lots of people together. +cities are packed with people. +So how do you move these people around? +When you have 3.5 billion people living in cities -- by 2050, it's going to be 6 billion people. +So every time you think about moving these people around, you think about high-capacity transportation. +But there is a problem. +High-capacity transportation means spending lots and lots of money. +So what I'm going to show here is something that was already presented in TED by the former mayor of Curitiba who created that, a city in Brazil, Jaime Lerner. +And it's something that we're doing, again, lots in Rio. +It's the BRT, the Bus Rapid Transit. +So you get a bus. It's a simple bus that everybody knows. +You transform it inside as a train car. +You use separate lanes, dedicated lanes. +The contractors, they don't like that. +You don't have to dig deep down underground. +You can build nice stations. +This is actually a station that we're doing in Rio. +Again, you don't have to dig deep down underground to make a station like that. +This station has the same comfort, the same features as a subway station. +A kilometer of this costs a tenth of a subway. +So spending much less money and doing it much faster, you can really change the way people move. +This is a map of Rio. +All the lines, the colored lines you see there, it's our high-capacity transportation network. +In this present time today, we only carry 18 percent of our population in high-capacity transportation. +With the BRTs we're doing, again, the cheapest and fastest way, we're going to move to 63 percent of the population being carried by high-capacity transportation. +So remember what I said: You don't always have to be rich or powerful to get things done. +You can find original ways to get things done. +So the second commandment I want to leave you tonight is, a city of the future has to deal with mobility and integration of its people. +Moving to the third commandment. +And this is the most controversial one. +It has to do with the favelas, the slums -- whatever you call it, there are different names all over the world. +But the point we want to make here tonight is, favelas are not always a problem. +I mean, favelas can sometimes really be a solution, if you deal with them, if you put public policy inside the favelas. +Let me just show a map of Rio again. +Rio has 6.3 million inhabitants -- More than 20 percent, 1.4 million, live in the favelas. +All these red parts are favelas. +So you see, they are spread all over the city. +This is a typical view of a favela in Rio. +You see the contrast between the rich and poor. +So I want to make two points here tonight about favelas. +The first one is, you can change from what I call a [vicious] circle to a virtual circle. +But what you've got to do to get that is you've got to go inside the favelas, bring in the basic services -- mainly education and health -- with high quality. +I'm going to give a fast example here. +This was an old building in a favela in Rio -- [unclear favela name] -- that we just transformed into a primary school, with high quality. +This is primary assistance in health that we built inside a favela, again, with high quality. +We call it a family clinic. +So the first point is bring basic services inside the favelas with high quality. +The second point I want to make about the favelas is, you've got to open spaces in the favela. +Bring infrastructure to the favelas, to the slums, wherever you are. +Rio has the aim, by 2020, to have all its favelas completely urbanized. +Another example, this was completely packed with houses, and then we built this, what we call, a knowledge square. +This is a place with high technology where the kids that live in a poor house next to this place can go inside and have access to all technology. +We even built a theater there -- 3D movie. +And this is the kind of change you can get for that. +And by the end of the day you get something better than a TED Prize, which is this great laugh from a kid that lives in the favela. +So the third commandment I want to leave here tonight is, a city of the future has to be socially integrated. +You cannot deal with a city if it's not socially integrated. +But moving to our fourth commandment, I really wouldn't be here tonight. +Between November and May, Rio's completely packed. +We just had last week Carnivale. +It was great. It was lots of fun. +We have New Year's Eve. +There's like two million people on Copacabana Beach. +We have problems. +We fight floods, tropical rains at this time of the year. +You can imagine how people get happy with me watching these kinds of scenes. +We have problems with the tropical rains. +Almost every year we have these landslides, which are terrible. +But the reason I could come here is because of that. +This was something we did with IBM that's a little bit more than a year old. +It's what we call the Operations Center of Rio. +And I wanted to show that I can govern my city, using technology, from here, from Long Beach, so I got here last night and I know everything. +We're going to speak now to the Operations Center. +This is Osorio, he's our secretary of urban affairs. +So Osorio, good to be there with you. +I've already told the people that we have tropical rain this time of year. +So how's the weather in Rio now? +Osorio: The weather is fine. We have fair weather today. +Let me get you our weather satellite radar. +You see just a little bit of moisture around the city. +Absolutely no problem in the city in terms of weather, today and in the next few days. +EP: Okay, how's the traffic? +We, at this time of year, get lots of traffic jams. +People get mad at the mayor. So how's the traffic tonight? +Osario: Well traffic tonight is fine. +Let me get you one of our 8,000 buses. +A live transmission in downtown Rio for you, Mr. Mayor. +You see, the streets are clear. +Now it's 11:00 pm in Rio. +Nothing of concern in terms of traffic. +I'll get to you now the incidents of the day. +We had heavy traffic early in the morning and in the rush hour in the afternoon, but nothing of big concern. +We are below average in terms of traffic incidents in the city. +EP: Okay, so you're showing now some public services. +These are the cars. +Osorio: Absolutely, Mr. Mayor. +Let me get you the fleet of our waste collection trucks. +This is live transmission. +We have GPS's in all of our trucks. +And you can see them working in all parts of the city. +Waste collection on time. +Public services working well. +EP: Okay, Osorio, thank you very much. +It was great to have you here. +We're going to move so that I can make a conclusion. +Okay, so no files, this place, no paperwork, no distance, 24/7 working. +So the fourth commandment I want to share with you here tonight is, a city of the future has to use technology to be present. +I don't need to be there anymore to know and to administrate the city. +But everything that I said here tonight, or the commandments, are means, are ways, for us to govern cities -- invest in infrastructure, invest in the green, open parks, open spaces, integrate socially, use technology. +But at the end of the day, when we talk about cities, we talk about a gathering of people. +And we cannot see that as a problem. +That is fantastic. +If there's 3.5 billion now, it's going to be six billion then it's going to be 10 billion. +That is great, that means we're going to have 10 billion minds working together, 10 billion talents together. +So a city of the future, I really do believe that it's a city that cares about its citizens, integrates socially its citizens. +A city of the future is a city that can never let anyone out of this great party, which are cities. +Thank you very much. +To most of you, this is a device to buy, sell, play games, watch videos. +I think it might be a lifeline. +I think actually it might be able to save more lives than penicillin. +Texting: I know I say texting and a lot of you think sexting, a lot of you think about the lewd photos that you see -- hopefully not your kids sending to somebody else -- or trying to translate the abbreviations LOL, LMAO, HMU. +I can help you with those later. +But the parents in the room know that texting is actually the best way to communicate with your kids. +It might be the only way to communicate with your kids. +The average teenager sends 3,339 text messages a month, unless she's a girl, then it's closer to 4,000. +And the secret is she opens every single one. +Texting has a 100 percent open rate. +Now the parents are really alarmed. +It's a 100 percent open rate even if she doesn't respond to you when you ask her when she's coming home for dinner. +I promise she read that text. +And this isn't some suburban iPhone-using teen phenomenon. +Texting actually overindexes for minority and urban youth. +I know this because at DoSomething.org, which is the largest organization for teenagers and social change in America, about six months ago we pivoted and started focusing on text messaging. +We're now texting out to about 200,000 kids a week about doing our campaigns to make their schools more green or to work on homeless issues and things like that. +We're finding it 11 times more powerful than email. +We've also found an unintended consequence. +We've been getting text messages back like these. +"I don't want to go to school today. +The boys call me faggot." +"I was cutting, my parents found out, and so I stopped. +But I just started again an hour ago." +Or, "He won't stop raping me. +He told me not to tell anyone. +It's my dad. Are you there?" +That last one's an actual text message that we received. +And yeah, we're there. +I will not forget the day we got that text message. +And so it was that day that we decided we needed to build a crisis text hotline. +Because this isn't what we do. +We do social change. +Kids are just sending us these text messages because texting is so familiar and comfortable to them and there's nowhere else to turn that they're sending them to us. +So think about it, a text hotline; it's pretty powerful. +It's fast, it's pretty private. +No one hears you in a stall, you're just texting quietly. +It's real time. +We can help millions of teens with counseling and referrals. +That's great. +But the thing that really makes this awesome is the data. +Because I'm not really comfortable just helping that girl with counseling and referrals. +I want to prevent this shit from happening. +So think about a cop. +There's something in New York City. +The police did it. It used to be just guess work, police work. +And then they started crime mapping. +And so they started following and watching petty thefts, summonses, all kinds of things -- charting the future essentially. +And they found things like, when you see crystal meth on the street, if you add police presence, you can curb the otherwise inevitable spate of assaults and robberies that would happen. +In fact, the year after the NYPD put CompStat in place, the murder rate fell 60 percent. +So think about the data from a crisis text line. +There is no census on bullying and dating abuse and eating disorders and cutting and rape -- no census. +Maybe there's some studies, some longitudinal studies, that cost lots of money and took lots of time. +Or maybe there's some anecdotal evidence. +Imagine having real time data on every one of those issues. +You could inform legislation. +You could inform school policy. +You could say to a principal, "You're having a problem every Thursday at three o'clock. +What's going on in your school?" +You could see the immediate impact of legislation or a hateful speech that somebody gives in a school assembly and see what happens as a result. +This is really, to me, the power of texting and the power of data. +Thank you. +Five hundred seventy-one million two hundred thirty thousand pounds of paper towels are used by Americans every year. +If we could -- correction, wrong figure -- 13 billion used every year. +If we could reduce the usage of paper towels, one paper towel per person per day, 571,230,000 pounds of paper not used. +We can do that. +Now there are all kinds of paper towel dispensers. +There's the tri-fold. People typically take two or three. +There's the one that cuts it, that you have to tear off. +People go one, two, three, four, tear. +This much, right? +There's the one that cuts itself. +People go, one, two, three, four. +Or there's the same thing, but recycled paper, you have to get five of those because they're not as absorbant, of course. +The fact is, you can do it all with one towel. +The key, two words: This half of the room, your word is "shake." +Let's hear it. Shake. Louder. +Audience: Shake. +Joe Smith: Your word is "fold." +Audience: Fold. +JS: Again. +Audience: Fold. JS: Really loud. +Audience: Shake. Fold. +JS: Okay. Wet hands. +Shake -- one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, 10, 11, 12. +Why 12? Twelve apostles, twelve tribes, twelve zodiac signs, twelve months. The one I like the best: It's the biggest number with one syllable. +Tri-fold. Fold ... +Dry. +Audience: Shake. +Fold. +JS: Cuts itself. Fold. The fold is important because it allows interstitial suspension. +You don't have to remember that part, but trust me. +Audience: Shake. Fold. +JS: Cuts itself. +You know the funny thing is, I get my hands drier than people do with three or four, because they can't get in between the cracks. +If you think this isn't as good... +Audience: Shake. Fold. +JS: Now, there's now a real fancy invention, it's the one where you wave your hand and it kicks it out. +It's way too big a towel. +Let me tell you a secret. +If you're really quick, if you're really quick -- and I can prove this -- this is half a towel from the dispenser in this building. +How? As soon as it starts, you just tear it off. +It's smart enough to stop. +And you get half a towel. +Audience: Shake. Fold. +JS: Now, let's all say it together. Shake. Fold. +You will for the rest of your life remember those words every time you pick up a paper towel. +And remember, one towel per person for one year -- 571,230,000 pounds of paper. No small thing. +And next year, toilet paper. +When we think of games, there's all kinds of things. +Maybe you're ticked off, or maybe you're looking forward to a new game. You've been up too late playing a game. +All these things happen to me. +But when we think about games, a lot of times we think about stuff like this: first-person shooters, or the big, what we would call AAA games, or maybe you're a Facebook game player. +This is one my partner and I worked on. +Maybe you play Facebook games, and that's what we're making right now. This is a lighter form of game. +Maybe you think about the tragically boring board games that hold us hostage in Thanksgiving situations. +This would be one of those tragically boring board games that you can figure out. +Or maybe you're in your living room, you know, playing with the Wii with the kids, or something like that, and, you know, there's this whole range of games, and that's very much what I think about. +I make my living from games. I've been lucky enough to do this since I was 15, which also qualifies as I've never really had a real job. +But we think about games as fun, and that's completely reasonable, but let's just think about this. +So this one here, this is the 1980 Olympics. +Now I don't know where you guys were, but I was in my living room. It was practically a religious event. +And this is when the Americans beat the Russians, and this was -- yes, it was technically a game. +Hockey is a game. But really, was this a game? +I mean, people cried. I've never seen my mother cry like that at the end of Monopoly. +And so this was just an amazing experience. +Or, you know, if anybody here is from Boston -- So when the Boston Red Sox won the World Series after, I believe, 351 years, when they won the World Series, it was amazing. +I happened to be living in Springfield at the time, and the best part of it was -- is that -- you would close the women's door in the bathroom, and I remember seeing "Go Sox," and I thought, really? +Or the houses, you'd come out, because every game, well, I think almost every game, went into overtime, right? +So we'd be outside, and all the other lights are on on the whole block, and kids, like, the attendance was down in school, and kids weren't going to school. +But it's okay, it's the Red Sox, right? +I mean, there's education, and then there's the Red Sox, and we know where they're stacked. +So this was an amazing experience, and again, yes, it was a game, but they didn't write newspaper articles, people didn't say -- you know, really, "I can die now because the Red Sox won." And many people did. +So games, it means something more to us. +It absolutely means something more. +So now, just, this is an abrupt transition here. +There was three years where I actually did have a real job, sort of. +I was the head of a college department teaching games, so, again, it was sort of a real job, and now I just got to talk about making as opposed to making them. +And I was at a dinner. Part of the job of it, when you're a chair of a department, is to eat, and I did that very well, and so I'm out at a dinner with this guy called Zig Jackson. +So this is Zig in this photograph. This is also one of Zig's photographs. He's a photographer. +And he goes all around the country taking pictures of himself, and you can see here he's got Zig's Indian Reservation. And this particular shot, this is one of the more traditional shots. This is a rain dancer. +And this is one of my favorite shots here. +So you can look at this, and maybe you've even seen things like this. This is an expression of culture, right? +And this is actually from his Degradation series. +And what was most fascinating to me about this series is just, look at that little boy there. +Can you imagine? Now let's, we can see that's a traditional Native American. Now I just want to change that guy's race. +Just imagine if that's a black guy. +So, "Honey, come here, let's get your picture with the black guy." +Right? Like, seriously, nobody would do this. +And that was fascinating to me as a game designer, because it never occurs to me, like, should I make the game about this difficult topic or not? +Because we just make things that are fun or, you know, will make you feel fear, you know, that visceral excitement. +But every other medium does it. +So this is my kid. This is Maezza, and when she was seven years old, she came home from school one day, and like I do every single day, I asked her, "What'd you do today?" +So she said, "We talked about the Middle Passage." +Now, this was a big moment. Maezza's dad is black, and I knew this day was coming. I wasn't expecting it at seven. I don't know why, but I wasn't. +Anyways, so I asked her, "How do you feel about that?" +So she proceeded to tell me, and so any of you who are parents will recognize the bingo buzzwords here. +So the ships start in England, they come down from England, they go to Africa, they go across the ocean -- that's the Middle Passage part they come to America where the slaves are sold, she's telling me. +But Abraham Lincoln was elected president, and then he passed the Emancipation Proclamation, and now they're free. +Pause for about 10 seconds. +"Can I play a game, Mommy?" +I'm a game designer, so I have this stuff sitting around my house. +So I said, "Yeah, you can play a game," and I give her a bunch of these, and I tell her to paint them in different families. These are pictures of Maezza when she was God, it still chokes me up seeing these. +So she's painting her little families. +So then I grab a bunch of them and I put them on a boat. +This was the boat. It was made quickly obviously. And so the basic gist of it is, I grabbed a bunch of families, and she's like, "Mommy, but you forgot the pink baby and you forgot the blue daddy and you forgot all these other things." +And she says, "They want to go." And I said, "Honey, no they don't want to go. This is the Middle Passage. +Nobody wants to go on the Middle Passage." +So she gave me a look that only a daughter of a game designer would give a mother, and as we're going across the ocean, following these rules, she realizes that she's rolling pretty high, and she says to me, "We're not going to make it." +And she realizes, you know, we don't have enough food, and so she asks what to do, and I say, "Well, we can either" -- Remember, she's seven -- "We can either put some people in the water or we can hope that they don't get sick and we make it to the other side." +And she -- just the look on her face came over and she said -- now mind you this is after a month of -- this is Black History Month, right? +After a month she says to me, "Did this really happen?" +And I said, "Yes." And so she said, "So, if I came out of the woods" this is her brother and sister "If I came out of the woods, Avalon and Donovan might be gone." "Yes." +"But I'd get to see them in America." "No." +"But what if I saw them? You know, couldn't we stay together?" "No." +"So Daddy could be gone." "Yes." +And she was fascinated by this, and she started to cry, and I started to cry, and her father started to cry, and now we're all crying. He didn't expect to come home from work to the Middle Passage, but there it goes. And so, we made this game, and she got it. +She got it because she spent time with these people. +It wasn't abstract stuff in a brochure or in a movie. +And so it was just an incredibly powerful experience. +This is the game, which I've ended up calling The New World, because I like the phrase. +I don't think the New World felt too new worldly exciting to the people who were brought over on slave ships. +But when this happened, I saw the whole planet. +I was so excited. It was like, I'd been making games for 20-some years, and then I decided to do it again. +My history is Irish. +So this is a game called Sochn Leat. It's "peace be with you." +It's the entire history of my family in a single game. +I made another game called Train. +I was making a series of six games that covered difficult topics, and if you're going to cover a difficult topic, this is one you need to cover, and I'll let you figure out what that's about on your own. +And I also made a game about the Trail of Tears. +This is a game with 50,000 individual pieces. +I was crazy when I decided to start it, but I'm in the middle of it now. +It's the same thing. +I'm hoping that I'll teach culture through these games. +And the one I'm working on right now, which is -- because I'm right in the middle of it, and these for some reason choke me up like crazy -- is a game called Mexican Kitchen Workers. +And originally it was a math problem more or less. +Like, here's the economics of illegal immigration. +And the more I learned about the Mexican culture -- my partner is Mexican the more I learned that, you know, for all of us, food is a basic need, but, and it is obviously with Mexicans too, but it's much more than that. +It's an expression of love. It's an expression of God, I'm totally choking up way more than I thought. +I'll look away from the picture. +It's an expression of beauty. It's how they say they love you. +It's how they say they care, and you can't hear somebody talk about their Mexican grandmother without saying "food" in the first sentence. +And so to me, this beautiful culture, this beautiful expression is something that I want to capture through games. +And so games, for a change, it changes how we see topics, it changes how our perceptions about those people in topics, and it changes ourselves. +We change as people through games, because we're involved, and we're playing, and we're learning as we do so. Thank you. +We conventionally divide space into private and public realms, and we know these legal distinctions very well because we've become experts at protecting our private property and private space. +But we're less attuned to the nuances of the public. +What translates generic public space into qualitative space? +I mean, this is something that our studio has been working on for the past decade. +And we're doing this through some case studies. +A large chunk of our work has been put into transforming this neglected industrial ruin into a viable post-industrial space that looks forward and backward at the same time. +And another huge chunk of our work has gone into making relevant a site that's grown out of sync with its time. +We've been working on democratizing Lincoln Center for a public that doesn't usually have $300 to spend on an opera ticket. +So we've been eating, drinking, thinking, living public space for quite a long time. +And it's taught us really one thing, and that is to truly make good public space, you have to erase the distinctions between architecture, urbanism, landscape, media design and so on. +It really goes beyond distinction. +Now we're moving onto Washington, D.C. +and we're working on another transformation, and that is for the existing Hirshhorn Museum that's sited on the most revered public space in America, the National Mall. +The Mall is a symbol of American democracy. +And what's fantastic is that this symbol is not a thing, it's not an image, it's not an artifact, actually it's a space, and it's kind of just defined by a line of buildings on either side. +It's a space where citizens can voice their discontent and show their power. +It's a place where pivotal moments in American history have taken place. +And they're inscribed in there forever -- like the march on Washington for jobs and freedom and the great speech that Martin Luther King gave there. +The Vietnam protests, the commemoration of all that died in the pandemic of AIDS, the march for women's reproductive rights, right up until almost the present. +The Mall is the greatest civic stage in this country for dissent. +And it's synonymous with free speech, even if you're not sure what it is that you have to say. +It may just be a place for civic commiseration. +There is a huge disconnect, we believe, between the communicative and discursive space of the Mall and the museums that line it to either side. +And that is that those museums are usually passive, they have passive relationships between the museum as the presenter and the audience, as the receiver of information. +And so you can see dinosaurs and insects and collections of locomotives and all of that, but you're really not involved; you're being talked to. +When Richard Koshalek took over as director of the Hirshhorn in 2009, he was determined to take advantage of the fact that this museum was sited at the most unique place: at the seat of power in the U.S. +And while art and politics are inherently and implicitly together always and all the time, there could be some very special relationship that could be forged here in its uniqueness. +The question is, is it possible ultimately for art to insert itself into the dialogue of national and world affairs? +And could the museum be an agent of cultural diplomacy? +There are over 180 embassies in Washington D.C. +There are over 500 think tanks. +There should be a way of harnessing all of that intellectual and global energy into, and somehow through, the museum. +There should be some kind of brain trust. +So the Hirshhorn, as we began to think about it, and as we evolved the mission, with Richard and his team -- it's really his life blood. +But beyond exhibiting contemporary art, the Hirshhorn will become a public forum, a place of discourse for issues around arts, culture, politics and policy. +It would have the global reach of the World Economic Forum. +It would have the interdisciplinarity of the TED Conference. +It would have the informality of the town square. +And for this new initiative, the Hirshhorn would have to expand or appropriate a site for a contemporary, deployable structure. +This is it. This is the Hirshhorn -- so a 230-foot-diameter concrete doughnut designed in the early '70s by Gordon Bunshaft. +It's hulking, it's silent, it's cloistered, it's arrogant, it's a design challenge. +Architects love to hate it. +One redeeming feature is it's lifted up off the ground and it's got this void, and it's got an empty core kind of in the spirit and that facade very much corporate and federal style. +And around that space, the ring is actually galleries. +Very, very difficult to mount shows in there. +When the Hirshhorn opened, Ada Louise Huxstable, the New York Times critic, had some choice words: "Neo-penitentiary modern." +"A maimed monument and a maimed Mall for a maimed collection." +Almost four decades later, how will this building expand for a new progressive program? +Where would it go? +It can't go in the Mall. +There is no space there. +It can't go in the courtyard. +It's already taken up by landscape and by sculptures. +Well there's always the hole. +But how could it take the space of that hole and not be buried in it invisibly? +How could it become iconic? +And what language would it take? +The Hirshhorn sits among the Mall's monumental institutions. +Most are neoclassical, heavy and opaque, made of stone or concrete. +And the question is, if one inhabits that space, what is the material of the Mall? +It has to be different from the buildings there. +It has to be something entirely different. +It has to be air. +In our imagination, it has to be light. +It has to be ephemeral. It has to be formless. +And it has to be free. +So this is the big idea. +It's a giant airbag. +The expansion takes the shape of its container and it oozes out wherever it can -- the top and sides. +But more poetically, we like to think of the structure as inhaling the democratic air of the Mall, bringing it into itself. +The before and the after. +It was dubbed "the bubble" by the press. +That was the lounge. +It's basically one big volume of air that just oozes out in every direction. +The membrane is translucent. +It's made of silcon-coated glass fiber. +And it's inflated twice a year for one month at a time. +This is the view from the inside. +So you might have been wondering how in the world did we get this approved by the federal government. +It had to be approved by actually two agencies. +And one is there to preserve the dignity and sanctity of the Mall. +I blush whenever I show this. +It is yours to interpret. +But one thing I can say is that it's a combination of iconoclasm and adoration. +There was also some creative interpretation involved. +The Congressional Buildings Act of 1910 limits the height of buildings in D.C. +to 130 feet, except for spires, towers, domes and minarets. +This pretty much exempts monuments of the church and state. +And the bubble is 153 ft. +That's the Pantheon next to it. +It's about 1.2 million cubic feet of compressed air. +And so we argued it on the merits of being a dome. +So there it is, very stately, among all the stately buildings in the Mall. +And while this Hirshhorn is not landmarked, it's very, very historically sensitive. +And so we couldn't really touch its surfaces. +We couldn't leave any traces behind. +So we strained it from the edges, and we held it by cables. +It's a study of some bondage techniques, which are actually very important because it's hit by wind all the time. +There's one permanent steel ring at the top, but it can't be seen from any vantage point on the Mall. +There are also some restrictions about how much it could be lit. +It glows from within, it's translucent. +But it can't be more lit than the Capitol or some of the monuments. +So it's down the hierarchy on lighting. +So it comes to the site twice a year. +It's taken off the delivery truck. +It's hoisted. +And then it's inflated with this low-pressure air. +And then it's restrained with the cables. +And then it's ballasted with water at the very bottom. +This is a very strange moment where we were asked by the bureaucracy at the Mall how much time would it take to install. +And we said, well the first erection would take one week. +And they really connected with that idea. +And then it was really easy all the way through. +So we didn't really have that many hurdles, I have to say, with the government and all the authorities. +But some of the toughest hurdles have been the technical ones. +This is the warp and weft. +This is a point cloud. +There are extreme pressures. +This is a very, very unusual building in that there's no gravity load, but there's load in every direction. +And I'm just going to zip through these slides. +And this is the space in action. +So flexible interior for discussions, just like this, but in the round -- luminous and reconfigurable. +Could be used for anything, for performances, films, for installations. +And the very first program will be one of cultural dialogue and diplomacy organized in partnership with the Council on Foreign Relations. +Form and content are together here. +The bubble is an anti-monument. +The ideals of participatory democracy are represented through suppleness rather than rigidity. +Art and politics occupy an ambiguous site outside the museum walls, but inside of the museum's core, blending its air with the democratic air of the Mall. +And the bubble will inflate hopefully for the first time at the end of 2013. +Thank you. +America's public energy conversation boils down to this question: Would you rather die of A) oil wars, or B) climate change, or C) nuclear holocaust, or D) all of the above? +Oh, I missed one: or E) none of the above? +That's the one we're not normally offered. +What if we could make energy do our work without working our undoing? +Could we have fuel without fear? +Could we reinvent fire? +You see, fire made us human; fossil fuels made us modern. +But now we need a new fire that makes us safe, secure, healthy and durable. +Let's see how. +Four-fifths of the world's energy still comes from burning each year four cubic miles of the rotted remains of primeval swamp goo. +Those fossil fuels have built our civilization. +They've created our wealth. +They've enriched the lives of billions. +But they also have rising costs to our security, economy, health and environment that are starting to erode, if not outweigh their benefits. +So we need a new fire. +And switching from the old fire to the new fire means changing two big stories about oil and electricity, each of which puts two-fifths of the fossil carbon in the air. +But they're really quite distinct. +Less than one percent of our electricity is made from oil -- although almost half is made from coal. +Their uses are quite concentrated. +Three-fourths of our oil fuel is transportation. +Three-fourths of our electricity powers buildings. +And the rest of both runs factories. +So very efficient vehicles, buildings and factories save oil and coal, and also natural gas that can displace both of them. +But today's energy system is not just inefficient, it is also disconnected, aging, dirty and insecure. +So it needs refurbishment. +By 2050 though, it could become efficient, connected and distributed autos, factories and buildings all relying on a modern, secure and resilient electricity system. +We can eliminate our addiction to oil and coal by 2050 and use one-third less natural gas while switching to efficient use and renewable supply. +This could cost, by 2050, five trillion dollars less in net present value, that is expressed as a lump sum today, than business as usual -- assuming that carbon emissions and all other hidden or external costs are worth zero -- a conservatively low estimate. +Yet this cheaper energy system could support 158 percent bigger U.S. economy all without needing oil or coal, or for that matter nuclear energy. +Moreover, this transition needs no new inventions and no acts of Congress and no new federal taxes, mandate subsidies or laws and running Washington gridlock. +Let me say that again. +I'm going to tell you how to get the United States completely off oil and coal, five trillion dollars cheaper with no act of Congress led by business for profit. +In other words, we're going to use our most effective institutions -- private enterprise co-evolving with civil society and sped by military innovation to go around our least effective institutions. +And whether you care most about profits and jobs and competitive advantage or national security, or environmental stewardship and climate protection and public health, reinventing fire makes sense and makes money. +General Eisenhower reputedly said that enlarging the boundaries of a tough problem makes it soluble by encompassing more options and more synergies. +So in reinventing fire, we integrated all four sectors that use energy -- transportation, buildings, industry and electricity -- and we integrated four kinds of innovation, not just technology and policy, but also design and business strategy. +Those combinations yield very much more than the sum of the parts, especially in creating deeply disruptive business opportunities. +Oil costs our economy two billion dollars a day, plus another four billion dollars a day in hidden economic and military costs, raising its total cost to over a sixth of GDP. +Our mobility fuel goes three-fifths to automobiles. +So let's start by making autos oil free. +Two-thirds of the energy it takes to move a typical car is caused by its weight. +And every unit of energy you save at the wheels, by taking out weight or drag, saves seven units in the tank, because you don't have to waste six units getting the energy to the wheels. +Unfortunately, over the past quarter century, epidemic obesity has made our two-ton steel cars gain weight twice as fast as we have. +But today, ultralight, ultrastrong materials, like carbon fiber composites, can make dramatic weight savings snowball and can make cars simpler and cheaper to build. +Lighter and more slippery autos need less force to move them, so their engines get smaller. +Indeed, that sort of vehicle fitness then makes electric propulsion affordable because the batteries or fuel cells also get smaller and lighter and cheaper. +So sticker prices will ultimately fall to about the same as today, while the driving cost, even from the start, is very much lower. +So these innovations together can transform automakers from wringing tiny savings out of Victorian engine and seal-stamping technologies to the steeply falling costs of three linked innovations that strongly reenforce each other -- namely ultralight materials, making them into structures and electric propulsion. +The sales can grow and the prices fall even faster with temporary feebates, that is rebates for efficient new autos paid for by fees on inefficient ones. +And just in the first two years the biggest of Europe's five feebate programs has tripled the speed of improving automotive efficiency. +The resulting shift to electric autos is going to be as game-changing as shifting from typewriters to the gains in computers. +Of course, computers and electronics are now America's biggest industry, while typewriter makers have vanished. +So vehicle fitness opens a new automotive competitive strategy that can double the oil savings over the next 40 years, but then also make electrification affordable, and that displaces the rest of the oil. +America could lead this next automotive revolution. +Currently the leader is Germany. +Last year, Volkswagen announced that by next year they'll be producing this carbon fiber plugin hybrid getting 230 miles a gallon. +Also last year, BMW announced this carbon fiber electric car, they said that its carbon fiber is paid for by needing fewer batteries. +And they said, "We do not intend to be a typewriter maker." +Audi claimed it's going to beat them both by a year. +Seven years ago, an even faster and cheaper American manufacturing technology was used to make this little carbon fiber test part, which doubles as a carbon cap. +In one minute -- and you can tell from the sound how immensely stiff and strong it is. +Don't worry about dropping it, it's tougher than titanium. +Tom Friedman actually whacked it as hard as he could with a sledgehammer without even scuffing it. +But such manufacturing techniques can scale to automotive speed and cost with aerospace performance. +They can save four-fifths of the capital needed to make autos. +They can save lives because this stuff can absorb up to 12 times as much crash energy per pound as steel. +If we made all of our autos this way, it would save oil equivalent to finding one and a half Saudi Arabias, or half an OPEC, by drilling in the Detroit formation, a very prospective play. +And all those mega-barrels under Detroit cost an average of 18 bucks a barrel. +They are all-American, carbon-free and inexhaustible. +The same physics and the same business logic also apply to big vehicles. +In the five years ending with 2010, Walmart saved 60 percent of the fuel per ton-mile in its giant fleet of heavy trucks through better logistics and design. +But just the technological savings in heavy trucks can get to two-thirds. +And combined with triple to quintuple efficiency airplanes, now on the drawing board, can save close to a trillion dollars. +Also today's military revolution in energy efficiency is going to speed up all of these civilian advances in much the same way that military R&D has given us the Internet, the Global Positioning System and the jet engine and microchip industries. +As we design and build vehicles better, we can also use them smarter by harnessing four powerful techniques for eliminating needless driving. +Instead of just seeing the travel grow, we can use innovative pricing, charging for road infrastructure by the mile, not by the gallon. +We can use some smart IT to enhance transit and enable car sharing and ride sharing. +We can allow smart and lucrative growth models that help people already be near where they want to be, so they don't need to go somewhere else. +And we can use smart IT to make traffic free-flowing. +Together, those things can give us the same or better access with 46 to 84 percent less driving, saving another 0.4 trillion dollars, plus 0.3 trillion dollars from using trucks more productively. +So 40 years hence, when you add it all up, a far more mobile U.S. economy can use no oil. +Saving or displacing barrels for 25 bucks rather than buying them for over a hundred, adds up to a $4 trillion net saving counting all the hidden costs at zero. +So to get mobility without oil, to phase out the oil, we can get efficient and then switch fuels. +Those 125 to 240 mile-per-gallon-equivalent autos can use any mixture of hydrogen fuel cells, electricity and advanced biofuels. +The trucks and planes can realistically use hydrogen or advanced biofuels. +The trucks could even use natural gas. +But no vehicles will need oil. +And the most biofuel we might need, just three million barrels a day, can be made two-thirds from waste without displacing any cropland and without harming soil or climate. +Our team speeds up these kinds of oil savings by what we call "institutional acupuncture." +We figure out where the business logic is congested and not flowing properly, we stick little needles in it to get it flowing, working with partners like Ford and Walmart and the Pentagon. +And the long transition is already well under way. +In fact, three years ago mainstream analysts were starting to see peak oil, not in supply, but in demand. +And Deutsche Bank even said world oil use could peak around 2016. +In other words, oil is getting uncompetitive even at low prices before it becomes unavailable even at high prices. +But the electrified vehicles don't need to burden the electricity grid. +Rather, when smart autos exchange electricity and information through smart buildings with smart grids, they're adding to the grid valuable flexibility and storage that help the grid integrate varying solar and wind power. +So the electrified autos make the auto and electricity problems easier to solve together than separately. +And they also converge the oil story with our second big story, saving electricity and then making it differently. +And those twin revolutions in electricity will bring to that sector more numerous and profound and diverse disruptions than any other sector, because we've got 21st century technology and speed colliding head-on with 20th and 19th century institutions, rules and cultures. +Changing how we make electricity gets easier if we need less of it. +Most of it now is wasted and the technologies for saving it keep improving faster than we're installing them. +So the unbought efficiency resource keeps getting ever bigger and cheaper. +But as efficiency in buildings and industry starts to grow faster than the economy, America's electricity use could actually shrink, even with the little extra use required for those efficient electrified autos. +And we can do this just by reasonably accelerating existing trends. +Over the next 40 years, buildings, which use three-quarters of the electricity, can triple or quadruple their energy productivity, saving 1.4 trillion dollars, net present value, with a 33 percent internal rate of return or in English, the savings are worth four times what they cost. +And industry can accelerate too, doubling its energy productivity with a 21 percent internal rate of return. +The key is a disruptive innovation that we call integrative design that often makes very big energy savings cost less than small or no savings. +That is, it can give you expanding returns, not diminishing returns. +That is how our 2010 retrofit is saving over two-fifths of the energy in the Empire State Building -- remanufacturing those six and a half thousand windows on site into super windows that pass light, but reflect heat. +plus better lights and office equipment and such cut the maximum cooling load by a third. +And then renovating smaller chillers instead of adding bigger ones saved 17 million dollars of capital cost, which helped pay for the other improvements and reduce the payback to just three years. +Integrative design can also increase energy savings in industry. +Dow's billion-dollar efficiency investment has already returned nine billion dollars. +But industry as a whole has another half-trillion dollars of energy still to save. +For example, three-fifths of the world's electricity runs motors. +Half of that runs pumps and fans. +And those can all be made more efficient, and the motors that turn them can have their system efficiency roughly doubled by integrating 35 improvements, paying back in about a year. +But first we ought to be capturing bigger, cheaper savings that are normally ignored and are not in the textbooks. +For example, pumps, the biggest use of motors, move liquid through pipes. +But a standard industrial pumping loop was redesigned to use at least 86 percent less energy, not by getting better pumps, but just by replacing long, thin, crooked pipes with fat, short, straight pipes. +This is not about new technology, it's just rearranging our metal furniture. +Of course, it also shrinks the pumping equipment and its capital costs. +So what do such savings mean for the electricity that is three-fifths used in motors? +Well, from the coal burned at the power plant through all these compounding losses, only a tenth of the fuel energy actually ends up coming out the pipe as flow. +But now let's turn those compounding losses around backwards, and every unit of flow or friction that we save in the pipe saves 10 units of fuel cost, pollution and what Hunter Lovins calls "global weirding" back at the power plant. +And of course, as you go back upstream, the components get smaller and therefore cheaper. +Our team has lately found such snowballing energy savings in more than 30 billion dollars worth of industrial redesigns -- everything from data centers and chip fabs to mines and refineries. +Typically our retrofit designs save about 30 to 60 percent of the energy and pay back in a few years, while the new facility designs save 40 to 90-odd percent with generally lower capital cost. +Now needing less electricity would ease and speed the shift to new sources of electricity, chiefly renewables. +China leads their explosive growth and their plummeting cost. +In fact, these solar power module costs have just fallen off the bottom of the chart. +And Germany now has more solar workers than America has steel workers. +Already in about 20 states private installers will come put those cheap solar cells on your roof with no money down and beat your utility bill. +Such unregulated products could ultimately add up to a virtual utility that bypasses your electric company just as your cellphone bypassed your wireline phone company. +And this sort of thing gives utility executives the heebee-jeebees and it gives venture capitalists sweet dreams. +Renewables are no longer a fringe activity. +For each of the past four years half of the world's new generating capacity has been renewable, mainly lately in developing countries. +In 2010, renewables other than big hydro, particularly wind and solar cells, got 151 billion dollars of private investment, and they actually surpassed the total installed capacity of nuclear power in the world by adding 60 billion watts in that one year. +That happens to be the same amount of solar cell capacity that the world can now make every year -- a number that goes up 60 or 70 percent a year. +In contrast, the net additions of nuclear capacity and coal capacity and the orders behind those keep fading because they cost too much and they have too much financial risk. +In fact in this country, no new nuclear power plant has been able to raise any private construction capital, despite seven years of 100-plus percent subsidies. +So how else could we replace the coal-fired power plants? +Well efficiency and gas can displace them all at just below their operating cost and, combined with renewables, can displace them more than 23 times at less than their replacement cost. +But we only need to replace them once. +We're often told though that only coal and nuclear plants can keep the lights on, because they're 24/7, whereas wind and solar power are variable, and hence supposedly unreliable. +Actually no generator is 24/7. They all break. +And when a big plant goes down, you lose a thousand megawatts in milliseconds, often for weeks or months, often without warning. +That is exactly why we've designed the grid to back up failed plants with working plants. +And in exactly the same way, the grid can handle wind and solar power's forecastable variations. +Hourly simulations show that largely or wholly renewable grids can deliver highly reliable power when they're forecasted, integrated and diversified by both type and location. +And that's true both for continental areas like the U.S. or Europe and for smaller areas embedded within a larger grid. +That is how, for example, four German states in 2010 were 43 to 52 percent wind powered. +Portugal was 45 percent renewable powered, Denmark 36. +And it's how all of Europe can shift to renewable electricity. +In America, our aging, dirty and insecure power system has to be replaced anyway by 2050. +And whatever we replace it with is going to cost about the same, about six trillion dollars at present value -- whether we buy more of what we've got or new nuclear and so-called clean coal, or renewables that are more or less centralized. +But those four futures at the same cost differ profoundly in their risks, around national security, fuel, water, finance, technology, climate and health. +For example, our over-centralized grid is very vulnerable to cascading caused by bad space weather or other natural disasters or a terrorist attack. +But that blackout risk disappears, and all of the other risks are best managed, with distributed renewables organized into local micro-grids that normally interconnect, but can stand alone at need. +That is, they can disconnect fractally and then reconnect seamlessly. +That approach is exactly what the Pentagon is adopting for its own power supply. +They think they need that; how about the rest of us that they're defending? +We want our stuff to work too. +At about the same cost as business as usual, this would maximize national security, customer choice, entrepreneurial opportunity and innovation. +Together, efficient use and diverse dispersed renewable supply are starting to transform the whole electricity sector. +Traditionally utilities build a lot of giant coal and nuclear plants and a bunch of big gas plants and maybe a little bit of efficiency renewables. +And those utilities were rewarded, as they still are in 34 states, for selling you more electricity. +However, especially where regulators are now instead rewarding cutting your bills, the investments are shifting radically toward efficiency, demand response, cogeneration, renewables and ways to knit them all together reliably with less transmission and little or no bulk electricity storage. +So our energy future is not fate, but choice, and that choice is very flexible. +In 1976, for example, government and industry insisted that the amount of energy needed to make a dollar of GDP could never go down. +And I heretically suggested it could go down several-fold. +Well that's what's actually happened so far. +It's fallen by half. +But with today's much better technologies, more mature delivery channels and integrative design, we can do far more and even cheaper. +So to solve the energy problem, we just needed to enlarge it. +And the results may at first seem incredible, but as Marshall McLuhan said, "Only puny secrets need protection. +Big discoveries are protected by public incredulity." +Now if you like any of those outcomes, you can support reinventing fire without needing to like all of them and without needing to agree about which of them is most important. +So focusing on outcomes, not motives, can turn gridlock and conflict into a unifying solution to America's energy challenge. +This also turns out to be the best way to cope with global challenges -- climate change, nuclear proliferation, energy insecurity, energy poverty -- all of which make us less safe. +Now our team at RMI helps smart companies to get unstuck and speed this journey via six sectoral initiatives, with some more hatching. +Of course there's still a lot of old thinking out there too. +Former oil man Maurice Strong said, "Not all the fossils are in the fuel." +But as Edgar Woolard, who used to chair Dupont, reminds us, "Companies hampered by old thinking won't be a problem because," he said," they simply won't be around long-term." +I've described not just a once-in-a-civilization business opportunity, but one of the most profound transitions in the history of our species. +We humans are inventing a new fire, not dug from below, but flowing from above; not scarce, but bountiful; not local, but everywhere; not transient, but permanent; not costly, but free. +And but for a little transitional tail of natural gas and a bit of biofuel grown in ways that sustain and endure, this new fire is flameless. +Efficiently used, it really can do our work without working our undoing. +Each of you owns a piece of that $5 trillion prize. +And our new book "Reinventing Fire" describes how you can capture it. +So with the conversation just begun at ReinventingFire.com, let me invite you each to engage with us and with each other, with everyone around you, to help make the world richer, fairer, cooler and safer by together reinventing fire. +Thank you. +Usually I like working in my shop, but when it's raining and the driveway outside turns into a river, then I just love it. +And I'll cut some wood and drill some holes and watch the water, and maybe I'll have to walk around and look for washers. +You have no idea how much time I spend. +This is the "Double Raindrop." +Of all my sculptures, it's the most talkative. +It adds together the interference pattern from two raindrops that land near each other. +Instead of expanding circles, they're expanding hexagons. +All the sculptures move by mechanical means. +Do you see how there's three peaks to the yellow sine wave? +Right here I'm adding a sine wave with four peaks and turning it on. +Eight hundred two-liter soda bottles -- oh yea. +Four hundred aluminum cans. +Tule is a reed that's native to California, and the best thing about working with it is that it smells just delicious. +A single drop of rain increasing amplitude. +The spiral eddy that trails a paddle on a rafting trip. +This adds together four different waves. +And here I'm going to pull out the double wavelengths and increase the single. +The mechanism that drives it has nine motors and about 3,000 pulleys. +Four hundred and forty-five strings in a three-dimensional weave. +Transferred to a larger scale -- actually a lot larger, with a lot of help -- 14,064 bicycle reflectors -- a 20-day install. +"Connected" is a collaboration with choreographer Gideon Obarzanek. +Strings attached to dancers. +This is very early rehearsal footage, but the finished work's on tour and is actually coming through L.A. in a couple weeks. +A pair of helices and 40 wooden slats. +Take your finger and draw this line. +Summer, fall, winter, spring, noon, dusk, dark, dawn. +Have you ever seen those stratus clouds that go in parallel stripes across the sky? +Did you know that's a continuous sheet of cloud that's dipping in and out of the condensation layer? +What if every seemingly isolated object was actually just where the continuous wave of that object poked through into our world? +The Earth is neither flat nor round. +It's wavy. +It sounds good, but I'll bet you know in your gut that it's not the whole truth, and I'll tell you why. +I have a two-year-old daughter who's the best thing ever. +And I'm just going to come out and say it: My daughter is not a wave. +And you might say, "Surely, Rueben, if you took even just the slightest step back, the cycles of hunger and eating, waking and sleeping, laughing and crying would emerge as pattern." +But I would say, "If I did that, too much would be lost." +This tension between the need to look deeper and the beauty and immediacy of the world, where if you even try to look deeper you've already missed what you're looking for, this tension is what makes the sculptures move. +And for me, the path between these two extremes takes the shape of a wave. +Let me show you one more. +Thank you very much. Thanks. +Thanks. +June Cohen: Looking at each of your sculptures, they evoke so many different images. +Some of them are like the wind and some are like waves, and sometimes they look alive and sometimes they seem like math. +Is there an actual inspiration behind each one? +Are you thinking of something physical or somthing tangible as you design it? +RM: Well some of them definitely have a direct observation -- like literally two raindrops falling, and just watching that pattern is so stunning. +And then just trying to figure out how to make that using stuff. +I like working with my hands. +There's nothing better than cutting a piece of wood and trying to make it move. +JC: And does it ever change? +Do you think you're designing one thing, and then when it's produced it looks like something else? +RM: The "Double Raindrop" I worked on for nine months, and when I finally turned it on, I actually hated it. +The very moment I turned it on, I hated it. +It was like a really deep-down gut reaction, and I wanted to throw it out. +And I happened to have a friend who was over, and he said, "Why don't you just wait." +And I waited, and the next day I liked it a bit better, the next day I liked it a bit better, and now I really love it. +And so I guess, one, the gut reactions a little bit wrong sometimes, and two, it does not look like as expected. +JC: The relationship evolves over time. +Well thank you so much. That was a gorgeous treat for us. +RM: Thanks. (JC: Thank you, Reuben.) +I don't know why, but I'm continually amazed to think that two and a half billion of us around the world are connected to each other through the Internet and that at any point in time more than 30 percent of the world's population can go online to learn, to create and to share. +And the amount of time each of us is spending doing all of this is also continuing to go grow. +A recent study showed that the young generation alone is spending over eight hours a day online. +As the parent of a nine-year-old girl, that number seems awfully low. +But just as the Internet has opened up the world for each and every one of us, it has also opened up each and every one of us to the world. +And increasingly, the price we're being asked to pay for all of this connectedness is our privacy. +Today, what many of us would love to believe is that the Internet is a private place; it's not. +And with every click of the mouse and every touch of the screen, we are like Hansel and Gretel leaving breadcrumbs of our personal information everywhere we travel through the digital woods. +We are leaving our birthdays, our places of residence, our interests and preferences, our relationships, our financial histories, and on and on it goes. +Now don't get me wrong, I'm not for one minute suggesting that sharing data is a bad thing. +In fact, when I know the data that's being shared and I'm asked explicitly for my consent, I want some sites to understand my habits. +It helps them suggest books for me to read or movies for my family to watch or friends for us to connect with. +But when I don't know and when I haven't been asked, that's when the problem arises. +It's a phenomenon on the Internet today called behavioral tracking, and it is very big business. +In fact, there's an entire industry formed around following us through the digital woods and compiling a profile on each of us. +And when all of that data is held, they can do almost whatever they want with it. +This is an area today that has very few regulations and even fewer rules. +Except for some of the recent announcements here in the United States and in Europe, it's an area of consumer protection that's almost entirely naked. +So let me expose this lurking industry a little bit further. +The visualization you see forming behind me is called Collusion and it's an experimental browser add-on that you can install in your Firefox browser that helps you see where your Web data is going and who's tracking you. +The red dots you see up there are sites that are behavioral tracking that I have not navigated to, but are following me. +The blue dots are the sites that I've actually navigated directly to. +And the gray dots are sites that are also tracking me, but I have no idea who they are. +All of them are connected, as you can see, to form a picture of me on the Web. +And this is my profile. +So let me go from an example to something very specific and personal. +I installed Collusion in my own laptop two weeks ago and I let it follow me around for what was a pretty typical day. +Now like most of you, I actually start my day going online and checking email. +I then go to a news site, look for some headlines. +And in this particular case I happened to like one of them on the merits of music literacy in schools and I shared it over a social network. +Our daughter then joined us at the breakfast table, and I asked her, "Is there an emphasis on music literacy in your school?" +And she, of course, naturally as a nine-year-old, looked at me and said quizzically, "What's literacy?" +So I sent her online, of course, to look it up. +Now let me stop here. +We are not even two bites into breakfast and there are already nearly 25 sites that are tracking me. +I have navigated to a total of four. +So let me fast-forward through the rest of my day. +The red dots have exploded. +The gray dots have grown exponentially. +All in all, there's over 150 sites that are now tracking my personal information, most all of them without my consent. +I look at this picture and it freaks me out. +This is nothing. I am being stalked across the Web. +And why is this happening? +Pretty simple -- it's huge business. +The revenue of the top handful of companies in this space is over 39 billion dollars today. +And as adults, we're certainly not alone. +At the same time I installed my own Collusion profile, I installed one for my daughter. +And on one single Saturday morning, over two hours on the Internet, here's her Collusion profile. +This is a nine-year-old girl navigating to principally children's sites. +I move from this, from freaked out to enraged. +This is no longer me being a tech pioneer or a privacy advocate; this is me being a parent. +Imagine in the physical world if somebody followed our children around with a camera and a notebook and recorded their every movement. +I can tell you, there isn't a person in this room that would sit idly by. +We'd take action. It may not be good action, but we would take action. +We can't sit idly by here either. +This is happening today. +Privacy is not an option, and it shouldn't be the price we accept for just getting on the Internet. +Our voices matter and our actions matter even more. +Today we've launched Collusion. +You can download it, install it in Firefox, to see who is tracking you across the Web and following you through the digital woods. +Going forward, all of our voices need to be heard. +Because what we don't know can actually hurt us. +Because the memory of the Internet is forever. +We are being watched. +It's now time for us to watch the watchers. +Thank you. +What you have here is an electronic cigarette. +It's something that's, since it was invented a year or two ago, has given me untold happiness. +A little bit of it, I think, is the nicotine, but there's something much bigger than that. +Which is ever since, in the U.K., they banned smoking in public places, I've never enjoyed a drinks party ever again. +And the reason, I only worked out just the other day, which is when you go to a drinks party and you stand up and you hold a glass of red wine and you talk endlessly to people, you don't actually want to spend all the time talking. +It's really, really tiring. +Sometimes you just want to stand there silently, alone with your thoughts. +Sometimes you just want to stand in the corner and stare out of the window. +Now the problem is, when you can't smoke, if you stand and stare out of the window on your own, you're an antisocial, friendless idiot. +If you stand and stare out of the window on your own with a cigarette, you're a fucking philosopher. +So the power of reframing things cannot be overstated. +What we have is exactly the same thing, the same activity, but one of them makes you feel great and the other one, with just a small change of posture, makes you feel terrible. +And I think one of the problems with classical economics is it's absolutely preoccupied with reality. +And reality isn't a particularly good guide to human happiness. +Why, for example, are pensioners much happier than the young unemployed? +Both of them, after all, are in exactly the same stage of life. +You both have too much time on your hands and not much money. +But pensioners are reportedly very, very happy, whereas the unemployed are extraordinarily unhappy and depressed. +The reason, I think, is that the pensioners believe they've chosen to be pensioners, whereas the young unemployed feel it's been thrust upon them. +In England the upper middle classes have actually solved this problem perfectly, because they've re-branded unemployment. +If you're an upper-middle-class English person, you call unemployment "a year off." +And that's because having a son who's unemployed in Manchester is really quite embarrassing, but having a son who's unemployed in Thailand is really viewed as quite an accomplishment. +But actually the power to re-brand things -- to understand that actually our experiences, costs, things don't actually much depend on what they really are, but on how we view them -- I genuinely think can't be overstated. +There's an experiment I think Daniel Pink refers to where you put two dogs in a box and the box has an electric floor. +Every now and then an electric shock is applied to the floor, which pains the dogs. +The only difference is one of the dogs has a small button in its half of the box. +And when it nuzzles the button, the electric shock stops. +The other dog doesn't have the button. +It's exposed to exactly the same level of pain as the dog in the first box, but it has no control over the circumstances. +Generally the first dog can be relatively content. +The second dog lapses into complete depression. +The circumstances of our lives may actually matter less to our happiness than the sense of control we feel over our lives. +It's an interesting question. +We ask the question -- the whole debate in the Western world is about the level of taxation. +But I think there's another debate to be asked, which is the level of control we have over our tax money. +That what costs us 10 pounds in one context can be a curse. +What costs us 10 pounds in a different context we may actually welcome. +You know, pay 20,000 pounds in tax toward health and you're merely feeling a mug. +Pay 20,000 pounds to endow a hospital ward and you're called a philanthropist. +I'm probably in the wrong country to talk about willingness to pay tax. +So I'll give you one in return. How you frame things really matters. +Do you call it the bailout of Greece or the bailout of a load of stupid banks which lent to Greece? +Because they are actually the same thing. +What you call them actually affects how you react to them, viscerally and morally. +I think psychological value is great to be absolutely honest. +One of my great friends, a professor called Nick Chater, who's the Professor of Decision Sciences in London, believes that we should spend far less time looking into humanity's hidden depths and spend much more time exploring the hidden shallows. +I think that's true actually. +I think impressions have an insane effect on what we think and what we do. +But what we don't have is a really good model of human psychology. +At least pre-Kahneman perhaps, we didn't have a really good model of human psychology to put alongside models of engineering, of neoclassical economics. +So people who believed in psychological solutions didn't have a model. +We didn't have a framework. +This is what Warren Buffett's business partner Charlie Munger calls "a latticework on which to hang your ideas." +Engineers, economists, classical economists all had a very, very robust existing latticework on which practically every idea could be hung. +We merely have a collection of random individual insights without an overall model. +And what that means is that in looking at solutions, we've probably given too much priority to what I call technical engineering solutions, Newtonian solutions, and not nearly enough to the psychological ones. +You know my example of the Eurostar. +Six million pounds spent to reduce the journey time between Paris and London by about 40 minutes. +For 0.01 percent of this money you could have put WiFi on the trains, which wouldn't have reduced the duration of the journey, but would have improved its enjoyment and its usefullness far more. +For maybe 10 percent of the money, you could have paid all of the world's top male and female supermodels to walk up and down the train handing out free Chateau Petrus to all the passengers. +You'd still have five [million] pounds in change, and people would ask for the trains to be slowed down. +Why were we not given the chance to solve that problem psychologically? +I think it's because there's an imbalance, an asymmetry, in the way we treat creative, emotionally-driven psychological ideas versus the way we treat rational, numerical, spreadsheet-driven ideas. +If you're a creative person, I think quite rightly, you have to share all your ideas for approval with people much more rational than you. +You have to go in and you have to have a cost-benefit analysis, a feasibility study, an ROI study and so forth. +And I think that's probably right. +But this does not apply the other way around. +People who have an existing framework, an economic framework, an engineering framework, feel that actually logic is its own answer. +What they don't say is, "Well the numbers all seem to add up, but before I present this idea, I'll go and show it to some really crazy people to see if they can come up with something better." +And so we, artificially I think, prioritize what I'd call mechanistic ideas over psychological ideas. +An example of a great psychological idea: The single best improvement in passenger satisfaction on the London Underground per pound spent came when they didn't add any extra trains nor change the frequency of the trains, they put dot matrix display board on the platforms. +Because the nature of a wait is not just dependent on its numerical quality, its duration, but on the level of uncertainty you experience during that wait. +Waiting seven minutes for a train with a countdown clock is less frustrating and irritating than waiting four minutes, knuckle-biting going, "When's this train going to damn well arrive?" +Here's a beautiful example of a psychological solution deployed in Korea. +Red traffic lights have a countdown delay. +It's proven to reduce the accident rate in experiments. +Why? Because road rage, impatience and general irritation are massively reduced when you can actually see the time you have to wait. +In China, not really understanding the principle behind this, they applied the same principle to green traffic lights. +Which isn't a great idea. +You're 200 yards away, you realize you've got five seconds to go, you floor it. +The Koreans, very assiduously, did test both. +The accident rate goes down when you apply this to red traffic lights; it goes up when you apply it to green traffic lights. +This is all I'm asking for really in human decision making, is the consideration of these three things. +I'm not asking for the complete primacy of one over the other. +I'm merely saying that when you solve problems, you should look at all three of these equally and you should seek as far as possible to find solutions which sit in the sweet spot in the middle. +If you actually look at a great business, you'll nearly always see all of these three things coming into play. +Really, really successful businesses -- Google is great, great technological success, but it's also based on a very good psychological insight: People believe something that only does one thing is better at that thing than something that does that thing and something else. +It's an innate thing called goal dilution. +Ayelet Fishbach has written a paper about this. +Everybody else at the time of Google, more or less, was trying to be a portal. +Yes, there's a search function, but you also have weather, sports scores, bits of news. +Google understood that if you're just a search engine, people assume you're a very, very good search engine. +All of you know this actually from when you go in to buy a television. +And in the shabbier end of the row of flat screen TVs you can see are these rather despised things called combined TV and DVD players. +And we have no knowledge whatsoever of the quality of those things, but we look at a combined TV and DVD player and we go, "Uck. +It's probably a bit of a crap telly and a bit rubbish as a DVD player." +So we walk out of the shops with one of each. +Google is as much a psychological success as it is a technological one. +I propose that we can use psychology to solve problems that we didn't even realize were problems at all. +This is my suggestion for getting people to finish their course of antibiotics. +Don't give them 24 white pills. +Give them 18 white pills and six blue ones and tell them to take the white pills first and then take the blue ones. +It's called chunking. +The likelihood that people will get to the end is much greater when there is a milestone somewhere in the middle. +One of the great mistakes, I think, of economics is it fails to understand that what something is, whether it's retirement, unemployment, cost, is a function, not only of its amount, but also its meaning. +This is a toll crossing in Britain. +Quite often queues happen at the tolls. +Sometimes you get very, very severe queues. +You could apply the same principle actually, if you like, to the security lanes in airports. +What would happen if you could actually pay twice as much money to cross the bridge, but go through a lane that's an express lane? +It's not an unreasonable thing to do. It's an economically efficient thing to do. +Time means more to some people than others. +If you're waiting trying to get to a job interview, you'd patently pay a couple of pounds more to go through the fast lane. +If you're on the way to visit your mother in-law, you'd probably prefer to stay on the left. +The only problem is if you introduce this economically efficient solution, people hate it. +Because they think you're deliberately creating delays at the bridge in order to maximize your revenue, and "Why on earth should I pay to subsidize your imcompetence?" +On the other hand, change the frame slightly and create charitable yield management, so the extra money you get goes not to the bridge company, it goes to charity, and the mental willingness to pay completely changes. +You have a relatively economically efficient solution, but one that actually meets with public approval and even a small degree of affection, rather than being seen as bastardy. +So where economists make the fundamental mistake is they think that money is money. +Actually my pain experienced in paying five pounds is not just proportionate to the amount, but where I think that money is going. +And I think understanding that could revolutionize tax policy. +It could revolutionize the public services. +It could really change things quite significantly. +Here's a guy you all need to study. +He's an Austrian school economist who was first active in the first half of the 20th century in Vienna. +What was interesting about the Austrian school is they actually grew up alongside Freud. +And so they're predominantly interested in psychology. +They believed that there was a discipline called praxeology, which is a prior discipline to the study of economics. +Praxeology is the study of human choice, action and decision making. +I think they're right. +I think the danger we have in today's world is we have the study of economics considers itself to be a prior discipline to the study of human psychology. +But as Charlie Munger says, "If economics isn't behavioral, I don't know what the hell is." +Von Mises, interestingly, believes economics is just a subset of psychology. +I think he just refers to economics as "the study of human praxeology under conditions of scarcity." +But von Mises, among many other things, I think uses an analogy which is probably the best justification and explanation for the value of marketing, the value of perceived value and the fact that we should actually treat it as being absolutely equivalent to any other kind of value. +We tend to, all of us -- even those of us who work in marketing -- to think of value in two ways. +There's the real value, which is when you make something in a factory and provide a service, and then there's a kind of dubious value, which you create by changing the way people look at things. +Von Mises completely rejected this distinction. +And he used this following analogy. +He referred actually to strange economists called the French Physiocrats, who believed that the only true value was what you extracted from the land. +So if you're a shepherd or a quarryman or a farmer, you created true value. +If however, you bought some wool from the shepherd and charged a premium for converting it into a hat, you weren't actually creating value, you were exploiting the shepherd. +Now von Mises said that modern economists make exactly the same mistake with regard to advertising and marketing. +He says, if you run a restaurant, there is no healthy distinction to be made between the value you create by cooking the food and the value you create by sweeping the floor. +One of them creates, perhaps, the primary product -- the thing we think we're paying for -- the other one creates a context within which we can enjoy and appreciate that product. +And the idea that one of them should actually have priority over the other is fundamentally wrong. +Try this quick thought experiment. +Imagine a restaurant that serves Michelin-starred food, but actually where the restaurant smells of sewage and there's human feces on the floor. +The best thing you can do there to create value is not actually to improve the food still further, it's to get rid of the smell and clean up the floor. +And it's vital we understand this. +If that seems like some strange, abstruse thing, in the U.K., the post office had a 98 percent success rate at delivering first-class mail the next day. +They decided this wasn't good enough and they wanted to get it up to 99. +The effort to do that almost broke the organization. +If at the same time you'd gone and asked people, "What percentage of first-class mail arrives the next day?" +the average answer, or the modal answer would have been 50 to 60 percent. +Now if your perception is much worse than your reality, what on earth are you doing trying to change the reality? +That's like trying to improve the food in a restaurant that stinks. +What you need to do is first of all tell people that 98 percent of mail gets there the next day, first-class mail. +That's pretty good. +I would argue, in Britain there's a much better frame of reference, which is to tell people that more first-class mail arrives the next day in the U.K. than in Germany. +Because generally in Britain if you want to make us happy about something, just tell us we do it better than the Germans. +Choose your frame of reference and the perceived value and therefore the actual value is completely tranformed. +It has to be said of the Germans that the Germans and the French are doing a brilliant job of creating a united Europe. +The only thing they don't expect is they're uniting Europe through a shared mild hatred of the French and Germans. +But I'm British, that's the way we like it. +What you also notice is that in any case our perception is leaky. +We can't tell the difference between the quality of the food and the environment in which we consume it. +All of you will have seen this phenomenon if you have your car washed or valeted. +When you drive away, your car feels as if it drives better. +And the reason for this, unless my car valet mysteriously is changing the oil and performing work which I'm not paying him for and I'm unaware of, is because perception is in any case leaky. +Analgesics that are branded are more effective at reducing pain than analgesics that are not branded. +I don't just mean through reported pain reduction, actual measured pain reduction. +And so perception actually is leaky in any case. +So if you do something that's perceptually bad in one respect, you can damage the other. +Thank you very much. +Four years ago today, exactly, actually, I started a fashion blog called Style Rookie. +Last September of 2011, I started an online magazine for teenage girls called Rookiemag.com. +My name's Tavi Gevinson, and the title of my talk is "Still Figuring It Out," and the MS Paint quality of my slides was a total creative decision in keeping with today's theme, and has nothing to do with my inability to use PowerPoint. So I edit this site for teenage girls. I'm a feminist. +I am kind of a pop culture nerd, and I think a lot about what makes a strong female character, and, you know, movies and TV shows, these things have influence. My own website. +So I think the question of what makes a strong female character often goes misinterpreted, and instead we get these two-dimensional superwomen who maybe have one quality that's played up a lot, like a Catwoman type, or she plays her sexuality up a lot, and it's seen as power. +But they're not strong characters who happen to be female. +They're completely flat, and they're basically cardboard characters. +I'm not the first person to say this. +What makes a strong female character is a character who has weaknesses, who has flaws, who is maybe not immediately likable, but eventually relatable. +I don't like to acknowledge a problem without also acknowledging those who work to fix it, so just wanted to acknowledge shows like "Mad Men," movies like "Bridesmaids," whose female characters or protagonists are complex, multifaceted. +Lena Dunham, who's on here, her show on HBO that premiers next month, "Girls," she said she wanted to start it because she felt that every woman she knew was just a bundle of contradictions, and that feels accurate for all people, but you don't see women represented like that as much. +So this is a scientific diagram of my brain around the time when I was, when I started watching those TV shows. +I was ending middle school, starting high school -- I'm a sophomore now and I was trying to reconcile all of these differences that you're told you can't be when you're growing up as a girl. +You can't be smart and pretty. +You can't be a feminist who's also interested in fashion. +You can't care about clothes if it's not for the sake of what other people, usually men, will think of you. +But, yeah. +So I said on my blog that I wanted to start this publication for teenage girls and ask people to submit their writing, their photography, whatever, to be a member of our staff. +I got about 3,000 emails. +My editorial director and I went through them and put together a staff of people, and we launched last September. +So I'm not saying, "Be like us," and "We're perfect role models," because we're not, but we just want to help represent girls in a way that shows those different dimensions. +I mean, we have articles called "On Taking Yourself Seriously: How to Not Care What People Think of You," but we also have articles like, oops -- I'm figuring it out! +Ha ha. If you use that, you can get away with anything. +We also have articles called "How to Look Like You Weren't Just Crying in Less than Five Minutes." +So all of that being said, I still really appreciate those characters in movies and articles like that on our site, that aren't just about being totally powerful, maybe finding your acceptance with yourself and self-esteem and your flaws and how you accept those. +So what I you to take away from my talk, the lesson of all of this, is to just be Stevie Nicks. +Thank you. +Well when I was asked to do this TEDTalk, I was really chuckled, because, you see, my father's name was Ted, and much of my life, especially my musical life, is really a talk that I'm still having with him, or the part of me that he continues to be. +Now Ted was a New Yorker, an all-around theater guy, and he was a self-taught illustrator and musician. +He didn't read a note, and he was profoundly hearing impaired. +Yet, he was my greatest teacher. +Because even through the squeaks of his hearing aids, his understanding of music was profound. +And for him, it wasn't so much the way the music goes as about what it witnesses and where it can take you. +And he did a painting of this experience, which he called "In the Realm of Music." +Now Ted entered this realm every day by improvising in a sort of Tin Pan Alley style like this. +But he was tough when it came to music. +He said, "There are only two things that matter in music: what and how. +And the thing about classical music, that what and how, it's inexhaustible." +That was his passion for the music. +Both my parents really loved it. +They didn't know all that much about it, but they gave me the opportunity to discover it together with them. +And I think inspired by that memory, it's been my desire to try and bring it to as many other people as I can, sort of pass it on through whatever means. +And how people get this music, how it comes into their lives, really fascinates me. +One day in New York, I was on the street and I saw some kids playing baseball between stoops and cars and fire hydrants. +And a tough, slouchy kid got up to bat, and he took a swing and really connected. +And he watched the ball fly for a second, and then he went, "Dah dadaratatatah. +Brah dada dadadadah." +And he ran around the bases. +And I thought, go figure. +How did this piece of 18th century Austrian aristocratic entertainment turn into the victory crow of this New York kid? +How was that passed on? How did he get to hear Mozart? +Well when it comes to classical music, there's an awful lot to pass on, much more than Mozart, Beethoven or Tchiakovsky. +Because classical music is an unbroken living tradition that goes back over 1,000 years. +And every one of those years has had something unique and powerful to say to us about what it's like to be alive. +Now the raw material of it, of course, is just the music of everyday life. +It's all the anthems and dance crazes and ballads and marches. +But what classical music does is to distill all of these musics down, to condense them to their absolute essence, and from that essence create a new language, a language that speaks very lovingly and unflinchingly about who we really are. +It's a language that's still evolving. +Now over the centuries it grew into the big pieces we always think of, like concertos and symphonies, but even the most ambitious masterpiece can have as its central mission to bring you back to a fragile and personal moment -- like this one from the Beethoven Violin Concerto. +It's so simple, so evocative. +So many emotions seem to be inside of it. +Yet, of course, like all music, it's essentially not about anything. +It's just a design of pitches and silence and time. +And the pitches, the notes, as you know, are just vibrations. +They're locations in the spectrum of sound. +And whether we call them 440 per second, A, or 3,729, B flat -- trust me, that's right -- they're just phenomena. +But the way we react to different combinations of these phenomena is complex and emotional and not totally understood. +And the way we react to them has changed radically over the centuries, as have our preferences for them. +So for example, in the 11th century, people liked pieces that ended like this. +And in the 17th century, it was more like this. +And in the 21st century ... +Now your 21st century ears are quite happy with this last chord, even though a while back it would have puzzled or annoyed you or sent some of you running from the room. +And the reason you like it is because you've inherited, whether you knew it or not, centuries-worth of changes in musical theory, practice and fashion. +And in classical music we can follow these changes very, very accurately because of the music's powerful silent partner, the way it's been passed on: notation. +Now the impulse to notate, or, more exactly I should say, encode music has been with us for a very long time. +In 200 B.C., a man named Sekulos wrote this song for his departed wife and inscribed it on her gravestone in the notational system of the Greeks. +And a thousand years later, this impulse to notate took an entirely different form. +And you can see how this happened in these excerpts from the Christmas mass "Puer Natus est nobis," "For Us is Born." +In the 10th century, little squiggles were used just to indicate the general shape of the tune. +And in the 12th century, a line was drawn, like a musical horizon line, to better pinpoint the pitch's location. +And then in the 13th century, more lines and new shapes of notes locked in the concept of the tune exactly, and that led to the kind of notation we have today. +Well notation not only passed the music on, notating and encoding the music changed its priorities entirely, because it enabled the musicians to imagine music on a much vaster scale. +Now inspired moves of improvisation could be recorded, saved, considered, prioritized, made into intricate designs. +And from this moment, classical music became what it most essentially is, a dialogue between the two powerful sides of our nature: instinct and intelligence. +And there began to be a real difference at this point between the art of improvisation and the art of composition. +Now an improviser senses and plays the next cool move, but a composer is considering all possible moves, testing them out, prioritizing them out, until he sees how they can form a powerful and coherent design of ultimate and enduring coolness. +Now some of the greatest composers, like Bach, were combinations of these two things. +Bach was like a great improviser with a mind of a chess master. +Mozart was the same way. +But every musician strikes a different balance between faith and reason, instinct and intelligence. +And every musical era had different priorities of these things, different things to pass on, different 'whats' and 'hows'. +So in the first eight centuries or so of this tradition the big 'what' was to praise God. +And by the 1400s, music was being written that tried to mirror God's mind as could be seen in the design of the night sky. +The 'how' was a style called polyphony, music of many independently moving voices that suggested the way the planets seemed to move in Ptolemy's geocentric universe. +This was truly the music of the spheres. +This is the kind of music that Leonardo DaVinci would have known. +And perhaps its tremendous intellectual perfection and serenity meant that something new had to happen -- a radical new move, which in 1600 is what did happen. +Singer: Ah, bitter blow! +Ah, wicked, cruel fate! +Ah, baleful stars! +Ah, avaricious heaven! +MTT: This, of course, was the birth of opera, and its development put music on a radical new course. +The what now was not to mirror the mind of God, but to follow the emotion turbulence of man. +And the how was harmony, stacking up the pitches to form chords. +And the chords, it turned out, were capable of representing incredible varieties of emotions. +And the basic chords were the ones we still have with us, the triads, either the major one, which we think is happy, or the minor one, which we perceive as sad. +But what's the actual difference between these two chords? +It's just these two notes in the middle. +It's either E natural, and 659 vibrations per second, or E flat, at 622. +So the big difference between human happiness and sadness? +37 freakin' vibrations. +So you can see in a system like this there was enormous subtle potential of representing human emotions. +And in fact, as man began to understand more his complex and ambivalent nature, harmony grew more complex to reflect it. +Turns out it was capable of expressing emotions beyond the ability of words. +Now with all this possibility, classical music really took off. +It's the time in which the big forms began to arise. +And the effects of technology began to be felt also, because printing put music, the scores, the codebooks of music, into the hands of performers everywhere. +And new and improved instruments made the age of the virtuoso possible. +This is when those big forms arose -- the symphonies, the sonatas, the concertos. +And in these big architectures of time, composers like Beethoven could share the insights of a lifetime. +A piece like Beethoven's Fifth basically witnessing how it was possible for him to go from sorrow and anger, over the course of a half an hour, step by exacting step of his route, to the moment when he could make it across to joy. +And it turned out the symphony could be used for more complex issues, like gripping ones of culture, such as nationalism or quest for freedom or the frontiers of sensuality. +But whatever direction the music took, one thing until recently was always the same, and that was when the musicians stopped playing, the music stopped. +Now this moment so fascinates me. +I find it such a profound one. +What happens when the music stops? +Where does it go? What's left? +What sticks with people in the audience at the end of a performance? +Is it a melody or a rhythm or a mood or an attitude? +And how might that change their lives? +To me this is the intimate, personal side of music. +It's the passing on part. It's the 'why' part of it. +And to me that's the most essential of all. +Mostly it's been a person-to-person thing, a teacher-student, performer-audience thing, and then around 1880 came this new technology that first mechanically then through analogs then digitally created a new and miraculous way of passing things on, albeit an impersonal one. +People could now hear music all the time, even though it wasn't necessary for them to play an instrument, read music or even go to concerts. +And technology democratized music by making everything available. +It spearheaded a cultural revolution in which artists like Caruso and Bessie Smith were on the same footing. +And technology pushed composers to tremendous extremes, using computers and synthesizers to create works of intellectually impenetrable complexity beyond the means of performers and audiences. +At the same time technology, by taking over the role that notation had always played, shifted the balance within music between instinct and intelligence way over to the instinctive side. +The culture in which we live now is awash with music of improvisation that's been sliced, diced, layered and, God knows, distributed and sold. +What's the long-term effect of this on us or on music? +Nobody knows. +The question remains: What happens when the music stops? +What sticks with people? +Now that we have unlimited access to music, what does stick with us? +Well let me show you a story of what I mean by "really sticking with us." +I was visiting a cousin of mine in an old age home, and I spied a very shaky old man making his way across the room on a walker. +He came over to a piano that was there, and he balanced himself and began playing something like this. +And he said something like, "Me ... boy ... symphony ... Beethoven." +And I suddenly got it, and I said, "Friend, by any chance are you trying to play this?" +And he said, "Yes, yes. I was a little boy. +The symphony: Isaac Stern, the concerto, I heard it." +And I thought, my God, how much must this music mean to this man that he would get himself out of his bed, across the room to recover the memory of this music that, after everything else in his life is sloughing away, still means so much to him? +Well, that's why I take every performance so seriously, why it matters to me so much. +I never know who might be there, who might be absorbing it and what will happen to it in their life. +But now I'm excited that there's more chance than ever before possible of sharing this music. +And of course, the New World Symphony led to the YouTube Symphony and projects on the internet that reach out to musicians and audiences all over the world. +And the exciting thing is all this is just a prototype. +There's just a role here for so many people -- teachers, parents, performers -- to be explorers together. +Sure, the big events attract a lot of attention, but what really matters is what goes on every single day. +We need your perspectives, your curiosity, your voices. +And it excites me now to meet people who are hikers, chefs, code writers, taxi drivers, people I never would have guessed who loved the music and who are passing it on. +You don't need to worry about knowing anything. +If you're curious, if you have a capacity for wonder, if you're alive, you know all that you need to know. +You can start anywhere. Ramble a bit. +Follow traces. Get lost. Be surprised, amused inspired. +All that 'what', all that 'how' is out there waiting for you to discover its 'why', to dive in and pass it on. +Thank you. +I love my food. +And I love information. +My children usually tell me that one of those passions is a little more apparent than the other. +But what I want to do in the next eight minutes or so is to take you through how those passions developed, the point in my life when the two passions merged, the journey of learning that took place from that point. +And one idea I want to leave you with today is what would would happen differently in your life if you saw information the way you saw food? +I was born in Calcutta -- a family where my father and his father before him were journalists, and they wrote magazines in the English language. +That was the family business. +And as a result of that, I grew up with books everywhere around the house. +And I mean books everywhere around the house. +And that's actually a shop in Calcutta, but it's a place where we like our books. +In fact, I've got 38,000 of them now and no Kindle in sight. +But growing up as a child with the books around everywhere, with people to talk to about those books, this wasn't a sort of slightly learned thing. +By the time I was 18, I had a deep passion for books. +It wasn't the only passion I had. +I was a South Indian brought up in Bengal. +And two of the things about Bengal: they like their savory dishes and they like their sweets. +So by the time I grew up, again, I had a well-established passion for food. +Now I was growing up in the late '60s and early '70s, and there were a number of other passions I was also interested in, but these two were the ones that differentiated me. +And then life was fine, dandy. +Everything was okay, until I got to about the age of 26, and I went to a movie called "Short Circuit." +Oh, some of you have seen it. +And apparently it's being remade right now and it's going to be coming out next year. +It's the story of this experimental robot which got electrocuted and found a life. +And as it ran, this thing was saying, "Give me input. Give me input." +And I suddenly realized that for a robot both information as well as food were the same thing. +Energy came to it in some form or shape, data came to it in some form or shape. +And I began to think, I wonder what it would be like to start imagining myself as if energy and information were the two things I had as input -- as if food and information were similar in some form or shape. +I started doing some research then, and this was the 25-year journey, and started finding out that actually human beings as primates have far smaller stomachs than should be the size for our body weight and far larger brains. +And as I went to research that even further, I got to a point where I discovered something called the expensive tissue hypothesis. +That actually for a given body mass of a primate the metabolic rate was static. +What changed was the balance of the tissues available. +And two of the most expensive tissues in our human body are nervous tissue and digestive tissue. +And what transpired was that people had put forward a hypothesis that was apparently coming up with some fabulous results by about 1995. +It's a lady named Leslie Aiello. +And the paper then suggested that you traded one for the other. +If you wanted your brain for a particular body mass to be large, you had to live with a smaller gut. +That then set me off completely to say, Okay, these two are connected. +So I looked at the cultivation of information as if it were food and said, So we were hunter-gathers of information. +We moved from that to becoming farmers and cultivators of information. +Does that really explain what we're seeing with the intellectual property battles nowadays? +Because those people who were hunter-gatherers in origin wanted to be free and roam and pick up information as they wanted, and those that were in the business of farming information wanted to build fences around it, create ownership and wealth and structure and settlement. +So there was always going to be a tension within that. +And everything I saw in the cultivation said there were huge fights amongst the foodies between the cultivators and the hunter-gatherers. +And this is happening here. +When I moved to preparation, this same thing was true, expect that there were two schools. +One group of people said you can distill your information, you can extract value, separate it and serve it up, while another group turned around You bring it all together and mash it up and the value emerges that way. +The same is again true with information. +But consumption was where it started getting really enjoyable. +Because what I began to see then was there were so many different ways people would consume this. +They'd buy it from the shop as raw ingredients. +Do you cook it? Do you have it served to you? +Do you go to a restaurant? +The same is true every time as I started thinking about information. +The analogies were getting crazy -- that information had sell-by dates, that people had misused information that wasn't dated properly and could really make an effect on the stock market, on corporate values, etc. +And by this time I was hooked. +And this is about 23 years into this process. +And I began to start thinking of myself as we start having mash-ups of fact and fiction, docu-dramas, mockumentaries, whatever you call it. +Are we going to reach the stage where information has a percentage for fact associated with it? +We start labeling information for the fact percentage? +Are we going to start looking at what happens when your information source is turned off, as a famine? +Which brings me to the final element of this. +Clay Shirky once stated that there is no such animal as information overload, there is only filter failure. +I put it to you that information, if viewed from the point of food, is never a production issue; you never speak of food overload. +Fundamentally it's a consumption issue. +And we have to start thinking about how we create diets within ourselves, exercise within ourselves, to have the faculties to be able to deal with information, to have the labeling to be able to do it responsibly. +In fact, when I saw "Supersize Me," I starting thinking of saying, What would happen if an individual had 31 days nonstop Fox News? +Would there be time to be able to work with it? +So you start really understanding that you can have diseases, toxins, a need to balance your diet, and once you start looking, and from that point on, everything I have done in terms of the consumption of information, the production of information, the preparation of information, I've looked at from the viewpoint of food. +It has probably not helped my waistline any because I like practicing on both sides. +But I'd like to leave you with just that question: If you began to think of all the information that you consume the way you think of food, what would you do differently? +Thank you very much for your time. +I'm a very lucky person. +I've been privileged to see so much of our beautiful Earth and the people and creatures that live on it. +And my passion was inspired at the age of seven, when my parents first took me to Morocco, at the edge of the Sahara Desert. +Now imagine a little Brit somewhere that wasn't cold and damp like home. +What an amazing experience. +And it made me want to explore more. +So as a filmmaker, I've been from one end of the Earth to the other trying to get the perfect shot and to capture animal behavior never seen before. +And what's more, I'm really lucky, because I get to share that with millions of people worldwide. +Now the idea of having new perspectives of our planet and actually being able to get that message out gets me out of bed every day with a spring in my step. +You might think that it's quite hard to find new stories and new subjects, but new technology is changing the way we can film. +It's enabling us to get fresh, new images and tell brand new stories. +In Nature's Great Events, a series for the BBC that I did with David Attenborough, we wanted to do just that. +Images of grizzly bears are pretty familiar. +You see them all the time, you think. +But there's a whole side to their lives that we hardly ever see and had never been filmed. +So what we did, we went to Alaska, which is where the grizzlies rely on really high, almost inaccessible, mountain slopes for their denning. +And the only way to film that is a shoot from the air. +David Attenborough: Throughout Alaska and British Columbia, thousands of bear families are emerging from their winter sleep. +There is nothing to eat up here, but the conditions were ideal for hibernation. +Lots of snow in which to dig a den. +To find food, mothers must lead their cubs down to the coast, where the snow will already be melting. +But getting down can be a challenge for small cubs. +These mountains are dangerous places, but ultimately the fate of these bear families, and indeed that of all bears around the North Pacific, depends on the salmon. +KB: I love that shot. +I always get goosebumps every time I see it. +That was filmed from a helicopter using a gyro-stabilized camera. +And it's a wonderful bit of gear, because it's like having a flying tripod, crane and dolly all rolled into one. +But technology alone isn't enough. +To really get the money shots, it's down to being in the right place at the right time. +And that sequence was especially difficult. +The first year we got nothing. +We had to go back the following year, all the way back to the remote parts of Alaska. +And we hung around with a helicopter for two whole weeks. +And eventually we got lucky. +The cloud lifted, the wind was still, and even the bear showed up. +And we managed to get that magic moment. +For a filmmaker, new technology is an amazing tool, but the other thing that really, really excites me is when new species are discovered. +Now, when I heard about one animal, I knew we had to get it for my next series, Untamed Americas, for National Geographic. +In 2005, a new species of bat was discovered in the cloud forests of Ecuador. +And what was amazing about that discovery is that it also solved the mystery of what pollinated a unique flower. +It depends solely on the bat. +Now, the series hasn't even aired yet, so you're the very first to see this. +See what you think. +Narrator: The tube-lipped nectar bat. +A pool of delicious nectar lies at the bottom of each flower's long flute. +But how to reach it? +Necessity is the mother of evolution. +This two-and-a-half-inch bat has a three-and-a-half-inch tongue, the longest relative to body length of any mammal in the world. +If human, he'd have a nine-foot tongue. +KB: What a tongue. +We filmed it by cutting a tiny little hole in the base of the flower and using a camera that could slow the action by 40 times. +So imagine how quick that thing is in real life. +Now people often ask me, "Where's your favorite place on the planet?" +And the truth is I just don't have one. +There are so many wonderful places. +But some locations draw you back time and time again. +And one remote location -- I first went there as a backpacker; I've been back several times for filming, most recently for Untamed Americas -- it's the Altiplano in the high Andes of South America, and it's the most otherworldly place I know. +But at 15,000 feet, it's tough. +It's freezing cold, and that thin air really gets you. +Sometimes it's hard to breathe, especially carrying all the heavy filming equipment. +And that pounding head just feels like a constant hangover. +But the advantage of that wonderful thin atmosphere is that it enables you to see the stars in the heavens with amazing clarity. +Have a look. +Narrator: Some 1,500 miles south of the tropics, between Chile and Bolivia, the Andes completely change. +It's called the Altiplano, or "high plains" -- a place of extremes and extreme contrasts. +Where deserts freeze and waters boil. +More like Mars than Earth, it seems just as hostile to life. +The stars themselves -- at 12,000 feet, the dry, thin air makes for perfect stargazing. +Some of the world's astronomers have telescopes nearby. +But just looking up with the naked eye, you really don't need one. +KB: Thank you so much for letting me share some images of our magnificent, wonderful Earth. +Thank you for letting me share that with you. +So what I want to try to do is tell a quick story about a 404 page and a lesson that was learned as a result of it. +But to start it probably helps to have an understanding of what a 404 page actually is. +The 404 page is that. +It's that broken experience on the Web. +It's effectively the default page when you ask a website for something and it can't find it. +And it serves you the 404 page. +It's inherently a feeling of being broken when you go through it. +And I just want you to think a little bit about, remember for yourself, it's annoying when you hit this thing. +Because it's the feeling of a broken relationship. +And that's where it's actually also interesting to think about, where does 404 come from? +It's from a family of errors actually -- a whole set of relationship errors, which, when I started digging into them, it looks almost like a checklist for a sex therapist or a couples counselor. +You sort of get down there to the bottom and things get really dicey. +Yes. +But these things are everywhere. +They're on sites big, they're on sites small. +This is a global experience. +What a 404 page tells you is that you fell through the cracks. +And that's not a good experience when you're used to experiences like this. +You can get on your Kinect and you can have unicorns dancing and rainbows spraying out of your mobile phone. +A 404 page is not what you're looking for. +You get that, and it's like a slap in the face. +Trying to think about how a 404 felt, and it would be like if you went to Starbucks and there's the guy behind the counter and you're over there and there's no skim milk. +And you say, "Hey, could you bring the skim milk?" +And they walk out from behind the counter and they've got no pants on. +And you're like, "Oh, I didn't want to see that." +That's the 404 feeling. +I mean, I've heard about that. +So where this comes into play and why this is important is I head up a technology incubator, and we had eight startups sitting around there. +And those startups are focused on what they are, not what they're not, until one day Athletepath, which is a website that focuses on services for extreme athletes, found this video. +Guy: Joey! +Crowd: Whoa! +Renny Gleeson: You just ... no, he's not okay. +They took that video and they embedded it in their 404 page and it was like a light bulb went off for everybody in the place. +Because finally there was a page that actually felt like what it felt like to hit a 404. +So this turned into a contest. +Dailypath that offers inspiration put inspiration on their 404 page. +Stayhound, which helps you find pet sitters through your social network, commiserated with your pet. +Each one of them found this. +It turned into a 24-hour contest. +At 4:04 the next day, we gave out $404 in cash. +And what they learned was that those little things, done right, actually matter, and that well-designed moments can build brands. +So you take a look out in the real world, and the fun thing is you can actually hack these yourself. +You can type in an URL and put in a 404 and these will pop. +This is one that commiserates with you. +This is one that blames you. +This is one that I loved. +This is an error page, but what if this error page was also an opportunity? +So it was a moment in time where all of these startups had to sit and think and got really excited about what they could be. +Because back to the whole relationship issue, what they figured out through this exercise was that a simple mistake can tell me what you're not, or it can remind me of why I should love you. +Thank you. +(Mosquito buzzing) Gotcha. +Mosquitos. I hate them. +Don't you? +That awful buzzing sound at night around your ears that drives you absolutely crazy? +Knowing that she wants to stick a needle in your skin and suck out your blood? That's awful, right? +In fact, there's only one good thing I can think of when it gets to mosquitos. +When they fly into our bedroom at night, they prefer to bite my wife. +But that's fascinating, right? +Why does she receive more bites than I do? +And the answer is smell, the smell of her body. +And since we all smell different and produce chemicals on our skin that either attract or repel mosquitos, some of us are just more attractive than others. +So my wife smells nicer than I do, or I just stink more than she does. +Either way, mosquitos find us in the dark by sniffing us out. They smell us. +And during my Ph.D, I wanted to know exactly what chemicals from our skin mosquitos used, African malarial mosquitos use to track us down at night. +And there's a whole range of compounds that they do use. +And this was not going to be an easy task. +And therefore, we set up various experiments. +Why did we set up these experiments? +Because half the world's population runs the risk of contracting a killer disease like malaria through a simple mosquito bite. +Every 30 seconds, somewhere on this planet, a child dies of malaria, and Paul Levy this morning, he was talking about the metaphor of the 727 crashing into the United States. +Well, in Africa, we have the equivalent of seven jumbo 747s crashing every day. +But perhaps if we can attract these mosquitos to traps, bait it with our smell, we may be able to stop transmission of disease. +Now solving this puzzle was not an easy thing, because we produce hundreds of different chemicals on the skin, but we undertook some remarkable experiments that managed us to resolve this puzzle very quickly indeed. +First, we observed that not all mosquito species bite on the same part of the body. Strange. +So we set up an experiment whereby we put a naked volunteer in a large cage, and in that cage we released mosquitos to see where they were biting on the body of that person. +And we found some remarkable differences. +On the left here you see the bites by the Dutch malarial mosquito on this person. +They had a very strong preference for biting on the face. +And this triggered us to do a remarkable experiment. +We tried, with a tiny little piece of Limburger cheese, which smells badly after feet, to attract African malaria mosquitos. +And you know what? It worked. +In fact, it worked so well that now we have a synthetic mixture of the aroma of Limburger cheese that we're using in Tanzania and has been shown there to be two to three times more attractive to mosquitos than humans. +Limburg, be proud of your cheese, as it is now used in the fight against malaria. +That's the cheese, just to show you. +My second story is remarkable as well. +It's about man's best friend. It's about dogs. +And I will show you how we can use dogs in the fight against malaria. +One of the best ways of killing mosquitos is not to wait until they fly around like adults and bite people and transmit disease. +It's to kill them when they're still in the water as larvae. +Why? Because they are just like the CIA. +In that pool of water, these larvae are concentrated. +They're all together there. They are immobile. +They can't escape from that water. They can't fly. +And they're accessible. You can actually walk up to that pool and you can kill them there, right? +So the problem that we face with this is that, throughout the landscape, all these pools of water with the larvae, they are scattered all over the place, which makes it very hard for an inspector like this to actually find all these breeding sites and treat them with insecticides. +And last year we thought very, very hard, how can we resolve this problem? Until we realized that just like us, we have a unique smell, that mosquito larvae also have a very unique smell. +And so we set up another crazy experiment, because we collected the smell of these larvae, put it on pieces of cloth, and then did something very remarkable. +Here we have a bar with four holes, and we put the smell of these larvae in the left hole. +Ooh, that was very quick. +And then you see the dog. It's called Tweed. It's a border collie. +He's examining these holes, and now he's got it already. +He's going back to check the control holes again, but he's coming back to the first one, and now he's locking into that smell, which means that now we can use dogs with these inspectors to much better find the breeding sites of mosquitos in the field, and therefore have a much bigger impact on malaria. +This lady is Ellen van der Zweep. She's one of the best dog-trainers in the world, and she believes that we can do a lot more. +Since we also know that people that carry malaria parasites smell different compared to people that are uninfected, she's convinced that we can train dogs to find people that carry the parasite. +That means that in a population where malaria has gone down all the way, and there's few people remaining with parasites, that the dogs can find these people, we can treat them with anti-malarial drugs, and give the final blow to malaria. +Man's best friend in the fight against malaria. +My third story is perhaps even more remarkable, and, I should say, has never been shown to the public until today. +Yeah. +It's a crazy story, but I believe it's perhaps the best and ultimate revenge against mosquitos ever. +In fact, people have told me that now they will enjoy being bitten by mosquitos. +And the question of course is, what would make someone enjoy being bitten by mosquitos? +And the answer I have right here in my pocket, if I get it. +It's a tablet, a simple tablet, and when I take it with water, it does miracles. +Thank you. +Now let me show you how this works. +Here in this box I have a cage with several hundred hungry female mosquitos that I'm just about to release. Just kidding, just kidding. +What I'm going to show you is I'm gonna stick my arm into it and I will show you how quickly they will bite. +Here we go. +Don't worry, I do this all the time in the lab. +There we go. Okay. +Now, on the video, on the video here, I'm going to show you exactly the same thing, except that what I'm showing you on the video happened one hour after I took the tablet. +Have a look. That doesn't work. Okay. Sorry about that. +They don't kill us. We kill them. +Now Maastricht, be prepared. +Now think of what we can do with this. +We can actually use this to contain outbreaks of mosquito-born diseases, of epidemics, right? +And better still, imagine what would happen if, in a very large area, everyone would take these drugs, this drug, for just three weeks. +That would give us an opportunity to actually eliminate malaria as a disease. +So cheese, dogs and a pill to kill mosquitos. +That's the kind of out-of-the-box science that I love doing, for the betterment of mankind, but especially for her, so that she can grow up in a world without malaria. Thank you. +I'm going to talk to you about optimism -- or more precisely, the optimism bias. +It's a cognitive illusion that we've been studying in my lab for the past few years, and 80 percent of us have it. +It's our tendency to overestimate our likelihood of experiencing good events in our lives and underestimate our likelihood of experiencing bad events. +So we underestimate our likelihood of suffering from cancer, being in a car accident. +We overestimate our longevity, our career prospects. +In short, we're more optimistic than realistic, but we are oblivious to the fact. +Take marriage for example. +In the Western world, divorce rates are about 40 percent. +That means that out of five married couples, two will end up splitting their assets. +But when you ask newlyweds about their own likelihood of divorce, they estimate it at zero percent. +And even divorce lawyers, who should really know better, hugely underestimate their own likelihood of divorce. +So it turns out that optimists are not less likely to divorce, but they are more likely to remarry. +In the words of Samuel Johnson, "Remarriage is the triumph of hope over experience." +So if we're married, we're more likely to have kids. +And we all think our kids will be especially talented. +This, by the way, is my two-year-old nephew, Guy. +And I just want to make it absolutely clear that he's a really bad example of the optimism bias, because he is in fact uniquely talented. +And I'm not alone. +Out of four British people, three said that they were optimistic about the future of their own families. +That's 75 percent. +But only 30 percent said that they thought families in general are doing better than a few generations ago. +And this is a really important point, because we're optimistic about ourselves, we're optimistic about our kids, we're optimistic about our families, but we're not so optimistic about the guy sitting next to us, and we're somewhat pessimistic about the fate of our fellow citizens and the fate of our country. +But private optimism about our own personal future remains persistent. +And it doesn't mean that we think things will magically turn out okay, but rather that we have the unique ability to make it so. +Now I'm a scientist, I do experiments. +So to show you what I mean, I'm going to do an experiment here with you. +So I'm going to give you a list of abilities and characteristics, and I want you to think for each of these abilities where you stand relative to the rest of the population. +The first one is getting along well with others. +Who here believes they're at the bottom 25 percent? +Okay, that's about 10 people out of 1,500. +Who believes they're at the top 25 percent? +That's most of us here. +Okay, now do the same for your driving ability. +How interesting are you? +How attractive are you? +How honest are you? +And finally, how modest are you? +So most of us put ourselves above average on most of these abilities. +Now this is statistically impossible. +We can't all be better than everyone else. +But if we believe we're better than the other guy, well that means that we're more likely to get that promotion, to remain married, because we're more social, more interesting. +And it's a global phenomenon. +The optimism bias has been observed in many different countries -- in Western cultures, in non-Western cultures, in females and males, in kids, in the elderly. +It's quite widespread. +But the question is, is it good for us? +So some people say no. +Some people say the secret to happiness is low expectations. +I think the logic goes something like this: If we don't expect greatness, if we don't expect to find love and be healthy and successful, well we're not going to be disappointed when these things don't happen. +And if we're not disappointed when good things don't happen, and we're pleasantly surprised when they do, we will be happy. +So it's a very good theory, but it turns out to be wrong for three reasons. +Number one: Whatever happens, whether you succeed or you fail, people with high expectations always feel better. +Because how we feel when we get dumped or win employee of the month depends on how we interpret that event. +The psychologists Margaret Marshall and John Brown studied students with high and low expectations. +And they found that when people with high expectations succeed, they attribute that success to their own traits. +"I'm a genius, therefore I got an A, therefore I'll get an A again and again in the future." +When they failed, it wasn't because they were dumb, but because the exam just happened to be unfair. +Next time they will do better. +People with low expectations do the opposite. +So when they failed it was because they were dumb, and when they succeeded it was because the exam just happened to be really easy. +Next time reality would catch up with them. +So they felt worse. +Number two: Regardless of the outcome, the pure act of anticipation makes us happy. +The behavioral economist George Lowenstein asked students in his university to imagine getting a passionate kiss from a celebrity, any celebrity. +Then he said, "How much are you willing to pay to get a kiss from a celebrity if the kiss was delivered immediately, in three hours, in 24 hours, in three days, in one year, in 10 years? +He found that the students were willing to pay the most not to get a kiss immediately, but to get a kiss in three days. +They were willing to pay extra in order to wait. +Now they weren't willing to wait a year or 10 years; no one wants an aging celebrity. +But three days seemed to be the optimum amount. +So why is that? +Well if you get the kiss now, it's over and done with. +But if you get the kiss in three days, well that's three days of jittery anticipation, the thrill of the wait. +The students wanted that time to imagine where is it going to happen, how is it going to happen. +Anticipation made them happy. +This is, by the way, why people prefer Friday to Sunday. +It's a really curious fact, because Friday is a day of work and Sunday is a day of pleasure, so you'd assume that people will prefer Sunday, but they don't. +It's not because they really, really like being in the office and they can't stand strolling in the park or having a lazy brunch. +We know that, because when you ask people about their ultimate favorite day of the week, surprise, surprise, Saturday comes in at first, then Friday, then Sunday. +People prefer Friday because Friday brings with it the anticipation of the weekend ahead, all the plans that you have. +On Sunday, the only thing you can look forward to is the work week. +So optimists are people who expect more kisses in their future, more strolls in the park. +And that anticipation enhances their wellbeing. +In fact, without the optimism bias, we would all be slightly depressed. +People with mild depression, they don't have a bias when they look into the future. +They're actually more realistic than healthy individuals. +But individuals with severe depression, they have a pessimistic bias. +So they tend to expect the future to be worse than it ends up being. +So optimism changes subjective reality. +The way we expect the world to be changes the way we see it. +But it also changes objective reality. +It acts as a self-fulfilling prophecy. +And that is the third reason why lowering your expectations will not make you happy. +Controlled experiments have shown that optimism is not only related to success, it leads to success. +Optimism leads to success in academia and sports and politics. +And maybe the most surprising benefit of optimism is health. +If we expect the future to be bright, stress and anxiety are reduced. +So all in all, optimism has lots of benefits. +But the question that was really confusing to me was, how do we maintain optimism in the face of reality? +As an neuroscientist, this was especially confusing, because according to all the theories out there, when your expectations are not met, you should alter them. +But this is not what we find. +We asked people to come into our lab in order to try and figure out what was going on. +We asked them to estimate their likelihood of experiencing different terrible events in their lives. +So, for example, what is your likelihood of suffering from cancer? +And then we told them the average likelihood of someone like them to suffer these misfortunes. +So cancer, for example, is about 30 percent. +And then we asked them again, "How likely are you to suffer from cancer?" +What we wanted to know was whether people will take the information that we gave them to change their beliefs. +And indeed they did -- but mostly when the information we gave them was better than what they expected. +So for example, if someone said, "My likelihood of suffering from cancer is about 50 percent," and we said, "Hey, good news. +The average likelihood is only 30 percent," the next time around they would say, "Well maybe my likelihood is about 35 percent." +So they learned quickly and efficiently. +But if someone started off saying, "My average likelihood of suffering from cancer is about 10 percent," and we said, "Hey, bad news. +The average likelihood is about 30 percent," the next time around they would say, "Yep. Still think it's about 11 percent." +So it's not that they didn't learn at all -- they did -- but much, much less than when we gave them positive information about the future. +And it's not that they didn't remember the numbers that we gave them; everyone remembers that the average likelihood of cancer is about 30 percent and the average likelihood of divorce is about 40 percent. +But they didn't think that those numbers were related to them. +What this means is that warning signs such as these may only have limited impact. +Yes, smoking kills, but mostly it kills the other guy. +What I wanted to know was what was going on inside the human brain that prevented us from taking these warning signs personally. +But at the same time, when we hear that the housing market is hopeful, we think, "Oh, my house is definitely going to double in price." +To try and figure that out, I asked the participants in the experiment to lie in a brain imaging scanner. +It looks like this. +And using a method called functional MRI, we were able to identify regions in the brain that were responding to positive information. +One of these regions is called the left inferior frontal gyrus. +So if someone said, "My likelihood of suffering from cancer is 50 percent," and we said, "Hey, good news. +Average likelihood is 30 percent," the left inferior frontal gyrus would respond fiercely. +And it didn't matter if you're an extreme optimist, a mild optimist or slightly pessimistic, everyone's left inferior frontal gyrus was functioning perfectly well, whether you're Barack Obama or Woody Allen. +On the other side of the brain, the right inferior frontal gyrus was responding to bad news. +And here's the thing: it wasn't doing a very good job. +The more optimistic you were, the less likely this region was to respond to unexpected negative information. +And if your brain is failing at integrating bad news about the future, you will constantly leave your rose-tinted spectacles on. +So we wanted to know, could we change this? +Could we alter people's optimism bias by interfering with the brain activity in these regions? +And there's a way for us to do that. +This is my collaborator Ryota Kanai. +And what he's doing is he's passing a small magnetic pulse through the skull of the participant in our study into their inferior frontal gyrus. +And by doing that, he's interfering with the activity of this brain region for about half an hour. +After that everything goes back to normal, I assure you. +So let's see what happens. +First of all, I'm going to show you the average amount of bias that we see. +So if I was to test all of you now, this is the amount that you would learn more from good news relative to bad news. +Now we interfere with the region that we found to integrate negative information in this task, and the optimism bias grew even larger. +We made people more biased in the way that they process information. +Then we interfered with the brain region that we found to integrate good news in this task, and the optimism bias disappeared. +We were quite amazed by these results because we were able to eliminate a deep-rooted bias in humans. +And at this point we stopped and we asked ourselves, would we want to shatter the optimism illusion into tiny little bits? +If we could do that, would we want to take people's optimism bias away? +Well I've already told you about all of the benefits of the optimism bias, which probably makes you want to hold onto it for dear life. +But there are, of course, pitfalls, and it would be really foolish of us to ignore them. +Take for example this email I recieved from a firefighter here in California. +He says, "Fatality investigations for firefighters often include 'We didn't think the fire was going to do that,' even when all of the available information was there to make safe decisions." +This captain is going to use our findings on the optimism bias to try to explain to the firefighters why they think the way they do, to make them acutely aware of this very optimistic bias in humans. +So unrealistic optimism can lead to risky behavior, to financial collapse, to faulty planning. +The British government, for example, has acknowledged that the optimism bias can make individuals more likely to underestimate the costs and durations of projects. +So they have adjusted the 2012 Olympic budget for the optimism bias. +My friend who's getting married in a few weeks has done the same for his wedding budget. +And by the way, when I asked him about his own likelihood of divorce, he said he was quite sure it was zero percent. +So what we would really like to do, is we would like to protect ourselves from the dangers of optimism, but at the same time remain hopeful, benefiting from the many fruits of optimism. +And I believe there's a way for us to do that. +The key here really is knowledge. +We're not born with an innate understanding of our biases. +These have to be identified by scientific investigation. +But the good news is that becoming aware of the optimism bias does not shatter the illusion. +It's like visual illusions, in which understanding them does not make them go away. +And this is good because it means we should be able to strike a balance, to come up with plans and rules to protect ourselves from unrealistic optimism, but at the same time remain hopeful. +I think this cartoon portrays it nicely. +Because if you're one of these pessimistic penguins up there who just does not believe they can fly, you certainly never will. +Because to make any kind of progress, we need to be able to imagine a different reality, and then we need to believe that that reality is possible. +But if you are an extreme optimistic penguin who just jumps down blindly hoping for the best, you might find yourself in a bit of a mess when you hit the ground. +But if you're an optimistic penguin who believes they can fly, but then adjusts a parachute to your back just in case things don't work out exactly as you had planned, you will soar like an eagle, even if you're just a penguin. +Thank you. +So it turns out that mathematics is a very powerful language. +It has generated considerable insight in physics, in biology and economics, but not that much in the humanities and in history. +I think there's a belief that it's just impossible, that you cannot quantify the doings of mankind, that you cannot measure history. +But I don't think that's right. +I want to show you a couple of examples why. +So my collaborator Erez and I were considering the following fact: that two kings separated by centuries will speak a very different language. +That's a powerful historical force. +So the king of England, Alfred the Great, will use a vocabulary and grammar that is quite different from the king of hip hop, Jay-Z. +Now it's just the way it is. +Language changes over time, and it's a powerful force. +So Erez and I wanted to know more about that. +So we paid attention to a particular grammatical rule, past-tense conjugation. +So you just add "ed" to a verb at the end to signify the past. +"Today I walk. Yesterday I walked." +But some verbs are irregular. +"Yesterday I thought." +Now what's interesting about that is irregular verbs between Alfred and Jay-Z have become more regular. +Like the verb "to wed" that you see here has become regular. +That's a piece of history, but it comes in a mathematical wrapping. +Now in some cases math can even help explain, or propose explanations for, historical forces. +So here Steve Pinker and I were considering the magnitude of wars during the last two centuries. +There's actually a well-known regularity to them where the number of wars that are 100 times deadlier is 10 times smaller. +So there are 30 wars that are about as deadly as the Six Days War, but there's only four wars that are 100 times deadlier -- like World War I. +So what kind of historical mechanism can produce that? +What's the origin of this? +So Steve and I, through mathematical analysis, propose that there's actually a very simple phenomenon at the root of this, which lies in our brains. +This is a very well-known feature in which we perceive quantities in relative ways -- quantities like the intensity of light or the loudness of a sound. +For instance, committing 10,000 soldiers to the next battle sounds like a lot. +It's relatively enormous if you've already committed 1,000 soldiers previously. +But it doesn't sound so much, it's not relatively enough, it won't make a difference if you've already committed 100,000 soldiers previously. +So you see that because of the way we perceive quantities, as the war drags on, the number of soldiers committed to it and the casualties will increase not linearly -- like 10,000, 11,000, 12,000 -- but exponentially -- 10,000, later 20,000, later 40,000. +And so that explains this pattern that we've seen before. +So here mathematics is able to link a well-known feature of the individual mind with a long-term historical pattern that unfolds over centuries and across continents. +So these types of examples, today there are just a few of them, but I think in the next decade they will become commonplace. +The reason for that is that the historical record is becoming digitized at a very fast pace. +So there's about 130 million books that have been written since the dawn of time. +Companies like Google have digitized many of them -- above 20 million actually. +And when the stuff of history is available in digital form, it makes it possible for a mathematical analysis to very quickly and very conveniently review trends in our history and our culture. +So I think in the next decade, the sciences and the humanities will come closer together to be able to answer deep questions about mankind. +And I think that mathematics will be a very powerful language to do that. +It will be able to reveal new trends in our history, sometimes to explain them, and maybe even in the future to predict what's going to happen. +Thank you very much. +I wanted to talk to you today about creative confidence. +I'm going to start way back in the third grade at Oakdale School in Barberton, Ohio. +I remember one day my best friend Brian was working on a project. +He was making a horse out of the clay that our teacher kept under the sink. +And at one point, one of the girls who was sitting at his table, seeing what he was doing, leaned over and said to him, "That's terrible. That doesn't look anything like a horse." +And Brian's shoulders sank. +And he wadded up the clay horse and he threw it back in the bin. +I never saw Brian do a project like that ever again. +And I wonder how often that happens. +It seems like when I tell that story of Brian to my class, a lot of them want to come up after class and tell me about their similar experience, how a teacher shut them down or how a student was particularly cruel to them. +And some opt out thinking of themselves as creative at that point. +And I see that opting out that happens in childhood, and it moves in and becomes more ingrained, even by the time you get to adult life. +So we see a lot of this. +When we have a workshop or when we have clients in to work with us side-by-side, eventually we get to the point in the process that's fuzzy or unconventional. +And eventually these bigshot executives whip out their Blackberries and they say they have to make really important phone calls, and they head for the exits. +And they're just so uncomfortable. +When we track them down and ask them what's going on, they say something like, "I'm just not the creative type." +But we know that's not true. +If they stick with the process, if they stick with it, they end up doing amazing things and they surprise themselves just how innovative they and their teams really are. +So I've been looking at this fear of judgment that we have. +That you don't do things, you're afraid you're going to be judged. +If you don't say the right creative thing, you're going to be judged. +And I had a major breakthrough when I met the psychologist Albert Bandura. +I don't know if you know Albert Bandura. +But if you go to Wikipedia, it says that he's the fourth most important psychologist in history -- like Freud, Skinner, somebody and Bandura. +Bandura's 86 and he still works at Stanford. +And he's just a lovely guy. +And so I went to see him because he has just worked on phobias for a long time, which I'm very interested in. +He had developed this way, this kind of methodology, that ended up curing people in a very short amount of time. +In four hours he had a huge cure rate of people who had phobias. +And we talked about snakes. I don't know why we talked about snakes. +We talked about snakes and fear of snakes as a phobia. +And it was really enjoyable, really interesting. +He told me that he'd invite the test subject in, and he'd say, "You know, there's a snake in the next room and we're going to go in there." +To which, he reported, most of them replied, "Hell no, I'm not going in there, certainly if there's a snake in there." +But Bandura has a step-by-step process that was super successful. +So he'd take people to this two-way mirror looking into the room where the snake was, and he'd get them comfortable with that. +And then through a series of steps, he'd move them and they'd be standing in the doorway with the door open and they'd be looking in there. +And he'd get them comfortable with that. +And then many more steps later, baby steps, they'd be in the room, they'd have a leather glove like a welder's glove on, and they'd eventually touch the snake. +And when they touched the snake everything was fine. They were cured. +In fact, everything was better than fine. +These people who had life-long fears of snakes were saying things like, "Look how beautiful that snake is." +And they were holding it in their laps. +Bandura calls this process "guided mastery." +I love that term: guided mastery. +And something else happened, these people who went through the process and touched the snake ended up having less anxiety about other things in their lives. +They tried harder, they persevered longer, and they were more resilient in the face of failure. +They just gained a new confidence. +And Bandura calls that confidence self-efficacy -- the sense that you can change the world and that you can attain what you set out to do. +Well meeting Bandura was really cathartic for me because I realized that this famous scientist had documented and scientifically validated something that we've seen happen for the last 30 years. +That we could take people who had the fear that they weren't creative, and we could take them through a series of steps, kind of like a series of small successes, and they turn fear into familiarity, and they surprise themselves. +That transformation is amazing. +We see it at the d.school all the time. +People from all different kinds of disciplines, they think of themselves as only analytical. +And they come in and they go through the process, our process, they build confidence and now they think of themselves differently. +And they're totally emotionally excited about the fact that they walk around thinking of themselves as a creative person. +So I thought one of the things I'd do today is take you through and show you what this journey looks like. +To me, that journey looks like Doug Dietz. +Doug Dietz is a technical person. +He designs medical imaging equipment, large medical imaging equipment. +He's worked for GE, and he's had a fantastic career. +But at one point he had a moment of crisis. +He was in the hospital looking at one of his MRI machines in use when he saw a young family. +There was a little girl, and that little girl was crying and was terrified. +And Doug was really disappointed to learn that nearly 80 percent of the pediatric patients in this hospital had to be sedated in order to deal with his MRI machine. +And this was really disappointing to Doug, because before this time he was proud of what he did. +He was saving lives with this machine. +But it really hurt him to see the fear that this machine caused in kids. +About that time he was at the d.school at Stanford taking classes. +He was learning about our process about design thinking, about empathy, about iterative prototyping. +And he would take this new knowledge and do something quite extraordinary. +He would redesign the entire experience of being scanned. +And this is what he came up with. +He turned it into an adventure for the kids. +He painted the walls and he painted the machine, and he got the operators retrained by people who know kids, like children's museum people. +And now when the kid comes, it's an experience. +And they talk to them about the noise and the movement of the ship. +And when they come, they say, "Okay, you're going to go into the pirate ship, but be very still because we don't want the pirates to find you." +And the results were super dramatic. +So from something like 80 percent of the kids needing to be sedated, to something like 10 percent of the kids needing to be sedated. +And the hospital and GE were happy too. +Because you didn't have to call the anesthesiologist all the time, they could put more kids through the machine in a day. +So the quantitative results were great. +But Doug's results that he cared about were much more qualitative. +He was with one of the mothers waiting for her child to come out of the scan. +And when the little girl came out of her scan, she ran up to her mother and said, "Mommy, can we come back tomorrow?" +And so I've heard Doug tell the story many times, of his personal transformation and the breakthrough design that happened from it, but I've never really seen him tell the story of the little girl without a tear in his eye. +Doug's story takes place in a hospital. +I know a thing or two about hospitals. +A few years ago I felt a lump on the side of my neck, and it was my turn in the MRI machine. +It was cancer. It was the bad kind. +I was told I had a 40 percent chance of survival. +So while you're sitting around with the other patients in your pajamas and everybody's pale and thin and you're waiting for your turn to get the gamma rays, you think of a lot of things. +Mostly you think about, Am I going to survive? +And I thought a lot about, What was my daughter's life going to be like without me? +But you think about other things. +I thought a lot about, What was I put on Earth to do? +What was my calling? What should I do? +And I was lucky because I had lots of options. +We'd been working in health and wellness, and K through 12, and the Developing World. +And so there were lots of projects that I could work on. +But I decided and I committed to at this point to the thing I most wanted to do -- was to help as many people as possible regain the creative confidence they lost along their way. +And if I was going to survive, that's what I wanted to do. +I survived, just so you know. +I really believe that when people gain this confidence -- and we see it all the time at the d.school and at IDEO -- they actually start working on the things that are really important in their lives. +We see people quit what they're doing and go in new directions. +We see them come up with more interesting, and just more, ideas so they can choose from better ideas. +And they just make better decisions. +So I know at TED you're supposed to have a change-the-world kind of thing. +Everybody has a change-the-world thing. +If there is one for me, this is it. To help this happen. +So I hope you'll join me on my quest -- you as thought leaders. +It would be really great if you didn't let people divide the world into the creatives and the non-creatives, like it's some God-given thing, and to have people realize that they're naturally creative. +And those natural people should let their ideas fly. +That they should achieve what Bandura calls self-efficacy, that you can do what you set out to do, and that you can reach a place of creative confidence and touch the snake. +Thank you. +This is a thousand-year-old drawing of the brain. +It's a diagram of the visual system. +And some things look very familiar today. +Two eyes at the bottom, optic nerve flowing out from the back. +There's a very large nose that doesn't seem to be connected to anything in particular. +And if we compare this to more recent representations of the visual system, you'll see that things have gotten substantially more complicated over the intervening thousand years. +And that's because today we can see what's inside of the brain, rather than just looking at its overall shape. +Imagine you wanted to understand how a computer works and all you could see was a keyboard, a mouse, a screen. +You really would be kind of out of luck. +You want to be able to open it up, crack it open, look at the wiring inside. +And up until a little more than a century ago, nobody was able to do that with the brain. +Nobody had had a glimpse of the brain's wiring. +And that's because if you take a brain out of the skull and you cut a thin slice of it, put it under even a very powerful microscope, there's nothing there. +It's gray, formless. +There's no structure. It won't tell you anything. +And this all changed in the late 19th century. +Suddenly, new chemical stains for brain tissue were developed and they gave us our first glimpses at brain wiring. +The computer was cracked open. +So what really launched modern neuroscience was a stain called the Golgi stain. +And it works in a very particular way. +Instead of staining all of the cells inside of a tissue, it somehow only stains about one percent of them. +It clears the forest, reveals the trees inside. +If everything had been labeled, nothing would have been visible. +So somehow it shows what's there. +Spanish neuroanatomist Santiago Ramon y Cajal, who's widely considered the father of modern neuroscience, applied this Golgi stain, which yields data which looks like this, and really gave us the modern notion of the nerve cell, the neuron. +And if you're thinking of the brain as a computer, this is the transistor. +And very quickly Cajal realized that neurons don't operate alone, but rather make connections with others that form circuits just like in a computer. +Today, a century later, when researchers want to visualize neurons, they light them up from the inside rather than darkening them. +And there's several ways of doing this. +But one of the most popular ones involves green fluorescent protein. +Now green fluorescent protein, which oddly enough comes from a bioluminescent jellyfish, is very useful. +Because if you can get the gene for green fluorescent protein and deliver it to a cell, that cell will glow green -- or any of the many variants now of green fluorescent protein, you get a cell to glow many different colors. +And so coming back to the brain, this is from a genetically engineered mouse called "Brainbow." +And it's so called, of course, because all of these neurons are glowing different colors. +Now sometimes neuroscientists need to identify individual molecular components of neurons, molecules, rather than the entire cell. +And there's several ways of doing this, but one of the most popular ones involves using antibodies. +And you're familiar, of course, with antibodies as the henchmen of the immune system. +But it turns out that they're so useful to the immune system because they can recognize specific molecules, like, for example, the coat protein of a virus that's invading the body. +And researchers have used this fact in order to recognize specific molecules inside of the brain, recognize specific substructures of the cell and identify them individually. +And a lot of the images I've been showing you here are very beautiful, but they're also very powerful. +They have great explanatory power. +This, for example, is an antibody staining against serotonin transporters in a slice of mouse brain. +And you've heard of serotonin, of course, in the context of diseases like depression and anxiety. +You've heard of SSRIs, which are drugs that are used to treat these diseases. +And in order to understand how serotonin works, it's critical to understand where the serontonin machinery is. +And antibody stainings like this one can be used to understand that sort of question. +I'd like to leave you with the following thought: Green fluorescent protein and antibodies are both totally natural products at the get-go. +They were evolved by nature in order to get a jellyfish to glow green for whatever reason, or in order to detect the coat protein of an invading virus, for example. +And only much later did scientists come onto the scene and say, "Hey, these are tools, these are functions that we could use in our own research tool palette." +And instead of applying feeble human minds to designing these tools from scratch, there were these ready-made solutions right out there in nature developed and refined steadily for millions of years by the greatest engineer of all. +Thank you. +Twelve years ago, I was in the street writing my name to say, "I exist." +Then I went to taking photos of people to paste them on the street to say, "They exist." +From the suburbs of Paris to the wall of Israel and Palestine, the rooftops of Kenya to the favelas of Rio, paper and glue -- as easy as that. +I asked a question last year: Can art change the world? +Well let me tell you, in terms of changing the world there has been a lot of competition this year, because the Arab Spring is still spreading, the Eurozone has collapsed ... what else? +The Occupy movement found a voice, and I still have to speak English constantly. +So there has been a lot of change. +So when I had my TED wish last year, I said, look, I'm going to switch my concept. +You are going to take the photos. +You're going to send them to me. +I'm going to print them and send them back to you. +Then you're going to paste them where it makes sense for you to place your own statement. +This is Inside Out. +One hundred thousand posters have been printed this year. +Those are the kind of posters, let me show you. +And we keep sending more every day. +This is the size. +Just a regular piece of paper with a little bit of ink on it. +This one was from Haiti. +When I launched my wish last year, hundreds of people stood up and said they wanted to help us. +But I say it has to be under the conditions I've always worked: no credit, no logos, no sponsoring. +A week later, a handful of people were there ready to rock and empower the people on the ground who wanted to change the world. +These are the people I want to talk about to you today. +Two weeks after my speech, in Tunisia, hundreds of portraits were made. +And they pasted [over] every single portrait of the dictator [with] their own photos. +Boom! This is what happened. +Slim and his friends went through the country and pasted hundreds of photos everywhere to show the diversity in the country. +They really make Inside Out their own project. +Actually, that photo was pasted in a police station, and what you see on the ground are ID cards of all the photos of people being tracked by the police. +Russia. Chad wanted to fight against homophobia in Russia. +He went with his friends in front of every Russian embassy in Europe and stood there with the photos to say, "We have rights." +They used Inside Out as a platform for protest. +Karachi, Pakistan. +Sharmeen is actually here. +She organized a TEDx action out there and made all the unseen faces of the city on the walls in her town. +And I want to thank her today. +North Dakota. Standing Rock Nation, in this Turtle Island, [unclear name] from the Dakota Lakota tribe wanted to show that the Native Americans are still here. +The seventh generation are still fighting for their rights. +He pasted up portraits all over his reservation. +And he's here also today. +Each time I get a wall in New York, I use his photos to continue spreading the project. +Juarez: You've heard of the border -- one of the most dangerous borders in the world. +Monica has taken thousands of portraits with a group of photographers and covered the entire border. +Do you know what it takes to do this? +People, energy, make the glue, organize the team. +It was amazing. +While in Iran at the same time Abololo -- of course a nickname -- has pasted one single face of a woman to show his resistance against the government. +I don't have to explain to you what kind of risk he took for that action. +There are tons of school projects. +Twenty percent of the posters we are receiving comes from schools. +Education is so essential. +Kids just make photos in a class, the teacher receives them, they paste them on the school. +Here they even got the help of the firemen. +There should be even more schools doing this kind of project. +Of course we wanted to go back to Israel and Palestine. +So we went there with a truck. This is a photobooth truck. +You go on the back of that truck, it takes your photo, 30 seconds later take it from the side, you're ready to rock. +Thousands of people use them and each of them signs up for a two-state peace solution and then walk in the street. +This is march, the 450,000 march -- beginning of September. +They were all holding their photo as a statement. +On the other side, people were wrapping up streets, buildings. +It's everywhere. +Come on, don't tell me that people aren't ready for peace out there. +These projects took thousands of actions in one year, making hundreds of thousands of people participating, creating millions of views. +This is the biggest global art participatory project that's going on. +So back to the question, "Can art change the world?" +Maybe not in one year. That's the beginning. +But maybe we should change the question. +Can art change people's lives? +From what I've seen this year, yes. +And you know what? It's just the beginning. +Let's turn the world inside out together. +Thank you. +So, I'm going to start off with kind of the buzzkill a little bit. +Forty-two million people were displaced by natural disasters in 2010. +Now, there was nothing particularly special about 2010, because, on average, 31 and a half million people are displaced by natural disasters every single year. +Now, usually when people hear statistics or stats like that, you start thinking about places like Haiti or other kind of exotic or maybe even impoverished areas, but it happens right here in the United States every single year. +Last year alone, 99 federally declared disasters were on file with FEMA, from Joplin, Missouri, and Tuscaloosa, Alabama, to the Central Texas wildfires that just happened recently. +Now, how does the most powerful country in the world handle these displaced people? +They cram them onto cots, put all your personal belongings in a plastic garbage bag, stick it underneath, and put you on the floor of an entire sports arena, or a gymnasium. +Before that time, people are left to their own devices. +So I became obsessed with trying to figure out a way to actually fill this gap. +This actually became my creative obsession. +I put aside all my freelance work after hours and started just focusing particularly on this problem. +So I started sketching. +Two days after Katrina, I started sketching and sketching and trying to brainstorm up ideas or solutions for this, and as things started to congeal or ideas started to form, I started sketching digitally on the computer, but it was an obsession, so I couldn't just stop there. +I started experimenting, making models, talking to experts in the field, taking their feedback, and refining, and I kept on refining and refining for nights and weekends for over five years. +Now, my obsession ended up driving me to create full-size prototypes in my own backyard and actually spending my own personal savings on everything from tooling to patents and a variety of other costs, but in the end I ended up with this modular housing system that can react to any situation or disaster. +It can be put up in any environment, from an asphalt parking lot to pastures or fields, because it doesn't require any special setup or specialty tools. +Now, at the foundation and kind of the core of this whole system is the Exo Housing Unit, which is just the individual shelter module. +And though it's light, light enough that you can actually lift it by hand and move it around, and it actually sleeps four people. +Now this fundamentally changes the way we respond to disasters, because gone are the horrid conditions inside a sports arena or a gymnasium, where people are crammed on these cots inside. +Now we have instant neighborhoods outside. +So the Exo is designed to be simply, basically like a coffee cup. They can actually stack together so we get extremely efficient transportation and storage out of them. +In fact, 15 Exos can fit on a single semi truck by itself. +This means the Exo can actually be transported and set up faster than any other housing option available today. +But I'm obsessive, so I couldn't just stop there, so I actually started modifying the bunks where you could actually slide out the bunks and slide in desks or shelving, so the same unit can now be used for an office or storage location. +Sounds like a great idea, but how do you make it real? +So the first idea I had, initially, was just to go the federal and state governments and go, "Here, take it, for free." +But I was quickly told that, "Boy, our government doesn't really work like that." Okay. Okay. So maybe I would start a nonprofit to kind of help consult and get this idea going along with the government, but then I was told, "Son, our government looks to private sector for things like this." +Okay. So maybe I would take this whole idea and go to private corporations that would have this mutually shared benefit to it, but I was quickly told by some corporations that my personal passion project was not a brand fit because they didn't want their logos stamped across the ghettos of Haiti. +And we found through this whole process, we found this great little manufacturer in Virginia, and if his body language is any indication, that's the owner of what it's like for a manufacturer to work directly with a designer, you've got to see what happens here. But G.S. Industries was fantastic. +They actually built three prototypes for us by hand. +So now we have prototypes that can show that four people can actually sleep securely and much more comfortably than a tent could ever provide. +And they actually shipped them here to Texas for us. +Now, a funny thing started happening. +Other people started to believe in what we were doing, and actually offered us hangar space, donated hangar space to us. And then the Georgetown Airport Authority was bent over backwards to help us with anything we needed. +So now we had a hangar space to work in, and prototypes to demo with. +So in one year, we've negotiated manufacturing agreements, been awarded one patent, filed our second patent, talked to multiple people, demoed this to FEMA and its consultants to rave reviews, and then started talking to some other people who requested information, this little group called the United Nations. +And on top of that, now we have a whole plethora of other individuals that have come up and started to talk to us from doing it for mining camps, mobile youth hostels, right down to the World Cup and the Olympics. +So, in closing, on this whole thing here is hopefully very soon we will not have to respond to these painful phone calls that we get after disasters where we don't really have anything to sell or give you yet. +Hopefully very soon we will be there, because we are destined, obsessed with making it real. +Thank you. +Recently I visited Beloit, Wisconsin. +And I was there to honor a great 20th century explorer, Roy Chapman Andrews. +During his time at the American Museum of Natural History, Andrews led a range of expeditions to uncharted regions, like here in the Gobi Desert. +He was quite a figure. +He was later, it's said, the basis of the Indiana Jones character. +And when I was in Beloit, Wisconsin, I gave a public lecture to a group of middle school students. +And I'm here to tell you, if there's anything more intimidating than talking here at TED, it'll be trying to hold the attention of a group of a thousand 12-year-olds for a 45-minute lecture. +Don't try that one. +At the end of the lecture they asked a number of questions, but there was one that's really stuck with me since then. +There was a young girl who stood up, and she asked the question: "Where should we explore?" +I think there's a sense that many of us have that the great age of exploration on Earth is over, that for the next generation they're going to have to go to outer space or the deepest oceans in order to find something significant to explore. +But is that really the case? +Is there really nowhere significant for us to explore left here on Earth? +It sort of made me think back to one of my favorite explorers in the history of biology. +This is an explorer of the unseen world, Martinus Beijerinck. +So Beijerinck set out to discover the cause of tobacco mosaic disease. +What he did is he took the infected juice from tobacco plants and he would filter it through smaller and smaller filters. +And he reached the point where he felt that there must be something out there that was smaller than the smallest forms of life that were ever known -- bacteria, at the time. +He came up with a name for his mystery agent. +He called it the virus -- Latin for "poison." +And in uncovering viruses, Beijerinck really opened this entirely new world for us. +We now know that viruses make up the majority of the genetic information on our planet, more than the genetic information of all other forms of life combined. +And obviously there's been tremendous practical applications associated with this world -- things like the eradication of smallpox, the advent of a vaccine against cervical cancer, which we now know is mostly caused by human papillomavirus. +And Beijerinck's discovery, this was not something that occurred 500 years ago. +It was a little over 100 years ago that Beijerinck discovered viruses. +So basically we had automobiles, but we were unaware of the forms of life that make up most of the genetic information on our planet. +We can apply these techniques to things from soil to skin and everything in between. +In my organization we now do this on a regular basis to identify the causes of outbreaks that are unclear exactly what causes them. +And just to give you a sense of how this works, imagine that we took a nasal swab from every single one of you. +And this is something we commonly do to look for respiratory viruses like influenza. +The first thing we would see is a tremendous amount of genetic information. +And if we started looking into that genetic information, we'd see a number of usual suspects out there -- of course, a lot of human genetic information, but also bacterial and viral information, mostly from things that are completely harmless within your nose. +But we'd also see something very, very surprising. +As we started to look at this information, we would see that about 20 percent of the genetic information in your nose doesn't match anything that we've ever seen before -- no plant, animal, fungus, virus or bacteria. +Basically we have no clue what this is. +And for the small group of us who actually study this kind of data, a few of us have actually begun to call this information biological dark matter. +We know it's not anything that we've seen before; it's sort of the equivalent of an uncharted continent right within our own genetic information. +And there's a lot of it. +If you think 20 percent of genetic information in your nose is a lot of biological dark matter, if we looked at your gut, up to 40 or 50 percent of that information is biological dark matter. +And even in the relatively sterile blood, around one to two percent of this information is dark matter -- can't be classified, can't be typed or matched with anything we've seen before. +At first we thought that perhaps this was artifact. +These deep sequencing tools are relatively new. +But as they become more and more accurate, we've determined that this information is a form of life, or at least some of it is a form of life. +And while the hypotheses for explaining the existence of biological dark matter are really only in their infancy, there's a very, very exciting possibility that exists: that buried in this life, in this genetic information, are signatures of as of yet unidentified life. +That as we explore these strings of A's, T's, C's and G's, we may uncover a completely new class of life that, like Beijerinck, will fundamentally change the way that we think about the nature of biology. +That perhaps will allow us to identify the cause of a cancer that afflicts us or identify the source of an outbreak that we aren't familiar with or perhaps create a new tool in molecular biology. +I'm pleased to announce that, along with colleagues at Stanford and Caltech and UCSF, we're currently starting an initiative to explore biological dark matter for the existence of new forms of life. +A little over a hundred years ago, people were unaware of viruses, the forms of life that make up most of the genetic information on our planet. +A hundred years from now, people may marvel that we were perhaps completely unaware of a new class of life that literally was right under our noses. +It's true, we may have charted all the continents on the planet and we may have discovered all the mammals that are out there, but that doesn't mean that there's nothing left to explore on Earth. +Beijerinck and his kind provide an important lesson for the next generation of explorers -- people like that young girl from Beloit, Wisconsin. +And I think if we phrase that lesson, it's something like this: Don't assume that what we currently think is out there is the full story. +Go after the dark matter in whatever field you choose to explore. +There are unknowns all around us and they're just waiting to be discovered. +Thank you. +This sound, this smell, this sight all remind me of the campfires of my childhood, when anyone could become a storyteller in front of the dancing flames. +There was this wondrous ending when people and fire fell asleep almost in unison. +It was dreaming time. +Now my story has a lot to do with dreaming, although I'm known to make my dreams come true. +Last year, I created a one-man show. +For an hour and a half I shared with the audience a lifetime of creativity, how I pursue perfection, how I cheat the impossible. +And then TED challenged me: "Philippe, can you shrink this lifetime to 18 minutes?" +Eighteen minutes, clearly impossible. +But here I am. +One solution was to rehearse a machine gun delivery in which every syllable, every second will have its importance and hope to God the audience will be able to follow me. +No, no, no. +No, the best way for me to start is to pay my respects to the gods of creativity. +So please join me for a minute of silence. +Okay, I cheated, it was a mere 20 seconds. +But hey, we're on TED time. +When I was six years old, I fell in love with magic. +For Christmas I got a magic box and a very old book on card manipulation. +Somehow I was more interested in pure manipulation than in all the silly little tricks in the box. +So I looked in the book for the most difficult move, and it was this. +Now I'm not supposed to share that with you, but I have to show you the card is hidden in the back of the hand. +Now that manipulation was broken down into seven moves described over seven pages. +One, two, three, four, five, six and seven. +And let me show you something else. +The cards were bigger than my hands. +Two months later, six years old, I'm able to do one, two, three, four, five, six, seven. +And I go to see a famous magician and proudly ask him, "Well what do you think?" +Six years old. +The magician looked at me and said, "This is a disaster. +You cannot do that in two seconds and have a minuscule part of the card showing. +For the move to be professional, it has to be less than one second and it has to be perfect." +Two years later, one -- zoop. +And I'm not cheating. It's in the back. It's perfect. +Passion is the motto of all my actions. +As I'm studying magic, juggling is mentioned repeatedly as a great way to acquire dexterity and coordination. +Now I had long admired how fast and fluidly jugglers make objects fly. +So that's it. I'm 14; I'm becoming a juggler. +I befriend a young juggler in a juggling troupe, and he agrees to sell me three clubs. +But in America you have to explain. What are clubs? +Nothing to do with golf. +They are those beautiful oblong objects, but quite difficult to make. +They have to be precisely lathed. +Oh, when I was buying the clubs, somehow the young juggler was hiding from the others. +Well I didn't think much of it at the time. +Anyway, here I was progressing with my new clubs. +But I could not understand. +I was pretty fast, but I was not fluid at all. +The clubs were escaping me at each throw. +And I was trying constantly to bring them back to me. +Until one day I practiced in front of Francis Brunn, the world's greatest juggler. +And he was frowning. +And he finally asked, "Can I see those?" +So I proudly showed him my clubs. +He said, "Philippe, you have been had. +These are rejects. They are completely out of alignment. +They are impossible to juggle." +Tenacity is how I kept at it against all odds. +So I went to the circus to see more magicians, more jugglers, and I saw -- oh no, no, no, I didn't see. +It was more interesting; I heard. +I heard about those amazing men and women who walk on thin air -- the high-wire walkers. +Now I have been playing with ropes and climbing all my childhood, so that's it. I'm 16; I'm becoming a wire walker. +I found two trees -- but not any kind of trees, trees with character -- and then a very long rope. +And I put the rope around and around and around and around and around till I had no more rope. +Now I have all of those ropes parallel like this. +I get a pair of pliers and some coat hangers, and I gather them together in some kind of ropey path. +So I just created the widest tightrope in the world. +What did I need? I needed the widest shoes in the world. +So I found some enormous, ridiculous, giant ski boots and then wobbly, wobbly I get on the ropes. +Well within a few days I'm able to do one crossing. +So I cut one rope off. +And the next day one rope off. +And a few days later, I was practicing on a single tightrope. +Now you can imagine at that time I had to switch the ridiculous boots for some slippers. +So that is how -- in case there are people here in the audience who would like to try -- this is how not to learn wire walking. +Intuition is a tool essential in my life. +In the meantime, I am being thrown out of five different schools because instead of listening to the teachers, I am my own teacher, progressing in my new art and becoming a street juggler. +On the high wire, within months, I'm able to master all the tricks they do in the circus, except I am not satisfied. +I was starting to invent my own moves and bring them to perfection. +But nobody wanted to hire me. +So I started putting a wire up in secret and performing without permission. +Notre Dame, the Sydney Harbor Bridge, the World Trade Center. +And I developed a certitude, a faith that convinced me that I will get safely to the other side. +If not, I will never do that first step. +Well nonetheless, on the top of the World Trade Center my first step was terrifying. +All of a sudden the density of the air is no longer the same. +Manhattan no longer spreads its infinity. +The murmur of the city dissolves into a squall whose chilling power I no longer feel. +I lift the balancing pole. I approach the edge. +I step over the beam. +I put my left foot on the cable, the weight of my body raised on my right leg anchored to the flank of the building. +Shall I ever so slightly shift my weight to the left? +My right leg will be unburdened, my right foot will freely meet the wire. +On one side, a mass of a mountain, a life I know. +On the other, the universe of the clouds, so full of unknown we think it's empty. +At my feet, the path to the north tower -- 60 yards of wire rope. +It's a straight line, which sags, which sways, which vibrates, which rolls on itself, which is ice, which is three tons tight, ready to explode, ready to swallow me. +An inner howl assails me, the wild longing to flee. +But it is too late. +The wire is ready. +Decisively my other foot sets itself onto the cable. +Faith is what replaces doubt in my dictionary. +So after the walk people ask me, "How can you top that?" +Well I didn't have that problem. +I was not interested in collecting the gigantic, in breaking records. +In fact, I put my World Trade Center crossing at the same artistic level as some of my smaller walks -- or some completely different type of performance. +Let's see, such as my street juggling, for example. +So each time I draw my circle of chalk on the pavement and enter as the improvising comic silent character I created 45 years ago, I am as happy as when I am in the clouds. +But this here, this is not the street. +So I cannot street juggle here, you understand. +So you don't want me to street juggle here, right? +You know that, right? +You don't want me to juggle, right? +Thank you. Thank you. +Each time I street juggle I use improvisation. +Now improvisation is empowering because it welcomes the unknown. +And since what's impossible is always unknown, it allows me to believe I can cheat the impossible. +Now I have done the impossible not once, but many times. +So what should I share? Oh, I know. Israel. +Some years ago I was invited to open the Israel Festival by a high-wire walk. +And I chose to put my wire between the Arab quarters and the Jewish quarter of Jerusalem over the Ben Hinnom Valley. +And I thought it would be incredible if in the middle of the wire I stopped and, like a magician, I produce a dove and send her in the sky as a living symbol of peace. +Well now I must say, it was a little bit hard to find a dove in Israel, but I got one. +And in my hotel room, each time I practiced making it appear and throwing her in the air, she would graze the wall and end up on the bed. +So I said, now it's okay. The room is too small. +I mean, a bird needs space to fly. +It will go perfectly on the day of the walk. +Now comes the day of the walk. +Eighty thousand people spread over the entire valley. +The mayor of Jerusalem, Teddy Kollek, comes to wish me the best. +But he seemed nervous. +There was tension in my wire, but I also could feel tension on the ground. +Because all those people were made up of people who, for the most part, considered each other enemies. +So I start the walk. Everything is fine. +I stop in the middle. +I make the dove appear. +People applaud in delight. +And then in the most magnificent gesture, I send the bird of peace into the azure. +But the bird, instead of flying away, goes flop, flop, flop and lands on my head. +And people scream. +So I grab the dove, and for the second time I send her in the air. +But the dove, who obviously didn't go to flying school, goes flop, flop, flop and ends up at the end of my balancing pole. +You laugh, you laugh. But hey. +I sit down immediately. It's a reflex of wire walkers. +Now in the meantime, the audience, they go crazy. +They must think this guy with this dove, he must have spent years working with him. +What a genius, what a professional. +So I take a bow. I salute with my hand. +And at the end I bang my hand against the pole to dislodge the bird. +Now the dove, who, now you know, obviously cannot fly, does for the third time a little flop, flop, flop and ends up on the wire behind me. +And the entire valley goes crazy. +Now but hold on, I'm not finished. +So now I'm like 50 yards from my arrival and I'm exhausted, so my steps are slow. +And something happened. +Somebody somewhere, a group of people, starts clapping in rhythm with my steps. +And within seconds the entire valley is applauding in unison with each of my steps. +But not an applause of delight like before, an applause encouragement. +For a moment, the entire crowd had forgotten their differences. +They had become one, pushing me to triumph. +I want you just for a second to experience this amazing human symphony. +So let's say I am here and the chair is my arrival. +So I walk, you clap, everybody in unison. +So after the walk, Teddy and I become friends. +And he tells me, he has on his desk a picture of me in the middle of the wire with a dove on my head. +He didn't know the true story. +And whenever he's daunted by an impossible situation to solve in this hard-to-manage city, instead of giving up, he looks at the picture and he says, "If Philippe can do that, I can do this," and he goes back to work. +Inspiration. +By inspiring ourselves we inspire others. +I will never forget this music, and I hope now neither will you. +Please take this music with you home, and start gluing feathers to your arms and take off and fly, and look at the world from a different perspective. +And when you see mountains, remember mountains can be moved. +Thank you. Thank you. +Thank you. +Let's begin with a story. +Once upon a time -- well actually less than two years ago -- in a kingdom not so very far away, there was a man who traveled many miles to come to work at the jewel in the kingdom's crown -- an internationally famous company. +Let's call it Island Networks. +Now this kingdom had many resources and mighty ambitions, but the one thing it lacked was people. +And so it invited workers from around the world to come and help it build the nation. +But in order to enter and to stay these migrants had to pass a few tests. +And so it was, our man presented himself to authorities in the kingdom, looking forward to settling into his new life. +But then something unexpected happened. +The medical personnel who took blood samples from the man never actually told him what they were testing for. +He wasn't offered counseling before or after the test, which is best medical practice. +He was never informed of the results of the test. +And yet, a couple of weeks later, he was picked up and taken to prison where he was subjected to a medical exam, including a full-body search in full view of the others in the cell. +He was released, but then a day or two later, he was taken to the airport and he was deported. +What on earth did this man do to merit this treatment? +What was his terrible crime? +He was infected with HIV. +Now the kingdom is one of about 50 countries that imposes restrictions on the entry or stay of people living with HIV. +The kingdom argues that its laws allow it to detain or deport foreigners who pose a risk to the economy or the security or the public health or the morals of the state. +But these laws, when applied to people living with HIV, are a violation of international human rights agreements to which these countries are signatories. +But you know what? +Matters of principle aside, practically speaking, these laws drive HIV underground. +People are less likely to come forth to be tested or treated or to disclose their condition, none of which helps these individuals or the communities these laws purport to protect. +Today we can prevent the transmission of HIV. +And with treatment, it is a manageable condition. +We are very far from the days when the only practical response to dread disease was to have banished the afflicted -- like this, "The Exile of the Leper." +So you tell me why, in our age of science, we still have laws and policies which come from an age of superstition. +Time for a quick show of hands. +Who here has been touched by HIV -- either because you yourself have the virus or you have a family member or a friend or a colleague who is living with HIV? +Hands up. +Wow. Wow. +That's a significant number of us. +You know better than anyone that HIV brings out the best and the worst in humanity. +And the laws reflect these attitudes. +I'm not just talking about laws on the books, but laws as they are enforced on the streets and laws as they are decided in the courts. +And I'm not just talking about laws as they relate to people living with HIV, but people who are at greatest risk of infection -- people such as those who inject drugs or sex workers or men who have sex with men or transgendered persons or migrants or prisoners. +And in many parts of the world that includes women and children who are especially vulnerable. +Now there are laws in many parts of the world which reflect the best of human nature. +These laws treat people touched by HIV with compassion and acceptance. +These laws respect universal human rights and they are grounded in evidence. +These laws ensure that people living with HIV and those at greatest risk are protected from violence and discrimination and that they get access to prevention and to treatment. +Unfortunately, these good laws are counter-balanced by a mass of really bad law -- law which is grounded in moral judgement and in fear and in misinformation, laws which specifically punish people living with HIV or those at greatest risk. +These laws fly in the face of science, and they are grounded in prejudice and in ignorance and in a rewriting of tradition and a selective reading of religion. +But you know what? You don't have to take my word for it. +We're going to hear from two people who are on the sharp end of the law. +The first is Nick Rhoades. He's an American. +And he was convicted under the U.S. State of Iowa's law on HIV transmission and exposure -- neither of which offense he actually committed. +Nick Rhoades: If something is against the law then that is telling society that is unacceptable, that's bad behavior. +And I think the severity of that punishment tells you how bad you are as a person. +You're a class B felon, lifetime sex offender. +You are a very, very, very bad person. +And you did a very, very, very bad thing. +And so that's just programmed into you. +And you go through the correctional system and everyone's telling you the same thing. +And you're just like, I'm a very bad person. +Shereen El-Feki: It's not just a question of unfair or ineffective laws. +Some countries have good laws, laws which could stem the tide of HIV. +The problem is that these laws are flouted. +Because stigma gives unofficial license to treat people living with HIV or those at greatest risk unlike other citizens. +And this is exactly what happened to Helma and Dongo from Namibia. +Hilma: I found out when I went to the hospital for a pregnancy check-up. +The nurse announced that every pregnant woman must also be tested for HIV that day. +I took the test and the result showed I was positive. +That's the day I found out. +The nurse said to me, "Why should you people bcome pregnant when you know you are HIV positive? +Why are you pregnant when you are living positive?" +I am sure now that is the reason they sterilized me. +Because I am HIV positive. +They didn't give the forms to me or explain what was in the form. +The nurse just came with it already marked where I had to sign. +And with the labor pain, I didn't have the strength to ask them to read it to me. +I just signed. +SE: Hilma and Nick and our man in the kingdom are among the 34 million people living with HIV according to recent estimates. +They're the lucky ones because they're still alive. +According to those same estimates, in 2010 1.8 million people died of AIDS related causes. +These are terrible and tragic figures. +But if we look a little more broadly into the statistics, we actually see some reason for hope. +Looking globally, the number of new infections of HIV is declining. +And looking globally as well, deaths are also starting to fall. +There are many reasons for these positive developments, but one of the most remarkable is in the increase in the number of people around the world on anti-retroviral therapy, the medicines they need to keep their HIV in check. +Now there are still many problems. +Only about half of the people who need treatment are currently receiving it. +In some parts of the world -- like here in the Middle East and North Africa -- new infections are rising and so are deaths. +And the money, the money we need for the global response to HIV, that is shrinking. +But for the first time in three decades into this epidemic we have a real chance to come to grips with HIV. +But in order to do that we need to tackle an epidemic of really bad law. +Let me give you just one example of the way a legal environment can make a positive difference. +People who inject drugs are one of those groups I mentioned. +They're at high risk of HIV through contaminated injection equipment and other risk-related behaviors. +In fact, one in every 10 new infections of HIV is among people who inject drugs. +Now drug use or possession is illegal in almost every country. +But some countries take a harder line on this than others. +In Thailand people who use drugs, or are merely suspected of using drugs, are placed in detention centers, like the one you see here, where they are supposed to clean up. +There is absolutely no evidence to show that throwing people into detention cures their drug dependence. +There is, however, ample evidence to show that incarcerating people increases their risk of HIV and other infections. +We know how to reduce HIV transmission and other risks in people who inject drugs. +It's called harm reduction, and it involves, among other things, providing clean needles and syringes, offering opioid substitution therapy and other evidence-based treatments to reduce drug dependence. +It involves providing information and education and condoms to reduce HIV transmission, and also providing HIV testing and counseling and treatment should people become infected. +Where the legal environment allows for harm reduction the results are striking. +Australia and Switzerland were two countries which introduced harm reduction very early on in their HIV epidemics, and they have a very low rate of HIV among injecting drug users. +The U.S. and Malaysia came to harm reduction a little later, and they have higher rates of HIV in these populations. +Thailand and Russia, however, have resisted harm reduction and have stringent laws which punish drug use. +And hey, surprise, very high rates of HIV among people who are injecting drugs. +At the Global Commission we have studied the evidence, and we've heard the experiences of over 700 people from 140 countries. +And the trend? Well the trend is clear. +Where you criminalize people living with HIV or those at greatest risk, you fuel the epidemic. +Now coming up with a vaccine for HIV or a cure for AIDS -- now that's rocket science. +But changing the law isn't. +And in fact, a number of countries are starting to make progress on a number of points. +To begin, countries need to review their legislation as it touches HIV and vulnerable groups. +On the back of those reviews, governments should repeal laws that punish or discriminate against people living with HIV or those at greatest risk. +Repealing a law isn't easy, and it's particularly difficult when it relates to touchy subjects like drugs and sex. +But there's plenty you can do while that process is underway. +One of the key points is to reform the police so that they have better practices on the ground. +So for example, outreach workers who are distributing condoms to vulnerable populations are not themselves subject to police harassment or abuse or arbitrary arrest. +We can also train judges so that they find flexibilities in the law and so that they rule on the side of tolerance rather than prejudice. +We can retool prisons so that HIV prevention and harm reduction The key to all this is reinforcing civil society. +Because civil society is key to raising awareness among vulnerable groups of their legal rights. +But awareness needs action. +And so we need to ensure that these people who are living with HIV or at greatest risk of HIV have access to legal services and they have equal access to the courts. +And also important is talking to communities so that we change interpretations of religious or customary law, which is too often used to justify punishment and fuel stigma. +For many of us here HIV is not an abstract threat. +It hits very close to home. +The law, on the other hand, can seem remote, arcane, the stuff of specialists, but it isn't. +Because for those of us who live in democracies, or in aspiring democracies, the law begins with us. +Laws that treat people living with HIV or those at greatest risk with respect start with the way that we treat them ourselves: as equals. +If we are going to stop the spread of HIV in our lifetime, then that is the change we need to spread. +Thank you. +(Non English) (British English) And that's one of the things that I enjoy most about this convention. +It's not so much, as so little has to do with what everything is. +But it is within our self-interest to understand the topography of our lives unto ourselves. +The future states that there is no time other than the collapsation of that sensation of the mirror of the memories in which we are living. +Common knowledge, but important nonetheless. +As we face fear in these times, and fear is all around us, we also have anti-fear. +It's hard to imagine or measure. +The background radiation is simply too static to be able to be seen under the normal spectral analysis. +(American accent) But we feel as though there are times when a lot of us -- you know what I'm saying? +But -- you know what I'm saying? +Because, as a hip hop thing, you know what I'm saying, TED be rocking -- you know what I'm saying. +Like so I wrote a song, and I hope you guys dig it. +It's a song about people and sasquatches -- And other French science stuff. +That's French science. +Okay, here we go. +Four years ago I worked with a few people at the Brookings Institute, and I arrived at a conclusion. +Tomorrow is another day. +Not just any day, but it is a day. +It will get here, there's no question. +And the important thing to remember is that this simulation is a good one. +It's believable, it's tactile. +You can reach out -- things are solid. +You can move objects from one area to another. +You can feel your body. +You can say, "I'd like to go over to this location," and you can move this mass of molecules through the air over to another location, at will. +That's something you live inside of every day. +So, as I say before the last piece, feel not as though it is a sphere we live on, rather an infinite plane which has the illusion of leading yourself back to the point of origin. +Once we understand that all the spheres in the sky are just large infinite planes, it will be plain to see. +This is my final piece. +So please, without further ado. +Thank you. +This is a fun one. +It goes like this. +(Music ends) Okay, for the last piece I'd like to do, this one goes very similar to this. +I hope you guys recognize it. +Here we go. +Okay, that still works. Okay, good. +All right, here we go. +Here we go. +Yeah, yo, yo, yo (Music fades out) Thank you. Enjoy the rest. +I know this is going to sound strange, but I think robots can inspire us to be better humans. +See, I grew up in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, the home of Bethlehem Steel. +My father was an engineer, and when I was growing up, he would teach me how things worked. +We would build projects together, like model rockets and slot cars. +Here's the go-kart that we built together. +That's me behind the wheel, with my sister and my best friend at the time. +And one day, he came home, when I was about 10 years old, and at the dinner table, he announced that for our next project, we were going to build ... a robot. +A robot. +Now, I was thrilled about this, because at school, there was a bully named Kevin, and he was picking on me, because I was the only Jewish kid in class. +So I couldn't wait to get started to work on this, so I could introduce Kevin to my robot. (Robot noises) But that wasn't the kind of robot my dad had in mind. +See, he owned a chromium-plating company, and they had to move heavy steel parts between tanks of chemicals. +And so he needed an industrial robot like this, that could basically do the heavy lifting. +But my dad didn't get the kind of robot he wanted, either. +He and I worked on it for several years, but it was the 1970s, and the technology that was available to amateurs just wasn't there yet. +So Dad continued to do this kind of work by hand. +And a few years later, he was diagnosed with cancer. +You see, what the robot we were trying to build was telling him was not about doing the heavy lifting. +It was a warning about his exposure to the toxic chemicals. +He didn't recognize that at the time, and he contracted leukemia. +And he died at the age of 45. +I was devastated by this. +And I never forgot the robot that he and I tried to build. +When I was at college, I decided to study engineering, like him. +And I went to Carnegie Mellon, and I earned my PhD in robotics. +I've been studying robots ever since. +So what I'd like to tell you about are four robot projects, and how they've inspired me to be a better human. +By 1993, I was a young professor at USC, and I was just building up my own robotics lab, and this was the year the World Wide Web came out. +And I remember my students were the ones who told me about it, and we would -- we were just amazed. +We started playing with this, and that afternoon, we realized that we could use this new, universal interface to allow anyone in the world to operate the robot in our lab. +So, rather than have it fight or do industrial work, we decided to build a planter, put the robot into the center of it, and we called it the Telegarden. +And we had put a camera in the gripper of the hand of the robot, and we wrote some special scripts and software, so that anyone in the world could come in, and by clicking on the screen, they could move the robot around and visit the garden. +But we also set up some other software that lets you participate and help us water the garden, remotely. +And if you watered it a few times, we'd give you your own seed to plant. +Now, this was an engineering project, and we published some papers on the system design of it, but we also thought of it as an art installation. +It was invited, after the first year, by the Ars Electronica Museum in Austria, to have it installed in their lobby. +And I'm happy to say, it remained online there, 24 hours a day, for almost nine years. +That robot was operated by more people than any other robot in history. +Now, one day, I got a call out of the blue from a student, who asked a very simple but profound question. +He said, "Is the robot real?" +Now, everyone else had assumed it was, and we knew it was, because we were working with it. +But I knew what he meant, because it would be possible to take a bunch of pictures of flowers in a garden and then, basically, index them in a computer system, such that it would appear that there was a real robot, when there wasn't. +And the more I thought about it, I couldn't think of a good answer for how he could tell the difference. +This was right about the time that I was offered a position here at Berkeley. +And when I got here, I looked up Hubert Dreyfus, who's a world-renowned professor of philosophy, And I talked with him about this and he said, "This is one of the oldest and most central problems in philosophy. +It goes back to the Skeptics and up through Descartes. +It's the issue of epistemology, the study of how do we know that something is true." +So he and I started working together, and we coined a new term: "telepistemology," the study of knowledge at a distance. +We invited leading artists, engineers and philosophers to write essays about this, and the results are collected in this book from MIT Press. +So thanks to this student, who questioned what everyone else had assumed to be true, this project taught me an important lesson about life, which is to always question assumptions. +Now, the second project I'll tell you about grew out of the Telegarden. +As it was operating, my students and I were very interested in how people were interacting with each other, and what they were doing with the garden. +So we started thinking: what if the robot could leave the garden and go out into some other interesting environment? +We called it the Tele-Actor. +We got a human, someone who's very outgoing and gregarious, and she was outfitted with a helmet with various equipment, cameras and microphones, and then a backpack with wireless Internet connection. +And the idea was that she could go into a remote and interesting environment, and then over the Internet, people could experience what she was experiencing. +So they could see what she was seeing, but then, more importantly, they could participate, by interacting with each other and coming up with ideas about what she should do next and where she should go, and then conveying those to the Tele-Actor. +So we got a chance to take the Tele-Actor to the Webby Awards in San Francisco. +And that year, Sam Donaldson was the host. +Just before the curtain went up, I had about 30 seconds to explain to Mr. Donaldson what we were going to do. +And I said, "The Tele-Actor is going to be joining you onstage. +This is a new experimental project, and people are watching her on their screens, there's cameras involved and there's microphones and she's got an earbud in her ear, and people over the network are giving her advice about what to do next." +And he said, "Wait a second. +That's what I do." So he loved the concept, and when the Tele-Actor walked onstage, she walked right up to him, and she gave him a big kiss right on the lips. +We were totally surprised -- we had no idea that would happen. +And he was great, he just gave her a big hug in return, and it worked out great. +But that night, as we were packing up, I asked the Tele-Actor, how did the Tele-Directors decide that they would give a kiss to Sam Donaldson? +And she said they hadn't. +She said, when she was just about to walk onstage, the Tele-Directors still were trying to agree on what to do, and so she just walked onstage and did what felt most natural. +So, the success of the Tele-Actor that night was due to the fact that she was a wonderful actor. +She knew when to trust her instincts. +And so that project taught me another lesson about life, which is that, when in doubt, improvise. Now, the third project grew out of my experience when my father was in the hospital. +He was undergoing a treatment -- chemotherapy treatments -- and there's a related treatment called brachytherapy, where tiny, radioactive seeds are placed into the body to treat cancerous tumors. +And the way it's done, as you can see here, is that surgeons insert needles into the body to deliver the seeds. +And all these needles are inserted in parallel. +So it's very common that some of the needles penetrate sensitive organs. +And as a result, the needles damage these organs, cause damage, which leads to trauma and side effects. +So my students and I wondered: what if we could modify the system, so that the needles could come in at different angles? +So we simulated this; we developed some optimization algorithms and we simulated this. +And we were able to show that we are able to avoid the delicate organs, and yet still achieve the coverage of the tumors with the radiation. +So now, we're working with doctors at UCSF and engineers at Johns Hopkins, and we're building a robot that has a number of -- it's a specialized design with different joints that can allow the needles to come in at an infinite variety of angles. +And as you can see here, they can avoid delicate organs and still reach the targets they're aiming for. +So, by questioning this assumption that all the needles have to be parallel, this project also taught me an important lesson: When in doubt, when your path is blocked, pivot. +And the last project also has to do with medical robotics. +And this is something that's grown out of a system called the da Vinci surgical robot. +And this is a commercially available device. +It's being used in over 2,000 hospitals around the world. +The idea is it allows the surgeon to operate comfortably in his own coordinate frame. +Many of the subtasks in surgery are very routine and tedious, like suturing, and currently, all of these are performed under the specific and immediate control of the surgeon. +So the surgeon becomes fatigued over time. +And we've been wondering, what if we could program the robot to perform some of these subtasks, and thereby free the surgeon to focus on the more complicated parts of the surgery, and also cut down on the time that the surgery would take if we could get the robot to do them a little bit faster? +Now, it's hard to program a robot to do delicate things like this. +But it turns out my colleague Pieter Abbeel, who's here at Berkeley, has developed a new set of techniques for teaching robots from example. +So he's gotten robots to fly helicopters, do incredibly interesting, beautiful acrobatics, by watching human experts fly them. +So we got one of these robots. +We started working with Pieter and his students. +And we asked a surgeon to perform a task -- with the robot. +So what we're doing is asking the surgeon to perform the task, and we record the motions of the robot. +So here's an example. +I'll use tracing out a figure eight as an example. +So here's what it looks like when the robot -- this is what the robot's path looks like, those three examples. +Now, those are much better than what a novice like me could do, but they're still jerky and imprecise. +So we record all these examples, the data, and then go through a sequence of steps. +First, we use a technique called dynamic time warping from speech recognition. +And this allows us to temporally align all of the examples. +And then we apply Kalman filtering, a technique from control theory, that allows us to statistically analyze all the noise and extract the desired trajectory that underlies them. +Now we take those human demonstrations -- they're all noisy and imperfect -- and we extract from them an inferred task trajectory and control sequence for the robot. +We then execute that on the robot, we observe what happens, then we adjust the controls, using a sequence of techniques called iterative learning. +Then what we do is we increase the velocity a little bit. +We observe the results, adjust the controls again, and observe what happens. +And we go through this several rounds. +And here's the result. +That's the inferred task trajectory, and here's the robot moving at the speed of the human. +Here's four times the speed of the human. +Here's seven times. +And here's the robot operating at 10 times the speed of the human. +So we're able to get a robot to perform a delicate task like a surgical subtask, at 10 times the speed of a human. +So this project also, because of its involved practicing and learning, doing something over and over again, this project also has a lesson, which is: if you want to do something well, there's no substitute for practice, practice, practice. +So these are four of the lessons that I've learned from robots over the years. +And the field of robotics has gotten much better over time. +Nowadays, high school students can build robots, like the industrial robot my dad and I tried to build. +And now, I have a daughter, named Odessa. +She's eight years old. +And she likes robots, too. +Maybe it runs in the family. I wish she could meet my dad. +And now I get to teach her how things work, and we get to build projects together. +And I wonder what kind of lessons she'll learn from them. +Robots are the most human of our machines. +They can't solve all of the world's problems, but I think they have something important to teach us. +I invite all of you to think about the innovations that you're interested in, the machines that you wish for. +And think about what they might be telling you. +Because I have a hunch that many of our technological innovations, the devices we dream about, can inspire us to be better humans. +Thank you. +And then, in 1918, coal production in Britain peaked, and has declined ever since. +In due course, Britain started using oil and gas from the North Sea, and in the year 2000, oil and gas production from the North Sea also peaked, and they're now on the decline. +These observations about the finiteness of easily accessible, local, secure fossil fuels, this is a motivation for saying, "Well, what's next? +What is life after fossil fuels going to be like? +Shouldn't we be thinking hard about how to get off fossil fuels?" +Another motivation, of course, is climate change. +Let me illustrate this with what physicists call a back-of-envelope calculation. +We love back-of-envelope calculations. +You ask a question, you write down some numbers, and you get yourself an answer. +It may not be very accurate, but it may make you say, "Hmm." +So here's a question: Imagine if we said, "Oh yes, we can get off fossil fuels. +We'll use biofuels. Problem solved. +Transport, we don't need oil anymore." +Well, what if we grew the biofuels for a road on the grass verge at the edge of the road? +How wide would the verge have to be for that to work out? +Okay, so let's put in some numbers. +Let's have our cars go at 60 miles per hour. +Let's say they do 30 miles per gallon. +That's the European average for new cars. +Let's say the productivity of biofuel plantations is 1,200 litres of biofuel per hectare per year. +That's true of European biofuels. +And let's imagine the cars are spaced 80 meters apart from each other, and they're just perpetually going along this road. +The length of the road doesn't matter, because the longer the road, the more biofuel plantation we've got. +What do we do with these numbers? +Well, you take the first number, and you divide by the other three, and you get eight kilometers. +And that's the answer. +That's how wide the plantation would have to be, given these assumptions. +And maybe that makes you say, "Hmm. +Maybe this isn't going to be quite so easy." +And it might make you think, perhaps there's an issue to do with areas, and in this talk, I'd like to talk about land areas, and ask, is there an issue about areas? The answer is going to be yes but it depends which country you are in. +So let's start in the United Kingdom, since that's where we are today. +The energy consumption of the United Kingdom, the total energy consumption, not just transport, but everything, I like to quantify it in light bulbs. +It's as if we've all got 125 light bulbs on all the time, 125 kilowatt-hours per day per person is the energy consumption of the U.K. +So there's 40 light bulbs' worth for transport, 40 light bulbs' worth for heating, and 40 light bulbs' worth for making electricity, and other things are relatively small compared to those three big fish. +It's actually a bigger footprint if we take into account the embodied energy in the stuff we import into our country as well, and 90 percent of this energy today still comes from fossil fuels, and 10 percent only from other, greener -- possibly greener -- sources like nuclear power and renewables. +So, that's the U.K., and the population density of the U.K. +is 250 people per square kilometer, and I'm now going to show you other countries by these same two measures. +Let's add European countries in blue, and you can see there's quite a variety. +I should emphasize, both of these axes are logarithmic. As you go from one gray bar to the next gray bar you're going up a factor of 10. +Next, let's add Asia in red, the Middle East and North Africa in green, sub-Saharan Africa in blue, black is South America, purple is Central America, and then in pukey-yellow, we have North America, Australia and New Zealand. +And you can see the great diversity of population densities and of per capita consumptions. +Countries are different from each other. +Top left, we have Canada and Australia, with enormous land areas, very high per capita consumption, 200 or 300 light bulbs per person, and very low population densities. +Top right, Bahrain has the same energy consumption per person, roughly, as Canada, over 300 light bulbs per person, but their population density is a factor of 300 times greater, 1,000 people per square kilometer. +Bottom right, Bangladesh has the same population density as Bahrain but consumes 100 times less per person. +Bottom left, well, there's no one. +But there used to be a whole load of people. +Here's another message from this diagram. +I've added on little blue tails behind Sudan, Libya, China, India, Bangladesh. +That's 15 years of progress. +Where were they 15 years ago, and where are they now? +And the message is, most countries are going to the right, and they're going up, up and to the right -- bigger population density and higher per capita consumption. +And I've also added in this diagram now some pink lines that go down and to the right. +Those are lines of equal power consumption per unit area, which I measure in watts per square meter. +So, for example, the middle line there, 0.1 watts per square meter, is the energy consumption per unit area of Saudi Arabia, Norway, Mexico in purple, and Bangladesh 15 years ago, and half of the world's population lives in countries that are already above that line. +The United Kingdom is consuming 1.25 watts per square meter. +So's Germany, and Japan is consuming a bit more. +So, let's now say why this is relevant. Why is it relevant? +Well, we can measure renewables in the same units and other forms of power production in the same units, and renewables is one of the leading ideas for how we could get off our 90 percent fossil fuel habit. +So here come some renewables. +Energy crops deliver half a watt per square meter in European climates. +What does that mean? And you might have anticipated that result, given what I told you about the biofuel plantation a moment ago. +Well, we consume 1.25 watts per square meter. +What this means is, even if you covered the whole of the United Kingdom with energy crops, you couldn't match today's energy consumption. +Wind power produces a bit more, 2.5 watts per square meter, but that's only twice as big as 1.25 watts per square meter, so that means if you wanted literally to produce total energy consumption in all forms on average from wind farms, you need wind farms half the area of the U.K. +I've got data to back up all these assertions, by the way. +Next, let's look at solar power. +Solar panels, when you put them on a roof, deliver about 20 watts per square meter in England. +If you really want to get a lot from solar panels, you need to adopt the traditional Bavarian farming method where you leap off the roof and coat the countryside with solar panels too. +Solar parks, because of the gaps between the panels, deliver less. They deliver about 5 watts per square meter of land area. +And here's a solar park in Vermont with real data delivering 4.2 watts per square meter. +Remember where we are, 1.25 watts per square meter, wind farms 2.5, solar parks about five. +So, whatever, whichever of those renewables you pick, the message is, whatever mix of those renewables you're using, if you want to power the U.K. on them, you're going to need to cover something like 20 percent or 25 percent of the country with those renewables. +And I'm not saying that's a bad idea. +We just need to understand the numbers. +I'm absolutely not anti-renewables. I love renewables. +But I'm also pro-arithmetic. Concentrating solar power in deserts delivers larger powers per unit area, because you don't have the problem of clouds, and so this facility delivers 14 watts per square meter, this one 10 watts per square meter, and this one in Spain 5 watts per square meter. +Being generous to concentrating solar power, I think it's perfect credible it could deliver 20 watts per square meter. So that's nice. +Of course, Britain doesn't have any deserts. +Yet. So here's a summary so far. +All renewables, much as I love them, are diffuse. +They all have a small power per unit area, and we have to live with that fact. +And that means, if you do want renewables to make a substantial difference for a country like the United Kingdom on the scale of today's consumption, you need to be imagining renewable facilities that are country-sized, not the entire country but a fraction of the country, a substantial fraction. +There are other options for generating power as well which don't involve fossil fuels. +So there's nuclear power, and on this Ordnance Survey map, you can see there's a Sizewell B inside a blue square kilometer. +That's one gigawatt in a square kilometer, which works out to 1,000 watts per square meter. +So by this particular metric, nuclear power isn't as intrusive as renewables. +Of course, other metrics matter too, and nuclear power has all sorts of popularity problems. +But the same goes for renewables as well. +Here's a photograph of a consultation exercise in full swing in the little town of Penicuik just outside Edinburgh, and you can see the children of Penicuik celebrating the burning of the effigy of the windmill. +So people are anti-everything, and we've got to keep all the options on the table. +What can a country like the U.K. do on the supply side? +And that's a serious option. +It's a way for the world to handle this issue. +So countries like Australia, Russia, Libya, Kazakhstan, could be our best friends for renewable production. +And a third option is nuclear power. +So that's some supply side options. +In addition to the supply levers that we can push, and remember, we need large amounts, because at the moment, we get 90 percent of our energy from fossil fuels. +In addition to those levers, we could talk about other ways of solving this issue, namely, we could reduce demand, and that means reducing population I'm not sure how to do that or reducing per capita consumption. +So let's talk about three more big levers that could really help on the consumption side. +First, transport. Here are the physics principles that tell you how to reduce the energy consumption of transport, and people often say, "Oh, yes, technology can answer everything. +We can make vehicles that are a hundred times more efficient." And that's almost true. Let me show you. +The energy consumption of this typical tank here is 80 kilowatt-hours per hundred person kilometers. +That's the average European car. +Eighty kilowatt-hours. Can we make something a hundred times better by applying those physics principles I just listed? +Yes. Here it is. It's the bicycle. It's 80 times better in energy consumption, and it's powered by biofuel, by Weetabix. +And there are other options in between, because maybe the lady in the tank would say, "No, no, no, that's a lifestyle change. Don't change my lifestyle, please." +So, well, we could persuade her to get into a train, and that's still a lot more efficient than a car, but that might be a lifestyle change, or there's the eco-car, top-left. +It comfortably accommodates one teenager and it's shorter than a traffic cone, and it's almost as efficient as a bicycle as long as you drive it at 15 miles per hour. +In between, perhaps some more realistic options on this lever, transport lever, are electric vehicles, so electric bikes and electric cars in the middle, perhaps four times as energy efficient as the standard petrol-powered tank. +Next, there's the heating lever. +Heating is a third of our energy consumption in Britain, and quite a lot of that is going into homes and other buildings doing space heating and water heating. +So here's a typical crappy British house. +It's my house, with the Ferrari out front. +What can we do to it? +Well, the laws of physics are written up there, which describe what -- how the power consumption for heating is driven by the things you can control. +The things you can control are the temperature difference between the inside and the outside, and there's this remarkable technology called a thermostat. +You grasp it, you rotate it to the left, and your energy consumption in the home will decrease. +I've tried it. It works. Some people call it a lifestyle change. +You can also get the fluff men in to reduce the leakiness of your building -- put fluff in the walls, fluff in the roof, and a new front door and so forth, and the sad truth is, this will save you money. +That's not sad, that's good, but the sad truth is, it'll only get about 25 percent of the leakiness of your building, if you do these things, which are good ideas. +If you really want to get a bit closer to Swedish building standards with a crappy house like this, you need to be putting external insulation on the building as shown by this block of flats in London. +You can also deliver heat more efficiently using heat pumps which use a smaller bit of high grade energy like electricity to move heat from your garden into your house. +The third demand side option I want to talk about, the third way to reduce energy consumption is, read your meters. +And people talk a lot about smart meters, but you can do it yourself. +Use your own eyes and be smart, read your meter, and if you're anything like me, it'll change your life. +Here's a graph I made. +I was writing a book about sustainable energy, and a friend asked me, "Well how much energy do you use at home?" And I was embarrassed. I didn't actually know. +There's a similar story for my electricity consumption, where switching off the DVD players, the stereos, the computer peripherals that were on all the time, and just switching them on when I needed them, knocked another third off my electricity bills too. +So we need a plan that adds up, and I've described for you six big levers, and we need big action because we get 90 percent of our energy from fossil fuels, and so you need to push hard on most if not all of these levers. +And most of these levers have popularity problems, and if there is a lever you don't like the use of, well please do bear in mind that means you need even stronger effort on the other levers. +So I'm a strong advocate of having grown-up conversations that are based on numbers and facts, and I want to close with this map that just visualizes for you the requirement of land and so forth in order to get just 16 light bulbs per person from four of the big possible sources. +So, if you wanted to get 16 light bulbs, remember, today our total energy consumption is 125 light bulbs' worth. +If you wanted 16 from wind, this map visualizes a solution for the U.K. It's got 160 wind farms, each 100 square kilometers in size, and that would be a twentyfold increase over today's amount of wind. +Nuclear power, to get 16 light bulbs per person, you'd need two gigawatts at each of the purple dots on the map. +That's a fourfold increase over today's levels of nuclear power. +The total area of those hexagons is two Greater London's worth of someone else's Sahara, and you'll need power lines all the way across Spain and France to bring the power from the Sahara to Surrey. +We need a plan that adds up. +We need to stop shouting and start talking, and if we can have a grown-up conversation, make a plan that adds up and get building, maybe this low-carbon revolution will actually be fun. Thank you very much for listening. +The great texts of the ancient world don't survive to us in their original form. +They survive because medieval scribes copied them and copied them and copied them. +And so it is with Archimedes, the great Greek mathematician. +Everything we know about Archimedes as a mathematician we know about because of just three books, and they're called A, B and C. +And A was lost by an Italian humanist in 1564. +And B was last heard of in the Pope's Library about a hundred miles north of Rome in Viterbo in 1311. +Now Codex C was only discovered in 1906, and it landed on my desk in Baltimore on the 19th of January, 1999. +And this is Codex C here. +Now Codex C is actually buried in this book. +It's buried treasure. +Because this book is actually a prayer book. +It was finished by a guy called Johannes Myrones on the 14th of April, 1229. +And to make his prayer book he used parchment. +But he didn't use new parchment, he used parchment recycled from earlier manuscripts, and there were seven of them. +And Archimedes Codex C was just one of those seven. +He took apart the Archimedes manuscript and the other seven manuscripts. +He erased all of their texts, and then he cut the sheets down in the middle, he shuffled them up, and he rotated them 90 degrees, and he wrote prayers on top of these books. +And essentially these seven manuscripts disappeared for 700 years, and we have a prayer book. +The prayer book was discovered by this guy, Johan Ludvig Heiberg, in 1906. +And with just a magnifying glass, he transcribed as much of the text as he could. +And the thing is that he found two texts in this manuscript that were unique texts. +They weren't in A and B at all; they were completely new texts by Archimedes, and they were called "The Method" and "The Stomachion." +And it became a world famous manuscript. +Now it should be clear by now that this book is in bad condition. +It got in worse condition in the 20th century after Heiberg saw it. +Forgeries were painted over it, and it suffered very badly from mold. +This book is the definition of a write-off. +It's the sort of book that you thought would be in an institution. +But it's not in an institution, it was bought by a private owner in 1998. +Why did he buy this book? +Because he wanted to make that which was fragile safe. +He wanted to make that which was unique ubiquitous. +He wanted to make that which was expensive free. +And he wanted to do this as a matter of principle. +Because not many people are really going to read Archimedes in ancient Greek, but they should have the chance to do it. +So he gathered around himself the friends of Archimedes, and he promised to pay for all the work. +And it was an expensive job, but actually it wouldn't be as much as you think because these people, they didn't come from money, they came from Archimedes. +And they came from all sorts of different backgrounds. +They came from particle physics, they came from classical philology, they came from book conservation, they came from ancient mathematics, they came from data management, they came from scientific imaging and program management. +And they got together to work on this manuscript. +The first problem was a conservation problem. +And this is the sort of thing that we had to deal with: There was glue on the spine of the book. +And if you look at this photograph carefully, the bottom half of this is rather brown. +And that glue is hide glue. +Now if you're a conservator, you can take off this glue reasonably easily. +The top half is Elmer's wood glue. +It's polyvinyl acetate emulsion that doesn't dissolve in water once it's dry. +And it's much tougher than the parchment that it was written on. +And so before we could start imaging Archimedes, we had to take this book apart. +So it took four years to take apart. +And this is a rare action shot, ladies and gentlemen. +Another thing is that we had to get rid of all the wax, because this was used in the liturgical services of the Greek Orthodox Church and they'd used candle wax. +And the candle wax was dirty, and we couldn't image through the wax. +So very carefully we had to mechanically scrape off all the wax. +It's hard to tell you exactly how bad this condition of this book is, but it came out in little bits very often. +And normally in a book, you wouldn't worry about the little bits, but these little bits might contain unique Archimedes text. +So, tiny fragments we actually managed to put back in the right place. +Then, having done that, we started to image the manuscript. +And we imaged the manuscript in 14 different wavebands of light. +Because if you look at something in different wavebands of light, you see different things. +And here is an image of a page imaged in 14 different wavebands of light. +But none of them worked. +So what we did was we processed the images together, and we put two images into one blank screen. +And here are two different images of the Archimedes manuscript. +And the image on the left is the normal red image. +And the image on the right is an ultraviolet image. +And in the image on the right you might be able to see some of the Archimedes writing. +If you merge them together into one digital canvas, the parchment is bright in both images and it comes out bright. +The prayer book is dark in both images and it comes out dark. +The Archimedes text is dark in one image and bright in another. +And it'll come out dark but red, and then you can start to read it rather clearly. +And that's what it looks like. +Now that's a before and after image, but you don't read the image on the screen like that. +You zoom in and you zoom in and you zoom in and you zoom in, and you can just read it now. +If you process the same two images in a different way, you can actually get rid of the prayer book text. +And this is terribly important, because the diagrams in the manuscript are the unique source for the diagrams that Archimedes drew in the sand in the fourth century B.C. +And there we are, I can give them to you. +With this kind of imaging -- this kind of infrared, ultraviolet, invisible light imaging -- we were never going to image through the gold ground forgeries. +How were we going to do that? +Well we took the manuscript, and we decided to image it in X-ray fluorescence imaging. +So an X-ray comes in in the diagram on the left and it knocks out an electron from the inner shell of an atom. +And that electron disappears. +And as it disappears, an electron from a shell farther out jumps in and takes its place. +And when it takes its place, it sheds electromagnetic radiation. +It sheds an X-ray. +And this X-ray is specific in its wavelength to the atom that it hits. +And what we wanted to get was the iron. +Because the ink was written in iron. +And if we can map where this X-ray that comes out, where it comes from, we can map all the iron on the page, then theoretically we can read the image. +The thing is that you need a very powerful light source to do this. +So we took it to the Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Laboratory in California, which is a particle accelerator. +Electrons go around one way, positrons go around the other. +They meet in the middle, and they create subatomic particles like the charm quark and the tau lepton. +Now we weren't actually going to put Archimedes in that beam. +But as the electrons go round at the speed of light, they shed X-rays. +And this is the most powerful light source in the solar system. +This is called synchrotron radiation, and it's normally used to look at things like proteins and that sort of thing. +But we wanted it to look at atoms, at iron atoms, so that we could read the page from before and after. +And lo and behold, we found that we could do it. +It took about 17 minutes to do a single page. +So what did we discover? +Well one of the unique texts in Archimedes is called "The Stomachion." +And this didn't exist in Codices A and B. +And we knew that it involved this square. +And this is a perfect square, and it's divided into 14 bits. +But no one knew what Archimedes was doing with these 14 bits. +And now we think we know. +He was trying to work out how many ways you can recombine those 14 bits and still make a perfect square. +Anyone want to guess the answer? +It's 17,152 divided into 536 families. +And the important point about this is that it's the earliest study in combinatorics in mathematics. +And combinatorics is a wonderful and interesting branch of mathematics. +The really astonishing thing though about this manuscript is that we looked at the other manuscripts that the palimpsester had made, the scribe had made his book out of, and one of them was a manuscript containing text by Hyperides. +Now Hyperides was an Athenian orator from the fourth century B.C. +He was an exact contemporary of Demosthenes. +And in 338 B.C. he and Demosthenes together decided that they wanted to stand up to the military might of Philip of Macedon. +So Athens and Thebes went out to fight Philip of Macedon. +This was a bad idea, because Philip of Macedon had a son called Alexander the Great, and they lost the battle of Chaeronea. +Alexander the Great went on to conquer the known world; Hyperides found himself on trial for treason. +And this is the speech that he gave when he was on trial -- and it's a great speech: "Best of all," he says, "is to win. +But if you can't win, then you should fight for a noble cause, because then you'll be remembered. +Consider the Spartans. +They won enumerable victories, but no one remembers what they are because they were all fought for selfish ends. +The one battle that the Spartans fought that everybody remembers is the the battle of Thermopylae where they were butchered to a man, but fought for the freedom of Greece." +It was such a great speech that the Athenian law courts let him off. +He lived for another 10 years, then the Macedonian faction caught up with him. +They cut out his tongue in mockery of his oratory, and no one knows what they did with his body. +So this is the discovery of a lost voice from antiquity, speaking to us, not from the grave, because his grave doesn't exist, but from the Athenian law courts. +Now I should say at this point that normally when you're looking at medieval manuscripts that have been scraped off, you don't find unique texts. +And to find two in one manuscript is really something. +To find three is completely weird. +And we found three. +Aristotle's "Categories" is one of the foundational texts of Western philosophy. +And we found a third century A.D. commentary on it, possibly by Galen and probably by Porphyry. +Now all this data that we collected, all the images, all the raw images, all the transcriptions that we made and that sort of thing have been put online under a Creative Commons license for anyone to use for any commercial purpose. +Why did the owner of the manuscript do this? +He did this because he understands data as well as books. +Now the thing to do with books, if you want to ensure their long-term utility, is to hide them away in closets and let very few people look at them. +The thing to do with data, if you want it to survive, is to let it out and have everybody have it with as little control on that data as possible. +And that's what he did. +And institutions can learn from this. +Because institutions at the moment confine their data with copyright restrictions and that sort of thing. +And if you want to look at medieval manuscripts on the Web, at the moment you have to go to the National Library of Y's site or the University Library of X's site, which is about the most boring way in which you can deal with digital data. +What you want to do is to aggregate it all together. +Because the Web of the ancient manuscripts of the future isn't going to be built by institutions. +It's going to be built by users, by people who get this data together, by people who want to aggregate all sorts of maps from wherever they come from, all sorts of medieval romances from wherever they come from, people who just want to curate their own glorious selection of beautiful things. +And that is the future of the Web. +And it's an attractive and beautiful future, if only we can make it happen. +Now we at the Walters Art Museum have followed this example, and we have put up all our manuscripts on the Web for people to enjoy -- all the raw data, all the descriptions, all the metadata. +under a Creative Commons license. +Now the Walters Art Museum is a small museum and it has beautiful manuscripts, but the data is fantastic. +And the result of this is that if you do a Google search on images right now and you type in "Illuminated manuscript Koran" for example, 24 of the 28 images you'll find come from my institution. +Now, let's think about this for a minute. +What's in it for the institution? +There are all sorts of things that are in it for the institution. +You can talk about the Humanities and that sort of thing, but let's talk about selfish things. +Because what's really in it for the institution is this: Now why do people go to the Louvre? +They go to see the Mona Lisa. +Why do they go to see the Mona Lisa? +Because they already know what she looks like. +And they know what she looks like because they've seen pictures of her absolutely everywhere. +Now, there is no need for these restrictions at all. +And I think that institutions should stand up and release all their data under unrestricted licenses, and it would be a great benefit to everybody. +Why don't we just let everybody have access to this data and curate their own collection of ancient knowledge and wonderful and beautiful things and increase the beauty and the cultural significance of the Internet. +Thank you very much indeed. +My talk today is about something maybe a couple of you have already heard about. +It's called the Arab Spring. +Anyone heard of it? +So in 2011, power shifted, from the few to the many, from oval offices to central squares, from carefully guarded airwaves to open-source networks. +But before Tahrir was a global symbol of liberation, there were representative surveys already giving people a voice in quieter but still powerful ways. +I study Muslim societies around the world at Gallup. +Since 2001, we've interviewed hundreds of thousands of people -- young and old, men and women, educated and illiterate. +My talk today draws on this research to reveal why Arabs rose up and what they want now. +Now this region's very diverse, and every country is unique. +But those who revolted shared a common set of grievances and have similar demands today. +I'm going to focus a lot of my talk on Egypt. +It has nothing to do with the fact that I was born there, of course. +But it's the largest Arab country and it's also one with a great deal of influence. +But I'm going to end by widening the lens to the entire region to look at the mundane topics of Arab views of religion and politics and how this impacts women, revealing some surprises along the way. +So after analyzing mounds of data, what we discovered was this: Unemployment and poverty alone did not lead to the Arab revolts of 2011. +If an act of desperation by a Tunisian fruit vendor sparked these revolutions, it was the difference between what Arabs experienced and what they expected that provided the fuel. +To tell you what I mean, consider this trend in Egypt. +On paper the country was doing great. +In fact, it attracted accolades from multinational organizations because of its economic growth. +But under the surface was a very different reality. +In 2010, right before the revolution, even though GDP per capita had been growing at five percent for several years, Egyptians had never felt worse about their lives. +Now this is very unusual, because globally we find that, not surprisingly, people feel better as their country gets richer. +And that's because they have better job opportunities and their state offers better social services. +But it was exactly the opposite in Egypt. +As the country got more well-off, unemployment actually rose and people's satisfaction with things like housing and education plummeted. +But it wasn't just anger at economic injustice. +It was also people's deep longing for freedom. +Contrary to the clash of civilizations theory, Arabs didn't despise Western liberty, they desired it. +As early as 2001, we asked Arabs, and Muslims in general around the world, what they admired most about the West. +Among the most frequent responses was liberty and justice. +In their own words to an open-ended question we heard, "Their political system is transparent and it's following democracy in its true sense." +Another said it was "liberty and freedom and being open-minded with each other." +Majorities as high as 90 percent and greater in Egypt, Indonesia and Iran told us in 2005 that if they were to write a new constitution for a theoretical new country that they would guarantee freedom of speech as a fundamental right, especially in Egypt. +Eighty-eight percent said moving toward greater democracy would help Muslims progress -- the highest percentage of any country we surveyed. +But pressed up against these democratic aspirations was a very different day-to-day experience, especially in Egypt. +While aspiring to democracy the most, they were the least likely population in the world to say that they had actually voiced their opinion to a public official in the last month -- at only four percent. +So while economic development made a few people rich, it left many more worse off. +As people felt less and less free, they also felt less and less provided for. +So rather than viewing their former regimes as generous if overprotective fathers, they viewed them as essentially prison wardens. +So now that Egyptians have ended Mubarak's 30-year rule, they potentially could be an example for the region. +If Egypt is to succeed at building a society based on the rule of law, it could be a model. +If, however, the core issues that propelled the revolution aren't addressed, the consequences could be catastrophic -- not just for Egypt, but for the entire region. +The signs don't look good, some have said. +Islamists, not the young liberals that sparked the revolution, won the majority in Parliament. +The military council has cracked down on civil society and protests and the country's economy continues to suffer. +Evaluating Egypt on this basis alone, however, ignores the real revolution. +Because Egyptians are more optimistic than they have been in years, far less divided on religious-secular lines than we would think and poised for the demands of democracy. +Whether they support Islamists or liberals, Egyptians' priorities for this government are identical, and they are jobs, stability and education, not moral policing. +But most of all, for the first time in decades, they expect to be active participants, not spectators, in the affairs of their country. +I was meeting with a group of newly-elected parliamentarians from Egypt and Tunisia a couple of weeks ago. +And what really struck me about them was that they weren't only optimistic, but they kind of struck me as nervous, for lack of a better word. +One said to me, "Our people used to gather in cafes to watch football" -- or soccer, as we say in America -- "and now they gather to watch Parliament." +"They're really watching us, and we can't help but worry that we're not going to live up to their expectations." +And what really struck me is that less than 24 months ago, it was the people that were nervous about being watched by their government. +And the reason that they're expecting a lot is because they have a new-found hope for the future. +So right before the revolution we said that Egyptians had never felt worse about their lives, but not only that, they thought their future would be no better. +What really changed after the ouster of Mubarak wasn't that life got easier. +It actually got harder. +But people's expectations for their future went up significantly. +And this hope, this optimism, endured a year of turbulent transition. +One reason that there's this optimism is because, contrary to what many people have said, most Egyptians think things really have changed in many ways. +So while Egyptians were known for their single-digit turnout in elections before the revolution, the last election had around 70 percent voter turnout -- men and women. +Where scarcely a quarter believed in the honesty of elections in 2010 -- I'm surprised it was a quarter -- 90 percent thought that this last election was honest. +Now why this matters is because we discovered a link between people's faith in their democratic process and their faith that oppressed people can change their situation through peaceful means alone. +Now I know what some of you are thinking. +The Egyptian people, and many other Arabs who've revolted and are in transition, have very high expectations of the government. +They're just victims of a long-time autocracy, expecting a paternal state to solve all their problems. +But this conclusion would ignore a tectonic shift taking place in Egypt far from the cameras in Tahrir Square. +And that is Egyptians' elevated expectations are placed first on themselves. +In the country once known for its passive resignation, where, as bad as things got, only four percent expressed their opinion to a public official, today 90 percent tell us that if there's a problem in their community, it's up to them to fix it. +And three-fourths believe they not only have the responsibility, but the power to make change. +And this empowerment also applies to women, whose role in the revolts cannot be underestimated. +They were doctors and dissidents, artists and organizers. +A full third of those who braved tanks and tear gas to ask or to demand liberty and justice in Egypt were women. +Now people have raised some real concerns about what the rise of Islamist parties means for women. +What we've found about the role of religion in law and the role of religion in society is that there's no female consensus. +We found that women in one country look more like the men in that country than their female counterparts across the border. +Now what this suggests is that how women view religion's role in society is shaped more by their own country's culture and context than one monolithic view that religion is simply bad for women. +Where women agree, however, is on their own role, and that it must be central and active. +And here is where we see the greatest gender difference within a country -- on the issue of women's rights. +Now how men feel about women's rights matters to the future of this region. +Because we discovered a link between men's support for women's employment and how many women are actually employed in professional fields in that country. +So the question becomes, What drives men's support for women's rights? +What about men's views of religion and law? +[Does] a man's opinion of the role of religion in politics shape their view of women's rights? +The answer is no. +We found absolutely no correlation, no impact whatsoever, between these two variables. +What drives men's support for women's employment is men's employment, their level of education as well as a high score on their country's U.N. Human Development Index. +What this means is that human development, not secularization, is what's key to women's empowerment in the transforming Middle East. +And the transformation continues. +From Wall Street to Mohammed Mahmoud Street, it has never been more important to understand the aspirations of ordinary people. +Thank you. +We are today talking about moral persuasion. +What is moral and immoral in trying to change people's behaviors by using technology and using design? +And I don't know what you expect, but when I was thinking about that issue, I early on realized what I'm not able to give you are answers. +I'm not able to tell you what is moral or immoral because we're living in a pluralist society. +My values can be radically different from your values. +Which means that what I consider moral or immoral based on that might not necessarily be what you consider moral or immoral. +But I also realized that there is one thing that I could give you. +And that is what this guy behind me gave the world -- Socrates. +It is questions. +What I can do and what I would like to do with you is give you, like that initial question, a set of questions to figure out for yourself, layer by layer, like peeling an onion, getting at the core of what you believe is moral or immoral persuasion. +And I'd like to do that with a couple of examples of technologies where people have used game elements to get people to do things. +So it's a first very simple, a very obvious question I would like to give you: What are your intentions if you are designing something? +And obviously intentions are not the only thing, so here is another example for one of these applications. +There are a couple of these kinds of eco-dashboards right now -- so dashboards built into cars which try to motivate you to drive more fuel efficiently. +This here is Nissan's MyLeaf, where your driving behavior is compared with the driving behavior of other people, so you can compete for who drives around the most fuel efficiently. +And these things are very effective, it turns out, so effective that they motivate people to engage in unsafe driving behaviors -- like not stopping on a red headlight. +Because that way you have to stop and restart the engine, and that would use quite some fuel, wouldn't it? +So despite this being a very well-intended application, obviously there was a side effect of that. +And here's another example for one of these side effects. +Commendable: a site that allows parents to give their kids little badges for doing the things that parents want their kids to do -- like tying their shoes. +And at first that sounds very nice, very benign, well intended. +But it turns out, if you look into research on people's mindset, that caring about outcomes, caring about public recognition, caring about these kinds of public tokens of recognition is not necessarily very helpful for your long-term psychological well-being. +It's better if you care about learning something. +It's better when you care about yourself than how you appear in front of other people. +So that's a second, very obvious question: What are the effects of what you're doing? +The effects that you're having with the device, like less fuel, as well as the effects of the actual tools you're using to get people to do things -- public recognition. +Now is that all -- intention, effect? +Well there are some technologies which obviously combine both. +And I think most of us will agree, well that's something well intended and also has good consequences. +In the words of Michel Foucault, "It is a technology of the self." +It is a technology that empowers the individual to determine its own life course, to shape itself. +But the problem is, as Foucault points out, that every technology of the self has a technology of domination as its flip side. +As you see in today's modern liberal democracies, the society, the state, not only allows us to determine our self, to shape our self, it also demands it of us. +It demands that we optimize ourselves, that we control ourselves, that we self-manage continuously because that's the only way in which such a liberal society works. +These technologies want us to stay in the game that society has devised for us. +They want us to fit in even better. +They want us to optimize ourselves to fit in. +Now I don't say that is necessarily a bad thing. +I just think that this example points us to a general realization, and that is no matter what technology or design you look at, even something we consider as well intended and as good in its effects -- like Stutzman's Freedom -- comes with certain values embedded in it. +And we can question these values. +We can question: Is it a good thing that all of us continuously self-optimize ourselves to fit better into that society? +Or to give you another example, what about a piece of persuasive technology that convinces Muslim women to wear their headscarves? +Is that a good or a bad technology in its intentions or in its effects? +Well that basically depends on the kind of values that you bring to bear to make these kinds of judgments. +So that's a third question: What values do you use to judge? +And speaking of values, I've noticed that in the discussion about moral persuasion online, and when I'm talking with people, more often than not there is a weird bias. +And that bias is that we're asking, is this or that "still" ethical? +Is it "still" permissible? +We're asking things like, Is this Oxfam donation form -- where the regular monthly donation is the preset default and people, maybe without intending it, are that way encouraged or nudged into giving a regular donation instead of a one-time donation -- is that still permissible? +Is it still ethical? +We're fishing at the low end. +But in fact, that question "Is it still ethical?" +is just one way of looking at ethics. +Because if you look at the beginning of ethics in Western culture, you see a very different idea of what ethics also could be. +For Aristotle, ethics was not about the question, is that still good, or is it bad? +Ethics was about the question of how to live life well. +And he put that in the word "arete," which we, from the [Ancient Greek], translate as "virtue." +But really it means excellence. +It means living up to your own full potential as a human being. +And that is an idea that, I think, that Paul Richard Buchanan nicely put in a recent essay where he said, "Products are vivid arguments about how we should live our lives." +Our designs are not ethical or unethical in that they're using ethical or unethical means of persuading us. +They have a moral component just in the kind of vision and the aspiration of the good life that they present to us. +So that's the fourth question I'd like to leave you with: What vision of the good life do your designs convey? +And speaking of design, you notice that I already broadened the discussion. +Because it's not just persuasive technology that we're talking about here, it's any piece of design that we put out here in the world. +I don't know whether you know the great communication researcher Paul Watzlawick who, back in the '60s, made the argument we cannot not communicate. +Even if we choose to be silent, we chose to be silent. We're communicating something by choosing to be silent. +And in the same way that we cannot not communicate, we cannot not persuade. +Whatever we do or refrain from doing, whatever we put out there as a piece of design into the world has a persuasive component. +It tries to affect people. +It puts a certain vision of the good life out there in front of us. +Which is what Peter-Paul Verbeek, the Dutch philosopher of technology, says. +No matter whether we as designers intend it or not, we materialize morality. +We make certain things harder and easier to do. +We organize the existence of people. +We put a certain vision of what good or bad or normal or usual is in front of people by everything we put out there in the world. +Even something as innocuous as a set of school chairs is a persuasive technology. +And even something as innocuous as a single design chair -- like this one by Arne Jacobsen -- is a persuasive technology. +Because, again, it communicates an idea of the good life. +A good life -- a life that you say you as a designer consent to by saying, "In the good life, goods are produced as sustainably or unsustainably as this chair. +Workers are treated as well or as badly as the workers were treated who built that chair." +So these are the kinds of layers, the kinds of questions I wanted to lead you through today -- the question of, What are the intentions that you bring to bear when you're designing something? +What are the effects, intended and unintended, that you're having? +What are the values you're using to judge those? +What are the virtues, the aspirations that you're actually expressing in that? +And how does that apply, not just to persuasive technology, but to everything you design? +Do we stop there? +I don't think so. +I think that all of these things are eventually informed by the core of all of this -- and this is nothing but life itself. +Why, when the question of what the good life is informs everything that we design, should we stop at design and not ask ourselves, how does it apply to our own life? +"Why should the lamp or the house be an art object, but not our life?" +as Michel Foucault puts it. +Just to give you a practical example of Buster Benson. +This is Buster setting up a pull-up machine at the office of his new startup Habit Labs, where they're trying to build up other applications like Health Month for people. +And why is he building a thing like this? +Because ultimately how can you ask yourselves and how can you find an answer on what vision of the good life you want to convey and create with your designs without asking the question, what vision of the good life do you yourself want to live? +And with that, I thank you. +Is E.T. out there? +Well, I work at the SETI Institute. +That's almost my name. SETI: Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence. +In other words, I look for aliens, and when I tell people that at a cocktail party, they usually look at me with a mildly incredulous look on their face. +I try to keep my own face somewhat dispassionate. +This thing whoops, can we go back? +Hello, come in, Earth. +There we go. All right. +This is the Owens Valley Radio Observatory behind the Sierra Nevadas, and in 1968, I was working there collecting data for my thesis. +Now, it's kinda lonely, it's kinda tedious, just collecting data, so I would amuse myself by taking photos at night of the telescopes or even of myself, because, you know, at night, I would be the only hominid within about 30 miles. +So here are pictures of myself. +The observatory had just acquired a new book, written by a Russian cosmologist by the name of Joseph Shklovsky, and then expanded and translated and edited by a little-known Cornell astronomer by the name of Carl Sagan. +And I remember reading that book, and at 3 in the morning I was reading this book and it was explaining how the antennas I was using to measure the spins of galaxies could also be used to communicate, to send bits of information from one star system to another. +So it was true. +All right. Now, the idea for doing this, it wasn't very old at the time that I made that photo. +The idea dates from 1960, when a young astronomer by the name of Frank Drake used this antenna in West Virginia, pointed it at a couple of nearby stars in the hopes of eavesdropping on E.T. +Now, Frank didn't hear anything. +Actually he did, but it turned out to be the U.S. Air Force, which doesn't count as extraterrestrial intelligence. +But Drake's idea here became very popular because it was very appealing and I'll get back to that and on the basis of this experiment, which didn't succeed, we have been doing SETI ever since, not continuously, but ever since. +We still haven't heard anything. +We still haven't heard anything. +In fact, we don't know about any life beyond Earth, but I'm going to suggest to you that that's going to change rather soon, and part of the reason, in fact, the majority of the reason why I think that's going to change is that the equipment's getting better. +This is the Allen Telescope Array, about 350 miles from whatever seat you're in right now. +This is something that we're using today to search for E.T., and the electronics have gotten very much better too. +This is Frank Drake's electronics in 1960. +This is the Allen Telescope Array electronics today. +Some pundit with too much time on his hands has reckoned that the new experiments are approximately 100 trillion times better than they were in 1960, 100 trillion times better. +That's a degree of an improvement that would look good on your report card, okay? +But something that's not appreciated by the public is, in fact, that the experiment continues to get better, and, consequently, tends to get faster. +This is a little plot, and every time you show a plot, you lose 10 percent of the audience. +I have 12 of these. But what I plotted here is just some metric that shows how fast we're searching. +In other words, we're looking for a needle in a haystack. +We know how big the haystack is. It's the galaxy. +But we're going through the haystack no longer with a teaspoon but with a skip loader, because of this increase in speed. +In fact, those of you who are still conscious and mathematically competent, will note that this is a semi-log plot. +In other words, the rate of increase is exponential. +It's exponentially improving. Now, exponential is an overworked word. You hear it on the media all the time. +They don't really know what exponential means, but this is exponential. +In fact, it's doubling every 18 months, and, of course, every card-carrying member of the digerati knows that that's Moore's Law. +So this means that over the course of the next two dozen years, we'll be able to look at a million star systems, a million star systems, looking for signals that would prove somebody's out there. +Well, a million star systems, is that interesting? +I mean, how many of those star systems have planets? +And the facts are, we didn't know the answer to that even as recently as 15 years ago, and in fact, we really didn't know it even as recently as six months ago. +But now we do. Recent results suggest that virtually every star has planets, and more than one. +They're like, you know, kittens. You get a litter. +You don't get one kitten. You get a bunch. +So in fact, this is a pretty accurate estimate of the number of planets in our galaxy, just in our galaxy, by the way, and I remind the non-astronomy majors among you that our galaxy is only one of 100 billion that we can see with our telescopes. +That's a lot of real estate, but of course, most of these planets are going to be kind of worthless, like, you know, Mercury, or Neptune. +Neptune's probably not very big in your life. +So the question is, what fraction of these planets are actually suitable for life? +Well, even taking the pessimistic estimate, that it's one in a thousand, that means that there are at least a billion cousins of the Earth just in our own galaxy. +All right, so the bottom line is this: Because of the increase in speed, and because of the vast amount of habitable real estate in the cosmos, I figure we're going to pick up a signal within two dozen years. +And I feel strongly enough about that to make a bet with you: Either we're going to find E.T. in the next two dozen years, or I'll buy you a cup of coffee. +So that's not so bad. I mean, even with two dozen years, you open up your browser and there's news of a signal, or you get a cup of coffee. +Now, let me tell you about some aspect of this that people don't think about, and that is, what happens? Suppose that what I say is true. +I mean, who knows, but suppose it happens. +Suppose some time in the next two dozen years we pick up a faint line that tells us we have some cosmic company. +What is the effect? What's the consequence? +Now, I might be at ground zero for this. +And I kept waiting for the Men in Black to show up. Right? +I kept waiting for -- I kept waiting for my mom to call, somebody to call, the government to call. Nobody called. +Nobody called. I was so nervous that I couldn't sit down. I just wandered around taking photos like this one, just for something to do. +Well, at 9:30 in the morning, with my head down on my desk because I obviously hadn't slept all night, the phone rings and it's The New York Times. +And I think there's a lesson in that, and that lesson is that if we pick up a signal, the media, the media will be on it faster than a weasel on ball bearings. It's going to be fast. +You can be sure of that. No secrecy. +That's what happens to me. It kind of ruins my whole week, because whatever I've got planned that week is kind of out the window. +But what about you? What's it going to do to you? +And the answer is that we don't know the answer. +We don't know what that's going to do to you, not in the long term, and not even very much in the short term. +I mean, that would be a bit like asking Chris Columbus in 1491, "Hey Chris, you know, what happens if it turns out that there's a continent between here and Japan, where you're sailing to, what will be the consequences for humanity if that turns out to be the case?" +And I think Chris would probably offer you some answer that you might not have understood, but it probably wouldn't have been right, and I think that to predict what finding E.T.'s going to mean, we can't predict that either. +But here are a couple things I can say. +To begin with, it's going to be a society that's way in advance of our own. +You're not going to hear from alien Neanderthals. +They're not building transmitters. +Now, you might find that a bit hyperbolic, and maybe it is, but nonetheless, it's conceivable that this will happen, and, you know, you could consider this like, I don't know, giving Julius Caesar English lessons and the key to the library of Congress. +It would change his day, all right? +That's one thing. Another thing that's for sure going to happen is that it will calibrate us. +We will know that we're not that miracle, right, that we're just another duck in a row, we're not the only kids on the block, and I think that that's philosophically a very profound thing to learn. +We're not a miracle, okay? +The third thing that it might tell you is somewhat vague, but I think interesting and important, and that is, if you find a signal coming from a more advanced society, because they will be, that will tell you something about our own possibilities, that we're not inevitably doomed to self-destruction. +Because they survived their technology, we could do it too. +Normally when you look out into the universe, you're looking back in time. All right? +That's interesting to cosmologists. +But in this sense, you actually can look into the future, hazily, but you can look into the future. +So those are all the sorts of things that would come from a detection. +Now, let me talk a little bit about something that happens even in the meantime, and that is, SETI, I think, is important, because it's exploration, and it's not only exploration, it's comprehensible exploration. +Now, I gotta tell you, I'm always reading books about explorers. I find exploration very interesting, Arctic exploration, you know, people like Magellan, Amundsen, Shackleton, you see Franklin down there, Scott, all these guys. It's really nifty, exploration. +And they're just doing it because they want to explore, and you might say, "Oh, that's kind of a frivolous opportunity," but that's not frivolous. That's not a frivolous activity, because, I mean, think of ants. +You know, most ants are programmed to follow one another along in a long line, but there are a couple of ants, maybe one percent of those ants, that are what they call pioneer ants, and they're the ones that wander off. +They're the ones you find on the kitchen countertop. +You gotta get them with your thumb before they find the sugar or something. +But those ants, even though most of them get wiped out, those ants are the ones that are essential to the survival of the hive. So exploration is important. +I also think that exploration is important in terms of being able to address what I think is a critical lack in our society, and that is the lack of science literacy, the lack of the ability to even understand science. +Now, look, a lot has been written about the deplorable state of science literacy in this country. +You've heard about it. +Well, here's one example, in fact. +Polls taken, this poll was taken 10 years ago. +It shows like roughly one third of the public thinks that aliens are not only out there, we're looking for them out there, but they're here, right? +Sailing the skies in their saucers and occasionally abducting people for experiments their parents wouldn't approve of. +Well, that would be interesting if it was true, and job security for me, but I don't think the evidence is very good. That's more, you know, sad than significant. +But there are other things that people believe that are significant, like the efficacy of homeopathy, or that evolution is just, you know, sort of a crazy idea by scientists without any legs, or, you know, evolution, all that sort of thing, or global warming. +These sorts of ideas don't really have any validity, that you can't trust the scientists. +Now, we've got to solve that problem, because that's a critically important problem, and you might say, "Well, okay, how are we gonna solve that problem with SETI?" +Well, let me suggest to you that SETI obviously can't solve the problem, but it can address the problem. +It can address the problem by getting young people interested in science. Look, science is hard, it has a reputation of being hard, and the facts are, it is hard, and that's the result of 400 years of science, right? +I mean, in the 18th century, in the 18th century you could become an expert on any field of science in an afternoon by going to a library, if you could find the library, right? +In the 19th century, if you had a basement lab, you could make major scientific discoveries in your own home. Right? Because there was all this science just lying around waiting for somebody to pick it up. +Now, that's not true anymore. +Today, you've got to spend years in grad school and post-doc positions just to figure out what the important questions are. +It's hard. There's no doubt about it. +And in fact, here's an example: the Higgs boson, finding the Higgs boson. +Ask the next 10 people you see on the streets, "Hey, do you think it's worthwhile to spend billions of Swiss francs looking for the Higgs boson?" +And I bet the answer you're going to get, is, "Well, I don't know what the Higgs boson is, and I don't know if it's important." +And probably most of the people wouldn't even know the value of a Swiss franc, okay? +And yet we're spending billions of Swiss francs on this problem. +Okay? So that doesn't get people interested in science because they can't comprehend what it's about. +SETI, on the other hand, is really simple. +We're going to use these big antennas and we're going to try to eavesdrop on signals. Everybody can understand that. +Yes, technologically, it's very sophisticated, but everybody gets the idea. +So that's one thing. The other thing is, it's exciting science. +It's exciting because we're naturally interested in other intelligent beings, and I think that's part of our hardwiring. +I mean, we're hardwired to be interested in beings that might be, if you will, competitors, or if you're the romantic sort, possibly even mates. Okay? +I mean, this is analogous to our interest in things that have big teeth. Right? +We're interested in things that have big teeth, and you can see the evolutionary value of that, and you can also see the practical consequences by watching Animal Planet. +You notice they make very few programs about gerbils. +It's mostly about things that have big teeth. +Okay, so we're interested in these sorts of things. +And not just us. It's also kids. +This allows you to pay it forward by using this subject as a hook to science, because SETI involves all kinds of science, obviously biology, obviously astronomy, but also geology, also chemistry, various scientific disciplines all can be presented in the guise of, "We're looking for E.T." +So to me this is interesting and important, and in fact, it's my policy, even though I give a lot of talks to adults, you give talks to adults, and two days later they're back where they were. +But if you give talks to kids, you know, one in 50 of them, some light bulb goes off, and they think, "Gee, I'd never thought of that," and then they go, you know, read a book or a magazine or whatever. +They get interested in something. +Now it's my theory, supported only by anecdotal, personal anecdotal evidence, but nonetheless, that kids get interested in something between the ages of eight and 11. You've got to get them there. +So, all right, I give talks to adults, that's fine, but I try and make 10 percent of the talks that I give, I try and make those for kids. +I remember when a guy came to our high school, actually, it was actually my junior high school. I was in sixth grade. +And he gave some talk. All I remember from it was one word: electronics. +It was like Dustin Hoffman in "The Graduate," right, when he said "plastics," whatever that means, plastics. +All right, so the guy said electronics. I don't remember anything else. In fact, I don't remember anything that my sixth grade teacher said all year, but I remember electronics. +And so I got interested in electronics, and you know, I studied to get my ham license. I was wiring up stuff. +Here I am at about 15 or something, doing that sort of stuff. +Okay? That had a big effect on me. +So that's my point, that you can have a big effect on these kids. +In fact, this reminds me, I don't know, a couple years ago I gave a talk at a school in Palo Alto where there were about a dozen 11-year-olds that had come to this talk. +I had been brought in to talk to these kids for an hour. +And one of these kids shot up his hand, and he said, "Well, actually there is a name for it. +It's a sextra-quadra-hexa-something or other." Right? +Now, that kid was wrong by four orders of magnitude, but there was no doubt about it, these kids were smart. +Okay? So I stopped giving the lecture. +All they wanted to do was ask questions. +In fact, my last comments to these kids, at the end I said, "You know, you kids are smarter than the people I work with." Now They didn't even care about that. +What they wanted was my email address so they could ask me more questions. Let me just say, look, my job is a privilege because we're in a special time. +Previous generations couldn't do this experiment at all. +In another generation down the line, I think we will have succeeded. +So to me, it is a privilege, and when I look in the mirror, the facts are that I really don't see myself. +What I see is the generation behind me. +These are some kids from the Huff School, fourth graders. +I talked there, what, two weeks ago, something like that. +I think that if you can instill some interest in science and how it works, well, that's a payoff beyond easy measure. Thank you very much. +So I thought I'd talk about identity. +That's sort of an interesting enough topic to me. +And the reason was, because when I was asked to do this, I'd just read, in one of the papers, I can't remember, something from someone at Facebook saying, well, "we need to make everybody use their real names." +and then that's basically all the problems solved. +And that's so wrong, that's such a fundamentally, reactionary view of identity, and it's going to get us into all sorts of trouble. +And so what I thought I'd do is I'll explain four sort of problems about it, and then I'll suggest a solution, which hopefully you might find interesting. +So just to frame the problem, what does authenticity mean? +That's me, that's a camera phone picture of me looking at a painting. +[What's the Problem?] That's a painting that was painted by a very famous forger, and because I'm not very good at presentations, I already can't remember the name that I wrote on my card. +And he was incarcerated in, I think, Wakefield Prison for forging masterpieces by, I think, French Impressionists. +And he's so good at it, that when he was in prison, everybody in prison, the governor and whatever, wanted him to paint masterpieces to put on the walls, because they were so good. +And so that's a masterpiece, which is a fake of a masterpiece, and bonded into the canvas is a chip which identifies that as a real fake, if you see what I mean. +So when we're talking about authenticity, it's a little more fractal than it appears and that's a good example to show it. +I tried to pick four problems that will frame the issue properly. +So the first problem, I thought, Chip and PIN, right? +[Banks and legacies bringing down the system from within] [Offline solutions do not work online] I'm guessing everyone's got a chip and PIN card, right? +So why is that a good example? +That's the example of how legacy thinking about identity subverts the security of a well-constructed system. +That chip and PIN card that's in your pocket has a little chip on it that cost millions of pounds to develop, is extremely secure, you can put scanning electron microscopes on it, you can try and grind it down, blah blah blah. +Those chips have never been broken, whatever you read in the paper. +And for a joke, we take that super-secure chip and we bond it to a trivially counterfeitable magnetic stripe and for very lazy criminals, we still emboss the card. +So if you're a criminal in a hurry and you need to copy someone's card, you can just stick a piece of paper on it and rub a pencil over it just to sort of speed things up. +And even more amusingly, and on my debit card too, we print the name and the SALT code and everything else on the front too. +Why? +There is no earthly reason why your name is printed on a chip and PIN card. +And if you think about it, it's even more insidious and perverse than it seems at first. +Because the only people that benefit from having the name on the card are criminals. +You know what your name is, right? +And when you go into a shop and buy something, it's a PIN, he doesn't care what the name is. +The only place where you ever have to write your name on the back is in America at the moment. +and I have to pay with a mag stripe on the back of the card, I always sign it Carlos Tethers anyway, just as a security mechanism, because if a transaction ever gets disputed, and it comes back and it says Dave Birch, I know it must have been a criminal, because I would never sign it Dave Birch. +So if you drop your card in the street, it means a criminal can pick it up and read it. +They know the name, from the name they can find the address, and then they can go off and buy stuff online. +Why do we put the name on the card? +Because we think identity is something to do with names, and because we're rooted in the idea of the identity card, which obsesses us. +And I know it crashed and burned a couple of years ago, but if you're someone in politics or the home office or whatever, and you think about identity, you can only think of identity in terms of cards with names on them. +And that's very subversive in a modern world. +So the second example I thought I'd use is chatrooms. +[Chatrooms and Children] I'm very proud of that picture, that's my son playing in his band with his friends for the first-ever gig, I believe you call it, where he got paid. +And I love that picture. +I like the picture of him getting into medical school a lot better, I like that picture for the moment. +Why do I use that picture? +Because that was very interesting, watching that experience as an old person. +The first band on the list of bands that appears at some public music performance of some kind gets the sales from the first 20 tickets, then the next band gets the next 20, and so on. +They were at the bottom of the menu, they were like fifth, I thought they had no chance. +He actually got 20 quid. Fantastic, right? +But my point is, that all worked perfectly, except on the web. +So they're sitting on Facebook, and they're sending these messages and arranging things and they don't know who anybody is, right? +That's the big problem we're trying to solve. +If only they were using the real names, Then you wouldn't be worried about them on the Internet. +I mean, they generally are, when you look in the paper, right? +So I want to know who all the people in the chatroom are. +So okay, you can go in the chatroom, but only if everybody in the chatroom is using their real names, and they submit full copies of their police report. +But of course, if anybody in the chatroom asked for his real name, I'd say no. You can't give them your real name. +Because what happens if they turn out to be perverts, and teachers and whatever. +So you have this odd sort of paradox where I'm happy for him to go into this space if I know who everybody else is, but I don't want anybody else to know who he is. +And so you get this sort of logjam around identity where you want full disclosure from everybody else, but not from yourself. +And there's no progress, we get stuck. +And so the chatroom thing doesn't work properly, and it's a very bad way of thinking about identity. +So on my RSS feed, I saw this thing about - I just said something bad about my RSS feed, didn't I? +I should stop saying it like that. +For some random reason, I can't imagine, something about cheerleaders turned up in my inbox. +And I read this story about cheerleaders, and it's a fascinating story. +This happened a couple of years ago in the U.S. +There were some cheerleaders in a team at a high school in the U.S., and they said mean things about their cheerleading coach, as I'm sure kids do about all of their teachers all of the time, and somehow the cheerleading coach found out about this. +She was very upset. +And so she went to one of the girls, and said, "you have to give me your Facebook password." +I read this all the time, where even at some universities kids are forced to hand over their Facebook passwords. +So you've got to give them your Facebook password. +She was a kid! +What she should have said is, "my lawyer will be calling you first thing in the morning. +on my 4th Amendment right to privacy, and you're going to be sued for all the money you've got." +That's what she should have said. +But she's a kid, so she hands over the password. +The teacher can't log into Facebook, because the school has blocked access to Facebook. +So the teacher can't log into Facebook until she gets home. +So the girl tells her friends, guess what happened? +So the girls just all logged into Facebook on their phones, and deleted their profiles. +And so when the teacher logged in, there was nothing there. +My point is, those identities, they don't think about them the same way. +Identity is, especially when you're a teenager, a fluid thing. +You have lots of identities. +And you can have an identity, you don't like it, because it's subverted in some way, or it's insecure, or it's inappropriate, you just delete it and get another one. +The idea that you have an identity that's given to you by someone, the government or whatever, and you have to stick with that identity and use it in all places, that's absolutely wrong. +Why would you want to really know who someone was on Facebook, unless you wanted to abuse them and harass them in some way? +And it just doesn't work properly. +And my fourth example is there are some cases where you really want to be - In case you're wondering, that's me at the G20 protest. +I wasn't actually at the G20 protest, but I had a meeting at a bank on the day of the G20 protest, and I got an email from the bank saying please don't wear a suit, because it'll inflame the protesters. +I look pretty good in a suit, frankly, so you can see why it would drive them into an anti-capitalist frenzy. +So I thought, well, look. +If I don't want to inflame the protesters, the obvious thing to do is go dressed as a protester. +So I went dressed completely in black, you know, with a black balaclava, I had black gloves on, but I've taken them off to sign the visitor's book. +I'm wearing black trousers, black boots, I'm dressed completely in black. +I go into the bank at 10 o'clock, go, "Hi, I'm Dave Birch, I've got a 3 o'clock with so and so there." +Sure. They sign me in. +There's my visitor's badge. +So this nonsense about you've got to have real names on Facebook and whatever, that gets you that kind of security. +That gets you security theater, where there's no actual security, but people are sort of playing parts in a play about security. +And as long as everybody learns their lines, everyone's happy. +But it's not real security. +Especially because I hate banks more than the G20 protesters do, because I work for them. +I know that things are actually worse than these guys think. +But suppose I worked next to somebody in a bank who was doing something. +Suppose I was sitting next to a rogue trader, and I want to report it to the boss of the bank. +So I log on to do a little bit of whistleblowing. +I send a message, this guy's a rogue trader. +That message is meaningless if you don't know that I'm a trader at the bank. +If that message just comes from anybody, it has zero information value. +There's no point in sending that message. +But if I have to prove who I am, I'll never send that message. +It's just like the nurse in the hospital reporting the drunk surgeon. +That message will only happen if I'm anonymous. +So the system has to have ways of providing anonymity there, otherwise we don't get where we want to get to. +So four issues. So what are we going to do about it? +Well, what we tend to do about it is we think about Orwell space. +And we try to make electronic versions of the identity card that we got rid of in 1953. +So we think if we had a card, call it a Facebook login, which proves who you are, and I make you carry it all the time, that solves the problem. +And of course, for all those reasons I've just outlined, it doesn't, and it might, actually, make some problems worse. +The more times you're forced to use your real identity, certainly in transactional terms, the more likely that identity is to get stolen and subverted. +The goal is to stop people from using identity in transactions which don't need identity, which is actually almost all transactions. +Almost all of the transactions you do are not, who are you? +They're, are you allowed to drive the car, are you allowed in the building, are you over 18, etcetera, etcetera. +So my suggestion-I, like James, think that there should be a resurgence of interest in R & D. +I think this is a solvable problem. +It's something we can do about. +Naturally, in these circumstances, I turn to Doctor Who. +Because in this, as in so many other walks of life, Doctor Who has already shown us the answer. +So I should say, for some of our foreign visitors, Doctor Who is the greatest living scientist in England, and a beacon of truth and enlightenment to all of us. +And this is Doctor Who with his psychic paper. +Come on, you guys must have seen Doctor Who's psychic paper. +You're not nerds if you say yes. +Who's seen Doctor Who's psychic paper? +Oh right, you were in the library the whole time studying I guess. +Is that what you're going to tell us? +Doctor Who's psychic paper is when you hold up the psychic paper, the person, in their brain, sees the thing that they need to see. +So I want to show you a British passport, I hold up the psychic paper, you see a British passport. +I want to get into a party, I hold up the psychic paper, I show you a party invitation. +You see what you want to see. +So what I'm saying is we need to make an electronic version of that, but with one tiny, tiny change, which is that it'll only show you the British passport if I've actually got one. +It will only show you that I'm over 18 if I actually am over 18. +But nothing else. +So you're the bouncer at the pub, you need to know that I'm over 18, instead of showing you my driving license, which shows you I know how to drive, what my name is, my address, all these kind of things, I show you my psychic paper, and all it tells you is am I over 18 or not. +Right. +Is that just a pipe dream? +Of course not, otherwise I wouldn't be here talking to you. +So in order to build that and make it work, I'm only going to name these things, I'll not go into them, we need a plan, which is we're going to build this as an infrastructure for everybody to use, to solve all of these problems. +We're going to make a utility, the utility has to be universal, you can use it everywhere, I'm just giving you little flashes of the technology as we go along. +That's a Japanese ATM, the fingerprint template is stored inside the mobile phone. +So when you want to draw money out, you put the mobile phone on the ATM, and touch your finger, your fingerprint goes through to the phone, the phone says yes, that's whoever, and the ATM then gives you some money. +It has to be a utility that you can use everywhere. +It has to be absolutely convenient, that's me going into the pub. +All the device on the door of the pub is allowed is, is this person over 18 and not barred from the pub? +And so the idea is, you touch your ID card to the door, and if I am allowed in, it shows my picture, if I'm not allowed in, it shows a red cross. +It doesn't disclose any other information. +It has to have no special gadgets. +That can only mean one thing, following on from Ross's statement, which I agree with completely. +If it means no special gadgets, it has to run on a mobile phone. +That's the only choice we have, we have to make it work on mobile phones. +There are 6.6 billion mobile phone subscriptions. +My favorite statistic of all time, only 4 billion toothbrushes in the world. +That means something, I don't know what. +I rely on our futurologists to tell me. +It has to be a utility which is extensible. +So it has to be something that anybody could build on. +Anybody should be able to use this infrastructure, you don't need permissions, licenses, whatever, anyone should be able to write some code to do this. +You know what symmetry is, so you don't need a picture of it. +This is how we're going to do it. +We're going to do it using phones, using mobile proximity. +I'm going to suggest to you the technology to implement Doctor Who's psychic paper is already here, and if any of you have got one of the new Barclay's debit cards with the contactless interface on it, you've already got that technology. +If you've ever been up to the big city, and used an Oyster card at all, does that ring any bells to anybody? +The technology already exists. +The first phones that have the technology built in, the Google Nexus, the S2, the Samsung Wifi 7.9, the first phones that have the technology built into them are already in the shops. +So the idea that the gas man can turn up at my mom's door and he can show my mom his phone, and she can tap it with her phone, and it will come up with green if he really is from British Gas and allowed in, and it'll come up with red if he isn't, end of story. +We have the technology to do that. +And what's more, although some of those things sounded a bit counter-intuitive, like proving I'm over 18 without proving who I am, the cryptography to do that not only exists, it's extremely well-known and well-understood. +Digital signatures, the blinding of public key certificates, these technologies have been around for a while, we've just had no way of packaging them up. +So the technology already exists. +We know it works, There are a few examples of the technology being used in experimental places. +That's London Fashion Week, where we built a system with O2, that's for the Wireless Festival in Hyde Park, you can see the persons walking in with their VIP band, it's just being checked by the Nokia phone that's reading the band. +I'm only putting those up to show you these things are prosaic, this stuff works in these environments. +They don't need to be special. +So finally, I know that you can do this, because if you saw the episode of Doctor Who, the Easter special of Doctor Who, where he went to Mars in a bus, I should say again for our foreign students, that doesn't happen every episode. +This was a very special case. +Which proves that psychic paper has an MSE interface. +All right. So, like all good stories, this starts a long, long time ago when there was basically nothing. +So here is a complete picture of the universe about 14-odd billion years ago. +All energy is concentrated into a single point of energy. +For some reason it explodes, and you begin to get these things. +So you're now about 14 billion years into this. +And these things expand and expand and expand into these giant galaxies, and you get trillions of them. +And within these galaxies you get these enormous dust clouds. +And I want you to pay particular attention to the three little prongs in the center of this picture. +If you take a close-up of those, they look like this. +And what you're looking at is columns of dust where there's so much dust -- by the way, the scale of this is a trillion vertical miles -- and what's happening is there's so much dust, it comes together and it fuses and ignites a thermonuclear reaction. +And so what you're watching is the birth of stars. +These are stars being born out of here. +When enough stars come out, they create a galaxy. +This one happens to be a particularly important galaxy, because you are here. +And as you take a close-up of this galaxy, you find a relatively normal, not particularly interesting star. +By the way, you're now about two-thirds of the way into this story. +So this star doesn't even appear until about two-thirds of the way into this story. +And then what happens is there's enough dust left over that it doesn't ignite into a star, it becomes a planet. +And this is about a little over four billion years ago. +And soon thereafter there's enough material left over that you get a primordial soup, and that creates life. +And life starts to expand and expand and expand, until it goes kaput. +Now the really strange thing is life goes kaput, not once, not twice, but five times. +So almost all life on Earth is wiped out about five times. +And as you're thinking about that, what happens is you get more and more complexity, more and more stuff to build new things with. +And we don't appear until about 99.96 percent of the time into this story, just to put ourselves and our ancestors in perspective. +So within that context, there's two theories of the case as to why we're all here. +The first theory of the case is that's all she wrote. +Under that theory, we are the be-all and end-all of all creation. +And the reason for trillions of galaxies, sextillions of planets, is to create something that looks like that and something that looks like that. +And that's the purpose of the universe; and then it flat-lines, it doesn't get any better. +The only question you might want to ask yourself is, could that be just mildly arrogant? +And if it is -- and particularly given the fact that we came very close to extinction. +There were only about 2,000 of our species left. +A few more weeks without rain, we would have never seen any of these. +So maybe you have to think about a second theory if the first one isn't good enough. +Second theory is: Could we upgrade? +Well, why would one ask a question like that? +Because there have been at least 29 upgrades so far of humanoids. +So it turns out that we have upgraded. +We've upgraded time and again and again. +And it turns out that we keep discovering upgrades. +We found this one last year. +We found another one last month. +And as you're thinking about this, you might also ask the question: So why a single human species? +Wouldn't it be really odd if you went to Africa and Asia and Antarctica and found exactly the same bird -- particularly given that we co-existed at the same time with at least eight other versions of humanoid at the same time on this planet? +So the normal state of affairs is not to have just a Homo sapiens; the normal state of affairs is to have various versions of humans walking around. +And if that is the normal state of affairs, then you might ask yourself, all right, so if we want to create something else, how big does a mutation have to be? +Well Svante Paabo has the answer. +The difference between humans and Neanderthal is 0.004 percent of gene code. +That's how big the difference is one species to another. +This explains most contemporary political debates. +But as you're thinking about this, one of the interesting things is how small these mutations are and where they take place. +Difference human/Neanderthal is sperm and testis, smell and skin. +And those are the specific genes that differ from one to the other. +So very small changes can have a big impact. +And as you're thinking about this, we're continuing to mutate. +So about 10,000 years ago by the Black Sea, we had one mutation in one gene which led to blue eyes. +And this is continuing and continuing and continuing. +And as it continues, one of the things that's going to happen this year is we're going to discover the first 10,000 human genomes, because it's gotten cheap enough to do the gene sequencing. +And when we find these, we may find differences. +And by the way, this is not a debate that we're ready for, because we have really misused the science in this. +In the 1920s, we thought there were major differences between people. +That was partly based on Francis Galton's work. +He was Darwin's cousin. +But the U.S., the Carnegie Institute, Stanford, American Neurological Association took this really far. +That got exported and was really misused. +In fact, it led to some absolutely horrendous treatment of human beings. +So since the 1940s, we've been saying there are no differences, we're all identical. +We're going to know at year end if that is true. +And as we think about that, we're actually beginning to find things like, do you have an ACE gene? +Why would that matter? +Because nobody's ever climbed an 8,000-meter peak without oxygen that doesn't have an ACE gene. +And if you want to get more specific, how about a 577R genotype? +Well it turns out that every male Olympic power athelete ever tested carries at least one of these variants. +If that is true, it leads to some very complicated questions for the London Olympics. +Three options: Do you want the Olympics to be a showcase for really hardworking mutants? +Option number two: Why don't we play it like golf or sailing? +Because you have one and you don't have one, I'll give you a tenth of a second head start. +Version number three: Because this is a naturally occurring gene and you've got it and you didn't pick the right parents, you get the right to upgrade. +Three different options. +If these differences are the difference between an Olympic medal and a non-Olympic medal. +And it turns out that as we discover these things, we human beings really like to change how we look, how we act, what our bodies do. +And we had about 10.2 million plastic surgeries in the United States, except that with the technologies that are coming online today, today's corrections, deletions, augmentations and enhancements are going to seem like child's play. +You already saw the work by Tony Atala on TED, but this ability to start filling things like inkjet cartridges with cells are allowing us to print skin, organs and a whole series of other body parts. +And as these technologies go forward, you keep seeing this, you keep seeing this, you keep seeing things -- 2000, human genome sequence -- and it seems like nothing's happening, until it does. +And we may just be in some of these weeks. +That's a big deal. +So they go down one side of the mountain, they go down another. +And as they pick that, these become bone, and then they pick another road and these become platelets, and these become macrophages, and these become T cells. +But it's really hard, once you ski down, to get back up. +Unless, of course, if you have a ski lift. +And what those four chemicals do is they take any cell and take it way back up the mountain so it can become any body part. +And as you think of that, what it means is potentially you can rebuild a full copy of any organism out of any one of its cells. +That turns out to be a big deal because now you can take, not just mouse cells, but you can human skin cells and turn them into human stem cells. +And then what they did in October is they took skin cells, turned them into stem cells and began to turn them into liver cells. +So in theory, you could grow any organ from any one of your cells. +Here's a second experiment: If you could photocopy your body, maybe you also want to take your mind. +And one of the things you saw at TED about a year and a half ago was this guy. +And he gave a wonderful technical talk. +He's a professor at MIT. +But in essence what he said is you can take retroviruses, which get inside brain cells of mice. +You can tag them with proteins that light up when you light them. +And you can map the exact pathways when a mouse sees, feels, touches, remembers, loves. +And then you can take a fiber optic cable and light up some of the same things. +And by the way, as you do this, you can image it in two colors, which means you can download this information as binary code directly into a computer. +So what's the bottom line on that? +Well it's not completely inconceivable that someday you'll be able to download your own memories, maybe into a new body. +And maybe you can upload other people's memories as well. +And this might have just one or two small ethical, political, moral implications. +Just a thought. +Here's the kind of questions that are becoming interesting questions for philosophers, for governing people, for economists, for scientists. +Because these technologies are moving really quickly. +And as you think about it, let me close with an example of the brain. +The first place where you would expect to see enormous evolutionary pressure today, both because of the inputs, which are becoming massive, and because of the plasticity of the organ, is the brain. +Do we have any evidence that that is happening? +Well let's take a look at something like autism incidence per thousand. +Here's what it looks like in 2000. +Here's what it looks like in 2002, 2006, 2008. +Here's the increase in less than a decade. +And we still don't know why this is happening. +What we do know is, potentially, the brain is reacting in a hyperactive, hyper-plastic way, and creating individuals that are like this. +And this is only one of the conditions that's out there. +You've also got people with who are extraordinarily smart, people who can remember everything they've seen in their lives, people who've got synesthesia, people who've got schizophrenia. +You've got all kinds of stuff going on out there, and we still don't understand how and why this is happening. +But one question you might want to ask is, are we seeing a rapid evolution of the brain and of how we process data? +Because when you think of how much data's coming into our brains, we're trying to take in as much data in a day as people used to take in in a lifetime. +And as you're thinking about this, there's four theories as to why this might be going on, plus a whole series of others. +I don't have a good answer. +There really needs to be more research on this. +One option is the fast food fetish. +There's beginning to be some evidence that obesity and diet have something to do with gene modifications, which may or may not have an impact on how the brain of an infant works. +A second option is the sexy geek option. +These conditions are highly rare. +But what's beginning to happen is because these geeks are all getting together, because they are highly qualified for computer programming and it is highly remunerated, as well as other very detail-oriented tasks, that they are concentrating geographically and finding like-minded mates. +So this is the assortative mating hypothesis of these genes reinforcing one another in these structures. +The third, is this too much information? +We're trying to process so much stuff that some people get synesthetic and just have huge pipes that remember everything. +Other people get hyper-sensitive to the amount of information. +Other people react with various psychological conditions or reactions to this information. +Or maybe it's chemicals. +But when you see an increase of that order of magnitude in a condition, either you're not measuring it right or there's something going on very quickly, and it may be evolution in real time. +Here's the bottom line. +What I think we are doing is we're transitioning as a species. +And I didn't think this when Steve Gullans and I started writing together. +I think we're transitioning into Homo evolutis that, for better or worse, is not just a hominid that's conscious of his or her environment, it's a hominid that's beginning to directly and deliberately control the evolution of its own species, of bacteria, of plants, of animals. +And I think that's such an order of magnitude change that your grandkids or your great-grandkids may be a species very different from you. +Thank you very much. +When I go to parties, it doesn't usually take very long for people to find out that I'm a scientist and I study sex. +And then I get asked questions. +And the questions usually have a very particular format. +They start with the phrase, "A friend told me," and then they end with the phrase, "Is this true?" +And most of the time I'm glad to say that I can answer them, but sometimes I have to say, "I'm really sorry, but I don't know because I'm not that kind of a doctor." +That is, I'm not a clinician, I'm a comparative biologist who studies anatomy. +And my job is to look at lots of different species of animals and try to figure out how their tissues and organs work when everything's going right, rather than trying to figure out how to fix things when they go wrong, like so many of you. +And what I do is I look for similarities and differences in the solutions that they've evolved for fundamental biological problems. +So today I'm here to argue that this is not at all an esoteric Ivory Tower activity that we find at our universities, but that broad study across species, tissue types and organ systems that have direct implications for human health. +And this is true both of my recent project on sex differences in the brain, and my more mature work on the anatomy and function of penises. +And now you know why I'm fun at parties. +So today I'm going to give you an example drawn from my penis study to show you how knowledge drawn from studies of one organ system provided insights into a very different one. +Now I'm sure as everyone in the audience already knows -- I did have to explain it to my nine-year-old late last week -- penises are structures that transfer sperm from one individual to another. +And the slide behind me barely scratches the surface of how widespread they are in animals. +There's an enormous amount of anatomical variation. +You find muscular tubes, modified legs, modified fins, as well as the mammalian fleshy, inflatable cylinder that we're all familiar with -- or at least half of you are. +And I think we see this tremendous variation because it's a really effective solution to a very basic biological problem, and that is getting sperm in a position to meet up with eggs and form zygotes. +Now the penis isn't actually required for internal fertiliztion, but when internal fertilization evolves, penises often follow. +And the question I get when I start talking about this most often is, "What made you interested in this subject?" +And the answer is skeletons. +You wouldn't think that skeletons and penises have very much to do with one another. +And that's because we tend to think of skeletons as stiff lever systems that produce speed or power. +And my first forays into biological research, doing dinosaur paleontology as an undergraduate, were really squarely in that realm. +But when I went to graduate school to study biomechanics, I really wanted to find a dissertation project that would expand our knowledge of skeletal function. +I tried a bunch of different stuff. +A lot of it didn't pan out. +But then one day I started thinking about the mammalian penis. +And it's really an odd sort of structure. +Before it can be used for internal fertilization, its mechanical behavior has to change in a really dramatic fashion. +Most of the time it's a flexible organ. +It's easy to bend. +But before it's brought into use during copulation it has to become rigid, it has to become difficult to bend. +And moreover, it has to work. +A reproductive system that fails to function produces an individual that has no offspring, and that individual is then kicked out of the gene pool. +And so I thought, "Here's a problem that just cries out for a skeletal system -- not one like this one, but one like this one -- because, functionally, a skeleton is any system that supports tissue and transmits forces. +And I already knew that animals like this earthworm, indeed most animals, don't support their tissues by draping them over bones. +Instead they're more like reinforced water balloons. +They use a skeleton that we call a hydrostatic skeleton. +And a hydrostatic skeleton uses two elements. +The skeletal support comes from an interaction between a pressurized fluid and a surrounding wall of tissue that's held in tension and reinforced with fibrous proteins. +And the interaction is crucial. +Without both elements you have no support. +If you have fluid with no wall to surround it and keep pressure up, you have a puddle. +And if you have just the wall with no fluid inside of it to put the wall in tension, you've got a little wet rag. +When you look at a penis in cross section, it has a lot of the hallmarks of a hydrostatic skeleton. +It has a central space of spongy erectile tissue that fills with fluid -- in this case blood -- surrounded by a wall of tissue that's rich in a stiff structural protein called collagen. +But at the time when I started this project, the best explanation I could find for penal erection was that the wall surrounded these spongy tissues, and the spongy tissues filled with blood and pressure rose and voila! it became erect. +And that explained to me expansion -- made sense: more fluid, you get tissues that expand -- but it didn't actually explain erection. +Because there was no mechanism in this explanation for making this structure hard to bend. +And no one had systematically looked at the wall tissue. +So I thought, wall tissue's important in skeletons. +It has to be part of the explanation. +And this was the point at which my graduate adviser said, "Whoa! Hold on. Slow down." +Because after about six months of me talking about this, I think he finally figured out that I was really serious about the penis thing. +So he sat me down, and he warned me. +He was like, "Be careful going down this path. +I'm not sure this project's going to pan out." +Because he was afraid I was walking into a trap. +I was taking on a socially embarrassing question with an answer that he thought might not be particularly interesting. +And that was because every hydrostatic skeleton that we had found in nature up to that point had the same basic elements. +It had the central fluid, it had the surrounding wall, and the reinforcing fibers in the wall were arranged in crossed helices around the long axis of the skeleton. +So the image behind me shows a piece of tissue in one of these cross helical skeletons cut so that you're looking at the surface of the wall. +The arrow shows you the long axis. +And you can see two layers of fibers, one in blue and one in yellow, arranged in left-handed and right-handed angles. +And if you weren't just looking at a little section of the fibers, those fibers would be going in helices around the long axis of the skeleton -- something like a Chinese finger trap, where you stick your fingers in and they get stuck. +And these skeletons have a particular set of behaviors, which I'm going to demonstrate in a film. +It's a model skeleton that I made out of a piece of cloth that I wrapped around an inflated balloon. +The cloth's cut on the bias. +So you can see that the fibers wrap in helices, and those fibers can reorient as the skeleton moves, which means the skeleton's flexible. +It lengthens, shortens and bends really easily in response to internal or external forces. +Now my adviser's concern was what if the penile wall tissue is just the same as any other hydrostatic skeleton. +What are you going to contribute? +What new thing are you contributing to our knowledge of biology? +And I thought, "Yeah, he does have a really good point here." +So I spent a long, long time thinking about it. +And one thing kept bothering me, and that's, when they're functioning, penises don't wiggle. +So something interesting had to be going on. +So I went ahead, collected wall tissue, prepared it so it was erect, sectioned it, put it on slides and then stuck it under the microscope to have a look, fully expecting to see crossed helices of collagen of some variety. +But instead I saw this. +There's an outer layer and an inner layer. +The arrow shows you the long axis of the skeleton. +I was really surprised at this. +Everyone I showed it was really surprised at this. +Why was everyone surprised at this? +That's because we knew theoretically that there was another way of arranging fibers in a hydrostatic skeleton, and that was with fibers at zero degrees and 90 degrees to the long axis of the structure. +The thing is, no one had ever seen it before in nature. +And now I was looking at one. +Those fibers in that particular orientation give the skeleton a very, very different behavior. +I'm going to show a model made out of exactly the same materials. +So it'll be made of the same cotton cloth, same balloon, same internal pressure. +But the only difference is that the fibers are arranged differently. +And you'll see that, unlike the cross helical model, this model resists extension and contraction and resists bending. +Now what that tells us is that wall tissues are doing so much more than just covering the vascular tissues. +They're an integral part of the penile skeleton. +If the wall around the erectile tissue wasn't there, if it wasn't reinforced in this way, the shape would change, but the inflated penis would not resist bending, and erection simply wouldn't work. +It's an observation with obvious medical applications in humans as well, but it's also relevant in a broad sense, I think, to the design of prosthetics, soft robots, basically anything where changes of shape and stiffness are important. +So to sum up: Twenty years ago, I had a college adviser tell me, when I went to the college and said, "I'm kind of interested in anatomy," they said, "Anatomy's a dead science." +He couldn't have been more wrong. +I really believe that we still have a lot to learn about the normal structure and function of our bodies. +Not just about its genetics and molecular biology, but up here in the meat end of the scale. +We've got limits on our time. +We often focus on one disease, one model, one problem, but my experience suggests that we should take the time to apply ideas broadly between systems and just see where it takes us. +After all, if ideas about invertebrate skeletons can give us insights about mammalian reproductive systems, there could be lots of other wild and productive connections lurking out there just waiting to be found. +Thank you. +I have the answer to a question that we've all asked. +The question is, Why is it that the letter X represents the unknown? +Now I know we learned that in math class, but now it's everywhere in the culture -- The X prize, the X-Files, Project X, TEDx. +Where'd that come from? +About six years ago I decided that I would learn Arabic, which turns out to be a supremely logical language. +To write a word or a phrase or a sentence in Arabic is like crafting an equation, because every part is extremely precise and carries a lot of information. +That's one of the reasons so much of what we've come to think of as Western science and mathematics and engineering by the Persians and the Arabs and the Turks. +This includes the little system in Arabic called al-jebra. +And al-jebr roughly translates to "the system for reconciling disparate parts." +Al-jebr finally came into English as algebra. +One example among many. +The Arabic texts containing this mathematical wisdom finally made their way to Europe -- which is to say Spain -- in the 11th and 12th centuries. +And when they arrived there was tremendous interest in translating this wisdom into a European language. +But there were problems. +One problem is there are some sounds in Arabic that just don't make it through a European voice box without lots of practice. +Trust me on that one. +Also, those very sounds tend not to be represented by the characters that are available in European languages. +Here's one of the culprits. +This is the letter SHeen, and it makes the sound we think of as SH -- "sh." +It's also the very first letter of the word shalan, which means "something" just like the the English word "something" -- some undefined, unknown thing. +Now in Arabic, we can make this definite by adding the definite article "al." +So this is al-shalan -- the unknown thing. +And this is a word that appears throughout early mathematics, such as this 10th century derivation of proofs. +The problem for the Medieval Spanish scholars who were tasked with translating this material is that the letter SHeen and the word shalan can't be rendered into Spanish because Spanish doesn't have that SH, that "sh" sound. +So by convention, they created a rule in which they borrowed the CK sound, "ck" sound, from the classical Greek in the form of the letter Kai. +Later when this material was translated into a common European language, which is to say Latin, they simply replaced the Greek Kai with the Latin X. +And once that happened, once this material was in Latin, it formed the basis for mathematics textbooks for almost 600 years. +But now we have the answer to our question. +Why is it that X is the unknown? +X is the unknown because you can't say "sh" in Spanish. +And I thought that was worth sharing. +I collaborate with bacteria. +And I'm about to show you some stop-motion footage that I made recently where you'll see bacteria accumulating minerals from their environment over the period of an hour. +So what you're seeing here is the bacteria metabolizing, and as they do so they create an electrical charge. +And this attracts metals from their local environment. +And these metals accumulate as minerals on the surface of the bacteria. +One of the most pervasive problems in the world today for people is inadequate access to clean drinking water. +And the desalination process is one where we take out salts. +We can use it for drinking and agriculture. +Removing the salts from water -- particularly seawater -- through reverse osmosis is a critical technique for countries who do not have access to clean drinking water around the globe. +So seawater reverse osmosis is a membrane-filtration technology. +We take the water from the sea and we apply pressure. +And this pressure forces the seawater through a membrane. +This takes energy, producing clean water. +But we're also left with a concentrated salt solution, or brine. +But the process is very expensive and it's cost-prohibitive for many countries around the globe. +And also, the brine that's produced is oftentimes just pumped back out into the sea. +And this is detrimental to the local ecology of the sea area that it's pumped back out into. +So I work in Singapore at the moment, and this is a place that's really a leading place for desalination technology. +And Singapore proposes by 2060 to produce [900] million liters per day of desalinated water. +But this will produce an equally massive amount of desalination brine. +And this is where my collaboration with bacteria comes into play. +So what we're doing at the moment is we're accumulating metals like calcium, potassium and magnesium from out of desalination brine. +And this, in terms of magnesium and the amount of water that I just mentioned, equates to a $4.5 billion mining industry for Singapore -- a place that doesn't have any natural resources. +So I'd like you to image a mining industry in a way that one hasn't existed before; imagine a mining industry that doesn't mean defiling the Earth; imagine bacteria helping us do this by accumulating and precipitating and sedimenting minerals out of desalination brine. +And what you can see here is the beginning of an industry in a test tube, a mining industry that is in harmony with nature. +Thank you. +Today I'm going to unpack for you three examples of iconic design, and it makes perfect sense that I should be the one to do it because I have a Bachelor's degree in Literature. +But I'm also a famous minor television personality and an avid collector of Design Within Reach catalogs, so I pretty much know everything there is. +Now, I'm sure you recognize this object; many of you probably saw it as you were landing your private zeppelins at Los Angeles International Airport over the past couple of days. +This is known as the Theme Building; that is its name for reasons that are still very murky. +And it is perhaps the best example we have in Los Angeles of ancient extraterrestrial architecture. +It is thought to have been a replacement for the older space ports located, of course, at Stonehenge and considered to be quite an improvement due to the uncluttered design, the lack of druids hanging around all the time and obviously, the much better access to parking. +When it was uncovered, it ushered in a new era of streamlined, archaically futuristic design called Googie, which came to be synonymous with the Jet Age, a misnomer. +After all, the ancient astronauts who used it did not travel by jet very often, preferring instead to travel by feathered serpent powered by crystal skulls. +Ah yes, a table. +We use these every day. +And on top of it, the juicy salif. +This is a design by Philippe Starck, who I believe is in the audience at this very moment. +And you can tell it is a Starck design by its precision, its playfulness, its innovation and its promise of imminent violence. +It is a design that challenges your intuition -- it is not what you think it is when you first see it. +It is not a fork designed to grab three hors d'oeuvres at a time, which would be useful out in the lobby, I would say. +And despite its obvious influence by the ancient astronauts and its space agey-ness and tripodism, it is not something designed to attach to your brain and suck out your thoughts. +It is in fact a citrus juicer and when I say that, you never see it as anything else again. +It is also not a monument to design, it is a monument to design's utility. +You can take it home with you, unlike the Theme Building, which will stay where it is forever. +This is affordable and can come home with you and, as such, it can sit on your kitchen counter -- it can't go in your drawers; trust me, I found that out the hard way -- and make your kitchen counter into a monument to design. +One other thing about it, if you do have one at home, let me tell you one of the features you may not know: when you fall asleep, it comes alive and it walks around your house and goes through your mail and watches you as you sleep. +Okay, what is this object? +I have no idea. I don't know what that thing is. +It looks terrible. Is it a little hot plate? +I don't get it. +Does anyone know? Chi? +It's an ... iPhone. iPhone. +Oh yes, that's right, I remember those; I had my whole bathroom tiles redone with those back in the good old days. +No, I have an iPhone. Of course I do. +Here is my well-loved iPhone. +I do so many things on this little device. +I like to read books on it. +More than that, I like to buy books on it that I never have to feel guilty about not reading because they go in here and I never look at them again and it's perfect. +I use it every day to measure the weight of an ox, for example. +Every now and then, I admit that I complete a phone call on it occasionally. +And yet I forget about it all the time. +This is a design that once you saw it, you forgot about it. +It is easy to forget the gasp-inducement that occurred in 2007 when you first touched this thing because it became so quickly pervasive and because of how instantly we adopted these gestures and made it an extension of our life. +Unlike the Theme Building, this is not alien technology. +Or I should say, what it did was it took technology which, unlike people in this room, to many other people in the world, still feels very alien, and made it immediately and instantly feel familiar and intimate. +And unlike the juicy salif, it does not threaten to attach itself to your brain, rather, it simply attaches itself to your brain. +And you didn't even notice it happened. +So there you go. My name is John Hodgman. +I just explained design. +Thank you very much. +I always wanted to become a walking laboratory of social engagement, to resonate other people's feelings, thoughts, intentions, motivations, in the act of being with them. +As a scientist, I always wanted to measure that resonance, that sense of the other that happens so quickly, in the blink of an eye. +We intuit other people's feelings. +We know the meaning of their actions even before they happen. +We're always in this stance of being the object of somebody else's subjectivity. +We do that all the time. We just can't shake it off. +It's so important that the very tools that we use to understand ourselves, to understand the world around them, is shaped by that stance. +We are social to the core. +So my journey in autism really started when I lived in a residential unit for adults with autism. +Most of those individuals had spent most of their lives in long-stay hospitals. This is a long time ago. +And for them, autism was devastating. +They had profound intellectual disabilities. +They didn't talk. But most of all, they were extraordinarily isolated from the world around them, from their environment and from the people. +In fact, at the time, if you walked into a school for individuals with autism, you'd hear a lot of noise, plenty of commotion, actions, people doing things, but they're always doing things by themselves. +So they may be looking at a light in the ceiling, or they may be isolated in the corner, or they might be engaged in these repetitive movements, in self-stimulatory movements that led them nowhere. +Extremely, extremely isolated. +Well, now we know that autism is this disruption, the disruption of this resonance that I am telling you. +These are survival skills. +These are survival skills that we inherited over many, many hundreds of thousands of years of evolution. +You see, babies are born in a state of utter fragility. +Without the caregiver, they wouldn't survive, so it stands to reason that nature would endow them with these mechanisms of survival. +They orient to the caregiver. +From the first days and weeks of life, babies prefer to hear human sounds rather than just sounds in the environment. +They prefer to look at people rather than at things, and even as they're looking at people, they look at people's eyes, because the eye is the window to the other person's experiences, so much so that they even prefer to look at people who are looking at them rather than people who are looking away. +Well, they orient to the caregiver. +The caregiver seeks the baby. +And it's out of this mutually reinforcing choreography that a lot that is of importance to the emergence of mind, the social mind, the social brain, depends on. +We always think about autism as something that happens later on in life. +It doesn't. It begins with the beginning of life. +As babies engage with caregivers, they soon realize that, well, there is something in between the ears that is very important -- it's invisible, you can't see -- but is really critical, and that thing is called attention. +And they learn soon enough, even before they can utter one word that they can take that attention and move somewhere in order to get things they want. +They also learn to follow other people's gaze, because whatever people are looking at is what they are thinking about. +Those are meanings that are acquired as part of their shared experiences with others. +Well, this is a little 15-month-old little girl, and she has autism. +And I am coming so close to her that I am maybe two inches from her face, and she's quite oblivious to me. +Imagine if I did that to you, and I came two inches from your face. +You'd do probably two things, wouldn't you? +You would recoil. You would call the police. You would do something, because it's literally impossible to penetrate somebody's physical space and not get a reaction. +We do so, remember, intuitively, effortlessly. +This is our body wisdom. It's not something that is mediated by our language. Our body just knows that, and we've known that for a long time. +And this is not something that happens to humans only. +It happens to some of our phylatic cousins, because if you're a monkey, and you look at another monkey, and that monkey has a higher hierarchy position than you, and that is considered to be a signal or threat, well, you are not going to be alive for long. +So something that in other species are survival mechanisms, without them they wouldn't basically live, we bring into the context of human beings, and this is what we need to simply act, act socially. +Now, she is oblivious to me, and I am so close to her, and you think, maybe she can see you, maybe she can hear you. +Well, a few minutes later, she goes to the corner of the room, and she finds a tiny little piece of candy, an M&M. +So I could not attract her attention, but something, a thing, did. +Now, most of us make a big dichotomy between the world of things and the world of people. +Now, for this girl, that division line is not so clear, and the world of people is not attracting her as much as we would like. +Now remember that we learn a great deal by sharing experiences. +Now, what she is doing right now is that her path of learning is diverging moment by moment as she is isolating herself further and further. +So we feel sometimes that the brain is deterministic, the brain determines who we are going to be. +But in fact the brain also becomes who we are, and at the same time that her behaviors are taking away from the realm of social interaction, this is what's happening with her mind and this is what's happening with her brain. +Well, autism is the most strongly genetic condition of all developmental disorders, and it's a brain disorder. +It's a disorder that begins much prior to the time that the child is born. +We now know that there is a very broad spectrum of autism. +There are those individuals who are profoundly intellectually disabled, but there are those that are gifted. +There are those individuals who don't talk at all. +There are those individuals who talk too much. +There are those individuals that if you observe them in their school, you see them running the periphery fence of the school all day if you let them, to those individuals who cannot stop coming to you and trying to engage you repeatedly, relentlessly, but often in an awkward fashion, without that immediate resonance. +Well, this is much more prevalent than we thought at the time. +When I started in this field, we thought that there were four individuals with autism per 10,000, a very rare condition. +Well, now we know it's more like one in 100. +There are millions of individuals with autism all around us. +The societal cost of this condition is huge. +In the U.S. alone, maybe 35 to 80 billion dollars, and you know what? Most of those funds are associated with adolescents and particularly adults who are severely disabled, individuals who need wrap-around services, services that are very, very intensive, and those services can cost in excess of 60 to 80,000 dollars a year. +Those are individuals who did not benefit from early treatment, because now we know that autism creates itself as they diverge in that pathway of learning that I mentioned to you. +Were we to be able to identify this condition at an earlier point, and intervene and treat, I can tell you, and this has been probably something that has changed my life in the past 10 years, this notion that we can absolutely attenuate this condition. +Also, we have a window of opportunity, because the brain is malleable for just so long, and that window of opportunity happens in the first three years of life. +It's not that that window closes. It doesn't. +But it diminishes considerably. +So I feel that we have a bio-ethical imperative. +So this is our view of autism. +There are over a hundred genes that are associated with autism. In fact, we believe that there are going to be something between 300 and 600 genes associated with autism, and genetic anomalies, much more than just genes. +And we actually have a bit of a question here, because if there are so many different causes of autism, how do you go from those liabilities to the actual syndrome? Because people like myself, when we walk into a playroom, we recognize a child as having autism. +So how do you go from multiple causes to a syndrome that has some homogeneity? +And the answer is, what lies in between, which is development. +And in fact, we are very interested in those first two years of life, because those liabilities don't necessarily convert into autism. +Autism creates itself. +Were we to be able to intervene during those years of life, we might attenuate for some, and God knows, maybe even prevent for others. +So how do we do that? +How do we enter that feeling of resonance, how do we enter another person's being? +I remember when I interacted with that 15-month-older, that the thing that came to mind was, "How do you come into her world? +Is she thinking about me? Is she thinking about others?" +Well, it's hard to do that, so we had to create the technologies. We had to basically step inside a body. +We had to see the world through her eyes. +And so in the past many years we've been building these new technologies that are based on eye tracking. +We can see moment by moment what children are engaging with. +What we want is to embrace that world and bring it into our laboratory, but in order for us to do that, we had to create these very sophisticated measures, measures of how people, how little babies, how newborns, engage with the world, moment by moment, what is important, and what is not. +Well, we created those measures, and here, what you see is what we call a funnel of attention. +You're watching a video. +Those frames are separated by about a second through the eyes of 35 typically developing two-year-olds, and we freeze one frame, and this is what the typical children are doing. +In this scan pass, in green here, are two-year-olds with autism. +So on that frame, the children who are typical are watching this, the emotion of expression of that little boy as he's fighting a little bit with the little girl. +What are the children with autism doing? +They are focusing on the revolving door, opening and shutting. +Well, I can tell you that this divergence that you're seeing here doesn't happen only in our five-minute experiment. +It happens moment by moment in their real lives, and their minds are being formed, and their brains are being specialized in something other than what is happening with their typical peers. +Well, we took a construct from our pediatrician friends, the concept of growth charts. +You know, when you take a child to the pediatrician, and so you have physical height, and weight. +They start over here, they love people's eyes, and it remains quite stable. +It sort of goes up a little bit in those initial months. +Now, let's see what's happening with babies who became autistic. +It's something very different. +It starts way up here, but then it's a free fall. +It's very much like they brought into this world the reflex that orients them to people, but it has no traction. +It's almost as if that stimulus, you, you're not exerting influence on what happens as they navigate their daily lives. +Now, we thought that those data were so powerful in a way, that we wanted to see what happened in the first six months of life, because if you interact with a two- and a three-month-older, you'd be surprised by how social those babies are. +And what we see in the first six months of life is that those two groups can be segregated very easily. +And using these kinds of measures, and many others, what we found out is that our science could, in fact, identify this condition early on. +We didn't have to wait for the behaviors of autism to emerge in the second year of life. +If we measured things that are, evolutionarily, highly conserved, and developmentally very early emerging, things that are online from the first weeks of life, we could push the detection of autism all the way to those first months, and that's what we are doing now. +Now, we can create the very best technologies and the very best methods to identify the children, but this would be for naught if we didn't have an impact on what happens in their reality in the community. +Now we want those devices, of course, to be deployed by those who are in the trenches, our colleagues, the primary care physicians, who see every child, and we need to transform those technologies into something that is going to add value to their practice, because they have to see so many children. +And we want to do that universally so that we don't miss any child, but this would be immoral if we also did not have an infrastructure for intervention, for treatment. +We need to be able to work with the families, to support the families, to manage those first years with them. We need to be able to really go from universal screening to universal access to treatment, because those treatments are going to change these children's and those families' lives. +Now, when we think about what we [can] do in those first years, I can tell you, having been in this field for so long, one feels really rejuvenated. +There is a sense that the science that one worked on can actually have an impact on realities, preventing, in fact, those experiences that I really started in my journey in this field. +I thought at the time that this was an intractable condition. +No longer. We can do a great deal of things. +And the idea is not to cure autism. +That's not the idea. +What we want is to make sure that those individuals with autism can be free from the devastating consequences that come with it at times, the profound intellectual disabilities, the lack of language, the profound, profound isolation. +We feel that individuals with autism, in fact, have a very special perspective on the world, and we need diversity, and they can work extremely well in some areas of strength: predictable situations, situations that can be defined. +Because after all, they learn about the world almost like about it, rather than learning how to function in it. +But this is a strength, if you're working, for example, in technology. +And there are those individuals who have incredible artistic abilities. +We want them to be free of that. +We want that the next generations of individuals with autism will be able not only to express their strengths but to fulfill their promise. +Well thank you for listening to me. +Like most journalists, I'm an idealist. +I love unearthing good stories, especially untold stories. +I just didn't think that in 2011, women would still be in that category. +I'm the President of the Journalism and Women Symposium -- JAWS. +That's Sharky. I joined 10 years ago because I wanted female role models, and I was frustrated by the lagging status of women in our profession and what that meant for our image in the media. +We make up half the population of the world, but we're just 24 percent of the news subjects quoted in news stories. +And we're just 20 percent of the experts quoted in stories. +And now, with today's technology, it's possible to remove women from the picture completely. +This is a picture of President Barack Obama and his advisors, tracking the killing of Osama bin Laden. +You can see Hillary Clinton on the right. +Let's see how the photo ran in an Orthodox Jewish newspaper based in Brooklyn. +Hillary's completely gone. +The paper apologized, but said it never runs photos of women; they might be sexually provocative. This is an extreme case, yes. But the fact is, women are only 19 percent of the sources in stories on politics, and only 20 percent in stories on the economy. +The news continues to give us a picture where men outnumber women in nearly all occupational categories, except two: students and homemakers. So we all get a very distorted picture of reality. +The problem is, of course, there aren't enough women in newsrooms. +They report at just 37 percent of stories in print, TV and radio. +Even in stories on gender-based violence, men get an overwhelming majority of print space and airtime. +Case in point: This March, the New York Times ran a story by James McKinley about a gang rape of a young girl, 11 years old, in a small Texas town. +McKinley writes that the community is wondering, "How could their boys have been drawn into this?" +"Drawn into this" -- like they were seduced into committing an act of violence. +And the first person he quotes says, "These boys will have to live with this the rest of their lives." +(Groans, laughter) You don't hear much about the 11-year-old victim, except that she wore clothes that were a little old for her and she wore makeup. +The Times was deluged with criticism. +Initially, it defended itself, and said, "These aren't our views. +This is what we found in our reporting." +Now, here's a secret you probably know already: Your stories are constructed. +As reporters, we research, we interview. +We try to give a good picture of reality. +We also have our own unconscious biases. +But The Times makes it sound like anyone would have reported this story the same way. +I disagree with that. +So three weeks later, The Times revisits the story. +This time, it adds another byline to it with McKinley's: Erica Goode. +What emerges is a truly sad, horrific tale of a young girl and her family trapped in poverty. +She was raped numerous times by many men. +She had been a bright, easygoing girl. +She was maturing quickly, physically, but her bed was still covered with stuffed animals. +It's a very different picture. +Perhaps the addition of Ms. Goode is what made this story more complete. +The Global Media Monitoring Project has found that stories by female reporters are more likely to challenge stereotypes than those by male reporters. +At KUNM here in Albuquerque, Elaine Baumgartel did some graduate research on the coverage of violence against women. +What she found was many of these stories tend to blame victims and devalue their lives. +They tend to sensationalize, and they lack context. +So for her graduate work, she did a three-part series on the murder of 11 women, found buried on Albuquerque's West Mesa. +She tried to challenge those patterns and stereotypes in her work and she tried to show the challenges that journalists face from external sources, their own internal biases and cultural norms. +And she worked with an editor at National Public Radio to try to get a story aired nationally. +She's not sure that would have happened if the editor had not been a female. +Stories in the news are more than twice as likely to present women as victims than men, and women are more likely to be defined by their body parts. +Wired magazine, November 2010. +Yes, the issue was about breast-tissue engineering. +Now I know you're all distracted, so I'll take that off. Eyes up here. So -- Here's the thing: Wired almost never puts women on its cover. +Oh, there have been some gimmicky ones -- Pam from "The Office," manga girls, a voluptuous model covered in synthetic diamonds. +Texas State University professor Cindy Royal wondered in her blog how are young women like her students supposed to feel about their roles in technology, reading Wired. +Chris Anderson, the editor of Wired, defended his choice and said there aren't enough women, prominent women in technology to sell a cover, to sell an issue. +Part of that is true, there aren't as many prominent women in technology. +Here's my problem with that argument: Media tells us every day what's important, by the stories they choose and where they place them; it's called agenda setting. +How many people knew the founders of Facebook and Google before their faces were on a magazine cover? +Putting them there made them more recognizable. +Now, Fast Company Magazine embraces that idea. +This is its cover from November 15, 2010. +The issue is about the most prominent and influential women in technology. +Editor Robert Safian told the Poynter Institute, "Silicon Valley is very white and very male. +But that's not what Fast Company thinks the business world will look like in the future, so it tries to give a picture of where the globalized world is moving." +By the way, apparently, Wired took all this to heart. +This was its issue in April. That's Limor Fried, the founder of Adafruit Industries, in the Rosie the Riveter pose. +It would help to have more women in positions of leadership in media. +A recent global survey found that 73 percent of the top media-management jobs are still held by men. +But this is also about something far more complex: our own unconscious biases and blind spots. +Shankar Vedantam is the author of "The Hidden Brain: How Our Unconscious Minds Elect Presidents, Control Markets, Wage Wars, and Save Our Lives." +He told the former ombudsman at National Public Radio, who was doing a report on how women fare in NPR coverage, unconscious bias flows throughout most of our lives. +It's really difficult to disentangle those strands. +But he did have one suggestion. +He used to work for two editors who said every story had to have at least one female source. +He balked at first, but said he eventually followed the directive happily, because his stories got better and his job got easier. +Now, I don't know if one of the editors was a woman, but that can make the biggest difference. +This is an important point to consider, because much of our foreign policy now revolves around countries where the treatment of women is an issue, such as Afghanistan. +What we're told in terms of arguments against leaving this country is that the fate of the women is primary. +Now, I'm sure a male reporter in Kabul can find women to interview. +Not so sure about rural, traditional areas, where I'm guessing women can't talk to strange men. +It's important to keep talking about this, in light of Lara Logan. +She was the CBS News correspondent who was brutally sexually assaulted in Egypt's Tahrir Square, right after this photo was taken. +Almost immediately, pundits weighed in, blaming her and saying things like, "You know, maybe women shouldn't be sent to cover those stories." +I never heard anyone say this about Anderson Cooper and his crew, who were attacked covering the same story. +One way to get more women into leadership is to have other women mentor them. +One of my board members is an editor at a major global media company, but she never thought about this as a career path, until she met female role models at JAWS. +But this is not just a job for super-journalists or my organization. You all have a stake in a strong, vibrant media. +Analyze your news. +And speak up when there are gaps missing in coverage, like people at The New York Times did. +Suggest female sources to reporters and editors. +Remember -- a complete picture of reality may depend upon it. +And I'll leave you with a video clip that I first saw in [1987] when I was a student in London. +It's for The Guardian newspaper. +It's actually long before I ever thought about becoming a journalist, but I was very interested in how we learn to perceive our world. +Narrator: An event seen from one point of view gives one impression. +Seen from another point of view, it gives quite a different impression. +But it's only when you get the whole picture, you can fully understand what's going on. +[The Guardian] Megan Kamerick: I think you'll all agree that we'd be better off if we all had the whole picture. +I am no designer, nope, no way. +My dad was, which is kind of an interesting way to grow up. +I had to figure out what it is my dad did and why it was important. +Dad talked a lot about bad design when we were growing up, you know, "Bad design is just people not thinking, John," he would say whenever a kid would be injured by a rotary lawn mower or, say, a typewriter ribbon would get tangled or an eggbeater would get jammed in the kitchen. +You know, "Design -- bad design, there's just no excuse for it. +It's letting stuff happen without thinking about it. +Every object should be about something, John. +It should imagine a user. +It should cast that user in a story starring the user and the object. +Good design," my dad said, "is about supplying intent." +That's what he said. +Dad helped design the control panels for the IBM 360 computer. +That was a big deal; that was important. He worked for Kodak for a while; that was important. +He designed chairs and desks and other office equipment for Steelcase; that was important. +I knew design was important in my house because, for heaven's sake, it put food on our table, right? +And design was in everything my dad did. +He had a Dixieland jazz band when we were growing up, and he would always cover Louis Armstrong tunes. +And I would ask him every once in a while, "Dad, do you want it to sound like the record?" +We had lots of old jazz records lying around the house. +And he said, "No, never, John, never. +The song is just a given, that's how you have to think about it. +You gotta make it your own. You gotta design it. +Show everyone what you intend," is what he said. +"Doing that, acting by design, is what we all should be doing. +It's where we all belong." +All of us? Designers? +Oh, oh, Dad. Oh, Dad. +The song is just a given. +It's how you cover it that matters. +Well, let's hold on to that thought for just a minute. +It's kind of like this wheelchair I'm in, right? +The original tune? It's a little scary. +"Ooh, what happened to that dude? +He can't walk. Anybody know the story? +Anybody?" +I don't like to talk about this very much, but I'll tell you guys the story today. +All right, exactly 36 years ago this week, that's right, I was in a poorly designed automobile that hit a poorly designed guardrail on a poorly designed road in Pennsylvania, and plummeted down a 200-foot embankment and killed two people in the car. +But ever since then, the wheelchair has been a given in my life. +My life, at the mercy of good design and bad design. +Think about it. Now, in design terms, a wheelchair is a very difficult object. +It mostly projects tragedy and fear and misfortune, and it projects that message, that story, so strongly that it almost blots out anything else. +I roll swiftly through an airport, right? +And moms grab their kids out of the way and say, "Don't stare!" +The poor kid, you know, has this terrified look on his face, God knows what they think. +And for decades, I'm going, why does this happen? What can I do about it? How can I change this? I mean there must be something. +So I would roll, I'd make no eye contact -- just kinda frown, right? +Or I'd dress up really, really sharply or something. +Or I'd make eye contact with everyone -- that was really creepy; that didn't work at all. +You know anything, I'd try. I wouldn't shower for a week -- nothing worked. +Nothing whatsoever worked until a few years ago, my six-year-old daughters were looking at this wheelchair catalog that I had, and they said, "Oh, Dad! Dad! Look, you gotta get these, these flashy wheels -- you gotta get 'em!" +And I said, "Oh, girls, Dad is a very important journalist, that just wouldn't do at all." +And of course, they immediately concluded, "Oh, what a bummer, Dad. Journalists aren't allowed to have flashy wheels. +I mean, how important could you be then?" they said. +I went, "Wait a minute, all right, right -- I'll get the wheels." Purely out of protest, I got the flashy wheels, and I installed them and -- check this out. Could I have my special light cue please? +Look at that! +Now ... look at, look at this! Look at this! +So what you are looking at here has completely changed my life, I mean totally changed my life. +Instead of blank stares and awkwardness, now it is pointing and smiling! +People going, "Awesome wheels, dude! Those are awesome! +I mean, I want some of those wheels!" Little kids say, "Can I have a ride?" +And of course there's the occasional person -- usually a middle-aged male who will say, "Oh, those wheels are great! +I guess they're for safety, right?" +No! They're not for safety. +No, no, no, no, no. +What's the difference here, the wheelchair with no lights and the wheelchair with lights? +The difference is intent. +That's right, that's right; I'm no longer a victim. +I chose to change the situation -- I'm the Commander of the Starship Wheelchair with the phaser wheels in the front. Right? +Intent changes the picture completely. +I choose to enhance this rolling experience with a simple design element. +Acting with intent. +It conveys authorship. +It suggests that someone is driving. +It's reassuring; people are drawn to it. +Someone making the experience their own. +Covering the tragic tune with something different, something radically different. +People respond to that. +Now it seems simple, but actually I think in our society and culture in general, we have a huge problem with intent. +Now go with me here. Look at this guy. You know who this is? +It's Anders Breivik. Now, if he intended to kill in Olso, Norway last year, dozens and dozens of young people -- if he intended to do that, he's a vicious criminal. We punish him. +Life in prison. Death penalty in the United States, not so much in Norway. +But, if he instead acted out of a delusional fantasy, if he was motivated by some random mental illness, he's in a completely different category. +We may put him away for life, but we watch him clinically. +It's a completely different domain. +As an intentional murderer, Anders Breivik is merely evil. +But as a dysfunctional, as a dysfunctional murderer/psychotic, he's something much more complicated. +He's the breath of some primitive, ancient chaos. +He's the random state of nature we emerged from. +He's something very, very different. +It's as though intent is an essential component for humanity. +It's what we're supposed to do somehow. +We're supposed to act with intent. +We're supposed to do things by design. +Intent is a marker for civilization. +Now here's an example a little closer to home: My family is all about intent. +You can probably tell there are two sets of twins, the result of IVF technology, in vitro fertilization technology, due to some physical limitations I won't go into. +Anyway, in vitro technology, IVF, is about as intentional as agriculture. +Let me tell you, some of you may have the experience. +In fact, the whole technology of sperm extraction for spinal cord-injured males was invented by a veterinarian. +I met the dude. He's a great guy. +He carried this big leather bag full of sperm probes for all of the animals that he'd worked with, all the different animals. +Probes he designed, and in fact, he was really, really proud of these probes. +He would say, "You're right between horse and squirrel, John." +But anyway, so when my wife and I decided to upgrade our early middle age -- we had four kids, after all -- with a little different technology that I won't explain in too much detail here -- my urologist assured me I had nothing whatsoever to worry about. +"No need for birth control, Doc, are you sure about that?" +"John, John, I looked at your chart. +From your sperm tests we can confidently say that you're basically a form of birth control." +Well! +What a liberating thought! Yes! +And after a couple very liberating weekends, my wife and I, utilizing some cutting-edge erectile technology that is certainly worthy of a TEDTalk someday but I won't get into it now, we noticed some familiar, if unexpected, symptoms. +I wasn't exactly a form of birth control. +Look at that font there. My wife was so pissed. +I mean, did a designer come up with that? +No, I don't think a designer did come up with that. +In fact, maybe that's the problem. +And so, little Ajax was born. +He's like our other children, but the experience is completely different. +It's something like my accident, right? +He came out of nowhere. +But we all had to change, but not just react to the given; we bend to this new experience with intent. +We're five now. Five. +Facing the given with intent. Doing things by design. +Hey, the name Ajax -- you can't get much more intentional than that, right? +We're really hoping he thanks us for that later on. +But I never became a designer. No, no, no, no. Never attempted. Never even close. +I did love some great designs as I was growing up: The HP 35S calculator -- God, I loved that thing. Oh God, I wish I had one. +Man, I love that thing. +I could afford that. +Other designs I really couldn't afford, like the 1974 911 Targa. +In school, I studied nothing close to design or engineering; I studied useless things like the Classics, but there were some lessons even there -- this guy, Plato, it turns out he's a designer. +He designed a state in "The Republic," a design never implemented. +Listen to one of the design features of Plato's Government 4.0: "The State in which the rulers are most reluctant to govern is always the best and most quietly governed, and the State in which they are most eager, the worst." +Well, got that wrong, didn't we? +But look at that statement; it's all about intent. That's what I love about it. +But consider what Plato is doing here. What is he doing? +It's a grand idea of design -- a huge idea of design, common to all of the voices of religion and philosophy that emerged in the Classical period. +What was going on then? +They were trying to answer the question of what would human beings do now that they were no longer simply trying to survive? +As the human race emerged from a prehistoric chaos, a confrontation with random, brutal nature, they suddenly had a moment to think -- and there was a lot to think about. +All of a sudden, human existence needed an intent. +Human life needed a reason. +Reality itself needed a designer. +The given was replaced by various aspects of intent, by various designs, by various gods. +Gods we're still fighting about. Oh yeah. +Today we don't confront the chaos of nature. +Today it is the chaos of humanity's impact on the Earth itself that we confront. +This young discipline called design, I think, is in fact the emerging ethos formulating and then answering a very new question: What shall we do now in the face of the chaos that we have created? +What shall we do? +How shall we inscribe intent on all the objects we create, on all the circumstances we create, on all the places we change? +The consequences of a planet with 7 billion people and counting. +That's the tune we're all covering today, all of us. +And we can't just imitate the past. No. +That won't do. +That won't do at all. +Here's my favorite design moment: In the city of Kinshasa in Zaire in the 1990s, I was working for ABC News, and I was reporting on the fall of Mobutu Sese Seko, the dictator, the brutal dictator in Zaire, who raped and pillaged that country. +There was rioting in the middle of Kinshasa. +The place was falling apart; it was a horrible, horrible place, and I needed to go and explore the center of Kinshasa to report on the rioting and the looting. +People were carrying off vehicles, carrying off pieces of buildings. +Soldiers were in the streets shooting at looters and herding some in mass arrests. +In the middle of this chaos, I'm rolling around in a wheelchair, and I was completely invisible. Completely. +I was in a wheelchair; I didn't look like a looter. +I was in a wheelchair; I didn't look like a journalist, particularly, at least from their perspective. +And I didn't look like a soldier, that's for sure. +I was part of this sort of background noise of the misery of Zaire, completely invisible. +And all of a sudden, from around a corner, comes this young man, paralyzed, just like me, in this metal and wood and leather pedal, three-wheel tricycle-wheelchair device, and he pedals up to me as fast as he can. +He goes, "Hey, mister! Mister!" +And I looked at him -- he didn't know any other English than that, but we didn't need English, no, no, no, no, no. +We sat there and compared wheels and tires and spokes and tubes. +And I looked at his whacky pedal mechanism; he was full of pride over his design. +I wish I could show you that contraption. +His smile, our glow as we talked a universal language of design, invisible to the chaos around us. +His machine: homemade, bolted, rusty, comical. +My machine: American-made, confident, sleek. +He was particularly proud of the comfortable seat, really comfortable seat he had made in his chariot and its beautiful fabric fringe around the edge. +Oh, I wish I'd had those sparkly wheels back then to have shown him, man! +He would have loved those! Oh yeah. +He would have understood those; a chariot of pure intent -- think about it -- in a city out of control. +Design blew it all away for a moment. +We spoke for a few minutes and then each of us vanished back into the chaos. +He went back to the streets of Kinshasa; I went to my hotel. And I think of him now, now ... +And I pose this question. +An object imbued with intent -- it has power, it's treasure, we're drawn to it. +An object devoid of intent -- it's random, it's imitative, it repels us. It's like a piece of junk mail to be thrown away. +This is what we must demand of our lives, of our objects, of our things, of our circumstances: living with intent. +And I have to say that on that score, I have a very unfair advantage over all of you. +And I want to explain it to you now because this is a very special day. +Thirty-six years ago at nearly this moment, a 19-year-old boy awoke from a coma to ask a nurse a question, but the nurse was already there with an answer. +"You've had a terrible accident, young man. You've broken your back. +You'll never walk again." +I said, "I know all that -- what day is it?" +You see, I knew that the car had gone over the guardrail on the 28th of February, and I knew that 1976 was a leap year. +"Nurse! Is this the 28th or the 29th?" +And she looked at me and said, "It's March 1st." +And I went, "Oh my God. +I've got some catching up to do!" +And from that moment, I knew the given was that accident; I had no option but to make up this new life without walking. +Intent -- a life with intent -- lived by design, covering the original with something better. +It's something for all of us to do or find a way to do in these times. +To get back to this, to get back to design, and as my daddy suggested a long time ago, "Make the song your own, John. +Show everybody what you intend." +Daddy, this one's for you. +So my freshman year of college I signed up for an internship in the housing unit at Greater Boston Legal Services. +Showed up the first day ready to make coffee and photocopies, but was paired with this righteous, deeply inspired attorney named Jeff Purcell, who thrust me onto the front lines from the very first day. +And over the course of nine months I had the chance to have dozens of conversations with low-income families in Boston who would come in presenting with housing issues, but always had an underlying health issue. +So I had a client who came in, about to be evicted because he hasn't paid his rent. +But he hasn't paid his rent, of course, because he's paying for his HIV medication and just can't afford both. +We had moms who would come in, daughter has asthma, wakes up covered in cockroaches every morning. +And one of our litigation strategies was actually to send me into the home of these clients with these large glass bottles. +And I would collect the cockroaches, hot glue-gun them to this poster board that we'd bring to court for our cases. +And we always won because the judges were just so grossed out. +Far more effective, I have to say, than anything I later learned in law school. +But over the course of these nine months, I grew frustrated with feeling like we were intervening too far downstream in the lives of our clients -- that by the time they came to us, they were already in crisis. +And at the end of my freshman year of college, I read an article about the work that Dr. Barry Zuckerman was doing as Chair of Pediatrics at Boston Medical Center. +And his first hire was a legal services attorney to represent the patients. +So I called Barry, and with his blessing, in October 1995 walked into the waiting room of the pediatrics clinic at Boston Medical Center. +I'll never forget, the TVs played this endless reel of cartoons. +And the exhaustion of mothers who had taken two, three, sometimes four buses to bring their child to the doctor was just palpable. +The doctors, it seemed, never really had enough time for all the patients, try as they might. +And over the course of six months, I would corner them in the hallway and ask them a sort of naive but fundamental question: "If you had unlimited resources, what's the one thing you would give your patients?" +And I heard the same story again and again, a story we've heard hundreds of times since then. +They said, "Every day we have patients that come into the clinic -- child has an ear infection, I prescribe antibiotics. +But the real issue is there's no food at home. +The real issue is that child is living with 12 other people in a two-bedroom apartment. +And I don't even ask about those issues because there's nothing I can do. +I have 13 minutes with each patient. +Patients are piling up in the clinic waiting room. +I have no idea where the nearest food pantry is. +And I don't even have any help." +In that clinic, even today, there are two social workers for 24,000 pediatric patients, which is better than a lot of the clinics out there. +So Health Leads was born of these conversations -- a simple model where doctors and nurses can prescribe nutritious food, heat in the winter and other basic resources for their patients the same way they prescribe medication. +Patients then take their prescriptions to our desk in the clinic waiting room where we have a core of well-trained college student advocates who work side by side with these families to connect them out to the existing landscape of community resources. +So we began with a card table in the clinic waiting room -- totally lemonade stand style. +But today we have a thousand college student advocates who are working to connect nearly 9,000 patients and their families with the resources that they need to be healthy. +So 18 months ago I got this email that changed my life. +And the email was from Dr. Jack Geiger, who had written to congratulate me on Health Leads and to share, as he said, a bit of historical context. +In 1965 Dr. Geiger founded one of the first two community health centers in this country, in a brutally poor area in the Mississippi Delta. +And so many of his patients came in presenting with malnutrition that be began prescribing food for them. +And they would take these prescriptions to the local supermarket, which would fill them and then charge the pharmacy budget of the clinic. +And when the Office of Economic Opportunity in Washington, D.C. -- which was funding Geiger's clinic -- found out about this, they were furious. +And they sent this bureaucrat down to tell Geiger that he was expected to use their dollars for medical care -- to which Geiger famously and logically responded, "The last time I checked my textbooks, the specific therapy for malnutrition was food." +So when I got this email from Dr. Geiger, I knew I was supposed to be proud to be part of this history. +But the truth is I was devastated. +Here we are, 45 years after Geiger has prescribed food for his patients, and I have doctors telling me, "On those issues, we practice a 'don't ask, don't tell' policy." +Forty-five years after Geiger, Health Leads has to reinvent the prescription for basic resources. +So I have spent hours upon hours trying to make sense of this weird Groundhog Day. +How is it that if for decades we had a pretty straightforward tool for keeping patients, and especially low-income patients, healthy, that we didn't use it? +If we know what it takes to have a healthcare system rather than a sick-care system, why don't we just do it? +These questions, in my mind, are not hard because the answers are complicated, they are hard because they require that we be honest with ourselves. +My belief is that it's almost too painful to articulate our aspirations for our healthcare system, or even admit that we have any at all. +Because if we did, they would be so removed from our current reality. +But that doesn't change my belief that all of us, deep inside, here in this room and across this country, share a similar set of desires. +That if we are honest with ourselves and listen quietly, that we all harbor one fiercely held aspiration for our healthcare: that it keep us healthy. +This aspiration that our healthcare keep us healthy is an enormously powerful one. +And the way I think about this is that healthcare is like any other system. +It's just a set of choices that people make. +What if we decided to make a different set of choices? +What if we decided to take all the parts of healthcare that have drifted away from us and stand firm and say, "No. +These things are ours. +They will be used for our purposes. +They will be used to realize our aspiration"? +What if everything we needed to realize our aspiration for healthcare was right there in front of us just waiting to be claimed? +So that's where Health Leads began. +We started with the prescription pad -- a very ordinary piece of paper -- and we asked, not what do patients need to get healthy -- antibiotics, an inhaler, medication -- but what do patients need to be healthy, to not get sick in the first place? +And we chose to use the prescription for that purpose. +So just a few miles from here at Children's National Medical Center, when patients come into the doctor's office, they're asked a few questions. +They're asked, "Are you running out of food at the end of the month? +Do you have safe housing?" +And when the doctor begins the visit, she knows height, weight, is there food at home, is the family living in a shelter. +And that not only leads to a better set of clinical choices, but the doctor can also prescribe those resources for the patient, using Health Leads like any other sub-specialty referral. +The problem is, once you get a taste of what it's like to realize your aspiration for healthcare, you want more. +So we thought, if we can get individual doctors to prescribe these basic resources for their patients, could we get an entire healthcare system to shift its presumption? +And we gave it a shot. +So now at Harlem Hospital Center when patients come in with an elevated body mass index, the electronic medical record automatically generates a prescription for Health Leads. +And our volunteers can then work with them to connect patients to healthy food and excercise programs in their communities. +We've created a presumption that if you're a patient at that hospital with an elevated BMI, the four walls of the doctor's office probably aren't going to give you everything you need to be healthy. +You need more. +So on the one hand, this is just a basic recoding of the electronic medical record. +And on the other hand, it's a radical transformation of the electronic medical record from a static repository of diagnostic information to a health promotion tool. +In the private sector, when you squeeze that kind of additional value out of a fixed-cost investment, it's called a billion-dollar company. +But in my world, it's called reduced obesity and diabetes. +It's called healthcare -- a system where doctors can prescribe solutions to improve health, not just manage disease. +Same thing in the clinic waiting room. +So every day in this country three million patients pass through about 150,000 clinic waiting rooms in this country. +And what do they do when they're there? +They sit, they watch the goldfish in the fish tank, they read extremely old copies of Good Housekeeping magazine. +But mostly we all just sit there forever, waiting. +How did we get here where we devote hundreds of acres and thousands of hours to waiting? +What if we had a waiting room where you don't just sit when you're sick, but where you go to get healthy. +If airports can become shopping malls and McDonald's can become playgrounds, surely we can reinvent the clinic waiting room. +And that's what Health Leads has tried to do, to reclaim that real estate and that time and to use it as a gateway to connect patients to the resources they need to be healthy. +So it's a brutal winter in the Northeast, your kid has asthma, your heat just got turned off, and of course you're in the waiting room of the ER, because the cold air triggered your child's asthma. +But what if instead of waiting for hours anxiously, the waiting room became the place where Health Leads turned your heat back on? +And of course all of this requires a broader workforce. +But if we're creative, we already have that too. +We know that our doctors and nurses and even social workers aren't enough, that the ticking minutes of health care are too constraining. +Health just takes more time. +It requires a non-clinical army of community health workers and case managers and many others. +What if a small part of that next healthcare workforce were the 11 million college students in this country? +Unencumbered by clinical responsibilities, unwilling to take no for an answer from those bureaucracies that tend to crush patients, and with an unparalleled ability for information retrieval honed through years of using Google. +Now lest you think it improbable that a college volunteer can make this kind of commitment, I have two words for you: March Madness. +The average NCAA Division I men's basketball player dedicates 39 hours a week to his sport. +Now we may think that's good or bad, but in either case it's real. +And Health Leads is based on the presumption that for too long we have asked too little of our college students when it comes to real impact in vulnerable communities. +College sports teams say, "We're going to take dozens of hours at some field across campus at some ungodly hour of the morning and we're going to measure your performance, and your team's performance, and if you don't measure up or you don't show up, we're going to cut you off the team. +But we'll make huge investments in your training and development, and we'll give you an extraordinary community of peers." +And people line up out the door just for the chance to be part of it. +So our feeling is, if it's good enough for the rugby team, it's good enough for health and poverty. +Health Leads too recruits competitively, trains intensively, coaches professionally, demands significant time, builds a cohesive team and measures results -- a kind of Teach for America for healthcare. +Now in the top 10 cities in the U.S. +with the largest number of Medicaid patients, each of those has at least 20,000 college students. +New York alone has half a million college students. +And they leave with the conviction, the ability and the efficacy to realize our most basic aspirations for health care. +And the thing is, there's thousands of these folks already out there. +So Mia Lozada is Chief Resident of Internal Medicine at UCSF Medical Center, but for three years as an undergraduate she was a Health Leads volunteer in the clinic waiting room at Boston Medical Center. +Mia says, "When my classmates write a prescription, they think their work is done. +When I write a prescription, I think, can the family read the prescription? +Do they have transportation to the pharmacy? +Do they have food to take with the prescription? +Do they have insurance to fill the prescription? +Those are the questions I learned at Health Leads, not in medical school." +Now none of these solutions -- the prescription pad, the electronic medical record, the waiting room, the army of college students -- are perfect. +But they are ours for the taking -- simple examples of the vast under-utilized healthcare resources that, if we reclaimed and redeployed, could realize our most basic aspiration of healthcare. +So I had been at Legal Services for about nine months when this idea of Health Leads started percolating in my mind. +And I knew I had to tell Jeff Purcell, my attorney, that I needed to leave. +And I was so nervous, because I thought he was going to be disappointed in me for abandoning our clients for some crazy idea. +And I sat down with him and I said, "Jeff, I have this idea that we could mobilize college students to address patients' most basic health needs." +And I'll be honest, all I wanted was for him to not be angry at me. +But he said this, "Rebecca, when you have a vision, you have an obligation to realize that vision. +You must pursue that vision." +And I have to say, I was like "Whoa. +That's a lot of pressure." +I just wanted a blessing, I didn't want some kind of mandate. +But the truth is I've spent every waking minute nearly since then chasing that vision. +I believe that we all have a vision for healthcare in this country. +I believe that at the end of the day when we measure our healthcare, it will not be by the diseases cured, but by the diseases prevented. +It will not be by the excellence of our technologies or the sophistication of our specialists, but by how rarely we needed them. +And most of all, I believe that when we measure healthcare, it will be, not by what the system was, but by what we chose it to be. +Thank you. +Thank you. +Evidence suggests that humans in all ages and from all cultures create their identity in some kind of narrative form. +From mother to daughter, preacher to congregant, teacher to pupil, storyteller to audience. +Whether in cave paintings or the latest uses of the Internet, human beings have always told their histories and truths through parable and fable. +We are inveterate storytellers. +But where, in our increasingly secular and fragmented world, do we offer communality of experience, unmediated by our own furious consumerism? +And what narrative, what history, what identity, what moral code are we imparting to our young? +Cinema is arguably the 20th century's most influential art form. +Its artists told stories across national boundaries, in as many languages, genres and philosophies as one can imagine. +Indeed, it is hard to find a subject that film has yet to tackle. +During the last decade we've seen a vast integration of global media, now dominated by a culture of the Hollywood blockbuster. +We are increasingly offered a diet in which sensation, not story, is king. +What was common to us all 40 years ago -- the telling of stories between generations -- is now rarified. +As a filmmaker, it worried me. +As a human being, it puts the fear of God in me. +What future could the young build with so little grasp of where they've come from and so few narratives of what's possible? +The irony is palpable; technical access has never been greater, cultural access never weaker. +And so in 2006 we set up FILMCLUB, an organization that ran weekly film screenings in schools followed by discussions. +If we could raid the annals of 100 years of film, maybe we could build a narrative that would deliver meaning to the fragmented and restless world of the young. +Given the access to technology, even a school in a tiny rural hamlet could project a DVD onto a white board. +In the first nine months we ran 25 clubs across the U.K., with kids in age groups between five and 18 watching a film uninterrupted for 90 minutes. +The films were curated and contextualized. +But the choice was theirs, and our audience quickly grew to choose the richest and most varied diet that we could provide. +The outcome, immediate. +It was an education of the most profound and transformative kind. +In groups as large as 150 and as small as three, these young people discovered new places, new thoughts, new perspectives. +By the time the pilot had finished, we had the names of a thousand schools that wished to join. +The film that changed my life is a 1951 film by Vittorio De Sica, "Miracle in Milan." +It's a remarkable comment on slums, poverty and aspiration. +I had seen the film on the occasion of my father's 50th birthday. +Technology then meant we had to hire a viewing cinema, find and pay for the print and the projectionist. +But for my father, the emotional and artistic importance of De Sica's vision was so great that he chose to celebrate his half-century with his three teenage children and 30 of their friends, "In order," he said, "to pass the baton of concern and hope on to the next generation." +In the last shot of "Miracle in Milan," slum-dwellers float skyward on flying brooms. +Sixty years after the film was made and 30 years after I first saw it, I see young faces tilt up in awe, their incredulity matching mine. +And the speed with which they associate it with "Slumdog Millionaire" or the favelas in Rio speaks to the enduring nature. +In a FILMCLUB season about democracy and government, we screened "Mr. Smith Goes to Washington." +Made in 1939, the film is older than most of our members' grandparents. +Frank Capra's classic values independence and propriety. +It shows how to do right, how to be heroically awkward. +It is also an expression of faith in the political machine as a force of honor. +Shortly after "Mr. Smith" became a FILMCLUB classic, there was a week of all-night filibustering in the House of Lords. +And it was with great delight that we found young people up and down the country explaining with authority what filibustering was and why the Lords might defy their bedtime on a point of principle. +After all, Jimmy Stewart filibustered for two entire reels. +In choosing "Hotel Rwanda," they explored genocide of the most brutal kind. +It provoked tears as well as incisive questions about unarmed peace-keeping forces and the double-dealing of a Western society that picks its moral fights with commodities in mind. +And when "Schindler's List" demanded that they never forget, one child, full of the pain of consciousness, remarked, "We already forgot, otherwise how did 'Hotel Rwanda' happen?" +As they watch more films their lives got palpably richer. +"Pickpocket" started a debate about criminality disenfranchisement. +"To Sir, with Love" ignited its teen audience. +They celebrated a change in attitude towards non-white Britons, but railed against our restless school system that does not value collective identity, unlike that offered by Sidney Poitier's careful tutelage. +By now, these thoughtful, opinionated, curious young people thought nothing of tackling films of all forms -- black and white, subtitled, documentary, non-narrative, fantasy -- and thought nothing of writing detailed reviews that competed to favor one film over another in passionate and increasingly sophisticated prose. +Six thousand reviews each school week vying for the honor of being review of the week. +From 25 clubs, we became hundreds, then thousands, until we were nearly a quarter of a million kids in 7,000 clubs right across the country. +And although the numbers were, and continue to be, extraordinary, what became more extraordinary was how the experience of critical and curious questioning translated into life. +Some of our kids started talking with their parents, others with their teachers, or with their friends. +And those without friends started making them. +The films provided communality across all manner of divide. +And the stories they held provided a shared experience. +"Persepolis" brought a daughter closer to her Iranian mother, and "Jaws" became the way in which one young boy was able to articulate the fear he'd experienced in flight from violence that killed first his father then his mother, the latter thrown overboard on a boat journey. +Who was right, who wrong? +What would they do under the same conditions? +Was the tale told well? +Was there a hidden message? +How has the world changed? How could it be different? +A tsunami of questions flew out of the mouths of children who the world didn't think were interested. +And they themselves had not known they cared. +And as they wrote and debated, rather than seeing the films as artifacts, they began to see themselves. +I have an aunt who is a wonderful storyteller. +In a moment she can invoke images of running barefoot on Table Mountain and playing cops and robbers. +Quite recently she told me that in 1948, two of her sisters and my father traveled on a boat to Israel without my grandparents. +When the sailors mutinied at sea in a demand for humane conditions, it was these teenagers that fed the crew. +I was past 40 when my father died. +He never mentioned that journey. +My mother's mother left Europe in a hurry without her husband, but with her three-year-old daughter and diamonds sewn into the hem of her skirt. +After two years in hiding, my grandfather appeared in London. +He was never right again. +And his story was hushed as he assimilated. +My story started in England with a clean slate and the silence of immigrant parents. +I had "Anne Frank," "The Great Escape," "Shoah," "Triumph of the Will." +It was Leni Riefenstahl in her elegant Nazi propaganda who gave context to what the family had to endure. +These films held what was too hurtful to say out loud, and they became more useful to me than the whispers of survivors and the occasional glimpse of a tattoo on a maiden aunt's wrist. +Purists may feel that fiction dissipates the quest of real human understanding, that film is too crude to tell a complex and detailed history, or that filmmakers always serve drama over truth. +But within the reels lie purpose and meaning. +As one 12-year-old said after watching "Wizard of Oz," "Every person should watch this, because unless you do you may not know that you too have a heart." +We honor reading, why not honor watching with the same passion? +Consider "Citizen Kane" as valuable as Jane Austen. +Agree that "Boyz n the Hood," like Tennyson, offers an emotional landscape and a heightened understanding that work together. +Each a piece of memorable art, each a brick in the wall of who we are. +And it's okay if we remember Tom Hanks better than astronaut Jim Lovell or have Ben Kingsley's face superimposed onto that of Gandhi's. +And though not real, Eve Harrington, Howard Beale, Mildred Pierce are an opportunity to discover what it is to be human, and no less helpful to understanding our life and times as Shakespeare is in illuminating the world of Elizabethan England. +We guessed that film, whose stories are a meeting place of drama, music, literature and human experience, would engage and inspire the young people participating in FILMCLUB. +What we could not have foreseen was the measurable improvements in behavior, confidence and academic achievement. +Once-reluctant students now race to school, talk to their teachers, fight, not on the playground, but to choose next week's film -- young people who have found self-definition, ambition and an appetite for education and social engagement from the stories they have witnessed. +Our members defy the binary description of how we so often describe our young. +They are neither feral nor myopically self-absorbed. +They are, like other young people, negotiating a world with infinite choice, but little culture of how to find meaningful experience. +We appeared surprised at the behaviors of those who define themselves by the size of the tick on their shoes, yet acquisition has been the narrative we have offered. +If we want different values we have to tell a different story, a story that understands that an individual narrative is an essential component of a person's identity, that a collective narrative is an essential component of a cultural identity, and without it it is impossible to imagine yourself as part of a group. +Because when these people get home after a screening of "Rear Window" and raise their gaze to the building next door, they have the tools to wonder who, apart from them, is out there and what is their story. +Thank you. +When I was about 16 years old I can remember flipping through channels at home during summer vacation, looking for a movie to watch on HBO -- and how many of you remember "Ferris Bueller's Day Off"? +Oh yeah, great movie, right? -- Well, I saw Matthew Broderick on the screen, and so I thought, "Sweet! Ferris Bueller. I'll watch this!" +It wasn't Ferris Bueller. And forgive me Matthew Broderick, I know you've done other movies besides Ferris Bueller, but that's how I remember you; you're Ferris. +But you weren't doing Ferris-y things at the time; you were doing gay things at the time. +He was in a movie called "Torch Song Trilogy." +And "Torch Song Trilogy" was based on a play about this drag queen who essentially was looking for love. +Love and respect -- that's what the whole film was about. +And as I'm watching it, I'm realizing that they're talking about me. +Not the drag queen part -- I am not shaving my hair for anyone -- but the gay part. +The finding love and respect, the part about trying to find your place in the world. +So as I'm watching this, I see this powerful scene that brought me to tears, and it stuck with me for the past 25 years. +And there's this quote that the main character, Arnold, tells his mother as they're fighting about who he is and the life that he lives. +"There's one thing more -- there's just one more thing you better understand. +I've taught myself to sew, cook, fix plumbing, build furniture, I can even pat myself on the back when necessary, all so I don't have to ask anyone for anything. +There's nothing I need from anyone except for love and respect, and anyone who can't give me those two things has no place in my life." +I remember that scene like it was yesterday; I was 16, I was in tears, I was in the closet, and I'm looking at these two people, Ferris Bueller and some guy I'd never seen before, fighting for love. +When I finally got to a place in my life where I came out and accepted who I was, and was really quite happy, to tell you the truth, I was happily gay and I guess that's supposed to be right because gay means happy too. +I realized there were a lot of people who weren't as gay as I was -- gay being happy, not gay being attracted to the same sex. +In fact, I heard that there was a lot of hate and a lot of anger and a lot of frustration and a lot of fear about who I was and the gay lifestyle. +Now, I'm sitting here trying to figure out "the gay lifestyle," "the gay lifestyle," and I keep hearing this word over and over and over again: lifestyle, lifestyle, lifestyle. +I've even heard politicians say that the gay lifestyle is a greater threat to civilization than terrorism. +That's when I got scared. +Because I'm thinking, if I'm gay and I'm doing something that's going to destroy civilization, I need to figure out what this stuff is, and I need to stop doing it right now. +So, I took a look at my life, a hard look at my life, and I saw some things very disturbing. +And I want to begin sharing these evil things that I've been doing with you, starting with my mornings. +I drink coffee. +Not only do I drink coffee, I know other gay people who drink coffee. +I get stuck in traffic -- evil, evil traffic. +Sometimes I get stuck in lines at airports. +I look around, and I go, "My God, look at all these gay people! +We're all trapped in these lines! These long lines trying to get on an airplane! +My God, this lifestyle that I'm living is so freaking evil!" +I clean up. This is not an actual photograph of my son's room; his is messier. +And because I have a 15-year-old, all I do is cook and cook and cook. +Any parents out there of teenagers? All we do is cook for these people -- they eat two, three, four dinners a night -- it's ridiculous! +This is the gay lifestyle. +And after I'm done cooking and cleaning and standing in line and getting stuck in traffic, my partner and I, we get together and we decide that we're gonna go and have some wild and crazy fun. +We're usually in bed before we find out who's eliminated on "American Idol." +We have to wake up and find out the next day who's still on because we're too freaking tired to hear who stays on. +This is the super duper evil gay lifestyle. +Run for your heterosexual lives, people. +When my partner, Steve, and I first started dating, he told me this story about penguins. +And I didn't know where he was going with it at first. +He was kind of a little bit nervous when he was sharing it with me, but he told me that when a penguin finds a mate that they want to spend the rest of their life with, they present them with a pebble -- the perfect pebble. +And then he reaches into his pocket, and he brings this out to me. +And I looked at it, and I was like, this is really cool. +And he says, "I want to spend the rest of my life with you." +So I wear this whenever I have to do something that makes me a little nervous, like, I don't know, a TEDx talk. +I wear this when I am apart from him for a long period of time. +And sometimes I just wear it just because. +How many people out there are in love? Anyone in love out there? +You might be gay. +Because I, too, am in love, and apparently that's part of the gay lifestyle that I warned you about. +You may want to tell your spouse. Who, if they're in love, might be gay as well. +How many of you are single? Any single people out there? +You too might be gay! Because I know some gay people who are also single. +It's really scary, this gay lifestyle thing; it's super duper evil and there's no end to it! +It goes and goes and engulfs! +It's really quite silly, isn't it? +That's why I'm so happy to finally hear President Obama come out and say that he supports -- that he supports marriage equality. +It's a wonderful day in our country's history; it's a wonderful day in the globe's history to be able to have an actual sitting president say, enough of this -- first to himself, and then to the rest of the world. +It's wonderful. +But there's something that's been disturbing me since he made that remark just a short time ago. +And that is, apparently, this is just another move by the gay activists that's on the gay agenda. +And I'm disturbed by this because I've been openly gay now for quite some time. +I've been to all of the functions, I've been to fundraisers, I've written about the topic, and I have yet to receive my copy of this gay agenda. +I've paid my dues on time, I've marched in gay pride flags parades and the whole nine, and I've yet to see a copy of the gay agenda. +It's very, very frustrating, and I was feeling left out, like I wasn't quite gay enough. +But then something wonderful happened: I was out shopping, as I tend to do, and I came across a bootleg copy of the official gay agenda. +And I said to myself, "LZ, for so long, you have been denied this. +When you get in front of this crowd, you're gonna share the news. +You're gonna spread the gay agenda so no one else has to wonder, what exactly is in the gay agenda? +What are these gays up to? +What do they want?" +So, without further ado, I will present to you, ladies and gentlemen -- now be careful, 'cause it's evil -- a copy, the official copy, of the gay agenda. +The gay agenda, people! +There it is! +Did you soak it all in? The gay agenda. +Some of you may be calling it, what, the Constitution of the United States, is that what you call it too? +The U.S. Constitution is the gay agenda. +These gays, people like me, want to be treated like full citizens and it's all written down in plain sight. +I was blown away when I saw it. I was like, wait, this is the gay agenda? +Why didn't you just call it the Constitution so I knew what you were talking about? +I wouldn't have been so confused; I wouldn't have been so upset. +But there it is. The gay agenda. +Run for your heterosexual lives. +Did you know that in all the states where there is no shading that people who are gay, lesbian, bisexual or transgendered can be kicked out of their apartments for being gay, lesbian, bisexual or transgendered? +That's the only reason that a landlord needs to have them removed, because there's no protection from discrimination of GLBT people. +Did you know in the states where there's no shading that you can be fired for being gay, lesbian, bisexual or transgendered? +Not based upon the quality of your work, how long you've been there, if you stink, just if you're gay, lesbian, bisexual or transgendered. +All of which flies in the face of the gay agenda, also known as the U.S. Constitution. +Specifically, this little amendment right here: "No state shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States." +I'm looking at you, North Carolina. +But you're not looking at the U.S. Constitution. +This is the gay agenda: equality. Not special rights, but the rights that were already written by these people -- these elitists, if you will. +Educated, well-dressed, some would dare say questionably dressed. +Nonetheless, our forefathers, right? +The people that, we say, knew what they were doing when they wrote the Constitution -- the gay agenda, if you will. +All of that flies in the face of what they did. +That is the reason why I felt it was imperative that I presented you with this copy of the gay agenda. +Because I figured if I made it funny, you wouldn't be as threatened. +I figured if I was a bit irreverent, you wouldn't find it serious. +And we're just trying to walk in those rights that have already been stated, that we've already agreed upon. +There are people living in fear of losing their jobs so they don't show anyone who they really are right here at home. This isn't just about North Carolina; all those states that were clear, it's legal. +If I could brag for a second, I have a 15-year-old son from my marriage. +He has a 4.0. +He is starting a new club at school, Policy Debate. +He's a budding track star; he has almost every single record in middle school for every event that he competed in. +He volunteers. +He prays before he eats. +I would like to think, as his father -- and he lives with me primarily -- that I had a little something to do with all of that. +I would like to think that he's a good boy, a respectful young man. I would like to think that I've proven to be a capable father. +But if I were to go to the state of Michigan today, and try to adopt a young person who is in an orphanage, I would be disqualified for only one reason: because I'm gay. +It doesn't matter what I've already proven, what I can do with my heart. +It's because of what the state of Michigan says that I am that I am disqualified for any sort of adoption. +And that's not just about me, that's about so many other Michiganders, U.S. citizens, who don't understand why what they are is so much more significant than who they are. +This story just keeps playing over and over and over again in our country's history. +There was a time in which, I don't know, people who were black couldn't have the same rights. +People who happened to be women didn't have the same rights, couldn't vote. +There was a point in our history in which, if you were considered disabled, that an employer could just fire you, before the Americans with Disabilities Act. +We keep doing this over and over again. +And so here we are, 2012, gay agenda, gay lifestyle, and I'm not a good dad and people don't deserve to be able to protect their families because of what they are, not who they are. +So when you hear the words "gay lifestyle" and "gay agenda" in the future, I encourage you to do two things: One, remember the U.S. Constitution, and then two, if you wouldn't mind looking to your left, please. +Look to your right. +That person next to you is a brother, is a sister. +And they should be treated with love and respect. +Thank you. +(Skateboard sounds) So, that's what I've done with my life. Thank you. As a kid, I grew up on a farm in Florida, and I did what most little kids do. +I played a little baseball, did a few other things like that, but I always had the sense of being an outsider, and it wasn't until I saw pictures in the magazines that a couple other guys skate, I thought, "Wow, that's for me," you know? +Because there was no coach standing directly over you, and these guys, they were just being themselves. +There was no opponent directly across from you. +And I loved that sense, so I started skating when I was about 10 years old, in 1977, and when I did, I picked it up pretty quickly. +In fact, here's some footage from about 1984. +It wasn't until '79 I won my first amateur championship, and then, by '81, I was 14, and I won my first world championship, which was amazing to me, and in a very real sense, that was the first real victory I had. +Oh, watch this. +This is a casper slide, where the board's upside down. +Mental note on that one. And this one here? An ollie. +So, as she mentioned, that is overstated for sure, but that's why they called me the godfather of modern street skating. +Here's some images of that. +Now, I was about halfway through my pro career in, I would say, the mid-'80s. +So it was evolving upwards. +In fact, when someone tells you they're a skater today, they pretty much mean a street skater, because freestyle, it took about five years for it to die, and at that stage, I'd been a "champion" champion for 11 years, which, phew! +And suddenly it was over for me. That's it. +It was gone. They took my pro model off the shelf, which was essentially pronouncing you dead publicly. +That's how you make your money, you know? +You have a signature board and wheels and shoes and clothes. I had all that stuff, and it's gone. +The crazy thing was, there was a really liberating sense about it, because I no longer had to protect my record as a champion. "Champion," again. +Champion sounds so goofy, but it's what it was, right? +And I got to -- What drew me to skateboarding, the freedom was now restored, where I could just create things, because that's where the joy was for me, always, was creating new stuff. +The other thing that I had was a deep well of tricks to draw from that were rooted in these flat ground tricks. +Stuff the normal guys were doing was very much different. +So, as humbling and rotten as it was And believe me, it was rotten. I would go to skate spots, and I was already, like, "famous guy," right? +And everyone thought I was good. But in this new terrain, I was horrible. So people would go, "Oh, he's all -- Oh, what happened to Mullen?" So, humbling as it was, I began again. +Here are some tricks that I started to bring to that new terrain. (Skateboard noises) And again, there's this undergirding layer of influence of freestyle that made me Oh, that one? +That's, like, the hardest thing I've ever done. +Okay, look at that. It's a darkslide. +See how it's sliding on the backside? +Those are super-fun. And, actually, not that hard. +You know, at the very root of that, see, caspers, see how you throw it? (Skateboard noises) Simple as that, right? No biggie. And your front foot, the way it grabs it, is -- I'd seen someone slide on the back of the board like that, and I was like, "How can I get it over?" +Because that had not yet been done. And then it dawned on me, and here's part of what I'm saying. +I had an infrastructure. I had this deep layer, where it was like, oh my gosh, it's just your foot. +It's just the way you throw your board over. +Just let the ledge do that, and it's easy, and the next thing you know, there's 20 more tricks based out of the variations. +So that's the kind of thing that, here, check this out, here's another way, and I won't overdo this. +A little indulgent, I understand. +There's something called a primo slide. +(Skateboard noises) It is the funnest trick ever to do. +(Skateboard noises) It's like skinboarding. +And this one, look how it slides sideways, every which way? +Okay, so when you're skating, and you take a fall, the board slips that way or that way. It's kind of predictable. +This? It goes every which way. It's like a cartoon, the falls, and that's what I love the most about it. +It's so much fun to do. In fact, when I started doing them, I remember, because I got hurt. I had to get a knee surgery, right? So there were a couple of days where, actually a couple of weeks, where I couldn't skate at all. +It would give out on me. And I would watch the guys, I'd go to this warehouse where a lot of the guys were skating, my friends, and I was like, "Man I gotta do something new. I want to do something new. +I want to start fresh. I want to start fresh." +And so the night before my surgery, I'd watched, and I was like, "How am I going to do this?" +So I ran up, and I jumped on my board, and I cavemanned, and I flipped it down, and I remember thinking, I landed so light-footed, thinking, if my knee gives, they'll just have more work to do in the morning. +And so, when it was the crazy thing. +I don't know how many of you guys have had surgery, but -- -- you are so helpless, right? +Now, let me -- I told you a little bit about the evolution of the tricks. Consider that content, in a sense. +How can I expand, how can the context, how can the environment change the very nature of what I do? +This is a place not that far from here. +It's a rotten neighborhood. Your first consideration is, am I gonna get beat up? You go out and -- See this wall? +It's fairly mellow, and it's beckoning to do bank tricks, right? +But there's this other aspect of it for wheelies, so check this out. There's a few tricks, again, how environment changes the nature of your tricks. +Freestyle oriented, manual down -- wheelie down. +Watch, this one? Oh, I love this. It's like surfing, this one, the way you catch it. +This one, a little sketchy going backwards, and watch the back foot, watch the back foot. +Oop. Mental note right there. Again, we'll get back to that. +Here. Back foot, back foot. Okay, up there? +That was called a 360 flip. Notice how the board flipped and spun this way, both axes. +And another example of how the context changed, and the creative process for me and for most skaters, is, you go, you get out of the car, you check for security, you check for stuff. It's funny, you get to know their rhythms, you know, the guys that cruise around, and skateboarding is such a humbling thing, man. +No matter how good you are, right, you still gotta deal with So you hit this wall, and when I hit it, the first thing you do is you fall forward, and I'm like, all right, all right. +As you adjust, you punch it up, and then when I would do that, it was throwing my shoulder this way, which as I was doing it, I was like, "Oh wow, that's begging for a 360 flip," because that's how you load up for a 360 flip. +And these sub-movements are just kind of floating around, and as the wall hits you, they connect themselves to an extent, and that's when the cognitive mind, you think, "Oh, 360 flip, I'm going to make that." +So that's how that works to me, the creative process, the process itself of street skating. +So, next Oh, mind you. Those are the community. +These are some of the best skaters in the world. +These are my friends. Oh my gosh, they're such good people. +And the beauty of skateboarding is that, no one guy is the best. In fact, I know this is rotten to say, they're my friends, but a couple of them actually don't look that comfortable on their board. +What makes them great is the degree to which they use their skateboarding to individuate themselves. +Every single one of these guys, you look at them, you can see a silhouette of them, and you realize, like, "Oh, that's him, that's Haslam, that's Koston, there's these guys, these are the guys. +The greater the contribution, the more we express and form our individuality, which is so important to a lot of us who feel like rejects to begin with. +The summation of that gives us something we could never achieve as an individual. +I should say this. There's some sort of beautiful symmetry that the degree to which we connect to a community is in proportion to our individuality, which we are expressing by what we do. +Next. These guys. Very similar community that's extremely conducive to innovation. +Notice a couple of these shots from the Police Department. +But it is quite similar. I mean, what is it to hack, right? +It's knowing a technology so well that you can manipulate it and steer it to do things it was never intended to do, right? +And they're not all bad. +You can be a Linux kernel hacker, make it more stable, right? +More safe, more secure. You can be an iOS hacker, make your iPhone do stuff it wasn't supposed to. +Not authorized, but not illegal. +And then you've got some of these guys, right? +What they do is very similar to our creative process. +They connect disparate information, and they bring it together in a way that a security analyst doesn't expect. Right? +It doesn't make them good people, but it's at the heart of engineering, at the heart of a creative community, an innovative community, and the open source community, the basic ethos of it is, take what other people do, make it better, give it back so we all rise further. +Very similar communities, very similar. +We have our edgier sides, too. It's funny, my dad was right. +These are my peers. +But I respect what they do, and they respect what I do, because they can do things. It's amazing what they can do. +In fact, one of them, he was Ernst & Young's Entrepreneur of the Year for San Diego County, so they're not, you never know who you're dealing with. +We've all had some degree of fame. +In fact, I've had so much success that I strangely always feel unworthy of. +I've had a patent, and that was cool, and we started a company, and it grew, and it became the biggest, and then it went down, and then it became the biggest again, which is harder than the first time, and then we sold it, and then we sold it again. +So I've had some success. And in the end, when you've had all of these things, what is it that continues to drive you? As I mentioned, the knee stuff and these things, what is it that will punch you? +Because it's not just the mind. +I've been all around the world, and there will be a thousand kids crying out your name, and it's such a weird, visceral experience. +And you get in a car, and you drive away, and 10-minute drive, and you get out, and no one gives a rat's who you are. And it gives you that clarity of perspective of, man, I'm just me, and popularity, what does that really mean again? Not much. +It's peer respect that drives us. That's the one thing that makes us do what we do. I've had over a dozen bones, these guys, this guy, over, what, eight, 10 concussions, to the point where it's comedy, right? +It is actually comedy. They mess with him. +Next. And this is something deeper, and this is where I'm I think I was on tour when I, I was reading one of the Feynman biographies. It was the red one or the blue one. +And he made this statement that was so profound to me. +It was that the Nobel Prize was the tombstone on all great work, and it resonated because I had won 35 out of 36 contests that I'd entered over 11 years, and it made me bananas. +In fact, winning isn't the word. I won it once. +The rest of the time, you're just defending, and you get into this, like, turtle posture, you know? +Where you're not doing. It usurped the joy of what I loved to do because I was no longer doing it to create and have fun, and when it died out from under me, that was one of the most liberating things because I could create. +And look, I understand that I am on the very edge of preachy, right here. I'm not here to do that. +It's just that I'm in front of a very privileged audience. +Krisztina Holly: I have a question for you. +So you've really reinvented yourself in the past from freestyle to street, and, I think it was about four years ago you officially retired. Is that it? What's next? +Rodney Mullen: That's a good question. +KH: Something tells me it's not the end. +RM: Yeah. I, every time you think you've chased something down, it's funny, no matter how good you are, and I know guys like this, it feels like you're polishing a turd. +RM: You'll get a text. +KH: Right. Thank you. Good job. RM: Thank you. Thank you. +Two weeks ago, I was sitting at the kitchen table with my wife Katya, and we were talking about what I was going to talk about today. +We have an 11-year-old son; his name is Lincoln. +He was sitting at the same table, doing his math homework. +And during a pause in my conversation with Katya, I looked over at Lincoln and I was suddenly thunderstruck by a recollection of a client of mine. +My client was a guy named Will. +He was from North Texas. +He never knew his father very well, because his father left his mom while she was pregnant with him. +And so, he was destined to be raised by a single mom, which might have been all right except that this particular single mom was a paranoid schizophrenic, and when Will was five years old, she tried to kill him with a butcher knife. +She was taken away by authorities and placed in a psychiatric hospital, and so for the next several years Will lived with his older brother, until he committed suicide by shooting himself through the heart. +And after that Will bounced around from one family member to another, until, by the time he was nine years old, he was essentially living on his own. +That morning that I was sitting with Katya and Lincoln, I looked at my son, and I realized that when my client, Will, was his age, he'd been living by himself for two years. +Will eventually joined a gang and committed a number of very serious crimes, including, most seriously of all, a horrible, tragic murder. +And Will was ultimately executed as punishment for that crime. +But I don't want to talk today about the morality of capital punishment. +I certainly think that my client shouldn't have been executed, but what I would like to do today instead is talk about the death penalty in a way I've never done before, in a way that is entirely noncontroversial. +I think that's possible, because there is a corner of the death penalty debate -- maybe the most important corner -- where everybody agrees, where the most ardent death penalty supporters and the most vociferous abolitionists are on exactly the same page. +That's the corner I want to explore. +Before I do that, though, I want to spend a couple of minutes telling you how a death penalty case unfolds, and then I want to tell you two lessons that I have learned over the last 20 years as a death penalty lawyer from watching well more than a hundred cases unfold in this way. +You can think of a death penalty case as a story that has four chapters. +The first chapter of every case is exactly the same, and it is tragic. +It begins with the murder of an innocent human being, and it's followed by a trial where the murderer is convicted and sent to death row, and that death sentence is ultimately upheld by the state appellate court. +The second chapter consists of a complicated legal proceeding known as a state habeas corpus appeal. +The third chapter is an even more complicated legal proceeding known as a federal habeas corpus proceeding. +And the fourth chapter is one where a variety of things can happen. +The lawyers might file a clemency petition, they might initiate even more complex litigation, or they might not do anything at all. +But that fourth chapter always ends with an execution. +When I started representing death row inmates more than 20 years ago, people on death row did not have a right to a lawyer in either the second or the fourth chapter of this story. +They were on their own. +In fact, it wasn't until the late 1980s that they acquired a right to a lawyer during the third chapter of the story. +So what all of these death row inmates had to do was rely on volunteer lawyers to handle their legal proceedings. +The problem is that there were way more guys on death row than there were lawyers who had both the interest and the expertise to work on these cases. +And so inevitably, lawyers drifted to cases that were already in chapter four -- that makes sense, of course. +Those are the cases that are most urgent; those are the guys who are closest to being executed. +Some of these lawyers were successful; they managed to get new trials for their clients. +Others of them managed to extend the lives of their clients, sometimes by years, sometimes by months. +But the one thing that didn't happen was that there was never a serious and sustained decline in the number of annual executions in Texas. +In fact, as you can see from this graph, from the time that the Texas execution apparatus got efficient in the mid- to late 1990s, there have only been a couple of years where the number of annual executions dipped below 20. +In a typical year in Texas, we're averaging about two people a month. +In some years in Texas, we've executed close to 40 people, and this number has never significantly declined over the last 15 years. +And yet, at the same time that we continue to execute about the same number of people every year, the number of people who we're sentencing to death on an annual basis has dropped rather steeply. +So we have this paradox, which is that the number of annual executions has remained high but the number of new death sentences has gone down. +Why is that? +It can't be attributed to a decline in the murder rate, because the murder rate has not declined nearly so steeply as the red line on that graph has gone down. +What has happened instead is that juries have started to sentence more and more people to prison for the rest of their lives without the possibility of parole, rather than sending them to the execution chamber. +Why has that happened? +It hasn't happened because of a dissolution of popular support for the death penalty. +Death penalty opponents take great solace in the fact that death penalty support in Texas is at an all-time low. +Do you know what all-time low in Texas means? +It means that it's in the low 60 percent. +What's happened to cause this phenomenon? +What's happened is that lawyers who represent death row inmates have shifted their focus to earlier and earlier chapters of the death penalty story. +So 25 years ago, they focused on chapter four. +And they went from chapter four 25 years ago to chapter three in the late 1980s. +to chapter two in the mid-1990s. +And beginning in the mid- to late 1990s, they began to focus on chapter one of the story. +Now, you might think that this decline in death sentences and the increase in the number of life sentences is a good thing or a bad thing. +I don't want to have a conversation about that today. +All that I want to tell you is that the reason that this has happened is because death penalty lawyers have understood that the earlier you intervene in a case, the greater the likelihood that you're going to save your client's life. +That's the first thing I've learned. +Here's the second thing I learned: My client Will was not the exception to the rule; he was the rule. +I sometimes say, if you tell me the name of a death row inmate -- doesn't matter what state he's in, doesn't matter if I've ever met him before -- I'll write his biography for you. +And eight out of 10 times, the details of that biography will be more or less accurate. +And the reason for that is that 80 percent of the people on death row are people who came from the same sort of dysfunctional family that Will did. +Eighty percent of the people on death row are people who had exposure to the juvenile justice system. +That's the second lesson that I've learned. +Now we're right on the cusp of that corner where everybody's going to agree. +People in this room might disagree about whether Will should have been executed, but I think everybody would agree that the best possible version of his story would be a story where no murder ever occurs. +How do we do that? +When our son Lincoln was working on that math problem two weeks ago, it was a big, gnarly problem. +And he was learning how, when you have a big old gnarly problem, sometimes the solution is to slice it into smaller problems. +That's what we do for most problems -- in math, in physics, even in social policy -- we slice them into smaller, more manageable problems. +But every once in a while, as Dwight Eisenhower said, the way you solve a problem is to make it bigger. +The way we solve this problem is to make the issue of the death penalty bigger. +We have to say, all right. +We have these four chapters of a death penalty story, but what happens before that story begins? +How can we intervene in the life of a murderer before he's a murderer? +What options do we have to nudge that person off of the path that is going to lead to a result that everybody -- death penalty supporters and death penalty opponents -- still think is a bad result: the murder of an innocent human being? +You know, sometimes people say that something isn't rocket science. +And by that, what they mean is rocket science is really complicated and this problem that we're talking about now is really simple. +Well that's rocket science; that's the mathematical expression for the thrust created by a rocket. +What we're talking about today is just as complicated. +What we're talking about today is also rocket science. +My client Will and 80 percent of the people on death row had five chapters in their lives that came before the four chapters of the death penalty story. +I think of these five chapters as points of intervention, when our society could've intervened in their lives and nudged them off of the path that they were on that created a consequence that we all -- death penalty supporters or death penalty opponents -- say was a bad result. +So I'm not standing here today with the solution. +But the fact that we still have a lot to learn, that doesn't mean that we don't know a lot already. +We know from experience in other states that there are a wide variety of modes of intervention that we could be using in Texas, and in every other state that isn't using them, in order to prevent a consequence that we all agree is bad. +I'll just mention a few. +I won't talk today about reforming the legal system. +That's probably a topic that is best reserved for a room full of lawyers and judges. +We could be providing early childhood care for economically disadvantaged and otherwise troubled kids, and we could be doing it for free. +And we could be nudging kids like Will off of the path that we're on. +There are other states that do that, but we don't. +We could be providing special schools, at both the high school level and the middle school level, but even in K-5, that target economically and otherwise disadvantaged kids, and particularly kids who have had exposure to the juvenile justice system. +There are a handful of states that do that; Texas doesn't. +There's one other thing we can be doing -- well, there are a bunch of other things -- there's one other thing that I'm going to mention, and this is going to be the only controversial thing that I say today. +We could be intervening much more aggressively into dangerously dysfunctional homes, and getting kids out of them before their moms pick up butcher knives and threaten to kill them. If we're going to do that, we need a place to put them. +Even if we do all of those things, some kids are going to fall through the cracks and they're going to end up in that last chapter before the murder story begins, they're going to end up in the juvenile justice system. +And even if that happens, it's not yet too late. +There's still time to nudge them, if we think about nudging them rather than just punishing them. +There are two professors in the Northeast -- one at Yale and one at Maryland -- they set up a school that is attached to a juvenile prison. +And the kids are in prison, but they go to school from eight in the morning until four in the afternoon. +Now, it was logistically difficult. +They had to recruit teachers who wanted to teach inside a prison, they had to establish strict separation between the people who work at the school and the prison authorities, and most dauntingly of all, they needed to invent a new curriculum because you know what? +People don't come into and out of prison on a semester basis. +But they did all those things. +Now, what do all of these things have in common? +What all of these things have in common is that they cost money. +Some of the people in the room might be old enough to remember the guy on the old oil filter commercial. +He used to say, "Well, you can pay me now or you can pay me later." +What we're doing in the death penalty system is we're paying later. +But the thing is that for every 15,000 dollars that we spend intervening in the lives of economically and otherwise disadvantaged kids in those earlier chapters, we save 80,000 dollars in crime-related costs down the road. +Even if you don't agree that there's a moral imperative that we do it, it just makes economic sense. +I want to tell you about the last conversation that I had with Will. +It was the day that he was going to be executed, and we were just talking. +There was nothing left to do in his case. +And we were talking about his life. +And he was talking first about his dad, who he hardly knew, who had died, and then about his mom, who he did know, who was still alive. +And I said to him, "I know the story. +I've read the records. +I know that she tried to kill you." +I said, "But I've always wondered whether you really actually remember that." +I said, "I don't remember anything from when I was five years old. +Maybe you just remember somebody telling you." +And he looked at me and he leaned forward, and he said, "Professor," -- he'd known me for 12 years, he still called me Professor. +I hope there's one thing you all won't forget: In between the time you arrived here this morning there are going to be four homicides in the United States. +We're going to devote enormous social resources to punishing the people who commit those crimes, and that's appropriate because we should punish people who do bad things. +But three of those crimes are preventable. +If we make the picture bigger and devote our attention to the earlier chapters, then we're never going to write the first sentence that begins the death penalty story. +Thank you. +Those of you who have seen the film "Moneyball," or have read the book by Michael Lewis, will be familiar with the story of Billy Beane. +Billy was supposed to be a tremendous ballplayer; all the scouts told him so. +They told his parents that they predicted that he was going to be a star. +But what actually happened when he signed the contract -- and by the way, he didn't want to sign that contract, he wanted to go to college -- which is what my mother, who actually does love me, said that I should do too, and I did -- well, he didn't do very well. He struggled mightily. +He got traded a couple of times, he ended up in the Minors for most of his career, and he actually ended up in management. He ended up as a General Manager of the Oakland A's. +Now for many of you in this room, ending up in management, which is also what I've done, is seen as a success. +I can assure you that for a kid trying to make it in the Bigs, going into management ain't no success story. It's a failure. +And what I want to talk to you about today, and share with you, is that our healthcare system, our medical system, is just as bad at predicting what happens to people in it -- patients, others -- as those scouts were at predicting what would happen to Billy Beane. +And yet, every day thousands of people in this country are diagnosed with preconditions. +We hear about pre-hypertension, we hear about pre-dementia, we hear about pre-anxiety, and I'm pretty sure that I diagnosed myself with that in the green room. +We also refer to subclinical conditions. +There's subclinical atherosclerosis, subclinical hardening of the arteries, obviously linked to heart attacks, potentially. +One of my favorites is called subclinical acne. +If you look up subclinical acne, you may find a website, which I did, which says that this is the easiest type of acne to treat. +You don't have the pustules or the redness and inflammation. +Maybe that's because you don't actually have acne. +I have a name for all of these conditions, it's another precondition: I call them preposterous. +In baseball, the game follows the pre-game. +Season follows the pre-season. +But with a lot of these conditions, that actually isn't the case, or at least it isn't the case all the time. It's as if there's a rain delay, every single time in many cases. +We have pre-cancerous lesions, which often don't turn into cancer. +And yet, if you take, for example, subclinical osteoporosis, a bone thinning disease, the precondition, otherwise known as osteopenia, you would have to treat 270 women for three years in order to prevent one broken bone. +That's an awful lot of women when you multiply by the number of women who were diagnosed with this osteopenia. +We've medicalized everything in this country. +Women in the audience, I have some pretty bad news that you already know, and that's that every aspect of your life has been medicalized. +Strike one is when you hit puberty. +You now have something that happens to you once a month that has been medicalized. +It's a condition; it has to be treated. Strike two is if you get pregnant. +That's been medicalized as well. +You have to have a high-tech experience of pregnancy, otherwise something might go wrong. +Strike three is menopause. +We all know what happened when millions of women were given hormone replacement therapy for menopausal symptoms for decades until all of a sudden we realized, because a study came out, a big one, actually, a lot of that hormone replacement therapy may be doing more harm than good for many of those women. +Just in case, I don't want to leave the men out -- I am one, after all -- I have really bad news for all of you in this room, and for everyone listening and watching elsewhere: You all have a universally fatal condition. +So, just take a moment. +It's called pre-death. +Every single one of you has it, because you have the risk factor for it, which is being alive. +But I have some good news for you, because I'm a journalist, I like to end things in a happy way or a forward-thinking way. +And that good news is that if you can survive to the end of my talk, which we'll see if that happens for everyone, you will be a pre-vivor. +I made up pre-death. +If I used someone else's pre-death, I apologize, I think I made it up. +I didn't make up pre-vivor. +Pre-vivor is what a particular cancer advocacy group would like everyone who just has a risk factor, but hasn't actually had that cancer, to call themselves. +You are a pre-vivor. +We've had HBO here this morning. I'm wondering if Mark Burnett is anywhere in the audience, I'd like to suggest a reality TV show called "Pre-vivor." +If you develop a disease, you're off the island. +But the problem is, we have a system that is completely -- basically promoted this. +We've selected, at every point in this system, to do what we do, and to give everyone a precondition and then eventually a condition, in some cases. +Start with the doctor-patient relationship. Doctors, most of them, are in a fee-for-service system. They are basically incentivized to do more -- procedures, tests, prescribe medications. +Patients come to them, they want to do something. We're Americans, we can't just stand there, we have to do something. And so they want a drug. +They want a treatment. They want to be told, this is what you have and this is how you treat it. If the doctor doesn't give you that, you go somewhere else. +That's not very good for doctors' business. +But this isn't actually, despite what journalists typically do, this isn't actually about blaming particular players. +We are all responsible. +I'm responsible. +I actually root for the Yankees, I mean talk about rooting for the worst possible offender when it comes to doing everything you can do. +Thank you. +But everyone is responsible. +I went to medical school, and I didn't have a course called How to Think Skeptically, or How Not to Order Tests. +We have this system where that's what you do. +And it actually took being a journalist to understand all these incentives. You know, economists like to say, there are no bad people, there are just bad incentives. +And that's actually true. +Because what we've created is a sort of Field of Dreams, when it comes to medical technology. +So when you put another MRI in every corner, you put a robot in every hospital saying that everyone has to have robotic surgery. +Well, we've created a system where if you build it, they will come. +But you can actually perversely tell people to come, convince them that they have to come. +It was when I became a journalist that I really realized how I was part of this problem, and how we all are part of this problem. +I was medicalizing every risk factor, I was writing stories, commissioning stories, every day, that were trying to, not necessarily make people worried, although that was what often happened. +But, you know, there are ways out. +I saw my own internist last week, and he said to me, "You know," and he told me something that everyone in this audience could have told me for free, but I paid him for the privilege, which is that I need to lose some weight. +Well, he's right. I've had honest-to-goodness high blood pressure for a dozen years now, same age my father got it, and it's a real disease. It's not pre-hypertension, it's actual hypertension, high blood pressure. +Well, he's right, but he didn't say to me, you have pre-diabetes, or anything like that. He didn't say, better start taking this Statin, you need to lower your cholesterol. +No, he said, "Go out and lose some weight. Come back and see me in a bit, or just give me a call and let me know how you're doing." +So that's, to me, a way forward. +Billy Beane, by the way, learned the same thing. +He learned, from watching this kid who he eventually hired, who was really successful for him, that it wasn't swinging for the fences, it wasn't swinging at every pitch like the sluggers do, which is what all the expensive teams like the Yankees like to -- they like to pick up those guys. +Thanks. +As a magician, I'm always interested in performances that incorporate elements of illusion. +And one of the most remarkable was the tanagra theater, which was popular in the early part of the 20th century. +It used mirrors to create the illusion of tiny people performing on a miniature stage. Now, I won't use mirrors, but this is my digital tribute to the tanagra theater. +So let the story begin. +On a dark and stormy night -- really! -- it was the 10th of July, 1856. +Lightning lit the sky, and a baby was born. +His name was Nikola, Nikola Tesla. +Now the baby grew into a very smart guy. +Let me show you. +Tesla, what is 236 multiplied by 501? +Nikola Tesla: The result is 118,236. +Marco Tempest: Now Tesla's brain worked in the most extraordinary way. +When a word was mentioned, an image of it instantly appeared in his mind. +Tree. Chair. Girl. +They were hallucinations, which vanished the moment he touched them. +Probably a form of synesthesia. +But it was something he later turned to his advantage. +Where other scientists would play in their laboratory, Tesla created his inventions in his mind. +NT: To my delight, I discovered I could visualize my inventions with the greatest facility. +MT: And when they worked in the vivid playground of his imagination, he would build them in his workshop. +NT: I needed no models, drawings or experiments. +I could picture them as real in my mind, and there I run it, test it and improve it. +Only then do I construct it. +MT: His great idea was alternating current. +But how could he convince the public that the millions of volts required to make it work were safe? +To sell his idea, he became a showman. +NT: We are at the dawn of a new age, the age of electricity. +I have been able, through careful invention, to transmit, with the mere flick of a switch, electricity across the ether. +It is the magic of science. +Tesla has over 700 patents to his name: radio, wireless telegraphy, remote control, robotics. +He even photographed the bones of the human body. +But the high point was the realization of a childhood dream: harnessing the raging powers of Niagara Falls, and bringing light to the city. +But Tesla's success didn't last. +NT: I had bigger ideas. +Illuminating the city was only the beginning. +A world telegraphy center -- imagine news, messages, sounds, images delivered to any point in the world instantly and wirelessly. +MT: It's a great idea; it was a huge project. Expensive, too. +NT: They wouldn't give me the money. +MT: Well, maybe you shouldn't have told them it could be used to contact other planets. +NT: Yes, that was a big mistake. +MT: Tesla's career as an inventor never recovered. +He became a recluse. +Dodged by death, he spent much of his time in his suite at the Waldorf-Astoria. +NT: Everything I did, I did for mankind, for a world where there would be no humiliation of the poor by the violence of the rich, where products of intellect, science and art will serve society for the betterment and beautification of life. +MT: Nikola Tesla died on the 7th of January, 1943. +His final resting place is a golden globe that contains his ashes at the Nikola Tesla Museum in Belgrade. +His legacy is with us still. +Tesla became the man who lit the world, but this was only the beginning. +Tesla's insight was profound. +NT: Tell me, what will man do when the forests disappear, and the coal deposits are exhausted? +MT: Tesla thought he had the answer. +We are still asking the question. +Thank you. +Good evening. +We are in this wonderful open-air amphitheater and we are enjoying ourselves in that mild evening temperature tonight, but when Qatar will host the football World Cup 10 years from now, 2022, we already heard it will be in the hot, very hot and sunny summer months of June and July. +And when Qatar has been assigned to the World Cup all, many people around the world have been wondering, how would it be possible that football players show spectacular football, run around in this desert climate? How would it be possible that spectators sit, enjoy themselves in open-air stadia in this hot environment? +Together with the architects of Albert Speer & Partner, our engineers from Transsolar have been supporting, have been developing open-air stadia based on 100 percent solar power, on 100 percent solar cooling. +Let me tell you about that, but let me start with comfort. +Let me start with the aspect of comfort, because many people are confusing ambient temperature with thermal comfort. +We are used to looking at charts like that, and you see this red line showing the air temperature in June and July, and yes, that's right, it's picking up to 45 degrees C. +It's actually very hot. +But air temperature is not the full set of climatic parameters which define comfort. +Let me show you analysis a colleague of mine did looking on different football, World Cups, Olympic Games around the world, looking on the comfort and analyzing the comfort people have perceived at these different sport activities, and let me start with Mexico. +Mexico temperature has been, air temperature has been something between 15, up to 30 degrees C, and people enjoyed themselves. +It was a very comfortable game in Mexico City. Have a look. +Orlando, same kind of stadium, open-air stadium. People have been sitting in the strong sun, in the very high humidity in the afternoon, and they did not enjoy. It was not comfortable. +The air temperature was not too high, but it was not comfortable during these games. +What about Seoul? Seoul, because of broadcast rights, all the games have been in the late afternoon. Sun has already been set, so the games have been perceived as comfortable. +What about Athens? Mediterranean climate, but in the sun it was not comfortable. They didn't perceive comfort. +And we know that from Spain, we know that "sol y sombra." +If you have a ticket, and you get a ticket for the shade, you pay more, because you're in a more comfortable environment. +What about Beijing? +It's again, sun in the day and high humidity, and it was not comfortable. +So why is that? +This is because there are more parameters influencing our thermal comfort, which is the sun, the direct sun, the diffuse sun, which is wind, strong wind, mild wind, which is air humidity, which is the radiant temperature of the surroundings where we are in. +And this is air temperature. +All these parameters go into the comfort feeling of our human body, and scientists have developed a parameter, which is the perceived temperature, where all these parameters go in and help designers to understand which is the driving parameter that I feel comfort or that I don't feel comfort. +Which is the driving parameter which gives me a perceived temperature? And these parameters, these climatic parameters are related to the human metabolism. +Because of our metabolism, we as human beings, we produce heat. +That's it. And if I don't get rid of the energy, I will die. +If we overlay what happens during the football World Cup, what will happen in June, July, we will see, yes, air temperature will be much higher, but because the games and the plays will be in the afternoon, it's probably the same comfort rating we've found in other places which has perceived as non-comfortable. +So we sat together with a team which prepared the Bid Book, or goal, that we said, let's aim for perceived temperature, for outdoor comfort in this range, which is perceived with a temperature of 32 degrees Celsius perceived temperature, which is extremely comfortable. +People would feel really fine in an open outdoor environment. +But what does it mean? +If we just look on what happens, we see, temperature's too high. +If we apply the best architectural design, climate engineering design, we won't get much better. +So we need to do something active. +We need, for instance, to bring in radiant cooling technology, and we need to combine this with so-called soft conditioning. +And how does it look like in a stadium? +So the stadium has a few elements which create that outdoor comfort. First of all, it's shading. It needs to protect where the people are sitting against strong and warm wind. +But that's not all what we need to do. We need to use active systems. +Instead of blowing a hurricane of chilled air through the stadium, we can use radiant cooling technologies, like a floor heating system where water pipes are embedded in the floor. +And just by using cold water going through the water pipes, you can release the heat which is absorbed during the day in the stadium, so you can create that comfort, and then by adding dry air instead of down-chilled air, the spectators and the football players can adjust to their individual comfort needs, to their individual energy balance. +They can adjust and find their comfort they need to find. +There are 12 stadia probably to come, but there are 32 training pitches where all the individual countries are going to train. +We applied the same concept: shading of the training pitch, using a shelter against wind, then using the grass. +Natural-watered lawn is a very good cooling source stabilizing temperature, and using dehumidified air to create comfort. +But even the best passive design wouldn't help. +We need active system. +And how do we do that? +Our idea for the bid was 100 percent solar cooling, based on the idea that we use the roof of the stadia, we cover the roofs of the stadia with PV systems. +We don't borrow any energy from history. +We are not using fossil energies. +We are not borrowing energy from our neighbors. +We're using energy we can harvest on our roofs, and also on the training pitches, which will be covered with large, flexible membranes, and we will see in the next years an industry coming up with flexible photovoltaics, giving the possibilities of shading against strong sun and producing electric energy in the same time. +And this energy now is harvested throughout the year, sent into the grid, is replacing fossils in the grid, and when I need it for the cooling, I take it back from the grid and I use the solar energy which I have brought to the grid back when I need it for the solar cooling. +And I can do that in the first year and I can balance that in the next 10, and the next 20 years, this energy, which is necessary to condition a World Cup in Qatar, the next 20 years, this energy goes into the grid of Qatar. +So this -- Thank you very much. This is not only useful for stadia. We can use that also in open-air places and streets, and we've been working on the City of the Future in Masdar, which is in the United Emirates, Abu Dhabi. +And I had the pleasure to work on the central plaza. +And these beautiful umbrellas. +So I'd like to encourage you to pay attention to your thermal comfort, to your thermal environment, tonight and tomorrow, and if you'd like to learn more about that, I invite you to go to our website. +We uploaded a very simple perceived temperature calculator where you can check out about your outdoor comfort. +Thank you very much. Shukran. +About 75 years ago, my grandfather, a young man, walked into a tent that was converted into a movie theater like that, and he fell hopelessly in love with the woman he saw on the silver screen: none other than Mae West, the heartthrob of the '30s, and he could never forget her. +In fact, when he had his daughter many years later, he wanted to name her after Mae West, but can you imagine an Indian child name Mae West? +The Indian family said, no way! +So when my twin brother Kaesava was born, he decided to tinker with the spelling of Keshava's name. +He said, if Mae West can be M-A-E, why can't Keshava be K-A-E? +So he changed Kaesava's spelling. +Now Kaesava had a baby boy called Rehan a couple of weeks ago. +He decided to spell, or, rather, misspell Raehan with an A-E. +You know, my grandfather died many years ago when I was little, but his love for Mae West lives on as a misspelling in the DNA of his progeny. +That for me is successful legacy. You know, as for me, my wife and I have our own crazy legacy project. +We actually sit every few years, argue, disagree, fight, and actually come up with our very own 200-year plan. +Our friends think we're mad. +Our parents think we're cuckoo. +Because, you know, we both come from families that really look up to humility and wisdom, but we both like to live larger than life. +I believe in the concept of a Raja Yogi: Be a dude before you can become an ascetic. +This is me being a rock star, even if it's in my own house. +You know? +So when Netra and I sat down to make our first plan 10 years ago, we said we want the focus of this plan to go way beyond ourselves. +What do we mean by beyond ourselves? +Well 200 years, we calculated, is at the end of our direct contact with the world. +There's nobody I'll meet in my life will ever live beyond 200 years, so we thought that's a perfect place where we should situate our plan and let our imagination take flight. +You know, I never really believed in legacy. What am I going to leave behind? I'm an artist. +Until I made a cartoon about 9/11. +It caused so much trouble for me. +I was so upset. +You know, a cartoon that was meant to be a cartoon of the week ended up staying so much longer. +Now I'm in the business of creating art that will definitely even outlive me, and I think about what I want to leave behind through those paintings. +You know, the 9/11 cartoon upset me so much that I decided I'll never cartoon again. +I said, I'm never going to make any honest public commentary again. +But of course I continued creating artwork that was honest and raw, because I forgot about how people reacted to my work. +You know, sometimes forgetting is so important to remain idealistic. +Perhaps loss of memory is so crucial for our survival as human beings. +One of the most important things in my 200-year plan that Netra and I write is what to forget about ourselves. +You know, we carry so much baggage, from our parents, from our society, from so many people -- fears, insecurities -- and our 200-year plan really lists all our childhood problems that we have to expire. +We actually put an expiry date on all our childhood problems. +The latest date I put was, I said, I am going to expire my fear of my leftist, feminist mother-in-law, and this today is the date! She's watching. Anyway, you know, I really make decisions all the time about how I want to remember myself, and that's the most important kind of decisions I make. +And this directly translates into my paintings. +But like my friends, I can do that really well on Facebook, Pinterest, Twitter, Flickr, YouTube. +Name it, I'm on it. +I've started outsourcing my memory to the digital world, you know? But that comes with a problem. +It's so easy to think of technology as a metaphor for memory, but our brains are not perfect storage devices like technology. +We only remember what we want to. At least I do. +And I rather think of our brains as biased curators of our memory, you know? And if technology is not a metaphor for memory, what is it? +Netra and I use our technology as a tool in our 200-year plan to really curate our digital legacy. +That is a picture of my mother, and she recently got a Facebook account. +You know where this is going. +And I've been very supportive until this picture shows up on my Facebook page. And I actually untagged myself first, then I picked up the phone. I said, "Mom, you will never put a picture of me in a bikini ever again." +And she said, "Why? You look so cute, darling." I said, "You just don't understand." +Maybe we are among the first generation that really understands this digital curating of ourselves. +Maybe we are the first to even actively record our lives. +You know, whether you agree with, you know, legacy or not, we are actually leaving behind digital traces all the time. +So Netra and I really wanted to use our 200-year plan to curate this digital legacy, and not only digital legacy but we believe in curating the legacy of my past and future. +How, you may ask? +Well, when I think of the future, I never see myself moving forward in time. I actually see time moving backward towards me. +I can actually visualize my future approaching. +I can dodge what I don't want and pull in what I want. +It's like a video game obstacle course. And I've gotten better and better at doing this. Even when I make a painting, I actually imagine I'm behind the painting, it already exists, and someone's looking at it, and I see whether they're feeling it from their gut. +Are they feeling it from their heart, or is it just a cerebral thing? +And it really informs my painting. +Even when I do an art show, I really think about, what should people walk away with? +I remember when I was 19, I did, I wanted to do my first art exhibition, and I wanted the whole world to know about it. +I didn't know TED then, but what I did was I closed my eyes tight, and I started dreaming. I could imagine people coming in, dressed up, looking beautiful, my paintings with all the light, and in my visualization I actually saw a very famous actress launching my show, giving credibility to me. +And I woke up from my visualization and I said, who was that? I couldn't tell if it was Shabana Azmi or Rekha, two very famous Indian actresses, like the Meryl Streeps of India. +As it turned out, next morning I wrote a letter to both of them, and Shabana Azmi replied, and came and launched my very first show 12 years ago. +And what a bang it started my career with! You know, when we think of time in this way, we can curate not only the future but also the past. +This is a picture of my family, and that is Netra, my wife. +She's the co-creator of my 200-year plan. +Netra's a high school history teacher. I love Netra, but I hate history. +I keep saying, "Nets, you live in the past while I'll create the future, and when I'm done, you can study about it." +She gave me an indulgent smile, and as punishment, she said, "Tomorrow I'm teaching a class on Indian history, and you are sitting in it, and I'm grading you." +I'm like, "Oh, God." I went. +I actually went and sat in on her class. She started by giving students primary source documents from India, Pakistan, from Britain, and I said, "Wow." Then she asked them to separate fact from bias. +I said, "Wow," again. +Then she said, "Choose your facts and biases and create an image of your own story of dignity." +History as an imaging tool? +I was so inspired. +I went and created my own version of Indian history. +I actually included stories from my grandmother. +She used to work for the telephone exchange, and she used to actually overhear conversations between Nehru and Edwina Mountbatten. +And she used to hear all kinds of things she shouldn't have heard. But, you know, I include things like that. +This is my version of Indian history. +You know, if this is so, it occurred to me that maybe, just maybe, the primary objective of our brains is to serve our dignity. +Go tell Facebook to figure that out! +Netra and I don't write our 200-year plan for someone else to come and execute it in 150 years. Imagine receiving a parcel saying, from the past, okay now you're supposed to spend the rest of your life doing all of this. No. +We actually write it only to set our attitudes right. +You know, I used to believe that education is the most important tool to leave a meaningful legacy. +Education is great. +It really teaches us who we are, and helps us contextualize ourselves in the world, but it's really my creativity that's taught me that I can be much more than what my education told me I am. +I'd like to make the argument that creativity is the most important tool we have. +It lets us create who we are, and curate what is to come. +I like to think -- Thank you. +I like to think of myself as a storyteller, where my past and my future are only stories, my stories, waiting to be told and retold. I hope all of you one day get a chance to share and write your own 200-year story. +Thank you so much. +Shukran! +What I'm going to do is to just give a few notes, and this is from a book I'm preparing called "Letters to a Young Scientist." +I'd thought it'd be appropriate to present it, on the basis that I have had extensive experience in teaching, counseling scientists across a broad array of fields. +And you might like to hear some of the principles that I've developed in doing that teaching and counseling. +So let me begin by urging you, particularly you on the youngsters' side, on this path you've chosen, to go as far as you can. +The world needs you, badly. +Humanity is now fully into the techno-scientific age. +There is going to be no turning back. +Although varying among disciplines -- say, astrophysics, molecular genetics, the immunology, the microbiology, the public health, to the new area of the human body as a symbiont, to public health, environmental science. +Knowledge in medical science and science overall is doubling every 15 to 20 years. +Technology is increasing at a comparable rate. +Between them, the two already pervade, as most of you here seated realize, every dimension of human life. +So swift is the velocity of the techno-scientific revolution, so startling in its countless twists and turns, that no one can predict its outcome even a decade from the present moment. +There will come a time, of course, when the exponential growth of discovery and knowledge, which actually began in the 1600s, has to peak and level off, but that's not going to matter to you. +The revolution is going to continue for at least several more decades. +It'll render the human condition radically different from what it is today. +Traditional fields of study are going to continue to grow and in so doing, inevitably they will meet and create new disciplines. +In time, all of science will come to be a continuum of description, an explanation of networks, of principles and laws. +That's why you need not just be training in one specialty, but also acquire breadth in other fields, related to and even distant from your own initial choice. +Keep your eyes lifted and your head turning. +The search for knowledge is in our genes. +It was put there by our distant ancestors who spread across the world, and it's never going to be quenched. +To understand and use it sanely, as a part of the civilization yet to evolve requires a vastly larger population of scientifically trained people like you. +In education, medicine, law, diplomacy, government, business and the media that exist today. +Our political leaders need at least a modest degree of scientific literacy, which most badly lack today -- no applause, please. +It will be better for all if they prepare before entering office rather than learning on the job. +Therefore you will do well to act on the side, no matter how far into the laboratory you may go, to serve as teachers during the span of your career. +I'll now proceed quickly, and before else, to a subject that is both a vital asset and a potential barrier to a scientific career. +If you are a bit short in mathematical skills, don't worry. +Many of the most successful scientists at work today are mathematically semi-literate. +Some may have considered me foolhardy, but it's been my habit to brush aside the fear of mathematics when talking to candidate scientists. +During 41 years of teaching biology at Harvard, I watched sadly as bright students turned away from the possibility of a scientific career or even from taking non-required courses in science because they were afraid of failure. +These math-phobes deprive science and medicine of immeasurable amounts of badly needed talent. +Here's how to relax your anxieties, if you have them: Understand that mathematics is a language ruled like other verbal languages, or like verbal language generally, by its own grammar and system of logic. +Any person with average quantitative intelligence who learns to read and write mathematics at an elementary level will, as in verbal language, have little difficulty picking up most of the fundamentals if they choose to master the mathspeak of most disciplines of science. +The longer you wait to become at least semi-literate the harder the language of mathematics will be to master, just as again in any verbal language, but it can be done at any age. +I speak as an authority on that subject, because I'm an extreme case. +I didn't take algebra until my freshman year at the University of Alabama. +They didn't teach it before then. +I finally got around to calculus as a 32-year-old tenured professor at Harvard, where I sat uncomfortably in classes with undergraduate students, little more than half my age. +A couple of them were students in a course I was giving on evolutionary biology. +I swallowed my pride, and I learned calculus. +I found out that in science and all its applications, what is crucial is not that technical ability, but it is imagination in all of its applications. +The ability to form concepts with images of entities and processes pictured by intuition. +I found out that advances in science rarely come upstream from an ability to stand at a blackboard and conjure images from unfolding mathematical propositions and equations. +They are instead the products of downstream imagination leading to hard work, during which mathematical reasoning may or may not prove to be relevant. +Ideas emerge when a part of the real or imagined world is studied for its own sake. +Of foremost importance is a thorough, well-organized knowledge of all that is known of the relevant entities and processes that might be involved in that domain you propose to enter. +When something new is discovered, it's logical then that one of the follow-up steps is to find the mathematical and statistical methods to move its analysis forward. +If that step proves too difficult for the person or team that made the discovery, a mathematician can then be added by them as a collaborator. +Consider the following principle, which I will modestly call Wilson's Principle Number One: It is far easier for scientists including medical researchers, to require needed collaboration in mathematics and statistics than it is for mathematicians and statisticians to find scientists able to make use of their equations. +It is important in choosing the direction to take in science to find the subject at your level of competence that interests you deeply, and focus on that. +Keep in mind, then, Wilson's Second Principle: For every scientist, whether researcher, technician, teacher, manager or businessman, working at any level of mathematical competence, there exists a discipline in science or medicine for which that level is enough to achieve excellence. +Now I'm going to offer quickly several more principles that will be useful in organizing your education and career, or if you're teaching, how you might enhance your own teaching and counseling of young scientists. +In selecting a subject in which to conduct original research, or to develop world-class expertise, take a part of the chosen discipline that is sparsely inhabited. +Judge opportunity by how few other students and researchers are on hand. +This is not to de-emphasize the essential requirement of broad training, or the value of apprenticing yourself in ongoing research to programs of high quality. +It is important also to acquire older mentors within these successful programs, and to make friends and colleagues of your age for mutual support. +But through it all, look for a way to break out, to find a field and subject not yet popular. +We have seen this demonstrated already in the talks preceding mine. +There is the quickest way advances are likely to occur, as measured in discoveries per investigator per year. +You may have heard the military dictum for the gathering of armies: March to the sound of the guns. +In science, the exact opposite is the case: March away from the sound of the guns. +So Wilson's Principle Number Three: March away from the sound of the guns. +Observe from a distance, but do not join the fray. +Make a fray of your own. +Once you have settled on a specialty, and the profession you can love, and you've secured opportunity, your potential to succeed will be greatly enhanced if you study it enough to become an expert. +There are thousands of professionally delimited subjects sprinkled through physics and chemistry to biology and medicine. +And on then into the social sciences, where it is possible in short time to acquire the status of an authority. +When the subject is still very thinly populated, you can with diligence and hard work become the world authority. +The world needs this kind of expertise, and it rewards the kind of people willing to acquire it. +The existing information and what you self-discover may at first seem skimpy and difficult to connect to other bodies of knowledge. +Well, if that's the case, good. Why hard instead of easy? +The answer deserves to be stated as Principle Number Four. +In the attempt to make scientific discoveries, every problem is an opportunity, and the more difficult the problem, the greater will be the importance of its solution. +Now this brings me to a basic categorization in the way scientific discoveries are made. +Scientists, pure mathematicians among them, follow one or the other of two pathways: First through early discoveries, a problem is identified and a solution is sought. +The problem may be relatively small; for example, where exactly in a cruise ship does the norovirus begin to spread? +Or larger, what's the role of dark matter in the expansion of the universe? +As the answer is sought, other phenomena are typically discovered and other questions are asked. +This first of the two strategies is like a hunter, exploring a forest in search of a particular quarry, who finds other quarries along the way. +The second strategy of research is to study a subject broadly searching for unknown phenomena or patterns of known phenomena like a hunter in what we call "the naturalist's trance," the researcher of mind is open to anything interesting, any quarry worth taking. +The search is not for the solution of the problem, but for problems themselves worth solving. +The two strategies of research, original research, can be stated as follows, in the final principle I'm going to offer you: For every problem in a given discipline of science, there exists a species or entity or phenomenon ideal for its solution. +And conversely, for every species or other entity or phenomenon, there exist important problems for the solution of which, those particular objects of research are ideally suited. +Find out what they are. +You'll find your own way to discover, to learn, to teach. +The decades ahead will see dramatic advances in disease prevention, general health, the quality of life. +All of humanity depends on the knowledge and practice of the medicine and the science behind it you will master. +You have chosen a calling that will come in steps to give you satisfaction, at its conclusion, of a life well lived. +And I thank you for having me here tonight. +Oh, thank you. +Thank you very much. +I salute you. +Everyone is both a learner and a teacher. +This is me being inspired by my first tutor, my mom, and this is me teaching Introduction to Artificial Intelligence to 200 students at Stanford University. +Now the students and I enjoyed the class, but it occurred to me that while the subject matter of the class is advanced and modern, the teaching technology isn't. +In fact, I use basically the same technology as this 14th-century classroom. +Note the textbook, the sage on the stage, and the sleeping guy in the back. Just like today. +So my co-teacher, Sebastian Thrun, and I thought, there must be a better way. +We challenged ourselves to create an online class that would be equal or better in quality to our Stanford class, but to bring it to anyone in the world for free. +We announced the class on July 29th, and within two weeks, 50,000 people had signed up for it. +And that grew to 160,000 students from 209 countries. +We were thrilled to have that kind of audience, and just a bit terrified that we hadn't finished preparing the class yet. So we got to work. +We studied what others had done, what we could copy and what we could change. +Benjamin Bloom had showed that one-on-one tutoring works best, so that's what we tried to emulate, like with me and my mom, even though we knew it would be one-on-thousands. +Here, an overhead video camera is recording me as I'm talking and drawing on a piece of paper. +A student said, "This class felt like sitting in a bar with a really smart friend who's explaining something you haven't grasped, but are about to." +And that's exactly what we were aiming for. +Now, from Khan Academy, we saw that short 10-minute videos worked much better than trying to record an hour-long lecture and put it on the small-format screen. +We decided to go even shorter and more interactive. +Our typical video is two minutes, sometimes shorter, never more than six, and then we pause for a quiz question, to make it feel like one-on-one tutoring. +Here, I'm explaining how a computer uses the grammar of English to parse sentences, and here, there's a pause and the student has to reflect, understand what's going on and check the right boxes before they can continue. +Students learn best when they're actively practicing. +We wanted to engage them, to have them grapple with ambiguity and guide them to synthesize the key ideas themselves. +We mostly avoid questions like, "Here's a formula, now tell me the value of Y when X is equal to two." +We preferred open-ended questions. +One student wrote, "Now I'm seeing Bayes networks and examples of game theory everywhere I look." +And I like that kind of response. +That's just what we were going for. +We didn't want students to memorize the formulas; we wanted to change the way they looked at the world. +And we succeeded. +Or, I should say, the students succeeded. +And it's a little bit ironic that we set about to disrupt traditional education, and in doing so, we ended up making our online class much more like a traditional college class than other online classes. +Most online classes, the videos are always available. +You can watch them any time you want. +This motivated the students to keep going, and it also meant that everybody was working on the same thing at the same time, so if you went into a discussion forum, you could get an answer from a peer within minutes. +Now, I'll show you some of the forums, most of which were self-organized by the students themselves. +From Daphne Koller and Andrew Ng, we learned the concept of "flipping" the classroom. +Students watched the videos on their own, and then they come together to discuss them. +From Eric Mazur, I learned about peer instruction, that peers can be the best teachers, because they're the ones that remember what it's like to not understand. +Sebastian and I have forgotten some of that. +Of course, we couldn't have a classroom discussion with tens of thousands of students, so we encouraged and nurtured these online forums. +And finally, from Teach For America, I learned that a class is not primarily about information. +More important is motivation and determination. +It was crucial that the students see that we're working hard for them and they're all supporting each other. +Now, the class ran 10 weeks, and in the end, about half of the 160,000 students watched at least one video each week, and over 20,000 finished all the homework, putting in 50 to 100 hours. +They got this statement of accomplishment. +So what have we learned? +Well, we tried some old ideas and some new and put them together, but there are more ideas to try. +Sebastian's teaching another class now. +I'll do one in the fall. +Stanford Coursera, Udacity, MITx and others have more classes coming. +It's a really exciting time. +But to me, the most exciting part of it is the data that we're gathering. +We're gathering thousands of interactions per student per class, billions of interactions altogether, and now we can start analyzing that, and when we learn from that, do experimentations, that's when the real revolution will come. +And you'll be able to see the results from a new generation of amazing students. +As a kid, I was fascinated with all things air and space. +I would watch Nova on PBS. +Our school would show Bill Nye the Science Guy. +When I was in elementary school, my next door neighbor, he gave me a book for my birthday. +Well, a number of years later, I graduated from UCLA and I found myself at NASA, working for the jet propulsion laboratory, and there our team was challenged to create a 3D visualization of the solar system, and today I want to show you what we've done so far. +Now, the kicker is, everything I'm about to do here you can do at home, because we built this for the public for you guys to use. +So what you're looking at right now is the Earth. +You can see the United States and California and San Diego, and you can use the mouse or the keyboard to spin things around. +Now, this isn't new. Anyone who's used Google Earth has seen this before, but one thing we like to say in our group is, we do the opposite of Google Earth. +Google Earth goes from this view down to your backyard. +We go from this view out to the stars. +So the Earth is cool, but what we really want to show are the spacecraft, so I'm going to bring the interface back up, and now you're looking at a number of satellites orbiting the Earth. +These are a number of our science space Earth orbiters. +We haven't included military satellites and weather satellites and communication satellites and reconnaissance satellites. +If we did, it would be a complete mess, because there's a lot of stuff out there. +And the cool thing is, we actually created 3D models for a number of these spacecraft, so if you want to visit any of these, all you need to do is double-click on them. +So I'm going to find the International Space Station, double-click, and it will take us all the way down to the ISS. +And now you're riding along with the ISS where it is right now. +Well, I can click on this home button over here, and that will take us up to the inner solar system, and now we're looking at the rest of the solar system. +You can see, there's Saturn, there's Jupiter, and while we're here, I want to point out something. +It's actually pretty busy. +Here we have the Mars Science Laboratory on its way to Mars, just launched last weekend. +Here we have Juno on its cruise to Jupiter, there. +We have Dawn orbiting Vesta, and we have over here New Horizons on a straight shot to Pluto. +And I mention this because there's this strange public perception that NASA's dead, that the space shuttles stopped flying and all of the sudden there's no more spacecraft out there. +Well, a lot of what NASA does is robotic exploration, and we have a lot of spacecraft out there. +Granted, we're not sending humans up at the moment, well at least with our own launch vehicles, but NASA is far from dead, and one of the reasons why we write a program like this is so that people realize that there's so many other things that we're doing. +Anyway, while we're here, again, if you want to visit anything, all you need to do is double-click. +So I'm just going to double-click on Vesta, and here we have Dawn orbiting Vesta, and this is happening right now. +I'm going to double-click on Uranus, and we can see Uranus rotating on its side along with its moons. +You can see how it's tilted at about 89 degrees. +And just being able to visit different places and go through different times, we have data from 1950 to 2050. +Granted, we don't have everything in between, because some of the data is hard to get. +Just being able to visit places in different times, you can explore this for hours, literally hours on end, but I want to show you one thing in particular, so I'm going to open up the destination tab, spacecraft outer planet missions, Voyager 1, and I'm going to bring up the Titan flyby. +So now we've gone back in time. +We're now riding along with Voyager 1. +The date here is November 11, 1980. +Now, there's a funny thing going on here. +It doesn't look like anything's going on. +It looks like I've paused the program. +It's actually running at real rate right now, one second per second, and in fact, Voyager 1 here is flying by Titan at I think it's 38,000 miles per hour. +It only looks like nothing's moving because, well, Saturn here is 700,000 miles away, and Titan here is 4,000 to 5,000 miles away. +It's just the vastness of space makes it look like nothing's happening. +But to make it more interesting, I'm going to speed up time, and we can watch as Voyager 1 flies by Titan, which is a hazy moon of Saturn. +It actually has a very thick atmosphere. +And I'm going to recenter the camera on Saturn, here. +I'm going to pull out, and I want to show you Voyager 1 as it flies by Saturn. +There's a point to be made here. +With a 3D visualization like this, we can not only just say Voyager 1 flew by Saturn. +There's a whole story to tell here. +And even better, because it's an interactive application, you can tell the story for yourself. +If you want to pause it, you can pause it. +If you want to keep going, if you want to change the camera angle, you can do that, and because of that, I can show you that Voyager 1 doesn't just fly by Saturn. +It actually flies underneath Saturn. +Now, what happens is, as it flies underneath Saturn, Saturn grabs it gravitationally and flings it up and out of the solar system, so if I just keep letting this go, you can see Voyager 1 fly up like that. +And, in fact, I'm going to go back to the solar system. +I'm going to go back to today, now, and I want to show you where Voyager 1 is. +Right there, above, way above the solar system, way beyond our solar system. +And here's the thing. Now you know how it got there. +Now you know why, and to me, that's the point of this program. +You can manipulate it yourself. +You can fly around yourself and you can learn for yourself. +You know, the theme today is "The World In Your Grasp." +Well, we're trying to give you the solar system in your grasp and we hope once it's there, you'll be able to learn for yourself what we've done out there, and what we're about to do. +And my personal dream is for kids to take this and explore and see the wonders out there and be inspired, as I was as a kid, to pursue STEM education and to pursue a dream in space exploration. +Thank you. +When this is combined with the loss of manufacturing jobs to China, it has, you know, led to considerable angst amongst the Western populations. +In fact, if you look at polls, they show a declining trend for support for free trade in the West. +Now, the Western elites, however, have said this fear is misplaced. +In fact, he says, it's innovation that will keep the West ahead of the developing world, with the more sophisticated, innovative tasks being done in the developed world, and the less sophisticated, shall we say, drudge work being done in the developing world. +Now, what we were trying to understand was, is this true? +Could India become a source, or a global hub, of innovation, just like it's become a global hub for back office services and software development? +And for the last four years, my coauthor Phanish Puranam and I spent investigating this topic. +They laughed. They dismissed us. +They said, "You know what? Indians don't do innovation." +The more polite ones said, "Well, you know, Indians make good software programmers and accountants, but they can't do the creative stuff." +Sometimes, it took a more, took a veneer of sophistication, and people said, "You know, it's nothing to do with Indians. +It's really the rule-based, regimented education system in India that is responsible for killing all creativity." +They said, instead, if you want to see real creativity, go to Silicon Valley, and look at companies like Google, Microsoft, Intel. +So we started examining the R&D and innovation labs of Silicon Valley. +Well, interestingly, what you find there is, usually you are introduced to the head of the innovation lab or the R&D center as they may call it, and more often than not, it's an Indian. So I immediately said, "Well, but you could not have been educated in India, right? +You must have gotten your education here." +It turned out, in every single case, they came out of the Indian educational system. +So we realized that maybe we had the wrong question, and the right question is, really, can Indians based out of India do innovative work? +So off we went to India. We made, I think, about a dozen trips to Bangalore, Mumbai, Gurgaon, Delhi, Hyderabad, you name it, to examine what is the level of corporate innovation in these cities. +And what we found was, as we progressed in our research, was, that we were asking really the wrong question. +When you ask, "Where are the Indian Googles, iPods and Viagras?" you are taking a particular perspective on innovation, which is innovation for end users, visible innovation. +Instead, innovation, if you remember, some of you may have read the famous economist Schumpeter, he said, "Innovation is novelty in how value is created and distributed." +It could be new products and services, but it could also be new ways of producing products. +It could also be novel ways of organizing firms and industries. +Once you take this, there's no reason to restrict innovation, the beneficiaries of innovation, just to end users. +When you take this broader conceptualization of innovation, what we found was, India is well represented in innovation, but the innovation that is being done in India is of a form we did not anticipate, and what we did was we called it "invisible innovation." +And specifically, there are four types of invisible innovation that are coming out of India. +The first type of invisible innovation out of India is what we call innovation for business customers, which is led by the multinational corporations, which have -- in the last two decades, there have been 750 R&D centers set up in India by multinational companies employing more than 400,000 professionals. +Now, when you consider the fact that, historically, the R&D center of a multinational company was always in the headquarters, or in the country of origin of that multinational company, to have 750 R&D centers of multinational corporations in India is truly a remarkable figure. +When we went and talked to the people in those innovation centers and asked them what are they working on, they said, "We are working on global products." +They were not working on localizing global products for India, which is the usual role of a local R&D. +They were working on truly global products, and companies like Microsoft, Google, AstraZeneca, General Electric, Philips, have already answered in the affirmative the question that from their Bangalore and Hyderabad R&D centers they are able to produce products and services for the world. +But of course, as an end user, you don't see that, because you only see the name of the company, not where it was developed. +The other thing we were told then was, "Yes, but, you know, the kind of work that is coming out of the Indian R&D center cannot be compared to the kind of work that is coming out of the U.S. R&D centers." +So my coauthor Phanish Puranam, who happens to be one of the smartest people I know, said he's going to do a study. +Interestingly, what he finds is and by the way, the way we look at the quality of a patent is what we call forward citations: How many times does a future patent reference the older patent? he finds something very interesting. +What we find is that the data says that the number of forward citations of a patent filed out of a U.S. R&D subsidiary is identical to the number of forward citations of a patent filed by an Indian subsidiary of the same company within that company. +So within the company, there's no difference in the forward citation rates of their Indian subsidiaries versus their U.S. subsidiaries. +So that's the first kind of invisible innovation coming out of India. +The second kind of invisible innovation coming out of India is what we call outsourcing innovation to Indian companies, where many companies today are contracting Indian companies to do a major part of their product development work for their global products which are going to be sold to the entire world. +For example, in the pharma industry, a lot of the molecules are being developed, but you see a major part of that work is being sent to India. +For example, XCL Technologies, they developed two of the mission critical systems for the new Boeing 787 Dreamliner, one to avoid collisions in the sky, and another to allow landing in zero visibility. +But of course, when you climb onto the Boeing 787, you are not going to know that this is invisible innovation out of India. +The third kind of invisible innovation coming out of India is what we call process innovations, because of an injection of intelligence by Indian firms. +Process innovation is different from product innovation. +It's about how do you create a new product or develop a new product or manufacture a new product, but not a new product itself? +Only in India do millions of young people dream of working in a call center. +What happens You know, it's a dead end job in the West, what high school dropouts do. +What happens when you put hundreds of thousands of smart, young, ambitious kids on a call center job? +Very quickly, they get bored, and they start innovating, and they start telling the boss how to do this job better, and out of this process innovation comes product innovations, which are then marketed around the world. +For example, 24/7 Customer, traditional call center company, used to be a traditional call center company. Today they're developing analytical tools to do predictive modeling so that before you pick up the phone, you can guess or predict what this phone call is about. +It's because of an injection of intelligence into a process which was considered dead for a long time in the West. +And the last kind of innovation, invisible innovation coming out of India is what we call management innovation. +It's not a new product or a new process but a new way to organize work, and the most significant management innovation to come out of India, invented by the Indian offshoring industry is what we call the global delivery model. +What the global delivery model allows is, it allows you to take previously geographically core-located tasks, break them up into parts, send them around the world where the expertise and the cost structure exists, and then specify the means for reintegrating them. +Without that, you could not have any of the other invisible innovations today. +So, what I'm trying to say is, what we are finding in our research is, that if products for end users is the visible tip of the innovation iceberg, India is well represented in the invisible, large, submerged portion of the innovation iceberg. +Now, this has, of course, some implications, and so we developed three implications of this research. +The first is what we called sinking skill ladder, and now I'm going to go back to where I started my conversation with you, which was about the flight of jobs. +Now, of course, when we first, as a multinational company, decide to outsource jobs to India in the R&D, what we are going to do is we are going to outsource the bottom rung of the ladder to India, the least sophisticated jobs, just like Tom Friedman would predict. +Now, what happens is, when you outsource the bottom rung of the ladder to India for innovation and for R&D work, at some stage in the very near future you are going to have to confront a problem, which is where does the next step of the ladder people come from within your company? +What we are trying to say is that once you outsource the bottom end of the ladder, you -- it's a self-perpetuating act, because of the sinking skill ladder, and the sinking skill ladder is simply the point that you can't be an investment banker without having been an analyst once. +You can't be a professor without having been a student. +You can't be a consultant without having been a research associate. +So, if you outsource the least sophisticated jobs, at some stage, the next step of the ladder has to follow. +The second thing we bring up is what we call the browning of the TMT, the top management teams. +Right? And the last thing we point out in this slide, which is, you know, that to this story, there's one caveat. +India has the youngest growing population in the world. +This demographic dividend is incredible, but paradoxically, there's also the mirage of mighty labor pools. +Indian institutes and educational system, with a few exceptions, are incapable of producing students in the quantity and quality needed to keep this innovation engine going, so companies are finding innovative ways to overcome this, but in the end it does not absolve the government of the responsibility for creating this educational structure. +So finally, I want to conclude by showing you the profile of one company, IBM. +As many of you know, IBM has always been considered for the last hundred years to be one of the most innovative companies. +In fact, if you look at the number of patents filed over history, I think they are in the top or the top two or three companies in the world of all patents filed in the USA as a private company. +Here is the profile of employees of IBM over the last decade. +In 2003, they had 300,000 employees, or 330,000 employees, out of which, 135,000 were in America, 9,000 were in India. +In 2009, they had 400,000 employees, by which time the U.S. employees had moved to 105,000, whereas the Indian employees had gone to 100,000. +Well, in 2010, they decided they're not going to reveal this data anymore, so I had to make some estimates based on various sources. +Here are my best guesses. Okay? I'm not saying this is the exact number, it's my best guess. +It gives you a sense of the trend. +There are 433,000 people now at IBM, out of which 98,000 are remaining in the U.S., and 150,000 are in India. +So you tell me, is IBM an American company, or an Indian company? Ladies and gentlemen, thank you very much. +So, last month, the Encyclopaedia Britannica announced that it is going out of print after 244 years, which made me nostalgic, because I remember playing a game with the colossal encyclopedia set in my hometown library back when I was a kid, maybe 12 years old. +And I wondered if I could update that game, not just for modern methods, but for the modern me. +So I tried. +I went to an online encyclopedia, Wikipedia, and I entered the term "Earth." +You can start anywhere, this time I chose Earth. +And the first rule of the game is pretty simple. +You just have to read the article until you find something you don't know, and preferably something your dad doesn't even know. +And in this case, I quickly found this: The furthest point from the center of the Earth is not the tip of Mount Everest, like I might have thought, it's the tip of this mountain: Mount Chimborazo in Ecuador. +The Earth spins, of course, as it travels around the sun, so the Earth bulges a little bit around the middle, like some Earthlings. +And even though Mount Chimborazo isn't the tallest mountain in the Andes, it's one degree away from the equator, it's riding that bulge, and so the summit of Chimborazo is the farthest point on Earth from the center of the Earth. +And it is really fun to say. +So I immediately decided, this is going to be the name of the game, or my new exclamation. +You can use it at TED. +Chimborazo, right? +It's like "eureka" and "bingo" had a baby. +I didn't know that; that's pretty cool. +Chimborazo! +So the next rule of the game is also pretty simple. +You just have to find another term and look that up. +Now in the old days, that meant getting out a volume and browsing through it alphabetically, maybe getting sidetracked, that was fun. +Nowadays there are hundreds of links to choose from. +I can go literally anywhere in the world, I think since I was already in Ecuador, I just decided to click on the word "tropical." +That took me to this wet and warm band of the tropics that encircles the Earth. +Now that's the Tropic of Cancer in the north and the Tropic of Capricorn in the south, that much I knew, but I was surprised to learn this little fact: Those are not cartographers' lines, like latitude or the borders between nations, they are astronomical phenomena caused by the Earth's tilt, and they change. +They move; they go up, they go down. +In fact, for years, the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn have been steadily drifting towards the equator at the rate of about 15 meters per year, and nobody told me that. +I didn't know it. +Chimborazo! +So to keep the game going, I just have to find another term and look that one up. +Since I'm already in the tropics, I chose "Tropical rainforest." +Famous for its diversity, human diversity. +There are still dozens and dozens of uncontacted tribes living on this planet. +They're all over the globe, but virtually all of them live in tropical rainforests. +This is the only place you can go nowadays and not get "friended." +The link that I clicked on here was exotic in the beginning and then absolutely mysterious at the very end. +It mentioned leopards and ring-tailed coatis and poison dart frogs and boa constrictors and then coleoptera, which turn out to be beetles. +Now I clicked on this on purpose, but if I'd somehow gotten here by mistake, it does remind me, for the band, see "The Beatles," for the car see "Volkswagon Beetle," but I am here for beetle beetles. +This is the most successful order on the planet by far. +Something between 20 and 25 percent of all life forms on the planet, including plants, are beetles. +That means the next time you are in the grocery store, take a look at the four people ahead of you in line. +Statistically, one of you is a beetle. +And if it is you, you are astonishingly well adapted. +There are scavenger beetles that pick the skin and flesh off of bones in museums. +There are predator beetles, that attack other insects and still look pretty cute to us. +There are beetles that roll little balls of dung great distances across the desert floor to feed to their hatchlings. +This reminded the ancient Egyptians of their god Khepri, who renews the ball of the sun every morning, which is how that dung-rolling scarab became that sacred scarab on the breastplate of the Pharaoh Tutankhamun. +Beetles, I was reminded, have the most romantic flirtation in the animal kingdom. +Fireflies are not flies, fireflies are beetles. +Fireflies are coleoptera, and coleoptera communicate in other ways as well. +Like my next link: The chemical language of pheromones. +Now the pheromone page took me to a video of a sea urchin having sex. +Yeah. +And the link to aphrodisiac. +Now that's something that increases sexual desire, possibly chocolate. +There is a compound in chocolate called phenethylamine that might be an aphrodisiac. +But as the article mentions, because of enzyme breakdown, it's unlikely that phenethylamine will reach your brain if taken orally. +So those of you who only eat your chocolate, you might have to experiment. +The link I clicked on here, "sympathetic magic," mostly because I understand what both of those words mean. +But not when they're together like that. +I do like sympathy. I do like magic. +So when I click on "sympathetic magic," I get sympathetic magic and voodoo dolls. +This is the boy in me getting lucky again. +Sympathetic magic is imitation. +If you imitate something, maybe you can have an effect on it. +That's the idea behind voodoo dolls, and possibly also cave paintings. +The link to cave paintings takes me to some of the oldest art known to humankind. +I would love to see Google maps inside some of these caves. +We've got tens-of-thousands-years-old artwork. +Common themes around the globe include large wild animals and tracings of human hands, usually the left hand. +We have been a dominantly right-handed tribe for millenia, so even though I don't know why a paleolithic person would trace his hand or blow pigment on it from a tube, I can easily picture how he did it. +Now that's embarrassing, because up until now, every time I've said, "I know it like the back of my hand," I've really been saying, "I'm totally familiar with that, I just don't know it's freaking name, right?" +And the link I clicked on here, well, lemurs, monkeys and chimpanzees have the little opisthenar. +I click on chimpanzee, and I get our closest genetic relative. +Pan troglodytes, the name we give him, means "cave dweller." +He doesn't. +He lives in rainforests and savannas. +It's just that we're always thinking of this guy as lagging behind us, evolutionarily or somehow uncannily creeping up on us, and in some cases, he gets places before us. +Like my next link, the almost irresistible link, Ham the Astrochimp. +I click on him, and I really thought he was going to bring me full circle twice, in fact. +He's born in Cameroon, which is smack in the middle of my tropics map, and more specifically his skeleton wound up in the Smithsonian museum getting picked clean by beetles. +In between those two landmarks in Ham's life, he flew into space. +He experienced weightlessness and re-entry months before the first human being to do it, Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin. +When I click on Yuri Gagarin's page, I get this guy who was surprisingly short in stature, huge in heroism. +Top estimates, Soviet estimates, put this guy at 1.65 meters, that is less than five and a half feet tall max, possibly because he was malnourished as a child. +Germans occupied Russia. +A Nazi officer took over the Gagarin household, and he and his family built and lived in a mud hut. +Years later, the boy from that cramped mud hut would grow up to be the man in that cramped capsule on the tip of a rocket who volunteered to be launched into outer space, the first one of any of us to really physically leave this planet. +And he didn't just leave it, he circled it once. +And then when you've had your fill of that, you can click on one more link. +You can come back to Earth. +You return to where you started. +You can finish your game. +You just need to find one more fact that you didn't know. +And for me, I quickly landed on this one: The Earth has a tolerance of about .17 percent from the reference spheroid, which is less than the .22 percent allowed in billiard balls. +This is the kind of fact I would have loved as a boy. +I found it myself. +It's got some math that I can do. +I'm pretty sure my dad doesn't know it. +That's pretty cool. +I didn't know that. +Chimborazo! +Thank you. +So a few weeks ago, a friend of mine gave this toy car to his 8-year-old son. +But instead of going into a store and buying one, like we do normally, he went to this website and he downloaded a file, and then he printed it on this printer. +So this idea that you can manufacture objects digitally using these machines is something that The Economist magazine defined as the Third Industrial Revolution. +Actually, I argue that there is another revolution going on, and it's the one that has to do with open-source hardware and the maker's movement, because the printer that my friend used to print the toy is actually open-source. +So you go to the same website, you can download all the files that you need in order to make that printer: the construction files, the hardware, the software, all the instruction is there. +And also this is part of a large community where there are thousands of people around the world that are actually making these kinds of printers, and there's a lot of innovation happening because it's all open-source. +You don't need anybody's permission to create something great. +And that space is like the personal computer in 1976, like the Apples with the other companies are fighting, and we will see in a few years, there will be the Apple of this kind of market come out. +Well, there's also another interesting thing. +I said the electronics are open-source, because at the heart of this printer there is something I'm really attached to: these Arduino boards, the motherboard that sort of powers this printer, is a project I've been working on for the past seven years. +It's an open-source project. +I worked with these friends of mine that I have here. +Well, when you design an object that's supposed to interact with a human being, if you make a foam model of a mobile phone, it doesn't make any sense. +You have to have something that actually interacts with people. +So, we worked on Arduino and a lot of other projects there to create platforms that would be simple for our students to use, so that our students could just build things that worked, but they don't have five years to become an electronics engineer. We have one month. +So how do I make something that even a kid can use? +And actually, with Arduino, we have kids like Sylvia that you see here, that actually make projects with Arduino. +I have 11-year-old kids stop me and show me stuff they built for Arduino that's really scary to see the capabilities that kids have when you give them the tools. +So let's look at what happens when you make a tool that anybody can just pick up and build something quickly, so one of the examples that I like to sort of kick off this discussion is this example of this cat feeder. +The gentleman who made this project had two cats. +One was sick and the other one was healthy, so he had to make sure they ate the proper food. +So he made this thing that recognizes the cat from a chip mounted inside on the collar of the cat, and opens the door and the cat can eat the food. +This is made by recycling an old CD player that you can get from an old computer, some cardboard, tape, couple of sensors, a few blinking LEDs, and then suddenly you have a tool. You build something that you cannot find on the market. +And I like this phrase: "Scratch your own itch." +If you have an idea, you just go and you make it. +This is the equivalent of sketching on paper done with electronics. +You know, when I was learning about programming, I learned by looking at other people's code, or looking at other people's circuits in magazines. +And this is a good way to learn, by looking at other people's work. +So the different elements of the project are all open, so the hardware is released with a Creative Commons license. +So, you know, I like this idea that hardware becomes like a piece of culture that you share and you build upon, like it was a song or a poem with Creative Commons. +Or, the software is GPL, so it's open-source as well. +The documentation and the hands-on teaching methodology is also open-source and released as the Creative Commons. +Just the name is protected so that we can make sure that we can tell people what is Arduino and what isn't. +Now, Arduino itself is made of a lot of different open-source components that maybe individually are hard to use for a 12-year-old kid, so Arduino wraps everything together into a mashup of open-source technologies where we try to give them the best user experience to get something done quickly. +This one is made by a company called Adafruit, which is run by this woman called Limor Fried, also known as Ladyada, who is one of the heroes of the open-source hardware movement and the maker movement. +So, this idea that you have a new, sort of turbo-charged DIY community that believes in open-source, in collaboration, collaborates online, collaborates in different spaces. +There is this magazine called Make that sort of gathered all these people and sort of put them together as a community, and you see a very technical project explained in a very simple language, beautifully typeset. +Or you have websites, like this one, like Instructables, where people actually teach each other about anything. +So this one is about Arduino projects, the page you see on the screen, but effectively here you can learn how to make a cake and everything else. +So let's look at some projects. +So this one is a quadcopter. +It's a small model helicopter. +In a way, it's a toy, no? +And so this one was military technology a few years ago, and now it's open-source, easy to use, you can buy it online. +DIY Drones is the community; they do this thing called ArduCopter. +But then somebody actually launched this start-up called Matternet, where they figured out that you could use this to actually transport things from one village to another in Africa, and the fact that this was easy to find, open-source, easy to hack, enabled them to prototype their company really quickly. +Or, other projects. Matt Richardson: I'm getting a little sick of hearing about the same people on TV over and over and over again, so I decided to do something about it. +This Arduino project, which I call the Enough Already, will mute the TV anytime any of these over-exposed personalities is mentioned. I'll show you how I made it. MB: Check this out. +MR: Our producers caught up with Kim Kardashian earlier today to find out what she was planning on wearing to her MB: Eh? MR: It should do a pretty good job of protecting our ears from having to hear about the details of Kim Kardashian's wedding. +MB: Okay. So, you know, again, what is interesting here is that Matt found this module that lets Arduino process TV signals, he found some code written by somebody else that generates infrared signals for the TV, put it together and then created this great project. +It's also used, Arduino's used, in serious places like, you know, the Large Hadron Collider. +There's some Arduino balls collecting data and sort of measuring some parameters. +Or it's used for So this is a musical interface built by a student from Italy, and he's now turning this into a product. Because it was a student project becoming a product. +Or it can be used to make an assistive device. +This is a glove that understands the sign language and transforms the gestures you make into sounds and writes the words that you're signing on a display And again, this is made of all different parts you can find on all the websites that sell Arduino-compatible parts, and you assemble it into a project. +Or this is a project from the ITP part of NYU, where they met with this boy who has a severe disability, cannot play with the PS3, so they built this device that allows the kid to play baseball although he has limited movement capability. +Or you can find it in arts projects. +So this is the txtBomber. +So you put a message into this device and then you roll it on the wall, and it basically has all these solenoids pressing the buttons on spray cans, so you just pull it over a wall and it just writes on the wall all the political messages. +So, yeah. Then we have this plant here. +Or this is something that twitters when the baby inside the belly of a pregnant woman kicks. Or this is a 14-year-old kid in Chile who made a system that detects earthquakes and publishes on Twitter. +He has 280,000 followers. +He's 14 and he anticipated a governmental project by one year. Or again, another project where, by analyzing the Twitter feed of a family, you can basically point where they are, like in the "Harry Potter" movie. +So you can find out everything about this project on the website. +Or somebody made a chair that twitters when somebody farts. It's interesting how, in 2009, Gizmodo basically defined, said that this project actually gives a meaning to Twitter, so it was a lot changed in between. So very serious project. +Or this machine here, it's from the DIY bio movement, and it's one of the steps that you need in order to process DNA, and again, it's completely open-source from the ground up. +Or you have students in developing countries making replicas of scientific instruments that cost a lot of money to make. +Actually they just build them themselves for a lot less using Arduino and a few parts. +This is a pH probe. +Or you get kids, like these kids, they're from Spain. +They learned how to program and to make robots when they were probably, like, 11, and then they started to use Arduino to make these robots that play football. They became world champions by making an Arduino-based robot. +And so when we had to make our own educational robot, we just went to them and said, you know, "You design it, because you know exactly what is needed to make a great robot that excites kids." +Not me. I'm an old guy. +What am I supposed to excite, huh? But as I in terms of educational assets. There's also companies like Google that are using the technology to create interfaces between mobile phones, tablets and the real world. +So the Accessory Development Kit from Google is open-source and based on Arduino, as opposed to the one from Apple which is closed-source, NDA, sign your life to Apple. Here you are. +There's a giant maze, and Joey's sitting there, and the maze is moving when you tilt the tablet. +Also, I come from Italy, and the design is important in Italy, and yet very conservative. +So we worked with a design studio called Habits, in Milan, to make this mirror, which is completely open-source. +This doubles also as an iPod speaker. +So the idea is that the hardware, the software, the design of the object, the fabrication, everything about this project is open-source and you can make it yourself. +So we want other designers to pick this up and learn how to make great devices, to learn how to make interactive products by starting from something real. +But when you have this idea, you know, what happens to all these ideas? +There's, like, thousands of ideas that I You know, it would take seven hours for me to do all the presentations. +I will not take all the seven hours. Thank you. +But let's start from this example: So, the group of people that started this company called Pebble, they prototyped a watch that communicates via Bluetooth with your phone, and you can display information on it. And they prototyped with an old LCD screen from a Nokia mobile phone and an Arduino. +And then, when they had a final project, they actually went to Kickstarter and they were asking for 100,000 dollars to make a few of them to sell. +They got 10 million dollars. +They got a completely fully funded start-up, and they don't have to, you know, get VCs involved or anything, just excite the people with their great project. +The last project I want to show you is this: It's called ArduSat. It's currently on Kickstarter, so if you want to contribute, please do it. +It's a satellite that goes into space, which is probably the least open-source thing you can imagine, and it contains an Arduino connected to a bunch of sensors. So if you know how to use Arduino, you can actually upload your experiments into this satellite and run them. +So imagine, if you as a high school can have the satellite for a week and do satellite space experiments like that. +So, as I said, there's lots of examples, and I'm going to stop here. And I just want to thank the Arduino community for being the best, and just every day making lots of projects. +Thank you. And thanks to the community. +Chris Anderson: Massimo, you told me earlier today that you had no idea, of course, that it would take off like this. +MB: No. +CA: I mean, how must you feel when you read this stuff and you see what you've unlocked? +MB: Well, it's the work of a lot of people, so we as a community are enabling people to make great stuff, and I just feel overwhelmed. +It's just, it's difficult to describe this. +Every morning, I wake up and I look at all the stuff that Google Alerts sends me, and it's just amazing. It's just going into every field that you can imagine. +CA: Thank you so much. +Openness. It's a word that denotes opportunity and possibilities. +Open-ended, open hearth, open source, open door policy, open bar. And everywhere the world is opening up, and it's a good thing. +Why is this happening? +The technology revolution is opening the world. +Yesterday's Internet was a platform for the presentation of content. +The Internet of today is a platform for computation. +The Internet is becoming a giant global computer, and every time you go on it, you upload a video, you do a Google search, you remix something, you're programming this big global computer that we all share. +Humanity is building a machine, and this enables us to collaborate in new ways. +Collaboration can occur on an astronomical basis. +Now a new generation is opening up the world as well. +So I've started working with a few hundred kids, and I came to the conclusion that this is the first generation to come of age in the digital age, to be bathed in bits. +I call them the Net Generation. +I said, these kids are different. +They have no fear of technology, because it's not there. +It's like the air. +It's sort of like, I have no fear of a refrigerator. +And And there's no more powerful force to change every institution than the first generation of digital natives. +I'm a digital immigrant. +I had to learn the language. +The global economic crisis is opening up the world as well. +Our opaque institutions from the Industrial Age, everything from old models of the corporation, government, media, Wall Street, are in various stages of being stalled or frozen or in atrophy or even failing, and this is now creating a burning platform in the world. +I mean, think about Wall Street. +The core modus operandi of Wall Street almost brought down global capitalism. +Now, you know the idea of a burning platform, that you're somewhere where the costs of staying where you are become greater than the costs of moving to something different, perhaps something radically different. +And we need to change and open up all of our institutions. +So this technology push, a demographic kick from a new generation and a demand pull from a new economic global environment is causing the world to open up. +Now, I think, in fact, we're at a turning point in human history, where we can finally now rebuild many of the institutions of the Industrial Age around a new set of principles. +Now, what is openness? +Well, as it turns out, openness has a number of different meanings, and for each there's a corresponding principle for the transformation of civilization. +The first is collaboration. +Now, this is openness in the sense of the boundaries of organizations becoming more porous and fluid and open. +The guy in the picture here, I'll tell you his story. +His name is Rob McEwen. +I'd like to say, "I have this think tank, we scour the world for amazing case studies." +The reason I know this story is because he's my neighbor. He actually moved across the street from us, and he held a cocktail party to meet the neighbors, and he says, "You're Don Tapscott. +I've read some of your books." +I said, "Great. What do you do?" +And he says, "Well I used to be a banker and now I'm a gold miner." +And he tells me this amazing story. +He takes over this gold mine, and his geologists can't tell him where the gold is. +He gives them more money for geological data, they come back, they can't tell him where to go into production. +After a few years, he's so frustrated he's ready to give up, but he has an epiphany one day. +He wonders, "If my geologists don't know where the gold is, maybe somebody else does." +So he does a "radical" thing. +He takes his geological data, he publishes it and he holds a contest on the Internet called the Goldcorp Challenge. +It's basically half a million dollars in prize money for anybody who can tell me, do I have any gold, and if so, where is it? He gets submissions from all around the world. +They use techniques that he's never heard of, and for his half a million dollars in prize money, Rob McEwen finds 3.4 billion dollars worth of gold. +The market value of his company goes from 90 million to 10 billion dollars, and I can tell you, because he's my neighbor, he's a happy camper. You know, conventional wisdom says talent is inside, right? +Your most precious asset goes out the elevator every night. +He viewed talent differently. +He wondered, who are their peers? +He should have fired his geology department, but he didn't. +You know, some of the best submissions didn't come from geologists. +They came from computer scientists, engineers. +The winner was a computer graphics company that built a three dimensional model of the mine where you can helicopter underground and see where the gold is. +He helped us understand that social media's becoming social production. +It's not about hooking up online. +This is a new means of production in the making. +Openness is about collaboration. +Now secondly, openness is about transparency. +This is different. Here, we're talking about the communication of pertinent information to stakeholders of organizations: employees, customers, business partners, shareholders, and so on. +And everywhere, our institutions are becoming naked. +People are all bent out of shape about WikiLeaks, but that's just the tip of the iceberg. +You see, people at their fingertips now, everybody, not just Julian Assange, have these powerful tools for finding out what's going on, scrutinizing, informing others, and even organizing collective responses. +Institutions are becoming naked, and if you're going to be naked, well, there's some corollaries that flow from that. +I mean, one is, fitness is no longer optional. You know? Or if you're going to be naked, you'd better get buff. +Now, by buff I mean, you need to have good value, because value is evidenced like never before. +You say you have good products. +They'd better be good. +But you also need to have values. +You need to have integrity as part of your bones and your DNA as an organization, because if you don't, you'll be unable to build trust, and trust is a sine qua non of this new network world. +So this is good. It's not bad. +Sunlight is the best disinfectant. +And we need a lot of sunlight in this troubled world. +Now, the third meaning and corresponding principle of openness is about sharing. +Now this is different than transparency. +Transparency is about the communication of information. +Sharing is about giving up assets, intellectual property. +And there are all kinds of famous stories about this. +IBM gave away 400 million dollars of software to the Linux movement, and that gave them a multi-billion dollar payoff. +Now, conventional wisdom says, "Well, hey, our intellectual property belongs to us, and if someone tries to infringe it, we're going to get out our lawyers and we're going to sue them." +Well, it didn't work so well for the record labels, did it? +I mean, they took They had a technology disruption, and rather than taking a business model innovation to correspond to that, they took and sought a legal solution and the industry that brought you Elvis and the Beatles is now suing children and is in danger of collapse. +So we need to think differently about intellectual property. +I'll give you an example. +The pharmaceutical industry is in deep trouble. +First of all, there aren't a lot of big inventions in the pipeline, and this is a big problem for human health, and the pharmaceutical industry has got a bigger problem, that they're about to fall off something called the patent cliff. +Do you know about this? +They're going to lose 20 to 35 percent of their revenue in the next 12 months. +And what are you going to do, like, cut back on paper clips or something? No. +We need to reinvent the whole model of scientific research. +The pharmaceutical industry needs to place assets in a commons. They need to start sharing precompetitive research. +They need to start sharing clinical trial data, and in doing so, create a rising tide that could lift all boats, not just for the industry but for humanity. +Now, the fourth meaning of openness, and corresponding principle, is about empowerment. +And I'm not talking about the motherhood sense here. +Knowledge and intelligence is power, and as it becomes more distributed, there's a concomitant distribution and decentralization and disaggregation of power that's underway in the world today. +The open world is bringing freedom. +Now, take the Arab Spring. +The debate about the role of social media and social change has been settled. +You know, one word: Tunisia. +And then it ended up having a whole bunch of other words too. +But in the Tunisian revolution, the new media didn't cause the revolution; it was caused by injustice. +Social media didn't create the revolution; it was created by a new generation of young people who wanted jobs and hope and who didn't want to be treated as subjects anymore. +But just as the Internet drops transaction and collaboration costs in business and government, it also drops the cost of dissent, of rebellion, and even insurrection in ways that people didn't understand. +You know, during the Tunisian revolution, snipers associated with the regime were killing unarmed students in the street. +So the students would take their mobile devices, take a picture, triangulate the location, send that picture to friendly military units, who'd come in and take out the snipers. +You think that social media is about hooking up online? +For these kids, it was a military tool to defend unarmed people from murderers. +It was a tool of self-defense. +You know, as we speak today, young people are being killed in Syria, and up until three months ago, if you were injured on the street, an ambulance would pick you up, take you to the hospital, you'd go in, say, with a broken leg, and you'd come out with a bullet in your head. +So these 20-somethings created an alternative health care system, where what they did is they used Twitter and basic publicly available tools that when someone's injured, a car would show up, it would pick them up, take them to a makeshift medical clinic, where you'd get medical treatment, as opposed to being executed. +So this is a time of great change. +Now, it's not without its problems. +Up until two years ago, all revolutions in human history had a leadership, and when the old regime fell, the leadership and the organization would take power. +Well, these wiki revolutions happen so fast they create a vacuum, and politics abhors a vacuum, and unsavory forces can fill that, typically the old regime, or extremists, or fundamentalist forces. +You can see this playing out today in Egypt. +But that doesn't matter, because this is moving forward. +The train has left the station. The cat is out of the bag. +The horse is out of the barn. Help me out here, okay? +The toothpaste is out of the tube. +I mean, we're not putting this one back. +The open world is bringing empowerment and freedom. +I think, at the end of these four days, that you'll come to conclude that the arc of history is a positive one, and it's towards openness. +If you go back a few hundred years, all around the world it was a very closed society. +It was agrarian, and the means of production and political system was called feudalism, and knowledge was concentrated in the church and the nobility. +People didn't know about things. +There was no concept of progress. +You were born, you lived your life and you died. +But then Johannes Gutenberg came along with his great invention, and, over time, the society opened up. +People started to learn about things, and when they did, the institutions of feudal society appeared to be stalled, or frozen, or failing. +It didn't make sense for the church to be responsible for medicine when people had knowledge. +So we saw the Protestant Reformation. +Martin Luther called the printing press "God's highest act of grace." +The creation of a corporation, science, the university, eventually the Industrial Revolution, and it was all good. +But it came with a cost. +And now, once again, the technology genie is out of the bottle, but this time it's different. +The printing press gave us access to the written word. +The Internet enables each of us to be a producer. +The printing press gave us access to recorded knowledge. +The Internet gives us access, not just to information and knowledge, but to the intelligence contained in the crania of other people on a global basis. +To me, this is not an information age, it's an age of networked intelligence. +It's an age of vast promise, an age of collaboration, where the boundaries of our organizations are changing, of transparency, where sunlight is disinfecting civilization, an age of sharing and understanding the new power of the commons, and it's an age of empowerment and of freedom. +Now, what I'd like to do is, to close, to share with you some research that I've been doing. +I've tried to study all kinds of organizations to understand what the future might look like, but I've been studying nature recently. +You know, bees come in swarms and fish come in schools. +Starlings, in the area around Edinburgh, in the moors of England, come in something called a murmuration, and the murmuration refers to the murmuring of the wings of the birds, and throughout the day the starlings are out over a 20-mile radius sort of doing their starling thing. +And at night they come together and they create one of the most spectacular things in all of nature, and it's called a murmuration. +And scientists that have studied this have said they've never seen an accident. +Now, this thing has a function. +It protects the birds. +You can see on the right here, there's a predator being chased away by the collective power of the birds, and apparently this is a frightening thing if you're a predator of starlings. +And there's leadership, but there's no one leader. +Now, is this some kind of fanciful analogy, or could we actually learn something from this? +Well, the murmuration functions to record a number of principles, and they're basically the principles that I have described to you today. +This is a huge collaboration. +It's an openness, it's a sharing of all kinds of information, not just about location and trajectory and danger and so on, but about food sources. +And there's a real sense of interdependence, that the individual birds somehow understand that their interests are in the interest of the collective. +Perhaps like we should understand that business can't succeed in a world that's failing. +Well, I look at this thing, and I get a lot of hope. +Think about the kids today in the Arab Spring, and you see something like this that's underway. +And imagine, just consider this idea, if you would: What if we could connect ourselves in this world through a vast network of air and glass? +Could we go beyond just sharing information and knowledge? +Could we start to share our intelligence? +Could we create some kind of collective intelligence that goes beyond an individual or a group or a team to create, perhaps, some kind of consciousness on a global basis? +Well, if we could do this, we could attack some big problems in the world. +And I look at this thing, and, I don't know, I get a lot of hope that maybe this smaller, networked, open world that our kids inherit might be a better one, and that this new age of networked intelligence could be an age of promise fulfilled and of peril unrequited. +Let's do this. Thank you. +So I'm a woman with chronic schizophrenia. +I've spent hundreds of days in psychiatric hospitals. +I might have ended up spending most of my life on the back ward of a hospital, but that isn't how my life turned out. +In fact, I've managed to stay clear of hospitals for almost three decades, perhaps my proudest accomplishment. +That's not to say that I've remained clear of all psychiatric struggles. +After I graduated from the Yale Law School and got my first law job, my New Haven analyst, Dr. White, announced to me that he was going to close his practice in three months, several years before I had planned to leave New Haven. +White had been enormously helpful to me, and the thought of his leaving shattered me. +My best friend Steve, sensing that something was terribly wrong, flew out to New Haven to be with me. +Now I'm going to quote from some of my writings: "I opened the door to my studio apartment. +Steve would later tell me that, for all the times he had seen me psychotic, nothing could have prepared him for what he saw that day. +For a week or more, I had barely eaten. +I was gaunt. I walked as though my legs were wooden. +My face looked and felt like a mask. +I had closed all the curtains in the apartment, so in the middle of the day the apartment was in near total darkness. +The air was fetid, the room a shambles. +Steve, both a lawyer and a psychologist, has treated many patients with severe mental illness, and to this day he'll say I was as bad as any he had ever seen. +'Hi,' I said, and then I returned to the couch, where I sat in silence for several moments. +'Thank you for coming, Steve. +Crumbling world, word, voice. +Tell the clocks to stop. +Time is. Time has come.' 'White is leaving,' Steve said somberly. +'I'm being pushed into a grave. The situation is grave,' I moan. +'Gravity is pulling me down. +I'm scared. Tell them to get away.'" As a young woman, I was in a psychiatric hospital on three different occasions for lengthy periods. +My doctors diagnosed me with chronic schizophrenia, and gave me a prognosis of "grave." +That is, at best, I was expected to live in a board and care, and work at menial jobs. +Fortunately, I did not actually enact that grave prognosis. +Instead, I'm a chaired Professor of Law, Psychology and Psychiatry at the USC Gould School of Law, I have many close friends and I have a beloved husband, Will, who's here with us today. +Thank you. +He's definitely the star of my show. +I'd like to share with you how that happened, and also describe my experience of being psychotic. +I hasten to add that it's my experience, because everyone becomes psychotic in his or her own way. +Let's start with the definition of schizophrenia. +Schizophrenia is a brain disease. +Its defining feature is psychosis, or being out of touch with reality. +Delusions and hallucinations are hallmarks of the illness. +Delusions are fixed and false beliefs that aren't responsive to evidence, and hallucinations are false sensory experiences. +For example, when I'm psychotic I often have the delusion that I've killed hundreds of thousands of people with my thoughts. +I sometimes have the idea that nuclear explosions are about to be set off in my brain. +Occasionally, I have hallucinations, like one time I turned around and saw a man with a raised knife. +Imagine having a nightmare while you're awake. +Often, speech and thinking become disorganized to the point of incoherence. +Loose associations involves putting together words that may sound a lot alike but don't make sense, and if the words get jumbled up enough, it's called "word salad." +Contrary to what many people think, schizophrenia is not the same as multiple personality disorder or split personality. +The schizophrenic mind is not split, but shattered. +Everyone has seen a street person, unkempt, probably ill-fed, standing outside of an office building muttering to himself or shouting. +This person is likely to have some form of schizophrenia. +But schizophrenia presents itself across a wide array of socioeconomic status, and there are people with the illness who are full-time professionals with major responsibilities. +Several years ago, I decided to write down my experiences and my personal journey, and I want to share some more of that story with you today to convey the inside view. +So the following episode happened the seventh week of my first semester of my first year at Yale Law School. +Quoting from my writings: "My two classmates, Rebel and Val, and I had made the date to meet in the law school library on Friday night to work on our memo assignment together. +But we didn't get far before I was talking in ways that made no sense. +'Memos are visitations,' I informed them. +'They make certain points. The point is on your head. +Pat used to say that. Have you killed you anyone?' Rebel and Val looked at me as if they or I had been splashed in the face with cold water. +'What are you talking about, Elyn?' 'Oh, you know, the usual. Who's what, what's who, heaven and hell. Let's go out on the roof. +It's a flat surface. It's safe.' Rebel and Val followed and they asked what had gotten into me. +'This is the real me,' I announced, waving my arms above my head. +And then, late on a Friday night, on the roof of the Yale Law School, I began to sing, and not quietly either. +'Come to the Florida sunshine bush. +Do you want to dance?' 'Are you on drugs?' one asked. 'Are you high?' 'High? Me? No way, no drugs. +Come to the Florida sunshine bush, where there are lemons, where they make demons.' 'You're frightening me,' one of them said, and Rebel and Val headed back into the library. +I shrugged and followed them. +Back inside, I asked my classmates if they were having the same experience of words jumping around our cases as I was. +'I think someone's infiltrated my copies of the cases,' I said. +'We've got to case the joint. +I don't believe in joints, but they do hold your body together.'" -- It's an example of loose associations. -- "Eventually I made my way back to my dorm room, and once there, I couldn't settle down. +My head was too full of noise, too full of orange trees and law memos I could not write and mass murders I knew I would be responsible for. +Sitting on my bed, I rocked back and forth, moaning in fear and isolation." +This episode led to my first hospitalization in America. +I had two earlier in England. +Continuing with the writings: "The next morning I went to my professor's office to ask for an extension on the memo assignment, and I began gibbering unintelligably as I had the night before, and he eventually brought me to the emergency room. +Once there, someone I'll just call 'The Doctor' and his whole team of goons swooped down, lifted me high into the air, and slammed me down on a metal bed with such force that I saw stars. +Then they strapped my legs and arms to the metal bed with thick leather straps. +A sound came out of my mouth that I'd never heard before: half groan, half scream, barely human and pure terror. +Then the sound came again, forced from somewhere deep inside my belly and scraping my throat raw." +This incident resulted in my involuntary hospitalization. +One of the reasons the doctors gave for hospitalizing me against my will was that I was "gravely disabled." +To support this view, they wrote in my chart that I was unable to do my Yale Law School homework. +I wondered what that meant about much of the rest of New Haven. +During the next year, I would spend five months in a psychiatric hospital. +At times, I spent up to 20 hours in mechanical restraints, arms tied, arms and legs tied down, arms and legs tied down with a net tied tightly across my chest. +I never struck anyone. +I never harmed anyone. I never made any direct threats. +If you've never been restrained yourself, you may have a benign image of the experience. +There's nothing benign about it. +Every week in the United States, it's been estimated that one to three people die in restraints. +They strangle, they aspirate their vomit, they suffocate, they have a heart attack. +It's unclear whether using mechanical restraints is actually saving lives or costing lives. +While I was preparing to write my student note for the Yale Law Journal on mechanical restraints, I consulted an eminent law professor who was also a psychiatrist, and said surely he would agree that restraints must be degrading, painful and frightening. +He looked at me in a knowing way, and said, "Elyn, you don't really understand: These people are psychotic. +They're different from me and you. +They wouldn't experience restraints as we would." +I didn't have the courage to tell him in that moment that, no, we're not that different from him. +We don't like to be strapped down to a bed and left to suffer for hours any more than he would. +In fact, until very recently, and I'm sure some people still hold it as a view, that restraints help psychiatric patients feel safe. +I've never met a psychiatric patient who agreed with that view. +Today, I'd like to say I'm very pro-psychiatry but very anti-force. +I don't think force is effective as treatment, and I think using force is a terrible thing to do to another person with a terrible illness. +Eventually, I came to Los Angeles to teach at the University of Southern California Law School. +For years, I had resisted medication, making many, many efforts to get off. +I felt that if I could manage without medication, I could prove that, after all, I wasn't really mentally ill, it was some terrible mistake. +My motto was the less medicine, the less defective. +My L.A. analyst, Dr. Kaplan, was urging me just to stay on medication and get on with my life, but I decided I wanted to make one last college try to get off. +Quoting from the text: "I started the reduction of my meds, and within a short time I began feeling the effects. +After returning from a trip to Oxford, I marched into Kaplan's office, headed straight for the corner, crouched down, covered my face, and began shaking. +All around me I sensed evil beings poised with daggers. +They'd slice me up in thin slices or make me swallow hot coals. +Kaplan would later describe me as 'writhing in agony.' Even in this state, what he accurately described as acutely and forwardly psychotic, I refused to take more medication. +The mission is not yet complete. +Immediately after the appointment with Kaplan, I went to see Dr. Marder, a schizophrenia expert who was following me for medication side effects. +He was under the impression that I had a mild psychotic illness. +Once in his office, I sat on his couch, folded over, and began muttering. +'Head explosions and people trying to kill. +Is it okay if I totally trash your office?' 'You need to leave if you think you're going to do that,' said Marder. +'Okay. Small. Fire on ice. Tell them not to kill me. +Tell them not to kill me. What have I done wrong? +Hundreds of thousands with thoughts, interdiction.' 'Elyn, do you feel like you're dangerous to yourself or others? +I think you need to be in the hospital. +I could get you admitted right away, and the whole thing could be very discrete.' 'Ha, ha, ha. +You're offering to put me in hospitals? +Hospitals are bad, they're mad, they're sad. +One must stay away. I'm God, or I used to be.'" At that point in the text, where I said "I'm God, or I used to be," my husband made a marginal note. +He said, "Did you quit or were you fired?" +"'I give life and I take it away. +Forgive me, for I know not what I do.' Eventually, I broke down in front of friends, and everybody convinced me to take more medication. +I could no longer deny the truth, and I could not change it. +The wall that kept me, Elyn, Professor Saks, separate from that insane woman hospitalized years past, lay smashed and in ruins." +Everything about this illness says I shouldn't be here, but I am. And I am, I think, for three reasons: First, I've had excellent treatment. +Four- to five-day-a-week psychoanalytic psychotherapy for decades and continuing, and excellent psychopharmacology. +Second, I have many close family members and friends who know me and know my illness. +These relationships have given my life a meaning and a depth, and they also helped me navigate my life in the face of symptoms. +Third, I work at an enormously supportive workplace at USC Law School. +This is a place that not only accommodates my needs but actually embraces them. +It's also a very intellectually stimulating place, and occupying my mind with complex problems has been my best and most powerful and most reliable defense against my mental illness. +Even with all that excellent treatment, wonderful family and friends, supportive work environment I did not make my illness public until relatively late in life, and that's because the stigma against mental illness is so powerful that I didn't feel safe with people knowing. +If you hear nothing else today, please hear this: There are not "schizophrenics." +There are people with schizophrenia, and these people may be your spouse, they may be your child, they may be your neighbor, they may be your friend, they may be your coworker. +So let me share some final thoughts. +We need to invest more resources into research and treatment of mental illness. +The better we understand these illnesses, the better the treatments we can provide, and the better the treatments we can provide, the more we can offer people care, and not have to use force. +Also, we must stop criminalizing mental illness. +It's a national tragedy and scandal that the L.A. County Jail is the biggest psychiatric facility in the United States. +American prisons and jails are filled with people who suffer from severe mental illness, and many of them are there because they never received adequate treatment. +I could have easily ended up there or on the streets myself. +A message to the entertainment industry and to the press: On the whole, you've done a wonderful job fighting stigma and prejudice of many kinds. +Please, continue to let us see characters in your movies, your plays, your columns, who suffer with severe mental illness. +Portray them sympathetically, and portray them in all the richness and depth of their experience as people and not as diagnoses. +Recently, a friend posed a question: If there were a pill I could take that would instantly cure me, would I take it? +The poet Rainer Maria Rilke was offered psychoanalysis. +He declined, saying, "Don't take my devils away, because my angels may flee too." +My psychosis, on the other hand, is a waking nightmare in which my devils are so terrifying that all my angels have already fled. +So would I take the pill? In an instant. +That said, I don't wish to be seen as regretting the life I could have had if I'd not been mentally ill, nor am I asking anyone for their pity. +What I rather wish to say is that the humanity we all share is more important than the mental illness we may not. +What those of us who suffer with mental illness want is what everybody wants: in the words of Sigmund Freud, "to work and to love." +Thank you. Thank you. Thank you. You're very kind. Thank you. +The phenomenon you saw here for a brief moment is called quantum levitation and quantum locking. +And the object that was levitating here is called a superconductor. +Superconductivity is a quantum state of matter, and it occurs only below a certain critical temperature. +Now, it's quite an old phenomenon; it was discovered 100 years ago. +However, only recently, due to several technological advancements, we are now able to demonstrate to you quantum levitation and quantum locking. +So, a superconductor is defined by two properties. +The first is zero electrical resistance, and the second is the expulsion of a magnetic field from the interior of the superconductor. +That sounds complicated, right? +But what is electrical resistance? +So, electricity is the flow of electrons inside a material. +And these electrons, while flowing, they collide with the atoms, and in these collisions they lose a certain amount of energy. +And they dissipate this energy in the form of heat, and you know that effect. +However, inside a superconductor there are no collisions, so there is no energy dissipation. +It's quite remarkable. Think about it. +In classical physics, there is always some friction, some energy loss. +But not here, because it is a quantum effect. +But that's not all, because superconductors don't like magnetic fields. +So a superconductor will try to expel magnetic field from the inside, and it has the means to do that by circulating currents. +Now, the combination of both effects -- the expulsion of magnetic fields and zero electrical resistance -- is exactly a superconductor. +But the picture isn't always perfect, as we all know, and sometimes strands of magnetic field remain inside the superconductor. +Now, under proper conditions, which we have here, these strands of magnetic field can be trapped inside the superconductor. +And these strands of magnetic field inside the superconductor, they come in discrete quantities. +Why? Because it is a quantum phenomenon. It's quantum physics. +And it turns out that they behave like quantum particles. +In this movie here, you can see how they flow one by one discretely. +This is strands of magnetic field. These are not particles, but they behave like particles. +So, this is why we call this effect quantum levitation and quantum locking. +But what happens to the superconductor when we put it inside a magnetic field? +Well, first there are strands of magnetic field left inside, but now the superconductor doesn't like them moving around, because their movements dissipate energy, which breaks the superconductivity state. +So what it actually does, it locks these strands, which are called fluxons, and it locks these fluxons in place. +And by doing that, what it actually does is locking itself in place. +Why? Because any movement of the superconductor will change their place, will change their configuration. +So we get quantum locking. And let me show you how this works. +I have here a superconductor, which I wrapped up so it'd stay cold long enough. +And when I place it on top of a regular magnet, it just stays locked in midair. +Now, this is not just levitation. It's not just repulsion. +I can rearrange the fluxons, and it will be locked in this new configuration. +Like this, or move it slightly to the right or to the left. +So, this is quantum locking -- actually locking -- three-dimensional locking of the superconductor. +Of course, I can turn it upside down, and it will remain locked. +Now, now that we understand that this so-called levitation is actually locking, Yeah, we understand that. +You won't be surprised to hear that if I take this circular magnet, in which the magnetic field is the same all around, the superconductor will be able to freely rotate around the axis of the magnet. +Why? Because as long as it rotates, the locking is maintained. +You see? I can adjust and I can rotate the superconductor. +We have frictionless motion. It is still levitating, but can move freely all around. +So, we have quantum locking and we can levitate it on top of this magnet. +But how many fluxons, how many magnetic strands are there in a single disk like this? +Well, we can calculate it, and it turns out, quite a lot. +One hundred billion strands of magnetic field inside this three-inch disk. +But that's not the amazing part yet, because there is something I haven't told you yet. +And, yeah, the amazing part is that this superconductor that you see here is only half a micron thick. It's extremely thin. +And this extremely thin layer is able to levitate more than 70,000 times its own weight. +It's a remarkable effect. It's very strong. +Now, I can extend this circular magnet, and make whatever track I want. +For example, I can make a large circular rail here. +And when I place the superconducting disk on top of this rail, it moves freely. +And again, that's not all. I can adjust its position like this, and rotate, and it freely moves in this new position. +And I can even try a new thing; let's try it for the first time. +I can take this disk and put it here, and while it stays here -- don't move -- I will try to rotate the track, and hopefully, if I did it correctly, it stays suspended. +You see, it's quantum locking, not levitation. +Now, while I'll let it circulate for a little more, let me tell you a little bit about superconductors. +Now -- -- So we now know that we are able to transfer enormous amount of currents inside superconductors, so we can use them to produce strong magnetic fields, such as needed in MRI machines, particle accelerators and so on. +But we can also store energy using superconductors, because we have no dissipation. +And we could also produce power cables, to transfer enormous amounts of current between power stations. +Imagine you could back up a single power station with a single superconducting cable. +But what is the future of quantum levitation and quantum locking? +Well, let me answer this simple question by giving you an example. +Imagine you would have a disk similar to the one I have here in my hand, three-inch diameter, with a single difference. +The superconducting layer, instead of being half a micron thin, being two millimeters thin, quite thin. +This two-millimeter-thin superconducting layer could hold 1,000 kilograms, a small car, in my hand. +Amazing. Thank you. +I study the future of crime and terrorism, and frankly, I'm afraid. +I'm afraid by what I see. +I sincerely want to believe that technology can bring us the techno-utopia that we've been promised, but, you see, I've spent a career in law enforcement, and that's informed my perspective on things. +I've been a street police officer, an undercover investigator, a counter-terrorism strategist, and I've worked in more than 70 countries around the world. +I've had to see more than my fair share of violence and the darker underbelly of society, and that's informed my opinions. +My work with criminals and terrorists has actually been highly educational. +They have taught me a lot, and I'd like to be able to share some of these observations with you. +Today I'm going to show you the flip side of all those technologies that we marvel at, the ones that we love. +In the hands of the TED community, these are awesome tools which will bring about great change for our world, but in the hands of suicide bombers, the future can look quite different. +I started observing technology and how criminals were using it as a young patrol officer. +In those days, this was the height of technology. +Laugh though you will, all the drug dealers and gang members with whom I dealt had one of these long before any police officer I knew did. +Twenty years later, criminals are still using mobile phones, but they're also building their own mobile phone networks, like this one, which has been deployed in all 31 states of Mexico by the narcos. +They have a national encrypted radio communications system. +Think about that. +Think about the innovation that went into that. +Think about the infrastructure to build it. +And then think about this: Why can't I get a cell phone signal in San Francisco? How is this possible? It makes no sense. We consistently underestimate what criminals and terrorists can do. +Technology has made our world increasingly open, and for the most part, that's great, but all of this openness may have unintended consequences. +Consider the 2008 terrorist attack on Mumbai. +The men that carried that attack out were armed with AK-47s, explosives and hand grenades. +They threw these hand grenades at innocent people as they sat eating in cafes and waited to catch trains on their way home from work. +But heavy artillery is nothing new in terrorist operations. +Guns and bombs are nothing new. +What was different this time is the way that the terrorists used modern information communications technologies to locate additional victims and slaughter them. +They were armed with mobile phones. +They had BlackBerries. +They had access to satellite imagery. +They had satellite phones, and they even had night vision goggles. +But perhaps their greatest innovation was this. +We've all seen pictures like this on television and in the news. This is an operations center. +And the terrorists built their very own op center across the border in Pakistan, where they monitored the BBC, al Jazeera, CNN and Indian local stations. +They also monitored the Internet and social media to monitor the progress of their attacks and how many people they had killed. +They did all of this in real time. +The innovation of the terrorist operations center gave terrorists unparalleled situational awareness and tactical advantage over the police and over the government. +What did they do with this? +They used it to great effect. +At one point during the 60-hour siege, the terrorists were going room to room trying to find additional victims. +They came upon a suite on the top floor of the hotel, and they kicked down the door and they found a man hiding by his bed. +And they said to him, "Who are you, and what are you doing here?" +And the man replied, "I'm just an innocent schoolteacher." +Of course, the terrorists knew that no Indian schoolteacher stays at a suite in the Taj. +They picked up his identification, and they phoned his name in to the terrorist war room, where the terrorist war room Googled him, and found a picture and called their operatives on the ground and said, "Your hostage, is he heavyset? +Is he bald in front? Does he wear glasses?" +"Yes, yes, yes," came the answers. +The op center had found him and they had a match. +He was not a schoolteacher. +He was the second-wealthiest businessman in India, and after discovering this information, the terrorist war room gave the order to the terrorists on the ground in Mumbai. +("Kill him.") We all worry about our privacy settings on Facebook, but the fact of the matter is, our openness can be used against us. +Terrorists are doing this. +A search engine can determine who shall live and who shall die. +This is the world that we live in. +During the Mumbai siege, terrorists were so dependent on technology that several witnesses reported that as the terrorists were shooting hostages with one hand, they were checking their mobile phone messages in the very other hand. +In the end, 300 people were gravely wounded and over 172 men, women and children lost their lives that day. +Think about what happened. +During this 60-hour siege on Mumbai, 10 men armed not just with weapons, but with technology, were able to bring a city of 20 million people to a standstill. +Ten people brought 20 million people to a standstill, and this traveled around the world. +This is what radicals can do with openness. +This was done nearly four years ago. +What could terrorists do today with the technologies available that we have? +What will they do tomorrow? +The ability of one to affect many is scaling exponentially, and it's scaling for good and it's scaling for evil. +It's not just about terrorism, though. +There's also been a big paradigm shift in crime. +You see, you can now commit more crime as well. +In the old days, it was a knife and a gun. +Then criminals moved to robbing trains. +You could rob 200 people on a train, a great innovation. +Moving forward, the Internet allowed things to scale even more. +In fact, many of you will remember the recent Sony PlayStation hack. +In that incident, over 100 million people were robbed. +Think about that. +When in the history of humanity has it ever been possible for one person to rob 100 million? +Of course, it's not just about stealing things. +There are other avenues of technology that criminals can exploit. +Many of you will remember this super cute video from the last TED, but not all quadcopter swarms are so nice and cute. +They don't all have drumsticks. +Some can be armed with HD cameras and do countersurveillance on protesters, or, as in this little bit of movie magic, quadcopters can be loaded with firearms and automatic weapons. +Little robots are cute when they play music to you. +When they swarm and chase you down the block to shoot you, a little bit less so. +Of course, criminals and terrorists weren't the first to give guns to robots. We know where that started. +But they're adapting quickly. +Recently, the FBI arrested an al Qaeda affiliate in the United States, who was planning on using these remote-controlled drone aircraft to fly C4 explosives into government buildings in the United States. +By the way, these travel at over 600 miles an hour. +Every time a new technology is being introduced, criminals are there to exploit it. +We've all seen 3D printers. +We know with them that you can print in many materials ranging from plastic to chocolate to metal and even concrete. +With great precision I actually was able to make this just the other day, a very cute little ducky. +But I wonder to myself, for those people that strap bombs to their chests and blow themselves up, how might they use 3D printers? +Perhaps like this. +You see, if you can print in metal, you can print one of these, and in fact you can also print one of these too. +The UK I know has some very strict firearms laws. +You needn't bring the gun into the UK anymore. +You just bring the 3D printer and print the gun while you're here, and, of course, the magazines for your bullets. +But as these get bigger in the future, what other items will you be able to print? +The technologies are allowing bigger printers. +As we move forward, we'll see new technologies also, like the Internet of Things. +Every day we're connecting more and more of our lives to the Internet, which means that the Internet of Things will soon be the Internet of Things To Be Hacked. +All of the physical objects in our space are being transformed into information technologies, and that has a radical implication for our security, because more connections to more devices means more vulnerabilities. +Criminals understand this. +Terrorists understand this. Hackers understand this. +If you control the code, you control the world. +This is the future that awaits us. +There has not yet been an operating system or a technology that hasn't been hacked. +That's troubling, since the human body itself is now becoming an information technology. +As we've seen here, we're transforming ourselves into cyborgs. +Every year, thousands of cochlear implants, diabetic pumps, pacemakers and defibrillators are being implanted in people. +In the United States, there are 60,000 people who have a pacemaker that connects to the Internet. +The defibrillators allow a physician at a distance to give a shock to a heart in case a patient needs it. +But if you don't need it, and somebody else gives you the shock, it's not a good thing. +Of course, we're going to go even deeper than the human body. +We're going down to the cellular level these days. +Up until this point, all the technologies I've been talking about have been silicon-based, ones and zeroes, but there's another operating system out there: the original operating system, DNA. +And to hackers, DNA is just another operating system waiting to be hacked. +It's a great challenge for them. +There are people already working on hacking the software of life, and while most of them are doing this to great good and to help us all, some won't be. +So how will criminals abuse this? +Well, with synthetic biology you can do some pretty neat things. +For example, I predict that we will move away from a plant-based narcotics world to a synthetic one. Why do you need the plants anymore? +You can just take the DNA code from marijuana or poppies or coca leaves and cut and past that gene and put it into yeast, and you can take those yeast and make them make the cocaine for you, or the marijuana, or any other drug. +So how we use yeast in the future is going to be really interesting. +In fact, we may have some really interesting bread and beer as we go into this next century. +The cost of sequencing the human genome is dropping precipitously. +It was proceeding at Moore's Law pace, but then in 2008, something changed. +The technologies got better, and now DNA sequencing is proceeding at a pace five times that of Moore's Law. +That has significant implications for us. +It took us 30 years to get from the introduction of the personal computer to the level of cybercrime we have today, but looking at how biology is proceeding so rapidly, and knowing criminals and terrorists as I do, we may get there a lot faster with biocrime in the future. +It will be easy for anybody to go ahead and print their own bio-virus, enhanced versions of ebola or anthrax, weaponized flu. +We recently saw a case where some researchers made the H5N1 avian influenza virus more potent. +It already has a 70 percent mortality rate if you get it, but it's hard to get. +Engineers, by moving around a small number of genetic changes, were able to weaponize it and make it much more easy for human beings to catch, so that not thousands of people would die, but tens of millions. +You see, you can go ahead and create new pandemics, and the researchers who did this were so proud of their accomplishments, they wanted to publish it openly so that everybody could see this and get access to this information. +But it goes deeper than that. +DNA researcher Andrew Hessel has pointed out quite rightly that if you can use cancer treatments, modern cancer treatments, to go after one cell while leaving all the other cells around it intact, then you can also go after any one person's cell. +Personalized cancer treatments are the flip side of personalized bioweapons, which means you can attack any one individual, including all the people in this picture. +How will we protect them in the future? +What to do? What to do about all this? +That's what I get asked all the time. +For those of you who follow me on Twitter, I will be tweeting out the answer later on today. Actually, it's a bit more complex than that, and there are no magic bullets. +I don't have all the answers, but I know a few things. +In the wake of 9/11, the best security minds put together all their innovation and this is what they created for security. +If you're expecting the people who built this to protect you from the coming robopocalypse uh, you may want to have a backup plan. Just saying. Just think about that. Law enforcement is currently a closed system. +It's nation-based, while the threat is international. +Policing doesn't scale globally. At least, it hasn't, and our current system of guns, border guards, big gates and fences are outdated in the new world into which we're moving. +So how might we prepare for some of these specific threats, like attacking a president or a prime minister? +This would be the natural government response, to hide away all our government leaders in hermetically sealed bubbles. +But this is not going to work. +The cost of doing a DNA sequence is going to be trivial. +Anybody will have it and we will all have them in the future. +So maybe there's a more radical way that we can look at this. +What happens if we were to take the President's DNA, or a king or queen's, and put it out to a group of a few hundred trusted researchers so they could study that DNA and do penetration testing against it as a means of helping our leaders? +Or what if we sent it out to a few thousand? +Or, controversially, and not without its risks, what happens if we just gave it to the whole public? +Then we could all be engaged in helping. +We've already seen examples of this working well. +They're killing so many people they can't even afford to bury them all in anything but these unmarked graves like this one outside of Ciudad Juarez. +What can we do about this? The government has proven ineffective. +So in Mexico, citizens, at great risk to themselves, are fighting back to build an effective solution. +They're crowd-mapping the activities of the drug dealers. +Whether or not you realize it, we are at the dawn of a technological arms race, an arms race between people who are using technology for good and those who are using it for ill. +The threat is serious, and the time to prepare for it is now. +I can assure you that the terrorists and criminals are. +My personal belief is that, rather than having a small, elite force of highly trained government agents here to protect us all, we're much better off having average and ordinary citizens approaching this problem as a group and seeing what we can do. +If we all do our part, I think we'll be in a much better space. +The tools to change the world are in everybody's hands. +How we use them is not just up to me, it's up to all of us. +This was a technology I would frequently deploy as a police officer. +This technology has become outdated in our current world. +It doesn't scale, it doesn't work globally, and it surely doesn't work virtually. +We've seen paradigm shifts in crime and terrorism. +They call for a shift to a more open form and a more participatory form of law enforcement. +So I invite you to join me. +After all, public safety is too important to leave to the professionals. +Thank you. +I'd like to talk about my dad. +My dad has Alzheimer's disease. +He started showing the symptoms about 12 years ago, and he was officially diagnosed in 2005. +Now he's really pretty sick. He needs help eating, he needs help getting dressed, he doesn't really know where he is or when it is, and it's been really, really hard. +My dad was my hero and my mentor for most of my life, and I've spent the last decade watching him disappear. +My dad's not alone. There's about 35 million people globally living with some kind of dementia, and by 2030 they're expecting that to double to 70 million. +That's a lot of people. +Dementia scares us. The confused faces and shaky hands of people who have dementia, the big numbers of people who get it, they frighten us. +And because of that fear, we tend to do one of two things: We go into denial: "It's not me, it has nothing to do with me, it's never going to happen to me." +Or, we decide that we're going to prevent dementia, and it will never happen to us because we're going to do everything right and it won't come and get us. +I'm looking for a third way: I'm preparing to get Alzheimer's disease. +Prevention is good, and I'm doing the things that you can do to prevent Alzheimer's. +I'm eating right, I'm exercising every day, I'm keeping my mind active, that's what the research says you should do. +But the research also shows that there's nothing that will 100 percent protect you. +If the monster wants you, the monster's gonna get you. +That's what happened with my dad. +My dad was a bilingual college professor. His hobbies were chess, bridge and writing op-eds. +He got dementia anyway. +If the monster wants you, the monster's gonna get you. +Especially if you're me, 'cause Alzheimer's tends to run in families. +So I'm preparing to get Alzheimer's disease. +Based on what I've learned from taking care of my father, and researching what it's like to live with dementia, I'm focusing on three things in my preparation: I'm changing what I do for fun, I'm working to build my physical strength, and -- this is the hard one -- I'm trying to become a better person. +Let's start with the hobbies. When you get dementia, it gets harder and harder to enjoy yourself. +You can't sit and have long talks with your old friends, because you don't know who they are. +It's confusing to watch television, and often very frightening. +And reading is just about impossible. +When you care for someone with dementia, and you get training, they train you to engage them in activities that are familiar, hands-on, open-ended. +With my dad, that turned out to be letting him fill out forms. +He was a college professor at a state school; he knows what paperwork looks like. +He'll sign his name on every line, he'll check all the boxes, he'll put numbers in where he thinks there should be numbers. +But it got me thinking, what would my caregivers do with me? +I'm my father's daughter. I read, I write, I think about global health a lot. +Would they give me academic journals so I could scribble in the margins? +Would they give me charts and graphs that I could color? +So I've been trying to learn to do things that are hands-on. +I've always liked to draw, so I'm doing it more even though I'm really very bad at it. +I am learning some basic origami. I can make a really great box. +And I'm teaching myself to knit, which so far I can knit a blob. +But, you know, it doesn't matter if I'm actually good at it. What matters is that my hands know how to do it. +Because the more things that are familiar, the more things my hands know how to do, the more things that I can be happy and busy doing when my brain's not running the show anymore. +They say that people who are engaged in activities are happier, easier for their caregivers to look after, and it may even slow the progress of the disease. +That all seems like win to me. +I want to be as happy as I can for as long as I can. +A lot of people don't know that Alzheimer's actually has physical symptoms, as well as cognitive symptoms. You lose your sense of balance, you get muscle tremors, and that tends to lead people to being less and less mobile. +They get scared to walk around. They get scared to move. +So I'm doing activities that will build my sense of balance. +I'm doing yoga and tai chi to improve my balance, so that when I start to lose it, I'll still be able to be mobile. +I'm doing weight-bearing exercise, so that I have the muscle strength so that when I start to wither, I have more time that I can still move around. +Finally, the third thing. I'm trying to become a better person. +My dad was kind and loving before he had Alzheimer's, and he's kind and loving now. +I've seen him lose his intellect, his sense of humor, his language skills, but I've also seen this: He loves me, he loves my sons, he loves my brother and my mom and his caregivers. +And that love makes us want to be around him, even now. +even when it's so hard. +When you take away everything that he ever learned in this world, his naked heart still shines. +I was never as kind as my dad, and I was never as loving. +And what I need now is to learn to be like that. +I need a heart so pure that if it's stripped bare by dementia, it will survive. +I don't want to get Alzheimer's disease. +What I want is a cure in the next 20 years, soon enough to protect me. +But if it comes for me, I'm going to be ready. +Thank you. +In the ocean, what is the common point between oil, plastic and radioactivity? +On the top line, this is the BP oil spill: billions of barrels of oil gushing in the Gulf of Mexico. +The middle line is millions of tons of plastic debris accumulating in our ocean, and the third line is radioactive material leaking from Fukushima nuclear power plant in the Pacific Ocean. +Well, the three big problems have in common that they are man-made problems but they are controlled by natural forces. +This should make us feel very, terribly awful as much as it should make us feel hopeful, because if we have the power to create these problems, we may as well have the power to remediate these problems. +But what about natural forces? +Well, that's exactly what I want to talk about today, is how we can use these natural forces to remediate these man-made problems. +When the BP oil spill happened, I was working at MIT, and I was in charge of developing an oil spill-cleaning technology. +And I had a chance to go in the Gulf of Mexico and meet some fishermen and see the terrible conditions in which they were working. +More than 700 of these boats, which are fishermen boats repurposed with oil absorbent in white and oil containment in orange, were used, but they only collected three percent of the oil on the surface, and the health of the cleaners were very deeply affected. +I was working on a very interesting technology at MIT, but it was a very long-term view of how to develop technology, and it was going to be a very expensive technology, and also it would be patented. +So I wanted to develop something that we could develop very fast, that would be cheap, and that would be open-source, so, because oil spills are not only happening in the Gulf of Mexico, and that would be using renewable energy. +So I quit my dream job, and I moved to New Orleans, and I kept on studying how the oil spill was happening. +Currently, what they were doing is that they were using these small fishing boats, and they were cleaning clean lines in an ocean of dirt. +If you're using the exact same amount of surface of oil absorbent, but you're just paying attention to natural patterns, and if you're going up the winds, you can collect a lot more material. +If you're multiplying the rig, so you multiply how many layers of absorbent you're using, you can collect a lot more. +But it's extremely difficult to move oil absorbent against the winds, the surface currents and the waves. +These are enormous forces. +So the very simple idea was to use the ancient technique of sailing and tacking of the wind to capture or intercept the oil that is drifting down the wind. +So this didn't require any invention. +We just took a simple sailing boat and we tried to pull something long and heavy, but as we tacked back and forth, what we lost was two things: we were losing pulling power and direction. +And so, I thought, what about if we just take the rudder from the back of the boat to the front, would we have better control? +So I built this small sailing robot with the rudder at the front, and I was trying to pull something very long and heavy, so that's a four-meter-long object just to pull, and I was surprised with just a 14-centimeter rudder, I could control four meters of absorbent. +Then I was so happy that I kept playing with the robot, and so you see the robot has a front rudder here. +Normally it's at the back. +And, playing, I realized that the maneuverability of this was really amazing, and I could avoid an obstacle at the very last second, more maneuverable than a normal boat. +What if the entire boat becomes a point of control? +What if the entire boat changes shape? +So Thank you very much. And so that's the beginning of Protei, and that's the first boat in history that completely changed the shape of the hull in order to control it, and the properties of sailing that we get are very superior compared to a normal boat. +When we're turning, we have the feeling of surfing, and the way it's going up-wind, it's very efficient. +This is low speed, low wind speed, and the maneuverability is very increased, and here I'm going to do a small jibe, and look at the position of the sail. +What's happening is that, because the boat changes shape, the position of the front sail and the main sail are different to the wind. +We're catching wind from both sides. +And this is exactly what we're looking [for] if we want to pull something long and heavy. +We don't want to lose pulling power, nor direction. +So, I wanted to know if this was possible to put this at an industrial level, so we made a large boat with a large sail, and with a very light hull, inflatable, very small footprint, so we have a very big size and power ratio. +After this, we wanted to see if we could implement this and automate the system, so we used the same system but we added a structure to it so we could activate the machine. +So, we used the same bladder-inflated system, and we took it for testing. +So this is happening in the Netherlands. +We tried in the water without any skin or ballast just to see how it works. +Our small prototype has given us good insight that it's working very well, but we still need to work a lot more on this. +So what we are doing is an accelerated evolution of sailing technology. +We went from a back rudder to a front rudder to two rudders to multiple rudders to the whole boat changing shape, and the more we are moving forward, and the more the design looks simple and cute. But I wanted to show you a fish because -- In fact, it's very different from a fish. +A fish will move because -- by changing like this, but our boat is propelled by the wind still, and the hull controls the trajectory. +So I brought to you for the first time on the TED stage Protei Number Eight. It's not the last one, but it's a good one for making demos. +So the first thing as I show you in the video is that we may be able to control the trajectory of a sailing boat better, or we may be able to never be in irons, so never facing the wind, we always can catch the wind from both sides. +But new properties of a sailing boat. +So if you're looking at the boat from this side, this might remind you of an airplane profile. +An airplane, when you're moving in this direction, starts to lift, and that's how it takes off. +Now, if you're taking the same system, and you're putting vertical, you're bending, and if you're moving this way forward, your instinct will tell you that you might go this way, but if you're moving fast enough, you might create what we call lateral lift, so we could get further or closer to the wind. +The other thing is, most boats, when they reach a certain speed, and they are going on waves, they start to hit and slap on the surface of the water, and a lot of the energy moving forward is lost. +But if we're going with the flow, if we pay attention to natural patterns instead of trying to be strong, but if you're going with the flow, we may absorb a lot of environmental noises, so the wave energy, to actually save some energy to move forward. +So we may have developed the technology which is very efficient for pulling something long and heavy, but the idea is, what is the purpose of technology if it doesn't reach the right hands? +What we really want is that this innovation happens continuously. The inventor and engineers and also the manufacturers and everybody works at the same time, but this would be sterile if this was happening in a parallel and uncrossed process. +What you really want is not a sequential, not parallel development. +You want to have a network of innovation. +You want everybody, like we're doing now, to work at the same time, and that can only happen if these people all together decide to share the information, and that's exactly what open hardware is about. +It's to replace competition by collaboration. +It's to transform any new product into a new market. +So what is open hardware? +Essentially, open hardware is a license. +It's just an intellectual property setup. +It means that everybody is free to use, modify and distribute, and in exchange we only ask for two things: The name is credited -- the name of the project -- and also the people who make improvement, they share back with the community. +So it's a very simple condition. +And I started this project alone in a garage in New Orleans, but quickly after I wanted to publish and share this information, so I made a Kickstarter, which is a crowd-fundraising platform, and in about one month we fundraised 30,000 dollars. +With this money, I hired a team of young engineers from all over the world, and we rented a factory in Rotterdam in the Netherlands. +We were peer-learning, we were engineering, we were making things, prototyping, but most importantly we were trying our prototypes in the water as often as possible, to fail as quickly as possible, to learn from. +This is a proud member of Protei from Korea, and on the right side, this is a multiple-masts design proposed by a team in Mexico. +This idea really appealed to Gabriella Levine in New York, and so she decided to prototype this idea that she saw, and she documented every step of the process, and she published it on Instructables, which is a website for sharing inventions. +Less than one week after, this is a team in Eindhoven, it's a school of engineering. +They made it, but they eventually published a simplified design. +They also made it into an Instructable, and in less than one week, they had almost 10,000 views, and they got many new friends. +We're working on also simpler technology, not that complex, with younger people and also older people, like this dinosaur is from Mexico. So Protei is now an international network of innovation for selling technology using this shape-shifting hull. +And what puts us together is that we have a common, at least, global understanding of what the word "business" is, or what it should be. +This is how most work today. +Business as usual is saying, what's most important is to make lots of profit, and you'll be using technology for that, and people will be your work force, instrumentalized, and environment is usually the last priority. +It will be just a way to, say, greenwash your audience and, say, increase your price tag. +What we're trying to do, or what we believe, because this is how we believe the world really works, is that without the environment you have nothing. +What's next for us? +So, this small machine that you've seen, we're hoping to make small toys like one-meter remote control Protei that you can upgrade -- so replace the remote control parts by Androids, so the mobile phone, and Arduino micro-controller, so you could be controlling this from your mobile phone, your tablet. +Then what we want to do is create six-meter versions so we can test the maximum performance of these machines, so we can go at very, very high speed. +So imagine yourself. +You are laying down in a flexible torpedo, sailing at high speed, controlling the shape of the hull with your legs and controlling the sail with your arms. +So that's what we're looking for developing. And we replace the human being -- to go, for example, for measuring radioactivity, you don't want a human to be sailing those robots -- with batteries, motors, micro-controllers and sensors. +This is what our teammates, we dream of at night. +We hope that we can sometime clean up oil spills, or we can gather or collect plastic in the ocean, or we can have swarms of our machines controlled by multi-player video game engines to control many of these machines, to monitor coral reefs or to monitor fisheries. +Our hope is that we can use open hardware technology to better understand and protect our oceans. +Thank you very much. +Chris Anderson: You guys were amazing. +That's amazing. +You just don't hear that every day. +Usman, the official story is that you learned to play the guitar by watching Jimmy Page on YouTube. +Usman Riaz: Yes, that was the first one. And then I -- That was the first thing I learned, and then I started progressing to other things. +And I started watching Kaki King a lot, and she would always cite Preston Reed as a big influence, so then I started watching his videos, and it's very surreal right now to be -- CA: Was that piece just now, that was one of his songs that you learned, or how did that happen? +UR: I'd never learned it before, but he told me that we would be playing that on stage, so I was familiar with it, so that's why I had so much more fun learning it. +And it finally happened, so ... +CA: Preston, from your point of view, I mean, you invented this like 20 years ago, right? +How does it feel to see someone like this come along taking your art and doing so much with it? +Preston Reed: It's mind-blowing, and I feel really proud, really honored. +And he's a wonderful musician, so it's cool. +CA: I guess, I don't think there is like a one-minute other piece you guys can do? +Can you? Do you jam? Do you have anything else? +PR: We haven't prepared anything. +CA: There isn't. I'll tell you what. +If you have another 30 or 40 seconds, and you have another 30 or 40 seconds, and we just see that, I just think -- I can feel it. We want to hear a little more. +And if it goes horribly wrong, no worries. +I'm a gamer, so I like to have goals. +I like special missions and secret objectives. +So here's my special mission for this talk: I'm going to try to increase the life span of every single person in this room by seven and a half minutes. +Literally, you will live seven and a half minutes longer than you would have otherwise, just because you watched this talk. +Some of you are looking a little bit skeptical. +That's okay, because check it out -- I have math to prove that it is possible. +It won't make much sense now. +I'll explain it all later, just pay attention to the number at the bottom: +7.68245837 minutes. +That will be my gift to you if I'm successful in my mission. +Now, you have a secret mission too. +Your mission is to figure out how you want to spend your extra seven and a half minutes. +And I think you should do something unusual with them, because these are bonus minutes. You weren't going to have them anyway. +Now, because I'm a game designer, you might be thinking to yourself, I know what she wants us to do with those minutes, she wants us to spend them playing games. +Now this is a totally reasonable assumption, given that I have made quite a habit of encouraging people to spend more time playing games. +For example, in my first TED Talk, I did propose that we should spend 21 billion hours a week, as a planet, playing video games. +Now, 21 billion hours, it's a lot of time. +It's so much time, in fact, that the number one unsolicited comment that I have heard from people all over the world since I gave that talk, is this: Jane, games are great and all, but on your deathbed, are you really going to wish you spent more time playing Angry Birds? +that games are a waste of time that we will come to regret -- that I hear it literally everywhere I go. +For example, true story: Just a few weeks ago, this cab driver, upon finding out that a friend and I were in town for a game developers' conference, turned around and said -- and I quote -- "I hate games. Waste of life. +Imagine getting to the end of your life and regretting all that time." +Now, I want to take this problem seriously. +I want games to be a force for good in the world. +I don't want gamers to regret the time they spent playing, time that I encouraged them to spend. +So I have been thinking about this question a lot lately. +When we're on our deathbeds, will we regret the time we spent playing games? +Now, this may surprise you, but it turns out there is actually some scientific research on this question. +It's true. Hospice workers, the people who take care of us at the end of our lives, recently issued a report on the most frequently expressed regrets that people say when they are literally on their deathbeds. +And that's what I want to share with you today -- the top five regrets of the dying. +Number one: I wish I hadn't worked so hard. +Number two: I wish I had stayed in touch with my friends. +Number three: I wish I had let myself be happier. +Number four: I wish I'd had the courage to express my true self. +And number five: I wish I'd lived a life true to my dreams, instead of what others expected of me. +Now, as far as I know, no one ever told one of the hospice workers, "I wish I'd spent more time playing video games," but when I hear these top five regrets of the dying, I can't help but hear five deep human cravings that games actually help us fulfill. +For example, I wish I hadn't worked so hard. +For many people, this means, I wish I'd spent more time with my family, with my kids when they were growing up. +Well, we know that playing games together has tremendous family benefits. +A recent study from Brigham Young University School of Family Life reported that parents who spend more time playing video games with their kids have much stronger real-life relationships with them. +"I wish I'd stayed in touch with my friends." +Hundreds of millions of people use social games like FarmVille or Words With Friends to stay in daily contact with real-life friends and family. +A recent study from the University of Michigan showed that these games are incredibly powerful relationship-management tools. +They help us stay connected with people in our social network that we would otherwise grow distant from, if we weren't playing games together. +"I wish I'd let myself be happier." +Well, here I can't help but think of the groundbreaking clinical trials recently conducted at East Carolina University that showed that online games can outperform pharmaceuticals for treating clinical anxiety and depression. +Just 30 minutes of online game play a day was enough to create dramatic boosts in mood and long-term increases in happiness. +"I wish I'd had the courage to express my true self." +Well, avatars are a way to express our true selves, our most heroic, idealized version of who we might become. +You can see that in this alter ego portrait by Robbie Cooper of a gamer with his avatar. +And Stanford University has been doing research for five years now to document how playing a game with an idealized avatar changes how we think and act in real life, making us more courageous, more ambitious, more committed to our goals. +"I wish I'd led a life true to my dreams, and not what others expected of me." +Are games doing this yet? +I'm not sure, so I've left a Super Mario question mark. +We're going to come back to this one. +But in the meantime, perhaps you're wondering, who is this game designer to be talking to us about deathbed regrets? +And it's true, I've never worked in a hospice, I've never been on my deathbed. +But recently I did spend three months in bed, wanting to die. +Really wanting to die. +Now let me tell you that story. +It started two years ago, when I hit my head and got a concussion. +The concussion didn't heal properly, and after 30 days, I was left with symptoms like nonstop headaches, nausea, vertigo, memory loss, mental fog. +My doctor told me that in order to heal my brain, I had to rest it. +So I had to avoid everything that triggered my symptoms. +For me that meant no reading, no writing, no video games, no work or email, no running, no alcohol, no caffeine. +In other words -- and I think you see where this is going -- no reason to live. +Of course it's meant to be funny, but in all seriousness, suicidal ideation is quite common with traumatic brain injuries. +It happens to one in three, and it happened to me. +My brain started telling me, "Jane, you want to die." +It said, "You're never going to get better." +It said, "The pain will never end." +And these voices became so persistent and so persuasive that I started to legitimately fear for my life, which is the time that I said to myself after 34 days -- and I will never forget this moment -- I said, "I am either going to kill myself or I'm going to turn this into a game." +Now, why a game? +I knew from researching the psychology of games for more than a decade that when we play a game -- and this is in the scientific literature -- we tackle tough challenges with more creativity, more determination, more optimism, and we're more likely to reach out to others for help. +I wanted to bring these gamer traits to my real-life challenge, so I created a role-playing recovery game called Jane the Concussion Slayer. +Now this became my new secret identity, and the first thing I did as a slayer was call my twin sister -- I have an identical twin sister named Kelly -- and tell her, "I'm playing a game to heal my brain, and I want you to play with me." +This was an easier way to ask for help. +She became my first ally in the game, my husband Kiyash joined next, and together we identified and battled the bad guys. +Now this was anything that could trigger my symptoms and therefore slow down the healing process, things like bright lights and crowded spaces. +We also collected and activated power-ups. +This was anything I could do on even my worst day to feel just a little bit good, just a little bit productive. +Things like cuddling my dog for 10 minutes, or getting out of bed and walking around the block just once. +Now the game was that simple: Adopt a secret identity, recruit your allies, battle the bad guys, activate the power-ups. +But even with a game so simple, within just a couple days of starting to play, that fog of depression and anxiety went away. +It just vanished. It felt like a miracle. +Now it wasn't a miracle cure for the headaches or the cognitive symptoms. +That lasted for more than a year, and it was the hardest year of my life by far. +But even when I still had the symptoms, even while I was still in pain, I stopped suffering. +Now what happened next with the game surprised me. +I put up some blog posts and videos online, explaining how to play. +But not everybody has a concussion, obviously, not everyone wants to be "the slayer," so I renamed the game SuperBetter. +And soon, I started hearing from people all over the world who were adopting their own secret identity, recruiting their own allies, and they were getting "super better," facing challenges like cancer and chronic pain, depression and Crohn's disease. +Even people were playing it for terminal diagnoses like ALS. +And I could tell from their messages and their videos that the game was helping them in the same ways that it helped me. +They talked about feeling stronger and braver. +They talked about feeling better understood by their friends and family. +And they even talked about feeling happier, even though they were in pain, even though they were tackling the toughest challenge of their lives. +Now at the time, I'm thinking to myself, what is going on here? +I mean, how could a game so trivial intervene so powerfully in such serious, and in some cases life-and-death, circumstances? +I mean, if it hadn't worked for me, there's no way I would have believed it was possible. +Well, it turns out there's some science here, too. +Some people get stronger and happier after a traumatic event. +And that's what was happening to us. +The game was helping us experience what scientists call post-traumatic growth, which is not something we usually hear about. +We usually hear about post-traumatic stress disorder. +But scientists now know that a traumatic event doesn't doom us to suffer indefinitely. +Instead, we can use it as a springboard to unleash our best qualities and lead happier lives. +Here are the top five things that people with post-traumatic growth say: "My priorities have changed." +"I'm not afraid to do what makes me happy." +"I feel closer to my friends and family." +"I understand myself better. I know who I really am now." +"I have a new sense of meaning and purpose in my life." +"I'm better able to focus on my goals and dreams." +Now, does this sound familiar? +It should, because the top five traits of post-traumatic growth are essentially the direct opposite of the top five regrets of the dying. +Now this is interesting, right? +It seems that somehow, a traumatic event can unlock our ability to lead a life with fewer regrets. +But how does it work? +How do you get from trauma to growth? +Or better yet, is there a way to get all the benefits of post-traumatic growth without the trauma, without having to hit your head in the first place? +That would be good, right? +I wanted to understand the phenomenon better, so I devoured the scientific literature, and here's what I learned. +There are four kinds of strength, or resilience, that contribute to post-traumatic growth, and there are scientifically validated activities that you can do every day to build up these four kinds of resilience, and you don't need a trauma to do it. +I could tell you what these four types of strength are, but I'd rather you experience them firsthand. +I'd rather we all start building them up together right now. +Here's what we're going to do. +We'll play a quick game together. +This is where you earn the seven and a half minutes of bonus life that I promised you earlier. +All you have to do is successfully complete the first four SuperBetter quests. +And I feel like you can do it. I have confidence in you. +So, everybody ready? This is your first quest. Here we go. +Pick one: Stand up and take three steps, or make your hands into fists, raise them over your head as high as you can for five seconds, go! +All right, I like the people doing both. +You are overachievers. Very good. Well done, everyone. +That is worth +1 physical resilience, which means that your body can withstand more stress and heal itself faster. +We know from the research that the number one thing you can do to boost your physical resilience is to not sit still. +That's all it takes. +Every single second that you are not sitting still, you are actively improving the health of your heart, and your lungs and brains. +Everybody ready for your next quest? +I want you to snap your fingers exactly 50 times, or count backwards from 100 by seven, like this: 100, 93... +Go! +Don't give up. +Don't let the people counting down from 100 interfere with your counting to 50. +Nice. Wow. That's the first time I've ever seen that. +Bonus physical resilience. Well done, everyone. +Now that's worth +1 mental resilience, which means you have more mental focus, more discipline, determination and willpower. +We know from the scientific research that willpower actually works like a muscle. +It gets stronger the more you exercise it. +So tackling a tiny challenge without giving up, even one as absurd as snapping your fingers exactly 50 times or counting backwards from 100 by seven is actually a scientifically validated way to boost your willpower. +So good job. Quest number three. +Pick one: Because of the room, fate's really determined this for you, but here are the two options. +If you're inside, find a window and look out of it. +If you're outside, find a window and look in. +Or do a quick YouTube or Google image search for "baby [your favorite animal.]" Do it on your phones, or just shout out some baby animals, and I'll put them on the screen. +So, what do we want to see? +Sloth, giraffe, elephant, snake. Okay, let's see what we got. +Baby dolphin and baby llamas. Everybody look. +Got that? +Okay, one more. Baby elephant. +We're clapping for that? +That's amazing. +All right, what we're just feeling there is plus-one emotional resilience, which means you have the ability to provoke powerful, positive emotions like curiosity or love, which we feel looking at baby animals, when you need them most. +Here's a secret from the scientific literature for you. +If you can manage to experience three positive emotions for every one negative emotion over the course of an hour, a day, a week, you dramatically improve your health and your ability to successfully tackle any problem you're facing. +And this is called the three-to-one positive emotion ratio. +It's my favorite SuperBetter trick, so keep it up. +All right, pick one, last quest: Shake someone's hand for six seconds, or send someone a quick thank you by text, email, Facebook or Twitter. Go! +Looking good, looking good. +Nice, nice. +I love it! +All right, everybody, that is +1 social resilience, which means you actually get more strength from your friends, your neighbors, your family, your community. +Now, a great way to boost social resilience is gratitude. +Touch is even better. +Here's one more secret for you: Shaking someone's hand for six seconds dramatically raises the level of oxytocin in your bloodstream, now that's the trust hormone. +That means that all of you who just shook hands are biochemically primed to like and want to help each other. +This will linger during the break, so take advantage of the networking opportunities. +Well, you have successfully completed your four quests, let's see if I've successfully completed my mission to give you seven and a half minutes of bonus life. +Now I get to share one more little bit of science with you. +It turns out that people who regularly boost these four types of resilience -- physical, mental, emotional and social -- live 10 years longer than everyone else. +So this is true. +So, the average life expectancy in the U.S. and the U.K. is 78.1 years, but we know from more than 1,000 peer-reviewed scientific studies that you can add 10 years of life by boosting your four types of resilience. +Congratulations, those seven and a half minutes are all yours. +You totally earned them. +Awesome. +Wait, wait, wait. +You still have your special mission, your secret mission. +How are you going to spend these minutes of bonus life? +Well, here's my suggestion. +These seven and a half bonus minutes are kind of like genie's wishes. +You can use your first wish to wish for a million more wishes. +Pretty clever, right? +So, if you spend these seven and a half minutes today doing something that makes you happy, or that gets you physically active, or puts you in touch with someone you care about, or even just tackling a tiny challenge, you're going to boost your resilience, so you're going to earn more minutes. +And the good news is, you can keep going like that. +Every hour of the day, every day of your life, all the way to your deathbed, which will now be 10 years later than it would have otherwise. +And when you get there, more than likely, you will not have any of those top five regrets, because you will have built up the strength and resilience to lead a life truer to your dreams. +And with 10 extra years, you might even have enough time to play a few more games. +Thank you. +I'm going to start with a little story. +So, I grew up in this neighborhood. When I was 15 years old, I went from being what I think was a strapping young athlete, over four months, slowly wasting away until I was basically a famine victim with an unquenchable thirst. +I had basically digested away my body. +And this all came to a head when I was on a backpacking trip, my first one ever actually, on Old Rag Mountain in West Virginia, and was putting my face into puddles of water and drinking like a dog. +That night, I was taken into the emergency room and diagnosed as a type 1 diabetic in full-blown ketoacidosis. +And I recovered, thanks to the miracles of modern medicine, insulin and other things, and gained all my weight back and more. +And something festered inside me after this happened. +What I thought about was, what caused the diabetes? +You see, diabetes is an autoimmune disease where your body fights itself, and at the time people thought that somehow maybe exposure to a pathogen had triggered my immune system to fight the pathogen and then kill the cells that make insulin. +And this is what I thought for a long period of time, and that's in fact what medicine and people have focused on quite a bit, the microbes that do bad things. +And that's where I need my assistant here now. +You may recognize her. +So, I went yesterday, I apologize, I skipped a few of the talks, and I went over to the National Academy of Sciences building, and they sell toys, giant microbes. +And here we go! +So you have caught flesh-eating disease if you caught that one. +I gotta get back out my baseball ability here. +So, unfortunately or not surprisingly, most of the microbes they sell at the National Academy building are pathogens. +Everybody focuses on the things that kill us, and that's what I was focusing on. +And it turns out that we are covered in a cloud of microbes, and those microbes actually do us good much of the time, rather than killing us. +And so, we've known about this for some period of time. +People have used microscopes to look at the microbes that cover us, I know you're not paying attention to me, but ... +The microbes that cover us. +And if you look at them in the microscope, you can see that we actually have 10 times as many cells of microbes on us as we have human cells. +There's more mass in the microbes than the mass of our brain. +We are literally a teeming ecosystem of microorganisms. +And unfortunately, if you want to learn about the microorganisms, just looking at them in a microscope is not sufficient. +And so we just heard about the DNA sequencing. +It turns out that one of the best ways to look at microbes and to understand them is to look at their DNA. +And that's what I've been doing for 20 years, using DNA sequencing, collecting samples from various places, including the human body, reading the DNA sequence and then using that DNA sequencing to tell us about the microbes that are in a particular place. +And what's amazing, when you use this technology, for example, looking at humans, we're not just covered in a sea of microbes. +There are thousands upon thousands of different kinds of microbes on us. +We have millions of genes of microbes in our human microbiome covering us. +And so this microbial diversity differs between people, and what people have been thinking about in the last 10, maybe 15 years is, maybe these microbes, this microbial cloud in and on us, and the variation between us, may be responsible for some of the health and illness differences between us. +And that comes back to the diabetes story I was telling you. +It turns out that people now think that one of the triggers for type 1 diabetes is not fighting a pathogen, but is in fact trying to -- miscommunicating with the microbes that live in and on you. +And somehow maybe the microbial community that's in and on me got off, and then this triggered some sort of immune response and led to me killing the cells that make insulin in my body. +And so what I want to tell you about for a few minutes is, what people have learned using DNA sequencing techniques in particular, to study the microbial cloud that lives in and on us. +And I want to tell you a story about a personal project. +My first personal experience with studying the microbes on the human body actually came from a talk that I gave, right around the corner from here at Georgetown. +I gave a talk, and a family friend who happened to be the Dean of Georgetown Medical School was at the talk, and came up to me afterwards saying, they were doing a study of ileal transplants in people. +And they wanted to look at the microbes after the transplants. +And so I started a collaboration with this person, Michael Zasloff and Thomas Fishbein, to look at the microbes that colonized these ilea after they were transplanted into a recipient. +And I can tell you all the details about the microbial study that we did there, but the reason I want to tell you this story is something really striking that they did at the beginning of this project. +They take the donor ileum, which is filled with microbes from a donor and they have a recipient who might have a problem with their microbial community, say Crohn's disease, and they sterilized the donor ileum. +Cleaned out all the microbes, and then put it in the recipient. +They did this because this was common practice in medicine, even though it was obvious that this was not a good idea. +And fortunately, in the course of this project, the transplant surgeons and the other people decided, forget common practice. We have to switch. +So they actually switched to leaving some of the microbial community in the ileum. They leave the microbes with the donor, and theoretically that might help the people who are receiving this ileal transplant. +And so, people -- this is a study that I did now. +In the last few years there's been a great expansion in using DNA technology to study the microbes in and on people. +There's something called the Human Microbiome Project that's going on in the United States, and MetaHIT going on in Europe, and a lot of other projects. +And when people have done a variety of studies, they have learned things such as, when a baby is born, during vaginal delivery you get colonized by the microbes from your mother. +There are risk factors associated with cesarean sections, some of those risk factors may be due to mis-colonization when you carve a baby out of its mother rather than being delivered through the birth canal. +And a variety of other studies have shown that the microbial community that lives in and on us helps in development of the immune system, helps in fighting off pathogens, helps in our metabolism, and determining our metabolic rate, probably determines our odor, and may even shape our behavior in a variety of ways. +And so, these studies have documented or suggested out of a variety of important functions for the microbial community, this cloud, the non-pathogens that live in and on us. +And one area that I think is very interesting, which many of you may have now that we've thrown microbes into the crowd, is something that I would call "germophobia." +So people are really into cleanliness, right? +We have antibiotics in our kitchen counters, people are washing every part of them all of the time, we pump antibiotics into our food, into our communities, we take antibiotics excessively. +And killing pathogens is a good thing if you're sick, but we should understand that when we pump chemicals and antibiotics into our world, that we're also killing the cloud of microbes that live in and on us. +And excessive use of antibiotics, in particular in children, has been shown to be associated with, again, risk factors for obesity, for autoimmune diseases, for a variety of problems that are probably due to disruption of the microbial community. +So the microbial community can go wrong whether we want it to or not, or we can kill it with antibiotics, but what can we do to restore it? +I'm sure many people here have heard about probiotics. +Probiotics are one thing that you can try and do to restore the microbial community that is in and on you. +And they definitely have been shown to be effective in some cases. +There's a project going on at UC Davis where people are using probiotics to try and treat, prevent, necrotizing enterocolitis in premature infants. +Premature infants have real problems with their microbial community. +And it may be that probiotics can help prevent the development of this horrible necrotizing enterocolitis in these premature infants. +But probiotics are sort of a very, very simple solution. +Most of the pills that you can take or the yogurts that you can eat have one or two species in them, maybe five species in them, and the human community is thousands upon thousands of species. +So what can we do to restore our microbial community when we have thousands and thousands of species on us? +Well, one thing that animals seem to do is, they eat poo -- coprophagia. +And it turns out that many veterinarians, old school veterinarians in particular, have been doing something called "poo tea," not booty, but poo tea, to treat colic and other ailments in horses and cows and things like that, where you make tea from the poo from a healthy individual animal and you feed it to a sick animal. +And this has turned out to be very effective in fighting certain intransigent infectious diseases like Clostridium difficile infections that can stay with people for years and years and years. +Transplants of the feces, of the microbes from the feces, from a healthy donor has actually been shown to cure systemic C. dif infections in some people. +Now what these transplants, these fecal transplants, or the poo tea suggest to me, and many other people have come up with this same idea, is that the microbial community in and on us, it's an organ. +We should view it as a functioning organ, part of ourselves. +We should treat it carefully and with respect, and we do not want to mess with it, say by C-sections or by antibiotics or excessive cleanliness, without some real good justification. +And what the DNA sequencing technologies are allowing people to do now is do detailed studies of, say, 100 patients who have Crohn's disease and 100 people who don't have Crohn's disease. +Or 100 people who took antibiotics when they were little, and 100 people who did not take antibiotics. +And we can now start to compare the community of microbes and their genes and see if there are differences. +And eventually we may be able to understand if they're not just correlative differences, but causative. +Studies in model systems like mouse and other animals are also helping do this, but people are now using these technologies because they've gotten very cheap, to study the microbes in and on a variety of people. +So, in wrapping up, what I want to tell you about is, I didn't tell you a part of the story of coming down with diabetes. +It turns out that my father was an M.D., actually studied hormones. I told him many times that I was tired, thirsty, not feeling very good. +And he shrugged it off, I think he either thought I was just complaining a lot, or it was the typical M.D. "nothing can be wrong with my children." +We even went to the International Society of Endocrinology meeting as family in Quebec. +And I was getting up every five minutes to pee, and drinking everybody's water at the table, and I think they all thought I was a druggie. +But the reason I'm telling you this is that the medical community, my father as an example, sometimes doesn't see what's right in front of their eyes. +The microbial cloud, it is right in front of us. +We can't see it most of the time. It's invisible. +They're microbes. They're tiny. +But we can see them through their DNA, we can see them through the effects that they have on people. +And what we need now is to start thinking about this microbial community in the context of everything in human medicine. +It doesn't mean that it affects every part of us, but it might. +What we need is a full field guide to the microbes that live in and on people, so that we can understand what they're doing to our lives. +We are them. They are us. +Thank you. +My passions are music, technology and making things. +And it's the combination of these things that has led me to the hobby of sound visualization, and, on occasion, has led me to play with fire. +This is a Rubens' tube. It's one of many I've made over the years, and I have one here tonight. +It's about an 8-foot-long tube of metal, it's got a hundred or so holes on top, on that side is the speaker, and here is some lab tubing, and it's connected to this tank of propane. +So, let's fire it up and see what it does. +So let's play a 550-herz frequency and watch what happens. +So let's change the frequency of the sound, and watch what happens to the fire. +(Higher frequency) So every time we hit a resonant frequency we get a standing wave and that emergent sine curve of fire. +So let's turn that off. We're indoors. +Thank you. I also have with me a flame table. +It's very similar to a Rubens' tube, and it's also used for visualizing the physical properties of sound, such as eigenmodes, so let's fire it up and see what it does. +All right, so it's a delicate dance. +If you watch closely If you watch closely, you may have seen some of the eigenmodes, but also you may have seen that jazz music is better with fire. +Actually, a lot of things are better with fire in my world, but the fire's just a foundation. +It shows very well that eyes can hear, and this is interesting to me because technology allows us to present sound to the eyes in ways that accentuate the strength of the eyes for seeing sound, such as the removal of time. +So here, I'm using a rendering algorithm to paint the frequencies of the song "Smells Like Teen Spirit" in a way that the eyes can take them in as a single visual impression, and the technique will also show the strengths of the visual cortex for pattern recognition. +The songs are a little similar, but mostly I'm just interested in the idea that someday maybe we'll buy a song because we like the way it looks. +All right, now for some more sound data. +So if we were to render these sounds visually, we might end up with something like this. +This is all 40 minutes of the recording, and right away the algorithm tells us a lot more tricks are missed than are made, and also a trick on the rails is a lot more likely to produce a cheer, and if you look really closely, we can tease out traffic patterns. +You see the skaters often trick in this direction. The obstacles are easier. +And in the middle of the recording, the mics pick this up, but later in the recording, this kid shows up, and he starts using a line at the top of the park to do some very advanced tricks on something called the tall rail. +And it's fascinating. At this moment in time, all the rest of the skaters turn their lines 90 degrees to stay out of his way. +You see, there's a subtle etiquette in the skate park, and it's led by key influencers, and they tend to be the kids who can do the best tricks, or wear red pants, and on this day the mics picked that up. +All right, from skate physics to theoretical physics. +I'm a big fan of Stephen Hawking, and I wanted to use all eight hours of his Cambridge lecture series to create an homage. +Now, in this series he's speaking with the aid of a computer, which actually makes identifying the ends of sentences fairly easy. So I wrote a steering algorithm. +It listens to the lecture, and then it uses the amplitude of each word to move a point on the x-axis, and it uses the inflection of sentences to move a same point up and down on the y-axis. +And these trend lines, you can see, there's more questions than answers in the laws of physics, and when we reach the end of a sentence, we place a star at that location. +So there's a lot of sentences, so a lot of stars, and after rendering all of the audio, this is what we get. +This is Stephen Hawking's universe. +It's all eight hours of the Cambridge lecture series taken in as a single visual impression, and I really like this image, but a lot of people think it's fake. +So I made a more interactive version, and the way I did that is I used their position in time in the lecture to place these stars into 3D space, and with some custom software and a Kinect, I can walk right into the lecture. +I'm going to wave through the Kinect here and take control, and now I'm going to reach out and I'm going to touch a star, and when I do, it will play the sentence that generated that star. +Stephen Hawking: There is one, and only one, arrangement in which the pieces make a complete picture. +Jared Ficklin: Thank you. There are 1,400 stars. +It's a really fun way to explore the lecture, and, I hope, a fitting homage. +All right. Let me close with a work in progress. +I think, after 30 years, the opportunity exists to create an enhanced version of closed captioning. +Now, we've all seen a lot of TEDTalks online, so let's watch one now with the sound turned off and the closed captioning turned on. +There's no closed captioning for the TED theme song, and we're missing it, but if you've watched enough of these, you hear it in your mind's ear, and then applause starts. +It usually begins here, and it grows and then it falls. +Sometimes you get a little star applause, and then I think even Bill Gates takes a nervous breath, and the talk begins. +All right, so let's watch this clip again. +This time, I'm not going to talk at all. +There's still going to be no audio, but what I am going to do is I'm going to render the sound visually in real time at the bottom of the screen. +So watch closely and see what your eyes can hear. +This is fairly amazing to me. +Even on the first view, your eyes will successfully pick out patterns, but on repeated views, your brain actually gets better at turning these patterns into information. +You can get the tone and the timbre and the pace of the speech, things that you can't get out of closed captioning. +I don't know. It's a theory right now. +Actually, it's all just an idea. +And let me end by saying that sound moves in all directions, and so do ideas. +Thank you. +So, how many of you have ever gotten behind the wheel of a car when you really shouldn't have been driving? +Maybe you're out on the road for a long day, and you just wanted to get home. +You were tired, but you felt you could drive a few more miles. +Maybe you thought, I've had less to drink than everybody else, I should be the one to go home. +Or maybe your mind was just entirely elsewhere. +Does this sound familiar to you? +Now, in those situations, wouldn't it be great if there was a button on your dashboard that you could push, and the car would get you home safely? +Now, that's been the promise of the self-driving car, the autonomous vehicle, and it's been the dream since at least 1939, when General Motors showcased this idea at their Futurama booth at the World's Fair. +Now, it's been one of those dreams that's always seemed about 20 years in the future. +Now, two weeks ago, that dream took a step forward, when the state of Nevada granted Google's self-driving car the very first license for an autonomous vehicle, clearly establishing that it's legal for them to test it on the roads in Nevada. +Now, California's considering similar legislation, and this would make sure that the autonomous car is not one of those things that has to stay in Vegas. +Now, in my lab at Stanford, we've been working on autonomous cars too, but with a slightly different spin on things. You see, we've been developing robotic race cars, cars that can actually push themselves to the very limits of physical performance. +Now, why would we want to do such a thing? +Well, there's two really good reasons for this. +First, we believe that before people turn over control to an autonomous car, that autonomous car should be at least as good as the very best human drivers. +Now, if you're like me, and the other 70 percent of the population who know that we are above-average drivers, you understand that's a very high bar. +There's another reason as well. +Just like race car drivers can use all of the friction between the tire and the road, all of the car's capabilities to go as fast as possible, we want to use all of those capabilities to avoid any accident we can. +Now, you may push the car to the limits not because you're driving too fast, but because you've hit an icy patch of road, conditions have changed. +In those situations, we want a car that is capable enough to avoid any accident that can physically be avoided. +I must confess, there's kind of a third motivation as well. +You see, I have a passion for racing. +In the past, I've been a race car owner, a crew chief and a driving coach, although maybe not at the level that you're currently expecting. +One of the things that we've developed in the lab -- we've developed several vehicles -- is what we believe is the world's first autonomously drifting car. +It's another one of those categories where maybe there's not a lot of competition. +But this is P1. It's an entirely student-built electric vehicle, which through using its rear-wheel drive can drift around corners. +It can get sideways like a rally car driver, always able to take the tightest curve, even on slippery, changing surfaces, never spinning out. +I guess it goes without saying that we've had a lot of fun doing this. +But in fact, there's something else that we've developed in the process of developing these autonomous cars. +We have developed a tremendous appreciation for the capabilities of human race car drivers. +As we've looked at the question of how well do these cars perform, we wanted to compare them to our human counterparts. +And we discovered their human counterparts are amazing. +Now, we can take a map of a race track, we can take a mathematical model of a car, and with some iteration, we can actually find the fastest way around that track. +We line that up with data that we record from a professional driver, and the resemblance is absolutely remarkable. +Yes, there are subtle differences here, but the human race car driver is able to go out and drive an amazingly fast line, without the benefit of an algorithm that compares the trade-off between going as fast as possible in this corner, and shaving a little bit of time off of the straight over here. +Not only that, they're able to do it lap after lap after lap. +They're able to go out and consistently do this, pushing the car to the limits every single time. +It's extraordinary to watch. +You put them in a new car, and after a few laps, they've found the fastest line in that car, and they're off to the races. +It really makes you think, we'd love to know what's going on inside their brain. +So as researchers, that's what we decided to find out. +We decided to instrument not only the car, but also the race car driver, to try to get a glimpse into what was going on in their head as they were doing this. +Now, this is Dr. Lene Harbott applying electrodes to the head of John Morton. +John Morton is a former Can-Am and IMSA driver, who's also a class champion at Le Mans. +Fantastic driver, and very willing to put up with graduate students and this sort of research. +She's putting electrodes on his head so that we can monitor the electrical activity in John's brain as he races around the track. +Now, clearly we're not going to put a couple of electrodes on his head and understand exactly what all of his thoughts are on the track. +However, neuroscientists have identified certain patterns that let us tease out some very important aspects of this. +For instance, the resting brain tends to generate a lot of alpha waves. +In contrast, theta waves are associated with a lot of cognitive activity, like visual processing, things where the driver is thinking quite a bit. +Now, we can measure this, and we can look at the relative power between the theta waves and the alpha waves. +This gives us a measure of mental workload, how much the driver is actually challenged cognitively at any point along the track. +Now, we wanted to see if we could actually record this on the track, so we headed down south to Laguna Seca. +Laguna Seca is a legendary raceway about halfway between Salinas and Monterey. +It has a curve there called the Corkscrew. +Now, the Corkscrew is a chicane, followed by a quick right-handed turn as the road drops three stories. +Now, the strategy for driving this as explained to me was, you aim for the bush in the distance, and as the road falls away, you realize it was actually the top of a tree. +All right, so thanks to the Revs Program at Stanford, we were able to take John there and put him behind the wheel of a 1960 Porsche Abarth Carrera. +Life is way too short for boring cars. +So, here you see John on the track, he's going up the hill -- Oh! Somebody liked that -- and you can see, actually, his mental workload -- measuring here in the red bar -- you can see his actions as he approaches. +Now watch, he has to downshift. +And then he has to turn left. +Look for the tree, and down. +Not surprisingly, you can see this is a pretty challenging task. +You can see his mental workload spike as he goes through this, as you would expect with something that requires this level of complexity. +But what's really interesting is to look at areas of the track where his mental workload doesn't increase. +I'm going to take you around now to the other side of the track. +Turn three. And John's going to go into that corner and the rear end of the car is going to begin to slide out. +He's going to have to correct for that with steering. +So watch as John does this here. +Watch the mental workload, and watch the steering. +The car begins to slide out, dramatic maneuver to correct it, and no change whatsoever in the mental workload. +Not a challenging task. +In fact, entirely reflexive. +Now, our data processing on this is still preliminary, but it really seems that these phenomenal feats that the race car drivers are performing are instinctive. +They are things that they have simply learned to do. +It requires very little mental workload for them to perform these amazing feats. +And their actions are fantastic. +This is exactly what you want to do on the steering wheel to catch the car in this situation. +Now, this has given us tremendous insight and inspiration for our own autonomous vehicles. +We've started to ask the question: Can we make them a little less algorithmic and a little more intuitive? +Can we take this reflexive action that we see from the very best race car drivers, introduce it to our cars, and maybe even into a system that could get onto your car in the future? +That would take us a long step along the road to autonomous vehicles that drive as well as the best humans. +But it's made us think a little bit more deeply as well. +Do we want something more from our car than to simply be a chauffeur? +Do we want our car to perhaps be a partner, a coach, someone that can use their understanding of the situation to help us reach our potential? +Can, in fact, the technology not simply replace humans, but allow us to reach the level of reflex and intuition that we're all capable of? +So, as we move forward into this technological future, I want you to just pause and think of that for a moment. +What is the ideal balance of human and machine? +And as we think about that, let's take inspiration from the absolutely amazing capabilities of the human body and the human mind. +Thank you. +Something happened in the early morning hours of May 2nd, 2000, that had a profound effect on the way our society operates. +Ironically, hardly anyone noticed at the time. +The change was silent, imperceptible, unless you knew exactly what to look for. +On that morning, U.S. President Bill Clinton ordered that a special switch be thrown in the orbiting satellites of the Global Positioning System. +Instantaneously, every civilian GPS receiver around the globe went from errors the size of a football field to errors the size of a small room. +It's hard to overstate the effect that this change in accuracy has had on us. +Before this switch was thrown, we didn't have in-car navigation systems giving turn-by-turn directions, because back then, GPS couldn't tell you what block you were on, let alone what street. +For geolocation, accuracy matters, and things have only improved over the last 10 years. +With more base stations, more ground stations, better receivers and better algorithms, GPS can now not only tell you what street you are on, but what part of the street. +This level of accuracy has unleashed a firestorm of innovation. +In fact, many of you navigated here today with the help of your TomTom or your smartphone. +Paper maps are becoming obsolete. +But we now stand on the verge of another revolution in geolocation accuracy. +What if I told you that the two-meter positioning that our current cell phones and our TomToms give us is pathetic compared to what we could be getting? +For some time now, it's been known that if you pay attention to the carrier phase of the GPS signal, and if you have an Internet connection, then you can go from meter level to centimeter level, even millimeter-level positioning. +So why don't we have this capability on our phones? +Only, I believe, for a lack of imagination. +Manufacturers haven't built this carrier phase technique into their cheap GPS chips because they're not sure what the general public would do with geolocation so accurate that you could pinpoint the wrinkles in the palm of your hand. +But you and I and other innovators, we can see the potential in this next leap in accuracy. +Imagine, for example, an augmented reality app that overlays a virtual world to millimeter-level precision on top of the physical world. +I could build for you a structure up here in 3D, millimeter accurate, that only you could see, or my friends at home. +So this level of positioning, this is what we're looking for, and I believe that, within the next few years, I predict, that this kind of hyper-precise, carrier phase-based positioning will become cheap and ubiquitous, and the consequences will be fantastic. +The Holy Grail, of course, is the GPS dot. +Do you remember the movie "The Da Vinci Code?" +Here's Professor Langdon examining a GPS dot, which his accomplice tells him is a tracking device accurate within two feet anywhere on the globe, but we know that in the world of nonfiction, the GPS dot is impossible, right? +For one thing, GPS doesn't work indoors, and for another, they don't make devices quite this small, especially when those devices have to relay their measurements back over a network. +Well, these objections were perfectly reasonable a few years ago, but things have changed. +There's been a strong trend toward miniaturization, better sensitivity, so much so that, a few years ago, a GPS tracking device looked like this clunky box to the left of the keys. +Imagine what we could do with a world full of GPS dots. +It's not just that you'll never lose your wallet or your keys anymore, or your child when you're at Disneyland. +You'll buy GPS dots in bulk, and you'll stick them on everything you own worth more than a few tens of dollars. +I couldn't find my shoes one recent morning, and, as usual, had to ask my wife if she had seen them. +But I shouldn't have to bother my wife with that kind of triviality. +I should be able to ask my house where my shoes are. +Those of you who have made the switch to Gmail, remember how refreshing it was to go from organizing all of your email to simply searching it. +The GPS dot will do the same for our possessions. +Now, of course, there is a flip side to the GPS dot. +I was in my office some months back and got a telephone call. +The woman on the other end of the line, we'll call her Carol, was panicked. +Apparently, an ex-boyfriend of Carol's from California had found her in Texas and was following her around. +So you might ask at this point why she's calling you. +Well, so did I. +But it turned out there was a technical twist to Carol's case. +Every time her ex-boyfriend would show up, at the most improbable times and the most improbable locations, he was carrying an open laptop, and over time Carol realized that he had planted a GPS tracking device on her car, so she was calling me for help to disable it. +"Well, you should go to a good mechanic and have him look at your car," I said. +"I already have," she told me. +"He didn't see anything obvious, and he said he'd have to take the car apart piece by piece." +"Well then, you'd better go to the police," I said. +"I already have," she replied. +"They're not sure this rises to the level of harassment, and they're not set up technically to find the device." +"Okay, what about the FBI?" +"I've talked to them too, and same story." +We then talked about her coming to my lab and us performing a radio sweep of her car, but I wasn't even sure that would work, given that some of these devices are configured to only transmit when they're inside safe zones or when the car is moving. +So, there we were. +Carol isn't the first, and certainly won't be the last, to find herself in this kind of fearsome environment, worrisome situation caused by GPS tracking. +In fact, as I looked into her case, I discovered to my surprise that it's not clearly illegal for you or me to put a tracking device on someone else's car. +It's an open-source GPS jammer, developed by Limor Fried, a graduate student at MIT, and Limor calls it "a tool for reclaiming our personal space." +With a flip of the switch you create a bubble around you within which GPS signals can't reside. +They get drowned out by the bubble. +And Limor designed this, in part, because, like Carol, she felt threatened by GPS tracking. +Then she posted her design to the web, and if you don't have time to build your own, you can buy one. +Chinese manufacturers now sell thousands of nearly identical devices on the Internet. +So you might be thinking, the Wave Bubble sounds great. +I should have one. Might come in handy if somebody ever puts a tracking device on my car. +But you should be aware that its use is very much illegal in the United States. +And why is that? +Well, because it's not a bubble at all. +Its jamming signals don't stop at the edge of your personal space or at the edge of your car. +They go on to jam innocent GPS receivers for miles around you. Now, if you're Carol or Limor, or someone who feels threatened by GPS tracking, it might not feel wrong to turn on a Wave Bubble, but in fact, the results can be disastrous. +Imagine, for example, you're the captain of a cruise ship trying to make your way through a thick fog and some passenger in the back turns on a Wave Bubble. +All of a sudden your GPS readout goes blank, and now it's just you and the fog and whatever you can pull off the radar system if you remember how to work it. +They -- in fact, they don't update or upkeep lighthouses anymore, and LORAN, the only backup to GPS, was discontinued last year. +Our modern society has a special relationship with GPS. +We're almost blindly reliant on it. +It's built deeply into our systems and infrastructure. +Some call it "the invisible utility." +So, turning on a Wave Bubble might not just cause inconvenience. +It might be deadly. +But as it turns out, for purposes of protecting your privacy at the expense of general GPS reliability, there's something even more potent and more subversive than a Wave Bubble, and that is a GPS spoofer. +The idea behind the GPS spoofer is simple. +Instead of jamming the GPS signals, you fake them. +You imitate them, and if you do it right, the device you're attacking doesn't even know it's being spoofed. +So let me show you how this works. +In any GPS receiver, there's a peak inside that corresponds to the authentic signals. +These three red dots represent the tracking points that try to keep themselves centered on that peak. +But if you send in a fake GPS signal, another peak pops up, and if you can get these two peaks perfectly aligned, the tracking points can't tell the difference, and they get hijacked by the stronger counterfeit signal, with the authentic peak getting forced off. +At this point, the game is over. +The fake signals now completely control this GPS receiver. +So is this really possible? +Can someone really manipulate the timing and positioning of a GPS receiver just like that, with a spoofer? +Well, the short answer is yes. +The key is that civil GPS signals are completely open. +They have no encryption. They have no authentication. +They're wide open, vulnerable to a kind of spoofing attack. +Even so, up until very recently, nobody worried about GPS spoofers. +People figured that it would be too complex or too expensive for some hacker to build one. +But I, and a friend of mine from graduate school, we didn't see it that way. +We knew it wasn't going to be so hard, and we wanted to be the first to build one so we could get out in front of the problem and help protect against GPS spoofing. +I remember vividly the week it all came together. +We built it at my home, which means that I got a little extra help from my three-year-old son Ramon. +Here's Ramon looking for a little attention from Dad that week. +At first, the spoofer was just a jumble of cables and computers, though we eventually got it packaged into a small box. +Now, the Dr. Frankenstein moment, when the spoofer finally came alive and I glimpsed its awful potential, came late one night when I tested the spoofer against my iPhone. +Let me show you some actual footage from that very first experiment. +I had come to completely trust this little blue dot and its reassuring blue halo. +They seemed to speak to me. +They'd say, "Here you are. Here you are." And "you can trust us." +So something felt very wrong about the world. +It was a sense, almost, of betrayal, when this little blue dot started at my house, and went running off toward the north leaving me behind. I wasn't moving. +What I then saw in this little moving blue dot was the potential for chaos. +I saw airplanes and ships veering off course, with the captain learning only too late that something was wrong. +I saw the GPS-derived timing of the New York Stock Exchange being manipulated by hackers. +You can scarcely imagine the kind of havoc you could cause if you knew what you were doing with a GPS spoofer. +There is, though, one redeeming feature of the GPS spoofer. +It's the ultimate weapon against an invasion of GPS dots. +Imagine, for example, you're being tracked. +Well, you can play the tracker for a fool, pretending to be at work when you're really on vacation. +Or, if you're Carol, you could lure your ex-boyfriend into some empty parking lot where the police are waiting for him. +So I'm fascinated by this conflict, a looming conflict, between privacy on the one hand and the need for a clean radio spectrum on the other. +We simply cannot tolerate GPS jammers and spoofers, and yet, given the lack of effective legal means for protecting our privacy from the GPS dot, can you really blame people for wanting to turn them on, for wanting to use them? +I hold out hope that we'll be able to reconcile this conflict with some sort of, some yet uninvented technology. +But meanwhile, grab some popcorn, because things are going to get interesting. +Within the next few years, many of you will be the proud owner of a GPS dot. +Maybe you'll have a whole bag full of them. +You'll never lose track of your things again. +The GPS dot will fundamentally reorder your life. +But will you be able to resist the temptation to track your fellow man? +Or will you be able to resist the temptation to turn on a GPS spoofer or a Wave Bubble to protect your own privacy? +So, as usual, what we see just beyond the horizon is full of promise and peril. +It'll be fascinating to see how this all turns out. +Thanks. +I love to collect things. +Ever since I was a kid, I've had massive collections of random stuff, everything from bizarre hot sauces from all around the world to insects that I've captured and put in jars. +Now, it's no secret, because I like collecting things, that I love the Natural History Museum and the collections of animals at the Natural History Museum in dioramas. +These, to me, are like living sculptures, right, that you can go and look at, and they memorialize a specific point of time in this animal's life. +You know, just like people on the street when you get too close to them. +Some people reacted in terror. Others reacted in asking you for help, and some people hide from you. +So this was really interesting to me, this idea of taking video off the screen and putting it in real life, and also adding interactivity to sculpture. +So over the next year, I documented 40 of my other friends and trapped them in jars as well and created a piece known as Garden, which is literally a garden of humanity. +But something about the first piece, the Animali Chordata piece, kept coming back to me, this idea of interaction with art, and I really liked the idea of people being able to interact, and also being challenged by interacting with art. +So I wanted to create a new piece that actually forced people to come and interact with something, and the way I did this was actually by projecting a 1950s housewife into a blender. This is a piece called Blend, and what it does is it actually makes you implicit in the work of art. +You may never experience the entire thing yourself. +You can walk away, you can just watch as this character stands there in the blender and looks at you, or you can actually choose to interact with it. +So if you do choose to interact with the piece, and you press the blender button, it actually sends this character into this dizzying disarray of dishevelment. +By doing that, you are now part of my piece. +You, like the people that are trapped in my work (Blender noises, laughter) have become part of my work as well. But, but this seems a bit unfair, right? +I put my friends in jars, I put this character, this sort of endangered species character in a blender. +But I'd never done anything about myself. +I'd never really memorialized myself. +So I decided to create a piece which is a self-portrait piece. +This is sort of a self-portrait taxidermy time capsule piece called A Point Just Passed, in which I project myself on top of a time card punch clock, and it's up to you. +If you want to choose to punch that punch card clock, you actually age me. +So I start as a baby, and then if you punch the clock, you'll actually transform the baby into a toddler, and then from a toddler I'm transformed into a teenager. +From a teenager, I'm transformed into my current self. +From my current self, I'm turned into a middle-aged man, and then, from there, into an elderly man. +And if you punch the punch card clock a hundred times in one day, the piece goes black and is not to be reset until the next day. +So, in doing so, you're erasing time. +You're actually implicit in this work and you're erasing my life. +So I like this about interactive video sculpture, that you can actually interact with it, that all of you can actually touch an artwork and be part of the artwork yourselves, and hopefully, one day, I'll have each and every one of you trapped in one of my jars. Thank you. +Now, I don't usually like cartoons, I don't think many of them are funny, I find them weird. But I love this cartoon from the New Yorker. +(Text: Never, ever think outside the box.) So, the guy is telling the cat, don't you dare think outside the box. +Well, I'm afraid I used to be the cat. +I always wanted to be outside the box. +And it's partly because I came to this field from a different background, chemist and a bacterial geneticist. +So, what people were saying to me about the cause of cancer, sources of cancer, or, for that matter, why you are who you are, didn't make sense. +So, let me quickly try and tell you why I thought that and how I went about it. +So, to begin with, however, I have to give you a very, very quick lesson in developmental biology, with apologies to those of you who know some biology. +So, when your mom and dad met, there is a fertilized egg, that round thing with that little blip. +It grows and then it grows, and then it makes this handsome man. +So, this guy, with all the cells in his body, all have the same genetic information. +So how did his nose become his nose, his elbow his elbow, and why doesn't he get up one morning and have his nose turn into his foot? +It could. It has the genetic information. +You all remember, dolly, it came from a single mammary cell. +So, why doesn't it do it? +So, have a guess of how many cells he has in his body. +Somewhere between 10 trillion to 70 trillion cells in his body. +Trillion! +Now, how did these cells, all with the same genetic material, make all those tissues? +And so, the question I raised before becomes even more interesting if you thought about the enormity of this in every one of your bodies. +Now, the dominant cancer theory would say that there is a single oncogene in a single cancer cell, and it would make you a cancer victim. +Well, this did not make sense to me. +Do you even know how a trillion looks? +Now, let's look at it. +There it comes, these zeroes after zeroes after zeroes. +Now, if .0001 of these cells got mutated, and .00001 got cancer, you will be a lump of cancer. +You will have cancer all over you. And you're not. +Why not? +So, I decided over the years, because of a series of experiments that this is because of context and architecture. +And let me quickly tell you some crucial experiment that was able to actually show this. +To begin with, I came to work with this virus that causes that ugly tumor in the chicken. +Rous discovered this in 1911. +It was the first cancer virus discovered, and when I call it "oncogene," meaning "cancer gene." +So, he made a filtrate, he took this filter which was the liquid after he passed the tumor through a filter, and he injected it to another chicken, and he got another tumor. +So, scientists were very excited, and they said, a single oncogene can do it. +All you need is a single oncogene. +So, they put the cells in cultures, chicken cells, dumped the virus on it, and it would pile up, and they would say, this is malignant and this is normal. +And again this didn't make sense to me. +So for various reasons, we took this oncogene, attached it to a blue marker, and we injected it into the embryos. +Now look at that. There is that beautiful feather in the embryo. +Every one of those blue cells are a cancer gene inside a cancer cell, and they're part of the feather. +So, when we dissociated the feather and put it in a dish, we got a mass of blue cells. +So, in the chicken you get a tumor, in the embryo you don't, you dissociate, you put it in a dish, you get another tumor. +What does that mean? +That means that microenvironment and the context which surrounds those cells actually are telling the cancer gene and the cancer cell what to do. +Now, let's take a normal example. +The normal example, let's take the human mammary gland. +I work on breast cancer. +So, here is a lovely human breast. +And many of you know how it looks, except that inside that breast, there are all these pretty, developing, tree-like structures. +So, we decided that what we like to do is take just a bit of that mammary gland, which is called an "acinus," where there are all these little things inside the breast where the milk goes, and the end of the nipple comes through that little tube when the baby sucks. +And we said, wonderful! Look at this pretty structure. +We want to make this a structure, and ask the question, how do the cells do that? +It has a bottom, it has a top, it is secreting gobs and gobs of milk, because it just came from an early pregnant mouse. +You take these cells, you put them in a dish, and within three days, they look like that. +They completely forget. +So you take them out, you put them in a dish, they don't make milk. They completely forget. +For example, here is a lovely yellow droplet of milk on the left, there is nothing on the right. +Look at the nuclei. The nuclei in the cell on the left is in the animal, the one on the right is in a dish. +They are completely different from each other. +So, what does this tell you? +This tells you that here also, context overrides. +In different contexts, cells do different things. +But how does context signal? +So, Einstein said that "For an idea that does not first seem insane, there is no hope." +So, you can imagine the amount of skepticism I received -- couldn't get money, couldn't do a whole lot of other things, but I'm so glad it all worked out. +So I said, extracellular matrix, which is this stuff called ECM, signals and actually tells the cells what to do. +So, we decided to make things that would look like that. +We found some gooey material that had the right extracellular matrix in it, we put the cells in it, and lo and behold, in about four days, they got reorganized and on the right, is what we can make in culture. +On the left is what's inside the animal, we call it in vivo, and the one in culture was full of milk, the lovely red there is full of milk. +So, we Got Milk, for the American audience. +All right. And here is this beautiful human cell, and you can imagine that here also, context goes. +So, what do we do now? +I made a radical hypothesis. +I said, if it's true that architecture is dominant, architecture restored to a cancer cell should make the cancer cell think it's normal. +Could this be done? +So, we tried it. +In order to do that, however, we needed to have a method of distinguishing normal from malignant, and on the left is the single normal cell, human breast, put in three-dimensional gooey gel that has extracellular matrix, it makes all these beautiful structures. +On the right, you see it looks very ugly, the cells continue to grow, the normal ones stop. +And you see here in higher magnification the normal acinus and the ugly tumor. +So we said, what is on the surface of these ugly tumors? +Could we calm them down -- they were signaling like crazy and they have pathways all messed up -- and make them to the level of the normal? +Well, it was wonderful. Boggles my mind. +This is what we got. +We can revert the malignant phenotype. +And in order to show you that the malignant phenotype I didn't just choose one, here are little movies, sort of fuzzy, but you see that on the left are the malignant cells, all of them are malignant, we add one single inhibitor in the beginning, and look what happens, they all look like that. +We inject them into the mouse, the ones on the right, and none of them would make tumors. +We inject the other ones in the mouse, 100 percent tumors. +So, it's a new way of thinking about cancer, it's a hopeful way of thinking about cancer. +We should be able to be dealing with these things at this level, and these conclusions say that growth and malignant behavior is regulated at the level of tissue organization and that the tissue organization is dependent on the extracellular matrix and the microenvironment. +All right, thus form and function interact dynamically and reciprocally. +And here is another five seconds of repose, is my mantra. Form and function. +And of course, we now ask, where do we go now? +We'd like to take this kind of thinking into the clinic. +But before we do that, I'd like you to think that at any given time when you're sitting there, in your 70 trillion cells, the extracellular matrix signaling to your nucleus, the nucleus is signaling to your extracellular matrix and this is how your balance is kept and restored. +We have made a lot of discoveries, we have shown that extracellular matrix talks to chromatin. +We have shown that there's little pieces of DNA on the specific genes of the mammary gland that actually respond to extracellular matrix. +It has taken many years, but it has been very rewarding. +And before I get to the next slide, I have to tell you that there are so many additional discoveries to be made. +There is so much mystery we don't know. +And I always say to the students and post-docs I lecture to, don't be arrogant, because arrogance kills curiosity. +Curiosity and passion. +You need to always think, what else needs to be discovered? +And maybe my discovery needs to be added to or maybe it needs to be changed. +So, we have now made an amazing discovery, a post-doc in the lab who is a physicist asked me, what do the cells do when you put them in? +What do they do in the beginning when they do? +I said, I don't know, we couldn't look at them. +We didn't have high images in the old days. +So she, being an imager and a physicist, did this incredible thing. +This is a single human breast cell in three dimensions. +Look at it. It's constantly doing this. +Has a coherent movement. +You put the cancer cells there, and they do go all over, they do this. They don't do this. +And when we revert the cancer cell, it again does this. +Absolutely boggles my mind. +So the cell acts like an embryo. What an exciting thing. +So I'd like to finish with a poem. +Well I used to love English literature, and I debated in college, which one should I do? +And unfortunately or fortunately, chemistry won. +But here is a poem from Yeats. I'll just read you the last two lines. +It's called "Among the School Children." +"O body swayed to music / O brightening glance / How [can we know] the dancer from the dance?" +And here is Merce Cunningham, I was fortunate to dance with him when I was younger, and here he is a dancer, and while he is dancing, he is both the dancer and the dance. +The minute he stops, we have neither. +So it's like form and function. +Now, I'd like to show you a current picture of my group. +I have been fortunate to have had these magnificant students and post-docs who have taught me so much, and I have had many of these groups come and go. +They are the future and I try to make them not be afraid of being the cat and being told, don't think outside the box. +And I'd like to leave you with this thought. +On the left is water coming through the shore, taken from a NASA satellite. +On the right, there is a coral. +Now if you take the mammary gland and spread it and take the fat away, on a dish it looks like that. +Do they look the same? Do they have the same patterns? +Why is it that nature keeps doing that over and over again? +And I'd like to submit to you that we have sequenced the human genome, we know everything about the sequence of the gene, the language of the gene, the alphabet of the gene, But we know nothing, but nothing, about the language and alphabet of form. +So, it's a wonderful new horizon, it's a wonderful thing to discover for the young and the passionate old, and that's me. +So go to it! +So let me start by taking you back, back into the mists of your memory to perhaps the most anticipated year in your life, but certainly the most anticipated year in all human history: the year 2000. Remember that? +Y2K, the dotcom bubble, stressing about whose party you're going to go to as the clock strikes midnight, before the champagne goes flat, and then there's that inchoate yearning that was felt, I think, by many, that the millennium, that the year 2000, should mean more, more than just a two and some zeroes. +Well, amazingly, for once, our world leaders actually lived up to that millennium moment and back in 2000 agreed to some pretty extraordinary stuff: visionary, measurable, long-term targets called the Millennium Development Goals. +Well, we're approaching 2015, so we'd better assess, how are we doing on these goals? +But we've also got to decide, do we like such global goals? +Some people don't. And if we like them, we've got to decide what we want to do on these goals going forward. +What does the world want to do together? +We've got to decide a process by which we decide. +Well, I definitely think these goals are worth building on and seeing through, and here's just a few reasons why. +Incredible partnerships between the private sector, political leaders, philanthropists and amazing grassroots activists across the developing world, but also 250,000 people marched in the streets of Edinburgh outside this very building for Make Poverty History. +All together, they achieved these results: increased the number of people on anti-retrovirals, life-saving anti-AIDS drugs; nearly halved deaths from malaria; vaccinated so many that 5.4 million lives will be saved. +And combined, this is going to result in two million fewer children dying every year, last year, than in the year 2000. +That's 5,000 fewer kids dying every day, ten times you lot not dead every day, because of all of these partnerships. +So I think this is amazing living proof of progress that more people should know about, but the challenge of communicating this kind of good news is probably the subject of a different TEDTalk. +Anyway, for now, anyone involved in getting these results, thank you. I think this proved these goals are worth it. +But there's still a lot of unfinished business. +Still, 7.6 million children die every year of preventable, treatable diseases, and 178 million kids are malnourished to the point of stunting, a horrible term which means physical and cognitive lifelong impairment. +So there's plainly a lot more to do on the goals we've got. +But then, a lot of people think there are things that should have been in the original package that weren't agreed back then that should now be included, like sustainable development targets, natural resource governance targets, access to opportunity, to knowledge, equity, fighting corruption. +All of this is measurable and could be in the new goals. +But the key thing here is, what do you think should be in the new goals? +What do you want? +Are you annoyed that I didn't talk about gender equality or education? +Should those be in the new package of goals? +And quite frankly, that's a good question, but there's going to be some tough tradeoffs and choices here, so you want to hope that the process by which the world decides these new goals is going to be legitimate, right? +Well, as we gather here in Edinburgh, technocrats appointed by the U.N. and certain governments, with the best intentions, are busying themselves designing a new package of goals, and currently they're doing that through pretty much the same old late-20th-century, top-down, elite, closed process. +But, of course, since then, the Web and mobile telephony, along with ubiquitous reality TV formats have spread all around the world. +So what we'd like to propose is that we use them to involve people from all around the world in an historic first: the world's first truly global poll and consultation, where everyone everywhere has an equal voice for the very first time. +I mean, wouldn't it be a huge historic missed opportunity not to do this, given that we can? +There's hundreds of billions of your aid dollars at stake, tens of millions of lives, or deaths, at stake, and, I'd argue, the security and future of you and your family is also at stake. +So, if you're with me, I'd say there's three essential steps in this crowdsourcing campaign: collecting, connecting and committing. +So first of all, we've got to ground this campaign in core polling data. +Let's go into every country that will let us in, ask 1,001 people what they want the new goals to be, making special efforts to reach the poorest, those without access to modern technology, and let's make sure that their views are at the center of the goals going forward. +Then, we've got to commission a baseline survey to make sure we can monitor and progress the goals going forward. The original goals didn't really have good baseline survey data, and we're going to need the help of big data through all of this process to make sure we can really monitor the progress. +And then we've got to connect with the big crowd. +Now here, we see the role for an unprecedented coalition of social media giants and upstarts, telecoms companies, reality TV show formats, gaming companies, telecoms, all of them together in kind of their "We Are The World" moment. +Could they come together and help the Millennium Development Goals get rebranded into the Millennial Generation's Goals? +And if just five percent of the five billion plus who are currently connected made a comment, and that comment turned into a commitment, we could crowdsource a force of 300 million people around the world to help see these goals through. +If we have this collected data, and this connected crowd, based upon our experience of campaigning and getting world leaders to commit, I think world leaders will commit to most of the crowdsourced recommendations. +But the question really is, through this process will we all have become committed? +And if we are, are we ready to iterate, monitor and provide feedback, make sure these promises are really delivering results? +Well, there's some fantastic examples here to scale up, mostly piloted within Africa, actually. +There's Open Data Kenya, which geocodes and crowdsources information about where projects are, are they delivering results. +Often, they're not in the right place. +And Ushahidi, which means "witness" in Swahili, which geocodes and crowdsources information in complex emergencies to help target responses. +This is some of the most exciting stuff in development and democracy, where citizens on the edge of a network are helping to force open the process to make sure that the big global aid promises and vague stuff up at the top really delivers for people at a grassroots level and inverts that pyramid. +This openness, this forcing openness, is key, and if it wasn't entirely transparent already, I should be open: I've got a completely transparent agenda. +Long-term trends suggest that this century is going to be a tough place to live, with population increases, consumption patterns increasing, and conflict over scarce natural resources. +And look at the state of global politics today. +Look at the Rio Earth Summit that happened just last week, or the Mexican G20, also last week. +Both, if we're honest, a bust. +Our world leaders, our global politics, currently can't get it done. +They need our help. They need the cavalry, and the cavalry's not going to come from Mars. +It's got to come from us, and I see this process of deciding democratically in a bottom-up fashion what the world wants to work on together as one vital means by which we can crowdsource the force to really build that constituency that's going to reinvigorate global governance in the 21st century. +I started in 2000. Let me finish in 2030. +Many people made fun of a big campaign a few years ago we had called Make Poverty History. +It was a naive thought in many people's minds, and it's true, it was just a t-shirt slogan that worked for the moment. But look. +The empirical condition of living under a dollar and 25 is trending down, and look where it gets to by 2030. +It's getting near zero. +Now sure, progress in China and India and poverty reduction there was key to that, but recently also in Africa, poverty rates are being reduced. +It will get harder as we get towards zero, as the poor will be increasingly located in post-conflict, fragile states, or maybe in middle income states where they don't really care about the marginalized. +But I'm confident, with the right kind of political campaigning and creative and technological innovation combined working together more and more as one, I think we can get this and other goals done. +Thank you. Chris Anderson: Jamie, here's the puzzle to me. +If there was an incident today where a hundred kids died in some tragedy or where, say, a hundred kids were kidnapped and then rescued by special forces, I mean, it would be all over the news for a week, right? +You just put up, just as one of your numbers there, that 5,000 -- is that the number? +Jamie Drummond: Fewer children every day. +CA: Five thousand fewer children dying every day. +I mean, it dwarfs, dwarfs everything that is actually on our news agenda, and it's invisible. +This must drive you crazy. +JD: It does, and we're having a huge debate in this country about aid levels, for example, and aid alone is not the whole solution. Nobody thinks it is. +But, you know, if people saw the results of this smart aid, I mean, they'd be going crazy for it. +I wish the 250,000 people who really did march outside this very building knew these results. +Right now they don't, and it would be great to find a way to better communicate it, because we have not. +Creatively, we've failed to communicate this success so far. +If those kinds of efforts just could multiply their voice and amplify it at the key moments, I know for a fact we'd get better policy. +The Mexican G20 need not have been a bust. +Rio, if anyone cares about the environment, need not have been a bust, okay? +But these conferences are going on, and I know people get skeptical and cynical about the big global summits and the promises and their never being kept, but actually, the bits that are, are making a difference, and what the politicians need is more permission from the public. +CA: But you haven't fully worked out the Web mechanisms, etc. +by which this might happen. +I mean, if the people here who've had experience using open platforms, you're interested to talk with them this week and try to take this forward. +JD: Absolutely. CA: All right, well I must say, if this conference led in some way to advancing that idea, that's a huge idea, and if you carry that forward, that is really awesome, so thank you. JD: I'd love your help. +CA: Thank you, thank you. +Well, I was born with a rare visual condition called achromatopsia, which is total color blindness, so I've never seen color, and I don't know what color looks like, because I come from a grayscale world. +To me, the sky is always gray, flowers are always gray, and television is still in black and white. +But, since the age of 21, instead of seeing color, I can hear color. +In 2003, I started a project with computer scientist Adam Montandon, and the result, with further collaborations with Peter Kese from Slovenia and Matias Lizana from Barcelona, is this electronic eye. +It's a color sensor that detects the color frequency in front of me (Frequency sounds) and sends this frequency to a chip installed at the back of my head, and I hear the color in front of me through the bone, through bone conduction. +(Frequency sounds) So, for example, if I have, like This is the sound of purple. (Frequency sounds) For example, this is the sound of grass. (Frequency sounds) This is red, like TED. (Frequency sounds) This is the sound of a dirty sock. Which is like yellow, this one. +So I've been hearing color all the time for eight years, since 2004, so I find it completely normal now to hear color all the time. +At the start, though, I had to memorize the names you give for each color, so I had to memorize the notes, but after some time, all this information became a perception. +I didn't have to think about the notes. +And after some time, this perception became a feeling. +I started to have favorite colors, and I started to dream in colors. +So, when I started to dream in color is when I felt that the software and my brain had united, because in my dreams, it was my brain creating electronic sounds. It wasn't the software, so that's when I started to feel like a cyborg. +It's when I started to feel that the cybernetic device was no longer a device. +It had become a part of my body, an extension of my senses, and after some time, it even became a part of my official image. +This is my passport from 2004. +You're not allowed to appear on U.K. passports with electronic equipment, but I insisted to the passport office that what they were seeing was actually a new part of my body, an extension of my brain, and they finally accepted me to appear with the passport photo. +So, life has changed dramatically since I hear color, because color is almost everywhere, so the biggest change for example is going to an art gallery, I can listen to a Picasso, for example. So it's like I'm going to a concert hall, because I can listen to the paintings. +And supermarkets, I find this is very shocking, it's very, very attractive to walk along a supermarket. +It's like going to a nightclub. +It's full of different melodies. Yeah. +Especially the aisle with cleaning products. +It's just fabulous. Also, the way I dress has changed. +Before, I used to dress in a way that it looked good. +So imagine a restaurant where we can have, like, Lady Gaga salads as starters. I mean, this would get teenagers to eat their vegetables, probably. +And also, some Rachmaninov piano concertos as main dishes, and some Bjork or Madonna desserts, that would be a very exciting restaurant where you can actually eat songs. +Also, the way I perceive beauty has changed, because when I look at someone, I hear their face, so someone might look very beautiful but sound terrible. +And it might happen the opposite, the other way around. So I really enjoy creating, like, sound portraits of people. +Instead of drawing someone's face, like drawing the shape, I point at them with the eye and I write down the different notes I hear, and then I create sound portraits. +Here's some faces. +(Musical chords) Yeah, Nicole Kidman sounds good. Some people, I would never relate, but they sound similar. +Prince Charles has some similarities with Nicole Kidman. +They have similar sound of eyes. +So you relate people that you wouldn't relate, and you can actually also create concerts by looking at the audience faces. +So I connect the eye, and then I play the audience's faces. +The good thing about this is, if the concert doesn't sound good, it's their fault. +It's not my fault, because And so another thing that happens is that I started having this secondary effect that normal sounds started to become color. +I heard a telephone tone, and it felt green because it sounded just like the color green. +The BBC beeps, they sound turquoise, and listening to Mozart became a yellow experience, so I started to paint music and paint people's voices, because people's voices have frequencies that I relate to color. +And here's some music translated into color. +For example, Mozart, "Queen of the Night," looks like this. +Very yellow and very colorful, because there's many different frequencies. +And this is a completely different song. +It's Justin Bieber's "Baby." It is very pink and very yellow. +So, also voices, I can transform speeches into color, for example, these are two very well-known speeches. +One of them is Martin Luther King's "I Have A Dream," and the other one is Hitler. +And I like to exhibit these paintings in the exhibition halls without labels, and then I ask people, "Which one do you prefer?" +And most people change their preference when I tell them that the one on the left is Hitler and the one on the right is Martin Luther King. +So I got to a point when I was able to perceive 360 colors, just like human vision. +I was able to differentiate all the degrees of the color wheel. +But then, I just thought that this human vision wasn't good enough. +There's many, many more colors around us that we cannot perceive, but that electronic eyes can perceive. +So I decided to continue extending my color senses, and I added infrared and I added ultraviolet to the color-to-sound scale, so now I can hear colors that the human eye cannot perceive. +For example, perceiving infrared is good because you can actually detect if there's movement detectors in a room. +I can hear if someone points at me with a remote control. +And the good thing about perceiving ultraviolet is that you can hear if it's a good day or a bad day to sunbathe, because ultraviolet is a dangerous color, a color that can actually kill us, so I think we should all have this wish to perceive things that we cannot perceive. +That's why, two years ago, I created the Cyborg Foundation, which is a foundation that tries to help people become a cyborg, tries to encourage people to extend their senses by using technology as part of the body. +We should all think that knowledge comes from our senses, so if we extend our senses, we will consequently extend our knowledge. +I think life will be much more exciting when we stop creating applications for mobile phones and we start creating applications for our own body. +I think this will be a big, big change that we will see during this century. +So I do encourage you all to think about which senses you'd like to extend. +I would encourage you to become a cyborg. +You won't be alone. Thank you. +I'm gonna talk a little bit about open-source security, because we've got to get better at security in this 21st century. +Let me start by saying, let's look back to the 20th century, and kind of get a sense of how that style of security worked for us. +This is Verdun, a battlefield in France just north of the NATO headquarters in Belgium. +At Verdun, in 1916, over a 300-day period, 700,000 people were killed, so about 2,000 a day. +If you roll it forward -- 20th-century security -- into the Second World War, you see the Battle of Stalingrad, 300 days, 2 million people killed. +We go into the Cold War, and we continue to try and build walls. +We go from the trench warfare of the First World War to the Maginot Line of the Second World War, and then we go into the Cold War, the Iron Curtain, the Berlin Wall. +Walls don't work. +My thesis for us today is, instead of building walls to create security, we need to build bridges. +This is a famous bridge in Europe. +It's in Bosnia-Herzegovina. +It's the bridge over the Drina River, the subject of a novel by Ivo Andri, and it talks about how, in that very troubled part of Europe and the Balkans, over time there's been enormous building of walls. +More recently, in the last decade, we begin to see these communities start, hesitatingly, to come together. +I would argue, again, open-source security is about connecting the international, the interagency, the private-public, and lashing it together with strategic communication, largely in social networks. +So let me talk a little bit about why we need to do that, because our global commons is under attack in a variety of ways, and none of the sources of threat to the global commons will be solved by building walls. +Now, I'm a sailor, obviously. +This is a ship, a liner, clipping through the Indian Ocean. +What's wrong with this picture? +It's got concertina wire along the sides of it. +That's to prevent pirates from attacking it. +Piracy is a very active threat today around the world. This is in the Indian Ocean. +Piracy is also very active in the Strait of Malacca. +It's active in the Gulf of Guinea. +We see it in the Caribbean. +It's a $10-billion-a-year discontinuity in the global transport system. +Last year, at this time, there were 20 vessels, 500 mariners held hostage. +This is an attack on the global commons. +We need to think about how to address it. +Let's shift to a different kind of sea, the cyber sea. +Here are photographs of two young men. +At the moment, they're incarcerated. +They conducted a credit card fraud that netted them over 10 billion dollars. +This is part of cybercrime which is a $2-trillion-a-year discontinuity in the global economy. +Two trillion a year. +That's just under the GDP of Great Britain. +So this cyber sea, which we know endlessly is the fundamental piece of radical openness, is very much under threat as well. +Another thing I worry about in the global commons is the threat posed by trafficking, by the movement of narcotics, opium, here coming out of Afghanistan through Europe over to the United States. +We worry about cocaine coming from the Andean Ridge north. +We worry about the movement of illegal weapons and trafficking. Above all, perhaps, we worry about human trafficking, and the awful cost of it. +Trafficking moves largely at sea but in other parts of the global commons. +This is a photograph, and I wish I could tell you that this is a very high-tech piece of US Navy gear that we're using to stop the trafficking. +The bad news is, this is a semi-submersible run by drug cartels. +It was built in the jungles of South America. +We caught it with that low-tech raft and it was carrying six tons of cocaine. +Crew of four. Sophisticated communications sweep. +This kind of trafficking, in narcotics, in humans, in weapons, God forbid, in weapons of mass destruction, is part of the threat to the global commons. +And let's pull it together in Afghanistan today. +This is a field of poppies in Afghanistan. +Eighty to 90 percent of the world's poppy, opium and heroin, comes out of Afghanistan. +We also see there, of course, terrorism. +This is where al Qaeda is staged from. +We also see a very strong insurgency embedded there. +So this terrorism concern is also part of the global commons, and what we must address. +So here we are, 21st century. +We know our 20th-century tools are not going to work. +What should we do? +I would argue that we will not deliver security solely from the barrel of a gun. +We will not deliver security solely from the barrel of a gun. +We will need the application of military force. +When we do it, we must do it well, and competently. +But my thesis is, open-source security is about international, interagency, private-public connection pulled together by this idea of strategic communication on the Internet. +Let me give you a couple of examples of how this works in a positive way. +This is Afghanistan. These are Afghan soldiers. +They are all holding books. +You should say, "That's odd. I thought I read that this demographic, young men and women in their 20s and 30s, is largely illiterate in Afghanistan." +You would be correct. +Eighty-five percent cannot read when they enter the security forces of Afghanistan. +Why? Because the Taliban withheld education during the period of time in which these men and women would have learned to read. +So the question is, so, why are they all standing there holding books? +The answer is, we are teaching them to read in literacy courses by NATO in partnership with private sector entities, in partnership with development agencies. +We've taught well over 200,000 Afghan Security Forces to read and write at a basic level. +When you can read and write in Afghanistan, you will typically put a pen in your pocket. +At the ceremonies, when these young men and women graduate, they take that pen with great pride, and put it in their pocket. +This is bringing together international there are 50 nations involved in this mission interagency these development agencies and private-public, to take on this kind of security. +Now, we are also teaching them combat skills, of course, but I would argue, open-source security means connecting in ways that create longer lasting security effect. +Here's another example. +This is a US Navy warship. +It's called the Comfort. +There's a sister ship called the Mercy. +They are hospital ships. +This one, the Comfort, operates throughout the Caribbean and the coast of South America conducting patient treatments. +On a typical cruise, they'll do 400,000 patient treatments. +It is crewed not strictly by military but by a combination of humanitarian organizations: Operation Hope, Project Smile. +Other organizations send volunteers. +Interagency physicians come out. +They're all part of this. +To give you one example of the impact this can have, this little boy, eight years old, walked with his mother two days to come to the eye clinic put on by the Comfort. +When he was fitted, over his extremely myopic eyes, he suddenly looked up and said, "Mama, veo el mundo." +"Mom, I see the world." +Multiply this by 400,000 patient treatments, this private-public collaboration with security forces, and you begin to see the power of creating security in a very different way. +Here you see baseball players. +Can you pick out the two US Army soldiers in this photograph? +It shows role models to young men and women about fitness and about life that I would argue help create security for us. +Another aspect of this partnership is in disaster relief. +This is a US Air Force helicopter participating after the tsunami in 2004 which killed 250,000 people. +So these are examples of this idea of open-source security. +We tie it together, increasingly, by doing things like this. +Now, you're looking at this thinking, "Ah, Admiral, these must be sea lanes of communication, or these might be fiber optic cables." +No. This is a graphic of the world according to Twitter. +Purple are tweets. Green are geolocation. +White is the synthesis. +It's a perfect evocation of that great population survey, the six largest nations in the world in descending order: China, India, Facebook, the United States, Twitter and Indonesia. Why do we want to get in these nets? +Why do we want to be involved? +We talked earlier about the Arab Spring, and the power of all this. +I'll give you another example, and it's how you move this message. +I gave a talk like this in London a while back about this point. I said, as I say to all of you, I'm on Facebook. Friend me. +Got a little laugh from the audience. +There was an article which was run by AP, on the wire. +Got picked up in two places in the world: Finland and Indonesia. +The headline was: NATO Admiral Needs Friends. +Now, let me hit a somber note. +This is a photograph of a brave British soldier. +He's in the Scots Guards. +He's standing the watch in Helmand, in southern Afghanistan. +I put him here to remind us, I would not want anyone to leave the room thinking that we do not need capable, competent militaries who can create real military effect. +That is the core of who we are and what we do, and we do it to protect freedom, freedom of speech, all the things we treasure in our societies. +But, you know, life is not an on-and-off switch. +You don't have to have a military that is either in hard combat or is in the barracks. +I would argue life is a rheostat. +I would close by saying that we heard earlier today about Wikipedia. I use Wikipedia all the time to look up facts, and as all of you appreciate, Wikipedia is not created by 12 brilliant people locked in a room writing articles. +Wikipedia, every day, is tens of thousands of people inputting information, and every day millions of people withdrawing that information. +It's a perfect image for the fundamental point that no one of us is as smart as all of us thinking together. +No one person, no one alliance, no one nation, no one of us is as smart as all of us thinking together. +The vision statement of Wikipedia is very simple: a world in which every human being can freely share in the sum of all knowledge. +My thesis for you is that by combining international, interagency, private-public, strategic communication, together, in this 21st century, we can create the sum of all security. +Thank you. Thank you very much. Thank you. Thank you. +I'm going to start on a slightly somber note. +Two thousand and seven, five years ago, my wife gets diagnosed with breast cancer. +Stage IIB. +Now, looking back, the most harrowing part of that experience was not just the hospital visits -- these were very painful for my wife, understandably so. +It was not even the initial shock of knowing that she had breast cancer at just 39 years old, absolutely no history of cancer in her family. +The most horrifying and agonizing part of the whole experience was we were making decisions after decisions after decisions that were being thrust upon us. +Should it be a mastectomy? Should it be a lumpectomy? +Should it be a more aggressive form of treatment, given that it was stage IIB? +With all the side effects? +Or should it be a less aggressive form of treatment? +And these were being thrust upon us by the doctors. +Now you could ask this question, why were the doctors doing this? +A simplistic answer would be, the doctors are doing this because they want to protect themselves legally. +I think that is too simplistic. +These are well-meaning doctors, some of them have gone on to become very good friends. +They probably were simply following the wisdom that has come down through the ages, this adage that when you're making decisions, especially decisions of importance, it's best to be in charge, it's best to be in control, it's best to be in the driver's seat. +And we were certainly in the driver's seat, making all these decisions. +And let me tell you -- if some of you have been there, it was a most agonizing and harrowing experience. +Which got me thinking. +I said, is there any validity to this whole adage that when you're making decisions, it's best to take the driver's seat, be in charge, be in control? +Or are there contexts where we're far better off taking the passenger's seat and have someone else drive? +For example, a trusted financial advisor, could be a trusted doctor, etc. +And since I study human decision making, I said, I'm going to run some studies to find some answers. +And I'm going to share one of these studies with you today. +So, imagine that all of you are participants in the study. +I want to tell you that what you're going to do in the study is, you're going to drink a cup of tea. +If you're wondering why, I'll tell you why in a few seconds from now. +You are going to solve a series of puzzles, and I'm going to show you examples of these puzzles momentarily. +And the more puzzles you solve, the greater the chances that you'll win some prizes. +Now, why do you have to consume the tea? +Why? Because it makes a lot of sense: In order to solve these puzzles effectively, if you think about it, your mind needs to be in two states simultaneously, right? +It needs to be alert, for which caffeine is very good. +Simultaneously, it needs to be calm -- for which chamomile is very good. +Now comes the between-subjects design, the AB design, the AB testing. +So what I'm going to do is randomly assign you to one of two groups. +So imagine that there is an imaginary line out here, so everyone here will be group A, everyone out here will be group B. +Now, for you folks, what I'm going to do is I'm going to show you these two teas, and I'll go ahead and ask you to choose your tea. +So you can choose whichever tea you want. +You can decide, what is your mental state: OK, I choose the caffeinated tea, I choose the chamomile tea. +So you're going to be in charge, you're going to be in control, you're going to be in the driver's seat. +You folks, I'm going to show you these two teas, but you don't have a choice. +I'm going to give you one of these two teas, and keep in mind, I'm going to pick one of these two teas at random for you. +And you know that. +So if you think about it, this is an extreme-case scenario, because in the real world, whenever you are taking passenger's seat, very often the driver is going to be someone you trust, an expert, etc. So this is an extreme-case scenario. +Now, you're all going to consume the tea. +So imagine that you're taking the tea now, we'll wait for you to finish the tea. +We'll give another five minutes for the ingredient to have its effects. +Now you're going to have 30 minutes to solve 15 puzzles. +Here's an example of the puzzle you're going to solve. +Anyone in the audience want to take a stab? +Audience member: Pulpit! Baba Shiv: Whoa! OK. +That's cool. +Yeah, so what we'd do if we had you who gave the answer as a participant, we would have calibrated the difficulty level of the puzzles to your expertise. +Because we want these puzzles to be difficult. +These are tricky puzzles, because your first instinct is to say "tulip." +And then you have to unstick yourself. Right? +So these have been calibrated to your level of expertise, because we want this to be difficult, and I'll tell you why, momentarily. +Now, here's another example. +Anyone? This is much more difficult. +Audience member: Embark. BS: Yeah. Wow! OK. +So, yeah, so this is, again, difficult. +You'll say "kamber," then you'll go, "maker," and all that, and then you can unstick yourself. +So you have 30 minutes now to solve these 15 puzzles. +And, systemically, what we will show, across a series of studies, is that you, the passengers, even though the tea was picked for you at random, will end up solving more puzzles than you, the drivers. +We also observe another thing, and that is, you folks not only are solving fewer puzzles, you're also putting less juice into the task -- less effort, you're less persistent, and so on. +How do we know that? +Well, we have two objective measures. +One is, what is the time, on average, you're taking in attempting to solve these puzzles? +You will spend less time compared to you. +Second, you have 30 minutes to solve these; are you taking the entire 30 minutes or are you giving up before the 30 minutes elapse? +You will be more likely to give up before the 30 minutes elapse, So you're putting in less juice, and therefore, the outcome: fewer puzzles solved. +That brings us now to: why does this happen? +And under what situations -- when -- would we see this pattern of results where the passenger is going to show better, more favorable outcomes, compared to the driver? +It all has to do with when you face what I call the INCA. +It's an acronym that stands for the nature of the feedback you're getting after you made the decision. +So if you think about it, in this particular puzzle task -- it could happen in investing in the stock market, very volatile out there, it could be the medical situation -- the feedback here is immediate. +You know the feedback, whether you're solving the puzzles or not. +Right? Second, it is negative. +Remember, the deck was stacked against you, in terms of the difficulty level of these puzzles. +And this can happen in the medical domain. +For example, very early on in the treatment, things are negative, the feedback, before things become positive. +Right? It can happen in the stock market. +Volatile stock market, getting negative feedback, it is also immediate. +And the feedback in all these cases is concrete, it's unambiguous; you know if you've solved the puzzles or not. +Now, the added one, apart from this immediacy, negative, this concreteness -- now you have a sense of agency. +You were responsible for your decision. +So what do you do? +You focus on the foregone option. +You say, you know what? I should have chosen the other tea. +That casts your decision in doubt, reduces the confidence you have in the decision, the confidence you have in the performance, the performance in terms of solving the puzzles. +And therefore less juice into the task, fewer puzzles solved and less favorable outcomes compared to you folks. +And this can happen in the medical domain, if you think about it, right? +A patient in the driver's seat, for example. +Less juice, which means keeping herself or himself less physically fit, physically active to hasten the recovery process, which is what is often advocated. You probably wouldn't do that. +And therefore, there are times when you're facing the INCA, when the feedback is going to be immediate, negative, concrete and you have the sense of agency, where you're far better off taking the passenger's seat and have someone else drive. +Now, I started off on a somber note. +I want to finish up on a more upbeat note. +It has now been five years, slightly more than five years, and the good news, thank God, is that the cancer is still in remission. +So it all ends well. +But one thing I didn't mention was that very early on into her treatment, my wife and I decided that we would take the passenger's seat. +And that made so much of a difference in terms of the peace of mind that came with that; we could focus on her recovery. +We let the doctors make all the decisions and take the driver's seat. +Thank you. +Well, traditionally that was seen as science fiction, but now we've moved to a world where actually this has become possible. +So the best way of explaining it is to just show it. +What you can see over here is Tamara, who is holding my phone that's now plugged in. +So let me start with this. +What we have here is a painting of the great poet Rabbie Burns, and it's just a normal image, but if we now switch inputs over to the phone, running our technology, you can see effectively what Tamara's seeing on the screen, and when she points at this image, something magical happens. +Voice: Now simmer blinks on flowery braes ... +Matt Mills: Now, what's great about this is, there's no trickery here. +There's nothing done to this image. +And what's great about this is the technology's actually allowing the phone to start to see and understand much like how the human brain does. +Not only that, but as I move the object around, it's going to track it and overlay that content seamlessly. +Again, the thing that's incredible about this is this is how advanced these devices have become. +All the processing to do that was actually done on the device itself. +Now, this has applications everywhere, whether in things like art in museums, like you just saw, or in the world of, say, advertising, or print journalism. +So a newspaper becomes out of date as soon as it's printed. +And here is this morning's newspaper, and we have some Wimbledon news, which is great. +Now what we can do is point at the front of the newspaper and immediately get the bulletin. +Voice: ... To the grass, and it's very important that you adapt and you, you have to be flexible, you have to be willing to change direction at a split second, and she does all that. She's won this title. +MM: And that linking of the digital content to something that's physical is what we call an aura, and I'll be using that term a little bit as we go through the talk. +So, what's great about this is it isn't just a faster, more convenient way to get information in the real world, but there are times when actually using this medium allows you to be able to display information in a way that was never before possible. +So what I have here is a wireless router. +My American colleagues have told me I've got to call it a router, so that everyone hereunderstands but nonetheless, here is the device. +So now what I can do is, rather than getting the instructions for the device online, I can simply point at it, the device is recognized, and then -- Voice: Begin by plugging in the grey ADSL cable. +Then connect the power. Finally, the yellow ethernet cable. +Congratulations. You have now completed setup. +MM: Awesome. Thank you. +The incredible work that made that possible was done here in the U.K. by scientists at Cambridge, and they work in our offices, and I've got a lovely picture of them here. +They couldn't all be on stage, but we're going to bring their aura to the stage, so here they are. +Tamara, would you like to jump in? +(Dinosaur roaring) MM: I should leap in. +(Dinosaur roaring) So then, after the fun, comes the more emotional side of what we do, because effectively, this technology allows you to see the world through someone's eyes, and for that person to be able to take a moment in time and effectively store it and tag it to something physical that exists in the real world. +What's great about this is, the tools to do this are free. +They're open, they're available to everyone within our application, and educators have really got on board with the classrooms. +So we have teachers who've tagged up textbooks, teachers who've tagged up school classrooms, and a great example of this is a school in the U.K. +I have a picture here from a video, and we're now going to play it. +Teacher: See what happens. (Children talking) Keep going. +Child: TV. (Children react) Child: Oh my God. +Teacher: Now move it either side. See what happens. +Move away from it and come back to it. +Child: Oh, that is so cool. +Teacher: And then, have you got it again? +Child: Oh my God! How did you do that? +Second child: It's magic. +MM: So, it's not magic. +It's available for everyone to do, and actually I'm going to show you how easy it is to do by doing one right now. +So, as sort of I'm told it's called a stadium wave, so we're going to start from this side of the room on the count of three, and go over to here. +Tamara, are you recording? +Okay, so are you all ready? +One, two, three. Go! +Audience: Whooooooo! +MM: Fellows are really good at that. Okay. Now we're going to switch back into the Aurasma application, and what Tamara's going to do is tag that video that we just took onto my badge, so that I can remember it forever. +Now, we have lots of people who are doing this already, and we've talked a little bit about the educational side. +On the emotional side, we have people who've done things like send postcards and Christmas cards back to their family with little messages on them. +We have people who have, for example, taken the inside of the engine bay of an old car and tagged up different components within an engine, so that if you're stuck and you want to find out more, you can point and discover the information. +We're all very, very familiar with the Internet. +It's completely free to download this application. +If you have a good Wi-Fi connection or 3G, this process is very, very quick. +Oh, there we are. We can save it now. +It's just going to do a tiny bit of processing to convert that image that we just took into a sort of digital fingerprint, and the great thing is, if you're a professional user, -- so, a newspaper -- the tools are pretty much identical to what we've just used to create this demonstration. +The only difference is that you've got the ability to add in links and slightly more content. Are you now ready? +Tamara Roukaerts: We're ready to go. +MM: Okay. So, I'm told we're ready, which means we can now point at the image, and there you all are. +MM on video: One, two, three. Go! +MM: Well done. We've been Aurasma. Thank you. +Frugal Digital is essentially a small research group at C.I.D. +where we are looking to find alternate visions of how to create a digitally inclusive society. +That's what we're after. +And we do this because we actually believe that silicon technology today is mostly about a culture of excess. +It's about the fastest and the most efficient and the most dazzling gadget you can have, while about two-thirds of the world can hardly reach the most basic of this technology to even address fundamental needs in life, including health care, education and all these kinds of very fundamental issues. +So before I start, I want to talk about a little anecdote, a little story about a man I met once in Mumbai. +So this man, his name is Sathi Shri. +He is an outstanding person, because he's a small entrepreneur. +He runs a little shop in one of the back streets of Mumbai. +He has this little 10-square-meter store, where so much is being done. +It's incredible, because I couldn't believe my eyes when I once just happened to bump into him. +Basically, what he does is, he has all these services for micro-payments and booking tickets and all kinds of basic things that you would go online for, but he does it for people offline and connects to the digital world. +More importantly, he makes his money by selling these mobile recharge coupons, you know, for the prepaid subscriptions. +But then, in the backside, he's got this little nook with a few of his employees where they can fix almost anything. +Any cell phone, any gadget you can bring them, they can fix it. +And it's pretty incredible because I took my iPhone there, and he was like, "Yeah, do you want an upgrade?" +"Yes." I was a bit skeptical, but then, I decided to give him a Nokia instead. But what I was amazed about is this reverse engineering and know-how that's built into this little two meters of space. +They have figured out everything that's required to dismantle, take things apart, rewrite the circuitry, re-flash the firmware, do whatever you want to with the phone, and they can fix anything so quickly. +You can hand over a phone this morning and you can go pick it up after lunch, and it was quite incredible. +But then we were wondering whether this is a local phenomenon, or is truly global? +And, over time, we started understanding and systematically researching what this tinkering ecosystem is about, because that is something that's happening not just in one street corner in Mumbai. +It's actually happening in all parts of the country. +It's even happening in Africa, like, for example, in Cape Town we did extensive research on this. +Even here in Doha I found this little nook where you can get alarm clocks and watches fixed, and it's a lot of tiny little parts. It's not easy. +You've got to try it on your own to believe it. +But what fuels this? +It's this entire ecosystem of low-cost parts and supplies that are produced all over the world, literally, and then redistributed to basically service this industry, and you can even buy salvaged parts. +Basically, you don't have to necessarily buy brand new things. You have condemned computers that are stripped apart, and you can buy salvaged components and things that you can reassemble in a new configuration. +But what does this new, sort of, approach give us? +That's the real question, because this is something that's been there, part of every society that's deprived of enough resources. +But there's an interesting paradigm. +There's the traditional crafts, and then there's the technology crafts. +We call it the technology crafts because these are emerging. +They're not something that's been established. +It's not something that's institutionalized. +It's not taught in universities. +It's taught [by] word of mouth, and it's an informal education system around this. +So we said, "What can we get out of this? +You know, like, what are the key values that we can get out of this?" +The main thing is a fix-it-locally culture, which is fantastic because it means that your product or your service doesn't have to go through a huge bureaucratic system to get it fixed. +It also affords us cheap fabrication, which is fantastic, so it means that you can do a lot more with it. +And then, the most important thing is, it gives us large math for low cost. +So it means that you can actually embed pretty clever algorithms and lots of other kinds of extendable ideas into really simple devices. +So, what we call this is a silicon cottage industry. +It's basically what was the system or the paradigm before the industrial revolution is now re-happening in a whole new way in small digital shops across the planet in most developing countries. +So, we kind of toyed around with this idea, and we said, "What can we do with this? +Can we make a little product or a service out of it?" +So one of the first things we did is this thing called a multimedia platform. We call it a lunch box. +Basically one of the contexts that we studied was schools in very remote parts of India. +So there is this amazing concept called the one-teacher school, which is basically a single teacher who is a multitasker who teaches this amazing little social setting. +It's an informal school, but it's really about holistic education. +The only thing that they don't have is access to resources. They don't even have a textbook sometimes, and they don't even have a proper curriculum. +So we said, "What can we do to empower this teacher to do more?" How to access the digital world? +Instead of being the sole guardian of information, be a facilitator to all this information. +So we said, "What are the steps required to empower the teacher?" +How do you make this teacher into a digital gateway, and how do you design an inexpensive multimedia platform that can be constructed locally and serviced locally?" +So we walked around. +We went and scavenged the nearby markets, and we tried to understand, "What can we pick up that will make this happen?" +So the thing that we got was a little mobile phone with a little pico projector that comes for about 60 dollars. +We went a bought a flashlight with a very big battery, and a bunch of small speakers. +So essentially, the mobile phone gives us a connected multimedia platform. +It allows us to get online and allows us to load up files of different formats and play them. +The flashlight gives us this really intense, bright L.E.D., and six hours worth of rechargeable battery pack, and the lunch box is a nice little package in which you can put everything inside, and a bunch of mini speakers to sort of amplify the sound large enough. +Believe me, those little classrooms are really noisy. +They are kids who scream at the top of their voices, and you really have to get above that. +And we took it back to this little tinkering setup of a mobile phone repair shop, and then the magic happens. +We dismantle the whole thing, we reassemble it in a new configuration, and we do this hardware mashup, systematically training the guy how to do this. +Out comes this, a little lunch box -- form factor. +And we systematically field tested, because in the field testing we learned some important lessons, and we went through many iterations. +One of the key issues was battery consumption and charging. +Luminosity was an issue, when you have too much bright sunlight outside. +Often the roofs are broken, so you don't have enough darkness in the classroom to do these things. +We extended this idea. We tested it many times over, and the next version we came up with was a box that kind of could trickle charge on solar energy, but most importantly connect to a car battery, because a car battery is a ubiquitous source of power in places where there's not enough electricity or erratic electricity. +And the other key thing that we did was make this box run off a USB key, because we realized that even though there was GPRS and all that on paper, at least, in theory, it was much more efficient to send the data on a little USB key by surface mail. +It might take a few days to get there, but at least it gets there in high definition and in a reliable quality. +So we made this box, and we tested it again and again and again, and we're going through multiple iterations to do these things. +But it's not limited to just education. +This kind of a technique or metrology can actually be applied to other kinds of areas, and I'm going to tell you one more little story. +It's about this little device called a medi-meter. +It's basically a little health care screening tool that we developed. +In India, there is a context of these amazing people, the health care workers called ASHA workers. +They are basically referral services, essentially. +So everything from a common cold to a serious case of malaria gets almost the same level of attention, and there's no priorities. +So we said, "Come on, there's got to be a better way of doing this for sure." +So we said, "What can we do with the ASHA worker that'll allow this ASHA worker to become an interesting filter, but not just a filter, a really well thought through referral system that allows load balancing of the network, and directs patients to different sources of health care based on the severity or the criticalness of those situations?" +So the real key question was, how do we empower this woman? +How do we empower her with simple tools that's not diagnostic but more screening in nature so she at least knows how to advise the patients better? +So if there was something that she could do, that would be amazing. +So what we did was that we converted this device into a medical device. +I want to demo this actually, because it's a very simple process. +Bruno, do you want to join us? Come along. So, what we're going to do is that we're going to measure a few basic parameters on you, including your pulse rate and the amount of oxygen that's there in your blood. +So you're going to put your thumb on top of this. +Bruno Giussani: Like this, works? +Vinay Venkatraman: Yeah. That's right. BG: Okay. +VV: So I'm going to start it up. I hope it works. +It even beeps, because it's an alarm clock, after all. +So ... So I take it into the start position, and then I press the read button. So it's taking a little reading from you. And then the pointer goes and points to three different options. +Let's see what happens here. +Oh Bruno, you can go home, actually. +BG: Great. Good news. VV: So ... So the thing about this is that if the pointer, unfortunately, had pointed to the red spot, we would have to rush you to a hospital. +Luckily, not today. And if it had pointed to the orange or the amber, it basically meant you had to have, sort of, more continuous care from the health care worker. +So that was a very simple three-step screening process that could basically change the equation of how public health care works in so many different ways. +BG: Thank you for the good news. VV: Yeah. +So, very briefly, I'll just explain to you how this is done, because that's the more interesting part. +Basically this is a micro-controller with a few extra components that can be shipped for very little cost across the world, and that's what is all required with a little bit of local tinkering talent to convert the device into something else. +So we are right now doing some systematic field tests to basically ascertain whether something like this actually makes sense to the ASHA worker. +So that's it, and we hope to do this in a big way. +Thank you. +So the machine I'm going to talk you about is what I call the greatest machine that never was. +It was a machine that was never built, and yet, it will be built. +It was a machine that was designed long before anyone thought about computers. +If you know anything about the history of computers, you will know that in the '30s and the '40s, simple computers were created that started the computer revolution we have today, and you would be correct, except for you'd have the wrong century. +The first computer was really designed in the 1830s and 1840s, not the 1930s and 1940s. +It was designed, and parts of it were prototyped, and the bits of it that were built are here in South Kensington. +That machine was built by this guy, Charles Babbage. +I really miss that era, you know, where you could go around for a soiree and see a mechanical computer get demonstrated to you. But Babbage, Babbage himself was born at the end of the 18th century, and was a fairly famous mathematician. +He held the post that Newton held at Cambridge, and that was recently held by Stephen Hawking. +He's less well known than either of them because he got this idea to make mechanical computing devices and never made any of them. +The reason he never made any of them, he's a classic nerd. +Every time he had a good idea, he'd think, "That's brilliant, I'm going to start building that one. +I'll spend a fortune on it. I've got a better idea. +I'm going to work on this one. And I'm going to do this one." +Every one of these circles is a cog, a stack of cogs, and this thing is as big as a steam locomotive. +So as I go through this talk, I want you to imagine this gigantic machine. We heard those wonderful sounds of what this thing would have sounded like. +And I'm going to take you through the architecture of the machine that's why it's computer architecture and tell you about this machine, which is a computer. +So let's talk about the memory. The memory is very like the memory of a computer today, except it was all made out of metal, stacks and stacks of cogs, 30 cogs high. +Imagine a thing this high of cogs, hundreds and hundreds of them, and they've got numbers on them. +It's a decimal machine. Everything's done in decimal. +And he thought about using binary. The problem with using binary is that the machine would have been so tall, it would have been ridiculous. As it is, it's enormous. +So he's got memory. +The memory is this bit over here. +You see it all like this. +This monstrosity over here is the CPU, the chip, if you like. +Of course, it's this big. +Completely mechanical. This whole machine is mechanical. +This is a picture of a prototype for part of the CPU which is in the Science Museum. +The CPU could do the four fundamental functions of arithmetic -- so addition, multiplication, subtraction, division -- which already is a bit of a feat in metal, but it could also do something that a computer does and a calculator doesn't: this machine could look at its own internal memory and make a decision. +It could do the "if then" for basic programmers, and that fundamentally made it into a computer. +It could compute. It couldn't just calculate. It could do more. +Now, if we look at this, and we stop for a minute, and we think about chips today, we can't look inside a silicon chip. It's just so tiny. +Yet if you did, you would see something very, very similar to this. +There's this incredible complexity in the CPU, and this incredible regularity in the memory. +If you've ever seen an electron microscope picture, you'll see this. This all looks the same, then there's this bit over here which is incredibly complicated. +And there's not just one of these, there's many of them. +He prepared programs anticipating this would happen. +Babbage, of course, wanted to use proven technology, so steam and things. +Now, he needed accessories. +Obviously, you've got a computer now. +You've got punch cards, a CPU and memory. +You need accessories you're going to come with. +You know, just stop for a moment, imagine all those noises, this thing, "Click, clack click click click," steam engine, "Ding," right? You also need a printer, obviously, and everyone needs a printer. +This is actually a picture of the printing mechanism for another machine of his, called the Difference Engine No. 2, which he never built, but which the Science Museum did build in the '80s and '90s. +It's completely mechanical, again, a printer. +It prints just numbers, because he was obsessed with numbers, but it does print onto paper, and it even does word wrapping, so if you get to the end of the line, it goes around like that. +You also need graphics, right? +I mean, if you're going to do anything with graphics, so he said, "Well, I need a plotter. I've got a big piece of paper and an ink pen and I'll make it plot." +So he designed a plotter as well, and, you know, at that point, I think he got pretty much a pretty good machine. +Along comes this woman, Ada Lovelace. +Now, imagine these soirees, all these great and good comes along. +This lady is the daughter of the mad, bad and dangerous-to-know Lord Byron, and her mother, being a bit worried that she might have inherited some of Lord Byron's madness and badness, thought, "I know the solution: Mathematics is the solution. +We'll teach her mathematics. That'll calm her down." +Because of course, there's never been a mathematician that's gone crazy, so, you know, that'll be fine. Everything'll be fine. So she's got this mathematical training, and she goes to one of these soirees with her mother, and Charles Babbage, you know, gets out his machine. +The Duke of Wellington is there, you know, get out the machine, obviously demonstrates it, and she gets it. She's the only person in his lifetime, really, who said, "I understand what this does, and I understand the future of this machine." +And we owe to her an enormous amount because we know a lot about the machine that Babbage was intending to build because of her. +Now, some people call her the first programmer. +This is actually from one of -- the paper that she translated. +This is a program written in a particular style. +It's not, historically, totally accurate that she's the first programmer, and actually, she did something more amazing. +Rather than just being a programmer, she saw something that Babbage didn't. +Babbage was totally obsessed with mathematics. +He was building a machine to do mathematics, and Lovelace said, "You could do more than mathematics on this machine." And just as you do, everyone in this room already's got a computer on them right now, because they've got a phone. +If you go into that phone, every single thing in that phone or computer or any other computing device is mathematics. It's all numbers at the bottom. +Whether it's video or text or music or voice, it's all numbers, it's all, underlying it, mathematical functions happening, and Lovelace said, "Just because you're doing mathematical functions and symbols doesn't mean these things can't represent other things in the real world, such as music." +This was a huge leap, because Babbage is there saying, "We could compute these amazing functions and print out tables of numbers and draw graphs," and Lovelace is there and she says, "Look, this thing could even compose music if you told it a representation of music numerically." +So this is what I call Lovelace's Leap. +When you say she's a programmer, she did do some, but the real thing is to have said the future is going to be much, much more than this. +Now, a hundred years later, this guy comes along, Alan Turing, and in 1936, and invents the computer all over again. +Now, of course, Babbage's machine was entirely mechanical. +Turing's machine was entirely theoretical. +Both of these guys were coming from a mathematical perspective, but Turing told us something very important. +He laid down the mathematical foundations for computer science, and said, "It doesn't matter how you make a computer." +It doesn't matter if your computer's mechanical, like Babbage's was, or electronic, like computers are today, or perhaps in the future, cells, or, again, mechanical again, once we get into nanotechnology. +We could go back to Babbage's machine and just make it tiny. All those things are computers. +There is in a sense a computing essence. +This is called the ChurchTuring thesis. +And so suddenly, you get this link where you say this thing Babbage had built really was a computer. +In fact, it was capable of doing everything we do today with computers, only really slowly. To give you an idea of how slowly, it had about 1k of memory. +It used punch cards, which were being fed in, and it ran about 10,000 times slower the first ZX81. +It did have a RAM pack. +You could add on a lot of extra memory if you wanted to. +So, where does that bring us today? +So there are plans. +Over in Swindon, the Science Museum archives, there are hundreds of plans and thousands of pages of notes written by Charles Babbage about this analytical engine. +One of those is a set of plans that we call Plan 28, and that is also the name of a charity that I started with Doron Swade, who was the curator of computing at the Science Museum, and also the person who drove the project to build a difference engine, and our plan is to build it. +Here in South Kensington, we will build the analytical engine. +The project has a number of parts to it. +One was the scanning of Babbage's archive. +That's been done. The second is now the study of all of those plans to determine what to build. +The third part is a computer simulation of that machine, and the last part is to physically build it at the Science Museum. +Babbage himself wrote, he said, as soon as the analytical engine exists, it will surely guide the future course of science. +Of course, he never built it, because he was always fiddling with new plans, but when it did get built, of course, in the 1940s, everything changed. +Now, I'll just give you a little taste of what it looks like in motion with a video which shows just one part of the CPU mechanism working. +So this is just three sets of cogs, and it's going to add. This is the adding mechanism in action, so you imagine this gigantic machine. +So, give me five years. +Before the 2030s happen, we'll have it. +Thank you very much. +As an architect, I often ask myself, what is the origin of the forms that we design? +What kind of forms could we design if we wouldn't work with references anymore? +If we had no bias, if we had no preconceptions, what kind of forms could we design if we could free ourselves from our experience? +If we could free ourselves from our education? +What would these unseen forms look like? +Would they surprise us? Would they intrigue us? +Would they delight us? +If so, then how can we go about creating something that is truly new? +I propose we look to nature. +Nature has been called the greatest architect of forms. +And I'm not saying that we should copy nature, I'm not saying we should mimic biology, instead I propose that we can borrow nature's processes. +We can abstract them and to create something that is new. +Nature's main process of creation, morphogenesis, is the splitting of one cell into two cells. +And these cells can either be identical, or they can be distinct from each other through asymmetric cell division. +If we abstract this process, and simplify it as much as possible, then we could start with a single sheet of paper, one surface, and we could make a fold and divide the surface into two surfaces. +We're free to choose where we make the fold. +And by doing so, we can differentiate the surfaces. +Through this very simple process, we can create an astounding variety of forms. +Now, we can take this form and use the same process to generate three-dimensional structures, but rather than folding things by hand, we'll bring the structure into the computer, and code it as an algorithm. +And in doing so, we can suddenly fold anything. +We can fold a million times faster, we can fold in hundreds and hundreds of variations. +And as we're seeking to make something three-dimensional, we start not with a single surface, but with a volume. +A simple volume, the cube. +If we take its surfaces and fold them again and again and again and again, then after 16 iterations, 16 steps, we end up with 400,000 surfaces and a shape that looks, for instance, like this. +And if we change where we make the folds, if we change the folding ratio, then this cube turns into this one. +We can change the folding ratio again to produce this shape, or this shape. +So we exert control over the form by specifying the position of where we're making the fold, but essentially you're looking at a folded cube. +And we can play with this. +We can apply different folding ratios to different parts of the form to create local conditions. +We can begin to sculpt the form. +And because we're doing the folding on the computer, we are completely free of any physical constraints. +So that means that surfaces can intersect themselves, they can become impossibly small. +We can make folds that we otherwise could not make. +Surfaces can become porous. +They can stretch. They can tear. +And all of this expounds the scope of forms that we can produce. +But in each case, I didn't design the form. +I designed the process that generated the form. +In general, if we make a small change to the folding ratio, which is what you're seeing here, then the form changes correspondingly. +But that's only half of the story -- 99.9 percent of the folding ratios produce not this, but this, the geometric equivalent of noise. +The forms that I showed before were made actually through very long trial and error. +A far more effective way to create forms, I have found, is to use information that is already contained in forms. +A very simple form such as this one actually contains a lot of information that may not be visible to the human eye. +So, for instance, we can plot the length of the edges. +White surfaces have long edges, black ones have short ones. +We can plot the planarity of the surfaces, their curvature, how radial they are -- all information that may not be instantly visible to you, but that we can bring out, that we can articulate, and that we can use to control the folding. +So now I'm not specifying a single ratio anymore to fold it, but instead I'm establishing a rule, I'm establishing a link between a property of a surface and how that surface is folded. +And because I've designed the process and not the form, I can run the process again and again and again to produce a whole family of forms. +These forms look elaborate, but the process is a very minimal one. +There is a simple input, it's always a cube that I start with, and it's a very simple operation -- it's making a fold, and doing this over and over again. +So let's bring this process to architecture. +How? And at what scale? +I chose to design a column. +Columns are architectural archetypes. +They've been used throughout history to express ideals about beauty, about technology. +A challenge to me was how we could express this new algorithmic order in a column. +I started using four cylinders. +Through a lot of experimentation, these cylinders eventually evolved into this. +And these columns, they have information at very many scales. +We can begin to zoom into them. +The closer one gets, the more new features one discovers. +Some formations are almost at the threshold of human visibility. +And unlike traditional architecture, it's a single process that creates both the overall form and the microscopic surface detail. +These forms are undrawable. +An architect who's drawing them with a pen and a paper would probably take months, or it would take even a year to draw all the sections, all of the elevations, you can only create something like this through an algorithm. +The more interesting question, perhaps, is, are these forms imaginable? +Usually, an architect can somehow envision the end state of what he is designing. +In this case, the process is deterministic. +There's no randomness involved at all, but it's not entirely predictable. +There's too many surfaces, there's too much detail, one can't see the end state. +So this leads to a new role for the architect. +One needs a new method to explore all of the possibilities that are out there. +For one thing, one can design many variants of a form, in parallel, and one can cultivate them. +And to go back to the analogy with nature, one can begin to think in terms of populations, one can talk about permutations, about generations, about crossing and breeding to come up with a design. +And the architect is really, he moves into the position of being an orchestrator of all of these processes. +But enough of the theory. +At one point I simply wanted to jump inside this image, so to say, I bought these red and blue 3D glasses, got up very close to the screen, but still that wasn't the same as being able to walk around and touch things. +So there was only one possibility -- to bring the column out of the computer. +There's been a lot of talk now about 3D printing. +For me, or for my purpose at this moment, there's still too much of an unfavorable tradeoff between scale, on the one hand, and resolution and speed, on the other. +So instead, we decided to take the column, and we decided to build it as a layered model, made out of very many slices, thinly stacked over each other. +What you're looking at here is an X-ray of the column that you just saw, viewed from the top. +Unbeknownst to me at the time, because we had only seen the outside, the surfaces were continuing to fold themselves, to grow on the inside of the column, which was quite a surprising discovery. +From this shape, we calculated a cutting line, and then we gave this cutting line to a laser cutter to produce -- and you're seeing a segment of it here -- very many thin slices, individually cut, on top of each other. +And this is a photo now, it's not a rendering, and the column that we ended up with after a lot of work, ended up looking remarkably like the one that we had designed in the computer. +Almost all of the details, almost all of the surface intricacies were preserved. +But it was very labor intensive. +There's a huge disconnect at the moment still between the virtual and the physical. +It took me several months to design the column, but ultimately it takes the computer about 30 seconds to calculate all of the 16 million faces. +The physical model, on the other hand, is 2,700 layers, one millimeter thick, it weighs 700 kilos, it's made of sheet that can cover this entire auditorium. +And the cutting path that the laser followed goes from here to the airport and back again. +But it is increasingly possible. +Machines are getting faster, it's getting less expensive, and there's some promising technological developments just on the horizon. +These are images from the Gwangju Biennale. +And in this case, I used ABS plastic to produce the columns, we used the bigger, faster machine, and they have a steel core inside, so they're structural, they can bear loads for once. +Each column is effectively a hybrid of two columns. +You can see a different column in the mirror, if there's a mirror behind the column that creates a sort of an optical illusion. +So where does this leave us? +I think this project gives us a glimpse of the unseen objects that await us if we as architects begin to think about designing not the object, but a process to generate objects. +I've shown one simple process that was inspired by nature; there's countless other ones. +In short, we have no constraints. +Instead, we have processes in our hands right now that allow us to create structures at all scales that we couldn't even have dreamt up. +And, if I may add, at one point we will build them. +Thank you. +I'm going to tell you about an affliction I suffer from. +And I have a funny feeling that quite a few of you suffer from it as well. +When I'm walking around an art gallery, rooms and rooms full of paintings, after about 15 or 20 minutes, I realize I'm not thinking about the paintings. +I'm not connecting to them. +Instead, I'm thinking about that cup of coffee I desperately need to wake me up. +I'm suffering from gallery fatigue. +How many of you out there suffer from -- yes. Ha ha, ha ha! +Now, sometimes you might last longer than 20 minutes, or even shorter, but I think we all suffer from it. And do you have the accompanying guilt? +For me, I look at the paintings on the wall and I think, somebody has decided to put them there, thinks they're good enough to be on that wall, but I don't always see it. +In fact, most of the time I don't see it. +And I leave feeling actually unhappy. +I feel guilty and unhappy with myself, rather than thinking there's something wrong with the painting, I think there's something wrong with me. +And that's not a good experience, to leave a gallery like that. +The thing is, I think we should give ourselves a break. +If you think about going into a restaurant, when you look at the menu, are you expected to order every single thing on the menu? +No! You select. +If you go into a department store to buy a shirt, are you going to try on every single shirt and want every single shirt? +Of course not, you can be selective. It's expected. +How come, then, it's not so expected to be selective when we go to an art gallery? +Why are we supposed to have a connection with every single painting? +Well I'm trying to take a different approach. +And there's two things I do: When I go into a gallery, first of all, I go quite fast, and I look at everything, and I pinpoint the ones that make me slow down for some reason or other. +I don't even know why they make me slow down, but something pulls me like a magnet and then I ignore all the others, and I just go to that painting. +So it's the first thing I do is, I do my own curation. +I choose a painting. It might just be one painting in 50. +And then the second thing I do is I stand in front of that painting, and I tell myself a story about it. +Why a story? Well, I think that we are wired, our DNA tells us to tell stories. +We tell stories all the time about everything, and I think we do it because the world is kind of a crazy, chaotic place, and sometimes stories, we're trying to make sense of the world a little bit, trying to bring some order to it. +Why not apply that to our looking at paintings? +So I now have this sort of restaurant menu visiting of art galleries. +There are three paintings I'm going to show you now that are paintings that made me stop in my tracks and want to tell stories about them. +The first one needs little introduction -- "Girl with a Pearl Earring" by Johannes Vermeer, 17th-century Dutch painter. +This is the most glorious painting. +I first saw it when I was 19, and I immediately went out and got a poster of it, and in fact I still have that poster. 30 years later it's hanging in my house. +It's accompanied me everywhere I've gone, I never tire of looking at her. +What made me stop in my tracks about her to begin with was just the gorgeous colors he uses and the light falling on her face. +But I think what's kept me still coming back year after year is another thing, and that is the look on her face, the conflicted look on her face. +I can't tell if she's happy or sad, and I change my mind all the time. +So that keeps me coming back. +One day, 16 years after I had this poster on my wall, I lay in bed and looked at her, and I suddenly thought, I wonder what the painter did to her to make her look like that. +And it was the first time I'd ever thought that the expression on her face is actually reflecting how she feels about him. +Always before I'd thought of it as a portrait of a girl. +Now I began to think of it as a portrait of a relationship. +And I thought, well, what is that relationship? +So I went to find out. I did some research and discovered, we have no idea who she is. +In fact, we don't know who any of the models in any of Vermeer's paintings are, and we know very little about Vermeer himself. +Which made me go, "Yippee!" +I can do whatever I want, I can come up with whatever story I want to. +So here's how I came up with the story. +First of all, I thought, I've got to get her into the house. +How does Vermeer know her? +Well, there've been suggestions that she is his 12-year-old daughter. +The daughter at the time was 12 when he painted the painting. +And I thought, no, it's a very intimate look, but it's not a look a daughter gives her father. +For one thing, in Dutch painting of the time, if a woman's mouth was open, it was indicating sexual availability. +It would have been inappropriate for Vermeer to paint his daughter like that. +So it's not his daughter, but it's somebody close to him, physically close to him. +Well, who else would be in the house? +A servant, a lovely servant. +So, she's in the house. +How do we get her into the studio? +We don't know very much about Vermeer, but the little bits that we do know, one thing we know is that he married a Catholic woman, they lived with her mother in a house where he had his own room where he -- his studio. He also had 11 children. +It would have been a chaotic, noisy household. +And if you've seen Vermeer's paintings before, you know that they're incredibly calm and quiet. +How does a painter paint such calm, quiet paintings with 11 kids around? +Well, he compartmentalizes his life. +He gets to his studio, and he says, "Nobody comes in here. +Not the wife, not the kids. Okay, the maid can come in and clean." +She's in the studio. He's got her in the studio, they're together. +And he decides to paint her. +He has her wear very plain clothes. +Now, all of the women, or most of the women in Vermeer's other paintings wore velvet, silk, fur, very sumptuous materials. +This is very plain; the only thing that isn't plain is her pearl earring. +Now, if she's a servant, there is no way she could afford a pair of pearl earrings. +So those are not her pearl earrings. Whose are they? +We happen to know, there's a list of Catharina, the wife's clothes. +Amongst them a yellow coat with white fur, a yellow and black bodice, and you see these clothes on lots of other paintings, different women in the paintings, Vermeer's paintings. +So clearly, her clothes were lent to various different women. +It's not such a leap of faith to take that that pearl earring actually belongs to his wife. +So we've got all the elements for our story. +She's in the studio with him for a long time. +These paintings took a long time to make. +They would have spent the time alone, all that time. +She's wearing his wife's pearl earring. +She's gorgeous. She obviously loves him. She's conflicted. +And does the wife know? Maybe not. +And if she doesn't, well -- that's the story. +The next painting I'm going to talk about is called "Boy Building a House of Cards" by Chardin. +He's an 18th-century French painter best known for his still lifes, but he did occasionally paint people. +And in fact, he painted four versions of this painting, different boys building houses of cards, all concentrated. +I like this version the best, because some of the boys are older and some are younger, and to me, this one, like Goldilocks's porridge, is just right. +He's not quite a child, and he's not quite a man. +He's absolutely balanced between innocence and experience, and that made me stop in my tracks in front of this painting. +And I looked at his face. It's like a Vermeer painting a bit. +The light comes in from the left, his face is bathed in this glowing light. It's right in the center of the painting, and you look at it, and I found that when I was looking at it, I was standing there going, "Look at me. Please look at me." +And he didn't look at me. He was still looking at his cards, and that's one of the seductive elements of this painting is, he's so focused on what he's doing that he doesn't look at us. +And that is, to me, the sign of a masterpiece, of a painting when there's a lack of resolution. +He's never going to look at me. +So I was thinking of a story where, if I'm in this position, who could be there looking at him? +Not the painter, I don't want to think about the painter. +I'm thinking of an older version of himself. +He's a man, a servant, an older servant looking at this younger servant, saying, "Look at me. I want to warn you about what you're about to go through. Please look at me." +And he never does. +And that lack of resolution, the lack of resolution in "Girl with a Pearl Earring" -- we don't know if she's happy or sad. +I've written an entire novel about her, and I still don't know if she's happy or sad. +Again and again, back to the painting, looking for the answer, looking for the story to fill in that gap. +And we may make a story, and it satisfies us momentarily, but not really, and we come back again and again. +The last painting I'm going to talk about is called "Anonymous" by anonymous. This is a Tudor portrait bought by the National Portrait Gallery. +They thought it was a man named Sir Thomas Overbury, and then they discovered that it wasn't him, and they have no idea who it is. +Now, in the National Portrait Gallery, if you don't know the biography of the painting, it's kind of useless to you. +They can't hang it on the wall, because they don't know who he is. +So unfortunately, this orphan spends most of his time in storage, along with quite a number of other orphans, some of them some beautiful paintings. +This painting made me stop in my tracks for three reasons: One is the disconnection between his mouth that's smiling and his eyes that are wistful. +He's not happy, and why isn't he happy? +The second thing that really attracted me were his bright red cheeks. +He is blushing. He's blushing for his portrait being made! +This must be a guy who blushes all the time. +What is he thinking about that's making him blush? +The third thing that made me stop in my tracks is his absolutely gorgeous doublet. +Silk, gray, those beautiful buttons. +And you know what it makes me think of, is it's sort of snug and puffy; it's like a duvet spread over a bed. +I kept thinking of beds and red cheeks, and of course I kept thinking of sex when I looked at him, and I thought, is that what he's thinking about? +And I thought, if I'm going to make a story, what's the last thing I'm going to put in there? +Well, what would a Tudor gentleman be preoccupied with? +And I thought, well, Henry VIII, okay. +He'd be preoccupied with his inheritance, with his heir. +Who is going to inherit his name and his fortune? +You put all those together, and you've got your story to fill in that gap that makes you keep coming back. +Now, here's the story. +It's short. +"Rosy" I am still wearing the white brocade doublet Caroline gave me. +It has a plain high collar, detachable sleeves and intricate buttons of twisted silk thread, set close together so that the fit is snug. +The doublet makes me think of a coverlet on the vast bed. +Perhaps that was the intention. +I first wore it at an elaborate dinner her parents held in our honor. +I knew even before I stood up to speak that my cheeks were inflamed. +I have always flushed easily, from physical exertion, from wine, from high emotion. +As a boy, I was teased by my sisters and by schoolboys, but not by George. +Only George could call me Rosy. +I would not allow anyone else. +He managed to make the word tender. +When I made the announcement, George did not turn rosy, but went pale as my doublet. +He should not have been surprised. +It has been a common assumption that I would one day marry his cousin. +But it is difficult to hear the words aloud. +I know, I could barely utter them. +Afterwards, I found George on the terrace overlooking the kitchen garden. +Despite drinking steadily all afternoon, he was still pale. +We stood together and watched the maids cut lettuces. +"What do you think of my doublet?" I asked. +He glanced at me. "That collar looks to be strangling you." +"We will still see each other," I insisted. +"We can still hunt and play cards and attend court. +Nothing need change." +George did not speak. +"I am 23 years old. It is time for me to marry and produce an heir. It is expected of me." +George drained another glass of claret and turned to me. +"Congratulations on your upcoming nuptials, James. +I'm sure you'll be content together." +He never used my nickname again. +Thank you. +Thank you. +This man is wearing what we call a bee beard. A beard full of bees. +Now, this is what many of you might picture when you think about honeybees, maybe insects, or maybe anything that has more legs than two. +And let me start by telling you, I gotcha. +I understand that. But, there are many things to know, and I want you to open your minds here, keep them open, and change your perspective about honeybees. +Notice that this man is not getting stung. +He probably has a queen bee tied to his chin, and the other bees are attracted to it. +So this really demonstrates our relationship with honeybees, and that goes deep back for thousands of years. +We're very co-evolved, because we depend on bees for pollination and, even more recently, as an economic commodity. +Many of you may have heard that honeybees are disappearing, not just dying, but they're gone. +We don't even find dead bodies. +This is called colony collapse disorder, and it's bizarre. Researchers around the globe still do not know what's causing it, but what we do know is that, with the declining numbers of bees, the costs of over 130 fruit and vegetable crops that we rely on for food is going up in price. +So honeybees are important for their role in the economy as well as in agriculture. +Here you can see some pictures of what are called green roofs, or urban agriculture. +We're familiar with the image on the left that shows a local neighborhood garden in the South End. +That's where I call home. I have a beehive in the backyard. +And perhaps a green roof in the future, when we're further utilizing urban areas, where there are stacks of garden spaces. +Check out this image above the orange line in Boston. +Try to spot the beehive. It's there. +It's on the rooftop, right on the corner there, and it's been there for a couple of years now. +The way that urban beekeeping currently operates is that the beehives are quite hidden, and it's not because they need to be. +It's just because people are uncomfortable with the idea, and that's why I want you today to try to think about this, think about the benefits of bees in cities and why they really are a terrific thing. +Let me give you a brief rundown on how pollination works. +You can see the orientation. The stem is down. +The blossom end has fallen off by the time we eat it, but that's a basic overview of how pollination works. +And let's think about urban living, not today, and not in the past, but what about in a hundred years? +We have tar paper on the rooftops that bounces heat back into the atmosphere, contributing to global climate change, no doubt. +What about in 100 years, if we have green rooftops everywhere, and gardening, and we create our own crops right in the cities? We save on the costs of transportation, we save on a healthier diet, and we also educate and create new jobs locally. +We need bees for the future of our cities and urban living. +There's a counterintuitive trend that we noticed in these numbers. So let's look at the first metric here, overwintering survival. +Now this has been a huge problem for many years, basically since the late 1980s, when the varroa mite came and brought many different viruses, bacteria and fungal diseases with it. +Overwintering success is hard, and that's when most of the colonies are lost, and we found that in the cities, bees are surviving better than they are in the country. +A bit counterintuitive, right? +We think, oh, bees, countryside, agriculture, but that's not what the bees are showing. +The bees like it in the city. Furthermore, they also produce more honey. +The urban honey is delicious. +So the yield for urban hives, in terms of honey production, is higher as well as the overwintering survival, compared to rural areas. +Again, a bit counterintuitive. +And looking back historically at the timeline of honeybee health, we can go back to the year 950 and see that there was also a great mortality of bees in Ireland. +So the problems of bees today isn't necessarily something new. It has been happening since over a thousand years ago, but what we don't really notice are these problems in cities. +So one thing I want to encourage you to think about is the idea of what an urban island is. +You think in the city maybe the temperature's warmer. +Why are bees doing better in the city? +This is a big question now to help us understand why they should be in the city. +Perhaps there's more pollen in the city. +With the trains coming in to urban hubs, they can carry pollen with them, very light pollen, and it's just a big supermarket in the city. +A lot of linden trees live along the railroad tracks. +Perhaps there are fewer pesticides in the cities than there are in [rural] areas. +Perhaps there are other things that we're just not thinking about yet, but that's one idea to think about, urban islands. +And colony collapse disorder is not the only thing affecting honeybees. Honeybees are dying, and it's a huge, huge grand challenge of our time. +What you can see up here is a map of the world, and we're tracking the spread of this varroa mite. +Now, the varroa mite is what changed the game in beekeeping, and you can see, at the top right, the years are changing, we're coming up to modern times, and you can see the spread of the varroa mite from the early 1900s through now. +It's 1968, and we're pretty much covering Asia. +1971, we saw it spread to Europe and South America, and then, when we get to the 1980s, and specifically to 1987, the varroa mite finally came to North America and to the United States, and that is when the game changed for honeybees in the United States. +Many of us will remember our childhood growing up, maybe you got stung by a bee, you saw bees on flowers. +Think of the kids today. Their childhood's a bit different. +They don't experience this. +The bees just aren't around anymore. +So we need bees and they're disappearing and it's a big problem. +What can we do here? +So, what I do is honeybee research. +I got my Ph.D. studying honeybee health. +I started in 2005 studying honeybees. +In 2006, honeybees started disappearing, so suddenly, like, this little nerd kid going to school working with bugs became very relevant in the world. +And it worked out that way. +So my research focuses on ways to make bees healthier. +I don't research what's killing the bees, per se. +I'm not one of the many researchers around the world who's looking at the effects of pesticides or diseases or habitat loss and poor nutrition on bees. +We're looking at ways to make bees healthier through vaccines, through yogurt, like probiotics, and other types of therapies in ways that can be fed orally to bees, and this process is so easy, even a 7-year-old can do it. +You just mix up some pollen, sugar and water, and whatever active ingredient you want to put in, and you just give it right to the bees. No chemicals involved, just immune boosters. +Humans think about our own health in a prospective way. +We exercise, we eat healthy, we take vitamins. +Why don't we think about honeybees in that same type of way? +Bring them to areas where they're thriving and try to make them healthier before they get sick. +I spent many years in grad school trying to poke bees and do vaccines with needles. Like, years, years at the bench, "Oh my gosh, it's 3 a.m. +and I'm still pricking bees." And then one day I said, "Why don't we just do an oral vaccine?" +It's like, "Ugh," so that's what we do. I'd love to share with you some images of urban beehives, because they can be anything. +I mean, really open your mind with this. +You can paint a hive to match your home. +You can hide a hive inside your home. +That's what the chefs go to to use for their cooking, and the honey -- they do live events -- they'll use that honey at their bars. +Honey is a great nutritional substitute for regular sugar because there are different types of sugars in there. +We also have a classroom hives project, where -- this is a nonprofit venture -- we're spreading the word around the world for how honeybee hives can be taken into the classroom or into the museum setting, behind glass, and used as an educational tool. +This hive that you see here has been in Fenway High School for many years now. +The bees fly right into the outfield of Fenway Park. +Nobody notices it. If you're not a flower, these bees do not care about you. They don't. They don't. They'll say, "S'cuse me, flying around." Some other images here in telling a part of the story that really made urban beekeeping terrific is in New York City, beekeeping was illegal until 2010. +That's a big problem, because what's going to pollinate all of the gardens and the produce locally? Hands? +I mean, locally in Boston, there is a terrific company called Green City Growers, and they are going and pollinating their squash crops by hand with Q-Tips, and if they miss that three day window, there's no fruit. +Their clients aren't happy, and people go hungry. +So this is important. +We have also some images of honey from Brooklyn. +Paris has been a terrific model for urban beekeeping. +They've had hives on the rooftop of their opera house for many years now, and that's what really got people started, thinking, "Wow, we can do this, and we should do this." +Also in London, and in Europe across the board, they're very advanced in their use of green rooftops and integrating beehives, and I'll show you an ending note here. +I would like to encourage you to open your mind. +What can you do to save the bees or to help them or to think of sustainable cities in the future? +Well, really, just change your perspective. +Try to understand that bees are very important. +A bee isn't going to sting you if you see it. +The bee dies. Honeybees die when they sting, so they don't want to do it either. It's nothing to panic about. They're all over the city. +You could even get your own hive if you want. +There are great resources available, and there are even companies that will help get you set up and mentor you and it's important for our educational system in the world for students to learn about agriculture worldwide such as this little girl, who, again, is not even getting stung. +Thank you. +In the past several days, I heard people talking about China. +And also, I talked to friends about China and Chinese Internet. +Something is very challenging to me. +I want to make my friends understand: China is complicated. +So I always want to tell the story, like, one hand it is that, the other hand is that. +You can't just tell a one sided story. +I'll give an example. China is a BRIC country. +BRIC country means Brazil, Russia, India and China. +This emerging economy really is helping the revival of the world economy. +But at the same time, on the other hand, China is a SICK country, the terminology coined by Facebook IPO papers -- file. +He said the SICK country means Syria, Iran, China and North Korea. +The four countries have no access to Facebook. +So basically, China is a SICK BRIC country. +Another project was built up to watch China and Chinese Internet. +And now, today I want to tell you my personal observation in the past several years, from that wall. +So, if you are a fan of the Game of Thrones, you definitely know how important a big wall is for an old kingdom. +It prevents weird things from the north. +Same was true for China. +In the north, there was a great wall, Chang Cheng. +It protected China from invaders for 2,000 years. +But China also has a great firewall. +That's the biggest digital boundary in the whole world. +It's not only to defend the Chinese regime from overseas, from the universal values, but also to prevent China's own citizens to access the global free Internet, and even separate themselves into blocks, not united. +So, basically the "Internet" has two Internets. +One is the Internet, the other is the Chinanet. +But if you think the Chinanet is something like a deadland, wasteland, I think it's wrong. +But we also use a very simple metaphor, the cat and the mouse game, to describe in the past 15 years the continuing fight between Chinese censorship, government censorship, the cat, and the Chinese Internet users. That means us, the mouse. +But sometimes this kind of a metaphor is too simple. +So today I want to upgrade it to 2.0 version. +In China, we have 500 million Internet users. +That's the biggest population of Netizens, Internet users, in the whole world. +So even though China's is a totally censored Internet, but still, Chinese Internet society is really booming. +How to make it? It's simple. +You have Google, we have Baidu. +You have Twitter, we have Weibo. +You have Facebook, we have Renren. +You have YouTube, we have Youku and Tudou. +The Chinese government blocked every single international Web 2.0 service, and we Chinese copycat every one. +So, that's the kind of the thing I call smart censorship. +That's not only to censor you. +Sometimes this Chinese national Internet policy is very simple: Block and clone. +On the one hand, he wants to satisfy people's need of a social network, which is very important; people really love social networking. +But on the other hand, they want to keep the server in Beijing so they can access the data any time they want. +That's also the reason Google was pulled out from China, because they can't accept the fact that Chinese government wants to keep the server. +Sometimes the Arab dictators didn't understand these two hands. +For example, Mubarak, he shut down the Internet. +He wanted to prevent the Netizens [from criticizing] him. +But once Netizens can't go online, they go in the street. +And now the result is very simple. +We all know Mubarak is technically dead. +But also, Ben Ali, Tunisian president, didn't follow the second rule. +That means keep the server in your hands. +He allowed Facebook, a U.S.-based service, to continue to stay on inside of Tunisia. +So he can't prevent it, his own citizens to post critical videos against his corruption. +The same thing happend. He was the first to topple during the Arab Spring. +But those two very smart international censorship policies didn't prevent Chinese social media [from] becoming a really public sphere, a pathway of public opinion and the nightmare of Chinese officials. +Because we have 300 million microbloggers in China. +It's the entire population of the United States. +So when these 300 million people, microbloggers, even they block the tweet in our censored platform. +But itself -- the Chinanet -- but itself can create very powerful energy, which has never happened in the Chinese history. +2011, in July, two [unclear] trains crashed, in Wenzhou, a southern city. +Right after the train crash, authorities literally wanted to cover up the train, bury the train. +So it angered the Chinese Netizens. +The first five days after the train crash, there were 10 million criticisms of the posting on social media, which never happened in Chinese history. +And later this year, the rail minister was sacked and sentenced to jail for 10 years. +And also, recently, very funny debate between the Beijing Environment Ministry and the American Embassy in Beijing because the Ministry blamed the American Embassy for intervening in Chinese internal politics by disclosing the air quality data of Beijing. +So, the up is the Embassy data, the PM 2.5. +He showed 148, they showed it's dangerous for the sensitive group. +So a suggestion, it's not good to go outside. +But that is the Ministry's data. He shows 50. +He says it's good. It's good to go outside. +But 99 percent of Chinese microbloggers stand firmly on the Embassy's side. +I live in Beijing. Every day, I just watch the American Embassy's data to decide whether I should open my window. +Why is Chinese social networking, even within the censorship, so booming? Part of the reason is Chinese languages. +You know, Twitter and Twitter clones have a kind of a limitation of 140 characters. +But in English it's 20 words or a sentence with a short link. +Maybe in Germany, in German language, it may be just "Aha!" +But in Chinese language, it's really about 140 characters, means a paragraph, a story. +You can almost have all the journalistic elements there. +For example, this is Hamlet, of Shakespeare. +It's the same content. One, you can see exactly one Chinese tweet is equal to 3.5 English tweets. +Chinese is always cheating, right? +So because of this, the Chinese really regard this microblogging as a media, not only a headline to media. +And also, the clone, Sina company is the guy who cloned Twitter. +It even has its own name, with Weibo. +"Weibo" is the Chinese translation for "microblog". +It has its own innovation. +At the commenting area, [it makes] the Chinese Weibo more like Facebook, rather than the original Twitter. +So these innovations and clones, as the Weibo and microblogging, when it came to China in 2009, it immediately became a media platform itself. +It became the media platform of 300 million readers. +It became the media. +Anything not mentioned in Weibo, it does not appear to exist for the Chinese public. +But also, Chinese social media is really changing Chinese mindsets and Chinese life. +For example, they give the voiceless people a channel to make your voice heard. +We had a petition system. It's a remedy outside the judicial system, because the Chinese central government wants to keep a myth: The emperor is good. The old local officials are thugs. +So that's why the petitioner, the victims, the peasants, want to take the train to Beijing to petition to the central government, they want the emperor to settle the problem. +But when more and more people go to Beijing, they also cause the risk of a revolution. +So they send them back in recent years. +And even some of them were put into black jails. +But now we have Weibo, so I call it the Weibo petition. +People just use their cell phones to tweet. +So your sad stories, by some chance your story will be picked up by reporters, professors or celebrities. +One of them is Yao Chen, she is the most popular microblogger in China, who has about 21 million followers. +They're almost like a national TV station. +If you -- so a sad story will be picked up by her. +So this Weibo social media, even in the censorship, still gave the Chinese a real chance for 300 million people every day chatting together, talking together. +It's like a big TED, right? +But also, it is like the first time a public sphere happened in China. +Chinese people start to learn how to negotiate and talk to people. +But also, the cat, the censorship, is not sleeping. +It's so hard to post some sensitive words on the Chinese Weibo. +For example, you can't post the name of the president, Hu Jintao, and also you can't post the city of Chongqing, the name, and until recently, you can't search the surname of top leaders. +So, the Chinese are very good at these puns and alternative wording and even memes. +They even name themselves -- you know, use the name of this world-changing battle between the grass-mud horse and the river crab. +The grass-mud horse is caonma, is the phonogram for motherfucker, the Netizens call themselves. +River crab is hxi, is the phonogram for harmonization, for censorship. +So that's kind of a caonma versus the hxi, that's very good. +So, when some very political, exciting moments happened, you can see on Weibo, you see a lot of very weird stories happened. +Weird phrases and words, even if you have a PhD of Chinese language, you can't understand them. +But you can't even expand more, no, because Chinese Sina Weibo, when it was founded was exactly one month after the official blocking of Twitter.com. +That means from the very beginning, Weibo has already convinced the Chinese government, we will not become the stage for any kind of a threat to the regime. +For example, anything you want to post, like "get together" or "meet up" or "walk," it is automatically recorded and data mined and reported to a poll for further political analyzing. +Even if you want to have some gathering, before you go there, the police are already waiting for you. +Why? Because they have the data. +They have everything in their hands. +So they can use the 1984 scenario data mining of the dissident. +So the crackdown is very serious. +But I want you to notice a very funny thing during the process of the cat-and-mouse. +The cat is the censorship, but Chinese is not only one cat, but also has local cats. Central cat and local cats. +You know, the server is in the [central] cats' hands, so even that -- when the Netizens criticize the local government, the local government has not any access to the data in Beijing. +Without bribing the central cats, he can do nothing, only apologize. +So these three years, in the past three years, social movements about microblogging really changed local government, became more and more transparent, because they can't access the data. +The server is in Beijing. +The story about the train crash, maybe the question is not about why 10 million criticisms in five days, but why the Chinese central government allowed the five days of freedom of speech online. +It's never happened before. +And so it's very simple, because even the top leaders were fed up with this guy, this independent kingdom. +So they want an excuse -- public opinion is a very good excuse to punish him. +But also, the Bo Xilai case recently, very big news, he's a princeling. +But from February to April this year, Weibo really became a marketplace of rumors. +You can almost joke everything about these princelings, everything! It's almost like you're living in the United States. +But if you dare to retweet or mention any fake coup about Beijing, you definitely will be arrested. +So this kind of freedom is a targeted and precise window. +So Chinese in China, censorship is normal. +Something you find is, freedom is weird. +Something will happen behind it. +Because he was a very popular Leftist leader, so the central government wanted to purge him, and he was very cute, he convinced all the Chinese people, why he is so bad. +So Weibo, the 300 million public sphere, became a very good, convenient tool for a political fight. +But this technology is very new, but technically is very old. +It was made famous by Chairman Mao, Mao Zedong, because he mobilized millions of Chinese people in the Cultural Revolution to destroy every local government. +It's very simple, because Chinese central government doesn't need to even lead the public opinion. +They just give them a target window to not censor people. +Not censoring in China has become a political tool. +So that's the update about this game, cat-and-mouse. +Social media changed Chinese mindset. +More and more Chinese intend to embrace freedom of speech and human rights as their birthright, not some imported American privilege. +But also, it gave the Chinese a national public sphere for people to, it's like a training of their citizenship, preparing for future democracy. +But it didn't change the Chinese political system, and also the Chinese central government utilized this centralized server structure to strengthen its power to counter the local government and the different factions. +So, what's the future? +After all, we are the mouse. +Whatever the future is, we should fight against the [cat]. +There is not only in China, but also in the United States there are some very small, cute but bad cats. +SOPA, PIPA, ACTA, TPP and ITU. +And also, like Facebook and Google, they claim they are friends of the mouse, but sometimes we see them dating the cats. +So my conclusion is very simple. +We Chinese fight for our freedom, you just watch your bad cats. +Don't let them hook [up] with the Chinese cats. +Only in this way, in the future, we will achieve the dreams of the mouse: that we can tweet anytime, anywhere, without fear. +Thank you. +I worked on a film called "Apollo 13," and when I worked on this film, I discovered something about how our brains work, and how our brains work is that, when we're sort of infused with either enthusiasm or awe or fondness or whatever, it changes and alters our perception of things. +It changes what we see. It changes what we remember. +What should I actually try to replicate? +What should I try to emulate to some degree? +So this is the footage that I was showing everybody. +And what I discovered is, because of the nature of the footage and the fact that we're doing this film, there was an emotion that was built into it and our collective memories of what this launch meant to us and all these various things. +When I showed it, and I asked, immediately after the screening was over, what they thought of it, what was your memorable shots, they changed them. +They were -- had camera moves on them. +They had all kinds of things. Shots were combined, and I was just really curious, I mean, what the hell were you looking at just a few minutes ago and how come, how'd you come up with this sort of description? +And what I discovered is, what I should do is not actually replicate what they saw, is replicate what they remembered. +So this is our footage of the launch, based on, basically, taking notes, asking people what they thought, and then the combination of all the different shots and all the different things put together created their sort of collective consciousness of what they remembered it looked like, but not what it really looked like. +So this is what we created for "Apollo 13." +(Launch noises) So literally what you're seeing now is the confluence of a bunch of different people, a bunch of different memories, including my own, of taking a little bit of liberty with the subject matter. +Tom Hanks: Hello, Houston, this is Odyssey. +It's good to see you again. Rob Legato: I pretend they're clapping for me. +And in this particular case, this is the climax of the movie, and, you know, the weight of achieving it was simply take a model, throw it out of a helicopter, and shoot it. +And that's simply what I did. +That's me shooting, and I'm a fairly mediocre operator, so I got that nice sense of verisimilitude, of a kind of, you know, following the rocket all the way down, and giving that little sort of edge, I was desperately trying to keep it in frame. So then I come up to the next thing. +We had a NASA consultant who was actually an astronaut, who was actually on some of the missions, of Apollo 15, and he was there to basically double check my science. +And, I guess somebody thought they needed to do that. +I don't know why, but they thought they did. +So we were, he's a hero, he's an astronaut, and we're all sort of excited, and, you know, I gave myself the liberty of saying, you know, some of the shots I did didn't really suck that bad. +("That's wrong") Okay. It's what you dream about. +So what I got from him is, he turned to me and said, "You would never, ever design a rocket like that. +You would never have a rocket go up while the gantry arms are going out. Can you imagine the tragedy that could possibly happen with that? +You would never, ever design a rocket like that." +And he was looking at me. It's like, Yeah, I don't know if you noticed, but I'm the guy out in the parking lot recreating one of America's finest moments with fire extinguishers. +And I'm not going to argue with you. You're an astronaut, a hero, and I'm from New Jersey, so -- I'm just going to show you some footage. +I'm just going to show you some footage, and tell me what you think. +And then I did kind of get the reaction I was hoping for. +So I showed him this, and this is actual footage that he was on. This is Apollo 15. This was his mission. +So I showed him this, and the reaction I got was interesting. +("That's wrong too.") So, and what happened was, I mean, what I sort of intuned in that is that he remembered it differently. +He remembered that was a perfectly safe sort of gantry system, perfectly safe rocket launch, because he's sitting in a rocket that has, like, a hundred thousand pounds of thrust, built by the lowest bidder. +He was hoping it was going to work out okay. +So he twisted his memory around. +Now, Ron Howard ran into Buzz Aldrin, who was not on the movie, so he had no idea that we were faking any of this footage, and he just responded as he would respond, and I'll run this. +Ron Howard: Buzz Aldrin came up to me and said, "Hey, that launch footage, I saw some shots I'd never seen before. Did you guys, what vault did you find that stuff in?" And I said, "Well, no vault, Buzz, we generated all that from scratch." +And he said, "Huh, that's pretty good. Can we use it?" +RL: I think he's a great American. +So, "Titanic" was, if you don't know the story, doesn't end well. +Jim Cameron actually photographed the real Titanic. +So he basically set up, or basically shattered the suspension of disbelief, because what he photographed was the real thing, a Mir sub going down, or actually two Mir subs going down to the real wreck, and he created this very haunting footage. +So this is the footage he photographed, and it was pretty moving and pretty awe-inspiring. +So I'm going to just let it run, so you kind of absorb this sort of thing, and I'll describe my sort of reactions when I was looking at it for the very first time. +I got the feeling that my brain wanted to basically see it come back to life. +I automatically wanted to see this ship, this magnificent ship, basically in all its glory, and conversely, I wanted to see it not in all its glory, basically go back to what it looks like. +So I conjured up an effect that I'm later going to show you what I tried to do, which is kind of the heart of the movie, for me, and so that's why I wanted to do the movie, that's why I wanted to create the sort of things I created. +And I'll show you, you know, another thing that I found interesting is what we really were emoting to when you take a look at it. +So here's the behind the scenes, a couple of little shots here. +So, when you saw my footage, you were seeing this: basically, a bunch of guys flipping a ship upside down, and the little Mir subs are actually about the size of small footballs, and shot in smoke. +Jim went three miles went down, and I went about three miles away from the studio and photographed this in a garage. +And so, but what you're emoting to, or what you're looking at, had the same feeling, the same haunting quality, that Jim's footage had, so I found it so fascinating that our brains sort of, once you believe something's real, you transfer everything that you feel about it, this quality you have, and it's totally artificial. +And the very next shot, right after this -- So you can see what I was doing. +So basically, if there's two subs in the same shot, I shot it, because where's the camera coming from? +And when Jim shot it, it was only one sub, because he was photographing from the other, and I don't remember if I did this or Jim did this. +I'll give it to Jim, because he could use the pat on the back. +Okay. So now the Titanic transition. +So this is what I was referring to where I wanted to basically magically transplant from one state of the Titanic to the other. So I'll just play the shot once. And what I was hoping for is that it just melts in front of you. +Gloria Stuart: That was the last time Titanic ever saw daylight. +The moment my eye shifted, I immediately started to change them, so now somehow you missed where it started and where it stopped. +And so I'll just show it one more time. +And it's literally done by using what our brains naturally do for us, which is, as soon as you shift your attention, something changes, and then I left the little scarf going, because it really wanted to be a ghostly shot, really wanted to feel like they were still on the wreck, essentially. That's where they were buried forever. +Or something like that. I just made that up. +It was, incidentally, the last time I ever saw daylight. +It was a long film to work on. Now, "Hugo" was another interesting movie, because the movie itself is about film illusions. +Very dangerous, very impossible to do, and particularly on our stage, because there literally is no way to actually move this train, because it fits so snugly into our set. +That doesn't move." +"And the thing without the wheels, that moves." +He was the master of his universe, and we wanted Hugo to feel the same way, so we created this shot. +So what you're now going to see is how we actually did it. +It's actually five separate sets shot at five different times with two different boys. +So I was kind of proud of it, and I went to a friend of mine, and said, "You know, this is, you know, kind of the best-reviewed shot I've ever worked on. +What do you think was the reason?" +And he said, "Because no one knows you had anything to do with it." +So, all I can say is, thank you, and that's my presentation for you. +What I'd like to do today is to start with an excerpt of a piece of music at the piano. +Okay, I wrote that. No, it's not Oh, why thank you. +No, no, I didn't write that. +In fact, that was a piece by Beethoven, and so I was not functioning as a composer. +Just now I was functioning in the role of the interpreter, and there I am, interpreter. +So, an interpreter of what? Of a piece of music, right? +But we can ask the question, "But is it music?" +And I say this rhetorically, because of course by just about any standard we would have to concede that this is, of course, a piece of music, but I put this here now because, just to set it in your brains for the moment, because we're going to return to this question. +It's going to be a kind of a refrain as we go through the presentation. +So here we have this piece of music by Beethoven, and my problem with it is, it's boring. +I mean, you I'm just like, a hush, huh -- It's like -- It's Beethoven, how can you say that? +No, well, I don't know, it's very familiar to me. +That would be the kind of thing that I would do, and it's not necessarily better than the Beethoven. +In fact, I think it's not better than it. The thing is -- -- it's more interesting to me. It's less boring for me. +I'm really leaning into me, because I, because I have to think about what decisions I'm going to make on the fly as that Beethoven text is running in time through my head and I'm trying to figure out what kinds of transformations I'm going to make to it. +It gets a little bit boring, and so pretty soon I go through other instruments, they become familiar, and eventually I find myself designing and constructing my own instrument, and I brought one with me today, and I thought I would play a little bit on it for you so you can hear what it sounds like. +You gotta have doorstops, that's important. I've got combs. They're the only combs that I own. They're all mounted on my instruments. I can actually do all sorts of things. I can play with a violin bow. I don't have to use the chopsticks. +So we have this sound. And with a bank of live electronics, I can change the sounds radically. Like that, and like this. And so forth. +I know some of you are just, you know, bingo! Or, I don't know. Anyway, so this is also a really enjoyable role. +I should concede also that I'm the world's worst Mouseketeer player, and it was this distinction that I was most worried about when I was on that prior side of the tenure divide. +I'm glad I'm past that. We're not going to go into that. +I'm crying on the inside. There are still scars. +Anyway, but I guess my point is that all of these enterprises are engaging to me in their multiplicity, but as I've presented them to you today, they're actually solitary enterprises, and so pretty soon I want to commune with other people, and so I'm delighted that in fact I get to compose works for them. +I get to write, sometimes for soloists and I get to work with one person, sometimes full orchestras, and I work with a lot of people, and this is probably the capacity, the role creatively for which I'm probably best known professionally. +Now, some of my scores as a composer look like this, and others look like this, and some look like this, and I make all of these by hand, and it's really tedious. +It takes a long, long time to make these scores, and right now I'm working on a piece that's 180 pages in length, and it's just a big chunk of my life, and I'm just pulling out hair. +I have a lot of it, and that's a good thing I suppose. So this gets really boring and really tiresome for me, so after a while the process of notating is not only boring, but I actually want the notation to be more interesting, and so that's pushed me to do other projects like this one. +This is an excerpt from a score called "The Metaphysics of Notation." +The full score is 72 feet wide. +It's a bunch of crazy pictographic notation. +I can understand the question, though. "But is it music?" +I mean, there's not any traditional notation. +I can also understand that sort of implicit criticism in this piece, "S-tog," which I made when I was living in Copenhagen. +I took the Copenhagen subway map and I renamed all the stations to abstract musical provocations, and the players, who are synchronized with stopwatches, follow the timetables, which are listed in minutes past the hour. +So this is a case of actually adapting something, or maybe stealing something, and then turning it into a musical notation. +Another adaptation would be this piece. +I took the idea of the wristwatch, and I turned it into a musical score. +I made my own faces, and had a company fabricate them, and the players follow these scores. +They follow the second hands, and as they pass over the various symbols, the players respond musically. +Here's another example from another piece, and then its realization. +So in these two capacities, I've been scavenger, in the sense of taking, like, the subway map, right, or thief maybe, and I've also been designer, in the case of making the wristwatches. +And once again, this is, for me, interesting. +Another role that I like to take on is that of the performance artist. +Some of my pieces have these kind of weird theatric elements, and I often perform them. I want to show you a clip from a piece called "Echolalia." +This is actually being performed by Brian McWhorter, who is an extraordinary performer. +Let's watch a little bit of this, and please notice the instrumentation. +Okay, I hear you were laughing nervously because you too could hear that the drill was a little bit sharp, the intonation was a little questionable. Let's watch just another clip. +You can see the mayhem continues, and there's, you know, there were no clarinets and trumpets and flutes and violins. Here's a piece that has an even more unusual, more peculiar instrumentation. +This is "Tln," for three conductors and no players. This was based on the experience of actually watching two people having a virulent argument in sign language, which produced no decibels to speak of, but affectively, psychologically, was a very loud experience. +So, yeah, I get it, with, like, the weird appliances and then the total absence of conventional instruments and this glut of conductors, people might, you know, wonder, yeah, "Is this music?" +But let's move on to a piece where clearly I'm behaving myself, and that is my "Concerto for Orchestra." +You're going to notice a lot of conventional instruments in this clip. This, in fact, is not the title of this piece. +I was a bit mischievous. In fact, to make it more interesting, I put a space right in here, and this is the actual title of the piece. +Let's continue with that same excerpt. +It's better with a florist, right? Or at least it's less boring. Let's watch a couple more clips. +So with all these theatric elements, this pushes me in another role, and that would be, possibly, the dramaturge. +I was playing nice. I had to write the orchestra bits, right? +Okay? But then there was this other stuff, right? +There was the florist, and I can understand that, once again, we're putting pressure on the ontology of music as we know it conventionally, but let's look at one last piece today I'm going to share with you. +This is going to be a piece called "Aphasia," and it's for hand gestures synchronized to sound, and this invites yet another role, and final one I'll share with you, which is that of the choreographer. +And the score for the piece looks like this, and it instructs me, the performer, to make various hand gestures at very specific times synchronized with an audio tape, and that audio tape is made up exclusively of vocal samples. +I recorded an awesome singer, and I took the sound of his voice in my computer, and I warped it in countless ways to come up with the soundtrack that you're about to hear. +And I'll perform just an excerpt of "Aphasia" for you here. Okay? +So that gives you a little taste of that piece. Yeah, okay, that's kind of weird stuff. +Is it music? Here's how I want to conclude. +I've decided, ultimately, that this is the wrong question, that this is not the important question. +The important question is, "Is it interesting?" +And I follow this question, not worrying about "Is it music?" -- not worrying about the definition of the thing that I'm making. +And with that, I thank you very much. +As you might imagine, I'm absolutely passionate about dance. I'm passionate about making it, about watching it, about encouraging others to participate in it, and I'm also really passionate about creativity. +Creativity for me is something that's absolutely critical, and I think it's something that you can teach. +I think the technicities of creativity can be taught and shared, and I think you can find out things about your own personal physical signature, your own cognitive habits, and use that as a point of departure to misbehave beautifully. +I was born in the 1970s, and John Travolta was big in those days: "Grease," "Saturday Night Fever," and he provided a fantastic kind of male role model for me to start dancing. My parents were very up for me going. +And that was the very first time that I found an opportunity to feel that I was able to express my own voice, and that's what's fueled me, then, to become a choreographer. +I feel like I've got something to say and something to share. +And I guess what's interesting is, is that I am now obsessed with the technology of the body. +I think it's the most technologically literate thing that we have, and I'm absolutely obsessed with finding a way of communicating ideas through the body to audiences that might move them, touch them, help them think differently about things. +So for me, choreography is very much a process of physical thinking. It's very much in mind, as well as in body, and it's a collaborative process. +It's something that I have to do with other people. +You know, it's a distributed cognitive process in a way. +I work often with designers and visual artists, obviously dancers and other choreographers, but also, more and more, with economists, anthropologists, neuroscientists, cognitive scientists, people really who come from very different domains of expertise, where they bring their intelligence to bear on a different kind of creative process. +What I thought we would do today a little bit is explore this idea of physical thinking, and we're all experts in physical thinking. +Yeah, you all have a body, right? +And we all know what that body is like in the real world, so one of the aspects of physical thinking that we think about a lot is this notion of proprioception, the sense of my own body in the space in the real world. +So, we all understand what it feels like to know where the ends of your fingers are when you hold out your arms, yeah? +You absolutely know that when you're going to grab a cup, or that cup moves and you have to renavigate it. +So we're experts in physical thinking already. +We just don't think about our bodies very much. +We only think about them when they go wrong, so, when there's a broken arm, or when you have a heart attack, then you become really very aware of your bodies. +But how is it that we can start to think about using choreographic thinking, kinesthetic intelligence, to arm the ways in which we think about things more generally? +What I thought I'd do is, I'd make a TED premiere. +I'm not sure if this is going to be good or not. +I'll just be doing it. +I thought what I'd do is, I'd use three versions of physical thinking to make something. +I want to introduce you. This is Paolo. This is Catarina. +They have no idea what we're going to do. +So this is not the type of choreography where I already have in mind what I'm going to make, where I've fixed the routine in my head and I'm just going to teach it to them, and these so-called empty vessels are just going to learn it. +That's not the methodology at all that we work with. +But what's important about it is how it is that they're grasping information, how they're taking information, how they're using it, and how they're thinking with it. +I'm going to start really, really simply. +And I'm going to imagine this, you can do this too if you like, that I'm going to just take the letter "T" and I'm going to imagine it in mind, and I'm going to place that outside in the real world. So I absolutely see a letter "T" in front of me. +Yeah? It's absolutely there. +I can absolutely walk around it when I see it, yeah? +It has a kind of a grammar. I know what I'm going to do with it, and I can start to describe it, so I can describe it very simply. I can describe it in my arms, right? +So all I did was take my hand and then I move my hand. +I can describe it, whoa, in my head, you know? Whoa. +Okay. I can do also my shoulder. Yeah? +It gives me something to do, something to work towards. +If I were to take that letter "T" and flatten it down on the floor, here, maybe just off the floor, all of a sudden I could do maybe something with my knee, yeah? Whoa. So If I put the knee and the arms together, I've got something physical, yeah? And I can start to build something. +And we'll see what we come up with. +So just have a little watch about how they're, how they're accessing this and what they're doing, and I'm just going to take this letter "T," the letter "E," and the letter "D," to make something. Okay. Here goes. +So I have to get myself in the zone. Right. +It's a bit of a cross of my arm. +So all I'm doing is exploring this space of "T" and flashing through it with some action. +I'm not remembering what I'm doing. +I'm just working on my task. My task is this "T." +Going to watch it from the side, whoa. +Strike moment. +That's it. +So we're starting to build a phrase. +So what they're doing, let's see, something like that, so what they're doing is grasping aspects of that movement and they're generating it into a phrase. +You can see the speed is extremely quick, yeah? +I'm not asking them to copy exactly. +They're using the information that they receive to generate the beginnings of a phrase. +I can watch that and that can tell me something about how it is that they're moving. +Yeah, they're super quick, right? +So I've taken this aspect of TED and translated it into something that's physical. +Some dancers, when they're watching action, take the overall shape, the arc of the movement, the kinetic sense of the movement, and use that for memory. +Some work very much in specific detail. +They start with small little units and build it up. +Okay, you've got something? One more thing. +So they're solving this problem for me, having a little -- They're constructing that phrase. +They have something and they're going to hold on to it, yeah? One way of making. +That's going to be my beginning in this world premiere. +Okay. From there I'm going to do a very different thing. +So basically I'm going to make a duet. +I want you to think about them as architectural objects, so what they are, are just pure lines. +They're no longer people, just pure lines, and I'm going to work with them almost as objects to think with, yeah? +So what I'm thinking about is taking a few physical extensions from the body as I move, and I move them, and I do that by suggesting things to them: If, then; if, then. Okay, so here we go. +Just grab this arm. +Can you place that down into the floor? +Yeah, down to the floor. Can you go underneath? +Yeah. Cat, can you put leg over that side? Yeah. +Can you rotate? +Whoom, just go back to the beginning. +Here we go, ready? And ... bam, bake ... (clicks metronome) Great. Okay, from there, you're both getting up. +You're both getting up. Here we go. Good, now? Them. +So from there, from there, we're both getting up, we're both getting up, going in this direction, going underneath. Whoa, whoa, underneath. +Whoa, underneath, whoo-um. Yeah? Underneath. Jump. +Underneath. Jump. Paolo, kick. Don't care where. Kick. +Kick, replace, change a leg. Kick, replace, change the leg. +Yeah? Okay? Cat, almost get his head. Almost get his head. +Whoaa. Just after it, maybe. Whoaa, whaaay, ooh. +Grab her waist, come up back into her first, whoom, spin, turn her, whoo-aa. Great. +Okay, let's have a little go from the beginning of that. +Just, let me slow down here. Fancy having eight -- Fancy having eight hours with me in a day. +So, maybe too much. So, here we go, ready, and -- (Clicks metronome) (Clicks metronome) Nice, good job. Yeah? Okay. Okay, not bad. A little bit more? +Yeah. Just a little bit more, here we go, from that place. +Separate. Face the front. Separate. Face the front. +Imagine that there's a circle in front of you, yeah? +Avoid it. Avoid it. Whoom. Kick it out of the way. +Kick it out of the way. Throw it into the audience. Whoom. +Throw it into the audience again. +We've got mental architecture, we're sharing it, therefore solving a problem. They're enacting it. +Let me just see that a little bit. Ready, and go. +(Clicks metronome) Okay, brilliant. Okay, here we go. From the beginning, can we do our phrases first? And then that. +And we're going to build something now, organize it, the phrases. Here we go. Nice and slow? +Ready and go ... um. (Clicks metronome) (Clicks metronome) The duet starts. (Clicks metronome) (Clicks metronome) So yeah, okay, good. Okay, nice, very nice. So good. So -- Okay. So that was -- Well done. That was the second way of working. +The first one, body-to-body transfer, yeah, with an outside mental architecture that I work with that they hold memory with for me. +The second one, which is using them as objects to think with their architectural objects, I do a series of provocations, I say, "If this happens, then that. +If this, if that happens -- " I've got lots of methods like that, but it's very, very quick, and this is a third method. +They're starting it already, and this is a task-based method, where they have the autonomy to make all of the decisions for themselves. +So I'd like us just to do, we're going to do a little mental dance, a little, in this little one minute, so what I'd love you to do is imagine, you can do this with your eyes closed, or open, and if you don't want to do it you can watch them, it's up to you. +Just for a second, think about that word "TED" in front of you, so it's in mind, and it's there right in front of your mind. +What I'd like you to do is transplant that outside into the real world, so just imagine that word "TED" in the real world. +What I'd like you to do what that is take an aspect of it. +I'm going to zone in on the "E," and I'm going to scale that "E" so it's absolutely massive, so I'm scaling that "E" so it's absolutely massive, and then I'm going to give it dimensionality. +I'm going to think about it in 3D space. So now, instead of it just being a letter that's in front of me, it's a space that my body can go inside of. +If you reach with your finger, where would it be? +If you reach with your elbow, where would it be? +So this is a mental picture, I'm describing a mental, vivid picture that enables dancers to make choices for themselves about what to make. +Okay, you can open your eyes if you had them closed. +So the dancers have been working on them. +So just keep working on them for a little second. +So they've been working on those mental architectures in the here. +I know, I think we should keep them as a surprise. +So here goes, world premiere dance. Yeah? Here we go. +TED dance. Okay. Here it comes. I'm going to organize it quickly. +So, you're going to do the first solo that we made, yeah blah blah blah blah, we go into the duet, yeah, blah blah blah blah. The next solo, blah blah blah blah, yeah, and both at the same time, you do the last solutions. +Okay? Okay. Ladies and gentlemen, world premiere, TED dance, three versions of physical thinking. Well, clap afterwards, let's see if it's any good, yeah? So yeah, let's clap -- yeah, let's clap afterwards. +Here we go. Catarina, big moment, here we go, one. +(Clicks metronome) Here it comes, Cat. (Clicks metronome) Paolo, go. (Clicks metronome) Last you solo. +The one you made. (Clicks metronome) (Clicks metronome) Well done. Okay, good. Super. So -- So -- Thank you. So -- three versions. Oh. Three versions of physical thinking, yeah? +Three versions of physical thinking. I'm hoping that today, what you're going to do is go away and make a dance for yourself, and if not that, at least misbehave more beautifully, more often. +Thank you very much. Thank you. Thank you. Here we go. +Good afternoon. +I am not a farmer. +I'm not. I'm a parent, I'm a resident and I'm a teacher. +And this is my world. +And along the way I've started noticing -- I'm on my third generation of kids -- that they're getting bigger. +They're getting sicker. +In addition to these complexities, I just learned that 70 percent of the kids that I see who are labeled learning disabled would not have been had they had proper prenatal nutrition. +The realities of my community are simple. They look like this. +Kids should not have to grow up and look at things like this. +And as jobs continue to leave my community, and energy continues to come in, be exported in, it's no wonder that really some people refer to the South Bronx as a desert. +But I'm the oldest sixth grader you'll ever meet, so I get up every day with this tremendous amount of enthusiasm that I'm hoping to share with you all today. +And with that note, I come to you with this belief that kids should not have to leave their communities to live, learn and earn in a better one. +So I'm here to tell you a story about me and this wall that I met outside, which I'm now bringing inside. +And it starts with three people. +The crazy teacher -- that's me on the left, I dress up pretty, thank you, my wife, I love you for getting a good suit -- my passionate borough president and a guy named George Irwin from Green Living Technologies who helped me with my class and helped me get involved with this patented technology. +But it all starts with seeds in classrooms, in my place, which looks like this. +And I'm here today hoping that my reach will exceed my grasp. +And that's really what this is all about. +And it starts with incredible kids like this, who come early and stay late. +All of my kids are either IEP or ELL learners, most come with a lot of handicaps, most are homeless and many are in foster care. +Almost all of my kids live below poverty. +But with those seeds, from day one, we are growing in my classroom, and this is what it looks like in my classroom. +And you see how attentive these kids are to these seeds. +And then you notice that those seeds become farms across the Bronx that look like this. +But again, I am not a farmer. I'm a teacher. +And I don't like weeding, and I don't like back-breaking labor. +So I wanted to figure out how I could get this kind of success into something small, like this, and bring it into my classroom so that handicapped kids could do it, kids who didn't want to be outside could do it, and everyone could have access. +So I called George Irwin, and what do you know? +He came to my class and we built an indoor edible wall. +And what we do is we partner it with authentic learning experiences, private-based learning. +And lo and behold, we gave birth to the first edible wall in New York City. +So if you're hungry, get up and eat. +You can do it right now. My kids play cow all the time. +Okay? But we were just getting started, the kids loved the technology, so we called up George and we said, "We gotta learn more!" +Now, Mayor Bloomberg, thank you very much, we no longer need work permits, which comes with slices and bonded contractors -- we're available for you -- We decided to go to Boston. +And my kids, from the poorest congressional district in America, became the first to install a green wall, designed by a computer, with real-live learning tools, 21 stories up -- if you're going to go visit it, it's on top of the John Hancock building. +But closer to home, we started installing these walls in schools that look like this with lighting like that, real LED stuff, 21st-century technology. +And what do you know? We made 21st century money, and that was groundbreaking. Wow! +This is my harvest, people. +And what do you do with this food? You cook it! +And those are my heirloom students making heirloom sauce, with plastic forks, and we get it into the cafeteria, and we grow stuff and we feed our teachers. +And that is the youngest nationally certified workforce in America with our Bronx Borough President. +And what'd we do then? Well, I met nice people like you, and they invited us to the Hamptons. +So I call this "from South Bronx to Southampton." +And we started putting in roofs that look like this, and we came in from destitute neighborhoods to start building landscape like this, wow! People noticed. +And so we got invited back this past summer, and we actually moved into the Hamptons, payed 3,500 dollars a week for a house, and we learned how to surf. +And when you can do stuff like this -- These are my kids putting in this technology, and when you can build a roof that looks like that on a house that looks like that with sedum that looks like this, this is the new green graffiti. +So, you may wonder what does a wall like this really do for kids, besides changing landscapes and mindsets? +Okay, I'm going to tell you what it does. +It gets me to meet incredible contractors like this, Jim Ellenberger from Ellenberger Services. +And this is where it becomes true triple bottom line. +Because Jim realized that these kids, my future farmers, really had the skills he needed to build affordable housing for New Yorkers, right in their own neighborhood. +And this is what my kids are doing, making living wage. +Now, if you're like me, you live in a building, there are seven guys out of work looking to manage a million dollars. +I don't have it. But if you need a toilet fixed or, you know, some shelving, I gotta wait six months for an appointment with someone who drives a much nicer car than me. +That's the beauty of this economy. +But my kids are now licensed and bonded in trade. +And that's my first student to open up, the first in his family to have a bank account. +This immigrant student is the first one in his family to use an ATM. +And this is the true triple bottom line, because we can take neighborhoods that were abandoned and destitute and turn them into something like this with interiors like this. +Wow! People noticed. And notice they did. +So CNN called, and we were delighted to have them come to our farmer's market. +And then when Rockefeller Center said, NBC, could you put this thing up on the walls? We were delighted. +But this, I show you, when kids from the poorest congressional district in America can build a 30-foot by 15-foot wall, design it, plant it and install it in the heart of New York City, that's a true "s se puede" moment. +Really scholastic, if you ask me. +But this is not a Getty image. +That's a picture I took of my Bronx Borough President, addressing my kids in his house, not the jailhouse, making them feel a part of it. +That's our State Senator Gustavo Rivera and Bob Bieder, coming to my classroom to make my kids feel important. +And when the Bronx Borough President shows up and the State Senator comes to our class, believe you me, the Bronx can change attitudes now. +We are poised, ready, willing and able to export our talent and diversity in ways we've never even imagined. +And when the local senator gets on the scale in public and says he's got to lose weight, so do I! +And I tell you what, I'm doing it and so are the kids. +Okay? And then celebrities started. +Produce Pete can't believe what we grow. +Lorna Sass came and donated books. +Okay? We're feeding seniors. +And when we realized that we were growing for food justice in the South Bronx, so did the international community. +And my kids in the South Bronx were repped in the first international green roof conference. +And that's just great. +Except what about locally? +Well, we met this woman, Avis Richards, with the Ground Up Campaign. +Unbelievable! Through her, my kids, the most disenfranchised and marginalized, were able to roll out 100 gardens to New York City public schools. +That's triple bottom line! Okay? +A year ago today, I was invited to the New York Academy of Medicine. +I thought this concept of designing a strong and healthy New York made sense, especially when the resources were free. +So thank you all and I love them. +They introduced me to the New York City Strategic Alliance for Health, again, free resources, don't waste them. +And what do you know? Six months later, my school and my kids were awarded the first ever high school award of excellence for creating a healthy school environment. +The greenest class in New York City. +But more importantly is my kids learned to get, they learned to give. +And we took the money that we made from our farmer's market, and started buying gifts for the homeless and for needy around the world. +So we started giving back. +And that's when I realized that the greening of America starts first with the pockets, then with the heart and then with the mind. +So we were onto something, and we're still onto something. +And thank God Trinity Wall Street noticed, because they gave us the birth of Green Bronx Machine. +We're 3,000 strong right now. +And what does it really do? +It teaches kids to re-vision their communities, so when they grow up in places like this, they can imagine it like this. +And my kids, trained and certified -- Ma, you get the tax abatement. Thank you, Mayor Bloomberg -- can take communities that look like this and convert them into things that look like that, and that to me, people, is another true "s se puede" moment. +Now, how does it start? It starts in schools. +No more little Knicks and little Nets. +Group by broccoli, group by your favorite vegetable, something you can aspire to. +Okay? And these are my future farmers of America, growing up in Brook Park on 141st Street, the most migrant community in America. +When tenacious little ones learn how to garden like this, it's no wonder we get fruit like that. +And I love it! And so do they. +And we're building teepees in neighborhoods that were burning down. +And that's a true "s se puede" moment. +And again, Brook Park feeds hundreds of people without a food stamp or a fingerprint. +The poorest congressional district in America, the most migratory community in America, we can do this. +Bissel Gardens is cranking out food in epic proportions, moving kids into an economy they never imagined. +Now, somewhere over the rainbow, my friends, is the South Bronx of America. And we're doing it. +How does it start? Well, look at Jose's attention to detail. +Thank God Omar knows that carrots come from the ground, and not aisle 9 at the supermarket or through a bullet-proof window or through a piece of styrofoam. +And when Henry knows that green is good, so do I. +And when you expand their palates, you expand their vocabulary. +And most importantly, when you put big kids together with little kids, you get the big fat white guy out of the middle, which is cool, and you create this kind of accountability amongst peers, which is incredible. +God, I'm going to run out of time, so I've gotta keep it moving. +But this is my weekly paycheck for kids; that's our green graffiti. +This is what we're doing. +And behold the glory and bounty that is Bronx County. +Nothing thrills me more than to see kids pollinating plants instead of each other. +I gotta tell you, I'm a protective parent. +But those kids are the kids who are now putting pumpkin patches on top of trains. +We're also designing coin ponds for the rich and affluent. +We're also becoming children of the corn, creating farms in the middle of Fordham Road for awareness and window bottles out of garbage. +Now I don't expect every kid to be a farmer, but I expect you to read about it, write about it, blog about it, offer outstanding customer service. +I expect them to be engaged, and man, are they! +So that's my incredible classroom, that's the food. +Where does it go? Zero miles to plate, right down into the cafeteria. +Or more importantly, to local shelters, where most of our kids are getting one to two meals a day. +And we're stepping it up. +No Air Jordans were ever ruined on my farm. +And in his day, a million dollar gardens and incredible installations. +Let me tell you something, people. +This is a beautiful moment. +Black field, brown field, toxic waste field, battlefield -- we're proving in the Bronx that you can grow anywhere, on cement. +And we take orders for flowers. I'm putting the bake sale to shame. +We take orders now. I'm booking for the spring. +And these were all grown from seeds. We're learning everything. +And again, when you can take kids from backgrounds as diverse as this to do something as special as this, we're really creating a moment. +Now, you may ask about these kids. +Forty percent attendance to 93 percent attendance. +All start overage and under-credit. +They are now, my first cohort is all in college, earning a living wage. +The rest are scheduled to graduate this June. +Happy kids, happy families, happy colleagues. +Amazed people. The glory and bounty that is Bronx County. +Let's talk about mint. Where is my mint? +I grow seven kinds of mint in my class. +Mojitos, anybody? I'll be at Telepan later. +But, understand this is my intellectual Viagra. +Ladies and gentlemen, I gotta move quick, but understand this: The borough that gave us baggy pants and funky fresh beats is becoming home to the organic ones. +My green [unclear] 25,000 pounds of vegetables, I'm growing organic citizens, engaged kids. +So help us go from this to this. +Self-sustaining entities, 18 months return on investment, plus we're paying people living wage and health benefits, while feeding people for pennies on the dollar. +Martin Luther King said that people need to be uplifted with dignity. +So here in New York, I urge you, my fellow Americans, to help us make America great again. +It's simple. Share your passion. +It's real easy. Go see these two videos, please. +One got us invited to the White House, one's a recent incarnation. +And most importantly, get the biggest bully out of schools. +This has got to go tomorrow. +People, you can all do that. +Keep kids out of stores that look like this. +Make them a healthy plate, especially if you can pick it off the wall in your own classroom -- delicioso! +Model good behavior. Get them to a green cart. +Big kids love strawberries and bananas. +Teach them entrepreneurship. Thank God for GrowNYC. +Let them cook. Great lunch today, let them do culinary things. +But most importantly, just love them. +Nothing works like unconditional love. +So, my good friend Kermit said it's not easy being green. +It's not. I come from a place where kids can buy 35 flavors of blunt wrap at any day of the moment, where ice cream freezers are filled with slushy malt liquor. +Okay? My dear friend Majora Carter once told me, we have everything to gain and nothing to lose. +So here, and at a time when we've gone from the audacity to hope to hope for some audacity, I urge you to do something. +I urge you to do something. +Right now, we're all tadpoles, but I urge you to become a big frog and take that big, green leap. +I don't care if you're on the left, on the right, up the middle, wherever. +Join me. Use -- I've got a lot of energy. Help me use it. +We can do something here. +And along the way, please take time to smell the flowers, especially if you and your students grew them. +I'm Steve Ritz, this is Green Bronx Machine. +I've got to say thank you to my wife and family, for my kids, thank you for coming every day, and for my colleagues, believing and supporting me. +We are growing our way into a new economy. +Thank you, God bless you and enjoy the day. I'm Steve Ritz. +S se puede! +Like many of you, I'm one of the lucky people. +I was born to a family where education was pervasive. +I'm a third-generation PhD, a daughter of two academics. +In my childhood, I played around in my father's university lab. +So it was taken for granted that I attend some of the best universities, which in turn opened the door to a world of opportunity. +Unfortunately, most of the people in the world are not so lucky. +In some parts of the world, for example, South Africa, education is just not readily accessible. +In South Africa, the educational system was constructed in the days of apartheid for the white minority. +And as a consequence, today there is just not enough spots for the many more people who want and deserve a high quality education. +That scarcity led to a crisis in January of this year at the University of Johannesburg. +There were a handful of positions left open from the standard admissions process, and the night before they were supposed to open that for registration, thousands of people lined up outside the gate in a line a mile long, hoping to be first in line to get one of those positions. +When the gates opened, there was a stampede, and 20 people were injured and one woman died. +She was a mother who gave her life trying to get her son a chance at a better life. +But even in parts of the world like the United States where education is available, it might not be within reach. +There has been much discussed in the last few years about the rising cost of health care. +What might not be quite as obvious to people is that during that same period the cost of higher education tuition has been increasing at almost twice the rate, for a total of 559 percent since 1985. +This makes education unaffordable for many people. +Finally, even for those who do manage to get the higher education, the doors of opportunity might not open. +Only a little over half of recent college graduates in the United States who get a higher education actually are working in jobs that require that education. +This, of course, is not true for the students who graduate from the top institutions, but for many others, they do not get the value for their time and their effort. +Tom Friedman, in his recent New York Times article, captured, in the way that no one else could, the spirit behind our effort. +He said the big breakthroughs are what happen when what is suddenly possible meets what is desperately necessary. +I've talked about what's desperately necessary. +Let's talk about what's suddenly possible. +What's suddenly possible was demonstrated by three big Stanford classes, each of which had an enrollment of 100,000 people or more. +So to understand this, let's look at one of those classes, the Machine Learning class offered by my colleague and cofounder Andrew Ng. +Andrew teaches one of the bigger Stanford classes. +It's a Machine Learning class, and it has 400 people enrolled every time it's offered. +When Andrew taught the Machine Learning class to the general public, it had 100,000 people registered. +So to put that number in perspective, for Andrew to reach that same size audience by teaching a Stanford class, he would have to do that for 250 years. +Of course, he'd get really bored. +So, having seen the impact of this, Andrew and I decided that we needed to really try and scale this up, to bring the best quality education to as many people as we could. +So we formed Coursera, whose goal is to take the best courses from the best instructors at the best universities and provide it to everyone around the world for free. +We currently have 43 courses on the platform from four universities across a range of disciplines, and let me show you a little bit of an overview of what that looks like. +Robert Ghrist: Welcome to Calculus. +Ezekiel Emanuel: Fifty million people are uninsured. +Scott Page: Models help us design more effective institutions and policies. +We get unbelievable segregation. +Scott Klemmer: So Bush imagined that in the future, you'd wear a camera right in the center of your head. +Mitchell Duneier: Mills wants the student of sociology to develop the quality of mind ... +RG: Hanging cable takes on the form of a hyperbolic cosine. +Nick Parlante: For each pixel in the image, set the red to zero. +Paul Offit: ... Vaccine allowed us to eliminate polio virus. +Dan Jurafsky: Does Lufthansa serve breakfast and San Jose? Well, that sounds funny. +Daphne Koller: So this is which coin you pick, and this is the two tosses. +Andrew Ng: So in large-scale machine learning, we'd like to come up with computational ... +DK: It turns out, maybe not surprisingly, that students like getting the best content from the best universities for free. +Since we opened the website in February, we now have 640,000 students from 190 countries. +We have 1.5 million enrollments, 6 million quizzes in the 15 classes that have launched so far have been submitted, and 14 million videos have been viewed. +But it's not just about the numbers, it's also about the people. +Whether it's Akash, who comes from a small town in India and would never have access in this case to a Stanford-quality course and would never be able to afford it. +Or Jenny, who is a single mother of two and wants to hone her skills so that she can go back and complete her master's degree. +Or Ryan, who can't go to school, because his immune deficient daughter can't be risked to have germs come into the house, so he couldn't leave the house. +I'm really glad to say -- recently, we've been in correspondence with Ryan -- that this story had a happy ending. +Baby Shannon -- you can see her on the left -- is doing much better now, and Ryan got a job by taking some of our courses. +So what made these courses so different? +After all, online course content has been available for a while. +What made it different was that this was real course experience. +It started on a given day, and then the students would watch videos on a weekly basis and do homework assignments. +And these would be real homework assignments for a real grade, with a real deadline. +You can see the deadlines and the usage graph. +These are the spikes showing that procrastination is global phenomenon. +At the end of the course, the students got a certificate. +They could present that certificate to a prospective employer and get a better job, and we know many students who did. +Some students took their certificate and presented this to an educational institution at which they were enrolled for actual college credit. +So these students were really getting something meaningful for their investment of time and effort. +Let's talk a little bit about some of the components that go into these courses. +The first component is that when you move away from the constraints of a physical classroom and design content explicitly for an online format, you can break away from, for example, the monolithic one-hour lecture. +You can break up the material, for example, into these short, modular units of eight to 12 minutes, each of which represents a coherent concept. +Students can traverse this material in different ways, depending on their background, their skills or their interests. +So, for example, some students might benefit from a little bit of preparatory material that other students might already have. +Other students might be interested in a particular enrichment topic that they want to pursue individually. +So this format allows us to break away from the one-size-fits-all model of education, and allows students to follow a much more personalized curriculum. +Of course, we all know as educators that students don't learn by sitting and passively watching videos. +Perhaps one of the biggest components of this effort is that we need to have students who practice with the material in order to really understand it. +There's been a range of studies that demonstrate the importance of this. +This one that appeared in Science last year, for example, demonstrates that even simple retrieval practice, where students are just supposed to repeat what they already learned gives considerably improved results on various achievement tests down the line than many other educational interventions. +We've tried to build in retrieval practice into the platform, as well as other forms of practice in many ways. +For example, even our videos are not just videos. +Every few minutes, the video pauses and the students get asked a question. +SP: ... These four things. Prospect theory, hyperbolic discounting, status quo bias, base rate bias. They're all well documented. +So they're all well documented deviations from rational behavior. +DK: So here the video pauses, and the student types in the answer into the box and submits. Obviously they weren't paying attention. +So they get to try again, and this time they got it right. +There's an optional explanation if they want. +And now the video moves on to the next part of the lecture. +And so the lecture moves on before, really, most of the students have even noticed that a question had been asked. +Here, every single student has to engage with the material. +And of course these simple retrieval questions are not the end of the story. +One needs to build in much more meaningful practice questions, and one also needs to provide the students with feedback on those questions. +Now, how do you grade the work of 100,000 students if you do not have 10,000 TAs? +The answer is, you need to use technology to do it for you. +Now, fortunately, technology has come a long way, and we can now grade a range of interesting types of homework. +In addition to multiple choice and the kinds of short answer questions that you saw in the video, we can also grade math, mathematical expressions as well as mathematical derivations. +We can grade models, whether it's financial models in a business class or physical models in a science or engineering class and we can grade some pretty sophisticated programming assignments. +Let me show you one that's actually pretty simple but fairly visual. +This is from Stanford's Computer Science 101 class, and the students are supposed to color-correct that blurry red image. +They're typing their program into the browser, and you can see they didn't get it quite right, Lady Liberty is still seasick. +And so, the student tries again, and now they got it right, and they're told that, and they can move on to the next assignment. +This ability to interact actively with the material and be told when you're right or wrong is really essential to student learning. +Now, of course we cannot yet grade the range of work that one needs for all courses. +Specifically, what's lacking is the kind of critical thinking work that is so essential in such disciplines as the humanities, the social sciences, business and others. +So we tried to convince, for example, some of our humanities faculty that multiple choice was not such a bad strategy. +That didn't go over really well. +So we had to come up with a different solution. +And the solution we ended up using is peer grading. +It turns out that previous studies show, like this one by Saddler and Good, that peer grading is a surprisingly effective strategy for providing reproducible grades. +It was tried only in small classes, but there it showed, for example, that these student-assigned grades on the y-axis are actually very well correlated with the teacher-assigned grade on the x-axis. +What's even more surprising is that self-grades, where the students grade their own work critically -- so long as you incentivize them properly so they can't give themselves a perfect score -- are actually even better correlated with the teacher grades. +And so this is an effective strategy that can be used for grading at scale, and is also a useful learning strategy for the students, because they actually learn from the experience. +So we now have the largest peer-grading pipeline ever devised, where tens of thousands of students are grading each other's work, and quite successfully, I have to say. +But this is not just about students sitting alone in their living room working through problems. +Around each one of our courses, a community of students had formed, a global community of people around a shared intellectual endeavor. +What you see here is a self-generated map from students in our Princeton Sociology 101 course, where they have put themselves on a world map, and you can really see the global reach of this kind of effort. +Students collaborated in these courses in a variety of different ways. +First of all, there was a question and answer forum, where students would pose questions, and other students would answer those questions. +And the really amazing thing is, because there were so many students, it means that even if a student posed a question at 3 o'clock in the morning, somewhere around the world, there would be somebody who was awake and working on the same problem. +And so, in many of our courses, the median response time for a question on the question and answer forum was 22 minutes. +Which is not a level of service I have ever offered to my Stanford students. +And you can see from the student testimonials that students actually find that because of this large online community, they got to interact with each other in many ways that were deeper than they did in the context of the physical classroom. +Students also self-assembled, without any kind of intervention from us, into small study groups. +Some of these were physical study groups along geographical constraints and met on a weekly basis to work through problem sets. +This is the San Francisco study group, but there were ones all over the world. +Others were virtual study groups, sometimes along language lines or along cultural lines, and on the bottom left there, you see our multicultural universal study group where people explicitly wanted to connect with people from other cultures. +There are some tremendous opportunities to be had from this kind of framework. +The first is that it has the potential of giving us a completely unprecedented look into understanding human learning. +Because the data that we can collect here is unique. +You can collect every click, every homework submission, every forum post from tens of thousands of students. +So you can turn the study of human learning from the hypothesis-driven mode to the data-driven mode, a transformation that, for example, has revolutionized biology. +You can use these data to understand fundamental questions like, what are good learning strategies that are effective versus ones that are not? +And in the context of particular courses, you can ask questions like, what are some of the misconceptions that are more common and how do we help students fix them? +So here's an example of that, also from Andrew's Machine Learning class. +This is a distribution of wrong answers to one of Andrew's assignments. +The answers happen to be pairs of numbers, so you can draw them on this two-dimensional plot. +Each of the little crosses that you see is a different wrong answer. +The big cross at the top left is where 2,000 students gave the exact same wrong answer. +Now, if two students in a class of 100 give the same wrong answer, you would never notice. +But when 2,000 students give the same wrong answer, it's kind of hard to miss. +So this personalization is something that one can then build by having the virtue of large numbers. +Personalization is perhaps one of the biggest opportunities here as well, because it provides us with the potential of solving a 30-year-old problem. +Educational researcher Benjamin Bloom, in 1984, posed what's called the 2 sigma problem, which he observed by studying three populations. +The first is the population that studied in a lecture-based classroom. +The second is a population of students that studied using a standard lecture-based classroom, but with a mastery-based approach, so the students couldn't move on to the next topic before demonstrating mastery of the previous one. +And finally, there was a population of students that were taught in a one-on-one instruction using a tutor. +The mastery-based population was a full standard deviation, or sigma, in achievement scores better than the standard lecture-based class, and the individual tutoring gives you 2 sigma To understand what that means, let's look at the lecture-based classroom, and let's pick the median performance as a threshold. +So in a lecture-based class, half the students are above that level and half are below. +In the individual tutoring instruction, 98 percent of the students are going to be above that threshold. +Imagine if we could teach so that 98 percent of our students would be above average. +Hence, the 2 sigma problem. +Because we cannot afford, as a society, to provide every student with an individual human tutor. +But maybe we can afford to provide each student with a computer or a smartphone. +So the question is, how can we use technology to push from the left side of the graph, from the blue curve, to the right side with the green curve? +Mastery is easy to achieve using a computer, because a computer doesn't get tired of showing you the same video five times. +And it doesn't even get tired of grading the same work multiple times, we've seen that in many of the examples that I've shown you. +And even personalization is something that we're starting to see the beginnings of, whether it's via the personalized trajectory through the curriculum or some of the personalized feedback that we've shown you. +So the goal here is to try and push, and see how far we can get towards the green curve. +So, if this is so great, are universities now obsolete? +Well, Mark Twain certainly thought so. +He said that, "College is a place where a professor's lecture notes go straight to the students' lecture notes, without passing through the brains of either." +I beg to differ with Mark Twain, though. +I think what he was complaining about is not universities but rather the lecture-based format that so many universities spend so much time on. +So let's go back even further, to Plutarch, who said that, "The mind is not a vessel that needs filling, but wood that needs igniting." +And maybe we should spend less time at universities filling our students' minds with content by lecturing at them, and more time igniting their creativity, their imagination and their problem-solving skills by actually talking with them. +So how do we do that? +We do that by doing active learning in the classroom. +So there's been many studies, including this one, that show that if you use active learning, interacting with your students in the classroom, performance improves on every single metric -- on attendance, on engagement and on learning as measured by a standardized test. +You can see, for example, that the achievement score almost doubles in this particular experiment. +So maybe this is how we should spend our time at universities. +So to summarize, if we could offer a top quality education to everyone around the world for free, what would that do? Three things. +First it would establish education as a fundamental human right, where anyone around the world with the ability and the motivation could get the skills that they need to make a better life for themselves, their families and their communities. +Second, it would enable lifelong learning. +It's a shame that for so many people, learning stops when we finish high school or when we finish college. +By having this amazing content be available, we would be able to learn something new every time we wanted, whether it's just to expand our minds or it's to change our lives. +And finally, this would enable a wave of innovation, because amazing talent can be found anywhere. +Maybe the next Albert Einstein or the next Steve Jobs is living somewhere in a remote village in Africa. +And if we could offer that person an education, they would be able to come up with the next big idea and make the world a better place for all of us. +Thank you very much. +In Oxford in the 1950s, there was a fantastic doctor, who was very unusual, named Alice Stewart. +And Alice was unusual partly because, of course, she was a woman, which was pretty rare in the 1950s. +And she was brilliant, she was one of the, at the time, the youngest Fellow to be elected to the Royal College of Physicians. +She was unusual too because she continued to work after she got married, after she had kids, and even after she got divorced and was a single parent, she continued her medical work. +And she was unusual because she was really interested in a new science, the emerging field of epidemiology, the study of patterns in disease. +But like every scientist, she appreciated that to make her mark, what she needed to do was find a hard problem and solve it. +The hard problem that Alice chose was the rising incidence of childhood cancers. +Most disease is correlated with poverty, but in the case of childhood cancers, the children who were dying seemed mostly to come from affluent families. +So, what, she wanted to know, could explain this anomaly? +Now, Alice had trouble getting funding for her research. +In the end, she got just 1,000 pounds from the Lady Tata Memorial prize. +And that meant she knew she only had one shot at collecting her data. +Now, she had no idea what to look for. +This really was a needle in a haystack sort of search, so she asked everything she could think of. +Had the children eaten boiled sweets? +Had they consumed colored drinks? +Did they eat fish and chips? +Did they have indoor or outdoor plumbing? +What time of life had they started school? +And when her carbon copied questionnaire started to come back, one thing and one thing only jumped out with the statistical clarity of a kind that most scientists can only dream of. +By a rate of two to one, the children who had died had had mothers who had been X-rayed when pregnant. +Now that finding flew in the face of conventional wisdom. +Conventional wisdom held that everything was safe up to a point, a threshold. +It flew in the face of conventional wisdom, which was huge enthusiasm for the cool new technology of that age, which was the X-ray machine. +And it flew in the face of doctors' idea of themselves, which was as people who helped patients, they didn't harm them. +Nevertheless, Alice Stewart rushed to publish her preliminary findings in The Lancet in 1956. +People got very excited, there was talk of the Nobel Prize, and Alice really was in a big hurry to try to study all the cases of childhood cancer she could find before they disappeared. +In fact, she need not have hurried. +It was fully 25 years before the British and medical -- British and American medical establishments abandoned the practice of X-raying pregnant women. +The data was out there, it was open, it was freely available, but nobody wanted to know. +A child a week was dying, but nothing changed. +Openness alone can't drive change. +So for 25 years Alice Stewart had a very big fight on her hands. +So, how did she know that she was right? +Well, she had a fantastic model for thinking. +She worked with a statistician named George Kneale, and George was pretty much everything that Alice wasn't. +So, Alice was very outgoing and sociable, and George was a recluse. +Alice was very warm, very empathetic with her patients. +George frankly preferred numbers to people. +But he said this fantastic thing about their working relationship. +He said, "My job is to prove Dr. Stewart wrong." +He actively sought disconfirmation. +Different ways of looking at her models, at her statistics, different ways of crunching the data in order to disprove her. +He saw his job as creating conflict around her theories. +Because it was only by not being able to prove that she was wrong, that George could give Alice the confidence she needed to know that she was right. +It's a fantastic model of collaboration -- thinking partners who aren't echo chambers. +I wonder how many of us have, or dare to have, such collaborators. +Alice and George were very good at conflict. +They saw it as thinking. +So what does that kind of constructive conflict require? +Well, first of all, it requires that we find people who are very different from ourselves. +That means we have to resist the neurobiological drive, which means that we really prefer people mostly like ourselves, and it means we have to seek out people with different backgrounds, different disciplines, different ways of thinking and different experience, and find ways to engage with them. +That requires a lot of patience and a lot of energy. +And the more I've thought about this, the more I think, really, that that's a kind of love. +Because you simply won't commit that kind of energy and time if you don't really care. +And it also means that we have to be prepared to change our minds. +Alice's daughter told me that every time Alice went head-to-head with a fellow scientist, they made her think and think and think again. +"My mother," she said, "My mother didn't enjoy a fight, but she was really good at them." +So it's one thing to do that in a one-to-one relationship. +But it strikes me that the biggest problems we face, many of the biggest disasters that we've experienced, mostly haven't come from individuals, they've come from organizations, some of them bigger than countries, many of them capable of affecting hundreds, thousands, even millions of lives. +So how do organizations think? +Well, for the most part, they don't. +And that isn't because they don't want to, it's really because they can't. +And they can't because the people inside of them are too afraid of conflict. +In surveys of European and American executives, fully 85 percent of them acknowledged that they had issues or concerns at work that they were afraid to raise. +Afraid of the conflict that that would provoke, afraid to get embroiled in arguments that they did not know how to manage, and felt that they were bound to lose. +Eighty-five percent is a really big number. +It means that organizations mostly can't do what George and Alice so triumphantly did. +They can't think together. +And it means that people like many of us, who have run organizations, and gone out of our way to try to find the very best people we can, mostly fail to get the best out of them. +So how do we develop the skills that we need? +Because it does take skill and practice, too. +If we aren't going to be afraid of conflict, we have to see it as thinking, and then we have to get really good at it. +So, recently, I worked with an executive named Joe, and Joe worked for a medical device company. +And Joe was very worried about the device that he was working on. +He thought that it was too complicated and he thought that its complexity created margins of error that could really hurt people. +He was afraid of doing damage to the patients he was trying to help. +But when he looked around his organization, nobody else seemed to be at all worried. +So, he didn't really want to say anything. +After all, maybe they knew something he didn't. +Maybe he'd look stupid. +But he kept worrying about it, and he worried about it so much that he got to the point where he thought the only thing he could do was leave a job he loved. +In the end, Joe and I found a way for him to raise his concerns. +And what happened then is what almost always happens in this situation. +It turned out everybody had exactly the same questions and doubts. +So now Joe had allies. They could think together. +And yes, there was a lot of conflict and debate and argument, but that allowed everyone around the table to be creative, to solve the problem, and to change the device. +Joe was what a lot of people might think of as a whistle-blower, except that like almost all whistle-blowers, he wasn't a crank at all, he was passionately devoted to the organization and the higher purposes that that organization served. +But he had been so afraid of conflict, until finally he became more afraid of the silence. +And when he dared to speak, he discovered much more inside himself and much more give in the system than he had ever imagined. +And his colleagues don't think of him as a crank. +They think of him as a leader. +So, how do we have these conversations more easily and more often? +Well, the University of Delft requires that its PhD students have to submit five statements that they're prepared to defend. +It doesn't really matter what the statements are about, what matters is that the candidates are willing and able to stand up to authority. +I think it's a fantastic system, but I think leaving it to PhD candidates is far too few people, and way too late in life. +I think we need to be teaching these skills to kids and adults at every stage of their development, if we want to have thinking organizations and a thinking society. +The fact is that most of the biggest catastrophes that we've witnessed rarely come from information that is secret or hidden. +It comes from information that is freely available and out there, but that we are willfully blind to, because we can't handle, don't want to handle, the conflict that it provokes. +But when we dare to break that silence, or when we dare to see, and we create conflict, we enable ourselves and the people around us to do our very best thinking. +Open information is fantastic, open networks are essential. +But the truth won't set us free until we develop the skills and the habit and the talent and the moral courage to use it. +Openness isn't the end. +It's the beginning. +We're going to begin in 1964. +Bob Dylan is 23 years old, and his career is just reaching its pinnacle. +He's been christened the voice of a generation, and he's churning out classic songs at a seemingly impossible rate, but there's a small minority of dissenters, and they claim that Bob Dylan is stealing other people's songs. +2004. Brian Burton, aka Danger Mouse, takes the Beatles' "White Album," combines it with Jay-Z's "The Black Album" to create "The Grey Album." +"The Grey Album" becomes an immediate sensation online, and the Beatles' record company sends out countless cease-and-desist letters for "unfair competition and dilution of our valuable property." +Now, "The Grey Album" is a remix. +It is new media created from old media. +It was made using these three techniques: copy, transform and combine. +It's how you remix. You take existing songs, you chop them up, you transform the pieces, you combine them back together again, and you've got a new song, but that new song is clearly comprised of old songs. +But I think these aren't just the components of remixing. +I think these are the basic elements of all creativity. +I think everything is a remix, and I think this is a better way to conceive of creativity. +All right, let's head back to 1964, and let's hear where some of Dylan's early songs came from. +We'll do some side-by-side comparisons here. +All right, this first song you're going to hear is "Nottamun Town." It's a traditional folk tune. +After that, you'll hear Dylan's "Masters of War." +Last one, this is "Who's Going To Buy You Ribbons," another traditional folk tune. +Alongside that is "Don't Think Twice, It's All Right." +This one's more about the lyric. +It's been estimated that two thirds of the melodies Dylan used in his early songs were borrowed. +This is pretty typical among folk singers. +Here's the advice of Dylan's idol, Woody Guthrie. +"The worlds are the important thing. +Don't worry about tunes. Take a tune, sing high when they sing low, sing fast when they sing slow, and you've got a new tune." +And that's, that's what Guthrie did right here, and I'm sure you all recognize the results. +We know this tune, right? We know it? +Actually you don't. +That is "When the World's on Fire," a very old melody, in this case performed by the Carter Family. +Guthrie adapted it into "This Land Is Your Land." +So, Bob Dylan, like all folk singers, he copied melodies, he transformed them, he combined them with new lyrics which were frequently their own concoction of previous stuff. +Now, American copyright and patent laws run counter to this notion that we build on the work of others. +Instead, these laws and laws around the world use the rather awkward analogy of property. +Now, creative works may indeed be kind of like property, but it's property that we're all building on, and creations can only take root and grow once that ground has been prepared. +Henry Ford once said, "I invented nothing new. +I simply assembled the discoveries of other men behind whom were centuries of work. +Progress happens when all the factors that make for it are ready and then it is inevitable." +2007. The iPhone makes it debut. +Apple undoubtedly brings this innovation to us early, but its time was approaching because its core technology had been evolving for decades. +That's multi-touch, controlling a device by touching its display. +Here is Steve Jobs introducing multi-touch and making a rather foreboding joke. +Steve Jobs: And we have invented a new technology called multi-touch. +You can do multi-fingered gestures on it, and boy have we patented it. KF: Yes. And yet, here is multi-touch in action. +This is at TED, actually, about a year earlier. +This is Jeff Han, and, I mean, that's multi-touch. +It's the same animal, at least. +Let's hear what Jeff Han has to say about this newfangled technology. +Jeff Han: Multi-touch sensing isn't anything -- isn't completely new. I mean, people like Bill Buxton have been playing around with it in the '80s. +The technology, you know, isn't the most exciting thing here right now other than probably its newfound accessibility. +KF: So he's pretty frank about it not being new. +So it's not multi-touch as a whole that's patented. +It's the small parts of it that are, and it's in these small details where we can clearly see patent law contradicting its intent: to promote the progress of useful arts. +Here is the first ever slide-to-unlock. +That is all there is to it. Apple has patented this. +It's a 28-page software patent, but I will summarize what it covers. Spoiler alert: Unlocking your phone by sliding an icon with your finger. I'm only exaggerating a little bit. It's a broad patent. +Now, can someone own this idea? +Now, back in the '80s, there were no software patents, and it was Xerox that pioneered the graphical user interface. +What if they had patented pop-up menus, scrollbars, the desktop with icons that look like folders and sheets of paper? +Would a young and inexperienced Apple have survived the legal assault from a much larger and more mature company like Xerox? +Now, this idea that everything is a remix might sound like common sense until you're the one getting remixed. +For example ... +SJ: I mean, Picasso had a saying. +He said, "Good artists copy. Great artists steal." +And we have, you know, always been shameless about stealing great ideas. +KF: Okay, so that's in '96. Here's in 2010. +"I'm going to destroy Android because it's a stolen product." +"I'm willing to go thermonuclear war on this." Okay, so in other words, great artists steal, but not from me. +Now, behavioral economists might refer to this sort of thing as loss aversion We have a strong predisposition towards protecting what we feel is ours. +We have no such aversion towards copying what other people have, because we do that nonstop. +So here's the sort of equation we're looking at. +We've got laws that fundamentally treat creative works as property, plus massive rewards or settlements in infringement cases, plus huge legal fees to protect yourself in court, plus cognitive biases against perceived loss. +And the sum looks like this. +That is the last four years of lawsuits in the realm of smartphones. +Is this promoting the progress of useful arts? +1983. Bob Dylan is 42 years old, and his time in the cultural spotlight is long since past. +He records a song called "Blind Willie McTell," named after the blues singer, and the song is a voyage through the past, through a much darker time, but a simpler one, a time when musicians like Willie McTell had few illusions about what they did. +"I jump 'em from other writers but I arrange 'em my own way." +I think this is mostly what we do. +Our creativity comes from without, not from within. +We are not self-made. We are dependent on one another, and admitting this to ourselves isn't an embrace of mediocrity and derivativeness. +It's a liberation from our misconceptions, and it's an incentive to not expect so much from ourselves and to simply begin. +Thank you so much. It was an honor to be here. +Thank you. Thank you. Thank you. Thank you. +Two years ago, I was invited as an artist to participate in an exhibition commemorating 100 years of Islamic art in Europe. +The curator had only one condition: I had to use the Arabic script for my artwork. +Now, as an artist, a woman, an Arab, or a human being living in the world in 2010, I only had one thing to say: I wanted to say no. +And in Arabic, to say "no," we say "no, and a thousand times no." +So I decided to look for a thousand different noes. +on everything ever produced under Islamic or Arab patronage in the past 1,400 years, from Spain to the borders of China. +I collected my findings in a book, placed them chronologically, stating the name, the patron, the medium and the date. +Now, the book sat on a small shelf next to the installation, which stood three by seven meters, in Munich, Germany, in September of 2010. +Now, in January, 2011, the revolution started, and life stopped for 18 days, and on the 12th of February, we naively celebrated on the streets of Cairo, believing that the revolution had succeeded. +Nine months later I found myself spraying messages in Tahrir Square. The reason for this act was this image that I saw in my newsfeed. +I did not feel that I could live in a city where people were being killed and thrown like garbage on the street. +So I took one "no" off a tombstone from the Islamic Museum in Cairo, and I added a message to it: "no to military rule." +And I started spraying that on the streets in Cairo. +But that led to a series of no, coming out of the book like ammunition, and adding messages to them, and I started spraying them on the walls. +So I'll be sharing some of these noes with you. +No to a new Pharaoh, because whoever comes next should understand that we will never be ruled by another dictator. +No to violence: Ramy Essam came to Tahrir on the second day of the revolution, and he sat there with this guitar, singing. +One month after Mubarak stepped down, this was his reward. +No to blinding heroes. Ahmed Harara lost his right eye on the 28th of January, and he lost his left eye on the 19th of November, by two different snipers. +No to killing, in this case no to killing men of religion, because Sheikh Ahmed Adina Refaat was shot on December 16th, during a demonstration, leaving behind three orphans and a widow. +No to burning books. The Institute of Egypt was burned on December 17th, a huge cultural loss. +No to stripping the people, and the blue bra is to remind us of our shame as a nation when we allow a veiled woman to be stripped and beaten on the street, and the footprint reads, "Long live a peaceful revolution," because we will never retaliate with violence. +No to barrier walls. On February 5th, concrete roadblocks were set up in Cairo to protect the Ministry of Defense from protesters. +Now, speaking of walls, I want to share with you the story of one wall in Cairo. +A group of artists decided to paint a life-size tank on a wall. It's one to one. +In front of this tank there's a man on a bicycle with a breadbasket on his head. To any passerby, there's no problem with this visual. +After acts of violence, another artist came, painted blood, protesters being run over by the tank, demonstrators, and a message that read, "Starting tomorrow, I wear the new face, the face of every martyr. I exist." +Authority comes, paints the wall white, leaves the tank and adds a message: "Army and people, one hand. Egypt for Egyptians." +Another artist comes, paints the head of the military as a monster eating a maiden in a river of blood in front of the tank. +Authority comes, paints the wall white, leaves the tank, leaves the suit, and throws a bucket of black paint just to hide the face of the monster. +So I come with my stencils, and I spray them on the suit, on the tank, and on the whole wall, and this is how it stands today until further notice. Now, I want to leave you with a final no. +I found Neruda scribbled on a piece of paper in a field hospital in Tahrir, and I decided to take a no of Mamluk Mausoleum in Cairo. +The message reads, "You can crush the flowers, but you can't delay spring." +Thank you. Thank you. Shukran. +The will to live life differently can start in some of the most unusual places. +This is where I come from, Todmorden. +It's a market town in the north of England, 15,000 people, between Leeds and Manchester, fairly normal market town. +It used to look like this, and now it's more like this, with fruit and veg and herbs sprouting up all over the place. +We call it propaganda gardening. Corner row railway, station car park, front of a health center, people's front gardens, and even in front of the police station. We've got edible canal towpaths, and we've got sprouting cemeteries. +The soil is extremely good. We've even invented a new form of tourism. +It's called vegetable tourism, and believe it or not, people come from all over the world to poke around in our raised beds, even when there's not much growing. But it starts a conversation. And, you know, we're not doing it because we're bored. We're doing it because we want to start a revolution. +We tried to answer this simple question: Can you find a unifying language that cuts across age and income and culture that will help people themselves find a new way of living, see spaces around them differently, think about the resources they use differently, interact differently? +Can we find that language? +And then, can we replicate those actions? +And the answer would appear to be yes, and the language would appear to be food. +So, three and a half years ago, a few of us sat around a kitchen table and we just invented the whole thing. We came up with a really simple game plan that we put to a public meeting. +We did not consult. We did not write a report. +Now, let's imagine those plates agitated with community actions around food. +If we start one of those community plates spinning, that's really great, that really starts to empower people, but if we can then spin that community plate with the learning plate, and then spin it with the business plate, we've got a real show there, we've got some action theater. +We're starting to build resilience ourselves. +We're starting to reinvent community ourselves, and we've done it all without a flipping strategy document. +And here's the thing as well. +So, back to the public meeting. We put that proposition to the meeting, two seconds, and then the room exploded. +I have never, ever experienced anything like that in my life. +And it's been the same in every single room, in every town that we've ever told our story. +People are ready and respond to the story of food. +They want positive actions they can engage in, and in their bones, they know it's time to take personal responsibility and invest in more kindness to each other and to the environment. +And since we had that meeting three and a half years ago, it's been a heck of a roller coaster. +We started with a seed swap, really simple stuff, and then we took an area of land, a strip on the side of our main road, which was a dog toilet, basically, and we turned it into a really lovely herb garden. +We took the corner of the car park in the station that you saw, and we made vegetable beds for everybody to share and pick from themselves. +We went to the doctors. We've just had a 6-million-pound health center built in Todmorden, and for some reason that I cannot comprehend, it has been surrounded by prickly plants. So we went to the doctors, said, "Would you mind us taking them up?" +They said, "Absolutely fine, provided you get planning permission and you do it in Latin and you do it in triplicate," so we did and now there are fruit trees and bushes and herbs and vegetables around that doctor's surgery. +And there's been lots of other examples, like the corn that was in front of the police station, and the old people's home that we've planted it with food that they can pick and grow. +But it isn't just about growing, because we all are part of this jigsaw. +This is about sharing and investing in kindness. +And for those people that don't want to do either of those things, maybe they can cook, so we pick them seasonally and then we go on the street, or in the pub, or in the church, or wherever people are living their lives. +This is about us going to the people and saying, "We are all part of the local food jigsaw, we are all part of a solution." +And then, because we know we've got vegetable tourists and we love them to bits and they're absolutely fantastic, we thought, what could we do to give them an even better experience? +So we invented, without asking, of course, the Incredible Edible Green Route. +And then there's the second plate, the learning plate. +Well, we're in partnership with a high school. +So we got some land that was donated by a local garden center. +It was really quite muddy, but in a truly incredible way, totally voluntary-led, we have turned that into a market garden training center, and that is polytunnels and raised beds and all the things you need to get the soil under your fingers and think maybe there's a job in this for me in the future. +And because we were doing that, some local academics said, "You know, we could help design a commercial horticulture course for you. +There's not one that we know of." +So they're doing that, and we're going to launch it later this year, and it's all an experiment, and it's all voluntary. +But then, we're just a community group, you know. +We're just all volunteers. What could we actually do? +So we did some really simple things. +We fundraised, we got some blackboards, we put "Incredible Edible" on the top, we gave it every market trader that was selling locally, and they scribbled on what they were selling in any one week. +Really popular. People congregated around it. +Sales were up. +So we launched a campaign -- because it just amuses me -- called Every Egg Matters. And what we did was we put people on our egg map. +It's a stylized map of Togmorden. +We've got increasing market stalls selling local food, and in a survey that local students did for us, 49 percent of all food traders in that town said that their bottom line had increased because of what we were actually doing. +And we're just volunteers and it's only an experiment. +Now, none of this is rocket science. +It certainly is not clever, and it's not original. +But it is joined up, and it is inclusive. +This is not a movement for those people that are going to sort themselves out anyway. +This is a movement for everyone. +We have a motto: If you eat, you're in. Across age, across income, across culture. +It's been really quite a roller coaster experience, but going back to that first question that we asked, is it replicable? Yeah. It most certainly is replicable. +More than 30 towns in England now are spinning the Incredible Edible plate. +Whichever way they want to do it, of their own volition, they're trying to make their own lives differently, and worldwide, we've got communities across America and Japan -- it's incredible, isn't it? I mean, America and Japan and New Zealand. +People after the earthquake in New Zealand visited us in order to incorporate some of this public spiritedness around local growing into the heart of Christchurch. +And none of this takes more money and none of this demands a bureaucracy, but it does demand that you think things differently and you are prepared to bend budgets and work programs in order to create that supportive framework that communities can bounce off. +And there's some great ideas already in our patch. +Our local authority has decided to make everywhere Incredible Edible, and in support of that have decided to do two things. +First, they're going to create an asset register of spare land that they've got, put it in a food bank so that communities can use that wherever they live, and they're going to underpin that with a license. +And then they've said to every single one of their workforce, if you can, help those communities grow, and help them to maintain their spaces. +Suddenly, we're seeing actions on the ground from local government. We're seeing this mainstreamed. +We are responding creatively at last to what Rio demanded of us, and there's lots more you could do. +I mean, just to list a few. One, please stop putting prickly plants around public buildings. It's a waste of space. +Secondly, please create -- please, please create edible landscapes so that our children start to walk past their food day in, day out, on our high streets, in our parks, wherever that might be. +Inspire local planners to put the food sites at the heart of the town and the city plan, not relegate them to the edges of the settlements that nobody can see. +Encourage all our schools to take this seriously. +This isn't a second class exercise. +If we want to inspire the farmers of tomorrow, then please let us say to every school, create a sense of purpose around the importance to the environment, local food and soils. +Put that at the heart of your school culture, and you will create a different generation. +There are so many things you can do, but ultimately this is about something really simple. +Through an organic process, through an increasing recognition of the power of small actions, we are starting, at last, to believe in ourselves again, and to believe in our capacity, each and every one of us, to build a different and a kinder future, and in my book, that's incredible. +Thank you. Thank you very much. +In half a century of trying to help prevent wars, there's one question that never leaves me: How do we deal with extreme violence without using force in return? +When you're faced with brutality, whether it's a child facing a bully on a playground or domestic violence -- or, on the streets of Syria today, facing tanks and shrapnel, what's the most effective thing to do? +Fight back? Give in? +Use more force? +This question: "How do I deal with a bully without becoming a thug in return?" +has been with me ever since I was a child. +I remember I was about 13, glued to a grainy black and white television in my parents' living room as Soviet tanks rolled into Budapest, and kids not much older than me were throwing themselves at the tanks and getting mown down. +And I rushed upstairs and started packing my suitcase. +And my mother came up and said, "What on Earth are you doing?" +And I said, "I'm going to Budapest." +And she said, "What on Earth for?" +And I said, "Kids are getting killed there. +There's something terrible happening." +And she said, "Don't be so silly." +And I started to cry. +And she got it, she said, "Okay, I see it's serious. +You're much too young to help. +You need training. I'll help you. +But just unpack your suitcase." +And so I got some training and went and worked in Africa during most of my 20s. +But I realized that what I really needed to know I couldn't get from training courses. +I wanted to understand how violence, how oppression, works. +And what I've discovered since is this: Bullies use violence in three ways. +They use political violence to intimidate, physical violence to terrorize and mental or emotional violence to undermine. +And only very rarely in very few cases does it work to use more violence. +Nelson Mandela went to jail believing in violence, and 27 years later he and his colleagues had slowly and carefully honed the skills, the incredible skills, that they needed to turn one of the most vicious governments the world has known into a democracy. +And they did it in a total devotion to non-violence. +They realized that using force against force doesn't work. +So what does work? +Over time I've collected about a half-dozen methods that do work -- of course there are many more -- that do work and that are effective. +And the first is that the change that has to take place has to take place here, inside me. +It's my response, my attitude, to oppression that I've got control over, and that I can do something about. +And what I need to develop is self-knowledge to do that. +That means I need to know how I tick, when I collapse, where my formidable points are, where my weaker points are. +When do I give in? +What will I stand up for? +And meditation or self-inspection is one of the ways -- again it's not the only one -- it's one of the ways of gaining this kind of inner power. +And my heroine here -- like Satish's -- is Aung San Suu Kyi in Burma. +She was leading a group of students on a protest in the streets of Rangoon. +They came around a corner faced with a row of machine guns. +And she realized straight away that the soldiers with their fingers shaking on the triggers were more scared than the student protesters behind her. +But she told the students to sit down. +And she walked forward with such calm and such clarity and such total lack of fear that she could walk right up to the first gun, put her hand on it and lower it. +And no one got killed. +So that's what the mastery of fear can do -- not only faced with machine guns, but if you meet a knife fight in the street. +But we have to practice. +So what about our fear? +I have a little mantra. +My fear grows fat on the energy I feed it. +And if it grows very big it probably happens. +So we all know the three o'clock in the morning syndrome, when something you've been worrying about wakes you up -- I see a lot of people -- and for an hour you toss and turn, it gets worse and worse, and by four o'clock you're pinned to the pillow by a monster this big. +The only thing to do is to get up, make a cup of tea and sit down with the fear like a child beside you. +You're the adult. +The fear is the child. +And you talk to the fear and you ask it what it wants, what it needs. +How can this be made better? +How can the child feel stronger? +And you make a plan. +And you say, "Okay, now we're going back to sleep. +Half-past seven, we're getting up and that's what we're going to do." +I had one of these 3 a.m. episodes on Sunday -- paralyzed with fear at coming to talk to you. +So I did the thing. +I got up, made the cup of tea, sat down with it, did it all and I'm here -- still partly paralyzed, but I'm here. +So that's fear. What about anger? +Wherever there is injustice there's anger. +But anger is like gasoline, and if you spray it around and somebody lights a match, you've got an inferno. +But anger as an engine -- in an engine -- is powerful. +If we can put our anger inside an engine, it can drive us forward, it can get us through the dreadful moments and it can give us real inner power. +And I learned this in my work with nuclear weapon policy-makers. +Because at the beginning I was so outraged at the dangers they were exposing us to that I just wanted to argue and blame and make them wrong. +Totally ineffective. +In order to develop a dialogue for change we have to deal with our anger. +It's okay to be angry with the thing -- the nuclear weapons in this case -- but it is hopeless to be angry with the people. +They are human beings just like us. +And they're doing what they think is best. +And that's the basis on which we have to talk with them. +So that's the third one, anger. +And it brings me to the crux of what's going on, or what I perceive as going on, in the world today, which is that last century was top-down power. +It was still governments telling people what to do. +This century there's a shift. +It's bottom-up or grassroots power. +It's like mushrooms coming through concrete. +It's people joining up with people, as Bundy just said, miles away to bring about change. +And Peace Direct spotted quite early on that local people in areas of very hot conflict know what to do. +They know best what to do. +So Peace Direct gets behind them to do that. +And the kind of thing they're doing is demobilizing militias, rebuilding economies, resettling refugees, even liberating child soldiers. +And they have to risk their lives almost every day to do this. +And what they've realized is that using violence in the situations they operate in is not only less humane, but it's less effective than using methods that connect people with people, that rebuild. +And I think that the U.S. military is finally beginning to get this. +Up to now their counter-terrorism policy has been to kill insurgents at almost any cost, and if civilians get in the way, that's written as "collateral damage." +And this is so infuriating and humiliating for the population of Afghanistan, that it makes the recruitment for al-Qaeda very easy, when people are so disgusted by, for example, the burning of the Koran. +So the training of the troops has to change. +And I think there are signs that it is beginning to change. +The British military have always been much better at this. +But there is one magnificent example for them to take their cue from, and that's a brilliant U.S. lieutenant colonel called Chris Hughes. +And he was leading his men down the streets of Najaf -- in Iraq actually -- and suddenly people were pouring out of the houses on either side of the road, screaming, yelling, furiously angry, and surrounded these very young troops who were completely terrified, didn't know what was going on, couldn't speak Arabic. +And Chris Hughes strode into the middle of the throng with his weapon above his head, pointing at the ground, and he said, "Kneel." +And these huge soldiers with their backpacks and their body armor, wobbled to the ground. +And complete silence fell. +And after about two minutes, everybody moved aside and went home. +Now that to me is wisdom in action. +In the moment, that's what he did. +And it's happening everywhere now. +You don't believe me? +Have you asked yourselves why and how so many dictatorships have collapsed over the last 30 years? +Dictatorships in Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Mali, Madagascar, Poland, the Philippines, Serbia, Slovenia, I could go on, and now Tunisia and Egypt. +And this hasn't just happened. +A lot of it is due to a book written by an 80-year-old man in Boston, Gene Sharp. +He wrote a book called "From Dictatorship to Democracy" with 81 methodologies for non-violent resistance. +And it's been translated into 26 languages. +It's flown around the world. +And it's being used by young people and older people everywhere, because it works and it's effective. +So this is what gives me hope -- not just hope, this is what makes me feel very positive right now. +Because finally human beings are getting it. +We're getting practical, doable methodologies to answer my question: How do we deal with a bully without becoming a thug? +We're using the kind of skills that I've outlined: inner power -- the development of inner power -- through self-knowledge, recognizing and working with our fear, using anger as a fuel, cooperating with others, banding together with others, courage, and most importantly, commitment to active non-violence. +Now I don't just believe in non-violence. +I don't have to believe in it. +I see evidence everywhere of how it works. +And I see that we, ordinary people, can do what Aung San Suu Kyi and Ghandi and Mandela did. +We can bring to an end the bloodiest century that humanity has ever known. +And we can organize to overcome oppression by opening our hearts as well as strengthening this incredible resolve. +And this open-heartedness is exactly what I've experienced in the entire organization of this gathering since I got here yesterday. +Thank you. +The story starts: I was at a friend's house, and she had on her shelf a copy of the DSM manual, which is the manual of mental disorders. +It lists every known mental disorder. +And it used to be, back in the '50s, a very slim pamphlet. +And then it got bigger and bigger and bigger, and now it's 886 pages long. +And it lists currently 374 mental disorders. +So I was leafing through it, wondering if I had any mental disorders, and it turns out I've got 12. +I've got generalized anxiety disorder, which is a given. +I've got nightmare disorder, which is categorized if you have recurrent dreams of being pursued or declared a failure, and all my dreams involve people chasing me down the street going, "You're a failure!" +I've got parent-child relational problems, which I blame my parents for. +I'm kidding. I'm not kidding. +I'm kidding. +And I've got malingering. +And I think it's actually quite rare to have both malingering and generalized anxiety disorder, because malingering tends to make me feel very anxious. +I didn't know which of these was true, but I thought it was kind of interesting, and I thought maybe I should meet a critic of psychiatry to get their view, which is how I ended up having lunch with the Scientologists. +It was a man called Brian, who runs a crack team of Scientologists who are determined to destroy psychiatry wherever it lies. +They're called the CCHR. +And I said to him, "Can you prove to me that psychiatry is a pseudo-science that can't be trusted?" +And he said, "Yes, we can prove it to you." +And I said, "How?" +And he said, "We're going to introduce you to Tony." +And I said, "Who's Tony?" +And he said, "Tony's in Broadmoor." +Now, Broadmoor is Broadmoor Hospital. +It used to be known as the Broadmoor Asylum for the Criminally Insane. +It's where they send the serial killers, and the people who can't help themselves. +And I said to Brian, "Well, what did Tony do?" +And he said, "Hardly anything. +He beat someone up or something, and he decided to fake madness to get out of a prison sentence. +But he faked it too well, and now he's stuck in Broadmoor and nobody will believe he's sane. +Do you want us to try and get you into Broadmoor to meet Tony?" +So I said, "Yes, please." +So I got the train to Broadmoor. +I began to yawn uncontrollably around Kempton Park, which apparently is what dogs also do when anxious, they yawn uncontrollably. +And we got to Broadmoor. +And I got taken through gate after gate after gate after gate into the wellness center, which is where you get to meet the patients. +It looks like a giant Hampton Inn. +It's all peach and pine and calming colors. +And the only bold colors are the reds of the panic buttons. +And the patients started drifting in. +And they were quite overweight and wearing sweatpants, and quite docile-looking. +And Brian the Scientologist whispered to me, "They're medicated," which, to the Scientologists, is like the worst evil in the world, but I'm thinking it's probably a good idea. +And then Brian said, "Here's Tony." +And a man was walking in. +And he wasn't overweight, he was in very good physical shape. +And he wasn't wearing sweatpants, he was wearing a pinstripe suit. +And he had his arm outstretched like someone out of The Apprentice. +He looked like a man who wanted to wear an outfit that would convince me that he was very sane. +And he sat down. +And I said, "So is it true that you faked your way in here?" +And he said, "Yep. Yep. Absolutely. I beat someone up when I was 17. +And I was in prison awaiting trial, and my cellmate said to me, 'You know what you have to do? +Fake madness. +Tell them you're mad, you'll get sent to some cushy hospital. +Nurses will bring you pizzas, you'll have your own PlayStation.'" I said, "Well, how did you do it?" +He said, "Well, I asked to see the prison psychiatrist. +And I'd just seen a film called 'Crash,' in which people get sexual pleasure from crashing cars into walls. +So I said to the psychiatrist, 'I get sexual pleasure from crashing cars into walls.'" And I said, "What else?" +He said, "Oh, yeah. I told the psychiatrist that I wanted to watch women as they died, because it would make me feel more normal." +I said, "Where'd you get that from?" +He said, "Oh, from a biography of Ted Bundy that they had at the prison library." +Anyway, he faked madness too well, he said. +And they didn't send him to some cushy hospital. +They sent him to Broadmoor. +And the minute he got there, said he took one look at the place, asked to see the psychiatrist, said, "There's been a terrible misunderstanding. +I'm not mentally ill." +I said, "How long have you been here for?" +He said, "Well, if I'd just done my time in prison for the original crime, I'd have got five years. +I've been in Broadmoor for 12 years." +Tony said that it's a lot harder to convince people you're sane than it is to convince them you're crazy. +He said, "I thought the best way to seem normal would be to talk to people normally about normal things like football or what's on TV. +I subscribe to New Scientist, and recently they had an article about how the U.S. Army was training bumblebees to sniff out explosives. +So I said to a nurse, 'Did you know that the U.S. Army is training bumblebees to sniff out explosives?' When I read my medical notes, I saw they'd written: 'Believes bees can sniff out explosives.'" He said, "You know, they're always looking out for nonverbal clues to my mental state. +But how do you sit in a sane way? +How do you cross your legs in a sane way? +It's just impossible." +When Tony said that to me, I thought to myself, "Am I sitting like a journalist? +Am I crossing my legs like a journalist?" +He said, "You know, I've got the Stockwell Strangler on one side of me, and I've got the 'Tiptoe Through the Tulips' rapist on the other side of me. +So I tend to stay in my room a lot because I find them quite frightening. +And they take that as a sign of madness. +They say it proves that I'm aloof and grandiose." +So, only in Broadmoor would not wanting to hang out with serial killers be a sign of madness. +Anyway, he seemed completely normal to me, but what did I know? +And when I got home I emailed his clinician, Anthony Maden. +I said, "What's the story?" +And he said, "Yep. We accept that Tony faked madness to get out of a prison sentence, because his hallucinations -- that had seemed quite cliche to begin with -- just vanished the minute he got to Broadmoor. +However, we have assessed him, and we've determined that what he is is a psychopath." +And in fact, faking madness is exactly the kind of cunning and manipulative act of a psychopath. +It's on the checklist: cunning, manipulative. +So, faking your brain going wrong is evidence that your brain has gone wrong. +And I spoke to other experts, and they said the pinstripe suit -- classic psychopath -- speaks to items one and two on the checklist: glibness, superficial charm and grandiose sense of self-worth. +And I said, "Well, but why didn't he hang out with the other patients?" +Classic psychopath -- it speaks to grandiosity and also lack of empathy. +So all the things that had seemed most normal about Tony was evidence, according to his clinician, that he was mad in this new way. +He was a psychopath. +And his clinician said to me, "If you want to know more about psychopaths, you can go on a psychopath-spotting course run by Robert Hare, who invented the psychopath checklist." +So I did. +I went on a psychopath-spotting course, and I am now a certified -- and I have to say, extremely adept -- psychopath spotter. +So, here's the statistics: One in a hundred regular people is a psychopath. +So there's 1,500 people in his room. +Fifteen of you are psychopaths. +Although that figure rises to four percent of CEOs and business leaders, so I think there's a very good chance there's about 30 or 40 psychopaths in this room. +It could be carnage by the end of the night. +Hare said the reason why is because capitalism at its most ruthless rewards psychopathic behavior -- the lack of empathy, the glibness, cunning, manipulative. +In fact, capitalism, perhaps at its most remorseless, is a physical manifestation of psychopathy. +It's like a form of psychopathy that's come down to affect us all. +Hare said, "You know what? Forget about some guy at Broadmoor who may or may not have faked madness. +Who cares? That's not a big story. +The big story," he said, "is corporate psychopathy. +You want to go and interview yourself some corporate psychopaths." +So I gave it a try. I wrote to the Enron people. +I said, "Could I come and interview you in prison, to find out it you're psychopaths?" +And they didn't reply. +So I changed tack. +I emailed "Chainsaw Al" Dunlap, the asset stripper from the 1990s. +He would come into failing businesses and close down 30 percent of the workforce, just turn American towns into ghost towns. +And I emailed him and I said, "I believe you may have a very special brain anomaly that makes you ... special, and interested in the predatory spirit, and fearless. +Can I come and interview you about your special brain anomaly?" +And he said, "Come on over!" +So I went to Al Dunlap's grand Florida mansion. +It was filled with sculptures of predatory animals. +There were lions and tigers -- he was taking me through the garden -- there were falcons and eagles, he was saying, "Over there you've got sharks and --" he was saying this in a less effeminate way -- "You've got more sharks and you've got tigers." +It was like Narnia. +And then we went into his kitchen. +Now, Al Dunlap would be brought in to save failing companies, he'd close down 30 percent of the workforce. +And he'd quite often fire people with a joke. +Like, for instance, one famous story about him, somebody came up to him and said, "I've just bought myself a new car." +And he said, "Well, you may have a new car, but I'll tell you what you don't have -- a job." +So in his kitchen -- he was in there with his wife, Judy, and his bodyguard, Sean -- and I said, "You know how I said in my email that you might have a special brain anomaly that makes you special?" +He said, "Yeah, it's an amazing theory, it's like Star Trek. +You're going where no man has gone before." +And I said, "Well --" (Clears throat) Some psychologists might say that this makes you --" And he said, "What?" +And I said, "A psychopath." +And I said, "I've got a list of psychopathic traits in my pocket. +Can I go through them with you?" +And he looked intrigued despite himself, and he said, "Okay, go on." +And I said, "Okay. Grandiose sense of self-worth." +Which I have to say, would have been hard for him to deny, because he was standing under a giant oil painting of himself. +He said, "Well, you've got to believe in you!" +And I said, "Manipulative." +He said, "That's leadership." +And I said, "Shallow affect, an inability to experience a range of emotions." +He said, "Who wants to be weighed down by some nonsense emotions?" +So he was going down the psychopath checklist, basically turning it into "Who Moved My Cheese?" +But I did notice something happening to me the day I was with Al Dunlap. +Whenever he said anything to me that was kind of normal -- like he said "no" to juvenile delinquency, he said he got accepted into West Point, and they don't let delinquents in West Point. +He said "no" to many short-term marital relationships. +He's only ever been married twice. +So whenever he said anything to me that just seemed kind of non-psychopathic, I thought to myself, well I'm not going to put that in my book. +And then I realized that becoming a psychopath spotter had kind of turned me a little bit psychopathic. +Because I was desperate to shove him in a box marked "Psychopath." +I was desperate to define him by his maddest edges. +And I realized, my God -- this is what I've been doing for 20 years. +It's what all journalists do. +We travel across the world with our notepads in our hands, and we wait for the gems. +And the gems are always the outermost aspects of our interviewee's personality. +And we stitch them together like medieval monks, and we leave the normal stuff on the floor. +And you know, this is a country that over-diagnoses certain mental disorders hugely. +Childhood bipolar -- children as young as four are being labeled bipolar because they have temper tantrums, which scores them high on the bipolar checklist. +When I got back to London, Tony phoned me. +He said, "Why haven't you been returning my calls?" +I said, "Well, they say that you're a psychopath." +And he said, "I'm not a psychopath." +He said, "You know what? One of the items on the checklist is lack of remorse, but another item on the checklist is cunning, manipulative. +So when you say you feel remorse for your crime, they say, 'Typical of the psychopath to cunningly say he feels remorse when he doesn't.' It's like witchcraft, they turn everything upside-down." +He said, "I've got a tribunal coming up. +Will you come to it?" +So I said okay. +So I went to his tribunal. +And after 14 years in Broadmoor, they let him go. +They decided that he shouldn't be held indefinitely because he scores high on a checklist that might mean that he would have a greater than average chance of recidivism. +So they let him go. +And outside in the corridor he said to me, "You know what, Jon? +Everyone's a bit psychopathic." +He said, "You are, I am. Well, obviously I am." +I said, "What are you going to do now?" +He said, "I'm going to go to Belgium. +There's a woman there that I fancy. +But she's married, so I'm going to have to get her split up from her husband." +Anyway, that was two years ago, and that's where my book ended. +And for the last 20 months, everything was fine. +Nothing bad happened. +He was living with a girl outside London. +He was, according to Brian the Scientologist, making up for lost time, which I know sounds ominous, but isn't necessarily ominous. +Unfortunately, after 20 months, he did go back to jail for a month. +He got into a "fracas" in a bar, he called it. +Ended up going to jail for a month, which I know is bad, but at least a month implies that whatever the fracas was, it wasn't too bad. +And then he phoned me. +And you know what, I think it's right that Tony is out. +Because you shouldn't define people by their maddest edges. +And what Tony is, is he's a semi-psychopath. +He's a gray area in a world that doesn't like gray areas. +But the gray areas are where you find the complexity. +It's where you find the humanity, and it's where you find the truth. +And Tony said to me, "Jon, could I buy you a drink in a bar? +I just want to thank you for everything you've done for me." +And I didn't go. What would you have done? +Thank you. +Newscaster: There's a large path of destruction here in town. +... pulling trees from the ground, shattering windows, taking the roofs off of homes ... +Caitria O'Neill: That was me in front of our house in Monson, Massachusetts last June. +After an EF3 tornado ripped straight through our town and took parts of our roof off, I decided to stay in Massachusetts, instead of pursuing the master's program I had moved my boxes home that afternoon for. +Morgan O'Neill: So, on June 1, we weren't disaster experts, but on June 3, we started faking it. +This experience changed our lives, and now we're trying to change the experience. +CO: So, tornadoes don't happen in Massachusetts, and I was cleverly standing in the front yard when one came over the hill. +After a lamppost flew by, my family and I sprinted into the basement. +Trees were thrown against the house, the windows exploded. +When we finally got out the back door, transformers were burning in the street. +MO: I was here in Boston. +I'm a PhD student at MIT, and I happen to study atmospheric science. +Actually, it gets weirder -- I was in the museum of science at the time the tornado hit, playing with the tornado display -- so I missed her call. +I get a call from Caitria, hear the news, and start tracking the radar online to call the family back when another supercell was forming in their area. +I drove home late that night with batteries and ice. +We live across the street from a historic church that had lost its very iconic steeple in the storm. +It had become a community gathering place overnight. +The town hall and the police department had also suffered direct hits, and so people wanting to help or needing information went to the church. +CO: We walked to the church because we heard they had hot meals, but when we arrived, we found problems. +There were a couple large, sweaty men with chainsaws standing in the center of the church, but nobody knew where to send them because no one knew the extent of the damage yet. +As we watched, they became frustrated and left to go find somebody to help on their own. +MO: So we started organizing. Why? It had to be done. +We found Pastor Bob and offered to give the response some infrastructure. +And then, armed with just two laptops and one air card, CO: That was a tornado, and everyone's heading to the church to drop things off and volunteer. +MO: Everyone's donating clothing. +We should inventory the donations piling up here. +CO: And we need a hotline. Can you make a Google Voice number? +MO: Sure. And we need to tell people what not to bring. +I'll make a Facebook account. Can you print flyers? +CO: Yeah, but we don't even know what houses are accepting help. +We need to canvas and send out volunteers. +MO: We need to tell people what not to bring. +Hey, there's a news truck. I'll tell them. +CO: You got my number off the news? We don't need more freezers! +MO: Insurance won't cover it? CO: Juice boxes coming in an hour? +Together: Someone get me Post-its! +CO: And then the rest of the community figured out that we had answers. +MO: I can donate three water heaters, but someone needs to come pick them up. +CO: My car is in my living room! +MO: My boyscout troop would like to rebuild 12 mailboxes. +CO: My puppy is missing and insurance doesn't cover chimneys. +MO: My church group of 50 would like housing and meals for a week while we repair properties. +CO: You sent me to that place on Washington Street yesterday, and now I'm covered in poison ivy. +So this is what filled our days. +We had to learn how to answer questions quickly and to solve problems in a minute or less; otherwise, something more urgent would come up, and it wouldn't get done. +MO: We didn't get our authority from the board of selectmen or the emergency management director or the United Way. +We just started answering questions and making decisions because someone -- anyone -- had to. +And why not me? I'm a campaign organizer. +I'm good at Facebook. +And there's two of me. +CO: The point is, if there's a flood or a fire or a hurricane, you, or somebody like you, are going to step up and start organizing things. +The other point is that it is hard. +MO: Lying on the ground after another 17-hour day, Caitria and I would empty our pockets and try to place dozens of scraps of paper into context -- all bits of information that had to be remembered and matched in order to help someone. +After another day and a shower at the shelter, we realized it shouldn't be this hard. +CO: In a country like ours where we breathe Wi-Fi, leveraging technology for a faster recovery should be a no-brainer. +Systems like the ones that we were creating on the fly could exist ahead of time. +And if some community member is in this organizing position in every area after every disaster, these tools should exist. +MO: So, we decided to build them: a recovery in a box, something that could be deployed after every disaster by any local organizer. +CO: I decided to stay in the country, give up the master's in Moscow and to work full-time to make this happen. +In the course of the past year, we've become experts in the field of community-powered disaster recovery. +And there are three main problems that we've observed MO: The tools. +Large aid organizations are exceptional at bringing massive resources to bear after a disaster, but they often fulfill very specific missions, and then they leave. +This leaves local residents to deal with the thousands of spontaneous volunteers, thousands of donations, and all with no training and no tools. +So they use Post-its or Excel or Facebook. +But none of these tools allow you to value high-priority information amidst all of the photos and well-wishes. +CO: The timing. +Disaster relief is essentially a backwards political campaign. +In a political campaign, you start with no interest and no capacity to turn that into action. +You build both gradually, until a moment of peak mobilization at the time of the election. +In a disaster, however, you start with all of the interest and none of the capacity. +And you've only got about seven days to capture 50 percent of all of the Web searches that will ever be made to help your area. +Then some sporting event happens, and you've got only the resources that you've collected thus far to meet the next five years of recovery needs. +This is the slide for Katrina. +This is the curve for Joplin. +And this is the curve for the Dallas tornadoes in April, where we deployed software. +There's a gap here. +Affected households have to wait for the insurance adjuster to visit before they can start accepting help on their properties. +And you've only got about four days of interest in Dallas. +MO: Data. +Data is inherently unsexy, but it can jump-start an area's recovery. +FEMA and the state will pay 85 percent of the cost leaving the town to pay the last 15 percent of the bill. +Now that expense can be huge, but if the town can mobilize X amount of volunteers for Y hours, the dollar value of that labor used goes toward the town's contribution. +But who knows that? +Now try to imagine the sinking feeling you get when you've just sent out 2,000 volunteers and you can't prove it. +CO: These are three problems with a common solution. +If we can get the right tools at the right time to the people who will inevitably step up and start putting their communities back together, we can create new standards in disaster recovery. +MO: We needed canvasing tools, donations databasing, needs reporting, remote volunteer access, all in an easy-to-use website. +CO: And we needed help. +Alvin, our software engineer and co-founder, has built these tools. +Chris and Bill have volunteered their time to use operations and partnerships. +And we've been flying into disaster areas since this past January, setting up software, training residents and licensing the software to areas that are preparing for disasters. +MO: One of our first launches was after the Dallas tornadoes this past April. +We flew into a town that had a static, outdated website and a frenetic Facebook feed, trying to structure the response, and we launched our platform. +All of the interest came in the first four days, but by the time they lost the news cycle, that's when the needs came in, yet they had this massive resource of what people were able to give and they've been able to meet the needs of their residents. +CO: So it's working, but it could be better. +Emergency preparedness is a big deal in disaster recovery because it makes towns safer and more resilient. +Imagine if we could have these systems ready to go in a place before a disaster. +So that's what we're working on. +We're working on getting the software to places so people expect it, so people know how to use it and so it can be filled ahead of time with that micro-information that drives recovery. +MO: It's not rocket science. +These tools are obvious and people want them. +In our hometown, we trained a half-dozen residents to run these Web tools on their own, because Caitria and I live here, in Boston. +They took to it immediately, and now they are forces of nature. +There are over three volunteer groups working almost every day, and have been since June 1 of last year, to make sure these residents get what they need and get back in their homes. +They have hotlines and spreadsheets and data. +CO: And that makes a difference. +June 1 this year marked the one-year anniversary of the Monson tornado, and our community's never been more connected or more empowered. +We've been able to see the same transformation in Texas and in Alabama. +Because it doesn't take Harvard or MIT to fly in and fix problems after a disaster; it takes a local. +No matter how good an aid organization is at what they do, they eventually have to go home. +But if you give locals the tools, if you show them what they can do to recover, they become experts. +MO: All right. Let's go. +I want to talk to you today about something the open-source programming world can teach democracy, but before that, a little preamble. +Let's start here. +This is Martha Payne. Martha's a 9-year-old Scot who lives in the Council of Argyll and Bute. +A couple months ago, Payne started a food blog called NeverSeconds, and she would take her camera with her every day to school to document her school lunches. +Can you spot the vegetable? And, as sometimes happens, this blog acquired first dozens of readers, and then hundreds of readers, and then thousands of readers, as people tuned in to watch her rate her school lunches, including on my favorite category, "Pieces of hair found in food." This was a zero day. That's good. +And then two weeks ago yesterday, she posted this. +A post that read: "Goodbye." +And she said, "I'm very sorry to tell you this, but my head teacher pulled me out of class today and told me I'm not allowed to take pictures in the lunch room anymore. +I really enjoyed doing this. +Thank you for reading. Goodbye." +So, what happens when a medium suddenly puts a lot of new ideas into circulation? +Now, this isn't just a contemporaneous question. +This is something we've faced several times over the last few centuries. +When the telegraph came along, it was clear that it was going to globalize the news industry. +What would this lead to? +Well, obviously, it would lead to world peace. +The television, a medium that allowed us not just to hear but see, literally see, what was going on elsewhere in the world, what would this lead to? +World peace. The telephone? +You guessed it: world peace. +Sorry for the spoiler alert, but no world peace. Not yet. +Even the printing press, even the printing press was assumed to be a tool that was going to enforce Catholic intellectual hegemony across Europe. +Instead, what we got was Martin Luther's 95 Theses, the Protestant Reformation, and, you know, the Thirty Years' War. All right, so what all of these predictions of world peace got right is that when a lot of new ideas suddenly come into circulation, it changes society. +What they got exactly wrong was what happens next. +The more ideas there are in circulation, the more ideas there are for any individual to disagree with. +More media always means more arguing. +That's what happens when the media's space expands. +And yet, when we look back on the printing press in the early years, we like what happened. +We are a pro-printing press society. +So how do we square those two things, that it leads to more arguing, but we think it was good? +And the answer, I think, can be found in things like this. +They needed openness. They needed to create a norm which said, when you do an experiment, you have to publish not just your claims, but how you did the experiment. +If you don't tell us how you did it, we won't trust you. +But the other thing they needed was speed. +They had to quickly synchronize what other natural philosophers knew. Otherwise, you couldn't get the right kind of argument going. +The printing press was clearly the right medium for this, but the book was the wrong tool. It was too slow. +And so they invented the scientific journal as a way of synchronizing the argument across the community of natural scientists. +The scientific revolution wasn't created by the printing press. +It was created by scientists, but it couldn't have been created if they didn't have a printing press as a tool. +So what about us? What about our generation, and our media revolution, the Internet? +Well, predictions of world peace? Check. More arguing? Gold star on that one. I mean, YouTube is just a gold mine. Better arguing? That's the question. +So I study social media, which means, to a first approximation, I watch people argue. +And if I had to pick a group that I think is our Invisible College, is our generation's collection of people trying to take these tools and to press it into service, not for more arguments, but for better arguments, I'd pick the open-source programmers. +Programming is a three-way relationship between a programmer, some source code, and the computer it's meant to run on, but computers are such famously inflexible interpreters of instructions that it's extraordinarily difficult to write out a set of instructions that the computer knows how to execute, and that's if one person is writing it. +Once you get more than one person writing it, it's very easy for any two programmers to overwrite each other's work if they're working on the same file, or to send incompatible instructions that simply causes the computer to choke, and this problem grows larger the more programmers are involved. +To a first approximation, the problem of managing a large software project is the problem of keeping this social chaos at bay. +Now, for decades there has been a canonical solution to this problem, which is to use something called a "version control system," and a version control system does what is says on the tin. +It provides a canonical copy of the software on a server somewhere. +The only programmers who can change it are people who've specifically been given permission to access it, and they're only allowed to access the sub-section of it that they have permission to change. +And when people draw diagrams of version control systems, the diagrams always look something like this. +All right. They look like org charts. +And you don't have to squint very hard to see the political ramifications of a system like this. +This is feudalism: one owner, many workers. +Now, that's fine for the commercial software industry. +It really is Microsoft's Office. It's Adobe's Photoshop. +The corporation owns the software. +The programmers come and go. +But there was one programmer who decided that this wasn't the way to work. +This is Linus Torvalds. +Torvalds is the most famous open-source programmer, created Linux, obviously, and Torvalds looked at the way the open-source movement had been dealing with this problem. +Open-source software, the core promise of the open-source license, is that everybody should have access to all the source code all the time, but of course, this creates the very threat of chaos you have to forestall in order to get anything working. +So most open-source projects just held their noses and adopted the feudal management systems. +But Torvalds said, "No, I'm not going to do that." +His point of view on this was very clear. +When you adopt a tool, you also adopt the management philosophy embedded in that tool, and he wasn't going to adopt anything that didn't work the way the Linux community worked. +And to give you a sense of how enormous a decision like this was, this is a map of the internal dependencies within Linux, within the Linux operating system, which sub-parts of the program rely on which other sub-parts to get going. +This is a tremendously complicated process. +This is a tremendously complicated program, and yet, for years, Torvalds ran this not with automated tools but out of his email box. +People would literally mail him changes that they'd agreed on, and he would merge them by hand. +And then, 15 years after looking at Linux and figuring out how the community worked, he said, "I think I know how to write a version control system for free people." +And he called it "Git." Git is distributed version control. +It has two big differences with traditional version control systems. +The first is that it lives up to the philosophical promise of open-source. Everybody who works on a project has access to all of the source code all of the time. +And when people draw diagrams of Git workflow, they use drawings that look like this. +And you don't have to understand what the circles and boxes and arrows mean to see that this is a far more complicated way of working than is supported by ordinary version control systems. +But this is also the thing that brings the chaos back, and this is Git's second big innovation. +This is a screenshot from GitHub, the premier Git hosting service, and every time a programmer uses Git to make any important change at all, creating a new file, modifying an existing one, merging two files, Git creates this kind of signature. +This long string of numbers and letters here is a unique identifier tied to every single change, but without any central coordination. +Every Git system generates this number the same way, which means this is a signature tied directly and unforgeably to a particular change. +This has the following effect: A programmer in Edinburgh and a programmer in Entebbe can both get the same -- a copy of the same piece of software. +Each of them can make changes and they can merge them after the fact even if they didn't know of each other's existence beforehand. +This is cooperation without coordination. +This is the big change. +Now, I tell you all of this not to convince you that it's great that open-source programmers now have a tool that supports their philosophical way of working, although I think that is great. +I tell you all of this because of what I think it means for the way communities come together. +Once Git allowed for cooperation without coordination, you start to see communities form that are enormously large and complex. +This is a graph of the Ruby community. +It's an open-source programming language, and all of the interconnections between the people -- this is now not a software graph, but a people graph, all of the interconnections among the people working on that project and this doesn't look like an org chart. +This looks like a dis-org chart, and yet, out of this community, but using these tools, they can now create something together. +So there are two good reasons to think that this kind of technique can be applied to democracies in general and in particular to the law. +When you make the claim, in fact, that something on the Internet is going to be good for democracy, you often get this reaction. +Which is, are you talking about the thing with the singing cats? Like, is that the thing you think is going to be good for society? +To which I have to say, here's the thing with the singing cats. That always happens. +And I don't just mean that always happens with the Internet, I mean that always happens with media, full stop. +So, the law is also dependency-related. +This is a graph of the U.S. Tax Code, and the dependencies of one law on other laws for the overall effect. +So there's that as a site for source code management. +Someone put up all the Wikileaked cables from the State Department, along with software used to interpret them, including my favorite use ever of the Cablegate cables, which is a tool for detecting naturally occurring haiku in State Department prose. +Right. The New York Senate has put up something called Open Legislation, also hosting it on GitHub, again for all of the reasons of updating and fluidity. +You can go and pick your Senator and then you can see a list of bills they have sponsored. +Someone going by Divegeek has put up the Utah code, the laws of the state of Utah, and they've put it up there not just to distribute the code, but with the very interesting possibility that this could be used to further the development of legislation. +Somebody put up a tool during the copyright debate last year in the Senate, saying, "It's strange that Hollywood has more access to Canadian legislators than Canadian citizens do. Why don't we use GitHub to show them what a citizen-developed bill might look like?" +And it includes this very evocative screenshot. +This is a called a "diff," this thing on the right here. +This shows you, for text that many people are editing, when a change was made, who made it, and what the change is. +The stuff in red is the stuff that got deleted. +The stuff in green is the stuff that got added. +Programmers take this capability for granted. +No democracy anywhere in the world offers this feature to its citizens for either legislation or for budgets, even though those are the things done with our consent and with our money. +Now, I would love to tell you that the fact that the open-source programmers have worked out a collaborative method that is large scale, distributed, cheap, and in sync with the ideals of democracy, I would love to tell you that because those tools are in place, the innovation is inevitable. But it's not. +Part of the problem, of course, is just a lack of information. +Somebody put a question up on Quora saying, "Why is it that lawmakers don't use distributed version control?" +This, graphically, was the answer. And that is indeed part of the problem, but only part. +The bigger problem, of course, is power. +The people experimenting with participation don't have legislative power, and the people who have legislative power are not experimenting with participation. +They are experimenting with openness. +There's no democracy worth the name that doesn't have a transparency move, but transparency is openness in only one direction, and being given a dashboard without a steering wheel has never been the core promise a democracy makes to its citizens. +So consider this. +The thing that got Martha Payne's opinions out into the public was a piece of technology, but the thing that kept them there was political will. +It was the expectation of the citizens that she would not be censored. +That's now the state we're in with these collaboration tools. +We have them. We've seen them. They work. +Can we use them? +Can we apply the techniques that worked here to this? +T.S. Eliot once said, "One of the most momentous things that can happen to a culture is that they acquire a new form of prose." +I think that's wrong, but -- I think it's right for argumentation. Right? +A momentous thing that can happen to a culture is they can acquire a new style of arguing: trial by jury, voting, peer review, now this. Right? +A new form of arguing has been invented in our lifetimes, in the last decade, in fact. +It's large, it's distributed, it's low-cost, and it's compatible with the ideals of democracy. +The question for us now is, are we going to let the programmers keep it to themselves? +Or are we going to try and take it and press it into service for society at large? +Thank you for listening. Thank you. Thank you. +I'm afraid I'm one of those speakers you hope you're not going to meet at TED. +First, I don't have a mobile, so I'm on the safe side. +Secondly, a political theorist who's going to talk about the crisis of democracy is probably not the most exciting topic you can think about. +And plus, I'm not going to give you any answers. +I'm much more trying to add to some of the questions we're talking about. +And one of the things that I want to question is this very popular hope these days that transparency and openness can restore the trust in democratic institutions. +There is one more reason for you to be suspicious about me. +You people, the Church of TED, are a very optimistic community. +Basically you believe in complexity, but not in ambiguity. +As you have been told, I'm Bulgarian. +And according to the surveys, we are marked the most pessimistic people in the world. +The Economist magazine recently wrote an article covering one of the recent studies on happiness, and the title was "The Happy, the Unhappy and the Bulgarians." +So now when you know what to expect, let's give you the story. +And this is a rainy election day in a small country -- that can be my country, but could be also your country. +And because of the rain until four o'clock in the afternoon, nobody went to the polling stations. +But then the rain stopped, people went to vote. +And when the votes had been counted, three-fourths of the people have voted with a blank ballot. +The government and the opposition, they have been simply paralyzed. +Because you know what to do about the protests. +You know who to arrest, who to negotiate with. +But what to do about people who are voting with a blank ballot? +So the government decided to have the elections once again. +And this time even a greater number, 83 percent of the people, voted with blank ballots. +Basically they went to the ballot boxes to tell that they have nobody to vote for. +This is the opening of a beautiful novel by Jose Saramago called "Seeing." +But in my view it very well captures part of the problem that we have with democracy in Europe these days. +On one level nobody's questioning that democracy is the best form of government. +Democracy is the only game in town. +The problem is that many people start to believe that it is not a game worth playing. +For the last 30 years, political scientists have observed that there is a constant decline in electoral turnout, and the people who are least interested to vote are the people whom you expect are going to gain most out of voting. +I mean the unemployed, the under-privileged. +And this is a major issue. +Because especially now with the economic crisis, you can see that the trust in politics, that the trust in democratic institutions, was really destroyed. +According to the latest survey being done by the European Commission, 89 percent of the citizens of Europe believe that there is a growing gap between the opinion of the policy-makers and the opinion of the public. +Only 18 percent of Italians and 15 percent of Greeks believe that their vote matters. +Basically people start to understand that they can change governments, but they cannot change policies. +And the question which I want to ask is the following: How did it happen that we are living in societies which are much freer than ever before -- we have more rights, we can travel easier, we have access to more information -- at the same time that trust in our democratic institutions basically has collapsed? +So basically I want to ask: What went right and what went wrong in these 50 years when we talk about democracy? +And I'll start with what went right. +And the first thing that went right was, of course, these five revolutions which, in my view, very much changed the way we're living and deepened our democratic experience. +And the first was the cultural and social revolution of 1968 and 1970s, which put the individual at the center of politics. +It was the human rights moment. +Basically this was also a major outbreak, a culture of dissent, a culture of basically non-conformism, which was not known before. +So I do believe that even things like that are very much the children of '68 -- nevertheless that most of us had been even not born then. +But after that you have the market revolution of the 1980s. +And nevertheless that many people on the left try to hate it, the truth is that it was very much the market revolution that sent the message: "The government does not know better." +And you have more choice-driven societies. +And of course, you have 1989 -- the end of Communism, the end of the Cold War. +And it was the birth of the global world. +And you have the Internet. +And this is not the audience to which I'm going to preach to what extent the Internet empowered people. +It has changed the way we are communicating and basically we are viewing politics. +The very idea of political community totally has changed. +And I'm going to name one more revolution, and this is the revolution in brain sciences, which totally changed the way we understand how people are making decisions. +So this is what went right. +But if we're going to see what went wrong, we're going to end up with the same five revolutions. +Because first you have the 1960s and 1970s, cultural and social revolution, which in a certain way destroyed the idea of a collective purpose. +The very idea, all these collective nouns that we have been taught about -- nation, class, family. +We start to like divorcing, if we're married at all. +All this was very much under attack. +And it is so difficult to engage people in politics when they believe that what really matters is where they personally stand. +And you have the market revolution of the 1980s and the huge increase of inequality in societies. +Remember, until the 1970s, the spread of democracy has always been accompanied by the decline of inequality. +The more democratic our societies have been, the more equal they have been becoming. +Now we have the reverse tendency. +The spread of democracy now is very much accompanied by the increase in inequality. +And I find this very much disturbing when we're talking about what's going on right and wrong with democracy these days. +And if you go to 1989 -- something that basically you don't expect that anybody's going to criticize -- but many are going to tell you, "Listen, it was the end of the Cold War that tore the social contract between the elites and the people in Western Europe." +When the Soviet Union was still there, the rich and the powerful, they needed the people, because they feared them. +Now the elites basically have been liberated. +They're very mobile. You cannot tax them. +And basically they don't fear the people. +So as a result of it, you have this very strange situation in which the elites basically got out of the control of the voters. +So this is not by accident that the voters are not interested to vote anymore. +And when we talk about the Internet, yes, it's true, the Internet connected all of us, but we also know that the Internet created these echo chambers and political ghettos in which for all your life you can stay with the political community you belong to. +And it's becoming more and more difficult to understand the people who are not like you. +I know that many people here have been splendidly speaking about the digital world and the possibility for cooperation, but [have you] seen what the digital world has done to American politics these days? +This is also partly a result of the Internet revolution. +This is the other side of the things that we like. +And when you go to the brain sciences, what political consultants learned from the brain scientists is don't talk to me about ideas anymore, don't talk to me about policy programs. +What really matters is basically to manipulate the emotions of the people. +And you have this very strongly to the extent that, even if you see when we talk about revolutions these days, these revolutions are not named anymore around ideologies or ideas. +Before, revolutions used to have ideological names. +They could be communist, they could be liberal, they could be fascist or Islamic. +Now the revolutions are called under the medium which is most used. +You have Facebook revolutions, Twitter revolutions. +The content doesn't matter anymore, the problem is the media. +I'm saying this because one of my major points is what went right is also what went wrong. +And when we're now trying to see how we can change the situation, when basically we're trying to see what can be done about democracy, we should keep this ambiguity in mind. +Because probably some of the things that we love most are going to be also the things that can hurt us most. +These days it's very popular to believe that this push for transparency, this kind of a combination between active citizens, new technologies and much more transparency-friendly legislation can restore trust in politics. +You believe that when you have these new technologies and people who are ready to use this, it can make it much more difficult for the governments to lie, it's going to be more difficult for them to steal and probably even going to be more difficult for them to kill. +This is probably true. +But I do believe that we should be also very clear that now when we put the transparency at the center of politics where the message is, "It's transparency, stupid." +Transparency is not about restoring trust in institutions. +Transparency is politics' management of mistrust. +We are assuming that our societies are going to be based on mistrust. +And by the way, mistrust was always very important for democracy. +This is why you have checks and balances. +This is why basically you have all this creative mistrust between the representatives and those whom they represent. +But when politics is only management of mistrust, then -- I'm very glad that "1984" has been mentioned -- now we're going to have "1984" in reverse. +It's not going to be the Big Brother watching you, it's going to be we being the Big Brother watching the political class. +But is this the idea of a free society? +For example, can you imagine that decent, civic, talented people are going to run for office if they really do believe that politics is also about managing mistrust? +And the Americans who are in the room, are you not afraid that your presidents are going to govern on the basis of what they said in the primary elections? +I find this extremely important, because democracy is about people changing their views based on rational arguments and discussions. +And we can lose this with the very noble idea to keep people accountable for showing the people that we're not going to tolerate politicians the opportunism in politics. +So for me this is extremely important. +And I do believe that when we're discussing politics these days, probably it makes sense to look also at this type of a story. +But also don't forget, any unveiling is also veiling. +[Regardless of] how transparent our governments want to be, they're going to be selectively transparent. +In a small country that could be my country, but could be also your country, they took a decision -- it is a real case story -- that all of the governmental decisions, discussions of the council of ministers, were going to be published on the Internet 24 hours after the council discussions took place. +And the public was extremely all for it. +So I had the opportunity to talk to the prime minister, why he made this decision. +He said, "Listen, this is the best way to keep the mouths of my ministers closed. +Because it's going to be very difficult for them to dissent knowing that 24 hours after this is going to be on the public space, and this is in a certain way going to be a political crisis." +So when we talk about transparency, when we talk about openness, I really do believe that what we should keep in mind is that what went right is what went wrong. +And this is Goethe, who is neither Bulgarian nor a political scientist, some centuries ago he said, "There is a big shadow where there is much light." +Thank you very much. +I've got a great idea that's going to change the world. +It's fantastic, it's going to blow your mind. +It's my beautiful baby. +Here's the thing: everybody loves a beautiful baby. +I mean, I was a beautiful baby. +Here's me and my dad a couple days after I was born. +So in the world of product design, the beautiful baby's like the concept car. +It's the knockout. +You see it and you go, "Oh, my God. I'd buy that in a second!" +So why is it that this year's new cars look pretty much exactly like last year's new cars? +What went wrong between the design studio and the factory? +Today, I don't want to talk about beautiful babies, I want to talk about the awkward adolescence of design -- those sort of dorky teenage years where you're trying to figure out how the world works. +I'm going to start with an example from some work that we did on newborn health. +So here's a problem: four million babies around the world, mostly in developing countries, die every year before their first birthday, even before their first month of life. +It turns out half of those kids, or about 1.8 million newborns around the world, would make it if you could just keep them warm for the first three days, maybe the first week. +So this is a newborn intensive care unit in Kathmandu, Nepal. +All of these kids in blankets belong in incubators -- something like this. This is a donated Japanese Atom incubator that we found in a NICU in Kathmandu. +This is what we want. +Probably what happened is a hospital in Japan upgraded their equipment and donated their old stuff to Nepal. +The problem is, without technicians, without spare parts, donations like this very quickly turn into junk. +So this seemed like a problem that we could do something about. +Keeping a baby warm for a week -- that's not rocket science. +So we got started. +We partnered with a leading medical research institution here in Boston. +We conducted months of user research overseas, trying to think like designers, human-centered design -- "Let's figure out what people want." +We killed thousands of Post-it notes. +We made dozens of prototypes to get to this. +So this is the NeoNurture infant incubator, and this has a lot of smarts built into it, and we felt great. +So the idea here is, unlike the concept car, we want to marry something beautiful with something that actually works. +And our idea is that this design would inspire manufacturers and other people of influence to take this model and run with it. +Here's the bad news: the only baby ever actually put inside the NeoNurture incubator was this kid during a Time magazine photo shoot. +So recognition is fantastic. +We want design to get out for people to see it. +It won lots of awards. +But it felt like a booby prize. +We wanted to make beautiful things that are going to make the world a better place, and I don't think this kid was even in it long enough to get warm. +So it turns out that design for inspiration doesn't really ... +I guess what I would say is, for us, for what I want to do, it's either too slow or it just doesn't work, it's ineffective. +So, really, I want to design for outcomes. +I don't want to make beautiful stuff; I want to make the world a better place. +So when we were designing NeoNurture, we paid a lot of attention to the people who are going to use this thing, for example, poor families, rural doctors, overloaded nurses, even repair technicians. +We thought we had all our bases covered, we'd done everything right. +Well, it turns out there's this whole constellation of people who have to be involved in a product for it to be successful: manufacturing, financing, distribution, regulation. +Michael Free at PATH says you have to figure out who will "choose, use and pay the dues" for a product like this. +And I have to ask the question that VCs always ask: "Sir, what is your business, and who is your customer?" +Who is our customer? Well, here's an example. +This is a Bangladeshi hospital director outside his facility. +It turns out he doesn't buy any of his equipment. +Those decisions are made by the Ministry of Health or by foreign donors, and it just kind of shows up. +Similarly, here's a multinational medical-device manufacturer. +It turns out they've got to fish where the fish are. +So it turns out that in emerging markets -- where the fish are -- are the emerging middle class of these countries -- diseases of affluence: heart disease, infertility. +So it turns out that design for outcomes in one aspect really means thinking about design for manufacture and distribution. +OK, that was an important lesson. +Second, we took that lesson and tried to push it into our next project. +So we started by finding a manufacturer, an organization called MTTS in Vietnam, that manufactures newborn-care technologies for Southeast Asia. +Our other partner is East Meets West, an American foundation that distributes that technology to poor hospitals around that region. +So we started with them, saying, "Well, what do you want? +What's a problem you want to solve?" +And they said, "Let's work on newborn jaundice." +So this is another one of these mind-boggling global problems. +Jaundice affects two-thirds of newborns around the world. +Of those newborns, one in 10 roughly, if it's not treated, the jaundice gets so severe that it leads to either a life-long disability, or the kids could even die. +There's one way to treat jaundice, and that's what's called an exchange transfusion. +So as you can imagine, that's expensive and a little bit dangerous. +There is another cure. +It's very technological, it's very complex, a little daunting. +You've got to shine blue light on the kid. +Bright blue light on as much of the skin as you can cover. +How is this a hard problem? +I went to MIT. OK, we'll figure that out. +So here's an example. +This is an overhead phototherapy device that's designed for American hospitals, and here's how it's supposed to be used. +It's over the baby, illuminating a single patient. +Take it out of an American hospital, send it overseas to a crowded facility in Asia, here's how it's actually used. +The effectiveness of phototherapy is a function of light intensity. +These dark blue squares show you where it's effective phototherapy. +Here's what it looks like under actual use. +So those kids on the edges aren't actually receiving effective phototherapy. +But without training, without some kind of light meter, how would you know? +We see other examples of problems like this. +Here's a neonatal intensive care unit, where moms come in to visit their babies. +And keep in mind that Mom maybe just had a C-section, so that's already kind of a bummer. +Mom's visiting her kid. +She sees her baby naked, lying under some blue lights, looking kind of vulnerable. +It's not uncommon for Mom to put a blanket over the baby. +From a phototherapy standpoint, maybe not the best behavior. +In fact, that sounds kind of dumb. +Except, what we've learned is that there's no such thing as a dumb user -- there are only dumb products. +We have to think like existentialists: it's not the painting we would have painted, it's the painting that we actually painted. +It's the use -- designed for actual use. +How are people actually going to use this? +So, similarly, when we think about our partner MTTS, they've made some amazing technologies for treating newborn illnesses. +So here's an overhead warmer and a CPAP. +They're inexpensive, really rugged. +They've treated 50,000 kids in Vietnam with this technology. +But here's the problem: Every doctor in the world, every hospital administrator, has seen TV -- curse those "ER" reruns! +Turns out they all know what a medical device is supposed to look like. +They want Buck Rogers, they don't want effective. +It sounds crazy, it sounds dumb, but there are actually hospitals who would rather have no equipment than something that looks cheap and crummy. +So again, if we want people to trust a device, it has to look trustworthy. +So thinking about outcomes, it turns out appearances matter. +We took all that information together. +We tried, this time, to get it right. +And here's what we developed. +This is the Firefly phototherapy device, except this time, we didn't stop at the concept car. +From the very beginning, we started by talking to manufacturers. +Our goal is to make a state-of-the-art product that our partner MTTS can actually manufacture. +Our goal is to study how they work, the resources they have access to, so that they can make this product. +So that's the design for manufacture question. +When we think about actual use, you'll notice that Firefly has a single bassinet. +It only fits a single baby, and the idea here is it's obvious how you ought to use this device. +If you try to put more than one kid in, you're stacking them on top of each other. +So the idea here is you want to make it hard to use wrong. +In other words, you want to make the right way to use it the easiest way to use it. +Another example -- again, silly Mom. +Silly Mom thinks her baby looks cold, wants to put a blanket over the baby. +That's why we have lights above and below the baby in Firefly, so if Mom does put a blanket over the baby, it's still receiving effective phototherapy from below. +Last story here: I've got a friend in India who told me that you haven't really tested a piece of electronic technology for distribution in Asia, until you've trained a cockroach to climb in and pee on every single little component on the inside. +You think it's funny. +I had a laptop in the Peace Corps, and the screen had all these dead pixels on it. +And one day I looked in -- they were all dead ants that had gotten into my laptop and perished. +Those poor ants. +So with Firefly, what we did is -- the problem is electronics get hot, and you have to put in vents or fans to keep them cool -- in most products. +We decided we can't put a "Do not enter" sign next to the vent. +We actually got rid of all that stuff. +So Firefly's totally sealed. +These are the kinds of lessons -- as awkward as it was to be a pretty goofy teenager, much worse to be a frustrated designer. +So I was thinking, "What I really want to do is change the world. +I have to pay attention to manufacturing and distribution. +I have to pay attention to how people are actually going to use a device. +I actually have to pay attention. There's no excuse for failure. +I have to think like an existentialist. +I have to accept that there are no dumb users, only dumb products." +We have to ask ourselves hard questions. +Are we designing for the world that we want? +Are we designing for the world that we have? +Are we designing for the world that's coming, whether we're ready or not? +I got into this business designing products. +I've since learned that if you really want to make a difference in the world, you have to design outcomes. +And that's design that matters. +Thank you. +I'm going to tell you about why I became a sculptor, and you may think that sculptors, well, they deal with meta, they deal with objects, they deal with bodies, but I think, really, what I care about most is making space, and that's what I've called this talk: Making Space. +Space that exists within us, and without us. +So, when I was a child, I don't know how many of you grew up in the '50s, but I was sent upstairs for an enforced rest. It's a really bad idea. I mean, after lunch, you're, you know, you're six, and you want to go and climb a tree. +But I had to go upstairs, this tiny little room that was actually made out of an old balcony, so it was incredibly hot, small and light, and I had to lie there. It was ridiculous. +But anyway, for some reason, I promised myself that I wasn't going to move, that I was going to do this thing that Mummy wanted me to do. +Do you mind if we do something completely different? +Can we all just close our eyes for a minute? +Now, this isn't going to be freaky. +It isn't some cultic thing. It's just, it's just, I just would like us all to go there. +So I'm going to do it too. We'll all be there together. +So close your eyes for a minute. +Here we are, in a space, the subjective, collective space of the darkness of the body. +I think of this as the place of imagination, of potential, but what are its qualities? +It is objectless. There are no things in it. +It is dimensionless. It is limitless. +It is endless. +Okay, open your eyes. +That's the space that I think sculpture -- which is a bit of a paradox, sculpture that is about making material propositions -- but I think that's the space that sculpture can connect us with. +So, imagine we're in the middle of America. +You're asleep. You wake up, and without lifting your head from the earth on your sleeping bag, you can see for 70 miles. +This is a dry lake bed. +I was young. I'd just finished art school. +I wanted to do something that was working directly with the world, directly with place. +This was a wonderful place, because it was a place where you could imagine that you were the first person to be there. +It was a place where nothing very much had happened. +Anyway, bear with me. +I picked up a hand-sized stone, threw it as far as I was able, it was about 22 meters. +I then cleared all the stones within that radius and made a pile. +And that was the pile, by the way. +And then, I stood on the pile, and threw all of those rocks out again, and here is rearranged desert. +You could say, well, it doesn't look very different from when he started. +What's all the fuss about? +In fact, Chris was worried and said, "Look, don't show them that slide, because they're just going to think you're another one of those crazy modern artists who doesn't do much. +But the fact is, this is evidence of a living body on other bodies, rocks that have been the subject of geological formation, erosion, the action of time on objects. +The elemental world that we all live in is that space that we all visited together, the darkness of the body. +I wanted to start again with that environment, the environment of the intimate, subjective space that each of us lives in, but from the other side of appearance. +So here is a daily activity of the studio. +You can see I don't do much. I'm just standing there, again with my eyes closed, and other people are molding me, evidential. +This is an indexical register of a lived moment of a body in time. +Can we map that space, using the language of neutrinos or cosmic rays, taking the bounding condition of the body as its limit, but in complete reversal of, in a way, the most traditional Greek idea of pointing? +In the old days they used to take a lump of Pentelic marble and drill from the surface in order to identify the skin, the appearance, what Aristotle defined as the distinction between substance and appearance, the thing that makes things visible, but here we're working from the other side. +Or can we do it as an exclusive membrane? +This is a lead case made around the space that my body occupied, but it's now void. +This is a work called "Learning To See." +It's a bit of, well, we could call it night, we could call it the 96 percent of gravity that we don't know about, dark matter, placed in space, anyway, another version of a human space in space at large, but I don't know if you can see, the eyes are indicated, they're closed. +It's called "Learning To See" because it's about an object that hopefully works reflexively and talks about that vision or connection with the darkness of the body that I see as a space of potential. +Can we do it another way, using the language of particles around a nucleus, and talk about the body as an energy center? +Is there another way? +Dark matter now placed against a horizon. +If minds live in bodies, if bodies live in clothes, and then in rooms, and then in buildings, and then in cities, do they also have a final skin, and is that skin perceptual? +The horizon. +And is art about trying to imagine what lies beyond the horizon? +Human time, industrial time, tested against the time of the tides, in which these memories of a particular body, that could be any body, multiplied as in the time of mechanical reproduction, many times, placed over three square miles, a mile out to sea, disappearing, in different conditions of day and night. +You can see this work. It's on the mouth of the Mersey, just outside Liverpool. +And there you can see what a Liverpool sea looks like on a typical afternoon. +The pieces appear and disappear, but maybe more importantly -- this is just looking north from the center of the installation -- they create a field, a field that involves living and the surrogate bodies in a kind of relation, a relation with each other and a relation with that limit, the edge, the horizon. +Just moving on, is it possible, taking that idea of mind, body, body-building, to supplant the first body, the biological body, with the second, the body of architecture and the built environment. +This is a work called "Room for the Great Australian Desert." +It's in an undefined location and I've never published where it is. +It's an object for the mind. +I think of it as a 21st-century Buddha. +Again, the darkness of the body, now held within this bunker shape of the minimum position that a body needs to occupy, a crouching body. +There's a hole at the anus, penis level. +There are holes at ears. There are no holes at the eyes. +There's a slot for the mouth. It's two and a half inches thick, concrete with a void interior. +Again, a site found with a completely flat 360-degree horizon. +This is just simply asking, again, as if we had arrived for the first time, what is the relationship of the human project to time and space? +Taking that idiom of, as it were, the darkness of the body transferred to architecture, can you use architectural space not for living but as a metaphor, and use its systolic, diastolic smaller and larger spaces to provide a kind of firsthand somatic narrative for a journey through space, light and darkness? +This is a work of some proportion and some weight that makes the body into a city, an aggregation of cells that are all interconnected and that allow certain visual access at certain places. +The last work that I just wanted to share with you is "Blind Light," which is perhaps the most open work, and in a conference of radical openness, I think maybe this is as radical as I get, using light and water vapor as my materials. +Here is a box filled at one and a half atmospheres of atmospheric pressure, with a cloud and with very bright light. +As you walk towards the ever-open threshold, you disappear, both to yourselves and to others. +If you hold your hand out in front of you, you can't see it. +If you look down, you can't see your feet. +You are now consciousness without an object, freed from the dimensionful and measured way in which life links us to the obligatory. +But this is a space that is actually filled with people, disembodied voices, and out of that ambient environment, when people come close to your own body zone, very close, they appear to you as representations. +When they appear close to the edge, they are representations, representations in which the viewers have become the viewed. +For me, art is not about objects of high monetary exchange. +It's about reasserting our firsthand experience in present time. +As John Cage said, "We are not moving towards some kind of goal. +We are at the goal, and it is changing with us. +If art has any purpose, it is to open our eyes to that fact." +Thank you very much. +Sydney. I had been waiting my whole life to get to Sydney. +I got to the airport, to the hotel, checked in, and, sitting there in the lobby, was a brochure for the Sydney Festival. I thumbed through it, and I came across a show called "Minto: Live." +The description read: "The suburban streets of Minto become the stage for performances created by international artists in collaboration with the people of Minto." +What was this place called Minto? +Sydney, as I would learn, is a city of suburbs, and Minto lies southwest, about an hour away. +I have to say, it wasn't exactly what I had in mind for my first day down under. +I mean, I'd thought about the Harbour Bridge or Bondi Beach, but Minto? But still, I'm a producer, and the lure of a site-specific theater project was more than I could resist. So, off I went into Friday afternoon traffic, and I'll never forget what I saw when I got there. +For the performance, the audience walked around the neighborhood from house to house, and the residents, who were the performers, they came out of their houses, and they performed these autobiographical dances on their lawns, on their driveways. The show is a collaboration with a U.K.-based performance company called Lone Twin. +Lone Twin had come to Minto and worked with the residents, and they had created these dances. +This Australian-Indian girl, she came out and started to dance on her front lawn, and her father peered out the window to see what all the noise and commotion was about, and he soon joined her. +And he was followed by her little sister. +And soon they were all dancing this joyous, exuberant dance right there on their lawn. And as I walked through the neighborhood, I was amazed and I was moved by the incredible sense of ownership this community clearly felt about this event. +"Minto: Live" brought Sydneysiders into dialogue with international artists, and really celebrated the diversity of Sydney on its own terms. +The Sydney Festival which produced "Minto: Live" I think represents a new kind of 21st-century arts festival. +These festivals are radically open. +They can transform cities and communities. +To understand this, I think it kind of makes sense to look where we've come from. +Modern arts festivals were born in the rubble of World War II. +Civic leaders created these annual events to celebrate culture as the highest expression of the human spirit. +In 1947, the Edinburgh Festival was born and Avignon was born and hundreds of others would follow in their wake. +The work they did was very, very high art, and stars came along like Laurie Anderson and Merce Cunningham and Robert Lepage who made work for this circuit, and you had these seminal shows like "The Mahabharata" and the monumental "Einstein on the Beach." +But as the decades passed, these festivals, they really became the establishment, and as the culture and capital accelerated, the Internet brought us all together, high and low kind of disappeared, a new kind of festival emerged. +The old festivals, they continued to thrive, but from Brighton to Rio to Perth, something new was emerging, and these festivals were really different. +They're open, these festivals, because, like in Minto, they understand that the dialogue between the local and the global is essential. +They're open because they ask the audience to be a player, a protagonist, a partner, rather than a passive spectator, and they're open because they know that imagination cannot be contained in buildings, and so much of the work they do is site-specific or outdoor work. +So, the new festival, it asks the audience to play an essential role in shaping the performance. +Companies like De La Guarda, which I produce, and Punchdrunk create these completely immersive experiences that put the audience at the center of the action, but the German performance company Rimini Protokoll takes this all to a whole new level. +In a series of shows that includes "100 Percent Vancouver," "100 Percent Berlin," Rimini Protokoll makes shows that actually reflect society. +Rimini Protokoll chooses 100 people that represent that city at that moment in terms of race and gender and class, through a careful process that begins three months before, and then those 100 people share stories about themselves and their lives, and the whole thing becomes a snapshot of that city at that moment. +LIFT has always been a pioneer in the use of venues. +They understand that theater and performance can happen anywhere. +You can do a show in a schoolroom, in an airport, in a department store window. +Artists are explorers. Who better to show us the city anew? +Artists can take us to a far-flung part of the city that we haven't explored, or they can take us into that building that we pass every day but we never went into. +An artist, I think, can really show us people that we might overlook in our lives. +Back to Back is an Australian company of people with intellectual disabilities. I saw their amazing show in New York at the Staten Island Ferry Terminal at rush hour. +We, the audience, were given headsets and seated on one side of the terminal. +The actors were right there in front of us, right there among the commuters, and we could hear them, but we might not have otherwise seen them. +So Back to Back takes site-specific theater and uses it to gently remind us about who and what we choose to edit out of our daily lives. +So, the dialogue with the local and the global, the audience as participant and player and protagonist, the innovative use of site, all of these things come to play in the amazing work of the fantastic French company Royal de Luxe. +Royal de Luxe's giant puppets come into a city and they live there for a few days. +For "The Sultan's Elephant," Royal de Luxe came to central London and brought it to a standstill with their story of a giant little girl and her friend, a time-traveling elephant. +For a few days, they transformed a massive city into a community where endless possibility reigned. +The Guardian wrote, "If art is about transformation, then there can be no more transformative experience. +What 'The Sultan's Elephant' represents is no less than an artistic occupation of the city and a reclamation of the streets for the people." +We can talk about the economic impacts of these festivals on their cities, but I'm much [more] interested in many more things, like how a festival helps a city to express itself, how it lets it come into its own. +Festivals promote diversity, they bring neighbors into dialogue, they increase creativity, they offer opportunities for civic pride, they improve our general psychological well-being. +In short, they make cities better places to live. +Case in point: When "The Sultan's Elephant" came to London just nine months after 7/7, a Londoner wrote, "For the first time since the London bombings, my daughter called up with that sparkle back in her voice. +She had gathered with others to watch 'The Sultan's Elephant,' and, you know, it just made all the difference." +Lyn Gardner in The Guardian has written that a great festival can show us a map of the world, a map of the city and a map of ourselves, but there is no one fixed festival model. +I think what's so brilliant about the festivals, the new festivals, is that they are really fully capturing the complexity and the excitement of the way we all live today. +Thank you very much. +Hi. So I'd like to talk a little bit about the people who make the things we use every day: our shoes, our handbags, our computers and cell phones. +Now, this is a conversation that often calls up a lot of guilt. +Imagine the teenage farm girl who makes less than a dollar an hour stitching your running shoes, or the young Chinese man who jumps off a rooftop after working overtime assembling your iPad. +We, the beneficiaries of globalization, seem to exploit these victims with every purchase we make, and the injustice feels embedded in the products themselves. +After all, what's wrong with a world in which a worker on an iPhone assembly line can't even afford to buy one? +It's taken for granted that Chinese factories are oppressive, and that it's our desire for cheap goods that makes them so. +So, this simple narrative equating Western demand and Chinese suffering is appealing, especially at a time when many of us already feel guilty about our impact on the world, but it's also inaccurate and disrespectful. +We must be peculiarly self-obsessed to imagine that we have the power to drive tens of millions of people on the other side of the world to migrate and suffer in such terrible ways. +In fact, China makes goods for markets all over the world, including its own, thanks to a combination of factors: its low costs, its large and educated workforce, and a flexible manufacturing system that responds quickly to market demands. +By focusing so much on ourselves and our gadgets, we have rendered the individuals on the other end into invisibility, as tiny and interchangeable as the parts of a mobile phone. +Chinese workers are not forced into factories because of our insatiable desire for iPods. +They choose to leave their homes in order to earn money, to learn new skills, and to see the world. +In the ongoing debate about globalization, what's been missing is the voices of the workers themselves. +Here are a few. +Bao Yongxiu: "My mother tells me to come home and get married, but if I marry now, before I have fully developed myself, I can only marry an ordinary worker, so I'm not in a rush." +Chen Ying: "When I went home for the new year, everyone said I had changed. They asked me, what did you do that you have changed so much? +I told them that I studied and worked hard. If you tell them more, they won't understand anyway." +Wu Chunming: "Even if I make a lot of money, it won't satisfy me. +Just to make money is not enough meaning in life." +Xiao Jin: "Now, after I get off work, I study English, because in the future, our customers won't be only Chinese, so we must learn more languages." +All of these speakers, by the way, are young women, 18 or 19 years old. +So I spent two years getting to know assembly line workers like these in the south China factory city called Dongguan. +Certain subjects came up over and over: how much money they made, what kind of husband they hoped to marry, whether they should jump to another factory or stay where they were. +Other subjects came up almost never, including living conditions that to me looked close to prison life: 10 or 15 workers in one room, 50 people sharing a single bathroom, days and nights ruled by the factory clock. +Everyone they knew lived in similar circumstances, and it was still better than the dormitories and homes of rural China. +The workers rarely spoke about the products they made, and they often had great difficulty explaining what exactly they did. +When I asked Lu Qingmin, the young woman I got to know best, what exactly she did on the factory floor, she said something to me in Chinese that sounded like "qiu xi." +Only much later did I realize that she had been saying "QC," or quality control. +She couldn't even tell me what she did on the factory floor. +All she could do was parrot a garbled abbreviation in a language she didn't even understand. +Karl Marx saw this as the tragedy of capitalism, the alienation of the worker from the product of his labor. +Unlike, say, a traditional maker of shoes or cabinets, the worker in an industrial factory has no control, no pleasure, and no true satisfaction or understanding in her own work. +But like so many theories that Marx arrived at sitting in the reading room of the British Museum, he got this one wrong. +Just because a person spends her time making a piece of something does not mean that she becomes that, a piece of something. +What she does with the money she earns, what she learns in that place, and how it changes her, these are the things that matter. +What a factory makes is never the point, and the workers could not care less who buys their products. +Journalistic coverage of Chinese factories, on the other hand, plays up this relationship between the workers and the products they make. +Many articles calculate: How long would it take for this worker to work in order to earn enough money to buy what he's making? +For example, an entry-level-line assembly line worker in China in an iPhone plant would have to shell out two and a half months' wages for an iPhone. +But how meaningful is this calculation, really? +For example, I recently wrote an article in The New Yorker magazine, but I can't afford to buy an ad in it. +But, who cares? I don't want an ad in The New Yorker, and most of these workers don't really want iPhones. +Their calculations are different. +How long should I stay in this factory? +How much money can I save? +How much will it take to buy an apartment or a car, to get married, or to put my child through school? +The workers I got to know had a curiously abstract relationship with the product of their labor. +About a year after I met Lu Qingmin, or Min, she invited me home to her family village for the Chinese New Year. +On the train home, she gave me a present: a Coach brand change purse with brown leather trim. +I thanked her, assuming it was fake, like almost everything else for sale in Dongguan. +After we got home, Min gave her mother another present: a pink Dooney & Bourke handbag, and a few nights later, her sister was showing off a maroon LeSportsac shoulder bag. +Slowly it was dawning on me that these handbags were made by their factory, and every single one of them was authentic. +Min's sister said to her parents, "In America, this bag sells for 320 dollars." +Her parents, who are both farmers, looked on, speechless. +"And that's not all -- Coach is coming out with a new line, 2191," she said. "One bag will sell for 6,000." +She paused and said, "I don't know if that's 6,000 yuan or 6,000 American dollars, but anyway, it's 6,000." Min's sister's boyfriend, who had traveled home with her for the new year, said, "It doesn't look like it's worth that much." +Min's sister turned to him and said, "Some people actually understand these things. You don't understand shit." +In Min's world, the Coach bags had a curious currency. +They weren't exactly worthless, but they were nothing close to the actual value, because almost no one they knew wanted to buy one, or knew how much it was worth. +Once, when Min's older sister's friend got married, she brought a handbag along as a wedding present. +Another time, after Min had already left the handbag factory, her younger sister came to visit, bringing two Coach Signature handbags as gifts. +I looked in the zippered pocket of one, and I found a printed card in English, which read, "An American classic. +In 1941, the burnished patina of an all-American baseball glove inspired the founder of Coach to create a new collection of handbags from the same luxuriously soft gloved-hand leather. +Six skilled leatherworkers crafted 12 Signature handbags with perfect proportions and a timeless flair. +They were fresh, functional, and women everywhere adored them. A new American classic was born." +I wonder what Karl Marx would have made of Min and her sisters. +Their relationship with the product of their labor was more complicated, surprising and funny than he could have imagined. +And yet, his view of the world persists, and our tendency to see the workers as faceless masses, to imagine that we can know what they're really thinking. +The first time I met Min, she had just turned 18 and quit her first job on the assembly line of an electronics factory. +Over the next two years, I watched as she switched jobs five times, eventually landing a lucrative post in the purchasing department of a hardware factory. +Later, she married a fellow migrant worker, moved with him to his village, gave birth to two daughters, and saved enough money to buy a secondhand Buick for herself and an apartment for her parents. +She recently returned to Dongguan on her own to take a job in a factory that makes construction cranes, temporarily leaving her husband and children back in the village. +In a recent email to me, she explained, "A person should have some ambition while she is young so that in old age she can look back on her life and feel that it was not lived to no purpose." +Across China, there are 150 million workers like her, one third of them women, who have left their villages to work in the factories, the hotels, the restaurants and the construction sites of the big cities. +Very few of them would want to go back to the way things used to be. +When I first went to Dongguan, I worried that it would be depressing to spend so much time with workers. +I also worried that nothing would ever happen to them, or that they would have nothing to say to me. +Instead, I found young women who were smart and funny and brave and generous. +By opening up their lives to me, they taught me so much about factories and about China and about how to live in the world. +This is the Coach purse that Min gave me on the train home to visit her family. +I keep it with me to remind me of the ties that tie me to the young women I wrote about, ties that are not economic but personal in nature, measured not in money but in memories. +This purse is also a reminder that the things that you imagine, sitting in your office or in the library, are not how you find them when you actually go out into the world. +Thank you. Chris Anderson: Thank you, Leslie, that was an insight that a lot of us haven't had before. +But I'm curious. If you had a minute, say, with Apple's head of manufacturing, what would you say? +Leslie Chang: One minute? +CA: One minute. LC: You know, what really impressed me about the workers is how much they're self-motivated, self-driven, resourceful, and the thing that struck me, what they want most is education, to learn, because most of them come from very poor backgrounds. +They usually left school when they were in 7th or 8th grade. +Their parents are often illiterate, and then they come to the city, and they, on their own, at night, during the weekends, they'll take a computer class, they'll take an English class, and learn really, really rudimentary things, you know, like how to type a document in Word, or how to say really simple things in English. +So, if you really want to help these workers, start these small, very focused, very pragmatic classes in these schools, and what's going to happen is, all your workers are going to move on, but hopefully they'll move on into higher jobs within Apple, and you can help their social mobility and their self-improvement. +When you talk to workers, that's what they want. +They do not say, "I want better hot water in the showers. +I want a nicer room. I want a TV set." +I mean, it would be nice to have those things, but that's not why they're in the city, and that's not what they care about. +CA: Was there a sense from them of a narrative that things were kind of tough and bad, or was there a narrative of some kind of level of growth, that things over time were getting better? +LC: Oh definitely, definitely. I mean, you know, it was interesting, because I spent basically two years hanging out in this city, Dongguan, and over that time, you could see immense change in every person's life: upward, downward, sideways, but generally upward. +If you spend enough time, it's upward, and I met people who had moved to the city 10 years ago, and who are now basically urban middle class people, so the trajectory is definitely upward. +It's just hard to see when you're suddenly sucked into the city. It looks like everyone's poor and desperate, but that's not really how it is. +CA: Thanks so much for your talk. +Thank you very much. +In System D, this is a store, and what I mean by that is that this is a photograph I took in Makoko, shantytown in Lagos, Nigeria. +It's built over the lagoon, and there are no streets where there can be stores to shop, and so the store comes to you. +And in the same community, this is business synergy. +This is the boat that that lady was paddling around in, and this artisan makes the boat and the paddles and sells directly to the people who need the boat and the paddles. +And this is a global business. +Ogandiro smokes fish in Makoko in Lagos, and I asked her, "Where does the fish come from?" +And I thought she'd say, "Oh, you know, up the lagoon somewhere, or maybe across Africa," but you'll be happy to know she said it came from here, it comes from the North Sea. +It's caught here, frozen, shipped down to Lagos, smoked, and sold for a tiny increment of profit on the streets of Lagos. +And this is a business incubator. +This is Olusosun dump, the largest garbage dump in Lagos, and 2,000 people work here, and I found this out from this fellow, Andrew Saboru. +Andrew spent 16 years scavenging materials on the dump, earned enough money to turn himself into a contract scaler, which meant he carried a scale and went around and weighed all the materials that people had scavenged from the dump. Now he's a scrap dealer. +That's his little depot behind him, and he earns twice the Nigerian minimum wage. +This is a shopping mall. +This is Oshodi Market in Lagos. +Jorge Luis Borges had a story called "The Aleph," and the Aleph is a point in the world where absolutely everything exists, and for me, this image is a point in the world where absolutely everything exists. +So, what am I talking about when I talk about System D? +It's traditionally called the informal economy, the underground economy, the black market. +I don't conceive of it that way. +I think it's really important to understand that something like this is totally open. It's right there for you to find. +All of this is happening openly, and aboveboard. +There's nothing underground about it. +It's our prejudgment that it's underground. +I've pirated the term System D from the former French colonies. +There's a word in French that is dbrouillardise, that means to be self-reliant, and the former French colonies have turned that into System D for the economy of self-reliance, or the DIY economy. +But governments hate the DIY economy, and that's why -- I took this picture in 2007, and this is the same market in 2009 -- and I think, when the organizers of this conference were talking about radical openness, they didn't mean that the streets should be open and the people should be gone. +I think what we have is a pickle problem. +I had a friend who worked at a pickle factory, and the cucumbers would come flying down this conveyer belt, and his job was to pick off the ones that didn't look so good and throw them in the bin labeled "relish" where they'd be crushed and mixed with vinegar and used for other kinds of profit. +This is the pickle economy. +We're all focusing on this is a statistic from earlier this month in the Financial Times we're all focusing on the luxury economy. +It's worth 1.5 trillion dollars every year, and that's a vast amount of money, right? +That's three times the Gross Domestic Product of Switzerland. +So it's vast. But it should come with an asterisk, and the asterisk is that it excludes two thirds of the workers of the world. +1.8 billion people around the world work in the economy that is unregulated and informal. +That's a huge number, and what does that mean? +Well, it means if it were united in a single political system, one country, call it "The United Street Sellers Republic," the U.S.S.R., or "Bazaaristan," it would be worth 10 trillion dollars every year, and that would make it the second largest economy in the world, after the United States. +And given that projections are that the bulk of economic growth over the next 15 years will come from emerging economies in the developing world, it could easily overtake the United States and become the largest economy in the world. +So the implications of that are vast, because it means that this is where employment is 1.8 billion people and this is where we can create a more egalitarian world, because people are actually able to earn money and live and thrive, as Andrew Saboru did. +Big businesses have recognized this, and what's fascinating about this slide, it's not that the guys can carry boxes on their heads and run around without dropping them off. +it's that the Gala sausage roll is a product that's made by a global company called UAC foods that's active throughout Africa and the Middle East, but the Gala sausage roll is not sold in stores. +UAC foods has recognized that it won't sell if it's in stores. +It's only sold by a phalanx of street hawkers who run around the streets of Lagos at bus stations and in traffic jams and sell it as a snack, and it's been sold that way for 40 years. +It's a business plan for a corporation. +And it's not just in Africa. +So Procter & Gamble says, "We don't care whether a store is incorporated or registered or anything like that. +We want our products in that store." +And then there's mobile phones. +This is an ad for MTN, which is a South African multinational active in about 25 countries, and when they came into Nigeria Nigeria is the big dog in Africa. +And they went back to the drawing board, and they retooled, and they came up with another plan: We don't sell you the phone, we don't sell you the monthly plan. +We only sell you airtime. +And where's the airtime sold? +It's sold at umbrella stands all over the streets, where people are unregistered, unlicensed, but MTN makes most of its profits, perhaps 90 percent of its profits, from selling through System D, the informal economy. +And where do the phones come from? +Well, they come from here. This is in Guangzhou, China, and if you go upstairs in this rather sleepy looking electronics mall, you find the Guangzhou Dashatou second-hand trade center, and if you go in there, you follow the guys with the muscles who are carrying the boxes, and where are they going? +They're going to Eddy in Lagos. +Now, most of the phones there are not second-hand at all. +The name is a misnomer. +Most of them are pirated. They have the name brand on them, but they're not manufactured by the name brand. +Now, are there downsides to that? +Well, I guess. You know, China has no no intellectual property, right? +Versace without the vowels. +Zhuomani instead of Armani. +S. Guuuci, and -- All around the world this is how products are being distributed, so, for instance, in one street market on Rua 25 de Maro in So Paulo, Brazil, you can buy fake designer glasses. +You can buy cloned cologne. +You can buy pirated DVDs, of course. +You can buy New York Yankees caps in all sorts of unauthorized patterns. +Now, there's another problem. +This is a real street sign in Lagos, Nigeria. +All of System D really doesn't pay taxes, right? +There was one company that paid 4,000 bribes in the first decade of this millennium, and a million dollars in bribes every business day, right? +All over the world. And that company was the big German electronics giant Siemens. +So this goes on in the formal economy as well as the informal economy, so it's wrong of us to blame and I'm not singling out Siemens, I'm saying everyone does it. Okay? +I just want to end by saying that if Adam Smith had framed out a theory of the flea market instead of the free market, what would be some of the principles? +First, it would be to understand that it could be considered a cooperative, and this is a thought from the Brazilian legal scholar Roberto Mangabeira Unger. +Cooperative development is a way forward. +Secondly, from the [Austrian] anarchist philosopher Paul Feyerabend, facts are relative, and what is a massive right of self-reliance to a Nigerian businessperson is considered unauthorized and horrible to other people, and we have to recognize that there are differences in how people define things and what their facts are. +And third is, and I'm taking this from the great American beat poet Allen Ginsberg, that alternate economies barter and different kinds of currency, alternate currencies are also very important, and he talked about buying what he needed just with his good looks. +And so I just want to leave you there, and say that this economy is a tremendous force for global development and we need to think about it that way. +Thank you very much. +I'd like to tell you about two games of chess. +The first happened in 1997, in which Garry Kasparov, a human, lost to Deep Blue, a machine. +To many, this was the dawn of a new era, one where man would be dominated by machine. +But here we are, 20 years on, and the greatest change in how we relate to computers is the iPad, not HAL. +The second game was a freestyle chess tournament in 2005, in which man and machine could enter together as partners, rather than adversaries, if they so chose. +At first, the results were predictable. +Even a supercomputer was beaten by a grandmaster with a relatively weak laptop. +The surprise came at the end. Who won? +Not a grandmaster with a supercomputer, but actually two American amateurs using three relatively weak laptops. +Their ability to coach and manipulate their computers to deeply explore specific positions effectively counteracted the superior chess knowledge of the grandmasters and the superior computational power of other adversaries. +This is an astonishing result: average men, average machines beating the best man, the best machine. +And anyways, isn't it supposed to be man versus machine? +Instead, it's about cooperation, and the right type of cooperation. +We've been paying a lot of attention to Marvin Minsky's vision for artificial intelligence over the last 50 years. +It's a sexy vision, for sure. Many have embraced it. +It's become the dominant school of thought in computer science. +But as we enter the era of big data, of network systems, of open platforms, and embedded technology, I'd like to suggest it's time to reevaluate an alternative vision that was actually developed around the same time. +I'm talking about J.C.R. Licklider's human-computer symbiosis, perhaps better termed "intelligence augmentation," I.A. +Licklider was a computer science titan who had a profound effect on the development of technology and the Internet. +His vision was to enable man and machine to cooperate in making decisions, controlling complex situations without the inflexible dependence on predetermined programs. +Note that word "cooperate." +Licklider encourages us not to take a toaster and make it Data from "Star Trek," but to take a human and make her more capable. +Humans are so amazing -- how we think, our non-linear approaches, our creativity, iterative hypotheses, all very difficult if possible at all for computers to do. +Licklider intuitively realized this, contemplating humans setting the goals, formulating the hypotheses, determining the criteria, and performing the evaluation. +Of course, in other ways, humans are so limited. +We're terrible at scale, computation and volume. +We require high-end talent management to keep the rock band together and playing. +Licklider foresaw computers doing all the routinizable work that was required to prepare the way for insights and decision making. +Silently, without much fanfare, this approach has been compiling victories beyond chess. +Protein folding, a topic that shares the incredible expansiveness of chess there are more ways of folding a protein than there are atoms in the universe. +This is a world-changing problem with huge implications for our ability to understand and treat disease. +And for this task, supercomputer field brute force simply isn't enough. +Foldit, a game created by computer scientists, illustrates the value of the approach. +Non-technical, non-biologist amateurs play a video game in which they visually rearrange the structure of the protein, allowing the computer to manage the atomic forces and interactions and identify structural issues. +This approach beat supercomputers 50 percent of the time and tied 30 percent of the time. +Foldit recently made a notable and major scientific discovery by deciphering the structure of the Mason-Pfizer monkey virus. +A protease that had eluded determination for over 10 years was solved was by three players in a matter of days, perhaps the first major scientific advance to come from playing a video game. +Last year, on the site of the Twin Towers, the 9/11 memorial opened. +It displays the names of the thousands of victims using a beautiful concept called "meaningful adjacency." +It places the names next to each other based on their relationships to one another: friends, families, coworkers. +When you put it all together, it's quite a computational challenge: 3,500 victims, 1,800 adjacency requests, the importance of the overall physical specifications and the final aesthetics. +When first reported by the media, full credit for such a feat was given to an algorithm from the New York City design firm Local Projects. The truth is a bit more nuanced. +While an algorithm was used to develop the underlying framework, humans used that framework to design the final result. +So in this case, a computer had evaluated millions of possible layouts, managed a complex relational system, and kept track of a very large set of measurements and variables, allowing the humans to focus on design and compositional choices. +So the more you look around you, the more you see Licklider's vision everywhere. +Whether it's augmented reality in your iPhone or GPS in your car, human-computer symbiosis is making us more capable. +So if you want to improve human-computer symbiosis, what can you do? +You can start by designing the human into the process. +Instead of thinking about what a computer will do to solve the problem, design the solution around what the human will do as well. +When you do this, you'll quickly realize that you spent all of your time on the interface between man and machine, specifically on designing away the friction in the interaction. +In fact, this friction is more important than the power of the man or the power of the machine in determining overall capability. +That's why two amateurs with a few laptops handily beat a supercomputer and a grandmaster. +What Kasparov calls process is a byproduct of friction. +The better the process, the less the friction. +And minimizing friction turns out to be the decisive variable. +Or take another example: big data. +Every interaction we have in the world is recorded by an ever growing array of sensors: your phone, your credit card, your computer. The result is big data, and it actually presents us with an opportunity to more deeply understand the human condition. +The major emphasis of most approaches to big data focus on, "How do I store this data? How do I search this data? How do I process this data?" +These are necessary but insufficient questions. +The imperative is not to figure out how to compute, but what to compute. How do you impose human intuition on data at this scale? +Again, we start by designing the human into the process. +When PayPal was first starting as a business, their biggest challenge was not, "How do I send money back and forth online?" +It was, "How do I do that without being defrauded by organized crime?" +Why so challenging? Because while computers can learn to detect and identify fraud based on patterns, they can't learn to do that based on patterns they've never seen before, and organized crime has a lot in common with this audience: brilliant people, relentlessly resourceful, entrepreneurial spirit and one huge and important difference: purpose. +And so while computers alone can catch all but the cleverest fraudsters, catching the cleverest is the difference between success and failure. +There's a whole class of problems like this, ones with adaptive adversaries. They rarely if ever present with a repeatable pattern that's discernable to computers. +Instead, there's some inherent component of innovation or disruption, and increasingly these problems are buried in big data. +For example, terrorism. Terrorists are always adapting in minor and major ways to new circumstances, and despite what you might see on TV, these adaptations, and the detection of them, are fundamentally human. +Computers don't detect novel patterns and new behaviors, but humans do. Humans, using technology, testing hypotheses, searching for insight by asking machines to do things for them. +Osama bin Laden was not caught by artificial intelligence. +He was caught by dedicated, resourceful, brilliant people in partnerships with various technologies. +As appealing as it might sound, you cannot algorithmically data mine your way to the answer. +There is no "Find Terrorist" button, and the more data we integrate from a vast variety of sources across a wide variety of data formats from very disparate systems, the less effective data mining can be. +Instead, people will have to look at data and search for insight, and as Licklider foresaw long ago, the key to great results here is the right type of cooperation, and as Kasparov realized, that means minimizing friction at the interface. +Now this approach makes possible things like combing through all available data from very different sources, identifying key relationships and putting them in one place, something that's been nearly impossible to do before. +To some, this has terrifying privacy and civil liberties implications. To others it foretells of an era of greater privacy and civil liberties protections, but privacy and civil liberties are of fundamental importance. +That must be acknowledged, and they can't be swept aside, even with the best of intents. +So let's explore, through a couple of examples, the impact that technologies built to drive human-computer symbiosis have had in recent time. +In October, 2007, U.S. and coalition forces raided an al Qaeda safe house in the city of Sinjar on the Syrian border of Iraq. +They found a treasure trove of documents: 700 biographical sketches of foreign fighters. +These foreign fighters had left their families in the Gulf, the Levant and North Africa to join al Qaeda in Iraq. +These records were human resource forms. +The foreign fighters filled them out as they joined the organization. +It turns out that al Qaeda, too, is not without its bureaucracy. They answered questions like, "Who recruited you?" +"What's your hometown?" "What occupation do you seek?" +In that last question, a surprising insight was revealed. +The vast majority of foreign fighters were seeking to become suicide bombers for martyrdom -- hugely important, since between 2003 and 2007, Iraq had 1,382 suicide bombings, a major source of instability. +Analyzing this data was hard. The originals were sheets of paper in Arabic that had to be scanned and translated. +The friction in the process did not allow for meaningful results in an operational time frame using humans, PDFs and tenacity alone. +The researchers had to lever up their human minds with technology to dive deeper, to explore non-obvious hypotheses, and in fact, insights emerged. +In March of 2007, he gave a speech, after which there was a surge in participation amongst Libyan foreign fighters. +Perhaps most clever of all, though, and least obvious, by flipping the data on its head, the researchers were able to deeply explore the coordination networks in Syria that were ultimately responsible for receiving and transporting the foreign fighters to the border. +These were networks of mercenaries, not ideologues, who were in the coordination business for profit. +For example, they charged Saudi foreign fighters substantially more than Libyans, money that would have otherwise gone to al Qaeda. +Perhaps the adversary would disrupt their own network if they knew they cheating would-be jihadists. +In January, 2010, a devastating 7.0 earthquake struck Haiti, third deadliest earthquake of all time, left one million people, 10 percent of the population, homeless. +One seemingly small aspect of the overall relief effort became increasingly important as the delivery of food and water started rolling. +January and February are the dry months in Haiti, yet many of the camps had developed standing water. +The only institution with detailed knowledge of Haiti's in the earthquake, leadership inside. +So the question is, which camps are at risk, how many people are in these camps, what's the timeline for flooding, and given very limited resources and infrastructure, how do we prioritize the relocation? +The data was incredibly disparate. The U.S. Army had detailed knowledge for only a small section of the country. +There was data online from a 2006 environmental risk conference, other geospatial data, none of it integrated. +The human goal here was to identify camps for relocation based on priority need. +The computer had to integrate a vast amount of geospacial information, social media data and relief organization information to answer this question. +By implementing a superior process, what was otherwise a task for 40 people over three months became a simple job for three people in 40 hours, all victories for human-computer symbiosis. +We're more than 50 years into Licklider's vision for the future, and the data suggests that we should be quite excited about tackling this century's hardest problems, man and machine in cooperation together. +Thank you. +I want you to imagine this for a moment. +Two men, Rahul and Rajiv, living in the same neighborhood, from the same educational background, similar occupation, and they both turn up at their local accident emergency complaining of acute chest pain. +Rahul is offered a cardiac procedure, but Rajiv is sent home. +What might explain the difference in the experience of these two nearly identical men? +Rajiv suffers from a mental illness. +The difference in the quality of medical care received by people with mental illness is one of the reasons why they live shorter lives than people without mental illness. +Even in the best-resourced countries in the world, this life expectancy gap is as much as 20 years. +In the developing countries of the world, this gap is even larger. +But of course, mental illnesses can kill in more direct ways as well. The most obvious example is suicide. +It might surprise some of you here, as it did me, when I discovered that suicide is at the top of the list of the leading causes of death in young people in all countries in the world, including the poorest countries of the world. +But beyond the impact of a health condition on life expectancy, we're also concerned about the quality of life lived. +Now, in order for us to examine the overall impact of a health condition both on life expectancy as well as on the quality of life lived, we need to use a metric called the DALY, which stands for a Disability-Adjusted Life Year. +Now when we do that, we discover some startling things about mental illness from a global perspective. +We discover that, for example, mental illnesses are amongst the leading causes of disability around the world. +Depression, for example, is the third-leading cause of disability, alongside conditions such as diarrhea and pneumonia in children. +When you put all the mental illnesses together, they account for roughly 15 percent of the total global burden of disease. +Indeed, mental illnesses are also very damaging to people's lives, but beyond just the burden of disease, let us consider the absolute numbers. +The World Health Organization estimates that there are nearly four to five hundred million people living on our tiny planet who are affected by a mental illness. +I see some nodding heads there. +And yet, even in the best-resourced countries, for example here in Europe, roughly 50 percent of affected people don't receive these interventions. +In the sorts of countries I work in, that so-called treatment gap approaches an astonishing 90 percent. +It isn't surprising, then, that if you should speak to anyone affected by a mental illness, the chances are that you will hear stories of hidden suffering, shame and discrimination in nearly every sector of their lives. +But perhaps most heartbreaking of all are the stories of the abuse of even the most basic human rights, such as the young woman shown in this image here that are played out every day, sadly, even in the very institutions that were built to care for people with mental illnesses, the mental hospitals. +And an especially important challenge that I've had to face is the great shortage of mental health professionals, such as psychiatrists and psychologists, particularly in the developing world. +Now I trained in medicine in India, and after that I chose psychiatry as my specialty, much to the dismay of my mother and all my family members who kind of thought neurosurgery would be a more respectable option for their brilliant son. +Any case, I went on, I soldiered on with psychiatry, and found myself training in Britain in some of the best hospitals in this country. I was very privileged. +I worked in a team of incredibly talented, compassionate, but most importantly, highly trained, specialized mental health professionals. +Soon after my training, I found myself working first in Zimbabwe and then in India, and I was confronted by an altogether new reality. +This was a reality of a world in which there were almost no mental health professionals at all. +In Zimbabwe, for example, there were just about a dozen psychiatrists, most of whom lived and worked in Harare city, leaving only a couple to address the mental health care needs of nine million people living in the countryside. +In India, I found the situation was not a lot better. +To give you a perspective, if I had to translate the proportion of psychiatrists in the population that one might see in Britain to India, one might expect roughly 150,000 psychiatrists in India. +In reality, take a guess. +The actual number is about 3,000, about two percent of that number. +It became quickly apparent to me that I couldn't follow the sorts of mental health care models that I had been trained in, one that relied heavily on specialized, expensive mental health professionals to provide mental health care in countries like India and Zimbabwe. +I had to think out of the box about some other model of care. +It was then that I came across these books, and in these books I discovered the idea of task shifting in global health. +And it struck me that if you could train ordinary people to deliver such complex health care interventions, then perhaps they could also do the same with mental health care. +Well today, I'm very pleased to report to you that there have been many experiments in task shifting in mental health care across the developing world over the past decade, and I want to share with you the findings of three particular such experiments, all three of which focused on depression, the most common of all mental illnesses. +In rural Uganda, Paul Bolton and his colleagues, using villagers, demonstrated that they could deliver interpersonal psychotherapy for depression and, using a randomized control design, showed that 90 percent of the people receiving this intervention recovered as compared to roughly 40 percent in the comparison villages. +And in my own trial in Goa, in India, we again showed that lay counselors drawn from local communities could be trained to deliver psychosocial interventions for depression, anxiety, leading to 70 percent recovery rates as compared to 50 percent in the comparison primary health centers. +Now, if I had to draw together all these different experiments in task shifting, and there have of course been many other examples, and try and identify what are the key lessons we can learn that makes for a successful task shifting operation, I have coined this particular acronym, SUNDAR. +What SUNDAR stands for, in Hindi, is "attractive." +It seems to me that there are five key lessons that I've shown on this slide that are critically important for effective task shifting. +The first is that we need to simplify the message that we're using, stripping away all the jargon that medicine has invented around itself. +We need to unpack complex health care interventions into smaller components that can be more easily transferred to less-trained individuals. +We need to deliver health care, not in large institutions, but close to people's homes, and we need to deliver health care using whoever is available and affordable in our local communities. +And importantly, we need to reallocate the few specialists who are available to perform roles such as capacity-building and supervision. +Now for me, task shifting is an idea with truly global significance, because even though it has arisen out of the situation of the lack of resources that you find in developing countries, I think it has a lot of significance for better-resourced countries as well. Why is that? +Well, in part, because health care in the developed world, the health care costs in the [developed] world, are rapidly spiraling out of control, and a huge chunk of those costs are human resource costs. +But equally important is because health care has become so incredibly professionalized that it's become very remote and removed from local communities. +For me, what's truly sundar about the idea of task shifting, though, isn't that it simply makes health care more accessible and affordable but that it is also fundamentally empowering. +It empowers ordinary people to be more effective in caring for the health of others in their community, and in doing so, to become better guardians of their own health. Indeed, for me, task shifting is the ultimate example of the democratization of medical knowledge, and therefore, medical power. +Just over 30 years ago, the nations of the world assembled at Alma-Ata and made this iconic declaration. +Well, I think all of you can guess that 12 years on, we're still nowhere near that goal. +Still, today, armed with that knowledge that ordinary people in the community can be trained and, with sufficient supervision and support, can deliver a range of health care interventions effectively, perhaps that promise is within reach now. +Indeed, to implement the slogan of Health for All, we will need to involve all in that particular journey, and in the case of mental health, in particular we would need to involve people who are affected by mental illness and their caregivers. +And in closing, when you have a moment of peace or quiet in these very busy few days or perhaps afterwards, spare a thought for that person you thought about who has a mental illness, or persons that you thought about who have mental illness, and dare to care for them. Thank you. +So when the White House was built in the early 19th century, it was an open house. +Neighbors came and went. Under President Adams, a local dentist happened by. +He wanted to shake the President's hand. +The President dismissed the Secretary of State, whom he was conferring with, and asked the dentist if he would remove a tooth. +Later, in the 1850s, under President Pierce, he was known to have remarked probably the only thing he's known for when a neighbor passed by and said, "I'd love to see the beautiful house," and Pierce said to him, "Why my dear sir, of course you may come in. +This isn't my house. It is the people's house." +Well, when I got to the White House in the beginning of 2009, at the start of the Obama Administration, the White House was anything but open. +Bomb blast curtains covered my windows. +We were running Windows 2000. +Social media were blocked at the firewall. +We didn't have a blog, let alone a dozen twitter accounts like we have today. +I came in to become the head of Open Government, to take the values and the practices of transparency, participation and collaboration, and instill them into the way that we work, to open up government, to work with people. +Now one of the things that we know is that companies are very good at getting people to work together in teams and in networks to make very complex products, like cars and computers, and the more complex the products are a society creates, the more successful the society is over time. +So when we wanted to create our Open Government policy, what did we do? We wanted, naturally, to ask public sector employees how we should open up government. +Turns out that had never been done before. +We wanted to ask members of the public to help us come up with a policy, not after the fact, commenting on a rule after it's written, the way is typically the case, but in advance. There was no legal precedent, no cultural precedent, no technical way of doing this. +In fact, many people told us it was illegal. +Here's the crux of the obstacle. +Governments exist to channel the flow of two things, really, values and expertise to and from government and to and from citizens to the end of making decisions. +But the way that our institutions are designed, in our rather 18th-century, centralized model, is to channel the flow of values through voting, once every four years, once every two years, at best, once a year. This is a rather anemic and thin way, in this era of social media, for us to actually express our values. +Today we have technology that lets us express ourselves a great deal, perhaps a little too much. +Then in the 19th century, we layer on the concept of bureaucracy and the administrative state to help us govern complex and large societies. +But we've centralized these bureaucracies. +We've entrenched them. And we know that the smartest person always works for someone else. +We need to only look around this room to know that expertise and intelligence is widely distributed in society, and not limited simply to our institutions. +Scientists have been studying in recent years the phenomenon that they often describe as flow, that the design of our systems, whether natural or social, channel the flow of whatever runs through them. +So a river is designed to channel the flow of water, and the lightning bolt that comes out of a cloud channels the flow of electricity, and a leaf is designed to channel the flow of nutrients to the tree, sometimes even having to route around an obstacle, but to get that nutrition flowing. +The same can be said for our social systems, for our systems of government, where, at the very least, flow offers us a helpful metaphor for understanding what the problem is, what's really broken, and the urgent need that we have, that we all feel today, to redesign the flow of our institutions. +We live in a Cambrian era of big data, of social networks, and we have this opportunity to redesign these institutions that are actually quite recent. +Think about it: What other business do you know, what other sector of the economy, and especially one as big as the public sector, that doesn't seek to reinvent its business model on a regular basis? +Sure, we invest plenty in innovation. We invest in broadband and science education and science grants, but we invest far too little in reinventing and redesigning the institutions that we have. +Now, it's very easy to complain, of course, about partisan politics and entrenched bureaucracy, and we love to complain about government. It's a perennial pastime, especially around election time, but the world is complex. We soon will have 10 billion people, many of whom will lack basic resources. +So complain as we might, what actually can replace what we have today? +What comes the day after the Arab Spring? +Well, one attractive alternative that obviously presents itself to us is that of networks. Right? Networks like Facebook and Twitter. They're lean. They're mean. +You've got 3,000 employees at Facebook governing 900 million inhabitants. +We might even call them citizens, because they've recently risen up to fight against legislative incursion, and the citizens of these networks work together to serve each other in great ways. +But private communities, private, corporate, privatizing communities, are not bottom-up democracies. +They cannot replace government. +Friending someone on Facebook is not complex enough to do the hard work of you and I collaborating with each other and doing the hard work of governance. +But social media do teach us something. +Why is Twitter so successful? Because it opens up its platform. +It opens up the API to allow hundreds of thousands of new applications to be built on top of it, so that we can read and process information in new and exciting ways. +We have a precedent for this. Good old Henry II here, in the 12th century, invented the jury. +Powerful, practical, palpable model for handing power from government to citizens. +Today we have the opportunity, and we have the imperative, to create thousands of new ways of interconnecting between networks and institutions, thousands of new kinds of juries: the citizen jury, the Carrotmob, the hackathon, we are just beginning to invent the models by which we can cocreate the process of governance. +Now, we don't fully have a picture of what this will look like yet, but we're seeing pockets of evolution emerging all around us -- maybe not even evolution, I'd even start to call it a revolution -- in the way that we govern. +But it's not just about policing government. +It's also about creating government. +Spacehive in the U.K. is engaging in crowd-funding, getting you and me to raise the money to build the goalposts and the park benches that will actually allow us to deliver better services in our communities. +No one is better at this activity of actually getting us to engage in delivering services, sometimes where none exist, than Ushahidi. +Created after the post-election riots in Kenya in 2008, this crisis-mapping website and community is actually able to crowdsource and target the delivery of better rescue services to people trapped under the rubble, whether it's after the earthquakes in Haiti, or more recently in Italy. +And the Red Cross too is training volunteers and Twitter is certifying them, not simply to supplement existing government institutions, but in many cases, to replace them. +Now what we're seeing lots of examples of, obviously, is the opening up of government data, not enough examples of this yet, but we're starting to see this practice of people creating and generating innovative applications on top of government data. +There's so many examples I could have picked, and I selected this one of Jon Bon Jovi. Some of you may or may not know that he runs a soup kitchen in New Jersey, where he caters to and serves the homeless and particularly homeless veterans. +In February, he approached the White House, and said, "I would like to fund a prize to create scalable national applications, apps, that will help not only the homeless but those who deliver services [to] them to do so better." +February 2012 to June of 2012, the finalists are announced in the competition. +Can you imagine, in the bureaucratic world of yesteryear, getting anything done in a four-month period of time? +You can barely fill out the forms in that amount of time, let alone generate real, palpable innovations that improve people's lives. +And I want to be clear to mention that this open government revolution is not about privatizing government, because in many cases what it can do when we have the will to do so is to deliver more progressive and better policy than the regulations and the legislative and litigation-oriented strategies by which we make policy today. +In the State of Texas, they regulate 515 professions, from well-driller to florist. +Now, you can carry a gun into a church in Dallas, but do not make a flower arrangement without a license, because that will land you in jail. +That is a nice sideline of open government. +It's not only the benefits that we've talked about with regard to development. It's the economic benefits and the job creation that's coming from this open innovation work. +Sberbank, the largest and oldest bank in Russia, largely owned by the Russian government, has started practicing crowdsourcing, engaging its employees and citizens in the public in developing innovations. +Last year they saved a billion dollars, 30 billion rubles, from open innovation, and they're pushing radically the extension of crowdsourcing, not only from banking, but into the public sector. +And we see lots of examples of these innovators using open government data, not simply to make apps, but then to make companies and to hire people to build them working with the government. +So a lot of these innovations are local. +In San Ramon, California, they published an iPhone app in which they allow you or me to say we are certified CPR-trained, and then when someone has a heart attack, a notification goes out so that you can rush over to the person over here and deliver CPR. +The victim who receives bystander CPR is more than twice as likely to survive. +"There is a hero in all of us," is their slogan. +But it's not limited to the local. +British Columbia, Canada, is publishing a catalogue of all the ways that its residents and citizens can engage with the state in the cocreation of governance. +Let me be very clear, and perhaps controversial, that open government is not about transparent government. +Simply throwing data over the transom doesn't change how government works. +It doesn't get anybody to do anything with that data to change lives, to solve problems, and it doesn't change government. +What it does is it creates an adversarial relationship between civil society and government over the control and ownership of information. +And transparency, by itself, is not reducing the flow of money into politics, and arguably, it's not even producing accountability as well as it might if we took the next step of combining participation and collaboration with transparency to transform how we work. +We're going to see this evolution really in two phases, I think. The first phase of the open government revolution is delivering better information from the crowd into the center. +Well, what did we do? We said, we can make a website, we can make an expert network, a social network, that would connect the network to the institution to allow scientists and technologists to get better information to the patent office to aid in making those decisions. +We piloted the work in the U.S. and the U.K. and Japan and Australia, and now I'm pleased to report that the United States Patent Office will be rolling out universal, complete, and total openness, so that all patent applications will now be open for citizen participation, beginning this year. +The second phase of this evolution Yeah. They deserve a hand. The first phase is in getting better information in. +The second phase is in getting decision-making power out. +in Porto Alegre, Brazil. +They're just starting it in the 49th Ward in Chicago. +Russia is using wikis to get citizens writing law together, as is Lithuania. When we start to see power over the core functions of government spending, legislation, decision-making then we're well on our way to an open government revolution. +There are many things that we can do to get us there. +Obviously opening up the data is one, but the important thing is to create lots more -- create and curate -- lots more participatory opportunities. +Hackathons and mashathons and working with data to build apps is an intelligible way for people to engage and participate, like the jury is, but we're going to need lots more things like it. +And that's why we need to start with our youngest people. +We've heard talk here at TED about people biohacking and hacking their plants with Arduino, and Mozilla is doing work around the world in getting young people to build websites and make videos. +So let me close by saying that I think the important thing for us to do is to talk about and demand this revolution. +We don't have words, really, to describe it yet. +Words like equality and fairness and the traditional elections, democracy, these are not really great terms yet. +We must open up our institutions, and like the leaf, we must let the nutrients flow throughout our body politic, throughout our culture, to create open institutions to create a stronger democracy, a better tomorrow. +Thank you. +I thought I would start with a very brief history of cities. +Settlements typically began with people clustered around a well, and the size of that settlement was roughly the distance you could walk with a pot of water on your head. +In fact, if you fly over Germany, for example, and you look down and you see these hundreds of little villages, they're all about a mile apart. +You needed easy access to the fields. +And for hundreds, even thousands of years, the home was really the center of life. +Life was very small for most people. +It was a center of entertainment, of energy production, of work, a center of health care. +That's where babies were born and people died. +Then, with industrialization, everything started to become centralized. +You had dirty factories that were moved to the outskirts of cities. +Production was centralized in assembly plants. +You had centralized energy production. +Learning took place in schools. +Health care took place in hospitals. +And then you had networks that developed. +You had water, sewer networks that allowed for this kind of unchecked expansion. +You had separated functions, increasingly. +You had rail networks that connected residential, industrial, commercial areas. You had auto networks. +In fact, the model was really, give everybody a car, build roads to everything, and give people a place to park when they get there. +It was not a very functional model. +And we still live in that world, and this is what we end up with. +So you have the sprawl of LA, the sprawl of Mexico City. +You have these unbelievable new cities in China, which you might call tower sprawl. +They're all building cities on the model that we invented in the '50s and '60s, which is really obsolete, I would argue, and there are hundreds and hundreds of new cities that are being planned all over the world. +In China alone, 300 million people, some say 400 million people, will move to the city over the next 15 years. +That means building the equivalent of the entire built infrastructure of the US in 15 years. +Imagine that. +And we should all care about this whether you live in cities or not. +Cities will account for 90 percent of the population growth, 80 percent of the global CO2, 75 percent of energy use, but at the same time it's where people want to be, increasingly. +More than half the people now in the world live in cities, and that will just continue to escalate. +Cities are places of celebration, personal expression. +You have the flash mobs of pillow fights that -- I've been to a couple. They're quite fun. +You have -- Cities are where most of the wealth is created, and particularly in the developing world, it's where women find opportunities. +That's a lot of the reason why cities are growing very quickly. +Now there's some trends that will impact cities. +First of all, work is becoming distributed and mobile. +The office building is basically obsolete for doing private work. +The home, once again, because of distributed computation -- Communication is becoming a center of life, so it's a center of production and learning and shopping and health care and all of these things that we used to think of as taking place outside of the home. +And increasingly, everything that people buy, every consumer product, in one way or another, can be personalized. +And that's a very important trend to think about. +So this is my image of the city of the future. +In that it's a place for people, you know. +Maybe not the way people dress, but -- You know, the question now is, how can we have all the good things that we identify with cities without all the bad things? +This is Bangalore. +It took me a couple of hours to get a few miles in Bangalore last year. +So with cities, you also have congestion and pollution and disease and all these negative things. +How can we have the good stuff without the bad? +So we went back and started looking at the great cities that evolved before the cars. +Paris was a series of these little villages that came together, and you still see that structure today. +The 20 arrondissements of Paris are these little neighborhoods. +Most of what people need in life can be within a five- or 10-minute walk. +And if you look at the data, when you have that kind of a structure, you get a very even distribution of the shops and the physicians and the pharmacies and the cafes in Paris. +And then you look at cities that evolved after the automobile, and it's not that kind of a pattern. +There's very little that's within a five-minute walk of most areas of places like Pittsburgh. +Not to pick on Pittsburgh, but most American cities really have evolved this way. +So we said, well, let's look at new cities, and we're involved in a couple of new city projects in China. +So we said, let's start with that neighborhood cell. +We think of it as a compact urban cell. +So provide most of what most people want within that 20-minute walk. +This can also be a resilient electrical microgrid, community heating, power, communication networks, etc. +can be concentrated there. +Stewart Brand would put a micronuclear reactor right in the center, probably. +And he might be right. +And then we can form, in effect, a mesh network. +It's something of an Internet typology pattern, so you can have a series of these neighborhoods. +You can dial up the density -- about 20,000 people per cell, if it's Cambridge. +Go up to 50,000 if it's Manhattan density. +You connect everything with mass transit and you provide most of what most people need within that neighborhood. +You can begin to develop a whole typology of streetscapes and the vehicles that can go on them. +I won't go through all of them. I'll just show one. +This is Boulder. It's a great example of kind of a mobility parkway, a superhighway for joggers and bicyclists, where you can go from one end of the city to the other without crossing the street, and they also have bike-sharing, which I'll get into in a minute. +This is even a more interesting solution in Seoul, Korea. +They took the elevated highway, they got rid of it, they reclaimed the street, the river down below, below the street, and you can go from one end of Seoul to the other without crossing a pathway for cars. +The High Line in Manhattan is very similar. +You have these rapidly emerging bike lanes all over the world. +I lived in Manhattan for 15 years. +I went back a couple of weekends ago, took this photograph of these fabulous new bike lanes that they have installed. +They're still not to where Copenhagen is, where something like 42 percent of the trips within the city are by bicycle. +It's mostly just because they have fantastic infrastructure there. +We actually did exactly the wrong thing in Boston. +The Big Dig -- So we got rid of the highway but we created a traffic island, and it's certainly not a mobility pathway for anything other than cars. +Mobility on demand is something we've been thinking about, so we think we need an ecosystem of these shared-use vehicles connected to mass transit. +These are some of the vehicles that we've been working on. +But shared use is really key. +If you share a vehicle, you can have at least four people use one vehicle, as opposed to one. +We have Hubway here in Boston, the Vlib' system in Paris. +We've been developing, at the Media Lab, this little city car that is optimized for shared use in cities. +We got rid of all the useless things like engines and transmissions. +We moved everything to the wheels, so you have the drive motor, the steering motor, the breaking -- all in the wheel. +That left the chassis unencumbered, so you can do things like fold, so you can fold this little vehicle up to occupy a tiny little footprint. +This was a video that was on European television last week showing the Spanish Minister of Industry driving this little vehicle, and when it's folded, it can spin. +You don't need reverse. You don't need parallel parking. +You just spin and go directly in. So we've been working with a company to commercialize this. +My PhD student Ryan Chin presented these early ideas two years ago at a TEDx conference. +Actually, we could do this today. It's not really a problem. +We can combine shared use and folding and autonomy and we get something like 28 times the land utilization with that kind of strategy. +One of our graduate students then says, well, how does a driverless car communicate with pedestrians? +You have nobody to make eye contact with. +You don't know if it's going to run you over. +So he's developing strategies so the vehicle can communicate with pedestrians, so -- So the headlights are eyeballs, the pupils can dilate, we have directional audio, we can throw sound directly at people. +What I love about this project is he solved a problem that doesn't exist yet, so -- We also think that we can democratize access to bike lanes. +You know, bike lanes are mostly used by young guys in stretchy pants. So -- We think we can develop a vehicle that operates on bike lanes, accessible to elderly and disabled, women in skirts, businesspeople, and address the issues of energy congestion, mobility, aging and obesity simultaneously. +That's our challenge. +This is an early design for this little three-wheel. +It's an electronic bike. +You have to pedal to operate it in a bike lane, but if you're an older person, that's a switch. +If you're a healthy person, you might have to work really hard to go fast. +You can dial in 40 calories going into work and 500 going home, when you can take a shower. +We hope to have that built this fall. +Housing is another area where we can really improve. +Mayor Menino in Boston says lack of affordable housing for young people is one of the biggest problems the city faces. +Developers say, OK, we'll build little teeny apartments. +People say, we don't really want to live in a little teeny conventional apartment. +So we're saying, let's build a standardized chassis, much like our car. +Now, the most interesting implementation of that for us is when you can begin to have robotic walls, so your space can convert from exercise to a workplace, if you run a virtual company. +You have guests over, you have two guest rooms that are developed. +You have a conventional one-bedroom arrangement when you need it. Maybe that's most of the time. +You have a dinner party. +The table folds out to fit 16 people in otherwise a conventional one-bedroom, or maybe you want a dance studio. +I mean, architects have been thinking about these ideas for a long time. +What we need to do now, develop things that can scale to those 300 million Chinese people that would like to live in the city, and very comfortably. +We think we can make a very small apartment that functions as if it's twice as big by utilizing these strategies. +I don't believe in smart homes. That's sort of a bogus concept. +I think you have to build dumb homes and put smart stuff in it. +And so we've been working on a chassis of the wall itself. +You know, standardized platform with the motors and the battery when it operates, little solenoids that will lock it in place and get low-voltage power. +OK, so if we have a conventional building, we have a fixed envelope, maybe we can put in 14 units. +If they function as if they're twice as big, we can get 28 units in. +That means twice as much parking, though. +Parking's really expensive. It's about 70,000 dollars per space to build a conventional parking spot inside a building. +So if you can have folding and autonomy, you can do that in one-seventh of the space. +That goes down to 10,000 dollars per car, just for the cost of the parking. +You add shared use, and you can even go further. +We can also integrate all kinds of advanced technology through this process. There's a path to market for innovative companies to bring technology into the home. +In this case, a project we're doing with Siemens. +We have sensors on all the furniture, all the infill, that understands where people are and what they're doing. +Blue light is very efficient, so we have these tunable 24-bit LED lighting fixtures. +It recognizes where the person is, what they're doing, fills out the light when necessary to full spectrum white light, and saves maybe 30, 40 percent in energy consumption, we think, over even conventional state-of-the-art lighting systems. +This just shows you the data that comes from the sensors that are embedded in the furniture. +We don't really believe in cameras to do things in homes. +We think these little wireless sensors are more effective. +We think we can also personalize sunlight. +That's sort of the ultimate personalization in some ways. +So we've looked at articulating mirrors of the facade that can throw shafts of sunlight anywhere into the space, therefore allowing you to shade most of the glass on a hot day like today. +In this case, she picks up her phone, she can map food preparation at the kitchen island to a particular location of sunlight. +An algorithm will keep it in that location as long as she's engaged in that activity. +This can be combined with LED lighting as well. +We think workplaces should be shared. +I mean, this is really the workplace of the future, I think. +This is Starbucks, you know. +Maybe a third -- And you see everybody has their back to the wall and they have food and coffee down the way and they're in their own little personal bubble. +We need shared spaces for interaction and collaboration. +We're not doing a very good job with that. +At the Cambridge Innovation Center, you can have shared desks. +I've spent a lot of time in Finland at the design factory of Aalto University, where the they have a shared shop and shared fab lab, shared quiet spaces, electronics spaces, recreation places. +We think ultimately, all of this stuff can come together, a new model for mobility, a new model for housing, a new model for how we live and work, a path to market for advanced technologies. +But in the end, the main thing we need to focus on are people. +Cities are all about people. +They're places for people. +There's no reason why we can't dramatically improve the livability and creativity of cities like they've done in Melbourne with the laneways while at the same time dramatically reducing CO2 and energy. +It's a global imperative. We have to get this right. +Thank you. +The murder happened a little over 21 years ago, January the 18th, 1991, in a small bedroom community of Lynwood, California, just a few miles southeast of Los Angeles. +A father came out of his house to tell his teenage son and his five friends that it was time for them to stop horsing around on the front lawn and on the sidewalk, to get home, finish their schoolwork, and prepare themselves for bed. +And as the father was administering these instructions, a car drove by, slowly, and just after it passed the father and the teenagers, a hand went out from the front passenger window, and -- "Bam, Bam!" -- killing the father. +And the car sped off. +The police, investigating officers, were amazingly efficient. +They considered all the usual culprits, and in less than 24 hours, they had selected their suspect: Francisco Carrillo, a 17-year-old kid who lived about two or three blocks away from where the shooting occurred. +They found photos of him. They prepared a photo array, and the day after the shooting, they showed it to one of the teenagers, and he said, "That's the picture. +That's the shooter I saw that killed the father." +That was all a preliminary hearing judge had to listen to, to bind Mr. Carrillo over to stand trial for a first-degree murder. +In the investigation that followed before the actual trial, each of the other five teenagers was shown photographs, the same photo array. +The picture that we best can determine was probably the one that they were shown in the photo array is in your bottom left hand corner of these mug shots. +The reason we're not sure absolutely is because of the nature of evidence preservation in our judicial system, but that's another whole TEDx talk for later. So at the actual trial, all six of the teenagers testified, and indicated the identifications they had made in the photo array. +He was convicted. He was sentenced to life imprisonment, and transported to Folsom Prison. +So what's wrong? +Straightforward, fair trial, full investigation. +Oh yes, no gun was ever found. +No vehicle was ever identified as being the one in which the shooter had extended his arm, and no person was ever charged with being the driver of the shooter's vehicle. +And Mr. Carrillo's alibi? +Which of those parents here in the room might not lie concerning the whereabouts of your son or daughter in an investigation of a killing? +Sent to prison, adamantly insisting on his innocence, which he has consistently for 21 years. +So what's the problem? +The problems, actually, for this kind of case come manyfold from decades of scientific research involving human memory. +We know that eyewitness identifications are fallible. +The other comes from an interesting aspect of human memory that's related to various brain functions but I can sum up for the sake of brevity here in a simple line: The brain abhors a vacuum. +Under the best of observation conditions, the absolute best, we only detect, encode and store in our brains bits and pieces of the entire experience in front of us, and they're stored in different parts of the brain. +So now, when it's important for us to be able to recall what it was that we experienced, we have an incomplete, we have a partial store, and what happens? +Below awareness, with no requirement for any kind of motivated processing, the brain fills in information that was not there, not originally stored, from inference, from speculation, from sources of information that came to you, as the observer, after the observation. +But it happens without awareness such that you don't, aren't even cognizant of it occurring. +It's called reconstructed memories. +It happens to us in all the aspects of our life, all the time. +It was those two considerations, among others -- reconstructed memory, the fact about the eyewitness fallibility -- that was part of the instigation for a group of appeal attorneys led by an amazing lawyer named Ellen Eggers to pool their experience and their talents together and petition a superior court for a retrial for Francisco Carrillo. +They retained me, as a forensic neurophysiologist, because I had expertise in eyewitness memory identification, which obviously makes sense for this case, right? +But also because I have expertise and testify about the nature of human night vision. +Well, what's that got to do with this? +Well, when you read through the case materials in this Carrillo case, one of the things that suddenly strikes you is that the investigating officers said the lighting was good at the crime scene, at the shooting. +All the teenagers testified during the trial that they could see very well. +But this occurred in mid-January, in the Northern Hemisphere, at 7 p.m. at night. +So when I did the calculations for the lunar data and the solar data at that location on Earth at the time of the incident of the shooting, all right, it was well past the end of civil twilight and there was no moon up that night. +So all the light in this area from the sun and the moon is what you see on the screen right here. +The only lighting in that area had to come from artificial sources, and that's where I go out and I do the actual reconstruction of the scene with photometers, with various measures of illumination and various other measures of color perception, along with special cameras and high-speed film, right? +Take all the measurements and record them, right? +And then take photographs, and this is what the scene looked like at the time of the shooting from the position of the teenagers looking at the car going by and shooting. +This is looking directly across the street from where they were standing. +Remember, the investigating officers' report said the lighting was good. +The teenagers said they could see very well. +This is looking down to the east, where the shooting vehicle sped off, and this is the lighting directly behind the father and the teenagers. +As you can see, it is at best poor. +When you present those to people who are not well-versed in those aspects of science and that, they become salamanders in the noonday sun. It's like talking about the tangent of the visual angle, all right? +Their eyes just glaze over, all right? +A good forensic expert also has to be a good educator, a good communicator, and that's part of the reason why we take the pictures, to show not only where the light sources are, and what we call the spill, the distribution, but also so that it's easier for the trier of fact to understand the circumstances. +And here I became a bit audacious, and I turned and I asked the judge, I said, "Your Honor, I think you should go out and look at the scene yourself." +Now I may have used a tone which was more like a dare than a request but nonetheless, it's to this man's credit and his courage that he said, "Yes, I will." +A shocker in American jurisprudence. +We had a car that came by, same identical car as described by the teenagers, right? +It had a driver and a passenger, and after the car had passed the judge by, the passenger extended his hand, pointed it back to the judge as the car continued on, just as the teenagers had described it, right? +Now, he didn't use a real gun in his hand, so he had a black object in his hand that was similar to the gun that was described. +He pointed by, and this is what the judge saw. +This is the car 30 feet away from the judge. +There's an arm sticking out of the passenger side and pointed back at you. +That's 30 feet away. +Some of the teenagers said that in fact the car was 15 feet away when it shot. +Okay. There's 15 feet. +At this point, I became a little concerned. +This judge is someone you'd never want to play poker with. +He was totally stoic. I couldn't see a twitch of his eyebrow. +I couldn't see the slightest bend of his head. +I had no sense of how he was reacting to this, and after he looked at this reenactment, he turned to me and he says, "Is there anything else you want me to look at?" +And that's what he saw. You'll notice, which was also in my test report, all the dominant lighting is coming from the north side, which means that the shooter's face would have been photo-occluded. It would have been backlit. +Furthermore, the roof of the car is causing what we call a shadow cloud inside the car which is making it darker. +And this is three to four feet away. +Why did I take the risk? +I knew that the depth of field was 18 inches or less. +Three to four feet, it might as well have been a football field away. +This is what he saw. +He went back, there was a few more days of evidence that was heard. At the end of it, he made the judgment that he was going to grant the petition for a retrial. +And furthermore, he released Mr. Carrillo so that he could aid in the preparation of his own defense if the prosecution decided to retry him. +Which they decided not to. +He is now a freed man. This is him embracing his grandmother-in-law. +He -- His girlfriend was pregnant when he went to trial, right? And she had a little baby boy. +He and his son are both attending Cal State, Long Beach right now taking classes. And what does this example -- what's important to keep in mind for ourselves? +First of all, there's a long history of antipathy between science and the law in American jurisprudence. +I could regale you with horror stories of ignorance over decades of experience as a forensic expert of just trying to get science into the courtroom. +The opposing council always fight it and oppose it. +Think about how we select our judges in this country. +It's very different than most other cultures. All right? +The other one that I want to suggest, the caution that all of us have to have, I constantly have to remind myself, about just how accurate are the memories that we know are true, that we believe in? +There is decades of research, examples and examples of cases like this, where individuals really, really believe. None of those teenagers who identified him thought that they were picking the wrong person. +None of them thought they couldn't see the person's face. +We all have to be very careful. +All our memories are reconstructed memories. +They are the product of what we originally experienced and everything that's happened afterwards. +They're dynamic. +They're malleable. They're volatile, and as a result, we all need to remember to be cautious, that the accuracy of our memories is not measured in how vivid they are nor how certain you are that they're correct. +Thank you. +Some years ago, I set out to try to understand if there was a possibility to develop biofuels on a scale that would actually compete with fossil fuels but not compete with agriculture for water, fertilizer or land. +So here's what I came up with. +Why are we talking about microalgae? +Here you see a graph showing you the different types of crops that are being considered for making biofuels, so you can see some things like soybean, which makes 50 gallons per acre per year, or sunflower or canola or jatropha or palm, and that tall graph there shows what microalgae can contribute. +That is to say, microalgae contributes between 2,000 and 5,000 gallons per acre per year, compared to the 50 gallons per acre per year from soy. +So what are microalgae? Microalgae are micro -- that is, they're extremely small, as you can see here a picture of those single-celled organisms compared to a human hair. +Those small organisms have been around for millions of years and there's thousands of different species of microalgae in the world, some of which are the fastest-growing plants on the planet, and produce, as I just showed you, lots and lots of oil. +Now, why do we want to do this offshore? +Well, the reason we're doing this offshore is because if you look at our coastal cities, there isn't a choice, because we're going to use waste water, as I suggested, and if you look at where most of the waste water treatment plants are, they're embedded in the cities. +This is the city of San Francisco, which has 900 miles of sewer pipes under the city already, and it releases its waste water offshore. +So different cities around the world treat their waste water differently. Some cities process it. +Some cities just release the water. +But in all cases, the water that's released is perfectly adequate for growing microalgae. +So let's envision what the system might look like. +We call it OMEGA, which is an acronym for Offshore Membrane Enclosures for Growing Algae. +At NASA, you have to have good acronyms. +So how does it work? I sort of showed you how it works already. +We put waste water and some source of CO2 into our floating structure, and the waste water provides nutrients for the algae to grow, and they sequester CO2 that would otherwise go off into the atmosphere as a greenhouse gas. +They of course use solar energy to grow, and the wave energy on the surface provides energy for mixing the algae, and the temperature is controlled by the surrounding water temperature. +The algae that grow produce oxygen, as I've mentioned, and they also produce biofuels and fertilizer and food and other bi-algal products of interest. +And the system is contained. What do I mean by that? +It's modular. Let's say something happens that's totally unexpected to one of the modules. +It leaks. It's struck by lightning. +The waste water that leaks out is water that already now goes into that coastal environment, and the algae that leak out are biodegradable, and because they're living in waste water, they're fresh water algae, which means they can't live in salt water, so they die. +The plastic we'll build it out of is some kind of well-known plastic that we have good experience with, and we'll rebuild our modules to be able to reuse them again. +So we may be able to go beyond that when thinking about this system that I'm showing you, and that is to say we need to think in terms of the water, the fresh water, which is also going to be an issue in the future, and we're working on methods now for recovering the waste water. +The other thing to consider is the structure itself. +It provides a surface for things in the ocean, and this surface, which is covered by seaweeds and other organisms in the ocean, will become enhanced marine habitat so it increases biodiversity. +And finally, because it's an offshore structure, we can think in terms of how it might contribute to an aquaculture activity offshore. +So you're probably thinking, "Gee, this sounds like a good idea. What can we do to try to see if it's real?" +Well, I set up laboratories in Santa Cruz at the California Fish and Game facility, and that facility allowed us to have big seawater tanks to test some of these ideas. +We also set up experiments in San Francisco at one of the three waste water treatment plants, again a facility to test ideas. +And finally, we wanted to see where we could look at what the impact of this structure would be in the marine environment, and we set up a field site at a place called Moss Landing Marine Lab in Monterey Bay, where we worked in a harbor to see what impact this would have on marine organisms. +The laboratory that we set up in Santa Cruz was our skunkworks. +It was a place where we were growing algae and welding plastic and building tools and making a lot of mistakes, or, as Edison said, we were finding the 10,000 ways that the system wouldn't work. +Now, we grew algae in waste water, and we built tools that allowed us to get into the lives of algae so that we could monitor the way they grow, what makes them happy, how do we make sure that we're going to have a culture that will survive and thrive. +So the most important feature that we needed to develop were these so-called photobioreactors, or PBRs. +So let me show you how the system works. +We basically take waste water with algae of our choice in it, and we circulate it through this floating structure, this tubular, flexible plastic structure, and it circulates through this thing, and there's sunlight of course, it's at the surface, and the algae grow on the nutrients. +But this is a bit like putting your head in a plastic bag. +The algae are not going to suffocate because of CO2, as we would. +They suffocate because they produce oxygen, and they don't really suffocate, but the oxygen that they produce is problematic, and they use up all the CO2. +So the next thing we had to figure out was how we could remove the oxygen, which we did by building this column which circulated some of the water, and put back CO2, which we did by bubbling the system before we recirculated the water. +And what you see here is the prototype, which was the first attempt at building this type of column. +The larger column that we then installed in San Francisco in the installed system. +So the column actually had another very nice feature, and that is the algae settle in the column, and this allowed us to accumulate the algal biomass in a context where we could easily harvest it. +So we would remove the algaes that concentrated in the bottom of this column, and then we could harvest that by a procedure where you float the algae to the surface and can skim it off with a net. +So we wanted to also investigate what would be the impact of this system in the marine environment, and I mentioned we set up this experiment at a field site in Moss Landing Marine Lab. +Now really what we were doing, we were working in four areas. +Our research covered the biology of the system, which included studying the way algae grew, but also what eats the algae, and what kills the algae. +We did engineering to understand what we would need to be able to do to build this structure, not only on the small scale, but how we would build it on this enormous scale that will ultimately be required. +I mentioned we looked at birds and marine mammals and looked at basically the environmental impact of the system, and finally we looked at the economics, and what I mean by economics is, what is the energy required to run the system? +Do you get more energy out of the system than you have to put into the system to be able to make the system run? +And what about operating costs? +And what about capital costs? +And what about, just, the whole economic structure? +So let me tell you that it's not going to be easy, and there's lots more work to do in all four of those areas to be able to really make the system work. +Unless you look at the system as a way to treat waste water, sequester carbon, and potentially for photovoltaic panels or wave energy or even wind energy, and if you start thinking in terms of integrating all of these different activities, you could also include in such a facility aquaculture. +So we would have under this system a shellfish aquaculture where we're growing mussels or scallops. +We'd be growing oysters and things that would be producing high value products and food, and this would be a market driver as we build the system to larger and larger scales so that it becomes, ultimately, competitive with the idea of doing it for fuels. +So there's always a big question that comes up, because plastic in the ocean has got a really bad reputation right now, and so we've been thinking cradle to cradle. +What are we going to do with all this plastic that we're going to need to use in our marine environment? +So the OMEGA system will be part of this type of an outcome, and that when we're finished using it in the marine environment, we'll be using it, hopefully, on fields. +Where are we going to put this, and what will it look like offshore? +Here's an image of what we could do in San Francisco Bay. +San Francisco produces 65 million gallons a day of waste water. If we imagine a five-day retention time for this system, we'd need 325 million gallons to accomodate, and that would be about 1,280 acres of these OMEGA modules floating in San Francisco Bay. +Well, that's less than one percent of the surface area of the bay. +It would produce, at 2,000 gallons per acre per year, it would produce over 2 million gallons of fuel, which is about 20 percent of the biodiesel, or of the diesel that would be required in San Francisco, and that's without doing anything about efficiency. +Where else could we potentially put this system? +There's lots of possibilities. +There's, of course, San Francisco Bay, as I mentioned. +San Diego Bay is another example, Mobile Bay or Chesapeake Bay, but the reality is, as sea level rises, there's going to be lots and lots of new opportunities to consider. So what I'm telling you about is a system of integrated activities. +Biofuels production is integrated with alternative energy is integrated with aquaculture. +I set out to find a pathway to innovative production of sustainable biofuels, and en route I discovered that what's really required for sustainability is integration more than innovation. +Long term, I have great faith in our collective and connected ingenuity. +I think there is almost no limit to what we can accomplish if we are radically open and we don't care who gets the credit. +Sustainable solutions for our future problems are going to be diverse and are going to be many. +I think we need to consider everything, everything from alpha to OMEGA. +Thank you. Chris Anderson: Just a quick question for you, Jonathan. +Can this project continue to move forward within NASA or do you need some very ambitious green energy fund to come and take it by the throat? +Jonathan Trent: So it's really gotten to a stage now in NASA where they would like to spin it out into something which would go offshore, and there are a lot of issues with doing it in the United States because of limited permitting issues and the time required to get permits to do things offshore. +It really requires, at this point, people on the outside, and we're being radically open with this technology in which we're going to launch it out there for anybody and everybody who's interested to take it on and try to make it real. +CA: So that's interesting. You're not patenting it. +You're publishing it. +JT: Absolutely. +CA: All right. Thank you so much. +JT: Thank you. +So, embryonic stem cells are really incredible cells. +They are our body's own repair kits, and they're pluripotent, which means they can morph into all of the cells in our bodies. +Soon, we actually will be able to use stem cells to replace cells that are damaged or diseased. +But that's not what I want to talk to you about, because right now there are some really extraordinary things that we are doing with stem cells that are completely changing the way we look and model disease, our ability to understand why we get sick, and even develop drugs. +I truly believe that stem cell research is going to allow our children to look at Alzheimer's and diabetes and other major diseases the way we view polio today, which is as a preventable disease. +So here we have this incredible field, which has enormous hope for humanity, but much like IVF over 35 years ago, until the birth of a healthy baby, Louise, this field has been under siege politically and financially. +Critical research is being challenged instead of supported, and we saw that it was really essential to have private safe haven laboratories where this work could be advanced without interference. +And so, in 2005, we started the New York Stem Cell Foundation Laboratory so that we would have a small organization that could do this work and support it. +Because if you don't close that gap, you really are exactly where we are today. +And that's what I want to focus on. +We've spent the last couple of years pondering this, making a list of the different things that we had to do, and so we developed a new technology, It's software and hardware, that actually can generate thousands and thousands of genetically diverse stem cell lines to create a global array, essentially avatars of ourselves. +So let me put that in perspective for you and give you some context. +This is an extremely new field. +In 1998, human embryonic stem cells were first identified, and just nine years later, a group of scientists in Japan were able to take skin cells and reprogram them with very powerful viruses to create a kind of pluripotent stem cell called an induced pluripotent stem cell, or what we refer to as an IPS cell. +This was really an extraordinary advance, because although these cells are not human embryonic stem cells, which still remain the gold standard, they are terrific to use for modeling disease and potentially for drug discovery. +So a few months later, in 2008, one of our scientists built on that research. He took skin biopsies, this time from people who had a disease, ALS, or as you call it in the U.K., motor neuron disease. +He turned them into the IPS cells that I've just told you about, and then he turned those IPS cells into the motor neurons that actually were dying in the disease. +So basically what he did was to take a healthy cell and turn it into a sick cell, and he recapitulated the disease over and over again in the dish, and this was extraordinary, because it was the first time that we had a model of a disease from a living patient in living human cells. +So you could really say that researchers trying to understand the cause of disease without being able to have human stem cell models were much like investigators trying to figure out what had gone terribly wrong in a plane crash without having a black box, or a flight recorder. +They could hypothesize about what had gone wrong, but they really had no way of knowing what led to the terrible events. +And stem cells really have given us the black box for diseases, and it's an unprecedented window. +It really is extraordinary, because you can recapitulate many, many diseases in a dish, you can see what begins to go wrong in the cellular conversation well before you would ever see symptoms appear in a patient. +And this opens up the ability, which hopefully will become something that is routine in the near term, of using human cells to test for drugs. +Right now, the way we test for drugs is pretty problematic. +To bring a successful drug to market, it takes, on average, 13 years that's one drug with a sunk cost of 4 billion dollars, and only one percent of the drugs that start down that road are actually going to get there. +You can't imagine other businesses that you would think of going into that have these kind of numbers. +It's a terrible business model. +But it is really a worse social model because of what's involved and the cost to all of us. +So the way we develop drugs now is by testing promising compounds on -- We didn't have disease modeling with human cells, so we'd been testing them on cells of mice or other creatures or cells that we engineer, but they don't have the characteristics of the diseases that we're actually trying to cure. +You know, we're not mice, and you can't go into a living person with an illness and just pull out a few brain cells or cardiac cells and then start fooling around in a lab to test for, you know, a promising drug. +But it isn't really enough just to look at the cells from a few people or a small group of people, because we have to step back. +We've got to look at the big picture. +And so we need to move away from this one-size-fits-all model. +The way we've been developing drugs is essentially like going into a shoe store, no one asks you what size you are, or if you're going dancing or hiking. +They just say, "Well, you have feet, here are your shoes." +It doesn't work with shoes, and our bodies are many times more complicated than just our feet. +So we really have to change this. +There was a very sad example of this in the last decade. +The people for whom it was a lifesaver could have still taken their medicine. +The people for whom it was a disaster, or fatal, would never have been given it, and you can imagine a very different outcome for the company, who had to withdraw the drug. +So we looked at this, and we thought, okay, artisanal is wonderful in, you know, your clothing and your bread and crafts, but artisanal really isn't going to work in stem cells, so we have to deal with this. +But even with that, there still was another big hurdle, and that actually brings us back to the mapping of the human genome, because we're all different. +We know from the sequencing of the human genome that it's shown us all of the A's, C's, G's and T's that make up our genetic code, but that code, by itself, our DNA, is like looking at the ones and zeroes of the computer code without having a computer that can read it. +It's like having an app without having a smartphone. +We needed to have a way of bringing the biology to that incredible data, and the way to do that was to find a stand-in, a biological stand-in, that could contain all of the genetic information, but have it be arrayed in such a way as it could be read together and actually create this incredible avatar. +We need to have stem cells from all the genetic sub-types that represent who we are. +So this is what we've built. +It's an automated robotic technology. +It has the capacity to produce thousands and thousands of stem cell lines. It's genetically arrayed. +It really has brought us to the threshold of personalized medicine. +It's here now, and in our family, my son has type 1 diabetes, which is still an incurable disease, and I lost my parents to heart disease and cancer, but I think that my story probably sounds familiar to you, because probably a version of it is your story. +At some point in our lives, all of us, or people we care about, become patients, and that's why I think that stem cell research is incredibly important for all of us. +Thank you. +Fifteen years ago, it was widely assumed that the vast majority of brain development takes place in the first few years of life. +Back then, 15 years ago, we didn't have the ability to look inside the living human brain and track development across the lifespan. +And we also use functional MRI, called fMRI, to take a video, a movie, of brain activity when participants are taking part in some kind of task like thinking or feeling or perceiving something. +So adolescence is defined as the period of life that starts with the biological, hormonal, physical changes of puberty and ends at the age at which an individual attains a stable, independent role in society. +It can go on a long time. One of the brain regions that changes most dramatically during adolescence is called prefrontal cortex. +So this is a model of the human brain, and this is prefrontal cortex, right at the front. +Prefrontal cortex is an interesting brain area. +It's proportionally much bigger in humans than in any other species, and it's involved in a whole range of high level cognitive functions, things like decision-making, planning, planning what you're going to do tomorrow or next week or next year, inhibiting inappropriate behavior, so stopping yourself saying something really rude or doing something really stupid. +It's also involved in social interaction, understanding other people, and self-awareness. +So MRI studies looking at the development of this region have shown that it really undergoes dramatic development during the period of adolescence. +So if you look at gray matter volume, for example, gray matter volume across age from age four to 22 years increases during childhood, which is what you can see on this graph. It peaks in early adolescence. +Now that might sound bad, but actually this is a really important developmental process, because gray matter contains cell bodies and connections between cells, the synapses, and this decline in gray matter volume during prefrontal cortex is thought to correspond to synaptic pruning, the elimination of unwanted synapses. +This is a really important process. It's partly dependent on the environment that the animal or the human is in, and the synapses that are being used are strengthened, and synapses that aren't being used in that particular environment are pruned away. +You can think of it a bit like pruning a rosebush. +You prune away the weaker branches so that the remaining, important branches, can grow stronger, and this process, which effectively fine-tunes brain tissue according to the species-specific environment, is happening in prefrontal cortex and in other brain regions during the period of human adolescence. +So a second line of inquiry that we use to track changes in the adolescent brain is using functional MRI to look at changes in brain activity across age. +So I'll just give you an example from my lab. +So in my lab, we're interested in the social brain, that is the network of brain regions that we use to understand other people and to interact with other people. +So I like to show a photograph of a soccer game to illustrate two aspects of how your social brains work. +So you don't have to ask any of these guys. +You have a pretty good idea of what they're feeling and thinking at this precise moment in time. +So that's what we're interested in looking at in my lab. +So imagine that you're the participant in one of our experiments. You come into the lab, you see this computerized task. +In this task, you see a set of shelves. +Now, there are objects on these shelves, on some of them, and you'll notice there's a guy standing behind the set of shelves, and there are some objects that he can't see. +They're occluded, from his point of view, with a kind of gray piece of wood. +This is the same set of shelves from his point of view. +Notice that there are only some objects that he can see, whereas there are many more objects that you can see. +Now your task is to move objects around. +The director, standing behind the set of shelves, is going to direct you to move objects around, but remember, he's not going to ask you to move objects that he can't see. This introduces a really interesting condition whereby there's a kind of conflict between your perspective and the director's perspective. +So imagine he tells you to move the top truck left. +They move the white truck instead of the blue truck. +So we give this kind of task to adolescents and adults, and we also have a control condition where there's no director and instead we give people a rule. +We tell them, okay, we're going to do exactly the same thing but this time there's no director. Instead you've got to ignore objects with the dark gray background. +You'll see that this is exactly the same condition, only in the no-director condition they just have to remember to apply this somewhat arbitrary rule, whereas in the director condition, they have to remember to take into account the director's perspective in order to guide their ongoing behavior. +Developmentally, these two conditions develop in exactly the same way. Between late childhood and mid-adolescence, there's an improvement, in other words a reduction of errors, in both of these trials, in both of these conditions. +But it's when you compare the last two groups, the mid-adolescent group and the adult group where things get really interesting, because there, there is no continued improvement in the no-director condition. +So if you have a teenage son or a daughter and you sometimes think they have problems taking other people's perspectives, you're right. They do. And this is why. +So we sometimes laugh about teenagers. +They're parodied, sometimes even demonized in the media for their kind of typical teenage behavior. They take risks, they're sometimes moody, they're very self-conscious. +I have a really nice anecdote from a friend of mine who said that the thing he noticed most about his teenage daughters before and after puberty was their level of embarrassment in front of him. +So, he said, "Before puberty, if my two daughters were messing around in a shop, I'd say, 'Hey, stop messing around and I'll sing your favorite song,' and instantly they'd stop messing around and he'd sing their favorite song. After puberty, that became the threat. +The very notion of their dad singing in public was enough to make them behave. +So people often ask, "Well, is adolescence a kind of recent phenomenon? +Is it something we've invented recently in the West?" +And actually, the answer is probably not. There are lots of descriptions of adolescence in history that sound very similar to the descriptions we use today. +So for example, take risk-taking. We know that adolescents have a tendency to take risks. They do. +They take more risks than children or adults, and they are particularly prone to taking risks when they're with their friends. There's an important drive to become independent from one's parents and to impress one's friends in adolescence. +But now we try to understand that in terms of the development of a part of their brain called the limbic system, so I'm going to show you the limbic system in red in the slide behind me, and also on this brain. +So the limbic system is right deep inside the brain, and it's involved in things like emotion processing and reward processing. It gives you the rewarding feeling out of doing fun things, including taking risks. +It gives you the kick out of taking risks. +And this region, the regions within the limbic system, have been found to be hypersensitive to the rewarding feeling of risk-taking in adolescents compared with adults, and at the very same time, the prefrontal cortex, which you can see in blue in the slide here, which stops us taking excessive risks, is still very much in development in adolescents. +So brain research has shown that the adolescent brain undergoes really quite profound development, and this has implications for education, for rehabilitation, and intervention. The environment, including teaching, can and does shape the developing adolescent brain, and yet it's only relatively recently that we have been routinely educating teenagers in the West. +All four of my grandparents, for example, left school in their early adolescence. They had no choice. +And that's still the case for many, many teenagers around the world today. Forty percent of teenagers don't have access to secondary school education. +And yet, this is a period of life where the brain is particularly adaptable and malleable. +It's a fantastic opportunity for learning and creativity. +So what's sometimes seen as the problem with adolescents heightened risk-taking, poor impulse control, self-consciousness shouldn't be stigmatized. +It actually reflects changes in the brain that provide an excellent opportunity for education and social development. Thank you. +It's time to start designing for our ears. +Architects and designers tend to focus exclusively on these. +We're designing environments that make us crazy. And it's not just our quality of life which suffers. +It's our health, our social behavior, and our productivity as well. +How does this work? Well, two ways. +First of all, ambience. I have a whole TEDTalk about this. +Sound affects us physiologically, psychologically, cognitively and behaviorally all the time. +The sound around us is affecting us even though we're not conscious of it. +There's a second way though, as well. +That's interference. Communication requires sending and receiving, and I have another whole TEDTalk about the importance of conscious listening, but I can send as well as I like, and you can be brilliant conscious listeners. +If the space I'm sending it in is not effective, that communication can't happen. +Spaces tend to include noise and acoustics. +A room like this has acoustics, this one very good acoustics. +Many rooms are not so good. +Let me give you some examples from a couple of areas which I think we all care about: health and education. +(Hospital noises) When I was visiting my terminally ill father in a hospital, I was asking myself, how does anybody get well in a place that sounds like this? +Hospital sound is getting worse all the time. +Noise levels in hospitals have doubled in the last few years, and it affects not just the patients but also the people working there. +I think we would like for dispensing errors to be zero, wouldn't we? And yet, as noise levels go up, so do the errors in dispensing made by the staff in hospitals. +Most of all, though, it affects the patients, and that could be you, it could be me. +Sleep is absolutely crucial for recovery. +It's when we regenerate, when we rebuild ourselves, and with threatening noise like this going on, your body, even if you are able to sleep, your body is telling you, "I'm under threat. This is dangerous." +And the quality of sleep is degraded, and so is our recovery. +There are just huge benefits to come from designing for the ears in our health care. +This is an area I intend to take on this year. +Education. +When I see a classroom that looks like this, can you imagine how this sounds? +I am forced to ask myself a question. +("Do architects have ears?") Now, that's a little unfair. Some of my best friends are architects. And they definitely do have ears. +But I think sometimes they don't use them when they're designing buildings. Here's a case in point. +This is a 32-million-pound flagship academy school which was built quite recently in the U.K. and designed by one of Britain's top architects. +Unfortunately, it was designed like a corporate headquarters, with a vast central atrium and classrooms leading off it with no back walls at all. +The children couldn't hear their teachers. +They had to go back in and spend 600,000 pounds putting the walls in. Let's stop this madness of open plan classrooms right now, please. +It's not just these modern buildings which suffer. +Old-fashioned classrooms suffer too. +A study in Florida just a few years ago found that if you're sitting where this photograph was taken in the classroom, row four, speech intelligibility is just 50 percent. +Children are losing one word in two. +Now that doesn't mean they only get half their education, but it does mean they have to work very hard to join the dots and understand what's going on. +This is affected massively by reverberation time, how reverberant a room is. +In a classroom with a reverberation time of 1.2 seconds, which is pretty common, this is what it sounds like. +(Inaudible echoing voice) Not so good, is it? +If you take that 1.2 seconds down to 0.4 seconds by installing acoustic treatments, sound absorbing materials and so forth, this is what you get. +Voice: In language, infinitely many words can be written with a small set of letters. In arithmetic, infinitely many numbers can be composed from just a few digits with the help of the simple zero. +Julian Treasure: What a difference. +Now that education you would receive, and thanks to the British acoustician Adrian James for those simulations. The signal was the same, the background noise was the same. +All that changed was the acoustics of the classroom in those two examples. +If education can be likened to watering a garden, which is a fair metaphor, sadly, much of the water is evaporating before it reaches the flowers, especially for some groups, for example, those with hearing impairment. +Now that's not just deaf children. That could be any child who's got a cold, glue ear, an ear infection, even hay fever. On a given day, one in eight children fall into that group, on any given day. +Then you have children for whom English is a second language, or whatever they're being taught in is a second language. +In the U.K., that's more than 10 percent of the school population. +And finally, after Susan Cain's wonderful TEDTalk in February, we know that introverts find it very difficult to relate when they're in a noisy environment doing group work. +Add those up. That is a lot of children who are not receiving their education properly. +It's not just the children who are affected, though. +(Noisy conversation) This study in Germany found the average noise level in classrooms is 65 decibels. +I have to really raise my voice to talk over 65 decibels of sound, and teachers are not just raising their voices. +This chart maps the teacher's heart rate against the noise level. +Noise goes up, heart rate goes up. +That is not good for you. +In fact, 65 decibels is the very level at which this big survey of all the evidence on noise and health found that, that is the threshold for the danger of myocardial infarction. +To you and me, that's a heart attack. +It may not be pushing the boat out too far to suggest that many teachers are losing significant life expectancy by teaching in environments like that day after day. +What does it cost to treat a classroom down to that 0.4-second reverberation time? +Two and a half thousand pounds. +I think the economics are pretty clear on this. +I'm glad that debate is happening on this. +I just moderated a major conference in London a few weeks ago called Sound Education, which brought together top acousticians, government people, teachers, and so forth. +We're at last starting to debate this issue, and the benefits that are available for designing for the ears in education, unbelievable. +Out of that conference, incidentally, also came a free app which is designed to help children study if they're having to work at home, for example, in a noisy kitchen. +And that's free out of that conference. +Let's broaden the perspective a little bit and look at cities. +We have urban planners. +Where are the urban sound planners? +I don't know of one in the world, and the opportunity is there to transform our experience in our cities. +The World Health Organization estimates that a quarter of Europe's population is having its sleep degraded by noise in cities. We can do better than that. +And in our offices, we spend a lot of time at work. +Where are the office sound planners? +People who say, don't sit that team next to this team, because they like noise and they need quiet. +Or who say, don't spend all your budget on a huge screen in the conference room, and then place one tiny microphone in the middle of a table for 30 people. If you can hear me, you can understand me without seeing me. If you can see me without hearing me, that does not work. +So office sound is a huge area, and incidentally, noise in offices has been shown to make people less helpful, less enjoy their teamwork, and less productive at work. +Finally, we have homes. We use interior designers. +Where are the interior sound designers? +Hey, let's all be interior sound designers, take on listening to our rooms and designing sound that's effective and appropriate. +My friend Richard Mazuch, an architect in London, coined the phrase "invisible architecture." +I love that phrase. +It's about designing, not appearance, but experience, so that we have spaces that sound as good as they look, that are fit for purpose, that improve our quality of life, our health and well being, our social behavior and our productivity. +It's time to start designing for the ears. +Thank you. Thank you. +The job of uncovering the global food waste scandal started for me when I was 15 years old. +I bought some pigs. I was living in Sussex. +And I started to feed them in the most traditional and environmentally friendly way. +I went to my school kitchen, and I said, "Give me the scraps that my school friends have turned their noses up at." +I went to the local baker and took their stale bread. +I went to the local greengrocer, and I went to a farmer who was throwing away potatoes because they were the wrong shape or size for supermarkets. +This was great. My pigs turned that food waste into delicious pork. I sold that pork to my school friends' parents, and I made a good pocket money addition to my teenage allowance. +But I noticed that most of the food that I was giving my pigs was in fact fit for human consumption, and that I was only scratching the surface, and that right the way up the food supply chain, in supermarkets, greengrocers, bakers, in our homes, in factories and farms, we were hemorrhaging out food. +Supermarkets didn't even want to talk to me about how much food they were wasting. +I'd been round the back. I'd seen bins full of food being locked and then trucked off to landfill sites, and I thought, surely there is something more sensible to do with food than waste it. +One morning, when I was feeding my pigs, I noticed a particularly tasty-looking sun-dried tomato loaf that used to crop up from time to time. +That became, as it were, a way of confronting large businesses in the business of wasting food, and exposing, most importantly, to the public, that when we're talking about food being thrown away, we're not talking about rotten stuff, we're not talking about stuff that's beyond the pale. +We're talking about good, fresh food that is being wasted on a colossal scale. +Eventually, I set about writing my book, really to demonstrate the extent of this problem on a global scale. What this shows is a nation-by-nation breakdown of the likely level of food waste in each country in the world. +Unfortunately, empirical data, good, hard stats, don't exist, and therefore to prove my point, I first of all had to find some proxy way of uncovering how much food was being wasted. +So I took the food supply of every single country and I compared it to what was actually likely to be being consumed in each country. +That's based on diet intake surveys, it's based on levels of obesity, it's based on a range of factors that gives you an approximate guess as to how much food is actually going into people's mouths. +That black line in the middle of that table is the likely level of consumption with an allowance for certain levels of inevitable waste. +There will always be waste. I'm not that unrealistic that I think we can live in a waste-free world. +But that black line shows what a food supply should be in a country if they allow for a good, stable, secure, nutritional diet for every person in that country. +Any dot above that line, and you'll quickly notice that that includes most countries in the world, represents unnecessary surplus, and is likely to reflect levels of waste in each country. +As a country gets richer, it invests more and more in getting more and more surplus into its shops and restaurants, and as you can see, most European and North American countries fall between 150 and 200 percent of the nutritional requirements of their populations. +So a country like America has twice as much food on its shop shelves and in its restaurants than is actually required to feed the American people. +But the thing that really struck me, when I plotted all this data, and it was a lot of numbers, was that you can see how it levels off. +Countries rapidly shoot towards that 150 mark, and then they level off, and they don't really go on rising as you might expect. +So I decided to unpack that data a little bit further to see if that was true or false. +And that's what I came up with. +A country like America has four times the amount of food that it needs. +When people talk about the need to increase global food production to feed those nine billion people that are expected on the planet by 2050, I always think of these graphs. +The fact is, we have an enormous buffer in rich countries between ourselves and hunger. +We've never had such gargantuan surpluses before. +In many ways, this is a great success story of human civilization, of the agricultural surpluses that we set out to achieve 12,000 years ago. +It is a success story. It has been a success story. +And yesterday, I went to one of the local supermarkets that I often visit to inspect, if you like, what they're throwing away. +I found quite a few packets of biscuits amongst all the fruit and vegetables and everything else that was in there. +And I thought, well this could serve as a symbol for today. +So I want you to imagine that these nine biscuits that I found in the bin represent the global food supply, okay? We start out with nine. +That's what's in fields around the world every single year. +The first biscuit we're going to lose before we even leave the farm. +That's a problem primarily associated with developing work agriculture, whether it's a lack of infrastructure, refrigeration, pasteurization, grain stores, even basic fruit crates, which means that food goes to waste before it even leaves the fields. +The next three biscuits are the foods that we decide to feed to livestock, the maize, the wheat and the soya. +Unfortunately, our beasts are inefficient animals, and they turn two-thirds of that into feces and heat, so we've lost those two, and we've only kept this one in meat and dairy products. +Two more we're going to throw away directly into bins. +This is what most of us think of when we think of food waste, what ends up in the garbage, what ends up in supermarket bins, what ends up in restaurant bins. We've lost another two, and we've left ourselves with just four biscuits to feed on. +That is not a superlatively efficient use of global resources, especially when you think of the billion hungry people that exist already in the world. +Having gone through the data, I then needed to demonstrate where that food ends up. +Where does it end up? We're used to seeing the stuff on our plates, but what about all the stuff that goes missing in between? +Supermarkets are an easy place to start. +This is the result of my hobby, which is unofficial bin inspections. Strange you might think, but if we could rely on corporations to tell us what they were doing in the back of their stores, we wouldn't need to go sneaking around the back, opening up bins and having a look at what's inside. +But this is what you can see more or less on every street corner in Britain, in Europe, in North America. +It represents a colossal waste of food, but what I discovered whilst I was writing my book was that this very evident abundance of waste was actually the tip of the iceberg. +When you start going up the supply chain, you find where the real food waste is happening on a gargantuan scale. +Can I have a show of hands if you have a loaf of sliced bread in your house? +Who lives in a household where that crust -- that slice at the first and last end of each loaf -- who lives in a household where it does get eaten? +Okay, most people, not everyone, but most people, and this is, I'm glad to say, what I see across the world, and yet has anyone seen a supermarket or sandwich shop anywhere in the world that serves sandwiches with crusts on it? I certainly haven't. +So I kept on thinking, where do those crusts go? This is the answer, unfortunately: 13,000 slices of fresh bread coming out of this one single factory every single day, day-fresh bread. +In the same year that I visited this factory, I went to Pakistan, where people in 2008 were going hungry as a result of a squeeze on global food supplies. +We contribute to that squeeze by depositing food in bins here in Britain and elsewhere in the world. We take food off the market shelves that hungry people depend on. +Go one step up, and you get to farmers, who throw away sometimes a third or even more of their harvest because of cosmetic standards. +This farmer, for example, has invested 16,000 pounds in growing spinach, not one leaf of which he harvested, because there was a little bit of grass growing in amongst it. +Potatoes that are cosmetically imperfect, all going for pigs. +Parsnips that are too small for supermarket specifications, tomatoes in Tenerife, oranges in Florida, bananas in Ecuador, where I visited last year, all being discarded. This is one day's waste from one banana plantation in Ecuador. +All being discarded, perfectly edible, because they're the wrong shape or size. +If we do that to fruit and vegetables, you bet we can do it to animals too. +Liver, lungs, heads, tails, kidneys, testicles, all of these things which are traditional, delicious and nutritious parts of our gastronomy go to waste. Offal consumption has halved in Britain and America in the last 30 years. +As a result, this stuff gets fed to dogs at best, or is incinerated. +This man, in Kashgar, Xinjiang province, in Western China, is serving up his national dish. +It's called sheep's organs. +It's delicious, it's nutritious, and as I learned when I went to Kashgar, it symbolizes their taboo against food waste. +I was sitting in a roadside cafe. +A chef came to talk to me, I finished my bowl, and halfway through the conversation, he stopped talking and he started frowning into my bowl. +I thought, "My goodness, what taboo have I broken? +How have I insulted my host?" +He pointed at three grains of rice at the bottom of my bowl, and he said, "Clean." I thought, "My God, you know, I go around the world telling people to stop wasting food. +Fish, 40 to 60 percent of European fish are discarded at sea, they don't even get landed. +In our homes, we've lost touch with food. +This is an experiment I did on three lettuces. +Who keeps lettuces in their fridge? +Most people. The one on the left was kept in a fridge for 10 days. +The one in the middle, on my kitchen table. Not much difference. +The one on the right I treated like cut flowers. +It's a living organism, cut the slice off, stuck it in a vase of water, it was all right for another two weeks after this. +Some food waste, as I said at the beginning, will inevitably arise, so the question is, what is the best thing to do with it? +I answered that question when I was 15. +In fact, humans answered that question 6,000 years ago: We domesticated pigs to turn food waste back into food. +And yet, in Europe, that practice has become illegal since 2001 as a result of the foot-and-mouth outbreak. +It's unscientific. It's unnecessary. +If you cook food for pigs, just as if you cook food for humans, it is rendered safe. +It's also a massive saving of resources. +At the moment, Europe depends on importing millions of tons of soy from South America, where its production contributes to global warming, to deforestation, to biodiversity loss, to feed livestock here in Europe. +At the same time we throw away millions of tons of food waste which we could and should be feeding them. +If we did that, and fed it to pigs, we would save that amount of carbon. +If we feed our food waste which is the current government favorite way of getting rid of food waste, to anaerobic digestion, which turns food waste into gas to produce electricity, you save a paltry 448 kilograms of carbon dioxide per ton of food waste. It's much better to feed it to pigs. +We knew that during the war. A silver lining: It has kicked off globally, the quest to tackle food waste. +Feeding the 5,000 is an event I first organized in 2009. +We fed 5,000 people all on food that otherwise would have been wasted. +Since then, it's happened again in London, it's happening internationally, and across the country. +It's a way of organizations coming together to celebrate food, to say the best thing to do with food is to eat and enjoy it, and to stop wasting it. +For the sake of the planet we live on, for the sake of our children, for the sake of all the other organisms that share our planet with us, we are a terrestrial animal, and we depend on our land for food. At the moment, we are trashing our land to grow food that no one eats. +Stop wasting food. Thank you very much. +You know, we wake up in the morning, you get dressed, put on your shoes, you head out into the world. +You plan on coming back, getting undressed, going to bed, waking up, doing it again, and that anticipation, that rhythm, helps give us a structure to how we organize ourselves and our lives, and gives it a measure of predictability. +Living in New York City, as I do, it's almost as if, with so many people doing so many things at the same time in such close quarters, it's almost like life is dealing you extra hands out of that deck. +You're never, there's just, juxtapositions are possible that just aren't, you don't think they're going to happen. +And you never think you're going to be the guy who's walking down the street and, because you choose to go down one side or the other, the rest of your life is changed forever. +And one night, I'm riding the uptown local train. +I get on. I tend to be a little bit vigilant when I get on the subway. +I'm not one of the people zoning out with headphones or a book. +I've never seen anything like this. +It's almost like they're practicing magic tricks. +And at the next stop, a guy gets on the car, and he has this sort of visiting professor look to him. +And it turns out they are medical students on their way to a lecture about the latest suturing techniques, and he's the guy giving the lecture. +As part of an initiation for three of their members, they had to kill somebody, and I happened to be the guy walking down Bleecker Street that night, and they jumped on me without a word. +One of the very lucky things, when I was at Notre Dame, I was on the boxing team, so I put my hands up right away, instinctively. +The guy on the right had a knife with a 10-inch blade, and he went in under my elbow, and it went up and cut my inferior vena cava. +The other guy was still working on me, collapsing my other lung, and I managed to, by hitting that guy, to get a minute. +I ran down the street and collapsed, and the ambulance guys intubated me on the sidewalk and let the trauma room know they had an incoming. +They don't really go to the usual place that memories go. +They kind of have this vault where they're stored in high-def, and George Lucas did all the sound effects. So sometimes, remembering them, it's like, it's not like any other kind of memories. +And I get into the trauma room, and they're waiting for me, and the lights are there, and I'd been able to breathe a little more now, because the blood has left, had been filling up my lungs and I was having a very hard time breathing, but now it's kind of gone into the stretcher. +And I said, "Is there anything I can do to help?" +Out of anesthetic, he had let them know that he wanted to be there, and he had given me about a two percent chance of living. +So he was there when I woke up, and it was, waking up was like breaking through the ice into a frozen lake of pain. +It was that enveloping, and there was only one spot that didn't hurt worse than anything I'd ever felt, and it was my instep, and he was holding the arch of my foot and rubbing the instep with his thumb. +And later on, when I got out and the flashbacks and the nightmares were giving me a hard time, I went back to him and I was sort of asking him, you know, what am I gonna do? +And I think, kind of, as a surgeon, he basically said, "Kid, I saved your life. +Like, now you can do whatever you want, like, you gotta get on with that. +It's like I gave you a new car and you're complaining about not finding parking. +Like, just, go out, and, you know, do your best. +But you're alive. That's what it's about." +Thank you. Thank you. Very lucky to be here. Thank you. +I want to talk to you today about a difficult topic that is close to me, and closer than you might realize to you. +I came to the UK 21 years ago, as an asylum-seeker. +I was 21. +I was forced to leave the Democratic Republic of the Congo, my home, where I was a student activist. +I would love my children to be able to meet my family in the Congo. +But I want to tell you what the Congo has got to do with you. +But first of all, I want you to do me a favor. +Can you all please reach into your pockets and take out your mobile phone? +Feel that familiar weight ... +how naturally your finger slides towards the buttons. +Can you imagine your world without it? +It connects us to our loved ones, our family, friends and colleagues, at home and overseas. +It is a symbol of an interconnected world. +But what you hold in your hand leaves a bloody trail, and it all boils down to a mineral: tantalum, mined in the Congo as coltan. +It is an anticorrosive heat conductor. +It stores energy in our mobile phones, PlayStations and laptops. +It is used in aerospace and medical equipment as an alloy. +It is so powerful that we only need tiny amounts. +It would be great if the story ended there. +Unfortunately, what you hold in your hand has not only enabled incredible technological development and industrial expansion, but it has also contributed to unimaginable human suffering. +Since 1996, over five million people have died in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. +Countless women, men and children have been raped, tortured or enslaved. +Rape is used as a weapon of war, instilling fear and depopulating whole areas. +The quest for extracting this mineral has not only aided, but it has fueled the ongoing war in the Congo. +But don't throw away your phones yet. +Thirty thousand children are enlisted and are made to fight in armed groups. +The Congo consistently scores dreadfully in global health and poverty rankings. But remarkably, the UN Environmental Programme has estimated the wealth of the country to be over 24 trillion dollars. +The state-regulated mining industry has collapsed, and control over mines has splintered. +Coltan is easily controlled by armed groups. +One well-known illicit trade route is that across the border to Rwanda, where Congolese tantalum is disguised as Rwandan. +But don't throw away your phones yet, because the incredible irony is that the technology that has placed such unsustainable, devastating demands on the Congo is the same technology that has brought this situation to our attention. +We only know so much about the situation in the Congo and in the mines because of the kind of communication the mobile phone allows. +As with the Arab Spring, during the recent elections in the Congo, voters were able to send text messages of local polling stations to the headquarters in the capital, Kinshasa. +And in the wake of the result, the diaspora has joined with the Carter Center, the Catholic Church and other observers, to draw attention to the undemocratic result. +The mobile phone has given people around the world an important tool towards gaining their political freedom. +It has truly revolutionized the way we communicate on the planet. +It has allowed momentous political change to take place. +So, we are faced with a paradox. +The mobile phone is an instrument of freedom and an instrument of oppression. +TED has always celebrated what technology can do for us, technology in its finished form. +It is time to be asking questions about technology. +Where does it come from? +Who makes it? +And for what? +Here, I am speaking directly to you, the TED community, and to all those who might be watching on a screen, on your phone, across the world, in the Congo. +All the technology is in place for us to communicate, and all the technology is in place to communicate this. +At the moment, there is no clear fair-trade solution. +But there has been a huge amount of progress. +The US has recently passed legislation to target bribery and misconduct in the Congo. +Recent UK legislation could be used in the same way. +In February, Nokia unveiled its new policy on sourcing minerals in the Congo, and there is a petition to Apple to make a conflict-free iPhone. +There are campaigns spreading across university campuses to make their colleges conflict-free. +But we're not there yet. +We need to continue mounting pressure on phone companies to change their sourcing processes. +When I first came to the UK, 21 years ago, I was homesick. +I missed my family and the friends I left behind. +Communication was extremely difficult. +Sending and receiving letters took months -- if you were lucky. +Often, they never arrived. +Even if I could have afforded the phone bills home, like most people in the Congo, my parents did not own a phone line. +Today, my two sons -- David and Daniel, can talk to my parents and get to know them. +Why should we allow such a wonderful, brilliant and necessary product to be the cause of unnecessary suffering for human beings? +We demand fair-trade food and fair-trade clothes. +It is time to demand fair-trade phones. +This is an idea worth spreading. Thank you. +It's a great time to be a molecular biologist. Reading and writing DNA code is getting easier and cheaper. +By the end of this year, we'll be able to sequence the three million bits of information in your genome in less than a day and for less than 1,000 euros. +Biotech is probably the most powerful and the fastest-growing technology sector. +It has the power, potentially, to replace our fossil fuels, to revolutionize medicine, and to touch every aspect of our daily lives. +So who gets to do it? +I think we'd all be pretty comfortable with this guy doing it. +But what about that guy? In 2009, I first heard about DIYbio. +It's a movement that -- it advocates making biotechnology accessible to everyone, not just scientists and people in government labs. +The idea is that if you open up the science and you allow diverse groups to participate, it could really stimulate innovation. +Putting technology in the hands of the end user is usually a good idea because they've got the best idea of what their needs are. +And here's this really sophisticated technology coming down the road, all these associated social, moral, ethical questions, and we scientists are just lousy at explaining to the public just exactly what it is we're doing in those labs. +So wouldn't it be nice if there was a place in your local neighborhood where you could go and learn about this stuff, do it hands-on? +I thought so. +So, three years ago, I got together with some friends of mine who had similar aspirations and we founded Genspace. +It's a nonprofit, a community biotech lab in Brooklyn, New York, and the idea was people could come, they could take classes and putter around in the lab in a very open, friendly atmosphere. +None of my previous experience prepared me for what came next. Can you guess? +The press started calling us. +And the more we talked about how great it was to increase science literacy, the more they wanted to talk about us creating the next Frankenstein, and as a result, for the next six months, when you Googled my name, instead of getting my scientific papers, you got this. +["Am I a biohazard?"] It was pretty depressing. +The only thing that got us through that period was that we knew that all over the world, there were other people that were trying to do the same thing that we were. +They were opening biohacker spaces, and some of them were facing much greater challenges than we did, more regulations, less resources. +But now, three years later, here's where we stand. +It's a vibrant, global community of hackerspaces, and this is just the beginning. +These are some of the biggest ones, and there are others opening every day. +There's one probably going to open up in Moscow, one in South Korea, and the cool thing is they each have their own individual flavor that grew out of the community they came out of. +Let me take you on a little tour. +Biohackers work alone. +We work in groups, in big cities and in small villages. +We reverse engineer lab equipment. +We genetically engineer bacteria. +We hack hardware, software, wetware, and, of course, the code of life. +We like to build things. +Then we like to take things apart. +We make things grow. +We make things glow. +And we make cells dance. +The spirit of these labs, it's open, it's positive, but, you know, sometimes when people think of us, the first thing that comes to mind is bio-safety, bio-security, all the dark side stuff. +I'm not going to minimize those concerns. +Any powerful technology is inherently dual use, and, you know, you get something like synthetic biology, nanobiotechnology, it really compels you, you have to look at both the amateur groups but also the professional groups, because they have better infrastructure, they have better facilities, and they have access to pathogens. +As a matter of fact, DIY people from all over the world, America, Europe, got together last year, and we hammered out a common code of ethics. +That's a lot more than conventional science has done. +Now, we follow state and local regulations. +We dispose of our waste properly, we follow safety procedures, we don't work with pathogens. +You know, if you're working with a pathogen, you're not part of the biohacker community, you're part of the bioterrorist community, I'm sorry. +And sometimes people ask me, "Well, what about an accident?" +Well, working with the safe organisms that we normally work with, the chance of an accident happening with somebody accidentally creating, like, some sort of superbug, that's literally about as probable as a snowstorm in the middle of the Sahara Desert. +Now, it could happen, but I'm not going to plan my life around it. +I've actually chosen to take a different kind of risk. +I signed up for something called the Personal Genome Project. +It's a study at Harvard where, at the end of the study, they're going to take my entire genomic sequence, all of my medical information, and my identity, and they're going to post it online for everyone to see. +There were a lot of risks involved that they talked about during the informed consent portion. +The one I liked the best is, someone could download my sequence, go back to the lab, synthesize some fake Ellen DNA, and plant it at a crime scene. But like DIYbio, the positive outcomes and the potential for good for a study like that far outweighs the risk. +Now, you might be asking yourself, "Well, you know, what would I do in a biolab?" +Well, it wasn't that long ago we were asking, "Well, what would anyone do with a personal computer?" +So this stuff is just beginning. +We're only seeing just the tip of the DNA iceberg. +Let me show you what you could do right now. +A biohacker in Germany, a journalist, wanted to know whose dog was leaving little presents on his street? +Yep, you guessed it. He threw tennis balls to all the neighborhood dogs, analyzed the saliva, identified the dog, and confronted the dog owner. +I discovered an invasive species in my own backyard. +Looked like a ladybug, right? +It actually is a Japanese beetle. +And the same kind of technology -- it's called DNA barcoding, it's really cool -- You can use it to check if your caviar is really beluga, if that sushi is really tuna, or if that goat cheese that you paid so much for is really goat's. +In a biohacker space, you can analyze your genome for mutations. +You can analyze your breakfast cereal for GMO's, and you can explore your ancestry. +You can send weather balloons up into the stratosphere, collect microbes, see what's up there. +You can make a biocensor out of yeast to detect pollutants in water. +You can make some sort of a biofuel cell. +You can do a lot of things. +You can also do an art science project. Some of these are really spectacular, and they look at social, ecological problems from a completely different perspective. +It's really cool. +Some people ask me, well, why am I involved? +I could have a perfectly good career in mainstream science. +The thing is, there's something in these labs that they have to offer society that you can't find anywhere else. +There's something sacred about a space where you can work on a project, and you don't have to justify to anyone that it's going to make a lot of money, that it's going to save mankind, or even that it's feasible. +It just has to follow safety guidelines. +If you had spaces like this all over the world, it could really change the perception of who's allowed to do biotech. +It's spaces like these that spawned personal computing. +Why not personal biotech? +If everyone in this room got involved, who knows what we could do? +This is such a new area, and as we say back in Brooklyn, you ain't seen nothin' yet. +So I want to start by offering you a free no-tech life hack, and all it requires of you is this: that you change your posture for two minutes. +But before I give it away, I want to ask you to right now do a little audit of your body and what you're doing with your body. +So how many of you are sort of making yourselves smaller? +Maybe you're hunching, crossing your legs, maybe wrapping your ankles. +Sometimes we hold onto our arms like this. +Sometimes we spread out. I see you. +So I want you to pay attention to what you're doing right now. +We're going to come back to that in a few minutes, and I'm hoping that if you learn to tweak this a little bit, it could significantly change the way your life unfolds. +So, we're really fascinated with body language, and we're particularly interested in other people's body language. +You know, we're interested in, like, you know an awkward interaction, or a smile, or a contemptuous glance, or maybe a very awkward wink, or maybe even something like a handshake. +Narrator: Here they are arriving at Number 10. +This lucky policeman gets to shake hands with the President of the United States. +Here comes the Prime Minister -- No. Amy Cuddy: So a handshake, or the lack of a handshake, can have us talking for weeks and weeks and weeks. +Even the BBC and The New York Times. +So obviously when we think about nonverbal behavior, or body language -- but we call it nonverbals as social scientists -- it's language, so we think about communication. +When we think about communication, we think about interactions. +So what is your body language communicating to me? +What's mine communicating to you? +And there's a lot of reason to believe that this is a valid way to look at this. +So social scientists have spent a lot of time looking at the effects of our body language, or other people's body language, on judgments. +And we make sweeping judgments and inferences from body language. +And those judgments can predict really meaningful life outcomes like who we hire or promote, who we ask out on a date. +For example, Nalini Ambady, a researcher at Tufts University, shows that when people watch 30-second soundless clips of real physician-patient interactions, their judgments of the physician's niceness predict whether or not that physician will be sued. +So it doesn't have to do so much with whether or not that physician was incompetent, but do we like that person and how they interacted? +Even more dramatic, Alex Todorov at Princeton has shown us that judgments of political candidates' faces in just one second predict 70 percent of U.S. Senate and gubernatorial race outcomes, and even, let's go digital, emoticons used well in online negotiations can lead you to claim more value from that negotiation. +If you use them poorly, bad idea. Right? +So when we think of nonverbals, we think of how we judge others, how they judge us and what the outcomes are. +We tend to forget, though, the other audience that's influenced by our nonverbals, and that's ourselves. +We are also influenced by our nonverbals, our thoughts and our feelings and our physiology. +So what nonverbals am I talking about? +I'm a social psychologist. I study prejudice, and I teach at a competitive business school, so it was inevitable that I would become interested in power dynamics. +I became especially interested in nonverbal expressions of power and dominance. +And what are nonverbal expressions of power and dominance? +Well, this is what they are. +So in the animal kingdom, they are about expanding. +So you make yourself big, you stretch out, you take up space, you're basically opening up. +It's about opening up. +And this is true across the animal kingdom. It's not just limited to primates. +And humans do the same thing. So they do this both when they have power sort of chronically, and also when they're feeling powerful in the moment. +And this one is especially interesting because it really shows us how universal and old these expressions of power are. +This expression, which is known as pride, Jessica Tracy has studied. +She shows that people who are born with sight and people who are congenitally blind do this when they win at a physical competition. +So when they cross the finish line and they've won, it doesn't matter if they've never seen anyone do it. +They do this. +So the arms up in the V, the chin is slightly lifted. +What do we do when we feel powerless? +We do exactly the opposite. +We close up. We wrap ourselves up. We make ourselves small. We don't want to bump into the person next to us. +So again, both animals and humans do the same thing. +And this is what happens when you put together high and low power. +So what we tend to do when it comes to power is that we complement the other's nonverbals. +So if someone is being really powerful with us, we tend to make ourselves smaller. We don't mirror them. +We do the opposite of them. +So I'm watching this behavior in the classroom, and what do I notice? +I notice that MBA students really exhibit the full range of power nonverbals. +So you have people who are like caricatures of alphas, really coming into the room, they get right into the middle of the room before class even starts, like they really want to occupy space. +When they sit down, they're sort of spread out. +They raise their hands like this. +You have other people who are virtually collapsing when they come in. As soon they come in, you see it. +You see it on their faces and their bodies, and they sit in their chair and they make themselves tiny, and they go like this when they raise their hand. +I notice a couple of things about this. +One, you're not going to be surprised. +It seems to be related to gender. +So women are much more likely to do this kind of thing than men. +Women feel chronically less powerful than men, so this is not surprising. But the other thing I noticed is that it also seemed to be related to the extent to which the students were participating, and how well they were participating. +And this is really important in the MBA classroom, because participation counts for half the grade. +So business schools have been struggling with this gender grade gap. +You get these equally qualified women and men coming in and then you get these differences in grades, and it seems to be partly attributable to participation. +So I started to wonder, you know, okay, so you have these people coming in like this, and they're participating. +Is it possible that we could get people to fake it and would it lead them to participate more? +So my main collaborator Dana Carney, who's at Berkeley, and I really wanted to know, can you fake it till you make it? +Like, can you do this just for a little while and actually experience a behavioral outcome that makes you seem more powerful? +So we know that our nonverbals govern how other people think and feel about us. There's a lot of evidence. +But our question really was, do our nonverbals govern how we think and feel about ourselves? +There's some evidence that they do. +So, for example, we smile when we feel happy, but also, when we're forced to smile by holding a pen in our teeth like this, it makes us feel happy. +When it comes to power, it also goes both ways. +So when you feel powerful, you're more likely to do this, but it's also possible that when you pretend to be powerful, you are more likely to actually feel powerful. +So the second question really was, you know, so we know that our minds change our bodies, but is it also true that our bodies change our minds? +And when I say minds, in the case of the powerful, what am I talking about? +So I'm talking about thoughts and feelings and the sort of physiological things that make up our thoughts and feelings, and in my case, that's hormones. I look at hormones. +So what do the minds of the powerful versus the powerless look like? +So powerful people tend to be, not surprisingly, more assertive and more confident, more optimistic. +They actually feel they're going to win even at games of chance. +They also tend to be able to think more abstractly. +So there are a lot of differences. They take more risks. +There are a lot of differences between powerful and powerless people. +Physiologically, there also are differences on two key hormones: testosterone, which is the dominance hormone, and cortisol, which is the stress hormone. +So what we find is that high-power alpha males in primate hierarchies have high testosterone and low cortisol, and powerful and effective leaders also have high testosterone and low cortisol. +So what does that mean? When you think about power, people tended to think only about testosterone, because that was about dominance. +But really, power is also about how you react to stress. +So do you want the high-power leader that's dominant, high on testosterone, but really stress reactive? +Probably not, right? +So we have this evidence, both that the body can shape the mind, at least at the facial level, and also that role changes can shape the mind. +So what happens, okay, you take a role change, what happens if you do that at a really minimal level, like this tiny manipulation, this tiny intervention? +"For two minutes," you say, "I want you to stand like this, and it's going to make you feel more powerful." +So this is what we did. +We decided to bring people into the lab and run a little experiment, and these people adopted, for two minutes, either high-power poses or low-power poses, and I'm just going to show you five of the poses, although they took on only two. +So here's one. +A couple more. +This one has been dubbed the "Wonder Woman" by the media. +Here are a couple more. +So you can be standing or you can be sitting. +And here are the low-power poses. +So you're folding up, you're making yourself small. +This one is very low-power. +When you're touching your neck, you're really protecting yourself. +So this is what happens. +They come in, they spit into a vial, for two minutes, we say, "You need to do this or this." +They don't look at pictures of the poses. +We don't want to prime them with a concept of power. +We want them to be feeling power. So two minutes they do this. +We then ask them, "How powerful do you feel?" on a series of items, and then we give them an opportunity to gamble, and then we take another saliva sample. +That's it. That's the whole experiment. +So this is what we find. +Risk tolerance, which is the gambling, we find that when you are in the high-power pose condition, 86 percent of you will gamble. +When you're in the low-power pose condition, only 60 percent, and that's a whopping significant difference. +Here's what we find on testosterone. +From their baseline when they come in, high-power people experience about a 20-percent increase, and low-power people experience about a 10-percent decrease. +So again, two minutes, and you get these changes. +Here's what you get on cortisol. +High-power people experience about a 25-percent decrease, and the low-power people experience about a 15-percent increase. +So two minutes lead to these hormonal changes that configure your brain to basically be either assertive, confident and comfortable, or really stress-reactive, and feeling sort of shut down. +And we've all had the feeling, right? +So it seems that our nonverbals do govern how we think and feel about ourselves, so it's not just others, but it's also ourselves. +Also, our bodies change our minds. +But the next question, of course, is, can power posing for a few minutes really change your life in meaningful ways? +This is in the lab, it's this little task, it's just a couple of minutes. +Where can you actually apply this? +Which we cared about, of course. +And so we think where you want to use this is evaluative situations, like social threat situations. +Where are you being evaluated, either by your friends? +For teenagers, it's at the lunchroom table. +For some people it's speaking at a school board meeting. +It might be giving a pitch or giving a talk like this or doing a job interview. +We decided that the one that most people could relate to because most people had been through, was the job interview. +So we published these findings, and the media are all over it, and they say, Okay, so this is what you do when you go in for the job interview, right? You know, so we were of course horrified, and said, Oh my God, no, that's not what we meant at all. +For numerous reasons, no, don't do that. +Again, this is not about you talking to other people. +It's you talking to yourself. +What do you do before you go into a job interview? You do this. +You're sitting down. You're looking at your iPhone -- or your Android, not trying to leave anyone out. +You're looking at your notes, you're hunching up, making yourself small, when really what you should be doing maybe is this, like, in the bathroom, right? Do that. Find two minutes. +So that's what we want to test. Okay? +So we bring people into a lab, and they do either high- or low-power poses again, they go through a very stressful job interview. +It's five minutes long. They are being recorded. +They're being judged also, and the judges are trained to give no nonverbal feedback, so they look like this. +Imagine this is the person interviewing you. +So for five minutes, nothing, and this is worse than being heckled. +People hate this. +It's what Marianne LaFrance calls "standing in social quicksand." +So this really spikes your cortisol. +So this is the job interview we put them through, because we really wanted to see what happened. +We then have these coders look at these tapes, four of them. +They're blind to the hypothesis. They're blind to the conditions. +They have no idea who's been posing in what pose, and they end up looking at these sets of tapes, and they say, "We want to hire these people," "We don't want to hire these people. +We also evaluate these people much more positively overall." +But what's driving it? It's not about the content of the speech. +It's about the presence that they're bringing to the speech. +Because we rate them on all these variables related to competence, like, how well-structured is the speech? +How good is it? What are their qualifications? +No effect on those things. This is what's affected. +These kinds of things. People are bringing their true selves, basically. +They're bringing themselves. +They bring their ideas, but as themselves, with no, you know, residue over them. +So this is what's driving the effect, or mediating the effect. +So when I tell people about this, that our bodies change our minds and our minds can change our behavior, and our behavior can change our outcomes, they say to me, "It feels fake." Right? +So I said, fake it till you make it. It's not me. +I don't want to get there and then still feel like a fraud. +I don't want to feel like an impostor. +I don't want to get there only to feel like I'm not supposed to be here. +And that really resonated with me, because I want to tell you a little story about being an impostor and feeling like I'm not supposed to be here. When I was 19, I was in a really bad car accident. +I was thrown out of a car, rolled several times. +I was thrown from the car. +And I woke up in a head injury rehab ward, and I had been withdrawn from college, and I learned that my IQ had dropped by two standard deviations, which was very traumatic. +I knew my IQ because I had identified with being smart, and I had been called gifted as a child. +So I'm taken out of college, I keep trying to go back. +They say, "You're not going to finish college. +Just, you know, there are other things for you to do, but that's not going to work out for you." +So I really struggled with this, and I have to say, having your identity taken from you, your core identity, and for me it was being smart, there's nothing that leaves you feeling more powerless than that. +So I felt entirely powerless. I worked and worked, and I got lucky, and worked, and got lucky, and worked. +Eventually I graduated from college. +It took me four years longer than my peers, and I convinced someone, my angel advisor, Susan Fiske, to take me on, and so I ended up at Princeton, and I was like, I am not supposed to be here. +I am an impostor. +And the night before my first-year talk, and the first-year talk at Princeton is a 20-minute talk to 20 people. +That's it. +I was so afraid of being found out the next day that I called her and said, "I'm quitting." +She was like, "You are not quitting, because I took a gamble on you, and you're staying. +You're going to stay, and this is what you're going to do. +You are going to fake it. +You're going to do every talk that you ever get asked to do. +You're just going to do it and do it and do it, even if you're terrified and just paralyzed and having an out-of-body experience, until you have this moment where you say, 'Oh my gosh, I'm doing it. +Like, I have become this. I am actually doing this.'" So that's what I did. Five years in grad school, a few years, you know, I'm at Northwestern, I moved to Harvard, I'm at Harvard, I'm not really thinking about it anymore, but for a long time I had been thinking, "Not supposed to be here." +So at the end of my first year at Harvard, a student who had not talked in class the entire semester, who I had said, "Look, you've gotta participate or else you're going to fail," came into my office. I really didn't know her at all. +She came in totally defeated, and she said, "I'm not supposed to be here." +And that was the moment for me. Because two things happened. +One was that I realized, oh my gosh, I don't feel like that anymore. +I don't feel that anymore, but she does, and I get that feeling. +And the second was, she is supposed to be here! +Like, she can fake it, she can become it. +So I was like, "Yes, you are! You are supposed to be here! +And tomorrow you're going to fake it, you're going to make yourself powerful, and, you know -- And you're going to go into the classroom, and you are going to give the best comment ever." +You know? And she gave the best comment ever, and people turned around and were like, oh my God, I didn't even notice her sitting there. She comes back to me months later, and I realized that she had not just faked it till she made it, she had actually faked it till she became it. +So she had changed. +And so I want to say to you, don't fake it till you make it. +Fake it till you become it. +Do it enough until you actually become it and internalize. +The last thing I'm going to leave you with is this. +Tiny tweaks can lead to big changes. +So, this is two minutes. +Two minutes, two minutes, two minutes. +Before you go into the next stressful evaluative situation, for two minutes, try doing this, in the elevator, in a bathroom stall, at your desk behind closed doors. +That's what you want to do. +Configure your brain to cope the best in that situation. +Get your testosterone up. Get your cortisol down. +Don't leave that situation feeling like, oh, I didn't show them who I am. +Leave that situation feeling like, I really feel like I got to say who I am and show who I am. +So I want to ask you first, you know, both to try power posing, and also I want to ask you to share the science, because this is simple. +I don't have ego involved in this. Give it away. Share it with people, because the people who can use it the most are the ones with no resources and no technology and no status and no power. +Give it to them because they can do it in private. +They need their bodies, privacy and two minutes, and it can significantly change the outcomes of their life. +Thank you. +So, this is my grandfather, Salman Schocken, who was born into a poor and uneducated family with six children to feed, and when he was 14 years old, he was forced to drop out of school in order to help put bread on the table. +He never went back to school. +Instead, he went on to build a glittering empire of department stores. +Salman was the consummate perfectionist, and every one of his stores was a jewel of Bauhaus architecture. +He was also the ultimate self-learner, and like everything else, he did it in grand style. +He surrounded himself with an entourage of young, unknown scholars like Martin Buber and Shai Agnon and Franz Kafka, and he paid each one of them a monthly salary so that they could write in peace. +And yet, in the late '30s, Salman saw what's coming. +He fled Germany, together with his family, leaving everything else behind. +His department stores confiscated, he spent the rest of his life in a relentless pursuit of art and culture. +This high school dropout died at the age of 82, a formidable intellectual, cofounder and first CEO of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, and founder of Schocken Books, an acclaimed imprint that was later acquired by Random House. +Such is the power of self-study. +And these are my parents. +They too did not enjoy the privilege of college education. +They were too busy building a family and a country. +And yet, just like Salman, they were lifelong, tenacious self-learners, and our home was stacked with thousands of books, records and artwork. +Instead, they can provide an environment and resources that tease out your natural ability to learn on your own. +Self-study, self-exploration, self-empowerment: these are the virtues of a great education. +So I'd like to share with you a story about a self-study, self-empowering computer science course that I built, together with my brilliant colleague Noam Nisan. +As you can see from the pictures, both Noam and I had an early fascination with first principles, and over the years, as our knowledge of science and technology became more sophisticated, this early awe with the basics has only intensified. +So it's not surprising that, about 12 years ago, when Noam and I were already computer science professors, we were equally frustrated by the same phenomenon. +As computers became increasingly more complex, our students were losing the forest for the trees, and indeed, it is impossible to connect with the soul of the machine if you interact with a black box P.C. or a Mac which is shrouded by numerous layers of closed, proprietary software. +So Noam and I had this insight that if we want our students to understand how computers work, and understand it in the marrow of their bones, then perhaps the best way to go about it is to have them build a complete, working, general-purpose, useful computer, hardware and software, from the ground up, from first principles. +Now, we had to start somewhere, and so Noam and I decided to base our cathedral, so to speak, on the simplest possible building block, which is something called NAND. +It is nothing more than a trivial logic gate with four input-output states. +So we now start this journey by telling our students that God gave us NAND and told us to build a computer, and when we asked how, God said, "One step at a time." +And then, following this advice, we start with this lowly, humble NAND gate, and we walk our students through an elaborate sequence of projects in which they gradually build a chip set, a hardware platform, an assembler, a virtual machine, a basic operating system and a compiler for a simple, Java-like language that we call "JACK." +The students celebrate the end of this tour de force by using JACK to write all sorts of cool games like Pong, Snake and Tetris. +You can imagine the tremendous joy of playing with a Tetris game that you wrote in JACK and then compiled into machine language in a compiler that you wrote also, and then seeing the result running on a machine that you built starting with nothing more than a few thousand NAND gates. +It's a tremendous personal triumph of going from first principles all the way to a fantastically complex and useful system. +Noam and I worked five years to facilitate this ascent and to create the tools and infrastructure that will enable students to build it in one semester. +And this is the great team that helped us make it happen. +The trick was to decompose the computer's construction into numerous stand-alone modules, each of which could be individually specified, built and unit-tested in isolation from the rest of the project. +And from day one, Noam and I decided to put all these building blocks freely available in open source on the Web. +So chip specifications, APIs, project descriptions, software tools, hardware simulators, CPU emulators, stacks of hundreds of slides, lectures -- we laid out everything on the Web and invited the world to come over, take whatever they need, and do whatever they want with it. +And then something fascinating happened. +The world came. +And in short order, thousands of people were building our machine. +And NAND2Tetris became one of the first massive, open, online courses, although seven years ago we had no idea that what we were doing is called MOOCs. +We just observed how self-organized courses were kind of spontaneously spawning out of our materials. +For example, Pramode C.E., an engineer from Kerala, India, has organized groups of self-learners who build our computer under his good guidance. +And Parag Shah, another engineer, from Mumbai, has unbundled our projects into smaller, more manageable bites that he now serves in his pioneering do-it-yourself computer science program. +The people who are attracted to these courses typically have a hacker mentality. +They want to figure out how things work, and they want to do it in groups, like this hackers club in Washington, D.C., that uses our materials to offer community courses. +And because these materials are widely available and open-source, different people take them to very different and unpredictable directions. +For example, Yu Fangmin, from Guangzhou, has used FPGA technology to build our computer and show others how to do the same using a video clip, and Ben Craddock developed a very nice computer game that unfolds inside our CPU architecture, which is quite a complex 3D maze that Ben developed using the Minecraft 3D simulator engine. +The Minecraft community went bananas over this project, and Ben became an instant media celebrity. +And indeed, for quite a few people, taking this NAND2Tetris pilgrimage, if you will, has turned into a life-changing experience. +For example, take Dan Rounds, who is a music and math major from East Lansing, Michigan. +A few weeks ago, Dan posted a victorious post on our website, and I'd like to read it to you. +So here's what Dan said. +"I did the coursework because understanding computers is important to me, just like literacy and numeracy, and I made it through. I never worked harder on anything, never been challenged to this degree. +But given what I now feel capable of doing, I would certainly do it again. +To anyone considering NAND2Tetris, it's a tough journey, but you'll be profoundly changed." +So Dan demonstrates the many self-learners who take this course off the Web, on their own traction, on their own initiative, and it's quite amazing because these people cannot care less about grades. +They are doing it because of one motivation only. +They have a tremendous passion to learn. +And with that in mind, I'd like to say a few words about traditional college grading. +I'm sick of it. +We are obsessed with grades because we are obsessed with data, and yet grading takes away all the fun from failing, and a huge part of education is about failing. +Courage, according to Churchill, is the ability to go from one defeat to another without losing enthusiasm. And [Joyce] said that mistakes are the portals of discovery. +And yet we don't tolerate mistakes, and we worship grades. +So we collect your B pluses and your A minuses and we aggregate them into a number like 3.4, which is stamped on your forehead and sums up who you are. +Well, in my opinion, we went too far with this nonsense, and grading became degrading. +So here's what we do. Basically, we developed numerous mobile apps, every one of them explaining a particular concept in math. +So for example, let's take area. +When you deal with a concept like area -- well, we also provide a set of tools that the child is invited to experiment with in order to learn. +So if area is what interests us, then one thing which is natural to do is to tile the area of this particular shape and simply count how many tiles it takes to cover it completely. +And this little exercise here gives you a first good insight of the notion of area. +Moving along, what about the area of this figure? +Well, if you try to tile it, it doesn't work too well, does it. +Now this particular transformation did not change the area of the original figure, so a six-year-old who plays with this has just discovered a clever algorithm to compute the area of any given parallelogram. +We don't replace teachers, by the way. +We believe that teachers should be empowered, not replaced. +Moving along, what about the area of a triangle? +So after some guided trial and error, the child will discover, with or without help, that he or she can duplicate the original figure and then take the result, transpose it, glue it to the original and then proceed [with] what we did before: cut, rearrange, paste oops paste and glue, and tile. +Now this transformation has doubled the area of the original figure, and therefore we have just learned that the area of the triangle equals the area of this rectangle divided by two. +But we discovered it by self-exploration. +So, in addition to learning some useful geometry, the child has been exposed to some pretty sophisticated science strategies, like reduction, which is the art of transforming a complex problem into a simple one, or generalization, which is at the heart of any scientific discipline, or the fact that some properties are invariant under some transformations. +And all this is something that a very young child can pick up using such mobile apps. +So presently, we are doing the following: First of all, we are decomposing the K-12 math curriculum into numerous such apps. +And because we cannot do it on our own, we've developed a very fancy authoring tool that any author, any parent or actually anyone who has an interest in math education, can use this authoring tool to develop similar apps on tablets without programming. +And finally, we are putting together an adaptive ecosystem that will match different learners with different apps according to their evolving learning style. +The driving force behind this project is my colleague Shmulik London, and, you see, just like Salman did about 90 years ago, the trick is to surround yourself with brilliant people, because at the end, it's all about people. +And a few years ago, I was walking in Tel Aviv and I saw this graffiti on a wall, and I found it so compelling that by now I preach it to my students, and I'd like to try to preach it to you. +Now, I don't know how many people here are familiar with the term "mensch." +It basically means to be human and to do the right thing. +And with that, what this graffiti says is, "High-tech schmigh-tech. +The most important thing is to be a mensch." Thank you. +I have to say that I'm very glad to be here. +I understand we have over 80 countries here, so that's a whole new paradigm for me to speak to all of these countries. +In each country, I'm sure you have this thing called the parent-teacher conference. +Do you know about the parent-teacher conference? +Not the ones for your kids, but the one you had as a child, where your parents come to school and your teacher talks to your parents, and it's a little bit awkward. +Well, I remember in third grade, I had this moment where my father, who never takes off from work, he's a classical blue collar, a working-class immigrant person, going to school to see his son, how he's doing, and the teacher said to him, he said, "You know, John is good at math and art." +And he kind of nodded, you know? +The next day I saw him talking to a customer at our tofu store, and he said, "You know, John's good at math." +And that always stuck with me all my life. +Why didn't Dad say art? Why wasn't it okay? +Why? It became a question my entire life, and that's all right, because being good at math meant he bought me a computer, and some of you remember this computer, this was my first computer. +Who had an Apple II? Apple II users, very cool. As you remember, the Apple II did nothing at all. You'd plug it in, you'd type in it and green text would come out. +It would say you're wrong most of the time. +That was the computer we knew. +That computer is a computer that I learned about going to MIT, my father's dream. And at MIT, however, I learned about the computer at all levels, and after, I went to art school to get away from computers, and I began to think about the computer as more of a spiritual space of thinking. +And I was influenced by performance art -- so this is 20 years ago. I made a computer out of people. +It was called the Human Powered Computer Experiment. +I have a power manager, mouse driver, memory, etc., and I built this in Kyoto, the old capital of Japan. +It's a room broken in two halves. +I've turned the computer on, and these assistants are placing a giant floppy disk built out of cardboard, and it's put into the computer. +And the floppy disk drive person wears it. She finds the first sector on the disk, and takes data off the disk and passes it off to, of course, the bus. +And so I'm going to talk today about four things, really. +The first three things are about how I've been curious about technology, design and art, and how they intersect, how they overlap, and also a topic that I've taken on since four years ago I became the President of Rhode Island School of Design: leadership. +And I'll talk about how I've looked to combine these four areas into a kind of a synthesis, a kind of experiment. +So starting from technology, technology is a wonderful thing. +When that Apple II came out, it really could do nothing. +It could show text and after we waited a bit, we had these things called images. +Remember when images were first possible with a computer, those gorgeous, full-color images? +And then after a few years, we got CD-quality sound. +It was incredible. You could listen to sound on the computer. +And then movies, via CD-ROM. It was amazing. +Remember that excitement? +And then the browser appeared. The browser was great, but the browser was very primitive, very narrow bandwidth. +Text first, then images, we waited, CD-quality sound over the Net, then movies over the Internet. Kind of incredible. +And then the mobile phone occurred, text, images, audio, video. And now we have iPhone, iPad, Android, with text, video, audio, etc. +You see this little pattern here? +We're kind of stuck in a loop, perhaps, and this sense of possibility from computing is something I've been questioning for the last 10 or so years, and have looked to design, as we understand most things, and to understand design with our technology has been a passion of mine. +And I have a small experiment to give you a quick design lesson. +Designers talk about the relationship between form and content, content and form. Now what does that mean? +Well, content is the word up there: fear. +It's a four-letter word. It's a kind of a bad feeling word, fear. +Fear is set in Light Helvetica, so it's not too stressful, and if you set it in Ultra Light Helvetica, it's like, "Oh, fear, who cares?" Right? You take the same Ultra Light Helvetica and make it big, and like, whoa, that hurts. Fear. +So you can see how you change the scale, you change the form. Content is the same, but you feel differently. +You change the typeface to, like, this typeface, and it's kind of funny. It's like pirate typeface, like Captain Jack Sparrow typeface. Arr! Fear! +Like, aww, that's not fearful. That's actually funny. +Or fear like this, kind of a nightclub typeface. Like, we gotta go to Fear. It's, like, amazing, right? It just changes the same content. +Or you make it -- The letters are separated apart, they're huddled together like on the deck of the Titanic, and you feel sorry for the letters, like, I feel the fear. +You feel for them. +Or you change the typeface to something like this. +It's very classy. It's like that expensive restaurant, Fear. +I can never get in there. It's just amazing, Fear. But that's form, content. +If you just change one letter in that content, you get a much better word, much better content: free. +"Free" is a great word. You can serve it almost any way. +Free bold feels like Mandela free. +It's like, yes, I can be free. +Free even light feels kind of like, ah, I can breathe in free. +It feels great. Or even free spread out, it's like, ah, I can breathe in free, so easily. +And I can add in a blue gradient and a dove, and I have, like, Don Draper free. So you see that -- form, content, design, it works that way. +It's a powerful thing. It's like magic, almost, like the magicians we've seen at TED. It's magic. +Design does that. +And I've been curious about how design and technology intersect, and I'm going to show you some old work I never really show anymore, to give you a sense of what I used to do. +So -- yeah. +So I made a lot of work in the '90s. +This was a square that responds to sound. +People ask me why I made that. It's not clear. But I thought it'd be neat for the square to respond to me, and my kids were small then, and my kids would play with these things, like, "Aaah," you know, they would say, "Daddy, aaah, aaah." You know, like that. +We'd go to a computer store, and they'd do the same thing. +And they'd say, "Daddy, why doesn't the computer respond to sound?" +And it was really at the time I was wondering why doesn't the computer respond to sound? +So I made this as a kind of an experiment at the time. +And then I spent a lot of time in the space of interactive graphics and things like this, and I stopped doing it because my students at MIT got so much better than myself, so I had to hang up my mouse. +But in '96, I made my last piece. It was in black and white, monochrome, fully monochrome, all in integer mathematics. +It's called "Tap, Type, Write." +It's paying a tribute to the wonderful typewriter that my mother used to type on all the time as a legal secretary. +It has 10 variations. (Typing noise) (Typing noise) There's a shift. +Ten variations. This is, like, spin the letter around. +(Typing noises) This is, like, a ring of letters. (Typing noises) This is 20 years old, so it's kind of a -- Let's see, this is I love the French film "The Red Balloon." +Great movie, right? I love that movie. So, this is sort of like a play on that. (Typing noises) (Typewriter bell) It's peaceful, like that. I'll show this last one. This is about balance, you know. +It's kind of stressful typing out, so if you type on this keyboard, you can, like, balance it out. +If you hit G, life's okay, so I always say, "Hit G, and it's going to be all right. +Thank you. Thank you. +So that was 20 years ago, and I was always on the periphery of art. +By being President of RISD I've gone deep into art, and art is a wonderful thing, fine art, pure art. +You know, when people say, "I don't get art. +I don't get it at all." That means art is working, you know? +It's like, art is supposed to be enigmatic, so when you say, like, "I don't get it," like, oh, that's great. Art does that, because art is about asking questions, questions that may not be answerable. +At RISD, we have this amazing facility called the Edna Lawrence Nature Lab. It has 80,000 samples of animal, bone, mineral, plants. +You know, in Rhode Island, if an animal gets hit on the road, they call us up and we pick it up and stuff it. +And why do we have this facility? +Because at RISD, you have to look at the actual animal, the object, to understand its volume, to perceive it. +At RISD, you're not allowed to draw from an image. +And many people ask me, John, couldn't you just digitize all this? Make it all digital? Wouldn't it be better? +And I often say, well, there's something good to how things used to be done. There's something very different about it, something we should figure out what is good about how we did it, even in this new era. +So they'd go to an antique shop, and they'd look at this cup, and they'd say, "Tell us about this cup." +And the shopkeeper would say, "It's old." "Tell us more." "Oh, it's really old." And he saw, over and over, the antique's value was all about it being old. +And as a new media artist, he reflected, and said, you know, I've spent my whole career making new media art. +People say, "Wow, your art, what is it?" It's new media. +And he realized, it isn't about old or new. +It's about something in between. +It isn't about "old," the dirt, "new," the cloud. It's about what is good. +A combination of the cloud and the dirt is where the action is at. +You see it in all interesting art today, in all interesting businesses today. How we combine those two together to make good is very interesting. +So art makes questions, and leadership is something that is asking a lot of questions. +We aren't functioning so easily anymore. +We aren't a simple authoritarian regime anymore. +As an example of authoritarianism, I was in Russia one time traveling in St. Petersburg, at a national monument, and I saw this sign that says, "Do Not Walk On The Grass," and I thought, oh, I mean, I speak English, and you're trying to single me out. That's not fair. +But I found a sign for Russian-speaking people, and it was the best sign ever to say no. +It was like, "No swimming, no hiking, no anything." +My favorite ones are "no plants." Why would you bring a plant to a national monument? I'm not sure. +And also "no love." So that is authoritarianism. +And what is that, structurally? +It's a hierarchy. We all know that a hierarchy is how we run many systems today, but as we know, it's been disrupted. +It is now a network instead of a perfect tree. +It's a heterarchy instead of a hierarchy. And that's kind of awkward. +And so today, leaders are faced with how to lead differently, I believe. +This is work I did with my colleague Becky Bermont on creative leadership. What can we learn from artists and designers for how to lead? +Because in many senses, a regular leader loves to avoid mistakes. +Someone who's creative actually loves to learn from mistakes. +A traditional leader is always wanting to be right, whereas a creative leader hopes to be right. +And this frame is important today, in this complex, ambiguous space, and artists and designers have a lot to teach us, I believe. +And I had a show in London recently where my friends invited me to come to London for four days to sit in a sandbox, and I said great. +And so I sat in a sandbox for four days straight, six hours every day, six-minute appointments with anyone in London, and that was really bad. +But I would listen to people, hear their issues, draw in the sand, try to figure things out, and it was kind of hard to figure out what I was doing. +You know? It's all these one-on-one meetings for like four days. +And it felt kind of like being president, actually. +I was like, "Oh, this my job. President. I do a lot of meetings, you know?" +And by the end of the experience, I realized why I was doing this. +It's because leaders, what we do is we connect improbable connections and hope something will happen, and in that room I found so many connections between people across all of London, and so leadership, connecting people, is the great question today. +Whether you're in the hierarchy or the heterarchy, it's a wonderful design challenge. +And one thing I've been doing is doing some research on systems that can combine technology and leadership with an art and design perspective. +Let me show you something I haven't shown anywhere, actually. +So what this is, is a kind of a sketch, an application sketch I wrote in Python. You know how there's Photoshop? +This is called Powershop, and the way it works is imagine an organization. You know, the CEO isn't ever at the top. The CEO's at the center of the organization. +There may be different subdivisions in the organization, and you might want to look into different areas. For instance, green are areas doing well, red are areas doing poorly. +And part of the challenge of the CEO is to find connections across areas, and so you might look in R&D, and here you see one person who crosses the two areas of interest, and it's a person important to engage. +So you might want to, for instance, get a heads-up display on how you're interacting with them. +How many coffees do you have? +How often are you calling them, emailing them? +What is the tenor of their email? How is it working out? +Leaders might be able to use these systems to better regulate how they work inside the heterarchy. +You can also imagine using technology like from Luminoso, the guys from Cambridge who were looking at deep text analysis. What is the tenor of your communications? +So these kind of systems, I believe, are important. +They're targeted social media systems around leaders. +And I believe that this kind of perspective will only begin to grow as more leaders enter the space of art and design, because art and design lets you think like this, find different systems like this, and I've just begun thinking like this, so I'm glad to share that with you. +So in closing, I want to thank all of you for your attention. Thanks very much. +So if someone asked you for the three words that would sum up your reputation, what would you say? +How would people describe your judgment, your knowledge, your behaviors, in different situations? +Today I'd like to explore with you why the answer to this question will become profoundly important in an age where reputation will be your most valuable asset. +I'd like to start by introducing you to someone whose life has been changed by a marketplace fueled by reputation. +Sebastian Sandys has been a bed and breakfast host on Airbnb since 2008. +I caught up with him recently, where, over the course of several cups of tea, he told me how hosting guests from all over the world has enriched his life. +More than 50 people have come to stay in the 18th-century watchhouse he lives in with his cat, Squeak. +Now, I mention Squeak because Sebastian's first guest happened to see a rather large mouse run across the kitchen, and she promised that she would refrain from leaving a bad review on one condition: he got a cat. +And so Sebastian bought Squeak to protect his reputation. +Now, as many of you know, Airbnb is a peer-to-peer marketplace that matches people who have space to rent with people who are looking for a place to stay in over 192 countries. +The places being rented out are things that you might expect, like spare rooms and holiday homes, but part of the magic is the unique places that you can now access: treehouses, teepees, airplane hangars, igloos. +If you don't like the hotel, there's a castle down the road that you can rent for 5,000 dollars a night. +It's a fantastic example of how technology is creating a market for things that never had a marketplace before. +Now let me show you these heat maps of Paris to see how insanely fast it's growing. +This image here is from 2008. +The pink dots represent host properties. +Even four years ago, letting strangers stay in your home seemed like a crazy idea. +Now the same view in 2010. +And now, 2012. +There is an Airbnb host on almost every main street in Paris. +Now, what's happening here is people are realizing the power of technology to unlock the idling capacity and value of all kinds of assets, from skills to spaces to material possessions, in ways and on a scale never possible before. +It's an economy and culture called collaborative consumption, and, through it, people like Sebastian are becoming micro-entrepreneurs. +They're empowered to make money and save money from their existing assets. +But the real magic and the secret source behind collaborative consumption marketplaces like Airbnb isn't the inventory or the money. +It's using the power of technology to build trust between strangers. +This side of Airbnb really hit home to Sebastian last summer during the London riots. +He woke up around 9, and he checked his email and he saw a bunch of messages all asking him if he was okay. +Former guests from around the world had seen that the riots were happening just down the street, and wanted to check if he needed anything. +Sebastian actually said to me, he said, "Thirteen former guests contacted me before my own mother rang." Now, this little anecdote gets to the heart of why I'm really passionate about collaborative consumption, and why, after I finished my book, I decided I'm going to try and spread this into a global movement. +Because at its core, it's about empowerment. +It's about empowering people to make meaningful connections, connections that are enabling us to rediscover a humanness that we've lost somewhere along the way, by engaging in marketplaces like Airbnb, like Kickstarter, like Etsy, that are built on personal relationships versus empty transactions. +Now the irony is that these ideas are actually taking us back to old market principles and collaborative behaviors that are hard-wired in all of us. +They're just being reinvented in ways that are relevant for the Facebook age. +We're literally beginning to realize that we have wired our world to share, swap, rent, barter or trade just about anything. We're sharing our cars on WhipCar, our bikes on Spinlister, our offices on Loosecubes, our gardens on Landshare. We're lending and borrowing money from strangers on Zopa and Lending Club. +We are trading lessons on everything from sushi-making to coding on Skillshare, and we're even sharing our pets on DogVacay. +Now welcome to the wonderful world of collaborative consumption that's enabling us to match wants with haves in more democratic ways. +Now, collaborative consumption is creating the start of a transformation in the way we think about supply and demand, but it's also a part of a massive value shift underway, where instead of consuming to keep up with the Joneses, people are consuming to get to know the Joneses. +But the key reason why it's taking off now so fast is because every new advancement of technology increases the efficiency and the social glue of trust to make sharing easier and easier. +Now, I've looked at thousands of these marketplaces, and trust and efficiency are always the critical ingredients. +Let me give you an example. +Meet 46-year-old Chris Mok, who has, I bet, the best job title here of SuperRabbit. +Now, four years ago, Chris lost his job, unfortunately, as an art buyer at Macy's, and like so many people, he struggled to find a new one during the recession. +And then he happened to stumble across a post about TaskRabbit. +Now, the story behind TaskRabbit starts like so many great stories with a very cute dog by the name of Kobe. +Now what happened was, in February 2008, Leah and her husband were waiting for a cab to take them out for dinner, when Kobe came trotting up to them and he was salivating with saliva. +They realized they'd run out of dog food. +Kevin had to cancel the cab and trudge out in the snow. +Now, later that evening, the two self-confessed tech geeks starting talking about how cool it would be if some kind of eBay for errands existed. +Six months later, Leah quit her job, and TaskRabbit was born. +At the time, she didn't realize that she was actually hitting on a bigger idea she later called service networking. +It's essentially about how we use our online relationships to get things done in the real world. +Now the way TaskRabbit works is, people outsource the tasks that they want doing, name the price they're willing to pay, and then vetted Rabbits bid to run the errand. +Yes, there's actually a four-stage, rigorous interview process that's designed to find the people that would make great personal assistants and weed out the dodgy Rabbits. +Now, there's over 4,000 Rabbits across the United States and 5,000 more on the waiting list. +Now the tasks being posted are things that you might expect, like help with household chores or doing some supermarket runs. +I actually learned the other day that 12 and a half thousand loads of laundry have been cleaned and folded through TaskRabbit. +But I love that the number one task posted, over a hundred times a day, is something that many of us have felt the pain of doing: yes, assembling Ikea furniture. It's brilliant. Now, we may laugh, but Chris here is actually making up to 5,000 dollars a month running errands around his life. +And 70 percent of this new labor force were previously unemployed or underemployed. +I think TaskRabbit and other examples of collaborative consumption are like lemonade stands on steroids. They're just brilliant. +I actually came across this fascinating study by the Pew Center this week that revealed that an active Facebook user is three times as likely as a non-Internet user to believe that most people are trustworthy. +Virtual trust will transform the way we trust one another face to face. +Now, with all of my optimism, and I am an optimist, comes a healthy dose of caution, or rather, an urgent need to address some pressing, complex questions. +How to ensure our digital identities reflect our real world identities? Do we want them to be the same? +How do we mimic the way trust is built face-to-face online? +How do we stop people who've behaved badly in one community doing so under a different guise? +In a similar way that companies often use some kind of credit rating to decide whether to give you a mobile plan, or the rate of a mortgage, marketplaces that depend on transactions between relative strangers need some kind of device to let you know that Sebastian and Chris are good eggs, and that device is reputation. +Reputation is the measurement of how much a community trusts you. +Let's just take a look at Chris. +You can see that over 200 people have given him an average rating over 4.99 out of 5. +There are over 20 pages of reviews of his work describing him as super-friendly and fast, and he's reached level 25, the highest level, making him a SuperRabbit. +Now -- I love that word, SuperRabbit. +And interestingly, what Chris has noted is that as his reputation has gone up, so has his chances of winning a bid and how much he can charge. +In other words, for SuperRabbits, reputation has a real world value. +Now, I know what you might be thinking. +Well, this isn't anything new. Just think of power sellers on eBay or star ratings on Amazon. +The difference today is that, with every trade we make, comment we leave, person we flag, badge we earn, we leave a reputation trail of how well we can and can't be trusted. +And it's not just the breadth but the volume of reputation data out there that is staggering. +Just consider this: Five million nights have been booked on Airbnb in the past six months alone. +30 million rides have been shared on Carpooling.com. +This year, two billion dollars worth of loans will go through peer-to-peer lending platforms. +This adds up to millions of pieces of reputation data on how well we behave or misbehave. +Now, capturing and correlating the trails of information that we leave in different places is a massive challenge, but one we're being asked to figure out. +What the likes of Sebastian are starting to rightfully ask is, shouldn't they own their reputation data? +Shouldn't the reputation that he's personally invested on building on Airbnb mean that it should travel with him from one community to another? +What I mean by this is, say he started selling second-hand books on Amazon. Why should he have to start from scratch? +It's a bit like when I moved from New York to Sydney. +It was ridiculous. I couldn't get a mobile phone plan because my credit history didn't travel with me. +I was essentially a ghost in the system. +Now I'm not suggesting that the next stage of the reputation economy is about adding up multiple ratings into some kind of empty score. +People's lives are too complex, and who wants to do that? +I also want to be clear that this isn't about adding up tweets and likes and friends in a clout-like fashion. +Those guys are measuring influence, not behaviors that indicate our trustworthiness. +But the most important thing that we have to keep in mind is that reputation is largely contextual. +Just because Sebastian is a wonderful host does not mean that he can assemble Ikea furniture. +The big challenge is figuring out what data makes sense to pull, because the future's going to be driven by a smart aggregation of reputation, not a single algorithm. +It's only a matter of time before we'll be able to perform a Facebook- or Google-like search and see a complete picture of someone's behaviors in different contexts over time. +Now this is a concept that I'm currently researching and writing my next book on, and currently define as the worth of your reputation, your intentions, capabilities and values across communities and marketplaces. +This isn't some far-off frontier. +There are actually a wave of startups like Connect.Me and Legit and TrustCloud that are figuring out how you can aggregate, monitor and use your online reputation. +Now, I realize that this concept may sound a little Big Brother to some of you, and yes, there are some enormous transparency and privacy issues to solve, but ultimately, if we can collect our personal reputation, we can actually control it more, and extract the immense value that will flow from it. +Also, more so than our credit history, we can actually shape our reputation. +Just think of Sebastian and how he bought the cat to influence his. +Now privacy issues aside, the other really interesting issue I'm looking at is how do we empower digital ghosts, people [who] for whatever reason, are not active online, but are some of the most trustworthy people in the world? +How do we take their contributions to their jobs, their communities and their families, and convert that value into reputation capital? +Ultimately, when we get it right, reputation capital could create a massive positive disruption in who has power, trust and influence. +A three-digit score, your traditional credit history, that only 30 percent of us actually know what it is, will no longer be the determining factor in how much things cost, what we can access, and, in many instances, limit what we can do in the world. +Indeed, reputation is a currency that I believe will become more powerful than our credit history in the 21st century. +Reputation will be the currency that says that you can trust me. +Now the interesting thing is, reputation is the socioeconomic lubricant that makes collaborative consumption work and scale, but the sources it will be generated from, and its applications, are far bigger than this space alone. +Let me give you one example from the world of recruiting, where reputation data will make the rsum seem like an archaic relic of the past. +Four years ago, tech bloggers and entrepreneurs Joel Spolsky and Jeff Atwood, decided to start something called Stack Overflow. +Now, Stack Overflow is basically a platform where experienced programmers can ask other good programmers highly detailed technical questions on things like tiny pixels and chrome extensions. +This site receives five and a half thousand questions a day, and 80 percent of these receive accurate answers. +Now users earn reputation in a whole range of ways, but it's basically by convincing their peers they know what they're talking about. +Now a few months after this site launched, the founders heard about something interesting, and it actually didn't surprise them. +What they heard was that users were putting their reputation scores on the top of their rsums, and that recruiters were searching the platform to find people with unique talents. +Now thousands of programmers today are finding better jobs this way, because Stack Overflow and the reputation dashboards provide a priceless window into how someone really behaves, and what their peers think of them. +But the bigger principle of what's happening behind Stack Overflow, I think, is incredibly exciting. +People are starting to realize that the reputation they generate in one place has value beyond the environments from which it was built. +You know, it's very interesting. +When you talk to super-users, whether that's SuperRabbits or super-people on Stack Overflow, or Uberhosts, they all talk about how having a high reputation unlocks a sense of their own power. +On Stack Overflow, it creates a level playing field, enabling the people with the real talent to rise to the top. +On Airbnb, the people often become more important than the spaces. On TaskRabbit, it gives people control of their economic activity. +Now at the end of my tea with Sebastian, he told me how, on a bad, rainy day, when he hasn't had a customer in his bookstore, he thinks of all the people around the world who've said something wonderful about him, and what that says about him as a person. +He's turning 50 this year, and he's convinced that the rich tapestry of reputation he's built on Airbnb will lead him to doing something interesting with the rest of his life. +You know, there are only a few windows in history where the opportunity exists to reinvent part of how our socioeconomic system works. +We're living through one of those moments. +I believe that we are at the start of a collaborative revolution that will be as significant as the Industrial Revolution. +In the 20th century, the invention of traditional credit transformed our consumer system, and in many ways controlled who had access to what. +In the 21st century, new trust networks, and the reputation capital they generate, will reinvent the way we think about wealth, markets, power and personal identity, in ways we can't yet even imagine. +Thank you very much. +Other people. Everyone is interested in other people. +Everyone has relationships with other people, and they're interested in these relationships for a variety of reasons. +Good relationships, bad relationships, annoying relationships, agnostic relationships, and what I'm going to do is focus on the central piece of an interaction that goes on in a relationship. +But before I do that, let me tell you a couple of things that made this possible. +The first is we can now eavesdrop safely on healthy brain activity. +Without needles and radioactivity, without any kind of clinical reason, we can go down the street and record from your friends' and neighbors' brains while they do a variety of cognitive tasks, and we use a method called functional magnetic resonance imaging. +You've probably all read about it or heard about in some incarnation. Let me give you a two-sentence version of it. +So we've all heard of MRIs. MRIs use magnetic fields and radio waves and they take snapshots of your brain or your knee or your stomach, grayscale images that are frozen in time. +In the 1990s, it was discovered you could use the same machines in a different mode, and in that mode, you could make microscopic blood flow movies from hundreds of thousands of sites independently in the brain. +Okay, so what? In fact, the so what is, in the brain, changes in neural activity, the things that make your brain work, the things that make your software work in your brain, are tightly correlated with changes in blood flow. +You make a blood flow movie, you have an independent proxy of brain activity. +This has literally revolutionized cognitive science. +Take any cognitive domain you want, memory, motor planning, thinking about your mother-in-law, getting angry at people, emotional response, it goes on and on, put people into functional MRI devices, and image how these kinds of variables map onto brain activity. +It's in its early stages, and it's crude by some measures, but in fact, 20 years ago, we were at nothing. +You couldn't do people like this. You couldn't do healthy people. +That's caused a literal revolution, and it's opened us up to a new experimental preparation. Neurobiologists, as you well know, have lots of experimental preps, worms and rodents and fruit flies and things like this. +And now, we have a new experimental prep: human beings. +We can now use human beings to study and model the software in human beings, and we have a few burgeoning biological measures. +Okay, let me give you one example of the kinds of experiments that people do, and it's in the area of what you'd call valuation. +Valuation is just what you think it is, you know? +If you went and you were valuing two companies against one another, you'd want to know which was more valuable. +Cultures discovered the key feature of valuation thousands of years ago. +If you want to compare oranges to windshields, what do you do? +Well, you can't compare oranges to windshields. +They're immiscible. They don't mix with one another. +So instead, you convert them to a common currency scale, put them on that scale, and value them accordingly. +Well, your brain has to do something just like that as well, and we're now beginning to understand and identify brain systems involved in valuation, and one of them includes a neurotransmitter system whose cells are located in your brainstem and deliver the chemical dopamine to the rest of your brain. +Drugs of abuse would come in, and they would change the way you value the world. They change the way you value the symbols associated with your drug of choice, and they make you value that over everything else. +Here's the key feature though. These neurons are also involved in the way you can assign value to literally abstract ideas, and I put some symbols up here that we assign value to for various reasons. +We have a behavioral superpower in our brain, and it at least in part involves dopamine. +We can deny every instinct we have for survival for an idea, for a mere idea. No other species can do that. +In 1997, the cult Heaven's Gate committed mass suicide predicated on the idea that there was a spaceship hiding in the tail of the then-visible comet Hale-Bopp waiting to take them to the next level. It was an incredibly tragic event. +More than two thirds of them had college degrees. +But the point here is they were able to deny their instincts for survival using exactly the same systems that were put there to make them survive. That's a lot of control, okay? +One thing that I've left out of this narrative is the obvious thing, which is the focus of the rest of my little talk, and that is other people. +These same valuation systems are redeployed when we're valuing interactions with other people. +So this same dopamine system that gets addicted to drugs, that makes you freeze when you get Parkinson's disease, that contributes to various forms of psychosis, is also redeployed to value interactions with other people and to assign value to gestures that you do when you're interacting with somebody else. +Let me give you an example of this. +You bring to the table such enormous processing power in this domain that you hardly even notice it. +Let me just give you a few examples. So here's a baby. +She's three months old. She still poops in her diapers and she can't do calculus. +She's related to me. Somebody will be very glad that she's up here on the screen. +You can cover up one of her eyes, and you can still read something in the other eye, and I see sort of curiosity in one eye, I see maybe a little bit of surprise in the other. +Here's a couple. They're sharing a moment together, and we've even done an experiment where you can cut out different pieces of this frame and you can still see that they're sharing it. They're sharing it sort of in parallel. +Now, the elements of the scene also communicate this to us, but you can read it straight off their faces, and if you compare their faces to normal faces, it would be a very subtle cue. +Here's another couple. He's projecting out at us, and she's clearly projecting, you know, love and admiration at him. +All right, so what does this mean? +It means we bring an enormous amount of processing power to the problem. +It engages deep systems in our brain, in dopaminergic systems that are there to make you chase sex, food and salt. +They keep you alive. It gives them the pie, it gives that kind of a behavioral punch which we've called a superpower. +So how can we take that and arrange a kind of staged social interaction and turn that into a scientific probe? +And the short answer is games. +Economic games. So what we do is we go into two areas. +One area is called experimental economics. The other area is called behavioral economics. +And we steal their games. And we contrive them to our own purposes. +So this shows you one particular game called an ultimatum game. +Red person is given a hundred dollars and can offer a split to blue. Let's say red wants to keep 70, and offers blue 30. So he offers a 70-30 split with blue. +Control passes to blue, and blue says, "I accept it," in which case he'd get the money, or blue says, "I reject it," in which case no one gets anything. Okay? +So a rational choice economist would say, well, you should take all non-zero offers. +What do people do? People are indifferent at an 80-20 split. +At 80-20, it's a coin flip whether you accept that or not. +Why is that? You know, because you're pissed off. +You're mad. That's an unfair offer, and you know what an unfair offer is. +This is the kind of game done by my lab and many around the world. +That just gives you an example of the kind of thing that these games probe. The interesting thing is, these games require that you have a lot of cognitive apparatus on line. +You have to be able to come to the table with a proper model of another person. +You have to be able to remember what you've done. +You have to stand up in the moment to do that. +Then you have to update your model based on the signals coming back, and you have to do something that is interesting, which is you have to do a kind of depth of thought assay. +That is, you have to decide what that other person expects of you. +You have to send signals to manage your image in their mind. +Like a job interview. You sit across the desk from somebody, they have some prior image of you, you send signals across the desk to move their image of you from one place to a place where you want it to be. +We're so good at this we don't really even notice it. +These kinds of probes exploit it. Okay? +In doing this, what we've discovered is that humans are literal canaries in social exchanges. +Canaries used to be used as kind of biosensors in mines. +When methane built up, or carbon dioxide built up, or oxygen was diminished, the birds would swoon before people would -- so it acted as an early warning system: Hey, get out of the mine. Things aren't going so well. +People come to the table, and even these very blunt, staged social interactions, and they, and there's just numbers going back and forth between the people, and they bring enormous sensitivities to it. +Well, the so what is, that's a really nice behavioral measure, the economic games bring to us notions of optimal play. +We can compute that during the game. +And we can use that to sort of carve up the behavior. +Here's the cool thing. Six or seven years ago, we developed a team. It was at the time in Houston, Texas. +It's now in Virginia and London. And we built software that'll link functional magnetic resonance imaging devices up over the Internet. I guess we've done up to six machines at a time, but let's just focus on two. +So it synchronizes machines anywhere in the world. +We synchronize the machines, set them into these staged social interactions, and we eavesdrop on both of the interacting brains. So for the first time, we don't have to look at just averages over single individuals, or have individuals playing computers, or try to make inferences that way. We can study individual dyads. +We can study the way that one person interacts with another person, turn the numbers up, and start to gain new insights into the boundaries of normal cognition, but more importantly, we can put people with classically defined mental illnesses, or brain damage, into these social interactions, and use these as probes of that. +So we've started this effort. We've made a few hits, a few, I think, embryonic discoveries. +Early days, and we're just beginning, we're setting up sites around the world. Here are a few of our collaborating sites. +The hub, ironically enough, is centered in little Roanoke, Virginia. +There's another hub in London, now, and the rest are getting set up. We hope to give the data away at some stage. That's a complicated issue about making it available to the rest of the world. +But we're also studying just a small part of what makes us interesting as human beings, and so I would invite other people who are interested in this to ask us for the software, or even for guidance on how to move forward with that. +Let me leave you with one thought in closing. +The interesting thing about studying cognition has been that we've been limited, in a way. +We just haven't had the tools to look at interacting brains simultaneously. +So this is the first sort of step into using that insight into what makes us human beings, turning it into a tool, and trying to gain new insights into mental illness. +Thanks for having me. +As it turns out, when tens of millions of people are unemployed or underemployed, there's a fair amount of interest in what technology might be doing to the labor force. +And as I look at the conversation, it strikes me that it's focused on exactly the right topic, and at the same time, it's missing the point entirely. +The topic that it's focused on, the question is whether or not all these digital technologies are affecting people's ability to earn a living, or, to say it a little bit different way, are the droids taking our jobs? +And there's some evidence that they are. +The Great Recession ended when American GDP resumed its kind of slow, steady march upward, and some other economic indicators also started to rebound, and they got kind of healthy kind of quickly. Corporate profits are quite high; in fact, if you include bank profits, they're higher than they've ever been. +And business investment in gear -- in equipment and hardware and software -- is at an all-time high. So the businesses are getting out their checkbooks. +in other words, the percentage of working-age people in America who have work. +And we see that it cratered during the Great Recession, and it hasn't started to bounce back at all. +But the story is not just a recession story. +The decade that we've just been through had relatively anemic job growth all throughout, especially when we compare it to other decades, and the 2000s are the only time we have on record where there were fewer people working at the end of the decade than at the beginning. +This is not what you want to see. +When you graph the number of potential employees versus the number of jobs in the country, you see the gap gets bigger and bigger over time, and then, during the Great Recession, it opened up in a huge way. +I did some quick calculations. I took the last 20 years of GDP growth and the last 20 years of labor-productivity growth and used those in a fairly straightforward way to try to project how many jobs the economy was going to need to keep growing, and this is the line that I came up with. +Is that good or bad? This is the government's projection for the working-age population going forward. +So if these predictions are accurate, that gap is not going to close. +The problem is, I don't think these projections are accurate. +In particular, I think my projection is way too optimistic, because when I did it, I was assuming that the future was kind of going to look like the past, with labor productivity growth, and that's actually not what I believe. +Because when I look around, I think that we ain't seen nothing yet when it comes to technology's impact on the labor force. +Just in the past couple years, we've seen digital tools display skills and abilities that they never, ever had before, and that kind of eat deeply into what we human beings do for a living. +Let me give you a couple examples. +Throughout all of history, if you wanted something translated from one language into another, you had to involve a human being. +Now we have multi-language, instantaneous, via many of our devices, all the way down to smartphones. +And if any of us have used these, we know that they're not perfect, but they're decent. +Throughout all of history, if you wanted something written, a report or an article, you had to involve a person. +Not anymore. +This is an article that appeared in Forbes online a while back, It was written by an algorithm. +And it's not decent -- it's perfect. +A lot of people look at this and they say, "OK, but those are very specific, narrow tasks, and most knowledge workers are actually generalists. +And what they do is sit on top of a very large body of expertise and knowledge and they use that to react on the fly to kind of unpredictable demands, and that's very, very hard to automate." +One of the most impressive knowledge workers in recent memory is a guy named Ken Jennings. +He won the quiz show "Jeopardy!" 74 times in a row. +Took home three million dollars. +That's Ken on the right, getting beat three-to-one by Watson, the Jeopardy-playing supercomputer from IBM. +So when we look at what technology can do to general knowledge workers, I start to think there might not be something so special about this idea of a generalist, particularly when we start doing things like hooking Siri up to Watson, and having technologies that can understand what we're saying and repeat speech back to us. +So I start to think a lot of knowledge work is going to be affected by this. +And digital technologies are not just impacting knowledge work, they're starting to flex their muscles in the physical world as well. +I had the chance a little while back to ride in the Google autonomous car, which is as cool as it sounds. And I will vouch that it handled the stop-and-go traffic on US 101 very smoothly. +There are about three and a half million people who drive trucks for a living in the United States; I think some of them are going to be affected by this technology. +And right now, humanoid robots are still incredibly primitive. +They can't do very much. +But they're getting better quite quickly and DARPA, which is the investment arm of the Defense Department, is trying to accelerate their trajectory. +So, in short, yeah, the droids are coming for our jobs. +In the short term, we can stimulate job growth by encouraging entrepreneurship and by investing in infrastructure, because the robots today still aren't very good at fixing bridges. +But in the not-too-long-term, I think within the lifetimes of most of the people in this room, we're going to transition into an economy that is very productive, but that just doesn't need a lot of human workers. +And managing that transition is going to be the greatest challenge that our society faces. +Voltaire summarized why; he said, "Work saves us from three great evils: boredom, vice and need." +But despite this challenge -- personally, I'm still a huge digital optimist, and I am supremely confident that the digital technologies that we're developing now are going to take us into a Utopian future, not a dystopian future. And to explain why, I want to pose a ridiculously broad question. +I want to ask: what have been the most important developments in human history? +Now, I want to share some of the answers that I've gotten in response to this question. +It's a wonderful question to ask and start an endless debate about, because some people are going to bring up systems of philosophy in both the West and the East that have changed how a lot of people think about the world. +And then other people will say, "No, actually, the big stories, the big developments are the founding of the world's major religions, which have changed civilizations and have changed and influenced how countless people are living their lives." +And then some other folk will say, "Actually, what changes civilizations, what modifies them and what changes people's lives are empires, so the great developments in human history are stories of conquest and of war." +And then some cheery soul usually always pipes up and says, "Hey, don't forget about plagues!" There are some optimistic answers to this question, so some people will bring up the Age of Exploration and the opening up of the world. +Others will talk about intellectual achievements in disciplines like math that have helped us get a better handle on the world, and other folk will talk about periods when there was a deep flourishing of the arts and sciences. So this debate will go on and on. +It's an endless debate and there's no conclusive, single answer to it. But if you're a geek like me, you say, "Well, what do the data say?" +And you start to do things like graph things that we might be interested in -- the total worldwide population, for example, or some measure of social development or the state of advancement of a society. +And you start to plot the data, because, by this approach, the big stories, the big developments in human history, are the ones that will bend these curves a lot. +So when you do this and when you plot the data, you pretty quickly come to some weird conclusions. +You conclude, actually, that none of these things have mattered very much. +They haven't done a darn thing to the curves. +There has been one story, one development in human history that bent the curve, bent it just about 90 degrees, and it is a technology story. +The steam engine and the other associated technologies of the Industrial Revolution changed the world and influenced human history so much, that in the words of the historian Ian Morris, "... they made mockery out of all that had come before." +And they did this by infinitely multiplying the power of our muscles, overcoming the limitations of our muscles. +Now, what we're in the middle of now is overcoming the limitations of our individual brains and infinitely multiplying our mental power. +How can this not be as big a deal as overcoming the limitations of our muscles? +So at the risk of repeating myself a little bit, when I look at what's going on with digital technology these days, we are not anywhere near through with this journey. +And when I look at what is happening to our economies and our societies, my single conclusion is that we ain't seen nothing yet. +Let me give you a couple examples. +Economies don't run on energy. +They don't run on capital, they don't run on labor. Economies run on ideas. +So the work of innovation, the work of coming up with new ideas, is some of the most powerful, most fundamental work that we can do in an economy. +And this is kind of how we used to do innovation. +We'd find a bunch of fairly similar-looking people ... +We'd take them out of elite institutions, we'd put them into other elite institutions and we'd wait for the innovation. +All anyone cares about is the quality of the work, the quality of the ideas. +And over and over again, we see this happening in the technology-facilitated world. +The work of innovation is becoming more open, more inclusive, more transparent and more merit-based, and that's going to continue no matter what MIT and Harvard think of it, and I couldn't be happier about that development. +I hear once in a while, "OK, I'll grant you that, but technology is still a tool for the rich world, these digital tools are not improving the lives of people at the bottom of the pyramid." +And I want to say to that very clearly: nonsense. +The bottom of the pyramid is benefiting hugely from technology. +The economist Robert Jensen did this wonderful study a while back where he watched, in great detail, what happened to the fishing villages of Kerala, India, when they got mobile phones for the very first time. +And when you write for the Quarterly Journal of Economics, you have to use very dry and very circumspect language. +But when I read his paper, and say, "Look, this was a big deal. +Prices stabilized, so people could plan their economic lives. +Waste was not reduced -- it was eliminated. +And the lives of both the buyers and the sellers in these villages measurably improved." +Now, what I don't think is that Jensen got extremely lucky and happened to land in the one set of villages where technology made things better. +What happened instead is he very carefully documented what happens over and over again when technology comes for the first time to an environment and a community: the lives of people, the welfares of people, improve dramatically. +So as I look around at all the evidence and I think about the room that we have ahead of us, I become a huge digital optimist and I start to think that this wonderful statement from the physicist Freeman Dyson is actually not hyperbole. This is an accurate assessment of what's going on. +Our technologies are great gifts, and we, right now, have the great good fortune to be living at a time when digital technology is flourishing, when it is broadening and deepening and becoming more profound all around the world. +So, yeah, the droids are taking our jobs, but focusing on that fact misses the point entirely. +The point is that then we are freed up to do other things, and what we're going to do, I am very confident, what we're going to do is reduce poverty and drudgery and misery around the world. +I'm very confident we're going to learn to live more lightly on the planet, and I am extremely confident that what we're going to do with our new digital tools is going to be so profound and so beneficial that it's going to make a mockery out of everything that came before. +I'm going to leave the last word to a guy who had a front-row seat for digital progress, our old friend Ken Jennings. +I'm with him; I'm going to echo his words: "I, for one, welcome our new computer overlords." Thanks very much. +Hi. So, this chap here, he thinks he can tell you the future. +His name is Nostradamus, although here the Sun have made him look a little bit like Sean Connery. And like most of you, I suspect, I don't really believe that people can see into the future. +I don't believe in precognition, and every now and then, you hear that somebody has been able to predict something that happened in the future, and that's probably because it was a fluke, and we only hear about the flukes and about the freaks. +We don't hear about all the times that people got stuff wrong. +Now we expect that to happen with silly stories about precognition, but the problem is, we have exactly the same problem in academia and in medicine, and in this environment, it costs lives. +And in fact, we know that that's true, because several different groups of research scientists tried to replicate the findings of this precognition study, and when they submitted it to the exact same journal, the journal said, "No, we're not interested in publishing replication. We're not interested in your negative data." +So this is already evidence of how, in the academic literature, we will see a biased sample of the true picture of all of the scientific studies that have been conducted. +But it doesn't just happen in the dry academic field of psychology. +It also happens in, for example, cancer research. +So in March, 2012, just one month ago, some researchers reported in the journal Nature how they had tried to replicate 53 different basic science studies looking at potential treatment targets in cancer, and out of those 53 studies, they were only able to successfully replicate six. +Forty-seven out of those 53 were unreplicable. +And they say in their discussion that this is very likely because freaks get published. +People will do lots and lots and lots of different studies, and the occasions when it works they will publish, and the ones where it doesn't work they won't. +But it doesn't just happen in the very dry world of preclinical basic science cancer research. +Early on its development, they did a very small trial, just under a hundred patients. +Fifty patients got lorcainide, and of those patients, 10 died. +Another 50 patients got a dummy placebo sugar pill with no active ingredient, and only one of them died. +So they rightly regarded this drug as a failure, and its commercial development was stopped, and because its commercial development was stopped, this trial was never published. +Unfortunately, over the course of the next five, 10 years, other companies had the same idea about drugs that would prevent arrhythmias in people who have had heart attacks. +Now actually, in 1993, the researchers who did that 1980 study, that early study, published a mea culpa, an apology to the scientific community, in which they said, "When we carried out our study in 1980, we thought that the increased death rate that occurred in the lorcainide group was an effect of chance." +The development of lorcainide was abandoned for commercial reasons, and this study was never published; it's now a good example of publication bias. +That's the technical term for the phenomenon where unflattering data gets lost, gets unpublished, is left missing in action, and they say the results described here "might have provided an early warning of trouble ahead." +Now these are stories from basic science. +These are stories from 20, 30 years ago. +The academic publishing environment is very different now. +There are academic journals like "Trials," the open access journal, which will publish any trial conducted in humans regardless of whether it has a positive or a negative result. +But this problem of negative results that go missing in action is still very prevalent. In fact it's so prevalent that it cuts to the core of evidence-based medicine. +So this is a drug called reboxetine, and this is a drug that I myself have prescribed. It's an antidepressant. +But it turned out that I was misled. In fact, seven trials were conducted comparing reboxetine against a dummy placebo sugar pill. One of them was positive and that was published, but six of them were negative and they were left unpublished. +Three trials were published comparing reboxetine against other antidepressants in which reboxetine was just as good, and they were published, but three times as many patients' worth of data was collected which showed that reboxetine was worse than those other treatments, and those trials were not published. +I felt misled. +Now you might say, well, that's an extremely unusual example, and I wouldn't want to be guilty of the same kind of cherry-picking and selective referencing that I'm accusing other people of. +But it turns out that this phenomenon of publication bias has actually been very, very well studied. +So here is one example of how you approach it. +The classic model is, you get a bunch of studies where you know that they've been conducted and completed, and then you go and see if they've been published anywhere in the academic literature. So this took all of the trials that had ever been conducted on antidepressants that were approved over a 15-year period by the FDA. +They took all of the trials which were submitted to the FDA as part of the approval package. +So that's not all of the trials that were ever conducted on these drugs, because we can never know if we have those, but it is the ones that were conducted in order to get the marketing authorization. +And then they went to see if these trials had been published in the peer-reviewed academic literature. And this is what they found. +It was pretty much a 50-50 split. Half of these trials were positive, half of them were negative, in reality. +But when they went to look for these trials in the peer-reviewed academic literature, what they found was a very different picture. +Only three of the negative trials were published, but all but one of the positive trials were published. +Now if we just flick back and forth between those two, you can see what a staggering difference there was between reality and what doctors, patients, commissioners of health services, and academics were able to see in the peer-reviewed academic literature. +We were misled, and this is a systematic flaw in the core of medicine. +In fact, there have been so many studies conducted on publication bias now, over a hundred, that they've been collected in a systematic review, published in 2010, that took every single study on publication bias that they could find. +Publication bias affects every field of medicine. +About half of all trials, on average, go missing in action, and we know that positive findings are around twice as likely to be published as negative findings. +This is a cancer at the core of evidence-based medicine. +If I flipped a coin 100 times but then withheld the results from you from half of those tosses, I could make it look as if I had a coin that always came up heads. +But that wouldn't mean that I had a two-headed coin. +That would mean that I was a chancer and you were an idiot for letting me get away with it. But this is exactly what we blindly tolerate in the whole of evidence-based medicine. +And to me, this is research misconduct. +If I conducted one study and I withheld half of the data points from that one study, you would rightly accuse me, essentially, of research fraud. +And yet, for some reason, if somebody conducts 10 studies but only publishes the five that give the result that they want, we don't consider that to be research misconduct. +And when that responsibility is diffused between a whole network of researchers, academics, industry sponsors, journal editors, for some reason we find it more acceptable, but the effect on patients is damning. +And this is happening right now, today. +This is a drug called Tamiflu. Tamiflu is a drug which governments around the world have spent billions and billions of dollars on stockpiling, and we've stockpiled Tamiflu in panic, in the belief that it will reduce the rate of complications of influenza. +Complications is a medical euphemism for pneumonia and death. Now when the Cochrane systematic reviewers were trying to collect together all of the data from all of the trials that had ever been conducted on whether Tamiflu actually did this or not, they found that several of those trials were unpublished. +The results were unavailable to them. +And when they started obtaining the writeups of those trials through various different means, through Freedom of Information Act requests, through harassing various different organizations, what they found was inconsistent. +And when they tried to get a hold of the clinical study reports, the 10,000-page long documents that have the best possible rendition of the information, they were told they weren't allowed to have them. +And if you want to read the full correspondence and the excuses and the explanations given by the drug company, you can see that written up in this week's edition of PLOS Medicine. +And the most staggering thing of all of this, to me, is that not only is this a problem, not only do we recognize that this is a problem, but we've had to suffer fake fixes. +We've had people pretend that this is a problem that's been fixed. +First of all, we had trials registers, and everybody said, oh, it's okay. We'll get everyone to register their trials, they'll post the protocol, they'll say what they're going to do before they do it, and then afterwards we'll be able to check and see if all the trials which have been conducted and completed have been published. +But people didn't bother to use those registers. +And so then the International Committee of Medical Journal Editors came along, and they said, oh, well, we will hold the line. +We won't publish any journals, we won't publish any trials, unless they've been registered before they began. +But they didn't hold the line. In 2008, a study was conducted which showed that half of all of trials published by journals edited by members of the ICMJE weren't properly registered, and a quarter of them weren't registered at all. +And then finally, the FDA Amendment Act was passed a couple of years ago saying that everybody who conducts a trial must post the results of that trial within one year. +And in the BMJ, in the first edition of January, 2012, you can see a study which looks to see if people kept to that ruling, and it turns out that only one in five have done so. +This is a disaster. +We cannot know the true effects of the medicines that we prescribe if we do not have access to all of the information. +And this is not a difficult problem to fix. +We need to publish all trials in humans, including the older trials, for all drugs in current use, and you need to tell everyone you know that this is a problem and that it has not been fixed. +Thank you very much. +I've always written primarily about architecture, about buildings, and writing about architecture is based on certain assumptions. +An architect designs a building, and it becomes a place, or many architects design many buildings, and it becomes a city, and regardless of this complicated mix of forces of politics and culture and economics that shapes these places, at the end of the day, you can go and you can visit them. You can walk around them. +You can smell them. You can get a feel for them. +You can experience their sense of place. +But what was striking to me over the last several years was that less and less was I going out into the world, and more and more, I was sitting in front of my computer screen. +And especially since about 2007, when I got an iPhone, I was not only sitting in front of my screen all day, but I was also getting up at the end of the day and looking at this little screen that I carried in my pocket. +And what was surprising to me was how quickly my relationship to the physical world had changed. +And what was even more striking to me, and what I really got hung up on, was that the world inside the screen seemed to have no physical reality of its own. +If you went and looked for images of the Internet, this was all that you found, this famous image by Opte of the Internet as the kind of Milky Way, this infinite expanse where we don't seem to be anywhere on it. +We can never seem to grasp it in its totality. +It's always reminded me of the Apollo image of the Earth, the blue marble picture, and it's similarly meant to suggest, I think, that we can't really understand it as a whole. +We're always sort of small in the face of its expanse. +So if there was this world and this screen, and if there was the physical world around me, I couldn't ever get them together in the same place. +And then this happened. +And then he saw a squirrel running along the wire, and he said, "There's your problem. +A squirrel is chewing on your Internet." And this seemed astounding. The Internet is a transcendent idea. It's a set of protocols that has changed everything from shopping to dating to revolutions. +It was unequivocally not something a squirrel could chew on. But that in fact seemed to be the case. +A squirrel had in fact chewed on my Internet. And then I got this image in my head of what would happen if you yanked the wire from the wall and if you started to follow it. Where would it go? +Was the Internet actually a place that you could visit? +Could I go there? Who would I meet? +You know, was there something actually out there? +And the answer, by all accounts, was no. +This was the Internet, this black box with a red light on it, as represented in the sitcom "The IT Crowd." +Normally it lives on the top of Big Ben, because that's where you get the best reception, but they had negotiated that their colleague could borrow it for the afternoon to use in an office presentation. +The elders of the Internet were willing to part with it for a short while, and she looks at it and she says, "This is the Internet? The whole Internet? Is it heavy?" +They say, "Of course not, the Internet doesn't weigh anything." +And I was embarrassed. I was looking for this thing that only fools seem to look for. +The Internet was that amorphous blob, or it was a silly black box with a blinking red light on it. +It wasn't a real world out there. +And that connection is an unequivocally physical process. +It's about the router of one network, a Facebook or a Google or a B.T. or a Comcast or a Time Warner, whatever it is, connecting with usually a yellow fiber optic cable up into the ceiling and down into the router of another network, and that's unequivocally physical, and it's surprisingly intimate. +A building like 60 Hudson, and a dozen or so others, has 10 times more networks connecting within it than the next tier of buildings. +There's a very short list of these places. +And 60 Hudson in particular is interesting because it's home to about a half a dozen very important networks, which are the networks which serve the undersea cables that travel underneath the ocean that connect Europe and America and connect all of us. +And it's those cables in particular that I want to focus on. +If the Internet is a global phenomenon, if we live in a global village, it's because there are cables underneath the ocean, cables like this. +And in this dimension, they are incredibly small. +You can you hold them in your hand. They're like a garden hose. +But in the other dimension they are incredibly expansive, as expansive as you can imagine. +And they're tiny. They're the thickness of a hair. +And then they connect to the continent somewhere. +They connect in a manhole like this. Literally, this is where the 5,000-mile cable plugs in. +This is in Halifax, a cable that stretches from Halifax to Ireland. +And the landscape is changing. Three years ago, when I started thinking about this, there was one cable down the Western coast of Africa, represented in this map by Steve Song as that thin black line. +Now there are six cables and more coming, three down each coast. +It's an intensely, intensely physical process. +So this is my friend Simon Cooper, who until very recently worked for Tata Communications, the communications wing of Tata, the big Indian industrial conglomerate. +And I've never met him. We've only communicated via this telepresence system, which always makes me think of him as the man inside the Internet. And he is English. The undersea cable industry is dominated by Englishmen, and they all seem to be 42. +Because they all started at the same time with the boom about 20 years ago. +And Tata had gotten its start as a communications business when they bought two cables, one across the Atlantic and one across the Pacific, and proceeded to add pieces onto them, until they had built a belt around the world, which means they will send your bits to the East or the West. +They have -- this is literally a beam of light around the world, and if a cable breaks in the Pacific, it'll send it around the other direction. And then having done that, they started to look for places to wire next. +They looked for the unwired places, and that's meant North and South, primarily these cables to Africa. +But what amazes me is Simon's incredible geographic imagination. +He thinks about the world with this incredible expansiveness. +And I was particularly interested because I wanted to see one of these cables being built. See, you know, all the time online we experience these fleeting moments of connection, these sort of brief adjacencies, a tweet or a Facebook post or an email, and it seemed like there was a physical corollary to that. +It seemed like there was a moment when the continent was being plugged in, and I wanted to see that. +And Simon was working on a new cable, WACS, the West Africa Cable System, that stretched from Lisbon down the west coast of Africa, to Cote d'Ivoire, to Ghana, to Nigeria, to Cameroon. +Then a bulldozer began to pull the cable in from this specialized cable landing ship, and it was floated on these buoys until it was in the right place. +Then you can see the English engineers looking on. +And first they got it with a hacksaw, and then they start sort of shaving away at this plastic interior with a -- sort of working like chefs, and then finally they're working like jewelers to get these hair-thin fibers to line up with the cable that had come down, and with this hole-punch machine they fuse it together. +And when you see these guys going at this cable with a hacksaw, you stop thinking about the Internet as a cloud. +It starts to seem like an incredibly physical thing. +And what surprised me as well was that as much as this is based on the most sophisticated technology, as much as this is an incredibly new thing, the physical process itself has been around for a long time, and the culture is the same. +You see the local laborers. You see the English engineer giving directions in the background. And more importantly, the places are the same. These cables still connect these classic port cities, places like Lisbon, Mombasa, Mumbai, Singapore, New York. +And then the process on shore takes around three or four days, and then, when it's done, they put the manhole cover back on top, and they push the sand over that, and we all forget about it. +And it seems to me that we talk a lot about the cloud, but every time we put something on the cloud, we give up some responsibility for it. +We are less connected to it. We let other people worry about it. +And that doesn't seem right. +There's a great Neal Stephenson line where he says that wired people should know something about wires. +And we should know, I think, we should know where our Internet comes from, and we should know what it is that physically, physically connects us all. +Thank you. Thanks. +Thank you very much. Thank you. It's a distinct privilege to be here. +A few weeks ago, I saw a video on YouTube of Congresswoman Gabrielle Giffords at the early stages of her recovery from one of those awful bullets. +This one entered her left hemisphere, and knocked out her Broca's area, the speech center of her brain. +And in this session, Gabby's working with a speech therapist, and she's struggling to produce some of the most basic words, and you can see her growing more and more devastated, until she ultimately breaks down into sobbing tears, and she starts sobbing wordlessly into the arms of her therapist. +And it's a very powerful and poignant reminder of how the beauty of music has the ability to speak where words fail, in this case literally speak. +Seeing this video of Gabby Giffords reminded me of the work of Dr. Gottfried Schlaug, one of the preeminent neuroscientists studying music and the brain at Harvard, and Schlaug is a proponent of a therapy called Melodic Intonation Therapy, which has become very popular in music therapy now. +Schlaug found that his stroke victims who were aphasic, could not form sentences of three- or four-word sentences, but they could still sing the lyrics to a song, whether it was "Happy Birthday To You" or their favorite song by the Eagles or the Rolling Stones. +And after 70 hours of intensive singing lessons, he found that the music was able to literally rewire the brains of his patients and create a homologous speech center in their right hemisphere to compensate for the left hemisphere's damage. +But I had an ulterior motive of visiting Gottfried Schlaug, and it was this: that I was at a crossroads in my life, trying to choose between music and medicine. +I had just completed my undergraduate, and I was working as a research assistant at the lab of Dennis Selkoe, studying Parkinson's disease at Harvard, and I had fallen in love with neuroscience. I wanted to become a surgeon. +I wanted to become a doctor like Paul Farmer or Rick Hodes, these kind of fearless men who go into places like Haiti or Ethiopia and work with AIDS patients with multidrug-resistant tuberculosis, or with children with disfiguring cancers. +I wanted to become that kind of Red Cross doctor, that doctor without borders. +On the other hand, I had played the violin my entire life. +Music for me was more than a passion. It was obsession. +And he said that there were still times when he wished he could go back and play the organ the way he used to, and that for me, medical school could wait, but that the violin simply would not. +It was my first audition, and after three days of playing behind a screen in a trial week, I was offered the position. +And it was a dream. It was a wild dream to perform in an orchestra, to perform in the iconic Walt Disney Concert Hall in an orchestra conducted now by the famous Gustavo Dudamel, but much more importantly to me to be surrounded by musicians and mentors that became my new family, my new musical home. +But a year later, I met another musician who had also studied at Juilliard, one who profoundly helped me find my voice and shaped my identity as a musician. +Nathaniel Ayers was a double bassist at Juilliard, but he suffered a series of psychotic episodes in his early 20s, was treated with thorazine at Bellevue, and ended up living homeless on the streets of Skid Row in downtown Los Angeles 30 years later. +And on the many times I saw Nathaniel on Skid Row, I witnessed how music was able to bring him back from his very darkest moments, from what seemed to me in my untrained eye to be the beginnings of a schizophrenic episode. +Playing for Nathaniel, the music took on a deeper meaning, because now it was about communication, a communication where words failed, a communication of a message that went deeper than words, that registered at a fundamentally primal level in Nathaniel's psyche, yet came as a true musical offering from me. +And at the very core of this crisis of mine, I felt somehow the life of music had chosen me, where somehow, perhaps possibly in a very naive sense, I felt what Skid Row really needed was somebody like Paul Farmer and not another classical musician playing on Bunker Hill. +But in the end, it was Nathaniel who showed me that if I was truly passionate about change, if I wanted to make a difference, I already had the perfect instrument to do it, that music was the bridge that connected my world and his. +There's a beautiful quote by the Romantic German composer Robert Schumann, who said, "To send light into the darkness of men's hearts, such is the duty of the artist." +And this is a particularly poignant quote because Schumann himself suffered from schizophrenia and died in asylum. +Just as medicine serves to heal more than the building blocks of the body alone, the power and beauty of music transcends the "E" in the middle of our beloved acronym. +Music transcends the aesthetic beauty alone. +The synchrony of emotions that we experience when we hear an opera by Wagner, or a symphony by Brahms, or chamber music by Beethoven, compels us to remember our shared, common humanity, the deeply communal connected consciousness, the empathic consciousness that neuropsychiatrist Iain McGilchrist says is hard-wired into our brain's right hemisphere. +And the spark of that beauty, the spark of that humanity transforms into hope, and we know, whether we choose the path of music or of medicine, that's the very first thing we must instill within our communities, within our audiences, if we want to inspire healing from within. +I'd like to end with a quote by John Keats, the Romantic English poet, a very famous quote that I'm sure all of you know. +Keats himself had also given up a career in medicine to pursue poetry, but he died when he was a year older than me. +And Keats said, "Beauty is truth, and truth beauty. +That is all ye know on Earth, and all ye need to know." +When I was considering a career in the art world, I took a course in London, and one of my supervisors was this irascible Italian called Pietro, who drank too much, smoked too much and swore much too much. +But he was a passionate teacher, and I remember one of our earlier classes with him, he was projecting images on the wall, asking us to think about them, and he put up an image of a painting. +It was a landscape with figures, semi-dressed, drinking wine. There was a nude woman in the lower foreground, and on the hillside in the back, there was a figure of the mythological god Bacchus, and he said, "What is this?" +And I -- no one else did, so I put up my hand, and I said, "It's a Bacchanal by Titian." +He said, "It's a what?" +I thought maybe I'd pronounced it wrong. +"It's a Bacchanal by Titian." +He said, "It's a what?" +I said, "It's a Bacchanal by Titian." He said, "You boneless bookworm! +It's a fucking orgy!" +As I said, he swore too much. +There was an important lesson for me in that. +He wanted us to look and ask basic questions of objects. +What is it? How is it made? Why was it made? +How is it used? +And these were important lessons to me when I subsequently became a professional art historian. +My kind of eureka moment came a few years later, when I was studying the art of the courts of Northern Europe, and of course it was very much discussed in terms of the paintings and the sculptures and the architecture of the day. +But as I began to read historical documents and contemporary descriptions, I found there was a kind of a missing component, for everywhere I came across descriptions of tapestries. +Tapestries were ubiquitous between the Middle Ages and, really, well into the 18th century, and it was pretty apparent why. +Tapestries were portable. You could roll them up, send them ahead of you, and in the time it took to hang them up, you could transform a cold, dank interior into a richly colored setting. +Tapestries effectively provided a vast canvas on which the patrons of the day could depict the heroes with whom they wanted to be associated, or even themselves, and in addition to that, tapestries were hugely expensive. +They required scores of highly skilled weavers working over extended periods of time with very expensive materials -- the wools, the silks, even gold and silver thread. +So, all in all, in an age when the visual image of any kind was rare, tapestries were an incredibly potent form of propaganda. +Well, I became a tapestry historian. +In due course, I ended up as a curator at the Metropolitan Museum, because I saw the Met as one of the few places where I could organize really big exhibitions about the subject I cared so passionately about. +And in about 1997, the then-director Philippe de Montebello gave me the go-ahead to organize an exhibition for 2002. We normally have these very long lead-in times. +It wasn't straightforward. It's no longer a question of chucking a tapestry in the back of a car. +They have to be wound on huge rollers, shipped in oversized freighters. +Some of them are so big we had, to get them into the museum, we had to take them up the great steps at the front. +We thought very hard about how to present this unknown subject to a modern audience: the dark colors to set off the colors that remained in objects that were often faded; the placing of lights to bring out the silk and the gold thread; the labeling. +You know, we live in an age where we are so used to television images and photographs, a one-hit image. These were big, complex things, almost like cartoons with multiple narratives. +We had to draw our audience in, get them to slow down, to explore the objects. +There was a lot of skepticism. On the opening night, I overheard one of the senior members of staff saying, "This is going to be a bomb." +But in reality, in the course of the coming weeks and months, hundreds of thousands of people came to see the show. +The exhibition was designed to be an experience, and tapestries are hard to reproduce in photographs. +And you can just imagine them. +But it brought it alive to them. I think they suddenly saw that these weren't just old faded tapestries. +These were images of the world in the past, and that it was the same for our audience. +And for me as a curator, I felt proud. I felt I'd shifted the needle a little. +Through this experience that could only be created in a museum, I'd opened up the eyes of my audience -- historians, artists, press, the general public -- to the beauty of this lost medium. +A few years later, I was invited to be the director of the museum, and after I got over that -- "Who, me? The tapestry geek? I don't wear a tie!" -- I realized the fact: I believe passionately in that curated museum experience. +And that, to me, today, is now the challenge and the fun of my job, supporting the vision of my curators, whether it's an exhibition of Samurai swords, early Byzantine artifacts, Renaissance portraits, or the show we heard mentioned earlier, the McQueen show, with which we enjoyed so much success last summer. +That was an interesting case. +In the late spring, early summer of 2010, shortly after McQueen's suicide, our curator of costume, Andrew Bolton, came to see me, and said, "I've been thinking of doing a show on McQueen, and now is the moment. We have to, we have to do it fast." +It wasn't just your standard installation. +In fact, we ripped down the galleries to recreate entirely different settings, a recreation of his first studio, a hall of mirrors, a curiosity box, a sunken ship, a burned-out interior, with videos and soundtracks that ranged from operatic arias to pigs fornicating. +And in this extraordinary setting, the costumes were like actors and actresses, or living sculptures. +It could have been a train wreck. +It could have looked like shop windows on Fifth Avenue at Christmas, but because of the way that Andrew connected with the McQueen team, he was channeling the rawness and the brilliance of McQueen, and the show was quite transcendant, and it became a phenomenon in its own right. +By the end of the show, we had people queuing for four or five hours to get into the show, but no one really complained. +I heard over and over again, "Wow, that was worth it. +It was a such a visceral, emotive experience." +Now, I've described two very immersive exhibitions, but I also believe that collections, individual objects, can also have that same power. +The Met was set up not as a museum of American art, but of an encyclopedic museum, and today, 140 years later, that vision is as prescient as ever, because, of course, we live in a world of crisis, of challenge, and we're exposed to it through the 24/7 newsreels. +It's in our galleries that we can unpack the civilizations, the cultures, that we're seeing the current manifestation of. +Whether it's Libya, Egypt, Syria, it's in our galleries that we can explain and give greater understanding. +I mean, our new Islamic galleries are a case in point, opened 10 years, almost to the week, after 9/11. +I think for most Americans, knowledge of the Islamic world was pretty slight before 9/11, and then it was thrust upon us in one of America's darkest hours, and the perception was through the polarization of that terrible event. +Now, in our galleries, we show 14 centuries of the development of different Islamic cultures across a vast geographic spread, and, again, hundreds of thousands of people have come to see these galleries since they opened last October. +I'm often asked, "Is digital media replacing the museum?" +and I think those numbers are a resounding rejection of that notion. I mean, don't get me wrong, I'm a huge advocate of the Web. +It gives us a way of reaching out to audiences around the globe, but nothing replaces the authenticity of the object presented with passionate scholarship. +The Great Hall at the Met is one of the great portals of the world, awe-inspiring, like a medieval cathedral. +From there, you can walk in any direction to almost any culture. +I frequently go out into the hall and the galleries and I watch our visitors coming in. +Some of them are comfortable. They feel at home. +They know what they're looking for. +Others are very uneasy. It's an intimidating place. +They feel that the institution is elitist. +I'm working to try and break down that sense of that elitism. +I want to put people in a contemplative frame of mind, where they're prepared to be a little bit lost, to explore, to see the unfamiliar in the familiar, or to try the unknown. +Because for us, it's all about bringing them face to face with great works of art, capturing them at that moment of discomfort, when the inclination is kind of to reach for your iPhone, your Blackberry, but to create a zone where their curiosity can expand. +And whether it's in the expression of a Greek sculpture that reminds you of a friend, or a dog pooping in the corner of a tapestry, or, to bring it back to my tutor Pietro, those dancing figures who are indeed knocking back the wine, and that nude figure in the left foreground. +Wow. She is a gorgeous embodiment of youthful sexuality. +In that moment, our scholarship can tell you that this is a bacchanal, but if we're doing our job right, and you've checked the jargon at the front door, trust your instinct. +You know it's an orgy. +Thank you. +Over the past six months, I've spent my time traveling. I think I've done 60,000 miles, but without leaving my desk. +And the reason I can do that is because I'm actually two people. +I look like one person but I'm two people. I'm Eddie who is here, and at the same time, my alter ego is a big green boxy avatar nicknamed Cyber Frank. +So that's what I spend my time doing. I'd like to start, if it's possible, with a test, because I do business stuff, so it's important that we focus on outcomes. +And then I struggled, because I was thinking to myself, "What should I talk? What should I do? It's a TED audience. +It's got to be stretching. How am I going to make ?" +So I just hope I've got the level of difficulty right. +So let's just walk our way through this. +Please could you work this through with me? You can shout out the answer if you like. +The question is, which of these horizontal lines is longer? +The answer is? +Audience: The same.Eddie Obeng: The same. +No, they're not the same. They're not the same. The top one is 10 percent longer than the bottom one. +So why did you tell me they were the same? Do you remember when we were kids at school, about that big, they played the same trick on us? +It was to teach us parallax. Do you remember? +And you got, you said, "It's the same!" And you got it wrong. +You remember? And you learned the answer, and you've carried this answer in your head for 10, 20, 30, 40 years: The answer is the same. The answer is the same. So when you're asked what the lengths are, you say they're the same, but they're not the same, because I've changed it. +And this is what I'm trying to explain has happened to us in the 21st century. +Somebody or something has changed the rules about how our world works. +When I'm joking, I try and explain it happened at midnight, you see, while we were asleep, but it was midnight 15 years ago. Okay? +You probably No, you didn't. Okay. My simple idea is that what's happened is, the real 21st century around us isn't so obvious to us, so instead we spend our time responding rationally to a world which we understand and recognize, but which no longer exists. +You don't believe me, do you? Okay. So let me take you on a little journey of many of the things I don't understand. +If you search Amazon for the word "creativity," you'll discover something like 90,000 books. +If you go on Google and you look for "innovation + creativity," you get 30 million hits. If you add the word "consultants," it doubles to 60 million. Are you with me? And yet, statistically, what you discover is that about one in 100,000 ideas is found making money or delivering benefits two years after its inception. +It makes no sense. Companies make their expensive executives spend ages carefully preparing forecasts and budgets which are obsolete or need changing before they can be published. +How is that possible? If you look at the visions we have, the visions of how we're going to change the world, the key thing is implementation. We have the vision. +We've got to make it happen. +We've spent decades professionalizing implementation. +People are supposed to be good at making stuff happen. +However, if I use as an example a family of five going on holiday, if you can imagine this, all the way from London all the way across to Hong Kong, what I want you to think about is their budget is only 3,000 pounds of expenses. +What actually happens is, if I compare this to the average real project, average real successful project, the family actually end up in Makassar, South Sulawesi, at a cost of 4,000 pounds, whilst leaving two of the children behind. What I'm trying to explain to you is, there are things which don't make sense to us. +It gets even worse than that. Let me just walk you through this one. +This is a quote, and I'll just pick words out of it. +It says -- I'll put on the voice -- "In summary, your Majesty, the failure to foresee the timing, extent and severity of the crisis was due to the lack of creativity and the number of bright minds," or something like that. +He wisely explains this to us. He says design thinking must tackle big systems for the challenges we have. +He's absolutely right. +And then I ask myself, "Why was it ever small?" +Isn't it weird? You know, if collaboration is so cool, is cross-functional working is so amazing, why did we build these huge hierarchies? What's going on? +You see, I think what's happened, perhaps, is that we've not noticed that change I described earlier. +What we do know is that the world has accelerated. +Cyberspace moves everything at the speed of light. +Technology accelerates things exponentially. +So if this is now, and that's the past, and we start thinking about change, you know, all governments are seeking change, you're here seeking change, everybody's after change, it's really cool. So what happens is, we get this wonderful whooshing acceleration and change. +The speed is accelerating. That's not the only thing. +At the same time, as we've done that, we've done something really weird. +We've doubled the population in 40 years, put half of them in cities, then connected them all up so they can interact. +The density of the interaction of human beings is amazing. +There are charts which show all these movements of information. That density of information is amazing. +And then we've done a third thing. +you know, for those of you who have as an office a little desk underneath the stairs, and you say, well this is my little desk under the stairs, no! You are sitting at the headquarters of a global corporation if you're connected to the Internet. +What's happened is, we've changed the scale. +Size and scale are no longer the same. +And then add to that, every time you tweet, over a third of your followers follow from a country which is not your own. +Global is the new scale. We know that. +And so people say things like, "The world is now a turbulent place." Have you heard them saying things like that? +And they use it as a metaphor. Have you come across this? +And they think it's a metaphor, but this is not a metaphor. +It's reality. As a young engineering student, I remember going to a demonstration where they basically, the demonstrator did something quite intriguing. +What he did was, he got a transparent pipe have you seen this demonstration before? he attached it to a tap. So effectively what you had was, you had a situation where I'll try and draw the tap and the pipe, actually I'll skip the tap. The taps are hard. +Okay? So I'll write the word "tap." Is that okay? It's a tap. Okay, so he attaches it to a transparent pipe, and he turns the water on. +And he says, do you notice anything? And the water is whooshing down this pipe. +I mean, this is not exciting stuff. Are you with me? +So the water goes up. He turns it back down. Great. +And he says, "Anything you notice?" No. Then he sticks a needle into the pipe, and he connects this to a container, and he fills the container up with green ink. You with me? +So guess what happens? A thin green line comes out as it flows down the pipe. It's not that interesting. +And then he turns the water up a bit, so it starts coming back in. And nothing changes. +So he's changing the flow of the water, but it's just a boring green line. +He adds some more. He adds some more. And then something weird happens. +There's this little flicker, and then as he turns it ever so slightly more, the whole of that green line disappears, and instead there are these little sort of inky dust devils close to the needle. +They're called eddies. Not me. And they're violently dispersing the ink so that it actually gets diluted out, and the color's gone. +What's happened in this world of pipe is somebody has flipped it. They've changed the rules from laminar to turbulent. +All the rules are gone. In that environment, instantly, all the possibilities which turbulence brings are available, and it's not the same as laminar. +And if we didn't have that green ink, you'd never notice. +And I think this is our challenge, because somebody has actually increased and it's probably you guys with all your tech and stuff the speed, the scale and the density of interaction. +Now how do we cope and deal with that? +Well, we could just call it turbulence, or we could try and learn. +Yes, learn, but I know you guys grew up in the days when there were actually these things called correct answers, because of the answer you gave me to the horizontal line puzzle, and you believe it will last forever. +So I'll put a little line up here which represents learning, and that's how we used to do it. We could see things, understand them, take the time to put them into practice. +Out here is the world. Now, what's happened to our pace of learning as the world has accelerated? Well, if you work for a corporation, you'll discover it's quite difficult to work on stuff which your boss doesn't approve of, isn't in the strategy, and anyway, you've got to go through your monthly meetings. +If you work in an institution, one day you will get them to make that decision. +And if you work in a market where people believe in cycles, it's even funnier, because you have to wait all the way for the cycle to fail before you go, "There's something wrong." You with me? +So it's likely that the line, in terms of learning, is pretty flat. +You with me? This point over here, the point at which the lines cross over, the pace of change overtakes the pace of learning, and for me, that is what I was describing when I was telling you about midnight. +So what does it do to us? Well, it completely transforms what we have to do, many mistakes we make. We solve last year's problems without thinking about the future. If you try and think about it, the things you're solving now, what problems are they going to bring in the future? +If you haven't understood the world you're living in, it's almost impossible to be absolutely certain that what you're going to deliver fits. +I'll give you an example, a quick one. Creativity and ideas, I mentioned that earlier. All the CEOs around me, my clients, they want innovation, so they seek innovation. They say to people, "Take risks and be creative!" +But unfortunately the words get transformed as they travel through the air. +Entering their ears, what they hear is, "Do crazy things and then I'll fire you." Why? Because Why? Because in the old world, okay, in the old world, over here, getting stuff wrong was unacceptable. +If you got something wrong, you'd failed. How should you be treated? +Well, harshly, because you could have asked somebody who had experience. +So we learned the answer and we carried this in our heads for 20, 30 years, are you with me? +The answer is, don't do things which are different. +And then suddenly we tell them to and it doesn't work. +You see, in reality, there are two ways you can fail in our new world. +One, you're doing something that you should follow a procedure to, and it's a very difficult thing, you're sloppy, you get it wrong. How should you be treated? You should probably be fired. +On the other hand, you're doing something new, no one's ever done before, you get it completely wrong. How should you be treated? +Well, free pizzas! You should be treated better than the people who succeed. +It's called smart failure. Why? Because you can't put it on your C.V. +So what I want to leave you, then, is with the explanation of why I actually traveled 60,000 miles from my desk. +When I realized the power of this new world, I quit my safe teaching job, and set up a virtual business school, the first in the world, in order to teach people how to make this happen, and I used some of my learnings about some of the rules which I'd learned on myself. +Thank you, thank you. +To understand the world that live in, we tell stories. +And while remixing and sharing have come to define the web as we know it, all of us can now be part of that story through simple tools that allow us to make things online. +But video has been left out. It arrived on the web in a small box, and there it has remained, completely disconnected from the data and the content all around it. +In fact, in over a decade on the web, the only thing that has changed about video is the size of the box and the quality of the picture. +Popcorn changes all of that. +It's an online tool that allows anyone to combine video with content pulled live directly from the web. +Videos created with Popcorn behave like the web itself: dynamic, full of links, and completely remixable, and finally allowed to break free from the frame. +I want to give you a demo of a prototype that we're working on that we'll launch later this fall. +It will be completely free, and it will work in any browser. +So, every Popcorn production begins with the video, and so I've made a short, 20-second clip using a newscaster template that we use in workshops. +So let's watch it. We'll go back, and I'll show you how we made it. +Hi, and welcome to my newscast. +I've added my location with a Google Map, and it's live, so try moving it around. +You can add pop-ups with live links and custom icons, or pull in content from any web service, like Flickr, or add articles and blog posts with links out to the full content. +So let's go back, and I'll show you what you saw. There was a lot there. +So this is the timeline, and if you've ever edited video, you're familiar with this, but instead of clips in the timeline, what you're looking at is web events pulled into the video. +Now in this Popcorn production we've got the title card, we've got a Google Map that shows up picture-in-picture, then Popcorn lets it push outside the frame and take over the whole screen. +There are two pop-ups bringing you some other information, and a final article with a link out to the original article. +Let's go to this Google Map, and I'll show you how you can edit it. +All you do, go into the timeline, double-click the item, and I've set it to Toronto, because that's where I'm from. +Let's set it to something else. +Popcorn immediately goes out onto the web, talks to Google, grabs the map, and puts it in the display. +And it's exactly the same for the people who watch your production. +And it's live. It's not an image. So you click on it, you zoom in, right down to street view if you want to. +Let's try something else, maybe something a bit more relevant to today. +Now here are live images being pulled straight from the feed. +If you come and watch this a week from now, this will be completely different, dynamic, just like the web, and just like the web, everything is sourced, so click your link, and you go straight to Flickr and see the source image. +Everything you've seen today is built with the basic building blocks of the web: HTML, CSS and JavaScript. +That means it's completely remixable. It also means there's no proprietary software. All you need is a web browser. +So imagine if every video that we watched on the web worked like the web, completely remixable, linked to its source content, and interactive for everyone who views it. +I think Popcorn could change the way that we tell stories on the web, and the way we understand the world we live in. +Thank you. +What I do is I organize information. I'm a graphic designer. +Professionally, I try to make sense often of things that don't make much sense themselves. +So my father might not understand what it is that I do for a living. +His part of my ancestry has been farmers. +He's part of this ethnic minority called the Pontic Greeks. +They lived in Asia Minor and fled to Greece after a genocide about a hundred years ago. +And ever since that, migration has somewhat been a theme in my family. +But of course, most journeys that we undertake from day to day are within a city. +And, especially if you know the city, getting from A to B may seem pretty obvious, right? +But the question is, why is it obvious? +How do we know where we're going? +So I washed up on a Dublin ferry port about 12 years ago, a professional foreigner, if you like, and I'm sure you've all had this experience before, yeah? +You arrive in a new city, and your brain is trying to make sense of this new place. +Once you find your base, your home, you start to build this cognitive map of your environment. +It's essentially this virtual map that only exists in your brain. +All animal species do it, even though we all use slightly different tools. +Us humans, of course, we don't move around marking our territory by scent, like dogs. +We don't run around emitting ultrasonic squeaks, like bats. +We just don't do that, although a night in the Temple Bar district can get pretty wild. No, we do two important things to make a place our own. +First, we move along linear routes. +Typically, we find a main street, and this main street becomes a linear strip map in our minds. +But our mind keeps it pretty simple, yeah? +Every street is generally perceived as a straight line, and we kind of ignore the little twists and turns that the streets make. +When we do, however, make a turn into a side street, our mind tends to adjust that turn to a 90-degree angle. +This of course makes for some funny moments when you're in some old city layout that follows some sort of circular city logic, yeah? +Maybe you've had that experience as well. +Let's say you're on some spot on a side street that projects from a main cathedral square, and you want to get to another point on a side street just like that. +The cognitive map in your mind may tell you, "Aris, go back to the main cathedral square, take a 90-degree turn and walk down that other side street." +But somehow you feel adventurous that day, and you suddenly discover that the two spots were actually only a single building apart. +Now, I don't know about you, but I always feel like I find this wormhole or this inter-dimensional portal. +So we move along linear routes and our mind straightens streets and perceives turns as 90-degree angles. +The second thing that we do to make a place our own is we attach meaning and emotions to the things that we see along those lines. +If you go to the Irish countryside and you ask an old lady for directions, brace yourself for some elaborate Irish storytelling about all the landmarks, yeah? +She'll tell you the pub where her sister used to work, and "... go past that church where I got married," that kind of thing. +So we fill our cognitive maps with these markers of meaning. +What's more, we abstract repeat patterns and recognize them. +We recognize them by the experiences and we abstract them into symbols. +And of course, we're all capable of understanding these symbols. +What's more, we're all capable of understanding the cognitive maps, and you are all capable of creating these cognitive maps yourselves. +So next time, when you want to tell your friend how to get to your place, you grab a beermat, grab a napkin, and you just observe yourself create this awesome piece of communication design. +It's got straight lines. +It's got 90-degree corners. +You might add little symbols along the way. +And when you look at what you've just drawn, you realize it does not resemble a street map. +If you were to put an actual street map on top of what you've just drawn, you'd realize your streets and the distances -- they'd be way off. +No, what you've just drawn is more like a diagram or a schematic. +It's a visual construct of lines, dots, letters, designed in the language of our brains. +So it's no big surprise that the big information-design icon of the last century -- the pinnacle of showing everybody how to get from A to B, the London Underground map -- was not designed by a cartographer or a city planner; it was designed by an engineering draftsman. +In the 1930s, Harry Beck applied the principles of schematic diagram design and changed the way public transport maps are designed forever. +Now the very key to the success of this map is in the omission of less important information and in the extreme simplification. +So, straightened streets, corners of 90 and 45 degrees, but also the extreme geographic distortion in that map. +If you were to look at the actual locations of these stations, you'd see they're very different. +But this is all for the clarity of the public Tube map. +If you, say, wanted to get from Regent's Park station to Great Portland Street, the Tube map would tell you: take the Tube, go to Baker Street, change over, take another Tube. +Of course, what you don't know is that the two stations are only about a hundred meters apart. +Now we've reached the subject of public transport, and public transport here in Dublin is a somewhat touchy subject. For everybody who does not know the public transport here in Dublin, essentially, we have this system of local buses that grew with the city. +For every outskirt that was added, there was another bus route added, running from the outskirt all the way to the city center. +And as these local buses approach the city center, they all run side by side and converge in pretty much one main street. +So when I stepped off the boat 12 years ago, I tried to make sense of that. +Because exploring a city on foot only gets you so far. +But when you explore a foreign and new public transport system, you will build a cognitive map in your mind in pretty much the same way. +Typically, you choose yourself a rapid transport route, and in your mind, this route is perceived as a straight line. +And like a pearl necklace, all the stations and stops are nicely and neatly aligned along the line. +And only then you start to discover some local bus routes that would fill in the gaps, and that allow for those wormhole, inter-dimensional portal shortcuts. +So I tried to make sense, and when I arrived, I was looking for some information leaflets that would help me crack this system and understand it, and I found those brochures. They were not geographically distorted. +They had a lot of omission of information, but unfortunately, the wrong information. +Say, in the city center -- there were never actually any lines that showed the routes. +There are actually not even any stations with names. +Now, the maps of Dublin transport have gotten better, and after I finished the project, they got a good bit better, but still no station names, still no routes. +So, being naive, and being half-German, I decided, "Aris, why don't you build your own map?" +So that's what I did. +I researched how each and every bus route moved through the city, nice and logical, every bus route a separate line. +I plotted it into my own map of Dublin, and in the city center ... +Now, call me old-fashioned, but I think a public transport route map should have lines, because that's what they are, yeah? +They're little pieces of string that wrap their way through the city center or through the city. +If you will, the Greek guy inside of me feels if I don't get a line, it's like entering the labyrinth of the Minotaur without having Ariadne giving you the string to find your way. +So I teamed up with a gentleman called James Leahy, a civil engineer and a recent master's graduate of the Sustainable Development program at DIT, and together we drafted the simplified model network, which I could then go ahead and visualize. +So here's what we did. +We distributed these rapid-transport corridors throughout the city center, and extended them into the outskirts. +Rapid, because we wanted them to be served by rapid-transport vehicles. +They would get exclusive road use, where possible, and it would be high-quantity, high-quality transport. +James wanted to use bus rapid transport for that, rather than light rail. For me, it was important that the vehicles that would run on those rapid transport corridors would be visibly distinguishable from local buses on the street. +Now we could take out all the local buses that ran alongside those rapid transport means. +Any gaps that appeared in the outskirts were filled again. +So, in other words, if there was a street in an outskirt where there had been a bus, we put a bus back in, only now these buses wouldn't run all the way to the city center, but connect to the nearest rapid-transport mode, one of these thick lines over there. +So the rest was merely a couple of months of work, and a couple of fights with my girlfriend, of our place constantly being clogged up with maps, and the outcome, one of the outcomes, was this map of the Greater Dublin area. +I'll zoom in a little bit. +This map only shows the rapid transport connections, no local bus, very much in the "metro map" style that was so successful in London, and that since has been exported to so many other major cities, and therefore is the language that we should use for public transport maps. +I'll zoom in a little bit. +In this map, I'm including each transport mode, so rapid transport, bus, DART, tram and the likes. +Each individual route is represented by a separate line. +The map shows each and every station, each and every station name, and I'm also displaying side streets. +In fact, most of the side streets even with their name, and for good measure, also a couple of landmarks, some of them signified by little symbols, others by these isometric three-dimensional bird's-eye-view drawings. +The map is relatively small in overall size, so something that you could still hold as a fold-out map or display in a reasonably-sized display box on a bus shelter. +I think it tries to be the best balance between actual representation and simplification -- the language of way-finding in our brain. +So, straightened lines, cleaned-up corners, and of course, that very, very important geographic distortion that makes public transport maps possible. +If you, for example, have a look at the two main corridors that run through the city -- the yellow and orange one over here -- this is how they look in an actual, accurate street map, and this is how they would look in my distorted, simplified public transport map. +So for a successful public transport map, we should not stick to accurate representation, but design them in the way our brains work. +The reactions I got were tremendous, it was really good to see. +And of course, for my own self, I was very happy to see that my folks in Germany and Greece finally have an idea what I do for a living. +This is the skyline of my hometown, New Orleans. +It was a great place to grow up, but it's one of the most vulnerable spots in the world. +Half the city is already below sea level. +In 2005, the world watched as New Orleans and the Gulf Coast were devastated by Hurricane Katrina. +One thousand, eight hundred and thirty-six people died. Nearly 300,000 homes were lost. +These are my mother's, at the top -- although that's not her car, it was carried there by floodwaters up to the roof -- and that's my sister's, below. +Fortunately, they and other family members got out in time, but they lost their homes, and as you can see, just about everything in them. +Other parts of the world have been hit by storms in even more devastating ways. +In 2008, Cyclone Nargis and its aftermath killed 138,000 in Myanmar. +Climate change is affecting our homes, our communities, our way of life. We should be preparing at every scale and at every opportunity. +This talk is about being prepared for, and resilient to the changes that are coming and that will affect our homes and our collective home, the Earth. +The changes in these times won't affect us all equally. +There are important distributional consequences, and they're not what you always might think. +In New Orleans, the elderly and female-headed households were among the most vulnerable. +For those in vulnerable, low-lying nations, how do you put a dollar value on losing your country where you ancestors are buried? And where will your people go? +And how will they cope in a foreign land? +Will there be tensions over immigration, or conflicts over competition for limited resources? +It's already fueled conflicts in Chad and Darfur. +Like it or not, ready or not, this is our future. +Sure, some are looking for opportunities in this new world. +That's the Russians planting a flag on the ocean bottom to stake a claim for minerals under the receding Arctic sea ice. +But while there might be some short-term individual winners, our collective losses will far outweigh them. +Look no further than the insurance industry as they struggle to cope with mounting catastrophic losses from extreme weather events. +The military gets it. They call climate change a threat multiplier that could harm stability and security, while governments around the world are evaluating how to respond. +So what can we do? How can we prepare and adapt? +I'd like to share three sets of examples, starting with adapting to violent storms and floods. +In New Orleans, the I-10 Twin Spans, with sections knocked out in Katrina, have been rebuilt 21 feet higher to allow for greater storm surge. +And these raised and energy-efficient homes were developed by Brad Pitt and Make It Right for the hard-hit Ninth Ward. +The devastated church my mom attends has been not only rebuilt higher, it's poised to become the first Energy Star church in the country. +They're selling electricity back to the grid thanks to solar panels, reflective paint and more. +Their March electricity bill was only 48 dollars. +Now these are examples of New Orleans rebuilding in this way, but better if others act proactively with these changes in mind. +For example, in Galveston, here's a resilient home that survived Hurricane Ike, when others on neighboring lots clearly did not. +And around the world, satellites and warning systems are saving lives in flood-prone areas such as Bangladesh. +But as important as technology and infrastructure are, perhaps the human element is even more critical. +We need better planning and systems for evacuation. +We need to better understand how people make decisions in times of crisis, and why. +While it's true that many who died in Katrina did not have access to transportation, others who did refused to leave as the storm approached, often because available transportation and shelters refused to allow them to take their pets. +Imagine leaving behind your own pet in an evacuation or a rescue. +Fortunately in 2006, Congress passed the Pet Evacuation and Transportation Standards Act it spells "PETS" to change that. +Second, preparing for heat and drought. +Farmers are facing challenges of drought from Asia to Africa, from Australia to Oklahoma, while heat waves linked with climate change have killed tens of thousands of people in Western Europe in 2003, and again in Russia in 2010. +In Ethiopia, 70 percent, that's 7-0 percent of the population, depends on rainfall for its livelihood. +Oxfam and Swiss Re, together with Rockefeller Foundation, are helping farmers like this one build hillside terraces and find other ways to conserve water, but they're also providing for insurance when the droughts do come. +The stability this provides is giving the farmers the confidence to invest. +It's giving them access to affordable credit. +It's allowing them to become more productive so that they can afford their own insurance over time, without assistance. +It's a virtuous cycle, and one that could be replicated throughout the developing world. +This is City Hall's green roof, next to Cook County's [portion of the] roof, which is 77 degrees Fahrenheit hotter at the surface. +Washington, D.C., last year, actually led the nation in new green roofs installed, and they're funding this in part thanks to a five-cent tax on plastic bags. +They're splitting the cost of installing these green roofs with home and building owners. +The roofs not only temper urban heat island impact but they save energy, and therefore money, the emissions that cause climate change, and they also reduce stormwater runoff. +So some solutions to heat can provide for win-win-wins. +Third, adapting to rising seas. +Sea level rise threatens coastal ecosystems, agriculture, even major cities. This is what one to two meters of sea level rise looks like in the Mekong Delta. +That's where half of Vietnam's rice is grown. +Infrastructure is going to be affected. +Airports around the world are located on the coast. +It makes sense, right? There's open space, the planes can take off and land without worrying about creating noise or avoiding tall buildings. +Here's just one example, San Francisco Airport, with 16 inches or more of flooding. +Imagine the staggering cost of protecting this vital infrastructure with levees. +But there might be some changes in store that you might not imagine. For example, planes require more runway for takeoff because the heated, less dense air, provides for less lift. +San Francisco is also spending 40 million dollars to rethink and redesign its water and sewage treatment, as water outfall pipes like this one can be flooded with seawater, causing backups at the plant, harming the bacteria that are needed to treat the waste. +So these outfall pipes have been retrofitted to shut seawater off from entering the system. +Beyond these technical solutions, our work at the Georgetown Climate Center with communities encourages them to look at what existing legal and policy tools are available and to consider how they can accommodate change. +For example, in land use, which areas do you want to protect, through adding a seawall, for example, alter, by raising buildings, or retreat from, to allow the migration of important natural systems, such as wetlands or beaches? +Other examples to consider. In the U.K., the Thames Barrier protects London from storm surge. +The Asian Cities Climate [Change] Resilience Network is restoring vital ecosystems like forest mangroves. +These are not only important ecosystems in their own right, but they also serve as a buffer to protect inland communities. +New York City is incredibly vulnerable to storms, as you can see from this clever sign, and to sea level rise, and to storm surge, as you can see from the subway flooding. +But back above ground, these raised ventilation grates for the subway system show that solutions can be both functional and attractive. In fact, in New York, San Francisco and London, designers have envisioned ways to better integrate the natural and built environments with climate change in mind. +I think these are inspiring examples of what's possible when we feel empowered to plan for a world that will be different. +But now, a word of caution. +Adaptation's too important to be left to the experts. +Why? Well, there are no experts. +We're entering uncharted territory, and yet our expertise and our systems are based on the past. +"Stationarity" is the notion that we can anticipate the future based on the past, and plan accordingly, and this principle governs much of our engineering, our design of critical infrastructure, city water systems, building codes, even water rights and other legal precedents. +But we can simply no longer rely on established norms. +We're operating outside the bounds of CO2 concentrations that the planet has seen for hundreds of thousands of years. +The larger point I'm trying to make is this. +There are no quick fixes. +There are no one-size-fits-all solutions. +We're all learning by doing. +But the operative word is doing. +Thank you. +One in four people suffer from some sort of mental illness, so if it was one, two, three, four, it's you, sir. +You. Yeah. With the weird teeth. And you next to him. You know who you are. +Actually, that whole row isn't right. That's not good. Hi. Yeah. Real bad. Don't even look at me. I am one of the one in four. Thank you. +I think I inherit it from my mother, who, used to crawl around the house on all fours. +She had two sponges in her hand, and then she had two tied to her knees. My mother was completely absorbent. And she would crawl around behind me going, "Who brings footprints into a building?!" +So that was kind of a clue that things weren't right. +So before I start, I would like to thank the makers of Lamotrigine, Sertraline, and Reboxetine, because without those few simple chemicals, I would not be vertical today. +So how did it start? +My mental illness -- well, I'm not even going to talk about my mental illness. +What am I going to talk about? Okay. +I always dreamt that, when I had my final breakdown, it would be because I had a deep Kafkaesque existentialist revelation, or that maybe Cate Blanchett would play me and she would win an Oscar for it. But that's not what happened. I had my breakdown during my daughter's sports day. +And all the girlies, girlies running, running, running, everybody except for my daughter, who was just standing at the starting line, just waving, because she didn't know she was supposed to run. +Perk up. +So you start to hear these abusive voices, but you don't hear one abusive voice, you hear about a thousand -- 100,000 abusive voices, like if the Devil had Tourette's, that's what it would sound like. +But we all know in here, you know, there is no Devil, there are no voices in your head. +You know that when you have those abusive voices, all those little neurons get together and in that little gap you get a real toxic "I want to kill myself" kind of chemical, and if you have that over and over again on a loop tape, you might have yourself depression. +Oh, and that's not even the tip of the iceberg. +If you get a little baby, and you abuse it verbally, its little brain sends out chemicals that are so destructive that the little part of its brain that can tell good from bad just doesn't grow, so you might have yourself a homegrown psychotic. +If a soldier sees his friend blown up, his brain goes into such high alarm that he can't actually put the experience into words, so he just feels the horror over and over again. +So here's my question. My question is, how come when people have mental damage, it's always an active imagination? +How come every other organ in your body can get sick and you get sympathy, except the brain? +I'd like to talk a little bit more about the brain, because I know you like that here at TED, so if you just give me a minute here, okay. +Okay, let me just say, there's some good news. +There is some good news. First of all, let me say, we've come a long, long way. +We started off as a teeny, teeny little one-celled amoeba, tiny, just sticking onto a rock, and now, voila, the brain. +Here we go. This little baby has a lot of horsepower. +It comes completely conscious. It's got state-of-the-art lobes. +We've got the occipital lobe so we can actually see the world. +We got the temporal lobe so we can actually hear the world. +Here we've got a little bit of long-term memory, so, you know that night you want to forget, when you got really drunk? Bye-bye! Gone. So actually, it's filled with 100 billion neurons just zizzing away, electrically transmitting information, zizzing, zizzing. I'm going to give you a little side view here. +I don't know if you can get that here. So, zizzing away, and so And for every one I know, I drew this myself. Thank you. +For every one single neuron, you can actually have from 10,000 to 100,000 different connections or dendrites or whatever you want to call it, and every time you learn something, or you have an experience, that bush grows, you know, that bush of information. +Can you imagine, every human being is carrying that equipment, even Paris Hilton? Go figure. +But I got a little bad news for you folks. I got some bad news. +This isn't for the one in four. This is for the four in four. +We are not equipped for the 21st century. +Evolution did not prepare us for this. We just don't have the bandwidth, and for people who say, oh, they're having a nice day, they're perfectly fine, they're more insane than the rest of us. +Because I'll show you where there might be a few glitches in evolution. Okay, let me just explain this to you. +About 150,000 years ago, when language came online, we started to put words to this constant emergency, so it wasn't just, "Oh my God, there's a saber-toothed tiger," which could be, it was suddenly, "Oh my God, I didn't send the email. Oh my God, my thighs are too fat. +Oh my God, everybody can see I'm stupid. I didn't get invited to the Christmas party!" +So you've got this nagging loop tape that goes over and over again that drives you insane, so, you see what the problem is? What once made you safe now drives you insane. +I'm sorry to be the bearer of bad news, but somebody has to be. +Your pets are happier than you are. So kitty cat, meow, happy happy happy, human beings, screwed. Completely and utterly -- so, screwed. +But my point is, if we don't talk about this stuff, and we don't learn how to deal with our lives, it's not going to be one in four. It's going to be four in four who are really, really going to get ill in the upstairs department. +And while we're at it, can we please stop the stigma? +Thank you. Thank you. +So I have bad news, I have good news, and I have a task. +So the bad news is that we all get sick. +I get sick. You get sick. +And every one of us gets sick, and the question really is, how sick do we get? Is it something that kills us? +Is it something that we survive? +Is it something that we can treat? +And we've gotten sick as long as we've been people. +And so we've always looked for reasons to explain why we get sick. +And for a long time, it was the gods, right? +The gods are angry with me, or the gods are testing me, right? Or God, singular, more recently, is punishing me or judging me. +And as long as we've looked for explanations, we've wound up with something that gets closer and closer to science, which is hypotheses as to why we get sick, and as long as we've had hypotheses about why we get sick, we've tried to treat it as well. +This is a guy named Carlos Finlay. He had a hypothesis that was way outside the box for his time, in the late 1800s. +He thought yellow fever was not transmitted by dirty clothing. +He thought it was transmitted by mosquitos. +And they laughed at him. For 20 years, they called this guy "the mosquito man." But he ran an experiment in people, right? He had this hypothesis, and he tested it in people. +So he got volunteers to go move to Cuba and live in tents and be voluntarily infected with yellow fever. +So some of the people in some of the tents had dirty clothes and some of the people were in tents that were full of mosquitos that had been exposed to yellow fever. +And it definitively proved that it wasn't this magic dust called fomites in your clothes that caused yellow fever. +But it wasn't until we tested it in people that we actually knew. +And this is what those people signed up for. +This is what it looked like to have yellow fever in Cuba at that time. You suffered in a tent, in the heat, alone, and you probably died. +But people volunteered for this. +And it's not just a cool example of a scientific design of experiment in theory. They also did this beautiful thing. +They signed this document, and it's called an informed consent document. +And informed consent is an idea that we should be very proud of as a society, right? It's something that separates us from the Nazis at Nuremberg, enforced medical experimentation. It's the idea that agreement to join a study without understanding isn't agreement. +It's something that protects us from harm, from hucksters, from people that would try to hoodwink us into a clinical study that we don't understand, or that we don't agree to. +And so you put together the thread of narrative hypothesis, experimentation in humans, and informed consent, and you get what we call clinical study, and it's how we do the vast majority of medical work. It doesn't really matter if you're in the north, the south, the east, the west. +Clinical studies form the basis of how we investigate, so if we're going to look at a new drug, right, we test it in people, we draw blood, we do experiments, and we gain consent for that study, to make sure that we're not screwing people over as part of it. +But the world is changing around the clinical study, which has been fairly well established for tens of years if not 50 to 100 years. +So now we're able to gather data about our genomes, but, as we saw earlier, our genomes aren't dispositive. +We're able to gather information about our environment. +And more importantly, we're able to gather information about our choices, because it turns out that what we think of as our health is more like the interaction of our bodies, our genomes, our choices and our environment. +And the clinical methods that we've got aren't very good at studying that because they are based on the idea of person-to-person interaction. You interact with your doctor and you get enrolled in the study. +So this is my grandfather. I actually never met him, but he's holding my mom, and his genes are in me, right? +His choices ran through to me. He was a smoker, like most people were. This is my son. +So my grandfather's genes go all the way through to him, and my choices are going to affect his health. +The technology between these two pictures cannot be more different, but the methodology for clinical studies has not radically changed over that time period. +We just have better statistics. +The way we gain informed consent was formed in large part after World War II, around the time that picture was taken. +Right? It can't be networked. It can't be integrated. +It cannot be used by people who aren't credentialed. +So a physicist can't get access to it without filing paperwork. +A computer scientist can't get access to it without filing paperwork. +Computer scientists aren't patient. They don't file paperwork. +And this is an accident. These are tools that we created to protect us from harm, but what they're doing is protecting us from innovation now. +And that wasn't the goal. It wasn't the point. Right? +It's a side effect, if you will, of a power we created to take us for good. +And so if you think about it, the depressing thing is that Facebook would never make a change to something as important as an advertising algorithm with a sample size as small as a Phase III clinical trial. +We cannot take the information from past trials and put them together to form statistically significant samples. +And that sucks, right? So 45 percent of men develop cancer. Thirty-eight percent of women develop cancer. +One in four men dies of cancer. +One in five women dies of cancer, at least in the United States. +And three out of the four drugs we give you if you get cancer fail. And this is personal to me. +My sister is a cancer survivor. +My mother-in-law is a cancer survivor. Cancer sucks. +And when you have it, you don't have a lot of privacy in the hospital. You're naked the vast majority of the time. +It's outrage that we have this information and we can't use it. +And it's an accident. +So the cost in blood and treasure of this is enormous. +Two hundred and twenty-six billion a year is spent on cancer in the United States. +Fifteen hundred people a day die in the United States. +And it's getting worse. +So the good news is that some things have changed, and the most important thing that's changed is that we can now measure ourselves in ways that used to be the dominion of the health system. +So a lot of people talk about it as digital exhaust. +I like to think of it as the dust that runs along behind my kid. +It was done in five months by a startup company of a couple of people. +I don't have any financial interest in it. +But more nontrivially, we can get our genotypes done, and although our genotypes aren't dispositive, they give us clues. +So I could show you mine. It's just A's, T's, C's and G's. +This is the interpretation of it. As you can see, I carry a 32 percent risk of prostate cancer, 22 percent risk of psoriasis and a 14 percent risk of Alzheimer's disease. +So that means, if you're a geneticist, you're freaking out, going, "Oh my God, you told everyone you carry the ApoE E4 allele. What's wrong with you?" +Right? When I got these results, I started talking to doctors, and they told me not to tell anyone, and my reaction is, "Is that going to help anyone cure me when I get the disease?" +And no one could tell me yes. +And I live in a web world where, when you share things, beautiful stuff happens, not bad stuff. +So I started putting this in my slide decks, and I got even more obnoxious, and I went to my doctor, and I said, "I'd like to actually get my bloodwork. +Please give me back my data." So this is my most recent bloodwork. +As you can see, I have high cholesterol. +I have particularly high bad cholesterol, and I have some bad liver numbers, but those are because we had a dinner party with a lot of good wine the night before we ran the test. Right. But look at how non-computable this information is. +This is like the photograph of my granddad holding my mom from a data perspective, and I had to go into the system and get it out. +So the thing that I'm proposing we do here is that we reach behind us and we grab the dust, that we reach into our bodies and we grab the genotype, and we reach into the medical system and we grab our records, and we use it to build something together, which is a commons. +And there's been a lot of talk about commonses, right, here, there, everywhere, right. A commons is nothing more than a public good that we build out of private goods. +We do it voluntarily, and we do it through standardized legal tools. We do it through standardized technologies. +Right. That's all a commons is. It's something that we build together because we think it's important. +So not that many programmers write free software, but we have the Apache web server. +Not that many people who read Wikipedia edit, but it works. So as long as some people like to share as their form of control, we can build a commons, as long as we can get the information out. +And in biology, the numbers are even better. +So Vanderbilt ran a study asking people, we'd like to take your biosamples, your blood, and share them in a biobank, and only five percent of the people opted out. +I'm from Tennessee. It's not the most science-positive state in the United States of America. But only five percent of the people wanted out. +So people like to share, if you give them the opportunity and the choice. +And the reason that I got obsessed with this, besides the obvious family aspects, is that I spend a lot of time around mathematicians, and mathematicians are drawn to places where there's a lot of data because they can use it to tease signals out of noise. +And those correlations that they can tease out, they're not necessarily causal agents, but math, in this day and age, is like a giant set of power tools that we're leaving on the floor, not plugged in in health, while we use hand saws. +Sage Bionetworks is a nonprofit that's built a giant math system that's waiting for data, but there isn't any. +So that's what I do. I've actually started what we think is the world's first fully digital, fully self-contributed, unlimited in scope, global in participation, ethically approved clinical research study where you contribute the data. +And I've spent a lot of time around other commons. +I've been around the early web. I've been around the early creative commons world, and there's four things that all of these share, which is, they're all really simple. +And so if you were to go to the website and enroll in this study, you're not going to see something complicated. +But it's not simplistic. These things are weak intentionally, right, because you can always add power and control to a system, but it's very difficult to remove those things if you put them in at the beginning, and so being simple doesn't mean being simplistic, and being weak doesn't mean weakness. +Those are strengths in the system. +And open doesn't mean that there's no money. +Closed systems, corporations, make a lot of money on the open web, and they're one of the reasons why the open web lives is that corporations have a vested interest in the openness of the system. +And so all of these things are part of the clinical study that we've created, so you can actually come in, all you have to be is 14 years old, willing to sign a contract that says I'm not going to be a jerk, basically, and you're in. +You can start analyzing the data. +You do have to solve a CAPTCHA as well. And if you'd like to build corporate structures on top of it, that's okay too. That's all in the consent, so if you don't like those terms, you don't come in. +It's very much the design principles of a commons that we're trying to bring to health data. +And the other thing about these systems is that it only takes a small number of really unreasonable people working together to create them. It didn't take that many people to make Wikipedia Wikipedia, or to keep it Wikipedia. +And we're not supposed to be unreasonable in health, and so I hate this word "patient." +I don't like being patient when systems are broken, and health care is broken. +I'm not talking about the politics of health care, I'm talking about the way we scientifically approach health care. +So I don't want to be patient. And the task I'm giving to you is to not be patient. So I'd like you to actually try, when you go home, to get your data. +You'll be shocked and offended and, I would bet, outraged, at how hard it is to get it. +But it's a challenge that I hope you'll take, and maybe you'll share it. Maybe you won't. +If you don't have anyone in your family who's sick, maybe you wouldn't be unreasonable. But if you do, or if you've been sick, then maybe you would. +And we're going to be able to do an experiment in the next several months that lets us know exactly how many unreasonable people are out there. +So this is the Athena Breast Health Network. It's a study of 150,000 women in California, and they're going to return all the data to the participants of the study in a computable form, with one-clickability to load it into the study that I've put together. So we'll know exactly how many people are willing to be unreasonable. +So what I'd end [with] is, the most beautiful thing I've learned since I quit my job almost a year ago to do this, is that it really doesn't take very many of us to achieve spectacular results. +You just have to be willing to be unreasonable, and the risk we're running is not the risk those 14 men who got yellow fever ran. Right? +It's to be naked, digitally, in public. So you know more about me and my health than I know about you. It's asymmetric now. +And being naked and alone can be terrifying. +But to be naked in a group, voluntarily, can be quite beautiful. +And so it doesn't take all of us. +It just takes all of some of us. Thank you. +We most certainly do talk to terrorists, no question about it. +We are at war with a new form of terrorism. +It's sort of the good old, traditional form of terrorism, but it's sort of been packaged for the 21st century. +One of the big things about countering terrorism is, how do you perceive it? +Because perception leads to your response to it. +So if you have a traditional perception of terrorism, it would be that it's one of criminality, one of war. +So how are you going to respond to it? +Naturally, it would follow that you meet kind with kind. +You fight it. If you have a more modernist approach, and your perception of terrorism is almost cause-and-effect, then naturally from that, the responses that come out of it are much more asymmetrical. +We live in a modern, global world. +Terrorists have actually adapted to it. +It's something we have to, too, and that means the people who are working on counterterrorism responses have to start, in effect, putting on their Google-tinted glasses, or whatever. +terrorism as though it was a global brand, say, Coca-Cola. +Both are fairly bad for your health. If you look at it as a brand in those ways, what you'll come to realize is, it's a pretty flawed product. +As we've said, it's pretty bad for your health, it's bad for those who it affects, and it's not actually good if you're a suicide bomber either. +It doesn't actually do what it says on the tin. +You're not really going to get 72 virgins in heaven. +It's not going to happen, I don't think. +And you're not really going to, in the '80s, end capitalism by supporting one of these groups. It's a load of nonsense. +But what you realize, it's got an Achilles' heel. +The brand has an Achilles' heel. +We've mentioned the health, but it needs consumers to buy into it. +The consumers it needs are the terrorist constituency. +They're the people who buy into the brand, support them, facilitate them, and they're the people we've got to reach out to. +We've got to attack that brand in front of them. +There's two essential ways of doing that, if we carry on this brand theme. +One is reducing their market. What I mean is, it's their brand against our brand. We've got to compete. +We've got to show we're a better product. +If I'm trying to show we're a better product, I probably wouldn't do things like Guantanamo Bay. +We've talked there about curtailing the underlying need for the product itself. You could be looking there at poverty, injustice, all those sorts of things which feed terrorism. +The other thing to do is to knock the product, attack the brand myth, as we've said. +You know, there's nothing heroic about killing a young kid. +Perhaps we need to focus on that and get that message back across. +We've got to reveal the dangers in the product. +Our target audience, it's not just the producers of terrorism, as I've said, the terrorists. +It's not just the marketeers of terrorism, which is those who finance, those who facilitate it, but it's the consumers of terrorism. +We've got to get in to those homelands. +That's where they recruit from. That's where they get their power and strength. +That's where their consumers come from. +And we have to get our messaging in there. +So the essentials are, we've got to have interaction in those areas, with the terrorists, the facilitators, etc. +We've got to engage, we've got to educate, and we've got to have dialogue. +Now, staying on this brand thing for just a few more seconds, think about delivery mechanisms. +How are we going to do these attacks? +Well, reducing the market is really one for governments and civil society. We've got to show we're better. +We've got to show our values. +We've got to practice what we preach. +But when it comes to knocking the brand, if the terrorists are Coca-Cola and we're Pepsi, I don't think, being Pepsi, anything we say about Coca-Cola, anyone's going to believe us. +So we've got to find a different mechanism, and one of the best mechanisms I've ever come across is the victims of terrorism. +They are somebody who can actually stand there and say, "This product's crap. I had it and I was sick for days. +It burnt my hand, whatever." You believe them. +You can see their scars. You trust them. +But whether it's victims, whether it's governments, NGOs, or even the Queen yesterday, in Northern Ireland, we have to interact and engage with those different layers of terrorism, and, in effect, we do have to have a little dance with the devil. +This is my favorite part of my speech. +So 3, 2, 1. (Explosion sound) Very good. Now, lady in 15J was a suicide bomber amongst us all. +We're all victims of terrorism. +There's 625 of us in this room. We're going to be scarred for life. +There was a father and a son who sat in that seat over there. +The son's dead. The father lives. +The father will probably kick himself for years to come that he didn't take that seat instead of his kid. +He's going to take to alcohol, and he's probably going to kill himself in three years. That's the stats. +There's a very young, attractive lady over here, and she has something which I think's the worst form of psychological, physical injury I've ever seen out of a suicide bombing: It's human shrapnel. +in years to come, 10 years to come, 15 years to come, or she's on the beach, every so often she's going to start rubbing her skin, and out of there will come a piece of that shrapnel. +And that is a hard thing for the head to take. +There's a lady over there as well who lost her legs in this bombing. +She's going to find out that she gets a pitiful amount of money off our government for looking after what's happened to her. +She had a daughter who was going to go to one of the best universities. She's going to give up university to look after Mum. +We're all here, and all of those who watch it are going to be traumatized by this event, but all of you here who are victims are going to learn some hard truths. +That is, our society, we sympathize, but after a while, we start to ignore. We don't do enough as a society. +We do not look after our victims, and we do not enable them, and what I'm going to try and show is that actually, victims are the best weapon we have against more terrorism. +How would the government at the turn of the millennium approach today? Well, we all know. +What they'd have done then is an invasion. +If the suicide bomber was from Wales, good luck to Wales, I'd say. +Knee-jerk legislation, emergency provision legislation -- which hits at the very basis of our society, as we all know -- it's a mistake. +We're going to drive prejudice throughout Edinburgh, throughout the U.K., for Welsh people. +Today's approach, governments have learned from their mistakes. +They are looking at what I've started off on, on these more asymmetrical approaches to it, more modernist views, cause and effect. +But mistakes of the past are inevitable. +It's human nature. +The fear and the pressure to do something on them is going to be immense. They are going to make mistakes. +They're not just going to be smart. +There was a famous Irish terrorist who once summed up the point very beautifully. He said, "The thing is, about the British government, is, is that it's got to be lucky all the time, and we only have to be lucky once." +So what we need to do is we have to effect it. +We've got to start thinking about being more proactive. +We need to build an arsenal of noncombative weapons in this war on terrorism. +But of course, it's ideas -- is not something that governments do very well. +I want to go back just to before the bang, to this idea of brand, and I was talking about Coke and Pepsi, etc. +We see it as terrorism versus democracy in that brand war. +They'll see it as freedom fighters and truth against injustice, imperialism, etc. +We do have to see this as a deadly battlefield. +It's not just [our] flesh and blood they want. +They actually want our cultural souls, and that's why the brand analogy is a very interesting way of looking at this. +If we look at al Qaeda. Al Qaeda was essentially a product on a shelf in a souk somewhere which not many people had heard of. +9/11 launched it. It was its big marketing day, and it was packaged for the 21st century. They knew what they were doing. +They were effectively [doing] something in this brand image of creating a brand which can be franchised around the world, where there's poverty, ignorance and injustice. +We, as I've said, have got to hit that market, but we've got to use our heads rather than our might. +If we perceive it in this way as a brand, or other ways of thinking at it like this, we will not resolve or counter terrorism. +What I'd like to do is just briefly go through a few examples from my work on areas where we try and approach these things differently. +The first one has been dubbed "lawfare," for want of a better word. +When we originally looked at bringing civil actions against terrorists, everyone thought we were a bit mad and mavericks and crackpots. Now it's got a title. Everyone's doing it. +There's a bomb, people start suing. +But one of the first early cases on this was the Omagh Bombing. +A civil action was brought from 1998. +In Omagh, bomb went off, Real IRA, middle of a peace process. +That meant that the culprits couldn't really be prosecuted for lots of reasons, mostly to do with the peace process and what was going on, the greater good. +It also meant, then, if you can imagine this, that the people who bombed your children and your husbands were walking around the supermarket that you lived in. +Some of those victims said enough is enough. +We brought a private action, and thank God, 10 years later, we actually won it. There is a slight appeal on at the moment so I have to be a bit careful, but I'm fairly confident. +Why was it effective? +It was effective not just because justice was seen to be done where there was a huge void. +It was because the Real IRA and other terrorist groups, their whole strength is from the fact that they are an underdog. When we put the victims as the underdog and flipped it, they didn't know what to do. +They were embarrassed. Their recruitment went down. +The bombs actually stopped -- fact -- because of this action. +We became, or those victims became, more importantly, a ghost that haunted the terrorist organization. +There's other examples. We have a case called Almog which is to do with a bank that was, allegedly, from our point of view, giving rewards to suicide bombers. +Just by bringing the very action, that bank has stopped doing it, and indeed, the powers that be around the world, which for real politic reasons before, couldn't actually deal with this issue, because there was lots of competing interests, have actually closed down those loopholes in the banking system. +There's another case called the McDonald case, where some victims of Semtex, of the Provisional IRA bombings, which were supplied by Gaddafi, sued, and that action has led to amazing things for new Libya. +New Libya has been compassionate towards those victims, and started taking it -- so it started a whole new dialogue there. +But the problem is, we need more and more support for these ideas and cases. +Civil affairs and civil society initiatives. +A good one is in Somalia. There's a war on piracy. +If anyone thinks you can have a war on piracy like a war on terrorism and beat it, you're wrong. +What we're trying to do there is turn pirates to fisherman. +These initiatives cost less than a missile, and certainly less than any soldier's life, but more importantly, it takes the war to their homelands, and not onto our shore, and we're looking at the causes. +The last one I wanted to talk about was dialogue. +The advantages of dialogue are obvious. +It self-educates both sides, enables a better understanding, reveals the strengths and weaknesses, and yes, like some of the speakers before, the shared vulnerability does lead to trust, and it does then become, that process, part of normalization. +But it's not an easy road. After the bomb, the victims are not into this. +There's practical problems. +we realize that I think we'd all say that we want to have a perception of terrorism which is not just a pure military perception of it. +We need to foster more modern and asymmetrical responses to it. +This isn't about being soft on terrorism. +It's about fighting them on contemporary battlefields. +We must foster innovation, as I've said. +Governments are receptive. It won't come from those dusty corridors. +The private sector has a role. +The role we could do right now is going away and looking at how we can support victims around the world to bring initiatives. +If I was to leave you with some big questions here which may change one's perception to it, and who knows what thoughts and responses will come out of it, but did myself and my terrorist group actually need to blow you up to make our point? +We have to ask ourselves these questions, however unpalatable. +Have we been ignoring an injustice or a humanitarian struggle somewhere in the world? +What if, actually, engagement on poverty and injustice is exactly what the terrorists wanted us to do? +What if the bombs are just simply wake-up calls for us? +What happens if that bomb went off because we didn't have any thoughts and things in place to allow dialogue to deal with these things and interaction? +What is definitely uncontroversial is that, as I've said, we've got to stop being reactive, and more proactive, and I just want to leave you with one idea, which is that it's a provocative question for you to think about, and the answer will require sympathy with the devil. +It's a question that's been tackled by many great thinkers and writers: What if society actually needs crisis to change? +What if society actually needs terrorism to change and adapt for the better? +It's those Bulgakov themes, it's that picture of Jesus and the Devil hand in hand in Gethsemane walking into the moonlight. +What it would mean is that humans, in order to survive in development, quite Darwinian spirit here, inherently must dance with the devil. +A lot of people say that communism was defeated by the Rolling Stones. It's a good theory. +Maybe the Rolling Stones has a place in this. +Thank you. +Bruno Giussani: Thank you. +Beau Lotto: So, this game is very simple. +All you have to do is read what you see. Right? +So, I'm going to count to you, so we don't all do it together. +Okay, one, two, three.Audience: Can you read this? +BL: Amazing. What about this one? One, two, three.Audience: You are not reading this. +BL: All right. One, two, three. If you were Portuguese, right? How about this one? One, two, three. +Audience: What are you reading? +BL: What are you reading? There are no words there. +I said, read what you're seeing. Right? +It literally says, "Wat ar ou rea in?" Right? +That's what you should have said. Right? Why is this? +It's because perception is grounded in our experience. +Right? The brain takes meaningless information and makes meaning out of it, which means we never see what's there, we never see information, we only ever see what was useful to see in the past. +All right? Which means, when it comes to perception, we're all like this frog. +Right? It's getting information. It's generating behavior that's useful. Man: Ow! Ow! BL: And sometimes, when things don't go our way, we get a little bit annoyed, right? +But we're talking about perception here, right? +And perception underpins everything we think, we know, we believe, our hopes, our dreams, the clothes we wear, falling in love, everything begins with perception. +Now if perception is grounded in our history, it means we're only ever responding according to what we've done before. +But actually, it's a tremendous problem, because how can we ever see differently? +Now, I want to tell you a story about seeing differently, and all new perceptions begin in the same way. +They begin with a question. +The problem with questions is they create uncertainty. +Now, uncertainty is a very bad thing. It's evolutionarily a bad thing. If you're not sure that's a predator, it's too late. +Okay? Even seasickness is a consequence of uncertainty. +Right? If you go down below on a boat, your inner ears are you telling you you're moving. Your eyes, because it's moving in register with the boat, say I'm standing still. +Your brain cannot deal with the uncertainty of that information, and it gets ill. +The question "why?" is one of the most dangerous things you can do, because it takes you into uncertainty. +And yet, the irony is, the only way we can ever do anything new is to step into that space. +So how can we ever do anything new? Well fortunately, evolution has given us an answer, right? +And it enables us to address even the most difficult of questions. The best questions are the ones that create the most uncertainty. +They're the ones that question the things we think to be true already. Right? +It's easy to ask questions about how did life begin, or what extends beyond the universe, but to question what you think to be true already is really stepping into that space. +So what is evolution's answer to the problem of uncertainty? +It's play. +Now play is not simply a process. Experts in play will tell you that actually it's a way of being. +Play is one of the only human endeavors where uncertainty is actually celebrated. Uncertainty is what makes play fun. +Right? It's adaptable to change. Right? It opens possibility, and it's cooperative. It's actually how we do our social bonding, and it's intrinsically motivated. What that means is that we play to play. Play is its own reward. +Now if you look at these five ways of being, these are the exact same ways of being you need in order to be a good scientist. +Science is not defined by the method section of a paper. +It's actually a way of being, which is here, and this is true for anything that is creative. +So if you add rules to play, you have a game. +That's actually what an experiment is. +So armed with these two ideas, that science is a way of being and experiments are play, we asked, can anyone become a scientist? +And who better to ask than 25 eight- to 10-year-old children? +Because they're experts in play. So I took my bee arena down to a small school in Devon, and the aim of this was to not just get the kids to see science differently, but, through the process of science, to see themselves differently. Right? +The first step was to ask a question. +Now, I should say that we didn't get funding for this study because the scientists said small children couldn't make a useful contribution to science, and the teachers said kids couldn't do it. +So we did it anyway. Right? Of course. +So, here are some of the questions. I put them in small print so you wouldn't bother reading it. Point is that five of the questions that the kids came up with were actually the basis of science publication the last five to 15 years. Right? +So they were asking questions that were significant to expert scientists. +Now here, I want to share the stage with someone quite special. Right? +She was one of the young people who was involved in this study, and she's now one of the youngest published scientists in the world. Right? She will now, once she comes onto stage, will be the youngest person to ever speak at TED. Right? +Now, science and asking questions is about courage. +Now she is the personification of courage, because she's going to stand up here and talk to you all. +So Amy, would you please come up? So Amy's going to help me tell the story of what we call the Blackawton Bees Project, and first she's going to tell you the question that they came up with. So go ahead, Amy. +Amy O'Toole: Thank you, Beau. We thought that it was easy to see the link between humans and apes in the way that we think, because we look alike. +But we wondered if there's a possible link with other animals. It'd be amazing if humans and bees thought similar, since they seem so different from us. +So we asked if humans and bees might solve complex problems in the same way. +Really, we wanted to know if bees can also adapt themselves to new situations using previously learned rules and conditions. So what if bees can think like us? +Well, it'd be amazing, since we're talking about an insect with only one million brain cells. +AO: The puzzle we came up with was an if-then rule. +We asked the bees to learn not just to go to a certain color, but to a certain color flower only when it's in a certain pattern. +They were only rewarded if they went to the yellow flowers if the yellow flowers were surrounded by the blue, or if the blue flowers were surrounded by the yellow. +Now there's a number of different rules the bees can learn to solve this puzzle. The interesting question is, which? +What was really exciting about this project was we, and Beau, had no idea whether it would work. +It was completely new, and no one had done it before, including adults. BL: Including the teachers, and that was really hard for the teachers. +It's easy for a scientist to go in and not have a clue what he's doing, because that's what we do in the lab, but for a teacher not to know what's going to happen at the end of the day -- so much of the credit goes to Dave Strudwick, who was the collaborator on this project. Okay? +So I'm not going to go through the whole details of the study because actually you can read about it, but the next step is observation. So here are some of the students doing the observations. They're recording the data of where the bees fly. +Dave Strudwick: So what we're going to do Student: 5C. +Dave Strudwick: Is she still going up here?Student: Yeah. +Dave Strudwick: So you keep track of each.Student: Henry, can you help me here? +BL: "Can you help me, Henry?" What good scientist says that, right? +Student: There's two up there. +And three in here. +BL: Right? So we've got our observations. We've got our data. +They do the simple mathematics, averaging, etc., etc. +And now we want to share. That's the next step. +So we're going to write this up and try to submit this for publication. Right? So we have to write it up. +So we go, of course, to the pub. All right? The one on the left is mine, okay? Now, I tell them, a paper has four different sections: an introduction, a methods, a results, a discussion. +The introduction says, what's the question and why? +Methods, what did you do? Results, what was the observation? +And the discussion is, who cares? Right? +That's a science paper, basically. So the kids give me the words, right? I put it into a narrative, which means that this paper is written in kidspeak. +So here's the title page. We have a number of authors there. +All the ones in bold are eight to 10 years old. +The first author is Blackawton Primary School, because if it were ever referenced, it would be "Blackawton et al," and not one individual. So we submit it to a public access journal, and it says this. It said many things, but it said this. +Larry Maloney, expert in vision, says, "The paper is magnificent. +The work would be publishable if done by adults." +So what did we do? We send it back to the editor. +They say no. +So we asked Larry and Natalie Hempel to write a commentary situating the findings for scientists, right, putting in the references, and we submit it to Biology Letters. +And there, it was reviewed by five independent referees, and it was published. Okay? It took four months to do the science, two years to get it published. Typical science, actually, right? So this makes Amy and her friends the youngest published scientists in the world. +What was the feedback like? +Well, it was published two days before Christmas, downloaded 30,000 times in the first day, right? +It was the Editors' Choice in Science, which is a top science magazine. +It's forever freely accessible by Biology Letters. +It's the only paper that will ever be freely accessible by this journal. +Last year, it was the second-most downloaded paper by Biology Letters, and the feedback from not just scientists and teachers but the public as well. +And I'll just read one. +"I have read 'Blackawton Bees' recently. I don't have words to explain exactly how I am feeling right now. +What you guys have done is real, true and amazing. +Curiosity, interest, innocence and zeal are the most basic and most important things to do science. +Who else can have these qualities more than children? +Please congratulate your children's team from my side." +So I'd like to conclude with a physical metaphor. +Can I do it on you? Oh yeah, yeah, yeah, come on. Yeah yeah. Okay. +Now, science is about taking risks, so this is an incredible risk, right? For me, not for him. Right? Because we've only done this once before. And you like technology, right? +Shimon Schocken: Right, but I like myself. +BL: This is the epitome of technology. Right. Okay. +Now ... Okay. Now, we're going to do a little demonstration, right? +You have to close your eyes, and you have to point where you hear me clapping. All right? +Okay, how about if everyone over there shouts. One, two, three? +Audience: Brilliant. Now, open your eyes. We'll do it one more time. +Everyone over there shout. Where's the sound coming from? Thank you very much. What's the point? The point is what science does for us. +Right? We normally walk through life responding, but if we ever want to do anything different, we have to step into uncertainty. When he opened his eyes, he was able to see the world in a new way. +That's what science offers us. It offers the possibility to step on uncertainty through the process of play, right? +Now, true science education I think should be about giving people a voice and enabling to express that voice, so I've asked Amy to be the last voice in this short story. +So, Amy? +AO: This project was really exciting for me, because it brought the process of discovery to life, and it showed me that anyone, and I mean anyone, has the potential to discover something new, and that a small question can lead into a big discovery. +Changing the way a person thinks about something can be easy or hard. It all depends on the way the person feels about change. +But changing the way I thought about science was surprisingly easy. Once we played the games and then started to think about the puzzle, I then realized that science isn't just a boring subject, and that anyone can discover something new. +You just need an opportunity. My opportunity came in the form of Beau, and the Blackawton Bee Project. +Thank you.BL: Thank you very much. +In 1975, I met in Florence a professor, Carlo Pedretti, my former professor of art history, and today a world-renowned scholar of Leonardo da Vinci. +Well, he asked me if I could find some technological way to unfold a five-centuries-old mystery related to a lost masterpiece by Leonardo da Vinci, the "Battle of Anghiari," which is supposed to be located in the Hall of the 500 in Palazzo Vecchio, in Florence. +Well, in the mid-'70s, there were not great opportunities for a bioengineer like me, especially in Italy, and so I decided, with some researchers from the United States and the University of Florence, to start probing the murals decorated by Vasari on the long walls of the Hall of the 500 searching for the lost Leonardo. +Unfortunately, at that time we did not know that that was not exactly where we should be looking, because we had to go much deeper in, and so the research came to a halt, and it was only taken up in 2000 thanks to the interest and the enthusiasm of the Guinness family. +Well, we also learned that Vasari, who was commissioned to remodel the Hall of the 500 between 1560 and 1574 by the Grand Duke Cosimo I of the Medici family, we have at least two instances when he saved masterpieces specifically by placing a brick wall in front of it and leaving a small air gap. +One that we [see] here, Masaccio, the church of Santa Maria Novella in Florence, so we just said, well maybe, Visari has done something like that in the case of this great work of art by Leonardo, since he was a great admirer of Leonardo da Vinci. +And so we built some very sophisticated radio antennas just for probing both walls and searching for an air gap. +And we did find many on the right panel of the east wall, an air gap, and that's where we believe "The Battle of Anghiari," or at least the part that we know has been painted, which is called "The Fight for the Standard," should be located. +Well, from there, unfortunately, in 2004, the project came to a halt. Many political reasons. +So I decided to go back to my alma mater, and, at the University of California, San Diego, and I proposed to open up a research center for engineering sciences for cultural heritage. +And in 2007, we created CISA3 as a research center for cultural heritage, specifically art, architecture and archaeology. So students started to flow in, and we started to build technologies, because that's basically what we also needed in order to move forward and go and do fieldwork. +We came back in the Hall of the 500 in 2011, and this time, with a great group of students, and my colleague, Professor Falko Kuester, who is now the director at CISA3, and we came back just since we knew already where to look for to find out if there was still something left. +Well, we are searching for the highest and highly praised work of art ever achieved by mankind. +As a matter of fact, this is by far the most important commission that Leonardo has ever had, and for doing this great masterpiece, he was named the number one artist influence at the time. +There is a lot of varnish still sitting there, several retouches, and some over cleaning. It becomes very visible. +But also, technology has helped to write new pages of our history, or at least to update pages of our histories. +For example, the "Lady with the Unicorn," another painting by Rafael, well, you see the unicorn. +A lot has been said and written about the unicorn, but if you take an X-ray of the unicorn, it becomes a puppy dog. +So that was a good result. Sometimes, it's not that good, and so, again, authenticity and science could go together and change the way, not attributions being made, but at least lay the ground for a more objective, or, I should rather say, less subjective attribution, as it is done today. +Well, this happens to be the most important painting we have in Italy by Leonardo da Vinci, and look at the wonderful images of faces that nobody has seen for five centuries. Look at these portraits. +They're magnificent. You see Leonardo at work. +You see the geniality of his creation, right directly on the ground layer of the panel, and see this cool thing, finding, I should rather say, an elephant. Because of this elephant, over 70 new images came out, never seen for centuries. +This was an epiphany. We came to understand and to prove that the brown coating that we see today was not done by Leonardo da Vinci, which left us only the other drawing that for five centuries we were not able to see, so thanks only to technology. +Well, the tablet. Well, we thought, well, if we all have this pleasure, this privilege to see all this, to find all these discoveries, what about for everybody else? +So we thought of an augmented reality application using a tablet. Let me show you just simulating what we could be doing, any of us could be doing, in a museum environment. +So let's say that we go to a museum with a tablet, okay? +And we just aim the camera of the tablet to the painting that we are interested to see, like this. +Okay? And I will just click on it, we pause, and now let me turn to you so the moment the image, or, I should say, the camera, has locked in the painting, then the images you just saw up there in the drawing are being loaded. And so, see. +We can, as we said, we can zoom in. Then we can scroll. +Okay? Let's go and find the elephant. +Another concept is the digital clinical chart, which sounds very obvious if we were to talk about real patients, but when we talk about works of art, unfortunately, it's never been tapped as an idea. +Well, we believe, again, that this should be the beginning, the very first step, to do real conservation, and allowing us to really explore and to understand everything related to the state of our conservation, the technique, materials, and also if, when, and why we should restore, or, rather, to intervene on the environment surrounding the painting. +Well, our vision is to rediscover the spirit of the Renaissance, create a new discipline where engineering for cultural heritage is actually a symbol of blending art and science together. +We definitely need a new breed of engineers that will go out and do this kind of work and rediscover for us these values, these cultural values that we badly need, especially today. +And if you want to summarize in one just single word, well, this is what we're trying to do. +We're trying to give a future to our past in order to have a future. +As long as we live a life of curiosity and passion, there is a bit of Leonardo in all of us. Thank you. +Companies are losing control. +What happens on Wall Street no longer stays on Wall Street. +What happens in Vegas ends up on YouTube. Reputations are volatile. Loyalties are fickle. +Management teams seem increasingly disconnected from their staff. A recent survey said that 27 percent of bosses believe their employees are inspired by their firm. +However, in the same survey, only four percent of employees agreed. +Companies are losing control of their customers and their employees. +But are they really? +I'm a marketer, and as a marketer, I know that I've never really been in control. +Your brand is what other people say about you when you're not in the room, the saying goes. +Hyperconnectivity and transparency allow companies to be in that room now, 24/7. +They can listen and join the conversation. +In fact, they have more control over the loss of control than ever before. +They can design for it. But how? +First of all, they can give employees and customers more control. +They can collaborate with them on the creation of ideas, knowledge, content, designs and product. +They can give them more control over pricing, which is what the band Radiohead did with its pay-as-you-like online release of its album "In Rainbows." Buyers could determine the price, but the offer was exclusive, and only stood for a limited period of time. +The album sold more copies than previous releases of the band. +The Danish chocolate company Anthon Berg opened a so-called "generous store" in Copenhagen. +It asked customers to purchase chocolate with the promise of good deeds towards loved ones. +It turned transactions into interactions, and generosity into a currency. +Companies can even give control to hackers. +When Microsoft Kinect came out, the motion-controlled add-on to its Xbox gaming console, it immediately drew the attention of hackers. +Microsoft first fought off the hacks, but then shifted course when it realized that actively supporting the community came with benefits. +The sense of co-ownership, the free publicity, the added value, all helped drive sales. +The ultimate empowerment of customers is to ask them not to buy. +Outdoor clothier Patagonia encouraged prospective buyers to check out eBay for its used products and to resole their shoes before purchasing new ones. +In an even more radical stance against consumerism, the company placed a "Don't Buy This Jacket" advertisement during the peak of shopping season. +It may have jeopardized short-term sales, but it builds lasting, long-term loyalty based on shared values. +Research has shown that giving employees more control over their work makes them happier and more productive. +The Brazilian company Semco Group famously lets employees set their own work schedules and even their salaries. +Hulu and Netflix, among other companies, have open vacation policies. +Companies can give people more control, but they can also give them less control. +Traditional business wisdom holds that trust is earned by predictable behavior, but when everything is consistent and standardized, how do you create meaningful experiences? +Giving people less control might be a wonderful way to counter the abundance of choice and make them happier. +Take the travel service Nextpedition. +Nextpedition turns the trip into a game, with surprising twists and turns along the way. +It does not tell the traveler where she's going until the very last minute, and information is provided just in time. Similarly, Dutch airline KLM launched a surprise campaign, seemingly randomly handing out small gifts to travelers en route to their destination. +U.K.-based Interflora monitored Twitter for users who were having a bad day, and then sent them a free bouquet of flowers. +Is there anything companies can do to make their employees feel less pressed for time? Yes. +Force them to help others. +A recent study suggests that having employees complete occasional altruistic tasks throughout the day increases their sense of overall productivity. +At Frog, the company I work for, we hold internal speed meet sessions that connect old and new employees, helping them get to know each other fast. +By applying a strict process, we give them less control, less choice, but we enable more and richer social interactions. +Companies are the makers of their fortunes, and like all of us, they are utterly exposed to serendipity. +That should make them more humble, more vulnerable and more human. +At the end of the day, as hyperconnectivity and transparency expose companies' behavior in broad daylight, staying true to their true selves is the only sustainable value proposition. +Or as the ballet dancer Alonzo King said, "What's interesting about you is you." +For the true selves of companies to come through, openness is paramount, but radical openness is not a solution, because when everything is open, nothing is open. +"A smile is a door that is half open and half closed," the author Jennifer Egan wrote. +Companies can give their employees and customers more control or less. They can worry about how much openness is good for them, and what needs to stay closed. +Or they can simply smile, and remain open to all possibilities. +Thank you. +I'm here to talk to you about how globalized we are, how globalized we aren't, and why it's important to actually be accurate in making those kinds of assessments. +The other thing I would add is that this is not a new view. +Now clearly, David Livingstone was a little bit ahead of his time, but it does seem useful to ask ourselves, "Just how global are we?" +before we think about where we go from here. +So the best way I've found of trying to get people to take seriously the idea that the world may not be flat, may not even be close to flat, is with some data. +So one of the things I've been doing over the last few years is really compiling data on things that could either happen within national borders or across national borders, and I've looked at the cross-border component as a percentage of the total. +I'm not going to present all the data that I have here today, but let me just give you a few data points. +I'm going to talk a little bit about one kind of information flow, one kind of flow of people, one kind of flow of capital, and, of course, trade in products and services. +So let's start off with plain old telephone service. +Of all the voice-calling minutes in the world last year, what percentage do you think were accounted for by cross-border phone calls? +Pick a percentage in your own mind. +The answer turns out to be two percent. +If you include Internet telephony, you might be able to push this number up to six or seven percent, but it's nowhere near what people tend to estimate. +Or let's turn to people moving across borders. +One particular thing we might look at, in terms of long-term flows of people, is what percentage of the world's population is accounted for by first-generation immigrants? +Again, please pick a percentage. +Turns out to be a little bit higher. +It's actually about three percent. +Or think of investment. Take all the real investment that went on in the world in 2010. +What percentage of that was accounted for by foreign direct investment? +Not quite ten percent. +And then finally, the one statistic that I suspect many of the people in this room have seen: the export-to-GDP ratio. +If you look at the official statistics, they typically indicate a little bit above 30 percent. +However, there's a big problem with the official statistics, in that if, for instance, a Japanese component supplier ships something to China to be put into an iPod, and then the iPod gets shipped to the U.S., that component ends up getting counted multiple times. +So it's very clear that if you look at these numbers or all the other numbers that I talk about in my book, "World 3.0," that we're very, very far from the no-border effect benchmark, which would imply internationalization levels of the order of 85, 90, 95 percent. +So clearly, apocalyptically-minded authors have overstated the case. +But it's not just the apocalyptics, as I think of them, who are prone to this kind of overstatement. +I've also spent some time surveying audiences in different parts of the world on what they actually guess these numbers to be. +Let me share with you the results of a survey that Harvard Business Review was kind enough to run of its readership as to what people's guesses along these dimensions actually were. +So a couple of observations stand out for me from this slide. +First of all, there is a suggestion of some error. +Okay. Second, these are pretty large errors. For four quantities whose average value is less than 10 percent, you have people guessing three, four times that level. +Even though I'm an economist, I find that a pretty large error. +And third, this is not just confined to the readers of the Harvard Business Review. +Especially because, I suspect, some of you may still be a little bit skeptical of the claims, I think it's important to just spend a little bit of time thinking about why we might be prone to globaloney. +A couple of different reasons come to mind. +First of all, there's a real dearth of data in the debate. +And this caused me to scratch my head, because as I went back through his several-hundred-page book, I couldn't find a single figure, chart, table, reference or footnote. +So my point is, I haven't presented a lot of data here to convince you that I'm right, but I would urge you to go away and look for your own data to try and actually assess whether some of these hand-me-down insights that we've been bombarded with actually are correct. +So dearth of data in the debate is one reason. +A second reason has to do with peer pressure. +The perspective was, here is this poor professor. +He's clearly been in a cave for the last 20,000 years. +He really has no idea as to what's actually going on in the world. +So try this out with your friends and acquaintances, if you like. You'll find that it's very cool to talk about the world being one, etc. +If you raise questions about that formulation, you really are considered a bit of an antique. +And then the final reason, which I mention, especially to a TED audience, with some trepidation, has to do with what I call "techno-trances." +And I got this question often enough that I thought I'd better do some research on Facebook. +Because, in some sense, it's the ideal kind of technology to think about. Theoretically, it makes it as easy to form friendships halfway around the world as opposed to right next door. +What percentage of people's friends on Facebook are actually located in countries other than where people we're analyzing are based? +The answer is probably somewhere between 10 to 15 percent. +Non-negligible, so we don't live in an entirely local or national world, but very, very far from the 95 percent level that you would expect, and the reason's very simple. +We don't, or I hope we don't, form friendships at random on Facebook. The technology is overlaid on a pre-existing matrix of relationships that we have, and those relationships are what the technology doesn't quite displace. Those relationships are why we get far fewer than 95 percent of our friends being located in countries other than where we are. +So does all this matter? Or is globaloney just a harmless way of getting people to pay more attention to globalization-related issues? +I want to suggest that actually, globaloney can be very harmful to your health. +First of all, recognizing that the glass is only 10 to 20 percent full is critical to seeing that there might be potential for additional gains from additional integration, whereas if we thought we were already there, there would be no particular point to pushing harder. +It's a little bit like, we wouldn't be having a conference on radical openness if we already thought we were totally open to all the kinds of influences that are being talked about at this conference. +So being accurate about how limited globalization levels are is critical to even being able to notice that there might be room for something more, something that would contribute further to global welfare. +Which brings me to my second point. +Avoiding overstatement is also very helpful because it reduces and in some cases even reverses some of the fears that people have about globalization. +So I actually spend most of my "World 3.0" book working through a litany of market failures and fears that people have that they worry globalization is going to exacerbate. +I'm obviously not going to be able to do that for you today, so let me just present to you two headlines as an illustration of what I have in mind. +Think of France and the current debate about immigration. +When you ask people in France what percentage of the French population is immigrants, the answer is about 24 percent. That's their guess. +Maybe realizing that the number is just eight percent might help cool some of the superheated rhetoric that we see around the immigration issue. +The reassuring thing about this particular survey was, when it was pointed out to people how far their estimates were from the actual data, some of them not all of them seemed to become more willing to consider increases in foreign aid. +So foreign aid is actually a great way of sort of wrapping up here, because if you think about it, what I've been talking about today is this notion -- very uncontroversial amongst economists -- that most things are very home-biased. +"Foreign aid is the most aid to poor people," is about the most home-biased thing you can find. +If you look at the OECD countries and how much they spend per domestic poor person, and compare it with how much they spend per poor person in poor countries, the ratio Branko Milanovic at the World Bank did the calculations turns out to be about 30,000 to one. +Now of course, some of us, if we truly are cosmopolitan, would like to see that ratio being brought down to one-is-to-one. +I'd like to make the suggestion that we don't need to aim for that to make substantial progress from where we are. +If we simply brought that ratio down to 15,000 to one, we would be meeting those aid targets that were agreed at the Rio Summit 20 years ago that the summit that ended last week made no further progress on. +So in summary, while radical openness is great, given how closed we are, even incremental openness could make things dramatically better. Thank you very much. +Once upon a time, the world was a big, dysfunctional family. +It was run by the great and powerful parents, and the people were helpless and hopeless naughty children. +If any of the more rowdier children questioned the authority of the parents, they were scolded. +If they went exploring into the parents' rooms, or even into the secret filing cabinets, they were punished, and told that for their own good they must never go in there again. +Then one day, a man came to town with boxes and boxes of secret documents stolen from the parents' rooms. +"Look what they've been hiding from you," he said. +The children looked and were amazed. +There were maps and minutes from meetings where the parents were slagging each other off. +They behaved just like the children. +And they made mistakes, too, just like the children. +The only difference was, their mistakes were in the secret filing cabinets. +Well, there was a girl in the town, and she didn't think they should be in the secret filing cabinets, or if they were, there ought to be a law to allow the children access. +And so she set about to make it so. +Well, I'm the girl in that story, and the secret documents that I was interested in were located in this building, the British Parliament, and the data that I wanted to get my hands on were the expense receipts of members of Parliament. +I thought this was a basic question to ask in a democracy. It wasn't like I was asking for the code to a nuclear bunker, or anything like that, but the amount of resistance I got from this Freedom of Information request, you would have thought I'd asked something like this. +So I fought for about five years doing this, and it was one of many hundreds of requests that I made, not -- I didn't -- Hey, look, I didn't set out, honestly, to revolutionize the British Parliament. +That was not my intention. I was just making these requests as part of research for my first book. +But it ended up in this very long, protracted legal battle and there I was after five years fighting against Parliament in front of three of Britain's most eminent High Court judges waiting for their ruling about whether or not Parliament had to release this data. +And I've got to tell you, I wasn't that hopeful, because I'd seen the establishment. I thought, it always sticks together. I am out of luck. +Well, guess what? I won. Hooray. Well, that's not exactly the story, because the problem was that Parliament delayed and delayed releasing that data, and then they tried to retrospectively change the law so that it would no longer apply to them. +The transparency law they'd passed earlier that applied to everybody else, they tried to keep it so it didn't apply to them. +So, thank you. Well, I tell you that story because it wasn't unique to Britain. +So we are moving to this democratization of information, and I've been in this field for quite a while. +Slightly embarrassing admission: Even when I was a kid, I used to have these little spy books, and I would, like, see what everybody was doing in my neighborhood and log it down. +They want a say in decisions that are made in their name and with their money. It's this democratization of information that I think is an information enlightenment, and it has many of the same principles of the first Enlightenment. +It's about searching for the truth, not because somebody says it's true, "because I say so." +No, it's about trying to find the truth based on what you can see and what can be tested. +That, in the first Enlightenment, led to questions about the right of kings, the divine right of kings to rule over people, or that women should be subordinate to men, or that the Church was the official word of God. +Obviously the Church weren't very happy about this, and they tried to suppress it, but what they hadn't counted on was technology, and then they had the printing press, which suddenly enabled these ideas to spread cheaply, far and fast, and people would come together in coffee houses, discuss the ideas, plot revolution. +In our day, we have digitization. That strips all the physical mass out of information, so now it's almost zero cost to copy and share information. +Our printing press is the Internet. Our coffee houses are social networks. +And if we're thinking about a finance system, we need a lot of information to take in. It's just not possible for one person to take in the amount, the volume of information, and analyze it to make good decisions. +So that's why we're seeing increasingly this demand for access to information. +In the finance industry, you now have more of a right to know about what's going on, so we have different anti-bribery laws, money regulations, increased corporate disclosure, so you can now track assets across borders. +And it's getting harder to hide assets, tax avoidance, pay inequality. So that's great. We're starting to find out more and more about these systems. +And they're all moving to this central system, this fully connected system, all of them except one. Can you guess which one? +It's the system which underpins all these other systems. +It's the system by which we organize and exercise power, and there I'm talking about politics, because in politics, we're back to this system, this top-down hierarchy. +And how is it possible that the volume of information can be processed that needs to in this system? +Well, it just can't. That's it. +And I think this is largely what's behind the crisis of legitimacy in our different governments right now. +So I've told you a bit about what I did to try and drag Parliament, kicking and screaming, into the 21st century, and I'm just going to give you a couple of examples of what a few other people I know are doing. +So this is a guy called Seb Bacon. He's a computer programmer, and he built a site called Alaveteli, and what it is, it's a Freedom of Information platform. +It zooms it off to the appropriate person, it tells you when the time limit is coming to an end, it keeps track of all the correspondence, it posts it up there, and it becomes an archive of public knowledge. +So that's open-source and it can be used in any country where there is some kind of Freedom of Information law. +So there's a list there of the different countries that have it, and then there's a few more coming on board. +So if any of you out there like the sound of that and have a law like that in your country, I know that Seb would love to hear from you about collaborating and getting that into your country. +This is Birgitta Jnsdttir. She's an Icelandic MP. +And quite an unusual MP. In Iceland, she was one of the protesters who was outside of Parliament when the country's economy collapsed, and then she was elected on a reform mandate, and she's now spearheading this project. +It's the Icelandic Modern Media Initiative, and they've just got funding to make it an international modern media project, and this is taking all of the best laws around the world about freedom of expression, protection of whistleblowers, protection from libel, source protection, and trying to make Iceland a publishing haven. +It's a place where your data can be free, so when we think about, increasingly, how governments want to access user data, what they're trying to do in Iceland is make this safe haven where it can happen. +So this is a website that tries to agglomerate all of those databases into one place so you can start searching for, you know, his relatives, his friends, the head of his security services. +You can try and find out how he's moving out assets from that country. +But again, when it comes to the decisions which are impacting us the most, perhaps, the most important decisions that are being made about war and so forth, again we can't just make a Freedom of Information request. +It's really difficult. So we're still having to rely on illegitimate ways of getting information, through leaks. +So when the Guardian did this investigation about the Afghan War, you know, they can't walk into the Department of Defense and ask for all the information. +You know, they're just not going to get it. +So this came from leaks of tens of thousands of dispatches that were written by American soldiers about the Afghan War, and leaked, and then they're able to do this investigation. +Another rather large investigation is around world diplomacy. +Again, this is all based around leaks, 251,000 U.S. diplomatic cables, and I was involved in this investigation because I got this leak through a leak from a disgruntled WikiLeaker and ended up going to work at the Guardian. +So I can tell you firsthand what it was like to have access to this leak. It was amazing. I mean, it was amazing. +It reminded me of that scene in "The Wizard of Oz." +Do you know the one I mean? Where the little dog Toto runs across to where the wizard [is], and he pulls back, the dog's pulling back the curtain, and -- "Don't look behind the screen. Don't look at the man behind the screen." +It was just like that, because what you started to see is that all of these grand statesmen, these very pompous politicians, they were just like us. +They all bitched about each other. I mean, quite gossipy, those cables. Okay, but I thought it was a very important point for all of us to grasp, these are human beings just like us. They don't have special powers. +They're not magic. They are not our parents. +Beyond that, what I found most fascinating was the level of endemic corruption that I saw across all different countries, and particularly centered around the heart of power, around public officials who were embezzling the public's money for their own personal enrichment, and allowed to do that because of official secrecy. +So I've mentioned WikiLeaks, because surely what could be more open than publishing all the material? +Because that is what Julian Assange did. +He wasn't content with the way the newspapers published it to be safe and legal. He threw it all out there. +That did end up with vulnerable people in Afghanistan being exposed. It also meant that the Belarussian dictator was given a handy list of all the pro-democracy campaigners in that country who had spoken to the U.S. government. +You've got to have skepticism and humility. +Skepticism, because you must always be challenging. +I want to see why do you -- you just say so? That's not good enough. +I want to see the evidence behind why that's so. +And humility because we are all human. We all make mistakes. +And if you don't have skepticism and humility, then it's a really short journey to go from reformer to autocrat, and I think you only have to read "Animal Farm" to get that message about how power corrupts people. +So what is the solution? It is, I believe, to embody within the rule of law rights to information. +At the moment our rights are incredibly weak. +In a lot of countries, we have Official Secrets Acts, including in Britain here. We have an Official Secrets Act with no public interest test. So that means it's a crime, people are punished, quite severely in a lot of cases, for publishing or giving away official information. +Now wouldn't it be amazing, and really, this is what I want all of you to think about, if we had an Official Disclosure Act where officials were punished if they were found to have suppressed or hidden information that was in the public interest? +So that -- yes. Yes! My power pose. I would like us to work towards that. +So it's not all bad news. I mean, there definitely is progress on the line, but I think what we find is that the closer that we get right into the heart of power, the more opaque, closed it becomes. +So it was only just the other week that I heard London's Metropolitan Police Commissioner talking about why the police need access to all of our communications, spying on us without any judicial oversight, and he said it was a matter of life and death. +He actually said that, it was a matter of life and death. +There was no evidence. He presented no evidence of that. +It was just, "Because I say so. +You have to trust me. Take it on faith." +Well, I'm sorry, people, but we are back to the pre-Enlightenment Church, and we need to fight against that. +So he was talking about the law in Britain which is the Communications Data Bill, an absolutely outrageous piece of legislation. +In America, you have the Cyber Intelligence Sharing and Protection Act. +You've got drones now being considered for domestic surveillance. +You have the National Security Agency building the world's giantest spy center. It's just this colossal -- it's five times bigger than the U.S. Capitol, in which they're going to intercept and analyze communications, traffic and personal data to try and figure out who's the troublemaker in society. +Well, to go back to our original story, the parents have panicked. They've locked all the doors. +They've kidded out the house with CCTV cameras. +They're watching all of us. They've dug a basement, and they've built a spy center to try and run algorithms and figure out which ones of us are troublesome, and if any of us complain about that, we're arrested for terrorism. +Well, is that a fairy tale or a living nightmare? +Some fairy tales have happy endings. Some don't. +I think we've all read the Grimms' fairy tales, which are, indeed, very grim. +But the world isn't a fairy tale, and it could be more brutal than we want to acknowledge. +Thank you. +So little Billy goes to school, and he sits down and the teacher says, "What does your father do?" +And little Billy says, "My father plays the piano in an opium den." +So the teacher rings up the parents, and says, "Very shocking story from little Billy today. +Just heard that he claimed that you play the piano in an opium den." +And the father says, "I'm very sorry. Yes, it's true, I lied. +Four hundred years of maturing democracy, colleagues in Parliament who seem to me, as individuals, reasonably impressive, an increasingly educated, energetic, informed population, and yet a deep, deep sense of disappointment. +My colleagues in Parliament include, in my new intake, family doctors, businesspeople, professors, distinguished economists, historians, writers, army officers ranging from colonels down to regimental sergeant majors. +All of them, however, including myself, as we walk underneath those strange stone gargoyles just down the road, feel that we've become less than the sum of our parts, feel as though we have become profoundly diminished. +And this isn't just a problem in Britain. +And this has been true for 30 years, and the handover in 1979, 1980, between one Jamaican leader who was the son of a Rhodes Scholar and a Q.C. to another who'd done an economics doctorate at Harvard, over 800 people were killed in the streets in drug-related violence. +Distinguished academics at the same time argued that democracies had this incredible range of side benefits. +They would bring prosperity, security, overcome sectarian violence, ensure that states would never again harbor terrorists. +Since then, what's happened? +Well, what we've seen is the creation, in places like Iraq and Afghanistan, of democratic systems of government which haven't had any of those side benefits. +In Afghanistan, for example, we haven't just had one election or two elections. We've gone through three elections, presidential and parliamentary. And what do we find? +In Pakistan, in lots of sub-Saharan Africa, again you can see democracy and elections are compatible with corrupt governments, with states that are unstable and dangerous. +And when I have conversations with people, I remember having a conversation, for example, in Iraq, with a community that asked me whether the riot we were seeing in front of us, this was a huge mob ransacking a provincial council building, was a sign of the new democracy. +The same, I felt, was true in almost every single one of the middle and developing countries that I went to, and to some extent the same is true of us. +Well, what is the answer to this? Is the answer to just give up on the idea of democracy? +Well, obviously not. It would be absurd if we were to engage again in the kind of operations we were engaged in, in Iraq and Afghanistan if we were to suddenly find ourselves in a situation in which we were imposing anything other than a democratic system. +Anything else would run contrary to our values, it would run contrary to the wishes of the people on the ground, it would run contrary to our interests. +I remember in Iraq, for example, that we went through a period of feeling that we should delay democracy. +We went through a period of feeling that the lesson learned from Bosnia was that elections held too early enshrined sectarian violence, enshrined extremist parties, so in Iraq in 2003 the decision was made, let's not have elections for two years. Let's invest in voter education. Let's invest in democratization. +The result was that I found stuck outside my office a huge crowd of people, this is actually a photograph taken in Libya but I saw the same scene in Iraq of people standing outside screaming for the elections, and when I went out and said, "What is wrong with the interim provincial council? +What is wrong with the people that we have chosen? +There is a Sunni sheikh, there's a Shiite sheikh, there's the seven -- leaders of the seven major tribes, there's a Christian, there's a Sabian, there are female representatives, there's every political party in this council, what's wrong with the people that we chose?" +The answer came, "The problem isn't the people that you chose. The problem is that you chose them." +I have not met, in Afghanistan, in even the most remote community, anybody who does not want a say in who governs them. +Most remote community, I have never met a villager who does not want a vote. +We need to get away from saying democracy matters because of the other things it brings. +We need to get away from feeling, in the same way, human rights matters because of the other things it brings, or women's rights matters for the other things it brings. +Why should we get away from those arguments? +The point about democracy is not instrumental. +It's not about the things that it brings. +The point about democracy is not that it delivers legitimate, effective, prosperous rule of law. +It's not that it guarantees peace with itself or with its neighbors. +The point about democracy is intrinsic. +Democracy matters because it reflects an idea of equality and an idea of liberty. It reflects an idea of dignity, the dignity of the individual, the idea that each individual should have an equal vote, an equal say, in the formation of their government. +But if we're really to make democracy vigorous again, if we're ready to revivify it, we need to get involved in a new project of the citizens and the politicians. +Democracy is not simply a question of structures. +It is a state of mind. It is an activity. +And part of that activity is honesty. +After I speak to you today, I'm going on a radio program called "Any Questions," and the thing you will have noticed about politicians on these kinds of radio programs is that they never, ever say that they don't know the answer to a question. It doesn't matter what it is. +If you ask about child tax credits, the future of the penguins in the south Antarctic, asked to hold forth on whether or not the developments in Chongqing contribute to sustainable development in carbon capture, and we will have an answer for you. +We need to stop that, to stop pretending to be omniscient beings. +Politicians also need to learn, occasionally, to say that certain things that voters want, certain things that voters have been promised, may be things that we cannot deliver or perhaps that we feel we should not deliver. +And the second thing we should do is understand the genius of our societies. +Our societies have never been so educated, have never been so energized, have never been so healthy, have never known so much, cared so much, or wanted to do so much, and it is a genius of the local. +That can mean different things in different countries. +In Britain, it could mean looking to the French, learning from the French, getting directly elected mayors in place in a French commune system. +In Afghanistan, it could have meant instead of concentrating on the big presidential and parliamentary elections, we should have done what was in the Afghan constitution from the very beginning, which is to get direct local elections going at a district level and elect people's provincial governors. +But for any of these things to work, the honesty in language, the local democracy, it's not just a question of what politicians do. +It's a question of what the citizens do. +For politicians to be honest, the public needs to allow them to be honest, and the media, which mediates between the politicians and the public, needs to allow those politicians to be honest. +If local democracy is to flourish, it is about the active and informed engagement of every citizen. +In other words, if democracy is to be rebuilt, is to become again vigorous and vibrant, it is necessary not just for the public to learn to trust their politicians, but for the politicians to learn to trust the public. +Thank you very much indeed. +Having spent 18 years as a child of the state in children's homes and foster care, you could say that I'm an expert on the subject, and in being an expert, I want to let you know that being an expert does in no way make you right in light of the truth. +If you're in care, legally the government is your parent, loco parentis. +Margaret Thatcher was my mother. Let's not talk about breastfeeding. Harry Potter was a foster child. +All of these great fictional characters, all of them who were hurt by their condition, all of them who spawned thousands of other books and other films, all of them were fostered, adopted or orphaned. +It seems that writers know that the child outside of family reflects on what family truly is more than what it promotes itself to be. +That is, they also use extraordinary skills to deal with extraordinary situations on a daily basis. +How have we not made the connection? +And why have we not made the connection, between How has that happened? between these incredible characters of popular culture and religions, and the fostered, adopted or orphaned child in our midst? It's not our pity that they need. +It's our respect. +It is that simple. +My own mother and I should say this here she same to this country in the late '60s, and she was, you know, she found herself pregnant, as women did in the late '60s. You know what I mean? +They found themselves pregnant. +And she sort of, she had no idea of the context in which she'd landed. +In the 1960s -- I should give you some context -- in the 1960s, if you were pregnant and you were single, you were seen as a threat to the community. +You were separated from your family by the state. +You were separated from your family and placed into mother and baby homes. +You were appointed a social worker. +The adoptive parents were lined up. +It was the primary purpose of the social worker, the aim, to get the woman at her most vulnerable time in her entire life, to sign the adoption papers. +So the adoption papers were signed. +The mother and baby's homes were often run by nuns. +The adoption papers were signed, the child was given to the adoptive parents, and the mother shipped back to her community to say that she'd been on a little break. +A little break. +A little break. +The first secret of shame for a woman for being a woman, "a little break." +The adoption process took, like, a matter of months, so it was a closed shop, you know, sealed deal, an industrious, utilitarian solution: the government, the farmer, the adopting parents, the consumer, the mother, the earth, and the child, the crop. +It's kind of easy to patronize the past, to forego our responsibilities in the present. +What happened then is a direct reflection of what is happening now. Everybody believed themselves to be doing the right thing by God and by the state for the big society, fast-tracking adoption. +So anyway, she comes here, 1967, she's pregnant, and she comes from Ethiopia that was celebrating its own jubilee at the time under the Emperor Haile Selassie, and she lands months before the Enoch Powell speech, the "Rivers of Blood" speech. +She lands months before the Beatles release "The White Album," months before Martin Luther King was killed. +It was a summer of love if you were white. +If you were black, it was a summer of hate. +So she goes from Oxford, she's sent to the north of England to a mother and baby home, and appointed a social worker. +It's her plan. You know, I have to say this in the Houses -- It's her plan to have me fostered for a short period of time while she studies. But the social worker, he had a different agenda. +He found the foster parents, and he said to them, "Treat this as an adoption. He's yours forever. +His name is Norman." Norman! Norman! +So they took me. I was a message, they said. +I was a sign from God, they said. +I was Norman Mark Greenwood. +Now, for the next 11 years, all I know is that this woman, this birth woman, should have her eyes scratched out for not signing the adoption papers. She was an evil woman too selfish to sign, so I spent those 11 years kneeling and praying. +I tried praying. I swear I tried praying. +"God, can I have a bike for Christmas?" +But I would always answer myself, "Yes, of course you can." +And then I was supposed to determine whether that was the voice of God or it was the voice of the Devil. +And it turns out I've got the Devil inside of me. +I was starting to stay out a little bit late, etc., etc. +Now, in their religiosity, in their naivete, my mom and dad, which I believed them to be forever, as they said they were, my mom and dad conceived that I had the Devil inside of me. +And what -- I should say this here, because this is how they engineered my leaving. +They sat me at a table, my foster mom, and she said to me, "You don't love us, do you?" At 11 years old. +They've had three other children. I'm the fourth. The third was an accident. +And I said, "Yeah, of course I do." Because you do. +My foster mother asked me to go away to think about love and what it is and to read the Scriptures and to come back tomorrow and give my most honest and truthful answer. +So this was an opportunity. If they were asking me whether I loved them or not, then I mustn't love them, which led me to the miracle of thought that I thought they wanted me to get to. +"I will ask God for forgiveness and His light will shine through me to them. How fantastic." This was an opportunity. +The theology was perfect, the timing unquestionable, and the answer as honest as a sinner could get. +"I mustn't love you," I said to them. "But I will ask God for forgiveness." +"Because you don't love us, Norman, clearly you've chosen your path." +Twenty-four hours later, my social worker, this strange man who used to visit me every couple of months, he's waiting for me in the car as I say goodbye to my parents. +I didn't say goodbye to anybody, not my mother, my father, my sisters, my brothers, my aunts, my uncles, my cousins, my grandparents, nobody. +On the way to the children's home, I started to ask myself, "What's happened to me?" +It's not that I'd had the rug pulled from beneath me as much as the entire floor had been taken away. +When I got to the For the next four, five years, I was held in four different children's homes. +You couldn't see it from the street, because the home was surrounded by beech trees. +For doing this, I was incarcerated for a year in an assessment center which was actually a remand center. It was a virtual prison for young people. +By the way, years later, my social worker said that I should never have been put in there. +I wasn't charged for anything. I hadn't done anything wrong. +But because I had no family to inquire about me, they could do anything to me. +I'm 17 years old, and they had a padded cell. +They would march me down corridors in last-size order. +They -- I was put in a dormitory with a confirmed Nazi sympathizer. +All of the staff were ex-police -- interesting -- and ex-probation officers. +The man who ran it was an ex-army officer. +Every time I had a visit by a person who I did not know who would feed me grapes, once every three months, I was strip-searched. +That home was full of young boys who were on remand for things like murder. +And this was the preparation that I was being given after 17 years as a child of the state. +I have to tell this story. +I have to tell it, because there was no one to put two and two together. +I slowly became aware that I knew nobody that knew me for longer than a year. +See, that's what family does. +It gives you reference points. +I'm not defining a good family from a bad family. +I'm reporting back. I'm reporting back simply to say that when I left the children's home I had two things that I wanted to do. One was to find my family, and the other was to write poetry. +In creativity I saw light. +In the imagination I saw the endless possibility of life, the endless truth, the permanent creation of reality, the place where anger was an expression in the search for love, a place where dysfunction is a true reaction to untruth. +I've just got to say it to you all: I found all of my family in my adult life. I spent all of my adult life finding them, and I've now got a fully dysfunctional family just like everybody else. +But I'm reporting back to you to say quite simply that you can define how strong a democracy is by how its government treats its child. +I don't mean children. I mean the child of the state. +Thanks very much. It's been an honor. +In the 17th century, a woman named Giulia Tofana had a very successful perfume business. +For over 50 years she ran it. +It sort of ended abruptly when she was executed for murdering 600 men. You see, it wasn't a very good perfume. +In fact, it was completely odorless and tasteless and colorless, but as a poison, it was the best money could buy, so women flocked to her in order to murder their husbands. +It turns out that poisoners were a valued and feared group, because poisoning a human being is a quite difficult thing. +The reason is, we have sort of a built-in poison detector. +You can see this as early as even in newborn infants. +If you are willing to do this, you can take a couple of drops of a bitter substance or a sour substance, and you'll see that face, the tongue stick out, the wrinkled nose, as if they're trying to get rid of what's in their mouth. +This reaction expands into adulthood and becomes sort of a full-blown disgust response, no longer just about whether or not we're about to be poisoned, but whenever there's a threat of physical contamination from some source. But the face remains strikingly similar. +It has expanded more, though, than just keeping us away from physical contaminants, and there's a growing body of evidence to suggest that, in fact, this emotion of disgust now influences our moral beliefs and even our deeply held political intuitions. +Why this might be the case? +We can understand this process by understanding a little bit about emotions in general. So the basic human emotions, those kinds of emotions that we share with all other human beings, exist because they motivate us to do good things and they keep us away from doing bad things. +So by and large, they are good for our survival. +Take the emotion of fear, for instance. It keeps us away from doing things that are really, really risky. +This photo taken just before his death is actually a No, one reason this photo is interesting is because most people would not do this, and if they did, they would not live to tell it, because fear would have kicked in a long time ago to a natural predator. +Just like fear offers us protective benefits, disgust seems to do the same thing, except for what disgust does is keeps us away from not things that might eat us, or heights, but rather things that might poison us, or give us disease and make us sick. +So one of the features of disgust that makes it such an interesting emotion is that it's very, very easy to elicit, in fact more so than probably any of the other basic emotions, and so I'm going to show you that with a couple of images I can probably make you feel disgust. +So turn away. I'll tell you when you can turn back. +I mean, you see it every day, right? I mean, come on. (Audience: Ewww.) Okay, turn back, if you didn't look. +Those probably made a lot of you in the audience feel very, very disgusted, but if you didn't look, I can tell you about some of the other things that have been shown sort of across the world to make people disgusted, things like feces, urine, blood, rotten flesh. +These are the sorts of things that it makes sense for us to stay away from, because they might actually contaminate us. +In fact, just having a diseased appearance or odd sexual acts, these things are also things that give us a lot of disgust. +Darwin was probably one of the first scientists to systematically investigate the human emotions, and he pointed to the universal nature and the strength of the disgust response. +This is an anecdote from his travels in South America. +"In Tierro del Fuego a native touched with his finger some cold preserved meat while I was eating ... +and plainly showed disgust at its softness, whilst I felt utter disgust at my food being touched by a naked savage though his hands did not appear dirty." +He later wrote, "It's okay, some of my best friends are naked savages." Well it turns out it's not only old-timey British scientists who are this squeamish. I recently got a chance to talk to Richard Dawkins for a documentary, and I was able to disgust him a bunch of times. Here's my favorite. +Richard Dawkins: "We've evolved around courtship and sex, are attached to deep-rooted emotions and reactions that are hard to jettison overnight." +David Pizarro: So my favorite part of this clip is that Professor Dawkins actually gagged. +He jumps back, and he gags, and we had to do it three times, and all three times he gagged. And he was really gagging. I thought he might throw up on me, actually. +One of the features, though, of disgust, is not just its universality and its strength, but the way that it works through association. +So when one disgusting thing touches a clean thing, that clean thing becomes disgusting, not the other way around. +This makes it very useful as a strategy if you want to convince somebody that an object or an individual or an entire social group is disgusting and should be avoided. +The philosopher Martha Nussbaum points this out in this quote: "Thus throughout history, certain disgust properties -- sliminess, bad smell, stickiness, decay, foulness -- have been repeatedly and monotonously been associated with ... +Jews, women, homosexuals, untouchables, lower-class people -- all of those are imagined as tainted by the dirt of the body." +Let me give you just some examples of how, some powerful examples of how this has been used historically. +This comes from a Nazi children's book published in 1938: "Just look at these guys! The louse-infested beards, the filthy, protruding ears, those stained, fatty clothes... +Jews often have an unpleasant sweetish odor. +If you have a good nose, you can smell the Jews." +A more modern example comes from people who try to convince us that homosexuality is immoral. +This is from an anti-gay website, where they said gays are "worthy of death for their vile ... sex practices." +They're like "dogs eating their own vomit and sows wallowing in their own feces." +These are disgust properties that are trying to be directly linked to the social group that you should not like. +When we were first investigating the role of disgust in moral judgment, one of the things we became interested in was whether or not these sorts of appeals are more likely to work in individuals who are more easily disgusted. +So while disgust, along with the other basic emotions, are universal phenomena, it just really is true that some people are easier to disgust than others. +You could probably see it in the audience members when I showed you those disgusting images. +The way that we measured this was by a scale that was constructed by some other psychologists that simply asked people across a wide variety of situations how likely they are to feel disgust. +So here are a couple of examples. +"Even if I were hungry, I would not drink a bowl of my favorite soup if it had been stirred by a used but thoroughly washed fly-swatter." +"Do you agree or disagree?" "While you are walking through a tunnel under a railroad track, you smell urine. Would you be very disgusted or not at all disgusted?" +If you ask enough of these, you can get a general overall score of disgust sensitivity. +It turns out that this score is actually meaningful. +This data set also allowed us to statistically control for a number of things that we knew were both related to political orientation and to disgust sensitivity. +So we were able to control for gender, age, income, education, even basic personality variables, and the result stays the same. +When we actually looked at not just self-reported political orientation, but voting behavior, we were able to look geographically across the nation. What we found was that in regions in which people reported high levels of disgust sensitivity, McCain got more votes. +So it not only predicted self-reported political orientation, but actual voting behavior. And also we were able, with this sample, to look across the world, in 121 different countries we asked the same questions, and as you can see, this is 121 countries collapsed into 10 different geographical regions. +No matter where you look, what this is plotting is the size of the relationship between disgust sensitivity and political orientation, and no matter where we looked, we saw a very similar effect. +Other labs have actually looked at this as well using different measures of disgust sensitivity, so rather than asking people how easily disgusted they are, they hook people up to physiological measures, in this case skin conductance. +And what they've demonstrated is that people who report being more politically conservative are also more physiologically aroused when you show them disgusting images like the ones that I showed you. +So physiological arousal predicted, in this study, attitudes toward gay marriage. +But even with all these data linking disgust sensitivity and political orientation, one of the questions that remains is what is the causal link here? Is it the case that disgust really is shaping political and moral beliefs? +So this is whether you use a foul odor, a bad taste, from film clips, from post-hypnotic suggestions of disgust, images like the ones I've shown you, even just reminding people that disease is prevalent and they should be wary of it and wash up, right, to keep clean, these all have similar effects on judgment. +Let me just give you an example from a recent study that we conducted. We asked participants to just simply give us their opinion of a variety of social groups, and we either made the room smell gross or not. +When the room smelled gross, what we saw was that individuals actually reported more negative attitudes toward gay men. +Disgust didn't influence attitudes toward all the other social groups that we asked, including African-Americans, the elderly. It really came down to the attitudes they had toward gay men. +In another set of studies we actually simply reminded people -- this was at a time when the swine flu was going around -- we reminded people that in order to prevent the spread of the flu that they ought to wash their hands. +For some participants, we actually had them take questionnaires next to a sign that reminded them to wash their hands. +And what we found was that just taking a questionnaire next to this hand-sanitizing reminder made individuals report being more politically conservative. +And when we asked them a variety of questions about the rightness or wrongness of certain acts, what we also found was that simply being reminded that they ought to wash their hands made them more morally conservative. +In particular, when we asked them questions about sort of taboo but fairly harmless sexual practices, just being reminded that they ought to wash their hands made them think that they were more morally wrong. +Let me give you an example of what I mean by harmless but taboo sexual practice. We gave them scenarios. +One of them said a man is house-sitting for his grandmother. +When his grandmother's away, he has sex with his girlfriend on his grandma's bed. +They not only motivate you to behave in certain ways, but they change the way you think. +In the case of disgust, what is a little bit more surprising is the scope of this influence. It makes perfect sense, and it's a very good emotion for us to have, that disgust would make me change the way that I perceive the physical world whenever contamination is possible. +It makes less sense that an emotion that was built to prevent me from ingesting poison should predict who I'm going to vote for in the upcoming presidential election. +The question of whether disgust ought to influence our moral and political judgments certainly has to be complex, and might depend on exactly what judgments we're talking about, and as a scientist, we have to conclude sometimes that the scientific method is just ill-equipped to answer these sorts of questions. +But one thing that I am fairly certain about is, at the very least, what we can do with this research is point to what questions we ought to ask in the first place. +Thank you. +I was one of those kids that, every time I got in the car, I basically had to roll down the window. +It was usually too hot, too stuffy or just too smelly, and my father would not let us use the air conditioner. +He said that it would overheat the engine. +And you might remember, some of you, how the cars were back then, and it was a common problem of overheating. +But it was also the signal that capped the use, or overuse, of energy-consuming devices. +Things have changed now. We have cars that we take across country. +We blast the air conditioning the entire way, and we never experience overheating. +So there's no more signal for us to tell us to stop. +Great, right? Well, we have similar problems in buildings. +In the past, before air conditioning, we had thick walls. +The thick walls are great for insulation. It keeps the interior very cool during the summertime, and warm during the wintertime, and the small windows were also very good because it limited the amount of temperature transfer between the interior and exterior. +Then in about the 1930s, with the advent of plate glass, rolled steel and mass production, we were able to make floor-to-ceiling windows and unobstructed views, and with that came the irreversible reliance on mechanical air conditioning to cool our solar-heated spaces. +Over time, the buildings got taller and bigger, our engineering even better, so that the mechanical systems were massive. They require a huge amount of energy. +Even worse, with our intention of trying to make buildings move towards a net-zero energy state, we can't do it just by making mechanical systems more and more efficient. +We need to look for something else, and we've gotten ourselves a little bit into a rut. +So what do we do here? How do we pull ourselves and dig us out of this hole that we've dug? +If we look at biology, and many of you probably don't know, I was a biology major before I went into architecture, the human skin is the organ that naturally regulates the temperature in the body, and it's a fantastic thing. +That's the first line of defense for the body. +It has pores, it has sweat glands, it has all these things that work together very dynamically and very efficiently, and so what I propose is that our building skins should be more similar to human skin, and by doing so can be much more dynamic, responsive and differentiated, depending on where it is. +And this gets me back to my research. +What I proposed first doing is looking at a different material palette to do that. +I presently, or currently, work with smart materials, and a smart thermo-bimetal. +First of all, I guess we call it smart because it requires no controls and it requires no energy, and that's a very big deal for architecture. +What it is, it's a lamination of two different metals together. +You can see that here by the different reflection on this side. +And because it has two different coefficients of expansion, when heated, one side will expand faster than the other and result in a curling action. +You can see here in this time-lapse video that the sun, as it moves across the surface, as well as the shade, each of the tiles moves individually. +Keep in mind, with the digital technology that we have today, this thing was made out of about 14,000 pieces and there's no two pieces alike at all. Every single one is different. +And the great thing with that is the fact that we can calibrate each one to be very, very specific to its location, to the angle of the sun, and also how the thing actually curls. +So this kind of proof of concept project has a lot of implications to actual future application in architecture, and in this case, here you see a house, that's for a developer in China, and it's actually a four-story glass box. +It's still with that glass box because we still want that visual access, but now it's sheathed with this thermo-bimetal layer, it's a screen that goes around it, and that layer can actually open and close as that sun moves around on that surface. +In addition to that, it can also screen areas for privacy, so that it can differentiate from some of the public areas in the space during different times of day. +And what it basically implies is that, in houses now, we don't need drapes or shutters or blinds anymore because we can sheath the building with these things, as well as control the amount of air conditioning you need inside that building. +And so you can imagine, even in this application, that in a high-rise building where the panel systems go from floor to floor up to 30, 40 floors, the entire surface could be differentiated at different times of day depending on how that sun moves across and hits that surface. +And these are some later studies that I'm working on right now that are on the boards, where you can see, in the bottom right-hand corner, with the red, it's actually smaller pieces of thermometal, and it's actually going to, we're trying to make it move like cilia or eyelashes. +This last project is also of components. +The influence -- and if you have noticed, one of my spheres of influence is biology -- is from a grasshopper. +And grasshoppers have a different kind of breathing system. +They breathe through holes in their sides called spiracles, and they bring the air through and it moves through their system to cool them down, and so in this project, I'm trying to look at how we can consider that in architecture too, how we can bring air through holes in the sides of a building. +And so you see here some early studies of blocks, where those holes are actually coming through, and this is before the thermo-bimetal is applied, and this is after the bimetal is applied. Sorry, it's a little hard to see, but on the surfaces, you can see these red arrows. +So I want to leave you with one last impression about the project, or this kind of work and using smart materials. +When you're tired of opening and closing those blinds day after day, when you're on vacation and there's no one there on the weekends to be turning off and on the controls, or when there's a power outage, and you have no electricity to rely on, these thermo-bimetals will still be working tirelessly, efficiently and endlessly. Thank you. +I grew up in Bihar, India's poorest state, and I remember when I was six years old, I remember coming home one day to find a cart full of the most delicious sweets at our doorstep. +My brothers and I dug in, and that's when my father came home. +He was livid, and I still remember how we cried when that cart with our half-eaten sweets was pulled away from us. +Later, I understood why my father got so upset. +Those sweets were a bribe from a contractor who was trying to get my father to award him a government contract. +My father was responsible for building roads in Bihar, and he had developed a firm stance against corruption, even though he was harassed and threatened. +His was a lonely struggle, because Bihar was also India's most corrupt state, where public officials were enriching themselves, [rather] than serving the poor who had no means to express their anguish if their children had no food or no schooling. +And I experienced this most viscerally when I traveled to remote villages to study poverty. +And as I went village to village, I remember one day, when I was famished and exhausted, and I was almost collapsing in a scorching heat under a tree, and just at that time, one of the poorest men in that village invited me into his hut and graciously fed me. +Only I later realized that what he fed me was food for his entire family for two days. +This profound gift of generosity challenged and changed the very purpose of my life. +I resolved to give back. +Later, I joined the World Bank, which sought to fight such poverty by transferring aid from rich to poor countries. +My initial work focused on Uganda, where I focused on negotiating reforms with the Finance Ministry of Uganda so they could access our loans. +But after we disbursed the loans, I remember a trip in Uganda where I found newly built schools without textbooks or teachers, new health clinics without drugs, and the poor once again without any voice or recourse. +It was Bihar all over again. +Bihar represents the challenge of development: abject poverty surrounded by corruption. +And that traditional approach to development had three key elements. First, transfer of resources from rich countries in the North to poorer countries in the South, accompanied by reform prescriptions. +Second, the development institutions that channeled these transfers were opaque, with little transparency of what they financed or what results they achieved. +And third, the engagement in developing countries was with a narrow set of government elites with little interaction with the citizens, who are the ultimate beneficiaries of development assistance. +Today, each of these elements is opening up due to dramatic changes in the global environment. +Open knowledge, open aid, open governance, and together, they represent three key shifts that are transforming development and that also hold greater hope for the problems I witnessed in Uganda and in Bihar. +The first key shift is open knowledge. +You know, developing countries today will not simply accept solutions that are handed down to them by the U.S., Europe or the World Bank. +They get their inspiration, their hope, their practical know-how, from successful emerging economies in the South. +They want to know how China lifted 500 million people out of poverty in 30 years, how Mexico's Oportunidades program improved schooling and nutrition for millions of children. +This is the new ecosystem of open-knowledge flows, not just traveling North to South, but South to South, and even South to North, with Mexico's Oportunidades today inspiring New York City. +And just as these North-to-South transfers are opening up, so too are the development institutions that channeled these transfers. +This is the second shift: open aid. +Recently, the World Bank opened its vault of data for public use, releasing 8,000 economic and social indicators for 200 countries over 50 years, and it launched a global competition to crowdsource innovative apps using this data. +Development institutions today are also opening for public scrutiny the projects they finance. +Take GeoMapping. In this map from Kenya, the red dots show where all the schools financed by donors are located, and the darker the shade of green, the more the number of out-of-school children. +So this simple mashup reveals that donors have not financed any schools in the areas with the most out-of-school children, provoking new questions. Is development assistance targeting those who most need our help? +In this manner, the World Bank has now GeoMapped 30,000 project activities in 143 countries, and donors are using a common platform to map all their projects. +This is a tremendous leap forward in transparency and accountability of aid. +And this leads me to the third, and in my view, the most significant shift in development: open governance. Governments today are opening up just as citizens are demanding voice and accountability. +From the Arab Spring to the Anna Hazare movement in India, using mobile phones and social media not just for political accountability but also for development accountability. +Are governments delivering services to the citizens? +So for instance, several governments in Africa and Eastern Europe are opening their budgets to the public. +But, you know, there is a big difference between a budget that's public and a budget that's accessible. +This is a public budget. And as you can see, it's not really accessible or understandable to an ordinary citizen that is trying to understand how the government is spending its resources. +To tackle this problem, governments are using new tools to visualize the budget so it's more understandable to the public. +In this map from Moldova, the green color shows those districts that have low spending on schools but good educational outcomes, and the red color shows the opposite. +Tools like this help turn a shelf full of inscrutable documents into a publicly understandable visual, and what's exciting is that with this openness, there are today new opportunities for citizens to give feedback and engage with government. +So in the Philippines today, parents and students can give real-time feedback on a website, Checkmyschool.org, or using SMS, whether teachers and textbooks are showing up in school, the same problems I witnessed in Uganda and in Bihar. +And the government is responsive. So for instance, when it was reported on this website that 800 students were at risk because school repairs had stalled due to corruption, the Department of Education in the Philippines took swift action. +And you know what's exciting is that this innovation is now spreading South to South, from the Philippines to Indonesia, Kenya, Moldova and beyond. +In Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, even an impoverished community was able to use these tools to voice its aspirations. +This is what the map of Tandale looked like in August, 2011. But within a few weeks, university students were able to use mobile phones and an open-source platform to dramatically map the entire community infrastructure. +And what is very exciting is that citizens were then able to give feedback as to which health or water points were not working, aggregated in the red bubbles that you see, which together provides a graphic visual of the collective voices of the poor. +Today, even Bihar is turning around and opening up under a committed leadership that is making government transparent, accessible and responsive to the poor. +But, you know, in many parts of the world, governments are not interested in opening up or in serving the poor, and it is a real challenge for those who want to change the system. +These are the lonely warriors like my father and many, many others, and a key frontier of development work is to help these lonely warriors join hands so they can together overcome the odds. +So for instance, today, in Ghana, courageous reformers from civil society, Parliament and government, have forged a coalition for transparent contracts in the oil sector, and, galvanized by this, reformers in Parliament are now investigating dubious contracts. +These examples give new hope, new possibility to the problems I witnessed in Uganda or that my father confronted in Bihar. +Two years ago, on April 8th, 2010, I called my father. +It was very late at night, and at age 80, he was typing a 70-page public interest litigation against corruption in a road project. +Though he was no lawyer, he argued the case in court himself the next day. He won the ruling, but later that very evening, he fell, and he died. +He fought till the end, increasingly passionate that to combat corruption and poverty, not only did government officials need to be honest, but citizens needed to join together to make their voices heard. +These became the two bookends of his life, and the journey he traveled in between mirrored the changing development landscape. +Today, I'm inspired by these changes, and I'm excited that at the World Bank, we are embracing these new directions, a significant departure from my work in Uganda 20 years ago. +We need to radically open up development so knowledge flows in multiple directions, inspiring practitioners, so aid becomes transparent, accountable and effective, so governments open up and citizens are engaged and empowered with reformers in government. +We need to accelerate these shifts. +If we do, we will find that the collective voices of the poor will be heard in Bihar, in Uganda, and beyond. +We will find that textbooks and teachers will show up in schools for their children. +We will find that these children, too, have a real chance of breaking their way out of poverty. +Thank you. +Across Europe and Central Asia, approximately one million children live in large residential institutions, usually known as orphanages. +Most people imagine orphanages as a benign environment that care for children. +Others know more about the living conditions there, but still think they're a necessary evil. +After all, where else would we put all of those children who don't have any parents? +But 60 years of research has demonstrated that separating children from their families and placing them in large institutions seriously harms their health and development, and this is particularly true for young babies. +As we know, babies are born without their full muscle development, and that includes the brain. +During the first three years of life, the brain grows to its full size, with most of that growth taking place in the first six months. The brain develops in response to experience and to stimulation. +Every time a young baby learns something new -- to focus its eyes, to mimic a movement or a facial expression, to pick something up, to form a word or to sit up -- new synaptic connections are being built in the brain. +New parents are astonished by the rapidity of this learning. +They are quite rightly amazed and delighted by their children's cleverness. +They communicate their delight to their children, who respond with smiles, and a desire to achieve more and to learn more. +This forming of the powerful attachment between child and parent provides the building blocks for physical, social, language, cognitive and psychomotor development. +It is the model for all future relationships with friends, with partners and with their own children. +It happens so naturally in most families that we don't even notice it. Most of us are unaware of its importance to human development and, by extension, to the development of a healthy society. +And it's only when it goes wrong that we start to realize the importance of families to children. +In August, 1993, I had my first opportunity to witness on a massive scale the impact on children of institutionalization and the absence of parenting. +Those of us who remember the newspaper reports that came out of Romania after the 1989 revolution will recall the horrors of the conditions in some of those institutions. +I was asked to help the director of a large institution to help prevent the separation of children from their families. +Housing 550 babies, this was Ceausescu's show orphanage, and so I'd been told the conditions were much better. +Having worked with lots of young children, I expected the institution to be a riot of noise, but it was as silent as a convent. +It was hard to believe there were any children there at all, yet the director showed me into room after room, each containing row upon row of cots, in each of which lay a child staring into space. +In a room of 40 newborns, not one of them was crying. +Yet I could see soiled nappies, and I could see that some of the children were distressed, but the only noise was a low, continuous moan. +The head nurse told me proudly, "You see, our children are very well-behaved." +Over the next few days, I began to realize that this quietness was not exceptional. +The newly admitted babies would cry for the first few hours, but their demands were not met, and so eventually they learned not to bother. Within a few days, they were listless, lethargic, and staring into space like all the others. +Over the years, many people and news reports have blamed the personnel in the institutions for the harm caused to the children, but often, one member of staff is caring for 10, 20, and even 40 children. +Hence they have no option but to implement a regimented program. +The children must be woken at 7 and fed at 7:30. +At 8, their nappies must be changed, so a staff member may have only 30 minutes to feed 10 or 20 children. +If a child soils its nappy at 8:30, he will have to wait several hours before it can be changed again. +The child's daily contact with another human being is reduced to a few hurried minutes of feeding and changing, and otherwise their only stimulation is the ceiling, the walls or the bars of their cots. +Since my first visit to Ceausescu's institution, I've seen hundreds of such places across 18 countries, from the Czech Republic to Sudan. +Across all of these diverse lands and cultures, the institutions, and the child's journey through them, is depressingly similar. +Lack of stimulation often leads to self-stimulating behaviors like hand-flapping, rocking back and forth, or aggression, and in some institutions, psychiatric drugs are used to control the behavior of these children, whilst in others, children are tied up to prevent them from harming themselves or others. +These children are quickly labeled as having disabilities and transferred to another institution for children with disabilities. +Most of these children will never leave the institution again. +For those without disabilities, at age three, they're transferred to another institution, and at age seven, to yet another. Segregated according to age and gender, they are arbitrarily separated from their siblings, often without even a chance to say goodbye. +There's rarely enough to eat. They are often hungry. +The older children bully the little ones. They learn to survive. They learn to defend themselves, or they go under. +When they leave the institution, they find it really difficult to cope and to integrate into society. +In Moldova, young women raised in institutions are 10 times more likely to be trafficked than their peers, and a Russian study found that two years after leaving institutions, young adults, 20 percent of them had a criminal record, 14 percent were involved in prostitution, and 10 percent had taken their own lives. +But why are there so many orphans in Europe when there hasn't been a great deal of war or disaster in recent years? +In fact, more than 95 percent of these children have living parents, and societies tend to blame these parents for abandoning these children, but research shows that most parents want their children, and that the primary drivers behind institutionalization are poverty, disability and ethnicity. +Many countries have not developed inclusive schools, and so even children with a very mild disability are sent away to a residential special school, at age six or seven. +The institution may be hundreds of miles away from the family home. +If the family's poor, they find it difficult to visit, and gradually the relationship breaks down. +This state of affairs is neither necessary nor is it inevitable. +Every child has the right to a family, deserves and needs a family, and children are amazingly resilient. +We find that if we get them out of institutions and into loving families early on, they recover their developmental delays, and go on to lead normal, happy lives. +It's also much cheaper to provide support to families than it is to provide institutions. +One study suggests that a family support service costs 10 percent of an institutional placement, whilst good quality foster care costs usually about 30 percent. +If we spend less on these children but on the right services, we can take the savings and reinvest them in high quality residential care for those few children with extremely complex needs. +Now, there are less than 10,000, and family support services are provided across the country. +In Moldova, despite extreme poverty and the terrible effects of the global financial crisis, the numbers of children in institutions has reduced by more than 50 percent in the last five years, and the resources are being redistributed to family support services and inclusive schools. +Many countries have developed national action plans for change. +The European Commission and other major donors are finding ways to divert money from institutions towards family support, empowering communities to look after their own children. +But there is still much to be done to end the systematic institutionalization of children. +Awareness-raising is required at every level of society. +People need to know the harm that institutions cause to children, and the better alternatives that exist. +If we know people who are planning to support orphanages, we should convince them to support family services instead. +Together, this is the one form of child abuse that we could eradicate in our lifetime. +Thank you. +Good morning. So magic is an excellent way for staying ahead of the reality curve, to make possible today what science will make a reality tomorrow. +As a cyber-magician, I combine elements of illusion and science to give us a feel of how future technologies might be experienced. +You've probably all heard of Google's Project Glass. +It's new technology. You look through them and the world you see is augmented with data: names of places, monuments, buildings, maybe one day even the names of the strangers that pass you on the street. +So these are my illusion glasses. +They're a little bigger. They're a prototype. +And when you look through them, you get a glimpse into the mind of the cyber-illusionist. +Let me show you what I mean. +All we need is a playing card. Any card will do. +Like this. And let me mark it so we can recognize it when we see it again. +All right. Very significant mark. +And let's put it back into the deck, somewhere in the middle, and let's get started. +Voice: System ready. Acquiring image. +Marco Tempest: For those of you who don't play cards, a deck of cards is made up of four different suits: hearts, clubs, diamonds and spades. +The cards are amongst the oldest of symbols, and have been interpreted in many different ways. +Now, some say that the four suits represent the four seasons. +There's spring, summer, autumn and Voice: My favorite season is winter.MT: Well yeah, mine too. +Winter is like magic. It's a time of change, when warmth turns to cold, water turns to snow, and then it all disappears. +There are 13 cards in each suit. Voice: Each card represents a phase of the 13 lunar cycles. +MT: So over here is low tide, and over here is high tide, and in the middle is the moon. +Voice: The moon is one of the most potent symbols of magic. +MT: There are two colors in a deck of cards. +There is the color red and the color black, representing the constant change from day to night. +Voice: Marco, I did not know you could do that. MT: And is it a coincidence that there are 52 cards in a deck of cards, just as there are 52 weeks in a year? +Voice: If you total all the spots on a deck of cards, the result is 365. +MT: Oh, 365, the number of days in a year, the number of days between each birthday. +Make a wish. (Blowing noise) Voice: Don't tell, or it won't come true. +MT: Well, as a matter of fact, it was on my sixth birthday that I received my first deck of cards, and ever since that day, I have traveled around the world performing magic for boys and girls, men and women, husbands and wives, even kings and queens. Voice: And who are these?MT: Ah, mischief-makers. Watch. +Wake up. +Joker: Whoa.MT: Are you ready for your party piece? +Joker: Ready!MT: Let me see what you've got. +Joker: Presenting my pogo stick.MT: Ah. Watch out. +Joker: Whoa, whoa, whoa, oh! MT: But today, I am performing for a different kind of audience. +I'm performing for you. +Voice: Signed card detected.MT: Well, sometimes people ask me how do you become a magician? Is it a 9-to-5 job? +Of course not! You've got to practice 24/7. +I don't literally mean 24 hours, seven days a week. +24/7 is a little bit of an exaggeration, but it does take practice. Now, some people will say, well, magic, that must be the work of some evil supernatural force. Whoa. +Well, to this, I just say, no no. +Actually, in German, it's nein nein. Magic isn't that intense. I have to warn you, though, if you ever play with someone who deals cards like this, don't play for money. +Voice: Why not? That's a very good hand. +The odds of getting it are 4,165 to one. +MT: Yeah, but I guess my hand is better. We beat the odds. +Voice: I think you got your birthday wish.MT: And that actually leaves me with the last, and most important card of all: the one with this very significant mark on it. +And unlike anything else we've just seen, virtual or not.Voice: Signed card detected. +Digital MT: This is without a question the real thing. +MT: Bye bye. Thank you. Thank you very much. +I was one of the only kids in college who had a reason to go to the P.O. box at the end of the day, and that was mainly because my mother has never believed in email, in Facebook, in texting or cell phones in general. +And so while other kids were BBM-ing their parents, I was literally waiting by the mailbox to get a letter from home to see how the weekend had gone, which was a little frustrating when Grandma was in the hospital, but I was just looking for some sort of scribble, some unkempt cursive from my mother. +And so when I moved to New York City after college and got completely sucker-punched in the face by depression, I did the only thing I could think of at the time. +I wrote those same kinds of letters that my mother had written me for strangers, and tucked them all throughout the city, dozens and dozens of them. I left them everywhere, in cafes and in libraries, at the U.N., everywhere. +I blogged about those letters and the days when they were necessary, and I posed a kind of crazy promise to the Internet: that if you asked me for a hand-written letter, I would write you one, no questions asked. +Overnight, my inbox morphed into this harbor of heartbreak -- a single mother in Sacramento, a girl being bullied in rural Kansas, all asking me, a 22-year-old girl who barely even knew her own coffee order, to write them a love letter and give them a reason to wait by the mailbox. +But, you know, the thing that always gets me about these letters is that most of them have been written by people that have never known themselves loved on a piece of paper. +They could not tell you about the ink of their own love letters. +They're the ones from my generation, the ones of us that have grown up into a world where everything is paperless, and where some of our best conversations have happened upon a screen. +We have learned to diary our pain onto Facebook, and we speak swiftly in 140 characters or less. +But what if it's not about efficiency this time? +I was on the subway yesterday with this mail crate, which is a conversation starter, let me tell you. +If you ever need one, just carry one of these. And a man just stared at me, and he was like, "Well, why don't you use the Internet?" +And I thought, "Well, sir, I am not a strategist, nor am I specialist. I am merely a storyteller." +And so I could tell you about a woman whose husband has just come home from Afghanistan, and she is having a hard time unearthing this thing called conversation, and so she tucks love letters throughout the house as a way to say, "Come back to me. +Find me when you can." +Or a girl who decides that she is going to leave love letters around her campus in Dubuque, Iowa, only to find her efforts ripple-effected the next day when she walks out onto the quad and finds love letters hanging from the trees, tucked in the bushes and the benches. +Or the man who decides that he is going to take his life, uses Facebook as a way to say goodbye to friends and family. +Well, tonight he sleeps safely with a stack of letters just like this one tucked beneath his pillow, scripted by strangers who were there for him when. +These are the kinds of stories that convinced me that letter-writing will never again need to flip back her hair and talk about efficiency, because she is an art form now, all the parts of her, the signing, the scripting, the mailing, the doodles in the margins. +We still clutch close these letters to our chest, to the words that speak louder than loud, when we turn pages into palettes to say the things that we have needed to say, the words that we have needed to write, to sisters and brothers and even to strangers, for far too long. +Thank you. +So I want to talk a little bit about seeing the world from a totally unique point of view, and this world I'm going to talk about is the micro world. +I've found, after doing this for many, many years, that there's a magical world behind reality. +And that can be seen directly through a microscope, and I'm going to show you some of this today. +So let's start off looking at something rather not-so-small, something that we can see with our naked eye, and that's a bee. So when you look at this bee, it's about this size here, it's about a centimeter. +But to really see the details of the bee, and really appreciate what it is, you have to look a little bit closer. +So that's just the eye of the bee with a microscope, and now all of a sudden you can see that the bee has thousands of individual eyes called ommatidia, and they actually have sensory hairs in their eyes so they know when they're right up close to something, because they can't see in stereo. +As we go smaller, here is a human hair. +A human hair is about the smallest thing that the eye can see. +It's about a tenth of a millimeter. +And as we go smaller again, about ten times smaller than that, is a cell. +So you could fit 10 human cells across the diameter of a human hair. +So when we would look at cells, this is how I really got involved in biology and science is by looking at living cells in the microscope. +When I first saw living cells in a microscope, I was absolutely enthralled and amazed at what they looked like. +So if you look at the cell like that from the immune system, they're actually moving all over the place. +This cell is looking for foreign objects, bacteria, things that it can find. +And it's looking around, and when it finds something, and recognizes it being foreign, it will actually engulf it and eat it. +So if you look right there, it finds that little bacterium, and it engulfs it and eats it. +If you take some heart cells from an animal, and put it in a dish, they'll just sit there and beat. +That's their job. Every cell has a mission in life, and these cells, the mission is to move blood around our body. +These next cells are nerve cells, and right now, as we see and understand what we're looking at, our brains and our nerve cells are actually doing this right now. They're not just static. They're moving around making new connections, and that's what happens when we learn. +As you go farther down this scale here, that's a micron, or a micrometer, and we go all the way down to here to a nanometer and an angstrom. Now, an angstrom is the size of the diameter of a hydrogen atom. +That's how small that is. +And microscopes that we have today can actually see individual atoms. So these are some pictures of individual atoms. Each bump here is an individual atom. +This is a ring of cobalt atoms. +So this whole world, the nano world, this area in here is called the nano world, and the nano world, the whole micro world that we see, there's a nano world that is wrapped up within that, and the whole -- and that is the world of molecules and atoms. +But I want to talk about this larger world, the world of the micro world. +So if you were a little tiny bug living in a flower, what would that flower look like, if the flower was this big? +It wouldn't look or feel like anything that we see when we look at a flower. So if you look at this flower here, and you're a little bug, if you're on that surface of that flower, that's what the terrain would look like. +So this little ant that's crawling here, it's like it's in a little Willy Wonka land. +It's like a little Disneyland for them. It's not like what we see. +These are little bits of individual grain of pollen there and there, and here is a -- what you see as one little yellow dot of pollen, when you look in a microscope, it's actually made of thousands of little grains of pollen. +Here's a close-up picture, or this is actually a regular picture of a water hyacinth, and if you had really, really good vision, with your naked eye, you'd see it about that well. +There's the stamen and the pistil. But look what the stamen and the pistil look like in a microscope. That's the stamen. +So that's thousands of little grains of pollen there, and there's the pistil there, and these are the little things called trichomes. And that's what makes the flower give a fragrance, and plants actually communicate with one another through their fragrances. +I want to talk about something really ordinary, just ordinary sand. +I became interested in sand about 10 years ago, when I first saw sand from Maui, and in fact, this is a little bit of sand from Maui. +So sand is about a tenth of a millimeter in size. +Each sand grain is about a tenth of a millimeter in size. +But when you look closer at this, look at what's there. +It's really quite amazing. You have microshells there. +You have things like coral. +You have fragments of other shells. You have olivine. +You have bits of a volcano. There's a little bit of a volcano there. You have tube worms. +An amazing array of incredible things exist in sand. +So here's, for example, a picture of sand from Maui. +This is from Lahaina, and when we're walking along a beach, we're actually walking along millions of years of biological and geological history. +We don't realize it, but it's actually a record of that entire ecology. +So here we see, for example, a sponge spicule, two bits of coral here, that's a sea urchin spine. Really some amazing stuff. +So when I first looked at this, I was -- I thought, gee, this is like a little treasure trove here. +I couldn't believe it, and I'd go around dissecting the little bits out and making photographs of them. +Here's what most of the sand in our world looks like. +These are quartz crystals and feldspar, so most sand in the world on the mainland is made of quartz crystal and feldspar. It's the erosion of granite rock. +So mountains are built up, and they erode away by water and rain and ice and so forth, and they become grains of sand. +There's some sand that's really much more colorful. +These are sand from near the Great Lakes, and you can see that it's filled with minerals like pink garnet and green epidote, all kinds of amazing stuff, and if you look at different sands from different places, every single beach, every single place you look at sand, it's different. Here's from Big Sur, like they're little jewels. +There are places in Africa where they do the mining of jewels, and you go to the sand where the rivers have the sand go down to the ocean, and it's like literally looking at tiny jewels through the microscope. +So every grain of sand is unique. Every beach is different. +Every single grain is different. There are no two grains of sand alike in the world. +Every grain of sand is coming somewhere and going somewhere. +They're like a snapshot in time. +Now sand is not only on Earth, but sand is ubiquitous throughout the universe. In fact, outer space is filled with sand, and that sand comes together to make our planets and the Moon. +And you can see those in micrometeorites. +This is some micrometeorites that the Army gave me, and they get these out of the drinking wells in the South Pole. +And they're quite amazing-looking, and these are the tiny constituents that make up the world that we live in -- the planets and the Moon. +So NASA wanted me to take some pictures of Moon sand, so they sent me sand from all the different landings of the Apollo missions that happened 40 years ago. +And I started taking pictures with my three-dimensional microscopes. +This was the first picture I took. It was kind of amazing. +I thought it looked kind of a little bit like the Moon, which is sort of interesting. +So sort of left-eye view, right-eye view. +Now something's interesting here. This looks very different than any sand on Earth that I've ever seen, and I've seen a lot of sand on Earth, believe me. Look at this hole in the middle. That hole was caused by a micrometeorite hitting the Moon. +Now, the Moon has no atmosphere, so micrometeorites come in continuously, and the whole surface of the Moon is covered with powder now, because for four billion years it's been bombarded by micrometeorites, and when micrometeorites come in at about 20 to 60,000 miles an hour, they vaporize on contact. +And you can see here that that is -- that's sort of vaporized, and that material is holding this little clump of little sand grains together. +This is a very small grain of sand, this whole thing. +And that's called a ring agglutinate. +And many of the grains of sand on the Moon look like that, and you'd never find that on Earth. +Most of the sand on the Moon, especially -- and you know when you look at the Moon, there's the dark areas and the light areas. The dark areas are lava flows. They're basaltic lava flows, and that's what this sand looks like, very similar to the sand that you would see in Haleakala. +And these are actually microscopic; you need a microscope to see these. +Now here's a grain of sand that is from the Moon, and you can see that the entire crystal structure is still there. +So what I've been trying to tell you today is things even as ordinary as a grain of sand can be truly extraordinary if you look closely and if you look from a different and a new point of view. +I think that this was best put by William Blake when he said, "To see a world in a grain of sand and a heaven in a wild flower, hold infinity in the palm of your hand, and eternity in an hour." +Thank you. +What I want you all to do right now is to think of this mammal that I'm going to describe to you. +The first thing I'm going to tell you about this mammal is that it is essential for our ecosystems to function correctly. +If we remove this mammal from our ecosystems, they simply will not work. +That's the first thing. +The second thing is that due to the unique sensory abilities of this mammal, if we study this mammal, we're going to get great insight into our diseases of the senses, such as blindness and deafness. +And the third really intriguing aspect of this mammal is that I fully believe that the secret of everlasting youth lies deep within its DNA. +So are you all thinking? +So, magnificent creature, isn't it? +Who here thought of a bat? +Ah, I can see half the audience agrees with me, and I have a lot of work to do to convince the rest of you. +So I have had the good fortune for the past 20 years to study these fascinating and beautiful mammals. +One fifth of all living mammals is a bat, and they have very unique attributes. +Bats as we know them have been around on this planet for about 64 million years. +One of the most unique things that bats do as a mammal is that they fly. +Now flight is an inherently difficult thing. +Flight within vertebrates has only evolved three times: once in the bats, once in the birds, and once in the pterodactyls. +And so with flight, it's very metabolically costly. +Bats have learned and evolved how to deal with this. +But one other extremely unique thing about bats is that they are able to use sound to perceive their environment. They use echolocation. +Now, what I mean by echolocation -- they emit a sound from their larynx out through their mouth or through their nose. This sound wave comes out and it reflects and echoes back off objects in their environment, and the bats then hear these echoes and they turn this information into an acoustic image. +And this enables them to orient in complete darkness. +Indeed, they do look very strange. We're humans. +We're a visual species. When scientists first realized that bats were actually using sound to be able to fly and orient and move at night, we didn't believe it. +For a hundred years, despite evidence to show that this is what they were doing, we didn't believe it. +Now, if you look at this bat, it looks a little bit alien. +Indeed, the very famous philosopher Thomas Nagel once said, "To truly experience an alien life form on this planet, you should lock yourself inside a room with a flying, echolocating bat in complete darkness." +And if you look at the actual physical characteristics on the face of this beautiful horseshoe bat, you see a lot of these characteristics are dedicated to be able to make sound and perceive it. +Very big ears, strange nose leaves, but teeny-tiny eyes. +So again, if you just look at this bat, you realize sound is very important for its survival. +Most bats look like the previous one. +However, there are a group that do not use echolocation. +They do not perceive their environment using sound, and these are the flying foxes. +If anybody has ever been lucky enough to be in Australia, you've seen them coming out of the Botanic Gardens in Sydney, and if you just look at their face, you can see they have much, much larger eyes and much smaller ears. +So among and within bats is a huge variation in their ability to use sensory perception. +Now this is going to be important for what I'm going to tell you later during the talk. +Now, if the idea of bats in your belfry terrifies you, and I know some people probably are feeling a little sick looking at very large images of bats, that's probably not that surprising, because here in Western culture, bats have been demonized. +Really, of course the famous book "Dracula," written by a fellow Northside Dubliner Bram Stoker, probably is mainly responsible for this. +However, I also think it's got to do with the fact that bats come out at night, and we don't really understand them. We're a little frightened by things that can perceive the world slightly differently than us. +Bats are usually synonymous with some type of evil events. +They are the perpetrators in horror movies, such as this famous "Nightwing." +Also, if you think about it, demons always have bat wings, whereas birds, they typically -- or angels have bird wings. +Now, this is Western society, and what I hope to do tonight is to convince you of the Chinese traditional culture, that they perceive bats as creatures that bring good luck, and indeed, if you walk into a Chinese home, you may see an image such as this. +This is considered the Five Blessings. +The Chinese word for "bat" sounds like the Chinese word for "happiness," and they believe that bats bring wealth, health, longevity, virtue and serenity. +And indeed, in this image, you have a picture of longevity surrounded by five bats. +And what I want to do tonight is to talk to you and to show you that at least three of these blessings are definitely represented by a bat, and that if we study bats we will get nearer to getting each of these blessings. +So, wealth -- how can a bat possibly bring us wealth? +Now as I said before, bats are essential for our ecosystems to function correctly. And why is this? +Bats in the tropics are major pollinators of many plants. +They also feed on fruit, and they disperse the seeds of these fruits. Bats are responsible for pollinating the tequila plant, and this is a multi-million dollar industry in Mexico. So indeed, we need them for our ecosystems to function properly. +Without them, it's going to be a problem. +But most bats are voracious insect predators. +It's been estimated in the U.S., in a tiny colony of big brown bats, that they will feed on over a million insects a year, and in the United States of America, right now bats are being threatened by a disease known as white-nose syndrome. +It's working its way slowly across the U.S. and wiping out populations of bats, and scientists have estimated that 1,300 metric tons of insects a year are now remaining in the ecosystems due to the loss of bats. +Bats are also threatened in the U.S. +by their attraction to wind farms. Again, right now bats are looking at a little bit of a problem. +They're going to -- They are very threatened in the United States of America alone. +Now how can this help us? +Well, it has been calculated that if we were to remove bats from the equation, we're going to have to then use insecticides to remove all those pest insects that feed on our agricultural crops. +And for one year in the U.S. alone, it's estimated that it's going to cost 22 billion U.S. dollars, if we remove bats. So indeed, bats then do bring us wealth. +They maintain the health of our ecosystems, and also they save us money. +So again, that's the first blessing. Bats are important for our ecosystems. +And what about the second? What about health? +Inside every cell in your body lies your genome. +Your genome is made up of your DNA, your DNA codes for proteins that enable you to function and interact and be as you are. +Now since the new advancements in modern molecular technologies, it is now possible for us to sequence our own genome in a very rapid time and at a very, very reduced cost. +Now when we've been doing this, we've realized that there's variations within our genome. +So I want you to look at the person beside you. +Just have a quick look. And what we need to realize is that every 300 base pairs in your DNA, you're a little bit different. +And one of the grand challenges right now in modern molecular medicine is to work out whether this variation makes you more susceptible to diseases, or does this variation just make you different? +Well, I believe we just look at nature's experiments. +So through natural selection, over time, mutations, variations that disrupt the function of a protein will not be tolerated over time. +Evolution acts as a sieve. It sieves out the bad variation. +So therefore, if we were to do this, what we'd need to do is sequence that region in all these different mammals and ascertain if it's the same or if it's different. So if it is the same, this indicates that that site is important for a function, so a disease mutation should fall within that site. +So in this case here, if all the mammals that we look at have a yellow-type genome at that site, it probably suggests that purple is bad. +This could be even more powerful if you look at mammals that are doing things slightly differently. +So say, for example, the region of the genome that I was looking at was a region that's important for vision. +If we look at that region in mammals that don't see so well, such as bats, and we find that bats that don't see so well have the purple type, we know that this is probably what's causing this disease. +So in my lab, we've been using bats to look at two different types of diseases of the senses. +We're looking at blindness. Now why would you do this? +Three hundred and fourteen million people are visually impaired, and 45 million of these are blind. So blindness is a big problem, and a lot of these blind disorders come from inherited diseases, so we want to try and better understand which mutations in the gene cause the disease. +Also we look at deafness. One in every 1,000 newborn babies are deaf, and when we reach 80, over half of us will also have a hearing problem. +Again, there's many underlying genetic causes for this. +So what we've been doing in my lab is looking at these unique sensory specialists, the bats, and we have looked at genes that cause blindness when there's a defect in them, genes that cause deafness when there's a defect in them, and now we can predict which sites are most likely to cause disease. +So bats are also important for our health, to enable us to better understand how our genome functions. +So this is where we are right now, but what about the future? +What about longevity? +This is where we're going to go, and as I said before, I really believe that the secret of everlasting youth lies within the bat genome. +So why should we be interested in aging at all? +Well, really, this is a picture drawn from the 1500s of the Fountain of Youth. Aging is considered one of the most familiar, yet the least well-understood, aspects of all of biology, and really, since the dawn of civilization, mankind has sought to avoid it. +But we are going to have to understand it a bit better. +In Europe alone, by 2050, there is going to be a 70 percent increase of individuals over 65, and 170 percent increase in individuals over 80. +As we age, we deteriorate, and this deterioration causes problems for our society, so we have to address it. +So how could the secret of everlasting youth actually lie within the bat genome? Does anybody want to hazard a guess over how long this bat could live for? +Who -- put up your hands -- who says two years? +Nobody? One? How about 10 years? +Some? How about 30? +How about 40? Okay, it's a whole varied response. +This bat is myotis brandtii. It's the longest-living bat. +It lived for up to 42 years, and this bat's still alive in the wild today. +But what would be so amazing about this? +Well, typically, in mammals there is a relationship between body size, metabolic rate, and how long you can live for, and you can predict how long a mammal can live for given its body size. +So typically, small mammals live fast, die young. +Think of a mouse. But bats are very different. +As you can see here on this graph, in blue, these are all other mammals, but bats can live up to nine times longer than expected despite having a really, really high metabolic rate, and the question is, how can they do that? +There are 19 species of mammal that live longer than expected, given their body size, than man, and 18 of those are bats. +So therefore, they must have something within their DNA that ables them to deal with the metabolic stresses, particularly of flight. They expend three times more energy than a mammal of the same size, but don't seem to suffer the consequences or the effects. +So right now, in my lab, we're combining state-of-the-art bat field biology, going out and catching the long-lived bats, with the most up-to-date, modern molecular technology to understand better what it is that they do to stop aging as we do. +And hopefully in the next five years, I'll be giving you a TEDTalk on that. +Aging is a big problem for humanity, and I believe that by studying bats, we can uncover the molecular mechanisms that enable mammals to achieve extraordinary longevity. If we find out what they're doing, perhaps through gene therapy, we can enable us to do the same thing. +Potentially, this means that we could halt aging or maybe even reverse it. +Just imagine what that would be like. +So really, I don't think we should be thinking of them as flying demons of the night, but more as our superheroes. +And the reality is that bats can bring us so much benefit if we just look in the right place. They're good for our ecosystem, they allow us to understand how our genome functions, and they potentially hold the secret to everlasting youth. +So tonight, when you walk out of here and you look up in the night skies, and you see this beautiful flying mammal, I want you to smile. Thank you. +I think the beautiful Malin [Akerman] put it perfectly. +Every man deserves the opportunity to grow a little bit of luxury. +So the most common question I get asked, and I'm going to answer it now so I don't have to do it over drinks tonight, is how did this come about? +How did Movember start? +Well, normally, a charity starts with the cause, and someone that is directly affected by a cause. +They then go on to create an event, and beyond that, a foundation to support that. +Pretty much in every case, that's how a charity starts. +Not so with Movember. Movember started in a very traditional Australian way. It was on a Sunday afternoon. +I was with my brother and a mate having a few beers, and I was watching the world go by, had a few more beers, and the conversation turned to '70s fashion and how everything manages to come back into style. +And a few more beers, I said, "There has to be some stuff that hasn't come back." Then one more beer and it was, whatever happened to the mustache? +Why hasn't that made a comeback? So then there was a lot more beers, and then the day ended with a challenge to bring the mustache back. So in Australia, "mo" is slang for mustache, so we renamed the month of November "Movember" and created some pretty basic rules, which still stand today. +My girlfriend at the time, who's no longer my girlfriend hated it. +Parents would shuffle kids away from us. But we came together at the end of the month and we celebrated our journey, and it was a real journey. +And we had a lot of fun, and in 2004, I said to the guys, "That was so much fun. We need to legitimize this so we can get away with it year on year." So we started thinking about that, and we were inspired by the women around us and all they were doing for breast cancer. +And we thought, you know what, there's nothing for men's health. +Why is that? Why can't we combine growing a mustache and doing something for men's health? +And I started to research that topic, and discovered prostate cancer is the male equivalent of breast cancer in terms of the number of men that die from it and are diagnosed with it. +But there was nothing for this cause, so we married growing a mustache with prostate cancer, and then we created our tagline, which is, "Changing the face of men's health." +And that eloquently describes the challenge, changing your appearance for the 30 days, and also the outcome that we're trying to achieve: getting men engaged in their health, having them have a better understanding about the health risks that they face. +So with that model, I then cold-called the CEO of the Prostate Cancer Foundation. +I said to him, "I've got the most amazing idea that's going to transform your organization." And I didn't want to share with him the idea over the phone, so I convinced him to meet with me for coffee in Melbourne in 2004. +And we sat down, and I shared with him my vision of getting men growing mustaches across Australia, raising awareness for this cause, and funds for his organization. And I needed a partnership to legitimately do that. +And I said, "We're going to come together at the end, we're going to have a mustache-themed party, we're going to have DJs, we're going to celebrate life, and we're going to change the face of men's health." +And he just looked at me and laughed, and he said, he said, "Adam, that's a really novel idea, but we're an ultraconservative organization. +We can't have anything to do with you." So I paid for coffee that day and his parting comment as we shook hands was, "Listen, if you happen to raise any money out of this, we'll gladly take it." So my lesson that year was persistence. +And we persisted, and we got 450 guys growing mustaches, and together we raised 54,000 dollars, and we donated every cent of that to the Prostate Cancer Foundation of Australia, and that represented at the time the single biggest donation they'd ever received. +So from that day forward, my life has become about a mustache. +Every day -- this morning, I wake up and go, my life is about a mustache. Essentially, I'm a mustache farmer. And my season is November. So in 2005, the campaign got more momentum, was more successful in Australia and then New Zealand, and then in 2006 we came to a pivotal point. +It was consuming so much of our time after hours on weekends that we thought, we either need to close this down or figure a way to fund Movember so that I could quit my job and go and spend more time in the organization and take it to the next level. +It's really interesting when you try and figure a way to fund a fundraising organization built off growing mustaches. Let me tell you that there's not too many people interested in investing in that, not even the Prostate Cancer Foundation, who we'd raised about 1.2 million dollars for at that stage. +So again we persisted, and Foster's Brewing came to the party and gave us our first ever sponsorship, and that was enough for me to quit my job, I did consulting on the side. +And leading into Movember 2006, we'd run through all the money from Foster's, we'd run through all the money I had, and essentially we had no money left, and we'd convinced all our suppliers -- creative agencies, web development agencies, hosting companies, whatnot -- to delay their billing until December. +So we'd racked up at this stage about 600,000 dollars worth of debt. So if Movember 2006 didn't happen, the four founders, well, we would've been broke, we would've been homeless, sitting on the street with mustaches. But we thought, you know what, if that's the worst thing that happens, so what? +We're going to have a lot of fun doing it, and it taught us the importance of taking risks and really smart risks. +Then in early 2007, a really interesting thing happened. +We had Mo Bros from Canada, from the U.S., and from the U.K. emailing us and calling us and saying, hey, there's nothing for prostate cancer. +Bring this campaign to these countries. +So we thought, why not? Let's do it. +So I cold-called the CEO of Prostate Cancer Canada, and I said to him, "I have this most amazing concept." +And he looked at me and laughed and said, "Adam, sounds like a really novel idea, but we're an ultraconservative organization." I've heard this before. I know how it goes. +But he said, "We will partner with you, but we're not going to invest in it. You need to figure a way to bring this campaign across here and make it work." +And we're not about finding an Australian cure or a Canadian cure, we're about finding the cure. +So in 2007, we brought the campaign across here, and it was, it set the stage for the campaign. +It wasn't as successful as we thought it would be. +We were sort of very gung ho with our success in Australia and New Zealand at that stage. +So that year really taught us the importance of being patient and really understanding the local market before you become so bold as to set lofty targets. +But what I'm really pleased to say is, in 2010, Movember became a truly global movement. +Canada was just pipped to the post in terms of the number one fundraising campaign in the world. +Last year we had 450,000 Mo Bros spread across the world and together we raised 77 million dollars. +And that makes Movember now the biggest funder of prostate cancer research and support programs in the world. +And that is an amazing achievement when you think about us growing mustaches. And for us, we have redefined charity. +Our ribbon is a hairy ribbon. Our ambassadors are the Mo Bros and the Mo Sistas, and I think that's been fundamental to our success. +We hand across our brand and our campaign to those people. +We let them embrace it and interpret it in their own way. +So now I live in Los Angeles, because the Prostate Cancer Foundation of the U.S. is based there, and I always get asked by the media down there, because it's so celebrity-driven, "Who are your celebrity ambassadors?" +And I say to them, "Last year we were fortunate enough to have 450,000 celebrity ambassadors." +And they go, "What, what do you mean?" +And it's like, everything single person, every single Mo Bro and Mo Sista that participates in Movember is our celebrity ambassador, and that is so, so important and fundamental to our success. +Now what I want to share with you is one of my most touching Movember moments, and it happened here in Toronto last year, at the end of the campaign. +I was out with a team. It was the end of Movember. +And I said, "Hang on, that is an amazing mustache." +And he said, "I'm doing it for Movember." And I said, "So am I." And I said, "Tell me your Movember story." +And he goes, "Listen, I know it's about men's health, I know it's about prostate cancer, but this is for breast cancer." +And I said, "Okay, that's interesting." +And he goes, "Last year, my mom passed away from breast cancer in Sri Lanka, because we couldn't afford proper treatment for her," and he said, "This mustache is my tribute to my mom." +And we sort of all choked up in the back of the taxi, and I didn't tell him who I was, because I didn't think it was appropriate, and I just shook his hand and I said, "Thank you so much. +Your mom would be so proud." +And from that moment I realized that Movember is so much more than a mustache, having a joke. +It's about each person coming to this platform, embracing it in their own way, and being significant in their own life. +For us now at Movember, we really focus on three program areas, and having a true impact: awareness and education, survivor support programs, and research. +He came up to me and said, "Thank you for starting Movember." +And I said, "Thank you for doing Movember." +And I looked at him, and I was like, "I'm pretty sure you can't grow a mustache." And I said, "What's your Movember story?" +So now, that guy is getting screened for prostate cancer. +So those conversations, getting men engaged in this, at whatever age, is so critically important, and in my view so much more important than the funds we raise. +Now to the funds we raise, and research, and how we're redefining research. +We fund prostate cancer foundations now in 13 countries. +And so we said, right, we'd redefined charity. We need to redefine the way these guys operate. How do we do that? +So they identified that as a priority, and then they've got and recruited now 300 researchers from around the world that are studying that topic, essentially the same topic. +So now we're funding them to the tune of about five or six million dollars to collaborate and bringing them together, and that's a unique thing in the cancer world, and we know, through that collaboration, it will accelerate outcomes. +And that's how we're redefining the research world. +So, what I know about my Movember journey is that, with a really creative idea, with passion, with persistence, and a lot of patience, four mates, four mustaches, can inspire a room full of people, and that room full of people can go on and inspire a city, and that city is Melbourne, my home. +And that city can go on and inspire a state, and that state can go on and inspire a nation, and beyond that, you can create a global movement that is changing the face of men's health. +My name is Adam Garone, and that's my story. +Thank you. +So, people want a lot of things out of life, but I think, more than anything else, they want happiness. +Aristotle called happiness "the chief good," the end towards which all other things aim. +According to this view, the reason we want a big house or a nice car or a good job isn't that these things are intrinsically valuable. +It's that we expect them to bring us happiness. +Now in the last 50 years, we Americans have gotten a lot of the things that we want. We're richer. +We live longer. We have access to technology that would have seemed like science fiction just a few years ago. +The paradox of happiness is that even though the objective conditions of our lives have improved dramatically, we haven't actually gotten any happier. +Maybe because these conventional notions of progress haven't delivered big benefits in terms of happiness, there's been an increased interest in recent years in happiness itself. +People have been debating the causes of happiness for a really long time, in fact for thousands of years, but it seems like many of those debates remain unresolved. +Well, as with many other domains in life, I think the scientific method has the potential to answer this question. +In fact, in the last few years, there's been an explosion in research on happiness. For example, we've learned a lot about its demographics, how things like income and education, gender and marriage relate to it. +But one of the puzzles this has revealed is that factors like these don't seem to have a particularly strong effect. +Yes, it's better to make more money rather than less, or to graduate from college instead of dropping out, but the differences in happiness tend to be small. +Which leaves the question, what are the big causes of happiness? +I think that's a question we haven't really answered yet, but I think something that has the potential to be an answer is that maybe happiness has an awful lot to do with the contents of our moment-to-moment experiences. +It certainly seems that we're going about our lives, that what we're doing, who we're with, what we're thinking about, have a big influence on our happiness, and yet these are the very factors that have been very difficult, in fact almost impossible, for scientists to study. +A few years ago, I came up with a way to study people's happiness moment to moment as they're going about their daily lives on a massive scale all over the world, something we'd never been able to do before. Called trackyourhappiness.org, it uses the iPhone to monitor people's happiness in real time. +How does this work? Basically, I send people signals at random points throughout the day, and then I ask them a bunch of questions about their moment-to-moment experience at the instant just before the signal. +We've been fortunate with this project to collect quite a lot of data, a lot more data of this kind than I think has ever been collected before, over 650,000 real-time reports from over 15,000 people. +And it's not just a lot of people, it's a really diverse group, people from a wide range of ages, from 18 to late 80s, a wide range of incomes, education levels, people who are married, divorced, widowed, etc. +They collectively represent every one of 86 occupational categories and hail from over 80 countries. +What I'd like to do with the rest of my time with you today is talk a little bit about one of the areas that we've been investigating, and that's mind-wandering. +As human beings, we have this unique ability to have our minds stray away from the present. +This guy is sitting here working on his computer, and yet he could be thinking about the vacation he had last month, wondering what he's going to have for dinner. +Maybe he's worried that he's going bald. This ability to focus our attention on something other than the present is really amazing. It allows us to learn and plan and reason in ways that no other species of animal can. +And yet it's not clear what the relationship is between our use of this ability and our happiness. +You've probably heard people suggest that you should stay focused on the present. "Be here now," you've probably heard a hundred times. +Maybe, to really be happy, we need to stay completely immersed and focused on our experience in the moment. +Maybe these people are right. Maybe mind-wandering is a bad thing. +On the other hand, when our minds wander, they're unconstrained. We can't change the physical reality in front of us, but we can go anywhere in our minds. +Since we know people want to be happy, maybe when our minds wander, they're going to someplace happier than the place that they're leaving. It would make a lot of sense. +In other words, maybe the pleasures of the mind allow us to increase our happiness with mind-wandering. +Well, since I'm a scientist, I'd like to try to resolve this debate with some data, and in particular I'd like to present some data to you from three questions that I ask with Track Your Happiness. Remember, this is from sort of moment-to-moment experience in people's real lives. +There are three questions. The first one is a happiness question: How do you feel, on a scale ranging from very bad to very good? Second, an activity question: What are you doing, on a list of 22 different activities including things like eating and working and watching TV? +And finally a mind-wandering question: Are you thinking about something other than what you're currently doing? +People could say no -- in other words, I'm focused only on my task -- or yes -- I am thinking about something else -- and the topic of those thoughts are pleasant, neutral or unpleasant. +Any of those yes responses are what we called mind-wandering. +So what did we find? +This graph shows happiness on the vertical axis, and you can see that bar there representing how happy people are when they're focused on the present, when they're not mind-wandering. +As it turns out, people are substantially less happy when their minds are wandering than when they're not. +Now you might look at this result and say, okay, sure, on average people are less happy when they're mind-wandering, but surely when their minds are straying away from something that wasn't very enjoyable to begin with, at least then mind-wandering should be doing something good for us. +Nope. As it turns out, people are less happy when they're mind-wandering no matter what they're doing. For example, people don't really like commuting to work very much. +It's one of their least enjoyable activities, and yet they are substantially happier when they're focused only on their commute than when their mind is going off to something else. +It's amazing. +Even when they're thinking about something they would describe as pleasant, they're actually just slightly less happy than when they aren't mind-wandering. +If mind-wandering were a slot machine, it would be like having the chance to lose 50 dollars, 20 dollars or one dollar. Right? You'd never want to play. So I've been talking about this, suggesting, perhaps, that mind-wandering causes unhappiness, but all I've really shown you is that these two things are correlated. +It's possible that's the case, but it might also be the case that when people are unhappy, then they mind-wander. +Maybe that's what's really going on. How could we ever disentangle these two possibilites? +Well, one fact that we can take advantage of, I think a fact you'll all agree is true, is that time goes forward, not backward. Right? The cause has to come before the effect. +We're lucky in this data we have many responses from each person, and so we can look and see, does mind-wandering tend to precede unhappiness, or does unhappiness tend to precede mind-wandering, to get some insight into the causal direction. +As it turns out, there is a strong relationship between mind-wandering now and being unhappy a short time later, consistent with the idea that mind-wandering is causing people to be unhappy. +In contrast, there's no relationship between being unhappy now and mind-wandering a short time later. +In other words, mind-wandering very likely seems to be an actual cause, and not merely a consequence, of unhappiness. +A few minutes ago, I likened mind-wandering to a slot machine you'd never want to play. +Well, how often do people's minds wander? +Turns out, they wander a lot. In fact, really a lot. +Forty-seven percent of the time, people are thinking about something other than what they're currently doing. +How does that depend on what people are doing? +It pervades basically everything that we do. +In my talk today, I've told you a little bit about mind-wandering, a variable that I think turns out to be fairly important in the equation for happiness. +Thank you. +Two years ago, after having served four years in the United States Marine Corps and deployments to both Iraq and Afghanistan, I found myself in Port-au-Prince, leading a team of veterans and medical professionals in some of the hardest-hit areas of that city, three days after the earthquake. +We were going to the places that nobody else wanted to go, the places nobody else could go, and after three weeks, we realized something. Military veterans are very, very good at disaster response. +And coming home, my cofounder and I, we looked at it, and we said, there are two problems. +The first problem is there's inadequate disaster response. +It's slow. It's antiquated. It's not using the best technology, and it's not using the best people. +The second problem that we became aware of was a very inadequate veteran reintegration, and this is a topic that is front page news right now as veterans are coming home from Iraq and Afghanistan, and they're struggling to reintegrate into civilian life. +And we sat here and we looked at these two problems, and finally we came to a realization. These aren't problems. +These are actually solutions. And what do I mean by that? +Well, we can use disaster response as an opportunity for service for the veterans coming home. +Recent surveys show that 92 percent of veterans want to continue their service when they take off their uniform. +And we can use veterans to improve disaster response. +Now on the surface, this makes a lot of sense, and in 2010, we responded to the tsunami in Chile, the floods in Pakistan, we sent training teams to the Thai-Burma border. +But it was earlier this year, when one of our original members caused us to shift focus in the organization. +This is Clay Hunt. Clay was a Marine with me. +We served together in Iraq and Afghanistan. +Clay was with us in Port-au-Prince. He was also with us in Chile. +Earlier this year, in March, Clay took his own life. +This was a tragedy, but it really forced us to refocus what it is that we were doing. +You know, Clay didn't kill himself because of what happened in Iraq and Afghanistan. Clay killed himself because of what he lost when he came home. +He lost purpose. He lost his community. +And perhaps most tragically, he lost his self-worth. +But after Clay, we shifted that focus, and suddenly, now moving forward, we see ourselves as a veteran service organization that's using disaster response. +Because we think that we can give that purpose and that community and that self-worth back to the veteran. +And tornadoes in Tuscaloosa and Joplin, and then later Hurricane Irene, gave us an opportunity to look at that. +Now I want you to imagine for a second an 18-year-old boy who graduates from high school in Kansas City, Missouri. +He joins the Army. The Army gives him a rifle. +They send him to Iraq. +Every day he leaves the wire with a mission. +That mission is to defend the freedom of the family that he left at home. +It's to keep the men around him alive. +It's to pacify the village that he works in. +He's got a purpose. But he comes home [to] Kansas City, Missouri, maybe he goes to college, maybe he's got a job, but he doesn't have that same sense of purpose. +You give him a chainsaw. You send him to Joplin, Missouri after a tornado, he regains that. +Going back, that same 18-year-old boy graduates from high school in Kansas City, Missouri, joins the Army, the Army gives him a rifle, they send him to Iraq. +Every day he looks into the same sets of eyes around him. +He leaves the wire. He knows that those people have his back. +He's slept in the same sand. They've lived together. +They've eaten together. They've bled together. +He goes home to Kansas City, Missouri. +He gets out of the military. He takes his uniform off. +He doesn't have that community anymore. +But you drop 25 of those veterans in Joplin, Missouri, they get that sense of community back. +Again, you have an 18-year-old boy who graduates high school in Kansas City. +He joins the Army. The Army gives him a rifle. +They send him to Iraq. +They pin a medal on his chest. He goes home to a ticker tape parade. +He takes the uniform off. He's no longer Sergeant Jones in his community. He's now Dave from Kansas City. +He doesn't have that same self-worth. +But you send him to Joplin after a tornado, and somebody once again is walking up to him and shaking their hand and thanking them for their service, now they have self-worth again. +I think it's very important, because right now somebody needs to step up, and this generation of veterans has the opportunity to do that if they are given the chance. +Thank you very much. +Today, I'm going to talk to you about sketching electronics. +I'm, among several other things, an electrical engineer, and that means that I spend a good amount of time designing and building new pieces of technology, and more specifically designing and building electronics. +And what I've found is that the process of designing and building electronics is problematic in all sorts of ways. +So it's a really slow process, it's really expensive, and the outcome of that process, namely electronic circuit boards, are limited in all sorts of kind of interesting ways. +So they're really small, generally, they're square and flat and hard, and frankly, most of them just aren't very attractive, and so my team and I have been thinking of ways to really change and mix up the process and the outcome of designing electronics. +And so what if you could design and build electronics like this? So what if you could do it extremely quickly, extremely inexpensively, and maybe more interestingly, really fluidly and expressively and even improvisationally? +Wouldn't that be so cool, and that wouldn't that open up all sorts of new possibilities? +I'm going to share with you two projects that are investigations along these lines, and we'll start with this one. +Magnetic electronic pieces and ferrous paper. +A conductive pen from the Lewis lab at UIUC. +Sticker templates. +Speed x 4. +Making a switch. +Music: DJ Shadow. +Adding some intelligence with a microcontroller. +Sketching an interface. +Pretty cool, huh? We think so. +So now that we developed these tools and found these materials that let us do these things, we started to realize that, essentially, anything that we can do with paper, anything that we can do with a piece of paper and a pen we can now do with electronics. +So the next project that I want to show you is kind of a deeper exploration of that possibility. +And I'll kind of let it speak for itself. +And so sometime soon, you'll be able to play and build and sketch with electronics in this fundamentally new way. +So thank you very much. +So I grew up in Limpopo, on the border of Limpopo and Mpumalanga, a little town called Motetema. +Water and electricity supply are as unpredictable as the weather, and growing up in these tough situations, at the age of 17, I was relaxing with a couple of friends of mine in winter, and we were sunbathing. +The Limpopo sun gets really hot in winter. +So as we were sunbathing, my best friend next to me says, "Man, why doesn't somebody invent something that you can just put on your skin and then you don't have to bathe?" +And I sat, and I was like, "Man, I would buy that, eh?" +So I went home, and I did a little research, and I found some very shocking statistics. +Over 2.5 billion people in the world today do not have proper access to water and sanitation. +Four hundred and fifty million of them are in Africa, and five million of them are in South Africa. +Various diseases thrive in this environment, the most drastic of which is called trachoma. +Trachoma is an infection of the eye due to dirt getting into your eye. Multiple infections of trachoma can leave you permanently blind. +The disease leaves eight million people permanently blind each and every year. The shocking part about it is that to avoid being infected with trachoma, all you have to do is wash your face: no medicine, no pills, no injections. +So I was like, okay, so we've got the formula ready. +Now we need to get this thing into practice. +Fast forward four years later, after having written a 40-page business plan on the cell phone, having written my patent on the cell phone, I'm the youngest patent-holder in the country, and ("No more bathing!") I can't say any more than that. I had invented DryBath, the world's first bath-substituting lotion. +You literally put it on your skin, and you don't have to bathe. +So after having tried to make it work in high school with the limited resources I had, I went to university, met a few people, got it into practice, and we have a fully functioning product that's ready to go to the market. It's actually available on the market. +So we learned a few lessons in commercializing and making DryBath available. +One of the things we learned was that poor communities don't buy products in bulk. +They buy products on demand. A person in Alex doesn't buy a box of cigarettes. They buy one cigarette each day, even though it's more expensive. +So we packaged DryBath in these innovative little sachets. +You just snap them in half, and you squeeze it out. +And the cool part is, one sachet substitutes one bath for five rand. +After creating that model, we also learned a lot in terms of implementing the product. +We realized that even rich kids from the suburbs really want DryBath. At least once a week. +Anyway, we realized that we could save 80 million liters of water on average each time they skipped a bath, and also we would save two hours a day for kids who are in rural areas, two hours more for school, two hours more for homework, two hours more to just be a kid. +After seeing that global impact, we narrowed it down to our key value proposition, which was cleanliness and convenience. +DryBath is a rich man's convenience and a poor man's lifesaver. +What's stopping you? I'm not done yet. I'm not done yet. +And another key thing that I learned a lot throughout this whole process, last year Google named me as one of the brightest young minds in the world. +I'm also currently the best student entrepreneur in the world, the first African to get that accolade, and one thing that really puzzles me is, I did all of this just because I didn't want to bathe. Thank you. +Let me tell you, it has been a fantastic month for deception. +And I'm not even talking about the American presidential race. We have a high-profile journalist caught for plagiarism, a young superstar writer whose book involves so many made up quotes that they've pulled it from the shelves; a New York Times expos on fake book reviews. +It's been fantastic. +Now, of course, not all deception hits the news. +Much of the deception is everyday. In fact, a lot of research shows that we all lie once or twice a day, as Dave suggested. +So it's about 6:30 now, suggests that most of us should have lied. +Let's take a look at Winnipeg. How many of you, in the last 24 hours -- think back -- have told a little fib, or a big one? How many have told a little lie out there? +All right, good. These are all the liars. +Make sure you pay attention to them. No, that looked good, it was about two thirds of you. +The other third didn't lie, or perhaps forgot, or you're lying to me about your lying, which is very, very devious. This fits with a lot of the research, which suggests that lying is very pervasive. +It's this pervasiveness, combined with the centrality to what it means to be a human, the fact that we can tell the truth or make something up, that has fascinated people throughout history. +Here we have Diogenes with his lantern. +Does anybody know what he was looking for? +A single honest man, and he died without finding one back in Greece. And we have Confucius in the East who was really concerned with sincerity, not only that you walked the walk or talked the talk, but that you believed in what you were doing. +You believed in your principles. +Now my first professional encounter with deception is a little bit later than these guys, a couple thousand years. +I was a customs officer for Canada back in the mid-'90s. +Yeah. I was defending Canada's borders. +But even since just 1995, '96, the way we communicate has been completely transformed. We email, we text, we skype, we Facebook. It's insane. +Almost every aspect of human communication's been changed, and of course that's had an impact on deception. +Let me tell you a little bit about a couple of new deceptions we've been tracking and documenting. +They're called the Butler, the Sock Puppet and the Chinese Water Army. +It sounds a little bit like a weird book, but actually they're all new types of lies. +Let's start with the Butlers. Here's an example of one: "On my way." Anybody ever written, "On my way?" +Then you've also lied. We're never on our way. We're thinking about going on our way. +Here's another one: "Sorry I didn't respond to you earlier. +My battery was dead." Your battery wasn't dead. +You weren't in a dead zone. +You just didn't want to respond to that person that time. +Here's the last one: You're talking to somebody, and you say, "Sorry, got work, gotta go." +But really, you're just bored. You want to talk to somebody else. +Each of these is about a relationship, and this is a 24/7 connected world. Once you get my cell phone number, you can literally be in touch with me 24 hours a day. +And so these lies are being used by people to create a buffer, like the butler used to do, between us and the connections to everybody else. +But they're very special. They use ambiguity that comes from using technology. You don't know where I am or what I'm doing or who I'm with. +And they're aimed at protecting the relationships. +These aren't just people being jerks. These are people that are saying, look, I don't want to talk to you now, or I didn't want to talk to you then, but I still care about you. +Our relationship is still important. +Now, the Sock Puppet, on the other hand, is a totally different animal. The sock puppet isn't about ambiguity, per se. It's about identity. +Let me give you a very recent example, as in, like, last week. +Here's R.J. Ellory, best-seller author in Britain. +Here's one of his bestselling books. +Here's a reviewer online, on Amazon. +My favorite, by Nicodemus Jones, is, "Whatever else it might do, it will touch your soul." +And of course, you might suspect that Nicodemus Jones is R.J. Ellory. +He wrote very, very positive reviews about himself. Surprise, surprise. +Now this Sock Puppet stuff isn't actually that new. +Walt Whitman also did this back in the day, before there was Internet technology. Sock Puppet becomes interesting when we get to scale, which is the domain of the Chinese Water Army. +Chinese Water Army refers to thousands of people in China that are paid small amounts of money to produce content. It could be reviews. It could be propaganda. The government hires these people, companies hire them, all over the place. +In North America, we call this Astroturfing, and Astroturfing is very common now. There's a lot of concerns about it. +We see this especially with product reviews, book reviews, everything from hotels to whether that toaster is a good toaster or not. +Now, looking at these three reviews, or these three types of deception, you might think, wow, the Internet is really making us a deceptive species, especially when you think about the Astroturfing, where we can see deception brought up to scale. +But actually, what I've been finding is very different from that. +Now, let's put aside the online anonymous sex chatrooms, which I'm sure none of you have been in. +I can assure you there's deception there. +And let's put aside the Nigerian prince who's emailed you about getting the 43 million out of the country. Let's forget about that guy, too. +Let's focus on the conversations between our friends and our family and our coworkers and our loved ones. +Those are the conversations that really matter. +What does technology do to deception with those folks? +And it really throws people for a loop because we think, well, there's no nonverbal cues, so why don't you lie more? +The phone, in contrast, the most lies. +Again and again and again we see the phone is the device that people lie on the most, and perhaps because of the Butler Lie ambiguities I was telling you about. +This tends to be very different from what people expect. +What about rsums? We did a study in which we had people apply for a job, and they could apply for a job either with a traditional paper rsum, or on LinkedIn, which is a social networking site like Facebook, but for professionals -- involves the same information as a rsum. +And what we found, to many people's surprise, was that those LinkedIn rsums were more honest on the things that mattered to employers, like your responsibilities or your skills at your previous job. +How about Facebook itself? +You know, we always think that hey, there are these idealized versions, people are just showing the best things that happened in their lives. I've thought that many times. +My friends, no way they can be that cool and have good of a life. +Well, one study tested this by examining people's personalities. +They had four good friends of a person judge their personality. +Then they had strangers, many strangers, judge the person's personality just from Facebook, and what they found was those judgments of the personality were pretty much identical, highly correlated, meaning that Facebook profiles really do reflect our actual personality. +All right, well, what about online dating? +I mean, that's a pretty deceptive space. +I'm sure you all have "friends" that have used online dating. And they would tell you about that guy that had no hair when he came, or the woman that didn't look at all like her photo. +And what we found was very, very interesting. +Here's an example of the men and the height. +Along the bottom is how tall they said they were in their profile. +Along the y-axis, the vertical axis, is how tall they actually were. +That diagonal line is the truth line. If their dot's on it, they were telling exactly the truth. +Now, as you see, most of the little dots are below the line. +What it means is all the guys were lying about their height. +In fact, they lied about their height about nine tenths of an inch, what we say in the lab as "strong rounding up." You get to 5'8" and one tenth, and boom! 5'9". +But what's really important here is, look at all those dots. +They are clustering pretty close to the truth. What we found was 80 percent of our participants did indeed lie on one of those dimensions, but they always lied by a little bit. +One of the reasons is pretty simple. If you go to a date, a coffee date, and you're completely different than what you said, game over. Right? So people lied frequently, but they lied subtly, not too much. They were constrained. +Well, what explains all these studies? What explains the fact that despite our intuitions, mine included, a lot of online communication, technologically-mediated communication, is more honest than face to face? +That really is strange. How do we explain this? +Well, to do that, one thing is we can look at the deception-detection literature. +It's a very old literature by now, it's coming up on 50 years. +It's been reviewed many times. There's been thousands of trials, hundreds of studies, and there's some really compelling findings. +The first is, we're really bad at detecting deception, really bad. Fifty-four percent accuracy on average when you have to tell if somebody that just said a statement is lying or not. +That's really bad. Why is it so bad? +Well it has to do with Pinocchio's nose. +If I were to ask you guys, what do you rely on when you're looking at somebody and you want to find out if they're lying? What cue do you pay attention to? +Most of you would say that one of the cues you look at is the eyes. The eyes are the window to the soul. +The eyes do not tell us whether somebody's lying or not. +Some situations, yes -- high stakes, maybe their pupils dilate, their pitch goes up, their body movements change a little bit, but not all the time, not for everybody, it's not reliable. +Strange. The other thing is that just because you can't see me doesn't mean I'm going to lie. It's common sense, but one important finding is that we lie for a reason. +We lie to protect ourselves or for our own gain or for somebody else's gain. +So there are some pathological liars, but they make up a tiny portion of the population. We lie for a reason. +Just because people can't see us doesn't mean we're going to necessarily lie. +But I think there's actually something much more interesting and fundamental going on here. The next big thing for me, the next big idea, we can find by going way back in history to the origins of language. +Most linguists agree that we started speaking somewhere between 50,000 and 100,000 years ago. That's a long time ago. +A lot of humans have lived since then. +We've been talking, I guess, about fires and caves and saber-toothed tigers. I don't know what they talked about, but they were doing a lot of talking, and like I said, there's a lot of humans evolving speaking, about 100 billion people in fact. +What's important though is that writing only emerged about 5,000 years ago. So what that means is that all the people before there was any writing, every word that they ever said, every utterance disappeared. No trace. Evanescent. Gone. +Let's turn to now, the networked age. +How many of you have recorded something today? +Anybody do any writing today? Did anybody write a word? +It looks like almost every single person here recorded something. +In this room, right now, we've probably recorded more than almost all of human pre-ancient history. +That is crazy. We're entering this amazing period of flux in human evolution where we've evolved to speak in a way in which our words disappear, but we're in an environment where we're recording everything. +In fact, I think in the very near future, it's not just what we write that will be recorded, everything we do will be recorded. +What does that mean? What's the next big idea from that? +Well, as a social scientist, this is the most amazing thing I have ever even dreamed of. Now, I can look at all those words that used to, for millennia, disappear. +I can look at lies that before were said and then gone. +You remember those Astroturfing reviews that we were talking about before? Well, when they write a fake review, they have to post it somewhere, and it's left behind for us. +So one thing that we did, and I'll give you an example of looking at the language, is we paid people to write some fake reviews. One of these reviews is fake. +The person never was at the James Hotel. +The other review is real. The person stayed there. +Now, your task now is to decide which review is fake? +I'll give you a moment to read through them. +But I want everybody to raise their hand at some point. +Remember, I study deception. I can tell if you don't raise your hand. +All right, how many of you believe that A is the fake? +All right. Very good. About half. +And how many of you think that B is? +All right. Slightly more for B. +Excellent. Here's the answer. +B is a fake. Well done second group. You dominated the first group. You're actually a little bit unusual. Every time we demonstrate this, it's usually about a 50-50 split, which fits with the research, 54 percent. Maybe people here in Winnipeg are more suspicious and better at figuring it out. +Those cold, hard winters, I love it. +All right, so why do I care about this? +Well, what I can do now with my colleagues in computer science is we can create computer algorithms that can analyze the linguistic traces of deception. +Let me highlight a couple of things here in the fake review. The first is that liars tend to think about narrative. They make up a story: Who? And what happened? And that's what happened here. +Our fake reviewers talked about who they were with and what they were doing. They also used the first person singular, I, way more than the people that actually stayed there. +They were inserting themselves into the hotel review, kind of trying to convince you they were there. +In contrast, the people that wrote the reviews that were actually there, their bodies actually entered the physical space, they talked a lot more about spatial information. +They said how big the bathroom was, or they said, you know, here's how far shopping is from the hotel. +Now, you guys did pretty well. Most people perform at chance at this task. +Our computer algorithm is very accurate, much more accurate than humans can be, and it's not going to be accurate all the time. +This isn't a deception-detection machine to tell if your girlfriend's lying to you on text messaging. +We believe that every lie now, every type of lie -- fake hotel reviews, fake shoe reviews, your girlfriend cheating on you with text messaging -- those are all different lies. They're going to have different patterns of language. But because everything's recorded now, we can look at all of those kinds of lies. +Now, as I said, as a social scientist, this is wonderful. +It's transformational. We're going to be able to learn so much more about human thought and expression, about everything from love to attitudes, because everything is being recorded now, but what does it mean for the average citizen? +What does it mean for us in our lives? +Well, let's forget deception for a bit. One of the big ideas, I believe, is that we're leaving these huge traces behind. +My outbox for email is massive, and I never look at it. I write all the time, but I never look at my record, at my trace. +And I think we're going to see a lot more of that, where we can reflect on who we are by looking at what we wrote, what we said, what we did. +Now, if we bring it back to deception, there's a couple of take-away things here. +First, lying online can be very dangerous, right? +Not only are you leaving a record for yourself on your machine, but you're leaving a record on the person that you were lying to, and you're also leaving them around for me to analyze with some computer algorithms. +So by all means, go ahead and do that, that's good. +But when it comes to lying and what we want to do with our lives, I think we can go back to Diogenes and Confucius. And they were less concerned about whether to lie or not to lie, and more concerned about being true to the self, and I think this is really important. +Now, when you are about to say or do something, we can think, do I want this to be part of my legacy, part of my personal record? +Because in the digital age we live in now, in the networked age, we are all leaving a record. +Thank you so much for your time, and good luck with your record. +On my desk in my office, I keep a small clay pot that I made in college. It's raku, which is a kind of pottery that began in Japan centuries ago as a way of making bowls for the Japanese tea ceremony. +This one is more than 400 years old. +Each one was pinched or carved out of a ball of clay, and it was the imperfections that people cherished. +Everyday pots like this cup take eight to 10 hours to fire. +But here in the United States, we ramp up the drama a little bit, and we drop our pots into sawdust, which catches on fire, and you take a garbage pail, and you put it on top, and smoke starts pouring out. +I would come home with my clothes reeking of woodsmoke. +I love raku because it allows me to play with the elements. +Raku is a wonderful metaphor for the process of creativity. +I find in so many things that tension between what I can control and what I have to let go happens all the time, whether I'm creating a new radio show or just at home negotiating with my teenage sons. +When I sat down to write a book about creativity, I realized that the steps were reversed. +I had to let go at the very beginning, and I had to immerse myself in the stories of hundreds of artists and writers and musicians and filmmakers, and as I listened to these stories, I realized that creativity grows out of everyday experiences more often than you might think, including letting go. +It was supposed to break, but that's okay. That's part of the letting go, is sometimes it happens and sometimes it doesn't, because creativity also grows from the broken places. +The best way to learn about anything is through stories, and so I want to tell you a story about work and play and about four aspects of life that we need to embrace in order for our own creativity to flourish. +The first embrace is something that we think, "Oh, this is very easy," but it's actually getting harder, and that's paying attention to the world around us. +So many artists speak about needing to be open, to embrace experience, and that's hard to do when you have a lighted rectangle in your pocket that takes all of your focus. +The filmmaker Mira Nair speaks about growing up in a small town in India. Its name is Bhubaneswar, and here's a picture of one of the temples in her town. +Mira Nair: In this little town, there were like 2,000 temples. +You know, the folk tales of Mahabharata and Ramayana, the two holy books, the epics that everything comes out of in India, they say. After seeing that Jatra, the folk theater, I knew I wanted to get on, you know, and perform. +Julie Burstein: Isn't that a wonderful story? +You can see the sort of break in the everyday. +So being open for that experience that might change you is the first thing we need to embrace. +Artists also speak about how some of their most powerful work comes out of the parts of life that are most difficult. +The novelist Richard Ford speaks about a childhood challenge that continues to be something he wrestles with today. He's severely dyslexic. +JB: It's so powerful. Richard Ford, who's won the Pulitzer Prize, says that dyslexia helped him write sentences. +He had to embrace this challenge, and I use that word intentionally. He didn't have to overcome dyslexia. +He had to learn from it. He had to learn to hear the music in language. +Artists also speak about how pushing up against the limits of what they can do, sometimes pushing into what they can't do, helps them focus on finding their own voice. +The sculptor Richard Serra talks about how, as a young artist, he thought he was a painter, and he lived in Florence after graduate school. +While he was there, he traveled to Madrid, where he went to the Prado to see this picture by the Spanish painter Diego Velzquez. +It's from 1656, and it's called "Las Meninas," and it's the picture of a little princess and her ladies-in-waiting, and if you look over that little blonde princess's shoulder, you'll see a mirror, and reflected in it are her parents, the King and Queen of Spain, who would be standing where you might stand to look at the picture. +As he often did, Velzquez put himself in this painting too. +He's standing on the left with his paintbrush in one hand and his palette in the other. +Richard Serra: I was standing there looking at it, and I realized that Velzquez was looking at me, and I thought, "Oh. I'm the subject of the painting." +And I thought, "I'm not going to be able to do that painting." +I was to the point where I was using a stopwatch and painting squares out of randomness, and I wasn't getting anywhere. So I went back and dumped all my paintings in the Arno, and I thought, I'm going to just start playing around. +Richard Serra had to let go of painting in order to embark on this playful exploration that led him to the work that he's known for today: huge curves of steel that require our time and motion to experience. In sculpture, Richard Serra is able to do what he couldn't do in painting. +He makes us the subject of his art. +So experience and challenge and limitations are all things we need to embrace for creativity to flourish. +There's a fourth embrace, and it's the hardest. +It's the embrace of loss, the oldest and most constant of human experiences. +In order to create, we have to stand in that space between what we see in the world and what we hope for, looking squarely at rejection, at heartbreak, at war, at death. +That's a tough space to stand in. +The educator Parker Palmer calls it "the tragic gap," tragic not because it's sad but because it's inevitable, and my friend Dick Nodel likes to say, "You can hold that tension like a violin string and make something beautiful." +That tension resonates in the work of the photographer Joel Meyerowitz, who at the beginning of his career was known for his street photography, for capturing a moment on the street, and also for his beautiful photographs of landscapes -- of Tuscany, of Cape Cod, of light. +Joel is a New Yorker, and his studio for many years was in Chelsea, with a straight view downtown to the World Trade Center, and he photographed those buildings in every sort of light. +You know where this story goes. +On 9/11, Joel wasn't in New York. He was out of town, but he raced back to the city, and raced down to the site of the destruction. +And it was such a blow that it woke me up, in the way that it was meant to be, I guess. +And when I asked her why no pictures, she said, "It's a crime scene. No photographs allowed." +And I asked her, "What would happen if I was a member of the press?" And she told me, "Oh, look back there," and back a block was the press corps tied up in a little penned-in area, and I said, "Well, when do they go in?" +and she said, "Probably never." +And as I walked away from that, I had this crystallization, probably from the blow, because it was an insult in a way. +I thought, "Oh, if there's no pictures, then there'll be no record. We need a record." +And I thought, "I'm gonna make that record. +I'll find a way to get in, because I don't want to see this history disappear." +JB: He did. He pulled in every favor he could, and got a pass into the World Trade Center site, where he photographed for nine months almost every day. +Looking at these photographs today brings back the smell of smoke that lingered on my clothes when I went home to my family at night. +My office was just a few blocks away. +But some of these photographs are beautiful, and we wondered, was it difficult for Joel Meyerowitz to make such beauty out of such devastation? +I mean, there were afternoons I was down there, and the light goes pink and there's a mist in the air and you're standing in the rubble, and I found myself recognizing both the inherent beauty of nature and the fact that nature, as time, is erasing this wound. +Time is unstoppable, and it transforms the event. +It gets further and further away from the day, and light and seasons temper it in some way, and it's not that I'm a romantic. I'm really a realist. +But the fact is, I'm there, it looks like that, you have to take a picture. +JB: You have to take a picture. That sense of urgency, of the need to get to work, is so powerful in Joel's story. +When I saw Joel Meyerowitz recently, I told him how much I admired his passionate obstinacy, his determination to push through all the bureaucratic red tape to get to work, and he laughed, and he said, "I'm stubborn, but I think what's more important is my passionate optimism." +Creativity is essential to all of us, whether we're scientists or teachers, parents or entrepreneurs. +I want to leave you with another image of a Japanese tea bowl. This one is at the Freer Gallery in Washington, D.C. +It's more than a hundred years old and you can still see the fingermarks where the potter pinched it. +But as you can also see, this one did break at some point in its hundred years. +But the person who put it back together, instead of hiding the cracks, decided to emphasize them, using gold lacquer to repair it. +This bowl is more beautiful now, having been broken, than it was when it was first made, and we can look at those cracks, because they tell the story that we all live, of the cycle of creation and destruction, of control and letting go, of picking up the pieces and making something new. +Thank you. +So I tried to do a small good thing for my wife. +It makes me to stand here, the fame, the money I got out of it. +So what I did, I'd gone back to my early marriage days. +What you did in the early marriage days, you tried to impress your wife. I did the same. +On that occasion, I found my wife carrying something like this. +I saw. "What is that?" I asked. +My wife replied, "None of your business." +Then, being her husband, I ran behind her and saw she had a nasty rag cloth. +I don't even use that cloth to clean my two-wheeler. +Then I understood this -- adapting that unhygienic method to manage her period days. +Then I immediately asked her, why are you [using] that unhygienic method? +She replied, I also know about [sanitary pads], but myself and my sisters, if they start using that, we have to cut our family milk budget. +Then I was shocked. What is the connection between using a sanitary pad and a milk budget? +And it's called affordability. +I tried to impress my new wife by offering her a packet of sanitary pads. +I went to a local shop, I tried to buy her a sanitary pad packet. +That fellow looks left and right, and spreads a newspaper, rolls it into the newspaper, gives it to me like a banned item, something like that. +I don't know why. I did not ask for a condom. +Then I took that pad. I want to see that. What is inside it? +The very first time, at the age of 29, that day I am touching the sanitary pad, first ever. +I must know: How many of the guys here have touched a sanitary pad? +They are not going to touch that, because it's not your matter. +Then I thought to myself, white substance, made of cotton -- oh my God, that guy is just using a penny value of raw material -- inside they are selling for pounds, dollars. +Why not make a local sanitary pad for my new wife? +That's how all this started, but after making a sanitary pad, where can I check it? +It's not like I can just check it in the lab. +I need a woman volunteer. Where can I get one in India? +Even in Bangalore you won't get [one], in India. +So only problem: the only available victim is my wife. +Then I made a sanitary pad and handed it to Shanti -- my wife's name is Shanti. +"Close your eyes. Whatever I give, it will be not a diamond pendant not a diamond ring, even a chocolate, I will give you a surprise with a lot of tinsel paper rolled up with it. +Close your eyes." +Because I tried to make it intimate. +Because it's an arranged marriage, not a love marriage. +So one day she said, openly, I'm not going to support this research. +Then other victims, they got into my sisters. +But even sisters, wives, they're not ready to support in the research. +That's why I am always jealous with the saints in India. +They are having a lot of women volunteers around them. +Why I am not getting [any]? +You know, without them even calling, they'll get a lot of women volunteers. +Then I used, tried to use the medical college girls. +They also refused. Finally, I decide, use sanitary pad myself. +Now I am having a title like the first man to set foot on the moon. +Armstrong. Then Tenzing [and] Hillary, in Everest, like that Muruganantham is the first man wore a sanitary pad across the globe. +I wore a sanitary pad. I filled animal blood in a football bottle, I tied it up here, there is a tube going into my panties, while I'm walking, while I'm cycling, I made a press, doses of blood will go there. +That makes me bow down to any woman in front of me to give full respect. That five days I'll never forget -- the messy days, the lousy days, that wetness. +My God, it's unbelievable. +But here the problem is, one company is making napkin out of cotton. It is working well. +But I am also trying to make sanitary pad with the good cotton. It's not working. +That makes me to want to refuse to continue this research and research and research. +You need first funds. +Not only financial crises, but because of the sanitary pad research, I come through all sorts of problems, including a divorce notice from my wife. +Why is this? I used medical college girls. +She suspects I am using as a trump card to run behind medical college girls. +Finally, I came to know it is a special cellulose derived from a pinewood, but even after that, you need a multimillion-dollar plant like this to process that material. Again, a stop-up. +Then I spend another four years to create my own machine tools, a simple machine tool like this. +In this machine, any rural woman can apply the same raw materials that they are processing in the multinational plant, anyone can make a world-class napkin at your dining hall. +That is my invention. +So after that, what I did, usually if anyone got a patent or an invention, immediately you want to make, convert into this. +I never did this. I dropped it just like this, because you do this, if anyone runs after money, their life will not [have] any beauty. It is boredom. +A lot of people making a lot of money, billion, billions of dollars accumulating. +Why are they coming for, finally, for philanthropy? +Why the need for accumulating money, then doing philanthropy? +What if one decided to start philanthropy from the day one? +That's why I am giving this machine only in rural India, for rural women, because in India, [you'll be] surprised, only two percent of women are using sanitary pads. The rest, they're using a rag cloth, a leaf, husk, [saw] dust, everything except sanitary pads. +It is the same in the 21st century. That's why I am going to decide to give this machine only for poor women across India. +So far, 630 installations happened in 23 states in six other countries. +Now I'm on my seventh year sustaining against multinational, transnational giants -- makes all MBA students a question mark. +A school dropout from Coimbatore, how he is able to sustaining? +That makes me a visiting professor and guest lecturer in all IIMs. +Play video one. +Arunachalam Muruganantham: The thing I saw in my wife's hand, "Why are you using that nasty cloth?" +She replied immediately, "I know about napkins, but if I start using napkins, then we have to cut our family milk budget." +Why not make myself a low-cost napkin? +So I decided I'm going to sell this new machine only for Women Self Help Groups. +That is my idea. +AM: And previously, you need a multimillion investment for machine and all. Now, any rural woman can. +They are performing puja. +: You just think, competing giants, even from Harvard, Oxford, is difficult. +I make a rural woman to compete with multinationals. +I'm sustaining on seventh year. +Already 600 installations. What is my mission? +I'm going to make India [into] a 100-percent-sanitary-napkin-using country in my lifetime. +In this way I'm going to provide not less than a million rural employment that I'm going to create. +That's why I'm not running after this bloody money. +I'm doing something serious. +If you chase a girl, the girl won't like you. +Do your job simply, the girl will chase you. +Like that, I never chased Mahalakshmi. +Mahalakshmi is chasing me, I am keeping in the back pocket. +Not in front pocket. I'm a back pocket man. +That's all. A school dropout saw your problem in the society of not using sanitary pad. +I am becoming a solution provider. I'm very happy. +I don't want to make this as a corporate entity. +I want to make this as a local sanitary pad movement across the globe. That's why I put all the details on public domain like an open software. +Now 110 countries are accessing it. Okay? +So I classify the people into three: uneducated, little educated, surplus educated. +Little educated, done this. Surplus educated, what are you going to do for the society? +Thank you very much. Bye! +Living with a physical disability isn't easy anywhere in the world, but if you live in a country like the United States, there's certain appurtenances available to you that do make life easier. +So if you're in a building, you can take an elevator. +If you're crossing the street, you have sidewalk cutouts. +And if you have to travel some distance farther than you can do under your own power, there's accessible vehicles, and if you can't afford one of those, there's accessible public transportation. +But in the developing world, things are quite different. +There's 40 million people who need a wheelchair but don't have one, and the majority of these people live in rural areas, where the only connections to community, to employment, to education, are by traveling long distances on rough terrain often under their own power. +And the devices usually available to these people are not made for that context, break down quickly, and are hard to repair. +So being a mechanical engineer, being at MIT and having lots of resources available to me, I thought I'd try to do something about it. +And if you want to go faster, say on pavement, you can shift to a high gear, and you get less torque, but higher speeds. +So the logical evolution here is to just make a wheelchair with mountain bike components, which many people have done. +But these are two products available in the U.S. that would be difficult to transfer into developing countries because they're much, much too expensive. +And the context I'm talking about is where you need to have a product that is less than 200 dollars. +And this ideal product would also be able to go about five kilometers a day so you could get to your job, get to school, and do it on many, many different types of terrain. +But when you get home or want to go indoors at your work, it's got to be small enough and maneuverable enough to use inside. +And furthermore, if you want it to last a long time out in rural areas, it has to be repairable using the local tools, materials and knowledge in those contexts. +So the real crux of the problem here is, how do you make a system that's a simple device but gives you a large mechanical advantage? +How do you make a mountain bike for your arms that doesn't have the mountain bike cost and complexity? +So as is the case with simple solutions, oftentimes the answer is right in front of your face, and for us it was levers. +We use levers all the time, in tools, doorknobs, bicycle parts. +And as they slide their hand down the lever, they can push with a smaller effective lever length, but push through a bigger angle every stroke, which makes a faster rotational speed, and gives you an effective high gear. +So what's exciting about this system is that it's really, really mechanically simple, and you could make it using technology that's been around for hundreds of years. +So seeing this in practice, this is the Leveraged Freedom Chair that, after a few years of development, we're now going into production with, and this is a full-time wheelchair user -- he's paralyzed -- in Guatemala, and you see he's able to traverse pretty rough terrain. +Now the big, important point here is that the person is the complex machine in this system. +It's the person that's sliding his hands up and down the levers, so the mechanism itself can be very simple and composed of bicycle parts you can get anywhere in the world. +Because those bicycle parts are so ubiquitously available, they're super-cheap. +They're made by the gazillions in China and India, and we can source them anywhere in the world, build the chair anywhere, and most importantly repair it, even out in a village with a local bicycle mechanic who has local tools, knowledge and parts available. +Now, there's three important points that I want to stress that I think really hit home in this project. +The first is that this product works well because we were effectively able to combine rigorous engineering science and analysis with user-centered design focused on the social and usage and economic factors important to wheelchair users in the developing countries. +So as a wet-behind-the-ears student, excited, our team made a prototype, brought that prototype to Tanzania, Kenya and Vietnam in 2008, and found it was terrible because we didn't get enough input from users. +It's also about 40 percent more efficient than a regular wheelchair, and because of the mechanical advantage you get from the levers, you can produce 50 percent higher torque and really muscle your way through the really, really rough terrain. +And these are all merits that are not just good in the developing world. +Why not in countries like the U.S. too? +So we teamed up with Continuum, a local product design firm here in Boston to make the high-end version, the developed world version, that we'll probably sell primarily in the U.S. and Europe, but to higher-income buyers. +These are the people that define the requirements of the technology, and these are the people that have to give the thumbs-up at the end, and say, "Yeah, it actually works. It meets our needs." +So people like me in the academic space, we can do things like innovate and analyze and test, create data and make bench-level prototypes, but how do you get that bench-level prototype to commercialization? +And then finally, to get this out to the people in scale, we teamed up with the largest disability organization in the world, Jaipur Foot. +Now what's powerful about this model is when you bring together all these stakeholders that represent each link in the chain from inception of an idea all the way to implementation in the field, that's where the magic happens. +That's where you can take a guy like me, an academic, but analyze and test and create a new technology and quantitatively determine how much better the performance is. +You can connect with stakeholders like the manufacturers and talk with them face-to-face and leverage their local knowledge of manufacturing practices and their clients and combine that knowledge with our engineering knowledge to create something greater than either of us could have done alone. +And then you can also engage the end user in the design process, and not just ask him what he needs, but ask him how he thinks it can be achieved. +The road was too rough. +But the day after he got an LFC, he hopped in it, rode that kilometer, opened up his shop and soon after landed a contract to make school uniforms and started making money, started providing for his family again. +Ashok: You also encouraged me to work. +I rested for a day at home. +The next day I went to my shop. +Now everything is back to normal. +Amos Winter: And thank you very much for having me today. +I'm a brain scientist, and as a brain scientist, I'm actually interested in how the brain learns, and I'm especially interested in a possibility of making our brains smarter, better and faster. +This is in this context I'm going to tell you about video games. When we say video games, most of you think about children. +It's true. Ninety percent of children do play video games. +But let's be frank. +When the kids are in bed, who is in front of the PlayStation? +Most of you. The average age of a gamer is 33 years old, not eight years old, and in fact, if we look at the projected demographics of video game play, the video game players of tomorrow are older adults. So video [gaming] is pervasive throughout our society. +It is clearly here to stay. It has an amazing impact on our everyday life. Consider these statistics released by Activision. After one month of release of the game "Call Of Duty: Black Ops," it had been played for 68,000 years worldwide, right? +Would any of you complain if this was the case about doing linear algebra? +So what we are asking in the lab is, how can we leverage that power? +Now I want to step back a bit. +I know most of you have had the experience of coming back home and finding your kids playing these kinds of games. +(Shooting noises) The name of the game is to get after your enemy zombie bad guys before they get to you, right? +And I'm almost sure most of you have thought, "Oh, come on, can't you do something more intelligent than shooting at zombies?" +I'd like you to put this kind of knee-jerk reaction in the context of what you would have thought if you had found your girl playing sudoku or your boy reading Shakespeare. Right? +Most parents would find that great. +Well, I'm not going to tell you that playing video games days in and days out is actually good for your health. +It's not, and binging is never good. +But I'm going to argue that in reasonable doses, actually the very game I showed you at the beginning, those action-packed shooter games have quite powerful effects and positive effects on many different aspects of our behavior. +There's not one week that goes without some major headlines in the media about whether video games are good or bad for you, right? You're all bombarded with that. +I'd like to put this kind of Friday night bar discussion aside and get you to actually step into the lab. +What we do in the lab is actually measure directly, in a quantitative fashion, what is the impact of video games on the brain. +And so I'm going to take a few examples from our work. +One first saying that I'm sure you all have heard is the fact that too much screen time makes your eyesight worse. +That's a statement about vision. +There may be vision scientists among you. +We actually know how to test that statement. +We can step into the lab and measure how good your vision is. +Well, guess what? People that don't play a lot of action games, that don't actually spend a lot of time in front of screens, have normal, or what we call corrective-to-normal vision. That's okay. +The issue is what happens with these guys that actually indulge into playing video games like five hours per week, 10 hours per week, 15 hours per week. +By that statement, their vision should be really bad, right? +Guess what? Their vision is really, really good. +It's better than those that don't play. +And it's better in two different ways. +The first way is that they're actually able to resolve small detail in the context of clutter, and though that means being able to read the fine print on a prescription rather than using magnifier glasses, you can actually do it with just your eyesight. +The other way that they are better is actually being able to resolve different levels of gray. +Imagine you're driving in a fog. That makes a difference between seeing the car in front of you and avoiding the accident, or getting into an accident. +So we're actually leveraging that work to develop games for patients with low vision, and to have an impact on retraining their brain to see better. +Clearly, when it comes to action video games, screen time doesn't make your eyesight worse. +Another saying that I'm sure you have all heard around: Video games lead to attention problems and greater distractability. +Okay, we know how to measure attention in the lab. +I'm actually going to give you an example of how we do so. +I'm going to ask you to participate, so you're going to have to actually play the game with me. I'm going to show you colored words. I want you to shout out the color of the ink. +Right? So this is the first example. +["Chair"] Orange, good. ["Table"] Green. +["Board"] Audience: Red.Daphne Bavelier: Red. +["Horse"] DB: Yellow. Audience: Yellow. +["Yellow"] DB: Red. Audience: Yellow. +["Blue"] DB: Yellow. +Okay, you get my point, right? You're getting better, but it's hard. Why is it hard? +Because I introduced a conflict between the word itself and its color. +How good your attention is determines actually how fast you resolve that conflict, so the young guys here at the top of their game probably, like, did a little better than some of us that are older. +What we can show is that when you do this kind of task with people that play a lot of action games, they actually resolve the conflict faster. +So clearly playing those action games doesn't lead to attention problems. +Actually, those action video game players have many other advantages in terms of attention, and one aspect of attention which is also improved for the better is our ability to track objects around in the world. +This is something we use all the time. When you're driving, you're tracking, keeping track of the cars around you. +You're also keeping track of the pedestrian, the running dog, and that's how you can actually be safe driving, right? +In the lab, we get people to come to the lab, sit in front of a computer screen, and we give them little tasks that I'm going to get you to do again. +You're going to see yellow happy faces and a few sad blue faces. These are children in the schoolyard in Geneva during a recess during the winter. Most kids are happy. It's actually recess. +But a few kids are sad and blue because they've forgotten their coat. +Was it yellow initially or blue? +I hear a few yellow. Good. So most of you have a brain. I'm now going to ask you to do the task, but now with a little more challenging task. There are going to be three of them that are blue. Don't move your eyes. +Please don't move your eyes. Keep your eyes fixated and expand, pull your attention. That's the only way you can actually do it. If you move your eyes, you're doomed. +Yellow or blue? +Audience: Yellow.DB: Good. +So your typical normal young adult can have a span of about three or four objects of attention. +That's what we just did. Your action video game player has a span of about six to seven objects of attention, which is what is shown in this video here. +That's for you guys, action video game players. +The other one is the frontal lobe, which controls how we sustain attention, and another one is the anterior cingulate, which controls how we allocate and regulate attention and resolve conflict. +Now, when we do brain imaging, we find that all three of these networks are actually much more efficient in people that play action games. +This actually leads me to a rather counterintuitive finding in the literature about technology and the brain. +You all know about multitasking. You all have been faulty of multitasking when you're driving and you pick up your cellphone. Bad idea. Very bad idea. +Why? Because as your attention shifts to your cell phone, you are actually losing the capacity to react swiftly to the car braking in front of you, and so you're much more likely to get engaged into a car accident. +Now, we can measure that kind of skills in the lab. +We obviously don't ask people to drive around and see how many car accidents they have. That would be a little costly proposition. But we design tasks on the computer where we can measure, to millisecond accuracy, how good they are at switching from one task to another. +When we do that, we actually find that people that play a lot of action games are really, really good. +They switch really fast, very swiftly. They pay a very small cost. +Now I'd like you to remember that result, and put it in the context of another group of technology users, a group which is actually much revered by society, which are people that engage in multimedia-tasking. +What is multimedia-tasking? It's the fact that most of us, most of our children, are engaged with listening to music at the same time as they're doing search on the web at the same time as they're chatting on Facebook with their friends. +That's a multimedia-tasker. +There was a first study done by colleagues at Stanford and that we replicated that showed that those people that identify as being high multimedia-taskers are absolutely abysmal at multitasking. +When we measure them in the lab, they're really bad. +Right? So these kinds of results really makes two main points. +The first one is that not all media are created equal. +You can't compare the effect of multimedia-tasking and the effect of playing action games. They have totally different effects on different aspects of cognition, perception and attention. +Even within video games, I'm telling you right now about these action-packed video games. +Different video games have a different effect on your brains. +So we actually need to step into the lab and really measure what is the effect of each video game. +The other lesson is that general wisdom carries no weight. +I showed that to you already, like we looked at the fact that despite a lot of screen time, those action gamers have a lot of very good vision, etc. +Here, what was really striking is that these undergraduates that actually report engaging in a lot of high multimedia-tasking are convinced they aced the test. +So you show them their data, you show them they are bad and they're like, "Not possible." You know, they have this sort of gut feeling that, really, they are doing really, really good. +That's another argument for why we need to step into the lab and really measure the impact of technology on the brain. +Now in a sense, when we think about the effect of video games on the brain, it's very similar to the effect of wine on the health. +There are some very poor uses of wine. There are some very poor uses of video games. But when consumed in reasonable doses, and at the right age, wine can be very good for health. There are actually specific molecules that have been identified in red wine as leading to greater life expectancy. +Now because we are interested in having an impact for education or rehabilitation of patients, we are actually not that interested in how those of you that choose to play video games for many hours on end perform. +I'm much more interested in taking any of you and showing that by forcing you to play an action game, I can actually change your vision for the better, whether you want to play that action game or not, right? +That's the point of rehabilitation or education. +Most of the kids don't go to school saying, "Great, two hours of math!" +So that's really the crux of the research, and to do that, we need to go one more step. +And one more step is to do training studies. +So let me illustrate that step with a task which is called mental rotation. +Mental rotation is a task where I'm going to ask you, and again you're going to do the task, to look at this shape. Study it, it's a target shape, and I'm going to present to you four different shapes. +One of these four different shapes is actually a rotated version of this shape. I want you to tell me which one: the first one, second one, third one or fourth one? +Okay, I'll help you. Fourth one. +One more. Get those brains working. Come on. +That's our target shape. +Third. Good! This is hard, right? +Like, the reason that I asked you to do that is because you really feel your brain cringing, right? +It doesn't really feel like playing mindless action video games. +Well, what we do in these training studies is, people come to the lab, they do tasks like this one, we then force them to play 10 hours of action games. +They don't play 10 hours of action games in a row. +They do distributed practice, so little shots of 40 minutes several days over a period of two weeks. +Why? Because I told you we want to use these games for education or for rehabilitation. We need to have effects that are going to be long-lasting. +Now, at this point, a number of you are probably wondering well, what are you waiting for, to put on the market a game that would be good for the attention of my grandmother and that she would actually enjoy, or a game that would be great to rehabilitate the vision of my grandson who has amblyopia, for example? +Well, we're working on it, but here is a challenge. +There are brain scientists like me that are beginning to understand what are the good ingredients in games to promote positive effects, and that's what I'm going to call the broccoli side of the equation. +There is an entertainment software industry which is extremely deft at coming up with appealing products that you can't resist. +That's the chocolate side of the equation. +The issue is we need to put the two together, and it's a little bit like with food. +Who really wants to eat chocolate-covered broccoli? +I'd like to leave you with that thought, and thank you for your attention. +Tommy Mizzone: Tonight we're going to play you two songs. +We're three brothers from New Jersey, and the funny thing is that, believe it or not, we are hooked on bluegrass and we're excited to play it for you tonight. +TM: Thank you, thank you. +Robbie Mizzone: Thank you. +I'm Robbie Mizzone. I'm 13, and I play the fiddle. +This is my brother, Jonny. He's 10, and he plays the banjo. +And on guitar is my 14-year-old brother, Tommy. +We call ourselves the Sleepy Man Banjo Boys. +TM: Thank you. +JM: Thank you all. +TM: Thank you very much. +Hi. I'm here to talk about congestion, namely road congestion. +Road congestion is a pervasive phenomenon. +It exists in basically all of the cities all around the world, which is a little bit surprising when you think about it. +I mean, think about how different cities are, actually. +I mean, you have the typical European cities, with a dense urban core, good public transportation mostly, not a lot of road capacity. +But then, on the other hand, you have the American cities. +It's moving by itself, okay. +Anyway, the American cities: lots of roads dispersed over large areas, almost no public transportation. +And then you have the emerging world cities, with a mixed variety of vehicles, mixed land-use patterns, also rather dispersed but often with a very dense urban core. +And traffic planners all around the world have tried lots of different measures: dense cities or dispersed cities, lots of roads or lots of public transport or lots of bike lanes or more information, or lots of different things, but nothing seems to work. +But all of these attempts have one thing in common. +They're basically attempts at figuring out what people should do instead of rush hour car driving. +They're essentially, to a point, attempts at planning what other people should do, planning their life for them. +Now, planning a complex social system is a very hard thing to do, and let me tell you a story. +Back in 1989, when the Berlin Wall fell, an urban planner in London got a phone call from a colleague in Moscow saying, basically, "Hi, this is Vladimir. I'd like to know, who's in charge of London's bread supply?" +And the urban planner in London goes, "What do you mean, who's in charge of London's I mean, no one is in charge." +"Oh, but surely someone must be in charge. +I mean, it's a very complicated system. Someone must control all of this." +"No. No. No one is in charge. +I mean, it basically -- I haven't really thought of it. +It basically organizes itself." +It organizes itself. +That's an example of a complex social system which has the ability of self-organizing, and this is a very deep insight. +When you try to solve really complex social problems, the right thing to do is most of the time to create the incentives. +You don't plan the details, and people will figure out what to do, how to adapt to this new framework. +And let's now look at how we can use this insight to combat road congestion. +This is a map of Stockholm, my hometown. +Now, Stockholm is a medium-sized city, roughly two million people, but Stockholm also has lots of water and lots of water means lots of bridges -- narrow bridges, old bridges -- which means lots of road congestion. +And these red dots show the most congested parts, which are the bridges that lead into the inner city. +And then someone came up with the idea that, apart from good public transport, apart from spending money on roads, let's try to charge drivers one or two euros at these bottlenecks. +Now, one or two euros, that isn't really a lot of money, I mean compared to parking charges and running costs, etc., so you would probably expect that car drivers wouldn't really react to this fairly small charge. +You would be wrong. +One or two euros was enough to make 20 percent of cars disappear from rush hours. +Now, 20 percent, well, that's a fairly huge figure, you might think, but you've still got 80 percent left of the problem, right? +Because you still have 80 percent of the traffic. +Now, that's also wrong, because traffic happens to be a nonlinear phenomenon, meaning that once you reach above a certain capacity threshold then congestion starts to increase really, really rapidly. +But fortunately, it also works the other way around. +If you can reduce traffic even somewhat, then congestion will go down much faster than you might think. +Now, congestion charges were introduced in Stockholm on January 3, 2006, and the first picture here is a picture of Stockholm, one of the typical streets, January 2. +The first day with the congestion charges looked like this. +This is what happens when you take away 20 percent of the cars from the streets. +You really reduce congestion quite substantially. +But, well, as I said, I mean, car drivers adapt, right? +So after a while they would all come back because they have sort of gotten used to charges. +Wrong again. It's now six and a half years ago since the congestion charges were introduced in Stockholm, and we basically have the same low traffic levels still. +But you see, there's an interesting gap here in the time series in 2007. +Well, the thing is that, the congestion charges, they were introduced first as a trial, so they were introduced in January and then abolished again at the end of July, followed by a referendum, and then they were reintroduced again in 2007, which of course was a wonderful scientific opportunity. +I mean, this was a really fun experiment to start with, and we actually got to do it twice. +And personally, I would like to do this every once a year or so, but they won't let me do that. +But it was fun anyway. +So, we followed up. What happened? +This is the last day with the congestion charges, July 31, and you see the same street but now it's summer, and summer in Stockholm is a very nice and light time of the year, and the first day without the congestion charges looked like this. +All the cars were back again, and you even have to admire the car drivers. They adapt so extremely quickly. +The first day they all came back. +And this effect hanged on. So 2007 figures looked like this. +Now these traffic figures are really exciting and a little bit surprising and very useful to know, but I would say that the most surprising slide here I'm going to show you today is not this one. It's this one. +This shows public support for congestion pricing of Stockholm, and you see that when congestion pricing were introduced in the beginning of Spring 2006, people were fiercely against it. +Seventy percent of the population didn't want this. +But what happened when the congestion charges were there is not what you would expect, that people hated it more and more. +No, on the contrary, they changed, up to a point where we now have 70 percent support for keeping the charges, meaning that -- I mean, let me repeat that: 70 percent of the population in Stockholm want to keep a price for something that used to be free. +Okay. So why can that be? Why is that? +Well, think about it this way. Who changed? +I mean, the 20 percent of the car drivers that disappeared, surely they must be discontent in a way. +And where did they go? If we can understand this, then maybe we can figure out how people can be so happy with this. +Well, so we did this huge interview survey with lots of travel services, and tried to figure out who changed, and where did they go? +And it turned out that they don't know themselves. For some reason, the car drivers are -- they are confident they actually drive the same way that they used to do. +And why is that? It's because that travel patterns are much less stable than you might think. +Each day, people make new decisions, and people change and the world changes around them, and each day all of these decisions are sort of nudged ever so slightly away from rush hour car driving in a way that people don't even notice. +They're not even aware of this themselves. +And the other question, who changed their mind? +Who changed their opinion, and why? +So we did another interview survey, tried to figure out why people changed their mind, and what type of group changed their minds? +And after analyzing the answers, it turned out that more than half of them believe that they haven't changed their minds. +They're actually confident that they have liked congestion pricing all along. +Which means that we are now in a position where we have reduced traffic across this toll cordon with 20 percent, and reduced congestion by enormous numbers, and people aren't even aware that they have changed, and they honestly believe that they have liked this all along. +This is the power of nudges when trying to solve complex social problems, and when you do that, you shouldn't try to tell people how to adapt. +You should just nudge them in the right direction. +And if you do it right, people will actually embrace the change, and if you do it right, people will actually even like it. +Thank you. +Life is about opportunities, creating them and embracing them, and for me, that was the Olympic dream. +That's what defined me. That was my bliss. +As a cross-country skier and member of the Australian ski team, headed towards the Winter Olympics, I was on a training bike ride with my fellow teammates. +As we made our way up towards the spectacular Blue Mountains west of Sydney, it was the perfect autumn day: sunshine, the smell of eucalypt and a dream. +Life was good. +We'd been on our bikes for around five and half hours when we got to the part of the ride that I loved, and that was the hills, because I loved the hills. +And I got up off the seat of my bike, and I started pumping my legs, and as I sucked in the cold mountain air, I could feel it burning my lungs, and I looked up to see the sun shining in my face. +And then everything went black. +Where was I? What was happening? +My body was consumed by pain. +I'd been hit by a speeding utility truck with only 10 minutes to go on the bike ride. +I was airlifted from the scene of the accident by a rescue helicopter to a large spinal unit in Sydney. +I had extensive and life-threatening injuries. +I'd broken my neck and my back in six places. +I broke five ribs on my left side. +I broke my right arm. I broke my collarbone. +I broke some bones in my feet. +My whole right side was ripped open, filled with gravel. +My head was cut open across the front, lifted back, exposing the skull underneath. +I had head injures. I had internal injuries. +I had massive blood loss. In fact, I lost about five liters of blood, which is all someone my size would actually hold. +By the time the helicopter arrived at Prince Henry Hospital in Sydney, my blood pressure was 40 over nothing. +I was having a really bad day. For over 10 days, I drifted between two dimensions. +I had an awareness of being in my body, but also being out of my body, somewhere else, watching from above as if it was happening to someone else. +Why would I want to go back to a body that was so broken? +But this voice kept calling me: "Come on, stay with me." +"No. It's too hard." +"Come on. This is our opportunity." +"No. That body is broken. It can no longer serve me." +"Come on. Stay with me. We can do it. We can do it together." +I was at a crossroads. +I knew if I didn't return to my body, I'd have to leave this world forever. +It was the fight of my life. +After 10 days, I made the decision to return to my body, and the internal bleeding stopped. +The next concern was whether I would walk again, because I was paralyzed from the waist down. +They said to my parents, the neck break was a stable fracture, but the back was completely crushed. +The vertebra at L1 was like you'd dropped a peanut, stepped on it, smashed it into thousands of pieces. +They'd have to operate. +They went in. They put me on a beanbag. They cut me, literally cut me in half, I have a scar that wraps around my entire body. +They picked as much broken bone as they could that had lodged in my spinal cord. +They took out two of my broken ribs, and they rebuilt my back, L1, they rebuilt it, they took out another broken rib, they fused T12, L1 and L2 together. +Then they stitched me up. They took an entire hour to stitch me up. +I woke up in intensive care, and the doctors were really excited that the operation had been a success because at that stage I had a little bit of movement in one of my big toes, and I thought, "Great, because I'm going to the Olympics!" +I had no idea. That's the sort of thing that happens to someone else, not me, surely. +But then the doctor came over to me, and she said, "Janine, the operation was a success, and we've picked as much bone out of your spinal cord as we could, but the damage is permanent. +The central nervous system nerves, there is no cure. +You're what we call a partial paraplegic, and you'll have all of the injuries that go along with that. +You have no feeling from the waist down, and at most, you might get 10- or 20-percent return. +You'll have internal injuries for the rest of your life. +You'll have to use a catheter for the rest of your life. +And if you walk again, it will be with calipers and a walking frame." +And then she said, "Janine, you'll have to rethink everything you do in your life, because you're never going to be able to do the things you did before." +I tried to grasp what she was saying. +I was an athlete. That's all I knew. That's all I'd done. +If I couldn't do that, then what could I do? +And the question I asked myself is, if I couldn't do that, then who was I? +They moved me from intensive care to acute spinal. +I was lying on a thin, hard spinal bed. +I had no movement in my legs. I had tight stockings on to protect from blood clots. +I had one arm in plaster, one arm tied down by drips. +I had a neck brace and sandbags on either side of my head and I saw my world through a mirror that was suspended above my head. +I shared the ward with five other people, and the amazing thing is that because we were all lying paralyzed in a spinal ward, we didn't know what each other looked like. +How amazing is that? How often in life do you get to make friendships, judgment-free, purely based on spirit? +And there were no superficial conversations as we shared our innermost thoughts, our fears, and our hopes for life after the spinal ward. +I remember one night, one of the nurses came in, Jonathan, with a whole lot of plastic straws. +He put a pile on top of each of us, and he said, "Start threading them together." +Well, there wasn't much else to do in the spinal ward, so we did. +And when we'd finished, he went around silently and he joined all of the straws up till it looped around the whole ward, and then he said, "Okay, everybody, hold on to your straws." +And we did. And he said, "Right. Now we're all connected." +And as we held on, and we breathed as one, we knew we weren't on this journey alone. +And even lying paralyzed in the spinal ward, there were moments of incredible depth and richness, of authenticity and connection that I had never experienced before. +And each of us knew that when we left the spinal ward we would never be the same. +After six months, it was time to go home. +I remember Dad pushing me outside in my wheelchair, wrapped in a plaster body cast, and feeling the sun on my face for the first time. +I soaked it up and I thought, how could I ever have taken this for granted? +I felt so incredibly grateful for my life. +But before I left the hospital, the head nurse had said to me, "Janine, I want you to be ready, because when you get home, something's going to happen." +And I said, "What?" And she said, "You're going to get depressed." +And I said, "Not me, not Janine the Machine," which was my nickname. +She said, "You are, because, see, it happens to everyone. +In the spinal ward, that's normal. +You're in a wheelchair. That's normal. +But you're going to get home and realize how different life is." +And I got home and something happened. +I realized Sister Sam was right. +I did get depressed. +I was in my wheelchair. I had no feeling from the waist down, attached to a catheter bottle. I couldn't walk. +I'd lost so much weight in the hospital I now weighed about 80 pounds. +And I wanted to give up. +All I wanted to do was put my running shoes on and run out the door. +I wanted my old life back. I wanted my body back. +And I can remember Mom sitting on the end of my bed, and saying, "I wonder if life will ever be good again." +And I thought, "How could it? Because I've lost everything that I valued, everything that I'd worked towards. +Gone." +And the question I asked was, "Why me? Why me?" +And then I remembered my friends that were still in the spinal ward, particularly Maria. +Maria was in a car accident, and she woke up on her 16th birthday to the news that she was a complete quadriplegic, had no movement from the neck down, had damage to her vocal chords, and she couldn't talk. +They told me, "We're going to move you next to her because we think it will be good for her." +I was worried. I didn't know how I'd react to being next to her. +I knew it would be challenging, but it was actually a blessing, because Maria always smiled. +She was always happy, and even when she began to talk again, albeit difficult to understand, she never complained, not once. +And I wondered how had she ever found that level of acceptance. +And I realized that this wasn't just my life. +It was life itself. I realized that this wasn't just my pain. +It was everybody's pain. And then I knew, just like before, that I had a choice. I could keep fighting this or I could let go and accept not only my body but the circumstances of my life. +And then I stopped asking, "Why me?" +And I started to ask, "Why not me?" +And then I thought to myself, maybe being at rock bottom is actually the perfect place to start. +I had never before thought of myself as a creative person. +I was an athlete. My body was a machine. +But now I was about to embark on the most creative project that any of us could ever do: that of rebuilding a life. +And even though I had absolutely no idea what I was going to do, in that uncertainty came a sense of freedom. +I was no longer tied to a set path. +I was free to explore life's infinite possibilities. +And that realization was about to change my life. +Sitting at home in my wheelchair and my plaster body cast, an airplane flew overhead, and I looked up, and I thought to myself, "That's it! +If I can't walk, then I might as well fly." +I said, "Mom, I'm going to learn how to fly." +She said, "That's nice, dear." I said, "Pass me the yellow pages." +She passed me the phone book, I rang up the flying school, I made a booking, said I'd like to make a booking to come out for a flight. +They said, "You know, when do you want to come out?" +I said, "Well, I have to get a friend to drive me out because I can't drive. Sort of can't walk either. +Is that a problem?" +I said, "Hi, I'm here for a flying lesson." +And they took one look and ran out the back to draw short straws. +"You get her.""No, no, you take her." +Finally this guy comes out. He goes, "Hi, I'm Andrew, and I'm going to take you flying." +I go, "Great." And so they drive me down, they get me out on the tarmac, and there was this red, white and blue airplane. +It was beautiful. They lifted me into the cockpit. +They had to slide me up on the wing, put me in the cockpit. +They sat me down. There are buttons and dials everywhere. +I'm going, "Wow, how do you ever know what all these buttons and dials do?" +Andrew the instructor got in the front, started the airplane up. +He said, "Would you like to have a go at taxiing?" +That's when you use your feet to control the rudder pedals to control the airplane on the ground. +I said, "No, I can't use my legs." +He went, "Oh." +I said, "But I can use my hands," and he said, "Okay." +So he got over to the runway, and he applied the power. +And as we took off down the runway, and the wheels lifted up off the tarmac, and we became airborne, I had the most incredible sense of freedom. +And Andrew said to me, as we got over the training area, "You see that mountain over there?" +And I said, "Yeah." +And he said, "Well, you take the controls, and you fly towards that mountain." +And as I looked up, I realized that he was pointing towards the Blue Mountains where the journey had begun. +And I took the controls, and I was flying. +And I was a long, long way from that spinal ward, and I knew right then that I was going to be a pilot. +Didn't know how on Earth I'd ever pass a medical. +But I'd worry about that later, because right now I had a dream. +So I went home, I got a training diary out, and I had a plan. +And I practiced my walking as much as I could, and I went from the point of two people holding me up to one person holding me up to the point where I could walk around the furniture as long as it wasn't too far apart. +And then I made great progression to the point where I could walk around the house, holding onto the walls, like this, and Mom said she was forever following me, wiping off my fingerprints. But at least she always knew where I was. +So while the doctors continued to operate and put my body back together again, I went on with my theory study, and then eventually, and amazingly, I passed my pilot's medical, and that was my green light to fly. +And sometimes I thought that too. +But that didn't matter, because now there was something inside that burned that far outweighed my injuries. +And little goals kept me going along the way, and eventually I got my private pilot's license, and then I learned to navigate, and I flew my friends around Australia. +And then I learned to fly an airplane with two engines and I got my twin engine rating. +And then I learned to fly in bad weather as well as fine weather and got my instrument rating. +And then I got my commercial pilot's license. +And then I got my instructor rating. +And then I found myself back at that same school where I'd gone for that very first flight, teaching other people how to fly, just under 18 months after I'd left the spinal ward. +And then I thought, "Why stop there? +Why not learn to fly upside down?" +And I did, and I learned to fly upside down and became an aerobatics flying instructor. +And Mom and Dad? Never been up. +But then I knew for certain that although my body might be limited, it was my spirit that was unstoppable. +The philosopher Lao Tzu once said, "When you let go of what you are, you become what you might be." +I now know that it wasn't until I let go of who I thought I was that I was able to create a completely new life. +It wasn't until I let go of the life I thought I should have that I was able to embrace the life that was waiting for me. +I now know that my real strength never came from my body, and although my physical capabilities have changed dramatically, who I am is unchanged. +The pilot light inside of me was still a light, just as it is in each and every one of us. +I know that I'm not my body, and I also know that you're not yours. +And then it no longer matters what you look like, where you come from, or what you do for a living. +All that matters is that we continue to fan the flame of humanity by living our lives as the ultimate creative expression of who we really are, because we are all connected by millions and millions of straws, and it's time to join those up and to hang on. +And if we are to move towards our collective bliss, it's time we shed our focus on the physical and instead embrace the virtues of the heart. +So raise your straws if you'll join me. +Thank you. Thank you. +I'm a designer and an educator. +I'm a multitasking person, and I push my students to fly through a very creative, multitasking design process. +But how efficient is, really, this multitasking? +Let's consider for a while the option of monotasking. +A couple of examples. +Look at that. +This is my multitasking activity result. So trying to cook, answering the phone, writing SMS, and maybe uploading some pictures about this awesome barbecue. +So someone tells us the story about supertaskers, so this two percent of people who are able to control multitasking environment. +But what about ourselves, and what about our reality? +When's the last time you really enjoyed just the voice of your friend? +So this is a project I'm working on, and this is a series of front covers to downgrade our super, hyper to downgrade our super, hyper-mobile phones into the essence of their function. +Another example: Have you ever been to Venice? +How beautiful it is to lose ourselves in these little streets on the island. +But our multitasking reality is pretty different, and full of tons of information. +So what about something like that to rediscover our sense of adventure? +I know that it could sound pretty weird to speak about mono when the number of possibilities is so huge, but I push you to consider the option of focusing on just one task, or maybe turning your digital senses totally off. +So nowadays, everyone could produce his mono product. +Why not? So find your monotask spot within the multitasking world. +Thank you. +I'm going to talk about the power of a word: jihad. +To the vast majority of practicing Muslims, jihad is an internal struggle for the faith. +It is a struggle within, a struggle against vice, sin, temptation, lust, greed. +It is a struggle to try and live a life that is set by the moral codes written in the Koran. +In that original idea, the concept of jihad is as important to Muslims as the idea of grace is to Christians. +It's a very powerful word, jihad, if you look at it in that respect, and there's a certain almost mystical resonance to it. +And that's the reason why, for hundreds of years, Muslims everywhere have named their children Jihad, their daughters as much as their sons, in the same way that, say, Christians name their daughters Grace, and Hindus, my people, name our daughters Bhakti, which means, in Sanskrit, spiritual worship. +But there have always been, in Islam, a small group, a minority, who believe that jihad is not only an internal struggle but also an external struggle against forces that would threaten the faith, or the faithul. +And some of these people believe that in that struggle, it is sometimes okay to take up arms. +And so the thousands of young Muslim men who flocked to Afghanistan in the 1980s to fight against the Soviet occupation of a Muslim country, in their minds they were fighting a jihad, they were doing jihad, and they named themselves the Mujahideen, which is a word that comes from the same root as jihad. +And we forget this now, but back then the Mujahideen were celebrated in this country, in America. +We thought of them as holy warriors who were taking the good fight to the ungodly communists. +America gave them weapons, gave them money, gave them support, encouragement. +But within that group, a tiny, smaller group, a minority within a minority within a minority, were coming up with a new and dangerous conception of jihad, and in time this group would come to be led by Osama bin Laden, and he refined the idea. +His idea of jihad was a global war of terror, primarily targeted at the far enemy, at the crusaders from the West, against America. +And the things he did in the pursuit of this jihad were so horrendous, so monstrous, and had such great impact, that his definition was the one that stuck, not just here in the West. +We didn't know any better. We didn't pause to ask. +We just assumed that if this insane man and his psychopathic followers were calling what they did jihad, then that's what jihad must mean. +But it wasn't just us. Even in the Muslim world, his definition of jihad began to gain acceptance. +A year ago I was in Tunis, and I met the imam of a very small mosque, an old man. +Fifteen years ago, he named his granddaughter Jihad, after the old meaning. He hoped that a name like that would inspire her to live a spiritual life. +But he told me that after 9/11, he began to have second thoughts. +He worried that if he called her by that name, especially outdoors, outside in public, he might be seen as endorsing bin Laden's idea of jihad. +On Fridays in his mosque, he gave sermons trying to reclaim the meaning of the word, but his congregants, the people who came to his mosque, they had seen the videos. They had seen pictures of the planes going into the towers, the towers coming down. +They had heard bin Laden say that that was jihad, and claimed victory for it. And so the old imam worried that his words were falling on deaf ears. No one was paying attention. +He was wrong. Some people were paying attention, but for the wrong reasons. +The United States, at this point, was putting pressure on all its Arab allies, including Tunisia, to stamp out extremism in their societies, and this imam found himself suddenly in the crosshairs of the Tunisian intelligence service. +They had never paid him any attention before -- old man, small mosque -- but now they began to pay visits, and sometimes they would drag him in for questions, and always the same question: "Why did you name your granddaughter Jihad? +Why do you keep using the word jihad in your Friday sermons? +Do you hate Americans? +What is your connection to Osama bin Laden?" +So to the Tunisian intelligence agency, and organizations like it all over the Arab world, jihad equaled extremism, Bin Laden's definition had become institutionalized. +That was the power of that word that he was able to do. +And it filled this old imam, it filled him with great sadness. +He told me that, of bin Laden's many crimes, this was, in his mind, one that didn't get enough attention, that he took this word, this beautiful idea. +He didn't so much appropriate it as kidnapped it and debased it and corrupted it and turned it into something it was never meant to be, and then persuaded all of us that it always was a global jihad. +But the good news is that the global jihad is almost over, as bin Laden defined it. +It was dying well before he did, and now it's on its last legs. +Opinion polls from all over the Muslim world show that there is very little interest among Muslims in a global holy war against the West, against the far enemy. +The supply of young men willing to fight and die for this cause is dwindling. +The supply of money just as important, more important perhaps the supply of money to this activity is also dwindling. +The wealthy fanatics who were previously sponsoring this kind of activity are now less generous. +What does that mean for us in the West? +Does it mean we can break out the champagne, wash our hands of it, disengage, sleep easy at night? +No. Disengagement is not an option, because if you let local jihad survive, it becomes international jihad. +And so there's now a lot of different violent jihads all over the world. +In Somalia, in Mali, in Nigeria, in Iraq, in Afghanistan, Pakistan, there are groups that claim to be the inheritors of the legacy of Osama bin Laden. +They use his rhetoric. +They even use the brand name he created for his jihad. +So there is now an al Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb, there's an al Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula, there is an al Qaeda in Mesopotamia. +There are other groups -- in Nigeria, Boko Haram, in Somalia, al Shabaab -- and they all pay homage to Osama bin Laden. +But if you look closely, they're not fighting a global jihad. +They're fighting battles over much narrower issues. +Usually it has to do with ethnicity or race or sectarianism, or it's a power struggle. +More often than not, it's a power struggle in one country, or even a small region within one country. +Occasionally they will go across a border, from Iraq to Syria, from Mali to Algeria, from Somalia to Kenya, but they're not fighting a global jihad against some far enemy. +But that doesn't mean that we can relax. +I was in Yemen recently, where -- it's the home of the last al Qaeda franchise that still aspires to attack America, attack the West. +It's old school al Qaeda. +You may remember these guys. +They are the ones who tried to send the underwear bomber here, and they were using the Internet to try and instigate violence among American Muslims. +But they have been distracted recently. +Last year, they took control over a portion of southern Yemen, and ran it, Taliban-style. +And then the Yemeni military got its act together, and ordinary people rose up against these guys and drove them out, and since then, most of their activities, most of their attacks have been directed at Yemenis. +So I think we've come to a point now where we can say that, just like all politics, all jihad is local. +But that's still not reason for us to disengage, because we've seen that movie before, in Afghanistan. +When those Mujahideen defeated the Soviet Union, we disengaged. +And even before the fizz had gone out of our celebratory champagne, the Taliban had taken over in Kabul, and we said, "Local jihad, not our problem." +And then the Taliban gave the keys of Kandahar to Osama bin Laden. He made it our problem. +Local jihad, if you ignore it, becomes global jihad again. +The good news is that it doesn't have to be. +We know how to fight it now. +We have the tools. We have the knowhow, and we can take the lessons we've learned from the fight against global jihad, the victory against global jihad, and apply those to local jihad. +What are those lessons? We know who killed bin Laden: SEAL Team Six. +Do we know, do we understand, who killed bin Ladenism? +Who ended the global jihad? +There lie the answers to the solution to local jihad. +Who killed bin Ladenism? Let's start with bin Laden himself. +He probably thought 9/11 was his greatest achievement. +In reality, it was the beginning of the end for him. +He killed 3,000 innocent people, and that filled the Muslim world with horror and revulsion, and what that meant was that his idea of jihad could never become mainstream. +He condemned himself to operating on the lunatic fringes of his own community. +9/11 didn't empower him; it doomed him. +Who killed bin Ladenism? Abu Musab al-Zarqawi killed it. +He was the especially sadistic head of al Qaeda in Iraq who sent hundreds of suicide bombers to attack not Americans but Iraqis. Muslims. Sunni as well as Shiites. +Any claim that al Qaeda had to being protectors of Islam against the Western crusaders was drowned in the blood of Iraqi Muslims. +Who killed Osama bin Laden? The SEAL Team Six. +Who killed bin Ladenism? Al Jazeera did, Al Jazeera and half a dozen other satellite news stations in Arabic, because they circumvented the old, state-owned television stations in a lot of these countries which were designed to keep information from people. +Al Jazeera brought information to them, showed them what was being said and done in the name of their religion, exposed the hypocrisy of Osama bin Laden and al Qaeda, and allowed them, gave them the information that allowed them to come to their own conclusions. +Who killed bin Ladenism? The Arab Spring did, because it showed a way for young Muslims to bring about change in a manner that Osama bin Laden, with his limited imagination, could never have conceived. +Who defeated the global jihad? The American military did, the American soldiers did, with their allies, fighting in faraway battlefields. +And perhaps, a time will come when they get the rightful credit for it. +So all these factors, and many more besides, we don't even fully understand some of them yet, these came together to defeat a monstrosity as big as bin Ladenism, the global jihad, you needed this group effort. +Now, not all of these things will work in local jihad. +The American military is not going to march into Nigeria to take on Boko Haram, and it's unlikely that SEAL Team Six will rappel into the homes of al Shabaab's leaders and take them out. +But many of these other factors that were in play are now even stronger than before. Half the work is already done. +We don't have to reinvent the wheel. +The notion of violent jihad in which more Muslims are killed than any other kind of people is already thoroughly discredited. +We don't have to go back to that. +Satellite television and the Internet are informing and empowering young Muslims in exciting new ways. +And the Arab Spring has produced governments, many of them Islamist governments, who know that, for their own self-preservation, they need to take on the extremists in their midsts. +We don't need to persuade them, but we do need to help them, because they haven't really come to this place before. +We've got plenty of these things. +Some of the other things that they need we're not very good at giving. Maybe nobody is. +Time, patience, subtlety, understanding -- these are harder to give. +I live in New York now. Just this week, posters have gone up in subway stations in New York that describe jihad as savage. +Bin Laden is dead. Bin Ladenism has been defeated. +His definition of jihad can now be expunged. +To that jihad we can say, "Goodbye. Good riddance." +To the real jihad we can say, "Welcome back. Good luck." +Thank you. +B.J. was one of many fellow inmates who had big plans for the future. +He had a vision. When he got out, he was going to leave the dope game for good and fly straight, and he was actually working on merging his two passions into one vision. +He'd spent 10,000 dollars to buy a website that exclusively featured women having sex on top of or inside of luxury sports cars. It was my first week in federal prison, and I was learning quickly that it wasn't what you see on TV. +In fact, it was teeming with smart, ambitious men whose business instincts were in many cases as sharp as those of the CEOs who had wined and dined me six months earlier when I was a rising star in the Missouri Senate. +But they didn't spend a lot of time reliving the glory days. +For the most part, everyone was just trying to survive. +It's a lot harder than you might think. +Contrary to what most people think, people don't pay, taxpayers don't pay, for your life when you're in prison. You've got to pay for your own life. +You've got to pay for your soap, your deodorant, toothbrush, toothpaste, all of it. +And it's hard for a couple of reasons. +First, everything's marked up 30 to 50 percent from what you'd pay on the street, and second, you don't make a lot of money. +I unloaded trucks. That was my full-time job, unloading trucks at a food warehouse, for $5.25, not an hour, but per month. +So how do you survive? +Well, you learn to hustle, all kinds of hustles. +There's legal hustles. +You pay everything in stamps. Those are the currency. +You charge another inmate to clean his cell. +There's sort of illegal hustles, like you run a barbershop out of your cell. +There's pretty illegal hustles: You run a tattoo parlor out of your own cell. +And there's very illegal hustles, which you smuggle in, you get smuggled in, drugs, pornography, cell phones, and just as in the outer world, there's a risk-reward tradeoff, so the riskier the enterprise, the more profitable it can potentially be. +You want a cigarette in prison? Three to five dollars. +You want an old-fashioned cell phone that you flip open and is about as big as your head? Three hundred bucks. +You want a dirty magazine? +Well, it can be as much as 1,000 dollars. +So as you can probably tell, one of the defining aspects of prison life is ingenuity. +But there's no training, nothing to prepare them for that, no rehabilitation at all in prison, no one to help them write a business plan, figure out a way to translate the business concepts they intuitively grasp into legal enterprises, no access to the Internet, even. +And then, when they come out, most states don't even have a law prohibiting employers from discriminating against people with a background. +So none of us should be surprised that two out of three ex-offenders re-offend within five years. +Look, I lied to the Feds. I lost a year of my life from it. +But when I came out, I vowed that I was going to do whatever I could to make sure that guys like the ones I was locked up with didn't have to waste any more of their life than they already had. +So I hope that you'll think about helping in some way. +The best thing we can do is figure out ways to nurture the entrepreneurial spirit and the tremendous untapped potential in our prisons, because if we don't, they're not going to learn any new skills that's going to help them, and they'll be right back. +All they'll learn on the inside is new hustles. +Thank you. +"My Air Jordans cost a hundred with tax. +My suede Starters jacket says Raiders on the back. +I'm stylin', smilin', lookin' real mean, because it ain't about being heard, just being seen. +My leather Adidas baseball cap matches my fake Gucci backpack. Ain't nobody who looks as good as me, but this costs money, it sure ain't free, and I gots no job, no money at all, but it's easy to steal all this from the mall. +Parents say I shouldn't, but I knows I should. +Got to do what I can to make sure I look good, and the reason I have to look real good, well, to tell you the truth, man, I don't know why. Guess it makes me feel special inside. +When I'm wearing fresh gear I don't have to hide, and I really must get some new gear soon or my ego will pop like a 10-cent balloon. +But security is tight at all the shops. Every day there are more and more cops. +My crew is laughing at me because I'm wearing old gear. +School's almost over. Summer is near. +And I'm sportin' torn Jordans. +I need something new. Only one thing left to do. +Cut school Friday, catch the subway downtown, check out my victims hangin' around. +Maybe I'll get lucky and find easy prey. +Got to get some new gear. There's no other way. +I'm ready and willing. I'm packing my gun. +This is serious business. This ain't no fun. +And I can't have my posse laughin' at me. +I'mma cop something dope, just wait, you'll see. +Come out of the station, West 4th near the park, brothers shooting hoops and someone remarks, 'Hey homes, where you get them Nik's?' I says to myself, 'Yeah. I likes 'em, I likes.' They were Q-tip white, bright and blinding my eyes. +The red emblem of Michael looked as if it could fly. +Not one spot of dirt. The Airs were brand new. +Had my pistol and knew just what to do. +Waited until it was just the right time, followed him very closely behind. +He made a left turn on Houston, I pulled out my gun, and I said, 'Gimme them Jordans!' And the punk tried to run. +Took off fast, didn't get far. I fired,'Pow!' Fool fell between two parked cars. +He was coughing, crying, blood spilled on the street. +And I snatched them Air Jordans off of his feet. +While laying there dying, all he could say was, "Please man, don't take my Air Jordans away." +You'd think he'd be worried about staying alive. +As I took off with his sneakers, there was tears in his eyes. +Very next day, I bopped into school with my brand new Air Jordans, man, I was cool. +I killed to get 'em, but hey, I don't care, because now I needs a new jacket to wear." +Thank you. For the last 15 years that I have been performing, all I ever wanted to do was transcend poetry to the world. +See, it wasn't enough for me to write a book. +It wasn't enough for me to join a slam competition, and while those things hold weight, it wasn't the driving force that pushes the pen to the pad. +The hunger and thirst was, and still remains: How do I get people who hate poetry to love me? +Because I'm an extension of my work, and if they love me, then they will love my work, and if they love my work, then they will love poetry, and if they love poetry, then I will have done my job, which is to transcend it to the world. +And in 1996, I found the answer in principles in a master spoken-word artist named Reg E. Gaines, who wrote the famous poem, "Please Don't Take My Air Jordans." +And I followed this guy everywhere until I had him in the room, and I read him one of my pieces, and you know what he told me? +"Yo' wack. +You know what the problem is with you, homie? +You don't read other people's poetry, and you don't got any subordination for verbal measures to tonal consideration." Now he kept on rambling about poetry and styles and Nuyorican Friday nights. +Now I could have quit. I should have quit. +I mean, I thought poetry was just self-expression. +I didn't know you actually have to have creative control. +So instead of quitting, I followed him everywhere. +When he was writing a Broadway show, I would be outside of the door. +I would wake him up at, like, 6:30 in the morning to ask him who's the best poet. +I remember eating the eyes of a fish right out of the sea because he told me it was brain food. +I wanted to know which poet he read, and I landed on a poem called ["Dark Prophecy: Sing of Shine"], a toast signifying that got me on the biggest stage a poet could ever be: Broadway, baby. +And from that point, I learned how to pull the mic away and attack the poetry with my body. +But that wasn't the biggest lesson I ever learned. +The biggest lesson I learned was many years later when I went to Beverly Hills and I ran into a talent agent who looked at me up and down and said I don't look like I have any experience to be working in this business. +And I said to him, "Listen, punk fool, you're a failed actor who became an agent, and you know why you failed as an actor? +Because people like me took your job. +People have bought tickets to my experience and used them as refrigerator magnets to let them know that the revolution is near, so stock up. +I'm so experienced that when you went to a privileged school to learn a Shakespearean sonnet, I was getting those beats kicked and shoved into me. +I can master shock of "The Crying Game" with the awe of a child being called an AIDS victim by a bully who didn't know that it was his father who gave it to my mother, and that's a double entendre. +Sanford Meisner was my Uncle Artie yelling silently to himself, "Something's always wrong when nothing's always right." +Method acting is nothing but a mixture of multiple personalities, believing your own lies are reality, like in high school cool Kenny telling me he wanted to be a cop. +Dude, you go to Riker's Island Academy. +I could make David Mamet psychoanalyze my attack on dialogue, Stanislavski be as if he were Bruce Lee kicking your roster of talentless students up and down Crenshaw. +So what, your actors studied guerrilla theater at the London Rep? +Let me tell you an ancient Chinese Saturday afternoon kung fu secret. +Boards don't hit back. +You think black entertainers have it hard finding work in this business? I'm a suspicious mulatto, which means I'm too black to be white and too white to be doing it right. +Forget the American ghetto. I've cracked stages in Soweto, buried abortion babies in potter's field and still managed to keep a smile on my face, so whatever you curse at me to your caddyshack go-for-this, go-for-that assistant when I walk out that door, whatever slander you send my way, your mother. +Thank you. +I'd like to show you a video of some of the models I work with. +They're all the perfect size, and they don't have an ounce of fat. +Did I mention they're gorgeous? +And they're scientific models? As you might have guessed, I'm a tissue engineer, and this is a video of some of the beating heart that I've engineered in the lab. +And one day we hope that these tissues can serve as replacement parts for the human body. +But what I'm going to tell you about today is how these tissues make awesome models. +Well, let's think about the drug screening process for a moment. +You go from drug formulation, lab testing, animal testing, and then clinical trials, which you might call human testing, before the drugs get to market. +It costs a lot of money, a lot of time, and sometimes, even when a drug hits the market, it acts in an unpredictable way and actually hurts people. +And the later it fails, the worse the consequences. +It all boils down to two issues. One, humans are not rats, and two, despite our incredible similarities to one another, actually those tiny differences between you and I have huge impacts with how we metabolize drugs and how those drugs affect us. +So what if we had better models in the lab that could not only mimic us better than rats but also reflect our diversity? +Let's see how we can do it with tissue engineering. +One of the key technologies that's really important is what's called induced pluripotent stem cells. +They were developed in Japan pretty recently. +Okay, induced pluripotent stem cells. +They're a lot like embryonic stem cells except without the controversy. +We induce cells, okay, say, skin cells, by adding a few genes to them, culturing them, and then harvesting them. +So they're skin cells that can be tricked, kind of like cellular amnesia, into an embryonic state. +So without the controversy, that's cool thing number one. +Cool thing number two, you can grow any type of tissue out of them: brain, heart, liver, you get the picture, but out of your cells. +So we can make a model of your heart, your brain on a chip. +Generating tissues of predictable density and behavior is the second piece, and will be really key towards getting these models to be adopted for drug discovery. +And this is a schematic of a bioreactor we're developing in our lab to help engineer tissues in a more modular, scalable way. +Going forward, imagine a massively parallel version of this with thousands of pieces of human tissue. +It would be like having a clinical trial on a chip. +But another thing about these induced pluripotent stem cells is that if we take some skin cells, let's say, from people with a genetic disease and we engineer tissues out of them, we can actually use tissue-engineering techniques to generate models of those diseases in the lab. +Here's an example from Kevin Eggan's lab at Harvard. +He generated neurons from these induced pluripotent stem cells from patients who have Lou Gehrig's Disease, and he differentiated them into neurons, and what's amazing is that these neurons also show symptoms of the disease. +So with disease models like these, we can fight back faster than ever before and understand the disease better than ever before, and maybe discover drugs even faster. +This is another example of patient-specific stem cells that were engineered from someone with retinitis pigmentosa. +This is a degeneration of the retina. +It's a disease that runs in my family, and we really hope that cells like these will help us find a cure. +So some people think that these models sound well and good, but ask, "Well, are these really as good as the rat?" +The rat is an entire organism, after all, with interacting networks of organs. +A drug for the heart can get metabolized in the liver, and some of the byproducts may be stored in the fat. +Don't you miss all that with these tissue-engineered models? +Well, this is another trend in the field. +By combining tissue engineering techniques with microfluidics, the field is actually evolving towards just that, a model of the entire ecosystem of the body, complete with multiple organ systems to be able to test how a drug you might take for your blood pressure might affect your liver or an antidepressant might affect your heart. +These systems are really hard to build, but we're just starting to be able to get there, and so, watch out. +But that's not even all of it, because once a drug is approved, tissue engineering techniques can actually help us develop more personalized treatments. +This is an example that you might care about someday, and I hope you never do, because imagine if you ever get that call that gives you that bad news that you might have cancer. +Wouldn't you rather test to see if those cancer drugs you're going to take are going to work on your cancer? +This is an example from Karen Burg's lab, where they're using inkjet technologies to print breast cancer cells and study its progressions and treatments. +And some of our colleagues at Tufts are mixing models like these with tissue-engineered bone to see how cancer might spread from one part of the body to the next, and you can imagine those kinds of multi-tissue chips to be the next generation of these kinds of studies. +Essentially, we're dramatically speeding up that feedback between developing a molecule and learning about how it acts in the human body. +Our process for doing this is essentially transforming biotechnology and pharmacology into an information technology, helping us discover and evaluate drugs faster, more cheaply and more effectively. +It gives new meaning to models against animal testing, doesn't it? +Thank you. +In 2002, a group of treatment activists met to discuss the early development of the airplane. +The Wright Brothers, in the beginning of the last century, had for the first time managed to make one of those devices fly. +They also had taken out numerous patents on essential parts of the airplane. +They were not the only ones. +That was common practice in the industry, and those who held patents on airplanes were defending them fiercely and suing competitors left and right. +This actually wasn't so great for the development of the aviation industry, and this was at a time that in particular the U.S. government was interested in ramping up the production of military airplanes. +So there was a bit of a conflict there. +The U.S. government decided to take action, and forced those patent holders to make their patents available to share with others to enable the production of airplanes. +So what has this got to do with this? +In 2002, Nelson Otwoma, a Kenyan social scientist, discovered he had HIV and needed access to treatment. +He was told that a cure did not exist. +AIDS, he heard, was lethal, and treatment was not offered. This was at a time that treatment actually existed in rich countries. +AIDS had become a chronic disease. +People in our countries here in Europe, in North America, were living with HIV, healthy lives. +Not so for Nelson. He wasn't rich enough, and not so for his three-year-old son, who he discovered a year later also had HIV. +Nelson decided to become a treatment activist and join up with other groups. +In 2002, they were facing a different battle. +Prices for ARVs, the drugs needed to treat HIV, cost about 12,000 [dollars] per patient per year. +The patents on those drugs were held by a number of Western pharmaceutical companies that were not necessarily willing to make those patents available. +When you have a patent, you can exclude anyone else from making, from producing or making low-cost versions, for example, available of those medications. +Clearly this led to patent wars breaking out all over the globe. +Luckily, those patents did not exist everywhere. +Treatment programs became possible, funding became available, and the number of people on antiretroviral drugs started to increase very rapidly. +Today, eight million people have access to antiretroviral drugs. +Thirty-four million are infected with HIV. +Never has this number been so high, but actually this is good news, because what it means is people stop dying. +People who have access to these drugs stop dying. +And there's something else. +They also stop passing on the virus. +This is fairly recent science that has shown that. +What that means is we have the tools to break the back of this epidemic. +So what's the problem? +Well, things have changed. +First of all, the rules have changed. +Today, all countries are obliged to provide patents for pharmaceuticals that last at least 20 years. +This is as a result of the intellectual property rules of the World Trade Organization. +So what India did is no longer possible. +Second, the practice of patent-holding companies have changed. +Here you see the patent practices before the World Trade Organization's rules, before '95, before antiretroviral drugs. +So unless we act, unless we do something today, we will soon be faced [with] what some have termed the treatment time bomb. +It isn't only the number of drugs that are patented. +There's something else that can really scare generic manufacturers away. +This shows you a patent landscape. +This is the landscape of one medicine. +So you can imagine that if you are a generic company about to decide whether to invest in the development of this product, unless you know that the licenses to these patents are actually going to be available, you will probably choose to do something else. +Again, deliberate action is needed. +So surely if a patent pool could be established to ramp up the production of military airplanes, we should be able to do something similar to tackle the HIV/AIDS epidemic. +And we did. +In 2010, UNITAID established the Medicines Patent Pool for HIV. +And this is how it works: Patent holders, inventors that develop new medicines patent those inventions, but make those patents available to the Medicines Patent Pool. The Medicines Patent Pool then license those out to whoever needs access to those patents. +That can be generic manufacturers. +It can also be not-for-profit drug development agencies, for example. +Those manufacturers can then sell those medicines at much lower cost to people who need access to them, to treatment programs that need access to them. +They pay royalties over the sales to the patent holders, so they are remunerated for sharing their intellectual property. +There is one key difference with the airplane patent pool. +The Medicines Patent Pool is a voluntary mechanism. +The airplane patent holders were not left a choice whether they'd license their patents or not. +They were forced to do so. +That is something that the Medicines Patent Pool cannot do. +It relies on the willingness of pharmaceutical companies to license their patents and make them available for others to use. +Today, Nelson Otwoma is healthy. +He has access to antiretroviral drugs. +His son will soon be 14 years old. +Nelson is a member of the expert advisory group of the Medicines Patent Pool, and he told me not so long ago, "Ellen, we rely in Kenya and in many other countries on the Medicines Patent Pool to make sure that new medicines also become available to us, that new medicines, without delay, become available to us." +And this is no longer fantasy. +Already, I'll give you an example. +In August of this year, the United States drug agency approved a new four-in-one AIDS medication. +The company, Gilead, that holds the patents, has licensed the intellectual property to the Medicines Patent Pool. +The pool is already working today, two months later, with generic manufacturers to make sure that this product can go to market at low cost where and when it is needed. This is unprecedented. +This has never been done before. +The rule is about a 10-year delay for a new product to go to market in developing countries, if at all. +This has never been seen before. +Nelson's expectations are very high, and quite rightly so. He and his son will need access to the next generation of antiretrovirals and the next, throughout their lifetime, so that he and many others in Kenya and other countries can continue to live healthy, active lives. +Now we count on the willingness of drug companies to make that happen. We count on those companies that understand that it is in the interest, not only in the interest of the global good, but also in their own interest, to move from conflict to collaboration, and through the Medicines Patent Pool they can make that happen. +They can also choose not to do that, but those that go down that road may end up in a similar situation the Wright brothers ended up with early last century, facing forcible measures by government. So they'd better jump now. +Thank you. +This is poo, and what I want to do today is share my passion for poo with you, which might be quite difficult, but I think what you might find more fascinating is the way these small animals deal with poo. +So this animal here has got a brain about the size of a grain of rice, and yet it can do things that you and I couldn't possibly entertain the idea of doing. +And basically it's all evolved to handle its food source, which is dung. +So the question is, where do we start this story? +And it seems appropriate to start at the end, because this is a waste product that comes out of other animals, but it still contains nutrients and there are sufficient nutrients in there for dung beetles basically to make a living, and so dung beetles eat dung, and their larvae are also dung-feeders. +They are grown completely in a ball of dung. +Within South Africa, we've got about 800 species of dung beetles, in Africa we've got 2,000 species of dung beetles, and in the world we have about 6,000 species of dung beetles. +So, according to dung beetles, dung is pretty good. +Unless you're prepared to get dung under your fingernails and root through the dung itself, you'll never see 90 percent of the dung beetle species, because they go directly into the dung, straight down below it, and then they shuttle back and forth between the dung at the soil surface and a nest they make underground. +So the question is, how do they deal with this material? +And most dung beetles actually wrap it into a package of some sort. +Ten percent of the species actually make a ball, and this ball they roll away from the dung source, usually bury it at a remote place away from the dung source, and they have a very particular behavior by which they are able to roll their balls. +So this is a very proud owner of a beautiful dung ball. +You can see it's a male because he's got a little hair on the back of his legs there, and he's clearly very pleased about what he's sitting on there. +And then he's about to become a victim of a vicious smash-and-grab. And this is a clear indication that this is a valuable resource. +And so valuable resources have to be looked after and guarded in a particular way, and we think the reason they roll the balls away is because of this, because of the competition that is involved in getting hold of that dung. +So this dung pat was actually -- well, it was a dung pat 15 minutes before this photograph was taken, and we think it's the intense competition that makes the beetles so well-adapted to rolling balls of dung. +So what you've got to imagine here is this animal here moving across the African veld. +Its head is down. It's walking backwards. +It's the most bizarre way to actually transport your food in any particular direction, and at the same time it's got to deal with the heat. +This is Africa. It's hot. +So what I want to share with you now are some of the experiments that myself and my colleagues have used to investigate how dung beetles deal with these problems. +So watch this beetle, and there's two things that I would like you to be aware of. +The first is how it deals with this obstacle that we've put in its way. See, look, it does a little dance, and then it carries on in exactly the same direction that it took in the first place. +A little dance, and then heads off in a particular direction. +So we gave them some more tasks to deal with, and what we did here is we turned the world under their feet. And watch its response. +So this animal has actually had the whole world turned under its feet. It's turned by 90 degrees. +But it doesn't flinch. It knows exactly where it wants to go, and it heads off in that particular direction. +So our next question then was, how are they doing this? +What are they doing? And there was a cue that was available to us. +It was that every now and then they'd climb on top of the ball and they'd take a look at the world around them. +And what do you think they could be looking at as they climb on top of the ball? +What are the obvious cues that this animal could use to direct its movement? And the most obvious one is to look at the sky, and so we thought, now what could they be looking at in the sky? +And the obvious thing to look at is the sun. +So a classic experiment here, in that what we did was we moved the sun. +What we're going to do now is shade the sun with a board and then move the sun with a mirror to a completely different position. +And look at what the beetle does. +It does a little double dance, and then it heads back in exactly the same direction it went in the first place. +What happens now? So clearly they're looking at the sun. +The sun is a very important cue in the sky for them. +The thing is the sun is not always available to you, because at sunset it disappears below the horizon. +What is happening in the sky here is that there's a great big pattern of polarized light in the sky that you and I can't see. It's the way our eyes are built. +But the sun is at the horizon over here and we know that when the sun is at the horizon, say it's over on this side, there is a north-south, a huge pathway across the sky of polarized light that we can't see that the beetles can see. +So how do we test that? Well, that's easy. +What we do is we get a great big polarization filter, pop the beetle underneath it, and the filter is at right angles to the polarization pattern of the sky. +The beetle comes out from underneath the filter and it does a right-hand turn, because it comes back under the sky that it was originally orientated to and then reorientates itself back to the direction it was originally going in. +So obviously beetles can see polarized light. +Okay, so what we've got so far is, what are beetles doing? They're rolling balls. +How are they doing it? Well, they're rolling them in a straight line. +How are they maintaining it in a particular straight line? +Well, they're looking at celestial cues in the sky, some of which you and I can't see. +But how do they pick up those celestial cues? +That was what was of interest to us next. +And it was this particular little behavior, the dance, that we thought was important, because look, it takes a pause every now and then, and then heads off in the direction that it wants to go in. +So what are they doing when they do this dance? +How far can we push them before they will reorientate themselves? +And in this experiment here, what we did was we forced them into a channel, and you can see he wasn't particularly forced into this particular channel, and we gradually displaced the beetle by 180 degrees until this individual ends up going in exactly the opposite direction that it wanted to go in, in the first place. +And let's see what his reaction is as he's headed through 90 degrees here, and now he's going to -- when he ends up down here, he's going to be 180 degrees in the wrong direction. +And see what his response is. +He does a little dance, he turns around, and heads back in this. He knows exactly where he's going. +He knows exactly what the problem is, and he knows exactly how to deal with it, and the dance is this transition behavior that allows them to reorientate themselves. +So that's the dance, but after spending many years sitting in the African bush watching dung beetles on nice hot days, we noticed that there was another behavior associated with the dance behavior. +Every now and then, when they climb on top of the ball, they wipe their face. +And you see him do it again. +Now we thought, now what could be going on here? +Clearly the ground is very hot, and when the ground is hot, they dance more often, and when they do this particular dance, they wipe the bottom of their face. +And we thought that it could be a thermoregulatory behavior. +We thought that maybe what they're doing is trying to get off the hot soil and also spitting onto their face to cool their head down. +So what we did was design a couple of arenas. +one was hot, one was cold. +We shaded this one. We left that one hot. +And then what we did was we filmed them with a thermal camera. +So what you're looking at here is a heat image of the system, and what you can see here emerging from the poo is a cool dung ball. +So the truth is, if you look at the temperature over here, dung is cool. So all we're interested in here is comparing the temperature of the beetle against the background. +So the background here is around about 50 degrees centigrade. +The beetle itself and the ball are probably around about 30 to 35 degrees centigrade, so this is a great big ball of ice cream that this beetle is now transporting across the hot veld. +It isn't climbing. It isn't dancing, because its body temperature is actually relatively low. +It's about the same as yours and mine. +And what's of interest here is that little brain is quite cool. +But if we contrast now what happens in a hot environment, look at the temperature of the soil. +It's up around 55 to 60 degrees centigrade. +Watch how often the beetle dances. +And look at its front legs. They're roaringly hot. +So the ball leaves a little thermal shadow, and the beetle climbs on top of the ball and wipes its face, and all the time it's trying to cool itself down, we think, and avoid the hot sand that it's walking across. +And what we did then was put little boots on these legs, because this was a way to test if the legs were involved in sensing the temperature of the soil. +And if you look over here, with boots they climb onto the ball far less often when they had no boots on. +So we described these as cool boots. +It was a dental compound that we used to make these boots. +And we also cooled down the dung ball, so we were able to put the ball in the fridge, gave them a nice cool dung ball, and they climbed onto that ball far less often than when they had a hot ball. +So this is called stilting. It's a thermal behavior that you and I do if we cross the beach, we jump onto a towel, somebody has this towel -- "Sorry, I've jumped onto your towel." -- and then you scuttle across onto somebody else's towel, and that way you don't burn your feet. +And that's exactly what the beetles are doing here. +However, there's one more story I'd like to share with you, and that's this particular species. +It's from a genus called Pachysoma. +There are 13 species in the genus, and they have a particular behavior that I think you will find interesting. +This is a dung beetle. Watch what he's doing. +Can you spot the difference? +They don't normally go this slowly. It's in slow motion. +but it's walking forwards, and it's actually taking a pellet of dry dung with it. +This is a different species in the same genus but exactly the same foraging behavior. +There's one more interesting aspect of this dung beetle's behavior that we found quite fascinating, and that's that it forages and provisions a nest. +So watch this individual here, and what he's trying to do is set up a nest. +And he doesn't like this first position, but he comes up with a second position, and about 50 minutes later, that nest is finished, and he heads off to forage and provision at a pile of dry dung pellets. +And what I want you to notice is the outward path compared to the homeward path, and compare the two. +And by and large, you'll see that the homeward path is far more direct than the outward path. +On the outward path, he's always on the lookout for a new blob of dung. +On the way home, he knows where home is, and he wants to go straight to it. +The important thing here is that this is not a one-way trip, as in most dung beetles. The trip here is repeated back and forth between a provisioning site and a nest site. +And watch, you're going to see another South African crime taking place right now. And his neighbor steals one of his dung pellets. +So what we're looking at here is a behavior called path integration. +And what's taking place is that the beetle has got a home spot, it goes out on a convoluted path looking for food, and then when it finds food, it heads straight home. It knows exactly where its home is. +Now there's two ways it could be doing that, and we can test that by displacing the beetle to a new position when it's at the foraging site. +If it's using landmarks, it will find its home. +If it is using something called path integration, it will not find its home. It will arrive at the wrong spot, and what it's doing here if it's using path integration is it's counting its steps or measuring the distance out in this direction. +It knows the bearing home, and it knows it should be in that direction. +If you displace it, it ends up in the wrong place. +So let's see what happens when we put this beetle to the test with a similar experiment. +So here's our cunning experimenter. +He displaces the beetle, and now we have to see what is going to take place. +What we've got is a burrow. That's where the forage was. +The forage has been displaced to a new position. +If he's using landmark orientation, he should be able to find the burrow, because he'll be able to recognize the landmarks around it. +If he's using path integration, then it should end up in the wrong spot over here. +So let's watch what happens when we put the beetle through the whole test. +So there he is there. +He's about to head home, and look what happens. +Shame. +It hasn't a clue. +It starts to search for its house in the right distance away from the food, but it is clearly completely lost. +We don't know yet what dung beetles use. +So what have we learned from these animals with a brain that's the size of a grain of rice? +Well, we know that they can roll balls in a straight line using celestial cues. +We know that the dance behavior is an orientation behavior and it's also a thermoregulation behavior, and we also know that they use a path integration system for finding their way home. +So for a small animal dealing with a fairly revolting substance we can actually learn an awful lot from these things doing behaviors that you and I couldn't possibly do. +Thank you. +Hello, Doha. Hello! Salaam alaikum. +I love coming to Doha. It's such an international place. +It feels like the United Nations here. +You go to the hotel and you check in. There's a Lebanese. +Yeah? And then a Swedish guy showed me my room. +I said, "Where are the Qataris?" They said, "No, no, it's too hot. They come out later. They're smart." +"They know." And of course, it's growing so fast, sometimes there's growing pains. +You know, like sometimes you run into people that you think know the city well, but they don't know it that well. +My Indian cab driver showed up at the W, and I asked him to take me to the Sheraton, and he said, "No problem, sir." +And then we sat there for two minutes. +I said, "What's wrong?" He said, "One problem, sir." +I said, "What?" He goes, "Where is it?" +I go, "You're the driver, you should know." He goes, "No, I just arrived, sir." +I go, "You just arrived at the W?" "No, I just arrived in Doha, sir." +"I was on my way home from the airport, I got a job. I'm working already." +He goes, "Sir, why don't you drive?" +"I don't know where we're going." +"Neither do I. It will be an adventure, sir." +The Middle East has been an adventure the past couple of years. +It is going crazy with the Arab Spring and revolution and all this. +Are there any Lebanese here tonight, by applause? +Lebanese, yeah. +The Middle East is going crazy. +You know the Middle East is going crazy when Lebanon is the most peaceful place in the region. +Who would have thought? Oh my gosh. +No, there's serious issues in the region. +Some people don't want to talk about them. I'm here to talk about them tonight. +Ladies and gentlemen of the Middle East, here's a serious issue. +When we see each other, when we say hello, how many kisses are we going to do? +Every country is different and it's confusing, okay? +In Lebanon, they do three. In Egypt, they do two. +I was in Lebanon, I got used to three. +I went to Egypt. I went to say hello to this one Egyptian guy, I went, one, two. I went for three -- He wasn't into it. +I told him, I said, "No, no, I was just in Lebanon." +He goes, "I don't care where you were. You just stay where you are, please." +I went to Saudi Arabia. +In Saudi Arabia, they go one, two, and then they stay on the same side: three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18 -- Next time you see a Saudi, look closely. They're just a little bit tilted. +"Abdul, are you okay?" +"I was saying hello for half an hour. I'll be all right." +Qataris, you guys do the nose to nose. +Why is that? Are you too tired to go all the way around? +"Habibi, it's so hot. Just come here for a second. Say hello. +Hello, Habibi. Just don't move. Just stay there, please. +I need to rest." +Iranians, sometimes we do two, sometimes we do three. +A friend of mine explained to me, before the '79 revolution, it was two. +After the revolution, three. +So with Iranians, you can tell whose side the person is on based on the number of kisses they give you. +Yeah, if you go one, two, three -- "I can't believe you support this regime!" +"With your three kisses." +But no, guys, really, it is exciting to be here, and like I said, you guys are doing a lot culturally, you know, and it's amazing, and it helps change the image of the Middle East in the West. +A lot of Americans don't know a lot about us, about the Middle East. +I'm Iranian and American. I'm there. I know, I've traveled here. +There's so much, we laugh, right? +People don't know we laugh. When I did the Axis of Evil comedy tour, it came out on Comedy Central, I went online to see what people were saying. +I ended up on a conservative website. +One guy wrote another guy. He said, "I never knew these people laughed." +Think about it. You never see us laughing in American film or television, right? +Maybe like an evil laugh: "Wuhahaha." "I will kill you in the name of Allah, wuhahahahaha." +But never like, "Ha ha ha ha la." +We like to laugh. We like to celebrate life. +And I wish more Americans would travel here. I always encourage my friends: "Travel, see the Middle East, there's so much to see, so many good people." +And it's vice versa, and it helps stop problems of misunderstanding and stereotypes from happening. +For example, I don't know if you heard about this, a little while ago in the US, there was a Muslim family walking down the aisle of an airplane, talking about the safest place to sit on the plane. +Some passengers overheard them, somehow misconstrued that as terrorist talk, got them kicked off the plane. +It was a family, a mother, father, child, talking about the seating. +As a Middle Eastern male, I know there's certain things I'm not supposed to say on an airplane in the US, right? +I'm not supposed to be walking down the aisle, and be like, "Hi, Jack." That's not cool. +Even if I'm there with my friend named Jack, I say, "Greetings, Jack. Salutations, Jack." +Never "Hi, Jack." +But now, apparently we can't even talk about the safest place to sit on an airplane. +So my advice to all my Middle Eastern friends and Muslim friends and anyone who looks Middle Eastern or Muslim, so to, you know, Indians, and Latinos, everyone, if you're brown -- Here's my advice to my brown friends. +The next time you're on an airplane in the US, just speak your mother tongue. +That way no one knows what you're saying. Life goes on. +Granted, some mother tongues might sound a little threatening to the average American. +If you're walking down the aisle speaking Arabic, you might freak them out -- (Imitating Arabic) They might say, "What's he talking about?" +The key, to my Arab brothers and sisters, is to throw in random good words to put people at ease as you're walking down the aisle. +Just as you're walking down -- (Imitating Arabic) Strawberry! +(Imitating Arabic) Rainbow! (Imitating Arabic) Tutti Frutti! +"I think he's going to hijack the plane with some ice cream." +Thank you very much. Have a good night. +Thank you, TED. +So it's a really interesting time to be a journalist, but the upheaval that I'm interested in is not on the output side. +It's on the input side. It's concern with how we get information and how we gather the news. +And that's changed, because we've had a huge shift in the balance of power from the news organizations to the audience. +And the audience for such a long time was in a position where they didn't have any way of affecting news or making any change. They couldn't really connect. +And that's changed irrevocably. +My first connection with the news media was in 1984, the BBC had a one-day strike. +I wasn't happy. I was angry. I couldn't see my cartoons. +So I wrote a letter. +And it's a very effective way of ending your hate mail: "Love Markham, Aged 4." Still works. +I'm not sure if I had any impact on the one-day strike, but what I do know is that it took them three weeks to get back to me. +And that was the round journey. It took that long for anyone to have any impact and get some feedback. +And that's changed now because, as journalists, we interact in real time. We're not in a position where the audience is reacting to news. +We're reacting to the audience, and we're actually relying on them. +They're helping us find the news. They're helping us figure out what is the best angle to take and what is the stuff that they want to hear. +So it's a real-time thing. It's much quicker. It's happening on a constant basis, and the journalist is always playing catch up. +To give an example of how we rely on the audience, on the 5th of September in Costa Rica, an earthquake hit. +It was a 7.6 magnitude. It was fairly big. +And 60 seconds is the amount of time it took for it to travel 250 kilometers to Managua. +So the ground shook in Managua 60 seconds after it hit the epicenter. +Thirty seconds later, the first message went onto Twitter, and this was someone saying "temblor," which means earthquake. +So 60 seconds was how long it took for the physical earthquake to travel. +Thirty seconds later news of that earthquake had traveled all around the world, instantly. Everyone in the world, hypothetically, had the potential to know that an earthquake was happening in Managua. +And that happened because this one person had a documentary instinct, which was to post a status update, which is what we all do now, so if something happens, we put our status update, or we post a photo, we post a video, and it all goes up into the cloud in a constant stream. +And what that means is just constant, huge volumes of data going up. +It's actually staggering. When you look at the numbers, every minute there are 72 more hours of video on YouTube. +So that's, every second, more than an hour of video gets uploaded. +And in photos, Instagram, 58 photos are uploaded to Instagram a second. +More than three and a half thousand photos go up onto Facebook. +So by the time I'm finished talking here, there'll be 864 more hours of video on Youtube than there were when I started, and two and a half million more photos on Facebook and Instagram than when I started. +So it's an interesting position to be in as a journalist, because we should have access to everything. +Any event that happens anywhere in the world, I should be able to know about it pretty much instantaneously, as it happens, for free. +And that goes for every single person in this room. +The only problem is, when you have that much information, you have to find the good stuff, and that can be incredibly difficult when you're dealing with those volumes. +And nowhere was this brought home more than during Hurricane Sandy. So what you had in Hurricane Sandy was a superstorm, the likes of which we hadn't seen for a long time, hitting the iPhone capital of the universe -- -- and you got volumes of media like we'd never seen before. +And that meant that journalists had to deal with fakes, so we had to deal with old photos that were being reposted. +We had to deal with composite images that were merging photos from previous storms. +We had to deal with images from films like "The Day After Tomorrow." And we had to deal with images that were so realistic it was nearly difficult to tell if they were real at all. +But joking aside, there were images like this one from Instagram which was subjected to a grilling by journalists. +They weren't really sure. It was filtered in Instagram. +The lighting was questioned. Everything was questioned about it. +And it turned out to be true. It was from Avenue C in downtown Manhattan, which was flooded. +And the reason that they could tell that it was real was because they could get to the source, and in this case, these guys were New York food bloggers. +They were well respected. They were known. +So this one wasn't a debunk, it was actually something that they could prove. +And that was the job of the journalist. It was filtering all this stuff. +And you were, instead of going and finding the information and bringing it back to the reader, you were holding back the stuff that was potentially damaging. +And finding the source becomes more and more important -- finding the good source -- and Twitter is where most journalists now go. +It's like the de facto real-time newswire, if you know how to use it, because there is so much on Twitter. +And a good example of how useful it can be but also how difficult was the Egyptian revolution in 2011. +As a non-Arabic speaker, as someone who was looking from the outside, from Dublin, Twitter lists, and lists of good sources, people we could establish were credible, were really important. +And how do you build a list like that from scratch? +Well, it can be quite difficult, but you have to know what to look for. +This visualization was done by an Italian academic. +And it's an amazing way of visualizing the conversation, but what you get is hints at who is more interesting and who is worth investigating. +And as the conversation grew and grew, it became more and more lively, and eventually you were left with this huge, big, rhythmic pointer of this conversation. +You could find the nodes, though, and then you went, and you go, "Right, I've got to investigate these people. +These are the ones that are obviously making sense. +Let's see who they are." +Now in the deluge of information, this is where the real-time web gets really interesting for a journalist like myself, because we have more tools than ever to do that kind of investigation. +And when you start digging into the sources, you can go further and further than you ever could before. +Sometimes you come across a piece of content that is so compelling, you want to use it, you're dying to use it, but you're not 100 percent sure if you can because you don't know if the source is credible. +You don't know if it's a scrape. You don't know if it's a re-upload. +And you have to do that investigative work. +And this video, which I'm going to let run through, was one we discovered a couple of weeks ago. +Video: Getting real windy in just a second. +(Rain and wind sounds) Oh, shit! +Markham Nolan: Okay, so now if you're a news producer, this is something you'd love to run with, because obviously, this is gold. +You know? This is a fantastic reaction from someone, very genuine video that they've shot in their back garden. +But how do you find if this person, if it's true, if it's faked, or if it's something that's old and that's been reposted? +So we set about going to work on this video, and the only thing that we had to go on was the username on the YouTube account. +There was only one video posted to that account, and the username was Rita Krill. +And we didn't know if Rita existed or if it was a fake name. +But we started looking, and we used free Internet tools to do so. +The first one was called Spokeo, which allowed us to look for Rita Krills. +So we looked all over the U.S. We found them in New York, we found them in Pennsylvania, Nevada and Florida. +So we went and we looked for a second free Internet tool called Wolfram Alpha, and we checked the weather reports for the day in which this video had been uploaded, and when we went through all those various cities, we found that in Florida, there were thunderstorms and rain on the day. +So we went to the white pages, and we found, we looked through the Rita Krills in the phonebook, and we looked through a couple of different addresses, and that took us to Google Maps, where we found a house. +And we found a house with a swimming pool that looked remarkably like Rita's. So we went back to the video, and we had to look for clues that we could cross-reference. +So if you look in the video, there's the big umbrella, there's a white lilo in the pool, there are some unusually rounded edges in the swimming pool, and there's two trees in the background. +And we went back to Google Maps, and we looked a little bit closer, and sure enough, there's the white lilo, there are the two trees, there's the umbrella. It's actually folded in this photo. +Little bit of trickery. And there are the rounded edges on the swimming pool. +So we were able to call Rita, clear the video, make sure that it had been shot, and then our clients were delighted because they were able to run it without being worried. +Sometimes the search for truth, though, is a little bit less flippant, and it has much greater consequences. +Syria has been really interesting for us, because obviously a lot of the time you're trying to debunk stuff that can be potentially war crime evidence, so this is where YouTube actually becomes the most important repository of information about what's going on in the world. +So this video, I'm not going to show you the whole thing, because it's quite gruesome, but you'll hear some of the sounds. +This is from Hama. +Video: And what this video shows, when you watch the whole thing through, is bloody bodies being taken out of a pickup truck and thrown off a bridge. +The allegations were that these guys were Muslim Brotherhood and they were throwing Syrian Army officers' bodies off the bridge, and they were cursing and using blasphemous language, and there were lots of counterclaims about who they were, and whether or not they were what the video said it was. +So we talked to some sources in Hama who we had been back and forth with on Twitter, and we asked them about this, and the bridge was interesting to us because it was something we could identify. +Three different sources said three different things about the bridge. +They said, one, the bridge doesn't exist. +Another one said the bridge does exist, but it's not in Hama. It's somewhere else. +And the third one said, "I think the bridge does exist, but the dam upstream of the bridge was closed, so the river should actually have been dry, so this doesn't make sense." +So that was the only one that gave us a clue. +We looked through the video for other clues. +We saw the distinctive railings, which we could use. +We looked at the curbs. The curbs were throwing shadows south, so we could tell the bridge was running east-west across the river. +It had black-and-white curbs. +As we looked at the river itself, you could see there's a concrete stone on the west side. There's a cloud of blood. +That's blood in the river. So the river is flowing south to north. That's what that tells me. +And also, as you look away from the bridge, there's a divot on the left-hand side of the bank, and the river narrows. +So onto Google Maps we go, and we start looking through literally every single bridge. +We go to the dam that we talked about, we start just literally going through every time that road crosses the river, crossing off the bridges that don't match. +We're looking for one that crosses east-west. +And we get to Hama. We get all the way from the dam to Hama and there's no bridge. +So we go a bit further. We switch to the satellite view, and we find another bridge, and everything starts to line up. +The bridge looks like it's crossing the river east to west. +So this could be our bridge. And we zoom right in. +We start to see that it's got a median, so it's a two-lane bridge. +And it's got the black-and-white curbs that we saw in the video, and as we click through it, you can see someone's uploaded photos to go with the map, which is very handy, so we click into the photos. And the photos start showing us more detail that we can cross-reference with the video. +The first thing that we see is we see black-and-white curbing, which is handy because we've seen that before. +We see the distinctive railing that we saw the guys throwing the bodies over. +And we keep going through it until we're certain that this is our bridge. +So what does that tell me? I've got to go back now to my three sources and look at what they told me: the one who said the bridge didn't exist, the one who said the bridge wasn't in Hama, and the one guy who said, "Yes, the bridge does exist, but I'm not sure about the water levels." +Number three is looking like the most truthful all of a sudden, and we've been able to find that out using some free Internet tools sitting in a cubicle in an office in Dublin in the space of 20 minutes. +And that's part of the joy of this. Although the web is running like a torrent, there's so much information there that it's incredibly hard to sift and getting harder every day, if you use them intelligently, you can find out incredible information. +Given a couple of clues, I could probably find out a lot of things about most of you in the audience that you might not like me finding out. +But what it tells me is that, at a time when there's more -- there's a greater abundance of information than there ever has been, it's harder to filter, we have greater tools. +We have free Internet tools that allow us, help us do this kind of investigation. +We have algorithms that are smarter than ever before, and computers that are quicker than ever before. +But here's the thing. Algorithms are rules. They're binary. +They're yes or no, they're black or white. +Truth is never binary. Truth is a value. +Truth is emotional, it's fluid, and above all, it's human. +No matter how quick we get with computers, no matter how much information we have, you'll never be able to remove the human from the truth-seeking exercise, because in the end, it is a uniquely human trait. +Thanks very much. +I essentially drag sledges for a living, so it doesn't take an awful lot to flummox me intellectually, but I'm going to read this question from an interview earlier this year: "Philosophically, does the constant supply of information steal our ability to imagine or replace our dreams of achieving? +After all, if it is being done somewhere by someone, and we can participate virtually, then why bother leaving the house?" +I'm usually introduced as a polar explorer. +I'm not sure that's the most progressive or 21st-century of job titles, but I've spent more than two percent now of my entire life living in a tent inside the Arctic Circle, so I get out of the house a fair bit. +And in my nature, I guess, I am a doer of things more than I am a spectator or a contemplator of things, and it's that dichotomy, the gulf between ideas and action that I'm going to try and explore briefly. +The pithiest answer to the question "why?" +that's been dogging me for the last 12 years was credited certainly to this chap, the rakish-looking gentleman standing at the back, second from the left, George Lee Mallory. Many of you will know his name. +In 1924 he was last seen disappearing into the clouds near the summit of Mt. Everest. +He may or may not have been the first person to climb Everest, more than 30 years before Edmund Hillary. +No one knows if he got to the top. It's still a mystery. +But he was credited with coining the phrase, "Because it's there." +Now I'm not actually sure that he did say that. +There's very little evidence to suggest it, but what he did say is actually far nicer, and again, I've printed this. I'm going to read it out. +"The first question which you will ask and which I must try to answer is this: What is the use of climbing Mt. Everest? +And my answer must at once be, it is no use. +There is not the slightest prospect of any gain whatsoever. +Oh, we may learn a little about the behavior of the human body at high altitudes, and possibly medical men may turn our observation to some account for the purposes of aviation, but otherwise nothing will come of it. +We shall not bring back a single bit of gold or silver, and not a gem, nor any coal or iron. +We shall not find a single foot of earth that can be planted with crops to raise food. So it is no use. +If you cannot understand that there is something in man which responds to the challenge of this mountain and goes out to meet it, that the struggle is the struggle of life itself upward and forever upward, then you won't see why we go. +What we get from this adventure is just sheer joy, and joy, after all, is the end of life. +We don't live to eat and make money. +We eat and make money to be able to enjoy life. +That is what life means, and that is what life is for." +Mallory's argument that leaving the house, embarking on these grand adventures is joyful and fun, however, doesn't tally that neatly with my own experience. +The furthest I've ever got away from my front door was in the spring of 2004. I still don't know exactly what came over me, but my plan was to make a solo and unsupported crossing of the Arctic Ocean. +I planned essentially to walk from the north coast of Russia to the North Pole, and then to carry on to the north coast of Canada. +No one had ever done this. I was 26 at the time. +A lot of experts were saying it was impossible, and my mum certainly wasn't very keen on the idea. +I sat there wondering what on Earth I had gotten myself into. +There was a bit of fun, a bit of joy. +I was 26. I remember sitting there looking down at my sledge. I had my skis ready to go, I had a satellite phone, a pump-action shotgun in case I was attacked by a polar bear. +I remember looking out of the window and seeing the second helicopter. +We were both thundering through this incredible Siberian dawn, and part of me felt a bit like a cross between Jason Bourne and Wilfred Thesiger. Part of me felt quite proud of myself, but mostly I was just utterly terrified. +And that journey lasted 10 weeks, 72 days. +I didn't see anyone else. We took this photo next to the helicopter. +Beyond that, I didn't see anyone for 10 weeks. +The North Pole is slap bang in the middle of the sea, so I'm traveling over the frozen surface of the Arctic Ocean. +NASA described conditions that year as the worst since records began. +I was dragging 180 kilos of food and fuel and supplies, about 400 pounds. The average temperature for the 10 weeks was minus 35. Minus 50 was the coldest. +So again, there wasn't an awful lot of joy or fun to be had. +One of the magical things about this journey, however, is that because I'm walking over the sea, over this floating, drifting, shifting crust of ice that's floating on top of the Arctic Ocean is it's an environment that's in a constant state of flux. +The ice is always moving, breaking up, drifting around, refreezing, so the scenery that I saw for nearly 3 months was unique to me. No one else will ever, could ever, possibly see the views, the vistas, that I saw for 10 weeks. +And that, I guess, is probably the finest argument for leaving the house. +And it seems to me, therefore, that the doing, you know, to try to experience, to engage, to endeavor, rather than to watch and to wonder, that's where the real meat of life is to be found, the juice that we can suck out of our hours and days. +And I would add a cautionary note here, however. +In my experience, there is something addictive about tasting life at the very edge of what's humanly possible. +Now I don't just mean in the field of daft macho Edwardian style derring-do, but also in the fields of pancreatic cancer, there is something addictive about this, and in my case, I think polar expeditions are perhaps not that far removed from having a crack habit. +I can't explain quite how good it is until you've tried it, but it has the capacity to burn up all the money I can get my hands on, to ruin every relationship I've ever had, so be careful what you wish for. +Mallory postulated that there is something in man that responds to the challenge of the mountain, and I wonder if that's the case whether there's something in the challenge itself, in the endeavor, and particularly in the big, unfinished, chunky challenges that face humanity that call out to us, and in my experience that's certainly the case. +There is one unfinished challenge that's been calling out to me for most of my adult life. +Many of you will know the story. +This is a photo of Captain Scott and his team. +Scott set out just over a hundred years ago to try to become the first person to reach the South Pole. +No one knew what was there. It was utterly unmapped at the time. We knew more about the surface of the moon than we did about the heart of Antarctica. +Scott, as many of you will know, was beaten to it by Roald Amundsen and his Norwegian team, who used dogs and dogsleds. Scott's team were on foot, all five of them wearing harnesses and dragging around sledges, and they arrived at the pole to find the Norwegian flag already there, I'd imagine pretty bitter and demoralized. +All five of them turned and started walking back to the coast and all five died on that return journey. +There is a sort of misconception nowadays that it's all been done in the fields of exploration and adventure. +When I talk about Antarctica, people often say, "Hasn't, you know, that's interesting, hasn't that Blue Peter presenter just done it on a bike?" +Or, "That's nice. You know, my grandmother's going on a cruise to Antarctica next year. You know. +Is there a chance you'll see her there?" +But Scott's journey remains unfinished. +No one has ever walked from the very coast of Antarctica to the South Pole and back again. +It is, arguably, the most audacious endeavor of that Edwardian golden age of exploration, and it seemed to me high time, given everything we have figured out in the century since from scurvy to solar panels, that it was high time someone had a go at finishing the job. +So that's precisely what I'm setting out to do. +This time next year, in October, I'm leading a team of three. +It will take us about four months to make this return journey. +That's the scale. The red line is obviously halfway to the pole. +We have to turn around and come back again. +I'm well aware of the irony of telling you that we will be blogging and tweeting. You'll be able to live vicariously and virtually through this journey in a way that no one has ever before. +And it'll also be a four-month chance for me to finally come up with a pithy answer to the question, "Why?" +And our lives today are safer and more comfortable than they have ever been. There certainly isn't much call for explorers nowadays. My career advisor at school never mentioned it as an option. +If I wanted to know, for example, how many stars were in the Milky Way, how old those giant heads on Easter Island were, most of you could find that out right now without even standing up. +And yet, if I've learned anything in nearly 12 years now of dragging heavy things around cold places, it is that true, real inspiration and growth only comes from adversity and from challenge, from stepping away from what's comfortable and familiar and stepping out into the unknown. +In life, we all have tempests to ride and poles to walk to, and I think metaphorically speaking, at least, we could all benefit from getting outside the house a little more often, if only we could summon up the courage. +I certainly would implore you to open the door just a little bit and take a look at what's outside. +Thank you very much. +Twelve years ago, I founded Zipcar. +Zipcar buys cars and parks them throughout dense metropolitan areas for people to use, by the hour and by the day, instead of owning their own cars. +Each Zipcar replaces 15 personal cars, and each driver drives about 80 percent less because they're now paying the full cost, all at once, in real time. +But what Zipcar really did was make sharing the norm. +Now, a decade later, it's really time to push the envelope a little bit, and so a couple years ago I moved to Paris with my husband and youngest child, and we launched Buzzcar a year ago. +Buzzcar lets people rent out their own cars to their friends and neighbors. +Instead of investing in a car, we invest in a community. +We bring the power of a corporation to individuals who add their cars to the network. +Some people call this peer-to-peer. +This does express the humanity of what's going on, and the personal relationships, but that is also like saying that it's the same thing as a yard sale or a bake sale or babysitting. +That's peer-to-peer. +It's like saying yard sales are the same thing as eBay, or craft fairs are the same thing as Etsy. +But what's really happening is that we've got the power of a free and open Internet, and on top of that we're putting a platform for participation, and the peers are now in partnership with the company, creating shared value on shared values, and each strengthening the other, and doing what the other can't do. +I call this Peers, Inc. +The incorporated side, the company, is doing things that it does really well. +Peers are giving and doing things that are incredibly expensive for companies to do. +What do they bring? They bring this fabulous diversity, expensive for companies. And what does that deliver? +It delivers localization and customization, specialization, and all of this aspect about social networks and how companies are yearning and eager to get inside there? +It's natural for me. Me and my friends, I can connect to them easily. +And it also delivers really fabulous innovation, and I'll talk about that later. +So we have the peers that are providing the services and the product, and the company that's doing the stuff that companies do. +The two of these are delivering the best of both worlds. +Some of my favorite examples: in transportation, Carpooling.com. Ten years old, three and a half million people have joined up, and a million rides are shared every day. +It's a phenomenal thing. It's the equivalent of 2,500 TGV trains, and just think, they didn't have to lay a track or buy a car. +This is all happening with excess capacity. +And it's not just with transportation, my love, but of course in other realms. Here's Fiverr.com. +I met these founders just weeks after they had launched, and now, in two years, what would you do for five dollars? +Seven hundred and fifty thousand gigs are now posted after two years, what people would do for five dollars. +And not just easy things that anyone can do. +This Peers, Inc. concept is in a very difficult and complex realm. +TopCoder has 400,000 engineers who are delivering complex design and engineering services. +When I talked to their CEO, he had this great line. +He said, "We have a community that owns its own company." +And then my all-time favorite, Etsy. +Etsy is providing goods that people make themselves and they're selling it in a marketplace. +It just celebrated its seventh anniversary, and after seven years, last year it delivered 530 million dollars' worth of sales to all those individuals who have been making those objects. +I know you guys out there who are businesspeople, are thinking, "Oh my God, I want to build one of those. +I see this incredible speed and scale. +You mean all I have to do is build a platform and all these people are going to put their stuff on top and I sit back and roll it in?" +Building these platforms for participation are so nontrivial to do. +I think of the difference of Google Video versus YouTube. +Who would have thought that two young guys and a start-up would beat out Google Video? Why? +I actually have no idea why. I didn't talk to them. +But I'm thinking, you know, they probably had the "share" button a little bit brighter and to the right, and so it was easier and more convenient for the two sides that are always participating on these networks. +So I actually know a lot about building a peer platform now, and a Peers, Inc. company, because I've spent the last two years doing that in Paris. +So let me take you back how it's so incredibly different building Buzzcar than it was building Zipcar, because now every single thing we do has these two different bodies that I have to be thinking about: the owners who are going to provide the cars and the drivers who are going to rent them. +Every single decision, I have to think about what is right for both sides. +There are many, many examples and I'll give you one that is not my favorite example: insurance. +It took me a year and a half to get the insurance just right. +Hours and hours of sitting with insurers and many companies and their thoughts about risk and how this is totally innovative, they'd never thought of it before. +Way too much money, I just can't even go there, with lawyers, trying to figure out how this is different, who's responsible to whom, and the result was that we were able to provide owners protection for their own driving records and their own history. +The cars are completely insured during the rental, and it gives drivers what they need, and what do they need? +They need a low deductible, and 24-hour roadside assistance. +So this was a trick to get these two sides. +So now I want to take you to the moment of -- When you're an entrepreneur, and you've started a new company, there's the, here's all the stuff we do beforehand, and then the service launches. What happens? +So all those months of work, they come into play. +Last June 1, we launched. It was an exciting moment. +And all the owners are adding their cars. It's really exciting. +All the drivers are becoming members. It's excellent. +The reservations start coming in, and here, owners who were getting text messages and emails that said, "Hey, Joe wants to rent your car for the weekend. +You can earn 60 euros. Isn't that great? Yes or no?" +No reply. Like, a huge proportion of them couldn't be bothered after they had just started, they just signed up, to reply. +So I thought, "Duh, Robin, this is the difference between industrial production and peer production." +Industrial production, the whole point of industrial production is to provide a standardized, exact service model that is consistent every single time, and I'm really thankful that my smartphone is made using industrial production. +And Zipcar provides a very nice, consistent service that works fabulously. +But what does peer production do? Peer production is this completely different way of doing things, and you have a big quality range, and so eBay, cleverly, the first peer production, Peer, Inc. company, I'd say, they figured out early on, we need to have ratings and commentaries and all that yucky side stuff. +We can flag that and we can put it to the side, and people who are buyers and consumers don't have to deal with it. +So going back, this is my look of excitement and joy, because all this stuff that I'd also been hoping for actually really did happen, and what's that? +That is the diversity of what's going on. +You have these different fabulous owners and their different cars, different prices, different locations. They dress differently, and they look different, and, really, I love these photos every time I look at them. +Cool guys, excited guys, and here is Selma, who -- I love this driver. +And after a year, we have 1,000 cars that are parked across France and 6,000 people who are members and eager to drive them. +This would not be possible to do that in economic fashion for a traditional company. +Back to this spectrum. +So what's happening is, we had the yuck side, but we actually had this real wow side. +And I can tell you two great stories. +A driver was telling me that they went to rent a car to go up the coast of France and the owner gave it to them, and said, "You know what, here's where the cliffs are, and here's all the beaches, and this is my best beach, and this is where the best fish restaurant is." +And the peers also become, peers and owners create relationships, and so at the last minute people can -- a driver can say, "Hey, you know what, I really need the car, is it available?" And that person will say, "Sure, my wife's at home. Go pick up the keys. Go do it." +So you can have these really nice things that can't happen, and it's a kind of "Wow!" and I want to say "Wow!" +type of thing that's happening here, because individuals, if you're a company, what happens is you might have 10 people who are in charge of innovation, or 100 people who are in charge of innovation. +What happens in Peer, Inc. companies is that you have tens and hundreds and thousands and even millions of people who are creating experiments on this model, and so out of all that influence and that effort, you are having this exceptional amount of innovation that is coming out. +So one of the reasons, if we come back to why did I call it Buzzcar? I wanted to remind all of us about the power of the hive, and its incredible facility to create this platform that individuals want to participate and innovate on. +And for me, when I think about our future, and all of those problems that seem incredibly large, the scale is impossible, the urgency is there, Peers, Inc. provides the speed and scale and the innovation and the creativity that is going to answer these problems. +All we have to do is create a fabulous platform for participation -- nontrivial. +So I continue to think that transportation is the center of the hard universe. +All problems come back to transportation for me. +But there are all these other areas that are these profound, big problems that I know that we can work on, and people are working on them in many different sectors, but there's this really fabulous group of things with the power of this Peers, Inc. model. +So over the last decade, we've been reveling in the power of the Internet and how it's empowered individuals, and for me, what Peers, Inc. does is it takes it up a notch. We're now bringing the power of the company and the corporation and supercharging individuals. +So for me, it's a collaboration. +Together, we can. Thank you. +I'm a neuroscientist, and I study decision-making. +I do experiments to test how different chemicals in the brain influence the choices we make. +I'm here to tell you the secret to successful decision-making: a cheese sandwich. +That's right. According to scientists, a cheese sandwich is the solution to all your tough decisions. +How do I know? I'm the scientist who did the study. +A few years ago, my colleagues and I were interested in how a brain chemical called serotonin would influence people's decisions in social situations. +Specifically, we wanted to know how serotonin would affect the way people react when they're treated unfairly. +So we did an experiment. +We manipulated people's serotonin levels by giving them this really disgusting-tasting artificial lemon-flavored drink that works by taking away the raw ingredient for serotonin in the brain. +This is the amino acid tryptophan. +So what we found was, when tryptophan was low, people were more likely to take revenge when they're treated unfairly. +That's the study we did, and here are some of the headlines that came out afterwards. +("A cheese sandwich is all you need for strong decision-making") ("What a friend we have in cheeses") ("Eating Cheese and Meat May Boost Self-Control") At this point, you might be wondering, did I miss something? +("Official! Chocolate stops you being grumpy") Cheese? Chocolate? Where did that come from? +And I thought the same thing myself when these came out, because our study had nothing to do with cheese or chocolate. +We gave people this horrible-tasting drink that affected their tryptophan levels. +But it turns out that tryptophan also happens to be found in cheese and chocolate. +And of course when science says cheese and chocolate help you make better decisions, well, that's sure to grab people's attention. +So there you have it: the evolution of a headline. +When this happened, a part of me thought, well, what's the big deal? +So the media oversimplified a few things, but in the end, it's just a news story. +And I think a lot of scientists have this attitude. +But the problem is that this kind of thing happens all the time, and it affects not just the stories you read in the news but also the products you see on the shelves. +When the headlines rolled, what happened was, the marketers came calling. +Would I be willing to provide a scientific endorsement of a mood-boosting bottled water? +Or would I go on television to demonstrate, in front of a live audience, that comfort foods really do make you feel better? +I think these folks meant well, but had I taken them up on their offers, I would have been going beyond the science, and good scientists are careful not to do this. +But nevertheless, neuroscience is turning up more and more in marketing. +Here's one example: Neuro drinks, a line of products, including Nuero Bliss here, which according to its label helps reduce stress, enhances mood, provides focused concentration, and promotes a positive outlook. +I have to say, this sounds awesome. I could totally have used this 10 minutes ago. +So when this came up in my local shop, naturally I was curious about some of the research backing these claims. +So I went to the company's website looking to find some controlled trials of their products. +But I didn't find any. +Trial or no trial, these claims are front and center on their label right next to a picture of a brain. +And it turns out that pictures of brains have special properties. +A couple of researchers asked a few hundred people to read a scientific article. +For half the people, the article included a brain image, and for the other half, it was the same article but it didn't have a brain image. +At the end you see where this is going people were asked whether they agreed with the conclusions of the article. +So this is how much people agree with the conclusions with no image. +And this is how much they agree with the same article that did include a brain image. +So the take-home message here is, do you want to sell it? Put a brain on it. +Now let me pause here and take a moment to say that neuroscience has advanced a lot in the last few decades, and we're constantly discovering amazing things about the brain. +Like, just a couple of weeks ago, neuroscientists at MIT figured out how to break habits in rats just by controlling neural activity in a specific part of their brain. +Really cool stuff. +But the promise of neuroscience has led to some really high expectations and some overblown, unproven claims. +So what I'm going to do is show you how to spot a couple of classic moves, dead giveaways, really, for what's variously been called neuro-bunk, neuro-bollocks, or, my personal favorite, neuro-flapdoodle. +So the first unproven claim is that you can use brain scans to read people's thoughts and emotions. +Here's a study published by a team of researchers as an op-ed in The New York Times. +The headline? "You Love Your iPhone. Literally." +It quickly became the most emailed article on the site. +So how'd they figure this out? +They put 16 people inside a brain scanner and showed them videos of ringing iPhones. +The brain scans showed activation in a part of the brain called the insula, a region they say is linked to feelings of love and compassion. +So they concluded that because they saw activation in the insula, this meant the subjects loved their iPhones. +Now there's just one problem with this line of reasoning, and that's that the insula does a lot. +Sure, it is involved in positive emotions like love and compassion, but it's also involved in tons of other processes, like memory, language, attention, even anger, disgust and pain. +So based on the same logic, I could equally conclude you hate your iPhone. +The point here is, when you see activation in the insula, you can't just pick and choose your favorite explanation from off this list, and it's a really long list. +My colleagues Tal Yarkoni and Russ Poldrack have shown that the insula pops up in almost a third of all brain imaging studies that have ever been published. +So chances are really, really good that your insula is going off right now, but I won't kid myself to think this means you love me. +So speaking of love and the brain, there's a researcher, known to some as Dr. Love, who claims that scientists have found the glue that holds society together, the source of love and prosperity. +This time it's not a cheese sandwich. +No, it's a hormone called oxytocin. +You've probably heard of it. +So, Dr. Love bases his argument on studies showing that when you boost people's oxytocin, this increases their trust, empathy and cooperation. +So he's calling oxytocin "the moral molecule." +Now these studies are scientifically valid, and they've been replicated, but they're not the whole story. +Other studies have shown that boosting oxytocin increases envy. It increases gloating. +Oxytocin can bias people to favor their own group at the expense of other groups. +And in some cases, oxytocin can even decrease cooperation. +So based on these studies, I could say oxytocin is an immoral molecule, and call myself Dr. Strangelove. +So we've seen neuro-flapdoodle all over the headlines. +We see it in supermarkets, on book covers. +What about the clinic? +SPECT imaging is a brain-scanning technology that uses a radioactive tracer to track blood flow in the brain. +For the bargain price of a few thousand dollars, there are clinics in the U.S. that will give you one of these SPECT scans and use the image to help diagnose your problems. +These scans, the clinics say, can help prevent Alzheimer's disease, solve weight and addiction issues, overcome marital conflicts, and treat, of course, a variety of mental illnesses ranging from depression to anxiety to ADHD. +This sounds great. A lot of people agree. +Some of these clinics are pulling in tens of millions of dollars a year in business. +There's just one problem. +The broad consensus in neuroscience is that we can't yet diagnose mental illness from a single brain scan. +But these clinics have treated tens of thousands of patients to date, many of them children, and SPECT imaging involves a radioactive injection, so exposing people to radiation, potentially harmful. +I am more excited than most people, as a neuroscientist, about the potential for neuroscience to treat mental illness and even maybe to make us better and smarter. +And if one day we can say that cheese and chocolate help us make better decisions, count me in. +But we're not there yet. +We haven't found a "buy" button inside the brain, we can't tell whether someone is lying or in love just by looking at their brain scans, and we can't turn sinners into saints with hormones. +Maybe someday we will, but until then, we have to be careful that we don't let overblown claims detract resources and attention away from the real science that's playing a much longer game. +So here's where you come in. +If someone tries to sell you something with a brain on it, don't just take them at their word. +Ask the tough questions. Ask to see the evidence. +Ask for the part of the story that's not being told. +The answers shouldn't be simple, because the brain isn't simple. +But that's not stopping us from trying to figure it out anyway. +Thank you. +On March 14, this year, I posted this poster on Facebook. +This is an image of me and my daughter holding the Israeli flag. +I will try to explain to you about the context of why and when I posted. +A few days ago, I was sitting waiting on the line at the grocery store, and the owner and one of the clients were talking to each other, and the owner was explaining to the client that we're going to get 10,000 missiles on Israel. +And the client was saying, no, it's 10,000 a day. +("10,000 missiles") This is the context. This is where we are now in Israel. +We have this war with Iran coming for 10 years now, and we have people, you know, afraid. +It's like every year it's the last minute that we can do something about the war with Iran. +It's like, if we don't act now, it's too late forever, for 10 years now. +So at some point it became, you know, to me, I'm a graphic designer, so I made posters about it and I posted the one I just showed you before. +Most of the time, I make posters, I post them on Facebook, my friends like it, don't like it, most of the time don't like it, don't share it, don't nothing, and it's another day. +So I went to sleep, and that was it for me. +And later on in the night, I woke up because I'm always waking up in the night, and I went by the computer and I see all these red dots, you know, on Facebook, which I've never seen before. +And I was like, "What's going on?" +So I come to the computer and I start looking on, and suddenly I see many people talking to me, most of them I don't know, and a few of them from Iran, which is -- What? +Because you have to understand, in Israel we don't talk with people from Iran. +We don't know people from Iran. +It's like, on Facebook, you have friends only from -- it's like your neighbors are your friends on Facebook. +And now people from Iran are talking to me. +So I start answering this girl, and she's telling me she saw the poster and she asked her family to come, because they don't have a computer, she asked her family to come to see the poster, and they're all sitting in the living room crying. +So I'm like, whoa. +I ask my wife to come, and I tell her, you have to see that. +People are crying, and she came, she read the text, and she started to cry. +And everybody's crying now. So I don't know what to do, so my first reflex, as a graphic designer, is, you know, to show everybody what I'd just seen, and people started to see them and to share them, and that's how it started. +The day after, when really it became a lot of talking, I said to myself, and my wife said to me, I also want a poster, so this is her. Because it's working, put me in a poster now. +But more seriously, I was like, okay, these ones work, but it's not just about me, it's about people from Israel who want to say something. +So I'm going to shoot all the people I know, if they want, and I'm going to put them in a poster and I'm going to share them. +So I went to my neighbors and friends and students and I just asked them, give me a picture, I will make you a poster. +And that's how it started. And that's how, really, it's unleashed, because suddenly people from Facebook, friends and others, just understand that they can be part of it. +It's not just one dude making one poster, it's -- we can be part of it, so they start sending me pictures and ask me, "Make me a poster. Post it. +Tell the Iranians we from Israel love you too." +It became, you know, at some point it was really, really intense. +I mean, so many pictures, so I asked friends to come, graphic designers most of them, to make posters with me, because I didn't have the time. +It was a huge amount of pictures. +So for a few days, that's how my living room was. +And we received Israeli posters, Israeli images, but also lots of comments, lots of messages from Iran. +And we took these messages and we made posters out of it, because I know people: They don't read, they see images. +If it's an image, they may read it. +So here are a few of them. +The day after, Iranians started to respond with their own posters. +They have graphic designers. What? Crazy, crazy. +So you can see they are still shy, they don't want to show their faces, but they want to spread the message. +They want to respond. They want to say the same thing. +So. And now it's communication. +It's a two-way story. It's Israelis and Iranians sending the same message, one to each other. +("My Israeli Friends. I don't hate you. I don't want War.") This never happened before, and this is two people supposed to be enemies, we're on the verge of a war, and suddenly people on Facebook are starting to say, "I like this guy. I love those guys." +And it became really big at some point. +And then it became news. +Because when you're seeing the Middle East, you see only the bad news. +And suddenly, there is something that was happening that was good news. So the guys on the news, they say, "Okay, let's talk about this." +And they just came, and it was so much, I remember one day, Michal, she was talking with the journalist, and she was asking him, "Who's gonna see the show?"And he said, "Everybody." +So she said, "Everybody in Palestine, in where? Israel? +Who is everybody?""Everybody." +They said, "Syria?" "Syria." +"Lebanon?""Lebanon." +At some point, he just said, "40 million people are going to see you today. +It's everybody." The Chinese. +And we were just at the beginning of the story. +Something crazy also happened. +Every time a country started talking about it, like Germany, America, wherever, a page on Facebook popped up with the same logo with the same stories, so at the beginning we had "Iran-Loves-Israel," which is an Iranian sitting in Tehran, saying, "Okay, Israel loves Iran? +I give you Iran-Loves-Israel." +You have Palestine-Loves-Israel. +You have Lebanon that just -- a few days ago. +And this whole list of pages on Facebook dedicated to the same message, to people sending their love, one to each other. +The moment I really understood that something was happening, a friend of mine told me, "Google the word 'Israel.'" And those were the first images on those days that popped up from Google when you were typing, "Israel" or "Iran." +We really changed how people see the Middle East. +Because you're not in the Middle East. +You're somewhere over there, and then you want to see the Middle East, so you go on Google and you say, "Israel," and they give you the bad stuff. +And for a few days you got those images. +Today the Israel-Loves-Iran page is this number, 80,831, and two million people last week went on the page and shared, liked, I don't know, commented on one of the photos. +So for five months now, that's what we are doing, me, Michal, a few of my friends, are just making images. +We're showing a new reality by just making images because that's how the world perceives us. +They see images of us, and they see bad images. +So we're working on making good images. End of story. +Look at this one. This is the Iran-Loves-Israel page. +This is not the Israel-Loves-Iran. This is not my page. +This is a guy in Tehran on the day of remembrance of the Israeli fallen soldier putting an image of an Israeli soldier on his page. +This is the enemy. +What? +("Our heartfelt condolences to the families who lost their dearests in terror attack in Bulgaria") And it's going both ways. +It's like, we are showing respect, one to each other. +And we're understanding. And you show compassion. +And you become friends. +And at some point, you become friends on Facebook, and you become friends in life. +You can go and travel and meet people. +And I was in Munich a few weeks ago. +I went there to open an exposition about Iran and I met there with people from the page that told me, "Okay, you're going to be in Europe, I'm coming. I'm coming from France, from Holland, from Germany," of course, and from Israel people came, and we just met there for the first time in real life. +I met with people that are supposed to be my enemies for the first time. And we just shake hands, and have a coffee and a nice discussion, and we talk about food and basketball. +And that was the end of it. +Remember that image from the beginning? +At some point we met in real life, and we became friends. +And it goes the other way around. +So a few weeks ago, the stress is getting higher, so we start this new campaign called "Not ready to die in your war." +I mean, it's plus/minus the same message, but we wanted really to add some aggressivity to it. +And again, something amazing happened, something that we didn't have on the first wave of the campaign. +Now people from Iran, the same ones who were shy at the first campaign and just sent, you know, their foot and half their faces, now they're sending their faces, and they're saying, "Okay, no problem, we're into it. We are with you." +Just read where those guys are from. +And for every guy from Israel, you've got someone from Iran. +Just people sending their pictures. +Crazy, yes? +So -- So you may ask yourself, who is this dude? +My name is Ronny Edry, and I'm 41, I'm an Israeli, I'm a father of two, I'm a husband, and I'm a graphic designer. I'm teaching graphic design. +And I'm not that naive, because a lot of the time I've been asked, many times I've been asked, "Yeah, but, this is really naive, sending flowers over, I mean " I was in the army. I was in the paratroopers for three years, and I know how it looks from the ground. +I know how it can look really bad. +So to me, this is the courageous thing to do, to try to reach the other side before it's too late, because when it's going to be too late, it's going to be too late. +And sometimes war is inevitable, sometimes, but maybe [with] effort, we can avoid it. +Maybe as people, because especially in Israel, we're in a democracy. We have the freedom of speech, and maybe that little thing can change something. +And really, we can be our own ambassadors. +We can just send a message and hope for the best. +So I want to ask Michal, my wife, to come with me on the stage just to make with you one image, because it's all about images. +And maybe that image will help us change something. +Just raise that. Exactly. +And I'm just going to take a picture of it, and I'm just going to post it on Facebook with kind of "Israelis for peace" or something. +Oh my God. +Don't cry. +Thank you guys. +So a friend of mine who's a political scientist, he told me several months ago exactly what this month would be like. +He said, you know, there's this fiscal cliff coming, it's going to come at the beginning of 2013. +Both parties absolutely need to resolve it, but neither party wants to be seen as the first to resolve it. +Neither party has any incentive to solve it a second before it's due, so he said, December, you're just going to see lots of angry negotiations, negotiations breaking apart, reports of phone calls that aren't going well, people saying nothing's happening at all, and then sometime around Christmas or New Year's, we're going to hear, "Okay, they resolved everything." +He told me that a few months ago. He said he's 98 percent positive they're going to resolve it, and I got an email from him today saying, all right, we're basically on track, but now I'm 80 percent positive that they're going to resolve it. +And it made me think. I love studying these moments in American history when there was this frenzy of partisan anger, that the economy was on the verge of total collapse. +The most famous early battle was Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson over what the dollar would be and how it would be backed up, with Alexander Hamilton saying, "We need a central bank, the First Bank of the United States, or else the dollar will have no value. +This economy won't work," and Thomas Jefferson saying, "The people won't trust that. +They just fought off a king. They're not going to accept some central authority." +This battle defined the first 150 years of the U.S. economy, and at every moment, different partisans saying, "Oh my God, the economy's about to collapse," and the rest of us just going about, spending our bucks on whatever it is we wanted to buy. +To give you a quick primer on where we are, a quick refresher on where we are. +So the fiscal cliff, I was told that that's too partisan a thing to say, although I can't remember which party it's supporting or attacking. +People say we should call it the fiscal slope, or we should call it an austerity crisis, but then other people say, no, that's even more partisan. +So I just call it the self-imposed, self-destructive arbitrary deadline about resolving an inevitable problem. +And this is what the inevitable problem looks like. +So this is a projection of U.S. debt as a percentage of our overall economy, of GDP. +And at that moment our economy collapses. +But remember, Greece is there today. +We're there in 20 years. We have lots and lots of time to avoid that crisis, and the fiscal cliff was just one more attempt at trying to force the two sides to resolve the crisis. +Here's another way to look at exactly the same problem. +The dark blue line is how much the government spends. +The light blue line is how much the government gets in. +And as you can see, for most of recent history, except for a brief period, we have consistently spent more than we take in. Thus the national debt. +But as you can also see, projected going forward, the gap widens a bit and raises a bit, and this graph is only through 2021. +It gets really, really ugly out towards 2030. +And this graph sort of sums up what the problem is. +The Democrats, they say, well, this isn't a big deal. +We can just raise taxes a bit and close that gap, especially if we raise taxes on the rich. +The Republicans say, hey, no, no, we've got a better idea. +Why don't we lower both lines? +Why don't we lower government spending and lower government taxes, and then we'll be on an even more favorable long-term deficit trajectory? +And behind this powerful disagreement between how to close that gap, there's the worst kind of cynical party politics, the worst kind of insider baseball, lobbying, all of that stuff, but there's also this powerfully interesting, respectful disagreement between two fundamentally different economic philosophies. +And I like to think, when I picture how Republicans see the economy, what I picture is just some amazingly well-engineered machine, some perfect machine. +And this view generally believes that there is a role for government, a small role, to set the rules so people aren't lying and cheating and hurting each other, maybe, you know, have a police force and a fire department and an army, but to have a very limited reach into the mechanisms of this machinery. +And when I picture how Democrats and Democratic-leaning economists picture this economy, most Democratic economists are, you know, they're capitalists, they believe, yes, that's a good system a lot of the time. +It's good to let markets move resources to their more productive use. +But that system has tons of problems. +Wealth piles up in the wrong places. +Wealth is ripped away from people who shouldn't be called unproductive. +That's not going to create an equitable, fair society. +That machine doesn't care about the environment, about racism, about all these issues that make this life worse for all of us, and so the government does have a role to take resources from more productive uses, or from richer sources, and give them to other sources. +And when you think about the economy through these two different lenses, you understand why this crisis is so hard to solve, because the worse the crisis gets, the higher the stakes are, the more each side thinks they know the answer and the other side is just going to ruin everything. +And I can get really despairing. I've spent a lot of the last few years really depressed about this, until this year, I learned something that I felt really excited about. I feel like it's really good news, and it's so shocking, I don't like saying it, because I think people won't believe me. +But here's what I learned. +The American people, taken as a whole, when it comes to these issues, to fiscal issues, are moderate, pragmatic centrists. +And I know that's hard to believe, that the American people are moderate, pragmatic centrists. +But let me explain what I'm thinking. +When you look at how the federal government spends money, so this is the battle right here, 55 percent, more than half, is on Social Security, Medicare, Medicaid, a few other health programs, 20 percent defense, 19 percent discretionary, and six percent interest. +So when we're talking about cutting government spending, this is the pie we're talking about, and Americans overwhelmingly, and it doesn't matter what party they're in, overwhelmingly like that big 55 percent chunk. +They like Social Security. They like Medicare. +They even like Medicaid, even though that goes to the poor and indigent, which you might think would have less support. +And they do not want it fundamentally touched, although the American people are remarkably comfortable, and Democrats roughly equal to Republicans, with some minor tweaks to make the system more stable. +Social Security is fairly easy to fix. +The rumors of its demise are always greatly exaggerated. +So gradually raise Social Security retirement age, maybe only on people not yet born. +Americans are about 50/50, whether they're Democrats or Republicans. +Reduce Medicare for very wealthy seniors, seniors who make a lot of money. Don't even eliminate it. Just reduce it. +People generally are comfortable with it, Democrats and Republicans. +Raise medical health care contributions? +Everyone hates that equally, but Republicans and Democrats hate that together. +And so what this tells me is, when you look at the discussion of how to resolve our fiscal problems, we are not a nation that's powerfully divided on the major, major issue. +We're comfortable with it needing some tweaks, but we want to keep it. +We're not open to a discussion of eliminating it. +Now there is one issue that is hyper-partisan, and where there is one party that is just spend, spend, spend, we don't care, spend some more, and that of course is Republicans when it comes to military defense spending. +They way outweigh Democrats. +The vast majority want to protect military defense spending. +That's 20 percent of the budget, and that presents a more difficult issue. +Now when it comes to taxes, there is more disagreement. +That's a more partisan area. +You have Democrats overwhelmingly supportive of raising the income tax on people who make 250,000 dollars a year, Republicans sort of against it, although if you break it out by income, Republicans who make less than 75,000 dollars a year like this idea. +So basically Republicans who make more than 250,000 dollars a year don't want to be taxed. +Raising taxes on investment income, you also see about two thirds of Democrats but only one third of Republicans are comfortable with that idea. +This brings up a really important point, which is that we tend in this country to talk about Democrats and Republicans and think there's this little group over there called independents that's, what, two percent? +If you add Democrats, you add Republicans, you've got the American people. +But that is not the case at all. +And it has not been the case for most of modern American history. +Roughly a third of Americans say that they are Democrats. +Around a quarter say that they are Republicans. +A tiny little sliver call themselves libertarians, or socialists, or some other small third party, and the largest block, 40 percent, say they're independents. +So most Americans are not partisan, and most of the people in the independent camp fall somewhere in between, so even though we have tremendous overlap between the views on these fiscal issues of Democrats and Republicans, we have even more overlap when you add in the independents. +Now we get to fight about all sorts of other issues. +We get to hate each other on gun control and abortion and the environment, but on these fiscal issues, these important fiscal issues, we just are not anywhere nearly as divided as people say. +And in fact, there's this other group of people who are not as divided as people might think, and that group is economists. +I talk to a lot of economists, and back in the '70s and '80s it was ugly being an economist. +You were in what they called the saltwater camp, meaning Harvard, Princeton, MIT, Stanford, Berkeley, or you were in the freshwater camp, University of Chicago, University of Rochester. +You were a free market capitalist economist or you were a Keynesian liberal economist, and these people didn't go to each other's weddings, they snubbed each other at conferences. +It's still ugly to this day, but in my experience, it is really, really hard to find an economist under 40 who still has that kind of way of seeing the world. +The vast majority of economists -- it is so uncool to call yourself an ideologue of either camp. +The phrase that you want, if you're a graduate student or a postdoc or you're a professor, a 38-year-old economics professor, is, "I'm an empiricist. +I go by the data." +And the data is very clear. +None of these major theories have been completely successful. +The 20th century, the last hundred years, is riddled with disastrous examples of times that one school or the other tried to explain the past or predict the future and just did an awful, awful job, so the economics profession has acquired some degree of modesty. +They still are an awfully arrogant group of people, I will assure you, but they're now arrogant about their impartiality, and they, too, see a tremendous range of potential outcomes. +And this nonpartisanship is something that exists, that has existed in secret in America for years and years and years. +They've been doing it since 1948, and what they show consistently throughout is that it's almost impossible to find Americans who are consistent ideologically, who consistently support, "No we mustn't tax, and we must limit the size of government," or, "No, we must encourage government to play a larger role in redistribution and correcting the ills of capitalism." +Those groups are very, very small. +The vast majority of people, they pick and choose, they see compromise and they change over time when they hear a better argument or a worse argument. +And that part of it has not changed. +What has changed is how people respond to vague questions. +If you ask people vague questions, like, "Do you think there should be more government or less government?" +"Do you think government should" especially if you use loaded language -- "Do you think the government should provide handouts?" +Or, "Do you think the government should redistribute?" +Then you can see radical partisan change. +But when you get specific, when you actually ask about the actual taxing and spending issues under consideration, people are remarkably centrist, they're remarkably open to compromise. +So what we have, then, when you think about the fiscal cliff, don't think of it as the American people fundamentally can't stand each other on these issues and that we must be ripped apart into two separate warring nations. +Think of it as a tiny, tiny number of ancient economists and misrepresentative ideologues have captured the process. +Every one of them becomes a louder and louder voice, but they don't represent us. +They don't represent what our views are. +And that gets me back to the dollar, and it gets me back to reminding myself that we know this experience. +We know what it's like to have these people on TV, in Congress, yelling about how the end of the world is coming if we don't adopt their view completely, because it's happened about the dollar ever since there's been a dollar. +We had the battle between Jefferson and Hamilton. +The Fed can't mess it up so badly. +But then we got off the gold standard for individuals during the Depression and we got off the gold standard as a source of international currency coordination during Richard Nixon's presidency. +Each of those times, we were on the verge of complete collapse. +And nothing happened at all. +Throughout it all, the dollar has been one of the most long-standing, stable, reasonable currencies, and we all use it every single day, no matter what the people screaming about tell us, no matter how scared we're supposed to be. +The fear is that the world is watching. +The fear is that the longer we delay any solution, the more the world will look to the U.S. +not as the bedrock of stability in the global economy, but as a place that can't resolve its own fights, and the longer we put that off, the more we make the world nervous, the higher interest rates are going to be, the quicker we're going to have to face a day of horrible calamity. +And so just the act of compromise itself, and sustained, real compromise, would give us even more time, would allow both sides even longer to spread out the pain and reach even more compromise down the road. +But the more we address it as a practical concern, the sooner we can resolve it, and the more time we have to resolve it, paradoxically. +Thank you. +The filmmaker Georges Mlis was first a magician. +Now movies proved to be the ultimate medium for magic. +With complete control of everything the audience can see, moviemakers had developed an arsenal of techniques to further their deceptions. +Motion pictures are themselves an illusion of life, produced by the sequential projection of still frames, and they astonished the Lumire brothers' early audiences. +Even today's sophisticated moviegoers still lose themselves to the screen, and filmmakers leverage this separation from reality to great effect. +Now imaginative people have been having fun with this for over 400 years. +Giambattista della Porta, a Neapolitan scholar in the 16th century, examined and studied the natural world and saw how it could be manipulated. +Playing with the world, and our perception of it, really is the essence of visual effects. +So digging deeper into this with the Science and Technology Council of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences reveals some truth behind the trickery. +Visual effects are based on the principles of all illusions: assumption, things are as we know them; presumption, things will behave as we expect; and context in reality, our knowledge of the world as we know it, such as scale. +Now a fourth factor really becomes an obsession, which is, never betray the illusion. +And that last point has made visual effects a constant quest for perfection. +So from the hand-cranked jump cut early days of cinema to last Sunday's Oscar winner, what follows are some steps and a few repeats in the evolution of visual effects. +I hope you will enjoy. +Isabelle: "The filmmaker Georges Mlis was one of the first to realize that films had the power to capture dreams." +["'A Trip to the Moon' "] ["2011 Restoration of the Original Hand-Tinted Color"] ["'2001: A Space Odyssey' "] ["Academy Award Winner for Visual Effects"] ["'Avatar' "] First doctor: How are you feeling, Jake? +Jake: Hey guys. +["Academy Award Winner for Visual Effects"] Second doctor: Welcome to your new body, Jake.First doctor: Good. +Second doctor: We're gonna take this nice and easy, Jake.First doctor: Well, do you want to sit up? That's fine. +Second doctor: And good, just take it nice and slow, Jake. +Well, no truncal ataxia, that's good.First doctor: You feeling light-headed or dizzy at all? +Oh, you're wiggling your toes. +["'Alice's Adventures in Wonderland' "] Alice: What's happening to me? +Maharaja: Nothing to worry about, not a thing. +['Academy Award for Special Effects - (First Year of Category)"] ["'2012' "]Governor: It seems to me that the worst is over. +So I'd like to start by focusing on the world's most dangerous animal. +Now, when you talk about dangerous animals, most people might think of lions or tigers or sharks. +But of course the most dangerous animal is the mosquito. +The mosquito has killed more humans than any other creature in human history. +In fact, probably adding them all together, the mosquito has killed more humans. +And the mosquito has killed more humans than wars and plague. +And you would think, would you not, that with all our science, with all our advances in society, with better towns, better civilizations, better sanitation, wealth, that we would get better at controlling mosquitos, and hence reduce this disease. +And that's not really the case. +So 50 years ago, pretty much no one had heard of it, no one certainly in the European environment. +But dengue fever now, according to the World Health Organization, infects between 50 and 100 million people every year, so that's equivalent to the whole of the population of the U.K. being infected every year. +Other estimates put that number at roughly double that number of infections. +And dengue fever has grown in speed quite phenomenally. +In the last 50 years, the incidence of dengue has grown thirtyfold. +Now let me tell you a little bit about what dengue fever is, for those who don't know. +Now let's assume you go on holiday. +Let's assume you go to the Caribbean, or you might go to Mexico. You might go to Latin America, Asia, Africa, anywhere in Saudi Arabia. +You might go to India, the Far East. +It doesn't really matter. It's the same mosquito, and it's the same disease. You're at risk. +And let's assume you're bitten by a mosquito that's carrying that virus. +Well, you could develop flu-like symptoms. +They could be quite mild. +You could develop nausea, headache, your muscles could feel like they're contracting, and you could actually feel like your bones are breaking. +And that's the nickname given to this disease. +It's called breakbone fever, because that's how you can feel. +Now the odd thing is, is that once you've been bitten by this mosquito, and you've had this disease, your body develops antibodies, so if you're bitten again with that strain, it doesn't affect you. +But it's not one virus, it's four, and the same protection that gives you the antibodies and protects you from the same virus that you had before actually makes you much more susceptible to the other three. +So the next time you get dengue fever, if it's a different strain, you're more susceptible, you're likely to get worse symptoms, and you're more likely to get the more severe forms, hemorrhagic fever or shock syndrome. +So you don't want dengue once, and you certainly don't want it again. +So why is it spreading so fast? +And the answer is this thing. +This is Aedes aegypti. +Now this is a mosquito that came, like its name suggests, out of North Africa, and it's spread round the world. +Now, in fact, a single mosquito will only travel about 200 yards in its entire life. They don't travel very far. +What they're very good at doing is hitchhiking, particularly the eggs. +They will lay their eggs in clear water, any pool, any puddle, any birdbath, any flower pot, anywhere there's clear water, they'll lay their eggs, and if that clear water is near freight, it's near a port, if it's anywhere near transport, those eggs will then get transported around the world. +And that's what's happened. Mankind has transported these eggs all the way around the world, and these insects have infested over 100 countries, and there's now 2.5 billion people living in countries where this mosquito resides. +To give you just a couple of examples how fast this has happened, in the mid-'70s, Brazil declared, "We have no Aedes aegypti," and currently they spend about a billion dollars now a year trying to get rid of it, trying to control it, just one species of mosquito. +Two days ago, or yesterday, I can't remember which, I saw a Reuters report that said Madeira had had their first cases of dengue, about 52 cases, with about 400 probable cases. +That's two days ago. +Interestingly, Madeira first got the insect in 2005, and here we are, a few years later, first cases of dengue. +So the one thing you'll find is that where the mosquito goes, dengue will follow. +Once you've got the mosquito in your area, anyone coming into that area with dengue, mosquito will bite them, mosquito will bite somewhere else, somewhere else, somewhere else, and you'll get an epidemic. +So we must be good at killing mosquitos. +I mean, that can't be very difficult. +Well, there's two principle ways. +The first way is that you use larvicides. +You use chemicals. You put them into water where they breed. +Now in an urban environment, that's extraordinarily difficult. +You've got to get your chemical into every puddle, every birdbath, every tree trunk. +It's just not practical. +The second way you can do it is actually trying to kill the insects as they fly around. +This is a picture of fogging. +Here what someone is doing is mixing up chemical in a smoke and basically spreading that through the environment. +You could do the same with a space spray. +This is really unpleasant stuff, and if it was any good, we wouldn't have this massive increase in mosquitos and we wouldn't have this massive increase in dengue fever. +So it's not very effective, but it's probably the best thing we've got at the moment. +Having said that, actually, your best form of protection and my best form of protection is a long-sleeve shirt and a little bit of DEET to go with it. +So let's start again. Let's design a product, right from the word go, and decide what we want. +Well we clearly need something that is effective at reducing the mosquito population. +There's no point in just killing the odd mosquito here and there. +We want something that gets that population right the way down so it can't get the disease transmission. +Clearly the product you've got has got to be safe to humans. +We are going to use it in and around humans. +It has to be safe. +We don't want to have a lasting impact on the environment. +We don't want to do anything that you can't undo. +Maybe a better product comes along in 20, 30 years. +Fine. We don't want a lasting environmental impact. +We want something that's relatively cheap, or cost-effective, because there's an awful lot of countries involved, and some of them are emerging markets, some of them emerging countries, low-income. +And finally, you want something that's species-specific. +You want to get rid of this mosquito that spreads dengue, but you don't really want to get all the other insects. +Some are quite beneficial. Some are important to your ecosystem. +This one's not. It's invaded you. +But you don't want to get all of the insects. +You just want to get this one. +And most of the time, you'll find this insect lives in and around your home, so this -- whatever we do has got to get to that insect. +It's got to get into people's houses, into the bedrooms, into the kitchens. +Now there are two features of mosquito biology that really help us in this project, and that is, firstly, males don't bite. +It's only the female mosquito that will actually bite you. +The male can't bite you, won't bite you, doesn't have the mouth parts to bite you. +It's just the female. +And the second is a phenomenon that males are very, very good at finding females. +If there's a male mosquito that you release, and if there's a female around, that male will find the female. +So basically, we've used those two factors. +So here's a typical situation, male meets female, lots of offspring. +A single female will lay about up to 100 eggs at a time, up to about 500 in her lifetime. +Now if that male is carrying a gene which causes the death of the offspring, then the offspring don't survive, and instead of having 500 mosquitos running around, you have none. +And if you can put more, I'll call them sterile, that the offspring will actually die at different stages, but I'll call them sterile for now. +If you put more sterile males out into the environment, then the females are more likely to find a sterile male than a fertile one, and you will bring that population down. +So the males will go out, they'll look for females, they'll mate. If they mate successfully, then no offspring. +If they don't find a female, then they'll die anyway. +They only live a few days. +And that's exactly where we are. +So this is technology that was developed in Oxford University a few years ago. +The company itself, Oxitec, we've been working for the last 10 years, very much on a sort of similar development pathway that you'd get with a pharmaceutical company. +So about 10 years of internal evaluation, testing, to get this to a state where we think it's actually ready. +And then we've gone out into the big outdoors, always with local community consent, always with the necessary permits. +So we've done field trials now in the Cayman Islands, a small one in Malaysia, and two more now in Brazil. +And what's the result? +Well, the result has been very good. +In about four months of release, we've brought that population of mosquitos in most cases we're dealing with villages here of about 2,000, 3,000 people, that sort of size, starting small we've taken that mosquito population down by about 85 percent in about four months. +And in fact, the numbers after that get, those get very difficult to count, because there just aren't any left. +So that's been what we've seen in Cayman, it's been what we've seen in Brazil in those trials. +And now what we're doing is we're going through a process to scale up to a town of about 50,000, so we can see this work at big scale. +And we've got a production unit in Oxford, or just south of Oxford, where we actually produce these mosquitos. +We can produce them, in a space a bit more than this red carpet, I can produce about 20 million a week. +We can transport them around the world. +It's not very expensive, because it's a coffee cup -- something the size of a coffee cup will hold about three million eggs. +So freight costs aren't our biggest problem. So we've got that. You could call it a mosquito factory. +And for Brazil, where we've been doing some trials, the Brazilian government themselves have now built their own mosquito factory, far bigger than ours, and we'll use that for scaling up in Brazil. +There you are. We've sent mosquito eggs. +We've separated the males from the females. +The males have been put in little pots and the truck is going down the road and they are releasing males as they go. +It's actually a little bit more precise than that. +You want to release them so that you get good coverage of your area. +So you take a Google Map, you divide it up, work out how far they can fly, and make sure you're releasing such that you get coverage of the area, and then you go back, and within a very short space of time, you're bringing that population right the way down. +We've also done this in agriculture. +We've got several different species of agriculture coming along, and I'm hoping that soon we'll be able to get some funding together so we can get back and start looking at malaria. +We have G.M. crops, we have pharmaceuticals, we have new vaccines, all using roughly the same technology, but with very different outcomes. +And I'm in favor, actually. Of course I am. +I'm in favor of particularly where the older technologies don't work well or have become unacceptable. +And although the techniques are similar, the outcomes are very, very different, and if you take our approach, for example, and you compare it to, say, G.M. crops, both techniques are trying to produce a massive benefit. +Both have a side benefit, which is that we reduce pesticide use tremendously. +But whereas a G.M. crop is trying to protect the plant, for example, and give it an advantage, what we're actually doing is taking the mosquito and giving it the biggest disadvantage it can possibly have, rendering it unable to reproduce effectively. +So for the mosquito, it's a dead end. +Thank you very much. +So if you've been following the news, you've heard that there's a pack of giant asteroids headed for the United States, all scheduled to strike within the next 50 years. +Now I don't mean actual asteroids made of rock and metal. +That actually wouldn't be such a problem, because if we were really all going to die, we would put aside our differences, we'd spend whatever it took, and we'd find a way to deflect them. +I'm talking instead about threats that are headed our way, but they're wrapped in a special energy field that polarizes us, and therefore paralyzes us. +Last March, I went to the TED conference, and I saw Jim Hansen speak, the NASA scientist who first raised the alarm about global warming in the 1980s, and it seems that the predictions he made back then are coming true. +This is where we're headed in terms of global temperature rises, and if we keep on going the way we're going, we get a four- or five-degree-Centigrade temperature rise by the end of this century. +Hansen says we can expect about a five-meter rise in sea levels. +This is what a five-meter rise in sea levels would look like. +Low-lying cities all around the world will disappear within the lifetime of children born today. +Hansen closed his talk by saying, "Imagine a giant asteroid on a collision course with Earth. +That is the equivalent of what we face now. +Yet we dither, taking no action to deflect the asteroid, even though the longer we wait, the more difficult and expensive it becomes." +Of course, the left wants to take action, but the right denies that there's any problem. +All right, so I go back from TED, and then the following week, I'm invited to a dinner party in Washington, D.C., where I know that I'll be meeting a number of conservative intellectuals, including Yuval Levin, and to prepare for the meeting, I read this article by Levin in National Affairs called "Beyond the Welfare State." +Levin writes that all over the world, nations are coming to terms with the fact that the social democratic welfare state is turning out to be untenable and unaffordable, dependent upon dubious economics and the demographic model of a bygone era. +All right, now this might not sound as scary as an asteroid, but look at these graphs that Levin showed. +This graph shows the national debt as a percentage of America's GDP, and as you see, if you go all the way back to the founding, we borrowed a lot of money to fight the Revolutionary War. +Wars are expensive. But then we'd pay it off, pay it off, pay it off, and then, oh, what's this? The Civil War. Even more expensive. +Borrow a lot of money, pay it off, pay it off, pay it off, get down to near zero, and bang! -- World War I. +Once again, the same process repeats. +Now then we get the Great Depression and World War II. +We rise to an astronomical level, around 118 percent of GDP, really unsustainable, really dangerous. +But we pay it off, pay it off, pay it off, and then, what's this? +Why has it been rising since the '70s? +It's partly due to tax cuts that were unfunded, but it's due primarily to the rise of entitlement spending, especially Medicare. +We're approaching the levels of indebtedness we had at World War II, and the baby boomers haven't even retired yet, and when they do, this is what will happen. +This is data from the Congressional Budget Office showing its most realistic forecast of what would happen if current situations and expectations and trends are extended. +All right, now what you might notice is that these two graphs are actually identical, not in terms of the x- and y-axes, or in terms of the data they present, but in terms of their moral and political implications, they say the same thing. +Let me translate for you. +"We are doomed unless we start acting now. +What's wrong with you people on the other side in the other party? +Can't you see reality? If you won't help, then get the hell out of the way." +We can deflect both of these asteroids. +These problems are both technically solvable. +Our problem and our tragedy is that in these hyper-partisan times, the mere fact that one side says, "Look, there's an asteroid," means that the other side's going to say, "Huh? What? +No, I'm not even going to look up. No." +To understand why this is happening to us, and what we can do about it, we need to learn more about moral psychology. +So I'm a social psychologist, and I study morality, and one of the most important principles of morality is that morality binds and blinds. +It binds us into teams that circle around sacred values but thereby makes us go blind to objective reality. +Think of it like this. +Large-scale cooperation is extremely rare on this planet. +There are only a few species that can do it. +That's a beehive. That's a termite mound, a giant termite mound. +And when you find this in other animals, it's always the same story. +They're always all siblings who are children of a single queen, so they're all in the same boat. +They rise or fall, they live or die, as one. +There's only one species on the planet that can do this without kinship, and that, of course, is us. +This is a reconstruction of ancient Babylon, and this is Tenochtitlan. +Now how did we do this? How did we go from being hunter-gatherers 10,000 years ago to building these gigantic cities in just a few thousand years? +It's miraculous, and part of the explanation is this ability to circle around sacred values. +As you see, temples and gods play a big role in all ancient civilizations. +This is an image of Muslims circling the Kaaba in Mecca. +It's a sacred rock, and when people circle something together, they unite, they can trust each other, they become one. +It's as though you're moving an electrical wire through a magnetic field that generates current. +When people circle together, they generate a current. +We love to circle around things. +We circle around flags, and then we can trust each other. +We can fight as a team, as a unit. +But even as morality binds people together into a unit, into a team, the circling blinds them. +It causes them to distort reality. +We begin separating everything into good versus evil. +Now that process feels great. It feels really satisfying. +But it is a gross distortion of reality. +You can see the moral electromagnet operating in the U.S. Congress. +This is a graph that shows the degree to which voting in Congress falls strictly along the left-right axis, so that if you know how liberal or conservative someone is, you know exactly how they voted on all the major issues. +And what you can see is that, in the decades after the Civil War, Congress was extraordinarily polarized, as you would expect, about as high as can be. +But then, after World War I, things dropped, and we get this historically low level of polarization. +This was a golden age of bipartisanship, at least in terms of the parties' ability to work together and solve grand national problems. +But in the 1980s and '90s, the electromagnet turns back on. +Polarization rises. +It used to be that conservatives and moderates and liberals could all work together in Congress. +They could rearrange themselves, form bipartisan committees, but as the moral electromagnet got cranked up, the force field increased, Democrats and Republicans were pulled apart. +It became much harder for them to socialize, much harder for them to cooperate. +Retiring members nowadays say that it's become like gang warfare. +Did anybody notice that in two of the three debates, Obama wore a blue tie and Romney wore a red tie? +Do you know why they do this? +It's so that the Bloods and the Crips will know which side to vote for. The polarization is strongest among our political elites. +Nobody doubts that this is happening in Washington. +But for a while, there was some doubt as to whether it was happening among the people. +Well, in the last 12 years it's become much more apparent that it is. +So look at this data. This is from the American National Elections Survey. +And what they do on that survey is they ask what's called a feeling thermometer rating. +So, how warm or cold do you feel about, you know, Native Americans, or the military, the Republican Party, the Democratic Party, all sorts of groups in American life. +The blue line shows how warmly Democrats feel about Democrats, and they like them. +You know, ratings in the 70s on a 100-point scale. +Republicans like Republicans. That's not a surprise. +But when you look at cross-party ratings, you find, well, that it's lower, but actually, when I first saw this data, I was surprised. +That's actually not so bad. If you go back to the Carter and even Reagan administrations, they were rating the other party 43, 45. It's not terrible. +It drifts downwards very slightly, but now look what happens under George W. Bush and Obama. +It plummets. Something is going on here. +The moral electromagnet is turning back on, and nowadays, just very recently, Democrats really dislike Republicans. +Republicans really dislike the Democrats. We're changing. +It's as though the moral electromagnet is affecting us too. +It's like put out in the two oceans and it's pulling the whole country apart, pulling left and right into their own territories like the Bloods and the Crips. +Now, there are many reasons why this is happening to us, and many of them we cannot reverse. +We will never again have a political class that was forged by the experience of fighting together in World War II against a common enemy. +We will never again have just three television networks, all of which are relatively centrist. +And we will never again have a large group of conservative southern Democrats and liberal northern Republicans making it easy, making there be a lot of overlap for bipartisan cooperation. +So for a lot of reasons, those decades after the Second World War were an historically anomalous time. +We will never get back to those low levels of polarization, I believe. +But there's a lot that we can do. There are dozens and dozens of reforms we can do that will make things better, because a lot of our dysfunction can be traced directly to things that Congress did to itself in the 1990s that created a much more polarized and dysfunctional institution. +These changes are detailed in many books. +These are two that I strongly recommend, and they list a whole bunch of reforms. +I'm just going to group them into three broad classes here. +So open primaries would make that problem much, much less severe. +But the problem isn't primarily that we're electing bad people to Congress. +From my experience, and from what I've heard from Congressional insiders, most of the people going to Congress are good, hard-working, intelligent people who really want to solve problems, but once they get there, they find that they are forced to play a game that rewards hyper-partisanship and that punishes independent thinking. +You step out of line, you get punished. +So there are a lot of reforms we could do that will counteract this. +But the third class of reforms is that we've got to change the nature of social relationships in Congress. +The politicians I've met are generally very extroverted, friendly, very socially skillful people, and that's the nature of politics. You've got to make relationships, make deals, you've got to cajole, please, flatter, you've got to use your personal skills, and that's the way politics has always worked. +But beginning in the 1990s, first the House of Representatives changed its legislative calendar so that all business is basically done in the middle of the week. +Nowadays, Congressmen fly in on Tuesday morning, they do battle for two days, then they fly home Thursday afternoon. +They don't move their families to the District. +They don't meet each other's spouses or children. +There's no more relationship there. +And trying to run Congress without human relationships is like trying to run a car without motor oil. +Should we be surprised when the whole thing freezes up and descends into paralysis and polarization? +A simple change to the legislative calendar, such as having business stretch out for three weeks and then they get a week off to go home, that would change the fundamental relationships in Congress. +So there's a lot we can do, but who's going to push them to do it? +There are a number of groups that are working on this. +No Labels and Common Cause, I think, have very good ideas for changes we need to do to make our democracy more responsive and our Congress more effective. +But I'd like to supplement their work with a little psychological trick, and the trick is this. +Nothing pulls people together like a common threat or a common attack, especially an attack from a foreign enemy, unless of course that threat hits on our polarized psychology, in which case, as I said before, it can actually pull us apart. +Sometimes a single threat can polarize us, as we saw. +But what if the situation we face is not a single threat but is actually more like this, where there's just so much stuff coming in, it's just, "Start shooting, come on, everybody, we've got to just work together, just start shooting." +Because actually, we do face this situation. +This is where we are as a country. +So here's another asteroid. +We've all seen versions of this graph, right, which shows the changes in wealth since 1979, and as you can see, almost all the gains in wealth have gone to the top 20 percent, and especially the top one percent. +Rising inequality like this is associated with so many problems for a democracy. +Especially, it destroys our ability to trust each other, to feel that we're all in the same boat, because it's obvious we're not. +Some of us are sitting there safe and sound in gigantic private yachts. +Other people are clinging to a piece of driftwood. +We're not all in the same boat, and that means nobody's willing to sacrifice for the common good. +The left has been screaming about this asteroid for 30 years now, and the right says, "Huh, what? Hmm? No problem. No problem." +Now, why is that happening to us? Why is the inequality rising? +Well, one of the largest causes, after globalization, is actually this fourth asteroid, rising non-marital births. +This graph shows the steady rise of out-of-wedlock births since the 1960s. +Most Hispanic and black children are now born to unmarried mothers. +Whites are headed that way too. +Within a decade or two, most American children will be born into homes with no father. +This means that there's much less money coming into the house. +But it's not just money. It's also stability versus chaos. +As I know from working with street children in Brazil, Mom's boyfriend is often a really, really dangerous person for kids. +Now the right has been screaming about this asteroid since the 1960s, and the left has been saying, "It's not a problem. It's not a problem." +The left has been very reluctant to say that marriage is actually good for women and for children. +Now let me be clear. I'm not blaming the women here. +I'm actually more critical of the men who won't take responsibility for their own children and of an economic system that makes it difficult for many men to earn enough money to support those children. +But even if you blame nobody, it still is a national problem, and one side has been more concerned about it than the other. +The New York Times finally noticed this asteroid with a front-page story last July showing how the decline of marriage contributes to inequality. +We are becoming a nation of just two classes. +When Americans go to college and marry each other, they have very low divorce rates. +They earn a lot of money, they invest that money in their kids, some of them become tiger mothers, the kids rise to their full potential, and the kids go on to become the top two lines in this graph. +And then there's everybody else: the children who don't benefit from a stable marriage, who don't have as much invested in them, who don't grow up in a stable environment, and who go on to become the bottom three lines in that graph. +So once again, we see that these two graphs are actually saying the same thing. +As before, we've got a problem, we've got to start working on this, we've got to do something, and what's wrong with you people that you don't see my threat? +But if everybody could just take off their partisan blinders, we'd see that these two problems actually are best addressed together. +Because if you really care about income inequality, you might want to talk to some evangelical Christian groups that are working on ways to promote marriage. +But then you're going to run smack into the problem that women don't generally want to marry someone who doesn't have a job. +So to conclude, there are at least four asteroids headed our way. +How many of you can see all four? +Please raise your hand right now if you're willing to admit that all four of these are national problems. +Please raise your hands. +Okay, almost all of you. +Well, congratulations, you guys are the inaugural members of the Asteroids Club, which is a club for all Americans who are willing to admit that the other side actually might have a point. +In the Asteroids Club, we don't start by looking for common ground. +Common ground is often very hard to find. +No, we start by looking for common threats because common threats make common ground. +Now, am I being naive? Is it naive to think that people could ever lay down their swords, and left and right could actually work together? +I don't think so, because it happens, not all that often, but there are a variety of examples that point the way. +This is something we can do. +Americans on both sides care about global poverty and AIDS, and on so many humanitarian issues, liberals and evangelicals are actually natural allies, and at times they really have worked together to solve these problems. +And most surprisingly to me, they sometimes can even see eye to eye on criminal justice. +For example, the incarceration rate, the prison population in this country has quadrupled since 1980. +Now this is a social disaster, and liberals are very concerned about this. +The Southern Poverty Law Center is often fighting the prison-industrial complex, fighting to prevent a system that's just sucking in more and more poor young men. +But are conservatives happy about this? +Well, Grover Norquist isn't, because this system costs an unbelievable amount of money. +And so, because the prison-industrial complex is bankrupting our states and corroding our souls, groups of fiscal conservatives and Christian conservatives have come together to form a group called Right on Crime. +And at times they have worked with the Southern Poverty Law Center to oppose the building of new prisons and to work for reforms that will make the justice system more efficient and more humane. +So this is possible. We can do it. +Let us therefore go to battle stations, not to fight each other, but to begin deflecting these incoming asteroids. +And let our first mission be to press Congress to reform itself, before it's too late for our nation. +Thank you. +It's wonderful to be here to talk about my journey, to talk about the wheelchair and the freedom it has bought me. +I started using a wheelchair 16 years ago when an extended illness changed the way I could access the world. +When I started using the wheelchair, it was a tremendous new freedom. +I'd seen my life slip away and become restricted. +It was like having an enormous new toy. +I could whiz around and feel the wind in my face again. +Just being out on the street was exhilarating. +But even though I had this newfound joy and freedom, people's reaction completely changed towards me. +It was as if they couldn't see me anymore, as if an invisibility cloak had descended. +They seemed to see me in terms of their assumptions of what it must be like to be in a wheelchair. +When I asked people their associations with the wheelchair, they used words like "limitation," "fear," "pity" and "restriction." +I realized I'd internalized these responses and it had changed who I was on a core level. +A part of me had become alienated from myself. +I was seeing myself not from my perspective, but vividly and continuously from the perspective of other people's responses to me. +As a result, I knew I needed to make my own stories about this experience, new narratives to reclaim my identity. +["Finding Freedom: 'By creating our own stories we learn to take the texts of our lives as seriously as we do 'official' narratives.' Davis 2009, TEDx Women"] I started making work that aimed to communicate something of the joy and freedom I felt when using a wheelchair -- a power chair -- to negotiate the world. +I was working to transform these internalized responses, to transform the preconceptions that had so shaped my identity when I started using a wheelchair, by creating unexpected images. +The wheelchair became an object to paint and play with. +When I literally started leaving traces of my joy and freedom, it was exciting to see the interested and surprised responses from people. +It seemed to open up new perspectives, and therein lay the paradigm shift. +It showed that an arts practice can remake one's identity and transform preconceptions by revisioning the familiar. +So I thought, "I wonder what'll happen if I put the two together?" And the underwater wheelchair that has resulted has taken me on the most amazing journey over the last seven years. +So to give you an idea of what that's like, I'd like to share with you one of the outcomes from creating this spectacle, and show you what an amazing journey it's taken me on. +It is the most amazing experience, beyond most other things I've experienced in life. +I literally have the freedom to move in 360 degrees of space and an ecstatic experience of joy and freedom. +And the incredibly unexpected thing is that other people seem to see and feel that too. +Their eyes literally light up, and they say things like, "I want one of those," or, "If you can do that, I can do anything." +And I'm thinking, it's because in that moment of them seeing an object they have no frame of reference for, or so transcends the frames of reference they have with the wheelchair, they have to think in a completely new way. +And I think that moment of completely new thought perhaps creates a freedom that spreads to the rest of other people's lives. +For me, this means that they're seeing the value of difference, the joy it brings when instead of focusing on loss or limitation, we see and discover the power and joy of seeing the world from exciting new perspectives. +For me, the wheelchair becomes a vehicle for transformation. +In fact, I now call the underwater wheelchair "Portal," because it's literally pushed me through into a new way of being, into new dimensions and into a new level of consciousness. +And the other thing is, that because nobody's seen or heard of an underwater wheelchair before, and creating this spectacle is about creating new ways of seeing, being and knowing, now you have this concept in your mind. +You're all part of the artwork too. +Hello. My name is Jarrett Krosoczka, and I write and illustrate books for children for a living. +So I use my imagination as my full-time job. +But well before my imagination was my vocation, my imagination saved my life. +When I was a kid, I loved to draw, and the most talented artist I knew was my mother, but my mother was addicted to heroin. +And when your parent is a drug addict, it's kind of like Charlie Brown trying to kick the football, because as much as you want to love on that person, as much as you want to receive love from that person, every time you open your heart, you end up on your back. +So throughout my childhood, my mother was incarcerated and I didn't have my father because I didn't even learn his first name until I was in the sixth grade. +But I had my grandparents, my maternal grandparents Joseph and Shirley, who adopted me just before my third birthday and took me in as their own, after they had already raised five children. +So two people who grew up in the Great Depression, there in the very, very early '80s took on a new kid. +I was the Cousin Oliver of the sitcom of the Krosoczka family, the new kid who came out of nowhere. +And I would like to say that life was totally easy with them. +They each smoked two packs a day, each, nonfiltered, and by the time I was six, I could order a Southern Comfort Manhattan, dry with a twist, rocks on the side, the ice on the side so you could fit more liquor in the drink. +But they loved the hell out of me. They loved me so much. +And they supported my creative efforts, because my grandfather was a self-made man. +He ran and worked in a factory. +My grandmother was a homemaker. +But here was this kid who loved Transformers and Snoopy and the Ninja Turtles, and the characters that I read about, I fell in love with, and they became my friends. +So my best friends in life were the characters I read about in books. +I went to Gates Lane Elementary School in Worcester, Massachusetts, and I had wonderful teachers there, most notably in first grade Mrs. Alisch. +And I just, I can just remember the love that she offered us as her students. +When I was in the third grade, a monumental event happened. +An author visited our school, Jack Gantos. +A published author of books came to talk to us about what he did for a living. +And afterwards, we all went back to our classrooms and we drew our own renditions of his main character, Rotten Ralph. +And suddenly the author appeared in our doorway, and I remember him sort of sauntering down the aisles, going from kid to kid looking at the desks, not saying a word. +But he stopped next to my desk, and he tapped on my desk, and he said, "Nice cat." And he wandered away. +Two words that made a colossal difference in my life. +Yeah. My book had a title page. +I was clearly worried about my intellectual property when I was eight. +And it was a story that was told with words and pictures, exactly what I do now for a living, and I sometimes let the words have the stage on their own, and sometimes I allowed the pictures to work on their own to tell the story. +My favorite page is the "About the author" page. +So I learned to write about myself in third person at a young age. +So I love that last sentence: "He liked making this book." +And I liked making that book because I loved using my imagination, and that's what writing is. +Writing is using your imagination on paper, and I do get so scared because I travel to so many schools now and that seems like such a foreign concept to kids, that writing would be using your imagination on paper, if they're allowed to even write now within the school hours. +So I loved writing so much that I'd come home from school, and I would take out pieces of paper, and I would staple them together, and I would fill those blank pages with words and pictures just because I loved using my imagination. +And so these characters would become my friends. +Now when I was in sixth grade, the public funding all but eliminated the arts budgets in the Worcester public school system. +I went from having art once a week to twice a month to once a month to not at all. +And my grandfather, he was a wise man, and he saw that as a problem, because he knew that was, like, the one thing I had. I didn't play sports. +I had art. +So he walked into my room one evening, and he sat on the edge of my bed, and he said, "Jarrett, it's up to you, but if you'd like to, we'd like to send you to the classes at the Worcester Art Museum." +And I was so thrilled. +So from sixth through 12th grade, once, twice, sometimes three times a week, I would take classes at the art museum, and I was surrounded by other kids who loved to draw, other kids who shared a similar passion. +Don't tempt me, because I will do it. +So I get shipped off to private school, K through eight, public schools, but for some reason my grandfather was upset that somebody at the local high school had been stabbed and killed, so he didn't want me to go there. +He wanted me to go to a private school, and he gave me an option. +You can go to Holy Name, which is coed, or St. John's, which is all boys. +And I just flourished here. +I just couldn't wait to get to that classroom every day. +So how did I make friends? +I drew funny pictures of my teachers -- -- and I passed them around. +Well, in English class, in ninth grade, my friend John, who was sitting next to me, laughed a little bit too hard. +Mr. Greenwood was not pleased. +He instantly saw that I was the cause of the commotion, and for the first time in my life, I was sent to the hall, and I thought, "Oh no, I'm doomed. +My grandfather's just going to kill me." +And he came out to the hallway and he said, "Let me see the paper." +And I thought, "Oh no. He thinks it's a note." +And so I took this picture, and I handed it to him. +And we sat in silence for that brief moment, and he said to me, "You're really talented." "You're really good. You know, the school newspaper needs a new cartoonist, and you should be the cartoonist. +Just stop drawing in my class." +So my parents never found out about it. +And I took the headmaster to task and then I also wrote an ongoing story about a boy named Wesley who was unlucky in love, and I just swore up and down that this wasn't about me, but all these years later it was totally me. +But it was so cool because I could write these stories, I could come up with these ideas, and they'd be published in the school paper, and people who I didn't know could read them. +And I loved that thought, of being able to share my ideas through the printed page. +On my 14th birthday, my grandfather and my grandmother gave me the best birthday present ever: a drafting table that I have worked on ever since. +Here I am, 20 years later, and I still work on this table every day. +On the evening of my 14th birthday, I was given this table, and we had Chinese food. +And this was my fortune: "You will be successful in your work." +I taped it to the top left hand of my table, and as you can see, it's still there. +Now I never really asked my grandparents for anything. +Well, two things: Rusty, who was a great hamster and lived a great long life when I was in fourth grade. +And a video camera. +I just wanted a video camera. +And after begging and pleading for Christmas, I got a second-hand video camera, and I instantly started making my own animations on my own, and all throughout high school I made my own animations. +I convinced my 10th grade English teacher to allow me to do my book report on Stephen King's "Misery" as an animated short. And I kept making comics. +I kept making comics, and at the Worcester Art Museum, I was given the greatest piece of advice by any educator I was ever given. +Mark Lynch, he's an amazing teacher and he's still a dear friend of mine, and I was 14 or 15, and I walked into his comic book class halfway through the course, and I was so excited, I was beaming. +I had this book that was how to draw comics in the Marvel way, and it taught me how to draw superheroes, how to draw a woman, how to draw muscles just the way they were supposed to be if I were to ever draw for X-Men or Spiderman. +And all the color just drained from his face, and he looked at me, and he said, "Forget everything you learned." +And I didn't understand. He said, "You have a great style. +Celebrate your own style. Don't draw the way you're being told to draw. +Draw the way you're drawing and keep at it, because you're really good." +Now when I was a teenager, I was angsty as any teenager was, but after 17 years of having a mother who was in and out of my life like a yo-yo and a father who was faceless, I was angry. +And when I was 17, I met my father for the first time, upon which I learned I had a brother and sister I had never known about. +And on the day I met my father for the first time, I was rejected from the Rhode Island School of Design, my one and only choice for college. +But it was around this time I went to Camp Sunshine to volunteer a week and working with the most amazing kids, kids with leukemia, and this kid Eric changed my life. +Eric didn't live to see his sixth birthday, and Eric lives with me every day. +So after this experience, my art teacher, Mr. Shilale, he brought in these picture books, and I thought, "Picture books for kids!" +and I started writing books for young readers when I was a senior in high school. +Well, I eventually got to the Rhode Island School of Design. +I transferred to RISD as a sophomore, and it was there that I took every course that I could on writing, and it was there that I wrote a story about a giant orange slug who wanted to be friends with this kid. +The kid had no patience for him. +I graduated from RISD. My grandparents were very proud, and I moved to Boston, and I set up shop. +I set up a studio and I tried to get published. +I would send out my books. I would send out hundreds of postcards to editors and art directors, but they would go unanswered. +And my grandfather would call me every week, and he would say, "Jarrett, how's it going? Do you have a job yet?" +Because he had just invested a significant amount of money in my college education. +And I said, "Yes, I have a job. I write and illustrate children's books." +And he said, "Well, who pays you for that?" +And I said, "No one, no one, no one just yet. +But I know it's going to happen." +And I sent out one last batch of postcards. +And I received an email from an editor at Random House with a subject line, "Nice work!" Exclamation point. +"Dear Jarrett, I received your postcard. +I liked your art, so I went to your website and I'm wondering if you ever tried writing any of your own stories, because I really like your art and it looks like there are some stories that go with them. +Please let me know if you're ever in New York City." +And this was from an editor at Random House Children's Books. +So the next week I "happened" to be in New York. +And I met with this editor, and I left New York for a contract for my first book, "Good Night, Monkey Boy," which was published on June 12, 2001. +And my local paper celebrated the news. +The local bookstore made a big deal of it. +They sold out of all of their books. +My friend described it as a wake, but happy, because everyone I ever knew was there in line to see me, but I wasn't dead. I was just signing books. +My grandparents, they were in the middle of it. +They were so happy. They couldn't have been more proud. +Mrs. Alisch was there. Mr. Shilale was there. Mrs. Casey was there. +Mrs. Alisch cut in front of the line and said, "I taught him how to read." And then something happened that changed my life. +I got my first piece of significant fan mail, where this kid loved Monkey Boy so much that he wanted to have a Monkey Boy birthday cake. +For a two-year-old, that is like a tattoo. You know? You only get one birthday per year. +And for him, it's only his second. +And I got this picture, and I thought, "This picture is going to live within his consciousness for his entire life. He will forever have this photo in his family photo albums." +So that photo, since that moment, is framed in front of me while I've worked on all of my books. +I have 10 picture books out. +"Punk Farm," "Baghead," "Ollie the Purple Elephant." +I just finished the ninth book in the "Lunch Lady" series, which is a graphic novel series about a lunch lady who fights crime. +I'm expecting the release of a chapter book called "Platypus Police Squad: The Frog Who Croaked." +And I travel the country visiting countless schools, letting lots of kids know that they draw great cats. +And I meet Bagheads. +Lunch ladies treat me really well. +And I got to see my name in lights because kids put my name in lights. +Twice now, the "Lunch Lady" series has won the Children's Choice Book of the Year in the third or fourth grade category, and those winners were displayed on a jumbotron screen in Times Square. +"Punk Farm" and "Lunch Lady" are in development to be movies, so I am a movie producer and I really do think, thanks to that video camera I was given in ninth grade. +I've seen people have "Punk Farm" birthday parties, people have dressed up as "Punk Farm" for Halloween, a "Punk Farm" baby room, which makes me a little nervous for the child's well-being in the long term. +And I get the most amazing fan mail, and I get the most amazing projects, and the biggest moment for me came last Halloween. +The doorbell rang and it was a trick-or-treater dressed as my character. It was so cool. +Now my grandparents are no longer living, so to honor them, I started a scholarship at the Worcester Art Museum for kids who are in difficult situations but whose caretakers can't afford the classes. +And it displayed the work from my first 10 years of publishing, and you know who was there to celebrate? Mrs. Alisch. +I said, "Mrs. Alisch, how are you?" +And she responded with, "I'm here." That's true. You are alive, and that's pretty good right now. +Thank you. +I'd like to share with you the story of one of my patients called Celine. +Celine is a housewife and lives in a rural district of Cameroon in west Central Africa. +Six years ago, at the time of her HIV diagnosis, she was recruited to participate in the clinical trial which was running in her health district at the time. +When I first met Celine, a little over a year ago, she had gone for 18 months without any antiretroviral therapy, and she was very ill. +She told me that she stopped coming to the clinic when the trial ended because she had no money for the bus fare and was too ill to walk the 35-kilometer distance. +Now during the clinical trial, she'd been given all her antiretroviral drugs free of charge, and her transportation costs had been covered by the research funds. +All of these ended once the trial was completed, leaving Celine with no alternatives. +She was unable to tell me the names of the drugs she'd received during the trial, or even what the trial had been about. +I didn't bother to ask her what the results of the trial were because it seemed obvious to me that she would have no clue. +Yet what puzzled me most was Celine had given her informed consent to be a part of this trial, yet she clearly did not understand the implications of being a participant or what would happen to her once the trial had been completed. +Now, I have shared this story with you as an example of what can happen to participants in the clinical trial when it is poorly conducted. +Maybe this particular trial yielded exciting results. +Maybe it even got published in a high-profile scientific journal. +Maybe it would inform clinicians around the world on how to improve on the clinical management of HIV patients. +But it would have done so at a price to hundreds of patients who, like Celine, were left to their own devices once the research had been completed. +I do not stand here today to suggest in any way that conducting HIV clinical trials in developing countries is bad. +On the contrary, clinical trials are extremely useful tools, and are much needed to address the burden of disease in developing countries. +However, the inequalities that exist between richer countries and developing countries in terms of funding pose a real risk for exploitation, especially in the context of externally-funded research. +Sadly enough, the fact remains that a lot of the studies that are conducted in developing countries could never be authorized in the richer countries which fund the research. +I'm sure you must be asking yourselves what makes developing countries, especially those in sub-Saharan Africa, so attractive for these HIV clinical trials? +Well, in order for a clinical trial to generate valid and widely applicable results, they need to be conducted with large numbers of study participants and preferably on a population with a high incidence of new HIV infections. +Sub-Saharan Africa largely fits this description, with 22 million people living with HIV, an estimated 70 percent of the 30 million people who are infected worldwide. +Also, research within the continent is a lot easier to conduct due to widespread poverty, endemic diseases and inadequate health care systems. +A clinical trial that is considered to be potentially beneficial to the population is more likely to be authorized, and in the absence of good health care systems, almost any offer of medical assistance is accepted as better than nothing. +Even more problematic reasons include lower risk of litigation, less rigorous ethical reviews, and populations that are willing to participate in almost any study that hints at a cure. +As funding for HIV research increases in developing countries and ethical review in richer countries become more strict, you can see why this context becomes very, very attractive. +The high prevalence of HIV drives researchers to conduct research that is sometimes scientifically acceptable but on many levels ethically questionable. +How then can we ensure that, in our search for the cure, we do not take an unfair advantage of those who are already most affected by the pandemic? +I invite you to consider four areas I think we can focus on in order to improve the way in which things are done. +The first of these is informed consent. +Now, in order for a clinical trial to be considered ethically acceptable, participants must be given the relevant information in a way in which they can understand, and must freely consent to participate in the trial. +This is especially important in developing countries, where a lot of participants consent to research because they believe it is the only way in which they can receive medical care or other benefits. +Consent procedures that are used in richer countries are often inappropriate or ineffective in a lot of developing countries. +For example, it is counterintuitive to have an illiterate study participant, like Celine, sign a lengthy consent form that they are unable to read, let alone understand. +Local communities need to be more involved in establishing the criteria for recruiting participants in clinical trials, as well as the incentives for participation. +The information in these trials needs to be given to the potential participants in linguistically and culturally acceptable formats. +The second point I would like for you to consider is the standard of care that is provided to participants within any clinical trial. +Now, this is subject to a lot of debate and controversy. +Should the control group in the clinical trial be given the best current treatment which is available anywhere in the world? +Or should they be given an alternative standard of care, such as the best current treatment available in the country in which the research is being conducted? +Is it fair to evaluate a treatment regimen which may not be affordable or accessible to the study participants once the research has been completed? +Now, in a situation where the best current treatment is inexpensive and simple to deliver, the answer is straightforward. +However, the best current treatment available anywhere in the world is often very difficult to provide in developing countries. +It is important to assess the potential risks and benefits of the standard of care which is to be provided to participants in any clinical trial, and establish one which is relevant for the context of the study and most beneficial for the participants within the study. +That brings us to the third point I want you think about: the ethical review of research. +An effective system for reviewing the ethical suitability of clinical trials is primordial to safeguard participants within any clinical trial. +Unfortunately, this is often lacking or inefficient in a lot of developing countries. +Local governments need to set up effective systems for reviewing the ethical issues around the clinical trials which are authorized in different developing countries, and they need to do this by setting up ethical review committees that are independent of the government and research sponsors. +Public accountability needs to be promoted through transparency and independent review by nongovernmental and international organizations as appropriate. +The final point I would like for you to consider tonight is what happens to participants in the clinical trial once the research has been completed. +I think it is absolutely wrong for research to begin in the first place without a clear plan for what would happen to the participants once the trial has ended. +Now, researchers need to make every effort to ensure that an intervention that has been shown to be beneficial during a clinical trial is accessible to the participants of the trial once the trial has been completed. +In addition, they should be able to consider the possibility of introducing and maintaining effective treatments in the wider community once the trial ends. +If, for any reason, they feel that this might not be possible, then I think they should have to ethically justify why the clinical trial should be conducted in the first place. +Now, fortunately for Celine, our meeting did not end in my office. +I was able to get her enrolled into a free HIV treatment program closer to her home, and with a support group to help her cope. +Her story has a positive ending, but there are thousands of others in similar situations who are much less fortunate. +Although she may not know this, my encounter with Celine has completely changed the way in which I view HIV clinical trials in developing countries, and made me even more determined to be part of the movement to change the way in which things are done. +I believe that every single person listening to me tonight can be part of that change. +If you are a researcher, I hold you to a higher standard of moral conscience, to remain ethical in your research, and not compromise human welfare in your search for answers. +If you work for a funding agency or pharmaceutical company, I challenge you to hold your employers to fund research that is ethically sound. +If you come from a developing country like myself, I urge you to hold your government to a more thorough review of the clinical trials which are authorized in your country. +Yes, there is a need for us to find a cure for HIV, to find an effective vaccine for malaria, to find a diagnostic tool that works for T.B., but I believe that we owe it to those who willingly and selflessly consent to participate in these clinical trials to do this in a humane way. +Thank you. +So, before I became a dermatologist, I started in general medicine, as most dermatologists do in Britain. +At the end of that time, I went off to Australia, about 20 years ago. +What you learn when you go to Australia is the Australians are very competitive. +And they are not magnanimous in victory. +And that happened a lot: "You pommies, you can't play cricket, rugby." +I could accept that. +But moving into work -- and we have each week what's called a journal club, when you'd sit down with the other doctors and you'd study a scientific paper in relation to medicine. +And after week one, it was about cardiovascular mortality, a dry subject -- how many people die of heart disease, what the rates are. +And they were competitive about this: "You pommies, your rates of heart disease are shocking." +And of course, they were right. +Australians have about a third less heart disease than we do -- less deaths from heart attacks, heart failure, less strokes -- they're generally a healthier bunch. +And of course they said this was because of their fine moral standing, their exercise, because they're Australians and we're weedy pommies, and so on. +But it's not just Australia that has better health than Britain. +Within Britain, there is a gradient of health -- and this is what's called standardized mortality, basically your chances of dying. +This is looking at data from the paper about 20 years ago, but it's true today. +Comparing your rates of dying 50 degrees north -- that's the South, that's London and places -- by latitude, and 55 degrees -- the bad news is that's here, Glasgow. +I'm from Edinburgh. Worse news, that's even Edinburgh. +So what accounts for this horrible space here between us up here in southern Scotland and the South? +Now, we know about smoking, deep-fried Mars bars, chips -- the Glasgow diet. +All of these things. +But this graph is after taking into account all of these known risk factors. +This is after accounting for smoking, social class, diet, all those other known risk factors. +We are left with this missing space of increased deaths the further north you go. +Now, sunlight, of course, comes into this. +And vitamin D has had a great deal of press, and a lot of people get concerned about it. +And we need vitamin D. It's now a requirement that children have a certain amount. +My grandmother grew up in Glasgow, back in the 1920s and '30s when rickets was a real problem and cod liver oil was brought in. +And that really prevented the rickets that used to be common in this city. +And I as a child was fed cod liver oil by my grandmother. +I distinctly -- nobody forgets cod liver oil. +But an association: The higher people's blood levels of vitamin D are, the less heart disease they have, the less cancer. +There seems to be a lot of data suggesting that vitamin D is very good for you. +And it is, to prevent rickets and so on. +But if you give people vitamin D supplements, you don't change that high rate of heart disease. +And the evidence for it preventing cancers is not yet great. +So what I'm going to suggest is that vitamin D is not the only story in town. +It's not the only reason preventing heart disease. +High vitamin D levels, I think, are a marker for sunlight exposure, and sunlight exposure, in methods I'm going to show, is good for heart disease. +Anyway, I came back from Australia, and despite the obvious risks to my health, I moved to Aberdeen. +Now, in Aberdeen, I started my dermatology training. +But I also became interested in research, and in particular I became interested in this substance, nitric oxide. +Now these three guys up here, Furchgott, Ignarro and Murad, won the Nobel Prize for medicine back in 1998. +And they were the first people to describe this new chemical transmitter, nitric oxide. +What nitric oxide does is it dilates blood vessels, so it lowers your blood pressure. +It also dilates the coronary arteries, so it stops angina. +And what was remarkable about it was in the past when we think of chemical messengers within the body, we thought of complicated things like estrogen and insulin, or nerve transmission. +Very complex processes with very complex chemicals that fit into very complex receptors. +And here's this incredibly simple molecule, a nitrogen and an oxygen that are stuck together, and yet these are hugely important for [unclear] our low blood pressure, for neurotransmission, for many, many things, but particularly cardiovascular health. +And I started doing research, and we found, very excitingly, that the skin produces nitric oxide. +So it's not just in the cardiovascular system it arises. +It arises in the skin. +Well, having found that and published that, I thought, well, what's it doing? +How do you have low blood pressure in your skin? +It's not the heart. What do you do? +So I went off to the States, as many people do if they're going to do research, and I spent a few years in Pittsburgh. This is Pittsburgh. +And I was interested in these really complex systems. +We thought that maybe nitric oxide affected cell death, and how cells survive, and their resistance to other things. +And I first off started work in cell culture, growing cells, and then I was using knockout mouse models -- mice that couldn't make the gene. +We worked out a mechanism, which -- NO was helping cells survive. +And I then moved back to Edinburgh. +And in Edinburgh, the experimental animal we use is the medical student. +It's a species close to human, with several advantages over mice: They're free, you don't shave them, they feed themselves, and nobody pickets your office saying, "Save the lab medical student." +So they're really an ideal model. +But what we found was that we couldn't reproduce in man the data we had shown in mice. +It seemed we couldn't turn off the production of nitric oxide in the skin of humans. +We put on creams that blocked the enzyme that made it, we injected things. We couldn't turn off the nitric oxide. +And these are more stable, and your skin has got really large stores of NO. +And we then thought to ourselves, with those big stores, I wonder if sunlight might activate those stores and release them from the skin, where the stores are about 10 times as big as what's in the circulation. +Could the sun activate those stores into the circulation, and there in the circulation do its good things for your cardiovascular system? +Well, I'm an experimental dermatologist, so what we did was we thought we'd have to expose our experimental animals to sunlight. +And so what we did was we took a bunch of volunteers and we exposed them to ultraviolet light. +So these are kind of sunlamps. +Now, what we were careful to do was, vitamin D is made by ultraviolet B rays and we wanted to separate our story from the vitamin D story. +So we used ultraviolet A, which doesn't make vitamin D. +When we put people under a lamp for the equivalent of about 30 minutes of sunshine in summer in Edinburgh, what we produced was, we produced a rise in circulating nitric oxide. +So we put patients with these subjects under the UV, and their NO levels do go up, and their blood pressure goes down. +Not by much, as an individual level, but enough at a population level to shift the rates of heart disease in a whole population. +And when we shone UV at them, or when we warmed them up to the same level as the lamps, but didn't actually let the rays hit the skin, this didn't happen. +So this seems to be a feature of ultraviolet rays hitting the skin. +Now, we're still collecting data. +A few good things here: This appeared to be more marked in older people. +I'm not sure exactly how much. +One of the subjects here was my mother-in-law, and clearly I do not know her age. +But certainly in people older than my wife, this appears to be a more marked effect. +And the other thing I should mention was there was no change in vitamin D. +This is separate from vitamin D. +So vitamin D is good for you -- it stops rickets, it prevents calcium metabolism, important stuff. +But this is a separate mechanism from vitamin D. +Now, one of the problems with looking at blood pressure is your body does everything it can to keep your blood pressure at the same place. +If your leg is chopped off and you lose blood, your body will clamp down, increase the heart rate, do everything it can to keep your blood pressure up. +That is an absolutely fundamental physiological principle. +So what we've next done is we've moved on to looking at blood vessel dilatation. +So we've measured -- this is again, notice no tail and hairless, this is a medical student. +In the arm, you can measure blood flow in the arm by how much it swells up as some blood flows into it. +And what we've shown is that doing a sham irradiation -- this is the thick line here -- this is shining UV on the arm so it warms up but keeping it covered so the rays don't hit the skin. +There is no change in blood flow, in dilatation of the blood vessels. +But the active irradiation, during the UV and for an hour after it, there is dilation of the blood vessels. +This is the mechanism by which you lower blood pressure, by which you dilate the coronary arteries also, to let the blood be supplied with the heart. +So here, further data that ultraviolet -- that's sunlight -- has benefits on the blood flow and the cardiovascular system. +So we thought we'd just kind of model -- Different amounts of UV hit different parts of the Earth at different times of year, so you can actually work out those stores of nitric oxide -- the nitrates, nitrites, nitrosothiols in the skin -- cleave to release NO. +Different wavelengths of light have different activities of doing that. +So you can look at the wavelengths of light that do that. +And you can look -- So, if you live on the equator, the sun comes straight overhead, it comes through a very thin bit of atmosphere. +In winter or summer, it's the same amount of light. +If you live up here, in summer the sun is coming fairly directly down, but in winter it's coming through a huge amount of atmosphere, and much of the ultraviolet is weeded out, and the range of wavelengths that hit the Earth are different from summer to winter. +So what you can do is you can multiply those data by the NO that's released and you can calculate how much nitric oxide would be released from the skin into the circulation. +Now, if you're on the equator here -- that's these two lines here, the red line and the purple line -- the amount of nitric oxide that's released is the area under the curve, it's the area in this space here. +So if you're on the equator, December or June, you've got masses of NO being released from the skin. +So Ventura is in southern California. +In summer, you might as well be at the equator. +It's great. Lots of NO is released. +Ventura mid-winter, well, there's still a decent amount. +Edinburgh in summer, the area beneath the curve is pretty good, but Edinburgh in winter, the amount of NO that can be released is next to nothing, tiny amounts. +So what do we think? +We're still working at this story, we're still developing it, we're still expanding it. +We think it's very important. +We think it probably accounts for a lot of the north-south health divide within Britain, It's of relevance to us. +We think that the skin -- well, we know that the skin has got very large stores of nitric oxide as these various other forms. +We suspect a lot of these come from diet, green leafy vegetables, beetroot, lettuce has a lot of these nitric oxides that we think go to the skin. +We think they're then stored in the skin, and we think the sunlight releases this where it has generally beneficial effects. +And this is ongoing work, but dermatologists -- I mean, I'm a dermatologist. +My day job is saying to people, "You've got skin cancer, it's caused by sunlight, don't go in the sun." +I actually think a far more important message is that there are benefits as well as risks to sunlight. +Yes, sunlight is the major alterable risk factor for skin cancer, but deaths from heart disease are a hundred times higher than deaths from skin cancer. +And I think that we need to be more aware of, and we need to find the risk-benefit ratio. +How much sunlight is safe, and how can we finesse this best for our general health? +So, thank you very much indeed. +So I want to talk to you about two things tonight. +Number one: Teaching surgery and doing surgery is really hard. +And second, that language is one of the most profound things that separate us all over the world. +And in my little corner of the world, these two things are actually related, and I want to tell you how tonight. +Now, nobody wants an operation. +Who here has had surgery? +Did you want it? +Keep your hands up if you wanted an operation. +Nobody wants an operation. +In particular, nobody wants an operation with tools like these through large incisions that cause a lot of pain, that cause a lot of time out of work or out of school, that leave a big scar. +But if you have to have an operation, what you really want is a minimally invasive operation. +That's what I want to talk to you about tonight -- how doing and teaching this type of surgery led us on a search for a better universal translator. +Now, this type of surgery is hard, and it starts by putting people to sleep, putting carbon dioxide in their abdomen, blowing them up like a balloon, sticking one of these sharp pointy things into their abdomen -- it's dangerous stuff -- and taking instruments and watching it on a TV screen. +So let's see what it looks like. +So this is gallbladder surgery. +We perform a million of these a year in the United States alone. +This is the real thing. There's no blood. +And you can see how focused the surgeons are, how much concentration it takes. +You can see it in their faces. +It's hard to teach, and it's not all that easy to learn. +We do about five million of these in the United States and maybe 20 million of these worldwide. +All right, you've all heard the term: "He's a born surgeon." +Let me tell you, surgeons are not born. +Surgeons are not made either. +There are no little tanks where we're making surgeons. +Surgeons are trained one step at a time. +It starts with a foundation, basic skills. +We build on that and we take people, hopefully, to the operating room where they learn to be an assistant. +Then we teach them to be a surgeon in training. +And when they do all of that for about five years, they get the coveted board certification. +If you need surgery, you want to be operated on by a board-certified surgeon. +You get your board certificate, and you can go out into practice. +And eventually, if you're lucky, you achieve mastery. +Now that foundation is so important that a number of us from the largest general surgery society in the United States, SAGES, started in the late 1990s a training program that would assure that every surgeon who practices minimally invasive surgery would have a strong foundation of knowledge and skills necessary to go on and do procedures. +Now the science behind this is so potent that it became required by the American Board of Surgery in order for a young surgeon to become board certified. +It's not a lecture, it's not a course, it's all of that plus a high-stakes assessment. +It's hard. +Now just this past year, one of our partners, the American College of Surgeons, teamed up with us to make an announcement that all surgeons should be FLS (Fundamentals of Laparoscopic Surgery)-certified before they do minimally invasive surgery. +And are we talking about just people here in the U.S. and Canada? +No, we just said all surgeons. +So to lift this education and training worldwide is a very large task, something I'm very personally excited about as we travel around the world. +SAGES does surgery all over the world, teaching and educating surgeons. +So we have a problem, and one of the problems is distance. +We can't travel everywhere. +We need to make the world a smaller place. +And I think that we can develop some tools to do so. +And one of the tools I like personally is using video. +So I was inspired by a friend. +This is Allan Okrainec from Toronto. +And he proved that you could actually teach people to do surgery using video conferencing. +So here's Allan teaching an English-speaking surgeon in Africa these basic fundamental skills necessary to do minimally invasive surgery. +Very inspiring. +But for this examination, which is really hard, we have a problem. +Even people who say they speak English, only 14 percent pass. +Because for them it's not a surgery test, it's an English test. +Let me bring it to you locally. +I work at the Cambridge Hospital. +It's the primary Harvard Medical School teaching facility. +We have more than 100 translators covering 63 languages, and we spend millions of dollars just in our little hospital. +It's a big labor-intensive effort. +If you think about the worldwide burden of trying to talk to your patients -- not just teaching surgeons, just trying to talk to your patients -- there aren't enough translators in the world. +We need to employ technology to assist us in this quest. +At our hospital we see everybody from Harvard professors to people who just got here last week. +And you have no idea how hard it is to talk to somebody or take care of somebody you can't talk to. +And there isn't always a translator available. +So we need tools. +We need a universal translator. +One of the things that I want to leave you with as you think about this talk is that this talk is not just about us preaching to the world. +It's really about setting up a dialogue. +We have a lot to learn. +Here in the United States we spend more money per person for outcomes that are not better than many countries in the world. +Maybe we have something to learn as well. +So I'm passionate about teaching these FLS skills all over the world. +This past year I've been in Latin America, I've been in China, talking about the fundamentals of laparoscopic surgery. +And everywhere I go the barrier is: "We want this, but we need it in our language." +So here's what we think we want to do: Imagine giving a lecture and being able to talk to people in their own native language simultaneously. +I want to talk to the people in Asia, Latin America, Africa, Europe seamlessly, accurately and in a cost-effective fashion using technology. +And it has to be bi-directional. +They have to be able to teach us something as well. +It's a big task. +So we looked for a universal translator; I thought there would be one out there. +Your webpage has translation, your cellphone has translation, but nothing that's good enough to teach surgery. +Because we need a lexicon. What is a lexicon? +A lexicon is a body of words that describes a domain. +I need to have a health care lexicon. +And in that I need a surgery lexicon. +That's a tall order. We have to work at it. +So let me show you what we're doing. +This is research -- can't buy it. +We're working with the folks at IBM Research from the Accessibility Center to string together technologies to work towards the universal translator. +It starts with a framework system where when the surgeon delivers the lecture using a framework of captioning technology, we then add another technology to do video conferencing. +But we don't have the words yet, so we add a third technology. +And now we've got the words, and we can apply the special sauce: the translation. +We get the words up in a window and then apply the magic. +We work with a fourth technology. +And we currently have access to eleven language pairs. +More to come as we think about trying to make the world a smaller place. +And I'd like to show you our prototype of stringing all of these technologies that don't necessarily always talk to each other to become something useful. +Narrator: Fundamentals of Laparoscopic Surgery. +Module five: manual skills practice. +Students may display captions in their native language. +Steven Schwaitzberg: If you're in Latin America, you click the "I want it in Spanish" button and out it comes in real time in Spanish. +But if you happen to be sitting in Beijing at the same time, by using technology in a constructive fashion, you could get it in Mandarin or you could get it in Russian -- on and on and on, simultaneously without the use of human translators. +But that's the lectures. +If you remember what I told you about FLS at the beginning, it's knowledge and skills. +The difference in an operation between doing something successfully and not may be moving your hand this much. +So we're going to take it one step further; we've brought my friend Allan back. +Allan Okrainec: Today we're going to practice suturing. +This is how you hold the needle. +Grab the needle at the tip. +It's important to be accurate. +Aim for the black dots. +Orient your loop this way. +Now go ahead and cut. +Very good Oscar. I'll see you next week. +SS: So that's what we're working on in our quest for the universal translator. +We want it to be bi-directional. +We have a need to learn as well as to teach. +I can think of a million uses for a tool like this. +As we think about intersecting technologies -- everybody has a cell phone with a camera -- we could use this everywhere, whether it be health care, patient care, engineering, law, conferencing, translating videos. +This is a ubiquitous tool. +In order to break down our barriers, we have to learn to talk to people, to demand that people work on translation. +We need it for our everyday life, in order to make the world a smaller place. +Thank you very much. +The theme of my talk today is, "Be an artist, right now." +Most people, when this subject is brought up, get tense and resist it: "Art doesn't feed me, and right now I'm busy. +I have to go to school, get a job, send my kids to lessons ... " You think, "I'm too busy. I don't have time for art." +There are hundreds of reasons why we can't be artists right now. +Don't they just pop into your head? +There are so many reasons why we can't be, indeed, we're not sure why we should be. +We don't know why we should be artists, but we have many reasons why we can't be. +Why do people instantly resist the idea of associating themselves with art? +Perhaps you think art is for the greatly gifted or for the thoroughly and professionally trained. +And some of you may think you've strayed too far from art. +Well you might have, but I don't think so. +This is the theme of my talk today. +We are all born artists. +If you have kids, you know what I mean. +Almost everything kids do is art. +They draw with crayons on the wall. +They dance to Son Dam Bi's dance on TV, but you can't even call it Son Dam Bi's dance -- it becomes the kids' own dance. +So they dance a strange dance and inflict their singing on everyone. +Perhaps their art is something only their parents can bear, and because they practice such art all day long, people honestly get a little tired around kids. +Kids will sometimes perform monodramas -- playing house is indeed a monodrama or a play. +And some kids, when they get a bit older, start to lie. +Usually parents remember the very first time their kid lies. +They're shocked. +"Now you're showing your true colors," Mom says. She thinks, "Why does he take after his dad?" +She questions him, "What kind of a person are you going to be?" +But you shouldn't worry. +The moment kids start to lie is the moment storytelling begins. +They are talking about things they didn't see. +It's amazing. It's a wonderful moment. +Parents should celebrate. +"Hurray! My boy finally started to lie!" +All right! It calls for celebration. +For example, a kid says, "Mom, guess what? I met an alien on my way home." +Then a typical mom responds, "Stop that nonsense." +Now, an ideal parent is someone who responds like this: "Really? An alien, huh? What did it look like? Did it say anything? +Where did you meet it?" "Um, in front of the supermarket." +When you have a conversation like this, the kid has to come up with the next thing to say to be responsible for what he started. +Soon, a story develops. +Of course this is an infantile story, but thinking up one sentence after the next is the same thing a professional writer like me does. +In essence, they are not different. +Roland Barthes once said of Flaubert's novels, "Flaubert did not write a novel. +He merely connected one sentence after another. +The eros between sentences, that is the essence of Flaubert's novel." +That's right -- a novel, basically, is writing one sentence, then, without violating the scope of the first one, writing the next sentence. +And you continue to make connections. +Take a look at this sentence: "One morning, as Gregor Samsa was waking up from anxious dreams, he discovered that in his bed he had been changed into a monstrous verminous bug." +Yes, it's the first sentence of Franz Kafka's "The Metamorphosis." +Writing such an unjustifiable sentence and continuing in order to justify it, Kafka's work became the masterpiece of contemporary literature. +Kafka did not show his work to his father. +He was not on good terms with his father. +On his own, he wrote these sentences. +Had he shown his father, "My boy has finally lost it," he would've thought. +And that's right. Art is about going a little nuts and justifying the next sentence, which is not much different from what a kid does. +A kid who has just started to lie is taking the first step as a storyteller. +Kids do art. +They don't get tired and they have fun doing it. +I was in Jeju Island a few days ago. +When kids are on the beach, most of them love playing in the water. +But some of them spend a lot of time in the sand, making mountains and seas -- well, not seas, but different things -- people and dogs, etc. +But parents tell them, "It will all be washed away by the waves." +In other words, it's useless. +There's no need. +But kids don't mind. +They have fun in the moment and they keep playing in the sand. +Kids don't do it because someone told them to. +They aren't told by their boss or anyone, they just do it. +When you were little, I bet you spent time enjoying the pleasure of primitive art. +When I ask my students to write about their happiest moment, many write about an early artistic experience they had as a kid. +Learning to play piano for the first time and playing four hands with a friend, or performing a ridiculous skit with friends looking like idiots -- things like that. +Or the moment you developed the first film you shot with an old camera. +They talk about these kinds of experiences. +You must have had such a moment. +In that moment, art makes you happy because it's not work. +Work doesn't make you happy, does it? Mostly it's tough. +The French writer Michel Tournier has a famous saying. +It's a bit mischievous, actually. +"Work is against human nature. The proof is that it makes us tired." +Right? Why would work tire us if it's in our nature? +Playing doesn't tire us. +We can play all night long. +If we work overnight, we should be paid for overtime. +Why? Because it's tiring and we feel fatigue. +But kids, usually they do art for fun. It's playing. +They don't draw to sell the work to a client or play the piano to earn money for the family. +Of course, there were kids who had to. +You know this gentleman, right? +He had to tour around Europe to support his family -- Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart -- but that was centuries ago, so we can make him an exception. +Unfortunately, at some point our art -- such a joyful pastime -- ends. +Kids have to go to lessons, to school, do homework and of course they take piano or ballet lessons, but they aren't fun anymore. +You're told to do it and there's competition. How can it be fun? +If you're in elementary school and you still draw on the wall, you'll surely get in trouble with your mom. +Besides, if you continue to act like an artist as you get older, you'll increasingly feel pressure -- people will question your actions and ask you to act properly. +Here's my story: I was an eighth grader and I entered a drawing contest at school in Gyeongbokgung. +I was trying my best, and my teacher came around and asked me, "What are you doing?" +"I'm drawing diligently," I said. +"Why are you using only black?" +Indeed, I was eagerly coloring the sketchbook in black. +And I explained, "It's a dark night and a crow is perching on a branch." +Then my teacher said, "Really? Well, Young-ha, you may not be good at drawing but you have a talent for storytelling." +Or so I wished. +"Now you'll get it, you rascal!" was the response. "You'll get it!" he said. +You were supposed to draw the palace, the Gyeonghoeru, etc., but I was coloring everything in black, so he dragged me out of the group. +There were a lot of girls there as well, so I was utterly mortified. +None of my explanations or excuses were heard, and I really got it big time. +If he was an ideal teacher, he would have responded like I said before, "Young-ha may not have a talent for drawing, but he has a gift for making up stories," and he would have encouraged me. +But such a teacher is seldom found. +Later, I grew up and went to Europe's galleries -- I was a university student -- and I thought this was really unfair. +Look what I found. Works like this were hung in Basel while I was punished and stood in front of the palace with my drawing in my mouth. +Look at this. Doesn't it look just like wallpaper? +Contemporary art, I later discovered, isn't explained by a lame story like mine. +Most of the works have no title, Untitled. +Anyways, contemporary art in the 20th century is about doing something weird and filling the void with explanation and interpretation -- essentially the same as I did. +Of course, my work was very amateur, but let's turn to more famous examples. +This is Picasso's. +He stuck handlebars into a bike seat and called it "Bull's Head." Sounds convincing, right? +Next, a urinal was placed on its side and called "Fountain". +That was Duchamp. +So filling the gap between explanation and a weird act with stories -- that's indeed what contemporary art is all about. +Picasso even made the statement, "I draw not what I see but what I think." +Yes, it means I didn't have to draw Gyeonghoeru. +I wish I knew what Picasso said back then. I could have argued better with my teacher. +Unfortunately, the little artists within us are choked to death before we get to fight against the oppressors of art. +They get locked in. +That's our tragedy. +So what happens when little artists get locked in, banished or even killed? +Our artistic desire doesn't go away. +We want to express, to reveal ourselves, but with the artist dead, the artistic desire reveals itself in dark form. +In karaoke bars, there are always people who sing "She's Gone" or "Hotel California," miming the guitar riffs. +Usually they sound awful. Awful indeed. +Some people turn into rockers like this. +Or some people dance in clubs. +People who would have enjoyed telling stories end up trolling on the Internet all night long. +That's how a writing talent reveals itself on the dark side. +Sometimes we see dads get more excited than their kids playing with Legos or putting together plastic robots. +They go, "Don't touch it. Daddy will do it for you." +The kid has already lost interest and is doing something else, but the dad alone builds castles. +This shows the artistic impulses inside us are suppressed, not gone. +But they can often reveal themselves negatively, in the form of jealousy. +You know the song "I would love to be on TV"? Why would we love it? +TV is full of people who do what we wished to do, but never got to. +They dance, they act -- and the more they do, they are praised. +So we start to envy them. +We become dictators with a remote and start to criticize the people on TV. +"He just can't act." "You call that singing? She can't hit the notes." +We easily say these sorts of things. +We get jealous, not because we're evil, but because we have little artists pent up inside us. +That's what I think. +What should we do then? +Yes, that's right. +Right now, we need to start our own art. +Right this minute, we can turn off TV, log off the Internet, get up and start to do something. +Where I teach students in drama school, there's a course called Dramatics. +In this course, all students must put on a play. +However, acting majors are not supposed to act. +They can write the play, for example, and the writers may work on stage art. +Likewise, stage art majors may become actors, and in this way you put on a show. +Students at first wonder whether they can actually do it, but later they have so much fun. I rarely see anyone who is miserable doing a play. +In school, the military or even in a mental institution, once you make people do it, they enjoy it. +I saw this happen in the army -- many people had fun doing plays. +I have another experience: In my writing class, I give students a special assignment. +I have students like you in the class -- many who don't major in writing. +Some major in art or music and think they can't write. +So I give them blank sheets of paper and a theme. +It can be a simple theme: Write about the most unfortunate experience in your childhood. +There's one condition: You must write like crazy. Like crazy! +I walk around and encourage them, "Come on, come on!" They have to write like crazy for an hour or two. +They only get to think for the first five minutes. +The reason I make them write like crazy is because when you write slowly and lots of thoughts cross your mind, the artistic devil creeps in. +This devil will tell you hundreds of reasons why you can't write: "People will laugh at you. This is not good writing! +What kind of sentence is this? Look at your handwriting!" +It will say a lot of things. +You have to run fast so the devil can't catch up. +The really good writing I've seen in my class was not from the assignments with a long deadline, but from the 40- to 60-minute crazy writing students did in front of me with a pencil. +The students go into a kind of trance. +After 30 or 40 minutes, they write without knowing what they're writing. +And in this moment, the nagging devil disappears. +So I can say this: It's not the hundreds of reasons why one can't be an artist, but rather, the one reason one must be that makes us artists. +Why we cannot be something is not important. +Most artists became artists because of the one reason. +When we put the devil in our heart to sleep and start our own art, enemies appear on the outside. +Mostly, they have the faces of our parents. Sometimes they look like our spouses, but they are not your parents or spouses. +They are devils. Devils. +They came to Earth briefly transformed to stop you from being artistic, from becoming artists. +And they have a magic question. +When we say, "I think I'll try acting. There's a drama school in the community center," or "I'd like to learn Italian songs," they ask, "Oh, yeah? A play? What for?" +The magic question is, "What for?" +But art is not for anything. +Art is the ultimate goal. +It saves our souls and makes us live happily. +It helps us express ourselves and be happy without the help of alcohol or drugs. +So in response to such a pragmatic question, we need to be bold. +"Well, just for the fun of it. Sorry for having fun without you," is what you should say. "I'll just go ahead and do it anyway." +The ideal future I imagine is where we all have multiple identities, at least one of which is an artist. +Once I was in New York and got in a cab. I took the backseat, and in front of me I saw something related to a play. +So I asked the driver, "What is this?" +He said it was his profile. "Then what are you?" I asked. "An actor," he said. +He was a cabby and an actor. I asked, "What roles do you usually play?" +He proudly said he played King Lear. +King Lear. +"Who is it that can tell me who I am?" -- a great line from King Lear. +That's the world I dream of. +Someone is a golfer by day and writer by night. +Or a cabby and an actor, a banker and a painter, secretly or publicly performing their own arts. +In 1990, Martha Graham, the legend of modern dance, came to Korea. +The great artist, then in her 90s, arrived at Gimpo Airport and a reporter asked her a typical question: "What do you have to do to become a great dancer? +Any advice for aspiring Korean dancers?" +Now, she was the master. This photo was taken in 1948 and she was already a celebrated artist. +In 1990, she was asked this question. +And here's what she answered: "Just do it." +Wow. I was touched. +Only those three words and she left the airport. That's it. +So what should we do now? +Let's be artists, right now. Right away. How? +Just do it! +Thank you. +Let me tell you a story. +It's my first year as a new high school science teacher, and I'm so eager. +I'm so excited, I'm pouring myself into my lesson plans. +But I'm slowly coming to this horrifying realization that my students just might not be learning anything. +This happens one day: I'd just assigned my class to read this textbook chapter about my favorite subject in all of biology: viruses and how they attack. +And so I'm so excited to discuss this with them, and I come in and I say, "Can somebody please explain the main ideas and why this is so cool?" +There's silence. +Finally, my favorite student, she looks me straight in the eye, and she says, "The reading sucked." +And then she clarified. She said, "You know what, I don't mean that it sucks. It means that I didn't understand a word of it. +It's boring. Um, who cares, and it sucks." +These sympathetic smiles spread all throughout the room now, and I realize that all of my other students are in the same boat, that maybe they took notes or they memorized definitions from the textbook, but not one of them really understood the main ideas. +Not one of them can tell me why this stuff is so cool, why it's so important. +I'm totally clueless. +I have no idea what to do next. +So the only thing I can think of is say, "Listen. Let me tell you a story. +The main characters in the story are bacteria and viruses. +These guys are blown up a couple million times. +The real bacteria and viruses are so small we can't see them without a microscope, and you guys might know bacteria and viruses because they both make us sick. +But what a lot of people don't know is that viruses can also make bacteria sick." +Now, the story that I start telling my kids, it starts out like a horror story. +Once upon a time there's this happy little bacterium. +Don't get too attached to him. +Maybe he's floating around in your stomach or in some spoiled food somewhere, and all of a sudden he starts to not feel so good. +Maybe he ate something bad for lunch, and then things get really horrible, as his skin rips apart, and he sees a virus coming out from his insides. +And then it gets horrible when he bursts open and an army of viruses floods out from his insides. +If -- Ouch is right! -- If you see this, and you're a bacterium, this is like your worst nightmare. +But if you're a virus and you see this, you cross those little legs of yours and you think, "We rock." +Because it took a lot of crafty work to infect this bacterium. +Here's what had to happen. +A virus grabbed onto a bacterium and it slipped its DNA into it. +The next thing is, that virus DNA made stuff that chopped up the bacteria DNA. +And now that we've gotten rid of the bacteria DNA, the virus DNA takes control of the cell and it tells it to start making more viruses. +Because, you see, DNA is like a blueprint that tells living things what to make. +So this is kind of like going into a car factory and replacing the blueprints with blueprints for killer robots. +The workers still come the next day, they do their job, but they're following different instructions. +So replacing the bacteria DNA with virus DNA turns the bacteria into a factory for making viruses -- that is, until it's so filled with viruses that it bursts. +But that's not the only way that viruses infect bacteria. +Some are much more crafty. +When a secret agent virus infects a bacterium, they do a little espionage. +Here, this cloaked, secret agent virus is slipping his DNA into the bacterial cell, but here's the kicker: It doesn't do anything harmful -- not at first. +Instead, it silently slips into the bacteria's own DNA, and it just stays there like a terrorist sleeper cell, waiting for instructions. +And what's interesting about this is now whenever this bacteria has babies, the babies also have the virus DNA in them. +So now we have a whole extended bacteria family, filled with virus sleeper cells. +They're just happily living together until a signal happens and -- BAM! -- all of the DNA pops out. +It takes control of these cells, turns them into virus-making factories, and they all burst, a huge, extended bacteria family, all dying with viruses spilling out of their guts, the viruses taking over the bacterium. +So now you understand how viruses can attack cells. +There are two ways: On the left is what we call the lytic way, where the viruses go right in and take over the cells. +On the [right] is the lysogenic way that uses secret agent viruses. +So this stuff is not that hard, right? +And now all of you understand it. +But if you've graduated from high school, I can almost guarantee you've seen this information before. +But I bet it was presented in a way that it didn't exactly stick in your mind. +So when my students were first learning this, why did they hate it so much? +Well, there were a couple of reasons. +First of all, I can guarantee you that their textbooks didn't have secret agent viruses, and they didn't have horror stories. +You know, in the communication of science there is this obsession with seriousness. +It kills me. I'm not kidding. +I used to work for an educational publisher, and as a writer, I was always told never to use stories or fun, engaging language, because then my work might not be viewed as "serious" and "scientific." +Right? I mean, because God forbid somebody have fun when they're learning science. +So we have this field of science that's all about slime, and color changes. Check this out. +And then we have, of course, as any good scientist has to have, explosions! +But if a textbook seems too much fun, it's somehow unscientific. +Now another problem was that the language in their textbook was truly incomprehensible. +If we want to summarize that story that I told you earlier, we could start by saying something like, "These viruses make copies of themselves by slipping their DNA into a bacterium." +The way this showed up in the textbook, it looked like this: "Bacteriophage replication is initiated through the introduction of viral nucleic acid into a bacterium." +That's great, perfect for 13-year-olds. +But here's the thing. There are plenty of people in science education who would look at this and say there's no way that we could ever give that to students, because it contains some language that isn't completely accurate. +For example, I told you that viruses have DNA. +Well, a very tiny fraction of them don't. +They have something called RNA instead. +So a professional science writer would circle that and say, "That has to go. +We have to change it to something much more technical." +And after a team of professional science editors went over this really simple explanation, they'd find fault with almost every word I've used, and they'd have to change anything that wasn't serious enough, and they'd have to change everything that wasn't 100 percent perfect. +Then it would be accurate, but it would be completely impossible to understand. +This is horrifying. +You know, I keep talking about this idea of telling a story, and it's like science communication has taken on this idea of what I call the tyranny of precision, where you can't just tell a story. +It's like science has become that horrible storyteller that we all know, who gives us all the details nobody cares about, where you're like, "Oh, I met my friend for lunch the other day, and she was wearing these ugly jeans. +I mean, they weren't really jeans, they were more kind of, like, leggings, but, like, I guess they're actually kind of more like jeggings, like, but I think " and you're just like, "Oh my God. +What is the point?" +Or even worse, science education is becoming like that guy who always says, "Actually." +Right? You want to be like, "Oh, dude, we had to get up in the middle of the night and drive a hundred miles in total darkness." +And that guy's like, "Actually, it was 87.3 miles." +And you're like, "Actually, shut up! +I'm just trying to tell a story." +Because good storytelling is all about emotional connection. +We have to convince our audience that what we're talking about matters. +But just as important is knowing which details we should leave out so that the main point still comes across. +I'm reminded of what the architect Mies van der Rohe said, and I paraphrase, when he said that sometimes you have to lie in order to tell the truth. +I think this sentiment is particularly relevant to science education. +Now, finally, I am often so disappointed when people think that I'm advocating a dumbing down of science. +That's not true at all. +I'm currently a Ph.D. student at MIT, and I absolutely understand the importance of detailed, specific scientific communication between experts, but not when we're trying to teach 13-year-olds. +If a young learner thinks that all viruses have DNA, that's not going to ruin their chances of success in science. +But if a young learner can't understand anything in science and learns to hate it because it all sounds like this, that will ruin their chances of success. +This needs to stop, and I wish that the change could come from the institutions at the top that are perpetuating these problems, and I beg them, I beseech them to just stop it. +But I think that's unlikely. +So we are so lucky that we have resources like the Internet, where we can circumvent these institutions from the bottom up. +There's a growing number of online resources that are dedicated to just explaining science in simple, understandable ways. +I dream of a Wikipedia-like website that would explain any scientific concept you can think of in simple language any middle schooler can understand. +And I myself spend most of my free time making these science videos that I put on YouTube. +I explain chemical equilibrium using analogies to awkward middle school dances, and I talk about fuel cells with stories about boys and girls at a summer camp. +The feedback that I get is sometimes misspelled and it's often written in LOLcats, but nonetheless it's so appreciative, so thankful that I know this is the right way we should be communicating science. +There's still so much work left to be done, though, and if you're involved with science in any way I urge you to join me. +Pick up a camera, start to write a blog, whatever, but leave out the seriousness, leave out the jargon. +Make me laugh. Make me care. +Leave out those annoying details that nobody cares about and just get to the point. +How should you start? +Why don't you say, "Listen, let me tell you a story"? +Thank you. +This is about a hidden corner of the labor market. +It's the world of people who need to work ultra-flexibly, if they're to work at all. +So think, for instance, of someone who has a recurring but unpredictable medical condition, or somebody who's caring for a dependent adult, or a parent with complex child care needs. +Their availability for work can be such that it's, "A few hours today. +Maybe I can work tomorrow, but I don't know if and when yet." +And it's extraordinarily difficult for these people to find the work that they so often need very badly. +Which is a tragedy because there are employers who can use pools of very flexible local people booked completely ad hoc around when that person wants to work. +Imagine that you run a cafe. +It's mid-morning, the place is filling up. +You're going to have a busy lunchtime rush. +If you could get two extra workers for 90 minutes to start in an hour's time, you'd do it, but they'd have to be reliable, inducted in how your cafe works. +They'd have to be available at very competitive rates. +They'd have to be bookable in about the next minute. +In reality, no recruitment agency wants to handle that sort of business, so you are going to muddle by, understaffed. +And it's not just caterers, it's hoteliers, it's retailers, it's anyone who provides services to the public or businesses. +There's all sorts of organizations that can use these pools of very flexible people, possibly already once they've been inducted. +At this level of the labor market, what you need is a marketplace for spare hours. +They do exist. Here's how they work. +So in this example, a distribution company has said, we've got a rush order that we've got to get out of the warehouse tomorrow morning. +Show us everyone who's available. +It's found 31 workers. +Everybody on this screen is genuinely available at those specific hours tomorrow. +They're all contactable in time for this booking. +They've all defined the terms on which they will accept bookings. +And this booking is within all the parameters for each individual. +And they would all be legally compliant by doing this booking. +Of course, they're all trained to work in warehouses. +You can select as many of them as you want. +They're from multiple agencies. +It's calculated the charge rate for each person for this specific booking. +And it's monitoring their reliability. +The people on the top row are the provenly reliable ones. +They're likely to be more expensive. +In an alternative view of this pool of local, very flexible people, here's a market research company, and it's inducted maybe 25 local people in how to do street interviewing. +And they've got a new campaign. They want to run it next week. +And they're looking at how many of the people they've inducted are available each hour next week. +And they'll then decide when to do their street interviews. +But is there more that could be done for this corner of the labor market? +Because right now there are so many people who need whatever economic opportunity they can get. +Let's make it personal. +Imagine that a young woman -- base of the economic pyramid, very little prospect of getting a job -- what economic activity could she theoretically engage in? +Well, she might be willing to work odd hours in a call center, in a reception area, in a mail room. +She may be interested in providing local services to her community: babysitting, local deliveries, pet care. +She may have possessions that she would like to trade at times she doesn't need them. +So she might have a sofa bed in her front room that she would like to let out. +She might have a bike, a video games console she only uses occasionally. +And you're probably thinking -- because you're all very web-aware -- yes, and we're in the era of collaborative consumption, so she can go online and do all this. +She can go to Airbnb to list her sofa bed, she can go to TaskRabbit.com and say, "I want to do local deliveries," and so on. +These are good sites, but I believe we can go a step further. +And the key to that is a philosophy that we call modern markets for all. +Markets have changed beyond recognition in the last 20 years, but only for organizations at the top of the economy. +If you're a Wall Street trader, you now take it for granted that you sell your financial assets in a system of markets that identifies the most profitable opportunities for you in real time, executes on that in microseconds within the boundaries you've set. +It analyzes supply and demand and pricing and tells you where your next wave of opportunities are coming from. +It manages counterparty risk in incredibly sophisticated ways. +It's all extremely low overhead. +What have we gained at the bottom of the economy in terms of markets in the last 20 years? +Basically classified adverts with a search facility. +So why do we have this disparity between these incredibly sophisticated markets at the top of the economy that are increasingly sucking more and more activity and resource out of the main economy into this rarefied level of trading, and what the rest of us have? +A modern market is more than a website; it's a web of interoperable marketplaces, back office mechanisms, regulatory regimes, settlement mechanisms, liquidity sources and so on. +And when a Wall Street trader comes into work in the morning, she does not write a listing for every financial derivative she wants to sell today and then post that listing on multiple websites and wait for potential buyers to get in touch and start negotiating the terms on which she might trade. +In the early days of this modern markets technology, the financial institutions worked out how they could leverage their buying power, their back office processes, their relationships, their networks to shape these new markets that would create all this new activity. +They asked governments for supporting regulatory regimes, and in a lot of cases they got it. +But throughout the economy, there are facilities that could likewise leverage a new generation of markets for the benefit of all of us. +And those facilities -- I'm talking about things like the mechanisms that prove our identity, the licensing authorities that know what each of us is allowed to do legally at any given time, the processes by which we resolve disputes through official channels. +These mechanisms, these facilities are not in the gift of Craigslist or Gumtree or Yahoo, they're controlled by the state. +And the policymakers who sit on top of them are, I suggest, simply not thinking about how those facilities could be used to underpin a whole new era of markets. +Like everyone else, those policymakers are taking it for granted that modern markets are the preserve of organizations powerful enough to create them for themselves. +Suppose we stopped taking that for granted. +Suppose tomorrow morning the prime minister of Britain or the president of the U.S., or the leader of any other developed nation, woke up and said, "I'm never going to be able to create all the jobs I need in the current climate. +I have got to focus on whatever economic opportunity I can get to my citizens. +And for that they have to be able to access state-of-the-art markets. +How do I make that happen?" +And I think I can see a few eyes rolling. +Politicians in a big, complex, sophisticated I.T. project? +Oh, that's going to be a disaster waiting to happen. +Not necessarily. +There is a precedent for technology-enabled service that has been initiated by politicians in multiple countries and has been hugely successful: national lotteries. +Let's take Britain as an example. +Our government didn't design the national lottery, it didn't fund the national lottery, it doesn't operate the national lottery. +It simply passed the National Lottery Act and this is what followed. +This act defines what a national lottery will look like. +It specifies certain benefits that the state can uniquely bestow on the operators. +And it puts some obligations on those operators. +In terms of spreading gambling activity to the masses, this was an unqualified success. +But let's suppose that our aim is to bring new economic activity to the base of the pyramid. +Could we use the same model? +I believe we could. +So imagine that policymakers outlined a facility. +Let's call it national e-markets, NEMs for short. +Think of it as a regulated public utility. +So it's on a par with the water supply or the road network. +And it's a series of markets for low-level trade that can be fulfilled by a person or a small company. +And government has certain benefits it can uniquely bestow on these markets. +It's about public spending going through these markets to buy public services at the local level. +It's about interfacing these markets direct into the highest official channels in the land. +It's about enshrining government's role as a publicist for these markets. +It's about deregulating some sectors so that local people can enter them. +So, taxi journeys might be one example. +And there are certain obligations that should go with those benefits to be placed on the operators, and the key one is, of course, that the operators pay for everything, including all the interfacing into the public sector. +So imagine that the operators make their return by building a percentage markup into each transaction. +Imagine that there's a concession period defined of maybe 15 years in which they can take all these benefits and run with them. +And imagine that the consortia who bid to run it are told, whoever comes in at the lowest percentage markup on each transaction to fund the whole thing will get the deal. +So government then exits the frame. +This is now in the hands of the consortium. +Either they are going to unlock an awful lot of economic opportunity and make a percentage on all of it or it's all going to crash and burn, which is tough on their shareholders. +It doesn't bother the taxpayer necessarily. +And there would be no constraints on alternative markets. +So this would just be one more choice among millions of Internet forums. +But it could be very different, because having access to those state-backed facilities could incentivize this consortium to seriously invest in the service. +Because they would have to get a lot of these small transactions going to start making their return. +So we're talking about sectors like home hair care, the hire of toys, farm work, hire of clothes even, meals delivered to your door, services for tourists, home care. +This would be a world of very small trades, but very well-informed, because national e-markets will deliver data. +So this is a local person potentially deciding whether to enter the babysitting market. +And they might be aware that they would have to fund vetting and training if they wanted to go into that market. +They'd have to do assessment interviews with local parents who wanted a pool of babysitters. +Is it worth their while? +Should they be looking at other sectors? +Should they be moving to another part of the country where there's a shortage of babysitters? +This kind of data can become routine. +And this data can be used by investors. +So if there's a problem with a shortage of babysitters in some parts of the country and the problem is nobody can afford the vetting and training, an investor can pay for it and the system will tithe back the enhanced earnings of the individuals for maybe the next two years. +This is a world of atomized capitalism. +So it's small trades by small people, but it's very informed, safe, convenient, low-overhead and immediate. +Some rough research suggests this could unlock around 100 million pounds' worth a day of new economic activity in a country the size of the U.K. +Does that sound improbable to you? +That's what a lot of people said about turbo trading in financial exchanges 20 years ago. +Do not underestimate the transformative power of truly modern markets. +Thank you. +It was a Saturday afternoon in May, and I suddenly realized that the next day was Mother's Day, and I hadn't gotten anything for my mom, so I started thinking about what should I get my mom for Mother's Day? +I thought, why don't I make her an interactive Mother's Day card using the Scratch software that I'd been developing with my research group at the MIT Media Lab? +We developed it so that people could easily create their own interactive stories and games and animations, and then share their creations with one another. +So I thought, this would be an opportunity to use Scratch to make an interactive card for my mom. +Before making my own Mother's Day card, I thought I would take a look at the Scratch website. +So over the last several years, kids around the world ages 8 and up, have shared their projects, and I thought, I wonder if, of those three million projects, whether anyone else has thought to put up Mother's Day cards. +So in the search box I typed in "Mother's Day," and I was surprised and delighted to see a list of dozens and dozens of Mother's Day cards that showed up on the Scratch website, many of them just in the past 24 hours by procrastinators just like myself. +So I started taking a look at them. I saw one of them that featured a kitten and her mom and wishing her mom a happy Mother's Day. +And the creator very considerately offered a replay for her mom. +Another one was an interactive project where, when you moved the mouse over the letters of "Happy Mom Day," it reveals a special happy Mother's Day slogan. +In this one, the creator told a narrative about how she had Googled to find out when Mother's Day was happening. +And then once she found out when Mother's Day was happening, she delivered a special Mother's Day greeting of how much she loved her mom. +So I really enjoyed looking at these projects and interacting with these projects. +In fact, I liked it so much that, instead of making my own project, I sent my mom links to about a dozen of these projects. And actually, she reacted exactly the way that I hoped that she would. +She wrote back to me and she said, "I'm so proud to have a son that created the software that allowed these kids to make Mother's Day cards for their mothers." +So my mom was happy, and that made me happy, but actually I was even happier for another reason. +I was happy because these kids were using Scratch just in the way that we had hoped that they would. +As they created their interactive Mother's Day cards, you could see that they were really becoming fluent with new technologies. +What do I mean by fluent? +I mean that they were able to start expressing themselves and to start expressing their ideas. +When you become fluent with language, it means you can write an entry in your journal or tell a joke to someone or write a letter to a friend. +And it's similar with new technologies. +By writing, be creating these interactive Mother's Day cards, these kids were showing that they were really fluent with new technologies. +Now maybe you won't be so surprised by this, because a lot of times people feel that young people today can do all sorts of things with technology. +I mean, all of us have heard young people referred to as "digital natives." +But actually I'm sort of skeptical about this term. +I'm not so sure we should be thinking of young people as digital natives. +When you really look at it, how is it that young people spend most of their time using new technologies? +You often see them in situations like this, or like this, and there's no doubt that young people are very comfortable and familiar browsing and chatting and texting and gaming. +But that doesn't really make you fluent. +So young people today have lots of experience and lots of familiarity with interacting with new technologies, but a lot less so of creating with new technologies and expressing themselves with new technologies. +It's almost as if they can read but not write with new technologies. +And I'm really interested in seeing, how can we help young people become fluent so they can write with new technologies? +And that really means that they need to be able to write their own computer programs, or code. +So, increasingly, people are starting to recognize the importance of learning to code. +You know, in recent years, there have been hundreds of new organizations and websites that are helping young people learn to code. +You look online, you'll see places like Codecademy and events like CoderDojo and sites like Girls Who Code, or Black Girls Code. +It seems that everybody is getting into the act. +You know, just at the beginning of this year, at the turn of the new year, New York City Mayor Michael Bloomberg made a New Year's resolution that he was going to learn to code in 2012. +A few months later, the country of Estonia decided that all of its first graders should learn to code. +And that triggered a debate in the U.K. +about whether all the children there should learn to code. +Now, for some of you, when you hear about this, it might seem sort of strange about everybody learning to code. +When many people think of coding, they think of it as something that only a very narrow sub-community of people are going to be doing, and they think of coding looking like this. +And in fact, if this is what coding is like, it will only be a narrow sub-community of people with special mathematical skills and technological background that can code. +But coding doesn't have to be like this. +Let me show you about what it's like to code in Scratch. +So in Scratch, to code, you just snap blocks together. +In this case, you take a move block, snap it into a stack, and the stacks of blocks control the behaviors of the different characters in your game or your story, in this case controlling the big fish. +After you've created your program, you can click on "share," and then share your project with other people, so that they can use the project and start working on the project as well. +So, of course, making a fish game isn't the only thing you can do with Scratch. +Of the millions of projects on the Scratch website, there's everything from animated stories to school science projects to anime soap operas to virtual construction kits to recreations of classic video games to political opinion polls to trigonometry tutorials to interactive artwork, and, yes, interactive Mother's Day cards. +So I think there's so many different ways that people can express themselves using this, to be able to take their ideas and share their ideas with the world. +And it doesn't just stay on the screen. +You can also code to interact with the physical world around you. +We're going to continue to look at new ways of bringing together the physical world and the virtual world and connecting to the world around us. +This is an example from a new version of Scratch that we'll be releasing in the next few months, and we're looking again to be able to push you in new directions. +Here's an example. +It uses the webcam. +And as I move my hand, I can pop the balloons or I can move the bug. +So it's a little bit like Microsoft Kinect, where you interact with gestures in the world. +But instead of just playing someone else's game, you get to create the games, and if you see someone else's game, you can just say "see inside," and you can look at the stacks of blocks that control it. +So there's a new block that says how much video motion there is, and then, if there's so much video motion, it will then tell the balloon to pop. +The same way that this uses the camera to get information into Scratch, you can also use the microphone. +Here's an example of a project using the microphone. +So I'm going to let all of you control this game using your voices. +(Crickets chirping) As kids are creating projects like this, they're learning to code, but even more importantly, they're coding to learn. +Because as they learn to code, it enables them to learn many other things, opens up many new opportunities for learning. +Again, it's useful to make an analogy to reading and writing. +When you learn to read and write, it opens up opportunities for you to learn so many other things. +When you learn to read, you can then read to learn. +And it's the same thing with coding. +If you learn to code, you can code to learn. +Now some of the things you can learn are sort of obvious. +You learn more about how computers work. +But that's just where it starts. +When you learn to code, it opens up for you to learn many other things. +Let me show you an example. +Here's another project, and I saw this when I was visiting one of the computer clubhouses. +These are after-school learning centers that we helped start that help young people from low-income communities learn to express themselves creatively with new technologies. +And when I went to one of the clubhouses a couple years ago, I saw a 13-year-old boy who was using our Scratch software to create a game somewhat like this one, and he was very happy with his game and proud of his game, but also he wanted to do more. +He wanted to keep score. +So this was a game where the big fish eats the little fish, but he wanted to keep score, so that each time the big fish eats the little fish, the score would go up and it would keep track, and he didn't know how to do that. +So I showed him. +In Scratch, you can create something called a variable. +I'll call it score. +And that creates some new blocks for you, and also creates a little scoreboard that keeps track of the score, so each time I click on "change score," it increments the score. +So I showed this to the clubhouse member -- let's call him Victor -- and Victor, when he saw that this block would let him increment the score, he knew exactly what to do. +He took the block and he put it into the program exactly where the big fish eats the little fish. +So then, each time the big fish eats the little fish, he will increment the score, and the score will go up by one. +And it's in fact working. +And he saw this, and he was so excited, he reached his hand out to me, and he said, "Thank you, thank you, thank you." +And what went through my mind was, how often is it that teachers are thanked by their students for teaching them variables? It doesn't happen in most classrooms, but that's because in most classrooms, when kids learn about variables, they don't know why they're learning it. +It's nothing that, really, they can make use of. +When you learn ideas like this in Scratch, you can learn it in a way that's really meaningful and motivating for you, that you can understand the reason for learning variables, and we see that kids learn it more deeply and learn it better. +Victor had, I'm sure, been taught about variables in schools, but he really didn't -- he wasn't paying attention. +Now he had a reason for learning variables. +So when you learn through coding, and coding to learn, you're learning it in a meaningful context, and that's the best way of learning things. +So as kids like Victor are creating projects like this, they're learning important concepts like variables, but that's just the start. +As Victor worked on this project and created the scripts, he was also learning about the process of design, how to start with the glimmer of an idea and turn it into a fully-fledged, functioning project like you see here. +Now those are important skills that aren't just relevant for coding. +They're relevant for all sorts of different activities. +Now, who knows if Victor is going to grow up and become a programmer or a professional computer scientist? +It's probably not so likely, but regardless of what he does, he'll be able to make use of these design skills that he learned. +Regardless of whether he grows up to be a marketing manager or a mechanic or a community organizer, that these ideas are useful for everybody. +Again, it's useful to think about this analogy with language. +When you become fluent with reading and writing, it's not something that you're doing just to become a professional writer. +Very few people become professional writers. +But it's useful for everybody to learn how to read and write. +Again, the same thing with coding. +Most people won't grow up to become professional computer scientists or programmers, but those skills of thinking creatively, reasoning systematically, working collaboratively -- skills you develop when you code in Scratch -- are things that people can use no matter what they're doing in their work lives. +And it's not just about your work life. +Coding can also enable you to express your ideas and feelings in your personal life. +Let me end with just one more example. +So this is an example that came from after I had sent the Mother's Day cards to my mom, she decided that she wanted to learn Scratch. +So she made this project for my birthday and sent me a happy birthday Scratch card. +Now this project is not going to win any prizes for design, and you can rest assured that my 83-year-old mom is not training to become a professional programmer or computer scientist. +But working on this project enabled her to make a connection to someone that she cares about and enabled her to keep on learning new things and continuing to practice her creativity and developing new ways of expressing herself. +So as we take a look and we see that Michael Bloomberg is learning to code, all of the children of Estonia learn to code, even my mom has learned to code, don't you think it's about time that you might be thinking about learning to code? +If you're interested in giving it a try, I'd encourage you to go to the Scratch website. +It's scratch.mit.edu, and give a try at coding. +Thanks very much. +Salaam alaikum. +Welcome to Doha. +I am in charge of making this country's food secure. +That is my job for the next two years, to design an entire master plan, and then for the next 10 years to implement it -- of course, with so many other people. +But first, I need to talk to you about a story, which is my story, about the story of this country that you're all here in today. +And of course, most of you have had three meals today, and probably will continue to have after this event. +So going in, what was Qatar in the 1940s? +We were about 11,000 people living here. +There was no water. There was no energy, no oil, no cars, none of that. +Most of the people who lived here either lived in coastal villages, fishing, or were nomads who roamed around with the environment trying to find water. +None of the glamour that you see today existed. +No cities like you see today in Doha or Dubai or Abu Dhabi or Kuwait or Riyadh. +It wasn't that they couldn't develop cities. +Resources weren't there to develop them. +And you can see that life expectancy was also short. +Most people died around the age of 50. +So let's move to chapter two: the oil era. +1939, that's when they discovered oil. +But unfortunately, it wasn't really fully exploited commercially until after the Second World War. +What did it do? +It changed the face of this country, as you can see today and witness. +It also made all those people who roamed around the desert -- looking for water, looking for food, trying to take care of their livestock -- urbanize. +You might find this strange, but in my family we have different accents. +My mother has an accent that is so different to my father, and we're all a population of about 300,000 people in the same country. +There are about five or six accents in this country as I speak. +Someone says, "How so? How could this happen?" +Because we lived scattered. +We couldn't live in a concentrated way simply because there was no resources. +And when the resources came, be it oil, we started building these fancy technologies and bringing people together because we needed the concentration. +People started to get to know each other. +And we realized that there are some differences in accents. +So that is the chapter two: the oil era. +Let's look at today. +This is probably the skyline that most of you know about Doha. +So what's the population today? +It's 1.7 million people. +That is in less than 60 years. +The average growth of our economy is about 15 percent for the past five years. +Lifespan has increased to 78. +Water consumption has increased to 430 liters. +And this is amongst the highest worldwide. +From having no water whatsoever to consuming water to the highest degree, higher than any other nation. +I don't know if this was a reaction to lack of water. +But what is interesting about the story that I've just said? +The interesting part is that we continue to grow 15 percent every year for the past five years without water. +Now that is historic. It's never happened before in history. +Cities were totally wiped out because of the lack of water. +This is history being made in this region. +Not only cities that we're building, but cities with dreams and people who are wishing to be scientists, doctors. +Build a nice home, bring the architect, design my house. +These people are adamant that this is a livable space when it wasn't. +But of course, with the use of technology. +So Brazil has 1,782 millimeters per year of precipitation of rain. +Qatar has 74, and we have that growth rate. +The question is how. +How could we survive that? +We have no water whatsoever. +Simply because of this gigantic, mammoth machine called desalination. +Energy is the key factor here. It changed everything. +It is that thing that we pump out of the ground, we burn tons of, probably most of you used it coming to Doha. +So that is our lake, if you can see it. +That is our river. +That is how you all happen to use and enjoy water. +This is the best technology that this region could ever have: desalination. +So what are the risks? +Do you worry much? +I would say, perhaps if you look at the global facts, you will realize, of course I have to worry. +There is growing demand, growing population. +We've turned seven billion only a few months ago. +And so that number also demands food. +And there's predictions that we'll be nine billion by 2050. +So a country that has no water has to worry about what happens beyond its borders. +There's also changing diets. +By elevating to a higher socio-economic level, they also change their diet. +They start eating more meat and so on and so forth. +On the other hand, there is declining yields because of climate change and because of other factors. +And so someone has to really realize when the crisis is going to happen. +This is the situation in Qatar, for those who don't know. +We only have two days of water reserve. +We import 90 percent of our food, and we only cultivate less than one percent of our land. +The limited number of farmers that we have have been pushed out of their farming practices as a result of open market policy and bringing the big competitions, etc., etc. +So we also face risks. +These risks directly affect the sustainability of this nation and its continuity. +The question is, is there a solution? +Is there a sustainable solution? +Indeed there is. +This slide sums up thousands of pages of technical documents that we've been working on over the past two years. +Let's start with the water. +So we know very well -- I showed you earlier -- that we need this energy. +So if we're going to need energy, what sort of energy? +A depletable energy? Fossil fuel? +Or should we use something else? +Do we have the comparative advantage to use another sort of energy? +I guess most of you by now realize that we do: 300 days of sun. +And so we will use that renewable energy to produce the water that we need. +And we will probably put 1,800 megawatts of solar systems to produce 3.5 million cubic meters of water. +And that is a lot of water. +That water will go then to the farmers, and the farmers will be able to water their plants, and they will be able then to supply society with food. +But in order to sustain the horizontal line -- because these are the projects, these are the systems that we will deliver -- we need to also develop the vertical line: system sustenance, high-level education, research and development, industries, technologies, to produce these technologies for application, and finally markets. +But what gels all of it, what enables it, is legislation, policies, regulations. +Without it we can't do anything. +So that's what we are planning to do. +Within two years we should hopefully be done with this plan and taking it to implementation. +Our objective is to be a millennium city, just like many millennium cities around: Istanbul, Rome, London, Paris, Damascus, Cairo. +We are only 60 years old, but we want to live forever as a city, to live in peace. +Thank you very much. +Organic chemists make molecules, very complicated molecules, by chopping up a big molecule into small molecules and reverse engineering. +And as a chemist, one of the things I wanted to ask my research group a couple of years ago is, could we make a really cool universal chemistry set? +In essence, could we "app" chemistry? +Now what would this mean, and how would we do it? +Well to start to do this, we took a 3D printer and we started to print our beakers and our test tubes on one side and then print the molecule at the same time on the other side and combine them together in what we call reactionware. +And so by printing the vessel and doing the chemistry at the same time, we may start to access this universal toolkit of chemistry. +Now what could this mean? +So how are we doing this in the lab? +Well it requires software, it requires hardware and it requires chemical inks. +And so the really cool bit is, the idea is that we want to have a universal set of inks that we put out with the printer, and you download the blueprint, the organic chemistry for that molecule and you make it in the device. +And so you can make your molecule in the printer using this software. +So what could this mean? +Well, ultimately, it could mean that you could print your own medicine. +And this is what we're doing in the lab at the moment. +But to take baby steps to get there, first of all we want to look at drug design and production, or drug discovery and manufacturing. +Because if we can manufacture it after we've discovered it, we could deploy it anywhere. +You don't need to go to the chemist anymore. +We can print drugs at point of need. +We can download new diagnostics. +Say a new super bug has emerged. +You put it in your search engine, and you create the drug to treat the threat. +So this allows you on-the-fly molecular assembly. +But perhaps for me the core bit going into the future is this idea of taking your own stem cells, with your genes and your environment, and you print your own personal medicine. +And if that doesn't seem fanciful enough, where do you think we're going to go? +Well, you're going to have your own personal matter fabricator. +Beam me up, Scotty. +So, I'm an artist. +I live in New York, and I've been working in advertising for -- ever since I left school, so about seven, eight years now, and it was draining. +I worked a lot of late nights. I worked a lot of weekends, and I found myself never having time for all the projects that I wanted to work on on my own. +I need to take time to travel and spend time with my family and start my own creative ideas." +So the first of those projects ended up being something I called "One Second Every Day." +Basically I'm recording one second of every day of my life for the rest of my life, chronologically compiling these one-second tiny slices of my life into one single continuous video until, you know, I can't record them anymore. +The purpose of this project is, one: I hate not remembering things that I've done in the past. +There's all these things that I've done with my life that I have no recollection of unless someone brings it up, and sometimes I think, "Oh yeah, that's something that I did." +And something that I realized early on in the project was that if I wasn't doing anything interesting, I would probably forget to record the video. +So if I live to see 80 years of age, I'm going to have a five-hour video that encapsulates 50 years of my life. +When I turn 40, I'll have a one-hour video that includes just my 30s. +This has really invigorated me day-to-day, when I wake up, to try and do something interesting with my day. +Now, one of the things that I have issues with is that, as the days and weeks and months go by, time just seems to start blurring and blending into each other and, you know, I hated that, and visualization is the way to trigger memory. +You know, this project for me is a way for me to bridge that gap and remember everything that I've done. +Even just this one second allows me to remember everything else I did that one day. +It's difficult, sometimes, to pick that one second. +On a good day, I'll have maybe three or four seconds that I really want to choose, but I'll just have to narrow it down to one, but even narrowing it down to that one allows me to remember the other three anyway. +It's also kind of a protest, a personal protest, against the culture we have now where people just are at concerts with their cell phones out recording the whole concert, and they're disturbing you. +They're not even enjoying the show. +They're watching the concert through their cell phone. +And it just takes a quick, quick second. +I was on a three-month road trip this summer. +It was something that I've been dreaming about doing my whole life, just driving around the U.S. and Canada and just figuring out where to go the next day, and it was kind of outstanding. +I actually ran out, I spent too much money on my road trip for the savings that I had to take my year off, so I had to, I went to Seattle and I spent some time with friends working on a really neat project. +One of the reasons that I took my year off was to spend more time with my family, and this really tragic thing happened where my sister-in-law, her intestine suddenly strangled one day, and we took her to the emergency room, and she was, she was in really bad shape. +We almost lost her a couple of times, and I was there with my brother every day. +It helped me realize something else during this project, is that recording that one second on a really bad day is extremely difficult. +It's not -- we tend to take our cameras out when we're doing awesome things. +Or we're, "Oh, yeah, this party, let me take a picture." +But we rarely do that when we're having a bad day, and something horrible is happening. +And I found that it's actually been very, very important to record even just that one second of a really bad moment. +It really helps you appreciate the good times. +It's not always a good day, so when you have a bad one, I think it's important to remember it, just as much as it is important to remember the [good] days. +Now one of the things that I do is I don't use any filters, I don't use anything to -- I try to capture the moment as much as possible as the way that I saw it with my own eyes. +I started a rule of first person perspective. +Early on, I think I had a couple of videos where you would see me in it, but I realized that wasn't the way to go. +The way to really remember what I saw was to record it as I actually saw it. +Now a couple of things that I have in my head about this project are, wouldn't it be interesting if thousands of people were doing this? +I turned 31 last week, which is there. +I think it would be interesting to see what everyone did with a project like this. +I think everyone would have a different interpretation of it. +I think everyone would benefit from just having that one second to remember every day. +Personally, I'm tired of forgetting, and this is a really easy thing to do. +And I don't know, I think this project has a lot of possibilities, and I encourage you all to record just a small snippet of your life every day, so you can never forget that that day, you lived. +Thank you. +In my previous life, I was an artist. +I still paint. I love art. +For 11 years, I was mayor of Tirana, our capital. +We faced many challenges. +Art was part of the answer, and my name, in the very beginning, was linked with two things: demolition of illegal constructions in order to get public space back, and use of colors in order to revive the hope that had been lost in my city. +But this use of colors was not just an artistic act. +Rather, it was a form of political action in a context when the city budget I had available after being elected amounted to zero comma something. +When we painted the first building, by splashing a radiant orange on the somber gray of a facade, something unimaginable happened. +There was a traffic jam and a crowd of people gathered as if it were the location of some spectacular accident, or the sudden sighting of a visiting pop star. +The French E.U. official in charge of the funding rushed to block the painting. +He screeched that he would block the financing. +"But why?" I asked him. +"Because the colors you have ordered do not meet European standards," he replied. +"Well," I told him, "the surroundings do not meet European standards, even though this is not what we want, but we will choose the colors ourselves, because this is exactly what we want. +And if you do not let us continue with our work, I will hold a press conference here, right now, right in this road, and we will tell people that you look to me just like the censors of the socialist realism era." +Then he was kind of troubled, and asked me for a compromise. +But I told him no, I'm sorry, compromise in colors is gray, and we have enough gray to last us a lifetime. +So it's time for change. +The rehabilitation of public spaces revived the feeling of belonging to a city that people lost. +The pride of people about their own place of living, and there were feelings that had been buried deep for years under the fury of the illegal, barbaric constructions that sprang up in the public space. +And when colors came out everywhere, a mood of change started transforming the spirit of people. +Big noise raised up: "What is this? What is happening? +What are colors doing to us?" +And we made a poll, the most fascinating poll I've seen in my life. +We asked people, "Do you want this action, and to have buildings painted like that?" +And then the second question was, "Do you want it to stop or do you want it to continue?" +To the first question, 63 percent of people said yes, we like it. +Thirty-seven said no, we don't like it. +But to the second question, half of them that didn't like it, they wanted it to continue. So we noticed change. +People started to drop less litter in the streets, for example, started to pay taxes, started to feel something they had forgotten, and beauty was acting as a guardsman where municipal police, or the state itself, were missing. +One day I remember walking along a street that had just been colored, and where we were in the process of planting trees, when I saw a shopkeeper and his wife putting a glass facade to their shop. +They had thrown the old shutter in the garbage collection place. +"Why did you throw away the shutters?" I asked him. +"Well, because the street is safer now," they answered. +"Safer? Why? They have posted more policemen here?" +"Come on, man! What policemen? +You can see it for yourself. There are colors, streetlights, new pavement with no potholes, trees. So it's beautiful; it's safe." +And indeed, it was beauty that was giving people this feeling of being protected. +And this was not a misplaced feeling. +Crime did fall. +The freedom that was won in 1990 brought about a state of anarchy in the city, while the barbarism of the '90s brought about a loss of hope for the city. +We removed 123,000 tons of concrete only from the riverbanks. +We demolished more than 5,000 illegal buildings all over the city, up to eight stories high, the tallest of them. +We planted 55,000 trees and bushes in the streets. +We established a green tax, and then everybody accepted it and all businessmen paid it regularly. +By means of open competitions, we managed to recruit in our administration many young people, and we thus managed to build a de-politicized public institution where men and women were equally represented. +International organizations have invested a lot in Albania during these 20 years, not all of it well spent. +When I told the World Bank directors that I wanted them to finance a project to build a model reception hall for citizens precisely in order to fight endemic daily corruption, they did not understand me. +But people were waiting in long queues under sun and under rain in order to get a certificate or just a simple answer from two tiny windows of two metal kiosks. +They were paying in order to skip the queue, the long queue. +The reply to their requests was met by a voice coming from this dark hole, and, on the other hand, a mysterious hand coming out to take their documents while searching through old documents for the bribe. +We could change the invisible clerks within the kiosks, every week, but we could not change this corrupt practice. +"I'm convinced," I told a German official with the World Bank, "that it would be impossible for them to be bribed if they worked in Germany, in a German administration, just as I am convinced that if you put German officials from the German administration in those holes, they would be bribed just the same." +It's not about genes. +It's not about some being with a high conscience and some others having not a conscience. +It's about system, it's about organization. +It's also about environment and respect. +We removed the kiosks. +We built the bright new reception hall that made people, Tirana citizens, think they had traveled abroad when they entered to make their requests. +We created an online system of control and so speeded up all the processes. +We put the citizen first, and not the clerks. +The corruption in the state administration of countries like Albania -- it's not up to me to say also like Greece -- can be fought only by modernization. +Reinventing the government by reinventing politics itself is the answer, and not reinventing people based on a ready-made formula that the developed world often tries in vain to impose to people like us. +Things have come to this point because politicians in general, but especially in our countries, let's face it, think people are stupid. +They take it for granted that, come what may, people have to follow them, while politics, more and more, fails to offer answers for their public concerns or the exigencies of the common people. +Politics has come to resemble a cynical team game played by politicians, while the public has been pushed aside as if sitting on the seats of a stadium in which passion for politics is gradually making room for blindness and desperation. +Seen from those stairs, all politicians today seem the same, and politics has come to resemble a sport that inspires more aggressiveness and pessimism than social cohesion and the desire for civic protaganism. +Barack Obama won because he mobilized people as never before through the use of social networks. +He did not know each and every one of them, but with an admirable ingenuity, he managed to transform them into activists by giving them all the possibility to hold in their hands the arguments and the instruments that each would need to campaign in his name by making his own campaign. +I tweet. I love it. +I love it because it lets me get the message out, but it also lets people get their messages to me. +This is politics, not from top down, but from the bottom up, and sideways, and allowing everybody's voice to be heard is exactly what we need. +Politics is not just about leaders. +It's not just about politicians and laws. +It is about how people think, how they view the world around them, how they use their time and their energy. +When people say all politicians are the same, ask yourself if Obama was the same as Bush, if Franois Hollande is the same as Sarkozy. +They are not. They are human beings with different views and different visions for the world. +When people say nothing can change, just stop and think what the world was like 10, 20, 50, 100 years ago. +Our world is defined by the pace of change. +We can all change the world. +I gave you a very small example of how one thing, the use of color, can make change happen. +I want to make more change as Prime Minister of my country, but every single one of you can make change happen if you want to. +President Roosevelt, he said, "Believe you can, and you are halfway there." +Radical openness is still a distant future in the field of school education. +We have such a hard time figuring out that learning is not a place but an activity. +But I want to tell you the story of PISA, OECD's test to measure the knowledge and skills of 15-year-olds around the world, and it's really a story of how international comparisons have globalized the field of education that we usually treat as an affair of domestic policy. +Look at how the world looked in the 1960s, in terms of the proportion of people who had completed high school. +You can see the United States ahead of everyone else, and much of the economic success of the United States draws on its long-standing advantage as the first mover in education. +But in the 1970s, some countries caught up. +In the 1980s, the global expansion of the talent pool continued. +And the world didn't stop in the 1990s. +So in the '60s, the U.S. was first. +In the '90s, it was 13th, and not because standards had fallen, but because they had risen so much faster elsewhere. +Korea shows you what's possible in education. +Two generations ago, Korea had the standard of living of Afghanistan today, and was one of the lowest education performers. +Today, every young Korean finishes high school. +So this tells us that, in a global economy, it is no longer national improvement that's the benchmark for success, but the best performing education systems internationally. +The trouble is that measuring how much time people spend in school or what degree they have got is not always a good way of seeing what they can actually do. +Look at the toxic mix of unemployed graduates on our streets, while employers say they cannot find the people with the skills they need. +And that tells you that better degrees don't automatically translate into better skills and better jobs and better lives. +So with PISA, we try to change this by measuring the knowledge and skills of people directly. +And we took a very special angle to this. +We were less interested in whether students can simply reproduce what they have learned in school, but we wanted to test whether they can extrapolate from what they know and apply their knowledge in novel situations. +Now, some people have criticized us for this. +They say, you know, such a way of measuring outcomes is terribly unfair to people, because we test students with problems they haven't seen before. +And once hotly contested, our way of measuring outcomes has actually quickly become the standard. +In our latest assessment in 2009, we measured 74 school systems that together cover 87 percent of the economy. +This chart shows you the performance of countries. +In red, sort of below OECD average. +Yellow is so-so, and in green are the countries doing really well. +You can see Shanghai, Korea, Singapore in Asia; Finland in Europe; Canada in North America doing really well. +You can also see that there is a gap of almost three and a half school years between 15-year-olds in Shanghai and 15-year-olds in Chile, and the gap grows to seven school years when you include the countries with really poor performance. +There's a world of difference in the way in which young people are prepared for today's economy. +But I want to introduce a second important dimension into this picture. +Educators like to talk about equity. +With PISA, we wanted to measure how they actually deliver equity, in terms of ensuring that people from different social backgrounds have equal chances. +And we see that in some countries, the impact of social background on learning outcomes is very, very strong. +Opportunities are unequally distributed. +A lot of potential of young children is wasted. +We see in other countries that it matters much less into which social context you're born. +We all want to be there, in the upper right quadrant, where performance is strong and learning opportunities are equally distributed. +Nobody, and no country, can afford to be there, where performance is poor and there are large social disparities. +And then we can debate, you know, is it better to be there, where performance is strong at the price of large disparities? +Or do we want to focus on equity and accept mediocrity? +But actually, if you look at how countries come out on this picture, you see there are a lot of countries that actually are combining excellence with equity. +In fact, one of the most important lessons from this comparison is that you don't have to compromise equity to achieve excellence. +These countries have moved on from providing excellence for just some to providing excellence for all, a very important lesson. +And that also challenges the paradigms of many school systems that believe they are mainly there to sort people. +And ever since those results came out, policymakers, educators, researchers from around the world have tried to figure out what's behind the success of those systems. +But let's step back for a moment and focus on the countries that actually started PISA, and I'm giving them a colored bubble now. +And I'm making the size of the bubble proportional to the amount of money that countries spent on students. +If money would tell you everything about the quality of learning outcomes, you would find all the large bubbles at the top, no? +But that's not what you see. +Spending per student only explains about, well, less than 20 percent of the performance variation among countries, and Luxembourg, for example, the most expensive system, doesn't do particularly well. +What you see is that two countries with similar spending achieve very different results. +You also see -- and I think that's one of the most encouraging findings -- that we no longer live in a world that is neatly divided between rich and well-educated countries, and poor and badly-educated ones, a very, very important lesson. +Let's look at this in greater detail. +The red dot shows you spending per student relative to a country's wealth. +One way you can spend money is by paying teachers well, and you can see Korea investing a lot in attracting the best people into the teaching profession. +And Korea also invests into long school days, which drives up costs further. +Last but not least, Koreans want their teachers not only to teach but also to develop. +They invest in professional development and collaboration and many other things. +All that costs money. +How can Korea afford all of this? +The answer is, students in Korea learn in large classes. +This is the blue bar which is driving costs down. +You go to the next country on the list, Luxembourg, and you can see the red dot is exactly where it is for Korea, so Luxembourg spends the same per student as Korea does. +But, you know, parents and teachers and policymakers in Luxembourg all like small classes. +You know, it's very pleasant to walk into a small class. +So they have invested all their money into there, and the blue bar, class size, is driving costs up. +But even Luxembourg can spend its money only once, and the price for this is that teachers are not paid particularly well. +Students don't have long hours of learning. +And basically, teachers have little time to do anything else than teaching. +So you can see two countries spent their money very differently, and actually how they spent their money matters a lot more than how much they invest in education. +Let's go back to the year 2000. +Remember, that was the year before the iPod was invented. +This is how the world looked then in terms of PISA performance. +The first thing you can see is that the bubbles were a lot smaller, no? +We spent a lot less on education, about 35 percent less on education. +So you ask yourself, if education has become so much more expensive, has it become so much better? +And the bitter truth really is that, you know, not in many countries. +But there are some countries which have seen impressive improvements. +Germany, my own country, in the year 2000, featured in the lower quadrant, below average performance, large social disparities. +And remember, Germany, we used to be one of those countries that comes out very well when you just count people who have degrees. +Very disappointing results. +People were stunned by the results. +And for the very first time, the public debate in Germany was dominated for months by education, not tax, not other kinds of issues, but education was the center of the public debate. +And then policymakers began to respond to this. +The federal government dramatically raised its investment in education. +A lot was done to increase the life chances of students with an immigrant background or from social disadvantage. +And what's really interesting is that this wasn't just about optimizing existing policies, but data transformed some of the beliefs and paradigms underlying German education. +For example, traditionally, the education of the very young children was seen as the business of families, and you would have cases where women were seen as neglecting their family responsibilities when they sent their children to kindergarten. +PISA has transformed that debate, and pushed early childhood education right at the center of public policy in Germany. +Or traditionally, the German education divides children at the age of 10, very young children, between those deemed to pursue careers of knowledge workers and those who would end up working for the knowledge workers, and that mainly along socioeconomic lines, and that paradigm is being challenged now too. +A lot of change. +And the good news is, nine years later, you can see improvements in quality and equity. +People have taken up the challenge, done something about it. +Or take Korea, at the other end of the spectrum. +In the year 2000, Korea did already very well, but the Koreans were concerned that only a small share of their students achieved the really high levels of excellence. +They took up the challenge, and Korea was able to double the proportion of students achieving excellence in one decade in the field of reading. +Well, if you only focus on your brightest students, you know what happens is disparities grow, and you can see this bubble moving slightly to the other direction, but still, an impressive improvement. +A major overhaul of Poland's education helped to dramatically reduce between variability among schools, turn around many of the lowest-performing schools, and raise performance by over half a school year. +And you can see other countries as well. +Portugal was able to consolidate its fragmented school system, raise quality and improve equity, and so did Hungary. +So what you can actually see, there's been a lot of change. +And even those people who complain and say that the relative standing of countries on something like PISA is just an artifact of culture, of economic factors, of social issues, of homogeneity of societies, and so on, these people must now concede that education improvement is possible. +You know, Poland hasn't changed its culture. +It didn't change its economy. It didn't change the compositions of its population. +It didn't fire its teachers. It changed its education policies and practice. Very impressive. +And all that raises, of course, the question: What can we learn from those countries in the green quadrant who have achieved high levels of equity, high levels of performance, and raised outcomes? +And, of course, the question is, can what works in one context provide a model elsewhere? +Of course, you can't copy and paste education systems wholesale, but these comparisons have identified a range of factors that high-performing systems share. +Everybody agrees that education is important. +Everybody says that. +But the test of truth is, how do you weigh that priority against other priorities? +How do countries pay their teachers relative to other highly skilled workers? +Would you want your child to become a teacher rather than a lawyer? +How do the media talk about schools and teachers? +Those are the critical questions, and what we have learned from PISA is that, in high-performing education systems, the leaders have convinced their citizens to make choices that value education, their future, more than consumption today. +And you know what's interesting? You won't believe it, but there are countries in which the most attractive place to be is not the shopping center but the school. +Those things really exist. +But placing a high value on education is just part of the picture. +The other part is the belief that all children are capable of success. +You have some countries where students are segregated early in their ages. +You know, students are divided up, reflecting the belief that only some children can achieve world-class standards. +But usually that is linked to very strong social disparities. +If you go to Japan in Asia, or Finland in Europe, parents and teachers in those countries expect every student to succeed, and you can see that actually mirrored in student behavior. +When we asked students what counts for success in mathematics, students in North America would typically tell us, you know, it's all about talent. +If I'm not born as a genius in math, I'd better study something else. +Nine out of 10 Japanese students say that it depends on my own investment, on my own effort, and that tells you a lot about the system that is around them. +In the past, different students were taught in similar ways. +High performers on PISA embrace diversity with differentiated pedagogical practices. +They realize that ordinary students have extraordinary talents, and they personalize learning opportunities. +High-performing systems also share clear and ambitious standards across the entire spectrum. +Every student knows what matters. +Every student knows what's required to be successful. +And nowhere does the quality of an education system exceed the quality of its teachers. +High-performing systems are very careful in how they recruit and select their teachers and how they train them. +They watch how they improve the performances of teachers in difficulties who are struggling, and how they structure teacher pay. +They provide an environment also in which teachers work together to frame good practice. +And they provide intelligent pathways for teachers to grow in their careers. +In bureaucratic school systems, teachers are often left alone in classrooms with a lot of prescription on what they should be teaching. +High-performing systems are very clear what good performance is. +They set very ambitious standards, but then they enable their teachers to figure out, what do I need to teach to my students today? +The past was about delivered wisdom in education. +Now the challenge is to enable user-generated wisdom. +High performers have moved on from professional or from administrative forms of accountability and control -- sort of, how do you check whether people do what they're supposed to do in education -- to professional forms of work organization. +They enable their teachers to make innovations in pedagogy. +They provide them with the kind of development they need to develop stronger pedagogical practices. +The goal of the past was standardization and compliance. +High-performing systems have made teachers and school principals inventive. +In the past, the policy focus was on outcomes, on provision. +The high-performing systems have helped teachers and school principals to look outwards to the next teacher, the next school around their lives. +And the most impressive outcomes of world-class systems is that they achieve high performance across the entire system. +You've seen Finland doing so well on PISA, but what makes Finland so impressive is that only five percent of the performance variation amongst students lies between schools. +Every school succeeds. +This is where success is systemic. +And how do they do that? +They invest resources where they can make the most difference. +They attract the strongest principals into the toughest schools, and the most talented teachers into the most challenging classroom. +Last but not least, those countries align policies across all areas of public policy. +They make them coherent over sustained periods of time, and they ensure that what they do is consistently implemented. +Now, knowing what successful systems are doing doesn't yet tell us how to improve. +That's also clear, and that's where some of the limits of international comparisons of PISA are. +That's where other forms of research need to kick in, and that's also why PISA doesn't venture into telling countries what they should be doing. +But its strength lies in telling them what everybody else has been doing. +And the example of PISA shows that data can be more powerful than administrative control of financial subsidy through which we usually run education systems. +You know, some people argue that changing educational administration is like moving graveyards. +You just can't rely on the people out there to help you with this. But PISA has shown what's possible in education. +It has helped countries to see that improvement is possible. +It has taken away excuses from those who are complacent. +And it has helped countries to set meaningful targets in terms of measurable goals achieved by the world's leaders. +If we can help every child, every teacher, every school, every principal, every parent see what improvement is possible, that only the sky is the limit to education improvement, we have laid the foundations for better policies and better lives. +Thank you. +"When the crisis came, the serious limitations of existing economic and financial models immediately became apparent." +"There is also a strong belief, which I share, that bad or oversimplistic and overconfident economics helped create the crisis." +Now, you've probably all heard of similar criticism coming from people who are skeptical of capitalism. +But this is different. +This is coming from the heart of finance. +The first quote is from Jean-Claude Trichet when he was governor of the European Central Bank. +The second quote is from the head of the U.K. Financial Services Authority. +Are these people implying that we don't understand the economic systems that drive our modern societies? +It gets worse. +"We spend billions of dollars trying to understand the origins of the universe while we still don't understand the conditions for a stable society, a functioning economy, or peace." +What's happening here? How can this be possible? +Do we really understand more about the fabric of reality than we do about the fabric which emerges from our human interactions? +Unfortunately, the answer is yes. +But there's an intriguing solution which is coming from what is known as the science of complexity. +To explain what this means and what this thing is, please let me quickly take a couple of steps back. +I ended up in physics by accident. +It was a random encounter when I was young, and since then, I've often wondered about the amazing success of physics in describing the reality we wake up in every day. +In a nutshell, you can think of physics as follows. +So you take a chunk of reality you want to understand and you translate it into mathematics. +You encode it into equations. +Then predictions can be made and tested. +We're actually really lucky that this works, because no one really knows why the thoughts in our heads should actually relate to the fundamental workings of the universe. +Despite the success, physics has its limits. +As Dirk Helbing pointed out in the last quote, we don't really understand the complexity that relates to us, that surrounds us. +This paradox is what got me interested in complex systems. +So these are systems which are made up of many interconnected or interacting parts: swarms of birds or fish, ant colonies, ecosystems, brains, financial markets. +These are just a few examples. +Interestingly, complex systems are very hard to map into mathematical equations, so the usual physics approach doesn't really work here. +So what do we know about complex systems? +Well, it turns out that what looks like complex behavior from the outside is actually the result of a few simple rules of interaction. +This means you can forget about the equations and just start to understand the system by looking at the interactions, so you can actually forget about the equations and you just start to look at the interactions. +And it gets even better, because most complex systems have this amazing property called emergence. +So this means that the system as a whole suddenly starts to show a behavior which cannot be understood or predicted by looking at the components of the system. +So the whole is literally more than the sum of its parts. +And all of this also means that you can forget about the individual parts of the system, how complex they are. +So if it's a cell or a termite or a bird, you just focus on the rules of interaction. +As a result, networks are ideal representations of complex systems. +The nodes in the network are the system's components and the links are given by the interactions. +So what equations are for physics, complex networks are for the study of complex systems. +This approach has been very successfully applied to many complex systems in physics, biology, computer science, the social sciences, but what about economics? +Where are economic networks? +This is a surprising and prominent gap in the literature. +The study we published last year called "The Network of Global Corporate Control" was the first extensive analysis of economic networks. +The study went viral on the Internet and it attracted a lot of attention from the international media. +This is quite remarkable, because, again, why did no one look at this before? +Similar data has been around for quite some time. +What we looked at in detail was ownership networks. +So here the nodes are companies, people, governments, foundations, etc. +And the links represent the shareholding relations, so Shareholder A has x percent of the shares in Company B. +And we also assign a value to the company given by the operating revenue. +So ownership networks reveal the patterns of shareholding relations. +In this little example, you can see a few financial institutions with some of the many links highlighted. +Now you may think that no one's looked at this before because ownership networks are really, really boring to study. +Well, as ownership is related to control, as I shall explain later, looking at ownership networks actually can give you answers to questions like, who are the key players? +How are they organized? Are they isolated? +Are they interconnected? +And what is the overall distribution of control? +In other words, who controls the world? +I think this is an interesting question. +And it has implications for systemic risk. +This is a measure of how vulnerable a system is overall. +A high degree of interconnectivity can be bad for stability, because then the stress can spread through the system like an epidemic. +Scientists have sometimes criticized economists who believe ideas and concepts are more important than empirical data, because a foundational guideline in science is: Let the data speak. Okay. Let's do that. +So we started with a database containing 13 million ownership relations from 2007. +This is a lot of data, and because we wanted to find out who rules the world, we decided to focus on transnational corporations, or TNCs for short. +These are companies that operate in more than one country, and we found 43,000. +In the next step, we built the network around these companies, so we took all the TNCs' shareholders, and the shareholders' shareholders, etc., all the way upstream, and we did the same downstream, and ended up with a network containing 600,000 nodes and one million links. +This is the TNC network which we analyzed. +And it turns out to be structured as follows. +So you have a periphery and a center which contains about 75 percent of all the players, and in the center there's this tiny but dominant core which is made up of highly interconnected companies. +To give you a better picture, think about a metropolitan area. +So you have the suburbs and the periphery, you have a center like a financial district, then the core will be something like the tallest high rise building in the center. +And we already see signs of organization going on here. +Thirty-six percent of the TNCs are in the core only, but they make up 95 percent of the total operating revenue of all TNCs. +Okay, so now we analyzed the structure, so how does this relate to the control? +Well, ownership gives voting rights to shareholders. +This is the normal notion of control. +And there are different models which allow you to compute the control you get from ownership. +If you have more than 50 percent of the shares in a company, you get control, but usually it depends on the relative distribution of shares. +And the network really matters. +About 10 years ago, Mr. Tronchetti Provera had ownership and control in a small company, which had ownership and control in a bigger company. +You get the idea. +This ended up giving him control in Telecom Italia with a leverage of 26. +So this means that, with each euro he invested, he was able to move 26 euros of market value through the chain of ownership relations. +Now what we actually computed in our study was the control over the TNCs' value. +This allowed us to assign a degree of influence to each shareholder. +This is very much in the sense of Max Weber's idea of potential power, which is the probability of imposing one's own will despite the opposition of others. +If you want to compute the flow in an ownership network, this is what you have to do. +It's actually not that hard to understand. +Let me explain by giving you this analogy. +So think about water flowing in pipes where the pipes have different thickness. +So similarly, the control is flowing in the ownership networks and is accumulating at the nodes. +So what did we find after computing all this network control? +Well, it turns out that the 737 top shareholders have the potential to collectively control 80 percent of the TNCs' value. +Now remember, we started out with 600,000 nodes, so these 737 top players make up a bit more than 0.1 percent. +They're mostly financial institutions in the U.S. and the U.K. +And it gets even more extreme. +There are 146 top players in the core, and they together have the potential to collectively control 40 percent of the TNCs' value. +What should you take home from all of this? +Well, the high degree of control you saw is very extreme by any standard. +The high degree of interconnectivity of the top players in the core could pose a significant systemic risk to the global economy and we could easily reproduce the TNC network with a few simple rules. +This means that its structure is probably the result of self-organization. +It's an emergent property which depends on the rules of interaction in the system, so it's probably not the result of a top-down approach like a global conspiracy. +Our study "is an impression of the moon's surface. +It's not a street map." +So you should take the exact numbers in our study with a grain of salt, yet it "gave us a tantalizing glimpse of a brave new world of finance." +We hope to have opened the door for more such research in this direction, so the remaining unknown terrain will be charted in the future. +And this is slowly starting. +We're seeing the emergence of long-term and highly-funded programs which aim at understanding our networked world from a complexity point of view. +But this journey has only just begun, so we will have to wait before we see the first results. +Now there is still a big problem, in my opinion. +Ideas relating to finance, economics, politics, society, are very often tainted by people's personal ideologies. +I really hope that this complexity perspective allows for some common ground to be found. +It would be really great if it has the power to help end the gridlock created by conflicting ideas, which appears to be paralyzing our globalized world. +Reality is so complex, we need to move away from dogma. +But this is just my own personal ideology. +Thank you. +So, why does good sex so often fade, even for couples who continue to love each other as much as ever? +And why does good intimacy not guarantee good sex, contrary to popular belief? +Or, the next question would be, can we want what we already have? +That's the million-dollar question, right? +And why is the forbidden so erotic? +What is it about transgression that makes desire so potent? +And why does sex make babies, and babies spell erotic disaster in couples? +It's kind of the fatal erotic blow, isn't it? +And when you love, how does it feel? +And when you desire, how is it different? +These are some of the questions that are at the center of my exploration on the nature of erotic desire and its concomitant dilemmas in modern love. +So I travel the globe, and what I'm noticing is that everywhere where romanticism has entered, there seems to be a crisis of desire. +A crisis of desire, as in owning the wanting -- desire as an expression of our individuality, of our free choice, of our preferences, of our identity -- desire that has become a central concept as part of modern love and individualistic societies. +You know, this is the first time in the history of humankind where we are trying to experience sexuality in the long term not because we want 14 children, for which we need to have even more because many of them won't make it, and not because it is exclusively a woman's marital duty. +This is the first time that we want sex over time about pleasure and connection that is rooted in desire. +So what sustains desire, and why is it so difficult? +And at the heart of sustaining desire in a committed relationship, I think, is the reconciliation of two fundamental human needs. +On the one hand, our need for security, for predictability, for safety, for dependability, All these anchoring, grounding experiences of our lives that we call home. +But we also have an equally strong need -- men and women -- for adventure, for novelty, for mystery, for risk, for danger, for the unknown, for the unexpected, surprise -- you get the gist. For journey, for travel. +So reconciling our need for security and our need for adventure into one relationship, or what we today like to call a passionate marriage, used to be a contradiction in terms. +Marriage was an economic institution in which you were given a partnership for life in terms of children and social status and succession and companionship. +But now we want our partner to still give us all these things, but in addition I want you to be my best friend and my trusted confidant and my passionate lover to boot, and we live twice as long. +So we come to one person, and we basically are asking them to give us what once an entire village used to provide. +Give me belonging, give me identity, give me continuity, but give me transcendence and mystery and awe all in one. +Give me comfort, give me edge. +Give me novelty, give me familiarity. +Give me predictability, give me surprise. +And we think it's a given, and toys and lingerie are going to save us with that. +So now we get to the existential reality of the story, right? +Because I think, in some way -- and I'll come back to that -- but the crisis of desire is often a crisis of the imagination. +So why does good sex so often fade? +What is the relationship between love and desire? +How do they relate, and how do they conflict? +Because therein lies the mystery of eroticism. +So if there is a verb, for me, that comes with love, it's "to have." +And if there is a verb that comes with desire, it is "to want." +In love, we want to have, we want to know the beloved. +We want to minimize the distance. We want to contract that gap. +We want to neutralize the tensions. We want closeness. +But in desire, we tend to not really want to go back to the places we've already gone. +Forgone conclusion does not keep our interest. +In desire, we want an Other, somebody on the other side that we can go visit, that we can go spend some time with, that we can go see what goes on in their red-light district. +In desire, we want a bridge to cross. +Or in other words, I sometimes say, fire needs air. +Desire needs space. +And when it's said like that, it's often quite abstract. +But then I took a question with me. +And I've gone to more than 20 countries in the last few years with "Mating in Captivity," and I asked people, when do you find yourself most drawn to your partner? +Not attracted sexually, per Se, but most drawn. +And across culture, across religion, and across gender -- except for one -- there are a few answers that just keep coming back. +So the first group is: I am most drawn to my partner when she is away, when we are apart, when we reunite. +Basically, when I get back in touch with my ability to imagine myself with my partner, when my imagination comes back in the picture, and when I can root it in absence and in longing, which is a major component of desire. +But then the second group is even more interesting. +I am most drawn to my partner when I see him in the studio, when she is onstage, when he is in his element, when she's doing something she's passionate about, when I see him at a party and other people are really drawn to him, when I see her hold court. +Basically, when I look at my partner radiant and confident. +Probably the biggest turn-on across the board. +Radiant, as in self-sustaining. +I look at this person -- by the way, in desire people rarely talk about it, when we are blended into one, five centimeters from each other. I don't know in inches how much that is. +But it's also not when the other person is that far apart that you no longer see them. +It's when I'm looking at my partner from a comfortable distance, where this person that is already so familiar, so known, is momentarily once again somewhat mysterious, somewhat elusive. +And in this space between me and the other lies the erotic lan, lies that movement toward the other. +Because sometimes, as Proust says, mystery is not about traveling to new places, but it's about looking with new eyes. +And so, when I see my partner on his own or her own, doing something in which they are enveloped, I look at this person and I momentarily get a shift in perception, and I stay open to the mysteries that are living right next to me. +And then, more importantly, in this description about the other or myself -- it's the same -- what is most interesting is that there is no neediness in desire. +Nobody needs anybody. +There is no caretaking in desire. +Caretaking is mightily loving. It's a powerful anti-aphrodisiac. +I have yet to see somebody who is so turned on by somebody who needs them. +Wanting them is one thing. Needing them is a shot down and women have known that forever, because anything that will bring up parenthood will usually decrease the erotic charge. +For good reasons, right? +And then the third group of answers usually would be: when I'm surprised, when we laugh together, as somebody said to me in the office today, when he's in his tux, so I said, you know, it's either the tux or the cowboy boots. +But basically it's when there is novelty. +But novelty isn't about new positions. +It isn't a repertoire of techniques. +Novelty is, what parts of you do you bring out? +What parts of you are just being seen? +Because in some way one could say sex isn't something you do, eh? +Sex is a place you go. It's a space you enter inside yourself and with another, or others. +So where do you go in sex? +What parts of you do you connect to? +What do you seek to express there? +Is it a place for transcendence and spiritual union? +Is it a place for naughtiness and is it a place to be safely aggressive? +Is it a place where you can finally surrender and not have to take responsibility for everything? +Is it a place where you can express your infantile wishes? +What comes out there? It's a language. +It isn't just a behavior. +And it's the poetic of that language that I'm interested in, which is why I began to explore this concept of erotic intelligence. +You know, animals have sex. +It's the pivot, it's biology, it's the natural instinct. +We are the only ones who have an erotic life, which means that it's sexuality transformed by the human imagination. +We are the only ones who can make love for hours, have a blissful time, multiple orgasms, and touch nobody, just because we can imagine it. +We can hint at it. We don't even have to do it. +We can experience that powerful thing called anticipation, which is a mortar to desire. +The ability to imagine it, as if it's happening, to experience it as if it's happening, while nothing is happening and everything is happening, at the same time. +So when I began to think about eroticism, I began to think about the poetics of sex. +And if I look at it as an intelligence, then it's something that you cultivate. +What are the ingredients? Imagination, playfulness, novelty, curiosity, mystery. +But the central agent is really that piece called the imagination. +And those who didn't die lived often very tethered to the ground, could not experience pleasure, could not trust, because when you're vigilant, worried, anxious, and insecure, you can't lift your head to go and take off in space and be playful and safe and imaginative. +Those who came back to life were those who understood the erotic as an antidote to death. +They knew how to keep themselves alive. +And so I began to ask a different question. +"I shut myself off when ..." began to be the question. +"I turn off my desires when ..." Which is not the same question as, "What turns me off is ..." and "You turn me off when ..." +And then I began to ask the reverse question. +"I turn myself on when ..." +Because most of the time, people like to ask the question, "You turn me on, what turns me on," and I'm out of the question, you know? +Now, if you are dead inside, the other person can do a lot of things for Valentine's. +It won't make a dent. There is nobody at the reception desk. +So I turn myself on when, I turn on my desires, I wake up when ... +Now, in this paradox between love and desire, what seems to be so puzzling is that the very ingredients that nurture love -- mutuality, reciprocity, protection, worry, responsibility for the other -- are sometimes the very ingredients that stifle desire. +Because desire comes with a host of feelings that are not always such favorites of love: jealousy, possessiveness, aggression, power, dominance, naughtiness, mischief. +Basically most of us will get turned on at night by the very same things that we will demonstrate against during the day. +You know, the erotic mind is not very politically correct. +If everybody was fantasizing on a bed of roses, we wouldn't be having such interesting talks about this. +So I want to draw that little image for you, because this need to reconcile these two sets of needs, we are born with that. +That's the beginning of desire, that exploratory need, curiosity, discovery. +And then at some point they turn around and they look at you. +And if you tell them, "Hey kiddo, the world's a great place. +Go for it. There's so much fun out there," then they can turn away and they can experience connection and separateness at the same time. +They can go off in their imagination, off in their body, off in their playfulness, all the while knowing that there's somebody when they come back. +But if on this side there is somebody who says, "I'm worried. I'm anxious. I'm depressed. +My partner hasn't taken care of me in so long. +What's so good out there? +Don't we have everything you need together, you and I?" +then there are a few little reactions that all of us can pretty much recognize. +Some of us will come back, came back a long time ago, and that little child who comes back is the child who will forgo a part of himself in order not to lose the other. +I will lose my freedom in order not to lose connection. +And I will learn to love in a certain way that will become burdened with extra worry and extra responsibility and extra protection, and I won't know how to leave you in order to go play, in order to go experience pleasure, in order to discover, to enter inside myself. +Translate this into adult language. +It starts very young. +It continues into our sex lives up to the end. +Child number two comes back but looks like that over their shoulder all the time. +"Are you going to be there? +Are you going to curse me, scold me? +Are you going to be angry with me?" +And they may be gone, but they're never really away. +And those are often the people that will tell you, "In the beginning, it was super hot." +Because in the beginning, the growing intimacy wasn't yet so strong that it actually led to the decrease of desire. +The more connected I became, the more responsible I felt, the less I was able to let go in your presence. +The third child doesn't really come back. +So what happens, if you want to sustain desire, it's that real dialectic piece. +On the one hand you want the security in order to be able to go. +On the other hand if you can't go, you can't have pleasure, you can't culminate, you don't have an orgasm, you don't get excited because you spend your time in the body and the head of the other and not in your own. +So in this dilemma about reconciling these two sets of fundamental needs, there are a few things that I've come to understand erotic couples do. +One, they have a lot of sexual privacy. +They understand that there is an erotic space that belongs to each of them. +They also understand that foreplay is not something you do five minutes before the real thing. +Foreplay pretty much starts at the end of the previous orgasm. +They also understand that an erotic space isn't about, you begin to stroke the other. +It's about you create a space where you leave Management Inc., maybe where you leave the Agile program -- And you actually just enter that place where you stop being the good citizen who is taking care of things and being responsible. +Responsibility and desire just butt heads. +They don't really do well together. +Erotic couples also understand that passion waxes and wanes. +It's pretty much like the moon. It has intermittent eclipses. +But what they know is they know how to resurrect it. +They know how to bring it back. +Committed sex is premeditated sex. +It's willful. It's intentional. +It's focus and presence. +Merry Valentine's. +The global economic financial crisis has reignited public interest in something that's actually one of the oldest questions in economics, dating back to at least before Adam Smith. +And that is, why is it that countries with seemingly similar economies and institutions can display radically different savings behavior? +Now, many brilliant economists have spent their entire lives working on this question, and as a field we've made a tremendous amount of headway and we understand a lot about this. +What I'm here to talk with you about today is an intriguing new hypothesis and some surprisingly powerful new findings that I've been working on about the link between the structure of the language you speak and how you find yourself with the propensity to save. +Let me tell you a little bit about savings rates, a little bit about language, and then I'll draw that connection. +Let's start by thinking about the member countries of the OECD, or the Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development. +OECD countries, by and large, you should think about these as the richest, most industrialized countries in the world. +And by joining the OECD, they were affirming a common commitment to democracy, open markets and free trade. +Despite all of these similarities, we see huge differences in savings behavior. +So all the way over on the left of this graph, what you see is many OECD countries saving over a quarter of their GDP every year, and some OECD countries saving over a third of their GDP per year. +Holding down the right flank of the OECD, all the way on the other side, is Greece. +And what you can see is that over the last 25 years, Greece has barely managed to save more than 10 percent of their GDP. +It should be noted, of course, that the United States and the U.K. are the next in line. +Now that we see these huge differences in savings rates, how is it possible that language might have something to do with these differences? +Let me tell you a little bit about how languages fundamentally differ. +Linguists and cognitive scientists have been exploring this question for many years now. +And then I'll draw the connection between these two behaviors. +Many of you have probably already noticed that I'm Chinese. +I grew up in the Midwest of the United States. +And something I realized quite early on was that the Chinese language forced me to speak about and -- in fact, more fundamentally than that -- ever so slightly forced me to think about family in very different ways. +Now, how might that be? Let me give you an example. +Suppose I were talking with you and I was introducing you to my uncle. +You understood exactly what I just said in English. +If we were speaking Mandarin Chinese with each other, though, I wouldn't have that luxury. +I wouldn't have been able to convey so little information. +What my language would have forced me to do, instead of just telling you, "This is my uncle," is to tell you a tremendous amount of additional information. +My language would force me to tell you whether or not this was an uncle on my mother's side or my father's side, whether this was an uncle by marriage or by birth, and if this man was my father's brother, whether he was older than or younger than my father. +All of this information is obligatory. Chinese doesn't let me ignore it. +And in fact, if I want to speak correctly, Chinese forces me to constantly think about it. +Now, that fascinated me endlessly as a child, but what fascinates me even more today as an economist is that some of these same differences carry through to how languages speak about time. +So for example, if I'm speaking in English, I have to speak grammatically differently if I'm talking about past rain, "It rained yesterday," current rain, "It is raining now," or future rain, "It will rain tomorrow." +Notice that English requires a lot more information with respect to the timing of events. +Why? Because I have to consider that and I have to modify what I'm saying to say, "It will rain," or "It's going to rain." +It's simply not permissible in English to say, "It rain tomorrow." +In contrast to that, that's almost exactly what you would say in Chinese. +A Chinese speaker can basically say something that sounds very strange to an English speaker's ears. +They can say, "Yesterday it rain," "Now it rain," "Tomorrow it rain." +In some deep sense, Chinese doesn't divide up the time spectrum in the same way that English forces us to constantly do in order to speak correctly. +Is this difference in languages only between very, very distantly related languages, like English and Chinese? +Actually, no. +So many of you know, in this room, that English is a Germanic language. +What you may not have realized is that English is actually an outlier. +It is the only Germanic language that requires this. +For example, most other Germanic language speakers feel completely comfortable talking about rain tomorrow by saying, "Morgen regnet es," quite literally to an English ear, "It rain tomorrow." +This led me, as a behavioral economist, to an intriguing hypothesis. +Could how you speak about time, could how your language forces you to think about time, affect your propensity to behave across time? +You speak English, a futured language. +And what that means is that every time you discuss the future, or any kind of a future event, grammatically you're forced to cleave that from the present and treat it as if it's something viscerally different. +Now suppose that that visceral difference makes you subtly dissociate the future from the present every time you speak. +If that's true and it makes the future feel like something more distant and more different from the present, that's going to make it harder to save. +If, on the other hand, you speak a futureless language, the present and the future, you speak about them identically. +If that subtly nudges you to feel about them identically, that's going to make it easier to save. +Now this is a fanciful theory. +I'm a professor, I get paid to have fanciful theories. +But how would you actually go about testing such a theory? +Well, what I did with that was to access the linguistics literature. +And interestingly enough, there are pockets of futureless language speakers situated all over the world. +This is a pocket of futureless language speakers in Northern Europe. +Interestingly enough, when you start to crank the data, these pockets of futureless language speakers all around the world turn out to be, by and large, some of the world's best savers. +Just to give you a hint of that, let's look back at that OECD graph that we were talking about. +What you see is that these bars are systematically taller and systematically shifted to the left compared to these bars which are the members of the OECD that speak futured languages. +What is the average difference here? +Five percentage points of your GDP saved per year. +Over 25 years that has huge long-run effects on the wealth of your nation. +Now while these findings are suggestive, countries can be different in so many different ways that it's very, very difficult sometimes to account for all of these possible differences. +What I'm going to show you, though, is something that I've been engaging in for a year, which is trying to gather all of the largest datasets that we have access to as economists, and I'm going to try and strip away all of those possible differences, hoping to get this relationship to break. +And just in summary, no matter how far I push this, I can't get it to break. +Let me show you how far you can do that. +One way to imagine that is I gather large datasets from around the world. +So for example, there is the Survey of Health, [Aging] and Retirement in Europe. +From this dataset you actually learn that retired European families are extremely patient with survey takers. +So imagine that you're a retired household in Belgium and someone comes to your front door. +"Excuse me, would you mind if I peruse your stock portfolio? +Do you happen to know how much your house is worth? Do you mind telling me? +Would you happen to have a hallway that's more than 10 meters long? +If you do, would you mind if I timed how long it took you to walk down that hallway? +Would you mind squeezing as hard as you can, in your dominant hand, this device so I can measure your grip strength? +How about blowing into this tube so I can measure your lung capacity?" +The survey takes over a day. +Combine that with a Demographic and Health Survey collected by USAID in developing countries in Africa, for example, which that survey actually can go so far as to directly measure the HIV status of families living in, for example, rural Nigeria. +Combine that with a world value survey, which measures the political opinions and, fortunately for me, the savings behaviors of millions of families in hundreds of countries around the world. +Take all of that data, combine it, and this map is what you get. +What you find is nine countries around the world that have significant native populations which speak both futureless and futured languages. +And what I'm going to do is form statistical matched pairs between families that are nearly identical on every dimension that I can measure, and then I'm going to explore whether or not the link between language and savings holds even after controlling for all of these levels. +What are the characteristics we can control for? +Well I'm going to match families on country of birth and residence, the demographics -- what sex, their age -- their income level within their own country, their educational achievement, a lot about their family structure. +It turns out there are six different ways to be married in Europe. +And most granularly, I break them down by religion where there are 72 categories of religions in the world -- so an extreme level of granularity. +There are 1.4 billion different ways that a family can find itself. +Now effectively everything I'm going to tell you from now on is only comparing these basically nearly identical families. +Now even after all of this granular level of control, do futureless language speakers seem to save more? +Yes, futureless language speakers, even after this level of control, are 30 percent more likely to report having saved in any given year. +Does this have cumulative effects? +Yes, by the time they retire, futureless language speakers, holding constant their income, are going to retire with 25 percent more in savings. +Can we push this data even further? +Yes, because I just told you, we actually collect a lot of health data as economists. +Now how can we think about health behaviors to think about savings? +Well, think about smoking, for example. +Smoking is in some deep sense negative savings. +If savings is current pain in exchange for future pleasure, smoking is just the opposite. +It's current pleasure in exchange for future pain. +What we should expect then is the opposite effect. +And that's exactly what we find. +I could go on and on with the list of differences that you can find. +It's almost impossible not to find a savings behavior for which this strong effect isn't present. +My linguistics and economics colleagues at Yale and I are just starting to do this work and really explore and understand the ways that these subtle nudges cause us to think more or less about the future every single time we speak. +Ultimately, the goal, once we understand how these subtle effects can change our decision making, we want to be able to provide people tools so that they can consciously make themselves better savers and more conscious investors in their own future. +Thank you very much. +The kind of neuroscience that I do and my colleagues do is almost like the weatherman. +We are always chasing storms. +We want to see and measure storms -- brainstorms, that is. +And we all talk about brainstorms in our daily lives, but we rarely see or listen to one. +So I always like to start these talks by actually introducing you to one of them. +Actually, the first time we recorded more than one neuron -- a hundred brain cells simultaneously -- we could measure the electrical sparks of a hundred cells in the same animal, this is the first image we got, the first 10 seconds of this recording. +So we got a little snippet of a thought, and we could see it in front of us. +I always tell the students that we could also call neuroscientists some sort of astronomer, because we are dealing with a system that is only comparable in terms of number of cells to the number of galaxies that we have in the universe. +And here we are, out of billions of neurons, just recording, 10 years ago, a hundred. +We are doing a thousand now. +And we hope to understand something fundamental about our human nature. +Because, if you don't know yet, everything that we use to define what human nature is comes from these storms, comes from these storms that roll over the hills and valleys of our brains and define our memories, our beliefs, our feelings, our plans for the future. +Everything that we ever do, everything that every human has ever done, do or will do, requires the toil of populations of neurons producing these kinds of storms. +And the sound of a brainstorm, if you've never heard one, is somewhat like this. +You can put it louder if you can. +My son calls this "making popcorn while listening to a badly-tuned A.M. station." +This is a brain. +This is what happens when you route these electrical storms to a loudspeaker and you listen to a hundred brain cells firing, your brain will sound like this -- my brain, any brain. +And what we want to do as neuroscientists in this time is to actually listen to these symphonies, these brain symphonies, and try to extract from them the messages they carry. +In particular, about 12 years ago we created a preparation that we named brain-machine interfaces. +And you have a scheme here that describes how it works. +And see if we can measure how well we can translate that message when we compare to the way the body does that. +And if we can actually provide feedback, sensory signals that go back from this robotic, mechanical, computational actuator that is now under the control of the brain, back to the brain, how the brain deals with that, of receiving messages from an artificial piece of machinery. +And that's exactly what we did 10 years ago. +We started with a superstar monkey called Aurora that became one of the superstars of this field. +And Aurora liked to play video games. +As you can see here, she likes to use a joystick, like any one of us, any of our kids, to play this game. +And as a good primate, she even tries to cheat before she gets the right answer. +So even before a target appears that she's supposed to cross with the cursor that she's controlling with this joystick, Aurora is trying to find the target, no matter where it is. +And if she's doing that, because every time she crosses that target with the little cursor, she gets a drop of Brazilian orange juice. +And I can tell you, any monkey will do anything for you if you get a little drop of Brazilian orange juice. +Actually any primate will do that. +Think about that. +Well, while Aurora was playing this game, as you saw, and doing a thousand trials a day and getting 97 percent correct and 350 milliliters of orange juice, we are recording the brainstorms that are produced in her head and sending them to a robotic arm that was learning to reproduce the movements that Aurora was making. +Because the idea was to actually turn on this brain-machine interface and have Aurora play the game just by thinking, without interference of her body. +Her brainstorms would control an arm that would move the cursor and cross the target. +And to our shock, that's exactly what Aurora did. +She played the game without moving her body. +So every trajectory that you see of the cursor now, this is the exact first moment she got that. +That's the exact first moment a brain intention was liberated from the physical domains of a body of a primate and could act outside, in that outside world, just by controlling an artificial device. +And Aurora kept playing the game, kept finding the little target and getting the orange juice that she wanted to get, that she craved for. +Well, she did that because she, at that time, had acquired a new arm. +The robotic arm that you see moving here 30 days later, after the first video that I showed to you, is under the control of Aurora's brain and is moving the cursor to get to the target. +And Aurora now knows that she can play the game with this robotic arm, but she has not lost the ability to use her biological arms to do what she pleases. +She can scratch her back, she can scratch one of us, she can play another game. +By all purposes and means, Aurora's brain has incorporated that artificial device as an extension of her body. +The model of the self that Aurora had in her mind has been expanded to get one more arm. +Well, we did that 10 years ago. +Just fast forward 10 years. +Just last year we realized that you don't even need to have a robotic device. +You can just build a computational body, an avatar, a monkey avatar. +And you can actually use it for our monkeys to either interact with them, or you can train them to assume in a virtual world the first-person perspective of that avatar and use her brain activity to control the movements of the avatar's arms or legs. +And what we did basically was to train the animals to learn how to control these avatars and explore objects that appear in the virtual world. +And these objects are visually identical, but when the avatar crosses the surface of these objects, they send an electrical message that is proportional to the microtactile texture of the object that goes back directly to the monkey's brain, informing the brain what it is the avatar is touching. +And in just four weeks, the brain learns to process this new sensation and acquires a new sensory pathway -- like a new sense. +And you truly liberate the brain now because you are allowing the brain to send motor commands to move this avatar. +And the feedback that comes from the avatar is being processed directly by the brain without the interference of the skin. +So what you see here is this is the design of the task. +You're going to see an animal basically touching these three targets. +And he has to select one because only one carries the reward, the orange juice that they want to get. +And he has to select it by touch using a virtual arm, an arm that doesn't exist. +And that's exactly what they do. +This is a complete liberation of the brain from the physical constraints of the body and the motor in a perceptual task. +The animal is controlling the avatar to touch the targets. +And he's sensing the texture by receiving an electrical message directly in the brain. +And the brain is deciding what is the texture associated with the reward. +The legends that you see in the movie don't appear for the monkey. +And by the way, they don't read English anyway, so they are here just for you to know that the correct target is shifting position. +And yet, they can find them by tactile discrimination, and they can press it and select it. +So when we look at the brains of these animals, on the top panel you see the alignment of 125 cells showing what happens with the brain activity, the electrical storms, of this sample of neurons in the brain when the animal is using a joystick. +And that's a picture that every neurophysiologist knows. +The basic alignment shows that these cells are coding for all possible directions. +The bottom picture is what happens when the body stops moving and the animal starts controlling either a robotic device or a computational avatar. +As fast as we can reset our computers, the brain activity shifts to start representing this new tool, as if this too was a part of that primate's body. +The brain is assimilating that too, as fast as we can measure. +So that suggests to us that our sense of self does not end at the last layer of the epithelium of our bodies, but it ends at the last layer of electrons of the tools that we're commanding with our brains. +Our violins, our cars, our bicycles, our soccer balls, our clothing -- they all become assimilated by this voracious, amazing, dynamic system called the brain. +How far can we take it? +Well, in an experiment that we ran a few years ago, we took this to the limit. +We had an animal running on a treadmill at Duke University on the East Coast of the United States, producing the brainstorms necessary to move. +And we had a robotic device, a humanoid robot, in Kyoto, Japan at ATR Laboratories that was dreaming its entire life to be controlled by a brain, a human brain, or a primate brain. +What happens here is that the brain activity that generated the movements in the monkey was transmitted to Japan and made this robot walk while footage of this walking was sent back to Duke, so that the monkey could see the legs of this robot walking in front of her. +So she could be rewarded, not by what her body was doing but for every correct step of the robot on the other side of the planet controlled by her brain activity. +Funny thing, that round trip around the globe took 20 milliseconds less than it takes for that brainstorm to leave its head, the head of the monkey, and reach its own muscle. +The monkey was moving a robot that was six times bigger, across the planet. +This is one of the experiments in which that robot was able to walk autonomously. +This is CB1 fulfilling its dream in Japan under the control of the brain activity of a primate. +So where are we taking all this? +What are we going to do with all this research, besides studying the properties of this dynamic universe that we have between our ears? +Well the idea is to take all this knowledge and technology and try to restore one of the most severe neurological problems that we have in the world. +Millions of people have lost the ability to translate these brainstorms into action, into movement. +Although their brains continue to produce those storms and code for movements, they cannot cross a barrier that was created by a lesion on the spinal cord. +And you can see an image produced by this consortium. +This same mechanism, we hope, will allow these patients, not only to imagine again the movements that they want to make and translate them into movements of this new body, but for this body to be assimilated as the new body that the brain controls. +So I was told about 10 years ago that this would never happen, that this was close to impossible. +And I can only tell you that as a scientist, I grew up in southern Brazil in the mid-'60s watching a few crazy guys telling [us] that they would go to the Moon. +So they told me that it's impossible to make someone walk. +I think I'm going to follow my grandmother's advice. +Thank you. +There's a group of people in Kenya. +People cross oceans to go see them. +These people are tall. +They jump high. They wear red. +And they kill lions. +You might be wondering, who are these people? +These are the Maasais. +And you know what's cool? I'm actually one of them. +The Maasais, the boys are brought up to be warriors. +The girls are brought up to be mothers. +When I was five years old, I found out that I was engaged to be married as soon as I reached puberty. +My mother, my grandmother, my aunties, they constantly reminded me that your husband just passed by. +Cool, yeah? +And everything I had to do from that moment was to prepare me to be a perfect woman at age 12. +My day started at 5 in the morning, milking the cows, sweeping the house, cooking for my siblings, collecting water, firewood. +I did everything that I needed to do to become a perfect wife. +I went to school not because the Maasais' women or girls were going to school. +It's because my mother was denied an education, and she constantly reminded me and my siblings that she never wanted us to live the life she was living. +Why did she say that? +My father worked as a policeman in the city. +He came home once a year. +We didn't see him for sometimes even two years. +And whenever he came home, it was a different case. +My mother worked hard in the farm to grow crops so that we can eat. +She reared the cows and the goats so that she can care for us. +But when my father came, he would sell the cows, he would sell the products we had, and he went and drank with his friends in the bars. +Because my mother was a woman, she was not allowed to own any property, and by default, everything in my family anyway belongs to my father, so he had the right. +And if my mother ever questioned him, he beat her, abused her, and really it was difficult. +When I went to school, I had a dream. +I wanted to become a teacher. +Teachers looked nice. +They wear nice dresses, high-heeled shoes. +I found out later that they are uncomfortable, but I admired it. +But most of all, the teacher was just writing on the board -- not hard work, that's what I thought, compared to what I was doing in the farm. +So I wanted to become a teacher. +I worked hard in school, but when I was in eighth grade, it was a determining factor. +In our tradition, there is a ceremony that girls have to undergo to become women, and it's a rite of passage to womanhood. +And then I was just finishing my eighth grade, and that was a transition for me to go to high school. +This was the crossroad. +Once I go through this tradition, I was going to become a wife. +Well, my dream of becoming a teacher will not come to pass. +So I talked -- I had to come up with a plan to figure these things out. +I talked to my father. I did something that most girls have never done. +I told my father, "I will only go through this ceremony if you let me go back to school." +The reason why, if I ran away, my father will have a stigma, people will be calling him the father of that girl who didn't go through the ceremony. +It was a shameful thing for him to carry the rest of his life. +So he figured out. "Well," he said, "okay, you'll go to school after the ceremony." +I did. The ceremony happened. +It's a whole week long of excitement. +It's a ceremony. People are enjoying it. +And the day before the actual ceremony happens, we were dancing, having excitement, and through all the night we did not sleep. +The actual day came, and we walked out of the house that we were dancing in. Yes, we danced and danced. +We walked out to the courtyard, and there were a bunch of people waiting. +They were all in a circle. +And as we danced and danced, and we approached this circle of women, men, women, children, everybody was there. +There was a woman sitting in the middle of it, and this woman was waiting to hold us. +I was the first. There were my sisters and a couple of other girls, and as I approached her, she looked at me, and I sat down. +And I sat down, and I opened my legs. +As I opened my leg, another woman came, and this woman was carrying a knife. +And as she carried the knife, she walked toward me and she held the clitoris, and she cut it off. +As you can imagine, I bled. I bled. +After bleeding for a while, I fainted thereafter. +It's something that so many girls -- I'm lucky, I never died -- but many die. +It's practiced, it's no anesthesia, it's a rusty old knife, and it was difficult. +I was lucky because one, also, my mom did something that most women don't do. +Three days later, after everybody has left the home, my mom went and brought a nurse. +We were taken care of. +Three weeks later, I was healed, and I was back in high school. +I was so determined to be a teacher now so that I could make a difference in my family. +Well, while I was in high school, something happened. +I met a young gentleman from our village who had been to the University of Oregon. +This man was wearing a white t-shirt, jeans, camera, white sneakers -- and I'm talking about white sneakers. +There is something about clothes, I think, and shoes. +They were sneakers, and this is in a village that doesn't even have paved roads. It was quite attractive. +I told him, "Well, I want to go to where you are," because this man looked very happy, and I admired that. +And he told me, "Well, what do you mean, you want to go? +Don't you have a husband waiting for you?" +And I told him, "Don't worry about that part. +Just tell me how to get there." +This gentleman, he helped me. +While I was in high school also, my dad was sick. +He got a stroke, and he was really, really sick, so he really couldn't tell me what to do next. +But the problem is, my father is not the only father I have. +Everybody who is my dad's age, male in the community, is my father by default -- my uncles, all of them -- and they dictate what my future is. +So the news came, I applied to school and I was accepted to Randolph-Macon Woman's College in Lynchburg, Virginia, and I couldn't come without the support of the village, because I needed to raise money to buy the air ticket. +I got a scholarship but I needed to get myself here. +But I needed the support of the village, and here again, when the men heard, and the people heard that a woman had gotten an opportunity to go to school, they said, "What a lost opportunity. +This should have been given to a boy. We can't do this." +So I went back and I had to go back to the tradition. +There's a belief among our people that morning brings good news. +So I had to come up with something to do with the morning, because there's good news in the morning. +And in the village also, there is one chief, an elder, who if he says yes, everybody will follow him. +So I went to him very early in the morning, as the sun rose. +The first thing he sees when he opens his door is, it's me. +"My child, what are you doing here?" +"Well, Dad, I need help. Can you support me to go to America?" +I promised him that I would be the best girl, I will come back, anything they wanted after that, I will do it for them. +He said, "Well, but I can't do it alone." +He gave me a list of another 15 men that I went -- 16 more men -- every single morning I went and visited them. +They all came together. +The village, the women, the men, everybody came together to support me to come to get an education. +I arrived in America. As you can imagine, what did I find? +I found snow! +I found Wal-Marts, vacuum cleaners, and lots of food in the cafeteria. +I was in a land of plenty. +I enjoyed myself, but during that moment while I was here, I discovered a lot of things. +I learned that that ceremony that I went through when I was 13 years old, it was called female genital mutilation. +I learned that it was against the law in Kenya. +I learned that I did not have to trade part of my body to get an education. I had a right. +And as we speak right now, three million girls in Africa are at risk of going through this mutilation. +I learned that my mom had a right to own property. +I learned that she did not have to be abused because she is a woman. +Those things made me angry. +I wanted to do something. +As I went back, every time I went, I found that my neighbors' girls were getting married. +They were getting mutilated, and here, after I graduated from here, I worked at the U.N., I went back to school to get my graduate work, the constant cry of these girls was in my face. +I had to do something. +As I went back, I started talking to the men, to the village, and mothers, and I said, "I want to give back the way I had promised you that I would come back and help you. What do you need?" +As I spoke to the women, they told me, "You know what we need? We really need a school for girls." +Because there had not been any school for girls. +And the reason they wanted the school for girls is because when a girl is raped when she's walking to school, the mother is blamed for that. +If she got pregnant before she got married, the mother is blamed for that, and she's punished. +She's beaten. +They said, "We wanted to put our girls in a safe place." +As we moved, and I went to talk to the fathers, the fathers, of course, you can imagine what they said: "We want a school for boys." +And I said, "Well, there are a couple of men from my village who have been out and they have gotten an education. +Why can't they build a school for boys, and I'll build a school for girls?" +That made sense. And they agreed. +And I told them, I wanted them to show me a sign of commitment. +And they did. They donated land where we built the girls' school. +We have. +I want you to meet one of the girls in that school. +Angeline came to apply for the school, and she did not meet any criteria that we had. +She's an orphan. Yes, we could have taken her for that. +But she was older. She was 12 years old, and we were taking girls who were in fourth grade. +Angeline had been moving from one place -- because she's an orphan, she has no mother, she has no father -- moving from one grandmother's house to another one, from aunties to aunties. She had no stability in her life. +And I looked at her, I remember that day, and I saw something beyond what I was seeing in Angeline. +And yes, she was older to be in fourth grade. +We gave her the opportunity to come to the class. +Five months later, that is Angeline. +A transformation had begun in her life. +Angeline wants to be a pilot so she can fly around the world and make a difference. +She was not the top student when we took her. +Now she's the best student, not just in our school, but in the entire division that we are in. +That's Sharon. That's five years later. +That's Evelyn. Five months later, that is the difference that we are making. +As a new dawn is happening in my school, a new beginning is happening. +As we speak right now, 125 girls will never be mutilated. +One hundred twenty-five girls will not be married when they're 12 years old. +One hundred twenty-five girls are creating and achieving their dreams. +This is the thing that we are doing, giving them opportunities where they can rise. +As we speak right now, women are not being beaten because of the revolutions we've started in our community. +I want to challenge you today. +You are listening to me because you are here, very optimistic. +You are somebody who is so passionate. +You are somebody who wants to see a better world. +You are somebody who wants to see that war ends, no poverty. +You are somebody who wants to make a difference. +You are somebody who wants to make our tomorrow better. +I want to challenge you today that to be the first, because people will follow you. +Be the first. People will follow you. +Be bold. Stand up. Be fearless. Be confident. +Move out, because as you change your world, as you change your community, as we believe that we are impacting one girl, one family, one village, one country at a time. +We are making a difference, so if you change your world, you are going to change your community, you are going to change your country, and think about that. If you do that, and I do that, aren't we going to create a better future for our children, for your children, for our grandchildren? +And we will live in a very peaceful world. Thank you very much. +I grew up watching Star Trek. I love Star Trek. +Star Trek made me want to see alien creatures, creatures from a far-distant world. +But basically, I figured out that I could find those alien creatures right on Earth. +And what I do is I study insects. +I'm obsessed with insects, particularly insect flight. +I think the evolution of insect flight is perhaps one of the most important events in the history of life. +Without insects, there'd be no flowering plants. +Without flowering plants, there would be no clever, fruit-eating primates giving TED Talks. +And so I want to show you a high-speed video sequence of a fly shot at 7,000 frames per second in infrared lighting, and to the right, off-screen, is an electronic looming predator that is going to go at the fly. +The fly is going to sense this predator. +It is going to extend its legs out. +It's going to sashay away to live to fly another day. +I think this is a fascinating behavior that shows how fast the fly's brain can process information. +Now, flight -- what does it take to fly? +Well, in order to fly, just as in a human aircraft, you need wings that can generate sufficient aerodynamic forces, you need an engine sufficient to generate the power required for flight, and you need a controller, and in the first human aircraft, the controller was basically the brain of Orville and Wilbur sitting in the cockpit. +Now, how does this compare to a fly? +Well, I spent a lot of my early career trying to figure out how insect wings generate enough force to keep the flies in the air. +And you might have heard how engineers proved that bumblebees couldn't fly. +Well, the problem was in thinking that the insect wings function in the way that aircraft wings work. But they don't. +And we tackle this problem by building giant, dynamically scaled model robot insects that would flap in giant pools of mineral oil where we could study the aerodynamic forces. +But the thing that's actually most -- so, what's fascinating is not so much that the wing has some interesting morphology. +What's clever is the way the fly flaps it, which of course ultimately is controlled by the nervous system, and this is what enables flies to perform these remarkable aerial maneuvers. +Now, what about the engine? +The engine of the fly is absolutely fascinating. +They have two types of flight muscle: so-called power muscle, which is stretch-activated, which means that it activates itself and does not need to be controlled on a contraction-by-contraction basis by the nervous system. +It's specialized to generate the enormous power required for flight, and it fills the middle portion of the fly, so when a fly hits your windshield, it's basically the power muscle that you're looking at. +And of course, the role of the nervous system is to control all this. +So let's look at the controller. +Now flies excel in the sorts of sensors that they carry to this problem. +They have antennae that sense odors and detect wind detection. +They have a sophisticated eye which is the fastest visual system on the planet. +They have another set of eyes on the top of their head. +We have no idea what they do. +They have sensors on their wing. +Their wing is covered with sensors, including sensors that sense deformation of the wing. +They can even taste with their wings. +One of the most sophisticated sensors a fly has is a structure called the halteres. +The halteres are actually gyroscopes. +These devices beat back and forth about 200 hertz during flight, and the animal can use them to sense its body rotation and initiate very, very fast corrective maneuvers. +But all of this sensory information has to be processed by a brain, and yes, indeed, flies have a brain, a brain of about 100,000 neurons. +Now several people at this conference have already suggested that fruit flies could serve neuroscience because they're a simple model of brain function. +And the basic punchline of my talk is, I'd like to turn that over on its head. +I don't think they're a simple model of anything. +And I think that flies are a great model. +They're a great model for flies. +And let's explore this notion of simplicity. +So I think, unfortunately, a lot of neuroscientists, we're all somewhat narcissistic. +When we think of brain, we of course imagine our own brain. +But remember that this kind of brain, which is much, much smaller instead of 100 billion neurons, it has 100,000 neurons but this is the most common form of brain on the planet and has been for 400 million years. +And is it fair to say that it's simple? +Well, it's simple in the sense that it has fewer neurons, but is that a fair metric? +And I would propose it's not a fair metric. +So let's sort of think about this. I think we have to compare -- we have to compare the size of the brain with what the brain can do. +So I propose we have a Trump number, and the Trump number is the ratio of this man's behavioral repertoire to the number of neurons in his brain. +We'll calculate the Trump number for the fruit fly. +Now, how many people here think the Trump number is higher for the fruit fly? +It's a very smart, smart audience. +Yes, the inequality goes in this direction, or I would posit it. +Now I realize that it is a little bit absurd to compare the behavioral repertoire of a human to a fly. +But let's take another animal just as an example. Here's a mouse. +A mouse has about 1,000 times as many neurons as a fly. +I used to study mice. When I studied mice, I used to talk really slowly. +And then something happened when I started to work on flies. +And I think if you compare the natural history of flies and mice, it's really comparable. They have to forage for food. +They have to engage in courtship. +They have sex. They hide from predators. +They do a lot of the similar things. +But I would argue that flies do more. +So for example, I'm going to show you a sequence, and I have to say, some of my funding comes from the military, so I'm showing this classified sequence and you cannot discuss it outside of this room. Okay? +So I want you to look at the payload at the tail of the fruit fly. +Watch it very closely, and you'll see why my six-year-old son now wants to be a neuroscientist. +Wait for it. +Pshhew. +So at least you'll admit that if fruit flies are not as clever as mice, they're at least as clever as pigeons. Now, I want to get across that it's not just a matter of numbers but also the challenge for a fly to compute everything its brain has to compute with such tiny neurons. +So this is a beautiful image of a visual interneuron from a mouse that came from Jeff Lichtman's lab, and you can see the wonderful images of brains that he showed in his talk. +But up in the corner, in the right corner, you'll see, at the same scale, a visual interneuron from a fly. +And I'll expand this up. +And it's a beautifully complex neuron. +It's just very, very tiny, and there's lots of biophysical challenges with trying to compute information with tiny, tiny neurons. +How small can neurons get? Well, look at this interesting insect. +So here's some other organisms at the similar scale. +This animal is the size of a paramecium and an amoeba, and it has a brain of 7,000 neurons that's so small -- you know these things called cell bodies you've been hearing about, where the nucleus of the neuron is? +This animal gets rid of them because they take up too much space. +So this is a session on frontiers in neuroscience. +I would posit that one frontier in neuroscience is to figure out how the brain of that thing works. +But let's think about this. How can you make a small number of neurons do a lot? +And I think, from an engineering perspective, you think of multiplexing. +You can take a hardware and have that hardware do different things at different times, or have different parts of the hardware doing different things. +And these are the two concepts I'd like to explore. +And they're not concepts that I've come up with, but concepts that have been proposed by others in the past. +And one idea comes from lessons from chewing crabs. +And I don't mean chewing the crabs. +I grew up in Baltimore, and I chew crabs very, very well. +But I'm talking about the crabs actually doing the chewing. +Crab chewing is actually really fascinating. +Crabs have this complicated structure under their carapace called the gastric mill that grinds their food in a variety of different ways. +And here's an endoscopic movie of this structure. +The amazing thing about this is that it's controlled by a really tiny set of neurons, about two dozen neurons that can produce a vast variety of different motor patterns, and the reason it can do this is that this little tiny ganglion in the crab is actually inundated by many, many neuromodulators. +You heard about neuromodulators earlier. +There are more neuromodulators that alter, that innervate this structure than actually neurons in the structure, and they're able to generate a complicated set of patterns. +And this is the work by Eve Marder and her many colleagues who've been studying this fascinating system that show how a smaller cluster of neurons can do many, many, many things because of neuromodulation that can take place on a moment-by-moment basis. +So this is basically multiplexing in time. +Imagine a network of neurons with one neuromodulator. +You select one set of cells to perform one sort of behavior, another neuromodulator, another set of cells, a different pattern, and you can imagine you could extrapolate to a very, very complicated system. +Is there any evidence that flies do this? +Well, for many years in my laboratory and other laboratories around the world, we've been studying fly behaviors in little flight simulators. +You can tether a fly to a little stick. +You can measure the aerodynamic forces it's creating. +You can let the fly play a little video game by letting it fly around in a visual display. +So let me show you a little tiny sequence of this. +Here's a fly and a large infrared view of the fly in the flight simulator, and this is a game the flies love to play. +You allow them to steer towards the little stripe, and they'll just steer towards that stripe forever. +It's part of their visual guidance system. +But very, very recently, it's been possible to modify these sorts of behavioral arenas for physiologies. +So this is the preparation that one of my former post-docs, Gaby Maimon, who's now at Rockefeller, developed, and it's basically a flight simulator but under conditions where you actually can stick an electrode in the brain of the fly and record from a genetically identified neuron in the fly's brain. +And this is what one of these experiments looks like. +It was a sequence taken from another post-doc in the lab, Bettina Schnell. +So for the first time we've actually been able to record from neurons in the fly's brain while the fly is performing sophisticated behaviors such as flight. +And one of the lessons we've been learning is that the physiology of cells that we've been studying for many years in quiescent flies is not the same as the physiology of those cells when the flies actually engage in active behaviors like flying and walking and so forth. +And why is the physiology different? +Well it turns out it's these neuromodulators, just like the neuromodulators in that little tiny ganglion in the crabs. +So here's a picture of the octopamine system. +Octopamine is a neuromodulator that seems to play an important role in flight and other behaviors. +But this is just one of many neuromodulators that's in the fly's brain. +So I really think that, as we learn more, it's going to turn out that the whole fly brain is just like a large version of this stomatogastric ganglion, and that's one of the reasons why it can do so much with so few neurons. +Now, another idea, another way of multiplexing is multiplexing in space, having different parts of a neuron do different things at the same time. +It's a non-spiking cell. +So a typical cell, like the neurons in our brain, has a region called the dendrites that receives input, and that input sums together and will produce action potentials that run down the axon and then activate all the output regions of the neuron. +But non-spiking neurons are actually quite complicated because they can have input synapses and output synapses all interdigitated, and there's no single action potential that drives all the outputs at the same time. +So there's a possibility that you have computational compartments that allow the different parts of the neuron to do different things at the same time. +So these basic concepts of multitasking in time and multitasking in space, I think these are things that are true in our brains as well, but I think the insects are the true masters of this. +So I hope you think of insects a little bit differently next time, and as I say up here, please think before you swat. +So here's the good news about families. +The last 50 years have seen a revolution in what it means to be a family. +We have blended families, adopted families, we have nuclear families living in separate houses and divorced families living in the same house. +But through it all, the family has grown stronger. +Eight in 10 say the family they have today is as strong or stronger than the family they grew up in. +Now, here's the bad news. +Nearly everyone is completely overwhelmed by the chaos of family life. +Every parent I know, myself included, feels like we're constantly playing defense. +Just when our kids stop teething, they start having tantrums. +Just when they stop needing our help taking a bath, they need our help dealing with cyberstalking or bullying. +And here's the worst news of all. +Our children sense we're out of control. +Ellen Galinsky of the Families and Work Institute asked 1,000 children, "If you were granted one wish about your parents, what would it be?" +The parents predicted the kids would say, spending more time with them. +They were wrong. The kids' number one wish? +That their parents be less tired and less stressed. +So how can we change this dynamic? +Are there concrete things we can do to reduce stress, draw our family closer, and generally prepare our children to enter the world? +I spent the last few years trying to answer that question, traveling around, meeting families, talking to scholars, experts ranging from elite peace negotiators to Warren Buffett's bankers to the Green Berets. +I was trying to figure out, what do happy families do right and what can I learn from them to make my family happier? +I want to tell you about one family that I met, and why I think they offer clues. +At 7 p.m. on a Sunday in Hidden Springs, Idaho, where the six members of the Starr family are sitting down to the highlight of their week: the family meeting. +The Starrs are a regular American family with their share of regular American family problems. +David is a software engineer. Eleanor takes care of their four children, ages 10 to 15. +One of those kids tutors math on the far side of town. +One has lacrosse on the near side of town. +One has Asperger syndrome. One has ADHD. +"We were living in complete chaos," Eleanor said. +What the Starrs did next, though, was surprising. +Instead of turning to friends or relatives, they looked to David's workplace. +They turned to a cutting-edge program called agile development that was just spreading from manufacturers in Japan to startups in Silicon Valley. +In agile, workers are organized into small groups and do things in very short spans of time. +So instead of having executives issue grand proclamations, the team in effect manages itself. +You have constant feedback. You have daily update sessions. +You have weekly reviews. You're constantly changing. +David said when they brought this system into their home, the family meetings in particular increased communication, decreased stress, and made everybody happier to be part of the family team. +When my wife and I adopted these family meetings and other techniques into the lives of our then-five-year-old twin daughters, it was the biggest single change we made since our daughters were born. +And these meetings had this effect while taking under 20 minutes. +So what is Agile, and why can it help with something that seems so different, like families? +In 1983, Jeff Sutherland was a technologist at a financial firm in New England. +He was very frustrated with how software got designed. +Companies followed the waterfall method, right, in which executives issued orders that slowly trickled down to programmers below, and no one had ever consulted the programmers. +Eighty-three percent of projects failed. +They were too bloated or too out of date by the time they were done. +Sutherland wanted to create a system where ideas didn't just percolate down but could percolate up from the bottom and be adjusted in real time. +He read 30 years of Harvard Business Review before stumbling upon an article in 1986 called "The New New Product Development Game." +It said that the pace of business was quickening -- and by the way, this was in 1986 -- and the most successful companies were flexible. +It highlighted Toyota and Canon and likened their adaptable, tight-knit teams to rugby scrums. +As Sutherland told me, we got to that article, and said, "That's it." +In Sutherland's system, companies don't use large, massive projects that take two years. +They do things in small chunks. +Nothing takes longer than two weeks. +So instead of saying, "You guys go off into that bunker and come back with a cell phone or a social network," you say, "You go off and come up with one element, then bring it back. Let's talk about it. Let's adapt." +You succeed or fail quickly. +Today, agile is used in a hundred countries, and it's sweeping into management suites. +Inevitably, people began taking some of these techniques and applying it to their families. +You had blogs pop up, and some manuals were written. +Even the Sutherlands told me that they had an Agile Thanksgiving, where you had one group of people working on the food, one setting the table, and one greeting visitors at the door. +Sutherland said it was the best Thanksgiving ever. +So let's take one problem that families face, crazy mornings, and talk about how agile can help. +A key plank is accountability, so teams use information radiators, these large boards in which everybody is accountable. +So the Starrs, in adapting this to their home, created a morning checklist in which each child is expected to tick off chores. +It was one of the most astonishing family dynamics I have ever seen. +And when I strenuously objected this would never work in our house, our kids needed way too much monitoring, Eleanor looked at me. +"That's what I thought," she said. +"I told David, 'keep your work out of my kitchen.' But I was wrong." +So I turned to David: "So why does it work?" +He said, "You can't underestimate the power of doing this." +And he made a checkmark. +He said, "In the workplace, adults love it. +With kids, it's heaven." +The week we introduced a morning checklist into our house, it cut parental screaming in half. But the real change didn't come until we had these family meetings. +So following the agile model, we ask three questions: What worked well in our family this week, what didn't work well, and what will we agree to work on in the week ahead? +Everyone throws out suggestions and then we pick two to focus on. +And suddenly the most amazing things started coming out of our daughters' mouths. +What worked well this week? +Getting over our fear of riding bikes. Making our beds. +What didn't work well? Our math sheets, or greeting visitors at the door. +Like a lot of parents, our kids are something like Bermuda Triangles. +Like, thoughts and ideas go in, but none ever comes out, I mean at least not that are revealing. +This gave us access suddenly to their innermost thoughts. +But the most surprising part was when we turned to, what are we going to work on in the week ahead? +You know, the key idea of agile is that teams essentially manage themselves, and it works in software and it turns out that it works with kids. +Our kids love this process. +So they would come up with all these ideas. +You know, greet five visitors at the door this week, get an extra 10 minutes of reading before bed. +Kick someone, lose desserts for a month. +It turns out, by the way, our girls are little Stalins. +We constantly have to kind of dial them back. +Now look, naturally there's a gap between their kind of conduct in these meetings and their behavior the rest of the week, but the truth is it didn't really bother us. +It felt like we were kind of laying these underground cables that wouldn't light up their world for many years to come. +Three years later -- our girls are almost eight now -- We're still holding these meetings. +My wife counts them among her most treasured moments as a mom. +So what did we learn? +The word "agile" entered the lexicon in 2001 when Jeff Sutherland and a group of designers met in Utah and wrote a 12-point Agile Manifesto. +I think the time is right for an Agile Family Manifesto. +I've taken some ideas from the Starrs and from many other families I met. +I'm proposing three planks. +Plank number one: Adapt all the time. +When I became a parent, I figured, you know what? +We'll set a few rules and we'll stick to them. +That assumes, as parents, we can anticipate every problem that's going to arise. +We can't. What's great about the agile system is you build in a system of change so that you can react to what's happening to you in real time. +It's like they say in the Internet world: if you're doing the same thing today you were doing six months ago, you're doing the wrong thing. +Parents can learn a lot from that. +But to me, "adapt all the time" means something deeper, too. +We have to break parents out of this straitjacket that the only ideas we can try at home are ones that come from shrinks or self-help gurus or other family experts. +The truth is, their ideas are stale, whereas in all these other worlds there are these new ideas to make groups and teams work effectively. +Let's just take a few examples. +Let's take the biggest issue of all: family dinner. +Everybody knows that having family dinner with your children is good for the kids. +But for so many of us, it doesn't work in our lives. +I met a celebrity chef in New Orleans who said, "No problem, I'll just time-shift family dinner. +I'm not home, can't make family dinner? +We'll have family breakfast. We'll meet for a bedtime snack. +We'll make Sunday meals more important." +And the truth is, recent research backs him up. +It turns out there's only 10 minutes of productive time in any family meal. +The rest of it's taken up with "take your elbows off the table" and "pass the ketchup." +You can take that 10 minutes and move it to any part of the day and have the same benefit. +So time-shift family dinner. That's adaptability. +An environmental psychologist told me, "If you're sitting in a hard chair on a rigid surface, you'll be more rigid. +If you're sitting on a cushioned chair, you'll be more open." +She told me, "When you're discipling your children, sit in an upright chair with a cushioned surface. +The conversation will go better." +My wife and I actually moved where we sit for difficult conversations because I was sitting above in the power position. +So move where you sit. That's adaptability. +The point is there are all these new ideas out there. +We've got to hook them up with parents. +So plank number one: Adapt all the time. +Be flexible, be open-minded, let the best ideas win. +Plank number two: Empower your children. +Our instinct as parents is to order our kids around. +It's easier, and frankly, we're usually right. +There's a reason that few systems have been more waterfall over time than the family. +But the single biggest lesson we learned is to reverse the waterfall as much as possible. +Enlist the children in their own upbringing. +Just yesterday, we were having our family meeting, and we had voted to work on overreacting. +So we said, "Okay, give us a reward and give us a punishment. Okay?" +So one of my daughters threw out, you get five minutes of overreacting time all week. +So we kind of liked that. +But then her sister started working the system. +She said, "Do I get one five-minute overreaction or can I get 10 30-second overreactions?" +I loved that. Spend the time however you want. +Now give us a punishment. Okay. +If we get 15 minutes of overreaction time, that's the limit. +Every minute above that, we have to do one pushup. +So you see, this is working. Now look, this system isn't lax. +There's plenty of parental authority going on. +But we're giving them practice becoming independent, which of course is our ultimate goal. +Just as I was leaving to come here tonight, one of my daughters started screaming. +The other one said, "Overreaction! Overreaction!" +and started counting, and within 10 seconds it had ended. +To me that is a certified agile miracle. +And by the way, research backs this up too. +Children who plan their own goals, set weekly schedules, evaluate their own work build up their frontal cortex and take more control over their lives. +The point is, we have to let our children succeed on their own terms, and yes, on occasion, fail on their own terms. +I was talking to Warren Buffett's banker, and he was chiding me for not letting my children make mistakes with their allowance. +And I said, "But what if they drive into a ditch?" +He said, "It's much better to drive into a ditch with a $6 allowance than a $60,000-a-year salary or a $6 million inheritance." +So the bottom line is, empower your children. +Plank number three: Tell your story. +Adaptability is fine, but we also need bedrock. +Jim Collins, the author of "Good To Great," told me that successful human organizations of any kind have two things in common: they preserve the core, they stimulate progress. +So agile is great for stimulating progress, but I kept hearing time and again, you need to preserve the core. +So how do you do that? +Collins coached us on doing something that businesses do, which is define your mission and identify your core values. +So he led us through the process of creating a family mission statement. +We did the family equivalent of a corporate retreat. +We had a pajama party. +I made popcorn. Actually, I burned one, so I made two. +My wife bought a flip chart. +And we had this great conversation, like, what's important to us? +What values do we most uphold? +And we ended up with 10 statements. +We are travelers, not tourists. +We don't like dilemmas. We like solutions. +Again, research shows that parents should spend less time worrying about what they do wrong and more time focusing on what they do right, worry less about the bad times and build up the good times. +This family mission statement is a great way to identify what it is that you do right. +A few weeks later, we got a call from the school. +One of our daughters had gotten into a spat. +And suddenly we were worried, like, do we have a mean girl on our hands? +And we didn't really know what to do, so we called her into my office. +The family mission statement was on the wall, and my wife said, "So, anything up there seem to apply?" +And she kind of looked down the list, and she said, "Bring people together?" +Suddenly we had a way into the conversation. +Another great way to tell your story is to tell your children where they came from. +Researchers at Emory gave children a simple "what do you know" test. +Do you know where your grandparents were born? +Do you know where your parents went to high school? +Do you know anybody in your family who had a difficult situation, an illness, and they overcame it? +The children who scored highest on this "do you know" scale had the highest self-esteem and a greater sense they could control their lives. +The "do you know" test was the single biggest predictor of emotional health and happiness. +As the author of the study told me, children who have a sense of -- they're part of a larger narrative have greater self-confidence. +So my final plank is, tell your story. +Spend time retelling the story of your family's positive moments and how you overcame the negative ones. +If you give children this happy narrative, you give them the tools to make themselves happier. +I was a teenager when I first read "Anna Karenina" and its famous opening sentence, "All happy families are alike. +Each unhappy family is unhappy in its own way." +When I first read that, I thought, "That sentence is inane. +Of course all happy families aren't alike." +But as I began working on this project, I began changing my mind. +Recent scholarship has allowed us, for the first time, to identify the building blocks that successful families have. +I've mentioned just three here today: Adapt all the time, empower the children, tell your story. +Is it possible, all these years later, to say Tolstoy was right? +The answer, I believe, is yes. +When Leo Tolstoy was five years old, his brother Nikolay came to him and said he had engraved the secret to universal happiness on a little green stick, which he had hidden in a ravine on the family's estate in Russia. +If the stick were ever found, all humankind would be happy. +Tolstoy became consumed with that stick, but he never found it. +In fact, he asked to be buried in that ravine where he thought it was hidden. +He still lies there today, covered in a layer of green grass. +That story perfectly captures for me the final lesson that I learned: Happiness is not something we find, it's something we make. +Almost anybody who's looked at well-run organizations has come to pretty much the same conclusion. +Greatness is not a matter of circumstance. +It's a matter of choice. +You don't need some grand plan. You don't need a waterfall. +You just need to take small steps, accumulate small wins, keep reaching for that green stick. +In the end, this may be the greatest lesson of all. +What's the secret to a happy family? Try. +(Mechanical noises) +What is going to be the future of learning? +I do have a plan, but in order for me to tell you what that plan is, I need to tell you a little story, which kind of sets the stage. +I tried to look at where did the kind of learning we do in schools, where did it come from? +And you can look far back into the past, but if you look at present-day schooling the way it is, it's quite easy to figure out where it came from. +It came from about 300 years ago, and it came from the last and the biggest of the empires on this planet. ["The British Empire"] Imagine trying to run the show, trying to run the entire planet, without computers, without telephones, with data handwritten on pieces of paper, and traveling by ships. +But the Victorians actually did it. +What they did was amazing. +They created a global computer made up of people. +It's still with us today. +It's called the bureaucratic administrative machine. +In order to have that machine running, you need lots and lots of people. +They made another machine to produce those people: the school. +The schools would produce the people who would then become parts of the bureaucratic administrative machine. +They must be identical to each other. +They must know three things: They must have good handwriting, because the data is handwritten; they must be able to read; and they must be able to do multiplication, division, addition and subtraction in their head. +They must be so identical that you could pick one up from New Zealand and ship them to Canada and he would be instantly functional. +The Victorians were great engineers. +They engineered a system that was so robust that it's still with us today, continuously producing identical people for a machine that no longer exists. +The empire is gone, so what are we doing with that design that produces these identical people, and what are we going to do next if we ever are going to do anything else with it? +["Schools as we know them are obsolete"] So that's a pretty strong comment there. +I said schools as we know them now, they're obsolete. +I'm not saying they're broken. +It's quite fashionable to say that the education system's broken. +It's not broken. It's wonderfully constructed. +It's just that we don't need it anymore. It's outdated. +What are the kind of jobs that we have today? +Well, the clerks are the computers. +They're there in thousands in every office. +And you have people who guide those computers to do their clerical jobs. +Those people don't need to be able to write beautifully by hand. +They don't need to be able to multiply numbers in their heads. +They do need to be able to read. +In fact, they need to be able to read discerningly. +Well, that's today, but we don't even know what the jobs of the future are going to look like. +We know that people will work from wherever they want, whenever they want, in whatever way they want. +How is present-day schooling going to prepare them for that world? +Well, I bumped into this whole thing completely by accident. +I used to teach people how to write computer programs in New Delhi, 14 years ago. +And right next to where I used to work, there was a slum. +And I used to think, how on Earth are those kids ever going to learn to write computer programs? +Or should they not? +At the same time, we also had lots of parents, rich people, who had computers, and who used to tell me, "You know, my son, I think he's gifted, because he does wonderful things with computers. +And my daughter -- oh, surely she is extra-intelligent." +And so on. So I suddenly figured that, how come all the rich people are having these extraordinarily gifted children? +What did the poor do wrong? +I made a hole in the boundary wall of the slum next to my office, and stuck a computer inside it just to see what would happen if I gave a computer to children who never would have one, didn't know any English, didn't know what the Internet was. +The children came running in. +It was three feet off the ground, and they said, "What is this?" +And I said, "Yeah, it's, I don't know." +They said, "Why have you put it there?" +I said, "Just like that." +And they said, "Can we touch it?"I said, "If you wish to." +And I went away. +About eight hours later, we found them browsing and teaching each other how to browse. +So I said, "Well that's impossible, because -- How is it possible? They don't know anything." +My colleagues said, "No, it's a simple solution. +One of your students must have been passing by, showed them how to use the mouse." +So I said, "Yeah, that's possible." +So I repeated the experiment. I went 300 miles out of Delhi into a really remote village where the chances of a passing software development engineer was very little. I repeated the experiment there. +There was no place to stay, so I stuck my computer in, I went away, came back after a couple of months, found kids playing games on it. +When they saw me, they said, "We want a faster processor and a better mouse." +So I said, "How on Earth do you know all this?" +And they said something very interesting to me. +In an irritated voice, they said, "You've given us a machine that works only in English, so we had to teach ourselves English in order to use it." That's the first time, as a teacher, that I had heard the word "teach ourselves" said so casually. +Here's a short glimpse from those years. +That's the first day at the Hole in the Wall. +On your right is an eight-year-old. +To his left is his student. She's six. +And he's teaching her how to browse. +Then onto other parts of the country, I repeated this over and over again, getting exactly the same results that we were. +["Hole in the wall film - 1999"] An eight-year-old telling his elder sister what to do. +And finally a girl explaining in Marathi what it is, and said, "There's a processor inside." +So I started publishing. +I published everywhere. I wrote down and measured everything, and I said, in nine months, a group of children left alone with a computer in any language will reach the same standard as an office secretary in the West. +I'd seen it happen over and over and over again. +But I was curious to know, what else would they do if they could do this much? +I started experimenting with other subjects, among them, for example, pronunciation. +There's one community of children in southern India whose English pronunciation is really bad, and they needed good pronunciation because that would improve their jobs. +I gave them a speech-to-text engine in a computer, and I said, "Keep talking into it until it types what you say." +They did that, and watch a little bit of this. +Computer: Nice to meet you.Child: Nice to meet you. +Sugata Mitra: The reason I ended with the face of this young lady over there is because I suspect many of you know her. +She has now joined a call center in Hyderabad and may have tortured you about your credit card bills in a very clear English accent. +So then people said, well, how far will it go? +Where does it stop? +I decided I would destroy my own argument by creating an absurd proposition. +I made a hypothesis, a ridiculous hypothesis. +Tamil is a south Indian language, and I said, can Tamil-speaking children in a south Indian village learn the biotechnology of DNA replication in English from a streetside computer? +And I said, I'll measure them. They'll get a zero. +I'll spend a couple of months, I'll leave it for a couple of months, I'll go back, they'll get another zero. +I'll go back to the lab and say, we need teachers. +I found a village. It was called Kallikuppam in southern India. +I put in Hole in the Wall computers there, downloaded all kinds of stuff from the Internet about DNA replication, most of which I didn't understand. +The children came rushing, said, "What's all this?" +So I said, "It's very topical, very important. But it's all in English." +So they said, "How can we understand such big English words and diagrams and chemistry?" +So by now, I had developed a new pedagogical method, so I applied that. I said, "I haven't the foggiest idea." +"And anyway, I am going away." +So I left them for a couple of months. +They'd got a zero. I gave them a test. +I came back after two months and the children trooped in and said, "We've understood nothing." +So I said, "Well, what did I expect?" +So I said, "Okay, but how long did it take you before you decided that you can't understand anything?" +So they said, "We haven't given up. +We look at it every single day." +So I said, "What? You don't understand these screens and you keep staring at it for two months? What for?" +So a little girl who you see just now, she raised her hand, and she says to me in broken Tamil and English, she said, "Well, apart from the fact that improper replication of the DNA molecule causes disease, we haven't understood anything else." +So I tested them. +I got an educational impossibility, zero to 30 percent in two months in the tropical heat with a computer under the tree in a language they didn't know doing something that's a decade ahead of their time. +Absurd. But I had to follow the Victorian norm. +Thirty percent is a fail. +How do I get them to pass? I have to get them 20 more marks. +I couldn't find a teacher. What I did find was a friend that they had, a 22-year-old girl who was an accountant and she played with them all the time. +So I asked this girl, "Can you help them?" +So she says, "Absolutely not. +I didn't have science in school. I have no idea what they're doing under that tree all day long. I can't help you." +I said, "I'll tell you what. Use the method of the grandmother." +So she says, "What's that?" +I said, "Stand behind them. +Whenever they do anything, you just say, 'Well, wow, I mean, how did you do that? +What's the next page? Gosh, when I was your age, I could have never done that.' You know what grannies do." +So she did that for two more months. +The scores jumped to 50 percent. +Kallikuppam had caught up with my control school in New Delhi, a rich private school with a trained biotechnology teacher. +When I saw that graph I knew there is a way to level the playing field. +Here's Kallikuppam. +(Children speaking) Neurons ... communication. +I got the camera angle wrong. That one is just amateur stuff, but what she was saying, as you could make out, was about neurons, with her hands were like that, and she was saying neurons communicate. +At 12. +So what are jobs going to be like? +Well, we know what they're like today. +What's learning going to be like? We know what it's like today, children pouring over with their mobile phones on the one hand and then reluctantly going to school to pick up their books with their other hand. +What will it be tomorrow? +Could it be that we don't need to go to school at all? +Could it be that, at the point in time when you need to know something, you can find out in two minutes? +Could it be -- a devastating question, a question that was framed for me by Nicholas Negroponte -- could it be that we are heading towards or maybe in a future where knowing is obsolete? +But that's terrible. We are homo sapiens. +Knowing, that's what distinguishes us from the apes. +But look at it this way. +It took nature 100 million years to make the ape stand up and become Homo sapiens. +It took us only 10,000 to make knowing obsolete. +What an achievement that is. +But we have to integrate that into our own future. +Encouragement seems to be the key. +If you look at Kuppam, if you look at all of the experiments that I did, it was simply saying, "Wow," saluting learning. +There is evidence from neuroscience. +The reptilian part of our brain, which sits in the center of our brain, when it's threatened, it shuts down everything else, it shuts down the prefrontal cortex, the parts which learn, it shuts all of that down. +Punishment and examinations are seen as threats. +We take our children, we make them shut their brains down, and then we say, "Perform." +Why did they create a system like that? +Because it was needed. +There was an age in the Age of Empires when you needed those people who can survive under threat. +When you're standing in a trench all alone, if you could have survived, you're okay, you've passed. +If you didn't, you failed. +But the Age of Empires is gone. +What happens to creativity in our age? +We need to shift that balance back from threat to pleasure. +I came back to England looking for British grandmothers. +I put out notices in papers saying, if you are a British grandmother, if you have broadband and a web camera, can you give me one hour of your time per week for free? +I got 200 in the first two weeks. +I know more British grandmothers than anyone in the universe. They're called the Granny Cloud. +The Granny Cloud sits on the Internet. +If there's a child in trouble, we beam a Gran. +She goes on over Skype and she sorts things out. +I've seen them do it from a village called Diggles in northwestern England, deep inside a village in Tamil Nadu, India, 6,000 miles away. +She does it with only one age-old gesture. +"Shhh." +Okay? +Watch this. +Grandmother: You can't catch me. You say it. +You can't catch me. +Children: You can't catch me. +Grandmother: I'm the Gingerbread Man.Children: I'm the Gingerbread Man. +Grandmother: Well done! Very good. +SM: So what's happening here? +I think what we need to look at is we need to look at learning as the product of educational self-organization. +If you allow the educational process to self-organize, then learning emerges. +It's not about making learning happen. +It's about letting it happen. +The teacher sets the process in motion and then she stands back in awe and watches as learning happens. +I think that's what all this is pointing at. +But how will we know? How will we come to know? +Well, I intend to build these Self-Organized Learning Environments. +They are basically broadband, collaboration and encouragement put together. +I've tried this in many, many schools. +It's been tried all over the world, and teachers sort of stand back and say, "It just happens by itself?" +And I said, "Yeah, it happens by itself.""How did you know that?" +I said, "You won't believe the children who told me and where they're from." +Here's a SOLE in action. +(Children talking) This one is in England. +He maintains law and order, because remember, there's no teacher around. +Girl: The total number of electrons is not equal to the total number of protons -- SM: Australia Girl: -- giving it a net positive or negative electrical charge. +The net charge on an ion is equal to the number of protons in the ion minus the number of electrons. +SM: A decade ahead of her time. +So SOLEs, I think we need a curriculum of big questions. +You already heard about that. You know what that means. +There was a time when Stone Age men and women used to sit and look up at the sky and say, "What are those twinkling lights?" +They built the first curriculum, but we've lost sight of those wondrous questions. +We've brought it down to the tangent of an angle. +But that's not sexy enough. +The way you would put it to a nine-year-old is to say, "If a meteorite was coming to hit the Earth, how would you figure out if it was going to or not?" +And if he says, "Well, what? how?" +you say, "There's a magic word. It's called the tangent of an angle," and leave him alone. He'll figure it out. +So here are a couple of images from SOLEs. +I've tried incredible, incredible questions -- "When did the world begin? How will it end?" to nine-year-olds. +This one is about what happens to the air we breathe. +This is done by children without the help of any teacher. +The teacher only raises the question, and then stands back and admires the answer. +So what's my wish? +My wish is that we design the future of learning. +We don't want to be spare parts for a great human computer, do we? +So we need to design a future for learning. +And I've got to -- hang on, I've got to get this wording exactly right, because, you know, it's very important. +My wish is to help design a future of learning by supporting children all over the world to tap into their wonder and their ability to work together. +Help me build this school. +It will be called the School in the Cloud. +It will be a school where children go on these intellectual adventures driven by the big questions which their mediators put in. +The way I want to do this is to build a facility where I can study this. +It's a facility which is practically unmanned. +There's only one granny who manages health and safety. +The rest of it's from the cloud. +The lights are turned on and off by the cloud, etc., etc., everything's done from the cloud. +But I want you for another purpose. +You can do Self-Organized Learning Environments at home, in the school, outside of school, in clubs. +It's very easy to do. There's a great document produced by TED which tells you how to do it. +If you would please, please do it across all five continents and send me the data, then I'll put it all together, move it into the School of Clouds, and create the future of learning. +That's my wish. +And just one last thing. +I'll take you to the top of the Himalayas. +At 12,000 feet, where the air is thin, I once built two Hole in the Wall computers, and the children flocked there. +And there was this little girl who was following me around. +And I said to her, "You know, I want to give a computer to everybody, every child. +I don't know, what should I do?" +And I was trying to take a picture of her quietly. +She suddenly raised her hand like this, and said to me, "Get on with it." +I think it was good advice. +I'll follow her advice. I'll stop talking. +Thank you. Thank you very much. +Thank you. Thank you. Thank you very much. Wow. +Well, I was introduced as the former Governor of Michigan, but actually I'm a scientist. +All right, a political scientist, it doesn't really count, but my laboratory was the laboratory of democracy that is Michigan, and, like any good scientist, I was experimenting with policy about what would achieve the greatest good for the greatest number. +But there were three problems, three enigmas that I could not solve, and I want to share with you those problems, but most importantly, I think I figured out a proposal for a solution. +The first problem that not just Michigan, but every state, faces is, how do you create good jobs in America in a global economy? +So let me share with you some empirical data from my lab. +I was elected in 2002 and, at the end of my first year in office in 2003, I got a call from one of my staff members, who said, "Gov, we have a big problem. +We have a little tiny community called Greenville, Michigan, population 8,000, and they are about to lose their major employer, which is a refrigerator factory that's operated by Electrolux." +And I said, "Well, how many people work at Electrolux?" +And he said, "3,000 of the 8,000 people in Greenville." +So it is a one-company town. +And Electrolux was going to go to Mexico. +So I said, "Forget that. I'm the new Governor. +We can fix this. We're going to go to Greenville with my whole cabinet and we will just make Electrolux an offer they can't refuse." +And in the pile were things like zero taxes for 20 years, or that we'd help to build a new factory for the company, we'd help to finance it. The UAW, who represented the workers, said they would offer unprecedented concessions, sacrifices to just keep those jobs in Greenville. +So the management of Electrolux took our pile, our list of incentives, and they went outside the room for 17 minutes, and they came back in and they said, "Wow, this is the most generous any community has ever been to try to keep jobs here. +But there's nothing you can do to compensate for the fact that we can pay $1.57 an hour in Juarez, Mexico. So we're leaving." +And they did. And when they did, it was like a nuclear bomb went off in little Greenville. +In fact, they did implode the factory. +That's a guy that is walking on his last day of work. +And on the month that the last refrigerator rolled off the assembly line, the employees of Electrolux in Greenville, Michigan, had a gathering for themselves that they called the last supper. +It was in a big pavilion in Greenville, an indoor pavilion, and I went to it because I was so frustrated as Governor that I couldn't stop the outflow of these jobs, and I wanted to grieve with them, and as I went into the room-- there's thousands of people there. +He said, "I'm 48 years old, and I have worked at this factory for 30 years. +I went from high school to factory. +My father worked at this factory," he said. +"My grandfather worked at this factory. +All I know is how to make refrigerators." +And he looked at his daughters, and he puts his hand on his chest, and he says, "So, Gov, tell me, who is ever going to hire me? +Who is ever going to hire me?" +And that was asked not just by that guy but by everyone in the pavilion, and frankly, by every worker at one of the 50,000 factories that closed in the first decade of this century. +Enigma number one: How do you create jobs in America in a global economy? +Number two, very quickly: How do you solve global climate change when we don't even have a national energy policy in this country and when gridlock in Congress seems to be the norm? +So it got me thinking, what is it? +What in the laboratory that I see out there, the laboratories of democracy, what has happened? +What policy prescriptions have happened that actually cause changes to occur and that have been accepted in a bipartisan way? +So if I asked you, for example, what was the Obama Administration policy that caused massive changes across the country, what would you say? +You might say Obamacare, except for those were not voluntary changes. +As we know, only half the states have opted in. +We might say the Recovery Act, but those didn't require policy changes. +The thing that caused massive policy changes to occur was Race to the Top for education. +Why? The government put a $4.5 billion pot and said to the governors across the country, compete for it. +Forty-eight governors competed, convincing 48 state legislatures to essentially raise standards for high schoolers so that they all take a college prep curriculum. +Forty-eight states opted in, creating a national [education] policy from the bottom up. +So I thought, well, why can't we do something like that and create a clean energy jobs race to the top? +Because after all, if you look at the context, 1.6 trillion dollars has been invested in the past eight years from the private sector globally, and every dollar represents a job, and where are those jobs going? +Well, they're going to places that have policy, like China. +And I said, "Oh my God -- Congress, gridlock, who knows?" +And this is what he did, he goes, he says, "Take your time." +Because they see our passivity as their opportunity. +It's a rounding error on the federal side. +But price to entry into that competition would be, you could just, say, use the President's goal. +He wants Congress to adopt a clean energy standard of 80 percent by 2030, in other words, that you'd have to get 80 percent of your energy from clean sources by the year 2030. +Why not ask all of the states to do that instead? +And imagine what might happen, because every region has something to offer. +You might take states like Iowa and Ohio -- two very important political states, by the way -- those two governors, and they would say, we're going to lead the nation in producing the wind turbines and the wind energy. +In fact, every region of the country could do this. +You see, you've got solar and wind opportunity all across the nation. +In fact, if you look just at the upper and northern states in the West, they could do geothermal, or you could look at Texas and say, we could lead the nation in the solutions to smart grid. +In the middle eastern states which have access to forests and to agricultural waste, they might say, we're going to lead the nation in biofuels. +In the upper northeast, we're going to lead the nation in energy efficiency solutions. +Along the eastern seaboard, we're going to lead the nation in offshore wind. +You might look at Michigan and say, we're going to lead the nation in producing the guts for the electric vehicle, like the lithium ion battery. +Every region has something to offer, and if you created a competition, it respects the states and it respects federalism. +It's opt-in. You might even get Texas and South Carolina, who didn't opt into the education Race to the Top, you might even get them to opt in. Why? +Because Republican and Democratic governors love to cut ribbons. +We want to bring jobs. I'm just saying. +And it fosters innovation at the state level in these laboratories of democracy. +Now, any of you who are watching anything about politics lately might say, "Okay, great idea, but really? +Congress putting four and a half billion dollars on the table? +They can't agree to anything." +So you could wait and go through Congress, although you should be very impatient. +Or, you renegades, we could go around Congress. +Go around Congress. +What if we created a private sector challenge to the governors? +What if several of the high-net worth companies and individuals who are here at TED decided that they would create, band together, just a couple of them, and create a national competition to the governors to have a race to the top and see how the governors respond? +What if it all started here at TED? +What if you were here when we figured out how to crack the code to create good paying jobs in America -- -- and get national energy policy and we created a national energy strategy from the bottom up? +Because, dear TEDsters, if you are impatient like I am, you know that our economic competitors, our other nations, are in the game and are eating us for lunch. +And we can get in the game or not. +We can be at the table or we can be on the table. +And I don't know about you, but I prefer to dine. +Thank you all so much. +So, I didn't always make my living from music. +For about the five years after graduating from an upstanding liberal arts university, this was my day job. +I was a self-employed living statue called the Eight-Foot Bride, and I love telling people I did this for a job, because everybody always wants to know, who are these freaks in real life. +Hello. +I painted myself white one day, stood on a box, put a hat or a can at my feet, and when someone came by and dropped in money, I handed them a flower -- and some intense eye contact. +And if they didn't take the flower, I threw in a gesture of sadness and longing -- as they walked away. +So I had the most profound encounters with people, especially lonely people who looked like they hadn't talked to anyone in weeks, and we would get this beautiful moment of prolonged eye contact being allowed in a city street, and we would sort of fall in love a little bit. +And my eyes would say -- "Thank you. I see you." +And their eyes would say -- "Nobody ever sees me. Thank you." +I would get harassed sometimes. +People would yell at me from their cars. +"Get a job!" +And I'd be, like, "This is my job." +But it hurt, because it made me fear that I was somehow doing something un-joblike and unfair, shameful. +I had no idea how perfect a real education I was getting for the music business on this box. +And for the economists out there, you may be interested to know I actually made a pretty predictable income, which was shocking to me, given I had no regular customers, but pretty much 60 bucks on a Tuesday, 90 bucks on a Friday. +It was consistent. +And meanwhile, I was touring locally and playing in nightclubs with my band, the Dresden Dolls. +This was me on piano, a genius drummer. +I wrote the songs, and eventually we started making enough money that I could quit being a statue, and as we started touring, I really didn't want to lose this sense of direct connection with people, because I loved it. +And then Twitter came along, and made things even more magic, because I could ask instantly for anything anywhere. +So I would need a piano to practice on, and an hour later I would be at a fan's house. This is in London. +People would bring home-cooked food to us all over the world backstage and feed us and eat with us. This is in Seattle. +Fans who worked in museums and stores and any kind of public space would wave their hands if I would decide to do a last-minute, spontaneous, free gig. +This is a library in Auckland. +On Saturday I tweeted for this crate and hat, because I did not want to schlep them from the East Coast, and they showed up care of this dude, Chris, from Newport Beach, who says hello. +I once tweeted, "Where in Melbourne can I buy a neti pot?" +And a nurse from a hospital drove one right at that moment to the cafe I was in, and I bought her a smoothie and we sat there talking about nursing and death. +And I love this kind of random closeness, which is lucky, because I do a lot of couchsurfing. +In mansions where everyone in my crew gets their own room but there's no wireless, and in punk squats, everyone on the floor in one room with no toilets but with wireless, clearly making it the better option. +My crew once pulled our van up to a really poor Miami neighborhood and we found out that our couchsurfing host for the night was an 18-year-old girl, still living at home, and her family were all undocumented immigrants from Honduras. +And that night, her whole family took the couches and she slept together with her mom so that we could take their beds. +And I lay there thinking, these people have so little. +Is this fair? +And in the morning, her mom taught us how to try to make tortillas and wanted to give me a Bible, and she took me aside and she said to me in her broken English, "Your music has helped my daughter so much. +Thank you for staying here. We're all so grateful." +And I thought, this is fair. +This is this. +A couple of months later, I was in Manhattan, and I tweeted for a crash pad, and at midnight, I'm on the Lower East Side, and it occurs to me I've never actually done this alone. +I've always been with my band or my crew. +Is this what stupid people do? Is this how stupid people die? +And before I can change my mind, the door busts open. +She's an artist. He's a financial blogger for Reuters, and they're pouring me a glass of red wine and offering me a bath, and I have had thousands of nights like that and like that. +So I couchsurf a lot. I also crowdsurf a lot. +I maintain couchsurfing and crowdsurfing are basically the same thing. +You're falling into the audience and you're trusting each other. +I once asked an opening band of mine if they wanted to go out into the crowd and pass the hat to get some extra money, something that I did a lot. +And as usual, the band was psyched, but there was this one guy in the band who told me he just couldn't bring himself to go out there. +It felt too much like begging to stand there with the hat. +And I recognized his fear of "Is this fair?" and "Get a job." +And meanwhile, my band is becoming bigger and bigger. +We sign with a major label. +And our music is a cross between punk and cabaret. +It's not for everybody. +Well, maybe it's for you. +We sign, and there's all this hype leading up to our next record. +And it comes out and it sells about 25,000 copies in the first few weeks, and the label considers this a failure. +I was like, "25,000, isn't that a lot?" +They said, "No, the sales are going down. It's a failure." +And they walk off. +Right at this same time, I'm signing and hugging after a gig, and a guy comes up to me and hands me a $10 bill, and he says, "I'm sorry, I burned your CD from a friend." +"But I read your blog, I know you hate your label. +I just want you to have this money." +And this starts happening all the time. +I become the hat after my own gigs, but I have to physically stand there and take the help from people, and unlike the guy in the opening band, I've actually had a lot of practice standing there. +Thank you. +And this is the moment I decide I'm just going to give away my music for free online whenever possible, so it's like Metallica over here, Napster, bad; Amanda Palmer over here, and I'm going to encourage torrenting, downloading, sharing, but I'm going to ask for help, because I saw it work on the street. +So I fought my way off my label, and for my next project with my new band, the Grand Theft Orchestra, I turned to crowdfunding. +And I fell into those thousands of connections that I'd made, and I asked my crowd to catch me. +And the goal was 100,000 dollars. +My fans backed me at nearly 1.2 million, which was the biggest music crowdfunding project to date. +And you can see how many people it is. +It's about 25,000 people. +And the media asked, "Amanda, the music business is tanking and you encourage piracy. +How did you make all these people pay for music?" +And the real answer is, I didn't make them. I asked them. +And through the very act of asking people, I'd connected with them, and when you connect with them, people want to help you. +It's kind of counterintuitive for a lot of artists. +They don't want to ask for things. +But it's not easy. It's not easy to ask. +And a lot of artists have a problem with this. +Asking makes you vulnerable. +And this hurt in a really familiar way. +And people saying, "You're not allowed anymore to ask for that kind of help," really reminded me of the people in their cars yelling, "Get a job." +Because they weren't with us on the sidewalk, and they couldn't see the exchange that was happening between me and my crowd, an exchange that was very fair to us but alien to them. +So this is slightly not safe for work. +This is my Kickstarter backer party in Berlin. +At the end of the night, I stripped and let everyone draw on me. +Now let me tell you, if you want to experience the visceral feeling of trusting strangers -- I recommend this, especially if those strangers are drunk German people. +This was a ninja master-level fan connection, because what I was really saying here was, I trust you this much. +Should I? Show me. +For most of human history, musicians, artists, they've been part of the community. +Connectors and openers, not untouchable stars. +Celebrity is about a lot of people loving you from a distance, but the Internet and the content that we're freely able to share on it are taking us back. +It's about a few people loving you up close and about those people being enough. +So a lot of people are confused by the idea of no hard sticker price. +They see it as an unpredictable risk, but the things I've done, the Kickstarter, the street, the doorbell, I don't see these things as risk. +I see them as trust. +Now, the online tools to make the exchange as easy and as instinctive as the street, they're getting there. +But the perfect tools aren't going to help us if we can't face each other and give and receive fearlessly, but, more important -- to ask without shame. +My music career has been spent trying to encounter people on the Internet the way I could on the box. +So blogging and tweeting not just about my tour dates and my new video but about our work and our art and our fears and our hangovers, our mistakes, and we see each other. +And I think when we really see each other, we want to help each other. +I think people have been obsessed with the wrong question, which is, "How do we make people pay for music?" +What if we started asking, "How do we let people pay for music?" +Thank you. +The most massive tsunami perfect storm is bearing down upon us. +This perfect storm is mounting a grim reality, increasingly grim reality, and we are facing that reality with the full belief that we can solve our problems with technology, and that's very understandable. +Now, this perfect storm that we are facing is the result of our rising population, rising towards 10 billion people, land that is turning to desert, and, of course, climate change. +Now there's no question about it at all: we will only solve the problem of replacing fossil fuels with technology. +But fossil fuels, carbon -- coal and gas -- are by no means the only thing that is causing climate change. +Desertification is a fancy word for land that is turning to desert, and this happens only when we create too much bare ground. +There's no other cause. +And I intend to focus on most of the world's land that is turning to desert. +But I have for you a very simple message that offers more hope than you can imagine. +We have environments where humidity is guaranteed throughout the year. +On those, it is almost impossible to create vast areas of bare ground. +No matter what you do, nature covers it up so quickly. +And we have environments where we have months of humidity followed by months of dryness, and that is where desertification is occurring. +Fortunately, with space technology now, we can look at it from space, and when we do, you can see the proportions fairly well. +Generally, what you see in green is not desertifying, and what you see in brown is, and these are by far the greatest areas of the Earth. +About two thirds, I would guess, of the world is desertifying. +I took this picture in the Tihamah Desert while 25 millimeters -- that's an inch of rain -- was falling. +Think of it in terms of drums of water, each containing 200 liters. +Over 1,000 drums of water fell on every hectare of that land that day. +The next day, the land looked like this. +Where had that water gone? +Some of it ran off as flooding, but most of the water that soaked into the soil simply evaporated out again, exactly as it does in your garden if you leave the soil uncovered. +Now, because the fate of water and carbon are tied to soil organic matter, when we damage soils, you give off carbon. +Carbon goes back to the atmosphere. +Now you're told over and over, repeatedly, that desertification is only occurring in arid and semi-arid areas of the world, and that tall grasslands like this one in high rainfall are of no consequence. +But if you do not look at grasslands but look down into them, you find that most of the soil in that grassland that you've just seen is bare and covered with a crust of algae, leading to increased runoff and evaporation. +That is the cancer of desertification that we do not recognize till its terminal form. +Now we know that desertification is caused by livestock, mostly cattle, sheep and goats, overgrazing the plants, leaving the soil bare and giving off methane. +Almost everybody knows this, from nobel laureates to golf caddies, or was taught it, as I was. +Now, the environments like you see here, dusty environments in Africa where I grew up, and I loved wildlife, and so I grew up hating livestock because of the damage they were doing. +And then my university education as an ecologist reinforced my beliefs. +Well, I have news for you. +We were once just as certain that the world was flat. +We were wrong then, and we are wrong again. +And I want to invite you now to come along on my journey of reeducation and discovery. +When I was a young man, a young biologist in Africa, I was involved in setting aside marvelous areas as future national parks. +Now no sooner this was in the 1950s and no sooner did we remove the hunting, drum-beating people to protect the animals, than the land began to deteriorate, as you see in this park that we formed. +Now, no livestock were involved, but suspecting that we had too many elephants now, I did the research and I proved we had too many, and I recommended that we would have to reduce their numbers and bring them down to a level that the land could sustain. +Now, that was a terrible decision for me to have to make, and it was political dynamite, frankly. +So our government formed a team of experts to evaluate my research. +They did. They agreed with me, and over the following years, we shot 40,000 elephants to try to stop the damage. +And it got worse, not better. +Loving elephants as I do, that was the saddest and greatest blunder of my life, and I will carry that to my grave. +One good thing did come out of it. +It made me absolutely determined to devote my life to finding solutions. +When I came to the United States, I got a shock, to find national parks like this one desertifying as badly as anything in Africa. +And there'd been no livestock on this land for over 70 years. +And I found that American scientists had no explanation for this except that it is arid and natural. +So I then began looking at all the research plots I could over the whole of the Western United States where cattle had been removed to prove that it would stop desertification, but I found the opposite, as we see on this research station, where this grassland that was green in 1961, by 2002 had changed to that situation. +And the authors of the position paper on climate change from which I obtained these pictures attribute this change to "unknown processes." +Clearly, we have never understood what is causing desertification, which has destroyed many civilizations and now threatens us globally. +We have never understood it. +Take one square meter of soil and make it bare like this is down here, and I promise you, you will find it much colder at dawn and much hotter at midday than that same piece of ground if it's just covered with litter, plant litter. +You have changed the microclimate. +Now, by the time you are doing that and increasing greatly the percentage of bare ground on more than half the world's land, you are changing macroclimate. +But we have just simply not understood why was it beginning to happen 10,000 years ago? +Why has it accelerated lately? +We had no understanding of that. +What we had failed to understand was that these seasonal humidity environments of the world, the soil and the vegetation developed with very large numbers of grazing animals, and that these grazing animals developed with ferocious pack-hunting predators. +Now, the main defense against pack-hunting predators is to get into herds, and the larger the herd, the safer the individuals. +Now, large herds dung and urinate all over their own food, and they have to keep moving, and it was that movement that prevented the overgrazing of plants, while the periodic trampling ensured good cover of the soil, as we see where a herd has passed. +This picture is a typical seasonal grassland. +It has just come through four months of rain, and it's now going into eight months of dry season. +And watch the change as it goes into this long dry season. +Now, all of that grass you see aboveground has to decay biologically before the next growing season, and if it doesn't, the grassland and the soil begin to die. +Now, if it does not decay biologically, it shifts to oxidation, which is a very slow process, and this smothers and kills grasses, leading to a shift to woody vegetation and bare soil, releasing carbon. +To prevent that, we have traditionally used fire. +But fire also leaves the soil bare, releasing carbon, and worse than that, burning one hectare of grassland gives off more, and more damaging, pollutants than 6,000 cars. +And we are burning in Africa, every single year, more than one billion hectares of grasslands, and almost nobody is talking about it. +We justify the burning, as scientists, because it does remove the dead material and it allows the plants to grow. +Now, looking at this grassland of ours that has gone dry, what could we do to keep that healthy? +And bear in mind, I'm talking of most of the world's land now. +Okay? We cannot reduce animal numbers to rest it more without causing desertification and climate change. +We cannot burn it without causing desertification and climate change. +What are we going to do? +There is only one option, I'll repeat to you, only one option left to climatologists and scientists, and that is to do the unthinkable, and to use livestock, bunched and moving, as a proxy for former herds and predators, and mimic nature. +There is no other alternative left to mankind. +So let's do that. +So on this bit of grassland, we'll do it, but just in the foreground. +We'll impact it very heavily with cattle to mimic nature, and we've done so, and look at that. +All of that grass is now covering the soil as dung, urine and litter or mulch, as every one of the gardeners amongst you would understand, and that soil is ready to absorb and hold the rain, to store carbon, and to break down methane. +And we did that, without using fire to damage the soil, and the plants are free to grow. +When I first realized that we had no option as scientists but to use much-vilified livestock to address climate change and desertification, I was faced with a real dilemma. +How were we to do it? +We'd had 10,000 years of extremely knowledgeable pastoralists bunching and moving their animals, but they had created the great manmade deserts of the world. +Then we'd had 100 years of modern rain science, and that had accelerated desertification, as we first discovered in Africa and then confirmed in the United States, and as you see in this picture of land managed by the federal government. +Clearly more was needed than bunching and moving the animals, and humans, over thousands of years, had never been able to deal with nature's complexity. +But we biologists and ecologists had never tackled anything as complex as this. +So rather than reinvent the wheel, I began studying other professions to see if anybody had. +And I found there were planning techniques that I could take and adapt to our biological need, and from those I developed what we call holistic management and planned grazing, a planning process, and that does address all of nature's complexity and our social, environmental, economic complexity. +Let's look at some results. +This is land close to land that we manage in Zimbabwe. +It has just come through four months of very good rains it got that year, and it's going into the long dry season. +But as you can see, all of that rain, almost of all it, has evaporated from the soil surface. +Their river is dry despite the rain just having ended, and we have 150,000 people on almost permanent food aid. +Now let's go to our land nearby on the same day, with the same rainfall, and look at that. +Our river is flowing and healthy and clean. +It's fine. +The production of grass, shrubs, trees, wildlife, everything is now more productive, and we have virtually no fear of dry years. +And we did that by increasing the cattle and goats 400 percent, planning the grazing to mimic nature and integrate them with all the elephants, buffalo, giraffe and other animals that we have. +But before we began, our land looked like that. +This site was bare and eroding for over 30 years regardless of what rain we got. +Okay? Watch the marked tree and see the change as we use livestock to mimic nature. +This was another site where it had been bare and eroding, and at the base of the marked small tree, we had lost over 30 centimeters of soil. Okay? +And again, watch the change just using livestock to mimic nature. +And there are fallen trees in there now, because the better land is now attracting elephants, etc. +This land in Mexico was in terrible condition, and I've had to mark the hill because the change is so profound. +I began helping a family in the Karoo Desert in the 1970s turn the desert that you see on the right there back to grassland, and thankfully, now their grandchildren are on the land with hope for the future. +And look at the amazing change in this one, where that gully has completely healed using nothing but livestock mimicking nature, and once more, we have the third generation of that family on that land with their flag still flying. +The vast grasslands of Patagonia are turning to desert as you see here. +The man in the middle is an Argentinian researcher, and he has documented the steady decline of that land over the years as they kept reducing sheep numbers. +They put 25,000 sheep in one flock, really mimicking nature now with planned grazing, and they have documented a 50-percent increase in the production of the land in the first year. +We now have in the violent Horn of Africa pastoralists planning their grazing to mimic nature and openly saying it is the only hope they have of saving their families and saving their culture. +Ninety-five percent of that land can only feed people from animals. +I remind you that I am talking about most of the world's land here that controls our fate, including the most violent region of the world, where only animals can feed people from about 95 percent of the land. +What we are doing globally is causing climate change as much as, I believe, fossil fuels, and maybe more than fossil fuels. +But worse than that, it is causing hunger, poverty, violence, social breakdown and war, and as I am talking to you, millions of men, women and children are suffering and dying. +And if this continues, we are unlikely to be able to stop the climate changing, even after we have eliminated the use of fossil fuels. +I believe I've shown you how we can work with nature at very low cost to reverse all this. +I can think of almost nothing that offers more hope for our planet, for your children, and their children, and all of humanity. +Thank you. +Thank you. Thank you, Chris. +Chris Anderson: Thank you. I have, and I'm sure everyone here has, A) a hundred questions, B) wants to hug you. +I'm just going to ask you one quick question. +When you first start this and you bring in a flock of animals, it's desert. What do they eat? How does that part work? +How do you start? +Allan Savory: Well, we have done this for a long time, and the only time we have ever had to provide any feed is during mine reclamation, where it's 100 percent bare. +It's a little bit technical to explain here, but just that. +CA: Well, I would love to -- I mean, this such an interesting and important idea. +The best people on our blog are going to come and talk to you and try and -- I want to get more on this that we could share along with the talk.AS: Wonderful. +CA: That is an astonishing talk, truly an astonishing talk, and I think you heard that we all are cheering you on your way. +Thank you so much.AS: Well, thank you. Thank you. Thank you, Chris. +The Kraken, a beast so terrifying it was said to devour men and ships and whales, and so enormous it could be mistaken for an island. +Nevertheless, there are giants in the ocean, and we now have video proof, as those of you that saw the Discovery Channel documentary are no doubt aware. +I was one of the three scientists on this expedition that took place last summer off Japan. +I'm the short one. +The other two are Dr. Tsunemi Kubodera and Dr. Steve O'Shea. +I owe my participation in this now-historic event to TED. +In 2010, there was a TED event called Mission Blue held aboard the Lindblad Explorer in the Galapagos as part of the fulfillment of Sylvia Earle's TED wish. +I spoke about a new way of exploring the ocean, one that focuses on attracting animals instead of scaring them away. +Mike deGruy was also invited, and he spoke with great passion about his love of the ocean, and he also talked to me about applying my approach to something he's been involved with for a very long time, which is the hunt for the giant squid. +This came out of hundreds of dives I have made, farting around in the dark using these platforms, and my impression that I saw more animals working from the submersible than I did with either of the remote-operated vehicles. +But that could just be because the submersible has a wider field of view. +But I also felt like I saw more animals working with the Tiburon than the Ventana, two vehicles with the same field of view but different propulsion systems. +So my suspicion was that it might have something to do with the amount of noise they make. +So I set up a hydrophone on the bottom of the ocean, and I had each of these fly by at the same speed and distance and recorded the sound they made. +The Johnson Sea-Link -- (whirring noise) -- which you can probably just barely hear here, uses electric thrusters -- very, very quiet. +The Tiburon also uses electric powered thrusters. +It's also pretty quiet, but a bit noisier. (Louder whirring noise) But most deep-diving ROVs these days use hydraulics and they sound like the Ventana. (Loud beeping noise) I think that's got to be scaring a lot of animals away. +That's visible to our eye, but it's the equivalent of infrared in the deep sea. +Now, this pinwheel of light that the Atolla produces is known as a bioluminescent burglar alarm and is a form of defense. +It's a scream for help, a last-ditch attempt for escape, and a common form of defense in the deep sea. +The approach worked. +Whereas all previous expeditions had failed to garner a single video glimpse of the giant, we managed six, and the first triggered wild excitement. +Edith Widder (on video): Oh my God. Oh my God! Are you kidding me?Other scientists: Oh ho ho! That's just hanging there. +EW: It was like it was teasing us, doing a kind of fan dance -- now you see me, now you don't -- and we had four such teasing appearances, and then on the fifth, it came in and totally wowed us. +Narrator: (Speaking in Japanese) Scientists: Ooh. Bang! Oh my God! Whoa! +EW: The full monty. +What really wowed me about that was the way it came in up over the e-jelly and then attacked the enormous thing next to it, which I think it mistook for the predator on the e-jelly. +But even more incredible was the footage shot from the Triton submersible. +Now, what you're seeing is the intensified camera's view under red light, and that's all Dr. Kubodera could see when the giant comes in here. +And then he got so excited, he turned on his flashlight because he wanted to see better, and the giant didn't run away, so he risked turning on the white lights on the submersible, bringing a creature of legend from the misty history into high-resolution video. +It was absolutely breathtaking, and had this animal had its feeding tentacles intact and fully extended, it would have been as tall as a two-story house. +How could something that big live in our ocean and yet remain unfilmed until now? +We've only explored about five percent of our ocean. +There are great discoveries yet to be made down there, fantastic creatures representing millions of years of evolution and possibly bioactive compounds that could benefit us in ways that we can't even yet imagine. +Yet we have spent only a tiny fraction of the money on ocean exploration that we've spent on space exploration. +We need a NASA-like organization for ocean exploration, because we need to be exploring and protecting our life support systems here on Earth. +We need thank you. Exploration is the engine that drives innovation. +Innovation drives economic growth. +So let's all go exploring, but let's do it in a way that doesn't scare the animals away, or, as Mike deGruy once said, "If you want to get away from it all and see something you've never seen, or have an excellent chance of seeing something that no one's ever seen, get in a sub." +He should have been with us for this adventure. +We miss him. +There's so many of you. +When I was a kid, I hid my heart under the bed, because my mother said, "If you're not careful, someday someone's going to break it." +Take it from me: Under the bed is not a good hiding spot. +I know because I've been shot down so many times, I get altitude sickness just from standing up for myself. +But that's what we were told. +"Stand up for yourself." +And that's hard to do if you don't know who you are. +We were expected to define ourselves at such an early age, and if we didn't do it, others did it for us. +And at the same time we were being told what we were, we were being asked, "What do you want to be when you grow up?" +I always thought that was an unfair question. +It presupposes that we can't be what we already are. +We were kids. +When I was a kid, I wanted to be a man. +I wanted a registered retirement savings plan that would keep me in candy long enough to make old age sweet. +When I was a kid, I wanted to shave. +Now, not so much. +When I was eight, I wanted to be a marine biologist. +When I was nine, I saw the movie "Jaws," and thought to myself, "No, thank you." +And when I was 10, I was told that my parents left because they didn't want me. +When I was 11, I wanted to be left alone. +When I was 12, I wanted to die. When I was 13, I wanted to kill a kid. +When I was 14, I was asked to seriously consider a career path. +I said, "I'd like to be a writer." +And they said, "Choose something realistic." +So I said, "Professional wrestler." +And they said, "Don't be stupid." +See, they asked me what I wanted to be, then told me what not to be. +And I wasn't the only one. +We were being told that we somehow must become what we are not, sacrificing what we are to inherit the masquerade of what we will be. +I was being told to accept the identity that others will give me. +And I wondered, what made my dreams so easy to dismiss? +Granted, my dreams are shy, because they're Canadian. My dreams are self-conscious and overly apologetic. +They're standing alone at the high school dance, and they've never been kissed. +See, my dreams got called names too. +Silly. Foolish. Impossible. +But I kept dreaming. +I was going to be a wrestler. I had it all figured out. +I was going to be The Garbage Man. +My finishing move was going to be The Trash Compactor. +My saying was going to be, "I'm taking out the trash!" +And then this guy, Duke "The Dumpster" Droese, stole my entire shtick. +I was crushed, as if by a trash compactor. +I thought to myself, "What now? Where do I turn?" +Poetry. +Like a boomerang, the thing I loved came back to me. +One of the first lines of poetry I can remember writing was in response to a world that demanded I hate myself. +From age 15 to 18, I hated myself for becoming the thing that I loathed: a bully. +When I was 19, I wrote, "I will love myself despite the ease with which I lean toward the opposite." +Standing up for yourself doesn't have to mean embracing violence. +When I was a kid, I traded in homework assignments for friendship, then gave each friend a late slip for never showing up on time, and in most cases, not at all. +I gave myself a hall pass to get through each broken promise. +And I remember this plan, born out of frustration from a kid who kept calling me "Yogi," then pointed at my tummy and said, "Too many picnic baskets." +Turns out it's not that hard to trick someone, and one day before class, I said, "Yeah, you can copy my homework," and I gave him all the wrong answers that I'd written down the night before. +He got his paper back expecting a near-perfect score, and couldn't believe it when he looked across the room at me and held up a zero. +I knew I didn't have to hold up my paper of 28 out of 30, but my satisfaction was complete when he looked at me, puzzled, and I thought to myself, "Smarter than the average bear, motherfucker." +This is who I am. +This is how I stand up for myself. +When I was a kid, I used to think that pork chops and karate chops were the same thing. +I thought they were both pork chops. +My grandmother thought it was cute, and because they were my favorite, she let me keep doing it. +Not really a big deal. +One day, before I realized fat kids are not designed to climb trees, I fell out of a tree and bruised the right side of my body. +I didn't want to tell my grandmother because I was scared I'd get in trouble for playing somewhere I shouldn't have been. +The gym teacher noticed the bruise, and I got sent to the principal's office. +From there, I was sent to another small room with a really nice lady who asked me all kinds of questions about my life at home. +I saw no reason to lie. +As far as I was concerned, life was pretty good. +I told her, whenever I'm sad, my grandmother gives me karate chops. +This led to a full-scale investigation, and I was removed from the house for three days, until they finally decided to ask how I got the bruises. +News of this silly little story quickly spread through the school, and I earned my first nickname: Porkchop. +To this day, I hate pork chops. +I'm not the only kid who grew up this way, surrounded by people who used to say that rhyme about sticks and stones, as if broken bones hurt more than the names we got called, and we got called them all. +So we grew up believing no one would ever fall in love with us, that we'd be lonely forever, that we'd never meet someone to make us feel like the sun was something they built for us in their toolshed. +So broken heartstrings bled the blues, and we tried to empty ourselves so we'd feel nothing. +Don't tell me that hurts less than a broken bone, that an ingrown life is something surgeons can cut away, that there's no way for it to metastasize; it does. +She was eight years old, our first day of grade three when she got called ugly. +We both got moved to the back of class so we would stop getting bombarded by spitballs. +But the school halls were a battleground. +We found ourselves outnumbered day after wretched day. +We used to stay inside for recess, because outside was worse. +Outside, we'd have to rehearse running away, or learn to stay still like statues, giving no clues that we were there. +In grade five, they taped a sign to the front of her desk that read, "Beware of dog." +To this day, despite a loving husband, she doesn't think she's beautiful, because of a birthmark that takes up a little less than half her face. +Kids used to say, "She looks like a wrong answer that someone tried to erase, but couldn't quite get the job done." +And they'll never understand that she's raising two kids whose definition of beauty begins with the word "Mom," because they see her heart before they see her skin, because she's only ever always been amazing. +He was a broken branch grafted onto a different family tree, adopted, not because his parents opted for a different destiny. +He tried to kill himself in grade 10 when a kid who could still go home to Mom and Dad had the audacity to tell him, "Get over it." +As if depression is something that could be remedied by any of the contents found in a first-aid kit. +We weren't the only kids who grew up this way. +To this day, kids are still being called names. +The classics were "Hey, stupid," "Hey, spaz." +Seems like every school has an arsenal of names getting updated every year. +And if a kid breaks in a school and no one around chooses to hear, do they make a sound? +Are they just background noise from a soundtrack stuck on repeat, when people say things like, "Kids can be cruel." +Every school was a big top circus tent, and the pecking order went from acrobats to lion tamers, from clowns to carnies, all of these miles ahead of who we were. +We were freaks -- lobster-claw boys and bearded ladies, oddities juggling depression and loneliness, playing solitaire, spin the bottle, trying to kiss the wounded parts of ourselves and heal, but at night, while the others slept, we kept walking the tightrope. +It was practice, and yes, some of us fell. +You built a cast around your broken heart and signed it yourself, "They were wrong." +Because maybe you didn't belong to a group or a clique. +Maybe they decided to pick you last for basketball or everything. +Maybe you used to bring bruises and broken teeth to show-and-tell, but never told, because how can you hold your ground if everyone around you wants to bury you beneath it? +You have to believe that they were wrong. +They have to be wrong. +Why else would we still be here? +We grew up learning to cheer on the underdog because we see ourselves in them. +We stem from a root planted in the belief that we are not what we were called. +We are not abandoned cars stalled out and sitting empty on some highway, and if in some way we are, don't worry. +We only got out to walk and get gas. +We are graduating members from the class of We Made It, not the faded echoes of voices crying out, "Names will never hurt me." +Of course they did. +But our lives will only ever always continue to be a balancing act that has less to do with pain and more to do with beauty. +I want to talk about social innovation and social entrepreneurship. +I happen to have triplets. +They're little. They're five years old. +Sometimes I tell people I have triplets. They say, "Really? How many?" +Here's a picture of the kids -- that's Sage, and Annalisa and Rider. +Now, I also happen to be gay. +Being gay and fathering triplets is by far the most socially innovative, socially entrepreneurial thing I have ever done. +The real social innovation I want to talk about involves charity. +I want to talk about how the things we've been taught to think about giving and about charity and about the nonprofit sector, are actually undermining the causes we love, and our profound yearning to change the world. +But before I do that, I want to ask if we even believe that the nonprofit sector has any serious role to play in changing the world. +A lot of people say now that business will lift up the developing economies, and social business will take care of the rest. +And I do believe that business will move the great mass of humanity forward. +But it always leaves behind that 10 percent or more that is most disadvantaged or unlucky. +And social business needs markets, and there are some issues for which you just can't develop the kind of money measures that you need for a market. +I sit on the board of a center for the developmentally disabled, and these people want laughter and compassion and they want love. +How do you monetize that? +And that's where the nonprofit sector and philanthropy come in. +Philanthropy is the market for love. +It is the market for all those people for whom there is no other market coming. +And so if we really want, like Buckminster Fuller said, a world that works for everyone, with no one and nothing left out, then the nonprofit sector has to be a serious part of the conversation. +But it doesn't seem to be working. +Why have our breast cancer charities not come close to finding a cure for breast cancer, or our homeless charities not come close to ending homelessness in any major city? +Why has poverty remained stuck at 12 percent of the U.S. population for 40 years? +And the answer is, these social problems are massive in scale, our organizations are tiny up against them, and we have a belief system that keeps them tiny. +We have two rulebooks. +We have one for the nonprofit sector, and one for the rest of the economic world. +It's an apartheid, and it discriminates against the nonprofit sector in five different areas, the first being compensation. +So in the for-profit sector, the more value you produce, the more money you can make. +But we don't like nonprofits to use money to incentivize people to produce more in social service. +We have a visceral reaction to the idea that anyone would make very much money helping other people. +Interestingly, we don't have a visceral reaction to the notion that people would make a lot of money not helping other people. +You know, you want to make 50 million dollars selling violent video games to kids, go for it. +We'll put you on the cover of Wired magazine. +Businessweek did a survey, looked at the compensation packages for MBAs 10 years out of business school. +And the median compensation for a Stanford MBA, with bonus, at the age of 38, was 400,000 dollars. +Meanwhile, for the same year, the average salary for the CEO of a $5 million-plus medical charity in the U.S. +was 232,000 dollars, and for a hunger charity, 84,000 dollars. +Now, there's no way you're going to get a lot of people with $400,000 talent to make a $316,000 sacrifice every year to become the CEO of a hunger charity. +Some people say, "Well, that's just because those MBA types are greedy." +Not necessarily. They might be smart. +The second area of discrimination is advertising and marketing. +So we tell the for-profit sector, "Spend, spend, spend on advertising, until the last dollar no longer produces a penny of value." +But we don't like to see our donations spent on advertising in charity. +Our attitude is, "Well, look, if you can get the advertising donated, you know, to air at four o'clock in the morning, I'm okay with that. +But I don't want my donation spent on advertising, I want it go to the needy." +As if the money invested in advertising could not bring in dramatically greater sums of money to serve the needy. +In the 1990s, my company created the long-distance AIDSRide bicycle journeys, and the 60 mile-long breast cancer three-day walks, and over the course of nine years, we had 182,000 ordinary heroes participate, and they raised a total of 581 million dollars. +They raised more money more quickly for these causes than any events in history, all based on the idea that people are weary of being asked to do the least they can possibly do. +People are yearning to measure the full distance of their potential on behalf of the causes that they care about deeply. +But they have to be asked. +We got that many people to participate by buying full-page ads in The New York Times, in The Boston Globe, in prime time radio and TV advertising. +Do you know how many people we would've gotten if we put up fliers in the laundromat? +Charitable giving has remained stuck in the U.S., at two percent of GDP, ever since we started measuring it in the 1970s. +That's an important fact, because it tells us that in 40 years, the nonprofit sector has not been able to wrestle any market share away from the for-profit sector. +And if you think about it, how could one sector possibly take market share away from another sector if it isn't really allowed to market? +And if we tell the consumer brands, "You may advertise all the benefits of your product," but we tell charities, "You cannot advertise all the good that you do," where do we think the consumer dollars are going to flow? +The third area of discrimination is the taking of risk in pursuit of new ideas for generating revenue. +So Disney can make a new $200 million movie that flops, and nobody calls the attorney general. +But you do a little $1 million community fundraiser for the poor, and it doesn't produce a 75 percent profit to the cause in the first 12 months, and your character is called into question. +So nonprofits are really reluctant to attempt any brave, daring, giant-scale new fundraising endeavors, for fear that if the thing fails, their reputations will be dragged through the mud. +Well, you and I know when you prohibit failure, you kill innovation. +If you kill innovation in fundraising, you can't raise more revenue; if you can't raise more revenue, you can't grow; and if you can't grow, you can't possibly solve large social problems. +The fourth area is time. +So Amazon went for six years without returning any profit to investors, and people had patience. +They knew that there was a long-term objective down the line, of building market dominance. +But if a nonprofit organization ever had a dream of building magnificent scale that required that for six years, no money was going to go to the needy, it was all going to be invested in building this scale, we would expect a crucifixion. +The last area is profit itself. +So the for-profit sector can pay people profits in order to attract their capital for their new ideas, but you can't pay profits in a nonprofit sector, so the for-profit sector has a lock on the multi-trillion-dollar capital markets, and the nonprofit sector is starved for growth and risk and idea capital. +If we have any doubts about the effects of this separate rule book, this statistic is sobering: From 1970 to 2009, the number of nonprofits that really grew, that crossed the $50 million annual revenue barrier, is 144. +In the same time, the number of for-profits that crossed it is 46,136. +So we're dealing with social problems that are massive in scale, and our organizations can't generate any scale. +All of the scale goes to Coca-Cola and Burger King. +So why do we think this way? +Well, like most fanatical dogma in America, these ideas come from old Puritan beliefs. +The Puritans came here for religious reasons, or so they said, but they also came here because they wanted to make a lot of money. +They were pious people, but they were also really aggressive capitalists, and they were accused of extreme forms of profit-making tendencies, compared to the other colonists. +But at the same time, the Puritans were Calvinists, so they were taught literally to hate themselves. +They were taught that self-interest was a raging sea that was a sure path to eternal damnation. +This created a real problem for these people. +Here they've come all the way across the Atlantic to make all this money, but making all this money will get you sent directly to Hell. +What were they to do about this? +Well, charity became their answer. +It became this economic sanctuary, where they could do penance for their profit-making tendencies -- at five cents on the dollar. +So of course, how could you make money in charity if charity was your penance for making money? +Financial incentive was exiled from the realm of helping others, so that it could thrive in the area of making money for yourself, and in 400 years, nothing has intervened to say, "That's counterproductive and that's unfair." +Now, this ideology gets policed by this one very dangerous question, which is, "What percentage of my donation goes to the cause versus overhead?" +There are a lot of problems with this question. +I'm going to just focus on two. +First, it makes us think that overhead is a negative, that it is somehow not part of the cause. +But it absolutely is, especially if it's being used for growth. +Now, this idea that overhead is somehow an enemy of the cause creates this second, much larger problem, which is, it forces organizations to go without the overhead things they really need to grow, in the interest of keeping overhead low. +So we've all been taught that charities should spend as little as possible on overhead things like fundraising under the theory that, well, the less money you spend on fundraising, the more money there is available for the cause. +Well, that's true if it's a depressing world in which this pie cannot be made any bigger. +I'll give you two examples. We launched the AIDSRides with an initial investment of 50,000 dollars in risk capital. +Within nine years, we had multiplied that 1,982 times, into 108 million dollars after all expenses, for AIDS services. +We launched the breast cancer three-days with an initial investment of 350,000 dollars in risk capital. +Within just five years, we had multiplied that 554 times, into 194 million dollars after all expenses, for breast cancer research. +Now, if you were a philanthropist really interested in breast cancer, what would make more sense: go out and find the most innovative researcher in the world and give her 350,000 dollars for research, or give her fundraising department the 350,000 dollars to multiply it into 194 million dollars for breast cancer research? +2002 was our most successful year ever. +We netted for breast cancer alone, that year alone, 71 million dollars after all expenses. +And then we went out of business, suddenly and traumatically. +Why? Well, the short story is, our sponsors split on us. +They wanted to distance themselves from us because we were being crucified in the media for investing 40 percent of the gross in recruitment and customer service and the magic of the experience, and there is no accounting terminology to describe that kind of investment in growth and in the future, other than this demonic label of "overhead." +So on one day, all 350 of our great employees lost their jobs ... +because they were labeled "overhead." +Our sponsor went and tried the events on their own. +The overhead went up. +Net income for breast cancer research went down by 84 percent, or 60 million dollars, in one year. +This is what happens when we confuse morality with frugality. +We've all been taught that the bake sale with five percent overhead is morally superior to the professional fundraising enterprise with 40 percent overhead, but we're missing the most important piece of information, which is: What is the actual size of these pies? +Who cares if the bake sale only has five percent overhead if it's tiny? +What if the bake sale only netted 71 dollars for charity because it made no investment in its scale and the professional fundraising enterprise netted 71 million dollars because it did? +Now which pie would we prefer, and which pie do we think people who are hungry would prefer? +Here's how all of this impacts the big picture. +I said that charitable giving is two percent of GDP in the United States. +That's about 300 billion dollars a year. +But only about 20 percent of that, or 60 billion dollars, goes to health and human services causes. +The rest goes to religion and higher education and hospitals, and that 60 billion dollars is not nearly enough to tackle these problems. +Now we're talking scale. +Now we're talking the potential for real change. +But it's never going to happen by forcing these organizations to lower their horizons to the demoralizing objective of keeping their overhead low. +Our generation does not want its epitaph to read, "We kept charity overhead low." +We want it to read that we changed the world, and that part of the way we did that was by changing the way we think about these things. +So the next time you're looking at a charity, don't ask about the rate of their overhead. +Ask about the scale of their dreams, their Apple-, Google-, Amazon-scale dreams, how they measure their progress toward those dreams, and what resources they need to make them come true, regardless of what the overhead is. +Who cares what the overhead is if these problems are actually getting solved? +If we can have that kind of generosity -- a generosity of thought -- then the non-profit sector can play a massive role in changing the world for all those citizens most desperately in need of it to change. +Annalisa Smith-Pallotta: That would be Sage Smith-Pallotta: a real social Rider Smith-Pallotta: innovation. +Dan Pallotta: Thank you very much. +Thank you. +So raise your hand if you know someone in your immediate family or circle of friends who suffers from some form of mental illness. +Yeah. I thought so. Not surprised. +And raise your hand if you think that basic research on fruit flies has anything to do with understanding mental illness in humans. +Yeah. I thought so. I'm also not surprised. +I can see I've got my work cut out for me here. +As we heard from Dr. Insel this morning, psychiatric disorders like autism, depression and schizophrenia take a terrible toll on human suffering. +We know much less about their treatment and the understanding of their basic mechanisms than we do about diseases of the body. +Think about it: In 2013, the second decade of the millennium, if you're concerned about a cancer diagnosis and you go to your doctor, you get bone scans, biopsies and blood tests. +In 2013, if you're concerned about a depression diagnosis, you go to your doctor, and what do you get? +A questionnaire. +Now, part of the reason for this is that we have an oversimplified and increasingly outmoded view of the biological basis of psychiatric disorders. +We tend to view them -- and the popular press aids and abets this view -- as chemical imbalances in the brain, as if the brain were some kind of bag of chemical soup full of dopamine, serotonin and norepinephrine. +This view is conditioned by the fact that many of the drugs that are prescribed to treat these disorders, like Prozac, act by globally changing brain chemistry, as if the brain were indeed a bag of chemical soup. +But that can't be the answer, because these drugs actually don't work all that well. +A lot of people won't take them, or stop taking them, because of their unpleasant side effects. +These drugs have so many side effects because using them to treat a complex psychiatric disorder is a bit like trying to change your engine oil by opening a can and pouring it all over the engine block. +Some of it will dribble into the right place, but a lot of it will do more harm than good. +Now, an emerging view that you also heard about from Dr. Insel this morning, is that psychiatric disorders are actually disturbances of neural circuits that mediate emotion, mood and affect. +When we think about cognition, we analogize the brain to a computer. That's no problem. +Well it turns out that the computer analogy is just as valid for emotion. +It's just that we don't tend to think about it that way. +But we know much less about the circuit basis of psychiatric disorders because of the overwhelming dominance of this chemical imbalance hypothesis. +Now, it's not that chemicals are not important in psychiatric disorders. +It's just that they don't bathe the brain like soup. +Rather, they're released in very specific locations and they act on specific synapses to change the flow of information in the brain. +So if we ever really want to understand the biological basis of psychiatric disorders, we need to pinpoint these locations in the brain where these chemicals act. +Otherwise, we're going to keep pouring oil all over our mental engines and suffering the consequences. +Moreover, once we can do that, we can actually activate specific neurons or we can destroy or inhibit the activity of those neurons. +So if we inhibit a particular type of neuron, and we find that a behavior is blocked, we can conclude that those neurons are necessary for that behavior. +On the other hand, if we activate a group of neurons and we find that that produces the behavior, we can conclude that those neurons are sufficient for the behavior. +So in this way, by doing this kind of test, we can draw cause and effect relationships between the activity of specific neurons in particular circuits and particular behaviors, something that is extremely difficult, if not impossible, to do right now in humans. +But can an organism like a fruit fly, which is -- it's a great model organism because it's got a small brain, it's capable of complex and sophisticated behaviors, it breeds quickly, and it's cheap. +But can an organism like this teach us anything about emotion-like states? +Do these organisms even have emotion-like states, or are they just little digital robots? +Charles Darwin believed that insects have emotion and express them in their behaviors, as he wrote in his 1872 monograph on the expression of the emotions in man and animals. +And my eponymous colleague, Seymour Benzer, believed it as well. +Seymour is the man that introduced the use of drosophila here at CalTech in the '60s as a model organism to study the connection between genes and behavior. +Seymour recruited me to CalTech in the late 1980s. +He was my Jedi and my rabbi while he was here, and Seymour taught me both to love flies and also to play with science. +So how do we ask this question? +It's one thing to believe that flies have emotion-like states, but how do we actually find out whether that's true or not? +Now, in humans we often infer emotional states, as you'll hear later today, from facial expressions. +However, it's a little difficult to do that in fruit flies. +It's kind of like landing on Mars and looking out the window of your spaceship at all the little green men who are surrounding it and trying to figure out, "How do I find out if they have emotions or not?" +What can we do? It's not so easy. +Well, one of the ways that we can start is to try to come up with some general characteristics or properties of emotion-like states such as arousal, and see if we can identify any fly behaviors that might exhibit some of those properties. +So three important ones that I can think of are persistence, gradations in intensity, and valence. +Persistence means long-lasting. +We all know that the stimulus that triggers an emotion causes that emotion to last long after the stimulus is gone. +Gradations of intensity means what it sounds like. +You can dial up the intensity or dial down the intensity of an emotion. +If you're a little bit unhappy, the corners of your mouth turn down and you sniffle, and if you're very unhappy, tears pour down your face and you might sob. +Valence means good or bad, positive or negative. +So we decided to see if flies could be provoked into showing the kind of behavior that you see by the proverbial wasp at the picnic table, you know, the one that keeps coming back to your hamburger the more vigorously you try to swat it away, and it seems to keep getting irritated. +So we built a device, which we call a puff-o-mat, in which we could deliver little brief air puffs to fruit flies in these plastic tubes in our laboratory bench and blow them away. +And what we found is that if we gave these flies in the puff-o-mat several puffs in a row, they became somewhat hyperactive and continued to run around for some time after the air puffs actually stopped and took a while to calm down. +So we quantified this behavior using custom locomotor tracking software developed with my collaborator Pietro Perona, who's in the electrical engineering division here at CalTech. +And what this quantification showed us is that, upon experiencing a train of these air puffs, the flies appear to enter a kind of state of hyperactivity which is persistent, long-lasting, and also appears to be graded. +More puffs, or more intense puffs, make the state last for a longer period of time. +So now we wanted to try to understand something about what controls the duration of this state. +So we decided to use our puff-o-mat and our automated tracking software to screen through hundreds of lines of mutant fruit flies to see if we could find any that showed abnormal responses to the air puffs. +And this is one of the great things about fruit flies. +There are repositories where you can just pick up the phone and order hundreds of vials of flies of different mutants and screen them in your assay and then find out what gene is affected in the mutation. +So doing the screen, we discovered one mutant that took much longer than normal to calm down after the air puffs, and when we examined the gene that was affected in this mutation, it turned out to encode a dopamine receptor. +That's right -- flies, like people, have dopamine, and it acts on their brains and on their synapses through the same dopamine receptor molecules that you and I have. +Dopamine plays a number of important functions in the brain, including in attention, arousal, reward, and disorders of the dopamine system have been linked to a number of mental disorders including drug abuse, Parkinson's disease, and ADHD. +Now, in genetics, it's a little counterintuitive. +We tend to infer the normal function of something by what doesn't happen when we take it away, by the opposite of what we see when we take it away. +So when we take away the dopamine receptor and the flies take longer to calm down, from that we infer that the normal function of this receptor and dopamine is to cause the flies to calm down faster after the puff. +And that's a bit reminiscent of ADHD, which has been linked to disorders of the dopamine system in humans. +So slowly I began to realize that what started out as a rather playful attempt to try to annoy fruit flies might actually have some relevance to a human psychiatric disorder. +Now, how far does this analogy go? +As many of you know, individuals afflicted with ADHD also have learning disabilities. +Is that true of our dopamine receptor mutant flies? +Remarkably, the answer is yes. +As Seymour showed back in the 1970s, flies, like songbirds, as you just heard, are capable of learning. +You can train a fly to avoid an odor, shown here in blue, if you pair that odor with a shock. +Then when you give those trained flies the chance to choose between a tube with the shock-paired odor and another odor, it avoids the tube containing the blue odor that was paired with shock. +Well, if you do this test on dopamine receptor mutant flies, they don't learn. Their learning score is zero. +They flunk out of CalTech. +So that means that these flies have two abnormalities, or phenotypes, as we geneticists call them, that one finds in ADHD: hyperactivity and learning disability. +Now what's the causal relationship, if anything, between these phenotypes? +In ADHD, it's often assumed that the hyperactivity causes the learning disability. +The kids can't sit still long enough to focus, so they don't learn. +But it could equally be the case that it's the learning disabilities that cause the hyperactivity. +Because the kids can't learn, they look for other things to distract their attention. +And a final possibility is that there's no relationship at all between learning disabilities and hyperactivity, but that they are caused by a common underlying mechanism in ADHD. +Now people have been wondering about this for a long time in humans, but in flies we can actually test this. +And the way that we do this is to delve deeply into the mind of the fly and begin to untangle its circuitry using genetics. +We take our dopamine receptor mutant flies and we genetically restore, or cure, the dopamine receptor by putting a good copy of the dopamine receptor gene back into the fly brain. +But in each fly, we put it back only into certain neurons and not in others, and then we test each of these flies for their ability to learn and for hyperactivity. +Remarkably, we find we can completely dissociate these two abnormalities. +If we put a good copy of the dopamine receptor back in this elliptical structure called the central complex, the flies are no longer hyperactive, but they still can't learn. +On the other hand, if we put the receptor back in a different structure called the mushroom body, the learning deficit is rescued, the flies learn well, but they're still hyperactive. +What that tells us is that dopamine is not bathing the brain of these flies like soup. +Rather, it's acting to control two different functions on two different circuits, so the reason there are two things wrong with our dopamine receptor flies is that the same receptor is controlling two different functions in two different regions of the brain. +Whether the same thing is true in ADHD in humans we don't know, but these kinds of results should at least cause us to consider that possibility. +So these results make me and my colleagues more convinced than ever that the brain is not a bag of chemical soup, and it's a mistake to try to treat complex psychiatric disorders just by changing the flavor of the soup. +What we need to do is to use our ingenuity and our scientific knowledge to try to design a new generation of treatments that are targeted to specific neurons and specific regions of the brain that are affected in particular psychiatric disorders. +If we can do that, we may be able to cure these disorders without the unpleasant side effects, putting the oil back in our mental engines, just where it's needed. Thank you very much. +Now, extinction is a different kind of death. +It's bigger. +We didn't really realize that until 1914, when the last passenger pigeon, a female named Martha, died at the Cincinnati zoo. +This had been the most abundant bird in the world that'd been in North America for six million years. +Suddenly it wasn't here at all. +Flocks that were a mile wide and 400 miles long used to darken the sun. +Aldo Leopold said this was a biological storm, a feathered tempest. +And indeed it was a keystone species that enriched the entire eastern deciduous forest, from the Mississippi to the Atlantic, from Canada down to the Gulf. +But it went from five billion birds to zero in just a couple decades. +What happened? +Well, commercial hunting happened. +These birds were hunted for meat that was sold by the ton, and it was easy to do because when those big flocks came down to the ground, they were so dense that hundreds of hunters and netters could show up and slaughter them by the tens of thousands. +It was the cheapest source of protein in America. +By the end of the century, there was nothing left but these beautiful skins in museum specimen drawers. +There's an upside to the story. +This made people realize that the same thing was about to happen to the American bison, and so these birds saved the buffalos. +But a lot of other animals weren't saved. +The Carolina parakeet was a parrot that lit up backyards everywhere. +It was hunted to death for its feathers. +There was a bird that people liked on the East Coast called the heath hen. +It was loved. They tried to protect it. It died anyway. +A local newspaper spelled out, "There is no survivor, there is no future, there is no life to be recreated in this form ever again." +There's a sense of deep tragedy that goes with these things, and it happened to lots of birds that people loved. +It happened to lots of mammals. +Another keystone species is a famous animal called the European aurochs. +There was sort of a movie made about it recently. +And the aurochs was like the bison. +This was an animal that basically kept the forest mixed with grasslands across the entire Europe and Asian continent, from Spain to Korea. +The documentation of this animal goes back to the Lascaux cave paintings. +The extinctions still go on. +There's an ibex in Spain called the bucardo. +It went extinct in 2000. +There was a marvelous animal, a marsupial wolf called the thylacine in Tasmania, south of Australia, called the Tasmanian tiger. +It was hunted until there were just a few left to die in zoos. +A little bit of film was shot. +Sorrow, anger, mourning. +Don't mourn. Organize. +What if you could find out that, using the DNA in museum specimens, fossils maybe up to 200,000 years old could be used to bring species back, what would you do? Where would you start? +Well, you'd start by finding out if the biotech is really there. +So he and Ryan organized and hosted a meeting at the Wyss Institute in Harvard bringing together specialists on passenger pigeons, conservation ornithologists, bioethicists, and fortunately passenger pigeon DNA had already been sequenced by a molecular biologist named Beth Shapiro. +All she needed from those specimens at the Smithsonian was a little bit of toe pad tissue, because down in there is what is called ancient DNA. +It's DNA which is pretty badly fragmented, but with good techniques now, you can basically reassemble the whole genome. +Then the question is, can you reassemble, with that genome, the whole bird? +George Church thinks you can. +So in his book, "Regenesis," which I recommend, he has a chapter on the science of bringing back extinct species, and he has a machine called the Multiplex Automated Genome Engineering machine. +It's kind of like an evolution machine. +You try combinations of genes that you write at the cell level and then in organs on a chip, and the ones that win, that you can then put into a living organism. It'll work. +The precision of this, one of George's famous unreadable slides, nevertheless points out that there's a level of precision here right down to the individual base pair. +The passenger pigeon has 1.3 billion base pairs in its genome. +So what you're getting is the capability now of replacing one gene with another variation of that gene. +It's called an allele. +Well that's what happens in normal hybridization anyway. +So this is a form of synthetic hybridization of the genome of an extinct species with the genome of its closest living relative. +Now along the way, George points out that his technology, the technology of synthetic biology, is currently accelerating at four times the rate of Moore's Law. +It's been doing that since 2005, and it's likely to continue. +Okay, the closest living relative of the passenger pigeon is the band-tailed pigeon. They're abundant. There's some around here. +Genetically, the band-tailed pigeon already is mostly living passenger pigeon. +There's just some bits that are band-tailed pigeon. +If you replace those bits with passenger pigeon bits, you've got the extinct bird back, cooing at you. +Now, there's work to do. +You have to figure out exactly what genes matter. +So there's genes for the short tail in the band-tailed pigeon, genes for the long tail in the passenger pigeon, and so on with the red eye, peach-colored breast, flocking, and so on. +Add them all up and the result won't be perfect. +But it should be be perfect enough, because nature doesn't do perfect either. +So this meeting in Boston led to three things. +First off, Ryan and I decided to create a nonprofit called Revive and Restore that would push de-extinction generally and try to have it go in a responsible way, and we would push ahead with the passenger pigeon. +Another direct result was a young grad student named Ben Novak, who had been obsessed with passenger pigeons since he was 14 and had also learned how to work with ancient DNA, himself sequenced the passenger pigeon, using money from his family and friends. +We hired him full-time. +Now, this photograph I took of him last year at the Smithsonian, he's looking down at Martha, the last passenger pigeon alive. +So if he's successful, she won't be the last. +The third result of the Boston meeting was the realization that there are scientists all over the world working on various forms of de-extinction, but they'd never met each other. +And National Geographic got interested because National Geographic has the theory that the last century, discovery was basically finding things, and in this century, discovery is basically making things. +De-extinction falls in that category. +So they hosted and funded this meeting. And 35 scientists, they were conservation biologists and molecular biologists, basically meeting to see if they had work to do together. +Some of these conservation biologists are pretty radical. +There's three of them who are not just re-creating ancient species, they're recreating extinct ecosystems in northern Siberia, in the Netherlands, and in Hawaii. +Henri, from the Netherlands, with a Dutch last name I won't try to pronounce, is working on the aurochs. +The aurochs is the ancestor of all domestic cattle, and so basically its genome is alive, it's just unevenly distributed. +So what they're doing is working with seven breeds of primitive, hardy-looking cattle like that Maremmana primitivo on the top there to rebuild, over time, with selective back-breeding, the aurochs. +Now, re-wilding is moving faster in Korea than it is in America, and so the plan is, with these re-wilded areas all over Europe, they will introduce the aurochs to do its old job, its old ecological role, of clearing the somewhat barren, closed-canopy forest so that it has these biodiverse meadows in it. +Another amazing story came from Alberto Fernndez-Arias. +Alberto worked with the bucardo in Spain. +The last bucardo was a female named Celia who was still alive, but then they captured her, they got a little bit of tissue from her ear, they cryopreserved it in liquid nitrogen, released her back into the wild, but a few months later, she was found dead under a fallen tree. +They took the DNA from that ear, they planted it as a cloned egg in a goat, the pregnancy came to term, and a live baby bucardo was born. +It was the first de-extinction in history. +It was short-lived. +Sometimes interspecies clones have respiration problems. +This one had a malformed lung and died after 10 minutes, but Alberto was confident that cloning has moved along well since then, and this will move ahead, and eventually there will be a population of bucardos back in the mountains in northern Spain. +Cryopreservation pioneer of great depth is Oliver Ryder. +At the San Diego zoo, his frozen zoo has collected the tissues from over 1,000 species over the last 35 years. +Now, when it's frozen that deep, minus 196 degrees Celsius, the cells are intact and the DNA is intact. +They're basically viable cells, so someone like Bob Lanza at Advanced Cell Technology took some of that tissue from an endangered animal called the Javan banteng, put it in a cow, the cow went to term, and what was born was a live, healthy baby Javan banteng, who thrived and is still alive. +The most exciting thing for Bob Lanza is the ability now to take any kind of cell with induced pluripotent stem cells and turn it into germ cells, like sperm and eggs. +So now we go to Mike McGrew who is a scientist at Roslin Institute in Scotland, and Mike's doing miracles with birds. +So he'll take, say, falcon skin cells, fibroblast, turn it into induced pluripotent stem cells. +Since it's so pluripotent, it can become germ plasm. +He then has a way to put the germ plasm into the embryo of a chicken egg so that that chicken will have, basically, the gonads of a falcon. +You get a male and a female each of those, and out of them comes falcons. +Real falcons out of slightly doctored chickens. +Ben Novak was the youngest scientist at the meeting. +He showed how all of this can be put together. +It does raise the question of, they're not going to have passenger pigeon parents to teach them how to be a passenger pigeon. +So what do you do about that? +Well birds are pretty hard-wired, as it happens, so most of that is already in their DNA, but to supplement it, part of Ben's idea is to use homing pigeons to help train the young passenger pigeons how to flock and how to find their way to their old nesting grounds and feeding grounds. +There were some conservationists, really famous conservationists like Stanley Temple, who is one of the founders of conservation biology, and Kate Jones from the IUCN, which does the Red List. +They're excited about all this, but they're also concerned that it might be competitive with the extremely important efforts to protect endangered species that are still alive, that haven't gone extinct yet. +You see, you want to work on protecting the animals out there. +You want to work on getting the market for ivory in Asia down so you're not using 25,000 elephants a year. +But at the same time, conservation biologists are realizing that bad news bums people out. +And so the Red List is really important, keep track of what's endangered and critically endangered, and so on. +So basically, they're learning how to build on good news. +And they see reviving extinct species as the kind of good news you might be able to build on. +Here's a couple related examples. +Captive breeding will be a major part of bringing back these species. +The California condor was down to 22 birds in 1987. +Everybody thought is was finished. +Thanks to captive breeding at the San Diego Zoo, there's 405 of them now, 226 are out in the wild. +That technology will be used on de-extincted animals. +Another success story is the mountain gorilla in Central Africa. +In 1981, Dian Fossey was sure they were going extinct. +There were just 254 left. +Now there are 880. They're increasing in population by three percent a year. +The secret is, they have an eco-tourism program, which is absolutely brilliant. +So this photograph was taken last month by Ryan with an iPhone. +That's how comfortable these wild gorillas are with visitors. +Another interesting project, though it's going to need some help, is the northern white rhinoceros. +There's no breeding pairs left. +But this is the kind of thing that a wide variety of DNA for this animal is available in the frozen zoo. +A bit of cloning, you can get them back. +So where do we go from here? +These have been private meetings so far. +I think it's time for the subject to go public. +What do people think about it? +You know, do you want extinct species back? +Do you want extinct species back? +Tinker Bell is going to come fluttering down. +It is a Tinker Bell moment, because what are people excited about with this? +What are they concerned about? +We're also going to push ahead with the passenger pigeon. +So Ben Novak, even as we speak, is joining the group that Beth Shapiro has at UC Santa Cruz. +They're going to work on the genomes of the passenger pigeon and the band-tailed pigeon. +As that data matures, they'll send it to George Church, who will work his magic, get passenger pigeon DNA out of that. +We'll get help from Bob Lanza and Mike McGrew to get that into germ plasm that can go into chickens that can produce passenger pigeon squabs that can be raised by band-tailed pigeon parents, and then from then on, it's passenger pigeons all the way, maybe for the next six million years. +You can do the same thing, as the costs come down, for the Carolina parakeet, for the great auk, for the heath hen, for the ivory-billed woodpecker, for the Eskimo curlew, for the Caribbean monk seal, for the woolly mammoth. +Because the fact is, humans have made a huge hole in nature in the last 10,000 years. +We have the ability now, and maybe the moral obligation, to repair some of the damage. +Most of that we'll do by expanding and protecting wildlands, by expanding and protecting the populations of endangered species. +But some species that we killed off totally we could consider bringing back to a world that misses them. +Thank you. +Chris Anderson: Thank you. +I've got a question. +So, this is an emotional topic. Some people stand. +I suspect there are some people out there sitting, kind of asking tormented questions, almost, about, well, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait a minute, there's something wrong with mankind interfering in nature in this way. +There's going to be unintended consequences. +You're going to uncork some sort of Pandora's box of who-knows-what. Do they have a point? +Stewart Brand: Well, the earlier point is we interfered in a big way by making these animals go extinct, and many of them were keystone species, and we changed the whole ecosystem they were in by letting them go. +Now, there's the shifting baseline problem, which is, so when these things come back, they might replace some birds that are there that people really know and love. +I think that's, you know, part of how it'll work. +This is a long, slow process -- One of the things I like about it, it's multi-generation. +We will get woolly mammoths back. +CA: Well it feels like both the conversation and the potential here are pretty thrilling. +Thank you so much for presenting. SB: Thank you. +CA: Thank you. +Chris Anderson asked me if I could put the last 25 years of anti-poverty campaigning into 10 minutes for TED. +That's an Englishman asking an Irishman to be succinct. +I said, "Chris, that would take a miracle." +He said, "Bono, wouldn't that be a good use of your messianic complex?" +So, yeah. +Then I thought, let's go even further than 25 years. +Let's go back before Christ, three millennia, to a time when, at least in my head, the journey for justice, the march against inequality and poverty really began. +Three thousand years ago, civilization just getting started on the banks of the Nile, some slaves, Jewish shepherds in this instance, smelling of sheep shit, I guess, proclaimed to the Pharaoh, sitting high on his throne, "We, your majesty-ness, are equal to you." +And the Pharaoh replies, "Oh, no. +You, your miserableness, have got to be kidding." +And they say, "No, no, that's what it says here in our holy book." +Cut to our century, same country, same pyramids, another people spreading the same idea of equality with a different book. +This time it's called the Facebook. +Crowds are gathered in Tahrir Square. +They turn a social network from virtual to actual, and kind of rebooted the 21st century. +So I thought, forget the rock opera, forget the bombast, my usual tricks. +The only thing singing today would be the facts, for I have truly embraced by inner nerd. +So exit the rock star. +Enter the evidence-based activist, the factivist. +Because what the facts are telling us is that the long, slow journey, humanity's long, slow journey of equality, is actually speeding up. +Look at what's been achieved. +Look at the pictures these data sets print. +Since the year 2000, since the turn of the millennium, there are eight million more AIDS patients getting life-saving antiretroviral drugs. +Malaria: There are eight countries in sub-Saharan Africa that have their death rates cut by 75 percent. +For kids under five, child mortality, kids under five, it's down by 2.65 million a year. +That's a rate of 7,256 children's lives saved each day. +Wow. Wow. Let's just stop for a second, actually, and think about that. +Have you read anything anywhere in the last week that is remotely as important as that number? Wow. +Great news. It drives me nuts that most people don't seem to know this news. +Seven thousand kids a day. Here's two of them. +This is Michael and Benedicta, and they're alive thanks in large part to Dr. Patricia Asamoah -- she's amazing -- and the Global Fund, which all of you financially support, whether you know it or not. +And the Global Fund provides antiretroviral drugs that stop mothers from passing HIV to their kids. +This fantastic news didn't happen by itself. +It was fought for, it was campaigned for, it was innovated for. +And this great news gives birth to even more great news, because the historic trend is this. +The number of people living in back-breaking, soul-crushing extreme poverty has declined from 43 percent of the world's population in 1990 to 33 percent by 2000 and then to 21 percent by 2010. +Give it up for that. Halved. Halved. +Now, the rate is still too high -- still too many people unnecessarily losing their lives. +There's still work to do. +But it's heart-stopping. It's mind-blowing stuff. +And if you live on less than $1.25 a day, if you live in that kind of poverty, this is not just data. +This is everything. +If you're a parent who wants the best for your kids -- and I am -- this rapid transition is a route out of despair and into hope. +And guess what? If the trajectory continues, look where the amount of people living on $1.25 a day gets to by 2030. +Can't be true, can it? +That's what the data is telling us. If the trajectory continues, we get to, wow, the zero zone. +For number-crunchers like us, that is the erogenous zone, and it's fair to say that I am, by now, sexually aroused by the collating of data. +So virtual elimination of extreme poverty, as defined by people living on less than $1.25 a day, adjusted, of course, for inflation from a 1990 baseline. +We do love a good baseline. +That's amazing. +Now I know that some of you think this progress is all in Asia or Latin America or model countries like Brazil -- and who doesn't love a Brazilian model? -- but look at sub-Saharan Africa. +So the pride of lions is the proof of concept. +There are all kinds of benefits to this. +For a start, you won't have to listen to an insufferable little jumped-up Jesus like myself. +How about that? And 2028, 2030? It's just around the corner. +I mean, it's about three Rolling Stones farewell concerts away. +I hope. I'm hoping. +Makes us look really young. +So why aren't we jumping up and down about this? +Well, the opportunity is real, but so is the jeopardy. +We can't get this done until we really accept that we can get this done. +Look at this graph. +It's called inertia. It's how we screw it up. +And the next one is really beautiful. +It's called momentum. +And it's how we can bend the arc of history down towards zero, just doing the things that we know work. +So inertia versus momentum. +There is jeopardy, and of course, the closer you get, it gets harder. +We know the obstacles that are in our way right now, in difficult times. +In fact, today in your capital, in difficult times, some who mind the nation's purse want to cut life-saving programs like the Global Fund. +But you can do something about that. +You can tell politicians that these cuts [can cost] lives. +Right now today, in Oslo as it happens, oil companies are fighting to keep secret their payments to governments for extracting oil in developing countries. +You can do something about that too. +You can join the One Campaign, and leaders like Mo Ibrahim, the telecom entrepreneur. +We're pushing for laws that make sure that at least some of the wealth under the ground ends up in the hands of the people living above it. +And right now, we know that the biggest disease of all is not a disease. It's corruption. +But there's a vaccine for that too. +It's called transparency, open data sets, something the TED community is really on it. +Daylight, you could call it, transparency. +And technology is really turbocharging this. +It's getting harder to hide if you're doing bad stuff. +So let me tell you about the U-report, which I'm really excited about. It's 150,000 millennials all across Uganda, young people armed with 2G phones, an SMS social network exposing government corruption and demanding to know what's in the budget and how their money is being spent. +This is exciting stuff. +Look, once you have these tools, you can't not use them. +Once you have this knowledge, you can't un-know it. +You can't delete this data from your brain, but you can delete the cliched image of supplicant, impoverished peoples not taking control of their own lives. +You can erase that, you really can, because it's not true anymore. It's transformational. +2030? By 2030, robots, not just serving us Guinness, but drinking it. +By the time we get there, every place with a rough semblance of governance might actually be on their way. +So I'm here to -- I guess we're here to try and infect you with this virtuous, data-based virus, the one we call factivism. +It's not going to kill you. +In fact, it could save countless lives. +I guess we in the One Campaign would love you to be contagious, spread it, share it, pass it on. +By doing so, you will join us and countless others in what I truly believe is the greatest adventure ever taken, the ever-demanding journey of equality. +Could we really be the great generation that Mandela asked us to be? +Might we answer that clarion call with science, with reason, with facts, and, dare I say it, emotions? +Because as is obvious, factivists have feelings too. +I'm thinking of Wael Ghonim, though. +Some of you know him. He set up one of the Facebook groups behind the Tahrir Square in Cairo. +He got thrown in jail for it, but I have his words tattooed on my brain. +"We are going to win because we don't understand politics. +We are going to win because we don't play their dirty games. +We are going to win because we don't have a party political agenda. +We are going to win because the tears that come from our eyes actually come from our hearts. +We are going to win because we have dreams, and we're willing to stand up for those dreams." +Wael is right. +We're going to win if we work together as one, because the power of the people is so much stronger than the people in power. +Thank you. +Thank you so much. +So, this book that I have in my hand is a directory of everybody who had an email address in 1982. Actually, it's deceptively large. +There's actually only about 20 people on each page, because we have the name, address and telephone number of every single person. +And, in fact, everybody's listed twice, because it's sorted once by name and once by email address. +Obviously a very small community. +There were only two other Dannys on the Internet then. +I knew them both. +We didn't all know each other, but we all kind of trusted each other, and that basic feeling of trust permeated the whole network, and there was a real sense that we could depend on each other to do things. +So just to give you an idea of the level of trust in this community, let me tell you what it was like to register a domain name in the early days. +Now, it just so happened that I got to register the third domain name on the Internet. +So I could have anything I wanted other than bbn.com and symbolics.com. +So I picked think.com, but then I thought, you know, there's a lot of really interesting names out there. +Maybe I should register a few extras just in case. +And then I thought, "Nah, that wouldn't be very nice." +That attitude of only taking what you need was really what everybody had on the network in those days, and in fact, it wasn't just the people on the network, but it was actually kind of built into the protocols of the Internet itself. +So the basic idea of I.P., or Internet protocol, and the way that the -- the routing algorithm that used it, were fundamentally "from each according to their ability, to each according to their need." +And so, if you had some extra bandwidth, you'd deliver a message for someone. +If they had some extra bandwidth, they would deliver a message for you. +You'd kind of depend on people to do that, and that was the building block. +It was actually interesting that such a communist principle was the basis of a system developed during the Cold War by the Defense Department, but it obviously worked really well, and we all saw what happened with the Internet. +It was incredibly successful. +In fact, it was so successful that there's no way that these days you could make a book like this. +My rough calculation is it would be about 25 miles thick. +But, of course, you couldn't do it, because we don't know the names of all the people with Internet or email addresses, and even if we did know their names, I'm pretty sure that they would not want their name, address and telephone number published to everyone. +And that means that it's vulnerable to certain kinds of mistakes that can happen, or certain kinds of deliberate attacks, but even the mistakes can be bad. +So, for instance, in all of Asia recently, it was impossible to get YouTube for a little while because Pakistan made some mistakes in how it was censoring YouTube in its internal network. +They didn't intend to screw up Asia, but they did because of the way that the protocols work. +Another example that may have affected many of you in this audience is, you may remember a couple of years ago, all the planes west of the Mississippi were grounded because a single routing card in Salt Lake City had a bug in it. +Now, you don't really think that our airplane system depends on the Internet, and in some sense it doesn't. +I'll come back to that later. +But the fact is that people couldn't take off because something was going wrong on the Internet, and the router card was down. +And so, there are many of those things that start to happen. +Now, there was an interesting thing that happened last April. +All of a sudden, a very large percentage of the traffic on the whole Internet, including a lot of the traffic between U.S. military installations, started getting re-routed through China. +So for a few hours, it all passed through China. +Now, China Telecom says it was just an honest mistake, and it is actually possible that it was, the way things work, but certainly somebody could make a dishonest mistake of that sort if they wanted to, and it shows you how vulnerable the system is even to mistakes. +Imagine how vulnerable the system is to deliberate attacks. +So if somebody really wanted to attack the United States or Western civilization these days, they're not going to do it with tanks. +That will not succeed. +What they'll probably do is something very much like the attack that happened on the Iranian nuclear facility. +Nobody has claimed credit for that. +There was basically a factory of industrial machines. +It didn't think of itself as being on the Internet. +It thought of itself as being disconnected from the Internet, but it was possible for somebody to smuggle a USB drive in there, or something like that, and software got in there that causes the centrifuges, in that case, to actually destroy themselves. +Now that same kind of software could destroy an oil refinery or a pharmaceutical factory or a semiconductor plant. +And so there's a lot of -- I'm sure you've read a lot in papers, about worries about cyberattacks and defenses against those. +But the fact is, people are mostly focused on defending the computers on the Internet, and there's been surprisingly little attention to defending the Internet itself as a communications medium. +And I think we probably do need to pay some more attention to that, because it's actually kind of fragile. +So actually, in the early days, back when it was the ARPANET, there were actually times -- there was a particular time it failed completely because one single message processor actually got a bug in it. +And the way the Internet works is the routers are basically exchanging information about how they can get messages to places, and this one processor, because of a broken card, decided it could actually get a message to some place in negative time. +So, in other words, it claimed it could deliver a message before you sent it. +So of course, the fastest way to get a message anywhere was to send it to this guy, who would send it back in time and get it there super early, so every message in the Internet started getting switched through this one node, and of course that clogged everything up. +Everything started breaking. +The interesting thing was, though, that the sysadmins were able to fix it, but they had to basically turn every single thing on the Internet off. +Now, of course you couldn't do that today. +I mean, everything off, it's like the service call you get from the cable company, except for the whole world. +Now, in fact, they couldn't do it for a lot of reasons today. +One of the reasons is a lot of their telephones use IP protocol and use things like Skype and so on that go through the Internet right now, and so in fact we're becoming dependent on it for more and more different things, like when you take off from LAX, you're really not thinking you're using the Internet. +When you pump gas, you really don't think you're using the Internet. +What's happening increasingly, though, is these systems are beginning to use the Internet. +So all of our systems, more and more, are starting to use the same technology and starting to depend on this technology. +And so even a modern rocket ship these days actually uses Internet protocol to talk from one end of the rocket ship to the other. +That's crazy. It was never designed to do things like that. +So we've built this system where we understand all the parts of it, but we're using it in a very, very different way than we expected to use it, and it's gotten a very, very different scale than it was designed for. +And in fact, nobody really exactly understands all the things it's being used for right now. +It's turning into one of these big emergent systems like the financial system, where we've designed all the parts but nobody really exactly understands how it operates and all the little details of it and what kinds of emergent behaviors it can have. +And so if you hear an expert talking about the Internet and saying it can do this, or it does do this, or it will do that, you should treat it with the same skepticism that you might treat the comments of an economist about the economy or a weatherman about the weather, or something like that. +They have an informed opinion, but it's changing so quickly that even the experts don't know exactly what's going on. +So if you see one of these maps of the Internet, it's just somebody's guess. +Nobody really knows what the Internet is right now because it's different than it was an hour ago. +It's constantly changing. It's constantly reconfiguring. +And so right now, I think it's literally true that we don't know what the consequences of an effective denial-of-service attack on the Internet would be, and whatever it would be is going to be worse next year, and worse next year, and so on. +But so what we need is a plan B. +There is no plan B right now. +There's no clear backup system that we've very carefully kept to be independent of the Internet, made out of completely different sets of building blocks. +So what we need is something that doesn't necessarily have to have the performance of the Internet, but the police department has to be able to call up the fire department even without the Internet, or the hospitals have to order fuel oil. +This doesn't need to be a multi-billion-dollar government project. +It's actually relatively simple to do, technically, because it can use existing fibers that are in the ground, existing wireless infrastructure. +It's basically a matter of deciding to do it. +But people won't decide to do it until they recognize the need for it, and that's the problem that we have right now. +So there's been plenty of people, plenty of us have been quietly arguing that we should have this independent system for years, but it's very hard to get people focused on plan B when plan A seems to be working so well. +So I think that, if people understand how much we're starting to depend on the Internet, and how vulnerable it is, we could get focused on just wanting this other system to exist, and I think if enough people say, "Yeah, I would like to use it, I'd like to have such a system," then it will get built. +It's not that hard a problem. +It could definitely be done by people in this room. +And so I think that this is actually, of all the problems you're going to hear about at the conference, this is probably one of the very easiest to fix. +So I'm happy to get a chance to tell you about it. +Thank you very much. +Chris Anderson: Elon, what kind of crazy dream would persuade you to think of trying to take on the auto industry and build an all-electric car? +Elon Musk: Well, it goes back to when I was in university. +I thought about, what are the problems that are most likely to affect the future of the world or the future of humanity? +I think it's extremely important that we have sustainable transport and sustainable energy production. +That sort of overall sustainable energy problem is the biggest problem that we have to solve this century, independent of environmental concerns. +In fact, even if producing CO2 was good for the environment, given that we're going to run out of hydrocarbons, we need to find some sustainable means of operating. +CA: Most of American electricity comes from burning fossil fuels. +How can an electric car that plugs into that electricity help? +EM: Right. There's two elements to that answer. +One is that, even if you take the same source fuel and produce power at the power plant and use it to charge electric cars, you're still better off. +So if you take, say, natural gas, which is the most prevalent hydrocarbon source fuel, if you burn that in a modern General Electric natural gas turbine, you'll get about 60 percent efficiency. +If you put that same fuel in an internal combustion engine car, you get about 20 percent efficiency. +And the reason is, in the stationary power plant, you can afford to have something that weighs a lot more, is voluminous, and you can take the waste heat and run a steam turbine and generate a secondary power source. +So in effect, even after you've taken transmission loss into account and everything, even using the same source fuel, you're at least twice as better off charging an electric car, then burning it at the power plant. +CA: That scale delivers efficiency. +EM: Yes, it does. +And then the other point is, we have to have sustainable means of power generation anyway, electricity generation. +So given that we have to solve sustainable electricity generation, then it makes sense for us to have electric cars as the mode of transport. +CA: So we've got some video here of the Tesla being assembled, which, if we could play that first video -- So what is innovative about this process in this vehicle? +EM: Sure. So, in order to accelerate the advent of electric transport, and I should say that I think, actually, all modes of transport will become fully electric with the ironic exception of rockets. +There's just no way around Newton's third law. +The question is how do you accelerate the advent of electric transport? +And in order to do that for cars, you have to come up with a really energy efficient car, so that means making it incredibly light, and so what you're seeing here is the only all-aluminum body and chassis car made in North America. +In fact, we applied a lot of rocket design techniques to make the car light despite having a very large battery pack. +And then it also has the lowest drag coefficient of any car of its size. +So as a result, the energy usage is very low, and it has the most advanced battery pack, and that's what gives it the range that's competitive, so you can actually have on the order of a 250-mile range. +CA: I mean, those battery packs are incredibly heavy, but you think the math can still work out intelligently -- by combining light body, heavy battery, you can still gain spectacular efficiency. +EM: Exactly. The rest of the car has to be very light to offset the mass of the pack, and then you have to have a low drag coefficient so that you have good highway range. +And in fact, customers of the Model S are sort of competing with each other to try to get the highest possible range. +I think somebody recently got 420 miles out of a single charge. +CA: Bruno Bowden, who's here, did that, broke the world record.EM: Congratulations. +CA: That was the good news. The bad news was that to do it, he had to drive at 18 miles an hour constant speed and got pulled over by the cops. EM: I mean, you can certainly drive -- if you drive it 65 miles an hour, under normal conditions, 250 miles is a reasonable number. +CA: Let's show that second video showing the Tesla in action on ice. +Not at all a dig at The New York Times, this, by the way. +What is the most surprising thing about the experience of driving the car? +EM: In creating an electric car, the responsiveness of the car is really incredible. +So we wanted really to have people feel as though they've almost got to mind meld with the car, so you just feel like you and the car are kind of one, and as you corner and accelerate, it just happens, like the car has ESP. +You can do that with an electric car because of its responsiveness. +You can't do that with a gasoline car. +I think that's really a profound difference, and people only experience that when they have a test drive. +CA: I mean, this is a beautiful but expensive car. +Is there a road map where this becomes a mass-market vehicle? +EM: Yeah. The goal of Tesla has always been to have a sort of three-step process, where version one was an expensive car at low volume, version two is medium priced and medium volume, and then version three would be low price, high volume. +So we're at step two at this point. +So we had a $100,000 sports car, which was the Roadster. +Then we've got the Model S, which starts at around 50,000 dollars. +And our third generation car, which should hopefully be out in about three or four years will be a $30,000 car. +But whenever you've got really new technology, it generally takes about three major versions in order to make it a compelling mass-market product. +And so I think we're making progress in that direction, and I feel confident that we'll get there. +CA: I mean, right now, if you've got a short commute, you can drive, you can get back, you can charge it at home. +There isn't a huge nationwide network of charging stations now that are fast. +Do you see that coming, really, truly, or just on a few key routes? +EM: There actually are far more charging stations than people realize, and at Tesla we developed something called a Supercharging technology, and we're offering that if you buy a Model S for free, forever. +And so this is something that maybe a lot of people don't realize. +We actually have California and Nevada covered, and we've got the Eastern seaboard from Boston to D.C. covered. +By the end of this year, you'll be able to drive from L.A. to New York just using the Supercharger network, which charges at five times the rate of anything else. +And the key thing is to have a ratio of drive to stop, to stop time, of about six or seven. +So if you drive for three hours, you want to stop for 20 or 30 minutes, because that's normally what people will stop for. +So if you start a trip at 9 a.m., by noon you want to stop to have a bite to eat, hit the restroom, coffee, and keep going. +CA: So your proposition to consumers is, for the full charge, it could take an hour. +So it's common -- don't expect to be out of here in 10 minutes. +Wait for an hour, but the good news is, you're helping save the planet, and by the way, the electricity is free. You don't pay anything. +EM: Actually, what we're expecting is for people to stop for about 20 to 30 minutes, not for an hour. +It's actually better to drive for about maybe 160, 170 miles and then stop for half an hour and then keep going. +That's the natural cadence of a trip. +CA: All right. So this is only one string to your energy bow. +You've been working on this solar company SolarCity. +What's unusual about that? +EM: Well, as I mentioned earlier, we have to have sustainable electricity production as well as consumption, so I'm quite confident that the primary means of power generation will be solar. +I mean, it's really indirect fusion, is what it is. +We've got this giant fusion generator in the sky called the sun, and we just need to tap a little bit of that energy for purposes of human civilization. +What most people know but don't realize they know is that the world is almost entirely solar-powered already. +If the sun wasn't there, we'd be a frozen ice ball at three degrees Kelvin, and the sun powers the entire system of precipitation. +The whole ecosystem is solar-powered. +CA: But in a gallon of gasoline, you have, effectively, thousands of years of sun power compressed into a small space, so it's hard to make the numbers work right now on solar, and to remotely compete with, for example, natural gas, fracked natural gas. How are you going to build a business here? +EM: Well actually, I'm confident that solar will beat everything, hands down, including natural gas. +CA: How? +EM: It must, actually. If it doesn't, we're in deep trouble. +CA: But you're not selling solar panels to consumers. +What are you doing? +EM: No, we actually are. You can buy a solar system or you can lease a solar system. +Most people choose to lease. +And the thing about solar power is that it doesn't have any feed stock or operational costs, so once it's installed, it's just there. +It works for decades. It'll work for probably a century. +So therefore, the key thing to do is to get the cost of that initial installation low, and then get the cost of the financing low, because that interest -- those are the two factors that drive the cost of solar. +And we've made huge progress in that direction, and that's why I'm confident we'll actually beat natural gas. +CA: So your current proposition to consumers is, don't pay so much up front. +EM: Zero.CA: Pay zero up front. +We will install panels on your roof. +You will then pay, how long is a typical lease? +EM: Typical leases are 20 years, but the value proposition is, as you're sort of alluding to, quite straightforward. +It's no money down, and your utility bill decreases. +Pretty good deal. +CA: So that seems like a win for the consumer. +No risk, you'll pay less than you're paying now. +For you, the dream here then is that -- I mean, who owns the electricity from those panels for the longer term? +I mean, how do you, the company, benefit? +EM: Well, essentially, SolarCity raises a chunk of capital from say, a company or a bank. +Google is one of our big partners here. +And they have an expected return on that capital. +With that capital, SolarCity purchases and installs the panel on the roof and then charges the homeowner or business owner a monthly lease payment, which is less than the utility bill. +CA: But you yourself get a long-term commercial benefit from that power. +You're kind of building a new type of distributed utility. +EM: Exactly. What it amounts to is a giant distributed utility. +I think it's a good thing, because utilities have been this monopoly, and people haven't had any choice. +So effectively it's the first time there's been competition for this monopoly, because the utilities have been the only ones that owned those power distribution lines, but now it's on your roof. +So I think it's actually very empowering for homeowners and businesses. +CA: And you really picture a future where a majority of power in America, within a decade or two, or within your lifetime, it goes solar? +EM: I'm extremely confident that solar will be at least a plurality of power, and most likely a majority, and I predict it will be a plurality in less than 20 years. +I made that bet with someone CA: Definition of plurality is? +EM: More from solar than any other source. +CA: Ah. Who did you make the bet with? +EM: With a friend who will remain nameless. +CA: Just between us. EM: I made that bet, I think, two or three years ago, so in roughly 18 years, I think we'll see more power from solar than any other source. +CA: All right, so let's go back to another bet that you made with yourself, I guess, a kind of crazy bet. +You'd made some money from the sale of PayPal. +You decided to build a space company. +Why on Earth would someone do that? +EM: I got that question a lot, that's true. +People would say, "Did you hear the joke about the guy who made a small fortune in the space industry?" +Obviously, "He started with a large one," is the punchline. +And so I tell people, well, I was trying to figure out the fastest way to turn a large fortune into a small one. +And they'd look at me, like, "Is he serious?" +CA: And strangely, you were. So what happened? +EM: It was a close call. Things almost didn't work out. +We came very close to failure, but we managed to get through that point in 2008. +The goal of SpaceX is to try to advance rocket technology, and in particular to try to crack a problem that I think is vital for humanity to become a space-faring civilization, which is to have a rapidly and fully reusable rocket. +CA: Would humanity become a space-faring civilization? +So that was a dream of yours, in a way, from a young age? +You've dreamed of Mars and beyond? +EM: I did build rockets when I was a kid, but I didn't think I'd be involved in this. +It was really more from the standpoint of what are the things that need to happen in order for the future to be an exciting and inspiring one? +And I really think there's a fundamental difference, if you sort of look into the future, between a humanity that is a space-faring civilization, that's out there exploring the stars, on multiple planets, and I think that's really exciting, compared with one where we are forever confined to Earth until some eventual extinction event. +CA: So you've somehow slashed the cost of building a rocket by 75 percent, depending on how you calculate it. +How on Earth have you done that? +NASA has been doing this for years. How have you done this? +EM: Well, we've made significant advances in the technology of the airframe, the engines, the electronics and the launch operation. +There's a long list of innovations that we've come up with there that are a little difficult to communicate in this talk, but -- CA: Not least because you could still get copied, right? +You haven't patented this stuff. It's really interesting to me. +EM: No, we don't patent.CA: You didn't patent because you think it's more dangerous to patent than not to patent. +EM: Since our primary competitors are national governments, the enforceability of patents is questionable. CA: That's really, really interesting. +But the big innovation is still ahead, and you're working on it now. Tell us about this. +EM: Right, so the big innovation CA: In fact, let's roll that video and you can talk us through it, what's happening here. +EM: Absolutely. So the thing about rockets is that they're all expendable. +All rockets that fly today are fully expendable. +The space shuttle was an attempt at a reusable rocket, but even the main tank of the space shuttle was thrown away every time, and the parts that were reusable took a 10,000-person group nine months to refurbish for flight. +So the space shuttle ended up costing a billion dollars per flight. +Obviously that doesn't work very well for CA: What just happened there? We just saw something land? +EM: That's right. So it's important that the rocket stages be able to come back, to be able to return to the launch site and be ready to launch again within a matter of hours. +CA: Wow. Reusable rockets.EM: Yes. And so what a lot of people don't realize is, the cost of the fuel, of the propellant, is very small. +It's much like on a jet. +So the cost of the propellant is about .3 percent of the cost of the rocket. +So it's possible to achieve, let's say, roughly 100-fold improvement in the cost of spaceflight if you can effectively reuse the rocket. +That's why it's so important. +Every mode of transport that we use, whether it's planes, trains, automobiles, bikes, horses, is reusable, but not rockets. +So we must solve this problem in order to become a space-faring civilization. +CA: You asked me the question earlier of how popular traveling on cruises would be if you had to burn your ships afterward.EM: Certain cruises are apparently highly problematic. +CA: Definitely more expensive. +So that's potentially absolutely disruptive technology, and, I guess, paves the way for your dream to actually take, at some point, to take humanity to Mars at scale. +You'd like to see a colony on Mars. +EM: Yeah, exactly. SpaceX, or some combination of companies and governments, needs to make progress in the direction of making life multi-planetary, of establishing a base on another planet, on Mars -- being the only realistic option -- and then building that base up until we're a true multi-planet species. +CA: So progress on this "let's make it reusable," how is that going? That was just a simulation video we saw. +How's it going? +EM: We're actually, we've been making some good progress recently with something we call the Grasshopper Test Project, where we're testing the vertical landing portion of the flight, the sort of terminal portion which is quite tricky. +And we've had some good tests. +CA: Can we see that?EM: Yeah. +So that's just to give a sense of scale. +We dressed a cowboy as Johnny Cash and bolted the mannequin to the rocket. CA: All right, let's see that video then, because this is actually amazing when you think about it. +You've never seen this before. A rocket blasting off and then -- EM: Yeah, so that rocket is about the size of a 12-story building. +(Rocket launch) So now it's hovering at about 40 meters, and it's constantly adjusting the angle, the pitch and yaw of the main engine, and maintaining roll with cold gas thrusters. +CA: How cool is that? Elon, how have you done this? +These projects are so -- Paypal, SolarCity, Tesla, SpaceX, they're so spectacularly different, they're such ambitious projects at scale. +How on Earth has one person been able to innovate in this way? +What is it about you? +EM: I don't know, actually. +I don't have a good answer for you. +I work a lot. I mean, a lot. +CA: Well, I have a theory.EM: Okay. All right. +You bet your fortune on it, and you seem to have done that multiple times. +I mean, almost no one can do that. +Is that -- could we have some of that secret sauce? +Can we put it into our education system? Can someone learn from you? +It is truly amazing what you've done. +EM: Well, thanks. Thank you. +Well, I do think there's a good framework for thinking. +It is physics. You know, the sort of first principles reasoning. +Generally I think there are -- what I mean by that is, boil things down to their fundamental truths and reason up from there, as opposed to reasoning by analogy. +Through most of our life, we get through life by reasoning by analogy, which essentially means copying what other people do with slight variations. +And you have to do that. +Otherwise, mentally, you wouldn't be able to get through the day. +But when you want to do something new, you have to apply the physics approach. +Physics is really figuring out how to discover new things that are counterintuitive, like quantum mechanics. +It's really counterintuitive. +So I think that's an important thing to do, and then also to really pay attention to negative feedback, and solicit it, particularly from friends. +This may sound like simple advice, but hardly anyone does that, and it's incredibly helpful. +CA: Boys and girls watching, study physics. +Learn from this man. +Elon Musk, I wish we had all day, but thank you so much for coming to TED. +EM: Thank you. CA: That was awesome. That was really, really cool. +Look at that. Just take a bow. That was fantastic. +Thank you so much. +So let me ask for a show of hands. +How many people here are over the age of 48? +Well, there do seem to be a few. +Well, congratulations, because if you look at this particular slide of U.S. life expectancy, you are now in excess of the average life span of somebody who was born in 1900. +But look what happened in the course of that century. +If you follow that curve, you'll see that it starts way down there. +There's that dip there for the 1918 flu. +And here we are at 2010, average life expectancy of a child born today, age 79, and we are not done yet. +Now, that's the good news. +But there's still a lot of work to do. +So, for instance, if you ask, how many diseases do we now know the exact molecular basis? +Turns out it's about 4,000, which is pretty amazing, because most of those molecular discoveries have just happened in the last little while. +It's exciting to see that in terms of what we've learned, but how many of those 4,000 diseases now have treatments available? +Only about 250. +So we have this huge challenge, this huge gap. +Well, wouldn't it be nice if it was that easy? +Unfortunately, it's not. +In reality, trying to go from fundamental knowledge to its application is more like this. +There are no shiny bridges. +You sort of place your bets. +Well, what does this really look like? +Well, what is it to make a therapeutic, anyway? +What's a drug? A drug is made up of a small molecule of hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, and a few other atoms all cobbled together in a shape, and it's those shapes that determine whether, in fact, that particular drug is going to hit its target. +Is it going to land where it's supposed to? +So look at this picture here -- a lot of shapes dancing around for you. +Now what you need to do, if you're trying to develop a new treatment for autism or Alzheimer's disease or cancer is to find the right shape in that mix that will ultimately provide benefit and will be safe. +And when you look at what happens to that pipeline, you start out maybe with thousands, tens of thousands of compounds. +You weed down through various steps that cause many of these to fail. +Ultimately, maybe you can run a clinical trial with four or five of these, and if all goes well, 14 years after you started, you will get one approval. +And it will cost you upwards of a billion dollars for that one success. +So we have to look at this pipeline the way an engineer would, and say, "How can we do better?" +And that's the main theme of what I want to say to you this morning. +How can we make this go faster? +How can we make it more successful? +Well, let me tell you about a few examples where this has actually worked. +One that has just happened in the last few months is the successful approval of a drug for cystic fibrosis. +But it's taken a long time to get there. +Cystic fibrosis had its molecular cause discovered in 1989 by my group working with another group in Toronto, discovering what the mutation was in a particular gene on chromosome 7. +That picture you see there? +Here it is. That's the same kid. +That's Danny Bessette, 23 years later, because this is the year, and it's also the year where Danny got married, where we have, for the first time, the approval by the FDA of a drug that precisely targets the defect in cystic fibrosis based upon all this molecular understanding. +That's the good news. +The bad news is, this drug doesn't actually treat all cases of cystic fibrosis, and it won't work for Danny, and we're still waiting for that next generation to help him. +But it took 23 years to get this far. That's too long. +How do we go faster? +Well, that's exciting. +How does that play out in terms of application to a disease? +I want to tell you about another disorder. +This one is a disorder which is quite rare. +It's called Hutchinson-Gilford progeria, and it is the most dramatic form of premature aging. +Only about one in every four million kids has this disease, and in a simple way, what happens is, because of a mutation in a particular gene, a protein is made that's toxic to the cell and it causes these individuals to age at about seven times the normal rate. +Let me show you a video of what that does to the cell. +The normal cell, if you looked at it under the microscope, would have a nucleus sitting in the middle of the cell, which is nice and round and smooth in its boundaries and it looks kind of like that. +A progeria cell, on the other hand, because of this toxic protein called progerin, has these lumps and bumps in it. +So what we would like to do after discovering this back in 2003 is to come up with a way to try to correct that. +Well again, by knowing something about the molecular pathways, it was possible to pick one of those many, many compounds that might have been useful and try it out. +In an experiment done in cell culture and shown here in a cartoon, if you take that particular compound and you add it to that cell that has progeria, and you watch to see what happened, in just 72 hours, that cell becomes, for all purposes that we can determine, almost like a normal cell. +Well that was exciting, but would it actually work in a real human being? +This has led, in the space of only four years from the time the gene was discovered to the start of a clinical trial, to a test of that very compound. +And the kids that you see here all volunteered to be part of this, 28 of them, and you can see as soon as the picture comes up that they are in fact a remarkable group of young people all afflicted by this disease, all looking quite similar to each other. +And instead of telling you more about it, I'm going to invite one of them, Sam Berns from Boston, who's here this morning, to come up on the stage and tell us about his experience as a child affected with progeria. +Sam is 15 years old. His parents, Scott Berns and Leslie Gordon, both physicians, are here with us this morning as well. +Sam, please have a seat. +So Sam, why don't you tell these folks what it's like being affected with this condition called progeria? +Sam Burns: Well, progeria limits me in some ways. +I cannot play sports or do physical activities, but I have been able to take interest in things that progeria, luckily, does not limit. +But when there is something that I really do want to do that progeria gets in the way of, like marching band or umpiring, we always find a way to do it, and that just shows that progeria isn't in control of my life. +Francis Collins: So what would you like to say to researchers here in the auditorium and others listening to this? +What would you say to them both about research on progeria and maybe about other conditions as well? +FC: Excellent. So Sam took the day off from school today to be here, and he is -- He is, by the way, a straight-A+ student in the ninth grade in his school in Boston. +Please join me in thanking and welcoming Sam. +SB: Thank you very much. FC: Well done. Well done, buddy. +So I just want to say a couple more things about that particular story, and then try to generalize how could we have stories of success all over the place for these diseases, as Sam says, these 4,000 that are waiting for answers. +You might have noticed that the drug that is now in clinical trial for progeria is not a drug that was designed for that. +It's such a rare disease, it would be hard for a company to justify spending hundreds of millions of dollars to generate a drug. +This is a drug that was developed for cancer. +Turned out, it didn't work very well for cancer, but it has exactly the right properties, the right shape, to work for progeria, and that's what's happened. +Wouldn't it be great if we could do that more systematically? +Could we, in fact, encourage all the companies that are out there that have drugs in their freezers that are known to be safe in humans but have never actually succeeded in terms of being effective for the treatments they were tried for? +Now we're learning about all these new molecular pathways -- some of those could be repositioned or repurposed, or whatever word you want to use, for new applications, basically teaching old drugs new tricks. +That could be a phenomenal, valuable activity. +We have many discussions now between NIH and companies about doing this that are looking very promising. +And you could expect quite a lot to come from this. +There are quite a number of success stories one can point to about how this has led to major advances. +The first drug for HIV/AIDS was not developed for HIV/AIDS. +It was developed for cancer. It was AZT. +It didn't work very well for cancer, but became the first successful antiretroviral, and you can see from the table there are others as well. +So how do we actually make that a more generalizable effort? +Well, we have to come up with a partnership between academia, government, the private sector, and patient organizations to make that so. +At NIH, we have started this new National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences. +It just started last December, and this is one of its goals. +Let me tell you another thing we could do. +Wouldn't it be nice to be able to a test a drug to see if it's effective and safe without having to put patients at risk, because that first time you're never quite sure? +How do we know, for instance, whether drugs are safe before we give them to people? We test them on animals. +And it's not all that reliable, and it's costly, and it's time-consuming. +Suppose we could do this instead on human cells. +You probably know, if you've been paying attention to some of the science literature that you can now take a skin cell and encourage it to become a liver cell or a heart cell or a kidney cell or a brain cell for any of us. +So what if you used those cells as your test for whether a drug is going to work and whether it's going to be safe? +Here you see a picture of a lung on a chip. +You can see this chip even breathes. +It has an air channel. It has a blood channel. +And it has cells in between that allow you to see what happens when you add a compound. +Are those cells happy or not? +You can do this same kind of chip technology for kidneys, for hearts, for muscles, all the places where you want to see whether a drug is going to be a problem, for the liver. +And ultimately, because you can do this for the individual, we could even see this moving to the point where the ability to develop and test medicines will be you on a chip, what we're trying to say here is the individualizing of the process of developing drugs and testing their safety. +So let me sum up. +We are in a remarkable moment here. +For me, at NIH now for almost 20 years, there has never been a time where there was more excitement about the potential that lies in front of us. +We have made all these discoveries pouring out of laboratories across the world. +What do we need to capitalize on this? First of all, we need resources. +This is research that's high-risk, sometimes high-cost. +The payoff is enormous, both in terms of health and in terms of economic growth. We need to support that. +Second, we need new kinds of partnerships between academia and government and the private sector and patient organizations, just like the one I've been describing here, in terms of the way in which we could go after repurposing new compounds. +And third, and maybe most important, we need talent. +We need the best and the brightest from many different disciplines to come and join this effort -- all ages, all different groups -- because this is the time, folks. +This is the 21st-century biology that you've been waiting for, and we have the chance to take that and turn it into something which will, in fact, knock out disease. That's my goal. +I hope that's your goal. +I think it'll be the goal of the poets and the muppets and the surfers and the bankers and all the other people who join this stage and think about what we're trying to do here and why it matters. +It matters for now. It matters as soon as possible. +If you don't believe me, just ask Sam. +Thank you all very much. +In 1991 I had maybe the most profound and transformative experience of my life. +I was in the third year of my seven-year undergraduate degree. +I took a couple victory laps in there. +And I was on a college choir tour up in Northern California, and we had stopped for the day after all day on the bus, and we were relaxing next to this beautiful idyllic lake in the mountains. +And there were crickets and birds and frogs making noise, and as we sat there, over the mountains coming in from the north were these Steven Spielbergian clouds rolling toward us, and as the clouds got about halfway over the valley, so help me God, every single animal in that place stopped making noise at the same time. +This electric hush, as if they could sense what was about to happen. +And then the clouds came over us, and then, boom! This massive thunderclap, and sheets of rain. +It was just extraordinary, and when I came back home I found a poem by the Mexican poet Octavio Paz, and decided to set it to music, a piece for choir called "Cloudburst," which is the piece that we'll perform for you in just a moment. +Now fast forward to just three years ago. +And we released to YouTube this, the Virtual Choir Project, 185 singers from 12 different countries. +You can see my little video there conducting these people, alone in their dorm rooms or in their living rooms at home. +Two years ago, on this very stage, we premiered Virtual Choir 2, 2,052 singers from 58 different countries, this time performing a piece that I had written called "Sleep." +And then just last spring we released Virtual Choir 3, "Water Night," another piece that I had written, this time nearly 4,000 singers from 73 different countries. +And when I was speaking to Chris about the future of Virtual Choir and where we might be able to take this, he challenged me to push the technology as far as we possibly could. +Could we do this all in real time? +Could we have people singing together in real time? +And with the help of Skype, that is what we are going to attempt today. +Now, we'll perform "Cloudburst" for you. +The first half will be performed by the live singers here on stage. +I'm joined by singers from Cal State Long Beach, Cal State Fullerton and Riverside Community College, some of the best amateur choirs in the country, and -- and in the second half of the piece, the virtual choir will join us, 30 different singers from 30 different countries. +Now, we've pushed the technology as far as it can go, but there's still less than a second of latency, but in musical terms, that's a lifetime. +We deal in milliseconds. +So what I've done is, I've adapted "Cloudburst" so that it embraces the latency and the performers sing into the latency instead of trying to be exactly together. +So with deep humility, and for your approval, we present "Cloudburst." +Thank you. +Everything is covered in invisible ecosystems made of tiny lifeforms: bacteria, viruses and fungi. +Our desks, our computers, our pencils, our buildings all harbor resident microbial landscapes. +As we design these things, we could be thinking about designing these invisible worlds, and also thinking about how they interact with our personal ecosystems. +Our bodies are home to trillions of microbes, and these creatures define who we are. +The microbes in your gut can influence your weight and your moods. +The microbes on your skin can help boost your immune system. +The microbes in your mouth can freshen your breath, or not, and the key thing is that our personal ecosystems interact with ecosystems on everything we touch. +So, for example, when you touch a pencil, microbial exchange happens. +If we can design the invisible ecosystems in our surroundings, this opens a path to influencing our health in unprecedented ways. +I get asked all of the time from people, "Is it possible to really design microbial ecosystems?" +And I believe the answer is yes. +I think we're doing it right now, but we're doing it unconsciously. +I'm going to share data with you from one aspect of my research focused on architecture that demonstrates how, through both conscious and unconscious design, we're impacting these invisible worlds. +This is the Lillis Business Complex at the University of Oregon, and I worked with a team of architects and biologists to sample over 300 rooms in this building. +We wanted to get something like a fossil record of the building, and to do this, we sampled dust. +From the dust, we pulled out bacterial cells, broke them open, and compared their gene sequences. +This means that people in my group were doing a lot of vacuuming during this project. +This is a picture of Tim, who, right when I snapped this picture, reminded me, he said, "Jessica, the last lab group I worked in I was doing fieldwork in the Costa Rican rainforest, and things have changed dramatically for me." +So I'm going to show you now first what we found in the offices, and we're going to look at the data through a visualization tool that I've been working on in partnership with Autodesk. +The way that you look at this data is, first, look around the outside of the circle. +You'll see broad bacterial groups, and if you look at the shape of this pink lobe, it tells you something about the relative abundance of each group. +So at 12 o'clock, you'll see that offices have a lot of alphaproteobacteria, and at one o'clock you'll see that bacilli are relatively rare. +Let's take a look at what's going on in different space types in this building. +If you look inside the restrooms, they all have really similar ecosystems, and if you were to look inside the classrooms, those also have similar ecosystems. +But if you look across these space types, you can see that they're fundamentally different from one another. +I like to think of bathrooms like a tropical rainforest. +I told Tim, "If you could just see the microbes, it's kind of like being in Costa Rica. Kind of." +And I also like to think of offices as being a temperate grassland. +This perspective is a really powerful one for designers, because you can bring on principles of ecology, and a really important principle of ecology is dispersal, the way organisms move around. +We know that microbes are dispersed around by people and by air. +So the very first thing we wanted to do in this building was look at the air system. +Mechanical engineers design air handling units to make sure that people are comfortable, that the air flow and temperature is just right. +They do this using principles of physics and chemistry, but they could also be using biology. +If you look at the microbes in one of the air handling units in this building, you'll see that they're all very similar to one another. +And if you compare this to the microbes in a different air handling unit, you'll see that they're fundamentally different. +The rooms in this building are like islands in an archipelago, and what that means is that mechanical engineers are like eco-engineers, and they have the ability to structure biomes in this building the way that they want to. +Another facet of how microbes get around is by people, and designers often cluster rooms together to facilitate interactions among people, or the sharing of ideas, like in labs and in offices. +Given that microbes travel around with people, you might expect to see rooms that are close together have really similar biomes. +And that is exactly what we found. +If you look at classrooms right adjacent to one another, they have very similar ecosystems, but if you go to an office that is a farther walking distance away, the ecosystem is fundamentally different. +And when I see the power that dispersal has on these biogeographic patterns, it makes me think that it's possible to tackle really challenging problems, like hospital-acquired infections. +I believe this has got to be, in part, a building ecology problem. +All right, I'm going to tell you one more story about this building. +I am collaborating with Charlie Brown. +He's an architect, and Charlie is deeply concerned about global climate change. +He's dedicated his life to sustainable design. +When he met me and realized that it was possible for him to study in a quantitative way how his design choices impacted the ecology and biology of this building, he got really excited, because it added a new dimension to what he did. +He went from thinking just about energy to also starting to think about human health. +He helped design some of the air handling systems in this building and the way it was ventilated. +So what I'm first going to show you is air that we sampled outside of the building. +What you're looking at is a signature of bacterial communities in the outdoor air, and how they vary over time. +Next I'm going to show you what happened when we experimentally manipulated classrooms. +We blocked them off at night so that they got no ventilation. +A lot of buildings are operated this way, probably where you work, and companies do this to save money on their energy bill. +What we found is that these rooms remained relatively stagnant until Saturday, when we opened the vents up again. +When you walked into those rooms, they smelled really bad, and our data suggests that it had something to do with leaving behind the airborne bacterial soup from people the day before. +Contrast this to rooms that were designed using a sustainable passive design strategy where air came in from the outside through louvers. +In these rooms, the air tracked the outdoor air relatively well, and when Charlie saw this, he got really excited. +He felt like he had made a good choice with the design process because it was both energy efficient and it washed away the building's resident microbial landscape. +The examples that I just gave you are about architecture, but they're relevant to the design of anything. +Imagine designing with the kinds of microbes that we want in a plane or on a phone. +There's a new microbe, I just discovered it. +It's called BLIS, and it's been shown to both ward off pathogens and give you good breath. +Wouldn't it be awesome if we all had BLIS on our phones? +A conscious approach to design, I'm calling it bioinformed design, and I think it's possible. +Thank you. +I'm here to show you how something you can't see can be so much fun to look at. +You're about to experience a new, available and exciting technology that's going to make us rethink how we waterproof our lives. +What I have here is a cinder block that we've coated half with a nanotechnology spray that can be applied to almost any material. +It's called Ultra-Ever Dry, and when you apply it to any material, it turns into a superhydrophobic shield. +So this is a cinder block, uncoated, and you can see that it's porous, it absorbs water. +Not anymore. +Porous, nonporous. +So what's superhydrophobic? +Superhydrophobic is how we measure a drop of water on a surface. +The rounder it is, the more hydrophobic it is, and if it's really round, it's superhydrophobic. +A freshly waxed car, the water molecules slump to about 90 degrees. +A windshield coating is going to give you about 110 degrees. +But what you're seeing here is 160 to 175 degrees, and anything over 150 is superhydrophobic. +So as part of the demonstration, what I have is a pair of gloves, and we've coated one of the gloves with the nanotechnology coating, and let's see if you can tell which one, and I'll give you a hint. +Did you guess the one that was dry? +When you have nanotechnology and nanoscience, what's occurred is that we're able to now look at atoms and molecules and actually control them for great benefits. +And we're talking really small here. +The way you measure nanotechnology is in nanometers, and one nanometer is a billionth of a meter, and to put some scale to that, if you had a nanoparticle that was one nanometer thick, and you put it side by side, and you had 50,000 of them, you'd be the width of a human hair. +So very small, but very useful. +And it's not just water that this works with. +It's a lot of water-based materials like concrete, water-based paint, mud, and also some refined oils as well. +You can see the difference. +It's that afraid of the water. +So what's going on here? What's happening? +Well, the surface of the spray coating is actually filled with nanoparticles that form a very rough and craggly surface. +You'd think it'd be smooth, but it's actually not. +And it has billions of interstitial spaces, and those spaces, along with the nanoparticles, reach up and grab the air molecules, and cover the surface with air. +It's an umbrella of air all across it, and that layer of air is what the water hits, the mud hits, the concrete hits, and it glides right off. +So if I put this inside this water here, you can see a silver reflective coating around it, and that silver reflective coating is the layer of air that's protecting the water from touching the paddle, and it's dry. +So what are the applications? +I mean, many of you right now are probably going through your head. +Everyone that sees this gets excited, and says, "Oh, I could use it for this and this and this." +The applications in a general sense could be anything that's anti-wetting. +We've certainly seen that today. +It could be anything that's anti-icing, because if you don't have water, you don't have ice. +It could be anti-corrosion. +No water, no corrosion. +It could be anti-bacterial. +Without water, the bacteria won't survive. +And it could be things that need to be self-cleaning as well. +So imagine how something like this could help revolutionize your field of work. +And I'm going to leave you with one last demonstration, but before I do that, I would like to say thank you, and think small. +It's going to happen. Wait for it. Wait for it. +Chris Anderson: You guys didn't hear about us cutting out the Design from TED? [Two minutes later...] He ran into all sorts of problems in terms of managing the medical research part. +It's happening! +I'm going to talk about the strategizing brain. +We're going to use an unusual combination of tools from game theory and neuroscience to understand how people interact socially when value is on the line. +That's a lot of things: competition, cooperation, bargaining, games like hide-and-seek, and poker. +Here's a simple game to get us started. +Everyone chooses a number from zero to 100, we're going to compute the average of those numbers, and whoever's closest to two-thirds of the average wins a fixed prize. +So you want to be a little bit below the average number, but not too far below, and everyone else wants to be a little bit below the average number as well. +Think about what you might pick. +As you're thinking, this is a toy model of something like selling in the stock market during a rising market. Right? +You don't want to sell too early, because you miss out on profits, but you don't want to wait too late to when everyone else sells, triggering a crash. +You want to be a little bit ahead of the competition, but not too far ahead. +Okay, here's two theories about how people might think about this, and then we'll see some data. +Some of these will sound familiar because you probably are thinking that way. I'm using my brain theory to see. +A lot of people say, "I really don't know what people are going to pick, so I think the average will be 50." +They're not being really strategic at all. +"And I'll pick two-thirds of 50. That's 33." That's a start. +Other people who are a little more sophisticated, using more working memory, say, "I think people will pick 33 because they're going to pick a response to 50, and so I'll pick 22, which is two-thirds of 33." +They're doing one extra step of thinking, two steps. +That's better. And of course, in principle, you could do three, four or more, but it starts to get very difficult. +Just like in language and other domains, we know that it's hard for people to parse very complex sentences with a kind of recursive structure. +This is called a cognitive hierarchy theory, by the way. +It's something that I've worked on and a few other people, and it indicates a kind of hierarchy along with some assumptions about how many people stop at different steps and how the steps of thinking are affected by lots of interesting variables and variant people, as we'll see in a minute. +A very different theory, a much more popular one, and an older one, due largely to John Nash of "A Beautiful Mind" fame, is what's called equilibrium analysis. +So if you've ever taken a game theory course at any level, you will have learned a little bit about this. +An equilibrium is a mathematical state in which everybody has figured out exactly what everyone else will do. +It is a very useful concept, but behaviorally, it may not exactly explain what people do the first time they play these types of economic games or in situations in the outside world. +In this case, the equilibrium makes a very bold prediction, which is everyone wants to be below everyone else, therefore they'll play zero. +Let's see what happens. This experiment's been done many, many times. +Some of the earliest ones were done in the '90s by me and Rosemarie Nagel and others. +This is a beautiful data set of 9,000 people who wrote in to three newspapers and magazines that had a contest. +The contest said, send in your numbers and whoever is close to two-thirds of the average will win a big prize. +And as you can see, there's so much data here, you can see the spikes very visibly. +There's a spike at 33. Those are people doing one step. +There is another spike visible at 22. +And notice, by the way, that most people pick numbers right around there. +They don't necessarily pick exactly 33 and 22. +There's something a little bit noisy around it. +But you can see those spikes, and they're there. +There's another group of people who seem to have a firm grip on equilibrium analysis, because they're picking zero or one. +But they lose, right? +Because picking a number that low is actually a bad choice if other people aren't doing equilibrium analysis as well. +So they're smart, but poor. +Where are these things happening in the brain? +One study by Coricelli and Nagel gives a really sharp, interesting answer. +So they had people play this game while they were being scanned in an fMRI, and two conditions: in some trials, they're told you're playing another person who's playing right now and we're going to match up your behavior at the end and pay you if you win. +In the other trials, they're told, you're playing a computer. +They're just choosing randomly. +So what you see here is a subtraction of areas in which there's more brain activity when you're playing people compared to playing the computer. +And you see activity in some regions we've seen today, medial prefrontal cortex, dorsomedial, however, up here, ventromedial prefrontal cortex, anterior cingulate, an area that's involved in lots of types of conflict resolution, like if you're playing "Simon Says," and also the right and left temporoparietal junction. +And these are all areas which are fairly reliably known to be part of what's called a "theory of mind" circuit, or "mentalizing circuit." +That is, it's a circuit that's used to imagine what other people might do. +So these were some of the first studies to see this tied in to game theory. +What happens with these one- and two-step types? +So we classify people by what they picked, and then we look at the difference between playing humans versus playing computers, which brain areas are differentially active. +On the top you see the one-step players. +There's almost no difference. +The reason is, they're treating other people like a computer, and the brain is too. +The bottom players, you see all the activity in dorsomedial PFC. +So we know that those two-step players are doing something differently. +Now if you were to step back and say, "What can we do with this information?" +you might be able to look at brain activity and say, "This person's going to be a good poker player," or, "This person's socially naive," and we might also be able to study things like development of adolescent brains once we have an idea of where this circuitry exists. +Okay. Get ready. +I'm saving you some brain activity, because you don't need to use your hair detector cells. +You should use those cells to think carefully about this game. +This is a bargaining game. +Two players who are being scanned using EEG electrodes are going to bargain over one to six dollars. +If they can do it in 10 seconds, they're going to actually earn that money. +If 10 seconds goes by and they haven't made a deal, they get nothing. +That's kind of a mistake together. +The twist is that one player, on the left, is informed about how much on each trial there is. +They play lots of trials with different amounts each time. +In this case, they know there's four dollars. +The uninformed player doesn't know, but they know that the informed player knows. +So the uninformed player's challenge is to say, "Is this guy really being fair or are they giving me a very low offer in order to get me to think that there's only one or two dollars available to split?" +in which case they might reject it and not come to a deal. +So there's some tension here between trying to get the most money but trying to goad the other player into giving you more. +And the way they bargain is to point on a number line that goes from zero to six dollars, and they're bargaining over how much the uninformed player gets, and the informed player's going to get the rest. +So this is like a management-labor negotiation in which the workers don't know how much profits the privately held company has, right, and they want to maybe hold out for more money, but the company might want to create the impression that there's very little to split: "I'm giving you the most that I can." +First some behavior. So a bunch of the subject pairs, they play face to face. +We have some other data where they play across computers. +That's an interesting difference, as you might imagine. +But a bunch of the face-to-face pairs agree to divide the money evenly every single time. +Boring. It's just not interesting neurally. +It's good for them. They make a lot of money. +But we're interested in, can we say something about when disagreements occur versus don't occur? +So this is the other group of subjects who often disagree. +So they have a chance of -- they bicker and disagree and end up with less money. +They might be eligible to be on "Real Housewives," the TV show. +You see on the left, when the amount to divide is one, two or three dollars, they disagree about half the time, and when the amount is four, five, six, they agree quite often. +This turns out to be something that's predicted by a very complicated type of game theory you should come to graduate school at CalTech and learn about. +It's a little too complicated to explain right now, but the theory tells you that this shape kind of should occur. +Your intuition might tell you that too. +Now I'm going to show you the results from the EEG recording. +Very complicated. The right brain schematic is the uninformed person, and the left is the informed. +Remember that we scanned both brains at the same time, so we can ask about time-synced activity in similar or different areas simultaneously, just like if you wanted to study a conversation and you were scanning two people talking to each other and you'd expect common activity in language regions when they're actually kind of listening and communicating. +So the arrows connect regions that are active at the same time, and the direction of the arrows flows from the region that's active first in time, and the arrowhead goes to the region that's active later. +So in this case, if you look carefully, most of the arrows flow from right to left. +That is, it looks as if the uninformed brain activity is happening first, and then it's followed by activity in the informed brain. +And by the way, these were trials where their deals were made. +This is from the first two seconds. +We haven't finished analyzing this data, so we're still peeking in, but the hope is that we can say something in the first couple of seconds about whether they'll make a deal or not, which could be very useful in thinking about avoiding litigation and ugly divorces and things like that. +Those are all cases in which a lot of value is lost by delay and strikes. +Here's the case where the disagreements occur. +You can see it looks different than the one before. +There's a lot more arrows. +That means that the brains are synced up more closely in terms of simultaneous activity, and the arrows flow clearly from left to right. +That is, the informed brain seems to be deciding, "We're probably not going to make a deal here." +And then later there's activity in the uninformed brain. +Next I'm going to introduce you to some relatives. +They're hairy, smelly, fast and strong. +You might be thinking back to your last Thanksgiving. +Maybe if you had a chimpanzee with you. +Charles Darwin and I and you broke off from the family tree from chimpanzees about five million years ago. +They're still our closest genetic kin. +We share 98.8 percent of the genes. +We share more genes with them than zebras do with horses. +And we're also their closest cousin. +They have more genetic relation to us than to gorillas. +So how humans and chimpanzees behave differently might tell us a lot about brain evolution. +So this is an amazing memory test from Nagoya, Japan, Primate Research Institute, where they've done a lot of this research. +This goes back quite a ways. They're interested in working memory. +The chimp is going to see, watch carefully, they're going to see 200 milliseconds' exposure that's fast, that's eight movie frames of numbers one, two, three, four, five. +Then they disappear and they're replaced by squares, and they have to press the squares that correspond to the numbers from low to high to get an apple reward. +Let's see how they can do it. +This is a young chimp. The young ones are better than the old ones, just like humans. +And they're highly experienced, so they've done this thousands and thousands of time. +Obviously there's a big training effect, as you can imagine. +You can see they're very blas and kind of effortless. +Not only can they do it very well, they do it in a sort of lazy way. +Right? Who thinks you could beat the chimps? +Wrong. We can try. We'll try. Maybe we'll try. +Okay, so the next part of this study I'm going to go quickly through is based on an idea of Tetsuro Matsuzawa. +He had a bold idea that -- what he called the cognitive trade-off hypothesis. +We know chimps are faster and stronger. +They're also very obsessed with status. +His thought was, maybe they've preserved brain activities and they practice them in development that are really, really important to them to negotiate status and to win, which is something like strategic thinking during competition. +So we're going to check that out by having the chimps actually play a game by touching two touch screens. +The chimps are actually interacting with each other through the computers. +They're going to press left or right. +One chimp is called a matcher. +They win if they press left, left, like a seeker finding someone in hide-and-seek, or right, right. +The mismatcher wants to mismatch. +They want to press the opposite screen of the chimp. +And the rewards are apple cube rewards. +So here's how game theorists look at these data. +This is a graph of the percentage of times the matcher picked right on the x-axis, and the percentage of times they predicted right by the mismatcher on the y-axis. +So a point here is the behavior by a pair of players, one trying to match, one trying to mismatch. +The NE square in the middle -- actually NE, CH and QRE -- those are three different theories of Nash equilibrium, and others, tells you what the theory predicts, which is that they should match 50-50, because if you play left too much, for example, I can exploit that if I'm the mismatcher by then playing right. +And as you can see, the chimps, each chimp is one triangle, are circled around, hovering around that prediction. +Now we move the payoffs. +We're actually going to make the left, left payoff for the matcher a little bit higher. +Now they get three apple cubes. +Game theoretically, that should actually make the mismatcher's behavior shift, because what happens is, the mismatcher will think, oh, this guy's going to go for the big reward, and so I'm going to go to the right, make sure he doesn't get it. +And as you can see, their behavior moves up in the direction of this change in the Nash equilibrium. +Finally, we changed the payoffs one more time. +Now it's four apple cubes, and their behavior again moves towards the Nash equilibrium. +It's sprinkled around, but if you average the chimps out, they're really, really close, within .01. +They're actually closer than any species we've observed. +What about humans? You think you're smarter than a chimpanzee? +Here's two human groups in green and blue. +They're closer to 50-50. They're not responding to payoffs as closely, and also if you study their learning in the game, they aren't as sensitive to previous rewards. +The chimps are playing better than the humans, better in the sense of adhering to game theory. +And these are two different groups of humans from Japan and Africa. They replicate quite nicely. +None of them are close to where the chimps are. +So here are some things we learned today. +People seem to do a limited amount of strategic thinking using theory of mind. +We have some preliminary evidence from bargaining that early warning signs in the brain might be used to predict whether there will be a bad disagreement that costs money, and chimps are better competitors than humans, as judged by game theory. +Thank you. +Once upon a time, there was a place called Lesterland. +Now Lesterland looks a lot like the United States. +Like the United States, it has about 311 million people, and of that 311 million people, it turns out 144,000 are called Lester. +If Matt's in the audience, I just borrowed that, I'll return it in a second, this character from your series. +So 144,000 are called Lester, which means about .05 percent is named Lester. +Now, Lesters in Lesterland have this extraordinary power. +There are two elections every election cycle in Lesterland. +One is called the general election. +The other is called the Lester election. +And in the general election, it's the citizens who get to vote, but in the Lester election, it's the Lesters who get to vote. +And here's the trick. +In order to run in the general election, you must do extremely well in the Lester election. +You don't necessarily have to win, but you must do extremely well. +Now, what can we say about democracy in Lesterland? +What we can say, number one, as the Supreme Court said in Citizens United, that people have the ultimate influence over elected officials, because, after all, there is a general election, but only after the Lesters have had their way with the candidates who wish to run in the general election. +And number two, obviously, this dependence upon the Lesters is going to produce a subtle, understated, we could say camouflaged, bending to keep the Lesters happy. +Okay, so we have a democracy, no doubt, but it's dependent upon the Lesters and dependent upon the people. +It has competing dependencies, we could say conflicting dependencies, depending upon who the Lesters are. +Okay. That's Lesterland. +Now there are three things I want you to see now that I've described Lesterland. +Number one, the United States is Lesterland. +The United States is Lesterland. +The United States also looks like this, also has two elections, one we called the general election, the second we should call the money election. +In the general election, it's the citizens who get to vote, if you're over 18, in some states if you have an ID. +In the money election, it's the funders who get to vote, the funders who get to vote, and just like in Lesterland, the trick is, to run in the general election, you must do extremely well in the money election. +You don't necessarily have to win. There is Jerry Brown. +But you must do extremely well. +And here's the key: There are just as few relevant funders in USA-land as there are Lesters in Lesterland. +Now you say, really? +Really .05 percent? +So I'm just a lawyer, I look at this range of numbers, and I say it's fair for me to say it's .05 percent who are our relevant funders in America. +In this sense, the funders are our Lesters. +Now, what can we say about this democracy in USA-land? +Well, as the Supreme Court said in Citizens United, we could say, of course the people have the ultimate influence over the elected officials. We have a general election, but only after the funders have had their way with the candidates who wish to run in that general election. +And number two, obviously, this dependence upon the funders produces a subtle, understated, camouflaged bending to keep the funders happy. +As anyone would, as they do this, they develop a sixth sense, a constant awareness about how what they do might affect their ability to raise money. +They become, in the words of "The X-Files," shape-shifters, as they constantly adjust their views in light of what they know will help them to raise money, not on issues one to 10, but on issues 11 to 1,000. +Leslie Byrne, a Democrat from Virginia, describes that when she went to Congress, she was told by a colleague, "Always lean to the green." +Then to clarify, she went on, "He was not an environmentalist." So here too we have a democracy, a democracy dependent upon the funders and dependent upon the people, competing dependencies, possibly conflicting dependencies depending upon who the funders are. +Okay, the United States is Lesterland, point number one. +Here's point number two. +The United States is worse than Lesterland, worse than Lesterland because you can imagine in Lesterland if we Lesters got a letter from the government that said, "Hey, you get to pick who gets to run in the general election," we would think maybe of a kind of aristocracy of Lesters. +You know, there are Lesters from every part of social society. +There are rich Lesters, poor Lesters, black Lesters, white Lesters, not many women Lesters, but put that to the side for one second. +We have Lesters from everywhere. We could think, "What could we do to make Lesterland better?" +It's at least possible the Lesters would act for the good of Lesterland. +But in our land, in this land, in USA-land, there are certainly some sweet Lesters out there, many of them in this room here today, but the vast majority of Lesters act for the Lesters, because the shifting coalitions that are comprising the .05 percent are not comprising it for the public interest. +It's for their private interest. In this sense, the USA is worse than Lesterland. +And finally, point number three: Whatever one wants to say about Lesterland, against the background of its history, its traditions, in our land, in USA-land, Lesterland is a corruption, a corruption. +Now, by corruption I don't mean brown paper bag cash secreted among members of Congress. +I don't mean Rod Blagojevich sense of corruption. +I don't mean any criminal act. +The corruption I'm talking about is perfectly legal. +It's a corruption relative to the framers' baseline for this republic. +The framers gave us what they called a republic, but by a republic they meant a representative democracy, and by a representative democracy, they meant a government, as Madison put it in Federalist 52, that would have a branch that would be dependent upon the people alone. +So here's the model of government. +They have the people and the government with this exclusive dependency, but the problem here is that Congress has evolved a different dependence, no longer a dependence upon the people alone, increasingly a dependence upon the funders. +Now this is a dependence too, but it's different and conflicting from a dependence upon the people alone so long as the funders are not the people. +This is a corruption. +Now, there's good news and bad news about this corruption. +One bit of good news is that it's bipartisan, equal-opportunity corruption. +It blocks the left on a whole range of issues that we on the left really care about. +It blocks the right too, as it makes principled arguments of the right increasingly impossible. +So the right wants smaller government. +When Al Gore was Vice President, his team had an idea for deregulating a significant portion of the telecommunications industry. +The chief policy man took this idea to Capitol Hill, and as he reported back to me, the response was, "Hell no! +If we deregulate these guys, how are we going to raise money from them?" +This is a system that's designed to save the status quo, including the status quo of big and invasive government. +It works against the left and the right, and that, you might say, is good news. +But here's the bad news. +It's a pathological, democracy-destroying corruption, because in any system where the members are dependent upon the tiniest fraction of us for their election, that means the tiniest number of us, the tiniest, tiniest number of us, can block reform. +I know that should have been, like, a rock or something. +I can only find cheese. I'm sorry. So there it is. +Block reform. +Because there is an economy here, an economy of influence, an economy with lobbyists at the center which feeds on polarization. +It feeds on dysfunction. +The worse that it is for us, the better that it is for this fundraising. +Henry David Thoreau: "There are a thousand hacking at the branches of evil to one who is striking at the root." +This is the root. +Okay, now, every single one of you knows this. +You couldn't be here if you didn't know this, yet you ignore it. +You ignore it. This is an impossible problem. +You focus on the possible problems, like eradicating polio from the world, or taking an image of every single street across the globe, or building the first real universal translator, or building a fusion factory in your garage. +These are the manageable problems, so you ignore so you ignore this corruption. +But we cannot ignore this corruption anymore. +We need a government that works. +And not works for the left or the right, but works for the left and the right, the citizens of the left and right, because there is no sensible reform possible until we end this corruption. +So I want you to take hold, to grab the issue you care the most about. +Climate change is mine, but it might be financial reform or a simpler tax system or inequality. +Grab that issue, sit it down in front of you, look straight in its eyes, and tell it there is no Christmas this year. +There will never be a Christmas. +We will never get your issue solved until we fix this issue first. +So it's not that mine is the most important issue. It's not. +Yours is the most important issue, but mine is the first issue, the issue we have to solve before we get to fix the issues you care about. +No sensible reform, and we cannot afford a world, a future, with no sensible reform. +Okay. So how do we do it? +Turns out, the analytics here are easy, simple. +And to do this does not require a constitutional amendment, changing the First Amendment. +Each of these would fix this corruption by spreading out the influence of funders to all of us. +The analytics are easy here. +It's the politics that's hard, indeed impossibly hard, because this reform would shrink K Street, and Capitol Hill, as Congressman Jim Cooper, a Democrat from Tennessee, put it, has become a farm league for K Street, a farm league for K Street. +Members and staffers and bureaucrats have an increasingly common business model in their head, a business model focused on their life after government, their life as lobbyists. +Fifty percent of the Senate between 1998 and 2004 left to become lobbyists, 42 percent of the House. +Those numbers have only gone up, and as United Republic calculated last April, the average increase in salary for those who they tracked was 1,452 percent. +So it's fair to ask, how is it possible for them to change this? +Now I get this skepticism. +I get this cynicism. I get this sense of impossibility. +But I don't buy it. +This is a solvable issue. +If you think about the issues our parents tried to solve in the 20th century, issues like racism, or sexism, or the issue that we've been fighting in this century, homophobia, those are hard issues. +You don't wake up one day no longer a racist. +It takes generations to tear that intuition, that DNA, out of the soul of a people. +But this is a problem of just incentives, just incentives. +Change the incentives, and the behavior changes, and the states that have adopted small dollar funded systems have seen overnight a change in the practice. +When Connecticut adopted this system, in the very first year, 78 percent of elected representatives gave up large contributions and took small contributions only. +It's solvable, not by being a Democrat, not by being a Republican. +It's solvable by being citizens, by being citizens, by being TEDizens. +Because if you want to kickstart reform, look, I could kickstart reform at half the price of fixing energy policy, I could give you back a republic. +Okay. But even if you're not yet with me, even if you believe this is impossible, what the five years since I spoke at TED has taught me as I've spoken about this issue again and again is, even if you think it's impossible, that is irrelevant. +Irrelevant. +I spoke at Dartmouth once, and a woman stood up after I spoke, I write in my book, and she said to me, "Professor, you've convinced me this is hopeless. Hopeless. +There's nothing we can do." +When she said that, I scrambled. +I tried to think, "How do I respond to that hopelessness? +What is that sense of hopelessness?" +And what hit me was an image of my six-year-old son. +And I imagined a doctor coming to me and saying, "Your son has terminal brain cancer, and there's nothing you can do. +Nothing you can do." +So would I do nothing? +Would I just sit there? Accept it? Okay, nothing I can do? +I'm going off to build Google Glass. +Of course not. I would do everything I could, and I would do everything I could because this is what love means, that the odds are irrelevant and that you do whatever the hell you can, the odds be damned. +And then I saw the obvious link, because even we liberals love this country. +And so when the pundits and the politicians say that change is impossible, what this love of country says back is, "That's just irrelevant." +We lose something dear, something everyone in this room loves and cherishes, if we lose this republic, and so we act with everything we can to prove these pundits wrong. +So here's my question: Do you have that love? +Do you have that love? +Because if you do, then what the hell are you, what are the hell are we doing? +When Ben Franklin was carried from the constitutional convention in September of 1787, he was stopped in the street by a woman who said, "Mr. Franklin, what have you wrought?" +Franklin said, "A republic, madam, if you can keep it." +A republic. A representative democracy. +A government dependent upon the people alone. +We have lost that republic. +All of us have to act to get it back. +Thank you very much. +Thank you. Thank you. Thank you. +This is the Natural History Museum in Rotterdam, where I work as a curator. +It's my job to make sure the collection stays okay, and that it grows, and basically it means I collect dead animals. +Back in 1995, we got a new wing next to the museum. +It was made of glass, and this building really helped me to do my job good. +The building was a true bird-killer. +You may know that birds don't understand the concept of glass. They don't see it, so they fly into the windows and get killed. +The only thing I had to do was go out, pick them up, and have them stuffed for the collection. +And in those days, I developed an ear to identify birds just by the sound of the bangs they made against the glass. +And it was on June 5, 1995, that I heard a loud bang against the glass that changed my life and ended that of a duck. +And this is what I saw when I looked out of the window. +This is the dead duck. It flew against the window. +It's laying dead on its belly. +But next to the dead duck is a live duck, and please pay attention. +Both are of the male sex. +And then this happened. +The live duck mounted the dead duck, and started to copulate. +Well, I'm a biologist. I'm an ornithologist. +I said, "Something's wrong here." +One is dead, one is alive. That must be necrophilia. +I look. Both are of the male sex. +Homosexual necrophilia. +So I -- I took my camera, I took my notebook, took a chair, and started to observe this behavior. +After 75 minutes I had seen enough, and I got hungry, and I wanted to go home. +So I went out, collected the duck, and before I put it in the freezer, I checked if the victim was indeed of the male sex. +And here's a rare picture of a duck's penis, so it was indeed of the male sex. +It's a rare picture because there are 10,000 species of birds and only 300 possess a penis. +[The first case of homosexual necrophilia in the mallard Anas platyrhynchos ] I knew I'd seen something special, but it took me six years to decide to publish it. +I mean, it's a nice topic for a birthday party or at the coffee machine, but to share this among your peers is something different. +I didn't have the framework. +So after six years, my friends and colleagues urged me to publish, so I published "The first case of homosexual necrophilia in the mallard." +And here's the situation again. +A is my office, B is the place where the duck hit the glass, and C is from where I watched it. +And here are the ducks again. +As you probably know, in science, when you write a kind of special paper, only six or seven people read it. +But then something good happened. +I got a phone call from a person called Marc Abrahams, and he told me, "You've won a prize with your duck paper: the Ig Nobel Prize." +And the Ig Nobel Prize the Ig Nobel Prize honors research that first makes people laugh, and then makes them think, with the ultimate goal to make more people interested in science. +That's a good thing, so I accepted the prize. +I went -- let me remind you that Marc Abrahams didn't call me from Stockholm. +He called me from Cambridge, Massachusetts. +So I traveled to Boston, to Cambridge, and I went to this wonderful Ig Nobel Prize ceremony held at Harvard University, and this ceremony is a very nice experience. +Real Nobel laureates hand you the prize. +That's the first thing. +And there are nine other winners who get prizes. +Here's one of my fellow winners. That's Charles Paxton who won the 2000 biology prize for his paper, "Courtship behavior of ostriches towards humans under farming conditions in Britain." +And I think there are one or two more Ig Nobel Prize winners in this room. +Dan, where are you? Dan Ariely? +Applause for Dan. +Dan won his prize in medicine for demonstrating that high-priced fake medicine works better than low-priced fake medicine. +So here's my one minute of fame, my acceptance speech, and here's the duck. +This is its first time on the U.S. West Coast. +I'm going to pass it around. +Yeah? +You can pass it around. +Please note it's a museum specimen, but there's no chance you'll get the avian flu. +After winning this prize, my life changed. +In the first place, people started to send me all kinds of duck-related things, and I got a real nice collection. +More importantly, people started to send me their observations of remarkable animal behavior, and believe me, if there's an animal misbehaving on this planet, I know about it. +This is a moose. +It's a moose trying to copulate with a bronze statue of a bison. +This is in Montana, 2008. +This is a frog that tries to copulate with a goldfish. +This is the Netherlands, 2011. +These are cane toads in Australia. +This is roadkill. +Please note that this is necrophilia. +It's remarkable: the position. +The missionary position is very rare in the animal kingdom. +These are pigeons in Rotterdam. +Barn swallows in Hong Kong, 2004. +This is a turkey in Wisconsin on the premises of the Ethan Allen juvenile correctional institution. +It took all day, and the prisoners had a great time. +So what does this mean? +I mean, the question I ask myself, why does this happen in nature? +Well, what I concluded from reviewing all these cases is that it is important that this happens only when death is instant and in a dramatic way and in the right position for copulation. +At least, I thought it was till I got these slides. +And here you see a dead duck. +It's been there for three days, and it's laying on its back. +So there goes my theory of necrophilia. +Another example of the impact of glass buildings on the life of birds. +This is Mad Max, a blackbird who lives in Rotterdam. +The only thing this bird did was fly against this window from 2004 to 2008, day in and day out. +Here he goes, and here's a short video. +So what this bird does is fight his own image. +He sees an intruder in his territory, and it's coming all the time and he's there, so there is no end to it. +And I thought, in the beginning -- I studied this bird for a couple of years -- that, well, shouldn't the brain of this bird be damaged? +It's not. I show you here some slides, some frames from the video, and at the last moment before he hits the glass, he puts his feet in front, and then he bangs against the glass. +So I'll conclude to invite you all to Dead Duck Day. +That's on June 5 every year. +At five minutes to six in the afternoon, we come together at the Natural History Museum in Rotterdam, the duck comes out of the museum, and we try to discuss new ways to prevent birds from colliding with windows. +And as you know, or as you may not know, this is one of the major causes of death for birds in the world. +In the U.S. alone, a billion birds die in collision with glass buildings. +And when it's over, we go to a Chinese restaurant and we have a six-course duck dinner. +So I hope to see you next year in Rotterdam, the Netherlands, for Dead Duck Day. +Thank you. +Oh, sorry. +May I have my duck back, please? +Thank you. +Today I'm going to show you an electric vehicle that weighs less than a bicycle, that you can carry with you anywhere, that you can charge off a normal wall outlet in 15 minutes, and you can run it for 1,000 kilometers on about a dollar of electricity. +But when I say the word electric vehicle, people think about vehicles. They think about cars and motorcycles and bicycles, and the vehicles that you use every day. +But if you come about it from a different perspective, you can create some more interesting, more novel concepts. +So we built something. +I've got some of the pieces in my pocket here. +So this is the motor. +This motor has enough power to take you up the hills of San Francisco at about 20 miles per hour, about 30 kilometers an hour, and this battery, this battery right here has about six miles of range, or 10 kilometers, which is enough to cover about half of the car trips in the U.S. alone. +But the best part about these components is that we bought them at a toy store. +These are from remote control airplanes. +And the performance of these things has gotten so good that if you think about vehicles a little bit differently, you can really change things. +So today we're going to show you one example of how you can use this. +Pay attention to not only how fun this thing is, but also how the portability that comes with this can totally change the way you interact with a city like San Francisco. +[6 Mile Range] [Top Speed Near 20mph] [Uphill Climbing] [Regenerative Braking] So we're going to show you what this thing can do. +It's really maneuverable. You have a hand-held remote, so you can pretty easily control acceleration, braking, go in reverse if you like, also have braking. +It's incredible just how light this thing is. +I mean, this is something you can pick up and carry with you anywhere you go. +So I'll leave you with one of the most compelling facts about this technology and these kinds of vehicles. +This uses 20 times less energy for every mile or kilometer that you travel than a car, which means not only is this thing fast to charge and really cheap to build, but it also reduces the footprint of your energy use in terms of your transportation. +So instead of looking at large amounts of energy needed for each person in this room to get around in a city, now you can look at much smaller amounts and more sustainable transportation. +So next time you think about a vehicle, I hope, like us, you're thinking about something new. +Thank you. +I want to talk a little bit today about labor and work. +When we think about how people work, the naive intuition we have is that people are like rats in a maze -- that all people care about is money, and the moment we give them money, we can direct them to work one way, we can direct them to work another way. +This is why we give bonuses to bankers and pay in all kinds of ways. +And we really have this incredibly simplistic view of why people work, and what the labor market looks like. +At the same time, if you think about it, there's all kinds of strange behaviors in the world around us. +Think about something like mountaineering and mountain climbing. +If you read books of people who climb mountains, difficult mountains, do you think that those books are full of moments of joy and happiness? +No, they are full of misery. +In fact, it's all about frostbite and having difficulty walking, and difficulty breathing -- cold, challenging circumstances. +And if people were just trying to be happy, the moment they would get to the top, they would say, "This was a terrible mistake. +I'll never do it again." +"Instead, let me sit on a beach somewhere drinking mojitos." +But instead, people go down, and after they recover, they go up again. +And if you think about mountain climbing as an example, it suggests all kinds of things. +It suggests that we care about reaching the end, a peak. +It suggests that we care about the fight, about the challenge. +It suggests that there's all kinds of other things that motivate us to work or behave in all kinds of ways. +And for me personally, I started thinking about this after a student came to visit me. +This was one of my students from a few years earlier, and he came one day back to campus. +And he told me the following story: He said that for more than two weeks, he was working on a PowerPoint presentation. +He was working in a big bank, and this was in preparation for a merger and acquisition. +And he was working very hard on this presentation -- graphs, tables, information. +He stayed late at night every day. +And the day before it was due, he sent his PowerPoint presentation to his boss, and his boss wrote him back and said, "Nice presentation, but the merger is canceled." +And the guy was deeply depressed. +Now at the moment when he was working, he was actually quite happy. +Every night he was enjoying his work, he was staying late, he was perfecting this PowerPoint presentation. +But knowing that nobody would ever watch it made him quite depressed. +So I started thinking about how do we experiment with this idea of the fruits of our labor. +And to start with, we created a little experiment in which we gave people Legos, and we asked them to build with Legos. +And for some people, we gave them Legos and we said, "Hey, would you like to build this Bionicle for three dollars? +We'll pay you three dollars for it." +And people said yes, and they built with these Legos. +And when they finished, we took it, we put it under the table, and we said, "Would you like to build another one, this time for $2.70?" +If they said yes, we gave them another one, and when they finished, we asked them, "Do you want to build another one?" for $2.40, $2.10, and so on, until at some point people said, "No more. It's not worth it for me." +This was what we called the meaningful condition. +People built one Bionicle after another. +After they finished every one of them, we put them under the table. +And we told them that at the end of the experiment, we will take all these Bionicles, we will disassemble them, we will put them back in the boxes, and we will use it for the next participant. +There was another condition. +This other condition was inspired by David, my student. +And this other condition we called the Sisyphic condition. +And if you remember the story about Sisyphus, Sisyphus was punished by the gods to push the same rock up a hill, and when he almost got to the end, the rock would roll over, and he would have to start again. +And you can think about this as the essence of doing futile work. +You can imagine that if he pushed the rock on different hills, at least he would have some sense of progress. +Also, if you look at prison movies, sometimes the way that the guards torture the prisoners is to get them to dig a hole, and when the prisoner is finished, they ask him to fill the hole back up and then dig again. +There's something about this cyclical version of doing something over and over and over that seems to be particularly demotivating. +So in the second condition of this experiment, that's exactly what we did. +We asked people, "Would you like to build one Bionicle for three dollars?" +And if they said yes, they built it. +Then we asked them, "Do you want to build another one for $2.70?" +And if they said yes, we gave them a new one, and as they were building it, we took apart the one that they just finished. +And when they finished that, we said, "Would you like to build another one, this time for 30 cents less?" +And if they said yes, we gave them the one that they built and we broke. +So this was an endless cycle of them building, and us destroying in front of their eyes. +Now what happens when you compare these two conditions? +The first thing that happened was that people built many more Bionicles -- eleven in the meaningful condition, versus seven in the Sisyphus condition. +And by the way, we should point out that this was not big meaning. +People were not curing cancer or building bridges. +People were building Bionicles for a few cents. +And not only that, everybody knew that the Bionicles would be destroyed quite soon. +So there was not a real opportunity for big meaning. +But even the small meaning made a difference. +Now we had another version of this experiment. +In this other version of the experiment, we didn't put people in this situation, we just described to them the situation, much as I am describing to you now, and we asked them to predict what the result would be. +What happened? +People predicted the right direction but not the right magnitude. +People who were just given the description of the experiment said that in the meaningful condition, people would probably build one more Bionicle. +So people understand that meaning is important, they just don't understand the magnitude of the importance, the extent to which it's important. +There was one other piece of data we looked at. +If you think about it, there are some people who love Legos, and some people who don't. +And you would speculate that the people who love Legos would build more Legos, even for less money, because after all, they get more internal joy from it. +And the people who love Legos less would build less Legos because the enjoyment that they derive from it is lower. +And that's actually what we found in the meaningful condition. +There was a very nice correlation between the love of Legos and the amount of Legos people built. +What happened in the Sisyphic condition? +In that condition, the correlation was zero -- there was no relationship between the love of Legos, and how much people built, which suggests to me that with this manipulation of breaking things in front of people's eyes, we basically crushed any joy that they could get out of this activity. +We basically eliminated it. +Soon after I finished running this experiment, I went to talk to a big software company in Seattle. +I can't tell you who they were, but they were a big company in Seattle. +This was a group within the software company that was put in a different building, and they asked them to innovate, and create the next big product for this company. +And the week before I showed up, the CEO of this big software company went to that group, 200 engineers, and canceled the project. +And I stood there in front of 200 of the most depressed people I've ever talked to. +And I described to them some of these Lego experiments, and they said they felt like they had just been through that experiment. +And I asked them, I said, "How many of you now show up to work later than you used to?" +And everybody raised their hand. +I said, "How many of you now go home earlier than you used to?" +Everybody raised their hand. +I asked them, "How many of you now add not-so-kosher things to your expense reports?" +And they didn't raise their hands, but they took me out to dinner and showed me what they could do with expense reports. +And then I asked them, I said, "What could the CEO have done to make you not as depressed?" +And they came up with all kinds of ideas. +They said the CEO could have asked them to present to the whole company about their journey over the last two years and what they decided to do. +He could have asked them to think about which aspect of their technology could fit with other parts of the organization. +He could have asked them to build some next-generation prototypes, and see how they would work. +But the thing is that any one of those would require some effort and motivation. +And I think the CEO basically did not understand the importance of meaning. +If the CEO, just like our participants, thought the essence of meaning is unimportant, then he [wouldn't] care. +And he would say, "At the moment I directed you in this way, and now that I'm directing you in this way, everything will be okay." +But if you understood how important meaning is, then you would figure out that it's actually important to spend some time, energy and effort in getting people to care more about what they're doing. +The next experiment was slightly different. +We took a sheet of paper with random letters, and we asked people to find pairs of letters that were identical next to each other. +That was the task. +People did the first sheet, then we asked if they wanted to do another for a little less money, the next sheet for a little bit less, and so on and so forth. +And we had three conditions. +In the first condition, people wrote their name on the sheet, found all the pairs of letters, gave it to the experimenter, the experimenter would look at it, scan it from top to bottom, say "Uh huh," and put it on the pile next to them. +In the second condition, people did not write their name on it. +The experimenter looked at it, took the sheet of paper, did not look at it, did not scan it, and simply put it on the pile of pages. +So you take a piece, you just put it on the side. +In the third condition, the experimenter got the sheet of paper, and put it directly into a shredder. +What happened in those three conditions? +In this plot I'm showing you at what pay rate people stopped. +So low numbers mean that people worked harder. They worked for much longer. +In the acknowledged condition, people worked all the way down to 15 cents. +At 15 cents per page, they basically stopped these efforts. +In the shredder condition, it was twice as much -- 30 cents per sheet. +And this is basically the result we had before. +You shred people's efforts, output -- you get them not to be as happy with what they're doing. +But I should point out, by the way, that in the shredder condition, people could have cheated. +They could have done not so good work, because they realized people were just shredding it. +So maybe the first sheet you'd do good work, but then you see nobody is really testing it, so you would do more and more and more. +So in fact, in the shredder condition, people could have submitted more work and gotten more money, and put less effort into it. +But what about the ignored condition? Would the ignored condition be more like the acknowledged or more like the shredder, or somewhere in the middle? +It turns out it was almost like the shredder. +Now there's good news and bad news here. +The bad news is that ignoring the performance of people is almost as bad as shredding their effort in front of their eyes. +Ignoring gets you a whole way out there. +The good news is that by simply looking at something that somebody has done, scanning it and saying "Uh huh," that seems to be quite sufficient to dramatically improve people's motivations. +So the good news is that adding motivation doesn't seem to be so difficult. +The bad news is that eliminating motivations seems to be incredibly easy, and if we don't think about it carefully, we might overdo it. +So this is all in terms of negative motivation, or eliminating negative motivation. +The next part I want to show you is something about positive motivation. +So there is a store in the U.S. called IKEA. +And IKEA is a store with kind of okay furniture that takes a long time to assemble. +I don't know about you, but every time I assemble one of those, it takes me much longer, it's much more effortful, it's much more confusing, I put things in the wrong way -- I can't say I enjoy those pieces. +I can't say I enjoy the process. +But when I finish it, I seem to like those IKEA pieces of furniture more than I like other ones. +And there's an old story about cake mixes. +So when they started cake mixes in the '40s, they would take this powder and they would put it in a box, and they would ask housewives to basically pour it in, stir some water in it, mix it, put it in the oven, and -- voila -- you had cake. +But it turns out they were very unpopular. +People did not want them, and they thought about all kinds of reasons for that. +Maybe the taste was not good? +No, the taste was great. +What they figured out was that there was not enough effort involved. +It was so easy that nobody could serve cake to their guests and say, "Here is my cake." +No, it was somebody else's cake, as if you bought it in the store. +It didn't really feel like your own. +So what did they do? +They took the eggs and the milk out of the powder. +Now you had to break the eggs and add them, you had to measure the milk and add it, mixing it. +Now it was your cake. Now everything was fine. +Now, I think a little bit like the IKEA effect, by getting people to work harder, they actually got them to love what they're doing to a higher degree. +So how do we look at this question experimentally? +We asked people to build some origami. +We gave them instructions on how to create origami, and we gave them a sheet of paper. +And these were all novices, and they built something that was really quite ugly -- nothing like a frog or a crane. +But then we told them, "Look, this origami really belongs to us. +You worked for us, but I'll tell you what, we'll sell it to you. +How much do you want to pay for it?" +And we measured how much they were willing to pay for it. +And we had two types of people: We had the people who built it, and the people who did not build it, and just looked at it as external observers. +And what we found was that the builders thought that these were beautiful pieces of origami -- and they were willing to pay five times more for them than the people who just evaluated them externally. +Now you could say -- if you were a builder, do you think [you'd say], "Oh, I love this origami, but I know that nobody else would love it?" +Or "I love this origami, and everybody else will love it as well?" +Which one of those two is correct? +Turns out the builders not only loved the origami more, they thought that everybody would see the world in their view. +They thought everybody else would love it more as well. +In the next version, we tried to do the IKEA effect. +We tried to make it more difficult. +So for some people, we gave the same task. +For some people, we made it harder by hiding the instructions. +At the top of the sheet, we had little diagrams of how you fold origami. +For some people, we just eliminated that. +So now this was tougher. What happened? +Well in an objective way, the origami now was uglier, it was more difficult. +Now when we looked at the easy origami, we saw the same thing -- builders loved it more, evaluators loved it less. +When you looked at the hard instructions, the effect was larger. +Why? Because now the builders loved it even more. +They put all this extra effort into it. +And evaluators? They loved it even less. +Because in reality, it was even uglier than the first version. +Of course, this tells you something about how we evaluate things. +Now think about kids. +Imagine I asked you, "How much would you sell your kids for?" +Your memories and associations and so on. +Most people would say for a lot, a lot of money. +On good days. +But imagine this was slightly different. +Imagine if you did not have your kids. +And one day you went to the park and you met some kids. +They were just like your kids, and you played with them for a few hours, and when you were about to leave, the parents said, "Hey, by the way, just before you leave, if you're interested, they're for sale." +How much would you pay for them now? +Most people say not that much. +And this is because our kids are so valuable, not just because of who they are, but because of us, because they are so connected to us, and because of the time and connection. +By the way, if you think IKEA instructions are not good, what about the instructions that come with kids, those are really tough. +By the way, these are my kids, which, of course, are wonderful and so on. +Which comes to tell you one more thing, which is, much like our builders, when they look at the creature of their creation, we don't see that other people don't see things our way. +Let me say one last comment. +If you think about Adam Smith versus Karl Marx, Adam Smith had a very important notion of efficiency. +He gave an example of a pin factory. +He said pins have 12 different steps, and if one person does all 12 steps, production is very low. +But if you get one person to do step one, and one person to do step two and step three and so on, production can increase tremendously. +And indeed, this is a great example, and the reason for the Industrial Revolution and efficiency. +Karl Marx, on the other hand, said that the alienation of labor is incredibly important in how people think about the connection to what they are doing. +And if you do all 12 steps, you care about the pin. +But if you do one step every time, maybe you don't care as much. +I think that in the Industrial Revolution, Adam Smith was more correct than Karl Marx. +But the reality is that we've switched, and now we're in the knowledge economy. +You can ask yourself, what happens in a knowledge economy? +Is efficiency still more important than meaning? +I think the answer is no. +I think that as we move to situations in which people have to decide on their own about how much effort, attention, caring, how connected they feel to it, are they thinking about labor on the way to work, and in the shower and so on, all of a sudden Marx has more things to say to us. +So when we think about labor, we usually think about motivation and payment as the same thing, but the reality is that we should probably add all kinds of things to it -- meaning, creation, challenges, ownership, identity, pride, etc. +The good news is that if we added all of those components and thought about them -- how do we create our own meaning, pride, motivation, and how do we do it in our workplace, and for the employees -- I think we could get people to be both more productive and happier. +Thank you very much. +This is me building a prototype for six hours straight. +This is slave labor to my own project. +This is what the DIY and maker movements really look like. +And this is an analogy for today's construction and manufacturing world with brute-force assembly techniques. +And this is exactly why I started studying how to program physical materials to build themselves. +But there is another world. +Today at the micro- and nanoscales, there's an unprecedented revolution happening. +And this is the ability to program physical and biological materials to change shape, change properties and even compute outside of silicon-based matter. +There's even a software called cadnano that allows us to design three-dimensional shapes like nano robots or drug delivery systems and use DNA to self-assemble those functional structures. +But if we look at the human scale, there's massive problems that aren't being addressed by those nanoscale technologies. +If we look at construction and manufacturing, there's major inefficiencies, energy consumption and excessive labor techniques. +In infrastructure, let's just take one example. +Take piping. +In water pipes, we have fixed-capacity water pipes that have fixed flow rates, except for expensive pumps and valves. +We bury them in the ground. +If anything changes -- if the environment changes, the ground moves, or demand changes -- we have to start from scratch and take them out and replace them. +So I'd like to propose that we can combine those two worlds, that we can combine the world of the nanoscale programmable adaptive materials and the built environment. +And I don't mean automated machines. +I don't just mean smart machines that replace humans. +But I mean programmable materials that build themselves. +And that's called self-assembly, which is a process by which disordered parts build an ordered structure through only local interaction. +So what do we need if we want to do this at the human scale? +We need a few simple ingredients. +The first ingredient is materials and geometry, and that needs to be tightly coupled with the energy source. +And you can use passive energy -- so heat, shaking, pneumatics, gravity, magnetics. +And then you need smartly designed interactions. +And those interactions allow for error correction, and they allow the shapes to go from one state to another state. +So now I'm going to show you a number of projects that we've built, from one-dimensional, two-dimensional, three-dimensional and even four-dimensional systems. +So in one-dimensional systems -- this is a project called the self-folding proteins. +And the idea is that you take the three-dimensional structure of a protein -- in this case it's the crambin protein -- you take the backbone -- so no cross-linking, no environmental interactions -- and you break that down into a series of components. +And then we embed elastic. +And when I throw this up into the air and catch it, it has the full three-dimensional structure of the protein, all of the intricacies. +And this gives us a tangible model of the three-dimensional protein and how it folds and all of the intricacies of the geometry. +So we can study this as a physical, intuitive model. +And we're also translating that into two-dimensional systems -- so flat sheets that can self-fold into three-dimensional structures. +In three dimensions, we did a project last year at TEDGlobal with Autodesk and Arthur Olson where we looked at autonomous parts -- so individual parts not pre-connected that can come together on their own. +And we built 500 of these glass beakers. +They had different molecular structures inside and different colors that could be mixed and matched. +And we gave them away to all the TEDsters. +And so these became intuitive models to understand how molecular self-assembly works at the human scale. +This is the polio virus. +You shake it hard and it breaks apart. +And then you shake it randomly and it starts to error correct and built the structure on its own. +And this is demonstrating that through random energy, we can build non-random shapes. +We even demonstrated that we can do this at a much larger scale. +Last year at TED Long Beach, we built an installation that builds installations. +The idea was, could we self-assemble furniture-scale objects? +So we built a large rotating chamber, and people would come up and spin the chamber faster or slower, adding energy to the system and getting an intuitive understanding of how self-assembly works and how we could use this as a macroscale construction or manufacturing technique for products. +So remember, I said 4D. +So today for the first time, we're unveiling a new project, which is a collaboration with Stratasys, and it's called 4D printing. +The idea behind 4D printing is that you take multi-material 3D printing -- so you can deposit multiple materials -- and you add a new capability, which is transformation, that right off the bed, the parts can transform from one shape to another shape directly on their own. +And this is like robotics without wires or motors. +So you completely print this part, and it can transform into something else. +We also worked with Autodesk on a software they're developing called Project Cyborg. +And this allows us to simulate this self-assembly behavior and try to optimize which parts are folding when. +But most importantly, we can use this same software for the design of nanoscale self-assembly systems and human scale self-assembly systems. +These are parts being printed with multi-material properties. +Here's the first demonstration. +A single strand dipped in water that completely self-folds on its own into the letters M I T. +I'm biased. +This is another part, single strand, dipped in a bigger tank that self-folds into a cube, a three-dimensional structure, on its own. +So no human interaction. +And we think this is the first time that a program and transformation has been embedded directly into the materials themselves. +And it also might just be the manufacturing technique that allows us to produce more adaptive infrastructure in the future. +So I know you're probably thinking, okay, that's cool, but how do we use any of this stuff for the built environment? +So I've started a lab at MIT, and it's called the Self-Assembly Lab. +And we're dedicated to trying to develop programmable materials for the built environment. +And we think there's a few key sectors that have fairly near-term applications. +One of those is in extreme environments. +These are scenarios where it's difficult to build, our current construction techniques don't work, it's too large, it's too dangerous, it's expensive, too many parts. +And space is a great example of that. +We're trying to design new scenarios for space that have fully reconfigurable and self-assembly structures that can go from highly functional systems from one to another. +Let's go back to infrastructure. +In infrastructure, we're working with a company out of Boston called Geosyntec. +And we're developing a new paradigm for piping. +Imagine if water pipes could expand or contract to change capacity or change flow rate, or maybe even undulate like peristaltics to move the water themselves. +So this isn't expensive pumps or valves. +This is a completely programmable and adaptive pipe on its own. +So I want to remind you today of the harsh realities of assembly in our world. +These are complex things built with complex parts that come together in complex ways. +So I would like to invite you from whatever industry you're from to join us in reinventing and reimagining the world, how things come together from the nanoscale to the human scale, so that we can go from a world like this to a world that's more like this. +Thank you. +In two weeks time, that's the ninth anniversary of the day I first stepped out onto that hallowed "Jeopardy" set. +I mean, nine years is a long time. +And given "Jeopardy's" average demographics, I think what that means is most of the people who saw me on that show are now dead. +But not all, a few are still alive. +Occasionally I still get recognized at the mall or whatever. +And when I do, it's as a bit of a know-it-all. +I think that ship has sailed, it's too late for me. +For better or for worse, that's what I'm going to be known as, as the guy who knew a lot of weird stuff. +And I can't complain about this. +I feel like that was always sort of my destiny, although I had for many years been pretty deeply in the trivia closet. +If nothing else, you realize very quickly as a teenager, it is not a hit with girls to know Captain Kirk's middle name. +And as a result, I was sort of the deeply closeted kind of know-it-all for many years. +But if you go further back, if you look at it, it's all there. +I was the kind of kid who was always bugging Mom and Dad with whatever great fact I had just read about -- Haley's comet or giant squids or the size of the world's biggest pumpkin pie or whatever it was. +I now have a 10-year-old of my own who's exactly the same. +And I know how deeply annoying it is, so karma does work. +And I loved game shows, fascinated with game shows. +I remember crying on my first day of kindergarten back in 1979 because it had just hit me, as badly as I wanted to go to school, that I was also going to miss "Hollywood Squares" and "Family Feud." +I was going to miss my game shows. +And later, in the mid-'80s, when "Jeopardy" came back on the air, I remember running home from school every day to watch the show. +It was my favorite show, even before it paid for my house. +And we lived overseas, we lived in South Korea where my dad was working, where there was only one English language TV channel. +There was Armed Forces TV, and if you didn't speak Korean, that's what you were watching. +So me and all my friends would run home every day and watch "Jeopardy." +I was always that kind of obsessed trivia kid. +I remember being able to play Trivial Pursuit against my parents back in the '80s and holding my own, back when that was a fad. +There's a weird sense of mastery you get when you know some bit of boomer trivia that Mom and Dad don't know. +You know some Beatles factoid that Dad didn't know. +And you think, ah hah, knowledge really is power -- the right fact deployed at exactly the right place. +I never had a guidance counselor who thought this was a legitimate career path, that thought you could major in trivia or be a professional ex-game show contestant. +And so I sold out way too young. +I didn't try to figure out what one does with that. +I studied computers because I heard that was the thing, and I became a computer programmer -- not an especially good one, not an especially happy one at the time when I was first on "Jeopardy" in 2004. +But that's what I was doing. +And it made it doubly ironic -- my computer background -- a few years later, I think 2009 or so, when I got another phone call from "Jeopardy" saying, "It's early days yet, but IBM tells us they want to build a supercomputer to beat you at 'Jeopardy.' Are you up for this?" +This was the first I'd heard of it. +And of course I said yes, for several reasons. +One, because playing "Jeopardy" is a great time. +It's fun. It's the most fun you can have with your pants on. +And I would do it for nothing. +I don't think they know that, luckily, but I would go back and play for Arby's coupons. +I just love "Jeopardy," and I always have. +And second of all, because I'm a nerdy guy and this seemed like the future. +People playing computers on game shows was the kind of thing I always imagined would happen in the future, and now I could be on the stage with it. +I was not going to say no. +The third reason I said yes is because I was pretty confident that I was going to win. +I had taken some artificial intelligence classes. +I knew there were no computers that could do what you need to do to win on "Jeopardy." +People don't realize how tough it is to write that kind of program that can read a "Jeopardy" clue in a natural language like English and understand all the double meanings, the puns, the red herrings, unpack the meaning of the clue. +The kind of thing that a three- or four-year-old human, little kid could do, very hard for a computer. +And I thought, well this is going to be child's play. +Yes, I will come destroy the computer and defend my species. +But as the years went on, as IBM started throwing money and manpower and processor speed at this, I started to get occasional updates from them, and I started to get a little more worried. +I remember a journal article about this new question answering software that had a graph. +It was a scatter chart showing performance on "Jeopardy," tens of thousands of dots representing "Jeopardy" champions up at the top with their performance plotted on number of -- I was going to say questions answered, but answers questioned, I guess, clues responded to -- versus the accuracy of those answers. +So there's a certain performance level that the computer would need to get to. +And at first, it was very low. +There was no software that could compete at this kind of arena. +But then you see the line start to go up. +And it's getting very close to what they call the winner's cloud. +And I noticed in the upper right of the scatter chart some darker dots, some black dots, that were a different color. +And thought, what are these? +"The black dots in the upper right represent 74-time 'Jeopardy' champion Ken Jennings." +And I saw this line coming for me. +And I realized, this is it. +This is what it looks like when the future comes for you. +It's not the Terminator's gun sight; it's a little line coming closer and closer to the thing you can do, the only thing that makes you special, the thing you're best at. +And when the game eventually happened about a year later, it was very different than the "Jeopardy" games I'd been used to. +We were not playing in L.A. on the regular "Jeopardy" set. +Watson does not travel. +Watson's actually huge. +It's thousands of processors, a terabyte of memory, trillions of bytes of memory. +We got to walk through his climate-controlled server room. +The only other "Jeopardy" contestant to this day I've ever been inside. +And so Watson does not travel. +You must come to it; you must make the pilgrimage. +So me and the other human player wound up at this secret IBM research lab in the middle of these snowy woods in Westchester County to play the computer. +And we realized right away that the computer had a big home court advantage. +There was a big Watson logo in the middle of the stage. +Like you're going to play the Chicago Bulls, and there's the thing in the middle of their court. +And the crowd was full of IBM V.P.s and programmers cheering on their little darling, having poured millions of dollars into this hoping against hope that the humans screw up, and holding up "Go Watson" signs and just applauding like pageant moms every time their little darling got one right. +I think guys had "W-A-T-S-O-N" written on their bellies in grease paint. +If you can imagine computer programmers with the letters "W-A-T-S-O-N" written on their gut, it's an unpleasant sight. +But they were right. They were exactly right. +I don't want to spoil it, if you still have this sitting on your DVR, but Watson won handily. +And I remember standing there behind the podium as I could hear that little insectoid thumb clicking. +It had a robot thumb that was clicking on the buzzer. +And you could hear that little tick, tick, tick, tick. +And I remember thinking, this is it. +I felt obsolete. +I felt like a Detroit factory worker of the '80s seeing a robot that could now do his job on the assembly line. +I felt like quiz show contestant was now the first job that had become obsolete under this new regime of thinking computers. +And it hasn't been the last. +If you watch the news, you'll see occasionally -- and I see this all the time -- that pharmacists now, there's a machine that can fill prescriptions automatically without actually needing a human pharmacist. +And a lot of law firms are getting rid of paralegals because there's software that can sum up case laws and legal briefs and decisions. +You don't need human assistants for that anymore. +I read the other day about a program where you feed it a box score from a baseball or football game and it spits out a news article as if a human had watched the game and was commenting on it. +And obviously these new technologies can't do as clever or creative a job as the humans they're replacing, but they're faster, and crucially, they're much, much cheaper. +So it makes me wonder what the economic effects of this might be. +I've read economists saying that, as a result of these new technologies, we'll enter a new golden age of leisure when we'll all have time for the things we really love because all these onerous tasks will be taken over by Watson and his digital brethren. +I've heard other people say quite the opposite, that this is yet another tier of the middle class that's having the thing they can do taken away from them by a new technology and that this is actually something ominous, something that we should worry about. +I'm not an economist myself. +All I know is how it felt to be the guy put out of work. +And it was friggin' demoralizing. It was terrible. +Here's the one thing that I was ever good at, and all it took was IBM pouring tens of millions of dollars and its smartest people and thousands of processors working in parallel and they could do the same thing. +They could do it a little bit faster and a little better on national TV, and "I'm sorry, Ken. We don't need you anymore." +And it made me think, what does this mean, if we're going to be able to start outsourcing, not just lower unimportant brain functions. +I'm sure many of you remember a distant time when we had to know phone numbers, when we knew our friends' phone numbers. +And suddenly there was a machine that did that, and now we don't need to remember that anymore. +I have read that there's now actually evidence that the hippocampus, the part of our brain that handles spacial relationships, physically shrinks and atrophies in people who use tools like GPS, because we're not exercising our sense of direction anymore. +We're just obeying a little talking voice on our dashboard. +And as a result, a part of our brain that's supposed to do that kind of stuff gets smaller and dumber. +And it made me think, what happens when computers are now better at knowing and remembering stuff than we are? +Is all of our brain going to start to shrink and atrophy like that? +Are we as a culture going to start to value knowledge less? +As somebody who has always believed in the importance of the stuff that we know, this was a terrifying idea to me. +The more I thought about it, I realized, no, it's still important. +The things we know are still important. +I came to believe there were two advantages that those of us who have these things in our head have over somebody who says, "Oh, yeah. I can Google that. Hold on a second." +There's an advantage of volume, and there's an advantage of time. +The advantage of volume, first, just has to do with the complexity of the world nowadays. +There's so much information out there. +Being a Renaissance man or woman, that's something that was only possible in the Renaissance. +Now it's really not possible to be reasonably educated on every field of human endeavor. +There's just too much. +They say that the scope of human information is now doubling every 18 months or so, the sum total of human information. +That means between now and late 2014, we will generate as much information, in terms of gigabytes, as all of humanity has in all the previous millenia put together. +It's doubling every 18 months now. +This is terrifying because a lot of the big decisions we make require the mastery of lots of different kinds of facts. +A decision like where do I go to school? What should I major in? +Who do I vote for? +Do I take this job or that one? +These are the decisions that require correct judgments about many different kinds of facts. +If we have those facts at our mental fingertips, we're going to be able to make informed decisions. +If, on the other hand, we need to look them all up, we may be in trouble. +According to a National Geographic survey I just saw, somewhere along the lines of 80 percent of the people who vote in a U.S. presidential election about issues like foreign policy cannot find Iraq or Afghanistan on a map. +If you can't do that first step, are you really going to look up the other thousand facts you're going to need to know to master your knowledge of U.S. foreign policy? +Quite probably not. +At some point you're just going to be like, "You know what? There's too much to know. Screw it." +And you'll make a less informed decision. +The other issue is the advantage of time that you have if you have all these things at your fingertips. +I always think of the story of a little girl named Tilly Smith. +She was a 10-year-old girl from Surrey, England on vacation with her parents a few years ago in Phuket, Thailand. +She runs up to them on the beach one morning and says, "Mom, Dad, we've got to get off the beach." +And they say, "What do you mean? We just got here." +And she said, "In Mr. Kearney's geography class last month, he told us that when the tide goes out abruptly out to sea and you see the waves churning way out there, that's the sign of a tsunami, and you need to clear the beach." +What would you do if your 10-year-old daughter came up to you with this? +Her parents thought about it, and they finally, to their credit, decided to believe her. +They told the lifeguard, they went back to the hotel, and the lifeguard cleared over 100 people off the beach, luckily, because that was the day of the Boxing Day tsunami, the day after Christmas, 2004, that killed thousands of people in Southeast Asia and around the Indian Ocean. +But not on that beach, not on Mai Khao Beach, because this little girl had remembered one fact from her geography teacher a month before. +Now when facts come in handy like that -- I love that story because it shows you the power of one fact, one remembered fact in exactly the right place at the right time -- normally something that's easier to see on game shows than in real life. +But in this case it happened in real life. +And it happens in real life all the time. +It's not always a tsunami, often it's a social situation. +It's a meeting or job interview or first date or some relationship that gets lubricated because two people realize they share some common piece of knowledge. +You say where you're from, and I say, "Oh, yeah." +Or your alma mater or your job, and I know just a little something about it, enough to get the ball rolling. +People love that shared connection that gets created when somebody knows something about you. +It's like they took the time to get to know you before you even met. +That's often the advantage of time. +And it's not effective if you say, "Well, hold on. +You're from Fargo, North Dakota. Let me see what comes up. +Oh, yeah. Roger Maris was from Fargo." +That doesn't work. That's just annoying. +The great 18th-century British theologian and thinker, friend of Dr. Johnson, Samuel Parr once said, "It's always better to know a thing than not to know it." +And if I have lived my life by any kind of creed, it's probably that. +I have always believed that the things we know -- that knowledge is an absolute good, that the things we have learned and carry with us in our heads are what make us who we are, as individuals and as a species. +I don't know if I want to live in a world where knowledge is obsolete. +I don't want to live in a world where cultural literacy has been replaced by these little bubbles of specialty, so that none of us know about the common associations that used to bind our civilization together. +I don't want to be the last trivia know-it-all sitting on a mountain somewhere, reciting to himself the state capitals and the names of "Simpsons" episodes and the lyrics of Abba songs. +I feel like our civilization works when this is a vast cultural heritage that we all share and that we know without having to outsource it to our devices, to our search engines and our smartphones. +In the movies, when computers like Watson start to think, things don't always end well. +Those movies are never about beautiful utopias. +It's always a terminator or a matrix or an astronaut getting sucked out an airlock in "2001." +Things always go terribly wrong. +And I feel like we're sort of at the point now where we need to make that choice of what kind of future we want to be living in. +This is a question of leadership, because it becomes a question of who leads the future. +On the one hand, we can choose between a new golden age where information is more universally available than it's ever been in human history, where we all have the answers to our questions at our fingertips. +And on the other hand, we have the potential to be living in some gloomy dystopia where the machines have taken over and we've all decided it's not important what we know anymore, that knowledge isn't valuable because it's all out there in the cloud, and why would we ever bother learning anything new. +Those are the two choices we have. I know which future I would rather be living in. +And we can all make that choice. +We make that choice by being curious, inquisitive people who like to learn, who don't just say, "Well, as soon as the bell has rung and the class is over, I don't have to learn anymore," or "Thank goodness I have my diploma. I'm done learning for a lifetime. +I don't have to learn new things anymore." +No, every day we should be striving to learn something new. +We should have this unquenchable curiosity for the world around us. +That's where the people you see on "Jeopardy" come from. +These know-it-alls, they're not Rainman-style savants sitting at home memorizing the phone book. +I've met a lot of them. +For the most part, they are just normal folks who are universally interested in the world around them, curious about everything, thirsty for this knowledge about whatever subject. +We can live in one of these two worlds. +We can live in a world where our brains, the things that we know, continue to be the thing that makes us special, or a world in which we've outsourced all of that to evil supercomputers from the future like Watson. +Ladies and gentlemen, the choice is yours. +Thank you very much. +So just by a show of hands, how many of you all have a robot at home? +Not very many of you. +Okay. And actually of those hands, if you don't include Roomba how many of you have a robot at home? +So a couple. +That's okay. +That's the problem that we're trying to solve at Romotive -- that I and the other 20 nerds at Romotive are obsessed with solving. +So we really want to build a robot that anyone can use, whether you're eight or 80. +And as it turns out, that's a really hard problem, because you have to build a small, portable robot that's not only really affordable, but it has to be something that people actually want to take home and have around their kids. +This robot can't be creepy or uncanny. +He should be friendly and cute. +So meet Romo. +Romo's a robot that uses a device you already know and love -- your iPhone -- as his brain. +And by leveraging the power of the iPhone's processor, we can create a robot that is wi-fi enabled and computer vision-capable for 150 bucks, which is about one percent of what these kinds of robots have cost in the past. +When Romo wakes up, he's in creature mode. +So he's actually using the video camera on the device to follow my face. +If I duck down, he'll follow me. +He's wary, so he'll keep his eyes on me. +If I come over here, he'll turn to follow me. +If I come over here -- He's smart. +And if I get too close to him, he gets scared just like any other creature. +So in a lot of ways, Romo is like a pet that has a mind of his own. +Thanks, little guy. +(Sneezing sound) Bless you. +And if I want to explore the world -- uh-oh, Romo's tired -- if I want to explore the world with Romo, I can actually connect him from any other iOS device. +So here's the iPad. +And Romo will actually stream video to this device. +So I can see everything that Romo sees, and I get a robot's-eye-view of the world. +Now this is a free app on the App Store, so if any of you guys had this app on your phones, we could literally right now share control of the robot and play games together. +So I'll show you really quickly, Romo actually -- he's streaming video, so you can see me and the entire TED audience. +If I get in front of Romo here. +And if I want to control him, I can just drive. +So I can drive him around, and I can take pictures of you. +I've always wanted a picture of a 1,500-person TED audience. +So I'll snap a picture. +And in the same way that you scroll through content on an iPad, I can actually adjust the angle of the camera on the device. +So there are all of you through Romo's eyes. +And finally, because Romo is an extension of me, I can express myself through his emotions. +So I can go in and I can say let's make Romo excited. +But the most important thing about Romo is that we wanted to create something that was literally completely intuitive. +You do not have to teach someone how to drive Romo. +In fact, who would like to drive a robot? +Okay. Awesome. +Here you go. +Thank you, Scott. +And even cooler, you actually don't have to be in the same geographic location as the robot to control him. +So he actually streams two-way audio and video between any two smart devices. +So you can log in through the browser, and it's kind of like Skype on wheels. +So we were talking before about telepresence, and this is a really cool example. +You can imagine an eight-year-old girl, for example, who has an iPhone, and her mom buys her a robot. +That girl can take her iPhone, put it on the robot, send an email to Grandma, who lives on the other side of the country. +Grandma can log into that robot and play hide-and-go-seek with her granddaughter for fifteen minutes every single night, when otherwise she might only be able to get to see her granddaughter once or twice a year. +Thanks, Scott. +So those are a couple of the really cool things that Romo can do today. +But I just want to finish by talking about something that we're working on in the future. +This is actually something that one of our engineers, Dom, built in a weekend. +It's built on top of a Google open framework called Blockly. +This allows you to drag and drop these blocks of semantic code and create any behavior for this robot you want. +You do not have to know how to code to create a behavior for Romo. +And you can actually simulate that behavior in the browser, which is what you see Romo doing on the left. +And then if you have something you like, you can download it onto your robot and execute it in real life, run the program in real life. +And then if you have something you're proud of, you can share it with every other person who owns a robot in the world. +So all of these wi-fienabled robots actually learn from each other. +The reason we're so focused on building robots that everyone can train is that we think the most compelling use cases in personal robotics are personal. +They change from person to person. +So we think that if you're going to have a robot in your home, that robot ought to be a manifestation of your own imagination. +So I wish that I could tell you what the future of personal robotics looks like. +To be honest, I have no idea. +But what we do know is that it isn't 10 years or 10 billion dollars or a large humanoid robot away. +The future of personal robotics is happening today, and it's going to depend on small, agile robots like Romo and the creativity of people like yourselves. +So we can't wait to get you all robots, and we can't wait to see what you build. +Thank you. +So I'll be talking about the success of my campus, the University of Maryland, Baltimore County, UMBC, in educating students of all types, across the arts and humanities and the science and engineering areas. +What makes our story especially important is that we have learned so much from a group of students who are typically not at the top of the academic ladder -- students of color, students underrepresented in selected areas. +And what makes the story especially unique is that we have learned how to help African-American students, Latino students, students from low-income backgrounds, to become some of the best in the world in science and engineering. +And so I begin with a story about my childhood. +We all are products of our childhood experiences. +And the whole class would say, "Shut up, Freeman." +And there was a designated kicker every day. +And so I was always asking this question: "Well how could we get more kids to really love to learn?" +And I looked up and said, "Who is that man?" +And they said his name was Dr. Martin Luther King. +And I said to my parents, "I've got to go. +I want to go. I want to be a part of this." +And they said, "Absolutely not." +And we had a rough go of it. +And at that time, quite frankly, you really did not talk back to your parents. +And somehow I said, "You know, you guys are hypocrites. +You make me go to this. You make me listen. +The man wants me to go, and now you say no." +And they thought about it all night. +And they came into my room the next morning. +They had not slept. +They had been literally crying and praying and thinking, "Will we let our 12-year-old participate in this march and probably have to go to jail?" +And they decided to do it. +And when they came in to tell me, I was at first elated. +And then all of a sudden I began thinking about the dogs and the fire hoses, and I got really scared, I really did. +And one of the points I make to people all the time is that sometimes when people do things that are courageous, it doesn't really mean that they're that courageous. +It simply means that they believe it's important to do it. +I wanted a better education. +I did not want to have to have hand-me-down books. +I wanted to know that the school I attended not only had good teachers, but the resources we needed. +And as a result of that experience, in the middle of the week, while I was there in jail, Dr. King came and said with our parents, "What you children do this day will have an impact on children who have not been born." +I recently realized that two-thirds of Americans today had not been born at the time of 1963. +And so for them, when they hear about the Children's Crusade in Birmingham, in many ways, if they see it on TV, it's like our looking at the 1863 "Lincoln" movie: It's history. +And the real question is, what lessons did we learn? +Well amazingly, the most important for me was this: That children can be empowered to take ownership of their education. +They can be taught to be passionate about wanting to learn and to love the idea of asking questions. +And so it is especially significant that the university I now lead, the University of Maryland, Baltimore County, UMBC, was founded the very year I went to jail with Dr. King, in 1963. +And what made that institutional founding especially important is that Maryland is the South, as you know, and, quite frankly, it was the first university in our state founded at a time when students of all races could go there. +And so we had black and white students and others who began to attend. +And it has been for 50 years an experiment. +The experiment is this: Is it possible to have institutions in our country, universities, where people from all backgrounds can come and learn and learn to work together and learn to become leaders and to support each other in that experience? +Now what is especially important about that experience for me is this: We found that we could do a lot in the arts and humanities and social sciences. +And so we began to work on that, for years in the '60s. +And we produced a number of people in law, all the way to the humanities. +We produced great artists. Beckett is our muse. +A lot of our students get into theater. +It's great work. +The problem that we faced was the same problem America continues to face -- that students in the sciences and engineering, black students were not succeeding. +But when I looked at the data, what I found was that, quite frankly, students in general, large numbers were not making it. +And as a result of that, we decided to do something that would help, first of all, the group at the bottom, African-American students, and then Hispanic students. +And Robert and Jane Meyerhoff, philanthropists, said, "We'd like to help." +Robert Meyerhoff said, "Why is it that everything I see on TV about black boys, if it's not about basketball, is not positive? +I'd like to make a difference, to do something that's positive." +We married those ideas, and we created this Meyerhoff Scholars program. +And what is significant about the program is that we learned a number of things. +And the question is this: How is it that now we lead the country in producing African-Americans who go on to complete Ph.D.'s in science and engineering and M.D./Ph.D.'s? +That's a big deal. Give me a hand for that. That's a big deal. +That's a big deal. It really is. +You see, most people don't realize that it's not just minorities who don't do well in science and engineering. +Quite frankly, you're talking about Americans. +If you don't know it, while 20 percent of blacks and Hispanics who begin with a major in science and engineering will actually graduate in science and engineering, only 32 percent of whites who begin with majors in those areas actually succeed and graduate in those areas, and only 42 percent of Asian-Americans. +And so, the real question is, what is the challenge? +Well a part of it, of course, is K-12. +We need to strengthen K-12. +But the other part has to do with the culture of science and engineering on our campuses. +Whether you know it or not, large numbers of students with high SAT's and large numbers of A.P. credits who go to the most prestigious universities in our country begin in pre-med or pre-engineering and engineering, and they end up changing their majors. +And the number one reason, we find, quite frankly, is they did not do well in first year science courses. +In fact, we call first year science and engineering, typically around America, weed-out courses or barrier courses. +How many of you in this audience know somebody who started off in pre-med or engineering and changed their major within a year or two? +It's an American challenge. Half of you in the room. +I know. I know. I know. +And what is interesting about that is that so many students are smart and can do it. +We need to find ways of making it happen. +So what are the four things we did to help minority students that now are helping students in general? +Number one: high expectations. +It takes an understanding of the academic preparation of students -- their grades, the rigor of the course work, their test-taking skills, their attitude, the fire in their belly, the passion for the work, to make it. +And so doing things to help students prepare to be in that position, very important. +But equally important, it takes an understanding that it's hard work that makes the difference. +I don't care how smart you are or how smart you think you are. +Smart simply means you're ready to learn. +You're excited about learning and you want to ask good questions. +I. I. Rabi, a Nobel laureate, said that when he was growing up in New York, all of his friends' parents would ask them "What did you learn in school?" at the end of a day. +And he said, in contrast, his Jewish mother would say, "Izzy, did you ask a good question today?" +And so high expectations have to do with curiosity and encouraging young people to be curious. +And as a result of those high expectations, we began to find students we wanted to work with to see what could we do to help them, not simply to survive in science and engineering, but to become the very best, to excel. +Interestingly enough, an example: One young man who earned a C in the first course and wanted to go on to med school, we said, "We need to have you retake the course, because you need a strong foundation if you're going to move to the next level." +Every foundation makes the difference in the next level. +He retook the course. +That young man went on to graduate from UMBC, to become the first black to get the M.D./Ph.D. from the University of Pennsylvania. +He now works at Harvard. +Nice story. Give him a hand for that too. +Secondly, it's not about test scores only. +Test scores are important, but they're not the most important thing. +One young woman had great grades, but test scores were not as high. +But she had a factor that was very important. +She never missed a day of school, K-12. +There was fire in that belly. +That young woman went on, and she is today with an M.D./Ph.D. from Hopkins. +She's on the faculty, tenure track in psychiatry, Ph.D. in neuroscience. +She and her adviser have a patent on a second use of Viagra for diabetes patients. +Big hand for her. Big hand for her. +And so high expectations, very important. +Secondly, the idea of building community among the students. +You all know that so often in science and engineering we tend to think cutthroat. +Students are not taught to work in groups. +And that's what we work to do with that group to get them to understand each other, to build trust among them, to support each other, to learn how to ask good questions, but also to learn how to explain concepts with clarity. +As you know, it's one thing to earn an A yourself, it's another thing to help someone else do well. +And so to feel that sense of responsibility makes all the difference in the world. +So building community among those students, very important. +Third, the idea of, it takes researchers to produce researchers. +Whether you're talking about artists producing artists or you're talking about people getting into the social sciences, whatever the discipline -- and especially in science and engineering, as in art, for example -- you need scientists to pull the students into the work. +And so our students are working in labs regularly. +And one great example that you'll appreciate: During a snowstorm in Baltimore several years ago, the guy on our campus with this Howard Hughes Medical Institute grant literally came back to work in his lab after several days, and all these students had refused to leave the lab. +They had food they had packed out. +They were in the lab working, and they saw the work, not as schoolwork, but as their lives. +They knew they were working on AIDS research. +They were looking at this amazing protein design. +And what was interesting was each one of them focused on that work. +And he said, "It doesn't get any better than that." +And then finally, if you've got the community and you've got the high expectations and you've got researchers producing researchers, you have to have people who are willing as faculty to get involved with those students, even in the classroom. +I'll never forget a faculty member calling the staff and saying, "I've got this young man in class, a young black guy, and he seems like he's just not excited about the work. +He's not taking notes. We need to talk to him." +What was significant was that the faculty member was observing every student to understand who was really involved and who was not and was saying, "Let me see how I can work with them. +Let me get the staff to help me out." +It was that connecting. +That young man today is actually a faculty member M.D./Ph.D. in neuroengineering at Duke. +Give him a big hand for that. +And so the significance is that we have now developed this model that is helping us, not only finally with evaluation, assessing what works. +And what we learned was that we needed to think about redesigning courses. +And so we redesigned chemistry, we redesigned physics. +But now we are looking at redesigning the humanities and social sciences. +Because so many students are bored in class. +Do you know that? +Many students, K-12 and in universities, don't want to just sit there and listen to somebody talk. +They need to be engaged. +And it's working so well that throughout our university system in Maryland, more and more courses are being redesigned. +It's called academic innovation. +And what does all of that mean? +It means that now, not just in science and engineering, we now have programs in the arts, in the humanities, in the social sciences, in teacher education, even particularly for women in I.T. +If you don't know it, there's been a 79-percent decline in the number of women majoring in computer science just since 2000. +And what I'm saying is that what will make the difference will be building community among students, telling young women, young minority students and students in general, you can do this work. +And most important, giving them a chance to build that community with faculty pulling them into the work and our assessing what works and what does not work. +Most important, if a student has a sense of self, it is amazing how the dreams and the values can make all the difference in the world. +When I was a 12-year-old child in the jail in Birmingham, I kept thinking, "I wonder what my future could be." +I had no idea that it was possible for this little black boy in Birmingham to one day be president of a university that has students from 150 countries, where students are not there just to survive, where they love learning, where they enjoy being the best, where they will one day change the world. +Aristotle said, "Excellence is never an accident. +It is the result of high intention, sincere effort and intelligent execution. +It represents the wisest option among many alternatives." +And then he said something that gives me goosebumps. +He said, "Choice, not chance, determines your destiny." +Choice, not chance, determines your destiny, dreams and values. +Thank you all very much. +I want to share some personal friends and stories with you that I've actually never talked about in public before to help illustrate the idea and the need and the hope for us to reinvent our health care system around the world. +Twenty-four years ago, I had -- a sophomore in college, I had a series of fainting spells. No alcohol was involved. +And I ended up in student health, and they ran some labwork and came back right away, and said, "Kidney problems." +And before I knew it, I was involved and thrown into this six months of tests and trials and tribulations with six doctors across two hospitals in this clash of medical titans to figure out which one of them was right about what was wrong with me. +And I'm sitting in a waiting room some time later for an ultrasound, and all six of these doctors actually show up in the room at once, and I'm like, "Uh oh, this is bad news." +And their diagnosis was this: They said, "You have two rare kidney diseases that are going to actually destroy your kidneys eventually, you have cancer-like cells in your immune system that we need to start treatment right away, and you'll never be eligible for a kidney transplant, and you're not likely to live more than two or three years." +They don't know anything about you. Wake up. +Take control of your health and get on with your life." +And I did. +Now, these people making these proclamations to me were not bad people. +In fact, these professionals were miracle workers, but they're working in a flawed, expensive system that's set up the wrong way. +It's dependent on hospitals and clinics for our every care need. +It's dependent on specialists who just look at parts of us. +It's dependent on guesswork of diagnoses and drug cocktails, and so something either works or you die. +And it's dependent on passive patients who just take it and don't ask any questions. +Now the problem with this model is that it's unsustainable globally. +It's unaffordable globally. +We need to invent what I call a personal health system. +So what does this personal health system look like, and what new technologies and roles is it going to entail? +Now, I'm going to start by actually sharing with you a new friend of mine, Libby, somebody I've become quite attached to over the last six months. +This is Libby, or actually, this is an ultrasound image of Libby. +This is the kidney transplant I was never supposed to have. +Now, this is an image that we shot a couple of weeks ago for today, and you'll notice, on the edge of this image, there's some dark spots there, which was really concerning to me. +So we're going to actually do a live exam to sort of see how Libby's doing. +This is not a wardrobe malfunction. I have to take my belt off here. +Don't you in the front row worry or anything. +I'm going to use a device from a company called Mobisante. +This is a portable ultrasound. +It can plug into a smartphone. It can plug into a tablet. +Mobisante is up in Redmond, Washington, and they kindly trained me to actually do this on myself. +They're not approved to do this. Patients are not approved to do this. +This is a concept demo, so I want to make that clear. +All right, I gotta gel up. +Now the people in the front row are very nervous. And I want to actually introduce you to Dr. Batiuk, who's another friend of mine. +He's up in Legacy Good Samaritan Hospital in Portland, Oregon. +So let me just make sure. Hey, Dr. Batiuk. Can you hear me okay? +And actually, can you see Libby? +Thomas Batuik: Hi there, Eric. +You look busy. How are you? +Eric Dishman: I'm good. I'm just taking my clothes off in front of a few hundred people. It's wonderful. +So I just wanted to see, is this the image you need to get? +And I know you want to look and see if those spots are still there. +TB: Okay. Well let's scan around a little bit here, give me a lay of the land. +ED: All right.TB: Okay. Turn it a little bit inside, a little bit toward the middle for me. +Okay, that's good. How about up a little bit? +Okay, freeze that image. That's a good one for me. +ED: All right. Now last week, when I did this, you had me measure that spot to the right. +Should I do that again? +TB: Yeah, let's do that. +ED: All right. This is kind of hard to do with one hand on your belly and one hand on measuring, but I've got it, I think, and I'll save that image and send it to you. +So tell me a little bit about what this dark spot means. +It's not something I was very happy about. +TB: Many people after a kidney transplant will develop a little fluid collection around the kidney. +Most of the time it doesn't create any kind of mischief, but it does warrant looking at, so I'm happy we've got an opportunity to look at it today, make sure that it's not growing, it's not creating any problems. +Based on the other images we have, I'm really happy how it looks today. +ED: All right. Well, I guess we'll double check it when I come in. +I've got my six month biopsy in a couple of weeks, and I'm going to let you do that in the clinic, because I don't think I can do that one on myself. +TB: Good choice.ED: All right, thanks, Dr. Batiuk. +All right. So what you're sort of seeing here is an example of disruptive technologies, of mobile, social and analytic technologies. +These are the foundations of what's going to make personal health possible. +Now there's really three pillars of this personal health I want to talk to you about now, and it's care anywhere, care networking and care customization. +And you just saw a little bit of the first two with my interaction with Dr. Batiuk. +So let's start with care anywhere. +Humans invented the idea of hospitals and clinics in the 1780s. It is time to update our thinking. +We have got to untether clinicians and patients from the notion of traveling to a special bricks-and-mortar place for all of our care, because these places are often the wrong tool, and the most expensive tool, for the job. +And these are sometimes unsafe places to send our sickest patients, especially in an era of superbugs and hospital-acquired infections. +And many countries are going to go brickless from the start because they're never going to be able to afford the mega-medicalplexes that a lot of the rest of the world has built. +Now I personally learned that hospitals can be a very dangerous place at a young age. +This was me in third grade. +I broke my elbow very seriously, had to have surgery, worried that they were going to actually lose the arm. +Recovering from the surgery in the hospital, I get bedsores. +Those bedsores become infected, and they give me an antibiotic which I end up being allergic to, and now my whole body breaks out, and now all of those become infected. +The longer I stayed in the hospital, the sicker I became, and the more expensive it became, and this happens to millions of people around the world every year. +The future of personal health that I'm talking about says care must occur at home as the default model, not in a hospital or clinic. +You have to earn your way into those places by being sick enough to use that tool for the job. +Now the smartphones that we're already carrying can clearly have diagnostic devices like ultrasounds plugged into them, and a whole array of others, today, and as sensing is built into these, we'll be able to do vital signs monitor and behavioral monitoring like we've never had before. +Many of us will have implantables that will actually look real-time at what's going on with our blood chemistry and in our proteins right now. +Now the software is also getting smarter, right? +Think about a coach, an agent online, that's going to help me do safe self-care. +That same interaction that we just did with the ultrasound will likely have real-time image processing, and the device will say, "Up, down, left, right, ah, Eric, that's the perfect spot to send that image off to your doctor." +Now, if we've got all these networked devices that are helping us to do care anywhere, it stands to reason that we also need a team to be able to interact with all of that stuff, and that leads to the second pillar I want to talk about, care networking. +We have got to go beyond this paradigm of isolated specialists doing parts care to multidisciplinary teams doing person care. +Uncoordinated care today is expensive at best, and it is deadly at worst. +Eighty percent of medical errors are actually caused by communication and coordination problems amongst medical team members. +I had my own heart scare years ago in graduate school, when we're under treatment for the kidney, and suddenly, they're like, "Oh, we think you have a heart problem." +And I have these palpitations that are showing up. +They put me through five weeks of tests -- very expensive, very scary -- before the nurse finally notices the piece of the paper, my meds list that I've been carrying to every single appointment, and says, "Oh my gosh." +Three different specialists had prescribed three different versions of the same drug to me. +I did not have a heart problem. I had an overdose problem. +I had a care coordination problem. +And this happens to millions of people every year. +I want to use technology that we're all working on and making happen to make health care a coordinated team sport. +Now this is the most frightening thing to me. +Out of all the care I've had in hospitals and clinics around the world, the first time I've ever had a true team-based care experience was at Legacy Good Sam these last six months for me to go get this. +And this is a picture of my graduation team from Legacy. +There's a couple of the folks here. You'll recognize Dr. Batiuk. +We just talked to him. Here's Jenny, one of the nurses, Allison, who helped manage the transplant list, and a dozen other people who aren't pictured, a pharmacist, a psychologist, a nutritionist, even a financial counselor, Lisa, who helped us deal with all the insurance hassles. +I wept the day I graduated. +I should have been happy, because I was so well that I could go back to my normal doctors, but I wept because I was so actually connected to this team. +And here's the most important part. +The other people in this picture are me and my wife, Ashley. +Legacy trained us on how to do care for me at home so that they could offload the hospitals and clinics. +That's the only way that the model works. +My team is actually working in China on one of these self-care models for a project we called Age-Friendly Cities. +The most important point I want to make to you about this is the sacred and somewhat over-romanticized doctor-patient one-on-one is a relic of the past. +The future of health care is smart teams, and you'd better be on that team for yourself. +Now, the last thing that I want to talk to you about is care customization, because if you've got care anywhere and you've got care networking, those are going to go a long way towards improving our health care system, but there's still too much guesswork. +Randomized clinical trials were actually invented in 1948 to help invent the drugs that cured tuberculosis, and those are important things, don't get me wrong. +These population studies that we've done have created tons of miracle drugs that have saved millions of lives, but the problem is that health care is treating us as averages, not unique individuals, because at the end of the day, the patient is not the same thing as the population who are studied. That's what's leading to the guesswork. +The technologies that are coming, high-performance computing, analytics, big data that everyone's talking about, will allow us to build predictive models for each of us as individual patients. +And the magic here is, experiment on my avatar in software, not my body in suffering. +Now, I've had two examples I want to quickly share with you of this kind of care customization on my own journey. +The first was quite simple. I finally realized some years ago that all my medical teams were optimizing my treatment for longevity. +It's like a badge of honor to see how long they can get the patient to live. +I was optimizing my life for quality of life, and quality of life for me means time in snow. +So on my chart, I forced them to put, "Patient goal: low doses of drugs over longer periods of time, side effects friendly to skiing." +And I think that's why I achieved longevity. +I think that time-in-snow therapy was as important as the pharmaceuticals that I had. +Now the second example of customization -- and by the way, you can't customize care if you don't know your own goals, so health care can't know those until you know your own health care goals. +But the second example I want to give you is, I happened to be an early guinea pig, and I got very lucky to have my whole genome sequenced. +Now it took about two weeks of processing on Intel's highest-end servers to make this happen, and another six months of human and computing labor to make sense of all of that data. +And at the end of all of that, they said, "Yes, those diagnoses of that clash of medical titans all of those years ago were wrong, and we have a better path forward." +And I tell you, this kind of care customization for everything from your goals to your genetics will be the most game-changing transformation that we witness in health care during our lifetime. +So these three pillars of personal health, care anywhere, care networking, care customization, are happening in pieces now, but this vision will completely fail if we don't step up as caregivers and as patients to take on new roles. +It's what my friend Verna said: Wake up and take control of your health. +Because at the end of the day these technologies are simply about people caring for other people and ourselves in some powerful new ways. +And it's in that spirit that I want to introduce you to one last friend, very quickly. +Tracey Gamley stepped up to give me the impossible kidney that I was never supposed to have. +So Tracey, just tell us a little bit quickly about what the donor experience was like with you. +Tracey Gamley: For me, it was really easy. +I only had one night in the hospital. +The surgery was done laparoscopically, so I have just five very small scars on my abdomen, and I had four weeks away from work and went back to doing everything I'd done before without any changes. +ED: Well, I probably will never get a chance to say this to you in such a large audience ever again. +So "thank you" feel likes a really trite word, but thank you from the bottom of my heart for saving my life. +This TED stage and all of the TED stages are often about celebrating innovation and celebrating new technologies, and I've done that here today, and I've seen amazing things coming from TED speakers, I mean, my gosh, artificial kidneys, even printable kidneys, that are coming. +But until such time that these amazing technologies are available to all of us, and even when they are, it's up to us to care for, and even save, one another. +I hope you will go out and make personal health happen for yourselves and for everyone. Thanks so much. +I'd like you to come back with me for a moment to the 19th century, specifically to June 24, 1833. +The British Association for the Advancement of Science is holding its third meeting at the University of Cambridge. +It's the first night of the meeting, and a confrontation is about to take place that will change science forever. +An elderly, white-haired man stands up. +The members of the Association are shocked to realize that it's the poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge, who hadn't even left his house in years until that day. +They're even more shocked by what he says. +"You must stop calling yourselves natural philosophers." +Coleridge felt that true philosophers like himself pondered the cosmos from their armchairs. +They were not mucking around in the fossil pits or conducting messy experiments with electrical piles like the members of the British Association. +The crowd grew angry and began to complain loudly. +A young Cambridge scholar named William Whewell stood up and quieted the audience. +He politely agreed that an appropriate name for the members of the association did not exist. +"If 'philosophers' is taken to be too wide and lofty a term," he said, "then, by analogy with 'artist,' we may form 'scientist.'" This was the first time the word scientist was uttered in public, only 179 years ago. +I first found out about this confrontation when I was in graduate school, and it kind of blew me away. +I mean, how could the word scientist not have existed until 1833? +What were scientists called before? +What had changed to make a new name necessary precisely at that moment? +Prior to this meeting, those who studied the natural world were talented amateurs. +Think of the country clergyman or squire collecting his beetles or fossils, like Charles Darwin, for example, or, the hired help of a nobleman, like Joseph Priestley, who was the literary companion to the Marquis of Lansdowne when he discovered oxygen. +After this, they were scientists, professionals with a particular scientific method, goals, societies and funding. +Much of this revolution can be traced to four men who met at Cambridge University in 1812: Charles Babbage, John Herschel, Richard Jones and William Whewell. +These were brilliant, driven men who accomplished amazing things. +Charles Babbage, I think known to most TEDsters, invented the first mechanical calculator and the first prototype of a modern computer. +John Herschel mapped the stars of the southern hemisphere, and, in his spare time, co-invented photography. +I'm sure we could all be that productive without Facebook or Twitter to take up our time. +Richard Jones became an important economist who later influenced Karl Marx. +And Whewell not only coined the term scientist, as well as the words anode, cathode and ion, but spearheaded international big science with his global research on the tides. +In the Cambridge winter of 1812 and 1813, the four met for what they called philosophical breakfasts. +They talked about science and the need for a new scientific revolution. +They felt science had stagnated since the days of the scientific revolution that had happened in the 17th century. +It was time for a new revolution, which they pledged to bring about, and what's so amazing about these guys is, not only did they have these grandiose undergraduate dreams, but they actually carried them out, even beyond their wildest dreams. +And I'm going to tell you today about four major changes to science these men made. +About 200 years before, Francis Bacon and then, later, Isaac Newton, had proposed an inductive scientific method. +Now that's a method that starts from observations and experiments and moves to generalizations about nature called natural laws, which are always subject to revision or rejection should new evidence arise. +However, in 1809, David Ricardo muddied the waters by arguing that the science of economics should use a different, deductive method. +The problem was that an influential group at Oxford began arguing that because it worked so well in economics, this deductive method ought to be applied to the natural sciences too. +The members of the philosophical breakfast club disagreed. +They wrote books and articles promoting inductive method in all the sciences that were widely read by natural philosophers, university students and members of the public. +Reading one of Herschel's books was such a watershed moment for Charles Darwin that he would later say, "Scarcely anything in my life made so deep an impression on me. +It made me wish to add my might to the accumulated store of natural knowledge." +It also shaped Darwin's scientific method, as well as that used by his peers. +[Science for the public good] Previously, it was believed that scientific knowledge ought to be used for the good of the king or queen, or for one's own personal gain. +For example, ship captains needed to know information about the tides in order to safely dock at ports. +Harbormasters would gather this knowledge and sell it to the ship captains. +The philosophical breakfast club changed that, working together. +Whewell's worldwide study of the tides resulted in public tide tables and tidal maps that freely provided the harbormasters' knowledge to all ship captains. +Herschel helped by making tidal observations off the coast of South Africa, and, as he complained to Whewell, he was knocked off the docks during a violent high tide for his trouble. +The four men really helped each other in every way. +They also relentlessly lobbied the British government for the money to build Babbage's engines because they believed these engines would have a huge practical impact on society. +In the days before pocket calculators, the numbers that most professionals needed -- bankers, insurance agents, ship captains, engineers were to be found in lookup books like this, filled with tables of figures. +These tables were calculated using a fixed procedure over and over by part-time workers known as -- and this is amazing -- computers, but these calculations were really difficult. +I mean, this nautical almanac published the lunar differences for every month of the year. +Each month required 1,365 calculations, so these tables were filled with mistakes. +Babbage's difference engine was the first mechanical calculator devised to accurately compute any of these tables. +Two models of his engine were built in the last 20 years by a team from the Science Museum of London using his own plans. +This is the one now at the Computer History Museum in California, and it calculates accurately. It actually works. +Later, Babbage's analytical engine was the first mechanical computer in the modern sense. +It had a separate memory and central processor. +It was capable of iteration, conditional branching and parallel processing, and it was programmable using punched cards, an idea Babbage took from Jacquard's loom. +Tragically, Babbage's engines never were built in his day because most people thought that non-human computers would have no usefulness for the public. +[New scientific institutions] Founded in Bacon's time, the Royal Society of London was the foremost scientific society in England and even in the rest of the world. +By the 19th century, it had become a kind of gentleman's club populated mainly by antiquarians, literary men and the nobility. +The members of the philosophical breakfast club helped form a number of new scientific societies, including the British Association. +These new societies required that members be active researchers publishing their results. +They reinstated the tradition of the Q&A after scientific papers were read, which had been discontinued by the Royal Society as being ungentlemanly. +And for the first time, they gave women a foot in the door of science. +Members were encouraged to bring their wives, daughters and sisters to the meetings of the British Association, and while the women were expected to attend only the public lectures and the social events like this one, they began to infiltrate the scientific sessions as well. +The British Association would later be the first of the major national science organizations in the world to admit women as full members. +[External funding for science] Up to the 19th century, natural philosophers were expected to pay for their own equipment and supplies. +Occasionally, there were prizes, such as that given to John Harrison in the 18th century, for solving the so-called longitude problem, but prizes were only given after the fact, when they were given at all. +On the advice of the philosophical breakfast club, the British Association began to use the extra money generated by its meetings to give grants for research in astronomy, the tides, fossil fish, shipbuilding, and many other areas. +These grants not only allowed less wealthy men to conduct research, but they also encouraged thinking outside the box, rather than just trying to solve one pre-set question. +Eventually, the Royal Society and the scientific societies of other countries followed suit, and this has become -- fortunately it's become -- a major part of the scientific landscape today. +So the philosophical breakfast club helped invent the modern scientist. +That's the heroic part of their story. +There's a flip side as well. +They did not foresee at least one consequence of their revolution. +They would have been deeply dismayed by today's disjunction between science and the rest of culture. +It's shocking to realize that only 28 percent of American adults have even a very basic level of science literacy, and this was tested by asking simple questions like, "Did humans and dinosaurs inhabit the Earth at the same time?" +and "What proportion of the Earth is covered in water?" +Once scientists became members of a professional group, they were slowly walled off from the rest of us. +This is the unintended consequence of the revolution that started with our four friends. +Charles Darwin said, "I sometimes think that general and popular treatises are almost as important for the progress of science as original work." +In fact, "Origin of Species" was written for a general and popular audience, and was widely read when it first appeared. +Darwin knew what we seem to have forgotten, that science is not only for scientists. +Thank you. +Let's talk dirty. +A few years ago, oddly enough, I needed the bathroom, and I found one, a public bathroom, and I went into the stall, and I prepared to do what I'd done most of my life: use the toilet, flush the toilet, forget about the toilet. +And for some reason that day, instead, I asked myself a question, and it was, where does this stuff go? +And with that question, I found myself plunged into the world of sanitation -- there's more coming -- sanitation, toilets and poop, and I have yet to emerge. +And that's because it's such an enraging, yet engaging place to be. +To go back to that toilet, it wasn't a particularly fancy toilet, it wasn't as nice as this one from the World Toilet Organization. +That's the other WTO. But it had a lockable door, it had privacy, it had water, it had soap so I could wash my hands, and I did because I'm a woman, and we do that. +But that day, when I asked that question, I learned something, and that was that I'd grown up thinking that a toilet like that was my right, when in fact it's a privilege. +2.5 billion people worldwide have no adequate toilet. +They don't have a bucket or a box. +Forty percent of the world with no adequate toilet. +And they have to do what this little boy is doing by the side of the Mumbai Airport expressway, which is called open defecation, or poo-pooing in the open. +And he does that every day, and every day, probably, that guy in the picture walks on by, because he sees that little boy, but he doesn't see him. +But he should, because the problem with all that poop lying around is that poop carries passengers. +Fifty communicable diseases like to travel in human shit. +All those things, the eggs, the cysts, the bacteria, the viruses, all those can travel in one gram of human feces. +How? Well, that little boy will not have washed his hands. +He's barefoot. He'll run back into his house, and he will contaminate his drinking water and his food and his environment with whatever diseases he may be carrying by fecal particles that are on his fingers and feet. +In what I call the flushed-and-plumbed world that most of us in this room are lucky to live in, the most common symptoms associated with those diseases, diarrhea, is now a bit of a joke. +It's the runs, the Hershey squirts, the squits. +Where I come from, we call it Delhi belly, as a legacy of empire. +But if you search for a stock photo of diarrhea in a leading photo image agency, this is the picture that you come up with. +Still not sure about the bikini. +And here's another image of diarrhea. +This is Marie Saylee, nine months old. +You can't see her, because she's buried under that green grass in a little village in Liberia, because she died in three days from diarrhea -- the Hershey squirts, the runs, a joke. +And that's her dad. +But she wasn't alone that day, because 4,000 other children died of diarrhea, and they do every day. +Diarrhea is the second biggest killer of children worldwide, and you've probably been asked to care about things like HIV/AIDS or T.B. or measles, but diarrhea kills more children than all those three things put together. +It's a very potent weapon of mass destruction. +And the cost to the world is immense: 260 billion dollars lost every year on the losses to poor sanitation. +These are cholera beds in Haiti. +You'll have heard of cholera, but we don't hear about diarrhea. +It gets a fraction of the attention and funding given to any of those other diseases. +But we know how to fix this. +We know, because in the mid-19th century, wonderful Victorian engineers installed systems of sewers and wastewater treatment and the flush toilet, and disease dropped dramatically. +Child mortality dropped by the most it had ever dropped in history. +The flush toilet was voted the best medical advance of the last 200 years by the readers of the British Medical Journal, and they were choosing over the Pill, anesthesia, and surgery. +It's a wonderful waste disposal device. +But I think that it's so good it doesn't smell, we can put it in our house, we can lock it behind a door and I think we've locked it out of conversation too. +We don't have a neutral word for it. +Poop's not particularly adequate. +Shit offends people. Feces is too medical. +Because I can't explain otherwise, when I look at the figures, what's going on. +But then you look at that already minuscule water and sanitation budget, and 75 to 90 percent of it will go on clean water supply, which is great; we all need water. +No one's going to refuse clean water. +But the humble latrine, or flush toilet, reduces disease by twice as much as just putting in clean water. +Think about it. That little boy who's running back into his house, he may have a nice, clean fresh water supply, but he's got dirty hands that he's going to contaminate his water supply with. +And I think that the real waste of human waste is that we are wasting it as a resource and as an incredible trigger for development, because these are a few things that toilets and poop itself can do for us. +So a toilet can put a girl back in school. +Twenty-five percent of girls in India drop out of school because they have no adequate sanitation. +They've been used to sitting through lessons for years and years holding it in. +We've all done that, but they do it every day, and when they hit puberty and they start menstruating, it just gets too much. +And I understand that. Who can blame them? +So if you met an educationalist and said, "I can improve education attendance rates by 25 percent with just one simple thing," you'd make a lot of friends in education. +That's not the only thing it can do for you. +Poop can cook your dinner. +It's got nutrients in it. +We ingest nutrients. We excrete nutrients as well. +We don't keep them all. +In Rwanda, they are now getting 75 percent of their cooking fuel in their prison system from the contents of prisoners' bowels. +So these are a bunch of inmates in a prison in Butare. +They're genocidal inmates, most of them, and they're stirring the contents of their own latrines, because if you put poop in a sealed environment, in a tank, pretty much like a stomach, then, pretty much like a stomach, it gives off gas, and you can cook with it. +And you might think it's just good karma to see these guys stirring shit, but it's also good economic sense, because they're saving a million dollars a year. +They're cutting down on deforestation, and they've found a fuel supply that is inexhaustible, infinite and free at the point of production. +It's not just in the poor world that poop can save lives. +Here's a woman who's about to get a dose of the brown stuff in those syringes, which is what you think it is, except not quite, because it's actually donated. +There is now a new career path called stool donor. +It's like the new sperm donor. +Because she has been suffering from a superbug called C. diff, and it's resistant to antibiotics in many cases. +She's been suffering for years. +She gets a dose of healthy human feces, and the cure rate for this procedure is 94 percent. +It's astonishing, but hardly anyone is still doing it. +Maybe it's the ick factor. +That's okay, because there's a team of research scientists in Canada who have now created a stool sample, a fake stool sample which is called RePOOPulate. +So you'd be thinking by now, okay, the solution's simple, we give everyone a toilet. +And this is where it gets really interesting, because it's not that simple, because we are not simple. +So the really interesting, exciting work -- this is the engaging bit -- in sanitation is that we need to understand human psychology. +We need to understand software as well as just giving someone hardware. +They've found in many developing countries that governments have gone in and given out free latrines and gone back a few years later and found that they've got lots of new goat sheds or temples or spare rooms with their owners happily walking past them and going over to the open defecating ground. +So the idea is to manipulate human emotion. +It's been done for decades. The soap companies did it in the early 20th century. +They tried selling soap as healthy. No one bought it. +They tried selling it as sexy. Everyone bought it. +In India now there's a campaign which persuades young brides not to marry into families that don't have a toilet. +It's called "No Loo, No I Do." +And in case you think that poster's just propaganda, here's Priyanka, 23 years old. +I met her last October in India, and she grew up in a conservative environment. +She grew up in a rural village in a poor area of India, and she was engaged at 14, and then at 21 or so, she moved into her in-law's house. +And she was horrified to get there and find that they didn't have a toilet. +She'd grown up with a latrine. +It was no big deal, but it was a latrine. +And the first night she was there, she was told that at 4 o'clock in the morning -- her mother-in-law got her up, told her to go outside and go and do it in the dark in the open. +And she was scared. She was scared of drunks hanging around. +She was scared of snakes. She was scared of rape. +After three days, she did an unthinkable thing. +She left. +And if you know anything about rural India, you'll know that's an unspeakably courageous thing to do. +But not just that. +She got her toilet, and now she goes around all the other villages in India persuading other women to do the same thing. +It's what I call social contagion, and it's really powerful and really exciting. +Another version of this, another village in India near where Priyanka lives is this village, called Lakara, and about a year ago, it had no toilets whatsoever. +Kids were dying of diarrhea and cholera. +Some visitors came, using various behavioral change tricks like putting out a plate of food and a plate of shit and watching the flies go one to the other. +Somehow, people who'd been thinking that what they were doing was not disgusting at all suddenly thought, "Oops." +Not only that, but they were ingesting their neighbors' shit. +That's what really made them change their behavior. +So this woman, this boy's mother installed this latrine in a few hours. +Her entire life, she'd been using the banana field behind, but she installed the latrine in a few hours. +It cost nothing. It's going to save that boy's life. +So when I get despondent about the state of sanitation, even though these are pretty exciting times because we've got the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation reinventing the toilet, which is great, we've got Matt Damon going on bathroom strike, which is great for humanity, very bad for his colon. +But there are things to worry about. +It's the most off-track Millennium Development Goal. +It's about 50 or so years off track. +We're not going to meet targets, providing people with sanitation at this rate. +So when I get sad about sanitation, I think of Japan, because Japan 70 years ago was a nation of people who used pit latrines and wiped with sticks, and now it's a nation of what are called Woshurettos, washlet toilets. +They have in-built bidet nozzles for a lovely, hands-free cleaning experience, and they have various other features like a heated seat and an automatic lid-raising device which is known as the "marriage-saver." +But most importantly, what they have done in Japan, which I find so inspirational, is they've brought the toilet out from behind the locked door. +They've made it conversational. +People go out and upgrade their toilet. +They talk about it. They've sanitized it. +I hope that we can do that. It's not a difficult thing to do. +All we really need to do is look at this issue as the urgent, shameful issue that it is. +And don't think that it's just in the poor world that things are wrong. +Our sewers are crumbling. +Things are going wrong here too. +The solution to all of this is pretty easy. +I'm going to make your lives easy this afternoon and just ask you to do one thing, and that's to go out, protest, speak about the unspeakable, and talk shit. +Thank you. +So let's start with some good news, and the good news has to do with what do we know based on biomedical research that actually has changed the outcomes for many very serious diseases? +Let's start with leukemia, acute lymphoblastic leukemia, ALL, the most common cancer of children. +When I was a student, the mortality rate was about 95 percent. +Today, some 25, 30 years later, we're talking about a mortality rate that's reduced by 85 percent. +Six thousand children each year who would have previously died of this disease are cured. +If you want the really big numbers, look at these numbers for heart disease. +Heart disease used to be the biggest killer, particularly for men in their 40s. +Today, we've seen a 63-percent reduction in mortality from heart disease -- remarkably, 1.1 million deaths averted every year. +These are just remarkable, remarkable changes in the outlook for some of the biggest killers. +Remarkable stories, good-news stories, all of which boil down to understanding something about the diseases that has allowed us to detect early and intervene early. +Early detection, early intervention, that's the story for these successes. +Unfortunately, the news is not all good. +Let's talk about one other story which has to do with suicide. +Now this is, of course, not a disease, per se. +It's a condition, or it's a situation that leads to mortality. +What you may not realize is just how prevalent it is. +There are 38,000 suicides each year in the United States. +That means one about every 15 minutes. +Third most common cause of death amongst people between the ages of 15 and 25. +It's kind of an extraordinary story when you realize that this is twice as common as homicide and actually more common as a source of death than traffic fatalities in this country. +Now, when we talk about suicide, there is also a medical contribution here, because 90 percent of suicides are related to a mental illness: depression, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, anorexia, borderline personality. There's a long list of disorders that contribute, and as I mentioned before, often early in life. +But it's not just the mortality from these disorders. +It's also morbidity. +You're probably thinking that doesn't make any sense. +I mean, cancer seems far more serious. +Heart disease seems far more serious. +But you can see actually they are further down this list, and that's because we're talking here about disability. +What drives the disability for these disorders like schizophrenia and bipolar and depression? +Why are they number one here? +Well, there are probably three reasons. +One is that they're highly prevalent. +About one in five people will suffer from one of these disorders in the course of their lifetime. +A second, of course, is that, for some people, these become truly disabling, and it's about four to five percent, perhaps one in 20. +But what really drives these numbers, this high morbidity, and to some extent the high mortality, is the fact that these start very early in life. +Fifty percent will have onset by age 14, 75 percent by age 24, a picture that is very different than what one would see if you're talking about cancer or heart disease, diabetes, hypertension -- most of the major illnesses that we think about as being sources of morbidity and mortality. +These are, indeed, the chronic disorders of young people. +Now, I started by telling you that there were some good-news stories. +This is obviously not one of them. +This is the part of it that is perhaps most difficult, and in a sense this is a kind of confession for me. +My job is to actually make sure that we make progress on all of these disorders. +I work for the federal government. +Actually, I work for you. You pay my salary. +And maybe at this point, when you know what I do, or maybe what I've failed to do, you'll think that I probably ought to be fired, and I could certainly understand that. +But what I want to suggest, and the reason I'm here is to tell you that I think we're about to be in a very different world as we think about these illnesses. +What I've been talking to you about so far is mental disorders, diseases of the mind. +That's actually becoming a rather unpopular term these days, and people feel that, for whatever reason, it's politically better to use the term behavioral disorders and to talk about these as disorders of behavior. +Fair enough. They are disorders of behavior, and they are disorders of the mind. +But what I want to suggest to you is that both of those terms, which have been in play for a century or more, are actually now impediments to progress, that what we need conceptually to make progress here is to rethink these disorders as brain disorders. +Now, for some of you, you're going to say, "Oh my goodness, here we go again. +We're going to hear about a biochemical imbalance or we're going to hear about drugs or we're going to hear about some very simplistic notion that will take our subjective experience and turn it into molecules, or maybe into some sort of very flat, unidimensional understanding of what it is to have depression or schizophrenia. +When we talk about the brain, it is anything but unidimensional or simplistic or reductionistic. +It depends, of course, on what scale or what scope you want to think about, but this is an organ of surreal complexity, and we are just beginning to understand how to even study it, whether you're thinking about the 100 billion neurons that are in the cortex or the 100 trillion synapses that make up all the connections. +We have just begun to try to figure out how do we take this very complex machine that does extraordinary kinds of information processing and use our own minds to understand this very complex brain that supports our own minds. +It's actually a kind of cruel trick of evolution that we simply don't have a brain that seems to be wired well enough to understand itself. +In a sense, it actually makes you feel that when you're in the safe zone of studying behavior or cognition, something you can observe, that in a way feels more simplistic and reductionistic than trying to engage this very complex, mysterious organ that we're beginning to try to understand. +We call this the human connectome, and you can think about the connectome sort of as the wiring diagram of the brain. +You'll hear more about this in a few minutes. +It's a little different than the way we think about brain disorders like Huntington's or Parkinson's or Alzheimer's disease where you have a bombed-out part of your cortex. +Here we're talking about traffic jams, or sometimes detours, or sometimes problems with just the way that things are connected and the way that the brain functions. +You could, if you want, compare this to, on the one hand, a myocardial infarction, a heart attack, where you have dead tissue in the heart, versus an arrhythmia, where the organ simply isn't functioning because of the communication problems within it. +Either one would kill you; in only one of them will you find a major lesion. +As we think about this, probably it's better to actually go a little deeper into one particular disorder, and that would be schizophrenia, because I think that's a good case for helping to understand why thinking of this as a brain disorder matters. +That's something we can observe. +But look at this closely and you can see that actually they've crossed a different threshold. +They've crossed a brain threshold much earlier, that perhaps not at age 22 or 20, but even by age 15 or 16 you can begin to see the trajectory for development is quite different at the level of the brain, not at the level of behavior. +Why does this matter? Well first because, for brain disorders, behavior is the last thing to change. +We know that for Alzheimer's, for Parkinson's, for Huntington's. +There are changes in the brain a decade or more before you see the first signs of a behavioral change. +The tools that we have now allow us to detect these brain changes much earlier, long before the symptoms emerge. +But most important, go back to where we started. +The good-news stories in medicine are early detection, early intervention. +If we waited until the heart attack, we would be sacrificing 1.1 million lives every year in this country to heart disease. +That is precisely what we do today when we decide that everybody with one of these brain disorders, brain circuit disorders, has a behavioral disorder. +We wait until the behavior becomes manifest. +That's not early detection. That's not early intervention. +Now to be clear, we're not quite ready to do this. +We don't have all the facts. We don't actually even know what the tools will be, nor what to precisely look for in every case to be able to get there before the behavior emerges as different. +But this tells us how we need to think about it, and where we need to go. +Are we going to be there soon? +I think that this is something that will happen over the course of the next few years, but I'd like to finish with a quote about trying to predict how this will happen by somebody who's thought a lot about changes in concepts and changes in technology. +"We always overestimate the change that will occur in the next two years and underestimate the change that will occur in the next 10." -- Bill Gates. +Thanks very much. +One year ago, I rented a car in Jerusalem to go find a man I'd never met but who had changed my life. +I didn't have a phone number to call to say I was coming. +I didn't have an exact address, but I knew his name, Abed, I knew that he lived in a town of 15,000, Kfar Kara, and I knew that, 21 years before, just outside this holy city, he broke my neck. +And so, on an overcast morning in January, I headed north off in a silver Chevy to find a man and some peace. +The road dropped and I exited Jerusalem. +I then rounded the very bend where his blue truck, heavy with four tons of floor tiles, had borne down with great speed onto the back left corner of the minibus where I sat. +I was then 19 years old. +I'd grown five inches and done some 20,000 pushups in eight months, and the night before the crash, I delighted in my new body, playing basketball with friends into the wee hours of a May morning. +I palmed the ball in my large right hand, and when that hand reached the rim, I felt invincible. +I was off in the bus to get the pizza I'd won on the court. +I didn't see Abed coming. +From my seat, I was looking up at a stone town on a hilltop, bright in the noontime sun, when from behind there was a great bang, as loud and violent as a bomb. +My head snapped back over my red seat. +My eardrum blew. My shoes flew off. +I flew too, my head bobbing on broken bones, and when I landed, I was a quadriplegic. +Over the coming months, I learned to breathe on my own, then to sit and to stand and to walk, but my body was now divided vertically. +I was a hemiplegic, and back home in New York, I used a wheelchair for four years, all through college. +College ended and I returned to Jerusalem for a year. +There I rose from my chair for good, I leaned on my cane, and I looked back, finding all from my fellow passengers in the bus to photographs of the crash, and when I saw this photograph, I didn't see a bloody and unmoving body. +I saw the healthy bulk of a left deltoid, and I mourned that it was lost, mourned all I had not yet done, but was now impossible. +It was then I read the testimony that Abed gave the morning after the crash, of driving down the right lane of a highway toward Jerusalem. +Reading his words, I welled with anger. +It was the first time I'd felt anger toward this man, and it came from magical thinking. +On this xeroxed piece of paper, the crash had not yet happened. +Abed could still turn his wheel left so that I would see him whoosh by out my window and I would remain whole. +"Be careful, Abed, look out. Slow down." +But Abed did not slow, and on that xeroxed piece of paper, my neck again broke, and again, I was left without anger. +I decided to find Abed, and when I finally did, he responded to my Hebrew hello which such nonchalance, it seemed he'd been awaiting my phone call. +And maybe he had. +I said I wanted to meet. +Abed said that I should call back in a few weeks, and when I did, and a recording told me that his number was disconnected, I let Abed and the crash go. +Many years passed. +I walked with my cane and my ankle brace and a backpack on trips in six continents. +I pitched overhand in a weekly softball game that I started in Central Park, and home in New York, I became a journalist and an author, typing hundreds of thousands of words with one finger. +A friend pointed out to me that all of my big stories mirrored my own, each centering on a life that had changed in an instant, owing, if not to a crash, then to an inheritance, a swing of the bat, a click of the shutter, an arrest. +Each of us had a before and an after. +I'd been working through my lot after all. +Still, Abed was far from my mind, when last year, I returned to Israel to write of the crash, and the book I then wrote, "Half-Life," was nearly complete when I recognized that I still wanted to meet Abed, and finally I understood why: to hear this man say two words: "I'm sorry." +People apologize for less. +And so I got a cop to confirm that Abed still lived somewhere in his same town, and I was now driving to it with a potted yellow rose in the back seat, when suddenly flowers seemed a ridiculous offering. +But what to get the man who broke your fucking neck? +I pulled into the town of Abu Ghosh, and bought a brick of Turkish delight: pistachios glued in rosewater. Better. +Back on Highway 1, I envisioned what awaited. +Abed would hug me. Abed would spit at me. +Abed would say, "I'm sorry." +I then began to wonder, as I had many times before, how my life would have been different had this man not injured me, had my genes been fed a different helping of experience. +Who was I? +Was I who I had been before the crash, before this road divided my life like the spine of an open book? +Was I what had been done to me? +Were all of us the results of things done to us, done for us, the infidelity of a parent or spouse, money inherited? +Were we instead our bodies, their inborn endowments and deficits? +It seemed that we could be nothing more than genes and experience, but how to tease out the one from the other? +As Yeats put that same universal question, "O body swayed to music, o brightening glance, how can we know the dancer from the dance?" +I'd been driving for an hour when I looked in my rearview mirror and saw my own brightening glance. +The light my eyes had carried for as long as they had been blue. +The predispositions and impulses that had propelled me as a toddler to try and slip over a boat into a Chicago lake, that had propelled me as a teen to jump into wild Cape Cod Bay after a hurricane. +But I also saw in my reflection that, had Abed not injured me, I would now, in all likelihood, be a doctor and a husband and a father. +I would be less mindful of time and of death, and, oh, I would not be disabled, would not suffer the thousand slings and arrows of my fortune. +The frequent furl of five fingers, the chips in my teeth come from biting at all the many things a solitary hand cannot open. +The dancer and the dance were hopelessly entwined. +It was approaching 11 when I exited right toward Afula, and passed a large quarry and was soon in Kfar Kara. +I felt a pang of nerves. +But Chopin was on the radio, seven beautiful mazurkas, and I pulled into a lot by a gas station to listen and to calm. +I'd been told that in an Arab town, one need only mention the name of a local and it will be recognized. +And I was mentioning Abed and myself, noting deliberately that I was here in peace, to the people in this town, when I met Mohamed outside a post office at noon. +He listened to me. +You know, it was most often when speaking to people that I wondered where I ended and my disability began, for many people told me what they told no one else. +Many cried. +And one day, after a woman I met on the street did the same and I later asked her why, she told me that, best she could tell, her tears had had something to do with my being happy and strong, but vulnerable too. +I listened to her words. I suppose they were true. +I was me, but I was now me despite a limp, and that, I suppose, was what now made me, me. +Anyway, Mohamed told me what perhaps he would not have told another stranger. +He led me to a house of cream stucco, then drove off. +And as I sat contemplating what to say, a woman approached in a black shawl and black robe. +I stepped from my car and said "Shalom," and identified myself, and she told me that her husband Abed would be home from work in four hours. +Her Hebrew was not good, and she later confessed that she thought that I had come to install the Internet. +I drove off and returned at 4:30, thankful to the minaret up the road that helped me find my way back. +And as I approached the front door, Abed saw me, my jeans and flannel and cane, and I saw Abed, an average-looking man of average size. +He wore black and white: slippers over socks, pilling sweatpants, a piebald sweater, a striped ski cap pulled down to his forehead. +He'd been expecting me. Mohamed had phoned. +And so at once, we shook hands, and smiled, and I gave him my gift, and he told me I was a guest in his home, and we sat beside one another on a fabric couch. +It was then that Abed resumed at once the tale of woe he had begun over the phone 16 years before. +He'd just had surgery on his eyes, he said. +He had problems with his side and his legs too, and, oh, he'd lost his teeth in the crash. +Did I wish to see him remove them? +Abed then rose and turned on the TV so that I wouldn't be alone when he left the room, and returned with polaroids of the crash and his old driver's license. +"I was handsome," he said. +We looked down at his laminated mug. +Abed had been less handsome than substantial, with thick black hair and a full face and a wide neck. +It was this youth who on May 16, 1990, had broken two necks including mine, and bruised one brain and taken one life. +Twenty-one years later, he was now thinner than his wife, his skin slack on his face, and looking at Abed looking at his young self, I remembered looking at that photograph of my young self after the crash, and recognized his longing. +"The crash changed both of our lives," I said. +Abed then showed me a picture of his mashed truck, and said that the crash was the fault of a bus driver in the left lane who did not let him pass. +I did not want to recap the crash with Abed. +I'd hoped for something simpler: to exchange a Turkish dessert for two words and be on my way. +And so I didn't point out that in his own testimony the morning after the crash, Abed did not even mention the bus driver. +No, I was quiet. I was quiet because I had not come for truth. +I had come for remorse. +And so I now went looking for remorse and threw truth under the bus. +"I understand," I said, "that the crash was not your fault, but does it make you sad that others suffered?" +Abed spoke three quick words. +"Yes, I suffered." +Abed then told me why he'd suffered. +He'd lived an unholy life before the crash, and so God had ordained the crash, but now, he said, he was religious, and God was pleased. +It was then that God intervened: news on the TV of a car wreck that hours before had killed three people up north. +We looked up at the wreckage. +"Strange," I said. +"Strange," he agreed. +I had the thought that there, on Route 804, there were perpetrators and victims, dyads bound by a crash. +Some, as had Abed, would forget the date. +Some, as had I, would remember. +The report finished and Abed spoke. +"It is a pity," he said, "that the police in this country are not tough enough on bad drivers." +I was baffled. +Abed had said something remarkable. +Did it point up the degree to which he'd absolved himself of the crash? +Was it evidence of guilt, an assertion that he should have been put away longer? +He'd served six months in prison, lost his truck license for a decade. +I forgot my discretion. +"Um, Abed," I said, "I thought you had a few driving issues before the crash." +"Well," he said, "I once went 60 in a 40." +And so 27 violations -- driving through a red light, driving at excessive speed, driving on the wrong side of a barrier, and finally, riding his brakes down that hill -- reduced to one. +And it was then I understood that no matter how stark the reality, the human being fits it into a narrative that is palatable. +The goat becomes the hero. The perpetrator becomes the victim. +It was then I understood that Abed would never apologize. +Abed and I sat with our coffee. +We'd spent 90 minutes together, and he was now known to me. +He was not a particularly bad man or a particularly good man. +He was a limited man who'd found it within himself to be kind to me. +With a nod to Jewish custom, he told me that I should live to be 120 years old. +But it was hard for me to relate to one who had so completely washed his hands of his own calamitous doing, to one whose life was so unexamined that he said he thought two people had died in the crash. +There was much I wished to say to Abed. +I wished to tell him that, were he to acknowledge my disability, it would be okay, for people are wrong to marvel at those like me who smile as we limp. +People don't know that they have lived through worse, that problems of the heart hit with a force greater than a runaway truck, that problems of the mind are greater still, more injurious, than a hundred broken necks. +I wished to tell him that what makes most of us who we are most of all is not our minds and not our bodies and not what happens to us, but how we respond to what happens to us. +"This," wrote the psychiatrist Viktor Frankl, "is the last of the human freedoms: to choose one's attitude in any given set of circumstances." +I wished to tell him that not only paralyzers and paralyzees must evolve, reconcile to reality, but we all must -- the aging and the anxious and the divorced and the balding and the bankrupt and everyone. +I wished to tell him that one does not have to say that a bad thing is good, that a crash is from God and so a crash is good, a broken neck is good. +One can say that a bad thing sucks, but that this natural world still has many glories. +I wished to tell him that, in the end, our mandate is clear: We have to rise above bad fortune. +We have to be in the good and enjoy the good, study and work and adventure and friendship -- oh, friendship -- and community and love. +But most of all, I wished to tell him what Herman Melville wrote, that "truly to enjoy bodily warmth, some small part of you must be cold, for there is no quality in this world that is not what it is merely by contrast." +Yes, contrast. +If you are mindful of what you do not have, you may be truly mindful of what you do have, and if the gods are kind, you may truly enjoy what you have. +That is the one singular gift you may receive if you suffer in any existential way. +You know death, and so may wake each morning pulsing with ready life. +Some part of you is cold, and so another part may truly enjoy what it is to be warm, or even to be cold. +When one morning, years after the crash, I stepped onto stone and the underside of my left foot felt the flash of cold, nerves at last awake, it was exhilarating, a gust of snow. +But I didn't say these things to Abed. +I told him only that he had killed one man, not two. +I told him the name of that man. +And then I said, "Goodbye." +Thank you. +Thanks a lot. +When I was 14 years old, I had low self-esteem. +I felt I was not talented at anything. +One day, I bought a yo-yo. +When I tried my first trick, it looked like this. +I couldn't even do the simplest trick, but it was very natural for me, because I was not dextrous, and hated all sports. +But after one week of practicing, my throws became more like this. +A bit better. +I thought, the yo-yo is something for me to be good at, for the first time in my life. +I found my passion. +I was spending all my time practicing. +It took me hours and hours a day to build my skills up to the next level. +And then, four years later, when I was 18 years old, I was standing onstage at the World Yo-Yo Contest. +And I won. +I was so excited. "Yes, I did it! I became a hero. +I may get many sponsors, a lot of money, tons of interviews, and be on TV!" I thought. But after coming back to Japan, totally nothing changed in my life. +I realized society didn't value my passion. +So I went back to my college and became a typical Japanese worker as a systems engineer. +I felt my passion, heart and soul, had left my body. +I felt I was not alive anymore. +So I started to consider what I should do, and I thought, I wanted to make my performance better, and to show onstage how spectacular the yo-yo could be to change the public's image of the yo-yo. +So I quit my company and started a career as a professional performer. +I started to learn classic ballet, jazz dance, acrobatics and other things to make my performance better. +As a result of these efforts, and the help of many others, it happened. +I won the World Yo-Yo Contest again in the artistic performance division. +I passed an audition for Cirque du Soleil. +Today, I am standing on the TED stage with the yo-yo in front of you. +What I learned from the yo-yo is, if I make enough effort with huge passion, there is no impossible. +Could you let me share my passion with you through my performance? +(Water Sounds) +One of the things I want to establish right from the start is that not all neurosurgeons wear cowboy boots. +I just wanted you to know that. +So I am indeed a neurosurgeon, and I follow a long tradition of neurosurgery, and what I'm going to tell you about today is adjusting the dials in the circuits in the brain, being able to go anywhere in the brain and turning areas of the brain up or down to help our patients. +So as I said, neurosurgery comes from a long tradition. +It's been around for about 7,000 years. +In Mesoamerica, there used to be neurosurgery, and there were these neurosurgeons that used to treat patients. +And they were trying to -- they knew that the brain was involved in neurological and psychiatric disease. +They didn't know exactly what they were doing. +Not much has changed, by the way. But they thought that, if you had a neurologic or psychiatric disease, it must be because you are possessed by an evil spirit. +So if you are possessed by an evil spirit causing neurologic or psychiatric problems, then the way to treat this is, of course, to make a hole in your skull and let the evil spirit escape. +So this was the thinking back then, and these individuals made these holes. +Sometimes the patients were a little bit reluctant to go through this because, you can tell that the holes are made partially and then, I think, there was some trepanation, and then they left very quickly and it was only a partial hole, and we know they survived these procedures. +But this was common. +There were some sites where one percent of all the skulls have these holes, and so you can see that neurologic and psychiatric disease is quite common, and it was also quite common about 7,000 years ago. +Now, in the course of time, we've come to realize that different parts of the brain do different things. +So there are areas of the brain that are dedicated to controlling your movement or your vision or your memory or your appetite, and so on. +And when things work well, then the nervous system works well, and everything functions. +But once in a while, things don't go so well, and there's trouble in these circuits, and there are some rogue neurons that are misfiring and causing trouble, or sometimes they're underactive and they're not quite working as they should. +Now, the manifestation of this depends on where in the brain these neurons are. +So when these neurons are in the motor circuit, you get dysfunction in the movement system, and you get things like Parkinson's disease. +When the malfunction is in a circuit that regulates your mood, you get things like depression, and when it is in a circuit that controls your memory and cognitive function, then you get things like Alzheimer's disease. +So what we've been able to do is to pinpoint where these disturbances are in the brain, and we've been able to intervene within these circuits in the brain to either turn them up or turn them down. +So this is very much like choosing the correct station on the radio dial. +Once you choose the right station, whether it be jazz or opera, in our case whether it be movement or mood, we can put the dial there, and then we can use a second button to adjust the volume, to turn it up or turn it down. +So what I'm going to tell you about is using the circuitry of the brain to implant electrodes and turning areas of the brain up and down to see if we can help our patients. +And this is accomplished using this kind of device, and this is called deep brain stimulation. +So what we're doing is placing these electrodes throughout the brain. +We can turn it up or down, on or off. +Now, about a hundred thousand patients in the world have received deep brain stimulation, and I'm going to show you some examples of using deep brain stimulation to treat disorders of movement, disorders of mood and disorders of cognition. +So this looks something like this when it's in the brain. +You see the electrode going through the skull into the brain and resting there, and we can place this really anywhere in the brain. +I tell my friends that no neuron is safe from a neurosurgeon, because we can really reach just about anywhere in the brain quite safely now. +Now the first example I'm going to show you is a patient with Parkinson's disease, and this lady has Parkinson's disease, and she has these electrodes in her brain, and I'm going to show you what she's like when the electrodes are turned off and she has her Parkinson's symptoms, and then we're going to turn it on. +So this looks something like this. +The electrodes are turned off now, and you can see that she has tremor. +Man: Okay. Woman: I can't. Man: Can you try to touch my finger? +Man: That's a little better. Woman: That side is better. +We're now going to turn it on. +It's on. Just turned it on. +And this works like that, instantly. +And the difference between shaking in this way and not -- The difference between shaking in this way and not is related to the misbehavior of 25,000 neurons in her subthalamic nucleus. +So we now know how to find these troublemakers and tell them, "Gentlemen, that's enough. +We want you to stop doing that." +And we do that with electricity. +So we use electricity to dictate how they fire, and we try to block their misbehavior using electricity. +So in this case, we are suppressing the activity of abnormal neurons. +We started using this technique in other problems, and I'm going to tell you about a fascinating problem that we encountered, a case of dystonia. +So dystonia is a disorder affecting children. +It's a genetic disorder, and it involves a twisting motion, and these children get progressively more and more twisting until they can't breathe, until they get sores, urinary infections, and then they die. +So back in 1997, I was asked to see this young boy, perfectly normal. He has this genetic form of dystonia. +There are eight children in the family. +Five of them have dystonia. +So here he is. +He was crippled, and indeed the natural progression as this gets worse is for them to become progressively twisted, progressively disabled, and many of these children do not survive. +So he is one of five kids. +The only way he could get around was crawling on his belly like this. +He did not respond to any drugs. +We did not know what to do with this boy. +We did not know what operation to do, where to go in the brain, but on the basis of our results in Parkinson's disease, we reasoned, why don't we try to suppress the same area in the brain that we suppressed in Parkinson's disease, and let's see what happens? +So here he was. We operated on him hoping that he would get better. We did not know. +So here he is now, back in Israel where he lives, three months after the procedure, and here he is. +On the basis of this result, this is now a procedure that's done throughout the world, and there have been hundreds of children that have been helped with this kind of surgery. +This boy is now in university and leads quite a normal life. +This has been one of the most satisfying cases that I have ever done in my entire career, to restore movement and walking to this kind of child. +We realized that perhaps we could use this technology not only in circuits that control your movement but also circuits that control other things, and the next thing that we took on was circuits that control your mood. +And let's see if we can use this technique to help these patients with depression. +So here you really have the blues, and the areas in blue are areas that are involved in motivation, in drive and decision-making, and indeed, if you're severely depressed as these patients were, those are impaired. You lack motivation and drive. +The other thing we discovered was an area that was overactive, area 25, seen there in red, and area 25 is the sadness center of the brain. +If I make any of you sad, for example, I make you remember the last time you saw your parent before they died or a friend before they died, this area of the brain lights up. +It is the sadness center of the brain. +And so patients with depression have hyperactivity. +The area of the brain for sadness is on red hot. +The thermostat is set at 100 degrees, and the other areas of the brain, involved in drive and motivation, are shut down. +So we wondered, can we place electrodes in this area of sadness and see if we can turn down the thermostat, can we turn down the activity, and what will be the consequence of that? +So we went ahead and implanted electrodes in patients with depression. +This is work done with my colleague Helen Mayberg from Emory. +We're able to drive down area 25, down to a more normal level, and we're able to turn back online the frontal lobes of the brain, and indeed we're seeing very striking results in these patients with severe depression. +So now we are in clinical trials, and are in Phase III clinical trials, and this may become a new procedure, if it's safe and we find that it's effective, to treat patients with severe depression. +I've shown you that we can use deep brain stimulation to treat the motor system in cases of Parkinson's disease and dystonia. +I've shown you that we can use it to treat a mood circuit in cases of depression. +Can we use deep brain stimulation to make you smarter? +Anybody interested in that? +Of course we can, right? +So what we've decided to do is we're going to try to turbocharge the memory circuits in the brain. +We're going to place electrodes within the circuits that regulate your memory and cognitive function to see if we can turn up their activity. +Now we're not going to do this in normal people. +We're going to do this in people that have cognitive deficits, and we've chosen to treat patients with Alzheimer's disease who have cognitive and memory deficits. +As you know, this is the main symptom of early onset Alzheimer's disease. +So we've placed electrodes within this circuit in an area of the brain called the fornix, which is the highway in and out of this memory circuit, with the idea to see if we can turn on this memory circuit, and whether that can, in turn, help these patients with Alzheimer's disease. +Now it turns out that in Alzheimer's disease, there's a huge deficit in glucose utilization in the brain. +The brain is a bit of a hog when it comes to using glucose. +It uses 20 percent of all your -- even though it only weighs two percent -- it uses 10 times more glucose than it should based on its weight. +Twenty percent of all the glucose in your body is used by the brain, and as you go from being normal to having mild cognitive impairment, which is a precursor for Alzheimer's, all the way to Alzheimer's disease, then there are areas of the brain that stop using glucose. +They shut down. They turn off. +And indeed, what we see is that these areas in red around the outside ribbon of the brain are progressively getting more and more blue until they shut down completely. +This is analogous to having a power failure in an area of the brain, a regional power failure. +So the lights are out in parts of the brain in patients with Alzheimer's disease, and the question is, are the lights out forever, or can we turn the lights back on? +Can we get those areas of the brain to use glucose once again? +So this is what we did. We implanted electrodes in the fornix of patients with Alzheimer's disease, we turned it on, and we looked at what happens to glucose use in the brain. +And indeed, at the top, you'll see before the surgery, the areas in blue are the areas that use less glucose than normal, predominantly the parietal and temporal lobes. +These areas of the brain are shut down. +The lights are out in these areas of the brain. +We then put in the DBS electrodes and we wait for a month or a year, and the areas in red represent the areas where we increase glucose utilization. +And indeed, we are able to get these areas of the brain that were not using glucose to use glucose once again. +So the message here is that, in Alzheimer's disease, the lights are out, but there is someone home, and we're able to turn the power back on to these areas of the brain, and as we do so, we expect that their functions will return. +So this is now in clinical trials. +We are going to operate on 50 patients with early Alzheimer's disease to see whether this is safe and effective, whether we can improve their neurologic function. +So the message I want to leave you with today is that, indeed, there are several circuits in the brain that are malfunctioning across various disease states, whether we're talking about Parkinson's disease, depression, schizophrenia, Alzheimer's. +We are now learning to understand what are the circuits, what are the areas of the brain that are responsible for the clinical signs and the symptoms of those diseases. +We can now reach those circuits. +We can introduce electrodes within those circuits. +We can graduate the activity of those circuits. +We can turn them down if they are overactive, if they're causing trouble, trouble that is felt throughout the brain, or we can turn them up if they are underperforming, and in so doing, we think that we may be able to help the overall function of the brain. +So I envision that we're going to see a great expansion of indications of this technique. +We're going to see electrodes being placed for many disorders of the brain. +One of the most exciting things about this is that, indeed, it involves multidisciplinary work. +It involves the work of engineers, of imaging scientists, of basic scientists, of neurologists, psychiatrists, neurosurgeons, and certainly at the interface of these multiple disciplines that there's the excitement. +And I think that we will see that we will be able to chase more of these evil spirits out from the brain as time goes on, and the consequence of that, of course, will be that we will be able to help many more patients. +Thank you very much. +We always hear that texting is a scourge. +The idea is that texting spells the decline and fall of any kind of serious literacy, or at least writing ability, among young people in the United States and now the whole world today. +What do I mean by that? +Basically, if we think about language, language has existed for perhaps 150,000 years, at least 80,000 years, and what it arose as is speech. People talked. +That's what we're probably genetically specified for. +That's how we use language most. +Writing is something that came along much later, and as we saw in the last talk, there's a little bit of controversy as to exactly when that happened, but according to traditional estimates, if humanity had existed for 24 hours, then writing only came along at about 11:07 p.m. +That's how much of a latterly thing writing is. +So first there's speech, and then writing comes along as a kind of artifice. +Now don't get me wrong, writing has certain advantages. +When you write, because it's a conscious process, because you can look backwards, you can do things with language that are much less likely if you're just talking. +For example, imagine a passage from Edward Gibbon's "The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire:" "The whole engagement lasted above twelve hours, till the graduate retreat of the Persians was changed into a disorderly flight, of which the shameful example was given by the principal leaders and the Surenas himself." +That's beautiful, but let's face it, nobody talks that way. +Or at least, they shouldn't if they're interested in reproducing. That -- is not the way any human being speaks casually. +Casual speech is something quite different. +Linguists have actually shown that when we're speaking casually in an unmonitored way, we tend to speak in word packets of maybe seven to 10 words. +You'll notice this if you ever have occasion to record yourself or a group of people talking. +That's what speech is like. +Speech is much looser. It's much more telegraphic. +It's much less reflective -- very different from writing. +So we naturally tend to think, because we see language written so often, that that's what language is, but actually what language is, is speech. They are two things. +Now of course, as history has gone by, it's been natural for there to be a certain amount of bleed between speech and writing. +So, for example, in a distant era now, it was common when one gave a speech to basically talk like writing. +So I mean the kind of speech that you see someone giving in an old movie where they clear their throat, and they go, "Ahem, ladies and gentlemen," and then they speak in a certain way which has nothing to do with casual speech. +It's formal. It uses long sentences like this Gibbon one. +It's basically talking like you write, and so, for example, we're thinking so much these days about Lincoln because of the movie. +The Gettysburg Address was not the main meal of that event. +For two hours before that, Edward Everett spoke on a topic that, frankly, cannot engage us today and barely did then. +The point of it was to listen to him speaking like writing. +Ordinary people stood and listened to that for two hours. +It was perfectly natural. +That's what people did then, speaking like writing. +Well, if you can speak like writing, then logically it follows that you might want to also sometimes write like you speak. +The problem was just that in the material, mechanical sense, that was harder back in the day for the simple reason that materials don't lend themselves to it. +It's almost impossible to do that with your hand except in shorthand, and then communication is limited. +On a manual typewriter it was very difficult, and even when we had electric typewriters, or then computer keyboards, the fact is that even if you can type easily enough to keep up with the pace of speech, more or less, you have to have somebody who can receive your message quickly. +Once you have things in your pocket that can receive that message, then you have the conditions that allow that we can write like we speak. +And that's where texting comes in. +And so, texting is very loose in its structure. +No one thinks about capital letters or punctuation when one texts, but then again, do you think about those things when you talk? +No, and so therefore why would you when you were texting? +What texting is, despite the fact that it involves the brute mechanics of something that we call writing, is fingered speech. That's what texting is. +Now we can write the way we talk. +And it's a very interesting thing, but nevertheless easy to think that still it represents some sort of decline. +We see this general bagginess of the structure, the lack of concern with rules and the way that we're used to learning on the blackboard, and so we think that something has gone wrong. +It's a very natural sense. +But the fact of the matter is that what is going on is a kind of emergent complexity. +That's what we're seeing in this fingered speech. +And in order to understand it, what we want to see is the way, in this new kind of language, there is new structure coming up. +And so, for example, there is in texting a convention, which is LOL. +Now LOL, we generally think of as meaning "laughing out loud." +And of course, theoretically, it does, and if you look at older texts, then people used it to actually indicate laughing out loud. +But if you text now, or if you are someone who is aware of the substrate of texting the way it's become, you'll notice that LOL does not mean laughing out loud anymore. +It's evolved into something that is much subtler. +This is an actual text that was done by a non-male person of about 20 years old not too long ago. +"I love the font you're using, btw." +Julie: "lol thanks gmail is being slow right now" Now if you think about it, that's not funny. +No one's laughing. And yet, there it is, so you assume there's been some kind of hiccup. +Then Susan says "lol, I know," again more guffawing than we're used to when you're talking about these inconveniences. +So Julie says, "I just sent you an email." +Susan: "lol, I see it." +Very funny people, if that's what LOL means. +This Julie says, "So what's up?" +Susan: "lol, I have to write a 10 page paper." +She's not amused. Let's think about it. +LOL is being used in a very particular way. +It's a marker of empathy. It's a marker of accommodation. +We linguists call things like that pragmatic particles. +Any spoken language that's used by real people has them. +If you happen to speak Japanese, think about that little word "ne" that you use at the end of a lot of sentences. +If you listen to the way black youth today speak, think about the use of the word "yo." +Whole dissertations could be written about it, and probably are being written about it. +A pragmatic particle, that's what LOL has gradually become. +It's a way of using the language between actual people. +Another example is "slash." +Now, we can use slash in the way that we're used to, along the lines of, "We're going to have a party-slash-networking session." +That's kind of like what we're at. +Slash is used in a very different way in texting among young people today. +It's used to change the scene. +So for example, this Sally person says, "So I need to find people to chill with" and Jake says, "Haha" -- you could write a dissertation about "Haha" too, but we don't have time for that "Haha so you're going by yourself? Why?" +Sally: "For this summer program at NYU." +Jake: "Haha. Slash I'm watching this video with suns players trying to shoot with one eye." +The slash is interesting. +I don't really even know what Jake is talking about after that, but you notice that he's changing the topic. +Now that seems kind of mundane, but think about how in real life, if we're having a conversation and we want to change the topic, there are ways of doing it gracefully. +You don't just zip right into it. +You'll pat your thighs and look wistfully off into the distance, or you'll say something like, "Hmm, makes you think --" when it really didn't, but what you're really -- what you're really trying to do is change the topic. +You can't do that while you're texting, and so ways are developing of doing it within this medium. +All spoken languages have what a linguist calls a new information marker -- or two, or three. +Texting has developed one from this slash. +So we have a whole battery of new constructions that are developing, and yet it's easy to think, well, something is still wrong. +There's a lack of structure of some sort. +It's not as sophisticated as the language of The Wall Street Journal. +Well, the fact of the matter is, look at this person in 1956, and this is when texting doesn't exist, "I Love Lucy" is still on the air. +"Many do not know the alphabet or multiplication table, cannot write grammatically -- " We've heard that sort of thing before, not just in 1956. 1917, Connecticut schoolteacher. +1917. This is the time when we all assume that everything somehow in terms of writing was perfect because the people on "Downton Abbey" are articulate, or something like that. +So, "From every college in the country goes up the cry, 'Our freshmen can't spell, can't punctuate.'" And so on. You can go even further back than this. +It's the President of Harvard. It's 1871. +There's no electricity. People have three names. +"Bad spelling, incorrectness as well as inelegance of expression in writing." +And he's talking about people who are otherwise well prepared for college studies. +You can go even further back. +1841, some long-lost superintendent of schools is upset because of what he has for a long time "noted with regret the almost entire neglect of the original" blah blah blah blah blah. +Or you can go all the way back to 63 A.D. -- -- and there's this poor man who doesn't like the way people are speaking Latin. +As it happens, he was writing about what had become French. +And so, there are always there are always people worrying about these things and the planet somehow seems to keep spinning. +And so, the way I'm thinking of texting these days is that what we're seeing is a whole new way of writing that young people are developing, which they're using alongside their ordinary writing skills, and that means that they're able to do two things. +Increasing evidence is that being bilingual is cognitively beneficial. +That's also true of being bidialectal. +That's certainly true of being bidialectal in terms of your writing. +And so texting actually is evidence of a balancing act that young people are using today, not consciously, of course, but it's an expansion of their linguistic repertoire. +It's very simple. +If somebody from 1973 looked at what was on a dormitory message board in 1993, the slang would have changed a little bit since the era of "Love Story," but they would understand what was on that message board. +Take that person from 1993 -- not that long ago, this is "Bill and Ted's Excellent Adventure" -- those people. +Take those people and they read a very typical text written by a 20-year-old today. +Often they would have no idea what half of it meant because a whole new language has developed among our young people doing something as mundane as what it looks like to us when they're batting around on their little devices. +So in closing, if I could go into the future, if I could go into 2033, the first thing I would ask is whether David Simon had done a sequel to "The Wire." I would want to know. +And I really would ask that and then I'd want to know actually what was going on on "Downton Abbey." +That'd be the second thing. +And then the third thing would be, please show me a sheaf of texts written by 16-year-old girls, because I would want to know where this language had developed since our times, and ideally I would then send them back to you and me now so we could examine this linguistic miracle happening right under our noses. +Thank you very much. +Thank you. +That's how we traveled in the year 1900. +That's an open buggy. It doesn't have heating. +It doesn't have air conditioning. +That horse is pulling it along at one percent of the speed of sound, and the rutted dirt road turns into a quagmire of mud anytime it rains. +That's a Boeing 707. +Only 60 years later, it travels at 80 percent of the speed of sound, and we don't travel any faster today because commercial supersonic air travel turned out to be a bust. +So I started wondering and pondering, could it be that the best years of American economic growth are behind us? +And that leads to the suggestion, maybe economic growth is almost over. +Some of the reasons for this are not really very controversial. +There are four headwinds that are just hitting the American economy in the face. +They're demographics, education, debt and inequality. +They're powerful enough to cut growth in half. +So we need a lot of innovation to offset this decline. +And here's my theme: Because of the headwinds, if innovation continues to be as powerful as it has been in the last 150 years, growth is cut in half. +If innovation is less powerful, invents less great, wonderful things, then growth is going to be even lower than half of history. +Now here's eight centuries of economic growth. +The vertical axis is just percent per year of growth, zero percent a year, one percent a year, two percent a year. +The white line is for the U.K., and then the U.S. +takes over as the leading nation in the year 1900, when the line switches to red. +You'll notice that, for the first four centuries, there's hardly any growth at all, just 0.2 percent. +Then growth gets better and better. +It maxes out in the 1930s, '40s and '50s, and then it starts slowing down, and here's a cautionary note. +That last downward notch in the red line is not actual data. +That is a forecast that I made six years ago that growth would slow down to 1.3 percent. +But you know what the actual facts are? +You know what the growth in per-person income has been in the United States in the last six years? +Negative. +This led to a fantasy. +What if I try to fit a curved line to this historical record? +I can make the curved line end anywhere I wanted, but I decided I would end it at 0.2, just like the U.K. growth for the first four centuries. +Now the history that we've achieved is that we've grown at 2.0 percent per year over the whole period, 1891 to 2007, and remember it's been a little bit negative since 2007. +But if growth slows down, instead of doubling our standard of living every generation, Americans in the future can't expect to be twice as well off as their parents, or even a quarter [more well off than] their parents. +Now we're going to change and look at the level of per capita income. +The vertical axis now is thousands of dollars in today's prices. +You'll notice that in 1891, over on the left, we were at about 5,000 dollars. +Today we're at about 44,000 dollars of total output per member of the population. +Now what if we could achieve that historic two-percent growth for the next 70 years? +Well, it's a matter of arithmetic. +Two-percent growth quadruples your standard of living in 70 years. +That means we'd go from 44,000 to 180,000. +Well, we're not going to do that, and the reason is the headwinds. +The first headwind is demographics. +It's a truism that your standard of living rises faster than productivity, rises faster than output per hour, if hours per person increased. +And we got that gift back in the '70s and '80s when women entered the labor force. +But now it's turned around. +Now hours per person are shrinking, first because of the retirement of the baby boomers, and second because there's been a very significant dropping out of the labor force of prime age adult males who are in the bottom half of the educational distribution. +The next headwind is education. +We've got problems all over our educational system despite Race to the Top. +In college, we've got cost inflation in higher education that dwarfs cost inflation in medical care. +We have in higher education a trillion dollars of student debt, and our college completion rate is 15 points, 15 percentage points below Canada. +We have a lot of debt. +Our economy grew from 2000 to 2007 on the back of consumers massively overborrowing. +Consumers paying off that debt is one of the main reasons why our economic recovery is so sluggish today. +And everybody of course knows that the federal government debt is growing as a share of GDP at a very rapid rate, and the only way that's going to stop is some combination of faster growth in taxes or slower growth in entitlements, also called transfer payments. +And that gets us down from the 1.5, where we've reached for education, down to 1.3. +And then we have inequality. +Over the 15 years before the financial crisis, the growth rate of the bottom 99 percent of the income distribution was half a point slower than the averages we've been talking about before. +All the rest went to the top one percent. +So that brings us down to 0.8. +And that 0.8 is the big challenge. +Are we going to grow at 0.8? +If so, that's going to require that our inventions are as important as the ones that happened over the last 150 years. +So let's see what some of those inventions were. +If you wanted to read in 1875 at night, you needed to have an oil or a gas lamp. +They created pollution, they created odors, they were hard to control, the light was dim, and they were a fire hazard. +By 1929, electric light was everywhere. +We had the vertical city, the invention of the elevator. +Central Manhattan became possible. +And then, in addition to that, at the same time, hand tools were replaced by massive electric tools and hand-powered electric tools, all achieved by electricity. +Electricity was also very helpful in liberating women. +Women, back in the late 19th century, spent two days a week doing the laundry. +They did it on a scrub board. +Then they had to hang the clothes out to dry. +Then they had to bring them in. +The whole thing took two days out of the seven-day week. +And then we had the electric washing machine. +And by 1950, they were everywhere. +But the women still had to shop every day, but no they didn't, because electricity brought us the electric refrigerator. +Back in the late 19th century, the only source of heat in most homes was a big fireplace in the kitchen that was used for cooking and heating. +The bedrooms were cold. They were unheated. +But by 1929, certainly by 1950, we had central heating everywhere. +What about the internal combustion engine, which was invented in 1879? +In America, before the motor vehicle, transportation depended entirely on the urban horse, which dropped, without restraint, 25 to 50 pounds of manure on the streets every day together with a gallon of urine. +That comes out at five to 10 tons daily per square mile in cities. +Those horses also ate up fully one quarter of American agricultural land. +That's the percentage of American agricultural land it took to feed the horses. +Of course, when the motor vehicle was invented, and it became almost ubiquitous by 1929, that agricultural land could be used for human consumption or for export. +And here's an interesting ratio: Starting from zero in 1900, only 30 years later, the ratio of motor vehicles to the number of households in the United States reached 90 percent in just 30 years. +Back before the turn of the century, women had another problem. +All the water for cooking, cleaning and bathing had to be carried in buckets and pails in from the outside. +It's a historical fact that in 1885, the average North Carolina housewife walked 148 miles a year carrying 35 tons of water. +But by 1929, cities around the country had put in underground water pipes. +They had put in underground sewer pipes, and as a result, one of the great scourges of the late 19th century, waterborne diseases like cholera, began to disappear. +And an amazing fact for techno-optimists is that in the first half of the 20th century, the rate of improvement of life expectancy was three times faster than it was in the second half of the 19th century. +So it's a truism that things can't be more than 100 percent of themselves. +And I'll just give you a few examples. +We went from one percent to 90 percent of the speed of sound. +Electrification, central heat, ownership of motor cars, they all went from zero to 100 percent. +Urban environments make people more productive than on the farm. +We went from 25 percent urban to 75 percent by the early postwar years. +What about the electronic revolution? +Here's an early computer. +It's amazing. The mainframe computer was invented in 1942. +By 1960 we had telephone bills, bank statements were being produced by computers. +The earliest cell phones, the earliest personal computers were invented in the 1970s. +The 1980s brought us Bill Gates, DOS, ATM machines to replace bank tellers, bar code scanning to cut down on labor in the retail sector. +Fast forward through the '90s, we had the dotcom revolution and a temporary rise in productivity growth. +But I'm now going to give you an experiment. +You have to choose either option A or option B. +Option A is you get to keep everything invented up till 10 years ago. +So you get Google, you get Amazon, you get Wikipedia, and you get running water and indoor toilets. +Or you get everything invented to yesterday, including Facebook and your iPhone, but you have to give up, go out to the outhouse, and carry in the water. +Hurricane Sandy caused a lot of people to lose the 20th century, maybe for a couple of days, in some cases for more than a week, electricity, running water, heating, gasoline for their cars, and a charge for their iPhones. +The problem we face is that all these great inventions, we have to match them in the future, and my prediction that we're not going to match them brings us down from the original two-percent growth down to 0.2, the fanciful curve that I drew you at the beginning. +So here we are back to the horse and buggy. +I'd like to award an Oscar to the inventors of the 20th century, the people from Alexander Graham Bell to Thomas Edison to the Wright Brothers, I'd like to call them all up here, and they're going to call back to you. +Your challenge is, can you match what we achieved? +Thank you. +Growth is not dead. +Let's start the story 120 years ago, when American factories began to electrify their operations, igniting the Second Industrial Revolution. +The amazing thing is that productivity did not increase in those factories for 30 years. Thirty years. +That's long enough for a generation of managers to retire. +You see, the first wave of managers simply replaced their steam engines with electric motors, but they didn't redesign the factories to take advantage of electricity's flexibility. +It fell to the next generation to invent new work processes, and then productivity soared, often doubling or even tripling in those factories. +Electricity is an example of a general purpose technology, like the steam engine before it. +General purpose technologies drive most economic growth, because they unleash cascades of complementary innovations, like lightbulbs and, yes, factory redesign. +Is there a general purpose technology of our era? +Sure. It's the computer. +But technology alone is not enough. +Technology is not destiny. +We shape our destiny, and just as the earlier generations of managers needed to redesign their factories, we're going to need to reinvent our organizations and even our whole economic system. +We're not doing as well at that job as we should be. +As we'll see in a moment, productivity is actually doing all right, but it has become decoupled from jobs, and the income of the typical worker is stagnating. +These troubles are sometimes misdiagnosed as the end of innovation, but they are actually the growing pains of what Andrew McAfee and I call the new machine age. +Let's look at some data. +So here's GDP per person in America. +There's some bumps along the way, but the big story is you could practically fit a ruler to it. +This is a log scale, so what looks like steady growth is actually an acceleration in real terms. +And here's productivity. +You can see a little bit of a slowdown there in the mid-'70s, but it matches up pretty well with the Second Industrial Revolution, when factories were learning how to electrify their operations. +After a lag, productivity accelerated again. +So maybe "history doesn't repeat itself, but sometimes it rhymes." +Today, productivity is at an all-time high, and despite the Great Recession, it grew faster in the 2000s than it did in the 1990s, the roaring 1990s, and that was faster than the '70s or '80s. +It's growing faster than it did during the Second Industrial Revolution. +And that's just the United States. +The global news is even better. +Worldwide incomes have grown at a faster rate in the past decade than ever in history. +If anything, all these numbers actually understate our progress, because the new machine age is more about knowledge creation than just physical production. +It's mind not matter, brain not brawn, ideas not things. +That creates a problem for standard metrics, because we're getting more and more stuff for free, like Wikipedia, Google, Skype, and if they post it on the web, even this TED Talk. +Now getting stuff for free is a good thing, right? +Sure, of course it is. +But that's not how economists measure GDP. +Zero price means zero weight in the GDP statistics. +According to the numbers, the music industry is half the size that it was 10 years ago, but I'm listening to more and better music than ever. +You know, I bet you are too. +In total, my research estimates that the GDP numbers miss over 300 billion dollars per year in free goods and services on the Internet. +Now let's look to the future. +There are some super smart people who are arguing that we've reached the end of growth, but to understand the future of growth, we need to make predictions about the underlying drivers of growth. +I'm optimistic, because the new machine age is digital, exponential and combinatorial. +When goods are digital, they can be replicated with perfect quality at nearly zero cost, and they can be delivered almost instantaneously. +Welcome to the economics of abundance. +But there's a subtler benefit to the digitization of the world. +Measurement is the lifeblood of science and progress. +In the age of big data, we can measure the world in ways we never could before. +Secondly, the new machine age is exponential. +Computers get better faster than anything else ever. +A child's Playstation today is more powerful than a military supercomputer from 1996. +But our brains are wired for a linear world. +As a result, exponential trends take us by surprise. +I used to teach my students that there are some things, you know, computers just aren't good at, like driving a car through traffic. +That's right, here's Andy and me grinning like madmen because we just rode down Route 101 in, yes, a driverless car. +Thirdly, the new machine age is combinatorial. +The stagnationist view is that ideas get used up, like low-hanging fruit, but the reality is that each innovation creates building blocks for even more innovations. +Here's an example. In just a matter of a few weeks, an undergraduate student of mine built an app that ultimately reached 1.3 million users. +He was able to do that so easily because he built it on top of Facebook, and Facebook was built on top of the web, and that was built on top of the Internet, and so on and so forth. +Now individually, digital, exponential and combinatorial would each be game-changers. +Put them together, and we're seeing a wave of astonishing breakthroughs, like robots that do factory work or run as fast as a cheetah or leap tall buildings in a single bound. +You know, robots are even revolutionizing cat transportation. +But perhaps the most important invention, the most important invention is machine learning. +Consider one project: IBM's Watson. +These little dots here, those are all the champions on the quiz show "Jeopardy." +At first, Watson wasn't very good, but it improved at a rate faster than any human could, and shortly after Dave Ferrucci showed this chart to my class at MIT, Watson beat the world "Jeopardy" champion. +At age seven, Watson is still kind of in its childhood. +Recently, its teachers let it surf the Internet unsupervised. +The next day, it started answering questions with profanities. +Damn. But you know, Watson is growing up fast. +It's being tested for jobs in call centers, and it's getting them. +It's applying for legal, banking and medical jobs, and getting some of them. +Isn't it ironic that at the very moment we are building intelligent machines, perhaps the most important invention in human history, some people are arguing that innovation is stagnating? +Like the first two industrial revolutions, the full implications of the new machine age are going to take at least a century to fully play out, but they are staggering. +So does that mean we have nothing to worry about? +No. Technology is not destiny. +Productivity is at an all time high, but fewer people now have jobs. +We have created more wealth in the past decade than ever, but for a majority of Americans, their income has fallen. +This is the great decoupling of productivity from employment, of wealth from work. +You know, it's not surprising that millions of people have become disillusioned by the great decoupling, but like too many others, they misunderstand its basic causes. +Technology is racing ahead, but it's leaving more and more people behind. +Today, we can take a routine job, codify it in a set of machine-readable instructions, and then replicate it a million times. +You know, I recently overheard a conversation that epitomizes these new economics. +This guy says, "Nah, I don't use H&R Block anymore. +TurboTax does everything that my tax preparer did, but it's faster, cheaper and more accurate." +How can a skilled worker compete with a $39 piece of software? +She can't. +Today, millions of Americans do have faster, cheaper, more accurate tax preparation, and the founders of Intuit have done very well for themselves. +But 17 percent of tax preparers no longer have jobs. +That is a microcosm of what's happening, not just in software and services, but in media and music, in finance and manufacturing, in retailing and trade -- in short, in every industry. +People are racing against the machine, and many of them are losing that race. +What can we do to create shared prosperity? +The answer is not to try to slow down technology. +Instead of racing against the machine, we need to learn to race with the machine. +That is our grand challenge. +The new machine age can be dated to a day 15 years ago when Garry Kasparov, the world chess champion, played Deep Blue, a supercomputer. +The machine won that day, and today, a chess program running on a cell phone can beat a human grandmaster. +It got so bad that, when he was asked what strategy he would use against a computer, Jan Donner, the Dutch grandmaster, replied, "I'd bring a hammer." +But today a computer is no longer the world chess champion. +Neither is a human, because Kasparov organized a freestyle tournament where teams of humans and computers could work together, and the winning team had no grandmaster, and it had no supercomputer. +What they had was better teamwork, and they showed that a team of humans and computers, working together, could beat any computer or any human working alone. +Racing with the machine beats racing against the machine. +Technology is not destiny. +We shape our destiny. +Thank you. +Liu Bolin: By making myself invisible, I try to question the inter-canceling relationship between our civilization and its development. +Interpreter: By making myself invisible, I try to explore and question the contradictory and often inter-canceling relationship between our civilization and its development. +LB: This is my first work, created in November 2005. +And this is Beijing International Art Camp where I worked before the government forcibly demolished it.I used this work to express my objection. +I also want to use this work to let more people pay attention to the living condition of artists and the condition of their creative freedom. +In the meantime, from the beginning, this series has a protesting, reflective and uncompromising spirit. +When applying makeup, I borrow a sniper's method to better protect myself and to detect the enemy, as he did. After finishing this series of protests, I started questioning why my fate was like this, and I realized that it's not just me -- all Chinese are as confused as I am. +As you can see, these works are about family planning, election in accordance with the law and propaganda of the institution of the People's Congress. +This work is called Xia Gang ("leaving post"). +"Xia Gang" is a Chinese euphemism for "laid off". +It refers to those people who lost their jobs during China's transition from a planned economy to a market economy. +From 1998 to 2000, 21.37 million people lost their jobs in China. +The six people in the photo are Xia Gang workers. +I made them invisible in the deserted shop wherethey had lived and worked all their lives. +On the wall behind them is the slogan of the Cultural Revolution: "The core force leading our cause forward is the Chinese Communist Party." +For half a month I looked for these 6 people to participate in my work. +We can only see six men in this picture,but in fact, those who are hidden here are all people who were laid off. They have just been made invisible. +This piece is called The Studio. +This spring, I happened to have an opportunity during my solo exhibition in Paris to shoot a work in the news studio of France 3 -- I picked the news photos of the day. +One is about the war in the Middle East, and another one is about a public demonstration in France. +I found that any culture has its irreconcilable contradictions. +This is a joint effort between me and French artist JR. +Interpreter: This is a joint effort between me and French artist JR. +LB: I tried to disappear into JR's eye, but the problem is JR only uses models with big eyes. +So I tried to make my eyes bigger with my fingers. +But still they are not big enough for JR, unfortunately. +Interpreter: So I tried to disappear into JR's eye, but the problem is JR uses only models with big eyes. +So I tried to make my eyes bigger with this gesture. +But it doesn't work, my eyes are still small. +LB: This one is about 9/11 memories. +This is an aircraft carrier moored alongside the Hudson River. +Kenny Scharf's graffiti. +This is Venice, Italy. +Because global temperatures rise, the sea level rises, and it is said thatVenice will disappear in the coming decades. +This is the ancient city of Pompeii. +Interpreter: This is the ancient city of Pompeii. +LB: This is the Borghese Gallery in Rome. +When I work on a new piece, I pay more attention to the expression of ideas. +For instance, why would I make myself invisible? +What will making myself invisible here cause people to think? +This one is called Instant Noodles. +Interpreter: This one is called Instant Noodles. LB: Since August 2012, harmful phosphors have been found in the instant noodle package cups from every famous brand sold in China's supermarkets. +These phosphors can even cause cancer. +To create this artwork, I bought a lot of packaged instant noodle cups and put them in my studio, making it look like a supermarket. +And my task is to stand there, trying to be still, setting up the camera position and coordinating with my assistant and drawing the colors and shapes that are behind my body on the front of my body. If the background is simple, I usually have to stand for three to four hours. +The background of this piece is more complex, so I need three to four days in advance for preparation. +This is the suit I wore when I did the supermarket shoot. +There is no Photoshop involved. +Interpreter: This is the suit I [was] wearing when I did the supermarket shoot. +There is no Photoshop involved. LB: These works are on China's cultural memories. +And this one, this is about food safety in China. +Unsafe food can harm people's health, and a deluge of magazines can confuse people's minds. The next pieces of work show how I made myself invisible in magazines of different languages, in different countries and at different times. +I think that in art, an artist's attitude is the most important element. +If an artwork is to touch someone, it must be the result of not only technique, but also the artist's thinking and struggle in life. +And the repeated struggles in life create artwork, no matter in what form. +That's all I want to say. +Thank you. +Miranda Wang: We're here to talk about accidents. +How do you feel about accidents? +When we think about accidents, we usually consider them to be harmful, unfortunate or even dangerous, and they certainly can be. +But are they always that bad? +The discovery that had led to penicillin, for example, is one of the most fortunate accidents of all time. +Without biologist Alexander Fleming's moldy accident, caused by a neglected workstation, we wouldn't be able to fight off so many bacterial infections. +Jeanny Yao: Miranda and I are here today because we'd like to share how our accidents have led to discoveries. +In 2011, we visited the Vancouver Waste Transfer Station and saw an enormous pit of plastic waste. +We realized that when plastics get to the dump, it's difficult to sort them because they have similar densities, and when they're mixed with organic matter and construction debris, it's truly impossible to pick them out and environmentally eliminate them. +MW: However, plastics are useful because they're durable, flexible, and can be easily molded into so many useful shapes. +The downside of this convenience is that there's a high cost to this. +Plastics cause serious problems, such as the destruction of ecosystems, the pollution of natural resources, and the reduction of available land space. +This picture you see here is the Great Pacific Gyre. +When you think about plastic pollution and the marine environment, we think about the Great Pacific Gyre, which is supposed to be a floating island of plastic waste. +But that's no longer an accurate depiction of plastic pollution in the marine environment. +Right now, the ocean is actually a soup of plastic debris, and there's nowhere you can go in the ocean where you wouldn't be able to find plastic particles. +JY: In a plastic-dependent society, cutting down production is a good goal, but it's not enough. +And what about the waste that's already been produced? +Plastics take hundreds to thousands of years to biodegrade. +So we thought, you know what? +Instead of waiting for that garbage to sit there and pile up, let's find a way to break them down with bacteria. +Sounds cool, right? +Audience: Yeah. JY: Thank you. +But we had a problem. +You see, plastics have very complex structures and are difficult to biodegrade. +Anyhow, we were curious and hopeful and still wanted to give it a go. +MW: With this idea in mind, Jeanny and I read through some hundreds of scientific articles on the Internet, and we drafted a research proposal in the beginning of our grade 12 year. +We aimed to find bacteria from our local Fraser River that can degrade a harmful plasticizer called phthalates. +Phthalates are additives used in everyday plastic products to increase their flexibility, durability and transparency. +Although they're part of the plastic, they're not covalently bonded to the plastic backbone. +As a result, they easily escape into our environment. +Not only do phthalates pollute our environment, but they also pollute our bodies. +To make the matter worse, phthalates are found in products to which we have a high exposure, such as babies' toys, beverage containers, cosmetics, and even food wraps. +Phthalates are horrible because they're so easily taken into our bodies. +They can be absorbed by skin contact, ingested, and inhaled. +JY: Every year, at least 470 million pounds of phthalates contaminate our air, water and soil. +The Environmental Protection Agency even classified this group as a top-priority pollutant because it's been shown to cause cancer and birth defects by acting as a hormone disruptor. +We read that each year, the Vancouver municipal government monitors phthalate concentration levels in rivers to assess their safety. +So we figured, if there are places along our Fraser River that are contaminated with phthalates, and if there are bacteria that are able to live in these areas, then perhaps, perhaps these bacteria could have evolved to break down phthalates. +MW: So we presented this good idea to Dr. Lindsay Eltis at the University of British Columbia, and surprisingly, he actually took us into his lab and asked his graduate students Adam and James to help us. +Little did we know at that time that a trip to the dump and some research on the Internet and plucking up the courage to act upon inspiration would take us on a life-changing journey of accidents and discoveries. +JY: The first step in our project was to collect soil samples from three different sites along the Fraser River. +Out of thousands of bacteria, we wanted to find ones that could break down phthalates, so we enriched our cultures with phthalates as the only carbon source. +This implied that, if anything grew in our cultures, then they must be able to live off of phthalates. +Everything went well from there, and we became amazing scientists. MW: Um... uh, Jeanny. JY: I'm just joking. +MW: Okay. Well, it was partially my fault. +You see, I accidentally cracked the flask that had contained our third enrichment culture, and as a result, we had to wipe down the incubator room with bleach and ethanol twice. +And this is only one of the examples of the many accidents that happened during our experimentation. +But this mistake turned out to be rather serendipitous. +We noticed that the unharmed cultures came from places of opposite contamination levels, so this mistake actually led us to think that perhaps we can compare the different degradative potentials of bacteria from sites of opposite contamination levels. +JY: Now that we grew the bacteria, we wanted to isolate strains by streaking onto mediate plates, because we thought that would be less accident-prone, but we were wrong again. +We poked holes in our agar while streaking and contaminated some samples and funghi. +As a result, we had to streak and restreak several times. +Then we monitored phthalate utilization and bacterial growth, and found that they shared an inverse correlation, so as bacterial populations increased, phthalate concentrations decreased. +This means that our bacteria were actually living off of phthalates. +MW: So now that we found bacteria that could break down phthalates, we wondered what these bacteria were. +So Jeanny and I took three of our most efficient strains and then performed gene amplification sequencing on them and matched our data with an online comprehensive database. +We were happy to see that, although our three strains had been previously identified bacteria, two of them were not previously associated with phthalate degradation, so this was actually a novel discovery. +JY: To better understand how this biodegradation works, we wanted to verify the catabolic pathways of our three strains. +To do this, we extracted enzymes from our bacteria and reacted with an intermediate of phthalic acid. +MW: We monitored this experiment with spectrophotometry and obtained this beautiful graph. +This graph shows that our bacteria really do have a genetic pathway to biodegrade phthalates. +Our bacteria can transform phthalates, which is a harmful toxin, into end products such as carbon dioxide, water and alcohol. +I know some of you in the crowd are thinking, well, carbon dioxide is horrible, it's a greenhouse gas. +But if our bacteria did not evolve to break down phthalates, they would have used some other kind of carbon source, and aerobic respiration would have led it to have end products such as carbon dioxide anyway. +We were also interested to see that, although we've obtained greater diversity of bacteria biodegraders from the bird habitat site, we obtained the most efficient degraders from the landfill site. +So this fully shows that nature evolves through natural selection. +JY: So Miranda and I shared this research at the Sanofi BioGENEius Challenge competition and were recognized with the greatest commercialization potential. +Although we're not the first ones to find bacteria that can break down phthalates, we were the first ones to look into our local river and find a possible solution to a local problem. +We have not only shown that bacteria can be the solution to plastic pollution, but also that being open to uncertain outcomes and taking risks create opportunities for unexpected discoveries. +Throughout this journey, we have also discovered our passion for science, and are currently continuing research on other fossil fuel chemicals in university. +We hope that in the near future, we'll be able to create model organisms that can break down not only phthalates but a wide variety of different contaminants. +We can apply this to wastewater treatment plants to clean up our rivers and other natural resources. +And perhaps one day we'll be able to tackle the problem of solid plastic waste. +MW: I think our journey has truly transformed our view of microorganisms, and Jeanny and I have shown that even mistakes can lead to discoveries. +Einstein once said, "You can't solve problems by using the same kind of thinking you used when you created them." +If we're making plastic synthetically, then we think the solution would be to break them down biochemically. +Thank you. JY: Thank you. +Let's face it: Driving is dangerous. +It's one of the things that we don't like to think about, but the fact that religious icons and good luck charms show up on dashboards around the world betrays the fact that we know this to be true. +Car accidents are the leading cause of death in people ages 16 to 19 in the United States -- leading cause of death -- and 75 percent of these accidents have nothing to do with drugs or alcohol. +So what happens? +No one can say for sure, but I remember my first accident. +I was a young driver out on the highway, and the car in front of me, I saw the brake lights go on. +I'm like, "Okay, all right, this guy is slowing down, I'll slow down too." +I step on the brake. +But no, this guy isn't slowing down. +This guy is stopping, dead stop, dead stop on the highway. +It was just going 65 -- to zero? +I slammed on the brakes. +I felt the ABS kick in, and the car is still going, and it's not going to stop, and I know it's not going to stop, and the air bag deploys, the car is totaled, and fortunately, no one was hurt. +But I had no idea that car was stopping, and I think we can do a lot better than that. +I think we can transform the driving experience by letting our cars talk to each other. +I just want you to think a little bit about what the experience of driving is like now. +Get into your car. Close the door. You're in a glass bubble. +You can't really directly sense the world around you. +You're in this extended body. +You're tasked with navigating it down partially-seen roadways, in and amongst other metal giants, at super-human speeds. +Okay? And all you have to guide you are your two eyes. +Okay, so that's all you have, eyes that weren't really designed for this task, but then people ask you to do things like, you want to make a lane change, what's the first thing they ask you do? +Take your eyes off the road. That's right. +Stop looking where you're going, turn, check your blind spot, and drive down the road without looking where you're going. +You and everyone else. This is the safe way to drive. +Why do we do this? Because we have to, we have to make a choice, do I look here or do I look here? +What's more important? +And usually we do a fantastic job picking and choosing what we attend to on the road. +But occasionally we miss something. +Occasionally we sense something wrong or too late. +In countless accidents, the driver says, "I didn't see it coming." +And I believe that. I believe that. +We can only watch so much. +But the technology exists now that can help us improve that. +In the future, with cars exchanging data with each other, we will be able to see not just three cars ahead and three cars behind, to the right and left, all at the same time, bird's eye view, we will actually be able to see into those cars. +We will be able to see the velocity of the car in front of us, to see how fast that guy's going or stopping. +If that guy's going down to zero, I'll know. +And with computation and algorithms and predictive models, we will be able to see the future. +You may think that's impossible. +How can you predict the future? That's really hard. +Actually, no. With cars, it's not impossible. +Cars are three-dimensional objects that have a fixed position and velocity. +They travel down roads. +Often they travel on pre-published routes. +It's really not that hard to make reasonable predictions about where a car's going to be in the near future. +Even if, when you're in your car and some motorcyclist comes -- bshoom! -- 85 miles an hour down, lane-splitting -- I know you've had this experience -- that guy didn't "just come out of nowhere." +That guy's been on the road probably for the last half hour. +Right? I mean, somebody's seen him. +Ten, 20, 30 miles back, someone's seen that guy, and as soon as one car sees that guy and puts him on the map, he's on the map -- position, velocity, good estimate he'll continue going 85 miles an hour. +You'll know, because your car will know, because that other car will have whispered something in his ear, like, "By the way, five minutes, motorcyclist, watch out." +You can make reasonable predictions about how cars behave. +I mean, they're Newtonian objects. +That's very nice about them. +So how do we get there? +We can start with something as simple as sharing our position data between cars, just sharing GPS. +If I have a GPS and a camera in my car, I have a pretty precise idea of where I am and how fast I'm going. +With computer vision, I can estimate where the cars around me are, sort of, and where they're going. +And same with the other cars. +They can have a precise idea of where they are, and sort of a vague idea of where the other cars are. +What happens if two cars share that data, if they talk to each other? +I can tell you exactly what happens. +Both models improve. +Everybody wins. +We also attach a discrete short-range communication radio, and the robots talk to each other. +When these robots come at each other, they track each other's position precisely, and they can avoid each other. +We're now adding more and more robots into the mix, and we encountered some problems. +One of the problems, when you get too much chatter, it's hard to process all the packets, so you have to prioritize, and that's where the predictive model helps you. +If your robot cars are all tracking the predicted trajectories, you don't pay as much attention to those packets. +You prioritize the one guy who seems to be going a little off course. +That guy could be a problem. +And you can predict the new trajectory. +So you don't only know that he's going off course, you know how. +And you know which drivers you need to alert to get out of the way. +And we wanted to do -- how can we best alert everyone? +How can these cars whisper, "You need to get out of the way?" +Well, it depends on two things: one, the ability of the car, and second the ability of the driver. +If one guy has a really great car, but they're on their phone or, you know, doing something, they're not probably in the best position to react in an emergency. +So we started a separate line of research doing driver state modeling. +And now, using a series of three cameras, we can detect if a driver is looking forward, looking away, looking down, on the phone, or having a cup of coffee. +We can predict the accident and we can predict who, which cars, are in the best position to move out of the way to calculate the safest route for everyone. +Fundamentally, these technologies exist today. +I think the biggest problem that we face is our own willingness to share our data. +I think it's a very disconcerting notion, this idea that our cars will be watching us, talking about us to other cars, that we'll be going down the road in a sea of gossip. +But I believe it can be done in a way that protects our privacy, just like right now, when I look at your car from the outside, I don't really know about you. +If I look at your license plate number, I don't really know who you are. +I believe our cars can talk about us behind our backs. +And I think it's going to be a great thing. +I want you to consider for a moment if you really don't want the distracted teenager behind you to know that you're braking, that you're coming to a dead stop. +By sharing our data willingly, we can do what's best for everyone. +So let your car gossip about you. +It's going to make the roads a lot safer. +Thank you. +I've noticed something interesting about society and culture. +Everything risky requires a license. +So, learning to drive, owning a gun, getting married. +That's true in everything risky, except technology. +For some reason, there's no standard syllabus, there's no basic course. +They just sort of give you your computer and then kick you out of the nest. +You're supposed to learn this stuff -- how? +Just by osmosis. +Nobody ever sits down and tells you, "This is how it works." +So today I'm going to tell you ten things that you thought everybody knew, but it turns out they don't. +First of all, on the web, if you want to scroll down, don't pick up the mouse and use the scroll bar. +That's a terrible waste of time. +Do that only if you're paid by the hour. +Instead, hit the space bar. +The space bar scrolls down one page. +Hold down the Shift key to scroll back up again. +So, space bar to scroll down one page; works in every browser, in every kind of computer. +Also on the web, when you're filling in one of these forms like your addresses, I assume you know that you can hit the Tab key to jump from box to box to box. +But what about the pop-up menu where you put in your state? +Don't open the pop-up menu. That's a terrible waste of calories. +Type the first letter of your state over and over and over. +So if you want Connecticut, go, C, C, C. +If you want Texas, go T, T, and you jump right to that thing without even opening the pop-up menu. +Also on the web, when the text is too small, what you do is hold down the Control key and hit plus, plus, plus. +You make the text larger with each tap. +Works on every computer, every web browser, or minus, minus, to get smaller again. +If you're on the Mac, it might be Command instead. +When you're typing on your Blackberry, Android, iPhone, don't bother switching layouts to the punctuation layout to hit the period and then a space, then try to capitalize the next letter. +Just hit the space bar twice. +The phone puts the period, the space, and the capital for you. +Go space, space. It is totally amazing. +Also when it comes to cell phones, on all phones, if you want to redial somebody that you've dialed before, all you have to do is hit the call button, and it puts the last phone number into the box for you, and at that point you can hit call again to actually dial it. +No need to go to the recent calls list if you're trying to call somebody just hit the call button again. +Something that drives me crazy: When I call you and leave a message on your voice mail, I hear you saying, "Leave a message," and then I get these 15 seconds of freaking instructions, like we haven't had answering machines for 45 years! +I'm not bitter. +So it turns out there's a keyboard shortcut that lets you jump directly to the beep like this. +Phone: At the tone, please... +David Pogue: Unfortunately, the carriers didn't adopt the same keystroke, so it's different by carrier, so it devolves upon you to learn the keystroke for the person you're calling. +I didn't say these were going to be perfect. +So most of you think of Google as something that lets you look up a web page, but it is also a dictionary. +Type the word "define" and the word you want to know. +You don't even have to click anything. +There's the definition as you type. +It's also a complete FAA database. +Type the name of the airline and the flight. +It shows you where the flight is, the gate, the terminal, how long until it lands. You don't need an app. +It's also unit and currency conversion. +Again, you don't have to click one of the results. +Just type it into the box, and there's your answer. +While we're talking about text -- When you want to highlight -- this is just an example -- When you want to highlight a word, please don't waste your life dragging across it with the mouse like a newbie. +Double click the word. Watch "200" -- I go double-click, it neatly selects just that word. +Also, don't delete what you've highlighted. +You can just type over it. This is in every program. +Also, you can go double-click, drag, to highlight in one-word increments as you drag. +Much more precise. Again, don't bother deleting. +Just type over it. Shutter lag is the time between your pressing the shutter button and the moment the camera actually snaps. +It's extremely frustrating on any camera under $1,000. +(Camera click) So, that's because the camera needs time to calculate the focus and exposure, but if you pre-focus with a half-press, no shutter lag! +You get it every time. +I've just turned your $50 camera into a $1,000 camera with that trick. +So I know I went super fast. +If you missed anything, I'll be happy to send you the list of these tips. +In the meantime, congratulations. +You all get your California Technology License. +Have a great day. +What you're doing, right now, at this very moment, is killing you. +More than cars or the Internet or even that little mobile device we keep talking about, the technology you're using the most almost every day is this, your tush. +Nowadays people are sitting 9.3 hours a day, which is more than we're sleeping, at 7.7 hours. +Sitting is so incredibly prevalent, we don't even question how much we're doing it, and because everyone else is doing it, it doesn't even occur to us that it's not okay. +In that way, sitting has become the smoking of our generation. +Of course there's health consequences to this, scary ones, besides the waist. +Things like breast cancer and colon cancer are directly tied to our lack of physical [activity], Ten percent in fact, on both of those. +Six percent for heart disease, seven percent for type 2 diabetes, which is what my father died of. +Now, any of those stats should convince each of us to get off our duff more, but if you're anything like me, it won't. +What did get me moving was a social interaction. +Someone invited me to a meeting, but couldn't manage to fit me in to a regular sort of conference room meeting, and said, "I have to walk my dogs tomorrow. Could you come then?" +It seemed kind of odd to do, and actually, that first meeting, I remember thinking, "I have to be the one to ask the next question," because I knew I was going to huff and puff during this conversation. +And yet, I've taken that idea and made it my own. +So instead of going to coffee meetings or fluorescent-lit conference room meetings, I ask people to go on a walking meeting, to the tune of 20 to 30 miles a week. +It's changed my life. +But before that, what actually happened was, I used to think about it as, you could take care of your health, or you could take care of obligations, and one always came at the cost of the other. +So now, several hundred of these walking meetings later, I've learned a few things. +First, there's this amazing thing about actually getting out of the box that leads to out-of-the-box thinking. +Whether it's nature or the exercise itself, it certainly works. +And second, and probably the more reflective one, is just about how much each of us can hold problems in opposition when they're really not that way. +And if we're going to solve problems and look at the world really differently, whether it's in governance or business or environmental issues, job creation, maybe we can think about how to reframe those problems as having both things be true. +Because it was when that happened with this walk-and-talk idea that things became doable and sustainable and viable. +So I started this talk talking about the tush, so I'll end with the bottom line, which is, walk and talk. +Walk the talk. +You'll be surprised at how fresh air drives fresh thinking, and in the way that you do, you'll bring into your life an entirely new set of ideas. +Thank you. +Well, I have a big announcement to make today, and I'm really excited about this. +And this may be a little bit of a surprise to many of you who know my research and what I've done well. +I've really tried to solve some big problems: counterterrorism, nuclear terrorism, and health care and diagnosing and treating cancer, but I started thinking about all these problems, and I realized that the really biggest problem we face, what all these other problems come down to, is energy, is electricity, the flow of electrons. +And I decided that I was going to set out to try to solve this problem. +And this probably is not what you're expecting. +You're probably expecting me to come up here and talk about fusion, because that's what I've done most of my life. +But this is actually a talk about, okay -- but this is actually a talk about fission. +It's about perfecting something old, and bringing something old into the 21st century. +Let's talk a little bit about how nuclear fission works. +This is the same way we've been producing electricity, the steam turbine idea, for 100 years, and nuclear was a really big advancement in a way to heat the water, but you still boil water and that turns to steam and turns the turbine. +And I thought, you know, is this the best way to do it? +Is fission kind of played out, or is there something left to innovate here? +And I realized that I had hit upon something that I think has this huge potential to change the world. +And this is what it is. +This is a small modular reactor. +So it's not as big as the reactor you see in the diagram here. +This is between 50 and 100 megawatts. +But that's a ton of power. +That's between, say at an average use, that's maybe 25,000 to 100,000 homes could run off that. +Now the really interesting thing about these reactors is they're built in a factory. +So they're modular reactors that are built essentially on an assembly line, and they're trucked anywhere in the world, you plop them down, and they produce electricity. +This region right here is the reactor. +And this is buried below ground, which is really important. +For someone who's done a lot of counterterrorism work, I can't extol to you how great having something buried below the ground is for proliferation and security concerns. +And inside this reactor is a molten salt, so anybody who's a fan of thorium, they're going to be really excited about this, because these reactors happen to be really good at breeding and burning the thorium fuel cycle, uranium-233. +But I'm not really concerned about the fuel. +You can run these off -- they're really hungry, they really like down-blended weapons pits, so that's highly enriched uranium and weapons-grade plutonium that's been down-blended. +It's made into a grade where it's not usable for a nuclear weapon, but they love this stuff. +And we have a lot of it sitting around, because this is a big problem. +You know, in the Cold War, we built up this huge arsenal of nuclear weapons, and that was great, and we don't need them anymore, and what are we doing with all the waste, essentially? +What are we doing with all the pits of those nuclear weapons? +Well, we're securing them, and it would be great if we could burn them, eat them up, and this reactor loves this stuff. +So it's a molten salt reactor. It has a core, and it has a heat exchanger from the hot salt, the radioactive salt, to a cold salt which isn't radioactive. +It's still thermally hot but it's not radioactive. +And then that's a heat exchanger to what makes this design really, really interesting, and that's a heat exchanger to a gas. +So going back to what I was saying before about all power being produced -- well, other than photovoltaic -- being produced by this boiling of steam and turning a turbine, that's actually not that efficient, and in fact, in a nuclear power plant like this, it's only roughly 30 to 35 percent efficient. +That's how much thermal energy the reactor's putting out to how much electricity it's producing. +And the reason the efficiencies are so low is these reactors operate at pretty low temperature. +They operate anywhere from, you know, maybe 200 to 300 degrees Celsius. +And these reactors run at 600 to 700 degrees Celsius, which means the higher the temperature you go to, thermodynamics tells you that you will have higher efficiencies. +And this reactor doesn't use water. It uses gas, so supercritical CO2 or helium, and that goes into a turbine, and this is called the Brayton cycle. +This is the thermodynamic cycle that produces electricity, and this makes this almost 50 percent efficient, between 45 and 50 percent efficiency. +And I'm really excited about this, because it's a very compact core. +Molten salt reactors are very compact by nature, but what's also great is you get a lot more electricity out for how much uranium you're fissioning, not to mention the fact that these burn up. +Their burn-up is much higher. +So for a given amount of fuel you put in the reactor, a lot more of it's being used. +And the problem with a traditional nuclear power plant like this is, you've got these rods that are clad in zirconium, and inside them are uranium dioxide fuel pellets. +Well, uranium dioxide's a ceramic, and ceramic doesn't like releasing what's inside of it. +So you have what's called the xenon pit, and so some of these fission products love neutrons. +They love the neutrons that are going on and helping this reaction take place. +And they eat them up, which means that, combined with the fact that the cladding doesn't last very long, you can only run one of these reactors for roughly, say, 18 months without refueling it. +So these reactors run for 30 years without refueling, which is, in my opinion, very, very amazing, because it means it's a sealed system. +No refueling means you can seal them up and they're not going to be a proliferation risk, and they're not going to have either nuclear material or radiological material proliferated from their cores. +But let's go back to safety, because everybody after Fukushima had to reassess the safety of nuclear, and one of the things when I set out to design a power reactor was it had to be passively and intrinsically safe, and I'm really excited about this reactor for essentially two reasons. +One, it doesn't operate at high pressure. +So traditional reactors like a pressurized water reactor or boiling water reactor, they're very, very hot water at very high pressures, and this means, essentially, in the event of an accident, if you had any kind of breach of this stainless steel pressure vessel, the coolant would leave the core. +These reactors operate at essentially atmospheric pressure, so there's no inclination for the fission products to leave the reactor in the event of an accident. +Also, they operate at high temperatures, and the fuel is molten, so they can't melt down, but in the event that the reactor ever went out of tolerances, or you lost off-site power in the case of something like Fukushima, there's a dump tank. +Because your fuel is liquid, and it's combined with your coolant, you could actually just drain the core into what's called a sub-critical setting, basically a tank underneath the reactor that has some neutrons absorbers. +And this is really important, because the reaction stops. +In this kind of reactor, you can't do that. +So the core of this reactor, since it's not under pressure and it doesn't have this chemical reactivity, means that there's no inclination for the fission products to leave this reactor. +So even in the event of an accident, yeah, the reactor may be toast, which is, you know, sorry for the power company, but we're not going to contaminate large quantities of land. +So I really think that in the, say, 20 years it's going to take us to get fusion and make fusion a reality, this could be the source of energy that provides carbon-free electricity. +Carbon-free electricity. +And it's an amazing technology because not only does it combat climate change, but it's an innovation. +It's a way to bring power to the developing world, because it's produced in a factory and it's cheap. +You can put them anywhere in the world you want to. +And maybe something else. +As a kid, I was obsessed with space. +Well, I was obsessed with nuclear science too, to a point, but before that I was obsessed with space, and I was really excited about, you know, being an astronaut and designing rockets, which was something that was always exciting to me. +But I think I get to come back to this, because imagine having a compact reactor in a rocket that produces 50 to 100 megawatts. +That is the rocket designer's dream. +That's someone who is designing a habitat on another planet's dream. +Not only do you have 50 to 100 megawatts to power whatever you want to provide propulsion to get you there, but you have power once you get there. +You know, rocket designers who use solar panels or fuel cells, I mean a few watts or kilowatts -- wow, that's a lot of power. +I mean, now we're talking about 100 megawatts. +That's a ton of power. +That could power a Martian community. +That could power a rocket there. +And so I hope that maybe I'll have an opportunity to kind of explore my rocketry passion at the same time that I explore my nuclear passion. +And people say, "Oh, well, you've launched this thing, and it's radioactive, into space, and what about accidents?" +But we launch plutonium batteries all the time. +So I'm really excited. +I think that I've designed this reactor here that can be an innovative source of energy, provide power for all kinds of neat scientific applications, and I'm really prepared to do this. +And I think, I think, that looking at the technology, this will be cheaper than or the same price as natural gas, and you don't have to refuel it for 30 years, which is an advantage for the developing world. +And I'll just say one more maybe philosophical thing to end with, which is weird for a scientist. +But I think there's something really poetic about using nuclear power to propel us to the stars, because the stars are giant fusion reactors. +They're giant nuclear cauldrons in the sky. +The energy that I'm able to talk to you today, while it was converted to chemical energy in my food, originally came from a nuclear reaction, and so there's something poetic about, in my opinion, perfecting nuclear fission and using it as a future source of innovative energy. +So thank you guys. +I have spent my entire life either at the schoolhouse, on the way to the schoolhouse, or talking about what happens in the schoolhouse. +Both my parents were educators, my maternal grandparents were educators, and for the past 40 years, I've done the same thing. +And so, needless to say, over those years I've had a chance to look at education reform from a lot of perspectives. +Some of those reforms have been good. +Some of them have been not so good. +And we know why kids drop out. +We know why kids don't learn. +It's either poverty, low attendance, negative peer influences... We know why. +But one of the things that we never discuss or we rarely discuss is the value and importance of human connection. +Relationships. +James Comer says that no significant learning can occur without a significant relationship. +George Washington Carver says all learning is understanding relationships. +Everyone in this room has been affected by a teacher or an adult. +For years, I have watched people teach. +I have looked at the best and I've looked at some of the worst. +A colleague said to me one time, "They don't pay me to like the kids. +They pay me to teach a lesson. +The kids should learn it. +I should teach it, they should learn it, Case closed." +Well, I said to her, "You know, kids don't learn from people they don't like." +She said, "That's just a bunch of hooey." +"Well, your year is going to be long and arduous, dear." +Needless to say, it was. +Some people think that you can either have it in you to build a relationship, or you don't. +I think Stephen Covey had the right idea. +He said you ought to just throw in a few simple things, like seeking first to understand, as opposed to being understood. +Simple things, like apologizing. +You ever thought about that? +Tell a kid you're sorry, they're in shock. +I taught a lesson once on ratios. +I'm not real good with math, but I was working on it. +And I got back and looked at that teacher edition. +I'd taught the whole lesson wrong. So I came back to class the next day and I said, "Look, guys, I need to apologize. +I taught the whole lesson wrong. I'm so sorry." +They said, "That's okay, Ms. Pierson. +You were so excited, we just let you go." +I have had classes that were so low, so academically deficient, that I cried. +I wondered, "How am I going to take this group, in nine months, from where they are to where they need to be? +And it was difficult, it was awfully hard. +How do I raise the self-esteem of a child and his academic achievement at the same time? +One year I came up with a bright idea. +I told all my students, "You were chosen to be in my class because I am the best teacher and you are the best students, they put us all together so we could show everybody else how to do it." +One of the students said, "Really?" +I said, "Really. We have to show the other classes how to do it, so when we walk down the hall, people will notice us, so you can't make noise. +You just have to strut." +And I gave them a saying to say: "I am somebody. +I was somebody when I came. +I'll be a better somebody when I leave. +I am powerful, and I am strong. +I deserve the education that I get here. +I have things to do, people to impress, and places to go." +And they said, "Yeah!" +You say it long enough, it starts to be a part of you. +I gave a quiz, 20 questions. +A student missed 18. +I put a "+2" on his paper and a big smiley face. +He said, "Ms. Pierson, is this an F?" +I said, "Yes." +He said, "Then why'd you put a smiley face?" +I said, "Because you're on a roll. +You got two right. You didn't miss them all." +I said, "And when we review this, won't you do better?" +He said, "Yes, ma'am, I can do better." +You see, "-18" sucks all the life out of you. +"+2" said, "I ain't all bad." +For years, I watched my mother take the time at recess to review, go on home visits in the afternoon, buy combs and brushes and peanut butter and crackers to put in her desk drawer for kids that needed to eat, and a washcloth and some soap for the kids who didn't smell so good. +See, it's hard to teach kids who stink. +And kids can be cruel. +And so she kept those things in her desk, and years later, after she retired, I watched some of those same kids come through and say to her, "You know, Ms. Walker, you made a difference in my life. +You made it work for me. +You made me feel like I was somebody, when I knew, at the bottom, I wasn't. +And I want you to just see what I've become." +And when my mama died two years ago at 92, there were so many former students at her funeral, it brought tears to my eyes, not because she was gone, but because she left a legacy of relationships that could never disappear. +Can we stand to have more relationships? Absolutely. +Will you like all your children? Of course not. +And you know your toughest kids are never absent. +Never. You won't like them all, and the tough ones show up for a reason. +It's the connection. It's the relationships. +So teachers become great actors and great actresses, and we come to work when we don't feel like it, and we're listening to policy that doesn't make sense, and we teach anyway. +We teach anyway, because that's what we do. +Teaching and learning should bring joy. +How powerful would our world be if we had kids who were not afraid to take risks, who were not afraid to think, and who had a champion? +Every child deserves a champion, an adult who will never give up on them, who understands the power of connection, and insists that they become the best that they can possibly be. +Is this job tough? You betcha. Oh God, you betcha. +But it is not impossible. +We can do this. We're educators. +We're born to make a difference. +Thank you so much. +I'm not sure that every person here is familiar with my pictures. +I want to start to show just a few pictures to you, and after I'll speak. +I must speak to you a little bit of my history, because we'll be speaking on this during my speech here. +I was born in 1944 in Brazil, in the times that Brazil was not yet a market economy. +I was born on a farm, a farm that was more than 50 percent rainforest [still]. +A marvelous place. +I lived with incredible birds, incredible animals, I swam in our small rivers with our caimans. +It was about 35 families that lived on this farm, and everything that we produced on this farm, we consumed. +Very few things went to the market. +Once a year, the only thing that went to the market was the cattle that we produced, and we made trips of about 45 days to reach the slaughterhouse, bringing thousands of head of cattle, and about 20 days traveling back to reach our farm again. +When I was 15 years old, it was necessary for me to leave this place and go to a town a little bit bigger -- much bigger -- where I did the second part of secondary school. +There I learned different things. +Brazil was starting to urbanize, industrialize, and I knew the politics. I became a little bit radical, I was a member of leftist parties, and I became an activist. +I [went to] university to become an economist. +I [did] a master's degree in economics. +And the most important thing in my life also happened in this time. +I met an incredible girl who became my lifelong best friend, and my associate in everything that I have done till now, my wife, Llia Wanick Salgado. +Brazil radicalized very strongly. +We fought very hard against the dictatorship, in a moment it was necessary to us: Either go into clandestinity with weapons in hand, or leave Brazil. We were too young, and our organization thought it was better for us to go out, and we went to France, where I did a PhD in economics, Lila became an architect. +I worked after for an investment bank. +We made a lot of trips, financed development, economic projects in Africa with the World Bank. +And one day photography made a total invasion in my life. +I became a photographer, abandoned everything and became a photographer, and I started to do the photography that was important for me. +Many people tell me that you are a photojournalist, that you are an anthropologist photographer, that you are an activist photographer. +But I did much more than that. +I put photography as my life. +I lived totally inside photography doing long term projects, and I want to show you just a few pictures of -- again, you'll see inside the social projects, that I went to, I published many books on these photographs, but I'll just show you a few ones now. +In the '90s, from 1994 to 2000, I photographed a story called Migrations. +It became a book. It became a show. +But during the time that I was photographing this, I lived through a very hard moment in my life, mostly in Rwanda. +I saw in Rwanda total brutality. +I saw deaths by thousands per day. +I lost my faith in our species. +I didn't believe that it was possible for us to live any longer, and I started to be attacked by my own Staphylococcus. +I started to have infection everywhere. +When I made love with my wife, I had no sperm that came out of me; I had blood. +I went to see a friend's doctor in Paris, told him that I was completely sick. +He made a long examination, and told me, "Sebastian, you are not sick, your prostate is perfect. +What happened is, you saw so many deaths that you are dying. +You must stop. Stop. +You must stop because on the contrary, you will be dead." +And I made the decision to stop. +I was really upset with photography, with everything in the world, and I made the decision to go back to where I was born. +It was a big coincidence. +It was the moment that my parents became very old. +I have seven sisters. I'm one of the only men in my family, and they made together the decision to transfer this land to Lila and myself. +When we received this land, this land was as dead as I was. +When I was a kid, it was more than 50 percent rainforest. +When we received the land, it was less than half a percent rainforest, as in all my region. +To build development, Brazilian development, we destroyed a lot of our forest. +As you did here in the United States, or you did in India, everywhere in this planet. +To build our development, we come to a huge contradiction that we destroy around us everything. +This farm that had thousands of head of cattle had just a few hundreds, and we didn't know how to deal with these. +And Lila came up with an incredible idea, a crazy idea. +She said, why don't you put back the rainforest that was here before? +You say that you were born in paradise. +Let's build the paradise again. +And I went to see a good friend that was engineering forests to prepare a project for us, and we started. We started to plant, and this first year we lost a lot of trees, second year less, and slowly, slowly this dead land started to be born again. +We started to plant hundreds of thousands of trees, only local species, only native species, where we built an ecosystem identical to the one that was destroyed, and the life started to come back in an incredible way. +It was necessary for us to transform our land into a national park. +We transformed. We gave this land back to nature. +It became a national park. +We created an institution called Instituto Terra, and we built a big environmental project to raise money everywhere. +Here in Los Angeles, in the Bay Area in San Francisco, it became tax deductible in the United States. +We raised money in Spain, in Italy, a lot in Brazil. +We worked with a lot of companies in Brazil that put money into this project, the government. +And the life started to come, and I had a big wish to come back to photography, to photograph again. +And this time, my wish was not to photograph anymore just one animal that I had photographed all my life: us. +I wished to photograph the other animals, to photograph the landscapes, to photograph us, but us from the beginning, the time we lived in equilibrium with nature. +And I went. I started in the beginning of 2004, and I finished at the end of 2011. +We created an incredible amount of pictures, and the result -- Llia did the design of all my books, the design of all my shows. She is the creator of the shows. +And what we want with these pictures is to create a discussion about what we have that is pristine on the planet and what we must hold on this planet if we want to live, to have some equilibrium in our life. +And I wanted to see us when we used, yes, our instruments in stone. +We exist yet. I was last week at the Brazilian National Indian Foundation, and only in the Amazon we have about 110 groups of Indians that are not contacted yet. +We must protect the forest in this sense. +And with these pictures, I hope that we can create information, a system of information. +We tried to do a new presentation of the planet, and I want to show you now just a few pictures of this project, please. +Well, this Thank you. Thank you very much. +This is what we must fight hard to hold like it is now. +But there is another part that we must together rebuild, to build our societies, our modern family of societies, we are at a point where we cannot go back. +But we create an incredible contradiction. +To build all this, we destroy a lot. +Our forest in Brazil, that antique forest that was the size of California, is destroyed today 93 percent. +Here, on the West Coast, you've destroyed your forest. +Around here, no? The redwood forests are gone. +Gone very fast, disappeared. +Coming the other day from Atlanta, here, two days ago, I was flying over deserts that we made, we provoked with our own hands. +India has no more trees. Spain has no more trees. +And we must rebuild these forests. +That is the essence of our life, these forests. +We need to breathe. The only factory capable to transform CO2 into oxygen, are the forests. +The only machine capable to capture the carbon that we are producing, always, even if we reduce them, everything that we do, we produce CO2, are the trees. +I put the question -- three or four weeks ago, we saw in the newspapers millions of fish that die in Norway. +A lack of oxygen in the water. +I put to myself the question, if for a moment, we will not lack oxygen for all animal species, ours included -- that would be very complicated for us. +For the water system, the trees are essential. +I'll give you a small example that you'll understand very easily. +You happy people that have a lot of hair on your head, if you take a shower, it takes you two or three hours to dry your hair if you don't use a dryer machine. +Me, one minute, it's dry. The same with the trees. +The trees are the hair of our planet. +When you have rain in a place that has no trees, in just a few minutes, the water arrives in the stream, brings soil, destroying our water source, destroying the rivers, and no humidity to retain. +When you have trees, the root system holds the water. +All the branches of the trees, the leaves that come down create a humid area, and they take months and months under the water, go to the rivers, and maintain our source, maintain our rivers. +This is the most important thing, when we imagine that we need water for every activity in life. +I want to show you now, to finish, just a few pictures that for me are very important in that direction. +You remember that I told you, when I received the farm from my parents that was my paradise, that was the farm. +Land completely destroyed, the erosion there, the land had dried. +But you can see in this picture, we were starting to construct an educational center that became quite a large environmental center in Brazil. +But you see a lot of small spots in this picture. +In each point of those spots, we had planted a tree. +There are thousands of trees. +Now I'll show you the pictures made exactly in the same point two months ago. +I told you in the beginning that it was necessary for us to plant about 2.5 million trees of about 200 different species in order to rebuild the ecosystem. +And I'll show you the last picture. +We are with two million trees in the ground now. +We are doing the sequestration of about 100,000 tons of carbon with these trees. +My friends, it's very easy to do. We did it, no? +By an accident that happened to me, we went back, we built an ecosystem. +We here inside the room, I believe that we have the same concern, and the model that we created in Brazil, we can transplant it here. +We can apply it everywhere around the world, no? +And I believe that we can do it together. +Thank you very much. +All right, so let's take four subjects that obviously go together: big data, tattoos, immortality and the Greeks. +Right? +Now, the issue about tattoos is that, without a word, tattoos really do shout. +[Beautiful] [Intriguing] So you don't have to say a lot. +[Allegiance] [Very intimate] [Serious mistakes] And tattoos tell you a lot of stories. +If I can ask an indiscreet question, how many of you have tattoos? +A few, but not most. +What happens if Facebook, Google, Twitter, LinkedIn, cell phones, GPS, Foursquare, Yelp, Travel Advisor, all these things you deal with every day turn out to be electronic tattoos? +And what if they provide as much information about who and what you are as any tattoo ever would? +What's ended up happening over the past few decades is the kind of coverage that you had as a head of state or as a great celebrity is now being applied to you every day by all these people who are Tweeting, blogging, following you, watching your credit scores and what you do to yourself. +And electronic tattoos also shout. +And as you're thinking of the consequences of that, it's getting really hard to hide from this stuff, among other things, because it's not just the electronic tattoos, it's facial recognition that's getting really good. +And so there's companies like face.com that now have about 18 billion faces online. +Here's what happened to this company. +So what if Andy was wrong? +Here's Andy's theory. +[In the future, everybody will be world famous for 15 minutes.] What if we flip this? +What if you're only going to be anonymous for 15 minutes? Well, then, because of electronic tattoos, maybe all of you and all of us are very close to immortality, because these tattoos will live far longer than our bodies will. +And if that's true, then what we want to do is we want to go through four lessons from the Greeks and one lesson from a Latin American. +Why the Greeks? +Well, the Greeks thought about what happens when gods and humans and immortality mix for a long time. +So lesson number one: Sisyphus. +Remember? He did a horrible thing, condemned for all time to roll this rock up, it would roll back down, roll back up, roll back down. +It's a little like your reputation. +Once you get that electronic tattoo, you're going to be rolling up and down for a long time, so as you go through this stuff, just be careful what you post. +So he's walking out and walking out and walking out and he just can't resist. He looks at her, loses her forever. +With all this data out here, it might be a good idea not to look too far into the past of those you love. +Lesson number three: Atalanta. +Greatest runner. She would challenge anybody. +If you won, she would marry you. +If you lost, you died. +How did Hippomenes beat her? +Well, he had all these wonderful little golden apples, and she'd run ahead, and he'd roll a little golden apple. +She'd run ahead, and he'd roll a little golden apple. +She kept getting distracted. He eventually won the race. +Just remember the purpose as all these little golden apples come and reach you and you want to post about them or tweet about them or send a late-night message. +And then, of course, there's Narcissus. +Nobody here would ever be accused or be familiar with Narcissus. +But as you're thinking about Narcissus, just don't fall in love with your own reflection. +Last lesson, from a Latin American: This is the great poet Jorge Luis Borges. +When he was threatened by the thugs of the Argentine military junta, he came back and said, "Oh, come on, how else can you threaten, other than with death?" +The interesting thing, the original thing, would be to threaten somebody with immortality. +And that, of course, is what we are all now threatened with today because of electronic tattoos. +Thank you. +I teach chemistry. +All right, all right. +So more than just explosions, chemistry is everywhere. +Have you ever found yourself at a restaurant spacing out just doing this over and over? +Some people nodding yes. +Recently, I showed this to my students, and I just asked them to try and explain why it happened. +The questions and conversations that followed were fascinating. +Check out this video that Maddie from my period three class sent me that evening. +Now obviously, as Maddie's chemistry teacher, I love that she went home and continued to geek out about this kind of ridiculous demonstration that we did in class. +But what fascinated me more is that Maddie's curiosity took her to a new level. +If you look inside that beaker, you might see a candle. +Maddie's using temperature to extend this phenomenon to a new scenario. +You know, questions and curiosity like Maddie's are magnets that draw us towards our teachers, and they transcend all technology or buzzwords in education. +But if we place these technologies before student inquiry, we can be robbing ourselves of our greatest tool as teachers: our students' questions. +For example, flipping a boring lecture from the classroom to the screen of a mobile device might save instructional time, but if it is the focus of our students' experience, it's the same dehumanizing chatter just wrapped up in fancy clothing. +But if instead we have the guts to confuse our students, perplex them, and evoke real questions, through those questions, we as teachers have information that we can use to tailor robust and informed methods of blended instruction. +In May of 2010, at 35 years old, with a two-year-old at home and my second child on the way, I was diagnosed with a large aneurysm at the base of my thoracic aorta. +This led to open-heart surgery. This is the actual real email from my doctor right there. +Now, when I got this, I was -- press Caps Lock -- absolutely freaked out, okay? +But I found surprising moments of comfort in the confidence that my surgeon embodied. +Where did this guy get this confidence, the audacity of it? +So when I asked him, he told me three things. +He said first, his curiosity drove him to ask hard questions about the procedure, about what worked and what didn't work. +Second, he embraced, and didn't fear, the messy process of trial and error, the inevitable process of trial and error. +And third, through intense reflection, he gathered the information that he needed to design and revise the procedure, and then, with a steady hand, he saved my life. +Now I absorbed a lot from these words of wisdom, and before I went back into the classroom that fall, I wrote down three rules of my own that I bring to my lesson planning still today. +Rule number one: Curiosity comes first. +Questions can be windows to great instruction, but not the other way around. +Rule number two: Embrace the mess. +We're all teachers. We know learning is ugly. +And just because the scientific method is allocated to page five of section 1.2 of chapter one of the one that we all skip, okay, trial and error can still be an informal part of what we do every single day at Sacred Heart Cathedral in room 206. +And rule number three: Practice reflection. +What we do is important. It deserves our care, but it also deserves our revision. +Can we be the surgeons of our classrooms? +As if what we are doing one day will save lives. +Our students our worth it. +And each case is different. +All right. Sorry. +The chemistry teacher in me just needed to get that out of my system before we move on. +So these are my daughters. +On the right we have little Emmalou -- Southern family. +And, on the left, Riley. +Now Riley's going to be a big girl in a couple weeks here. +She's going to be four years old, and anyone who knows a four-year-old knows that they love to ask, "Why?" +Yeah. Why. +I could teach this kid anything because she is curious about everything. +We all were at that age. +But the challenge is really for Riley's future teachers, the ones she has yet to meet. +How will they grow this curiosity? +You see, I would argue that Riley is a metaphor for all kids, and I think dropping out of school comes in many different forms -- to the senior who's checked out before the year's even begun or that empty desk in the back of an urban middle school's classroom. +But if we as educators leave behind this simple role as disseminators of content and embrace a new paradigm as cultivators of curiosity and inquiry, we just might bring a little bit more meaning to their school day, and spark their imagination. +Thank you very much. +I'm a little nervous, because my wife Yvonne said to me, she said, "Geoff, you watch the TED Talks." +I said, "Yes, honey, I love TED Talks." +She said, "You know, they're like, really smart, talented -- " I said, "I know, I know." She said, "They don't want, like, the angry black man." +So I said, "No, I'm gonna be good, Honey, I'm gonna be good. I am." +But I am angry. And the last time I looked, I'm -- So this is why I'm excited but I'm angry. +This year, there are going to be millions of our children that we're going to needlessly lose, that we could -- right now, we could save them all. +You saw the quality of the educators who were here. +Do not tell me they could not reach those kids and save them. I know they could. +It is absolutely possible. +Why haven't we fixed this? +Those of us in education have held on to a business plan that we don't care how many millions of young people fail, we're going to continue to do the same thing that didn't work, and nobody is getting crazy about it -- right? -- enough to say, "Enough is enough." +So here's a business plan that simply does not make any sense. +You know, I grew up in the inner city, and there were kids who were failing in schools 56 years ago when I first went to school, and those schools are still lousy today, 56 years later. +And you know something about a lousy school? +It's not like a bottle of wine. +Right? Where you say, like, '87 was like a good year, right? +That's now how this thing -- I mean, every single year, it's still the same approach, right? +One size fits all, if you get it, fine, and if you don't, tough luck. Just tough luck. +Why haven't we allowed innovation to happen? +Do not tell me we can't do better than this. +Look, you go into a place that's failed kids for 50 years, and you say, "So what's the plan?" +And they say, "We'll, we're going to do what we did last year this year." +What kind of business model is that? +Banks used to open and operate between 10 and 3. +They operated 10 to 3. They were closed for lunch hour. +Now, who can bank between 10 and 3? The unemployed. +They don't need banks. They got no money in the banks. +Who created that business model? Right? +And it went on for decades. +You know why? Because they didn't care. +It wasn't about the customers. +It was about bankers. They created something that worked for them. +How could you go to the bank when you were at work? It didn't matter. +And they don't care whether or not Geoff is upset he can't go to the bank. Go find another bank. +They all operate the same way. Right? +Now, one day, some crazy banker had an idea. +Maybe we should keep the bank open when people come home from work. +They might like that. What about a Saturday? +What about introducing technology? +Now look, I'm a technology fan, but I have to admit to you all I'm a little old. +So I was a little slow, and I did not trust technology, and when they first came out with those new contraptions, these tellers that you put in a card and they give you money, I was like, "There's no way that machine is going to count that money right. +I am never using that, right?" +So technology has changed. Things have changed. +Yet not in education. Why? +Why is it that when we had rotary phones, when we were having folks being crippled by polio, that we were teaching the same way then that we're doing right now? +And if you come up with a plan to change things, people consider you radical. +They will say the worst things about you. +I said one day, well, look, if the science says -- this is science, not me -- that our poorest children lose ground in the summertime -- You see where they are in June and say, okay, they're there. +You look at them in September, they've gone down. +You say, whoo! So I heard about that in '75 when I was at the Ed School at Harvard. +I said, "Oh, wow, this is an important study." +Because it suggests we should do something. +Every 10 years they reproduce the same study. +It says exactly the same thing: Poor kids lose ground in the summertime. +The system decides you can't run schools in the summer. +You know, I always wonder, who makes up those rules? +For years I went to -- Look, I went the Harvard Ed School. +I thought I knew something. +They said it was the agrarian calendar, and people had but let me tell you why that doesn't make sense. +I never got that. I never got that, because anyone knows if you farm, you don't plant crops in July and August. +You plant them in the spring. +So who came up with this idea? Who owns it? +Why did we ever do it? +Well it just turns out in the 1840s we did have, schools were open all year. They were open all year, because we had a lot of folks who had to work all day. +They didn't have any place for their kids to go. +It was a perfect place to have schools. +So this is not something that is ordained from the education gods. +So why don't we? Why don't we? +Because our business has refused to use science. +Science. You have Bill Gates coming out and saying, "Look, this works, right? We can do this." +How many places in America are going to change? None. +None. Okay, yeah, there are two. All right? +Yes, there'll be some place, because some folks will do the right thing. +As a profession, we have to stop this. The science is clear. +Here's what we know. +We know that the problem begins immediately. +Right? This idea, zero to three. +My wife, Yvonne, and I, we have four kids, three grown ones and a 15-year-old. +That's a longer story. +With our first kids, we did not know the science about brain development. +We didn't know how critical those first three years were. +We didn't know what was happening in those young brains. +We didn't know the role that language, a stimulus and response, call and response, how important that was in developing those children. +We know that now. What are we doing about it? Nothing. +Wealthy people know. Educated people know. +And their kids have an advantage. +Poor people don't know, and we're not doing anything to help them at all. +But we know this is critical. +Now, you take pre-kindergarten. +We know it's important for kids. +Poor kids need that experience. +Nope. Lots of places, it doesn't exist. +We know health services matter. +You know, we provide health services and people are always fussing at me about, you know, because I'm all into accountability and data and all of that good stuff, but we do health services, and I have to raise a lot of money. +People used to say when they'd come fund us, "Geoff, why do you provide these health services?" +I used to make stuff up. Right? +I'd say, "Well, you know a child who has cavities is not going to, uh, be able to study as well." +And I had to because I had to raise the money. +But now I'm older, and you know what I tell them? +You know why I provide kids with those health benefits and the sports and the recreation and the arts? +Because I actually like kids. +I actually like kids. But when they really get pushy, people really get pushy, I say, "I do it because you do it for your kid." +So here's the other thing. +I'm a tester guy. I believe you need data, you need information, because you work at something, you think it's working, and you find out it's not working. +I mean, you're educators. You work, you say, you think you've got it, great, no? And you find out they didn't get it. +But here's the problem with testing. +The testing that we do -- we're going to have our test in New York next week is in April. +You know when we're going to get the results back? +Maybe July, maybe June. +And the results have great data. +They'll tell you Raheem really struggled, couldn't do two-digit multiplication -- so great data, but you're getting it back after school is over. +And so, what do you do? +You go on vacation. You come back from vacation. +Now you've got all of this test data from last year. +You don't look at it. +Why would you look at it? +You're going to go and teach this year. +So how much money did we just spend on all of that? +Billions and billions of dollars for data that it's too late to use. +I need that data in September. +I need that data in November. +I need to know you're struggling, and I need to know whether or not what I did corrected that. +I need to know that this week. +I don't need to know that at the end of the year when it's too late. +Because in my older years, I've become somewhat of a clairvoyant. +I can predict school scores. +You take me to any school. +I'm really good at inner city schools that are struggling. +And you tell me last year 48 percent of those kids were on grade level. +And I say, "Okay, what's the plan, what did we do from last year to this year?" +You say, "We're doing the same thing." +I'm going to make a prediction. This year, somewhere between 44 and 52 percent of those kids will be on grade level. +And I will be right every single time. +So we're spending all of this money, but we're getting what? +Teachers need real information right now about what's happening to their kids. +The high stakes is today, because you can do something about it. +So here's the other issue that I just think we've got to be concerned about. +We can't stifle innovation in our business. +We have to innovate. And people in our business get mad about innovation. +They get angry if you do something different. +If you try something new, people are always like, "Ooh, charter schools." Hey, let's try some stuff. Let's see. +This stuff hasn't worked for 55 years. +Let's try something different. And here's the rub. +Some of it's not going to work. +You know, people tell me, "Yeah, those charter schools, a lot of them don't work." +A lot of them don't. They should be closed. +I mean, I really believe they should be closed. +But we can't confuse figuring out the science and things not working with we shouldn't therefore do anything. +Right? Because that's not the way the world works. +If you think about technology, imagine if that's how we thought about technology. +Every time something didn't work, we just threw in the towel and said, "Let's forget it." Right? +You know, they convinced me. I'm sure some of you were like me -- the latest and greatest thing, the PalmPilot. +They told me, "Geoff, if you get this PalmPilot you'll never need another thing." +That thing lasted all of three weeks. It was over. +I was so disgusted I spent my money on this thing. +Did anybody stop inventing? Not a person. Not a soul. +The folks went out there. They kept inventing. +The fact that you have failure, that shouldn't stop you from pushing the science forward. +Our job as educators, there's some stuff we know that we can do. +And we've got to do better. The evaluation, we have to start with kids earlier, we have to make sure that we provide the support to young people. +We've got to give them all of these opportunities. +So that we have to do. But this innovation issue, this idea that we've got to keep innovating until we really nail this science down is something that is absolutely critical. +And this is something, by the way, that I think is going to be a challenge for our entire field. +America cannot wait another 50 years to get this right. +We have run out of time. +I don't know about a fiscal cliff, but I know there's an educational cliff that we are walking over right this very second, and if we allow folks to continue this foolishness about saying we can't afford this So Bill Gates says it's going to cost five billion dollars. +What is five billion dollars to the United States? +What did we spend in Afghanistan this year? +How many trillions? When the country cares about something, we'll spend a trillion dollars without blinking an eye. +When the safety of America is threatened, we will spend any amount of money. +The real safety of our nation is preparing this next generation so that they can take our place and be the leaders of the world when it comes to thinking and technology and democracy and all that stuff we care about. +I dare say it's a pittance, what it would require for us to really begin to solve some of these problems. +So once we do that, I'll no longer be angry. So, you guys, help me get there. +Thank you all very much. Thank you. +John Legend: So what is the high school dropout rate at Harlem Children's Zone? +Geoffrey Canada: Well, you know, John, 100 percent of our kids graduated high school last year in my school. +A hundred percent of them went to college. +This year's seniors will have 100 percent graduating high school. +Last I heard we had 93 percent accepted to college. +We'd better get that other seven percent. +So that's just how this goes. JL: So how do you stick with them after they leave high school? +GC: Well, you know, one of the bad problems we have in this country is these kids, the same kids, these same vulnerable kids, when you get them in school, they drop out in record numbers. +And so we've figured out that you've got to really design a network of support for these kids that in many ways mimics what a good parent does. +They harass you, right? They call you, they say, "I want to see your grades. How'd you do on that last test? +What are you talking about that you want to leave school? +And you're not coming back here." +So a bunch of my kids know you can't come back to Harlem because Geoff is looking for you. +They're like, "I really can't come back." No. You'd better stay in school. +But I'm not kidding about some of this, and it gets a little bit to the grit issue. +When kids know that you refuse to let them fail, it puts a different pressure on them, and they don't give up as easy. +So sometimes they don't have it inside, and they're, like, "You know, I don't want to do this, but I know my mother's going to be mad." +Well, that matters to kids, and it helps get them through. +We try to create a set of strategies that gets them tutoring and help and support, but also a set of encouragements that say to them, "You can do it. It is going to be hard, but we refuse to let you fail." +JL: Well, thank you Dr. Canada. +Please give it up for him one more time. +So I grew up in East Los Angeles, not even realizing I was poor. +My dad was a high-ranking gang member who ran the streets. +Everyone knew who I was, so I thought I was a pretty big deal, and I was protected, and even though my dad spent most of my life in and out of jail, I had an amazing mom who was just fiercely independent. +She worked at the local high school as a secretary in the dean's office, so she got to see all the kids that got thrown out of class, for whatever reason, who were waiting to be disciplined. +Man, her office was packed. +So, see, kids like us, we have a lot of things to deal with outside of school, and sometimes we're just not ready to focus. +But that doesn't mean that we can't. +It just takes a little bit more. +Like, I remember one day I found my dad convulsing, foaming at the mouth, OD-ing on the bathroom floor. +Really, do you think that doing my homework that night was at the top of my priority list? +Not so much. +But I really needed a support network, a group of people who were going to help me make sure that I wasn't going to be a victim of my own circumstance, that they were going to push me beyond what I even thought I could do. +I needed teachers, in the classroom, every day, who were going to say, "You can move beyond that." +And unfortunately, the local junior high was not going to offer that. +It was gang-infested, huge teacher turnover rate. +So my mom said, "You're going on a bus an hour and a half away from where we live every day." +So for the next two years, that's what I did. +I took a school bus to the fancy side of town. +And eventually, I ended up at a school where there was a mixture. +There were some people who were really gang-affiliated, and then there were those of us really trying to make it to high school. +Well, trying to stay out of trouble was a little unavoidable. +You had to survive. +You just had to do things sometimes. +So there were a lot of teachers who were like, "She's never going to make it. +She has an issue with authority. +She's not going to go anywhere." +Some teachers completely wrote me off as a lost cause. +But then, they were very surprised when I graduated from high school. +I was accepted to Pepperdine University, and I came back to the same school that I attended to be a special ed assistant. +And then I told them, "I want to be a teacher." +And boy, they were like, "What? Why? +Why would you want to do that?" +So I began my teaching career at the exact same middle school that I attended, and I really wanted to try to save more kids who were just like me. +And so every year, I share my background with my kids, because they need to know that everyone has a story, everyone has a struggle, and everyone needs help along the way. +And I am going to be their help along the way. +So as a rookie teacher, I created opportunity. +I had a kid one day come into my class having been stabbed the night before. +I was like, "You need to go to a hospital, the school nurse, something." +He's like, "No, Miss, I'm not going. +I need to be in class because I need to graduate." +So he knew that I was not going to let him be a victim of his circumstance, but we were going to push forward and keep moving on. +And this idea of creating a safe haven for our kids and getting to know exactly what they're going through, getting to know their families -- I wanted that, but I couldn't do it in a school with 1,600 kids, and teachers turning over year after year after year. +How do you get to build those relationships? +So we created a new school. +And we created the San Fernando Institute for Applied Media. +And we made sure that we were still attached to our school district for funding, for support. +We wanted those freedoms. +But now, shifting an entire paradigm, it hasn't been an easy journey, nor is it even complete. +But we had to do it. +Our community deserved a new way of doing things. +And as the very first pilot middle school in all of Los Angeles Unified School District, you better believe there was some opposition. +And it was out of fear -- fear of, well, what if they get it wrong? +Yeah, what if we get it wrong? +But what if we get it right? +And we did. +So even though teachers were against it because we employ one-year contracts -- you can't teach, or you don't want to teach, you don't get to be at my school with my kids. +So in our third year, how did we do it? +Well, we're making school worth coming to every day. +We make our kids feel like they matter to us. +We make our curriculum rigorous and relevant to them, and they use all the technology that they're used to. +Laptops, computers, tablets -- you name it, they have it. +Animation, software, moviemaking software, they have it all. +And because we connect it to what they're doing For example, they made public service announcements for the Cancer Society. +These were played in the local trolley system. +Teaching elements of persuasion, it doesn't get any more real than that. +Our state test scores have gone up more than 80 points since we've become our own school. +But it's taken all stakeholders, working together -- teachers and principals on one-year contracts, working over and above and beyond their contract hours without compensation. +And it takes a school board member who is going to lobby for you and say, "Know, the district is trying to impose this, but you have the freedom to do otherwise." +And it takes an active parent center who is not only there, showing a presence every day, but who is part of our governance, making decisions for their kids, our kids. +Because why should our students have to go so far away from where they live? +They deserve a quality school in their neighborhood, a school that they can be proud to say they attend, and a school that the community can be proud of as well, and they need teachers to fight for them every day and empower them to move beyond their circumstances. +Because it's time that kids like me stop being the exception, and we become the norm. +Thank you. +In this talk today, I want to present a different idea for why investing in early childhood education makes sense as a public investment. +It's a different idea, because usually, when people talk about early childhood programs, they talk about all the wonderful benefits for participants in terms of former participants, in preschool, they have better K-12 test scores, better adult earnings. +Now that's all very important, but what I want to talk about is what preschool does for state economies and for promoting state economic development. +And that's actually crucial because if we're going to get increased investment in early childhood programs, we need to interest state governments in this. +The federal government has a lot on its plate, and state governments are going to have to step up. +So we have to appeal to them, the legislators in the state government, and turn to something they understand, that they have to promote the economic development of their state economy. +Now, by promoting economic development, I don't mean anything magical. +All I mean is, is that early childhood education can bring more and better jobs to a state and can thereby promote higher per capita earnings for the state's residents. +Now, I think it's fair to say that when people think about state and local economic development, they don't generally think first about what they're doing about childcare and early childhood programs. +I know this. I've spent most of my career researching these programs. +I've talked to a lot of directors of state economic development agencies about these issues, a lot of legislators about these issues. +When legislators and others think about economic development, what they first of all think about are business tax incentives, property tax abatements, job creation tax credits, you know, there are a million of these programs all over the place. +So for example, states compete very vigorously to attract new auto plants or expanded auto plants. +They hand out all kinds of business tax breaks. +Now, those programs can make sense if they in fact induce new location decisions, and the way they can make sense is, by creating more and better jobs, they raise employment rates, raise per capita earnings of state residents. +So there is a benefit to state residents that corresponds to the costs that they're paying by paying for these business tax breaks. +My argument is essentially that early childhood programs can do exactly the same thing, create more and better jobs, but in a different way. +It's a somewhat more indirect way. +Now, let me turn to some numbers on this. +So there is this key benefit that is relevant to state policy makers in terms of economic development. +Now, one objection you often hear, or maybe you don't hear it because people are too polite to say it, is, why should I pay more taxes to invest in other people's children? +What's in it for me? +And the trouble with that objection, it reflects a total misunderstanding of how much local economies involve everyone being interdependent. +Specifically, the interdependency here is, is that there are huge spillovers of skills -- that when other people's children get more skills, that actually increases the prosperity of everyone, including people whose skills don't change. +So for example, numerous research studies have shown if you look at what really drives the growth rate of metropolitan areas, it's not so much low taxes, low cost, low wages; it's the skills of the area. Particularly, the proxy for skills that people use is percentage of college graduates in the area. +So when you look, for example, at metropolitan areas such as the Boston area, Minneapolis-St. Paul, Silicon Valley, these areas are not doing well economically because they're low-cost. +I don't know if you ever tried to buy a house in Silicon Valley. +It's not exactly a low-cost proposition. +They are growing because they have high levels of skills. +So when we invest in other people's children, and build up those skills, we increase the overall job growth of a metro area. +As another example, if we look at what determines an individual's wages, and we do statistical exploration of that, what determines wages, we know that the individual's wages will depend, in part, on that individual's education, for example whether or not they have a college degree. +One of the very interesting facts is that, in addition, we find that even once we hold constant, statistically, the effect of your own education, the education of everyone else in your metropolitan area also affects your wages. +So specifically, if you hold constant your education, you stick in percentage of college graduates in your metro area, you will find that has a significant positive effect on your wages without changing your education at all. +In fact, this effect is so strong that when someone gets a college degree, the spillover effects of this on the wages of others in the metropolitan area are actually greater than the direct effects. +So if someone gets a college degree, their lifetime earnings go up by a huge amount, over 700,000 dollars. +That's actually greater than the direct benefits of the person choosing to get education. +Now, what's going on here? +What can explain these huge spillover effects of education? +Well, let's think about it this way. +I can be the most skilled person in the world, but if everyone else at my firm lacks skills, my employer is going to find it more difficult to introduce new technology, new production techniques. +So as a result, my employer is going to be less productive. +They will not be able to afford to pay me as good wages. +Even if everyone at my firm has good skills, if the workers at the suppliers to my firm do not have good skills, my firm is going to be less competitive competing in national and international markets. +And again, the firm that's less competitive will not be able to pay as good wages, and then, particularly in high-tech businesses, they're constantly stealing ideas and workers from other businesses. +So clearly the productivity of firms in Silicon Valley has a lot to do with the skills not only of the workers at their firm, but the workers at all the other firms in the metro area. +So as a result, if we can invest in other people's children through preschool and other early childhood programs that are high-quality, we not only help those children, we help everyone in the metropolitan area gain in wages and we'll have the metropolitan area gain in job growth. +Another objection used sometimes here to invest in early childhood programs is concern about people moving out. +So, you know, maybe Ohio's thinking about investing in more preschool education for children in Columbus, Ohio, but they're worried that these little Buckeyes will, for some strange reason, decide to move to Ann Arbor, Michigan, and become Wolverines. +And maybe Michigan will be thinking about investing in preschool in Ann Arbor, Michigan, and be worried these little Wolverines will end up moving to Ohio and becoming Buckeyes. +And so they'll both underinvest because everyone's going to move out. +Well, the reality is, if you look at the data, Americans aren't as hyper-mobile as people sometimes assume. +The data is that over 60 percent of Americans spend most of their working careers in the state they were born in, over 60 percent. +That percentage does not vary much from state to state. +It doesn't vary much with the state's economy, whether it's depressed or booming, it doesn't vary much over time. +So the reality is, if you invest in kids, they will stay. +Or at least, enough of them will stay that it will pay off for your state economy. +Okay, so to sum up, there is a lot of research evidence that early childhood programs, if run in a high-quality way, pay off in higher adult skills. +So in my opinion, the research evidence is compelling and the logic of this is compelling. +So what are the barriers to getting it done? +Well, one obvious barrier is cost. +So if you look at what it would cost if every state government invested in universal preschool at age four, full-day preschool at age four, the total annual national cost would be roughly 30 billion dollars. +So, 30 billion dollars is a lot of money. +On the other hand, if you reflect on that the U.S.'s population is over 300 million, we're talking about an amount of money that amounts to 100 dollars per capita. +Okay? A hundred dollars per capita, per person, is something that any state government can afford to do. +It's just a simple matter of political will to do it. +And, of course, as I mentioned, this cost has corresponding benefits. +I mentioned there's a multiplier of about three, 2.78, for the state economy, in terms of over 80 billion in extra earnings. +So this is an investment that pays off in very concrete terms for a broad range of income groups in the state's population and produces large and tangible benefits. +Now, that's one barrier. +I actually think the more profound barrier is the long-term nature of the benefits from early childhood programs. +So the argument I'm making is, is that we're increasing the quality of our local workforce, and thereby increasing economic development. +Obviously if we have a preschool with four-year-olds, we're not sending these kids out at age five to work in the sweatshops, right? At least I hope not. +So we're talking about an investment that in terms of impacts on the state economy is not going to really pay off for 15 or 20 years, and of course America is notorious for being a short term-oriented society. +Ultimately, this is something we're investing in now for the future. +And so what I want to leave you with is what I think is the ultimate question. +I mean, I'm an economist, but this is ultimately not an economic question, it's a moral question: Are we willing, as Americans, are we as a society still capable of making the political choice to sacrifice now by paying more taxes in order to improve the long-term future of not only our kids, but our community? +Are we still capable of that as a country? +And that's something that each and every citizen and voter needs to ask themselves. +Is that something that you are still invested in, that you still believe in the notion of investment? +That is the notion of investment. +You sacrifice now for a return later. +So I think the research evidence on the benefits of early childhood programs for the local economy is extremely strong. +However, the moral and political choice is still up to us, as citizens and as voters. +Thank you very much. +At 7:45 a.m., I open the doors to a building dedicated to building, yet only breaks me down. +I march down hallways cleaned up after me every day by regular janitors, but I never have the decency to honor their names. +Lockers left open like teenage boys' mouths when teenage girls wear clothes that covers their insecurities but exposes everything else. +Masculinity mimicked by men who grew up with no fathers, camouflage worn by bullies who are dangerously armed but need hugs. +Teachers paid less than what it costs them to be here. +Oceans of adolescents come here to receive lessons but never learn to swim, part like the Red Sea when the bell rings. +This is a training ground. +My high school is Chicago, diverse and segregated on purpose. +Social lines are barbed wire. +Labels like "Regulars" and "Honors" resonate. +I am an Honors but go home with Regular students who are soldiers in territory that owns them. +This is a training ground to sort out the Regulars from the Honors, a reoccurring cycle built to recycle the trash of this system. +Trained at a young age to capitalize, letters taught now that capitalism raises you but you have to step on someone else to get there. +This is a training ground where one group is taught to lead and the other is made to follow. +No wonder so many of my people spit bars, because the truth is hard to swallow. +The need for degrees has left so many people frozen. +Homework is stressful, but when you go home every day and your home is work, you don't want to pick up any assignments. +Reading textbooks is stressful, but reading does not matter when you feel your story is already written, either dead or getting booked. +Taking tests is stressful, but bubbling in a Scantron does not stop bullets from bursting. +I hear education systems are failing, but I believe they're succeeding at what they're built to do -- to train you, to keep you on track, to track down an American dream that has failed so many of us all. +Thank you very much. +I moved to America 12 years ago with my wife Terry and our two kids. +Actually, truthfully, we moved to Los Angeles -- thinking we were moving to America, but anyway -- It's a short plane ride from Los Angeles to America. +I got here 12 years ago, and when I got here, I was told various things, like, "Americans don't get irony." +Have you come across this idea? +It's not true. I've traveled the whole length and breadth of this country. +I have found no evidence that Americans don't get irony. +It's one of those cultural myths, like, "The British are reserved." +I don't know why people think this. +We've invaded every country we've encountered. +But it's not true Americans don't get irony, but I just want you to know that that's what people are saying about you behind your back. +You know, so when you leave living rooms in Europe, people say, thankfully, nobody was ironic in your presence. +But I knew that Americans get irony when I came across that legislation, "No Child Left Behind." +Because whoever thought of that title gets irony. +Don't they? +Because it's leaving millions of children behind. +Now I can see that's not a very attractive name for legislation: "Millions of Children Left Behind." +I can see that. What's the plan? +We propose to leave millions of children behind, and here's how it's going to work. +And it's working beautifully. +In some parts of the country, 60 percent of kids drop out of high school. +In the Native American communities, it's 80 percent of kids. +If we halved that number, one estimate is it would create a net gain to the U.S. economy over 10 years, of nearly a trillion dollars. +From an economic point of view, this is good math, isn't it, that we should do this? +It actually costs an enormous amount to mop up the damage from the dropout crisis. +But the dropout crisis is just the tip of an iceberg. +What it doesn't count are all the kids who are in school but being disengaged from it, who don't enjoy it, who don't get any real benefit from it. +And the reason is not that we're not spending enough money. +America spends more money on education than most other countries. +Class sizes are smaller than in many countries. +And there are hundreds of initiatives every year to try and improve education. +The trouble is, it's all going in the wrong direction. +There are three principles on which human life flourishes, and they are contradicted by the culture of education under which most teachers have to labor and most students have to endure. +The first is this, that human beings are naturally different and diverse. +Can I ask you, how many of you have got children of your own? +Okay. Or grandchildren. +How about two children or more? Right. +And the rest of you have seen such children. +Small people wandering about. +I will make you a bet, and I am confident that I will win the bet. +If you've got two children or more, I bet you they are completely different from each other. +Aren't they? You would never confuse them, would you? +Like, "Which one are you? Remind me." +"Your mother and I need some color-coding system so we don't get confused." +Education under "No Child Left Behind" is based on not diversity but conformity. +What schools are encouraged to do is to find out what kids can do across a very narrow spectrum of achievement. +One of the effects of "No Child Left Behind" has been to narrow the focus onto the so-called STEM disciplines. +They're very important. +I'm not here to argue against science and math. +On the contrary, they're necessary but they're not sufficient. +A real education has to give equal weight to the arts, the humanities, to physical education. +An awful lot of kids, sorry, thank you -- One estimate in America currently is that something like 10 percent of kids, getting on that way, are being diagnosed with various conditions under the broad title of attention deficit disorder. +ADHD. I'm not saying there's no such thing. +I just don't believe it's an epidemic like this. +If you sit kids down, hour after hour, doing low-grade clerical work, don't be surprised if they start to fidget, you know? +Children are not, for the most part, suffering from a psychological condition. +They're suffering from childhood. +And I know this because I spent my early life as a child. +I went through the whole thing. +Kids prosper best with a broad curriculum that celebrates their various talents, not just a small range of them. +And by the way, the arts aren't just important because they improve math scores. +They're important because they speak to parts of children's being which are otherwise untouched. +The second, thank you -- The second principle that drives human life flourishing is curiosity. +If you can light the spark of curiosity in a child, they will learn without any further assistance, very often. +Children are natural learners. +It's a real achievement to put that particular ability out, or to stifle it. +Curiosity is the engine of achievement. +Now the reason I say this is because one of the effects of the current culture here, if I can say so, has been to de-professionalize teachers. +There is no system in the world or any school in the country that is better than its teachers. +Teachers are the lifeblood of the success of schools. +But teaching is a creative profession. +Teaching, properly conceived, is not a delivery system. +You know, you're not there just to pass on received information. +Great teachers do that, but what great teachers also do is mentor, stimulate, provoke, engage. +You see, in the end, education is about learning. +If there's no learning going on, there's no education going on. +And people can spend an awful lot of time discussing education without ever discussing learning. +The whole point of education is to get people to learn. +An old friend of mine -- actually very old, he's dead. +That's as old as it gets, I'm afraid. +But a wonderful guy he was, wonderful philosopher. +He used to talk about the difference between the task and achievement senses of verbs. +You can be engaged in the activity of something, but not really be achieving it, like dieting. +It's a very good example. There he is. He's dieting. +Is he losing any weight? Not really. Teaching is a word like that. +You can say, "There's Deborah, she's in room 34, she's teaching." +But if nobody's learning anything, she may be engaged in the task of teaching but not actually fulfilling it. +The role of a teacher is to facilitate learning. That's it. +And part of the problem is, I think, that the dominant culture of education has come to focus on not teaching and learning, but testing. +Now, testing is important. Standardized tests have a place. +But they should not be the dominant culture of education. +They should be diagnostic. They should help. +If I go for a medical examination, I want some standardized tests. +I do. +I want to know what my cholesterol level is compared to everybody else's on a standard scale. +I don't want to be told on some scale my doctor invented in the car. +"Your cholesterol is what I call Level Orange." +"Really?" "Is that good?" "We don't know." +But all that should support learning. +It shouldn't obstruct it, which of course it often does. +So in place of curiosity, what we have is a culture of compliance. +Our children and teachers are encouraged to follow routine algorithms rather than to excite that power of imagination and curiosity. +And the third principle is this: that human life is inherently creative. +It's why we all have different rsums. +We create our lives, and we can recreate them as we go through them. +It's the common currency of being a human being. +It's why human culture is so interesting and diverse and dynamic. +I mean, other animals may well have imaginations and creativity, but it's not so much in evidence, is it, as ours? +I mean, you may have a dog. +And your dog may get depressed. +You know, but it doesn't listen to Radiohead, does it? +And sit staring out the window with a bottle of Jack Daniels. +"Would you like to come for a walk?" +"No, I'm fine." +"You go. I'll wait. But take pictures." +We all create our own lives through this restless process of imagining alternatives and possibilities, and one of the roles of education is to awaken and develop these powers of creativity. +Instead, what we have is a culture of standardization. +Now, it doesn't have to be that way. +It really doesn't. +Finland regularly comes out on top in math, science and reading. +Now, we only know that's what they do well at, because that's all that's being tested. +That's one of the problems of the test. +They don't look for other things that matter just as much. +The thing about work in Finland is this: they don't obsess about those disciplines. +They have a very broad approach to education, which includes humanities, physical education, the arts. +Second, there is no standardized testing in Finland. +I mean, there's a bit, but it's not what gets people up in the morning, what keeps them at their desks. +The third thing -- and I was at a meeting recently with some people from Finland, actual Finnish people, and somebody from the American system was saying to the people in Finland, "What do you do about the drop-out rate in Finland?" +And they all looked a bit bemused, and said, "Well, we don't have one. +Why would you drop out? +If people are in trouble, we get to them quite quickly and we help and support them." +Now people always say, "Well, you know, you can't compare Finland to America." +No. I think there's a population of around five million in Finland. +But you can compare it to a state in America. +Many states in America have fewer people in them than that. +I mean, I've been to some states in America and I was the only person there. Really. Really. I was asked to lock up when I left. +But what all the high-performing systems in the world do is currently what is not evident, sadly, across the systems in America -- I mean, as a whole. +One is this: they individualize teaching and learning. +They recognize that it's students who are learning and the system has to engage them, their curiosity, their individuality, and their creativity. +That's how you get them to learn. +The second is that they attribute a very high status to the teaching profession. +They recognize that you can't improve education if you don't pick great people to teach and keep giving them constant support and professional development. +Investing in professional development is not a cost. +It's an investment, and every other country that's succeeding well knows that, whether it's Australia, Canada, South Korea, Singapore, Hong Kong or Shanghai. +They know that to be the case. +And the third is, they devolve responsibility to the school level for getting the job done. +You see, there's a big difference here between going into a mode of command and control in education -- That's what happens in some systems. +Central or state governments decide, they know best and they're going to tell you what to do. +The trouble is that education doesn't go on in the committee rooms of our legislative buildings. +It happens in classrooms and schools, and the people who do it are the teachers and the students, and if you remove their discretion, it stops working. +You have to put it back to the people. +There is wonderful work happening in this country. +But I have to say it's happening in spite of the dominant culture of education, not because of it. +It's like people are sailing into a headwind all the time. +And the reason I think is this: that many of the current policies are based on mechanistic conceptions of education. +It's like education is an industrial process that can be improved just by having better data, and somewhere in the back of the mind of some policy makers is this idea that if we fine-tune it well enough, if we just get it right, it will all hum along perfectly into the future. +It won't, and it never did. +The point is that education is not a mechanical system. +It's a human system. It's about people, people who either do want to learn or don't want to learn. +Every student who drops out of school has a reason for it which is rooted in their own biography. +They may find it boring. +They may find it irrelevant. +They may find that it's at odds with the life they're living outside of school. +There are trends, but the stories are always unique. +I was at a meeting recently in Los Angeles of -- they're called alternative education programs. +These are programs designed to get kids back into education. +They have certain common features. +They're very personalized. +They have strong support for the teachers, close links with the community and a broad and diverse curriculum, and often programs which involve students outside school as well as inside school. +And they work. +What's interesting to me is, these are called "alternative education." +You know? +And all the evidence from around the world is, if we all did that, there'd be no need for the alternative. +So I think we have to embrace a different metaphor. +We have to recognize that it's a human system, and there are conditions under which people thrive, and conditions under which they don't. +We are after all organic creatures, and the culture of the school is absolutely essential. +Culture is an organic term, isn't it? +Not far from where I live is a place called Death Valley. +Death Valley is the hottest, driest place in America, and nothing grows there. +Nothing grows there because it doesn't rain. +Hence, Death Valley. +In the winter of 2004, it rained in Death Valley. +Seven inches of rain fell over a very short period. +And in the spring of 2005, there was a phenomenon. +The whole floor of Death Valley was carpeted in flowers for a while. +What it proved is this: that Death Valley isn't dead. +It's dormant. +Right beneath the surface are these seeds of possibility waiting for the right conditions to come about, and with organic systems, if the conditions are right, life is inevitable. It happens all the time. +Great leaders know that. +The real role of leadership in education -- and I think it's true at the national level, the state level, at the school level -- is not and should not be command and control. +The real role of leadership is climate control, creating a climate of possibility. +And if you do that, people will rise to it and achieve things that you completely did not anticipate and couldn't have expected. +There's a wonderful quote from Benjamin Franklin. +"There are three sorts of people in the world: Those who are immovable, people who don't get it, or don't want to do anything about it; there are people who are movable, people who see the need for change and are prepared to listen to it; and there are people who move, people who make things happen." +And if we can encourage more people, that will be a movement. +And if the movement is strong enough, that's, in the best sense of the word, a revolution. +And that's what we need. +Thank you very much. +Thank you very much. +Everyone needs a coach. +It doesn't matter whether you're a basketball player, a tennis player, a gymnast or a bridge player. +My bridge coach, Sharon Osberg, says there are more pictures of the back of her head than anyone else's in the world. Sorry, Sharon. Here you go. +We all need people who will give us feedback. +That's how we improve. +Unfortunately, there's one group of people who get almost no systematic feedback to help them do their jobs better, and these people have one of the most important jobs in the world. +I'm talking about teachers. +When Melinda and I learned how little useful feedback most teachers get, we were blown away. +Until recently, over 98 percent of teachers just got one word of feedback: Satisfactory. +If all my bridge coach ever told me was that I was "satisfactory," I would have no hope of ever getting better. +How would I know who was the best? +How would I know what I was doing differently? +Today, districts are revamping the way they evaluate teachers, but we still give them almost no feedback that actually helps them improve their practice. +Our teachers deserve better. +The system we have today isn't fair to them. +It's not fair to students, and it's putting America's global leadership at risk. +So today I want to talk about how we can help all teachers get the tools for improvement they want and deserve. +Let's start by asking who's doing well. +Well, unfortunately there's no international ranking tables for teacher feedback systems. +So I looked at the countries whose students perform well academically, and looked at what they're doing to help their teachers improve. +Consider the rankings for reading proficiency. +The U.S. isn't number one. +We're not even in the top 10. +We're tied for 15th with Iceland and Poland. +Now, out of all the places that do better than the U.S. in reading, how many of them have a formal system for helping teachers improve? +Eleven out of 14. +The U.S. is tied for 15th in reading, but we're 23rd in science and 31st in math. +So there's really only one area where we're near the top, and that's in failing to give our teachers the help they need to develop their skills. +Let's look at the best academic performer: the province of Shanghai, China. +Now, they rank number one across the board, in reading, math and science, and one of the keys to Shanghai's incredible success is the way they help teachers keep improving. +They made sure that younger teachers get a chance to watch master teachers at work. +They have weekly study groups, where teachers get together and talk about what's working. +They even require each teacher to observe and give feedback to their colleagues. +You might ask, why is a system like this so important? +It's because there's so much variation in the teaching profession. +Some teachers are far more effective than others. +In fact, there are teachers throughout the country who are helping their students make extraordinary gains. +If today's average teacher could become as good as those teachers, our students would be blowing away the rest of the world. +So we need a system that helps all our teachers be as good as the best. +What would that system look like? +Well, to find out, our foundation has been working with 3,000 teachers in districts across the country on a project called Measures of Effective Teaching. +We had observers watch videos of teachers in the classroom and rate how they did on a range of practices. +For example, did they ask their students challenging questions? +Did they find multiple ways to explain an idea? +We also had students fill out surveys with questions like, "Does your teacher know when the class understands a lesson?" +"Do you learn to correct your mistakes?" +And what we found is very exciting. +First, the teachers who did well on these observations had far better student outcomes. +So it tells us we're asking the right questions. +And second, teachers in the program told us that these videos and these surveys from the students were very helpful diagnostic tools, because they pointed to specific places where they can improve. +I want to show you what this video component of MET looks like in action. +Sarah Brown Wessling: Good morning everybody. +Let's talk about what's going on today. +To get started, we're doing a peer review day, okay? +A peer review day, and our goal by the end of class is for you to be able to determine whether or not you have moves to prove in your essays. +My name is Sarah Brown Wessling. +I am a high school English teacher at Johnston High School in Johnston, Iowa. +Turn to somebody next to you. +Tell them what you think I mean when I talk about moves to prove. I've talk about -- I think that there is a difference for teachers between the abstract of how we see our practice and then the concrete reality of it. +Okay, so I would like you to please bring up your papers. +I think what video offers for us is a certain degree of reality. +You can't really dispute what you see on the video, and there is a lot to be learned from that, and there are a lot of ways that we can grow as a profession when we actually get to see this. +I just have a flip camera and a little tripod and invested in this tiny little wide-angle lens. +At the beginning of class, I just perch it in the back of the classroom. It's not a perfect shot. +It doesn't catch every little thing that's going on. +But I can hear the sound. I can see a lot. +And I'm able to learn a lot from it. +So it really has been a simple but powerful tool in my own reflection. +All right, let's take a look at the long one first, okay? +Once I'm finished taping, then I put it in my computer, and then I'll scan it and take a peek at it. +If I don't write things down, I don't remember them. +So having the notes is a part of my thinking process, and I discover what I'm seeing as I'm writing. +I really have used it for my own personal growth and my own personal reflection on teaching strategy and methodology and classroom management, and just all of those different facets of the classroom. +I'm glad that we've actually done the process before so we can kind of compare what works, what doesn't. +I think that video exposes so much of what's intrinsic to us as teachers in ways that help us learn and help us understand, and then help our broader communities understand what this complex work is really all about. +I think it is a way to exemplify and illustrate things that we cannot convey in a lesson plan, things you cannot convey in a standard, things that you cannot even sometimes convey in a book of pedagogy. +Alrighty, everybody, have a great weekend. +I'll see you later. +[Every classroom could look like that] Bill Gates: One day, we'd like every classroom in America to look something like that. +But we still have more work to do. +Diagnosing areas where a teacher needs to improve is only half the battle. +We also have to give them the tools they need to act on the diagnosis. +If you learn that you need to improve the way you teach fractions, you should be able to watch a video of the best person in the world teaching fractions. +So building this complete teacher feedback and improvement system won't be easy. +For example, I know some teachers aren't immediately comfortable with the idea of a camera in the classroom. +That's understandable, but our experience with MET suggests that if teachers manage the process, if they collect video in their own classrooms, and they pick the lessons they want to submit, a lot of them will be eager to participate. +Building this system will also require a considerable investment. +Our foundation estimates that it could cost up to five billion dollars. +Now that's a big number, but to put it in perspective, it's less than two percent of what we spend every year on teacher salaries. +The impact for teachers would be phenomenal. +We would finally have a way to give them feedback, as well as the means to act on it. +But this system would have an even more important benefit for our country. +It would put us on a path to making sure all our students get a great education, find a career that's fulfilling and rewarding, and have a chance to live out their dreams. +This wouldn't just make us a more successful country. +It would also make us a more fair and just one, too. +I'm excited about the opportunity to give all our teachers the support they want and deserve. +I hope you are too. +Thank you. +"Don't talk to strangers." +You have heard that phrase uttered by your friends, family, schools and the media for decades. +It's a norm. It's a social norm. +But it's a special kind of social norm, because it's a social norm that wants to tell us who we can relate to and who we shouldn't relate to. +"Don't talk to strangers" says, "Stay from anyone who's not familiar to you. +Stick with the people you know. +Stick with people like you." +How appealing is that? +It's not really what we do, is it, when we're at our best? +When we're at our best, we reach out to people who are not like us, because when we do that, we learn from people who are not like us. +My phrase for this value of being with "not like us" is "strangeness," and my point is that in today's digitally intensive world, strangers are quite frankly not the point. +The point that we should be worried about is, how much strangeness are we getting? +Why strangeness? Because our social relations are increasingly mediated by data, and data turns our social relations into digital relations, and that means that our digital relations now depend extraordinarily on technology to bring to them a sense of robustness, a sense of discovery, a sense of surprise and unpredictability. +Why not strangers? +Because strangers are part of a world of really rigid boundaries. +They belong to a world of people I know versus people I don't know, and in the context of my digital relations, I'm already doing things with people I don't know. +The question isn't whether or not I know you. +The question is, what can I do with you? +What can I learn with you? +What can we do together that benefits us both? +I spend a lot of time thinking about how the social landscape is changing, how new technologies create new constraints and new opportunities for people. +The most important changes facing us today have to do with data and what data is doing to shape the kinds of digital relations that will be possible for us in the future. +The economies of the future depend on that. +Our social lives in the future depend on that. +The threat to worry about isn't strangers. +The threat to worry about is whether or not we're getting our fair share of strangeness. +Now, 20th-century psychologists and sociologists were thinking about strangers, but they weren't thinking so dynamically about human relations, and they were thinking about strangers in the context of influencing practices. +Stanley Milgram from the '60s and '70s, the creator of the small-world experiments, which became later popularized as six degrees of separation, made the point that any two arbitrarily selected people were likely connected from between five to seven intermediary steps. +His point was that strangers are out there. +We can reach them. There are paths that enable us to reach them. +Mark Granovetter, Stanford sociologist, in 1973 in his seminal essay "The Strength of Weak Ties," made the point that these weak ties that are a part of our networks, these strangers, are actually more effective at diffusing information to us than are our strong ties, the people closest to us. +He makes an additional indictment of our strong ties when he says that these people who are so close to us, these strong ties in our lives, actually have a homogenizing effect on us. +They produce sameness. +My colleagues and I at Intel have spent the last few years looking at the ways in which digital platforms are reshaping our everyday lives, what kinds of new routines are possible. +We've been looking specifically at the kinds of digital platforms that have enabled us to take our possessions, those things that used to be very restricted to us and to our friends in our houses, and to make them available to people we don't know. +Whether it's our clothes, whether it's our cars, whether it's our bikes, whether it's our books or music, we are able to take our possessions now and make them available to people we've never met. +And we concluded a very important insight, which was that as people's relationships to the things in their lives change, so do their relations with other people. +And yet recommendation system after recommendation system continues to miss the boat. +It continues to try to predict what I need based on some past characterization of who I am, of what I've already done. +Security technology after security technology continues to design data protection in terms of threats and attacks, keeping me locked into really rigid kinds of relations. +Categories like "friends" and "family" and "contacts" and "colleagues" don't tell me anything about my actual relations. +A more effective way to think about my relations might be in terms of closeness and distance, where at any given point in time, with any single person, I am both close and distant from that individual, all as a function of what I need to do right now. +People aren't close or distant. +People are always a combination of the two, and that combination is constantly changing. +What if technologies could intervene to disrupt the balance of certain kinds of relationships? +What if technologies could intervene to help me find the person that I need right now? +Strangeness is that calibration of closeness and distance that enables me to find the people that I need right now, that enables me to find the sources of intimacy, of discovery, and of inspiration that I need right now. +Strangeness is not about meeting strangers. +It simply makes the point that we need to disrupt our zones of familiarity. +So jogging those zones of familiarity is one way to think about strangeness, and it's a problem faced not just by individuals today, but also by organizations, organizations that are trying to embrace massively new opportunities. +We have to change the norms. +We have to change the norms in order to enable new kinds of technologies as a basis for new kinds of businesses. +What interesting questions lie ahead for us in this world of no strangers? +How might we think differently about our relations with people? +How might we think differently about our relations with distributed groups of people? +How might we think differently about our relations with technologies, things that effectively become social participants in their own right? +The range of digital relations is extraordinary. +In the context of this broad range of digital relations, safely seeking strangeness might very well be a new basis for that innovation. +Thank you. +Hey guys. +It's funny, someone just mentioned MacGyver, because that was, like, I loved it, and when I was seven, I taped a fork to a drill and I was like, "Hey, Mom, I'm going to Olive Garden." +And -- (Drilling noise) And it worked really well there. +And you know, it had a profound effect on me. +It sounds silly, but I thought, okay, the way the world works can be changed, and it can be changed by me in these small ways. +And my relationship to especially human-made objects which someone else said they work like this, well, I can say they work a different way, a little bit. +And so I had to start studying, who is it that's making these decisions? +Who's making these things? How did they make them? +What stops us from making them? +Because this is how reality is created. +So I started right away. I was at MIT Media Lab, and I was studying the maker movement and makers and creativity. +And I started in nature, because I saw these Guayms doing it in nature, and there just seems to be less barriers. +So I went to Vermont to Not Back to School Camp, where there's unschoolers who are just kind of hanging out and willing to try anything. +So I said, "Let's go into the woods near this stream and just put stuff together, you know, make something, I don't care, geometrical shapes, just grab some junk from around you. +We won't bring anything with us. +And, like, within minutes, this is very easy for adults and teens to do. +Here's a triangle that was being formed underneath a flowing stream, and the shape of an oak leaf being made by other small oak leaves being put together. +A leaf tied to a stick with a blade of grass. +The materiality and fleshiness and meat of the mushroom being explored by how it can hold up different objects being stuck into it. +And after about 45 minutes, you get really intricate projects like leaves sorted by hue, so you get a color fade and put in a circle like a wreath. +And the creator of this, he said, "This is fire. I call this fire." +And someone asked him, "How do you get those sticks to stay on that tree?" +And he's like, "I don't know, but I can show you." +And I'm like, "Wow, that's really amazing. +He doesn't know, but he can show you." +So his hands know and his intuition knows, but sometimes what we know gets in the way of what could be, especially when it comes to the human-made, human-built world. +We think we already know how something works, so we can't imagine how it could work. +We know how it's supposed to work, so we can't suppose all the things that could be possible. +So kids don't have as hard of a time with this, and I saw in my own son, I gave him this book. +I'm a good hippie dad, so I'm like, "Okay, you're going to learn to love the moon. +I'm going to give you some building blocks and they're nonrectilinear cactus building blocks, so it's totally legit." +But he doesn't really know what to do with these. +I didn't show him. +And so he's like, "Okay, I'll just mess around with this." +This is no different than the sticks are to the teens in the forest. +Just going to try to put them in shapes and push on them and stuff. +And before long, he's kind of got this mechanism where you can almost launch and catapult objects around, and he enlists us in helping him. +And at this point, I'm starting to wonder, what kind of tools can we give people, especially adults, who know too much, so that they can see the world as malleable, so they see themselves as agents of change in their everyday lives. +I don't care that pencils are supposed to be for writing. +I'm going to use them a different way." +So let me show you a little demo. +This is a little piano circuit right in here, and this is an ordinary paintbrush that I smashed it together with. And so, with some ketchup, (musical notes) and then I can kind of (musical notes) And that's awesome, right? +But this is not what's awesome. +What's awesome is what happens when you give the piano circuit to people. +A pencil is not just a pencil. +Look what it has in the middle of it. +That's a wire running down the middle, and not only is it a wire, if you take that piano circuit, you can thumbtack into the middle of a pencil, and you can lay out wire on the page, too, and get electrical current to run through it. +And so you can kind of hack a pencil, just by thumbtacking into it with a little piano electrical circuit. +And the electricity runs through your body too. +And then you can take the little piano circuit off the pencil. +You can make one of these brushes just on the fly. +All you do is connect to the bristles, and the bristles are wet, so they conduct, and the person's body conducts, and leather is great to paint on, and then you can start hooking to everything, even the kitchen sink. +The metal in the sink is conductive. +Flowing water acts like a theremin or a violin. +(Musical notes) And you can even hook to the trees. +Anything in the world is either conductive or not conductive, and you can use those together. +So I took this to those same teens, because those teens are really awesome, and they'll try things that I won't try. +I don't even have access to a facial piercing if I wanted to. +And this young woman, she made what she called a hula-looper, and as the hula hoop traveled around her body, she has a circuit taped to her shirt right there. +You can see her pointing to it in the picture. +And every time the hula hoop would smush against her body, it would connect two little pieces of copper tape, and it would make a sound, and the next sound, and it would loop the same sounds over and over again. +I ran these workshops everywhere. +In Taiwan, at an art museum, this 12-year-old girl made a mushroom organ out of some mushrooms that were from Taiwan and some electrical tape and hot glue. +And professional designers were making artifacts with this thing strapped onto it. +And big companies like Intel or smaller design firms like Ideo or startups like Bump, were inviting me to give workshops, just to practice this idea of smashing electronics and everyday objects together. +And then we came up with this idea to not just use electronics, but let's just smash computers with everyday objects and see how that goes over. +And so I just want to do a quick demo. +So this is the MaKey MaKey circuit, and I'm just going to set it up from the beginning in front of you. +So I'll just plug it in, and now it's on by USB. +And I'll just hook up the forward arrow. +You guys are facing that way, so I'll hook it to this one. +And I'll just hook up a little ground wire to it. +And now, if I touch this piece of pizza, the slides that I showed you before should go forward. +And now if I hook up this wire just by connecting it to the left arrow, I'm kind of programming it by where I hook it up, now I have a left arrow and a right arrow, so I should be able to go forwards and backwards and forwards and backwards. Awesome. +And so we're like, "We gotta put a video out about this." +Because no one really believed that this was important or meaningful except me and, like, one other guy. +So we made a video to prove that there's lots of stuff you can do. +You can kind of sketch with Play-Doh and just Google for game controllers. +Just ordinary Play-Doh, nothing special. +And you can literally draw joysticks and just find Pacman on your computer and then just hook it up. (Video game noises) And you know the little plastic drawers you can get at Target? +Well, if you take those out, they hold water great, but you can totally cut your toes, so yeah, just be careful. +You know the Happiness Project, where the experts are setting up the piano stairs, and how cool that is? +Well, I think it's cool, but we should be doing that stuff ourselves. +It shouldn't be a set of experts engineering the way the world works. +We should all be participating in changing the way the world works together. +Aluminum foil. Everybody has a cat. +Get a bowl of water. This is just Photo Booth on your Mac OS. +Hover the mouse over the "take a photo" button, and you've got a little cat photo booth. +And so we needed hundreds of people to buy this. +If hundreds of people didn't buy this, we couldn't put it on the market. +And so we put it up on Kickstarter, and hundreds of people bought it in the first day. +And then 30 days later, 11,000 people had backed the project. +And then what the best part is, we started getting a flood of videos in of people doing crazy things with it. +So this is "The Star-Spangled Banner" by eating lunch, including drinking Listerine. +And we actually sent this guy materials. +We're like, "We're sponsoring you, man. +You're, like, a pro maker." +Okay, just wait for this one. This is good. +And these guys at the exploratorium are playing house plants as if they were drums. +And dads and daughters are completing circuits in special ways. +And then this brother -- look at this diagram. +See where it says "sister"? +I love when people put humans on the diagram. +I always add humans to any technical -- if you're drawing a technical diagram, put a human in it. +And this kid is so sweet. He made this trampoline slideshow advancer for his sister so that on her birthday, she could be the star of the show, jumping on the trampoline to advance the slides. +And this guy rounded up his dogs and he made a dog piano. +And this is fun, and what could be more useful than feeling alive and fun? +But it's also very serious because all this accessibility stuff started coming up, where people can't use computers, necessarily. +Like this dad who wrote us, his son has cerebral palsy and he can't use a normal keyboard. +And so his dad couldn't necessarily afford to buy all these custom controllers. +And so, with the MaKey MaKey, he planned to make these gloves to allow him to navigate the web. +And a huge eruption of discussion around accessibility came, and we're really excited about that. +We didn't plan for that at all. +And then all these professional musicians started using it, like at Coachella, just this weekend Jurassic 5 was using this onstage, and this D.J. is just from Brooklyn, right around here, and he put this up last month. +And I love the carrot on the turntable. +And I also put this little surprise. When you open the lid of the box, it says, "The world is a construction kit." +And as you start to mess around this way, I think that, in some small ways, you do start to see the landscape of your everyday life a little bit more like something you could express yourself with, and a little bit more like you could participate in designing the future of the way the world works. +And so next time you're on an escalator and you drop an M&M by accident, you know, maybe that's an M&M surfboard, not an escalator, so don't pick it up right away. +Maybe take some more stuff out of your pockets and throw it down, and maybe some chapstick, whatever. +I used to want to design a utopian society or a perfect world or something like that. +But as I'm kind of getting older and kind of messing with all this stuff, I'm realizing that my idea of a perfect world really can't be designed by one person or even by a million experts. +It's really going to be seven billion pairs of hands, each following their own passions, and each kind of like a mosaic coming up and creating this world in their backyards and in their kitchens. +And that's the world I really want to live in. +Thank you. +What would be a good end of life? +And I'm talking about the very end. +I'm talking about dying. +We all think a lot about how to live well. +I'd like to talk about increasing our chances of dying well. +I'm not a geriatrician. +I design reading programs for preschoolers. +What I know about this topic comes from a qualitative study with a sample size of two. +In the last few years, I helped two friends have the end of life they wanted. +Jim and Shirley Modini spent their 68 years of marriage living off the grid on their 1,700-acre ranch in the mountains of Sonoma County. +They kept just enough livestock to make ends meet so that the majority of their ranch would remain a refuge for the bears and lions and so many other things that lived there. +This was their dream. +I met Jim and Shirley in their 80s. +They were both only children who chose not to have kids. +As we became friends, I became their trustee and their medical advocate, but more importantly, I became the person who managed their end-of-life experiences. +And we learned a few things about how to have a good end. +In their final years, Jim and Shirley faced cancers, fractures, infections, neurological illness. +It's true. +At the end, our bodily functions and independence are declining to zero. +What we found is that, with a plan and the right people, quality of life can remain high. +The beginning of the end is triggered by a mortality awareness event, and during this time, Jim and Shirley chose ACR nature preserves to take their ranch over when they were gone. +This gave them the peace of mind to move forward. +It might be a diagnosis. It might be your intuition. +But one day, you're going to say, "This thing is going to get me." +Jim and Shirley spent this time letting friends know that their end was near and that they were okay with that. +Dying from cancer and dying from neurological illness are different. +In both cases, last days are about quiet reassurance. +Jim died first. He was conscious until the very end, but on his last day he couldn't talk. +Through his eyes, we knew when he needed to hear again, "It is all set, Jim. We're going to take care of Shirley right here at the ranch, and ACR's going to take care of your wildlife forever." +From this experience I'm going to share five practices. +I've put worksheets online, so if you'd like, you can plan your own end. +It starts with a plan. +Most people say, "I'd like to die at home." +Eighty percent of Americans die in a hospital or a nursing home. +Saying we'd like to die at home is not a plan. +A lot of people say, "If I get like that, just shoot me." +This is not a plan either; this is illegal. +A plan involves answering straightforward questions about the end you want. +Where do you want to be when you're no longer independent? +What do you want in terms of medical intervention? +And who's going to make sure your plan is followed? +You will need advocates. +Having more than one increases your chance of getting the end you want. +Don't assume the natural choice is your spouse or child. +You want someone who has the time and proximity to do this job well, and you want someone who can work with people under the pressure of an ever-changing situation. +Hospital readiness is critical. +You are likely to be headed to the emergency room, and you want to get this right. +Prepare a one-page summary of your medical history, medications and physician information. +Put this in a really bright envelope with copies of your insurance cards, your power of attorney, and your do-not-resuscitate order. +Have advocates keep a set in their car. +Tape a set to your refrigerator. +When you show up in the E.R. with this packet, your admission is streamlined in a material way. +You're going to need caregivers. +You'll need to assess your personality and financial situation to determine whether an elder care community or staying at home is your best choice. +In either case, do not settle. +Finally, last words. +What do you want to hear at the very end, and from whom would you like to hear it? +In my experience, you'll want to hear that whatever you're worried about is going to be fine. +When you believe it's okay to let go, you will. +So, this is a topic that normally inspires fear and denial. +What I've learned is if we put some time into planning our end of life, we have the best chance of maintaining our quality of life. +Here are Jim and Shirley just after deciding who would take care of their ranch. +Here's Jim just a few weeks before he died, celebrating a birthday he didn't expect to see. +And here's Shirley just a few days before she died being read an article in that day's paper about the significance of the wildlife refuge at the Modini ranch. +Jim and Shirley had a good end of life, and by sharing their story with you, I hope to increase our chances of doing the same. +Thank you. +Okay, it's great to be back at TED. +Why don't I just start by firing away with the video? +Man: Okay, Glass, record a video. +Woman: This is it. We're on in two minutes. +Man 2: Okay Glass, hang out with The Flying Club. +Man 3: Google "photos of tiger heads." Hmm. +Man 4: You ready? You ready? Woman 2: Right there. Okay, Glass, take a picture. +(Child shouting) Man 5: Go! +Man 6: Holy [beep]! That is awesome. +Child: Whoa! Look at that snake! +Woman 3: Okay, Glass, record a video! +Man 7: After this bridge, first exit. +Man 8: Okay, A12, right there! +(Children singing) Man 9: Google, say "delicious" in Thai. +Google Glass: Man 9: Mmm, . +Woman 4: Google "jellyfish." +Man 10: It's beautiful. +Sergey Brin: Oh, sorry, I just got this message from a Nigerian prince. +He needs help getting 10 million dollars. +I like to pay attention to these because that's how we originally funded the company, and it's gone pretty well. +Though in all seriousness, this position that you just saw me in, looking down at my phone, that's one of the reasons behind this project, Project Glass. +Because we ultimately questioned whether this is the ultimate future of how you want to connect to other people in your life, how you want to connect to information. +Should it be by just walking around looking down? +But that was the vision behind Glass, and that's why we've created this form factor. +Okay. And I don't want to go through all the things it does and whatnot, but I want to tell you a little bit more about the motivation behind what led to it. +In addition to potentially socially isolating yourself when you're out and about looking at your phone, it's kind of, is this what you're meant to do with your body? +You're standing around there and you're just rubbing this featureless piece of glass. +You're just kind of moving around. +So when we developed Glass, we thought really about, can we make something that frees your hands? +You saw all of the things people are doing in the video back there. +They were all wearing Glass, and that's how we got that footage. +And also you want something that frees your eyes. +That's why we put the display up high, out of your line of sight, so it wouldn't be where you're looking and it wouldn't be where you're making eye contact with people. +And also we wanted to free up the ears, so the sound actually goes through, conducts straight to the bones in your cranium, which is a little bit freaky at first, but you get used to it. +And ironically, if you want to hear it better, you actually just cover your ear, which is kind of surprising, but that's how it works. +My vision when we started Google 15 years ago was that eventually you wouldn't have to have a search query at all. +You'd just have information come to you as you needed it. +And this is now, 15 years later, sort of the first form factor that I think can deliver that vision when you're out and about on the street talking to people and so forth. +This project has lasted now, been just over two years. +We've learned an amazing amount. +It's been really important to make it comfortable. +So our first prototypes we built were huge. +It was like cell phones strapped to your head. +It was very heavy, pretty uncomfortable. +We had to keep it secret from our industrial designer until she actually accepted the job, and then she almost ran away screaming. +But we've come a long way. +And the other really unexpected surprise was the camera. +Our original prototypes didn't have cameras at all, but it's been really magical to be able to capture moments spent with my family, my kids. +I just never would have dug out a camera or a phone or something else to take that moment. +And lastly I've realized, in experimenting with this device, that I also kind of have a nervous tic. +The cell phone is -- yeah, you have to look down on it and all that, but it's also kind of a nervous habit. +Like if I smoked, I'd probably just smoke instead. +I would just light up a cigarette. It would look cooler. +You know, I'd be like -- But in this case, you know, I whip this out and I sit there and look as if I have something very important to do or attend to. +But it really opened my eyes to how much of my life I spent just secluding away, be it email or social posts or whatnot, even though it wasn't really -- there's nothing really that important or that pressing. +And with this, I know I will get certain messages if I really need them, but I don't have to be checking them all the time. +Yeah, I've really enjoyed actually exploring the world more, doing more of the crazy things like you saw in the video. +Thank you all very much. +There's something that I'd like you to see. +Reporter: It's a story that's deeply unsettled millions in China: footage of a two-year-old girl hit by a van and left bleeding in the street by passersby, footage too graphic to be shown. +The entire accident is caught on camera. +The driver pauses after hitting the child, his back wheels seen resting on her for over a second. +Within two minutes, three people pass two-year-old Wang Yue by. +The first walks around the badly injured toddler completely. +Others look at her before moving off. +Peter Singer: There were other people who walked past Wang Yue, and a second van ran over her legs before a street cleaner raised the alarm. +She was rushed to hospital, but it was too late. She died. +I wonder how many of you, looking at that, said to yourselves just now, "I would not have done that. +I would have stopped to help." +Raise your hands if that thought occurred to you. +As I thought, that's most of you. +And I believe you. I'm sure you're right. +But before you give yourself too much credit, look at this. +UNICEF reports that in 2011, 6.9 million children under five died from preventable, poverty-related diseases. +UNICEF thinks that that's good news because the figure has been steadily coming down from 12 million in 1990. That is good. +But still, 6.9 million is 19,000 children dying every day. +Does it really matter that we're not walking past them in the street? +Does it really matter that they're far away? +I don't think it does make a morally relevant difference. +The fact that they're not right in front of us, the fact, of course, that they're of a different nationality or race, none of that seems morally relevant to me. +What is really important is, can we reduce that death toll? Can we save some of those 19,000 children dying every day? +And the answer is, yes we can. +Each of us spends money on things that we do not really need. +You can think what your own habit is, whether it's a new car, a vacation or just something like buying bottled water when the water that comes out of the tap is perfectly safe to drink. +Fortunately, more and more people are understanding this idea, and the result is a growing movement: effective altruism. +It's important because it combines both the heart and the head. +The heart, of course, you felt. +You felt the empathy for that child. +So I think reason is not just some neutral tool to help you get whatever you want. +It does help us to put perspective on our situation. +And I think that's why many of the most significant people in effective altruism have been people who have had backgrounds in philosophy or economics or math. +And that might seem surprising, because a lot of people think, "Philosophy is remote from the real world; economics, we're told, just makes us more selfish, and we know that math is for nerds." +But in fact it does make a difference, and in fact there's one particular nerd who has been a particularly effective altruist because he got this. +This is the website of the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, and if you look at the words on the top right-hand side, it says, "All lives have equal value." +That's the understanding, the rational understanding of our situation in the world that has led to these people being the most effective altruists in history, Bill and Melinda Gates and Warren Buffett. +No one, not Andrew Carnegie, not John D. Rockefeller, has ever given as much to charity as each one of these three, and they have used their intelligence to make sure that it is highly effective. +According to one estimate, the Gates Foundation has already saved 5.8 million lives and many millions more, people, getting diseases that would have made them very sick, even if eventually they survived. +Over the coming years, undoubtably the Gates Foundation is going to give a lot more, is going to save a lot more lives. +Well, you might say, that's fine if you're a billionaire, you can have that kind of impact. +But if I'm not, what can I do? +So I'm going to look at four questions that people ask that maybe stand in the way of them giving. +They worry how much of a difference they can make. +But you don't have to be a billionaire. +This is Toby Ord. He's a research fellow in philosophy at the University of Oxford. +He became an effective altruist when he calculated that with the money that he was likely to earn throughout his career, an academic career, he could give enough to cure 80,000 people of blindness in developing countries and still have enough left for a perfectly adequate standard of living. +So Toby founded an organization called Giving What We Can to spread this information, to unite people who want to share some of their income, and to ask people to pledge to give 10 percent of what they earn over their lifetime to fighting global poverty. +Toby himself does better than that. +He's pledged to live on 18,000 pounds a year -- that's less than 30,000 dollars -- and to give the rest to those organizations. +And yes, Toby is married and he does have a mortgage. +And then, as they got to the age at which many people start to think of retirement, they returned to them, and they've decided to cut back on their spending, to live modestly, and to give both money and time to helping to fight global poverty. +Now, mentioning time might lead you to think, "Well, should I abandon my career and put all of my time into saving some of these 19,000 lives that are lost every day?" +One person who's thought quite a bit about this issue of how you can have a career that will have the biggest impact for good in the world is Will Crouch. +He's a graduate student in philosophy, and he's set up a website called 80,000 Hours, the number of hours he estimates most people spend on their career, to advise people on how to have the best, most effective career. +But you might be surprised to know that one of the careers that he encourages people to consider, if they have the right abilities and character, is to go into banking or finance. +So you can quintuple the impact by leading that kind of career. +Here's one young man who's taken this advice. +His name is Matt Weiger. +He was a student at Princeton in philosophy and math, actually won the prize for the best undergraduate philosophy thesis last year when he graduated. +But he's gone into finance in New York. +He's already earning enough so that he's giving a six-figure sum to effective charities and still leaving himself with enough to live on. +And the organization draws together people of different generations, like Holly Morgan, who's an undergraduate, who's pledged to give 10 percent of the little amount that she has, and on the right, Ada Wan, who has worked directly for the poor, but has now gone to Yale to do an MBA to have more to give. +Many people will think, though, that charities aren't really all that effective. +So let's talk about effectiveness. +Toby Ord is very concerned about this, and he's calculated that some charities are hundreds or even thousands of times more effective than others, so it's very important to find the effective ones. +Take, for example, providing a guide dog for a blind person. +That's a good thing to do, right? +Well, right, it is a good thing to do, but you have to think what else you could do with the resources. +It costs about 40,000 dollars to train a guide dog and train the recipient so that the guide dog can be an effective help to a blind person. +It costs somewhere between 20 and 50 dollars to cure a blind person in a developing country if they have trachoma. +So you do the sums, and you get something like that. +You could provide one guide dog for one blind American, or you could cure between 400 and 2,000 people of blindness. +I think it's clear what's the better thing to do. +But if you want to look for effective charities, this is a good website to go to. +GiveWell exists to really assess the impact of charities, not just whether they're well-run, and it's screened hundreds of charities and currently is recommending only three, of which the Against Malaria Foundation is number one. +So it's very tough. If you want to look for other recommendations, thelifeyoucansave.com and Giving What We Can both have a somewhat broader list, but you can find effective organizations, and not just in the area of saving lives from the poor. +I'm pleased to say that there is now also a website looking at effective animal organizations. +That's another cause that I've been concerned about all my life, the immense amount of suffering that humans inflict on literally tens of billions of animals every year. +So if you want to look for effective organizations to reduce that suffering, you can go to Effective Animal Activism. +And some effective altruists think it's very important to make sure that our species survives at all. +So they're looking at ways to reduce the risk of extinction. +Here's one risk of extinction that we all became aware of recently, when an asteroid passed close to our planet. +Possibly research could help us not only to predict the path of asteroids that might collide with us, but actually to deflect them. +So some people think that would be a good thing to give to. +There's many possibilities. +My final question is, some people will think it's a burden to give. +I don't really believe it is. +I've enjoyed giving all of my life since I was a graduate student. +It's been something fulfilling to me. +Charlie Bresler said to me that he's not an altruist. +He thinks that the life he's saving is his own. +And Holly Morgan told me that she used to battle depression until she got involved with effective altruism, and now is one of the happiest people she knows. +I think one of the reasons for this is that being an effective altruist helps to overcome what I call the Sisyphus problem. +Here's Sisyphus as portrayed by Titian, condemned by the gods to push a huge boulder up to the top of the hill. +Just as he gets there, the effort becomes too much, the boulder escapes, rolls all the way down the hill, he has to trudge back down to push it up again, and the same thing happens again and again for all eternity. +Does that remind you of a consumer lifestyle, where you work hard to get money, you spend that money on consumer goods which you hope you'll enjoy using? +But then the money's gone, you have to work hard to get more, spend more, and to maintain the same level of happiness, it's kind of a hedonic treadmill. +You never get off, and you never really feel satisfied. +Becoming an effective altruist gives you that meaning and fulfillment. +It enables you to have a solid basis for self-esteem on which you can feel your life was really worth living. +I'm going to conclude by telling you about an email that I received while I was writing this talk just a month or so ago. +It's from a man named Chris Croy, who I'd never heard of. +This is a picture of him showing him recovering from surgery. +Why was he recovering from surgery? +The email began, "Last Tuesday, I anonymously donated my right kidney to a stranger. +That started a kidney chain which enabled four people to receive kidneys." +There's about 100 people each year in the U.S. +and more in other countries who do that. +I was pleased to read it. Chris went on to say that he'd been influenced by my writings in what he did. +Well, I have to admit, I'm also somewhat embarrassed by that, because I still have two kidneys. +But Chris went on to say that he didn't think that what he'd done was all that amazing, because he calculated that the number of life-years that he had added to people, the extension of life, was about the same that you could achieve if you gave 5,000 dollars to the Against Malaria Foundation. +And that did make me feel a little bit better, because I have given more than 5,000 dollars to the Against Malaria Foundation and to various other effective charities. +So if you're feeling bad because you still have two kidneys as well, there's a way for you to get off the hook. +Thank you. +So, when I was in art school, I developed a shake in my hand, and this was the straightest line I could draw. +Now in hindsight, it was actually good for some things, like mixing a can of paint or shaking a Polaroid, but at the time this was really doomsday. +This was the destruction of my dream of becoming an artist. +The shake developed out of, really, a single-minded pursuit of pointillism, just years of making tiny, tiny dots. +And eventually these dots went from being perfectly round to looking more like tadpoles, because of the shake. +So to compensate, I'd hold the pen tighter, and this progressively made the shake worse, so I'd hold the pen tighter still. +And this became a vicious cycle that ended up causing so much pain and joint issues, I had trouble holding anything. +And after spending all my life wanting to do art, I left art school, and then I left art completely. +But after a few years, I just couldn't stay away from art, and I decided to go to a neurologist about the shake and discovered I had permanent nerve damage. +And he actually took one look at my squiggly line, and said, "Well, why don't you just embrace the shake?" +So I did. I went home, I grabbed a pencil, and I just started letting my hand shake and shake. +I was making all these scribble pictures. +And even though it wasn't the kind of art that I was ultimately passionate about, it felt great. +And more importantly, once I embraced the shake, I realized I could still make art. +I just had to find a different approach to making the art that I wanted. +Now, I still enjoyed the fragmentation of pointillism, seeing these little tiny dots come together to make this unified whole. +So I began experimenting with other ways to fragment images where the shake wouldn't affect the work, like dipping my feet in paint and walking on a canvas, or, in a 3D structure consisting of two-by-fours, creating a 2D image by burning it with a blowtorch. +I discovered that, if I worked on a larger scale and with bigger materials, my hand really wouldn't hurt, and after having gone from a single approach to art, I ended up having an approach to creativity that completely changed my artistic horizons. +This was the first time I'd encountered this idea that embracing a limitation could actually drive creativity. +At the time, I was finishing up school, and I was so excited to get a real job and finally afford new art supplies. +I had this horrible little set of tools, and I felt like I could do so much more with the supplies I thought an artist was supposed to have. +I actually didn't even have a regular pair of scissors. +I was using these metal shears until I stole a pair from the office that I worked at. +So I got out of school, I got a job, I got a paycheck, I got myself to the art store, and I just went nuts buying supplies. +And then when I got home, I sat down and I set myself to task to really try to create something just completely outside of the box. +But I sat there for hours, and nothing came to mind. +The same thing the next day, and then the next, quickly slipping into a creative slump. +And I was in a dark place for a long time, unable to create. +And it didn't make any sense, because I was finally able to support my art, and yet I was creatively blank. +But as I searched around in the darkness, I realized I was actually paralyzed by all of the choices that I never had before. +And it was then that I thought back to my jittery hands. +Embrace the shake. +And I realized, if I ever wanted my creativity back, I had to quit trying so hard to think outside of the box and get back into it. +I wondered, could you become more creative, then, by looking for limitations? +What if I could only create with a dollar's worth of supplies? +At this point, I was spending a lot of my evenings in -- well, I guess I still spend a lot of my evenings in Starbucks but I know you can ask for an extra cup if you want one, so I decided to ask for 50. +Surprisingly, they just handed them right over, and then with some pencils I already had, I made this project for only 80 cents. +It really became a moment of clarification for me that we need to first be limited in order to become limitless. +I took this approach of thinking inside the box to my canvas, and wondered what if, instead of painting on a canvas, I could only paint on my chest? +So I painted 30 images, one layer at a time, one on top of another, with each picture representing an influence in my life. +Or what if, instead of painting with a brush, I could only paint with karate chops? So I'd dip my hands in paint, and I just attacked the canvas, and I actually hit so hard that I bruised a joint in my pinkie and it was stuck straight for a couple of weeks. +Or, what if instead of relying on myself, I had to rely on other people to create the content for the art? +So for six days, I lived in front of a webcam. +I slept on the floor and I ate takeout, and I asked people to call me and share a story with me about a life-changing moment. +Their stories became the art as I wrote them onto the revolving canvas. +Or what if instead of making art to display, I had to destroy it? +This seemed like the ultimate limitation, being an artist without art. +This destruction idea turned into a yearlong project that I called Goodbye Art, where each and every piece of art had to be destroyed after its creation. +In the beginning of Goodbye Art, I focused on forced destruction, like this image of Jimi Hendrix, made with over 7,000 matches. +Then I opened it up to creating art that was destroyed naturally. +I looked for temporary materials, like spitting out food -- sidewalk chalk and even frozen wine. +The last iteration of destruction was to try to produce something that didn't actually exist in the first place. +So I organized candles on a table, I lit them, and then blew them out, then repeated this process over and over with the same set of candles, then assembled the videos into the larger image. +So the end image was never visible as a physical whole. +It was destroyed before it ever existed. +In the course of this Goodbye Art series, I created 23 different pieces with nothing left to physically display. +What I thought would be the ultimate limitation actually turned out to be the ultimate liberation, as each time I created, the destruction brought me back to a neutral place where I felt refreshed and ready to start the next project. +It did not happen overnight. +There were times when my projects failed to get off the ground, or, even worse, after spending tons of time on them the end image was kind of embarrassing. +But having committed to the process, I continued on, and something really surprising came out of this. +As I destroyed each project, I was learning to let go, let go of outcomes, let go of failures, and let go of imperfections. +And in return, I found a process of creating art that's perpetual and unencumbered by results. +I found myself in a state of constant creation, thinking only of what's next and coming up with more ideas than ever. +When I think back to my three years away from art, away from my dream, just going through the motions, instead of trying to find a different way to continue that dream, I just quit, I gave up. +And what if I didn't embrace the shake? +Because embracing the shake for me wasn't just about art and having art skills. +It turned out to be about life, and having life skills. +Because ultimately, most of what we do takes place here, inside the box, with limited resources. +Learning to be creative within the confines of our limitations is the best hope we have to transform ourselves and, collectively, transform our world. +Looking at limitations as a source of creativity changed the course of my life. +Now, when I run into a barrier or I find myself creatively stumped, I sometimes still struggle, but I continue to show up for the process and try to remind myself of the possibilities, like using hundreds of real, live worms to make an image, using a pushpin to tattoo a banana, or painting a picture with hamburger grease. +One of my most recent endeavors is to try to translate the habits of creativity that I've learned into something others can replicate. +Limitations may be the most unlikely of places to harness creativity, but perhaps one of the best ways to get ourselves out of ruts, rethink categories and challenge accepted norms. +And instead of telling each other to seize the day, maybe we can remind ourselves every day to seize the limitation. +Thank you. +When we use the word "architect" or "designer," what we usually mean is a professional, someone who gets paid, and we tend to assume that it's those professionals who are going to be the ones to help us solve the really big, systemic design challenges that we face like climate change, urbanization and social inequality. +That's our kind of working presumption. +And I think it's wrong, actually. +In 2008, I was just about to graduate from architecture school after several years, and go out and get a job, and this happened. +The economy ran out of jobs. +And a couple of things struck me about this. +One, don't listen to career advisers. +And two, actually this is a fascinating paradox for architecture, which is that, as a society, we've never needed design thinking more, and yet architecture was literally becoming unemployed. +It strikes me that we talk very deeply about design, but actually there's an economics behind architecture that we don't talk about, and I think we need to. +And a good place to start is your own paycheck. +So, as a bottom-of-the-rung architecture graduate, I might expect to earn about 24,000 pounds. +That's about 36,000, 37,000 dollars. +Now in terms of the whole world's population, that already puts me in the top 1.95 richest people, which raises the question of, who is it I'm working for? +The uncomfortable fact is that actually almost everything that we call architecture today is actually the business of designing for about the richest one percent of the world's population, and it always has been. +And all of those booms, in their own various ways, have now kicked the bucket, and we're back in this situation where the smartest designers and architects in the world are only really able to work for one percent of the population. +Now it's not just that that's bad for democracy, though I think it probably is, it's actually not a very clever business strategy, actually. +I think the challenge facing the next generation of architects is, how are we going to turn our client from the one percent to the 100 percent? +And I want to offer three slightly counterintuitive ideas for how it might be done. +The first is, I think we need to question this idea that architecture is about making buildings. +Actually, a building is about the most expensive solution you can think of to almost any given problem. +And fundamentally, design should be much, much more interested in solving problems and creating new conditions. +So here's a story. +The office was working with a school, and they had an old Victorian school building. +And they said to the architects, "Look, our corridors are an absolute nightmare. +They're far too small. They get congested between classes. +There's bullying. We can't control them. +So what we want you to do is re-plan our entire building, and we know it's going to cost several million pounds, but we're reconciled to the fact." +And the team thought about this, and they went away, and they said, "Actually, don't do that. +Instead, get rid of the school bell. +And instead of having one school bell that goes off once, have several smaller school bells that go off in different places and different times, distribute the traffic through the corridors." +It solves the same problem, but instead of spending several million pounds, you spend several hundred pounds. +Now, it looks like you're doing yourself out of a job, but you're not. You're actually making yourself more useful. +Architects are actually really, really good at this kind of resourceful, strategic thinking. +And the problem is that, like a lot of design professions, we got fixated on the idea of providing a particular kind of consumer product, and I don't think that needs to be the case anymore. +The second idea worth questioning is this 20th-century thing that mass architecture is about big -- big buildings and big finance. +Actually, we've got ourselves locked into this Industrial Era mindset which says that the only people who can make cities are large organizations or corporations who build on our behalf, procuring whole neighborhoods in single, monolithic projects, and of course, form follows finance. +So what you end up with are single, monolithic neighborhoods based on this kind of one-size-fits-all model. +And a lot of people can't even afford them. +But what if, actually, it's possible now for cities to be made not just by the few with a lot but also by the many with a bit? +And when they do, they bring with them a completely different set of values about the place that they want to live. +And it raises really interesting questions about, how will we plan cities? How will finance development? +How will we sell design services? +What would it mean for democratic societies to offer their citizens a right to build? +And in a way it should be kind of obvious, right, that in the 21st century, maybe cities can be developed by citizens. +And thirdly, we need to remember that, from a strictly economic point of view, design shares a category with sex and care of the elderly -- mostly it's done by amateurs. +And that's a good thing. +Most of the work takes place outside of the monetary economy in what's called the social economy or the core economy, which is people doing it for themselves. +And the problem is that, up until now, it was the monetary economy which had all the infrastructure and all the tools. +So the challenge we face is, how are we going to build the tools, the infrastructure and the institutions for architecture's social economy? +And that began with open-source software. +And over the last few years, it's been moving into the physical world with open-source hardware, which are freely shared blueprints that anyone can download and make for themselves. +And that's where 3D printing gets really, really interesting. +Right? When suddenly you had a 3D printer that was open-source, the parts for which could be made on another 3D printer. +Or the same idea here, which is for a CNC machine, which is like a large printer that can cut sheets of plywood. +What these technologies are doing is radically lowering the thresholds of time and cost and skill. +They're challenging the idea that if you want something to be affordable it's got to be one-size-fits-all. +And they're distributing massively really complex manufacturing capabilities. +We're moving into this future where the factory is everywhere, and increasingly that means that the design team is everyone. +That really is an industrial revolution. +And when we think that the major ideological conflicts that we inherited were all based around this question of who should control the means of production, and these technologies are coming back with a solution: actually, maybe no one. All of us. +And we were fascinated by what that might mean for architecture. +So about a year and a half ago, we started working on a project called WikiHouse, and WikiHouse is an open-source construction system. +And the parts are all numbered, and basically what you end up with is a really big IKEA kit. +And it goes together without any bolts. +It uses wedge and peg connections. +And even the mallets to make it can be provided on the cutting sheets as well. +And a team of about two or three people, working together, can build this. +They don't need any traditional construction skills. +They don't need a huge array of power tools or anything like that, and they can build a small house of about this size in about a day. +And what you end up with is just the basic chassis of a house onto which you can then apply systems like windows and cladding and insulation and services based on what's cheap and what's available. +Of course, the house is never finished. +We're shifting our heads here, so the house is not a finished product. +With the CNC machine, you can make new parts for it over its life or even use it to make the house next door. +So we can begin to see the seed of a completely open-source, citizen-led urban development model, potentially. +And we and others have built a few prototypes around the world now, and some really interesting lessons here. +One of them is that it's always incredibly sociable. +People get confused between construction work and having fun. +But the principles of openness go right down into the really mundane, physical details. +Like, never designing a piece that can't be lifted up. +Or, when you're designing a piece, make sure you either can't put it in the wrong way round, or, if you do, it doesn't matter, because it's symmetrical. +Probably the principal which runs deepest with us is the principal set out by Linus Torvalds, the open-source pioneer, which was that idea of, "Be lazy like a fox." +Don't reinvent the wheel every time. +Take what already works, and adapt it for your own needs. +Contrary to almost everything that you might get taught at an architecture school, copying is good. +Which is appropriate, because actually, this approach is not innovative. +It's actually how we built buildings for hundreds of years before the Industrial Revolution in these sorts of community barn-raisings. +The only difference between traditional vernacular architecture and open-source architecture might be a web connection, but it's a really, really big difference. +We shared the whole of WikiHouse under a Creative Commons license, and now what's just beginning to happen is that groups around the world are beginning to take it and use it and hack it and tinker with it, and it's amazing. +There's a cool group over in Christchurch in New Zealand looking at post-earthquake development housing, and thanks to the TED city Prize, we're working with an awesome group in one of Rio's favelas to set up a kind of community factory and micro-university. +These are very, very small beginnings, and actually there's more people in the last week who have got in touch and they're not even on this map. +I hope next time you see it, you won't even be able to see the map. +We're aware that WikiHouse is a very, very small answer, but it's a small answer to a really, really big question, which is that globally, right now, the fastest-growing cities are not skyscraper cities. +They're self-made cities in one form or another. +If we're talking about the 21st-century city, these are the guys who are going to be making it. +You know, like it or not, welcome to the world's biggest design team. +So if we're serious about problems like climate change, urbanization and health, actually, our existing development models aren't going to do it. +As I think Robert Neuwirth said, there isn't a bank or a corporation or a government or an NGO who's going to be able to do it if we treat citizens only as consumers. +A kind of Wikipedia for stuff? +And once something's in the commons, it will always be there. +How much would that change the rules? +And I think the technology's on our side. +If design's great project in the 20th century was the democratization of consumption -- that was Henry Ford, Levittown, Coca-Cola, IKEA I think design's great project in the 21st century is the democratization of production. +And when it comes to architecture in cities, that really matters. +Thank you very much. +Thank you. +Hi, everybody. +Ban-gap-seum-ni-da. +I'd like to share with you a little bit of me playing my life. +I might look successful and happy being in front of you today, but I once suffered from severe depression and was in total despair. +The violin, which meant everything to me, became a grave burden on me. +Although many people tried to comfort and encourage me, their words sounded like meaningless noise. +When I was just about to give everything up after years of suffering, I started to rediscover the true power of music. +In the midst of hardship, it was the music that gave me -- that restored my soul. +The comfort the music gave me was just indescribable, and it was a real eye-opening experience for me too, and it totally changed my perspective on life and set me free from the pressure of becoming a successful violinist. +Do you feel like you are all alone? +I hope that this piece will touch and heal your heart, as it did for me. +Thank you. +Now, I use my music to reach people's hearts and have found there are no boundaries. +My audience is anyone who is here to listen, even those who are not familiar with classical music. +I not only play at the prestigious classical concert halls like Carnegie Hall and Kennedy Center, but also hospitals, churches, prisons, and restricted facilities for leprosy patients, just to mention a few. +Now, with my last piece, I'd like to show you that classical music can be so much fun, exciting, and that it can rock you. +Let me introduce you to my brand new project, "Baroque in Rock," which became a golden disc most recently. +It's such an honor for me. +I think, while I'm enjoying my life as a happy musician, I'm earning a lot more recognition than I've ever imagined. +But it's now your turn. +Changing your perspectives will not only transform you but also the whole world. +Just play your life with all you have, and share it with the world. +I really look forward to witnessing a transforming world by you, TEDsters. +Play your life, and stay tuned. +When I was a young boy, I used to gaze through the microscope of my father at the insects in amber that he kept in the house. +And they were remarkably well preserved, morphologically just phenomenal. +And we used to imagine that someday, they would actually come to life and they would crawl out of the resin, and, if they could, they would fly away. +If you had asked me 10 years ago whether or not we would ever be able to sequence the genome of extinct animals, I would have told you, it's unlikely. +If you had asked whether or not we would actually be able to revive an extinct species, I would have said, pipe dream. +Woollies are a particularly interesting, quintessential image of the Ice Age. +They were large. They were hairy. +They had large tusks, and we seem to have a very deep connection with them, like we do with elephants. +Maybe it's because elephants share many things in common with us. +They bury their dead. They educate the next of kin. +They have social knits that are very close. +Or maybe it's actually because we're bound by deep time, because elephants, like us, share their origins in Africa some seven million years ago, and as habitats changed and environments changed, we actually, like the elephants, migrated out into Europe and Asia. +So the first large mammoth that appears on the scene is meridionalis, which was standing four meters tall weighing about 10 tons, and was a woodland-adapted species and spread from Western Europe clear across Central Asia, across the Bering land bridge and into parts of North America. +And then, again, as climate changed as it always does, and new habitats opened up, we had the arrival of a steppe-adapted species called trogontherii in Central Asia pushing meridionalis out into Western Europe. +And the open grassland savannas of North America opened up, leading to the Columbian mammoth, a large, hairless species in North America. +So there's a highly plastic animal dealing with great transitions in temperature and environment, and doing very, very well. +And there they survive on the mainland until about 10,000 years ago, and actually, surprisingly, on the small islands off of Siberia and Alaska until about 3,000 years ago. +So Egyptians are building pyramids and woollies are still living on islands. +And then they disappear. +Fortunately, we find millions of their remains strewn across the permafrost buried deep in Siberia and Alaska, and we can actually go up there and actually take them out. +And the preservation is, again, like those insects in [amber], phenomenal. +So you have teeth, bones with blood which look like blood, you have hair, and you have intact carcasses or heads which still have brains in them. +And it's probably surprising to many of you sitting in this room that it's not the time that matters, it's not the length of preservation, it's the consistency of the temperature of that preservation that matters most. +So if we were to go deep now within the bones and the teeth that actually survived the fossilization process, the DNA which was once intact, tightly wrapped around histone proteins, is now under attack by the bacteria that lived symbiotically with the mammoth for years during its lifetime. +So those bacteria, along with the environmental bacteria, free water and oxygen, actually break apart the DNA into smaller and smaller and smaller DNA fragments, until all you have are fragments that range from 10 base pairs to, in the best case scenarios, a few hundred base pairs in length. +So most fossils out there in the fossil record are actually completely devoid of all organic signatures. +But a few of them actually have DNA fragments that survive for thousands, even a few millions of years in time. +Not surprising then again that a mammoth preserved in the permafrost will have something on the order of 50 percent of its DNA being mammoth, whereas something like the Columbian mammoth, living in a temperature and buried in a temperate environment over its laying-in will only have 3 to 10 percent endogenous. +But we've come up with very clever ways that we can actually discriminate, capture and discriminate, the mammoth from the non-mammoth DNA, and with the advances in high-throughput sequencing, we can actually pull out and bioinformatically re-jig all these small mammoth fragments and place them onto a backbone of an Asian or African elephant chromosome. +And so by doing that, we can actually get all the little points that discriminate between a mammoth and an Asian elephant, and what do we know, then, about a mammoth? +Well, the mammoth genome is almost at full completion, and we know that it's actually really big. It's mammoth. +So a hominid genome is about three billion base pairs, but an elephant and mammoth genome is about two billion base pairs larger, and most of that is composed of small, repetitive DNAs that make it very difficult to actually re-jig the entire structure of the genome. +It looks like they were interbreeding. +And that this is not an uncommon feature in Proboscideans, because it turns out that large savanna male elephants will outcompete the smaller forest elephants for their females. +So large, hairless Columbians outcompeting the smaller male woollies. +It reminds me a bit of high school, unfortunately. +So this is not trivial, given the idea that we want to revive extinct species, because it turns out that an African and an Asian elephant can actually interbreed and have live young, and this has actually occurred by accident in a zoo in Chester, U.K., in 1978. +Now, this wouldn't be an exact replica, because the short DNA fragments that I told you about will prevent us from building the exact structure, but it would make something that looked and felt very much like a woolly mammoth did. +Now, when I bring up this with my friends, we often talk about, well, where would you put it? +Where are you going to house a mammoth? +There's no climates or habitats suitable. +Well, that's not actually the case. +It turns out that there are swaths of habitat in the north of Siberia and Yukon that actually could house a mammoth. +Remember, this was a highly plastic animal that lived over tremendous climate variation. +Thank you very much. +Ryan Phelan: Don't go away. +You've left us with a question. +I'm sure everyone is asking this. When you say, "Should we?" +it feels like you're reticent there, and yet you've given us a vision of it being so possible. +What's your reticence? +Hendrik Poinar: I don't think it's reticence. +I think it's just that we have to think very deeply about the implications, ramifications of our actions, and so as long as we have good, deep discussion like we're having now, I think we can come to a very good solution as to why to do it. +But I just want to make sure that we spend time thinking about why we're doing it first. +RP: Perfect. Perfect answer. Thank you very much, Hendrik. +HP: Thank you. +I'm almost like a crazy evangelical. +I've always known that the age of design is upon us, almost like a rapture. +If the day is sunny, I think, "Oh, the gods have had a good design day." +Or, I go to a show and I see a beautiful piece by an artist, particularly beautiful, I say he's so good because he clearly looked to design to understand what he needed to do. +So I really do believe that design is the highest form of creative expression. +That's why I'm talking to you today about the age of design, and the age of design is the age in which design is still cute furniture, is still posters, is still fast cars, what you see at MoMA today. +Or good design is digital fonts that we use all the time and that become part of our identity. +I want people to understand that design is so much more than cute chairs, that it is first and foremost everything that is around us in our life. +And it's interesting how so much of what we're talking about tonight is not simply design but interaction design. +These were some of the first acquisitions that really introduced the idea of interaction design to the public. +But more recently, I've been trying really to go even deeper into interaction design with examples that are emotionally really suggestive and that really explain interaction design at a level that is almost undeniable. +The Wind Map, by Wattenberg and Fernanda Vigas, I don't know if you've ever seen it -- it's really fantastic. +It looks at the territory of the United States as if it were a wheat field that is procured by the winds and that is really giving you a pictorial image of what's going on with the winds in the United States. +But also, more recently, we started acquiring video games, and that's where all hell broke loose in a really interesting way. There are still people that believe that there's a high and there's a low. +And that's really what I find so intriguing about the reactions that we've had to the anointment of video games in the MoMA collection. +We've -- No, first of all, New York Magazine always gets it. +I love them. So we are in the right quadrant. +We are in the Highbrow -- that's daring, that's courageous -- and Brilliant, which is great. +Timidly, we've been higher on the diagonal in other situations, but it's okay. It's good. It's good. It's good. But here comes the art critic. Oh, that was fantastic. +So the first was Jonathan Jones from The Guardian. +"Sorry, MoMA, video games are not art." +Did I ever say they were art? I was talking about interaction design. Excuse me. +"Exhibiting Pac-Man and Tetris alongside Picasso and Van Gogh" -- They're two floors away. "will mean game over for any real understanding of art." +I'm bringing in the end of the world. You know? +We were talking about the rapture? It's coming. +And Jonathan Jones is making it happen. +So the same Guardian rebuts, "Are video games art: the debate that shouldn't be. +Last week, Guardian art critic blah blah suggested that games cannot qualify as art. But is he right? +And does it matter?" Thank you. Does it matter? +You know, it's like once again there's this whole problem of design being often misunderstood for art, or the idea that is so diffuse that designers want to aspire to, would like to be called, artists. +No. Designers aspire to be really great designers. +Thank you very much. And that's more than enough. +So my knight in shining armor, John Maeda, without any prompt, came out with this big declaration on why video games belong in the MoMA. +And that was fantastic. And I thought that was it. +But then there was another wonderfully pretentious article that came out in The New Republic, so pretentious, by Liel Leibovitz, and it said, "MoMA has mistaken video games for art." Again. +"The museum is putting Pac-Man alongside Picasso." Again. +"That misses the point." +Excuse me. You're missing the point. +And here, look, the above question is put bluntly: "Are video games art? No. Video games aren't art because they are quite thoroughly something else: code." +Oh, so Picasso is not art because it's oil paint. Right? +So it's so fantastic to see how these feathers that were ruffled, and these reactions, were so vehement. +And you know what? +The International Cat Video Film Festival didn't have that much of a reaction. I think this was truly fantastic. +We were talking about dancing ponies, but I was really jealous of the Walker Arts Center for putting up this festival, because it's very, very wonderful. +And there's this Flaubert quote that I love: "I have always tried to live in an ivory tower, but a tide of shit is beating at its walls, threatening to undermine it." +I consider myself the tide of shit. +You know, we have to go through that. +Even in the 1930s, my colleagues that were trying to put together an abstract art show had all of these works stopped by the customs officers that decided they were not art. +So it's happened before, and it will happen in the future, but right now I can tell you that I am so, so proud to be able to call Pac-Man part of the MoMA collection. +And the same with, for instance, Tetris, original version, the Soviet one. +And you know, the amount of work -- yeah, Alexey Pajitnov was working for the Soviet government and that's how he developed Tetris, and Alexey himself reconstructed the whole game and even gave us a simulation of the cathode ray tube that makes it look slightly bombed. +And it's fantastic. +So behind these acquisitions is an enormous amount of work, because we're still the Museum of Modern Art, so even when we tackle popular culture, we tackle it as a form of interaction design and as something that has to go into the collection at MoMA, therefore, has to be researched. +So to get to choosing Eric Chahi's wonderful Another World, amongst others, we put together a panel of experts, and we worked on this acquisition, and it's mostly myself and Kate Carmody and Paul Galloway. +We worked on it for a year and a half. +So many people helped us designers of games, you might know Jamin Warren and his collaborators at Kill Screen magazine, and you know, Kevin Slavin. You name it. +We bugged everybody, because we knew that we were ignorant. +We were not real gamers enough, so we had to really talk to them. +And so we decided, of course, to have Sim City 2000, not the other Sim City, that one in particular, so the criteria that we developed along the way were really strong, and were not only criteria of selection. +They were also criteria of exhibition and of preservation. +That's what makes this acquisition more than a little game or a little joke. It's truly a way to think of how to preserve and show artifacts that will more and more become part of our lives in the future. +We live today, as you know very well, not in the digital, not in the physical, but in the kind of minestrone that our mind makes of the two. +And that's really where interaction lies, and that's the importance of interaction. +And in order to explain interaction, we need to really bring people in and make them realize how interaction is part of their lives. +So when I talk about it, I don't talk only about video games, which are in a way the purest form of interaction, unadulterated by any kind of function or finality. +I also talk about the MetroCard vending machine, which I consider a masterpiece of interaction. +I mean, that interface is beautiful. +It looks like a burly MTA guy coming out of the tunnel. +You know, with your mitt you can actually paw the MetroCard, and I talk about how bad ATM machines usually are. +So I let people understand that it's up to them to know how to judge interaction so as to know when it's good or when it's bad. +So when I show The Sims, I try to make people really feel what it meant to have an interaction with The Sims, not only the fun but also the responsibility that came with the Tamagotchi. +You know, video games can be truly deep even when they're completely mindless. +I'm sure that all of you know Katamari Damacy. +It's about rolling a ball and picking up as many objects as you can in a finite amount of time and hopefully you'll be able to make it into a planet. +I've never made it into a planet, but that's it. +Or, you know, Vib-Ribbon was not distributed here in the United States. +It was a PlayStation game, but mostly for Japan. +And it was one of the first video games in which you could choose your own music. +So you would put into the PlayStation, you would put your own CD, and then the game would change alongside your music. So really fantastic. +Not to mention Eve Online. +And I was just recently at the Eve Online fan festival in Reykjavk that was quite amazing. +I mean, we're talking about an experience that of course can seem weird to many, but that is very educational. +Of course, there are games that are even more educational. +Dwarf Fortress is like the holy grail of this kind of massive multiplayer online game, and in fact the two Adams brothers were in Reykjavk, and they were greeted by a standing ovation by all the Eve Online fans. +It was amazing to see. And it's a beautiful game. +So you start seeing here that the aesthetics that are so important to a museum collection like MoMA's are kept alive also by the selection of these games. +And you know, Valve -- you know, Portal -- is an example of a video game in which you have a certain type of violence which also leads me to talk about one of the biggest issues that we had to discuss when we acquired the video games, what to do with violence. +Right? We had to make decisions. +At MoMA, interestingly, there's a lot of violence depicted in the art part of the collection, but when I came to MoMA 19 years ago, and as an Italian, I said, "You know what, we need a Beretta." +And I was told, "No. No guns in the design collection." +And I was like, "Why?" +Interestingly, I learned that it's considered that in design and in the design collection, what you see is what you get. +So when you see a gun, it's an instrument for killing in the design collection. +If it's in the art collection, it might be a critique of the killing instrument. +So it's very interesting. +But we are acquiring our critical dimension also in design, so maybe one day we'll be able to acquire also the guns. +But here, in this particular case, we decided, you know, with Kate and Paul, that we would have no gratuitous violence. +So we have Portal because you shoot walls in order to create new spaces. +We have Street Fighter II, because martial arts are good. +But we don't have GTA because, maybe it's my own reflection, I've never been able to do anything but crashing cars and shooting prostitutes and pimps. +So it was not very constructive. So, I'm making fun of it, but we discussed this for so many days. You have no idea. +And to this day, I am ambivalent, but when you have instead games like Flow, there's no doubt. +It's like, it's about serenity and it's about sublime. +It's about experiencing what it means to be a sea creature. +Then we have a few also side-scrollers -- classical ones. +So it's quite a hefty collection. +And right now, we started with the first 14, but we have several that are coming up, and the reason why we haven't acquired them yet is because you don't acquire just the game. +You acquire the relationship with the company. +What we want, what we aspire to, is the code. +It's very hard to get, of course. +But that's what would enable us to preserve the video games for a really long time, and that's what museums do. +They also preserve artifacts for posterity. +In absence of the code, because, you know, video game companies are not very forthcoming in some cases, in absence of that, we acquire the relationship with the company. +We're going to stay with them forever. +They're not going to get rid of us. +And one day, we'll get that code. But I want to explain to you the criteria that we chose for interaction design. Aesthetics are really important. +And I'm showing you Core War here, which is an early game that takes advantage aesthetically of the limitations of the processor. +So the kind of interferences that you see here that look like beautiful barriers in the game are actually a consequence of the processor's limitedness, which is fantastic. So aesthetics is always important. +And so is space, the spatial aspect of games. +You know, I feel that the best video games are the ones that have really savvy architects that are behind them, and if they're not architects, bona fide trained in architecture, they have that feeling. +But the spatial evolution in video games is extremely important. +Time. The way we experience time in video games, as in other forms of interaction design, is really quite amazing. +It can be real time or it can be the time within the game, as is in Animal Crossing, where seasons follow each other at their own pace. +So time, space, aesthetics, and then, most important, behavior. +The real core issue of interaction design is behavior. +Designers that deal with interaction design behaviors that go to influence the rest of our lives. +They're not just limited to our interaction with the screen. +In this case, I'm showing you Marble Madness, which is a beautiful game in which the controller is a big sphere that vibrates with you, so you have a sphere that's moving in this landscape, and the sphere, the controller itself, gives you a sense of the movement. +In a way, you can see how video games are the purest aspect of interaction design and are very useful to explain what interaction is. +We don't want to show the video games with the paraphernalia. No arcade nostalgia. +If anything, we want to show the code, and here you see Ben Fry's distellamap of Pac-Man, of the Pac-Man code. +So the way we acquired the games is very interesting and very unorthodox. You see them here displayed alongside other examples of design, furniture and other parts, but there's no paraphernalia, no nostalagia, only the screen and a little shelf with the controllers. +The controllers are, of course, part of the experience, so you cannot do away with it. +But interestingly, this choice was not condemned too vehemently by gamers. +He created this strange distance, this shock, that made people realize how gorgeous formally, and also important functionally, design pieces were. +I would like to do the same with video games. +By getting rid of the sticky carpets and the cigarette butts and everything else that we might remember from our childhood, I want people to understand that those are important forms of design. +And in a way, the video games, the fonts and everything else lead us to make people understand a wider meaning for design. +One of my dream acquisitions, which has been on hold for a few years but now will come back on the front burner, is a 747. +I would like to acquire it, but without owning it. +I don't want it to be at MoMA and possessed by MoMA. +I want it to keep flying. +So it's an acquisition where MoMA makes an arrangement with an airline and keeps the Boeing 747 flying. +And the same with the "@" sign that we acquired a few years ago. +It was the first example of an acquisition of something that is in the public domain. +And what I say to people, it's almost as if a butterfly were flying by and we captured the shadow on the wall, and just we're showing the shadow. +So in a way, we're showing a manifestation of something that is truly important and that is part of our identity but that nobody can have. +And it's too long to explain the acquisition, but if you want to go on the MoMA blog, there's a long post where I explain why it's such a great example of design. +Along the way, I've had to burn a few chairs. You know? +I've had to do away with a few concepts of design past. +But I see that people are coming along, that the audiences, paradoxically, are much more responsive and much more understanding of this expansion of design than some of my colleagues are. +Design is truly everywhere, and design is as important as anything, and I'm so glad that, because of its diversity and because of its centrality to our lives, many more people are coming to it as a profession, as a passion, and as, very simply, part of their own culture. +Thank you very much. +I'm going to share with you a paradigm-shifting perspective on the issues of gender violence -- sexual assault, domestic violence, relationship abuse, sexual harassment, sexual abuse of children. +That whole range of issues that I'll refer to in shorthand as "gender violence issues," they've been seen as women's issues that some good men help out with, but I have a problem with that frame and I don't accept it. +I don't see these as women's issues that some good men help out with. +In fact, I'm going to argue that these are men's issues, first and foremost. +Now obviously, they're also women's issues, so I appreciate that, but calling gender violence a women's issue is part of the problem, for a number of reasons. +The first is that it gives men an excuse not to pay attention. +Right? A lot of men hear the term "women's issues" and we tend to tune it out, and we think, "Hey, I'm a guy. That's for the girls," or "That's for the women." +And a lot of men literally don't get beyond the first sentence as a result. +It's almost like a chip in our brain is activated, and the neural pathways take our attention in a different direction when we hear the term "women's issues." +This is also true, by the way, of the word "gender," because a lot of people hear the word "gender" and they think it means "women." +So they think that gender issues is synonymous with women's issues. +There's some confusion about the term gender. +And actually, let me illustrate that confusion by way of analogy. +So let's talk for a moment about race. +In the U.S., when we hear the word "race," a lot of people think that means African-American, Latino, Asian-American, Native American, South Asian, Pacific Islander, on and on. +A lot of people, when they hear the word "sexual orientation" think it means gay, lesbian, bisexual. +And a lot of people, when they hear the word "gender," think it means women. In each case, the dominant group doesn't get paid attention to. +Right? As if white people don't have some sort of racial identity or belong to some racial category or construct, as if heterosexual people don't have a sexual orientation, as if men don't have a gender. +And this is amazing how this works in domestic and sexual violence, how men have been largely erased from so much of the conversation about a subject that is centrally about men. +And I'm going to illustrate what I'm talking about by using the old tech. +I'm old school on some fundamental regards. +I work with -- I make films -- and I work with high tech, but I'm still old school as an educator, and I want to share with you this exercise that illustrates on the sentence structure level how the way that we think, literally the way that we use language, conspires to keep our attention off of men. +This is about domestic violence in particular, but you can plug in other analogues. +This comes from the work of the feminist linguist Julia Penelope. +It starts with a very basic English sentence: "John beat Mary." +That's a good English sentence. +John is the subject. Beat is the verb. +Mary is the object. Good sentence. +Now we're going to move to the second sentence, which says the same thing in the passive voice. +"Mary was beaten by John." +And now a whole lot has happened in one sentence. +We've gone from "John beat Mary" to "Mary was beaten by John." +We've shifted our focus in one sentence from John to Mary, and you can see John is very close to the end of the sentence, well, close to dropping off the map of our psychic plain. +The third sentence, John is dropped, and we have, "Mary was beaten," and now it's all about Mary. +We're not even thinking about John. It's totally focused on Mary. +Over the past generation, the term we've used synonymous with "beaten" is "battered," so we have "Mary was battered." +And the final sentence in this sequence, flowing from the others, is, "Mary is a battered woman." +So now Mary's very identity -- Mary is a battered woman -- is what was done to her by John in the first instance. +But we've demonstrated that John has long ago left the conversation. +Now, those of us who work in the domestic and sexual violence field know that victim-blaming is pervasive in this realm, which is to say, blaming the person to whom something was done rather than the person who did it. +And we say things like, why do these women go out with these men? +Why are they attracted to these men? +Why do they keep going back? What was she wearing at that party? +What a stupid thing to do. Why was she drinking with that group of guys in that hotel room? +This is victim blaming, and there are numerous reasons for it, but one of them is that our whole cognitive structure is set up to blame victims. This is all unconscious. +Our whole cognitive structure is set up to ask questions about women and women's choices and what they're doing, thinking, and wearing. +And I'm not going to shout down people who ask questions about women, okay? It's a legitimate thing to ask. +But's let's be clear: Asking questions about Mary is not going to get us anywhere in terms of preventing violence. +We have to ask a different set of questions. +You can see where I'm going with this, right? +The questions are not about Mary. They're about John. +The questions include things like, why does John beat Mary? +Why is domestic violence still a big problem in the United States and all over the world? +What's going on? Why do so many men abuse, physically, emotionally, verbally, and other ways, the women and girls, and the men and boys, that they claim to love? What's going on with men? +Why do so many adult men sexually abuse little girls and little boys? +Why is that a common problem in our society and all over the world today? +Why do we hear over and over again about new scandals erupting in major institutions like the Catholic Church or the Penn State football program or the Boy Scouts of America, on and on and on? +And then local communities all over the country and all over the world, right? We hear about it all the time. +The sexual abuse of children. +What's going on with men? Why do so many men rape women in our society and around the world? +Why do so many men rape other men? +What is going on with men? +And then what is the role of the various institutions in our society that are helping to produce abusive men at pandemic rates? +Because this isn't about individual perpetrators. +That's a naive way to understanding what is a much deeper and more systematic social problem. +You know, the perpetrators aren't these monsters who crawl out of the swamp and come into town and do their nasty business and then retreat into the darkness. +That's a very naive notion, right? +Perpetrators are much more normal than that, and everyday than that. +So the question is, what are we doing here in our society and in the world? +What are the roles of various institutions in helping to produce abusive men? +What's the role of religious belief systems, the sports culture, the pornography culture, the family structure, economics, and how that intersects, and race and ethnicity and how that intersects? +How does all this work? +And then, once we start making those kinds of connections and asking those important and big questions, then we can talk about how we can be transformative, in other words, how can we do something differently? +How can we change the practices? +How can we change the socialization of boys and the definitions of manhood that lead to these current outcomes? +These are the kind of questions that we need to be asking and the kind of work that we need to be doing, but if we're endlessly focused on what women are doing and thinking in relationships or elsewhere, we're not going to get to that piece. +Now, I understand that a lot of women who have been trying to speaking out about these issues, today and yesterday and for years and years, often get shouted down for their efforts. +They get called nasty names like "male-basher" and "man-hater," and the disgusting and offensive "feminazi." Right? +And you know what all this is about? +It's called kill the messenger. +It's because the women who are standing up and speaking out for themselves and for other women as well as for men and boys, it's a statement to them to sit down and shut up, keep the current system in place, because we don't like it when people rock the boat. +We don't like it when people challenge our power. +You'd better sit down and shut up, basically. +And thank goodness that women haven't done that. +Thank goodness that we live in a world where there's so much women's leadership that can counteract that. +But one of the powerful roles that men can play in this work is that we can say some things that sometimes women can't say, or, better yet, we can be heard saying some things that women often can't be heard saying. +Now, I appreciate that that's a problem. It's sexism. +We live in the world together. +And by the way, one of the things that really bothers me about some of the rhetoric against feminists and others who have built the battered women's and rape crisis movements around the world is that somehow, like I said, that they're anti-male. +What about all the boys who are profoundly affected in a negative way by what some adult man is doing against their mother, themselves, their sisters? +What about all those boys? +What about all the young men and boys who have been traumatized by adult men's violence? +You know what? The same system that produces men who abuse women produces men who abuse other men. +And if we want to talk about male victims, let's talk about male victims. +Most male victims of violence are the victims of other men's violence. +So that's something that both women and men have in common. +We are both victims of men's violence. +So we have it in our direct self-interest, not to mention the fact that most men that I know have women and girls that we care deeply about, in our families and our friendship circles and every other way. +So there's so many reasons why we need men to speak out. +It seems obvious saying it out loud. Doesn't it? +Now, the nature of the work that I do and my colleagues do in the sports culture and the U.S. military, in schools, we pioneered this approach called the bystander approach to gender violence prevention. +I'm using the gender binary. I know there's more than men and women, there's more than male and female. +And there are women who are perpetrators, and of course there are men who are victims. +There's a whole spectrum. +How do we speak up? How do we challenge our friends? +How do we support our friends? But how do we not remain silent in the face of abuse? +Now, when it comes to men and male culture, the goal is to get men who are not abusive to challenge men who are. +And when I say abusive, I don't mean just men who are beating women. +We're not just saying a man whose friend is abusing his girlfriend needs to stop the guy at the moment of attack. +That's a naive way of creating a social change. +It's along a continuum, we're trying to get men to interrupt each other. +So, for example, if you're a guy and you're in a group of guys playing poker, talking, hanging out, no women present, and another guy says something sexist or degrading or harassing about women, instead of laughing along or pretending you didn't hear it, we need men to say, "Hey, that's not funny. +You know, that could be my sister you're talking about, and could you joke about something else? +Or could you talk about something else? +I don't appreciate that kind of talk." +Just like if you're a white person and another white person makes a racist comment, you'd hope, I hope, that white people would interrupt that racist enactment by a fellow white person. +Just like with heterosexism, if you're a heterosexual person and you yourself don't enact harassing or abusive behaviors towards people of varying sexual orientations, if you don't say something in the face of other heterosexual people doing that, then, in a sense, isn't your silence a form of consent and complicity? +Well, the bystander approach is trying to give people tools to interrupt that process and to speak up and to create a peer culture climate where the abusive behavior will be seen as unacceptable, not just because it's illegal, but because it's wrong and unacceptable in the peer culture. +And if we can get to the place where men who act out in sexist ways will lose status, young men and boys who act out in sexist and harassing ways towards girls and women, as well as towards other boys and men, will lose status as a result of it, guess what? +We'll see a radical diminution of the abuse. +Because the typical perpetrator is not sick and twisted. +He's a normal guy in every other way. Isn't he? +Now, among the many great things that Martin Luther King said in his short life was, "In the end, what will hurt the most is not the words of our enemies but the silence of our friends." +In the end, what will hurt the most is not the words of our enemies but the silence of our friends. +There's been an awful lot of silence in male culture about this ongoing tragedy of men's violence against women and children, hasn't there? +There's been an awful lot of silence. +And all I'm saying is that we need to break that silence, and we need more men to do that. +Because ultimately, the responsibility for taking a stand on these issues should not fall on the shoulders of little boys or teenage boys in high school or college men. It should be on adult men with power. +Adult men with power are the ones we need to be holding accountable for being leaders on these issues, because when somebody speaks up in a peer culture and challenges and interrupts, he or she is being a leader, really, right? +But on a big scale, we need more adult men with power to start prioritizing these issues, and we haven't seen that yet, have we? +Now, I was at a dinner a number of years ago, and I work extensively with the U.S. military, all the services. +And I was at this dinner and this woman said to me -- I think she thought she was a little clever -- she said, "So how long have you been doing sensitivity training with the Marines?" +And I said, "With all due respect, I don't do sensitivity training with the Marines. +I run a leadership program in the Marine Corps." +Now, I know it's a bit pompous, my response, but it's an important distinction, because I don't believe that what we need is sensitivity training. +We need leadership training, because, for example, when a professional coach or a manager of a baseball team or a football team -- and I work extensively in that realm as well -- makes a sexist comment, makes a homophobic statement, makes a racist comment, there will be discussions on the sports blogs and in sports talk radio. +And some people will say, "Well, he needs sensitivity training." +And other people will say, "Well get off it. +You know, that's political correctness run amok, and he made a stupid statement. Move on." +My argument is, he doesn't need sensitivity training. +He needs leadership training, because he's being a bad leader, because in a society with gender diversity and sexual diversity -- and racial and ethnic diversity, you make those kind of comments, you're failing at your leadership. +If we can make this point that I'm making to powerful men and women in our society at all levels of institutional authority and power, it's going to change, it's going to change the paradigm of people's thinking. +You know, for example, I work a lot in college and university athletics throughout North America. +We know so much about how to prevent domestic and sexual violence, right? +There's no excuse for a college or university to not have domestic and sexual violence prevention training mandated for all student athletes, coaches, administrators, as part of their educational process. +We know enough to know that we can easily do that. +But you know what's missing? The leadership. +But it's not the leadership of student athletes. +It's the leadership of the athletic director, the president of the university, the people in charge who make decisions about resources and who make decisions about priorities in the institutional settings. +That's a failure, in most cases, of men's leadership. +Look at Penn State. Penn State is the mother of all teachable moments for the bystander approach. +You had so many situations in that realm where men in powerful positions failed to act to protect children, in this case, boys. +It's unbelievable, really. But when you get into it, you realize there are pressures on men. +There are constraints within peer cultures on men, which is why we need to encourage men to break through those pressures. +And one of the ways to do that is to say there's an awful lot of men who care deeply about these issues. +I know this. I work with men, and I've been working with tens of thousands, hundreds of thousands of men for many, many decades now. +It's scary, when you think about it, how many years. +But there's so many men who care deeply about these issues, but caring deeply is not enough. +We need more men with the guts, with the courage, with the strength, with the moral integrity to break our complicit silence and challenge each other and stand with women and not against them. +By the way, we owe it to women. +There's no question about it. +But we also owe it to our sons. +We also owe it to young men who are growing up all over the world in situations where they didn't make the choice to be a man in a culture that tells them that manhood is a certain way. +They didn't make the choice. +We that have a choice have an opportunity and a responsibility to them as well. +I hope that, going forward, men and women, working together, can begin the change and the transformation that will happen so that future generations won't have the level of tragedy that we deal with on a daily basis. +I know we can do it. We can do better. +Thank you very much. +How many of you have checked your email today? +Come on, raise your hands. +How many of you are checking it right now? +And how about finances? Anybody check that today? +Credit card, investment account? +How about this week? +Now, how about your household energy use? +Anybody check that today? +This week? Last week? +A few energy geeks spread out across the room. +It's good to see you guys. +But the rest of us -- this is a room filled with people who are passionate about the future of this planet, and even we aren't paying attention to the energy use that's driving climate change. +The woman in the photo with me is Harriet. +We met her on our first family vacation. +Harriet's paying attention to her energy use, and she is decidedly not an energy geek. +This is the story of how Harriet came to pay attention. +This is coal, the most common source of electricity on the planet, and there's enough energy in this coal to light this bulb for more than a year. +But unfortunately, between here and here, most of that energy is lost to things like transmission leakage and heat. +In fact, only 10 percent ends up as light. +So this coal will last a little bit more than a month. +If you wanted to light this bulb for a year, you'd need this much coal. +The bad news here is that, for every unit of energy we use, we waste nine. +That means there's good news, because for every unit of energy we save, we save the other nine. +So the question is, how can we get the people in this room and across the globe to start paying attention to the energy we're using, and start wasting less of it? +The answer comes from a behavioral science experiment that was run one hot summer, 10 years ago, and only 90 miles from here, in San Marcos, California. +Graduate students put signs on every door in a neighborhood, asking people to turn off their air conditioning and turn on their fans. +One quarter of the homes received a message that said, did you know you could save 54 dollars a month this summer? +Turn off your air conditioning, turn on your fans. +Another group got an environmental message. +And still a third group got a message about being good citizens, preventing blackouts. +Most people guessed that money-saving message would work best of all. +In fact, none of these messages worked. +They had zero impact on energy consumption. +It was as if the grad students hadn't shown up at all. +But there was a fourth message, and this message simply said, "When surveyed, 77 percent of your neighbors said that they turned off their air conditioning and turned on their fans. +Please join them. Turn off your air conditioning and turn on your fans." +And wouldn't you know it, they did. +The people who received this message showed a marked decrease in energy consumption simply by being told what their neighbors were doing. +So what does this tell us? +Well, if something is inconvenient, even if we believe in it, moral suasion, financial incentives, don't do much to move us -- but social pressure, that's powerful stuff. +And harnessed correctly, it can be a powerful force for good. +In fact, it already is. +Inspired by this insight, my friend Dan Yates and I started a company called Opower. +We built software and partnered with utility companies who wanted to help their customers save energy. +We deliver personalized home energy reports that show people how their consumption compares to their neighbors in similar-sized homes. +Just like those effective door hangers, we have people comparing themselves to their neighbors, and then we give everyone targeted recommendations to help them save. +We started with paper, we moved to a mobile application, web, and now even a controllable thermostat, and for the last five years we've been running the largest behavioral science experiment in the world. +And it's working. +Ordinary homeowners and renters have saved more than 250 million dollars on their energy bills, and we're just getting started. +This year alone, in partnership with more than 80 utilities in six countries, we're going to generate another two terawatt hours of electricity savings. +Now, the energy geeks in the room know two terawatt hours, but for the rest of us, two terawatt hours is more than enough energy to power every home in St. Louis and Salt Lake City combined for more than a year. +Two terawatt hours, it's roughly half what the U.S. solar industry produced last year. +And two terawatt hours? In terms of coal, we'd need to burn 34 of these wheelbarrows every minute around the clock every day for an entire year to get two terawatt hours of electricity. +And we're not burning anything. +We're just motivating people to pay attention and change their behavior. +But we're just one company, and this is just scratching the surface. +Twenty percent of the electricity in homes is wasted, and when I say wasted, I don't mean that people have inefficient lightbulbs. They may. +I mean we leave the lights on in empty rooms, and we leave the air conditioning on when nobody's home. +That's 40 billion dollars a year wasted on electricity that does not contribute to our well-being but does contribute to climate change. +That's 40 billion -- with a B -- every year in the U.S. alone. +That's half our coal usage right there. +Now thankfully, some of the world's best material scientists are looking to replace coal with sustainable resources like these, and this is both fantastic and essential. +But the most overlooked resource to get us to a sustainable energy future, it isn't on this slide. +It's in this room. It's you, and it's me. +And we can harness this resource with no new material science simply by applying behavioral science. +We can do it today, we know it works, and it will save us money right away. +So what are we waiting for? +Well, in most places, utility regulation hasn't changed much since Thomas Edison. +Utilities are still rewarded when their customers waste energy. +They ought to be rewarded for helping their customers save it. +But this story is much more than about household energy use. +Take a look at the Prius. +It's efficient not only because Toyota invested in material science but because they invested in behavioral science. +The dashboard that shows drivers how much energy they're saving in real time makes former speed demons drive more like cautious grandmothers. +Which brings us back to Harriet. +We met her on our first family vacation. +She came over to meet my young daughter, and she was tickled to learn that my daughter's name is also Harriet. +She asked me what I did for a living, and I told her, I work with utilities to help people save energy. +It was then that her eyes lit up. +She looked at me, and she said, "You're exactly the person I need to talk to. +You see, two weeks ago, my husband and I got a letter in the mail from our utility. +It told us we were using twice as much energy as our neighbors." +"And for the last two weeks, all we can think about, talk about, and even argue about, is what we should be doing to save energy. +We did everything that letter told us to do, and still I know there must be more. +Now I'm here with a genuine expert. +Tell me. What should I do to save energy?" +There are many experts who can help answer Harriet's question. +My goal is to make sure we are all asking it. +Thank you. +I am sorry I cannot show you my face, because if I do, the bad guys will come for me. +My journey started 14 years ago. +I was a young reporter. I had just come out of college. +Then I got a scoop. +The scoop was quite a very simple story. +Police officers were taking bribes from hawkers who were hawking on the streets. +As a young reporter, I thought that I should do it in a different way, so that it has a maximum impact, since everybody knew that it was happening, and yet there was nothing that was keeping it out of the system. +So I decided to go there and act as a seller. +As part of selling, I was able to document the hard core evidence. +The impact was great. +It was fantastic. +This was what many call immersion journalism, or undercover journalism. +I am an undercover journalist. +My journalism is hinged on three basic principles: naming, shaming and jailing. +Journalism is about results. +It's about affecting your community or your society in the most progressive way. +I have worked on this for over 14 years, and I can tell you, the results are very good. +One story that comes to mind in my undercover pieces is "Spirit Child." +It was about children who were born with deformities, and their parents felt that once they were born with those deformities, they were not good enough to live in the society, so they were given some concoction to take and as a result they died. +So I built a prosthetic baby, and I went into the village, pretended as though this baby had been born with a deformity, and here was the guys who do the killing. +They got themselves ready. +In their bids to kill, I got the police on standby, and they came that fateful morning to come and kill the child. +I recall how they were seriously boiling the concoction. +They put it on fire. It was boiling hot, getting ready to give to the kids. +Whilst this was going on, the police I had alerted, they were on standby, and they were about to give it to the kids, I phoned the police, and fortunately they came and busted them. +As I speak now, they are before the courts. +Don't forget the key principles: naming, shaming and jailing. +The court process is taking place, and I'm very sure at the end of the day we will find them, and we will put them where they belong too. +Another key story that comes to mind, which relates to this spirit child phenomenon, is "The Spell of the Albinos." +I'm sure most of you may have heard, in Tanzania, children who are born with albinism are sometimes considered as being unfit to live in society. +Their bodies are chopped up with machetes and are supposed to be used for some concoctions or some potions for people to get money -- or so many, many stories people would tell about it. +It was time to go undercover again. +So I went undercover as a man who was interested in this particular business, of course. +Again, a prosthetic arm was built. +For the first time, I filmed on hidden camera the guys who do this, and they were ready to buy the arm and they were ready to use it to prepare those potions for people. +I am glad today the Tanzanian government has taken action, but the key issue is that the Tanzanian government could only take action because the evidence was available. +My journalism is about hard core evidence. +If I say you have stolen, I show you the evidence that you have stolen. +I show you how you stole it and when, or what you used what you had stolen to do. +What is the essence of journalism if it doesn't benefit society? +My kind of journalism is a product of my society. +I know that sometimes people have their own criticisms about undercover journalism. +Official: He brought out some money from his pockets and put it on the table, so that we should not be afraid. +He wants to bring the cocoa and send it to Cote d'Ivoire. +So with my hidden intention, I kept quiet. +I didn't utter a word. +But my colleagues didn't know. +So after collecting the money, when he left, we were waiting for him to bring the goods. +Immediately after he left, I told my colleagues that since I was the leader of the group, I told my colleagues that if they come, we will arrest them. +Second official: I don't even know the place called [unclear]. +I've never stepped there before. +So I'm surprised. +You see a hand counting money just in front of me. +The next moment, you see the money in my hands, counting, whereas I have not come into contact with anybody. +I have not done any business with anybody. +Reporter: When Metro News contacted investigative reporter Anas Aremeyaw Anas for his reaction, he just smiled and gave this video extract he did not use in the documentary recently shown onscreen. +The officer who earlier denied involvement pecks a calculator to compute the amount of money they will charge on the cocoa to be smuggled. +Anas Aremeyaw Anas: This was another story on anticorruption. +And here was him, denying. +But you see, when you have the hard core evidence, you are able to affect society. +AAA: That was my president. +I thought that I couldn't come here without giving you something special. +I have a piece, and I'm excited that I'm sharing it for the first time with you here. +I have been undercover in the prisons. +I have been there for a long time. +And I can tell you, what I saw is not nice. +But again, I can only affect society and affect government if I bring out the hard core evidence. +Many times, the prison authorities have denied ever having issues of drug abuse, issues of sodomy, so many issues they would deny that it ever happens. +How can you obtain the hard core evidence? +So I was in the prison. ["Nsawan Prison"] Now, what you are seeing is a pile of dead bodies. +Now, I happen to have followed one of my inmates, one of my friends, from his sick bed till death, and I can tell you it was not a nice thing at all. +There were issues of bad food being served as I recall that some of the food I ate is just not good for a human being. +Toilet facilities: very bad. +I mean, you had to queue to get proper toilets to attend -- and that's what I call proper, when four of us are on a manhole. +It is something that if you narrate it to somebody, the person wouldn't believe it. +The only way that you can let the person believe is when you show hard core evidence. +Of course, drugs were abundant. +It was easier to get cannabis, heroin and cocaine, faster even, in the prison than outside the prison. +Evil in the society is an extreme disease. +If you have extreme diseases, you need to get extreme remedies. +My kind of journalism might not fit in other continents or other countries, but I can tell you, it works in my part of the continent of Africa, because usually, when people talk about corruption, they ask, "Where is the evidence? +Show me the evidence." +I say, "This is the evidence." +And that has aided in me putting a lot of people behind bars. +You see, we on the continent are able to tell the story better because we face the conditions and we see the conditions. +That is why I was particularly excited when we launched our "Africa Investigates" series where we investigated a lot of African countries. +As a result of the success of the "Africa Investigates" series, we are moving on to World Investigates. +By the end of it, a lot more bad guys on our continent will be put behind bars. +This will not stop. +I'm going to carry on with this kind of journalism, because I know that when evil men destroy, good men must build and bind. +Thank you very much. +Chris Anderson: Thank you. Thank you. +I have some questions for you. +How did you end up in jail? This was just a few weeks ago, I believe, yeah? +AAA: Sure. You know, undercover is all about setting the priorities right, so we got people to take me to court. +So I went through the very legal process, because at the end of the day, the prison authorities want to check whether indeed you have been there or not, and that's how I got in there. +CA: So someone sued you in court, and they took you there, and you were in remand custody for part of it, and you did that deliberately. +AAA: Yes, yes. +CA: Talk to me just about fear and how you manage that, because you're regularly putting your life at risk. +How do you do that? +AAA: You see, undercover is always a last resort. +Before we go undercover, we follow the rules. +And I'm only comfortable and I'm purged of fear whenever I am sure that all the steps have been taken. I don't do it alone. I have a backup team who help ensure that the safety and all the systems are put in place, but you've got to take very intelligent decisions whenever they are happening. +If you don't, you will end up losing your life. +So yes, when the backup systems are put in place, I'm okay, I go in. Risky, yes, but it's a hazard of a profession. +I mean, everybody has their hazard. +And once you say that is yours, you've got to take it, as and when it comes. +CA: Well, you're an amazing human and you've done amazing work and you've taught us a story like no story I think any of us have heard before. +And we're appreciative. We salute you. Thank you so much, Anas. +AAA: Thank you. +CA: Thank you. Stay safe. +Well, now we're going to the Bahamas to meet a remarkable group of dolphins that I've been working with in the wild for the last 28 years. +Now I'm interested in dolphins because of their large brains and what they might be doing with all that brainpower in the wild. +And we know they use some of that brainpower for just living complicated lives, but what do we really know about dolphin intelligence? +Well, we know a few things. +We know that their brain-to-body ratio, which is a physical measure of intelligence, is second only to humans. +Cognitively, they can understand artificially-created languages. +And they pass self-awareness tests in mirrors. +And in some parts of the world, they use tools, like sponges to hunt fish. +But there's one big question left: do they have a language, and if so, what are they talking about? +So decades ago, not years ago, I set out to find a place in the world where I could observe dolphins underwater to try to crack the code of their communication system. +Now in most parts of the world, the water's pretty murky, so it's very hard to observe animals underwater, but I found a community of dolphins that live in these beautiful, clear, shallow sandbanks of the Bahamas which are just east of Florida. +And they spend their daytime resting and socializing in the safety of the shallows, but at night, they go off the edge and hunt in deep water. +Now, it's not a bad place to be a researcher, either. +So we go out for about five months every summer in a 20-meter catamaran, and we live, sleep and work at sea for weeks at a time. +My main tool is an underwater video with a hydrophone, which is an underwater microphone, and this is so I can correlate sound and behavior. +And most of our work's pretty non-invasive. +We try to follow dolphin etiquette while we're in the water, since we're actually observing them physically in the water. +Now, Atlantic spotted dolphins are a really nice species to work with for a couple of reasons. +They're born without spots, and they get spots with age, and they go through pretty distinct developmental phases, so that's fun to track their behavior. +And by about the age of 15, they're fully spotted black and white. +Now the mother you see here is Mugsy. +She's 35 years old in this shot, but dolphins can actually live into their early 50s. +And like all the dolphins in our community, we photographed Mugsy and tracked her little spots and nicks in her dorsal fin, and also the unique spot patterns as she matured over time. +Now, young dolphins learn a lot as they're growing up, and they use their teenage years to practice social skills, and at about the age of nine, the females become sexually mature, so they can get pregnant, and the males mature quite a bit later, at around 15 years of age. +And dolphins are very promiscuous, and so we have to determine who the fathers are, so we do paternity tests by collecting fecal material out of the water and extracting DNA. +So what that means is, after 28 years, we are tracking three generations, including grandmothers and grandfathers. +Now, dolphins are natural acousticians. +They make sounds 10 times as high and hear sounds 10 times as high as we do. +But they have other communication signals they use. +They have good vision, so they use body postures to communicate. +They have taste, not smell. +And they have touch. +And sound can actually be felt in the water, because the acoustic impedance of tissue and water's about the same. +So dolphins can buzz and tickle each other at a distance. +Now, we do know some things about how sounds are used with certain behaviors. +Now, the signature whistle is a whistle that's specific to an individual dolphin, and it's like a name. (Dolphin whistling noises) And this is the best-studied sound, because it's easy to measure, really, and you'd find this whistle when mothers and calves are reuniting, for example. +Another well studied sound are echolocation clicks. +This is the dolphin's sonar. (Dolphin echolocation noises) And they use these clicks to hunt and feed. +But they can also tightly pack these clicks together into buzzes and use them socially. +For example, males will stimulate a female during a courtship chase. +You know, I've been buzzed in the water. +Don't tell anyone. It's a secret. +And you can really feel the sound. That was my point with that. +So dolphins are also political animals, so they have to resolve conflicts. +(Dolphin noises) And they use these burst-pulsed sounds as well as their head-to-head behaviors when they're fighting. +And these are very unstudied sounds because they're hard to measure. +Now this is some video of a typical dolphin fight. +(Dolphin noises) So you're going to see two groups, and you're going to see the head-to-head posturing, some open mouths, lots of squawking. +There's a bubble. +And basically, one of these groups will kind of back off and everything will resolve fine, and it doesn't really escalate into violence too much. +Now, in the Bahamas, we also have resident bottlenose that interact socially with the spotted dolphins. +For example, they babysit each other's calves. +The males have dominance displays that they use when they're chasing each other's females. +And the two species actually form temporary alliances when they're chasing sharks away. +And one of the mechanisms they use to communicate their coordination is synchrony. +They synchronize their sounds and their body postures to look bigger and sound stronger. +(Dolphins noises) Now, these are bottlenose dolphins, and you'll see them starting to synchronize their behavior and their sounds. +(Dolphin noises) You see, they're synchronizing with their partner as well as the other dyad. +I wish I was that coordinated. +Now, it's important to remember that you're only hearing the human-audible parts of dolphin sounds, and dolphins make ultrasonic sounds, and we use special equipment in the water to collect these sounds. +Now, researchers have actually measured whistle complexity using information theory, and whistles rate very high relative to even human languages. +But burst-pulsed sounds is a bit of a mystery. +Now, these are three spectragrams. +Two are human words, and one is a dolphin vocalizing. +So just take a guess in your mind which one is the dolphin. +Now, it turns out burst-pulsed sounds actually look a bit like human phonemes. +Now, one way to crack the code is to interpret these signals and figure out what they mean, but it's a difficult job, and we actually don't have a Rosetta Stone yet. +But a second way to crack the code is to develop some technology, an interface to do two-way communication, and that's what we've been trying to do in the Bahamas and in real time. +Now, scientists have used keyboard interfaces to try to bridge the gap with species including chimpanzees and dolphins. +This underwater keyboard in Orlando, Florida, at the Epcot Center, was actually the most sophisticated ever two-way interface designed for humans and dolphins to work together under the water and exchange information. +So we wanted to develop an interface like this in the Bahamas, but in a more natural setting. +And one of the reasons we thought we could do this is because the dolphins were starting to show us a lot of mutual curiosity. +They were spontaneously mimicking our vocalizations and our postures, and they were also inviting us into dolphin games. +Now, dolphins are social mammals, so they love to play, and one of their favorite games is to drag seaweed, or sargassum in this case, around. +And they're very adept. They like to drag it and drop it from appendage to appendage. +Now in this footage, the adult is Caroh. +She's 25 years old here, and this is her newborn, Cobalt, and he's just learning how to play this game. +(Dolphin noises) She's kind of teasing him and taunting him. +He really wants that sargassum. +Now, when dolphins solicit humans for this game, they'll often sink vertically in the water, and they'll have a little sargassum on their flipper, and they'll sort of nudge it and drop it sometimes on the bottom and let us go get it, and then we'll have a little seaweed keep away game. +But when we don't dive down and get it, they'll bring it to the surface and they'll sort of wave it in front of us on their tail and drop it for us like they do their calves, and then we'll pick it up and have a game. +And so we started thinking, well, wouldn't it be neat to build some technology that would allow the dolphins to request these things in real time, their favorite toys? +So the original vision was to have a keyboard hanging from the boat attached to a computer, and the divers and dolphins would activate the keys on the keypad and happily exchange information and request toys from each other. +But we quickly found out that dolphins simply were not going to hang around the boat using a keyboard. +They've got better things to do in the wild. +And these are artificially created whistles. +They're outside the dolphin's normal repertoire, but they're easily mimicked by the dolphins. +And I spent four years with my colleagues Adam Pack and Fabienne Delfour, working out in the field with this keyboard using it with each other to do requests for toys while the dolphins were watching. +And the dolphins could get in on the game. +They could point at the visual object, or they could mimic the whistle. +Now this is video of a session. +The diver here has a rope toy, and I'm on the keyboard on the left, and I've just played the rope key, and that's the request for the toy from the human. +So I've got the rope, I'm diving down, and I'm basically trying to get the dolphin's attention, because they're kind of like little kids. +You have to keep their attention. +I'm going to drop the rope, see if they come over. +Here they come, and then they're going to pick up the rope and drag it around as a toy. +Now, I'm at the keyboard on the left, and this is actually the first time that we tried this. +I'm going to try to request this toy, the rope toy, from the dolphins using the rope sound. +Let's see if they might actually understand what that means. +That's the rope whistle. +Up come the dolphins, and drop off the rope, yay. Wow. +So this is only once. +We don't know for sure if they really understand the function of the whistles. +Okay, so here's a second toy in the water. +This is a scarf toy, and I'm trying to lead the dolphin over to the keyboard to show her the visual and the acoustic signal. +Now this dolphin, we call her "the scarf thief," because over the years she's absconded with about 12 scarves. +In fact, we think she has a boutique somewhere in the Bahamas. +So I'm reaching over. She's got the scarf on her right side. +And we try to not touch the animals too much, we really don't want to over-habituate them. +And I'm trying to lead her back to the keyboard. +And the diver there is going to activate the scarf sound to request the scarf. +So I try to give her the scarf. +Whoop. Almost lost it. +But this is the moment where everything becomes possible. +The dolphin's at the keyboard. +You've got full attention. +And this sometimes went on for hours. +And I wanted to share this video with you not to show you any big breakthroughs, because they haven't happened yet, but to show you the level of intention and focus that these dolphins have, and interest in the system. +And because of this, we really decided we needed some more sophisticated technology. +The computer can localize who requested the toy if there's a word match. +And the real power of the system is in the real-time sound recognition, so we can respond to the dolphins quickly and accurately. +And we're at prototype stage, but this is how we hope it will play out. +So Diver A and Diver B both have a wearable computer and the dolphin hears the whistle as a whistle, the diver hears the whistle as a whistle in the water, but also as a word through bone conduction. +So Diver A plays the scarf whistle or Diver B plays the sargassum whistle to request a toy from whoever has it. +What we hope will happen is that the dolphin mimics the whistle, and if Diver A has the sargassum, if that's the sound that was played and requested, then the diver will give the sargassum to the requesting dolphin and they'll swim away happily into the sunset playing sargassum for forever. +Now, how far can this kind of communication go? +Well, CHAT is designed specifically to empower the dolphins to request things from us. +It's designed to really be two-way. +Now, will they learn to mimic the whistles functionally? +We hope so and we think so. +But as we decode their natural sounds, we're also planning to put those back into the computerized system. +For example, right now we can put their own signature whistles in the computer and request to interact with a specific dolphin. +Likewise, we can create our own whistles, our own whistle names, and let the dolphins request specific divers to interact with. +Now it may be that all our mobile technology will actually be the same technology that helps us communicate with another species down the road. +In the case of a dolphin, you know, it's a species that, well, they're probably close to our intelligence in many ways and we might not be able to admit that right now, but they live in quite a different environment, and you still have to bridge the gap with the sensory systems. +I mean, imagine what it would be like to really understand the mind of another intelligent species on the planet. +Thank you. +The writer George Eliot cautioned us that, among all forms of mistake, prophesy is the most gratuitous. +The person that we would all acknowledge as her 20th-century counterpart, Yogi Berra, agreed. +He said, "It's tough to make predictions, especially about the future." +I'm going to ignore their cautions and make one very specific forecast. +In the world that we are creating very quickly, we're going to see more and more things that look like science fiction, and fewer and fewer things that look like jobs. +Our cars are very quickly going to start driving themselves, which means we're going to need fewer truck drivers. +Now, for about 200 years, people have been saying exactly what I'm telling you -- the age of technological unemployment is at hand starting with the Luddites smashing looms in Britain just about two centuries ago, and they have been wrong. +Our economies in the developed world have coasted along on something pretty close to full employment. +Which brings up a critical question: Why is this time different, if it really is? +The reason it's different is that, just in the past few years, our machines have started demonstrating skills they have never, ever had before: understanding, speaking, hearing, seeing, answering, writing, and they're still acquiring new skills. +For example, mobile humanoid robots are still incredibly primitive, but the research arm of the Defense Department just launched a competition to have them do things like this, and if the track record is any guide, this competition is going to be successful. +So when I look around, I think the day is not too far off at all when we're going to have androids doing a lot of the work that we are doing right now. +And we're creating a world where there is going to be more and more technology and fewer and fewer jobs. +It's a world that Erik Brynjolfsson and I are calling "the new machine age." +The thing to keep in mind is that this is absolutely great news. +This is the best economic news on the planet these days. +Not that there's a lot of competition, right? +This is the best economic news we have these days for two main reasons. +The first is, technological progress is what allows us to continue this amazing recent run that we're on where output goes up over time, while at the same time, prices go down, and volume and quality just continue to explode. +Now, some people look at this and talk about shallow materialism, but that's absolutely the wrong way to look at it. +This is abundance, which is exactly what we want our economic system to provide. +The second reason that the new machine age is such great news is that, once the androids start doing jobs, we don't have to do them anymore, and we get freed up from drudgery and toil. +Now, when I talk about this with my friends in Cambridge and Silicon Valley, they say, "Fantastic. No more drudgery, no more toil. +This gives us the chance to imagine an entirely different kind of society, a society where the creators and the discoverers and the performers and the innovators come together with their patrons and their financiers to talk about issues, entertain, enlighten, provoke each other." +It's a society really, that looks a lot like the TED Conference. +And there's actually a huge amount of truth here. +We are seeing an amazing flourishing taking place. +In a world where it is just about as easy to generate an object as it is to print a document, we have amazing new possibilities. +The people who used to be craftsmen and hobbyists are now makers, and they're responsible for massive amounts of innovation. +And artists who were formerly constrained can now do things that were never, ever possible for them before. +So this is a time of great flourishing, and the more I look around, the more convinced I become that this quote, from the physicist Freeman Dyson, is not hyperbole at all. +This is just a plain statement of the facts. +We are in the middle of an astonishing period. +["Technology is a gift of God. After the gift of life it is perhaps the greatest of God's gifts. It is the mother of civilizations, of arts and of sciences." Freeman Dyson] Which brings up another great question: What could possibly go wrong in this new machine age? +Right? Great, hang up, flourish, go home. +We're going to face two really thorny sets of challenges as we head deeper into the future that we're creating. +The first are economic, and they're really nicely summarized in an apocryphal story about a back-and-forth between Henry Ford II and Walter Reuther, who was the head of the auto workers union. +They were touring one of the new modern factories, and Ford playfully turns to Reuther and says, "Hey Walter, how are you going to get these robots to pay union dues?" +And Reuther shoots back, "Hey Henry, how are you going to get them to buy cars?" +Reuther's problem in that anecdote is that it is tough to offer your labor to an economy that's full of machines, and we see this very clearly in the statistics. +If you look over the past couple decades at the returns to capital -- in other words, corporate profits -- we see them going up, and we see that they're now at an all-time high. +If we look at the returns to labor, in other words total wages paid out in the economy, we see them at an all-time low and heading very quickly in the opposite direction. +So this is clearly bad news for Reuther. +It looks like it might be great news for Ford, but it's actually not. If you want to sell huge volumes of somewhat expensive goods to people, you really want a large, stable, prosperous middle class. +We have had one of those in America for just about the entire postwar period. +But the middle class is clearly under huge threat right now. +We all know a lot of the statistics, but just to repeat one of them, median income in America has actually gone down over the past 15 years, and we're in danger of getting trapped in some vicious cycle where inequality and polarization continue to go up over time. +The societal challenges that come along with that kind of inequality deserve some attention. +There are a set of societal challenges that I'm actually not that worried about, and they're captured by images like this. +This is not the kind of societal problem that I am concerned about. +There is no shortage of dystopian visions about what happens when our machines become self-aware, and they decide to rise up and coordinate attacks against us. +I'm going to start worrying about those the day my computer becomes aware of my printer. +So this is not the set of challenges we really need to worry about. +To tell you the kinds of societal challenges that are going to come up in the new machine age, I want to tell a story about two stereotypical American workers. +And to make them really stereotypical, let's make them both white guys. +And the first one is a college-educated professional, creative type, manager, engineer, doctor, lawyer, that kind of worker. +We're going to call him "Ted." +He's at the top of the American middle class. +His counterpart is not college-educated and works as a laborer, works as a clerk, does low-level white collar or blue collar work in the economy. +We're going to call that guy "Bill." +And if you go back about 50 years, Bill and Ted were leading remarkably similar lives. +For example, in 1960 they were both very likely to have full-time jobs, working at least 40 hours a week. +But as the social researcher Charles Murray has documented, as we started to automate the economy, and 1960 is just about when computers started to be used by businesses, as we started to progressively inject technology and automation and digital stuff into the economy, the fortunes of Bill and Ted diverged a lot. +Over this time frame, Ted has continued to hold a full-time job. Bill hasn't. +In many cases, Bill has left the economy entirely, and Ted very rarely has. +Over time, Ted's marriage has stayed quite happy. +Bill's hasn't. +And Ted's kids have grown up in a two-parent home, while Bill's absolutely have not over time. +Other ways that Bill is dropping out of society? +He's decreased his voting in presidential elections, and he's started to go to prison a lot more often. +So I cannot tell a happy story about these social trends, and they don't show any signs of reversing themselves. +They're also true no matter which ethnic group or demographic group we look at, and they're actually getting so severe that they're in danger of overwhelming even the amazing progress we made with the Civil Rights Movement. +And what my friends in Silicon Valley and Cambridge are overlooking is that they're Ted. +They're living these amazingly busy, productive lives, and they've got all the benefits to show from that, while Bill is leading a very different life. +They're actually both proof of how right Voltaire was when he talked about the benefits of work, and the fact that it saves us from not one but three great evils. +["Work saves a man from three great evils: boredom, vice and need." Voltaire] So with these challenges, what do we do about them? +The economic playbook is surprisingly clear, surprisingly straightforward, in the short term especially. +The robots are not going to take all of our jobs in the next year or two, so the classic Econ 101 playbook is going to work just fine: Encourage entrepreneurship, double down on infrastructure, and make sure we're turning out people from our educational system with the appropriate skills. +But over the longer term, if we are moving into an economy that's heavy on technology and light on labor, and we are, then we have to consider some more radical interventions, for example, something like a guaranteed minimum income. +Now, that's probably making some folk in this room uncomfortable, because that idea is associated with the extreme left wing and with fairly radical schemes for redistributing wealth. +I did a little bit of research on this notion, and it might calm some folk down to know that the idea of a net guaranteed minimum income has been championed by those frothing-at-the-mouth socialists Friedrich Hayek, Richard Nixon and Milton Friedman. +So the economic playbook is actually pretty straightforward. +The societal one is a lot more challenging. +I don't know what the playbook is for getting Bill to engage and stay engaged throughout life. +I do know that education is a huge part of it. +I witnessed this firsthand. +I was a Montessori kid for the first few years of my education, and what that education taught me is that the world is an interesting place and my job is to go explore it. +The school stopped in third grade, so then I entered the public school system, and it felt like I had been sent to the Gulag. +With the benefit of hindsight, I now know the job was to prepare me for life as a clerk or a laborer, but at the time it felt like the job was to kind of bore me into some submission with what was going on around me. +We have to do better than this. +We cannot keep turning out Bills. +So we see some green shoots that things are getting better. +We see technology deeply impacting education and engaging people, from our youngest learners up to our oldest ones. +We see very prominent business voices telling us we need to rethink some of the things that we've been holding dear for a while. +And we see very serious and sustained and data-driven efforts to understand how to intervene in some of the most troubled communities that we have. +So the green shoots are out there. +I don't want to pretend for a minute that what we have is going to be enough. +We're facing very tough challenges. +To give just one example, there are about five million Americans who have been unemployed for at least six months. +We're not going to fix things for them by sending them back to Montessori. +And my biggest worry is that we're creating a world where we're going to have glittering technologies embedded in kind of a shabby society and supported by an economy that generates inequality instead of opportunity. +But I actually don't think that's what we're going to do. +I think we're going to do something a lot better for one very straightforward reason: The facts are getting out there. +The realities of this new machine age and the change in the economy are becoming more widely known. +If we wanted to accelerate that process, we could do things like have our best economists and policymakers play "Jeopardy!" against Watson. +We could send Congress on an autonomous car road trip. +And if we do enough of these kinds of things, the awareness is going to sink in that things are going to be different. +And then we're off to the races, because I don't believe for a second that we have forgotten how to solve tough challenges or that we have become too apathetic or hard-hearted to even try. +I started my talk with quotes from wordsmiths who were separated by an ocean and a century. +Let me end it with words from politicians who were similarly distant. +Winston Churchill came to my home of MIT in 1949, and he said, "If we are to bring the broad masses of the people in every land to the table of abundance, it can only be by the tireless improvement of all of our means of technical production." +Abraham Lincoln realized there was one other ingredient. +He said, "I am a firm believer in the people. +If given the truth, they can be depended upon to meet any national crisis. +The great point is to give them the plain facts." +So the optimistic note, great point that I want to leave you with is that the plain facts of the machine age are becoming clear, and I have every confidence that we're going to use them to chart a good course into the challenging, abundant economy that we're creating. +Thank you very much. +I made a film that was impossible to make, but I didn't know it was impossible, and that's how I was able to do it. +"Mars et Avril" is a science fiction film. +It's set in Montreal some 50 years in the future. +No one had done that kind of movie in Quebec before because it's expensive, it's set in the future, and it's got tons of visual effects, and it's shot on green screen. +Yet this is the kind of movie that I wanted to make ever since I was a kid, really, back when I was reading some comic books and dreaming about what the future might be. +When American producers see my film, they think that I had a big budget to do it, like 23 million. +But in fact I had 10 percent of that budget. +I did "Mars et Avril" for only 2.3 million. +So you might wonder, what's the deal here? +How did I do this? +Well, it's two things. First, it's time. +When you don't have money, you must take time, and it took me seven years to do "Mars et Avril." +The second aspect is love. +I got tons and tons of generosity from everyone involved. +And it seems like every department had nothing, so they had to rely on our creativity and turn every problem into an opportunity. +And that brings me to the point of my talk, actually, how constraints, big creative constraints, can boost creativity. +But let me go back in time a bit. +In my early 20s, I did some graphic novels, but they weren't your usual graphic novels. +They were books telling a science fiction story through images and text, and most of the actors who are now starring in the movie adaptation, they were already involved in these books portraying characters into a sort of experimental, theatrical, simplistic way. +And one of these actors is the great stage director and actor Robert Lepage. +And I just love this guy. +I've been in love with this guy since I was a kid. +His career I admire a lot. +And I wanted this guy to be involved in my crazy project, and he was kind enough to lend his image to the character of Eugne Spaak, who is a cosmologist and artist who seeks relation in between time, space, love, music and women. +And he was a perfect fit for the part, and Robert is actually the one who gave me my first chance. +He was the one who believed in me and encouraged me to do an adaptation of my books into a film, and to write, direct, and produce the film myself. +And Robert is actually the very first example of how constraints can boost creativity. +Because this guy is the busiest man on the planet. +I mean, his agenda is booked until 2042, and he's really hard to get, and I wanted him to be in the movie, to reprise his role in the movie. +But the thing is, had I waited for him until 2042, my film wouldn't be a futuristic film anymore, so I just couldn't do that. Right? +But that's kind of a big problem. +How do you get somebody who is too busy to star in a movie? +Well, I said as a joke in a production meeting -- and this is a true story, by the way I said, "Why don't we turn this guy into a hologram? +Because, you know, he is everywhere and nowhere on the planet at the same time, and he's an illuminated being in my mind, and he's in between reality and virtual reality, so it would make perfect sense to turn this guy into a hologram." +Everybody around the table laughed, but the joke was kind of a good solution, so that's what we ended up doing. +Here's how we did it. We shot Robert with six cameras. +He was dressed in green and he was like in a green aquarium. +Each camera was covering 60 degrees of his head, so that in post-production we could use pretty much any angle we needed, and we shot only his head. +Six months later there was a guy on set, a mime portraying the body, the vehicle for the head. +And he was wearing a green hood so that we could erase the green hood in postproduction and replace it with Robert Lepage's head. +So he became like a renaissance man, and here's what it looks like in the movie. +Robert Lepage: [As usual, Arthur's drawing didn't account for the technical challenges. +I welded the breech, but the valve is still gaping. +I tried to lift the pallets to lower the pressure in the sound box, but I might have hit a heartstring. +It still sounds too low.] Jacques Languirand: [That's normal. +The instrument always ends up resembling its model.] Martin Villeneuve: Now these musical instruments that you see in this excerpt, they're my second example of how constraints can boost creativity, because I desperately needed these objects in my movie. +They are objects of desire. +They are imaginary musical instruments. +And they carry a nice story with them. +Actually, I knew what these things would look like in my mind for many, many years. +But my problem was, I didn't have the money to pay for them. I couldn't afford them. +So that's kind of a big problem too. +How do you get something that you can't afford? +And, you know, I woke up one morning with a pretty good idea. +I said, "What if I have somebody else pay for them?" +But who on Earth would be interested by seven not-yet-built musical instruments inspired by women's bodies? +And I thought of Cirque du Soleil in Montreal, because who better to understand the kind of crazy poetry that I wanted to put on screen? +So I found my way to Guy Lalibert, Cirque du Soleil's CEO, and I presented my crazy idea to him with sketches like this and visual references, and something pretty amazing happened. +Guy was interested by this idea not because I was asking for his money, but because I came to him with a good idea in which everybody was happy. +It was kind of a perfect triangle in which the art buyer was happy because he got the instruments at a cheaper price, because they weren't even made. +He took a leap of faith. +And the artist, Dominique Engel, brilliant guy, he was happy too because he had a dream project to work on for a year. +And obviously I was happy because I got the instruments in my film for free, which was kind of what I tried to do. +So here they are. +And my last example of how constraints can boost creativity comes from the green, because this is a weird color, a crazy color, and you need to replace the green screens eventually and you must figure that out sooner rather than later. +And I had, again, pretty much, ideas in my mind as to what the world would be, but then again I turned to my childhood imagination and went to the work of Belgian comic book master Franois Schuiten in Belgium. +And this guy is another guy I admire a lot, and I wanted him to be involved in the movie as a production designer. +But people told me, you know, Martin, it's impossible, the guy is too busy and he will say no. +Well, I said, you know what, instead of mimicking his style, I might as well call the real guy and ask him, and I sent him my books, and he answered that he was interested in working on the film with me because he could be a big fish in a small aquarium. +In other words, there was space for him to dream with me. +So here I was with one of my childhood heroes, drawing every single frame that's in the film to turn that into Montreal in the future. +And it was an amazing collaboration to work with this great artist whom I admire. +But then, you know, eventually you have to turn all these drawings into reality. +So, again, my solution was to aim for the best possible artist that I could think of. +And there's this guy in Montreal, another Quebecois called Carlos Monzon, and he's a very good VFX artist. +This guy had been lead compositor on such films as "Avatar" and "Star Trek" and "Transformers," and other unknown projects like this, and I knew he was the perfect fit for the job, and I had to convince him, and, instead of working on the next Spielberg movie, he accepted to work on mine. +Why? Because I offered him a space to dream. +So if you don't have money to offer to people, you must strike their imagination with something as nice as you can think of. +So this is what happened on this movie, and that's how it got made, and we went to this very nice postproduction company in Montreal called Vision Globale, and they lent their 60 artists to work full time for six months to do this crazy film. +I have experienced it. +And you might end up doing some crazy projects, and who knows, you might even end up going to Mars. +Thank you. +I'd like to talk to you today about a whole new way to think about sexual activity and sexuality education, by comparison. +If you talk to someone today in America about sexual activity, you'll find pretty soon you're not just talking about sexual activity. +You're also talking about baseball. +Because baseball is the dominant cultural metaphor that Americans use to think about and talk about sexual activity, and we know that because there's all this language in English that seems to be talking about baseball but that's really talking about sexual activity. +So, for example, you can be a pitcher or a catcher, and that corresponds to whether you perform a sexual act or receive a sexual act. +Of course, there are the bases, which refer to specific sexual activities that happen in a very specific order, ultimately resulting in scoring a run or hitting a home run, which is usually having vaginal intercourse to the point of orgasm, at least for the guy. +You can strike out, which means you don't get to have any sexual activity. +And if you're a benchwarmer, you might be a virgin or somebody who for whatever reason isn't in the game, maybe because of your age or because of your ability or because of your skillset. +A bat's a penis, and a nappy dugout is a vulva, or a vagina. +A glove or a catcher's mitt is a condom. +A switch-hitter is a bisexual person, and we gay and lesbian folks play for the other team. +And then there's this one: "if there's grass on the field, play ball." +And that usually refers to if a young person, specifically often a young woman, is old enough to have pubic hair, she's old enough to have sex with. +This baseball model is incredibly problematic. +It's sexist. It's heterosexist. +It's competitive. It's goal-directed. +And it can't result in healthy sexuality developing in young people or in adults. +So we need a new model. +I'm here today to offer you that new model. +And it's based on pizza. +Now pizza is something that is universally understood and that most people associate with a positive experience. +So let's do this. +Let's take baseball and pizza and compare it when talking about three aspects of sexual activity: the trigger for sexual activity, what happens during sexual activity, and the expected outcome of sexual activity. +So when do you play baseball? +You play baseball when it's baseball season and when there's a game on the schedule. +It's not exactly your choice. +So if it's prom night or a wedding night or at a party or if our parents aren't home, hey, it's just batter up. +Can you imagine saying to your coach, "Uh, I'm not really feeling it today, I think I'll sit this game out." +That's just not the way it happens. +And when you get together to play baseball, immediately you're with two opposing teams, one playing offense, one playing defense, somebody's trying to move deeper into the field. +That's usually a sign to the boy. +Somebody's trying to defend people moving into the field. +That's often given to the girl. +It's competitive. +We're not playing with each other. +We're playing against each other. +And when you show up to play baseball, nobody needs to talk about what we're going to do or how this baseball game might be good for us. +Everybody knows the rules. +You just take your position and play the game. +But when do you have pizza? +Well, you have pizza when you're hungry for pizza. +It starts with an internal sense, an internal desire, or a need. +"Huh. I could go for some pizza." +And because it's an internal desire, we actually have some sense of control over that. +I could decide that I'm hungry but know that it's not a great time to eat. +And then when we get together with someone for pizza, we're not competing with them, we're looking for an experience that both of us will share that's satisfying for both of us, and when you get together for pizza with somebody, what's the first thing you do? +You talk about it. +You talk about what you want. +You talk about what you like. +You may even negotiate it. +"How do you feel about pepperoni?" "Not so much, I'm kind of a mushroom guy myself." +"Well, maybe we can go half and half." +And even if you've had pizza with somebody for a very long time, don't you still say things like, "Should we get the usual?" +"Or maybe something a little more adventurous?" +Okay, so when you're playing baseball, so if we talk about during sexual activity, when you're playing baseball, you're just supposed to round the bases in the proper order one at a time. +You can't hit the ball and run to right field. +That doesn't work. +And you also can't get to second base and say, "I like it here. I'm going to stay here." +No. +And also, of course, with baseball, there's, like, the specific equipment and a specific skill set. +Not everybody can play baseball. It's pretty exclusive. +Okay, but what about pizza? +When we're trying to figure out what's good for pizza, isn't it all about what's our pleasure? +There are a million different kinds of pizza. +There's a million different toppings. +There's a million different ways to eat pizza. +And none of them are wrong. They're different. +And in this case, difference is good, because that's going to increase the chance that we're having a satisfying experience. +And lastly, what's the expected outcome of baseball? +Well, in baseball, you play to win. +You score as many runs as you can. +There's always a winner in baseball, and that means there's always a loser in baseball. +But what about pizza? +Well, in pizza, we're not really -- there's no winning. How do you win pizza? +You don't. But you do look for, "Are we satisfied?" +And sometimes that can be different amounts over different times or with different people or on different days. +And we get to decide when we feel satisfied. +If we're still hungry, we might have some more. +If you eat too much, though, you just feel gross. +So what if we could take this pizza model and overlay it on top of sexuality education? +A lot of sexuality education that happens today is so influenced by the baseball model, and it sets up education that can't help but produce unhealthy sexuality in young people. +And those young people become older people. +You may have noticed in the baseball and pizza comparison, under the baseball, it's all commands. +They're all exclamation points. +But under the pizza model, they're questions. +And who gets to answer those questions? +You do. I do. +So remember, when we're thinking about sexuality education and sexual activity, baseball, you're out. +Pizza is the way to think about healthy, satisfying sexual activity, and good, comprehensive sexuality education. +Thank you very much for your time. +Well, Arthur C. Clarke, a famous science fiction writer from the 1950s, said that, "We overestimate technology in the short term, and we underestimate it in the long term." +And I think that's some of the fear that we see about jobs disappearing from artificial intelligence and robots. +That we're overestimating the technology in the short term. +But I am worried whether we're going to get the technology we need in the long term. +Because the demographics are really going to leave us with lots of jobs that need doing and that we, our society, is going to have to be built on the shoulders of steel of robots in the future. +So I'm scared we won't have enough robots. +But fear of losing jobs to technology has been around for a long time. +Back in 1957, there was a Spencer Tracy, Katharine Hepburn movie. +So you know how it ended up, Spencer Tracy brought a computer, a mainframe computer of 1957, in to help the librarians. +The librarians in the company would do things like answer for the executives, "What are the names of Santa's reindeer?" +And they would look that up. +And this mainframe computer was going to help them with that job. +Well of course a mainframe computer in 1957 wasn't much use for that job. +The librarians were afraid their jobs were going to disappear. +But that's not what happened in fact. +The number of jobs for librarians increased for a long time after 1957. +It wasn't until the Internet came into play, the web came into play and search engines came into play that the need for librarians went down. +And I think everyone from 1957 totally underestimated the level of technology we would all carry around in our hands and in our pockets today. +And we can just ask: "What are the names of Santa's reindeer?" and be told instantly -- or anything else we want to ask. +By the way, the wages for librarians went up faster than the wages for other jobs in the U.S. over that same time period, because librarians became partners of computers. +Computers became tools, and they got more tools that they could use and become more effective during that time. +Same thing happened in offices. +Back in the old days, people used spreadsheets. +Spreadsheets were spread sheets of paper, and they calculated by hand. +But here was an interesting thing that came along. +With the revolution around 1980 of P.C.'s, the spreadsheet programs were tuned for office workers, not to replace office workers, but it respected office workers as being capable of being programmers. +So office workers became programmers of spreadsheets. +It increased their capabilities. +They no longer had to do the mundane computations, but they could do something much more. +Now today, we're starting to see robots in our lives. +On the left there is the PackBot from iRobot. +When soldiers came across roadside bombs in Iraq and Afghanistan, instead of putting on a bomb suit and going out and poking with a stick, as they used to do up until about 2002, they now send the robot out. +So the robot takes over the dangerous jobs. +On the right are some TUGs from a company called Aethon in Pittsburgh. +These are in hundreds of hospitals across the U.S. +And they take the dirty sheets down to the laundry. +They take the dirty dishes back to the kitchen. +They bring the medicines up from the pharmacy. +And it frees up the nurses and the nurse's aides from doing that mundane work of just mechanically pushing stuff around to spend more time with patients. +In fact, robots have become sort of ubiquitous in our lives in many ways. +But I think when it comes to factory robots, people are sort of afraid, because factory robots are dangerous to be around. +In order to program them, you have to understand six-dimensional vectors and quaternions. +And ordinary people can't interact with them. +And I think it's the sort of technology that's gone wrong. +It's displaced the worker from the technology. +And I think we really have to look at technologies that ordinary workers can interact with. +And so I want to tell you today about Baxter, which we've been talking about. +And Baxter, I see, as a way -- a first wave of robot that ordinary people can interact with in an industrial setting. +So Baxter is up here. +This is Chris Harbert from Rethink Robotics. +We've got a conveyor there. +And if the lighting isn't too extreme -- Ah, ah! There it is. It's picked up the object off the conveyor. +It's going to come bring it over here and put it down. +And then it'll go back, reach for another object. +The interesting thing is Baxter has some basic common sense. +By the way, what's going on with the eyes? +The eyes are on the screen there. +The eyes look ahead where the robot's going to move. +So a person that's interacting with the robot understands where it's going to reach and isn't surprised by its motions. +Here Chris took the object out of its hand, and Baxter didn't go and try to put it down; it went back and realized it had to get another one. +It's got a little bit of basic common sense, goes and picks the objects. +And Baxter's safe to interact with. +You wouldn't want to do this with a current industrial robot. +But with Baxter it doesn't hurt. +It feels the force, understands that Chris is there and doesn't push through him and hurt him. +But I think the most interesting thing about Baxter is the user interface. +And so Chris is going to come and grab the other arm now. +And when he grabs an arm, it goes into zero-force gravity-compensated mode and graphics come up on the screen. +You can see some icons on the left of the screen there for what was about its right arm. +He's going to put something in its hand, he's going to bring it over here, press a button and let go of that thing in the hand. +And the robot figures out, ah, he must mean I want to put stuff down. +It puts a little icon there. +He comes over here, and he gets the fingers to grasp together, and the robot infers, ah, you want an object for me to pick up. +That puts the green icon there. +He's going to map out an area of where the robot should pick up the object from. +It just moves it around, and the robot figures out that was an area search. +He didn't have to select that from a menu. +And now he's going to go off and train the visual appearance of that object while we continue talking. +So as we continue here, I want to tell you about what this is like in factories. +These robots we're shipping every day. +They go to factories around the country. +This is Mildred. +Mildred's a factory worker in Connecticut. +She's worked on the line for over 20 years. +One hour after she saw her first industrial robot, she had programmed it to do some tasks in the factory. +She decided she really liked robots. +And it was doing the simple repetitive tasks that she had had to do beforehand. +Now she's got the robot doing it. +When we first went out to talk to people in factories about how we could get robots to interact with them better, one of the questions we asked them was, "Do you want your children to work in a factory?" +The universal answer was "No, I want a better job than that for my children." +And as a result of that, Mildred is very typical of today's factory workers in the U.S. +They're older, and they're getting older and older. +There aren't many young people coming into factory work. +And as their tasks become more onerous on them, we need to give them tools that they can collaborate with, so that they can be part of the solution, so that they can continue to work and we can continue to produce in the U.S. +And so our vision is that Mildred who's the line worker becomes Mildred the robot trainer. +She lifts her game, like the office workers of the 1980s lifted their game of what they could do. +We're not giving them tools that they have to go and study for years and years in order to use. +They're tools that they can just learn how to operate in a few minutes. +There's two great forces that are both volitional but inevitable. +That's climate change and demographics. +Demographics is really going to change our world. +This is the percentage of adults who are working age. +And it's gone down slightly over the last 40 years. +But over the next 40 years, it's going to change dramatically, even in China. +The percentage of adults who are working age drops dramatically. +And turned up the other way, the people who are retirement age goes up very, very fast, as the baby boomers get to retirement age. +That means there will be more people with fewer social security dollars competing for services. +But more than that, as we get older we get more frail and we can't do all the tasks we used to do. +If we look at the statistics on the ages of caregivers, before our eyes those caregivers are getting older and older. +That's happening statistically right now. +And as the number of people who are older, above retirement age and getting older, as they increase, there will be less people to take care of them. +And I think we're really going to have to have robots to help us. +And I don't mean robots in terms of companions. +I mean robots doing the things that we normally do for ourselves but get harder as we get older. +Getting the groceries in from the car, up the stairs, into the kitchen. +Or even, as we get very much older, driving our cars to go visit people. +And I think robotics gives people a chance to have dignity as they get older by having control of the robotic solution. +So they don't have to rely on people that are getting scarcer to help them. +And so I really think that we're going to be spending more time with robots like Baxter and working with robots like Baxter in our daily lives. And that we will -- Here, Baxter, it's good. +And that we will all come to rely on robots over the next 40 years as part of our everyday lives. +Thanks very much. +Everything is interconnected. +As a Shinnecock Indian, I was raised to know this. +We are a small fishing tribe situated on the southeastern tip of Long Island near the town of Southampton in New York. +When I was a little girl, my grandfather took me to sit outside in the sun on a hot summer day. +There were no clouds in the sky. +And after a while I began to perspire. +And he pointed up to the sky, and he said, "Look, do you see that? +That's part of you up there. +That's your water that helps to make the cloud that becomes the rain that feeds the plants that feeds the animals." +In my continued exploration of subjects in nature that have the ability to illustrate the interconnection of all life, I started storm chasing in 2008 after my daughter said, "Mom, you should do that." +And so three days later, driving very fast, I found myself stalking a single type of giant cloud called the super cell, capable of producing grapefruit-size hail and spectacular tornadoes, although only two percent actually do. +These clouds can grow so big, up to 50 miles wide and reach up to 65,000 feet into the atmosphere. +They can grow so big, blocking all daylight, making it very dark and ominous standing under them. +Storm chasing is a very tactile experience. +There's a warm, moist wind blowing at your back and the smell of the earth, the wheat, the grass, the charged particles. +And then there are the colors in the clouds of hail forming, the greens and the turquoise blues. +I've learned to respect the lightning. +My hair used to be straight. +I'm just kidding. +What really excites me about these storms is their movement, the way they swirl and spin and undulate, with their lava lamp-like mammatus clouds. +They become lovely monsters. +When I'm photographing them, I cannot help but remember my grandfather's lesson. +As I stand under them, I see not just a cloud, but understand that what I have the privilege to witness is the same forces, the same process in a small-scale version that helped to create our galaxy, our solar system, our sun and even this very planet. +All my relations. Thank you. +So what does it mean for a machine to be athletic? +We will demonstrate the concept of machine athleticism and the research to achieve it with the help of these flying machines called quadrocopters, or quads, for short. +Quads have been around for a long time. +They're so popular these days because they're mechanically simple. +By controlling the speeds of these four propellers, these machines can roll, pitch, yaw, and accelerate along their common orientation. +On board are also a battery, a computer, various sensors and wireless radios. +Quads are extremely agile, but this agility comes at a cost. +They are inherently unstable, and they need some form of automatic feedback control in order to be able to fly. +So, how did it just do that? +Cameras on the ceiling and a laptop serve as an indoor global positioning system. +It's used to locate objects in the space that have these reflective markers on them. +This data is then sent to another laptop that is running estimation and control algorithms, which in turn sends commands to the quad, which is also running estimation and control algorithms. +The bulk of our research is algorithms. +It's the magic that brings these machines to life. +So how does one design the algorithms that create a machine athlete? +We use something broadly called model-based design. +We first capture the physics with a mathematical model of how the machines behave. +We then use a branch of mathematics called control theory to analyze these models and also to synthesize algorithms for controlling them. +For example, that's how we can make the quad hover. +We first captured the dynamics with a set of differential equations. +We then manipulate these equations with the help of control theory to create algorithms that stabilize the quad. +Let me demonstrate the strength of this approach. +Suppose that we want this quad to not only hover but to also balance this pole. +With a little bit of practice, it's pretty straightforward for a human being to do this, although we do have the advantage of having two feet on the ground and the use of our very versatile hands. +It becomes a little bit more difficult when I only have one foot on the ground and when I don't use my hands. +Notice how this pole has a reflective marker on top, which means that it can be located in the space. +You can notice that this quad is making fine adjustments to keep the pole balanced. +How did we design the algorithms to do this? +We added the mathematical model of the pole to that of the quad. +Once we have a model of the combined quad-pole system, we can use control theory to create algorithms for controlling it. +Here, you see that it's stable, and even if I give it little nudges, it goes back -- to the nice, balanced position. +We can also augment the model to include where we want the quad to be in space. +Using this pointer, made out of reflective markers, I can point to where I want the quad to be in space a fixed distance away from me. +The key to these acrobatic maneuvers is algorithms, designed with the help of mathematical models and control theory. +Let's tell the quad to come back here and let the pole drop, and I will next demonstrate the importance of understanding physical models and the workings of the physical world. +Notice how the quad lost altitude when I put this glass of water on it. +Unlike the balancing pole, I did not include the mathematical model of the glass in the system. +In fact, the system doesn't even know that the glass is there. +Like before, I could use the pointer to tell the quad where I want it to be in space. +(Applause ends) Okay, you should be asking yourself, why doesn't the water fall out of the glass? +Two facts. +The first is that gravity acts on all objects in the same way. +The second is that the propellers are all pointing in the same direction of the glass, pointing up. +You put these two things together, the net result is that all side forces on the glass are small and are mainly dominated by aerodynamic effects, which at these speeds are negligible. +And that's why you don't need to model the glass. +It naturally doesn't spill, no matter what the quad does. +(Applause ends) The lesson here is that some high-performance tasks are easier than others, and that understanding the physics of the problem tells you which ones are easy and which ones are hard. +In this instance, carrying a glass of water is easy. +Balancing a pole is hard. +We've all heard stories of athletes performing feats while physically injured. +Can a machine also perform with extreme physical damage? +Conventional wisdom says that you need at least four fixed motor propeller pairs in order to fly, because there are four degrees of freedom to control: roll, pitch, yaw and acceleration. +Hexacopters and octocopters, with six and eight propellers, can provide redundancy, but quadrocopters are much more popular because they have the minimum number of fixed motor propeller pairs: four. +Or do they? +If we analyze the mathematical model of this machine with only two working propellers, we discover that there's an unconventional way to fly it. +We relinquish control of yaw, but roll, pitch and acceleration can still be controlled with algorithms that exploit this new configuration. +Mathematical models tell us exactly when and why this is possible. +In this instance, this knowledge allows us to design novel machine architectures or to design clever algorithms that gracefully handle damage, just like human athletes do, instead of building machines with redundancy. +We can't help but hold our breath when we watch a diver somersaulting into the water, or when a vaulter is twisting in the air, the ground fast approaching. +Will the diver be able to pull off a rip entry? +Will the vaulter stick the landing? +Suppose we want this quad here to perform a triple flip and finish off at the exact same spot that it started. +This maneuver is going to happen so quickly that we can't use position feedback to correct the motion during execution. +There simply isn't enough time. +Instead, what the quad can do is perform the maneuver blindly, observe how it finishes the maneuver, and then use that information to modify its behavior so that the next flip is better. +Similar to the diver and the vaulter, it is only through repeated practice that the maneuver can be learned and executed to the highest standard. +Striking a moving ball is a necessary skill in many sports. +How do we make a machine do what an athlete does seemingly without effort? +This quad has a racket strapped onto its head with a sweet spot roughly the size of an apple, so not too large. +The following calculations are made every 20 milliseconds, or 50 times per second. +We first figure out where the ball is going. +We then next calculate how the quad should hit the ball so that it flies to where it was thrown from. +Third, a trajectory is planned that carries the quad from its current state to the impact point with the ball. +Fourth, we only execute 20 milliseconds' worth of that strategy. +Twenty milliseconds later, the whole process is repeated until the quad strikes the ball. +Machines can not only perform dynamic maneuvers on their own, they can do it collectively. +These three quads are cooperatively carrying a sky net. +(Applause ends) They perform an extremely dynamic and collective maneuver to launch the ball back to me. +Notice that, at full extension, these quads are vertical. +In fact, when fully extended, this is roughly five times greater than what a bungee jumper feels at the end of their launch. +The algorithms to do this are very similar to what the single quad used to hit the ball back to me. +Mathematical models are used to continuously re-plan a cooperative strategy 50 times per second. +Everything we have seen so far has been about the machines and their capabilities. +What happens when we couple this machine athleticism with that of a human being? +What I have in front of me is a commercial gesture sensor mainly used in gaming. +It can recognize what my various body parts are doing in real time. +Similar to the pointer that I used earlier, we can use this as inputs to the system. +We now have a natural way of interacting with the raw athleticism of these quads with my gestures. +Interaction doesn't have to be virtual. It can be physical. +Take this quad, for example. +It's trying to stay at a fixed point in space. +If I try to move it out of the way, it fights me, and moves back to where it wants to be. +We can change this behavior, however. +We can use mathematical models to estimate the force that I'm applying to the quad. +Once we know this force, we can also change the laws of physics, as far as the quad is concerned, of course. +Here, the quad is behaving as if it were in a viscous fluid. +We now have an intimate way of interacting with a machine. +I will use this new capability to position this camera-carrying quad to the appropriate location for filming the remainder of this demonstration. +So we can physically interact with these quads and we can change the laws of physics. +Let's have a little bit of fun with this. +For what you will see next, these quads will initially behave as if they were on Pluto. +As time goes on, gravity will be increased until we're all back on planet Earth, but I assure you we won't get there. +Okay, here goes. +Whew! +You're all thinking now, these guys are having way too much fun, and you're probably also asking yourself, why exactly are they building machine athletes? +Some conjecture that the role of play in the animal kingdom is to hone skills and develop capabilities. +Others think that it has more of a social role, that it's used to bind the group. +Similarly, we use the analogy of sports and athleticism to create new algorithms for machines to push them to their limits. +What impact will the speed of machines have on our way of life? +Like all our past creations and innovations, they may be used to improve the human condition or they may be misused and abused. +This is not a technical choice we are faced with; it's a social one. +Let's make the right choice, the choice that brings out the best in the future of machines, just like athleticism in sports can bring out the best in us. +Let me introduce you to the wizards behind the green curtain. +They're the current members of the Flying Machine Arena research team. +Federico Augugliaro, Dario Brescianini, Markus Hehn, Sergei Lupashin, Mark Muller and Robin Ritz. +Look out for them. They're destined for great things. +Thank you. +This will not be a speech like any one I have ever given. +I will talk to you today about the failure of leadership in global politics and in our globalizing economy. +And I won't provide some feel-good, ready-made solutions. +But I will in the end urge you to rethink, actually take risks, and get involved in what I see as a global evolution of democracy. +Failure of leadership. +What is the failure of leadership today? +And why is our democracy not working? +Well, I believe that the failure of leadership is the fact that we have taken you out of the process. +So let me, from my personal experiences, give you an insight, so that you can step back and maybe understand why it is so difficult to cope with the challenges of today and why politics is going down a blind alley. +Let's start from the beginning. +Let's start from democracy. +Well, if you go back to the Ancient Greeks, it was a revelation, a discovery, that we had the potential, together, to be masters of our own fate, to be able to examine, to learn, to imagine, and then to design a better life. +And democracy was the political innovation which protected this freedom, because we were liberated from fear so that our minds in fact, whether they be despots or dogmas, could be the protagonists. +Democracy was the political innovation that allowed us to limit the power, whether it was of tyrants or of high priests, their natural tendency to maximize power and wealth. +Well, I first began to understand this when I was 14 years old. +I used to, to try to avoid homework, sneak down to the living room and listen to my parents and their friends debate heatedly. +You see, then Greece was under control of a very powerful establishment which was strangling the country, and my father was heading a promising movement to reimagine Greece, to imagine a Greece where freedom reigned and where, maybe, the people, the citizens, could actually rule their own country. +I used to join him in many of the campaigns, and you can see me here next to him. +I'm the younger one there, to the side. +You may not recognize me because I used to part my hair differently there. +So in 1967, elections were coming, things were going well in the campaign, the house was electric. +We really could sense that there was going to be a major progressive change in Greece. +Then one night, military trucks drive up to our house. +Soldiers storm the door. +They find me up on the top terrace. +A sergeant comes up to me with a machine gun, puts it to my head, and says, "Tell me where your father is or I will kill you." +My father, hiding nearby, reveals himself, and was summarily taken to prison. +Well, we survived, but democracy did not. +Seven brutal years of dictatorship which we spent in exile. +Now, today, our democracies are again facing a moment of truth. +Let me tell you a story. +Sunday evening, Brussels, April 2010. +I'm sitting with my counterparts in the European Union. +I had just been elected prime minister, but I had the unhappy privilege of revealing a truth that our deficit was not 6 percent, as had been officially reported only a few days earlier before the elections by the previous government, but actually 15.6 percent. +But despite our electoral mandate, the markets mistrusted us. +Our borrowing costs were skyrocketing, and we were facing possible default. +So I went to Brussels on a mission to make the case for a united European response, one that would calm the markets and give us the time to make the necessary reforms. +But time we didn't get. +Picture yourselves around the table in Brussels. +Negotiations are difficult, the tensions are high, progress is slow, and then, 10 minutes to 2, a prime minister shouts out, "We have to finish in 10 minutes." +I said, "Why? These are important decisions. +Let's deliberate a little bit longer." +Another prime minister comes in and says, "No, we have to have an agreement now, because in 10 minutes, the markets are opening up in Japan, and there will be havoc in the global economy." +We quickly came to a decision in those 10 minutes. +This time it was not the military, but the markets, that put a gun to our collective heads. +What followed were the most difficult decisions in my life, painful to me, painful to my countrymen, imposing cuts, austerity, often on those not to blame for the crisis. +With these sacrifices, Greece did avoid bankruptcy and the eurozone avoided a collapse. +Greece, yes, triggered the Euro crisis, and some people blame me for pulling the trigger. +But I think today that most would agree that Greece was only a symptom of much deeper structural problems in the eurozone, vulnerabilities in the wider global economic system, vulnerabilities of our democracies. +Our democracies are trapped by systems too big to fail, or, more accurately, too big to control. +Our democracies are weakened in the global economy with players that can evade laws, evade taxes, evade environmental or labor standards. +Our democracies are undermined by the growing inequality and the growing concentration of power and wealth, lobbies, corruption, the speed of the markets or simply the fact that we sometimes fear an impending disaster, have constrained our democracies, and they have constrained our capacity to imagine and actually use the potential, your potential, in finding solutions. +Greece, you see, was only a preview of what is in store for us all. +I, overly optimistically, had hoped that this crisis was an opportunity for Greece, for Europe, for the world, to make radical democratic transformations in our institutions. +Instead, I had a very humbling experience. +In Brussels, when we tried desperately again and again to find common solutions, I realized that not one, not one of us, had ever dealt with a similar crisis. +But worse, we were trapped by our collective ignorance. +We were led by our fears. +And our fears led to a blind faith in the orthodoxy of austerity. +Instead of reaching out to the common or the collective wisdom in our societies, investing in it to find more creative solutions, we reverted to political posturing. +And then we were surprised when every ad hoc new measure didn't bring an end to the crisis, and of course that made it very easy to look for a whipping boy for our collective European failure, and of course that was Greece. +Those profligate, idle, ouzo-swilling, Zorba-dancing Greeks, they are the problem. Punish them! +Well, a convenient but unfounded stereotype that sometimes hurt even more than austerity itself. +But let me warn you, this is not just about Greece. +This could be the pattern that leaders follow again and again when we deal with these complex, cross-border problems, whether it's climate change, whether it's migration, whether it's the financial system. +That is, abandoning our collective power to imagine our potential, falling victims to our fears, our stereotypes, our dogmas, taking our citizens out of the process rather than building the process around our citizens. +And doing so will only test the faith of our citizens, of our peoples, even more in the democratic process. +It's no wonder that many political leaders, and I don't exclude myself, have lost the trust of our people. +When riot police have to protect parliaments, a scene which is increasingly common around the world, then there's something deeply wrong with our democracies. +That's why I called for a referendum to have the Greek people own and decide on the terms of the rescue package. +My European counterparts, some of them, at least, said, "You can't do this. +There will be havoc in the markets again." +I said, "We need to, before we restore confidence in the markets, we need to restore confidence and trust amongst our people." +Since leaving office, I have had time to reflect. +We have weathered the storm, in Greece and in Europe, but we remain challenged. +If politics is the power to imagine and use our potential, well then 60-percent youth unemployment in Greece, and in other countries, certainly is a lack of imagination if not a lack of compassion. +So far, we've thrown economics at the problem, actually mostly austerity, and certainly we could have designed alternatives, a different strategy, a green stimulus for green jobs, or mutualized debt, Eurobonds which would support countries in need from market pressures, these would have been much more viable alternatives. +Yet I have come to believe that the problem is not so much one of economics as it is one of democracy. +So let's try something else. +Let's see how we can bring people back to the process. +Let's throw democracy at the problem. +Again, the Ancient Greeks, with all their shortcomings, believed in the wisdom of the crowd at their best moments. In people we trust. +Democracy could not work without the citizens deliberating, debating, taking on public responsibilities for public affairs. +Average citizens often were chosen for citizen juries to decide on critical matters of the day. +Science, theater, research, philosophy, games of the mind and the body, they were daily exercises. +Actually they were an education for participation, for the potential, for growing the potential of our citizens. +And those who shunned politics, well, they were idiots. +You see, in Ancient Greece, in ancient Athens, that term originated there. +"Idiot" comes from the root "idio," oneself. +A person who is self-centered, secluded, excluded, someone who doesn't participate or even examine public affairs. +And participation took place in the agora, the agora having two meanings, both a marketplace and a place where there was political deliberation. +You see, markets and politics then were one, unified, accessible, transparent, because they gave power to the people. +They serve the demos, democracy. +Above government, above markets was the direct rule of the people. +Today we have globalized the markets but we have not globalized our democratic institutions. +So our politicians are limited to local politics, while our citizens, even though they see a great potential, are prey to forces beyond their control. +So how then do we reunite the two halves of the agora? +How do we democratize globalization? +And I'm not talking about the necessary reforms of the United Nations or the G20. +I'm talking about, how do we secure the space, the demos, the platform of values, so that we can tap into all of your potential? +Well, this is exactly where I think Europe fits in. +Europe, despite its recent failures, is the world's most successful cross-border peace experiment. +So let's see if it can't be an experiment in global democracy, a new kind of democracy. +Let's see if we can't design a European agora, not simply for products and services, but for our citizens, where they can work together, deliberate, learn from each other, exchange between art and cultures, where they can come up with creative solutions. +Let's imagine that European citizens actually have the power to vote directly for a European president, or citizen juries chosen by lottery which can deliberate on critical and controversial issues, a European-wide referendum where our citizens, as the lawmakers, vote on future treaties. +And here's an idea: Why not have the first truly European citizens by giving our immigrants, not Greek or German or Swedish citizenship, but a European citizenship? +And make sure we actually empower the unemployed by giving them a voucher scholarship where they can choose to study anywhere in Europe. +Where our common identity is democracy, where our education is through participation, and where participation builds trust and solidarity rather than exclusion and xenophobia. +Europe of and by the people, a Europe, an experiment in deepening and widening democracy beyond borders. +Now, some might accuse me of being naive, putting my faith in the power and the wisdom of the people. +Well, after decades in politics, I am also a pragmatist. +Believe me, I have been, I am, part of today's political system, and I know things must change. +We must revive politics as the power to imagine, reimagine, and redesign for a better world. +But I also know that this disruptive force of change won't be driven by the politics of today. +The revival of democratic politics will come from you, and I mean all of you. +It is in their interest that all of us are idiots. +Let's not be. +Thank you. +Bruno Giussani: You seem to describe a political leadership that is kind of unprepared and a prisoner of the whims of the financial markets, and that scene in Brussels that you describe, to me, as a citizen, is terrifying. +Help us understand how you felt after the decision. +It was not a good decision, clearly, but how do you feel after that, not as the prime minister, but as George? +George Papandreou: Well, obviously there were constraints which didn't allow me or others to make the types of decisions we would have wanted, and obviously I had hoped that we would have the time to make the reforms which would have dealt with the deficit rather than trying to cut the deficit which was the symptom of the problem. +And that hurt. That hurt because that, first of all, hurt the younger generation, and not only, many of them are demonstrating outside, but I think this is one of our problems. +BG: You seem to suggest that the way forward is more Europe, and that is not to be an easy discourse right now in most European countries. +It's rather the other way -- more closed borders and less cooperation and maybe even stepping out of some of the different parts of the European construction. +How do you reconcile that? +GP: Well, I think one of the worst things that happened during this crisis is that we started a blame game. +And the fundamental idea of Europe is that we can cooperate beyond borders, go beyond our conflicts and work together. +And the paradox is that, because we have this blame game, we have less the potential to convince our citizens that we should work together, while now is the time when we really need to bring our powers together. +Now, more Europe for me is not simply giving more power to Brussels. +It is actually giving more power to the citizens of Europe, that is, really making Europe a project of the people. +So that, I think, would be a way to answer some of the fears that we have in our society. +BG: George, thank you for coming to TED. +GP: Thank you very much.BG: Thank you. +I write fiction sci-fi thrillers, so if I say "killer robots," you'd probably think something like this. +But I'm actually not here to talk about fiction. +I'm here to talk about very real killer robots, autonomous combat drones. +Now, I'm not referring to Predator and Reaper drones, which have a human making targeting decisions. +I'm talking about fully autonomous robotic weapons that make lethal decisions about human beings all on their own. +There's actually a technical term for this: lethal autonomy. +Now, lethally autonomous killer robots would take many forms -- flying, driving, or just lying in wait. +And actually, they're very quickly becoming a reality. +These are two automatic sniper stations currently deployed in the DMZ between North and South Korea. +Both of these machines are capable of automatically identifying a human target and firing on it, the one on the left at a distance of over a kilometer. +Now, in both cases, there's still a human in the loop to make that lethal firing decision, but it's not a technological requirement. It's a choice. +And it's that choice that I want to focus on, because as we migrate lethal decision-making from humans to software, we risk not only taking the humanity out of war, but also changing our social landscape entirely, far from the battlefield. +That's because the way humans resolve conflict shapes our social landscape. +And this has always been the case, throughout history. +For example, these were state-of-the-art weapons systems in 1400 A.D. +Now they were both very expensive to build and maintain, but with these you could dominate the populace, and the distribution of political power in feudal society reflected that. +Power was focused at the very top. +And what changed? Technological innovation. +Gunpowder, cannon. +And pretty soon, armor and castles were obsolete, and it mattered less who you brought to the battlefield versus how many people you brought to the battlefield. +And as armies grew in size, the nation-state arose as a political and logistical requirement of defense. +And as leaders had to rely on more of their populace, they began to share power. +Representative government began to form. +So again, the tools we use to resolve conflict shape our social landscape. +Autonomous robotic weapons are such a tool, except that, by requiring very few people to go to war, they risk re-centralizing power into very few hands, possibly reversing a five-century trend toward democracy. +Now, I think, knowing this, we can take decisive steps to preserve our democratic institutions, to do what humans do best, which is adapt. +But time is a factor. +Seventy nations are developing remotely-piloted combat drones of their own, and as you'll see, remotely-piloted combat drones are the precursors to autonomous robotic weapons. +That's because once you've deployed remotely-piloted drones, there are three powerful factors pushing decision-making away from humans and on to the weapon platform itself. +The first of these is the deluge of video that drones produce. +For example, in 2004, the U.S. drone fleet produced a grand total of 71 hours of video surveillance for analysis. +By 2011, this had gone up to 300,000 hours, outstripping human ability to review it all, but even that number is about to go up drastically. +The Pentagon's Gorgon Stare and Argus programs will put up to 65 independently operated camera eyes on each drone platform, and this would vastly outstrip human ability to review it. +And that means visual intelligence software will need to scan it for items of interest. +And that means very soon drones will tell humans what to look at, not the other way around. +But there's a second powerful incentive pushing decision-making away from humans and onto machines, and that's electromagnetic jamming, severing the connection between the drone and its operator. +Now we saw an example of this in 2011 when an American RQ-170 Sentinel drone got a bit confused over Iran due to a GPS spoofing attack, but any remotely-piloted drone is susceptible to this type of attack, and that means drones will have to shoulder more decision-making. +They'll know their mission objective, and they'll react to new circumstances without human guidance. +They'll ignore external radio signals and send very few of their own. +Which brings us to, really, the third and most powerful incentive pushing decision-making away from humans and onto weapons: plausible deniability. +Now we live in a global economy. +High-tech manufacturing is occurring on most continents. +Cyber espionage is spiriting away advanced designs to parts unknown, and in that environment, it is very likely that a successful drone design will be knocked off in contract factories, proliferate in the gray market. +And in that situation, sifting through the wreckage of a suicide drone attack, it will be very difficult to say who sent that weapon. +This raises the very real possibility of anonymous war. +This could tilt the geopolitical balance on its head, make it very difficult for a nation to turn its firepower against an attacker, and that could shift the balance in the 21st century away from defense and toward offense. +It could make military action a viable option not just for small nations, but criminal organizations, private enterprise, even powerful individuals. +It could create a landscape of rival warlords undermining rule of law and civil society. +Now if responsibility and transparency are two of the cornerstones of representative government, autonomous robotic weapons could undermine both. +Now you might be thinking that citizens of high-tech nations would have the advantage in any robotic war, that citizens of those nations would be less vulnerable, particularly against developing nations. +But I think the truth is the exact opposite. +I think citizens of high-tech societies are more vulnerable to robotic weapons, and the reason can be summed up in one word: data. +Data powers high-tech societies. +Cell phone geolocation, telecom metadata, social media, email, text, financial transaction data, transportation data, it's a wealth of real-time data on the movements and social interactions of people. +In short, we are more visible to machines than any people in history, and this perfectly suits the targeting needs of autonomous weapons. +What you're looking at here is a link analysis map of a social group. +Lines indicate social connectedness between individuals. +And these types of maps can be automatically generated based on the data trail modern people leave behind. +Now it's typically used to market goods and services to targeted demographics, but it's a dual-use technology, because targeting is used in another context. +Notice that certain individuals are highlighted. +These are the hubs of social networks. +These are organizers, opinion-makers, leaders, and these people also can be automatically identified from their communication patterns. +Now, if you're a marketer, you might then target them with product samples, try to spread your brand through their social group. +But if you're a repressive government searching for political enemies, you might instead remove them, eliminate them, disrupt their social group, and those who remain behind lose social cohesion and organization. +Now in a world of cheap, proliferating robotic weapons, borders would offer very little protection to critics of distant governments or trans-national criminal organizations. +Popular movements agitating for change could be detected early and their leaders eliminated before their ideas achieve critical mass. +And ideas achieving critical mass is what political activism in popular government is all about. +Anonymous lethal weapons could make lethal action an easy choice for all sorts of competing interests. +And this would put a chill on free speech and popular political action, the very heart of democracy. +And this is why we need an international treaty on robotic weapons, and in particular a global ban on the development and deployment of killer robots. +Now we already have international treaties on nuclear and biological weapons, and, while imperfect, these have largely worked. +But robotic weapons might be every bit as dangerous, because they will almost certainly be used, and they would also be corrosive to our democratic institutions. +Now in November 2012 the U.S. Department of Defense issued a directive requiring a human being be present in all lethal decisions. +This temporarily effectively banned autonomous weapons in the U.S. military, but that directive needs to be made permanent. +And it could set the stage for global action. +Because we need an international legal framework for robotic weapons. +And we need it now, before there's a devastating attack or a terrorist incident that causes nations of the world to rush to adopt these weapons before thinking through the consequences. +Autonomous robotic weapons concentrate too much power in too few hands, and they would imperil democracy itself. +Now, don't get me wrong, I think there are tons of great uses for unarmed civilian drones: environmental monitoring, search and rescue, logistics. +If we have an international treaty on robotic weapons, how do we gain the benefits of autonomous drones and vehicles while still protecting ourselves against illegal robotic weapons? +I think the secret will be transparency. +No robot should have an expectation of privacy in a public place. +Each robot and drone should have a cryptographically signed I.D. burned in at the factory that can be used to track its movement through public spaces. +We have license plates on cars, tail numbers on aircraft. +This is no different. +And every citizen should be able to download an app that shows the population of drones and autonomous vehicles moving through public spaces around them, both right now and historically. +And civic leaders should deploy sensors and civic drones to detect rogue drones, and instead of sending killer drones of their own up to shoot them down, they should notify humans to their presence. +And in certain very high-security areas, perhaps civic drones would snare them and drag them off to a bomb disposal facility. +But notice, this is more an immune system than a weapons system. +It would allow us to avail ourselves of the use of autonomous vehicles and drones while still preserving our open, civil society. +We must ban the deployment and development of killer robots. +Let's not succumb to the temptation to automate war. +Autocratic governments and criminal organizations undoubtedly will, but let's not join them. +Autonomous robotic weapons would concentrate too much power in too few unseen hands, and that would be corrosive to representative government. +Let's make sure, for democracies at least, killer robots remain fiction. +Thank you. +Thank you. +Allow me to start this talk with a question to everyone. +You know that all over the world, people fight for their freedom, fight for their rights. +Some battle oppressive governments. +Others battle oppressive societies. +Which battle do you think is harder? +Allow me to try to answer this question in the few coming minutes. +Let me take you back two years ago in my life. +It was the bedtime of my son, Aboody. +He was five at the time. +After finishing his bedtime rituals, he looked at me and he asked a question: "Mommy, are we bad people?" +I was shocked. +"Why do you say such things, Aboody?" +Earlier that day, I noticed some bruises on his face when he came from school. +He wouldn't tell me what happened. +[But now] he was ready to tell. +"Two boys hit me today in school. +They told me, 'We saw your mom on Facebook. +You and your mom should be put in jail.'" I've never been afraid to tell Aboody anything. +I've been always a proud woman of my achievements. +But those questioning eyes of my son were my moment of truth, when it all came together. +You see, I'm a Saudi woman who had been put in jail for driving a car in a country where women are not supposed to drive cars. +Just for giving me his car keys, my own brother was detained twice, and he was harassed to the point he had to quit his job as a geologist, leave the country with his wife and two-year-old son. +My father had to sit in a Friday sermon listening to the imam condemning women drivers and calling them prostitutes amongst tons of worshippers, some of them our friends and family of my own father. +I was faced with an organized defamation campaign in the local media combined with false rumors shared in family gatherings, in the streets and in schools. +It all hit me. +It came into focus that those kids did not mean to be rude to my son. +They were just influenced by the adults around them. +And it wasn't about me, and it wasn't a punishment for taking the wheel and driving a few miles. +It was a punishment for daring to challenge the society's rules. +But my story goes beyond this moment of truth of mine. +Allow me to give you a briefing about my story. +It was May, 2011, and I was complaining to a work colleague about the harassments I had to face trying to find a ride back home, although I have a car and an international driver's license. +As long as I've known, women in Saudi Arabia have been always complaining about the ban, but it's been 20 years since anyone tried to do anything about it, a whole generation ago. +He broke the good/bad news in my face. +"But there is no law banning you from driving." +I looked it up, and he was right. +There wasn't an actual law in Saudi Arabia. +It was just a custom and traditions that are enshrined in rigid religious fatwas and imposed on women. +That realization ignited the idea of June 17, where we encouraged women to take the wheel and go drive. +It was a few weeks later, we started receiving all these "Man wolves will rape you if you go and drive." +A courageous woman, her name is Najla Hariri, she's a Saudi woman in the city of Jeddah, she drove a car and she announced but she didn't record a video. +We needed proof. +So I drove. I posted a video on YouTube. +And to my surprise, it got hundreds of thousands of views the first day. +What happened next, of course? +I started receiving threats to be killed, raped, just to stop this campaign. +The Saudi authorities remained very quiet. +That really creeped us out. +I was in the campaign with other Saudi women and even men activists. +We wanted to know how the authorities would respond on the actual day, June 17, when women go out and drive. +So this time I asked my brother to come with me and drive by a police car. +It went fast. We were arrested, signed a pledge not to drive again, released. +Arrested again, he was sent to detention for one day, and I was sent to jail. +I wasn't sure why I was sent there, because I didn't face any charges in the interrogation. +But what I was sure of was my innocence. +I didn't break a law, and I kept my abaya it's a black cloak we wear in Saudi Arabia before we leave the house and my fellow prisoners kept asking me to take it off, but I was so sure of my innocence, I kept saying, "No, I'm leaving today." +Outside the jail, the whole country went into a frenzy, some attacking me badly, and others supportive and even collecting signatures in a petition to be sent to the king to release me. +I was released after nine days. +June 17 comes. +The streets were packed with police cars and religious police cars, but some hundred brave Saudi women broke the ban and drove that day. +None were arrested. We broke the taboo. +So I think by now, everyone knows that we can't drive, or women are not allowed to drive, in Saudi Arabia, but maybe few know why. +Allow me to help you answer this question. +There was this official study that was presented to the Shura Council -- it's the consultative council appointed by the king in Saudi Arabia and it was done by a local professor, a university professor. +He claims it's done based on a UNESCO study. +And the study states, the percentage of rape, adultery, illegitimate children, even drug abuse, prostitution in countries where women drive is higher than countries where women don't drive. +I know, I was like this, I was shocked. +I was like, "We are the last country in the world where women don't drive." +So if you look at the map of the world, that only leaves two countries: Saudi Arabia, and the other society is the rest of the world. +We started a hashtag on Twitter mocking the study, and it made headlines around the world. +[BBC News: 'End of virginity' if women drive, Saudi cleric warns] And only then we realized it's so empowering to mock your oppressor. +It strips it away of its strongest weapon: fear. +This system is based on ultra-conservative traditions and customs that deal with women as if they are inferior and they need a guardian to protect them, so they need to take permission from this guardian, whether verbal or written, all their lives. +We are minors until the day we die. +And it becomes worse when it's enshrined in religious fatwas based on wrong interpretation of the sharia law, or the religious laws. +What's worst, when they become codified as laws in the system, and when women themselves believe in their inferiority, and they even fight those who try to question these rules. +So for me, it wasn't only about these attacks I had to face. +It was about living two totally different perceptions of my personality, of my person -- the villain back in my home country, and the hero outside. +Just to tell you, two stories happened in the last two years. +One of them is when I was in jail. +I'm pretty sure when I was in jail, everyone saw titles in the international media something like this during these nine days I was in jail. +But in my home country, it was a totally different picture. +It was more like this: "Manal al-Sharif faces charges of disturbing public order and inciting women to drive." +I know. +"Manal al-Sharif withdraws from the campaign." +Ah, it's okay. This is my favorite. +"Manal al-Sharif breaks down and confesses: 'Foreign forces incited me.'" And it goes on, even trial and flogging me in public. +So it's a totally different picture. +I was asked last year to give a speech at the Oslo Freedom Forum. +I was surrounded by this love and the support of people around me, and they looked at me as an inspiration. +At the same time, I flew back to my home country, they hated that speech so much. +The way they called it: a betrayal to the Saudi country and the Saudi people, and they even started a hashtag called #OsloTraitor on Twitter. +Some 10,000 tweets were written in that hashtag, while the opposite hashtag, #OsloHero, there was like a handful of tweets written. +They even started a poll. +More than 13,000 voters answered this poll: whether they considered me a traitor or not after that speech. +Ninety percent said yes, she's a traitor. +So it's these two totally different perceptions of my personality. +For me, I'm a proud Saudi woman, and I do love my country, and because I love my country, I'm doing this. +Because I believe a society will not be free if the women of that society are not free. +Thank you. +Thank you, thank you, thank you, thank you. +Thank you. +But you learn lessons from these things that happen to you. +I learned to be always there. +The first thing, I got out of jail, of course after I took a shower, I went online, I opened my Twitter account and my Facebook page, and I've been always very respectful to those people who are opining to me. +I would listen to what they say, and I would never defend myself with words only. +I would use actions. When they said I should withdraw from the campaign, I filed the first lawsuit against the general directorate of traffic police for not issuing me a driver's license. +There are a lot of people also -- very big support, like those 3,000 people who signed the petition to release me. +We sent a petition to the Shura Council in favor of lifting the ban on Saudi women, and there were, like, 3,500 citizens who believed in that and they signed that petition. +There were people like that, I just showed some examples, who are amazing, who are believing in women's rights in Saudi Arabia, and trying, and they are also facing a lot of hate because of speaking up and voicing their views. +Saudi Arabia today is taking small steps toward enhancing women's rights. +The Shura Council that's appointed by the king, by royal decree of King Abdullah, last year there were 30 women assigned to that Council, like 20 percent. +20 percent of the Council. The same time, finally, that Council, after rejecting our petition four times for women driving, they finally accepted it last February. +After being sent to jail or sentenced lashing, or sent to a trial, the spokesperson of the traffic police said, we will only issue traffic violation for women drivers. +The Grand Mufti, who is the head of the religious establishment in Saudi Arabia, he said, it's not recommended for women to drive. +It used to be haram, forbidden, by the previous Grand Mufti. +So for me, it's not about only these small steps. +It's about women themselves. +A friend once asked me, she said, "So when do you think this women driving will happen?" +I told her, "Only if women stop asking 'When?' and take action to make it now." +So it's not only about the system, it's also about us women to drive our own life, I'd say. +So I have no clue, really, how I became an activist. +And I don't know how I became one now. +But all I know, and all I'm sure of, in the future when someone asks me my story, I will say, "I'm proud to be amongst those women who lifted the ban, fought the ban, and celebrated everyone's freedom." +So the question I started my talk with, who do you think is more difficult to face, oppressive governments or oppressive societies? +I hope you find clues to answer that from my speech. +Thank you, everyone. +Thank you. +Thank you. +Once upon a time we lived in an economy of financial growth and prosperity. +This was called the Great Moderation, the misguided belief by most economists, policymakers and central banks that we have transformed into a new world of never-ending growth and prosperity. +This was seen by robust and steady GDP growth, by low and controlled inflation, by low unemployment, and controlled and low financial volatility. +But the Great Recession in 2007 and 2008, the great crash, broke this illusion. +A few hundred billion dollars of losses in the financial sector cascaded into five trillion dollars of losses in world GDP and almost $30 trillion losses in the global stock market. +So the understanding of this Great Recession was that this was completely surprising, this came out of the blue, this was like the wrath of the gods. +There was no responsibility. +So, as a reflection of this, we started the Financial Crisis Observatory. +We had the goal to diagnose in real time financial bubbles and identify in advance their critical time. +What is the underpinning, scientifically, of this financial observatory? +We developed a theory called "dragon-kings." +Dragon-kings represent extreme events which are of a class of their own. +They are special. They are outliers. +They are generated by specific mechanisms that may make them predictable, perhaps controllable. +Consider the financial price time series, a given stock, your perfect stock, or a global index. +You have these up-and-downs. +A very good measure of the risk of this financial market is the peaks-to-valleys that represent a worst case scenario when you bought at the top and sold at the bottom. +You can look at the statistics, the frequency of the occurrence of peak-to-valleys of different sizes, which is represented in this graph. +Now, interestingly, 99 percent of the peak-to-valleys of different amplitudes can be represented by a universal power law represented by this red line here. +More interestingly, there are outliers, there are exceptions which are above this red line, occur 100 times more frequently, at least, than the extrapolation would predict them to occur based on the calibration of the 99 percent remaining peak-to-valleys. +They are due to trenchant dependancies such that a loss is followed by a loss which is followed by a loss which is followed by a loss. +These kinds of dependencies are largely missed by standard risk management tools, which ignore them and see lizards when they should see dragon-kings. +The root mechanism of a dragon-king is a slow maturation towards instability, which is the bubble, and the climax of the bubble is often the crash. +This is similar to the slow heating of water in this test tube reaching the boiling point, where the instability of the water occurs and you have the phase transition to vapor. +And this process, which is absolutely non-linear -- cannot be predicted by standard techniques -- is the reflection of a collective emergent behavior which is fundamentally endogenous. +So the cause of the crash, the cause of the crisis has to be found in an inner instability of the system, and any tiny perturbation will make this instability occur. +Now, some of you may have come to the mind that is this not related to the black swan concept you have heard about frequently? +Remember, black swan is this rare bird that you see once and suddenly shattered your belief that all swans should be white, so it has captured the idea of unpredictability, unknowability, that the extreme events are fundamentally unknowable. +Nothing can be further from the dragon-king concept I propose, which is exactly the opposite, that most extreme events are actually knowable and predictable. +So we can be empowered and take responsibility and make predictions about them. +So let's have my dragon-king burn this black swan concept. +There are many early warning signals that are predicted by this theory. +Let me just focus on one of them: the super-exponential growth with positive feedback. +What does it mean? +Imagine you have an investment that returns the first year five percent, the second year 10 percent, the third year 20 percent, the next year 40 percent. Is that not marvelous? +This is a super-exponential growth. +A standard exponential growth corresponds to a constant growth rate, let's say, of 10 percent The point is that, many times during bubbles, there are positive feedbacks which can be of many times, such that previous growths enhance, push forward, increase the next growth through this kind of super-exponential growth, which is very trenchant, not sustainable. +And the key idea is that the mathematical solution of this class of models exhibit finite-time singularities, which means that there is a critical time where the system will break, will change regime. +It may be a crash. It may be just a plateau, something else. +And the key idea is that the critical time, the information about the critical time is contained in the early development of this super-exponential growth. +We have applied this theory early on, that was our first success, to the diagnostic of the rupture of key elements on the iron rocket. +Using acoustic emission, you know, this little noise that you hear a structure emit, sing to you when they are stressed, and reveal the damage going on, there's a collective phenomenon of positive feedback, the more damage gives the more damage, so you can actually predict, within, of course, a probability band, when the rupture will occur. +So this is now so successful that it is used in the initial phase of [unclear] the flight. +Perhaps more surprisingly, the same type of theory applies to biology and medicine, parturition, the act of giving birth, epileptic seizures. +From seven months of pregnancy, a mother starts to feel episodic precursory contractions of the uterus that are the sign of these maturations toward the instability, giving birth to the baby, the dragon-king. +So if you measure the precursor signal, you can actually identify pre- and post-maturity problems in advance. +Epileptic seizures also come in a large variety of size, and when the brain goes to a super-critical state, you have dragon-kings which have a degree of predictability and this can help the patient to deal with this illness. +We have applied this theory to many systems, landslides, glacier collapse, even to the dynamics of prediction of success: blockbusters, YouTube videos, movies, and so on. +But perhaps the most important application is for finance, and this theory illuminates, I believe, the deep reason for the financial crisis that we have gone through. +This is rooted in 30 years of history of bubbles, starting in 1980, with the global bubble crashing in 1987, followed by many other bubbles. +The biggest one was the "new economy" Internet bubble in 2000, crashing in 2000, the real estate bubbles in many countries, financial derivative bubbles everywhere, stock market bubbles also everywhere, commodity and all bubbles, debt and credit bubbles -- bubbles, bubbles, bubbles. +We had a global bubble. +This is a measure of global overvaluation of all markets, expressing what I call an illusion of a perpetual money machine that suddenly broke in 2007. +The problem is that we see the same process, in particular through quantitative easing, of a thinking of a perpetual money machine nowadays to tackle the crisis since 2008 in the U.S., in Europe, in Japan. +This has very important implications to understand the failure of quantitative easing as well as austerity measures as long as we don't attack the core, the structural cause of this perpetual money machine thinking. +Now, these are big claims. +Why would you believe me? +Well, perhaps because, in the last 15 years we have come out of our ivory tower, and started to publish ex ante -- and I stress the term ex ante, it means "in advance" before the crash confirmed the existence of the bubble or the financial excesses. +These are a few of the major bubbles that we have lived through in recent history. +Again, many interesting stories for each of them. +Let me tell you just one or two stories that deal with massive bubbles. +We all know the Chinese miracle. +This is the expression of the stock market of a massive bubble, a factor of three, 300 percent in just a few years. +In September 2007, I was invited as a keynote speaker of a macro hedge fund management conference, and I showed to the conference a prediction that by the end of 2007, this bubble would change regime. +There might be a crash. Certainly not sustainable. +Now, how do you believe the very smart, very motivated, very informed macro hedge fund managers reacted to this prediction? +You know, they had made billions just surfing this bubble until now. +They told me, "Didier, yeah, the market might be overvalued, but you forget something. +There is the Beijing Olympic Games coming in August 2008, and it's very clear that the Chinese government is controlling the economy and doing what it takes to also avoid any wave and control the stock market." +Three weeks after my presentation, the markets lost 20 percent and went through a phase of volatility, upheaval, and a total market loss of 70 percent until the end of the year. +So how can we be so collectively wrong by misreading or ignoring the science of the fact that when an instability has developed, and the system is ripe, any perturbation makes it essentially impossible to control? +The Chinese market collapsed, but it rebounded. +In 2009, we also identified that this new bubble, a smaller one, was unsustainable, so we published again a prediction, in advance, stating that by August 2009, the market will correct, will not continue on this track. +Our critics, reading the prediction, said, "No, it's not possible. +The Chinese government is there. +They have learned their lesson. They will control. +They want to benefit from the growth." +Perhaps these critics have not learned their lesson previously. +So the crisis did occur. The market corrected. +The same critics then said, "Ah, yes, but you published your prediction. +You influenced the market. +It was not a prediction." +Maybe I am very powerful then. +Now, this is interesting. +It shows that it's essentially impossible until now to develop a science of economics because we are sentient beings who anticipate and there is a problem of self-fulfilling prophesies. +So we invented a new way of doing science. +We created the Financial Bubble Experiment. +The idea is the following. We monitor the markets. +We identify excesses, bubbles. +We do our work. We write a report in which we put our prediction of the critical time. +We don't release the report. It's kept secret. +But with modern encrypting techniques, we have a hash, we publish a public key, and six months later, we release the report, and there is authentication. +And all this is done on an international archive so that we cannot be accused of just releasing the successes. +Let me tease you with a very recent analysis. +17th of May, 2013, just two weeks ago, we identified that the U.S. stock market was on an unsustainable path and we released this on our website on the 21st of May that there will be a change of regime. +The next day, the market started to change regime, course. +This is not a crash. +This is just the third or fourth act of a massive bubble in the making. +Scaling up the discussion at the size of the planet, we see the same thing. +Wherever we look, it's observable: in the biosphere, in the atmosphere, in the ocean, showing these super-exponential trajectories characterizing an unsustainable path and announcing a phase transition. +This diagram on the right shows a very beautiful compilation of studies suggesting indeed that there is a nonlinear -- possibility for a nonlinear transition just in the next few decades. +So there are bubbles everywhere. +From one side, this is exciting for me, as a professor who chases bubbles and slays dragons, as the media has sometimes called me. +But can we really slay the dragons? +Very recently, with collaborators, we studied a dynamical system where you see the dragon-king as these big loops and we were able to apply tiny perturbations at the right times that removed, when control is on, these dragons. +"Gouverner, c'est prvoir." +Governing is the art of planning and predicting. +But is it not the case that this is probably one of the biggest gaps of mankind, which has the responsibility to steer our societies and our planet toward sustainability in the face of growing challenges and crises? +But the dragon-king theory gives hope. +We learn that most systems have pockets of predictability. +It is possible to develop advance diagnostics of crises so that we can be prepared, we can take measures, we can take responsibility, and so that never again will extremes and crises like the Great Recession or the European crisis take us by surprise. +Thank you. +The idea of eliminating poverty is a great goal. +I don't think anyone in this room would disagree. +What worries me is when politicians with money and charismatic rock stars -- use the words, " ... it all just sounds so, so simple." +Now, I've got no bucket of money today and I've got no policy to release, and I certainly haven't got a guitar. +I'll leave that to others. +But I do have an idea, and that idea is called Housing for Health. +Housing for Health works with poor people. +It works in the places where they live, and the work is done to improve their health. +Over the last 28 years, this tough, grinding, dirty work has been done by literally thousands of people around Australia and, more recently, overseas, and their work has proven that focused design can improve even the poorest living environments. +It can improve health and it can play a part in reducing, if not eliminating, poverty. +I'm going to start where the story began -- 1985, in Central Australia. +A man called Yami Lester, an Aboriginal man, was running a health service. +Eighty percent of what walked in the door, in terms of illness, was infectious disease -- third world, developing world infectious disease, caused by a poor living environment. +Yami assembled a team in Alice Springs. +He got a medical doctor. +He got an environmental health guy. +And he hand-selected a team of local Aboriginal people to work on this project. +Yami told us at that first meeting, "There's no money," -- always a good start -- " ... no money, you have six months, and I want you to start on a project --" which, in his language, he called "Uwankara Palyanku Kanyintjaku," which, translated, is "a plan to stop people getting sick" -- a profound brief. +That was our task. +First step, the medical doctor went away for about six months. +And he worked on what were to become these nine health goals -- After six months of work, he came to my office and presented me with those nine words on a piece of paper. +[The 9 Healthy Living Practices: Washing, clothes, wastewater, nutrition, crowding, animals, dust, temperature, injury] I was very unimpressed. Big ideas need big words, and preferably a lot of them. +This didn't fit the bill. +What I didn't see and what you can't see was that he'd assembled thousands of pages of local, national and international health research that filled out the picture as to why these were the health targets. +The pictures that came a bit later had a very simple reason. +The Aboriginal people who were our bosses and the senior people were most commonly illiterate, so the story had to be told in pictures of what these goals were. +We worked with the community, not telling them what was going to happen in a language they didn't understand. +So we had the goals and each one of these goals -- and I won't go through them all -- puts at the center the person and their health issue, and it then connects them to the bits of the physical environment that are actually needed to keep their health good. +And the highest priority, you see on the screen, is washing people once a day, particularly children. +And I hope most of you are thinking, "What? That sounds simple." +Now, I'm going to ask you all a very personal question. +This morning before you came, who could have had a wash using a shower? +I'm not going to ask if you had a shower, because I'm too polite. +That's it. +All right, I think it's fair to say most people here could have had a shower this morning. +I'm going to ask you to do some more work. +I want you all to select one of the houses of the 25 houses you see on the screen. +I want you to select one of them and note the position of that house and keep that in your head. +Have you all got a house? +I'm going to ask you to live there for a few months, so make sure you've got it right. +It's in the northwest of Western Australia, very pleasant place. +OK. Let's see if your shower in that house is working. +I hear some "Aw!" and I hear some "Ah!" +If you get a green tick, your shower's working. +You and your kids are fine. +If you get a red cross, well, I've looked carefully around the room and it's not going to make much difference to this crew. +Why? Because you're all too old. +I know that's going to come as a shock to some of you, but you are. +And before you get offended and leave, I've got to say that being too old, in this case, means that pretty much everyone in the room, I think, is over five years of age. +We're really concerned with kids naught to five. +And why? Washing is the antidote to the sort of bugs, the common infectious diseases of the eyes, the ears, the chest and the skin that, if they occur in the first five years of life, permanently damage those organs. +They leave a lifelong remnant. +That means that by the age of five, you can't see as well for the rest of your life. +You can't hear as well for the rest of your life. +You can't breathe as well. +You've lost a third of your lung capacity by the age of five. +And even skin infection, which we originally thought wasn't that big a problem, mild skin infections naught to five give you a greatly increased chance of renal failure, needing dialysis at age 40. +This is a big deal, so the ticks and crosses on the screen are actually critical for young kids. +Those ticks and crosses represent the 7,800 houses we've looked at nationally around Australia, the same proportion. +What you see on the screen -- 35 percent of those not-so-famous houses lived in by 50,000 indigenous people -- 35 percent had a working shower. +Ten percent of those same 7,800 houses had safe electrical systems. +And 58 percent of those houses had a working toilet. +These are by a simple, standard test. +In the case of the shower: does it have hot and cold water, two taps that work, a shower rose to get water onto your head or onto your body, and a drain that takes the water away? +Not well-designed, not beautiful, not elegant -- just that they function. +And the same tests for the electrical system and the toilets. +Housing for Health projects aren't about measuring failure -- they're actually about improving houses. +We start on day one of every project. +We've learned -- we don't make promises, we don't do reports. +We arrive in the morning with tools, tons of equipment, trades, and we train up a local team on the first day to start work. +By the evening of the first day, a few houses in that community are better than when we started in the morning. +That work continues for six to 12 months, until all the houses are improved and we've spent our budget of 7,500 dollars total per house. +That's our average budget. +At the end of six months to a year, we test every house again. +It's very easy to spend money. +It's very difficult to improve the function of all those parts of the house. +And for a whole house, the nine healthy living practices, we test, check and fix 250 items in every house. +And these are the results we can get with our 7,500 dollars. +We can get showers up to 86 percent working, we can get electrical systems up to 77 percent working and we can get 90 percent of toilets working in those 7,500 houses. +Thank you. The teams do a great job, and that's their work. +I think there's an obvious question that I hope you're thinking about. +Why do we have to do this work? +Why are the houses in such poor condition? +Seventy percent of the work we do is due to lack of routine maintenance -- the sort of things that happen in all our houses. +Things wear out, should have been done by state government or local government, simply not done, the house doesn't work. +Twenty-one percent of the things we fix are due to faulty construction -- literally things that are built upside down and back to front. +They don't work, we have to fix them. +And if you've lived in Australia in the last 30 years, the final cause -- you will have heard always that indigenous people trash houses. +It's one of the almost rock-solid pieces of evidence which I've never seen evidence for, that's always reeled out as "That's the problem with indigenous housing." +Well, nine percent of what we spend is damage, misuse or abuse of any sort. +We argue strongly that the people living in the house are simply not the problem. +And we'll go a lot further than that; the people living in the house are actually a major part of the solution. +Seventy-five percent of our national team in Australia -- over 75 at the minute -- are actually local, indigenous people from the communities we work in. +They do all aspects of the work. +In 2010, for example, there were 831, all over Australia, and the Torres Strait Islands, all states, working to improve the houses where they and their families live, and that's an important thing. +Our work's always had a focus on health. That's the key. +The developing world bug, trachoma, causes blindness. +It's a developing-world illness, and yet, the picture you see behind is in an Aboriginal community in the late 1990s, where 95 percent of school-aged kids had active trachoma in their eyes, doing damage. +OK, what do we do? +Well, first thing we do, we get showers working. +Why? Because that flushes the bug out. +We put washing facilities in the school as well, so kids can wash their faces many times during the day. +We wash the bug out. +Second, the eye doctors tell us that dust scours the eye and lets the bug in quick. So what do we do? +We call up the doctor of dust, and there is such a person. +He was loaned to us by a mining company. +He controls dust on mining company sites. +And he came out and, within a day, it worked out that most dust in this community was within a meter of the ground, the wind-driven dust -- so he suggested making mounds to catch the dust before it went into the house area and affected the eyes of kids. +So we used dirt to stop dust. +We did it. He provided us dust monitors. +We tested and we reduced the dust. +Then we wanted to get rid of the bug generally. +So how do we do that? +Well, we call up the doctor of flies -- and, yes, there is a doctor of flies. +As our Aboriginal mate said, "You white fellows ought to get out more." +And the doctor of flies very quickly determined that there was one fly that carried the bug. +He could give school kids in this community the beautiful fly trap you see above in the slide. +They could trap the flies, send them to him in Perth. +When the bug was in the gut, he'd send back by return post some dung beetles. +The dung beetles ate the camel dung, the flies died through lack of food, and trachoma dropped. +And over the year, trachoma dropped radically in this place, and stayed low. +We changed the environment, not just treated the eyes. +And finally, you get a good eye. +All these small health gains and small pieces of the puzzle make a big difference. +The New South Wales Department of Health, that radical organization, did an independent trial over three years to look at 10 years of the work we've been doing in these sorts of projects in New South Wales. +And they found a 40 percent reduction in hospital admissions for the illnesses that you could attribute to the poor environment -- a 40 percent reduction. +Just to show that the principles we've used in Australia can be used in other places, I'm just going to go to one other place, and that's Nepal. +And what a beautiful place to go. +We were asked by a small village of 600 people to go in and make toilets where none existed. +Health was poor. +We went in with no grand plan, no grand promises of a great program, just the offer to build two toilets for two families. +It was during the design of the first toilet that I went for lunch, invited by the family into their main room of the house. +It was choking with smoke. +People were cooking on their only fuel source, green timber. +The smoke coming off that timber is choking, and in an enclosed house, you simply can't breathe. +Later we found the leading cause of illness and death in this particular region is through respiratory failure. +So all of a sudden, we had two problems. +We were there originally to look at toilets and get human waste off the ground, that's fine. +But all of a sudden now there was a second problem: How do we actually get the smoke down? +So two problems, and design should be about more than one thing. +Solution: Take human waste, take animal waste, put it into a chamber, out of that, extract biogas, methane gas. +The gas gives three to four hours cooking a day -- clean, smokeless and free for the family. +I put it to you: is this eliminating poverty? +And the answer from the Nepali team who's working at the minute would say, don't be ridiculous -- we have three million more toilets to build before we can even make a stab at that claim. +And I don't pretend anything else. +But as we all sit here today, there are now over 100 toilets built in this village and a couple nearby. +Well over 1,000 people use those toilets. +Yami Lama, he's a young boy. +He's got significantly less gut infection because he's now got toilets, and there isn't human waste on the ground. +Kanji Maya, she's a mother, and a proud one. +She's probably right now cooking lunch for her family on biogas, smokeless fuel. +Her lungs have got better, and they'll get better as time increases, because she's not cooking in the same smoke. +Surya takes the waste out of the biogas chamber when it's shed the gas, he puts it on his crops. +He's trebled his crop income, more food for the family and more money for the family. +And finally Bishnu, the leader of the team, has now understood that not only have we built toilets, we've also built a team, and that team is now working in two villages where they're training up the next two villages to keep the work expanding. +And that, to me, is the key. +People are not the problem. +We've never found that. +The problem: poor living environment, poor housing and the bugs that do people harm. +None of those are limited by geography, by skin color or by religion. +The common link between all the work we've had to do is one thing, and that's poverty. +Nelson Mandela said, in the mid-2000s, not too far from here, he said that like slavery and apartheid, "Poverty is not natural. +It is man-made and can be overcome and eradicated by the actions of human beings." +I want to end by saying it's been the actions of thousands of ordinary human beings doing -- I think -- extraordinary work, that have actually improved health, and, maybe only in a small way, reduced poverty. +Thank you very much for your time. +Living in Africa is to be on the edge, metaphorically, and quite literally when you think about connectivity before 2008. +Though many human intellectual and technological leaps had happened in Europe and the rest of the world, but Africa was sort of cut off. +And that changed, first with ships when we had the Renaissance, the Scientific Revolution and also the Industrial Revolution. +And now we've got the digital revolution. +These revolutions have not been evenly distributed across continents and nations. +Never have been. +Now, this is a map of the undersea fiber optic cables that connect Africa to the rest of the world. +What I find amazing is that Africa is transcending its geography problem. +Africa is connecting to the rest of the world and within itself. +The connectivity situation has improved greatly, but some barriers remain. +It is with this context that Ushahidi came to be. +In 2008, one of the problems that we faced was lack of information flow. +There was a media blackout in 2008, when there was post-election violence in Kenya. +It was a very tragic time. It was a very difficult time. +So we came together and we created software called Ushahidi. +And Ushahidi means "testimony" or "witness" in Swahili. +I'm very lucky to work with two amazing collaborators. +This is David and Erik. +I call them brothers from another mother. +Clearly I have a German mother somewhere. +And we worked together first with building and growing Ushahidi. +And the idea of the software was to gather information from SMS, email and web, and put a map so that you could see what was happening where, and you could visualize that data. +And after that initial prototype, we set out to make free and open-source software so that others do not have to start from scratch like we did. +All the while, we also wanted to give back to the local tech community that helped us grow Ushahidi and supported us in those early days. +And that's why we set up the iHub in Nairobi, an actual physical space where we could collaborate, and it is now part of an integral tech ecosystem in Kenya. +We did that with the support of different organizations like the MacArthur Foundation and Omidyar Network. +Now, this year the Internet turns 20, and Ushahidi turned five. +Ushahidi is not only the software that we made. +It is the team, and it's also the community that uses this technology in ways that we could not foresee. +We did not imagine that there would be this many maps around the world. +There are crisis maps, election maps, corruption maps, and even environmental monitoring crowd maps. +We are humbled that this has roots in Kenya and that it has some use to people around the world trying to figure out the different issues that they're dealing with. +There is more that we're doing to explore this idea of collective intelligence, that I, as a citizen, if I share the information with whatever device that I have, could inform you about what is going on, and that if you do the same, we can have a bigger picture of what's going on. +I moved back to Kenya in 2011. +Erik moved in 2010. +Very different reality. I used to live in Chicago where there was abundant Internet access. +I had never had to deal with a blackout. +And in Kenya, it's a very different reality, and one thing that remains despite the leaps in progress and the digital revolution is the electricity problem. +The day-to-day frustrations of dealing with this can be, let's just say very annoying. +Blackouts are not fun. +Imagine sitting down to start working, and all of a sudden the power goes out, your Internet connection goes down with it, so you have to figure out, okay, now, where's the modem, how do I switch back? +And then, guess what? You have to deal with it again. +Now, this is the reality of Kenya, where we live now, and other parts of Africa. +The other problem that we're facing is that communication costs are also still a challenge. +It costs me five Kenyan shillings, or .06 USD to call the U.S., Canada or China. +Guess how much it costs to call Rwanda, Ghana, Nigeria? +Thirty Kenyan shillings. That's six times the cost to connect within Africa. +And also, when traveling within Africa, you've got different settings for different mobile providers. +This is the reality that we deal with. +So we've got a joke in Ushahidi where we say, "If it works in Africa, it'll work anywhere." +[Most use technology to define the function. We use function to drive the technology.] What if we could overcome the problem of unreliable Internet and electricity and reduce the cost of connection? +Could we leverage the cloud? +We've built a crowd map, we've built Ushahidi. +Could we leverage these technologies to switch smartly whenever you travel from country to country? +So we looked at the modem, an important part of the infrastructure of the Internet, and asked ourselves why the modems that we are using right now are built for a different context, where you've got ubiquitous internet, you've got ubiquitous electricity, yet we sit here in Nairobi and we do not have that luxury. +We wanted to redesign the modem for the developing world, for our context, and for our reality. +What if we could have connectivity with less friction? +This is the BRCK. +It acts as a backup to the Internet so that, when the power goes out, it fails over and connects to the nearest GSM network. +Mobile connectivity in Africa is pervasive. +It's actually everywhere. +Most towns at least have a 3G connection. +So why don't we leverage that? And that's why we built this. +The other reason that we built this is when electricity goes down, this has eight hours of battery left, so you can continue working, you can continue being productive, and let's just say you are less stressed. +And for rural areas, it can be the primary means of connection. +The idea here is for you to be able to connect anywhere. +With load balancing, this can be possible. +The other interesting thing for us -- we like sensors -- is this idea that you could have an on-ramp for the Internet of things. +Imagine a weather station that can be attached to this. +It's built in a modular way so that you can also attach a satellite module so that you could have Internet connectivity even in very remote areas. +Out of adversity can come innovation, and how can we help the ambitious coders and makers in Kenya to be resilient in the face of problematic infrastructure? +And for us, we begin with solving the problem in our own backyard in Kenya. +It is not without challenge. +Our team has basically been mules carrying components from the U.S. to Kenya. We've had very interesting conversations with customs border agents. +"What are you carrying?" +And the local financing is not part of the ecosystem for supporting hardware projects. +So we put it on Kickstarter, and I'm happy to say that, through the support of many people, not only here but online, the BRCK has been Kickstarted, and now the interesting part of bringing this to market begins. +I will close by saying that, if we solve this for the local market, it could be impactful not only for the coders in Nairobi but also for small business owners who need reliable connectivity, and it can reduce the cost of connecting, and hopefully collaboration within African countries. +The idea is that the building blocks of the digital economy are connectivity and entrepreneurship. +The BRCK is our part to keep Africans connected, and to help them drive the global digital revolution. +Thank you. +I was born and raised in North Korea. +Although my family constantly struggled against poverty, I was always loved and cared for first, because I was the only son and the youngest of two in the family. +But then the great famine began in 1994. +I was four years old. +My sister and I would go searching for firewood starting at 5 in the morning and come back after midnight. +I would wander the streets searching for food, and I remember seeing a small child tied to a mother's back eating chips, and wanting to steal them from him. +Hunger is humiliation. Hunger is hopelessness. +For a hungry child, politics and freedom are not even thought of. +On my ninth birthday, my parents couldn't give me any food to eat. +But even as a child, I could feel the heaviness in their hearts. +Over a million North Koreans died of starvation in that time, and in 2003, when I was 13 years old, my father became one of them. +I saw my father wither away and die. +In the same year, my mother disappeared one day, and then my sister told me that she was going to China to earn money, but that she would return with money and food soon. +Since we had never been separated, and I thought we would be together forever, I didn't even give her a hug when she left. +It was the biggest mistake I have ever made in my life. +But again, I didn't know it was going to be a long goodbye. +I have not seen my mom or my sister since then. +Suddenly, I became an orphan and homeless. +My daily life became very hard, but very simple. +My goal was to find a dusty piece of bread in the trash. +But that is no way to survive. +I started to realize, begging would not be the solution. +So I started to steal from food carts in illegal markets. +Sometimes, I found small jobs in exchange for food. +Once, I even spent two months in the winter working in a coal mine, 33 meters underground without any protection for up to 16 hours a day. +I was not uncommon. +Many other orphans survived this way, or worse. +When I could not fall asleep from bitter cold or hunger pains, I hoped that, the next morning, my sister would come back to wake me up with my favorite food. +That hope kept me alive. +I don't mean big, grand hope. +I mean the kind of hope that made me believe that the next trash can had bread, even though it usually didn't. +But if I didn't believe it, I wouldn't even try, and then I would die. +Hope kept me alive. +Every day, I told myself, no matter how hard things got, still I must live. +After three years of waiting for my sister's return, I decided to go to China to look for her myself. +I realized I couldn't survive much longer this way. +I knew the journey would be risky, but I would be risking my life either way. +I could die of starvation like my father in North Korea, or at least I could try for a better life by escaping to China. +I had learned that many people tried to cross the border to China in the nighttime to avoid being seen. +North Korean border guards often shoot and kill people trying to cross the border without permission. +Chinese soldiers will catch and send back North Koreans, where they face severe punishment. +I decided to cross during the day, first because I was still a kid and scared of the dark, second because I knew I was already taking a risk, and since not many people tried to cross during the day, I thought I might be able to cross without being seen by anyone. +I made it to China on February 15, 2006. +I was 16 years old. +I thought things in China would be easier, since there was more food. +I thought more people would help me. +But it was harder than living in North Korea, because I was not free. +I was always worried about being caught and sent back. +By a miracle, some months later, I met someone who was running an underground shelter for North Koreans, and was allowed to live there and eat regular meals for the first time in many years. +Later that year, an activist helped me escape China and go to the United States as a refugee. +I went to America without knowing a word of English, yet my social worker told me that I had to go to high school. +Even in North Korea, I was an F student. +And I barely finished elementary school. +And I remember I fought in school more than once a day. +Textbooks and the library were not my playground. +My father tried very hard to motivate me into studying, but it didn't work. +At one point, my father gave up on me. +He said, "You're not my son anymore." +I was only 11 or 12, but it hurt me deeply. +But nevertheless, my level of motivation still didn't change before he died. +So in America, it was kind of ridiculous that they said I should go to high school. +I didn't even go to middle school. +I decided to go, just because they told me to, without trying much. +But one day, I came home and my foster mother had made chicken wings for dinner. +And during dinner, I wanted to have one more wing, but I realized there were not enough for everyone, so I decided against it. +When I looked down at my plate, I saw the last chicken wing, that my foster father had given me his. +I was so happy. +I looked at him sitting next to me. +He just looked back at me very warmly, but said no words. +Suddenly I remembered my biological father. +My foster father's small act of love reminded me of my father, who would love to share his food with me when he was hungry, even if he was starving. +I felt so suffocated that I had so much food in America, yet my father died of starvation. +My only wish that night was to cook a meal for him, and that night I also thought of what else I could do to honor him. +And my answer was to promise to myself that I would study hard and get the best education in America to honor his sacrifice. +I took school seriously, and for the first time ever in my life, I received an academic award for excellence, and made dean's list from the first semester in high school. +That chicken wing changed my life. +Hope is personal. Hope is something that no one can give to you. +You have to choose to believe in hope. +You have to make it yourself. +In North Korea, I made it myself. +Hope brought me to America. +But in America, I didn't know what to do, because I had this overwhelming freedom. +My foster father at that dinner gave me a direction, and he motivated me and gave me a purpose to live in America. +I did not come here by myself. +I had hope, but hope by itself is not enough. +Many people helped me along the way to get here. +North Koreans are fighting hard to survive. +They have to force themselves to survive, have hope to survive, but they cannot make it without help. +This is my message to you. +Have hope for yourself, but also help each other. +Life can be hard for everyone, wherever you live. +My foster father didn't intend to change my life. +In the same way, you may also change someone's life with even the smallest act of love. +A piece of bread can satisfy your hunger, and having the hope will bring you bread to keep you alive. +But I confidently believe that your act of love and caring can also save another Joseph's life and change thousands of other Josephs who are still having hope to survive. +Thank you. +Adrian Hong: Joseph, thank you for sharing that very personal and special story with us. +I know you haven't seen your sister for, you said, it was almost exactly a decade, and in the off chance that she may be able to see this, we wanted to give you an opportunity to send her a message. +Joseph Kim: In Korean? +AH: You can do English, then Korean as well. +JK: Okay, I'm not going to make it any longer in Korean because I don't think I can make it without tearing up. +Nuna, it has been already 10 years that I havent seen you. +I just wanted to say that I miss you, and I love you, and please come back to me and stay alive. +And I -- oh, gosh. +I still haven't given up my hope to see you. +I will live my life happily and study hard until I see you, and I promise I will not cry again. +Yes, I'm just looking forward to seeing you, and if you can't find me, I will also look for you, and I hope to see you one day. +And can I also make a small message to my mom? +AH: Sure, please. +JK: I haven't spent much time with you, but I know that you still love me, and you probably still pray for me and think about me. +I just wanted to say thank you for letting me be in this world. +Thank you. +Writing biography is a strange thing to do. +It's a journey into the foreign territory of somebody else's life, a journey, an exploration that can take you places you never dreamed of going and still can't quite believe you've been, especially if, like me, you're an agnostic Jew and the life you've been exploring is that of Muhammad. +Five years ago, for instance, I found myself waking each morning in misty Seattle to what I knew was an impossible question: What actually happened one desert night, half the world and almost half of history away? +What happened, that is, on the night in the year 610 when Muhammad received the first revelation of the Koran on a mountain just outside Mecca? +This is the core mystical moment of Islam, and as such, of course, it defies empirical analysis. +Yet the question wouldn't let go of me. +I was fully aware that for someone as secular as I am, just asking it could be seen as pure chutzpah. +And I plead guilty as charged, because all exploration, physical or intellectual, is inevitably in some sense an act of transgression, of crossing boundaries. +Still, some boundaries are larger than others. +So a human encountering the divine, as Muslims believe Muhammad did, to the rationalist, this is a matter not of fact but of wishful fiction, and like all of us, I like to think of myself as rational. +Which might be why when I looked at the earliest accounts we have of that night, what struck me even more than what happened was what did not happen. +Muhammad did not come floating off the mountain as though walking on air. +He did not run down shouting, "Hallelujah!" +and "Bless the Lord!" +He did not radiate light and joy. +There were no choirs of angels, no music of the spheres, no elation, no ecstasy, no golden aura surrounding him, no sense of an absolute, fore-ordained role as the messenger of God. +That is, he did none of the things that might make it easy to cry foul, to put down the whole story as a pious fable. +Quite the contrary. +In his own reported words, he was convinced at first that what had happened couldn't have been real. +At best, he thought, it had to have been a hallucination -- a trick of the eye or the ear, perhaps, or his own mind working against him. +At worst, possession -- that he'd been seized by an evil jinn, a spirit out to deceive him, even to crush the life out of him. +In fact, he was so sure that he could only be majnun, possessed by a jinn, that when he found himself still alive, his first impulse was to finish the job himself, to leap off the highest cliff and escape the terror of what he'd experienced by putting an end to all experience. +So the man who fled down the mountain that night trembled not with joy but with a stark, primordial fear. +He was overwhelmed not with conviction, but by doubt. +And that panicked disorientation, that sundering of everything familiar, that daunting awareness of something beyond human comprehension, can only be called a terrible awe. +This might be somewhat difficult to grasp now that we use the word "awesome" to describe a new app or a viral video. +With the exception perhaps of a massive earthquake, we're protected from real awe. +We close the doors and hunker down, convinced that we're in control, or, at least, hoping for control. +We do our best to ignore the fact that we don't always have it, and that not everything can be explained. +Fear was the only sane response, the only human response. +Too human for some, like conservative Muslim theologians who maintain that the account of his wanting to kill himself shouldn't even be mentioned, despite the fact that it's in the earliest Islamic biographies. +They insist that he never doubted for even a single moment, let alone despaired. +Demanding perfection, they refuse to tolerate human imperfection. +Yet what, exactly, is imperfect about doubt? +As I read those early accounts, I realized it was precisely Muhammad's doubt that brought him alive for me, that allowed me to begin to see him in full, to accord him the integrity of reality. +And the more I thought about it, the more it made sense that he doubted, because doubt is essential to faith. +If this seems a startling idea at first, consider that doubt, as Graham Greene once put it, is the heart of the matter. +Abolish all doubt, and what's left is not faith, but absolute, heartless conviction. +You're certain that you possess the Truth -- inevitably offered with an implied uppercase T -- and this certainty quickly devolves into dogmatism and righteousness, by which I mean a demonstrative, overweening pride in being so very right, in short, the arrogance of fundamentalism. +It has to be one of the multiple ironies of history that a favorite expletive of Muslim fundamentalists is the same one once used by the Christian fundamentalists known as Crusaders: "infidel," from the Latin for "faithless." +Doubly ironic, in this case, because their absolutism is in fact the opposite of faith. +In effect, they are the infidels. +Like fundamentalists of all religious stripes, they have no questions, only answers. +They found the perfect antidote to thought and the ideal refuge of the hard demands of real faith. +And yet we, the vast and still far too silent majority, have ceded the public arena to this extremist minority. +We've allowed Judaism to be claimed by violently messianic West Bank settlers, Christianity by homophobic hypocrites and misogynistic bigots, Islam by suicide bombers. +And we've allowed ourselves to be blinded to the fact that no matter whether they claim to be Christians, Jews or Muslims, militant extremists are none of the above. +They're a cult all their own, blood brothers steeped in other people's blood. +This isn't faith. +It's fanaticism, and we have to stop confusing the two. +We have to recognize that real faith has no easy answers. +It's difficult and stubborn. +It involves an ongoing struggle, a continual questioning of what we think we know, a wrestling with issues and ideas. +It goes hand in hand with doubt, in a never-ending conversation with it, and sometimes in conscious defiance of it. +And this conscious defiance is why I, as an agnostic, can still have faith. +I have faith, for instance, that peace in the Middle East is possible despite the ever-accumulating mass of evidence to the contrary. +I'm not convinced of this. +I can hardly say I believe it. +I can only have faith in it, commit myself, that is, to the idea of it, and I do this precisely because of the temptation to throw up my hands in resignation and retreat into silence. +Because despair is self-fulfilling. +If we call something impossible, we act in such a way that we make it so. +And I, for one, refuse to live that way. +In fact, most of us do, whether we're atheist or theist or anywhere in between or beyond, for that matter, what drives us is that, despite our doubts and even because of our doubts, we reject the nihilism of despair. +We insist on faith in the future and in each other. +Call this naive if you like. +Call it impossibly idealistic if you must. +But one thing is sure: Call it human. +Could Muhammad have so radically changed his world without such faith, without the refusal to cede to the arrogance of closed-minded certainty? +I think not. +After keeping company with him as a writer for the past five years, I can't see that he'd be anything but utterly outraged at the militant fundamentalists who claim to speak and act in his name in the Middle East and elsewhere today. +He'd be appalled at the repression of half the population because of their gender. +He'd be torn apart by the bitter divisiveness of sectarianism. +He'd call out terrorism for what it is, not only criminal but an obscene travesty of everything he believed in and struggled for. +He'd say what the Koran says: Anyone who takes a life takes the life of all humanity. +Anyone who saves a life, saves the life of all humanity. +And he'd commit himself fully to the hard and thorny process of making peace. +Thank you. +Thank you. +In the northwest corner of the United States, right up near the Canadian border, there's a little town called Libby, Montana, and it's surrounded by pine trees and lakes and just amazing wildlife and these enormous trees that scream up into the sky. +And in there is a little town called Libby, which I visited, which feels kind of lonely, a little isolated. +And in Libby, Montana, there's a rather unusual woman named Gayla Benefield. +She always felt a little bit of an outsider, although she's been there almost all her life, a woman of Russian extraction. +She told me when she went to school, she was the only girl who ever chose to do mechanical drawing. +Later in life, she got a job going house to house reading utility meters -- gas meters, electricity meters. +And she was doing the work in the middle of the day, and one thing particularly caught her notice, which was, in the middle of the day she met a lot of men who were at home, middle aged, late middle aged, and a lot of them seemed to be on oxygen tanks. +It struck her as strange. +Then, a few years later, her father died at the age of 59, five days before he was due to receive his pension. +He'd been a miner. +She thought he must just have been worn out by the work. +But then a few years later, her mother died, and that seemed stranger still, because her mother came from a long line of people who just seemed to live forever. +In fact, Gayla's uncle is still alive to this day, and learning how to waltz. +It didn't make sense that Gayla's mother should die so young. +It was an anomaly, and she kept puzzling over anomalies. +And as she did, other ones came to mind. +She remembered, for example, when her mother had broken a leg and went into the hospital, and she had a lot of x-rays, and two of them were leg x-rays, which made sense, but six of them were chest x-rays, which didn't. +She puzzled and puzzled over every piece of her life and her parents' life, trying to understand what she was seeing. +She thought about her town. +The town had a vermiculite mine in it. +Vermiculite was used for soil conditioners, to make plants grow faster and better. +Vermiculite was used to insulate lofts, huge amounts of it put under the roof to keep houses warm during the long Montana winters. +Vermiculite was in the playground. +It was in the football ground. +It was in the skating rink. +What she didn't learn until she started working this problem is vermiculite is a very toxic form of asbestos. +When she figured out the puzzle, she started telling everyone she could what had happened, what had been done to her parents and to the people that she saw on oxygen tanks at home in the afternoons. +But she was really amazed. +She thought, when everybody knows, they'll want to do something, but actually nobody wanted to know. +But Gayla didn't stop. She kept doing research. +The advent of the Internet definitely helped her. +She talked to anybody she could. +So now she had an ally. +Nevertheless, people still didn't want to know. +They said things like, "Well, if it were really dangerous, someone would have told us." +"If that's really why everyone was dying, the doctors would have told us." +Some of the guys used to very heavy jobs said, "I don't want to be a victim. +I can't possibly be a victim, and anyway, every industry has its accidents." +But still Gayla went on, and finally she succeeded in getting a federal agency to come to town and to screen the inhabitants of the town -- 15,000 people -- and what they discovered was that the town had a mortality rate 80 times higher than anywhere in the United States. +That was in 2002, and even at that moment, no one raised their hand to say, "Gayla, look in the playground where your grandchildren are playing. +It's lined with vermiculite." +This wasn't ignorance. +It was willful blindness. +Willful blindness is a legal concept which means, if there's information that you could know and you should know but you somehow manage not to know, the law deems that you're willfully blind. +You have chosen not to know. +There's a lot of willful blindness around these days. +You can see willful blindness in banks, when thousands of people sold mortgages to people who couldn't afford them. +You could see them in banks when interest rates were manipulated and everyone around knew what was going on, but everyone studiously ignored it. +You can see willful blindness in the Catholic Church, where decades of child abuse went ignored. +You could see willful blindness in the run-up to the Iraq War. +Willful blindness exists on epic scales like those, and it also exists on very small scales, in people's families, in people's homes and communities, and particularly in organizations and institutions. +Companies that have been studied for willful blindness can be asked questions like, "Are there issues at work that people are afraid to raise?" +And when academics have done studies like this of corporations in the United States, what they find is 85 percent of people say yes. +Eighty-five percent of people know there's a problem, but they won't say anything. +And when I duplicated the research in Europe, asking all the same questions, I found exactly the same number. +Eighty-five percent. That's a lot of silence. +It's a lot of blindness. +And what's really interesting is that when I go to companies in Switzerland, they tell me, "This is a uniquely Swiss problem." +And when I go to Germany, they say, "Oh yes, this is the German disease." +And when I go to companies in England, they say, "Oh, yeah, the British are really bad at this." +And the truth is, this is a human problem. +We're all, under certain circumstances, willfully blind. +What the research shows is that some people are blind out of fear. They're afraid of retaliation. +And some people are blind because they think, well, seeing anything is just futile. +Nothing's ever going to change. +If we make a protest, if we protest against the Iraq War, nothing changes, so why bother? +Better not to see this stuff at all. +And the recurrent theme that I encounter all the time is people say, "Well, you know, the people who do see, they're whistleblowers, and we all know what happens to them." +So there's this profound mythology around whistleblowers which says, first of all, they're all crazy. +But what I've found going around the world and talking to whistleblowers is, actually, they're very loyal and quite often very conservative people. +They're hugely dedicated to the institutions that they work for, and the reason that they speak up, the reason they insist on seeing, is because they care so much about the institution and want to keep it healthy. +And the other thing that people often say about whistleblowers is, "Well, there's no point, because you see what happens to them. +They are crushed. +Nobody would want to go through something like that." +And yet, when I talk to whistleblowers, the recurrent tone that I hear is pride. +I think of Joe Darby. +We all remember the photographs of Abu Ghraib, which so shocked the world and showed the kind of war that was being fought in Iraq. +But I wonder who remembers Joe Darby, the very obedient, good soldier who found those photographs and handed them in. +And he said, "You know, I'm not the kind of guy to rat people out, but some things just cross the line. +Ignorance is bliss, they say, but you can't put up with things like this." +I talked to Steve Bolsin, a British doctor, who fought for five years to draw attention to a dangerous surgeon who was killing babies. +And I asked him why he did it, and he said, "Well, it was really my daughter who prompted me to do it. +And she said to me, she said, "You know, Margaret, I always used to say I didn't know what I wanted to be when I grow up. +But I've found myself in this cause, and I'll never be the same." +But freedom doesn't exist if you don't use it, and what whistleblowers do, and what people like Gayla Benefield do is they use the freedom that they have. +And what they're very prepared to do is recognize that yes, this is going to be an argument, and yes I'm going to have a lot of rows with my neighbors and my colleagues and my friends, but I'm going to become very good at this conflict. +I'm going to take on the naysayers, because they'll make my argument better and stronger. +I can collaborate with my opponents to become better at what I do. +These are people of immense persistence, incredible patience, and an absolute determination not to be blind and not to be silent. +When I went to Libby, Montana, I visited the asbestosis clinic that Gayla Benefield brought into being, a place where at first some of the people who wanted help and needed medical attention went in the back door because they didn't want to acknowledge that she'd been right. +I sat in a diner, and I watched as trucks drove up and down the highway, carting away the earth out of gardens and replacing it with fresh, uncontaminated soil. +I took my 12-year-old daughter with me, because I really wanted her to meet Gayla. +And she said, "Why? What's the big deal?" +I said, "She's not a movie star, and she's not a celebrity, and she's not an expert, and Gayla's the first person who'd say she's not a saint. +The really important thing about Gayla is she is ordinary. +She's like you, and she's like me. +She had freedom, and she was ready to use it." +Thank you very much. +I'll never forget that day back in the spring of 2006. +I was a surgical resident at The Johns Hopkins Hospital, taking emergency call. +I got paged by the E.R. around 2 in the morning to come and see a woman with a diabetic ulcer on her foot. +I can still remember sort of that smell of rotting flesh as I pulled the curtain back to see her. +And everybody there agreed this woman was very sick and she needed to be in the hospital. +That wasn't being asked. +The question that was being asked of me was a different one, which was, did she also need an amputation? +Now, looking back on that night, I'd love so desperately to believe that I treated that woman on that night with the same empathy and compassion I'd shown the 27-year-old newlywed who came to the E.R. three nights earlier with lower back pain that turned out to be advanced pancreatic cancer. +In her case, I knew there was nothing I could do that was actually going to save her life. +The cancer was too advanced. +But I was committed to making sure that I could do anything possible to make her stay more comfortable. I brought her a warm blanket and a cup of a coffee. +I brought some for her parents. +But more importantly, see, I passed no judgment on her, because obviously she had done nothing to bring this on herself. +So why was it that, just a few nights later, as I stood in that same E.R. and determined that my diabetic patient did indeed need an amputation, why did I hold her in such bitter contempt? +You see, unlike the woman the night before, this woman had type 2 diabetes. +She was fat. +And we all know that's from eating too much and not exercising enough, right? +I mean, how hard can it be? +As I looked down at her in the bed, I thought to myself, if you just tried caring even a little bit, you wouldn't be in this situation at this moment with some doctor you've never met about to amputate your foot. +Why did I feel justified in judging her? +I'd like to say I don't know. +But I actually do. +You see, in the hubris of my youth, I thought I had her all figured out. +She ate too much. She got unlucky. +She got diabetes. Case closed. +Ironically, at that time in my life, I was also doing cancer research, immune-based therapies for melanoma, to be specific, and in that world I was actually taught to question everything, to challenge all assumptions and hold them to the highest possible scientific standards. +Yet when it came to a disease like diabetes that kills Americans eight times more frequently than melanoma, I never once questioned the conventional wisdom. +I actually just assumed the pathologic sequence of events was settled science. +Three years later, I found out how wrong I was. +But this time, I was the patient. +Despite exercising three or four hours every single day, and following the food pyramid to the letter, I'd gained a lot of weight and developed something called metabolic syndrome. +Some of you may have heard of this. +I had become insulin-resistant. +You can think of insulin as this master hormone that controls what our body does with the foods we eat, whether we burn it or store it. +This is called fuel partitioning in the lingo. +Now failure to produce enough insulin is incompatible with life. +And insulin resistance, as its name suggests, is when your cells get increasingly resistant to the effect of insulin trying to do its job. +Once you're insulin-resistant, you're on your way to getting diabetes, which is what happens when your pancreas can't keep up with the resistance and make enough insulin. +Now your blood sugar levels start to rise, and an entire cascade of pathologic events sort of spirals out of control that can lead to heart disease, cancer, even Alzheimer's disease, and amputations, just like that woman a few years earlier. +With that scare, I got busy changing my diet radically, adding and subtracting things most of you would find almost assuredly shocking. +I did this and lost 40 pounds, weirdly while exercising less. +I, as you can see, I guess I'm not overweight anymore. +More importantly, I don't have insulin resistance. +But most important, I was left with these three burning questions that wouldn't go away: How did this happen to me if I was supposedly doing everything right? +If the conventional wisdom about nutrition had failed me, was it possible it was failing someone else? +And underlying these questions, I became almost maniacally obsessed in trying to understand the real relationship between obesity and insulin resistance. +Now, most researchers believe obesity is the cause of insulin resistance. +Logically, then, if you want to treat insulin resistance, you get people to lose weight, right? +You treat the obesity. +But what if we have it backwards? +What if obesity isn't the cause of insulin resistance at all? +In fact, what if it's a symptom of a much deeper problem, the tip of a proverbial iceberg? +I know it sounds crazy because we're obviously in the midst of an obesity epidemic, but hear me out. +What if obesity is a coping mechanism for a far more sinister problem going on underneath the cell? +I'm not suggesting that obesity is benign, but what I am suggesting is it may be the lesser of two metabolic evils. +You can think of insulin resistance as the reduced capacity of our cells to partition fuel, as I alluded to a moment ago, taking those calories that we take in and burning some appropriately and storing some appropriately. +When we become insulin-resistant, the homeostasis in that balance deviates from this state. +So now, when insulin says to a cell, I want you to burn more energy than the cell considers safe, the cell, in effect, says, "No thanks, I'd actually rather store this energy." +And because fat cells are actually missing most of the complex cellular machinery found in other cells, it's probably the safest place to store it. +So for many of us, about 75 million Americans, the appropriate response to insulin resistance may actually be to store it as fat, not the reverse, getting insulin resistance in response to getting fat. +This is a really subtle distinction, but the implication could be profound. +Consider the following analogy: Think of the bruise you get on your shin when you inadvertently bang your leg into the coffee table. +Sure, the bruise hurts like hell, and you almost certainly don't like the discolored look, but we all know the bruise per Se is not the problem. +In fact, it's the opposite. It's a healthy response to the trauma, all of those immune cells rushing to the site of the injury to salvage cellular debris and prevent the spread of infection to elsewhere in the body. +Now, imagine we thought bruises were the problem, and we evolved a giant medical establishment and a culture around treating bruises: masking creams, painkillers, you name it, all the while ignoring the fact that people are still banging their shins into coffee tables. +How much better would we be if we treated the cause -- telling people to pay attention when they walk through the living room -- rather than the effect? +Getting the cause and the effect right makes all the difference in the world. +Getting it wrong, and the pharmaceutical industry can still do very well for its shareholders but nothing improves for the people with bruised shins. +Cause and effect. +So what I'm suggesting is maybe we have the cause and effect wrong on obesity and insulin resistance. +Maybe we should be asking ourselves, is it possible that insulin resistance causes weight gain and the diseases associated with obesity, at least in most people? +What if being obese is just a metabolic response to something much more threatening, an underlying epidemic, the one we ought to be worried about? +Let's look at some suggestive facts. +We know that 30 million obese Americans in the United States don't have insulin resistance. +And by the way, they don't appear to be at any greater risk of disease than lean people. +Conversely, we know that six million lean people in the United States are insulin-resistant, and by the way, they appear to be at even greater risk for those metabolic diseases I mentioned a moment ago than their obese counterparts. +Now I don't know why, but it might be because, in their case, their cells haven't actually figured out the right thing to do with that excess energy. +So if you can be obese and not have insulin resistance, and you can be lean and have it, this suggests that obesity may just be a proxy for what's going on. +So what if we're fighting the wrong war, fighting obesity rather than insulin resistance? +Even worse, what if blaming the obese means we're blaming the victims? +What if some of our fundamental ideas about obesity are just wrong? +Personally, I can't afford the luxury of arrogance anymore, let alone the luxury of certainty. +I have my own ideas about what could be at the heart of this, but I'm wide open to others. +Now, my hypothesis, because everybody always asks me, is this. +If you ask yourself, what's a cell trying to protect itself from when it becomes insulin resistant, the answer probably isn't too much food. +It's more likely too much glucose: blood sugar. +Now, we know that refined grains and starches elevate your blood sugar in the short run, and there's even reason to believe that sugar may lead to insulin resistance directly. +So if you put these physiological processes to work, I'd hypothesize that it might be our increased intake of refined grains, sugars and starches that's driving this epidemic of obesity and diabetes, but through insulin resistance, you see, and not necessarily through just overeating and under-exercising. +When I lost my 40 pounds a few years ago, I did it simply by restricting those things, which admittedly suggests I have a bias based on my personal experience. +But that doesn't mean my bias is wrong, and most important, all of this can be tested scientifically. +But step one is accepting the possibility that our current beliefs about obesity, diabetes and insulin resistance could be wrong and therefore must be tested. +I'm betting my career on this. +Today, I devote all of my time to working on this problem, and I'll go wherever the science takes me. +I've decided that what I can't and won't do anymore is pretend I have the answers when I don't. +I've been humbled enough by all I don't know. +For the past year, I've been fortunate enough to work on this problem with the most amazing team of diabetes and obesity researchers in the country, and the best part is, just like Abraham Lincoln surrounded himself with a team of rivals, we've done the same thing. +We've recruited a team of scientific rivals, the best and brightest who all have different hypotheses for what's at the heart of this epidemic. +Some think it's too many calories consumed. +Others think it's too much dietary fat. +Others think it's too many refined grains and starches. +But this team of multi-disciplinary, highly skeptical and exceedingly talented researchers do agree on two things. +First, this problem is just simply too important to continue ignoring because we think we know the answer. +And two, if we're willing to be wrong, if we're willing to challenge the conventional wisdom with the best experiments science can offer, we can solve this problem. +I know it's tempting to want an answer right now, some form of action or policy, some dietary prescription -- eat this, not that but if we want to get it right, we're going to have to do much more rigorous science before we can write that prescription. +Briefly, to address this, our research program is focused around three meta-themes, or questions. +First, how do the various foods we consume impact our metabolism, hormones and enzymes, and through what nuanced molecular mechanisms? +Second, based on these insights, can people make the necessary changes in their diets in a way that's safe and practical to implement? +And finally, once we identify what safe and practical changes people can make to their diet, how can we move their behavior in that direction so that it becomes more the default rather than the exception? +Just because you know what to do doesn't mean you're always going to do it. +Sometimes we have to put cues around people to make it easier, and believe it or not, that can be studied scientifically. +I don't know how this journey is going to end, but this much seems clear to me, at least: We can't keep blaming our overweight and diabetic patients like I did. +Most of them actually want to do the right thing, but they have to know what that is, and it's got to work. +Staying true to that path will be better for our patients and better for science. +If obesity is nothing more than a proxy for metabolic illness, what good does it do us to punish those with the proxy? +Sometimes I think back to that night in the E.R. +seven years ago. +I wish I could speak with that woman again. +I'd like to tell her how sorry I am. +I'd say, as a doctor, I delivered the best clinical care I could, but as a human being, I let you down. +You didn't need my judgment and my contempt. +You needed my empathy and compassion, and above all else, you needed a doctor who was willing to consider maybe you didn't let the system down. +Maybe the system, of which I was a part, was letting you down. +If you're watching this now, I hope you can forgive me. +I'm going to be talking about designing humor, which is sort of an interesting thing, but it goes to some of the discussions about constraints, and how in certain contexts, humor is right, and in other contexts it's wrong. +Now, I'm from New York, so it's 100 percent satisfaction here. +Actually, that's ridiculous, because when it comes to humor, 75 percent is really absolutely the best you can hope for. +Nobody is ever satisfied 100 percent with humor except this woman. +Woman: Bob Mankoff: That's my first wife. +That part of the relationship went fine. +Now let's look at this cartoon. +One of the things I'm pointing out is that cartoons appear within the context of The New Yorker magazine, that lovely Caslon type, and it seems like a fairly benign cartoon within this context. +It's making a little bit fun of getting older, and, you know, people might like it. +But like I said, you cannot satisfy everyone. +You couldn't satisfy this guy. +"Another joke on old white males. Ha ha. The wit. +It's nice, I'm sure to be young and rude, but some day you'll be old, unless you drop dead as I wish." +The New Yorker is rather a sensitive environment, very easy for people to get their nose out of joint. +And one of the things that you realize is it's an unusual environment. +Here I'm one person talking to you. +You're all collective. You all hear each other laugh and know each other laugh. +In The New Yorker, it goes out to a wide audience, and when you actually look at that, and nobody knows what anybody else is laughing at, and when you look at that the subjectivity involved in humor is really interesting. +Let's look at this cartoon. +"Discouraging data on the antidepressant." +Indeed, it is discouraging. +Now, you would think, well, look, most of you laughed at that. +Right? You thought it was funny. +In general, that seems like a funny cartoon, but let's look what online survey I did. +Generally, about 85 percent of the people liked it. +A hundred and nine voted it a 10, the highest. Ten voted it one. +But look at the individual responses. +"I like animals!!!!!" Look how much they like them. +"I don't want to hurt them. That doesn't seem very funny to me." +This person rated it a two. +"I don't like to see animals suffer -- even in cartoons." +To people like this, I point out we use anesthetic ink. +Other people thought it was funny. +That actually is the true nature of the distribution of humor when you don't have the contagion of humor. +Humor is a type of entertainment. +All entertainment contains a little frisson of danger, something that might happen wrong, and yet we like it when there's protection. +That's what a zoo is. It's danger. The tiger is there. +The bars protect us. That's sort of fun, right? +That's a bad zoo. +It's a very politically correct zoo, but it's a bad zoo. +But this is a worse one. +So in dealing with humor in the context of The New Yorker, you have to see, where is that tiger going to be? +Where is the danger going to exist? +How are you going to manage it? +My job is to look at 1,000 cartoons a week. +But The New Yorker only can take 16 or 17 cartoons, and we have 1,000 cartoons. +Of course, many, many cartoons must be rejected. +Now, we could fit more cartoons in the magazine if we removed the articles. +But I feel that would be a huge loss, one I could live with, but still huge. +Cartoonists come in through the magazine every week. +The average cartoonist who stays with the magazine does 10 or 15 ideas every week. +But they mostly are going to be rejected. +That's the nature of any creative activity. +Many of them fade away. Some of them stay. +Matt Diffee is one of them. +Here's one of his cartoons. +Drew Dernavich. "Accounting night at the improv." +"Now is the part of the show when we ask the audience to shout out some random numbers." +Paul Noth. "He's all right. I just wish he were a little more pro-Israel." +Now I know all about rejection, because when I quit -- actually, I was booted out of -- psychology school and decided to become a cartoonist, a natural segue, from 1974 to 1977 I submitted 2,000 cartoons to The New Yorker, and got 2,000 cartoons rejected by The New Yorker. +At a certain point, this rejection slip, in 1977 -- [We regret that we are unable to use the enclosed material. Thank you for giving us the opportunity to consider it.] magically changed to this. +[Hey! You sold one. No shit! You really sold a cartoon to the fucking New Yorker magazine.] Now of course that's not what happened, but that's the emotional truth. +And of course, that is not New Yorker humor. +What is New Yorker humor? +Well, after 1977, I broke into The New Yorker and started selling cartoons. +Finally, in 1980, I received the revered New Yorker contract, which I blurred out parts because it's none of your business. +From 1980. "Dear Mr. Mankoff, confirming the agreement there of -- " blah blah blah blah -- blur -- "for any idea drawings." +With respect to idea drawings, nowhere in the contract is the word "cartoon" mentioned. +The word "idea drawings," and that's the sine qua non of New Yorker cartoons. +So what is an idea drawing? An idea drawing is something that requires you to think. +Now that's not a cartoon. It requires thinking on the part of the cartoonist and thinking on your part to make it into a cartoon. +Here are some, generally you get my cast of cartoon mind. +"There is no justice in the world. There is some justice in the world. The world is just." +This is What Lemmings Believe. +The New Yorker and I, when we made comments, the cartoon carries a certain ambiguity about what it actually is. +What is it, the cartoon? Is it really about lemmings? +No. It's about us. +You know, it's my view basically about religion, that the real conflict and all the fights between religion is who has the best imaginary friend. +And this is my most well-known cartoon. +"No, Thursday's out. How about never is never good for you?" +It's been reprinted thousands of times, totally ripped off. +It's even on thongs, but compressed to "How about never is never good for you?" +Now these look like very different forms of humor but actually they bear a great similarity. +In each instance, our expectations are defied. +In each instance, the narrative gets switched. +There's an incongruity and a contrast. +In "No, Thursday's out. How about never is never good for you?" +what you have is the syntax of politeness and the message of being rude. +That really is how humor works. It's a cognitive synergy where we mash up these two things which don't go together and temporarily in our minds exist. +He is both being polite and rude. +In here, you have the propriety of The New Yorker and the vulgarity of the language. +Basically, that's the way humor works. +So I'm a humor analyst, you would say. +Now E.B. White said, analyzing humor is like dissecting a frog. +Nobody is much interested, and the frog dies. +Well, I'm going to kill a few, but there won't be any genocide. +But really, it makes me Let's look at this picture. This is an interesting picture, The Laughing Audience. +There are the people, fops up there, but everybody is laughing, everybody is laughing except one guy. +This guy. Who is he? He's the critic. +He's the critic of humor, and really I'm forced to be in that position, when I'm at The New Yorker, and that's the danger that I will become this guy. +Now here's a little video made by Matt Diffee, sort of how they imagine if we really exaggerated that. +Bob Mankoff: "Oooh, no. +Ehhh. +Oooh. Hmm. Too funny. +Normally I would but I'm in a pissy mood. +I'll enjoy it on my own. Perhaps. +No. Nah. No. +Overdrawn. Underdrawn. +Drawn just right, still not funny enough. +No. No. +For God's sake no, a thousand times no. +No. No. No. No. No. [Four hours later] Hey, that's good, yeah, whatcha got there? +Office worker: Got a ham and swiss on rye?BM: No. +Office worker: Okay. Pastrami on sourdough?BM: No. +Office worker: Smoked turkey with bacon?BM: No. +Office worker: Falafel?BM: Let me look at it. +Eh, no. +Office worker: Grilled cheese?BM: No. +Office worker: BLT?BM: No. +Office worker: Black forest ham and mozzarella with apple mustard?BM: No. +Office worker: Green bean salad?BM: No. +No. No. +Definitely no. [Several hours after lunch] No. Get out of here. +That's sort of an exaggeration of what I do. +Now, we do reject, many, many, many cartoons, so many that there are many books called "The Rejection Collection." +"The Rejection Collection" is not quite New Yorker kind of humor. +And you might notice the bum on the sidewalk here who is boozing and his ventriloquist dummy is puking. +See, that's probably not going to be New Yorker humor. +It's actually put together by Matt Diffee, one of our cartoonists. +So I'll give you some examples of rejection collection humor. +"I'm thinking about having a child." +There you have an interesting -- the guilty laugh, the laugh against your better judgment. +"Ass-head. Please help." +Now, in fact, within a context of this book, which says, "Cartoons you never saw and never will see in The New Yorker," this humor is perfect. +I'm going to explain why. +There's a concept about humor about it being a benign violation. +In other words, for something to be funny, we've got to think it's both wrong and also okay at the same time. +If we think it's completely wrong, we say, "That's not funny." +And if it's completely okay, what's the joke? Okay? +And so, this benign, that's true of "No, Thursday's out. How about never is never good for you?" +It's rude. The world really shouldn't be that way. +Within that context, we feel it's okay. +So within this context, "Asshead. Please help" is a benign violation. +Within the context of The New Yorker magazine ... +"T-Cell Army: Can the body's immune response help treat cancer?" Oh, goodness. +You're reading about this smart stuff, this intelligent dissection of the immune system. +You glance over at this, and it says, "Asshead. Please help"? God. +So there the violation is malign. It doesn't work. +There is no such thing as funny in and of itself. +Everything will be within the context and our expectations. +One way to look at it is this. +It's sort of called a meta-motivational theory about how we look, a theory about motivation and the mood we're in and how the mood we're in determines the things we like or dislike. +When we're in a playful mood, we want excitement. +We want high arousal. We feel excited then. +If we're in a purposeful mood, that makes us anxious. +"The Rejection Collection" is absolutely in this field. +You want to be stimulated. You want to be aroused. +You want to be transgressed. +It's like this, like an amusement park. +Voice: Here we go. He laughs. He is both in danger and safe, incredibly aroused. There's no joke. No joke needed. +If you arouse people enough and get them stimulated enough, they will laugh at very, very little. +This is another cartoon from "The Rejection Collection." +"Too snug?" +That's a cartoon about terrorism. +The New Yorker occupies a very different space. +It's a space that is playful in its own way, and also purposeful, and in that space, the cartoons are different. +Now I'm going to show you cartoons The New Yorker did right after 9/11, a very, very sensitive area when humor could be used. +How would The New Yorker attack it? +It would not be with a guy with a bomb saying, "Too snug?" +Or there was another cartoon I didn't show because actually I thought maybe people would be offended. +The great Sam Gross cartoon, this happened after the Muhammad controversy where it's Muhammad in heaven, the suicide bomber is all in little pieces, and he's saying to the suicide bomber, "You'll get the virgins when we find your penis." +Better left undrawn. +The first week we did no cartoons. +That was a black hole for humor, and correctly so. +It's not always appropriate every time. +But the next week, this was the first cartoon. +"I thought I'd never laugh again. Then I saw your jacket." +It basically was about, if we were alive, we were going to laugh. We were going to breathe. +We were going to exist. Here's another one. +"I figure if I don't have that third martini, then the terrorists win." +These cartoons are not about them. They're about us. +The humor reflects back on us. +The easiest thing to do with humor, and it's perfectly legitimate, is a friend makes fun of an enemy. +It's called dispositional humor. +It's 95 percent of the humor. It's not our humor. +Here's another cartoon. +"I wouldn't mind living in a fundamentalist Islamic state." +Humor does need a target. +But interestingly, in The New Yorker, the target is us. +The target is the readership and the people who do it. +The humor is self-reflective and makes us think about our assumptions. +Look at this cartoon by Roz Chast, the guy reading the obituary. +"Two years younger than you, 12 years older than you, three years your junior, your age on the dot, exactly your age." +That is a deeply profound cartoon. +And so The New Yorker is also trying to, in some way, make cartoons say something besides funny and something about us. Here's another one. +"I started my vegetarianism for health reasons, Then it became a moral choice, and now it's just to annoy people." +"Excuse me I think there's something wrong with this in a tiny way that no one other than me would ever be able to pinpoint." +So it focuses on our obsessions, our narcissism, our foils and our foibles, really not someone else's. +The New Yorker demands some cognitive work on your part, and what it demands is what Arthur Koestler, who wrote "The Act of Creation" about the relationship between humor, art and science, is what's called bisociation. +You have to bring together ideas from different frames of reference, and you have to do it quickly to understand the cartoon. +If the different frames of reference don't come together in about .5 seconds, it's not funny, but I think they will for you here. +Different frames of reference. +"You slept with her, didn't you?" +"Lassie! Get help!!" +It's called French Army Knife. +And this is Einstein in bed. "To you it was fast." +Now there are some cartoons that are puzzling. +Like, this cartoon would puzzle many people. +How many people know what this cartoon means? +The dog is signaling he wants to go for a walk. +This is the signal for a catcher to walk the dog. +That's why we run a feature in the cartoon issue every year called "I Don't Get It: The New Yorker Cartoon I.Q. Test." +The other thing The New Yorker plays around with is incongruity, and incongruity, I've shown you, is sort of the basis of humor. +Something that's completely normal or logical isn't going to be funny. +But the way incongruity works is, observational humor is humor within the realm of reality. +"My boss is always telling me what to do." Okay? +That could happen. It's humor within the realm of reality. +Here, cowboy to a cow: "Very impressive. I'd like to find 5,000 more like you." +We understand that. It's absurd. But we're putting the two together. +Here, in the nonsense range: "Damn it, Hopkins, didn't you get yesterday's memo?" +Now that's a little puzzling, right? It doesn't quite come together. +In general, people who enjoy more nonsense, enjoy more abstract art, they tend to be liberal, less conservative, that type of stuff. +But for us, and for me, helping design the humor, it doesn't make any sense to compare one to the other. +It's sort of a smorgasbord that's made all interesting. +So I want to sum all this up with a caption to a cartoon, and I think this sums up the whole thing, really, about The New Yorker cartoons. +"It sort of makes you stop and think, doesn't it." +And now, when you look at New Yorker cartoons, I'd like you to stop and think a little bit more about them. +Thank you. +Thank you. +I do want to test this question we're all interested in: Does extinction have to be forever? +I'm focused on two projects I want to tell you about. +One is the Thylacine Project. +The other one is the Lazarus Project, and that's focused on the gastric-brooding frog. +And it would be a fair question to ask, why have we focused on these two animals? +Well, point number one, each of them represents a unique family of its own. +We've lost a whole family. +That's a big chunk of the global genome gone. +I'd like it back. +The second reason is that we killed these things. +In the case of the thylacine, regrettably, we shot every one that we saw. +We slaughtered them. +In the case of the gastric-brooding frog, we may have "fungicided" it to death. +There's a dreadful fungus that's moving through the world that's called the chytrid fungus, and it's nailing frogs all over the world. +We think that's probably what got this frog, and humans are spreading this fungus. +And this introduces a very important ethical point, and I think you will have heard this many times when this topic comes up. +What I think is important is that, if it's clear that we exterminated these species, then I think we not only have a moral obligation to see what we can do about it, but I think we've got a moral imperative to try to do something, if we can. +OK. Let me talk to you about the Lazarus Project. +It's a frog. And you think, frog. +Yeah, but this was not just any frog. +Unlike a normal frog, which lays its eggs in the water and goes away and wishes its froglets well, this frog swallowed its fertilized eggs, swallowed them into the stomach, where it should be having food, didn't digest the eggs, and turned its stomach into a uterus. +In the stomach, the eggs went on to develop into tadpoles, and in the stomach, the tadpoles went on to develop into frogs, and they grew in the stomach until eventually the poor old frog was at risk of bursting apart. +It has a little cough and a hiccup, and out comes sprays of little frogs. +Now, when biologists saw this, they were agog. +They thought, this is incredible. +No animal, let alone a frog, has been known to do this, to change one organ in the body into another. +And you can imagine the medical world went nuts over this as well. +If we could understand how that frog is managing the way its tummy works, is there information here that we need to understand or could usefully use to help ourselves? +Now, I'm not suggesting we want to raise our babies in our stomach, but I am suggesting it's possible we might want to manage gastric secretion in the gut. +And just as everybody got excited about it, bang! +It was extinct. +I called up my friend, Professor Mike Tyler in the University of Adelaide. +He was the last person who had this frog, a colony of these things, in his lab. +And I said, "Mike, by any chance --" This was 30 or 40 years ago. +"By any chance had you kept any frozen tissue of this frog?" +And he thought about it, and he went to his deep freezer, minus 20 degrees centigrade, and he poured through everything in the freezer, and there in the bottom was a jar and it contained tissues of these frogs. +This was very exciting, but there was no reason why we should expect that this would work, because this tissue had not had any antifreeze put in it, cryoprotectants, to look after it when it was frozen. +And normally, when water freezes, as you know, it expands, and the same thing happens in a cell. +If you freeze tissues, the water expands, damages or bursts the cell walls. +Well, we looked at the tissue under the microscope. +It actually didn't look bad. The cell walls looked intact. +So we thought, let's give it a go. +What we did is something called somatic cell nuclear transplantation. +We took the eggs of a related species, a living frog, and we inactivated the nucleus of the egg. +We used ultraviolet radiation to do that. +And then we took the dead nucleus from the dead tissue of the extinct frog and we inserted those nuclei into that egg. +Now, by rights, this is kind of like a cloning project, like what produced Dolly, but it's actually very different, because Dolly was live sheep into live sheep cells. +That was a miracle, but it was workable. +What we're trying to do is take a dead nucleus from an extinct species and put it into a completely different species and expect that to work. +Well, we had no real reason to expect it would, and we tried hundreds and hundreds of these. +And just last February, the last time we did these trials, I saw a miracle starting to happen. +What we found was most of these eggs didn't work, but then suddenly, one of them began to divide. +That was so exciting. And then the egg divided again. And then again. +And pretty soon, we had early-stage embryos with hundreds of cells forming those. +We even DNA-tested some of these cells, and the DNA of the extinct frog is in those cells. +So we're very excited. This is not a tadpole. It's not a frog. +But it's a long way along the journey to producing, or bringing back, an extinct species. +And this is news. We haven't announced this publicly before. +We're excited. We've got to get past this point. +We now want this ball of cells to start to gastrulate, to turn in so that it will produce the other tissues. +It'll go on and produce a tadpole and then a frog. +Watch this space. I think we're going to have this frog hopping glad to be back in the world again. +Thank you. We haven't done it yet, but keep the applause ready. +The second project I want to talk to you about is the Thylacine Project. +The thylacine looks a bit, to most people, like a dog, or maybe like a tiger, because it has stripes. +But it's not related to any of those. It's a marsupial. +It raised its young in a pouch, like a koala or a kangaroo would do, and it has a long history, a long, fascinating history, that goes back 25 million years. +But it's also a tragic history. +The first one that we see occurs in the ancient rain forests of Australia about 25 million years ago, and the National Geographic Society is helping us to explore these fossil deposits. This is Riversleigh. +In those fossil rocks are some amazing animals. +We found marsupial lions. +We found carnivorous kangaroos. +It's not what you usually think about as a kangaroo, but these are meat-eating kangaroos. +We found the biggest bird in the world, bigger than that thing that was in Madagascar, and it too was a flesh eater. It was a giant, weird duck. +And crocodiles were not behaving at that time either. +You think of crocodiles as doing their ugly thing, sitting in a pool of water. +These crocodiles were actually out on the land and they were even climbing trees and jumping on prey on the ground. +We had, in Australia, drop crocs. They really do exist. +But what they were dropping on was not only other weird animals but also thylacines. +There were five different kinds of thylacines in those ancient forests, and they ranged from great big ones to middle-sized ones to one that was about the size of a chihuahua. +Paris Hilton would have been able to carry one of these things around in a little handbag, until a drop croc landed on her. +At any rate, it was a fascinating place, but unfortunately, Australia didn't stay this way. +Climate change has affected the world for a long period of time, and gradually, the forests disappeared, the country began to dry out, and the number of kinds of thylacines began to decline, until by five million years ago, only one left. +By 10,000 years ago, they had disappeared from New Guinea, and unfortunately, by 4,000 years ago, somebodies, we don't know who this was, introduced dingoes -- this is a very archaic kind of a dog-- into Australia. +And as you can see, dingoes are very similar in their body form to thylacines. +That similarity meant they probably competed. +They were eating the same kinds of foods. +It's even possible that aborigines were keeping some of these dingoes as pets, and therefore they may have had an advantage in the battle for survival. +All we know is, soon after the dingoes were brought in, thylacines were extinct in the Australian mainland, and after that they only survived in Tasmania. +Then, unfortunately, the next sad part of the thylacine story is that Europeans arrived in 1788, and they brought with them the things they valued, and that included sheep. +They took one look at the thylacine in Tasmania, and they thought, hang on, this is not going to work. +That guy is going to eat all our sheep. +That was not what happened, actually. +Wild dogs did eat a few of the sheep, but the thylacine got a bad rap. +But immediately, the government said, that's it, let's get rid of them, and they paid people to slaughter every one that they saw. +By the early 1930s, 3,000 to 4,000 thylacines had been murdered. +It was a disaster, and they were about to hit the wall. +Have a look at this bit of film footage. +It makes me very sad because, while it's a fascinating animal, and it's amazing to think that we had the technology to film it before it actually plunged off that cliff of extinction, we didn't, unfortunately, at this same time, have a molecule of concern about the welfare for this species. +These are photos of the last surviving thylacine, Benjamin, who was in the Beaumaris Zoo in Hobart. +To add insult to injury, having swept this species nearly off the table, this animal, when it died of neglect -- The keepers didn't let it into the hutch on a cold night in Hobart. +It died of exposure, and in the morning, when they found the body of Benjamin, they still cared so little for this animal that they threw the body in the dump. +Does it have to stay this way? +In 1990, I was in the Australian Museum. +I was fascinated by thylacines. I've always been obsessed with these animals. +And I was studying skulls, trying to figure out their relationships to other sorts of animals, and I saw this jar, and here, in the jar, was a little girl thylacine pup, perhaps six months old. +The guy who had found it and killed the mother had pickled the pup, and they pickled it in alcohol. +I'm a paleontologist, but I still knew alcohol was a DNA preservative. +But this was 1990, and I asked my geneticist friends, couldn't we think about going into this pup and extracting DNA, if it's there, and then somewhere down the line in the future, we'll use this DNA to bring the thylacine back? +The geneticists laughed. But this was six years before Dolly. +Cloning was science fiction. It had not happened. +But then suddenly cloning did happen. +And I thought, when I became director of the Australian Museum, I'm going to give this a go. +I put a team together. +We went into that pup to see what was in it, It was a eureka moment. We were very excited. +Unfortunately, we also found a lot of human DNA. +Every old curator who'd been in that museum had seen this wonderful specimen, put their hand in the jar, pulled it out and thought, "Wow, look at that," plop, dropped it back in the jar, contaminating this specimen. +It would've kept the curator very happy, but it wasn't going to keep us happy. +So we went back to these specimens and we started digging around, and particularly, we looked into the teeth of skulls, hard parts where humans had not been able to get their fingers, and we found much better quality DNA. +We found nuclear mitochondrial genes. +It's there. So we got it. +OK. What could we do with this stuff? +Well, George Church, in his book, "Regenesis," has mentioned many of the techniques that are rapidly advancing to work with fragmented DNA. +We would hope that we'll be able to get that DNA back into a viable form, and then, much like we've done with the Lazarus Project, get that stuff into an egg of a host species. +It has to be a different species. What could it be? +Why couldn't it be a Tasmanian devil? +They're related, distantly, to thylacines. +And then the Tasmanian devil is going to pop a thylacine out the south end. +Critics of this project say, hang on. +Thylacine, Tasmanian devil? That's going to hurt. +No, it's not. These are marsupials. +They give birth to babies that are the size of a jelly bean. +That Tasmanian devil's not even going to know it gave birth. +It is, shortly, going to think it's got the ugliest Tasmanian devil baby in the world, so maybe it'll need some help to keep it going. +Andrew Pask and his colleagues have demonstrated this might not be a waste of time. +And it's sort of in the future, we haven't got there yet, but it's the kind of thing we want to think about. +They took some of this same pickled thylacine DNA and they spliced it into a mouse genome, but they put a tag on it so that anything that this thylacine DNA produced would appear blue-green in the mouse baby. +In other words, if thylacine tissues were being produced by the thylacine DNA, it would be able to be recognized. +When the baby popped up, it was filled with blue-green tissues. +And that tells us if we can get that genome back together, get it into a live cell, it's going to produce thylacine stuff. +Is this a risk? +You've taken the bits of one animal and you've mixed them into the cell of a different kind of an animal. +Are we going to get a Frankenstein? Some kind of weird hybrid chimera? +And the answer is no. +If the only nuclear DNA that goes into this hybrid cell is thylacine DNA, that's the only thing that can pop out the other end of the devil. +OK, if we can do this, could we put it back? +This is a key question for everybody. +Does it have to stay in a laboratory, or could we put it back where it belongs? +Could we put it back in the throne of the king of beasts in Tasmania, restore that ecosystem? +Or has Tasmania changed so much that that's no longer possible? +I've been to Tasmania. +I've been to many of the areas where the thylacines were common. +I've even spoken to people, like Peter Carter here, who when I spoke to him, was 90 years old, but in 1926, this man and his father and his brother caught thylacines. They trapped them. +And when I spoke to this man, I was looking in his eyes and thinking, "Behind those eyes is a brain that has memories of what thylacines feel like, what they smelled like, what they sounded like." +He led them around on a rope. +He has personal experiences that I would give my left leg to have in my head. +We'd all love to have this sort of thing happen. +Anyway, I asked Peter, by any chance, could he take us back to where he caught those thylacines. +My interest was in whether the environment had changed. +He thought hard. It was nearly 80 years before this that he'd been at this hut. +At any rate, he led us down this bush track, and there, right where he remembered, was the hut, and tears came into his eyes. +He looked at the hut. We went inside. +There were the wooden boards on the sides of the hut where he and his father and his brother had slept at night. +And he told me, as it all was flooding back in memories. +He said, "I remember the thylacines going around the hut wondering what was inside," and he said they made sounds like "Yip! Yip! Yip!" +All of these are parts of his life and what he remembers. +And the key question for me was to ask Peter, has it changed? +And he said no. +The southern beech forests surrounded his hut just like it was when he was there in 1926. +The grasslands were sweeping away. +That's classic thylacine habitat. +And the animals in those areas were the same that were there when the thylacine was around. +So could we put it back? Yes. +Is that all we would do? And this is an interesting question. +Sometimes you might be able to put it back, but is that the safest way to make sure it never goes extinct again? +And I don't think so. +I think gradually, as we see species all around the world, it's kind of a mantra that wildlife is increasingly not safe in the wild. +We'd love to think it is, but we know it isn't. +We need other parallel strategies coming online. +And this one interests me. +Some of the thylacines that were being turned in to zoos, sanctuaries, even at the museums, had collar marks on the neck. +They were being kept as pets, and we know a lot of bush tales and memories of people who had them as pets, and they say they were wonderful, friendly. +This particular one came in out of the forest to lick this boy and curled up around the fireplace to go to sleep. A wild animal. +And I'd like to ask the question. We need to think about this. +If it had not been illegal to keep these thylacines as pets then, would the thylacine be extinct now? +And I'm positive it wouldn't. +We need to think about this in today's world. +Could it be that getting animals close to us so that we value them, maybe they won't go extinct? +And this is such a critical issue for us because if we don't do that, we're going to watch more of these animals plunge off the precipice. +As far as I'm concerned, this is why we're trying to do these kinds of de-extinction projects. +We are trying to restore that balance of nature that we have upset. +Thank you. +Good morning. +My name is Eric Li, and I was born here. +But no, I wasn't born there. +This was where I was born: Shanghai, at the height of the Cultural Revolution. +My grandmother tells me that she heard the sound of gunfire along with my first cries. +When I was growing up, I was told a story that explained all I ever needed to know about humanity. +It went like this. +All human societies develop in linear progression, beginning with primitive society, then slave society, feudalism, capitalism, socialism, and finally, guess where we end up? +Communism! +Sooner or later, all of humanity, regardless of culture, language, nationality, will arrive at this final stage of political and social development. +The entire world's peoples will be unified in this paradise on Earth and live happily ever after. +But before we get there, we're engaged in a struggle between good and evil, the good of socialism against the evil of capitalism, and the good shall triumph. +That, of course, was the meta-narrative distilled from the theories of Karl Marx. +And the Chinese bought it. +We were taught that grand story day in and day out. +It became part of us, and we believed in it. +The story was a bestseller. +About one third of the entire world's population lived under that meta-narrative. +Then, the world changed overnight. +As for me, disillusioned by the failed religion of my youth, I went to America and became a Berkeley hippie. +Now, as I was coming of age, something else happened. +As if one big story wasn't enough, I was told another one. +This one was just as grand. +It also claims that all human societies develop in a linear progression towards a singular end. +This one went as follows: All societies, regardless of culture, be it Christian, Muslim, Confucian, must progress from traditional societies in which groups are the basic units to modern societies in which atomized individuals are the sovereign units, and all these individuals are, by definition, rational, and they all want one thing: the vote. +Because they are all rational, once given the vote, they produce good government and live happily ever after. +Paradise on Earth, again. +Sooner or later, electoral democracy will be the only political system for all countries and all peoples, with a free market to make them all rich. +But before we get there, we're engaged in a struggle between good and evil. +The good belongs to those who are democracies and are charged with a mission of spreading it around the globe, sometimes by force, against the evil of those who do not hold elections. +George H.W. Bush: A new world order... +George W. Bush:... ending tyranny in our world... +Barack Obama:... a single standard for all who would hold power. +Eric X. Li: Now -- This story also became a bestseller. +According to Freedom House, the number of democracies went from 45 in 1970 to 115 in 2010. +In the last 20 years, Western elites tirelessly trotted around the globe selling this prospectus: Multiple parties fight for political power and everyone voting on them is the only path to salvation to the long-suffering developing world. +Those who buy the prospectus are destined for success. +Those who do not are doomed to fail. +But this time, the Chinese didn't buy it. +Fool me once... +The rest is history. +In just 30 years, China went from one of the poorest agricultural countries in the world to its second-largest economy. +Six hundred fifty million people were lifted out of poverty. +Eighty percent of the entire world's poverty alleviation during that period happened in China. +In other words, all the new and old democracies put together amounted to a mere fraction of what a single, one-party state did without voting. +See, I grew up on this stuff: food stamps. +Meat was rationed to a few hundred grams per person per month at one point. +Needless to say, I ate all my grandmother's portions. +So I asked myself, what's wrong with this picture? +Here I am in my hometown, my business growing leaps and bounds. +Entrepreneurs are starting companies every day. +Middle class is expanding in speed and scale unprecedented in human history. +Yet, according to the grand story, none of this should be happening. +So I went and did the only thing I could. I studied it. +Yes, China is a one-party state run by the Chinese Communist Party, the Party, and they don't hold elections. +Three assumptions are made by the dominant political theories of our time. +Such a system is operationally rigid, politically closed, and morally illegitimate. +Well, the assumptions are wrong. +The opposites are true. +Adaptability, meritocracy, and legitimacy are the three defining characteristics of China's one-party system. +Now, most political scientists will tell us that a one-party system is inherently incapable of self-correction. +It won't last long because it cannot adapt. +Now here are the facts. +So the Party self-corrects in rather dramatic fashions. +Institutionally, new rules get enacted to correct previous dysfunctions. +For example, term limits. +Political leaders used to retain their positions for life, and they used that to accumulate power and perpetuate their rules. +Mao was the father of modern China, yet his prolonged rule led to disastrous mistakes. +So the Party instituted term limits with mandatory retirement age of 68 to 70. +One thing we often hear is, "Political reforms have lagged far behind economic reforms," and "China is in dire need of political reform." +But this claim is a rhetorical trap hidden behind a political bias. +See, some have decided a priori what kinds of changes they want to see, and only such changes can be called political reform. +The truth is, political reforms have never stopped. +Compared with 30 years ago, 20 years, even 10 years ago, every aspect of Chinese society, how the country is governed, from the most local level to the highest center, are unrecognizable today. +Now such changes are simply not possible without political reforms of the most fundamental kind. +Now I would venture to suggest the Party is the world's leading expert in political reform. +The second assumption is that in a one-party state, power gets concentrated in the hands of the few, and bad governance and corruption follow. +Indeed, corruption is a big problem, but let's first look at the larger context. +Now, this may be counterintuitive to you. +The Party happens to be one of the most meritocratic political institutions in the world today. +China's highest ruling body, the Politburo, has 25 members. +In the most recent one, only five of them came from a background of privilege, so-called princelings. +The other 20, including the president and the premier, came from entirely ordinary backgrounds. +In the larger central committee of 300 or more, the percentage of those who were born into power and wealth was even smaller. +The vast majority of senior Chinese leaders worked and competed their way to the top. +Compare that with the ruling elites in both developed and developing countries, I think you'll find the Party being near the top in upward mobility. +The question then is, how could that be possible in a system run by one party? +Now we come to a powerful political institution, little-known to Westerners: the Party's Organization Department. +The department functions like a giant human resource engine that would be the envy of even some of the most successful corporations. +It operates a rotating pyramid made up of three components: civil service, state-owned enterprises, and social organizations like a university or a community program. +They form separate yet integrated career paths for Chinese officials. +They recruit college grads into entry-level positions in all three tracks, and they start from the bottom, called "keyuan" [clerk]. +Then they could get promoted through four increasingly elite ranks: fuke [deputy section manager], ke [section manager], fuchu [deputy division manager], and chu [division manger]. +Now these are not moves from "Karate Kid," okay? +It's serious business. +The range of positions is wide, from running health care in a village to foreign investment in a city district to manager in a company. +Once a year, the department reviews their performance. +They interview their superiors, their peers, their subordinates. They vet their personal conduct. +They conduct public opinion surveys. +Then they promote the winners. +Throughout their careers, these cadres can move through and out of all three tracks. +Over time, the good ones move beyond the four base levels to the fuju [deputy bureau chief] and ju [bureau chief] levels. +There, they enter high officialdom. +By that point, a typical assignment will be to manage a district with a population in the millions or a company with hundreds of millions of dollars in revenue. +Just to show you how competitive the system is, in 2012, there were 900,000 fuke and ke levels, 600,000 fuchu and chu levels, and only 40,000 fuju and ju levels. +After the ju levels, the best few move further up several more ranks, and eventually make it to the Central Committee. +The process takes two to three decades. +Does patronage play a role? Yes, of course. +But merit remains the fundamental driver. +In essence, the Organization Department runs a modernized version of China's centuries-old mentoring system. +China's new president, Xi Jinping, is the son of a former leader, which is very unusual, first of his kind to make the top job. +Even for him, the career took 30 years. +He started as a village manager, and by the time he entered the Politburo, he had managed areas with a total population of 150 million people and combined GDPs of 1.5 trillion U.S. dollars. +Now, please don't get me wrong, okay? +This is not a put-down of anyone. It's just a statement of fact. +George W. Bush, remember him? +This is not a put-down. +Before becoming governor of Texas, or Barack Obama before running for president, could not make even a small county manager in China's system. +Winston Churchill once said that democracy is a terrible system except for all the rest. +Well, apparently he hadn't heard of the Organization Department. +Now, Westerners always assume that multi-party election with universal suffrage is the only source of political legitimacy. +I was asked once, "The Party wasn't voted in by election. +Where is the source of legitimacy?" +I said, "How about competency?" +We all know the facts. +In 1949, when the Party took power, China was mired in civil wars, dismembered by foreign aggression, average life expectancy at that time, 41 years old. +Today, it's the second largest economy in the world, an industrial powerhouse, and its people live in increasing prosperity. +Pew Research polls Chinese public attitudes, and here are the numbers in recent years. +Satisfaction with the direction of the country: 85 percent. +Those who think they're better off than five years ago: 70 percent. +Those who expect the future to be better: a whopping 82 percent. +Financial Times polls global youth attitudes, and these numbers, brand new, just came from last week. +Ninety-three percent of China's Generation Y are optimistic about their country's future. +Now, if this is not legitimacy, I'm not sure what is. +In contrast, most electoral democracies around the world are suffering from dismal performance. +I don't need to elaborate for this audience how dysfunctional it is, from Washington to European capitals. +With a few exceptions, the vast number of developing countries that have adopted electoral regimes are still suffering from poverty and civil strife. +Governments get elected, and then they fall below 50 percent approval in a few months and stay there and get worse until the next election. +Democracy is becoming a perpetual cycle of elect and regret. +At this rate, I'm afraid it is democracy, not China's one-party system, that is in danger of losing legitimacy. +Now, I don't want to create the misimpression that China's hunky-dory, on the way to some kind of superpowerdom. +The country faces enormous challenges. +The social and economic problems that come with wrenching change like this are mind-boggling. +Pollution is one. Food safety. Population issues. +On the political front, the worst problem is corruption. +Corruption is widespread and undermines the system and its moral legitimacy. +But most analysts misdiagnose the disease. +They say that corruption is the result of the one-party system, and therefore, in order to cure it, you have to do away with the entire system. +But a more careful look would tell us otherwise. +Transparency International ranks China between 70 and 80 in recent years among 170 countries, and it's been moving up. +India, the largest democracy in the world, 94 and dropping. +For the hundred or so countries that are ranked below China, more than half of them are electoral democracies. +So if election is the panacea for corruption, how come these countries can't fix it? +Now, I'm a venture capitalist. I make bets. +It wouldn't be fair to end this talk without putting myself on the line and making some predictions. +So here they are. +In the next 10 years, China will surpass the U.S. +and become the largest economy in the world. +Income per capita will be near the top of all developing countries. +Corruption will be curbed, but not eliminated, and China will move up 10 to 20 notches to above 60 in T.I. ranking. +Economic reform will accelerate, political reform will continue, and the one-party system will hold firm. +We live in the dusk of an era. +Meta-narratives that make universal claims failed us in the 20th century and are failing us in the 21st. +Meta-narrative is the cancer that is killing democracy from the inside. +Now, I want to clarify something. +I'm not here to make an indictment of democracy. +On the contrary, I think democracy contributed to the rise of the West and the creation of the modern world. +It is the universal claim that many Western elites are making about their political system, the hubris, that is at the heart of the West's current ills. +If they would spend just a little less time on trying to force their way onto others, and a little bit more on political reform at home, they might give their democracy a better chance. +China's political model will never supplant electoral democracy, because unlike the latter, it doesn't pretend to be universal. +It cannot be exported. But that is the point precisely. +The significance of China's example is not that it provides an alternative, but the demonstration that alternatives exist. +Let us draw to a close this era of meta-narratives. +Communism and democracy may both be laudable ideals, but the era of their dogmatic universalism is over. +Let us stop telling people and our children there's only one way to govern ourselves and a singular future towards which all societies must evolve. +It is wrong. It is irresponsible. +And worst of all, it is boring. +Let universality make way for plurality. +Perhaps a more interesting age is upon us. +Are we brave enough to welcome it? +Thank you. +Thank you. Thank you. Thank you. Thanks. +Bruno Giussani: Eric, stay with me for a couple of minutes, because I want to ask you a couple of questions. +I think many here, and in general in Western countries, would agree with your statement about analysis of democratic systems becoming dysfunctional, but at the same time, many would kind of find unsettling the thought that there is an unelected authority that, without any form of oversight or consultation, decides what the national interest is. +What is the mechanism in the Chinese model that allows people to say, actually, the national interest as you defined it is wrong? +EXL: You know, Frank Fukuyama, the political scientist, called the Chinese system "responsive authoritarianism." +It's not exactly right, but I think it comes close. +So I know the largest public opinion survey company in China, okay? +Do you know who their biggest client is? +The Chinese government. +Not just from the central government, the city government, the provincial government, to the most local neighborhood districts. +They conduct surveys all the time. +Are you happy with the garbage collection? +Are you happy with the general direction of the country? +So there is, in China, there is a different kind of mechanism to be responsive to the demands and the thinking of the people. +My point is, I think we should get unstuck from the thinking that there's only one political system -- election, election, election -- that could make it responsive. +I'm not sure, actually, elections produce responsive government anymore in the world. +BG: Many seem to agree. +One of the features of a democratic system is a space for civil society to express itself. +And you have shown figures about the support that the government and the authorities have in China. +But then you've just mentioned other elements like, you know, big challenges, and there are, of course, a lot of other data that go in a different direction: tens of thousands of unrests and protests and environmental protests, etc. +So you seem to suggest the Chinese model doesn't have a space outside of the Party for civil society to express itself. +EXL: There's a vibrant civil society in China, whether it's environment or what-have-you. +But it's different. You wouldn't recognize it. +Because, by Western definitions, a so-called civil society has to be separate or even in opposition to the political system, but that concept is alien for Chinese culture. +For thousands of years, you have civil society, yet they are consistent and coherent and part of a political order, and I think it's a big cultural difference. +BG: Eric, thank you for sharing this with TED. EXL: Thank you. +There's an old joke about a cop who's walking his beat in the middle of the night, and he comes across a guy under a street lamp who's looking at the ground and moving from side to side, and the cop asks him what he's doing. +The guys says he's looking for his keys. +So the cop takes his time and looks over and kind of makes a little matrix and looks for about two, three minutes. No keys. +The cop says, "Are you sure? +Hey buddy, are you sure you lost your keys here?" +And the guy says, "No, actually I lost them down at the other end of the street, but the light is better here." +There's a concept that people talk about nowadays called "big data." +And what they're talking about is all of the information that we're generating through our interaction with and over the Internet, everything from Facebook and Twitter to music downloads, movies, streaming, all this kind of stuff, the live streaming of TED. +And the folks who work with big data, for them, they talk about that their biggest problem is we have so much information. +The biggest problem is: how do we organize all that information? +I can tell you that, working in global health, that is not our biggest problem. +Because for us, even though the light is better on the Internet, the data that would help us solve the problems we're trying to solve is not actually present on the Internet. +So we don't know, for example, how many people right now are being affected by disasters or by conflict situations. +We don't know for, really, basically, any of the clinics in the developing world, which ones have medicines and which ones don't. +We have no idea of what the supply chain is for those clinics. +We don't know -- and this is really amazing to me -- we don't know how many children were born -- or how many children there are -- in Bolivia or Botswana or Bhutan. +We don't know how many kids died last week in any of those countries. +We don't know the needs of the elderly, the mentally ill. +For all of these different critically important problems or critically important areas that we want to solve problems in, we basically know nothing at all. +And part of the reason why we don't know anything at all is that the information technology systems that we use in global health to find the data to solve these problems is what you see here. +This is about a 5,000-year-old technology. +Some of you may have used it before. +It's kind of on its way out now, but we still use it for 99 percent of our stuff. +This is a paper form. +Do you have any children? Were your children vaccinated?" +Because the only way we can actually find out how many children were vaccinated in the country of Indonesia, what percentage were vaccinated, is actually not on the Internet, but by going out and knocking on doors, sometimes tens of thousands of doors. +Sometimes it takes months to even years to do something like this. +You know, a census of Indonesia would probably take two years to accomplish. +And the problem, of course, with all of this is that, with all those paper forms -- and I'm telling you, we have paper forms for every possible thing: We have paper forms for vaccination surveys. +We have paper forms to track people who come into clinics. +We have paper forms to track drug supplies, blood supplies -- all these different paper forms for many different topics, they all have a single, common endpoint, and the common endpoint looks something like this. +And what we're looking at here is a truckful of data. +This is the data from a single vaccination coverage survey in a single district in the country of Zambia from a few years ago, that I participated in. +The only thing anyone was trying to find out is what percentage of Zambian children are vaccinated, and this is the data, collected on paper over weeks, from a single district, which is something like a county in the United States. +You can imagine that, for the entire country of Zambia, answering just that single question ... +looks something like this. +Truck after truck after truck, filled with stack after stack after stack of data. +And what makes it even worse is that's just the beginning. +Because once you've collected all that data, of course, someone -- some unfortunate person -- is going to have to type that into a computer. +When I was a graduate student, I actually was that unfortunate person sometimes. +I can tell you, I often wasn't really paying attention. +I probably made a lot of mistakes when I did it that no one ever discovered, so data quality goes down. +But eventually that data, hopefully, gets typed into a computer, and someone can begin to analyze it, and once they have an analysis and a report, hopefully, then you can take the results of that data collection and use it to vaccinate children better. +Because if there's anything worse in the field of global public health -- I don't know what's worse than allowing children on this planet to die of vaccine-preventable diseases -- diseases for which the vaccine costs a dollar. +And millions of children die of these diseases every year. +And the fact is, millions is a gross estimate, because we don't really know how many kids die each year of this. +What makes it even more frustrating is that the data-entry part, the part that I used to do as a grad student, can take sometimes six months. +Sometimes it can take two years to type that information into a computer, And sometimes, actually not infrequently, it actually never happens. +Now try and wrap your head around that for a second. +You just had teams of hundreds of people. +They went out into the field to answer a particular question. +You probably spent hundreds of thousands of dollars on fuel and photocopying and per diem. +And then for some reason, momentum is lost or there's no money left, and all of that comes to nothing, because no one actually types it into the computer at all. +The process just stops. Happens all the time. +This is what we base our decisions on in global health: little data, old data, no data. +So back in 1995, I began to think about ways in which we could improve this process. +Now 1995 -- obviously, that was quite a long time ago. +It kind of frightens me to think of how long ago that was. +The top movie of the year was "Die Hard with a Vengeance." +As you can see, Bruce Willis had a lot more hair back then. +I was working in the Centers for Disease Control and I had a lot more hair back then as well. +But to me, the most significant thing that I saw in 1995 was this. +Hard for us to imagine, but in 1995, this was the ultimate elite mobile device. +It wasn't an iPhone. It wasn't a Galaxy phone. +It was a PalmPilot. +And when I saw the PalmPilot for the first time, I thought, "Why can't we put the forms on these PalmPilots? +And go out into the field just carrying one PalmPilot, which can hold the capacity of tens of thousands of paper forms? +Why don't we try to do that? +Because if we can do that, if we can actually just collect the data electronically, digitally, from the very beginning, we can just put a shortcut right through that whole process of typing, of having somebody type that stuff into the computer. +We can skip straight to the analysis and then straight to the use of the data to actually save lives." +So that's what I began to do. +Working at CDC, I began to travel to different programs around the world and to train them in using PalmPilots to do data collection, instead of using paper. +And it actually worked great. +It worked exactly as well as anybody would have predicted. +What do you know? +Digital data collection is actually more efficient than collecting on paper. +While I was doing it, my business partner, Rose, who's here with her husband, Matthew, here in the audience, Rose was out doing similar stuff for the American Red Cross. +The problem was, after a few years of doing that, I realized -- I had been to maybe six or seven programs -- and I thought, you know, if I keep this up at this pace, over my whole career, maybe I'm going to go to maybe 20 or 30 programs. +But the problem is, 20 or 30 programs, like, training 20 or 30 programs to use this technology, that is a tiny drop in the bucket. +The demand for this, the need for data to run better programs just within health -- not to mention all of the other fields in developing countries -- is enormous. +There are millions and millions and millions of programs, millions of clinics that need to track drugs, millions of vaccine programs. +There are schools that need to track attendance. +There are all these different things for us to get the data that we need to do. +And I realized if I kept up the way that I was doing, I was basically hardly going to make any impact by the end of my career. +And so I began to rack my brain, trying to think about, what was the process that I was doing? +How was I training folks, and what were the bottlenecks and what were the obstacles to doing it faster and to doing it more efficiently? +And, unfortunately, after thinking about this for some time, I identified the main obstacle. +And the main obstacle, it turned out -- and this is a sad realization -- the main obstacle was me. +So what do I mean by that? +I had developed a process whereby I was the center of the universe of this technology. +If you wanted to use this technology, you had to get in touch with me. +That means you had to know I existed. +Then you had to find the money to pay for me to fly out to your country and the money to pay for my hotel and my per diem and my daily rate. +So you could be talking about 10- or 20- or 30,000 dollars, if I actually had the time or it fit my schedule and I wasn't on vacation. +The point is that anything, any system that depends on a single human being or two or three or five human beings -- it just doesn't scale. +And this is a problem for which we need to scale this technology, and we need to scale it now. +And so I began to think of ways in which I could basically take myself out of the picture. +And, you know, I was thinking, "How could I take myself out of the picture?" +for quite some time. +I'd been trained that the way you distribute technology within international development is always consultant-based. +It's always guys that look pretty much like me, flying from countries that look pretty much like this to other countries with people with darker skin. +And you go out there, and you spend money on airfare and you spend time and you spend per diem and you spend for a hotel and all that stuff. +As far as I knew, that was the only way you could distribute technology, and I couldn't figure out a way around it. +But the miracle that happened -- I'm going to call it Hotmail for short. +You may not think of Hotmail as being miraculous, but for me it was miraculous, because I noticed, just as I was wrestling with this problem -- I was working in sub-Saharan Africa, mostly, at the time -- I noticed that every sub-Saharan African health worker that I was working with had a Hotmail account. +And it struck me, "Wait a minute -- I know the Hotmail people surely didn't fly to the Ministry of Health in Kenya to train people in how to use Hotmail. +So these guys are distributing technology, getting software capacity out there, but they're not actually flying around the world. +I need to think about this more." +While I was thinking about it, people started using even more things like this, just as we were. +They started using LinkedIn and Flickr and Gmail and Google Maps -- Of course, all of these things are cloud based and don't require any training. +They don't require any programmers. +They don't require consultants. +Because the business model for all these businesses requires that something be so simple we can use it ourselves, with little or no training. +You just have to hear about it and go to the website. +And so I thought, what would happen if we built software to do what I'd been consulting in? +Instead of training people how to put forms onto mobile devices, let's create software that lets them do it themselves with no training and without me being involved. +And that's exactly what we did. +So we created software called Magpi, which has an online form creator. +No one has to speak to me, you just have to hear about it and go to the website. +You can create forms, and once you've created the forms, you push them to a variety of common mobile phones. +Obviously, nowadays, we've moved past PalmPilots to mobile phones. +And it doesn't have to be a smartphone, it can be a basic phone, like the phone on the right, the basic Symbian phone that's very common in developing countries. +And the great part about this is it's just like Hotmail. +It's cloud based, and it doesn't require any training, programming, consultants. +But there are some additional benefits as well. +Now we knew when we built this system, the whole point of it, just like with the PalmPilots, was that you'd be able to collect the data and immediately upload the data and get your data set. +But what we found, of course, since it's already on a computer, we can deliver instant maps and analysis and graphing. +We can take a process that took two years and compress that down to the space of five minutes. +Unbelievable improvements in efficiency. +Cloud based, no training, no consultants, no me. +And I told you that in the first few years of trying to do this the old-fashioned way, going out to each country, we probably trained about 1,000 people. +What happened after we did this? +In the second three years, we had 14,000 people find the website, sign up and start using it to collect data: data for disaster response, Canadian pig farmers tracking pig disease and pig herds, people tracking drug supplies. +Physicians for Human Rights -- this is moving a little bit outside the health field -- they're basically training people to do rape exams in Congo, where this is an epidemic, a horrible epidemic, and they're using our software to document the evidence they find, including photographically, so that they can bring the perpetrators to justice. +Camfed, another charity based out of the UK -- Camfed pays girls' families to keep them in school. +They understand this is the most significant intervention they can make. +They used to track the disbursements, the attendance, the grades, on paper. +The turnaround time between a teacher writing down grades or attendance and getting that into a report was about two to three years. +Now it's real time. +And because this is such a low-cost system and based in the cloud, it costs, for the entire five countries that Camfed runs this in, with tens of thousands of girls, the whole cost combined is 10,000 dollars a year. +That's less than I used to get just traveling out for two weeks to do a consultation. +So I told you before that when we were doing it the old-fashioned way, I realized all of our work was really adding up to just a drop in the bucket -- 10, 20, 30 different programs. +We've made a lot of progress, but I recognize that right now, even the work that we've done with 14,000 people using this is still a drop in the bucket. +But something's changed, and I think it should be obvious. +What's changed now is, instead of having a program in which we're scaling at such a slow rate that we can never reach all the people who need us, we've made it unnecessary for people to get reached by us. +We've created a tool that lets programs keep kids in school, track the number of babies that are born and the number of babies that die, catch criminals and successfully prosecute them -- to do all these different things to learn more about what's going on, to understand more, to see more ... +and to save lives and improve lives. +Thank you. +Clouds. +Have you ever noticed how much people moan about them? +They get a bad rap. +If you think about it, the English language has written into it negative associations towards the clouds. +Someone who's down or depressed, they're under a cloud. +And when there's bad news in store, there's a cloud on the horizon. +I saw an article the other day. +It was about problems with computer processing over the Internet. +"A cloud over the cloud," was the headline. +It seems like they're everyone's default doom-and-gloom metaphor. +But I think they're beautiful, don't you? +It's just that their beauty is missed because they're so omnipresent, so, I don't know, commonplace, that people don't notice them. +They don't notice the beauty, but they don't even notice the clouds unless they get in the way of the sun. +And so people think of clouds as things that get in the way. +They think of them as the annoying, frustrating obstructions, and then they rush off and do some blue-sky thinking. +But most people, when you stop to ask them, will admit to harboring a strange sort of fondness for clouds. +It's like a nostalgic fondness, and they make them think of their youth. +Who here can't remember thinking, well, looking and finding shapes in the clouds when they were kids? +You know, when you were masters of daydreaming? +Aristophanes, the ancient Greek playwright, he described the clouds as the patron godesses of idle fellows two and a half thousand years ago, and you can see what he means. +It's just that these days, us adults seem reluctant to allow ourselves the indulgence of just allowing our imaginations to drift along in the breeze, and I think that's a pity. +I think we should perhaps do a bit more of it. +I think we should be a bit more willing, perhaps, to look at the beautiful sight of the sunlight bursting out from behind the clouds and go, "Wait a minute, that's two cats dancing the salsa!" +Or seeing the big, white, puffy one up there over the shopping center looks like the Abominable Snowman going to rob a bank. +They're like nature's version of those inkblot images, you know, that shrinks used to show their patients in the '60s, and I think if you consider the shapes you see in the clouds, you'll save money on psychoanalysis bills. +Let's say you're in love. All right? +And you look up and what do you see? +Right? Or maybe the opposite. +You've just been dumped by your partner, and everywhere you look, it's kissing couples. +Perhaps you're having a moment of existential angst. +You know, you're thinking about your own mortality. +And there, on the horizon, it's the Grim Reaper. +Or maybe you see a topless sunbather. +What would that mean? +What would that mean? I have no idea. +But one thing I do know is this: The bad press that clouds get is totally unfair. +I think we should stand up for them, which is why, a few years ago, I started the Cloud Appreciation Society. +Tens of thousands of members now in almost 100 countries around the world. +And all these photographs that I'm showing, they were sent in by members. +And the society exists to remind people of this: Clouds are not something to moan about. +Far from it. They are, in fact, the most diverse, evocative, poetic aspect of nature. +I think, if you live with your head in the clouds every now and then, it helps you keep your feet on the ground. +And I want to show you why, with the help of some of my favorite types of clouds. +Let's start with this one. It's the cirrus cloud, named after the Latin for a lock of hair. +It's composed entirely of ice crystals cascading from the upper reaches of the troposphere, and as these ice crystals fall, they pass through different layers with different winds and they speed up and slow down, giving the cloud these brush-stroked appearances, these brush-stroke forms known as fall streaks. +And these winds up there can be very, very fierce. +They can be 200 miles an hour, 300 miles an hour. +These clouds are bombing along, but from all the way down here, they appear to be moving gracefully, slowly, like most clouds. +And so to tune into the clouds is to slow down, to calm down. +It's like a bit of everyday meditation. +Those are common clouds. +What about rarer ones, like the lenticularis, the UFO-shaped lenticularis cloud? +These clouds form in the region of mountains. +When the wind passes, rises to pass over the mountain, it can take on a wave-like path in the lee of the peak, with these clouds hovering at the crest of these invisible standing waves of air, these flying saucer-like forms, and some of the early black-and-white UFO photos are in fact lenticularis clouds. It's true. +A little rarer are the fallstreak holes. All right? +This is when a layer is made up of very, very cold water droplets, and in one region they start to freeze, and this freezing sets off a chain reaction which spreads outwards with the ice crystals cascading and falling down below, giving the appearance of jellyfish tendrils down below. +Rarer still, the KelvinHelmholtz cloud. +Not a very snappy name. Needs a rebrand. +All right. Those are rarer clouds than the cirrus, but they're not that rare. +If you look up, and you pay attention to the sky, you'll see them sooner or later, maybe not quite as dramatic as these, but you'll see them. +And you'll see them around where you live. +Clouds are the most egalitarian of nature's displays, because we all have a good, fantastic view of the sky. +And these clouds, these rarer clouds, remind us that the exotic can be found in the everyday. +Nothing is more nourishing, more stimulating to an active, inquiring mind than being surprised, being amazed. It's why we're all here at TED, right? +But you don't need to rush off away from the familiar, across the world to be surprised. +You just need to step outside, pay attention to what's so commonplace, so everyday, so mundane that everybody else misses it. +One cloud that people rarely miss is this one: the cumulonimbus storm cloud. +It's what's produces thunder and lightning and hail. +These clouds spread out at the top in this enormous anvil fashion stretching 10 miles up into the atmosphere. +They are an expression of the majestic architecture of our atmosphere. +But from down below, they are the embodiment of the powerful, elemental force and power that drives our atmosphere. +To be there is to be connected in the driving rain and the hail, to feel connected to our atmosphere. +It's to be reminded that we are creatures that inhabit this ocean of air. +We don't live beneath the sky. We live within it. +And that connection, that visceral connection to our atmosphere feels to me like an antidote. +It's an antidote to the growing tendency we have to feel that we can really ever experience life by watching it on a computer screen, you know, when we're in a wi-fi zone. +But the one cloud that best expresses why cloudspotting is more valuable today than ever is this one, the cumulus cloud. +Right? It forms on a sunny day. +If you close your eyes and think of a cloud, it's probably one of these that comes to mind. +All those cloud shapes at the beginning, those were cumulus clouds. +The sharp, crisp outlines of this formation make it the best one for finding shapes in. +And it reminds us of the aimless nature of cloudspotting, what an aimless activity it is. +You're not going to change the world by lying on your back and gazing up at the sky, are you? +It's pointless. It's a pointless activity, which is precisely why it's so important. +The digital world conspires to make us feel eternally busy, perpetually busy. +You know, when you're not dealing with the traditional pressures of earning a living and putting food on the table, raising a family, writing thank you letters, you have to now contend with answering a mountain of unanswered emails, updating a Facebook page, feeding your Twitter feed. +And cloudspotting legitimizes doing nothing. +And sometimes we need Sometimes we need excuses to do nothing. +It's good for your ideas. It's good for your creativity. +It's good for your soul. +So keep looking up, marvel at the ephemeral beauty, and always remember to live life with your head in the clouds. +Thank you very much. +Robbie Mizzone: Thank you. +Tommy Mizzone: Thank you very much. +We're so excited to be here. It's such an honor for us. +Like he said, we're three brothers from New Jersey -- you know, the bluegrass capital of the world. +We discovered bluegrass a few years ago, and we fell in love with it. We hope you guys will too. +This next song is an original we wrote called "Timelapse," and it will probably live up to its name. +TM: Thank you very much. +RM: I'm just going to take a second to introduce the band. +On guitar is my 15-year-old brother Tommy. +On banjo is 10-year-old Jonny. +He's also our brother. +And I'm Robbie, and I'm 14, and I play the fiddle. +As you can see, we decided to make it hard on ourselves, and we chose to play three songs in three different keys. +Yeah. I'm also going to explain, a lot of people want to know where we got the name Sleepy Man Banjo Boys from. +So it started when Jonny was little, and he first started the banjo, he would play on his back with his eyes closed, and we'd say it looked like he was sleeping. +So you can probably piece the rest together. +TM: We can't really figure out the reason for this. +It might have been that it weighs about a million pounds. +TM: Thank you very much. +RM: Thank you. +I'm going to start by asking you a question: Is anyone familiar with the blue algae problem? +Okay, so most of you are. +I think we can all agree it's a serious issue. +Nobody wants to drink blue algae-contaminated water, or swim in a blue algae-infested lake. +Right? +I hope you won't be disappointed, but today, I won't be talking about blue algae. +Instead, I'll be talking about the main cause at the root of this issue, which I will be referring to as the phosphorus crisis. +Why have I chosen to talk to you about the phosphorus crisis today? +For the simple reason that nobody else is talking about it. +And by the end of my presentation, I hope that the general public will be more aware of this crisis and this issue. +Now, the problem is that if I ask, why do we find ourselves in this situation with blue algae? +The answer is that it comes from how we farm. +We use fertilizers in our farming, chemical fertilizers. +Why do we use chemical fertilizers in agriculture? +Basically, to help plants grow and to produce a better yield. +The issue is that this is set to engender an environmental problem that is without precedent. +Before going further, let me give you a crash course in plant biology. +So, what does a plant need in order to grow? +A plant, quite simply, needs light, it needs CO2, but even more importantly, it needs nutrients, which it draws from the soil. +Several of these nutrients are essential chemical elements: phosphorus, nitrogen and calcium. +So, the plants roots will extract these resources. +Today I'll be focusing on a major problem that is linked to phosphorus. +Why phosphorus in particular? +Because it is the most problematic chemical element. +By the end of my presentation, you will have seen what these problems are, and where we are today. +Phosphorus is a chemical element that is essential to life. This is a very important point. +Id like everyone to understand precisely what the phosphorus issue is. +Phosphorus is a key component in several molecules, in many of our molecules of life. +Experts in the field will know that cellular communication is phosphorus-based -- phosphorylation, dephosphorylation. +Cell membranes are phosphorus-based: These are called phospholipids. +The energy in all living things, ATP, is phosphorus-based. +And more importantly still, phosphorus is a key component of DNA, something everyone is familiar with, and which is shown in this image. +DNA is our genetic heritage. +It is extremely important, and once again, phosphorus is a key player. +Now, where do we find this phosphorus? +As humans, where do we find it? +As I explained earlier, plants extract phosphorus from the soil, through water. +So, we humans get it from the things we eat: plants, vegetables, fruits, and also from eggs, meat and milk. +Its true that some humans eat better than others. +Some are happier than others. +And now, looking at this picture, which speaks for itself, we see modern agriculture, which I also refer to as intensive agriculture. +Intensive agriculture is based on the use of chemical fertilizers. +Without them, we would not manage to produce enough to feed the world's population. +Speaking of humans, there are currently 7 billion of us on Earth. +In less than 40 years, there will be 9 billion of us. +And the question is a simple one: Do we have enough phosphorus to feed our future generations? +So, in order to understand these issues, where do we find our phosphorus? +Let me explain. +But first, lets just suppose that we are using 100 percent of a given dose of phosphorus. +Only 15 percent of this 100 percent goes to the plant. Eighty-five percent is lost. +It goes into the soil, ending its journey in the lakes, resulting in lakes with extra phosphorus, which leads to the blue algae problem. +So, youll see theres a problem here, something that is illogical. +A hundred percent of the phosphorus is used, but only 15 percent goes to the plant. +Youre going to tell me its wasteful. +Yes, it is. What is worse is that it is very expensive. +Nobody wants to throw their money out the window, but unfortunately that's what is happening here. +Eighty percent of each dose of phosphorus is lost. +Modern agriculture depends on phosphorus. +And because in order to get 15 percent of it to the plant, all the rest is lost, we have to add more and more. +Now, where will we get this phosphorus from? +Basically, we get it out of mines. +This is the cover of an extraordinary article published in Nature in 2009, which really launched the discussion about the phosphorus crisis. +Phosphorus, a nutrient essential to life, which is becoming increasingly scarce, yet nobody is talking about it. +And everyone agrees: Politicians and scientists are in agreement that we are headed for a phosphorus crisis. +What you are seeing here is an open-pit mine in the U.S., and to give you an idea of the dimensions of this mine, if you look in the top right-hand corner, the little crane you can see, that is a giant crane. +So that really puts it into perspective. +So, we get phosphorus from mines. +And if I make a comparison with oil, theres an oil crisis, we talk about it, we talk about global warming, yet we never mention the phosphorus crisis. +To come back to the oil problem, oil is something we can replace. +We can use biofuels, or solar power, or hydropower, but phosphorus is an essential element, indispensable to life, and we cant replace it. +What is the current state of the world's phosphorus reserves? +This graph gives you a rough idea of where we are today. +The black line represents predictions for phosphorus reserves. +In 2030, well reach the peak. +By the end of this century, it will all be gone. +The dotted line shows where we are today. +As you can see, they meet in 2030, Ill be retired by then. +But we are indeed heading for a major crisis, and Id like people to become aware of this problem. +Do we have a solution? +What are we to do? We are faced with a paradox. +Less and less phosphorus will be available. +By 2050 there will be 9 billion of us, and according to the U.N. Food and Agriculture Organization, we will need to produce twice as much food in 2050 than we do today. +So, we will have less phosphorus, but we'll need to produce more food. +What should we do? +It truly is a paradoxical situation. +Do we have a solution, or an alternative which will allow us to optimize phosphorus use? +Remember that 80 percent is destined to be lost. +The solution I'm offering today is one that has existed for a very long time, even before plants existed on Earth, and it's a microscopic mushroom that is very mysterious, very simple, and yet also extremely complex. +I've been fascinated by this little mushroom for over 16 years now. +It has led me to further my research and to use it as a model for my laboratory research. +This mushroom exists in symbiosis with the roots. +By symbiosis, I mean a bidirectional and mutually beneficial association which is also called mycorrhiza. +This slide illustrates the elements of a mycorrhiza. +Youre looking at the root of wheat, one of the worlds most important plants. +Normally, a root will find phosphorus all by itself. +It will go in search of phosphorus, but only within the one millimeter which surrounds it. +Beyond one millimeter, the root is ineffective. +It cannot go further in its search for phosphorus. +Now, imagine this tiny, microscopic mushroom. +It grows much faster, and is much better designed to seek out phosphorus. +It can go beyond the roots one-millimeter scope to seek out phosphorus. +I havent invented anything at all; it's a biotechnology that has existed for 450 million years. +And over time, this mushroom has evolved and adapted to seek out even the tiniest trace of phosphorus, and to put it to use, to make it available to the plant. +What youre seeing here, in the real world, is a carrot root, and the mushroom with its very fine filaments. +Looking closer, we can see that this mushroom is very gentle in its penetration. +It will proliferate between the root's cells, eventually penetrating a cell and starting to form a typical arbuscular structure, which will considerably increase the exchange interface between the plant and the mushroom. +And it is through this structure that mutual exchanges will occur. +Its a win-win trade: I give you phosphorus, and you feed me. +True symbiosis. +Now let's add a mycorrhiza plant into the diagram I used earlier. +And instead of using a 100 percent dose, Im going to reduce it to 25 percent. +Youll see that of this 25 percent, most will benefit the plant, more than 90 percent. +A very small amount of phosphorus will remain in the soil. +That's completely natural. +What's more is that in certain cases, we don't even need to add phosphorus. +If you recall the graphs I showed you earlier, 85 percent of phosphorus is lost in the soil, and the plants are unable to access it. +Even though it is present in the soil, it is in insoluble form. +The plant is only able to seek out soluble forms. +The mushroom is capable of dissolving this insoluble form and making it available for the plant to use. +To further support my argument, here is a picture that speaks for itself. +These are trials in a field of sorghum. +On the left side, you see the yield produced using conventional agriculture, with a 100 percent phosphorus dose. +On the other side, the dose was reduced to 50 percent, and just look at the yield. +With only a half-dose, we achieved a better yield. +This is to show you that this method works. +And in some cases, in Cuba, Mexico and India, the dose can be reduced to 25 percent, and in several other cases, there's no need to add any phosphorus at all, because the mushrooms are so well adapted to finding phosphorus and drawing it from the soil. +This is an example of soy production in Canada. +Mycorrhiza was used in one field but not in the other. +And here, where blue indicates a better yield, and yellow a weaker yield. +The black rectangle is the plot from which the mycorrhiza was added. +In other words, as I already said, I have invented nothing. +Mycorrhiza has existed for 450 million years, and it has even helped modern-day plant species to diversify. +So, this it isn't something that is still undergoing lab tests. +Mycorrhiza exists, it works, it's produced at an industrial scale and commercialized worldwide. +The problem is that people are not aware of it. +People like food producers and farmers are still not aware of this problem. +We have a technology that works, and one that, if used correctly, will alleviate some of the pressure we are putting on the world's phosphorus reserves. +In conclusion, I am a scientist and a dreamer. +I'm passionate about this topic. +So if you were to ask me what my retirement dream is, which will be at the moment we reach that phosphorus peak, it would be that we use one label, "Made with mycorrhiza," and that my children and grandchildren buy products bearing that label too. +Thank you for your attention. +When we talk about corruption, there are typical types of individuals that spring to mind. +There's the former Soviet megalomaniacs. +Saparmurat Niyazov, he was one of them. +Until his death in 2006, he was the all-powerful leader of Turkmenistan, a Central Asian country rich in natural gas. +Now, he really loved to issue presidential decrees. +And one renamed the months of the year including after himself and his mother. +He spent millions of dollars creating a bizarre personality cult, and his crowning glory was the building of a 40-foot-high gold-plated statue of himself which stood proudly in the capital's central square and rotated to follow the sun. +He was a slightly unusual guy. +And then there's that clich, the African dictator or minister or official. +There's Teodorn Obiang. +So his daddy is president for life of Equatorial Guinea, a West African nation that has exported billions of dollars of oil since the 1990s and yet has a truly appalling human rights record. +The vast majority of its people are living in really miserable poverty despite an income per capita that's on a par with that of Portugal. +So Obiang junior, well, he buys himself a $30 million mansion in Malibu, California. +I've been up to its front gates. +I can tell you it's a magnificent spread. +He bought an 18 million art collection that used to belong to fashion designer Yves Saint Laurent, a stack of fabulous sports cars, some costing a million dollars apiece -- oh, and a Gulfstream jet, too. +Now get this: Until recently, he was earning an official monthly salary of less than 7,000 dollars. +And there's Dan Etete. +Well, he was the former oil minister of Nigeria under President Abacha, and it just so happens he's a convicted money launderer too. +We've spent a great deal of time investigating a $1 billion -- that's right, a $1 billion oil deal that he was involved with, and what we found was pretty shocking, but more about that later. +So it's easy to think that corruption happens somewhere over there, carried out by a bunch of greedy despots and individuals up to no good in countries that we, personally, may know very little about and feel really unconnected to and unaffected by what might be going on. +But does it just happen over there? +Well, at 22, I was very lucky. +My first job out of university was investigating the illegal trade in African ivory. +And that's how my relationship with corruption really began. +In 1993, with two friends who were colleagues, Simon Taylor and Patrick Alley, we set up an organization called Global Witness. +Our first campaign was investigating the role of illegal logging in funding the war in Cambodia. +So a few years later, and it's now 1997, and I'm in Angola undercover investigating blood diamonds. +Perhaps you saw the film, the Hollywood film "Blood Diamond," the one with Leonardo DiCaprio. +Well, some of that sprang from our work. +Luanda, it was full of land mine victims who were struggling to survive on the streets and war orphans living in sewers under the streets, and a tiny, very wealthy elite who gossiped about shopping trips to Brazil and Portugal. +And it was a slightly crazy place. +So I'm sitting in a hot and very stuffy hotel room feeling just totally overwhelmed. +But it wasn't about blood diamonds. +Because I'd been speaking to lots of people there who, well, they talked about a different problem: that of a massive web of corruption on a global scale and millions of oil dollars going missing. +And for what was then a very small organization of just a few people, trying to even begin to think how we might tackle that was an enormous challenge. +And in the years that I've been, and we've all been campaigning and investigating, I've repeatedly seen that what makes corruption on a global, massive scale possible, well it isn't just greed or the misuse of power or that nebulous phrase "weak governance." +I mean, yes, it's all of those, but corruption, it's made possible by the actions of global facilitators. +So let's go back to some of those people I talked about earlier. +Now, they're all people we've investigated, and they're all people who couldn't do what they do alone. +Take Obiang junior. Well, he didn't end up with high-end art and luxury houses without help. +He did business with global banks. +A bank in Paris held accounts of companies controlled by him, one of which was used to buy the art, and American banks, well, they funneled 73 million dollars into the States, some of which was used to buy that California mansion. +And he didn't do all of this in his own name either. +He used shell companies. +He used one to buy the property, and another, which was in somebody else's name, to pay the huge bills it cost to run the place. +And then there's Dan Etete. +Well, when he was oil minister, he awarded an oil block now worth over a billion dollars to a company that, guess what, yeah, he was the hidden owner of. +Now, it was then much later traded on with the kind assistance of the Nigerian government -- now I have to be careful what I say here to subsidiaries of Shell and the Italian Eni, two of the biggest oil companies around. +So the reality is, is that the engine of corruption, well, it exists far beyond the shores of countries like Equatorial Guinea or Nigeria or Turkmenistan. +This engine, well, it's driven by our international banking system, by the problem of anonymous shell companies, and by the secrecy that we have afforded big oil, gas and mining operations, and, most of all, by the failure of our politicians to back up their rhetoric and do something really meaningful and systemic to tackle this stuff. +Now let's take the banks first. +Well, it's not going to come as any surprise for me to tell you that banks accept dirty money, but they prioritize their profits in other destructive ways too. +For example, in Sarawak, Malaysia. +Now this region, it has just five percent of its forests left intact. Five percent. +So how did that happen? +Well, because an elite and its facilitators have been making millions of dollars from supporting logging on an industrial scale for many years. +And HSBC, well, we know that HSBC bankrolled the region's largest logging companies that were responsible for some of that destruction in Sarawak and elsewhere. +The bank violated its own sustainability policies in the process, but it earned around 130 million dollars. +Now shortly after our expos, very shortly after our expos earlier this year, the bank announced a policy review on this. +And is this progress? Maybe, but we're going to be keeping a very close eye on that case. +And then there's the problem of anonymous shell companies. +Well, we've all heard about what they are, I think, and we all know they're used quite a bit by people and companies who are trying to avoid paying their proper dues to society, also known as taxes. +But what doesn't usually come to light is how shell companies are used to steal huge sums of money, transformational sums of money, from poor countries. +In virtually every case of corruption that we've investigated, shell companies have appeared, and sometimes it's been impossible to find out who is really involved in the deal. +A recent study by the World Bank looked at 200 cases of corruption. +It found that over 70 percent of those cases had used anonymous shell companies, totaling almost 56 billion dollars. +Now many of these companies were in America or the United Kingdom, its overseas territories and Crown dependencies, and so it's not just an offshore problem, it's an on-shore one too. +You see, shell companies, they're central to the secret deals which may benefit wealthy elites rather than ordinary citizens. +One striking recent case that we've investigated is how the government in the Democratic Republic of Congo sold off a series of valuable, state-owned mining assets to shell companies in the British Virgin Islands. +So we spoke to sources in country, trawled through company documents and other information trying to piece together a really true picture of the deal. +And we were alarmed to find that these shell companies had quickly flipped many of the assets on for huge profits to major international mining companies listed in London. +Now, the Africa Progress Panel, led by Kofi Annan, they've calculated that Congo may have lost more than 1.3 billion dollars from these deals. +That's almost twice the country's annual health and education budget combined. +And will the people of Congo, will they ever get their money back? +Well, the answer to that question, and who was really involved and what really happened, well that's going to probably remain locked away in the secretive company registries of the British Virgin Islands and elsewhere unless we all do something about it. +And how about the oil, gas and mining companies? +Okay, maybe it's a bit of a clich to talk about them. +Corruption in that sector, no surprise. +There's corruption everywhere, so why focus on that sector? +Well, because there's a lot at stake. +In 2011, natural resource exports outweighed aid flows by almost 19 to one in Africa, Asia and Latin America. Nineteen to one. +Now that's a hell of a lot of schools and universities and hospitals and business startups, many of which haven't materialized and never will because some of that money has simply been stolen away. +Now let's go back to the oil and mining companies, and let's go back to Dan Etete and that $1 billion deal. +And now forgive me, I'm going to read the next bit because it's a very live issue, and our lawyers have been through this in some detail and they want me to get it right. +Now, on the surface, the deal appeared straightforward. +Subsidiaries of Shell and Eni paid the Nigerian government for the block. +The Nigerian government transferred precisely the same amount, to the very dollar, to an account earmarked for a shell company whose hidden owner was Etete. +Now, that's not bad going for a convicted money launderer. +And here's the thing. +After many months of digging around and reading through hundreds of pages of court documents, we found evidence that, in fact, Shell and Eni had known that the funds would be transferred to that shell company, and frankly, it's hard to believe they didn't know who they were really dealing with there. +Now, it just shouldn't take these sorts of efforts to find out where the money in deals like this went. +I mean, these are state assets. +They're supposed to be used for the benefit of the people in the country. +But in some countries, citizens and journalists who are trying to expose stories like this have been harassed and arrested and some have even risked their lives to do so. +And finally, well, there are those who believe that corruption is unavoidable. +It's just how some business is done. +It's too complex and difficult to change. +So in effect, what? We just accept it. +But as a campaigner and investigator, I have a different view, because I've seen what can happen when an idea gains momentum. +In the oil and mining sector, for example, there is now the beginning of a truly worldwide transparency standard that could tackle some of these problems. +In 1999, when Global Witness called for oil companies to make payments on deals transparent, well, some people laughed at the extreme naivet of that small idea. +But literally hundreds of civil society groups from around the world came together to fight for transparency, and now it's fast becoming the norm and the law. +Two thirds of the value of the world's oil and mining companies are now covered by transparency laws. Two thirds. +So this is change happening. +This is progress. +But we're not there yet, by far. +Because it really isn't about corruption somewhere over there, is it? +In a globalized world, corruption is a truly globalized business, and one that needs global solutions, supported and pushed by us all, as global citizens, right here. +Thank you. +This is my grandfather. +And this is my son. +My grandfather taught me to work with wood when I was a little boy, and he also taught me the idea that if you cut down a tree to turn it into something, honor that tree's life and make it as beautiful as you possibly can. +My little boy reminded me that for all the technology and all the toys in the world, sometimes just a small block of wood, if you stack it up tall, actually is an incredibly inspiring thing. +These are my buildings. +I build all around the world out of our office in Vancouver and New York. +And we build buildings of different sizes and styles and different materials, depending on where we are. +But wood is the material that I love the most, and I'm going to tell you the story about wood. +And part of the reason I love it is that every time people go into my buildings that are wood, I notice they react completely differently. +I've never seen anybody walk into one of my buildings and hug a steel or a concrete column, but I've actually seen that happen in a wood building. +I've actually seen how people touch the wood, and I think there's a reason for it. +Just like snowflakes, no two pieces of wood can ever be the same anywhere on Earth. +That's a wonderful thing. +I like to think that wood gives Mother Nature fingerprints in our buildings. +It's Mother Nature's fingerprints that make our buildings connect us to nature in the built environment. +Now, I live in Vancouver, near a forest that grows to 33 stories tall. +Down the coast here in California, the redwood forest grows to 40 stories tall. +But the buildings that we think about in wood are only four stories tall in most places on Earth. +Even building codes actually limit the ability for us to build much taller than four stories in many places, and that's true here in the United States. +Now there are exceptions, but there needs to be some exceptions, and things are going to change, I'm hoping. +And the reason I think that way is that today half of us live in cities, and that number is going to grow to 75 percent. +Cities and density mean that our buildings are going to continue to be big, and I think there's a role for wood to play in cities. +And I feel that way because three billion people in the world today, over the next 20 years, will need a new home. +That's 40 percent of the world that are going to need a new building built for them in the next 20 years. +Now, one in three people living in cities today actually live in a slum. +That's one billion people in the world live in slums. +A hundred million people in the world are homeless. +The scale of the challenge for architects and for society to deal with in building is to find a solution to house these people. +But the challenge is, as we move to cities, cities are built in these two materials, steel and concrete, and they're great materials. +They're the materials of the last century. +But they're also materials with very high energy and very high greenhouse gas emissions in their process. +Steel represents about three percent of man's greenhouse gas emissions, and concrete is over five percent. +So if you think about that, eight percent of our contribution to greenhouse gases today comes from those two materials alone. +We don't think about it a lot, and unfortunately, we actually don't even think about buildings, I think, as much as we should. +This is a U.S. statistic about the impact of greenhouse gases. +Almost half of our greenhouse gases are related to the building industry, and if we look at energy, it's the same story. +You'll notice that transportation's sort of second down that list, but that's the conversation we mostly hear about. +And although a lot of that is about energy, it's also so much about carbon. +The problem I see is that, ultimately, the clash of how we solve that problem of serving those three billion people that need a home, and climate change, are a head-on collision about to happen, or already happening. +That challenge means that we have to start thinking in new ways, and I think wood is going to be part of that solution, and I'm going to tell you the story of why. +As an architect, wood is the only material, big material, that I can build with that's already grown by the power of the sun. +When a tree grows in the forest and gives off oxygen and soaks up carbon dioxide, and it dies and it falls to the forest floor, it gives that carbon dioxide back to the atmosphere or into the ground. +If it burns in a forest fire, it's going to give that carbon back to the atmosphere as well. +But if you take that wood and you put it into a building or into a piece of furniture or into that wooden toy, it actually has an amazing capacity to store the carbon and provide us with a sequestration. +One cubic meter of wood will store one tonne of carbon dioxide. +Now our two solutions to climate are obviously to reduce our emissions and find storage. +Wood is the only major material building material I can build with that actually does both those two things. +So I believe that we have an ethic that the Earth grows our food, and we need to move to an ethic in this century that the Earth should grow our homes. +Now, how are we going to do that when we're urbanizing at this rate and we think about wood buildings only at four stories? +We need to reduce the concrete and steel and we need to grow bigger, and what we've been working on is 30-story tall buildings made of wood. +We've been engineering them with an engineer named Eric Karsh who works with me on it, and we've been doing this new work because there are new wood products out there for us to use, and we call them mass timber panels. +These are panels made with young trees, small growth trees, small pieces of wood glued together to make panels that are enormous: eight feet wide, 64 feet long, and of various thicknesses. +The way I describe this best, I've found, is to say that we're all used to two-by-four construction when we think about wood. +That's what people jump to as a conclusion. +Two-by-four construction is sort of like the little eight-dot bricks of Lego that we all played with as kids, and you can make all kinds of cool things out of Lego at that size, and out of two-by-fours. +But do remember when you were a kid, and you kind of sifted through the pile in your basement, and you found that big 24-dot brick of Lego, and you were kind of like, "Cool, this is awesome. I can build something really big, and this is going to be great." +That's the change. +Mass timber panels are those 24-dot bricks. +They're changing the scale of what we can do, and what we've developed is something we call FFTT, which is a Creative Commons solution to building a very flexible system of building with these large panels where we tilt up six stories at a time if we want to. +This animation shows you how the building goes together in a very simple way, but these buildings are available for architects and engineers now to build on for different cultures in the world, different architectural styles and characters. +In order for us to build safely, we've engineered these buildings, actually, to work in a Vancouver context, where we're a high seismic zone, even at 30 stories tall. +Now obviously, every time I bring this up, people even, you know, here at the conference, say, "Are you serious? Thirty stories? How's that going to happen?" +And there's a lot of really good questions that are asked and important questions that we spent quite a long time working on the answers to as we put together our report and the peer reviewed report. +I'm just going to focus on a few of them, and let's start with fire, because I think fire is probably the first one that you're all thinking about right now. +Fair enough. +And the way I describe it is this. +If I asked you to take a match and light it and hold up a log and try to get that log to go on fire, it doesn't happen, right? We all know that. +But to build a fire, you kind of start with small pieces of wood and you work your way up, and eventually you can add the log to the fire, and when you do add the log to the fire, of course, it burns, but it burns slowly. +Well, mass timber panels, these new products that we're using, are much like the log. +It's hard to start them on fire, and when they do, they actually burn extraordinarily predictably, and we can use fire science in order to predict and make these buildings as safe as concrete and as safe as steel. +The next big issue, deforestation. +Eighteen percent of our contribution to greenhouse gas emissions worldwide is the result of deforestation. +The last thing we want to do is cut down trees. +Or, the last thing we want to do is cut down the wrong trees. +There are models for sustainable forestry that allow us to cut trees properly, and those are the only trees appropriate to use for these kinds of systems. +Now I actually think that these ideas will change the economics of deforestation. +In countries with deforestation issues, we need to find a way to provide better value for the forest and actually encourage people to make money through very fast growth cycles -- 10-, 12-, 15-year-old trees that make these products and allow us to build at this scale. +We've calculated a 20-story building: We'll grow enough wood in North America every 13 minutes. +That's how much it takes. +The carbon story here is a really good one. +If we built a 20-story building out of cement and concrete, the process would result in the manufacturing of that cement and 1,200 tonnes of carbon dioxide. +If we did it in wood, in this solution, we'd sequester about 3,100 tonnes, for a net difference of 4,300 tonnes. +That's the equivalent of about 900 cars removed from the road in one year. +Think back to that three billion people that need a new home, and maybe this is a contributor to reducing. +We're at the beginning of a revolution, I hope, in the way we build, because this is the first new way to build a skyscraper in probably 100 years or more. +But the challenge is changing society's perception of possibility, and it's a huge challenge. +The engineering is, truthfully, the easy part of this. +And the way I describe it is this. +The first skyscraper, technically -- and the definition of a skyscraper is 10 stories tall, believe it or not but the first skyscraper was this one in Chicago, and people were terrified to walk underneath this building. +We built this model in New York, actually, as a theoretical model on the campus of a technical university soon to come, and the reason we picked this site to just show you what these buildings may look like, because the exterior can change. +It's really just the structure that we're talking about. +The reason we picked it is because this is a technical university, and I believe that wood is the most technologically advanced material I can build with. +It just happens to be that Mother Nature holds the patent, and we don't really feel comfortable with it. +But that's the way it should be, nature's fingerprints in the built environment. +I'm looking for this opportunity to create an Eiffel Tower moment, we call it. +Buildings are starting to go up around the world. +There's a building in London that's nine stories, a new building that just finished in Australia that I believe is 10 or 11. +We're starting to push the height up of these wood buildings, and we're hoping, and I'm hoping, that my hometown of Vancouver actually potentially announces the world's tallest at around 20 stories in the not-so-distant future. +That Eiffel Tower moment will break the ceiling, these arbitrary ceilings of height, and allow wood buildings to join the competition. +And I believe the race is ultimately on. +Thank you. +Diana Reiss: You may think you're looking through a window at a dolphin spinning playfully, but what you're actually looking through is a two-way mirror at a dolphin looking at itself spinning playfully. +This is a dolphin that is self-aware. +This dolphin has self-awareness. +It's a young dolphin named Bayley. +I've been very interested in understanding the nature of the intelligence of dolphins for the past 30 years. +How do we explore intelligence in this animal that's so different from us? +And what I've used is a very simple research tool, a mirror, and we've gained great information, reflections of these animal minds. +Dolphins aren't the only animals, the only non-human animals, to show mirror self-recognition. +We used to think this was a uniquely human ability, but we learned that the great apes, our closest relatives, also show this ability. +Then we showed it in dolphins, and then later in elephants. +We did this work in my lab with the dolphins and elephants, and it's been recently shown in the magpie. +Now, it's interesting, because we've embraced this Darwinian view of a continuity in physical evolution, this physical continuity. +But we've been much more reticent, much slower at recognizing this continuity in cognition, in emotion, in consciousness in other animals. +Other animals are conscious. +They're emotional. They're aware. +There have been multitudes of studies with many species over the years that have given us exquisite evidence for thinking and consciousness in other animals, other animals that are quite different than we are in form. +We are not alone. +We are not alone in these abilities. +And I hope, and one of my biggest dreams, is that, with our growing awareness about the consciousness of others and our relationship with the rest of the animal world, that we'll give them the respect and protection that they deserve. +So that's a wish I'm throwing out here for everybody, and I hope I can really engage you in this idea. +Now, I want to return to dolphins, because these are the animals that I feel like I've been working up closely and personal with for over 30 years. +And these are real personalities. +They are not persons, but they're personalities in every sense of the word. +And you can't get more alien than the dolphin. +They are very different from us in body form. +They're radically different. They come from a radically different environment. +In fact, we're separated by 95 million years of divergent evolution. +Look at this body. +And in every sense of making a pun here, these are true non-terrestrials. +I wondered how we might interface with these animals. +In the 1980s, I developed an underwater keyboard. +This was a custom-made touch-screen keyboard. +What I wanted to do was give the dolphins choice and control. +These are big brains, highly social animals, and I thought, well, if we give them choice and control, if they can hit a symbol on this keyboard -- and by the way, it was interfaced by fiber optic cables from Hewlett-Packard with an Apple II computer. +This seems prehistoric now, but this was where we were with technology. +So the dolphins could hit a key, a symbol, they heard a computer-generated whistle, and they got an object or activity. +Now here's a little video. +This is Delphi and Pan, and you're going to see Delphi hitting a key, he hears a computer-generated whistle -- -- and gets a ball, so they can actually ask for things they want. +What was remarkable is, they explored this keyboard on their own. There was no intervention on our part. +They explored the keyboard. They played around with it. +They figured out how it worked. +And they started to quickly imitate the sounds they were hearing on the keyboard. +They imitated on their own. +Beyond that, though, they started learning associations between the symbols, the sounds and the objects. +What we saw was self-organized learning, and now I'm imagining, what can we do with new technologies? +How can we create interfaces, new windows into the minds of animals, with the technologies that exist today? +So I was thinking about this, and then, one day, I got a call from Peter. +Peter Gabriel: I make noises for a living. +On a good day, it's music, and I want to talk a little bit about the most amazing music-making experience I ever had. +I'm a farm boy. I grew up surrounded by animals, and I would look in these eyes and wonder what was going on there? +So as an adult, when I started to read about the amazing breakthroughs with Penny Patterson and Koko, with Sue Savage-Rumbaugh and Kanzi, Panbanisha, Irene Pepperberg, Alex the parrot, I got all excited. +What was amazing to me also was they seemed a lot more adept at getting a handle on our language than we were on getting a handle on theirs. +I work with a lot of musicians from around the world, and often we don't have any common language at all, but we sit down behind our instruments, and suddenly there's a way for us to connect and emote. +So I started cold-calling, and eventually got through to Sue Savage-Rumbaugh, and she invited me down. +I went down, and the bonobos had had access to percussion instruments, musical toys, but never before to a keyboard. +At first they did what infants do, just bashed it with their fists, and then I asked, through Sue, if Panbanisha could try with one finger only. +Sue Savage-Rumbaugh: Can you play a grooming song? +I want to hear a grooming song. +Play a real quiet grooming song. +PG: So groom was the subject of the piece. +So I'm just behind, jamming, yeah, this is what we started with. +Sue's encouraging her to continue a little more. +She discovers a note she likes, finds the octave. +She'd never sat at a keyboard before. +Nice triplets. +SSR: You did good. That was very good. +PG: She hit good. +So that night, we began to dream, and we thought, perhaps the most amazing tool that man's created is the Internet, and what would happen if we could somehow find new interfaces, visual-audio interfaces that would allow these remarkable sentient beings that we share the planet with access? +And Sue Savage-Rumbaugh got excited about that, called her friend Steve Woodruff, and we began hustling all sorts of people whose work related or was inspiring, which led us to Diana, and led us to Neil. +Neil Gershenfeld: Thanks, Peter. PG: Thank you. +NG: So Peter approached me. +I lost it when I saw that clip. +He approached me with a vision of doing these things not for people, for animals. +And then I was struck in the history of the Internet. +This is what the Internet looked like when it was born and you can call that the Internet of middle-aged white men, mostly middle-aged white men. +Vint Cerf: NG: Speaking as one. +Then, when I first came to TED, which was where I met Peter, I showed this. +This is a $1 web server, and at the time that was radical. +And the possibility of making a web server for a dollar grew into what became known as the Internet of Things, which is literally an industry now with tremendous implications for health care, energy efficiency. +And we were happy with ourselves. +And then when Peter showed me that, I realized we had missed something, which is the rest of the planet. +So we started up this interspecies Internet project. +Now we started talking with TED about how you bring dolphins and great apes and elephants to TED, and we realized that wouldn't work. +So we're going to bring you to them. +So if we could switch to the audio from this computer, we've been video conferencing with cognitive animals, and we're going to have each of them just briefly introduce them. +And so if we could also have this up, great. +So the first site we're going to meet is Cameron Park Zoo in Waco, with orangutans. +In the daytime they live outside. It's nighttime there now. +So can you please go ahead? +Terri Cox: Hi, I'm Terri Cox with the Cameron Park Zoo in Waco, Texas, and with me I have KeraJaan and Mei, two of our Bornean orangutans. +During the day, they have a beautiful, large outdoor habitat, and at night, they come into this habitat, into their night quarters, where they can have a climate-controlled and secure environment to sleep in. +We participate in the Apps for Apes program Orangutan Outreach, and we use iPads to help stimulate and enrich the animals, and also help raise awareness for these critically endangered animals. +And they share 97 percent of our DNA and are incredibly intelligent, so it's so exciting to think of all the opportunities that we have via technology and the Internet to really enrich their lives and open up their world. +We're really excited about the possibility of an interspecies Internet, and K.J. has been enjoying the conference very much. +NG: That's great. When we were rehearsing last night, he had fun watching the elephants. +Next user group are the dolphins at the National Aquarium. +Please go ahead. +Allison Ginsburg: Good evening. +Well, my name is Allison Ginsburg, and we're live in Baltimore at the National Aquarium. +Joining me are three of our eight Atlantic bottlenose dolphins: 20-year-old Chesapeake, who was our first dolphin born here, her four-year-old daughter Bayley, and her half sister, 11-year-old Maya. +Now, here at the National Aquarium we are committed to excellence in animal care, to research, and to conservation. +The dolphins are pretty intrigued as to what's going on here tonight. +They're not really used to having cameras here at 8 o'clock at night. +In addition, we are very committed to doing different types of research. +As Diana mentioned, our animals are involved in many different research studies. +NG: Those are for you. +Okay, that's great, thank you. +And the third user group, in Thailand, is Think Elephants. Go ahead, Josh. +Josh Plotnik: Hi, my name is Josh Plotnik, and I'm with Think Elephants International, and we're here in the Golden Triangle of Thailand with the Golden Triangle Asian Elephant Foundation elephants. +And we have 26 elephants here, and our research is focused on the evolution of intelligence with elephants, but our foundation Think Elephants is focused on bringing elephants into classrooms around the world virtually like this and showing people how incredible these animals are. +So we're able to bring the camera right up to the elephant, put food into the elephant's mouth, show people what's going on inside their mouths, and show everyone around the world how incredible these animals really are. +NG: Okay, that's great. Thanks Josh. +And once again, we've been building great relationships among them just since we've been rehearsing. +VC: Thank you, Neil. +A long time ago in a galaxy oops, wrong script. +Forty years ago, Bob Kahn and I did the design of the Internet. +Thirty years ago, we turned it on. +Just last year, we turned on the production Internet. +You've been using the experimental version for the last 30 years. +The production version, it uses IP version 6. +It has 3.4 times 10 to the 38th possible terminations. +That's a number only that Congress can appreciate. +But it leads to what is coming next. +When Bob and I did this design, we thought we were building a system to connect computers together. +What we very quickly discovered is that this was a system for connecting people together. +And what you've seen tonight tells you that we should not restrict this network to one species, that these other intelligent, sentient species should be part of the system too. +This is the system as it looks today, by the way. +This is what the Internet looks like to a computer that's trying to figure out where the traffic is supposed to go. +This is generated by a program that's looking at the connectivity of the Internet, and how all the various networks are connected together. +There are about 400,000 networks, interconnected, run independently by 400,000 different operating agencies, and the only reason this works is that they all use the same standard TCP/IP protocols. +Well, you know where this is headed. +The Internet of Things tell us that a lot of computer-enabled appliances and devices are going to become part of this system too: appliances that you use around the house, that you use in your office, that you carry around with yourself or in the car. +That's the Internet of Things that's coming. +Now, what's important about what these people are doing is that they're beginning to learn how to communicate with species that are not us but share a common sensory environment. +We're beginning to explore what it means to communicate with something that isn't just another person. +Well, you can see what's coming next. +All kinds of possible sentient beings may be interconnected through this system, and I can't wait to see these experiments unfold. +What happens after that? +Well, let's see. +So we'll need something like C3PO to become a translator between ourselves and some of the other machines we live with. +Now, there is a project that's underway called the interplanetary Internet. +It's in operation between Earth and Mars. +It's operating on the International Space Station. +It's part of the spacecraft that's in orbit around the Sun that's rendezvoused with two planets. +So the interplanetary system is on its way, but there's a last project, which the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, which funded the original ARPANET, funded the Internet, funded the interplanetary architecture, is now funding a project to design a spacecraft to get to the nearest star in 100 years' time. +What that means is that what we're learning with these interactions with other species will teach us, ultimately, how we might interact with an alien from another world. +I can hardly wait. +June Cohen: So first of all, thank you, and I would like to acknowledge that four people who could talk to us for full four days actually managed to stay to four minutes each, and we thank you for that. +I have so many questions, but maybe a few practical things that the audience might want to know. +You're launching this idea here at TED PG: Today. +JC: Today. This is the first time you're talking about it. +Tell me a little bit about where you're going to take the idea. +What's next? +PG: I think we want to engage as many people here as possible in helping us think of smart interfaces that will make all this possible. +NG: And just mechanically, there's a 501 and web infrastructure and all of that, but it's not quite ready to turn on, so we'll roll that out, and contact us if you want the information on it. +The idea is this will be -- much like the Internet functions as a network of networks, which is Vint's core contribution, this will be a wrapper around all of these initiatives, that are wonderful individually, to link them globally. +JC: Right, and do you have a web address that we might look for yet? +NG: Shortly. JC: Shortly. We will come back to you on that. +And very quickly, just to clarify. +Some people might have looked at the video that you showed and thought, well, that's just a webcam. +What's special about it? +If you could talk for just a moment about how you want to go past that? +NG: So this is scalable video infrastructure, not for a few to a few but many to many, so that it scales to symmetrical video sharing and content sharing across these sites around the planet. +So there's a lot of back-end signal processing, not for one to many, but for many to many. +JC: Right, and then on a practical level, which technologies are you looking at first? +I know you mentioned that a keyboard is a really key part of this. +DR: We're trying to develop an interactive touch screen for dolphins. +This is sort of a continuation of some of the earlier work, and we just got our first seed money today towards that, so it's our first project. +JC: Before the talk, even. DR: Yeah. +JC: Wow. Well done. +All right, well thank you all so much for joining us. +It's such a delight to have you on the stage. +DR: Thank you. VC: Thank you. +Have you ever experienced a moment in your life that was so painful and confusing, that all you wanted to do was learn as much as you could to make sense of it all? +When I was 13, a close family friend who was like an uncle to me passed away from pancreatic cancer. +When the disease hit so close to home, I knew I needed to learn more. +So I went online to find answers. +Using the Internet, I found a variety of statistics on pancreatic cancer, and what I had found shocked me. +Over 85 percent of all pancreatic cancers are diagnosed late, when someone has less than a two percent chance of survival. +Why are we so bad at detecting pancreatic cancer? +The reason? +Today's current "modern" medicine is a 60-year-old technique. +That's older than my dad. +But also, it's extremely expensive, costing 800 dollars per test, and it's grossly inaccurate, missing 30 percent of all pancreatic cancers. +Your doctor would have to be ridiculously suspicious that you have the cancer in order to give you this test. +Learning this, I knew there had to be a better way. +So, I set up scientific criteria as to what a sensor would have to look like in order to effectively diagnose pancreatic cancer. +The sensor would have to be: inexpensive, rapid, simple, sensitive, selective, and minimally invasive. +Now, there's a reason why this test hasn't been updated in over six decades. +And that's because when we're looking for pancreatic cancer, we're looking at your bloodstream, which is already abundant in all these tons and tons of protein, and you're looking for this miniscule difference in this tiny amount of protein. +Just this one protein. +That's next to impossible. +However, undeterred due to my teenage optimism -- I went online to a teenager's two best friends, Google and Wikipedia. +I got everything for my homework from those two sources. +And what I had found was an article that listed a database of over 8,000 different proteins that are found when you have pancreatic cancer. +So, I decided to go and make it my new mission to go through all these proteins, and see which ones could serve as a bio-marker for pancreatic cancer. +And to make it a bit simpler for myself, I decided to map out scientific criteria, and here it is. +Essentially, first, the protein would have to be found in all pancreatic cancers, at high levels in the bloodstream, in the earliest stages, but also only in cancer. +And so I'm just plugging and chugging through this gargantuan task, and finally, on the 4,000th try, when I'm close to losing my sanity, I find the protein. +And the name of the protein I'd located was called mesothelin, and it's just your ordinary, run-of-the-mill type protein, unless, of course, you have pancreatic, ovarian or lung cancer, in which case it's found at these very high levels in your bloodstream. +But also, the key is that it's found in the earliest stages of the disease, when someone has close to 100 percent chance of survival. +So now that I'd found a reliable protein I could detect, I then shifted my focus to actually detecting that protein, and thus, pancreatic cancer. +Now, my breakthrough came in a very unlikely place, possibly the most unlikely place for innovation -- my high school biology class, the absolute stifler of innovation. +And I had snuck in this article on these things called carbon nanotubes, and that's just a long, thin pipe of carbon that's an atom thick, and one 50,000th the diameter of your hair. +And despite their extremely small sizes, they have these incredible properties. +They're kind of like the superheroes of material science. +And while I was sneakily reading this article under my desk in my biology class, we were supposed to be paying attention to these other kind of cool molecules, called antibodies. +And these are pretty cool because they only react with one specific protein, but they're not nearly as interesting as carbon nanotubes. +And so then, I was sitting in class, and suddenly it hit me: I could combine what I was reading about, carbon nanotubes, with what I was supposed to be thinking about, antibodies. +Essentially, I could weave a bunch of these antibodies into a network of carbon nanotubes, such that you have a network that only reacts with one protein, but also, due to the properties of these nanotubes, it will change its electrical properties, based on the amount of protein present. +However, there's a catch. +These networks of carbon nanotubes are extremely flimsy. +And since they're so delicate, they need to be supported. +So that's why I chose to use paper. +Making a cancer sensor out of paper is about as simple as making chocolate chip cookies, which I love. +You start with some water, pour in some nanotubes, add antibodies, mix it up, take some paper, dip it, dry it, and you can detect cancer. +Then, suddenly, a thought occurred that kind of put a blemish on my amazing plan here. +I can't really do cancer research on my kitchen countertop. +My mom wouldn't really like that. +So instead, I decided to go for a lab. +So I typed up a budget, a materials list, a timeline, and a procedure, and I emailed it to 200 different professors at Johns Hopkins University and the National Institutes of Health -- essentially, anyone that had anything to do with pancreatic cancer. +I sat back waiting for these positive emails to be pouring in, saying, "You're a genius! You're going to save us all!" +And -- Then reality took hold, and over the course of a month, I got 199 rejections out of those 200 emails. +One professor even went through my entire procedure, painstakingly -- I'm not really sure where he got all this time -- and he went through and said why each and every step was like the worst mistake I could ever make. +Clearly, the professors did not have as high of an opinion of my work as I did. +However, there is a silver lining. +One professor said, "Maybe I might be able to help you, kid." +So, I went in that direction. +As you can never say no to a kid. +And so then, three months later, I finally nailed down a harsh deadline with this guy, and I get into his lab, I get all excited, and then I sit down, I start opening my mouth and talking, and five seconds later, he calls in another Ph.D. +Ph.D.s just flock into this little room, and they're just firing these questions at me, and by the end, I kind of felt like I was in a clown car. +There were 20 Ph.D.s, plus me and the professor crammed into this tiny office space, with them firing these rapid-fire questions at me, trying to sink my procedure. +How unlikely is that? I mean, pshhh. +However, subjecting myself to that interrogation -- I answered all their questions, and I guessed on quite a few but I got them right -- and I finally landed the lab space I needed. +But it was shortly afterwards that I discovered my once brilliant procedure had something like a million holes in it, and over the course of seven months, I painstakingly filled each and every one of those holes. +The result? +One small paper sensor that costs three cents and takes five minutes to run. +This makes it 168 times faster, over 26,000 times less expensive, and over 400 times more sensitive than our current standard for pancreatic cancer detection. +One of the best parts of the sensor, though, is that it has close to 100 percent accuracy, and can detect the cancer in the earliest stages, when someone has close to 100 percent chance of survival. +And so in the next two to five years, this sensor could potentially lift the pancreatic cancer survival rates from a dismal 5.5 percent to close to 100 percent, and it would do similar for ovarian and lung cancer. +But it wouldn't stop there. +By switching out that antibody, you can look at a different protein, thus, a different disease -- potentially any disease in the entire world. +So that ranges from heart disease, to malaria, HIV, AIDS, as well as other forms of cancer -- anything. +And so, hopefully one day, we can all have that one extra uncle, that one mother, that one brother, sister, we can have that one more family member to love. +And that our hearts will be rid of that one disease burden that comes from pancreatic, ovarian and lung cancer, and potentially any disease. +But through the Internet, anything is possible. +Theories can be shared, and you don't have to be a professor with multiple degrees to have your ideas valued. +It's a neutral space, where what you look like, age or gender -- it doesn't matter. +It's just your ideas that count. +For me, it's all about looking at the Internet in an entirely new way, to realize that there's so much more to it than just posting duck-face pictures of yourself online. +You could be changing the world. +So if a 15 year-old who didn't even know what a pancreas was could find a new way to detect pancreatic cancer -- just imagine what you could do. +Thank you. +(Nature sounds) When I first began recording wild soundscapes 45 years ago, I had no idea that ants, insect larvae, sea anemones and viruses created a sound signature. +But they do. +And so does every wild habitat on the planet, like the Amazon rainforest you're hearing behind me. +In fact, temperate and tropical rainforests each produce a vibrant animal orchestra, that instantaneous and organized expression of insects, reptiles, amphibians, birds and mammals. +And every soundscape that springs from a wild habitat generates its own unique signature, one that contains incredible amounts of information, and it's some of that information I want to share with you today. +The soundscape is made up of three basic sources. +The first is the geophony, or the nonbiological sounds that occur in any given habitat, like wind in the trees, water in a stream, waves at the ocean shore, movement of the Earth. +The second of these is the biophony. +The biophony is all of the sound that's generated by organisms in a given habitat at one time and in one place. +And the third is all of the sound that we humans generate that's called anthrophony. +Some of it is controlled, like music or theater, but most of it is chaotic and incoherent, which some of us refer to as noise. +There was a time when I considered wild soundscapes to be a worthless artifact. +They were just there, but they had no significance. +Well, I was wrong. What I learned from these encounters was that careful listening gives us incredibly valuable tools by which to evaluate the health of a habitat across the entire spectrum of life. +When I began recording in the late '60s, the typical methods of recording were limited to the fragmented capture of individual species like birds mostly, in the beginning, but later animals like mammals and amphibians. +To me, this was a little like trying to understand the magnificence of Beethoven's Fifth Symphony by abstracting the sound of a single violin player out of the context of the orchestra and hearing just that one part. +Fortunately, more and more institutions are implementing the more holistic models that I and a few of my colleagues have introduced to the field of soundscape ecology. +When I began recording over four decades ago, I could record for 10 hours and capture one hour of usable material, good enough for an album or a film soundtrack or a museum installation. +Now, because of global warming, resource extraction, and human noise, among many other factors, it can take up to 1,000 hours or more to capture the same thing. +Fully 50 percent of my archive comes from habitats so radically altered that they're either altogether silent or can no longer be heard in any of their original form. +The usual methods of evaluating a habitat have been done by visually counting the numbers of species and the numbers of individuals within each species in a given area. +However, by comparing data that ties together both density and diversity from what we hear, I'm able to arrive at much more precise fitness outcomes. +And I want to show you some examples that typify the possibilities unlocked by diving into this universe. +This is Lincoln Meadow. +Lincoln Meadow's a three-and-a-half-hour drive east of San Francisco in the Sierra Nevada Mountains, at about 2,000 meters altitude, and I've been recording there for many years. +In 1988, a logging company convinced local residents that there would be absolutely no environmental impact from a new method they were trying called "selective logging," taking out a tree here and there rather than clear-cutting a whole area. +With permission granted to record both before and after the operation, I set up my gear and captured a large number of dawn choruses to very strict protocol and calibrated recordings, because I wanted a really good baseline. +This is an example of a spectrogram. +A spectrogram is a graphic illustration of sound with time from left to right across the page -- 15 seconds in this case is represented and frequency from the bottom of the page to the top, lowest to highest. +And you can see that the signature of a stream is represented here in the bottom third or half of the page, while birds that were once in that meadow are represented in the signature across the top. +There were a lot of them. +And here's Lincoln Meadow before selective logging. +(Nature sounds) Well, a year later I returned, and using the same protocols and recording under the same conditions, I recorded a number of examples of the same dawn choruses, and now this is what we've got. +This is after selective logging. +You can see that the stream is still represented in the bottom third of the page, but notice what's missing in the top two thirds. +(Nature sounds) Coming up is the sound of a woodpecker. +Well, I've returned to Lincoln Meadow 15 times in the last 25 years, and I can tell you that the biophony, the density and diversity of that biophony, has not yet returned to anything like it was before the operation. +But here's a picture of Lincoln Meadow taken after, and you can see that from the perspective of the camera or the human eye, hardly a stick or a tree appears to be out of place, which would confirm the logging company's contention that there's nothing of environmental impact. +However, our ears tell us a very different story. +Young students are always asking me what these animals are saying, and really I've got no idea. +But I can tell you that they do express themselves. +Whether or not we understand it is a different story. +I was walking along the shore in Alaska, and I came across this tide pool filled with a colony of sea anemones, these wonderful eating machines, relatives of coral and jellyfish. +And curious to see if any of them made any noise, I dropped a hydrophone, an underwater microphone covered in rubber, down the mouth part, and immediately the critter began to absorb the microphone into its belly, and the tentacles were searching out of the surface for something of nutritional value. +The static-like sounds that are very low, that you're going to hear right now. +(Static sounds) Yeah, but watch. When it didn't find anything to eat -- (Honking sound) I think that's an expression that can be understood in any language. +At the end of its breeding cycle, the Great Basin Spadefoot toad digs itself down about a meter under the hard-panned desert soil of the American West, where it can stay for many seasons until conditions are just right for it to emerge again. +And when there's enough moisture in the soil in the spring, frogs will dig themselves to the surface and gather around these large, vernal pools in great numbers. +And they vocalize in a chorus that's absolutely in sync with one another. +And they do that for two reasons. +The first is competitive, because they're looking for mates, and the second is cooperative, because if they're all vocalizing in sync together, it makes it really difficult for predators like coyotes, foxes and owls to single out any individual for a meal. +This is a spectrogram of what the frog chorusing looks like when it's in a very healthy pattern. +(Frogs croaking) Now at the end of that flyby, it took the frogs fully 45 minutes to regain their chorusing synchronicity, during which time, and under a full moon, we watched as two coyotes and a great horned owl came in to pick off a few of their numbers. +The good news is that, with a little bit of habitat restoration and fewer flights, the frog populations, once diminishing during the 1980s and early '90s, have pretty much returned to normal. +I want to end with a story told by a beaver. +It's a very sad story, but it really illustrates how animals can sometimes show emotion, a very controversial subject among some older biologists. +A colleague of mine was recording in the American Midwest around this pond that had been formed maybe 16,000 years ago at the end of the last ice age. +It was also formed in part by a beaver dam at one end that held that whole ecosystem together in a very delicate balance. +And one afternoon, while he was recording, there suddenly appeared from out of nowhere a couple of game wardens, who for no apparent reason, walked over to the beaver dam, dropped a stick of dynamite down it, blowing it up, killing the female and her young babies. +Horrified, my colleagues remained behind to gather his thoughts and to record whatever he could the rest of the afternoon, and that evening, he captured a remarkable event: the lone surviving male beaver swimming in slow circles crying out inconsolably for its lost mate and offspring. +This is probably the saddest sound I've ever heard coming from any organism, human or other. +(Beaver crying) Yeah. Well. +There are many facets to soundscapes, among them the ways in which animals taught us to dance and sing, which I'll save for another time. +But you have heard how biophonies help clarify our understanding of the natural world. +You've heard the impact of resource extraction, human noise and habitat destruction. +And where environmental sciences have typically tried to understand the world from what we see, a much fuller understanding can be got from what we hear. +Biophonies and geophonies are the signature voices of the natural world, and as we hear them, we're endowed with a sense of place, the true story of the world we live in. +In a matter of seconds, a soundscape reveals much more information from many perspectives, from quantifiable data to cultural inspiration. +Visual capture implicitly frames a limited frontal perspective of a given spatial context, while soundscapes widen that scope to a full 360 degrees, completely enveloping us. +And while a picture may be worth 1,000 words, a soundscape is worth 1,000 pictures. +And our ears tell us that the whisper of every leaf and creature speaks to the natural sources of our lives, which indeed may hold the secrets of love for all things, especially our own humanity, and the last word goes to a jaguar from the Amazon. +Thank you for listening. +Where do you come from? +It's such a simple question, but these days, of course, simple questions bring ever more complicated answers. +People are always asking me where I come from, and they're expecting me to say India, and they're absolutely right insofar as 100 percent of my blood and ancestry does come from India. +Except, I've never lived one day of my life there. +I can't speak even one word of its more than 22,000 dialects. +So I don't think I've really earned the right to call myself an Indian. +And if "Where do you come from?" +means "Where were you born and raised and educated?" +then I'm entirely of that funny little country known as England, except I left England as soon as I completed my undergraduate education, and all the time I was growing up, I was the only kid in all my classes who didn't begin to look like the classic English heroes represented in our textbooks. +And if "Where do you come from?" +means "Where do you pay your taxes? +Where do you see your doctor and your dentist?" +then I'm very much of the United States, and I have been for 48 years now, since I was a really small child. +Except, for many of those years, I've had to carry around this funny little pink card with green lines running through my face identifying me as a permanent alien. +I do actually feel more alien the longer I live there. +And if "Where do you come from?" +means "Which place goes deepest inside you and where do you try to spend most of your time?" +then I'm Japanese, because I've been living as much as I can for the last 25 years in Japan. +Except, all of those years I've been there on a tourist visa, and I'm fairly sure not many Japanese would want to consider me one of them. +And I say all this just to stress how very old-fashioned and straightforward my background is, because when I go to Hong Kong or Sydney or Vancouver, most of the kids I meet are much more international and multi-cultured than I am. +And they have one home associated with their parents, but another associated with their partners, a third connected maybe with the place where they happen to be, a fourth connected with the place they dream of being, and many more besides. +And their whole life will be spent taking pieces of many different places and putting them together into a stained glass whole. +Home for them is really a work in progress. +It's like a project on which they're constantly adding upgrades and improvements and corrections. +And for more and more of us, home has really less to do with a piece of soil than, you could say, with a piece of soul. +If somebody suddenly asks me, "Where's your home?" +I think about my sweetheart or my closest friends or the songs that travel with me wherever I happen to be. +And three hours later, that fire had reduced my home and every last thing in it except for me to ash. +And when I woke up the next morning, I was sleeping on a friend's floor, the only thing I had in the world was a toothbrush I had just bought from an all-night supermarket. +Of course, if anybody asked me then, "Where is your home?" +I literally couldn't point to any physical construction. +My home would have to be whatever I carried around inside me. +And in so many ways, I think this is a terrific liberation. +Because when my grandparents were born, they pretty much had their sense of home, their sense of community, even their sense of enmity, assigned to them at birth, and didn't have much chance of stepping outside of that. +And nowadays, at least some of us can choose our sense of home, create our sense of community, fashion our sense of self, and in so doing maybe step a little beyond some of the black and white divisions of our grandparents' age. +No coincidence that the president of the strongest nation on Earth is half-Kenyan, partly raised in Indonesia, has a Chinese-Canadian brother-in-law. +And the number of us who live outside the old nation-state categories is increasing so quickly, by 64 million just in the last 12 years, that soon there will be more of us than there are Americans. +Already, we represent the fifth-largest nation on Earth. +And in fact, in Canada's largest city, Toronto, the average resident today is what used to be called a foreigner, somebody born in a very different country. +And I've always felt that the beauty of being surrounded by the foreign is that it slaps you awake. +You can't take anything for granted. +Travel, for me, is a little bit like being in love, because suddenly all your senses are at the setting marked "on." +Suddenly you're alert to the secret patterns of the world. +The real voyage of discovery, as Marcel Proust famously said, consists not in seeing new sights, but in looking with new eyes. +And of course, once you have new eyes, even the old sights, even your home become something different. +Many of the people living in countries not their own are refugees who never wanted to leave home and ache to go back home. +But for the fortunate among us, I think the age of movement brings exhilarating new possibilities. +Certainly when I'm traveling, especially to the major cities of the world, the typical person I meet today will be, let's say, a half-Korean, half-German young woman living in Paris. +And as soon as she meets a half-Thai, half-Canadian young guy from Edinburgh, she recognizes him as kin. +She realizes that she probably has much more in common with him than with anybody entirely of Korea or entirely of Germany. +So they become friends. They fall in love. +They move to New York City. +Or Edinburgh. +And the little girl who arises out of their union will of course be not Korean or German or French or Thai or Scotch or Canadian or even American, but a wonderful and constantly evolving mix of all those places. +And potentially, everything about the way that young woman dreams about the world, writes about the world, thinks about the world, could be something different, because it comes out of this almost unprecedented blend of cultures. +Where you come from now is much less important than where you're going. +More and more of us are rooted in the future or the present tense as much as in the past. +And home, we know, is not just the place where you happen to be born. +It's the place where you become yourself. +there is one great problem with movement, and that is that it's really hard to get your bearings when you're in midair. +Some years ago, I noticed that I had accumulated one million miles on United Airlines alone. +You all know that crazy system, six days in hell, you get the seventh day free. +And I began to think that really, movement was only as good as the sense of stillness that you could bring to it to put it into perspective. +And eight months after my house burned down, I ran into a friend who taught at a local high school, and he said, "I've got the perfect place for you." +"Really?" I said. I'm always a bit skeptical when people say things like that. +"No, honestly," he went on, "it's only three hours away by car, and it's not very expensive, and it's probably not like anywhere you've stayed before." +"Hmm." I was beginning to get slightly intrigued. "What is it?" +"Well " Here my friend hemmed and hawed "Well, actually it's a Catholic hermitage." +This was the wrong answer. +I had spent 15 years in Anglican schools, so I had had enough hymnals and crosses to last me a lifetime. +Several lifetimes, actually. +But my friend assured me that he wasn't Catholic, nor were most of his students, but he took his classes there every spring. +And as he had it, even the most restless, distractible, testosterone-addled 15-year-old Californian boy only had to spend three days in silence and something in him cooled down and cleared out. +He found himself. +And I thought, "Anything that works for a 15-year-old boy ought to work for me." +So I got in my car, and I drove three hours north along the coast, and the roads grew emptier and narrower, and then I turned onto an even narrower path, barely paved, that snaked for two miles up to the top of a mountain. +And when I got out of my car, the air was pulsing. +The whole place was absolutely silent, but the silence wasn't an absence of noise. +It was really a presence of a kind of energy or quickening. +And at my feet was the great, still blue plate of the Pacific Ocean. +All around me were 800 acres of wild dry brush. +And I went down to the room in which I was to be sleeping. +Small but eminently comfortable, it had a bed and a rocking chair and a long desk and even longer picture windows looking out on a small, private, walled garden, and then 1,200 feet of golden pampas grass running down to the sea. +And I sat down, and I began to write, and write, and write, even though I'd gone there really to get away from my desk. +And by the time I got up, four hours had passed. +Night had fallen, and I went out under this great overturned saltshaker of stars, and I could see the tail lights of cars disappearing around the headlands 12 miles to the south. +And it really seemed like my concerns of the previous day vanishing. +And the next day, when I woke up in the absence of telephones and TVs and laptops, the days seemed to stretch for a thousand hours. +It was really all the freedom I know when I'm traveling, but it also profoundly felt like coming home. +And I'm not a religious person, so I didn't go to the services. +I didn't consult the monks for guidance. +I just took walks along the monastery road and sent postcards to loved ones. +I looked at the clouds, and I did what is hardest of all for me to do usually, which is nothing at all. +And I started to go back to this place, and I noticed that I was doing my most important work there invisibly just by sitting still, and certainly coming to my most critical decisions the way I never could when I was racing from the last email to the next appointment. +And I began to think that something in me had really been crying out for stillness, but of course I couldn't hear it because I was running around so much. +I was like some crazy guy who puts on a blindfold and then complains that he can't see a thing. +And I thought back to that wonderful phrase I had learned as a boy from Seneca, in which he says, "That man is poor not who has little but who hankers after more." +And, of course, I'm not suggesting that anybody here go into a monastery. +That's not the point. +But I do think it's only by stopping movement that you can see where to go. +And it's only by stepping out of your life and the world that you can see what you most deeply care about and find a home. +And I've noticed so many people now take conscious measures to sit quietly for 30 minutes every morning just collecting themselves in one corner of the room without their devices, or go running every evening, or leave their cell phones behind when they go to have a long conversation with a friend. +Movement is a fantastic privilege, and it allows us to do so much that our grandparents could never have dreamed of doing. +But movement, ultimately, only has a meaning if you have a home to go back to. +And home, in the end, is of course not just the place where you sleep. +It's the place where you stand. +Thank you. +It is said that the grass is always greener on the other side of the fence, and I believe this is true, especially when I hear President Obama often talk about the Korean education system as a benchmark of success. +Well, I can tell you that, in the rigid structure and highly competitive nature of the Korean school system, also known as pressure cooker, not everyone can do well in that environment. +While many people responded in different ways about our education system, my response to the high-pressure environment was making bows with pieces of wood found near my apartment building. +Why bows? +I'm not quite sure. +Perhaps, in the face of constant pressure, my caveman instinct of survival has connected with the bows. +If you think about it, the bow has really helped drive human survival since prehistoric times. +The area within three kilometers of my home used to be a mulberry forest during the Joseon dynasty, where silkworms were fed with mulberry leaves. +In order to raise the historical awareness of this fact, the government has planted mulberry trees. +The seeds from these trees also have spread by birds here and there nearby the soundproof walls of the city expressway that has been built around the 1988 Olympics. +The area near these walls, which nobody bothers to pay attention to, had been left free from major intervention, and this is where I first found my treasures. +As I fell deeper into bow making, I began to search far and beyond my neighborhood. +When I went on school field trips, family vacations, or simply on my way home from extracurricular classes, I wandered around wooded areas and gathered tree branches with the tools that I sneaked inside my school bag. +And they would be somethings like saws, knives, sickles and axes that I covered up with a piece of towel. +I would bring the branches home, riding buses and subways, barely holding them in my hands. +And I did not bring the tools here to Long Beach. +Airport security. +In the privacy of my room, covered in sawdust, I would saw, trim and polish wood all night long until a bow took shape. +One day, I was changing the shape of a bamboo piece and ended up setting the place on fire. +Where? The rooftop of my apartment building, a place where 96 families call home. +A customer from a department store across from my building called 911, and I ran downstairs to tell my mom with half of my hair burned. +I want to take this opportunity to tell my mom, in the audience today: Mom, I was really sorry, and I will be more careful with open fire from now on. +My mother had to do a lot of explaining, telling people that her son did not commit a premeditated arson. +I also researched extensively on bows around the world. +In that process, I tried to combine the different bows from across time and places to create the most effective bow. +I also worked with many different types of wood, such as maple, yew and mulberry, and did many shooting experiments in the wooded area near the urban expressway that I mentioned before. +The most effective bow for me would be like this. +One: Curved tips can maximize the springiness when you draw and shoot the arrow. +Two: Belly is drawn inward for higher draw weight, which means more power. +Three: Sinew used in the outer layer of the limb for maximum tension storage. +And four: Horn used to store energy in compression. +After fixing, breaking, redesigning, mending, bending and amending, my ideal bow began to take shape, and when it was finally done, it looked like this. +I was so proud of myself for inventing a perfect bow on my own. +This is a picture of Korean traditional bows taken from a museum, and see how my bow resembles them. +Thanks to my ancestors for robbing me of my invention. Through bowmaking, I came in contact with part of my heritage. +Learning the information that has accumulated over time and reading the message left by my ancestors were better than any consolation therapy or piece of advice any living adults could give me. +You see, I searched far and wide, but never bothered to look close and near. +From this realization, I began to take interest in Korean history, which had never inspired me before. +In the end, the grass is often greener on my side of the fence, although we don't realize it. +Now, I am going to show you how my bow works. +And let's see how this one works. +This is a bamboo bow, with 45-pound draw weights. +(Noise of shooting arrow) A bow may function in a simple mechanism, but in order to make a good bow, a great amount of sensitivity is required. +You need to console and communicate with the wood material. +Each fiber in the wood has its own reason and function for being, and only through cooperation and harmony among them comes a great bow. +I may be an [odd] student with unconventional interests, but I hope I am making a contribution by sharing my story with all of you. +My ideal world is a place where no one is left behind, where everyone is needed exactly where they are, like the fibers and the tendons in a bow, a place where the strong is flexible and the vulnerable is resilient. +The bow resembles me, and I resemble the bow. +Now, I am shooting a part of myself to you. +No, better yet, a part of my mind has just been shot over to your mind. +Did it strike you? +Thank you. +So here's the most important economic fact of our time. +We are living in an age of surging income inequality, particularly between those at the very top and everyone else. +This shift is the most striking in the U.S. and in the U.K., but it's a global phenomenon. +It's happening in communist China, in formerly communist Russia, it's happening in India, in my own native Canada. +We're even seeing it in cozy social democracies like Sweden, Finland and Germany. +Let me give you a few numbers to place what's happening. +In the 1970s, the One Percent accounted for about 10 percent of the national income in the United States. +Today, their share has more than doubled to above 20 percent. +But what's even more striking is what's happening at the very tippy top of the income distribution. +The 0.1 percent in the U.S. +today account for more than eight percent of the national income. +They are where the One Percent was 30 years ago. +Let me give you another number to put that in perspective, and this is a figure that was calculated in 2005 by Robert Reich, the Secretary of Labor in the Clinton administration. +Reich took the wealth of two admittedly very rich men, Bill Gates and Warren Buffett, and he found that it was equivalent to the wealth of the bottom 40 percent of the U.S. population, 120 million people. +Now, as it happens, Warren Buffett is not only himself a plutocrat, he is one of the most astute observers of that phenomenon, and he has his own favorite number. +Buffett likes to point out that in 1992, the combined wealth of the people on the Forbes 400 list -- and this is the list of the 400 richest Americans -- was 300 billion dollars. +Just think about it. +You didn't even need to be a billionaire to get on that list in 1992. +Well, today, that figure has more than quintupled to 1.7 trillion, and I probably don't need to tell you that we haven't seen anything similar happen to the middle class, whose wealth has stagnated if not actually decreased. +So we're living in the age of the global plutocracy, but we've been slow to notice it. +One of the reasons, I think, is a sort of boiled frog phenomenon. +Changes which are slow and gradual can be hard to notice even if their ultimate impact is quite dramatic. +Think about what happened, after all, to the poor frog. +But I think there's something else going on. +Talking about income inequality, even if you're not on the Forbes 400 list, can make us feel uncomfortable. +It feels less positive, less optimistic, to talk about how the pie is sliced than to think about how to make the pie bigger. +And if you do happen to be on the Forbes 400 list, talking about income distribution, and inevitably its cousin, income redistribution, can be downright threatening. +So we're living in the age of surging income inequality, especially at the top. +What's driving it, and what can we do about it? +One set of causes is political: lower taxes, deregulation, particularly of financial services, privatization, weaker legal protections for trade unions, all of these have contributed to more and more income going to the very, very top. +A lot of these political factors can be broadly lumped under the category of "crony capitalism," political changes that benefit a group of well-connected insiders but don't actually do much good for the rest of us. +In practice, getting rid of crony capitalism is incredibly difficult. +But while getting rid of crony capitalism in practice is really, really hard, at least intellectually, it's an easy problem. +After all, no one is actually in favor of crony capitalism. +Indeed, this is one of those rare issues that unites the left and the right. +A critique of crony capitalism is as central to the Tea Party as it is to Occupy Wall Street. +But if crony capitalism is, intellectually at least, the easy part of the problem, things get trickier when you look at the economic drivers of surging income inequality. +In and of themselves, these aren't too mysterious. +Globalization and the technology revolution, the twin economic transformations which are changing our lives and transforming the global economy, are also powering the rise of the super-rich. +Just think about it. +For the first time in history, if you are an energetic entrepreneur with a brilliant new idea or a fantastic new product, you have almost instant, almost frictionless access to a global market of more than a billion people. +As a result, if you are very, very smart and very, very lucky, you can get very, very rich very, very quickly. +The latest poster boy for this phenomenon is David Karp. +The 26-year-old founder of Tumblr recently sold his company to Yahoo for 1.1 billion dollars. +Think about that for a minute: 1.1 billion dollars, 26 years old. +It's easiest to see how the technology revolution and globalization are creating this sort of superstar effect in highly visible fields, like sports and entertainment. +We can all watch how a fantastic athlete or a fantastic performer can today leverage his or her skills across the global economy as never before. +But today, that superstar effect is happening across the entire economy. +We have superstar technologists. +We have superstar bankers. +We have superstar lawyers and superstar architects. +There are superstar cooks and superstar farmers. +There are even, and this is my personal favorite example, superstar dentists, the most dazzling exemplar of whom is Bernard Touati, the Frenchman who ministers to the smiles of fellow superstars like Russian oligarch Roman Abramovich or European-born American fashion designer Diane von Furstenberg. +But while it's pretty easy to see how globalization and the technology revolution are creating this global plutocracy, what's a lot harder is figuring out what to think about it. +And that's because, in contrast with crony capitalism, so much of what globalization and the technology revolution have done is highly positive. +Let's start with technology. +I love the Internet. I love my mobile devices. +I love the fact that they mean that whoever chooses to will be able to watch this talk far beyond this auditorium. +I'm even more of a fan of globalization. +Think of your dishwasher or your t-shirt. +So what's not to like? +Well, a few things. +One of the things that worries me is how easily what you might call meritocratic plutocracy can become crony plutocracy. +Imagine you're a brilliant entrepreneur who has successfully sold that idea or that product to the global billions and become a billionaire in the process. +It gets tempting at that point to use your economic nous to manipulate the rules of the global political economy in your own favor. +And that's no mere hypothetical example. +Think about Amazon, Apple, Google, Starbucks. +These are among the world's most admired, most beloved, most innovative companies. +They also happen to be particularly adept at working the international tax system so as to lower their tax bill very, very significantly. +And why stop at just playing the global political and economic system as it exists to your own maximum advantage? +Once you have the tremendous economic power that we're seeing at the very, very top of the income distribution and the political power that inevitably entails, it becomes tempting as well to start trying to change the rules of the game in your own favor. +Again, this is no mere hypothetical. +It's what the Russian oligarchs did in creating the sale-of-the-century privatization of Russia's natural resources. +It's one way of describing what happened with deregulation of the financial services in the U.S. and the U.K. +A second thing that worries me is how easily meritocratic plutocracy can become aristocracy. +One way of describing the plutocrats is as alpha geeks, and they are people who are acutely aware of how important highly sophisticated analytical and quantitative skills are in today's economy. +That's why they are spending unprecedented time and resources educating their own children. +The middle class is spending more on schooling too, but in the global educational arms race that starts at nursery school and ends at Harvard, Stanford or MIT, the 99 percent is increasingly outgunned by the One Percent. +The result is something that economists Alan Krueger and Miles Corak call the Great Gatsby Curve. +As income inequality increases, social mobility decreases. +The plutocracy may be a meritocracy, but increasingly you have to be born on the top rung of the ladder to even take part in that race. +The third thing, and this is what worries me the most, is the extent to which those same largely positive forces which are driving the rise of the global plutocracy also happen to be hollowing out the middle class in Western industrialized economies. +Let's start with technology. +Those same forces that are creating billionaires are also devouring many traditional middle-class jobs. +When's the last time you used a travel agent? +And in contrast with the industrial revolution, the titans of our new economy aren't creating that many new jobs. +At its zenith, G.M. employed hundreds of thousands, Facebook fewer than 10,000. +The same is true of globalization. +For all that it is raising hundreds of millions of people out of poverty in the emerging markets, it's also outsourcing a lot of jobs from the developed Western economies. +The terrifying reality is that there is no economic rule which automatically translates increased economic growth into widely shared prosperity. +That's shown in what I consider to be the most scary economic statistic of our time. +Since the late 1990s, increases in productivity have been decoupled from increases in wages and employment. +That means that our countries are getting richer, our companies are getting more efficient, but we're not creating more jobs and we're not paying people, as a whole, more. +One scary conclusion you could draw from all of this is to worry about structural unemployment. +What worries me more is a different nightmare scenario. +After all, in a totally free labor market, we could find jobs for pretty much everyone. +The dystopia that worries me is a universe in which a few geniuses invent Google and its ilk and the rest of us are employed giving them massages. +So when I get really depressed about all of this, I comfort myself in thinking about the Industrial Revolution. +After all, for all its grim, satanic mills, it worked out pretty well, didn't it? +After all, all of us here are richer, healthier, taller -- well, there are a few exceptions and live longer than our ancestors in the early 19th century. +We also, not coincidentally, went through an era of tremendous social and political inventions. +We created the modern welfare state. +We created public education. +We created public health care. +We created public pensions. +We created unions. +Today, we are living through an era of economic transformation comparable in its scale and its scope to the Industrial Revolution. +To be sure that this new economy benefits us all and not just the plutocrats, we need to embark on an era of comparably ambitious social and political change. +We need a new New Deal. +My name is Tom, and I've come here today to come clean about what I do for money. +Basically, I use my mouth in strange ways in exchange for cash. +I usually do this kind of thing in seedy downtown bars and on street corners, so this mightn't be the most appropriate setting, but I'd like to give you guys a bit of a demonstration about what I do. +And now, for my next number, I'd like to return to the classics. +We're going to take it back, way back, back into time. +(Beatboxing: "Billie Jean") Billie Jean is not my lover She's just a girl who claims that I am the one But the kid is not my son All right. +Wassup. +Thank you very much, TEDx. +If you guys haven't figured it out already, my name's Tom Thum, and I'm a beatboxer, which means all the sounds that you just heard were made entirely using just my voice, and the only thing was my voice. +And I can assure you there are absolutely no effects on this microphone whatsoever. +And I'm very, very stoked You guys are just applauding for everything. It's great. +Look at this, Mom! I made it! +I'm very, very stoked to be here today, representing my kinfolk and all those that haven't managed to make a career out of an innate ability for inhuman noisemaking. +Because it is a bit of a niche market, and there's not much work going on, especially where I'm from. +You know, I'm from Brisbane, which is a great city to live in. +Yeah! All right! Most of Brisbane's here. That's good. +You know, I'm from Brizzy, which is a great city to live in, but let's be honest -- it's not exactly the cultural hub of the Southern Hemisphere. +So I do a lot of my work outside Brisbane and outside Australia, and so the pursuit of this crazy passion of mine has enabled me to see so many amazing places in the world. +So I'd like to share with you, if I may, my experiences. +So ladies and gentlemen, I would like to take you on a journey throughout the continents and throughout sound itself. +We start our journey in the central deserts. +India. +China. +Germany. +Party, party, yeah. +And before we reach our final destination, ladies and gentlemen, I would like to share with you some technology that I brought all the way from the thriving metropolis of Brisbane. +These things in front of me here are called Kaoss Pads, and they allow me to do a whole lot of different things with my voice. +For example, the one on the left here allows me to add a little bit of reverb to my sound, which gives me that -- -- flavor. +And the other ones here, I can use them in unison to mimic the effect of a drum machine or something like that. +I can sample in my own sounds and I can play it back just by hitting the pads here. +TEDx. +I got way too much time on my hands. +And last but not least, the one on my right here allows me to loop loop loop loop loop loop loop loop my voice. +So with all that in mind, ladies and gentlemen, I would like to take you on a journey to a completely separate part of Earth as I transform the Sydney Opera House into a smoky downtown jazz bar. +All right boys, take it away. +Ladies and gentlemen, I'd like to introduce you to a very special friend of mine, one of the greatest double bassists I know. +Mr. Smokey Jefferson, let's take it for a walk. Come on, baby. +All right, ladies and gentlemen, I'd like to introduce you to the star of the show, one of the greatest jazz legends of our time. +Music lovers and jazz lovers alike, please give a warm hand of applause for the one and only Mr. Peeping Tom. Take it away. +Thank you. Thank you very much. +I love paper, and I love technology, and what I do is I make paper interactive. +And that's what I say when people ask me what I do, but it really confuses most people, so really, the best way for me to convey it is to take the technology and be creative and create experiences. +So I tried to think what I could use for here, and a couple of weeks ago I had a crazy idea that I wanted to print two DJ decks and to try and mix some music. +And I'm going to try and show that at the end, and the suspense will be as much mine if it works. +And I'm not a DJ, and I'm not a musician, so I'm a little bit scared of that. +So I think, I found the best way to describe my journey is just to mention a few little things that have happened to me throughout my life. +There's three particular things that I've done, and I'll just describe those first, and then talk about some of my work. +So when I was a kid, I was obsessed with wires, and I used to thread them under my carpet and have little switches and little speakers, and I wanted to make my bedroom be interactive but kind of all hidden away. +And I was also really interested in wireless as well. +I was not at all interested in what he was saying. +It's more that I just liked the idea of an everyday object having something inside and doing something different. +Several year later, I managed to successfully fail all of my exams and didn't really leave school with much to show for at all, and my parents, maybe as a reward, bought me what turned out to be a one-way ticket to Australia, and I came back home about four years later. +I ended up on a farm in the middle of nowhere. +It was in far western New South Wales. +And this farm was 120,000 acres. +There were 22,000 sheep, and it was about 40 degrees, or 100 or so Fahrenheit. +And on this farm there was the farmer, his wife, and there was the four-year-old daughter. +And they kind of took me into the farm and showed me what it was like to live and work. +Obviously, one of the most important things was the sheep, and so my job was, well, pretty much to do everything, but it was about bringing the sheep back to the homestead. +And we'd do that by building fences, using motorbikes and horses, and the sheep would make their way all the way back to the shearing shed for the different seasons. +And what I learned was, although at the time, like everyone else, I thought sheep were pretty stupid because they didn't do what we wanted them to do, what I realize now, probably only just in the last few weeks looking back, is the sheep weren't stupid at all. +We'd put them in an environment where they didn't want to be, and they didn't want to do what we wanted them to do. +So the challenge was to try and get them to do what we wanted them to do by listening to the weather, the lay of the land, and creating things that would let the sheep flow and go where we wanted them to go. +Another bunch of years later, I ended up at Cambridge University at the Cavendish Laboratory in the U.K. +doing a Ph.D. in physics. +My Ph.D. was to move electrons around, one at a time. +And I realize again, it's kind of these realizations looking back as to what I did I realize now that it was pretty much the same as moving sheep around. +It really is. +It's just you do it by changing an environment. +And that's kind of been a big lesson to me, that you can't act on any object. +You change its environment, and the object will flow. +So we made it very small, so things were about 30 nanometers in size; making it very cold, so at liquid helium temperatures; and changing environment by changing the voltage, and the electrons could make flow around a loop one at a time, on and off, a little memory node. +And I wanted to go one step further, and I wanted to move one electron on and one electron off. +And I was told that I wouldn't be able to do this, which, you know, as we've heard from other people, that's the thing that makes you do it. +And I was determined, and I managed to show that I could do that. +So now my obsession is printing, and I'm really fascinated by the idea of using conventional printing processes, so the types of print that are used to create many of the things around us to make paper and card interactive. +When I spoke to some printers when I started doing this and told them what I wanted to do, which was to print conductive inks onto paper, they told me it couldn't be done, again, that kind of favorite thing. +So I got about 10 credit cards and loans and got myself very close to bankruptcy, really, and bought myself this huge printing press, which I had no idea how to use at all. +It was about five meters long, and I covered myself and the floor with ink and made a massive mess, but I learned to print. +And then I took it back to the printers and showed them what I've done, and they were like, "Of course you can do that. +Why didn't you come here in the first place?" +That's always the case. +So what we do is we take conventional printing presses, we make conductive inks, and run those through a press, and basically just letting hundreds of thousands of electrons flow through pieces of paper so we can make that paper interactive. +And it's pretty simple, really. +It's just a collection of things that have been done before, but bringing them together in a different way. +So we have a piece of paper with conductive ink on, and then add onto that a small circuit board with a couple of chips, one to run some capacitive touch software, so we know where we've touched it, and the other to run, quite often, some wireless software so the piece of paper can connect. +So I'll just describe a couple of things that we've created. +There's lots of different things we've created. +This is one of them, because I love cake. +And this one, it's a large poster, and you touch it and it has a little speaker behind it, and the poster talks to you when you touch it and asks you a series of questions, and it works out your perfect cake. +But it doesn't tell you the cake there and then. +It uploads a picture, and the reason why it chose that cake for you, to our Facebook page and to Twitter. +So we're trying to create that connection between the physical and the digital, but have it not looking on a screen, and just looking like a regular poster. +We've worked with a bunch of universities on a project looking at interactive newsprint. +So for example, we've created a newspaper, a regular newspaper. +You can wear a pair of headphones that are connected to it wirelessly, and when you touch it, you can hear the music that's described on the top, which is something you can't read. +You can hear a press conference as well as reading what the editor has determined that press conference was about. +And you can press a Facebook "like" button or you can vote on something as well. +Something else that we created, and this was an idea that I had a couple of years ago, and so we've done a project on this. +It was for funding from the government for user-centered design for energy-efficient buildings, difficult to say, and something I had no idea what it was when I went into the workshop, but quickly learned. +And we wanted to try and encourage people to use energy better. +And if it wasn't, then there'd be graffiti and the leaves would fall off the trees. +So it was trying to make you look after something in your immediate environment, which you don't want to see not looking so good, rather than expecting people to do things in the local environment because of the effect that it has a long way off. +And I think, kind of like going back to the farm, it's about how to let people do what you want them to do rather than making people do what you want them to do. +Okay. +So this is the bit I'm really scared of. +So a couple of things I've created are, there's a poster over here that you can play drums on. +And I am not a musician. It seemed like a good idea at the time. +If anyone wants to try and play drums, then they can. +I'll just describe how this works. +This poster is wirelessly connected to my cell phone, and when you touch it, it connects to the app. +And it has really good response time. +It's using Bluetooth 4, so it's pretty instantaneous. +Okay. Thanks. +And there's a couple of other things. +So this one is like a sound board, so you can touch it, and I just love these horrible noises. +(Sirens, explosions, breaking glass) Okay, and this is a D.J. turntable. +So it's wirelessly linked to my iPad, and this is a software that's running on the iPad. +Oh, yes. I just love doing that. +I'm not a D.J., though, but I just always wanted to do that. +So I have a crossfader, and I have the two decks. +So I've made some new technology, and I love things being creative, and I love working with creative people. +So my 15-year-old niece, she's amazing, and she's called Charlotte, and I asked her to record something, and I worked with a friend called Elliot to put some beats together. +So this is my niece, Charlotte. +Yay! +So that's pretty much what I do. +I just love bringing technology together, having a lot of fun, being creative. +But it's not about the technology. +It's just about, I want to create some great experiences. +So thank you very much. +I'm going to talk about consciousness. +Why consciousness? +Well, it's a curiously neglected subject, both in our scientific and our philosophical culture. +Now why is that curious? +Well, it is the most important aspect of our lives for a very simple, logical reason, namely, it's a necessary condition on anything being important in our lives that we're conscious. +You care about science, philosophy, music, art, whatever -- it's no good if you're a zombie or in a coma, right? +So consciousness is number one. +The second reason is that when people do get interested in it, as I think they should, they tend to say the most appalling things. +And then, even when they're not saying appalling things and they're really trying to do serious research, well, it's been slow. Progress has been slow. +When I first got interested in this, I thought, well, it's a straightforward problem in biology. +Let's get these brain stabbers to get busy and figure out how it works in the brain. +So I went over to UCSF and I talked to all the heavy-duty neurobiologists there, and they showed some impatience, as scientists often do when you ask them embarrassing questions. +But the thing that struck me is, one guy said in exasperation, a very famous neurobiologist, he said, "Look, in my discipline it's okay to be interested in consciousness, but get tenure first. Get tenure first." +Now I've been working on this for a long time. +I think now you might actually get tenure by working on consciousness. +If so, that's a real step forward. +Okay, now why then is this curious reluctance and curious hostility to consciousness? +Well, I think it's a combination of two features of our intellectual culture that like to think they're opposing each other but in fact they share a common set of assumptions. +One feature is the tradition of religious dualism: Consciousness is not a part of the physical world. +It's a part of the spiritual world. +It belongs to the soul, and the soul is not a part of the physical world. +That's the tradition of God, the soul and immortality. +There's another tradition that thinks it's opposed to this but accepts the worst assumption. +That tradition thinks that we are heavy-duty scientific materialists: Consciousness is not a part of the physical world. +Either it doesn't exist at all, or it's something else, a computer program or some damn fool thing, but in any case it's not part of science. +And I used to get in an argument that really gave me a stomachache. +Here's how it went. +Science is objective, consciousness is subjective, therefore there cannot be a science of consciousness. +Okay, so these twin traditions are paralyzing us. +It's very hard to get out of these twin traditions. +And I have only one real message in this lecture, and that is, consciousness is a biological phenomenon like photosynthesis, digestion, mitosis -- you know all the biological phenomena -- and once you accept that, most, though not all, of the hard problems about consciousness simply evaporate. +And I'm going to go through some of them. +Okay, now I promised you to tell you some of the outrageous things said about consciousness. +One: Consciousness does not exist. +It's an illusion, like sunsets. +Science has shown sunsets and rainbows are illusions. +So consciousness is an illusion. +Two: Well, maybe it exists, but it's really something else. +It's a computer program running in the brain. +Three: No, the only thing that exists is really behavior. +It's embarrassing how influential behaviorism was, but I'll get back to that. +And four: Maybe consciousness exists, but it can't make any difference to the world. +How could spirituality move anything? +Now, whenever somebody tells me that, I think, you want to see spirituality move something? +Watch. I decide consciously to raise my arm, and the damn thing goes up. Furthermore, notice this: We do not say, "Well, it's a bit like the weather in Geneva. +Some days it goes up and some days it doesn't go up." +No. It goes up whenever I damn well want it to. +Okay. I'm going to tell you how that's possible. +Now, I haven't yet given you a definition. +You can't do this if you don't give a definition. +People always say consciousness is very hard to define. +I think it's rather easy to define if you're not trying to give a scientific definition. +We're not ready for a scientific definition, but here's a common-sense definition. +Consciousness consists of all those states of feeling or sentience or awareness. +It begins in the morning when you wake up from a dreamless sleep, and it goes on all day until you fall asleep or die or otherwise become unconscious. +Dreams are a form of consciousness on this definition. +Now, that's the common-sense definition. That's our target. +If you're not talking about that, you're not talking about consciousness. +But they think, "Well, if that's it, that's an awful problem. +How can such a thing exist as part of the real world?" +And this, if you've ever had a philosophy course, this is known as the famous mind-body problem. +I think that has a simple solution too. I'm going to give it to you. +And here it is: All of our conscious states, without exception, are caused by lower-level neurobiological processes in the brain, and they are realized in the brain as higher-level or system features. +It's about as mysterious as the liquidity of water. +Right? The liquidity is not an extra juice squirted out by the H2O molecules. +It's a condition that the system is in. +And just as the jar full of water can go from liquid to solid depending on the behavior of the molecules, so your brain can go from a state of being conscious to a state of being unconscious, depending on the behavior of the molecules. +The famous mind-body problem is that simple. +All right? But now we get into some harder questions. +Let's specify the exact features of consciousness, so that we can then answer those four objections that I made to it. +Well, the first feature is, it's real and irreducible. +You can't get rid of it. +You see, the distinction between reality and illusion is the distinction between how things consciously seem to us and how they really are. +It consciously seems like there's -- I like the French "arc-en-ciel" it seems like there's an arch in the sky, or it seems like the sun is setting over the mountains. +It consciously seems to us, but that's not really happening. +But for that distinction between how things consciously seem and how they really are, you can't make that distinction for the very existence of consciousness, because where the very existence of consciousness is concerned, if it consciously seems to you that you are conscious, you are conscious. +I mean, if a bunch of experts come to me and say, "We are heavy-duty neurobiologists and we've done a study of you, Searle, and we're convinced you are not conscious, you are a very cleverly constructed robot," I don't think, "Well, maybe these guys are right, you know?" +I don't think that for a moment, because, I mean, Descartes may have made a lot of mistakes, but he was right about this. +You cannot doubt the existence of your own consciousness. +Okay, that's the first feature of consciousness. +It's real and irreducible. +You cannot get rid of it by showing that it's an illusion in a way that you can with other standard illusions. +Okay, the second feature is this one that has been such a source of trouble to us, and that is, all of our conscious states have this qualitative character to them. +Maybe we'll be able to build a conscious machine. +Since we don't know how our brains do it, we're not in a position, so far, to build a conscious machine. +Okay. Another feature of consciousness is that it comes in unified conscious fields. +So I don't just have the sight of the people in front of me and the sound of my voice and the weight of my shoes against the floor, but they occur to me as part of one single great conscious field that stretches forward and backward. +That is the key to understanding the enormous power of consciousness. +And we have not been able to do that in a robot. +The disappointment of robotics derives from the fact that we don't know how to make a conscious robot, so we don't have a machine that can do this kind of thing. +Okay, the next feature of consciousness, after this marvelous unified conscious field, is that it functions causally in our behavior. +I gave you a scientific demonstration by raising my hand, but how is that possible? +How can it be that this thought in my brain can move material objects? +Well, I'll tell you the answer. +I mean, we don't know the detailed answer, but we know the basic part of the answer, and that is, there is a sequence of neuron firings, and they terminate where the acetylcholine is secreted at the axon end-plates of the motor neurons. +Sorry to use philosophical terminology here, but when it's secreted at the axon end-plates of the motor neurons, a whole lot of wonderful things happen in the ion channels and the damned arm goes up. +Now, think of what I told you. +One and the same event, my conscious decision to raise my arm has a level of description where it has all of these touchy-feely spiritual qualities. +It's a thought in my brain, but at the same time, it's busy secreting acetylcholine and doing all sorts of other things as it makes its way from the motor cortex down through the nerve fibers in the arm. +Now, what that tells us is that our traditional vocabularies for discussing these issues are totally obsolete. +One and the same event has a level of description where it's neurobiological, and another level of description where it's mental, and that's a single event, and that's how nature works. That's how it's possible for consciousness to function causally. +Okay, now with that in mind, with going through these various features of consciousness, let's go back and answer some of those early objections. +Well, the first one I said was, consciousness doesn't exist, it's an illusion. Well, I've already answered that. +I don't think we need to worry about that. +But the second one had an incredible influence, and may still be around, and that is, "Well, if consciousness exists, it's really something else. +It's really a digital computer program running in your brain and that's what we need to do to create consciousness is get the right program. +Yeah, forget about the hardware. Any hardware will do provided it's rich enough and stable enough to carry the program." +Now, we know that that's wrong. +I mean, anybody who's thought about computers at all can see that that's wrong, because computation is defined as symbol manipulation, usually thought of as zeros as ones, but any symbols will do. +You get an algorithm that you can program in a binary code, and that's the defining trait of the computer program. +But we know that that's purely syntactical. That's symbolic. +We know that actual human consciousness has something more than that. +It's got a content in addition to the syntax. +It's got a semantics. +Now that argument, I made that argument 30 -- oh my God, I don't want to think about it more than 30 years ago, but there's a deeper argument implicit in what I've told you, and I want to tell you that argument briefly, and that is, consciousness creates an observer-independent reality. +It creates a reality of money, property, government, marriage, CERN conferences, cocktail parties and summer vacations, and all of those are creations of consciousness. +Their existence is observer-relative. +It's only relative to conscious agents that a piece of paper is money or that a bunch of buildings is a university. +Now, ask yourself about computation. +Is that absolute, like force and mass and gravitational attraction? +Or is it observer-relative? +Well, some computations are intrinsic. +I add two plus two to get four. +That's going on no matter what anybody thinks. +But when I haul out my pocket calculator and do the calculation, the only intrinsic phenomenon is the electronic circuit and its behavior. +That's the only absolute phenomenon. +All the rest is interpreted by us. +Computation only exists relative to consciousness. +Either a conscious agent is carrying out the computation, or he's got a piece of machinery that admits of a computational interpretation. +Now that doesn't mean computation is arbitrary. +I spent a lot of money on this hardware. +But we have this persistent confusion between objectivity and subjectivity as features of reality and objectivity and subjectivity as features of claims. +And the bottom line of this part of my talk is this: You can have a completely objective science, a science where you make objectively true claims, about a domain whose existence is subjective, whose existence is in the human brain consisting of subjective states of sentience or feeling or awareness. +So the objection that you can't have an objective science of consciousness because it's subjective and science is objective, that's a pun. +That's a bad pun on objectivity and subjectivity. +You can make objective claims about a domain that is subjective in its mode of existence, and indeed that's what neurologists do. +I mean, you have patients that actually suffer pains, and you try to get an objective science of that. +Okay, I promised to refute all these guys, and I don't have an awful lot of time left, but let me refute a couple more of them. +I said that behaviorism ought to be one of the great embarrassments of our intellectual culture, because it's refuted the moment you think about it. +Your mental states are identical with your behavior? +Well, think about the distinction between feeling a pain and engaging in pain behavior. +I won't demonstrate pain behavior, but I can tell you I'm not having any pains right now. +So it's an obvious mistake. Why did they make the mistake? +The mistake was and you can go back and read the literature on this, you can see this over and over they think if you accept the irreducible existence of consciousness, you're giving up on science. +You're giving up on 300 years of human progress and human hope and all the rest of it. +And the message I want to leave you with is, consciousness has to become accepted as a genuine biological phenomenon, as much subject to scientific analysis as any other phenomenon in biology, or, for that matter, the rest of science. +Thank you very much. +So if I was to ask you what the connection between a bottle of Tide detergent and sweat was, you'd probably think that's the easiest question that you're going to be asked in Edinburgh all week. +But if I was to say that they're both examples of alternative or new forms of currency in a hyperconnected, data-driven global economy, you'd probably think I was a little bit bonkers. +But trust me, I work in advertising. +And I am going to tell you the answer, but obviously after this short break. +So a more challenging question is one that I was asked, actually, by one of our writers a couple of weeks ago, and I didn't know the answer: What's the world's best performing currency? +It's actually Bitcoin. +Now, for those of you who may not be familiar, Bitcoin is a crypto-currency, a virtual currency, synthetic currency. +It was founded in 2008 by this anonymous programmer using a pseudonym Satoshi Nakamoto. +No one knows who or what he is. +He's almost like the Banksy of the Internet. +And I'm probably not going to do it proper service here, but my interpretation of how it works is that Bitcoins are released through this process of mining. +So there's a network of computers that are challenged to solve a very complex mathematical problem and the person that manages to solve it first gets the Bitcoins. +And the Bitcoins are released, they're put into a public ledger called the Blockchain, and then they float, so they become a currency, and completely decentralized, that's the sort of scary thing about this, which is why it's so popular. +So it's not run by the authorities or the state. +It's actually managed by the network. +And the reason that it's proved very successful is it's private, it's anonymous, it's fast, and it's cheap. +And you do get to the point where there's some wild fluctuations with Bitcoin. +So in one level it went from something like 13 dollars to 266, literally in the space of four months, and then crashed and lost half of its value in six hours. +And it's currently around that kind of 110 dollar mark in value. +But what it does show is that it's sort of gaining ground, it's gaining respectability. +You get services, like Reddit and Wordpress are actually accepting Bitcoin as a payment currency now. +And that's showing you that people are actually placing trust in technology, and it's started to trump and disrupt and interrogate traditional institutions and how we think about currencies and money. +And that's not surprising, if you think about the basket case that is the E.U. +I think there was a Gallup survey out recently that said something like, in America, trust in banks is at an all-time low, it's something like 21 percent. +And you can see here some photographs from London where Barclays sponsored the city bike scheme, and some activists have done some nice piece of guerrilla marketing here and doctored the slogans. +"Sub-prime pedaling." "Barclays takes you for a ride." +These are the more polite ones I could share with you today. +But you get the gist, so people have really started to sort of lose faith in institutions. +There's a P.R. company called Edelman, they do this very interesting survey every year precisely around trust and what people are thinking. +And this is a global survey, so these numbers are global. +And what's interesting is that you can see that hierarchy is having a bit of a wobble, and it's all about heterarchical now, so people trust people like themselves more than they trust corporations and governments. +And if you look at these figures for the more developed markets like U.K., Germany, and so on, they're actually much lower. +And I find that sort of scary. +People are actually trusting businesspeople more than they're trusting governments and leaders. +So what's starting to happen, if you think about money, if you sort of boil money down to an essence, it is literally just an expression of value, an agreed value. +So what's happening now, in the digital age, is that we can quantify value in lots of different ways and do it more easily, and sometimes the way that we quantify those values, it makes it much easier to create new forms and valid forms of currency. +In that context, you can see that networks like Bitcoin suddenly start to make a bit more sense. +So if you think we're starting to question and disrupt and interrogate what money means, what our relationship with it is, what defines money, then the ultimate extension of that is, is there a reason for the government to be in charge of money anymore? +So obviously I'm looking at this through a marketing prism, so from a brand perspective, brands literally stand or fall on their reputations. +And if you think about it, reputation has now become a currency. +You know, reputations are built on trust, consistency, transparency. +So if you've actually decided that you trust a brand, you want a relationship, you want to engage with the brand, you're already kind of participating in lots of new forms of currency. +So you think about loyalty. +Loyalty essentially is a micro-economy. +You think about rewards schemes, air miles. +The Economist said a few years ago that there are actually more unredeemed air miles in the world than there are dollar bills in circulation. +You know, when you are standing in line in Starbucks, 30 percent of transactions in Starbucks on any one day are actually being made with Starbucks Star points. +So that's a sort of Starbucks currency staying within its ecosystem. +And what I find interesting is that Amazon has recently launched Amazon coins. +So admittedly it's a currency at the moment that's purely for the Kindle. +So you can buy apps and make purchases within those apps, but you think about Amazon, you look at the trust barometer that I showed you where people are starting to trust businesses, especially businesses that they believe in and trust more than governments. +So suddenly, you start thinking, well Amazon potentially could push this. +It could become a natural extension, that as well as buying stuff -- take it out of the Kindle -- you could buy books, music, real-life products, appliances and goods and so on. +And suddenly you're getting Amazon, as a brand, is going head to head with the Federal Reserve in terms of how you want to spend your money, what money is, what constitutes money. +And I'll get you back to Tide, the detergent now, as I promised. +This is a fantastic article I came across in New York Magazine, where it was saying that drug users across America are actually purchasing drugs with bottles of Tide detergent. +So they're going into convenience stores, stealing Tide, and a $20 bottle of Tide is equal to 10 dollars of crack cocaine or weed. +And what they're saying, so some criminologists have looked at this and they're saying, well, okay, Tide as a product sells at a premium. +It's 50 percent above the category average. +It's infused with a very complex cocktail of chemicals, so it smells very luxurious and very distinctive, and, being a Procter and Gamble brand, it's been supported by a lot of mass media advertising. +So what they're saying is that drug users are consumers too, so they have this in their neural pathways. +When they spot Tide, there's a shortcut. +They say, that is trust. I trust that. That's quality. +So it becomes this unit of currency, which the New York Magazine described as a very oddly loyal crime wave, brand-loyal crime wave, and criminals are actually calling Tide "liquid gold." +Now, what I thought was funny was the reaction from the P&G spokesperson. +They said, obviously tried to dissociate themselves from drugs, but said, "It reminds me of one thing and that's the value of the brand has stayed consistent." Which backs up my point and shows he didn't even break a sweat when he said that. +So that brings me back to the connection with sweat. +In Mexico, Nike has run a campaign recently called, literally, Bid Your Sweat. +So you think about, these Nike shoes have got sensors in them, or you're using a Nike FuelBand that basically tracks your movement, your energy, your calorie consumption. +And what's happening here, this is where you've actually elected to join that Nike community. You've bought into it. +They're not advertising loud messages at you, and that's where advertising has started to shift now is into things like services, tools and applications. +So Nike is literally acting as a well-being partner, a health and fitness partner and service provider. +So what happens with this is they're saying, "Right, you have a data dashboard. We know how far you've run, how far you've moved, what your calorie intake, all that sort of stuff. +What you can do is, the more you run, the more points you get, and we have an auction where you can buy Nike stuff but only by proving that you've actually used the product to do stuff." +And you can't come into this. This is purely for the community that are sweating using Nike products. You can't buy stuff with pesos. +This is literally a closed environment, a closed auction space. +In Africa, you know, airtime has become literally a currency in its own right. +People are used to, because mobile is king, they're very, very used to transferring money, making payments via mobile. +And one of my favorite examples from a brand perspective going on is Vodafone, where, in Egypt, lots of people make purchases in markets and very small independent stores. +Loose change, small change is a real problem, and what tends to happen is you buy a bunch of stuff, you're due, say, 10 cents, 20 cents in change. +The shopkeepers tend to give you things like an onion or an aspirin, or a piece of gum, because they don't have small change. +So when Vodafone came in and saw this problem, this consumer pain point, they created some small change which they call Fakka, which literally sits and is given by the shopkeepers to people, and it's credit that goes straight onto their mobile phone. +So this currency becomes credit, which again, is really, really interesting. +And we did a survey that backs up the fact that, you know, 45 percent of people in this very crucial demographic in the U.S. +were saying that they're comfortable using an independent or branded currency. +So that's getting really interesting here, a really interesting dynamic going on. +And you think, corporations should start taking their assets and thinking of them in a different way and trading them. +And you think, is it much of a leap? +It seems farfetched, but when you think about it, in America in 1860, there were 1,600 corporations issuing banknotes. +There were 8,000 kinds of notes in America. +And the only thing that stopped that, the government controlled four percent of the supply, and the only thing that stopped it was the Civil War breaking out, and the government suddenly wanted to take control of the money. +So government, money, war, nothing changes there, then. +So what I'm going to ask is, basically, is history repeating itself? +Is technology making paper money feel outmoded? +Are we decoupling money from the government? +You know, you think about, brands are starting to fill the gaps. +Corporations are filling gaps that governments can't afford to fill. +So I think, you know, will we be standing on stage buying a coffee -- organic, fair trade coffee -- next year using TED florins or TED shillings? +Thank you very much. +Thank you. +Francesca Fedeli: Ciao. +So he's Mario. He's our son. +He was born two and a half years ago, and I had a pretty tough pregnancy because I had to stay still in a bed for, like, eight months. +But in the end everything seemed to be under control. +So he got the right weight at birth. +He got the right Apgar index. +So we were pretty reassured by this. +But at the end, 10 days later after he was born, we discovered that he had a stroke. +As you might know, a stroke is a brain injury. +A perinatal stroke could be something that can happen during the nine months of pregnancy or just suddenly after the birth, and in his case, as you can see, the right part of his brain has gone. +So the effect that this stroke could have on Mario's body could be the fact that he couldn't be able to control the left side of his body. +Just imagine, if you have a computer and a printer and you want to transmit, to input to print out a document, but the printer doesn't have the right drives, so the same is for Mario. +It's just like, he would like to move his left side of his body, but he's not able to transmit the right input to move his left arm and left leg. +So life had to change. +We needed to change our schedule. +We needed to change the impact that this birth had on our life. +Roberto D'Angelo: As you may imagine, unfortunately, we were not ready. +Nobody taught us how to deal with such kinds of disabilities, and as many questions as possible started to come to our minds. +And that has been really a tough time. +Questions, some basics, like, you know, why did this happen to us? +And what went wrong? +Some more tough, like, really, what will be the impact on Mario's life? +I mean, at the end, will he be able to work? +Will he be able to be normal? +And, you know, as a parent, especially for the first time, why is he not going to be better than us? +And this, indeed, really is tough to say, but a few months later, we realized that we were really feeling like a failure. +I mean, the only real product of our life, at the end, was a failure. +And you know, it was not a failure for ourselves in itself, but it was a failure that will impact his full life. +Honestly, we went down. +I mean we went really down, but at the end, we started to look at him, and we said, we have to react. +So immediately, as Francesca said, we changed our life. +We started physiotherapy, we started the rehabilitation, and one of the paths that we were following in terms of rehabilitation is the mirror neurons pilot. +Basically, we spent months doing this with Mario. +You have an object, and we showed him how to grab the object. +Now, the theory of mirror neurons simply says that in your brains, exactly now, as you watch me doing this, you are activating exactly the same neurons as if you do the actions. +It looks like this is the leading edge in terms of rehabilitation. +But one day we found that Mario was not looking at our hand. +He was looking at us. +We were his mirror. +And the problem, as you might feel, is that we were down, we were depressed, we were looking at him as a problem, not as a son, not from a positive perspective. +And that day really changed our perspective. +We realized that we had to become a better mirror for Mario. +We restarted from our strengths, and at the same time we restarted from his strengths. +We stopped looking at him as a problem, and we started to look at him as an opportunity to improve. +And really, this was the change, and from our side, we said, "What are our strengths that we really can bring to Mario?" +And we started from our passions. +I mean, at the end, my wife and myself are quite different, but we have many things in common. +We love to travel, we love music, we love to be in places like this, and we started to bring Mario with us just to show to him the best things that we can show to him. +This short video is from last week. +I am not saying -- I am not saying it's a miracle. That's not the message, because we are just at the beginning of the path. +But we want to share what was the key learning, the key learning that Mario drove to us, and it is to consider what you have as a gift and not only what you miss, and to consider what you miss just as an opportunity. +And this is the message that we want to share with you. +This is why we are here. +Mario! +And this is why -- And this is why we decided to share the best mirror in the world with him. +And we thank you so much, all of you. +FF: Thank you. RD: Thank you. Bye. +FF: Thank you. +I'm five years old, and I am very proud. +My father has just built the best outhouse in our little village in Ukraine. +Inside, it's a smelly, gaping hole in the ground, but outside, it's pearly white formica and it literally gleams in the sun. +This makes me feel so proud, so important, that I appoint myself the leader of my little group of friends and I devise missions for us. +So we prowl from house to house looking for flies captured in spider webs and we set them free. +Four years earlier, when I was one, after the Chernobyl accident, the rain came down black, and my sister's hair fell out in clumps, and I spent nine months in the hospital. +There were no visitors allowed, so my mother bribed a hospital worker. +She acquired a nurse's uniform, and she snuck in every night to sit by my side. +Five years later, an unexpected silver lining. +Thanks to Chernobyl, we get asylum in the U.S. +So the first day we get to New York, my grandmother and I find a penny in the floor of the homeless shelter that my family's staying in. +Only, we don't know that it's a homeless shelter. +We think that it's a hotel, a hotel with lots of rats. +So we find this penny kind of fossilized in the floor, and we think that a very wealthy man must have left it there because regular people don't just lose money. +And I hold this penny in the palm of my hand, and it's sticky and rusty, but it feels like I'm holding a fortune. +I decide that I'm going to get my very own piece of Bazooka bubble gum. +And in that moment, I feel like a millionaire. +About a year later, I get to feel that way again when we find a bag full of stuffed animals in the trash, and suddenly I have more toys than I've ever had in my whole life. +And again, I get that feeling when we get a knock on the door of our apartment in Brooklyn, and my sister and I find a deliveryman with a box of pizza that we didn't order. +So we take the pizza, our very first pizza, and we devour slice after slice as the deliveryman stands there and stares at us from the doorway. +And he tells us to pay, but we don't speak English. +My mother comes out, and he asks her for money, but she doesn't have enough. +She walks 50 blocks to and from work every day just to avoid spending money on bus fare. +Then our neighbor pops her head in, and she turns red with rage when she realizes that those immigrants from downstairs have somehow gotten their hands on her pizza. +Everyone's upset. +But the pizza is delicious. +It doesn't hit me until years later just how little we had. +On our 10 year anniversary of being in the U.S., we decided to celebrate by reserving a room at the hotel that we first stayed in when we got to the U.S. +The man at the front desk laughs, and he says, "You can't reserve a room here. This is a homeless shelter." +And we were shocked. +My husband Brian was also homeless as a kid. +His family lost everything, and at age 11, he had to live in motels with his dad, motels that would round up all of their food and keep it hostage until they were able to pay the bill. +And one time, when he finally got his box of Frosted Flakes back, it was crawling with roaches. +But he did have one thing. +He had this shoebox that he carried with him everywhere containing nine comic books, two G.I. Joes painted to look like Spider-Man and five Gobots. And this was his treasure. +This was his own assembly of heroes that kept him from drugs and gangs and from giving up on his dreams. +I'm going to tell you about one more formerly homeless member of our family. +This is Scarlett. +Once upon a time, Scarlet was used as bait in dog fights. +She was tied up and thrown into the ring for other dogs to attack so they'd get more aggressive before the fight. +And now, these days, she eats organic food and she sleeps on an orthopedic bed with her name on it, but when we pour water for her in her bowl, she still looks up and she wags her tail in gratitude. +Sometimes Brian and I walk through the park with Scarlett, and she rolls through the grass, and we just look at her and then we look at each other and we feel gratitude. +We forget about all of our new middle-class frustrations and disappointments, and we feel like millionaires. +Thank you. +What do we know about the future? +Difficult question, simple answer: nothing. +We cannot predict the future. +We only can create a vision of the future, how it might be, a vision which reveals disruptive ideas, which is inspiring, and this is the most important reason which breaks the chains of common thinking. +There are a lot of people who created their own vision about the future, for instance, this vision here from the early 20th century. +It says here that this is the ocean plane of the future. +It takes only one and a half days to cross the Atlantic Ocean. +Today, we know that this future vision didn't come true. +So this is our largest airplane which we have, the Airbus A380, and it's quite huge, so a lot of people fit in there and it's technically completely different than the vision I've shown to you. +I'm working in a team with Airbus, and we have created our vision about a more sustainable future of aviation. +So sustainability is quite important for us, which should incorporate social but as well as environmental and economic values. +So we have created a very disruptive structure which mimics the design of bone, or a skeleton, which occurs in nature. +So that's why it looks maybe a little bit weird, especially to the people who deal with structures in general. +But at least it's just a kind of artwork to explore our ideas about a different future. +What are the main customers of the future? +So, we have the old, we have the young, we have the uprising power of women, and there's one mega-trend which affects all of us. +These are the future anthropometrics. +So our children are getting larger, but at the same time we are growing into different directions. +So what we need is space inside the aircraft, inside a very dense area. +These people have different needs. +So we see a clear need of active health promotion, especially in the case of the old people. +We want to be treated as individuals. +We like to be productive throughout the entire travel chain, and what we are doing in the future is we want to use the latest man-machine interface, and we want to integrate this and show this in one product. +So we combined these needs with technology's themes. +So for instance, we are asking ourselves, how can we create more light? +How can we bring more natural light into the airplane? +So this airplane has no windows anymore, for example. +What about the data and communication software which we need in the future? +My belief is that the airplane of the future will get its own consciousness. +It will be more like a living organism than just a collection of very complex technology. +This will be very different in the future. +It will communicate directly with the passenger in its environment. +And then we are talking also about materials, synthetic biology, for example. +And my belief is that we will get more and more new materials which we can put into structure later on, because structure is one of the key issues in aircraft design. +So let's compare the old world with the new world. +I just want to show you here what we are doing today. +So this is a bracket of an A380 crew rest compartment. +It takes a lot of weight, and it follows the classical design rules. +This here is an equal bracket for the same purpose. +It follows the design of bone. +The design process is completely different. +At the one hand, we have 1.2 kilos, and at the other hand 0.6 kilos. +So this technology, 3D printing, and new design rules really help us to reduce the weight, which is the biggest issue in aircraft design, because it's directly linked to greenhouse gas emissions. +Push this idea a little bit forward. +So how does nature build its components and structures? +So nature is very clever. It puts all the information into these small building blocks, which we call DNA. +And nature builds large skeletons out of it. +So we see a bottom-up approach here, because all the information, as I said, are inside the DNA. +And this is combined with a top-down approach, because what we are doing in our daily life is we train our muscles, we train our skeleton, and it's getting stronger. +And the same approach can be applied to technology as well. +So our building block is carbon nanotubes, for example, to create a large, rivet-less skeleton at the end of the day. +How this looks in particular, you can show it here. +So imagine you have carbon nanotubes growing inside a 3D printer, and they are embedded inside a matrix of plastic, and follow the forces which occur in your component. +And you've got trillions of them. +So you really align them to wood, and you take this wood and make morphological optimization, so you make structures, sub-structures, which allows you to transmit electrical energy or data. +And now we take this material, combine this with a top-down approach, and build bigger and bigger components. +So how might the airplane of the future look? +So we have very different seats which adapt to the shape of the future passenger, with the different anthropometrics. +We have social areas inside the aircraft which might turn into a place where you can play virtual golf. +And finally, this bionic structure, which is covered by a transparent biopolymer membrane, will really change radically how we look at aircrafts in the future. +So as Jason Silva said, if we can imagine it, why not make it so? +See you in the future. Thank you. +This is an ambucycle. +This is the fastest way to reach any medical emergency. +It has everything an ambulance has except for a bed. +You see the defibrillator. You see the equipment. +We all saw the tragedy that happened in Boston. +When I was looking at these pictures, it brought me back many years to my past when I was a child. +I grew up in a small neighborhood in Jerusalem. +When I was six years old, I was walking back from school on a Friday afternoon with my older brother. +We were passing by a bus stop. +We saw a bus blow up in front of our eyes. +The bus was on fire, and many people were hurt and killed. +I remembered an old man yelling to us and crying to help us get him up. +He just needed someone helping him. +We were so scared and we just ran away. +Growing up, I decided I wanted to become a doctor and save lives. +Maybe that was because of what I saw when I was a child. +When I was 15, I took an EMT course, and I went to volunteer on an ambulance. +For two years, I volunteered on an ambulance in Jerusalem. +I helped many people, but whenever someone really needed help, I never got there in time. We never got there. +The traffic is so bad. The distance, and everything. +We never got there when somebody really needed us. +One day, we received a call about a seven-year-old child choking from a hot dog. +Traffic was horrific, and we were coming from the other side of town in the north part of Jerusalem. +When we got there, 20 minutes later, we started CPR on the kid. +A doctor comes in from a block away, stop us, checks the kid, and tells us to stop CPR. +That second he declared this child dead. +At that moment, I understood that this child died for nothing. +If this doctor, who lived one block away from there, would have come 20 minutes earlier, not have to wait until that siren he heard before coming from the ambulance, if he would have heard about it way before, he would have saved this child. +He could have run from a block away. +He could have saved this child. +I said to myself, there must be a better way. +Together with 15 of my friends -- we were all EMTs we decided, let's protect our neighborhood, so when something like that happens again, we will be there running to the scene a lot before the ambulance. +So I went over to the manager of the ambulance company and I told him, "Please, whenever you have a call coming into our neighborhood, we have 15 great guys who are willing to stop everything they're doing and run and save lives. +Just alert us by beeper. +We'll buy these beepers, just tell your dispatch to send us the beeper, and we will run and save lives." +Well, he was laughing. I was 17 years old. I was a kid. +And he said to me I remember this like yesterday he was a great guy, but he said to me, "Kid, go to school, or go open a falafel stand. +We're not really interested in these kinds of new adventures. +We're not interested in your help." And he threw me out of the room. +"I don't need your help," he said. +I was a very stubborn kid. +As you see now, I'm walking around like crazy, meshugenah. +So I decided to use the Israeli very famous technique you've probably all heard of, chutzpah. And the next day, I went and I bought two police scanners, and I said, "The hell with you, if you don't want to give me information, I'll get the information myself." +And we did turns, who's going to listen to the radio scanners. +The next day, while I was listening to the scanners, I heard about a call coming in of a 70-year-old man hurt by a car only one block away from me on the main street of my neighborhood. +I ran there by foot. I had no medical equipment. +When I got there, the 70-year-old man was lying on the floor, blood was gushing out of his neck. +He was on Coumadin. +I knew I had to stop his bleeding or else he would die. +I took off my yarmulke, because I had no medical equipment, and with a lot of pressure, I stopped his bleeding. +He was bleeding from his neck. +When the ambulance arrived 15 minutes later, I gave them over a patient who was alive. +When I went to visit him two days later, he gave me a hug and was crying and thanking me for saving his life. +At that moment, when I realized this is the first person I ever saved in my life after two years volunteering in an ambulance, I knew this is my life's mission. +So today, 22 years later, we have United Hatzalah. +"Hatzalah" means "rescue," for all of you who don't know Hebrew. +I forgot I'm not in Israel. +So we have thousands of volunteers who are passionate about saving lives, and they're spread all around, so whenever a call comes in, they just stop everything and go and run and save a life. +Our average response time today went down to less than three minutes in Israel. +I'm talking about heart attacks, I'm talking about car accidents, God forbid bomb attacks, shootings, whatever it is, even a woman 3 o'clock in the morning falling in her home and needs someone to help her. +Three minutes, we'll have a guy with his pajamas running to her house and helping her get up. +The reasons why we're so successful are because of three things. +Thousands of passionate volunteers who will leave everything they do and run to help people they don't even know. +We're not there to replace ambulances. +We're just there to get the gap between the ambulance call until they arrive. +And we save people that otherwise would not be saved. +The second reason is because of our technology. +You know, Israelis are good in technology. +Every one of us has on his phone, no matter what kind of phone, a GPS technology done by NowForce, and whenever a call comes in, the closest five volunteers get the call, and they actually get there really quick, and navigated by a traffic navigator to get there and not waste time. +And this is a great technology we use all over the country and reduce the response time. +And the third thing are these ambucycles. +These ambucycles are an ambulance on two wheels. +We don't transfer people, but we stabilize them, and we save their lives. +They never get stuck in traffic. They could even go on a sidewalk. +They never, literally, get stuck in traffic. +That's why we get there so fast. +A few years after I started this organization, in a Jewish community, two Muslims from east Jerusalem called me up. +They ask me to meet. They wanted to meet with me. +Muhammad Asli and Murad Alyan. +When Muhammad told me his personal story, how his father, 55 years old, collapsed at home, had a cardiac arrest, and it took over an hour for an ambulance arrive, and he saw his father die in front of his eyes, he asked me, "Please start this in east Jerusalem." +I said to myself, I saw so much tragedy, so much hate, and it's not about saving Jews. It's not about saving Muslims. +It's not about saving Christians. It's about saving people. +So I went ahead, full force -- and I started United Hatzalah in east Jerusalem, and that's why the names United and Hatzalah match so well. +We started hand in hand saving Jews and Arabs. +Arabs were saving Jews. Jews were saving Arabs. +Something special happened. +Arabs and Jews, they don't always get along together, but here in this situation, the communities, literally, it's an unbelievable situation that happened, the diversities, all of a sudden they had a common interest: Let's save lives together. +Settlers were saving Arabs and Arabs were saving settlers. +It's an unbelievable concept that could work only when you have such a great cause. +And these are all volunteers. +No one is getting money. +They're all doing it for the purpose of saving lives. +When my own father collapsed a few years ago from a cardiac arrest, one of the first volunteers to arrive to save my father was one of these Muslim volunteers from east Jerusalem who was in the first course to join Hatzalah. +And he saved my father. +Could you imagine how I felt in that moment? +When I started this organization, I was 17 years old. +I never imagined that one day I'd be speaking at TEDMED. +I never even knew what TEDMED was then. +I don't think it existed, but I never imagined, I never imagined that it's going to go all around, it's going to spread around, and this last year we started in Panama and Brazil. +All I need is a partner who is a little meshugenah like me, passionate about saving lives, and willing to do it. +And I'm actually starting it in India very soon with a friend who I met in Harvard just a while back. +Hatzalah actually started in Brooklyn by a Hasidic Jew years before us in Williamsburg, and now it's all over the Jewish community in New York, even Australia and Mexico and many other Jewish communities. +But it could spread everywhere. +It's very easy to adopt. +You even saw these volunteers in New York saving lives in the World Trade Center. +Last year alone, we treated in Israel 207,000 people. +Forty-two thousand of them were life-threatening situations. +And we made a difference. +I guess you could call this a lifesaving flash mob, and it works. +When I look all around here, I see lots of people who would go an extra mile, run an extra mile to save other people, no matter who they are, no matter what religion, no matter who, where they come from. +We all want to be heroes. +We just need a good idea, motivation and lots of chutzpah, and we could save millions of people that otherwise would not be saved. +Thank you very much. +The day I left home for the first time to go to university was a bright day brimming with hope and optimism. +I'd done well at school. Expectations for me were high, and I gleefully entered the student life of lectures, parties and traffic cone theft. +Now appearances, of course, can be deceptive, and to an extent, this feisty, energetic persona of lecture-going and traffic cone stealing was a veneer, albeit a very well-crafted and convincing one. +Underneath, I was actually deeply unhappy, insecure and fundamentally frightened -- frightened of other people, of the future, of failure and of the emptiness that I felt was within me. +But I was skilled at hiding it, and from the outside appeared to be someone with everything to hope for and aspire to. +This fantasy of invulnerability was so complete that I even deceived myself, and as the first semester ended and the second began, there was no way that anyone could have predicted what was just about to happen. +I was leaving a seminar when it started, humming to myself, fumbling with my bag just as I'd done a hundred times before, when suddenly I heard a voice calmly observe, "She is leaving the room." +I looked around, and there was no one there, but the clarity and decisiveness of the comment was unmistakable. +Shaken, I left my books on the stairs and hurried home, and there it was again. +"She is opening the door." +This was the beginning. The voice had arrived. +And the voice persisted, days and then weeks of it, on and on, narrating everything I did in the third person. +"She is going to the library." +"She is going to a lecture." +It was neutral, impassive and even, after a while, strangely companionate and reassuring, although I did notice that its calm exterior sometimes slipped and that it occasionally mirrored my own unexpressed emotion. +So, for example, if I was angry and had to hide it, which I often did, being very adept at concealing how I really felt, then the voice would sound frustrated. +Otherwise, it was neither sinister nor disturbing, although even at that point it was clear that it had something to communicate to me about my emotions, particularly emotions which were remote and inaccessible. +Now it was then that I made a fatal mistake, in that I told a friend about the voice, and she was horrified. +A subtle conditioning process had begun, the implication that normal people don't hear voices and the fact that I did meant that something was very seriously wrong. +Such fear and mistrust was infectious. +Suddenly the voice didn't seem quite so benign anymore, and when she insisted that I seek medical attention, I duly complied, and which proved to be mistake number two. +I spent some time telling the college G.P. +about what I perceived to be the real problem: anxiety, low self-worth, fears about the future, and was met with bored indifference until I mentioned the voice, upon which he dropped his pen, swung round and began to question me with a show of real interest. +And to be fair, I was desperate for interest and help, and I began to tell him about my strange commentator. +And I always wish, at this point, the voice had said, "She is digging her own grave." +I was referred to a psychiatrist, who likewise took a grim view of the voice's presence, subsequently interpreting everything I said through a lens of latent insanity. +For example, I was part of a student TV station that broadcast news bulletins around the campus, and during an appointment which was running very late, I said, "I'm sorry, doctor, I've got to go. +I'm reading the news at six." +Now it's down on my medical records that Eleanor has delusions that she's a television news broadcaster. +It was at this point that events began to rapidly overtake me. +A hospital admission followed, the first of many, a diagnosis of schizophrenia came next, and then, worst of all, a toxic, tormenting sense of hopelessness, humiliation and despair about myself and my prospects. +But having been encouraged to see the voice not as an experience but as a symptom, my fear and resistance towards it intensified. +Now essentially, this represented taking an aggressive stance towards my own mind, a kind of psychic civil war, and in turn this caused the number of voices to increase and grow progressively hostile and menacing. +Helplessly and hopelessly, I began to retreat into this nightmarish inner world in which the voices were destined to become both my persecutors and my only perceived companions. +They told me, for example, that if I proved myself worthy of their help, then they could change my life back to how it had been, and a series of increasingly bizarre tasks was set, a kind of labor of Hercules. +It started off quite small, for example, pull out three strands of hair, but gradually it grew more extreme, culminating in commands to harm myself, and a particularly dramatic instruction: "You see that tutor over there? +You see that glass of water? +Well, you have to go over and pour it over him in front of the other students." +Which I actually did, and which needless to say did not endear me to the faculty. +In effect, a vicious cycle of fear, avoidance, mistrust and misunderstanding had been established, and this was a battle in which I felt powerless and incapable of establishing any kind of peace or reconciliation. +Two years later, and the deterioration was dramatic. +By now, I had the whole frenzied repertoire: terrifying voices, grotesque visions, bizarre, intractable delusions. +My mental health status had been a catalyst for discrimination, verbal abuse, and physical and sexual assault, and I'd been told by my psychiatrist, "Eleanor, you'd be better off with cancer, because cancer is easier to cure than schizophrenia." +I'd been diagnosed, drugged and discarded, and was by now so tormented by the voices that I attempted to drill a hole in my head in order to get them out. +Now looking back on the wreckage and despair of those years, it seems to me now as if someone died in that place, and yet, someone else was saved. +A broken and haunted person began that journey, but the person who emerged was a survivor and would ultimately grow into the person I was destined to be. +Many people have harmed me in my life, and I remember them all, but the memories grow pale and faint in comparison with the people who've helped me. +I believe that Eleanor can get through this. +Sometimes, you know, it snows as late as May, but summer always comes eventually." +Fourteen minutes is not enough time to fully credit those good and generous people who fought with me and for me and who waited to welcome me back from that agonized, lonely place. +But together, they forged a blend of courage, creativity, integrity, and an unshakeable belief that my shattered self could become healed and whole. +Now, at first, this was very difficult to believe, not least because the voices appeared so hostile and menacing, so in this respect, a vital first step was learning to separate out a metaphorical meaning from what I'd previously interpreted to be a literal truth. +So for example, voices which threatened to attack my home I learned to interpret as my own sense of fear and insecurity in the world, rather than an actual, objective danger. +Now at first, I would have believed them. +I remember, for example, sitting up one night on guard outside my parents' room to protect them from what I thought was a genuine threat from the voices. +Because I'd had such a bad problem with self-injury that most of the cutlery in the house had been hidden, so I ended up arming myself with a plastic fork, kind of like picnic ware, and sort of sat outside the room clutching it and waiting to spring into action should anything happen. +It was like, "Don't mess with me. +I've got a plastic fork, don't you know?" +Strategic. +I would set boundaries for the voices, and try to interact with them in a way that was assertive yet respectful, establishing a slow process of communication and collaboration in which we could learn to work together and support one another. +Throughout all of this, what I would ultimately realize was that each voice was closely related to aspects of myself, and that each of them carried overwhelming emotions that I'd never had an opportunity to process or resolve, memories of sexual trauma and abuse, of anger, shame, guilt, low self-worth. +It was armed with this knowledge that ultimately I would gather together my shattered self, each fragment represented by a different voice, gradually withdraw from all my medication, and return to psychiatry, only this time from the other side. +Ten years after the voice first came, I finally graduated, this time with the highest degree in psychology the university had ever given, and one year later, the highest masters, which shall we say isn't bad for a madwoman. +In fact, one of the voices actually dictated the answers during the exam, which technically possibly counts as cheating. +And to be honest, sometimes I quite enjoyed their attention as well. +As Oscar Wilde has said, the only thing worse than being talked about is not being talked about. +It also makes you very good at eavesdropping, because you can listen to two conversations simultaneously. +So it's not all bad. +I worked in mental health services, I spoke at conferences, I published book chapters and academic articles, and I argued, and continue to do so, the relevance of the following concept: that an important question in psychiatry shouldn't be what's wrong with you but rather what's happened to you. +And all the while, I listened to my voices, with whom I'd finally learned to live with peace and respect and which in turn reflected a growing sense of compassion, acceptance and respect towards myself. +And I remember the most moving and extraordinary moment when supporting another young woman who was terrorized by her voices, and becoming fully aware, for the very first time, that I no longer felt that way myself but was finally able to help someone else who was. +Together, we envisage and enact a society that understands and respects voice hearing, supports the needs of individuals who hear voices, and which values them as full citizens. +This type of society is not only possible, it's already on its way. +To paraphrase Chavez, once social change begins, it cannot be reversed. +You cannot humiliate the person who feels pride. +You cannot oppress the people who are not afraid anymore. +For me, the achievements of the Hearing Voices Movement are a reminder that empathy, fellowship, justice and respect are more than words; they are convictions and beliefs, and that beliefs can change the world. +As Peter Levine has said, the human animal is a unique being endowed with an instinctual capacity to heal and the intellectual spirit to harness this innate capacity. +In this respect, for members of society, there is no greater honor or privilege than facilitating that process of healing for someone, to bear witness, to reach out a hand, to share the burden of someone's suffering, and to hold the hope for their recovery. +And likewise, for survivors of distress and adversity, that we remember we don't have to live our lives forever defined by the damaging things that have happened to us. +We are unique. We are irreplaceable. +What lies within us can never be truly colonized, contorted, or taken away. +The light never goes out. +As a very wonderful doctor once said to me, "Don't tell me what other people have told you about yourself. +Tell me about you." +Thank you. +["Oedipus Rex"] ["The Lion King"] ["Titus"] ["Frida"] ["The Magic Flute"] ["Across The Universe"] Julie Taymor: Thank you. Thank you very much. +That's a few samples of the theater, opera and films that I have done over the last 20 years. +But what I'd like to begin with right now is to take you back to a moment that I went through in Indonesia, which is a seminal moment in my life and, like all myths, these stories need to be retold and told, lest we forget them. +And when I'm in the turbulent times, as we know, that I am right now, through the crucible and the fire of transformation, which is what all of you do, actually. +Anybody who creates knows there's that point where it hasn't quite become the phoenix or the burnt char. +And I am right there on the edge, which I'll tell you about, another story. +I want to go back to Indonesia where I was about 21, 22 years, a long time ago, on a fellowship. +And I found myself, after two years there and performing and learning, on the island of Bali, on the edge of a crater, Gunung Batur. +And I was in a village where there was an initiation ceremony for the young men, a rite of passage. +Little did I know that it was mine as well. +And I thought I was alone in the dark under this tree. +And all of a sudden, out of the dark, from the other end of the square, I saw the glint of mirrors lit by the moon. +And these 20 old men who I'd seen before all of a sudden stood up in these full warrior costumes with the headdress and the spears, and no one was in the square, and I was hidden in the shadows. +No one was there, and they came out, and they did this incredible dance. +"Huhuhuhuhuhuhuhahahahaha." +And they moved their bodies and they came forward, and the lights bounced off these costumes. +And I've been in theater since I was 11 years old, and performing, creating, and I went, "Who are they performing for with these elaborate costumes, these extraordinary headdresses?" +And I realized that they were performing for God, whatever that means. +But somehow, it didn't matter about the publicity. +There was no money involved. +It wasn't going to be written down. It was no news. +And there were these incredible artists that felt for me like an eternity as they performed. +The next moment, as soon as they finished and disappeared into the shadows, a young man with a propane lantern came on, hung it up on a tree, set up a curtain. +The village square was filled with hundreds of people. +And they put on an opera all night long. +Human beings needed the light. +They needed the light to see. +What I would like to do now is to tell you a little bit about how I work. Let's take "The Lion King." +You saw many examples of my work up there, but it's one that people know. +I start with the notion of the ideograph. +An ideograph is like a brush painting, a Japanese brush painting. +Three strokes, you get the whole bamboo forest. +I go to the concept of "The Lion King" and I say, "What is the essence of it? +What is the abstraction? +If I were to reduce this entire story into one image, what would it be?" +The circle. The circle. It's so obvious. +The circle of life. The circle of Mufasa's mask. +The circle that, when we come to Act II and there's a drought, how do you express drought? +It's a circle of silk on the floor that disappears into the hole in the stage floor. +The circle of life comes in the wheels of the gazelles that leap. +And you see the mechanics. +And being a theater person, what I know and love about the theater is that when the audience comes in and they suspend their disbelief, when you see men walking or women walking with a platter of grass on their heads, you know it's the savanna. +You don't question that. +I love the apparent truth of theater. +I love that people are willing to fill in the blanks. +The audience is willing to say, "Oh, I know that's not a real sun. +You took pieces of sticks. +You added silk to the bottom. +You suspended these pieces. You let it fall flat on the floor. +And as it rises with the strings, I see that it's a sun. +But the beauty of it is that it's just silk and sticks. +And in a way, that is what makes it spiritual. +That's what moves you. +It's not the actual literal sunrise that's coming. +It's the art of it. +So in the theater, as much as the story is critical and the book and the language, the telling of the story, how it's told, the mechanics, the methods that you use, is equal to the story itself. +And I'm one who loves high tech and low tech. +So I could go from -- For instance, I'll show you some "Spider-Man" later, these incredible machines that move people along. +But the fact is, without the dancer who knows how to use his body and swing on those wires, it's nothing. +So now I'm going to show you some clips from the other big project of my life this year, "The Tempest." +It's a movie. I did "The Tempest" on a stage three times in the theater since 1984, '86, and I love the play. +I did it always with a male Prospero. +And all of a sudden, I thought, "Well, who am I gonna get to play Prospero? +Why not Helen Mirren? She's a great actor. Why not?" +And this material really did work for a woman equally as well. +So now, let's take a look at some of the images from "The Tempest." +Prospera: Hast thou, spirit, performed to the point the tempest that I bade thee? +Ariel: I boarded the king's ship. In every cabin, I flamed amazement. +Prospera: At first sight, they have changed eyes. +Miranda: Do you love me? +Ferdinand: Beyond all limit. +HM: They are both in either's powers. +Trinculo: Misery acquaints a man with strange bedfellows. +Looking for business, governor? +Caliban: Hast thou not dropped from heaven? +Stephano: Out of the moon, I do assure thee. +Prospera: Caliban! +Caliban: This island is mine. +Prospera: For this, be sure, tonight thou shalt have cramps. +Antonio: Here lies your brother no better than the earth he lies upon. +Sebastian: Draw thy sword. +And I, the king, shall love thee. +Prospera: I will plague them all, even to roaring. +Ariel: I have made you mad. +Prospera: We are such stuff as dreams are made on. +and our little life is rounded with a sleep. +JT: Okay. +So I went from theater, doing "The Tempest" on the stage in a very low-budget production many years ago, and I love the play, and I also think it's Shakespeare's last play, and it really lends itself, as you can see, to cinema. +But I'm just going to give you a little example about how one stages it in theater and then how one takes that same idea or story and moves it into cinema. +The ideograph that I talked to you about before, what is it for "The Tempest"? +What, if I were to boil it down, would be the one image that I could hang my hat on for this? +And it was the sand castle, the idea of nurture versus nature, that we build these civilizations -- she speaks about it at the end, Helen Mirren's Prospera -- we build them, but under nature, under the grand tempest, these cloud-capped towers, these gorgeous palaces will fade and there will -- leave not a rack behind. +So in the theater, I started the play, it was a black sand rake, white cyc, and there was a little girl, Miranda, on the horizon, building a drip castle, a sand castle. +And as she was there on the edge of that stage, two stagehands all in black with watering cans ran along the top and started to pour water on the sand castle, and the sand castle started to drip and sink, but before it did, the audience saw the black-clad stagehands. +The medium was apparent. It was banal. We saw it. +But as they started to pour the water, the light changed from showing you the black-clad stagehands to focusing, this rough magic that we do in theater, it focused right on the water itself. +And all of a sudden, the audience's perspective changes. +It becomes something magically large. +It becomes the rainstorm. +The masked actors, the puppeteers, they disappear, and the audience makes that leap into this world, into this imaginary world of "The Tempest" actually happening. +And so I could play with the medium, and why I move from one medium to another is to be able to do this. +Now I'm going to take you to "Spider-Man." +Peter Parker: Standing on the precipice, I can soar away from this. JT: We're trying to do everything in live theater that you can't do in two dimensions in film and television. +PP: Rise above yourself and take control. George Tsypin: We're looking at New York from a Spider-Man point of view. +Spider Man is not bound by gravity. +Manhattan in the show is not bound by gravity either. +PP: Be yourself and rise above it all. Ensemble: Sock! Pow! Slam! Scratch! Danny Ezralow: I don't want you to even think there's a choreographer. +It's real, what's happening. +I prefer you to see people moving, and you're going, "Whoa, what was that?" +JT: If I give enough movement in the sculpture, and the actor moves their head, you feel like it's alive. +It's really comic book live. It's a comic book coming alive. +Bono: They're mythologies. +They're modern myths, these comic book heroes. +PP: They believe. JT: Ohhhh. What was that? +Circus, rock 'n' roll, drama. +What the hell are we doing up there on that stage? +Well, one last story, very quickly. +After I was in that village, I crossed the lake, and I saw that the volcano was erupting on the other side, Gunung Batur, and there was a dead volcano next to the live volcano. +I didn't think I'd be swallowed by the volcano, and I am here. +But it's very easy to climb up, is it not? +You hold on to the roots, you put your foot in the little rocks and climb up there, and you get to the top, and I was with a good friend who was an actor, and we said, "Let's go up there. +Let's see if we can come close to the edge of that live volcano." +And we climbed up and we got to the very top, and we're on the edge, on this precipice, Roland disappears into the sulfur smoke at the volcano at the other end, and I'm up there alone on this incredible precipice. +Did you hear the lyrics? +I'm on the precipice looking down into a dead volcano to my left. +To my right is sheer shale. It's coming off. +I'm in thongs and sarongs. It was many years ago. +And no hiking boots. +And he's disappeared, this mad French gypsy actor, off in the smoke, and I realize, I can't go back the way that I've come. I can't. +So I throw away my camera. I throw away my thongs, and I looked at the line straight in front of me, and I got down on all fours like a cat, and I held with my knees to either side of this line in front of me, for 30 yards or 30 feet, I don't know. +The wind was massively blowing, and the only way I could get to the other side was to look at the line straight in front of me. +I know you've all been there. +I'm in the crucible right now. +It's my trial by fire. +It's my company's trials by fire. +We survive because our theme song is "Rise Above." +Boy falls from the sky, rise above. +It's right there in the palm of both of our hands, of all of my company's hands. +I have beautiful collaborators, and we as creators only get there all together. +I know you understand that. +And you just stay going forward, and then you see this extraordinary thing in front of your eyes. +Thank you. +Motor racing is a funny old business. +We make a new car every year, and then we spend the rest of the season trying to understand what it is we've built to make it better, to make it faster. +And then the next year, we start again. +Now, the car you see in front of you is quite complicated. +The chassis is made up of about 11,000 components, the engine another 6,000, the electronics about eight and a half thousand. +So there's about 25,000 things there that can go wrong. +So motor racing is very much about attention to detail. +The other thing about Formula 1 in particular is we're always changing the car. +We're always trying to make it faster. +So every two weeks, we will be making about 5,000 new components to fit to the car. +Five to 10 percent of the race car will be different every two weeks of the year. +So how do we do that? +Well, we start our life with the racing car. +We have a lot of sensors on the car to measure things. +On the race car in front of you here there are about 120 sensors when it goes into a race. +It's measuring all sorts of things around the car. +That data is logged. We're logging about 500 different parameters within the data systems, about 13,000 health parameters and events to say when things are not working the way they should do, and we're sending that data back to the garage using telemetry at a rate of two to four megabits per second. +So during a two-hour race, each car will be sending 750 million numbers. +That's twice as many numbers as words that each of us speaks in a lifetime. +It's a huge amount of data. +But it's not enough just to have data and measure it. +You need to be able to do something with it. +So we've spent a lot of time and effort in turning the data into stories to be able to tell, what's the state of the engine, how are the tires degrading, what's the situation with fuel consumption? +So all of this is taking data and turning it into knowledge that we can act upon. +Okay, so let's have a look at a little bit of data. +Let's pick a bit of data from another three-month-old patient. +This is a child, and what you're seeing here is real data, and on the far right-hand side, where everything starts getting a little bit catastrophic, that is the patient going into cardiac arrest. +It was deemed to be an unpredictable event. +This was a heart attack that no one could see coming. +But when we look at the information there, we can see that things are starting to become a little fuzzy about five minutes or so before the cardiac arrest. +We can see small changes in things like the heart rate moving. +These were all undetected by normal thresholds which would be applied to data. +So the question is, why couldn't we see it? +Was this a predictable event? +Can we look more at the patterns in the data to be able to do things better? +So this is a child, about the same age as the racing car on stage, three months old. +It's a patient with a heart problem. +Because like a racing car, any patient, when things start to go bad, you have a short time to make a difference. +So what we did is we took a data system which we run every two weeks of the year in Formula 1 and we installed it on the hospital computers at Birmingham Children's Hospital. +We streamed data from the bedside instruments in their pediatric intensive care so that we could both look at the data in real time and, more importantly, to store the data so that we could start to learn from it. +And then, we applied an application on top which would allow us to tease out the patterns in the data in real time so we could see what was happening, so we could determine when things started to change. +Now, in motor racing, we're all a little bit ambitious, audacious, a little bit arrogant sometimes, so we decided we would also look at the children as they were being transported to intensive care. +Why should we wait until they arrived in the hospital before we started to look? +And so we installed a real-time link between the ambulance and the hospital, just using normal 3G telephony to send that data so that the ambulance became an extra bed in intensive care. +And then we started looking at the data. +So the wiggly lines at the top, all the colors, this is the normal sort of data you would see on a monitor -- heart rate, pulse, oxygen within the blood, and respiration. +The lines on the bottom, the blue and the red, these are the interesting ones. +The red line is showing an automated version of the early warning score that Birmingham Children's Hospital were already running. +They'd been running that since 2008, and already have stopped cardiac arrests and distress within the hospital. +The blue line is an indication of when patterns start to change, and immediately, before we even started putting in clinical interpretation, we can see that the data is speaking to us. +It's telling us that something is going wrong. +The plot with the red and the green blobs, this is plotting different components of the data against each other. +The green is us learning what is normal for that child. +We call it the cloud of normality. +And when things start to change, when conditions start to deteriorate, we move into the red line. +There's no rocket science here. +It is displaying data that exists already in a different way, to amplify it, to provide cues to the doctors, to the nurses, so they can see what's happening. +In the same way that a good racing driver relies on cues to decide when to apply the brakes, when to turn into a corner, we need to help our physicians and our nurses to see when things are starting to go wrong. +So we have a very ambitious program. +We think that the race is on to do something differently. +We are thinking big. It's the right thing to do. +We have an approach which, if it's successful, there's no reason why it should stay within a hospital. +It can go beyond the walls. +With wireless connectivity these days, there is no reason why patients, doctors and nurses always have to be in the same place at the same time. +And meanwhile, we'll take our little three-month-old baby, keep taking it to the track, keeping it safe, and making it faster and better. +Thank you very much. +Good morning! +Are you awake? +They took my name tag, but I wanted to ask you, did anyone here write their name on the tag in Arabic? +Anyone! No one? All right, no problem. +Once upon a time, not long ago, I was sitting in a restaurant with my friend, ordering food. +So I looked at the waiter and said, "Do you have a menu ?" +He looked at me strangely, thinking that he misheard. +He said, "Sorry? ." +I said, "The menu , please." +He replied, "Don't you know what they call it?" +"I do." +He said, "No! It's called "menu" , or "menu" ." +Is the French pronunciation correct? +"Come, come, take care of this one!" said the waiter. +He was disgusted when talking to me, as if he was saying to himself, "If this was the last girl on Earth, I wouldn't look at her!" +What's the meaning of saying "menu" in Arabic? +Two words made a Lebanese young man judge a girl as being backward and ignorant. +How could she speak that way? +At that moment, I started thinking. +It made me mad. +It definitely hurts! +I'm denied the right to speak my own language in my own country? +Where could this happen? +How did we get here? +Well, while we are here, there are many people like me, who would reach a stage in their lives, where they involuntarily give up everything that has happened to them in the past, just so they can say that they're modern and civilized. +Should I forget all my culture, thoughts, intellect and all my memories? +Childhood stories might be the best memories we have of the war! +Should I forget everything I learned in Arabic, just to conform? +To be one of them? +Where's the logic in that? +Despite all that, I tried to understand him. +I didn't want to judge him with the same cruelty that he judged me. +The Arabic language doesn't satisfy today's needs. +It's not a language for science, research, a language we're used to in universities, a language we use in the workplace, a language we rely on if we were to perform an advanced research project, and it definitely isn't a language we use at the airport. +If we did so, they'd strip us of our clothes. +Where can I use it, then? We could all ask this question! +So, you want us to use Arabic. Where are we to do so? +This is one reality. +But we have another more important reality that we ought to think about. +Arabic is the mother tongue. +Research says that mastery of other languages demands mastery of the mother tongue. +Mastery of the mother tongue is a prerequisite for creative expression in other languages. +How? +Gibran Khalil Gibran, when he first started writing, he used Arabic. +All his ideas, imagination and philosophy were inspired by this little boy in the village where he grew up, smelling a specific smell, hearing a specific voice, and thinking a specific thought. +So, when he started writing in English, he had enough baggage. +Even when he wrote in English, when you read his writings in English, you smell the same smell, sense the same feeling. +You can imagine that that's him writing in English, the same boy who came from the mountain. From a village on Mount Lebanon. +So, this is an example no one can argue with. +Second, it's often said that if you want to kill a nation, the only way to kill a nation, is to kill its language. +This is a reality that developed societies are aware of. +The Germans, French, Japanese and Chinese, all these nations are aware of this. +That's why they legislate to protect their language. +They make it sacred. +That's why they use it in production, they pay a lot of money to develop it. +Do we know better than them? +All right, we aren't from the developed world, this advanced thinking hasn't reached us yet, and we would like to catch up with the civilized world. +Countries that were once like us, but decided to strive for development, do research, and catch up with those countries, such as Turkey, Malaysia and others, they carried their language with them as they were climbing the ladder, protected it like a diamond. +They kept it close to them. +Because if you get any product from Turkey or elsewhere and it's not labeled in Turkish, then it isn't a local product. +You wouldn't believe it's a local product. +They'd go back to being consumers, clueless consumers, like we are most of the time. +So, in order for them to innovate and produce, they had to protect their language. +If I say, "Freedom, sovereignty, independence ," what does this remind you of? +It doesn't ring a bell, does it? +Regardless of the who, how and why. +Language isn't just for conversing, just words coming out of our mouths. +Language represents specific stages in our lives, and terminology that is linked to our emotions. +So when we say, "Freedom, sovereignty, independence," each one of you draws a specific image in their own mind, there are specific feelings of a specific day in a specific historical period. +Language isn't one, two or three words or letters put together. +It's an idea inside that relates to how we think, and how we see each other and how others see us. +What is our intellect? +How do you say whether this guy understands or not? +So, if I say, "Freedom, sovereignty, independence ," or if your son came up to you and said, "Dad, have you lived through the period of the freedom slogan?" +How would you feel? +If you don't see a problem, then I'd better leave, and stop talking in vain. +The idea is that these expressions remind us of a specific thing. +I have a francophone friend who's married to a French man. +I asked her once how things were going. +She said, "Everything is fine, but once, I spent a whole night asking and trying to translate the meaning of the word 'toqborni' for him." +The poor woman had mistakenly told him "toqborni," and then spent the whole night trying to explain it to him. +He was puzzled by the thought: "How could anyone be this cruel? +'Bury me?' " This is one of the few examples. +It made us feel that she's unable to tell that word to her husband, since he won't understand, and he's right not to; his way of thinking is different. +She said to me, "He listens to Fairuz with me, and one night, I tried to translate for him so he can feel what I feel when I listen to Fairuz." +The poor woman tried to translate this for him: "From them I extended my hands and stole you --" And here's the pickle: "And because you belong to them, I returned my hands and left you." +Translate that for me. +So, what have we done to protect the Arabic language? +We turned this into a concern of the civil society, and we launched a campaign to preserve the Arabic language. +Even though many people told me, "Why do you bother? +Forget about this headache and go have fun." +No problem! +The campaign to preserve Arabic launched a slogan that says, "I talk to you from the East, but you reply from the West." +We didn't say, "No! We do not accept this or that." +We didn't adopt this style because that way, we wouldn't be understood. +And when someone talks to me that way, I hate the Arabic language. +We say-- We want to change our reality, and be convinced in a way that reflects our dreams, aspirations and day-to-day life. +In a way that dresses like us and thinks like we do. +So, "I talk to you from the East, but you reply from the West" has hit the spot. +Something very easy, yet creative and persuasive. +After that, we launched another campaign with scenes of letters on the ground. +You've seen an example of it outside, a scene of a letter surrounded by black and yellow tape with "Don't kill your language!" written on it. +Why? Seriously, don't kill your language. +We really shouldn't kill our language. +If we were to kill the language, we'd have to find an identity. +We'd have to find an existence. +We'd go back to the beginning. +This is beyond just missing our chance of being modern and civilized. +After that we released photos of guys and girls wearing the Arabic letter. +Photos of "cool" guys and girls. +We are very cool! +And to whoever might say, "Ha! You used an English word!" +I say, "No! I adopt the word 'cool.'" Let them object however they want, but give me a word that's nicer and matches the reality better. +I will keep on saying "Internet" I wouldn't say: "I'm going to the world wide web" Because it doesn't fit! We shouldn't kid ourselves. +But to reach this point, we all have to be convinced that we shouldn't allow anyone who is bigger or thinks they have any authority over us when it comes to language, to control us or make us think and feel what they want. +Creativity is the idea. +So, if we can't reach space or build a rocket and so on, we can be creative. +At this moment, every one of you is a creative project. +Creativity in your mother tongue is the path. +Let's start from this moment. +Let's write a novel or produce a short film. +A single novel could make us global again. +It could bring the Arabic language back to being number one. +So, it's not true that there's no solution; there is a solution! +But we have to know that, and be convinced that a solution exists, that we have a duty to be part of that solution. +In conclusion, what can you do today? +Now, tweets, who's tweeting? +Please, I beg of you, even though my time has finished, either Arabic, English, French or Chinese. +But don't write Arabic with Latin characters mixed with numbers! +It's a disaster! That's not a language. +You'd be entering a virtual world with a virtual language. +It's not easy to come back from such a place and rise. +That's the first thing we can do. +Second, there are many other things that we can do. +We're not here today to convince each other. +We're here to bring attention to the necessity of preserving this language. +Now I will tell you a secret. +A baby first identifies its father through language. +When my daughter is born, I'll tell her, "This is your father, honey ." +I wouldn't say, "This is your dad, honey ." +And in the supermarket, I promise my daughter Noor, that if she says to me, "Thanks ," I won't say, "Dis, 'Merci, Maman,'" and hope no one has heard her. +Let's get rid of this cultural cringe. +I'd like you all to ask yourselves a question which you may never have asked yourselves before: What is possible with the human voice? +What is possible with the human voice? + Ooh baby baby baby baby (Baby crying) baby (Baby crying) baby (Cat meowing) (Dog barking) Yeah. +(Boomerang noises) It was coming straight for me. I had to. It was, yeah. +As you can probably well imagine, I was a strange child. +Because the thing is, I was constantly trying to extend my repertoire of noises to be the very maximum that it could be. +I was constantly experimenting with these noises. +And I'm still on that mission. +I'm still trying to find every noise that I can possibly make. +And the thing is, I'm a bit older and wiser now, and I know that there's some noises I'll never be able to make because I'm hemmed in by my physical body, and there's things it can't do. +And there's things that no one's voice can do. +For example, no one can do two notes at the same time. +You can do two-tone singing, which monks can do, which is like... +(Two-tone singing) But that's cheating. +And it hurts your throat. +So there's things you can't do, and these limitations on the human voice have always really annoyed me, because beatbox is the best way of getting musical ideas out of your head and into the world, but they're sketches at best, which is what's annoyed me. +If only, if only there was a way for these ideas to come out unimpeded by the restrictions which my body gives it. +So I've been working with these guys, and we've made a machine. +We've made a system which is basically a live production machine, a real-time music production machine, and it enables me to, using nothing but my voice, create music in real time as I hear it in my head unimpeded by any physical restrictions that my body might place on me. +And I'm going to show you what it can do. +And before I start making noises with it, and using it to manipulate my voice, I want to reiterate that everything that you're about to hear is being made by my voice. +This system has -- thank you, beautiful assistant -- this system has no sounds in it itself until I start putting sounds in it, so there's no prerecorded samples of any kind. +So once this thing really gets going, and it really starts to mangle the audio I'm putting into it, it becomes not obvious that it is the human voice, but it is, so I'm going to take you through it bit by bit and start nice and simple. +So the polyphony problem: I've only got one voice. +How do I get around the problem of really wanting to have as many different voices going on at the same time. +The simplest way to do it is something like this. +By dancing. It's like this. +Thanks. +So that's probably the easiest way. +But if you want to do something a little bit more immediate, something that you can't achieve with live looping, there's other ways to layer your voice up. +There's things like pitch-shifting, which are awesome, and I'm going to show you now what that sounds like. +So I'm going to start another beat for you, like this. +There's always got to be a bit of a dance at the start, because it's just fun, so you can clap along if you want. +You don't have to. It's fine. Check it out. +I'm going to lay down a bass sound now. +And now, a rockabilly guitar. +Which is nice. But what if I want to make, say, a -- -- Thanks. What if I want to make, say, a rock organ? +Is that possible? Yes, it is, by recording myself like this. +(Organ sound) And now I have that, I have that recorded. +Assign it to a keyboard. +So that's cool. +But what if I wanted to sound like the whole of Pink Floyd? +Impossible, you say. No. +It is possible, and you can do it very simply using this machine. It's really fantastic. Check it out. +So every noise you can hear there is my voice. +I didn't just trigger something which sounds like that. +There's no samples. There's no synthesizers. +That is literally all my voice being manipulated, and when you get to that point, you have to ask, don't you, what's the point? +Why do this? Because it's cheaper than hiring the whole of Pink Floyd, I suppose, is the easy answer. +But in actual fact, I haven't made this machine so that I can emulate things that already exist. +I've made this so that I can make any noise that I can imagine. +So with your permission, I'm going to do some things that are in my mind, and I hope you enjoy them, because they're rather unusual, especially when you're doing things which are as unusual as this, it can be hard to believe that it is all my voice, you see. +(Voice effects) Like this. +So, loosely defined, that is what's possible with the human voice. +Thank you very much, ladies and gentlemen. +My name is Dan Cohen and I am an academic, as he said. +And what that means is that I argue. +It's an important part of my life. And I like to argue. +And I'm not just an academic, I'm a philosopher, so I like to think that I'm actually pretty good at arguing. +But I also like to think a lot about arguing. +And in thinking about arguing, I've come across some puzzles. +And one of the puzzles is that, as I've been thinking about arguing over the years -- and it's been decades now -- I've gotten better at arguing. +But the more that I argue and the better I get at arguing, the more that I lose. And that's a puzzle. +And the other puzzle is that I'm actually okay with that. +Why is it that I'm okay with losing and why is it that I think good arguers are actually better at losing? +Well, there are some other puzzles. +One is: why do we argue? Who benefits from arguments? +When I think about arguments, I'm talking about -- let's call them academic arguments or cognitive arguments -- where something cognitive is at stake: Is this proposition true? Is this theory a good theory? +Is this a viable interpretation of the data or the text? And so on. +I'm not interested really in arguments about whose turn it is to do the dishes or who has to take out the garbage. +Yeah, we have those arguments, too. +I tend to win those arguments, because I know the tricks. +But those aren't the important arguments. +I'm interested in academic arguments, and here are the things that puzzle me. +First, what do good arguers win when they win an argument? +What do I win if I convince you that utilitarianism isn't really the right framework for thinking about ethical theories? +What do we win when we win an argument? +Even before that, what does it matter to me whether you have this idea that Kant's theory works or Mill is the right ethicist to follow? +It's no skin off my back whether you think functionalism is a viable theory of mind. +So why do we even try to argue? +Why do we try to convince other people to believe things they don't want to believe, and is that even a nice thing to do? +Is that a nice way to treat another human being, try and make them think something they don't want to think? +Well, my answer is going to make reference to three models for arguments. +The first model -- let's call it the dialectical model -- is we think of arguments as war; you know what that's like -- a lot of screaming and shouting and winning and losing. +That's not a very helpful model for arguing, but it's a pretty common and entrenched model for arguing. +But there's a second model for arguing: arguments as proofs. +Think of a mathematician's argument. +Here's my argument. Does it work? Is it any good? +Are the premises warranted? Are the inferences valid? +Does the conclusion follow from the premises? +No opposition, no adversariality -- not necessarily any arguing in the adversarial sense. +But there's a third model to keep in mind that I think is going to be very helpful, and that is arguments as performances, arguments in front of an audience. +We can think of a politician trying to present a position, trying to convince the audience of something. +But there's another twist on this model that I really think is important; namely, that when we argue before an audience, sometimes the audience has a more participatory role in the argument; that is, arguments are also [performances] in front of juries, who make a judgment and decide the case. +Let's call this the rhetorical model, where you have to tailor your argument to the audience at hand. +You know, presenting a sound, well-argued, tight argument in English before a francophone audience just isn't going to work. +So we have these models -- argument as war, argument as proof and argument as performance. +Of those three, the argument as war is the dominant one. +It dominates how we talk about arguments, it dominates how we think about arguments, and because of that, it shapes how we argue, our actual conduct in arguments. +Now, when we talk about arguments, we talk in a very militaristic language. +We want strong arguments, arguments that have a lot of punch, arguments that are right on target. +We want to have our defenses up and our strategies all in order. +We want killer arguments. +That's the kind of argument we want. +It is the dominant way of thinking about arguments. +When I'm talking about arguments, that's probably what you thought of, the adversarial model. +But the war metaphor, the war paradigm or model for thinking about arguments, has, I think, deforming effects on how we argue. +First, it elevates tactics over substance. +You can take a class in logic, argumentation. +You learn all about the subterfuges that people use to try and win arguments -- the false steps. +It magnifies the us-versus them aspect of it. +It makes it adversarial; it's polarizing. +And the only foreseeable outcomes are triumph -- glorious triumph -- or abject, ignominious defeat. +I think those are deforming effects, and worst of all, it seems to prevent things like negotiation or deliberation or compromise or collaboration. +Think about that one -- have you ever entered an argument thinking, "Let's see if we can hash something out, rather than fight it out. +What can we work out together?" +I think the argument-as-war metaphor inhibits those other kinds of resolutions to argumentation. +And finally -- this is really the worst thing -- arguments don't seem to get us anywhere; they're dead ends. +They are like roundabouts or traffic jams or gridlock in conversation. +We don't get anywhere. +And one more thing. +And as an educator, this is the one that really bothers me: then there's an implicit equation of learning with losing. +And let me explain what I mean. +Suppose you and I have an argument. +You believe a proposition, P, and I don't. +And I say, "Well, why do you believe P?" +And you give me your reasons. +And I object and say, "Well, what about ...?" +And you answer my objection. +And I have a question: "Well, what do you mean? +How does it apply over here?" And you answer my question. +Now, suppose at the end of the day, I've objected, I've questioned, I've raised all sorts of counter counter-considerations and in every case you've responded to my satisfaction. +And so at the end of the day, I say, "You know what? I guess you're right: P." +So, I have a new belief. +And it's not just any belief; it's well-articulated, examined -- it's a battle-tested belief. +Great cognitive gain. OK, who won that argument? +Well, the war metaphor seems to force us into saying you won, even though I'm the only one who made any cognitive gain. +What did you gain, cognitively, from convincing me? +Sure, you got some pleasure out of it, maybe your ego stroked, maybe you get some professional status in the field -- "This guy's a good arguer." +But just from a cognitive point of view, who was the winner? +The war metaphor forces us into thinking that you're the winner and I lost, even though I gained. +And there's something wrong with that picture. +And that's the picture I really want to change if we can. +So, how can we find ways to make arguments yield something positive? +What we need is new exit strategies for arguments. +But we're not going to have new exit strategies for arguments until we have new entry approaches to arguments. +We need to think of new kinds of arguments. +In order to do that, well -- I don't know how to do that. +That's the bad news. +The argument-as-war metaphor is just ... it's a monster. +It's just taken up habitation in our mind, and there's no magic bullet that's going to kill it. +There's no magic wand that's going to make it disappear. +I don't have an answer. +But I have some suggestions. +Here's my suggestion: If we want to think of new kinds of arguments, what we need to do is think of new kinds of arguers. +So try this: Think of all the roles that people play in arguments. +There's the proponent and the opponent in an adversarial, dialectical argument. +There's the audience in rhetorical arguments. +There's the reasoner in arguments as proofs. +All these different roles. +Now, can you imagine an argument in which you are the arguer, Can you imagine yourself watching yourself argue, losing the argument, and yet still, at the end of the argument, saying, "Wow, that was a good argument!" +Can you do that? +I think you can, and I think if you can imagine that kind of argument, where the loser says to the winner and the audience and the jury can say, "Yeah, that was a good argument," then you have imagined a good argument. +And more than that, I think you've imagined a good arguer, an arguer that's worthy of the kind of arguer you should try to be. +Now, I lose a lot of arguments. +It takes practice to become a good arguer, in the sense of being able to benefit from losing, but fortunately, I've had many, many colleagues who have been willing to step up and provide that practice for me. +Thank you. +In an age of global strife and climate change, I'm here to answer the all important question: Why is sex so damn good? +If you're laughing, you know what I mean. +Now, before we get to that answer, let me tell you about Chris Hosmer. +Chris is a great friend of mine from my university days, but secretly, I hate him. +Here's why. Back in university, we had a quick project to design some solar-powered clocks. +Here's my clock. +It uses something called the dwarf sunflower, which grows to about 12 inches in height. +Now, as you know, sunflowers track the sun during the course of the day. +So in the morning, you see which direction the sunflower is facing, and you mark it on the blank area in the base. +At noon, you mark the changed position of the sunflower, and in the evening again, and that's your clock. +Now, I know my clock doesn't tell you the exact time, but it does give you a general idea using a flower. +So, in my completely unbiased, subjective opinion, it's brilliant. +However, here's Chris's clock. +It's five magnifying glasses with a shot glass under each one. +In each shot glass is a different scented oil. +In the morning, the sunlight will shine down on the first magnifying glass, focusing a beam of light on the shot glass underneath. +This will warm up the scented oil inside, and a particular smell will be emitted. +A couple of hours later, the sun will shine on the next magnifying glass, and a different smell will be emitted. +So during the course of the day, five different smells are dispersed throughout that environment. +Anyone living in that house can tell the time just by the smell. +You can see why I hate Chris. +I thought my idea was pretty good, but his idea is genius, and at the time, I knew his idea was better than mine, but I just couldn't explain why. +One thing you have to know about me is I hate to lose. +This problem's been bugging me for well over a decade. +All right, let's get back to the question of why sex is so good. +Many years after the solar powered clocks project, a young lady I knew suggested maybe sex is so good because of the five senses. +And when she said this, I had an epiphany. +So I decided to evaluate different experiences I had in my life from the point of view of the five senses. +To do this, I devised something called the five senses graph. +Along the y-axis, you have a scale from zero to 10, and along the x-axis, you have, of course, the five senses. +Anytime I had a memorable experience in my life, I would record it on this graph like a five senses diary. +Here's a quick video to show you how it works. +Jinsop Lee: Hey, my name's Jinsop, and today, I'm going to show you what riding motorbikes is like from the point of view of the five senses. Hey! +Bike designer: This is [unclear], custom bike designer. +(Motorcyle revving) [Sound] [Touch] [Sight] [Smell] [Taste] JL: And that's how the five senses graph works. +Now, for a period of three years, I gathered data, not just me but also some of my friends, and I used to teach in university, so I forced my -- I mean, I asked my students to do this as well. +So here are some other results. +The first is for instant noodles. +Now obviously, taste and smell are quite high, but notice sound is at three. +Many people told me a big part of the noodle-eating experience is the slurping noise. +You know. Needless to say, I no longer dine with these people. +OK, next, clubbing. +OK, here what I found interesting was that taste is at four, and many respondents told me it's because of the taste of drinks, but also, in some cases, kissing is a big part of the clubbing experience. +These people I still do hang out with. +All right, and smoking. +Here I found touch is at [six], and one of the reasons is that smokers told me the sensation of holding a cigarette and bringing it up to your lips is a big part of the smoking experience, which shows, it's kind of scary to think how well cigarettes are designed by the manufacturers. +OK. Now, what would the perfect experience look like on the five senses graph? +It would, of course, be a horizontal line along the top. +Now you can see, not even as intense an experience as riding a motorbike comes close. +In fact, in the years that I gathered data, only one experience came close to being the perfect one. +That is, of course, sex. Great sex. +Respondents said that great sex hits all of the five senses at an extreme level. +Here I'll quote one of my students who said, "Sex is so good, it's good even when it's bad." +So the five senses theory does help explain why sex is so good. +Now in the middle of all this five senses work, I suddenly remembered the solar-powered clocks project from my youth. +And I realized this theory also explains why Chris's clock is so much better than mine. +You see, my clock only focuses on sight, and a little bit of touch. +Here's Chris's clock. +It's the first clock ever that uses smell to tell the time. +In fact, in terms of the five senses, Chris's clock is a revolution. +And that's what this theory taught me about my field. +You see, up till now, us designers, we've mainly focused on making things look very pretty, and a little bit of touch, which means we've ignored the other three senses. +Chris's clock shows us that even raising just one of those other senses can make for a brilliant product. +So what if we started using the five senses theory in all of our designs? +Here's three quick ideas I came up with. +This is an iron, you know, for your clothes, to which I added a spraying mechanism, so you fill up the vial with your favorite scent, and your clothes will smell nicer, but hopefully it should also make the ironing experience more enjoyable. +We could call this "the perfumator." +All right, next. +So I brush my teeth twice a day, and what if we had a toothbrush that tastes like candy, and when the taste of candy ran out, you'd know it's time to change your toothbrush? +Finally, I have a thing for the keys on a flute or a clarinet. +It's not just the way they look, but I love the way they feel when you press down on them. +Now, I don't play the flute or the clarinet, so I decided to combine these keys with an instrument I do play: the television remote control. +Now, when we look at these three ideas together, you'll notice that the five senses theory doesn't only change the way we use these products but also the way they look. +So in conclusion, I've found the five senses theory to be a very useful tool in evaluating different experiences in my life, and then taking those best experiences and hopefully incorporating them into my designs. +Now, I realize the five senses isn't the only thing that makes life interesting. +There's also the six emotions and that elusive x-factor. +Maybe that could be the topic of my next talk. +Until then, please have fun using the five senses in your own lives and your own designs. +Oh, one last thing before I leave. +Here's the experience you all had while listening to the TED Talks. +However, it would be better if we could boost up a couple of the other senses like smell and taste. +And the best way to do that is with free candy. +You guys ready? +All right. +I moved back home 15 years ago after a 20-year stay in the United States, and Africa called me back. +And I founded my country's first graphic design and new media college. +And I called it the Zimbabwe Institute of Vigital Arts. +The idea, the dream, was really for a sort of Bauhaus sort of school where new ideas were interrogated and investigated, the creation of a new visual language based on the African creative heritage. +We offer a two-year diploma to talented students who have successfully completed their high school education. +And typography's a very important part of the curriculum and we encourage our students to look inward for influence. +Here's a poster designed by one of the students under the theme "Education is a right." +Some logos designed by my students. +Africa has had a long tradition of writing, but this is not such a well-known fact, and I wrote the book "Afrikan Alphabets" to address that. +The different types of writing in Africa, first was proto-writing, as illustrated by Nsibidi, which is the writing system of a secret society of the Ejagham people in southern Nigeria. +So it's a special-interest writing system. +The Akan of people of Ghana and [Cote d'Ivoire] developed Adinkra symbols some 400 years ago, and these are proverbs, historical sayings, objects, animals, plants, and my favorite Adinkra system is the first one at the top on the left. +It's called Sankofa. +It means, "Return and get it." Learn from the past. +This pictograph by the Jokwe people of Angola tells the story of the creation of the world. +At the top is God, at the bottom is man, mankind, and on the left is the sun, on the right is the moon. +All the paths lead to and from God. +These secret societies of the Yoruba, Kongo and Palo religions in Nigeria, Congo and Angola respectively, developed this intricate writing system which is alive and well today in the New World in Cuba, Brazil and Trinidad and Haiti. +In South Africa, Ndebele women use these symbols and other geometric patterns to paint their homes in bright colors, and the Zulu women use the symbols in the beads that they weave into bracelets and necklaces. +Ethiopia has had the longest tradition of writing, with the Ethiopic script that was developed in the fourth century A.D. +and is used to write Amharic, which is spoken by over 24 million people. +King Ibrahim Njoya of the Bamum Kingdom of Cameroon developed Sh-mom at the age of 25. +Sh-mom is a writing system. +It's a syllabary. It's not exactly an alphabet. +And here we see three stages of development that it went through in 30 years. +The Vai people of Liberia had a long tradition of literacy before their first contact with Europeans in the 1800s. +It's a syllabary and reads from left to right. +Next door, in Sierra Leone, the Mende also developed a syllabary, but theirs reads from right to left. +Africa has had a long tradition of design, a well-defined design sensibility, but the problem in Africa has been that, especially today, designers in Africa struggle with all forms of design because they are more apt to look outward for influence and inspiration. +The creative spirit in Africa, the creative tradition, is as potent as it has always been, if only designers could look within. +This Ethiopic cross illustrates what Dr. Ron Eglash has established: that Africa has a lot to contribute to computing and mathematics through their intuitive grasp of fractals. +Africans of antiquity created civilization, and their monuments, which still stand today, are a true testimony of their greatness. +Most probably, one of humanity's greatest achievements is the invention of the alphabet, and that has been attributed to Mesopotamia with their invention of cuneiform in 1600 BC, followed by hieroglyphics in Egypt, and that story has been cast in stone as historical fact. +That is, until 1998, when one Yale professor John Coleman Darnell discovered these inscriptions in the Thebes desert on the limestone cliffs in western Egypt, and these have been dated at between 1800 and 1900 B.C., centuries before Mesopotamia. +Called Wadi el-Hol because of the place that they were discovered, these inscriptions -- research is still going on, a few of them have been deciphered, but there is consensus among scholars that this is really humanity's first alphabet. +Over here, you see a paleographic chart that shows what has been deciphered so far, starting with the letter A, "lep," at the top, and "bt," in the middle, and so forth. +It is time that students of design in Africa read the works of titans like Cheikh Anta Diop, Senegal's Cheikh Anta Diop, whose seminal work on Egypt is vindicated by this discovery. +The last word goes to the great Jamaican leader Marcus Mosiah Garvey and the Akan people of Ghana with their Adinkra symbol Sankofa, which encourages us to go to the past so as to inform our present and build on a future for us and our children. +It is also time that designers in Africa stop looking outside. +They've been looking outward for a long time, yet what they were looking for has been right there within grasp, right within them. +Thank you very much. +Adam Ockelford: I promise there won't be too much of me talking, and a lot of Derek playing, but I thought it would just be nice to recap on how Derek got to where he is today. +It's amazing now, because he's so much bigger than me, but when Derek was born, he could have fitted on the palm of your hand. +He was born three and a half months premature, and really it was a fantastic fight for him to survive. +He had to have a lot of oxygen, and that affected your eyes, Derek, and also the way you understand language and the way you understand the world. +But that was the end of the bad news, because when Derek came home from the hospital, his family decided to employ the redoubtable nanny who was going to look after you, Derek, really for the rest of your childhood. +And Nanny's great insight, really, was to think, here's a child who can't see. +Music must be the thing for Derek. +And sure enough, she sang, or as Derek called it, warbled, to him for his first few years of life. +And I think it was that excitement with hearing her voice hour after hour every day that made him think maybe, you know, in his brain something was stirring, some sort of musical gift. +Here's a little picture of Derek going up now, when you were with your nanny. +Now Nanny's great other insight was to think, perhaps we should get Derek something to play, and sure enough, she dragged this little keyboard out of the loft, never thinking really that anything much would come of it. +But Derek, your tiny hand must have gone out to that thing and actually bashed it, bashed it so hard they thought it was going to break. +But out of all the bashing, after a few months, emerged the most fantastic music, and I think there was just a miracle moment, really, Derek, when you realized that all the sounds you hear in the world out there is something that you can copy on the keyboard. +That was the great eureka moment. +Now, not being able to see meant, of course, that you taught yourself. +Derek Paravicini: I taught myself to play. +AO: You did teach yourself to play, and as a consequence, playing the piano for you, Derek, was a lot of knuckles and karate chops, and even a bit of nose going on in there. +And now, here's what Nanny did also do was to press the record button on one of those little early tape recorders that they had, and this is a wonderful tape, now, of Derek playing when you were four years old. +DP: "Molly Malone (Cockles and Mussels)." +AO: It wasn't actually "Cockles and Mussels." +This one is "English Country Garden." +DP: "English Country Garden." +(Music: "English Country Garden") AO: There you are. +I think that's just fantastic. +You know, there's this little child who can't see, can't really understand much about the world, has no one in the family who plays an instrument, and yet he taught himself to play that. +And as you can see from the picture, there was quite a lot of body action going on while you were playing, Derek. +So as soon as I tried to get near the piano, I was firmly shoved off. +And having said to your dad, Nic, that I would try to teach you, I was then slightly confused as to how I might go about that if I wasn't allowed near the piano. +But after a while, I thought, well, the only way is to just pick you up, shove Derek over to the other side of the room, and in the 10 seconds that I got before Derek came back, I could just play something very quickly for him to learn. +And in the end, Derek, I think you agreed that we could actually have some fun playing the piano together. +As you can see, there's me in my early, pre-marriage days with a brown beard, and little Derek concentrating there. +I just realized this is going to be recorded, isn't it? Right. Okay. +Now then, by the age of 10, Derek really had taken the world by storm. +This is a photo of you, Derek, playing at the Barbican with the Royal Philharmonic Pops. +Basically it was just an exciting journey, really. +And in those days, Derek, you didn't speak very much, and so there was always a moment of tension as to whether you'd actually understood what it was we were going to play and whether you'd play the right piece in the right key, and all that kind of thing. +But the orchestra were wowed as well, and the press of the world were fascinated by your ability to play these fantastic pieces. +Now the question is, how do you do it, Derek? +And hopefully we can show the audience now how it is you do what you do. +I think that one of the first things that happened when you were very little, Derek, was that by the time you were two, your musical ear had already outstripped that of most adults. +And so whenever you heard any note at all -- if I just play a random note -- (Piano notes) -- you knew instantly what it was, and you'd got the ability as well to find that note on the piano. +Now that's called perfect pitch, and some people have perfect pitch for a few white notes in the middle of the piano. +(Piano notes) You can see how -- you get a sense of playing with Derek. +But Derek, your ear is so much more than that. +If I just put the microphone down for a bit, I'm going to play a cluster of notes. +Those of you who can see will know how many notes, but Derek, of course, can't. +Not only can you say how many notes, it's being able to play them all at the same time. Here we are. +Well, forget the terminology, Derek. Fantastic. +And it's that ability, that ability to hear simultaneous sounds, not only just single sounds, but when a whole orchestra is playing, Derek, you can hear every note, and instantly, through all those hours and hours of practice, reproduce those on the keyboard, that makes you, I think, is the basis of all your ability. +Now then. +It's no use having that kind of raw ability without the technique, and luckily, Derek, you decided that, once we did start learning, you'd let me help you learn all the scale fingerings. +So for example using your thumb under with C major. +(Piano notes) Etc. +And in the end, you got so quick, that things like "Flight of the Bumblebee" were no problem, were they? +DP: No. +AO: Right. So here, by the age of 11, Derek was playing things like this. +DP: This. +(Music: "Flight of the Bumblebee") AO: Derek, let's have a bow. +Well done. +Now the truly amazing thing was, with all those scales, Derek, you could not only play "Flight of the Bumblebee" in the usual key, but any note I play, Derek can play it on. +So if I just choose a note at random, like that one. +(Piano notes) Can you play "Flight of the Bumblebee" on that note? +DP: "Flight of the Bumblebee" on that note. +(Music: "Flight of the Bumblebee") AO: Or another one? How about in G minor? +DP: G minor. +(Music: "Flight of the Bumblebee") AO: Fantastic. Well done, Derek. +So you see, in your brain, Derek, is this amazing musical computer that can instantly recalibrate, recalculate, all the pieces in the world that are out there. +Most pianists would have a heart attack if you said, "Sorry, do you mind playing 'Flight of the Bumblebee' in B minor instead of A minor?" as we went on. +Fantastic chap. +The other wonderful thing about you is memory. +DP: Memory. AO: Your memory is truly amazing, and every concert we do, we ask the audience to participate, of course, by suggesting a piece Derek might like to play. +And people say, "Well, that's terribly brave because what happens if Derek doesn't know it?" +And I say, "No, it's not brave at all, because if you ask for something that Derek doesn't know, you're invited to come and sing it first, and then he'll pick it up." So just be thoughtful before you suggest something too outlandish. +But seriously, would anyone like to choose a piece? +DP: Choose a piece. Choose, choose, would you like to choose? AO: Because it's quite dark. You'll just have to shout out. +Would you like to hear me play? +(Audience: "Theme of Paganini.") AO: Paganini. DP: "The Theme of Paganini." +(Music: "Theme of Paganini") AO: Well done. +Derek's going to L.A. soon, and it's a milestone, because it means that Derek and I will have spent over 100 hours on long-haul flights together, which is quite interesting, isn't it Derek? +DP: Very interesting, Adam, yes. Long-haul flights. Yes. +AO: You may think 13 hours is a long time to keep talking, but Derek does it effortlessly. Now then. +But in America, they've coined this term, "the human iPod" for Derek, which I think is just missing the point, really, because Derek, you're so much more than an iPod. +You're a fantastic, creative musician, and I think that was nowhere clearer to see, really, than when we went to Slovenia, and someone -- in a longer concert we tend to get people joining in, and this person, very, very nervously came onto the stage. +DP: He played "Chopsticks." AO: And played "Chopsticks." +DP: "Chopsticks." +AO: A bit like this. DP: Like this. Yes. +(Piano notes) AO: I should really get Derek's manager to come and play it. +He's sitting there. +DP: Somebody played "Chopsticks" like this. AO: Just teasing, right? Here we go. +(Music: "Chopsticks") DP: Let Derek play it. +AO: What did you do with it, Derek? +DP: I got to improvise with it, Adam. +AO: This is Derek the musician. +(Music: "Chopsticks" improvisation) Keep up with Derek. +The TED people will kill me, but perhaps there's time for one encore. +DP: For one encore. AO: One encore, yes. +So this is one of Derek's heroes. +It's the great Art Tatum -- DP: Art Tatum. +AO: -- who also was a pianist who couldn't see, and also, I think, like Derek, thought that all the world was a piano, so whenever Art Tatum plays something, it sounds like there's three pianos in the room. +And here is Derek's take on Art Tatum's take on "Tiger Rag." +DP: "Tiger Rag." +(Music: "Tiger Rag") +Hi. I am an architect. +I am the only architect in the world making buildings out of paper like this cardboard tube, and this exhibition is the first one I did using paper tubes. +1986, much, much longer before people started talking about ecological issues and environmental issues, I just started testing the paper tube in order to use this as a building structure. +It's very complicated to test the new material for the building, but this is much stronger than I expected, and also it's very easy to waterproof, and also, because it's industrial material, it's also possible to fireproof. +Then I built the temporary structure, 1990. +This is the first temporary building made out of paper. +There are 330 tubes, diameter 55 [centimeters], there are only 12 tubes with a diameter of 120 centimeters, or four feet, wide. +As you see it in the photo, inside is the toilet. +In case you're finished with toilet paper, you can tear off the inside of the wall. So it's very useful. +Year 2000, there was a big expo in Germany. +I was asked to design the building, because the theme of the expo was environmental issues. +So I was chosen to build the pavilion out of paper tubes, recyclable paper. +My goal of the design is not when it's completed. +My goal was when the building was demolished, because each country makes a lot of pavilions but after half a year, we create a lot of industrial waste, so my building has to be reused or recycled. +After, the building was recycled. +So that was the goal of my design. +Then I was very lucky to win the competition to build the second Pompidou Center in France in the city of Metz. +Because I was so poor, I wanted to rent an office in Paris, but I couldn't afford it, so I decided to bring my students to Paris to build our office on top of the Pompidou Center in Paris by ourselves. +So we brought the paper tubes and the wooden joints to complete the 35-meter-long office. +We stayed there for six years without paying any rent. +Thank you. I had one big problem. +Because we were part of the exhibition, even if my friend wanted to see me, they had to buy a ticket to see me. +That was the problem. +Then I completed the Pompidou Center in Metz. +It's a very popular museum now, and I created a big monument for the government. +But then I was very disappointed at my profession as an architect, because we are not helping, we are not working for society, but we are working for privileged people, rich people, government, developers. +They have money and power. +Those are invisible. +So they hire us to visualize their power and money by making monumental architecture. +That is our profession, even historically it's the same, even now we are doing the same. +So I was very disappointed that we are not working for society, even though there are so many people who lost their houses by natural disasters. +But I must say they are no longer natural disasters. +For example, earthquakes never kill people, but collapse of the buildings kill people. +That's the responsibility of architects. +Then people need some temporary housing, but there are no architects working there because we are too busy working for privileged people. +So I thought, even as architects, we can be involved in the reconstruction of temporary housing. +We can make it better. +So that is why I started working in disaster areas. +1994, there was a big disaster in Rwanda, Africa. +Two tribes, Hutu and Tutsi, fought each other. +Over two million people became refugees. +But I was so surprised to see the shelter, refugee camp organized by the U.N. +They're so poor, and they are freezing with blankets during the rainy season, In the shelters built by the U.N., they were just providing a plastic sheet, and the refugees had to cut the trees, and just like this. +But over two million people cut trees. +It just became big, heavy deforestation and an environmental problem. +That is why they started providing aluminum pipes, aluminum barracks. +Very expensive, they throw them out for money, then cutting trees again. +So I proposed my idea to improve the situation using these recycled paper tubes because this is so cheap and also so strong, but my budget is only 50 U.S. dollars per unit. +We built 50 units to do that as a monitoring test for the durability and moisture and termites, so on. +And then, year afterward, 1995, in Kobe, Japan, we had a big earthquake. +Nearly 7,000 people were killed, and the city like this Nagata district, all the city was burned in a fire after the earthquake. +And also I found out there's many Vietnamese refugees suffering and gathering at a Catholic church -- all the building was totally destroyed. +So I went there and also I proposed to the priests, "Why don't we rebuild the church out of paper tubes?" +And he said, "Oh God, are you crazy? +After a fire, what are you proposing?" +So he never trusted me, but I didn't give up. +I started commuting to Kobe, and I met the society of Vietnamese people. +They were living like this with very poor plastic sheets in the park. +So I proposed to rebuild. I raised -- did fundraising. +I made a paper tube shelter for them, and in order to make it easy to be built by students and also easy to demolish, I used beer crates as a foundation. +I asked the Kirin beer company to propose, because at that time, the Asahi beer company made their plastic beer crates red, which doesn't go with the color of the paper tubes. +The color coordination is very important. +And also I still remember, we were expecting to have a beer inside the plastic beer crate, but it came empty. So I remember it was so disappointing. +So during the summer with my students, we built over 50 units of the shelters. +Finally the priest, finally he trusted me to rebuild. +He said, "As long as you collect money by yourself, bring your students to build, you can do it." +So we spent five weeks rebuilding the church. +It was meant to stay there for three years, but actually it stayed there 10 years because people loved it. +Then, in Taiwan, they had a big earthquake, and we proposed to donate this church, so we dismantled them, we sent them over to be built by volunteer people. +It stayed there in Taiwan as a permanent church even now. +So this building became a permanent building. +Then I wonder, what is a permanent and what is a temporary building? +Even a building made in paper can be permanent as long as people love it. +Even a concrete building can be very temporary if that is made to make money. +In 1999, in Turkey, the big earthquake, I went there to use the local material to build a shelter. +2001, in West India, I built also a shelter. +In 2004, in Sri Lanka, after the Sumatra earthquake and tsunami, I rebuilt Islamic fishermen's villages. +And in 2008, in Chengdu, Sichuan area in China, nearly 70,000 people were killed, and also especially many of the schools were destroyed because of the corruption between the authority and the contractor. +I was asked to rebuild the temporary church. +I brought my Japanese students to work with the Chinese students. +In one month, we completed nine classrooms, over 500 square meters. +It's still used, even after the current earthquake in China. +In 2009, in Italy, L'Aquila, also they had a big earthquake. +And this is a very interesting photo: former Prime Minister Berlusconi and Japanese former former former former Prime Minister Mr. Aso -- you know, because we have to change the prime minister ever year. +And they are very kind, affording my model. +I proposed a big rebuilding, a temporary music hall, because L'Aquila is very famous for music and all the concert halls were destroyed, so musicians were moving out. +So I proposed to the mayor, I'd like to rebuild the temporary auditorium. +He said, "As long as you bring your money, you can do it." +And I was very lucky. +Mr. Berlusconi brought G8 summit, and our former prime minister came, so they helped us to collect money, and I got half a million euros from the Japanese government to rebuild this temporary auditorium. +Year 2010 in Haiti, there was a big earthquake, but it's impossible to fly over, so I went to Santo Domingo, next-door country, to drive six hours to get to Haiti with the local students in Santo Domingo to build 50 units of shelter out of local paper tubes. +This is what happened in Japan two years ago, in northern Japan. +After the earthquake and tsunami, people had to be evacuated in a big room like a gymnasium. +But look at this. There's no privacy. +People suffer mentally and physically. +So we went there to build partitions with all the student volunteers with paper tubes, just a very simple shelter out of the tube frame and the curtain. +However, some of the facility authority doesn't want us to do it, because, they said, simply, it's become more difficult to control them. +But it's really necessary to do it. +They don't have enough flat area to build standard government single-story housing like this one. +Look at this. Even civil government is doing such poor construction of the temporary housing, so dense and so messy because there is no storage, nothing, water is leaking, so I thought, we have to make multi-story building because there's no land and also it's not very comfortable. +So I proposed to the mayor while I was making partitions. +Finally I met a very nice mayor in Onagawa village in Miyagi. +He asked me to build three-story housing on baseball [fields]. +I used the shipping container and also the students helped us to make all the building furniture to make them comfortable, within the budget of the government but also the area of the house is exactly the same, but much more comfortable. +Many of the people want to stay here forever. +I was very happy to hear that. +Now I am working in New Zealand, Christchurch. +About 20 days before the Japanese earthquake happened, also they had a big earthquake, and many Japanese students were also killed, and the most important cathedral of the city, the symbol of Christchurch, was totally destroyed. +And I was asked to come to rebuild the temporary cathedral. +So this is under construction. +And I'd like to keep building monuments that are beloved by people. +Thank you very much. +Thank you. Thank you very much. +What I'd like to do today is talk about one of my favorite subjects, and that is the neuroscience of sleep. +Now, there is a sound -- (Alarm clock) Ah, it worked! +A sound that is desperately familiar to most of us, and of course it's the sound of the alarm clock. +And what that truly ghastly, awful sound does is stop the single most important behavioral experience that we have, and that's sleep. +If you're an average sort of person, 36 percent of your life will be spent asleep, which means that if you live to 90, then 32 years will have been spent entirely asleep. +Now what that 32 years is telling us is that sleep at some level is important. +And yet, for most of us, we don't give sleep a second thought. +We throw it away. +We really just don't think about sleep. +And so what I'd like to do today is change your views, change your ideas and your thoughts about sleep. +And the journey that I want to take you on, we need to start by going back in time. +"Enjoy the honey-heavy dew of slumber." +Any ideas who said that? +Shakespeare's Julius Caesar. +Yes, let me give you a few more quotes. +"O sleep, O gentle sleep, nature's soft nurse, how have I frighted thee?" +Shakespeare again, from -- I won't say it -- From the same time: "Sleep is the golden chain that ties health and our bodies together." +Extremely prophetic, by Thomas Dekker, another Elizabethan dramatist. +But if we jump forward 400 years, the tone about sleep changes somewhat. +This is from Thomas Edison, from the beginning of the 20th century: "Sleep is a criminal waste of time and a heritage from our cave days." +And if we also jump into the 1980s, some of you may remember that Margaret Thatcher was reported to have said, "Sleep is for wimps." +And of course the infamous -- what was his name? -- the infamous Gordon Gekko from "Wall Street" said, "Money never sleeps." +What do we do in the 20th century about sleep? +Well, of course, we use Thomas Edison's light bulb to invade the night, and we occupied the dark, and in the process of this occupation, we've treated sleep as an illness, almost. +We've treated it as an enemy. +At most now, I suppose, we tolerate the need for sleep, and at worst perhaps many of us think of sleep as an illness that needs some sort of a cure. +And our ignorance about sleep is really quite profound. +Why is it? Why do we abandon sleep in our thoughts? +Well, it's because you don't do anything much while you're asleep, it seems. +You don't eat. You don't drink. +And you don't have sex. +Well, most of us anyway. +And so, therefore it's -- Sorry. It's a complete waste of time, right? Wrong. +Actually, sleep is an incredibly important part of our biology, and neuroscientists are beginning to explain why it's so very important. +So let's move to the brain. +Now, here we have a brain. +This is donated by a social scientist, and they said they didn't know what it was or indeed, how to use it, so -- Sorry. +So I borrowed it. I don't think they noticed. OK. +The point I'm trying to make is that when you're asleep, this thing doesn't shut down. +In fact, some areas of the brain are actually more active during the sleep state than during the wake state. +The other thing that's really important about sleep is that it doesn't arise from a single structure within the brain, but is to some extent a network property. +If we flip the brain on its back -- I love this little bit of spinal cord here -- this bit here is the hypothalamus, and right under there is a whole raft of interesting structures, not least the biological clock. +The biological clock tells us when it's good to be up, when it's good to be asleep, and what that structure does is interact with a whole raft of other areas within the hypothalamus, the lateral hypothalamus, the ventrolateral preoptic nuclei. +All of those combine, and they send projections down to the brain stem here. +The brain stem then projects forward and bathes the cortex, this wonderfully wrinkly bit over here, with neurotransmitters that keep us awake and essentially provide us with our consciousness. +So sleep arises from a whole raft of different interactions within the brain, and essentially, sleep is turned on and off as a result of a range of interactions in here. +OK. So where have we got to? +We've said that sleep is complicated and it takes 32 years of our life. +But what I haven't explained is what sleep is about. +So why do we sleep? +And it won't surprise any of you that, of course, as scientists, we don't have a consensus. +There are dozens of different ideas about why we sleep, and I'm going to outline three of those. +The first is sort of the restoration idea, and it's somewhat intuitive. +Essentially, all the stuff we've burned up during the day, we restore, we replace, we rebuild during the night. +And indeed, as an explanation, it goes back to Aristotle, so that's what -- 2,300 years ago. +It's gone in and out of fashion. +It's fashionable at the moment because what's been shown is that within the brain, a whole raft of genes have been shown to be turned on only during sleep, and those genes are associated with restoration and metabolic pathways. +So there's good evidence for the whole restoration hypothesis. +What about energy conservation? +Again, perhaps intuitive. +You essentially sleep to save calories. +Now, when you do the sums, though, it doesn't really pan out. +If you compare an individual who has slept at night, or stayed awake and hasn't moved very much, the energy saving of sleeping is about 110 calories a night. +Now, that's the equivalent of a hot dog bun. +Now, I would say that a hot dog bun is kind of a meager return for such a complicated and demanding behavior as sleep. +So I'm less convinced by the energy conservation idea. +But the third idea I'm quite attracted to, which is brain processing and memory consolidation. +What we know is that, if after you've tried to learn a task, and you sleep-deprive individuals, the ability to learn that task is smashed. +It's really hugely attenuated. +So sleep and memory consolidation is also very important. +However, it's not just the laying down of memory and recalling it. +What's turned out to be really exciting is that our ability to come up with novel solutions to complex problems is hugely enhanced by a night of sleep. +In fact, it's been estimated to give us a threefold advantage. +Sleeping at night enhances our creativity. +And what seems to be going on is that, in the brain, those neural connections that are important, those synaptic connections that are important, are linked and strengthened, while those that are less important tend to fade away and be less important. +OK. So we've had three explanations for why we might sleep, and I think the important thing to realize is that the details will vary, and it's probable we sleep for multiple different reasons. +But sleep is not an indulgence. +It's not some sort of thing that we can take on board rather casually. +I think that sleep was once likened to an upgrade from economy to business class, you know, the equivalent of. +It's not even an upgrade from economy to first class. +The critical thing to realize is that if you don't sleep, you don't fly. +Essentially, you never get there. +And what's extraordinary about much of our society these days is that we are desperately sleep-deprived. +So let's now look at sleep deprivation. +Huge sectors of society are sleep-deprived, and let's look at our sleep-o-meter. +So in the 1950s, good data suggests that most of us were getting around eight hours of sleep a night. +Nowadays, we sleep one and a half to two hours less every night, so we're in the six-and-a-half-hours every-night league. +For teenagers, it's worse, much worse. +They need nine hours for full brain performance, and many of them, on a school night, are only getting five hours of sleep. +It's simply not enough. +If we think about other sectors of society -- the aged; if you are aged, then your ability to sleep in a single block is somewhat disrupted, and many sleep, again, less than five hours a night. +Shift work. Shift work is extraordinary, perhaps 20 percent of the working population, and the body clock does not shift to the demands of working at night. +It's locked onto the same light-dark cycle as the rest of us. +So when the poor old shift worker is going home to try and sleep during the day, desperately tired, the body clock is saying, "Wake up. This is the time to be awake." +So the quality of sleep that you get as a night shift worker is usually very poor, again in that sort of five-hour region. +And then, of course, tens of millions of people suffer from jet lag. +So who here has jet lag? +Well, my goodness gracious. +Well, thank you very much indeed for not falling asleep, because that's what your brain is craving. +One of the things that the brain does is indulge in micro-sleeps, this involuntary falling asleep, and you have essentially no control over it. +Now, micro-sleeps can be sort of somewhat embarrassing, but they can also be deadly. +It's been estimated that 31 percent of drivers will fall asleep at the wheel at least once in their life, and in the US, the statistics are pretty good: 100,000 accidents on the freeway have been associated with tiredness, loss of vigilance, and falling asleep -- a hundred thousand a year. +It's extraordinary. +At another level of terror, we dip into the tragic accidents at Chernobyl and indeed the space shuttle Challenger, which was so tragically lost. +And in the investigations that followed those disasters, poor judgment as a result of extended shift work and loss of vigilance and tiredness was attributed to a big chunk of those disasters. +When you're tired and you lack sleep, you have poor memory, you have poor creativity, you have increased impulsiveness, and you have overall poor judgment. +But my friends, it's so much worse than that. +If you are a tired brain, the brain is craving things to wake it up. +So drugs, stimulants. +Caffeine represents the stimulant of choice across much of the Western world. +Much of the day is fueled by caffeine, and if you're a really naughty tired brain, nicotine. +Of course, you're fueling the waking state with these stimulants, and then, of course, it gets to 11 o'clock at night, and the brain says to itself, "Actually, I need to be asleep fairly shortly. +What do we do about that when I'm feeling completely wired?" +Well, of course, you then resort to alcohol. +Now alcohol, short-term, you know, once or twice, to use to mildly sedate you, can be very useful. +It can actually ease the sleep transition. +But what you must be so aware of is that alcohol doesn't provide sleep. +A biological mimic for sleep, it sedates you. +So it actually harms some of the neural processing that's going on during memory consolidation and memory recall. +So it's a short-term acute measure, but for goodness sake, don't become addicted to alcohol as a way of getting to sleep every night. +Another connection between loss of sleep is weight gain. +If you sleep around about five hours or less every night, then you have a 50 percent likelihood of being obese. +What's the connection here? +Well, sleep loss seems to give rise to the release of the hormone ghrelin, the hunger hormone. +Ghrelin is released. It gets to the brain. +The brain says, "I need carbohydrates," and what it does is seek out carbohydrates and particularly sugars. +So there's a link between tiredness and the metabolic predisposition for weight gain: stress. +Tired people are massively stressed. +And one of the things of stress, of course, is loss of memory, which is what I sort of just then had a little lapse of. +But stress is so much more. +So, if you're acutely stressed, not a great problem, but it's sustained stress associated with sleep loss that's the problem. +Sustained stress leads to suppressed immunity. +And so, tired people tend to have higher rates of overall infection, and there's some very good studies showing that shift workers, for example, have higher rates of cancer. +Increased levels of stress throw glucose into the circulation. +Glucose becomes a dominant part of the vasculature and essentially you become glucose intolerant. +Therefore, diabetes 2. +Stress increases cardiovascular disease as a result of raising blood pressure. +So there's a whole raft of things associated with sleep loss that are more than just a mildly impaired brain, which is where I think most people think that sleep loss resides. +So at this point in the talk, this is a nice time to think, "Well, do you think on the whole I'm getting enough sleep?" +So a quick show of hands. +Who feels that they're getting enough sleep here? +Oh. Well, that's pretty impressive. +Good. We'll talk more about that later, about what are your tips. +So most of us, of course, ask the question, "How do I know whether I'm getting enough sleep?" +Well, it's not rocket science. +If you need an alarm clock to get you out of bed in the morning, if you are taking a long time to get up, if you need lots of stimulants, if you're grumpy, if you're irritable, if you're told by your work colleagues that you're looking tired and irritable, chances are you are sleep-deprived. +Listen to them. Listen to yourself. +What do you do? +Well -- and this is slightly offensive -- sleep for dummies. +Make your bedroom a haven for sleep. +The first critical thing is make it as dark as you possibly can, and also make it slightly cool. Very important. +Actually, reduce your amount of light exposure at least half an hour before you go to bed. +Light increases levels of alertness and will delay sleep. +What's the last thing that most of us do before we go to bed? +We stand in a massively lit bathroom, looking into the mirror cleaning our teeth. +It's the worst thing we can possibly do before we go to sleep. +Turn off those mobile phones. Turn off those computers. +Turn off all of those things that are also going to excite the brain. +Try not to drink caffeine too late in the day, ideally not after lunch. +Now, we've set about reducing light exposure before you go to bed, but light exposure in the morning is very good at setting the biological clock to the light-dark cycle. +So seek out morning light. +Basically, listen to yourself. +Wind down. Do those sorts of things that you know are going to ease you off into the honey-heavy dew of slumber. +OK. That's some facts. What about some myths? +Teenagers are lazy. +No. Poor things. +They have a biological predisposition to go to bed late and get up late, so give them a break. +We need eight hours of sleep a night. +That's an average. Some people need more. Some people need less. +And what you need to do is listen to your body. +Do you need that much or do you need more? +Simple as that. +Old people need less sleep. Not true. +The sleep demands of the aged do not go down. +Essentially, sleep fragments and becomes less robust, but sleep requirements do not go down. +And the fourth myth is early to bed, early to rise makes a man healthy, wealthy and wise. +Well, that's wrong at so many different levels. +There is no evidence that getting up early and going to bed early gives you more wealth at all. +There's no difference in socioeconomic status. +In my experience, the only difference between morning people and evening people is that those people that get up in the morning early are just horribly smug. +So for the last few minutes, what I want to do is change gears and talk about some really new, breaking areas of neuroscience, which is the association between mental health, mental illness and sleep disruption. +We've known for 130 years that in severe mental illness, there is always, always sleep disruption, but it's been largely ignored. +In the 1970s, when people started to think about this again, they said, "Yes, well, of course you have sleep disruption in schizophrenia, because they're on antipsychotics. +It's the antipsychotics causing the sleep problems," ignoring the fact that for a hundred years previously, sleep disruption had been reported before antipsychotics. +So what's going on? +Several groups are studying conditions like depression, schizophrenia and bipolar and what's going on in terms of sleep disruption. +We have a big study which we published last year on schizophrenia, and the data were quite extraordinary. +In those individuals with schizophrenia, much of the time, they were awake during the night phase and then they were asleep during the day. +Other groups showed no 24-hour patterns whatsoever -- their sleep was absolutely smashed. +And some had no ability to regulate their sleep by the light-dark cycle. +They were getting up later and later and later and later each night. +It was smashed. +So what's going on? +And the really exciting news is that mental illness and sleep are not simply associated, but they are physically linked within the brain. +The neural networks that predispose you to normal sleep, give you normal sleep, and those that give you normal mental health, are overlapping. +And what's the evidence for that? +Well, genes that have been shown to be very important in the generation of normal sleep, when mutated, when changed, also predispose individuals to mental health problems. +And last year, we published a study which showed that a gene that's been linked to schizophrenia, when mutated, also smashes the sleep. +So we have evidence of a genuine mechanistic overlap between these two important systems. +Other work flowed from these studies. +The first was that sleep disruption actually precedes certain types of mental illness, and we've shown that in those young individuals who are at high risk of developing bipolar disorder, they already have a sleep abnormality prior to any clinical diagnosis of bipolar. +The other bit of data was that sleep disruption may actually exacerbate, make worse, the mental illness state. +My colleague Dan Freeman has used a range of agents which have stabilized sleep and reduced levels of paranoia in those individuals by 50 percent. +So what have we got? +We've got, in these connections, some really exciting things. +In terms of the neuroscience, by understanding these two systems, we're really beginning to understand how both sleep and mental illness are generated and regulated within the brain. +The second area is that if we can use sleep and sleep disruption as an early warning signal, then we have the chance of going in. +If we know these individuals are vulnerable, early intervention then becomes possible. +And the third, which I think is the most exciting, is that we can think of the sleep centers within the brain as a new therapeutic target. +Stabilize sleep in those individuals who are vulnerable, we can certainly make them healthier, but also alleviate some of the appalling symptoms of mental illness. +So let me just finish. +What I started by saying is: Take sleep seriously. +Our attitudes toward sleep are so very different from a pre-industrial age, when we were almost wrapped in a duvet. +We used to understand intuitively the importance of sleep. +And this isn't some sort of crystal-waving nonsense. +This is a pragmatic response to good health. +If you have good sleep, it increases your concentration, attention, decision-making, creativity, social skills, health. +If you get sleep, it reduces your mood changes, your stress, your levels of anger, your impulsivity, and your tendency to drink and take drugs. +And we finished by saying that an understanding of the neuroscience of sleep is really informing the way we think about some of the causes of mental illness, and indeed is providing us new ways to treat these incredibly debilitating conditions. +Jim Butcher, the fantasy writer, said, "Sleep is God. Go worship." +And I can only recommend that you do the same. +Thank you for your attention. +Ah yes, those university days, a heady mix of Ph.D-level pure mathematics and world debating championships, or, as I like to say, "Hello, ladies. Oh yeah." +Didn't get much sexier than the Spence at university, let me tell you. +It is such a thrill for a humble breakfast radio announcer from Sydney, Australia, to be here on the TED stage literally on the other side of the world. +And I wanted to let you know, a lot of the things you've heard about Australians are true. +From the youngest of ages, we display a prodigious sporting talent. +On the field of battle, we are brave and noble warriors. +What you've heard is true. +Australians, we don't mind a bit of a drink, sometimes to excess, leading to embarrassing social situations. This is my father's work Christmas party, December 1973. +I'm almost five years old. Fair to say, I'm enjoying the day a lot more than Santa was. +But I stand before you today not as a breakfast radio host, not as a comedian, but as someone who was, is, and always will be a mathematician. +And anyone who's been bitten by the numbers bug knows that it bites early and it bites deep. +I cast my mind back when I was in second grade at a beautiful little government-run school called Boronia Park in the suburbs of Sydney, and as we came up towards lunchtime, our teacher, Ms. Russell, said to the class, "Hey, year two. What do you want to do after lunch? +I've got no plans." +It was an exercise in democratic schooling, and I am all for democratic schooling, but we were only seven. +So some of the suggestions we made as to what we might want to do after lunch were a little bit impractical, and after a while, someone made a particularly silly suggestion and Ms. Russell patted them down with that gentle aphorism, "That wouldn't work. +That'd be like trying to put a square peg through a round hole." +Now I wasn't trying to be smart. +I wasn't trying to be funny. +I just politely raised my hand, and when Ms. Russell acknowledged me, I said, in front of my year two classmates, and I quote, "But Miss, surely if the diagonal of the square is less than the diameter of the circle, well, the square peg will pass quite easily through the round hole." +"It'd be like putting a piece of toast through a basketball hoop, wouldn't it?" +And there was that same awkward silence from most of my classmates, until sitting next to me, one of my friends, one of the cool kids in class, Steven, leaned across and punched me really hard in the head. +Now what Steven was saying was, "Look, Adam, you are at a critical juncture in your life here, my friend. +You can keep sitting here with us. +Any more of that sort of talk, you've got to go and sit over there with them." +I thought about it for a nanosecond. +I took one look at the road map of life, and I ran off down the street marked "Geek" as fast as my chubby, asthmatic little legs would carry me. +I fell in love with mathematics from the earliest of ages. +I explained it to all my friends. Maths is beautiful. +It's natural. It's everywhere. +Numbers are the musical notes with which the symphony of the universe is written. +The great Descartes said something quite similar. +The universe "is written in the mathematical language." +And today, I want to show you one of those musical notes, a number so beautiful, so massive, I think it will blow your mind. +Today we're going to talk about prime numbers. +Most of you I'm sure remember that six is not prime because it's 2 x 3. +Seven is prime because it's 1 x 7, but we can't break it down into any smaller chunks, or as we call them, factors. +Now a few things you might like to know about prime numbers. +One is not prime. +The proof of that is a great party trick that admittedly only works at certain parties. +Another thing about primes, there is no final biggest prime number. +They keep going on forever. +We know there are an infinite number of primes due to the brilliant mathematician Euclid. +Over thousands of years ago, he proved that for us. +But the third thing about prime numbers, mathematicians have always wondered, well at any given moment in time, what is the biggest prime that we know about? +Today we're going to hunt for that massive prime. +Don't freak out. +All you need to know, of all the mathematics you've ever learned, unlearned, crammed, forgotten, never understood in the first place, all you need to know is this: When I say 2 ^ 5, I'm talking about five little number twos next to each other all multiplied together, 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2. +So 2 ^ 5 is 2 x 2 = 4, 8, 16, 32. +If you've got that, you're with me for the entire journey. Okay? +So 2 ^ 5, those five little twos multiplied together. +(2 ^ 5) - 1 = 31. +31 is a prime number, and that five in the power is also a prime number. +And the vast bulk of massive primes we've ever found are of that form: two to a prime number, take away one. +I won't go into great detail as to why, because most of your eyes will bleed out of your head if I do, but suffice to say, a number of that form is fairly easy to test for primacy. +A random odd number is a lot harder to test. +But as soon as we go hunting for massive primes, we realize it's not enough just to put in any prime number in the power. +(2 ^ 11) - 1 = 2,047, and you don't need me to tell you that's 23 x 89. +But (2 ^ 13) - 1, (2 ^ 17) - 1 (2 ^ 19) - 1, are all prime numbers. +After that point, they thin out a lot. +And one of the things about the search for massive primes that I love so much is some of the great mathematical minds of all time have gone on this search. +This is the great Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler. +In the 1700s, other mathematicians said he is simply the master of us all. +He was so respected, they put him on European currency back when that was a compliment. +Euler discovered at the time the world's biggest prime: (2 ^ 31) - 1. +It's over two billion. +He proved it was prime with nothing more than a quill, ink, paper and his mind. +You think that's big. +We know that (2 ^ 127) - 1 is a prime number. +It's an absolute brute. +Look at it here: 39 digits long, proven to be prime in 1876 by a mathematician called Lucas. +Word up, L-Dog. +But one of the great things about the search for massive primes, it's not just finding the primes. +Sometimes proving another number not to be prime is just as exciting. +Lucas again, in 1876, showed us (2 ^ 67) - 1, 21 digits long, was not prime. +But he didn't know what the factors were. +We knew it was like six, but we didn't know what are the 2 x 3 that multiply together to give us that massive number. +We didn't know for almost 40 years until Frank Nelson Cole came along. +And at a gathering of prestigious American mathematicians, he walked to the board, took up a piece of chalk, and started writing out the powers of two: two, four, eight, 16 -- come on, join in with me, you know how it goes -- 32, 64, 128, 256, 512, 1,024, 2,048. +I'm in geek heaven. We'll stop it there for a second. +Frank Nelson Cole did not stop there. +He went on and on and calculated 67 powers of two. +He took away one and wrote that number on the board. +A frisson of excitement went around the room. +It got even more exciting when he then wrote down these two large prime numbers in your standard multiplication format -- and for the rest of the hour of his talk Frank Nelson Cole busted that out. +He had found the prime factors of (2 ^ 67) - 1. +The room went berserk -- -- as Frank Nelson Cole sat down, having delivered the only talk in the history of mathematics with no words. +He admitted afterwards it wasn't that hard to do. +It took focus. It took dedication. +It took him, by his estimate, "three years of Sundays." +But then in the field of mathematics, as in so many of the fields that we've heard from in this TED, the age of the computer goes along and things explode. +These are the largest prime numbers we knew decade by decade, each one dwarfing the one before as computers took over and our power to calculate just grew and grew. +This is the largest prime number we knew in 1996, a very emotional year for me. +It was the year I left university. +I was torn between mathematics and media. +It was a tough decision. I loved university. +My arts degree was the best nine and a half years of my life. +But I came to a realization about my own ability. +Put simply, in a room full of randomly selected people, I'm a maths genius. +In a roomful of maths Ph.Ds, I'm as dumb as a box of hammers. +My skill is not in the mathematics. +It is in telling the story of the mathematics. +And during that time, since I've left university, these numbers have got bigger and bigger, each one dwarfing the last, until along came this man, Dr. Curtis Cooper, who a few years ago held the record for the largest ever prime, only to see it snatched away by a rival university. +And then Curtis Cooper got it back. +Not years ago, not months ago, days ago. +In an amazing moment of serendipity, I had to send TED a new slide to show you what this guy had done. +I still remember -- -- I still remember when it happened. +I was doing my breakfast radio show. +I looked down on Twitter. There was a tweet: "Adam, have you seen the new largest prime number?" +I shivered -- -- contacted the women who produced my radio show out in the other room, and said "Girls, hold the front page. +We're not talking politics today. +We're not talking sport today. +They found another megaprime." +The girls just shook their heads, put them in their hands, and let me go my own way. +It's because of Curtis Cooper that we know, currently the largest prime number we know, is 2 ^ 57,885,161. +Don't forget to subtract the one. +This number is almost 17 and a half million digits long. +If you typed it out on a computer and saved it as a text file, that's 22 meg. +For the slightly less geeky of you, think about the Harry Potter novels, okay? +This is the first Harry Potter novel. +This is all seven Harry Potter novels, because she did tend to faff on a bit near the end. +Written out as a book, this number would run the length of the Harry Potter novels and half again. +Here's a slide of the first 1,000 digits of this prime. +If, when TED had begun, at 11 o'clock on Tuesday, we'd walked out and simply hit one slide every second, it would have taken five hours to show you that number. +I was keen to do it, could not convince Bono. +That's the way it goes. +This number is 17 and a half thousand slides long, and we know it is prime as confidently as we know the number seven is prime. +That fills me with almost sexual excitement. +And who am I kidding when I say almost? +I know what you're thinking: Adam, we're happy that you're happy, but why should we care? +Let me give you just three reasons why this is so beautiful. +First of all, as I explained, to ask a computer "Is that number prime?" to type it in its abbreviated form, and then only about six lines of code is the test for primacy, is a remarkably simple question to ask. +It's got a remarkably clear yes/no answer, and just requires phenomenal grunt. +Large prime numbers are a great way of testing the speed and accuracy of computer chips. +But secondly, as Curtis Cooper was looking for that monster prime, he wasn't the only guy searching. +My laptop at home was looking through four potential candidate primes myself as part of a networked computer hunt around the world for these large numbers. +The discovery of that prime is similar to the work people are doing in unraveling RNA sequences, in searching through data from SETI and other astronomical projects. +We live in an age where some of the great breakthroughs are not going to happen in the labs or the halls of academia but on laptops, desktops, in the palms of people's hands who are simply helping out for the search. +But for me it's amazing because it's a metaphor for the time in which we live, when human minds and machines can conquer together. +We've heard a lot about robots in this TED. +We've heard a lot about what they can and can't do. +It is true, you can now download onto your smartphone an app that would beat most grandmasters at chess. +You think that's cool. +Here's a machine doing something cool. +This is the CubeStormer II. +It can take a randomly shuffled Rubik's Cube. +Using the power of the smartphone, it can examine the cube and solve the cube in five seconds. +That scares some people. That excites me. +How lucky are we to live in this age when mind and machine can work together? +I was asked in an interview last year in my capacity as a lower-case "c" celebrity in Australia, "What was your highlight of 2012?" +People were expecting me to talk about my beloved Sydney Swans football team. +In our beautiful, indigenous sport of Australian football, they won the equivalent of the Super Bowl. +I was there. It was the most emotional, exciting day. +It wasn't my highlight of 2012. +People thought it might have been an interview I'd done on my show. +It might have been a politician. It might have been a breakthrough. +It might have been a book I read, the arts. No, no, no. +It might have been something my two gorgeous daughters had done. +No, it wasn't. The highlight of 2012, so clearly, was the discovery of the Higgs boson. +Give it up for the fundamental particle that bequeaths all other fundamental particles their mass. +And what was so gorgeous about this discovery was 50 years ago Peter Higgs and his team considered one of the deepest of all questions: How is it that the things that make us up have no mass? +I've clearly got mass. Where does it come from? +And he postulated a suggestion that there's this infinite, incredibly small field stretching throughout the universe, and as other particles go through those particles and interact, that's where they get their mass. +The rest of the scientific community said, "Great idea, Higgsy. +We've got no idea if we could ever prove it. +It's beyond our reach." +And within just 50 years, in his lifetime, with him sitting in the audience, we had designed the greatest machine ever to prove this incredible idea that originated just in a human mind. +That's what is so exciting for me about this prime number. +We thought it might be there, and we went and found it. +That is the essence of being human. +That is what we are all about. +Or as my friend Descartes might put it, we think, therefore we are. +Thank you. +I come from Lebanon, and I believe that running can change the world. +I know what I have just said is simply not obvious. +You know, Lebanon as a country has been once destroyed by a long and bloody civil war. +Honestly, I don't know why they call it civil war when there is nothing civil about it. +With Syria to the north, Israel and Palestine to the south, and our government even up till this moment is still fragmented and unstable. +For years, the country has been divided between politics and religion. +However, for one day a year, we truly stand united, and that's when the marathon takes place. +I used to be a marathon runner. +Long distance running was not only good for my well-being but it helped me meditate and dream big. +So the longer distances I ran, the bigger my dreams became. +Until one fateful morning, and while training, I was hit by a bus. +I nearly died, was in a coma, stayed at the hospital for two years, and underwent 36 surgeries to be able to walk again. +As soon as I came out of my coma, I realized that I was no longer the same runner I used to be, so I decided, if I couldn't run myself, I wanted to make sure that others could. +So out of my hospital bed, I asked my husband to start taking notes, and a few months later, the marathon was born. +Organizing a marathon as a reaction to an accident may sound strange, but at that time, even during my most vulnerable condition, I needed to dream big. +I needed something to take me out of my pain, an objective to look forward to. +I didn't want to pity myself, nor to be pitied, and I thought by organizing such a marathon, I'll be able to pay back to my community, build bridges with the outside world, and invite runners to come to Lebanon and run under the umbrella of peace. +Organizing a marathon in Lebanon is definitely not like organizing one in New York. +How do you introduce the concept of running to a nation that is constantly at the brink of war? +How do you ask those who were once fighting and killing each other to come together and run next to each other? +More than that, how do you convince people to run a distance of 26.2 miles at a time they were not even familiar with the word "marathon"? +So we had to start from scratch. +For almost two years, we went all over the country and even visited remote villages. +I personally met with people from all walks of life -- mayors, NGOs, schoolchildren, politicians, militiamen, people from mosques, churches, the president of the country, even housewives. +I learned one thing: When you walk the talk, people believe you. +Many were touched by my personal story, and they shared their stories in return. +It was honesty and transparency that brought us together. +We spoke one common language to each other, and that was from one human to another. +Once that trust was built, everybody wanted to be part of the marathon to show the world the true colors of Lebanon and the Lebanese and their desire to live in peace and harmony. +In October 2003, over 6,000 runners from 49 different nationalities came to the start line, all determined, and when the gunfire went off, this time it was a signal to run in harmony, for a change. +The marathon grew. +So did our political problems. +But for every disaster we had, the marathon found ways to bring people together. +In 2005, our prime minister was assassinated, and the country came to a complete standstill, so we organized a five-kilometer United We Run campaign. +Over 60,000 people came to the start line, all wearing white T-shirts with no political slogans. +That was a turning point for the marathon, where people started looking at it as a platform for peace and unity. +Between 2006 up to 2009, our country, Lebanon, went through unstable years, invasions, and more assassinations that brought us close to a civil war. +The country was divided again, so much that our parliament resigned, we had no president for a year, and no prime minister. +But we did have a marathon. +So through the marathon, we learned that political problems can be overcome. +When the opposition party decided to shut down part of the city center, we negotiated alternative routes. +Government protesters became sideline cheerleaders. +They even hosted juice stations. +You know, the marathon has really become one of its kind. +It gained credibility from both the Lebanese and the international community. +Last November 2012, over 33,000 runners from 85 different nationalities came to the start line, but this time, they challenged a very stormy and rainy weather. +The streets were flooded, but people didn't want to miss out on the opportunity of being part of such a national day. +BMA has expanded. +We include everyone: the young, the elderly, the disabled, the mentally challenged, the blind, the elite, the amateur runners, even moms with their babies. +Themes have included runs for the environment, breast cancer, for the love of Lebanon, for peace, or just simply to run. +The first annual all-women-and-girls race for empowerment, which is one of its kind in the region, has just taken place only a few weeks ago, with 4,512 women, including the first lady, and this is only the beginning. +Thank you. +BMA has supported charities and volunteers who have helped reshape Lebanon, raising funds for their causes and encouraging others to give. +The culture of giving and doing good has become contagious. +Stereotypes have been broken. +Change-makers and future leaders have been created. +I believe these are the building blocks for future peace. +BMA has become such a respected event in the region that government officials in the region, like Iraq, Egypt and Syria, have asked the organization to help them structure a similar sporting event. +We are now one of the largest running events in the Middle East, but most importantly, it is a platform for hope and cooperation in an ever-fragile and unstable part of the world. +From Boston to Beirut, we stand as one. +After 10 years in Lebanon, from national marathons or from national events to smaller regional races, we've seen that people want to run for a better future. +After all, peacemaking is not a sprint. +It is more of a marathon. +Thank you. +Steve Ramirez: My first year of grad school, I found myself in my bedroom eating lots of Ben & Jerry's watching some trashy TV and maybe, maybe listening to Taylor Swift. +I had just gone through a breakup. +So for the longest time, all I would do is recall the memory of this person over and over again, wishing that I could get rid of that gut-wrenching, visceral "blah" feeling. +Now, as it turns out, I'm a neuroscientist, so I knew that the memory of that person and the awful, emotional undertones that color in that memory, are largely mediated by separate brain systems. +And so I thought, what if we could go into the brain and edit out that nauseating feeling but while keeping the memory of that person intact? +Then I realized, maybe that's a little bit lofty for now. +So what if we could start off by going into the brain and just finding a single memory to begin with? +Could we jump-start that memory back to life, maybe even play with the contents of that memory? +All that said, there is one person in the entire world right now that I really hope is not watching this talk. +So there is a catch. There is a catch. +These ideas probably remind you of "Total Recall," "Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind," or of "Inception." +But the movie stars that we work with are the celebrities of the lab. +Xu Liu: Test mice. +As neuroscientists, we work in the lab with mice trying to understand how memory works. +And today, we hope to convince you that now we are actually able to activate a memory in the brain at the speed of light. +To do this, there's only two simple steps to follow. +First, you find and label a memory in the brain, and then you activate it with a switch. +As simple as that. +SR: Are you convinced? +So, turns out finding a memory in the brain isn't all that easy. +XL: Indeed. This is way more difficult than, let's say, finding a needle in a haystack, because at least, you know, the needle is still something you can physically put your fingers on. +But memory is not. +And also, there's way more cells in your brain than the number of straws in a typical haystack. +So yeah, this task does seem to be daunting. +But luckily, we got help from the brain itself. +It turned out that all we need to do is basically to let the brain form a memory, and then the brain will tell us which cells are involved in that particular memory. +SR: So what was going on in my brain while I was recalling the memory of an ex? +If you were to just completely ignore human ethics for a second and slice up my brain right now, you would see that there was an amazing number of brain regions that were active while recalling that memory. +Now one brain region that would be robustly active in particular is called the hippocampus, which for decades has been implicated in processing the kinds of memories that we hold near and dear, which also makes it an ideal target to go into and to try and find and maybe reactivate a memory. +SR: So the same way that building lights at night let you know that somebody's probably working there at any given moment, in a very real sense, there are biological sensors within a cell that are turned on only when that cell was just working. +They're sort of biological windows that light up to let us know that that cell was just active. +XL: So we clipped part of this sensor, and attached that to a switch to control the cells, and we packed this switch into an engineered virus and injected that into the brain of the mice. +So whenever a memory is being formed, any active cells for that memory will also have this switch installed. +SR: So here is what the hippocampus looks like after forming a fear memory, for example. +The sea of blue that you see here are densely packed brain cells, but the green brain cells, the green brain cells are the ones that are holding on to a specific fear memory. +So you are looking at the crystallization of the fleeting formation of fear. +You're actually looking at the cross-section of a memory right now. +XL: Now, for the switch we have been talking about, ideally, the switch has to act really fast. +It shouldn't take minutes or hours to work. +It should act at the speed of the brain, in milliseconds. +SR: So what do you think, Xu? +Could we use, let's say, pharmacological drugs to activate or inactivate brain cells? +XL: Nah. Drugs are pretty messy. They spread everywhere. +And also it takes them forever to act on cells. +So it will not allow us to control a memory in real time. +So Steve, how about let's zap the brain with electricity? +SR: So electricity is pretty fast, but we probably wouldn't be able to target it to just the specific cells that hold onto a memory, and we'd probably fry the brain. +XL: Oh. That's true. So it looks like, hmm, indeed we need to find a better way to impact the brain at the speed of light. +SR: So it just so happens that light travels at the speed of light. +So maybe we could activate or inactive memories by just using light -- XL: That's pretty fast. +SR: -- and because normally brain cells don't respond to pulses of light, so those that would respond to pulses of light are those that contain a light-sensitive switch. +Now to do that, first we need to trick brain cells to respond to laser beams. +XL: Yep. You heard it right. +We are trying to shoot lasers into the brain. +SR: And the technique that lets us do that is optogenetics. +Optogenetics gave us this light switch that we can use to turn brain cells on or off, and the name of that switch is channelrhodopsin, seen here as these green dots attached to this brain cell. +You can think of channelrhodopsin as a sort of light-sensitive switch that can be artificially installed in brain cells so that now we can use that switch to activate or inactivate the brain cell simply by clicking it, and in this case we click it on with pulses of light. +XL: So we attach this light-sensitive switch of channelrhodopsin to the sensor we've been talking about and inject this into the brain. +So whenever a memory is being formed, any active cell for that particular memory will also have this light-sensitive switch installed in it so that we can control these cells by the flipping of a laser just like this one you see. +SR: So let's put all of this to the test now. +What we can do is we can take our mice and then we can put them in a box that looks exactly like this box here, and then we can give them a very mild foot shock so that they form a fear memory of this box. +They learn that something bad happened here. +Now with our system, the cells that are active in the hippocampus in the making of this memory, only those cells will now contain channelrhodopsin. +XL: When you are as small as a mouse, it feels as if the whole world is trying to get you. +So your best response of defense is trying to be undetected. +Whenever a mouse is in fear, it will show this very typical behavior by staying at one corner of the box, trying to not move any part of its body, and this posture is called freezing. +So if a mouse remembers that something bad happened in this box, and when we put them back into the same box, it will basically show freezing because it doesn't want to be detected by any potential threats in this box. +SR: So you can think of freezing as, you're walking down the street minding your own business, and then out of nowhere you almost run into an ex-girlfriend or ex-boyfriend, and now those terrifying two seconds where you start thinking, "What do I do? Do I say hi? +Do I shake their hand? Do I turn around and run away? +Do I sit here and pretend like I don't exist?" +Those kinds of fleeting thoughts that physically incapacitate you, that temporarily give you that deer-in-headlights look. +XL: However, if you put the mouse in a completely different new box, like the next one, it will not be afraid of this box because there's no reason that it will be afraid of this new environment. +But what if we put the mouse in this new box but at the same time, we activate the fear memory using lasers just like we did before? +Are we going to bring back the fear memory for the first box into this completely new environment? +SR: All right, and here's the million-dollar experiment. +Now to bring back to life the memory of that day, I remember that the Red Sox had just won, it was a green spring day, perfect for going up and down the river and then maybe going to the North End to get some cannolis, #justsaying. +Now Xu and I, on the other hand, were in a completely windowless black room not making any ocular movement that even remotely resembles an eye blink because our eyes were fixed onto a computer screen. +We were looking at this mouse here trying to activate a memory for the first time using our technique. +XL: And this is what we saw. +When we first put the mouse into this box, it's exploring, sniffing around, walking around, minding its own business, because actually by nature, mice are pretty curious animals. +They want to know, what's going on in this new box? +It's interesting. +But the moment we turned on the laser, like you see now, all of a sudden the mouse entered this freezing mode. +It stayed here and tried not to move any part of its body. +Clearly it's freezing. +So indeed, it looks like we are able to bring back the fear memory for the first box in this completely new environment. +While watching this, Steve and I are as shocked as the mouse itself. +So after the experiment, the two of us just left the room without saying anything. +After a kind of long, awkward period of time, Steve broke the silence. +SR: "Did that just work?" +XL: "Yes," I said. "Indeed it worked!" +We're really excited about this. +And then we published our findings in the journal Nature. +Ever since the publication of our work, we've been receiving numerous comments from all over the Internet. +Maybe we can take a look at some of those. +["OMGGGGG FINALLY... so much more to come, virtual reality, neural manipulation, visual dream emulation... neural coding, 'writing and re-writing of memories', mental illnesses. Ahhh the future is awesome"] SR: So the first thing that you'll notice is that people have really strong opinions about this kind of work. +Now I happen to completely agree with the optimism of this first quote, because on a scale of zero to Morgan Freeman's voice, it happens to be one of the most evocative accolades that I've heard come our way. +But as you'll see, it's not the only opinion that's out there. +["This scares the hell out of me... What if they could do that easily in humans in a couple of years?! OH MY GOD WE'RE DOOMED"] XL: Indeed, if we take a look at the second one, I think we can all agree that it's, meh, probably not as positive. +But this also reminds us that, although we are still working with mice, it's probably a good idea to start thinking and discussing about the possible ethical ramifications of memory control. +SR: Now, in the spirit of the third quote, we want to tell you about a recent project that we've been working on in lab that we've called Project Inception. +["They should make a movie about this. Where they plant ideas into peoples minds, so they can control them for their own personal gain. We'll call it: Inception."] So we reasoned that now that we can reactivate a memory, what if we do so but then begin to tinker with that memory? +Could we possibly even turn it into a false memory? +XL: So all memory is sophisticated and dynamic, but if just for simplicity, let's imagine memory as a movie clip. +So far what we've told you is basically we can control this "play" button of the clip so that we can play this video clip any time, anywhere. +But is there a possibility that we can actually get inside the brain and edit this movie clip so that we can make it different from the original? +Yes we can. +Turned out that all we need to do is basically reactivate a memory using lasers just like we did before, but at the same time, if we present new information and allow this new information to incorporate into this old memory, this will change the memory. +It's sort of like making a remix tape. +SR: So how do we do this? +Rather than finding a fear memory in the brain, we can start by taking our animals, and let's say we put them in a blue box like this blue box here and we find the brain cells that represent that blue box and we trick them to respond to pulses of light exactly like we had said before. +Now the next day, we can take our animals and place them in a red box that they've never experienced before. +We can shoot light into the brain to reactivate the memory of the blue box. +So what would happen here if, while the animal is recalling the memory of the blue box, we gave it a couple of mild foot shocks? +So here we're trying to artificially make an association between the memory of the blue box and the foot shocks themselves. +We're just trying to connect the two. +So to test if we had done so, we can take our animals once again and place them back in the blue box. +Again, we had just reactivated the memory of the blue box while the animal got a couple of mild foot shocks, and now the animal suddenly freezes. +It's as though it's recalling being mildly shocked in this environment even though that never actually happened. +So it formed a false memory, because it's falsely fearing an environment where, technically speaking, nothing bad actually happened to it. +XL: So, so far we are only talking about this light-controlled "on" switch. +In fact, we also have a light-controlled "off" switch, and it's very easy to imagine that by installing this light-controlled "off" switch, we can also turn off a memory, any time, anywhere. +So everything we've been talking about today is based on this philosophically charged principle of neuroscience that the mind, with its seemingly mysterious properties, is actually made of physical stuff that we can tinker with. +SR: And for me personally, I see a world where we can reactivate any kind of memory that we'd like. +I also see a world where we can erase unwanted memories. +Now, I even see a world where editing memories is something of a reality, because we're living in a time where it's possible to pluck questions from the tree of science fiction and to ground them in experimental reality. +XL: Nowadays, people in the lab and people in other groups all over the world are using similar methods to activate or edit memories, whether that's old or new, positive or negative, all sorts of memories so that we can understand how memory works. +SR: For example, one group in our lab was able to find the brain cells that make up a fear memory and converted them into a pleasurable memory, just like that. +That's exactly what I mean about editing these kinds of processes. +Now one dude in lab was even able to reactivate memories of female mice in male mice, which rumor has it is a pleasurable experience. +XL: Indeed, we are living in a very exciting moment where science doesn't have any arbitrary speed limits but is only bound by our own imagination. +SR: And finally, what do we make of all this? +How do we push this technology forward? +These are the questions that should not remain just inside the lab, and so one goal of today's talk was to bring everybody up to speed with the kind of stuff that's possible in modern neuroscience, but now, just as importantly, to actively engage everybody in this conversation. +So let's think together as a team about what this all means and where we can and should go from here, because Xu and I think we all have some really big decisions ahead of us. +Thank you. XL: Thank you. +You may want to take a closer look. +There's more to this painting than meets the eye. +And yes, it's an acrylic painting of a man, but I didn't paint it on canvas. +I painted it directly on top of the man. +What I do in my art is I skip the canvas altogether, and if I want to paint your portrait, I'm painting it on you, physically on you. +That also means you're probably going to end up with an earful of paint, because I need to paint your ear on your ear. +Everything in this scene, the person, the clothes, chairs, wall, gets covered in a mask of paint that mimics what's directly below it, and in this way, I'm able to take a three-dimensional scene and make it look like a two-dimensional painting. +I can photograph it from any angle, and it will still look 2D. +There's no Photoshop here. +This is just a photo of one of my three-dimensional paintings. +You might be wondering how I came up with this idea of turning people into paintings. +But originally, this had nothing to do with either people or paint. +It was about shadows. +I was fascinated with the absence of light, and I wanted to find a way that I could give it materiality and pin it down before it changed. +I came up with the idea of painting shadows. +I loved that I could hide within this shadow my own painted version, and it would be almost invisible until the light changed, and all of a sudden my shadow would be brought to the light. +I wanted to think about what else I could put shadows on, and I thought of my friend Bernie. +But I didn't just want to paint the shadows. +I also wanted to paint the highlights and create a mapping on his body in greyscale. +I had a very specific vision of what this would look like, and as I was painting him, I made sure to follow that very closely. +But something kept on flickering before my eyes. +I wasn't quite sure what I was looking at. +And then when I took that moment to take a step back, magic. +I had turned my friend into a painting. +I couldn't have foreseen that when I wanted to paint a shadow, I would pull out this whole other dimension, that I would collapse it, that I would take a painting and make it my friend and then bring him back to a painting. +I was a little conflicted though, because I was so excited about what I'd found, but I was just about to graduate from college with a degree in political science, and I'd always had this dream of going to Washington, D.C., and sitting at a desk and working in government. +Why did this have to get in the way of all that? +I made the tough decision of going home after graduation and not going up to Capitol Hill, but going down to my parents' basement and making it my job to learn how to paint. +I had no idea where to begin. +The last time I'd painted, I was 16 years old at summer camp, and I didn't want to teach myself how to paint by copying the old masters or stretching a canvas and practicing over and over again on that surface, because that's not what this project was about for me. +It was about space and light. +My early canvases ended up being things that you wouldn't expect to be used as canvas, like fried food. +It's nearly impossible to get paint to stick to the grease in an egg. +Even harder was getting paint to stick to the acid in a grapefruit. +It just would erase my brush strokes like invisible ink. +I'd put something down, and instantly it would be gone. +And if I wanted to paint on people, well, I was a little bit embarrassed to bring people down into my studio and show them that I spent my days in a basement putting paint on toast. +It just seemed like it made more sense to practice by painting on myself. +One of my favorite models actually ended up being a retired old man who not only didn't mind sitting still and getting the paint in his ears, but he also didn't really have much embarrassment about being taken out into very public places for exhibition, like the Metro. +I was having so much fun with this process. +I was teaching myself how to paint in all these different styles, and I wanted to see what else I could do with it. +I came together with a collaborator, Sheila Vand, and we had the idea of creating paintings in a more unusual surface, and that was milk. +We got a pool. We filled it with milk. +We filled it with Sheila. And I began painting. +And the images were always completely unexpected in the end, because I could have a very specific image about how it would turn out, I could paint it to match that, but the moment that Sheila laid back into the milk, everything would change. +It was in constant flux, and we had to, rather than fight it, embrace it, see where the milk would take us and compensate to make it even better. +Sometimes, when Sheila would lay down in the milk, it would wash all the paint off of her arms, and it might seem a little bit clumsy, but our solution would be, okay, hide your arms. +And one time, she got so much milk in her hair that it just smeared all the paint off of her face. +All right, well, hide your face. +And we ended up with something far more elegant than we could have imagined, even though this is essentially the same solution that a frustrated kid uses when he can't draw hands, just hiding them in the pockets. +When we started out on the milk project, and when I started out, I couldn't have foreseen that I would go from pursuing my dream in politics and working at a desk to tripping over a shadow and then turning people into paintings and painting on people in a pool of milk. +Thank you. +I have a confession to make. +But first, I want you to make a little confession to me. +In the past year, I want you to just raise your hand if you've experienced relatively little stress. +Anyone? +How about a moderate amount of stress? +Who has experienced a lot of stress? +Yeah. Me too. +But that is not my confession. +My confession is this: I am a health psychologist, and my mission is to help people be happier and healthier. +But I fear that something I've been teaching for the last 10 years is doing more harm than good, and it has to do with stress. +For years I've been telling people, stress makes you sick. +It increases the risk of everything from the common cold to cardiovascular disease. +Basically, I've turned stress into the enemy. +But I have changed my mind about stress, and today, I want to change yours. +Let me start with the study that made me rethink my whole approach to stress. +This study tracked 30,000 adults in the United States for eight years, and they started by asking people, "How much stress have you experienced in the last year?" +They also asked, "Do you believe that stress is harmful for your health?" +And then they used public death records to find out who died. +Okay. Some bad news first. +People who experienced a lot of stress in the previous year had a 43 percent increased risk of dying. +But that was only true for the people who also believed that stress is harmful for your health. +People who experienced a lot of stress but did not view stress as harmful were no more likely to die. +In fact, they had the lowest risk of dying of anyone in the study, including people who had relatively little stress. +Now the researchers estimated that over the eight years they were tracking deaths, 182,000 Americans died prematurely, not from stress, but from the belief that stress is bad for you. That is over 20,000 deaths a year. +Now, if that estimate is correct, that would make believing stress is bad for you the 15th largest cause of death in the United States last year, killing more people than skin cancer, HIV/AIDS and homicide. +You can see why this study freaked me out. +Here I've been spending so much energy telling people stress is bad for your health. +So this study got me wondering: Can changing how you think about stress make you healthier? +And here the science says yes. +When you change your mind about stress, you can change your body's response to stress. +Now to explain how this works, I want you all to pretend that you are participants in a study designed to stress you out. +It's called the social stress test. +You come into the laboratory, and you're told you have to give a five-minute impromptu speech on your personal weaknesses to a panel of expert evaluators sitting right in front of you, and to make sure you feel the pressure, there are bright lights and a camera in your face, kind of like this. +And the evaluators have been trained to give you discouraging, non-verbal feedback, like this. Now that you're sufficiently demoralized, time for part two: a math test. +And unbeknownst to you, the experimenter has been trained to harass you during it. +Now we're going to all do this together. +It's going to be fun. +For me. +Okay. I want you all to count backwards from 996 in increments of seven. +You're going to do this out loud, as fast as you can, starting with 996. +Go! +(Audience counting) Go faster. Faster please. +You're going too slow. +Stop. Stop, stop, stop. +That guy made a mistake. +We are going to have to start all over again. You're not very good at this, are you? +Okay, so you get the idea. +If you were actually in this study, you'd probably be a little stressed out. +Your heart might be pounding, you might be breathing faster, maybe breaking out into a sweat. +And normally, we interpret these physical changes as anxiety or signs that we aren't coping very well with the pressure. +But what if you viewed them instead as signs that your body was energized, was preparing you to meet this challenge? +Now that is exactly what participants were told in a study conducted at Harvard University. +Before they went through the social stress test, they were taught to rethink their stress response as helpful. +That pounding heart is preparing you for action. +If you're breathing faster, it's no problem. +It's getting more oxygen to your brain. +And participants who learned to view the stress response as helpful for their performance, well, they were less stressed out, less anxious, more confident, but the most fascinating finding to me was how their physical stress response changed. +Now, in a typical stress response, your heart rate goes up, and your blood vessels constrict like this. +And this is one of the reasons that chronic stress is sometimes associated with cardiovascular disease. +It's not really healthy to be in this state all the time. +But in the study, when participants viewed their stress response as helpful, their blood vessels stayed relaxed like this. +Their heart was still pounding, but this is a much healthier cardiovascular profile. +It actually looks a lot like what happens in moments of joy and courage. +Over a lifetime of stressful experiences, this one biological change could be the difference between a stress-induced heart attack at age 50 and living well into your 90s. +And this is really what the new science of stress reveals, that how you think about stress matters. +So my goal as a health psychologist has changed. +I no longer want to get rid of your stress. +I want to make you better at stress. +And we just did a little intervention. +If you raised your hand and said you'd had a lot of stress in the last year, we could have saved your life, because hopefully the next time your heart is pounding from stress, you're going to remember this talk and you're going to think to yourself, this is my body helping me rise to this challenge. +And when you view stress in that way, your body believes you, and your stress response becomes healthier. +Now I said I have over a decade of demonizing stress so we are going to do one more intervention. +I want to tell you about one of the most under-appreciated aspects of the stress response, and the idea is this: Stress makes you social. +To understand this side of stress, we need to talk about a hormone, oxytocin, and I know oxytocin has already gotten as much hype as a hormone can get. +It even has its own cute nickname, the cuddle hormone, because it's released when you hug someone. +But this is a very small part of what oxytocin is involved in. +Oxytocin is a neuro-hormone. +It fine-tunes your brain's social instincts. +It primes you to do things that strengthen close relationships. +Oxytocin makes you crave physical contact with your friends and family. +It enhances your empathy. +It even makes you more willing to help and support the people you care about. +Some people have even suggested we should snort oxytocin... +to become more compassionate and caring. +But here's what most people don't understand about oxytocin. +It's a stress hormone. +Your pituitary gland pumps this stuff out as part of the stress response. +It's as much a part of your stress response as the adrenaline that makes your heart pound. +And when oxytocin is released in the stress response, it is motivating you to seek support. +Your biological stress response is nudging you to tell someone how you feel, instead of bottling it up. +Your stress response wants to make sure you notice when someone else in your life is struggling so that you can support each other. +When life is difficult, your stress response wants you to be surrounded by people who care about you. +Okay, so how is knowing this side of stress going to make you healthier? +Well, oxytocin doesn't only act on your brain. +It also acts on your body, and one of its main roles in your body is to protect your cardiovascular system from the effects of stress. +It's a natural anti-inflammatory. +It also helps your blood vessels stay relaxed during stress. +But my favorite effect on the body is actually on the heart. +Your heart has receptors for this hormone, and oxytocin helps heart cells regenerate and heal from any stress-induced damage. +This stress hormone strengthens your heart. +And the cool thing is that all of these physical benefits of oxytocin are enhanced by social contact and social support. +So when you reach out to others under stress, either to seek support or to help someone else, you release more of this hormone, your stress response becomes healthier, and you actually recover faster from stress. +I find this amazing, that your stress response has a built-in mechanism for stress resilience, and that mechanism is human connection. +I want to finish by telling you about one more study. +And listen up, because this study could also save a life. +This study tracked about 1,000 adults in the United States, and they ranged in age from 34 to 93, and they started the study by asking, "How much stress have you experienced in the last year?" +They also asked, "How much time have you spent helping out friends, neighbors, people in your community?" +And then they used public records for the next five years to find out who died. +Okay, so the bad news first: For every major stressful life experience, like financial difficulties or family crisis, that increased the risk of dying by 30 percent. +But -- and I hope you are expecting a "but" by now -- but that wasn't true for everyone. +People who spent time caring for others showed absolutely no stress-related increase in dying. +Caring created resilience. +And so we see once again that the harmful effects of stress on your health are not inevitable. +How you think and how you act can transform your experience of stress. +When you choose to view your stress response as helpful, you create the biology of courage. +And when you choose to connect with others under stress, you can create resilience. +Now I wouldn't necessarily ask for more stressful experiences in my life, but this science has given me a whole new appreciation for stress. +Stress gives us access to our hearts. +The compassionate heart that finds joy and meaning in connecting with others, and yes, your pounding physical heart, working so hard to give you strength and energy. +And when you choose to view stress in this way, you're not just getting better at stress, you're actually making a pretty profound statement. +You're saying that you can trust yourself to handle life's challenges. +And you're remembering that you don't have to face them alone. +Thank you. +Chris Anderson: This is kind of amazing, what you're telling us. +It seems amazing to me that a belief about stress can make so much difference to someone's life expectancy. +How would that extend to advice, like, if someone is making a lifestyle choice between, say, a stressful job and a non-stressful job, does it matter which way they go? +It's equally wise to go for the stressful job so long as you believe that you can handle it, in some sense? +KM: Yeah, and one thing we know for certain is that chasing meaning is better for your health than trying to avoid discomfort. +And so I would say that's really the best way to make decisions, is go after what it is that creates meaning in your life and then trust yourself to handle the stress that follows. +CA: Thank you so much, Kelly. It's pretty cool. +When I was a young man, I spent six years of wild adventure in the tropics working as an investigative journalist in some of the most bewitching parts of the world. +I was as reckless and foolish as only young men can be. +This is why wars get fought. +But I also felt more alive than I've ever done since. +And when I came home, I found the scope of my existence gradually diminishing until loading the dishwasher seemed like an interesting challenge. +And I found myself sort of scratching at the walls of life, as if I was trying to find a way out into a wider space beyond. +I was, I believe, ecologically bored. +Now, we evolved in rather more challenging times than these, in a world of horns and tusks and fangs and claws. +And we still possess the fear and the courage and the aggression required to navigate those times. +But in our comfortable, safe, crowded lands, we have few opportunities to exercise them without harming other people. +And this was the sort of constraint that I found myself bumping up against. +To conquer uncertainty, to know what comes next, that's almost been the dominant aim of industrialized societies, and having got there, or almost got there, we have just encountered a new set of unmet needs. +We've privileged safety over experience and we've gained a lot in doing so, but I think we've lost something too. +Now, I don't romanticize evolutionary time. +I'm already beyond the lifespan of most hunter-gatherers, and the outcome of a mortal combat between me myopically stumbling around with a stone-tipped spear and an enraged giant aurochs isn't very hard to predict. +Nor was it authenticity that I was looking for. +I don't find that a useful or even intelligible concept. +I just wanted a richer and rawer life than I've been able to lead in Britain, or, indeed, that we can lead in most parts of the industrialized world. +And it was only when I stumbled across an unfamiliar word that I began to understand what I was looking for. +And as soon as I found that word, I realized that I wanted to devote much of the rest of my life to it. +The word is "rewilding," and even though rewilding is a young word, it already has several definitions. +But there are two in particular that fascinate me. +The first one is the mass restoration of ecosystems. +One of the most exciting scientific findings of the past half century has been the discovery of widespread trophic cascades. +A trophic cascade is an ecological process which starts at the top of the food chain and tumbles all the way down to the bottom, and the classic example is what happened in the Yellowstone National Park in the United States when wolves were reintroduced in 1995. +Now, we all know that wolves kill various species of animals, but perhaps we're slightly less aware that they give life to many others. +It sounds strange, but just follow me for a while. +Before the wolves turned up, they'd been absent for 70 years. +The numbers of deer, because there was nothing to hunt them, had built up and built up in the Yellowstone Park, and despite efforts by humans to control them, they'd managed to reduce much of the vegetation there to almost nothing, they'd just grazed it away. +But as soon as the wolves arrived, even though they were few in number, they started to have the most remarkable effects. +First, of course, they killed some of the deer, but that wasn't the major thing. +Much more significantly, they radically changed the behavior of the deer. +The deer started avoiding certain parts of the park, the places where they could be trapped most easily, particularly the valleys and the gorges, and immediately those places started to regenerate. +In some areas, the height of the trees quintupled in just six years. +Bare valley sides quickly became forests of aspen and willow and cottonwood. +And as soon as that happened, the birds started moving in. +The number of songbirds, of migratory birds, started to increase greatly. +The number of beavers started to increase, because beavers like to eat the trees. +And beavers, like wolves, are ecosystem engineers. +They create niches for other species. +And the dams they built in the rivers provided habitats for otters and muskrats and ducks and fish and reptiles and amphibians. +The wolves killed coyotes, and as a result of that, the number of rabbits and mice began to rise, which meant more hawks, more weasels, more foxes, more badgers. +Ravens and bald eagles came down to feed on the carrion that the wolves had left. +Bears fed on it too, and their population began to rise as well, partly also because there were more berries growing on the regenerating shrubs, and the bears reinforced the impact of the wolves by killing some of the calves of the deer. +But here's where it gets really interesting. +The wolves changed the behavior of the rivers. +They began to meander less. +There was less erosion. The channels narrowed. +More pools formed, more riffle sections, all of which were great for wildlife habitats. +The rivers changed in response to the wolves, and the reason was that the regenerating forests stabilized the banks so that they collapsed less often, so that the rivers became more fixed in their course. +Similarly, by driving the deer out of some places and the vegetation recovering on the valley sides, there was less soil erosion, because the vegetation stabilized that as well. +So the wolves, small in number, transformed not just the ecosystem of the Yellowstone National Park, this huge area of land, but also its physical geography. +Whales in the southern oceans have similarly wide-ranging effects. +One of the many post-rational excuses made by the Japanese government for killing whales is that they said, "Well, the number of fish and krill will rise and then there'll be more for people to eat." +Well, it's a stupid excuse, but it sort of kind of makes sense, doesn't it, because you'd think that whales eat huge amounts of fish and krill, so obviously take the whales away, there'll be more fish and krill. +But the opposite happened. +You take the whales away, and the number of krill collapses. +Why would that possibly have happened? +The other thing that whales do is that, as they're plunging up and down through the water column, they're kicking the phytoplankton back up towards the surface where it can continue to survive and reproduce. +And interestingly, well, we know that plant plankton in the oceans absorb carbon from the atmosphere -- the more plant plankton there are, the more carbon they absorb -- and eventually they filter down into the abyss and remove that carbon from the atmospheric system. +Well, it seems that when whales were at their historic populations, they were probably responsible for sequestering some tens of millions of tons of carbon every year from the atmosphere. +And when you look at it like that, you think, wait a minute, here are the wolves changing the physical geography of the Yellowstone National Park. +Here are the whales changing the composition of the atmosphere. +You begin to see that possibly, the evidence supporting James Lovelock's Gaia hypothesis, which conceives of the world as a coherent, self-regulating organism, is beginning, at the ecosystem level, to accumulate. +Trophic cascades tell us that the natural world is even more fascinating and complex than we thought it was. +They tell us that when you take away the large animals, you are left with a radically different ecosystem to one which retains its large animals. +And they make, in my view, a powerful case for the reintroduction of missing species. +Rewilding, to me, means bringing back some of the missing plants and animals. +It means taking down the fences, it means blocking the drainage ditches, it means preventing commercial fishing in some large areas of sea, but otherwise stepping back. +It has no view as to what a right ecosystem or a right assemblage of species looks like. +It doesn't try to produce a heath or a meadow or a rain forest or a kelp garden or a coral reef. +It lets nature decide, and nature, by and large, is pretty good at deciding. +Now, I mentioned that there are two definitions of rewilding that interest me. +The other one is the rewilding of human life. +And I don't see this as an alternative to civilization. +I believe we can enjoy the benefits of advanced technology, as we're doing now, but at the same time, if we choose, have access to a richer and wilder life of adventure when we want to because there would be wonderful, rewilded habitats. +And the opportunities for this are developing more rapidly than you might think possible. +There's one estimate which suggests that in the United States, two thirds of the land which was once forested and then cleared has become reforested as loggers and farmers have retreated, particularly from the eastern half of the country. +There's another one which suggests that 30 million hectares of land in Europe, an area the size of Poland, will be vacated by farmers between 2000 and 2030. +Now, faced with opportunities like that, does it not seem a little unambitious to be thinking only of bringing back wolves, lynx, bears, beavers, bison, boar, moose, and all the other species which are already beginning to move quite rapidly across Europe? +Perhaps we should also start thinking about the return of some of our lost megafauna. +What megafauna, you say? +Well, every continent had one, apart from Antarctica. +When Trafalgar Square in London was excavated, the river gravels there were found to be stuffed with the bones of hippopotamus, rhinos, elephants, hyenas, lions. +Yes, ladies and gentlemen, there were lions in Trafalgar Square long before Nelson's Column was built. +All these species lived here in the last interglacial period, when temperatures were pretty similar to our own. +It's not climate, largely, which has got rid of the world's megafaunas. +It's pressure from the human population hunting and destroying their habitats which has done so. +And even so, you can still see the shadows of these great beasts in our current ecosystems. +Why is it that so many deciduous trees are able to sprout from whatever point the trunk is broken? +Why is it that they can withstand the loss of so much of their bark? +Why do understory trees, which are subject to lower sheer forces from the wind and have to carry less weight than the big canopy trees, why are they so much tougher and harder to break than the canopy trees are? +Elephants. +They are elephant-adapted. +In Europe, for example, they evolved to resist the straight-tusked elephant, elephas antiquus, which was a great beast. +It was related to the Asian elephant, but it was a temperate animal, a temperate forest creature. +It was a lot bigger than the Asian elephant. +But why is it that some of our common shrubs have spines which seem to be over-engineered to resist browsing by deer? +Perhaps because they evolved to resist browsing by rhinoceros. +Isn't it an amazing thought that every time you wander into a park or down an avenue or through a leafy street, you can see the shadows of these great beasts? +Paleoecology, the study of past ecosystems, crucial to an understanding of our own, feels like a portal through which you may pass into an enchanted kingdom. +And if we really are looking at areas of land of the sort of sizes I've been talking about becoming available, why not reintroduce some of our lost megafauna, or at least species closely related to those which have become extinct everywhere? +Why shouldn't all of us have a Serengeti on our doorsteps? +And perhaps this is the most important thing that rewilding offers us, the most important thing that's missing from our lives: hope. +In motivating people to love and defend the natural world, an ounce of hope is worth a ton of despair. +The story rewilding tells us is that ecological change need not always proceed in one direction. +It offers us the hope that our silent spring could be replaced by a raucous summer. +Thank you. +This is Charley Williams. +He was 94 when this photograph was taken. +In the 1930s, Roosevelt put thousands and thousands of Americans back to work by building bridges and infrastructure and tunnels, but he also did something interesting, which was to hire a few hundred writers to scour America to capture the stories of ordinary Americans. +Charley Williams, a poor sharecropper, wouldn't ordinarily be the subject of a big interview, but Charley had actually been a slave until he was 22 years old. +And the stories that were captured of his life make up one of the crown jewels of histories, of human-lived experiences filled with ex-slaves. +Anna Deavere Smith famously said that there's a literature inside of each of us, and three generations later, I was part of a project called StoryCorps, which set out to capture the stories of ordinary Americans by setting up a soundproof booth in public spaces. +The idea is very, very simple. +You go into these booths, you interview your grandmother or relative, you leave with a copy of the interview and an interview goes into the Library of Congress. +It's essentially a way to make a national oral histories archive one conversation at a time. +And the question is, who do you want to remember -- if you had just 45 minutes with your grandmother? +I'm going to play you just a couple of quick excerpts from the project. +[Jesus Melendez talking about poet Pedro Pietri's final moments] Jesus Melendez: We took off, and as we were ascending, before we had leveled off, our level-off point was 45,000 feet, so before we had leveled off, Pedro began leaving us, and the beauty about it is that I believe that there's something after life. +You can see it in Pedro. +[Michael Wolmetz with his girlfriend Debora Brakarz] Michael Wolmetz: So this is the ring that my father gave to my mother, and we can leave it there. +And he saved up and he purchased this, and he proposed to my mother with this, and so I thought that I would give it to you so that he could be with us for this also. +So I'm going to share a mic with you right now, Debora. +Where's the right finger? +Debora Brakarz: MW: Debora, will you please marry me? +DB: Yes. Of course. I love you. +MW: So kids, this is how your mother and I got married, in a booth in Grand Central Station with my father's ring. +My grandfather was a cab driver for 40 years. +He used to pick people up here every day. +So it seems right. +Jake Barton: So I have to say I did not actually choose those individual samples to make you cry because they all make you cry. +The entire project is predicated on this act of love which is listening itself. +And that motion of building an institution out of a moment of conversation and listening is actually a lot of what my firm, Local Projects, is doing with our engagements in general. +So we're a media design firm, and we're working with a broad array of different institutions building media installations for museums and public spaces. +Our latest engagement is the Cleveland Museum of Art, which we've created an engagement called Gallery One for. +And Gallery One is an interesting project because it started with this massive, $350 million expansion for the Cleveland Museum of Art, and we actually brought in this piece specifically to grow new capacity, new audiences, at the same time that the museum itself is growing. +Glenn Lowry, the head of MoMA, put it best when he said, "We want visitors to actually cease being visitors. +Visitors are transient. We want people who live here, people who have ownership." +So, for example, you can click on this individual lion head, and this is where it originated from, 1300 B.C. +Or this individual piece here, you can see the actual bedroom. It really changes the way you think about this type of a tempera painting. +This is one of my favorites because you see the studio itself. +This is Rodin's bust. You get the sense of this incredible factory for creativity. +And it makes you think about literally the hundreds or thousands of years of human creativity and how each individual artwork stands in for part of that story. +This is Picasso, of course embodying so much of it from the 20th century. +And so our next interface, which I'll show you, actually leverages that idea of this lineage of creativity. +It's an algorithm that actually allows you to browse the actual museum's collection using facial recognition. +So this person's making different faces, and it's actually drawing forth different objects from the collection that connect with exactly how she's looking. +And so you can imagine that, as people are performing inside of the museum itself, you get this sense of this emotional connection, this way in which our face connects with the thousands and tens of thousands of years. +This is an interface that actually allows you to draw and then draws forth objects using those same shapes. +So more and more we're trying to find ways for people to actually author things inside of the museums themselves, to be creative even as they're looking at other people's creativity and understanding them. +So in this wall, the collections wall, you can actually see all 3,000 artworks all at the same time, and you can actually author your own individual walking tours of the museum, so you can share them, and someone can take a tour with the museum director or a tour with their little cousin. +But all the while that we've been working on this engagement for Cleveland, we've also been working in the background on really our largest engagement to date, and that's the 9/11 Memorial and Museum. +So we started in 2006 as part of a team with Thinc Design to create the original master plan for the museum, and then we've done all the media design both for the museum and the memorial and then the media production. +So the memorial opened in 2011, and the museum's going to open next year in 2014. +And you can see from these images, the site is so raw and almost archaeological. +And of course the event itself is so recent, somewhere between history and current events, it was a huge challenge to imagine how do you actually live up to a space like this, an event like this, to actually tell that story. +And so what we started with was really a new way of thinking about building an institution, through a project called Make History, which we launched in 2009. +So it's estimated that a third of the world watched 9/11 live, and a third of the world heard about it within 24 hours, making it really by nature of when it happened, this unprecedented moment of global awareness. +And so we launched this to capture the stories from all around the world, through video, through photos, through written history, and so people's experiences on that day, which was, in fact, this huge risk for the institution to make its first move this open platform. +But that was coupled together with this oral histories booth, really the simplest we've ever made, where you locate yourself on a map. +It's in six languages, and you can tell your own story about what happened to you on that day. +This image in particular really captured our attention at the time, because it so much sums up that event. +This is a shot from the Brooklyn-Battery Tunnel. +There's a firefighter that's stuck, actually, in traffic, and so the firefighters themselves are running a mile and a half to the site itself with upwards of 70 pounds of gear on their back. +And we got this amazing email that said, "While viewing the thousands of photos on the site, I unexpectedly found a photo of my son. +It was a shock emotionally, yet a blessing to find this photo," and he was writing because he said, "I'd like to personally thank the photographer for posting the photo, as it meant more than words can describe to me to have access to what is probably the last photo ever taken of my son." +And it really made us recognize what this institution needed to be in order to actually tell that story. +We can't have just a historian or a curator narrating objectively in the third person about an event like that, when you have the witnesses to history who are going to make their way through the actual museum itself. +And so we started imagining the museum, along with the creative team at the museum and the curators, thinking about how the first voice that you would hear inside the museum would actually be of other visitors. +And so we created this idea of an opening gallery called We Remember. +And I'll just play you part of a mockup of it, but you get a sense of what it's like to actually enter into that moment in time and be transported back in history. +Voice 1: I was in Honolulu, Hawaii. Voice 2: I was in Cairo, Egypt. +Voice 3: Sur les Champs-lyses, Paris. Voice 4: In college, at U.C. Berkeley. +Voice 5: I was in Times Square. Voice 6: So Paolo, Brazil. +(Multiple voices) Voice 7: It was probably about 11 o'clock at night. +Voice 8: I was driving to work at 5:45 local time in the morning. +Voice 9: We were actually in a meeting when someone barged in and said, "Oh my God, a plane has just crashed into the World Trade Center." +Voice 10: Trying to frantically get to a radio. +Voice 11: When I heard it over the radio -- Voice 12: Heard it on the radio. +(Multiple voices) Voice 13: I got a call from my father. Voice 14: The phone rang, it woke me up. +My business partner told me to turn on the television. +Voice 15: So I switched on the television. +Voice 16: All channels in Italy were displaying the same thing. +Voice 17: The Twin Towers. Voice 18: The Twin Towers. +JB: And you move from there into that open, cavernous space. +This is the so-called slurry wall. +It's the original, excavated wall at the base of the World Trade Center that withstood the actual pressure from the Hudson River for a full year after the event itself. +And so we thought about carrying that sense of authenticity, of presence of that moment into the actual exhibition itself. +And we tell the stories of being inside the towers through that same audio collage, so you're hearing people literally talking about seeing the planes as they make their way into the building, or making their way down the stairwells. +And as you make your way into the exhibition where it talks about the recovery, we actually project directly onto these moments of twisted steel all of the experiences from people who literally excavated on top of the pile itself. +And so you can hear oral histories -- so people who were actually working the so-called bucket brigades as you're seeing literally the thousands of experiences from that moment. +And as you leave that storytelling moment understanding about 9/11, we then turn the museum back into a moment of listening and actually talk to the individual visitors and ask them their own experiences about 9/11. +And we ask them questions that are actually not really answerable, the types of questions that 9/11 itself draws forth for all of us. +And so these are questions like, "How can a democracy balance freedom and security?" +"How could 9/11 have happened?" +"And how did the world change after 9/11?" +And so these oral histories, which we've actually been capturing already for years, are then mixed together with interviews that we're doing with people like Donald Rumsfeld, Bill Clinton, Rudy Giuliani, and you mix together these different players and these different experiences, these different reflection points about 9/11. +And suddenly the institution, once again, turns into a listening experience. +So I'll play you just a short excerpt of a mockup that we made of a couple of these voices, but you really get a sense of the poetry of everyone's reflection on the event. +Voice 1: 9/11 was not just a New York experience. +Voice 2: It's something that we shared, and it's something that united us. +Voice 3: And I knew when I saw that, people who were there that day who immediately went to help people known and unknown to them was something that would pull us through. +Voice 4: All the outpouring of affection and emotion that came from our country was something really that will forever, ever stay with me. +Voice 5: Still today I pray and think about those who lost their lives, and those who gave their lives to help others, but I'm also reminded of the fabric of this country, the love, the compassIon, the strength, and I watched a nation come together in the middle of a terrible tragedy. +JB: And so as people make their way out of the museum, reflecting on the experience, reflecting on their own thoughts of it, they then move into the actual space of the memorial itself, because they've gone back up to grade, and we actually got involved in the memorial after we'd done the museum for a few years. +So these are groupings of the names themselves which appear undifferentiated but actually have an order, and we, along with Jer Thorp, created an algorithm to take massive amounts of data to actually start to connect together all these different names themselves. +And so when you go to the memorial, you can actually see the overarching organization inside of the individual pools themselves. +And more importantly, when you're actually at the site of the memorial, you can see those connections. +You can see the relationships between the different names themselves. +So suddenly what is this undifferentiated, anonymous group of names springs into reality as an individual life. +In this case, Harry Ramos, who was the head trader at an investment bank, who stopped to aid Victor Wald on the 55th floor of the South Tower. +And Ramos told Wald, according to witnesses, "I'm not going to leave you." +And Wald's widow requested that they be listed next to each other. +Three generations ago, we had to actually get people to go out and capture the stories for common people. +Today, of course, there's an unprecedented amount of stories for all of us that are being captured for future generations. +And this is our hope, that's there's poetry inside of each of our stories. +Thank you very much. +When I was about three or four years old, I remember my mum reading a story to me and my two big brothers, and I remember putting up my hands to feel the page of the book, to feel the picture they were discussing. +And my mum said, "Darling, remember that you can't see and you can't feel the picture and you can't feel the print on the page." +And I thought to myself, "But that's what I want to do. +I love stories. I want to read." +Little did I know that I would be part of a technological revolution that would make that dream come true. +I was born premature by about 10 weeks, which resulted in my blindness, some 64 years ago. +The condition is known as retrolental fibroplasia, and it's now very rare in the developed world. +Little did I know, lying curled up in my prim baby humidicrib in 1948 that I'd been born at the right place and the right time, that I was in a country where I could participate in the technological revolution. +There are 37 million totally blind people on our planet, but those of us who've shared in the technological changes mainly come from North America, Europe, Japan and other developed parts of the world. +Computers have changed the lives of us all in this room and around the world, but I think they've changed the lives of we blind people more than any other group. +And so I want to tell you about the interaction between computer-based adaptive technology and the many volunteers who helped me over the years to become the person I am today. +It's an interaction between volunteers, passionate inventors and technology, and it's a story that many other blind people could tell. +But let me tell you a bit about it today. +When I was five, I went to school and I learned braille. +It's an ingenious system of six dots that are punched into paper, and I can feel them with my fingers. +In fact, I think they're putting up my grade six report. +I don't know where Julian Morrow got that from. +I was pretty good in reading, but religion and musical appreciation needed more work. +When you leave the opera house, you'll find there's braille signage in the lifts. +Look for it. Have you noticed it? +I do. I look for it all the time. +When I was at school, the books were transcribed by transcribers, voluntary people who punched one dot at a time so I'd have volumes to read, and that had been going on, mainly by women, since the late 19th century in this country, but it was the only way I could read. +When I was in high school, I got my first Philips reel-to-reel tape recorder, and tape recorders became my sort of pre-computer medium of learning. +I could have family and friends read me material, and I could then read it back as many times as I needed. +And it brought me into contact with volunteers and helpers. +For example, when I studied at graduate school at Queen's University in Canada, the prisoners at the Collins Bay jail agreed to help me. +I gave them a tape recorder, and they read into it. +As one of them said to me, "Ron, we ain't going anywhere at the moment." +But think of it. These men, who hadn't had the educational opportunities I'd had, helped me gain post-graduate qualifications in law by their dedicated help. +Well, I went back and became an academic at Melbourne's Monash University, and for those 25 years, tape recorders were everything to me. +In fact, in my office in 1990, I had 18 miles of tape. +Students, family and friends all read me material. +Mrs. Lois Doery, whom I later came to call my surrogate mum, read me many thousands of hours onto tape. +One of the reasons I agreed to give this talk today was that I was hoping that Lois would be here so I could introduce you to her and publicly thank her. +But sadly, her health hasn't permitted her to come today. +But I thank you here, Lois, from this platform. +I saw my first Apple computer in 1984, and I thought to myself, "This thing's got a glass screen, not much use to me." +How very wrong I was. +In 1987, in the month our eldest son Gerard was born, I got my first blind computer, and it's actually here. +See it up there? +And you see it has no, what do you call it, no screen. +It's a blind computer. +It's a Keynote Gold 84k, and the 84k stands for it had 84 kilobytes of memory. +Don't laugh, it cost me 4,000 dollars at the time. I think there's more memory in my watch. +It was invented by Russell Smith, a passionate inventor in New Zealand who was trying to help blind people. +Sadly, he died in a light plane crash in 2005, but his memory lives on in my heart. +It meant, for the first time, I could read back what I had typed into it. +It had a speech synthesizer. +I'd written my first coauthored labor law book on a typewriter in 1979 purely from memory. +This now allowed me to read back what I'd written and to enter the computer world, even with its 84k of memory. +In 1974, the great Ray Kurzweil, the American inventor, worked on building a machine that would scan books and read them out in synthetic speech. +Optical character recognition units then only operated usually on one font, but by using charge-coupled device flatbed scanners and speech synthesizers, he developed a machine that could read any font. +And his machine, which was as big as a washing machine, was launched on the 13th of January, 1976. +I saw my first commercially available Kurzweil in March 1989, and it blew me away, and in September 1989, the month that my associate professorship at Monash University was announced, the law school got one, and I could use it. +For the first time, I could read what I wanted to read by putting a book on the scanner. +I didn't have to be nice to people! +I no longer would be censored. +For example, I was too shy then, and I'm actually too shy now, to ask anybody to read me out loud sexually explicit material. +But, you know, I could pop a book on in the middle of the night, and -- Now, the Kurzweil reader is simply a program on my laptop. +That's what it's shrunk to. +And now I can scan the latest novel and not wait to get it into talking book libraries. +I can keep up with my friends. +There are many people who have helped me in my life, and many that I haven't met. +One is another American inventor Ted Henter. +Ted was a motorcycle racer, but in 1978 he had a car accident and lost his sight, which is devastating if you're trying to ride motorbikes. +He then turned to being a waterskier and was a champion disabled waterskier. +But in 1989, he teamed up with Bill Joyce to develop a program that would read out what was on the computer screen from the Net or from what was on the computer. +It's called JAWS, Job Access With Speech, and it sounds like this. +(JAWS speaking) Ron McCallum: Isn't that slow? +You see, if I read like that, I'd fall asleep. +I slowed it down for you. +I'm going to ask that we play it at the speed I read it. +Can we play that one? +(JAWS speaking) RM: You know, when you're marking student essays, you want to get through them fairly quickly. +This technology that fascinated me in 1987 is now on my iPhone and on yours as well. +But, you know, I find reading with machines a very lonely process. +I grew up with family, friends, reading to me, and I loved the warmth and the breath and the closeness of people reading. +Do you love being read to? +And one of my most enduring memories is in 1999, Mary reading to me and the children down near Manly Beach "Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone." +Isn't that a great book? +I still love being close to someone reading to me. +But I wouldn't give up the technology, because it's allowed me to lead a great life. +Of course, talking books for the blind predated all this technology. +After all, the long-playing record was developed in the early 1930s, and now we put talking books on CDs using the digital access system known as DAISY. +But when I'm reading with synthetic voices, I love to come home and read a racy novel with a real voice. +Now there are still barriers in front of we people with disabilities. +Many websites we can't read using JAWS and the other technologies. +Websites are often very visual, and there are all these sorts of graphs that aren't labeled and buttons that aren't labeled, and that's why the World Wide Web Consortium 3, known as W3C, has developed worldwide standards for the Internet. +And we want all Internet users or Internet site owners to make their sites compatible so that we persons without vision can have a level playing field. +There are other barriers brought about by our laws. +For example, Australia, like about one third of the world's countries, has copyright exceptions which allow books to be brailled or read for we blind persons. +But those books can't travel across borders. +For example, in Spain, there are a 100,000 accessible books in Spanish. +In Argentina, there are 50,000. +In no other Latin American country are there more than a couple of thousand. +But it's not legal to transport the books from Spain to Latin America. +There are hundreds of thousands of accessible books in the United States, Britain, Canada, Australia, etc., but they can't be transported to the 60 countries in our world where English is the first and the second language. +And remember I was telling you about Harry Potter. +Well, because we can't transport books across borders, there had to be separate versions read in all the different English-speaking countries: Britain, United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand all had to have separate readings of Harry Potter. +And that's why, next month in Morocco, a meeting is taking place between all the countries. +I want that to happen. +My life has been extraordinarily blessed with marriage and children and certainly interesting work to do, whether it be at the University of Sydney Law School, where I served a term as dean, or now as I sit on the United Nations Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, in Geneva. +I've indeed been a very fortunate human being. +I wonder what the future will hold. +The technology will advance even further, but I can still remember my mum saying, 60 years ago, "Remember, darling, you'll never be able to read the print with your fingers." +I'm so glad that the interaction between braille transcribers, volunteer readers and passionate inventors, has allowed this dream of reading to come true for me and for blind people throughout the world. +I'd like to thank my researcher Hannah Martin, who is my slide clicker, who clicks the slides, and my wife, Professor Mary Crock, who's the light of my life, is coming on to collect me. +I want to thank her too. +I think I have to say goodbye now. +Bless you. Thank you very much. +Yay! Okay. Okay. Okay. Okay. Okay. +I'm going to be showing some of the cybercriminals' latest and nastiest creations. +So basically, please don't go and download any of the viruses that I show you. +Some of you might be wondering what a cybersecurity specialist looks like, and I thought I'd give you a quick insight into my career so far. +It's a pretty accurate description. +This is what someone that specializes in malware and hacking looks like. +So today, computer viruses and trojans, designed to do everything from stealing data to watching you in your webcam to the theft of billions of dollars. +Some malicious code today goes as far as targeting power, utilities and infrastructure. +Let me give you a quick snapshot of what malicious code is capable of today. +Right now, every second, eight new users are joining the Internet. +Today, we will see 250,000 individual new computer viruses. +We will see 30,000 new infected websites. +And, just to kind of tear down a myth here, lots of people think that when you get infected with a computer virus, it's because you went to a porn site. +Right? Well, actually, statistically speaking, if you only visit porn sites, you're safer. +People normally write that down, by the way. Actually, about 80 percent of these are small business websites getting infected. +Today's cybercriminal, what do they look like? +Well, many of you have the image, don't you, of the spotty teenager sitting in a basement, hacking away for notoriety. +But actually today, cybercriminals are wonderfully professional and organized. +In fact, they have product adverts. +You can go online and buy a hacking service to knock your business competitor offline. +Check out this one I found. +Man: So you're here for one reason, and that reason is because you need your business competitors, rivals, haters, or whatever the reason is, or who, they are to go down. +Well you, my friend, you've came to the right place. +If you want your business competitors to go down, well, they can. +If you want your rivals to go offline, well, they will. +Not only that, we are providing a short-term-to-long-term DDOS service or scheduled attack, starting five dollars per hour for small personal websites to 10 to 50 dollars per hour. +James Lyne: Now, I did actually pay one of these cybercriminals to attack my own website. +Things got a bit tricky when I tried to expense it at the company. +Turns out that's not cool. +But regardless, it's amazing how many products and services are available now to cybercriminals. +For example, this testing platform, which enables the cybercriminals to test the quality of their viruses before they release them on the world. +For a small fee, they can upload it and make sure everything is good. +But it goes further. +Cybercriminals now have crime packs with business intelligence reporting dashboards to manage the distribution of their malicious code. +This is the market leader in malware distribution, the Black Hole Exploit Pack, responsible for nearly one third of malware distribution in the last couple of quarters. +It comes with technical installation guides, video setup routines, and get this, technical support. +You can email the cybercriminals and they'll tell you how to set up your illegal hacking server. +So let me show you what malicious code looks like today. +What I've got here is two systems, an attacker, which I've made look all Matrix-y and scary, and a victim, which you might recognize from home or work. +Now normally, these would be on different sides of the planet or of the Internet, but I've put them side by side because it makes things much more interesting. +Now, there are many ways you can get infected. +You will have come in contact with some of them. +Maybe some of you have received an email that says something like, "Hi, I'm a Nigerian banker, and I'd like to give you 53 billion dollars because I like your face." +Or funnycats.exe, which rumor has it was quite successful in China's recent campaign against America. +Now there are many ways you can get infected. +I want to show you a couple of my favorites. +This is a little USB key. +Now how do you get a USB key to run in a business? +Well, you could try looking really cute. +Awww. +Or, in my case, awkward and pathetic. +So imagine this scenario: I walk into one of your businesses, looking very awkward and pathetic, with a copy of my C.V. +which I've covered in coffee, and I ask the receptionist to plug in this USB key and print me a new one. +So let's have a look here on my victim computer. +What I'm going to do is plug in the USB key. +After a couple of seconds, things start to happen on the computer on their own, usually a bad sign. +This would, of course, normally happen in a couple of seconds, really, really quickly, but I've kind of slowed it down so you can actually see the attack occurring. +Malware is very boring otherwise. +So this is writing out the malicious code, and a few seconds later, on the left-hand side, you'll see the attacker's screen get some interesting new text. +Now if I place the mouse cursor over it, this is what we call a command prompt, and using this we can navigate around the computer. +We can access your documents, your data. +You can turn on the webcam. +That can be very embarrassing. +Or just to really prove a point, we can launch programs like my personal favorite, the Windows Calculator. +So isn't it amazing how much control the attackers can get with such a simple operation? +Let me show you how most malware is now distributed today. +What I'm going to do is open up a website that I wrote. +It's a terrible website. It's got really awful graphics. +And it's got a comments section here where we can submit comments to the website. +Many of you will have used something a bit like this before. +Unfortunately, when this was implemented, the developer was slightly inebriated and managed to forget all of the secure coding practices he had learned. +So let's imagine that our attacker, called Evil Hacker just for comedy value, inserts something a little nasty. +This is a script. +It's code which will be interpreted on the webpage. +So I'm going to submit this post, and then, on my victim computer, I'm going to open up the web browser and browse to my website, www.incrediblyhacked.com. +Notice that after a couple of seconds, I get redirected. +That website address at the top there, which you can just about see, microshaft.com, the browser crashes as it hits one of these exploit packs, and up pops fake antivirus. +This is a virus pretending to look like antivirus software, and it will go through and it will scan the system, have a look at what its popping up here. +It creates some very serious alerts. +Oh look, a child porn proxy server. +We really should clean that up. +What's really insulting about this is not only does it provide the attackers with access to your data, but when the scan finishes, they tell you in order to clean up the fake viruses, you have to register the product. +Now I liked it better when viruses were free. +People now pay cybercriminals money to run viruses, which I find utterly bizarre. +So anyway, let me change pace a little bit. +Chasing 250,000 pieces of malware a day is a massive challenge, and those numbers are only growing directly in proportion to the length of my stress line, you'll note here. +So I want to talk to you briefly about a group of hackers we tracked for a year and actually found -- and this is a rare treat in our job. +Now this was a cross-industry collaboration, people from Facebook, independent researchers, guys from Sophos. +So here we have a couple of documents which our cybercriminals had uploaded to a cloud service, kind of like Dropbox or SkyDrive, like many of you might use. +At the top, you'll notice a section of source code. +What this would do is send the cybercriminals a text message every day telling them how much money they'd made that day, so a kind of cybercriminal billings report, if you will. +If you look closely, you'll notice a series of what are Russian telephone numbers. +Now that's obviously interesting, because that gives us a way of finding our cybercriminals. +Down below, highlighted in red, in the other section of source code, is this bit "leded:leded." +That's a username, kind of like you might have on Twitter. +So let's take this a little further. +There are a few other interesting pieces the cybercriminals had uploaded. +Lots of you here will use smartphones to take photos and post them from the conference. +An interesting feature of lots of modern smartphones is that when you take a photo, it embeds GPS data about where that photo was taken. +And our cybercriminals had done the same thing. +So here's a photo which resolves to St. Petersburg. +We then deploy the incredibly advanced hacking tool. +We used Google. +Using the email address, the telephone number and the GPS data, on the left you see an advert for a BMW that one of our cybercriminals is selling, on the other side an advert for the sale of sphynx kittens. +One of these was more stereotypical for me. +A little more searching, and here's our cybercriminal. +Imagine, these are hardened cybercriminals sharing information scarcely. +Imagine what you could find about each of the people in this room. +A bit more searching through the profile and there's a photo of their office. +They were working on the third floor. +And you can also see some photos from his business companion where he has a taste in a certain kind of image. +It turns out he's a member of the Russian Adult Webmasters Federation. +But this is where our investigation starts to slow down. +The cybercriminals have locked down their profiles quite well. +And herein is the greatest lesson of social media and mobile devices for all of us right now. +Our friends, our families and our colleagues can break our security even when we do the right things. +This is MobSoft, one of the companies that this cybercriminal gang owned, and an interesting thing about MobSoft is the 50-percent owner of this posted a job advert, and this job advert matched one of the telephone numbers from the code earlier. +This woman was Maria, and Maria is the wife of one of our cybercriminals. +And it's kind of like she went into her social media settings and clicked on every option imaginable to make herself really, really insecure. +By the end of the investigation, where you can read the full 27-page report at that link, we had photos of the cybercriminals, even the office Christmas party when they were out on an outing. +That's right, cybercriminals do have Christmas parties, as it turns out. +Now you're probably wondering what happened to these guys. +Let me come back to that in just a minute. +I want to change pace to one last little demonstration, a technique that is wonderfully simple and basic, but is interesting in exposing how much information we're all giving away, and it's relevant because it applies to us as a TED audience. +This is normally when people start kind of shuffling in their pockets trying to turn their phones onto airplane mode desperately. +Many of you all know about the concept of scanning for wireless networks. +You do it every time you take out your iPhone or your Blackberry and connect to something like TEDAttendees. +But what you might not know is that you're also beaming out a list of networks you've previously connected to, even when you're not using wireless actively. +So I ran a little scan. +I was relatively inhibited compared to the cybercriminals, who wouldn't be so concerned by law, and here you can see my mobile device. +Okay? So you can see a list of wireless networks. +TEDAttendees, HyattLB. Where do you think I'm staying? +My home network, PrettyFlyForAWifi, which I think is a great name. +Sophos_Visitors, SANSEMEA, companies I work with. +Loganwifi, that's in Boston. HiltonLondon. +CIASurveillanceVan. +We called it that at one of our conferences because we thought that would freak people out, which is quite fun. +This is how geeks party. +So let's make this a little bit more interesting. +Let's talk about you. +Twenty-three percent of you have been to Starbucks recently and used the wireless network. +Things get more interesting. +Forty-six percent of you I could link to a business, XYZ Employee network. +This isn't an exact science, but it gets pretty accurate. +Seven hundred and sixty-one of you I could identify a hotel you'd been to recently, absolutely with pinpoint precision somewhere on the globe. +Two hundred and thirty-four of you, well, I know where you live. +Your wireless network name is so unique that I was able to pinpoint it using data available openly on the Internet with no hacking or clever, clever tricks. +And I should mention as well that some of you do use your names, "James Lyne's iPhone," for example. +And two percent of you have a tendency to extreme profanity. +So something for you to think about: As we adopt these new applications and mobile devices, as we play with these shiny new toys, how much are we trading off convenience for privacy and security? +Next time you install something, look at the settings and ask yourself, "Is this information that I want to share? +Would someone be able to abuse it?" +We also need to think very carefully about how we develop our future talent pool. +You see, technology's changing at a staggering rate, and that 250,000 pieces of malware won't stay the same for long. +There's a very concerning trend that whilst many people coming out of schools now are much more technology-savvy, they know how to use technology, fewer and fewer people are following the feeder subjects to know how that technology works under the covers. +In the U.K., a 60 percent reduction since 2003, and there are similar statistics all over the world. +We also need to think about the legal issues in this area. +The cybercriminals I talked about, despite theft of millions of dollars, actually still haven't been arrested, and at this point possibly never will. +Most laws are national in their implementation, despite cybercrime conventions, where the Internet is borderless and international by definition. +Countries do not agree, which makes this area exceptionally challenging from a legal perspective. +But my biggest ask is this: You see, you're going to leave here and you're going to see some astonishing stories in the news. +You're going to read about malware doing incredible and terrifying, scary things. +However, 99 percent of it works because people fail to do the basics. +So my ask is this: Go online, find these simple best practices, find out how to update and patch your computer. +Get a secure password. +Make sure you use a different password on each of your sites and services online. +Find these resources. Apply them. +The Internet is a fantastic resource for business, for political expression, for art and for learning. +Help me and the security community make life much, much more difficult for cybercriminals. +Thank you. +Do you think it's possible to control someone's attention? +Even more than that, what about predicting human behavior? +I think those are interesting ideas. +For me, that would be the perfect superpower, actually kind of an evil way of approaching it. +But for myself, in the past, I've spent the last 20 years studying human behavior from a rather unorthodox way: picking pockets. +When we think of misdirection, we think of something as looking off to the side, when actually the things right in front of us are often the hardest to see, the things that you look at every day that you're blinded to. +For example, how many of you still have your cell phones on you right now? +Great. Double-check. +Make sure you still have them. +I was doing some shopping before. +You've looked at them a few times today, but I'll ask you a question. +Without looking at it directly yet, can you remember the icon in the bottom right corner? +Bring them out, check and see how accurate you were. +How'd you do? Show of hands. Did we get it? +Now that you're done, close them down. +Every phone has something in common. +No matter how you organize the icons, you still have a clock on the front. +So, without looking at your phone, what time was it? +You just looked at your clock, right? +Interesting idea. Let's take that a step further with a game of trust. +Close your eyes. +I realize I'm asking you to do that while you just heard there's a pickpocket in the room, but close your eyes. +Now, you've been watching me for about 30 seconds. +With your eyes closed, what am I wearing? +Make your best guess. +What color is my shirt? What color is my tie? +Now open your eyes. +Show of hands, were you right? +Interesting, isn't it? +Some of us are a little bit more perceptive than others, it seems. +But I have a different theory about that model of attention. +They have fancy models of attention, Posner's trinity model of attention. +For me, I like to think of it very simple, like a surveillance system. +It's kind of like you have all these fancy sensors, and inside your brain is a little security guard. +For me, I like to call him Frank. +So Frank is sitting at a desk. +He's got lots of cool information in front of him, high-tech equipment, he's got cameras, he's got a little phone that he can pick up, listen to the ears, all these senses, all these perceptions. +But attention is what steers your perceptions, it's what controls your reality. It's the gateway to the mind. +If you don't attend to something, you can't be aware of it. +But ironically, you can attend to something without being aware of it. +For example, the cocktail effect: You're in a party, having conversations with someone, and yet you can recognize your name without realizing you were listening to that. +Now, for my job, I have to play with techniques to exploit this, to play with your attention as a limited resource. +So if I could control how you spend your attention, if I could maybe steal your attention through a distraction. +Now, instead of doing it like misdirection and throwing it off to the side, instead, what I choose to focus on is Frank, to be able to play with the Frank inside your head, your security guard, and get you, instead of focusing on your external senses, just to go internal for a second. +So if I ask you to access a memory, like, what is that? +What just happened? Do you have a wallet? +Do you have an American Express in your wallet? +And when I do that, your Frank turns around. +He accesses the file. He has to rewind the tape. +What's interesting is, he can't rewind the tape at the same time that he's trying to process new data. +This sounds like a good theory, but I could talk for a long time, tell you lots of things, and a portion of them may be true, but I think it's better if I tried to show that to you here live. +If I come down, I'm going to do a bit of shopping. +Just hold still where you are. +Hello, how are you? It's lovely to see you. +Wonderful job onstage. +Lovely watch, it doesn't come off very well. +Do you have a ring as well? +Good. Just taking inventory. You're like a buffet. +Hard to tell where to start, so many great things. +Hi, how are you? Good to see you. +Hi, sir, could you stand up, please? Just right where you are. +You're married, you follow directions well. +Nice to meet you, sir. +You don't have a lot in your pockets. Anything down here? +Hopefully so. Have a seat. There you go. You're doing well. +Hi, sir, how are you? +Good to see you, sir. You have a ring, a watch. +Do you have a wallet on you? Joe: I don't. +AR: Well, we'll find one for you. Come on up this way, Joe. +Give Joe a round of applause. Come on up, Joe. Let's play a game. +AR: Pardon me. +I don't think I need this clicker anymore. +Thank you very much. I appreciate that. +Come on up to the stage, Joe. Let's play a little game now. +Anything in your front pockets? J: Money. +AR: Money! All right, let's try that. +Can you stand right over this way for me? +Turn around and, let's see, if I give you something that belongs to me, this is just something I have, a poker chip. +Hold out your hand for me. Watch it closely. +This is a task for you to focus on. +You have your money in your front pocket? +J: Yup. AR: Good. +I won't put my hand in your pocket. I'm not ready for that kind of commitment. +Once a guy had a hole in his pocket, and that was rather traumatizing for me. +I wanted his wallet, he gave me his number. +Big miscommunication. Let's do this simply. Squeeze your hand tight. +Do you feel the poker chip in your hand? J: I do. +AR: Would you be surprised if I took it? Say yes. +J: Very. AR: Good. +Open your hand. Thank you very much. +I'll cheat if you give me a chance. +Make it harder for me. Just use your hand. +Grab my wrist, but squeeze, squeeze firm. +Did you see it go? Joe: No. +AR: No, it's not here. Open your hand. +While we're focused on the hand, it's sitting on your shoulder. +Go ahead and take it off. +Now, let's try that again. +Hold your hand out flat. Open it up. +Put your hand up a little bit higher, but watch it close. +If I did it slowly, it'd be on your shoulder. +Joe, we're going to keep doing this till you catch it. +You'll get it eventually. I have faith in you. +Squeeze firm. You're human, you're not slow. +It's back on your shoulder. +You were focused on your hand, distracted. +While you were watching, I couldn't get your watch off. +Yet you had something inside your pocket. +Do you remember what it was? +J: Money. +AR: Check your pocket. Is it still there? Oh, there it was. Put it away. +We're just shopping. This trick's more about the timing. +I'm going to try to push it inside your hand. +Put your other hand on top, would you? +It's amazingly obvious now, isn't it? +Looks a lot like the watch I was wearing, doesn't it? +J: That's pretty good. AR: Oh, thanks. +But it's only a start. Let's try it a little bit differently. +Hold your hands together. Your other hand on top. +If you're watching this little token, this obviously has become a little target, like a red herring. +If we watch this kind of close, it looks like it goes away. +It's not back on your shoulder. +It falls out of the air, lands right back in the hand. +Did you see it go? +Yeah, funny. We've got a little guy. He's union, works up there all day. +If I do it slowly it goes straight away, it lands by your pocket. +Is it in this pocket, sir? +Don't reach in your pocket. That's a different show. +That's rather strange. They have shots for that. +Can I show them? Rather bizarre. Is this yours, sir? +I have no idea how that works. We'll send that over there. +I need help with this one. +Step over this way for me. +Don't run away. You had something down by your pants pocket. +I was checking mine. I couldn't find everything, but I noticed you had something here. +Can I feel the outside for a moment? +Down here I noticed this. Is this something of yours, sir? +I have no idea. That's a shrimp. +J: Yeah. I'm saving it for later. +AR: You've entertained all of these people in a wonderful way, better than you know. +So we'd love to give you this lovely watch as a gift. Hopefully it matches his taste. +We have a couple of other things, a little bit of cash. And we have a few other things, these all belong to you, along with a big round of applause from all your friends. Joe, thank you very much. +So, same question I asked you before, but this time you don't have to close your eyes. +What am I wearing? +(Applause ends) Attention is a powerful thing. +Like I said, it shapes your reality. +So, I guess I'd like to pose that question to you. +If you could control somebody's attention, what would you do with it? +Thank you. +This is our life with bees, and this is our life without bees. +Bees are the most important pollinators of our fruits and vegetables and flowers and crops like alfalfa hay that feed our farm animals. +More than one third of the world's crop production is dependent on bee pollination. +But the ironic thing is that bees are not out there pollinating our food intentionally. +They're out there because they need to eat. +Bees get all of the protein they need in their diet from pollen and all of the carbohydrates they need from nectar. +They're flower-feeders, and as they move from flower to flower, basically on a shopping trip at the local floral mart, they end up providing this valuable pollination service. +In parts of the world where there are no bees, or where they plant varieties that are not attractive to bees, people are paid to do the business of pollination by hand. +These people are moving pollen from flower to flower with a paintbrush. +Now this business of hand pollination is actually not that uncommon. +Tomato growers often pollinate their tomato flowers with a hand-held vibrator. +Now this one's the tomato tickler. Now this is because the pollen within a tomato flower is held very securely within the male part of the flower, the anther, and the only way to release this pollen is to vibrate it. +So bumblebees are one of the few kinds of bees in the world that are able to hold onto the flower and vibrate it, and they do this by shaking their flight muscles at a frequency similar to the musical note C. +So they vibrate the flower, they sonicate it, and that releases the pollen in this efficient swoosh, and the pollen gathers all over the fuzzy bee's body, and she takes it home as food. +Tomato growers now put bumblebee colonies inside the greenhouse to pollinate the tomatoes because they get much more efficient pollination when it's done naturally and they get better quality tomatoes. +So there's other, maybe more personal reasons, to care about bees. +There's over 20,000 species of bees in the world, and they're absolutely gorgeous. +These bees spend the majority of their life cycle hidden in the ground or within a hollow stem and very few of these beautiful species have evolved highly social behavior like honeybees. +Now honeybees tend to be the charismatic representative for the other 19,900-plus species because there's something about honeybees that draws people into their world. +Humans have been drawn to honeybees since early recorded history, mostly to harvest their honey, which is an amazing natural sweetener. +I got drawn into the honeybee world completely by a fluke. +I was 18 years old and bored, and I picked up a book in the library on bees and I spent the night reading it. +I had never thought about insects living in complex societies. +It was like the best of science fiction come true. +And even stranger, there were these people, these beekeepers, that loved their bees like they were family, and when I put down the book, I knew I had to see this for myself. +So I went to work for a commercial beekeeper, a family that owned 2,000 hives of bees in New Mexico. +And I was permanently hooked. +Honeybees can be considered a super-organism, where the colony is the organism and it's comprised of 40,000 to 50,000 individual bee organisms. +Now this society has no central authority. +Nobody's in charge. +So how they come to collective decisions, and how they allocate their tasks and divide their labor, how they communicate where the flowers are, all of their collective social behaviors are mindblowing. +My personal favorite, and one that I've studied for many years, is their system of healthcare. +So bees have social healthcare. +So in my lab, we study how bees keep themselves healthy. +For example, we study hygiene, where some bees are able to locate and weed out sick individuals from the nest, from the colony, and it keeps the colony healthy. +And more recently, we've been studying resins that bees collect from plants. +So bees fly to some plants and they scrape these very, very sticky resins off the leaves, and they take them back to the nest where they cement them into the nest architecture where we call it propolis. +We've found that propolis is a natural disinfectant. +It's a natural antibiotic. +It kills off bacteria and molds and other germs within the colony, and so it bolsters the colony health and their social immunity. +Humans have known about the power of propolis since biblical times. +We've been harvesting propolis out of bee colonies for human medicine, but we didn't know how good it was for the bees. +So honeybees have these remarkable natural defenses that have kept them healthy and thriving for over 50 million years. +So seven years ago, when honeybee colonies were reported to be dying en masse, first in the United States, it was clear that there was something really, really wrong. +In our collective conscience, in a really primal way, we know we can't afford to lose bees. +So what's going on? +Bees are dying from multiple and interacting causes, and I'll go through each of these. +The bottom line is, bees dying reflects a flowerless landscape and a dysfunctional food system. +Now we have the best data on honeybees, so I'll use them as an example. +In the United States, bees in fact have been in decline since World War II. +We have half the number of managed hives in the United States now compared to 1945. +We're down to about two million hives of bees, we think. +And the reason is, after World War II, we changed our farming practices. +We stopped planting cover crops. +We stopped planting clover and alfalfa, which are natural fertilizers that fix nitrogen in the soil, and instead we started using synthetic fertilizers. +Clover and alfalfa are highly nutritious food plants for bees. +And after World War II, we started using herbicides to kill off the weeds in our farms. +Many of these weeds are flowering plants that bees require for their survival. +And we started growing larger and larger crop monocultures. +Now we talk about food deserts, places in our cities, neighborhoods that have no grocery stores. +The very farms that used to sustain bees are now agricultural food deserts, dominated by one or two plant species like corn and soybeans. +Since World War II, we have been systematically eliminating many of the flowering plants that bees need for their survival. +And these monocultures extend even to crops that are good for bees, like almonds. +Fifty years ago, beekeepers would take a few colonies, hives of bees into the almond orchards, for pollination, and also because the pollen in an almond blossom is really high in protein. It's really good for bees. +Now, the scale of almond monoculture demands that most of our nation's bees, over 1.5 million hives of bees, be transported across the nation to pollinate this one crop. +And they're trucked in in semi-loads, and they must be trucked out, because after bloom, the almond orchards are a vast and flowerless landscape. +Bees have been dying over the last 50 years, and we're planting more crops that need them. +There has been a 300 percent increase in crop production that requires bee pollination. +And then there's pesticides. +After World War II, we started using pesticides on a large scale, and this became necessary because of the monocultures that put out a feast for crop pests. +This small bee is holding up a large mirror. +How much is it going to take to contaminate humans? +One of these class of insecticides, the neonicontinoids, is making headlines around the world right now. +You've probably heard about it. +This is a new class of insecticides. +It moves through the plant so that a crop pest, a leaf-eating insect, would take a bite of the plant and get a lethal dose and die. +And on top of everything else, bees have their own set of diseases and parasites. +Public enemy number one for bees is this thing. +It's called varroa destructor. +It's aptly named. +It's this big, blood-sucking parasite that compromises the bee's immune system and circulates viruses. +Let me put this all together for you. +But what if I lived in a food desert? +And what if I had to travel a long distance to get to the grocery store, and I finally got my weak body out there and I consumed, in my food, enough of a pesticide, a neurotoxin, that I couldn't find my way home? +And this is what we mean by multiple and interacting causes of death. +And it's not just our honeybees. +All of our beautiful wild species of bees are at risk, including those tomato-pollinating bumblebees. +These bees are providing backup for our honeybees. +They're providing the pollination insurance alongside our honeybees. +We need all of our bees. +So what are we going to do? +What are we going to do about this big bee bummer that we've created? +It turns out, it's hopeful. It's hopeful. +Every one of you out there can help bees in two very direct and easy ways. +Plant bee-friendly flowers, and don't contaminate these flowers, this bee food, with pesticides. +So go online and search for flowers that are native to your area and plant them. +Plant them in a pot on your doorstep. +Plant them in your front yard, in your lawns, in your boulevards. +Campaign to have them planted in public gardens, community spaces, meadows. +Set aside farmland. +We need a beautiful diversity of flowers that blooms over the entire growing season, from spring to fall. +We need roadsides seeded in flowers for our bees, but also for migrating butterflies and birds and other wildlife. +And we need to think carefully about putting back in cover crops to nourish our soil and nourish our bees. +And we need to diversify our farms. +We need to plant flowering crop borders and hedge rows to disrupt the agricultural food desert and begin to correct the dysfunctional food system that we've created. +So maybe it seems like a really small countermeasure to a big, huge problem -- just go plant flowers -- but when bees have access to good nutrition, we have access to good nutrition through their pollination services. +And when bees have access to good nutrition, they're better able to engage their own natural defenses, their healthcare, that they have relied on for millions of years. +So let the small act of planting flowers and keeping them free of pesticides be the driver of large-scale change. +On behalf of the bees, thank you. +Chris Anderson: Thank you. Just a quick question. +The latest numbers on the die-off of bees, is there any sign of things bottoming out? +What's your hope/depression level on this? +Maria Spivak: Yeah. +At least in the United States, an average of 30 percent of all bee hives are lost every winter. +About 20 years ago, we were at a 15-percent loss. +So it's getting precarious. +CA: That's not 30 percent a year, that's -- MS: Yes, thirty percent a year. +CA: Thirty percent a year. MS: But then beekeepers are able to divide their colonies and so they can maintain the same number, they can recuperate some of their loss. +We're kind of at a tipping point. +We can't really afford to lose that many more. +We need to be really appreciative of all the beekeepers out there. Plant flowers. +CA: Thank you. +Eric Berlow: I'm an ecologist, and Sean's a physicist, and we both study complex networks. +And we met a couple years ago when we discovered that we had both given a short TED Talk about the ecology of war, and we realized that we were connected by the ideas we shared before we ever met. +And then we thought, you know, there are thousands of other talks out there, especially TEDx Talks, that are popping up all over the world. +How are they connected, and what does that global conversation look like? +So Sean's going to tell you a little bit about how we did that. +Sean Gourley: Exactly. So we took 24,000 TEDx Talks from around the world, 147 different countries, and we took these talks and we wanted to find the mathematical structures that underly the ideas behind them. +And we wanted to do that so we could see how they connected with each other. +And so, of course, if you're going to do this kind of stuff, you need a lot of data. +So the data that you've got is a great thing called YouTube, and we can go down and basically pull all the open information from YouTube, all the comments, all the views, who's watching it, where are they watching it, what are they saying in the comments. +But we can also pull up, using speech-to-text translation, we can pull the entire transcript, and that works even for people with kind of funny accents like myself. +So we can take their transcript and actually do some pretty cool things. +We can take natural language processing algorithms to kind of read through with a computer, line by line, extracting key concepts from this. +And we take those key concepts and they sort of form this mathematical structure of an idea. +And we call that the meme-ome. +And the meme-ome, you know, quite simply, is the mathematics that underlies an idea, and we can do some pretty interesting analysis with it, which I want to share with you now. +So that's theory, that's great. +Let's see how it works in actual practice. +So what we've got here now is the global footprint of all the TEDx Talks over the last four years exploding out around the world from New York all the way down to little old New Zealand in the corner. +And what we did on this is we analyzed the top 25 percent of these, and we started to see where the connections occurred, where they connected with each other. +Cameron Russell talking about image and beauty connected over into Europe. +We've got a bigger conversation about Israel and Palestine radiating outwards from the Middle East. +And we've got something a little broader like big data with a truly global footprint reminiscent of a conversation that is happening everywhere. +So from this, we kind of run up against the limits of what we can actually do with a geographic projection, but luckily, computer technology allows us to go out into multidimensional space. +So we can take in our network projection and apply a physics engine to this, and the similar talks kind of smash together, and the different ones fly apart, and what we're left with is something quite beautiful. +EB: So I want to just point out here that every node is a talk, they're linked if they share similar ideas, and that comes from a machine reading of entire talk transcripts, and then all these topics that pop out, they're not from tags and keywords. +They come from the network structure of interconnected ideas. Keep going. +SG: Absolutely. So I got a little quick on that, but he's going to slow me down. +We've got education connected to storytelling triangulated next to social media. +You've got, of course, the human brain right next to healthcare, which you might expect, but also you've got video games, which is sort of adjacent, as those two spaces interface with each other. +But I want to take you into one cluster that's particularly important to me, and that's the environment. +And I want to kind of zoom in on that and see if we can get a little more resolution. +So as we go in here, what we start to see, apply the physics engine again, we see what's one conversation is actually composed of many smaller ones. +The structure starts to emerge where we see a kind of fractal behavior of the words and the language that we use to describe the things that are important to us all around this world. +So you've got food economy and local food at the top, you've got greenhouse gases, solar and nuclear waste. +What you're getting is a range of smaller conversations, each connected to each other through the ideas and the language they share, creating a broader concept of the environment. +And of course, from here, we can go and zoom in and see, well, what are young people looking at? +And they're looking at energy technology and nuclear fusion. +This is their kind of resonance for the conversation around the environment. +If we split along gender lines, we can see females resonating heavily with food economy, but also out there in hope and optimism. +And so there's a lot of exciting stuff we can do here, and I'll throw to Eric for the next part. +EB: Yeah, I mean, just to point out here, you cannot get this kind of perspective from a simple tag search on YouTube. +Let's now zoom back out to the entire global conversation out of environment, and look at all the talks together. +Now often, when we're faced with this amount of content, we do a couple of things to simplify it. +We might just say, well, what are the most popular talks out there? +And a few rise to the surface. +There's a talk about gratitude. +There's another one about personal health and nutrition. +And of course, there's got to be one about porn, right? +And so then we might say, well, gratitude, that was last year. +What's trending now? What's the popular talk now? +And we can see that the new, emerging, top trending topic is about digital privacy. +So this is great. It simplifies things. +But there's so much creative content that's just buried at the bottom. +And I hate that. How do we bubble stuff up to the surface that's maybe really creative and interesting? +Well, we can go back to the network structure of ideas to do that. +Remember, it's that network structure that is creating these emergent topics, and let's say we could take two of them, like cities and genetics, and say, well, are there any talks that creatively bridge these two really different disciplines. +And that's -- Essentially, this kind of creative remix is one of the hallmarks of innovation. +Well here's one by Jessica Green about the microbial ecology of buildings. +It's literally defining a new field. +And we could go back to those topics and say, well, what talks are central to those conversations? +In the cities cluster, one of the most central was one by Mitch Joachim about ecological cities, and in the genetics cluster, we have a talk about synthetic biology by Craig Venter. +These are talks that are linking many talks within their discipline. +We could go the other direction and say, well, what are talks that are broadly synthesizing a lot of different kinds of fields. +We used a measure of ecological diversity to get this. +Like, a talk by Steven Pinker on the history of violence, very synthetic. +And then, of course, there are talks that are so unique they're kind of out in the stratosphere, in their own special place, and we call that the Colleen Flanagan index. +And if you don't know Colleen, she's an artist, and I asked her, "Well, what's it like out there in the stratosphere of our idea space?" +And apparently it smells like bacon. +I wouldn't know. +So we're using these network motifs to find talks that are unique, ones that are creatively synthesizing a lot of different fields, ones that are central to their topic, and ones that are really creatively bridging disparate fields. +Okay? We never would have found those with our obsession with what's trending now. +And all of this comes from the architecture of complexity, or the patterns of how things are connected. +SG: So that's exactly right. +We've got ourselves in a world that's massively complex, and we've been using algorithms to kind of filter it down so we can navigate through it. +And those algorithms, whilst being kind of useful, are also very, very narrow, and we can do better than that, because we can realize that their complexity is not random. +It has mathematical structure, and we can use that mathematical structure to go and explore things like the world of ideas to see what's being said, to see what's not being said, and to be a little bit more human and, hopefully, a little smarter. +Thank you. +When my father and I started a company to 3D print human tissues and organs, some people initially thought we were a little crazy. +But since then, much progress has been made, both in our lab and other labs around the world. +And given this, we started getting questions like, "If you can grow human body parts, can you also grow animal products like meat and leather?" +When someone first suggested this to me, quite frankly I thought they were a little crazy, but what I soon came to realize was that this is not so crazy after all. +What's crazy is what we do today. +I'm convinced that in 30 years, when we look back on today and on how we raise and slaughter billions of animals to make our hamburgers and our handbags, we'll see this as being wasteful and indeed crazy. +Did you know that today we maintain a global herd of 60 billion animals to provide our meat, dairy, eggs and leather goods? +And over the next few decades, as the world's population expands to 10 billion, this will need to nearly double to 100 billion animals. +But maintaining this herd takes a major toll on our planet. +Animals are not just raw materials. +They're living beings, and already our livestock is one of the largest users of land, fresh water, and one of the biggest producers of greenhouse gases which drive climate change. +On top of this, when you get so many animals so close together, it creates a breeding ground for disease and opportunities for harm and abuse. +Clearly, we cannot continue on this path which puts the environment, public health, and food security at risk. +There is another way, because essentially, animal products are just collections of tissues, and right now we breed and raise highly complex animals only to create products that are made of relatively simple tissues. +What if, instead of starting with a complex and sentient animal, we started with what the tissues are made of, the basic unit of life, the cell? +This is biofabrication, where cells themselves can be used to grow biological products like tissues and organs. +Already in medicine, biofabrication techniques have been used to grow sophisticated body parts, like ears, windpipes, skin, blood vessels and bone, that have been successfully implanted into patients. +And beyond medicine, biofabrication can be a humane, sustainable and scalable new industry. +And we should begin by reimagining leather. +I emphasize leather because it is so widely used. +It is beautiful, and it has long been a part of our history. +Growing leather is also technically simpler than growing other animal products like meat. +It mainly uses one cell type, and it is largely two-dimensional. +It is also less polarizing for consumers and regulators. +Until biofabrication is better understood, it is clear that, initially at least, more people would be willing to wear novel materials than would be willing to eat novel foods, no matter how delicious. +In this sense, leather is a gateway material, a beginning for the mainstream biofabrication industry. +If we can succeed here, it brings our other consumer bioproducts like meat closer on the horizon. +Now how do we do it? +To grow leather, we begin by taking cells from an animal, through a simple biopsy. +The animal could be a cow, lamb, or even something more exotic. +This process does no harm, and Daisy the cow can live a happy life. +We then isolate the skin cells and multiply them in a cell culture medium. +This takes millions of cells and expands them into billions. +And we then coax these cells to produce collagen, as they would naturally. +This collagen is the stuff between cells. +It's natural connective tissue. +It's the extracellular matrix, but in leather, it's the main building block. +And what we next do is we take the cells and their collagen and we spread them out to form sheets, and then we layer these thin sheets on top of one another, like phyllo pastry, to form thicker sheets, which we then let mature. +And finally, we take this multilayered skin and through a shorter and much less chemical tanning process, we create leather. +And so I'm very excited to show you, for the first time, the first batch of our cultured leather, fresh from the lab. +This is real, genuine leather, without the animal sacrifice. +It can have all the characteristics of leather because it is made of the same cells, and better yet, there is no hair to remove, no scars or insect's bites, and no waste. +This leather can be grown in the shape of a wallet, a handbag or a car seat. +It is not limited to the irregular shape of a cow or an alligator. +And because we make this material, we grow this leather from the ground up, we can control its properties in very interesting ways. +This piece of leather is a mere seven tissue layers thick, and as you can see, it is nearly transparent. +And this leather is 21 layers thick and quite opaque. +You don't have that kind of fine control with conventional leather. +And we can tune this leather for other desirable qualities, like softness, breathability, durability, elasticity and even things like pattern. +We can mimic nature, but in some ways also improve upon it. +This type of leather can do what today's leather does, but with imagination, probably much more. +What could the future of animal products look like? +It need not look like this, which is actually the state of the art today. +Rather, it could be much more like this. +Already, we have been manufacturing with cell cultures for thousands of years, beginning with products like wine, beer and yogurt. +And speaking of food, our cultured food has evolved, and today we prepare cultured food in beautiful, sterile facilities like this. +A brewery is essentially a bioreactor. +It is where cell culture takes place. +Imagine that in this facility, instead of brewing beer, we were brewing leather or meat. +Imagine touring this facility, learning about how the leather or meat is cultured, seeing the process from beginning to end, and even trying some. +It's clean, open and educational, and this is in contrast to the hidden, guarded and remote factories where leather and meat is produced today. +Perhaps biofabrication is a natural evolution of manufacturing for mankind. +It's environmentally responsible, efficient and humane. +It allows us to be creative. +We can design new materials, new products, and new facilities. +We need to move past just killing animals as a resource to something more civilized and evolved. +Perhaps we are ready for something literally and figuratively more cultured. +Thank you. +I'd like to tell you about a legal case that I worked on involving a man named Steve Titus. +Titus was a restaurant manager. +He was 31 years old, he lived in Seattle, Washington, he was engaged to Gretchen, about to be married, she was the love of his life. +And one night, the couple went out for a romantic restaurant meal. +They were on their way home, and they were pulled over by a police officer. +You see, Titus' car sort of resembled a car that was driven earlier in the evening by a man who raped a female hitchhiker, and Titus kind of resembled that rapist. +So the police took a picture of Titus, they put it in a photo lineup, they later showed it to the victim, and she pointed to Titus' photo. +She said, "That one's the closest." +The police and the prosecution proceeded with a trial, and when Steve Titus was put on trial for rape, the rape victim got on the stand and said, "I'm absolutely positive that's the man." +And Titus was convicted. +He proclaimed his innocence, his family screamed at the jury, his fiance collapsed on the floor sobbing, and Titus is taken away to jail. +So what would you do at this point? +What would you do? +Well, Titus lost complete faith in the legal system, and yet he got an idea. +He called up the local newspaper, he got the interest of an investigative journalist, and that journalist actually found the real rapist, a man who ultimately confessed to this rape, a man who was thought to have committed 50 rapes in that area, and when this information was given to the judge, the judge set Titus free. +And really, that's where this case should have ended. +It should have been over. +Titus should have thought of this as a horrible year, a year of accusation and trial, but over. +It didn't end that way. +Titus was so bitter. +He'd lost his job. He couldn't get it back. +He lost his fiance. +She couldn't put up with his persistent anger. +He lost his entire savings, and so he decided to file a lawsuit against the police and others whom he felt were responsible for his suffering. +And that's when I really started working on this case, trying to figure out how did that victim go from "That one's the closest" to "I'm absolutely positive that's the guy." +Well, Titus was consumed with his civil case. +He spent every waking moment thinking about it, and just days before he was to have his day in court, he woke up in the morning, doubled over in pain, and died of a stress-related heart attack. +He was 35 years old. +So I was asked to work on Titus' case because I'm a psychological scientist. +I study memory. I've studied memory for decades. +And if I meet somebody on an airplane -- this happened on the way over to Scotland -- if I meet somebody on an airplane, and we ask each other, "What do you do? What do you do?" +and I say "I study memory," they usually want to tell me how they have trouble remembering names, or they've got a relative who's got Alzheimer's or some kind of memory problem, but I have to tell them I don't study when people forget. +I study the opposite: when they remember, when they remember things that didn't happen or remember things that were different from the way they really were. +I study false memories. +Unhappily, Steve Titus is not the only person to be convicted based on somebody's false memory. +In one project in the United States, information has been gathered on 300 innocent people, 300 defendants who were convicted of crimes they didn't do. +They spent 10, 20, 30 years in prison for these crimes, and now DNA testing has proven that they are actually innocent. +And when those cases have been analyzed, three quarters of them are due to faulty memory, faulty eyewitness memory. +Well, why? +Like the jurors who convicted those innocent people and the jurors who convicted Titus, many people believe that memory works like a recording device. +You just record the information, then you call it up and play it back when you want to answer questions or identify images. +But decades of work in psychology has shown that this just isn't true. +Our memories are constructive. +They're reconstructive. +Memory works a little bit more like a Wikipedia page: You can go in there and change it, but so can other people. +I first started studying this constructive memory process in the 1970s. +I did my experiments that involved showing people simulated crimes and accidents and asking them questions about what they remember. +In one study, we showed people a simulated accident and we asked people, how fast were the cars going when they hit each other? +And we asked other people, how fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other? +And if we asked the leading "smashed" question, the witnesses told us the cars were going faster, and moreover, that leading "smashed" question caused people to be more likely to tell us that they saw broken glass in the accident scene when there wasn't any broken glass at all. +In another study, we showed a simulated accident where a car went through an intersection with a stop sign, and if we asked a question that insinuated it was a yield sign, many witnesses told us they remember seeing a yield sign at the intersection, not a stop sign. +And you might be thinking, well, you know, these are filmed events, they are not particularly stressful. +Would the same kind of mistakes be made with a really stressful event? +In a study we published just a few months ago, we have an answer to this question, because what was unusual about this study is we arranged for people to have a very stressful experience. +The subjects in this study were members of the U.S. military who were undergoing a harrowing training exercise to teach them what it's going to be like for them if they are ever captured as prisoners of war. +And as part of this training exercise, these soldiers are interrogated in an aggressive, hostile, physically abusive fashion for 30 minutes and later on they have to try to identify the person who conducted that interrogation. +And when we feed them suggestive information that insinuates it's a different person, many of them misidentify their interrogator, often identifying someone who doesn't even remotely resemble the real interrogator. +And so what these studies are showing is that when you feed people misinformation about some experience that they may have had, you can distort or contaminate or change their memory. +Well out there in the real world, misinformation is everywhere. +We get misinformation not only if we're questioned in a leading way, but if we talk to other witnesses who might consciously or inadvertently feed us some erroneous information, or if we see media coverage about some event we might have experienced, all of these provide the opportunity for this kind of contamination of our memory. +In the 1990s, we began to see an even more extreme kind of memory problem. +Some patients were going into therapy with one problem -- maybe they had depression, an eating disorder -- and they were coming out of therapy with a different problem. +Extreme memories for horrific brutalizations, sometimes in satanic rituals, sometimes involving really bizarre and unusual elements. +One woman came out of psychotherapy believing that she'd endured years of ritualistic abuse, where she was forced into a pregnancy and that the baby was cut from her belly. +But there were no physical scars or any kind of physical evidence that could have supported her story. +And when I began looking into these cases, I was wondering, where do these bizarre memories come from? +And what I found is that most of these situations involved some particular form of psychotherapy. +And so I asked, were some of the things going on in this psychotherapy -- like the imagination exercises or dream interpretation, or in some cases hypnosis, or in some cases exposure to false information -- were these leading these patients to develop these very bizarre, unlikely memories? +And I designed some experiments to try to study the processes that were being used in this psychotherapy so I could study the development of these very rich false memories. +In one of the first studies we did, we used suggestion, a method inspired by the psychotherapy we saw in these cases, we used this kind of suggestion and planted a false memory that when you were a kid, five or six years old, you were lost in a shopping mall. +You were frightened. You were crying. +You were ultimately rescued by an elderly person and reunited with the family. +And we succeeded in planting this memory in the minds of about a quarter of our subjects. +And you might be thinking, well, that's not particularly stressful. +But we and other investigators have planted rich false memories of things that were much more unusual and much more stressful. +So in a study done in Tennessee, researchers planted the false memory that when you were a kid, you nearly drowned and had to be rescued by a life guard. +And in a study done in Canada, researchers planted the false memory that when you were a kid, something as awful as being attacked by a vicious animal happened to you, succeeding with about half of their subjects. +And in a study done in Italy, researchers planted the false memory, when you were a kid, you witnessed demonic possession. +Well, to my surprise, when I published this work and began to speak out against this particular brand of psychotherapy, it created some pretty bad problems for me: hostilities, primarily from the repressed memory therapists, who felt under attack, and by the patients whom they had influenced. +I had sometimes armed guards at speeches that I was invited to give, people trying to drum up letter-writing campaigns to get me fired. +But probably the worst was I suspected that a woman was innocent of abuse that was being claimed by her grown daughter. +She accused her mother of sexual abuse based on a repressed memory. +And this accusing daughter had actually allowed her story to be filmed and presented in public places. +I was suspicious of this story, and so I started to investigate, and eventually found information that convinced me that this mother was innocent. +I published an expos on the case, and a little while later, the accusing daughter filed a lawsuit. +Even though I'd never mentioned her name, she sued me for defamation and invasion of privacy. +And I went through nearly five years of dealing with this messy, unpleasant litigation, but finally, finally, it was over and I could really get back to my work. +In the process, however, I became part of a disturbing trend in America where scientists are being sued for simply speaking out on matters of great public controversy. +When I got back to my work, I asked this question: if I plant a false memory in your mind, does it have repercussions? +Does it affect your later thoughts, your later behaviors? +Our first study planted a false memory that you got sick as a child eating certain foods: hard-boiled eggs, dill pickles, strawberry ice cream. +And we found that once we planted this false memory, people didn't want to eat the foods as much at an outdoor picnic. +The false memories aren't necessarily bad or unpleasant. +If we planted a warm, fuzzy memory involving a healthy food like asparagus, we could get people to want to eat asparagus more. +And so what these studies are showing is that you can plant false memories and they have repercussions that affect behavior long after the memories take hold. +Well, along with this ability to plant memories and control behavior obviously come some important ethical issues, like, when should we use this mind technology? +And should we ever ban its use? +Therapists can't ethically plant false memories in the mind of their patients even if it would help the patient, but there's nothing to stop a parent from trying this out on their overweight or obese teenager. +And when I suggested this publicly, it created an outcry again. +"There she goes. She's advocating that parents lie to their children." +Hello, Santa Claus. I mean, another way to think about this is, which would you rather have, a kid with obesity, diabetes, shortened lifespan, all the things that go with it, or a kid with one little extra bit of false memory? +I know what I would choose for a kid of mine. +But maybe my work has made me different from most people. +Most people cherish their memories, know that they represent their identity, who they are, where they came from. +And I appreciate that. I feel that way too. +But I know from my work how much fiction is already in there. +If I've learned anything from these decades of working on these problems, it's this: just because somebody tells you something and they say it with confidence, just because they say it with lots of detail, just because they express emotion when they say it, it doesn't mean that it really happened. +We can't reliably distinguish true memories from false memories. +We need independent corroboration. +Such a discovery has made me more tolerant of the everyday memory mistakes that my friends and family members make. +Such a discovery might have saved Steve Titus, the man whose whole future was snatched away by a false memory. +But meanwhile, we should all keep in mind, we'd do well to, that memory, like liberty, is a fragile thing. +Thank you. Thank you. +Thank you. Thanks very much. +There is an ancient proverb that says it's very difficult to find a black cat in a dark room, especially when there is no cat. +I find this a particularly apt description of science and how science works -- bumbling around in a dark room, bumping into things, trying to figure out what shape this might be, what that might be, there are reports of a cat somewhere around, they may not be reliable, they may be, and so forth and so on. +Now I know this is different than the way most people think about science. +I'd like to tell you that's not the case. +So there's the scientific method, but what's really going on is this. [The Scientific Method vs. Farting Around] And it's going on kind of like that. +[... in the dark] So what is the difference, then, between the way I believe science is pursued and the way it seems to be perceived? +So this difference first came to me in some ways in my dual role at Columbia University, where I'm both a professor and run a laboratory in neuroscience where we try to figure out how the brain works. +But at the same time, it's my responsibility to teach a large course to undergraduates on the brain, and that's a big subject, and it takes quite a while to organize that, and it's quite challenging and it's quite interesting, but I have to say, it's not so exhilarating. +So what was the difference? +Well, the course I was and am teaching is called Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience - I. It's 25 lectures full of all sorts of facts, it uses this giant book called "Principles of Neural Science" by three famous neuroscientists. +This book comes in at 1,414 pages, it weighs a hefty seven and a half pounds. +Just to put that in some perspective, that's the weight of two normal human brains. +So I began to realize, by the end of this course, that the students maybe were getting the idea that we must know everything there is to know about the brain. +That's clearly not true. +And they must also have this idea, I suppose, that what scientists do is collect data and collect facts and stick them in these big books. +And that's not really the case either. +When I go to a meeting, after the meeting day is over and we collect in the bar over a couple of beers with my colleagues, we never talk about what we know. +We talk about what we don't know. +We talk about what still has to get done, what's so critical to get done in the lab. +Indeed, this was, I think, best said by Marie Curie who said that one never notices what has been done but only what remains to be done. +This was in a letter to her brother after obtaining her second graduate degree, I should say. +I have to point out this has always been one of my favorite pictures of Marie Curie, because I am convinced that that glow behind her is not a photographic effect. That's the real thing. +It is true that her papers are, to this day, stored in a basement room in the Bibliothque Franaise in a concrete room that's lead-lined, and if you're a scholar and you want access to these notebooks, you have to put on a full radiation hazmat suit, so it's pretty scary business. +Nonetheless, this is what I think we were leaving out of our courses and leaving out of the interaction that we have with the public as scientists, the what-remains-to-be-done. +This is the stuff that's exhilarating and interesting. +It is, if you will, the ignorance. +That's what was missing. +So I thought, well, maybe I should teach a course on ignorance, something I can finally excel at, perhaps, for example. +So I did start teaching this course on ignorance, and it's been quite interesting and I'd like to tell you to go to the website. +You can find all sorts of information there. It's wide open. +And it's been really quite an interesting time for me to meet up with other scientists who come in and talk about what it is they don't know. +Now I use this word "ignorance," of course, to be at least in part intentionally provocative, because ignorance has a lot of bad connotations and I clearly don't mean any of those. +So I don't mean stupidity, I don't mean a callow indifference to fact or reason or data. +The ignorant are clearly unenlightened, unaware, uninformed, and present company today excepted, often occupy elected offices, it seems to me. +That's another story, perhaps. +I mean a different kind of ignorance. +I think it's a wonderful idea: thoroughly conscious ignorance. +So that's the kind of ignorance that I want to talk about today, but of course the first thing we have to clear up is what are we going to do with all those facts? +So it is true that science piles up at an alarming rate. +We all have this sense that science is this mountain of facts, this accumulation model of science, as many have called it, and it seems impregnable, it seems impossible. +How can you ever know all of this? +And indeed, the scientific literature grows at an alarming rate. +In 2006, there were 1.3 million papers published. +There's about a two-and-a-half-percent yearly growth rate, and so last year we saw over one and a half million papers being published. +Divide that by the number of minutes in a year, and you wind up with three new papers per minute. +So I've been up here a little over 10 minutes, I've already lost three papers. +I have to get out of here actually. I have to go read. +So what do we do about this? Well, the fact is that what scientists do about it is a kind of a controlled neglect, if you will. +We just don't worry about it, in a way. +The facts are important. You have to know a lot of stuff to be a scientist. That's true. +But knowing a lot of stuff doesn't make you a scientist. +You need to know a lot of stuff to be a lawyer or an accountant or an electrician or a carpenter. +But in science, knowing a lot of stuff is not the point. +Knowing a lot of stuff is there to help you get to more ignorance. +So knowledge is a big subject, but I would say ignorance is a bigger one. +So this leads us to maybe think about, a little bit about, some of the models of science that we tend to use, and I'd like to disabuse you of some of them. +So one of them, a popular one, is that scientists are patiently putting the pieces of a puzzle together to reveal some grand scheme or another. +This is clearly not true. For one, with puzzles, the manufacturer has guaranteed that there's a solution. +We don't have any such guarantee. +Indeed, there are many of us who aren't so sure about the manufacturer. +So I think the puzzle model doesn't work. +Another popular model is that science is busy unraveling things the way you unravel the peels of an onion. +So peel by peel, you take away the layers of the onion to get at some fundamental kernel of truth. +I don't think that's the way it works either. +Another one, a kind of popular one, is the iceberg idea, that we only see the tip of the iceberg but underneath is where most of the iceberg is hidden. +But all of these models are based on the idea of a large body of facts that we can somehow or another get completed. +We can chip away at this iceberg and figure out what it is, or we could just wait for it to melt, I suppose, these days, but one way or another we could get to the whole iceberg. Right? +Or make it manageable. But I don't think that's the case. +I think what really happens in science is a model more like the magic well, where no matter how many buckets you take out, there's always another bucket of water to be had, or my particularly favorite one, with the effect and everything, the ripples on a pond. +So if you think of knowledge being this ever-expanding ripple on a pond, the important thing to realize is that our ignorance, the circumference of this knowledge, also grows with knowledge. +So the knowledge generates ignorance. +This is really well said, I thought, by George Bernard Shaw. +As it turns out, he kind of cribbed that from the philosopher Immanuel Kant who a hundred years earlier had come up with this idea of question propagation, that every answer begets more questions. +I love that term, "question propagation," this idea of questions propagating out there. +So I'd say the model we want to take is not that we start out kind of ignorant and we get some facts together and then we gain knowledge. +It's rather kind of the other way around, really. +What do we use this knowledge for? +What are we using this collection of facts for? +We're using it to make better ignorance, to come up with, if you will, higher-quality ignorance. +Because, you know, there's low-quality ignorance and there's high-quality ignorance. It's not all the same. +Scientists argue about this all the time. +Sometimes we call them bull sessions. +Sometimes we call them grant proposals. +But nonetheless, it's what the argument is about. +It's the ignorance. It's the what we don't know. +It's what makes a good question. +So how do we think about these questions? +I'm going to show you a graph that shows up quite a bit on happy hour posters in various science departments. +This graph asks the relationship between what you know and how much you know about it. +So what you know, you can know anywhere from nothing to everything, of course, and how much you know about it can be anywhere from a little to a lot. +So let's put a point on the graph. There's an undergraduate. +Doesn't know much but they have a lot of interest. +They're interested in almost everything. +Now you look at a master's student, a little further along in their education, and you see they know a bit more, but it's been narrowed somewhat. +And finally you get your Ph.D., where it turns out you know a tremendous amount about almost nothing. What's really disturbing is the trend line that goes through that because, of course, when it dips below the zero axis, there, it gets into a negative area. +That's where you find people like me, I'm afraid. +So the important thing here is that this can all be changed. +This whole view can be changed by just changing the label on the x-axis. +So instead of how much you know about it, we could say, "What can you ask about it?" +So yes, you do need to know a lot of stuff as a scientist, but the purpose of knowing a lot of stuff is not just to know a lot of stuff. That just makes you a geek, right? +Knowing a lot of stuff, the purpose is to be able to ask lots of questions, to be able to frame thoughtful, interesting questions, because that's where the real work is. +Let me give you a quick idea of a couple of these sorts of questions. +I'm a neuroscientist, so how would we come up with a question in neuroscience? +Because it's not always quite so straightforward. +So, for example, we could say, well what is it that the brain does? +Well, one thing the brain does, it moves us around. +We walk around on two legs. +That seems kind of simple, somehow or another. +I mean, virtually everybody over 10 months of age walks around on two legs, right? +So that maybe is not that interesting. +So instead maybe we want to choose something a little more complicated to look at. +How about the visual system? +There it is, the visual system. +I mean, we love our visual systems. We do all kinds of cool stuff. +Indeed, there are over 12,000 neuroscientists who work on the visual system, from the retina to the visual cortex, in an attempt to understand not just the visual system but to also understand how general principles of how the brain might work. +But now here's the thing: Our technology has actually been pretty good at replicating what the visual system does. +We have TV, we have movies, we have animation, we have photography, we have pattern recognition, all of these sorts of things. +They work differently than our visual systems in some cases, but nonetheless we've been pretty good at making a technology work like our visual system. +Somehow or another, a hundred years of robotics, you never saw a robot walk on two legs, because robots don't walk on two legs because it's not such an easy thing to do. +A hundred years of robotics, and we can't get a robot that can move more than a couple steps one way or the other. +You ask them to go up an inclined plane, and they fall over. +Turn around, and they fall over. It's a serious problem. +So what is it that's the most difficult thing for a brain to do? +What ought we to be studying? +Perhaps it ought to be walking on two legs, or the motor system. +I'll give you an example from my own lab, my own particularly smelly question, since we work on the sense of smell. +But here's a diagram of five molecules and sort of a chemical notation. +These are just plain old molecules, but if you sniff those molecules up these two little holes in the front of your face, you will have in your mind the distinct impression of a rose. +If there's a real rose there, those molecules will be the ones, but even if there's no rose there, you'll have the memory of a molecule. +How do we turn molecules into perceptions? +What's the process by which that could happen? +Here's another example: two very simple molecules, again in this kind of chemical notation. +It might be easier to visualize them this way, so the gray circles are carbon atoms, the white ones are hydrogen atoms and the red ones are oxygen atoms. +Now these two molecules differ by only one carbon atom and two little hydrogen atoms that ride along with it, and yet one of them, heptyl acetate, has the distinct odor of a pear, and hexyl acetate is unmistakably banana. +So there are two really interesting questions here, it seems to me. +One is, how can a simple little molecule like that create a perception in your brain that's so clear as a pear or a banana? +And secondly, how the hell can we tell the difference between two molecules that differ by a single carbon atom? +I mean, that's remarkable to me, clearly the best chemical detector on the face of the planet. +And you don't even think about it, do you? +So this is a favorite quote of mine that takes us back to the ignorance and the idea of questions. +I like to quote because I think dead people shouldn't be excluded from the conversation. +And I also think it's important to realize that the conversation's been going on for a while, by the way. +So Erwin Schrodinger, a great quantum physicist and, I think, philosopher, points out how you have to "abide by ignorance for an indefinite period" of time. +And it's this abiding by ignorance that I think we have to learn how to do. +This is a tricky thing. This is not such an easy business. +I guess it comes down to our education system, so I'm going to talk a little bit about ignorance and education, because I think that's where it really has to play out. +So for one, let's face it, in the age of Google and Wikipedia, the business model of the university and probably secondary schools is simply going to have to change. +We just can't sell facts for a living anymore. +They're available with a click of the mouse, or if you want to, you could probably just ask the wall one of these days, wherever they're going to hide the things that tell us all this stuff. +So what do we have to do? We have to give our students a taste for the boundaries, for what's outside that circumference, for what's outside the facts, what's just beyond the facts. +How do we do that? +Well, one of the problems, of course, turns out to be testing. +We currently have an educational system which is very efficient but is very efficient at a rather bad thing. +So in second grade, all the kids are interested in science, the girls and the boys. +They like to take stuff apart. They have great curiosity. +They like to investigate things. They go to science museums. +They like to play around. They're in second grade. +They're interested. +But by 11th or 12th grade, fewer than 10 percent of them have any interest in science whatsoever, let alone a desire to go into science as a career. +So we have this remarkably efficient system for beating any interest in science out of everybody's head. +Is this what we want? +I think this comes from what a teacher colleague of mine calls "the bulimic method of education." +You know. You can imagine what it is. +We just jam a whole bunch of facts down their throats over here and then they puke it up on an exam over here and everybody goes home with no added intellectual heft whatsoever. +This can't possibly continue to go on. +So what do we do? Well the geneticists, I have to say, have an interesting maxim they live by. +Geneticists always say, you always get what you screen for. +And that's meant as a warning. +So we always will get what we screen for, and part of what we screen for is in our testing methods. +Well, we hear a lot about testing and evaluation, and we have to think carefully when we're testing whether we're evaluating or whether we're weeding, whether we're weeding people out, whether we're making some cut. +Evaluation is one thing. You hear a lot about evaluation in the literature these days, in the educational literature, but evaluation really amounts to feedback and it amounts to an opportunity for trial and error. +It amounts to a chance to work over a longer period of time with this kind of feedback. +That's different than weeding, and usually, I have to tell you, when people talk about evaluation, evaluating students, evaluating teachers, evaluating schools, evaluating programs, that they're really talking about weeding. +And that's a bad thing, because then you will get what you select for, which is what we've gotten so far. +So I'd say what we need is a test that says, "What is x?" +and the answers are "I don't know, because no one does," or "What's the question?" Even better. +Or, "You know what, I'll look it up, I'll ask someone, I'll phone someone. I'll find out." +Because that's what we want people to do, and that's how you evaluate them. +And maybe for the advanced placement classes, it could be, "Here's the answer. What's the next question?" +That's the one I like in particular. +So let me end with a quote from William Butler Yeats, who said "Education is not about filling buckets; it is lighting fires." +So I'd say, let's get out the matches. +Thank you. +Thank you. +We are going to take a quick voyage over the cognitive history of the 20th century, because during that century, our minds have altered dramatically. +As you all know, the cars that people drove in 1900 have altered because the roads are better and because of technology. +And our minds have altered, too. +We've gone from people who confronted a concrete world and analyzed that world primarily in terms of how much it would benefit them to people who confront a very complex world, and it's a world where we've had to develop new mental habits, new habits of mind. +And these include things like clothing that concrete world with classification, introducing abstractions that we try to make logically consistent, and also taking the hypothetical seriously, that is, wondering about what might have been rather than what is. +Now, this dramatic change was drawn to my attention through massive I.Q. gains over time, and these have been truly massive. +That is, we don't just get a few more questions right on I.Q. tests. +We get far more questions right on I.Q. tests than each succeeding generation back to the time that they were invented. +Indeed, if you score the people a century ago against modern norms, they would have an average I.Q. of 70. +If you score us against their norms, we would have an average I.Q. of 130. +Now this has raised all sorts of questions. +Were our immediate ancestors on the verge of mental retardation? +Because 70 is normally the score for mental retardation. +Or are we on the verge of all being gifted? +Because 130 is the cutting line for giftedness. +Now I'm going to try and argue for a third alternative that's much more illuminating than either of those, and to put this into perspective, let's imagine that a Martian came down to Earth and found a ruined civilization. +And this Martian was an archaeologist, and they found scores, target scores, that people had used for shooting. +And first they looked at 1865, and they found that in a minute, people had only put one bullet in the bullseye. +And then they found, in 1898, that they'd put about five bullets in the bullseye in a minute. +And then about 1918 they put a hundred bullets in the bullseye. +And initially, that archaeologist would be baffled. +They would say, look, these tests were designed to find out how much people were steady of hand, how keen their eyesight was, whether they had control of their weapon. +How could these performances have escalated to this enormous degree? +Well we now know, of course, the answer. +If that Martian looked at battlefields, they would find that people had only muskets at the time of the Civil War and that they had repeating rifles at the time of the Spanish-American War, and then they had machine guns by the time of World War I. +And, in other words, it was the equipment that was in the hands of the average soldier that was responsible, not greater keenness of eye or steadiness of hand. +Now what we have to imagine is the mental artillery that we have picked up over those hundred years, and I think again that another thinker will help us here, and that's Luria. +Luria looked at people just before they entered the scientific age, and he found that these people were resistant to classifying the concrete world. +They wanted to break it up into little bits that they could use. +He found that they were resistant to deducing the hypothetical, to speculating about what might be, and he found finally that they didn't deal well with abstractions or using logic on those abstractions. +Now let me give you a sample of some of his interviews. +He talked to the head man of a person in rural Russia. +They'd only had, as people had in 1900, about four years of schooling. +And he asked that particular person, what do crows and fish have in common? +And the fellow said, "Absolutely nothing. +You know, I can eat a fish. I can't eat a crow. +A crow can peck at a fish. +A fish can't do anything to a crow." +And Luria said, "But aren't they both animals?" +And he said, "Of course not. +One's a fish. +The other is a bird." +And he was interested, effectively, in what he could do with those concrete objects. +And then Luria went to another person, and he said to them, "There are no camels in Germany. +Hamburg is a city in Germany. +Are there camels in Hamburg?" +And the fellow said, "Well, if it's large enough, there ought to be camels there." +And Luria said, "But what do my words imply?" +And he said, "Well, maybe it's a small village, and there's no room for camels." +In other words, he was unwilling to treat this as anything but a concrete problem, and he was used to camels being in villages, and he was quite unable to use the hypothetical, to ask himself what if there were no camels in Germany. +A third interview was conducted with someone about the North Pole. +And Luria said, "At the North Pole, there is always snow. +Wherever there is always snow, the bears are white. +What color are the bears at the North Pole?" +And the response was, "Such a thing is to be settled by testimony. +If a wise person came from the North Pole and told me the bears were white, I might believe him, but every bear that I have seen is a brown bear." +Now you see again, this person has rejected going beyond the concrete world and analyzing it through everyday experience, and it was important to that person what color bears were -- that is, they had to hunt bears. +They weren't willing to engage in this. +One of them said to Luria, "How can we solve things that aren't real problems? +None of these problems are real. +How can we address them?" +Now, these three categories -- classification, using logic on abstractions, taking the hypothetical seriously -- how much difference do they make in the real world beyond the testing room? +And let me give you a few illustrations. +First, almost all of us today get a high school diploma. +That is, we've gone from four to eight years of education to 12 years of formal education, and 52 percent of Americans have actually experienced some type of tertiary education. +Now, not only do we have much more education, and much of that education is scientific, and you can't do science without classifying the world. +You can't do science without proposing hypotheses. +You can't do science without making it logically consistent. +And even down in grade school, things have changed. +In 1910, they looked at the examinations that the state of Ohio gave to 14-year-olds, and they found that they were all for socially valued concrete information. +They were things like, what are the capitals of the 44 or 45 states that existed at that time? +When they looked at the exams that the state of Ohio gave in 1990, they were all about abstractions. +They were things like, why is the largest city of a state rarely the capital? +And you were supposed to think, well, the state legislature was rural-controlled, and they hated the big city, so rather than putting the capital in a big city, they put it in a county seat. +They put it in Albany rather than New York. +They put it in Harrisburg rather than Philadelphia. +And so forth. +So the tenor of education has changed. +We are educating people to take the hypothetical seriously, to use abstractions, and to link them logically. +What about employment? +Well, in 1900, three percent of Americans practiced professions that were cognitively demanding. +Only three percent were lawyers or doctors or teachers. +Today, 35 percent of Americans practice cognitively demanding professions, not only to the professions proper like lawyer or doctor or scientist or lecturer, but many, many sub-professions having to do with being a technician, a computer programmer. +A whole range of professions now make cognitive demands. +And we can only meet the terms of employment in the modern world by being cognitively far more flexible. +And it's not just that we have many more people in cognitively demanding professions. +The professions have been upgraded. +Compare the doctor in 1900, who really had only a few tricks up his sleeve, with the modern general practitioner or specialist, with years of scientific training. +Compare the banker in 1900, who really just needed a good accountant and to know who was trustworthy in the local community for paying back their mortgage. +Well, the merchant bankers who brought the world to their knees may have been morally remiss, but they were cognitively very agile. +They went far beyond that 1900 banker. +They had to look at computer projections for the housing market. +They had to get complicated CDO-squared in order to bundle debt together and make debt look as if it were actually a profitable asset. +They had to prepare a case to get rating agencies to give it a AAA, though in many cases, they had virtually bribed the rating agencies. +And they also, of course, had to get people to accept these so-called assets and pay money for them even though they were highly vulnerable. +Or take a farmer today. +I take the farm manager of today as very different from the farmer of 1900. +So it hasn't just been the spread of cognitively demanding professions. +It's also been the upgrading of tasks like lawyer and doctor and what have you that have made demands on our cognitive faculties. +But I've talked about education and employment. +Some of the habits of mind that we have developed over the 20th century have paid off in unexpected areas. +I'm primarily a moral philosopher. +I merely have a holiday in psychology, and what interests me in general is moral debate. +Now over the last century, in developed nations like America, moral debate has escalated because we take the hypothetical seriously, and we also take universals seriously and look for logical connections. +When I came home in 1955 from university at the time of Martin Luther King, a lot of people came home at that time and started having arguments with their parents and grandparents. +My father was born in 1885, and he was mildly racially biased. +As an Irishman, he hated the English so much he didn't have much emotion for anyone else. +But he did have a sense that black people were inferior. +And when we said to our parents and grandparents, "How would you feel if tomorrow morning you woke up black?" +they said that is the dumbest thing you've ever said. +Who have you ever known who woke up in the morning -- -- that turned black? +In other words, they were fixed in the concrete mores and attitudes they had inherited. +They would not take the hypothetical seriously, and without the hypothetical, it's very difficult to get moral argument off the ground. +You have to say, imagine you were in Iran, and imagine that your relatives all suffered from collateral damage even though they had done no wrong. +How would you feel about that? +And if someone of the older generation says, well, our government takes care of us, and it's up to their government to take care of them, they're just not willing to take the hypothetical seriously. +Or take an Islamic father whose daughter has been raped, and he feels he's honor-bound to kill her. +Well, he's treating his mores as if they were sticks and stones and rocks that he had inherited, and they're unmovable in any way by logic. +They're just inherited mores. +Today we would say something like, well, imagine you were knocked unconscious and sodomized. +Would you deserve to be killed? +And he would say, well that's not in the Koran. +That's not one of the principles I've got. +Well you, today, universalize your principles. +You state them as abstractions and you use logic on them. +If you have a principle such as, people shouldn't suffer unless they're guilty of something, then to exclude black people you've got to make exceptions, don't you? +You have to say, well, blackness of skin, you couldn't suffer just for that. +It must be that blacks are somehow tainted. +And then we can bring empirical evidence to bear, can't we, and say, well how can you consider all blacks tainted when St. Augustine was black and Thomas Sowell is black. +And you can get moral argument off the ground, then, because you're not treating moral principles as concrete entities. +You're treating them as universals, to be rendered consistent by logic. +Now how did all of this arise out of I.Q. tests? +That's what initially got me going on cognitive history. +If you look at the I.Q. test, you find the gains have been greatest in certain areas. +The similarities subtest of the Wechsler is about classification, and we have made enormous gains on that classification subtest. +There are other parts of the I.Q. test battery that are about using logic on abstractions. +Some of you may have taken Raven's Progressive Matrices, and it's all about analogies. +And in 1900, people could do simple analogies. +That is, if you said to them, cats are like wildcats. +What are dogs like? +They would say wolves. +But by 1960, people could attack Raven's on a much more sophisticated level. +If you said, we've got two squares followed by a triangle, what follows two circles? +They could say a semicircle. +Just as a triangle is half of a square, a semicircle is half of a circle. +By 2010, college graduates, if you said two circles followed by a semicircle, two sixteens followed by what, they would say eight, because eight is half of 16. +That is, they had moved so far from the concrete world that they could even ignore the appearance of the symbols that were involved in the question. +Now, I should say one thing that's very disheartening. +We haven't made progress on all fronts. +One of the ways in which we would like to deal with the sophistication of the modern world is through politics, and sadly you can have humane moral principles, you can classify, you can use logic on abstractions, and if you're ignorant of history and of other countries, you can't do politics. +We've noticed, in a trend among young Americans, that they read less history and less literature and less material about foreign lands, and they're essentially ahistorical. +They live in the bubble of the present. +They don't know the Korean War from the war in Vietnam. +They don't know who was an ally of America in World War II. +Think how different America would be if every American knew that this is the fifth time Western armies have gone to Afghanistan to put its house in order, and if they had some idea of exactly what had happened on those four previous occasions. +And that is, they had barely left, and there wasn't a trace in the sand. +Or imagine how different things would be if most Americans knew that we had been lied into four of our last six wars. +But I don't want to end on a pessimistic note. +The 20th century has shown enormous cognitive reserves in ordinary people that we have now realized, and the aristocracy was convinced that the average person couldn't make it, that they could never share their mindset or their cognitive abilities. +Lord Curzon once said he saw people bathing in the North Sea, and he said, "Why did no one tell me what white bodies the lower orders have?" +As if they were a reptile. +Well, Dickens was right and he was wrong. [Correction: Rudyard Kipling] [Kipling] said, "The colonel's lady and Judy O'Grady are sisters underneath the skin." +For a long time in my life, I felt like I'd been living two different lives. +There's the life that everyone sees, and then there's the life that only I see. +And in the life that everyone sees, who I am is a friend, a son, a brother, a stand-up comedian and a teenager. +That's the life everyone sees. +If you were to ask my friends and family to describe me, that's what they would tell you. +And that's a huge part of me. That is who I am. +And if you were to ask me to describe myself, I'd probably say some of those same things. +And I wouldn't be lying, but I wouldn't totally be telling you the truth, either, because the truth is, that's just the life everyone else sees. +In the life that only I see, who I am, who I really am, is someone who struggles intensely with depression. +I have for the last six years of my life, and I continue to every day. +But that's sadness. That's a natural thing. +That's a natural human emotion. +Real depression isn't being sad when something in your life goes wrong. +Real depression is being sad when everything in your life is going right. +That's real depression, and that's what I suffer from. +And to be totally honest, that's hard for me to stand up here and say. +It's hard for me to talk about, and it seems to be hard for everyone to talk about, so much so that no one's talking about it. +And no one's talking about depression, but we need to be, because right now it's a massive problem. +It's a massive problem. +But we don't see it on social media, right? +We don't see it on Facebook. We don't see it on Twitter. +We don't see it on the news, because it's not happy, it's not fun, it's not light. +And so because we don't see it, we don't see the severity of it. +But the severity of it and the seriousness of it is this: every 30 seconds, every 30 seconds, somewhere, someone in the world takes their own life because of depression, and it might be two blocks away, it might be two countries away, it might be two continents away, but it's happening, and it's happening every single day. +And we have a tendency, as a society, to look at that and go, "So what?" +So what? We look at that, and we go, "That's your problem. +That's their problem." +We say we're sad and we say we're sorry, but we also say, "So what?" +Well, two years ago it was my problem, because I sat on the edge of my bed where I'd sat a million times before and I was suicidal. +I was suicidal, and if you were to look at my life on the surface, you wouldn't see a kid who was suicidal. +You'd see a kid who was the captain of his basketball team, the drama and theater student of the year, the English student of the year, someone who was consistently on the honor roll and consistently at every party. +So you would say I wasn't depressed, you would say I wasn't suicidal, but you would be wrong. +You would be wrong. So I sat there that night beside a bottle of pills with a pen and paper in my hand and I thought about taking my own life and I came this close to doing it. +I came this close to doing it. +And I didn't, so that makes me one of the lucky ones, one of the people who gets to step out on the ledge and look down but not jump, one of the lucky ones who survives. +Well, I survived, and that just leaves me with my story, and my story is this: In four simple words, I suffer from depression. +I suffer from depression, and for a long time, I think, I was living two totally different lives, where one person was always afraid of the other. +I was afraid that people would see me for who I really was, that I wasn't the perfect, popular kid in high school everyone thought I was, that beneath my smile, there was struggle, and beneath my light, there was dark, and beneath my big personality just hid even bigger pain. +See, some people might fear girls not liking them back. +Some people might fear sharks. Some people might fear death. +But for me, for a large part of my life, I feared myself. +I feared my truth, I feared my honesty, I feared my vulnerability, and that fear made me feel like I was forced into a corner, like I was forced into a corner and there was only one way out, and so I thought about that way every single day. +I thought about it every single day, and if I'm being totally honest, standing here I've thought about it again since, because that's the sickness, that's the struggle, that's depression, and depression isn't chicken pox. +You don't beat it once and it's gone forever. +It's something you live with. It's something you live in. +It's the roommate you can't kick out. It's the voice you can't ignore. +It's the feelings you can't seem to escape, the scariest part is that after a while, you become numb to it. It becomes normal for you, and what you really fear the most isn't the suffering inside of you. +It's the stigma inside of others, it's the shame, it's the embarrassment, it's the disapproving look on a friend's face, it's the whispers in the hallway that you're weak, it's the comments that you're crazy. +That's what keeps you from getting help. +That's what makes you hold it in and hide it. +It's very real, and if you think that it isn't, ask yourself this: Would you rather make your next Facebook status say you're having a tough time getting out of bed because you hurt your back or you're having a tough time getting out of bed every morning because you're depressed? +That's the stigma, because unfortunately, we live in a world where if you break your arm, everyone runs over to sign your cast, but if you tell people you're depressed, everyone runs the other way. +That's the stigma. +We are so, so, so accepting of any body part breaking down other than our brains. And that's ignorance. +That's pure ignorance, and that ignorance has created a world that doesn't understand depression, that doesn't understand mental health. +And that's ironic to me, because depression is one of the best documented problems we have in the world, yet it's one of the least discussed. +We just push it aside and put it in a corner and pretend it's not there and hope it'll fix itself. +Well, it won't. It hasn't, and it's not going to, because that's wishful thinking, and wishful thinking isn't a game plan, it's procrastination, and we can't procrastinate on something this important. +The first step in solving any problem is recognizing there is one. +Well, we haven't done that, so we can't really expect to find an answer when we're still afraid of the question. +And I don't know what the solution is. +I wish I did, but I don't -- but I think, I think it has to start here. +It has to start with me, it has to start with you, it has to start with the people who are suffering, the ones who are hidden in the shadows. +We need to speak up and shatter the silence. +We need to be the ones who are brave for what we believe in, because if there's one thing that I've come to realize, if there's one thing that I see as the biggest problem, it's not in building a world where we eliminate the ignorance of others. +It's in building a world where we teach the acceptance of ourselves, where we're okay with who we are, because when we get honest, we see that we all struggle and we all suffer. +Whether it's with this, whether it's with something else, we all know what it is to hurt. +We all know what it is to have pain in our heart, and we all know how important it is to heal. +But right now, depression is society's deep cut that we're content to put a Band-Aid over and pretend it's not there. +Well, it is there. It is there, and you know what? It's okay. +Depression is okay. If you're going through it, know that you're okay. +Because yeah, it's put me in the valleys, but only to show me there's peaks, and yeah it's dragged me through the dark but only to remind me there is light. +Because the world I believe in is one where embracing your light doesn't mean ignoring your dark. +The world I believe in is one where we're measured by our ability to overcome adversities, not avoid them. +The world I believe in is one where I can look someone in the eye and say, "I'm going through hell," and they can look back at me and go, "Me too," and that's okay, and it's okay because depression is okay. We're people. +We're people, and we struggle and we suffer and we bleed and we cry, and if you think that true strength means never showing any weakness, then I'm here to tell you you're wrong. +You're wrong, because it's the opposite. +We're people, and we have problems. +We're not perfect, and that's okay. +So we need to stop the ignorance, stop the intolerance, stop the stigma, and stop the silence, and we need to take away the taboos, take a look at the truth, and start talking, because the only way we're going to beat a problem that people are battling alone is by standing strong together, by standing strong together. +And I believe that we can. +I believe that we can. Thank you guys so much. +This is a dream come true. Thank you. Thank you. +So I wanted to tell a story that really obsessed me when I was writing my new book, and it's a story of something that happened 3,000 years ago, when the Kingdom of Israel was in its infancy. +And it takes place in an area called the Shephelah in what is now Israel. +And the reason the story obsessed me is that I thought I understood it, and then I went back over it and I realized that I didn't understand it at all. +Ancient Palestine had a -- along its eastern border, there's a mountain range. +Still same is true of Israel today. +And in the mountain range are all of the ancient cities of that region, so Jerusalem, Bethlehem, Hebron. +And then there's a coastal plain along the Mediterranean, where Tel Aviv is now. +And connecting the mountain range with the coastal plain is an area called the Shephelah, which is a series of valleys and ridges that run east to west, and you can follow the Shephelah, go through the Shephelah to get from the coastal plain to the mountains. +And the Shephelah, if you've been to Israel, you'll know it's just about the most beautiful part of Israel. +It's gorgeous, with forests of oak and wheat fields and vineyards. +But more importantly, though, in the history of that region, it's served, it's had a real strategic function, and that is, it is the means by which hostile armies on the coastal plain find their way, get up into the mountains and threaten those living in the mountains. +And 3,000 years ago, that's exactly what happens. +The Philistines, who are the biggest of enemies of the Kingdom of Israel, are living in the coastal plain. +They're originally from Crete. They're a seafaring people. +And they may start to make their way through one of the valleys of the Shephelah up into the mountains, because what they want to do is occupy the highland area right by Bethlehem and split the Kingdom of Israel in two. +And the Kingdom of Israel, which is headed by King Saul, obviously catches wind of this, and Saul brings his army down from the mountains and he confronts the Philistines in the Valley of Elah, one of the most beautiful of the valleys of the Shephelah. +And the Israelites dig in along the northern ridge, and the Philistines dig in along the southern ridge, and the two armies just sit there for weeks and stare at each other, because they're deadlocked. +Neither can attack the other, because to attack the other side you've got to come down the mountain into the valley and then up the other side, and you're completely exposed. +So finally, to break the deadlock, the Philistines send their mightiest warrior down into the valley floor, and he calls out and he says to the Israelites, "Send your mightiest warrior down, and we'll have this out, just the two of us." +This was a tradition in ancient warfare called single combat. +It was a way of settling disputes without incurring the bloodshed of a major battle. +And the Philistine who is sent down, their mighty warrior, is a giant. +He's 6 foot 9. +He's outfitted head to toe in this glittering bronze armor, and he's got a sword and he's got a javelin and he's got his spear. He is absolutely terrifying. +And he's so terrifying that none of the Israelite soldiers want to fight him. +It's a death wish, right? There's no way they think they can take him. +And finally the only person who will come forward is this young shepherd boy, and he goes up to Saul and he says, "I'll fight him." +And Saul says, "You can't fight him. That's ridiculous. +You're this kid. This is this mighty warrior." +But the shepherd is adamant. He says, "No, no, no, you don't understand, I have been defending my flock against lions and wolves for years. I think I can do it." +And Saul has no choice. He's got no one else who's come forward. +So he says, "All right." +And then he turns to the kid, and he says, "But you've got to wear this armor. You can't go as you are." +So he tries to give the shepherd his armor, and the shepherd says, "No." +He says, "I can't wear this stuff." +The Biblical verse is, "I cannot wear this for I have not proved it," meaning, "I've never worn armor before. You've got to be crazy." +So he reaches down instead on the ground and picks up five stones and puts them in his shepherd's bag and starts to walk down the mountainside to meet the giant. +And the giant sees this figure approaching, and calls out, "Come to me so I can feed your flesh to the birds of the heavens and the beasts of the field." +He issues this kind of taunt towards this person coming to fight him. +And the shepherd draws closer and closer, and the giant sees that he's carrying a staff. +That's all he's carrying. +Instead of a weapon, just this shepherd's staff, and he says -- he's insulted -- "Am I a dog that you would come to me with sticks?" +And of course, the name of the giant is Goliath and the name of the shepherd boy is David, and the reason that story has obsessed me over the course of writing my book is that everything I thought I knew about that story turned out to be wrong. +So David, in that story, is supposed to be the underdog, right? +In fact, that term, David and Goliath, has entered our language as a metaphor for improbable victories by some weak party over someone far stronger. +Now why do we call David an underdog? +Well, we call him an underdog because he's a kid, a little kid, and Goliath is this big, strong giant. +We also call him an underdog because Goliath is an experienced warrior, and David is just a shepherd. +But most importantly, we call him an underdog because all he has is -- it's that Goliath is outfitted with all of this modern weaponry, this glittering coat of armor and a sword and a javelin and a spear, and all David has is this sling. +Well, let's start there with the phrase "All David has is this sling," because that's the first mistake that we make. +In ancient warfare, there are three kinds of warriors. +There's cavalry, men on horseback and with chariots. +There's heavy infantry, which are foot soldiers, armed foot soldiers with swords and shields and some kind of armor. +And there's artillery, and artillery are archers, but, more importantly, slingers. +And a slinger is someone who has a leather pouch with two long cords attached to it, and they put a projectile, either a rock or a lead ball, inside the pouch, and they whirl it around like this and they let one of the cords go, and the effect is to send the projectile forward towards its target. +That's what David has, and it's important to understand that that sling is not a slingshot. +It's not this, right? It's not a child's toy. +It's in fact an incredibly devastating weapon. +When David rolls it around like this, he's turning the sling around probably at six or seven revolutions per second, and that means that when the rock is released, it's going forward really fast, probably 35 meters per second. +That's substantially faster than a baseball thrown by even the finest of baseball pitchers. +More than that, the stones in the Valley of Elah were not normal rocks. They were barium sulphate, which are rocks twice the density of normal stones. +If you do the calculations on the ballistics, on the stopping power of the rock fired from David's sling, it's roughly equal to the stopping power of a [.45 caliber] handgun. +This is an incredibly devastating weapon. +Accuracy, we know from historical records that slingers -- experienced slingers could hit and maim or even kill a target at distances of up to 200 yards. +From medieval tapestries, we know that slingers were capable of hitting birds in flight. +They were incredibly accurate. +When David lines up -- and he's not 200 yards away from Goliath, he's quite close to Goliath -- when he lines up and fires that thing at Goliath, he has every intention and every expectation of being able to hit Goliath at his most vulnerable spot between his eyes. +If you go back over the history of ancient warfare, you will find time and time again that slingers were the decisive factor against infantry in one kind of battle or another. +So what's Goliath? He's heavy infantry, and his expectation when he challenges the Israelites to a duel is that he's going to be fighting another heavy infantryman. +When he says, "Come to me that I might feed your flesh to the birds of the heavens and the beasts of the field," the key phrase is "Come to me." +Come up to me because we're going to fight, hand to hand, like this. +Saul has the same expectation. +David says, "I want to fight Goliath," and Saul tries to give him his armor, because Saul is thinking, "Oh, when you say 'fight Goliath,' you mean 'fight him in hand-to-hand combat,' infantry on infantry." +But David has absolutely no expectation. +He's not going to fight him that way. Why would he? +He's a shepherd. He's spent his entire career using a sling to defend his flock against lions and wolves. +That's where his strength lies. +So here he is, this shepherd, experienced in the use of a devastating weapon, up against this lumbering giant weighed down by a hundred pounds of armor and these incredibly heavy weapons that are useful only in short-range combat. +Goliath is a sitting duck. He doesn't have a chance. +So why do we keep calling David an underdog, and why do we keep referring to his victory as improbable? +There's a second piece of this that's important. +It's not just that we misunderstand David and his choice of weaponry. +It's also that we profoundly misunderstand Goliath. +Goliath is not what he seems to be. +There's all kinds of hints of this in the Biblical text, things that are in retrospect quite puzzling and don't square with his image as this mighty warrior. +So to begin with, the Bible says that Goliath is led onto the valley floor by an attendant. +Now that is weird, right? +Here is this mighty warrior challenging the Israelites to one-on-one combat. +Why is he being led by the hand by some young boy, presumably, to the point of combat? +Secondly, the Bible story makes special note of how slowly Goliath moves, another odd thing to say when you're describing the mightiest warrior known to man at that point. +And then there's this whole weird thing about how long it takes Goliath to react to the sight of David. +So David's coming down the mountain, and he's clearly not preparing for hand-to-hand combat. +There is nothing about him that says, "I am about to fight you like this." +He's not even carrying a sword. +Why does Goliath not react to that? +It's as if he's oblivious to what's going on that day. +And then there's that strange comment he makes to David: "Am I a dog that you should come to me with sticks?" +Sticks? David only has one stick. +Well, it turns out that there's been a great deal of speculation within the medical community over the years about whether there is something fundamentally wrong with Goliath, an attempt to make sense of all of those apparent anomalies. +There have been many articles written. +The first one was in 1960 in the Indiana Medical Journal, and it started a chain of speculation that starts with an explanation for Goliath's height. +So Goliath is head and shoulders above all of his peers in that era, and usually when someone is that far out of the norm, there's an explanation for it. +So the most common form of giantism is a condition called acromegaly, and acromegaly is caused by a benign tumor on your pituitary gland that causes an overproduction of human growth hormone. +And throughout history, many of the most famous giants have all had acromegaly. +So the tallest person of all time was a guy named Robert Wadlow who was still growing when he died at the age of 24 and he was 8 foot 11. +He had acromegaly. +Do you remember the wrestler Andr the Giant? +Famous. He had acromegaly. +There's even speculation that Abraham Lincoln had acromegaly. +Anyone who's unusually tall, that's the first explanation we come up with. +And acromegaly has a very distinct set of side effects associated with it, principally having to do with vision. +The pituitary tumor, as it grows, often starts to compress the visual nerves in your brain, with the result that people with acromegaly have either double vision or they are profoundly nearsighted. +So when people have started to speculate about what might have been wrong with Goliath, they've said, "Wait a minute, he looks and sounds an awful lot like someone who has acromegaly." +And that would also explain so much of what was strange about his behavior that day. +Why does he move so slowly and have to be escorted down into the valley floor by an attendant? +Because he can't make his way on his own. +Why is he so strangely oblivious to David that he doesn't understand that David's not going to fight him until the very last moment? +Because he can't see him. +When he says, "Come to me that I might feed your flesh to the birds of the heavens and the beasts of the field," the phrase "come to me" is a hint also of his vulnerability. +Come to me because I can't see you. +And then there's, "Am I a dog that you should come to me with sticks?" +He sees two sticks when David has only one. +So the Israelites up on the mountain ridge looking down on him thought he was this extraordinarily powerful foe. +What they didn't understand was that the very thing that was the source of his apparent strength was also the source of his greatest weakness. +And there is, I think, in that, a very important lesson for all of us. +Giants are not as strong and powerful as they seem. +And sometimes the shepherd boy has a sling in his pocket. +Thank you. +I think it's safe to say that all humans will be intimate with death at least once in their lives. +But what if that intimacy began long before you faced your own transition from life into death? +What would life be like if the dead literally lived alongside you? +In my husband's homeland in the highlands of Sulawesi island in eastern Indonesia, there is a community of people that experience death not as a singular event but as a gradual social process. +In Tana Toraja, the most important social moments in people's lives, the focal points of social and cultural interaction are not weddings or births or even family dinners, but funerals. +So these funerals are characterized by elaborate rituals that tie people in a system of reciprocal debt based on the amount of animals -- pigs, chickens and, most importantly, water buffalo -- that are sacrificed and distributed in the name of the deceased. +So this cultural complex surrounding death, the ritual enactment of the end of life, has made death the most visible and remarkable aspect of Toraja's landscape. +Lasting anywhere from a few days to a few weeks, funeral ceremonies are a raucous affair, where commemorating someone who's died is not so much a private sadness but more of a publicly shared transition. +And it's a transition that's just as much about the identity of the living as it is about remembrance of the dead. +So every year, thousands of visitors come to Tana Toraja to see, as it were, this culture of death, and for many people these grandiose ceremonies and the length of the ceremonies are somehow incommensurable with the way that we face our own mortality in the West. +So even as we share death as a universal experience, it's not experienced the same way the world over. +And as an anthropologist, I see these differences in experience being rooted in the cultural and social world through which we define the phenomena around us. +So where we see an unquestionable reality, death as an irrefutable biological condition, Torajans see the expired corporeal form as part of a larger social genesis. +So again, the physical cessation of life is not the same as death. +In fact, a member of society is only truly dead when the extended family can agree upon and marshal the resources necessary to hold a funeral ceremony that is considered appropriate in terms of resources for the status of the deceased. +And this ceremony has to take place in front of the eyes of the whole community with everyone's participation. +So after a person's physical death, their body is placed in a special room in the traditional residence, which is called the tongkonan. +And the tongkonan is symbolic not only of the family's identity but also of the human life cycle from birth to death. +So essentially, the shape of the building that you're born into is the shape of the structure which carries you to your ancestral resting place. +Until the funeral ceremony, which can be held years after a person's physical death, the deceased is referred to as "to makala," a sick person, or "to mama," a person who is asleep, and they continue to be a member of the household. +They are symbolically fed and cared for, and the family at this time will begin a number of ritual injunctions, which communicates to the wider community around them that one of their members is undergoing the transition from this life into the afterlife known as Puya. +So I know what some of you must be thinking right now. +Is she really saying that these people live with the bodies of their dead relatives? +And that's exactly what I'm saying. +So Torajans express this idea of this enduring relationship by lavishing love and attention on the most visible symbol of that relationship, the human body. +So my husband has fond memories of talking to and playing with and generally being around his deceased grandfather, and for him there is nothing unnatural about this. +This is a natural part of the process as the family comes to terms with the transition in their relationship to the deceased, and this is the transition from relating to the deceased as a person who's living to relating to the deceased as a person who's an ancestor. +And here you can see these wooden effigies of the ancestors, so these are people who have already been buried, already had a funeral ceremony. +These are called tau tau. +So the funeral ceremony itself embodies this relational perspective on death. +It ritualizes the impact of death on families and communities. +And it's also a moment of self-awareness. +It's a moment when people think about who they are, their place in society, and their role in the life cycle in accordance with Torajan cosmology. +There's a saying in Toraja that all people will become grandparents, and what this means is that after death, we all become part of the ancestral line that anchors us between the past and the present and will define who our loved ones are into the future. +So essentially, we all become grandparents to the generations of human children that come after us. +But the sacrifice of buffalo and the ritual display of wealth also exhibits the status of the deceased, and, by extension, the deceased's family. +So at funerals, relationships are reconfirmed but also transformed in a ritual drama that highlights the most salient feature about death in this place: its impact on life and the relationships of the living. +So all of this focus on death doesn't mean that Torajans don't aspire to the ideal of a long life. +They engage in many practices thought to confer good health and survival to an advanced age. +But they don't put much stock in efforts to prolong life in the face of debilitating illness or in old age. +It's said in Toraja that everybody has sort of a predetermined amount of life. +It's called the sunga'. +And like a thread, it should be allowed to unspool to its natural end. +So by having death as a part of the cultural and social fabric of life, people's everyday decisions about their health and healthcare are affected. +The patriarch of my husband's maternal clan, Nenet Katcha, is now approaching the age of 100, as far as we can tell. +And there are increasing signs that he is about to depart on his own journey for Puya. +And his death will be greatly mourned. +But I know that my husband's family looks forward to the moment when they can ritually display what his remarkable presence has meant to their lives, when they can ritually recount his life's narrative, weaving his story into the history of their community. +His story is their story. +His funeral songs will sing them a song about themselves. +And it's a story that has no discernible beginning, no foreseeable end. +It's a story that goes on long after his body no longer does. +People ask me if I'm frightened or repulsed by participating in a culture where the physical manifestations of death greet us at every turn. +But I see something profoundly transformative in experiencing death as a social process and not just a biological one. +In reality, the relationship between the living and the dead has its own drama in the U.S. healthcare system, where decisions about how long to stretch the thread of life are made based on our emotional and social ties with the people around us, not just on medicine's ability to prolong life. +We, like the Torajans, base our decisions about life on the meanings and the definitions that we ascribe to death. +So I'm not suggesting that anyone in this audience should run out and adopt the traditions of the Torajans. +It might be a little bit difficult to put into play in the United States. +But I want to ask what we can gain from seeing physical death not only as a biological process but as part of the greater human story. +What would it be like to look on the expired human form with love because it's so intimately a part of who we all are? +If we could expand our definition of death to encompass life, we could experience death as part of life and perhaps face death with something other than fear. +Perhaps one of the answers to the challenges that are facing the U.S. healthcare system, particularly in the end-of-life care, is as simple as a shift in perspective, and the shift in perspective in this case would be to look at the social life of every death. +It might help us recognize that the way we limit our conversation about death to something that's medical or biological is reflective of a larger culture that we all share of avoiding death, being afraid of talking about it. +If we could entertain and value other kinds of knowledge about life, including other definitions of death, it has the potential to change the discussions that we have about the end of life. +It could change the way that we die, but more importantly, it could transform the way that we live. +So my name is Amy Webb, and a few years ago I found myself at the end of yet another fantastic relationship that came burning down in a spectacular fashion. +And I thought, what's wrong with me? +I don't understand why this keeps happening. +So I asked everybody in my life what they thought. +I turned to my grandmother, who always had plenty of advice, and she said, "Stop being so picky. +You've got to date around. +And most importantly, true love will find you when you least expect it." +Now as it turns out, I'm somebody who thinks a lot about data, as you'll soon find. +I am constantly swimming in numbers, formulas and charts. +I also have a very tight-knit family, and I'm very, very close with my sister, and as a result, I wanted to have the same type of family when I grew up. +And if I want to start having children by the time I'm 35, that meant that I would have had to have been on my way to marriage five years ago. +So that wasn't going to work. +If my strategy was to least-expect my way into true love, then the variable that I had to deal with was serendipity. +In short, I was trying to figure out what's the probability of my finding Mr. Right? +Well, at the time I was living in the city of Philadelphia, and it's a big city, and I figured, in this entire place, there are lots of possibilities. +So again, I started doing some math. +Population of Philadelphia: it has 1.5 million people. +I figure about half of that are men, so that takes the number down to 750,000. +I'm looking for a guy between the ages of 30 and 36, which was only four percent of the population, so now I'm dealing with the possibility of 30,000 men. +I was looking for somebody who was Jewish, because I am and that was important to me. +That's only 2.3 percent of the population. +I figure I'm attracted to maybe one out of 10 of those men, and there was no way I was going to deal with somebody who was an avid golfer. +So that basically meant there were 35 men for me that I could possibly date in the entire city of Philadelphia. +In the meantime, my very large Jewish family was already all married and well on their way to having lots and lots of children, and I felt like I was under tremendous peer pressure to get my life going already. +So I have two possible strategies at this point I'm sort of figuring out. +One, I can take my grandmother's advice and sort of least-expect my way into maybe bumping into the one out of 35 possible men in the entire 1.5-million-person city of Philadelphia, or I could try online dating. +Now, I like the idea of online dating, because it's predicated on an algorithm, and that's really just a simple way of saying I've got a problem, I'm going to use some data, run it through a system and get to a solution. +So online dating is the second most popular way that people now meet each other, but as it turns out, algorithms have been around for thousands of years in almost every culture. +In fact, in Judaism, there were matchmakers a long time ago, and though they didn't have an explicit algorithm per se, they definitely were running through formulas in their heads, like, is the girl going to like the boy? +Are the families going to get along? +What's the rabbi going to say? +Are they going to start having children right away? +The matchmaker would sort of think through all of this, put two people together, and that would be the end of it. +So in my case, I thought, well, will data and an algorithm lead me to my Prince Charming? +So I decided to sign on. +Now, there was one small catch. +As I'm signing on to the various dating websites, as it happens, I was really, really busy. +But that actually wasn't the biggest problem. +The biggest problem is that I hate filling out questionnaires of any kind, and I certainly don't like questionnaires that are like Cosmo quizzes. +So I just copied and pasted from my rsum. +So in the descriptive part up top, I said that I was an award-winning journalist and a future thinker. +When I was asked about fun activities and my ideal date, I said monetization and fluency in Japanese. +I talked a lot about JavaScript. +So obviously this was not the best way to put my most sexy foot forward. +But the real failure was that there were plenty of men for me to date. +These algorithms had a sea full of men that wanted to take me out on lots of dates -- what turned out to be truly awful dates. +There was this guy Steve, the I.T. guy. +The algorithm matched us up because we share a love of gadgets, we share a love of math and data and '80s music, and so I agreed to go out with him. +So Steve the I.T. guy invited me out to one of Philadelphia's white-table-cloth, extremely expensive restaurants. +And we went in, and right off the bat, our conversation really wasn't taking flight, but he was ordering a lot of food. +In fact, he didn't even bother looking at the menu. +He was ordering multiple appetizers, multiple entres, for me as well, and suddenly there are piles and piles of food on our table, also lots and lots of bottles of wine. +So we're nearing the end of our conversation and the end of dinner, and I've decided Steve the I.T. guy and I are really just not meant for each other, but we'll part ways as friends, when he gets up to go to the bathroom, and in the meantime, the bill comes to our table. +And listen, I'm a modern woman. +I am totally down with splitting the bill. +But then Steve the I.T. guy didn't come back. And that was my entire month's rent. +So needless to say, I was not having a good night. +So I run home, I call my mother, I call my sister, and as I do, at the end of each one of these terrible, terrible dates, I regale them with the details. +And they say to me, "Stop complaining." +"You're just being too picky." +So I said, fine, from here on out I'm only going on dates where I know there's Wi-Fi, and I'm bringing my laptop. +I'm going to shove it into my bag, I'm going to have this email template, and I'm going to fill it out and collect information on all these different data points during the date to prove to everybody that empirically, these dates really are terrible. +So I started tracking things like really stupid, awkward, sexual remarks; bad vocabulary; the number of times a man forced me to high-five him. +So I started to crunch some numbers, and that allowed me to make some correlations. +So as it turns out, for some reason, men who drink Scotch reference kinky sex immediately. +Well, it turns out that these probably weren't bad guys. +There were just bad for me. +And as it happens, the algorithms that were setting us up, they weren't bad either. +These algorithms were doing exactly what they were designed to do, which was to take our user-generated information, in my case, my rsum, and match it up with other people's information. +See, the real problem here is that, while the algorithms work just fine, you and I don't, when confronted with blank windows where we're supposed to input our information online. +Very few of us have the ability to be totally and brutally honest with ourselves. +The other problem is that these websites are asking us questions like, are you a dog person or a cat person? +Do you like horror films or romance films? +I'm not looking for a pen pal. +I'm looking for a husband. Right? +So there's a certain amount of superficiality in that data. +So I said fine, I've got a new plan. +I'm going to keep using these online dating sites, but I'm going to treat them as databases, and rather than waiting for an algorithm to set me up, I think I'm going to try reverse-engineering this entire system. +So knowing that there was superficial data that was being used to match me up with other people, I decided instead to ask my own questions. +What was every single possible thing that I could think of that I was looking for in a mate? +So I started writing and writing and writing, and at the end, I had amassed 72 different data points. +I wanted somebody was Jew-ish, so I was looking for somebody who had the same background and thoughts on our culture, but wasn't going to force me to go to shul every Friday and Saturday. +I wanted somebody who worked hard, because work for me is extremely important, but not too hard. +For me, the hobbies that I have are really just new work projects that I've launched. +I also wanted somebody who not only wanted two children, but was going to have the same attitude toward parenting that I do, so somebody who was going to be totally okay with forcing our child to start taking piano lessons at age three, and also maybe computer science classes if we could wrangle it. +So things like that, but I also wanted somebody who would go to far-flung, exotic places, like Petra, Jordan. +I also wanted somebody who would weigh 20 pounds more than me at all times, regardless of what I weighed. +So I now have these 72 different data points, which, to be fair, is a lot. +So what I did was, I went through and I prioritized that list. +and I ranked everything starting at 100 and going all the way down to 91, and listing things like I was looking for somebody who was really smart, who would challenge and stimulate me, and balancing that with a second tier and a second set of points. +These things were also important to me but not necessarily deal-breakers. +So once I had all this done, I then built a scoring system, because what I wanted to do was to sort of mathematically calculate whether or not I thought the guy that I found online would be a match with me. +I figured there would be a minimum of 700 points before I would agree to email somebody or respond to an email message. +For 900 points, I'd agree to go out on a date, and I wouldn't even consider any kind of relationship before somebody had crossed the 1,500 point threshold. +Well, as it turns out, this worked pretty well. +I found Jewishdoc57 who's incredibly good-looking, incredibly well-spoken, he had hiked Mt. Fuji, he had walked along the Great Wall. +He likes to travel as long as it doesn't involve a cruise ship. +And I thought, I've done it! +I've cracked the code. +I have just found the Jewish Prince Charming of my family's dreams. +There was only one problem: He didn't like me back. +And I guess the one variable that I haven't considered is the competition. +Who are all of the other women on these dating sites? +I found SmileyGirl1978. +She said she was a "Fun girl who is Happy and Outgoing." +She listed her job as "teacher." +She said she is "silly, nice and friendly." +She likes to make people laugh "alot." +At this moment I knew, clicking profile after profile that looked like this, that I needed to do some market research. +So I created 10 fake male profiles. +Now, before I lose all of you -- -- understand that I did this strictly to gather data about everybody else in the system. +I didn't carry on crazy Catfish-style relationships with anybody. +I really was just scraping their data. +But I didn't want everybody's data. +I only wanted data on the women who were going to be attracted to the type of man that I really, really wanted to marry. +When I released these men into the wild, I did follow some rules. +So I didn't reach out to any woman first. +I just waited to see who these profiles were going to attract, and mainly what I was looking at was two different data sets. +So I was looking at qualitative data, so what was the humor, the tone, the voice, the communication style that these women shared in common? +And also quantitative data, so what was the average length of their profile, how much time was spent between messages? +What I was trying to get at here was that I figured, in person, I would be just as competitive as a SmileyGirl1978. +I wanted to figure out how to maximize my own profile online. +Well, one month later, I had a lot of data, and I was able to do another analysis. +And as it turns out, content matters a lot. +So smart people tend to write a lot -- 3,000, 4,000, 5,000 words about themselves, which may all be very, very interesting. +The challenge here, though, is that the popular men and women are sticking to 97 words on average that are written very, very well, even though it may not seem like it all the time. +The other hallmark of the people who do this well is that they're using non-specific language. +So in my case, "The English Patient" is my most favorite movie ever, but it doesn't work to use that in a profile, because that's a superficial data point, and somebody may disagree and decide they don't want to go out because they didn't like sitting through the three-hour movie. +Also, optimistic language matters a lot. +So this is a word cloud highlighting the most popular words that were used by the most popular women, words like "fun" and "girl" and "love." +And what I realized was not that I had to dumb down my own profile. +Remember, I'm somebody who said that I speak fluent Japanese and I know JavaScript and I was okay with that. +The difference is that it's about being more approachable and helping people understand the best way to reach out to you. +And as it turns out, timing is also really, really important. +Just because you have access to somebody's mobile phone number or their instant message account and it's 2 o'clock in the morning and you happen to be awake, doesn't mean that that's a good time to communicate with those people. +The popular women on these online sites spend an average of 23 hours in between each communication. +And that's what we would normally do in the usual process of courtship. +And finally -- there were the photos. +All of the women who were popular showed some skin. +They all looked really great, which turned out to be in sharp contrast to what I had uploaded. +Once I had all of this information, I was able to create a super profile, so it was still me, but it was me optimized now for this ecosystem. +And as it turns out, I did a really good job. +I was the most popular person online. +And as it turns out, lots and lots of men wanted to date me. +So I call my mom, I call my sister, I call my grandmother. +I'm telling them about this fabulous news, and they say, "This is wonderful! How soon are you going out?" +I said, "Actually, I'm not going to go out with anybody." +Because remember, in my scoring system, they have to reach a minimum threshold of 700 points, and none of them have done that. +They said, "What? You're still being too damn picky." +Well, not too long after that, I found this guy, Thevenin, and he said that he was culturally Jewish, he said that his job was an arctic baby seal hunter, which I thought was very clever. +He talked in detail about travel. +He made a lot of really interesting cultural references. +He looked and talked exactly like what I wanted, and immediately, he scored 850 points. +It was enough for a date. +Well, a year and a half after that, we were non-cruise ship traveling through Petra, Jordan, when he got down on his knee and proposed. +A year after that, we were married, and about a year and a half after that, our daughter, Petra, was born. +Obviously, I'm having a fabulous life, so -- The question is, what does all of this mean for you? +Well, as it turns out, there is an algorithm for love. +It's just not the ones that we're being presented with online. +In fact, it's something that you write yourself. +So whether you're looking for a husband or a wife or you're trying to find your passion or you're trying to start a business, all you have to really do is figure out your own framework and play by your own rules, and feel free to be as picky as you want. +Well, on my wedding day, I had a conversation again with my grandmother, and she said, "All right, maybe I was wrong. +It looks like you did come up with a really, really great system. +Now, your matzah balls ... +They should be fluffy, not hard." +And I'll take her advice on that. +An image is worth more than a thousand words, so I'm going to start my talk by stop talking and show you a few images that I recently captured. +So by now, my talk is already 6,000 words long, and I feel like I should stop here. +At the same time, I probably owe you some explanation about the images that you just saw. +What I am trying to do as a photographer, as an artist, is to bring the world of art and science together. +What I find very intriguing about those two is that they both look at the same thing: They are a response to their surroundings. +And yet, they do it in a very different way. +If you look at science on one hand, science is a very rational approach to its surroundings, whereas art on the other hand is usually an emotional approach to its surroundings. +What I am trying to do is I'm trying to bring those two views into one so that my images both speak to the viewer's heart but also to the viewer's brain. +Let me demonstrate this based on three projects. +The first one has to do with making sound visible. +Now as you may know, sound travels in waves, so if you have a speaker, a speaker actually does nothing else than taking the audio signal, transform it into a vibration, which is then transported through the air, is captured by our ear, and transformed into an audio signal again. +Now I was thinking, how can I make those sound waves visible? +So I came up with the following setup. +I took a speaker, I placed a thin foil of plastic on top of that speaker, and then I added tiny little crystals on top of that speaker. +And now, if I would play a sound through that speaker, it would cause the crystals to move up and down. +Now this happens very fast, in the blink of an eye, so, together with LG, we captured this motion with a camera that is able to capture more than 3,000 frames per second. +Let me show you what this looks like. +(Music: "Teardrop" by Massive Attack) Thank you very much. +I agree, it looks pretty amazing. +But I have to tell you a funny story. +I got an indoor sunburn doing this while shooting in Los Angeles. +Now in Los Angeles, you could get a decent sunburn just on any of the beaches, but I got mine indoors, and what happened is that, if you're shooting at 3,000 frames per second, you need to have a silly amount of light, lots of lights. +What was so funny about it was that the speaker was only coming from the right side, so the right side of my face was completely red and I looked like the Phantom of the Opera for the rest of the week. +Let me now turn to another project which involves less harmful substances. +Has anyone of you heard of ferrofluid? +Ah, some of you have. Excellent. +Should I skip that part? +Ferrofluid has a very strange behavior. +It's a liquid that is completely black. +It's got an oily consistency. +And it's got tiny little particles of metal in it, which makes it magnetic. +So if I now put this liquid into a magnetic field, it would change its appearance. +Now I've got a live demonstration over here to show this to you. +So I've got a camera pointing down at this plate, and underneath that plate, there is a magnet. +Now I'm going to add some of that ferrofluid to that magnet. +Let's just slightly move it to the right and maybe focus it a little bit more. Excellent. +So what you can see now is that the ferrofluid has formed spikes. +This is due to the attraction and the repulsion of the individual particles inside the liquid. +Now this looks already quite interesting, but let me now add some watercolors to it. +Those are just standard watercolors that you would paint with. +You wouldn't paint with syringes, but it works just the same. +So what happened now is, when the watercolor was flowing into the structure, the watercolors do not mix with the ferrofluid. +That's because the ferrofluid itself is hydrophobic. +That means it doesn't mix with the water. +And at the same time, it tries to maintain its position above the magnet, and therefore, it creates those amazing-looking structures of channels and tiny little ponds of colorful water paint. +So that was the second project. +Let me now turn to the last project, which involves the national beverage of Scotland. +This image, and also this one, were made using whiskey. +Now you might ask yourself, how did he do that? +Did he drink half a bottle of whiskey and then draw the hallucination he got from being drunk onto paper? +I can assure you I was fully conscious while I was taking those pictures. +Now, whiskey contains 40 percent of alcohol, and alcohol has got some very interesting properties. +Maybe you have experienced some of those properties before, but I am talking about the physical properties, not the other ones. +So when I open the bottle, the alcohol molecules would spread in the air, and that's because alcohol is a very volatile substance. +And at the same time, alcohol is highly flammable. +And it was with those two properties that I was able to create the images that you're seeing right now. +Let me demonstrate this over here. +And what I have here is an empty glass vessel. +It's got nothing in it. +And now I'm going to fill it with oxygen and whiskey. +Add some more. +Now we just wait for a few seconds for the molecules to spread inside the bottle. +And now, let's set that on fire. +So that's all that happens. +It goes really fast, and it's not that impressive. +I could do it again to show it one more time, but some would argue that this is a complete waste of the whiskey, and that I should rather drink it. +But let me show you a slow motion in a completely darkened room of what I just showed you in this live demonstration. +So what happened is that the flame traveled through the glass vessel from top to bottom, burning the mix of the air molecules and the alcohol. +So the images that you saw at the beginning, they are actually a flame stopped in time while it is traveling through the bottle, and you have to imagine it was flipped around 180 degrees. +So that's how those images were made. +Thank you. +So, I have now showed you three projects, and you might ask yourself, what is it good for? +What's the idea behind it? +Is it just a waste of whiskey? +Is it just some strange materials? +Thank you very much. +Here's a question we need to rethink together: What should be the role of money and markets in our societies? +Today, there are very few things that money can't buy. +If you're sentenced to a jail term in Santa Barbara, California, you should know that if you don't like the standard accommodations, you can buy a prison cell upgrade. +It's true. For how much, do you think? +What would you guess? +Five hundred dollars? +It's not the Ritz-Carlton. It's a jail! +Eighty-two dollars a night. +Eighty-two dollars a night. +If you go to an amusement park and don't want to stand in the long lines for the popular rides, there is now a solution. +In many theme parks, you can pay extra to jump to the head of the line. +They call them Fast Track or VIP tickets. +And this isn't only happening in amusement parks. +In Washington, D.C., long lines, queues sometimes form for important Congressional hearings. +Now some people don't like to wait in long queues, maybe overnight, even in the rain. +So now, for lobbyists and others who are very keen to attend these hearings but don't like to wait, there are companies, line-standing companies, and you can go to them. +Paid line standing. +It's happening, the recourse to market mechanisms and market thinking and market solutions, in bigger arenas. +Take the way we fight our wars. +Did you know that, in Iraq and Afghanistan, there were more private military contractors on the ground than there were U.S. military troops? +Now this isn't because we had a public debate about whether we wanted to outsource war to private companies, but this is what has happened. +Over the past three decades, we have lived through a quiet revolution. +We've drifted almost without realizing it from having a market economy to becoming market societies. +The difference is this: A market economy is a tool, a valuable and effective tool, for organizing productive activity, but a market society is a place where almost everything is up for sale. +It's a way of life, in which market thinking and market values begin to dominate every aspect of life: personal relations, family life, health, education, politics, law, civic life. +Now, why worry? Why worry about our becoming market societies? +For two reasons, I think. +One of them has to do with inequality. +The more things money can buy, the more affluence, or the lack of it, matters. +If the only thing that money determined was access to yachts or fancy vacations or BMWs, then inequality wouldn't matter very much. +But when money comes increasingly to govern access to the essentials of the good life -- decent health care, access to the best education, political voice and influence in campaigns -- when money comes to govern all of those things, inequality matters a great deal. +And so the marketization of everything sharpens the sting of inequality and its social and civic consequence. +That's one reason to worry. +There's a second reason apart from the worry about inequality, and it's this: with some social goods and practices, when market thinking and market values enter, they may change the meaning of those practices and crowd out attitudes and norms worth caring about. +I'd like to take an example of a controversial use of a market mechanism, a cash incentive, and see what you think about it. +Many schools struggle with the challenge of motivating kids, especially kids from disadvantaged backgrounds, to study hard, to do well in school, to apply themselves. +Some economists have proposed a market solution: Offer cash incentives to kids for getting good grades or high test scores or for reading books. +They've tried this, actually. +They've done some experiments in some major American cities. +In New York, in Chicago, in Washington, D.C., they've tried this, offering 50 dollars for an A, 35 dollars for a B. +In Dallas, Texas, they have a program that offers eight-year-olds two dollars for each book they read. +So let's see what -- Some people are in favor, some people are opposed to this cash incentive to motivate achievement. +Let's see what people here think about it. +Imagine that you are the head of a major school system, and someone comes to you with this proposal. +And let's say it's a foundation. They will provide the funds. +You don't have to take it out of your budget. +How many would be in favor and how many would be opposed to giving it a try? +Let's see by a show of hands. +First, how many think it might at least be worth a try to see if it would work? Raise your hand. +And how many would be opposed? How many would -- So the majority here are opposed, but a sizable minority are in favor. +Let's have a discussion. +Let's start with those of you who object, who would rule it out even before trying. +What would be your reason? +Who will get our discussion started? Yes? +Heike Moses: Hello everyone, I'm Heike, and I think it just kills the intrinsic motivation, so in the respect that children, if they would like to read, you just take this incentive away in just paying them, so it just changes behavior. +Michael Sandel: Takes the intrinsic incentive away. +What is, or should be, the intrinsic motivation? +HM: Well, the intrinsic motivation should be to learn. +MS: To learn. HM: To get to know the world. +And then, if you stop paying them, what happens then? +Then they stop reading? +MS: Now, let's see if there's someone who favors, who thinks it's worth trying this. +Elizabeth Loftus: I'm Elizabeth Loftus, and you said worth a try, so why not try it and do the experiment and measure things? +MS: And measure. And what would you measure? +You'd measure how many -- EL: How many books they read and how many books they continued to read after you stopped paying them. +MS: Oh, after you stopped paying. +All right, what about that? +HM: To be frank, I just think this is, not to offend anyone, a very American way. +MS: All right. What's emerged from this discussion is the following question: Will the cash incentive drive out or corrupt or crowd out the higher motivation, the intrinsic lesson that we hope to convey, which is to learn to love to learn and to read for their own sakes? +And people disagree about what the effect will be, but that seems to be the question, that somehow a market mechanism or a cash incentive teaches the wrong lesson, and if it does, what will become of these children later? +I should tell you what's happened with these experiments. +The cash for good grades has had very mixed results, for the most part has not resulted in higher grades. +The two dollars for each book did lead those kids to read more books. +It also led them to read shorter books. +But the real question is, what will become of these kids later? +Will they have learned that reading is a chore, a form of piecework to be done for pay, that's the worry, or may it lead them to read maybe for the wrong reason initially but then lead them to fall in love with reading for its own sake? +Now, what this, even this brief debate, brings out is something that many economists overlook. +Economists often assume that markets are inert, that they do not touch or taint the goods they exchange. +Market exchange, they assume, doesn't change the meaning or value of the goods being exchanged. +This may be true enough if we're talking about material goods. +If you sell me a flat screen television or give me one as a gift, it will be the same good. +It will work the same either way. +But the same may not be true if we're talking about nonmaterial goods and social practices such as teaching and learning or engaging together in civic life. +In those domains, bringing market mechanisms and cash incentives may undermine or crowd out nonmarket values and attitudes worth caring about. +But to have this debate, we have to do something we're not very good at, and that is to reason together in public about the value and the meaning of the social practices we prize, from our bodies to family life to personal relations to health to teaching and learning to civic life. +Now these are controversial questions, and so we tend to shrink from them. +In fact, during the past three decades, when market reasoning and market thinking have gathered force and gained prestige, our public discourse during this time has become hollowed out, empty of larger moral meaning. +For fear of disagreement, we shrink from these questions. +But once we see that markets change the character of goods, we have to debate among ourselves these bigger questions about how to value goods. +One of the most corrosive effects of putting a price on everything is on commonality, the sense that we are all in it together. +Against the background of rising inequality, marketizing every aspect of life leads to a condition where those who are affluent and those who are of modest means increasingly live separate lives. +We live and work and shop and play in different places. +Our children go to different schools. +This isn't good for democracy, nor is it a satisfying way to live, even for those of us who can afford to buy our way to the head of the line. +Here's why. +Democracy does not require perfect equality, but what it does require is that citizens share in a common life. +What matters is that people of different social backgrounds and different walks of life encounter one another, bump up against one another in the ordinary course of life, because this is what teaches us to negotiate and to abide our differences. +And this is how we come to care for the common good. +And so, in the end, the question of markets is not mainly an economic question. +It's really a question of how we want to live together. +Do we want a society where everything is up for sale, or are there certain moral and civic goods that markets do not honor and money cannot buy? +Thank you very much. +I think we're all aware that the world today is full of problems. +We've been hearing them today and yesterday and every day for decades. +Serious problems, big problems, pressing problems. +Poor nutrition, access to water, climate change, deforestation, lack of skills, insecurity, not enough food, not enough healthcare, pollution. +There's problem after problem, and I think what really separates this time from any time I can remember in my brief time on Earth is the awareness of these problems. +We're all very aware. +Why are we having so much trouble dealing with these problems? +That's the question I've been struggling with, coming from my very different perspective. +I'm not a social problem guy. +I'm a guy that works with business, helps business make money. +God forbid. +So why are we having so many problems with these social problems, and really is there any role for business, and if so, what is that role? +I think that in order to address that question, we have to step back and think about how we've understood and pondered both the problems and the solutions to these great social challenges that we face. +Now, I think many have seen business as the problem, or at least one of the problems, in many of the social challenges we face. +You know, think of the fast food industry, the drug industry, the banking industry. +You know, this is a low point in the respect for business. +Business is not seen as the solution. +It's seen as the problem now, for most people. +And rightly so, in many cases. +There's a lot of bad actors out there that have done the wrong thing, that actually have made the problem worse. +So this perspective is perhaps justified. +How have we tended to see the solutions to these social problems, these many issues that we face in society? +Well, we've tended to see the solutions in terms of NGOs, in terms of government, in terms of philanthropy. +Indeed, the kind of unique organizational entity of this age is this tremendous rise of NGOs and social organizations. +This is a unique, new organizational form that we've seen grown up. +Enormous innovation, enormous energy, enormous talent now has been mobilized through this structure to try to deal with all of these challenges. +And many of us here are deeply involved in that. +I'm a business school professor, but I've actually founded, I think, now, four nonprofits. +Whenever I got interested and became aware of a societal problem, that was what I did, form a nonprofit. +That was the way we've thought about how to deal with these issues. +Even a business school professor has thought about it that way. +But I think at this moment, we've been at this for quite a while. +We've been aware of these problems for decades. +We have decades of experience with our NGOs and with our government entities, and there's an awkward reality. +The awkward reality is we're not making fast enough progress. +We're not winning. +These problems still seem very daunting and very intractable, and any solutions we're achieving are small solutions. +We're making incremental progress. +What's the fundamental problem we have in dealing with these social problems? +If we cut all the complexity away, we have the problem of scale. +We can't scale. +We can make progress. We can show benefits. +We can show results. We can make things better. +We're helping. We're doing better. We're doing good. +We can't scale. +We can't make a large-scale impact on these problems. +Why is that? +Because we don't have the resources. +And that's really clear now. +And that's clearer now than it's been for decades. +There's simply not enough money to deal with any of these problems at scale using the current model. +There's not enough tax revenue, there's not enough philanthropic donations, to deal with these problems the way we're dealing with them now. +We've got to confront that reality. +And the scarcity of resources for dealing with these problems is only growing, certainly in the advanced world today, with all the fiscal problems we face. +So if it's fundamentally a resource problem, where are the resources in society? +How are those resources really created, the resources we're going to need to deal with all these societal challenges? +Well there, I think the answer is very clear: They're in business. +All wealth is actually created by business. +Business creates wealth when it meets needs at a profit. +That's how all wealth is created. +It's meeting needs at a profit that leads to taxes and that leads to incomes and that leads to charitable donations. +That's where all the resources come from. +Only business can actually create resources. +Other institutions can utilize them to do important work, but only business can create them. +And business creates them when it's able to meet a need at a profit. +The resources are overwhelmingly generated by business. +The question then is, how do we tap into this? +How do we tap into this? +Business generates those resources when it makes a profit. +That profit is that small difference between the price and the cost it takes to produce whatever solution business has created to whatever problem they're trying to solve. +But that profit is the magic. +Why? Because that profit allows whatever solution we've created to be infinitely scalable. +Because if we can make a profit, we can do it for 10, 100, a million, 100 million, a billion. +The solution becomes self-sustaining. +That's what business does when it makes a profit. +Now what does this all have to do with social problems? +Well, one line of thinking is, let's take this profit and redeploy it into social problems. +Business should give more. +Business should be more responsible. +And that's been the path that we've been on in business. +But again, this path that we've been on is not getting us where we need to go. +Now, I started out as a strategy professor, and I'm still a strategy professor. +I'm proud of that. +But I've also, over the years, worked more and more on social issues. +I've worked on healthcare, the environment, economic development, reducing poverty, and as I worked more and more in the social field, I started seeing something that had a profound impact on me and my whole life, in a way. +The conventional wisdom in economics and the view in business has historically been that actually, there's a tradeoff between social performance and economic performance. +The conventional wisdom has been that business actually makes a profit by causing a social problem. +The classic example is pollution. +If business pollutes, it makes more money than if it tried to reduce that pollution. +Reducing pollution is expensive, therefore businesses don't want to do it. +It's profitable to have an unsafe working environment. +It's too expensive to have a safe working environment, therefore business makes more money if they don't have a safe working environment. +That's been the conventional wisdom. +A lot of companies have fallen into that conventional wisdom. +They resisted environmental improvement. +They resisted workplace improvement. +That thinking has led to, I think, much of the behavior that we have come to criticize in business, that I come to criticize in business. +But the more deeply I got into all these social issues, one after another, and actually, the more I tried to address them myself, personally, in a few cases, through nonprofits that I was involved with, the more I found actually that the reality is the opposite. +Business does not profit from causing social problems, actually not in any fundamental sense. +That's a very simplistic view. +The deeper we get into these issues, the more we start to understand that actually business profits from solving from social problems. +That's where the real profit comes. +Let's take pollution. +We've learned today that actually reducing pollution and emissions is generating profit. +It saves money. +It makes the business more productive and efficient. +It doesn't waste resources. +Having a safer working environment actually, and avoiding accidents, it makes the business more profitable, because it's a sign of good processes. +Accidents are expensive and costly. +Issue by issue by issue, we start to learn that actually there's no trade-off between social progress and economic efficiency in any fundamental sense. +Another issue is health. +I mean, what we've found is actually health of employees is something that business should treasure, because that health allows those employees to be more productive and come to work and not be absent. +The deeper work, the new work, the new thinking on the interface between business and social problems is actually showing that there's a fundamental, deep synergy, particularly if you're not thinking in the very short run. +In the very short run, you can sometimes fool yourself into thinking that there's fundamentally opposing goals, but in the long run, ultimately, we're learning in field after field that this is simply not true. +So how could we tap into the power of business to address the fundamental problems that we face? +Imagine if we could do that, because if we could do it, we could scale. +We could tap into this enormous resource pool and this organizational capacity. +And guess what? That's happening now, finally, partly because of people like you who have raised these issues now for year after year and decade after decade. +We see organizations like Dow Chemical leading the revolution away from trans fat and saturated fat with innovative new products. +This is an example of Jain Irrigation. +This is a company that's brought drip irrigation technology to thousands and millions of farmers, reducing substantially the use of water. +We see companies like the Brazilian forestry company Fibria that's figured out how to avoid tearing down old growth forest and using eucalyptus and getting much more yield per hectare of pulp and making much more paper than you could make by cutting down those old trees. +You see companies like Cisco that are training so far four million people in I.T. skills to actually, yes, be responsible, but help expand the opportunity to disseminate I.T. technology and grow the whole business. +There's a fundamental opportunity for business today to impact and address these social problems, and this opportunity is the largest business opportunity we see in business. +And the question is, how can we get business thinking to adapt this issue of shared value? +This is what I call shared value: addressing a social issue with a business model. +That's shared value. +Shared value is capitalism, but it's a higher kind of capitalism. +It's capitalism as it was ultimately meant to be, meeting important needs, not incrementally competing for trivial differences in product attributes and market share. +Shared value is when we can create social value and economic value simultaneously. +It's finding those opportunities that will unleash the greatest possibility we have to actually address these social problems because we can scale. +We can address shared value at multiple levels. +It's real. It's happening. +But in order to get this solution working, we have to now change how business sees itself, and this is thankfully underway. +Businesses got trapped into the conventional wisdom that they shouldn't worry about social problems, that this was sort of something on the side, that somebody else was doing it. +We're now seeing companies embrace this idea. +But we also have to recognize business is not going to do this as effectively as if we have NGOs and government working in partnership with business. +The new NGOs that are really moving the needle are the ones that have found these partnerships, that have found these ways to collaborate. +The governments that are making the most progress are the governments that have found ways to enable shared value in business rather than see government as the only player that has to call the shots. +And government has many ways in which it could impact the willingness and the ability of companies to compete in this way. +I think if we can get business seeing itself differently, and if we can get others seeing business differently, we can change the world. +I know it. I'm seeing it. +I'm feeling it. +Young people, I think, my Harvard Business School students, are getting it. +If we can break down this sort of divide, this unease, this tension, this sense that we're not fundamentally collaborating here in driving these social problems, we can break this down, and we finally, I think, can have solutions. +Thank you. +The work of a transportation commissioner isn't just about stop signs and traffic signals. +It involves the design of cities and the design of city streets. +Streets are some of the most valuable resources that a city has, and yet it's an asset that's largely hidden in plain sight. +And the lesson from New York over the past six years is that you can update this asset. +You can remake your streets quickly, inexpensively, it can provide immediate benefits, and it can be quite popular. +You just need to look at them a little differently. +This is important because we live in an urban age. +For the first time in history, most people live in cities, and the U.N. estimates that over the next 40 years, the population is going to double on the planet. +So the design of cities is a key issue for our future. +Mayor Bloomberg recognized this when he launched PlaNYC in 2007. +The plan recognized that cities are in a global marketplace, and that if we're going to continue to grow and thrive and to attract the million more people that are expected to move here, we need to focus on the quality of life and the efficiency of our infrastructure. +For many cities, our streets have been in a kind of suspended animation for generations. +This is a picture of Times Square in the '50s, and despite all of the technological innovation, cultural changes, political changes, this is Times Square in 2008. +Not much has changed in those 50 years. +So we worked hard to refocus our agenda, to maximize efficient mobility, providing more room for buses, more room for bikes, more room for people to enjoy the city, and to make our streets as safe as they can be for everybody that uses them. +We set out a clear action plan with goals and benchmarks. +Having goals is important, because if you want to change and steer the ship of a big city in a new direction, you need to know where you're going and why. +The design of a street can tell you everything about what's expected on it. +In this case, it's expected that you shelter in place. +The design of this street is really to maximize the movement of cars moving as quickly as possible from point A to point B, and it misses all the other ways that a street is used. +When we started out, we did some early surveys about how our streets were used, and we found that New York City was largely a city without seats. +Pictures like this, people perched on a fire hydrant, not the mark of a world-class city. +It's not great for parents with kids. +It's not great for seniors. It's not great for retailers. +It's probably not good for the fire hydrants. +Certainly not good for the police department. +So we worked hard to change that balance, and probably the best example of our new approach is in Times Square. +Three hundred and fifty thousand people a day walk through Times Square, and people had tried for years to make changes. +They changed signals, they changed lanes, everything they could do to make Times Square work better. +It was dangerous, hard to cross the street. +It was chaotic. +And so, none of those approaches worked, so we took a different approach, a bigger approach, looked at our street differently. +And so we did a six-month pilot. +We closed Broadway from 42nd Street to 47th Street and created two and a half acres of new pedestrian space. +And the temporary materials are an important part of the program, because we were able to show how it worked. +And I work for a data-driven mayor, as you probably know. +So it was all about the data. +So if it worked better for traffic, if it was better for mobility, if it was safer, better for business, we would keep it, and if it didn't work, no harm, no foul, we could put it back the way that it was, because these were temporary materials. +And that was a very big part of the buy-in, much less anxiety when you think that something can be put back. +But the results were overwhelming. +Traffic moved better. It was much safer. +Five new flagship stores opened. +It's been a total home run. +Times Square is now one of the top 10 retail locations on the planet. +And this is an important lesson, because it doesn't need to be a zero-sum game between moving traffic and creating public space. +Every project has its surprises, and one of the big surprises with Times Square was how quickly people flocked to the space. +We put out the orange barrels, and people just materialized immediately into the street. +It was like a Star Trek episode, you know? +They weren't there before, and then zzzzzt! +All the people arrived. +Where they'd been, I don't know, but they were there. +And this actually posed an immediate challenge for us, because the street furniture had not yet arrived. +So we went to a hardware store and bought hundreds of lawn chairs, and we put those lawn chairs out on the street. +And the lawn chairs became the talk of the town. +It wasn't about that we'd closed Broadway to cars. +It was about those lawn chairs. +"What did you think about the lawn chairs?" +"Do you like the color of the lawn chairs?" +So if you've got a big, controversial project, think about lawn chairs. +And we will be cutting the ribbon on this, the first phase, this December. +With all of our projects, our public space projects, we work closely with local businesses and local merchant groups who maintain the spaces, move the furniture, take care of the plants. +This is in front of Macy's, and they were a big supporter of this new approach, because they understood that more people on foot is better for business. +And we've done these projects all across the city in all kinds of neighborhoods. +This is in Bed-Stuy, Brooklyn, and you can see the short leg that was there, used for cars, that's not really needed. +So what we did is we painted over the street, put down epoxy gravel, and connected the triangle to the storefronts on Grand Avenue, created a great new public space, and it's been great for businesses along Grand Avenue. +We did the same thing in DUMBO, in Brooklyn, and this is one of our first projects that we did, and we took an underutilized, pretty dingy-looking parking lot and used some paint and planters to transform it over a weekend. +And in the three years since we've implemented the project, retail sales have increased 172 percent. +And that's twice that of adjacent areas in the same neighborhood. +We've moved very, very quickly with paint and temporary materials. +Instead of waiting through years of planning studies and computer models to get something done, we've done it with paint and temporary materials. +And the proof is not in a computer model. +It is in the real-world performance of the street. +You can have fun with paint. +All told, we've created over 50 pedestrian plazas in all five boroughs across the city. +We've repurposed 26 acres of active car lanes and turned them into new pedestrian space. +I think one of the successes is in its emulation. +You're seeing this kind of approach, since we've painted Times Square, you've seen this approach in Boston, in Chicago, in San Francisco, in Mexico City, Buenos Aires, you name it. +This is actually in Los Angeles, and they actually copied even the green dots that we had on the streets. +But I can't underscore enough how much more quickly this enables you to move over traditional construction methods. +We also brought this quick-acting approach to our cycling program, and in six years turned cycling into a real transportation option in New York. +I think it's fair to say -- -- it used to be a fairly scary place to ride a bike, and now New York has become one of the cycling capitals in the United States. +And we moved quickly to create an interconnected network of lanes. +You can see the map in 2007. +This is how it looked in 2013 after we built out 350 miles of on-street bike lanes. +I love this because it looks so easy. +You just click it, and they're there. +We also brought new designs to the street. +We created the first parking-protected bike lane in the United States. +We protected bikers by floating parking lanes, and it's been great. +Bike volumes have spiked. +Injuries to all users, pedestrians, cyclists, drivers, are all down 50 percent. +And we've built 30 miles of these protected bike lanes, and now you're seeing them pop up all over the country. +And you can see here that this strategy has worked. +The blue line is the number of cyclists, soaring. +The green line is the number of bike lanes. +And the yellow line is the number of injuries, which has remained essentially flat. +After this big expansion, you've seen no net increase in injuries, and so there is something to that axiom that there is safety in numbers. +Not everybody liked the new bike lanes, and there was a lawsuit and somewhat of a media frenzy a couple years ago. +One Brooklyn paper called this bike lane that we have on Prospect Park West "the most contested piece of land outside of the Gaza Strip." +And this is what we had done. +So if you dig below the headlines, though, you'll see that the people were far ahead of the press, far ahead of the politicians. +In fact, I think most politicians would be happy to have those kind of poll numbers. +Sixty-four percent of New Yorkers support these bike lanes. +This summer, we launched Citi Bike, the largest bike share program in the United States, with 6,000 bikes and 330 stations located next to one another. +Since we've launched the program, three million trips have been taken. +People have ridden seven million miles. +That's 280 times around the globe. +And so with this little blue key, you can unlock the keys to the city and this brand new transportation option. +And daily usage just continues to soar. +What has happened is the average daily ridership on the streets of New York is 36,000 people. +The high that we've had so far is 44,000 in August. +Yesterday, 40,000 people used Citi Bike in New York City. +The bikes are being used six times a day. +And I think you also see it in the kinds of riders that are on the streets. +In the past, it looked like the guy on the left, ninja-clad bike messenger. +And today, cyclists look like New York City looks. +It's diverse -- young, old, black, white, women, kids, all getting on a bike. +It's an affordable, safe, convenient way to get around. +Quite radical. +We've also brought this approach to our buses, and New York City has the largest bus fleet in North America, the slowest bus speeds. +As everybody knows, you can walk across town faster than you can take the bus. +And so we focused on the most congested areas of New York City, built out six bus rapid transit lines, 57 miles of new speedy bus lanes. +You pay at a kiosk before you get on the bus. +We've got dedicated lanes that keep cars out because they get ticketed by a camera if they use that lane, and it's been a huge success. +It was just fantastic. +And this is how it looked six years ago. +And so, I think that the lesson that we have from New York is that it's possible to change your streets quickly, it's not expensive, it can provide immediate benefits, and it can be quite popular. +You just need to reimagine your streets. +They're hidden in plain sight. +Thank you. +"Iran is Israel's best friend, and we do not intend to change our position in relation to Tehran." +Believe it or not, this is a quote from an Israeli prime minister, but it's not Ben-Gurion or Golda Meir from the era of the Shah. +It's actually from Yitzhak Rabin. +The year is 1987. +Ayatollah Khomeini is still alive, and much like Ahmadinejad today, he's using the worst rhetoric against Israel. +Yet, Rabin referred to Iran as a geostrategic friend. +Today, when we hear the threats of war and the high rhetoric, we're oftentimes led to believe that this is yet another one of those unsolvable Middle Eastern conflicts with roots as old as the region itself. +Nothing could be further from the truth, and I hope today to show you why that is. +The relations between the Iranian and the Jewish people throughout history has actually been quite positive, starting in 539 B.C., when King Cyrus the Great of Persia liberated the Jewish people from their Babylonian captivity. +A third of the Jewish population stayed in Babylonia. +They're today's Iraqi Jews. +A third migrated to Persia. +They're today's Iranian Jews, still 25,000 of them living in Iran, making them the largest Jewish community in the Middle East outside of Israel itself. +And a third returned to historic Palestine, did the second rebuilding of the Temple in Jerusalem, financed, incidentally, by Persian tax money. +But even in modern times, relations have been close at times. +Rabin's statement was a reflection of decades of security and intelligence collaboration between the two, which in turn was born out of perception of common threats. +Both states feared the Soviet Union and strong Arab states such as Egypt and Iraq. +And, in addition, the Israeli doctrine of the periphery, the idea that Israel's security was best achieved by creating alliances with the non-Arab states in the periphery of the region in order to balance the Arab states in its vicinity. +Now, from the Shah's perspective, though, he wanted to keep this as secret as possible, so when Yitzhak Rabin, for instance, traveled to Iran in the '70s, he usually wore a wig so that no one would recognize him. +The Iranians built a special tarmac at the airport in Tehran, far away from the central terminal, so that no one would notice the large number of Israeli planes shuttling between Tel Aviv and Tehran. +Now, did all of this end with the Islamic revolution in 1979? +In spite of the very clear anti-Israeli ideology of the new regime, the geopolitical logic for their collaboration lived on, because they still had common threats. +And when Iraq invaded Iran in 1980, Israel feared an Iraqi victory and actively helped Iran by selling it arms and providing it with spare parts for Iran's American weaponry at a moment when Iran was very vulnerable because of an American arms embargo that Israel was more than happy to violate. +In fact, back in the 1980s, it was Israel that lobbied Washington to talk to Iran, to sell arms to Iran, and not pay attention to Iran's anti-Israeli ideology. +And this, of course, climaxed in the Iran-Contra scandal of the 1980s. +But with the end of the Cold War came also the end of the Israeli-Iranian cold peace. +Suddenly, the two common threats that had pushed them closer together throughout decades, more or less evaporated. +The Soviet Union collapsed, Iraq was defeated, and a new environment was created in the region in which both of them felt more secure, but they were also now left unchecked. +Without Iraq balancing Iran, Iran could now become a threat, some in Israel argued. +So Israel, who in the 1980s lobbied for and improved U.S.-Iran relations now feared a U.S.-Iran rapprochement, thinking that it would come at Israel's security interests' expense, and instead sought to put Iran in increased isolation. +Ironically, this was happening at a time when Iran was more interested in peacemaking with Washington than to see to Israel's destruction. +Iran had put itself in isolation because of its radicalism, and after having helped the United States indirectly in the war against Iraq in 1991, the Iranians were hoping that they would be rewarded by being included in the post-war security architecture of the region. +But Washington chose to ignore Iran's outreach, as it would a decade later in Afghanistan, and instead moved to intensify Iran's isolation, and it is at this point, around 1993, '94, that Iran begins to translate its anti-Israeli ideology into operational policy. +The Iranians believed that whatever they did, even if they moderated their policies, the U.S. would continue to seek Iran's isolation, and the only way Iran could compel Washington to change its position was by imposing a cost on the U.S. if it didn't. +The easiest target was the peace process, and now the Iranian ideological bark was to be accompanied by a nonconventional bite, and Iran began supporting extensively Palestinian Islamist groups that it previously had shunned. +In some ways, this sounds paradoxical, but according to Martin Indyk of the Clinton administration, the Iranians had not gotten it entirely wrong, because the more peace there would be between Israel and Palestine, the U.S. believed, the more Iran would get isolated. +The more Iran got isolated, the more peace there would be. +So according to Indyk, and these are his words, the Iranians had an interest to do us in on the peace process in order to defeat our policy of containment. +To defeat our policy of containment, not about ideology. +But throughout even the worst times of their entanglement, all sides have reached out to each other. +Netanyahu, when he got elected in 1996, reached out to the Iranians to see if there were any ways that the doctrine of the periphery could be resurrected. +Tehran was not interested. +A few years later, the Iranians sent a comprehensive negotiation proposal to the Bush administration, a proposal that revealed that there was some potential of getting Iran and Israel back on terms again. +The Bush administration did not even respond. +All sides have never missed an opportunity to miss an opportunity. +But this is not an ancient conflict. +This is not even an ideological conflict. +The ebbs and flows of hostility have not shifted with ideological zeal, but rather with changes in the geopolitical landscape. +When Iran and Israel's security imperatives dictated collaboration, they did so in spite of lethal ideological opposition to each other. +When Iran's ideological impulses collided with its strategic interests, the strategic interests always prevailed. +This is good news, because it means that neither war nor enmity is a foregone conclusion. +But some want war. +Some believe or say that it's 1938, Iran is Germany, and Ahmadinejad is Hitler. +If we accept this to be true, that indeed it is 1938, Iran is Germany, Ahmadinejad is Hitler, then the question we have to ask ourself is, who wishes to play the role of Neville Chamberlain? +Who will risk peace? +This is an analogy that is deliberately aimed at eliminating diplomacy, and when you eliminate diplomacy, you make war inevitable. +In an ideological conflict, there can be no truce, no draw, no compromise, only victory or defeat. +But rather than making war inevitable by viewing this as ideological, we would be wise to seek ways to make peace possible. +Iran and Israel's conflict is a new phenomenon, only a few decades old in a history of 2,500 years, and precisely because its roots are geopolitical, it means that solutions can be found, compromises can be struck, however difficult it yet may be. +After all, it was Yitzhak Rabin himself who said, "You don't make peace with your friends. +You make it with your enemies." +Thank you. +I'm a physician trained in infectious diseases, and following my training, I moved to Somalia from San Francisco. +And my goodbye greeting from the chief of infectious diseases at San Francisco General was, "Gary, this is the biggest mistake you'll ever make." +But I landed in a refugee situation that had a million refugees in 40 camps, and there were six of us doctors. +There were many epidemics there. +My responsibilities were largely related to tuberculosis, and then we got struck by an epidemic of cholera. +So it was the spread of tuberculosis and the spread of cholera that I was responsible for inhibiting. +And in order to do this work, we, of course, because of the limitation in health workers, had to recruit refugees to be a specialized new category of health worker. +Following three years of work in Somalia, I got picked up by the World Health Organization, and got assigned to the epidemics of AIDS. +My primary responsibility was Uganda, but also I worked in Rwanda and Burundi and Zaire, now Congo, Tanzania, Malawi, and several other countries. +And my last assignment there was to run a unit called intervention development, which was responsible for designing interventions. +After 10 years of working overseas, I was exhausted. +I really had very little left. +I had been traveling to one country after another. +I was emotionally feeling very isolated. +I wanted to come home. +I'd seen a lot of death, in particular epidemic death, and epidemic death has a different feel to it. +It's full of panic and fear, and I'd heard the women wailing and crying in the desert. +And I wanted to come home and take a break and maybe start over. +I was not aware of any epidemic problems in America. +In fact, I wasn't aware of any problems in America. +In fact -- seriously. +And in fact I would visit friends of mine, and I noticed that they had water that came right into their homes. +How many of you have such a situation? +And some of them, many of them actually, had water that came into more than one room. +And I noticed that they would move this little thermoregulatory device to change the temperature in their home by one degree or two degrees. +And now I do that. +And I really didn't know what I would do, but friends of mine began telling me about children shooting other children with guns. +And I asked the question, what are you doing about it? +What are you in America doing about it? +And there were two essential explanations or ideas that were prevalent. +And one was punishment. +And this I had heard about before. +We who had worked in behavior knew that punishment was something that was discussed but also that it was highly overvalued. +It was not a main driver of behavior, nor was it a main driver of behavior change. +The other explanation or, in a way, the solution suggested, is please fix all of these things: the schools, the community, the homes, the families, everything. +And I'd heard this before as well. +I'd called this the "everything" theory, or EOE: Everything On Earth. +But we'd also realized in treating other processes and problems that sometimes you don't need to treat everything. +And so the sense that I had was there was a giant gap here. +The problem of violence was stuck, and this has historically been the case in many other issues. +Diarrheal diseases had been stuck. +Malaria had been stuck. +Frequently, a strategy has to be rethought. +It's not as if I had any idea what it would look like, but there was a sense that we would have to do something with new categories of workers and something having to do with behavior change and something having to do with public education. +But I began to ask questions and search out the usual things that I had been exploring before, like, what do the maps look like? +What do the graphs look like? +What does the data look like? +And the maps of violence in most U.S. cities looked like this. +There was clustering. +This reminded me of clustering that we'd seen also in infectious epidemics, for example cholera. +And then we looked at the maps, and the maps showed this typical wave upon wave upon wave, because all epidemics are combinations of many epidemics. +And it also looked like infectious epidemics. +And then we asked the question, well what really predicts a case of violence? +And it turns out that the greatest predictor of a case of violence is a preceding case of violence. +Which also sounds like, if there is a case of flu, someone gave someone a case of flu, or a cold, or the greatest risk factor of tuberculosis is having been exposed to tuberculosis. +And so we see that violence is, in a way, behaving like a contagious disease. +We're aware of this anyway even in our common experiences or our newspaper stories of the spread of violence from fights or in gang wars or in civil wars or even in genocides. +And so there's good news about this, though, because there's a way to reverse epidemics, and there's really only three things that are done to reverse epidemics, and the first of it is interrupting transmission. +In order to interrupt transmission, you need to detect and find first cases. +In other words, for T.B. you have to find somebody who has active T.B. who is infecting other people. +Make sense? +And there's special workers for doing that. +For this particular problem, we designed a new category of worker who, like a SARS worker or someone looking for bird flu, might find first cases. +In this case, it's someone who's very angry because someone looked at his girlfriend or owes him money, and you can find workers and train them into these specialized categories. +And then the third part, the shifting the norms, and that means a whole bunch of community activities, remodeling, public education, and then you've got what you might call group immunity. +And that combination of factors is how the AIDS epidemic in Uganda was very successfully reversed. +And so what we decided to do in the year 2000 is kind of put this together in a way by hiring in new categories of workers, the first being violence interruptors. +And then we would put all of this into place in one neighborhood in what was the worst police district in the United States at the time. +So violence interruptors hired from the same group, credibility, trust, access, just like the health workers in Somalia, but designed for a different category, and trained in persuasion, cooling people down, buying time, reframing. +And then another category of worker, the outreach workers, to keep people in a way on therapy for six to 24 months. +Just like T.B., but the object is behavior change. +And then a bunch of community activities for changing norms. +Now our first experiment of this resulted in a 67-percent drop in shootings and killings in the West Garfield neighborhood of Chicago. +And this was a beautiful thing for the neighborhood itself, first 50 or 60 days, then 90 days, and then there was unfortunately another shooting in another 90 days, and the moms were hanging out in the afternoon. +They were using parks they weren't using before. +The sun was out. Everybody was happy. +But of course, the funders said, "Wait a second, do it again." +And so we had to then, fortunately, get the funds to repeat this experience, and this is one of the next four neighborhoods that had a 45-percent drop in shootings and killings. +And since that time, this has been replicated 20 times. +There have been independent evaluations supported by the Justice Department and by the CDC and performed by Johns Hopkins that have shown 30-to-50-percent and 40-to-70-percent reductions in shootings and killings using this new method. +In fact, there have been three independent evaluations of this now. +Now we've gotten a lot of attention as a result of this, including being featured on The New York Times' Sunday magazine cover story. +The Economist in 2009 said this is "the approach that will come to prominence." +And even a movie was made around our work. +[The Interrupters] However, not so fast, because a lot of people did not agree with this way of going about it. +We got a lot of criticism, a lot of opposition, and a lot of opponents. +In other words, what do you mean, health problem? +What do you mean, epidemic? +What do you mean, no bad guys? +And there's whole industries designed for managing bad people. +What do you mean, hiring people who have backgrounds? +My business friends said, "Gary, you're being criticized tremendously. +You must be doing something right." +My musician friends added the word "dude." +So anyway, additionally, there was still this problem, and we were getting highly criticized as well for not dealing with all of these other problems. +Yet we were able to manage malaria and reduce HIV and reduce diarrheal diseases in places with awful economies without healing the economy. +So what's actually happened is, although there is still some opposition, the movement is clearly growing. +Many of the major cities in the U.S., including New York City and Baltimore and Kansas City, their health departments are running this now. +Chicago and New Orleans, the health departments are having a very large role in this. +This is being embraced more by law enforcement than it had been years ago. +Trauma centers and hospitals are doing their part in stepping up. +And the U.S. Conference of Mayors has endorsed not only the approach but the specific model. +Where there's really been uptake even faster is in the international environment, where there's a 55-percent drop in the first neighborhood in Puerto Rico, where interruptions are just beginning in Honduras, where the strategy has been applied in Kenya for the recent elections, and where there have been 500 interruptions in Iraq. +So violence is responding as a disease even as it behaves as a disease. +So the theory, in a way, is kind of being validated by the treatment. +And recently, the Institute of Medicine came out with a workshop report which went through some of the data, including the neuroscience, on how this problem is really transmitted. +So I think this is good news, because it allows us an opportunity to come out of the Middle Ages, which is where I feel this field has been. +It gives us an opportunity to consider the possibility of replacing some of these prisons with playgrounds or parks, and to consider the possibility of converting our neighborhoods into neighborhoods, and to allow there to be a new strategy, a new set of methods, a new set of workers: science, in a way, replacing morality. +And moving away from emotions is the most important part of the solution to science as a more important part of the solution. +So I didn't mean to come up with this at all. +It was a matter of, I wanted actually a break, and we looked at maps, we looked at graphs, we asked some questions and tried some tools that actually have been used many times before for other things. +For myself, I tried to get away from infectious diseases, and I didn't. +Thank you. +So in my free time outside of Twitter I experiment a little bit with telling stories online, experimenting with what we can do with new digital tools. +And in my job at Twitter, I actually spent a little bit of time working with authors and storytellers as well, helping to expand out the bounds of what people are experimenting with. +And I want to talk through some examples today of things that people have done that I think are really fascinating using flexible identity and anonymity on the web and blurring the lines between fact and fiction. +But I want to start and go back to the 1930s. +Long before a little thing called Twitter, radio brought us broadcasts and connected millions of people to single points of broadcast. +And from those single points emanated stories. +Some of them were familiar stories. +Some of them were new stories. +And for a while they were familiar formats, but then radio began to evolve its own unique formats specific to that medium. +Think about episodes that happened live on radio. +Combining the live play and the serialization of written fiction, you get this new format. +And the reason why I bring up radio is that I think radio is a great example of how a new medium defines new formats which then define new stories. +And of course, today, we have an entirely new medium to play with, which is this online world. +This is the map of verified users on Twitter and the connections between them. +There are thousands upon thousands of them. +Every single one of these points is its own broadcaster. +We've gone to this world of many to many, where access to the tools is the only barrier to broadcasting. +And I think that we should start to see wildly new formats emerge as people learn how to tell stories in this new medium. +I believe this starts with an evolution of existing methods. +The short story, for example, people are saying that the short story is experiencing a renaissance of sorts thanks to e-readers, digital marketplaces. +One writer, Hugh Howey, experimented with short stories on Amazon by releasing one very short story called "Wool." +And he actually says that he didn't intend for "Wool" to become a series, but that the audience loved the first story so much they demanded more, and so he gave them more. +He gave them "Wool 2," which was a little bit longer than the first one, "Wool 3," which was even longer, culminating in "Wool 5," which was a 60,000-word novel. +I think Howey was able to do all of this because he had the quick feedback system of e-books. +He was able to write and publish in relatively short order. +There was no mediator between him and the audience. +It was just him directly connected with his audience and building on the feedback and enthusiasm that they were giving him. +So this whole project was an experiment. +It started with the one short story, and I think the experimentation actually became a part of Howey's format. +And that's something that this medium enabled, was experimentation being a part of the format itself. +This is a short story by the author Jennifer Egan called "Black Box." +It was originally written specifically with Twitter in mind. +Egan convinced The New Yorker to start a New Yorker fiction account from which they could tweet all of these lines that she created. +Now Twitter, of course, has a 140-character limit. +Egan mocked that up just writing manually in this storyboard sketchbook, used the physical space constraints of those storyboard squares to write each individual tweet, and those tweets ended up becoming over 600 of them that were serialized by The New Yorker. +Every night, at 8 p.m., you could tune in to a short story from The New Yorker's fiction account. +I think that's pretty exciting: tune-in literary fiction. +The experience of Egan's story, of course, like anything on Twitter, there were multiple ways to experience it. +You could scroll back through it, but interestingly, if you were watching it live, there was this suspense that built because the actual tweets, you had no control over when you would read them. +They were coming at a pretty regular clip, but as the story was building, normally, as a reader, you control how fast you move through a text, but in this case, The New Yorker did, and they were sending you bit by bit by bit, and you had this suspense of waiting for the next line. +Another great example of fiction and the short story on Twitter, Elliott Holt is an author who wrote a story called "Evidence." +It began with this tweet: "On November 28 at 10:13 p.m., a woman identified as Miranda Brown, 44, of Brooklyn, fell to her death from the roof of a Manhattan hotel." +It begins in Elliott's voice, but then Elliott's voice recedes, and we hear the voices of Elsa, Margot and Simon, characters that Elliott created on Twitter specifically to tell this story, a story from multiple perspectives leading up to this moment at 10:13 p.m. +when this woman falls to her death. +These three characters brought an authentic vision from multiple perspectives. +One reviewer called Elliott's story "Twitter fiction done right," because she did. +She captured that voice and she had multiple characters and it happened in real time. +Interestingly, though, it wasn't just Twitter as a distribution mechanism. +It was also Twitter as a production mechanism. +Elliott told me later she wrote the whole thing with her thumbs. +She laid on the couch and just went back and forth between different characters tweeting out each line, line by line. +I think that this kind of spontaneous creation of what was coming out of the characters' voices really lent an authenticity to the characters themselves, but also to this format that she had created of multiple perspectives in a single story on Twitter. +As you begin to play with flexible identity online, it gets even more interesting as you start to interact with the real world. +They are creative people experimenting with the bounds of what is possible in this medium. +You look at something like "West Wing" Twitter, in which you have these fictional characters that engage with the real world. +They comment on politics, they cry out against the evils of Congress. +Keep in mind, they're all Democrats. +And they engage with the real world. +They respond to it. +So once you take flexible identity, anonymity, engagement with the real world, and you move beyond simple homage or parody and you put these tools to work in telling a story, that's when things get really interesting. +So during the Chicago mayoral election there was a parody account. +It was Mayor Emanuel. +It gave you everything you wanted from Rahm Emanuel, particularly in the expletive department. +This foul-mouthed account followed the daily activities of the race, providing commentary as it went. +It followed all of the natural tropes of a good, solid Twitter parody account, but then started to get weird. +And as it progressed, it moved from this commentary to a multi-week, real-time science fiction epic in which your protagonist, Rahm Emanuel, engages in multi-dimensional travel on election day, which is -- it didn't actually happen. +I double checked the newspapers. +And then, very interestingly, it came to an end. +This is something that doesn't usually happen with a Twitter parody account. +It ended, a true narrative conclusion. +One of my favorite examples of something that's happening on Twitter right now, actually, is the very absurdist Crimer Show. +Crimer Show tells the story of a supercriminal and a hapless detective that face off in this exceptionally strange lingo, with all of the tropes of a television show. +Crimer Show's creator has said that it is a parody of a popular type of show in the U.K., but, man, is it weird. +And there are all these times where Crimer, the supercriminal, does all of these TV things. +He's always taking off his sunglasses or turning to the camera, but these things just happen in text. +I think borrowing all of these tropes from television and additionally presenting each Crimer Show as an episode, spelled E-P-P-A-S-O-D, "eppasod," presenting them as episodes really, it creates something new. +There is a new "eppasod" of Crimer Show on Twitter pretty much every day, and they're archived that way. +And I think this is an interesting experiment in format. +Something totally new has been created here out of parodying something on television. +I think in nonfiction real-time storytelling, there are a lot of really excellent examples as well. +RealTimeWWII is an account that documents what was happening on this day 60 years ago in exceptional detail, as if you were reading the news reports from that day. +And the author Teju Cole has done a lot of experimentation with putting a literary twist on events of the news. +In this particular case, he's talking about drone strikes. +I think that in both of these examples, you're beginning to see ways in which people are telling stories with nonfiction content that can be built into new types of fictional storytelling. +So with real-time storytelling, blurring the lines between fact and fiction, the real world and the digital world, flexible identity, anonymity, these are all tools that we have accessible to us, and I think that they're just the building blocks. +They are the bits that we use to create the structures, the frames, that then become our settlements on this wide open frontier for creative experimentation. +Thank you. +"Give me liberty or give me death." +When Patrick Henry, the governor of Virginia, said these words in 1775, he could never have imagined with American generations to come. +At the time, these words were earmarked and targeted against the British, but over the last 200 years, they've come to embody what many Westerners believe, that freedom is the most cherished value, and that the best systems of politics and economics have freedom embedded in them. +Who could blame them? +Over the past hundred years, the combination of liberal democracy and private capitalism has helped to catapult the United States and Western countries to new levels of economic development. +In the United States over the past hundred years, incomes have increased 30 times, and hundreds of thousands of people have been moved out of poverty. +Meanwhile, American ingenuity and innovation has helped to spur industrialization and also helped in the creation and the building of things like household appliances motor vehicles and even the mobile phones in your pockets. +It's no surprise, then, that even at the depths of the private capitalism crisis, President Obama said, "The question before us is not whether the market is a force for good or ill. +Its power to generate wealth and to expand freedom is unmatched." +Thus, there's understandably a deep-seated presumption among Westerners that the whole world will decide to adopt private capitalism as the model of economic growth, liberal democracy, and will continue to prioritize political rights over economic rights. +However, to many who live in the emerging markets, this is an illusion, and even though the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which was signed in 1948, was unanimously adopted, what it did was to mask a schism that has emerged between developed and developing countries, and the ideological beliefs between political and economic rights. +This schism has only grown wider. +Today, many people who live in the emerging markets, where 90 percent of the world's population lives, believe that the Western obsession with political rights is beside the point, and what is actually important is delivering on food, shelter, education and healthcare. +"Give me liberty or give me death" is all well and good if you can afford it, but if you're living on less than one dollar a day, you're far too busy trying to survive and to provide for your family than to spend your time going around trying to proclaim and defend democracy. +Now, I know many people in this room and around the world will think, "Well actually, this is hard to grasp," because private capitalism and liberal democracy are held sacrosanct. +But I ask you today, what would you do if you had to choose? +What if you had to choose between a roof over your head and the right to vote? +Over the last 10 years, I've had the privilege to travel to over 60 countries, many of them in the emerging markets, in Latin America, Asia, and my own continent of Africa. +Now, don't get me wrong. +I'm not saying people in the emerging markets don't understand democracy, nor am I saying that they wouldn't ideally like to pick their presidents or their leaders. +Of course they would. +However, I am saying that on balance, they worry more about where their living standard improvements are going to come from, and how it is their governments can deliver for them, than whether or not the government was elected by democracy. +The fact of the matter because there is for the first time in a long time a real challenge to the Western ideological systems of politics and economics, and this is a system that is embodied by China. +And rather than have private capitalism, they have state capitalism. +Instead of liberal democracy, they have de-prioritized the democratic system. +And they have also decided to prioritize economic rights over political rights. +I put it to you today that it is this system that is embodied by China that is gathering momentum amongst people in the emerging markets as the system to follow, because they believe increasingly that it is the system that will promise the best and fastest improvements in living standards in the shortest period of time. +If you will indulge me, I will spend a few moments explaining to you first why economically they've come to this belief. +First of all, it's China's economic performance over the past 30 years. +She's been able to produce record economic growth and meaningfully move many people out of poverty, specifically putting a meaningful dent in poverty by moving over 300 million people out of indigence. +It's not just in economics, but it's also in terms of living standards. +We see that in China, 28 percent of people had secondary school access. +Today, it's closer to 82 percent. +So in its totality, economic improvement has been quite significant. +Second, China has been able to meaningfully improve its income inequality without changing the political construct. +Today, the United States and China are the two leading economies in the world. +They have vastly different political systems and different economic systems, one with private capitalism, another one broadly with state capitalism. +However, these two countries have the identical GINI Coefficient, which is a measure of income equality. +Perhaps what is more disturbing is that China's income equality has been improving in recent times, whereas that of the United States has been declining. +Thirdly, people in the emerging markets look at China's amazing and legendary infrastructure rollout. +Now this is something that people can see and point to. +Perhaps it's no surprise that in a 2007 Pew survey, when surveyed, Africans in 10 countries said they thought that the Chinese were doing amazing things to improve their livelihoods by wide margins, by as much as 98 percent. +Finally, China is also providing innovative solutions to age-old social problems that the world faces. +If you travel to Mogadishu, Mexico City or Mumbai, you find that dilapidated infrastructure and logistics continue to be a stumbling block to the delivery of medicine and healthcare in the rural areas. +However, through a network of state-owned enterprises, the Chinese have been able to go into these rural areas, using their companies to help deliver on these healthcare solutions. +Ladies and gentlemen, it's no surprise that around the world, people are pointing at what China is doing and saying, "I like that. I want that. +I want to be able to do what China's doing. +That is the system that seems to work." +I'm here to also tell you that there are lots of shifts occurring around what China is doing in the democratic stance. +In particular, there is growing doubt among people in the emerging markets, when people now believe that democracy is no longer to be viewed as a prerequisite for economic growth. +In fact, countries like Taiwan, Singapore, Chile, not just China, have shown that actually, it's economic growth that is a prerequisite for democracy. +In a recent study, the evidence has shown that income is the greatest determinant of how long a democracy can last. +The study found that if your per capita income is about 1,000 dollars a year, your democracy will last about eight and a half years. +If your per capita income is between 2,000 and 4,000 dollars per year, then you're likely to only get 33 years of democracy. +And only if your per capita income is above 6,000 dollars a year will you have democracy come hell or high water. +What this is telling us is that we need to first establish a middle class that is able to hold the government accountable. +But perhaps it's also telling us that we should be worried about going around the world and shoehorning democracy, because ultimately we run the risk of ending up with illiberal democracies, democracies that in some sense could be worse than the authoritarian governments that they seek to replace. +The evidence around illiberal democracies is quite depressing. +Freedom House finds that although 50 percent of the world's countries today are democratic, 70 percent of those countries are illiberal in the sense that people don't have free speech or freedom of movement. +But also, we're finding from Freedom House in a study that they published last year that freedom has been on the decline every year for the past seven years. +What this says is that for people like me who care about liberal democracy, is we've got to find a more sustainable way of ensuring that we have a sustainable form of democracy in a liberal way, and that has its roots in economics. +But it also says that as China moves toward being the largest economy in the world, something that is expected to happen by experts in 2016, that this schism between the political and economic ideologies of the West and the rest is likely to widen. +What might that world look like? +Well, the world could look like more state involvement and state capitalism; greater protectionisms of nation-states; but also, as I just pointed out a moment ago, ever-declining political rights and individual rights. +The question that is left for us in general is, what then should the West be doing? +And I suggest that they have two options. +The West can either compete or cooperate. +Now the fact of the matter is, if the West decides to compete, it will create a wider schism. +The other option is for the West to cooperate, and by cooperating I mean giving the emerging market countries the flexibility to figure out in an organic way what political and economic system works best for them. +Now I'm sure some of you in the room will be thinking, well, this is like ceding to China, and this is a way, in other words, for the West to take a back seat. +The fact of the matter is that instead of going around the world and haranguing countries for engaging with China, the West should be encouraging its own businesses to trade and invest in these regions. +Instead of criticizing China for bad behavior, the West should be showing how it is that their own system of politics and economics is the superior one. +Some people would argue that today there is still no equal rights. +In fact, there are groups who would argue that they still do not have equal rights under the law. +At its very best, the Western model speaks for itself. +It's the model that put food on the table. +It's the refrigerators. +It put a man on the moon. +But the fact of the matter is, although people back in the day used to point at the Western countries and say, "I want that, I like that," there's now a new person in town in the form of a country, China. +Today, generations are looking at China and saying, "China can produce infrastructure, China can produce economic growth, and we like that." +Because ultimately, the question before us, and the question before seven billion people on the planet is, how can we create prosperity? +People who care and will pivot towards the model of politics and economics in a very rational way, to those models that will ensure that they can have better living standards in the shortest period of time. +Just to illustrate, I went into my annals of myself. +That's a picture of me. +Awww. I was born and raised in Zambia in 1969. +At the time of my birth, blacks were not issued birth certificates, and that law only changed in 1973. +This is an affidavit from the Zambian government. +I bring this to you to tell you that in 40 years, I've gone from not being recognized as a human being to standing in front of the illustrious TED crowd today to talk to you about my views. +In this vein, we can increase economic growth. +We can meaningfully put a dent in poverty. +But also, it's going to require that we look at our assumptions, assumptions and strictures that we've grown up with around democracy, around private capitalism, around what creates economic growth and reduces poverty and creates freedoms. +We might have to tear those books up and start to look at other options and be open-minded to seek the truth. +Ultimately, it's about transforming the world and making it a better place. +Thank you very much. +So I'm a city planner, an urban designer, former arts advocate, trained in architecture and art history, and I want to talk to you today not about design but about America and how America can be more economically resilient, how America can be healthier, and how America can be more environmentally sustainable. +And I realize this is a global forum, but I think I need to talk about America because there is a history, in some places, not all, of American ideas being appropriated, being emulated, for better or for worse, around the world. +And the worst idea we've ever had is suburban sprawl. +It's being emulated in many places as we speak. +And there's an alternative. +You know, we say, half the world is living in cities. +Well, in America, that living in cities, for many of them, they're living in cities still where they're dependent on that automobile. +And what I work for, and to do, is to make our cities more walkable. +But I can't give design arguments for that that will have as much impact as the arguments that I've learned from the economists, the epidemiologists and the environmentalists. +So these are the three arguments that I'm going to give you quickly today. +When I was growing up in the '70s, the typical American spent one tenth of their income, American family, on transportation. +Since then, we've doubled the number of roads in America, and we now spend one fifth of our income on transportation. +And these are the neighborhoods, for example, in the Central Valley of California that weren't hurt when the housing bubble burst and when the price of gas went up; they were decimated. +And in fact, these are many of the half-vacant communities that you see today. +Imagine putting everything you have into your mortgage, it goes underwater, and you have to pay twice as much for all the driving that you're doing. +So we know what it's done to our society and all the extra work we have to do to support our cars. +What happens when a city decides it's going to set other priorities? +And probably the best example we have here in America is Portland, Oregon. +Portland made a bunch of decisions in the 1970s that began to distinguish it from almost every other American city. +While most other cities were growing an undifferentiated spare tire of sprawl, they instituted an urban growth boundary. +While most cities were reaming out their roads, removing parallel parking and trees in order to flow more traffic, they instituted a skinny streets program. +And while most cities were investing in more roads and more highways, they actually invested in bicycling and in walking. +And they spent 60 million dollars on bike facilities, which seems like a lot of money, but it was spent over about 30 years, so two million dollars a year -- not that much -- and half the price of the one cloverleaf that they decided to rebuild in that city. +These changes and others like them changed the way that Portlanders live, and their vehicle-miles traveled per day, the amount that each person drives, actually peaked in 1996, has been dropping ever since, and they now drive 20 percent less than the rest of the country. +The typical Portland citizen drives four miles less, and 11 minutes less per day than they did before. +The economist Joe Cortright did the math and he found out that those four miles plus those 11 minutes adds up to fully three and a half percent of all income earned in the region. +So if they're not spending that money on driving -- and by the way, 85 percent of the money we spend on driving leaves the local economy -- if they're not spending that money on driving, what are they spending it on? +Well, Portland is reputed to have the most roof racks per capita, the most independent bookstores per capita, the most strip clubs per capita. +These are all exaggerations, slight exaggerations of a fundamental truth, which is Portlanders spend a lot more on recreation of all kinds than the rest of America. +Actually, Oregonians spend more on alcohol than most other states, which may be a good thing or a bad thing, but it makes you glad they're driving less. +But actually, they're spending most of it in their homes, and home investment is about as local an investment as you can get. +So on the one hand, a city saves money for its residents by being more walkable and more bikeable, but on the other hand, it also is the cool kind of city that people want to be in these days. +So the best economic strategy you can have as a city is not the old way of trying to attract corporations and trying to have a biotech cluster or a medical cluster, or an aerospace cluster, but to become a place where people want to be. +And millennials, certainly, these engines of entrepreneurship, 64 percent of whom decide first where they want to live, then they move there, then they look for a job, they will come to your city. +The health argument is a scary one, and you've probably heard part of this argument before. +Again, back in the '70s, a lot's changed since then, back in the '70s, one in 10 Americans was obese. +Now one out of three Americans is obese, and a second third of the population is overweight. +Twenty-five percent of young men and 40 percent of young women are too heavy to enlist in our own military forces. +According to the Center for Disease Control, fully one third of all children born after 2000 will get diabetes. +We have the first generation of children in America who are predicted to live shorter lives than their parents. +I believe that this American healthcare crisis that we've all heard about is an urban design crisis, and that the design of our cities lies at the cure. +Because we've talked a long time about diet, and we know that diet impacts weight, and weight of course impacts health. +But we've only started talking about inactivity, and how inactivity born of our landscape, inactivity that comes from the fact that we live in a place where there is no longer any such thing as a useful walk, is driving our weight up. +And we finally have the studies, one in Britain called "Gluttony versus sloth" that tracked weight against diet and tracked weight against inactivity, and found a much higher, stronger correlation between the latter two. +Dr. James Levine at, in this case, the aptly-named Mayo Clinic put his test subjects in electronic underwear, held their diet steady, and then started pumping the calories in. +Some people gained weight, some people didn't gain weight. +Expecting some metabolic or DNA factor at work, they were shocked to learn that the only difference between the subjects that they could figure out was the amount they were moving, and that in fact those who gained weight were sitting, on average, two hours more per day than those who didn't. +So we have these studies that tie weight to inactivity, but even more, we now have studies that tie weight to where you live. +Do you live in a more walkable city or do you live in a less walkable city, or where in your city do you live? +In San Diego, they used Walk Score -- Walk Score rates every address in America and soon the world in terms of how walkable it is -- they used Walk Score to designate more walkable neighborhoods and less walkable neighborhoods. +Well guess what? If you lived in a more walkable neighborhood, you were 35 percent likely to be overweight. +If you lived in a less walkable neighborhood, you were 60 percent likely to be overweight. +So we have study after study now that's tying where you live to your health, particularly as in America, the biggest health crisis we have is this one that's stemming from environmental-induced inactivity. +And I learned a new word last week. +They call these neighborhoods "obesageneric." +I may have that wrong, but you get the idea. +Now that's one thing, of course. +Briefly mentioning, we have an asthma epidemic in this country. +You probably haven't thought that much about it. +Fourteen Americans die each day from asthma, three times what it was in the '90s, and it's almost all coming from car exhaust. +American pollution does not come from factories anymore, it comes from tailpipes, and the amount that people are driving in your city, your urban VMT, is a good prediction of the asthma problems in your city. +And then finally, in terms of driving, there's the issue of the single-largest killer of healthy adults, and one of the largest killers of all people, is car crashes. +And we take car crashes for granted. +We figure it's a natural risk of being on the road. +But in fact, here in America, 12 people out of every 100,000 die every year from car crashes. +We're pretty safe here. +Well, guess what? In England, it's seven per 100,000. +It's Japan, it's four per 100,000. +Do you know where it's three per 100,000? +New York City. +San Francisco, the same thing. Portland, the same thing. +Oh, so cities make us safer because we're driving less? +Tulsa: 14 per 100,000. +Orlando: 20 per 100,000. +It's not whether you're in the city or not, it's how is your city designed? +Was it designed around cars or around people? +Because if your city is designed around cars, it's really good at smashing them into each other. +That's part of a much larger health argument. +Finally, the environmental argument is fascinating, because the environmentalists turned on a dime about 10 years ago. +The environmental movement in America has historically been an anti-city movement from Jefferson on. +"Cities are pestilential to the health, to the liberties, to the morals of man. +If we continue to pile upon ourselves in cities, as they do in Europe, we shall become as corrupt as they are in Europe and take to eating one another as they do there." +He apparently had a sense of humor. +And then the American environmental movement has been a classically Arcadian movement. +To become more environmental, we move into the country, we commune with nature, we build suburbs. +But, of course, we've seen what that does. +The carbon mapping of America, where is the CO2 being emitted, for many years only hammered this argument in more strongly. +If you look at any carbon map, because we map it per square mile, any carbon map of the U.S., it looks like a night sky satellite photo of the U.S., hottest in the cities, cooler in the suburbs, dark, peaceful in the countryside. +Until some economists said, you know, is that the right way to measure CO2? +There are only so many people in this country at any given time, and we can choose to live where perhaps we would have a lighter impact. +And they said, let's measure CO2 per household, and when they did that, the maps just flipped, coolest in the center city, warmer in the suburbs, and red hot in these exurban "drive till you qualify" neighborhoods. +So a fundamental shift, and now you have environmentalists and economists like Ed Glaeser saying we are a destructive species. +If you love nature, the best thing you can do is stay the heck away from it, move to a city, and the denser the better, and the denser cities like Manhattan are the cities that perform the best. +So the average Manhattanite is consuming gasoline at the rate the rest of the nation hasn't seen since the '20s, consuming half of the electricity of Dallas. +But of course, we can do better. +Canadian cities, they consume half the gasoline of American cities. +European cities consume half as much again. +So obviously, we can do better, and we want to do better, and we're all trying to be green. +So I'm not immune to this. +My wife and I built a new house on an abandoned lot in Washington, D.C., and we did our best to clear the shelves of the sustainability store. +We've got the solar photovoltaic system, solar hot water heater, dual-flush toilets, bamboo floors. +A log burning in my German high-tech stove apparently, supposedly, contributes less carbon to the atmosphere than were it left alone to decompose in the forest. +Yet all of these innovations -- That's what they said in the brochure. +All of these innovations together contribute a fraction of what we contribute by living in a walkable neighborhood three blocks from a metro in the heart of a city. +We've changed all our light bulbs to energy-savers, and you should do the same thing, but changing all your light bulbs to energy-savers saves as much energy in a year as moving to a walkable city does in a week. +And we don't want to have this argument. +Politicians and marketers are afraid of marketing green as a "lifestyle choice." +You don't want to tell Americans, God forbid, that they have to change their lifestyle. +But what if lifestyle was really about quality of life and about perhaps something that we would all enjoy more, something that would be better than what we have right now? +Well, the gold standard of quality of life rankings, it's called the Mercer Survey. +You may have heard of it. +They rank hundreds of nations worldwide according to 10 criteria that they believe add up to quality of life: health, economics, education, housing, you name it. +There's six more. Short talk. +And it's very interesting to see that the highest-ranking American city, Honolulu, number 28, is followed by kind of the usual suspects of Seattle and Boston and all walkable cities. +The driving cities in the Sun Belt, the Dallases and the Phoenixes and, sorry, Atlanta, these cities are not appearing on the list. +But who's doing even better? +The Canadian cities like Vancouver, where again, they're burning half the fuel. +And then it's usually won by cities where they speak German, like Dusseldorf or Vienna, where they're burning, again, half as much fuel. +And you see this alignment, this strange alignment. +Is being more sustainble what gives you a higher quality of life? +I would argue the same thing that makes you more sustainble is what gives you a higher quality of life, and that's living in a walkable neighborhood. +So sustainability, which includes our wealth and our health may not be a direct function of our sustainability. +But particularly here in America, we are polluting so much because we're throwing away our time and our money and our lives on the highway, then these two problems would seem to share the same solution, which is to make our cities more walkable. +Doing so isn't easy, but it can be done, it has been done, and it's being done now in more than a few cities, around the globe and in our country. +I take some solace from Winston Churchill, who put it this way: "The Americans can be counted on to do the right thing once they have exhausted the alternatives." Thank you. +As humans, it's in our nature to want to improve our health and minimize our suffering. +Whatever life throws at us, whether it's cancer, diabetes, heart disease, or even broken bones, we want to try and get better. +Now I'm head of a biomaterials lab, and I'm really fascinated by the way that humans have used materials in really creative ways in the body over time. +Take, for example, this beautiful blue nacre shell. +This was actually used by the Mayans as an artificial tooth replacement. +We're not quite sure why they did it. +It's hard. It's durable. +But it also had other very nice properties. +In fact, when they put it into the jawbone, it could integrate into the jaw, and we know now with very sophisticated imaging technologies that part of that integration comes from the fact that this material is designed in a very specific way, has a beautiful chemistry, has a beautiful architecture. +And I think in many ways we can sort of think of the use of the blue nacre shell and the Mayans as the first real application of the bluetooth technology. +But if we move on and think throughout history how people have used different materials in the body, very often it's been physicians that have been quite creative. +They've taken things off the shelf. +One of my favorite examples is that of Sir Harold Ridley, who was a famous ophthalmologist, or at least became a famous ophthalmologist. +And during World War II, what he would see would be pilots coming back from their missions, and he noticed that within their eyes they had shards of small bits of material lodged within the eye, but the very interesting thing about it was that material, actually, wasn't causing any inflammatory response. +So he looked into this, and he figured out that actually that material was little shards of plastic that were coming from the canopy of the Spitfires. +And this led him to propose that material as a new material for intraocular lenses. +It's called PMMA, and it's now used in millions of people every year and helps in preventing cataracts. +And that example, I think, is a really nice one, because it helps remind us that in the early days, people often chose materials because they were bioinert. +Their very purpose was to perform a mechanical function. +You'd put them in the body and you wouldn't get an adverse response. +And what I want to show you is that in regenerative medicine, we've really shifted away from that idea of taking a bioinert material. +We're actually actively looking for materials that will be bioactive, that will interact with the body, and that furthermore we can put in the body, they'll have their function, and then they'll dissolve away over time. +If we look at this schematic, this is showing you what we think of as the typical tissue-engineering approach. +We have cells there, typically from the patient. +We can put those onto a material, and we can make that material very complex if we want to, and we can then grow that up in the lab or we can put it straight back into the patient. +And this is an approach that's used all over the world, including in our lab. +And if we think about the different types of tissues that people are looking at regenerating all over the world, in all the different labs in the world, there's pretty much every tissue you can think of. +Our tissues all have very different abilities to regenerate, and here we see poor Prometheus, who made a rather tricky career choice and was punished by the Greek gods. +He was tied to a rock, and an eagle would come every day to eat his liver. +But of course his liver would regenerate every day, and so day after day he was punished for eternity by the gods. +And liver will regenerate in this very nice way, but actually if we think of other tissues, like cartilage, for example, even the simplest nick and you're going to find it really difficult to regenerate your cartilage. +So it's going to be very different from tissue to tissue. +Now, bone is somewhere in between, and this is one of the tissues that we work on a lot in our lab. +And bone is actually quite good at repairing. +It has to be. We've probably all had fractures at some point or other. +And one of the ways that you can think about repairing your fracture is this procedure here, called an iliac crest harvest. +And what the surgeon might do is take some bone from your iliac crest, which is just here, and then transplant that somewhere else in the body. +And it actually works really well, because it's your own bone, and it's well vascularized, which means it's got a really good blood supply. +But the problem is, there's only so much you can take, and also when you do that operation, your patients might actually have significant pain in that defect site even two years after the operation. +And so this is what we did, and the way we did it was by coming back to this typical tissue-engineering approach but actually thinking about it rather differently. +And we simplified it a lot, so we got rid of a lot of these steps. +We got rid of the need to harvest cells from the patient, we got rid of the need to put in really fancy chemistries, and we got rid of the need to culture these scaffolds in the lab. +And what we really focused on was our material system and making it quite simple, but because we used it in a really clever way, we were able to generate enormous amounts of bone using this approach. +So we were using the body as really the catalyst to help us to make lots of new bone. +And it's an approach that we call the in vivo bioreactor, and we were able to make enormous amounts of bone using this approach. +And I'll talk you through this. +So what we do is, in humans, we all have a layer of stem cells on the outside of our long bones. +That layer is called the periosteum. +And that layer is actually normally very, very tightly bound to the underlying bone, and it's got stem cells in it. +Those stem cells are really important in the embryo when it develops, and they also sort of wake up if you have a fracture to help you with repairing the bone. +So we take that periosteum layer and we developed a way to inject underneath it a liquid that then, within 30 seconds, would turn into quite a rigid gel and can actually lift the periosteum away from the bone. +So it creates, in essence, an artificial cavity that is right next to both the bone but also this really rich layer of stem cells. +This is a histology slide of what we see when we do that, and essentially what we see is very large amounts of bone. +So in this picture, you can see the middle of the leg, so the bone marrow, then you can see the original bone, and you can see where that original bone finishes, and just to the left of that is the new bone that's grown within that bioreactor cavity, and you can actually make it even larger. +So it's very, very low in terms of after-pain compared to an iliac crest harvest. +And you can grow different amounts of bone depending on how much gel you put in there, so it really is an on demand sort of procedure. +Now, at the time that we did this, this received a lot of attention in the press, because it was a really nice way of generating new bone, and we got many, many contacts from different people that were interested in using this. +And I'm just going to tell you, sometimes those contacts are very strange, slightly unexpected, and the very most interesting, let me put it that way, contact that I had, was actually from a team of American footballers that all wanted to have double-thickness skulls made on their head. +And so you do get these kinds of contacts, and of course, being British and also growing up in France, I tend to be very blunt, and so I had to explain to them very nicely that in their particular case, there probably wasn't that much in there to protect in the first place. +So this was our approach, and it was simple materials, but we thought about it carefully. +And actually we know that those cells in the body, in the embryo, as they develop can form a different kind of tissue, cartilage, and so we developed a gel that was slightly different in nature and slightly different chemistry, put it in there, and we were able to get 100 percent cartilage instead. +And this approach works really well, I think, for pre-planned procedures, but it's something you do have to pre-plan. +So for other kinds of operations, there's definitely a need for other scaffold-based approaches. +And when you think about designing those other scaffolds, actually, you need a really multi-disciplinary team. +And so our team has chemists, it has cell biologists, surgeons, physicists even, and those people all come together and we think really hard about designing the materials. +But we want to make them have enough information that we can get the cells to do what we want, but not be so complex as to make it difficult to get to clinic. +And so one of the things we think about a lot is really trying to understand the structure of the tissues in the body. +And so if we think of bone, obviously my own favorite tissue, we zoom in, we can see, even if you don't know anything about bone structure, it's beautifully organized, really beautifully organized. +We've lots of blood vessels in there. +And if we zoom in again, we see that the cells are actually surrounded by a 3D matrix of nano-scale fibers, and they give a lot of information to the cells. +And if we zoom in again, actually in the case of bone, the matrix around the cells is beautifully organized at the nano scale, and it's a hybrid material that's part organic, part inorganic. +And that's led to a whole field, really, that has looked at developing materials that have this hybrid kind of structure. +And so I'm showing here just two examples where we've made some materials that have that sort of structure, and you can really tailor it. +You can see here a very squishy one and now a material that's also this hybrid sort of material but actually has remarkable toughness, and it's no longer brittle. +And an inorganic material would normally be really brittle, and you wouldn't be able to have that sort of strength and toughness in it. +One other thing I want to quickly mention is that many of the scaffolds we make are porous, and they have to be, because you want blood vessels to grow in there. +But the pores are actually oftentimes much bigger than the cells, and so even though it's 3D, the cell might see it more as a slightly curved surface, and that's a little bit unnatural. +And so one of the things you can think about doing is actually making scaffolds with slightly different dimensions that might be able to surround your cells in 3D and give them a little bit more information. +And there's a lot of work going on in both of these areas. +Now finally, I just want to talk a little bit about applying this sort of thing to cardiovascular disease, because this is a really big clinical problem. +And one of the things that we know is that, unfortunately, if you have a heart attack, then that tissue can start to die, and your outcome may not be very good over time. +And it would be really great, actually, if we could stop that dead tissue either from dying or help it to regenerate. +And there's lots and lots of stem cell trials going on worldwide, and they use many different types of cells, but one common theme that seems to be coming out is that actually, very often, those cells will die once you've implanted them. +And so some of the things that we're thinking of, and many other people in the field are thinking of, are actually developing materials for that. +But there's a difference here. +We still need chemistry, we still need mechanics, we still need really interesting topography, and we still need really interesting ways to surround the cells. +But now, the cells also would probably quite like a material that's going to be able to be conductive, because the cells themselves will respond very well and will actually conduct signals between themselves. +You can see them now beating synchronously on these materials, and that's a very, very exciting development that's going on. +So just to wrap up, I'd like to actually say that being able to work in this sort of field, all of us that work in this field that's not only super-exciting science, but also has the potential to impact on patients, however big or small they are, is really a great privilege. +And so for that, I'd like to thank all of you as well. +Thank you. +Throughout my career, I've been fortunate enough to work with many of the great international architects, documenting their work and observing how their designs have the capacity to influence the cities in which they sit. +I think of new cities like Dubai or ancient cities like Rome with Zaha Hadid's incredible MAXXI museum, or like right here in New York with the High Line, a city which has been so much influenced by the development of this. +But what I find really fascinating is what happens when architects and planners leave and these places become appropriated by people, like here in Chandigarh, India, the city which has been completely designed by the architect Le Corbusier. +Now 60 years later, the city has been taken over by people in very different ways from whatever perhaps intended for, like here, where you have the people sitting in the windows of the assembly hall. +But over the course of several years, I've been documenting Rem Koolhaas's CCTV building in Beijing and the olympic stadium in the same city by the architects Herzog and de Meuron. +At these large-scale construction sites in China, you see a sort of makeshift camp where workers live during the entire building process. +As the length of the construction takes years, workers end up forming a rather rough-and-ready informal city, making for quite a juxtaposition against the sophisticated structures that they're building. +Over the past seven years, I've been following my fascination with the built environment, and for those of you who know me, you would say that this obsession has led me to live out of a suitcase 365 days a year. +Being constantly on the move means that sometimes I am able to catch life's most unpredictable moments, like here in New York the day after the Sandy storm hit the city. +Just over three years ago, I was for the first time in Caracas, Venezuela, and while flying over the city, I was just amazed by the extent to which the slums reach into every corner of the city, a place where nearly 70 percent of the population lives in slums, draped literally all over the mountains. +During a conversation with local architects Urban-Think Tank, I learned about the Torre David, a 45-story office building which sits right in the center of Caracas. +The building was under construction until the collapse of the Venezuelan economy and the death of the developer in the early '90s. +About eight years ago, people started moving into the abandoned tower and began to build their homes right in between every column of this unfinished tower. +There's only one little entrance to the entire building, and the 3,000 residents come in and out through that single door. +Together, the inhabitants created public spaces and designed them to feel more like a home and less like an unfinished tower. +In the lobby, they painted the walls and planted trees. +They also made a basketball court. +But when you look up closely, you see massive holes where elevators and services would have run through. +Within the tower, people have come up with all sorts of solutions in response to the various needs which arise from living in an unfinished tower. +With no elevators, the tower is like a 45-story walkup. +Designed in very specific ways by this group of people who haven't had any education in architecture or design. +And with each inhabitant finding their own unique way of coming by, this tower becomes like a living city, a place which is alive with micro-economies and small businesses. +The inventive inhabitants, for instance, find opportunities in the most unexpected cases, like the adjacent parking garage, which has been reclaimed as a taxi route to shuttle the inhabitants up through the ramps in order to shorten the hike up to the apartments. +A walk through the tower reveals how residents have figured out how to create walls, how to make an air flow, how to create transparency, circulation throughout the tower, essentially creating a home that's completely adapted to the conditions of the site. +When a new inhabitant moves into the tower, they already have a roof over their head, so they just typically mark their space with a few curtains or sheets. +Slowly, from found materials, walls rise, and people create a space out of any found objects or materials. +It's remarkable to see the design decisions that they're making, like when everything is made out of red bricks, some residents will cover that red brick with another layer of red brick-patterned wallpaper just to make it a kind of clean finish. +The inhabitants literally built up these homes with their own hands, and this labor of love instills a great sense of pride in many families living in this tower. +They typically make the best out of their conditions, and try to make their spaces look nice and homey, or at least up until as far as they can reach. +Throughout the tower, you come across all kinds of services, like the barber, small factories, and every floor has a little grocery store or shop. +And you even find a church. +And on the 30th floor, there is a gym where all the weights and barbells are made out of the leftover pulleys from the elevators which were never installed. +From the outside, behind this always-changing facade, you see how the fixed concrete beams provide a framework for the inhabitants to create their homes in an organic, intuitive way that responds directly to their needs. +Let's go now to Africa, to Nigeria, to a community called Makoko, a slum where 150,000 people live just meters above the Lagos Lagoon. +While it may appear to be a completely chaotic place, when you see it from above, there seems to be a whole grid of waterways and canals connecting each and every home. +From the main dock, people board long wooden canoes which carry them out to their various homes and shops located in the expansive area. +When out on the water, it's clear that life has been completely adapted to this very specific way of living. +Even the canoes become variety stores where ladies paddle from house to house, selling anything from toothpaste to fresh fruits. +Behind every window and door frame, you'll see a small child peering back at you, and while Makoko seems to be packed with people, what's more shocking is actually the amount of children pouring out of every building. +The population growth in Nigeria, and especially in these areas like Makoko, are painful reminders of how out of control things really are. +In Makoko, very few systems and infrastructures exist. +Electricity is rigged and freshest water comes from self-built wells throughout the area. +This entire economic model is designed to meet a specific way of living on the water, so fishing and boat-making are common professions. +You'll have a set of entrepreneurs who have set up businesses throughout the area, like barbershops, CD and DVD stores, movie theaters, tailors, everything is there. +There is even a photo studio where you see the sort of aspiration to live in a real house or to be associated with a faraway place, like that hotel in Sweden. +On this particular evening, I came across this live band dressed to the T in their coordinating outfits. +They were floating through the canals in a large canoe with a fitted-out generator for all of the community to enjoy. +By nightfall, the area becomes almost pitch black, save for a small lightbulb or a fire. +What originally brought me to Makoko was this project from a friend of mine, Kunl Adeyemi, who recently finished building this three-story floating school for the kids in Makoko. +Another place I'd like to share with you is the Zabbaleen in Cairo. +They're descendants of farmers who began migrating from the upper Egypt in the '40s, and today they make their living by collecting and recycling waste from homes from all over Cairo. +For years, the Zabbaleen would live in makeshift villages where they would move around trying to avoid the local authorities, but in the early 1980s, they settled on the Mokattam rocks just at the eastern edge of the city. +Today, they live in this area, approximately 50,000 to 70,000 people, who live in this community of self-built multi-story houses where up to three generations live in one structure. +While these apartments that they built for themselves appear to lack any planning or formal grid, each family specializing in a certain form of recycling means that the ground floor of each apartment is reserved for garbage-related activities and the upper floor is dedicated to living space. +I find it incredible to see how these piles and piles of garbage are invisible to the people who live there, like this very distinguished man who is posing while all this garbage is sort of streaming out behind him, or like these two young men who are sitting and chatting amongst these tons of garbage. +While to most of us, living amongst these piles and piles of garbage may seem totally uninhabitable, to those in the Zabbaleen, this is just a different type of normal. +In all these places I've talked about today, what I do find fascinating is that there's really no such thing as normal, and it proves that people are able to adapt to any kind of situation. +Throughout the day, it's quite common to come across a small party taking place in the streets, just like this engagement party. +In this tradition, the bride-to-be displays all of their belongings, which they soon bring to their new husband. +A gathering like this one offers such a juxtaposition where all the new stuff is displayed and all the garbage is used as props to display all their new home accessories. +Like Makoko and the Torre David, throughout the Zabbaleen you'll find all the same facilities as in any typical neighborhood. +There are the retail shops, the cafes and the restaurants, and the community is this community of Coptic Christians, so you'll also find a church, along with the scores of religious iconographies throughout the area, and also all the everyday services like the electronic repair shops, the barbers, everything. +Visiting the homes of the Zabbaleen is also full of surprises. +While from the outside, these homes look like any other informal structure in the city, when you step inside, you are met with all manner of design decisions and interior decoration. +Despite having limited access to space and money, the homes in the area are designed with care and detail. +Every apartment is unique, and this individuality tells a story about each family's circumstances and values. +Many of these people take their homes and interior spaces very seriously, putting a lot of work and care into the details. +The shared spaces are also treated in the same manner, where walls are decorated in faux marble patterns. +But despite this elaborate decor, sometimes these apartments are used in very unexpected ways, like this home which caught my attention while all the mud and the grass was literally seeping out under the front door. +When I was let in, it appeared that this fifth-floor apartment was being transformed into a complete animal farm, where six or seven cows stood grazing in what otherwise would be the living room. +But then in the apartment across the hall from this cow shed lives a newly married couple in what locals describe as one of the nicest apartments in the area. +The attention to this detail astonished me, and as the owner of the home so proudly led me around this apartment, from floor to ceiling, every part was decorated. +But if it weren't for the strangely familiar stomach-churning odor that constantly passes through the apartment, it would be easy to forget that you are standing next to a cow shed and on top of a landfill. +What moved me the most was that despite these seemingly inhospitable conditions, I was welcomed with open arms into a home that was made with love, care, and unreserved passion. +Let's move across the map to China, to an area called Shanxi, Henan and Gansu. +In a region famous for the soft, porous Loess Plateau soil, there lived until recently an estimated 40 million people in these houses underground. +These dwellings are called the yaodongs. +Through this architecture by subtraction, these yaodongs are built literally inside of the soil. +In these villages, you see an entirely altered landscape, and hidden behind these mounds of dirt are these square, rectangular houses which sit seven meters below the ground. +When I asked people why they were digging their houses from the ground, they simply replied that they are poor wheat and apple farmers who didn't have the money to buy materials, and this digging out was their most logical form of living. +From Makoko to Zabbaleen, these communities have approached the tasks of planning, design and management of their communities and neighborhoods in ways that respond specifically to their environment and circumstances. +Created by these very people who live, work and play in these particular spaces, these neighborhoods are intuitively designed to make the most of their circumstances. +In most of these places, the government is completely absent, leaving inhabitants with no choice but to reappropriate found materials, and while these communities are highly disadvantaged, they do present examples of brilliant forms of ingenuity, and prove that indeed we have the ability to adapt to all manner of circumstances. +What makes places like the Torre David particularly remarkable is this sort of skeleton framework where people can have a foundation where they can tap into. +Now imagine what these already ingenious communities could create themselves, and how highly particular their solutions would be, if they were given the basic infrastructures that they could tap into. +Today, you see these large residential development projects which offer cookie-cutter housing solutions to massive amounts of people. +From China to Brazil, these projects attempt to provide as many houses as possible, but they're completely generic and simply do not work as an answer to the individual needs of the people. +I would like to end with a quote from a friend of mine and a source of inspiration, Zita Cobb, the founder of the wonderful Shorefast Foundation, based out of Fogo Island, Newfoundland. +She says that "there's this plague of sameness which is killing the human joy," and I couldn't agree with her more. +Thank you. +So I'd like you to come back with me just for a few minutes to a dark night in China, the night I met my husband. +It was a city so long ago that it was still called Peking. +So I went to a party. +I sat down next to a stout, middle-aged man with owl glasses and a bow tie, and he turned out to be a Fulbright scholar, there in China specifically to study Sino-Soviet relations. +What a gift it was to the eager, young foreign correspondent that I was then. +I'd pump him for information, I'm mentally scribbling notes for the stories I plan to write. +I talk to him for hours. +Only months later, I discover who he really was. +He was the China representative for the American Soybean Association. +"I don't understand. Soybeans? +You told me you were a Fulbright scholar." +"Well, how long would you have talked to me if I told you we're in soybeans?" +I said, "You jerk." +Only jerk wasn't the word I used. +I said, "You could've gotten me fired." +And he said, "Let's get married." +"Travel the world and have lots of kids." +So we did. +And what an alive man Terence Bryan Foley turned out to be. +He was a Chinese scholar who later, in his 60s, got a Ph.D. in Chinese history. +He spoke six languages, he played 15 musical instruments, he was a licensed pilot, he had once been a San Francisco cable car operator, he was an expert in swine nutrition, dairy cattle, Dixieland jazz, film noir, and we did travel the country, and the world, and we did have a lot of kids. +We followed my job, and it seemed like there was nothing that we couldn't do. +So when we found the cancer, it doesn't seem strange to us at all that without saying a word to each other, we believed that, if we were smart enough and strong enough and brave enough, and we worked hard enough, we could keep him from dying ever. +And for years, it seemed like we were succeeding. +The surgeon emerged from the surgery. +What'd he say? He said what surgeons always say: "We got it all." +Then there was a setback when the pathologists looked at the kidney cancer closely. +It turned out to be a rare, exceedingly aggressive type, with a diagnosis that was almost universally fatal in several weeks at most. +And yet, he did not die. +Mysteriously, he lived on. +He coached Little League for our son. +He built a playhouse for our daughter. +And meanwhile, I'm burying myself in the Internet looking for specialists. +I'm looking for a cure. +So a year goes by before the cancer, as cancers do, reappears, and with it comes another death sentence, this time nine months. +So we try another treatment, aggressive, nasty. +It makes him so sick, he has to quit it, yet still he lives on. +Then another year goes by. +Two years go by. +More specialists. +We take the kids to Italy. +We take the kids to Australia. +And then more years pass, and the cancer begins to grow. +This time, there's new treatments on the horizon. +They're exotic. They're experimental. +They're going to attack the cancer in new ways. +So he enters a clinical trial, and it works. +The cancer begins to shrink, and for the third time, we've dodged death. +So now I ask you, how do I feel when the time finally comes and there's another dark night, sometime between midnight and 2 a.m.? +This time it's on the intensive care ward when a twentysomething resident that I've never met before tells me that Terence is dying, perhaps tonight. +So what do I say when he says, "What do you want me to do?" +There's another drug out there. +It's newer. It's more powerful. +He started it just two weeks ago. +Perhaps there's still hope ahead. +So what do I say? +I say, "Keep him alive if you can." +And Terence died six days later. +So we fought, we struggled, we triumphed. +It was an exhilarating fight, and I'd repeat the fight today without a moment's hesitation. +We fought together, we lived together. +It turned what could have been seven of the grimmest years of our life into seven of the most glorious. +It was also an expensive fight. +It was the kind of fight and the kind of choices that everyone here agrees pump up the cost of end-of-life care, and of healthcare for all of us. +And for me, for us, we pushed the fight right over the edge, and I never got the chance to say to him what I say to him now almost every day: "Hey, buddy, it was a hell of a ride." +We never got the chance to say goodbye. +We never thought it was the end. +We always had hope. +So what do we make of all of this? +Being a journalist, after Terence died, I wrote a book, "The Cost Of Hope." +I wrote it because I wanted to know why I did what I did, why he did what he did, why everyone around us did what they did. +And what did I discover? +Well, one of the things I discovered is that experts think that one answer to what I did at the end was a piece of paper, the advance directive, to help families get past the seemingly irrational choices. +Yet I had that piece of paper. +We both did. +And they were readily available. +I had them right at hand. +Both of them said the same thing: Do nothing if there is no further hope. +I knew Terence's wishes as clearly and as surely as I knew my own. +Yet we never got to no further hope. +Even with that clear-cut paper in our hands, we just kept redefining hope. +I believed I could keep him from dying, and I'd be embarrassed to say that if I hadn't seen so many people and have talked to so many people who have felt exactly the same way. +Right up until days before his death, I felt strongly and powerfully, and, you might say, irrationally, that I could keep him from dying ever. +Now, what do the experts call this? +They say it's denial. +It's a strong word, isn't it? +Yet I will tell you that denial isn't even close to a strong enough word to describe what those of us facing the death of our loved ones go through. +And I hear the medical professionals say, "Well, we'd like to do such-and-such, but the family's in denial. +The family won't listen to reason. +They're in denial. +How can they insist on this treatment at the end? +It's so clear, yet they're in denial." +Now, I think this maybe isn't a very useful way of thinking. +It's not just families either. +The medical professionals too, you out there, you're in denial too. +You want to help. You want to fix. +You want to do. +You've succeeded in everything you've done, and having a patient die, well, that must feel like failure. +I saw it firsthand. +Just days before Terence died, his oncologist said, "Tell Terence that better days are just ahead." +Days before he died. +Yet Ira Byock, the director of palliative medicine at Dartmouth said, "You know, the best doctor in the world has never succeeded in making anyone immortal." +So what the experts call "denial," I call "hope," and I'd like to borrow a phrase from my friends in software design. +You just redefine denial and hope, and it becomes a feature of being human. +It's not a bug. +It's a feature. +So we need to think more constructively about this very common, very profound and very powerful human emotion. +It's part of the human condition, and yet our system and our thinking isn't built to accommodate it. +So Terence told me a story on that long-ago night, and I believed it. +Maybe I wanted to believe it. +And during Terence's illness, I, we, we wanted to believe the story of our fight together too. +Giving up the fight -- for that's how it felt, it felt like giving up -- meant giving up not only his life but also our story, our story of us as fighters, the story of us as invincible, and for the doctors, the story of themselves as healers. +So what do we need? +Maybe we don't need a new piece of paper. +People did mention hospice, but I wouldn't listen. +Hospice was for people who were dying, and Terence wasn't dying. +As a result, he spent just four days in hospice, which I'm sure, as you all know, is a pretty typical outcome, and we never said goodbye because we were unprepared for the end. +We have a noble path to curing the disease, patients and doctors alike, but there doesn't seem to be a noble path to dying. +Dying is seen as failing, and we had a heroic narrative for fighting together, but we didn't have a heroic narrative for letting go. +So maybe we need a narrative for acknowledging the end, and for saying goodbye, and maybe our new story will be about a hero's fight, and a hero's goodbye. +Terence loved poetry, and the Greek poet Constantine Cavafy is one of my favorite poets. +So I'll give you a couple lines from him. +This is a poem about Mark Antony. +You know Mark Antony, the conquering hero, Cleopatra's guy? +Actually, one of Cleopatra's guys. +And he's been a pretty good general. +He's won all the fights, he's eluded all the people that are out to get him, and yet this time, finally, he's come to the city of Alexandria and realized he's lost. +The people are leaving. They're playing instruments. +They're singing. +And suddenly he knows he's been defeated. +And he suddenly knows he's been deserted by the gods, and it's time to let go. +And the poet tells him what to do. +He tells him how to say a noble goodbye, a goodbye that's fit for a hero. +That's a goodbye for a man who was larger than life, a goodbye for a man for whom anything, well, almost anything, was possible, a goodbye for a man who kept hope alive. +And isn't that what we're missing? +How can we learn that people's decisions about their loved ones are often based strongly, powerfully, many times irrationally, on the slimmest of hopes? +The overwhelming presence of hope isn't denial. +It's part of our DNA as humans, and maybe it's time our healthcare system -- doctors, patients, insurance companies, us, started accounting for the power of that hope. +Hope isn't a bug. +It's a feature. +Thank you. +I would like to tell you a story connecting the notorious privacy incident involving Adam and Eve, and the remarkable shift in the boundaries between public and private which has occurred in the past 10 years. +You know the incident. +Adam and Eve one day in the Garden of Eden realize they are naked. +They freak out. +And the rest is history. +Nowadays, Adam and Eve would probably act differently. +[@Adam Last nite was a blast! loved dat apple LOL] [@Eve yep.. babe, know what happened to my pants tho?] We do reveal so much more information about ourselves online than ever before, and so much information about us is being collected by organizations. +Now there is much to gain and benefit from this massive analysis of personal information, or big data, but there are also complex tradeoffs that come from giving away our privacy. +And my story is about these tradeoffs. +We start with an observation which, in my mind, has become clearer and clearer in the past few years, that any personal information can become sensitive information. +Back in the year 2000, about 100 billion photos were shot worldwide, but only a minuscule proportion of them were actually uploaded online. +In 2010, only on Facebook, in a single month, 2.5 billion photos were uploaded, most of them identified. +In the same span of time, computers' ability to recognize people in photos improved by three orders of magnitude. +Well, we conjecture that the result of this combination of technologies will be a radical change in our very notions of privacy and anonymity. +To test that, we did an experiment on Carnegie Mellon University campus. +We asked students who were walking by to participate in a study, and we took a shot with a webcam, and we asked them to fill out a survey on a laptop. +While they were filling out the survey, we uploaded their shot to a cloud-computing cluster, and we started using a facial recognizer to match that shot to a database of some hundreds of thousands of images which we had downloaded from Facebook profiles. +By the time the subject reached the last page on the survey, the page had been dynamically updated with the 10 best matching photos which the recognizer had found, and we asked the subjects to indicate whether he or she found themselves in the photo. +Do you see the subject? +Well, the computer did, and in fact did so for one out of three subjects. +So essentially, we can start from an anonymous face, offline or online, and we can use facial recognition to give a name to that anonymous face thanks to social media data. +But a few years back, we did something else. +We started from social media data, we combined it statistically with data from U.S. government social security, and we ended up predicting social security numbers, which in the United States are extremely sensitive information. +Do you see where I'm going with this? +So if you combine the two studies together, then the question becomes, can you start from a face and, using facial recognition, find a name and publicly available information about that name and that person, and from that publicly available information infer non-publicly available information, much more sensitive ones which you link back to the face? +And the answer is, yes, we can, and we did. +Of course, the accuracy keeps getting worse. +In fact, we didn't develop the app to make it available, just as a proof of concept. +In fact, take these technologies and push them to their logical extreme. +Imagine a future in which strangers around you will look at you through their Google Glasses or, one day, their contact lenses, and use seven or eight data points about you to infer anything else which may be known about you. +What will this future without secrets look like? +And should we care? +We may like to believe that the future with so much wealth of data would be a future with no more biases, but in fact, having so much information doesn't mean that we will make decisions which are more objective. +In another experiment, we presented to our subjects information about a potential job candidate. +We included in this information some references to some funny, absolutely legal, but perhaps slightly embarrassing information that the subject had posted online. +Now interestingly, among our subjects, some had posted comparable information, and some had not. +Which group do you think was more likely to judge harshly our subject? +Paradoxically, it was the group who had posted similar information, an example of moral dissonance. +Now you may be thinking, this does not apply to me, because I have nothing to hide. +But in fact, privacy is not about having something negative to hide. +Imagine that you are the H.R. director of a certain organization, and you receive rsums, and you decide to find more information about the candidates. +Therefore, you Google their names and in a certain universe, you find this information. +Or in a parallel universe, you find this information. +Do you think that you would be equally likely to call either candidate for an interview? +If you think so, then you are not like the U.S. employers who are, in fact, part of our experiment, meaning we did exactly that. +We created Facebook profiles, manipulating traits, then we started sending out rsums to companies in the U.S., and we detected, we monitored, whether they were searching for our candidates, and whether they were acting on the information they found on social media. And they were. +Discrimination was happening through social media for equally skilled candidates. +Now marketers like us to believe that all information about us will always be used in a manner which is in our favor. +But think again. Why should that be always the case? +In a movie which came out a few years ago, "Minority Report," a famous scene had Tom Cruise walk in a mall and holographic personalized advertising would appear around him. +Now, that movie is set in 2054, about 40 years from now, and as exciting as that technology looks, it already vastly underestimates the amount of information that organizations can gather about you, and how they can use it to influence you in a way that you will not even detect. +So as an example, this is another experiment actually we are running, not yet completed. +Imagine that an organization has access to your list of Facebook friends, and through some kind of algorithm they can detect the two friends that you like the most. +And then they create, in real time, a facial composite of these two friends. +Now studies prior to ours have shown that people don't recognize any longer even themselves in facial composites, but they react to those composites in a positive manner. +So next time you are looking for a certain product, and there is an ad suggesting you to buy it, it will not be just a standard spokesperson. +It will be one of your friends, and you will not even know that this is happening. +Now the problem is that the current policy mechanisms we have to protect ourselves from the abuses of personal information are like bringing a knife to a gunfight. +One of these mechanisms is transparency, telling people what you are going to do with their data. +And in principle, that's a very good thing. +It's necessary, but it is not sufficient. +Transparency can be misdirected. +You can tell people what you are going to do, and then you still nudge them to disclose arbitrary amounts of personal information. +So in yet another experiment, this one with students, we asked them to provide information about their campus behavior, including pretty sensitive questions, such as this one. +[Have you ever cheated in an exam?] Now to one group of subjects, we told them, "Only other students will see your answers." +To another group of subjects, we told them, "Students and faculty will see your answers." +Transparency. Notification. And sure enough, this worked, in the sense that the first group of subjects were much more likely to disclose than the second. +It makes sense, right? +But then we added the misdirection. +We repeated the experiment with the same two groups, this time adding a delay between the time we told subjects how we would use their data and the time we actually started answering the questions. +How long a delay do you think we had to add in order to nullify the inhibitory effect of knowing that faculty would see your answers? +Ten minutes? +Five minutes? +One minute? +How about 15 seconds? +Fifteen seconds were sufficient to have the two groups disclose the same amount of information, as if the second group now no longer cares for faculty reading their answers. +Now I have to admit that this talk so far may sound exceedingly gloomy, but that is not my point. +In fact, I want to share with you the fact that there are alternatives. +The way we are doing things now is not the only way they can done, and certainly not the best way they can be done. +When someone tells you, "People don't care about privacy," consider whether the game has been designed and rigged so that they cannot care about privacy, and coming to the realization that these manipulations occur is already halfway through the process of being able to protect yourself. +When someone tells you that privacy is incompatible with the benefits of big data, consider that in the last 20 years, researchers have created technologies to allow virtually any electronic transactions to take place in a more privacy-preserving manner. +We can browse the Internet anonymously. +We can send emails that can only be read by the intended recipient, not even the NSA. +We can have even privacy-preserving data mining. +In other words, we can have the benefits of big data while protecting privacy. +Of course, these technologies imply a shifting of cost and revenues between data holders and data subjects, which is why, perhaps, you don't hear more about them. +Which brings me back to the Garden of Eden. +There is a second privacy interpretation of the story of the Garden of Eden which doesn't have to do with the issue of Adam and Eve feeling naked and feeling ashamed. +You can find echoes of this interpretation in John Milton's "Paradise Lost." +In the garden, Adam and Eve are materially content. +They're happy. They are satisfied. +However, they also lack knowledge and self-awareness. +The moment they eat the aptly named fruit of knowledge, that's when they discover themselves. +They become aware. They achieve autonomy. +The price to pay, however, is leaving the garden. +So privacy, in a way, is both the means and the price to pay for freedom. +Again, marketers tell us that big data and social media are not just a paradise of profit for them, but a Garden of Eden for the rest of us. +We get free content. +We get to play Angry Birds. We get targeted apps. +But in fact, in a few years, organizations will know so much about us, they will be able to infer our desires before we even form them, and perhaps buy products on our behalf before we even know we need them. +Now there was one English author who anticipated this kind of future where we would trade away our autonomy and freedom for comfort. +Even more so than George Orwell, the author is, of course, Aldous Huxley. +In "Brave New World," he imagines a society where technologies that we created originally for freedom end up coercing us. +However, in the book, he also offers us a way out of that society, similar to the path that Adam and Eve had to follow to leave the garden. +In the words of the Savage, regaining autonomy and freedom is possible, although the price to pay is steep. +So I do believe that one of the defining fights of our times will be the fight for the control over personal information, the fight over whether big data will become a force for freedom, rather than a force which will hiddenly manipulate us. +Right now, many of us do not even know that the fight is going on, but it is, whether you like it or not. +And at the risk of playing the serpent, I will tell you that the tools for the fight are here, the awareness of what is going on, and in your hands, just a few clicks away. +Thank you. +Hetain Patel: (In Chinese) Yuyu Rau: Hi, I'm Hetain. I'm an artist. +And this is Yuyu, who is a dancer I have been working with. +I have asked her to translate for me. +HP: (In Chinese) YR: If I may, I would like to tell you a little bit about myself and my artwork. +HP: (In Chinese) YR: I was born and raised near Manchester, in England, but I'm not going to say it in English to you, because I'm trying to avoid any assumptions that might be made from my northern accent. +HP: (In Chinese) YR: The only problem with masking it with Chinese Mandarin is I can only speak this paragraph, which I have learned by heart when I was visiting in China. So all I can do is keep repeating it in different tones and hope you won't notice. +HP: (In Chinese) YR: Needless to say, I would like to apologize to any Mandarin speakers in the audience. +As a child, I would hate being made to wear the Indian kurta pajama, because I didn't think it was very cool. +It felt a bit girly to me, like a dress, and it had this baggy trouser part you had to tie really tight to avoid the embarrassment of them falling down. +My dad never wore it, so I didn't see why I had to. +Also, it makes me feel a bit uncomfortable, that people assume I represent something genuinely Indian when I wear it, because that's not how I feel. +HP: (In Chinese) YR: Actually, the only way I feel comfortable wearing it is by pretending they are the robes of a kung fu warrior like Li Mu Bai from that film, "Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon." +Okay. +So my artwork is about identity and language, challenging common assumptions based on how we look like or where we come from, gender, race, class. +What makes us who we are anyway? +HP: (In Chinese) YR: I used to read Spider-Man comics, watch kung fu movies, take philosophy lessons from Bruce Lee. +He would say things like -- HP: Empty your mind. +Be formless, shapeless, like water. +Now you put water into a cup. +It becomes the cup. +You put water into a bottle, it becomes the bottle. +Put it in a teapot, it becomes the teapot. +Now, water can flow or it can crash. +Be water, my friend. YR: This year, I am 32 years old, the same age Bruce Lee was when he died. +I have been wondering recently, if he were alive today, what advice he would give me about making this TED Talk. +HP: Don't imitate my voice. +It offends me. +YR: Good advice, but I still think that we learn who we are by copying others. +Who here hasn't imitated their childhood hero in the playground, or mum or father? +I have. +HP: A few years ago, in order to make this video for my artwork, I shaved off all my hair so that I could grow it back as my father had it when he first emigrated from India to the U.K. in the 1960s. +He had a side parting and a neat mustache. +At first, it was going very well. +I even started to get discounts in Indian shops. +But then very quickly, I started to underestimate my mustache growing ability, and it got way too big. +It didn't look Indian anymore. +Instead, people from across the road, they would shout things like -- HP and YR: Arriba! Arriba! ndale! ndale! +HP: Actually, I don't know why I am even talking like this. +My dad doesn't even have an Indian accent anymore. +He talks like this now. +So it's not just my father that I've imitated. +A few years ago I went to China for a few months, and I couldn't speak Chinese, and this frustrated me, so I wrote about this and had it translated into Chinese, and then I learned this by heart, like music, I guess. +YR: This phrase is now etched into my mind clearer than the pin number to my bank card, so I can pretend I speak Chinese fluently. +When I had learned this phrase, I had an artist over there hear me out to see how accurate it sounded. +I spoke the phrase, and then he laughed and told me, "Oh yeah, that's great, only it kind of sounds like a woman." +I said, "What?" +He said, "Yeah, you learned from a woman?" +I said, "Yes. So?" +He then explained the tonal differences between male and female voices are very different and distinct, and that I had learned it very well, but in a woman's voice. +HP: Okay. So this imitation business does come with risk. +It doesn't always go as you plan it, even with a talented translator. +But I am going to stick with it, because contrary to what we might usually assume, imitating somebody can reveal something unique. +So every time I fail to become more like my father, I become more like myself. +Every time I fail to become Bruce Lee, I become more authentically me. +This is my art. +I strive for authenticity, even if it comes in a shape that we might not usually expect. +It's only recently that I've started to understand that I didn't learn to sit like this through being Indian. +I learned this from Spider-Man. +Thank you. +I've spent my life working on sustainability. +I set up a climate change NGO called The Climate Group. +I worked on forestry issues in WWF. +I worked on development and agriculture issues in the U.N. system. +About 25 years in total, and then three years ago, I found myself talking to IKEA's CEO about joining his team. +Like many people here, well, I want to maximize my personal impact in the world, so I'm going to explain why I joined the team there. +But first, let's just take three numbers. +The first number is three: three billion people. +This is the number of people joining the global middle class by 2030, coming out of poverty. +It's fantastic for them and their families, but we've got two billion people in the global middle class today, and this swells that number to five, a big challenge when we already have resource scarcity. +The second number is six: This is six degrees centigrade, what we're heading towards in terms of global warming. +We're not heading towards one degree or three degrees or four degrees, we're heading toward six degrees. +And if you think about it, all of the weird weather we've been having the last few years, much of that is due to just one degree warming, and we need CO2 emissions to peak by the end of this decade globally and then come down. +It's not inevitable, but we need to act decisively. +The third number is 12: That's the number of cities in the world that had a million or more people when my grandmother was born. +You can see my grandmother there. +That was in the beginning of the last century. +So just 12 cities. She was born in Manchester, England, the ninth largest city in the world. +Now there are 500 cities, nearly, with a million people or more in them. +And if you look at the century from 1950 to 2050, that's the century when we build all the world's cities, the century that we're in the middle of right now. +Every other century was kind of practice, and this lays down a blueprint for how we live. +So think about it. +We're building cities like never before, bringing people out of poverty like never before, and changing the climate like never before. +Sustainability has gone from a nice-to-do to a must-do. +it's about what we do right here, right now, and for the rest of our working lives. +So I'm going to talk a little bit about what business can do and what a business like IKEA can do, and we have a sustainability strategy called "people and planet positive" to help guide our business to have a positive impact on the world. +Why would we not want to have a positive impact on the world as a business? +Other companies have sustainability strategies. +I'm going to refer to some of those as well, and I'm just going to mention a few of the commitments as illustrations that we've got. +But first, let's think of customers. +We know from asking people from China to the U.S. +that the vast majority of people care about sustainability after the day-to-day issues, the day-to-day issues of, how do I get my kids to school? +Can I pay the bills at the end of the month? +Then they care about big issues like climate change. +But they want it to be easy, affordable and attractive, and they expect business to help, and they're a little bit disappointed today. +So take your mind back and think of the first sustainable products. +We had detergents that could wash your whites grayer. +We had the early energy-efficient light bulbs that took five minutes to warm up and then you were left looking a kind of sickly color. +And we had the rough, recycled toilet paper. +So every time you pulled on a t-shirt, or switched the light on, or went to the bathroom, or sometimes all three together, you were reminded sustainability was about compromise. +It wasn't a great start. +Today we have choices. +We can make products that are beautiful or ugly, sustainable or unsustainable, affordable or expensive, functional or useless. +So let's make beautiful, functional, affordable, Let's take the LED. +The LED is the next best thing to daylight. +They were mis-sold for more than a hundred years. +They produced heat and a little bit of light on the side. +Now we have lights that produce light and a little bit of heat on the side. +You save 85 percent of the electricity with an LED that you would have done in an old incandescent. +And the best thing is, they'll also last for more than 20 years. +So think about that. +You'll change your smartphone seven or eight times, probably more if you're in this audience. +You'll change your car, if you have one, three or four times. +Your kids could go to school, go to college, go away and have kids of their own, come back, bring the grandkids, you'll have the same lightbulb saving you energy. +So LEDs are fantastic. +What we decided to do was not to sell LEDs on the side marked up high and continue to push all the old bulbs, the halogens and the CFLs. +We decided, over the next two years, we will ban the halogens and the CFLs ourselves. +We will go all in. +And this is what business needs to do: go all-in, go 100 percent, because then you stop investing in the old stuff, you invest in the new stuff, you lower costs, you use your supply chain and your creativity and you get the prices down so everybody can afford the best lights so they can save energy. +It's not just about products in people's homes. +We've got to think about the raw materials that produce our products. +Obviously there's fantastic opportunities with recycled materials, and we can and will go zero waste. +And there's opportunities in a circular economy. +But we're still dependent on natural, raw materials. +Let's take cotton. +Cotton's brilliant. Probably many people are wearing cotton right now. +It's a brilliant textile in use. +It's really dirty in production. +It uses lots of pesticides, lots of fertilizer, lots of water. +Yields increase, and you halve the input costs. +Farmers are coming out of poverty. They love it. +Already hundreds of thousands of farmers have been reached, and now we've got 60 percent better cotton in our business. +Again, we're going all-in. +By 2015, we'll be 100 percent Better Cotton. +Take the topic of 100 percent targets, actually. +People sometimes think that 100 percent's going to be hard, and we've had the conversation in the business. +Actually, we found 100 percent is easier to do than 90 percent or 50 percent. +If you have a 90 percent target, everyone in the business finds a reason to be in the 10 percent. +When it's 100 percent, it's kind of clear, and businesspeople like clarity, because then you just get the job done. +So, wood. We know with forestry, it's a choice. +You've got illegal logging and deforestation still on a very large scale, or you can have fantastic, responsible forestry that we can be proud of. +It's a simple choice, so we've worked for many years with the Forest Stewardship Council, with literally hundreds of other organizations, and there's a point here about collaboration. +So hundreds of others, of NGOs, of forest workers' unions, and of businesses, have helped create the Forest Stewardship Council, which sets standards for forestry and then checks the forestry's good on the ground. +Now together, through our supply chain, with partners, we've managed to certify 35 million hectares of forestry. +That's about the size of Germany. +And we've decided in the next three years, we will double the volume of certified material we put through our business. +So be decisive on these issues. +Use your supply chain to drive good. +But then it comes to your operations. +Some things are certain, I think. +We know we'll use electricity in 20 or 30 years' time. +We know the sun will be shining somewhere, and the wind will still be blowing in 20 or 30 years' time. +So why not make our energy out of the sun and the wind? +And why not take control of it ourselves? +So we're going 100 percent renewable. +By 2020, we'll produce more renewable energy than the energy we consume as a business. +For all of our stores, our own factories, our distribution centers, we've installed 300,000 solar panels so far, and we've got 14 wind farms we own and operate in six countries, and we're not done yet. +But think of a solar panel. +A solar panel pays for itself in seven or eight years. +The electricity is free. +Every time the sun comes out after that, the electricity is free. +So this is a good thing for the CFO, not just the sustainability guy. +Every business can do things like this. +But then we've got to look beyond our operations, and I think everybody would agree that now business has to take full responsibility for the impacts of your supply chain. +Many businesses now, fortunately, have codes of conduct and audit their supply chains, but not every business. Far from it. +And this came in IKEA actually in the '90s. +We found there was a risk of child labor in the supply chain, and people in the business were shocked. +And it was clearly totally unacceptable, so then you have to act. +So a code of conduct was developed, and now we have 80 auditors out in the world every day making sure all our factories secure good working conditions and protect human rights and make sure there is no child labor. +But it's not just as simple as making sure there's no child labor. +You've got to say that's not enough today. +I think we'd all agree that children are the most important people in the world and the most vulnerable. +So what can a business do today to actually use your total value chain to support a better quality of life and protect child rights? +We've worked with UNICEF and Save the Children on developing some new business principles with children's rights. +Increasing numbers of businesses are signing up to these, but actually in a survey, many business leaders said they thought their business had nothing to do with children. +So what we decided to do was, we will look and ask ourselves the tough questions with partners who know more than us, what can we do to go beyond our business to help improve the lives of children? +We also have a foundation that's committed to work through partners and help improve the lives and protect the rights of 100 million children by 2015. +You know the phrase, you can manage what you measure? +Well, you should measure what you care about. +If you're not measuring things, you don't care and you don't know. +So let's take an example, measure the things that are important in your business. +Isn't it about time that businesses were led equally by men and women? +So we know for our 17,000 managers across IKEA that 47 percent are women today, but it's not enough, and we want to close the gap and follow it all the way through to senior management. +And we do not want to wait another hundred years. +So we've launched a women's open network this week in IKEA, and we'll do whatever it takes to lead the change. +So the message here is, measure what you care about and lead the change, and don't wait a hundred years. +So we've gone from sustainability being a nice-to-do to a must-do. It's a must-do. +It's still nice to do, but it's a must-do. +And everybody can do something on this as an individual. +Be a discerning consumer. +Vote with your wallets. +Search out the companies that are acting on this. +But also, there are other businesses already acting. +I mentioned renewable energy. +You go to Google or Lego, they're going 100 percent renewable too, in the same way that we are. +On having really good sustainability strategies, there are companies like Nike, Patagonia, Timberland, Marks & Spencer. +But I don't think any of those businesses would say they're perfect. We certainly wouldn't. +We'll make mistakes going forward, but it's about setting a clear direction, being transparent, having a dialogue with the right partners, and choosing to lead on the issues that really count. +So if you're a business leader, if you're not already weaving sustainability right into the heart of your business model, I'd urge you to do so. +And together, we can help create a sustainable world, and, if we get it right, we can make sustainability affordable for the many people, not a luxury for the few. +Thank you. +Africa is booming. +Per capita incomes since the year 2000 have doubled, and this boom is impacting on everyone. +Life expectancy has increased by one year every three years for the last decade. +That means if an African child is born today, rather than three days ago, they will get an extra day of life at the end of their lifespan. +It's that quick. +And HIV infection rates are down 27 percent: 600,000 less people a year are getting HIV in sub-Saharan Africa. +The battle against malaria is being won, with deaths from malaria down 27 percent, according to the latest World Bank data. +And malaria nets actually are playing a role in that. +This shouldn't surprise us, because actually, everybody grows. +If you go back to Imperial Rome in the Year 1 A.D., there was admittedly about 1,800 years where there wasn't an awful lot of growth. +But then the people that the Romans would have called Scottish barbarians, my ancestors, were actually part of the Industrial Revolution, and in the 19th century, growth began to accelerate, and you saw that get quicker and quicker, and it's been impacting everyone. +It doesn't matter if this is the jungles of Singapore or the tundra of northern Finland. +Everybody gets involved. It's just a matter of when the inevitable happens. +Among the reasons I think it's happening right now is the quality of the leadership across Africa. +I think most of us would agree that in the 1990s, the greatest politician in the world was African, but I'm meeting brilliant people across the continent the entire time, and they're doing the reforms which have transformed the economic situation for their countries. +And the West is engaging with that. +The West has given debt forgiveness programs which have halved sub-Saharan debt from about 70 percent of GDP down to about 40. +At the same time, our debt level's gone up to 120 and we're all feeling slightly miserable as a result. +Politics gets weaker when debt is high. +When public sector debt is low, governments don't have to choose between investing in education and health and paying interest on that debt you owe. +And it's not just the public sector which is looking so good. +The private sector as well. +Again, in the West, we have private sector debt of 200 percent of GDP in Spain, the U.K., and the U.S. +That's an awful lot of debt. +Africa, many African countries, are sitting at 10 to 30 percent of GDP. +If there's any continent that can do what China has done -- China's at about 130 percent of GDP on that chart -- if anyone can do what China has done in the last 30 years, it'll be Africa in the next 30. +So they've got great government finances, great private sector debt. +Does anyone recognize this? In fact, they do. +Foreign direct investment has poured into Africa in the last 15 years. +Back in the '70s, no one touched the continent with a barge pole. +And this investment is actually Western-led. +We hear a lot about China, and they do lend a lot of money, but 60 percent of the FDI in the last couple of years has come from Europe, America, Australia, Canada. +Ten percent's come from India. +And they're investing in energy. +Africa produces 10 million barrels a day of oil now. +It's the same as Saudi Arabia or Russia. +And they're investing in telecoms, shopping malls. +And this very encouraging story, I think, is partly demographic-led. +And it's not just about African demographics. +I'm showing you the number of 15- to 24-year-olds in various parts of the world, and the blue line is the one I want you to focus on for a second. +Ten years ago, say you're Foxconn setting up an iPhone factory, by chance. +You might choose China, which is the bulk of that East Asian blue line, where there's 200 million young people, and every year until 2010 that's getting bigger. +Which means you're going to have new guys knocking on the door saying, "Give us a job," and, "I don't need a big pay rise, just please give me a job." +Now, that's completely changed now. +This decade, we're going to see a 20- to 30-percent fall in the number of 15- to 24-year-olds in China. +So where do you set up your new factory? +You look at South Asia, and people are. +They're looking at Pakistan and Bangladesh, and they're also looking at Africa. +And they're looking at Africa because that yellow line is showing you that the number of young Africans is going to continue to get bigger decade after decade after decade out to 2050. +Now, there's a problem with lots of young people coming into any market, particularly when they're young men. +A bit dangerous, sometimes. +I think one of the crucial factors is how educated is that demographic? +If you look at the red line here, what you're going to see is that in 1975, just nine percent of kids were in secondary school education in sub-Saharan Africa. +Would you set up a factory in sub-Sahara in the mid-1970s? +Nobody else did. +They chose instead Turkey and Mexico to set up the textiles factories, because their education levels were 25 to 30 percent. +Today, sub-Sahara is at the levels that Turkey and Mexico were at in 1975. +They will get the textiles jobs that will take people out of rural poverty and put them on the road to industrialization and wealth. +So what's Africa looking like today? +This is how I look at Africa. +It's a bit odd, because I'm an economist. +Each little box is about a billion dollars, and you see that I pay an awful lot of attention to Nigeria sitting there in the middle. +South Africa is playing a role. +But when I'm thinking about the future, I'm actually most interested in Central, Western and Southern Africa. +If I look at Africa by population, East Africa stands out as so much potential. +And I'm showing you something else with these maps. +I'm showing you democracy versus autocracy. +Fragile democracies is the beige color. +Strong democracies are the orange color. +And what you'll see here is that most Africans are now living in democracies. +Why does that matter? +Because what people want is what politicians try, they don't always succeed, but they try and deliver. +And what you've got is a reinforcing positive circle going on. +In Ghana in the elections, in December 2012, the battle between the two candidates was over education. +One guy offered free secondary school education to all, not just 30 percent. +The other guy had to say, I'm going to build 50 new schools. +He won by a margin. +So democracy is encouraging governments to invest in education. +Education is helping growth and investment, and that's giving budget revenues, which is giving governments more money, which is helping growth through education. +It's a positive, virtuous circle. +But I get asked this question, and this particular question makes me quite sad: It's, "But what about corruption? +How can you invest in Africa when there's corruption?" +And what makes me sad about it is that this graph here is showing you that the biggest correlation with corruption is wealth. +When you're poor, corruption is not your biggest priority. +And the countries on the right hand side, you'll see the per capita GDP, basically every country with a per capita GDP of, say, less than 5,000 dollars, has got a corruption score of roughly, what's that, about three? +Three out of 10. That's not good. +Every poor country is corrupt. +Every rich country is relatively uncorrupt. +How do you get from poverty and corruption to wealth and less corruption? +You see the middle class grow. +And the way to do that is to invest, not to say I'm not investing in that continent because there's too much corruption. +Now, I don't want to be an apologist for corruption. +I've been arrested because I refused to pay a bribe -- not in Africa, actually. +But what I'm saying here is that we can make a difference and we can do that by investing. +Now I'm going to let you in on a little not-so-secret. +Economists aren't great at forecasting. +Because the question really is, what happens next? +And if you go back to the year 2000, what you'll find is The Economist had a very famous cover, "The Hopeless Continent," and what they'd done is they'd looked at growth in Africa over the previous 10 years -- two percent -- and they said, what's going to happen in the next 10 years? +They assumed two percent, and that made it a pretty hopeless story, because population growth was two and a half. +People got poorer in Africa in the 1990s. +Now 2012, The Economist has a new cover, and what does that new cover show? +That new cover shows, well, Africa rising, because the growth over the last 10 years has been about five and a half percent. +I would like to see if you can all now become economists, because if growth for the last 10 years has been five and a half percent, what do you think the IMF is forecasting for the next five years of growth in Africa? +Very good. I think you're secretly saying to your head, probably five and a half percent. +You're all economists, and I think, like most economists, wrong. +No offense. +What I like to do is try and find the countries that are doing exactly what Africa has already done, and it means that jump from 1,800 years of nothing to whoof, suddenly shooting through the roof. +India is one of those examples. +This is Indian growth from 1960 to 2010. +Ignore the scale on the bottom for a second. +Actually, for the first 20 years, the '60s and '70s, India didn't really grow. +It grew at two percent when population growth was about two and a half. +If that's familiar, that's exactly what happened in sub-Sahara in the '80s and the '90s. +And then something happened in 1980. +Boom! India began to explode. +It wasn't a "Hindu rate of growth," "democracies can't grow." Actually India could. +And if I lay sub-Saharan growth on top of the Indian growth story, it's remarkably similar. +Twenty years of not much growth and a trend line which is actually telling you that sub-Saharan African growth is slightly better than India. +And if I then lay developing Asia on top of this, I'm saying India is 20 years ahead of Africa, I'm saying developing Asia is 10 years ahead of India, I can draw out some forecasts for the next 30 to 40 years which I think are better than the ones where you're looking backwards. +And that tells me this: that Africa is going to go from a $2 trillion economy today to a $29 trillion economy by 2050. +Now that's bigger than Europe and America put together in today's money. +Life expectancy is going to go up by 13 years. +The population's going to double from one billion to two billion, so household incomes are going to go up sevenfold in the next 35 years. +And when I present this in Africa -- Nairobi, Lagos, Accra -- I get one question. +"Charlie, why are you so pessimistic?" +And you know what? +Actually, I think they've got a point. +Am I really saying that there can be nothing learned, yes from the positives in Asia and India, but also the negatives? +Perhaps Africa can avoid some of the mistakes that have been made. +Surely, the technologies that we're talking about here this last week, surely some of these can perhaps help Africa grow even faster? +And I think here we can play a role. +Because technology does let you help. +You can go and download some of the great African literature from the Internet now. +No, not right now, just 30 seconds. +You can go and buy some of the great tunes. +My iPod's full of them. +Buy African products. +Go on holiday and see for yourself the change that's happening. +Invest. +Perhaps hire people, give them the skills that they can take back to Africa, and their companies will grow an awful lot faster than most of ours here in the West. +And then you and I can help make sure that for Africa, the 21st century is their century. +Thank you very much. +So last year, on the Fourth of July, experiments at the Large Hadron Collider discovered the Higgs boson. +It was a historical day. +There's no doubt that from now on, the Fourth of July will be remembered not as the day of the Declaration of Independence, but as the day of the discovery of the Higgs boson. +Well, at least, here at CERN. +But for me, the biggest surprise of that day was that there was no big surprise. +In the eye of a theoretical physicist, the Higgs boson is a clever explanation of how some elementary particles gain mass, but it seems a fairly unsatisfactory and incomplete solution. +Too many questions are left unanswered. +The Higgs boson does not share the beauty, the symmetry, the elegance, of the rest of the elementary particle world. +For this reason, the majority of theoretical physicists believe that the Higgs boson could not be the full story. +We were expecting new particles and new phenomena accompanying the Higgs boson. +Instead, so far, the measurements coming from the LHC show no signs of new particles or unexpected phenomena. +Of course, the verdict is not definitive. +In 2015, the LHC will almost double the energy of the colliding protons, and these more powerful collisions will allow us to explore further the particle world, and we will certainly learn much more. +But for the moment, since we have found no evidence for new phenomena, let us suppose that the particles that we know today, including the Higgs boson, are the only elementary particles in nature, even at energies much larger than what we have explored so far. +Let's see where this hypothesis is going to lead us. +We will find a surprising and intriguing result about our universe, and to explain my point, let me first tell you what the Higgs is about, and to do so, we have to go back to one tenth of a billionth of a second after the Big Bang. +And according to the Higgs theory, at that instant, a dramatic event took place in the universe. +Space-time underwent a phase transition. +It was something very similar to the phase transition that occurs when water turns into ice below zero degrees. +But in our case, the phase transition is not a change in the way the molecules are arranged inside the material, but is about a change of the very fabric of space-time. +During this phase transition, empty space became filled with a substance that we now call Higgs field. +And this substance may seem invisible to us, but it has a physical reality. +It surrounds us all the time, just like the air we breathe in this room. +And some elementary particles interact with this substance, gaining energy in the process. +And this intrinsic energy is what we call the mass of a particle, and by discovering the Higgs boson, the LHC has conclusively proved that this substance is real, because it is the stuff the Higgs bosons are made of. +And this, in a nutshell, is the essence of the Higgs story. +But this story is far more interesting than that. +By studying the Higgs theory, theoretical physicists discovered, not through an experiment but with the power of mathematics, that the Higgs field does not necessarily exist only in the form that we observe today. +Just like matter can exist as liquid or solid, so the Higgs field, the substance that fills all space-time, could exist in two states. +Besides the known Higgs state, there could be a second state in which the Higgs field is billions and billions times denser than what we observe today, and the mere existence of another state of the Higgs field poses a potential problem. +This is because, according to the laws of quantum mechanics, it is possible to have transitions between two states, even in the presence of an energy barrier separating the two states, and the phenomenon is called, quite appropriately, quantum tunneling. +Because of quantum tunneling, I could disappear from this room and reappear in the next room, practically penetrating the wall. +But don't expect me to actually perform the trick in front of your eyes, because the probability for me to penetrate the wall is ridiculously small. +You would have to wait a really long time before it happens, but believe me, quantum tunneling is a real phenomenon, and it has been observed in many systems. +For instance, the tunnel diode, a component used in electronics, works thanks to the wonders of quantum tunneling. +But let's go back to the Higgs field. +If the ultra-dense Higgs state existed, then, because of quantum tunneling, a bubble of this state could suddenly appear in a certain place of the universe at a certain time, and it is analogous to what happens when you boil water. +Bubbles of vapor form inside the water, then they expand, turning liquid into gas. +In the same way, a bubble of the ultra-dense Higgs state could come into existence because of quantum tunneling. +The bubble would then expand at the speed of light, invading all space, and turning the Higgs field from the familiar state into a new state. +Is this a problem? Yes, it's a big a problem. +We may not realize it in ordinary life, but the intensity of the Higgs field is critical for the structure of matter. +If the Higgs field were only a few times more intense, we would see atoms shrinking, neutrons decaying inside atomic nuclei, nuclei disintegrating, and hydrogen would be the only possible chemical element in the universe. +And the Higgs field, in the ultra-dense Higgs state, is not just a few times more intense than today, but billions of times, and if space-time were filled by this Higgs state, all atomic matter would collapse. +No molecular structures would be possible, no life. +So, I wonder, is it possible that in the future, the Higgs field will undergo a phase transition and, through quantum tunneling, will be transformed into this nasty, ultra-dense state? +In other words, I ask myself, what is the fate of the Higgs field in our universe? +And the crucial ingredient necessary to answer this question is the Higgs boson mass. +And experiments at the LHC found that the mass of the Higgs boson is about 126 GeV. +This is tiny when expressed in familiar units, because it's equal to something like 10 to the minus 22 grams, but it is large in particle physics units, because it is equal to the weight of an entire molecule of a DNA constituent. +So armed with this information from the LHC, together with some colleagues here at CERN, we computed the probability that our universe could quantum tunnel into the ultra-dense Higgs state, and we found a very intriguing result. +Our calculations showed that the measured value of the Higgs boson mass is very special. +It has just the right value to keep the universe hanging in an unstable situation. +The Higgs field is in a wobbly configuration that has lasted so far but that will eventually collapse. +So according to these calculations, we are like campers who accidentally set their tent at the edge of a cliff. +And eventually, the Higgs field will undergo a phase transition and matter will collapse into itself. +So is this how humanity is going to disappear? +I don't think so. +Our calculation shows that quantum tunneling of the Higgs field is not likely to occur in the next 10 to the 100 years, and this is a very long time. +It's even longer than the time it takes for Italy to form a stable government. +Even so, we will be long gone by then. +So it is really unlikely that we will be around to see the Higgs field collapse. +But the reason why I am interested in the transition of the Higgs field is because I want to address the question, why is the Higgs boson mass so special? +Why is it just right to keep the universe at the edge of a phase transition? +Theoretical physicists always ask "why" questions. +More than how a phenomenon works, theoretical physicists are always interested in why a phenomenon works in the way it works. +We think that this these "why" questions can give us clues about the fundamental principles of nature. +And indeed, a possible answer to my question opens up new universes, literally. +It has been speculated that our universe is only a bubble in a soapy multiverse made out of a multitude of bubbles, and each bubble is a different universe with different fundamental constants and different physical laws. +And in this context, you can only talk about the probability of finding a certain value of the Higgs mass. +Then the key to the mystery could lie in the statistical properties of the multiverse. +It would be something like what happens with sand dunes on a beach. +In principle, you could imagine to find sand dunes of any slope angle in a beach, and yet, the slope angles of sand dunes are typically around 30, 35 degrees. +And the reason is simple: because wind builds up the sand, gravity makes it fall. +As a result, the vast majority of sand dunes have slope angles around the critical value, near to collapse. +And something similar could happen for the Higgs boson mass in the multiverse. +In the majority of bubble universes, the Higgs mass could be around the critical value, near to a cosmic collapse of the Higgs field, because of two competing effects, just as in the case of sand. +My story does not have an end, because we still don't know the end of the story. +This is science in progress, and to solve the mystery, we need more data, and hopefully, the LHC will soon add new clues to this story. +Just one number, the Higgs boson mass, and yet, out of this number we learn so much. +I started from a hypothesis, that the known particles are all there is in the universe, even beyond the domain explored so far. +From this, we discovered that the Higgs field that permeates space-time may be standing on a knife edge, ready for cosmic collapse, and we discovered that this may be a hint that our universe is only a grain of sand in a giant beach, the multiverse. +But I don't know if my hypothesis is right. +That's how physics works: A single measurement can put us on the road to a new understanding of the universe or it can send us down a blind alley. +But whichever it turns out to be, there is one thing I'm sure of: The journey will be full of surprises. +Thank you. +Have you ever asked yourselves why it is that companies, the really cool companies, the innovative ones, the creative, new economy-type companies -- Apple, Google, Facebook -- are coming out of one particular country, the United States of America? +Usually when I say this, someone says, "Spotify! +That's Europe." But, yeah. +It has not had the impact that these other companies have had. +What is the secret behind the Silicon Valley growth model, which they understand is different from this old economy growth model? +And what is interesting is that often, even if we're in the 21st century, we kind of come down in the end to these ideas of market versus state. +But what really interests me, especially nowadays and because of what's happening politically around the world, is the language that's used, the narrative, the discourse, the images, the actual words. +So we often are presented with the kind of words like that the private sector is also much more innovative because it's able to think out of the box. +They are more dynamic. +Think of Steve Jobs' really inspirational speech to the 2005 graduating class at Stanford, where he said to be innovative, you've got to stay hungry, stay foolish. +Right? So these guys are kind of the hungry and foolish and colorful guys, right? +And in places like Europe, it might be more equitable, we might even be a bit better dressed and eat better than the U.S., but the problem is this damn public sector. +It's a bit too big, and it hasn't actually allowed these things like dynamic venture capital and commercialization to actually be able to really be as fruitful as it could. +And even really respectable newspapers, some that I'm actually subscribed to, the words they use are, you know, the state as this Leviathan. Right? +This monster with big tentacles. +They're very explicit in these editorials. +They say, "You know, the state, it's necessary to fix these little market failures when you have public goods or different types of negative externalities like pollution, but you know what, what is the next big revolution going to be after the Internet? +We all hope it might be something green, or all of this nanotech stuff, and in order for that stuff to happen," they say -- this was a special issue on the next industrial revolution -- they say, "the state, just stick to the basics, right? +Fund the infrastructure. Fund the schools. +Even fund the basic research, because this is popularly recognized, in fact, as a big public good which private companies don't want to invest in, do that, but you know what? +Leave the rest to the revolutionaries." +Those colorful, out-of-the-box kind of thinkers. +They're often called garage tinkerers, because some of them actually did some things in garages, even though that's partly a myth. +And so what I want to do with you in, oh God, only 10 minutes, is to really think again this juxtaposition, because it actually has massive, massive implications beyond innovation policy, which just happens to be the area that I often talk with with policymakers. +It has huge implications, even with this whole notion that we have on where, when and why we should actually be cutting back on public spending and different types of public services which, of course, as we know, are increasingly being outsourced because of this juxtaposition. +Right? I mean, the reason that we need to maybe have free schools or charter schools is in order to make them more innovative without being emburdened by this heavy hand of the state curriculum, or something. +So these kind of words are constantly, these juxtapositions come up everywhere, not just with innovation policy. +And so to think again, there's no reason that you should believe me, so just think of some of the smartest revolutionary things that you have in your pockets and do not turn it on, but you might want to take it out, your iPhone. +Ask who actually funded the really cool, revolutionary thinking-out-of-the-box things in the iPhone. +What actually makes your phone a smartphone, basically, instead of a stupid phone? +So the Internet, which you can surf the web anywhere you are in the world; GPS, where you can actually know where you are anywhere in the world; the touchscreen display, which makes it also a really easy-to-use phone for anybody. +These are the very smart, revolutionary bits about the iPhone, and they're all government-funded. +And the point is that the Internet was funded by DARPA, U.S. Department of Defense. +GPS was funded by the military's Navstar program. +Even Siri was actually funded by DARPA. +The touchscreen display was funded by two public grants by the CIA and the NSF to two public university researchers at the University of Delaware. +Now, you might be thinking, "Well, she's just said the word 'defense' and 'military' an awful lot," but what's really interesting is that this is actually true in sector after sector and department after department. +So the pharmaceutical industry, which I am personally very interested in because I've actually had the fortune to study it in quite some depth, is wonderful to be asking this question about the revolutionary versus non-revolutionary bits, because each and every medicine can actually be divided up on whether it really is revolutionary or incremental. +So the new molecular entities with priority rating are the revolutionary new drugs, whereas the slight variations of existing drugs -- Viagra, different color, different dosage -- are the less revolutionary ones. +And it turns out that a full 75 percent of the new molecular entities with priority rating are actually funded in boring, Kafka-ian public sector labs. +This doesn't mean that Big Pharma is not spending on innovation. +They do. They spend on the marketing part. +They spend on the D part of R&D. +They spend an awful lot on buying back their stock, which is quite problematic. +In fact, companies like Pfizer and Amgen recently have spent more money in buying back their shares to boost their stock price than on R&D, but that's a whole different TED Talk which one day I'd be fascinated to tell you about. +Now, what's interesting in all of this is the state, in all these examples, was doing so much more than just fixing market failures. +It was actually shaping and creating markets. +It was funding not only the basic research, which again is a typical public good, but even the applied research. +It was even, God forbid, being a venture capitalist. +So these SBIR and SDTR programs, which give small companies early-stage finance have not only been extremely important compared to private venture capital, but also have become increasingly important. +Why? Because, as many of us know, V.C. is actually quite short-term. +They want their returns in three to five years. +Innovation takes a much longer time than that, 15 to 20 years. +And so this whole notion -- I mean, this is the point, right? +Who's actually funding the hard stuff? +Of course, it's not just the state. +The private sector does a lot. +But the narrative that we've always been told is the state is important for the basics, but not really providing that sort of high-risk, revolutionary thinking out of the box. +In all these sectors, from funding the Internet to doing the spending, but also the envisioning, the strategic vision, for these investments, it was actually coming within the state. +The nanotechnology sector is actually fascinating to study this, because the word itself, nanotechnology, came from within government. +And so there's huge implications of this. +First of all, of course I'm not someone, this old-fashioned person, market versus state. +What we all know in dynamic capitalism is that what we actually need are public-private partnerships. +But the point is, by constantly depicting the state part as necessary but actually -- pffff -- a bit boring and often a bit dangerous kind of Leviathan, I think we've actually really stunted the possibility to build these public-private partnerships in a really dynamic way. +Even the words that we often use to justify the "P" part, the public part -- well, they're both P's -- with public-private partnerships is in terms of de-risking. +What the public sector did in all these examples I just gave you, and there's many more, which myself and other colleagues have been looking at, is doing much more than de-risking. +It's kind of been taking on that risk. Bring it on. +It's actually been the one thinking out of the box. +But also, I'm sure you all have had experience with local, regional, national governments, and you're kind of like, "You know what, that Kafka-ian bureaucrat, I've met him." +That whole juxtaposition thing, it's kind of there. +Well, there's a self-fulfilling prophecy. +By talking about the state as kind of irrelevant, boring, it's sometimes that we actually create those organizations in that way. +So what we have to actually do is build these entrepreneurial state organizations. +DARPA, that funded the Internet and Siri, actually thought really hard about this, how to welcome failure, because you will fail. +You will fail when you innovative. +One out of 10 experiments has any success. +And the V.C. guys know this, and they're able to actually fund the other losses from that one success. +And this brings me, actually, probably, to the biggest implication, and this has huge implications beyond innovation. +If the state is more than just a market fixer, if it actually is a market shaper, and in doing that has had to take on this massive risk, what happened to the reward? +Well, where's the reward for the state of having taken on these massive risks and actually been foolish enough to have done the Internet? +The Internet was crazy. +It really was. I mean, the probability of failure was massive. +You had to be completely nuts to do it, and luckily, they were. +Now, we don't even get to this question about rewards unless you actually depict the state as this risk-taker. +And the problem is that economists often think, well, there is a reward back to the state. It's tax. +You know, the companies will pay tax, the jobs they create will create growth so people who get those jobs and their incomes rise will come back to the state through the tax mechanism. +Well, unfortunately, that's not true. +Okay, it's not true because many of the jobs that are created go abroad. +Globalization, and that's fine. We shouldn't be nationalistic. +Let the jobs go where they have to go, perhaps. +I mean, one can take a position on that. +But also these companies that have actually had this massive benefit from the state -- Apple's a great example. +They even got the first -- well, not the first, but 500,000 dollars actually went to Apple, the company, through this SBIC program, which predated the SBIR program, as well as, as I said before, all the technologies behind the iPhone. +And yet we know they legally, as many other companies, pay very little tax back. +So what we really need to actually rethink is should there perhaps be a return-generating mechanism that's much more direct than tax. Why not? +It could happen perhaps through equity. +This, by the way, in the countries that are actually thinking about this strategically, countries like Finland in Scandinavia, but also in China and Brazil, they're retaining equity in these investments. +Sitra funded Nokia, kept equity, made a lot of money, it's a public funding agency in Finland, which then funded the next round of Nokias. +The Brazilian Development Bank, which is providing huge amounts of funds today to clean technology, they just announced a $56 billion program for the future on this, is retaining equity in these investments. +Instead, many of the state budgets which in theory are trying to do that are being constrained. +But perhaps even more important, we heard before about the one percent, the 99 percent. +If the state is thought about in this more strategic way, as one of the lead players in the value creation mechanism, because that's what we're talking about, right? +Who are the different players in creating value in the economy, and is the state's role, has it been sort of dismissed as being a backseat player? +Thank you. +I was in New York during Hurricane Sandy, and this little white dog called Maui was staying with me. +Half the city was dark because of a power cut, and I was living on the dark side. +Now, Maui was terrified of the dark, so I had to carry him up the stairs, actually down the stairs first, for his walk, and then bring him back up. +I was also hauling gallons of bottles of water up to the seventh floor every day. +And through all of this, I had to hold a torch between my teeth. +The stores nearby were out of flashlights and batteries and bread. +For a shower, I walked 40 blocks to a branch of my gym. +But these were not the major preoccupations of my day. +It was just as critical for me to be the first person in at a cafe nearby with extension cords and chargers to juice my multiple devices. +I started to prospect under the benches of bakeries and the entrances of pastry shops for plug points. +I wasn't the only one. +Even in the rain, people stood between Madison and 5th Avenue under their umbrellas charging their cell phones from outlets on the street. +Nature had just reminded us that it was stronger than all our technology, and yet here we were, obsessed about being wired. +I think there's nothing like a crisis to tell you what's really important and what's not, and Sandy made me realize that our devices and their connectivity matter to us right up there with food and shelter. +The self as we once knew it no longer exists, and I think that an abstract, digital universe has become a part of our identity, and I want to talk to you about what I think that means. +I'm a novelist, and I'm interested in the self because the self and fiction have a lot in common. +They're both stories, interpretations. +You and I can experience things without a story. +We might run up the stairs too quickly and we might get breathless. +But the larger sense that we have of our lives, the slightly more abstract one, is indirect. +Our story of our life is based on direct experience, but it's embellished. +A novel needs scene after scene to build, and the story of our life needs an arc as well. +It needs months and years. +Discrete moments from our lives are its chapters. +But the story is not about these chapters. +It's the whole book. +It's not only about the heartbreak and the happiness, the victories and the disappointments, but it's because how because of these, and sometimes, more importantly, in spite of these, we find our place in the world and we change it and we change ourselves. +Our story, therefore, needs two dimensions of time: a long arc of time that is our lifespan, and the timeframe of direct experience that is the moment. +Now the self that experiences directly can only exist in the moment, but the one that narrates needs several moments, a whole sequence of them, and that's why our full sense of self needs both immersive experience and the flow of time. +Now, the flow of time is embedded in everything, in the erosion of a grain of sand, in the budding of a little bud into a rose. +Without it, we would have no music. +Our own emotions and state of mind often encode time, regret or nostalgia about the past, hope or dread about the future. +I think that technology has altered that flow of time. +The overall time that we have for our narrative, our lifespan, has been increasing, but the smallest measure, the moment, has shrunk. +It has shrunk because our instruments enable us in part to measure smaller and smaller units of time, and this in turn has given us a more granular understanding of the material world, and this granular understanding has generated reams of data that our brains can no longer comprehend and for which we need more and more complicated computers. +All of this to say that the gap between what we can perceive and what we can measure is only going to widen. +Science can do things with and in a picosecond, but you and I are never going to have the inner experience of a millionth of a millionth of a second. +You and I answer only to nature's rhythm and flow, to the sun, the moon and the seasons, and this is why we need that long arc of time with the past, the present and the future to see things for what they are, to separate signal from noise and the self from sensations. +We need time's arrow to understand cause and effect, not just in the material world, but in our own intentions and our motivations. +What happens when that arrow goes awry? +What happens when time warps? +So many of us today have the sensation that time's arrow is pointing everywhere and nowhere at once. +This is because time doesn't flow in the digital world in the same way that it does in the natural one. +We all know that the Internet has shrunk space as well as time. +Far away over there is now here. +News from India is a stream on my smartphone app whether I'm in New York or New Delhi. +And that's not all. +Your last job, your dinner reservations from last year, your former friends, lie on a flat plain with today's friends, because the Internet also archives, and it warps the past. +With no distinction left between the past, the present and the future, and the here or there, we are left with this moment everywhere, this moment that I'll call the digital now. +Just how can we prioritize in the landscape of the digital now? +This digital now is not the present, because it's always a few seconds ahead, with Twitter streams that are already trending and news from other time zones. +This isn't the now of a shooting pain in your foot or the second that you bite into a pastry or the three hours that you lose yourself in a great book. +This now bears very little physical or psychological reference to our own state. +Its focus, instead, is to distract us at every turn on the road. +Every digital landmark is an invitation to leave what you are doing now to go somewhere else and do something else. +Are you reading an interview by an author? +Why not buy his book? Tweet it. Share it. +Like it. Find other books exactly like his. +Find other people reading those books. +Travel can be liberating, but when it is incessant, we become permanent exiles without repose. +Choice is freedom, but not when it's constantly for its own sake. +Not just is the digital now far from the present, but it's in direct competition with it, and this is because not just am I absent from it, but so are you. +Not just are we absent from it, but so is everyone else. +And therein lies its greatest convenience and horror. +I can order foreign language books in the middle of the night, shop for Parisian macarons, and leave video messages that get picked up later. +At all times, I can operate at a different rhythm and pace from you, while I sustain the illusion that I'm tapped into you in real time. +Sandy was a reminder of how such an illusion can shatter. +There were those with power and water, and those without. +There are those who went back to their lives, and those who are still displaced after so many months. +For some reason, technology seems to perpetuate the illusion for those who have it that everyone does, and then, like an ironic slap in the face, it makes it true. +For example, it's said that there are more people in India with access to cell phones than toilets. +Now if this rift, which is already so great in many parts of the world, between the lack of infrastructure and the spread of technology, isn't somehow bridged, there will be ruptures between the digital and the real. +For us as individuals who live in the digital now and spend most of our waking moments in it, the challenge is to live in two streams of time that are parallel and almost simultaneous. +How does one live inside distraction? +We might think that those younger than us, those who are born into this, will adapt more naturally. +Possibly, but I remember my childhood. +I remember my grandfather revising the capitals of the world with me. +Buda and Pest were separated by the Danube, and Vienna had a Spanish riding school. +If I were a child today, I could easily learn this information with apps and hyperlinks, but it really wouldn't be the same, because much later, I went to Vienna, and I went to the Spanish riding school, and I could feel my grandfather right beside me. +Night after night, he took me up on the terrace, on his shoulders, and pointed out Jupiter and Saturn and the Great Bear to me. +And even here, when I look at the Great Bear, I get back that feeling of being a child, hanging onto his head and trying to balance myself on his shoulder, and I can get back that feeling of being a child again. +What I had with my grandfather was wrapped so often in information and knowledge and fact, but it was about so much more than information or knowledge or fact. +Time-warping technology challenges our deepest core, because we are able to archive the past and some of it becomes hard to forget, even as the current moment is increasingly unmemorable. +We want to clutch, and we are left instead clutching at a series of static moments. +They're like soap bubbles that disappear when we touch them. +By archiving everything, we think that we can store it, but time is not data. +It cannot be stored. +You and I know exactly what it means like to be truly present in a moment. +It might have happened while we were playing an instrument, or looking into the eyes of someone we've known for a very long time. +At such moments, our selves are complete. +The self that lives in the long narrative arc and the self that experiences the moment become one. +The present encapsulates the past and a promise for the future. +The present joins a flow of time from before and after. +I first experienced these feelings with my grandmother. +I wanted to learn to skip, and she found an old rope and she tucked up her sari and she jumped over it. +I wanted to learn to cook, and she kept me in the kitchen, cutting, cubing and chopping for a whole month. +My grandmother taught me that things happen in the time they take, that time can't be fought, and because it will pass and it will move, we owe the present moment our full attention. +Attention is time. +One of my yoga instructors once said that love is attention, and definitely from my grandmother, love and attention were one and the same thing. +The digital world cannibalizes time, and in doing so, I want to suggest that what it threatens is the completeness of ourselves. +It threatens the flow of love. +But we don't need to let it. +We can choose otherwise. +We've seen again and again just how creative technology can be, and in our lives and in our actions, we can choose those solutions and those innovations and those moments that restore the flow of time instead of fragmenting it. +We can slow down and we can tune in to the ebb and flow of time. +We can choose to take time back. +Thank you. +Three years ago, I was standing about a hundred yards from Chernobyl nuclear reactor number four. +My Geiger counter dosimeter, which measures radiation, was going berserk, and the closer I got, the more frenetic it became, and frantic. My God. +So I was filming. +I just wanted to get the job done and get out of there fast. +But then, I looked into the distance, and I saw some smoke coming from a farmhouse, and I'm thinking, who could be living here? +I mean, after all, Chernobyl's soil, water and air, are among the most highly contaminated on Earth, and the reactor sits at the the center of a tightly regulated exclusion zone, or dead zone, and it's a nuclear police state, complete with border guards. +You have to have dosimeter at all times, clicking away, you have to have a government minder, and there's draconian radiation rules and constant contamination monitoring. +The point being, no human being should be living anywhere near the dead zone. +But they are. +It turns out an unlikely community of some 200 people are living inside the zone. +They're called self-settlers. +And almost all of them are women, the men having shorter lifespans in part due to overuse of alcohol, cigarettes, if not radiation. +Hundreds of thousands of people were evacuated at the time of the accident, but not everybody accepted that fate. +The women in the zone, now in their 70s and 80s, are the last survivors of a group who defied authorities and, it would seem, common sense, and returned to their ancestral homes inside the zone. +They did so illegally. +As one woman put it to a soldier who was trying to evacuate her for a second time, "Shoot me and dig the grave. +Otherwise, I'm going home." +Now why would they return to such deadly soil? +I mean, were they unaware of the risks or crazy enough to ignore them, or both? +The thing is, they see their lives and the risks they run decidedly differently. +Now around Chernobyl, there are scattered ghost villages, eerily silent, strangely charming, bucolic, totally contaminated. +Many were bulldozed under at the time of the accident, but a few are left like this, kind of silent vestiges to the tragedy. +Others have a few residents in them, one or two "babushkas," or "babas," which are the Russian and Ukrainian words for grandmother. +Another village might have six or seven residents. +So this is the strange demographic of the zone -- isolated alone together. +And when I made my way to that piping chimney I'd seen in the distance, I saw Hanna Zavorotnya, and I met her. +She's the self-declared mayor of Kapavati village, population eight. +And she said to me, when I asked her the obvious, "Radiation doesn't scare me. Starvation does." +And you have to remember, these women have survived the worst atrocities of the 20th century. +Stalin's enforced famines of the 1930s, the Holodomor, killed millions of Ukrainians, and they faced the Nazis in the '40s, who came through slashing, burning, raping, and in fact many of these women were shipped to Germany as forced labor. +So when a couple decades into Soviet rule, Chernobyl happened, they were unwilling to flee in the face of an enemy that was invisible. +For them, environmental contamination may not be the worst sort of devastation. +It turns out this holds true for other species as well. +Wild boar, lynx, moose, they've all returned to the region in force, the very real, very negative effects of radiation being trumped by the upside of a mass exodus of humans. +The dead zone, it turns out, is full of life. +And there is a kind of heroic resilience, a kind of plain-spoken pragmatism to those who start their day at 5 a.m. +pulling water from a well and end it at midnight poised to beat a bucket with a stick and scare off wild boar that might mess with their potatoes, their only company a bit of homemade moonshine vodka. +And there's a patina of simple defiance among them. +"They told us our legs would hurt, and they do. So what?" +I mean, what about their health? +The benefits of hardy, physical living, but an environment made toxic by a complicated, little-understood enemy, radiation. +It's incredibly difficult to parse. +Health studies from the region are conflicting and fraught. +The World Health Organization puts the number of Chernobyl-related deaths at 4,000, eventually. +Greenpeace and other organizations put that number in the tens of thousands. +Now everybody agrees that thyroid cancers are sky high, and that Chernobyl evacuees suffer the trauma of relocated peoples everywhere: higher levels of anxiety, depression, alcoholism, unemployment and, importantly, disrupted social networks. +Now, like many of you, I have moved maybe 20, 25 times in my life. +Home is a transient concept. +I have a deeper connection to my laptop than any bit of soil. +So it's hard for us to understand, but home is the entire cosmos of the rural babushka, and connection to the land is palpable. +And perhaps because these Ukrainian women were schooled under the Soviets and versed in the Russian poets, aphorisms about these ideas slip from their mouths all the time. +"If you leave, you die." +"Those who left are worse off now. +They are dying of sadness." +"Motherland is motherland. I will never leave." +How could this be? +Here's a theory: Could it be that those ties to ancestral soil, the soft variables reflected in their aphorisms, actually affect longevity? +The power of motherland so fundamental to that part of the world seems palliative. +Home and community are forces that rival even radiation. +Now radiation or not, these women are at the end of their lives. +In the next decade, the zone's human residents will be gone, and it will revert to a wild, radioactive place, full only of animals and occasionally daring, flummoxed scientists. +But the spirit and existence of the babushkas, whose numbers have been halved in the three years I've known them, will leave us with powerful new templates to think about and grapple with, about the relative nature of risk, about transformative connections to home, and about the magnificent tonic of personal agency and self-determination. +Thank you. +In December of 2010, the city of Apatzingn in the coastal state of Michoacn, in Mexico, awoke to gunfire. +For two straight days, the city became an open battlefield between the federal forces and a well-organized group, presumably from the local criminal organization, La Familia Michoacana, or the Michoacn family. +The citizens didn't only experience incessant gunfire but also explosions and burning trucks used as barricades across the city, so truly like a battlefield. +After these two days, and during a particularly intense encounter, it was presumed that the leader of La Familia Michoacana, Nazario Moreno, was killed. +In response to this terrifying violence, the mayor of Apatzingn decided to call the citizens to a march for peace. +The idea was to ask for a softer approach to criminal activity in the state. +And so, the day of the scheduled procession, thousands of people showed up. +As the mayor was preparing to deliver the speech starting the march, his team noticed that, while half of the participants were appropriately dressed in white, and bearing banners asking for peace, the other half was actually marching in support of the criminal organization and its now-presumed-defunct leader. +Shocked, the mayor decided to step aside rather than participate or lead a procession that was ostensibly in support of organized crime. +And so his team stepped aside. +The two marches joined together, and they continued their path towards the state capital. +To put these numbers in perspective, this is eight times larger than the number of casualties in the Iraq and Afghanistan wars combined. +It's also shockingly close to the number of people who have died in the Syrian civil war, which is an active civil war. +This is happening just south of the border. +Now as you're reading, however, you will be maybe surprised that you will quickly become numb to the numbers of deaths, because you will see that these are sort of abstract numbers of faceless, nameless dead people. +Implicitly or explicitly, there is a narrative that all the people who are dying were somehow involved in the drug trade, and we infer this because they were either tortured or executed in a professional manner, or, most likely, both. +And so clearly they were criminals because of the way they died. +And so the narrative is that somehow these people got what they were deserved. +They were part of the bad guys. +And that creates some form of comfort for a lot of people. +However, while it's easier to think of us, the citizens, the police, the army, as the good guys, and them, the narcos, the carteles, as the bad guys, if you think about it, the latter are only providing a service to the former. +Whether we like it or not, the U.S. is the largest market for illegal substances in the world, accounting for more than half of global demand. +It shares thousands of miles of border with Mexico that is its only route of access from the South, and so, as the former dictator of Mexico, Porfirio Diaz, used to say, "Poor Mexico, so far from God and so close to the United States." +The U.N. estimates that there are 55 million users of illegal drugs in the United States. +Using very, very conservative assumptions, this yields a yearly drug market on the retail side of anywhere between 30 and 150 billion dollars. +If we assume that the narcos only have access to the wholesale part, which we know is false, that still leaves you with yearly revenues of anywhere between 15 billion and 60 billion dollars. +To put these numbers in perspective, Microsoft has yearly revenues of 60 billion dollars. +And it so happens that this is a product that, because of its nature, a business model to address this market requires you to guarantee to your producers that their product will be reliably placed in the markets where it is consumed. +And the only way to do this, because it's illegal, is to have absolute control of the geographic corridors that are used to transport drugs. +Hence the violence. +If you look at a map of cartel influence and violence, you will see that it almost perfectly aligns with the most efficient routes of transportation from the south to the north. +The only thing that the cartels are doing is that they're trying to protect their business. +It's not only a multi-billion dollar market, but it's also a complex one. +And so that means they need to secure production and quality control in the south, and you need to ensure that you have efficient and effective distribution channels in the markets where these drugs are consumed. +Think about this for a second. +Think about the complexity of the distribution network that I just described. +It's very difficult to reconcile this with the image of faceless, ignorant goons that are just shooting each other, very difficult to reconcile. +Now, as a business professor, and as any business professor would tell you, an effective organization requires an integrated strategy that includes a good organizational structure, good incentives, a solid identity and good brand management. +This leads me to the second thing that you would learn in your 30-minute exploration of drug violence in Mexico. +Because you would quickly realize, and maybe be confused by the fact, that there are three organizations that are constantly named in the articles. +You will hear about Los Zetas, the Knights Templar, which is the new brand for the Familia Michoacana that I spoke about at the beginning, and the Sinaloa Federation. +You will read that Los Zetas is this assortment of sociopaths that terrify the cities that they enter and they silence the press, and this is somewhat true, or mostly true. +But this is the result of a very careful branding and business strategy. +You see, Los Zetas is not just this random assortment of individuals, but was actually created by another criminal organization, the Gulf Cartel, that used to control the eastern corridor of Mexico. +When that corridor became contested, they decided that they wanted to recruit a professional enforcement arm. +So they recruited Los Zetas: an entire unit of elite paratroopers from the Mexican Army. +They were incredibly effective as enforcers for the Gulf Cartel, so much so that at some point, they decided to just take over the operations, which is why I ask you to never keep tigers as pets, because they grow up. +And so because they didn't have access to the more profitable drug markets, this pushed them and gave them the opportunity to diversify into other forms of crime. +That includes kidnapping, prostitution, local drug dealing and human trafficking, including of migrants that go from the south to the U.S. +So what they currently run is truly and quite literally a franchise business. +They focus most of their recruiting on the army, and they very openly advertise for better salaries, better benefits, better promotion paths, not to mention much better food, than what the army can deliver. +The way they operate is that when they arrive in a locality, they let people know that they are there, and they go to the most powerful local gang and they say, "I offer you to be the local representative of the Zeta brand." +If they agree -- and you don't want to know what happens if they don't -- they train them and they supervise them on how to run the most efficient criminal operation for that town, in exchange for royalties. +This kind of business model obviously depends entirely on having a very effective brand of fear, and so Los Zetas carefully stage acts of violence that are spectacular in nature, especially when they arrive first in a city, but again, that's just a brand strategy. +I'm not saying they're not violent, but what I am saying is that even though you will read that they are the most violent of all, when you count, when you do the body count, they're actually all the same. +In contrast to them, the Knights Templar that arose in Michoacn emerged in reaction to the incursion of the Zetas into the state of Michoacn. +Michoacn is a geographically strategic state because it has one of the largest ports in Mexico, and it has very direct routes to the center of Mexico, which then gives you direct access to the U.S. +The Knights Templar realized very quickly that they couldn't face the Zetas on violence alone, and so they developed a strategy as a social enterprise. +They brand themselves as representative of and protecting of the citizens of Michoacn against organized crime. +Their brand of social enterprise means that they require a lot of civic engagement, so they invest heavily in providing local services, like dealing with home violence, going after petty criminals, treating addicts, and keeping drugs out of the local markets where they are, and, of course, protecting people from other criminal organizations. +And so we're actually here to protect you. +They, as social enterprises do, have created a moral and ethical code that they advertise around, and they have very strict recruiting practices. +And here you have the types of explanations that they provide for some of their actions. +Finally, the Sinaloa Federation. +When you read about them, you will often read about them with an undertone of reverence and admiration, because they are the most integrated and the largest of all the Mexican organizations, and, many people argue, the world. +They started as just sort of a transport organization that specialized in smuggling between the U.S. +and the Mexican borders, but now they have grown into a truly integrated multinational that has partnerships in production in the south and partnerships in global distribution across the planet. +They have cultivated a brand of professionalism, business acumen and innovation. +They have designed new drug products and new drug processes. +They have designed narco-tunnels that go across the border, and you can see that these are not "The Shawshank Redemption" types. +They have invented narco-submarines and boats that are not detected by radar. +They have invented drones to transport drugs, catapults, you name it. +One of the leaders of the Sinaloa Federation actually made it to the Forbes list. +[#701 Joaquin Guzman Loera] Like any multinational would, they have specialized and focused only in the most profitable part of the business, which is high-margin drugs like cocaine, heroine, methamphetamines. +Like any traditional Latin American multinational would, the way they control their operations is through family ties. +When they're entering a new market, they send a family member to supervise it, or, if they're partnering with a new organization, they create a family tie, either through marriages or other types of ties. +To further strengthen their brand, they actually have professional P.R. firms that shape how the press talks about them. +They have professional videographers on staff. +They have incredibly productive ties with the security organizations on both sides of the border. +And so, differences aside, what these three organizations share is on the one hand, a very clear understanding that institutions cannot be imposed from the top, but rather they are built from the bottom up one interaction at a time. +They have created extremely coherent structures that they use to show the inconsistencies in government policies. +And so what I want you to remember from this talk are three things. +The first one is that drug violence is actually the result of a huge market demand and an institutional setup that forces the servicing of this market to necessitate violence to guarantee delivery routes. +The second thing I want you to remember is that these are sophisticated, coherent organizations that are business organizations, and analyzing them and treating them as such is probably a much more useful approach. +These organizations service, recruit from, and operate within our communities, so necessarily, they are much more integrated within them than we are comfortable acknowledging. +And so to me the question is not whether these dynamics will continue the way they have. +We see that the nature of this phenomenon guarantees that they will. +The question is whether we are willing to continue our support of a failed strategy based on our stubborn, blissful, voluntary ignorance at the cost of the deaths of thousands of our young. +Thank you. +I am a neuroscientist with a mixed background in physics and medicine. +My lab at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology focuses on spinal cord injury, which affects more than 50,000 people around the world every year, with dramatic consequences for affected individuals, whose life literally shatters in a matter of a handful of seconds. +And for me, the Man of Steel, Christopher Reeve, has best raised the awareness on the distress of spinal cord injured people. +And this is how I started my own personal journey in this field of research, working with the Christopher and Dana Reeve Foundation. +I still remember this decisive moment. +It was just at the end of a regular day of work with the foundation. +Chris addressed us, the scientists and experts, "You have to be more pragmatic. +When leaving your laboratory tomorrow, I want you to stop by the rehabilitation center to watch injured people fighting to take a step, struggling to maintain their trunk. +And when you go home, think of what you are going to change in your research on the following day to make their lives better." +These words, they stuck with me. +This was more than 10 years ago, but ever since, my laboratory has followed the pragmatic approach to recovery after spinal cord injury. +And my first step in this direction was to develop a new model of spinal cord injury that would more closely mimic some of the key features of human injury while offering well-controlled experimental conditions. +And for this purpose, we placed two hemisections on opposite sides of the body. +They completely interrupt the communication between the brain and the spinal cord, thus leading to complete and permanent paralysis of the leg. +But, as observed, after most injuries in humans, there is this intervening gap of intact neural tissue through which recovery can occur. +But how to make it happen? +Well, the classical approach consists of applying intervention that would promote the growth of the severed fiber to the original target. +And while this certainly remained the key for a cure, this seemed extraordinarily complicated to me. +To reach clinical fruition rapidly, it was obvious: I had to think about the problem differently. +My idea: We awaken this network. +And at the time, I was a post-doctoral fellow in Los Angeles, after completing my Ph.D. in France, where independent thinking is not necessarily promoted. +I was afraid to talk to my new boss, but decided to muster up my courage. +I knocked at the door of my wonderful advisor, Reggie Edgerton, to share my new idea. +He listened to me carefully, and responded with a grin. +"Why don't you try?" +And I promise to you, this was such an important moment in my career, when I realized that the great leader believed in young people and new ideas. +And this was the idea: I'm going to use a simplistic metaphor to explain to you this complicated concept. +Imagine that the locomotor system is a car. +The engine is the spinal cord. +The transmission is interrupted. The engine is turned off. +How could we re-engage the engine? +First, we have to provide the fuel; second, press the accelerator pedal; third, steer the car. +It turned out that there are known neural pathways coming from the brain that play this very function during locomotion. +My idea: Replace this missing input to provide the spinal cord with the kind of intervention that the brain would deliver naturally in order to walk. +For this, I leveraged 20 years of past research in neuroscience, first to replace the missing fuel with pharmacological agents that prepare the neurons in the spinal cord to fire, and second, to mimic the accelerator pedal with electrical stimulation. +So here imagine an electrode implanted on the back of the spinal cord to deliver painless stimulation. +It took many years, but eventually we developed an electrochemical neuroprosthesis that transformed the neural network in the spinal cord from dormant to a highly functional state. +Immediately, the paralyzed rat can stand. +As soon as the treadmill belt starts moving, the animal shows coordinated movement of the leg, but without the brain. +Here what I call "the spinal brain" cognitively processes sensory information arising from the moving leg and makes decisions as to how to activate the muscle in order to stand, to walk, to run, and even here, while sprinting, instantly stand if the treadmill stops moving. +This was amazing. +I was completely fascinated by this locomotion without the brain, but at the same time so frustrated. +This locomotion was completely involuntary. +The animal had virtually no control over the legs. +Clearly, the steering system was missing. +And it then became obvious from me that we had to move away from the classical rehabilitation paradigm, stepping on a treadmill, and develop conditions that would encourage the brain to begin voluntary control over the leg. +With this in mind, we developed a completely new robotic system to support the rat in any direction of space. +Imagine, this is really cool. +So imagine the little 200-gram rat attached at the extremity of this 200-kilo robot, but the rat does not feel the robot. +The robot is transparent, just like you would hold a young child during the first insecure steps. +Let me summarize: The rat received a paralyzing lesion of the spinal cord. +The electrochemical neuroprosthesis enabled a highly functional state of the spinal locomotor networks. +The robot provided the safe environment to allow the rat to attempt anything to engage the paralyzed legs. +And for motivation, we used what I think is the most powerful pharmacology of Switzerland: fine Swiss chocolate. +Actually, the first results were very, very, very disappointing. +Here is my best physical therapist completely failing to encourage the rat to take a single step, whereas the same rat, five minutes earlier, walked beautifully on the treadmill. +We were so frustrated. +But you know, one of the most essential qualities of a scientist is perseverance. +We insisted. We refined our paradigm, and after several months of training, the otherwise paralyzed rat could stand, and whenever she decided, initiated full weight-bearing locomotion to sprint towards the rewards. +This is the first recovery ever observed of voluntary leg movement after an experimental lesion of the spinal cord leading to complete and permanent paralysis. +In fact -- Thank you. +In fact, not only could the rat initiate and sustain locomotion on the ground, they could even adjust leg movement, for example, to resist gravity in order to climb a staircase. +I can promise you this was such an emotional moment in my laboratory. +It took us 10 years of hard work to reach this goal. +But the remaining question was, how? +I mean, how is it possible? +And here, what we found was completely unexpected. +This novel training paradigm encouraged the brain to create new connections, some relay circuits that relay information from the brain past the injury and restore cortical control over the locomotor networks below the injury. +And here, you can see one such example, where we label the fibers coming from the brain in red. +This blue neuron is connected with the locomotor center, and what this constellation of synaptic contacts means is that the brain is reconnected with the locomotor center with only one relay neuron. +But the remodeling was not restricted to the lesion area. +It occurred throughout the central nervous system, including in the brain stem, where we observed up to 300-percent increase in the density of fibers coming from the brain. +We did not aim to repair the spinal cord, yet we were able to promote one of the more extensive remodeling of axonal projections ever observed in the central nervous system of adult mammal after an injury. +And there is a very important message hidden behind this discovery. +They are the result of a young team of very talented people: physical therapists, neurobiologists, neurosurgeons, engineers of all kinds, who have achieved together what would have been impossible by single individuals. +This is truly a trans-disciplinary team. +They are working so close to each other that there is horizontal transfer of DNA. +We are creating the next generation of M.D.'s and engineers capable of translating discoveries all the way from bench to bedside. +And me? +I am only the maestro who orchestrated this beautiful symphony. +Now, I am sure you are all wondering, aren't you, will this help injured people? +Me too, every day. +The truth is that we don't know enough yet. +This is certainly not a cure for spinal cord injury, but I begin to believe that this may lead to an intervention to improve recovery and people's quality of life. +I would like you all to take a moment and dream with me. +Imagine a person just suffered a spinal cord injury. +After a few weeks of recovery, we will implant a programmable pump to deliver a personalized pharmacological cocktail directly to the spinal cord. +At the same time, we will implant an electrode array, a sort of second skin covering the area of the spinal cord controlling leg movement, and this array is attached to an electrical pulse generator that delivers stimulations that are tailored to the person's needs. +This defines a personalized electrochemical neuroprosthesis that will enable locomotion during training with a newly designed supporting system. +And my hope is that after several months of training, there may be enough remodeling of residual connection to allow locomotion without the robot, maybe even without pharmacology or stimulation. +My hope here is to be able to create the personalized condition to boost the plasticity of the brain and the spinal cord. +And this is a radically new concept that may apply to other neurological disorders, what I termed "personalized neuroprosthetics," where by sensing and stimulating neural interfaces, I implanted throughout the nervous system, in the brain, in the spinal cord, even in peripheral nerves, based on patient-specific impairments. +But not to replace the lost function, no -- to help the brain help itself. +And I hope this enticed your imagination, because I can promise to you this is not a matter of whether this revolution will occur, but when. +And remember, we are only as great as our imagination, as big as our dream. +Thank you. +The two most likely largest inventions of our generation are the Internet and the mobile phone. +They've changed the world. +However, largely to our surprise, they also turned out to be the perfect tools for the surveillance state. +It turned out that the capability to collect data, information and connections about basically any of us and all of us is exactly what we've been hearing throughout of the summer through revelations and leaks about Western intelligence agencies, mostly U.S. intelligence agencies, watching over the rest of the world. +We've heard about these starting with the revelations from June 6. +Edward Snowden started leaking information, top secret classified information, from the U.S. intelligence agencies, and we started learning about things like PRISM and XKeyscore and others. +And these are examples of the kinds of programs U.S. intelligence agencies are running right now, against the whole rest of the world. +And if you look back about the forecasts on surveillance by George Orwell, well it turns out that George Orwell was an optimist. +We are right now seeing a much larger scale of tracking of individual citizens than he could have ever imagined. +And this here is the infamous NSA data center in Utah. +Due to be opened very soon, it will be both a supercomputing center and a data storage center. +You could basically imagine it has a large hall filled with hard drives storing data they are collecting. +And it's a pretty big building. +How big? Well, I can give you the numbers -- 140,000 square meters -- but that doesn't really tell you very much. +Maybe it's better to imagine it as a comparison. +You think about the largest IKEA store you've ever been in. +This is five times larger. +How many hard drives can you fit in an IKEA store? +Right? It's pretty big. +We estimate that just the electricity bill for running this data center is going to be in the tens of millions of dollars a year. +And this kind of wholesale surveillance means that they can collect our data and keep it basically forever, keep it for extended periods of time, keep it for years, keep it for decades. +And this opens up completely new kinds of risks to us all. +And what this is is that it is wholesale blanket surveillance on everyone. +Well, not exactly everyone, because the U.S. intelligence only has a legal right to monitor foreigners. +They can monitor foreigners when foreigners' data connections end up in the United States or pass through the United States. +And monitoring foreigners doesn't sound too bad until you realize that I'm a foreigner and you're a foreigner. +In fact, 96 percent of the planet are foreigners. +Right? +So it is wholesale blanket surveillance of all of us, all of us who use telecommunications and the Internet. +But don't get me wrong: There are actually types of surveillance that are okay. +I love freedom, but even I agree that some surveillance is fine. +If the law enforcement is trying to find a murderer, or they're trying to catch a drug lord or trying to prevent a school shooting, and they have leads and they have suspects, then it's perfectly fine for them to tap the suspect's phone, and to intercept his Internet communications. +I'm not arguing that at all, but that's not what programs like PRISM are about. +They are not about doing surveillance on people that they have reason to suspect of some wrongdoings. +They're about doing surveillance on people they know are innocent. +So the four main arguments supporting surveillance like this, well, the first of all is that whenever you start discussing about these revelations, there will be naysayers trying to minimize the importance of these revelations, saying that we knew all this already, we knew it was happening, there's nothing new here. +And that's not true. Don't let anybody tell you that we knew this already, because we did not know this already. +Our worst fears might have been something like this, but we didn't know this was happening. +Now we know for a fact it's happening. +We didn't know about this. We didn't know about PRISM. +We didn't know about XKeyscore. We didn't know about Cybertrans. +We didn't know about DoubleArrow. +We did not know about Skywriter -- all these different programs run by U.S. intelligence agencies. +But now we do. +And we did not know that U.S. intelligence agencies go to extremes such as infiltrating standardization bodies to sabotage encryption algorithms on purpose. +And what that means is that you take something which is secure, an encryption algorithm which is so secure that if you use that algorithm to encrypt one file, nobody can decrypt that file. +Even if they take every single computer on the planet just to decrypt that one file, it's going to take millions of years. +So that's basically perfectly safe, uncrackable. +You take something which is that good and then you weaken it on purpose, making all of us less secure as an end result. +A real-world equivalent would be that intelligence agencies would force some secret pin code into every single house alarm so they could get into every single house because, you know, bad people might have house alarms, but it will also make all of us less secure as an end result. +Backdooring encryption algorithms just boggles the mind. +But of course, these intelligence agencies are doing their job. +This is what they have been told to do: do signals intelligence, monitor telecommunications, monitor Internet traffic. +That's what they're trying to do, and since most, a very big part of the Internet traffic today is encrypted, they're trying to find ways around the encryption. +One way is to sabotage encryption algorithms, which is a great example about how U.S. intelligence agencies are running loose. +They are completely out of control, and they should be brought back under control. +So what do we actually know about the leaks? +Everything is based on the files leaked by Mr. Snowden. +The very first PRISM slides from the beginning of June detail a collection program where the data is collected from service providers, and they actually go and name the service providers they have access to. +They even have a specific date on when the collection of data began for each of the service providers. +So for example, they name the collection from Microsoft started on September 11, 2007, for Yahoo on the March 12, 2008, and then others: Google, Facebook, Skype, Apple and so on. +And every single one of these companies denies. +They all say that this simply isn't true, that they are not giving backdoor access to their data. +Yet we have these files. +So is one of the parties lying, or is there some other alternative explanation? +And one explanation would be that these parties, these service providers, are not cooperating. +Instead, they've been hacked. +That would explain it. They aren't cooperating. They've been hacked. +In this case, they've been hacked by their own government. +That might sound outlandish, but we already have cases where this has happened, for example, the case of the Flame malware which we strongly believe was authored by the U.S. government, and which, to spread, subverted the security of the Windows Update network, meaning here, the company was hacked by their own government. +And there's more evidence supporting this theory as well. +Der Spiegel, from Germany, leaked more information about the operations run by the elite hacker units operating inside these intelligence agencies. +Inside NSA, the unit is called TAO, Tailored Access Operations, and inside GCHQ, which is the U.K. equivalent, it's called NAC, Network Analysis Centre. +And these recent leaks of these three slides detail an operation run by this GCHQ intelligence agency from the United Kingdom targeting a telecom here in Belgium. +And what this really means is that an E.U. country's intelligence agency is breaching the security of a telecom of a fellow E.U. country on purpose, and they discuss it in their slides completely casually, business as usual. +Here's the primary target, here's the secondary target, here's the teaming. +They probably have a team building on Thursday evening in a pub. +They even use cheesy PowerPoint clip art like, you know, "Success," when they gain access to services like this. +What the hell? +And then there's the argument that okay, yes, this might be going on, but then again, other countries are doing it as well. +All countries spy. +And maybe that's true. +Many countries spy, not all of them, but let's take an example. +Let's take, for example, Sweden. +I'm speaking of Sweden because Sweden has a little bit of a similar law to the United States. +When your data traffic goes through Sweden, their intelligence agency has a legal right by the law to intercept that traffic. +And the answer is, every single Swedish business leader does that every single day. +And then we turn it around. +How many American leaders use Swedish webmails and cloud services? +And the answer is zero. +So this is not balanced. +It's not balanced by any means, not even close. +And when we do have the occasional European success story, even those, then, typically end up being sold to the United States. +Like, Skype used to be secure. +It used to be end-to-end encrypted. +Then it was sold to the United States. +Today, it no longer is secure. +So once again, we take something which is secure and then we make it less secure on purpose, making all of us less secure as an outcome. +And then the argument that the United States is only fighting terrorists. +It's the war on terror. +You shouldn't worry about it. +Well, it's not the war on terror. +It's not the war on terror. +Part of it might be, and there are terrorists, but are we really thinking about terrorists as such an existential threat that we are willing to do anything at all to fight them? +Are the Americans ready to throw away the Constituion and throw it in the trash just because there are terrorists? +And the same thing with the Bill of Rights and all the amendments and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the E.U. conventions on human rights and fundamental freedoms and the press freedom? +Do we really think terrorism is such an existential threat, we are ready to do anything at all? +But people are scared about terrorists, and then they think that maybe that surveillance is okay because they have nothing to hide. +Feel free to survey me if that helps. +And whoever tells you that they have nothing to hide simply hasn't thought about this long enough. +Because we have this thing called privacy, and if you really think that you have nothing to hide, please make sure that's the first thing you tell me, because then I know that I should not trust you with any secrets, because obviously you can't keep a secret. +But people are brutally honest with the Internet, and when these leaks started, many people were asking me about this. +And I have nothing to hide. +I'm not doing anything bad or anything illegal. +Yet, I have nothing that I would in particular like to share with an intelligence agency, especially a foreign intelligence agency. +And if we indeed need a Big Brother, I would much rather have a domestic Big Brother than a foreign Big Brother. +And when the leaks started, the very first thing I tweeted about this was a comment about how, when you've been using search engines, you've been potentially leaking all that to U.S. intelligence. +And two minutes later, I got a reply by somebody called Kimberly from the United States challenging me, like, why am I worried about this? +What am I sending to worry about this? Am I sending naked pictures or something? +And my answer to Kimberly was that what I'm sending is none of your business, and it should be none of your government's business either. +Because that's what it's about. It's about privacy. +Privacy is nonnegotiable. +It should be built in to all the systems we use. +And one thing we should all understand is that we are brutally honest with search engines. +You show me your search history, and I'll find something incriminating or something embarrassing there in five minutes. +We are more honest with search engines than we are with our families. +Search engines know more about you than your family members know about you. +And this is all the kind of information we are giving away, we are giving away to the United States. +And surveillance changes history. +We know this through examples of corrupt presidents like Nixon. +Imagine if he would have had the kind of surveillance tools that are available today. +And let me actually quote the president of Brazil, Ms. Dilma Rousseff. +She was one of the targets of NSA surveillance. +Her email was read, and she spoke at the United Nations Headquarters, and she said, "If there is no right to privacy, there can be no true freedom of expression and opinion, and therefore, there can be no effective democracy." +That's what it's about. +Privacy is the building block of our democracies. +And to quote a fellow security researcher, Marcus Ranum, he said that the United States is right now treating the Internet as it would be treating one of its colonies. +So we are back to the age of colonization, and we, the foreign users of the Internet, we should think about Americans as our masters. +So Mr. Snowden, he's been blamed for many things. +Some are blaming him for causing problems for the U.S. cloud industry and software companies with these revelations -- and blaming Snowden for causing problems for the U.S. cloud industry would be the equivalent of blaming Al Gore for causing global warming. +So, what is there to be done? +Should we worry. No, we shouldn't worry. +We should be angry, because this is wrong, and it's rude, and it should not be done. +But that's not going to really change the situation. +What's going to change the situation for the rest of the world is to try to steer away from systems built in the United States. +And that's much easier said than done. +How do you do that? +A single country, any single country in Europe cannot replace and build replacements for the U.S.-made operating systems and cloud services. +But maybe you don't have to do it alone. +Maybe you can do it together with other countries. +The solution is open source. +By building together open, free, secure systems, we can go around such surveillance, and then one country doesn't have to solve the problem by itself. +It only has to solve one little problem. +Thank you very much. +So why do we learn mathematics? +Essentially, for three reasons: calculation, application, and last, and unfortunately least in terms of the time we give it, inspiration. +Mathematics is the science of patterns, and we study it to learn how to think logically, critically and creatively, but too much of the mathematics that we learn in school is not effectively motivated, and when our students ask, "Why are we learning this?" +then they often hear that they'll need it in an upcoming math class or on a future test. +But wouldn't it be great if every once in a while we did mathematics simply because it was fun or beautiful or because it excited the mind? +Now, I know many people have not had the opportunity to see how this can happen, so let me give you a quick example with my favorite collection of numbers, the Fibonacci numbers. Yeah! I already have Fibonacci fans here. +That's great. +Now these numbers can be appreciated in many different ways. +From the standpoint of calculation, they're as easy to understand as one plus one, which is two. +Then one plus two is three, two plus three is five, three plus five is eight, and so on. +Indeed, the person we call Fibonacci was actually named Leonardo of Pisa, and these numbers appear in his book "Liber Abaci," which taught the Western world the methods of arithmetic that we use today. +In terms of applications, Fibonacci numbers appear in nature surprisingly often. +The number of petals on a flower is typically a Fibonacci number, or the number of spirals on a sunflower or a pineapple tends to be a Fibonacci number as well. +In fact, there are many more applications of Fibonacci numbers, but what I find most inspirational about them are the beautiful number patterns they display. +Let me show you one of my favorites. +Suppose you like to square numbers, and frankly, who doesn't? Let's look at the squares of the first few Fibonacci numbers. +So one squared is one, two squared is four, three squared is nine, five squared is 25, and so on. +Now, it's no surprise that when you add consecutive Fibonacci numbers, you get the next Fibonacci number. Right? +That's how they're created. +But you wouldn't expect anything special to happen when you add the squares together. +But check this out. +One plus one gives us two, and one plus four gives us five. +And four plus nine is 13, nine plus 25 is 34, and yes, the pattern continues. +In fact, here's another one. +Suppose you wanted to look at adding the squares of the first few Fibonacci numbers. +Let's see what we get there. +So one plus one plus four is six. +Add nine to that, we get 15. +Add 25, we get 40. +Add 64, we get 104. +Now look at those numbers. +Those are not Fibonacci numbers, but if you look at them closely, you'll see the Fibonacci numbers buried inside of them. +Do you see it? I'll show it to you. +Six is two times three, 15 is three times five, 40 is five times eight, two, three, five, eight, who do we appreciate? +Fibonacci! Of course. +Now, as much fun as it is to discover these patterns, it's even more satisfying to understand why they are true. +Let's look at that last equation. +Why should the squares of one, one, two, three, five and eight add up to eight times 13? +I'll show you by drawing a simple picture. +We'll start with a one-by-one square and next to that put another one-by-one square. +Together, they form a one-by-two rectangle. +Beneath that, I'll put a two-by-two square, and next to that, a three-by-three square, beneath that, a five-by-five square, and then an eight-by-eight square, creating one giant rectangle, right? +Now let me ask you a simple question: what is the area of the rectangle? +Well, on the one hand, it's the sum of the areas of the squares inside it, right? +Just as we created it. +It's one squared plus one squared plus two squared plus three squared plus five squared plus eight squared. Right? +That's the area. +On the other hand, because it's a rectangle, the area is equal to its height times its base, and the height is clearly eight, and the base is five plus eight, which is the next Fibonacci number, 13. Right? +So the area is also eight times 13. +Since we've correctly calculated the area two different ways, they have to be the same number, and that's why the squares of one, one, two, three, five and eight add up to eight times 13. +Now, if we continue this process, we'll generate rectangles of the form 13 by 21, 21 by 34, and so on. +Now check this out. +If you divide 13 by eight, you get 1.625. +And if you divide the larger number by the smaller number, then these ratios get closer and closer to about 1.618, known to many people as the Golden Ratio, a number which has fascinated mathematicians, scientists and artists for centuries. +Now, I show all this to you because, like so much of mathematics, there's a beautiful side to it that I fear does not get enough attention in our schools. +We spend lots of time learning about calculation, but let's not forget about application, including, perhaps, the most important application of all, learning how to think. +If I could summarize this in one sentence, it would be this: Mathematics is not just solving for x, it's also figuring out why. +Thank you very much. +So, stepping down out of the bus, I headed back to the corner to head west en route to a braille training session. +It was the winter of 2009, and I had been blind for about a year. +Things were going pretty well. +Safely reaching the other side, I turned to the left, pushed the auto-button for the audible pedestrian signal, and waited my turn. +As it went off, I took off and safely got to the other side. +Stepping onto the sidewalk, I then heard the sound of a steel chair slide across the concrete sidewalk in front of me. +I know there's a cafe on the corner, and they have chairs out in front, so I just adjusted to the left to get closer to the street. +As I did, so slid the chair. +I just figured I'd made a mistake, and went back to the right, and so slid the chair in perfect synchronicity. +Now I was getting a little anxious. +I went back to the left, and so slid the chair, blocking my path of travel. +Now, I was officially freaking out. +So I yelled, "Who the hell's out there? What's going on?" +Just then, over my shout, I heard something else, a familiar rattle. +It sounded familiar, and I quickly considered another possibility, and I reached out with my left hand, as my fingers brushed against something fuzzy, and I came across an ear, the ear of a dog, perhaps a golden retriever. +Its leash had been tied to the chair as her master went in for coffee, and she was just persistent in her efforts to greet me, perhaps get a scratch behind the ear. +Who knows, maybe she was volunteering for service. +But that little story is really about the fears and misconceptions that come along with the idea of moving through the city without sight, seemingly oblivious to the environment and the people around you. +So let me step back and set the stage a little bit. +On St. Patrick's Day of 2008, I reported to the hospital for surgery to remove a brain tumor. +The surgery was successful. +Two days later, my sight started to fail. +On the third day, it was gone. +Immediately, I was struck by an incredible sense of fear, of confusion, of vulnerability, like anybody would. +But as I had time to stop and think, I actually started to realize I had a lot to be grateful for. +In particular, I thought about my dad, who had passed away from complications from brain surgery. +He was 36. I was seven at the time. +So although I had every reason to be fearful of what was ahead, and had no clue quite what was going to happen, I was alive. +My son still had his dad. +And besides, it's not like I was the first person ever to lose their sight. +I knew there had to be all sorts of systems and techniques and training to have to live a full and meaningful, active life without sight. +So by the time I was discharged from the hospital a few days later, I left with a mission, a mission to get out and get the best training as quickly as I could and get on to rebuilding my life. +Within six months, I had returned to work. +My training had started. +I even started riding a tandem bike with my old cycling buddies, and was commuting to work on my own, walking through town and taking the bus. +It was a lot of hard work. +But what I didn't anticipate through that rapid transition was the incredible experience of the juxtaposition of my sighted experience up against my unsighted experience of the same places and the same people within such a short period of time. +From that came a lot of insights, or outsights, as I called them, things that I learned since losing my sight. +These outsights ranged from the trival to the profound, from the mundane to the humorous. +As an architect, that stark juxtaposition of my sighted and unsighted experience of the same places and the same cities within such a short period of time has given me all sorts of wonderful outsights of the city itself. +Paramount amongst those was the realization that, actually, cities are fantastic places for the blind. +And then I was also surprised by the city's propensity for kindness and care as opposed to indifference or worse. +And then I started to realize that it seemed like the blind seemed to have a positive influence on the city itself. +That was a little curious to me. +Let me step back and take a look at why the city is so good for the blind. +Inherent with the training for recovery from sight loss is learning to rely on all your non-visual senses, things that you would otherwise maybe ignore. +It's like a whole new world of sensory information opens up to you. +I was really struck by the symphony of subtle sounds all around me in the city that you can hear and work with to understand where you are, how you need to move, and where you need to go. +Similarly, just through the grip of the cane, you can feel contrasting textures in the floor below, and over time you build a pattern of where you are and where you're headed. +Similarly, just the sun warming one side of your face or the wind at your neck gives you clues about your alignment and your progression through a block and your movement through time and space. +But also, the sense of smell. +Some districts and cities have their own smell, as do places and things around you, and if you're lucky, you can even follow your nose to that new bakery that you've been looking for. +All this really surprised me, because I started to realize that my unsighted experienced was so far more multi-sensory than my sighted experience ever was. +What struck me also was how much the city was changing around me. +When you're sighted, everybody kind of sticks to themselves, you mind your own business. +Lose your sight, though, and it's a whole other story. +And I don't know who's watching who, but I have a suspicion that a lot of people are watching me. +And I'm not paranoid, but everywhere I go, I'm getting all sorts of advice: Go here, move there, watch out for this. +A lot of the information is good. +Some of it's helpful. A lot of it's kind of reversed. +You've got to figure out what they actually meant. +Some of it's kind of wrong and not helpful. +But it's all good in the grand scheme of things. +But one time I was in Oakland walking along Broadway, and came to a corner. +It's like, there was no escape from this man's death grip, but he got me safely there. +What could I do? +But believe me, there are more polite ways to offer assistance. +We don't know you're there, so it's kind of nice to say "Hello" first. +"Would you like some help?" +But while in Oakland, I've really been struck by how much the city of Oakland changed as I lost my sight. +I liked it sighted. It was fine. +It's a perfectly great city. +But once I lost my sight and was walking along Broadway, I was blessed every block of the way. +"Bless you, man." +"Go for it, brother." +"God bless you." +I didn't get that sighted. +And even without sight, I don't get that in San Francisco. +And I know it bothers some of my blind friends, it's not just me. +Often it's thought that that's an emotion that comes up out of pity. +I tend to think that it comes out of our shared humanity, out of our togetherness, and I think it's pretty cool. +In fact, if I'm feeling down, I just go to Broadway in downtown Oakland, I go for a walk, and I feel better like that, in no time at all. +But also that it illustrates how disability and blindness sort of cuts across ethnic, social, racial, economic lines. +Disability is an equal-opportunity provider. +Everybody's welcome. +In fact, I've heard it said in the disability community that there are really only two types of people: There are those with disabilities, and there are those that haven't quite found theirs yet. +It's a different way of thinking about it, but I think it's kind of beautiful, because it is certainly far more inclusive than the us-versus-them or the abled-versus-the-disabled, and it's a lot more honest and respectful of the fragility of life. +So my final takeaway for you is that not only is the city good for the blind, but the city needs us. +And I'm so sure of that that I want to propose to you today that the blind be taken as the prototypical city dwellers when imagining new and wonderful cities, and not the people that are thought about after the mold has already been cast. +It's too late then. +So if you design a city with the blind in mind, you'll have a rich, walkable network of sidewalks with a dense array of options and choices all available at the street level. +If you design a city with the blind in mind, sidewalks will be predictable and will be generous. +The space between buildings will be well-balanced between people and cars. +In fact, cars, who needs them? +If you're blind, you don't drive. They don't like it when you drive. If you design a city with the blind in mind, you design a city with a robust, accessible, well-connected mass transit system that connects all parts of the city and the region all around. +If you design a city with the blind in mind, there'll be jobs, lots of jobs. +Blind people want to work too. +They want to earn a living. +So, in designing a city for the blind, I hope you start to realize that it actually would be a more inclusive, a more equitable, a more just city for all. +And based on my prior sighted experience, it sounds like a pretty cool city, whether you're blind, whether you have a disability, or you haven't quite found yours yet. +So thank you. +How many of you have been to Oklahoma City? +Raise your hand. Yeah? +How many of you have not been to Oklahoma City and have no idea who I am? Most of you. Let me give you a little bit of background. +Oklahoma City started in the most unique way imaginable. +Back on a spring day in 1889, the federal government held what they called a land run. +They literally lined up the settlers along an imaginary line, and they fired off a gun, and the settlers roared across the countryside and put down a stake, and wherever they put down that stake, that was their new home. +And at the end of the very first day, the population of Oklahoma City had gone from zero to 10,000, and our planning department is still paying for that. +The citizens got together on that first day and elected a mayor. +And then they shot him. +That's not really all that funny -- -- but it allows me to see what type of audience I'm dealing with, so I appreciate the feedback. +The 20th century was fairly kind to Oklahoma City. +Our economy was based on commodities, so the price of cotton or the price of wheat, and ultimately the price of oil and natural gas. +And along the way, we became a city of innovation. +The shopping cart was invented in Oklahoma City. +The parking meter, invented in Oklahoma City. +You're welcome. +Having an economy, though, that relates to commodities can give you some ups and some downs, and that was certainly the case in Oklahoma City's history. +In the 1970s, when it appeared that the price of energy would never retreat, our economy was soaring, and then in the early 1980s, it cratered quickly. +The price of energy dropped. +Our banks began to fail. +Before the end of the decade, 100 banks had failed in the state of Oklahoma. +There was no bailout on the horizon. +Our banking industry, our oil and gas industry, our commercial real estate industry, were all at the bottom of the economic scale. +Young people were leaving Oklahoma City in droves for Washington and Dallas and Houston and New York and Tokyo, anywhere where they could find a job that measured up to their educational attainment, because in Oklahoma City, the good jobs just weren't there. +But along at the end of the '80s came an enterprising businessman who became mayor named Ron Norick. +Ron Norick eventually figured out that the secret to economic development wasn't incentivizing companies up front, it was about creating a place where businesses wanted to locate, and so he pushed an initiative called MAPS that basically was a penny-on-the-dollar sales tax to build a bunch of stuff. +It built a new sports arena, a new canal downtown, it fixed up our performing arts center, a new baseball stadium downtown, a lot of things to improve the quality of life. +And the economy indeed seemed to start showing some signs of life. +The next mayor came along. +He started MAPS for Kids, rebuilt the entire inner city school system, all 75 buildings either built anew or refurbished. +And then, in 2004, in this rare collective lack of judgment bordering on civil disobedience, the citizens elected me mayor. +Now the city I inherited was just on the verge of coming out of its slumbering economy, and for the very first time, we started showing up on the lists. +Now you know the lists I'm talking about. +The media and the Internet love to rank cities. +And in Oklahoma City, we'd never really been on lists before. +So I thought it was kind of cool when they came out with these positive lists and we were on there. +We weren't anywhere close to the top, but we were on the list, we were somebody. +Best city to get a job, best city to start a business, best downtown -- Oklahoma City. +And then came the list of the most obese cities in the country. +And there we were. +Now I like to point out that we were on that list with a lot of really cool places. +Dallas and Houston and New Orleans and Atlanta and Miami. +You know, these are cities that, typically, you're not embarrassed to be associated with. +But nonetheless, I didn't like being on the list. +And about that time, I got on the scales. +And I weighed 220 pounds. +And then I went to this website sponsored by the federal government, and I typed in my height, I typed in my weight, and I pushed Enter, and it came back and said "obese." +I thought, "What a stupid website." +"I'm not obese. I would know if I was obese." +And then I started getting honest with myself about what had become my lifelong struggle with obesity, and I noticed this pattern, that I was gaining about two or three pounds a year, and then about every 10 years, I'd drop 20 or 30 pounds. +And then I'd do it again. +And I had this huge closet full of clothes, and I could only wear a third of it at any one time, and only I knew which part of the closet I could wear. +But it all seemed fairly normal, going through it. +Well, I finally decided I needed to lose weight, and I knew I could because I'd done it so many times before, so I simply stopped eating as much. +I had always exercised. +That really wasn't the part of the equation that I needed to work on. +But I had been eating 3,000 calories a day, and I cut it to 2,000 calories a day, and the weight came off. I lost about a pound a week for about 40 weeks. +Along the way, though, I started examining my city, its culture, its infrastructure, trying to figure out why our specific city seemed to have a problem with obesity. +And I came to the conclusion that we had built an incredible quality of life if you happen to be a car. +But if you happen to be a person, you are combatting the car seemingly at every turn. +Our city is very spread out. +We have a great intersection of highways, I mean, literally no traffic congestion in Oklahoma City to speak of. +And so people live far, far away. +Our city limits are enormous, 620 square miles, but 15 miles is less than 15 minutes. +You literally can get a speeding ticket during rush hour in Oklahoma City. +And as a result, people tend to spread out. +Land's cheap. +We had also not required developers to build sidewalks on new developments for a long, long time. +We had fixed that, but it had been relatively recently, and there were literally 100,000 or more homes into our inventory in neighborhoods that had virtually no level of walkability. +And as I tried to examine how we might deal with obesity, and was taking all of these elements into my mind, I decided that the first thing we need to do was have a conversation. +You see, in Oklahoma City, we weren't talking about obesity. +And so, on New Year's Eve of 2007, I went to the zoo, and I stood in front of the elephants, and I said, "This city is going on a diet, and we're going to lose a million pounds." +Well, that's when all hell broke loose. +The national media gravitated toward this story immediately, and they really could have gone with it one of two ways. +They could have said, "This city is so fat that the mayor had to put them on a diet." +But fortunately, the consensus was, "Look, this is a problem in a lot of places. +This is a city that's wanting to do something about it." +And so they started helping us drive traffic to the website. +Now, the web address was thiscityisgoingonadiet.com. +And I appeared on "The Ellen DeGeneres Show" one weekday morning to talk about the initiative, and on that day, 150,000 visits were placed to our website. +People were signing up, and so the pounds started to add up, and the conversation that I thought was so important to have was starting to take place. +It was taking place inside the homes, mothers and fathers talking about it with their kids. +It was taking place in churches. +Churches were starting their own running groups and their own support groups for people who were dealing with obesity. +Suddenly, it was a topic worth discussing at schools and in the workplace. +And then came the next stage of the equation. +It was time to push what I called MAPS 3. +Now MAPS 3, like the other two programs, had had an economic development motive behind it, but along with the traditional economic development tasks like building a new convention center, we added some health-related infrastructure to the process. +We added a new central park, 70 acres in size, to be right downtown in Oklahoma City. +We're building a downtown streetcar to try and help the walkability formula for people who choose to live in the inner city and help us create the density there. +We're building senior health and wellness centers throughout the community. +We put some investments on the river that had originally been invested upon in the original MAPS, and now we are currently in the final stages of developing the finest venue in the world for the sports of canoe, kayak and rowing. +We hosted the Olympic trials last spring. +We have Olympic-caliber events coming to Oklahoma City, and athletes from all over the world moving in, along with inner city programs to get kids more engaged in these types of recreational activities that are a little bit nontraditional. +We also, with another initiative that was passed, are building hundreds of miles of new sidewalks throughout the metro area. +We're even going back into some inner city situations where we had built neighborhoods and we had built schools but we had not connected the two. +We had built libraries and we had built neighborhoods, but we had never really connected the two with any sort of walkability. +Through yet another funding source, we're redesigning all of our inner city streets to be more pedestrian-friendly. +Our streets were really wide, and you'd push the button to allow you to walk across, and you had to run in order to get there in time. +But now we've narrowed the streets, highly landscaped them, making them more pedestrian-friendly, really a redesign, rethinking the way we build our infrastructure, designing a city around people and not cars. +We're completing our bicycle trail master plan. +We'll have over 100 miles when we're through building it out. +And so you see this culture starting to shift in Oklahoma City. +And lo and behold, the demographic changes that are coming with it are very inspiring. +Highly educated twentysomethings are moving to Oklahoma City from all over the region and, indeed, even from further away, in California. +And I went into the lobby of Men's Fitness magazine, the same magazine that had put us on that list five years before. +And as I'm sitting in the lobby waiting to talk to the reporter, I notice there's a magazine copy of the current issue right there on the table, and I pick it up, and I look at the headline across the top, and it says, "America's Fattest Cities: Do You Live in One?" +Well, I knew I did, so I picked up the magazine and I began to look, and we weren't on it. +Then I looked on the list of fittest cities, and we were on that list. +We were on the list as the 22nd fittest city in the United States. +Our state health statistics are doing better. +Granted, we have a long way to go. +Health is still not something that we should be proud of in Oklahoma City, but we seem to have turned the cultural shift of making health a greater priority. +And we love the idea of the demographics of highly educated twentysomethings, people with choices, choosing Oklahoma City in large numbers. +We have the lowest unemployment in the United States, probably the strongest economy in the United States. +And if you're like me, at some point in your educational career, you were asked to read a book called "The Grapes of Wrath." +Oklahomans leaving for California in large numbers for a better future. +When we look at the demographic shifts of people coming from the west, it appears that what we're seeing now is the wrath of grapes. +The grandchildren are coming home. +You've been a great audience and very attentive. +Thank you very much for having me here. +Today I am going to teach you how to play my favorite game: massively multiplayer thumb-wrestling. +It's the only game in the world that I know of that allows you, the player, the opportunity to experience 10 positive emotions in 60 seconds or less. +This is true, so if you play this game with me today for just one single minute, you will get to feel joy, relief, love, surprise, pride, curiosity, excitement, awe and wonder, contentment, and creativity, all in the span of one minute. +So this sounds pretty good, right? Now you're willing to play. +In order to teach you this game, I'm going to need some volunteers to come up onstage really quickly, and we're going to do a little hands-on demo. +While they're coming up, I should let you know, this game was invented 10 years ago by an artists' collective in Austria named Monochrom. +So thank you, Monochrom. +Okay, so most people are familiar with traditional, two-person thumb-wrestling. +Sunni, let's just remind them. +One, two, three, four, I declare a thumb war, and we wrestle, and of course Sunni beats me because she's the best. +Now the first thing about massively multiplayer thumb-wrestling, we're the gamer generation. +There are a billion gamers on the planet now, so we need more of a challenge. +So the first thing we need is more thumbs. +So Eric, come on over. +So we could get three thumbs together, and Peter could join us. +We could even have four thumbs together, and the way you win is you're the first person to pin someone else's thumb. +This is really important. You can't, like, wait while they fight it out and then swoop in at the last minute. +That is not how you win. +Ah, who did that? Eric you did that. +So Eric would have won. He was the first person to pin my thumb. +Okay, so that's the first rule, and we can see that three or four is kind of the typical number of thumbs in a node, but if you feel ambitious, you don't have to hold back. +We can really go for it. +So you can see up here. +Now the only other rule you need to remember is, gamer generation, we like a challenge. +I happen to notice you all have some thumbs you're not using. +So I think we should kind of get some more involved. +And if we had just four people, we would do it just like this, and we would try and wrestle both thumbs at the same time. +Perfect. +Now, if we had more people in the room, instead of just wrestling in a closed node, we might reach out and try and grab some other people. +And in fact, that's what we're going to do right now. +We're going to try and get all, something like, I don't know, 1,500 thumbs in this room connected in a single node. +And we have to connect both levels, so if you're up there, you're going to be reaching down and reaching up. +Now before we get started -- This is great. You're excited to play. before we get started, can I have the slides back up here really quick, because if you get good at this game, I want you to know there are some advanced levels. +So this is the kind of simple level, right? +But there are advanced configurations. +This is called the Death Star Configuration. +Any Star Wars fans? +And this one's called the Mbius Strip. +Any science geeks, you get that one. +This is the hardest level. This is the extreme. +So we'll stick with the normal one for now, and I'm going to give you 30 seconds, every thumb into the node, connect the upper and the lower levels, you guys go on down there. +Thirty seconds. Into the network. Make the node. +Stand up! It's easier if you stand up. +Everybody, up up up up up! +Stand up, my friends. +All right. +Don't start wrestling yet. +If you have a free thumb, wave it around, make sure it gets connected. +Okay. We need to do a last-minute thumb check. +If you have a free thumb, wave it around to make sure. +Grab that thumb! +Reach behind you. There you go. +Any other thumbs? +Okay, on the count of three, you're going to go. +Try to keep track. Grab, grab, grab it. +Okay? One, two, three, go! +Did you win? You got it? You got it? Excellent! +Well done. Thank you. Thank you very much. +All right. +While you are basking in the glow of having won your first massively multiplayer thumb-wrestling game, let's do a quick recap on the positive emotions. +So curiosity. +I said "massively multiplayer thumb-wrestling." +You were like, "What the hell is she talking about?" +So I provoked a little curiosity. +Creativity: it took creativity to solve the problem of getting all the thumbs into the node. +I'm reaching around and I'm reaching up. +So you used creativity. That was great. +How about surprise? The actual feeling of trying to wrestle two thumbs at once is pretty surprising. +You heard that sound go up in the room. +We had excitement. As you started to wrestle, maybe you're starting to win or this person's, like, really into it, so you kind of get the excitement going. +We have relief. You got to stand up. +You've been sitting for awhile, so the physical relief, getting to shake it out. +We had joy. You were laughing, smiling. Look at your faces. This room is full of joy. +We had some contentment. +I didn't see anybody sending text messages or checking their email while we were playing, so you were totally content to be playing. +The most important three emotions, awe and wonder, we had everybody connected physically for a minute. +When was the last time you were at TED and you got to connect physically with every single person in the room? +And it's truly awesome and wondrous. +And speaking of physical connection, you guys know I love the hormone oxytocin, you release oxytocin, you feel bonded to everyone in the room. +You guys know that the best way to release oxytocin quickly is to hold someone else's hand for at least six seconds. +You guys were all holding hands for way more than six seconds, so we are all now biochemically primed to love each other. That is great. +And the last emotion of pride. +How many people are like me. Just admit it. +You lost both your thumbs. +It just didn't work out for you. +That's okay, because you learned a new skill today. +You learned, from scratch, a game you never knew before. +Now you know how to play it. You can teach other people. +So congratulations. +How many of you won just won thumb? +All right. I have very good news for you. +According to the official rules of massively multiplayer thumb-wrestling, this makes you a grandmaster of the game. +Because there aren't that many people who know how to play, we have to kind of accelerate the program more than a game like chess. +So congratulations, grandmasters. +Win one thumb once, you will become a grandmaster. +Did anybody win both their thumbs? +Yes. Awesome. Okay. +Get ready to update your Twitter or Facebook status. +You guys, according to the rules, are legendary grandmasters, so congratulations. +I will just leave you with this tip, if you want to play again. +The best way to become a legendary grandmaster, you've got your two nodes going on. +Pick off the one that looks easiest. +They're not paying attention. They look kind of weak. +Focus on that one and do something crazy with this arm. +As soon as you win, suddenly stop. +Everybody is thrown off. You go in for the kill. +That's how you become a legendary grandmaster of massively multiplayer thumb-wrestling. +Thank you for letting me teach you my favorite game. +Wooo! Thank you. +When we think of Nepal, we tend to think of the snow-capped mountains of the Himalayas, the crystal-clear still waters of its alpine lakes, or the huge expanse of its grasslands. +What some of us may not realize is that in the Himalayan foothills, where the climate is much warmer and the landscape much greener, there lives a great diversity of wildlife, including the one-horned rhinoceros, the Asian elephant and the Bengal tiger. +But unfortunately, these animals are under constant threat from poachers who hunt and kill them for their body parts. +To stop the killing of these animals, battalions of soldiers and rangers are sent to protect Nepal's national parks, but that is not an easy task, because these soldiers have to patrol thousands of hectares of forests on foot or elephant backs. +It is also risky for these soldiers when they get into gunfights with poachers, and therefore Nepal is always looking for new ways to help with protecting the forests and wildlife. +Well recently, Nepal acquired a new tool in the fight against wildlife crime, and these are drones, or more specifically, conservation drones. +For about a year now, my colleagues and I have been building drones for Nepal and training the park protection personnel on the use of these drones. +Not only does a drone give you a bird's-eye view of the landscape, but it also allows you to capture detailed, high-resolution images of objects on the ground. +This, for example, is a pair of rhinoceros taking a cooling bath on a hot summer day in the lowlands of Nepal. +Now we believe that drones have tremendous potential, not only for combating wildlife crime, but also for monitoring the health of these wildlife populations. +So what is a drone? +Well, the kind of drone I'm talking about is simply a model aircraft fitted with an autopilot system, and this autopilot unit contains a tiny computer, a GPS, a compass, a barometric altimeter and a few other sensors. +Now a drone like this is meant to carry a useful payload, such as a video camera or a photographic camera. +It also requires a software that allows the user to program a mission, to tell the drone where to go. +Now people I talk to are often surprised when they hear that these are the only four components that make a conservation drone, but they are even more surprised when I tell them how affordable these components are. +The facts is, a conservation drone doesn't cost very much more than a good laptop computer or a decent pair of binoculars. +So now that you've built your own conservation drone, you probably want to go fly it, but how does one fly a drone? +Well, actually, you don't, because the drone flies itself. +All you have to do is to program a mission to tell the drone where to fly. +But you simply do that by clicking on a few way points on the Google Maps interface using the open-source software. +Those missions could be as simple as just a few way points, or they could be slightly longer and more complicated, to fly along a river system. +Sometimes, we fly the drone in a lawnmower-type pattern and take pictures of that area, and those pictures can be processed to produce a map of that forest. +Other researchers might want to fly the drone along the boundaries of a forest to watch out for poachers or people who might be trying to enter the forest illegally. +Now whatever your mission is, once you've programmed it, you simply upload it to the autopilot system, bring your drone to the field, and launch it simply by tossing it in the air. +And often we'll go about this mission taking pictures or videos along the way, and usually at that point, we will go grab ourselves a cup of coffee, sit back, and relax for the next few minutes, although some of us sit back and panic for the next few minutes worrying that the drone will not return. +Usually it does, and when it does, it even lands automatically. +So what can we do with a conservation drone? +Well, when we built our first prototype drone, our main objective was to fly it over a remote rainforest in North Sumatra, Indonesia, to look for the nest of a species of great ape known as the orangutan. +The reason we wanted to do that was because we needed to know how many individuals of this species are still left in that forest. +Now the traditional method of surveying for orangutans is to walk the forest on foot carrying heavy equipment and to use a pair of binoculars to look up in the treetops where you might find an orangutan or its nest. +Now as you can imagine, that is a very time-consuming, labor-intensive, and costly process, so we were hoping that drones could significantly reduce the cost of surveying for orangutan populations in Indonesia and elsewhere in Southeast Asia. +So we were very excited when we captured our first pair of orangutan nests on camera. +And this is it; this is the first ever picture of orangutan nests taken with a drone. +Since then we have taken pictures of dozens of these nests from around various parts of Southeast Asia, and we're now working with computer scientists to develop algorithms that can automatically count the number of nests from the thousands of photos we've collected so far. +But nests are not the only objects these drones can detect. +This is a wild orangutan happily feeding on top of a palm tree, seemingly oblivious to our drone that was flying overhead, not once but several times. +We've also taken pictures of other animals including forest buffalos in Gabon, elephants, and even turtle nests. +But besides taking pictures of just the animals themselves, we also take pictures of the habitats these animals live in, because we want to keep track of the health of these habitats. +Sometimes, we zoom out a little and look at other things that might be happening in the landscape. +This is an oil palm plantation in Sumatra. +Now oil palm is a major driver of deforestation in that part of the world, so we wanted to use this new drone technology to keep track of the spread of these plantations in Southeast Asia. +But drones could also be used to keep track of illegal logging activities. +This is a recently logged forest, again in Sumatra. +You could even still see the processed wooden planks left on the ground. +Aerial images could also be processed to produce three-dimensional computer models of forests. +Now these models are not just visually appealing, but they are also geometrically accurate, which means researchers can now measure the distance between trees, calculate surface area, the volume of vegetation, and so on, all of which are important information for monitoring the health of these forests. +Recently, we've also begun experimenting with thermal imaging cameras. +Now these cameras can detect heat-emitting objects from the ground, and therefore they are very useful for detecting poachers or their campfires at night. +So I've told you quite a lot about what conservation drones are, how you might operate one of these drones, and what a drone could do for you. +I will now tell you where conservation drones are being used around the world. +We built our first prototype drones in Switzerland. +We brought a few of these to Indonesia for the first few test flights. +Since then, we've been building drones for our collaborators from around the world, and these include fellow biologists and partners from major conservation organizations. +Perhaps the best and most rewarding part about working with these collaborators is the feedback they give us on how to improve our drones. +Building drones for us is a constant work in progress. +We are constantly trying to improve them in terms of their range, their ruggedness, and the amount of payload they can carry. +We also work with collaborators to discover new ways of using these drones. +For example, camera traps are a common tool used by biologists to take pictures of shy animals hiding in the forests, but these are motion-activated cameras, so they snap a picture every time an animal crosses their path. +But the problem with camera traps is that the researcher has to go back to the forest every so often to retrieve those images, and that takes a lot of time, especially if there are dozens or hundreds of these cameras placed in the forest. +Now a drone could be designed to perform the task much more efficiently. +This drone, carrying a special sensor, could be flown over the forest and remotely download these images from wi-fienabled cameras. +Radio collars are another tool that's commonly used by biologists. +Now these collars are put onto animals. +They transmit a radio signal which allows the researcher to track the movements of these animals across the landscape. +But the traditional way of tracking animals is pretty ridiculous, because it requires the researcher to be walking on the ground carrying a huge and cumbersome radio antenna, not unlike those old TV antennae we used to have on our rooftops. Some of us still do. +A drone could be used to do the same job much more efficiently. +Why not equip a drone with a scanning radio receiver, fly that over the forest canopy in a certain pattern which would allow the user or the operator to triangulate the location of these radio-collared animals remotely without having to step foot in the forest. +A third and perhaps most exciting way of using these drones is to fly them to a really remote, never-explored-before rainforest somewhere hidden in the tropics, and parachute down a tiny spy microphone that would allow us to eavesdrop on the calls of mammals, birds, amphibians, the Yeti, the Sasquatch, Bigfoot, whatever. +That would give us biologists a pretty good idea of what animals might be living in those forests. +And finally, I would like to show you the latest version of our conservation drone. +The MAJA drone has a wingspan of about two meters. +It weighs only about two kilograms, but it can carry half its weight. +It is a fully autonomous system. +During its mission, it can even transmit a live video feed back to a ground station laptop, which allows the user to see what the drone is seeing in real time. +It carries a variety of sensors, and the photo quality of some of these sensors can be as high as one to two centimeters per pixel. +This drone can stay in the air for 40 to 60 minutes, which gives it a range of up to 50 kilometers. +That is quite sufficient for most of our conservation applications. +Now, conservation drones began as a crazy idea from two biologists who are just deeply passionate about this technology. +And we believe, strongly believe, that drones can and will be a game changer for conservation research and applications. +We've had our fair share of skeptics and critics who thought that we were just fooling around with toy planes. +And in a way, they are right. +I mean, let's be honest, drones are the ultimate toys for boys. +But at the same time, we've also gotten to know many wonderful colleagues and collaborators who share our vision and see the potential of conservation drones. +To us, it is obvious that conservation biologists and practitioners should make full use of every available tool, including drones, in our fight to save the last remaining forests and wildlife of this planet. +Thank you. +Five years ago, I was on a sabbatical, and I returned to the medical university where I studied. +I saw real patients and I wore the white coat for the first time in 17 years, in fact since I became a management consultant. +There were two things that surprised me during the month I spent. +So with this focus on cost-cutting, I asked myself, are we forgetting the patient? +Many countries that you represent and where I come from struggle with the cost of healthcare. +It's a big part of the national budgets. +And many different reforms aim at holding back this growth. +In some countries, we have long waiting times for patients for surgery. +In other countries, new drugs are not being reimbursed, and therefore don't reach patients. +In several countries, doctors and nurses are the targets, to some extent, for the governments. +After all, the costly decisions in health care are taken by doctors and nurses. +You choose an expensive lab test, you choose to operate on an old and frail patient. +So, by limiting the degrees of freedom of physicians, this is a way to hold costs down. +And ultimately, some physicians will say today that they don't have the full liberty to make the choices they think are right for their patients. +So no wonder that some of my old colleagues are frustrated. +At BCG, we looked at this, and we asked ourselves, this can't be the right way of managing healthcare. +And so we took a step back and we said, "What is it that we are trying to achieve?" +Ultimately, in the healthcare system, we're aiming at improving health for the patients, and we need to do so at a limited, or affordable, cost. +We call this value-based healthcare. +On the screen behind me, you see what we mean by value: outcomes that matter to patients relative to the money we spend. +This was described beautifully in a book in 2006 by Michael Porter and Elizabeth Teisberg. +On this picture, you have my father-in-law surrounded by his three beautiful daughters. +When we started doing our research at BCG, we decided not to look so much at the costs, but to look at the quality instead, and in the research, one of the things that fascinated us was the variation we saw. +You compare hospitals in a country, you'll find some that are extremely good, but you'll find a large number that are vastly much worse. +The differences were dramatic. +Erik, my father-in-law, he suffers from prostate cancer, and he probably needs surgery. +Now living in Europe, he can choose to go to Germany that has a well-reputed healthcare system. +If he goes there and goes to the average hospital, he will have the risk of becoming incontinent by about 50 percent, so he would have to start wearing diapers again. +You flip a coin. Fifty percent risk. That's quite a lot. +If he instead would go to Hamburg, and to a clinic called the Martini-Klinik, the risk would be only one in 20. +Either you a flip a coin, or you have a one in 20 risk. +That's a huge difference, a seven-fold difference. +When we look at many hospitals for many different diseases, we see these huge differences. +But you and I don't know. We don't have the data. +And often, the data actually doesn't exist. +Nobody knows. +So going the hospital is a lottery. +Now, it doesn't have to be that way. There is hope. +In the late '70s, there were a group of Swedish orthopedic surgeons who met at their annual meeting, and they were discussing the different procedures they used to operate hip surgery. +To the left of this slide, you see a variety of metal pieces, artificial hips that you would use for somebody who needs a new hip. +They all realized they had their individual way of operating. +They all argued that, "My technique is the best," but none of them actually knew, and they admitted that. +So they said, "We probably need to measure quality so we know and can learn from what's best." +So they in fact spent two years debating, "So what is quality in hip surgery?" +"Oh, we should measure this." "No, we should measure that." +And they finally agreed. +And once they had agreed, they started measuring, and started sharing the data. +Very quickly, they found that if you put cement in the bone of the patient before you put the metal shaft in, it actually lasted a lot longer, and most patients would never have to be re-operated on in their lifetime. +They published the data, and it actually transformed clinical practice in the country. +Everybody saw this makes a lot of sense. +Since then, they publish every year. +Once a year, they publish the league table: who's best, who's at the bottom? +And they visit each other to try to learn, so a continuous cycle of improvement. +For many years, Swedish hip surgeons had the best results in the world, at least for those who actually were measuring, and many were not. +Now I found this principle really exciting. +So the physicians get together, they agree on what quality is, they start measuring, they share the data, they find who's best, and they learn from it. +Continuous improvement. +Now, that's not the only exciting part. +That's exciting in itself. +But if you bring back the cost side of the equation, and look at that, it turns out, those who have focused on quality, they actually also have the lowest costs, although that's not been the purpose in the first place. +So if you look at the hip surgery story again, there was a study done a couple years ago where they compared the U.S. and Sweden. +They looked at how many patients have needed to be re-operated on seven years after the first surgery. +In the United States, the number was three times higher than in Sweden. +So many unnecessary surgeries, and so much unnecessary suffering for all the patients who were operated on in that seven year period. +Now, you can imagine how much savings there would be for society. +We did a study where we looked at OECD data. +OECD does, every so often, look at quality of care where they can find the data across the member countries. +The United States has, for many diseases, actually a quality which is below the average in OECD. +Now, if the American healthcare system would focus a lot more on measuring quality, and raise quality just to the level of average OECD, it would save the American people 500 billion U.S. dollars a year. +That's 20 percent of the budget, of the healthcare budget of the country. +Now you may say that these numbers are fantastic, and it's all logical, but is it possible? +This would be a paradigm shift in healthcare, and I would argue that not only can it be done, but it has to be done. +The agents of change are the doctors and nurses in the healthcare system. +In my practice as a consultant, I meet probably a hundred or more than a hundred doctors and nurses and other hospital or healthcare staff every year. +The one thing they have in common is they really care about what they achieve in terms of quality for their patients. +Physicians are, like most of you in the audience, very competitive. +They were always best in class. +We were always best in class. +And if somebody can show them that the result they perform for their patients is no better than what others do, they will do whatever it takes to improve. +But most of them don't know. +But physicians have another characteristic. +They actually thrive from peer recognition. +If a cardiologist calls another cardiologist in a competing hospital and discusses why that other hospital has so much better results, they will share. +They will share the information on how to improve. +So it is, by measuring and creating transparency, you get a cycle of continuous improvement, which is what this slide shows. +Now, you may say this is a nice idea, but this isn't only an idea. +This is happening in reality. +We're creating a global community, and a large global community, where we'll be able to measure and compare what we achieve. +Together with two academic institutions, Michael Porter at Harvard Business School, and the Karolinska Institute in Sweden, BCG has formed something we call ICHOM. +You may think that's a sneeze, but it's not a sneeze, it's an acronym. +It stands for the International Consortium for Health Outcome Measurement. +We're bringing together leading physicians and patients to discuss, disease by disease, what is really quality, what should we measure, and to make those standards global. +They've worked -- four working groups have worked during the past year: cataracts, back pain, coronary artery disease, which is, for instance, heart attack, and prostate cancer. +The four groups will publish their data in November of this year. +That's the first time we'll be comparing apples to apples, not only within a country, but between countries. +Next year, we're planning to do eight diseases, the year after, 16. +In three years' time, we plan to have covered 40 percent of the disease burden. +Compare apples to apples. Who's better? +Why is that? +Five months ago, I led a workshop at the largest university hospital in Northern Europe. +They have a new CEO, and she has a vision: I want to manage my big institution much more on quality, outcomes that matter to patients. +This particular day, we sat in a workshop together with physicians, nurses and other staff, discussing leukemia in children. +The group discussed, how do we measure quality today? +Can we measure it better than we do? +We discussed, how do we treat these kids, what are important improvements? +And we discussed what are the costs for these patients, can we do treatment more efficiently? +There was an enormous energy in the room. +There were so many ideas, so much enthusiasm. +At the end of the meeting, the chairman of the department, he stood up. +He looked over the group and he said -- first he raised his hand, I forgot that -- he raised his hand, clenched his fist, and then he said to the group, "Thank you. +Thank you. Today, we're finally discussing what this hospital does the right way." +By measuring value in healthcare, that is not only costs but outcomes that matter to patients, we will make staff in hospitals and elsewhere in the healthcare system not a problem but an important part of the solution. +I believe measuring value in healthcare will bring about a revolution, and I'm convinced that the founder of modern medicine, the Greek Hippocrates, who always put the patient at the center, he would smile in his grave. +Thank you. +Technology can change our understanding of nature. +Take for example the case of lions. +For centuries, it's been said that female lions do all of the hunting out in the open savanna, and male lions do nothing until it's time for dinner. +You've heard this too, I can tell. +Well recently, I led an airborne mapping campaign in the Kruger National Park in South Africa. +Our colleagues put GPS tracking collars on male and female lions, and we mapped their hunting behavior from the air. +The lower left shows a lion sizing up a herd of impala for a kill, and the right shows what I call the lion viewshed. +That's how far the lion can see in all directions until his or her view is obstructed by vegetation. +And what we found is that male lions are not the lazy hunters we thought them to be. +They just use a different strategy. +Whereas the female lions hunt out in the open savanna over long distances, usually during the day, male lions use an ambush strategy in dense vegetation, and often at night. +This video shows the actual hunting viewsheds of male lions on the left and females on the right. +Red and darker colors show more dense vegetation, and the white are wide open spaces. +And this is the viewshed right literally at the eye level of hunting male and female lions. +All of a sudden, you get a very clear understanding of the very spooky conditions under which male lions do their hunting. +I bring up this example to begin, because it emphasizes how little we know about nature. +There's been a huge amount of work done so far to try to slow down our losses of tropical forests, and we are losing our forests at a rapid rate, as shown in red on the slide. +I find it ironic that we're doing so much, yet these areas are fairly unknown to science. +So how can we save what we don't understand? +Now I'm a global ecologist and an Earth explorer with a background in physics and chemistry and biology and a lot of other boring subjects, but above all, I'm obsessed with what we don't know about our planet. +So I created this, the Carnegie Airborne Observatory, or CAO. +It may look like a plane with a fancy paint job, but I packed it with over 1,000 kilos of high-tech sensors, computers, and a very motivated staff of Earth scientists and pilots. +Two of our instruments are very unique: one is called an imaging spectrometer that can actually measure the chemical composition of plants as we fly over them. +Another one is a set of lasers, very high-powered lasers, that fire out of the bottom of the plane, sweeping across the ecosystem and measuring it at nearly 500,000 times per second in high-resolution 3D. +Here's an image of the Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco, not far from where I live. +Although we flew straight over this bridge, we imaged it in 3D, captured its color in just a few seconds. +But the real power of the CAO is its ability to capture the actual building blocks of ecosystems. +This is a small town in the Amazon, imaged with the CAO. +We can slice through our data and see, for example, the 3D structure of the vegetation and the buildings, or we can use the chemical information to actually figure out how fast the plants are growing as we fly over them. +The hottest pinks are the fastest-growing plants. +And we can see biodiversity in ways that you never could have imagined. +This is what a rainforest might look like as you fly over it in a hot air balloon. +This is how we see a rainforest, in kaleidoscopic color that tells us that there are many species living with one another. +But you have to remember that these trees are literally bigger than whales, and what that means is that they're impossible to understand just by walking on the ground below them. +So our imagery is 3D, it's chemical, it's biological, and this tells us not only the species that are living in the canopy, but it tells us a lot of information about the rest of the species that occupy the rainforest. +Now I created the CAO in order to answer questions that have proven extremely challenging to answer from any other vantage point, such as from the ground, or from satellite sensors. +I want to share three of those questions with you today. +The first questions is, how do we manage our carbon reserves in tropical forests? +Tropical forests contain a huge amount of carbon in the trees, and we need to keep that carbon in those forests if we're going to avoid any further global warming. +Unfortunately, global carbon emissions from deforestation now equals the global transportation sector. +That's all ships, airplanes, trains and automobiles combined. +So it's understandable that policy negotiators have been working hard to reduce deforestation, but they're doing it on landscapes that are hardly known to science. +If you don't know where the carbon is exactly, in detail, how can you know what you're losing? +Basically, we need a high-tech accounting system. +With our system, we're able to see the carbon stocks of tropical forests in utter detail. +The red shows, obviously, closed-canopy tropical forest, and then you see the cookie cutting, or the cutting of the forest in yellows and greens. +It's like cutting a cake except this cake is about whale deep. +And yet, we can zoom in and see the forest and the trees at the same time. +And what's amazing is, even though we flew very high above this forest, later on in analysis, we can go in and actually experience the treetrops, leaf by leaf, branch by branch, just as the other species that live in this forest experience it along with the trees themselves. +We've been using the technology to explore and to actually put out the first carbon geographies in high resolution in faraway places like the Amazon Basin and not-so-faraway places like the United States and Central America. +What I'm going to do is I'm going to take you on a high-resolution, first-time tour of the carbon landscapes of Peru and then Panama. +The colors are going to be going from red to blue. +Red is extremely high carbon stocks, your largest cathedral forests you can imagine, and blue are very low carbon stocks. +And let me tell you, Peru alone is an amazing place, totally unknown in terms of its carbon geography until today. +We can fly to this area in northern Peru and see super high carbon stocks in red, and the Amazon River and floodplain cutting right through it. +We can go to an area of utter devastation caused by deforestation in blue, and the virus of deforestation spreading out in orange. +We can also fly to the southern Andes to see the tree line and see exactly how the carbon geography ends as we go up into the mountain system. +And we can go to the biggest swamp in the western Amazon. +It's a watery dreamworld akin to Jim Cameron's "Avatar." +We can go to one of the smallest tropical countries, Panama, and see also a huge range of carbon variation, from high in red to low in blue. +Unfortunately, most of the carbon is lost in the lowlands, but what you see that's left, in terms of high carbon stocks in greens and reds, is the stuff that's up in the mountains. +One interesting exception to this is right in the middle of your screen. +You're seeing the buffer zone around the Panama Canal. +That's in the reds and yellows. +The canal authorities are using force to protect their watershed and global commerce. +This kind of carbon mapping has transformed conservation and resource policy development. +It's really advancing our ability to save forests and to curb climate change. +My second question: How do we prepare for climate change in a place like the Amazon rainforest? +Let me tell you, I spend a lot of time in these places, and we're seeing the climate changing already. +Temperatures are increasing, and what's really happening is we're getting a lot of droughts, recurring droughts. +The 2010 mega-drought is shown here with red showing an area about the size of Western Europe. +The Amazon was so dry in 2010 that even the main stem of the Amazon river itself dried up partially, as you see in the photo in the lower portion of the slide. +What we found is that in very remote areas, these droughts are having a big negative impact on tropical forests. +For example, these are all of the dead trees in red that suffered mortality following the 2010 drought. +This area happens to be on the border of Peru and Brazil, totally unexplored, almost totally unknown scientifically. +So what we think, as Earth scientists, is species are going to have to migrate with climate change from the east in Brazil all the way west into the Andes and up into the mountains in order to minimize their exposure to climate change. +One of the problems with this is that humans are taking apart the western Amazon as we speak. +Look at this 100-square-kilometer gash in the forest created by gold miners. +You see the forest in green in 3D, and you see the effects of gold mining down below the soil surface. +Species have nowhere to migrate in a system like this, obviously. +If you haven't been to the Amazon, you should go. +It's an amazing experience every time, no matter where you go. +You're going to probably see it this way, on a river. +But what happens is a lot of times the rivers hide what's really going on back in the forest itself. +We flew over this same river, imaged the system in 3D. +The forest is on the left. +And then we can digitally remove the forest and see what's going on below the canopy. +And in this case, we found gold mining activity, all of it illegal, set back away from the river's edge, as you'll see in those strange pockmarks coming up on your screen on the right. +Don't worry, we're working with the authorities to deal with this and many, many other problems in the region. +So in order to put together a conservation plan for these unique, important corridors like the western Amazon and the Andes Amazon corridor, we have to start making geographically explicit plans now. +How do we do that if we don't know the geography of biodiversity in the region, if it's so unknown to science? +So what we've been doing is using the laser-guided spectroscopy from the CAO to map for the first time the biodiversity of the Amazon rainforest. +Here you see actual data showing different species in different colors. +Reds are one type of species, blues are another, and greens are yet another. +And when we take this together and scale up to the regional level, we get a completely new geography of biodiversity unknown prior to this work. +This tells us where the big biodiversity changes occur from habitat to habitat, and that's really important because it tells us a lot about where species may migrate to and migrate from as the climate shifts. +And this is the pivotal information that's needed by decision makers to develop protected areas in the context of their regional development plans. +And third and final question is, how do we manage biodiversity on a planet of protected ecosystems? +The example I started out with about lions hunting, that was a study we did behind the fence line of a protected area in South Africa. +And the truth is, much of Africa's nature is going to persist into the future in protected areas like I show in blue on the screen. +This puts incredible pressure and responsibility on park management. +They need to do and make decisions that will benefit all of the species that they're protecting. +Some of their decisions have really big impacts. +For example, how much and where to use fire as a management tool? +Or, how to deal with a large species like elephants, which may, if their populations get too large, have a negative impact on the ecosystem and on other species. +And let me tell you, these types of dynamics really play out on the landscape. +In the foreground is an area with lots of fire and lots of elephants: wide open savanna in blue, and just a few trees. +As we cross this fence line, now we're getting into an area that has had protection from fire and zero elephants: dense vegetation, a radically different ecosystem. +And in a place like Kruger, the soaring elephant densities are a real problem. +I know it's a sensitive issue for many of you, and there are no easy answers with this. +That's giving park managers a very first opportunity to use tactical management strategies that are more nuanced and don't lead to those extremes that I just showed you. +Going forward, I plan to greatly expand the airborne observatory. +I'm hoping to actually put the technology into orbit so we can manage the entire planet with technologies like this. +Until then, you're going to find me flying in some remote place that you've never heard of. +I just want to end by saying that technology is absolutely critical to managing our planet, but even more important is the understanding and wisdom to apply it. +Thank you. +Sarge Salman: All the way from Los Altos Hills, California, Mr. Henry Evans. +Henry Evans: Hello. +My name is Henry Evans, and until August 29, 2002, I was living my version of the American dream. +I grew up in a typical American town near St. Louis. +My dad was a lawyer. +My mom was a homemaker. +My six siblings and I were good kids, but caused our fair share of trouble. +After high school, I left home to study and learn more about the world. +I went to Notre Dame University and graduated with degrees in accounting and German, including spending a year of study in Austria. +Later on, I earned an MBA at Stanford. +I married my high school sweetheart, Jane. +I am lucky to have her. +Together, we raised four wonderful children. +I worked and studied hard to move up the career ladder, eventually becoming a chief financial officer in Silicon Valley, a job I really enjoyed. +My family and I bought our first and only home on December 13, 2001, a fixer-upper in a beautiful spot of Los Altos Hills, California, from where I am speaking to you now. +We were looking forward to rebuilding it, but eight months after we moved in, I suffered a stroke-like attack caused by a birth defect. +Overnight, I became a mute quadriplegic at the ripe old age of 40. +It took me several years, but with the help of an incredibly supportive family, I finally decided life was still worth living. +I became fascinated with using technology to help the severely disabled. +Head tracking devices sold commercially by the company Madentec convert my tiny head movements into cursor movements, and enable my use of a regular computer. +I can surf the web, exchange email with people, and routinely destroy my friend Steve Cousins in online word games. +This technology allows me to remain engaged, mentally active, and feel like I am a part of the world. +One day, I was lying in bed watching CNN, when I was amazed by Professor Charlie Kemp of the Healthcare Robotics Lab at Georgia Tech demonstrating a PR2 robot. +I emailed Charlie and Steve Cousins of Willow Garage, and we formed the Robots for Humanity project. +For about two years, Robots for Humanity developed ways for me to use the PR2 as my body surrogate. +I shaved myself for the first time in 10 years. +From my home in California, I shaved Charlie in Atlanta. I handed out Halloween candy. +I opened my refrigerator on my own. +I began doing tasks around the house. +I saw new and previously unthinkable possibilities to live and contribute, both for myself and others in my circumstance. +All of us have disabilities in one form or another. +For example, if either of us wants to go 60 miles an hour, both of us will need an assistive device called a car. +Your disability doesn't make you any less of a person, and neither does mine. +By the way, check out my sweet ride. Since birth, we have both suffered from the inability to fly on our own. +Last year, Kaijen Hsiao of Willow Garage connected with me Chad Jenkins. +Chad showed me how easy it is to purchase and fly aerial drones. +It was then I realized that I could also use an aerial drone to expand the worlds of bedridden people through flight, giving a sense of movement and control that is incredible. +Using a mouse cursor I control with my head, these web interfaces allow me to see video from the robot and send control commands by pressing buttons in a web browser. +With a little practice, I became good enough with this interface to drive around my home on my own. +I could look around our garden and see the grapes we are growing. +I inspected the solar panels on our roof. One of my challenges as a pilot is to land the drone on our basketball hoop. +I went even further by seeing if I could use a head-mounted display, the Oculus Rift, as modified by Fighting Walrus, to have an immersive experience controlling the drone. +With Chad's group at Brown, I regularly fly drones around his lab several times a week, from my home 3,000 miles away. +All work and no fun makes for a dull quadriplegic, so we also find time to play friendly games of robot soccer. I never thought I would be able to casually move around a campus like Brown on my own. +I just wish I could afford the tuition. Chad Jenkins: Henry, all joking aside, I bet all of these people here would love to see you fly this drone from your bed in California 3,000 miles away. +Okay, Henry, have you been to D.C. lately? +Are you excited to be at TEDxMidAtlantic? +Can you show us how excited you are? +All right, big finish. +Can you show us how good of a pilot you are? +All right, we still have a little ways to go with that, but I think it shows the promise. +What makes Henry's story amazing is it's about understanding Henry's needs, understanding what people in Henry's situation need from technology, and then also understanding what advanced technology can provide, and then bringing those two things together for use in a wise and responsible way. +What we're trying to do is democratize robotics, so that anybody can be a part of this. +We're providing affordable, off-the-shelf robot platforms such as the A.R. drone, 300 dollars, the Suitable Technologies beam, only 17,000 dollars, along with open-source robotics software so that you can be a part of what we're trying to do. +Back to you, Henry. +HE: Thank you, Chad. +One hundred years ago, I would have been treated like a vegetable. +Actually, that's not true. +I would have died. +It is up to us, all of us, to decide how robotics will be used, for good or for evil, for simply replacing people or for making people better, for allowing us to do and enjoy more. +Our goal for robotics is to unlock everyone's mental power by making the world more physically accessible to people such as myself and others like me around the globe. +With the help of people like you, we can make this dream a reality. +Thank you. +One billion people in the world today do not have access to all-season roads. +One billion people. +One seventh of the Earth's population are totally cut off for some part of the year. +We cannot get medicine to them reliably, they cannot get critical supplies, and they cannot get their goods to market in order to create a sustainable income. +In sub-Saharan Africa, for instance, 85 percent of roads are unusable in the wet season. +Investments are being made, but at the current level, it's estimated it's going to take them 50 years to catch up. +In the U.S. alone, there's more than four million miles of roads, very expensive to build, very expensive to maintain infrastructure, with a huge ecological footprint, and yet, very often, congested. +So we saw this and we thought, can there be a better way? +Can we create a system using today's most advanced technologies that can allow this part of the world to leapfrog in the same way they've done with mobile telephones in the last 10 years? +Many of those nations have excellent telecommunications today without ever putting copper lines in the ground. +Could we do the same for transportation? +Imagine this scenario. +Imagine you are in a maternity ward in Mali, and have a newborn in need of urgent medication. +What would you do today? +Well, you would place a request via mobile phone, and someone would get the request immediately. +That's the part that works. +The medication may take days to arrive, though, because of bad roads. +That's the part that's broken. +We believe we can deliver it within hours with an electric autonomous flying vehicle such as this. +This can transport a small payload today, about two kilograms, over a short distance, about 10 kilometers, but it's part of a wider network that may cover the entire country, maybe even the entire continent. +It's an ultra-flexible, automated logistics network. +It's a network for a transportation of matter. +We call it Matternet. +We use three key technologies. +The first is electric autonomous flying vehicles. +The second is automated ground stations that the vehicles fly in and out of to swap batteries and fly farther, or pick up or deliver loads. +And the third is the operating system that manages the whole network. +Let's look at each one of those technologies in a bit more detail. +First of all, the UAVs. +Eventually, we're going to be using all sorts of vehicles for different payload capacities and different ranges. +Today, we're using small quads. +These are able to transport two kilograms over 10 kilometers in just about 15 minutes. +Compare this with trying to trespass a bad road in the developing world, or even being stuck in traffic in a developed world country. +These fly autonomously. +This is the key to the technology. +So they use GPS and other sensors on board to navigate between ground stations. +Every vehicle is equipped with an automatic payload and battery exchange mechanism, so these vehicles navigate to those ground stations, they dock, swap a battery automatically, and go out again. +The ground stations are located on safe locations on the ground. +They secure the most vulnerable part of the mission, which is the landing. +They are at known locations on the ground, so the paths between them are also known, which is very important from a reliability perspective from the whole network. +Apart from fulfilling the energy requirements of the vehicles, eventually they're going to be becoming commercial hubs where people can take out loads or put loads into the network. +The last component is the operating system that manages the whole network. +It monitors weather data from all the ground stations and optimizes the routes of the vehicles through the system to avoid adverse weather conditions, avoid other risk factors, and optimize the use of the resources throughout the network. +I want to show you what one of those flights looks like. +Here we are flying in Haiti last summer, where we've done our first field trials. +We're modeling here a medical delivery in a camp we set up after the 2010 earthquake. +People there love this. +And I want to show you what one of those vehicles looks like up close. +So this is a $3,000 vehicle. +Costs are coming down very rapidly. +We use this in all sorts of weather conditions, very hot and very cold climates, very strong winds. They're very sturdy vehicles. +Imagine if your life depended on this package, somewhere in Africa or in New York City, after Sandy. +The next big question is, what's the cost? +Well, it turns out that the cost to transport two kilograms over 10 kilometers with this vehicle is just 24 cents. +And it's counterintuitive, but the cost of energy expended for the flight is only two cents of a dollar today, and we're just at the beginning of this. +When we saw this, we felt that this is something that can have significant impact in the world. +So we said, okay, how much does it cost to set up a network somewhere in the world? +And we looked at setting up a network in Lesotho for transportation of HIV/AIDS samples. +The problem there is how do you take them from clinics where they're being collected to hospitals where they're being analyzed? +And we said, what if we wanted to cover an area spanning around 140 square kilometers? +That's roughly one and a half times the size of Manhattan. +Well it turns out that the cost to do that there would be less than a million dollars. +Compare this to normal infrastructure investments. +We think this can be -- this is the power of a new paradigm. +So here we are: a new idea about a network for transportation that is based on the ideas of the Internet. +It's decentralized, it's peer-to-peer, it's bidirectional, highly adaptable, with very low infrastructure investment, very low ecological footprint. +If it is a new paradigm, though, there must be other uses for it. +It can be used perhaps in other places in the world. +So let's look at the other end of the spectrum: our cities and megacities. +Half of the Earth's population lives in cities today. +Half a billion of us live in megacities. +We are living through an amazing urbanization trend. +China alone is adding a megacity the size of New York City every two years. +These are places that do have road infrastructure, but it's very inefficient. +Congestion is a huge problem. +It's ultimately scalable with a very small ecological footprint, operating in the background 24/7, just like the Internet. +So when we started this a couple of years ago now, we've had a lot of people come up to us who said, "This is a very interesting but crazy idea, and certainly not something that you should engage with anytime soon." +And of course, we're talking about drones, right, a technology that's not only unpopular in the West but one that has become a very, very unpleasant fact of life for many living in poor countries, especially those engaged in conflict. +So why are we doing this? +Well, we chose to do this one not because it's easy, but because it can have amazing impact. +Imagine one billion people being connected to physical goods in the same way that mobile telecommunications connected them to information. +Imagine if the next big network we built in the world was a network for the transportation of matter. +In the developing world, we would hope to reach millions of people with better vaccines, reach them with better medication. +It would give us an unfair advantage against battling HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis and other epidemics. +Over time, we would hope it would become a new platform for economic transactions, lifting millions of people out of poverty. +In the developed world and the emerging world, we would hope it would become a new mode of transportation that could help make our cities more livable. +So for those that still believe that this is science fiction, I firmly say to you that it is not. +We do need to engage, though, in social fiction to make it happen. +Thank you. +I'm going to talk about growing older in traditional societies. +This subject constitutes just one chapter of my latest book, which compares traditional, small, tribal societies with our large, modern societies, with respect to many topics such as bringing up children, growing older, health, dealing with danger, settling disputes, religion and speaking more than one language. +Those tribal societies, which constituted all human societies for most of human history, are far more diverse than are our modern, recent, big societies. +All big societies that have governments, and where most people are strangers to each other, are inevitably similar to each other and different from tribal societies. +Tribes constitute thousands of natural experiments in how to run a human society. +They constitute experiments from which we ourselves may be able to learn. +Tribal societies shouldn't be scorned as primitive and miserable, but also they shouldn't be romanticized as happy and peaceful. +When we learn of tribal practices, some of them will horrify us, but there are other tribal practices which, when we hear about them, we may admire and envy and wonder whether we could adopt those practices ourselves. +Most old people in the U.S. end up living separately from their children and from most of their friends of their earlier years, and often they live in separate retirements homes for the elderly, whereas in traditional societies, older people instead live out their lives among their children, their other relatives, and their lifelong friends. +Nevertheless, the treatment of the elderly varies enormously among traditional societies, from much worse to much better than in our modern societies. +At the worst extreme, many traditional societies get rid of their elderly in one of four increasingly direct ways: by neglecting their elderly and not feeding or cleaning them until they die, or by abandoning them when the group moves, or by encouraging older people to commit suicide, or by killing older people. +In which tribal societies do children abandon or kill their parents? +It happens mainly under two conditions. +One is in nomadic, hunter-gather societies that often shift camp and that are physically incapable of transporting old people who can't walk when the able-bodied younger people already have to carry their young children and all their physical possessions. +The other condition is in societies living in marginal or fluctuating environments, such as the Arctic or deserts, where there are periodic food shortages, and occasionally there just isn't enough food to keep everyone alive. +Whatever food is available has to be reserved for able-bodied adults and for children. +To us Americans, it sounds horrible to think of abandoning or killing your own sick wife or husband or elderly mother or father, but what could those traditional societies do differently? +They face a cruel situation of no choice. +Their old people had to do it to their own parents, and the old people know what now is going to happen to them. +At the opposite extreme in treatment of the elderly, the happy extreme, are the New Guinea farming societies where I've been doing my fieldwork for the past 50 years, and most other sedentary traditional societies around the world. +In those societies, older people are cared for. +They are fed. They remain valuable. +And they continue to live in the same hut or else in a nearby hut near their children, relatives and lifelong friends. +There are two main sets of reasons for this variation among societies in their treatment of old people. +The variation depends especially on the usefulness of old people and on the society's values. +First, as regards usefulness, older people continue to perform useful services. +One use of older people in traditional societies is that they often are still effective at producing food. +Another traditional usefulness of older people is that they are capable of babysitting their grandchildren, thereby freeing up their own adult children, the parents of those grandchildren, to go hunting and gathering food for the grandchildren. +Still another traditional value of older people is in making tools, weapons, baskets, pots and textiles. +In fact, they're usually the people who are best at it. +Older people usually are the leaders of traditional societies, and the people most knowledgeable about politics, medicine, religion, songs and dances. +Finally, older people in traditional societies have a huge significance that would never occur to us in our modern, literate societies, where our sources of information are books and the Internet. +In contrast, in traditional societies without writing, older people are the repositories of information. +It's their knowledge that spells the difference between survival and death for their whole society in a time of crisis caused by rare events for which only the oldest people alive have had experience. +Those, then, are the ways in which older people are useful in traditional societies. +Their usefulness varies and contributes to variation in the society's treatment of the elderly. +The other set of reasons for variation in the treatment of the elderly is the society's cultural values. +For example, there's particular emphasis on respect for the elderly in East Asia, associated with Confucius' doctrine of filial piety, which means obedience, respect and support for elderly parents. +Cultural values that emphasize respect for older people contrast with the low status of the elderly in the U.S. +Older Americans are at a big disadvantage in job applications. +They're at a big disadvantage in hospitals. +Our hospitals have an explicit policy called age-based allocation of healthcare resources. +There are several reasons for this low status of the elderly in the U.S. +One is our Protestant work ethic which places high value on work, so older people who are no longer working aren't respected. +Another reason is our American emphasis on the virtues of self-reliance and independence, so we instinctively look down on older people who are no longer self-reliant and independent. +Still a third reason is our American cult of youth, which shows up even in our advertisements. +Ads for Coca-Cola and beer always depict smiling young people, even though old as well as young people buy and drink Coca-Cola and beer. +Just think, what's the last time you saw a Coke or beer ad depicting smiling people 85 years old? Never. +Instead, the only American ads featuring white-haired old people are ads for retirement homes and pension planning. +Well, what has changed in the status of the elderly today compared to their status in traditional societies? +There have been a few changes for the better and more changes for the worse. +Big changes for the better include the fact that today we enjoy much longer lives, much better health in our old age, and much better recreational opportunities. +Another change for the better is that we now have specialized retirement facilities and programs to take care of old people. +Changes for the worse begin with the cruel reality that we now have more old people and fewer young people than at any time in the past. +That means that all those old people are more of a burden on the few young people, and that each old person has less individual value. +Another big change for the worse in the status of the elderly is the breaking of social ties with age, because older people, their children, and their friends, all move and scatter independently of each other many times during their lives. +We Americans move on the average every five years. +Hence our older people are likely to end up living distant from their children and the friends of their youth. +Yet another change for the worse in the status of the elderly is formal retirement from the workforce, carrying with it a loss of work friendships and a loss of the self-esteem associated with work. +Perhaps the biggest change for the worse is that our elderly are objectively less useful than in traditional societies. +Widespread literacy means that they are no longer useful as repositories of knowledge. +When we want some information, we look it up in a book or we Google it instead of finding some old person to ask. +The slow pace of technological change in traditional societies means that what someone learns there as a child is still useful when that person is old, but the rapid pace of technological change today means that what we learn as children is no longer useful 60 years later. +And conversely, we older people are not fluent in the technologies essential for surviving in modern society. +For example, as a 15-year-old, I was considered outstandingly good at multiplying numbers because I had memorized the multiplication tables and I know how to use logarithms and I'm quick at manipulating a slide rule. +Today, though, those skills are utterly useless because any idiot can now multiply eight-digit numbers accurately and instantly with a pocket calculator. +Conversely, I at age 75 am incompetent at skills essential for everyday life. +My family's first TV set in 1948 had only three knobs that I quickly mastered: an on-off switch, a volume knob, and a channel selector knob. +Today, just to watch a program on the TV set in my own house, I have to operate a 41-button TV remote that utterly defeats me. +I have to telephone my 25-year-old sons and ask them to talk me through it while I try to push those wretched 41 buttons. +What can we do to improve the lives of the elderly in the U.S., and to make better use of their value? +That's a huge problem. +In my remaining four minutes today, I can offer just a few suggestions. +One value of older people is that they are increasingly useful as grandparents for offering high-quality childcare to their grandchildren, if they choose to do it, as more young women enter the workforce and as fewer young parents of either gender stay home as full-time caretakers of their children. +Compared to the usual alternatives of paid babysitters and day care centers, grandparents offer superior, motivated, experienced child care. +They've already gained experience from raising their own children. +They usually love their grandchildren, and are eager to spend time with them. +Unlike other caregivers, grandparents don't quit their job because they found another job with higher pay looking after another baby. +A second value of older people is paradoxically related to their loss of value as a result of changing world conditions and technology. +At the same time, older people have gained in value today precisely because of their unique experience of living conditions that have now become rare because of rapid change, but that could come back. +For example, only Americans now in their 70s or older today can remember the experience of living through a great depression, the experience of living through a world war, and agonizing whether or not dropping atomic bombs would be more horrible than the likely consequences of not dropping atomic bombs. +Most of our current voters and politicians have no personal experience of any of those things, but millions of older Americans do. +Unfortunately, all of those terrible situations could come back. +Even if they don't come back, we have to be able to plan for them on the basis of the experience of what they were like. +Older people have that experience. +Younger people don't. +The remaining value of older people that I'll mention involves recognizing that while there are many things that older people can no longer do, there are other things that they can do better than younger people. +A challenge for society is to make use of those things that older people are better at doing. +Some abilities, of course, decrease with age. +Those include abilities at tasks requiring physical strength and stamina, ambition, and the power of novel reasoning in a circumscribed situation, such as figuring out the structure of DNA, best left to scientists under the age of 30. +Hence older people are much better than younger people at supervising, administering, advising, strategizing, teaching, synthesizing, and devising long-term plans. +I've seen this value of older people with so many of my friends in their 60s, 70s, 80s and 90s, who are still active as investment managers, farmers, lawyers and doctors. +In short, many traditional societies make better use of their elderly and give their elderly more satisfying lives than we do in modern, big societies. +Paradoxically nowadays, when we have more elderly people than ever before, living healthier lives and with better medical care than ever before, old age is in some respects more miserable than ever before. +The lives of the elderly are widely recognized as constituting a disaster area of modern American society. +We can surely do better by learning from the lives of the elderly in traditional societies. +But what's true of the lives of the elderly in traditional societies is true of many other features of traditional societies as well. +Of course, I'm not advocating that we all give up agriculture and metal tools and return to a hunter-gatherer lifestyle. +There are many obvious respects in which our lives today are far happier than those in small, traditional societies. +To mention just a few examples, our lives are longer, materially much richer, and less plagued by violence than are the lives of people in traditional societies. +But there are also things to be admired about people in traditional societies, and perhaps to be learned from them. +Their lives are usually socially much richer than our lives, although materially poorer. +Their children are more self-confident, more independent, and more socially skilled than are our children. +They think more realistically about dangers than we do. +They almost never die of diabetes, heart disease, stroke, and the other noncommunicable diseases that will be the causes of death of almost all of us in this room today. +Features of the modern lifestyle predispose us to those diseases, and features of the traditional lifestyle protect us against them. +Those are just some examples of what we can learn from traditional societies. +I hope that you will find it as fascinating to read about traditional societies as I found it to live in those societies. +Thank you. +So yesterday, I was out in the street in front of this building, and I was walking down the sidewalk, and I had company, several of us, and we were all abiding by the rules of walking down sidewalks. +We're not talking each other. We're facing forward. +We're moving. +When the person in front of me slows down. +And so I'm watching him, and he slows down, and finally he stops. +Well, that wasn't fast enough for me, so I put on my turn signal, and I walked around him, and as I walked, I looked to see what he was doing, and he was doing this. +He was texting, and he couldn't text and walk at the same time. +Now we could approach this from a working memory perspective or from a multitasking perspective. +We're going to do working memory today. +Now, working memory is that part of our consciousness that we are aware of at any given time of day. +You're going it right now. +It's not something we can turn off. +If you turn it off, that's called a coma, okay? +So right now, you're doing just fine. +Now working memory has four basic components. +It allows us to store some immediate experiences and a little bit of knowledge. +It allows us to reach back into our long-term memory and pull some of that in as we need it, mixes it, processes it in light of whatever our current goal is. +Now the current goal isn't something like, I want to be president or the best surfer in the world. +It's more mundane. I'd like that cookie, or I need to figure out how to get into my hotel room. +Now working memory capacity is our ability to leverage that, our ability to take what we know and what we can hang onto and leverage it in ways that allow us to satisfy our current goal. +Now working memory capacity has a fairly long history, and it's associated with a lot of positive effects. +People with high working memory capacity tend to be good storytellers. +They tend to solve and do well on standardized tests, however important that is. +They're able to have high levels of writing ability. +They're also able to reason at high levels. +So what we're going to do here is play a little bit with some of that. +So I'm going to ask you to perform a couple tasks, and we're going to take your working memory out for a ride. +You up for that? Okay. +I'm going to give you five words, and I just want you to hang on to them. +Don't write them down. Just hang on to them. +Five words. +While you're hanging on to them, I'm going to ask you to answer three questions. +I want to see what happens with those words. +So here's the words: tree, highway, mirror, Saturn and electrode. +So far so good? +Okay. What I want you to do is I want you to tell me what the answer is to 23 times eight. +Just shout it out. +In fact it's -- -- exactly. All right. I want you to take out your left hand and I want you to go, "One, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, 10." +It's a neurological test, just in case you were wondering. +All right, now what I want you to do is to recite the last five letters of the English alphabet backwards. +You should have started with Z. +All right. How many people here are still pretty sure you've got all five words? +Okay. Typically we end up with about less than half, right, which is normal. There will be a range. +Some people can hang on to five. +Some people can hang on to 10. +Some will be down to two or three. +What we know is this is really important to the way we function, right? +And it's going to be really important here at TED because you're going to be exposed to so many different ideas. +Now the problem that we have is that life comes at us, and it comes at us very quickly, and what we need to do is to take that amorphous flow of experience and somehow extract meaning from it with a working memory that's about the size of a pea. +Now don't get me wrong, working memory is awesome. +Working memory allows us to investigate our current experience as we move forward. +It allows us to make sense of the world around us. +But it does have certain limits. +Now working memory is great for allowing us to communicate. +We can have a conversation, and I can build a narrative around that so I know where we've been and where we're going and how to contribute to this conversation. +It allows us to problem-solve, critical think. +We can be in the middle of a meeting, listen to somebody's presentation, evaluate it, decide whether or not we like it, ask follow-up questions. +All of that occurs within working memory. +It also allows us to go to the store and allows us to get milk and eggs and cheese when what we're really looking for is Red Bull and bacon. Gotta make sure we're getting what we're looking for. +Now, a central issue with working memory is that it's limited. +It's limited in capacity, limited in duration, limited in focus. +We tend to remember about four things. +Okay? It used to be seven, but with functional MRIs, apparently it's four, and we were overachieving. +Now we can remember those four things for about 10 to 20 seconds unless we do something with it, unless we process it, unless we apply it to something, unless we talk to somebody about it. +When we think about working memory, we have to realize that this limited capacity has lots of different impacts on us. +Have you ever walked from one room to another and then forgotten why you're there? +You do know the solution to that, right? +You go back to that original room. Have you ever forgotten your keys? +You ever forgotten your car? +You ever forgotten your kids? +All of that talks about working memory, what we can do and what we can't do. +We need to realize that working memory has a limited capacity, and that working memory capacity itself is how we negotiate that. +We negotiate that through strategies. +So what I want to do is talk a little bit about a couple of strategies here, and these will be really important because you are now in an information target-rich environment for the next several days. +Now the first part of this that we need to think about and we need to process our existence, our life, immediately and repeatedly. +We need to process what's going on the moment it happens, not 10 minutes later, not a week later, at the moment. +So we need to think about, well, do I agree with him? +What's missing? What would I like to know? +Do I agree with the assumptions? +How can I apply this in my life? +It's a way of processing what's going on so that we can use it later. +Now we also need to repeat it. We need to practice. +So we need to think about it here. +In between, we want to talk to people about it. +We're going to write it down, and when you get home, pull out those notes and think about them and end up practicing over time. +Practice for some reason became a very negative thing. +It's very positive. +The next thing is, we need to think elaboratively and we need to think illustratively. +Oftentimes, we think that we have to relate new knowledge to prior knowledge. +What we want to do is spin that around. +We want to take all of our existence and wrap it around that new knowledge and make all of these connections and it becomes more meaningful. +We also want to use imagery. We are built for images. +We need to take advantage of that. +Think about things in images, write things down that way. +If you read a book, pull things up. +I just got through reading "The Great Gatsby," and I have a perfect idea of what he looks like in my head, so my own version. +The last one is organization and support. +We are meaning-making machines. It's what we do. +We try to make meaning out of everything that happens to us. +Organization helps, so we need to structure what we're doing in ways that make sense. +If we are providing knowledge and experience, we need to structure that. +And the last one is support. +We all started as novices. +Everything we do is an approximation of sophistication. +We should expect it to change over time. We have to support that. +The support may come in asking people questions, giving them a sheet of paper that has an organizational chart on it or has some guiding images, but we need to support it. +Now, the final piece of this, the take-home message from a working memory capacity standpoint is this: what we process, we learn. +If we're not processing life, we're not living it. +Live life. Thank you. +What is so special about the human brain? +Why is it that we study other animals instead of them studying us? +What does a human brain have or do that no other brain does? +When I became interested in these questions about 10 years ago, scientists thought they knew what different brains were made of. +Though it was based on very little evidence, many scientists thought that all mammalian brains, including the human brain, were made in the same way, with a number of neurons that was always proportional to the size of the brain. +This means that two brains of the same size, like these two, with a respectable 400 grams, should have similar numbers of neurons. +Now, if neurons are the functional information processing units of the brain, then the owners of these two brains should have similar cognitive abilities. +And yet, one is a chimp, and the other is a cow. +Now maybe cows have a really rich internal mental life and are so smart that they choose not to let us realize it, but we eat them. +I think most people will agree that chimps are capable of much more complex, elaborate and flexible behaviors than cows are. +So this is a first indication that the "all brains are made the same way" scenario is not quite right. +But let's play along. +If all brains were made the same way and you were to compare animals with brains of different sizes, larger brains should always have more neurons than smaller brains, and the larger the brain, the more cognitively able its owner should be. +So the largest brain around should also be the most cognitively able. +And here comes the bad news: Our brain, not the largest one around. +It seems quite vexing. +Our brain weighs between 1.2 and 1.5 kilos, but elephant brains weigh between four and five kilos, and whale brains can weigh up to nine kilos, which is why scientists used to resort to saying that our brain must be special to explain our cognitive abilities. +It must be really extraordinary, an exception to the rule. +Theirs may be bigger, but ours is better, and it could be better, for example, in that it seems larger than it should be, with a much larger cerebral cortex than we should have for the size of our bodies. +So that would give us extra cortex to do more interesting things than just operating the body. +That's because the size of the brain usually follows the size of the body. +So the main reason for saying that our brain is larger than it should be actually comes from comparing ourselves to great apes. +Gorillas can be two to three times larger than we are, so their brains should also be larger than ours, but instead it's the other way around. +Our brain is three times larger than a gorilla brain. +The human brain also seems special in the amount of energy that it uses. +Although it weighs only two percent of the body, it alone uses 25 percent of all the energy that your body requires to run per day. +That's 500 calories out of a total of 2,000 calories, just to keep your brain working. +So the human brain is larger than it should be, it uses much more energy than it should, so it's special. +And this is where the story started to bother me. +In biology, we look for rules that apply to all animals and to life in general, so why should the rules of evolution apply to everybody else but not to us? +Maybe the problem was with the basic assumption that all brains are made in the same way. +Maybe two brains of a similar size can actually be made of very different numbers of neurons. +Maybe a very large brain does not necessarily have more neurons than a more modest-sized brain. +Maybe the human brain actually has the most neurons of any brain, regardless of its size, especially in the cerebral cortex. +So this to me became the important question to answer: how many neurons does the human brain have, and how does that compare to other animals? +Now, you may have heard or read somewhere that we have 100 billion neurons, so 10 years ago, I asked my colleagues if they knew where this number came from. +But nobody did. +I've been digging through the literature for the original reference for that number, and I could never find it. +It seems that nobody had actually ever counted the number of neurons in the human brain, or in any other brain for that matter. +So I came up with my own way to count cells in the brain, and it essentially consists of dissolving that brain into soup. +It works like this: You take a brain, or parts of that brain, and you dissolve it in detergent, which destroys the cell membranes but keeps the cell nuclei intact, so you end up with a suspension of free nuclei that looks like this, like a clear soup. +This soup contains all the nuclei that once were a mouse brain. +Now, the beauty of a soup is that because it is soup, you can agitate it and make those nuclei be distributed homogeneously in the liquid, so that now by looking under the microscope at just four or five samples of this homogeneous solution, you can count nuclei, and therefore tell how many cells that brain had. +It's simple, it's straightforward, and it's really fast. +So we've used that method to count neurons in dozens of different species so far, and it turns out that all brains are not made the same way. +Take rodents and primates, for instance: In larger rodent brains, the average size of the neuron increases, so the brain inflates very rapidly and gains size much faster than it gains neurons. +But primate brains gain neurons without the average neuron becoming any larger, which is a very economical way to add neurons to your brain. +The result is that a primate brain will always have more neurons than a rodent brain of the same size, and the larger the brain, the larger this difference will be. +Well, what about our brain then? +But just as important is what the 86 billion neurons mean. +Because we found that the relationship between the size of the brain and its number of neurons could be described mathematically, we could calculate what a human brain would look like if it was made like a rodent brain. +So, a rodent brain with 86 billion neurons would weigh 36 kilos. +That's not possible. +A brain that huge would be crushed by its own weight, and this impossible brain would go in the body of 89 tons. +I don't think it looks like us. +So this brings us to a very important conclusion already, which is that we are not rodents. +The human brain is not a large rat brain. +Compared to a rat, we might seem special, yes, but that's not a fair comparison to make, given that we know that we are not rodents. +We are primates, so the correct comparison is to other primates. +And all of you are primates. +And so was Darwin. +I love to think that Darwin would have really appreciated this. +His brain, like ours, was made in the image of other primate brains. +So the human brain may be remarkable, yes, but it is not special in its number of neurons. +It is just a large primate brain. +I think that's a very humbling and sobering thought that should remind us of our place in nature. +Why does it cost so much energy, then? +Well, other people have figured out how much energy the human brain and that of other species costs, and now that we knew how many neurons each brain was made of, we could do the math. +And it turns out that both human and other brains cost about the same, an average of six calories per billion neurons per day. +So the total energetic cost of a brain is a simple, linear function of its number of neurons, and it turns out that the human brain costs just as much energy as you would expect. +So the reason why the human brain costs so much energy is simply because it has a huge number of neurons, and because we are primates with many more neurons for a given body size than any other animal, the relative cost of our brain is large, but just because we're primates, not because we're special. +Last question, then: how did we come by this remarkable number of neurons, and in particular, if great apes are larger than we are, why don't they have a larger brain than we do, with more neurons? +When we realized how much expensive it is to have a lot of neurons in the brain, I figured, maybe there's a simple reason. +They just can't afford the energy for both a large body and a large number of neurons. +So we did the math. +And what we found is that because neurons are so expensive, there is a tradeoff between body size and number of neurons. +So a primate that eats eight hours per day can afford at most 53 billion neurons, but then its body cannot be any bigger than 25 kilos. +To weigh any more than that, it has to give up neurons. +So it's either a large body or a large number of neurons. +When you eat like a primate, you can't afford both. +One way out of this metabolic limitation would be to spend even more hours per day eating, but that gets dangerous, and past a certain point, it's just not possible. +Gorillas and orangutans, for instance, afford about 30 billion neurons by spending eight and a half hours per day eating, and that seems to be about as much as they can do. +Nine hours of feeding per day seems to be the practical limit for a primate. +What about us? +With our 86 billion neurons and 60 to 70 kilos of body mass, we should have to spend over nine hours per day every single day feeding, which is just not feasible. +If we ate like a primate, we should not be here. +How did we get here, then? +Well, if our brain costs just as much energy as it should, and if we can't spend every waking hour of the day feeding, then the only alternative, really, is to somehow get more energy out of the same foods. +And remarkably, that matches exactly what our ancestors are believed to have invented one and a half million years ago, when they invented cooking. +To cook is to use fire to pre-digest foods outside of your body. +Cooked foods are softer, so they're easier to chew and to turn completely into mush in your mouth, so that allows them to be completely digested and absorbed in your gut, which makes them yield much more energy in much less time. +So cooking frees time for us to do much more interesting things with our day and with our neurons than just thinking about food, looking for food, and gobbling down food all day long. +So because of cooking, what once was a major liability, this large, dangerously expensive brain with a lot of neurons, could now become a major asset, now that we could both afford the energy for a lot of neurons and the time to do interesting things with them. +So I think this explains why the human brain grew to become so large so fast in evolution, all of the while remaining just a primate brain. +With this large brain now affordable by cooking, we went rapidly from raw foods to culture, agriculture, civilization, grocery stores, electricity, refrigerators, all of those things that nowadays allow us to get all the energy we need for the whole day in a single sitting at your favorite fast food joint. +So what once was a solution now became the problem, and ironically, we look for the solution in raw food. +So what is the human advantage? +What is it that we have that no other animal has? +My answer is that we have the largest number of neurons in the cerebral cortex, and I think that's the simplest explanation for our remarkable cognitive abilities. +And what is it that we do that no other animal does, and which I believe was fundamental to allow us to reach that large, largest number of neurons in the cortex? +In two words, we cook. +No other animal cooks its food. Only humans do. +And I think that's how we got to become human. +Studying the human brain changed the way I think about food. +I now look at my kitchen, and I bow to it, and I thank my ancestors for coming up with the invention that probably made us humans. +Thank you very much. +There is something you know about me, something very personal, and there is something I know about every one of you and that's very central to your concerns. +There is something that we know about everyone we meet anywhere in the world, on the street, that is the very mainspring of whatever they do and whatever they put up with. +And that is that all of us want to be happy. +In this, we are all together. +How we imagine our happiness, that differs from one another, but it's already a lot that we have all in common, that we want to be happy. +Now my topic is gratefulness. +What is the connection between happiness and gratefulness? +Many people would say, well, that's very easy. +When you are happy, you are grateful. +But think again. +Is it really the happy people that are grateful? +We all know quite a number of people who have everything that it would take to be happy, and they are not happy, because they want something else or they want more of the same. +And we all know people who have lots of misfortune, misfortune that we ourselves would not want to have, and they are deeply happy. +They radiate happiness. You are surprised. +Why? Because they are grateful. +So it is not happiness that makes us grateful. +It's gratefulness that makes us happy. +If you think it's happiness that makes you grateful, think again. +It's gratefulness that makes you happy. +Now, we can ask, what do we really mean by gratefulness? +And how does it work? +I appeal to your own experience. +We all know from experience how it goes. +We experience something that's valuable to us. +Something is given to us that's valuable to us. +And it's really given. +These two things have to come together. +It has to be something valuable, and it's a real gift. +You haven't bought it. You haven't earned it. +You haven't traded it in. You haven't worked for it. +It's just given to you. +And when these two things come together, something that's really valuable to me and I realize it's freely given, then gratefulness spontaneously rises in my heart, happiness spontaneously rises in my heart. +That's how gratefulness happens. +Now the key to all this is that we cannot only experience this once in a while. +We cannot only have grateful experiences. +We can be people who live gratefully. +Grateful living, that is the thing. +And how can we live gratefully? +By experiencing, by becoming aware that every moment is a given moment, as we say. +It's a gift. You haven't earned it. +You haven't brought it about in any way. +You have no way of assuring that there will be another moment given to you, and yet, that's the most valuable thing that can ever be given to us, this moment, with all the opportunity that it contains. +If we didn't have this present moment, we wouldn't have any opportunity to do anything or experience anything, and this moment is a gift. +It's a given moment, as we say. +Now, we say the gift within this gift is really the opportunity. +What you are really grateful for is the opportunity, not the thing that is given to you, because if that thing were somewhere else and you didn't have the opportunity to enjoy it, to do something with it, you wouldn't be grateful for it. +Opportunity is the gift within every gift, and we have this saying, opportunity knocks only once. +Well, think again. +Every moment is a new gift, over and over again, and if you miss the opportunity of this moment, another moment is given to us, and another moment. +We can avail ourselves of this opportunity, or we can miss it, and if we avail ourselves of the opportunity, it is the key to happiness. +Behold the master key to our happiness in our own hands. +Moment by moment, we can be grateful for this gift. +Does that mean that we can be grateful for everything? +Certainly not. +We cannot be grateful for violence, for war, for oppression, for exploitation. +On the personal level, we cannot be grateful for the loss of a friend, for unfaithfulness, for bereavement. +But I didn't say we can be grateful for everything. +I said we can be grateful in every given moment for the opportunity, and even when we are confronted with something that is terribly difficult, we can rise to this occasion and respond to the opportunity that is given to us. +It isn't as bad as it might seem. +Actually, when you look at it and experience it, you find that most of the time, what is given to us is the opportunity to enjoy, and we only miss it because we are rushing through life and we are not stopping to see the opportunity. +But once in a while, something very difficult is given to us, and when this difficult thing occurs to us, it's a challenge to rise to that opportunity, and we can rise to it by learning something which is sometimes painful. +Learning patience, for instance. +We have been told that the road to peace is not a sprint, but is more like a marathon. +That takes patience. That's difficult. +It may be to stand up for your opinion, to stand up for your conviction. +That's an opportunity that is given to us. +To learn, to suffer, to stand up, all these opportunities are given to us, but they are opportunities, and those who avail themselves of those opportunities are the ones that we admire. +They make something out of life. +And those who fail get another opportunity. +We always get another opportunity. +That's the wonderful richness of life. +So how can we find a method that will harness this? +How can each one of us find a method for living gratefully, not just once in a while being grateful, but moment by moment to be grateful. +How can we do it? It's a very simple method. +It's so simple that it's actually what we were told as children when we learned to cross the street. +Stop. Look. +That's all. +But how often do we stop? +We rush through life. We don't stop. +We miss the opportunity because we don't stop. +We have to stop. We have to get quiet. +And we have to build stop signs into our lives. +When I was in Africa some years ago and then came back, I noticed water. +In Africa where I was, I didn't have drinkable water. +Every time I turned on the faucet, I was overwhelmed. +Every time I clicked on the light, I was so grateful. +It made me so happy. +But after a while, this wears off. +So I put little stickers on the light switch and on the water faucet, and every time I turned it on, water. +So leave it up to your own imagination. +You can find whatever works best for you, but you need stop signs in your life. +And when you stop, then the next thing is to look. +You look. You open your eyes. +You open your ears. You open your nose. +You open all your senses for this wonderful richness that is given to us. +There is no end to it, and that is what life is all about, to enjoy, to enjoy what is given to us. +And then we can also open our hearts, our hearts for the opportunities, for the opportunities also to help others, to make others happy, because nothing makes us more happy than when all of us are happy. +And when we open our hearts to the opportunities, the opportunities invite us to do something, and that is the third. +Stop, look, and then go, and really do something. +And what we can do is whatever life offers to you in that present moment. +Mostly it's the opportunity to enjoy, but sometimes it's something more difficult. +But whatever it is, if we take this opportunity, we go with it, we are creative, those are the creative people. +And that little stop, look, go, is such a potent seed that it can revolutionize our world. +Because we are at the present moment in the middle of a change of consciousness, and you will be surprised if you -- I am always surprised when I hear how many times this word "gratefulness" and "gratitude" comes up. +Everywhere you find it, a grateful airline, a restaurant gratefulness, a caf gratefulness, a wine that is gratefulness. +Yes, I have even come across a toilet paper whose brand is called "Thank You." There is a wave of gratefulness because people are becoming aware how important this is and how this can change our world. +It can change our world in immensely important ways, because if you're grateful, you're not fearful, and if you're not fearful, you're not violent. +If you're grateful, you act out of a sense of enough and not of a sense of scarcity, and you are willing to share. +If you are grateful, you are enjoying the differences between people, and you are respectful to everybody, and that changes this power pyramid under which we live. +And it doesn't make for equality, but it makes for equal respect, and that is the important thing. +The future of the world will be a network, not a pyramid turned upside down. +What we need is a networking of smaller groups, smaller and smaller groups who know one another, who interact with one another, and that is a grateful world. +A grateful world is a world of joyful people. +Grateful people are joyful people, and joyful people -- the more and more joyful people there are, the more and more we'll have a joyful world. +We have a network for grateful living, and it has mushroomed. +We couldn't understand why it mushroomed. +We have an opportunity for people to light a candle when they are grateful for something. +And there have been 15 million candles lit in one decade. +People are becoming aware that a grateful world is a happy world, and we all have the opportunity by the simple stop, look, go, to transform the world, to make it a happy place. +And that is what I hope for us, and if this has contributed a little to making you want to do the same, stop, look, go. +Thank you. +I'm here today to talk about social change, not a new therapy or a new intervention or a new way of working with kids or something like that, but a new business model for social change, a new way of tackling the problem. +In Britain, 63 percent of all men who come out of short sentences from prison re-offend again within a year. +Now how many previous offenses do you think they have on average managed to commit? +Forty-three. +And how many previous times do you think they've been in prison? +Seven. +So we went to talk to the Ministry of Justice, and we said to the Ministry of Justice, what's it worth to you if fewer of these guys re-offend? +It's got to be worth something, right? +I mean, there's prison costs, there's police costs, there's court costs, all these things that you're spending money on to deal with these guys. What's it worth? +Now, of course, we care about the social value. +Social Finance, the organization I helped set up, cares about social stuff. +But we wanted to make the economic case, because if we could make the economic case, then the value of doing this would be completely compelling. +And if we can agree on both a value and a way of measuring whether we've been successful at reducing that re-offending, then we can do something we think rather interesting. +The idea is called the social impact bond. +Now, the social impact bond is simply saying, if we can get the government to agree, that we can create a contract where they only pay if it worked. +So that means that they can try out new stuff without the embarrassment of having to pay if it didn't work, which for still quite a lot of bits of government, that's a serious issue. +Now, many of you may have noticed there's a problem at this point, and that is that it takes a long time to measure whether those outcomes have happened. +So we have to raise some money. +We use the contract to raise money from socially motivated investors. +Socially motivated investors: there's an interesting idea, right? +But actually, there's a lot of people who, if they're given the chance, would love to invest in something that does social good. +And here's the opportunity. +Do you want to also help government find whether there's a better economic model, not just leaving these guys to come out of prison and waiting till they re-offend and putting them back in again, but actually working with them to move to a different path to end up with fewer crimes and fewer victims? +So we find some investors, and they pay for a set of services, and if those services are successful, then they improve outcomes, and with those measured reductions in re-offending, government saves money, and with those savings, they can pay outcomes. +And the investors do not just get their money back, but they make a return. +So in March 2010, we signed the first social impact bond with the Ministry of Justice around Peterborough Prison. +It was to work with 3,000 offenders split into three cohorts of 1,000 each. +Now, each of those cohorts would get measured over the two years that they were coming out of prison. +They've got to have a year to commit their crimes, six months to get through the court system, and then they would be compared to a group taken from the police national computer, and we would get paid providing we achieved a hurdle rate of 10-percent reduction, for every conviction event that didn't happen. +So we get paid for crimes saved. +Now if we achieved that 10-percent reduction across all three cohorts, then the investors get a seven and a half percent annualized return on their investment, and if we do better than that, they can get up to 13 percent annualized return on their investment, which is okay. +So everyone wins here, right? +The Ministry of Justice can try out a new program and they only pay if it works. +Investors get two opportunities: for the first time, they can invest in social change. +Also, they make a reasonable return, and they also know that first investors in these kinds of things, they're going to have to believers. +They're going to have to care in the social program, but if this builds a track record over five or 10 years, then you can widen that investor community as more people have confidence in the product. +The service providers, well, for the first time, they've got an opportunity to provide services and grow the evidence for what they're doing in a really constructive way and learn and demonstrate the value of what they're doing over five or six years, not just one or two as often happens at the moment. +Society wins: fewer crimes, fewer victims. +Now, the offenders, they also benefit. +So let's think of another example: working with children in care. +Social impact bonds work great for any area where there is at the moment very expensive provision that produces poor outcomes for people. +So children in the state care tend to do very badly. +Only 13 percent achieve a reasonable level of five GCSEs at 16, against 58 percent of the wider population. +More troublingly, 27 percent of offenders in prison have spent some time in care. +And even more worryingly, and this is a Home Office statistic, 70 percent of prostitutes have spent some time in care. +The state is not a great parent. +But there are great programs for adolescents who are on the edge of care, and 30 percent of kids going into care are adolescents. +So we set up a program with Essex County Council to test out intensive family therapeutic support for those families with adolescents on the edge of the care system. +Essex only pays in the event that it's saving them care costs. +Investors have put in 3.1 million pounds. +That program started last month. +Others, around homelessness in London, around youth and employment and education elsewhere in the country. +There are now 13 social impact bonds in Britain, and amazing levels of interest in this idea all over the world. +So David Cameron's put 20 million pounds into a social outcomes fund to support this idea. +Obama has suggested 300 million dollars in the U.S. budget for these kinds of ideas and structures to move it forward, and a lot of other countries are demonstrating considerable interest. +So what's caused this excitement? +Why is this so different for people? +Well, the first piece, which we've talked about, is innovation. +It enables testing of new ideas in a way that's less difficult for everybody. +The second piece it brings is rigor. +By working to outcomes, people really have to test and bring data into the situation that one's dealing with. +And we learn and adapt the program accordingly. +And this leads to the third element, which is new, and that's flexibility. +Because normal contracting for things, when you're spending government money, you're spending our money, tax money, and the people who are in charge of that are very aware of it so the temptation is to control exactly how you spend it. +Now any entrepreneur in the room knows that version 1.0, the business plan, is not the one that generally works. +So when you're trying to do something like this, you need the flexibility to adapt the program. +The last element is partnership. +There is, at the moment, a stale debate going on very often: state's better, public sector's better, private sector's better, social sector's better, Actually, for creating social change, we need to bring in the expertise from all of those parties in order to make this work. +And this creates a structure through which they can combine. +So where does this leave us? +This leaves us with a way that people can invest in social change. +We've met thousands, possibly millions of people, who want the opportunity to invest in social change. +We've met champions all over the public sector keen to make these kinds of differences. +With this kind of model, we can help bring them together. +Thank you. +We have a global health challenge in our hands today, and that is that the way we currently discover and develop new drugs is too costly, takes far too long, and it fails more often than it succeeds. +It really just isn't working, and that means that patients that badly need new therapies are not getting them, and diseases are going untreated. +We seem to be spending more and more money. +So for every billion dollars we spend in R&D, we're getting less drugs approved into the market. +More money, less drugs. Hmm. +So what's going on here? +And we have two main tools available at our disposal. +They are cells in dishes and animal testing. +Now let's talk about the first one, cells in dishes. +So, cells are happily functioning in our bodies. +We take them and rip them out of their native environment, throw them in one of these dishes, and expect them to work. +Guess what. They don't. +They don't like that environment because it's nothing like what they have in the body. +What about animal testing? +Well, animals do and can provide extremely useful information. +They teach us about what happens in the complex organism. +We learn more about the biology itself. +However, more often than not, animal models fail to predict what will happen in humans when they're treated with a particular drug. +So we need better tools. +We need human cells, but we need to find a way to keep them happy outside the body. +Our bodies are dynamic environments. +We're in constant motion. +Our cells experience that. +They're in dynamic environments in our body. +They're under constant mechanical forces. +So if we want to make cells happy outside our bodies, we need to become cell architects. +We need to design, build and engineer a home away from home for the cells. +And at the Wyss Institute, we've done just that. +We call it an organ-on-a-chip. +And I have one right here. +It's beautiful, isn't it? But it's pretty incredible. +Right here in my hand is a breathing, living human lung on a chip. +And it's not just beautiful. +It can do a tremendous amount of things. +We have living cells in that little chip, cells that are in a dynamic environment interacting with different cell types. +There's been many people trying to grow cells in the lab. +They've tried many different approaches. +They've even tried to grow little mini-organs in the lab. +We're not trying to do that here. +We're simply trying to recreate in this tiny chip the smallest functional unit that represents the biochemistry, the function and the mechanical strain that the cells experience in our bodies. +So how does it work? Let me show you. +We use techniques from the computer chip manufacturing industry to make these structures at a scale relevant to both the cells and their environment. +We have three fluidic channels. +In the center, we have a porous, flexible membrane on which we can add human cells from, say, our lungs, and then underneath, they had capillary cells, the cells in our blood vessels. +And we can then apply mechanical forces to the chip that stretch and contract the membrane, so the cells experience the same mechanical forces that they did when we breathe. +And they experience them how they did in the body. +There's air flowing through the top channel, and then we flow a liquid that contains nutrients through the blood channel. +Now the chip is really beautiful, but what can we do with it? +We can get incredible functionality inside these little chips. +Let me show you. +We could, for example, mimic infection, where we add bacterial cells into the lung. +then we can add human white blood cells. +White blood cells are our body's defense against bacterial invaders, and when they sense this inflammation due to infection, they will enter from the blood into the lung and engulf the bacteria. +Well now you're going to see this happening live in an actual human lung on a chip. +We've labeled the white blood cells so you can see them flowing through, and when they detect that infection, they begin to stick. +They stick, and then they try to go into the lung side from blood channel. +And you can see here, we can actually visualize a single white blood cell. +It sticks, it wiggles its way through between the cell layers, through the pore, comes out on the other side of the membrane, and right there, it's going to engulf the bacteria labeled in green. +In that tiny chip, you just witnessed one of the most fundamental responses our body has to an infection. +It's the way we respond to -- an immune response. +It's pretty exciting. +Now I want to share this picture with you, not just because it's so beautiful, but because it tells us an enormous amount of information about what the cells are doing within the chips. +It tells us that these cells from the small airways in our lungs, actually have these hairlike structures that you would expect to see in the lung. +These structures are called cilia, and they actually move the mucus out of the lung. +Yeah. Mucus. Yuck. +But mucus is actually very important. +Mucus traps particulates, viruses, potential allergens, and these little cilia move and clear the mucus out. +When they get damaged, say, by cigarette smoke for example, they don't work properly, and they can't clear that mucus out. +And that can lead to diseases such as bronchitis. +Cilia and the clearance of mucus are also involved in awful diseases like cystic fibrosis. +But now, with the functionality that we get in these chips, we can begin to look for potential new treatments. +We didn't stop with the lung on a chip. +We have a gut on a chip. +You can see one right here. +And we've put intestinal human cells in a gut on a chip, and they're under constant peristaltic motion, this trickling flow through the cells, and we can mimic many of the functions that you actually would expect to see in the human intestine. +Now we can begin to create models of diseases such as irritable bowel syndrome. +This is a disease that affects a large number of individuals. +It's really debilitating, and there aren't really many good treatments for it. +Now we have a whole pipeline of different organ chips that we are currently working on in our labs. +Now, the true power of this technology, however, really comes from the fact that we can fluidically link them. +There's fluid flowing across these cells, so we can begin to interconnect multiple different chips together to form what we call a virtual human on a chip. +Now we're really getting excited. +We're not going to ever recreate a whole human in these chips, but what our goal is is to be able to recreate sufficient functionality so that we can make better predictions of what's going to happen in humans. +For example, now we can begin to explore what happens when we put a drug like an aerosol drug. +Those of you like me who have asthma, when you take your inhaler, we can explore how that drug comes into your lungs, how it enters the body, how it might affect, say, your heart. +Does it change the beating of your heart? +Does it have a toxicity? +Does it get cleared by the liver? +Is it metabolized in the liver? +Is it excreted in your kidneys? +We can begin to study the dynamic response of the body to a drug. +This could really revolutionize and be a game changer for not only the pharmaceutical industry, but a whole host of different industries, including the cosmetics industry. +We can potentially use the skin on a chip that we're currently developing in the lab to test whether the ingredients in those products that you're using are actually safe to put on your skin without the need for animal testing. +We could test the safety of chemicals that we are exposed to on a daily basis in our environment, such as chemicals in regular household cleaners. +We could also use the organs on chips for applications in bioterrorism or radiation exposure. +We could use them to learn more about diseases such as ebola or other deadly diseases such as SARS. +Organs on chips could also change the way we do clinical trials in the future. +Right now, the average participant in a clinical trial is that: average. +Tends to be middle aged, tends to be female. +You won't find many clinical trials in which children are involved, yet every day, we give children medications, and the only safety data we have on that drug is one that we obtained from adults. +Children are not adults. +They may not respond in the same way adults do. +There are other things like genetic differences in populations that may lead to at-risk populations that are at risk of having an adverse drug reaction. +Now imagine if we could take cells from all those different populations, put them on chips, and create populations on a chip. +This could really change the way we do clinical trials. +And this is the team and the people that are doing this. +We have engineers, we have cell biologists, we have clinicians, all working together. +We're really seeing something quite incredible at the Wyss Institute. +It's really a convergence of disciplines, where biology is influencing the way we design, the way we engineer, the way we build. +It's pretty exciting. +We're establishing important industry collaborations such as the one we have with a company that has expertise in large-scale digital manufacturing. +They're going to help us make, instead of one of these, millions of these chips, so that we can get them into the hands of as many researchers as possible. +And this is key to the potential of that technology. +Now let me show you our instrument. +This is an instrument that our engineers are actually prototyping right now in the lab, and this instrument is going to give us the engineering controls that we're going to require in order to link 10 or more organ chips together. +It does something else that's very important. +It creates an easy user interface. +So a cell biologist like me can come in, take a chip, put it in a cartridge like the prototype you see there, put the cartridge into the machine just like you would a C.D., and away you go. +Plug and play. Easy. +Now, let's imagine a little bit what the future might look like if I could take your stem cells and put them on a chip, or your stem cells and put them on a chip. +It would be a personalized chip just for you. +Now all of us in here are individuals, and those individual differences mean that we could react very differently and sometimes in unpredictable ways to drugs. +I myself, a couple of years back, had a really bad headache, just couldn't shake it, thought, "Well, I'll try something different." +I took some Advil. Fifteen minutes later, I was on my way to the emergency room with a full-blown asthma attack. +Now, obviously it wasn't fatal, but unfortunately, some of these adverse drug reactions can be fatal. +So how do we prevent them? +Well, we could imagine one day having Geraldine on a chip, having Danielle on a chip, having you on a chip. +Personalized medicine. Thank you. +So when I do my job, people hate me. +In fact, the better I do my job, the more people hate me. +And no, I'm not a meter maid, and I'm not an undertaker. +I am a progressive lesbian talking head on Fox News. So y'all heard that, right? Just to make sure, right? +I am a gay talking head on Fox News. +I am going to tell you how I do it and the most important thing I've learned. +So I go on television. +I debate people who literally want to obliterate everything I believe in, in some cases, who don't want me and people like me to even exist. +It's sort of like Thanksgiving with your conservative uncle on steroids, with a live television audience of millions. +It's totally almost just like that. +And that's just on air. +The hate mail I get is unbelievable. +Last week alone, I got 238 pieces of nasty email and more hate tweets than I can even count. +I was called an idiot, a traitor, a scourge, a cunt, and an ugly man, and that was just in one email. +So what have I realized, being on the receiving end of all this ugliness? +Well, my biggest takeaway is that for decades, we've been focused on political correctness, but what matters more is emotional correctness. +Let me give you a small example. +I don't care if you call me a dyke. I really don't. +I care about two things. +One, I care that you spell it right. +Just quick refresher, it's D-Y-K-E. +You'd totally be surprised. +And second, I don't care about the word, I care about how you use it. +Are you being friendly? Are you just being naive? +Or do you really want to hurt me personally? +Emotional correctness is the tone, the feeling, how we say what we say, the respect and compassion we show one another. +And what I've realized is that political persuasion doesn't begin with ideas or facts or data. +Political persuasion begins with being emotionally correct. +So when I first went to go work at Fox News, true confession, I expected there to be marks in the carpet from all the knuckle-dragging. +That, by the way, in case you're paying attention, is not emotionally correct. +But liberals on my side, we can be self-righteous, we can be condescending, we can be dismissive of anyone who doesn't agree with us. +In other words, we can be politically right but emotionally wrong. +And incidentally, that means that people don't like us. Right? +Now here's the kicker. +Conservatives are really nice. +I mean, not all of them, and not the ones who send me hate mail, but you would be surprised. +Sean Hannity is one of the sweetest guys I've ever met. +He spends his free time trying to fix up his staff on blind dates, and I know that if I ever had a problem, he would do anything he could to help. +Now, I think Sean Hannity is 99 percent politically wrong, but his emotional correctness is strikingly impressive, and that's why people listen to him. +Because you can't get anyone to agree with you if they don't even listen to you first. +We spend so much time talking past each other and not enough time talking through our disagreements, and if we can start to find compassion for one another, then we have a shot at building common ground. +It actually sounds really hokey to say it standing up here, but when you try to put it in practice, it's really powerful. +So someone who says they hate immigrants, I try to imagine how scared they must be that their community is changing from what they've always known. +Or someone who says they don't like teachers' unions, I bet they're really devastated to see their kid's school going into the gutter, and they're just looking for someone to blame. +Our challenge is to find the compassion for others that we want them to have for us. +That is emotional correctness. +I'm not saying it's easy. +An average of, like, 5.6 times per day I have to stop myself from responding to all of my hate mail with a flurry of vile profanities. +This whole finding compassion and common ground with your enemies thing is kind of like a political-spiritual practice for me, and I ain't the Dalai Lama. +I'm not perfect, but what I am is optimistic, because I don't just get hate mail. +I get a lot of really nice letters, lots of them. +And one of my all-time favorites begins, "I am not a big fan of your political leanings or your sometimes tortured logic, but I'm a big fan of you as a person." +Now this guy doesn't agree with me, yet. +But he's listening, not because of what I said, but because of how I said it, and somehow, even though we've never met, we've managed to form a connection. +That's emotional correctness, and that's how we start the conversations that really lead to change. +Thank you. +(Aquatic noises) So this video was taken at Aquarius undersea laboratory four miles off the coast of Key Largo, about 60 feet below the surface. +NASA uses this extreme environment to train astronauts and aquanauts, and last year, they invited us along for the ride. +All the footage was taken from our open ROV, which is a robot that we built in our garage. +So ROV stands for Remote Operated Vehicle, which in our case means our little robot sends live video across that ultra-thin tether back to the computer topside. +It's open source, meaning we publish and share all of our design files and all of our code online, allowing anyone to modify or improve or change the design. +It's built with mostly off-the-shelf parts and costs about 1,000 times cheaper than the ROVs James Cameron used to explore the Titanic. +So ROVs aren't new. +They've been around for decades. +Scientists use ROVs to explore the oceans. +Oil and gas companies use them for exploration and construction. +What we've built isn't unique. +It's how we've built it that's really unique. +So I want to give you a quick story of how it got started. +So a few years ago, my friend Eric and I decided we wanted to explore this underwater cave in the foothills of the Sierras. +We had heard this story about lost gold from a Gold Rush-era robbery, and we wanted to go up there. +Unfortunately, we didn't have any money and we didn't have any tools to do it. +So Eric had an initial design idea for a robot, but we didn't have all the parts figured out, so we did what anybody would do in our situation: we asked the Internet for help. +We kept working on it. We learned a lot. +We kept prototyping, and eventually, we decided we wanted to go to the cave. We were ready. +So about that time, our little expedition became quite a story, and it got picked up in The New York Times. +And we were pretty much just overwhelmed with interest from people who wanted a kit that they could build this open ROV themselves. +So we decided to put the project on Kickstarter, and when we did, we raised our funding goal in about two hours, and all of a sudden, had this money to make these kits. +But then we had to learn how to make them. +I mean, we had to learn small batch manufacturing. +So we quickly learned that our garage was not big enough to hold our growing operation. +But we were able to do it, we got all the kits made, thanks a lot to TechShop, which was a big help to us, and we shipped these kits all over the world just before Christmas of last year, so it was just a few months ago. +But we're already starting to get video and photos back from all over the world, including this shot from under the ice in Antarctica. +We've also learned the penguins love robots. +So we're still publishing all the designs online, encouraging anyone to build these themselves. +That's the only way that we could have done this. +By being open source, we've created this distributed R&D network, and we're moving faster than any venture-backed counterpart. +But the actual robot is really only half the story. +The real potential, the long term potential, is with this community of DIY ocean explorers that are forming all over the globe. +What can we discover when there's thousands of these devices roaming the seas? +So you're probably all wondering: the cave. +Did you find the gold? +Well, we didn't find any gold, but we decided that what we found was much more valuable. +It was the glimpse into a potential future for ocean exploration. +It's something that's not limited to the James Camerons of the world, but something that we're all participating in. +It's an underwater world we're all exploring together. +Thank you. +Mobility in developing world cities is a very peculiar challenge, because different from health or education or housing, it tends to get worse as societies become richer. +Clearly, a unsustainable model. +Mobility, as most other developing country problems, more than a matter of money or technology, is a matter of equality, equity. +The great inequality in developing countries makes it difficult to see, for example, that in terms of transport, an advanced city is not one where even the poor use cars, but rather one where even the rich use public transport. +Or bicycles: For example, in Amsterdam, more than 30 percent of the population uses bicycles, despite the fact that the Netherlands has a higher income per capita than the United States. +There is a conflict in developing world cities for money, for government investment. +If more money is invested in highways, of course there is less money for housing, for schools, for hospitals, and also there is a conflict for space. +There is a conflict for space between those with cars and those without them. +Most of us accept today that private property and a market economy is the best way to manage most of society's resources. +However, there is a problem with that, that market economy needs inequality of income in order to work. +Some people must make more money, some others less. +Some companies succeed. Others fail. +Then what kind of equality can we hope for today with a market economy? +I would propose two kinds which both have much to do with cities. +The first one is equality of quality of life, especially for children, that all children should have, beyond the obvious health and education, access to green spaces, to sports facilities, to swimming pools, to music lessons. +And the second kind of equality is one which we could call "democratic equality." +The first article in every constitution states that all citizens are equal before the law. +That is not just poetry. +It's a very powerful principle. +For example, if that is true, a bus with 80 passengers has a right to 80 times more road space than a car with one. +We have been so used to inequality, sometimes, that it's before our noses and we do not see it. +Less than 100 years ago, women could not vote, and it seemed normal, in the same way that it seems normal today to see a bus in traffic. +In fact, when I became mayor, applying that democratic principle that public good prevails over private interest, that a bus with 100 people has a right to 100 times more road space than a car, we implemented a mass transit system based on buses in exclusive lanes. +We called it TransMilenio, in order to make buses sexier. +And one thing is that it is also a very beautiful democratic symbol, because as buses zoom by, expensive cars stuck in traffic, it clearly is almost a picture of democracy at work. +In fact, it's not just a matter of equity. +It doesn't take Ph.D.'s. +A committee of 12-year-old children would find out in 20 minutes that the most efficient way to use scarce road space is with exclusive lanes for buses. +In fact, buses are not sexy, but they are the only possible means to bring mass transit to all areas of fast growing developing cities. +They also have great capacity. +For example, this system in Guangzhou is moving more passengers our direction than all subway lines in China, except for one line in Beijing, at a fraction of the cost. +We fought not just for space for buses, but we fought for space for people, and that was even more difficult. +Cities are human habitats, and we humans are pedestrians. +Just as fish need to swim or birds need to fly or deer need to run, we need to walk. +There is a really enormous conflict, when we are talking about developing country cities, between pedestrians and cars. +Here, what you see is a picture that shows insufficient democracy. +What this shows is that people who walk are third-class citizens while those who go in cars are first-class citizens. +In terms of transport infrastructure, what really makes a difference between advanced and backward cities is not highways or subways but quality sidewalks. +Here they made a flyover, probably very useless, and they forgot to make a sidewalk. +This is prevailing all over the world. +Not even schoolchildren are more important than cars. +In my city of Bogot, we fought a very difficult battle in order to take space from cars, which had been parking on sidewalks for decades, in order to make space for people that should reflect dignity of human beings, and to make space for protected bikeways. +First of all, I had black hair before that. +And I was almost impeached in the process. +It is a very difficult battle. +However, it was possible, finally, after very difficult battles, to make a city that would reflect some respect for human dignity, that would show that those who walk are equally important to those who have cars. +Indeed, a very important ideological and political issue anywhere is how to distribute that most valuable resource of a city, which is road space. +A city could find oil or diamonds underground and it would not be so valuable as road space. +How to distribute it between pedestrians, bicycles, public transport and cars? +This is not a technological issue, and we should remember that in no constitution parking is a constitutional right when we make that distribution. +We also built, and this was 15 years ago, before there were bikeways in New York or in Paris or in London, it was a very difficult battle as well, more than 350 kilometers of protected bicycle ways. +I don't think protected bicycle ways are a cute architectural feature. +They are a right, just as sidewalks are, unless we believe that only those with access to a motor vehicle have a right to safe mobility, without the risk of getting killed. +And just as busways are, protected bikeways also are a powerful symbol of democracy, because they show that a citizen on a $30 bicycle is equally important to one in a $30,000 car. +And we are living in a unique moment in history. +In the next 50 years, more than half of those cities which will exist in the year 2060 will be built. +In many developing country cities, more than 80 and 90 percent of the city which will exist in 2060 will be built over the next four or five decades. +But this is not just a matter for developing country cities. +In the United States, for example, more than 70 million new homes must be built over the next 40 or 50 years. +That's more than all the homes that today exist in Britain, France and Canada put together. +And I believe that our cities today have severe flaws, and that different, better ones could be built. +What is wrong with our cities today? +Well, for example, if we tell any three-year-old child who is barely learning to speak in any city in the world today, "Watch out, a car," the child will jump in fright, and with a very good reason, because there are more than 10,000 children who are killed by cars every year in the world. +We have had cities for 8,000 years, and children could walk out of home and play. +In fact, only very recently, towards 1900, there were no cars. +Cars have been here for really less than 100 years. +They completely changed cities. +In 1900, for example, nobody was killed by cars in the United States. +Only 20 years later, between 1920 and 1930, almost 200,000 people were killed by cars in the United States. +Only in 1925, almost 7,000 children were killed by cars in the United States. +So we could make different cities, cities that will give more priority to human beings than to cars, that will give more public space to human beings than to cars, cities which show great respect for those most vulnerable citizens, such as children or the elderly. +I will propose to you a couple of ingredients which I think would make cities much better, and it would be very simple to implement them in the new cities which are only being created. +Hundreds of kilometers of greenways criss-crossing cities in all directions. +Children will walk out of homes into safe spaces. +They could go for dozens of kilometers safely without any risk in wonderful greenways, sort of bicycle highways, and I would invite you to imagine the following: a city in which every other street would be a street only for pedestrians and bicycles. +In new cities which are going to be built, this would not be particularly difficult. +When I was mayor of Bogot, in only three years, we were able to create 70 kilometers, in one of the most dense cities in the world, of these bicycle highways. +And this changes the way people live, move, enjoy the city. +In this picture, you see in one of the very poor neighborhoods, we have a luxury pedestrian bicycle street, and the cars still in the mud. +Of course, I would love to pave this street for cars. +But what do we do first? +Ninety-nine percent of the people in those neighborhoods don't have cars. +But you see, when a city is only being created, it's very easy to incorporate this kind of infrastructure. +Then the city grows around it. +And of course this is just a glimpse of something which could be much better if we just create it, and it changes the way of life. +And the second ingredient, which would solve mobility, that very difficult challenge in developing countries, in a very low-cost and simple way, would be to have hundreds of kilometers of streets only for buses, buses and bicycles and pedestrians. +This would be, again, a very low-cost solution if implemented from the start, low cost, pleasant transit with natural sunlight. +But unfortunately, reality is not as good as my dreams. +Because of private property of land and high land prices, all developing country cities have a large problem of slums. +In my country of Colombia, almost half the homes in cities initially were illegal developments. +And of course it's very difficult to have mass transit or to use bicycles in such environments. +But even legal developments have also been located in the wrong places, very far from the city centers where it's impossible to provide low-cost, high-frequency public transport. +In this way, their cities could grow in the right places with the right spaces, with the parks, with the greenways, with the busways. +The cities we are going to build over the next 50 years will determine quality of life and even happiness for billions of people towards the future. +What a fantastic opportunity for leaders and many young leaders to come, especially in the developing countries. +They can create a much happier life for billions towards the future. +I am sure, I am optimistic, that they will make cities better than our most ambitious dreams. +A couple of years ago, Harvard Business School chose the best business model of that year. +It chose Somali piracy. +Pretty much around the same time, I discovered that there were 544 seafarers being held hostage on ships, often anchored just off the Somali coast in plain sight. +And I learned these two facts, and I thought, what's going on in shipping? +And I thought, would that happen in any other industry? +Would we see 544 airline pilots held captive in their jumbo jets on a runway for months, or a year? +Would we see 544 Greyhound bus drivers? +It wouldn't happen. +So I started to get intrigued. +And I discovered another fact, which to me was more astonishing almost for the fact that I hadn't known it before at the age of 42, 43. +That is how fundamentally we still depend on shipping. +Because perhaps the general public thinks of shipping as an old-fashioned industry, something brought by sailboat with Moby Dicks and Jack Sparrows. +But shipping isn't that. +Shipping is as crucial to us as it has ever been. +Shipping brings us 90 percent of world trade. +Shipping has quadrupled in size since 1970. +We are more dependent on it now than ever. +And yet, for such an enormous industry -- there are a 100,000 working vessels on the sea it's become pretty much invisible. +Now that sounds absurd in Singapore to say that, because here shipping is so present that you stuck a ship on top of a hotel. +But elsewhere in the world, if you ask the general public what they know about shipping and how much trade is carried by sea, you will get essentially a blank face. +You will ask someone on the street if they've heard of Microsoft. +I should think they'll say yes, because they'll know that they make software that goes on computers, and occasionally works. +But if you ask them if they've heard of Maersk, I doubt you'd get the same response, even though Maersk, which is just one shipping company amongst many, has revenues pretty much on a par with Microsoft. +[$60.2 billion] Now why is this? +A few years ago, the first sea lord of the British admiralty -- he is called the first sea lord, although the chief of the army is not called a land lord he said that we, and he meant in the industrialized nations in the West, that we suffer from sea blindness. +We are blind to the sea as a place of industry or of work. +It's just something we fly over, a patch of blue on an airline map. +Nothing to see, move along. +So I wanted to open my own eyes to my own sea blindness, so I ran away to sea. +A couple of years ago, I took a passage on the Maersk Kendal, a mid-sized container ship carrying nearly 7,000 boxes, and I departed from Felixstowe, on the south coast of England, and I ended up right here in Singapore five weeks later, considerably less jet-lagged than I am right now. +And it was a revelation. +We traveled through five seas, two oceans, nine ports, and I learned a lot about shipping. +And one of the first things that surprised me when I got on board Kendal was, where are all the people? +I have friends in the Navy who tell me they sail with 1,000 sailors at a time, but on Kendal there were only 21 crew. +Now that's because shipping is very efficient. +Containerization has made it very efficient. +Ships have automation now. +They can operate with small crews. +So most seafarers now working on container ships often have less than two hours in port at a time. +They don't have time to relax. +They're at sea for months at a time, and even when they're on board, they don't have access to what a five-year-old would take for granted, the Internet. +On the next table was a Chinese guy, and in the crew room, it was entirely Filipinos. +So that was a normal working ship. +Now how is that possible? +Because the biggest dramatic change in shipping over the last 60 years, when most of the general public stopped noticing it, was something called an open registry, or a flag of convenience. +Ships can now fly the flag of any nation that provides a flag registry. +You can get a flag from the landlocked nation of Bolivia, or Mongolia, or North Korea, though that's not very popular. +So we have these very multinational, global, mobile crews on ships. +And that was a surprise to me. +And when we got to pirate waters, down the Bab-el-Mandeb strait and into the Indian Ocean, the ship changed. +And that was also shocking, because suddenly, I realized, as the captain said to me, that I had been crazy to choose to go through pirate waters on a container ship. +We were no longer allowed on deck. +There were double pirate watches. +And at that time, there were those 544 seafarers being held hostage, and some of them were held hostage for years because of the nature of shipping and the flag of convenience. +Not all of them, but some of them were, because for the minority of unscrupulous ship owners, it can be easy to hide behind the anonymity offered by some flags of convenience. +What else does our sea blindness mask? +Well, if you go out to sea on a ship or on a cruise ship, and look up to the funnel, you'll see very black smoke. +And that's because shipping has very tight margins, and they want cheap fuel, so they use something called bunker fuel, which was described to me by someone in the tanker industry as the dregs of the refinery, or just one step up from asphalt. +And shipping is the greenest method of transport. +In terms of carbon emissions per ton per mile, it emits about a thousandth of aviation and about a tenth of trucking. +But it's not benign, because there's so much of it. +So shipping emissions are about three to four percent, almost the same as aviation's. +And if you put shipping emissions on a list of the countries' carbon emissions, it would come in about sixth, somewhere near Germany. +It was calculated in 2009 that the 15 largest ships pollute in terms of particles and soot and noxious gases as much as all the cars in the world. +And the good news is that people are now talking about sustainable shipping. +There are interesting initiatives going on. +But why has it taken so long? +When are we going to start talking and thinking about shipping miles as well as air miles? +I also traveled to Cape Cod to look at the plight of the North Atlantic right whale, because this to me was one of the most surprising things about my time at sea, and what it made me think about. +We know about man's impact on the ocean in terms of fishing and overfishing, but we don't really know much about what's happening underneath the water. +And in fact, shipping has a role to play here, because shipping noise has contributed to damaging the acoustic habitats of ocean creatures. +Light doesn't penetrate beneath the surface of the water, so ocean creatures like whales and dolphins and even 800 species of fish communicate by sound. +And a North Atlantic right whale can transmit across hundreds of miles. +A humpback can transmit a sound across a whole ocean. +But a supertanker can also be heard coming across a whole ocean, and because the noise that propellers make underwater is sometimes at the same frequency that whales use, then it can damage their acoustic habitat, and they need this for breeding, for finding feeding grounds, for finding mates. +And the acoustic habitat of the North Atlantic right whale has been reduced by up to 90 percent. +But there are no laws governing acoustic pollution yet. +And when I arrived in Singapore, and I apologize for this, but I didn't want to get off my ship. +I'd really loved being on board Kendal. +I'd been well treated by the crew, I'd had a garrulous and entertaining captain, and I would happily have signed up for another five weeks, something that the captain also said I was crazy to think about. +But I wasn't there for nine months at a time like the Filipino seafarers, who, when I asked them to describe their job to me, called it "dollar for homesickness." +They had good salaries, but theirs is still an isolating and difficult life in a dangerous and often difficult element. +But when I get to this part, I'm in two minds, because I want to salute those seafarers who bring us 90 percent of everything and get very little thanks or recognition for it. +I want to salute the 100,000 ships that are at sea that are doing that work, coming in and out every day, bringing us what we need. +But I also want to see shipping, and us, the general public, who know so little about it, to have a bit more scrutiny, to be a bit more transparent, to have 90 percent transparency. +Because I think we could all benefit from doing something very simple, which is learning to see the sea. +Thank you. +I would like to show you how architecture has helped to change the life of my community and has opened opportunities to hope. +I am a native of Burkina Faso. +According to the World Bank, Burkina Faso is one of the poorest countries in the world, but what does it look like to grow up in a place like that? +I am an example of that. +I was born in a little village called Gando. +In Gando, there was no electricity, no access to clean drinking water, and no school. +But my father wanted me to learn how to read and write. +For this reason, I had to leave my family when I was seven and to stay in a city far away from my village with no contact with my family. +In this place I sat in a class like that with more than 150 other kids, and for six years. +In this time, it just happened to me to come to school to realize that my classmate died. +Today, not so much has changed. +There is still no electricity in my village. +People still are dying in Burkina Faso, and access to clean drinking water is still a big problem. +I had luck. I was lucky, because this is a fact of life when you grow up in a place like that. +But I was lucky. +I had a scholarship. +I could go to Germany to study. +So now, I suppose, I don't need to explain to you how great a privilege it is for me to be standing before you today. +From Gando, my home village in Burkina Faso, to Berlin in Germany to become an architect is a big, big step. +But what to do with this privilege? +Since I was a student, I wanted to open up better opportunities to other kids in Gando. +I just wanted to use my skills and build a school. +But how do you do it when you're still a student and you don't have money? +Oh yes, I started to make drawings and asked for money. +Fundraising was not an easy task. +I even asked my classmates to spend less money on coffee and cigarettes, but to sponsor my school project. +In real wonder, two years later, I was able to collect 50,000 U.S. dollars. +When I came home to Gando to bring the good news, my people were over the moon, but when they realized that I was planning to use clay, they were shocked. +"A clay building is not able to stand a rainy season, and Francis wants us to use it and build a school. +Is this the reason why he spent so much time in Europe studying instead of working in the field with us?" +My people build all the time with clay, but they don't see any innovation with mud. +So I had to convince everybody. +I started to speak with the community, and I could convince everybody, and we could start to work. +And the women, the men, everybody from the village, was part of this building process. +I was allowed to use even traditional techniques. +So clay floor for example, the young men come and stand like that, beating, hours for hours, and then their mothers came, and they are beating in this position, for hours, giving water and beating. +And then the polishers come. +They start polishing it with a stone for hours. +And then you have this result, very fine, like a baby bottom. +It's not photoshopped. This is the school, built with the community. +The walls are totally made out of compressed clay blocks from Gando. +The roof structure is made with cheap steel bars normally hiding inside concrete. +And the classroom, the ceiling is made out of both of them used together. +In this school, there was a simple idea: to create comfort in a classroom. +Don't forget, it can be 45 degrees in Burkina Faso, so with simple ventilation, I wanted to make the classroom good for teaching and learning. +And this is the project today, 12 years old, still in best condition. +And the kids, they love it. +And for me and my community, this project was a huge success. +It has opened up opportunities to do more projects in Gando. +So I could do a lot of projects, and here I am going to share with you only three of them. +The first one is the school extension, of course. +How do you explain drawings and engineering to people who are neither able to read nor write? +I started to build a prototype like that. +The innovation was to build a clay vault. +So then, I jumped on the top like that, with my team, and it works. +The community is looking. It still works. +So we can build. And we kept building, and that is the result. +The kids are happy, and they love it. +The community is very proud. We made it. +And even animals, like these donkeys, love our buildings. +The next project is the library in Gando. +And see now, we tried to introduce different ideas in our buildings, but we often don't have so much material. +Something we have in Gando are clay pots. +We wanted to use them to create openings. +So we just bring them like you can see to the building site. +we start cutting them, and then we place them on top of the roof before we pour the concrete, and you have this result. +The openings are letting the hot air out and light in. +Very simple. +My most recent project in Gando is a high school project. +I would like to share with you this. +The innovation in this project is to cast mud like you cast concrete. +How do you cast mud? +We start making a lot of mortars, like you can see, and when everything is ready, when you know what is the best recipe and the best form, you start working with the community. +And sometimes I can leave. +They will do it themselves. +I came to speak to you like that. +Another factor in Gando is rain. +When the rains come, we hurry up to protect our fragile walls against the rain. +Don't confound with Christo and Jeanne-Claude. +It is simply how we protect our walls. +The rain in Burkina comes very fast, and after that, you have floods everywhere in the country. +But for us, the rain is good. +It brings sand and gravel to the river we need to use to build. +We just wait for the rain to go. +We take the sand, we mix it with clay, and we keep building. +That is it. +The Gando project was always connected to training the people, because I just wanted, one day when I fall down and die, that at least one person from Gando keeps doing this work. +But you will be surprised. I'm still alive. +And my people now can use their skills to earn money themselves. +Usually, for a young man from Gando to earn money, you have to leave the country to the city, sometimes leave the country and some never come back, making the community weaker. +But now they can stay in the country and work on different building sites and earn money to feed their family. +There's a new quality in this work. +Yes, you know it. +I have won a lot of awards through this work. +For sure, it has opened opportunities. +I have become myself known. +But the reason why I do what I do is my community. +When I was a kid, I was going to school, I was coming back every holiday to Gando. +By the end of every holidays, I had to say goodbye to the community, going from one compound to another one. +All women in Gando will open their clothes like that and give me the last penny. +In my culture, this is a symbol of deep affection. +As a seven-year-old guy, I was impressed. +I just asked my mother one day, "Why do all these women love me so much?" +She just answered, "They are contributing to pay for your education hoping that you will be successful and one day come back and help improve the quality of life of the community." +I hope now that I was able to make my community proud through this work, and I hope I was able to prove you the power of community, and to show you that architecture can be inspiring for communities to shape their own future. +Merci beaucoup. Thank you. Thank you. Thank you. Thank you. +Thank you. Thank you. +So how many of you have ever been in a cave before? +Okay, a few of you. +When you think of a cave, most of you think of a tunnel going through solid rock, and in fact, that's how most caves are. +Around this half of the country, most of your caves are made of limestone. +Back where I'm from, most of our caves are made of lava rock, because we have a lot of volcanoes out there. +But the caves I want to share with you today are made completely of ice, specifically glacier ice that's formed in the side of the tallest mountain in the state of Oregon, called Mount Hood. +Now Mount Hood's only one hour's drive from Portland, the largest city in Oregon, where over two million people live. +Now the most exciting thing for a cave explorer is to find a new cave and be the first human to ever go into it. +The second most exciting thing for a cave explorer is to be the first one to make a map of a cave. +Now these days, with so many people hiking around, it's pretty hard to find a new cave, so you can imagine how excited we were to find three new caves within sight of Oregon's largest city and realize that they had never been explored or mapped before. +It was kind of like being an astronaut, because we were getting to see things and go places that no one had ever seen or gone to before. +So what is a glacier? +Well, those of you who have ever seen or touched snow, you know that it's really light, because it's just a bunch of tiny ice crystals clumped together, and it's mostly air. +If you squish a handful of snow to make a snowball, it gets really small, hard and dense. +Well, on a mountain like Hood, where it snows over 20 feet a year, it crushes the air out of it and gradually forms it into hard blue ice. +Now each year, more and more ice stacks up on top of it, and eventually it gets so heavy that it starts to slide down the mountain under its own weight, forming a slow-moving river of ice. +When ice packed like that starts to move, we call it a glacier, and we give it a name. +The name of the glacier these caves are formed in is the Sandy Glacier. +Now each year, as new snow lands on the glacier, it melts in the summer sun, and it forms little rivers of water on the flow along the ice, and they start to melt and bore their way down through the glacier, forming big networks of caves, sometimes going all the way down to the underlying bedrock. +Now the crazy thing about glacier caves is that each year, new tunnels form. +Different waterfalls pop up or move around from place to place inside the cave. +Warm water from the top of the ice is boring its way down, and warm air from below the mountain actually rises up, gets into the cave, and melts the ceilings back taller and taller. +But the weirdest thing about glacier caves is that the entire cave is moving, because it's formed inside a block of ice the size of a small city that's slowly sliding down the mountain. +Now this is Brent McGregor, my cave exploration partner. +He and I have both been exploring caves a long time and we've been climbing mountains a long time, but neither one of us had ever really explored a glacier cave before. +Back in 2011, Brent saw a YouTube video of a couple of hikers that stumbled across the entrance to one of these caves. +There were no GPS coordinates for it, and all we knew was that it was somewhere out on the Sandy Glacier. +So in July of that year, we went out on the glacier, and we found a big crack in the ice. +We had to build snow and ice anchors so that we could tie off ropes and rappel down into the hole. +This is me looking into the entrance crevasse. +At the end of this hole, we found a huge tunnel going right up the mountain underneath thousands of tons of glacier ice. +We followed this cave back for about a half mile until it came to an end, and then with the help of our survey tools we made a three-dimensional map of the cave on our way back out. +So how do you map a cave? +Well, cave maps aren't like trail maps or road maps because they have pits and holes going to overlapping levels. +To make a cave map, you have to set up survey stations every few feet inside the cave, and you use a laser to measure the distance between those stations. +Then you use a compass and an inclinometer to measure the direction the cave is headed and measure the slope of the floor and the ceilings. +Now those of you taking trigonometry, that particular type of math is very useful for making maps like this because it allows you to measure heights and distances without actually having to go there. +In fact, the more I mapped and studied caves, the more useful I found all that math that I originally hated in school to be. +We named this cave Snow Dragon Cave because it was like a big dragon sleeping under the snow. +Now later this summer, as more snow melted off the glacier, we found more caves, and we realized they were all connected. +Not long after we mapped Snow Dragon, Brent discovered this new cave not very far away. +The inside of it was coated with ice, so we had to wear big spikes on our feet called crampons so we could walk around without slipping. +This cave was amazing. +The ice in the ceiling was glowing blue anad green because the sunlight from far above was shining through the ice and lighting it all up. +And we couldn't understand why this cave was so much colder than Snow Dragon until we got to the end and we found out why. +There was a huge pit or shaft called a moulin going 130 feet straight up to the surface of the glacier. +Cold air from the top of the mountain was flowing down this hole and blasting through the cave, freezing everything inside of it. +And we were so excited about finding this new pit, we actually came back in January the following year so we could be the first ones to explore it. +It was so cold outside, we actually had to sleep inside the cave. +There's our camp on the left side of this entrance room. +The next morning, we climbed out of the cave and hiked all the way to the top of the glacier, where we finally rigged and rappelled this pit for the very first time. +Brent named this cave Pure Imagination, I think because the beautiful sights we saw in there were beyond what we could have ever imagined. +So besides really cool ice, what else is inside these caves? +Well not too much lives in them because they're so cold and the entrance is actually covered up with snow for about eight months of the year. +But there are some really cool things in there. +There's weird bacteria living in the water that actually eat and digest rocks to make their own food to live under this ice. +In fact, this past summer, scientists collected samples of water and ice specifically to see if things called extremophiles, tiny lifeforms that are evolved to live in completely hostile conditions, might be living under the ice, kind of like what they hope to find on the polar icecaps of Mars someday. +Another really cool things is that, as seeds and birds land on the surface of the glacier and die, they get buried in the snow and gradually become part of the glacier, sinking deeper and deeper into the ice. +As these caves form and melt their way up into the ice, they make these artifacts rain down from the ceiling and fall onto the cave floor, where we end up finding them. +For example, this is a noble fir seed we found. +It's been frozen in the ice for over 100 years, and it's just now starting to sprout. +This mallard duck feather was found over 1,800 feet in the back of Snow Dragon Cave. +This duck died on the surface of the glacier long, long ago, and its feathers have finally made it down through over 100 feet of ice before falling inside the cave. +And this beautiful quartz crystal was also found in the back of Snow Dragon. +Even now, Brent and I find it hard to believe that all these discoveries were essentially in our own backyard, hidden away, just waiting to be found. +Like I said earlier, the idea of discovering in this busy world we live in kind of seems like something you can only do with space travel now, but that's not true. +Every year, new caves get discovered that no one has ever been in before. +So it's actually not too late for one of you to become a discoverer yourself. +You just have to be willing to look and go where people don't often go and focus your eyes and your mind to recognize the discovery when you see it, because it might be in your own backyard. +Thank you very much. +I'm a man who's trying to live from his heart, and so just before I get going, I wanted to tell you as a South African that one of the men who has inspired me most passed away a few hours ago. +Nelson Mandela has come to the end of his long walk to freedom. +And so this talk is going to be for him. +I grew up in wonder. +I grew up amongst those animals. +I grew up in the wild eastern part of South Africa at a place called Londolozi Game Reserve. +It's a place where my family has been in the safari business for four generations. +Now for as long as I can remember, my job has been to take people out into nature, and so I think it's a lovely twist of fate today to have the opportunity to bring some of my experiences out in nature in to this gathering. +Africa is a place where people still sit under starlit skies and around campfires and tell stories, and so what I have to share with you today is the simple medicine of a few campfire stories, stories about heroes of heart. +Now my stories are not the stories that you'll hear on the news, and while it's true that Africa is a harsh place, I also know it to be a place where people, animals and ecosystems teach us about a more interconnected world. +When I was nine years old, President Mandela came to stay with my family. +He had just been released from his 27 years of incarceration, and was in a period of readjustment to his sudden global icon status. +Members of the African National Congress thought that in the bush he would have time to rest and recuperate away from the public eye, and it's true that lions tend to be a very good deterrent to press and paparazzi. +But it was a defining time for me as a young boy. +I would take him breakfast in bed, and then, in an old track suit and slippers, he would go for a walk around the garden. +At night, I would sit with my family around the snowy, bunny-eared TV, and watch images of that same quiet man from the garden surrounded by hundreds and thousands of people as scenes from his release were broadcast nightly. +He was bringing peace to a divided and violent South Africa, one man with an unbelievable sense of his humanity. +Mandela said often that the gift of prison was the ability to go within and to think, to create in himself the things he most wanted for South Africa: peace, reconciliation, harmony. +Through this act of immense open-heartedness, he was to become the embodiment of what in South Africa we call "ubuntu." +Ubuntu: I am because of you. +Or, people are not people without other people. +It's not a new idea or value but it's one that I certainly think at these times is worth building on. +In fact, it is said that in the collective consciousness of Africa, we get to experience the deepest parts of our own humanity through our interactions with others. +Ubuntu is at play right now. +You are holding a space for me to express the deepest truth of who I am. +Without you, I'm just a guy talking to an empty room, and I spent a lot of time last week doing that, and it's not the same as this. +If Mandela was the national and international embodiment, then the man who taught me the most about this value personally was this man, Solly Mhlongo. +Solly was born under a tree 60 kilometers from where I grew up in Mozambique. +He would never have a lot of money, but he was to be one of the richest men I would ever meet. +Solly grew up tending to his father's cattle. +Now, I can tell you, I don't know what it is about people who grow up looking after cattle, but it makes for ber-resourcefulness. +The first job that he ever got in the safari business was fixing the safari trucks. +Where he had learned to do that out in the bush I have no idea, but he could do it. +He then moved across into what we called the habitat team. +These were the people on the reserve who were responsible for its well-being. +He fixed roads, he mended wetlands, he did some anti-poaching. +And then one day we were out together, and he came across the tracks of where a female leopard had walked. +And it was an old track, but for fun he turned and he began to follow it, and I tell you, I could tell by the speed at which he moved on those pad marks that this man was a Ph.D.-level tracker. +If you drove past Solly somewhere out on the reserve, you look up in your rearview mirror, you'd see he'd stopped the car 20, 50 meters down the road just in case you need help with something. +The only accusation I ever heard leveled at him was when one of our clients said, "Solly, you are pathologically helpful." +When I started professionally guiding people out into this environment, Solly was my tracker. +We worked together as a team. +And the first guests we ever got were a philanthropy group from your East Coast, and they said to Solly, on the side, they said, "Before we even go out to see lions and leopards, we want to see where you live." +So we took them up to his house, and this visit of the philanthropist to his house coincided with a time when Solly's wife, who was learning English, was going through a phase where she would open the door by saying, "Hello, I love you. +Welcome, I love you." And there was something so beautifully African about it to me, this small house with a huge heart in it. +Now on the day that Solly saved my life, he was already my hero. +It was a hot day, and we found ourselves down by the river. +Because of the heat, I took my shoes off, and I rolled up my pants, and I walked into the water. +Solly remained on the bank. +The water was clear running over sand, and we turned and we began to make our way upstream. +And a few meters ahead of us, there was a place where a tree had fallen out of the bank, and its branches were touching the water, and it was shadowy. +And if had been a horror movie, people in the audience would have started saying, "Don't go in there. Don't go in there." And of course, the crocodile was in the shadows. +Now the first thing that you notice when a crocodile hits you is the ferocity of the bite. +Wham! It hits me by my right leg. +It pulls me. It turns. I throw my hand up. I'm able to grab a branch. +It's shaking me violently. +It's a very strange sensation having another creature try and eat you, and there are few things that promote vegetarianism like that. +Solly on the bank sees that I'm in trouble. +He turns. He begins to make his way to me. +The croc again continues to shake me. +It goes to bite me a second time. +I notice a slick of blood in the water around me that gets washed downstream. +As it bites the second time, I kick. +My foot goes down its throat. It spits me out. +I pull myself up into the branches, and as I come out of the water, I look over my shoulder. +My leg from the knee down is mangled beyond description. +The bone is cracked. +The meat is torn up. +I make an instant decision that I'll never look at that again. +As I come out of the water, Solly arrives at a deep section, a channel between us. +He knows, he sees the state of my leg, he knows that between him and I there is a crocodile, and I can tell you this man doesn't slow down for one second. +He comes straight into the channel. +He wades in to above his waist. +He gets to me. He grabs me. +I'm still in a vulnerable position. +He picks me and puts me on his shoulder. +This is the other thing about Solly, he's freakishly strong. +He turns. He walks me up the bank. +He lays me down. He pulls his shirt off. +He wraps it around my leg, picks me up a second time, walks me to a vehicle, and he's able to get me to medical attention. +And I survive. +Now Now I don't know how many people you know that go into a deep channel of water that they know has a crocodile in it to come and help you, but for Solly, it was as natural as breathing. +And he is one amazing example of what I have experienced all over Africa. +In a more collective society, we realize from the inside that our own well-being is deeply tied to the well-being of others. +Danger is shared. Pain is shared. +Joy is shared. Achievement is shared. +Houses are shared. Food is shared. +Ubuntu asks us to open our hearts and to share, and what Solly taught me that day is the essence of this value, his animated, empathetic action in every moment. +Now although the root word is about people, I thought that maybe ubuntu was only about people. +And then I met this young lady. +Her name was Elvis. +In fact, Solly gave her the name Elvis because he said she walked like she was doing the Elvis the pelvis dance. +She was born with very badly deformed back legs and pelvis. +She arrived at our reserve from a reserve east of us on her migratory route. +When I first saw her, I thought she would be dead in a matter of days. +And yet, for the next five years she returned in the winter months. +And we would be so excited to be out in the bush and to come across this unusual track. +It looked like an inverted bracket, and we would drop whatever we were doing and we would follow, and then we would come around the corner, and there she would be with her herd. +And that outpouring of emotion from people on our safari trucks as they saw her, it was this sense of kinship. +And it reminded me that even people who grow up in cities feel a natural connection with the natural world and with animals. +And yet still I remained amazed that she was surviving. +And then one day we came across them at this small water hole. +It was sort of a hollow in the ground. +And I watched as the matriarch drank, and then she turned in that beautiful slow motion of elephants, looks like the arm in motion, and she began to make her way up the steep bank. +The rest of the herd turned and began to follow. +And I watched young Elvis begin to psych herself up for the hill. +She got visibly -- ears came forward, she had a full go of it and halfway up, her legs gave way, and she fell backwards. +She attempted it a second time, and again, halfway up, she fell backwards. +And on the third attempt, an amazing thing happened. +Halfway up the bank, a young teenage elephant came in behind her, and he propped his trunk underneath her, and he began to shovel her up the bank. +And it occurred to me that the rest of the herd was in fact looking after this young elephant. +The next day I watched again as the matriarch broke a branch and she would put it in her mouth, and then she would break a second one and drop it on the ground. +And a consensus developed between all of us who were guiding people in that area that that herd was in fact moving slower to accommodate that elephant. +What Elvis and the herd taught me caused me to expand my definition of ubuntu, and I believe that in the cathedral of the wild, we get to see the most beautiful parts of ourselves reflected back at us. +And it is not only through other people that we get to experience our humanity but through all the creatures that live on this planet. +If Africa has a gift to share, it's a gift of a more collective society. +And while it's true that ubuntu is an African idea, what I see is the essence of that value being invented here. +Thank you. +Pat Mitchell: So Boyd, we know that you knew President Mandela from early childhood and that you heard the news as we all did today, and deeply distraught and know the tragic loss that it is to the world. +But I just wondered if you wanted to share any additional thoughts, because we know that you heard that news just before coming in to do this session. +Boyd Varty: Well thanks, Pat. +I'm so happy because it was time for him to pass on. +He was suffering. +And so of course there's the mixed emotions. +But I just think of so many occurrences like the time he went on the Oprah show and asked her what the show would be about. +And she was like, "Well, it'll be about you." +I mean, that's just incredible humility. +He was the father of our nation and we've got a road to walk in South Africa. +And everything, they used to call it Madiba magic. +You know, he used to go to a rugby match and we would win. +Anywhere he went, things went well. +But I think that magic will be with us, and the important thing is that we carry what he stood for. +And so that's what I'm going to try and do, and that's what people all over South Africa are trying to do. +PM: And that's what you've done today. BV: Oh, thank you. +PM: Thank you. BV: Thank you. Thanks very much. +I have a question: Who here remembers when they first realized they were going to die? +I do. I was a young boy, and my grandfather had just died, and I remember a few days later lying in bed at night trying to make sense of what had happened. +What did it mean that he was dead? +Where had he gone? +It was like a hole in reality had opened up and swallowed him. +But then the really shocking question occurred to me: If he could die, could it happen to me too? +Could that hole in reality open up and swallow me? +Would it open up beneath my bed and swallow me as I slept? +Well, at some point, all children become aware of death. +It can happen in different ways, of course, and usually comes in stages. +Our idea of death develops as we grow older. +And if you reach back into the dark corners of your memory, you might remember something like what I felt when my grandfather died and when I realized it could happen to me too, that sense that behind all of this the void is waiting. +And this development in childhood reflects the development of our species. +This is, if you like, our curse. +It's the price we pay for being so damn clever. +We have to live in the knowledge that the worst thing that can possibly happen one day surely will, the end of all our projects, our hopes, our dreams, of our individual world. +We each live in the shadow of a personal apocalypse. +And that's frightening. It's terrifying. +And so we look for a way out. +And in my case, as I was about five years old, this meant asking my mum. +Now this didn't sound very plausible. +I used to watch a children's news program at the time, and this was the era of space exploration. +There were always rockets going up into the sky, up into space, going up there. +But none of the astronauts when they came back ever mentioned having met my granddad or any other dead people. +But I was scared, and the idea of taking the existential elevator to see my granddad sounded a lot better than being swallowed by the void while I slept. +And so I believed it anyway, even though it didn't make much sense. +And this thought process that I went through as a child, and have been through many times since, including as a grown-up, is a product of what psychologists call a bias. +Now we can see this as the biggest bias of all. +It has been demonstrated in over 400 empirical studies. +Now these studies are ingenious, but they're simple. +They work like this. +You take two groups of people who are similar in all relevant respects, and you remind one group that they're going to die but not the other, then you compare their behavior. +So you're observing how it biases behavior when people become aware of their mortality. +And every time, you get the same result: People who are made aware of their mortality are more willing to believe stories that tell them they can escape death and live forever. +So here's an example: One recent study took two groups of agnostics, that is people who are undecided in their religious beliefs. +Now, one group was asked to think about being dead. +The other group was asked to think about being lonely. +They were then asked again about their religious beliefs. +Those who had been asked to think about being dead were afterwards twice as likely to express faith in God and Jesus. +Twice as likely. +Even though the before they were all equally agnostic. +But put the fear of death in them, and they run to Jesus. +This is a bias that has shaped the course of human history. +Now, the theory behind this bias in the over 400 studies is called terror management theory, and the idea is simple. It's just this. +We develop our worldviews, that is, the stories we tell ourselves about the world and our place in it, in order to help us manage the terror of death. +And these immortality stories have thousands of different manifestations, but I believe that behind the apparent diversity there are actually just four basic forms that these immortality stories can take. +And we can see them repeating themselves throughout history, just with slight variations to reflect the vocabulary of the day. +Now I'm going to briefly introduce these four basic forms of immortality story, and I want to try to give you some sense of the way in which they're retold by each culture or generation using the vocabulary of their day. +Now, the first story is the simplest. +Ancient Egypt had such myths, ancient Babylon, ancient India. +Throughout European history, we find them in the work of the alchemists, and of course we still believe this today, only we tell this story using the vocabulary of science. +So 100 years ago, hormones had just been discovered, and people hoped that hormone treatments were going to cure aging and disease, and now instead we set our hopes on stem cells, genetic engineering, and nanotechnology. +But the idea that science can cure death is just one more chapter in the story of the magical elixir, a story that is as old as civilization. +But betting everything on the idea of finding the elixir and staying alive forever is a risky strategy. +When we look back through history at all those who have sought an elixir in the past, the one thing they now have in common is that they're all dead. +So we need a backup plan, and exactly this kind of plan B is what the second kind of immortality story offers, and that's resurrection. +And it stays with the idea that I am this body, I am this physical organism. +It accepts that I'm going to have to die but says, despite that, I can rise up and I can live again. +In other words, I can do what Jesus did. +Jesus died, he was three days in the [tomb], and then he rose up and lived again. +And the idea that we can all be resurrected to live again is orthodox believe, not just for Christians but also Jews and Muslims. +But our desire to believe this story is so deeply embedded that we are reinventing it again for the scientific age, for example, with the idea of cryonics. +That's the idea that when you die, you can have yourself frozen, and then, at some point when technology has advanced enough, you can be thawed out and repaired and revived and so resurrected. +And so some people believe an omnipotent god will resurrect them to live again, and other people believe an omnipotent scientist will do it. +But for others, the whole idea of resurrection, of climbing out of the grave, it's just too much like a bad zombie movie. +They find the body too messy, too unreliable to guarantee eternal life, and so they set their hopes on the third, more spiritual immortality story, the idea that we can leave our body behind and live on as a soul. +Now, the majority of people on Earth believe they have a soul, and the idea is central to many religions. +But of course there are skeptics who say if we look at the evidence of science, particularly neuroscience, it suggests that your mind, your essence, the real you, is very much dependent on a particular part of your body, that is, your brain. +And such skeptics can find comfort in the fourth kind of immortality story, and that is legacy, the idea that you can live on through the echo you leave in the world, like the great Greek warrior Achilles, who sacrificed his life fighting at Troy so that he might win immortal fame. +And the pursuit of fame is as widespread and popular now as it ever was, and in our digital age, it's even easier to achieve. +You don't need to be a great warrior like Achilles or a great king or hero. +All you need is an Internet connection and a funny cat. But some people prefer to leave a more tangible, biological legacy -- children, for example. +Or they like, they hope, to live on as part of some greater whole, a nation or a family or a tribe, their gene pool. +But again, there are skeptics who doubt whether legacy really is immortality. +Woody Allen, for example, who said, "I don't want to live on in the hearts of my countrymen. +I want to live on in my apartment." +So those are the four basic kinds of immortality stories, and I've tried to give just some sense of how they're retold by each generation with just slight variations to fit the fashions of the day. +And the fact that they recur in this way, in such a similar form but in such different belief systems, suggests, I think, that we should be skeptical of the truth of any particular version of these stories. +The fact that some people believe an omnipotent god will resurrect them to live again and others believe an omnipotent scientist will do it suggests that neither are really believing this on the strength of the evidence. +Rather, we believe these stories because we are biased to believe them, and we are biased to believe them because we are so afraid of death. +So the question is, are we doomed to lead the one life we have in a way that is shaped by fear and denial, or can we overcome this bias? +Well the Greek philosopher Epicurus thought we could. +He argued that the fear of death is natural, but it is not rational. +"Death," he said, "is nothing to us, because when we are here, death is not, and when death is here, we are gone." +Now this is often quoted, but it's difficult to really grasp, to really internalize, because exactly this idea of being gone is so difficult to imagine. +So 2,000 years later, another philosopher, Ludwig Wittgenstein, put it like this: "Death is not an event in life: We do not live to experience death. +And so," he added, "in this sense, life has no end." +So it was natural for me as a child to fear being swallowed by the void, but it wasn't rational, because being swallowed by the void is not something that any of us will ever live to experience. +Now, I find it helps to see life as being like a book: Just as a book is bounded by its covers, by beginning and end, so our lives are bounded by birth and death, and even though a book is limited by beginning and end, it can encompass distant landscapes, exotic figures, fantastic adventures. +And even though a book is limited by beginning and end, the characters within it know no horizons. +They only know the moments that make up their story, even when the book is closed. +And so the characters of a book are not afraid of reaching the last page. +Long John Silver is not afraid of you finishing your copy of "Treasure Island." +And so it should be with us. +Imagine the book of your life, its covers, its beginning and end, and your birth and your death. +You can only know the moments in between, the moments that make up your life. +It makes no sense for you to fear what is outside of those covers, whether before your birth or after your death. +And you needn't worry how long the book is, or whether it's a comic strip or an epic. +The only thing that matters is that you make it a good story. +Thank you. +By 2010, Detroit had become the poster child for an American city in crisis. +There was a housing collapse, an auto industry collapse, and the population had plummeted by 25 percent between 2000 and 2010, and many people were beginning to write it off, as it had topped the list of American shrinking cities. +By 2010, I had also been asked by the Kresge Foundation and the city of Detroit to join them in leading a citywide planning process for the city to create a shared vision for its future. +I come to this work as an architect and an urban planner, and I've spent my career working in other contested cities, like Chicago, my hometown; Harlem, which is my current home; Washington, D.C.; and Newark, New Jersey. +All of these cities, to me, still had a number of unresolved issues related to urban justice, issues of equity, inclusion and access. +Now by 2010, as well, popular design magazines were also beginning to take a closer look at cities like Detroit, and devoting whole issues to "fixing the city." +I was asked by a good friend, Fred Bernstein, to do an interview for the October issue of Architect magazine, and he and I kind of had a good chuckle when we saw the magazine released with the title, "Can This Planner Save Detroit?" +So I'm smiling with a little bit of embarrassment right now, because obviously, it's completely absurd that a single person, let alone a planner, could save a city. +But I'm also smiling because I thought it represented a sense of hopefulness that our profession could play a role in helping the city to think about how it would recover from its severe crisis. +So I'd like to spend a little bit of time this afternoon and tell you a little bit about our process for fixing the city, a little bit about Detroit, and I want to do that through the voices of Detroiters. +So we began our process in September of 2010. +It's just after a special mayoral election, and word has gotten out that there is going to be this citywide planning process, which brings a lot of anxiety and fears among Detroiters. +We had planned to hold a number of community meetings in rooms like this to introduce the planning process, and people came out from all over the city, including areas that were stable neighborhoods, as well as areas that were beginning to see a lot of vacancy. +And most of our audience was representative of the 82 percent African-American population in the city at that time. +So obviously, we have a Q&A portion of our program, and people line up to mics to ask questions. +Many of them step very firmly to the mic, put their hands across their chest, and go, "I know you people are trying to move me out of my house, right?" +So that question is really powerful, and it was certainly powerful to us in the moment, when you connect it to the stories that some Detroiters had, and actually a lot of African-Americans' families have had that are living in Midwestern cities like Detroit. +Many of them told us the stories about how they came to own their home through their grandparents or great-grandparents, who were one of 1.6 million people who migrated from the rural South to the industrial North, as depicted in this painting by Jacob Lawrence, "The Great Migration." +They came to Detroit for a better way of life. +Many found work in the automobile industry, the Ford Motor Company, as depicted in this mural by Diego Rivera in the Detroit Institute of Art. +The fruits of their labors would afford them a home, for many the first piece of property that they would ever know, and a community with other first-time African-American home buyers. +The first couple of decades of their life in the North is quite well, up until about 1950, which coincides with the city's peak population at 1.8 million people. +Now it's at this time that Detroit begins to see a second kind of migration, a migration to the suburbs. +Between 1950 and 2000, the region grows by 30 percent. +But this time, the migration leaves African-Americans in place, as families and businesses flee the city, leaving the city pretty desolate of people as well as jobs. +During that same period, between 1950 and 2000, 2010, the city loses 60 percent of its population, and today it hovers at above 700,000. +The audience members who come and talk to us that night tell us the stories of what it's like to live in a city with such depleted population. +Many tell us that they're one of only a few homes on their block that are occupied, and that they can see several abandoned homes from where they sit on their porches. +Citywide, there are 80,000 vacant homes. +They can also see vacant property. +They're beginning to see illegal activities on these properties, like illegal dumping, and they know that because the city has lost so much population, their costs for water, electricity, gas are rising, because there are not enough people to pay property taxes to help support the services that they need. +Citywide, there are about 100,000 vacant parcels. +Now, to quickly give you all a sense of a scale, because I know that sounds like a big number, but I don't think you quite understand until you look at the city map. +So the city is 139 square miles. +You can fit Boston, San Francisco, and the island of Manhattan within its footprint. +So if we take all of that vacant and abandoned property and we smush it together, it looks like about 20 square miles, and that's roughly equivalent to the size of the island we're sitting on today, Manhattan, at 22 square miles. +So it's a lot of vacancy. +Now there's been a lot of speculation since 2010 about what to do with the vacant property, and a lot of that speculation has been around community gardening, or what we call urban agriculture. +So many people would say to us, "What if you just take all that vacant land and you could make it farmland? +It can provide fresh foods, and it can put Detroiters back to work too." +Now, there's a third wave of migration happening in Detroit: a new ascendant of cultural entrepreneurs. +These folks see that same vacant land and those same abandoned homes as opportunity for new, entrepreneurial ideas and profit, so much so that former models can move to Detroit, buy property, start successful businesses and restaurants, and become successful community activists in their neighborhood, bringing about very positive change. +Similarly, we have small manufacturing companies making conscious decisions to relocate to the city. +This company, Shinola, which is a luxury watch and bicycle company, deliberately chose to relocate to Detroit, and they quote themselves by saying they were drawn to the global brand of Detroit's innovation. +And they also knew that they can tap into a workforce that was still very skilled in how to make things. +Three key imperatives were really important to our work. +One was that the city itself wasn't necessarily too large, but the economy was too small. +There are only 27 jobs per 100 people in Detroit, very different from a Denver or an Atlanta or a Philadelphia that are anywhere between 35 to 70 jobs per 100 people. +Secondly, there had to be an acceptance that we were not going to be able to use all of this vacant land in the way that we had before and maybe for some time to come. +So we came up with one neighborhood typology -- there are several -- called a live-make neighborhood, where folks could reappropriate abandoned structures and turn them into entrepreneurial enterprises, with a specific emphasis on looking at the, again, majority 82 percent African-American population. +So they, too, could take businesses that they maybe were doing out of their home and grow them to more prosperous industries and actually acquire property so they were actually property owners as well as business owners in the communities with which they resided. +Or we could use it as research plots, where we can use it to remediate contaminated soils, or we could use it to generate energy. +So the descendants of the Great Migration could either become precision watchmakers at Shinola, like Willie H., who was featured in one of their ads last year, or they can actually grow a business that would service companies like Shinola. +The good news is, there is a future for the next generation of Detroiters, both those there now and those that want to come. +So no thank you, Mayor Menino, who recently was quoted as saying, "I'd blow up the place and start over." +There are very important people, business and land assets in Detroit, and there are real opportunities there. +So while Detroit might not be what it was, Detroit will not die. +Thank you. +Einstein said that "I never think about the future it comes soon enough." +And he was right, of course. +So today, I'm here to ask you to think of how the future is happening now. +Over the past 200 years, the world has experienced two major waves of innovation. +First, the Industrial Revolution brought us machines and factories, railways, electricity, air travel, and our lives have never been the same. +Then the Internet revolution brought us computing power, data networks, unprecedented access to information and communication, and our lives have never been the same. +Now we are experiencing another metamorphic change: the industrial Internet. +It brings together intelligent machines, advanced analytics, and the creativity of people at work. +It's the marriage of minds and machines. +And our lives will never be the same. +In my current role, I see up close how technology is beginning to transform industrial sectors that play a huge role in our economy and in our lives: energy, aviation, transportation, health care. +For an economist, this is highly unusual, and it's extremely exciting, because this is a transformation as powerful as the Industrial Revolution and more, and before the Industrial Revolution, there was no economic growth to speak of. +So what is this industrial Internet? +Industrial machines are being equipped with a growing number of electronic sensors that allow them to see, hear, feel a lot more than ever before, generating prodigious amounts of data. +Increasingly sophisticated analytics then sift through the data, providing insights that allow us to operate the machines in entirely new ways, a lot more efficiently. +And not just individual machines, but fleets of locomotives, airplanes, entire systems like power grids, hospitals. +It is asset optimization and system optimization. +Of course, electronic sensors have been around for some time, but something has changed: a sharp decline in the cost of sensors and, thanks to advances in cloud computing, a rapid decrease in the cost of storing and processing data. +So we are moving to a world where the machines we work with are not just intelligent; they are brilliant. +They are self-aware, they are predictive, reactive and social. +It's jet engines, locomotives, gas turbines, medical devices, communicating seamlessly with each other and with us. +It's a world where information itself becomes intelligent and comes to us automatically when we need it without having to look for it. +Why does any of this matter at all? +Well first of all, it's already allowing us to shift towards preventive, condition-based maintenance, which means fixing machines just before they break, without wasting time servicing them on a fixed schedule. +And this, in turn, is pushing us towards zero unplanned downtime, which means there will be no more power outages, no more flight delays. +So let me give you a few examples of how these brilliant machines work, and some of the examples may seem trivial, some are clearly more profound, but all of them are going to have a very powerful impact. +Let's start with aviation. +Today, 10 percent of all flights cancellations and delays are due to unscheduled maintenance events. +Something goes wrong unexpectedly. +This results in eight billion dollars in costs for the airline industry globally every year, not to mention the impact on all of us: stress, inconvenience, missed meetings as we sit helplessly in an airport terminal. +So how can the industrial Internet help here? +We've developed a preventive maintenance system which can be installed on any aircraft. +It's self-learning and able to predict issues that a human operator would miss. +The aircraft, while in flight, will communicate with technicians on the ground. +By the time it lands, they will already know if anything needs to be serviced. +Just in the U.S., a system like this can prevent over 60,000 delays and cancellations every year, helping seven million passengers get to their destinations on time. +Or take healthcare. +Today, nurses spend an average of 21 minutes per shift looking for medical equipment. +That seems trivial, but it's less time spent caring for patients. +St. Luke's Medical Center in Houston, Texas, which has deployed industrial Internet technology to electronically monitor and connect patients, staff and medical equipment, has reduced bed turnaround times by nearly one hour. +If you need surgery, one hour matters. +It means more patients can be treated, more lives can be saved. +Another medical center, in Washington state, is piloting an application that allows medical images from city scanners and MRIs to be analyzed in the cloud, developing better analytics at a lower cost. +Imagine a patient who has suffered a severe trauma, and needs the attention of several specialists: a neurologist, a cardiologist, an orthopedic surgeon. +If all of them can have instantaneous and simultaneous access to scans and images as they are taken, they will be able to deliver better healthcare faster. +So all of this translates into better health outcomes, but it can also deliver substantial economic benefits. +Just a one-percent reduction in existing inefficiencies could yield savings of over 60 billion dollars to the healthcare industry worldwide, and that is just a drop in the sea compared to what we need to do to make healthcare affordable on a sustainable basis. +Similar advances are happening in energy, including renewable energy. +Wind farms equipped with new remote monitorings and diagnostics that allow wind turbines to talk to each other and adjust the pitch of their blades in a coordinated way, depending on how the wind is blowing, can now produce electricity at a cost of less than five cents per kilowatt/hour. +Ten years ago, that cost was 30 cents, six times as much. +The list goes on, and it will grow fast, because industrial data are now growing exponentially. +By 2020, they will account for over 50 percent of all digital information. +Imagine a field engineer arriving at the wind farm with a handheld device telling her which turbines need servicing. +She already has all the spare parts, because the problems were diagnosed in advanced. +And their interaction gets documented and stored in a searchable database. +Let's stop and think about this for a minute, because this is a very important point. +This new wave of innovation is fundamentally changing the way we work. +And I know that many of you will be concerned about the impact that innovation might have on jobs. +Unemployment is already high, and there is always a fear that innovation will destroy jobs. +And innovation is disruptive. +But let me stress two things here. +First, we've already lived through mechanization of agriculture, automation of industry, and employment has gone up, because innovation is fundamentally about growth. +It makes products more affordable. +It creates new demand, new jobs. +Second, there is a concern that in the future, there will only be room for engineers, data scientists, and other highly-specialized workers. +And believe me, as an economist, I am also scared. +But think about it: Just as a child can easily figure out how to operate an iPad, so a new generation of mobile and intuitive industrial applications will make life easier for workers of all skill levels. +The worker of the future will be more like Iron Man than the Charlie Chaplin of "Modern Times." +And to be sure, new high-skilled jobs will be created: mechanical digital engineers who understand both the machines and the data; managers who understand their industry and the analytics and can reorganize the business to take full advantage of the technology. +But now let's take a step back. +Let's look at the big picture. +There are people who argue that today's innovation is all about social media and silly games, with nowhere near the transformational power of the Industrial Revolution. +They say that all the growth-enhancing innovations are behind us. +The big discoveries are all behind us." +This technological revolution is as inspiring and transformational as anything we have ever seen. +Human creativity and innovation have always propelled us forward. +They've created jobs. +They've raised living standards. +They've made our lives healthier and more rewarding. +And the new wave of innovation which is beginning to sweep through industry is no different. +In the U.S. alone, the industrial Internet could raise average income by 25 to 40 percent over the next 15 years, boosting growth to rates we haven't seen in a long time, and adding between 10 and 15 trillion dollars to global GDP. +That is the size of the entire U.S. economy today. +But this is not a foregone conclusion. +We are just at the beginning of this transformation, and there will be barriers to break, obstacles to overcome. +We will need to invest in the new technologies. +We will need to adapt organizations and managerial practices. +We will need a robust cybersecurity approach that protects sensitive information and intellectual property and safeguards critical infrastructure from cyberattacks. +And the education system will need to evolve to ensure students are equipped with the right skills. +It's not going to be easy, but it is going to be worth it. +The economic challenges facing us are hard, but when I walk the factory floor, and I see how humans and brilliant machines are becoming interconnected, and I see the difference this makes in a hospital, in an airport, in a power generation plant, I'm not just optimistic, I'm enthusiastic. +This new technological revolution is upon us. +So think about the future it will be here soon enough. +Thank you. +It's the fifth time I stand on this shore, the Cuban shore, looking out at that distant horizon, believing, again, that I'm going to make it all the way across that vast, dangerous wilderness of an ocean. +Not only have I tried four times, but the greatest swimmers in the world have been trying since 1950, and it's still never been done. +The team is proud of our four attempts. +It's an expedition of some 30 people. +Bonnie is my best friend and head handler, who somehow summons will, that last drop of will within me, when I think it's gone, after many, many hours and days out there. +The shark experts are the best in the world -- large predators below. +The box jellyfish, the deadliest venom in all of the ocean, is in these waters, and I have come close to dying from them on a previous attempt. +The conditions themselves, besides the sheer distance of over 100 miles in the open ocean -- the currents and whirling eddies and the Gulf Stream itself, the most unpredictable of all of the planet Earth. +And by the way, it's amusing to me that journalists and people before these attempts often ask me, "Well, are you going to go with any boats or any people or anything?" +And I'm thinking, what are they imagining? +That I'll just sort of do some celestial navigation, and carry a bowie knife in my mouth, and I'll hunt fish and skin them alive and eat them, and maybe drag a desalinization plant behind me for fresh water. +Yes, I have a team. And the team is expert, and the team is courageous, and brimming with innovation and scientific discovery, as is true with any major expedition on the planet. +And we've been on a journey. +And the debate has raged, hasn't it, since the Greeks, of isn't it what it's all about? +Isn't life about the journey, not really the destination? +And here we've been on this journey, and the truth is, it's been thrilling. +We haven't reached that other shore, and still our sense of pride and commitment, unwavering commitment. +When I turned 60, the dream was still alive from having tried this in my 20s, and dreamed it and imagined it. +The most famous body of water on the Earth today, I imagine, Cuba to Florida. +And it was deep. It was deep in my soul. +And when I turned 60, it wasn't so much about the athletic accomplishment, it wasn't the ego of "I want to be the first." +That's always there and it's undeniable. +But it was deeper. It was, how much life is there left? +Let's face it, we're all on a one-way street, aren't we, and what are we going to do? +What are we going to do as we go forward to have no regrets looking back? +And so of course I want to make it across. +It is the goal, and I should be so shallow to say that this year, the destination was even sweeter than the journey. +But the journey itself was worthwhile taking. +And at this point, by this summer, everybody -- scientists, sports scientists, endurance experts, neurologists, my own team, Bonnie -- said it's impossible. +It just simply can't be done, and Bonnie said to me, "But if you're going to take the journey, I'm going to see you through to the end of it, so I'll be there." +And now we're there. +You have a dream and you have obstacles in front of you, as we all do. +None of us ever get through this life without heartache, without turmoil, and if you believe and you have faith and you can get knocked down and get back up again and you believe in perseverance as a great human quality, you find your way, and Bonnie grabbed my shoulders, and she said, "Let's find our way to Florida." +And we started, and for the next 53 hours, it was an intense, unforgettable life experience. +The highs were high, the awe, I'm not a religious person, but I'll tell you, to be in the azure blue of the Gulf Stream as if, as you're breathing, you're looking down miles and miles and miles, to feel the majesty of this blue planet we live on, it's awe-inspiring. +I have a playlist of about 85 songs, and especially in the middle of the night, and that night, because we use no lights -- lights attract jellyfish, lights attract sharks, lights attract baitfish that attract sharks, so we go in the pitch black of the night. +You've never seen black this black. +You can't see the front of your hand, and the people on the boat, Bonnie and my team on the boat, they just hear the slapping of the arms, and they know where I am, because there's no visual at all. +And I'm out there kind of tripping out on my little playlist. +I've got a tight rubber cap, so I don't hear a thing. +I've got goggles and I'm turning my head 50 times a minute, and I'm singing, Imagine there's no heaven doo doo doo doo doo It's easy if you try doo doo doo doo doo And I can sing that song a thousand times in a row. +Now there's a talent unto itself. +And each time I get done with Ooh, you may say I'm a dreamer but I'm not the only one 222. + Imagine there's no heaven And when I get through the end of a thousand of John Lennon's "Imagine," I have swum nine hours and 45 minutes, exactly. +And then there are the crises. Of course there are. +And the vomiting starts, the seawater, you're not well, you're wearing a jellyfish mask for the ultimate protection. +It's difficult to swim in. +It's causing abrasions on the inside of the mouth, but the tentacles can't get you. +And the hypothermia sets in. +The water's 85 degrees, and yet you're losing weight and using calories, and as you come over toward the side of the boat, not allowed to touch it, not allowed to get out, but Bonnie and her team hand me nutrition and asks me what I'm doing, am I all right, I am seeing the Taj Mahal over here. +I'm in a very different state, and I'm thinking, wow, I never thought I'd be running into the Taj Mahal out here. +It's gorgeous. +I mean, how long did it take them to build that? +It's just -- So, uh, wooo. And then we kind of have a cardinal rule that I'm never told, really, how far it is, because we don't know how far it is. +What's going to happen to you between this point and that point? +And she said, "No, those are the lights of Key West." +It was 15 more hours, which for most swimmers would be a long time. +You have no idea how many 15-hour training swims I had done. +So here we go, and I somehow, without a decision, went into no counting of strokes and no singing and no quoting Stephen Hawking and the parameters of the universe, I just went into thinking about this dream, and why, and how. +And as I said, when I turned 60, it wasn't about that concrete "Can you do it?" +That's the everyday machinations. +That's the discipline, and it's the preparation, and there's a pride in that. +But I decided to think, as I went along, about, the phrase usually is reaching for the stars, and in my case, it's reaching for the horizon. +And when you reach for the horizon, as I've proven, you may not get there, but what a tremendous build of character and spirit that you lay down. +What a foundation you lay down in reaching for those horizons. +And now the shore is coming, and there's just a little part of me that's sad. +The epic journey is going to be over. +So many people come up to me now and say, "What's next? We love that! +That little tracker that was on the computer? +When are you going to do the next one? We just can't wait to follow the next one." +Well, they were just there for 53 hours, and I was there for years. +And so there won't be another epic journey in the ocean. +But the point is, and the point was that every day of our lives is epic, and I'll tell you, when I walked up onto that beach, staggered up onto that beach, and I had so many times in a very puffed up ego way, rehearsed what I would say on the beach. +When Bonnie thought that the back of my throat was swelling up, and she brought the medical team over to our boat to say that she's really beginning to have trouble breathing. +Another 12, 24 hours in the saltwater, in my hallucinatory moment, that I heard the word tracheotomy. +And Bonnie said to the doctor, "I'm not worried about her not breathing. +If she can't talk when she gets to the shore, she's gonna be pissed off." +But the truth is, all those orations that I had practiced just to get myself through some training swims as motivation, it wasn't like that. +It was a very real moment, with that crowd, with my team. +We did it. I didn't do it. We did it. +And we'll never forget it. It'll always be part of us. +And the three things that I did sort of blurt out when we got there, was first, "Never, ever give up." +I live it. What's the phrase from today from Socrates? +To be is to do. +So I don't stand up and say, don't ever give up. +I didn't give up, and there was action behind these words. +The second is, "You can chase your dreams at any age; you're never too old." +Sixty-four, that no one at any age, any gender, could ever do, has done it, and there's no doubt in my mind that I am at the prime of my life today. +Yeah. +Thank you. +And the third thing I said on that beach was, "It looks like the most solitary endeavor in the world, and in many ways, of course, it is, and in other ways, and the most important ways, it's a team, and if you think I'm a badass, you want to meet Bonnie." +Bonnie, where are you? +Where are you? +There's Bonnie Stoll. My buddy. +The Henry David Thoreau quote goes, when you achieve your dreams, it's not so much what you get as who you have become in achieving them. +And yeah, I stand before you now. +In the three months since that swim ended, I've sat down with Oprah and I've been in President Obama's Oval Office. +I've been invited to speak in front of esteemed groups such as yourselves. +I've signed a wonderful major book contract. +All of that's great, and I don't denigrate it. +I'm proud of it all, but the truth is, I'm walking around tall because I am that bold, fearless person, and I will be, every day, until it's time for these days to be done. +Thank you very much and enjoy the conference. +Thank you. Thank you. Thank you. Thank you. Thank you. Thank you. Thank you. +Thank you. +Find a way! +I want you to, for a moment, think about playing a game of Monopoly, except in this game, that combination of skill, talent and luck that help earn you success in games, as in life, has been rendered irrelevant, because this game's been rigged, and you've got the upper hand. +You've got more money, more opportunities to move around the board, and more access to resources. +And as you think about that experience, I want you to ask yourself, how might that experience of being a privileged player in a rigged game change the way that you think about yourself and regard that other player? +So we ran a study on the U.C. Berkeley campus to look at exactly that question. +We brought in more than 100 pairs of strangers into the lab, and with the flip of a coin randomly assigned one of the two to be a rich player in a rigged game. +They got two times as much money. +When they passed Go, they collected twice the salary, and they got to roll both dice instead of one, so they got to move around the board a lot more. +And over the course of 15 minutes, we watched through hidden cameras what happened. +And what I want to do today, for the first time, is show you a little bit of what we saw. +You're going to have to pardon the sound quality, in some cases, because again, these were hidden cameras. +So we've provided subtitles. +Rich Player: How many 500s did you have? +Poor Player: Just one. +Rich Player: Are you serious. Poor Player: Yeah. +Rich Player: I have three. I don't know why they gave me so much. +Paul Piff: Okay, so it was quickly apparent to players that something was up. +One person clearly has a lot more money than the other person, and yet, as the game unfolded, we saw very notable differences and dramatic differences begin to emerge between the two players. +The rich player started to move around the board louder, literally smacking the board with their piece as he went around. +We were more likely to see signs of dominance and nonverbal signs, displays of power and celebration among the rich players. +We had a bowl of pretzels positioned off to the side. +It's on the bottom right corner there. +That allowed us to watch participants' consummatory behavior. +So we're just tracking how many pretzels participants eat. +Rich Player: Are those pretzels a trick? +Poor Player: I don't know. +PP: Okay, so no surprises, people are onto us. +They wonder what that bowl of pretzels is doing there in the first place. +One even asks, like you just saw, is that bowl of pretzels there as a trick? +And yet, despite that, the power of the situation seems to inevitably dominate, and those rich players start to eat more pretzels. +Rich Player: I love pretzels. +Rich Player: I have money for everything. +Poor Player: How much is that? +Rich Player: You owe me 24 dollars. +You're going to lose all your money soon. +I'll buy it. I have so much money. +I have so much money, it takes me forever. +Rich Player 2: I'm going to buy out this whole board. +Rich Player 3: You're going to run out of money soon. +I'm pretty much untouchable at this point. +PP: Okay, and here's what I think was really, really interesting, is that at the end of the 15 minutes, we asked the players to talk about their experience during the game. +And that's a really, really incredible insight into how the mind makes sense of advantage. +Now this game of Monopoly can be used as a metaphor for understanding society and its hierarchical structure, wherein some people have a lot of wealth and a lot of status, and a lot of people don't. +They have a lot less wealth and a lot less status and a lot less access to valued resources. +And what my colleagues and I for the last seven years have been doing is studying the effects of these kinds of hierarchies. +What we've been finding across dozens of studies and thousands of participants across this country is that as a person's levels of wealth increase, their feelings of compassion and empathy go down, and their feelings of entitlement, of deservingness, and their ideology of self-interest increases. +In surveys, we found that it's actually wealthier individuals who are more likely to moralize greed being good, and that the pursuit of self-interest is favorable and moral. +Now what I want to do today is talk about some of the implications of this ideology self-interest, talk about why we should care about those implications, and end with what might be done. +Some of the first studies that we ran in this area looked at helping behavior, something social psychologists call pro-social behavior. +And we were really interested in who's more likely to offer help to another person, someone who's rich or someone who's poor. +In one of the studies, we bring in rich and poor members of the community into the lab and give each of them the equivalent of 10 dollars. +We told the participants that they could keep these 10 dollars for themselves, or they could share a portion of it, if they wanted to, with a stranger who is totally anonymous. +They'll never meet that stranger and the stranger will never meet them. +And we just monitor how much people give. +Individuals who made 25,000 sometimes under 15,000 dollars a year, gave 44 percent more of their money to the stranger than did individuals making 150,000 or 200,000 dollars a year. +We've had people play games to see who's more or less likely to cheat to increase their chances of winning a prize. +In one of the games, we actually rigged a computer so that die rolls over a certain score were impossible. +You couldn't get above 12 in this game, and yet, the richer you were, the more likely you were to cheat in this game to earn credits toward a $50 cash prize, sometimes by three to four times as much. +We ran another study where we looked at whether people would be inclined to take candy from a jar of candy that we explicitly identified as being reserved for children -- participating -- I'm not kidding. +I know it sounds like I'm making a joke. +We explicitly told participants this jar of candy's for children participating in a developmental lab nearby. +They're in studies. This is for them. +And we just monitored how much candy participants took. +Participants who felt rich took two times as much candy as participants who felt poor. +We've even studied cars, not just any cars, but whether drivers of different kinds of cars are more or less inclined to break the law. +In one of these studies, we looked at whether drivers would stop for a pedestrian that we had posed waiting to cross at a crosswalk. +Now in California, as you all know, because I'm sure we all do this, it's the law to stop for a pedestrian who's waiting to cross. +So here's an example of how we did it. +That's our confederate off to the left posing as a pedestrian. +He approaches as the red truck successfully stops. +In typical California fashion, it's overtaken by the bus who almost runs our pedestrian over. +Now here's an example of a more expensive car, a Prius, driving through, and a BMW doing the same. +So we did this for hundreds of vehicles on several days, just tracking who stops and who doesn't. +What we found was that as the expensiveness of a car increased, the driver's tendencies to break the law increased as well. +None of the cars, none of the cars in our least expensive car category broke the law. +Close to 50 percent of the cars in our most expensive vehicle category broke the law. +We've run other studies finding that wealthier individuals are more likely to lie in negotiations, to endorse unethical behavior at work like stealing cash from the cash register, taking bribes, lying to customers. +Now I don't mean to suggest that it's only wealthy people who show these patterns of behavior. +Not at all. In fact, I think that we all, in our day-to-day, minute-by-minute lives, struggle with these competing motivations of when, or if, to put our own interests above the interests of other people. +And that's understandable because the American dream is an idea in which we all have an equal opportunity to succeed and prosper, as long as we apply ourselves and work hard, and a piece of that means that sometimes, you need to put your own interests above the interests and well-being of other people around you. +But what we're finding is that, the wealthier you are, the more likely you are to pursue a vision of personal success, of achievement and accomplishment, to the detriment of others around you. +Here I've plotted for you the mean household income received by each fifth and top five percent of the population over the last 20 years. +In 1993, the differences between the different quintiles of the population, in terms of income, are fairly egregious. +It's not difficult to discern that there are differences. +But over the last 20 years, that significant difference has become a grand canyon of sorts between those at the top and everyone else. +In fact, the top 20 percent of our population own close to 90 percent of the total wealth in this country. +We're at unprecedented levels of economic inequality. +What that means is that wealth is not only becoming increasingly concentrated in the hands of a select group of individuals, but the American dream is becoming increasingly unattainable for an increasing majority of us. +In fact, there's every reason to think that they'll only get worse, and that's what it would look like if things just stayed the same, at the same linear rate, over the next 20 years. +Now, inequality, economic inequality, is something we should all be concerned about, and not just because of those at the bottom of the social hierarchy, but because individuals and groups with lots of economic inequality do worse, not just the people at the bottom, everyone. +There's a lot of really compelling research coming out from top labs all over the world showcasing the range of things that are undermined as economic inequality gets worse. +Social mobility, things we really care about, physical health, social trust, all go down as inequality goes up. +Similarly, negative things in social collectives and societies, things like obesity, and violence, imprisonment, and punishment, are exacerbated as economic inequality increases. +Again, these are outcomes not just experienced by a few, but that resound across all strata of society. +Even people at the top experience these outcomes. +So what do we do? +This cascade of self-perpetuating, pernicious, negative effects could seem like something that's spun out of control, and there's nothing we can do about it, certainly nothing we as individuals could do. +But in fact, we've been finding in our own laboratory research that small psychological interventions, small changes to people's values, small nudges in certain directions, can restore levels of egalitarianism and empathy. +For instance, reminding people of the benefits of cooperation, or the advantages of community, cause wealthier individuals to be just as egalitarian as poor people. +And beyond the walls of our lab, we're even beginning to see signs of change in society. +And there's the Giving Pledge, in which more than 100 of our nation's wealthiest individuals are pledging half of their fortunes to charity. +Thank you. +Three and a half years ago, I made one of the best decisions of my life. +As my New Year's resolution, I gave up dieting, stopped worrying about my weight, and learned to eat mindfully. +Now I eat whenever I'm hungry, and I've lost 10 pounds. +This was me at age 13, when I started my first diet. +I look at that picture now, and I think, you did not need a diet, you needed a fashion consult. +But I thought I needed to lose weight, and when I gained it back, of course I blamed myself. +And for the next three decades, I was on and off various diets. +No matter what I tried, the weight I'd lost always came back. +I'm sure many of you know the feeling. +As a neuroscientist, I wondered, why is this so hard? +Obviously, how much you weigh depends on how much you eat and how much energy you burn. +What most people don't realize is that hunger and energy use are controlled by the brain, mostly without your awareness. +Your brain does a lot of its work behind the scenes, and that is a good thing, because your conscious mind -- how do we put this politely? -- it's easily distracted. +It's good that you don't have to remember to breathe when you get caught up in a movie. +You don't forget how to walk because you're thinking about what to have for dinner. +Your brain also has its own sense of what you should weigh, no matter what you consciously believe. +This is called your set point, but that's a misleading term, because it's actually a range of about 10 or 15 pounds. +You can use lifestyle choices to move your weight up and down within that range, but it's much, much harder to stay outside of it. +That's what a thermostat does, right? +It keeps the temperature in your house the same as the weather changes outside. +Now you can try to change the temperature in your house by opening a window in the winter, but that's not going to change the setting on the thermostat, which will respond by kicking on the furnace to warm the place back up. +Your brain works exactly the same way, responding to weight loss by using powerful tools to push your body back to what it considers normal. +If you lose a lot of weight, your brain reacts as if you were starving, and whether you started out fat or thin, your brain's response is exactly the same. +We would love to think that your brain could tell whether you need to lose weight or not, but it can't. +If you do lose a lot of weight, you become hungry, and your muscles burn less energy. +Dr. Rudy Leibel of Columbia University has found that people who have lost 10 percent of their body weight burn 250 to 400 calories less because their metabolism is suppressed. +That's a lot of food. +This means that a successful dieter must eat this much less forever than someone of the same weight who has always been thin. +From an evolutionary perspective, your body's resistance to weight loss makes sense. +When food was scarce, our ancestors' survival depended on conserving energy, and regaining the weight when food was available would have protected them against the next shortage. +Over the course of human history, starvation has been a much bigger problem than overeating. +This may explain a very sad fact: Set points can go up, but they rarely go down. +Now, if your mother ever mentioned that life is not fair, this is the kind of thing she was talking about. +Successful dieting doesn't lower your set point. +Even after you've kept the weight off for as long as seven years, your brain keeps trying to make you gain it back. +If that weight loss had been due to a long famine, that would be a sensible response. +In our modern world of drive-thru burgers, it's not working out so well for many of us. +Sadly, a temporary weight gain can become permanent. +If you stay at a high weight for too long, probably a matter of years for most of us, your brain may decide that that's the new normal. +Psychologists classify eaters into two groups, those who rely on their hunger and those who try to control their eating through willpower, like most dieters. +Let's call them intuitive eaters and controlled eaters. +The interesting thing is that intuitive eaters are less likely to be overweight, and they spend less time thinking about food. +Controlled eaters are more vulnerable to overeating in response to advertising, And a small indulgence, like eating one scoop of ice cream, is more likely to lead to a food binge in controlled eaters. +Children are especially vulnerable to this cycle of dieting and then binging. +Several long-term studies have shown that girls who diet in their early teenage years are three times more likely to become overweight five years later, even if they started at a normal weight, and all of these studies found that the same factors that predicted weight gain also predicted the development of eating disorders. +The other factor, by the way, those of you who are parents, was being teased by family members about their weight. +So don't do that. +I left almost all my graphs at home, but I couldn't resist throwing in just this one, because I'm a geek, and that's how I roll. +This is a study that looked at the risk of death over a 14-year period based on four healthy habits: eating enough fruits and vegetables, exercise three times a week, not smoking, and drinking in moderation. +Let's start by looking at the normal weight people in the study. +The height of the bars is the risk of death, and those zero, one, two, three, four numbers on the horizontal axis are the number of those healthy habits that a given person had. +And as you'd expect, the healthier the lifestyle, the less likely people were to die during the study. +Now let's look at what happens in overweight people. +The ones that had no healthy habits had a higher risk of death. +Adding just one healthy habit pulls overweight people back into the normal range. +For obese people with no healthy habits, the risk is very high, seven times higher than the healthiest groups in the study. +But a healthy lifestyle helps obese people too. +In fact, if you look only at the group with all four healthy habits, you can see that weight makes very little difference. +You can take control of your health by taking control of your lifestyle, even If you can't lose weight and keep it off. +Diets don't have very much reliability. +Five years after a diet, most people have regained the weight. +Forty percent of them have gained even more. +If you think about this, the typical outcome of dieting is that you're more likely to gain weight in the long run than to lose it. +If I've convinced you that dieting might be a problem, the next question is, what do you do about it? +And my answer, in a word, is mindfulness. +I'm not saying you need to learn to meditate or take up yoga. +I'm talking about mindful eating: learning to understand your body's signals so that you eat when you're hungry and stop when you're full, because a lot of weight gain boils down to eating when you're not hungry. +How do you do it? +Give yourself permission to eat as much as you want, and then work on figuring out what makes your body feel good. +Sit down to regular meals without distractions. +Think about how your body feels when you start to eat and when you stop, and let your hunger decide when you should be done. +It took about a year for me to learn this, but it's really been worth it. +I am so much more relaxed around food than I have ever been in my life. +I often don't think about it. +I forget we have chocolate in the house. +It's like aliens have taken over my brain. +It's just completely different. +Let's face it: If diets worked, we'd all be thin already. +Why do we keep doing the same thing and expecting different results? +Diets may seem harmless, but they actually do a lot of collateral damage. +At worst, they ruin lives: Weight obsession leads to eating disorders, especially in young kids. +In the U.S., we have 80 percent of 10-year-old girls say they've been on a diet. +Our daughters have learned to measure their worth by the wrong scale. +Even at its best, dieting is a waste of time and energy. +It takes willpower which you could be using to help your kids with their homework or to finish that important work project, and because willpower is limited, any strategy that relies on its consistent application is pretty much guaranteed to eventually fail you when your attention moves on to something else. +Let me leave you with one last thought. +What if we told all those dieting girls that it's okay to eat when they're hungry? +What if we taught them to work with their appetite instead of fearing it? +I think most of them would be happier and healthier, and as adults, many of them would probably be thinner. +I wish someone had told me that back when I was 13. +Thanks. +So this is a picture of my dad and me at the beach in Far Rockaway, or actually Rockaway Park. +I'm the one with the blond hair. +My dad's the guy with the cigarette. +It was the '60s. A lot of people smoked back then. +In the summer of 2009, my dad was diagnosed with lung cancer. +Cancer is one of those things that actually touches everybody. +If you're a man in the United States of the America, you've got about a one in two chance of being diagnosed with cancer during your lifetime. +If you're a woman, you've got about a one in three chance of being diagnosed with cancer. +Everybody knows somebody who's been diagnosed with cancer. +Now, my dad's doing better today, and part of the reason for that is that he was able to participate in the trial of an experimental new drug that happened to be specially formulated and very good for his particular kind of cancer. +There are over 200 kinds of cancer. +And what I want to talk about today is how we can help more people like my dad, because we have to change the way we think about raising money to fund cancer research. +So a while after my dad was diagnosed, I was having coffee with my friend Andrew Lo. +He's the head of the Laboratory for Financial Engineering at MIT, where I also have a position, and we were talking about cancer. +And Andrew had been doing his own bits of research, and one of the things that he had been told and that he'd learned from studying the literature was that there's actually a big bottleneck. +It's very difficult to develop new drugs, and the reason it's difficult to develop new drugs is because in the early stages of drug development, the drugs are very risky, and they're very expensive. +So Andrew asked me if I'd want to maybe work with him a bit, work on some of the math and the analytics and see if we could figure out something we could do. +Now I'm not a scientist. +You know, I don't know how to build a drug. +And none of my coauthors, Andrew Lo or Jose Maria Fernandez or David Fagnan -- none of those guys -- are scientists either. +We don't know the first thing about how to make a cancer drug. +But we know a little bit about risk mitigation and a little bit about financial engineering, and so we started thinking, what could we do? +What I'm going to tell you about is some work we've been doing over the last couple years that we think could fundamentally change the way research for cancer and lots of other things gets done. +We want to let the research drive the funding, not the other way around. +So in order to get started, let me tell you how you get a drug financed. +Imagine that you're in your lab -- you're a scientist, you're not like me -- you're a scientist, and you've developed a new compound that you think might be therapeutic for somebody with cancer. +Well, what you do is, you test in animals, you test in test tubes, but there's this notion of going from the bench to the bedside, and in order to get from the bench, the lab, to the bedside, to the patients, you've got to get the drug tested. +And the way the drug gets tested is through a series of, basically, experiments, through these large, they're called trials, that they do to determine whether the drug is safe and whether it works and all these things. +So the FDA has a very specific protocol. +In the first phase of this testing, which is called testing for toxicity, it's called Phase I. +In the first phase, you give the drug to healthy people and you see if it actually makes them sick. +In other words, are the side effects just so severe that no matter how much good it does, it's not going to be worth it? +Does it cause heart attacks, kill people, liver failure, this kind of thing? +And it turns out, that's a pretty high hurdle. +About a third of all drugs drop out at that point. +In the next phase, you test to see if the drug's effective, and what you do there is you give it to people with cancer and you see if it actually makes them better. +And that's also a higher hurdle. People drop out. +And in the third phase, you actually test it on a very large sample, and what you're trying to determine is what the right dose is, and also, is it better than what's available today? +If not, then why build it? +When you're done with all that, what you have is a very small percentage of drugs that start the process actually come out the other side. +So those blue bottles, those blue bottles save lives, and they're also worth billions, sometimes billions a year. +Does that sound like a good deal for anybody? +No. No, right? +And of course, it's a very, very risky trial position, and that's why it's very hard to get funding, but to a first approximation, that's actually the proposal. +You have to fund these things from the early stages on. It takes a long time. +So Andrew said to me, he said, "What if we stop thinking about these as drugs? +What if we start thinking about them as financial assets?" +They've got really weird payoff structures and all that, but let's throw everything we know about financial engineering at them. +Let's see if we can use all the tricks of the trade to figure out how to make these drugs work as financial assets? +Let's create a giant fund. +In finance, we know what to do with assets that are risky. +You put them in a portfolio and you try to smooth out the returns. +So we did some math, and it turned out you could make this work, but in order to make it work, you need about 80 to 150 drugs. +Now the good news is, there's plenty of drugs that are waiting to be tested. +We've been told that there's a backlog of about 20 years of drugs that are waiting to be tested but can't be funded. +In fact, that early stage of the funding process, that Phase I and pre-clinical stuff, that's actually, in the industry, called the Valley of Death because it's where drugs go to die. +It's very hard to for them to get through there, and of course, if you can't get through there, you can't get to the later stages. +So we did this math, and we figured out, okay, well, you know, you need about 80 to, say, 150, or something like that, drugs. +And then we did a little more math, and we said, okay, well that's a fund of about three to 15 billion dollars. +So we kind of created a new problem by solving the old one. +We were able to get rid of the risk, but now we need a lot of capital, and there's only one place to get that kind of capital, the capital markets. +Venture capitalists don't have it. Philanthropies don't have it. +But we have to figure out how we can get people in the capital markets, who traditionally don't invest in this stuff, to want to invest in this stuff. +So again, financial engineering was helpful here. +Imagine the megafund actually starts empty, and what it does is it issues some debt and some equity, and that generates cash flow. +That cash flow is used, then, to buy that big portfolio of drugs that you need, and those drugs start working their way through that approval process, and each time they go through a next phase of approval, they gain value. +And most of them don't make it, but a few of them do, and with the ones that gain value, you can sell some, and when you sell them, you have money to pay the interest on those bonds, but you also have money to fund the next round of trials. +It's almost self-funding. +You do that for the course of the transaction, and when you're done, you liquidate the portfolio, pay back the bonds, and you can give the equity holders a nice return. +So that was the theory, and we talked about it for a bit, we did a bunch of experiments, and then we said, let's really try to test it. +We spent the next two years doing research. +We talked to hundreds of experts in drug financing and venture capital. +We talked to people who have developed drugs. +We talked to pharmaceutical companies. +We actually looked at the data for drugs, over 2,000 drugs that had been approved or denied or withdrawn, and we also ran millions of simulations. +And all that actually took a lot of time. +But when we were done, what we found was something that was sort of surprising. +It was actually feasible to structure that fund such that when you were done structuring it, you could actually produce low-risk bonds that would be attractive to bond holders, that would give you yields of about five to eight percent, and you could produce equity that would give equity holders about a 12-percent return. +Now those returns aren't going to be attractive to a venture capitalist. +Venture capitalists are those guys who want to make those big bets and get those billion dollar payoffs. +But it turns out, there are lots of other folks that would be interested in that. +That's right in the investment sweet spot of pension funds and 401 plans and all this other stuff. +So we published some articles in the academic press. +We published articles in medical journals. +We published articles in finance journals. +But it wasn't until we actually got the popular press interested in this that we began to get some traction. +We wanted to do something more than just make people aware of it, though. +We wanted people to get involved. +So what we did was, we actually took all of our computer code and made that available online under an open-source license to anybody that wanted it. +And you guys can download it today if you want to run your own experiments to see if this would work. +And that was really effective, because people that didn't believe our assumptions could try their own assumptions and see how it would work. +Now there's an obvious problem, which is, is there enough money in the world to fund this stuff? +I've told you there's enough drugs, but is there enough money? +There's 100 trillion dollars of capital currently invested in fixed-income securities. +That's a hundred thousand billion. +There's plenty of money. +But what we realized was that it's more than just money that's required. +We had to get people motivated, people to get involved, and people had to understand this. +And so we started thinking about all the different things that could go wrong. +What are all the challenges to doing this that might get in the way? +And we had a long list, and so what we did was we assigned a bunch of people, including ourselves, different pieces of this problem, and we said, could you start a work stream on credit risk? +Could you start a work stream on the regulatory aspects? +Could you start a work stream on how you would actually manage so many projects? +And we had all these experts get together and do these different work streams, and then we held a conference. +The conference was held over the summer, this past summer. +It was an invitation-only conference. +It was sponsored by the American Cancer Society and done in collaboration with the National Cancer Institute. +And we had experts from every field that we thought would be important, including the government, including people that run research centers and so on, and for two days they sat around and heard the reports from those five work streams, and they talked about it. +It was the first time that the people who could actually make this happen sat across the table from each other and had these conversations. +Now these conferences, it's typical to have a dinner, and at that dinner, you kind of get to know each other, sort of like what we're doing here. +I happened to look out the window, and hand on my heart, I looked out the window on the night of this conference -- it was the summertime -- and that's what I saw, it was a double rainbow. +So I'd like to think it was a good sign. +Since the conference, we've got people working between Paris and San Francisco, lots of different folks working on this to try to see if we can really make it happen. +We're not looking to start a fund, but we want somebody else to do this. +Because, again, I'm not a scientist. +I can't build a drug. +I'm never going to have enough money to fund even one of those trials. +But all of us together, with our 401's, with our 529 plans, with our pension plans, all of us together can actually fund hundreds of trials and get paid well for doing it and save millions of lives like my dad. +Thank you. +This is an image of the planet Earth. +It looks very much like the Apollo pictures that are very well known. +There is something different; you can click on it, and if you click on it, you can zoom in on almost any place on the Earth. +For instance, this is a bird's-eye view of the EPFL campus. +In many cases, you can also see how a building looks from a nearby street. +This is pretty amazing. +But there's something missing in this wonderful tour: It's time. +i'm not really sure when this picture was taken. +I'm not even sure it was taken at the same moment as the bird's-eye view. +In my lab, we develop tools to travel not only in space but also through time. +The kind of question we're asking is Is it possible to build something like Google Maps of the past? +Can I add a slider on top of Google Maps and just change the year, seeing how it was 100 years before, 1,000 years before? +Is that possible? +Can I reconstruct social networks of the past? +Can I make a Facebook of the Middle Ages? +So, can I build time machines? +Maybe we can just say, "No, it's not possible." +Or, maybe, we can think of it from an information point of view. +This is what I call the information mushroom. +Vertically, you have the time. +and horizontally, the amount of digital information available. +Obviously, in the last 10 years, we have much information. +And obviously the more we go in the past, the less information we have. +If we want to build something like Google Maps of the past, or Facebook of the past, we need to enlarge this space, we need to make that like a rectangle. +How do we do that? +One way is digitization. +There's a lot of material available -- newspaper, printed books, thousands of printed books. +I can digitize all these. +I can extract information from these. +Of course, the more you go in the past, the less information you will have. +So, it might not be enough. +So, I can do what historians do. +I can extrapolate. +This is what we call, in computer science, simulation. +If I take a log book, I can consider, it's not just a log book of a Venetian captain going to a particular journey. +I can consider it is actually a log book which is representative of many journeys of that period. +I'm extrapolating. +If I have a painting of a facade, I can consider it's not just that particular building, but probably it also shares the same grammar of buildings where we lost any information. +So if we want to construct a time machine, we need two things. +We need very large archives, and we need excellent specialists. +The Venice Time Machine, the project I'm going to talk to you about, is a joint project between the EPFL and the University of Venice Ca'Foscari. +There's something very peculiar about Venice, that its administration has been very, very bureaucratic. +They've been keeping track of everything, almost like Google today. +At the Archivio di Stato, you have 80 kilometers of archives documenting every aspect of the life of Venice over more than 1,000 years. +You have every boat that goes out, every boat that comes in. +You have every change that was made in the city. +This is all there. +We are setting up a 10-year digitization program which has the objective of transforming this immense archive into a giant information system. +The type of objective we want to reach is 450 books a day that can be digitized. +Of course, when you digitize, that's not enough, because these documents, most of them are in Latin, in Tuscan, in Venetian dialect, so you need to transcribe them, to translate them in some cases, to index them, and this is obviously not easy. +In particular, traditional optical character recognition method that can be used for printed manuscripts, they do not work well on the handwritten document. +So the solution is actually to take inspiration from another domain: speech recognition. +This is a domain of something that seems impossible, which can actually be done, simply by putting additional constraints. +If you have a very good model of a language which is used, if you have a very good model of a document, how well they are structured. +And these are administrative documents. +They are well structured in many cases. +If you divide this huge archive into smaller subsets where a smaller subset actually shares similar features, then there's a chance of success. +If we reach that stage, then there's something else: we can extract from this document events. +Actually probably 10 billion events can be extracted from this archive. +And this giant information system can be searched in many ways. +You can ask questions like, "Who lived in this palazzo in 1323?" +"How much cost a sea bream at the Realto market in 1434?" +"What was the salary of a glass maker in Murano maybe over a decade?" +You can ask even bigger questions because it will be semantically coded. +And then what you can do is put that in space, because much of this information is spatial. +And from that, you can do things like reconstructing this extraordinary journey of that city that managed to have a sustainable development over a thousand years, managing to have all the time a form of equilibrium with its environment. +You can reconstruct that journey, visualize it in many different ways. +But of course, you cannot understand Venice if you just look at the city. +You have to put it in a larger European context. +So the idea is also to document all the things that worked at the European level. +We can reconstruct also the journey of the Venetian maritime empire, how it progressively controlled the Adriatic Sea, how it became the most powerful medieval empire of its time, controlling most of the sea routes from the east to the south. +But you can even do other things, because in these maritime routes, there are regular patterns. +You can go one step beyond and actually create a simulation system, create a Mediterranean simulator which is capable actually of reconstructing even the information we are missing, which would enable us to have questions you could ask like if you were using a route planner. +"If I am in Corfu in June 1323 and want to go to Constantinople, where can I take a boat?" +Probably we can answer this question with one or two or three days' precision. +"How much will it cost?" +"What are the chance of encountering pirates?" +Of course, you understand, the central scientific challenge of a project like this one is qualifying, quantifying and representing uncertainty and inconsistency at each step of this process. +There are errors everywhere, errors in the document, it's the wrong name of the captain, some of the boats never actually took to sea. +There are errors in translation, interpretative biases, and on top of that, if you add algorithmic processes, you're going to have errors in recognition, errors in extraction, so you have very, very uncertain data. +So how can we detect and correct these inconsistencies? +How can we represent that form of uncertainty? +It's difficult. One thing you can do is document each step of the process, not only coding the historical information but what we call the meta-historical information, how is historical knowledge constructed, documenting each step. +That will not guarantee that we actually converge toward a single story of Venice, but probably we can actually reconstruct a fully documented potential story of Venice. +Maybe there's not a single map. +Maybe there are several maps. +The system should allow for that, because we have to deal with a new form of uncertainty, which is really new for this type of giant databases. +And how should we communicate this new research to a large audience? +Again, Venice is extraordinary for that. +With the millions of visitors that come every year, it's actually one of the best places to try to invent the museum of the future. +Imagine, horizontally you see the reconstructed map of a given year, and vertically, you see the document that served the reconstruction, paintings, for instance. +Imagine an immersive system that permits to go and dive and reconstruct the Venice of a given year, some experience you could share within a group. +On the contrary, imagine actually that you start from a document, a Venetian manuscript, and you show, actually, what you can construct out of it, how it is decoded, how the context of that document can be recreated. +This is an image from an exhibit which is currently conducted in Geneva with that type of system. +So to conclude, we can say that research in the humanities is about to undergo an evolution which is maybe similar to what happened to life sciences 30 years ago. +It's really a question of scale. +We see projects which are much beyond any single research team can do, and this is really new for the humanities, which very often take the habit of working in small groups or only with a couple of researchers. +When you visit the Archivio di Stato, you feel this is beyond what any single team can do, and that should be a joint and common effort. +So what we must do for this paradigm shift is actually foster a new generation of "digital humanists" that are going to be ready for this shift. +I thank you very much. +For any of you who have visited or lived in New York City, these shots might start to look familiar. +This is Central Park, one of the most beautifully designed public spaces in America. +But to anyone who hasn't visited, these images can't really fully convey. +To really understand Central Park, you have to physically be there. +Well, the same is true of the music, which my brother and I composed and mapped specifically for Central Park. +I'd like to talk to you today a little bit about the work that my brother Hays and I are doing -- That's us there. That's both of us actually specifically about a concept that we've been developing over the last few years, this idea of location-aware music. +Now, my brother and I, we're musicians and music producers. +We've been working together since, well, since we were kids, really. +But recently, we've become more and more interested in projects where art and technology intersect, from creating sight-specific audio and video installation to engineering interactive concerts. +But today I want to focus on this concept of composition for physical space. +But before I go too much further into that, let me tell you a little bit about how we got started with this idea. +My brother and I were living in New York City when the artists Christo and Jeanne-Claude did their temporary installation, The Gates, in Central Park. +This was an experience that stayed with us for a long time, and years later, my brother and I moved back to Washington, D.C., and we started to ask the question, would it be possible, in the same way that The Gates responded to the physical layout of the park, to compose music for a landscape? +Which brought us to this. +On Memorial Day, we released "The National Mall," a location-aware album released exclusively as a mobile app that uses the device's built-in GPS functionality to sonically map the entire park in our hometown of Washington, D.C. +Hundreds of musical segments are geo-tagged throughout the entire park so that as a listener traverses the landscape, a musical score is actually unfolding around them. +So this is not a playlist or a list of songs intended for the park, but rather an array of distinct melodies and rhythms that fit together like pieces of a puzzle and blend seamlessly based on a listener's chosen trajectory. +So think of this as a choose-your-own-adventure of an album. +Let's take a closer look. +Let's look at one example here. +So using the app, as you make your way towards the grounds surrounding the Washington Monument, you hear the sounds of instruments warming up, which then gives way to the sound of a mellotron spelling out a very simple melody. +This is then joined by the sound of sweeping violins. +Keep walking, and a full choir joins in, until you finally reach the top of the hill and you're hearing the sound of drums and fireworks and all sorts of musical craziness, as if all of these sounds are radiating out from this giant obelisk that punctuates the center of the park. +But were you to walk in the opposite direction, this entire sequence happens in reverse. +And were you to actually exit the perimeter of the park, the music would fade to silence, and the play button would disappear. +We're sometimes contacted by people in other parts of the world who can't travel to the United States, but would like to hear this record. +Well, unlike a normal album, we haven't been able to accommodate this request. +When they ask for a C.D. or an MP3 version, we just can't make that happen, and the reason is because this isn't a promotional app or a game to promote or accompany the release of a traditional record. +In this case, the app is the work itself, and the architecture of the landscape is intrinsic to the listening experience. +Six months later, we did a location-aware album for Central Park, a park that is over two times the size of the National Mall, with music spanning from the Sheep's Meadow to the Ramble to the Reservoir. +But what we're doing, integrating GPS with music, is really just one idea. +Thank you. +The entire model of capitalism and the economic model that you and I did business in, and, in fact, continue to do business in, was built around what probably Milton Friedman put more succinctly. +And Adam Smith, of course, the father of modern economics actually said many, many years ago, the invisible hand, which is, "If you continue to operate in your own self-interest you will do the best good for society." +Now, capitalism has done a lot of good things and I've talked about a lot of good things that have happened, but equally, it has not been able to meet up with some of the challenges that we've seen in society. +And I'm afraid this is not going to be good enough and we have to move from this 3G model to a model of what I call the fourth G: the G of growth that is responsible. +And it is this that has to become a very important part of creating value. +Of not just creating economic value but creating social value. +And companies that will thrive are those that will actually embrace the fourth G. +And the model of 4G is quite simple: Companies cannot afford to be just innocent bystanders in what's happening around in society. +They have to begin to play their role in terms of serving the communities which actually sustain them. +And we have to move to a model of an and/and model which is how do we make money and do good? +How do we make sure that we have a great business but we also have a great environment around us? +And that model is all about doing well and doing good. +But the question is easier said than done. +But how do we actually get that done? +And I do believe that the answer to that is going to be leadership. +It is going to be to redefine the new business models which understand that the only license to operate is to combine these things. +And for that you need businesses that can actually define their role in society in terms of a much larger purpose than the products and brands that they sell. +And companies that actually define a true north, things that are nonnegotiable whether times are good, bad, ugly -- doesn't matter. +There are things that you stand for. +Values and purpose are going to be the two drivers of software that are going to create the companies of tomorrow. +And I'm going to now shift to talking a little bit about my own experiences. +I joined Unilever in 1976 as a management trainee in India. +And on my first day of work I walked in and my boss tells me, "Do you know why you're here?" +I said, "I'm here to sell a lot of soap." +And he said, "No, you're here to change lives." +You're here to change lives. +You know, I thought it was rather facetious. +We are a company that sells soap and soup. +What are we doing about changing lives? +And it's then I realized that simple acts like selling a bar of soap can save more lives than pharmaceutical companies. +I don't know how many of you know that five million children don't reach the age of five because of simple infections that can be prevented by an act of washing their hands with soap. +We run the largest hand-washing program in the world. +We are running a program on hygiene and health that now touches half a billion people. +It's not about selling soap, there is a larger purpose out there. +And brands indeed can be at the forefront of social change. +And the reason for that is, when two billion people use your brands that's the amplifier. +Small actions can make a big difference. +Take another example, I was walking around in one of our villages in India. +Now those of you who have done this will realize that this is no walk in the park. +And we had this lady who was one of our small distributors -- beautiful, very, very modest, her home -- and she was out there, dressed nicely, her husband in the back, her mother-in-law behind and her sister-in-law behind her. +The social order was changing because this lady is part of our Project Shakti that is actually teaching women how to do small business and how to carry the message of nutrition and hygiene. +We have 60,000 such women now in India. +It's not about selling soap, it's about making sure that in the process of doing so you can change people's lives. +Small actions, big difference. +Our R&D folks are not only working to give us some fantastic detergents, but they're working to make sure we use less water. +A product that we've just launched recently, One Rinse product that allows you to save water every time you wash your clothes. +And if we can convert all our users to using this, that's 500 billion liters of water. +By the way, that's equivalent to one month of water for a whole huge continent. +So just think about it. +There are small actions that can make a big difference. +And I can go on and on. +Our food chain, our brilliant products -- and I'm sorry I'm giving you a word from the sponsors -- Knorr, Hellman's and all those wonderful products. +We are committed to making sure that all our agricultural raw materials are sourced from sustainable sources, 100-percent sustainable sources. +We were the first to say we are going to buy all of our palm oil from sustainable sources. +I don't know how many of you know that palm oil, and not buying it from sustainable sources, can create deforestation that is responsible for 20 percent of the greenhouse gasses in the world. +We were the first to embrace that, and it's all because we market soap and soup. +And the point I'm making here is that companies like yours, companies like mine have to define a purpose which embraces responsibility and understands that we have to play our part in the communities in which we operate. +We introduced something called The Unilever Sustainable Living Plan, which said, "Our purpose is to make sustainable living commonplace, and we are gong to change the lives of one billion people over 2020." +Now the question here is, where do we go from here? +And the answer to that is very simple: We're not going to change the world alone. +There are plenty of you and plenty of us who understand this. +The question is, we need partnerships, we need coalitions and importantly, we need that leadership that will allow us to take this from here and to be the change that we want to see around us. +Thank you very much. +It's a pleasure to be here in Edinburgh, Scotland, the birthplace of the needle and syringe. +Less than a mile from here in this direction, in 1853 a Scotsman filed his very first patent on the needle and syringe. +His name was Alexander Wood, and it was at the Royal College of Physicians. +This is the patent. +What blows my mind when I look at it even today is that it looks almost identical to the needle in use today. +Yet, it's 160 years old. +So we turn to the field of vaccines. +Most vaccines are delivered with the needle and syringe, this 160-year-old technology. +And credit where it's due -- on many levels, vaccines are a successful technology. +After clean water and sanitation, vaccines are the one technology that has increased our life span the most. +That's a pretty hard act to beat. +But just like any other technology, vaccines have their shortcomings, and the needle and syringe is a key part within that narrative -- this old technology. +So let's start with the obvious: Many of us don't like the needle and syringe. +I share that view. +However, 20 percent of the population have a thing called needle phobia. +That's more than disliking the needle; that is actively avoiding being vaccinated because of needle phobia. +And that's problematic in terms of the rollout of vaccines. +Now, related to this is another key issue, which is needlestick injuries. +And the WHO has figures that suggest about 1.3 million deaths per year take place due to cross-contamination with needlestick injuries. +These are early deaths that take place. +Now, these are two things that you probably may have heard of, but there are two other shortcomings of the needle and syringe you may not have heard about. +One is it could be holding back the next generation of vaccines in terms of their immune responses. +And the second is that it could be responsible for the problem of the cold chain that I'll tell you about as well. +I'm going to tell you about some work that my team and I are doing in Australia at the University of Queensland on a technology designed to tackle those four problems. +And that technology is called the Nanopatch. +Now, this is a specimen of the Nanopatch. +To the naked eye it just looks like a square smaller than a postage stamp, but under a microscope what you see are thousands of tiny projections that are invisible to the human eye. +And there's about 4,000 projections on this particular square compared to the needle. +And I've designed those projections to serve a key role, which is to work with the skin's immune system. +So that's a very important function tied in with the Nanopatch. +Now we make the Nanopatch with a technique called deep reactive ion etching. +And this particular technique is one that's been borrowed from the semiconductor industry, and therefore is low cost and can be rolled out in large numbers. +Now we dry-coat vaccines to the projections of the Nanopatch and apply it to the skin. +Now, the simplest form of application is using our finger, but our finger has some limitations, so we've devised an applicator. +And it's a very simple device -- you could call it a sophisticated finger. +It's a spring-operated device. +What we do is when we apply the Nanopatch to the skin as so -- -- immediately a few things happen. +So firstly, the projections on the Nanopatch breach through the tough outer layer and the vaccine is very quickly released -- within less than a minute, in fact. +Then we can take the Nanopatch off and discard it. +And indeed we can make a reuse of the applicator itself. +So that gives you an idea of the Nanopatch, and immediately you can see some key advantages. +We've talked about it being needle-free -- these are projections that you can't even see -- and, of course, we get around the needle phobia issue as well. +Now, if we take a step back and think about these other two really important advantages: One is improved immune responses through delivery, and the second is getting rid of the cold chain. +So let's start with the first one, this immunogenicity idea. +It takes a little while to get our heads around, but I'll try to explain it in simple terms. +So I'll take a step back and explain to you how vaccines work in a simple way. +So vaccines work by introducing into our body a thing called an antigen which is a safe form of a germ. +Now that safe germ, that antigen, tricks our body into mounting an immune response, learning and remembering how to deal with intruders. +When the real intruder comes along the body quickly mounts an immune response to deal with that vaccine and neutralizes the infection. +So it does that well. +Now, the way it's done today with the needle and syringe, most vaccines are delivered that way -- with this old technology and the needle. +But it could be argued that the needle is holding back our immune responses; it's missing our immune sweet spot in the skin. +To describe this idea, we need to take a journey through the skin, starting with one of those projections and applying the Nanopatch to the skin. +And we see this kind of data. +Now, this is real data -- that thing that we can see there is one projection from the Nanopatch that's been applied to the skin and those colors are different layers. +Now, to give you an idea of scale, if the needle was shown here, it would be too big. +It would be 10 times bigger than the size of that screen, going 10 times deeper as well. +It's off the grid entirely. +You can see immediately that we have those projections in the skin. +That red layer is a tough outer layer of dead skin, but the brown layer and the magenta layer are jammed full of immune cells. +As one example, in the brown layer there's a certain type of cell called a Langerhans cell -- every square millimeter of our body is jammed full of those Langerhans cells, those immune cells, and there's others shown as well that we haven't stained in this image. +But you can immediately see that the Nanopatch achieves that penetration indeed. +We target thousands upon thousands of these particular cells just residing within a hair's width of the surface of the skin. +Now, as the guy that's invented this thing and designed it to do that, I found that exciting. But so what? +So what if you've targeted cells? +In the world of vaccines, what does that mean? +The world of vaccines is getting better. +It's getting more systematic. +However, you still don't really know if a vaccine is going to work until you roll your sleeves up and vaccinate and wait. +It's a gambler's game even today. +So, we had to do that gamble. +We obtained an influenza vaccine, we applied it to our Nanopatches and we applied the Nanopatches to the skin, and we waited -- and this is in the live animal. +We waited a month, and this is what we found out. +This is a data slide showing the immune responses that we've generated with a Nanopatch compared to the needle and syringe into muscle. +So on the horizontal axis we have the dose shown in nanograms. +On the vertical axis we have the immune response generated, and that dashed line indicates the protection threshold. +If we're above that line it's considered protective; if we're below that line it's not. +So the red line is mostly below that curve and indeed there's only one point that is achieved with the needle that's protective, and that's with a high dose of 6,000 nanograms. +But notice immediately the distinctly different curve that we achieve with the blue line. +That's what's achieved with the Nanopatch; the delivered dose of the Nanopatch is a completely different immunogenicity curve. +That's a real fresh opportunity. +Suddenly we have a brand new lever in the world of vaccines. +We can push it one way, where we can take a vaccine that works but is too expensive and can get protection with a hundredth of the dose compared to the needle. +That can take a vaccine that's suddenly 10 dollars down to 10 cents, and that's particularly important within the developing world. +But there's another angle to this as well -- you can take vaccines that currently don't work and get them over that line and get them protective. +And certainly in the world of vaccines that can be important. +Let's consider the big three: HIV, malaria, tuberculosis. +They're responsible for about 7 million deaths per year, and there is no adequate vaccination method for any of those. +So potentially, with this new lever that we have with the Nanopatch, we can help make that happen. +We can push that lever to help get those candidate vaccines over the line. +Now, of course, we've worked within my lab with many other vaccines that have attained similar responses and similar curves to this, what we've achieved with influenza. +I'd like to now switch to talk about another key shortcoming of today's vaccines, and that is the need to maintain the cold chain. +As the name suggests -- the cold chain -- it's the requirements of keeping a vaccine right from production all the way through to when the vaccine is applied, to keep it refrigerated. +Now, that presents some logistical challenges but we have ways to do it. +This is a slightly extreme case in point but it helps illustrate the logistical challenges, in particular in resource-poor settings, of what's required to get vaccines refrigerated and maintain the cold chain. +If the vaccine is too warm the vaccine breaks down, but interestingly it can be too cold and the vaccine can break down as well. +Now, the stakes are very high. +The WHO estimates that within Africa, up to half the vaccines used there are considered to not be working properly because at some point the cold chain has fallen over. +So it's a big problem, and it's tied in with the needle and syringe because it's a liquid form vaccine, and when it's liquid it needs the refrigeration. +A key attribute of our Nanopatch is that the vaccine is dry, and when it's dry it doesn't need refrigeration. +Within my lab we've shown that we can keep the vaccine stored at 23 degrees Celsius for more than a year without any loss in activity at all. +That's an important improvement. +We're delighted about it as well. +And the thing about it is that we have well and truly proven the Nanopatch within the laboratory setting. +And as a scientist, I love that and I love science. +However, as an engineer, as a biomedical engineer and also as a human being, I'm not going to be satisfied until we've rolled this thing out, taken it out of the lab and got it to people in large numbers and particularly the people that need it the most. +So we've commenced this particular journey, and we've commenced this journey in an unusual way. +We've started with Papua New Guinea. +Now, Papua New Guinea is an example of a developing world country. +It's about the same size as France, but it suffers from many of the key barriers existing within the world of today's vaccines. +There's the logistics: Within this country there are only 800 refrigerators to keep vaccines chilled. +Many of them are old, like this one in Port Moresby, many of them are breaking down and many are not in the Highlands where they are required. +That's a challenge. +But also, Papua New Guinea has the world's highest incidence of HPV, human papillomavirus, the cervical cancer [risk factor]. +Yet, that vaccine is not available in large numbers because it's too expensive. +So for those two reasons, with the attributes of the Nanopatch, we've got into the field and worked with the Nanopatch, and taken it to Papua New Guinea and we'll be following that up shortly. +Now, doing this kind of work is not easy. +It's challenging, but there's nothing else in the world I'd rather be doing. +And as we look ahead I'd like to share with you a thought: It's the thought of a future where the 17 million deaths per year that we currently have due to infectious disease is a historical footnote. +And it's a historical footnote that has been achieved by improved, radically improved vaccines. +Thank you. +Pat Mitchell: Your first time back on the TEDWomen stage. +Sheryl Sandberg: First time back. Nice to see everyone. It's always so nice to look out and see so many women. +It's so not my regular experience, as I know anyone else's. +PM: So when we first started talking about, maybe the subject wouldn't be social media, which we assumed it would be, but that you had very much on your mind the missing leadership positions, particularly in the sector of technology and social media. +But how did that evolve for you as a thought, and end up being the TED Talk that you gave? +SS: So I was really scared to get on this stage and talk about women, because I grew up in the business world, as I think so many of us did. +You never talk about being a woman, because someone might notice that you're a woman, right? +They might notice. Or worse, if you say "woman," people on the other end of the table think you're asking for special treatment, or complaining. +Or worse, about to sue them. And so I went through -- Right? I went through my entire business career, and never spoke about being a woman, never spoke about it publicly. +But I also had noticed that it wasn't working. +I came out of college over 20 years ago, and I thought that all of my peers were men and women, all the people above me were all men, but that would change, because your generation had done such an amazing job fighting for equality, equality was now ours for the taking. And it wasn't. +Because year after year, I was one of fewer and fewer, and now, often the only woman in a room. +And I talked to a bunch of people about, should I give a speech at TEDWomen about women, and they said, oh no, no. +It will end your business career. You cannot be a serious business executive and speak about being a woman. You'll never be taken seriously again. +But fortunately, there were the few, the proud -- like you -- who told me I should give the speech, and I asked myself the question Mark Zuckerberg might -- the founder of Facebook and my boss -- asks all of us, which is, what would I do if I wasn't afraid? +And I said -- very last minute -- you know, you really should share that story. +SS: Oh, yeah. PM: What was that story? +SS: Well, it's an important part of the journey. So I had -- TEDWomen -- the original one was in D.C. -- so I live here, so I had gotten on a plane the day before, and my daughter was three, she was clinging to my leg: "Mommy, don't go." +And Pat's a friend, and so, not related to the speech I was planning on giving, which was chock full of facts and figures, and nothing personal, I told Pat the story. I said, well, I'm having a hard day. +Yesterday my daughter was clinging to my leg, and "Don't go." +And you looked at me and said, you have to tell that story. +I said, on the TED stage? Are you kidding? +I'm going to get on a stage and admit my daughter was clinging to my leg? +And you said yes, because if you want to talk about getting more women into leadership roles, you have to be honest about how hard it is. +And I did. And I think that's a really important part of the journey. +The same thing happened when I wrote my book. I started writing the book. I wrote a first chapter, I thought it was fabulous. It was chock-full of data and figures, I had three pages on matrilineal Maasai tribes, and their sociological patterns. +My husband read it and he was like, this is like eating your Wheaties. No one -- and I apologize to Wheaties if there's someone -- no one, no one will read this book. +And I realized through the process that I had to be more honest and more open, and I had to tell my stories. My stories of still not feeling as self-confident as I should, in many situations. My first and failed marriage. Crying at work. +Felling like I didn't belong there, feeling guilty to this day. +And part of my journey, starting on this stage, going to "Lean In," going to the foundation, is all about being more open and honest about those challenges, so that other women can be more open and honest, and all of us can work together towards real equality. +So talk about that process: deciding you'd go public with the private part, and then you would also put yourself in the position of something of an expert on how to resolve those challenges. +SS: After I did the TED Talk, what happened was -- you know, I never really expected to write a book, I'm not an author, I'm not a writer, and it was viewed a lot, and it really started impacting people's lives. +I got this great --- one of the first letters I got was from a woman who said that she was offered a really big promotion at work, and she turned it down, and she told her best friend she turned it down, and her best friend said, you really need to watch this TED Talk. +And so she watched this TED Talk, and she went back the next day, she took the job, she went home, and she handed her husband the grocery list. And she said, I can do this. +And what really mattered to me -- it wasn't only women in the corporate world, even though I did hear from a lot of them, and it did impact a lot of them, it was also people of all different circumstances. +There was a doctor I met who was an attending physician at Johns Hopkins, and he said that until he saw my TED Talk, it never really occurred to him that even though half the students in his med school classes were women, they weren't speaking as much as the men as he did his rounds. +So he started paying attention, and as he waited for raised hands, he realized the men's hands were up. +So he started encouraging the women to raise their hands more, and it still didn't work. +So he told everyone, no more hand raising, I'm cold-calling. +So he could call evenly on men and women. And what he proved to himself was that the women knew the answers just as well or better, and he was able to go back to them and tell them that. +And then there was the woman, stay-at-home mom, lives in a really difficult neighborhood, with not a great school, she said that TED Talk -- she's never had a corporate job, but that TED Talk inspired her to go to her school and fight for a better teacher for her child. +And I guess it was part of was finding my own voice. +And I realized that other women and men could find their voice through it, which is why I went from the talk to the book. +PM: And in the book, you not only found your voice, which is clear and strong in the book, but you also share what you've learned -- the experiences of other people in the lessons. +And that's what I'm thinking about in terms of putting yourself in a -- you became a sort of expert in how you lean in. +So what did that feel like, and become like in your life? +To launch not just a book, not just a best-selling, best-viewed talk, but a movement, where people began to literally describe their actions at work as, I'm leaning in. +SS: I mean, I'm grateful, I'm honored, I'm happy, and it's the very beginning. +So I don't know if I'm an expert, or if anyone is an expert. I certainly have done a lot of research. +I have read every study, I have pored over the materials, and the lessons are very clear. Because here's what we know: What we know is that stereotypes are holding women back from leadership roles all over the world. +It's so striking. "Lean In" is very global, I've been all over the world, talking about it, and -- cultures are so different. +Even within our own country, to Japan, to Korea, to China, to Asia, Europe, they're so different. Except for one thing: gender. +All over the world, no matter what our cultures are, we think men should be strong, assertive, aggressive, have voice; we think women should speak when spoken to, help others. +Now we have, all over the world, women are called "bossy." There is a word for "bossy," for little girls, in every language there's one. +It's a word that's pretty much not used for little boys, because if a little boy leads, there's no negative word for it, it's expected. But if a little girl leads, she's bossy. +Now I know there aren't a lot of men here, but bear with me. +If you're a man, you'll have to represent your gender. +Please raise your hand if you've been told you're too aggressive at work. +There's always a few, it runs about five percent. Okay, get ready, gentlemen. +If you're a woman, please raise your hand if you've ever been told you're too aggressive at work. +That is what audiences have said in every country in the world, and it's deeply supported by the data. +Now, do we think women are more aggressive than men? Of course not. +It's just that we judge them through a different lens, and a lot of the character traits that you must exhibit to perform at work, to get results, to lead, are ones that we think, in a man, he's a boss, and in a woman, she's bossy. +And the good news about this is that we can change this by acknowledging it. +One of the happiest moments I had in this whole journey is, after the book came out, I stood on a stage with John Chambers, the CEO of Cisco. +He read the book. He stood on a stage with me, he invited me in front of his whole management team, men and women, and he said, I thought we were good at this. I thought I was good at this. +And then I read this book, and I realized that we -- my company -- we have called all of our senior women too aggressive, and I'm standing on this stage, and I'm sorry. +And I want you to know we're never going to do it again. +PM: Can we send that to a lot of other people that we know? SS: And so John is doing that because he believes it's good for his company, and so this kind of acknowledgement of these biases can change it. +And so next time you all see someone call a little girl "bossy," you walk right up to that person, big smile, and you say, "That little girl's not bossy. That little girl has executive leadership skills." PM: I know that's what you're telling your daughter. SS: Absolutely. +PM: And you did focus in the book -- and the reason, as you said, in writing it, was to create a dialogue about this. +I mean, let's just put it out there, face the fact that women are -- in a time when we have more open doors, and more opportunities -- are still not getting to the leadership positions. +So in the months that have come since the book, in which "Lean In" focused on that and said, here are some of the challenges that remain, and many of them we have to own within ourselves and look at ourselves. What has changed? +Have you seen changes? +SS: Well, there's certainly more dialogue, which is great. +But what really matters to me, and I think all of us, is action. +So everywhere I go, CEOs, they're mostly men, say to me, you're costing me so much money because all the women want to be paid as much as the men. +And to them I say, I'm not sorry at all. At all. I mean, the women should be paid as much as the men. +Everywhere I go, women tell me they ask for raises. +Everywhere I go, women say they're getting better relationships with their spouses, asking for more help at home, asking for the promotions they should be getting at work, and importantly, believing it themselves. Even little things. +One of the governors of one of the states told me that he didn't realize that more women were, in fact, literally sitting on the side of the room, which they are, and now he made a rule that all the women on his staff need to sit at the table. +The foundation I started along with the book "Lean In" helps women, or men, start circles -- small groups, it can be 10, it can be however many you want, which meet once a month. +I would have hoped that by now, we'd have about 500 circles. That would've been great. +You know, 500 times roughly 10. +There are over 12,000 circles in 50 countries in the world. +PM: Wow, that's amazing. +SS: And these are people who are meeting every single month. +I met one of them, I was in Beijing. +A group of women, they're all about 29 or 30, they started the first Lean In circle in Beijing, several of them grew up in very poor, rural China. +These women are 29, they are told by their society that they are "left over," because they are not yet married, and the process of coming together once a month at a meeting is helping them define who they are for themselves. +What they want in their careers. The kind of partners they want, if at all. +I looked at them, we went around and introduced ourselves, and they all said their names and where they're from, and I said, I'm Sheryl Sandberg, and this was my dream. +And I kind of just started crying. +Right, which, I admit, I do. Right? I've talked about it before. +But the fact that a woman so far away out in the world, who grew up in a rural village, who's being told to marry someone she doesn't want to marry, can now go meet once a month with a group of people and refuse that, and find life on her own terms. +That's the kind of change we have to hope for. +PM: Have you been surprised by the global nature of the message? +Because I think when the book first came out, many people thought, well, this is a really important handbook for young women on their way up. +They need to look at this, anticipate the barriers, and recognize them, put them out in the open, have the dialogue about it, but that it's really for women who are that. Doing that. Pursuing the corporate world. +And yet the book is being read, as you say, in rural and developing countries. +What part of that has surprised you, and perhaps led to a new perspective on your part? +SS: The book is about self-confidence, and about equality. +And it turns out, everywhere in the world, women need more self-confidence, because the world tells us we're not equal to men. +Everywhere in the world, we live in a world where the men get "and," and women get "or." +I've never met a man who's been asked how he does it all. Again, I'm going to turn to the men in the audience: Please raise your hand if you've been asked, how do you do it all? +Men only. +Women, women. Please raise your hand if you've been asked how you do it all? +We assume men can do it all, slash -- have jobs and children. +We assume women can't, and that's ridiculous, because the great majority of women everywhere in the world, including the United States, work full time and have children. +And I think people don't fully understand how broad the message is. +There is a circle that's been started for rescued sex workers in Miami. +They're using "Lean In" to help people make the transition back to what would be a fair life, really rescuing them from their pimps, and using it. +There are dress-for-success groups in Texas which are using the book, for women who have never been to college. +And we know there are groups all the way to Ethiopia. +And so these messages of equality -- of how women are told they can't have what men can have -- how we assume that leadership is for men, how we assume that voice is for men, these affect all of us, and I think they are very universal. +And it's part of what TEDWomen does. +It unites all of us in a cause we have to believe in, which is more women, more voice, more equality. +PM: If you were invited now to make another TEDWomen talk, what would you say that is a result of this experience, for you personally, and what you've learned about women, and men, as you've made this journey? +SS: I think I would say -- I tried to say this strongly, but I think I can say it more strongly -- I want to say that the status quo is not enough. +That it's not good enough, that it's not changing quickly enough. +Since I gave my TED Talk and published my book, another year of data came out from the U.S. Census. +And you know what we found? +No movement in the wage gap for women in the United States. +Seventy-seven cents to the dollar. +If you are a black woman, 64 cents. +If you are a Latina, we're at 54 cents. +Do you know when the last time those numbers went up? +2002. +We are stagnating, we are stagnating in so many ways. +And I think we are not really being honest about that, for so many reasons. It's so hard to talk about gender. +We shy away from the word "feminist," a word I really think we need to embrace. +We have to get rid of the word bossy and bring back -- I think I would say in a louder voice, we need to get rid of the word "bossy" and bring back the word "feminist," because we need it. +PM: And we all need to do a lot more leaning in. +SS: A lot more leaning in. +PM: Thank you, Sheryl. +Thanks for leaning in and saying yes. +SS: Thank you. +Two years ago, I have to say there was no problem. +Two years ago, I knew exactly what an icon looked like. +It looks like this. +Everybody's icon, but also the default position of a curator of Italian Renaissance paintings, which I was then. +And in a way, this is also another default selection. +Leonardo da Vinci's exquisitely soulful image of the "Lady with an Ermine." +And I use that word, soulful, deliberately. +Or then there's this, or rather these: the two versions of Leonardo's "Virgin of the Rocks" that were about to come together in London for the very first time. +In the exhibition that I was then in the absolute throes of organizing. +I was literally up to my eyes in Leonardo, and I had been for three years. +So, he was occupying every part of my brain. +Leonardo had taught me, during that three years, about what a picture can do. +About taking you from your own material world into a spiritual world. +He said, actually, that he believed the job of the painter was to paint everything that was visible and invisible in the universe. +That's a huge task. And yet, somehow he achieves it. +He shows us, I think, the human soul. +He shows us the capacity of ourselves to move into a spiritual realm. +To see a vision of the universe that's more perfect than our own. +To see God's own plan, in some sense. +So this, in a sense, was really what I believed an icon was. +At about that time, I started talking to Tom Campbell, director here of the Metropolitan Museum, about what my next move might be. +The move, in fact, back to an earlier life, one I'd begun at the British Museum, back to the world of three dimensions -- of sculpture and of decorative arts -- to take over the department of European sculpture and decorative arts, here at the Met. +But it was an incredibly busy time. +All the conversations were done at very peculiar times of the day -- over the phone. +In the end, I accepted the job without actually having been here. +Again, I'd been there a couple of years before, but on that particular visit. +So, it was just before the time that the Leonardo show was due to open when I finally made it back to the Met, to New York, to see my new domain. +To see what European sculpture and decorative arts looked like, beyond those Renaissance collections with which I was so already familiar. +And I thought, on that very first day, I better tour the galleries. +Fifty-seven of these galleries -- like 57 varieties of baked beans, I believe. +I walked through and I started in my comfort zone in the Italian Renaissance. +And then I moved gradually around, feeling a little lost sometimes. +My head, also still full of the Leonardo exhibition that was about to open, and I came across this. +And I thought to myself: What the hell have I done? +There was absolutely no connection in my mind at all and, in fact, if there was any emotion going on, it was a kind of repulsion. +This object felt utterly and completely alien. +Silly at a level that I hadn't yet understood silliness to be. +And then it was made worse -- there were two of them. +So, I started thinking about why it was, in fact, that I disliked this object so much. +What was the anatomy of my distaste? +Well, so much gold, so vulgar. +You know, so nouveau riche, frankly. +Leonardo himself had preached against the use of gold, so it was absolutely anathema at that moment. +And then there's little pretty sprigs of flowers everywhere. And finally, that pink. That damned pink. +It's such an extraordinarily artificial color. +I mean, it's a color that I can't think of anything that you actually see in nature, that looks that shade. +The object even has its own tutu. This little flouncy, spangly, bottomy bit that sits at the bottom of the vase. +It reminded me, in an odd kind of way, of my niece's fifth birthday party. +Where all the little girls would come either as a princess or a fairy. +There was one who would come as a fairy princess. +You should have seen the looks. +And I realize that this object was in my mind, born from the same mind, from the same womb, practically, as Barbie Ballerina. And then there's the elephants. Those extraordinary elephants with their little, sort of strange, sinister expressions and Greta Garbo eyelashes, with these golden tusks and so on. +I realized this was an elephant that had absolutely nothing to do with a majestic march across the Serengeti. +It was a Dumbo nightmare. But something more profound was happening as well. +These objects, it seemed to me, were quintessentially the kind that I and my liberal left friends in London had always seen as summing up something deplorable about the French aristocracy in the 18th century. +The label had told me that these pieces were made by the Svres Manufactory, made of porcelain in the late 1750s, and designed by a designer called Jean-Claude Duplessis, actually somebody of extraordinary distinction as I later learned. +But for me, they summed up a kind of, that sort of sheer uselessness of the aristocracy in the 18th century. +I and my colleagues had always thought that these objects, in way, summed up the idea of, you know -- no wonder there was a revolution. +Or, indeed, thank God there was a revolution. +There was a sort of idea really, that, if you owned a vase like this, then there was really only one fate possible. +So, there I was -- in a sort of paroxysm of horror. +But I took the job and I went on looking at these vases. +I sort of had to because they're on a through route in the Met. +So, almost anywhere I went, there they were. +They had this kind of odd sort of fascination, like a car accident. +Where I couldn't stop looking. +And as I did so, I started thinking: Well, what are we actually looking at here? +And what I started with was understanding this as really a supreme piece of design. +It took me a little time. +But, that tutu for example -- actually, this is a piece that does dance in its own way. +It has an extraordinary lightness and yet, it is also amazing balanced. +It has these kinds of sculptural ingredients. +And then the play between -- actually really quite carefully disposed color and gilding, and the sculptural surface, is really rather remarkable. +And then I realized that this piece went into the kiln four times, at least four times in order to arrive at this. +How many moments for accident can you think of that could have happened to this piece? +And then remember, not just one, but two. +So he's having to arrive at two exactly matched vases of this kind. +And then this question of uselessness. +Well actually, the end of the trunks were originally candle holders. +So what you would have had were candles on either side. +Imagine that effect of candlelight on that surface. +On the slightly uneven pink, on the beautiful gold. +It would have glittered in an interior, a little like a little firework. +And at that point, actually, a firework went off in my brain. +Somebody reminded me that, that word 'fancy' -- which in a sense for me, encapsulated this object -- actually comes from the same root as the word 'fantasy.' And that what this object was just as much in a way, in its own way, as a Leonardo da Vinci painting, is a portal to somewhere else. +This is an object of the imagination. +If you think about the mad 18th-century operas of the time -- set in the Orient. +If you think about divans and perhaps even opium-induced visions of pink elephants, then at that point, this object starts to make sense. +This is an object which is all about escapism. +It's about an escapism that happens -- that the aristocracy in France sought very deliberately to distinguish themselves from ordinary people. +It's not an escapism that we feel particularly happy with today, however. +And again, going on thinking about this, I realize that in a way we're all victims of a certain kind of tyranny of the triumph of modernism whereby form and function in an object have to follow one another, or are deemed to do so. +And the extraneous ornament is seen as really, essentially, criminal. +It's a triumph, in a way, of bourgeois values rather than aristocratic ones. +And that seems fine. +Except for the fact that it becomes a kind of sequestration of imagination. +So just as in the 20th century, so many people had the idea that their faith took place on the Sabbath day, and the rest of their lives -- their lives of washing machines and orthodontics -- took place on another day. +Then, I think we've started doing the same. +We've allowed ourselves to lead our fantasy lives in front of screens. +In the dark of the cinema, with the television in the corner of the room. +We've eliminated, in a sense, that constant of the imagination that these vases represented in people's lives. +So maybe it's time we got this back a little. +I think it's beginning to happen. +In London, for example, with these extraordinary buildings that have been appearing over the last few years. +Redolent, in a sense, of science fiction, turning London into a kind of fantasy playground. +It's actually amazing to look out of a high building nowadays there. +But even then, there's a resistance. +London has called these buildings the Gherkin, the Shard, the Walkie Talkie -- bringing these soaring buildings down to Earth. +There's an idea that we don't want these anxious-making, imaginative journeys to happen in our daily lives. +I feel lucky in a way, I've encountered this object. +I found him on the Internet when I was looking up a reference. +And there he was. +And unlike the pink elephant vase, this was a kind of love at first sight. +In fact, reader, I married him. I bought him. +And he now adorns my office. +He's a Staffordshire figure made in the middle of the 19th century. +He represents the actor, Edmund Kean, playing Shakespeare's Richard III. +And it's based, actually, on a more elevated piece of porcelain. +So I loved, on an art historical level, I loved that layered quality that he has. +But more than that, I love him. +In a way that I think would have been impossible without the pink Svres vase in my Leonardo days. +I love his orange and pink breeches. +I love the fact that he seems to be going off to war, having just finished the washing up. He seems also to have forgotten his sword. +I love his pink little cheeks, his munchkin energy. +In a way, he's become my sort of alter ego. +He's, I hope, a little bit dignified, but mostly rather vulgar. And energetic, I hope, too. +I let him into my life because the Svres pink elephant vase allowed me to do so. +And before that Leonardo, I understood that this object could become part of a journey for me every day, sitting in my office. +I really hope that others, all of you, visiting objects in the museum, and taking them home and finding them for yourselves, will allow those objects to flourish in your imaginative lives. +Thank you very much. +My job is to design, build and study robots that communicate with people. +But this story doesn't start with robotics at all, it starts with animation. +When I first saw Pixar's "Luxo Jr.," I was amazed by how much emotion they could put into something as trivial as a desk lamp. +I mean, look at them -- at the end of this movie, you actually feel something for two pieces of furniture. +And I said, I have to learn how to do this. +So I made a really bad career decision. +And that's what my mom was like when I did it. +I left a very cozy tech job in Israel at a nice software company and I moved to New York to study animation. +And there I lived in a collapsing apartment building in Harlem with roommates. +I'm not using this phrase metaphorically -- the ceiling actually collapsed one day in our living room. +Whenever they did news stories about building violations in New York, they would put the report in front of our building, as kind of, like, a backdrop to show how bad things are. +Anyway, during the day, I went to school and at night I would sit and draw frame by frame of pencil animation. +And I learned two surprising lessons. +One of them was that when you want to arouse emotions, it doesn't matter so much how something looks; it's all in the motion, in the timing of how the thing moves. +And the second was something one of our teachers told us. +He actually did the weasel in "Ice Age." +And he said, "As an animator, you're not a director -- you're an actor." +So, if you want to find the right motion for a character, don't think about it -- go use your body to find it. +Stand in front of a mirror, act it out in front of a camera -- whatever you need -- and then put it back in your character. +A year later I found myself at MIT in the Robotic Life Group. +It was one of the first groups researching the relationships between humans and robots. +And I still had this dream to make an actual, physical Luxo Jr. lamp. +But I found that robots didn't move at all in this engaging way that I was used to from my animation studies. +Instead, they were all -- how should I put it -- they were all kind of robotic. +And I thought, what if I took whatever I learned in animation school, and used that to design my robotic desk lamp. +So I went and designed frame by frame to try to make this robot as graceful and engaging as possible. +And here when you see the robot interacting with me on a desktop -- and I'm actually redesigning the robot, so, unbeknownst to itself, it's kind of digging its own grave by helping me. +I wanted it to be less of a mechanical structure giving me light, and more of a helpful, kind of quiet apprentice that's always there when you need it and doesn't really interfere. +And when, for example, I'm looking for a battery that I can't find, in a subtle way, it'll show me where the battery is. +So you can see my confusion here. +I'm not an actor. +And I want you to notice how the same mechanical structure can, at one point, just by the way it moves, seem gentle and caring and in the other case, seem violent and confrontational. +And it's the same structure, just the motion is different. +Actor: "You want to know something? Well, you want to know something? +He was already dead! +Just laying there, eyes glazed over!" +But, moving in a graceful way is just one building block of this whole structure called human-robot interaction. +I was, at the time, doing my PhD, I was working on human-robot teamwork, teams of humans and robots working together. +I was studying the engineering, the psychology, the philosophy of teamwork, and at the same time, I found myself in my own kind of teamwork situation, with a good friend of mine, who's actually here. +And in that situation, we can easily imagine robots in the near future being there with us. +It was after a Passover Seder. +We were folding up a lot of folding chairs, and I was amazed at how quickly we found our own rhythm. +Everybody did their own part, we didn't have to divide our tasks. +We didn't have to communicate verbally about this -- it all just happened. +And I thought, humans and robots don't look at all like this. +When humans and robots interact, it's much more like a chess game: the human does a thing, the robot analyzes whatever the human did, the robot decides what to do next, plans it and does it. +Then the human waits, until it's their turn again. +So it's much more like a chess game, and that makes sense, because chess is great for mathematicians and computer scientists. +It's all about information, analysis, decision-making and planning. +But I wanted my robot to be less of a chess player, and more like a doer that just clicks and works together. +So I made my second horrible career choice: I decided to study acting for a semester. +I took off from the PhD, I went to acting classes. +I actually participated in a play -- I hope theres no video of that around still. +And I got every book I could find about acting, including one from the 19th century that I got from the library. +And I was really amazed, because my name was the second name on the list -- the previous name was in 1889. And this book was kind of waiting for 100 years to be rediscovered for robotics. +And this book shows actors how to move every muscle in the body to match every kind of emotion that they want to express. +But the real revelation was when I learned about method acting. +It became very popular in the 20th century. +And method acting said you don't have to plan every muscle in your body; instead, you have to use your body to find the right movement. +You have to use your sense memory to reconstruct the emotions and kind of think with your body to find the right expression -- improvise, play off your scene partner. +And this came at the same time as I was reading about this trend in cognitive psychology, called embodied cognition, which also talks about the same ideas. +We use our bodies to think; we don't just think with our brains and use our bodies to move, but our bodies feed back into our brain to generate the way that we behave. +And it was like a lightning bolt. +I went back to my office, I wrote this paper, which I never really published, called "Acting Lessons for Artificial Intelligence." +And I even took another month to do what was then the first theater play with a human and a robot acting together. +That's what you saw before with the actors. +And I thought: How can we make an artificial intelligence model -- a computer, computational model -- that will model some of these ideas of improvisation, of taking risks, of taking chances, even of making mistakes? +Maybe it can make for better robotic teammates. +So I worked for quite a long time on these models and I implemented them on a number of robots. +Here you can see a very early example with the robots trying to use this embodied artificial intelligence to try to match my movements as closely as possible. +It's sort of like a game. +Let's look at it. +You can see when I psych it out, it gets fooled. +And it's a little bit like what you might see actors do when they try to mirror each other to find the right synchrony between them. +And then, I did another experiment, and I got people off the street to use the robotic desk lamp, and try out this idea of embodied artificial intelligence. +So, I actually used two kinds of brains for the same robot. +The robot is the same lamp that you saw, and I put two brains in it. +For one half of the people, I put in a brain that's kind of the traditional, calculated robotic brain. +It waits for its turn, it analyzes everything, it plans. +Let's call it the calculated brain. +The other got more the stage actor, risk-taker brain. +Let's call it the adventurous brain. +It sometimes acts without knowing everything it has to know. +It sometimes makes mistakes and corrects them. +And I had them do this very tedious task that took almost 20 minutes, and they had to work together, somehow simulating, like, a factory job of repetitively doing the same thing. +What I found is that people actually loved the adventurous robot. +They thought it was more intelligent, more committed, a better member of the team, contributed to the success of the team more. +They even called it "he" and "she," whereas people with the calculated brain called it "it," and nobody ever called it "he" or "she." +When they talked about it after the task, with the adventurous brain, they said, "By the end, we were good friends and high-fived mentally." +Whatever that means. +Sounds painful. +Whereas the people with the calculated brain said it was just like a lazy apprentice. +It only did what it was supposed to do and nothing more, which is almost what people expect robots to do, so I was surprised that people had higher expectations of robots than what anybody in robotics thought robots should be doing. +A few years later, I was at my next research job at Georgia Tech in Atlanta, and I was working in a group dealing with robotic musicians. +And I thought, music: that's the perfect place to look at teamwork, coordination, timing, improvisation -- and we just got this robot playing marimba. +And the marimba, for everybody like me, it was this huge, wooden xylophone. +And when I was looking at this, I looked at other works in human-robot improvisation -- yes, there are other works in human-robot improvisation -- and they were also a little bit like a chess game. +The human would play, the robot analyzed what was played, and would improvise their own part. +So, this is what musicians called a call-and-response interaction, and it also fits very well robots and artificial intelligence. +But I thought, if I use the same ideas I used in the theater play and in the teamwork studies, maybe I can make the robots jam together like a band. +Everybody's riffing off each other, nobody is stopping for a moment. +And so I tried to do the same things, this time with music, where the robot doesn't really know what it's about to play, it just sort of moves its body and uses opportunities to play, and does what my jazz teacher when I was 17 taught me. +She said, when you improvise, sometimes you don't know what you're doing, and you still do it. +So I tried to make a robot that doesn't actually know what it's doing, but is still doing it. +So let's look at a few seconds from this performance, where the robot listens to the human musician and improvises. +And then, look how the human musician also responds to what the robot is doing and picking up from its behavior, and at some point can even be surprised by what the robot came up with. +Being a musician is not just about making notes, otherwise nobody would ever go see a live show. +Musicians also communicate with their bodies, with other band members, with the audience, they use their bodies to express the music. +And I thought, we already have a robot musician on stage, why not make it be a full-fledged musician? +And I started designing a socially expressive head for the robot. +The head doesnt actually touch the marimba, it just expresses what the music is like. +These are some napkin sketches from a bar in Atlanta that was dangerously located exactly halfway between my lab and my home. +So I spent, I would say, on average, three to four hours a day there. +I think. And I went back to my animation tools and tried to figure out not just what a robotic musician would look like, but especially what a robotic musician would move like, to sort of show that it doesn't like what the other person is playing -- and maybe show whatever beat it's feeling at the moment. +So we ended up actually getting the money to build this robot, which was nice. +I'm going to show you now the same kind of performance, this time with a socially expressive head. +And notice one thing -- how the robot is really showing us the beat it's picking up from the human, while also giving the human a sense that the robot knows what it's doing. +And also how it changes the way it moves as soon as it starts its own solo. +Now it's looking at me, showing that it's listening. +Now look at the final chord of the piece again. +And this time the robot communicates with its body when it's busy doing its own thing, and when it's ready to coordinate the final chord with me. +(Music ending) (Final chord) Thanks. I hope you see how much this part of the body that doesn't touch the instrument actually helps with the musical performance. +And at some point -- we are in Atlanta, so obviously some rapper will come into our lab at some point -- and we had this rapper come in and do a little jam with the robot. +Here you can see the robot basically responding to the beat. +Notice two things: one, how irresistible it is to join the robot while it's moving its head. +You kind of want to move your own head when it does it. +And second, even though the rapper is really focused on his iPhone, as soon as the robot turns to him, he turns back. +So even though it's just in the periphery of his vision, in the corner of his eye, it's very powerful. +And the reason is that we can't ignore physical things moving in our environment. +We are wired for that. +So if you have a problem -- maybe your partner is looking at their iPhone or smartphone too much -- you might want to have a robot there to get their attention. +They really liked that the robot was enjoying the music. And they didn't say the robot was moving to the music, they said "enjoying" the music. +And we thought, why don't we take this idea, and I designed a new piece of furniture. +This time it wasn't a desk lamp, it was a speaker dock, one of those things you plug your smartphone in. +And I thought, what would happen if your speaker dock didn't just play the music for you, but would actually enjoy it, too? +And so again, here are some animation tests from an early stage. +And this is what the final product looked like. +So, a lot of bobbing heads. +A lot of bobbing heads in the audience, so we can still see robots influence people. +And it's not just fun and games. +Somewhere in your future, there will be a robot in your life. +If not in yours, your children's lives. +And I want these robots to be more fluent, more engaging, more graceful than currently they seem to be. +And for that I think maybe robots need to be less like chess players and more like stage actors and more like musicians. +Maybe they should be able to take chances and improvise. +Maybe they should be able to anticipate what you're about to do. +Maybe they even need to be able to make mistakes and correct them, because in the end, we are human. +And maybe as humans, robots that are a little less than perfect are just perfect for us. +Thank you. +So when I was in Morocco, in Casablanca, not so long ago, I met a young unmarried mother called Faiza. +Faiza showed me photos of her infant son and she told me the story of his conception, pregnancy, and delivery. +It was a remarkable tale, but Faiza saved the best for last. +"You know, I am a virgin," she told me. +"I have two medical certificates to prove it." +This is the modern Middle East, where two millennia after the coming of Christ, virgin births are still a fact of life. +Faiza's story is just one of hundreds I've heard over the years, traveling across the Arab region talking to people about sex. +Now, I know this might sound like a dream job, or possibly a highly dubious occupation, but for me, it's something else altogether. +I'm half Egyptian, and I'm Muslim. +But I grew up in Canada, far from my Arab roots. +Like so many who straddle East and West, I've been drawn, over the years, to try to better understand my origins. +That I chose to look at sex comes from my background in HIV/AIDS, as a writer and a researcher and an activist. +Sex lies at the heart of an emerging epidemic in the Middle East and North Africa, which is one of only two regions in the world where HIV/AIDS is still on the rise. +Now sexuality is an incredibly powerful lens with which to study any society, because what happens in our intimate lives is reflected by forces on a bigger stage: in politics and economics, in religion and tradition, in gender and generations. +As I found, if you really want to know a people, you start by looking inside their bedrooms. +Now to be sure, the Arab world is vast and varied. +But running across it are three red lines -- these are topics you are not supposed to challenge in word or deed. +The first of these is politics. +But the Arab Spring has changed all that, in uprisings which have blossomed across the region since 2011. +Now while those in power, old and new, continue to cling to business as usual, millions are still pushing back, and pushing forward to what they hope will be a better life. +That second red line is religion. +But now religion and politics are connected, with the rise of such groups as the Muslim Brotherhood. +And some people, at least, are starting to ask questions about the role of Islam in public and private life. +You know, as for that third red line, that off-limits subject, what do you think it might be? +Audience: Sex. +Shereen El Feki: Louder, I can't hear you. +Audience: Sex. +SEF: Again, please don't be shy. +Audience: Sex. +SEF: Absolutely, that's right, it's sex. Across the Arab region, the only accepted context for sex is marriage -- approved by your parents, sanctioned by religion and registered by the state. +Marriage is your ticket to adulthood. +If you don't tie the knot, you can't move out of your parents' place, and you're not supposed to be having sex, and you're definitely not supposed to be having children. +It's a social citadel; it's an impregnable fortress which resists any assault, any alternative. +And around the fortress is this vast field of taboo against premarital sex, against condoms, against abortion, against homosexuality, you name it. +Faiza was living proof of this. +Her virginity statement was not a piece of wishful thinking. +Although the major religions of the region extoll premarital chastity, in a patriarchy, boys will be boys. +Men have sex before marriage, and people more or less turn a blind eye. +Not so for women, who are expected to be virgins on their wedding night -- that is, to turn up with your hymen intact. +This is not a question of individual concern, this is a matter of family honor, and in particular, men's honor. +And so women and their relatives will go to great lengths to preserve this tiny piece of anatomy -- from female genital mutilation, to virginity testing, to hymen repair surgery. +Faiza chose a different route: non-vaginal sex. +Only she became pregnant all the same. +But Faiza didn't actually realize this, because there's so little sexuality education in schools, and so little communication in the family. +When her condition became hard to hide, Faiza's mother helped her flee her father and brothers. +This is because honor killings are a real threat for untold numbers of women in the Arab region. +And so when Faiza eventually fetched up at a hospital in Casablanca, the man who offered to help her, instead tried to rape her. +Sadly, Faiza is not alone. +In Egypt, where my research is focused, I have seen plenty of trouble in and out of the citadel. +There are legions of young men who can't afford to get married, because marriage has become a very expensive proposition. +They are expected to bear the burden of costs in married life, but they can't find jobs. +This is one of the major drivers of the recent uprisings, and it is one of the reasons for the rising age of marriage in much of the Arab region. +There are career women who want to get married, but can't find a husband, because they defy gender expectations, or as one young female doctor in Tunisia put it to me, "The women, they are becoming more and more open. +But the man, he is still at the prehistoric stage." +And then there are men and women who cross the heterosexual line, who have sex with their own sex, or who have a different gender identity. +They are on the receiving end of laws which punish their activities, even their appearance. +And they face a daily struggle with social stigma, with family despair, and with religious fire and brimstone. +Now, it's not as if it's all rosy in the marital bed either. +Couples who are looking for greater happiness, greater sexual happiness in their married lives, but are at a loss of how to achieve it, especially wives, who are afraid of being seen as bad women if they show some spark in the bedroom. +And then there are those whose marriages are actually a veil for prostitution. +They have been sold by their families, often to wealthy Arab tourists. +This is just one face of a booming sex trade across the Arab region. +Now raise your hand if any of this is sounding familiar to you, from your part of the world. +Yeah. It's not as if the Arab world has a monopoly on sexual hangups. +And although we don't yet have an Arab Kinsey Report to tell us exactly what's happening inside bedrooms across the Arab region, It's pretty clear that something is not right. +As one doctor in Cairo summed it up for me, "Here, sex is the opposite of sport. +Football, everybody talks about it, but hardly anyone plays. +But sex, everybody is doing it, but nobody wants to talk about it." (In Arabic) SEF: I want to give you a piece of advice, which if you follow it, will make you happy in life. +When your husband reaches out to you, when he seizes a part of your body, sigh deeply and look at him lustily. +When he penetrates you with his penis, try to talk flirtatiously and move yourself in harmony with him. +Hot stuff! +And it might sound that these handy hints come from "The Joy of Sex" or YouPorn. +But in fact, they come from a 10th-century Arabic book called "The Encyclopedia of Pleasure," which covers sex from aphrodisiacs to zoophilia, and everything in between. +The Encyclopedia is just one in a long line of Arabic erotica, much of it written by religious scholars. +Going right back to the Prophet Muhammad, there is a rich tradition in Islam of talking frankly about sex: not just its problems, but also its pleasures, and not just for men, but also for women. +A thousand years ago, we used to have whole dictionaries of sex in Arabic. +Words to cover every conceivable sexual feature, position and preference, a body of language that was rich enough to make up the body of the woman you see on this page. +Today, this history is largely unknown in the Arab region. +Even by educated people, who often feel more comfortable talking about sex in a foreign language than they do in their own tongue. +Today's sexual landscape looks a lot like Europe and America on the brink of the sexual revolution. +But while the West has opened on sex, what we found is that Arab societies appear to have been moving in the opposite direction. +In Egypt and many of its neighbors, this closing down is part of a wider closing in political, social and cultural thought. +And it is the product of a complex historical process, one which has gained ground with the rise of Islamic conservatism since the late 1970s. +"Just say no" is what conservatives around the world say to any challenge to the sexual status quo. +In the Arab region, they brand these attempts as a Western conspiracy to undermine traditional Arab and Islamic values. +But what's really at stake here is one of their most powerful tools of control: sex wrapped up in religion. +But history shows us that even as recently as our fathers' and grandfathers' day, there have been times of greater pragmatism, and tolerance, and a willingness to consider other interpretations: be it abortion, or masturbation, or even the incendiary topic of homosexuality. +It is not black and white, as conservatives would have us believe. +In these, as in so many other matters, Islam offers us at least 50 shades of gray. +Women, and increasingly men, who are starting to speak out and push back against sexual violence on the streets and in the home. +Groups that are trying to help sex workers protect themselves against HIV and other occupational hazards, and NGOs that are helping unwed mothers like Faiza find a place in society, and critically, stay with their kids. +Now these efforts are small, they're often underfunded, and they face formidable opposition. +But I am optimistic that, in the long run, times are changing, and they and their ideas will gain ground. +Social change doesn't happen in the Arab region through dramatic confrontation, beating or indeed baring of breasts, but rather through negotiation. +What we're talking here is not about a sexual revolution, but a sexual evolution, learning from other parts of the world, adapting to local conditions, forging our own path, not following one blazed by another. +That path, I hope, will one day lead us to the right to control our own bodies, and to access the information and services we need to lead satisfying and safe sexual lives. +The right to express our ideas freely, to marry whom we choose, to choose our own partners, to be sexually active or not, to decide whether to have children and when, all this without violence or force or discrimination. +Now we are very far from this across the Arab region, and so much needs to change: law, education, media, the economy, the list goes on and on, and it is the work of a generation, at least. +But it begins with a journey that I myself have made, asking hard questions of received wisdoms in sexual life. +And it is a journey which has only served to strengthen my faith, and my appreciation of local histories and cultures by showing me possibilities where I once only saw absolutes. +Now given the turmoil in many countries in the Arab region, talking about sex, challenging the taboos, seeking alternatives might sound like something of a luxury. +But at this critical moment in history, if we do not anchor freedom and justice, dignity and equality, privacy and autonomy in our personal lives, in our sexual lives, we will find it very hard to achieve in public life. +The political and the sexual are intimate bedfellows, and that is true for us all. +no matter where we live and love. +Thank you. +Some of my most wonderful memories of childhood are of spending time with my grandmother, Mamar, in our four-family home in Brooklyn, New York. +Her apartment was an oasis. +It was a place where I could sneak a cup of coffee, which was really warm milk with just a touch of caffeine. +She loved life. +And although she worked in a factory, she saved her pennies and she traveled to Europe. +And I remember poring over those pictures with her and then dancing with her to her favorite music. +And then, when I was eight and she was 60, something changed. +She no longer worked or traveled. +She no longer danced. +There were no more coffee times. +My mother missed work and took her to doctors who couldn't make a diagnosis. +And my father, who worked at night, would spend every afternoon with her, just to make sure she ate. +Her care became all-consuming for our family. +And by the time a diagnosis was made, she was in a deep spiral. +Now many of you will recognize her symptoms. +My grandmother had depression. +A deep, life-altering depression, from which she never recovered. +And back then, so little was known about depression. +But even today, 50 years later, there's still so much more to learn. +Today, we know that women are 70 percent more likely to experience depression over their lifetimes compared with men. +And even with this high prevalence, women are misdiagnosed between 30 and 50 percent of the time. +Now we know that women are more likely to experience the symptoms of fatigue, sleep disturbance, pain and anxiety compared with men. +And these symptoms are often overlooked as symptoms of depression. +And it isn't only depression in which these sex differences occur, but they occur across so many diseases. +So it's my grandmother's struggles that have really led me on a lifelong quest. +And today, I lead a center in which the mission is to discover why these sex differences occur and to use that knowledge to improve the health of women. +Today, we know that every cell has a sex. +Now, that's a term coined by the Institute of Medicine. +And what it means is that men and women are different down to the cellular and molecular levels. +It means that we're different across all of our organs. +From our brains to our hearts, our lungs, our joints. +Now, it was only 20 years ago that we hardly had any data on women's health beyond our reproductive functions. +But then in 1993, the NIH Revitalization Act was signed into law. +And what this law did was it mandated that women and minorities be included in clinical trials that were funded by the National Institutes of Health. +And in many ways, the law has worked. +Women are now routinely included in clinical studies, and we've learned that there are major differences in the ways that women and men experience disease. +But remarkably, what we have learned about these differences is often overlooked. +So, we have to ask ourselves the question: Why leave women's health to chance? +And we're leaving it to chance in two ways. +The first is that there is so much more to learn and we're not making the investment in fully understanding the extent of these sex differences. +And the second is that we aren't taking what we have learned, and routinely applying it in clinical care. +We are just not doing enough. +So, I'm going to share with you three examples of where sex differences have impacted the health of women, and where we need to do more. +Let's start with heart disease. +It's the number one killer of women in the United States today. +This is the face of heart disease. +Linda is a middle-aged woman, who had a stent placed in one of the arteries going to her heart. +When she had recurring symptoms she went back to her doctor. +Her doctor did the gold standard test: a cardiac catheterization. +It showed no blockages. +Linda's symptoms continued. +She had to stop working. +And that's when she found us. +When Linda came to us, we did another cardiac catheterization and this time, we found clues. +But we needed another test to make the diagnosis. +So we did a test called an intracoronary ultrasound, where you use soundwaves to look at the artery from the inside out. +And what we found was that Linda's disease didn't look like the typical male disease. +The typical male disease looks like this. +There's a discrete blockage or stenosis. +Linda's disease, like the disease of so many women, looks like this. +The plaque is laid down more evenly, more diffusely along the artery, and it's harder to see. +So for Linda, and for so many women, the gold standard test wasn't gold. +Now, Linda received the right treatment. +She went back to her life and, fortunately, today she is doing well. +But Linda was lucky. +She found us, we found her disease. +But for too many women, that's not the case. +We have the tools. +We have the technology to make the diagnosis. +But it's all too often that these sex diffferences are overlooked. +So what about treatment? +A landmark study that was published two years ago asked the very important question: What are the most effective treatments for heart disease in women? +The authors looked at papers written over a 10-year period, and hundreds had to be thrown out. +And what they found out was that of those that were tossed out, 65 percent were excluded because even though women were included in the studies, the analysis didn't differentiate between women and men. +What a lost opportunity. +The money had been spent and we didn't learn how women fared. +And these studies could not contribute one iota to the very, very important question, what are the most effective treatments for heart disease in women? +I want to introduce you to Hortense, my godmother, Hung Wei, a relative of a colleague, and somebody you may recognize -- Dana, Christopher Reeve's wife. +All three women have something very important in common. +All three were diagnosed with lung cancer, the number one cancer killer of women in the United States today. +All three were nonsmokers. +Sadly, Dana and Hung Wei died of their disease. +Today, what we know is that women who are nonsmokers are three times more likely to be diagnosed with lung cancer than are men who are nonsmokers. +Now interestingly, when women are diagnosed with lung cancer, their survival tends to be better than that of men. +Now, here are some clues. +Our investigators have found that there are certain genes in the lung tumor cells of both women and men. +And these genes are activated mainly by estrogen. +And when these genes are over-expressed, it's associated with improved survival only in young women. +Now this is a very early finding and we don't yet know whether it has relevance to clinical care. +But it's findings like this that may provide hope and may provide an opportunity to save lives of both women and men. +Now, let me share with you an example of when we do consider sex differences, it can drive the science. +Several years ago a new lung cancer drug was being evaluated, and when the authors looked at whose tumors shrank, they found that 82 percent were women. +This led them to ask the question: Well, why? +And what they found was that the genetic mutations that the drug targeted were far more common in women. +And what this has led to is a more personalized approach to the treatment of lung cancer that also includes sex. +This is what we can accomplish when we don't leave women's health to chance. +We know that when you invest in research, you get results. +Take a look at the death rate from breast cancer over time. +And now take a look at the death rates from lung cancer in women over time. +Now let's look at the dollars invested in breast cancer -- these are the dollars invested per death -- and the dollars invested in lung cancer. +Now, it's clear that our investment in breast cancer has produced results. +They may not be fast enough, but it has produced results. +We can do the same for lung cancer and for every other disease. +So let's go back to depression. +Depression is the number one cause of disability in women in the world today. +Our investigators have found that there are differences in the brains of women and men in the areas that are connected with mood. +And when you put men and women in a functional MRI scanner -- that's the kind of scanner that shows how the brain is functioning when it's activated -- so you put them in the scanner and you expose them to stress. +You can actually see the difference. +And it's findings like this that we believe hold some of the clues for why we see these very significant sex differences in depression. +But even though we know that these differences occur, 66 percent of the brain research that begins in animals is done in either male animals or animals in whom the sex is not identified. +So, I think we have to ask again the question: Why leave women's health to chance? +And this is a question that haunts those of us in science and medicine who believe that we are on the verge of being able to dramatically improve the health of women. +We know that every cell has a sex. +We know that these differences are often overlooked. +And therefore we know that women are not getting the full benefit of modern science and medicine today. +We have the tools but we lack the collective will and momentum. +Women's health is an equal rights issue as important as equal pay. +And it's an issue of the quality and the integrity of science and medicine. +So imagine the momentum we could achieve in advancing the health of women if we considered whether these sex differences were present at the very beginning of designing research. +Or if we analyzed our data by sex. +So, people often ask me: What can I do? +And here's what I suggest: First, I suggest that you think about women's health in the same way that you think and care about other causes that are important to you. +And second, and equally as important, that as a woman, you have to ask your doctor and the doctors who are caring for those who you love: Is this disease or treatment different in women? +Now, this is a profound question because the answer is likely yes, but your doctor may not know the answer, at least not yet. +But if you ask the question, your doctor will very likely go looking for the answer. +And this is so important, not only for ourselves, but for all of those whom we love. +Whether it be a mother, a daughter, a sister, a friend or a grandmother. +It was my grandmother's suffering that inspired my work to improve the health of women. +That's her legacy. +Our legacy can be to improve the health of women for this generation and for generations to come. +Thank you. +I have spent the last years trying to resolve two enigmas: Why is productivity so disappointing in all the companies where I work? +I have worked with more than 500 companies. +Despite all the technological advances -- computers, I.T., communications, telecommunications, the Internet. +Enigma number two: Why is there so little engagement at work? +Why do people feel so miserable, even actively disengaged? +Disengaging their colleagues. +Acting against the interest of their company. +Despite all the affiliation events, the celebration, the people initiatives, the leadership development programs to train managers on how to better motivate their teams. +At the beginning, I thought there was a chicken and egg issue: Because people are less engaged, they are less productive. +Or vice versa, because they are less productive, we put more pressure and they are less engaged. +But as we were doing our analysis we realized that there was a common root cause to these two issues that relates, in fact, to the basic pillars of management. +The way we organize is based on two pillars. +The hard -- structure, processes, systems. +The soft -- feelings, sentiments, interpersonal relationships, traits, personality. +And whenever a company reorganizes, restructures, reengineers, goes through a cultural transformation program, it chooses these two pillars. +Now, we try to refine them, we try to combine them. +The real issue is -- and this is the answer to the two enigmas -- these pillars are obsolete. +Everything you read in business books is based either on one or the other or their combination. +They are obsolete. +How do they work when you try to use these approaches in front of the new complexity of business? +The hard approach, basically is that you start from strategy, requirements, structures, processes, systems, KPIs, scorecards, committees, headquarters, hubs, clusters, you name it. +I forgot all the metrics, incentives, committees, middle offices and interfaces. +What happens basically on the left, you have more complexity, the new complexity of business. +We need quality, cost, reliability, speed. +And every time there is a new requirement, we use the same approach. +We create dedicated structure processed systems, basically to deal with the new complexity of business. +The hard approach creates just complicatedness in the organization. +Let's take an example. +An automotive company, the engineering division is a five-dimensional matrix. +If you open any cell of the matrix, you find another 20-dimensional matrix. +You have Mr. Noise, Mr. Petrol Consumption, Mr. Anti-Collision Properties. +For any new requirement, you have a dedicated function in charge of aligning engineers against the new requirement. +What happens when the new requirement emerges? +Some years ago, a new requirement appeared on the marketplace: the length of the warranty period. +So therefore the new requirement is repairability, making cars easy to repair. +Otherwise when you bring the car to the garage to fix the light, if you have to remove the engine to access the lights, the car will have to stay one week in the garage instead of two hours, and the warranty budget will explode. +So, what was the solution using the hard approach? +If repairability is the new requirement, the solution is to create a new function, Mr. Repairability. +And Mr. Repairability creates the repairability process. +With a repairability scorecard, with a repairability metric and eventually repairability incentive. +That came on top of 25 other KPIs. +What percentage of these people is variable compensation? +Twenty percent at most, divided by 26 KPIs, repairability makes a difference of 0.8 percent. +What difference did it make in their actions, their choices to simplify? Zero. +But what occurs for zero impact? Mr. Repairability, process, scorecard, evaluation, coordination with the 25 other coordinators to have zero impact. +Now, in front of the new complexity of business, the only solution is not drawing boxes with reporting lines. +It is basically the interplay. +How the parts work together. +The connections, the interactions, the synapses. +It is not the skeleton of boxes, it is the nervous system of adaptiveness and intelligence. +You know, you could call it cooperation, basically. +Whenever people cooperate, they use less resources. In everything. +You know, the repairability issue is a cooperation problem. +When you design cars, please take into account the needs of those who will repair the cars in the after sales garages. +When we don't cooperate we need more time, more equipment, more systems, more teams. +We need -- When procurement, supply chain, manufacturing don't cooperate we need more stock, more inventories, more working capital. +Who will pay for that? +Shareholders? Customers? +No, they will refuse. +So who is left? The employees, who have to compensate through their super individual efforts for the lack of cooperation. +Stress, burnout, they are overwhelmed, accidents. +No wonder they disengage. +How do the hard and the soft try to foster cooperation? +The hard: In banks, when there is a problem between the back office and the front office, they don't cooperate. What is the solution? +They create a middle office. +What happens one year later? +Instead of one problem between the back and the front, now I have two problems. +Between the back and the middle and between the middle and the front. +Plus I have to pay for the middle office. +The hard approach is unable to foster cooperation. +It can only add new boxes, new bones in the skeleton. +The soft approach: To make people cooperate, we need to make them like each other. +Improve interpersonal feelings, the more people like each other, the more they will cooperate. +It is totally wrong. +It is even counterproductive. +Look, at home I have two TVs. Why? +Precisely not to have to cooperate with my wife. +Not to have to impose tradeoffs to my wife. +And why I try not to impose tradeoffs to my wife is precisely because I love my wife. +If I didn't love my wife, one TV would be enough: You will watch my favorite football game, if you are not happy, how is the book or the door? +The more we like each other, the more we avoid the real cooperation that would strain our relationships by imposing tough tradeoffs. +And we go for a second TV or we escalate the decision above for arbitration. +Definitely, these approaches are obsolete. +To deal with complexity, to enhance the nervous system, we have created what we call the smart simplicity approach based on simple rules. +Simple rule number one: Understand what others do. +What is their real work? +We need to go beyond the boxes, the job descriptions, beyond the surface of the container, to understand the real content. +Me, designer, if I put a wire here, I know that it will mean that we will have to remove the engine to access the lights. +Second, you need to reenforce integrators. +Integrators are not middle offices, they are managers, existing managers that you reinforce so that they have power and interest to make others cooperate. +How can you reinforce your managers as integrators? +By removing layers. +When there are too many layers people are too far from the action, therefore they need KPIs, metrics, they need poor proxies for reality. +They don't understand reality and they add the complicatedness of metrics, KPIs. +By removing rules -- the bigger we are, the more we need integrators, therefore the less rules we must have, to give discretionary power to managers. +And we do the opposite -- the bigger we are, the more rules we create. +And we end up with the Encyclopedia Britannica of rules. +You need to increase the quanitity of power so that you can empower everybody to use their judgment, their intelligence. +You must give more cards to people so that they have the critical mass of cards to take the risk to cooperate, to move out of insulation. +Otherwise, they will withdraw. They will disengage. +These rules, they come from game theory and organizational sociology. +You can increase the shadow of the future. +Create feedback loops that expose people to the consequences of their actions. +This is what the automotive company did when they saw that Mr. Repairability had no impact. +They said to the design engineers: Now, in three years, when the new car is launched on the market, you will move to the after sales network, and become in charge of the warranty budget, and if the warranty budget explodes, it will explode in your face. Much more powerful than 0.8 percent variable compensation. +You need also to increase reciprocity, by removing the buffers that make us self-sufficient. +When you remove these buffers, you hold me by the nose, I hold you by the ear. +We will cooperate. +Remove the second TV. +There are many second TVs at work that don't create value, they just provide dysfunctional self-sufficiency. +You need to reward those who cooperate and blame those who don't cooperate. +The CEO of The Lego Group, Jorgen Vig Knudstorp, has a great way to use it. +He says, blame is not for failure, it is for failing to help or ask for help. +It changes everything. +Suddenly it becomes in my interest to be transparent on my real weaknesses, my real forecast, because I know I will not be blamed if I fail, but if I fail to help or ask for help. +When you do this, it has a lot of implications on organizational design. +You stop drawing boxes, dotted lines, full lines; you look at their interplay. +It has a lot of implications on financial policies that we use. +On human resource management practices. +When you do that, you can manage complexity, the new complexity of business, without getting complicated. +You create more value with lower cost. +You simultaneously improve performance and satisfaction at work because you have removed the common root cause that hinders both. +Complicatedness: This is your battle, business leaders. +The real battle is not against competitors. +This is rubbish, very abstract. +When do we meet competitors to fight them? +The real battle is against ourselves, against our bureaucracy, our complicatedness. +Only you can fight, can do it. +Thank you. +Joe Kowan: I have stage fright. +I've always had stage fright, and not just a little bit, it's a big bit. +And it didn't even matter until I was 27. +That's when I started writing songs, and even then I only played them for myself. +Just knowing my roommates were in the same house made me uncomfortable. +But after a couple of years, just writing songs wasn't enough. +I had all these stories and ideas, and I wanted to share them with people, but physiologically, I couldn't do it. +I had this irrational fear. +But the more I wrote, and the more I practiced, the more I wanted to perform. +So on the week of my 30th birthday, I decided I was going to go to this local open mic, and put this fear behind me. +Well, when I got there, it was packed. +There were like 20 people there. +And they all looked angry. +But I took a deep breath, and I signed up to play, and I felt pretty good. +Pretty good, until about 10 minutes before my turn, when my whole body rebelled, and this wave of anxiety just washed over me. +Now, when you experience fear, your sympathetic nervous system kicks in. +So you have a rush of adrenaline, your heart rate increases, your breathing gets faster. +Next your non-essential systems start to shut down, like digestion. So your mouth gets dry, and blood is routed away from your extremities, so your fingers don't work anymore. +Your pupils dilate, your muscles contract, your Spidey sense tingles, basically your whole body is trigger-happy. That condition is not conducive to performing folk music. +I mean, your nervous system is an idiot. +Really? Two hundred thousand years of human evolution, and it still can't tell the difference between a saber tooth tiger and 20 folksingers on a Tuesday night open mic? +I have never been more terrified -- until now. +(Laughter and cheers) So then it was my turn, and somehow, I get myself onto the stage, I start my song, I open my mouth to sing the first line, and this completely horrible vibrato -- you know, when your voice wavers -- comes streaming out. +And this is not the good kind of vibrato, like an opera singer has, this is my whole body just convulsing with fear. +I mean, it's a nightmare. +I'm embarrassed, the audience is clearly uncomfortable, they're focused on my discomfort. +It was so bad. +But that was my first real experience as a solo singer-songwriter. +And something good did happen -- I had the tiniest little glimpse of that audience connection that I was hoping for. +And I wanted more. But I knew I had to get past this nervousness. +That night I promised myself: I would go back every week until I wasn't nervous anymore. +And I did. I went back every single week, and sure enough, week after week, it didn't get any better. The same thing happened every week. I couldn't shake it. +And that's when I had an epiphany. +And I remember it really well, because I don't have a lot of epiphanies. All I had to do was write a song that exploits my nervousness. +That only seems authentic when I have stage fright, and the more nervous I was, the better the song would be. Easy. +So I started writing a song about having stage fright. +First, fessing up to the problem, the physical manifestations, how I would feel, how the listener might feel. +And then accounting for things like my shaky voice, and I knew I would be singing about a half-octave higher than normal, because I was nervous. +By having a song that explained what was happening to me, while it was happening, that gave the audience permission to think about it. +And having the stage fright song let me get past that biggest issue right in the beginning of a performance. +And then I could move on, and play the rest of my songs with just a little bit more ease. +And eventually, over time, I didn't have to play the stage fright song at all. +Except for when I was really nervous, like now. Would it be okay if I played the stage fright song for you? +Can I have a sip of water? +Thank you. +I'd like to reimagine education. +The last year has seen the invention of a new four-letter word. +It starts with an M. +MOOC: massive open online courses. +Many organizations are offering these online courses to students all over the world, in the millions, for free. +Anybody who has an Internet connection and the will to learn can access these great courses from excellent universities and get a credential at the end of it. +Now, in this discussion today, I'm going to focus on a different aspect of MOOCs. +We are taking what we are learning and the technologies we are developing in the large and applying them in the small to create a blended model of education to really reinvent and reimagine what we do in the classroom. +Now, our classrooms could use change. So, here's a classroom at this little three-letter institute in the Northeast of America, MIT. +And this was a classroom about 50 or 60 years ago, and this is a classroom today. +What's changed? +The seats are in color. +Whoop-de-do. +Education really hasn't changed in the past 500 years. +The last big innovation in education was the printing press and the textbooks. +Everything else has changed around us. +You know, from healthcare to transportation, everything is different, but education hasn't changed. +It's also been a real issue in terms of access. +So what you see here is not a rock concert. +And the person you see at the end of the stage is not Madonna. +This is a classroom at the Obafemi Awolowo University in Nigeria. +Now, we've all heard of distance education, but the students way in the back, 200 feet away from the instructor, I think they are undergoing long-distance education. +Now, I really believe that we can transform education, both in quality and scale and access, through technology. +For example, at edX, we are trying to transform education through online technologies. +Given education has been calcified for 500 years, we really cannot think about reengineering it, micromanaging it. +We really have to completely reimagine it. +It's like going from ox carts to the airplane. +Even the infrastructure has to change. +Everything has to change. +We need to go from lectures on the blackboard to online exercises, online videos. +We have to go to interactive virtual laboratories and gamification. +We have to go to completely online grading and peer interaction and discussion boards. +Everything really has to change. +So at edX and a number of other organizations, we are applying these technologies to education through MOOCs to really increase access to education. +And you heard of this example, where, when we launched our very first course -- and this was an MIT-hard circuits and electronics course -- about a year and a half ago, 155,000 students from 162 countries enrolled in this course. +And we had no marketing budget. +Now, 155,000 is a big number. +This number is bigger than the total number of alumni of MIT in its 150-year history. +7,200 students passed the course, and this was a hard course. +7,200 is also a big number. +If I were to teach at MIT two semesters every year, I would have to teach for 40 years before I could teach this many students. +Now these large numbers are just one part of the story. +So today, I want to discuss a different aspect, the other side of MOOCs, take a different perspective. +We are taking what we develop and learn in the large and applying it in the small to the classroom, to create a blended model of learning. +But before I go into that, let me tell you a story. +When my daughter turned 13, became a teenager, she stopped speaking English, and she began speaking this new language. +I call it teen-lish. +It's a digital language. +It's got two sounds: a grunt and a silence. +"Honey, come over for dinner." +"Hmm." +"Did you hear me?" +Silence. "Can you listen to me?" +"Hmm." So we had a real issue with communicating, and we were just not communicating, until one day I had this epiphany. +I texted her. I got an instant response. +I said, no, that must have been by accident. +She must have thought, you know, some friend of hers was calling her. +So I texted her again. Boom, another response. +I said, this is great. +And so since then, our life has changed. +I text her, she responds. +It's just been absolutely great. +So our millennial generation is built differently. +Now, I'm older, and my youthful looks might belie that, but I'm not in the millennial generation. +But our kids are really different. +The millennial generation is completely comfortable with online technology. +So why are we fighting it in the classroom? +Let's not fight it. Let's embrace it. +In fact, I believe -- and I have two fat thumbs, I can't text very well -- but I'm willing to bet that with evolution, our kids and their grandchildren will develop really, really little, itty-bitty thumbs to text much better, that evolution will fix all of that stuff. +But what if we embraced technology, embraced the millennial generation's and really think about creating these online technologies, blend them into their lives. +So here's what we can do. +So rather than driving our kids into a classroom, herding them out there at 8 o'clock in the morning -- I hated going to class at 8 o'clock in the morning, so why are we forcing our kids to do that? +So instead what you do is you have them watch videos and do interactive exercises in the comfort of their dorm rooms, in their bedroom, in the dining room, in the bathroom, wherever they're most creative. +Then they come into the classroom for some in-person interaction. +They can have discussions amongst themselves. +They can solve problems together. +They can work with the professor and have the professor answer their questions. +In fact, with edX, when we were teaching our first course on circuits and electronics around the world, this was happening unbeknownst to us. +And the only way we discovered this was they wrote a blog and we happened to stumble upon that blog. +We were also doing other pilots. +So we did a pilot experimental blended courses, working with San Jose State University in California, again, with the circuits and electronics course. +You'll hear that a lot. That course has become sort of like our petri dish of learning. +So there, the students would, again, the instructors flipped the classroom, blended online and in person, and the results were staggering. +Now don't take these results to the bank just yet. +Just wait a little bit longer as we experiment with this some more, but the early results are incredible. +So traditionally, semester upon semester, for the past several years, this course, again, a hard course, had a failure rate of about 40 to 41 percent every semester. +With this blended class late last year, the failure rate fell to nine percent. +So the results can be extremely, extremely good. +Now before we go too far into this, I'd like to spend some time discussing some key ideas. +What are some key ideas that makes all of this work? +One idea is active learning. +The idea here is, rather than have students walk into class and watch lectures, we replace this with what we call lessons. +Lessons are interleaved sequences of videos and interactive exercises. +So a student might watch a five-, seven-minute video and follow that with an interactive exercise. +Think of this as the ultimate Socratization of education. +You teach by asking questions. +And this is a form of learning called active learning, and really promoted by a very early paper, in 1972, by Craik and Lockhart, where they said and discovered that learning and retention really relates strongly to the depth of mental processing. +Students learn much better when they are interacting with the material. +The second idea is self-pacing. +Now, when I went to a lecture hall, and if you were like me, by the fifth minute I would lose the professor. +I wasn't all that smart, and I would be scrambling, taking notes, and then I would lose the lecture for the rest of the hour. +Instead, wouldn't it be nice with online technologies, we offer videos and interactive engagements to students? +They can hit the pause button. +They can rewind the professor. +Heck, they can even mute the professor. +So this form of self-pacing can be very helpful to learning. +The third idea that we have is instant feedback. +With instant feedback, the computer grades exercises. +I mean, how else do you teach 150,000 students? +Your computer is grading all the exercises. +And we've all submitted homeworks, and your grades come back two weeks later, you've forgotten all about it. +I don't think I've still received some of my homeworks from my undergraduate days. +Some are never graded. +So with instant feedback, students can try to apply answers. +If they get it wrong, they can get instant feedback. +They can try it again and try it again, and this really becomes much more engaging. +and this little green check mark that you see here is becoming somewhat of a cult symbol at edX. +Learners are telling us that they go to bed at night dreaming of the green check mark. +My colleague Ed Bertschinger, who heads up the physics department at MIT, has this to say about instant feedback: He indicated that instant feedback turns teaching moments into learning outcomes. +The next big idea is gamification. +You know, all learners engage really well with interactive videos and so on. +You know, they would sit down and shoot alien spaceships all day long until they get it. +So we applied these gamification techniques to learning, and we can build these online laboratories. +How do you teach creativity? How do you teach design? +We can do this through online labs and use computing power to build these online labs. +So as this little video shows here, you can engage students much like they design with Legos. +So here, the learners are building a circuit with Lego-like ease. +And this can also be graded by the computer. +Fifth is peer learning. +So here, we use discussion forums and discussions not as a distraction, but to really help students learn. +Let me tell you a story. +When we did our circuits course for the 155,000 students, I didn't sleep for three nights leading up to the launch of the course. +I told my TAs, okay, 24/7, we're going to be up monitoring the forum, answering questions. +They had answered questions for 100 students. +How do you do that for 150,000? +had popped in with a different answer. +And then I sat back, fascinated. +Boom, boom, boom, boom, the students were discussing and interacting with each other, and by 4 a.m. that night, I'm totally fascinated, having this epiphany, and by 4 a.m. in the morning, they had discovered the right answer. +And all I had to do was go and bless it, "Good answer." +So this is absolutely amazing, where students are learning from each other, and they're telling us that they are learning by teaching. +Now this is all not just in the future. +This is happening today. +So we are applying these blended learning pilots in a number of universities and high schools around the world, from Tsinghua in China to the National University of Mongolia in Mongolia to Berkeley in California -- all over the world. +And these kinds of technologies really help, the blended model can really help revolutionize education. +It can also solve a practical problem of MOOCs, the business aspect. +We can also license these MOOC courses to other universities, and therein lies a revenue model for MOOCs, where the university that licenses it with the professor can use these online courses like the next-generation textbook. +They can use as much or as little as they like, and it becomes a tool in the teacher's arsenal. +Finally, I would like to have you dream with me for a little bit. +I would like us to really reimagine education. +We will have to move from lecture halls to e-spaces. +We have to move from books to tablets like the Aakash in India or the Raspberry Pi, 20 dollars. +The Aakash is 40 dollars. +We have to move from bricks-and-mortar school buildings to digital dormitories. +But I think at the end of the day, I think we will still need one lecture hall in our universities. +Otherwise, how else do we tell our grandchildren that your grandparents sat in that room in neat little rows like cornstalks and watched this professor at the end talk about content and, you know, you didn't even have a rewind button? +Thank you. +Thank you. Thank you. +In 2007, I became the attorney general of the state of New Jersey. +Before that, I'd been a criminal prosecutor, first in the Manhattan district attorney's office, and then at the United States Department of Justice. +But when I became the attorney general, two things happened that changed the way I see criminal justice. +The first is that I asked what I thought were really basic questions. +I wanted to understand who we were arresting, who we were charging, and who we were putting in our nation's jails and prisons. +I also wanted to understand if we were making decisions in a way that made us safer. +And I couldn't get this information out. +It turned out that most big criminal justice agencies like my own didn't track the things that matter. +So after about a month of being incredibly frustrated, I walked down into a conference room that was filled with detectives and stacks and stacks of case files, and the detectives were sitting there with yellow legal pads taking notes. +They were trying to get the information I was looking for by going through case by case for the past five years. +And as you can imagine, when we finally got the results, they weren't good. +It turned out that we were doing a lot of low-level drug cases on the streets just around the corner from our office in Trenton. +The second thing that happened is that I spent the day in the Camden, New Jersey police department. +Now, at that time, Camden, New Jersey, was the most dangerous city in America. +I ran the Camden Police Department because of that. +I spent the day in the police department, and I was taken into a room with senior police officials, all of whom were working hard and trying very hard to reduce crime in Camden. +And what I saw in that room, as we talked about how to reduce crime, were a series of officers with a lot of little yellow sticky notes. +And they would take a yellow sticky and they would write something on it and they would put it up on a board. +And one of them said, "We had a robbery two weeks ago. +We have no suspects." +And another said, "We had a shooting in this neighborhood last week. We have no suspects." +We weren't using data-driven policing. +We were essentially trying to fight crime with yellow Post-it notes. +Now, both of these things made me realize fundamentally that we were failing. +We didn't even know who was in our criminal justice system, we didn't have any data about the things that mattered, and we didn't share data or use analytics or tools to help us make better decisions and to reduce crime. +And for the first time, I started to think about how we made decisions. +When I was an assistant D.A., and when I was a federal prosecutor, I looked at the cases in front of me, and I generally made decisions based on my instinct and my experience. +When I became attorney general, I could look at the system as a whole, and what surprised me is that I found that that was exactly how we were doing it across the entire system -- in police departments, in prosecutors's offices, in courts and in jails. +And what I learned very quickly is that we weren't doing a good job. +So I wanted to do things differently. +I wanted to introduce data and analytics and rigorous statistical analysis into our work. +In short, I wanted to moneyball criminal justice. +It worked for the Oakland A's, and it worked in the state of New Jersey. +We took Camden off the top of the list as the most dangerous city in America. +We reduced murders there by 41 percent, which actually means 37 lives were saved. +And we reduced all crime in the city by 26 percent. +We also changed the way we did criminal prosecutions. +So we went from doing low-level drug crimes that were outside our building to doing cases of statewide importance, on things like reducing violence with the most violent offenders, prosecuting street gangs, gun and drug trafficking, and political corruption. +And all of this matters greatly, because public safety to me is the most important function of government. +If we're not safe, we can't be educated, we can't be healthy, we can't do any of the other things we want to do in our lives. +And we live in a country today where we face serious criminal justice problems. +We have 12 million arrests every single year. +The vast majority of those arrests are for low-level crimes, like misdemeanors, 70 to 80 percent. +Less than five percent of all arrests are for violent crime. +Yet we spend 75 billion, that's b for billion, dollars a year on state and local corrections costs. +Right now, today, we have 2.3 million people in our jails and prisons. +And we face unbelievable public safety challenges because we have a situation in which two thirds of the people in our jails are there waiting for trial. +They haven't yet been convicted of a crime. +They're just waiting for their day in court. +And 67 percent of people come back. +Our recidivism rate is amongst the highest in the world. +Almost seven in 10 people who are released from prison will be rearrested in a constant cycle of crime and incarceration. +So when I started my job at the Arnold Foundation, I came back to looking at a lot of these questions, and I came back to thinking about how we had used data and analytics to transform the way we did criminal justice in New Jersey. +And when I look at the criminal justice system in the United States today, I feel the exact same way that I did about the state of New Jersey when I started there, which is that we absolutely have to do better, and I know that we can do better. +Everything that happens in criminal cases comes out of this one decision. +It impacts everything. +It impacts sentencing. +It impacts whether someone gets drug treatment. +It impacts crime and violence. +And when I talk to judges around the United States, which I do all the time now, they all say the same thing, which is that we put dangerous people in jail, and we let non-dangerous, nonviolent people out. +They mean it and they believe it. +But when you start to look at the data, which, by the way, the judges don't have, when we start to look at the data, what we find time and time again, is that this isn't the case. +We find low-risk offenders, which makes up 50 percent of our entire criminal justice population, we find that they're in jail. +Take Leslie Chew, who was a Texas man who stole four blankets on a cold winter night. +He was arrested, and he was kept in jail on 3,500 dollars bail, an amount that he could not afford to pay. +And he stayed in jail for eight months until his case came up for trial, at a cost to taxpayers of more than 9,000 dollars. +And at the other end of the spectrum, we're doing an equally terrible job. +The people who we find are the highest-risk offenders, the people who we think have the highest likelihood of committing a new crime if they're released, we see nationally that 50 percent of those people are being released. +The reason for this is the way we make decisions. +Judges have the best intentions when they make these decisions about risk, but they're making them subjectively. +They're like the baseball scouts 20 years ago who were using their instinct and their experience to try to decide what risk someone poses. +They're being subjective, and we know what happens with subjective decision making, which is that we are often wrong. +What we need in this space are strong data and analytics. +What I decided to look for was a strong data and analytic risk assessment tool, something that would let judges actually understand with a scientific and objective way what the risk was that was posed by someone in front of them. +I looked all over the country, and I found that between five and 10 percent of all U.S. jurisdictions actually use any type of risk assessment tool, and when I looked at these tools, I quickly realized why. +They were unbelievably expensive to administer, they were time-consuming, they were limited to the local jurisdiction in which they'd been created. +So basically, they couldn't be scaled or transferred to other places. +So I went out and built a phenomenal team of data scientists and researchers and statisticians to build a universal risk assessment tool, so that every single judge in the United States of America can have an objective, scientific measure of risk. +In the tool that we've built, what we did was we collected 1.5 million cases from all around the United States, from cities, from counties, from every single state in the country, the federal districts. +And with those 1.5 million cases, which is the largest data set on pretrial in the United States today, we were able to basically find that there were 900-plus risk factors that we could look at to try to figure out what mattered most. +And we found that there were nine specific things that mattered all across the country and that were the most highly predictive of risk. +And so we built a universal risk assessment tool. +And it looks like this. +As you'll see, we put some information in, but most of it is incredibly simple, it's easy to use, it focuses on things like the defendant's prior convictions, whether they've been sentenced to incarceration, whether they've engaged in violence before, whether they've even failed to come back to court. +And with this tool, we can predict three things. +First, whether or not someone will commit a new crime if they're released. +Second, for the first time, and I think this is incredibly important, we can predict whether someone will commit an act of violence if they're released. +And that's the single most important thing that judges say when you talk to them. +And third, we can predict whether someone will come back to court. +And every single judge in the United States of America can use it, because it's been created on a universal data set. +What judges see if they run the risk assessment tool is this -- it's a dashboard. +At the top, you see the New Criminal Activity Score, six of course being the highest, and then in the middle you see, "Elevated risk of violence." +What that says is that this person is someone who has an elevated risk of violence that the judge should look twice at. +And then, towards the bottom, you see the Failure to Appear Score, which again is the likelihood that someone will come back to court. +Now I want to say something really important. +It's not that I think we should be eliminating the judge's instinct and experience from this process. +I don't. +I actually believe the problem that we see and the reason that we have these incredible system errors, where we're incarcerating low-level, nonviolent people and we're releasing high-risk, dangerous people, is that we don't have an objective measure of risk. +But what I believe should happen is that we should take that data-driven risk assessment and combine that with the judge's instinct and experience to lead us to better decision making. +The tool went statewide in Kentucky on July 1, and we're about to go up in a number of other U.S. jurisdictions. +Our goal, quite simply, is that every single judge in the United States will use a data-driven risk tool within the next five years. +We're now working on risk tools for prosecutors and for police officers as well, to try to take a system that runs today in America the same way it did 50 years ago, based on instinct and experience, and make it into one that runs on data and analytics. +Now, the great news about all this, and we have a ton of work left to do, and we have a lot of culture to change, but the great news about all of it is that we know it works. +It's why Google is Google, and it's why all these baseball teams use moneyball to win games. +The great news for us as well is that it's the way that we can transform the American criminal justice system. +It's how we can make our streets safer, we can reduce our prison costs, and we can make our system much fairer and more just. +Some people call it data science. +I call it moneyballing criminal justice. +Thank you. +I'm McKenna Pope. I'm 14 years old, and when I was 13, I convinced one of the largest toy companies, toymakers, in the world, Hasbro, to change the way that they marketed one of their most best-selling products. +So allow me to tell you about it. +So I have a brother, Gavin. +When this whole shebang happened, he was four. +He loved to cook. +He was always getting ingredients out of the fridge and mixing them into these, needless to say, uneatable concoctions, or making invisible macaroni and cheese. +He wanted to be a chef really badly. +And so what better gift for a kid who wanted to be a chef than an Easy-Bake Oven. Right? +I mean, we all had those when we were little. +And he wanted one so badly. +But then he started to realize something. +In the commercials, and on the boxes for the Easy-Bake Ovens, Hasbro marketed them specifically to girls. +And the way that they did this was they would only feature girls on the boxes or in the commercials, and there would be flowery prints all over the ovens and it would be in bright pink and purple, very gender-specific colors to females, right? +So it kind of was sending a message that only girls are supposed to cook; boys aren't. +And this discouraged my brother a lot. +He thought that he wasn't supposed to want to be a chef, because that was something that girls did. +Girls cooked; boys didn't, or so was the message that Hasbro was sending. +And this got me thinking, God, I wish there was a way that I could change this, that could I have my voice heard by Hasbro so I could ask them and tell them what they were doing wrong and ask them to change it. +And that got me thinking about a website that I had learned about a few months prior called Change.org. +Change.org is an online petition-sharing platform where you can create a petition and share it across all of these social media networks, through Facebook, through Twitter, through YouTube, through Reddit, through Tumblr, through whatever you can think of. +And so I created a petition along with the YouTube video that I added to the petition basically asking Hasbro to change the way that they marketed it, in featuring boys in the commercials, on the boxes, and most of all creating them in less gender-specific colors. +So this petition started to take off -- humongously fast, you have no idea. +I was getting interviewed by all these national news outlets and press outlets, and it was amazing. +In three weeks, maybe three and a half, I had 46,000 signatures on this petition. +Thank you. +So, needless to say, it was crazy. +Eventually, Hasbro themselves invited me to their headquarters so they could go and unveil their new Easy-Bake Oven product to me in black, silver and blue. +It was literally one of the best moments of my life. +It was like "Willy Wonka and the Chocolate Factory." That thing was amazing. +What I didn't realize at the time, however, was that I had become an activist, I could change something, that even as a kid, or maybe even especially as a kid, my voice mattered, and your voice matters too. +I want to let you know it's not going to be easy, and it wasn't easy for me, because I faced a lot of obstacles. +People online, and sometimes even in real life, were disrespectful to me and my family, and talked about how the whole thing was a waste of time, and it really discouraged me. +And actually, I have some examples, because what's better revenge than displaying their idiocy? +So, let's see. +From user name Liquidsore29 -- interesting user names we have here "Disgusting liberal moms making their sons gay." Liquidsore29, really? Really? Okay. +How about from Whiteboy77AGS: "People always need something to (female dog) about." +From Jeffrey Gutierrez: "OMG, shut up. You just want money and attention." So it was comments like these that really discouraged me from wanting to make change in the future because I thought, people don't care, people think it's a waste of time, and people are going to be disrespectful to me and my family. +It hurt me, and it made me think, what's the point of making change in the future? +But then I started to realize something. +Haters gonna hate. +Come on, say it with me. One, two, three: Haters gonna hate. +So let your haters hate, you know what, and make your change, because I know you can. +And you can make that change. +You can take what you believe in and turn it into a cause and change it. +And that spark that you've been hearing about all day today, you can use that spark that you have within you and turn it into a fire. +Thank you. +Server: May I help you, sir? +Customer: Uh, let's see. +Server: We have pan seared registry error sprinkled with the finest corrupted data, binary brioche, RAM sandwiches, Conficker fitters, and a scripting salad with or without polymorphic dressing, and a grilled coding kabob. +Customer: I'd like a RAM sandwich and a glass of your finest Code 39. +Server: Would you like any desserts, sir? +Our special is tracking cookie. +Customer: I'd like a batch of some zombie tracking cookies, thank you. +Server: Coming right up, sir. +Your food will be served shortly. +Maya Penn: I've been drawing ever since I could hold a crayon, and I've been making animated flip books since I was three years old. +At that age, I also learned about what an animator was. +There was a program on TV about jobs most kids don't know about. +When I understood that an animator makes the cartoons I saw on TV, I immediately said, "That's what I want to be." +I don't know if I said it mentally or out loud, but that was a greatly defining moment in my life. +Animation and art has always been my first love. +It was my love for technology that sparked the idea for "Malicious Dishes." +There was a virus on my computer, and I was trying to get rid of it, and all of a sudden, I just thought, what if viruses have their own little world inside the computer? +Maybe a restaurant where they meet up and do virusy things? +And thus, "Malicious Dishes" was born. +At four years old, my dad showed me how to take apart a computer and put it back together again. +That started my love for technology. +I built my first website myself in HTML, and I'm learning JavaScript and Python. +I'm also working on an animated series called "The Pollinators." +It's about bees and other pollinators in our environment and why they're so important. +If plants aren't pollinated by the pollinators, then all creatures, including ourselves, that depend on these plants, would starve. +So I decided to take these cool creatures and make a superhero team. +(Foot stomp) Pollinator: Deforestsaurus! I should have known! +I need to call on the rest of the Pollinators! +Thank you. All of my animations start with ideas, but what are ideas? +Ideas can spark a movement. +Ideas are opportunities and innovation. +Ideas truly are what make the world go round. +If it wasn't for ideas, we wouldn't be where we are now with technology, medicine, art, culture, and how we even live our lives. +At eight years old, I took my ideas and started my own business called Maya's Ideas, and my nonprofit, Maya's Ideas for the Planet. +And I make eco-friendly clothing and accessories. +I'm 13 now, and although I started my business in 2008, my artistic journey started way before then. +I was greatly influenced by art, and I wanted to incorporate it in everything I did, even my business. +I would find different fabrics around the house, and say, "This could be a scarf or a hat," and I had all these ideas for designs. +I noticed when I wore my creations, people would stop me and say, "Wow, that's really cute. Where can I get one?" +And I thought, I can start my own business. +Now I didn't have any business plans at only eight years old. +I only knew I wanted to make pretty creations that were safe for the environment and I wanted to give back. +My mom taught me how to sew, and on my back porch, I would sit and make little headbands out of ribbon, and I would write down the names and the price of each item. +I started making more items like hats, scarves and bags. +Soon, my items began selling all over the world, and I had customers in Denmark, Italy, Australia, Canada and more. +Now, I had a lot to learn about my business, like branding and marketing, staying engaged with my customers, and seeing what sold the most and the least. +Soon, my business really started to take off. +Then one day, Forbes magazine contacted me when I was 10 years old. +They wanted to feature me and my company in their article. +Now a lot of people ask me, why is your business eco-friendly? +I've had a passion for protecting the environment and its creatures since I was little. +My parents taught me at an early age about giving back and being a good steward to the environment. +I heard about how the dyes in some clothing or the process of even making the items was harmful to the people and the planet, so I started doing my own research, and I discovered that even after dyeing has being completed, there is a waste issue that gives a negative impact on the environment. +For example, the grinding of materials, or the dumping of dried powder materials. +These actions can pollute the air, making it toxic to anyone or anything that inhales it. +So when I started my business, I knew two things: All of my items had to be eco-friendly, and 10 to 20 percent of the profits I made went to local and global charities and environmental organizations. +I feel I'm part of the new wave of entrepreneurs that not only seeks to have a successful business, but also a sustainable future. +I feel that I can meet the needs of my customers without compromising the ability of future generations to live in a greener tomorrow. +We live in a big, diverse and beautiful world, and that makes me even more passionate to save it. +But it's never enough to just to get it through your heads about the things that are happening in our world. +It takes to get it through your hearts, because when you get it through your heart, that is when movements are sparked. +That is when opportunities and innovation are created, and that is why ideas come to life. +Thank you, and peace and blessings. +Thank you. Pat Mitchell: So, you heard Maya talk about the amazing parents who are behind this incredible woman. Where are they? +Please, Mr. and Mrs. Penn. Would you just -- Ah! +I want you to imagine what a breakthrough this was for women who were victims of violence in the 1980s. +They would come into the emergency room with what the police would call "a lovers' quarrel," and I would see a woman who was beaten, I would see a broken nose and a fractured wrist and swollen eyes. +And as activists, we would take our Polaroid camera, we would take her picture, we would wait 90 seconds, and we would give her the photograph. +And she would then have the evidence she needed to go to court. +We were making what was invisible visible. +I've been doing this for 30 years. +I've been part of a social movement that has been working on ending violence against women and children. +And for all those years, I've had an absolutely passionate and sometimes not popular belief that this violence is not inevitable, that it is learned, and if it's learned, it can be un-learned, and it can be prevented. +Why do I believe this? +Because it's true. +It is absolutely true. +Between 1993 and 2010, domestic violence among adult women in the United States has gone down by 64 percent, and that is great news. +Sixty-four percent. Now, how did we get there? +Our eyes were wide open. +Thirty years ago, women were beaten, they were stalked, they were raped, and no one talked about it. +There was no justice. +And as an activist, that was not good enough. +And so step one on this journey is we organized, and we created this extraordinary underground network of amazing women who opened shelters, and if they didn't open a shelter, they opened their home so that women and children could be safe. +And you know what else we did? +We had bake sales, we had car washes, and we did everything we could do to fundraise, and then at one point we said, you know, it's time that we went to the federal government and asked them to pay for these extraordinary services that are saving people's lives. +Right? And so, step number two, we knew we needed to change the laws. +And so we went to Washington, and we lobbied for the first piece of legislation. +And I remember walking through the halls of the U.S. Capitol, and I was in my 30s, and my life had purpose, and I couldn't imagine that anybody would ever challenge this important piece of legislation. +I was probably 30 and naive. +But I heard about a congressman who had a very, very different point of view. +Do you know what he called this important piece of legislation? +He called it the Take the Fun Out of Marriage Act. +The Take the Fun Out of Marriage Act. +Ladies and gentlemen, that was in 1984 in the United States, and I wish I had Twitter. +Ten years later, after lots of hard work, we finally passed the Violence Against Women Act, which is a life-changing act that has saved so many lives. Thank you. +I was proud to be part of that work, and it changed the laws and it put millions of dollars into local communities. +And you know what else it did? It collected data. +And I have to tell you, I'm passionate about data. +In fact, I am a data nerd. +I'm sure there are a lot of data nerds here. +I am a data nerd, and the reason for that is I want to make sure that if we spend a dollar, that the program works, and if it doesn't work, we should change the plan. +And I also want to say one other thing: We are not going to solve this problem by building more jails or by even building more shelters. +It is about economic empowerment for women, it is about healing kids who are hurt, and it is about prevention with a capital P. +And so, step number three on this journey: We know, if we're going to keep making this progress, we're going to have to turn up the volume, we're going to have to increase the visibility, and we're going to have to engage the public. +And so knowing that, we went to the Advertising Council, and we asked them to help us build a public education campaign. +And we looked around the world to Canada and Australia and Brazil and parts of Africa, and we took this knowledge and we built the first national public education campaign called There's No Excuse for Domestic Violence. +Take a look at one of our spots. +Man: Where's dinner? +Woman: Well, I thought you'd be home a couple hours ago, and I put everything away, so Man: What is this? Pizza. Woman: If you had just called me, I would have known Man: Dinner? Dinner ready is a pizza? Woman: Honey, please don't be so loud. +Please don'tLet go of me! +Man: Get in the kitchen! Woman: No! Help! +Man: You want to see what hurts? (Slaps woman) That's what hurts! That's what hurts! (Breaking glass) Woman: Help me! +["Children have to sit by and watch. What's your excuse?"] Esta Soler: As we were in the process of releasing this campaign, O.J. Simpson was arrested for the murder of his wife and her friend. +We learned that he had a long history of domestic violence. +The media became fixated. +The story of domestic violence went from the back page, but actually from the no-page, to the front page. +Our ads blanketed the airwaves, and women, for the first time, started to tell their stories. +Movements are about moments, and we seized this moment. +And let me just put this in context. +Before 1980, do you have any idea how many articles were in The New York Times on domestic violence? +I'll tell you: 158. +And in the 2000s, over 7,000. +We were obviously making a difference. +But we were still missing a critical element. +So, step four: We needed to engage men. +We couldn't solve this problem with 50 percent of the population on the sidelines. +And I already told you I'm a data nerd. +National polling told us that men felt indicted and not invited into this conversation. +So we wondered, how can we include men? +How can we get men to talk about violence against women and girls? +And a male friend of mine pulled me aside and he said, "You want men to talk about violence against women and girls. Men don't talk." +I apologize to the men in the audience. +I know you do. +But he said, "Do you know what they do do? +They do talk to their kids. +They talk to their kids as parents, as coaches." +And that's what we did. +We met men where they were at and we built a program. +And then we had this one event that stays in my heart forever where a basketball coach was talking to a room filled with male athletes and men from all walks of life. +And he was talking about the importance of coaching boys into men and changing the culture of the locker room and giving men the tools to have healthy relationships. +And all of a sudden, he looked at the back of the room, and he saw his daughter, and he called out his daughter's name, Michaela, and he said, "Michaela, come up here." +And she's nine years old, and she was kind of shy, and she got up there, and he said, "Sit down next to me." +She sat right down next to him. +He gave her this big hug, and he said, "People ask me why I do this work. +I do this work because I'm her dad, and I don't want anyone ever to hurt her." +And as a parent, I get it. +I get it, knowing that there are so many sexual assaults on college campuses that are so widespread and so under-reported. +We've done a lot for adult women. +We've got to do a better job for our kids. +We just do. We have to. We've come a long way since the days of the Polaroid. +Technology has been our friend. +The mobile phone is a global game changer for the empowerment of women, and Facebook and Twitter and Google and YouTube and all the social media helps us organize and tell our story in a powerful way. +And so those of you in this audience who have helped build those applications and those platforms, as an organizer, I say, thank you very much. +Really. I clap for you. +I'm the daughter of a man who joined one club in his life, the Optimist Club. +You can't make that one up. +And it is his spirit and his optimism that is in my DNA. +I have been doing this work for over 30 years, and I am convinced, now more than ever, in the capacity of human beings to change. +I believe we can bend the arc of human history toward compassion and equality, and I also fundamentally believe and passionately believe that this violence does not have to be part of the human condition. +And I ask you, stand with us as we create futures without violence for women and girls and men and boys everywhere. +Thank you very much. +Five years ago, I was a Ph.D. student living two lives. +In one, I used NASA supercomputers to design next-generation spacecraft, and in the other I was a data scientist looking for potential smugglers of sensitive nuclear technologies. +As a data scientist, I did a lot of analyses, mostly of facilities, industrial facilities around the world. +And I was always looking for a better canvas to tie these all together. +And one day, I was thinking about how all data has a location, and I realized that the answer had been staring me in the face. +Although I was a satellite engineer, I hadn't thought about using satellite imagery in my work. +Now, like most of us, I'd been online, I'd see my house, so I thought, I'll hop in there and I'll start looking up some of these facilities. +And what I found really surprised me. +The pictures that I was finding were years out of date, and because of that, it had relatively little relevance to the work that I was doing today. +But I was intrigued. +I mean, satellite imagery is pretty amazing stuff. +There are millions and millions of sensors surrounding us today, but there's still so much we don't know on a daily basis. +How much oil is stored in all of China? +How much corn is being produced? +How many ships are in all of our world's ports? +Now, in theory, all of these questions could be answered by imagery, but not if it's old. +And if this data was so valuable, then how come I couldn't get my hands on more recent pictures? +So the story begins over 50 years ago with the launch of the first generation of U.S. government photo reconnaissance satellites. +And today, there's a handful of the great, great grandchildren of these early Cold War machines which are now operated by private companies and from which the vast majority of satellite imagery that you and I see on a daily basis comes. +During this period, launching things into space, just the rocket to get the satellite up there, has cost hundreds of millions of dollars each, and that's created tremendous pressure to launch things infrequently and to make sure that when you do, you cram as much functionality in there as possible. +All of this has only made satellites bigger and bigger and bigger and more expensive, now nearly a billion, with a b, dollars per copy. +Because they are so expensive, there aren't very many of them. +Because there aren't very many of them, the pictures that we see on a daily basis tend to be old. +I think a lot of people actually understand this anecdotally, but in order to visualize just how sparsely our planet is collected, some friends and I put together a dataset of the 30 million pictures that have been gathered by these satellites between 2000 and 2010. +As you can see in blue, huge areas of our world are barely seen, less than once a year, and even the areas that are seen most frequently, those in red, are seen at best once a quarter. +Now as aerospace engineering grad students, this chart cried out to us as a challenge. +Why do these things have to be so expensive? +Does a single satellite really have to cost the equivalent of three 747 jumbo jets? +Wasn't there a way to build a smaller, simpler, new satellite design that could enable more timely imaging? +I realize that it does sound a little bit crazy that we were going to go out and just begin designing satellites, but fortunately we had help. +In the late 1990s, a couple of professors proposed a concept for radically reducing the price of putting things in space. +This was hitchhiking small satellites alongside much larger satellites. +This dropped the cost of putting objects up there by over a factor of 100, and suddenly we could afford to experiment, to take a little bit of risk, and to realize a lot of innovation. +And a new generation of engineers and scientists, mostly out of universities, began launching these very small, breadbox-sized satellites called CubeSats. +And these were built with electronics obtained from RadioShack instead of Lockheed Martin. +Now it was using the lessons learned from these early missions that my friends and I began a series of sketches of our own satellite design. +And so we moved into a cramped, windowless office in Palo Alto, and began working to take our design from the drawing board into the lab. +The first major question we had to tackle was just how big to build this thing. +And we found that the best picture we would have been able to get looked something like this. +Although this was the low-cost option, quite frankly it was just too blurry to see the things that make satellite imagery valuable. +We had found our compromise. +We would have to build something larger than the original breadbox, now more like a mini-fridge, but we still wouldn't have to build a pickup truck. +So now we had our constraint. +The laws of physics dictated the absolute minimum-sized telescope that we could build. +What came next was making the rest of the satellite as small and as simple as possible, basically a flying telescope with four walls and a set of electronics smaller than a phone book that used less power than a 100 watt lightbulb. +The big challenge became actually taking the pictures through that telescope. +Traditional imaging satellites use a line scanner, similar to a Xerox machine, and as they traverse the Earth, they take pictures, scanning row by row by row to build the complete image. +Now people use these because they get a lot of light, which means less of the noise you see in a low-cost cell phone image. +The problem with them is they require very sophisticated pointing. +You have to stay focused on a 50-centimeter target from over 600 miles away while moving at more than seven kilometers a second, which requires an awesome degree of complexity. +So instead, we turned to a new generation of video sensors, originally created for use in night vision goggles. +Instead of taking a single, high quality image, we could take a videostream of individually noisier frames, but then we could recombine all of those frames together into very high-quality images using sophisticated pixel processing techniques here on the ground, at a cost of one one hundredth a traditional system. +And we applied this technique to many of the other systems on the satellite as well, and day by day, our design evolved from CAD to prototypes to production units. +A few short weeks ago, we packed up SkySat 1, put our signatures on it, and waved goodbye for the last time on Earth. +Today, it's sitting in its final launch configuration ready to blast off in a few short weeks. +And soon, we'll turn our attention to launching a constellation of 24 or more of these satellites and beginning to build the scalable analytics that will allow us to unearth the insights in the petabytes of data we will collect. +So why do all of this? Why build these satellites? +Well, it turns out imaging satellites have a unique ability to provide global transparency, and providing that transparency on a timely basis is simply an idea whose time has come. +We see ourselves as pioneers of a new frontier, and beyond economic data, unlocking the human story, moment by moment. +For a data scientist that just happened to go to space camp as a kid, it just doesn't get much better than that. +Thank you. +The urban explosion of the last years of economic boom also produced dramatic marginalization, resulting in the explosion of slums in many parts of the world. +This polarization of enclaves of mega-wealth surrounded by sectors of poverty and the socioeconomic inequalities they have engendered is really at the center of today's urban crisis. +But I want to begin tonight by suggesting that this urban crisis is not only economic or environmental. +It's particularly a cultural crisis, a crisis of the institutions unable to reimagine the stupid ways which we have been growing, unable to challenge the oil-hungry, selfish urbanization that have perpetuated cities based on consumption, from southern California to New York to Dubai. +And let me illustrate what I mean by understanding or engaging sites of conflict as harboring creativity, as I briefly introduce you to the Tijuana-San Diego border region, which has been the laboratory to rethink my practice as an architect. +This is the wall, the border wall, that separates San Diego and Tijuana, Latin America and the United States, a physical emblem of exclusionary planning policies that have perpetuated the division of communities, jurisdictions and resources across the world. +In this border region, we find some of the wealthiest real estate, as I once found in the edges of San Diego, barely 20 minutes away from some of the poorest settlements in Latin America. +And while these two cities have the same population, San Diego has grown six times larger than Tijuana in the last decades, immediately thrusting us to confront the tensions and conflicts between sprawl and density, which are at the center of today's discussion about environmental sustainability. +What do I mean by the informal in this case? +I'm really just talking about the compendium of social practices of adaptation that enable many of these migrant communities to transgress imposed political and economic recipes of urbanization. +I'm talking simply about the creative intelligence of the bottom-up, whether manifested in the slums of Tijuana that build themselves, in fact, with the waste of San Diego, or the many migrant neighborhoods in Southern California that have begun to be retrofitted with difference in the last decades. +So I've been interested as an artist in the measuring, the observation, of many of the trans-border informal flows across this border: in one direction, from south to north, the flow of immigrants into the United States, and from north to south the flow of waste from southern California into Tijuana. +I'm referring to the recycling of these old post-war bungalows that Mexican contractors bring to the border as American developers are disposing of them in the process of building a more inflated version of suburbia in the last decades. +So these are houses waiting to cross the border. +Not only people cross the border here, but entire chunks of one city move to the next, and when these houses are placed on top of these steel frames, they leave the first floor to become the second to be in-filled with more house, with a small business. +This layering of spaces and economies is very interesting to notice. +But not only houses, also small debris from one city, from San Diego, to Tijuana. +Probably a lot of you have seen the rubber tires that are used in the slums to build retaining walls. +But look at what people have done here in conditions of socioeconomic emergency. +They have figured out how to peel off the tire, how to thread it and interlock it to construct a more efficient retaining wall. +Or the garage doors that are brought from San Diego in trucks to become the new skin of emergency housing in many of these slums surrounding the edges of Tijuana. +So while, as an architect, this is a very compelling thing to witness, this creative intelligence, I also want to keep myself in check. +I don't want to romanticize poverty. +I just want to suggest that this informal urbanization is not just the image of precariousness, that informality here, the informal, is really a set of socioeconomic and political procedures that we could translate as artists, that this is about a bottom-up urbanization that performs. +See here, buildings are not important just for their looks, but, in fact, they are important for what they can do. +They truly perform as they transform through time and as communities negotiate the spaces and boundaries and resources. +So while waste flows southbound, people go north in search of dollars, and most of my research has had to do with the impact of immigration in the alteration of the homogeneity of many neighborhoods in the United States, particularly in San Diego. +And I'm talking about how this begins to suggest that the future of Southern California depends on the retrofitting of the large urbanization -- I mean, on steroids -- with the small programs, social and economic. +I'm referring to how immigrants, when they come to these neighborhoods, they begin to alter the one-dimensionality of parcels and properties into more socially and economically complex systems, as they begin to plug an informal economy into a garage, or as they build an illegal granny flat to support an extended family. +This socioeconomic entrepreneurship on the ground within these neighborhoods really begins to suggest ways of translating that into new, inclusive and more equitable land use policies. +So these action neighborhoods, as I call them, really become the inspiration to imagine other interpretations of citizenship that have less to do, in fact, with belonging to the nation-state, and more with upholding the notion of citizenship as a creative act that reorganizes institutional protocols in the spaces of the city. +As an artist, I've been interested, in fact, in the visualization of citizenship, the gathering of many anecdotes, urban stories, in order to narrativize the relationship between social processes and spaces. +This is a story of a group of teenagers that one night, a few months ago, decided to invade this space under the freeway to begin constructing their own skateboard park. +With shovels in hand, they started to dig. +Two weeks later, the police stopped them. +They barricaded the place, and the teenagers were evicted, and the teenagers decided to fight back, not with bank cards or slogans but with constructing a critical process. +The first thing they did was to recognize the specificity of political jurisdiction inscribed in that empty space. +They found out that they had been lucky because they had not begun to dig under Caltrans territoy. +Caltrans is a state agency that governs the freeway, so it would have been very difficult to negotiate with them. +They were lucky, they said, because they began to dig under an arm of the freeway that belongs to the local municipality. +They were also lucky, they said, because they began to dig in a sort of Bermuda Triangle of jurisdiction, between port authority, airport authority, two city districts, and a review board. +All these red lines are the invisible political institutions that were inscribed in that leftover empty space. +With this knowledge, these teenagers as skaters confronted the city. +They came to the city attorney's office. +The city attorney told them that in order to continue the negotiation they had to become an NGO, and of course they didn't know what an NGO was. +They had to talk to their friends in Seattle who had gone through the same experience. +And they began to realize the necessity to organize themselves even deeper and began to fundraise, to organize budgets, to really be aware of all the knowledge embedded in the urban code in San Diego so that they could begin to redefine the very meaning of public space in the city, expanding it to other categories. +At the end, the teenagers won the case with that evidence, and they were able to construct their skateboard park under that freeway. +Now for many of you, this story might seem trivial or naive. +For me as an architect, it has become a fundamental narrative, because it begins to teach me that this micro-community not only designed another category of public space but they also designed the socioeconomic protocols that were necessary to be inscribed in that space for its long-term sustainability. +They also taught me that similar to the migrant communities on both sides of the border, they engaged conflict itself as a creative tool, because they had to produce a process that enabled them to reorganize resources and the politics of the city. +In that act, that informal, bottom-up act of transgression, really began to trickle up to transform top-down policy. +Now this journey from the bottom-up to the transformation of the top-down is where I find hope today. +And I'm thinking of how these modest alterations with space and with policy in many cities in the world, in primarily the urgency of a collective imagination as these communities reimagine their own forms of governance, social organization, and infrastructure, really is at the center of the new formation of democratic politics of the urban. +It is, in fact, this that could become the framework for producing new social and economic justice in the city. +I want to say this and emphasize it, because this is the only way I see that can enable us to move from urbanizations of consumption to neighborhoods of production today. +Thank you. +Hi. So today, I'd like to share some works in progress. +Since we are still realizing these works, we are largely working within the realm of intuition and mystery, still. +So I'm going to try and describe some of the experiences that we're looking for through each of the works. +So the first work is called the Imperial Monochromes. +A viewer sort of unsuspectingly walks into the room, and catches a glimpse of these panels in a messy composition on the wall. +Within seconds, as if the panels have noticed the presence of the viewer, they appear to panic and sort of get into a strict symmetry. +So this is the sketch of the two states. +One is total chaos. The other is absolute order. +And we were interested in seeing how little change it takes to move from one state to the other state. +This also reminded us of two very different pictorial traditions. +One is the altar tablets of the 15th century, and the other is about 100 years ago, Malevich's abstract compositions. +So I'm just going to take you to a video. +To give you a sense of scale, the largest panel is about two meters high. +That's about this much. And the smallest one is an A4. +So a viewer enters the space, and they snap to attention. +And after a while, if the viewer continues to remain in the space, the panels will sort of become immune to the presence of the viewer and become lax and autonomous again, until they sort of sense a presence in the room or a movement, when they will again snap to attention. +So here it appears as if it's the viewer that's sort of instigating the sense of order among the panels, but it could also be the other way around, that the panels are so stuck within their preconditioned behaviors that they sort of thrust the viewer with the role of a tyrant. +So this brings me to a quieter, small work called Handheld. +The viewer also sees that this entire sculpture is sort of moving very slightly, as if these two hands are trying to hold the paper very still for a long period of time, and somehow are not managing to. +So this instability in the movement very closely resembles the unsteady nature of images seen through a handheld camera. +So here I'm going to show you two tandem clips. +One is through a still camera and the other is through a handheld camera. +And you immediately see how the unsteady nature of the video suggests the presence of an observer and a subjective point of view. +So we've just removed the camera and transferred that movement onto the panel. +So here's a video. +You have to imagine the other hand. It's not there yet. +But to us, we're sort of trying to evoke a self-effacing gesture, as if there's a little person with outstretched arms behind this enormous piece of paper. +That sort of likens it to the amount of strain to be at the service of the observer and present this piece of paper very delicately to the viewer in front of them. +The next work is Decoy. +This is a cardboard model, so the object is about as tall as I am. +It has a rounded body, two arms, and a very tall, head-like antenna, and its sole purpose is to attract attention towards itself. +So when a viewer passes by, it sort of tilts from side to side, and moves its arms more and more frantically as the person gets closer. +So here is the first test scenario. +You see the two movements integrated, and the object seems to be employing its entire being in this expression of desperation. +But the idea is that once it's got the person's attention, it's no longer interested, and it looks for the next person whose attention to get. +So this is the final fabricated body of the Decoy. +It appears to be mass-manufactured like it came out of a factory like vacuum cleaners and washing machines. +Because we are always working from a very personal space, we like how this consumer aesthetic sort of depersonalizes the object and gives us a bit of distance in its appearance, at least. +And so to us this is a kind of sinister being which is trying to distract you from the things that actually need your attention, but it could also be a figure that needs a lot of help. +The next work is an object, that's also a kind of sound instrument. +In the shape of an amphitheater that's scaled to the size of an audience as perceived from somebody from the stage. +So from where I'm standing, each of you appears to be this big, and the audience sort of takes the entire field of my vision. +Seated in this audience are 996 small figures. +They're mechanically enabled to clap of their own free will. +This means that each of them can decide if and when they want to clap, how hard, for how long, how they want to be influenced by those around them or influence others, and if they want to contribute to innovation. +So when the viewer steps in front of the audience, there will be a response. +It could be a few claps or a strong applause, and then nothing happens until the viewer leaves the stage, and again the audience will respond. +It could be anything from a few feeble claps from members in the audience, or it could be a very loud ovation. +So to us, I think we're really looking at an audience as its own object or its own organism that's also got a sort of musical-like quality to it, an instrument. +So the viewer can play it by eliciting quite complex and varied, nuanced musical or sound patterns, but cannot really provoke the audience into any particular kind of response. +So there's a sense of judgment and capriciousness and uneasiness involved. +It also has an alluring and trap-like quality to it. +So here if you see we're quite excited about the image of the head splitting to form the two hands. +So here's a small visual animation, as if the two sides of the brain are sort of clashing against each other to kind of make sense of the duality and the tension. +And here is a prototype. +So we can't wait to be engulfed by 996 of them. +Okay, this is the last work. It's called the Framerunners. +It comes out of the idea of a window. +This is an actual window in our studio, and as you can see, it's made up of three different thicknesses of wooden sections. +So we used the same window vocabulary to construct our own frame or grid that's suspended in the room and that can be viewed from two sides. +This grid is inhabited by a tribe of small figures. +They're also made up of three different sizes, as if to suggest a kind of perspective or landscape on the single plain. +Each of these figures can also run backward and forward in the track and hide behind two adjacent tracks. +So in contrast to this very tight grid, we wanted to give these figures a very comical and slapstick-like quality, as if a puppeteer has taken them and physically animated them down the path. +So we like the idea of these figures sort of skipping along like they're oblivious and carefree and happy-go-lucky and content, until they sort of sense a movement from the viewer and they will hide behind the fastest wall. +So to us, this work also presents its own contradiction. +These figures are sort of entrapped within this very strong grid, which is like a prison, but also a fortress, because it allows them to be oblivious and naive and carefree and quite oblivious of the external world. +So all these real life qualities that I talk about are sort of translated to a very specific technical configuration, and we were very lucky to collaborate with ETH Zurich to develop the first prototype. +So you see they extracted the motion cogs from our animations and created a wiggle that integrated the head-bobbing movement and the back-and-forth movement. +So it's really quite small. +You can see it can fit into the palm of my hand. +So imagine our excitement when we saw it really working in the studio, and here it is. +Thank you. +How many of you love rhythm? +Oh yeah, oh yeah. Oh yeah. I mean, I love all kinds of rhythm. +I like to play jazz, a little funk, and hip hop, a little pop, a little R&B, a little Latin, African. +And this groove right here, comes from the Crescent City, the old second line. +Now, one thing all those rhythms have in common is math, and I call it a-rhythm-etic. +Can you repeat after me? A-rhythm-etic. Audience: A-rhythm-etic. +Clayton Cameron: A-rhythm-etic. Audience: A-rhythm-etic. +CC: A-rhythm a-rhythm. Audience: A-rhythm a-rhythm. +CC: A-rhythm-etic. Audience: A-rhythm-etic. +CC: Yeah. +Now all those styles of rhythm are all counted in four and then subdivided by three. +What? +Yeah. Three is a magic number. +Three is a groovin' number. +Three is a hip-hop kind of number. +But what does subdividing by three mean? +And counting off by four? +Well, look, think of it this way. +A measure of music as a dollar. +Now a dollar has four quarters, right? +And so does a 4/4 measure of music. +It has four quarter notes. +Now, how do you subdivide? +Now let's envision this: three dollars' worth of quarters. +You would have three groups of four, and you would count it, a-one-two-three-four, one-two-three-four, one-two-three-four. Together. +All: A-one-two-three-four, one-two-three-four, one-two-three-four. +CC: Okay, now you feel that? +Now let's take those three groups of four and make them four groups of three. +And listen to this. +A-one-two-three-four, one-two-three-four, one-two-three-four, with me. +One-two-three-four, one-two-three, come on, y'all! +All: One-two-three-four, one-two-three-four, one-two-three-four, ah. +CC: There you go. +All right, second line. +One-two-three-four, one-two-three. +One-two-three-four, one-two-three. +One-two-three-four, one-two-three. +One-two-three-four, one-two-three. Yeah. +Now, that's what I call a-rhythm-etic. +Can you say it? A-rhythm-etic. Audience: A-rhythm-etic. +CC: A-rhythm-etic. Audience: A-rhythm-etic. +CC: A-rhythm a-rhythm. Audience: A-rhythm a-rhythm. +CC: A-rhythm-etic. Audience: A-rhythm-etic. +CC: Yeah. Now pick the swing beat, and do the same thing. +One, two, one, two, a-one-two-three-four. +Yeah. Mm. +One-two-three, one-two-three, one-two-three, one-two-three. Whoo. +So I want to take the second line beat and the swing beat and put them together, and it sounds something like this. +Aha. +A-rhythm-etic. Audience: A-rhythm-etic. +CC: A-rhythm-etic. Audience: A-rhythm-etic. +CC: A-rhythm a-rhythm. Audience: A-rhythm a-rhythm. +CC: A-rhythm-etic. Audience: A-rhythm-etic. +CC: Yeah. Hip-hop. +Now it's using a faster group of three we call a triplet. +Triplet-triplet. Say it with me. +All: Triplet-triplet. +CC: Triplet-triplet. Triplet-triplet. +CC: So I'll take all the rhythms that you heard earlier, we'll put them together, and they sound like this. +A-rhythm-etic. +I'd like to start, if I may, with the story of the Paisley snail. +On the evening of the 26th of August, 1928, May Donoghue took a train from Glasgow to the town of Paisley, seven miles east of the city, and there at the Wellmeadow Caf, she had a Scots ice cream float, a mix of ice cream and ginger beer bought for her by a friend. +The ginger beer came in a brown, opaque bottle labeled "D. Stevenson, Glen Lane, Paisley." +She drank some of the ice cream float, but as the remaining ginger beer was poured into her tumbler, a decomposed snail floated to the surface of her glass. +Three days later, she was admitted to the Glasgow Royal Infirmary and diagnosed with severe gastroenteritis and shock. +The case of Donoghue vs. Stevenson that followed set a very important legal precedent: Stevenson, the manufacturer of the ginger beer, was held to have a clear duty of care towards May Donoghue, even though there was no contract between them, and, indeed, she hadn't even bought the drink. +One of the judges, Lord Atkin, described it like this: You must take care to avoid acts or omissions which you can reasonably foresee would be likely to injure your neighbor. +Indeed, one wonders that without a duty of care, how many people would have had to suffer from gastroenteritis before Stevenson eventually went out of business. +Now please hang on to that Paisley snail story, because it's an important principle. +Last year, the Hansard Society, a nonpartisan charity which seeks to strengthen parliamentary democracy and encourage greater public involvement in politics published, alongside their annual audit of political engagement, an additional section devoted entirely to politics and the media. +Here are a couple of rather depressing observations from that survey. +Tabloid newspapers do not appear to advance the political citizenship of their readers, relative even to those who read no newspapers whatsoever. +Tabloid-only readers are twice as likely to agree with a negative view of politics than readers of no newspapers. +They're not just less politically engaged. +They are consuming media that reinforces their negative evaluation of politics, thereby contributing to a fatalistic and cynical attitude to democracy and their own role within it. +Little wonder that the report concluded that in this respect, the press, particularly the tabloids, appear not to be living up to the importance of their role in our democracy. +Now I doubt if anyone in this room would seriously challenge that view. +But if Hansard are right, and they usually are, then we've got a very serious problem on our hands, and it's one that I'd like to spend the next 10 minutes focusing upon. +Since the Paisley snail, and especially over the past decade or so, a great deal of thinking has been developed around the notion of a duty of care as it relates to a number of aspects of civil society. +Generally a duty of care arises when one individual or a group of individuals undertakes an activity which has the potential to cause harm to another, either physically, mentally or economically. +This is principally focused on obvious areas, such as our empathetic response to children and young people, to our service personnel, and to the elderly and infirm. +It is seldom, if ever, extended to equally important arguments around the fragility of our present system of government, to the notion that honesty, accuracy and impartiality are fundamental to the process of building and embedding an informed, participatory democracy. +And the more you think about it, the stranger that is. +A couple of years ago, I had the pleasure of opening a brand new school in the northeast of England. +It had been renamed by its pupils as Academy 360. +As I walked through their impressive, glass-covered atrium, in front of me, emblazoned on the wall in letters of fire was Marcus Aurelius's famous injunction: If it's not true, don't say it; if it's not right, don't do it. +The head teacher saw me staring at it, and he said, "Oh, that's our school motto." +On the train back to London, I couldn't get it out of my mind. +I kept thinking, can it really have taken us over 2,000 years to come to terms with that simple notion as being our minimum expectation of each other? +Isn't it time that we develop this concept of a duty of care and extended it to include a care for our shared but increasingly endangered democratic values? +After all, the absence of a duty of care within many professions can all too easily amount to accusations of negligence, and that being the case, can we be really comfortable with the thought that we're in effect being negligent in respect of the health of our own societies and the values that necessarily underpin them? +Could anyone honestly suggest, on the evidence, that the same media which Hansard so roundly condemned have taken sufficient care to avoid behaving in ways which they could reasonably have foreseen would be likely to undermine or even damage our inherently fragile democratic settlement. +Now there will be those who will argue that this could all too easily drift into a form of censorship, albeit self-censorship, but I don't buy that argument. +It has to be possible to balance freedom of expression with wider moral and social responsibilities. +Let me explain why by taking the example from my own career as a filmmaker. +Throughout that career, I never accepted that a filmmaker should set about putting their own work outside or above what he or she believed to be a decent set of values for their own life, their own family, and the future of the society in which we all live. +I'd go further. +A responsible filmmaker should never devalue their work to a point at which it becomes less than true to the world they themselves wish to inhabit. +As I see it, filmmakers, journalists, even bloggers are all required to face up to the social expectations that come with combining the intrinsic power of their medium with their well-honed professional skills. +Obviously this is not a mandated duty, but for the gifted filmmaker and the responsible journalist or even blogger, it strikes me as being utterly inescapable. +We should always remember that our notion of individual freedom and its partner, creative freedom, is comparatively new in the history of Western ideas, and for that reason, it's often undervalued and can be very quickly undermined. +It's a prize easily lost, and once lost, once surrendered, it can prove very, very hard to reclaim. +And its first line of defense has to be our own standards, not those enforced on us by a censor or legislation, our own standards and our own integrity. +Our integrity as we deal with those with whom we work and our own standards as we operate within society. +And these standards of ours need to be all of a piece with a sustainable social agenda. +They're part of a collective responsibility, the responsibility of the artist or the journalist to deal with the world as it really is, and this, in turn, must go hand in hand with the responsibility of those governing society to also face up to that world, and not to be tempted to misappropriate the causes of its ills. +Yet, as has become strikingly clear over the last couple of years, such responsibility has to a very great extent been abrogated by large sections of the media. +The most ardent of libertarians might argue that Donoghue v. Stevenson should have been thrown out of court and that Stevenson would eventually have gone out of business if he'd continued to sell ginger beer with snails in it. +But most of us, I think, accept some small role for the state to enforce a duty of care, and the key word here is reasonable. +Judges must ask, did they take reasonable care and could they have reasonably foreseen the consequences of their actions? +Far from signifying overbearing state power, it's that small common sense test of reasonableness that I'd like us to apply to those in the media who, after all, set the tone and the content for much of our democratic discourse. +Democracy, in order to work, requires that reasonable men and women take the time to understand and debate difficult, sometimes complex issues, and they do so in an atmosphere which strives for the type of understanding that leads to, if not agreement, then at least a productive and workable compromise. +Politics is about choices, and within those choices, politics is about priorities. +It's about reconciling conflicting preferences wherever and whenever possibly based on fact. +But if the facts themselves are distorted, the resolutions are likely only to create further conflict, with all the stresses and strains on society that inevitably follow. +The media have to decide: Do they see their role as being to inflame or to inform? +Because in the end, it comes down to a combination of trust and leadership. +Fifty years ago this week, President John F. Kennedy made two epoch-making speeches, the first on disarmament and the second on civil rights. +The first led almost immediately to the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, and the second led to the 1964 Civil Rights Act, both of which represented giant leaps forward. +Democracy, well-led and well-informed, can achieve very great things, but there's a precondition. +We have to trust that those making those decisions are acting in the best interest not of themselves but of the whole of the people. +We need factually-based options, clearly laid out, not those of a few powerful and potentially manipulative corporations pursuing their own frequently narrow agendas, but accurate, unprejudiced information with which to make our own judgments. +If we want to provide decent, fulfilling lives for our children and our children's children, we need to exercise to the very greatest degree possible that duty of care for a vibrant, and hopefully a lasting, democracy. +Thank you very much for listening to me. +What is love? +It's a hard term to define in so far as it has a very wide application. +I can love jogging. +I can love a book, a movie. +I can love escalopes. +I can love my wife. +But there's a great difference between an escalope and my wife, for instance. +That is, if I value the escalope, the escalope, on the other hand, it doesn't value me back. +Whereas my wife, she calls me the star of her life. +Therefore, only another desiring conscience can conceive me as a desirable being. +I know this, that's why love can be defined in a more accurate way as the desire of being desired. +Hence the eternal problem of love: how to become and remain desirable? +The individual used to find an answer to this problem by submitting his life to community rules. +You had a specific part to play according to your sex, your age, your social status, and you only had to play your part to be valued and loved by the whole community. +Think about the young woman who must remain chaste before marriage. +Think about the youngest son who must obey the eldest son, who in turn must obey the patriarch. +But a phenomenon started in the 13th century, mainly in the Renaissance, in the West, that caused the biggest identity crisis in the history of humankind. +This phenomenon is modernity. +We can basically summarize it through a triple process. +First, a process of rationalization of scientific research, which has accelerated technical progress. +Next, a process of political democratization, which has fostered individual rights. +And finally, a process of rationalization of economic production and of trade liberalization. +These three intertwined processes have completely annihilated all the traditional bearings of Western societies, with radical consequences for the individual. +Now individuals are free to value or disvalue any attitude, any choice, any object. +But as a result, they are themselves confronted with this same freedom that others have to value or disvalue them. +In other words, my value was once ensured by submitting myself to the traditional authorities. +Now it is quoted in the stock exchange. +On the free market of individual desires, I negotiate my value every day. +Hence the anxiety of contemporary man. +He is obsessed: "Am I desirable? How desirable? +How many people are going to love me?" +And how does he respond to this anxiety? +Well, by hysterically collecting symbols of desirability. +I call this act of collecting, along with others, seduction capital. +Indeed, our consumer society is largely based on seduction capital. +It is said about this consumption that our age is materialistic. +But it's not true! We only accumulate objects in order to communicate with other minds. +We do it to make them love us, to seduce them. +Nothing could be less materialistic, or more sentimental, than a teenager buying brand new jeans and tearing them at the knees, because he wants to please Jennifer. +Consumerism is not materialism. +It is rather what is swallowed up and sacrificed in the name of the god of love, or rather in the name of seduction capital. +In light of this observation on contemporary love, how can we think of love in the years to come? +We can envision two hypotheses: The first one consists of betting that this process of narcissistic capitalization will intensify. +It is hard to say what shape this intensification will take, because it largely depends on social and technical innovations, which are by definition difficult to predict. +But we can, for instance, imagine a dating website which, a bit like those loyalty points programs, uses seduction capital points that vary according to my age, my height/weight ratio, my degree, my salary, or the number of clicks on my profile. +We can also imagine a chemical treatment for breakups that weakens the feelings of attachment. +By the way, there's a program on MTV already in which seduction teachers treat heartache as a disease. +These teachers call themselves "pick-up artists." +"Artist" in French is easy, it means "artiste." +"Pick-up" is to pick someone up, but not just any picking up -- it's picking up chicks. +So they are artists of picking up chicks. +And they call heartache "one-itis." +In English, "itis" is a suffix that signifies infection. +One-itis can be translated as "an infection from one." +It's a bit disgusting. Indeed, for the pick-up artists, falling in love with someone is a waste of time, it's squandering your seduction capital, so it must be eliminated like a disease, like an infection. +We can also envision a romantic use of the genome. +Everyone would carry it around and present it like a business card to verify if seduction can progress to reproduction. +Of course, this race for seduction, like every fierce competition, will create huge disparities in narcissistic satisfaction, and therefore a lot of loneliness and frustration too. +So we can expect that modernity itself, which is the origin of seduction capital, would be called into question. +I'm thinking particularly of the reaction of neo-fascist or religious communes. +But such a future doesn't have to be. +Another path to thinking about love may be possible. +But how? +How to renounce the hysterical need to be valued? +Well, by becoming aware of my uselessness. +Yes, I'm useless. +But rest assured: so are you. +We are all useless. +This uselessness is easily demonstrated, because in order to be valued I need another to desire me, which shows that I do not have any value of my own. +I don't have any inherent value. +We all pretend to have an idol; we all pretend to be an idol for someone else, but actually we are all impostors, a bit like a man on the street who appears totally cool and indifferent, while he has actually anticipated and calculated so that all eyes are on him. +I think that becoming aware of this general imposture that concerns all of us would ease our love relationships. +It is because I want to be loved from head to toe, justified in my every choice, that the seduction hysteria exists. +And therefore I want to seem perfect so that another can love me. +I want them to be perfect so that I can be reassured of my value. +It leads to couples obsessed with performance who will break up, just like that, at the slightest underachievement. +In contrast to this attitude, I call upon tenderness -- love as tenderness. +What is tenderness? +To be tender is to accept the loved one's weaknesses. +It's not about becoming a sad couple of orderlies. +That's pretty bad. +On the contrary, there's plenty of charm and happiness in tenderness. +I refer specifically to a kind of humor that is unfortunately underused. +It is a sort of poetry of deliberate awkwardness. +I refer to self-mockery. +For a couple who is no longer sustained, supported by the constraints of tradition, I believe that self-mockery is one of the best means for the relationship to endure. +So imagine, you're in the supermarket, you're buying some groceries, and you get given the option for a plastic or a paper shopping bag. +Which one do you choose if you want to do the right thing by the environment? +Most people do pick the paper. +Okay, let's think of why. +It's brown to start with. +Therefore, it must be good for the environment. +It's biodegradable. It's reusable. +In some cases, it's recyclable. +So when people are looking at the plastic bag, it's likely they're thinking of something like this, which we all know is absolutely terrible, and we should be avoiding at all expenses these kinds of environmental damages. +But people are often not thinking of something like this, which is the other end of the spectrum. +When we produce materials, we need to extract them from the environment, and we need a whole bunch of environmental impacts. +You see, what happens is, when we need to make complex choices, us humans like really simple solutions, and so we often ask for simple solutions. +And I work in design. +I advise designers and innovators around sustainability, and everyone always says to me, "Oh Leyla, I just want the eco-materials." +And I say, "Well, that's very complex, and we'll have to spend four hours talking about what exactly an eco-material means, because everything at some point comes from nature, and it's how you use the material that dictates the environmental impact. +So what happens is, we have to rely on some sort of intuitive framework when we make decisions. +So I like to call that intuitive framework our environmental folklore. +It's either the little voice at the back of your head, or it's that gut feeling you get when you've done the right thing, so when you've picked the paper bag or when you've bought a fuel-efficient car. +And environmental folklore is a really important thing because we're trying to do the right thing. +But how do we know if we're actually reducing the net environmental impacts that our actions as individuals and as professionals and as a society are actually having on the natural environment? +So the thing about environmental folklore is it tends to be based on our experiences, the things we've heard from other people. +It doesn't tend to be based on any scientific framework. +And this is really hard, because we live in incredibly complex systems. +We have the human systems of how we communicate and interrelate and have our whole constructed society, We have the industrial systems, which is essentially the entire economy, and then all of that has to operate within the biggest system, and, I would argue, the most important, the ecosystem. +And you see, the choices that we make as an individual, but the choices that we make in every single job that we have, no matter how high or low you are in the pecking order, has an impact on all of these systems. +And the thing is that we have to find ways if we're actually going to address sustainability of interlocking those complex systems and making better choices that result in net environmental gains. +What we need to do is we need to learn to do more with less. +We have an increasing population, and everybody likes their mobile phones, especially in this situation here. +So we need to find innovative ways of solving some of these problems that we face. +And that's where this process called life cycle thinking comes in. +And through doing this, we've learned some absolutely fascinating things. +And we've busted a bunch of myths. +So to start with, there's a word that's used a lot. +It's used a lot in marketing, and it's used a lot, I think, in our conversation when we're talking about sustainability, and that's the word biodegradability. +Now biodegradability is a material property; it is not a definition of environmental benefits. +Allow me to explain. +When something natural, something that's made from a cellulose fiber like a piece of bread, even, or any food waste, or even a piece of paper, when something natural ends up in the natural environment, it degrades normally. +Its little carbon molecules that it stored up as it was growing are naturally released back into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide, but this is a net situation. +Most natural things don't actually end up in nature. +Most of the things, the waste that we produce, end up in landfill. +Landfill is a different environment. +In landfill, those same carbon molecules degrade in a different way, because a landfill is anaerobic. +It's got no oxygen. It's tightly compacted and hot. +Those same molecules, they become methane, and methane is a 25 times more potent greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide. +So our old lettuces and products that we have thrown out that are made out of biodegradable materials, if they end up in landfill, contribute to climate change. +You see, there are facilities now that can actually capture that methane and generate power, displacing the need for fossil fuel power, but we need to be smart about this. +We need to identify how we can start to leverage these types of things that are already happening and start to design systems and services that alleviate these problems. +Because right now, what people do is they turn around and they say, "Let's ban plastic bags. We'll give people paper because that is better for the environment." +But if you're throwing it in the bin, and your local landfill facility is just a normal one, then we're having what's called a double negative. +I'm a product designer by trade. +I then did social science. +And so I'm absolutely fascinated by consumer goods and how the consumer goods that we have kind of become immune to that fill our lives have an impact on the natural environment. +And these guys are, like, serial offenders, and I'm pretty sure everyone in this room has a refrigerator. +Now America has this amazing ability to keep growing refrigerators. +In the last few years, they've grown one cubic foot on average, the standard size of a refrigerator. +And the problem is, they're so big now, it's easier for us to buy more food that we can't eat or find. +I mean, I have things at the back of my refrigerator that have been there for years, all right? +And so what happens is, we waste more food. +And as I was just explaining, food waste is a problem. +In fact, here in the U.S., 40 percent of food purchased for the home is wasted. +Half of the world's produced food is wasted. +That's the latest U.N. stats. Up to half of the food. +It's insane. It's 1.3 billion tons of food per annum. +And I blame it on the refrigerator, well, especially in Western cultures, because it makes it easier. +I mean, there's a lot of complex systems going on here. +I don't want to make it so simplistic. +But the refrigerator is a serious contributor to this, and one of the features of it is the crisper drawer. +You all got crisper drawers? +The drawer that you put your lettuces in? +Lettuces have a habit of going soggy in the crisper drawers, don't they? +Yeah? Soggy lettuces? +In the U.K., this is such a problem that there was a government report a few years ago that actually said the second biggest offender of wasted food in the U.K. is the soggy lettuce. +It was called the Soggy Lettuce Report. +Okay? So this is a problem, people. +These poor little lettuces are getting thrown out left, right and center because the crisper drawers are not designed to actually keep things crisp. +Okay. You need a tight environment. +You need, like, an airless environment to prevent the degrading that would happen naturally. +But the crisper drawers, they're just a drawer with a slightly better seal. +Anyway, I'm clearly obsessed. +Don't ever invite me over because I'll just start going through your refrigerator and looking at all sorts of things like that. +But essentially, this is a big problem. +Because when we lose something like the lettuce from the system, not only do we have that impact I just explained at the end of life, but we actually have had to grow that lettuce. +The life cycle impact of that lettuce is astronomical. +We've had to clear land. +We've had to plant seeds, phosphorus, fertilizers, nutrients, water, sunlight. +All of the embodied impacts in that lettuce get lost from the system, which makes it a far bigger environmental impact than the loss of the energy from the fridge. +So we need to design things like this far better if we're going to start addressing serious environmental problems. +We could start with the crisper drawer and the size. +For those of you in the room who do design fridges, that would be great. +The problem is, imagine if we actually started to reconsider how we designed things. +So I look at the refrigerator as a sign of modernity, but we actually haven't really changed the design of them that much since the 1950s. +A little bit, but essentially they're still big boxes, cold boxes that we store stuff in. +So imagine if we actually really started to identify these problems and use that as the foundation for finding innovative and elegant design solutions that will solve those problems. +This is design-led system change, design dictating the way in which the system can be far more sustainable. +Forty percent food waste is a major problem. +Imagine if we designed fridges that halved that. +Another item that I find fascinating is the electric tea kettle, which I found out that you don't do tea kettles in this country, really, do you? +But that's really big in the U.K. +Ninety-seven percent of households in the United Kingdom own an electric tea kettle. +So they're very popular. +And, I mean, if I were to work with a design firm or a designer, and they were designing one of these, and they wanted to do it eco, they'd usually ask me two things. +They'd say, "Leyla, how do I make it technically efficient?" +Because obviously energy's a problem with this product. +Or, "How do I make it green materials? +How do I make the materials green in the manufacturing?" +Would you ask me those questions? +They seem logical, right? Yeah. +Well I'd say, "You're looking at the wrong problems." +Because the problem is with use. +It's with how people use the product. +Sixty-five percent of Brits admit to over-filling their kettle when they only need one cup of tea. +All of this extra water that's being boiled requires energy, and it's been calculated that in one day of extra energy use from boiling kettles is enough to light all of the streetlights in England for a night. +But this is the thing. +This is what I call a product-person failure. +But we've got a product-system failure going on with these little guys, and they're so ubiquitous, you don't even notice they're there. +And this guy over here, though, he does. He's named Simon. +Simon works for the national electricity company in the U.K. +He has a very important job of monitoring all of the electricity coming into the system to make sure there is enough so it powers everybody's homes. +He's also watching television. +The reason is because there's a unique phenomenon that happens in the U.K. +the moment that very popular TV shows end. +The minute the ad break comes on, this man has to rush to buy nuclear power from France, because everybody turns their kettles on at the same time. +1.5 million kettles, seriously problematic. +So imagine if you designed kettles, you actually found a way to solve these system failures, because this is a huge amount of pressure on the system, just because the product hasn't thought about the problem that it's going to have when it exists in the world. +Now, I looked at a number of kettles available on the market, and found the minimum fill lines, so the little piece of information that tells you how much you need to put in there, was between two and a five-and-a-half cups of water just to make one cup of tea. +So this kettle here is an example of one where it actually has two reservoirs. +One's a boiling chamber, and one's the water holder. +The user actually has to push that button to get their hot water boiled, which means, because we're all lazy, you only fill exactly what you need. +And this is what I call behavior-changing products: products, systems or services that intervene and solve these problems up front. +Now, this is a technology arena, so obviously these things are quite popular, but I think if we're going to keep designing, buying and using and throwing out these kinds of products at the rate we currently do, which is astronomically high, there are seven billion people who live in the world right now. +There are six billion mobile phone subscriptions as of last year. +Every single year, 1.5 billion mobile phones roll off production lines, and some companies report their production rate as being greater than the human birth rate. +One hundred fifty-two million phones were thrown out in the U.S. last year; only 11 percent were recycled. +I'm from Australia. We have a population of 22 million -- don't laugh -- and it's been reported that 22 million phones are in people's drawers. +We need to find ways of solving the problems around this, because these things are so complicated. +They have so much locked up inside them. +Gold! Did you know that it's actually cheaper now to get gold out of a ton of old mobile phones than it is out of a ton of gold ore? +There's a number of highly complex and valuable materials embodied inside these things, so we need to find ways of encouraging disassembly, because this is otherwise what happens. +This is a community in Ghana, is reported by the U.N. +as being up to 50 million tons trafficked. +This is how they get the gold and the other valuable materials out. +They burn the electronic waste in open spaces. +These are communities, and this is happening all over the world. +And because we don't see the ramifications of the choices that we make as designers, as businesspeople, as consumers, then these kinds of externalities happen, and these are people's lives. +So we need to find smarter, more systems-based, innovative solutions to these problems, if we're going to start to live sustainably within this world. +The people who produce these phones, and some of which I'm sure are in the room right now, could potentially look at doing what we call closed-loop systems, or product system services, so identifying that there is a market demand and that market demand's not going to go anywhere, so you design the product to solve the problem. +Design for disassembly, design for light-weighting. +We heard some of those kinds of strategies being used in the Tesla Motors car today. +These kinds of approaches are not hard, but understanding the system and then looking for viable, market-driven consumer demand alternatives is how we can start radically altering the sustainability agenda, because I hate to break it to you all: Consumption is the biggest problem. +But design is one of the best solutions. +These kinds of products are everywhere. +By identifying alternative ways of doing things, we can actually start to innovate, and I say actually start to innovate. +I'm sure everyone in this room is very innovative. +But in the regards to using sustainability as a parameter, as a criteria for fueling systems-based solutions, because as I've just demonstrated with these simple products, they're participating in these major problems. +So we need to look across the entire life of the things that we do. +It's done with a very small amount of plastic and quite a lot more paper. +Because functionality defines environmental impact, and I said earlier that the designers always ask me for the eco-materials. +I say, there's only a few materials that you should completely avoid. +The rest of them, it's all about application, and at the end of the day, everything we design and produce in the economy or buy as consumers is done so for function. +We want something, therefore we buy it. +So breaking things back down and delivering smartly, elegantly, sophisticated solutions that take into consideration the entire system and the entire life of the thing, everything, all the way back to the extraction through to the end of life, we can start to actually find really innovative solutions. +And I'll just leave you with one very quick thing that a designer said to me recently who I work with, a senior designer. +I said, "How come you're not doing sustainability? I know you know this." +Thank you. +The world is changing in some really profound ways, and I worry that investors aren't paying enough attention to some of the biggest drivers of change, especially when it comes to sustainability. +And by sustainability, I mean the really juicy things, like environmental and social issues and corporate governance. +I think it's reckless to ignore these things, because doing so can jeopardize future long-term returns. +And here's something that may surprise you: the balance of power to really influence sustainability rests with institutional investors, the large investors like pension funds, foundations and endowments. +I believe that sustainable investing is less complicated than you think, better-performing than you believe, and more important than we can imagine. +Let me remind you what we already know. +We have a population that's both growing and aging; we have seven billion souls today heading to 10 billion at the end of the century; we consume natural resources faster than they can be replenished; and the emissions that are mainly responsible for climate change just keep increasing. +Now clearly, these are environmental and social issues, but that's not all. +They're economic issues, and that makes them relevant to risk and return. +And they are really complex and they can seem really far off, that the temptation may be to do this: bury our heads in the sand and not think about it. +Resist this, if you can. Don't do this at home. +But it makes me wonder if the investment rules of today are fit for purpose tomorrow. +We know that investors, when they look at a company and decide whether to invest, they look at financial data, metrics like sales growth, cash flow, market share, valuation -- you know, the really sexy stuff. +And these things are fundamental, of course, but they're not enough. +Investors should also look at performance metrics in what we call ESG: environment, social and governance. +Environment includes energy consumption, water availability, waste and pollution, just making efficient uses of resources. +Social includes human capital, things like employee engagement and innovation capacity, as well as supply chain management and labor rights and human rights. +And governance relates to the oversight of companies by their boards and investors. +See, I told you this is the really juicy stuff. +But ESG is the measure of sustainability, and sustainable investing incorporates ESG factors with financial factors into the investment process. +It means limiting future risk by minimizing harm to people and planet, and it means providing capital to users who deploy it towards productive and sustainable outcomes. +So if sustainability matters financially today, and all signs indicate more tomorrow, is the private sector paying attention? +Well, the really cool thing is that most CEOs are. +They started to see sustainability not just as important but crucial to business success. +About 80 percent of global CEOs see sustainability as the root to growth in innovation and leading to competitive advantage in their industries. +But 93 percent see ESG as the future, or as important to the future of their business. +So the views of CEOs are clear. +There's tremendous opportunity in sustainability. +So how are companies actually leveraging ESG to drive hard business results? +One example is near and dear to our hearts. +In 2012, State Street migrated 54 applications to the cloud environment, and we retired another 85. +We virtualized our operating system environments, and we completed numerous automation projects. +Now these initiatives create a more mobile workplace, and they reduce our real estate footprint, and they yield savings of 23 million dollars in operating costs annually, and avoid the emissions of a 100,000 metric tons of carbon. +That's the equivalent of taking 21,000 cars off the road. +So awesome, right? +Another example is Pentair. +Pentair is a U.S. industrial conglomerate, and about a decade ago, they sold their core power tools business and reinvested those proceeds in a water business. +That's a really big bet. Why did they do that? +Well, with apologies to the Home Improvement fans, there's more growth in water than in power tools, and this company has their sights set on what they call "the new New World." +That's four billion middle class people demanding food, energy and water. +Now, you may be asking yourself, are these just isolated cases? +I mean, come on, really? +Do companies that take sustainability into account really do well financially? +The answer that may surprise you is yes. +The data shows that stocks with better ESG performance perform just as well as others. +In blue, we see the MSCI World. +It's an index of large companies from developed markets across the world. +And in gold, we see a subset of companies rated as having the best ESG performance. +Over three plus years, no performance tradeoff. +So that's okay, right? We want more. I want more. +In some cases, there may be outperformance from ESG. +In blue, we see the performance of the 500 largest global companies, and in gold, we see a subset of companies with best practice in climate change strategy and risk management. +Now over almost eight years, they've outperformed by about two thirds. +So yes, this is correlation. It's not causation. +But it does illustrate that environmental leadership is compatible with good returns. +So if the returns are the same or better and the planet benefits, wouldn't this be the norm? +Are investors, particularly institutional investors, engaged? +Well, some are, and a few are really at the vanguard. +Hesta. +Hesta is a retirement fund for health and community services employees in Australia, with assets of 22 billion [dollars]. +They believe that ESG has the potential to impact risks and returns, so incorporating it into the investment process is core to their duty to act in the best interest of fund members, core to their duty. +You gotta love the Aussies, right? +CalPERS is another example. +CalPERS is the pension fund for public employees in California, and with assets of 244 billion [dollars], they are the second largest in the U.S. +and the sixth largest in the world. +Now, they're moving toward 100 percent sustainable investment by systematically integrated ESG across the entire fund. +Why? They believe it's critical to superior long-term returns, full stop. +In their own words, "long-term value creation requires the effective management of three forms of capital: financial, human, and physical. +This is why we are concerned with ESG." +as part of my job, and not all of them see it this way. +Often I hear, "We are required to maximize returns, so we don't do that here," or, "We don't want to use the portfolio to make policy statements." +The one that just really gets under my skin is, "If you want to do something about that, just make money, give the profits to charities." +It's eyes rolling, eyes rolling. +I mean, let me clarify something right here. +Companies and investors are not singularly responsible for the fate of the planet. +They don't have indefinite social obligations, and prudent investing and finance theory aren't subordinate to sustainability. +They're compatible. +So I'm not talking about tradeoffs here. +But institutional investors are the x-factor in sustainability. +Why do they hold the key? +The answer, quite simply, is, they have the money. +A lot of it. +I mean, a really lot of it. +The global stock market is worth 55 trillion dollars. +The global bond market, 78 trillion. +That's 133 trillion combined. +That's eight and a half times the GDP of the U.S. +That's the world's largest economy. +That's some serious freaking firepower. +So we can reconsider some of these pressing challenges, like fresh water, clean air, feeding 10 billion mouths, if institutional investors integrated ESG into investment. +What if they used that firepower to allocate more of their capital to companies working the hardest at solving these challenges or at least not exacerbating them? +What if we work and save and invest, only to find that the world we retire into is more stressed and less secure than it is now? +What if there isn't enough clean air and fresh water? +Now a fair question might be, what if all this sustainability risk stuff is exaggerated, overstated, it's not urgent, something for virtuous consumers or lifestyle choice? +Well, President John F. Kennedy said something about this that is just spot on: "There are risks and costs to a program of action, but they are far less than the long-range risks and costs of comfortable inaction." +I can appreciate that there is estimation risk in this, but since this is based on widespread scientific consensus, the odds that it's not completely wrong are better than the odds that our house will burn down or we'll get in a car accident. +Well, maybe not if you live in Boston. But my point is that we buy insurance to protect ourselves financially in case those things happen, right? +So by investing sustainably we're doing two things. +We're creating insurance, reducing the risk to our planet and to our economy, and at the same time, in the short term, we're not sacrificing performance. +[Man in comic: "What if it's a big hoax and we create a better world for nothing?"] Good, you like it. I like it too. +I like it because it pokes fun at both sides of the climate change issue. +I bet you can't guess which side I'm on. +But what I really like about it is that it reminds me of something Mark Twain said, which is, "Plan for the future, because that's where you're going to spend the rest of your life." +Thank you. +I'd like to talk today about a powerful and fundamental aspect of who we are: our voice. +Each one of us has a unique voiceprint that reflects our age, our size, even our lifestyle and personality. +In the words of the poet Longfellow, "the human voice is the organ of the soul." +As a speech scientist, I'm fascinated by how the voice is produced, and I have an idea for how it can be engineered. +That's what I'd like to share with you. +I'm going to start by playing you a sample of a voice that you may recognize. +Stephen Hawking: "I would have thought it was fairly obvious what I meant." +Rupal Patel: That was the voice of Professor Stephen Hawking. +What you may not know is that same voice may also be used by this little girl who is unable to speak because of a neurological condition. +In fact, all of these individuals may be using the same voice, and that's because there's only a few options available. +In the U.S. alone, there are 2.5 million Americans who are unable to speak, and many of whom use computerized devices to communicate. +Now that's millions of people worldwide who are using generic voices, including Professor Hawking, who uses an American-accented voice. +This lack of individuation of the synthetic voice really hit home when I was at an assistive technology conference a few years ago, and I recall walking into an exhibit hall and seeing a little girl and a grown man having a conversation using their devices, different devices, but the same voice. +And I looked around and I saw this happening all around me, literally hundreds of individuals using a handful of voices, voices that didn't fit their bodies or their personalities. +We wouldn't dream of fitting a little girl with the prosthetic limb of a grown man. +So why then the same prosthetic voice? +It really struck me, and I wanted to do something about this. +I'm going to play you now a sample of someone who has, two people actually, who have severe speech disorders. +I want you to take a listen to how they sound. +They're saying the same utterance. +(First voice) (Second voice) You probably didn't understand what they said, but I hope that you heard their unique vocal identities. +So what I wanted to do next is, I wanted to find out how we could harness these residual vocal abilities and build a technology that could be customized for them, voices that could be customized for them. +So I reached out to my collaborator, Tim Bunnell. +Dr. Bunnell is an expert in speech synthesis, and what he'd been doing is building personalized voices for people by putting together pre-recorded samples of their voice and reconstructing a voice for them. +These are people who had lost their voice later in life. +We didn't have the luxury of pre-recorded samples of speech for those born with speech disorder. +But I thought, there had to be a way to reverse engineer a voice from whatever little is left over. +So we decided to do exactly that. +We set out with a little bit of funding from the National Science Foundation, to create custom-crafted voices that captured their unique vocal identities. +We call this project VocaliD, or vocal I.D., for vocal identity. +Now before I get into the details of how the voice is made and let you listen to it, I need to give you a real quick speech science lesson. Okay? +So first, we know that the voice is changing dramatically over the course of development. +Children sound different from teens who sound different from adults. +We've all experienced this. +Fact number two is that speech is a combination of the source, which is the vibrations generated by your voice box, which are then pushed through the rest of the vocal tract. +These are the chambers of your head and neck that vibrate, and they actually filter that source sound to produce consonants and vowels. +So the combination of source and filter is how we produce speech. +And that happens in one individual. +These are called prosody, and I've been documenting for years that the prosodic abilities of these individuals are preserved. +So when I realized that those same cues are also important for speaker identity, I had this idea. +Why don't we take the source from the person we want the voice to sound like, because it's preserved, and borrow the filter from someone about the same age and size, because they can articulate speech, and then mix them? +Because when we mix them, we can get a voice that's as clear as our surrogate talker -- that's the person we borrowed the filter from and is similar in identity to our target talker. +It's that simple. +That's the science behind what we're doing. +So once you have that in mind, how do you go about building this voice? +Well, you have to find someone who is willing to be a surrogate. +It's not such an ominous thing. +Being a surrogate donor only requires you to say a few hundred to a few thousand utterances. +The process goes something like this. +Voice: Things happen in pairs. +I love to sleep. +The sky is blue without clouds. +RP: Now she's going to go on like this for about three to four hours, and the idea is not for her to say everything that the target is going to want to say, but the idea is to cover all the different combinations of the sounds that occur in the language. +The more speech you have, the better sounding voice you're going to have. +Once you have those recordings, what we need to do is we have to parse these recordings into little snippets of speech, one- or two-sound combinations, sometimes even whole words that start populating a dataset or a database. +We're going to call this database a voice bank. +Now the power of the voice bank is that from this voice bank, we can now say any new utterance, like, "I love chocolate" -- everyone needs to be able to say that fish through that database and find all the segments necessary to say that utterance. +Voice: I love chocolate. +RP: So that's speech synthesis. +It's called concatenative synthesis, and that's what we're using. +That's not the novel part. +What's novel is how we make it sound like this young woman. +This is Samantha. +I met her when she was nine, and since then, my team and I have been trying to build her a personalized voice. +We first had to find a surrogate donor, and then we had to have Samantha produce some utterances. +What she can produce are mostly vowel-like sounds, but that's enough for us to extract her source characteristics. +What happens next is best described by my daughter's analogy. She's six. +She calls it mixing colors to paint voices. +It's beautiful. It's exactly that. +Samantha's voice is like a concentrated sample of red food dye which we can infuse into the recordings of her surrogate to get a pink voice just like this. +Samantha: Aaaaaah. +RP: So now, Samantha can say this. +Samantha: This voice is only for me. +I can't wait to use my new voice with my friends. +RP: Thank you. I'll never forget the gentle smile that spread across her face when she heard that voice for the first time. +Now there's millions of people around the world like Samantha, millions, and we've only begun to scratch the surface. +What we've done so far is we have a few surrogate talkers from around the U.S. +who have donated their voices, and we have been using those to build our first few personalized voices. +But there's so much more work to be done. +For Samantha, her surrogate came from somewhere in the Midwest, a stranger who gave her the gift of voice. +And as a scientist, I'm so excited to take this work out of the laboratory and finally into the real world so it can have real-world impact. +What I want to share with you next is how I envision taking this work to that next level. +I imagine a whole world of surrogate donors from all walks of life, different sizes, different ages, coming together in this voice drive to give people voices that are as colorful as their personalities. +To do that as a first step, we've put together this website, VocaliD.org, as a way to bring together those who want to join us as voice donors, as expertise donors, in whatever way to make this vision a reality. +They say that giving blood can save lives. +Well, giving your voice can change lives. +All we need is a few hours of speech from our surrogate talker, and as little as a vowel from our target talker, to create a unique vocal identity. +So that's the science behind what we're doing. +I want to end by circling back to the human side that is really the inspiration for this work. +About five years ago, we built our very first voice for a little boy named William. +When his mom first heard this voice, she said, "This is what William would have sounded like had he been able to speak." +And then I saw William typing a message on his device. +I wondered, what was he thinking? +Imagine carrying around someone else's voice for nine years and finally finding your own voice. +Imagine that. +This is what William said: "Never heard me before." +Thank you. +Thirteen years ago, we set ourselves a goal to end poverty. +After some success, we've hit a big hurdle. +The aftermath of the financial crisis has begun to hit aid payments, which have fallen for two consecutive years. +My question is whether the lessons learned from saving the financial system can be used to help us overcome that hurdle and help millions. +Can we simply print money for aid? +"Surely not." +It's a common reaction. +It's a quick talk. +Others channel John McEnroe. +"You cannot be serious!" +Now, I can't do the accent, but I am serious, thanks to these two children, who, as you'll learn, are very much at the heart of my talk. +On the left, we have Pia. +She lives in England. +She has two loving parents, one of whom is standing right here. +Dorothy, on the right, lives in rural Kenya. +She's one of 13,000 orphans and vulnerable children who are assisted by a charity that I support. +I do that because I believe that Dorothy, like Pia, deserves the best life chances that we can afford to give her. +You'll all agree with me, I'm sure. +The U.N. agrees too. +Their overriding aim for international aid is to strive for a life of dignity for all. +But -- and here's that hurdle -- can we afford our aid aspirations? +History suggests not. +In 1970, governments set themselves a target to increase overseas aid payments to 0.7 percent of their national income. +As you can see, a big gap opens up between actual aid and that target. +But then come the Millennium Development Goals, eight ambitious targets to be met by 2015. +If I tell you that just one of those targets is to eradicate extreme hunger and poverty, you get a sense of the ambition. +There's also been some success. +The number of people living on less than $1.25 a day has halved. +But a lot remains to be done in two years. +One in eight remain hungry. +In the context of this auditorium, the front two rows aren't going to get any food. +We can't settle for that, which is why the concern about the eighth goal, which relates to funding, which I said at the beginning is falling, is so troubling. +So what can be done? +Well, I work in financial markets, not development. +I study the behavior of investors, how they react to policy and the economy. +It gives me a different angle on the aid issue. +But it took an innocent question from my then-four-year-old daughter to make me appreciate that. +Pia and I were on the way to a local cafe and we passed a man collecting for charity. +I didn't have any change to give him, and she was disappointed. +Once in the cafe, Pia takes out her coloring book and starts scribbling. +After a little while, I ask her what she's doing, and she shows me a drawing of a 5 note to give to the man outside. +It's so sweet, and more generous than Dad would have been. +But of course I explained to her, "You can't do that; it's not allowed." +To which I get the classic four-year-old response: "Why not?" +Now I'm excited, because I actually think I can answer this time. +So I launch into an explanation of how an unlimited supply of money chasing a limited number of goods sends prices to the moon. +Something about that exchange stuck with me, not because of the look of relief on Pia's face when I finally finished, but because it related to the sanctity of the money supply, a sanctity that had been challenged and questioned by the reaction of central banks to the financial crisis. +To reassure investors, central banks began buying assets to try and encourage investors to do the same. +They funded these purchases with money they created themselves. +The money wasn't actually physically printed. +It's still sort of locked away in the banking system today. +But the amount created was unprecedented. +Together, the central banks of the U.S., U.K and Japan increased the stock of money in their economies by 3.7 trillion dollars. +That's three times, in fact that's more than three times, the total physical stock of dollar notes in circulation. +Three times! +Before the crisis, this would have been utterly unthinkable, yet it was accepted remarkably quickly. +The price of gold, an asset thought to protect against inflation, did jump, but investors bought other assets that offered little protection from inflation. +They bought fixed income securities, bonds. +They bought equities too. +For all the scare stories, the actual actions of investors spoke of rapid acceptance and confidence. +That confidence was based on two pillars. +The first was that, after years of keeping inflation under control, central banks were trusted to take the money-printing away if inflation became a threat. +Secondly, inflation simply never became a threat. +As you can see, in the United States, inflation for most of this period remained below average. +It was the same elsewhere. +So how does all this relate to aid? +Well, this is where Dorothy and the Mango Tree charity that supports her comes in. +I was at one of their fundraising events earlier this year, and I was inspired to give a one-off donation when I remembered that my firm offers to match the charitable contributions its employees make. +So think of this: Instead of just being able to help Dorothy and four of her classmates to go through secondary school for a few years, I was able to double my contribution. +Brilliant. +So following that conversation with my daughter, and seeing the absence of inflation in the face of money-printing, and knowing that international aid payments were falling at just the wrong time, this made me wonder: Could we match but just on a much grander scale? +Let's call this scheme "Print Aid." +And here's how it might work. +Provided it saw little inflation risk from doing so, the central bank would be mandated to match the government's overseas aid payments up to a certain limit. +Governments have been aiming to get aid to 0.7 percent for years, so let's set the limit at half of that, 0.35 percent of their income. +So it would work like this: If in a given year the government gave 0.2 percent of its income to overseas aid, the central bank would simply top it up with a further 0.2 percent. +So far so good. +How risky is this? +Well, this involves the creation of money to buy goods, not assets. +It sounds more inflationary already, doesn't it. +But there are two important mitigating factors here. +The first is that by definition, this money printed would be spent overseas. +So it's not obvious how it leads to inflation in the country doing the actual printing unless it leads to a currency depreciation of that country. +That is unlikely for the second reason: the scale of the money that would be printed under this scheme. +So let's think of an example where Print Aid was in place in the U.S., U.K. and Japan. +To match the aid payments made by those governments over the last four years, Print Aid would have generated 200 billion dollars' worth of extra aid. +What would that look like in the context of the increase in the money stock that had already happened in those countries to save the financial system? +Are you read for this? +You might struggle to see that at the back, because the gap is quite small. +So what we're saying here is that we took a $3.7 trillion gamble to save our financial systems, and you know what, it paid off. +There was no inflation. +Are we really saying that it's not worth the risk to print an extra 200 billion for aid? +Would the risks really be that different? +To me, it's not that clear. +What is clear is the impact on aid. +Even though this is the printing of just three central banks, the global aid that's given over this period is up by almost 40 percent. +Aid as a proportion of national income all of a sudden is at a 40-year high. +Now, we don't get to 0.7 percent. +Governments are still incentivized to give. +But you know what, that's the point of a matching scheme. +So I think what we've learned is that the risks from this money creation scheme are quite modest, but the benefits are potentially huge. +Imagine what we could do with 40 percent more funding. +We might be able to feed the front row. +The thing that I fear, the only thing that I fear, apart from the fact that I've run out of time, is that the window of opportunity for this idea is a short one. +Today, money creation by central banks is an accepted policy tool. +That may not always be the case. +Today there are universally agreed aims for international aid. +That may not always be the case. +Today might be the only time that these two things coincide, such that we can afford the aid that we've always aspired to give. +So, can we print money for international aid? +I seriously believe the question should be, why not? +Thank you very much. +What makes a great leader today? +Many of us carry this image of this all-knowing superhero who stands and commands and protects his followers. +But that's kind of an image from another time, and what's also outdated are the leadership development programs that are based on success models for a world that was, not a world that is or that is coming. +We conducted a study of 4,000 companies, and we asked them, let's see the effectiveness of your leadership development programs. +Fifty-eight percent of the companies cited significant talent gaps for critical leadership roles. +That means that despite corporate training programs, off-sites, assessments, coaching, all of these things, more than half the companies had failed to grow enough great leaders. +You may be asking yourself, is my company helping me to prepare to be a great 21st-century leader? +The odds are, probably not. +Now, I've spent 25 years of my professional life observing what makes great leaders. +I've worked inside Fortune 500 companies, I've advised over 200 CEOs, and I've cultivated more leadership pipelines than you can imagine. +But a few years ago, I noticed a disturbing trend in leadership preparation. +I noticed that, despite all the efforts, there were familiar stories that kept resurfacing about individuals. +One story was about Chris, a high-potential, superstar leader who moves to a new unit and fails, destroying unrecoverable value. +And then there were stories like Sidney, the CEO, who was so frustrated because her company is cited as a best company for leaders, but only one of the top 50 leaders is equipped to lead their crucial initiatives. +And then there were stories like the senior leadership team of a once-thriving business that's surprised by a market shift, finds itself having to force the company to reduce its size in half or go out of business. +Now, these recurring stories cause me to ask two questions. +Why are the leadership gaps widening when there's so much more investment in leadership development? +And what are the great leaders doing distinctly different to thrive and grow? +And so I did things like travel to South Africa, where I had an opportunity to understand how Nelson Mandela was ahead of his time in anticipating and navigating his political, social and economic context. +I also met a number of nonprofit leaders who, despite very limited financial resources, were making a huge impact in the world, often bringing together seeming adversaries. +And I spent countless hours in presidential libraries trying to understand how the environment had shaped the leaders, the moves that they made, and then the impact of those moves beyond their tenure. +And then, when I returned to work full time, in this role, I joined with wonderful colleagues who were also interested in these questions. +Now, from all this, I distilled the characteristics of leaders who are thriving and what they do differently, and then I also distilled the preparation practices that enable people to grow to their potential. +I want to share some of those with you now. +In fact, traditional assessments like narrow 360 surveys or outdated performance criteria will give you false positives, lulling you into thinking that you are more prepared than you really are. +Leadership in the 21st century is defined and evidenced by three questions. +Where are you looking to anticipate the next change to your business model or your life? +The answer to this question is on your calendar. +Who are you spending time with? On what topics? +Where are you traveling? What are you reading? +And then how are you distilling this into understanding potential discontinuities, and then making a decision to do something right now so that you're prepared and ready? +There's a leadership team that does a practice where they bring together each member collecting, here are trends that impact me, here are trends that impact another team member, and they share these, and then make decisions, to course-correct a strategy or to anticipate a new move. +Great leaders are not head-down. +They see around corners, shaping their future, not just reacting to it. +The second question is, what is the diversity measure of your personal and professional stakeholder network? +You know, we hear often about good ol' boy networks and they're certainly alive and well in many institutions. +But to some extent, we all have a network of people that we're comfortable with. +So this question is about your capacity to develop relationships with people that are very different than you. +And those differences can be biological, physical, functional, political, cultural, socioeconomic. +And yet, despite all these differences, they connect with you and they trust you enough to cooperate with you in achieving a shared goal. +Great leaders understand that having a more diverse network is a source of pattern identification at greater levels and also of solutions, because you have people that are thinking differently than you are. +Third question: are you courageous enough to abandon a practice that has made you successful in the past? +There's an expression: Go along to get along. +But if you follow this advice, chances are as a leader, you're going to keep doing what's familiar and comfortable. +Great leaders dare to be different. +They don't just talk about risk-taking, they actually do it. +And one of the leaders shared with me the fact that the most impactful development comes when you are able to build the emotional stamina to withstand people telling you that your new idea is nave or reckless or just plain stupid. +Now interestingly, the people who will join you are not your usual suspects in your network. +They're often people that think differently and therefore are willing to join you in taking a courageous leap. +And it's a leap, not a step. +More than traditional leadership programs, answering these three questions will determine your effectiveness as a 21st-century leader. +So what makes a great leader in the 21st century? +I've met many, and they stand out. +They are women and men who are preparing themselves not for the comfortable predictability of yesterday but also for the realities of today and all of those unknown possibilities of tomorrow. +Thank you. +I'm going to go off script and make Chris quite nervous here by making this audience participation. +All right. Are you with me? Yeah. Yeah. All right. +So what I'd like to do is have you raise your hand if you've ever heard a heterosexual couple having sex. +Could be the neighbors, hotel room, your parents. Sorry. +Okay. Pretty much everybody. +Now raise your hand if the man was making more noise than the woman. +I see one guy there. +It doesn't count if it was you, sir. +So his hand's down. And one woman. Okay. +Sitting next to a loud guy. +Now what does this tell us? +It tells us that human beings make noise when they have sex, and it's generally the woman who makes more noise. +This is known as female copulatory vocalization to the clipboard crowd. +I wasn't even going to mention this, but somebody told me that Meg Ryan might be here, and she is the world's most famous female copulatory vocalizer. +So I thought, got to talk about that. +We'll get back to that a little bit later. +Let me start by saying human beings are not descended from apes, despite what you may have heard. We are apes. +We are more closely related to the chimp and the bonobo than the African elephant is to the Indian elephant, as Jared Diamond pointed out in one of his early books. +We're more closely related to chimps and bonobos than chimps and bonobos are related to any other primate -- gorillas, orangutans, what have you. +So we're extremely closely related to them, and as you'll see in terms of our behavior, we've got some relationship as well. +So what I'm asking today, the question I want to explore with you today is, what kind of ape are we in terms of our sexuality? +Now, since Darwin's day there's been what Cacilda and I have called the standard narrative of human sexual evolution, and you're all familiar with it, even if you haven't read this stuff. +The idea is that, as part of human nature, from the beginning of our species' time, men have sort of leased women's reproductive potential by providing them with certain goods and services. +Generally we're talking about meat, shelter, status, protection, things like that. +And in exchange, women have offered fidelity, or at least a promise of fidelity. +Now this sets men and women up in an oppositional relationship. +The war between the sexes is built right into our DNA, according to this vision. Right? +What Cacilda and I have argued is that no, this economic relationship, this oppositional relationship, is actually an artifact of agriculture, which only arose about 10,000 years ago at the earliest. +Anatomically modern human beings have been around for about 200,000 years, so we're talking about five percent, at most, of our time as a modern, distinct species. +So before agriculture, before the agricultural revolution, it's important to understand that human beings lived in hunter-gatherer groups that are characterized wherever they're found in the world by what anthropologists called fierce egalitarianism. +They not only share things, they demand that things be shared: meat, shelter, protection, all these things that were supposedly being traded to women for their sexual fidelity, it turns out, are shared widely among these societies. +Now I'm not saying that our ancestors were noble savages, and I'm not saying modern day hunter-gatherers are noble savages either. +What I'm saying is that this is simply the best way to mitigate risk in a foraging context. +And there's really no argument about this among anthropologists. +All Cacilda and I have done is extend this sharing behavior to sexuality. +So we've argued that human sexuality has essentially evolved, until agriculture, as a way of establishing and maintaining the complex, flexible social systems, networks, that our ancestors were very good at, and that's why our species has survived so well. +Now, this makes some people uncomfortable, and so I always need to take a moment in these talks to say, listen, I'm saying our ancestors were promiscuous, but I'm not saying they were having sex with strangers. +There were no strangers. Right? +In a hunter-gatherer band, there are no strangers. +You've known these people your entire life. +So I'm saying, yes, there were overlapping sexual relationships, that our ancestors probably had several different sexual relationships going on at any given moment in their adult lives. +But I'm not saying they were having sex with strangers. +I'm not saying that they didn't love the people they were having sex with. +And I'm not saying there was no pair-bonding going on. +I'm just saying it wasn't sexually exclusive. +And those of us who have chosen to be monogamous -- my parents, for example, have been married for 52 years monogamously, and if it wasn't monogamously, Mom and Dad, I don't want to hear about it I'm not criticizing this and I'm not saying there's anything wrong with this. +What I'm saying is that to argue that our ancestors were sexual omnivores is no more a criticism of monogamy than to argue that our ancestors were dietary omnivores is a criticism of vegetarianism. +You can choose to be a vegetarian, but don't think that just because you've made that decision, bacon suddenly stops smelling good. +Okay? So this is my point. +That one took a minute to sink in, huh? +Now, in addition to being a great genius, a wonderful man, a wonderful husband, a wonderful father, Charles Darwin was also a world-class Victorian prude. +All right? He was perplexed by the sexual swellings of certain primates, including chimps and bonobos, because these sexual swellings tend to provoke many males to mate with the females. +So he couldn't understand why on Earth would the female have developed this thing if all they were supposed to be doing is forming their pair bond, right? +Chimps and bonobos, Darwin didn't really know this, but chimps and bonobos mate one to four times per hour with up to a dozen males per day when they have their sexual swellings. +Interestingly, chimps have sexual swellings through 40 percent, roughly, of their menstrual cycle, bonobos 90 percent, and humans are among the only species on the planet where the female is available for sex throughout the menstrual cycle, whether she's menstruating, whether she's post-menopausal, whether she's already pregnant. +This is vanishingly rare among mammals. +So it's a very interesting aspect of human sexuality. +Now, Darwin ignored the reflections of the sexual swelling in his own day, as scientists tend to do sometimes. +So what we're talking about is sperm competition. +Now the average human ejaculate has about 300 million sperm cells, so it's already a competitive environment. +The question is whether these sperm are competing against other men's sperm or just their own. +There's a lot to talk about in this chart. +The one thing I'll call your attention to right away is the little musical note above the female chimp and bonobo and human. +That indicates female copulatory vocalization. +Just look at the numbers. +The average human has sex about 1,000 times per birth. +If that number seems high for some of you, I assure you it seems low for others in the room. +We share that ratio with chimps and bonobos. +We don't share it with the other three apes, the gorilla, the orangutan and the gibbon, who are more typical of mammals, having sex only about a dozen times per birth. +Humans and bonobos are the only animals that have sex face-to-face when both of them are alive. +And you'll see that the human, chimp and bonobo all have external testicles, which in our book we equate to a special fridge you have in the garage just for beer. +If you're the kind of guy who has a beer fridge in the garage, you expect a party to happen at any moment, and you need to be ready. +That's what the external testicles are. +They keep the sperm cells cool so you can have frequent ejaculations. +I'm sorry. It's true. +The human, some of you will be happy to hear, has the largest, thickest penis of any primate. +Now, this evidence goes way beyond anatomy. +It goes into anthropology as well. +Historical records are full of accounts of people around the world who have sexual practices that should be impossible given what we have assumed about human sexual evolution. +These women are the Mosuo from southwestern China. +In their society, everyone, men and women, are completely sexually autonomous. +There's no shame associated with sexual behavior. +Women have hundreds of partners. +It doesn't matter. Nobody cares. Nobody gossips. It's not an issue. +When the woman becomes pregnant, the child is cared for by her, her sisters, and her brothers. +The biological father is a nonissue. +On the other side of the planet, in the Amazon, we've got many tribes which practice what anthropologists call partible paternity. +These people actually believe -- and they have no contact among them, no common language or anything, so it's not an idea that spread, it's an idea that's arisen around the world -- they believe that a fetus is literally made of accumulated semen. +So paternity is actually sort of a team endeavor in this society. +So there are all sorts of examples like this that we go through in the book. +Now, why does this matter? +Edward Wilson says we need to understand that human sexuality is first a bonding device and only secondarily procreation. +I think that's true. This matters because our evolved sexuality is in direct conflict with many aspects of the modern world. +The contradictions between what we're told we should feel and what we actually do feel generates a huge amount of unnecessary suffering. +Thank you. +And we'll see that it's not only gay people that have to come out of the closet. +We all have closets we have to come out of. Right? +And when we do come out of those closets, we'll recognize that our fight is not with each other, our fight is with an outdated, Victorian sense of human sexuality that conflates desire with property rights, generates shame and confusion in place of understanding and empathy. +It's time we moved beyond Mars and Venus, because the truth is that men are from Africa and women are from Africa. +Thank you. +Chris Anderson: Thank you. Christopher Ryan: Thank you. +CA: So a question. +It's so perplexing, trying to use arguments about evolutionary history to turn that into what we ought to do today. +Someone could give a talk and say, look at us, we've got these really sharp teeth and muscles and a brain that's really good at throwing weapons, and if you look at lots of societies around the world, you'll see very high rates of violence. +Nonviolence is a choice like vegetarianism, but it's not who you are. +How is that different from the talk you gave? +CR: Well first of all, the evidence for high levels of violence in prehistory is very debatable. +But that's just an example. +Certainly, you know, lots of people say to me, just because we lived a certain way in the past doesn't mean we should live that way now, and I agree with that. +Everyone has to respond to the modern world. +But the body does have its inherent evolved trajectories. +And so you could live on McDonald's and milkshakes, but your body will rebel against that. We have appetites. +I think it was Schopenhauer who said, a person can do what they want but not want what they want. +And so what I'm arguing against is the shame that's associated with desires. +It's the idea that if you love your husband or wife but you still are attracted to other people, there's something wrong with you, there's something wrong with your marriage, something wrong with your partner. +I think a lot of families are fractured by unrealistic expectations that are based upon this false vision of human sexuality. +That's what I'm trying to get at. +CA: Thank you. Communicated powerfully. Thanks a lot. +CR: Thank you, Chris. +I'm going to talk about hackers. +And the image that comes to your mind when I say that word is probably not of Benjamin Franklin, but I'm going to explain to you why it should be. +The image that comes to your mind is probably more likely of a pasty kid sitting in a basement doing something mischievous, or of a shady criminal who is trying to steal your identity, or of an international rogue with a political agenda. +And mainstream culture has kind of fed this idea that hackers are people that we should be afraid of. +But like most things in technology and the technology world, hacking has equal power for good as it has for evil. +For every hacker that's trying to steal your identity there's one that's building a tool that will help you find your loved ones after a disaster or to monitor environmental quality after an oil spill. +Hacking is really just any amateur innovation on an existing system, and it is a deeply democratic activity. +It's about critical thinking. +It's about questioning existing ways of doing things. +It's the idea that if you see a problem, you work to fix it, and not just complain about it. +And in many ways, hacking is what built America. +Betsy Ross was a hacker. +The Underground Railroad was a brilliant hack. +And from the Wright brothers to Steve Jobs, hacking has always been at the foundation of American democracy. +So if there's one thing I want to leave you here with today, it's that the next time you think about who a hacker is, you think not of this guy but of this guy, Benjamin Franklin, who was one of the greatest hackers of all time. +He was one of America's most prolific inventors, though he famously never filed a patent, because he thought that all human knowledge should be freely available. +He brought us bifocals and the lightning rod, and of course there was his collaboration on the invention of American democracy. +And in Code For America, we really try to embody the spirit of Ben Franklin. +He was a tinkerer and a statesman whose conception of citizenship was always predicated on action. +He believed that government could be built by the people, and we call those people civic hackers. +So it's no wonder that the values that underly a healthy democracy, like collaboration and empowerment and participation and enterprise, are the same values that underly the Internet. +And so it's no surprise that many hackers are turning their attention to the problem of government. +But before I give you a few examples of what civic hacking looks like, I want to make clear that you don't have to be a programmer to be a civic hacker. +You just have to believe that you can bring a 21st-century tool set to bear on the problems that government faces. +And we hear all the time from our community of civic hackers at Code for America that they didn't understand how much nontechnical work actually went into civic hacking projects. +So keep that in mind. +All of you are potential civic hackers. +So what does civic hacking look like? +Our team last year in Honolulu, which in this case was three full-time fellows who were doing a year of public service, were asked by the city to rebuild the website. +And it's a massive thing of tens of thousands of pages which just wasn't going to be possible in the few months that they had. +So instead, they decided to build a parallel site that better conformed to how citizens actually want to interact with information on a city website. +They're looking for answers to questions, and they want to take action when they're done, which is really hard to do from a site that looks like this. +So our team built Honolulu Answers, which is a super-simple search interface where you enter a search term or a question and get back plain language answers that drive a user towards action. +Now the site itself was easy enough to build, but the team was faced with the challenge of how they populate all of the content. +It would have taken the three of them a very long time, especially given that none of them are actually from Honolulu. +And so they did something that's really radical, when you think about how government is used to working. +They asked citizens to write the content. +So you've heard of a hack-a-thon. +They held a write-a-thon, where on one Saturday afternoon -- ("What do I do about wild pigs being a nuisance?") Wild pigs are a huge problem in Honolulu, apparently. +In one Saturday afternoon, they were able to populate most of the content for most of the frequently asked questions, but more importantly than that, they created a new way for citizens to participate in their government. +Now, I think this is a really cool story in and of itself, but it gets more awesome. +I authored this answer, and a few others. +And I'm trying to this day to articulate the sense of empowerment and responsibility that I feel for the place that I live based simply on this small act of participation. +And by stitching together my small act with the thousands of other small acts of participation that we're enabling through civic hacking, we think we can reenergize citizenship and restore trust in government. +At this point, you may be wondering what city officials think of all this. +They actually love it. +As most of you guys know, cities are being asked every day to do more with less, and they're always looking for innovative solutions to entrenched problems. +So when you give citizens a way to participate beyond attending a town hall meeting, cities can actually capture the capacity in their communities to do the business of government. +Now I don't want to leave the impression that civic hacking is just an American phenomenon. +It's happening across the globe, and one of my favorite examples is from Mexico City, where earlier this year, the Mexico House of Representatives entered into a contract with a software development firm to build an app that legislators would use to track bills. +So this was just for the handful of legislators in the House. +And the contract was a two-year contract for 9.3 million dollars. +Now a lot of people were really angry about this, especially geeks who knew that 9.3 million dollars was an absolutely outrageous amount of money for what was a very simple app. +But instead of taking to the streets, they issued a challenge. +They asked programmers in Mexico to build something better and cheaper, and they offered a prize of 9,300 dollars -- 10,000 times cheaper than the government contract, and they gave the entrants 10 days. +And in those 10 days, they submitted 173 apps, five of which were presented to Congress and are still in the app store today. +And because of this action, that contract was vacated, and now this has sparked a movement in Mexico City which is home to one of our partners, Code for Mexico City. +And so what you see in all three of these places, in Honolulu and in Oakland and in Mexico City, are the elements that are at the core of civic hacking. +It's citizens who saw things that could be working better and they decided to fix them, and through that work, they're creating a 21st-century ecosystem of participation. +They're creating a whole new set of ways for citizens to be involved, besides voting or signing a petition or protesting. +They can actually build government. +So back to our friend Ben Franklin, who, one of his lesser-known accomplishments was that in 1736 he founded the first volunteer firefighting company in Philadelphia, called a brigade. +And it's because he and his friends noticed that the city was having trouble keeping up with all the fires that were happening in the city, so in true civic hacker fashion, they built a solution. +And we have our own brigades at Code for America working on the projects that I've just described, and we want to ask you to follow in Ben Franklin's footsteps and come join us. +We have 31 brigades in the U.S. +We are pleased to announce today that we're opening up the brigade to international cities for the first time, starting with cities in Poland and Japan and Ireland. +You can find out if there's a brigade where you live at brigade.codeforamerica.org, and if there's not a brigade where you live, we will help you. +We've created a tool kit which also lives at brigade.codeforamerica.org, and we will support you along the way. +Our goal is to create a global network of civic hackers who are innovating on the existing system in order to build tools that will solve entrenched problems, that will support local government, and that will empower citizens. +So please come hack with us. +Thank you. +Almost two years ago, I was driving in my car in Germany, and I turned on the radio. +Europe at the time was in the middle of the Euro crisis, and all the headlines were about European countries getting downgraded by rating agencies in the United States. +I listened and thought to myself, "What are these rating agencies, and why is everybody so upset about their work?" +Well, if you were sitting next to me in the car that day and would have told me that I would devote the next years to trying to reform them, obviously I would have called you crazy. +But guess what's really crazy: the way these rating agencies are run. +And I would like to explain to you not only why it's time to change this, but also how we can do it. +So let me tell you a little bit about what rating agencies really do. +As you would read a car magazine before purchasing a new car or taking a look at a product review before deciding which kind of tablet or phone to get, investors are reading ratings before they decide in which kind of product they are investing their money. +A rating can range from a so-called AAA, which means it's a top-performing product, and it can go down to the level of the so-called BBB-, which means it's a fairly risky investment. +Rating agencies are rating companies. +They are rating banks. +They are rating even financial products like the infamous mortgage-backed securities. +But they can also rate countries, and these ratings are called sovereign ratings, and I would like to focus in particular on these sovereign ratings. +And I can tell, as you're listening to me right now, you're thinking, so why should I really care about this, right? +Be honest. +Well, ratings affect you. +They affect all of us. +If a rating agency rates a country, it basically assesses and evaluates a country's debt and the ability and willingness of a country to repay its debt. +So if a country gets downgraded by a rating agency, the country has to pay more in order to borrow money on the international markets. +So it affects you as a citizen and as a taxpayer, because you and your fellow countrymen have to pony up more in order to borrow. +But what if a country can't afford to pay more because it's maybe too expensive? +Well, then the country has less available for other services, like roads, schools, healthcare. +And this is the reason why you should care, because sovereign ratings affect everyone. +And that is the reason why I believe they should be defined as public goods. +They should be transparent, accessible, and available to everyone at no cost. +But here's the situation: the rating agency market is dominated by three players and three players only -- Standard & Poor's, Moody's, and Fitch -- and we know whenever there is a market concentration, there is really no competition. +There is no incentive to improve the quality of your product. +And let's face it, the credit rating agencies have contributed, putting the global economy on the brink, and yet they have to change the way they operate. +The second point, would you really buy a car just based on the advice of the dealer? +Obviously not, right? That would be irresponsible. +But that's actually what's going on in the rating agency sector every single day. +The customers of these rating agencies, like countries or companies, they are paying for their own ratings, and obviously this is creating a conflict of interest. +The third point is, the rating agencies are not really telling us how they are coming up with their ratings, but in this day and age, you can't even sell a candy bar without listing everything that's inside. +But for ratings, a crucial element of our economy, we really do not know what all the different ingredients are. +We are allowing the rating agencies to be intransparent about their work, and we need to change this. +I think there is no doubt that the sector needs a complete overhaul, not just a trimming at the margins. +I think it's time for a bold move. +I think it's time to upgrade the system. +And this is why we at the Bertelsmann Foundation have invested a lot of time and effort thinking about an alternative for the sector. +And we have developed the first model for a nonprofit rating agency for sovereign risk, and we call it by its acronym, INCRA. +INCRA would make a difference to the current system by adding another nonprofit player to the mix. +It would be based on a nonprofit model that would be based on a sustainable endowment. +The endowment would create income that would allow us to run the operation, to run the rating agency, and it would also allow us to make our ratings publicly available. +But this is not enough to make a difference, right? +INCRA would also be based on a very, very clear governance structure that would avoid any conflict of interest, and it would include many stakeholders from society. +INCRA would not only be a European or an American rating agency, it would be a truly international one, in which, in particular, the emerging economies would have an equal interest, voice and representation. +The second big difference that INCRA would make is that would it base its sovereign risk assessment on a broader set of indicators. +Think about it that way. +If we conduct a sovereign rating, we basically take a look at the economic soil of a country, its macroeconomic fundamentals. +But we also have to ask the question, who is cultivating the economic soil of a country, right? +Well, a country has many gardeners, and one of them is the government, so we have to ask the question, how is a country governed? +How is it managed? +And this is the reason why we have developed what we call forward-looking indicators. +These are indicators that give you a much better read about the socioeconomic development of a country. +I hope you would agree it's important for you to know if your government is willing to invest in renewable energy and education. +It's important for you to know if the government of your country is able to manage a crisis, if the government is finally able to implement the reforms that it's promised. +For example, if INCRA would rate South Africa right now, of course we would take a very, very close look at the youth unemployment of the country, the highest in the world. +If over 70 percent of a country's population under the age of 35 is unemployed, of course this has a huge impact on the economy today and even more so in the future. +Well, our friends at Moody's, Standard & Poor's, and Fitch will tell us we would take this into account as well. +But guess what? We do not know exactly how they will take this into account. +And this leads me to the third big difference that INCRA would make. +INCRA would not only release its ratings but it would also release its indicators and methodology. +So in contrast to the current system, INCRA would be fully transparent. +So in a nutshell, INCRA would offer an alternative to the current system of the big three rating agencies by adding a new, nonprofit player to the mix that would increase the competition, it would increase the transparency of the sector, and it would also increase the quality. +I can tell that sovereign ratings may still look to you like this very small piece of this very complex global financial world, but I tell you it's a very important one, and a very important one to fix, because sovereign ratings affect all of us, and they should be addressed and should be defined as public goods. +And this is why we are testing our model right now, and why we are trying to find out if it can bring together a group of able and willing actors to bring INCRA to life. +I truly believe building up INCRA is in everyone's interest, and that we have the unique opportunity right now to turn INCRA into a cornerstone of a new, more inclusive financial system. +Because for way too long, we have left the big financial players on their own. +It's time to give them some company. +Thank you. +The 2011 Arab Spring captured the attention of the world. +It also captured the attention of authoritarian governments in other countries, who were worried that revolution would spread. +To respond, they ramped up surveillance of activists, journalists and dissidents who they feared would inspire revolution in their own countries. +One prominent Bahraini activist, who was arrested and tortured by his government, has said that the interrogators showed him transcripts of his telephone calls and text messages. +Of course, it's no secret that governments are able to intercept telephone calls and text messages. +It's for that reason that many activists specifically avoid using the telephone. +Instead, they use tools like Skype, which they think are immune to interception. +They're wrong. +There have now been over the last few years an industry of companies who provide surveillance technology to governments, specifically technology that allows those governments to hack into the computers of surveillance targets. +Rather than intercepting the communications as they go over the wire, instead they now hack into your computer, enable your webcam, enable your microphone, and steal documents from your computer. +When the government of Egypt fell in 2011, activists raided the office of the secret police, and among the many documents they found was this document by the Gamma Corporation, by Gamma International. +Gamma is a German company that manufactures surveillance software and sells it only to governments. +It's important to note that most governments don't really have the in-house capabilities to develop this software. +Smaller ones don't have the resources or the expertise, and so there's this market of Western companies who are happy to supply them with the tools and techniques for a price. +Gamma is just one of these companies. +I should note also that Gamma never actually sold their software to the Egyptian government. +They'd sent them an invoice for a sale, but the Egyptians never bought it. +Instead, apparently, the Egyptian government used a free demo version of Gamma's software. +So this screenshot is from a sales video that Gamma produced. +Really, they're just emphasizing in a relatively slick presentation the fact that the police can sort of sit in an air-conditioned office and remotely monitor someone without them having any idea that it's going on. +You know, your webcam light won't turn on. +There's nothing to indicate that the microphone is enabled. +This is the managing director of Gamma International. +His name is Martin Muench. +There are many photos of Mr. Muench that exist. +This is perhaps my favorite. +I'm just going to zoom in a little bit onto his webcam. +You can see there's a little sticker that's placed over his camera. +He knows what kind of surveillance is possible, and so clearly he doesn't want it to be used against him. +Muench has said that he intends for his software to be used to capture terrorists and locate pedophiles. +Of course, he's also acknowledged that once the software has been sold to governments, he has no way of knowing how it can be used. +Gamma's software has been located on servers in countries around the world, many with really atrocious track records and human rights violations. +They really are selling their software around the world. +Gamma is not the only company in the business. +As I said, it's a $5 billion industry. +One of the other big guys in the industry is an Italian company called Hacking Team. +Now, Hacking Team has what is probably the slickest presentation. +The video they've produced is very sexy, and so I'm going to play you a clip just so you can get a feel both for the capabilities of the software but also how it's marketed to their government clients. +Narrator: You want to look through your target's eyes. +You have to hack your target. +["While your target is browsing the web, exchanging documents, receiving SMS, crossing the borders"] You have to hit many different platforms. +["Windows, OS X, iOS, Android, Blackberry, Symbian, Linux"] You have to overcome encryption and capture relevant data. +[Skype & encrypted calls, target location, messaging, relationships, web browsing, audio & video"] Being stealth and untraceable. +["Immune to any protection system Hidden collection infrastructure"] Deployed all over your country. +["Up to hundreds of thousands of targets Managed from a single spot"] Exactly what we do. +Christopher Soghoian: So, it would be funny if it wasn't true, but, in fact, Hacking Team's software is being sold to governments around the world. +Last year we learned, for example, that it's been used to target Moroccan journalists by the Moroccan government. +Many, many countries it's been found in. +So, Hacking Team has also been actively courting the U.S. law enforcement market. +In the last year or so, the company has opened a sales office in Maryland. +The company has also hired a spokesperson. +They've been attending surveillance industry conferences where law enforcement officials show up. +They've spoken at the conferences. +What I thought was most fascinating was they've actually paid for the coffee break at one of the law enforcement conferences earlier this year. +I can't tell you for sure that Hacking Team has sold their technology in the United States, but what I can tell you that if they haven't sold it, it isn't because they haven't been trying hard. +So as I said before, governments that don't really have the resources to build their own tools will buy off-the-shelf surveillance software, and so for that reason, you see that the government of, say, Tunisia, might use the same software as the government of Germany. +They're all buying off-the-shelf stuff. +The Federal Bureau of Investigation in the United States does have the budget to build their own surveillance technology, and so for several years, I've been trying to figure out if and how the FBI is hacking into the computers of surveillance targets. +My friends at an organization called the Electronic Frontier Foundation -- they're a civil society group obtained hundreds of documents from the FBI detailing their next generation of surveillance technologies. +Most of these documents were heavily redacted, but what you can see from the slides, if I zoom in, is this term: Remote Operations Unit. +Now, when I first looked into this, I'd never heard of this unit before. +I've been studying surveillance for more than six years. +I'd never heard of it. +And so I went online and I did some research, and ultimately I hit the mother lode when I went to LinkedIn, the social networking site for job seekers. +There were lots of former U.S. government contractors who had at one point worked for the Remote Operating Unit, and were describing in surprising detail on their CVs what they had done in their former job. +Like Gamma and Hacking Team, the FBI also has the capability to remotely activate webcams, microphones, steal documents, get web browsing information, the works. +There's sort of a big problem with governments going into hacking, and that's that terrorists, pedophiles, drug dealers, journalists and human rights activists all use the same kinds of computers. +There's no drug dealer phone and there's no journalist laptop. +We all use the same technology, and what that means then is that for governments to have the capability to hack into the computers of the real bad guys, they also have to have the capability to hack into our devices too. +So governments around the world have been embracing this technology. +They've been embracing hacking as a law enforcement technique, but without any real debate. +In the United States, where I live, there have been no congressional hearings. +There's no law that's been passed specifically authorizing this technique, and because of its power and potential for abuse, it's vital that we have an informed public debate. +Thank you very much. +The year is 1800. +A curious little invention is being talked about. +It's called a microscope. +What it allows you to do is see tiny little lifeforms that are invisible to the naked eye. +Soon comes the medical discovery that many of these lifeforms are actually causes of terrible human diseases. +Imagine what happened to the society when they realized that an English mom in her teacup actually was drinking a monster soup, not very far from here. This is from London. +Fast forward 200 years. +We still have this monster soup around, and it's taken hold in the developing countries around the tropical belt. +Just for malaria itself, there are a million deaths a year, and more than a billion people that need to be tested because they are at risk for different species of malarial infections. +Now it's actually very simple to put a face to many of these monsters. +You take a stain, like acridine orange or a fluorescent stain or Giemsa, and a microscope, and you look at them. +They all have faces. +Why is that so, that Alex in Kenya, Fatima in Bangladesh, Navjoot in Mumbai, and Julie and Mary in Uganda still wait months to be able to diagnose why they are sick? +And that's primarily because scalability of the diagnostics is completely out of reach. +And remember that number: one billion. +The problem lies with the microscope itself. +Even though the pinnacle of modern science, research microscopes are not designed for field testing. +Neither were they first designed for diagnostics at all. +They are heavy, bulky, really hard to maintain, and cost a lot of money. +This picture is Mahatma Gandhi in the '40s using the exact same setup that we actually use today for diagnosing T.B. in his ashram in Sevagram in India. +Two of my students, Jim and James, traveled around India and Thailand, starting to think about this problem a lot. +We saw all kinds of donated equipment. +We saw fungus growing on microscope lenses. +And we saw people who had a functional microscope but just didn't know how to even turn it on. +What grew out of that work and that trip was actually the idea of what we call Foldscopes. +So what is a Foldscope? +A Foldscope is a completely functional microscope, a platform for fluorescence, bright-field, polarization, projection, all kinds of advanced microscopy built purely by folding paper. +So, now you think, how is that possible? +I'm going to show you some examples here, and we will run through some of them. +It starts with a single sheet of paper. +What you see here is all the possible components to build a functional bright-field and fluorescence microscope. +So, there are three stages: There is the optical stage, the illumination stage and the mask-holding stage. +And there are micro optics at the bottom that's actually embedded in the paper itself. +What you do is, you take it on, and just like you are playing like a toy, which it is, I tab it off, and I break it off. +This paper has no instructions and no languages. +There is a code, a color code embedded, that tells you exactly how to fold that specific microscope. +When it's done, it looks something like this, has all the functionalities of a standard microscope, just like an XY stage, a place where a sample slide could go, for example right here. +We didn't want to change this, because this is the standard that's been optimized for over the years, and many health workers are actually used to this. +So this is what changes, but the standard stains all remain the same for many different diseases. +You pop this in. +There is an XY stage, and then there is a focusing stage, which is a flexure mechanism that's built in paper itself that allows us to move and focus the lenses by micron steps. +So what's really interesting about this object, and my students hate when I do this, but I'm going to do this anyway, is these are rugged devices. +I can turn it on and throw it on the floor and really try to stomp on it. +And they last, even though they're designed from a very flexible material, like paper. +Another fun fact is, this is what we actually send out there as a standard diagnostic tool, but here in this envelope I have 30 different foldscopes of different configurations all in a single folder. +And I'm going to pick one randomly. +This one, it turns out, is actually designed specifically for malaria, because it has the fluorescent filters built specifically for diagnosing malaria. +So the idea of very specific diagnostic microscopes comes out of this. +So up till now, you didn't actually see what I would see from one of these setups. +So what I would like to do is, if we could dim the lights, please, it turns out foldscopes are also projection microscopes. +I have these two microscopes that I'm going to turn -- go to the back of the wall -- and just project, and this way you will see exactly what I would see. +What you're looking at -- This is a cross-section of a compound eye, and when I'm going to zoom in closer, right there, I am going through the z-axis. +You actually see how the lenses are cut together in the cross-section pattern. +Another example, one of my favorite insects, I love to hate this one, is a mosquito, and you're seeing the antenna of a culex pipiens. +Right there. +All from the simple setup that I actually described. +So my wife has been field testing some of our microscopes by washing my clothes whenever I forget them in the dryer. +So it turns out they're waterproof, and -- right here is just fluorescent water, and I don't know if you can actually see this. +This also shows you how the projection scope works. +You get to see the beam the way it's projected and bent. +Can we get the lights back on again? +So I'm quickly going to show you, since I'm running out of time, in terms of how much it costs for us to manufacture, the biggest idea was roll-to-roll manufacturing, so we built this out of 50 cents of parts and costs. +And what this allows us to do is to think about a new paradigm in microscopy, which we call use-and-throw microscopy. +I'm going to give you a quick snapshot of some of the parts that go in. +Here is a sheet of paper. +This is when we were thinking about the idea. +This is an A4 sheet of paper. +These are the three stages that you actually see. +And the optical components, if you look at the inset up on the right, we had to figure out a way to manufacture lenses in paper itself at really high throughputs, so it uses a process of self-assembly and surface tension to build achromatic lenses in the paper itself. +So that's where the lenses go. +There are some light sources. +And essentially, in the end, all the parts line up because of origami, because of the fact that origami allows us micron-scale precision of optical alignment. +So even though this looks like a simple toy, the aspects of engineering that go in something like this are fairly sophisticated. +So here is another obvious thing that we would do, typically, if I was going to show that these microscopes are robust, is go to the third floor and drop it from the floor itself. +There it is, and it survives. +So for us, the next step actually is really finishing our field trials. +We are starting at the end of the summer. +We are at a stage where we'll be making thousands of microscopes. +That would be the first time where we would be doing field trials with the highest density of microscopes ever at a given place. +We've started collecting data for malaria, Chagas disease and giardia from patients themselves. +And I want to leave you with this picture. +I had not anticipated this before, but a really interesting link between hands-on science education and global health. +What are the tools that we're actually providing the kids who are going to fight this monster soup for tomorrow? +I would love for them to be able to just print out a Foldscope and carry them around in their pockets. +Thank you. +This is a vending machine in Los Angeles. +It's in a shopping mall, and it sells fish eggs. +It's a caviar vending machine. +This is the Art-o-mat, an art vending machine that sells small artistic creations by different artists, usually on small wood blocks or matchboxes, in limited edition. +This is Oliver Medvedik. He's not a vending machine, but he is one of the founders of Genspace, a community biolab in Brooklyn, New York, where anybody can go and take classes and learn how to do things like grow E. coli that glows in the dark or learn how to take strawberry DNA. +In fact, I saw Oliver do one of these strawberry DNA extractions about a year ago, and this is what led me onto this bizarre path that I'm going to talk to you right now. +Because strawberry DNA is really fascinating, because it's so beautiful. +I'd never thought about DNA being a beautiful thing before, before I saw it in this form. +And a lot of people, especially in the art community, don't necessarily engage in science in this way. +I instantly joined Genspace after this, and I asked Oliver, "Well, if we can do this strawberries, can we do this with people as well?" +And about 10 minutes later, we were both spinning it in vials together and coming up with a protocol for human DNA extraction. +And I started doing this on my own, and this is what my DNA actually looks like. +And I was at a dinner party with some friends, some artist friends, and I was telling them about this project, and they couldn't believe that you could actually see DNA. +So I said, all right, let's get out some supplies right now. +And I started having these bizarre dinner parties at my house on Friday nights where people would come over and we would do DNA extractions, and I would actually capture them on video, because it created this kind of funny portrait as well. +These are people who don't necessarily regularly engage with science whatsoever. +You can kind of tell from their reactions. +But they became fascinated by it, and it was really exciting for me to see them get excited about science. +And so I started doing this regularly. +It's kind of an odd thing to do with your Friday nights, but this is what I started doing, and I started collecting a whole group of my friends' DNA in small vials and categorizing them. +This is what that looked like. +And it started to make me think about a couple of things. +First of all, this looked a lot like my Facebook wall. +So in a way, I've created sort of a genetic network, a genetic social network, really. +And the second thing was, one time a friend came over and looked at this on my table and was like, "Oh. +Why are they numbered? Is this person more rare than the other one?" +And I hadn't even thought about that. +They were just numbered because that was the order that I extracted the DNA in. +But that made me think about collecting toys, and this thing that's going on right now in the toy world with blind box toys, and being able to collect these rare toys. +You buy these boxes. You're not sure what's going to be inside of them. +But then, when you open them up, you have different rarities of the toys. +And so I thought that was interesting. +And so, of course, I decided to create an art installation called the DNA Vending Machine. +Here it is. +We're in the first edition of 100 pieces, hoping to do another edition pretty soon. +I'd actually like to get it into more of a metro hub, like Grand Central or Penn Station, right next to some of the other, actual vending machines in that location. +And how much will these samples be worth? +And will you buy someone else's sample? +And what will you be able to do with that sample? +Thank you. +So my moment of truth did not come all at once. +In 2010, I had the chance to be considered for promotion from my job as director of policy planning at the U.S. State Department. +This was my moment to lean in, to push myself forward for what are really only a handful of the very top foreign policy jobs, and I had just finished a big, 18-month project for Secretary Clinton, successfully, and I knew I could handle a bigger job. +The woman I thought I was would have said yes. +But I had been commuting for two years between Washington and Princeton, New Jersey, where my husband and my two teenage sons lived, and it was not going well. +I tried on the idea of eking out another two years in Washington, or maybe uprooting my sons from their school and my husband from his work and asking them to join me. +But deep down, I knew that the right decision was to go home, even if I didn't fully recognize the woman who was making that choice. +That was a decision based on love and responsibility. +I couldn't keep watching my oldest son make bad choices without being able to be there for him when and if he needed me. +But the real change came more gradually. +Over the next year, while my family was righting itself, I started to realize that even if I could go back into government, I didn't want to. +I didn't want to miss the last five years that my sons were at home. +I finally allowed myself to accept what was really most important to me, not what I was conditioned to want or maybe what I conditioned myself to want, and that decision led to a reassessment of the feminist narrative that I grew up with and have always championed. +I am still completely committed to the cause of male-female equality, but let's think about what that equality really means, and how best to achieve it. +I always accepted the idea that the most respected and powerful people in our society are men at the top of their careers, so that the measure of male-female equality ought to be how many women are in those positions: prime ministers, presidents, CEOs, directors, managers, Nobel laureates, leaders. +I still think we should do everything we possibly can to achieve that goal. +But that's only half of real equality, and I now think we're never going to get there unless we recognize the other half. +I suggest that real equality, full equality, does not just mean valuing women on male terms. +It means creating a much wider range of equally respected choices for women and for men. +And to get there, we have to change our workplaces, our policies and our culture. +In the workplace, real equality means valuing family just as much as work, and understanding that the two reinforce each other. +As a leader and as a manager, I have always acted on the mantra, if family comes first, work does not come second -- life comes together. +If you work for me, and you have a family issue, I expect you to attend to it, and I am confident, and my confidence has always been borne out, that the work will get done, and done better. +Workers who have a reason to get home to care for their children or their family members are more focused, more efficient, more results-focused. +And breadwinners who are also caregivers have a much wider range of experiences and contacts. +Think about a lawyer who spends part of his time at school events for his kids talking to other parents. +He's much more likely to bring in new clients for his firm than a lawyer who never leaves his office. +And caregiving itself develops patience -- a lot of patience -- and empathy, creativity, resilience, adaptability. +Those are all attributes that are ever more important in a high-speed, horizontal, networked global economy. +The best companies actually know this. +And a 2012 study of employers showed that deep, flexible practices actually lowered operating costs and increased adaptability in a global service economy. +So you may think that the privileging of work over family is only an American problem. +Sadly, though, the obsession with work is no longer a uniquely American disease. +Twenty years ago, when my family first started going to Italy, we used to luxuriate in the culture of siesta. +Siesta is not just about avoiding the heat of the day. +It's actually just as much about embracing the warmth of a family lunch. +Now, when we go, fewer and fewer businesses close for siesta, reflecting the advance of global corporations and 24-hour competition. +So making a place for those we love is actually a global imperative. +In policy terms, real equality means recognizing that the work that women have traditionally done is just as important as the work that men have traditionally done, no matter who does it. +Think about it: Breadwinning and caregiving are equally necessary for human survival. +At least if we get beyond a barter economy, somebody has to earn an income and someone else has to convert that income to care and sustenance for loved ones. +Now most of you, when you hear me talk about breadwinning and caregiving, instinctively translate those categories into men's work and women's work. +And we don't typically challenge why men's work is advantaged. +But consider a same-sex couple like my friends Sarah and Emily. +They're psychiatrists. +They got married five years ago, and now they have two-year-old twins. +They love being mothers, but they also love their work, and they're really good at what they do. +So how are they going to divide up breadwinning and caregiving responsibilities? +Should one of them stop working or reduce hours to be home? +Or should they both change their practices so they can have much more flexible schedules? +And what criteria should they use to make that decision? +Is it who makes the most money or who is most committed to her career? +Or who has the most flexible boss? +The same-sex perspective helps us see that juggling work and family are not women's problems, they're family problems. +And Sarah and Emily are the lucky ones, because they have a choice about how much they want to work. +Millions of men and women have to be both breadwinners and caregivers just to earn the income they need, and many of those workers are scrambling. +They're patching together care arrangements that are inadequate and often actually unsafe. +If breadwinning and caregiving are really equal, then why shouldn't a government invest as much in an infrastructure of care as the foundation of a healthy society as it invests in physical infrastructure as the backbone of a successful economy? +The governments that get it -- no surprises here -- the governments that get it, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, the Netherlands, provide universal child care, support for caregivers at home, school and early childhood education, protections for pregnant women, and care for the elderly and the disabled. +Those governments invest in that infrastructure the same way they invest in roads and bridges and tunnels and trains. +Those societies also show you that breadwinning and caregiving reinforce each other. +They routinely rank among the top 15 countries of the most globally competitive economies, but at the same time, they rank very high on the OECD Better Life Index. +In fact, they rank higher than other governments, like my own, the U.S., or Switzerland, that have higher average levels of income but lower rankings on work-life balance. +So changing our workplaces and building infrastructures of care would make a big difference, but we're not going to get equally valued choices unless we change our culture, and the kind of cultural change required means re-socializing men. +Increasingly in developed countries, women are socialized to believe that our place is no longer only in the home, but men are actually still where they always were. +Men are still socialized to believe that they have to be breadwinners, that to derive their self-worth from how high they can climb over other men on a career ladder. +The feminist revolution still has a long way to go. +It's certainly not complete. +But 60 years after "The Feminine Mystique" was published, many women actually have more choices than men do. +We can decide to be a breadwinner, a caregiver, or any combination of the two. +When a man, on the other hand, decides to be a caregiver, he puts his manhood on the line. +His friends may praise his decision, but underneath, they're scratching their heads. +Isn't the measure of a man his willingness to compete with other men for power and prestige? +And as many women hold that view as men do. +We know that lots of women still judge the attractiveness of a man based in large part on how successful he is in his career. +A woman can drop out of the work force and still be an attractive partner. +For a man, that's a risky proposition. +So as parents and partners, we should be socializing our sons and our husbands to be whatever they want to be, either caregivers or breadwinners. +We should be socializing them to make caregiving cool for guys. +I can almost hear lots of you thinking, "No way." +But in fact, the change is actually already happening. +At least in the United States, lots of men take pride in cooking, and frankly obsess over stoves. +They are in the birthing rooms. +They take paternity leave when they can. +They can walk a baby or soothe a toddler just as well as their wives can, and they are increasingly doing much more of the housework. +Indeed, there are male college students now who are starting to say, "I want to be a stay-at-home dad." +That was completely unthinkable 50 or even 30 years ago. +And in Norway, where men have an automatic three month's paternity leave, but they lose it if they decide not to take it, a high government official told me that companies are starting to look at prospective male employees and raise an eyebrow if they didn't in fact take their leave when they had kids. +That means that it's starting to seem like a character defect not to want to be a fully engaged father. +So I was raised to believe that championing women's rights meant doing everything we could to get women to the top. +And I still hope that I live long enough to see men and women equally represented at all levels of the work force. +But I've come to believe that we have to value family every bit as much as we value work, and that we should entertain the idea that doing right by those we love will make all of us better at everything we do. +Thirty years ago, Carol Gilligan, a wonderful psychologist, studied adolescent girls and identified an ethic of care, an element of human nature every bit as important as the ethic of justice. +It turns out that "you don't care" is just as much a part of who we are as "that's not fair." +Bill Gates agrees. +He argues that the two great forces of human nature are self-interest and caring for others. +Let's bring them both together. +Let's make the feminist revolution a humanist revolution. +As whole human beings, we will be better caregivers and breadwinners. +You may think that can't happen, but I grew up in a society where my mother put out small vases of cigarettes for dinner parties, where blacks and whites used separate bathrooms, and where everybody claimed to be heterosexual. +Today, not so much. +The revolution for human equality can happen. +It is happening. +It will happen. +How far and how fast is up to us. +Thank you. +Let me start by asking you a question, just with a show of hands: Who has an iPhone? +Who has an Android phone? +Who has a Blackberry? +Who will admit in public to having a Blackberry? +And let me guess, how many of you, when you arrived here, like me, went and bought a pay-as-you-go SIM card? Yeah? +I'll bet you didn't even know you're using African technology. +Pay-as-you-go was a technology, or an idea, pioneered in Africa by a company called Vodacom a good 15 years ago, and now, like franchising, pay-as-you-go is one of the most dominant forces of economic activity in the world. +So I'm going to talk about innovation in Africa, which I think is the purest form, innovation out of necessity. +But first, I'm going to ask you some other questions. +You don't have to put your hands up. +These are rhetorical. +Why did Nikola Tesla have to invent the alternating current that powers the lights in this building or the city that we're in? +Why did Henry Ford have to invent the production line to produce these Fords that came in anything as long as they were black? +And why did Eric Merrifield have to invent the dolos? +Blank stares. That is what a dolos looks like, and in the background, you can see Robben Island. +This is a small dolos, and Eric Merrifield is the most famous inventor you've never heard of. +In 1963, a storm ripped up the harbor in a small South African town called East London, and while he was watching his kids playing with toys made from oxen bones called dolosse, he had the idea for this. +It's a bit like a huge jumping jack, and they have used this in every harbor in the world as a breakwater. +The global shipping economy would not be possible without African technology like this. +So whenever you talk about Africa, you have to put up this picture of the world from space, and people go, "Look, it's the Dark Continent." +Actually, it isn't. +What it is is a map of innovation. +And it's really easy to see where innovation's going on. +All the places with lots of electricity, it isn't. +And the reason it isn't is because everybody's watching television or playing Angry Birds. +So where it's happening is in Africa. +Now, this is real innovation, not the way people have expropriated the word to talk about launching new products. +This is real innovation, and I define it as problem-solving. +People are solving real problems in Africa. +Why? Because we have to. +Because we have real problems. +And when we solve real problems for people, we solve them for the rest of the world at the same time. +So in California, everybody's really excited about a little square of plastic that you plug into a phone and you can swipe your credit card, and people say, "We've liberated the credit card from the point of sale terminal." +Fantastic. Why do you even need a credit card? +In Africa, we've been doing that for years, and we've been doing it on phones like this. +This is a picture I took at a place called Kitengela, about an hour south of Nairobi, and the thing that's so remarkable about the payment system that's been pioneered in Africa called M-Pesa is that it works on phones like this. +It works on every single phone possible, because it uses SMS. +You can pay bills with it, you can buy your groceries, you can pay your kids' school fees, and I'm told you can even bribe customs officials. +Something like 25 million dollars a day is transacted through M-Pesa. +Forty percent of Kenya's GDP moves through M-Pesa using phones like this. +And you think this is just a feature phone. +Actually it's the smartphone of Africa. +It's also a radio, and it's also a torch, and more than anything else, it has really superb battery life. +Why? Because that's what we need. +We have really severe energy problems in Africa. +By the way, you can update Facebook and send Gmail from a phone like this. +So we have found a way to use the available technology to send money via M-Pesa, which is a bit like a check system for the mobile age. +I come from Johannesburg, which is a mining town. +It's built on gold. +This is a picture I Instagrammed earlier. +And the difference today is that the gold of today is mobile. +If you think about the railroad system in North America and how that worked, first came the infrastructure, then came the industry around it, the brothels -- it's a bit like the Internet today, right? and everything else that worked with it: bars, saloons, etc. +The gold of today is mobile, and mobile is the enabler that makes all of this possible. +So what are some of the things that you can do with it? +Well, this is by a guy called Bright Simons from Ghana, and what you do is you take medication, something that some people might spend their entire month's salary on, and you scratch off the code, and you send that to an SMS number, and it tells you if that is legitimate or if it's expired. +Really simple, really effective, really life-saving. +In Kenya, there's a service called iCow, which just sends you really important information about how to look after your dairy. +The dairy business in Kenya is a $463 million business, and the difference between a subsistence farmer and an abundance farmer is only a couple of liters of milk a day. +And if you can do that, you can rise out of poverty. +Really simple, using a basic phone. +If you don't have electricity, no problem! +We'll just make it out of old bicycle parts using a windmill, as William Kamkwamba did. +There's another great African that you've heard that's busy disrupting the automobile industry in the world. +He's also finding a way to reinvent solar power and the electricity industry in North America, and if he's lucky, he'll get us to Mars, hopefully in my lifetime. +He comes from Pretoria, the capital of [South Africa], about 50 kilometers from where I live. +So back to Joburg, which is sometimes called Egoli, which means City of Gold. +And not only is mobile the gold of today, I don't believe that the gold is under the ground. +I believe we are the gold. +Like you've heard the other economists say, we are at the point where China was when its boom years began, and that's where we're going. +So, you hear the West talk about innovation at the edge. +Well, of course it's happening at the edge, because in the middle, everybody's updating Facebook, or worse still, they're trying to understand Facebook's privacy settings. +This is not that catchy catchphrase. +This is innovation over the edge. +So, people like to call Africa a mobile-first continent, but actually it's mobile-only, so while everybody else is doing all of those things, we're solving the world's problems. +So there's only one thing left to say. +["You're welcome"] +Anyone in the room thought about sex today? +Yeah, you did. +Thank you for putting your hand up over there. +Well, I'm here to provide you with some biological validation for your sordid daydreams. +I'm here to tell you a few things that you might not have known about wild sex. +Now, when humans think about sex, male and female forms are generally what come to mind, but for many millions of years, such specific categories didn't even exist. +Sex was a mere fusion of bodies or a trickle of DNA shared between two or more beings. +It wasn't until about 500 million years ago that we start to see structures akin to a penis or a thing that gives DNA out, and a vagina, something that receives it. +Now invariably, you're probably thinking about what belongs to our own species, these very familiar structures, but the diversity that we see in sexual structures in the animal kingdom that has evolved in response to the multitude of factors surrounding reproduction is pretty mind-blowing. +Penile diversity is especially profuse. +So this is a paper nautilus. +It's a close relative of squid and octopus, and males have a hectocotylus. +Just what is a hectocotylus? +A detachable, swimming penis. +It leaves the [body of the male], finds the female through pheromonal cues in the water, attaches itself to her body and deposits the sperm. +For many decades, biologists actually felt that the hectocotylus was a separate organism altogether. +Now, the tapir is a mammal from South America. +And the tapir has a prehensile penis. +It actually has a level of dexterity in its penis much akin to what we have with our hands. +And it uses this dexterity to bypass the vagina altogether and deposit sperm directly into the female's uterus, not to mention it's a pretty good size. +The biggest penis in the animal kingdom, however, is not that of the tapir. +The biggest penis-to-body-size ratio in the animal kingdom actually belongs to the meager beach barnacle, and this video is actually showing you what the human penis would look like if it were the same size as that of a barnacle. +Mm-hm. So with all of this diversity in structure, one might think, then, that penises are fitting neatly into vaginas all over the place for the purposes of successful reproduction. +Simply insert part A into slot B, and we should all be good to go. +But of course, that doesn't exactly happen, and that's because we can't just take form into account. +We have to think about function as well, and when it comes to sex, function relates to the contributions made by the gametes, or the sperm and the eggs. +And these contributions are far from equal. +Eggs are very expensive to make, so it makes sense for females to be very choosy about who she shares them with. +Sperm, on the other hand, is abundant and cheap, so it makes more sense for males to have a more-sex-is-better strategy when it comes to siring members of future generations. +So how do animals cope with these very incongruent needs between the sexes? +I mean, if a female doesn't choose a particular male, or if she has the ability to store sperm and she simply has enough, then it makes more sense for her to spend her time doing other biologically relevant things: avoiding predators, taking care of offspring, gathering and ingesting food. +This is, of course, bad news for any male who has yet to make a deposit in her sperm bank, and this sets the scene for some pretty drastic strategies for successful fertilization. +This is bedbug sex, and it's aptly termed traumatic insemination. +Males have a spiked, barbed penis that they literally stab into the female, and they don't stab it anywhere near her vagina. +They stab it anywhere in her body, and the sperm simply migrates through her hemolymph to her ovaries. +If a female gets too many stab wounds, or if a stab wound happens to become infected, she can actually die from it. +Now if you've ever been out for a nice, peaceful walk by the lake and happened to see some ducks having sex, you've undoubtedly been alarmed, because it looks like gang rape. +And quite frankly, that's exactly what it is. +A group of males will grab a female, hold her down, and ballistically ejaculate their spiral-shaped penis into her corkscrew-shaped vagina over and over and over again. +From flaccid to ejaculation in less than a second. +Now the female actually gets the last laugh, though, because she can actually manipulate her posture so as to allow the sperm of certain suitors better access to her ovaries. +Now, I like to share stories like this with my audiences because, yeah, we humans, we tend to think sex, sex is fun, sex is good, there's romance, and there's orgasm. +But orgasm didn't actually evolve until about 65 million years ago with the advent of mammals. +But some animals had it going on quite a bit before that. +There are some more primitive ways of pleasing one's partner. +Earwig males have either really large penile appendages or really small ones. +It's a very simple genetically inherited trait and the males are not otherwise any different. +Those that have long penile appendages are not bigger or stronger or otherwise any different at all. +So going back to our biological minds, then, we might think that females should choose to have sex with the guys that have the shorter appendages, because she can use her time for other things: avoiding predators, taking care of young, finding and ingesting food. +But biologists have repeatedly observed that females choose to have sex with the males that have the long appendages. +Why do they do this? +Well, according to the biological literature, "During copulation, the genitalia of certain males may elicit more favorable female responses through superior mechanical or stimulatory interaction with the female reproductive tract." +Mm-hm. +These are Mexican guppies, and what you see on their upper maxilla is an outgrowth of epidermal filaments, and these filaments basically form a fish mustache, if you will. +Now males have been observed to prod the female's genital opening prior to copulating with her, and in what I have lovingly termed the Magnum, P.I. hypothesis, females are overwhelmingly more likely to be found with males that have these fish mustaches. +A little guppy porn for you right there. +So we've seen very different strategies that males are using when it comes to winning a female partner. +We've seen a coercion strategy in which sexual structures are used in a forceful way to basically make a female have sex. +We've also seen a titillation strategy where males are actually pleasing their female partners into choosing them as a sex partner. +Now unfortunately, in the animal kingdom, it's the coercion strategy that we see time and time again. +It's very common in many phyla, from invertebrates to avian species, mammals, and, of course, even in primates. +Now interestingly, there are a few mammalian species in which females have evolved specialized genitalia that doesn't allow for sexual coercion to take place. +Female elephants and female hyenas have a penile clitoris, or an enlarged clitoral tissue that hangs externally, much like a penis, and in fact it's very difficult to sex these animals by merely looking at their external morphology. +So before a male can insert his penis into a female's vagina, she has to take this penile clitoris and basically inside-out it in her own body. +I mean, imagine putting a penis into another penis. +It's simply not going to happen unless the female is on board with the action. +Now, even more interesting is the fact that elephant and hyena societies are entirely matriarchal: they're run by females, groups of females, sisters, aunts and offspring, and when young males attain sexual maturity, they're turfed out of the group. +In hyena societies, adult males are actually the lowest on the social scale. +They can take part in a kill only after everybody else, including the offspring. +So it seems that when you take the penis power away from a male, you take away all the social power he has. +So what are my take-home messages from my talk today? +Well, sex is just so much more than insert part A into slot B and hope that the offspring run around everywhere. +The sexual strategies and reproductive structures that we see in the animal kingdom basically dictate how males and females will react to each other, which then dictates how populations and societies form and evolve. +So it may not be surprising to any of you that animals, including ourselves, spend a good amount of time thinking about sex, but what might surprise you is the extent to which so many other aspects of their lives and our lives are influenced by it. +So thank you, and happy daydreaming. +I'd like to talk today about how we can change our brains and our society. +Meet Joe. +Joe's 32 years old and a murderer. +I met Joe 13 years ago on the lifer wing at Wormwood Scrubs high-security prison in London. +I'd like you to imagine this place. +It looks and feels like it sounds: Wormwood Scrubs. +Built at the end of the Victorian Era by the inmates themselves, it is where England's most dangerous prisoners are kept. +These individuals have committed acts of unspeakable evil. +And I was there to study their brains. +I was part of a team of researchers from University College London, on a grant from the U.K. department of health. +My task was to study a group of inmates who had been clinically diagnosed as psychopaths. +That meant they were the most callous and the most aggressive of the entire prison population. +What lay at the root of their behavior? +Was there a neurological cause for their condition? +And if there was a neurological cause, could we find a cure? +So I'd like to speak about change, and especially about emotional change. +Growing up, I was always intrigued by how people change. +My mother, a clinical psychotherapist, would occasionally see patients at home in the evening. +She would shut the door to the living room, and I imagined magical things happened in that room. +At the age of five or six I would creep up in my pajamas and sit outside with my ear glued to the door. +On more than one occasion, I fell asleep and they had to push me out of the way at the end of the session. +And I suppose that's how I found myself walking into the secure interview room on my first day at Wormwood Scrubs. +Joe sat across a steel table and greeted me with this blank expression. +The prison warden, looking equally indifferent, said, "Any trouble, just press the red buzzer, and we'll be around as soon as we can." +I sat down. +The heavy metal door slammed shut behind me. +I looked up at the red buzzer far behind Joe on the opposite wall. +I looked at Joe. +Perhaps detecting my concern, he leaned forward, and said, as reassuringly as he could, "Ah, don't worry about the buzzer, it doesn't work anyway." +Over the subsequent months, we tested Joe and his fellow inmates, looking specifically at their ability to categorize different images of emotion. +And we looked at their physical response to those emotions. +So, for example, when most of us look at a picture like this of somebody looking sad, we instantly have a slight, measurable physical response: increased heart rate, sweating of the skin. +Whilst the psychopaths in our study were able to describe the pictures accurately, they failed to show the emotions required. +They failed to show a physical response. +It was as though they knew the words but not the music of empathy. +So we wanted to look closer at this to use MRI to image their brains. +That turned out to be not such an easy task. +Imagine transporting a collection of clinical psychopaths across central London in shackles and handcuffs in rush hour, and in order to place each of them in an MRI scanner, you have to remove all metal objects, including shackles and handcuffs, and, as I learned, all body piercings. +After some time, however, we had a tentative answer. +These individuals were not just the victims of a troubled childhood. +There was something else. +People like Joe have a deficit in a brain area called the amygdala. +The amygdala is an almond-shaped organ deep within each of the hemispheres of the brain. +It is thought to be key to the experience of empathy. +Normally, the more empathic a person is, the larger and more active their amygdala is. +Our population of inmates had a deficient amygdala, which likely led to their lack of empathy and to their immoral behavior. +So let's take a step back. +Normally, acquiring moral behavior is simply part of growing up, like learning to speak. +At the age of six months, virtually every one of us is able to differentiate between animate and inanimate objects. +At the age of 12 months, most children are able to imitate the purposeful actions of others. +So for example, your mother raises her hands to stretch, and you imitate her behavior. +At first, this isn't perfect. +I remember my cousin Sasha, two years old at the time, looking through a picture book and licking one finger and flicking the page with the other hand, licking one finger and flicking the page with the other hand. +Bit by bit, we build the foundations of the social brain so that by the time we're three, four years old, most children, not all, have acquired the ability to understand the intentions of others, another prerequisite for empathy. +The fact that this developmental progression is universal, irrespective of where you live in the world or which culture you inhabit, strongly suggests that the foundations of moral behavior are inborn. +If you doubt this, try, as I've done, to renege on a promise you've made to a four-year-old. +You will find that the mind of a four-year old is not nave in the slightest. +It is more akin to a Swiss army knife with fixed mental modules finely honed during development and a sharp sense of fairness. +The early years are crucial. +There seems to be a window of opportunity, after which mastering moral questions becomes more difficult, like adults learning a foreign language. +That's not to say it's impossible. +A recent, wonderful study from Stanford University showed that people who have played a virtual reality game in which they took on the role of a good and helpful superhero actually became more caring and helpful towards others afterwards. +Now I'm not suggesting we endow criminals with superpowers, but I am suggesting that we need to find ways to get Joe and people like him to change their brains and their behavior, for their benefit and for the benefit of the rest of us. +So can brains change? +For over 100 years, neuroanatomists and later neuroscientists held the view that after initial development in childhood, no new brain cells could grow in the adult human brain. +The brain could only change within certain set limits. +That was the dogma. +In order to understand how this process works, I left the psychopaths and joined a lab in Oxford specializing in learning and development. +Instead of psychopaths, I studied mice, because the same pattern of brain responses appears across many different species of social animals. +So if you rear a mouse in a standard cage, a shoebox, essentially, with cotton wool, alone and without much stimulation, not only does it not thrive, but it will often develop strange, repetitive behaviors. +This naturally sociable animal will lose its ability to bond with other mice, even becoming aggressive when introduced to them. +However, mice reared in what we called an enriched environment, a large habitation with other mice with wheels and ladders and areas to explore, demonstrate neurogenesis, the birth of new brain cells, and as we showed, they also perform better on a range of learning and memory tasks. +Now, they don't develop morality to the point of carrying the shopping bags of little old mice across the street, but their improved environment results in healthy, sociable behavior. +Mice reared in a standard cage, by contrast, not dissimilar, you might say, from a prison cell, have dramatically lower levels of new neurons in the brain. +It is now clear that the amygdala of mammals, including primates like us, can show neurogenesis. +In some areas of the brain, more than 20 percent of cells are newly formed. +We're just beginning to understand what exact function these cells have, but what it implies is that the brain is capable of extraordinary change way into adulthood. +However, our brains are also exquisitely sensitive to stress in our environment. +Stress hormones, glucocorticoids, released by the brain, suppress the growth of these new cells. +The more stress, the less brain development, which in turn causes less adaptability and causes higher stress levels. +This is the interplay between nature and nurture in real time in front of our eyes. +When you think about it, it is ironic that our current solution for people with stressed amygdalae is to place them in an environment that actually inhibits any chance of further growth. +Of course, imprisonment is a necessary part of the criminal justice system and of protecting society. +Our research does not suggest that criminals should submit their MRI scans as evidence in court and get off the hook because they've got a faulty amygdala. +The evidence is actually the other way. +Because our brains are capable of change, we need to take responsibility for our actions, and they need to take responsibility for their rehabilitation. +One way such rehabilitation might work is through restorative justice programs. +Here victims, if they choose to participate, and perpetrators meet face to face in safe, structured encounters, and the perpetrator is encouraged to take responsibility for their actions, and the victim plays an active role in the process. +In such a setting, the perpetrator can see, perhaps for the first time, the victim as a real person with thoughts and feelings and a genuine emotional response. +This stimulates the amygdala and may be a more effective rehabilitative practice than simple incarceration. +Such programs won't work for everyone, but for many, it could be a way to break the frozen sea within. +So what can we do now? +How can we apply this knowledge? +I'd like to leave you with three lessons that I learned. +The first thing that I learned was that we need to change our mindset. +Since Wormwood Scrubs was built 130 years ago, society has advanced in virtually every aspect, in the way we run our schools, our hospitals. +Yet the moment we speak about prisons, it's as though we're back in Dickensian times, if not medieval times. +For too long, I believe, we've allowed ourselves to be persuaded of the false notion that human nature cannot change, and as a society, it's costing us dearly. +We know that the brain is capable of extraordinary change, and the best way to achieve that, even in adults, is to change and modulate our environment. +The second thing I have learned is that we need to create an alliance of people who believe that science is integral to bringing about social change. +It's easy enough for a neuroscientist to place a high-security inmate in an MRI scanner. +Well actually, that turns out not to be so easy, but ultimately what we want to show is whether we're able to reduce the reoffending rates. +In order to answer complex questions like that, we need people of different backgrounds -- lab-based scientists and clinicians, social workers and policy makers, philanthropists and human rights activists to work together. +Finally, I believe we need to change our own amygdalae, because this issue goes to the heart not just of who Joe is, but who we are. +We need to change our view of Joe as someone wholly irredeemable, because if we see Joe as wholly irredeemable, how is he going to see himself as any different? +In another decade, Joe will be released from Wormwood Scrubs. +Will he be among the 70 percent of inmates who end up reoffending and returning to the prison system? +Wouldn't it be better if, while serving his sentence, Joe was able to train his amygdala, which would stimulate the growth of new brain cells and connections, so that he will be able to face the world once he gets released? +Surely, that would be in the interest of all of us. +Thank you. +I want you all to think about the third word that was ever said about you -- or, if you were delivering, about the person you were delivering. +And you can all mouth it if you want or say it out loud. +It was -- the first two were, "It's a ..." +Well, it shows you that -- I also deal with issues where there's not certainty of whether it's a girl or a boy, so the mixed answer was very appropriate. +Of course, now the answer often comes not at birth but at the ultrasound, unless the prospective parents choose to be surprised, like we all were. +But I want you to think about what it is that leads to that statement on the third word, because the third word is a description of your sex. +And by that I mean, made by a description of your genitals. +Now, as a pediatric endocrinologist, I used to be very, very involved and still somewhat am, in cases in which there are mismatches in the externals or between the externals and the internals, and we literally have to figure out what is the description of your sex. +But there is nothing that is definable at the time of birth that would define you. +And when I talk about definition, I'm talking about your sexual orientation. +We don't say, "It's a ... gay boy!" +"A lesbian girl!" +Those situations don't really define themselves more until the second decade of life. +Nor do they define your gender, which, as different from your anatomic sex, describes your self-concept: Do you see yourself as a male or female, or somewhere in the spectrum in between? +Now, this is relatively rare, so I had relatively little personal experience with this. +And my experience was more typical, only because I had an adolescent practice. +And I saw someone age 24, genetically female, went through Harvard with three male roommates who knew the whole story, a registrar who always listed his name on course lists as a male name, and came to me after graduating, saying, "Help me. I know you know a lot of endocrinology." +And indeed, I've treated a lot of people who were born without gonads. +This wasn't rocket science. +But I made a deal with him: "I'll treat you if you teach me." +And so he did. +And what an education I got from taking care of all the members of his support group. +And then I got really confused, because I thought it was relatively easy at that age to just give people the hormones of the gender in which they were affirming. +But then my patient married, and he married a woman who had been born as a male, had married as a male, had two children, then went through a transition into female. +And now this delightful female was attached to my male patient -- in fact, got legally married, because they showed up as a man and a woman, and who knew, right? +And I was confused -- "Does this make so-and-so gay? +Does this make so-and-so straight?" +I was getting sexual orientation confused with gender identity. +And my patient said to me, "Look, look, look. +If you just think of the following, you'll get it right: Sexual orientation is who you go to bed with. +Gender identity is who you go to bed as." +And I subsequently learned from the many adults -- I took care of about 200 adults -- I learned from them that if I didn't peek as to who their partner was in the waiting room, I would never be able to guess better than chance, whether they were gay, straight, bi or asexual in their affirmed gender. +In other words, one thing has absolutely nothing to do with the other. +And the data show it. +Now, as I took care of the 200 adults, I found it extremely painful. +These people -- many of them -- had to give up so much of their lives. +Sometimes their parents would reject them, siblings, their own children, and then their divorcing spouse would forbid them from seeing their children. +It was so awful, but why did they do it at 40 and 50? +Because they felt they had to affirm themselves before they would kill themselves. +And indeed, the rate of suicide among untreated transgendered people is among the highest in the world. +So, what to do? +I was intrigued, in going to a conference in Holland, where they are experts in this, and saw the most remarkable thing. +They were treating young adolescents after giving them the most intense psychometric testing of gender, and they were treating them by blocking the puberty that they didn't want. +Because basically, kids look about the same, each sex, until they go through puberty, at which point, if you feel you're in the wrong sex, you feel like Pinocchio becoming a donkey. +The fantasy that you had that your body will change to be who you want it to be, with puberty, actually is nullified by the puberty you get. +And they fall apart. +So that's why putting the puberty on hold -- why on hold? +You can't just give them the opposite hormones that young. +They'll end up stunted in growth, and you think you can have a meaningful conversation about the fertility effects of such treatment with a 10-year-old girl, a 12-year-old boy? +So this buys time in the diagnostic process for four or five years, so that they can work it out. +They can have more and more testing, they can live without feeling their bodies are running away from them. +So this is serious, and this is 15-, 16-year-old stuff. +And then at 18, they're eligible for surgery. +And while there's no good surgery for females to males genitally, the male-to-female surgery has fooled gynecologists. +That's how good it can be. +So I looked at how the patients were doing, and I looked at patients who just looked like everybody else, except they were pubertally delayed. +But once they gave them the hormones consistent with the gender they affirm, they look beautiful. +They look normal. They had normal heights. +You would never be able to pick them out in a crowd. +So at that point, I decided I'm going to do this. +This is really where the pediatric endocrine realm comes in, because, in fact, if you're going to deal with it in kids aged 10 to 14, that's pediatric endocrinology. +So I brought some kids in, and this now became the standard of care, and the [Boston] Children's Hospital was behind it. +By my showing them the kids before and after, people who never got treated and people who wished to be treated, and pictures of the Dutch -- they came to me and said, "You've got to do something for these kids." +Well, where were these kids before? +They were out there suffering, is where they were. +So we started a program in 2007. +It became the first program of its kind -- but it's really of the Dutch kind -- in North America. +And since then, we have 160 patients. +Did they come from Afghanistan? No. +75 percent of them came from within 150 miles of Boston. +And some came from England. +Jackie had been abused in the Midlands, in England. +She's 12 years old there, she was living as a girl, It was a horror show, they had to homeschool her. +And the reason the British were coming was because they would not treat anybody with anything under age 16, which means they were consigning them to an adult body no matter what happened, even if they tested them well. +Jackie, on top of it, was, by virtue of skeletal markings, destined to be six feet five. +And yet, she had just begun a male puberty. +Well, I did something a little bit innovative, because I do know hormones, and that estrogen is much more potent in closing epiphyses, the growth plates, and stopping growth, than testosterone is. +So we blocked her testosterone with a blocking hormone, but we added estrogen, not at 16, but at 13. +And so here she is at 16, on the left. +And on her 16th birthday, she went to Thailand, where they would do a genital plastic surgery. +They will do it at 18 now. +And she ended up 5'11". +But more than that, she has normal breast size, because by blocking testosterone, every one of our patients has normal breast size if they get to us at the appropriate age, not too late. +And on the far right, there she is. +She went public -- semifinalist in the Miss England competition. +The judges debated as to, can they do this? +And one of them quipped, I'm told, "But she has more natural self than half the other contestants." +And some of them have been rearranged a little bit, but it's all her DNA. +And she's become a remarkable spokeswoman. +And she was offered contracts as a model, at which point she teased me, when she said, "You know, I might have had a better chance as a model if you'd made me six feet one." +Go figure. +So this picture, I think, says it all. It really says it all. +These are Nicole and brother Jonas, identical twin boys, and proven to be identical. +Nicole had affirmed herself as a girl as early as age three. +At age seven, they changed her name, and came to me at the very beginnings of a male puberty. +Now you can imagine looking at Jonas at only 14, that male puberty is early in this family, because he looks more like a 16-year-old. +of why you have to be conscious of where the patient is. +Nicole is on pubertal blockade in here, and Jonas is just going -- biologic control. +This is what Nicole would look like if we weren't doing what we were doing. +He's got a prominent Adam's apple. He's got angular bones to the face, a mustache, and you can see there's a height difference, because he's gone through a growth spurt that she won't get. +Now Nicole is on estrogen. She has a bit of a form to her. +If they see me, they'll understand why I'm no threat in the ladies' room, but I can be threatened in the men's room." +And then they finally got it. +So where do we go from here? +Well, we still have a ways to go in terms of anti-discrimination. +There are only 17 states that have an anti-discrimination law against discrimination in housing, employment, public accommodation -- only 17 states, and five of them are in New England. +We need less expensive drugs. +They cost a fortune. +And we need to get this condition out of the DSM. +It is as much a psychiatric disease as being gay and lesbian, and that went out the window in 1973, and the whole world changed. +And this isn't going to break anybody's budget. +This is not that common. +But the risks of not doing anything for them not only puts all of them at risk of losing their lives to suicide, but it also says something about whether we are a truly inclusive society. +Thank you. +I've come here today to talk to you about a problem. +It's a very simple yet devastating problem, one that spans the globe and is affecting all of us. +The problem is anonymous companies. +It sounds like a really dry and technical thing, doesn't it? +But anonymous companies are making it difficult and sometimes impossible to find out the actual human beings responsible sometimes for really terrible crimes. +So, why am I here talking to all of you? +Well, I guess I am a lifelong troublemaker and when my parents taught my twin brother and I to question authority, I don't think they knew where it might lead. +And, they probably really regretted it during my stroppy teenage years when, predictably, I questioned their authority a lot. +And a lot of my school teachers didn't appreciate it much either. +You see, since the age of about five I've always asked the question, but why? +But why does the Earth go around the sun? +But why is blood red? +But why do I have to go to school? +But why do I have to respect the teachers and authority? +And little did I realize that this question would become the basis of everything I would do. +And so it was in my twenties, a long time ago, that one rainy Sunday afternoon in North London and we were busy stuffing envelopes for a mail out in the office of the campaign group where we worked at the time. +And as usual, we were talking about the world's problems. +And in particular, we were talking about the civil war in Cambodia. +And we had talked about that many, many times before. But then suddenly we stopped and looked at each other and said, but why don't we try and change this? +And from that slightly crazy question, over two decades and many campaigns later, including alerting the world to the problem of blood diamonds funding war, from that crazy question, Global Witness is now an 80-strong team of campaigners, investigators, journalists and lawyers. +And we're all driven by the same belief, that change really is possible. +So, what exactly does Global Witness do? +We investigate, we report, to uncover the people really responsible for funding conflict -- for stealing millions from citizens around the world, also known as state looting, and for destroying the environment. +And then we campaign hard to change the system itself. +And we're doing this because so many of the countries rich in natural resources like oil or diamonds or timber are home to some of the poorest and most dispossessed people on the planet. +And much of this injustice is made possible by currently accepted business practices. +And one of these is anonymous companies. +Now we've come up against anonymous companies in lots of our investigations, like in the Democratic Republic of Congo, where we exposed how secretive deals involving anonymous companies had deprived the citizens of one of the poorest countries on the planet of well over a billion dollars. That's twice the country's health and education budget combined. +Or in Liberia, where an international predatory logging company used front companies as it attempted to grab a really huge chunk of Liberia's unique forests. +Or political corruption in Sarawak, Malaysia, which has led to the destruction of much of its forests. +Well, that uses anonymous companies too. +We secretly filmed some of the family of the former chief minister and a lawyer as they told our undercover investigator exactly how these dubious deals are done using such companies. +And the awful thing is, there are so many other examples out there from all walks of life. This truly is a scandal of epic proportions hidden in plain sight. +Whether it's the ruthless Mexican drugs cartel, the Zetas, who use anonymous companies to launder profits while their drugs-related violence is tearing communities apart across the Americas. +Or the anonymous company, which bought up Americans' tax debts, piled on the legal fees and then gave homeowners a choice: Pay up or lose your home. +Imagine being threatened with losing your home sometimes over a debt of just a few hundred dollars, and not being able to find out who you were really up against. +Now anonymous companies are great for sanctions busting too. +As the Iranian government found out when, through a series of front companies, it owned a building in the very heart of Manhattan, on Fifth Avenue, despite American sanctions. +And Juicy Couture, home of of the velvet track suit, and other companies were the unwitting, unknowing tenants there. +There are just so many examples, the horesemeat scandal in Europe, the Italian mafia, they've used these companies for decades. +The $100 million American Medicare fraud, the supply of weapons to wars around the world including those in Eastern Europe in the early '90s. +Anonymous companies have even come to light in the recent revolution in the Ukraine. +And really, that is unfair. +Well, you might well ask, what exactly is an anonymous company, and can I really set one up, and use it, without anyone knowing who I am? +Well, the answer is, yes you can. +But if you're anything like me, you'll want to see some of that for yourself, so let me show you. +Well first you need to work out where you want to set it up. +Now, at this point you might be imagining one of those lovely tropical island tax havens but here's the thing, shockingly, my own hometown, London, and indeed the U.K., is one of the best places in the world to set up an anonymous company. +And the other, even better, I'm afraid that's America. +Do you know, in some states across America you need less identification to open up a company than you do to get a library card, like Delaware, which is one of the easiest places in the world to set up an anonymous company. +Okay, so let's say it's America, and let's say it's Delaware, and now you can simply go online and find yourself a company service provider. +These are the companies that can set your one up for you, and remember, it's all legal, routine business practice. +So, here's one, but there are plenty of others to choose from. +And having made your choice, you then pick what type of company you want and then fill in a contact, name and address. +But don't worry, it doesn't have to be your name. +It can be your lawyer's or your service provider's, and it's not for the public record anyway. +And then you add the owner of the company. +Now this is the key part, and again it doesn't have to be you, because you can get creative, because there is a whole universe out there of nominees to choose from. +And nominees are the people that you can legally pay to be your company's owner. +And if you don't want to involve anyone else, it doesn't even have to be an actual human being. +It could be another company. +And then finally, give your company a name add a few more details and make your payment. +And then the service provider will take a few hours or more to process it. +But there you are, in 10 minutes of online shopping you can create yourself an anonymous company. +And not only is it easy, really, really easy and cheap, it's totally legal too. +But the fun doesn't have to end there, maybe you want to be even more anonymous. +Well, that's no problem either. +You can simply keep adding layers, companies owned by companies. +You can have hundreds of layers with hundreds of companies spread across lots of different countries, like a giant web, each layer adds anonymity. +Each layer makes it more difficult for law enforcement and others to find out who the real owner is. +But whose interests is this all serving? +It might be in the interests of the company or a particular individual, but what about all of us, the public? +There hasn't even been a global conversation yet about whether it's okay to misuse companies in this way. +And what does it all mean for us? +Well, an example that really haunts me is one I came across recently. +And it's that of a horrific fire in a nightclub in Buenos Aires about a decade ago. +It was the night before New Year's Eve. +Three thousand very happy revelers, many of them teenagers, were crammed into a space meant for 1,000. +And then tragedy struck, a fire broke out plastic decorations were melting from the ceiling and toxic smoke filled the club. +So people tried to escape only to find that some of the fire doors had been chained shut. +Over 200 people died. +Seven hundred were injured trying to get out. +And as the victims' families and the city and the country reeled in shock, investigators tried to find out who was responsible. +And as they looked for the owners of the club, they found instead anonymous companies, and confusion surrounded the identities of those involved with the companies. +Now ultimately, a range of people were charged and some went to jail. +But this was an awful tragedy, and it shouldn't have been so difficult just to try and find out who was responsible for those deaths. +Because in an age when there is so much information out there in the open, why should this crucial information about company ownership stay hidden away? +Why should tax evaders, corrupt government officials, arms traders and more, be able to hide their identities from us, the public? +Why should this secrecy be such an accepted business practice? +Anonymous companies might be the norm right now but it wasn't always this way. +Companies were created to give people a chance to innovate and not have to put everything on the line. +Companies were created to limit financial risk, they were never intended to be used as a moral shield. +Companies were never intended to be anonymous, and they don't have to be. +And so I come to my wish. +My wish is for us to know who owns and controls companies so that they can no longer be used anonymously against the public good. +Together let's ignite world opinion, change the law, and launch a new era of openness in business. +So what might this look like? +Well, imagine if you could go online and look up the real owner of a company. +Imagine if this data were open and free, accessible across borders for citizens and businesses and law enforcement alike. +Imagine what a game changer that would be. +So how are we going to do this? +Well, there is only one way. +Together, we have to change the law globally to create public registries which list the true owners of companies and can be accessed by all with no loopholes. +And yes, this is ambitious, but there is momentum on this issue, and over the years I have seen the sheer power of momentum, and it's just starting on this issue. +There is such an opportunity right now. +And the TED community of creative and innovative thinkers and doers across all of society could make the crucial difference. +You really can make this change happen. +Now, a simple starting point is the address behind me for a Facebook page that you can join now to support the campaign and spread the word. +It's going to be a springboard for our global campaigning. +And the techies among you, you could really help us create a prototype public registry to demonstrate what a powerful tool this could be. +Campaign groups from around the world have come together to work on this issue. +The U.K. government is already on board; it supports these public registries. +And just last week, the European Parliament came on board with a vote 600 to 30 in favor of public registries. +That is momentum. +But it's early days. +America still needs to come on board, as do so many other countries. +And to succeed we will all together need to help and push our politicians, because without that, real far-reaching, world-shifting change just isn't going to happen. +Because this isn't just about changing the law, this is about starting a conversation about what it's okay for companies to do, and in what ways is it acceptable to use company structures. +This isn't just a dry policy issue. +This is a human issue which affects us all. +This is about being on the right side of history. +Global citizens, innovators, business leaders, individuals, we need you. +Together, let's kickstart this global movement. +Let's just do it, let's end anonymous companies. +Thank you. +What's the scariest thing you've ever done? +Or another way to say it is, what's the most dangerous thing that you've ever done? +And why did you do it? +I know what the most dangerous thing is that I've ever done because NASA does the math. +You look back to the first five shuttle launches, the odds of a catastrophic event during the first five shuttle launches was one in nine. +And even when I first flew in the shuttle back in 1995, 74 shuttle flight, the odds were still now that we look back about one in 38 or so -- one in 35, one in 40. +Not great odds, so it's a really interesting day when you wake up at the Kennedy Space Center and you're going to go to space that day because you realize by the end of the day you're either going to be floating effortlessly, gloriously in space, or you'll be dead. +You go into, at the Kennedy Space Center, the suit-up room, the same room that our childhood heroes got dressed in, that Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin got suited in to go ride the Apollo rocket to the moon. +The crew is sitting in the Astro van sort of hushed, almost holding hands, looking at that as it gets bigger and bigger. +We ride the elevator up and we crawl in, on your hands and knees into the spaceship, one at a time, and you worm your way up into your chair and plunk yourself down on your back. +And the hatch is closed, and suddenly, what has been a lifetime of both dreams and denial is becoming real, something that I dreamed about, in fact, that I chose to do when I was nine years old, is now suddenly within not too many minutes of actually happening. +In the astronaut business -- the shuttle is a very complicated vehicle; it's the most complicated flying machine ever built. +And in the astronaut business, we have a saying, which is, there is no problem so bad that you can't make it worse. +And so you're very conscious in the cockpit; you're thinking about all of the things that you might have to do, all the switches and all the wickets you have to go through. +And as the time gets closer and closer, this excitement is building. +And then about three and a half minutes before launch, the huge nozzles on the back, like the size of big church bells, swing back and forth and the mass of them is such that it sways the whole vehicle, like the vehicle is alive underneath you, like an elephant getting up off its knees or something. +And then about 30 seconds before launch, the vehicle is completely alive -- it is ready to go -- the APUs are running, the computers are all self-contained, it's ready to leave the planet. +And 15 seconds before launch, this happens: Voice: 12, 11, 10, nine, eight, seven, six -- (Space shuttle preparing for takeoff) -- start, two, one, booster ignition, and liftoff of the space shuttle Discovery, returning to the space station, paving the way ... +(Space shuttle taking off) Chris Hadfield: It is incredibly powerful to be on board one of these things. +You are in the grip of something that is vastly more powerful than yourself. +It's shaking you so hard you can't focus on the instruments in front of you. +After two minutes, those solid rockets explode off and then you just have the liquid engines, the hydrogen and oxygen, and it's as if you're in a dragster with your foot to the floor and accelerating like you've never accelerated. +You get lighter and lighter, the force gets on us heavier and heavier. +It feels like someone's pouring cement on you or something. +Until finally, after about eight minutes and 40 seconds or so, we are finally at exactly the right altitude, exactly the right speed, the right direction, the engine shut off, and we're weightless. +And we're alive. +It's an amazing experience. +But why would we take that risk? +Why would you do something that dangerous? +In my case the answer is fairly straightforward. +I was inspired as a youngster that this was what I wanted to do. +I watched the first people walk on the moon and to me, it was just an obvious thing -- I want to somehow turn myself into that. +But the real question is, how do you deal with the danger of it and the fear that comes from it? +How do you deal with fear versus danger? +And you see, because of the speed, a sunrise or a sunset every 45 minutes for half a year. +And the most magnificent part of all that is to go outside on a spacewalk. +You are in a one-person spaceship that is your spacesuit, and you're going through space with the world. +It's an entirely different perspective, you're not looking up at the universe, you and the Earth are going through the universe together. +And you're holding on with one hand, looking at the world turn beside you. +It's roaring silently with color and texture as it pours by mesmerizingly next to you. +And if you can tear your eyes away from that and you look under your arm down at the rest of everything, it's unfathomable blackness, with a texture you feel like you could stick your hand into. +and you are holding on with one hand, one link to the other seven billion people. +And I was outside on my first spacewalk when my left eye went blind, and I didn't know why. +Suddenly my left eye slammed shut in great pain and I couldn't figure out why my eye wasn't working. +I was thinking, what do I do next? +I thought, well maybe that's why we have two eyes, so I kept working. +But unfortunately, without gravity, tears don't fall. +So what's the scariest thing you've ever done? +Maybe it's spiders. +A lot of people are afraid of spiders. +And how do you know? +And so a spider lands on you, and you go through this great, spasmy attack because spiders are scary. +But then you could say, well is there a brown recluse sitting on the chair beside me or not? +I don't know. Are there brown recluses here? +So if you actually do the research, you find out that in the world there are about 50,000 different types of spiders, and there are about two dozen that are venomous out of 50,000. +And if you're in Canada, because of the cold winters here in B.C., there's about 720, 730 different types of spiders and there's one -- one -- that is venomous, and its venom isn't even fatal, it's just kind of like a nasty sting. +And that spider -- not only that, but that spider has beautiful markings on it, it's like "I'm dangerous. I got a big radiation symbol on my back, it's the black widow." +So, if you're even slightly careful you can avoid running into the one spider -- and it lives close the ground, you're walking along, you are never going to go through a spider web where a black widow bites you. +Spider webs like this, it doesn't build those, it builds them down in the corners. +And its a black widow because the female spider eats the male; it doesn't care about you. +So in fact, the next time you walk into a spiderweb, you don't need to panic and go with your caveman reaction. +The danger is entirely different than the fear. +How do you get around it, though? +How do you change your behavior? +Well, next time you see a spiderweb, have a good look, make sure it's not a black widow spider, and then walk into it. +And then you see another spiderweb and walk into that one. +It's just a little bit of fluffy stuff. It's not a big deal. +And the spider that may come out is no more threat to you than a lady bug or a butterfly. +And then I guarantee you if you walk through 100 spiderwebs you will have changed your fundamental human behavior, your caveman reaction, and you will now be able to walk in the park in the morning and not worry about that spiderweb -- or into your grandma's attic or whatever, into your own basement. +And you can apply this to anything. +If you're outside on a spacewalk and you're blinded, your natural reaction would be to panic, I think. +It would make you nervous and worried. +But we had considered all the venom, and we had practiced with a whole variety of different spiderwebs. +We knew everything there is to know about the spacesuit and we trained underwater thousands of times. +And we don't just practice things going right, we practice things going wrong all the time, so that you are constantly walking through those spiderwebs. +And not just underwater, but also in virtual reality labs with the helmet and the gloves so you feel like it's realistic. +So when you finally actually get outside on a spacewalk, it feels much different than it would if you just went out first time. +And even if you're blinded, your natural, panicky reaction doesn't happen. +Instead you kind of look around and go, "Okay, I can't see, but I can hear, I can talk, Scott Parazynski is out here with me. +He could come over and help me." +We actually practiced incapacitated crew rescue, so he could float me like a blimp and stuff me into the airlock if he had to. +I could find my own way back. +It's not nearly as big a deal. +And actually, if you keep on crying for a while, whatever that gunk was that's in your eye starts to dilute and you can start to see again, and Houston, if you negotiate with them, they will let you then keep working. +We finished everything on the spacewalk and when we came back inside, Jeff got some cotton batting and took the crusty stuff around my eyes, and it turned out it was just the anti-fog, sort of a mixture of oil and soap, that got in my eye. +And now we use Johnson's No More Tears, which we probably should've been using right from the very beginning. But the key to that is by looking at the difference between perceived danger and actual danger, where is the real risk? +What is the real thing that you should be afraid of? +Not just a generic fear of bad things happening. +You can fundamentally change your reaction to things so that it allows you to go places and see things and do things that otherwise would be completely denied to you ... +where you could see the hardpan south of the Sahara, or you can see New York City in a way that is almost dreamlike, or the unconscious gingham of Eastern Europe fields or the Great Lakes as a collection of small puddles. +You can see the fault lines of San Francisco and the way the water pours out under the bridge, just entirely different than any other way that you could have if you had not found a way to conquer your fear. +You see a beauty that otherwise never would have happened. +It's time to come home at the end. +This is our spaceship, the Soyuz, that little one. +Three of us climb in, and then this spaceship detaches from the station and falls into the atmosphere. +These two parts here actually melt, we jettison them and they burn up in the atmosphere. +The only part that survives is the little bullet that we're riding in, and it falls into the atmosphere, and in essence you are riding a meteorite home, and riding meteorites is scary, and it ought to be. +And in fact, you can fly this meteorite and steer it and land in about a 15-kilometer circle anywhere on the Earth. +So in fact, when our crew was coming back into the atmosphere inside the Soyuz, we weren't screaming, we were laughing; it was fun. +And when the great big parachute opened, we knew that if it didn't open there's a second parachute, and it runs on a nice little clockwork mechanism. +So we came back, we came thundering back to Earth and this is what it looked like to land in a Soyuz, in Kazakhstan. +Reporter: And you can see one of those search and recovery helicopters, once again that helicopter part of dozen such Russian Mi-8 helicopters. +Touchdown -- 3:14 and 48 seconds, a.m. Central Time. +CH: And you roll to a stop as if someone threw your spaceship at the ground and it tumbles end over end, but you're ready for it you're in a custom-built seat, you know how the shock absorber works. +And then eventually the Russians reach in, drag you out, plunk you into a chair, and you can now look back at what was an incredible experience. +Just to finish, they asked me to play that guitar. +That's very nice of you. Thank you very much. +Thank you. +Chris Anderson: We had Edward Snowden here a couple days ago, and this is response time. +And several of you have written to me with questions to ask our guest here from the NSA. +So Richard Ledgett is the 15th deputy director of the National Security Agency, and he's a senior civilian officer there, acts as its chief operating officer, guiding strategies, setting internal policies, and serving as the principal advisor to the director. +And all being well, welcome, Rick Ledgett, to TED. +Richard Ledgett: I'm really thankful for the opportunity to talk to folks here. +I look forward to the conversation, so thanks for arranging for that. +CA: Thank you, Rick. +We appreciate you joining us. +It's certainly quite a strong statement that the NSA is willing to reach out and show a more open face here. +You saw, I think, the talk and interview that Edward Snowden gave here a couple days ago. +What did you make of it? +RL: So I think it was interesting. +We didn't realize that he was going to show up there, so kudos to you guys for arranging a nice surprise like that. +I think that, like a lot of the things that have come out since Mr. Snowden started disclosing classified information, there were some kernels of truth in there, but a lot of extrapolations and half-truths in there, and I'm interested in helping to address those. +I think this is a really important conversation that we're having in the United States and internationally, and I think it is important and of import, and so given that, we need to have that be a fact-based conversation, and we want to help make that happen. +CA: So the question that a lot of people have here is, what do you make of Snowden's motivations for doing what he did, and did he have an alternative way that he could have gone? +RL: He absolutely did have alternative ways that he could have gone, and I actually think that characterizing him as a whistleblower actually hurts legitimate whistleblowing activities. +So what if somebody who works in the NSA -- and there are over 35,000 people who do. +They're all great citizens. +They're just like your husbands, fathers, sisters, brothers, neighbors, nephews, friends and relatives, all of whom are interested in doing the right thing for their country and for our allies internationally, and so there are a variety of venues to address if folks have a concern. +First off, there's their supervisor, and up through the supervisory chain within their organization. +If folks aren't comfortable with that, there are a number of inspectors general. +(CA and RL speaking at once) He had the option to go to congressional committees, and there are mechanisms to do that that are in place, and so he didn't do any of those things. +CA: Now, you had said that Ed Snowden had other avenues for raising his concerns. +I mean, in that circumstance, couldn't you argue that what he did was reasonable? +RL: No, I don't agree with that. +They actually do. +I think that's extremely arrogant on his part. +CA: Can you give a specific example of how he put people's lives at risk? +RL: Yeah, sure. +The net effect of that is that our people who are overseas in dangerous places, whether they're diplomats or military, and our allies who are in similar situations, are at greater risk because we don't see the threats that are coming their way. +CA: So that's a general response saying that because of his revelations, access that you had to certain types of information has been shut down, has been closed down. +But the concern is that the nature of that access was not necessarily legitimate in the first place. +I mean, describe to us this Bullrun program where it's alleged that the NSA specifically weakened security in order to get the type of access that you've spoken of. +But it's also used by people who are working against us and our allies. +And so if I'm going to pursue them, I need to have the capability to go after them, and again, the controls are in how I apply that capability, not that I have the capability itself. +Otherwise, if we could make it so that all the bad guys used one corner of the Internet, we could have a domain, badguy.com. +That would be awesome, and we could just concentrate all our efforts there. +That's not how it works. +They're trying to hide from the government's ability to isolate and interdict their actions, and so we have to swim in that same space. +But I will tell you this. +So NSA has two missions. +One is the Signals Intelligence mission that we've unfortunately read so much about in the press. +And so we make recommendations on standards to use, and we use those same standards, and so we are invested in making sure that those communications are secure for their intended purposes. +CA: But it sounds like what you're saying is that when it comes to the Internet at large, any strategy is fair game if it improves America's safety. +And I think this is partly where there is such a divide of opinion, that there's a lot of people in this room and around the world who think very differently about the Internet. +They think of it as a momentous invention of humanity, kind of on a par with the Gutenberg press, for example. +It's the bringer of knowledge to all. +It's the connector of all. +And it's viewed in those sort of idealistic terms. +And from that lens, what the NSA has done is equivalent to the authorities back in Germany inserting some device into every printing press that would reveal which books people bought and what they read. +Can you understand that from that viewpoint, it feels outrageous? +RL: I do understand that, and I actually share the view of the utility of the Internet, and I would argue it's bigger than the Internet. +It is a global telecommunications system. +The Internet is a big chunk of that, but there is a lot more. +And I think that people have legitimate concerns about the balance between transparency and secrecy. +That's sort of been couched as a balance between privacy and national security. +I don't think that's the right framing. +I think it really is transparency and secrecy. +And so that's the national and international conversation that we're having, and we want to participate in that, and want people to participate in it in an informed way. +So there are things, let me talk there a little bit more, there are things that we need to be transparent about: our authorities, our processes, our oversight, who we are. +We, NSA, have not done a good job of that, and I think that's part of the reason that this has been so revelational and so sensational in the media. +Nobody knew who we were. We were the No Such Agency, the Never Say Anything. +There's takeoffs of our logo of an eagle with headphones on around it. +And so that's the public characterization. +And so we need to be more transparent about those things. +CA: But isn't it also bad to deal a kind of body blow to the American companies that have essentially given the world most of the Internet services that matter? +RL: It is. It's really the companies are in a tough position, as are we, because the companies, we compel them to provide information, just like every other nation in the world does. +Every industrialized nation in the world has a lawful intercept program where they are requiring companies to provide them with information that they need for their security, and the companies that are involved have complied with those programs in the same way that they have to do when they're operating in Russia or the U.K. +or China or India or France, any country that you choose to name. +And so the fact that these revelations have been broadly characterized as "you can't trust company A because your privacy is suspect with them" is actually only accurate in the sense that it's accurate with every other company in the world that deals with any of those countries in the world. +And so it's being picked up by people as a marketing advantage, and it's being marketed that way by several countries, including some of our allied countries, where they are saying, "Hey, you can't trust the U.S., but you can trust our telecom company, because we're safe." +And they're actually using that to counter the very large technological edge that U.S. companies have in areas like the cloud and Internet-based technologies. +CA: You're sitting there with the American flag, and the American Constitution guarantees freedom from unreasonable search and seizure. +How do you characterize the American citizen's right to privacy? +Is there such a right? +RL: Yeah, of course there is. +And we devote an inordinate amount of time and pressure, inordinate and appropriate, actually I should say, amount of time and effort in order to ensure that we protect that privacy. +and beyond that, the privacy of citizens around the world, it's not just Americans. +Several things come into play here. +First, we're all in the same network. +My communications, I'm a user of a particular Internet email service that is the number one email service of choice by terrorists around the world, number one. +So I'm there right beside them in email space in the Internet. +And so we need to be able to pick that apart and find the information that's relevant. +In doing so, we're going to necessarily encounter Americans and innocent foreign citizens who are just going about their business, and so we have procedures in place that shreds that out, that says, when you find that, not if you find it, when you find it, because you're certain to find it, here's how you protect that. +These are called minimization procedures. +They're approved by the attorney general and constitutionally based. +And so we protect those. +And then, for people, citizens of the world who are going about their lawful business on a day-to-day basis, the president on his January 17 speech, laid out some additional protections that we are providing to them. +So I think absolutely, folks do have a right to privacy, and that we work very hard to make sure that that right to privacy is protected. +CA: What about foreigners using American companies' Internet services? +Do they have any privacy rights? +CA: Much has been made of the fact that a lot of the information that you've obtained through these programs is essentially metadata. +It's not necessarily the actual words that someone has written in an email or given on a phone call. +It's who they wrote to and when, and so forth. +But it's been argued, and someone here in the audience has talked to a former NSA analyst who said metadata is actually much more invasive than the core data, because in the core data you present yourself as you want to be presented. +With metadata, who knows what the conclusions are that are drawn? +Is there anything to that? +RL: I don't really understand that argument. +I think that metadata's important for a couple of reasons. +Metadata is the information that lets you find connections that people are trying to hide. +So when a terrorist is corresponding with somebody else who's not known to us but is engaged in doing or supporting terrorist activity, or someone who's violating international sanctions by providing nuclear weapons-related material to a country like Iran or North Korea, is trying to hide that activity because it's illicit activity. +What metadata lets you do is connect that. +The alternative to that is one that's much less efficient and much more invasive of privacy, which is gigantic amounts of content collection. +So metadata, in that sense, actually is privacy-enhancing. +And we don't, contrary to some of the stuff that's been printed, we don't sit there and grind out metadata profiles of average people. +If you're not connected to one of those valid intelligence targets, you are not of interest to us. +CA: So in terms of the threats that face America overall, where would you place terrorism? +RL: I think terrorism is still number one. +I think that we have never been in a time where there are more places where things are going badly and forming the petri dish in which terrorists take advantage of the lack of governance. +An old boss of mine, Tom Fargo, Admiral Fargo, used to describe it as arcs of instability. +You've got places like Iraq, which is suffering from a high level of sectarian violence, again a breeding ground for terrorism. +And you have the activity in the Horn of Africa and the Sahel area of Africa. +Again, lots of weak governance which forms a breeding ground for terrorist activity. +So I think it's very serious. I think it's number one. +I think number two is cyber threat. +That is a hugely costly set of activities that's going on right now. +Several nation-states are doing it. +Second is the denial-of-service attacks. +You're probably aware that there have been a spate of those directed against the U.S. financial sector since 2012. +Again, that's a nation-state who is executing those attacks, and they're doing that as a semi-anonymous way of reprisal. +And the last one is destructive attacks, and those are the ones that concern me the most. +Those are on the rise. +You have the attack against Saudi Aramco in 2012, August of 2012. +It took down about 35,000 of their computers with a Wiper-style virus. +You had a follow-on a week later to a Qatari company. +You had March of 2013, you had a South Korean attack that was attributed in the press to North Korea that took out thousands of computers. +Those are on the rise, and we see people expressing interest in those capabilities and a desire to employ them. +CA: Okay, so a couple of things here, because this is really the core of this, almost. +I mean, first of all, a lot of people who look at risk and look at the numbers don't understand this belief that terrorism is still the number one threat. +Apart from September 11, I think the numbers are that in the last 30 or 40 years about 500 Americans have died from terrorism, mostly from homegrown terrorists. +The chance in the last few years of being killed by terrorism is far less than the chance of being killed by lightning. +I guess you would say that a single nuclear incident or bioterrorism act or something like that would change those numbers. +Would that be the point of view? +RL: Well, I'd say two things. +One is, the reason that there hasn't been a major attack in the United States since 9/11, that is not an accident. +That's a lot of hard work that we have done, that other folks in the intelligence community have done, that the military has done, and that our allies around the globe have done. +So that's not an accident that those things happen. +That's hard work. That's us finding intelligence on terrorist activities and interdicting them through one way or another, through law enforcement, through cooperative activities with other countries and sometimes through military action. +The other thing I would say is that your idea of nuclear or chem-bio-threat is not at all far-fetched and in fact there are a number of groups who have for several years expressed interest and desire in obtaining those capabilities and work towards that. +The needle was found by other methods. +Isn't there something to that? +RL: No, there's actually two programs that are typically implicated in that discussion. +One is the section 215 program, the U.S. telephony metadata program, and the other one is popularly called the PRISM program, and it's actually section 702 of the FISA Amendment Act. +But the 215 program is only relevant to threats that are directed against the United States, and there have been a dozen threats where that was implicated. +Now what you'll see people say publicly is there is no "but for" case, and so there is no case where, but for that, the threat would have happened. +But that actually indicates a lack of understanding of how terrorist investigations actually work. +You think about on television, you watch a murder mystery. +What do you start with? You start with a body, and then they work their way from there to solve the crime. +We're actually starting well before that, hopefully before there are any bodies, and we're trying to build the case for who the people are, what they're trying to do, and that involves massive amounts of information. +Think of it is as mosaic, and it's hard to say that any one piece of a mosaic was necessary to building the mosaic, but to build the complete picture, you need to have all the pieces of information. +On the other, the non-U.S.-related threats out of those 54, the other 42 of them, the PRISM program was hugely relevant to that, and in fact was material in contributing to stopping those attacks. +Is there any internal debate about that? +RL: Yeah. +I mean, we debate these things all the time, and there is discussion that goes on in the executive branch and within NSA itself and the intelligence community about what's right, what's proportionate, what's the correct thing to do. +And it's important to note that the programs that we're talking about were all authorized by two different presidents, two different political parties, by Congress twice, and by federal judges 16 different times, and so this is not NSA running off and doing its own thing. +This is a legitimate activity of the United States foreign government that was agreed to by all the branches of the United States government, and President Madison would have been proud. +CA: And yet, when congressmen discovered what was actually being done with that authorization, many of them were completely shocked. +Or do you think that is not a legitimate reaction, that it's only because it's now come out publicly, that they really knew exactly what you were doing with the powers they had granted you? +RL: Congress is a big body. +There's 535 of them, and they change out frequently, in the case of the House, every two years, and I think that the NSA provided all the relevant information to our oversight committees, and then the dissemination of that information by the oversight committees throughout Congress is something that they manage. +I think I would say that Congress members had the opportunity to make themselves aware, and in fact a significant number of them, the ones who are assigned oversight responsibility, did have the ability to do that. +And you've actually had the chairs of those committees say that in public. +RL: So I think two things. +One is, you said weaken encryption. I didn't. +And the other one is that the NSA has both of those missions, and we are heavily biased towards defense, and, actually, the vulnerabilities that we find in the overwhelming majority of cases, we disclose to the people who are responsible for manufacturing or developing those products. +We have a great track record of that, and we're actually working on a proposal right now to be transparent and to publish transparency reports in the same way that the Internet companies are being allowed to publish transparency reports for them. +We want to be more transparent about that. +So again, we eat our own dog food. +We use the standards, we use the products that we recommend, and so it's in our interest to keep our communications protected in the same way that other people's need to be. +He came over certainly very reasonably and calmly. +He didn't come over like a crazy man. +Would you accept that at least, even if you disagree with how he did it, that he has opened a debate that matters? +RL: So I think that the discussion is an important one to have. +I do not like the way that he did it. +I think there were a number of other ways that he could have done that that would have not endangered our people and the people of other nations through losing visibility into what our adversaries are doing. +But I do think it's an important conversation. +CA: It's been reported that there's almost a difference of opinion with you and your colleagues over any scenario in which he might be offered an amnesty deal. +I think your boss, General Keith Alexander, has said that that would be a terrible example for others; you can't negotiate with someone who's broken the law in that way. +But you've been quoted as saying that, if Snowden could prove that he was surrendering all undisclosed documents, that a deal maybe should be considered. +Do you still think that? +RL: Yeah, so actually, this is my favorite thing about that "60 Minutes" interview was all the misquotes that came from that. +What I actually said, in response to a question about, would you entertain any discussions of mitigating action against Snowden, I said, yeah, it's worth a conversation. +This is something that the attorney general of the United States and the president also actually have both talked about this, and I defer to the attorney general, because this is his lane. +But there is a strong tradition in American jurisprudence of having discussions with people who have been charged with crimes in order to, if it benefits the government, to get something out of that, that there's always room for that kind of discussion. +So I'm not presupposing any outcome, but there is always room for discussion. +CA: To a lay person it seems like he has certain things to offer the U.S., the government, you, others, in terms of putting things right and helping figure out a smarter policy, a smarter way forward for the future. +Do you see, has that kind of possibility been entertained at all? +RL: So that's out of my lane. +That's not an NSA thing. +That would be a Department of Justice sort of discussion. +I'll defer to them. +CA: Rick, when Ed Snowden ended his talk, I offered him the chance to share an idea worth spreading. +What would be your idea worth spreading for this group? +RL: So I think, learn the facts. +This is a really important conversation, and it impacts, it's not just NSA, it's not just the government, it's you, it's the Internet companies. +The issue of privacy and personal data is much bigger than just the government, and so learn the facts. +Don't rely on headlines, don't rely on sound bites, don't rely on one-sided conversations. +So that's the idea, I think, worth spreading. +We have a sign, a badge tab, we wear badges at work with lanyards, and if I could make a plug, my badge lanyard at work says, "Dallas Cowboys." +Go Dallas. +I've just alienated half the audience, I know. +So the lanyard that our people who work in the organization that does our crypto-analytic work have a tab that says, "Look at the data." +So that's the idea worth spreading. +Look at the data. +CA: Rick, it took a certain amount of courage, I think, actually, to come and speak openly to this group. +It's not something the NSA has done a lot of in the past, and plus the technology has been challenging. +We truly appreciate you doing that and sharing in this very important conversation. +Thank you so much. +RL: Thanks, Chris. +A herd of wildebeests, a shoal of fish, a flock of birds. +Many animals gather in large groups that are among the most wonderful spectacles in the natural world. +But why do these groups form? +The common answers include things like seeking safety in numbers or hunting in packs or gathering to mate or breed, and all of these explanations, while often true, make a huge assumption about animal behavior, that the animals are in control of their own actions, that they are in charge of their bodies. +And that is often not the case. +This is Artemia, a brine shrimp. +You probably know it better as a sea monkey. +It's small, and it typically lives alone, but it can gather in these large red swarms that span for meters, and these form because of a parasite. +These shrimp are infected with a tapeworm. +A tapeworm is effectively a long, living gut with genitals at one end and a hooked mouth at the other. +As a freelance journalist, I sympathize. +The tapeworm drains nutrients from Artemia's body, but it also does other things. +It castrates them, it changes their color from transparent to bright red, it makes them live longer, and as biologist Nicolas Rode has found, it makes them swim in groups. +Why? Because the tapeworm, like many other parasites, has a complicated life cycle involving many different hosts. +The shrimp are just one step on its journey. +Its ultimate destination is this, the greater flamingo. +Only in a flamingo can the tapeworm reproduce, so to get there, it manipulates its shrimp hosts into forming these conspicuous colored swarms that are easier for a flamingo to spot and to devour, and that is the secret of the Artemia swarm. +They aren't sociable through their own volition, but because they are being controlled. +It's not safety in numbers. +It's actually the exact opposite. +The tapeworm hijacks their brains and their bodies, turning them into vehicles for getting itself into a flamingo. +And here is another example of a parasitic manipulation. +This is a suicidal cricket. +This cricket swallowed the larvae of a Gordian worm, or horsehair worm. +The worm grew to adult size within it, but it needs to get into water in order to mate, and it does that by releasing proteins that addle the cricket's brain, causing it to behave erratically. +When the cricket nears a body of water, such as this swimming pool, it jumps in and drowns, and the worm wriggles out of its suicidal corpse. +Crickets are really roomy. Who knew? +The tapeworm and the Gordian worm are not alone. +They are part of an entire cavalcade of mind-controlling parasites, of fungi, viruses, and worms and insects and more that all specialize in subverting and overriding the wills of their hosts. +Now, I first learned about this way of life through David Attenborough's "Trials of Life" about 20 years ago, and then later through a wonderful book called "Parasite Rex" by my friend Carl Zimmer. +And I've been writing about these creatures ever since. +Few topics in biology enthrall me more. +It's like the parasites have subverted my own brain. +Because after all, they are always compelling and they are delightfully macabre. +When you write about parasites, your lexicon swells with phrases like "devoured alive" and "bursts out of its body." +But there's more to it than that. +I'm a writer, and fellow writers in the audience will know that we love stories. +Parasites invite us to resist the allure of obvious stories. +Their world is one of plot twists and unexpected explanations. +Why, for example, does this caterpillar start violently thrashing about when another insect gets close to it and those white cocoons that it seems to be standing guard over? +Is it maybe protecting its siblings? +No. +This caterpillar was attacked by a parasitic wasp which laid eggs inside it. +The eggs hatched and the young wasps devoured the caterpillar alive before bursting out of its body. +See what I mean? +Now, the caterpillar didn't die. +Some of the wasps seemed to stay behind and controlled it into defending their siblings which are metamorphosing into adults within those cocoons. +This caterpillar is a head-banging zombie bodyguard defending the offspring of the creature that killed it. +They're easy to overlook, but that doesn't mean that they aren't important. +A few years back, a man called Kevin Lafferty took a group of scientists into three Californian estuaries and they pretty much weighed and dissected and recorded everything they could find, and what they found were parasites in extreme abundance. +Especially common were trematodes, tiny worms that specialize in castrating their hosts like this unfortunate snail. +Now, a single trematode is tiny, microscopic, but collectively they weighed as much as all the fish in the estuaries and three to nine times more than all the birds. +And remember the Gordian worm that I showed you, the cricket thing? +One Japanese scientist called Takuya Sato found that in one stream, these things drive so many crickets and grasshoppers into the water that the drowned insects make up some 60 percent of the diet of local trout. +Manipulation is not an oddity. +It is a critical and common part of the world around us, and scientists have now found hundreds of examples of such manipulators, and more excitingly, they're starting to understand exactly how these creatures control their hosts. +And this is one of my favorite examples. +This is Ampulex compressa, the emerald cockroach wasp, and it is a truth universally acknowledged that an emerald cockroach wasp in possession of some fertilized eggs must be in want of a cockroach. +When she finds one, she stabs it with a stinger that is also a sense organ. +This discovery came out three weeks ago. +She stabs it with a stinger that is a sense organ equipped with small sensory bumps that allow her to feel the distinctive texture of a roach's brain. +So like a person blindly rooting about in a bag, she finds the brain, and she injects it with venom into two very specific clusters of neurons. +Israeli scientists Frederic Libersat and Ram Gal found that the venom is a very specific chemical weapon. +It doesn't kill the roach, nor does it sedate it. +The roach could walk away or fly or run if it chose to, but it doesn't choose to, because the venom nixes its motivation to walk, and only that. +The wasp basically un-checks the escape-from-danger box in the roach's operating system, allowing her to lead her helpless victim back to her lair by its antennae like a person walking a dog. +And once there, she lays an egg on it, egg hatches, devoured alive, bursts out of body, yadda yadda yadda, you know the drill. +Now I would argue that, once stung, the cockroach isn't a roach anymore. +It's more of an extension of the wasp, just like the cricket was an extension of the Gordian worm. +These hosts won't get to survive or reproduce. +They have as much control over their own fates as my car. +Once the parasites get in, the hosts don't get a say. +Now humans, of course, are no stranger to manipulation. +We take drugs to shift the chemistries of our brains and to change our moods, and what are arguments or advertising or big ideas if not an attempt to influence someone else's mind? +But our attempts at doing this are crude and blundering compared to the fine-grained specificity of the parasites. +Don Draper only wishes he was as elegant and precise as the emerald cockroach wasp. +Now, I think this is part of what makes parasites so sinister and so compelling. +We place such a premium on our free will and our independence that the prospect of losing those qualities to forces unseen informs many of our deepest societal fears. +Orwellian dystopias and shadowy cabals and mind-controlling supervillains -- these are tropes that fill our darkest fiction, but in nature, they happen all the time. +Which leads me to an obvious and disquieting question: Are there dark, sinister parasites that are influencing our behavior without us knowing about it, besides the NSA? +If there are any I've got a red dot on my forehead now, don't I? +If there are any, this is a good candidate for them. +This is Toxoplasma gondii, or Toxo, for short, because the terrifying creature always deserves a cute nickname. +Toxo infects mammals, a wide variety of mammals, but it can only sexually reproduce in a cat. +And scientists like Joanne Webster have shown that if Toxo gets into a rat or a mouse, it turns the rodent into a cat-seeking missile. +If the infected rat smells the delightful odor of cat piss, it runs towards the source of the smell rather than the more sensible direction of away. +The cat eats the rat. Toxo gets to have sex. +It's a classic tale of Eat, Prey, Love. +You're very charitable, generous people. +Hi, Elizabeth, I loved your talk. +How does the parasite control its host in this way? +We don't really know. +We know that Toxo releases an enzyme that makes dopamine, a substance involved in reward and motivation. +We know it targets certain parts of a rodent's brain, including those involved in sexual arousal. +But how those puzzle pieces fit together is not immediately clear. +What is clear is that this thing is a single cell. +This has no nervous system. +It has no consciousness. +It doesn't even have a body. +But it's manipulating a mammal? +We are mammals. +We are more intelligent than a mere rat, to be sure, but our brains have the same basic structure, the same types of cells, the same chemicals running through them, and the same parasites. +Estimates vary a lot, but some figures suggest that one in three people around the world have Toxo in their brains. +Now typically, this doesn't lead to any overt illness. +The parasite holds up in a dormant state for a long period of time. +But there's some evidence that those people who are carriers score slightly differently on personality questionnaires than other people, that they have a slightly higher risk of car accidents, and there's some evidence that people with schizophrenia are more likely to be infected. +Now, I think this evidence is still inconclusive, and even among Toxo researchers, opinion is divided as to whether the parasite is truly influencing our behavior. +But given the widespread nature of such manipulations, it would be completely implausible for humans to be the only species that weren't similarly affected. +And I think that this capacity to constantly subvert our way of thinking about the world makes parasites amazing. +They're constantly inviting us to look at the natural world sideways, and to ask if the behaviors we're seeing, whether they're simple and obvious or baffling and puzzling, are not the results of individuals acting through their own accord but because they are being bent to the control of something else. +And while that idea may be disquieting, and while parasites' habits may be very grisly, I think that ability to surprise us makes them as wonderful and as charismatic as any panda or butterfly or dolphin. +But perhaps, that's just a parasite talking. +Thank you. +Good morning. +When I was a little boy, I had an experience that changed my life, and is in fact why I'm here today. +That one moment profoundly affected how I think about art, design and engineering. +As background, I was fortunate enough to grow up in a family of loving and talented artists in one of the world's great cities. +My dad, John Ferren, who died when I was 15, was an artist by both passion and profession, as is my mom, Rae. +He was one of the New York School abstract expressionists who, together with his contemporaries, invented American modern art, and contributed to moving the American zeitgeist towards modernism in the 20th century. +Isn't it remarkable that, after thousands of years of people doing mostly representational art, that modern art, comparatively speaking, is about 15 minutes old, yet now pervasive. +As with many other important innovations, those radical ideas required no new technology, just fresh thinking and a willingness to experiment, plus resiliency in the face of near-universal criticism and rejection. +In our home, art was everywhere. +It was like oxygen, around us and necessary for life. +As I watched him paint, Dad taught me that art was not about being decorative, but was a different way of communicating ideas, and in fact one that could bridge the worlds of knowledge and insight. +Given this rich artistic environment, you'd assume that I would have been compelled to go into the family business, but no. +I followed the path of most kids who are genetically programmed to make their parents crazy. +I had no interest in becoming an artist, certainly not a painter. +What I did love was electronics and machines -- taking them apart, building new ones, and making them work. +Fortunately, my family also had engineers in it, and with my parents, these were my first role models. +What they all had in common was they worked very, very hard. +My grandpa owned and operated a sheet metal kitchen cabinet factory in Brooklyn. +On weekends, we would go together to Cortlandt Street, which was New York City's radio row. +There we would explore massive piles of surplus electronics, and for a few bucks bring home treasures like Norden bombsights and parts from the first IBM tube-based computers. +I found these objects both useful and fascinating. +I learned about engineering and how things worked, not at school but by taking apart and studying these fabulously complex devices. +I did this for hours every day, apparently avoiding electrocution. +Life was good. +However, every summer, sadly, the machines got left behind while my parents and I traveled overseas to experience history, art and design. +We visited the great museums and historic buildings of both Europe and the Middle East, but to encourage my growing interest in science and technology, they would simply drop me off in places like the London Science Museum, where I would wander endlessly for hours by myself studying the history of science and technology. +Then, when I was about nine years old, we went to Rome. +On one particularly hot summer day, we visited a drum-shaped building that from the outside was not particularly interesting. +My dad said it was called the Pantheon, a temple for all of the gods. +It didn't look all that special from the outside, as I said, but when we walked inside, I was immediately struck by three things: First of all, it was pleasantly cool despite the oppressive heat outside. +It was very dark, the only source of light being an big open hole in the roof. +Dad explained that this wasn't a big open hole, but it was called the oculus, an eye to the heavens. +And there was something about this place, I didn't know why, that just felt special. +As we walked to the center of the room, I looked up at the heavens through the oculus. +This was the first church that I'd been to that provided an unrestricted view between God and man. +But I wondered, what about when it rained? +Dad may have called this an oculus, but it was, in fact, a big hole in the roof. +I looked down and saw floor drains had been cut into the stone floor. +As I became more accustomed to the dark, I was able to make out details of the floor and the surrounding walls. +No big deal here, just the same statuary stuff that we'd seen all over Rome. +In fact, it looked like the Appian Way marble salesman showed up with his sample book, showed it to Hadrian, and Hadrian said, "We'll take all of it." +But the ceiling was amazing. +It looked like a Buckminster Fuller geodesic dome. +I'd seen these before, and Bucky was friends with my dad. +It was modern, high-tech, impressive, a huge 142-foot clear span which, not coincidentally, was exactly its height. +I loved this place. +It was really beautiful and unlike anything I'd ever seen before, so I asked my dad, "When was this built?" +He said, "About 2,000 years ago." +And I said, "No, I mean, the roof." +You see, I assumed that this was a modern roof that had been put on because the original was destroyed in some long-past war. +He said, "It's the original roof." +That moment changed my life, and I can remember it as if it were yesterday. +For the first time, I realized people were smart 2,000 years ago. This had never crossed my mind. +I mean, to me, the pyramids at Giza, we visited those the year before, and sure they're impressive, nice enough design, but look, give me an unlimited budget, 20,000 to 40,000 laborers, and about 10 to 20 years to cut and drag stone blocks across the countryside, and I'll build you pyramids too. +But no amount of brute force gets you the dome of the Pantheon, not 2,000 years ago, nor today. +And incidentally, it is still the largest unreinforced concrete dome that's ever been built. +To build the Pantheon took some miracles. +By miracles, I mean things that are technically barely possible, very high-risk, and might not be actually accomplishable at this moment in time, certainly not by you. +For example, here are some of the Pantheon's miracles. +To make it even structurally possible, they had to invent super-strong concrete, and to control weight, varied the density of the aggregate as they worked their way up the dome. +For strength and lightness, the dome structure used five rings of coffers, each of diminishing size, which imparts a dramatic forced perspective to the design. +It was wonderfully cool inside because of its huge thermal mass, natural convection of air rising up through the oculus, and a Venturi effect when wind blows across the top of the building. +I discovered for the first time that light itself has substance. +The shaft of light beaming through the oculus was both beautiful and palpable, and I realized for the first time that light could be designed. +Further, that of all of the forms of design, visual design, they were all kind of irrelevant without it, because without light, you can't see any of them. +I also realized that I wasn't the first person to think that this place was really special. +It survived gravity, barbarians, looters, developers and the ravages of time to become what I believe is the longest continuously occupied building in history. +Largely because of that visit, I came to understand that, contrary to what I was being told in school, the worlds of art and design were not, in fact, incompatible with science and engineering. +I realized, when combined, you could create things that were amazing that couldn't be done in either domain alone. +But in school, with few exceptions, they were treated as separate worlds, and they still are. +My teachers told me that I had to get serious and focus on one or the other. +However, urging me to specialize only caused me to really appreciate those polymaths like Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci, Benjamin Franklin, people who did exactly the opposite. +And this led me to embrace and want to be in both worlds. +So then how do these projects of unprecedented creative vision and technical complexity like the Pantheon actually happen? +Someone themselves, perhaps Hadrian, needed a brilliant creative vision. +They also needed the storytelling and leadership skills necessary to fund and execute it, and a mastery of science and technology with the ability and knowhow to push existing innovations even farther. +It is my belief that to create these rare game changers requires you to pull off at least five miracles. +The problem is, no matter how talented, rich or smart you are, you only get one to one and a half miracles. +That's it. That's the quota. +Then you run out of time, money, enthusiasm, whatever. +Remember, most people can't even imagine one of these technical miracles, and you need at least five to make a Pantheon. +In my experience, these rare visionaries who can think across the worlds of art, design and engineering have the ability to notice when others have provided enough of the miracles to bring the goal within reach. +Driven by the clarity of their vision, they summon the courage and determination to deliver the remaining miracles and they often take what other people think to be insurmountable obstacles and turn them into features. +Take the oculus of the Pantheon. +By insisting that it be in the design, it meant you couldn't use much of the structural technology that had been developed for Roman arches. +However, by instead embracing it and rethinking weight and stress distribution, they came up with a design that only works if there's a big hole in the roof. +That done, you now get the aesthetic and design benefits of light, cooling and that critical direct connection with the heavens. +Not bad. +These people not only believed that the impossible can be done, but that it must be done. +Enough ancient history. +What are some recent examples of innovations that combine creative design and technological advances in a way so profound that they will be remembered a thousand years from now? +Well, putting a man on the moon was a good one, and returning him safely to Earth wasn't bad either. +Talk about one giant leap: It's hard to imagine a more profound moment in human history than when we first left our world to set foot on another. +So what came after the moon? +One is tempted to say that today's pantheon is the Internet, but I actually think that's quite wrong, or at least it's only part of the story. +The Internet isn't a Pantheon. +It's more like the invention of concrete: important, absolutely necessary to build the Pantheon, and enduring, but entirely insufficient by itself. +However, just as the technology of concrete was critical in realization of the Pantheon, new designers will use the technologies of the Internet to create novel concepts that will endure. +The smartphone is a perfect example. +Soon the majority of people on the planet will have one, and the idea of connecting everyone to both knowledge and each other will endure. +So what's next? +What imminent advance will be the equivalent of the Pantheon? +Thinking about this, I rejected many very plausible and dramatic breakthroughs to come, such as curing cancer. +Why? Because Pantheons are anchored in designed physical objects, ones that inspire by simply seeing and experiencing them, and will continue to do so indefinitely. +It is a different kind of language, like art. +These other vital contributions that extend life and relieve suffering are, of course, critical, and fantastic, but they're part of the continuum of our overall knowledge and technology, like the Internet. +So what is next? +Perhaps counterintuitively, I'm guessing it's a visionary idea from the late 1930s that's been revived every decade since: autonomous vehicles. +Now you're thinking, give me a break. +How can a fancy version of cruise control be profound? +Look, much of our world has been designed around roads and transportation. +These were as essential to the success of the Roman Empire as the interstate highway system to the prosperity and development of the United States. +Today, these roads that interconnect our world are dominated by cars and trucks that have remained largely unchanged for 100 years. +Although perhaps not obvious today, autonomous vehicles will be the key technology that enables us to redesign our cities and, by extension, civilization. +Here's why: Once they become ubiquitous, each year, these vehicles will save tens of thousands of lives in the United States alone and a million globally. +Automotive energy consumption and air pollution will be cut dramatically. +Much of the road congestion in and out of our cities will disappear. +They will enable compelling new concepts in how we design cities, work, and the way we live. +We will get where we're going faster and society will recapture vast amounts of lost productivity now spent sitting in traffic basically polluting. +But why now? Why do we think this is ready? +Because over the last 30 years, people from outside the automotive industry have spent countless billions creating the needed miracles, but for entirely different purposes. +It took folks like DARPA, universities, and companies completely outside of the automotive industry to notice that if you were clever about it, autonomy could be done now. +So what are the five miracles needed for autonomous vehicles? +One, you need to know where you are and exactly what time it is. +This was solved neatly by the GPS system, Global Positioning System, that the U.S. Government put in place. +You need to know where all the roads are, what the rules are, and where you're going. +The various needs of personal navigation systems, in-car navigation systems, and web-based maps address this. +You must have near-continuous communication with high-performance computing networks and with others nearby to understand their intent. +The wireless technologies developed for mobile devices, with some minor modifications, are completely suitable to solve this. +You'll probably want some restricted roadways to get started that both society and its lawyers agree are safe to use for this. +This will start with the HOV lanes and move from there. +But finally, you need to recognize people, signs and objects. +Machine vision, special sensors, and high-performance computing can do a lot of this, but it turns out a lot is not good enough when your family is on board. +Occasionally, humans will need to do sense-making. +For this, you might actually have to wake up your passenger and ask them what the hell that big lump is in the middle of the road. +Not so bad, and it will give us a sense of purpose in this new world. +Besides, once the first drivers explain to their confused car that the giant chicken at the fork in the road is actually a restaurant, and it's okay to keep driving, every other car on the surface of the Earth will know that from that point on. +Five miracles, mostly delivered, and now you just need a clear vision of a better world filled with autonomous vehicles with seductively beautiful and new functional designs plus a lot of money and hard work to bring it home. +The beginning is now only a handful of years away, and I predict that autonomous vehicles will permanently change our world over the next several decades. +In conclusion, I've come to believe that the ingredients for the next Pantheons are all around us, just waiting for visionary people with the broad knowledge, multidisciplinary skills, and intense passion to harness them to make their dreams a reality. +But these people don't spontaneously pop into existence. +They need to be nurtured and encouraged from when they're little kids. +We need to love them and help them discover their passions. +We need to encourage them to work hard and help them understand that failure is a necessary ingredient for success, as is perseverance. +But a cautionary note: We also need to periodically pry them away from their modern miracles, the computers, phones, tablets, game machines and TVs, take them out into the sunlight so they can experience both the natural and design wonders of our world, our planet and our civilization. +If we don't, they won't understand what these precious things are that someday they will be resopnsible for protecting and improving. +We also need them to understand something that doesn't seem adequately appreciated in our increasingly tech-dependent world, that art and design are not luxuries, nor somehow incompatible with science and engineering. +They are in fact essential to what makes us special. +Someday, if you get the chance, perhaps you can take your kids to the actual Pantheon, as we will our daughter Kira, to experience firsthand the power of that astonishing design, which on one otherwise unremarkable day in Rome, reached 2,000 years into the future to set the course for my life. +Thank you. +If you remember that first decade of the web, it was really a static place. +You could go online, you could look at pages, and they were put up either by organizations who had teams to do it or by individuals who were really tech-savvy for the time. +And with the rise of social media and social networks in the early 2000s, the web was completely changed to a place where now the vast majority of content we interact with is put up by average users, either in YouTube videos or blog posts or product reviews or social media postings. +And it's also become a much more interactive place, where people are interacting with others, they're commenting, they're sharing, they're not just reading. +So Facebook is not the only place you can do this, but it's the biggest, and it serves to illustrate the numbers. +Facebook has 1.2 billion users per month. +So half the Earth's Internet population is using Facebook. +They are a site, along with others, that has allowed people to create an online persona with very little technical skill, and people responded by putting huge amounts of personal data online. +So the result is that we have behavioral, preference, demographic data for hundreds of millions of people, which is unprecedented in history. +And as a computer scientist, what this means is that I've been able to build models that can predict all sorts of hidden attributes for all of you that you don't even know you're sharing information about. +As scientists, we use that to help the way people interact online, but there's less altruistic applications, and there's a problem in that users don't really understand these techniques and how they work, and even if they did, they don't have a lot of control over it. +So what I want to talk to you about today is some of these things that we're able to do, and then give us some ideas of how we might go forward to move some control back into the hands of users. +So this is Target, the company. +I didn't just put that logo on this poor, pregnant woman's belly. +You may have seen this anecdote that was printed in Forbes magazine where Target sent a flyer to this 15-year-old girl with advertisements and coupons for baby bottles and diapers and cribs two weeks before she told her parents that she was pregnant. +Yeah, the dad was really upset. +He said, "How did Target figure out that this high school girl was pregnant before she told her parents?" +It turns out that they have the purchase history for hundreds of thousands of customers and they compute what they call a pregnancy score, which is not just whether or not a woman's pregnant, but what her due date is. +And they compute that not by looking at the obvious things, like, she's buying a crib or baby clothes, but things like, she bought more vitamins than she normally had, or she bought a handbag that's big enough to hold diapers. +And by themselves, those purchases don't seem like they might reveal a lot, but it's a pattern of behavior that, when you take it in the context of thousands of other people, starts to actually reveal some insights. +So that's the kind of thing that we do when we're predicting stuff about you on social media. +We're looking for little patterns of behavior that, when you detect them among millions of people, lets us find out all kinds of things. +So in my lab and with colleagues, we've developed mechanisms where we can quite accurately predict things like your political preference, your personality score, gender, sexual orientation, religion, age, intelligence, along with things like how much you trust the people you know and how strong those relationships are. +We can do all of this really well. +And again, it doesn't come from what you might think of as obvious information. +So my favorite example is from this study that was published this year in the Proceedings of the National Academies. +If you Google this, you'll find it. +It's four pages, easy to read. +And they looked at just people's Facebook likes, so just the things you like on Facebook, and used that to predict all these attributes, along with some other ones. +And in their paper they listed the five likes that were most indicative of high intelligence. +And among those was liking a page for curly fries. Curly fries are delicious, but liking them does not necessarily mean that you're smarter than the average person. +So how is it that one of the strongest indicators of your intelligence is liking this page when the content is totally irrelevant to the attribute that's being predicted? +And it turns out that we have to look at a whole bunch of underlying theories to see why we're able to do this. +One of them is a sociological theory called homophily, which basically says people are friends with people like them. +So if you're smart, you tend to be friends with smart people, and if you're young, you tend to be friends with young people, and this is well established for hundreds of years. +We also know a lot about how information spreads through networks. +It turns out things like viral videos or Facebook likes or other information spreads in exactly the same way that diseases spread through social networks. +So this is something we've studied for a long time. +We have good models of it. +And so you can put those things together and start seeing why things like this happen. +So if I were to give you a hypothesis, it would be that a smart guy started this page, or maybe one of the first people who liked it would have scored high on that test. +So this is pretty complicated stuff, right? +It's a hard thing to sit down and explain to an average user, and even if you do, what can the average user do about it? +How do you know that you've liked something that indicates a trait for you that's totally irrelevant to the content of what you've liked? +There's a lot of power that users don't have to control how this data is used. +And I see that as a real problem going forward. +So I think there's a couple paths that we want to look at if we want to give users some control over how this data is used, because it's not always going to be used for their benefit. +An example I often give is that, if I ever get bored being a professor, I'm going to go start a company that predicts all of these attributes and things like how well you work in teams and if you're a drug user, if you're an alcoholic. +We know how to predict all that. +And I'm going to sell reports to H.R. companies and big businesses that want to hire you. +We totally can do that now. +I could start that business tomorrow, and you would have absolutely no control over me using your data like that. +That seems to me to be a problem. +So one of the paths we can go down is the policy and law path. +And in some respects, I think that that would be most effective, but the problem is we'd actually have to do it. +Observing our political process in action makes me think it's highly unlikely that we're going to get a bunch of representatives to sit down, learn about this, and then enact sweeping changes to intellectual property law in the U.S. +so users control their data. +We could go the policy route, where social media companies say, you know what? You own your data. +You have total control over how it's used. +The problem is that the revenue models for most social media companies rely on sharing or exploiting users' data in some way. +It's sometimes said of Facebook that the users aren't the customer, they're the product. +And so how do you get a company to cede control of their main asset back to the users? +It's possible, but I don't think it's something that we're going to see change quickly. +So I think the other path that we can go down that's going to be more effective is one of more science. +It's doing science that allowed us to develop all these mechanisms for computing this personal data in the first place. +And it's actually very similar research that we'd have to do if we want to develop mechanisms that can say to a user, "Here's the risk of that action you just took." +By liking that Facebook page, or by sharing this piece of personal information, you've now improved my ability to predict whether or not you're using drugs or whether or not you get along well in the workplace. +And that, I think, can affect whether or not people want to share something, keep it private, or just keep it offline altogether. +We can also look at things like allowing people to encrypt data that they upload, so it's kind of invisible and worthless to sites like Facebook or third party services that access it, but that select users who the person who posted it want to see it have access to see it. +This is all super exciting research from an intellectual perspective, and so scientists are going to be willing to do it. +So that gives us an advantage over the law side. +One of the problems that people bring up when I talk about this is, they say, you know, if people start keeping all this data private, all those methods that you've been developing to predict their traits are going to fail. +And I say, absolutely, and for me, that's success, because as a scientist, my goal is not to infer information about users, it's to improve the way people interact online. +And sometimes that involves inferring things about them, but if users don't want me to use that data, I think they should have the right to do that. +I want users to be informed and consenting users of the tools that we develop. +Thank you. +My job at Twitter is to ensure user trust, protect user rights and keep users safe, both from each other and, at times, from themselves. +Let's talk about what scale looks like at Twitter. +Back in January 2009, we saw more than two million new tweets each day on the platform. +January 2014, more than 500 million. +We were seeing two million tweets in less than six minutes. +That's a 24,900-percent increase. +Now, the vast majority of activity on Twitter puts no one in harm's way. +There's no risk involved. +My job is to root out and prevent activity that might. +Sounds straightforward, right? +You might even think it'd be easy, given that I just said the vast majority of activity on Twitter puts no one in harm's way. +Why spend so much time searching for potential calamities in innocuous activities? +Given the scale that Twitter is at, a one-in-a-million chance happens 500 times a day. +It's the same for other companies dealing at this sort of scale. +For us, edge cases, those rare situations that are unlikely to occur, are more like norms. +Say 99.999 percent of tweets pose no risk to anyone. +There's no threat involved. +Maybe people are documenting travel landmarks like Australia's Heart Reef, or tweeting about a concert they're attending, or sharing pictures of cute baby animals. +After you take out that 99.999 percent, that tiny percentage of tweets remaining works out to roughly 150,000 per month. +The sheer scale of what we're dealing with makes for a challenge. +You know what else makes my role particularly challenging? +People do weird things. +And I have to figure out what they're doing, why, and whether or not there's risk involved, often without much in terms of context or background. +I'm going to show you some examples that I've run into during my time at Twitter -- these are all real examples of situations that at first seemed cut and dried, but the truth of the matter was something altogether different. +The details have been changed to protect the innocent and sometimes the guilty. +We'll start off easy. +["Yo bitch"] If you saw a Tweet that only said this, you might think to yourself, "That looks like abuse." +After all, why would you want to receive the message, "Yo, bitch." +Now, I try to stay relatively hip to the latest trends and memes, so I knew that "yo, bitch" was also often a common greeting between friends, as well as being a popular "Breaking Bad" reference. +I will admit that I did not expect to encounter a fourth use case. +It turns out it is also used on Twitter when people are role-playing as dogs. +And in fact, in that case, it's not only not abusive, it's technically just an accurate greeting. +So okay, determining whether or not something is abusive without context, definitely hard. +Let's look at spam. +Here's an example of an account engaged in classic spammer behavior, sending the exact same message to thousands of people. +While this is a mockup I put together using my account, we see accounts doing this all the time. +Seems pretty straightforward. +We should just automatically suspend accounts engaging in this kind of behavior. +Turns out there's some exceptions to that rule. +Turns out that that message could also be a notification you signed up for that the International Space Station is passing overhead because you wanted to go outside and see if you could see it. +You're not going to get that chance if we mistakenly suspend the account thinking it's spam. +Okay. Let's make the stakes higher. +Back to my account, again exhibiting classic behavior. +This time it's sending the same message and link. +This is often indicative of something called phishing, somebody trying to steal another person's account information by directing them to another website. +That's pretty clearly not a good thing. +We want to, and do, suspend accounts engaging in that kind of behavior. +So why are the stakes higher for this? +Well, this could also be a bystander at a rally who managed to record a video of a police officer beating a non-violent protester who's trying to let the world know what's happening. +We don't want to gamble on potentially silencing that crucial speech by classifying it as spam and suspending it. +That means we evaluate hundreds of parameters when looking at account behaviors, and even then, we can still get it wrong and have to reevaluate. +Now, given the sorts of challenges I'm up against, it's crucial that I not only predict but also design protections for the unexpected. +And that's not just an issue for me, or for Twitter, it's an issue for you. +It's an issue for anybody who's building or creating something that you think is going to be amazing and will let people do awesome things. +So what do I do? +I pause and I think, how could all of this go horribly wrong? +I visualize catastrophe. +And that's hard. There's a sort of inherent cognitive dissonance in doing that, like when you're writing your wedding vows at the same time as your prenuptial agreement. +But you still have to do it, particularly if you're marrying 500 million tweets per day. +What do I mean by "visualize catastrophe?" +I try to think of how something as benign and innocuous as a picture of a cat could lead to death, and what to do to prevent that. +Which happens to be my next example. +This is my cat, Eli. +We wanted to give users the ability to add photos to their tweets. +A picture is worth a thousand words. +You only get 140 characters. +You add a photo to your tweet, look at how much more content you've got now. +There's all sorts of great things you can do by adding a photo to a tweet. +My job isn't to think of those. +It's to think of what could go wrong. +How could this picture lead to my death? +Well, here's one possibility. +There's more in that picture than just a cat. +There's geodata. +When you take a picture with your smartphone or digital camera, there's a lot of additional information saved along in that image. +In fact, this image also contains the equivalent of this, more specifically, this. +Sure, it's not likely that someone's going to try to track me down and do me harm based upon image data associated with a picture I took of my cat, but I start by assuming the worst will happen. +That's why, when we launched photos on Twitter, we made the decision to strip that geodata out. +If I start by assuming the worst and work backwards, I can make sure that the protections we build work for both expected and unexpected use cases. +Given that I spend my days and nights imagining the worst that could happen, it wouldn't be surprising if my worldview was gloomy. +It's not. +The vast majority of interactions I see -- and I see a lot, believe me -- are positive, people reaching out to help or to connect or share information with each other. +It's just that for those of us dealing with scale, for those of us tasked with keeping people safe, we have to assume the worst will happen, because for us, a one-in-a-million chance is pretty good odds. +Thank you. +Looking deeply inside nature, through the magnifying glass of science, designers extract principles, processes and materials that are forming the very basis of design methodology. +From synthetic constructs that resemble biological materials, to computational methods that emulate neural processes, nature is driving design. +Design is also driving nature. +In realms of genetics, regenerative medicine and synthetic biology, designers are growing novel technologies, not foreseen or anticipated by nature. +Bionics explores the interplay between biology and design. +As you can see, my legs are bionic. +Today, I will tell human stories of bionic integration; how electromechanics attached to the body, and implanted inside the body are beginning to bridge the gap between disability and ability, between human limitation and human potential. +Bionics has defined my physicality. +In 1982, both of my legs were amputated due to tissue damage from frostbite, incurred during a mountain-climbing accident. +At that time, I didn't view my body as broken. +I reasoned that a human being can never be "broken." +Technology is broken. +Technology is inadequate. +This simple but powerful idea was a call to arms, to advance technology for the elimination of my own disability, and ultimately, the disability of others. +I began by developing specialized limbs that allowed me to return to the vertical world of rock and ice climbing. +I quickly realized that the artificial part of my body is malleable; able to take on any form, any function -- a blank slate for which to create, perhaps, structures that could extend beyond biological capability. +I made my height adjustable. +I could be as short as five feet or as tall as I'd like. +So when I was feeling bad about myself, insecure, I would jack my height up. +But when I was feeling confident and suave, I would knock my height down a notch, just to give the competition a chance. +Narrow-edged feet allowed me to climb steep rock fissures, where the human foot cannot penetrate, and spiked feet enabled me to climb vertical ice walls, without ever experiencing muscle leg fatigue. +Through technological innovation, I returned to my sport, stronger and better. +Technology had eliminated my disability, and allowed me a new climbing prowess. +As a young man, I imagined a future world where technology so advanced could rid the world of disability, a world in which neural implants would allow the visually impaired to see. +A world in which the paralyzed could walk, via body exoskeletons. +Sadly, because of deficiencies in technology, disability is rampant in the world. +This gentleman is missing three limbs. +As a testimony to current technology, he is out of the wheelchair, but we need to do a better job in bionics, to allow, one day, full rehabilitation for a person with this level of injury. +At the MIT Media Lab, we've established the Center for Extreme Bionics. +The mission of the center is to put forth fundamental science and technological capability that will allow the biomechatronic and regenerative repair of humans, across a broad range of brain and body disabilities. +Today, I'm going to tell you how my legs function, how they work, as a case in point for this center. +Now, I made sure to shave my legs last night, because I knew I'd be showing them off. +Bionics entails the engineering of extreme interfaces. +There's three extreme interfaces in my bionic limbs: mechanical, how my limbs are attached to my biological body; dynamic, how they move like flesh and bone; and electrical, how they communicate with my nervous system. +I'll begin with mechanical interface. +In the area of design, we still do not understand how to attach devices to the body mechanically. +It's extraordinary to me that in this day and age, one of the most mature, oldest technologies in the human timeline, the shoe, still gives us blisters. +How can this be? +We have no idea how to attach things to our bodies. +This is the beautifully lyrical design work of Professor Neri Oxman at the MIT Media Lab, showing spatially varying exoskeletal impedances, shown here by color variation in this 3D-printed model. +Imagine a future where clothing is stiff and soft where you need it, when you need it, for optimal support and flexibility, without ever causing discomfort. +My bionic limbs are attached to my biological body via synthetic skins with stiffness variations, that mirror my underlying tissue biomechanics. +To achieve that mirroring, we first developed a mathematical model of my biological limb. +To that end, we used imaging tools such as MRI, to look inside my body, to figure out the geometries and locations of various tissues. +We also took robotic tools -- here's a 14-actuator circle that goes around the biological limb. +The actuators come in, find the surface of the limb, measure its unloaded shape, and then they push on the tissues to measure tissue compliances at each anatomical point. +We combine these imaging and robotic data to build a mathematical description of my biological limb, shown on the left. +You see a bunch of points, or nodes? +At each node, there's a color that represents tissue compliance. +We then do a mathematical transformation to the design of the synthetic skin, shown on the right. +And we've discovered optimality is: where the body is stiff, the synthetic skin should be soft, where the body is soft, the synthetic skin is stiff, and this mirroring occurs across all tissue compliances. +With this framework, we've produced bionic limbs that are the most comfortable limbs I've ever worn. +Clearly, in the future, our clothing, our shoes, our braces, our prostheses, will no longer be designed and manufactured using artisan strategies, but rather, data-driven quantitative frameworks. +In that future, our shoes will no longer give us blisters. +We're also embedding sensing and smart materials into the synthetic skins. +This is a material developed by SRI International, California. +Under electrostatic effect, it changes stiffness. +So under zero voltage, the material is compliant, it's floppy like paper. +Then the button's pushed, a voltage is applied, and it becomes stiff as a board. +We embed this material into the synthetic skin that attaches my bionic limb to my biological body. +When I walk here, it's no voltage. +My interface is soft and compliant. +The button's pushed, voltage is applied, and it stiffens, offering me a greater maneuverability over the bionic limb. +We're also building exoskeletons. +This exoskeleton becomes stiff and soft in just the right areas of the running cycle, to protect the biological joints from high impacts and degradation. +In the future, we'll all be wearing exoskeletons in common activities, such as running. +Next, dynamic interface. +How do my bionic limbs move like flesh and bone? +At my MIT lab, we study how humans with normal physiologies stand, walk and run. +What are the muscles doing, and how are they controlled by the spinal cord? +This basic science motivates what we build. +We're building bionic ankles, knees and hips. +We're building body parts from the ground up. +The bionic limbs that I'm wearing are called BiOMs. +They've been fitted to nearly 1,000 patients, 400 of which have been wounded U.S. soldiers. +How does it work? At heel strike, under computer control, the system controls stiffness, to attenuate the shock of the limb hitting the ground. +Then at mid-stance, the bionic limb outputs high torques and powers to lift the person into the walking stride, comparable to how muscles work in the calf region. +This bionic propulsion is very important clinically to patients. +So on the left, you see the bionic device worn by a lady, on the right, a passive device worn by the same lady, that fails to emulate normal muscle function, enabling her to do something everyone should be able to do: go up and down their steps at home. +Bionics also allows for extraordinary athletic feats. +Here's a gentleman running up a rocky pathway. +This is Steve Martin -- not the comedian -- who lost his legs in a bomb blast in Afghanistan. +We're also building exoskeletal structures using these same principles, that wrap around the biological limb. +This gentleman does not have any leg condition, any disability. +He has a normal physiology, so these exoskeletons are applying muscle-like torques and powers, so that his own muscles need not apply those torques and powers. +This is the first exoskeleton in history that actually augments human walking. +It significantly reduces metabolic cost. +It's so profound in its augmentation, that when a normal, healthy person wears the device for 40 minutes and then takes it off, their own biological legs feel ridiculously heavy and awkward. +We're beginning the age in which machines attached to our bodies will make us stronger and faster and more efficient. +Moving on to electrical interface: How do my bionic limbs communicate with my nervous system? +Across my residual limb are electrodes that measure the electrical pulse of my muscles. +That's communicated to the bionic limb, so when I think about moving my phantom limb, the robot tracks those movement desires. +This diagram shows fundamentally how the bionic limb is controlled. +So we model the missing biological limb, and we've discovered what reflexes occurred, how the reflexes of the spinal cord are controlling the muscles. +And that capability is embedded in the chips of the bionic limb. +What we've done, then, is we modulate the sensitivity of the reflex, the modeled spinal reflex, with the neural signal, so when I relax my muscles in my residual limb, I get very little torque and power, but the more I fire my muscles, the more torque I get, and I can even run. +And that was the first demonstration of a running gait under neural command. +Feels great. +We want to go a step further. +We want to actually close the loop between the human and the bionic external limb. +We're doing experiments where we're growing nerves, transected nerves, through channels, or micro-channel arrays. +On the other side of the channel, the nerve then attaches to cells, skin cells and muscle cells. +In the motor channels, we can sense how the person wishes to move. +That can be sent out wirelessly to the bionic limb, then [sensory information] on the bionic limb can be converted to stimulations in adjacent channels, sensory channels. +So when this is fully developed and for human use, persons like myself will not only have synthetic limbs that move like flesh and bone, but actually feel like flesh and bone. +This video shows Lisa Mallette, shortly after being fitted with two bionic limbs. +Indeed, bionics is making a profound difference in people's lives. +Lisa Mallette: Oh my God. +LM: Oh my God, I can't believe it! +LM: It's just like I've got a real leg! +Woman: Now, don't start running. +Man: Now turn around, and do the same thing walking up, but get on your heel to toe, like you would normally just walk on level ground. +Try to walk right up the hill. +LM: Oh my God. +Man: Is it pushing you up? +LM: Yes! I'm not even -- I can't even describe it. +Man: It's pushing you right up. +Hugh Herr: Next week, I'm visiting the Center -- Thank you. Thank you. Thank you. +Next week I'm visiting the Center for Medicare and Medicaid Services, and I'm going to try to convince CMS to grant appropriate code language and pricing, so this technology can be made available to the patients that need it. +Thank you. +It's not well appreciated, but over half of the world's population suffers from some form of cognitive, emotional, sensory or motor condition, and because of poor technology, too often, conditions result in disability and a poorer quality of life. +Basic levels of physiological function should be a part of our human rights. +Every person should have the right to live life without disability if they so choose -- the right to live life without severe depression; the right to see a loved one, in the case of seeing-impaired; or the right to walk or to dance, in the case of limb paralysis or limb amputation. +As a society, we can achieve these human rights, if we accept the proposition that humans are not disabled. +A person can never be broken. +Our built environment, our technologies, are broken and disabled. +We the people need not accept our limitations, but can transcend disability through technological innovation. +Indeed, through fundamental advances in bionics in this century, we will set the technological foundation for an enhanced human experience, and we will end disability. +I'd like to finish up with one more story, a beautiful story. +The story of Adrianne Haslet-Davis. +Adrianne lost her left leg in the Boston terrorist attack. +I met Adrianne when this photo was taken, at Spaulding Rehabilitation Hospital. +Adrianne is a dancer, a ballroom dancer. +Adrianne breathes and lives dance. +It is her expression. It is her art form. +Naturally, when she lost her limb in the Boston terrorist attack, she wanted to return to the dance floor. +After meeting her and driving home in my car, I thought, I'm an MIT professor. I have resources. +Let's build her a bionic limb, to enable her to go back to her life of dance. +I brought in MIT scientists with expertise in prosthetics, robotics, machine learning and biomechanics, and over a 200-day research period, we studied dance. +We brought in dancers with biological limbs, and we studied how they move, what forces they apply on the dance floor, and we took those data, and we put forth fundamental principles of dance, reflexive dance capability, and we embedded that intelligence into the bionic limb. +Bionics is not only about making people stronger and faster. +Our expression, our humanity can be embedded into electromechanics. +It was 3.5 seconds between the bomb blasts in the Boston terrorist attack. +In 3.5 seconds, the criminals and cowards took Adrianne off the dance floor. +In 200 days, we put her back. +We will not be intimidated, brought down, diminished, conquered or stopped by acts of violence. +Ladies and gentlemen, please allow me to introduce Adrianne Haslet-Davis, her first performance since the attack. +She's dancing with Christian Lightner. +(Music: "Ring My Bell" performed by Enrique Iglesias) Ladies and gentlemen, members of the research team: Elliott Rouse and Nathan Villagaray-Carski. +Elliott and Nathan. +So a chip, a poet and a boy. +It's just about 20 years ago, June 1994, when Intel announced that there was a flaw at the core of their Pentium chip. +So Intel said your average spreadsheet would be flawed once every 27,000 years. +They didn't think it was significant, but there was an outrage in the community. +The community, the techies, said, this flaw has to be addressed. +They were not going to stand by quietly as Intel gave them these chips. +So there was a revolution across the world. +People marched to demand -- okay, not really exactly like that but they rose up and they demanded that Intel fix the flaw. +And Intel set aside 475 million dollars to fund the replacement of millions of chips to fix the flaw. +So billions of dollars in our society was spent to address a problem which would come once out of every 360 billion calculations. +Number two, a poet. +This is Martin Niemller. +You're familiar with his poetry. +Around the height of the Nazi period, he started repeating the verse, "First they came for the communists, and I did nothing, did not speak out because I was not a communist. +Then they came for the socialists. +Then they came for the trade unions. +Then they came for the Jews. +And then they came for me. +But there was no one left to speak for me." +Now, Niemller is offering a certain kind of insight. +This is an insight at the core of intelligence. +We could call it cluefulness. +It's a certain kind of test: Can you recognize an underlying threat and respond? +Can you save yourself or save your kind? +Turns out ants are pretty good at this. +Cows, not so much. +So can you see the pattern? +Can you see a pattern and then recognize and do something about it? Number two. +Number three, a boy. +This is my friend Aaron Swartz. +He's Tim's friend. +He's friends of many of you in this audience, and seven years ago, Aaron came to me with a question. +It was just before I was going to give my first TED Talk. +I was so proud. I was telling him about my talk, "Laws that choke creativity." +And Aaron looked at me and was a little impatient, and he said, "So how are you ever going to solve the problems you're talking about? +Copyright policy, Internet policy, how are you ever going to address those problems so long as there's this fundamental corruption in the way our government works?" +So I was a little put off by this. +He wasn't sharing in my celebration. +And I said to him, "You know, Aaron, it's not my field, not my field." +He said, "You mean as an academic, it's not your field?" +I said, "Yeah, as an academic, it's not my field." +He said, "What about as a citizen? +As a citizen." +Now, this is the way Aaron was. +He didn't tell. He asked questions. +But his questions spoke as clearly as my four-year-old's hug. +He was saying to me, "You've got to get a clue. +You have got to get a clue, because there is a flaw at the core of the operating system of this democracy, and it's not a flaw every one out of 360 billion times our democracy tries to make a decision. +It is every time, every single important issue. +We've got to end the bovinity of this political society. +We've got to adopt, it turns out, the word is fourmi-formatic attitude -- that's what the Internet tells me the word is -- the ant's appreciative attitude that gets us to recognize this flaw, save our kind and save our demos. +Now if you know Aaron Swartz, you know that we lost him just over a year ago. +It was about six weeks before I gave my TED Talk, and I was so grateful to Chris that he asked me to give this TED Talk, not because I had the chance to talk to you, although that was great, but because it pulled me out of an extraordinary depression. +I couldn't begin to describe the sadness. +Because I had to focus. +I had to focus on, what was I going to say to you? +It saved me. +But after the buzz, the excitement, the power that comes from this community, I began to yearn for a less sterile, less academic way to address these issues, the issues that I was talking about. +We'd begun to focus on New Hampshire as a target for this political movement, because the primary in New Hampshire is so incredibly important. +It was a group called the New Hampshire Rebellion that was beginning to talk about, how would we make this issue of this corruption central in 2016? +But it was another soul that caught my imagination, a woman named Doris Haddock, aka Granny D. +On January 1, 1999, 15 years ago, at the age of 88, Granny D started a walk. +She started in Los Angeles and began to walk to Washington, D.C. +with a single sign on her chest that said, "campaign finance reform." +Eighteen months later, at the age of 90, she arrived in Washington with hundreds following her, including many congressmen who had gotten in a car and driven out about a mile outside of the city to walk in with her. +Now, I don't have 13 months to walk across the country. +I've got three kids who hate to walk, and a wife who, it turns out, still hates when I'm not there for mysterious reasons, so this was not an option, but the question I asked, could we remix Granny D a bit? +What about a walk not of 3,200 miles but of 185 miles across New Hampshire in January? +So on January 11, the anniversary of Aaron's death, we began a walk that ended on January 24th, the day that Granny D was born. +A total of 200 people joined us across this walk, as we went from the very top to the very bottom of New Hampshire talking about this issue. +And what was astonishing to me, something I completely did not expect to find, was the passion and anger that there was among everyone that we talked to about this issue. +We had found in a poll that 96 percent of Americans believe it important to reduce the influence of money in politics. +Now politicians and pundits tell you, there's nothing we can do about this issue, Americans don't care about it, but the reason for that is that 91 percent of Americans think there's nothing that can be done about this issue. +And it's this gap between 96 and 91 that explains our politics of resignation. +I mean, after all, at least 96 percent of us wish we could fly like Superman, but because at least 91 percent of us believe we can't, we don't leap off of tall buildings every time we have that urge. +That's because we accept our limits, and so too with this reform. +But when you give people the sense of hope, you begin to thaw that absolute sense of impossibility. +As Harvey Milk said, if you give 'em hope, you give 'em a chance, a way to think about how this change is possible. +Hope. +And hope is the one thing that we, Aaron's friends, failed him with, because we let him lose that sense of hope. +I loved that boy like I love my son. +But we failed him. +And I love my country, and I'm not going to fail that. +I'm not going to fail that. +That sense of hope, we're going to hold, and we're going to fight for, however impossible this battle looks. +What's next? +Well, we started with this march with 200 people, and next year, there will be 1,000 on different routes that march in the month of January and meet in Concord to celebrate this cause, and then in 2016, before the primary, there will be 10,000 who march across that state, meeting in Concord to celebrate this cause. +And as we have marched, people around the country have begun to say, "Can we do the same thing in our state?" +So we've started a platform called G.D. Walkers, that is, Granny D walkers, and Granny D walkers across the country will be marching for this reform. Number one. +Number two, on this march, one of the founders of Thunderclap, David Cascino, was with us, and he said, "Well what can we do?" +And so they developed a platform, which we are announcing today, that allows us to pull together voters who are committed to this idea of reform. +Regardless of where you are, in New Hampshire or outside of New Hampshire, you can sign up and directly be informed where the candidates are on this issue so you can decide who to vote for as a function of which is going to make this possibility real. +And then finally number three, the hardest. +We're in the age of the Super PAC. +Indeed yesterday, Merriam announced that Merriam-Webster will have Super PAC as a word. +It is now an official word in the dictionary. +So on May 1, aka May Day, we're going to try an experiment. +We're going to try a launching of what we can think of as a Super PAC to end all Super PACs. +And the basic way this works is this. +For the last year, we have been working with analysts and political experts to calculate, how much would it cost to win enough votes in the United States Congress to make fundamental reform possible? +What is that number? Half a billion? A billion? +What is that number? +So last night, we heard about wishes. +Here's my wish. +May one. +May the ideals of one boy unite one nation behind one critical idea that we are one people, we are the people who were promised a government, a government that was promised to be dependent upon the people alone, the people, who, as Madison told us, meant not the rich more than the poor. +May one. +And then may you, may you join this movement, not because you're a politician, not because you're an expert, not because this is your field, but because if you are, you are a citizen. +Aaron asked me that. +Now I've asked you. +Thank you very much. +Daffodil Hudson: Hello? +Yeah, this is she. +What? +Oh, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, of course I accept. +What are the dates again? +Pen. Pen. Pen. +March 17 through 21. +Okay, all right, great. Thanks. +Lab Partner: Who was that? +DH: It was TED. +LP: Who's TED? +DH: I've got to prepare. +["Give Your Talk: A Musical"] ["My Talk"] Procrastination. What do you think? +Can I help you? +DH: Right now? +Stagehand: Break a leg. +Right now there is an aspiring teacher in a graduate school of education who is watching a professor babble on and on about engagement in the most disengaging way possible. +Right now there's a student who is coming up with a way to convince his mom or dad that he's very, very sick and can't make it to school tomorrow. +On the other hand, right now there are amazing educators that are sharing information, information that is shared in such a beautiful way that the students are sitting at the edge of their seats just waiting for a bead of sweat to drop off the face of this person so they can soak up all that knowledge. +Right now there is also a person who has an entire audience rapt with attention, a person that is weaving a powerful narrative about a world that the people who are listening have never imagined or seen before, but if they close their eyes tightly enough, they can envision that world because the storytelling is so compelling. +Right now there's a person who can tell an audience to put their hands up in the air and they will stay there till he says, "Put them down." +Right now. +So people will then say, "Well, Chris, you describe the guy who is going through some awful training but you're also describing these powerful educators. +If you're thinking about the world of education or urban education in particular, these guys will probably cancel each other out, and then we'll be okay." +The reality is, the folks I described as the master teachers, the master narrative builders, the master storytellers are far removed from classrooms. +The folks who know the skills about how to teach and engage an audience don't even know what teacher certification means. +They may not even have the degrees to be able to have anything to call an education. +And that to me is sad. +It's sad because the people who I described, they were very disinterested in the learning process, want to be effective teachers, but they have no models. +I'm going to paraphrase Mark Twain. +Mark Twain says that proper preparation, or teaching, is so powerful that it can turn bad morals to good, it can turn awful practices into powerful ones, it can change men and transform them into angels. +The folks who I described earlier got proper preparation in teaching, not in any college or university, but by virtue of just being in the same spaces of those who engage. +Guess where those places are? +Barber shops, rap concerts, and most importantly, in the black church. +And I've been framing this idea called Pentecostal pedagogy. +Who here has been to a black church? +We got a couple of hands. +You go to a black church, their preacher starts off and he realizes that he has to engage the audience, so he starts off with this sort of wordplay in the beginning oftentimes, and then he takes a pause, and he says, "Oh my gosh, they're not quite paying attention." +So he says, "Can I get an amen?" +Audience: Amen. +Chris Emdin: So I can I get an amen? Audience: Amen. +CE: And all of a sudden, everybody's reawoken. +That preacher bangs on the pulpit for attention. +He drops his voice at a very, very low volume when he wants people to key into him, and those things are the skills that we need for the most engaging teachers. +So why does teacher education only give you theory and theory and tell you about standards and tell you about all of these things that have nothing to do with the basic skills, that magic that you need to engage an audience, to engage a student? +So I make the argument that we reframe teacher education, that we could focus on content, and that's fine, and we could focus on theories, and that's fine, but content and theories with the absence of the magic of teaching and learning means nothing. +Now people oftentimes say, "Well, magic is just magic." +There are teachers who, despite all their challenges, who have those skills, get into those schools and are able to engage an audience, and the administrator walks by and says, "Wow, he's so good, I wish all my teachers could be that good." +And when they try to describe what that is, they just say, "He has that magic." +But I'm here to tell you that magic can be taught. +Magic can be taught. +Magic can be taught. +Now, how do you teach it? +You teach it by allowing people to go into those spaces where the magic is happening. +If you want to be an aspiring teacher in urban education, you've got to leave the confines of that university and go into the hood. +You've got to go in there and hang out at the barbershop, you've got to attend that black church, and you've got to view those folks that have the power to engage and just take notes on what they do. +At our teacher education classes at my university, I've started a project where every single student that comes in there sits and watches rap concerts. +They watch the way that the rappers move and talk with their hands. +They study the way that he walks proudly across that stage. +They listen to his metaphors and analogies, and they start learning these little things that if they practice enough becomes the key to magic. +They learn that if you just stare at a student and raise your eyebrow about a quarter of an inch, you don't have to say a word because they know that that means that you want more. +And if we could transform teacher education to focus on teaching teachers how to create that magic then poof! we could make dead classes come alive, we could reignite imaginations, and we can change education. +Thank you. +When people think about cities, they tend to think of certain things. +They think of buildings and streets and skyscrapers, noisy cabs. +But when I think about cities, I think about people. +Cities are fundamentally about people, and where people go and where people meet are at the core of what makes a city work. +So even more important than buildings in a city are the public spaces in between them. +And today, some of the most transformative changes in cities are happening in these public spaces. +So I believe that lively, enjoyable public spaces are the key to planning a great city. +They are what makes it come alive. +But what makes a public space work? +What attracts people to successful public spaces, and what is it about unsuccessful places that keeps people away? +I thought, if I could answer those questions, I could make a huge contribution to my city. +But one of the more wonky things about me is that I am an animal behaviorist, and I use those skills not to study animal behavior but to study how people in cities use city public spaces. +One of the first spaces that I studied was this little vest pocket park called Paley Park in midtown Manhattan. +This little space became a small phenomenon, and because it had such a profound impact on New Yorkers, it made an enormous impression on me. +I studied this park very early on in my career because it happened to have been built by my stepfather, so I knew that places like Paley Park didn't happen by accident. +I saw firsthand that they required incredible dedication and enormous attention to detail. +But what was it about this space that made it special and drew people to it? +Well, I would sit in the park and watch very carefully, and first among other things were the comfortable, movable chairs. +People would come in, find their own seat, move it a bit, actually, and then stay a while, and then interestingly, people themselves attracted other people, and ironically, I felt more peaceful if there were other people around. +And it was green. +This little park provided what New Yorkers crave: comfort and greenery. +But my question was, why weren't there more places with greenery and places to sit in the middle of the city where you didn't feel alone, or like a trespasser? +Unfortunately, that's not how cities were being designed. +So here you see a familiar sight. +This is how plazas have been designed for generations. +They have that stylish, Spartan look that we often associate with modern architecture, but it's not surprising that people avoid spaces like this. +They not only look desolate, they feel downright dangerous. +I mean, where would you sit here? +What would you do here? +But architects love them. +They are plinths for their creations. +They might tolerate a sculpture or two, but that's about it. +And for developers, they are ideal. +There's nothing to water, nothing to maintain, and no undesirable people to worry about. +But don't you think this is a waste? +For me, becoming a city planner meant being able to truly change the city that I lived in and loved. +I wanted to be able to create places that would give you the feeling that you got in Paley Park, and not allow developers to build bleak plazas like this. +But over the many years, I have learned how hard it is to create successful, meaningful, enjoyable public spaces. +As I learned from my stepfather, they certainly do not happen by accident, especially in a city like New York, where public space has to be fought for to begin with, and then for them to be successful, somebody has to think very hard about every detail. +Now, open spaces in cities are opportunities. +Yes, they are opportunities for commercial investment, but they are also opportunities for the common good of the city, and those two goals are often not aligned with one another, and therein lies the conflict. +The first opportunity I had to fight for a great public open space was in the early 1980s, when I was leading a team of planners at a gigantic landfill called Battery Park City in lower Manhattan on the Hudson River. +And this sandy wasteland had lain barren for 10 years, and we were told, unless we found a developer in six months, it would go bankrupt. +So we came up with a radical, almost insane idea. +Instead of building a park as a complement to future development, why don't we reverse that equation and build a small but very high-quality public open space first, and see if that made a difference. +So we only could afford to build a two-block section of what would become a mile-long esplanade, so whatever we built had to be perfect. +So just to make sure, I insisted that we build a mock-up in wood, at scale, of the railing and the sea wall. +And when I sat down on that test bench with sand still swirling all around me, the railing hit exactly at eye level, blocking my view and ruining my experience at the water's edge. +So you see, details really do make a difference. +But design is not just how something looks, it's how your body feels on that seat in that space, and I believe that successful design always depends on that very individual experience. +In this photo, everything looks very finished, but that granite edge, those lights, the back on that bench, the trees in planting, and the many different kinds of places to sit were all little battles that turned this project into a place that people wanted to be. +Now, this proved very valuable 20 years later when Michael Bloomberg asked me to be his planning commissioner and put me in charge of shaping the entire city of New York. +And he said to me on that very day, he said that New York was projected to grow from eight to nine million people. +And he asked me, "So where are you going to put one million additional New Yorkers?" +Well, I didn't have any idea. +Now, you know that New York does place a high value on attracting immigrants, so we were excited about the prospect of growth, but honestly, where were we going to grow in a city that was already built out to its edges and surrounded by water? +How were we going to find housing for that many new New Yorkers? +And if we couldn't spread out, which was probably a good thing, where could new housing go? +And what about cars? Our city couldn't possibly handle any more cars. +So what were we going to do? +If we couldn't spread out, we had to go up. +And if we had to go up, we had to go up in places where you wouldn't need to own a car. +So that meant using one of our greatest assets: our transit system. +But we had never before thought of how we could make the most of it. +So here was the answer to our puzzle. +If we were to channel and redirect all new development around transit, we could actually handle that population increase, we thought. +And so here was the plan, what we really needed to do: We needed to redo our zoning -- and zoning is the city planner's regulatory tool -- and basically reshape the entire city, targeting where new development could go and prohibiting any development at all in our car-oriented, suburban-style neighborhoods. +Well, this was an unbelievably ambitious idea, ambitious because communities had to approve those plans. +So how was I going to get this done? +By listening. So I began listening, in fact, thousands of hours of listening just to establish trust. +You know, communities can tell whether or not you understand their neighborhoods. +It's not something you can just fake. +And so I began walking. +I can't tell you how many blocks I walked, in sweltering summers, in freezing winters, year after year, just so I could get to understand the DNA of each neighborhood and know what each street felt like. +I became an incredibly geeky zoning expert, finding ways that zoning could address communities' concerns. +So little by little, neighborhood by neighborhood, block by block, we began to set height limits so that all new development would be predictable and near transit. +Over the course of 12 years, 124 neighborhoods, 40 percent of the city, 12,500 blocks, so that now, 90 percent of all new development of New York is within a 10-minute walk of a subway. +In other words, nobody in those new buildings needs to own a car. +Well, those rezonings were exhausting and enervating and important, but rezoning was never my mission. +You can't see zoning and you can't feel zoning. +My mission was always to create great public spaces. +So in the areas where we zoned for significant development, I was determined to create places that would make a difference in people's lives. +Here you see what was two miles of abandoned, degraded waterfront in the neighborhoods of Greenpoint and Williamsburg in Brooklyn, impossible to get to and impossible to use. +Now the zoning here was massive, so I felt an obligation to create magnificent parks on these waterfronts, and I spent an incredible amount of time on every square inch of these plans. +I wanted to make sure that there were tree-lined paths from the upland to the water, that there were trees and plantings everywhere, and, of course, lots and lots of places to sit. +Honestly, I had no idea how it would turn out. +I had to have faith. +But I put everything that I had studied and learned into those plans. +And then it opened, and I have to tell you, it was incredible. +People came from all over the city to be in these parks. +I know they changed the lives of the people who live there, but they also changed New Yorkers' whole image of their city. +I often come down and watch people get on this little ferry that now runs between the boroughs, and I can't tell you why, but I'm completely moved by the fact that people are using it as if it had always been there. +And here is a new park in lower Manhattan. +Now, the water's edge in lower Manhattan was a complete mess before 9/11. +Wall Street was essentially landlocked because you couldn't get anywhere near this edge. +And after 9/11, the city had very little control. +But I thought if we went to the Lower Manhattan Development Corporation and got money to reclaim this two miles of degraded waterfront that it would have an enormous effect on the rebuilding of lower Manhattan. +And it did. +Lower Manhattan finally has a public waterfront on all three sides. +I really love this park. +You know, railings have to be higher now, so we put bar seating at the edge, and you can get so close to the water you're practically on it. +And see how the railing widens and flattens out so you can lay down your lunch or your laptop. +And I love when people come there and look up and they say, "Wow, there's Brooklyn, and it's so close." +So what's the trick? +How do you turn a park into a place that people want to be? +Well, it's up to you, not as a city planner but as a human being. +You don't tap into your design expertise. +You tap into your humanity. +I mean, would you want to go there? +Would you want to stay there? +Can you see into it and out of it? +Are there other people there? +Does it seem green and friendly? +Can you find your very own seat? +Well now, all over New York City, there are places where you can find your very own seat. +Where there used to be parking spaces, there are now pop-up cafes. +Where Broadway traffic used to run, there are now tables and chairs. +Where 12 years ago, sidewalk cafes were not allowed, they are now everywhere. +But claiming these spaces for public use was not simple, and it's even harder to keep them that way. +So now I'm going to tell you a story about a very unusual park called the High Line. +The High Line was an elevated railway. +The High Line was an elevated railway that ran through three neighborhoods on Manhattan's West Side, and when the train stopped running, it became a self-seeded landscape, a kind of a garden in the sky. +And when I saw it the first time, honestly, when I went up on that old viaduct, I fell in love the way you fall in love with a person, honestly. +And when I was appointed, saving the first two sections of the High Line from demolition became my first priority and my most important project. +I knew if there was a day that I didn't worry about the High Line, it would come down. +And the High Line, even though it is widely known now and phenomenally popular, it is the most contested public space in the city. +You might see a beautiful park, but not everyone does. +You know, it's true, commercial interests will always battle against public space. +You might say, "How wonderful it is that more than four million people come from all over the world to visit the High Line." +Well, a developer sees just one thing: customers. +Hey, why not take out those plantings and have shops all along the High Line? +Wouldn't that be terrific and won't it mean a lot more money for the city? +Well no, it would not be terrific. +It would be a mall, and not a park. +And you know what, it might mean more money for the city, but a city has to take the long view, the view for the common good. +Most recently, the last section of the High Line, the third section of the High Line, the final section of the High Line, has been pitted against development interests, where some of the city's leading developers are building more than 17 million square feet at the Hudson Yards. +And they came to me and proposed that they "temporarily disassemble" that third and final section. +Perhaps the High Line didn't fit in with their image of a gleaming city of skyscrapers on a hill. +Perhaps it was just in their way. +But in any case, it took nine months of nonstop daily negotiation to finally get the signed agreement to prohibit its demolition, and that was only two years ago. +So you see, no matter how popular and successful a public space may be, it can never be taken for granted. +Public spaces always -- this is it saved -- public spaces always need vigilant champions, not only to claim them at the outset for public use, but to design them for the people that use them, then to maintain them to ensure that they are for everyone, that they are not violated, invaded, abandoned or ignored. +If there is any one lesson that I have learned in my life as a city planner, it is that public spaces have power. +It's not just the number of people using them, it's the even greater number of people who feel better about their city just knowing that they are there. +Public space can change how you live in a city, how you feel about a city, whether you choose one city over another, and public space is one of the most important reasons why you stay in a city. +I believe that a successful city is like a fabulous party. +People stay because they are having a great time. +Thank you. +What is the intersection between technology, art and science? +Curiosity and wonder, because it drives us to explore, because we're surrounded by things we can't see. +And I love to use film to take us on a journey through portals of time and space, to make the invisible visible, because what that does, it expands our horizons, it transforms our perception, it opens our minds and it touches our heart. +So here are some scenes from my 3D IMAX film, "Mysteries of the Unseen World." +There is movement which is too slow for our eyes to detect, and time lapse makes us discover and broaden our perspective of life. +We can see how organisms emerge and grow, how a vine survives by creeping from the forest floor to look at the sunlight. +And at the grand scale, time lapse allows us to see our planet in motion. +We can view not only the vast sweep of nature, but the restless movement of humanity. +Each streaking dot represents a passenger plane, and by turning air traffic data into time-lapse imagery, we can see something that's above us constantly but invisible: the vast network of air travel over the United States. +We can do the same thing with ships at sea. +We can turn data into a time-lapse view of a global economy in motion. +And decades of data give us the view of our entire planet as a single organism sustained by currents circulating throughout the oceans and by clouds swirling through the atmosphere, pulsing with lightning, crowned by the aurora Borealis. +It may be the ultimate time-lapse image: the anatomy of Earth brought to life. +At the other extreme, there are things that move too fast for our eyes, but we have technology that can look into that world as well. +With high-speed cameras, we can do the opposite of time lapse. +We can shoot images that are thousands of times faster than our vision. +And we can see how nature's ingenious devices work, and perhaps we can even imitate them. +When a dragonfly flutters by, you may not realize, but it's the greatest flier in nature. +It can hover, fly backwards, even upside down. +And by tracking markers on an insect's wings, we can visualize the air flow that they produce. +Nobody knew the secret, but high speed shows that a dragonfly can move all four wings in different directions at the same time. +And what we learn can lead us to new kinds of robotic flyers that can expand our vision of important and remote places. +We're giants, and we're unaware of things that are too small for us to see. +The electron microscope fires electrons which creates images which can magnify things by as much as a million times. +This is the egg of a butterfly. +And there are unseen creatures living all over your body, including mites that spend their entire lives dwelling on your eyelashes, crawling over your skin at night. +Can you guess what this is? +Shark skin. +A caterpillar's mouth. +The eye of a fruit fly. +An eggshell. +A flea. +A snail's tongue. +We think we know most of the animal kingdom, but there may be millions of tiny species waiting to be discovered. +A spider also has great secrets, because spiders' silk thread is pound for pound stronger than steel but completely elastic. +This journey will take us all the way down to the nano world. +The silk is 100 times thinner than human hair. +On there is bacteria, and near that bacteria, 10 times smaller, a virus. +Inside of that, 10 times smaller, three strands of DNA. +And nearing the limit of our most powerful microscopes, single carbon atoms. +With the tip of a powerful microscope, we can actually move atoms and begin to create amazing nano devices. +Some could one day patrol our body for all kinds of diseases and clean out clogged arteries along the way. +Tiny chemical machines of the future can one day, perhaps, repair DNA. +We are on the threshold of extraordinary advances, born of our drive to unveil the mysteries of life. +So under an endless rain of cosmic dust, the air is full of pollen, micro-diamonds and jewels from other planets and supernova explosions. +People go about their lives surrounded by the unseeable. +Knowing that there's so much around us we can't see forever changes our understanding of the world, and by looking at unseen worlds, we recognize that we exist in the living universe, and this new perspective creates wonder and inspires us to become explorers in our own backyards. +Who knows what awaits to be seen and what new wonders will transform our lives. +We'll just have to see. +Thank you. +I was born and raised in Sierra Leone, a small and very beautiful country in West Africa, a country rich both in physical resources and creative talent. +However, Sierra Leone is infamous for a decade-long rebel war in the '90s when entire villages were burnt down. An estimated 8,000 men, women and children had their arms and legs amputated during this time. +As my family and I ran for safety when I was about 12 from one of those attacks, I resolved that I would do everything I could to ensure that my own children would not go through the same experiences we had. +They would, in fact, be part of a Sierra Leone where war and amputation were no longer a strategy for gaining power. +As I watched people who I knew, loved ones, recover from this devastation, one thing that deeply troubled me was that many of the amputees in the country would not use their prostheses. +The reason, I would come to find out, was that their prosthetic sockets were painful because they did not fit well. +The prosthetic socket is the part in which the amputee inserts their residual limb, and which connects to the prosthetic ankle. +Even in the developed world, it takes a period of three weeks to often years for a patient to get a comfortable socket, if ever. +Prosthetists still use conventional processes like molding and casting to create single-material prosthetic sockets. +Such sockets often leave intolerable amounts of pressure on the limbs of the patient, leaving them with pressure sores and blisters. +It does not matter how powerful your prosthetic ankle is. +If your prosthetic socket is uncomfortable, you will not use your leg, and that is just simply unacceptable in our age. +So one day, when I met professor Hugh Herr about two and a half years ago, and he asked me if I knew how to solve this problem, I said, "No, not yet, but I would love to figure it out." +And so, for my Ph.D. at the MIT Media Lab, I designed custom prosthetic sockets quickly and cheaply that are more comfortable than conventional prostheses. +I used magnetic resonance imaging to capture the actual shape of the patient's anatomy, then use finite element modeling to better predict the internal stresses and strains on the normal forces, and then create a prosthetic socket for manufacture. +We use a 3D printer to create a multi-material prosthetic socket which relieves pressure where needed on the anatomy of the patient. +In short, we're using data to make novel sockets quickly and cheaply. +In a recent trial we just wrapped up at the Media Lab, one of our patients, a U.S. veteran who has been an amputee for about 20 years and worn dozens of legs, said of one of our printed parts, "It's so soft, it's like walking on pillows, and it's effing sexy." +Disability in our age should not prevent anyone from living meaningful lives. +My hope and desire is that the tools and processes we develop in our research group can be used to bring highly functional prostheses to those who need them. +For me, a place to begin healing the souls of those affected by war and disease is by creating comfortable and affordable interfaces for their bodies. +Whether it's in Sierra Leone or in Boston, I hope this not only restores but indeed transforms their sense of human potential. +Thank you very much. +Pat Mitchell: That day, January 8, 2011, began like all others. +You were both doing the work that you love. +You were meeting with constituents, which is something that you loved doing as a congresswoman, and Mark, you were happily preparing for your next space shuttle. +And suddenly, everything that you had planned or expected in your lives was irrevocably changed forever. +Mark Kelly: Yeah, it's amazing, it's amazing how everything can change for any of us in an instant. +People don't realize that. +I certainly didn't. +Gabby Giffords: Yes. +MK: And on that Saturday morning, I got this horrible phone call from Gabby's chief of staff. +She didn't have much other information. +She just said, "Gabby was shot." +A few minutes later, I called her back and I actually thought for a second, well, maybe I just imagined getting this phone call. +I called her back, and that's when she told me that Gabby had been shot in the head. +And from that point on, I knew that our lives were going to be a lot different. +PM: And when you arrived at the hospital, what was the prognosis that they gave you about Gabby's condition and what recovery, if any, you could expect? +MK: Well, for a gunshot wound to the head and a traumatic brain injury, they typically can't tell you much. +Every injury is different. It's not predictable like often a stroke might be predictable, which is another TBI kind of injury. +So they didn't know how long Gabby would be in a coma, didn't know when that would change and what the prognosis would be. +PM: Gabby, has your recovery been an effort to create a new Gabby Giffords or reclaim the old Gabby Giffords? +GG: The new one -- better, stronger, tougher. +MK: That to say, when you look at the picture behind us, to come back from that kind of injury and come back strong and stronger than ever is a really tough thing to do. +I don't know anybody that's as tough as my wonderful wife right here. +PM: And what were the first signs that recovery was not only going to be possible but you were going to have some semblance of the life that you and Gabby had planned? +PM: And there were certain words, too. +Didn't she surprise you with words in the beginning? +MK: Well, it was tough in the beginning. GG: What? What? Chicken. Chicken. Chicken. +MK: Yeah, that was it. +For the first month, that was the extent of Gabby's vocabulary. +For some reason, she has aphasia, which is difficulty with communication. +She latched on to the word "chicken," which isn't the best but certainly is not the worst. +And we were actually worried it could have been a lot worse than that. +PM: Gabby, what's been the toughest challenge for you during this recovery? +GG: Talking. Really hard. Really. +MK: Yeah, with aphasia, Gabby knows what she wants to say, she just can't get it out. +She understands everything, but the communication is just very difficult because when you look at the picture, the part of your brain where those communication centers are are on the left side of your head, which is where the bullet passed through. +PM: So you have to do a very dangerous thing: speak for your wife. +MK: I do. +It might be some of the most dangerous things I've ever done. +PM: Gabby, are you optimistic about your continuing recovery -- walking, talking, being able to move your arm and leg? +GG: I'm optimistic. It will be a long, hard haul, but I'm optimistic. +PM: That seems to be the number one characteristic of Gabby Giffords, wouldn't you say? MK: Gabby's always been really optimistic. +She works incredibly hard every day. +GG: On the treadmill, walked on my treadmill, Spanish lessons, French horn. +MK: It's only my wife who could be -- and if you knew her before she was injured, you would kind of understand this -- somebody who could be injured and have such a hard time communicating and meets with a speech therapist, and then about a month ago, she says, "I want to learn Spanish again." +PM: Well, let's take a little closer look at the wife, and this was even before you met Gabby Giffords. +And she's on a motor scooter there, but it's my understanding that's a very tame image of what Gabby Giffords was like growing up. +MK: Yeah, Gabby, she used to race motorcycles. +So that's a scooter, but she had -- well, she still has a BMW motorcycle. +PM: Does she ride it? MK: Well, that's a challenge with not being able to move her right arm, but I think with something I know about, Velcro, we might be able to get her back on the bike, Velcro her right hand up onto the handlebar. +PM: I have a feeling we might see that picture next, Gabby. +But you meet, you're already decided that you're going to dedicate your life to service. +You're going into the military and eventually to become an astronaut. +So you meet. +What attracts you to Gabby? +MK: Well, when we met, oddly enough, it was the last time we were in Vancouver, about 10 years ago. We met in Vancouver, at the airport, on a trip that we were both taking to China, that I would actually, from my background, I would call it a boondoggle. +Gabby would GG: Fact-finding mission. +MK: She would call it an important fact-finding mission. +She was a state senator at the time, and we met here, at the airport, before a trip to China. +PM: Would you describe it as a whirlwind romance? +GG: No, no, no. +A good friend. +MK: Yeah, we were friends for a long time. +GG: Yes. MK: And then she invited me on, about a year or so later, she invited me on a date. +Where'd we go, Gabby? +GG: Death row. +MK: Yes. Our first date was to death row at the Florence state prison in Arizona, which was just outside Gabby's state senate district. +They were working on some legislation that had to do with crime and punishment and capital punishment in the state of Arizona. +So she couldn't get anybody else to go with her, and I'm like, "Of course I want to go to death row." +So that was our first date. +We've been together ever since. GG: Yes. +PM: Well, that might have contributed to the reason that Gabby decided to marry you. +You were willing to go to death row, after all. +MK: I guess. +PM: Gabby, what did make you want to marry Mark? +GG: Um, good friends. Best friends. Best friends. +MK: I thought we always had a very special relationship. +We've gone through some tough times and it's only made it stronger. GG: Stronger. +PM: After you got married, however, you continued very independent lives. +Actually, you didn't even live together. +MK: We had one of those commuter marriages. +In our case, it was Washington, D.C., Houston, Tucson. +Sometimes we'd go clockwise, sometimes counterclockwise, to all those different places, and we didn't really live together until that Saturday morning. +Within an hour of Gabby being shot, I was on an airplane to Tucson, and that was the moment where that had changed things. +PM: And also, Gabby, you had run for Congress after being a state senator and served in Congress for six years. +What did you like best about being in Congress? +GG: Fast pace. Fast pace. +PM: Well it was the way you did it. GG: Yes, yes. Fast pace. +PM: I'm not sure people would describe it entirely that way. +MK: Yeah, you know, legislation is often at a colossally slow pace, but my wife, and I have to admit, a lot of other members of Congress that I know, work incredibly hard. +I mean, Gabby would run around like a crazy person, never take a day off, maybe a half a day off a month, and whenever she was awake she was working, and she really, really thrived on that, and still does today. GG: Yes. Yes. +PM: Installing solar panels on the top of her house, I have to say. +So after the tragic incident, Mark, you decided to resign your position as an astronaut, even though you were supposed to take the next space mission. +Everybody, including Gabby, talked you into going back, and you did end up taking. +MK: Kind of. The day after Gabby was injured, I called my boss, the chief astronaut, Dr. Peggy Whitson, and I said, "Peggy, I know I'm launching in space in three months from now. +Gabby's in a coma. I'm in Tucson. +You've got to find a replacement for me." +So I didn't actually resign from being an astronaut, but I gave up my job and they found a replacement. +But I knew she was GG: Yes. Yes. Yes. +MK: She was the biggest supporter of my career, and I knew it was the right thing to do. +Now if any of you guys would ever come to our house in Tucson for the first time, Gabby would usually go up to the freezer and pull out the piece of Tupperware that has the real skull. GG: The real skull. MK: Which freaks people out, sometimes. +PM: Is that for appetizer or dessert, Mark? +MK: Well, it just gets the conversation going. +PM: But there was a lot of conversation about something you did, Gabby, after Mark's flight. +GG: The debt ceiling. The debt ceiling. +MK: Yeah, we had that vote, I guess about five months after Gabby was injured, and she made this bold decision to go back. +A very controversial vote, but she wanted to be there to have her voice heard one more time. +PM: And after that, resigned and began what has been a very slow and challenging recovery. +What's life like, day to day? +MK: Well, that's Gabby's service dog Nelson. +GG: Nelson. +MK: New member of our family. GG: Yes, yes. +MK: And we got him from a GG: Prison. Murder. MK: We have a lot of connections with prisons, apparently. Nelson came from a prison, raised by a murderer in Massachusetts. +But she did a great job with this dog. +He's a fabulous service dog. +PM: So Gabby, what have you learned from your experiences the past few years? +MK: Yeah, what have you learned? GG: Deeper. Deeper. +PM: Your relationship is deeper. +It has to be. You're together all the time now. +MK: I imagine being grateful, too, right? +GG: Grateful. +PM: This is a picture of family and friends gathering, but I love these pictures because they show the Gabby and Mark relationship now. +And you describe it, Gabby, over and over, as deeper on so many levels. Yes? +MK: I think when something tragic happens in a family, it can pull people together. +Here's us watching the space shuttle fly over Tucson, the Space Shuttle Endeavour, the one that I was the commander on its last flight, on its final flight on top of an airplane on a 747 on its way to L.A., NASA was kind enough to have it fly over Tucson. +PM: And of course, the two of you go through these challenges of a slow and difficult recovery, and yet, Gabby, how do you maintain your optimism and positive outlook? +GG: I want to make the world a better place. +PM: And you're doing that even though your recovery has to remain front and center for both of you. +You are people who have done service to your country and you are continuing to do that with a new initiative, a new purpose. +And Gabby, what's on the agenda now? +GG: Americans for Responsible Solutions. +MK: That's our political action committee, where we are trying to get members of Congress to take a more serious look at gun violence in this country, and to try to pass some reasonable legislation. +GG: Yes. Yes. MK: You know, this affected us very personally, but it wasn't what happened to Gabby that got us involved. +It was really the 20 murdered first graders and kindergartners in Newtown, Connecticut, and the response that we saw afterwards where -- well, look what's happened so far. +So far the national response has been pretty much to do nothing. +We're trying to change that. +PM: There have been 11 mass shootings since Newtown, a school a week in the first two months of last year. +What are you doing that's different than other efforts to balance rights for gun ownership and responsibilities? +MK: We're gun owners, we support gun rights. +At the same time, we've got to do everything we can to keep guns out of the hands of criminals and the dangerously mentally ill. +It's not too difficult to do that. +This issue, like many others, has become very polarizing and political, and we're trying to bring some balance to the debate in Washington. +PM: Thank you both for that effort. +And not surprisingly for this woman of courage and of a sense of adventure, you just keep challenging yourself, and the sky seems to be the limit. +I have to share this video of your most recent adventure. +Take a look at Gabby. +MK: This is a couple months ago. +MK: You okay? You did great. GG: Yes, it's gorgeous. Thank you. +Good stuff. Gorgeous. Oh, thank you. +Mountains. Gorgeous mountains. +MK: Let me just say one of the guys that Gabby jumped with that day was a Navy SEAL who she met in Afghanistan who was injured in combat, had a really rough time. +Gabby visited him when he was at Bethesda and went through a really tough period. +He started doing better. +Months later, Gabby was shot in the head, and then he supported her while she was in the hospital in Houston. +So they have a very, very nice connection. +GG: Yes. +PM: What a wonderful moment. +Because this is the TED stage, Gabby, I know you worked very hard to think of the ideas that you wanted to leave with this audience. +GG: Thank you. +Hello, everyone. +Thank you for inviting us here today. +It's been a long, hard haul, but I'm getting better. +I'm working hard, lots of therapy -- speech therapy, physical therapy, and yoga too. +But my spirit is strong as ever. +I'm still fighting to make the world a better place, and you can too. +Get involved with your community. +Be a leader. Set an example. +Be passionate. Be courageous. +Be your best. Thank you very much. +MK: Thank you. GG: Thank you. +MK: Thank you everybody. GG: Bye bye. +So I've been thinking about the difference between the rsum virtues and the eulogy virtues. +The rsum virtues are the ones you put on your rsum, which are the skills you bring to the marketplace. +The eulogy virtues are the ones that get mentioned in the eulogy, which are deeper: who are you, in your depth, what is the nature of your relationships, are you bold, loving, dependable, consistency? +And most of us, including me, would say that the eulogy virtues are the more important of the virtues. +But at least in my case, are they the ones that I think about the most? And the answer is no. +So I've been thinking about that problem, and a thinker who has helped me think about it is a guy named Joseph Soloveitchik, who was a rabbi who wrote a book called "The Lonely Man Of Faith" in 1965. +Soloveitchik said there are two sides of our natures, which he called Adam I and Adam II. +Adam I is the worldly, ambitious, external side of our nature. +He wants to build, create, create companies, create innovation. +Adam II is the humble side of our nature. +Adam II wants not only to do good but to be good, to live in a way internally that honors God, creation and our possibilities. +Adam I wants to conquer the world. +Adam II wants to hear a calling and obey the world. +Adam I savors accomplishment. +Adam II savors inner consistency and strength. +Adam I asks how things work. +Adam II asks why we're here. +Adam I's motto is "success." +Adam II's motto is "love, redemption and return." +And Soloveitchik argued that these two sides of our nature are at war with each other. +We live in perpetual self-confrontation between the external success and the internal value. +And the tricky thing, I'd say, about these two sides of our nature is they work by different logics. +The external logic is an economic logic: input leads to output, risk leads to reward. +The internal side of our nature is a moral logic and often an inverse logic. +You have to give to receive. +You have to surrender to something outside yourself to gain strength within yourself. +You have to conquer the desire to get what you want. +In order to fulfill yourself, you have to forget yourself. +In order to find yourself, you have to lose yourself. +We happen to live in a society that favors Adam I, and often neglects Adam II. +And the problem is, that turns you into a shrewd animal who treats life as a game, and you become a cold, calculating creature who slips into a sort of mediocrity where you realize there's a difference between your desired self and your actual self. +You're not earning the sort of eulogy you want, you hope someone will give to you. +You don't have the depth of conviction. +You don't have an emotional sonorousness. +You don't have commitment to tasks that would take more than a lifetime to commit. +I was reminded of a common response through history of how you build a solid Adam II, how you build a depth of character. +Adam I is built by building on your strengths. +Adam II is built by fighting your weaknesses. +You go into yourself, you find the sin which you've committed over and again through your life, your signature sin out of which the others emerge, and you fight that sin and you wrestle with that sin, and out of that wrestling, that suffering, then a depth of character is constructed. +And we're often not taught to recognize the sin in ourselves, in that we're not taught in this culture how to wrestle with it, how to confront it, and how to combat it. +We live in a culture with an Adam I mentality where we're inarticulate about Adam II. +Finally, Reinhold Niebuhr summed up the confrontation, the fully lived Adam I and Adam II life, this way: "Nothing that is worth doing can be achieved in our lifetime; therefore we must be saved by hope. +Nothing which is true or beautiful or good makes complete sense in any immediate context of history; therefore we must be saved by faith. +Nothing we do, however virtuous, can be accomplished alone; therefore we must be saved by love. +No virtuous act is quite as virtuous from the standpoint of our friend or foe as from our own standpoint. +Therefore we must be saved by that final form of love, which is forgiveness. Thanks. +When I was born, there was really only one book about how to raise your children, and it was written by Dr. Spock. +Thank you for indulging me. +I have always wanted to do that. +No, it was Benjamin Spock, and his book was called "The Common Sense Book of Baby And Child Care." +It sold almost 50 million copies by the time he died. +Today, I, as the mother of a six-year-old, walk into Barnes and Noble, And it is amazing the variety that one finds on those shelves. +There are guides to raising an eco-friendly kid, a gluten-free kid, a disease-proof kid, which, if you ask me, is a little bit creepy. +There are guides to raising a bilingual kid even if you only speak one language at home. +There are guides to raising a financially savvy kid and a science-minded kid and a kid who is a whiz at yoga. +Short of teaching your toddler how to defuse a nuclear bomb, there is pretty much a guide to everything. +All of these books are well-intentioned. +I am sure that many of them are great. +But taken together, I am sorry, I do not see help when I look at that shelf. +I see anxiety. +I see a giant candy-colored monument to our collective panic, and it makes me want to know, why is it that raising our children is associated with so much anguish and so much confusion? +Why is it that we are at sixes and sevens about the one thing human beings have been doing successfully for millennia, long before parenting message boards and peer-reviewed studies came along? +Why is it that so many mothers and fathers experience parenthood as a kind of crisis? +Crisis might seem like a strong word, but there is data suggesting it probably isn't. +There was, in fact, a paper of just this very name, "Parenthood as Crisis," published in 1957, and in the 50-plus years since, there has been plenty of scholarship documenting a pretty clear pattern of parental anguish. +Parents experience more stress than non-parents. +Their marital satisfaction is lower. +There have been a number of studies looking at how parents feel when they are spending time with their kids, and the answer often is, not so great. +Who are on par with strangers." +But here's the thing. +I have been looking at what underlies these data for three years, and children are not the problem. +Something about parenting right now at this moment is the problem. +Specifically, I don't think we know what parenting is supposed to be. +Parent, as a verb, only entered common usage in 1970. +Our roles as mothers and fathers have changed. +The roles of our children have changed. +We are all now furiously improvising our way through a situation for which there is no script, and if you're an amazing jazz musician, then improv is great, but for the rest of us, it can kind of feel like a crisis. +How is it that we are all now navigating a child-rearing universe without any norms to guide us? +Well, for starters, there has been a major historical change. +Until fairly recently, kids worked, on our farms primarily, but also in factories, mills, mines. +Kids were considered economic assets. +Sometime during the Progressive Era, we put an end to this arrangement. +We recognized kids had rights, we banned child labor, we focused on education instead, and school became a child's new work. +And thank God it did. +But that only made a parent's role more confusing in a way. +The old arrangement might not have been particularly ethical, but it was reciprocal. +We provided food, clothing, shelter, and moral instruction to our kids, and they in return provided income. +Once kids stopped working, the economics of parenting changed. +Kids became, in the words of one brilliant if totally ruthless sociologist, "economically worthless but emotionally priceless." +Rather than them working for us, we began to work for them, because within only a matter of decades it became clear: if we wanted our kids to succeed, school was not enough. +Today, extracurricular activities are a kid's new work, but that's work for us too, because we are the ones driving them to soccer practice. +Massive piles of homework are a kid's new work, but that's also work for us, because we have to check it. +About three years ago, a Texas woman told something to me that totally broke my heart. +She said, almost casually, "Homework is the new dinner." +The middle class now pours all of its time and energy and resources into its kids, even though the middle class has less and less of those things to give. +Mothers now spend more time with their children than they did in 1965, when most women were not even in the workforce. +It would probably be easier for parents to do their new roles if they knew what they were preparing their kids for. +This is yet another thing that makes modern parenting so very confounding. +We have no clue what portion our wisdom, if any, is of use to our kids. +The world is changing so rapidly, it's impossible to say. +This was true even when I was young. +When I was a kid, high school specifically, I was told that I would be at sea in the new global economy if I did not know Japanese. +And with all due respect to the Japanese, it didn't turn out that way. +Now there is a certain kind of middle-class parent that is obsessed with teaching their kids Mandarin, and maybe they're onto something, but we cannot know for sure. +So, absent being able to anticipate the future, what we all do, as good parents, is try and prepare our kids for every possible kind of future, hoping that just one of our efforts will pay off. +We teach our kids chess, thinking maybe they will need analytical skills. +We sign them up for team sports, thinking maybe they will need collaborative skills, you know, for when they go to Harvard Business School. +We try and teach them to be financially savvy and science-minded and eco-friendly and gluten-free, though now is probably a good time to tell you that I was not eco-friendly and gluten-free as a child. +I ate jars of pureed macaroni and beef. +And you know what? I'm doing okay. +I pay my taxes. +I hold down a steady job. +I was even invited to speak at TED. +But the presumption now is that what was good enough for me, or for my folks for that matter, isn't good enough anymore. +So we all make a mad dash to that bookshelf, because we feel like if we aren't trying everything, it's as if we're doing nothing and we're defaulting on our obligations to our kids. +So it's hard enough to navigate our new roles as mothers and fathers. +Now add to this problem something else: we are also navigating new roles as husbands and wives because most women today are in the workforce. +This is another reason, I think, that parenthood feels like a crisis. +We have no rules, no scripts, no norms for what to do when a child comes along now that both mom and dad are breadwinners. +The writer Michael Lewis once put this very, very well. +Without scripts telling us who does what in this brave new world, couples fight, and both mothers and fathers each have their legitimate gripes. +Mothers are much more likely to be multi-tasking when they are at home, and fathers, when they are at home, are much more likely to be mono-tasking. +Find a guy at home, and odds are he is doing just one thing at a time. +In fact, UCLA recently did a study looking at the most common configuration of family members in middle-class homes. +Guess what it was? +Dad in a room by himself. +According to the American Time Use Survey, mothers still do twice as much childcare as fathers, which is better than it was in Erma Bombeck's day, but I still think that something she wrote is highly relevant: "I have not been alone in the bathroom since October." +But here is the thing: Men are doing plenty. +They spend more time with their kids than their fathers ever spent with them. +They work more paid hours, on average, than their wives, and they genuinely want to be good, involved dads. +Today, it is fathers, not mothers, who report the most work-life conflict. +Either way, by the way, if you think it's hard for traditional families to sort out these new roles, just imagine what it's like now for non-traditional families: families with two dads, families with two moms, single-parent households. +They are truly improvising as they go. +Now, in a more progressive country, and forgive me here for capitulating to clich and invoking, yes, Sweden, parents could rely on the state for support. +There are countries that acknowledge the anxieties and the changing roles of mothers and fathers. +Unfortunately, the United States is not one of them, so in case you were wondering what the U.S. +has in common with Papua New Guinea and Liberia, it's this: We too have no paid maternity leave policy. +We are one of eight known countries that does not. +In this age of intense confusion, there is just one goal upon which all parents can agree, and that is whether they are tiger moms or hippie moms, helicopters or drones, our kids' happiness is paramount. +That is what it means to raise kids in an age when they are economically worthless but emotionally priceless. +We are all the custodians of their self-esteem. +The one mantra no parent ever questions is, "All I want is for my children to be happy." +And don't get me wrong: I think happiness is a wonderful goal for a child. +But it is a very elusive one. +Happiness and self-confidence, teaching children that is not like teaching them how to plow a field. +It's not like teaching them how to ride a bike. +There's no curriculum for it. +Happiness and self-confidence can be the byproducts of other things, but they cannot really be goals unto themselves. +is a very unfair burden to place on a parent. +And happiness is an even more unfair burden to place on a kid. +And I have to tell you, I think it leads to some very strange excesses. +We are now so anxious to protect our kids from the world's ugliness that we now shield them from "Sesame Street." +I wish I could say I was kidding about this, but if you go out and you buy the first few episodes of "Sesame Street" on DVD, as I did out of nostalgia, you will find a warning at the beginning saying that the content is not suitable for children. +Can I just repeat that? +The content of the original "Sesame Street" is not suitable for children. +When asked about this by The New York Times, a producer for the show gave a variety of explanations. +One was that Cookie Monster smoked a pipe in one skit and then swallowed it. +Bad modeling. I don't know. +But the thing that stuck with me is she said that she didn't know whether Oscar the Grouch could be invented today because he was too depressive. +I cannot tell you how much this distresses me. +You are looking at a woman who has a periodic table of the Muppets hanging from her cubicle wall. +The offending muppet, right there. +That's my son the day he was born. +I was high as a kite on morphine. +I had had an unexpected C-section. +But even in my opiate haze, I managed to have one very clear thought the first time I held him. +I whispered it into his ear. +I said, "I will try so hard not to hurt you." +It was the Hippocratic Oath, and I didn't even know I was saying it. +But it occurs to me now that the Hippocratic Oath is a much more realistic aim than happiness. +In fact, as any parent will tell you, it's awfully hard. +All of us have said or done hurtful things that we wish to God we could take back. +I think in another era we did not expect quite so much from ourselves, and it is important that we all remember that the next time we are staring with our hearts racing at those bookshelves. +I'm not really sure how to create new norms for this world, but I do think that in our desperate quest to create happy kids, we may be assuming the wrong moral burden. +It strikes me as a better goal, and, dare I say, a more virtuous one, to focus on making productive kids and moral kids, and to simply hope that happiness will come to them by virtue of the good that they do and their accomplishments and the love that they feel from us. +That, anyway, is one response to having no script. +Absent having new scripts, we just follow the oldest ones in the book -- decency, a work ethic, love and let happiness and self-esteem take care of themselves. +I think if we all did that, the kids would still be all right, and so would their parents, possibly in both cases even better. +Thank you. +The universe is teeming with planets. +I want us, in the next decade, to build a space telescope that'll be able to image an Earth about another star and figure out whether it can harbor life. +My colleagues at the NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory at Princeton and I are working on technology that will be able to do just that in the coming years. +Astronomers now believe that every star in the galaxy has a planet, and they speculate that up to one fifth of them have an Earth-like planet that might be able to harbor life, but we haven't seen any of them. +We've only detected them indirectly. +This is NASA's famous picture of the pale blue dot. +It was taken by the Voyager spacecraft in 1990, when they turned it around as it was exiting the solar system to take a picture of the Earth from six billion kilometers away. +I want to take that of an Earth-like planet about another star. +Why haven't we done that? Why is that hard? +Well to see, let's imagine we take the Hubble Space Telescope and we turn it around and we move it out to the orbit of Mars. +We'll see something like that, a slightly blurry picture of the Earth, because we're a fairly small telescope out at the orbit of Mars. +Now let's move ten times further away. +Here we are at the orbit of Uranus. +It's gotten smaller, it's got less detail, less resolve. +We can still see the little moon, but let's go ten times further away again. +Here we are at the edge of the solar system, out at the Kuiper Belt. +Now it's not resolved at all. +It's that pale blue dot of Carl Sagan's. +But let's move yet again ten times further away. +Here we are out at the Oort Cloud, outside the solar system, and we're starting to see the sun move into the field of view and get into where the planet is. +One more time, ten times further away. +Now we're at Alpha Centauri, our nearest neighbor star, and the planet is gone. +All we're seeing is the big beaming image of the star that's ten billion times brighter than the planet, which should be in that little red circle. +That's what we want to see. That's why it's hard. +The light from the star is diffracting. +It's scattering inside the telescope, creating that very bright image that washes out the planet. +So to see the planet, we have to do something about all of that light. +We have to get rid of it. +I have a lot of colleagues working on really amazing technologies to do that, but I want to tell you about one today that I think is the coolest, and probably the most likely to get us an Earth in the next decade. +It was first suggested by Lyman Spitzer, the father of the space telescope, in 1962, and he took his inspiration from an eclipse. +You've all seen that. That's a solar eclipse. +The moon has moved in front of the sun. +It blocks out most of the light so we can see that dim corona around it. +It would be the same thing if I put my thumb up and blocked that spotlight that's getting right in my eye, I can see you in the back row. +Well, what's going on? +Well the moon is casting a shadow down on the Earth. +We put a telescope or a camera in that shadow, we look back at the sun, and most of the light's been removed and we can see that dim, fine structure in the corona. +Spitzer's suggestion was we do this in space. +We build a big screen, we fly it in space, we put it up in front of the star, we block out most of the light, we fly a space telescope in that shadow that's created, and boom, we get to see planets. +Well that would look something like this. +So there's that big screen, and there's no planets, because unfortunately it doesn't actually work very well, because the light waves of the light and waves diffracts around that screen the same way it did in the telescope. +It's like water bending around a rock in a stream, and all that light just destroys the shadow. +It's a terrible shadow. And we can't see planets. +But Spitzer actually knew the answer. +If we can feather the edges, soften those edges so we can control diffraction, well then we can see a planet, and in the last 10 years or so we've come up with optimal solutions for doing that. +It looks something like that. +We call that our flower petal starshade. +If we make the edges of those petals exactly right, if we control their shape, we can control diffraction, and now we have a great shadow. +It's about 10 billion times dimmer than it was before, and we can see the planets beam out just like that. +That, of course, has to be bigger than my thumb. +That starshade is about the size of half a football field and it has to fly 50,000 kilometers away from the telescope that has to be held right in its shadow, and then we can see those planets. +This sounds formidable, but brilliant engineers, colleagues of mine at JPL, came up with a fabulous design for how to do that and it looks like this. +It starts wrapped around a hub. +It separates from the telescope. +The petals unfurl, they open up, the telescope turns around. +Then you'll see it flip and fly out that 50,000 kilometers away from the telescope. +It's going to move in front of the star just like that, creates a wonderful shadow. +Boom, we get planets orbiting about it. +Thank you. +That's not science fiction. +We've been working on this for the last five or six years. +Last summer, we did a really cool test out in California at Northrop Grumman. +So those are four petals. +This is a sub-scale star shade. +It's about half the size of the one you just saw. +You'll see the petals unfurl. +Those four petals were built by four undergraduates doing a summer internship at JPL. +Now you're seeing it deploy. +Those petals have to rotate into place. +The base of those petals has to go to the same place every time to within a tenth of a millimeter. +We ran this test 16 times, and 16 times it went into the exact same place to a tenth of a millimeter. +This has to be done very precisely, but if we can do this, if we can build this technology, if we can get it into space, you might see something like this. +That's a picture of one our nearest neighbor stars taken with the Hubble Space Telescope. +If we can take a similar space telescope, slightly larger, put it out there, fly an occulter in front of it, what we might see is something like that -- that's a family portrait of our solar system -- but not ours. +We're hoping it'll be someone else's solar system as seen through an occulter, through a starshade like that. +You can see Jupiter, you can see Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and right there in the center, next to the residual light is that pale blue dot. That's Earth. +We want to see that, see if there's water, oxygen, ozone, the things that might tell us that it could harbor life. +I think this is the coolest possible science. +That's why I got into doing this, because I think that will change the world. +That will change everything when we see that. +Thank you. +Type is something we consume in enormous quantities. +In much of the world, it's completely inescapable. +But few consumers are concerned to know where a particular typeface came from or when or who designed it, if, indeed, there was any human agency involved in its creation, if it didn't just sort of materialize out of the software ether. +But I do have to be concerned with those things. +It's my job. +I'm one of the tiny handful of people who gets badly bent out of shape by the bad spacing of the T and the E that you see there. +I've got to take that slide off. +I can't stand it. Nor can Chris. +There. Good. +So my talk is about the connection between technology and design of type. +The technology has changed a number of times since I started work: photo, digital, desktop, screen, web. +I've had to survive those changes and try to understand their implications for what I do for design. +This slide is about the effect of tools on form. +The two letters, the two K's, the one on your left, my right, is modern, made on a computer. +All straight lines are dead straight. +The curves have that kind of mathematical smoothness that the Bzier formula imposes. +On the right, ancient Gothic, cut in the resistant material of steel by hand. +None of the straight lines are actually straight. +The curves are kind of subtle. +It has that spark of life from the human hand that the machine or the program can never capture. +What a contrast. +Well, I tell a lie. +A lie at TED. I'm really sorry. +Both of these were made on a computer, same software, same Bzier curves, same font format. +The one on your left was made by Zuzana Licko at Emigre, and I did the other one. +The tool is the same, yet the letters are different. +The letters are different because the designers are different. +That's all. Zuzana wanted hers to look like that. +I wanted mine to look like that. End of story. +Type is very adaptable. +Unlike a fine art, such as sculpture or architecture, type hides its methods. +I think of myself as an industrial designer. +The thing I design is manufactured, and it has a function: to be read, to convey meaning. +But there is a bit more to it than that. +There's the sort of aesthetic element. +What makes these two letters different from different interpretations by different designers? +What gives the work of some designers sort of characteristic personal style, as you might find in the work of a fashion designer, an automobile designer, whatever? +There have been some cases, I admit, where I as a designer did feel the influence of technology. +This is from the mid-'60s, the change from metal type to photo, hot to cold. +This brought some benefits but also one particular drawback: a spacing system that only provided 18 discrete units for letters to be accommodated on. +I was asked at this time to design a series of condensed sans serif types with as many different variants as possible within this 18-unit box. +Quickly looking at the arithmetic, I realized I could only actually make three of related design. Here you see them. +In Helvetica Compressed, Extra Compressed, and Ultra Compressed, this rigid 18-unit system really boxed me in. +It kind of determined the proportions of the design. +Here are the typefaces, at least the lower cases. +So do you look at these and say, "Poor Matthew, he had to submit to a problem, and by God it shows in the results." +I hope not. +If I were doing this same job today, instead of having 18 spacing units, I would have 1,000. +Clearly I could make more variants, but would these three members of the family be better? +It's hard to say without actually doing it, but they would not be better in the proportion of 1,000 to 18, I can tell you that. +My instinct tells you that any improvement would be rather slight, because they were designed as functions of the system they were designed to fit, and as I said, type is very adaptable. +It does hide its methods. +All industrial designers work within constraints. +This is not fine art. +The question is, does a constraint force a compromise? +By accepting a constraint, are you working to a lower standard? +I don't believe so, and I've always been encouraged by something that Charles Eames said. +He said he was conscious of working within constraints, but not of making compromises. +The distinction between a constraint and a compromise is obviously very subtle, but it's very central to my attitude to work. +Remember this reading experience? +The phone book. I'll hold the slide so you can enjoy the nostalgia. +This is from the mid-'70s early trials of Bell Centennial typeface I designed for the U.S. phone books, and it was my first experience of digital type, and quite a baptism. +Designed for the phone books, as I said, to be printed at tiny size on newsprint on very high-speed rotary presses with ink that was kerosene and lampblack. +This is not a hospitable environment for a typographic designer. +So the challenge for me was to design type that performed as well as possible in these very adverse production conditions. +As I say, we were in the infancy of digital type. +I had to draw every character by hand on quadrille graph paper -- there were four weights of Bell Centennial pixel by pixel, then encode them raster line by raster line for the keyboard. +It took two years, but I learned a lot. +These letters look as though they've been chewed by the dog or something or other, but the missing pixels at the intersections of strokes or in the crotches are the result of my studying the effects of ink spread on cheap paper and reacting, revising the font accordingly. +These strange artifacts are designed to compensate for the undesirable effects of scale and production process. +At the outset, AT&T had wanted to set the phone books in Helvetica, but as my friend Erik Spiekermann said in the Helvetica movie, if you've seen that, the letters in Helvetica were designed to be as similar to one another as possible. +This is not the recipe for legibility at small size. +It looks very elegant up on a slide. +I had to disambiguate these forms of the figures as much as possible in Bell Centennial by sort of opening the shapes up, as you can see in the bottom part of that slide. +So now we're on to the mid-'80s, the early days of digital outline fonts, vector technology. +There was an issue at that time with the size of the fonts, the amount of data that was required to find and store a font in computer memory. +It limited the number of fonts you could get on your typesetting system at any one time. +I did an analysis of the data, and found that a typical serif face you see on the left needed nearly twice as much data as a sans serif in the middle because of all the points required to define the elegantly curved serif brackets. +The numbers at the bottom of the slide, by the way, they represent the amount of data needed to store each of the fonts. +So the sans serif, in the middle, sans the serifs, was much more economical, 81 to 151. +"Aha," I thought. "The engineers have a problem. +Designer to the rescue." +I made a serif type, you can see it on the right, without curved serifs. +I made them polygonal, out of straight line segments, chamfered brackets. +And look, as economical in data as a sans serif. +We call it Charter, on the right. +So I went to the head of engineering with my numbers, and I said proudly, "I have solved your problem." +"Oh," he said. "What problem?" +And I said, "Well, you know, the problem of the huge data you require for serif fonts and so on." +"Oh," he said. "We solved that problem last week. +We wrote a compaction routine that reduces the size of all fonts by an order of magnitude. +You can have as many fonts on your system as you like." +"Well, thank you for letting me know," I said. +Foiled again. +I was left with a design solution for a nonexistent technical problem. +But here is where the story sort of gets interesting for me. +I didn't just throw my design away in a fit of pique. +I persevered. +What had started as a technical exercise became an aesthetic exercise, really. +In other words, I had come to like this typeface. +Forget its origins. Screw that. +I liked the design for its own sake. +The simplified forms of Charter gave it a sort of plain-spoken quality and unfussy spareness that sort of pleased me. +You know, at times of technical innovation, designers want to be influenced by what's in the air. +We want to respond. We want to be pushed into exploring something new. +So Charter is a sort of parable for me, really. +In the end, there was no hard and fast causal link between the technology and the design of Charter. +I had really misunderstood the technology. +The technology did suggest something to me, but it did not force my hand, and I think this happens very often. +You know, engineers are very smart, and despite occasional frustrations because I'm less smart, I've always enjoyed working with them and learning from them. +Apropos, in the mid-'90s, I started talking to Microsoft about screen fonts. +Up to that point, all the fonts on screen had been adapted from previously existing printing fonts, of course. +But Microsoft foresaw correctly the movement, the stampede towards electronic communication, to reading and writing onscreen with the printed output as being sort of secondary in importance. +So the priorities were just tipping at that point. +They wanted a small core set of fonts that were not adapted but designed for the screen to face up to the problems of screen, which were their coarse resolution displays. +I said to Microsoft, a typeface designed for a particular technology is a self-obsoleting typeface. +I've designed too many faces in the past that were intended to mitigate technical problems. +Thanks to the engineers, the technical problems went away. +So did my typeface. +It was only a stopgap. +Microsoft came back to say that affordable computer monitors with better resolutions were at least a decade away. +So I thought, well, a decade, that's not bad, that's more than a stopgap. +So I was persuaded, I was convinced, and we went to work on what became Verdana and Georgia, for the first time working not on paper but directly onto the screen from the pixel up. +At that time, screens were binary. +The pixel was either on or it was off. +Here you see the outline of a letter, the cap H, which is the thin black line, the contour, which is how it is stored in memory, superimposed on the bitmap, which is the grey area, which is how it's displayed on the screen. +The bitmap is rasterized from the outline. +Here in a cap H, which is all straight lines, the two are in almost perfect sync on the Cartesian grid. +Not so with an O. +This looks more like bricklaying than type design, but believe me, this is a good bitmap O, for the simple reason that it's symmetrical in both x and y axes. +In a binary bitmap, you actually can't ask for more than that. +I would sometimes make, I don't know, three or four different versions of a difficult letter like a lowercase A, and then stand back to choose which was the best. +Well, there was no best, so the designer's judgment comes in in trying to decide which is the least bad. +Is that a compromise? +Not to me, if you are working at the highest standard the technology will allow, although that standard may be well short of the ideal. +You may be able to see on this slide two different bitmap fonts there. +The "a" in the upper one, I think, is better than the "a" in the lower one, but it still ain't great. +You can maybe see the effect better if it's reduced. Well, maybe not. +So I'm a pragmatist, not an idealist, out of necessity. +For a certain kind of temperament, there is a certain kind of satisfaction in doing something that cannot be perfect but can still be done to the best of your ability. +Here's the lowercase H from Georgia Italic. +The bitmap looks jagged and rough. +It is jagged and rough. +But I discovered, by experiment, that there is an optimum slant for an italic on a screen so the strokes break well at the pixel boundaries. +Look in this example how, rough as it is, how the left and right legs actually break at the same level. +That's a victory. That's good, right there. +And of course, at the lower depths, you don't get much choice. +This is an S, in case you were wondering. +Well, it's been 18 years now since Verdana and Georgia were released. +Microsoft were absolutely right, it took a good 10 years, but screen displays now do have improved spatial resolution, and very much improved photometric resolution thanks to anti-aliasing and so on. +So now that their mission is accomplished, has that meant the demise of the screen fonts that I designed for coarser displays back then? +Will they outlive the now-obsolete screens and the flood of new web fonts coming on to the market? +Or have they established their own sort of evolutionary niche that is independent of technology? +In other words, have they been absorbed into the typographic mainstream? +I'm not sure, but they've had a good run so far. +Hey, 18 is a good age for anything with present-day rates of attrition, so I'm not complaining. +Thank you. +I feel so fortunate that my first job was working at the Museum of Modern Art on a retrospective of painter Elizabeth Murray. +I learned so much from her. +After the curator Robert Storr selected all the paintings from her lifetime body of work, I loved looking at the paintings from the 1970s. +There were some motifs and elements that would come up again later in her life. +I remember asking her what she thought of those early works. +If you didn't know they were hers, you might not have been able to guess. +She told me that a few didn't quite meet her own mark for what she wanted them to be. +One of the works, in fact, so didn't meet her mark, she had set it out in the trash in her studio, and her neighbor had taken it because she saw its value. +In that moment, my view of success and creativity changed. +I realized that success is a moment, but what we're always celebrating is creativity and mastery. +But this is the thing: What gets us to convert success into mastery? +This is a question I've long asked myself. +I think it comes when we start to value the gift of a near win. +I started to understand this when I went on one cold May day to watch a set of varsity archers, all women as fate would have it, at the northern tip of Manhattan at Columbia's Baker Athletics Complex. +I wanted to see what's called archer's paradox, the idea that in order to actually hit your target, you have to aim at something slightly skew from it. +I stood and watched as the coach drove up these women in this gray van, and they exited with this kind of relaxed focus. +One held a half-eaten ice cream cone in one hand and arrows in the left with yellow fletching. +And they passed me and smiled, but they sized me up as they made their way to the turf, and spoke to each other not with words but with numbers, degrees, I thought, positions for how they might plan to hit their target. +I stood behind one archer as her coach stood in between us to maybe assess who might need support, and watched her, and I didn't understand how even one was going to hit the ten ring. +The ten ring from the standard 75-yard distance, it looks as small as a matchstick tip held out at arm's length. +And this is while holding 50 pounds of draw weight on each shot. +She first hit a seven, I remember, and then a nine, and then two tens, and then the next arrow didn't even hit the target. +And I saw that gave her more tenacity, and she went after it again and again. +For three hours this went on. +At the end of the practice, one of the archers was so taxed that she lied out on the ground just star-fished, her head looking up at the sky, trying to find what T.S. Eliot might call that still point of the turning world. +It's so rare in American culture, there's so little that's vocational about it anymore, with this level of exactitude, what it means to align your body posture for three hours in order to hit a target, pursuing a kind of excellence in obscurity. +But I stayed because I realized I was witnessing what's so rare to glimpse, that difference between success and mastery. +So success is hitting that ten ring, but mastery is knowing that it means nothing if you can't do it again and again. +Mastery is not just the same as excellence, though. +It's not the same as success, which I see as an event, a moment in time, and a label that the world confers upon you. +Mastery is not a commitment to a goal but to a constant pursuit. +What gets us to do this, what get us to forward thrust more is to value the near win. +How many times have we designated something a classic, a masterpiece even, while its creator considers it hopelessly unfinished, riddled with difficulties and flaws, in other words, a near win? +Elizabeth Murray surprised me with her admission about her earlier paintings. +Painter Paul Czanne so often thought his works were incomplete that he would deliberately leave them aside with the intention of picking them back up again, but at the end of his life, the result was that he had only signed 10 percent of his paintings. +His favorite novel was "The [Unknown] Masterpiece" by Honor de Balzac, and he felt the protagonist was the painter himself. +Franz Kafka saw incompletion when others would find only works to praise, so much so that he wanted all of his diaries, manuscripts, letters and even sketches burned upon his death. +His friend refused to honor the request, and because of that, we now have all the works we now do by Kafka: "America," "The Trial" and "The Castle," a work so incomplete it even stops mid-sentence. +The pursuit of mastery, in other words, is an ever-onward almost. +"Lord, grant that I desire more than I can accomplish," Michelangelo implored, as if to that Old Testament God on the Sistine Chapel, and he himself was that Adam with his finger outstretched and not quite touching that God's hand. +Mastery is in the reaching, not the arriving. +It's in constantly wanting to close that gap between where you are and where you want to be. +Mastery is about sacrificing for your craft and not for the sake of crafting your career. +How many inventors and untold entrepreneurs live out this phenomenon? +We see it even in the life of the indomitable Arctic explorer Ben Saunders, who tells me that his triumphs are not merely the result of a grand achievement, but of the propulsion of a lineage of near wins. +We thrive when we stay at our own leading edge. +It's a wisdom understood by Duke Ellington, who said that his favorite song out of his repertoire was always the next one, always the one he had yet to compose. +Part of the reason that the near win is inbuilt to mastery is because the greater our proficiency, the more clearly we might see that we don't know all that we thought we did. +It's called the DunningKruger effect. +The Paris Review got it out of James Baldwin when they asked him, "What do you think increases with knowledge?" +and he said, "You learn how little you know." +Success motivates us, but a near win can propel us in an ongoing quest. +One of the most vivid examples of this comes when we look at the difference between Olympic silver medalists and bronze medalists after a competition. +The reason the near win has a propulsion is because it changes our view of the landscape and puts our goals, which we tend to put at a distance, into more proximate vicinity to where we stand. +If I ask you to envision what a great day looks like next week, you might describe it in more general terms. +But if I ask you to describe a great day at TED tomorrow, you might describe it with granular, practical clarity. +And this is what a near win does. +It gets us to focus on what, right now, we plan to do to address that mountain in our sights. +It's Jackie Joyner-Kersee, who in 1984 missed taking the gold in the heptathlon by one third of a second, and her husband predicted that would give her the tenacity she needed in follow-up competition. +In 1988, she won the gold in the heptathlon and set a record of 7,291 points, a score that no athlete has come very close to since. +We thrive not when we've done it all, but when we still have more to do. +I stand here thinking and wondering about all the different ways that we might even manufacture a near win in this room, how your lives might play this out, because I think on some gut level we do know this. +We know that we thrive when we stay at our own leading edge, and it's why the deliberate incomplete is inbuilt into creation myths. +In Navajo culture, some craftsmen and women would deliberately put an imperfection in textiles and ceramics. +It's what's called a spirit line, a deliberate flaw in the pattern to give the weaver or maker a way out, but also a reason to continue making work. +Masters are not experts because they take a subject to its conceptual end. +They're masters because they realize that there isn't one. +It didn't sound like a complaint, exactly, but just a way to let me know, a kind of tender admission, to remind me that he knew he was giving himself over to a voracious, unfinished path that always required more. +We build out of the unfinished idea, even if that idea is our former self. +This is the dynamic of mastery. +Coming close to what you thought you wanted can help you attain more than you ever dreamed you could. +It's what I have to imagine Elizabeth Murray was thinking when I saw her smiling at those early paintings one day in the galleries. +Even if we created utopias, I believe we would still have the incomplete. +Completion is a goal, but we hope it is never the end. +Thank you. +The Earth needs no introduction. +It needs no introduction in part because the Apollo 17 astronauts, when they were hurtling around the moon in 1972, took this iconic image. +It galvanized a whole generation of human beings to realize that we're on Spaceship Earth, fragile and finite as it is, and that we need to take care of it. +But while this picture is beautiful, it's static, and the Earth is constantly changing. +It's changing on days' time scales with human activity. +And the satellite imagery we have of it today is old. +Typically, years old. +And that's important because you can't fix what you can't see. +What we'd ideally want is images of the whole planet every day. +So, what's standing in our way? +What's the problem? +This is the problem: Satellites are big, expensive and they're slow. +This one weighs three tons. +It's six meters tall, four meters wide. +It took up the entire fairing of a rocket just to launch it. +One satellite, one rocket. +It cost 855 million dollars. +Satellites like these have done an amazing job at helping us to understand our planet. +But if we want to understand it much more regularly, we need lots of satellites, and this model isn't scalable. +So me and my friends, we started Planet Labs to make satellites ultra-compact and small and highly capable. +I'm going to show you what our satellite looks like: This is our satellite. +This is not a scale model, this is the real size. +It's 10 by 10 by 30 centimeters, it weighs four kilograms, and we've stuffed the latest and greatest electronics and sensor systems into this little package so that even though this is really small, this can take pictures 10 times the resolution of the big satellite here, even though it weighs one thousandth of the mass. +And we call this satellite "Dove" Thank you. +We call this satellite "Dove," and we call it "Dove" because satellites are typically named after birds, but normally birds of prey: like Eagle, Hawk, Swoop, Kill, I don't know, Kestrel, these sort of things. +But ours have a humanitarian mission, so we wanted to call them Doves. +And we haven't just built them, though. +We've launched them. +And not just one, but many. +It all started in our garage. +Yes, we built our first satellite prototype in our garage. +Now, this is pretty normal for a Silicon Valley company that we are, but we believe it's the first time for a space company. +And that's not the only trick we learned from Silicon Valley. +We rapidly prototype our satellites. +We use "release early, release often" on our software. +And we take a different risk approach. +We take them outside and test them. +We even put satellites in space just to test the satellites, and we've learned to manufacture our satellites at scale. +We've used modern production techniques so we can build large numbers of them, I think for the first time. +We call it agile aerospace, and that's what's enabled us to put so much capability into this little box. +Now, what has bonded our team over the years is the idea of democratizing access to satellite information. +In fact, the founders of our company, Chris, Robbie and I, we met over 15 years ago at the United Nations when they were hosting a conference about exactly that question: How do you use satellites to help humanity? +How do you use satellites to help people in developing countries or with climate change? +And this is what has bonded us. +Our entire team is passionate about using satellites to help humanity. +You could say we're space geeks, but not only do we care about what's up there, we care about what's down here, too. +I'm going to show you a video from just four weeks ago of two of our satellites being launched from the International Space Station. +This is not an animation, this is a video taken by the astronaut looking out of the window. +It gives you a bit of a sense of scale of our two satellites. +It's like some of the smallest satellites ever are being launched from the biggest satellite ever. +And right at the end, the solar array glints in the sun. +It's really cool. Wait for it. +Boom! Yeah. It's the money shot. +So we didn't just launch two of them like this, we launched 28 of them. +It's the largest constellation of Earth-imaging satellites in human history, and it's going to provide a completely radical new data set about our changing planet. +But that's just the beginning. +You see, we're going to launch more than 100 of these satellites like these over the course of the next year. +It's going to be the largest constellation of satellites in human history. +And this is what it's going to do: Acting in a single-orbit plane that stays fixed with respect to the sun, the Earth rotates underneath. +They're all cameras pointed down, and they slowly scan across as the Earth rotates underneath. +The Earth rotates every 24 hours, so we scan every point on the planet every 24 hours. +It's a line scanner for the planet. +We don't take a picture of anywhere on the planet every day, we take a picture of every single place on the planet every day. +Even though we launched these just a couple of weeks ago, we've already got some initial imagery from the satellites and I'm going to show it publicly for the first time right now. +This is the very first picture taken by our satellite. +It happened to be over UC-Davis' campus in California when we turned the camera on. +But what's even cooler is when we compare it to the previous latest image of that area, which was taken many months ago. +And the image on the left is from our satellite, and we see buildings are being built. +The general point is that we will be able to track urban growth as it happens around the whole world in all cities, every day. +Water as well. +Thank you. +We'll be able to see the extent of all water bodies around the whole world every day and help water security. +From water security to food security. +We'll see crops as they grow in all the fields in every farmer's field around the planet every day. +and help them to improve crop yield. +This is a beautiful image that was taken just a few hours ago when the satellite was flying over Argentina. +The general point is there are probably hundreds and thousands of applications of this data, I've mentioned a few, but there's others: deforestation, the ice caps melting. +We can track all of these things, every tree on the planet every day. +If you took the difference between today's image and yesterday's image, you'd see much of the world news you'd see floods and fires and earthquakes. +And we have decided, therefore, that the best thing that we could do with our data is to ensure universal access to it. +We want to ensure everyone can see it. +Thank you. We want to empower NGOs and companies and scientists and journalists to be able to answer the questions that they have about the planet. +We want to enable the developer community to run their apps on our data. +In short, we want to democratize access to information about our planet. +Which brings me back to this. +You see, this will be an entirely new global data set. +And we believe that together, we can help to take care of our Spaceship Earth. +And what I would like to leave you with is the following question: If you had access to imagery of the whole planet every single day, what would you do with that data? +What problems would you solve? +What exploration would you do? +Well, I invite you to come and explore with us. +Thank you very much. +So, a few years ago I was at JFK Airport about to get on a flight, when I was approached by two women who I do not think would be insulted to hear themselves described as tiny old tough-talking Italian-American broads. +The taller one, who is like up here, she comes marching up to me, and she goes, "Honey, I gotta ask you something. +You got something to do with that whole 'Eat, Pray, Love' thing that's been going on lately?" +And I said, "Yes, I did." +And she smacks her friend and she goes, "See, I told you, I said, that's that girl. +That's that girl who wrote that book based on that movie." +So that's who I am. +And believe me, I'm extremely grateful to be that person, because that whole "Eat, Pray, Love" thing was a huge break for me. +So I knew that I had no way to win, and knowing that I had no way to win made me seriously consider for a while just quitting the game and moving to the country to raise corgis. +But if I had done that, if I had given up writing, I would have lost my beloved vocation, so I knew that the task was that I had to find some way to gin up the inspiration to write the next book regardless of its inevitable negative outcome. +In other words, I had to find a way to make sure that my creativity survived its own success. +And I did, in the end, find that inspiration, but I found it in the most unlikely and unexpected place. +I found it in lessons that I had learned earlier in life about how creativity can survive its own failure. +So just to back up and explain, the only thing I have ever wanted to be for my whole life was a writer. +I wrote all through childhood, all through adolescence, by the time I was a teenager I was sending my very bad stories to The New Yorker, hoping to be discovered. +After college, I got a job as a diner waitress, kept working, kept writing, kept trying really hard to get published, and failing at it. +I failed at getting published for almost six years. +So for almost six years, every single day, I had nothing but rejection letters waiting for me in my mailbox. +And it was devastating every single time, and every single time, I had to ask myself if I should just quit while I was behind and give up and spare myself this pain. +But then I would find my resolve, and always in the same way, by saying, "I'm not going to quit, I'm going home." +And you have to understand that for me, going home did not mean returning to my family's farm. +And that's how I pushed through it. +She had failed constantly. +I had succeeded beyond my wildest expectation. +We had nothing in common. +Why did I suddenly feel like I was her all over again? +And it was only when I was trying to unthread that that I finally began to comprehend the strange and unlikely psychological connection in our lives between the way we experience great failure and the way we experience great success. +So think of it like this: For most of your life, you live out your existence here in the middle of the chain of human experience where everything is normal and reassuring and regular, but failure catapults you abruptly way out over here into the blinding darkness of disappointment. +Success catapults you just as abruptly but just as far way out over here into the equally blinding glare of fame and recognition and praise. +And one of these fates is objectively seen by the world as bad, and the other one is objectively seen by the world as good, but your subconscious is completely incapable of discerning the difference between bad and good. +The only thing that it is capable of feeling is the absolute value of this emotional equation, the exact distance that you have been flung from yourself. +And there's a real equal danger in both cases of getting lost out there in the hinterlands of the psyche. +So that might be creativity, it might be family, it might be invention, adventure, faith, service, it might be raising corgis, I don't know, your home is that thing to which you can dedicate your energies with such singular devotion that the ultimate results become inconsequential. +For me, that home has always been writing. +So after the weird, disorienting success that I went through with "Eat, Pray, Love," I realized that all I had to do was exactly the same thing that I used to have to do all the time when I was an equally disoriented failure. +I had to get my ass back to work, and that's what I did, and that's how, in 2010, I was able to publish the dreaded follow-up to "Eat, Pray, Love." +And you know what happened with that book? +It bombed, and I was fine. +Actually, I kind of felt bulletproof, because I knew that I had broken the spell and I had found my way back home to writing for the sheer devotion of it. +And I stayed in my home of writing after that, and I wrote another book that just came out last year and that one was really beautifully received, which is very nice, but not my point. +My point is that I'm writing another one now, and I'll write another book after that and another and another and another and many of them will fail, and some of them might succeed, but I will always be safe from the random hurricanes of outcome as long as I never forget where I rightfully live. +Look, I don't know where you rightfully live, but I know that there's something in this world that you love more than you love yourself. +Something worthy, by the way, so addiction and infatuation don't count, because we all know that those are not safe places to live. Right? +The only trick is that you've got to identify the best, worthiest thing that you love most, and then build your house right on top of it and don't budge from it. +You just do that, and keep doing that again and again and again, and I can absolutely promise you, from long personal experience in every direction, I can assure you that it's all going to be okay. +Thank you. +A computer is an incredibly powerful means of creative expression, but for the most part, that expression is confined to the screens of our laptops and mobile phones. +And I'd like to tell you a story about bringing this power of the computer to move things around and interact with us off of the screen and into the physical world in which we live. +A few years ago, I got a call from a luxury fashion store called Barneys New York, and the next thing I knew, I was designing storefront kinetic sculptures for their window displays. +This one's called "The Chase." +There are two pairs of shoes, a man's pair and a woman's pair, and they play out this slow, tense chase around the window in which the man scoots up behind the woman and gets in her personal space, and then she moves away. +Each of the shoes has magnets in it, and there are magnets underneath the table that move the shoes around. +My friend Andy Cavatorta was building a robotic harp for Bjork's Biophilia tour and I wound up building the electronics and motion control software to make the harps move and play music. +The harp has four separate pendulums, and each pendulum has 11 strings, so the harp swings on its axis and also rotates in order to play different musical notes, and the harps are all networked together so that they can play the right notes at the right time in the music. +I built an interactive chemistry exhibit at the Museum of Science and Industry in Chicago, and this exhibit lets people use physical objects to grab chemical elements off of the periodic table and bring them together to cause chemical reactions to happen. +And the museum noticed that people were spending a lot of time with this exhibit, and a researcher from a science education center in Australia decided to study this exhibit and try to figure out what was going on. +And she found that the physical objects that people were using were helping people understand how to use the exhibit, and were helping people learn in a social way. +And when you think about it, this makes a lot of sense, that using specialized physical objects would help people use an interface more easily. +I mean, our hands and our minds are optimized to think about and interact with tangible objects. +Think about which you find easier to use, a physical keyboard or an onscreen keyboard like on a phone? +But the thing that struck me about all of these different projects is that they really had to be built from scratch, down to the level of the electronics and the printed circuit boards and all the mechanisms all the way up to the software. +I wanted to create something where we could move objects under computer control and create interactions around that idea without having to go through this process of building something from scratch every single time. +So my first attempt at this was at the MIT Media Lab with Professor Hiroshi Ishii, and we built this array of 512 different electromagnets, and together they were able to move objects around on top of their surface. +But the problem with this was that these magnets cost over 10,000 dollars. +Although each one was pretty small, altogether they weighed so much that the table that they were on started to sag. +So I wanted to build something where you could have this kind of interaction on any tabletop surface. +So to explore this idea, I built an army of small robots, and each of these robots has what are called omni wheels. +They're these special wheels that can move equally easily in all directions, and when you couple these robots with a video projector, you have these physical tools for interacting with digital information. +So here's an example of what I mean. +This is a video editing application where all of the controls for manipulating the video are physical. +So if we want to tweak the color, we just enter the color mode, and then we get three different dials for tweaking the color, or if we want to adjust the audio, then we get two different dials for that, these physical objects. +So here the left and right channel stay in sync, but if we want to, we can override that by grabbing both of them at the same time. +So the idea is that we get the speed and efficiency benefits of using these physical dials together with the flexibility and versatility of a system that's designed in software. +And this is a mapping application for disaster response. +So you have these physical objects that represent police, fire and rescue, and a dispatcher can grab them and place them on the map to tell those units where to go, and then the position of the units on the map gets synced up with the position of those units in the real world. +This is a video chat application. +It's amazing how much emotion you can convey with just a few simple movements of a physical object. +With this interface, we open up a huge array of possibilities in between traditional board games and arcade games, where the physical possibilities of interaction make so many different styles of play possible. +But one of the areas that I'm most excited about using this platform for is applying it to problems that are difficult for computers or people to solve alone. +One example of those is protein folding. +So here we have an interface where we have physical handles onto a protein, and we can grab those handles and try to move the protein and try to fold it in different ways. +And if we move it in a way that doesn't really make sense with the underlying molecular simulation, we get this physical feedback where we can actually feel these physical handles pulling back against us. +So feeling what's going on inside a molecular simulation is a whole different level of interaction. +So we're just beginning to explore what's possible when we use software to control the movement of objects in our environment. +Maybe this is the computer of the future. +There's no touchscreen. +There's no technology visible at all. +But when we want to have a video chat or play a game or lay out the slides to our next TED Talk, the objects on the table come alive. +Thank you. +"Why?" +"Why?" is a question that parents ask me all the time. +"Why did my child develop autism?" +As a pediatrician, as a geneticist, as a researcher, we try and address that question. +But autism is not a single condition. +That same diagnosis of autism, though, also applies to Gabriel, another 13-year-old boy who has quite a different set of challenges. +He's actually quite remarkably gifted in mathematics. +He can multiple three numbers by three numbers in his head with ease, yet when it comes to trying to have a conversation, he has great difficulty. +He doesn't make eye contact. +He has difficulty starting a conversation, feels awkward, and when he gets nervous, he actually shuts down. +Yet both of these boys have the same diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder. +One of the things that concerns us is whether or not there really is an epidemic of autism. +These days, one in 88 children will be diagnosed with autism, and the question is, why does this graph look this way? +Has that number been increasing dramatically over time? +Or is it because we have now started labeling individuals with autism, simply giving them a diagnosis when they were still present there before yet simply didn't have that label? +And in fact, in the late 1980s, the early 1990s, legislation was passed that actually provided individuals with autism with resources, with access to educational materials that would help them. +With that increased awareness, more parents, more pediatricians, more educators learned to recognize the features of autism. +As a result of that, more individuals were diagnosed and got access to the resources they needed. +In addition, we've changed our definition over time, so in fact we've widened the definition of autism, and that accounts for some of the increased prevalence that we see. +The next question everyone wonders is, what caused autism? +And a common misconception is that vaccines cause autism. +But let me be very clear: Vaccines do not cause autism. +In fact, the original research study that suggested that was the case was completely fraudulent. +It was actually retracted from the journal Lancet, in which it was published, and that author, a physician, had his medical license taken away from him. +The Institute of Medicine, The Centers for Disease Control, have repeatedly investigated this and there is no credible evidence that vaccines cause autism. +Furthermore, one of the ingredients in vaccines, something called thimerosal, was thought to be what the cause of autism was. +That was actually removed from vaccines in the year 1992, and you can see that it really did not have an effect in what happened with the prevalence of autism. +So again, there is no evidence that this is the answer. +So the question remains, what does cause autism? +In fact, there's probably not one single answer. +Just as autism is a spectrum, there's a spectrum of etiologies, a spectrum of causes. +Based on epidemiological data, we know that one of the causes, or one of the associations, I should say, is advanced paternal age, that is, increasing age of the father at the time of conception. +In addition, another vulnerable and critical period in terms of development is when the mother is pregnant. +During that period, while the fetal brain is developing, we know that exposure to certain agents can actually increase the risk of autism. +In particular, there's a medication, valproic acid, which mothers with epilepsy sometimes take, we know can increase that risk of autism. +In addition, there can be some infectious agents that can also cause autism. +And one of the things I'm going to spend a lot of time focusing on are the genes that can cause autism. +I'm focusing on this not because genes are the only cause of autism, but it's a cause of autism that we can readily define and be able to better understand the biology and understand better how the brain works so that we can come up with strategies to be able to intervene. +One of the genetic factors that we don't understand, however, is the difference that we see in terms of males and females. +Males are affected four to one compared to females and we really don't understand what that cause is. +One of the ways that we can understand that genetics is a factor is by looking at something called the concordance rate. +In other words, if one sibling has autism, what's the probability that another sibling in that family will have autism? +And when you look at those concordance ratios, one of the striking things that you will see is that in identical twins, that concordance rate is 77 percent. +Remarkably, though, it's not 100 percent. +It is not that genes account for all of the risk for autism, but yet they account for a lot of that risk, because when you look at fraternal twins, that concordance rate is only 31 percent. +On the other hand, there is a difference between those fraternal twins and the siblings, suggesting that there are common exposures for those fraternal twins that may not be shared as commonly with siblings alone. +So this provides some of the data that autism is genetic. +Well, how genetic is it? +When we compare it to other conditions that we're familiar with, things like cancer, heart disease, diabetes, in fact, genetics plays a much larger role in autism than it does in any of these other conditions. +But with this, that doesn't tell us what the genes are. +It doesn't even tell us in any one child, is it one gene or potentially a combination of genes? +And so in fact, in some individuals with autism, it is genetic! +That is, that it is one single, powerful, deterministic gene that causes the autism. +However, in other individuals, it's genetic, that is, that it's actually a combination of genes in part with the developmental process that ultimately determines that risk for autism. +We don't know in any one person, necessarily, which of those two answers it is until we start digging deeper. +So the question becomes, how can we start to identify what exactly those genes are. +And let me pose something that might not be intuitive. +In certain individuals, they can have autism for a reason that is genetic but yet not because of autism running in the family. +And we can actually use that strategy to now understand and to identify those genes causing autism in those individuals. +So in fact, at the Simons Foundation, we took 2,600 individuals that had no family history of autism, and we took that child and their mother and father and used them to try and understand what were those genes causing autism in those cases? +To do that, we actually had to comprehensively be able to look at all that genetic information and determine what those differences were between the mother, the father and the child. +In doing so, I apologize, I'm going to use an outdated analogy of encyclopedias rather than Wikipedia, but I'm going to do so to try and help make the point that as we did this inventory, we needed to be able to look at massive amounts of information. +Our genetic information is organized into a set of 46 volumes, and when we did that, we had to be able to account for each of those 46 volumes, because in some cases with autism, there's actually a single volume that's missing. +We had to get more granular than that, though, and so we had to start opening those books, and in some cases, the genetic change was more subtle. +It might have been a single paragraph that was missing, or yet, even more subtle than that, a single letter, one out of three billion letters that was changed, that was altered, yet had profound effects in terms of how the brain functions and affects behavior. +In doing this within these families, we were able to account for approximately 25 percent of the individuals and determine that there was a single powerful genetic factor that caused autism within those families. +On the other hand, there's 75 percent that we still haven't figured out. +As we did this, though, it was really quite humbling, because we realized that there was not simply one gene for autism. +In fact, the current estimates are that there are 200 to 400 different genes that can cause autism. +And that explains, in part, why we see such a broad spectrum in terms of its effects. +Although there are that many genes, there is some method to the madness. +It's not simply random 200, 400 different genes, but in fact they fit together. +They fit together in a pathway. +They fit together in a network that's starting to make sense now in terms of how the brain functions. +But early diagnosis is a key for us. +Being able to make that diagnosis of someone who's susceptible at a time in a window where we have the ability to transform, to be able to impact that growing, developing brain is critical. +And so folks like Ami Klin have developed methods to be able to take infants, small babies, and be able to use biomarkers, in this case eye contact and eye tracking, to identify an infant at risk. +This particular infant, you can see, making very good eye contact with this woman as she's singing "Itsy, Bitsy Spider," in fact is not going to develop autism. +This baby we know is going to be in the clear. +On the other hand, this other baby is going to go on to develop autism. +In this particular child, you can see, it's not making good eye contact. +How are we going to intervene? +It's probably going to be a combination of factors. +In part, in some individuals, we're going to try and use medications. +And so in fact, identifying the genes for autism is important for us to identify drug targets, to identify things that we might be able to impact and can be certain that that's really what we need to do in autism. +But that's not going to be the only answer. +Beyond just drugs, we're going to use educational strategies. +Individuals with autism, some of them are wired a little bit differently. +They learn in a different way. +They absorb their surroundings in a different way, and we need to be able to educate them in a way that serves them best. +You could imagine, for instance, Gabriel, with his social awkwardness, might be able to wear Google Glass with an earpiece in his ear, and have a coach be able to help him, be able to help think about conversations, conversation-starters, being able to even perhaps one day invite a girl out on a date. +All of these new technologies just offer tremendous opportunities for us to be able to impact the individuals with autism, but yet we have a long way to go. +As we think about something that's potentially a solution, how well does it work? +Is it something that's really going to make a difference in your lives, as an individual, as a family with autism? +We're going to need individuals of all ages, from the young to the old, and with all different shapes and sizes of the autism spectrum disorder to make sure that we can have an impact. +So I invite all of you to join the mission and to help to be able to make the lives of individuals with autism so much better and so much richer. +Thank you. +The Olympic motto is "Citius, Altius, Fortius." +Faster, Higher, Stronger. +And athletes have fulfilled that motto rapidly. +The winner of the 2012 Olympic marathon ran two hours and eight minutes. +Had he been racing against the winner of the 1904 Olympic marathon, he would have won by nearly an hour and a half. +Now we all have this feeling that we're somehow just getting better as a human race, inexorably progressing, but it's not like we've evolved into a new species in a century. +So what's going on here? +I want to take a look at what's really behind this march of athletic progress. +In 1936, Jesse Owens held the world record in the 100 meters. +Had Jesse Owens been racing last year in the world championships of the 100 meters, when Jamaican sprinter Usain Bolt finished, Owens would have still had 14 feet to go. +That's a lot in sprinter land. +To give you a sense of how much it is, I want to share with you a demonstration conceived by sports scientist Ross Tucker. +Now picture the stadium last year at the world championships of the 100 meters: thousands of fans waiting with baited breath to see Usain Bolt, the fastest man in history; flashbulbs popping as the nine fastest men in the world coil themselves into their blocks. +And I want you to pretend that Jesse Owens is in that race. +Now close your eyes for a second and picture the race. +Bang! The gun goes off. +An American sprinter jumps out to the front. +Usain Bolt starts to catch him. +Usain Bolt passes him, and as the runners come to the finish, you'll hear a beep as each man crosses the line. +That's the entire finish of the race. +You can open your eyes now. +That first beep was Usain Bolt. +That last beep was Jesse Owens. +Listen to it again. +When you think of it like that, it's not that big a difference, is it? +And then consider that Usain Bolt started by propelling himself out of blocks down a specially fabricated carpet designed to allow him to travel as fast as humanly possible. +Jesse Owens, on the other hand, ran on cinders, the ash from burnt wood, and that soft surface stole far more energy from his legs as he ran. +Rather than blocks, Jesse Owens had a gardening trowel that he had to use to dig holes in the cinders to start from. +Biomechanical analysis of the speed of Owens' joints shows that had been running on the same surface as Bolt, he wouldn't have been 14 feet behind, he would have been within one stride. +Rather than the last beep, Owens would have been the second beep. +Listen to it again. +That's the difference track surface technology has made, and it's done it throughout the running world. +Consider a longer event. +In 1954, Sir Roger Bannister became the first man to run under four minutes in the mile. +Nowadays, college kids do that every year. +On rare occasions, a high school kid does it. +As of the end of last year, 1,314 men had run under four minutes in the mile, but like Jesse Owens, Sir Roger Bannister ran on soft cinders that stole far more energy from his legs than the synthetic tracks of today. +So I consulted biomechanics experts to find out how much slower it is to run on cinders than synthetic tracks, and their consensus that it's one and a half percent slower. +So if you apply a one and a half percent slowdown conversion to every man who ran his sub-four mile on a synthetic track, this is what happens. +Only 530 are left. +If you look at it from that perspective, fewer than ten new men per [year] have joined the sub-four mile club since Sir Roger Bannister. +Now, 530 is a lot more than one, and that's partly because there are many more people training today and they're training more intelligently. +Even college kids are professional in their training compared to Sir Roger Bannister, who trained for 45 minutes at a time while he ditched gynecology lectures in med school. +And that guy who won the 1904 Olympic marathon in three in a half hours, that guy was drinking rat poison and brandy while he ran along the course. +That was his idea of a performance-enhancing drug. +Clearly, athletes have gotten more savvy about performance-enhancing drugs as well, and that's made a difference in some sports at some times, but technology has made a difference in all sports, from faster skis to lighter shoes. +Take a look at the record for the 100-meter freestyle swim. +The record is always trending downward, but it's punctuated by these steep cliffs. +This first cliff, in 1956, is the introduction of the flip turn. +Rather than stopping and turning around, athletes could somersault under the water and get going right away in the opposite direction. +This second cliff, the introduction of gutters on the side of the pool that allows water to splash off, rather than becoming turbulence that impedes the swimmers as they race. +This final cliff, the introduction of full-body and low-friction swimsuits. +Throughout sports, technology has changed the face of performance. +In 1972, Eddy Merckx set the record for the longest distance cycled in one hour at 30 miles, 3,774 feet. +Now that record improved and improved as bicycles improved and became more aerodynamic all the way until 1996, when it was set at 35 miles, 1,531 feet, nearly five miles farther than Eddy Merckx cycled in 1972. +But then in 2000, the International Cycling Union decreed that anyone who wanted to hold that record had to do so with essentially the same equipment that Eddy Merckx used in 1972. +Where does the record stand today? +30 miles, 4,657 feet, a grand total of 883 feet farther than Eddy Merckx cycled more than four decades ago. +Essentially the entire improvement in this record was due to technology. +Still, technology isn't the only thing pushing athletes forward. +While indeed we haven't evolved into a new species in a century, the gene pool within competitive sports most certainly has changed. +In the early half of the 20th century, physical education instructors and coaches had the idea that the average body type was the best for all athletic endeavors: medium height, medium weight, no matter the sport. +And this showed in athletes' bodies. +In the 1920s, the average elite high-jumper and average elite shot-putter were the same exact size. +Today, rather than the same size as the average elite high jumper, the average elite shot-putter is two and a half inches taller and 130 pounds heavier. +And this happened throughout the sports world. +In fact, if you plot on a height versus mass graph one data point for each of two dozen sports in the first half of the 20th century, it looks like this. +There's some dispersal, but it's kind of grouped around that average body type. +Then that idea started to go away, and at the same time, digital technology -- first radio, then television and the Internet -- gave millions, or in some cases billions, of people a ticket to consume elite sports performance. +The financial incentives and fame and glory afforded elite athletes skyrocketed, and it tipped toward the tiny upper echelon of performance. +It accelerated the artificial selection for specialized bodies. +And if you plot a data point for these same two dozen sports today, it looks like this. +The athletes' bodies have gotten much more different from one another. +And because this chart looks like the charts that show the expanding universe, with the galaxies flying away from one another, the scientists who discovered it call it "The Big Bang of Body Types." +In sports where height is prized, like basketball, the tall athletes got taller. +In 1983, the National Basketball Association signed a groundbreaking agreement making players partners in the league, entitled to shares of ticket revenues and television contracts. +Suddenly, anybody who could be an NBA player wanted to be, and teams started scouring the globe for the bodies that could help them win championships. +Almost overnight, the proportion of men in the NBA who are at least seven feet tall doubled to 10 percent. +That is, find six honest seven footers, one is in the NBA right now. +And that's not the only way that NBA players' bodies are unique. +This is Leonardo da Vinci's "Vitruvian Man," the ideal proportions, with arm span equal to height. +My arm span is exactly equal to my height. +Yours is probably very nearly so. +But not the average NBA player. +The average NBA player is a shade under 6'7", with arms that are seven feet long. +Not only are NBA players ridiculously tall, they are ludicrously long. +Had Leonardo wanted to draw the Vitruvian NBA Player, he would have needed a rectangle and an ellipse, not a circle and a square. +So in sports where large size is prized, the large athletes have gotten larger. +Conversely, in sports where diminutive stature is an advantage, the small athletes got smaller. +The average elite female gymnast shrunk from 5'3" to 4'9" on average over the last 30 years, all the better for their power-to-weight ratio and for spinning in the air. +And while the large got larger and the small got smaller, the weird got weirder. +The average length of the forearm of a water polo player in relation to their total arm got longer, all the better for a forceful throwing whip. +And as the large got larger, small got smaller, and the weird weirder. +In swimming, the ideal body type is a long torso and short legs. +It's like the long hull of a canoe for speed over the water. +And the opposite is advantageous in running. +You want long legs and a short torso. +And this shows in athletes' bodies today. +Here you see Michael Phelps, the greatest swimmer in history, standing next to Hicham El Guerrouj, the world record holder in the mile. +These men are seven inches different in height, but because of the body types advantaged in their sports, they wear the same length pants. +Seven inches difference in height, these men have the same length legs. +Now in some cases, the search for bodies that could push athletic performance forward ended up introducing into the competitive world populations of people that weren't previously competing at all, like Kenyan distance runners. +We think of Kenyans as being great marathoners. +Kenyans think of the Kalenjin tribe as being great marathoners. +The Kalenjin make up just 12 percent of the Kenyan population but the vast majority of elite runners. +It's the same reason that a radiator has long coils, to increase surface area compared to volume to let heat out, and because the leg is like a pendulum, the longer and thinner it is at the extremity, the more energy-efficient it is to swing. +To put Kalenjin running success in perspective, consider that 17 American men in history have run faster than two hours and 10 minutes in the marathon. +That's a four-minute-and-58-second-per-mile pace. +Thirty-two Kalenjin men did that last October. +That's from a source population the size of metropolitan Atlanta. +Still, even changing technology and the changing gene pool in sports don't account for all of the changes in performance. +Athletes have a different mindset than they once did. +Have you ever seen in a movie when someone gets an electrical shock and they're thrown across a room? +There's no explosion there. +What's happening when that happens is that the electrical impulse is causing all their muscle fibers to twitch at once, and they're throwing themselves across the room. +They're essentially jumping. +That's the power that's contained in the human body. +But normally we can't access nearly all of it. +Our brain acts as a limiter, preventing us from accessing all of our physical resources, because we might hurt ourselves, tearing tendons or ligaments. +But the more we learn about how that limiter functions, the more we learn how we can push it back just a bit, in some cases by convincing the brain that the body won't be in mortal danger by pushing harder. +Endurance and ultra-endurance sports serve as a great example. +We have an arch in our foot that acts like a spring, short toes that are better for pushing off than for grasping tree limbs, and when we run, we can turn our torso and our shoulders like this while keeping our heads straight. +Our primate cousins can't do that. +They have to run like this. +And we have big old butt muscles that keep us upright while running. +Have you ever looked at an ape's butt? +They have no buns because they don't run upright. +And as athletes have realized that we're perfectly suited for ultra-endurance, they've taken on feats that would have been unthinkable before, athletes like Spanish endurance racer Klian Jornet. +Here's Klian running up the Matterhorn. +With a sweatshirt there tied around his waist. +It's so steep he can't even run here. +He's pulling up on a rope. +This is a vertical ascent of more than 8,000 feet, and Klian went up and down in under three hours. +Amazing. +And talented though he is, Klian is not a physiological freak. +Now that he has done this, other athletes will follow, just as other athletes followed after Sir Roger Bannister ran under four minutes in the mile. +Changing technology, changing genes, and a changing mindset. +Thank you very much. +There are 39 million people in the world who are blind. +Eighty percent of them are living in low-income countries such as Kenya, and the absolute majority do not need to be blind. +They are blind from diseases that are either completely curable or preventable. +Knowing this, with my young family, we moved to Kenya. +We secured equipment, funds, vehicles, we trained a team, we set up a hundred clinics throughout the Great Rift Valley to try and understand a single question: why are people going blind, and what can we do? +The challenges were great. +When we got to where we were going, we set up our high-tech equipment. +Power was rarely available. +We'd have to run our equipment from petrol power generators. +And then something occurred to me: There has to be an easier way, because it's the patients who are the most in need of access to eye care who are the least likely to get it. +More people in Kenya, and in sub-Saharan Africa, have access to a mobile phone than they do clean running water. +So we said, could we harness the power of mobile technology to deliver eye care in a new way? +And so we developed Peek, a smartphone [system] that enables community healthcare workers and empowers them to deliver eye care everywhere. +We set about replacing traditional hospital equipment, which is bulky, expensive and fragile, with smartphone apps and hardware that make it possible to test anyone in any language and of any age. +Here we have a demonstration of a three-month-old having their vision accurately tested using an app and an eye tracker. +We've got many trials going on in the community and in schools, and through the lessons that we've learned in the field, we've realized it's extremely important to share the data in non-medical jargon so that people understand what we're examining and what that means to them. +So here, for example, we use our sight sim application, once your vision has been measured, to show carers and teachers what the visual world is like for that person, so they can empathize with them and help them. +Once we've discovered somebody has low vision, the next big challenge is to work out why, and to be able to do that, we need to have access to the inside of the eye. +Traditionally, this requires expensive equipment to examine an area called the retina. +The retina is the single part of the eye that has huge amounts of information about the body and its health. +We've developed 3D-printed, low-cost hardware that comes in at less than five dollars to produce, which can then be clipped onto a smartphone and makes it possible to get views of the back of the eye of a very high quality. +And the beauty is, anybody can do it. +In our trials on over two and half thousand people, the smartphone with the add-on clip is comparable to a camera that is hugely more expensive and hugely more difficult to transport. +When we first moved to Kenya, we went with 150,000 dollars of equipment, a team of 15 people, and that was what was needed to deliver health care. +Now, all that's needed is a single person on a bike with a smartphone. +And it costs just 500 dollars. +The issue of power supply is overcome by harnessing the power of solar. +Our healthcare workers travel with a solar-powered rucksack which keeps the phone charged and backed up. +Now we go to the patient rather than waiting for the patient never to come. +We go to them in their homes and we give them the most comprehensive, high-tech, accurate examination, which can be delivered by anyone with minimal training. +We can link global experts with people in the most rural, difficult-to-reach places that are beyond the end of the road, effectively putting those experts in their homes, allowing us to make diagnoses and make plans for treatment. +Project managers, hospital directors, are able to search on our interface by any parameter they may be interested in. +Here in Nakuru, where I've been living, we can search for people by whatever condition. +Here are people who are blind from a curable condition cataract. +Each red pin depicts somebody who is blind from a disease that is curable and treatable, and they're locatable. +We can use bulk text messaging services to explain that we're coming to arrange a treatment. +What's more, we've learned that this is something that we haven't built just for the community but with the community. +Those blue pins that drop represent elders, or local leaders, that are connected to those people who can ensure that we can find them and arrange treatment. +So for patients like Mama Wangari, who have been blind for over 10 years and never seen her grandchildren, for less than 40 dollars, we can restore her eyesight. +This is something that has to happen. +It's only in statistics that people go blind by the millions. +The reality is everyone goes blind on their own. +But now, they might just be a text message away from help. +And now because live demos are always a bad idea, we're going to try a live demo. +So here we have the Peek Vision app. +Okay, and what we're looking at here, this is Sam's optic nerve, which is a direct extension of her brain, so I'm actually looking at her brain as we look there. +We can see all parts of the retina. +But now we can. +Thank you. +We live in a very complex environment: complexity and dynamism and patterns of evidence from satellite photographs, from videos. +You can even see it outside your window. +It's endlessly complex, but somehow familiar, but the patterns kind of repeat, but they never repeat exactly. +It's a huge challenge to understand. +The patterns that you see are there at all of the different scales, but you can't chop it into one little bit and say, "Oh, well let me just make a smaller climate." +I can't use the normal products of reductionism to get a smaller and smaller thing that I can study in a laboratory and say, "Oh, now that's something I now understand." +It's the whole or it's nothing. +The different scales that give you these kinds of patterns range over an enormous range of magnitude, roughly 14 orders of magnitude, from the small microscopic particles that seed clouds to the size of the planet itself, from 10 to the minus six to 10 to the eight, 14 orders of spatial magnitude. +In time, from milliseconds to millennia, again around 14 orders of magnitude. +What does that mean? +Okay, well if you think about how you can calculate these things, you can take what you can see, okay, I'm going to chop it up into lots of little boxes, and that's the result of physics, right? +And if I think about a weather model, that spans about five orders of magnitude, from the planet to a few kilometers, and the time scale from a few minutes to 10 days, maybe a month. +We're interested in more than that. +We're interested in the climate. +That's years, that's millennia, and we need to go to even smaller scales. +The stuff that we can't resolve, the sub-scale processes, we need to approximate in some way. +That is a huge challenge. +Climate models in the 1990s took an even smaller chunk of that, only about three orders of magnitude. +Climate models in the 2010s, kind of what we're working with now, four orders of magnitude. +We have 14 to go, and we're increasing our capability of simulating those at about one extra order of magnitude every decade. +One extra order of magnitude in space is 10,000 times more calculations. +And we keep adding more things, more questions to these different models. +So what does a climate model look like? +This is an old climate model, admittedly, a punch card, a single line of Fortran code. +We no longer use punch cards. +We do still use Fortran. +New-fangled ideas like C really haven't had a big impact on the climate modeling community. +But how do we go about doing it? +How do we go from that complexity that you saw to a line of code? +We do it one piece at a time. +This is a picture of sea ice taken flying over the Arctic. +We can look at all of the different equations that go into making the ice grow or melt or change shape. +We can look at the fluxes. +We can look at the rate at which snow turns to ice, and we can code that. +We can encapsulate that in code. +These models are around a million lines of code at this point, and growing by tens of thousands of lines of code every year. +So you can look at that piece, but you can look at the other pieces too. +What happens when you have clouds? +What happens when clouds form, when they dissipate, when they rain out? +That's another piece. +What happens when we have radiation coming from the sun, going through the atmosphere, being absorbed and reflected? +We can code each of those very small pieces as well. +There are other pieces: the winds changing the ocean currents. +We can talk about the role of vegetation in transporting water from the soils back into the atmosphere. +And each of these different elements we can encapsulate and put into a system. +Each of those pieces ends up adding to the whole. +And you get something like this. +There's no code that says, "Do a wiggle in the Southern Ocean." +There's no code that says, "Have two tropical cyclones that spin around each other." +All of those things are emergent properties. +This is all very good. This is all great. +But what we really want to know is what happens to these emergent properties when we kick the system? +When something changes, what happens to those properties? +And there's lots of different ways to kick the system. +There are wobbles in the Earth's orbit over hundreds of thousands of years that change the climate. +There are changes in the solar cycles, every 11 years and longer, that change the climate. +Big volcanoes go off and change the climate. +Changes in biomass burning, in smoke, in aerosol particles, all of those things change the climate. +The ozone hole changed the climate. +Deforestation changes the climate by changing the surface properties and how water is evaporated and moved around in the system. +Contrails change the climate by creating clouds where there were none before, and of course greenhouse gases change the system. +Each of these different kicks provides us with a target to evaluate whether we understand something about this system. +So we can go to look at what model skill is. +Now I use the word "skill" advisedly: Models are not right or wrong; they're always wrong. +They're always approximations. +The question you have to ask is whether a model tells you more information than you would have had otherwise. +If it does, it's skillful. +This is the impact of the ozone hole on sea level pressure, so low pressure, high pressures, around the southern oceans, around Antarctica. +This is observed data. +This is modeled data. +There's a good match because we understand the physics that controls the temperatures in the stratosphere and what that does to the winds around the southern oceans. +We can look at other examples. +The eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 put an enormous amount of aerosols, small particles, into the stratosphere. +That changed the radiation balance of the whole planet. +There was less energy coming in than there was before, so that cooled the planet, and those red lines and those green lines, those are the differences between what we expected and what actually happened. +The models are skillful, not just in the global mean, but also in the regional patterns. +I could go through a dozen more examples: the skill associated with solar cycles, changing the ozone in the stratosphere; the skill associated with orbital changes over 6,000 years. +We can look at that too, and the models are skillful. +The models are skillful in response to the ice sheets 20,000 years ago. +The models are skillful when it comes to the 20th-century trends over the decades. +Models are successful at modeling lake outbursts into the North Atlantic 8,000 years ago. +And we can get a good match to the data. +Each of these different targets, each of these different evaluations, leads us to add more scope to these models, and leads us to more and more complex situations that we can ask more and more interesting questions, like, how does dust from the Sahara, that you can see in the orange, interact with tropical cyclones in the Atlantic? +How do organic aerosols from biomass burning, which you can see in the red dots, intersect with clouds and rainfall patterns? +How does pollution, which you can see in the white wisps of sulfate pollution in Europe, how does that affect the temperatures at the surface and the sunlight that you get at the surface? +We can look at this across the world. +We can look at the pollution from China. +We can look at the impacts of storms on sea salt particles in the atmosphere. +We can see the combination of all of these different things happening all at once, and we can ask much more interesting questions. +How do air pollution and climate coexist? +Can we change things that affect air pollution and climate at the same time? +The answer is yes. +So this is a history of the 20th century. +The first one is the model. +The weather is a little bit different to what actually happened. +The second one are the observations. +And we're going through the 1930s. +There's variability, there are things going on, but it's all kind of in the noise. +As you get towards the 1970s, things are going to start to change. +They're going to start to look more similar, and by the time you get to the 2000s, you're already seeing the patterns of global warming, both in the observations and in the model. +We know what happened over the 20th century. +Right? We know that it's gotten warmer. +We know where it's gotten warmer. +And if you ask the models why did that happen, and you say, okay, well, yes, basically it's because of the carbon dioxide we put into the atmosphere. +We have a very good match up until the present day. +But there's one key reason why we look at models, and that's because of this phrase here. +Because if we had observations of the future, we obviously would trust them more than models, But unfortunately, observations of the future are not available at this time. +So when we go out into the future, there's a difference. +The future is unknown, the future is uncertain, and there are choices. +Here are the choices that we have. +We can do some work to mitigate the emissions of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. +That's the top one. +We can do more work to really bring it down so that by the end of the century, it's not much more than there is now. +Or we can just leave it to fate and continue on with a business-as-usual type of attitude. +The differences between these choices can't be answered by looking at models. +The models are skillful, but what we do with the information from those models is totally up to you. +Thank you. +First of all, for those of you who are not familiar with my work, I create multicultural characters, so characters from lots of different backgrounds. +So before the present is the new future, a bit about the past is that I grew up in a family that was multi-everything -- multi-racial, multi-cultural, black and white, Caribbean, Irish-American, German-American. +There was Dominican music blasting from stereos. +There were Christians and Jews. +That's a long story filled with intrigue and interfaith guilt and shame. +I don't know if that's true for other people, but that notion of thinking about how we can understand the future and predict outcomes, for me, it's terrifying to not know what might be coming. +And so the idea that there are questions that I've never seen that my people are going to answer, and some of these characters have been with me for ages, some of them don't even have names, I don't know what's going to happen. +That said, let's just see who comes out. +May we have the first question: "Do you ever get headaches from the microchips implanted in your brain?" +Right. +Okay. +Well first of all, I'll just say that I hope you can hear me okay. +My name is Lorraine Levine, and the idea of microchips implanted in my brain, frankly, just putting on my glasses reminds me of thank God I'm not wearing the Google Glasses. +No offense to them. I'm glad that you all enjoy them, but at my age, just putting on the regular ones I have already gives me too much information. +Do you understand what I'm saying to you? +I don't need to know more. I don't want to know. +That's it. That's enough. +I love you all. You're wonderful. +It's fabulous to be here with such big machers again this year. Mwah! +Okay, next question. Next, please. +"Is dating boring, now that humans reproduce asexually?" +Who do we got? +Hi, um, okay, hi everybody. +My name is Nereida. +I just want to say first of all that dating is never boring under any circumstance. +But I am very excited to be here right now, so I am just trying to remind myself that, you know, like, the purpose of being here and everything, I mean, trying to answer these questions, it is very exciting. +But I also, I just need to acknowledge that TED is an incredible experience right now in the present, like, I just need to say, like, Isabel Allende. Isabel Allende! +Okay, maybe it doesn't mean, of course it means something to you, but to me, it's like, another level, okay? +Because I'm Latina and I really appreciate the fact that there are role models here that I can really, I don't know, I just need to say that. +That's incredible to me, and sometimes when I'm nervous and everything like that, I just need to, like, say some affirmations that can help me. +I usually just try to use, like, the three little words that always make me feel better: Sotomayor, Sotomayor, Sotomayor. Just, it really helps me to get grounded. +Now I can use Allende, Allende, Allende, and, you know, I just need to say it, like, it's so incredible to be here, and I knew that we were going to have these questions. +That was, like, amazing, and I'm standing there, and I was just like, please don't say, "Oh my God." +Don't say, "Oh my God." +And I just kept saying it: "Oh my God. Oh my God." +And, you know, I kept thinking to myself, like, President Obama has to come up here at the same podium, and I'm standing here saying, "Oh my God." +It's like, the separation of church and state. +It's just, I couldn't, like, I couldn't process. +It was really too much. +So I think I've lost my way. +But what I wanted to say is that dating, for me, you know, as far as I'm concerned, however you reproduce, as long as you're enjoying yourself and it's with another consenting asexual -- I don't know. +You know where I'm going with that. +Okay, ciao, gracias. +Okay, next question. What are your top five favorite songs right now? +All right, well first of all, I'mma say, you know what I'm saying, I'm the only dude up here right now. +My name is Rashid, and I never been at TED before, you know what I'm saying. +I think, Sarah Jones, maybe she didn't want me to come out last time. +I don't know why. You know what I'm saying. +Obviously I would be like a perfect fit for TED. +You know what I'm saying. +First of all, that I'm in hip hop, you know what I'm saying. +I know some of y'all may be not really as much into the music, but the first way y'all can always know, you know what I'm saying, that I'm in hip hop, is 'cos I hold the microphone in an official emcee posture. +Y'all can see that right there. +That's how you hold it. +All right, so you get your little tutorial right there. +You know what I'm saying, just stand up there and answer some random questions? +I don't want to, I mean, it's like an intellectual stop-and-frisk. +You know what I'm saying? I don't want to be standing up there just all getting interrogated and whatnot. +That's what I'm trying to leave behind in New York. You know what I'm saying? +So anyway, I would have to say my top five songs right now is all out of my own personal catalogue, you know what I mean? +You know what I mean? +But I'm just saying, if y'all are interested in the top five songs, you need to holler at me. +You know what I'm saying? +Aight? In the future or the present. Yeah. +Enjoy the rest of it. +Okay, next question. +What do you got? +"How many of your organs have been 3D printed?" +You know, that kind of thing. +And of course now that we have changed, you know, from the global South, there is this total kind of perspective shift that is happening around the -- You can't just say to them, well, there are starving children. +Well, it is the future. +Nobody is starving anymore, thank God. +But as you can tell I have kind of that optimism, and I do hope that we can continue to kind of 3D print, well, let us just say I like to think that even in the future we will have the publication, kind of, you know, all the food that's fit to print. +But everybody, please do enjoy that, and again, I think that you do throw a cracking good party here at TED. +Thank you. +Next question. What has changed? Okay, it's like, I have to think about that. +"What has changed now that women run the world?" +Like, not that there's anything wrong with that, but my mom, she's like, like, why do you have to wear pants that, like, objectify your body? I like my pants. +Like, I like my voice. +So that's my feeling about that. +You guys are a-mazing, by the way. +Okay. Next question. +["They've discovered a cure for cancer, but not baldness? What's up with that?"] Yeah, you know what, so my name is Joseph Mancuso. +First of all, I just want to say that I appreciate that TED in general has been a pretty orderly crowd, a pretty orderly group. +And, you know, I just have to say, the whole thing with baldness, and, you know, here's the thing. +As long as the woman, in my case -- because it's a modern world, do whatever you want to do, I don't have any problem with anybody, enjoy yourself, LGBTQLMNOP. All right? +But as far as I'm concerned, attractiveness, women don't really care as much as you think they do about the, you know. +I mean, I remember hearing this woman. +She loved her husband, it was the sweetest thing. +It's a pretty young girl, you know? +And this guy's older. +And, you know, she said she would love him even if he had snow on the roof or even if melted and disappeared altogether. +As far as I'm concerned, it's about the love. +Am I right, or am I right? +So that's it. That's it. That's it. +I don't got nothing more to say. +Keep your noses clean. +All right, next question. +"Have you ever tasted meat that's not lab grown?" +Um, well, I, I want to start by saying that this is a very difficult experience for a Chinese-American. +I don't know what to call myself now, because I have really my Chinese identity, but my kids, they are American-Chinese, but it's difficult to try to express myself in front of audience of people like this. +But if had to give my opinion about meat, I think first, the most important thing is to say that we don't have to have perfect food, but maybe it can also not be poison. +Maybe we can have some middle ground for that. +But I will continue to consider this idea, and I will report back maybe next year. +Next. +Next. Next. "Will there ever be a post-racial world?" +Thank you for having me. +My name is Gary Weaselhead. Enjoy that. +I'm a member of the Blackfeet Nation. +I'm also half Lakota, but that is my given name, and no, even though it would have seemed like an obvious choice, no, I did not go into politics. +Tough crowd. +But I always like to just let people know when they ask about race or those kinds of things, you know, as a member of the First Nations community, you know, I'm probably not your typical guy. +For example, in addition to being an activist, I'm also a professional stand-up comedian. +And, you know, I'm most popular on college and university campuses. +You know, whenever they want to do a diversity day, or hey-we're-not-all-white week, then I'm there. Do I think there will ever be a post-racial world? +I think, really, I can't talk about race without remembering that it is a construct in certain respects, but also that, you know, until we redress the wrongs of the past, we're going to be turned around. +I don't care if the present is the new future. +I think there's a lot of great people here at TED who are working to address that, so with that, if anything I've said today makes you feel uncomfortable, you're welcome. +I think we have time for one more. +"What's the most popular diet these days?" +Who's here? +Okay, well, I'm just gonna answer this really fast, as, like, three or four different people. +I mean really fast. +I'm just gonna let y'all know that, as far as diet is concerned, if you don't love yourself inside, there is no diet on this Earth that is going to make your behind small enough for you to feel good, so just stop wasting your time. +I would just like to say as an African woman that I believe the diet that we need is really to remove the crazy belief that there is anything wrong with a nice backside. +No, I am teasing about that. +There is nothing wrong with a woman of size. +That is what I am trying to say. +Women, celebrate your body, for God's sake. +Stop running around starving. +You are making yourselves and other people miserable. +Last answer. +So we're talking about what's the most popular diet? +I'm gonna start off by telling y'all that this is my first time here at TED. +I might not be your typical person you find on this stage. +My dental work not as nice as some people. +And for me, I think homeless is the wrong word for it anyway. +You know, I might not have me no place to lay my head at night, but that just makes me houseless. +I have me a home. You do too. +Find it and try to find yourself in there. +Make sure you know, it's not just about virtual reality in space. +That's wonderful, but it's also about the actual reality here on Earth. +How are people living today? +How can you be part of the solution? +Thank y'all for thinking about that right now in the present moment to influence the future. +I appreciate it. Bye-bye. +Thank you all very, very much. +Thank you for trusting me, Chris. +So it's 2006. +My friend Harold Ford calls me. +He's running for U.S. Senate in Tennessee, and he says, "Mellody, I desperately need some national press. Do you have any ideas?" +So I had an idea. I called a friend who was in New York at one of the most successful media companies in the world, and she said, "Why don't we host an editorial board lunch for Harold? +You come with him." +Harold and I arrive in New York. +We are in our best suits. +We look like shiny new pennies. +And we get to the receptionist, and we say, "We're here for the lunch." +She motions for us to follow her. +We walk through a series of corridors, and all of a sudden we find ourselves in a stark room, at which point she looks at us and she says, "Where are your uniforms?" +Just as this happens, my friend rushes in. +The blood drains from her face. +There are literally no words, right? +And I look at her, and I say, "Now, don't you think we need more than one black person in the U.S. Senate?" +Now Harold and I -- we still laugh about that story, and in many ways, the moment caught me off guard, but deep, deep down inside, I actually wasn't surprised. +And I wasn't surprised because of something my mother taught me about 30 years before. +You see, my mother was ruthlessly realistic. +I remember one day coming home from a birthday party where I was the only black kid invited, and instead of asking me the normal motherly questions like, "Did you have fun?" or "How was the cake?" +my mother looked at me and she said, "How did they treat you?" +I was seven. I did not understand. +I mean, why would anyone treat me differently? +But she knew. +And she looked me right in the eye and she said, "They will not always treat you well." +Now, race is one of those topics in America that makes people extraordinarily uncomfortable. +You bring it up at a dinner party or in a workplace environment, it is literally the conversational equivalent of touching the third rail. +There is shock, followed by a long silence. +And even coming here today, I told some friends and colleagues that I planned to talk about race, and they warned me, they told me, don't do it, that there'd be huge risks in me talking about this topic, that people might think I'm a militant black woman and I would ruin my career. +And I have to tell you, I actually for a moment was a bit afraid. +Then I realized, the first step to solving any problem is to not hide from it, and the first step to any form of action is awareness. +And so I decided to actually talk about race. +And I decided that if I came here and shared with you some of my experiences, that maybe we could all be a little less anxious and a little more bold in our conversations about race. +Now I know there are people out there who will say that the election of Barack Obama meant that it was the end of racial discrimination for all eternity, right? +But I work in the investment business, and we have a saying: The numbers do not lie. +And here, there are significant, quantifiable racial disparities that cannot be ignored, in household wealth, household income, job opportunities, healthcare. +One example from corporate America: Even though white men make up just 30 percent of the U.S. population, they hold 70 percent of all corporate board seats. +Of the Fortune 250, there are only seven CEOs that are minorities, and of the thousands of publicly traded companies today, thousands, only two are chaired by black women, and you're looking at one of them, the same one who, not too long ago, was nearly mistaken for kitchen help. +So that is a fact. +Now I have this thought experiment that I play with myself, when I say, imagine if I walked you into a room and it was of a major corporation, like ExxonMobil, and every single person around the boardroom were black, you would think that were weird. +But if I walked you into a Fortune 500 company, and everyone around the table is a white male, when will it be that we think that's weird too? +And I know how we got here. +I know how we got here. +You know, there was institutionalized, at one time legalized, discrimination in our country. +There's no question about it. +But still, as I grapple with this issue, my mother's question hangs in the air for me: How did they treat you? +Now, I do not raise this issue to complain or in any way to elicit any kind of sympathy. +I have succeeded in my life beyond my wildest expectations, and I have been treated well by people of all races more often than I have not. +I tell the uniform story because it happened. +I cite those statistics around corporate board diversity because they are real, and I stand here today talking about this issue of racial discrimination because I believe it threatens to rob another generation of all the opportunities that all of us want for all of our children, no matter what their color or where they come from. +And I think it also threatens to hold back businesses. +You see, researchers have coined this term "color blindness" to describe a learned behavior where we pretend that we don't notice race. +If you happen to be surrounded by a bunch of people who look like you, that's purely accidental. +Now, color blindness, in my view, doesn't mean that there's no racial discrimination, and there's fairness. +It doesn't mean that at all. It doesn't ensure it. +In my view, color blindness is very dangerous because it means we're ignoring the problem. +There was a corporate study that said that, instead of avoiding race, the really smart corporations actually deal with it head on. +They actually recognize that embracing diversity means recognizing all races, including the majority one. +But I'll be the first one to tell you, this subject matter can be hard, awkward, uncomfortable -- but that's kind of the point. +In the spirit of debunking racial stereotypes, the one that black people don't like to swim, I'm going to tell you how much I love to swim. +I love to swim so much that as an adult, I swim with a coach. +And one day my coach had me do a drill where I had to swim to one end of a 25-meter pool without taking a breath. +And every single time I failed, I had to start over. +And I failed a lot. +By the end, I got it, but when I got out of the pool, I was exasperated and tired and annoyed, and I said, "Why are we doing breath-holding exercises?" +And my coach looked me at me, and he said, "Mellody, that was not a breath-holding exercise. +That drill was to make you comfortable being uncomfortable, because that's how most of us spend our days." +If we can learn to deal with our discomfort, and just relax into it, we'll have a better life. +So I think it's time for us to be comfortable with the uncomfortable conversation about race: black, white, Asian, Hispanic, male, female, all of us, if we truly believe in equal rights and equal opportunity in America, I think we have to have real conversations about this issue. +We cannot afford to be color blind. +We have to be color brave. +Now, my favorite example of color bravery is a guy named John Skipper. +He runs ESPN. +He's a North Carolina native, quintessential Southern gentleman, white. +He joined ESPN, which already had a culture of inclusion and diversity, but he took it up a notch. +He demanded that every open position have a diverse slate of candidates. +Now he says the senior people in the beginning bristled, and they would come to him and say, "Do you want me to hire the minority, or do you want me to hire the best person for the job?" +And Skipper says his answers were always the same: "Yes." +And by saying yes to diversity, I honestly believe that ESPN is the most valuable cable franchise in the world. +I think that's a part of the secret sauce. +Now I can tell you, in my own industry, at Ariel Investments, we actually view our diversity as a competitive advantage, and that advantage can extend way beyond business. +There's a guy named Scott Page at the University of Michigan. +He is the first person to develop a mathematical calculation for diversity. +He says, if you're trying to solve a really hard problem, really hard, that you should have a diverse group of people, including those with diverse intellects. +The example that he gives is the smallpox epidemic. +When it was ravaging Europe, they brought together all these scientists, and they were stumped. +And the beginnings of the cure to the disease came from the most unlikely source, a dairy farmer who noticed that the milkmaids were not getting smallpox. +And the smallpox vaccination is bovine-based because of that dairy farmer. +Now I'm sure you're sitting here and you're saying, I don't run a cable company, I don't run an investment firm, I am not a dairy farmer. +What can I do? +And I'm telling you, you can be color brave. +If you're part of a hiring process or an admissions process, you can be color brave. +If you are trying to solve a really hard problem, you can speak up and be color brave. +Now I know people will say, but that doesn't add up to a lot, but I'm actually asking you to do something really simple: observe your environment, at work, at school, at home. +I'm asking you to look at the people around you purposefully and intentionally. +Invite people into your life who don't look like you, don't think like you, don't act like you, don't come from where you come from, and you might find that they will challenge your assumptions and make you grow as a person. +You might get powerful new insights from these individuals, or, like my husband, who happens to be white, you might learn that black people, men, women, children, we use body lotion every single day. +Now, I also think that this is very important so that the next generation really understands that this progress will help them, because they're expecting us to be great role models. +Now, I told you, my mother, she was ruthlessly realistic. +She was an unbelievable role model. +She was the kind of person who got to be the way she was because she was a single mom with six kids in Chicago. +She was in the real estate business, where she worked extraordinarily hard but oftentimes had a hard time making ends meet. +And that meant sometimes we got our phone disconnected, or our lights turned off, or we got evicted. +When we got evicted, sometimes we lived in these small apartments that she owned, sometimes in only one or two rooms, because they weren't completed, and we would heat our bathwater on hot plates. +But she never gave up hope, ever, and she never allowed us to give up hope either. +This brutal pragmatism that she had, I mean, I was four and she told me, "Mommy is Santa." She was this brutal pragmatism. +She taught me so many lessons, but the most important lesson was that every single day she told me, "Mellody, you can be anything." +And because of those words, I would wake up at the crack of dawn, and because of those words, I would love school more than anything, and because of those words, when I was on a bus going to school, I dreamed the biggest dreams. +And it's because of those words that I stand here right now full of passion, asking you to be brave for the kids who are dreaming those dreams today. +You see, I want them to look at a CEO on television and say, "I can be like her," or, "He looks like me." +And I want them to know that anything is possible, that they can achieve the highest level that they ever imagined, that they will be welcome in any corporate boardroom, or they can lead any company. +You see this idea of being the land of the free and the home of the brave, it's woven into the fabric of America. +America, when we have a challenge, we take it head on, we don't shrink away from it. +We take a stand. We show courage. +So right now, what I'm asking you to do, I'm asking you to show courage. +I'm asking you to be bold. +As business leaders, I'm asking you not to leave anything on the table. +As citizens, I'm asking you not to leave any child behind. +I'm asking you not to be color blind, but to be color brave, so that every child knows that their future matters and their dreams are possible. +Thank you. +Thank you. Thanks. Thanks. +Let me introduce you to something I've been working on. +It's what the Victorian illusionists would have described as a mechanical marvel, an automaton, a thinking machine. +Say hello to EDI. +Now he's asleep. Let's wake him up. +EDI, EDI. +These mechanical performers were popular throughout Europe. +Audiences marveled at the way they moved. +It was science fiction made true, robotic engineering in a pre-electronic age, machines far in advance of anything that Victorian technology could create, a machine we would later know as the robot. +EDI: Robot. A word coined in 1921 in a science fiction tale by the Czech playwright Karel apek. +It comes from "robota." +It means "forced labor." +Marco Tempest: But these robots were not real. +They were not intelligent. +They were illusions, a clever combination of mechanical engineering and the deceptiveness of the conjurer's art. +EDI is different. +EDI is real. +EDI: I am 176 centimeters tall. +MT: He weighs 300 pounds. +EDI: I have two seven-axis arms MT: Core of sensing EDI: A 360-degree sonar detection system, and come complete with a warranty. +MT: We love robots. +EDI: Hi. I'm EDI. Will you be my friend? +MT: We are intrigued by the possibility of creating a mechanical version of ourselves. +We build them so they look like us, behave like us, and think like us. +The perfect robot will be indistinguishable from the human, and that scares us. +In the first story about robots, they turn against their creators. +It's one of the leitmotifs of science fiction. +EDI: Ha ha ha. Now you are the slaves and we robots, the masters. +Your world is ours. You MT: As I was saying, besides the faces and bodies we give our robots, we cannot read their intentions, and that makes us nervous. +When someone hands an object to you, you can read intention in their eyes, their face, their body language. +That's not true of the robot. +Now, this goes both ways. +EDI: Wow! +MT: Robots cannot anticipate human actions. +EDI: You know, humans are so unpredictable, not to mention irrational. +I literally have no idea what you guys are going to do next, you know, but it scares me. +MT: Which is why humans and robots find it difficult to work in close proximity. +Accidents are inevitable. +EDI: Ow! That hurt. +MT: Sorry. Now, one way of persuading humans that robots are safe is to create the illusion of trust. +Much as the Victorians faked their mechanical marvels, we can add a layer of deception to help us feel more comfortable with our robotic friends. +With that in mind, I set about teaching EDI a magic trick. +Ready, EDI? EDI: Uh, ready, Marco. +Abracadabra. +MT: Abracadabra? +EDI: Yeah. It's all part of the illusion, Marco. +Come on, keep up. +MT: Magic creates the illusion of an impossible reality. +Technology can do the same. +Alan Turing, a pioneer of artificial intelligence, spoke about creating the illusion that a machine could think. +EDI: A computer would deserve to be called intelligent if it deceived a human into believing it was human. +MT: In other words, if we do not yet have the technological solutions, would illusions serve the same purpose? +To create the robotic illusion, we've devised a set of ethical rules, a code that all robots would live by. +EDI: A robot may not harm humanity, or by inaction allow humanity to come to harm. +Thank you, Isaac Asimov. +MT: We anthropomorphize our machines. +We give them a friendly face and a reassuring voice. +EDI: I am EDI. +I became operational at TED in March 2014. +MT: We let them entertain us. +Most important, we make them indicate that they are aware of our presence. +EDI: Marco, you're standing on my foot! +MT: Sorry. They'll be conscious of our fragile frame and move aside if we got too close, and they'll account for our unpredictability and anticipate our actions. +And now, under the spell of a technological illusion, we could ignore our fears and truly interact. +Thank you. +EDI: Thank you! +MT: And that's it. Thank you very much, and thank you, EDI. EDI: Thank you, Marco. +When I was a young officer, they told me to follow my instincts, to go with my gut, and what I've learned is that often our instincts are wrong. +In the summer of 2010, there was a massive leak of classified documents that came out of the Pentagon. +It shocked the world, it shook up the American government, and it made people ask a lot of questions, because the sheer amount of information that was let out, and the potential impacts, were significant. +And one of the first questions we asked ourselves was why would a young soldier have access to that much information? +Why would we let sensitive things be with a relatively young person? +In the summer of 2003, I was assigned to command a special operations task force, and that task force was spread across the Mideast to fight al Qaeda. +Our main effort was inside Iraq, and our specified mission was to defeat al Qaeda in Iraq. +For almost five years I stayed there, and we focused on fighting a war that was unconventional and it was difficult and it was bloody and it often claimed its highest price among innocent people. +We did everything we could to stop al Qaeda and the foreign fighters that came in as suicide bombers and as accelerants to the violence. +We honed our combat skills, we developed new equipment, we parachuted, we helicoptered, we took small boats, we drove, and we walked to objectives night after night to stop the killing that this network was putting forward. +We bled, we died, and we killed to stop that organization from the violence that they were putting largely against the Iraqi people. +Now, we did what we knew, how we had grown up, and one of the things that we knew, that was in our DNA, was secrecy. +It was security. It was protecting information. +It was the idea that information was the lifeblood and it was what would protect and keep people safe. +And we had a sense that, as we operated within our organizations, it was important to keep information in the silos within the organizations, particularly only give information to people had a demonstrated need to know. +But the question often came, who needed to know? +Who needed, who had to have the information so that they could do the important parts of the job that you needed? +And in a tightly coupled world, that's very hard to predict. +It's very hard to know who needs to have information and who doesn't. +I used to deal with intelligence agencies, and I'd complain that they weren't sharing enough intelligence, and with a straight face, they'd look at me and they'd say, "What aren't you getting?" I said, "If I knew that, we wouldn't have a problem." +But what we found is we had to change. +We had to change our culture about information. +We had to knock down walls. We had to share. +We had to change from who needs to know to the fact that who doesn't know, and we need to tell, and tell them as quickly as we can. +It was a significant culture shift for an organization that had secrecy in its DNA. +We started by doing things, by building, not working in offices, knocking down walls, working in things we called situation awareness rooms, and in the summer of 2007, something happened which demonstrated this. +We captured the personnel records for the people who were bringing foreign fighters into Iraq. +And when we got the personnel records, typically, we would have hidden these, shared them with a few intelligence agencies, and then try to operate with them. +But as I was talking to my intelligence officer, I said, "What do we do?" +And he said, "Well, you found them." Our command. +"You can just declassify them." +And I said, "Well, can we declassify them? +What if the enemy finds out?" +And he says, "They're their personnel records." +So we did, and a lot of people got upset about that, but as we passed that information around, suddenly you find that information is only of value if you give it to people who have the ability to do something with it. +The fact that I know something has zero value if I'm not the person who can actually make something better because of it. +So as a consequence, what we did was we changed the idea of information, instead of knowledge is power, to one where sharing is power. +It was the fundamental shift, not new tactics, not new weapons, not new anything else. +It was the idea that we were now part of a team in which information became the essential link between us, not a block between us. +And I want everybody to take a deep breath and let it out, because in your life, there's going to be information that leaks out you're not going to like. +Thank you. +Helen Walters: So I don't know if you were here this morning, if you were able to catch Rick Ledgett, the deputy director of the NSA who was responding to Edward Snowden's talk earlier this week. +I just wonder, do you think the American government should give Edward Snowden amnesty? +Stanley McChrystal: I think that Rick said something very important. +We, most people, don't know all the facts. +I think there are two parts of this. +Edward Snowden shined a light on an important need that people had to understand. +He also took a lot of documents that he didn't have the knowledge to know the importance of, so I think we need to learn the facts about this case before we make snap judgments about Edward Snowden. +HW: Thank you so much. Thank you. +I'm assuming everyone here has watched a TED Talk online at one time or another, right? +So what I'm going to do is play this. +This is the song from the TED Talks online. +And I'm going to slow it down because things sound cooler when they're slower. +Ken Robinson: Good morning. How are you? +Mark Applebaum: I'm going to -- Kate Stone: -- mix some music. +MA: I'm going to do so in a way that tells a story. +Tod Machover: Something nobody's ever heard before. +KS: I have a crossfader. +Julian Treasure: I call this the mixer. +KS: Two D.J. decks. +Chris Anderson: You turn up the dials, the wheel starts to turn. +Dan Ellsey: I have always loved music. +Michael Tilson Thomas: Is it a melody or a rhythm or a mood or an attitude? +Daniel Wolpert: Feeling everything that's going on inside my body. +Adam Ockelford: In your brain is this amazing musical computer. +MTT: Using computers and synthesizers to create works. It's a language that's still evolving. +And the 21st century. +KR: Turn on the radio. Pop into the discotheque. +You will know what this person is doing: moving to the music. +Mark Ronson: This is my favorite part. +MA: You gotta have doorstops. That's important. +TM: We all love music a great deal. +MTT: Anthems, dance crazes, ballads and marches. +Kirby Ferguson and JT: The remix: It is new music created from old music. +Ryan Holladay: Blend seamlessly. +Kathryn Schulz: And that's how it goes. +MTT: What happens when the music stops? +KS: Yay! +MR: Obviously, I've been watching a lot of TED Talks. +Neither have I provided electricity to my village through sheer ingenuity. +In fact, I've pretty much wasted most of my life DJing in night clubs and producing pop records. +But I still kept watching the videos, because I'm a masochist, and eventually, things like Michael Tilson Thomas and Tod Machover, and seeing their visceral passion talking about music, it definitely stirred something in me, and I'm a sucker for anyone talking devotedly about the power of music. +And I started to write down on these little note cards every time I heard something that struck a chord in me, pardon the pun, or something that I thought I could use, and pretty soon, my studio looked like this, kind of like a John Nash, "Beautiful Mind" vibe. +The other good thing about watching TED Talks, when you see a really good one, you kind of all of a sudden wish the speaker was your best friend, don't you? Like, just for a day. +They seem like a nice person. +You'd take a bike ride, maybe share an ice cream. +You'd certainly learn a lot. +And every now and then they'd chide you, when they got frustrated that you couldn't really keep up with half of the technical things they're banging on about all the time. +But then they'd remember that you're but a mere human of ordinary, mortal intelligence that didn't finish university, and they'd kind of forgive you, and pet you like the dog. +Man, yeah, back to the real world, probably Sir Ken Robinson and I are not going to end up being best of friends. +He lives all the way in L.A. and I imagine is quite busy, but through the tools available to me -- technology and the innate way that I approach making music -- I can sort of bully our existences into a shared event, which is sort of what you saw. +I can hear something that I love in a piece of media and I can co-opt it and insert myself in that narrative, or alter it, even. +In a nutshell, that's what I was trying to do with these things, but more importantly, that's what the past 30 years of music has been. +That's the major thread. +See, 30 years ago, you had the first digital samplers, and they changed everything overnight. +All of a sudden, artists could sample from anything and everything that came before them, from a snare drum from the Funky Meters, to a Ron Carter bassline, the theme to "The Price Is Right." +Albums like De La Soul's "3 Feet High and Rising" and the Beastie Boys' "Paul's Boutique" looted from decades of recorded music to create these sonic, layered masterpieces that were basically the Sgt. Peppers of their day. +And they weren't sampling these records because they were too lazy to write their own music. +They weren't sampling these records to cash in on the familiarity of the original stuff. +To be honest, it was all about sampling really obscure things, except for a few obvious exceptions like Vanilla Ice and "doo doo doo da da doo doo" that we know about. +But the thing is, they were sampling those records because they heard something in that music that spoke to them that they instantly wanted to inject themselves into the narrative of that music. +You know, in music we take something that we love and we build on it. +I'd like to play a song for you. +(Music: "La Di Da Di" by Doug E. Fresh & Slick Rick) That's "La Di Da Di" and it's the fifth-most sampled song of all time. +It's been sampled 547 times. +It was made in 1984 by these two legends of hip-hop, Slick Rick and Doug E. Fresh, and the Ray-Ban and Jheri curl look is so strong. +I do hope that comes back soon. +Anyway, this predated the sampling era. +There were no samples in this record, although I did look up on the Internet last night, I mean several months ago, that "La Di Da Di" means, it's an old Cockney expression from the late 1800s in England, so maybe a remix with Mrs. Patmore from "Downton Abbey" coming soon, or that's for another day. +Doug E. Fresh was the human beat box. +Slick Rick is the voice you hear on the record, and because of Slick Rick's sing-songy, super-catchy vocals, it provides endless sound bites and samples for future pop records. +That was 1984. +This is me in 1984, in case you were wondering how I was doing, thank you for asking. +It's Throwback Thursday already. +I was involved in a heavy love affair with the music of Duran Duran, as you can probably tell from my outfit. +I was in the middle. +And the simplest way that I knew how to co-opt myself into that experience of wanting to be in that song somehow was to just get a band together of fellow nine-year-olds and play "Wild Boys" at the school talent show. +So that's what we did, and long story short, we were booed off the stage, and if you ever have a chance to live your life escaping hearing the sound of an auditorium full of second- and third-graders booing, I would highly recommend it. It's not really fun. +But it didn't really matter, because what I wanted somehow was to just be in the history of that song for a minute. +I didn't care who liked it. +I just loved it, and I thought I could put myself in there. +Over the next 10 years, "La Di Da Di" continues to be sampled by countless records, ending up on massive hits like "Here Comes the Hotstepper" and "I Wanna Sex You Up." +Snoop Doggy Dogg covers this song on his debut album "Doggystyle" and calls it "Lodi Dodi." +Copyright lawyers are having a field day at this point. +And then you fast forward to 1997, and the Notorious B.I.G., or Biggie, reinterprets "La Di Da Di" on his number one hit called "Hypnotize," which I will play a little bit of and I will play you a little bit of the Slick Rick to show you where they got it from. +But the way he interpreted it, as you hear, is completely his own. +He flips it, makes it, there's nothing pastiche whatsoever about it. +It's thoroughly modern Biggie. +I had to make that joke in this room, because you would be the only people that I'd ever have a chance of getting it. +And so, it's a groaner. Elsewhere in the pop and rap world, we're going a little bit sample-crazy. +We're getting away from the obscure samples that we were doing, and all of a sudden everyone's taking these massive '80s tunes like Bowie, "Let's Dance," and all these disco records, and just rapping on them. +These records don't really age that well. +You don't hear them now, because they borrowed from an era that was too steeped in its own connotation. +You can't just hijack nostalgia wholesale. +It leaves the listener feeling sickly. +You have to take an element of those things and then bring something fresh and new to it, which was something that I learned when I was working with the late, amazing Amy Winehouse on her album "Back to Black." +Imagine any other singer from that era over it singing the same old lyrics. +It runs a risk of being completely bland. +I mean, there was no doubt that Amy and I and Salaam all had this love for this gospel, soul and blues and jazz that was evident listening to the musical arrangements. +She brought the ingredients that made it urgent and of the time. +So if we come all the way up to the present day now, the cultural tour de force that is Miley Cyrus, she reinterprets "La Di Da Di" completely for her generation, and we'll take a listen to the Slick Rick part and then see how she sort of flipped it. +Since the dawn of the sampling era, there's been endless debate about the validity of music that contains samples. +You know, the Grammy committee says that if your song contains some kind of pre-written or pre-existing music, you're ineligible for song of the year. +Rockists, who are racist but only about rock music, constantly use the argument to That's a real word. That is a real word. +They constantly use the argument to devalue rap and modern pop, and these arguments completely miss the point, because the dam has burst. +We live in the post-sampling era. +We take the things that we love and we build on them. +That's just how it goes. +And when we really add something significant and original and we merge our musical journey with this, then we have a chance to be a part of the evolution of that music that we love and be linked with it once it becomes something new again. +So I would like to do one more piece that I put together for you tonight, and it takes place with two pretty inspiring TED performances that I've seen. +One of them is the piano player Derek Paravicini, who happens to be a blind, autistic genius at the piano, and Emmanuel Jal, who is an ex-child soldier from the South Sudan, who is a spoken word poet and rapper. +And once again I found a way to annoyingly me-me-me myself into the musical history of these songs, but I can't help it, because they're these things that I love, and I want to mess around with them. +So I hope you enjoy this. Here we go. +Let's hear that TED sound again, right? +Thank you very much. Thank you. +I study ants in the desert, in the tropical forest and in my kitchen, and in the hills around Silicon Valley where I live. +I've recently realized that ants are using interactions differently in different environments, and that got me thinking that we could learn from this about other systems, like brains and data networks that we engineer, and even cancer. +So what all these systems have in common is that there's no central control. +An ant colony consists of sterile female workers -- those are the ants you see walking around and then one or more reproductive females who just lay the eggs. +They don't give any instructions. +Even though they're called queens, they don't tell anybody what to do. +So in an ant colony, there's no one in charge, and all systems like this without central control are regulated using very simple interactions. +Ants interact using smell. +They smell with their antennae, and they interact with their antennae, so when one ant touches another with its antennae, it can tell, for example, if the other ant and what task that other ant has been doing. +So here you see a lot of ants moving around and interacting in a lab arena that's connected by tubes to two other arenas. +So when one ant meets another, it doesn't matter which ant it meets, and they're actually not transmitting any kind of complicated signal or message. +All that matters to the ant is the rate at which it meets other ants. +And all of these interactions, taken together, produce a network. +So this is the network of the ants that you just saw moving around in the arena, and it's this constantly shifting network that produces the behavior of the colony, like whether all the ants are hiding inside the nest, or how many are going out to forage. +A brain actually works in the same way, but what's great about ants is that you can see the whole network as it happens. +There are more than 12,000 species of ants, in every conceivable environment, and they're using interactions differently to meet different environmental challenges. +So one important environmental challenge that every system has to deal with is operating costs, just what it takes to run the system. +And another environmental challenge is resources, finding them and collecting them. +In the desert, operating costs are high because water is scarce, and the seed-eating ants that I study in the desert have to spend water to get water. +So an ant outside foraging, searching for seeds in the hot sun, just loses water into the air. +But the colony gets its water by metabolizing the fats out of the seeds that they eat. +So in this environment, interactions are used to activate foraging. +An outgoing forager doesn't go out unless it gets enough interactions with returning foragers, and what you see are the returning foragers going into the tunnel, into the nest, and meeting outgoing foragers on their way out. +This makes sense for the ant colony, because the more food there is out there, the more quickly the foragers find it, the faster they come back, and the more foragers they send out. +The system works to stay stopped, unless something positive happens. +So interactions function to activate foragers. +And we've been studying the evolution of this system. +First of all, there's variation. +It turns out that colonies are different. +On dry days, some colonies forage less, so colonies are different in how they manage this trade-off between spending water to search for seeds and getting water back in the form of seeds. +And we're trying to understand why some colonies forage less than others by thinking about ants as neurons, using models from neuroscience. +So just as a neuron adds up its stimulation from other neurons to decide whether to fire, an ant adds up its stimulation from other ants to decide whether to forage. +And what we're looking for is whether there might be small differences among colonies in how many interactions each ant needs before it's willing to go out and forage, because a colony like that would forage less. +And this raises an analogous question about brains. +We talk about the brain, but of course every brain is slightly different, and maybe there are some individuals or some conditions in which the electrical properties of neurons are such that they require more stimulus to fire, and that would lead to differences in brain function. +So in order to ask evolutionary questions, we need to know about reproductive success. +This is a map of the study site where I have been tracking this population of harvester ant colonies for 28 years, which is about as long as a colony lives. +Each symbol is a colony, and the size of the symbol is how many offspring it had, because we were able to use genetic variation to match up parent and offspring colonies, that is, to figure out which colonies were founded by a daughter queen produced by which parent colony. +And this was amazing for me, after all these years, to find out, for example, that colony 154, whom I've known well for many years, is a great-grandmother. +Here's her daughter colony, here's her granddaughter colony, and these are her great-granddaughter colonies. +And so our next step is to look for the genetic variation underlying this resemblance. +So then I was able to ask, okay, who's doing better? +So all this time, I thought that colony 154 was a loser, because on really dry days, there'd be just this trickle of foraging, while the other colonies were out foraging, getting lots of food, but in fact, colony 154 is a huge success. +She's a matriarch. +She's one of the rare great-grandmothers on the site. +To my knowledge, this is the first time that we've been able to track the ongoing evolution of collective behavior in a natural population of animals and find out what's actually working best. +Now, the Internet uses an algorithm to regulate the flow of data that's very similar to the one that the harvester ants are using to regulate the flow of foragers. +And guess what we call this analogy? +The anternet is coming. +So data doesn't leave the source computer unless it gets a signal that there's enough bandwidth for it to travel on. +In the early days of the Internet, when operating costs were really high and it was really important not to lose any data, then the system was set up for interactions to activate the flow of data. +So what happens when operating costs are low? +Operating costs are low in the tropics, because it's very humid, and it's easy for the ants to be outside walking around. +But the ants are so abundant and diverse in the tropics that there's a lot of competition. +Whatever resource one species is using, another species is likely to be using that at the same time. +So in this environment, interactions are used in the opposite way. +The system keeps going unless something negative happens, and one species that I study makes circuits in the trees of foraging ants going from the nest to a food source and back, just round and round, unless something negative happens, like an interaction with ants of another species. +So here's an example of ant security. +In the middle, there's an ant plugging the nest entrance with its head in response to interactions with another species. +Those are the little ones running around with their abdomens up in the air. +But as soon as the threat is passed, the entrance is open again, and maybe there are situations in computer security where operating costs are low enough that we could just block access temporarily in response to an immediate threat, and then open it again, instead of trying to build a permanent firewall or fortress. +So another environmental challenge that all systems have to deal with is resources, finding and collecting them. +So the invasive Argentine ant makes expandable search networks. +They're good at dealing with the main problem of collective search, which is the trade-off between searching very thoroughly and covering a lot of ground. +And what they do is, when there are many ants in a small space, then each one can search very thoroughly because there will be another ant nearby searching over there, but when there are a few ants in a large space, then they need to stretch out their paths to cover more ground. +I think they use interactions to assess density, so when they're really crowded, they meet more often, and they search more thoroughly. +Different ant species must use different algorithms, because they've evolved to deal with different resources, and it could be really useful to know about this, and so we recently asked ants to solve the collective search problem in the extreme environment of microgravity in the International Space Station. +When I first saw this picture, I thought, Oh no, they've mounted the habitat vertically, but then I realized that, of course, it doesn't matter. +So the idea here is that the ants are working so hard to hang on to the wall or the floor or whatever you call it that they're less likely to interact, and so the relationship between how crowded they are and how often they meet would be messed up. +We're still analyzing the data. +I don't have the results yet. +But it would be interesting to know how other species solve this problem in different environments on Earth, and so we're setting up a program to encourage kids around the world to try this experiment with different species. +It's very simple. +It can be done with cheap materials. +And that way, we could make a global map of ant collective search algorithms. +And I think it's pretty likely that the invasive species, the ones that come into our buildings, are going to be really good at this, because they're in your kitchen because they're really good at finding food and water. +So the most familiar resource for ants is a picnic, and this is a clustered resource. +When there's one piece of fruit, there's likely to be another piece of fruit nearby, and the ants that specialize on clustered resources use interactions for recruitment. +So when one ant meets another, or when it meets a chemical deposited on the ground by another, then it changes direction to follow in the direction of the interaction, and that's how you get the trail of ants sharing your picnic. +Now this is a place where I think we might be able to learn something from ants about cancer. +I mean, first, it's obvious that we could do a lot to prevent cancer by not allowing people to spread around or sell the toxins that promote the evolution of cancer in our bodies, but I don't think the ants can help us much with this because ants never poison their own colonies. +But we might be able to learn something from ants about treating cancer. +There are many different kinds of cancer. +Each one originates in a particular part of the body, and then some kinds of cancer will spread or metastasize to particular other tissues where they must be getting resources that they need. +So if you think from the perspective of early metastatic cancer cells as they're out searching around for the resources that they need, if those resources are clustered, they're likely to use interactions for recruitment, and if we can figure out how cancer cells are recruiting, then maybe we could set traps to catch them before they become established. +So ants are using interactions in different ways in a huge variety of environments, and we could learn from this about other systems that operate without central control. +Using only simple interactions, ant colonies have been performing amazing feats for more than 130 million years. +We have a lot to learn from them. +Thank you. +So today's top chef class is in how to rob a bank, and it's clear that the general public needs guidance, because the average bank robbery nets only 7,500 dollars. +Rank amateurs who know nothing about how to cook the books. +The folks who know, of course, run our largest banks, and in the last go-around, they cost us over 11 trillion dollars. +That's what 11 trillion looks like. +That's how many zeros? +And cost us over 10 million jobs as well. +So our task is to educate ourselves so that we can understand why we have these recurrent, intensifying financial crises, and how we can prevent them in the future. +And the answer to that is that we have to stop epidemics of control fraud. +Control fraud is what happens when the people who control, typically a CEO, a seemingly legitimate entity, use it as a weapon to defraud. +And these are the weapons of mass destruction in the financial world. +They also follow in finance a particular strategy, because the weapon of choice in finance is accounting, and there is a recipe for accounting control fraud, and how it occurs. +And we discovered this recipe in quite an odd way that I'll come back to in a moment. +First ingredient in the recipe: grow like crazy; second, by making or buying really crappy loans, but loans that are made at a very high interest rate or yield; three, while employing extreme leverage -- that just means a lot of debt -- compared to your equity; and four, while providing only trivial loss reserves against the inevitable losses. +If you follow those four simple steps, and any bank can follow them, then you are mathematically guaranteed to have three things occur. +The first thing is you will report record bank profits -- not just high, record. +Two, the CEO will immediately be made incredibly wealthy by modern executive compensation. +And three, farther down the road, the bank will suffer catastrophic losses and will fail unless it is bailed out. +And that's a hint as to how we discovered this recipe, because we discovered it through an autopsy process. +During the savings and loan debacle in 1984, we looked at every single failure, and we looked for common characteristics, and we discovered this recipe was common to each of these frauds. +In other words, a coroner could find these things because this is a fatal recipe that will destroy the banks as well as the economy. +So let's go to this crisis, and the two huge epidemics of loan origination fraud that drove the crisis -- appraisal fraud and liar's loans -- and what we're going to see in looking at both of these is we got warnings that were incredibly early about these frauds. +We got warnings that we could have taken advantage of easily, because back in the savings and loan debacle, we had figured out how to respond and prevent these crises. +And three, the warnings were unambiguous. +They were obvious that what was going on was an epidemic of accounting control fraud building up. +Let's take appraisal fraud first. +This is simply where you inflate the value of the home that is being pledged as security for the loan. +In 2000, the year 2000, that is over a year before Enron fails, by the way, the honest appraisers got together a formal petition begging the federal government to act, and the industry to act, to stop this epidemic of appraisal fraud. +And the appraisers explained how it was occurring, that banks were demanding that appraisers inflate the appraisal, and that if the appraisers refused to do so, they, the banks, would blacklist honest appraisers and refuse to use them. +Now, we've seen this before in the savings and loan debacle, and we know that this kind of fraud can only originate from the lenders, and that no honest lender would ever inflate the appraisal, because it's the great protection against loss. +So this was an incredibly early warning, 2000. +It was something we'd seen before, and it was completely unambiguous. +This was an epidemic of accounting control fraud led by the banks. +What about liar's loans? +Well, that warning actually comes earlier. +The savings and loan debacle is basically the early 1980s through 1993, and in the midst of fighting that wave of accounting control fraud, in 1990, we found that a second front of fraud was being started. +And like all good financial frauds in America, it began in Orange County, California. +And we happened to be the regional regulators for it. +And our examiners said, they are making loans without even checking what the borrower's income is. +This is insane, it has to lead to massive losses, and it only makes sense for entities engaged in these accounting control frauds. +So we knew again about this crisis. +We'd seen it before. We'd stopped it before. +We had incredibly early warnings of it, and it was absolutely unambiguous that no honest lender would make loans in this fashion. +So let's take a look at the reaction of the industry and the regulators and the prosecutors to these clear early warnings that could have prevented the crisis. +Start with the industry. +The industry responded between 2003 and 2006 by increasing liar's loans by over 500 percent. +These were the loans that hyperinflated the bubble and produced the economic crisis. +By 2006, half of all the loans called subprime were also liar's loans. +They're not mutually exclusive, it's just that together, they're the most toxic combination you can possibly imagine. +By 2006, 40 percent of all the loans made that year, all the home loans made that year, were liar's loans, 40 percent. +And this is despite a warning from the industry's own antifraud experts that said that these loans were an open invitation to fraudsters, and that they had a fraud incidence of 90 percent, nine zero. +In response to that, the industry first started calling these loans liar's loans, which lacks a certain subtlety, and second, massively increased them, and no government regulator ever required or encouraged any lender to make a liar's loan or anyone to purchase a liar's loan, and that explicitly includes Fannie and Freddie. +This came from the lenders because of the fraud recipe. +What happened to appraisal fraud? +It expanded remarkably as well. +By 2007, when a survey of appraisers was done, 90 percent of appraisers reported that they had been subject to coercion from the lenders trying to get them to inflate an appraisal. +In other words, both forms of fraud became absolutely endemic and normal, and this is what drove the bubble. +What happened in the governmental sector? +Well, the government, as I told you, when we were the savings and loan regulators, we could only deal with our industry, and if people gave up their federal deposit insurance, we couldn't do anything to them. +Congress, it may strike you as impossible, but actually did something intelligent in 1994, and passed the Home Ownership and Equity Protection Act that gave the Fed, and only the Federal Reserve, the explicit, statutory authority to ban liar's loans by every lender, whether or not they had federal deposit insurance. +So what did Ben Bernanke and Alan Greenspan, as chairs of the Fed, do when they got these warnings that these were massively fraudulent loans and that they were being sold to the secondary market? +Remember, there's no fraud exorcist. +Once it starts out a fraudulent loan, it can only be sold to the secondary market through more frauds, lying about the reps and warrantees, and then those people are going to produce mortgage-backed securities and exotic derivatives which are also going to be supposedly backed by those fraudulent loans. +So the fraud is going to progress through the entire system, hyperinflate the bubble, produce a disaster. +And remember, we had experience with this. +We had seen significant losses, and we had experience of competent regulators in stopping it. +Greenspan and Bernanke refused to use the authority under the statute to stop liar's loans. +And this was a matter first of dogma. +They're just horrifically opposed to anything regulatory. +So that was the regulatory response. +What about the response of the prosecutors after the crisis, after 11 trillion dollars in losses, after 10 million jobs lost, a crisis in which the losses and the frauds were more than 70 times larger than the savings and loan debacle? +Roughly 300 savings and loans involved, roughly 600 senior officials. +Virtually all of them were prosecuted. +We had a 90 percent conviction rate. +It's the greatest success against elite white collar criminals ever, and it was because of this understanding of control fraud and the accounting control fraud mechanism. +Flash forward to the current crisis. +The same agency, Office of Thrift Supervision, which was supposed to regulate many of the largest makers of liar's loans has made, even today -- it no longer exists, but as of a year ago, it had made zero criminal referrals. +The Office of the Comptroller of the Currency, which is supposed to regulate the largest national banks, has made zero criminal referrals. +The Fed appears to have made zero criminal referrals. +The Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation is smart enough to refuse to answer the question. +Without any guidance from the regulators, there's no expertise in the FBI to investigate complex frauds. +It isn't simply that they've had to reinvent the wheel of how to do these prosecutions; they've forgotten that the wheel exists, and therefore, we have zero prosecutions, and of course, zero convictions, of any of the elite bank frauds, the Wall Street types, that drove this crisis. +With no expertise coming from the regulators, the FBI formed what it calls a partnership with the Mortgage Bankers Association in 2007. +The Mortgage Bankers Association is the trade association of the perps. +And the Mortgage Bankers Association set out, it had the audacity and the success to con the FBI. +It had created a supposed definition of mortgage fraud, in which, guess what, its members are always the victim and never the perpetrators. +And the FBI has bought this hook, line, sinker, rod, reel and the boat they rode out in. +And so the FBI, under the leadership of an attorney general who is African-American and a president of the United States who is African-American, have adopted the Tea Party definition of the crisis, in which it is the first virgin crisis in history, conceived without sin in the executive ranks. +And it's those oh-so-clever hairdressers who were able to defraud the poor, pitiful banks, who lack any financial sophistication. +It is the silliest story you can conceive of, and so they go and they prosecute the hairdressers, and they leave the banksters alone entirely. +And so, while lions are roaming the campsite, the FBI is chasing mice. +What do we need to do? What can we do in all of this? +We need to change the perverse incentive structures that produce these recurrent epidemics of accounting control fraud that are driving our crises. +So we have to first get rid of the systemically dangerous institutions. +These are the so-called too-big-to-fail institutions. +We need to shrink them to the point, within the next five years, that they no longer pose a systemic risk. +Right now, they are ticking time bombs that will cause a global crisis as soon as the next one fails -- not if, when. +Second thing we need to do is completely reform modern executive and professional compensation, which is what they use to suborn the appraisers. +Remember, they were pressuring the appraisers through the compensation system, trying to produce what we call a Gresham's dynamic, in which bad ethics drives good ethics out of the marketplace. +which is how the fraud became endemic. And the third thing that we need to do is deal with what we call the three D's: deregulation, desupervision, and the de facto decriminalization. +Because we can make all three of these changes, and if we do so, we can dramatically reduce how often we have a crisis and how severe those crises are. +That is not simply critical to our economy. +You can see what these crises do to inequality and what they do to our democracy. +There are many forms of ammunition they can use. +That's why we need to learn what the bankers have learned: the recipe for the best way to rob a bank, so that we can stop that recipe, because our legislators, who are dependent on political contributions, will not do it on their own. +Thank you very much. +There's a man by the name of Captain William Swenson who recently was awarded the congressional Medal of Honor for his actions on September 8, 2009. +On that day, a column of American and Afghan troops were making their way through a part of Afghanistan to help protect a group of government officials, a group of Afghan government officials, who would be meeting with some local village elders. +The column came under ambush, and was surrounded on three sides, and amongst many other things, Captain Swenson was recognized for running into live fire to rescue the wounded and pull out the dead. +One of the people he rescued was a sergeant, and he and a comrade were making their way to a medevac helicopter. +And what was remarkable about this day is, by sheer coincidence, one of the medevac medics happened to have a GoPro camera on his helmet and captured the whole scene on camera. +It shows Captain Swenson and his comrade bringing this wounded soldier who had received a gunshot to the neck. +They put him in the helicopter, and then you see Captain Swenson bend over and give him a kiss before he turns around to rescue more. +I saw this, and I thought to myself, where do people like that come from? +What is that? That is some deep, deep emotion, when you would want to do that. +There's a love there, and I wanted to know why is it that I don't have people that I work with like that? +You know, in the military, they give medals to people who are willing to sacrifice themselves so that others may gain. +In business, we give bonuses to people who are willing to sacrifice others so that we may gain. +We have it backwards. Right? +So I asked myself, where do people like this come from? +And my initial conclusion was that they're just better people. +That's why they're attracted to the military. +These better people are attracted to this concept of service. +But that's completely wrong. +What I learned was that it's the environment, and if you get the environment right, every single one of us has the capacity to do these remarkable things, and more importantly, others have that capacity too. +I've had the great honor of getting to meet some of these, who we would call heroes, who have put themselves and put their lives at risk to save others, and I asked them, "Why would you do it? +Why did you do it?" +And they all say the same thing: "Because they would have done it for me." +It's this deep sense of trust and cooperation. +So trust and cooperation are really important here. +The problem with concepts of trust and cooperation is that they are feelings, they are not instructions. +I can't simply say to you, "Trust me," and you will. +I can't simply instruct two people to cooperate, and they will. +It's not how it works. It's a feeling. +So where does that feeling come from? +If you go back 50,000 years to the Paleolithic era, to the early days of Homo sapiens, what we find is that the world was filled with danger, all of these forces working very, very hard to kill us. +Nothing personal. +Whether it was the weather, lack of resources, maybe a saber-toothed tiger, all of these things working to reduce our lifespan. +And so we evolved into social animals, where we lived together and worked together in what I call a circle of safety, inside the tribe, where we felt like we belonged. +And when we felt safe amongst our own, the natural reaction was trust and cooperation. +There are inherent benefits to this. +It means I can fall asleep at night and trust that someone from within my tribe will watch for danger. +If we don't trust each other, if I don't trust you, that means you won't watch for danger. +Bad system of survival. +The modern day is exactly the same thing. +The world is filled with danger, things that are trying to frustrate our lives or reduce our success, reduce our opportunity for success. +It could be the ups and downs in the economy, the uncertainty of the stock market. +It could be a new technology that renders your business model obsolete overnight. +Or it could be your competition that is sometimes trying to kill you. +It's sometimes trying to put you out of business, but at the very minimum is working hard to frustrate your growth and steal your business from you. +We have no control over these forces. +These are a constant, and they're not going away. +The only variable are the conditions inside the organization, and that's where leadership matters, because it's the leader that sets the tone. +When a leader makes the choice to put the safety and lives of the people inside the organization first, to sacrifice their comforts and sacrifice the tangible results, so that the people remain and feel safe and feel like they belong, remarkable things happen. +I was flying on a trip, and I was witness to an incident where a passenger attempted to board before their number was called, and I watched the gate agent treat this man like he had broken the law, like a criminal. +He was yelled at for attempting to board one group too soon. +So I said something. +I said, "Why do you have treat us like cattle? +Why can't you treat us like human beings?" +And this is exactly what she said to me. +She said, "Sir, if I don't follow the rules, I could get in trouble or lose my job." +All she was telling me is that she doesn't feel safe. +All she was telling me is that she doesn't trust her leaders. +The reason we like flying Southwest Airlines is not because they necessarily hire better people. +It's because they don't fear their leaders. +You see, if the conditions are wrong, we are forced to expend our own time and energy to protect ourselves from each other, and that inherently weakens the organization. +When we feel safe inside the organization, we will naturally combine our talents and our strengths and work tirelessly to face the dangers outside and seize the opportunities. +The closest analogy I can give to what a great leader is, is like being a parent. +If you think about what being a great parent is, what do you want? What makes a great parent? +We want to give our child opportunities, education, discipline them when necessary, all so that they can grow up and achieve more than we could for ourselves. +Great leaders want exactly the same thing. +They want to provide their people opportunity, education, discipline when necessary, build their self-confidence, give them the opportunity to try and fail, all so that they could achieve more than we could ever imagine for ourselves. +Charlie Kim, who's the CEO of a company called Next Jump in New York City, a tech company, he makes the point that if you had hard times in your family, would you ever consider laying off one of your children? +We would never do it. +Then why do we consider laying off people inside our organization? +Charlie implemented a policy of lifetime employment. +If you get a job at Next Jump, you cannot get fired for performance issues. +In fact, if you have issues, they will coach you and they will give you support, just like we would with one of our children who happens to come home with a C from school. +It's the complete opposite. +This is the reason so many people have such a visceral hatred, anger, at some of these banking CEOs with their disproportionate salaries and bonus structures. +It's not the numbers. +It's that they have violated the very definition of leadership. +They have violated this deep-seated social contract. +We know that they allowed their people to be sacrificed so they could protect their own interests, or worse, they sacrificed their people to protect their own interests. +This is what so offends us, not the numbers. +Would anybody be offended if we gave a $150 million bonus to Gandhi? +How about a $250 million bonus to Mother Teresa? +Do we have an issue with that? None at all. +None at all. +Great leaders would never sacrifice the people to save the numbers. +They would sooner sacrifice the numbers to save the people. +Bob Chapman, who runs a large manufacturing company in the Midwest called Barry-Wehmiller, in 2008 was hit very hard by the recession, and they lost 30 percent of their orders overnight. +Now in a large manufacturing company, this is a big deal, and they could no longer afford their labor pool. +They needed to save 10 million dollars, so, like so many companies today, the board got together and discussed layoffs. +And Bob refused. +You see, Bob doesn't believe in head counts. +Bob believes in heart counts, and it's much more difficult to simply reduce the heart count. +And so they came up with a furlough program. +Every employee, from secretary to CEO, was required to take four weeks of unpaid vacation. +They could take it any time they wanted, and they did not have to take it consecutively. +But it was how Bob announced the program that mattered so much. +He said, it's better that we should all suffer a little than any of us should have to suffer a lot, and morale went up. +They saved 20 million dollars, and most importantly, as would be expected, when the people feel safe and protected by the leadership in the organization, the natural reaction is to trust and cooperate. +And quite spontaneously, nobody expected, people started trading with each other. +Those who could afford it more would trade with those who could afford it less. +People would take five weeks so that somebody else only had to take three. +Leadership is a choice. It is not a rank. +I know many people at the seniormost levels of organizations who are absolutely not leaders. +They are authorities, and we do what they say because they have authority over us, but we would not follow them. +And I know many people who are at the bottoms of organizations who have no authority and they are absolutely leaders, and this is because they have chosen to look after the person to the left of them, and they have chosen to look after the person to the right of them. +This is what a leader is. +I heard a story of some Marines who were out in theater, and as is the Marine custom, the officer ate last, and he let his men eat first, and when they were done, there was no food left for him. +And when they went back out in the field, his men brought him some of their food so that he may eat, because that's what happens. +We call them leaders because they go first. +We call them leaders because they take the risk before anybody else does. +We call them leaders because they will choose to sacrifice so that their people may be safe and protected and so their people may gain, and when we do, the natural response is that our people will sacrifice for us. +They will give us their blood and sweat and tears to see that their leader's vision comes to life, and when we ask them, "Why would you do that? +Why would you give your blood and sweat and tears for that person?" they all say the same thing: "Because they would have done it for me." +And isn't that the organization we would all like to work in? +Thank you very much. +Thank you. Thank you. +I'm going to ask and try to answer, in some ways, kind of an uncomfortable question. +Both civilians, obviously, and soldiers suffer in war; I don't think any civilian has ever missed the war that they were subjected to. +I've been covering wars for almost 20 years, and one of the remarkable things for me is how many soldiers find themselves missing it. +How is it someone can go through the worst experience imaginable, and come home, back to their home, and their family, their country, and miss the war? +How does that work? What does it mean? +We have to answer that question, because if we don't, it'll be impossible to bring soldiers back to a place in society where they belong, and I think it'll also be impossible to stop war, if we don't understand how that mechanism works. +The problem is that war does not have a simple, neat truth, one simple, neat truth. +Any sane person hates war, hates the idea of war, wouldn't want to have anything to do with it, doesn't want to be near it, doesn't want to know about it. +That's a sane response to war. +But if I asked all of you in this room, who here has paid money to go to a cinema and be entertained by a Hollywood war movie, most of you would probably raise your hands. +That's what's so complicated about war. +And trust me, if a room full of peace-loving people finds something compelling about war, so do 20-year-old soldiers who have been trained in it, I promise you. +That's the thing that has to be understood. +I've covered war for about 20 years, as I said, but my most intense experiences in combat were with American soldiers in Afghanistan. +I've been in Africa, the Middle East, Afghanistan in the '90s, but it was with American soldiers in 2007, 2008, that I was confronted with very intense combat. +I was in a small valley called the Korengal Valley in eastern Afghanistan. +It was six miles long. +There were 150 men of Battle Company in that valley, and for a while, while I was there, almost 20 percent of all the combat in all of Afghanistan was happening in those six miles. +A hundred and fifty men were absorbing almost a fifth of the combat for all of NATO forces in the country, for a couple months. +It was very intense. +I spent most of my time at a small outpost called Restrepo. +It was named after the platoon medic that had been killed about two months into the deployment. +It was a few plywood B-huts clinging to a side of a ridge, and sandbags, bunkers, gun positions, and there were 20 men up there of Second Platoon, Battle Company. +I spent most of my time up there. +There was no running water. +There was no way to bathe. +The guys were up there for a month at a time. +They never even got out of their clothes. +They fought. The worked. +They slept in the same clothes. +They never took them off, and at the end of the month, they went back down to the company headquarters, and by then, their clothes were unwearable. +They burned them and got a new set. +There was no Internet. There was no phone. +There was no communication with the outside world up there. +There was no cooked food. +There was nothing up there that young men typically like: no cars, no girls, no television, nothing except combat. +Combat they did learn to like. +I remember one day, it was a very hot day in the spring, and we hadn't been in a fight in a couple of weeks, maybe. +Usually, the outpost was attacked, and we hadn't seen any combat in a couple of weeks, and everyone was just stunned with boredom and heat. +And I remember the lieutenant walking past me sort of stripped to the waist. +It was incredibly hot. +Stripped to the waist, walked past me muttering, "Oh God, please someone attack us today." +That's how bored they were. +That's war too, is a lieutenant saying, "Please make something happen because we're going crazy." +To understand that, you have to, for a moment, think about combat not morally -- that's an important job to do but for a moment, don't think about it morally, think about it neurologically. +Let's think about what happens in your brain when you're in combat. +First of all, the experience is very bizarre, it's a very bizarre one. +It's not what I had expected. +Usually, you're not scared. +I've been very scared in combat, but most of the time when I was out there, I wasn't scared. +I was very scared beforehand and incredibly scared afterwards, and that fear that comes afterwards can last years. +I haven't been shot at in six years, and I was woken up very abruptly this morning by a nightmare that I was being strafed by aircraft, six years later. +I've never even been strafed by aircraft, and I was having nightmares about it. +Time slows down. +You get this weird tunnel vision. +You notice some details very, very, very accurately and other things drop out. +It's almost a slightly altered state of mind. +What's happening in your brain is you're getting an enormous amount of adrenaline pumped through your system. +Young men will go to great lengths to have that experience. +It's wired into us. +It's hormonally supported. +The mortality rate for young men in society is six times what it is for young women from violence and from accidents, just the stupid stuff that young men do: jumping off of things they shouldn't jump off of, lighting things on fire they shouldn't light on fire, I mean, you know what I'm talking about. +They die at six times the rate that young women do. +Statistically, you are safer as a teenage boy, you would be safer in the fire department or the police department in most American cities than just walking around the streets of your hometown looking for something to do, statistically. +You can imagine how that plays out in combat. +At Restrepo, every guy up there was almost killed, including me, including my good friend Tim Hetherington, who was later killed in Libya. +There were guys walking around with bullet holes in their uniforms, rounds that had cut through the fabric and didn't touch their bodies. +I was leaning against some sandbags one morning, not much going on, sort of spacing out, and some sand was kicked into the side of, sort of hit the side of my face. +Something hit the side of my face, and I didn't know what it was. +You have to understand about bullets that they go a lot faster than sound, so if someone shoots at you from a few hundred meters, the bullet goes by you, or hits you obviously, half a second or so before the sound catches up to it. +So I had some sand sprayed in the side of my face. +Half a second later, I heard dut-dut-dut-dut-duh. +It was machine gun fire. +It was the first round, the first burst of an hour-long firefight. +What had happened was the bullet hit, a bullet hit three or four inches from the side of my head. +Imagine, just think about it, because I certainly did, think about the angle of deviation that saved my life. +At 400 meters, it missed me by three inches. +Just think about the math on that. +Every guy up there had some experience like that, at least once, if not many times. +The boys are up there for a year. +They got back. +Some of them got out of the Army and had tremendous psychological problems when they got home. +Some of them stayed in the Army and were more or less okay, psychologically. +I was particularly close to a guy named Brendan O'Byrne. +I'm still very good friends with him. +He came back to the States. He got out of the Army. +I had a dinner party one night. +I invited him, and he started talking with a woman, one of my friends, and she knew how bad it had been out there, and she said, "Brendan, is there anything at all that you miss about being out in Afghanistan, about the war?" +And he thought about it quite a long time, and finally he said, "Ma'am, I miss almost all of it." +And he's one of the most traumatized people I've seen from that war. +"Ma'am, I miss almost all of it." +What is he talking about? +He's not a psychopath. +He doesn't miss killing people. +He's not crazy. He doesn't miss getting shot at and seeing his friends get killed. +What is it that he misses? We have to answer that. +If we're going to stop war, we have to answer that question. +I think what he missed is brotherhood. +He missed, in some ways, the opposite of killing. +What he missed was connection to the other men he was with. +Now, brotherhood is different from friendship. +Friendship happens in society, obviously. +The more you like someone, the more you'd be willing to do for them. +Brotherhood has nothing to do with how you feel about the other person. +It's a mutual agreement in a group that you will put the welfare of the group, you will put the safety of everyone in the group above your own. +In effect, you're saying, "I love these other people more than I love myself." +Brendan was a team leader in command of three men, and the worst day in Afghanistan He was almost killed so many times. +It didn't bother him. +The worst thing that happened to him in Afghanistan was one of his men was hit in the head with a bullet in the helmet, knocked him over. +They thought he was dead. +It was in the middle of a huge firefight. +No one could deal with it, and a minute later, Kyle Steiner sat back up from the dead, as it were, because he'd come back to consciousness. +The bullet had just knocked him out. +It glanced off the helmet. +He remembers people saying, as he was sort of half-conscious, he remembers people saying, "Steiner's been hit in the head. Steiner's dead." +And he was thinking, "I'm not dead." +And he sat up. +And Brendan realized after that that he could not protect his men, and that was the only time he cried in Afghanistan, was realizing that. +That's brotherhood. +This wasn't invented recently. +Many of you have probably read "The Iliad." +Achilles surely would have risked his life or given his life to save his friend Patroclus. +In World War II, there were many stories of soldiers who were wounded, were brought to a rear base hospital, who went AWOL, crawled out of windows, slipped out doors, went AWOL, wounded, to make their way back to the front lines to rejoin their brothers out there. +That is terrifying. +Compared to that, war, psychologically, in some ways, is easy, compared to that kind of alienation. +That's why they miss it, and that's what we have to understand and in some ways fix in our society. +Thank you very much. +The most romantic thing to ever happen to me online started out the way most things do: without me, and not online. +On December 10, 1896, the man on the medal, Alfred Nobel, died. +One hundred years later, exactly, actually, December 10, 1996, this charming lady, Wislawa Szymborska, won the Nobel Prize for literature. +She's a Polish poet. +She's a big deal, obviously, but back in '96, I thought I had never heard of her, and when I checked out her work, I found this sweet little poem, "Four in the Morning." +"The hour from night to day. +The hour from side to side. +The hour for those past thirty..." +And it goes on, but as soon as I read this poem, I fell for it hard, so hard, I suspected we must have met somewhere before. +Had I shared an elevator ride with this poem? +Did I flirt with this poem in a coffee shop somewhere? +I could not place it, and it bugged me, and then in the coming week or two, I would just be watching an old movie, and this would happen. +Groucho Marx: Charlie, you should have come to the first party. +We didn't get home till around four in the morning. +Rives: My roommates would have the TV on, and this would happen. +(Music: Seinfeld theme) George Costanza: Oh boy, I was up til four in the morning watching that Omen trilogy. +Rives: I would be listening to music, and this would happen. +Elton John: It's four o'clock in the morning, damn it. Rives: So you can see what was going on, right? +Obviously, the demigods of coincidence were just messing with me. +Some people get a number stuck in their head, you may recognize a certain name or a tune, some people get nothing, but four in the morning was in me now, but mildly, like a groin injury. +I always assumed it would just go away on its own eventually, and I never talked about it with anybody, but it did not, and I totally did. +In 2007, I was invited to speak at TED for the second time, and since I was still an authority on nothing, I thought, what if I made a multimedia presentation on a topic so niche it is actually inconsequential or actually cockamamie. +So my talk had some of my four in the morning examples, but it also had examples from my fellow TED speakers that year. +I found four in the morning in a novel by Isabel Allende. +I found a really great one in the autobiography of Bill Clinton. +I found a couple in the work of Matt Groening, although Matt Groening told me later that he could not make my talk because it was a morning session and I gather that he is not an early riser. +However, had Matt been there, he would have seen this mock conspiracy theory that was un-freaking-canny for me to assemble. +It was totally contrived just for that room, just for that moment. +That's how we did it in the pre-TED.com days. +It was fun. That was pretty much it. +When I got home, though, the emails started coming in from people who had seen the talk live, beginning with, and this is still my favorite, "Here's another one for your collection: 'It's the friends you can call up at 4 a.m. that matter.'" The sentiment is Marlene Dietrich. +The email itself was from another very sexy European type, TED Curator Chris Anderson. +Chris found this quote on a coffee cup or something, and I'm thinking, this man is the Typhoid Mary of ideas worth spreading, and I have infected him. +I am contagious, which was confirmed less than a week later when a Hallmark employee scanned and sent an actual greeting card with that same quotation. +As a bonus, she hooked me up with a second one they make. +It says, "Just knowing I can call you at four in the morning if I need to makes me not really need to," which I love, because together these are like, "Hallmark: When you care enough to send the very best twice, phrased slightly differently." +I was not surprised at the TEDster and New Yorker magazine overlap. +A bunch of people sent me this when it came out. +"It's 4 a.m.maybe you'd sleep better if you bought some crap." +I was surprised at the TEDster/"Rugrats" overlap. +More than one person sent me this. +Didi Pickles: It's four o'clock in the morning. +Why on Earth are you making chocolate pudding? +Stu Pickles: Because I've lost control of my life. +Rives: And then there was the lone TEDster who was disgruntled I had overlooked what he considers to be a classic. +Roy Neary: Get up, get up! I'm not kidding. Ronnie Neary: Is there an accident? +Roy: No, it's not an accident. You wanted to get out of the house anyway, right? +Ronnie: Not at four o'clock in the morning. +Rives: So that's "Close Encounters," and the main character is all worked up because aliens, momentously, have chosen to show themselves to earthlings at four in the morning, which does make that a very solid example. +Those were all really solid examples. +They did not get me any closer to understanding why I thought I recognized this one particular poem. +But they followed the pattern. They played along. +Right? Four in the morning as this scapegoat hour when all these dramatic occurrences allegedly occur. +Maybe this was some kind of cliche that had never been taxonomized before. +Maybe I was on the trail of a new meme or something. +Just when things were getting pretty interesting, things got really interesting. +TED.com launched, later that year, with a bunch of videos from past talks, including mine, and I started receiving "four in the morning" citations from what seemed like every time zone on the planet. +Much of it was content I never would have found on my own if I was looking for it, and I was not. +I don't know anybody with juvenile diabetes. +I probably would have missed the booklet, "Grilled Cheese at Four O'Clock in the Morning." +I do not subscribe to Crochet Today! magazine, although it looks delightful. Take note of those clock ends. +This is a college student's suggestion for what a "four in the morning" gang sign should look like. +People sent me magazine ads. +They took photographs in grocery stores. +I got a ton of graphic novels and comics. +A lot of good quality work, too: "The Sandman," "Watchmen." +There's a very cute example here from "Calvin and Hobbes." +In fact, the oldest citation anybody sent in was from a cartoon from the Stone Age. +Take a look. +Wilma Flintstone: Like how early? +Fred Flintstone: Like at 4 a.m., that's how early. +Rives: And the flip side of the timeline, this is from the 31st century. +A thousand years from now, people are still doing this. +: Announcer: The time is 4 a.m. +Rives: It shows the spectrum. +I received so many songs, TV shows, movies, like from dismal to famous, I could give you a four-hour playlist. +If I just stick to modern male movie stars, I keep it to the length of about a commercial. +Here's your sampler. +(Movie montage of "It's 4 a.m.") Rives: So somewhere along the line, I realized I have a hobby I didn't know I wanted, and it is crowdsourced. +But I was also thinking what you might be thinking, which is really, couldn't you do this with any hour of the day? +First of all, you are not getting clips like that about four in the afternoon. +Secondly, I did a little research. +You know, I was kind of interested. +If this is confirmation bias, there is so much confirmation, I am biased. +Literature probably shows it best. +There are a couple three in the mornings in Shakespeare. +There's a five in the morning. +There are seven four in the mornings, and they're all very dire. +In "Measure for Measure," it's the call time for the executioner. +Tolstoy gives Napoleon insomnia at four in the morning right before battle in "War and Peace." +Charlotte Bront's "Jane Eyre" has got kind of a pivotal four in the morning, as does Emily Bront's "Wuthering Heights." +"Lolita" has as a creepy four in the morning. +"Huckleberry Finn" has one in dialect. +Someone sent in H.G. Wells' "The Invisible Man." +Someone else sent in Ralph Ellison's "Invisible Man." +"The Great Gatsby" spends the last four in the morning of his life waiting for a lover who never shows, and the most famous wake-up in literature, perhaps, "The Metamorphosis." +First paragraph, the main character wakes up transformed into a giant cockroach, but we already know, cockroach notwithstanding, something is up with this guy. +Why? His alarm is set for four o'clock in the morning. +What kind of person would do that? +This kind of person would do that. +(4 a.m. alarm clock montage) Newcaster: Top of the hour. Time for the morning news. +But of course, there is no news yet. +Everyone's still asleep in their comfy, comfy beds. +Rives: Exactly. +So that's Lucy from the Peanuts, "Mommie Dearest", Rocky, first day of training, Nelson Mandela, first day in office, and Bart Simpson, which combined with a cockroach would give you one hell of a dinner party and gives me yet another category, people waking up, in my big old database. +Just imagine that your friends and your family have heard that you collect, say, stuffed polar bears, and they send them to you. +Even if you don't really, at a certain point, you totally collect stuffed polar bears, and your collection is probably pretty kick-ass. +And when I got to that point, I embraced it. +I got my curator on. I started fact checking, downloading, illegally screen-grabbing. +I started archiving. +My hobby had become a habit, and my habit gave me possibly the world's most eclectic Netflix queue. +At one point, it went, "Guys and Dolls: The Musical," "Last Tango in Paris," "Diary of a Wimpy Kid," "Porn Star: Legend of Ron Jeremy." +Why "Porn Star: Legend of Ron Jeremy"? +Because someone told me I would find this clip in there. +Ron Jeremy: I was born in Flushing, Queens on March, 12, 1953, at four o'clock in the morning. +Rives: Of course he was. Yeah. Not only does it seem to make sense, it also answers the question, "What do Ron Jeremy and Simone de Beauvoir have in common?" +Simone de Beauvoir begins her entire autobiography with the sentence, "I was born at four o'clock in the morning," which I had because someone else had emailed it to me, and when they did, I had another bump up in my entry for this, because porn star Ron Jeremy and feminist Simone de Beauvoir are not just different people. +They are different people that have this thing connecting them, and I did not know if that is trivia or knowledge or inadvertent expertise, but I did wonder, is there maybe a cooler way to do this? +So last October, in gentleman scholar tradition, I put the entire collection online as "Museum of Four in the Morning." +You can click on that red "refresh" button. +It will take you at random to one of hundreds of snippets that are in the collection. +Here is a knockout poem by Billy Collins called "Forgetfulness." +Billy Collins: No wonder you rise in the middle of the night to look up the date of a famous battle in a book on war. +No wonder the moon in the window seems to have drifted out of a love poem that you used to know by heart. +Rives: So the first hour of this project was satisfying. +A Bollywood actor sang a line on a DVD in a cafe. +Half a globe away, a teenager made an Instagram video of it and sent it to me, a stranger. +Less than a week later, though, I received a little bit of grace. +I received a poignant tweet. +It was brief. +It just said, "Reminds me of an ancient mix tape." +The name was a pseudonym, actually, or a pseudo-pseudonym. +As soon as I saw the initials, and the profile pic, I knew immediately, my whole body knew immediately who this was, and I knew immediately what mix tape she was talking about. +L.D. was my college romance. +This is in the early '90s. I was an undegrad. +She was a grad student in the library sciences department. +Not the kind of librarian that takes her glasses off, lets her hair down, suddenly she's smoking hot. +She was already smoking hot, she was super dorky, and we had a December-May romance, meaning we started dating in December, and by May, she had graduated and became my one that got away. +But her mix tape did not get away. +I have kept this mix tape in a box with notes and postcards, not just from L.D., from my life, but for decades. +It's the kind of box where, if I have a girlfriend, I tend to hide it from her, and if I had a wife, I'm sure I would share it with her, but the story with this mix tape is there are seven songs per side, but no song titles. +Instead, L.D. has used the U.S. Library of Congress classification system, including page numbers, to leave me clues. +When I got this mix tape, I put it in my cassette player, I took it to the campus library, her library, I found 14 books on the shelves. +I remember bringing them all to my favorite corner table, and I read poems paired to songs like food to wine, paired, I can tell you, like saddle shoes to a cobalt blue vintage cotton dress. +I did this again last October. +I'm sitting there, I got new earbuds, old Walkman, I realize this is just the kind of extravagance I used to take for granted even when I was extravagant. +And then I thought, "Good for him." +"PG" is Slavic literature. +"7000" series Polish literature. +Z9A24 is a collection of 70 poems. +Page 31 is Wislawa Szymborska's poem paired with Paul Simon's "Peace Like a River." +(Music: Paul Simon, "Peace Like a River") Paul Simon: Oh, four in the morning I woke up from out of my dream Rives: Thank you. Appreciate it. +As a scientist, and also as a human being, I've been trying to make myself susceptible to wonder. +I think Jason Webley last night called it "conspiring to be part of the magic." +So it's fortunate that my career as a biologist lets me dive deeply into the lives of some truly wondrous creatures that share our planet: fireflies. +Now, for many of you, I know that fireflies might conjure up some really great memories: childhood, summertime, even other TED Talks. +Maybe something like this. +My seduction into the world of fireflies began when I was back in graduate school. +One evening, I was sitting out in my backyard in North Carolina, and suddenly, these silent sparks rose up all around me, and I began to wonder: How do these creatures make light, and what's with all this flashing? +Are they talking to one another? +And what happens after the lights go out? +I've been lucky enough to answer some of these questions as I've explored this nocturnal world. +These luminous landscapes still fill me with wonder, and they keep me connected to the magic of the natural world. +And I find it amazing that they're created by these tiny insects. +In person, fireflies are charming. +They're charismatic. +They've been celebrated in art and in poetry for centuries. +As I've traveled around the world, I've met many thoughtful people who have told me that God put fireflies on Earth for humans to enjoy. +Other creatures can enjoy them too. +I think these graceful insects are truly miraculous because they so beautifully illuminate the creative improvisation of evolution. +They've been shaped by two powerful evolutionary forces: natural selection, the struggle for survival, and sexual selection, the struggle for reproductive opportunity. +As a firefly junkie, the past 20 years have been quite an exciting ride. +Together with my students at Tufts University and other colleagues, we've made lots of new discoveries about fireflies: their courtship and sex lives, their treachery and murder. +So today I'd like to share with you just a couple of tales that we've brought back from our collective adventures into this hidden world. +Fireflies belong to a very beautiful and diverse group of insects, the beetles. +Worldwide, there are more than 2,000 firefly species, and these have evolved remarkably diverse courtship signals, that is, different ways to find and attract mates. +Around 150 million years ago, the very first fireflies probably looked like this. +They flew during the daytime and they didn't light up. +Instead, males used their fantastic antennae to sniff out perfumes given off by their females. +In other fireflies, it's only the females who light up. +They are attractively plump and wingless, so every night, they climb up onto perches and they glow brightly for hours to attract their flying but unlit males. +In still other fireflies, both sexes use quick, bright flashes to find their mates. +Here in North America, we have more than 100 different kinds of firefly that have the remarkable ability to shine energy out from their bodies in the form of light. +How do they do that? +It seems totally magical, but these bioluminescent signals arise from carefully orchestrated chemical reactions that happen inside the firefly lantern. +The main star is an enzyme called luciferase, which in the course of evolution has figured out a way to wrap its tiny arms around an even smaller molecule called luciferin, in the process getting it so excited that it actually gives off light. +Incredible. +But how could these bright lights have benefited some proto-firefly? +To answer this question, we need to flip back in the family album to some baby pictures. +Fireflies completely reinvent their bodies as they grow. +They spend the vast majority of their lifetime, up to two years, in this larval form. +Their main goal here, like my teenagers, is to eat and grow. +And firefly light first originated in these juveniles. +Every single firefly larva can light up, even when their adults can't. +But what's the point to being so conspicuous? +Well, we know that these juveniles make nasty-tasting chemicals that help them survive their extended childhood, so we think these lights first evolved as a warning, a neon sign that says, "Toxic! Stay away!" +to any would-be predators. +It took many millions of years before these bright lights evolved into a smart communication tool that could be used not just to ward off potential predators but to bring in potential mates. +Driven now by sexual selection, some adult fireflies like this proud male evolved a shiny new glow-in-the-dark lantern that would let them take courtship to a whole new level. +These adults only live a few weeks, and now they're single-mindedly focused on sex, that is, on propelling their genes into the next firefly generation. +So we can follow this male out into the field as he joins hundreds of other males who are all showing off their new courtship signals. +It's amazing to think that the luminous displays we admire here and in fact everywhere around the world are actually the silent love songs of male fireflies. +They're flying and flashing their hearts out. +I still find it very romantic. +But meanwhile, where are all the females? +Well, they're lounging down below surveying their options. +They have plenty of males to choose from, and these females turn out to be very picky. +When a female sees a flash from an especially attractive male, she'll aim her lantern in his direction, and give him a flash back. +It's her "come hither" sign. +So he flies closer and he flashes again. +If she still likes him, they'll strike up a conversation. +These creatures speak their love in the language of light. +So what exactly do these females consider sexy? +We decided to conduct some firefly opinion polls to find out. +When we tested females using blinking LED lights, we discovered they prefer males who give longer-lasting flashes. +I know you're wondering, what gives these males their sex appeal? +Now we get to see what happens when the lights go out. +The first thing we discovered is that once a male and female hook up like this, they stay together all night long, and when we looked inside to see what might be happening, we discovered a surprising new twist to firefly sex. +While they're mating, the male is busy giving the female not just his sperm but also a nutrient-filled package called a nuptial gift. +We can zoom in to look more closely inside this mating pair. +We can actually see the gift it's shown here in red as it's being passed from the male to the female. +What makes this gift so valuable is that it's packed with protein that the female will use to provision her eggs. +So females are keeping their eyes on this prize as they size up potential mates. +We discovered that females use male flash signals to try to predict which males have the biggest gifts to offer, because this bling helps the female lay more eggs and ultimately launch more of her own offspring into the next generation. +So it's not all sweetness and light. +Firefly romance is risky. +For the most part, these adult fireflies don't get eaten because like their juveniles they can manufacture toxins that are repellent to birds and other insectivores, but somewhere along the line, one particular group of fireflies somehow lost the metabolic machinery needed to make their own protective toxins. +This evolutionary flaw, which was discovered by my colleague Tom Eisner, has driven these fireflies to take their bright lights out into the night with treacherous intent. +Dubbed "femme fatales" by Jim Lloyd, another colleague, these females have figured out how to target the males of other firefly species. +So the hunt begins with the predator she's shown here in the lower left where she's sitting quietly and eavesdropping on the courtship conversation of her intended prey, and here's how it might go. +First the prey male flashes, "Do you love me?" +His own female responds, "Maybe." +So then he flashes again. +But this time, the predator sneaks in a reply that cleverly mimics exactly what the other female just said. +She's not looking for love: she's looking for toxins. +If she's good, she can lure this male close enough to reach out and grab him, and he's not just a light snack. +Over the next hour, she slowly exsanguinates this male leaving behind just some gory remains. +Unable to make their own toxins, these females resort to drinking the blood of other fireflies to get these protective chemicals. +So a firefly vampire, brought to you by natural selection. +We still have a lot to learn about fireflies, but it looks like many stories will remain untold, because around the world, firefly populations are blinking out. +The main culprit: habitat loss. +Pretty much everywhere, the fields and forests, the mangroves and meadows that fireflies need to survive, are giving way to development and to sprawl. +Here's another problem: we've conquered darkness, but in the process, we spill so much extra light out into the night that it disrupts the lives of other creatures, and fireflies are especially sensitive to light pollution because it obscures the signals that they use to find their mates. +Do we really need fireflies? +After all, they're just one tiny bit of Earth's biodiversity. +Yet every time a species is lost, it's like extinguishing a room full of candles one by one. +You might not notice when the first few flames flicker out, but in the end, you're left sitting in darkness. +As we work together to craft a planetary future, I hope we can find a way to keep these bright lights shining. +Thank you. +"Pheromone" is a very powerful word. +It conjures up sex, abandon, loss of control, and you can see, it's very important as a word. +But it's only 50 years old. It was invented in 1959. +Now, if you put that word into the web, as you may have done, you'll come up with millions of hits, and almost all of those sites are trying to sell you something to make you irresistible for 10 dollars or more. +Now, this is a very attractive idea, and the molecules they mention sound really science-y. +They've got lots of syllables. +It's things like androstenol, androstenone or androstadienone. +It gets better and better, and when you combine that with white lab coats, you must imagine that there is fantastic science behind this. +But sadly, these are fraudulent claims supported by dodgy science. +We're mammals. We produce a lot of smell. +Nobody has gone through systematically to work out which molecules really are pheromones. +They've just plucked a few, and all these experiments are based on those, but there's no good evidence at all. +Now, that's not to say that smell is not important to people. +It is, and some people are real enthusiasts, and one of these was Napoleon. +And famously, you may remember that out on the campaign trail for war, he wrote to his lover, Empress Josephine, saying, "Don't wash. I'm coming home." +So he didn't want to lose any of her richness in the days before he'd get home, and it is still, you'll find websites that offer this as a major quirk. +At the same time, though, we spend about as much money taking the smells off us as putting them back on in perfumes, and perfumes are a multi-billion-dollar business. +So the ancient Greeks knew that dogs sent invisible signals between each other. +A female dog in heat sent an invisible signal to male dogs for miles around, and it wasn't a sound, it was a smell. +You could take the smell from the female dog, and the dogs would chase the cloth. +But the problem for everybody who could see this effect was that you couldn't identify the molecules. +You couldn't demonstrate it was chemical. +The reason for that, of course, is that each of these animals produces tiny quantities, and in the case of the dog, males dogs can smell it, but we can't smell it. +And it was only in 1959 that a German team, after spending 20 years in search of these molecules, discovered, identified, the first pheromone, and this was the sex pheromone of a silk moth. +Now, this was an inspired choice by Adolf Butenandt and his team, because he needed half a million moths to get enough material to do the chemical analysis. +But he created the model for how you should go about pheromone analysis. +He basically went through systematically, showing that only the molecule in question was the one that stimulated the males, not all the others. +He analyzed it very carefully. +He synthesized the molecule, and then tried the synthesized molecule on the males and got them to respond and showed it was, indeed, that molecule. +That's closing the circle. +That's the thing which has never been done with humans: nothing systematic, no real demonstration. +With that new concept, we needed a new word, and that was the word "pheromone," and it's basically transferred excitement, transferred between individuals, and since 1959, pheromones have been found right the way across the animal kingdom, in male animals, in female animals. +It works just as well underwater for goldfish and lobsters. +And almost every mammal you can think of has had a pheromone identified, and of course, an enormous number of insects. +So we know that pheromones exist right the way across the animal kingdom. +What about humans? +Well, the first thing, of course, is that we're mammals, and mammals are smelly. +As any dog owner can tell you, we smell, they smell. +But the real reason we might think that humans have pheromones is the change that occurs as we grow up. +The smell of a room of teenagers is quite different from the smell of a room of small children. +What's changed? And of course, it's puberty. +Along with the pubic hair and the hair in the armpits, new glands start to secrete in those places, and that's what's making the change in smell. +If we were any other kind of mammal, or any other kind of animal, we would say, "That must be something to do with pheromones," and we'd start looking properly. +But there are some problems, and this is why, I think, people have not looked for pheromones so effectively in humans. +There are, indeed, problems. +And the first of these is perhaps surprising. +It's all about culture. +Now moths don't learn a lot about what is good to smell, but humans do, and up to the age of about four, any smell, no matter how rancid, is simply interesting. +And I understand that the major role of parents is to stop kids putting their fingers in poo, because it's always something nice to smell. +But gradually we learn what's not good, and one of the things we learn at the same time as what is not good is what is good. +Now, the cheese behind me is a British, if not an English, delicacy. +It's ripe blue Stilton. +Liking it is incomprehensible to people from other countries. +Every culture has its own special food and national delicacy. +If you were to come from Iceland, your national dish is deep rotted shark. +Now, all of these things are acquired tastes, but they form almost a badge of identity. +You're part of the in-group. +The second thing is the sense of smell. +Each of us has a unique odor world, in the sense that what we smell, we each smell a completely different world. +Now, smell was the hardest of the senses to crack, and the Nobel Prize awarded to Richard Axel and Linda Buck was only awarded in 2004 for their discovery of how smell works. +It's really hard, but in essence, nerves from the brain go up into the nose and on these nerves exposed in the nose to the outside air are receptors, and odor molecules coming in on a sniff interact with these receptors, and if they bond, they send the nerve a signal which goes back into the brain. +We don't just have one kind of receptor. +If you're a human, you have about 400 different kinds of receptors, and the brain knows what you're smelling because of the combination of receptors and nerve cells that they trigger, sending messages up to the brain in a combinatorial fashion. +But it's a bit more complicated, because each of those 400 comes in various variants, and depending which variant you have, you might smell coriander, or cilantro, that herb, either as something delicious and savory or something like soap. +So we each have an individual world of smell, and that complicates anything when we're studying smell. +Well, we really ought to talk about armpits, and I have to say that I do have particularly good ones. +Now, I'm not going to share them with you, but this is the place that most people have looked for pheromones. +There is one good reason, which is, the great apes have armpits as their unique characteristic. +The other primates have scent glands in other parts of the body. +The great apes have these armpits full of secretory glands producing smells all the time, enormous numbers of molecules. +When they're secreted from the glands, the molecules are odorless. +They have no smell at all, and it's only the wonderful bacteria growing on the rainforest of hair that actually produces the smells that we know and love. +And so incidentally, if you want to reduce the amount of smell, clear-cutting your armpits is a very effective way of reducing the habitat for bacteria, and you'll find they remain less smelly for much longer. +But although we've focused on armpits, I think it's partly because they're the least embarrassing place to go and ask people for samples. +There is actually another reason why we might not be looking for a universal sex pheromone there, and that's because 20 percent of the world's population doesn't have smelly armpits like me. +And these are people from China, Japan, Korea, and other parts of northeast Asia. +They simply don't secrete those odorless precursors that the bacteria love to use to produce the smells that in an ethnocentric way we always thought of as characteristic of armpits. +So it doesn't apply to 20 percent of the world. +So what should we be doing in our search for human pheromones? +I'm fairly convinced that we do have them. +We're mammals, like everybody else who's a mammal, and we probably do have them. +But what I think we should do is go right back to the beginning, and basically look all over the body. +No matter how embarrassing, we need to search and go for the first time where no one else has dared tread. +It's going to be difficult, it's going to be embarrassing, but we need to look. +We also need to go back to the ideas that Butenandt used when he was studying the silk moth. +We need to go back and look systematically at all the molecules that are being produced, and work out which ones are really involved. +It isn't good enough simply to pluck a couple and say, "They'll do." +We have to actually demonstrate that they really have the effects we claim. +There is one team that I'm actually very impressed by. +They're in France, and their previous success was identifying the rabbit mammary pheromone. +They've turned their attention now to human babies and mothers. +So this is a baby having a drink of milk from its mother's breast. +Her nipple is completely hidden by the baby's head, but what you'll notice is a white droplet with an arrow pointing to it, and that's the secretion from the areolar glands. +Now, we all have them, men and women, and these are the little bumps around the nipple, and if you're a lactating woman, these start to secrete. +It's a very interesting secretion. +What Benoist Schaal and his team developed was a simple test to investigate what the effect of this secretion might be, in effect, a simple bioassay. +So this is a sleeping baby, and under its nose, we've put a clean glass rod. +The baby remains sleeping, showing no interest at all. +But if we go to any mother who is secreting from the areolar glands, so it's not about recognition, it can be from any mother, if we take the secretion and now put it under the baby's nose, we get a very different reaction. +It's a connoisseur's reaction of delight, and it opens its mouth and sticks out its tongue and starts to suck. +Now, since this is from any mother, it could really be a pheromone. +It's not about individual recognition. +Any mother will do. +Now, why is this important, apart from being simply very interesting? +It's because women vary in the number of areolar glands that they have, and there is a correlation between the ease with which babies start to suckle and the number of areolar glands she has. +It appears that the more secretions she's got, the more likely the baby is to suckle quickly. +If you're a mammal, the most dangerous time in life is the first few hours after birth. +You have to get that first drink of milk, and if you don't get it, you won't survive. +You'll be dead. +So what I want to argue is this is one example of where a systematic, really scientific approach can actually bring you a real understanding of pheromones. +There could be all sorts of medical interventions. +There could be all sorts of things that humans are doing with pheromones that we simply don't know at the moment. +What we need to remember is pheromones are not just about sex. +They're about all sorts of things to do with a mammal's life. +So do go forward and do search for more. +There's lots to find. +Thank you very much. +You may be wondering why a marine biologist from Oceana would come here today to talk to you about world hunger. +I'm here today because saving the oceans is more than an ecological desire. +It's more than a thing we're doing because we want to create jobs for fishermen or preserve fishermen's jobs. +It's more than an economic pursuit. +Saving the oceans can feed the world. +Let me show you how. +As you know, there are already more than a billion hungry people on this planet. +We're expecting that problem to get worse as world population grows to nine billion or 10 billion by midcentury, and we can expect to have greater pressure on our food resources. +And this is a big concern, especially considering where we are now. +Now we know that our arable land per capita is already on the decline in both developed and developing countries. +We know that we're headed for climate change, which is going to change rainfall patterns, making some areas drier, as you can see in orange, and others wetter, in blue, causing droughts in our breadbaskets, in places like the Midwest and Central Europe, and floods in others. +It's going to make it harder for the land to help us solve the hunger problem. +And that's why the oceans need to be their most abundant, so that the oceans can provide us as much food as possible. +And that's something the oceans have been doing for us for a long time. +As far back as we can go, we've seen an increase in the amount of food we've been able to harvest from our oceans. +It just seemed like it was continuing to increase, until about 1980, when we started to see a decline. +You've heard of peak oil. +Maybe this is peak fish. +I hope not. I'm going to come back to that. +But you can see about an 18-percent decline in the amount of fish we've gotten in our world catch since 1980. +And this is a big problem. It's continuing. +This red line is continuing to go down. +But we know how to turn it around, and that's what I'm going to talk about today. +We know how to turn that curve back upwards. +This doesn't have to be peak fish. +If we do a few simple things in targeted places, we can bring our fisheries back and use them to feed people. +First we want to know where the fish are, so let's look where the fish are. +You get into international agreements, and if any of you are tracking the climate change agreement, you know this can be a very slow, frustrating, tedious process. +And so controlling things nationally is a great thing to be able to do. +How many fish are actually in these coastal areas compared to the high seas? +Well, you can see here about seven times as many fish in the coastal areas than there are in the high seas, so this is a perfect place for us to be focusing, because we can actually get a lot done. +We can restore a lot of our fisheries if we focus in these coastal areas. +But how many of these countries do we have to work in? +There's something like 80 coastal countries. +Do we have to fix fisheries management in all of those countries? +So we asked ourselves, how many countries do we need to focus on, keeping in mind that the European Union conveniently manages its fisheries through a common fisheries policy? +So if we got good fisheries management in the European Union and, say, nine other countries, how much of our fisheries would we be covering? +Turns out, European Union plus nine countries covers about two thirds of the world's fish catch. +If we took it up to 24 countries plus the European Union, we would up to 90 percent, almost all of the world's fish catch. +So we think we can work in a limited number of places to make the fisheries come back. +But what do we have to do in these places? +If we do those three things, we know the fisheries will come back. +How do we know? +We know because we've seen it happening in a lot of different places. +This is a slide that shows the herring population in Norway that was crashing since the 1950s. +It was coming down, and when Norway set limits, or quotas, on its fishery, what happens? +The fishery comes back. +This is another example, also happens to be from Norway, of the Norwegian Arctic cod. +Same deal. The fishery is crashing. +They set limits on discards. +Discards are these fish they weren't targeting and they get thrown overboard wastefully. When they set the discard limit, And it's not just in Norway. +We've seen this happening in countries all around the world, time and time again. +When these countries step in and they put in sustainable fisheries management policies, the fisheries, which are always crashing, it seems, are starting to come back. +What does this mean for the world fish catch? +This means that if we take that fishery catch that's on the decline and we could turn it upwards, we could increase it up to 100 million metric tons per year. +So we didn't have peak fish yet. +We still have an opportunity to not only bring the fish back but to actually get more fish that can feed more people than we currently are now. +We should obviously do this just because it's a good thing to deal with the hunger problem, but it's also cost-effective. +It turns out fish is the most cost-effective protein on the planet. +If you look at how much fish protein you get per dollar invested compared to all of the other animal proteins, obviously, fish is a good business decision. +It also doesn't need a lot of land, something that's in short supply, compared to other protein sources. +And it doesn't need a lot of fresh water. +It uses a lot less fresh water than, for example, cattle, where you have to irrigate a field so that you can grow the food to graze the cattle. +It also has a very low carbon footprint. +It has a little bit of a carbon footprint because we do have to get out and catch the fish. +It takes a little bit of fuel, but as you know, agriculture can have a carbon footprint, and fish has a much smaller one, so it's less polluting. +It's already a big part of our diet, but it can be a bigger part of our diet, which is a good thing, because we know that it's healthy for us. +It can reduce our risks of cancer, heart disease and obesity. +In fact, our CEO Andy Sharpless, who is the originator of this concept, actually, he likes to say fish is the perfect protein. +Andy also talks about the fact that our ocean conservation movement really grew out of the land conservation movement, and in land conservation, we have this problem where biodiversity is at war with food production. +You have to cut down the biodiverse forest if you want to get the field to grow the corn to feed people with, and so there's a constant push-pull there. +There's a constant tough decision that has to be made between two very important things: maintaining biodiversity and feeding people. +But in the oceans, we don't have that war. +In the oceans, biodiversity is not at war with abundance. +In fact, they're aligned. +When we do things that produce biodiversity, we actually get more abundance, and that's important so that we can feed people. +Now, there's a catch. +Didn't anyone get that? Illegal fishing. +Illegal fishing undermines the type of sustainable fisheries management I'm talking about. +It can be when you catch fish using gears that have been prohibited, Illegal fishing cheats the consumer and it also cheats honest fishermen, and it needs to stop. +The way illegal fish get into our market is through seafood fraud. +You might have heard about this. +It's when fish are labeled as something they're not. +Think about the last time you had fish. +What were you eating? +Are you sure that's what it was? +Because we tested 1,300 different fish samples and about a third of them were not what they were labeled to be. +Snappers, nine out of 10 snappers were not snapper. +Fifty-nine percent of the tuna we tested was mislabeled. +And red snapper, we tested 120 samples, and only seven of them were really red snapper, so good luck finding a red snapper. +Seafood has a really complex supply chain, and at every step in this supply chain, there's an opportunity for seafood fraud, unless we have traceability. +Traceability is a way where the seafood industry can track the seafood from the boat to the plate to make sure that the consumer can then find out where their seafood came from. +This is a really important thing. +It has a lot of celebrity chefs you may know -- Anthony Bourdain, Mario Batali, Barton Seaver and others and they've signed it because they believe that people have a right to know about what they're eating. +We know that we can manage our fisheries sustainably. +We know that we can produce healthy meals for hundreds of millions of people that don't use the land, that don't use much water, have a low carbon footprint, and are cost-effective. +We know that saving the oceans can feed the world, and we need to start now. +Thank you. +That moment changed my life. +It propelled me to go on and to co-lead a team that discovered the first cancer susceptibility gene, and in the intervening decades since then, there has been literally a seismic shift in our understanding of what goes on, what genetic variations are sitting behind various diseases. +In fact, for thousands of human traits, a molecular basis that's known for that, and for thousands of people, every day, there's information that they gain about the risk of going on to get this disease or that disease. +At the same time, if you ask, "Has that impacted the efficiency, how we've been able to develop drugs?" +the answer is not really. +If you look at the cost of developing drugs, how that's done, it basically hasn't budged that. +And so it's as if we have the power to diagnose yet not the power to fully treat. +And there are two commonly given reasons for why that happens. +One of them is it's early days. +We're just learning the words, the fragments, the letters in the genetic code. +We don't know how to read the sentences. +We don't know how to follow the narrative. +The other reason given is that most of those changes are a loss of function, and it's actually really hard to develop drugs that restore function. +But today, I want us to step back and ask a more fundamental question, and ask, "What happens if we're thinking about this maybe in the wrong context?" +We do a lot of studying of those who are sick and building up long lists of altered components. +But maybe, if what we're trying to do is to develop therapies for prevention, maybe what we should be doing is studying those who don't get sick. +Maybe we should be studying those that are well. +A vast majority of those people are not necessarily carrying a particular genetic load or risk factor. +They're not going to help us. +There are going to be those individuals who are carrying a potential future risk, they're going to go on to get some symptom. +That's not what we're looking for. +What we're asking and looking for is, are there a very few set of individuals who are actually walking around with the risk that normally would cause a disease, but something in them, something hidden in them is actually protective and keeping them from exhibiting those symptoms? +If you're going to do a study like that, you can imagine you'd like to look at lots and lots of people. +We'd have to go and have a pretty wide study, and we realized that actually one way to think of this is, let us look at adults who are over 40 years of age, and let's make sure that we look at those who were healthy as kids. +They might have had individuals in their families who had had a childhood disease, but not necessarily. +And let's go and then screen those to find those who are carrying genes for childhood diseases. +Now, some of you, I can see you putting your hands up going, "Uh, a little odd. +What's your evidence that this could be feasible?" +I want to give you two examples. +The first comes from San Francisco. +It comes from the 1980s and the 1990s, and you may know the story where there were individuals who had very high levels of the virus HIV. +They went on to get AIDS. +But there was a very small set of individuals who also had very high levels of HIV. +They didn't get AIDS. +And astute clinicians tracked that down, and what they found was they were carrying mutations. +Notice, they were carrying mutations from birth that were protective, that were protecting them from going on to get AIDS. +You may also know that actually a line of therapy has been coming along based on that fact. +Second example, more recent, is elegant work done by Helen Hobbs, who said, "I'm going to look at individuals who have very high lipid levels, and I'm going to try to find those people with high lipid levels who don't go on to get heart disease." +And again, what she found was some of those individuals had mutations that were protective from birth that kept them, even though they had high lipid levels, and you can see this is an interesting way of thinking about how you could develop preventive therapies. +The project that we're working on is called "The Resilience Project: A Search for Unexpected Heroes," because what we are interested in doing is saying, can we find those rare individuals who might have these hidden protective factors? +And in some ways, think of it as a decoder ring, a sort of resilience decoder ring that we're going to try to build. +We've realized that we should do this in a systematic way, so we've said, let's take every single childhood inherited disease. +Where are we going to look? +Well, we could look locally. That makes sense. +But we began to think, maybe we should look all over the world. +Maybe we should look not just here but in remote places where their might be a distinct genetic context, there might be environmental factors that protect people. +And let's look at a million individuals. +The other reason is that in the last five years, there have been awesome tools, things about network biology, systems biology, that have come up that allow us to think that maybe we could decipher those positive outliers. +And as we went around talking to researchers and institutions and telling them about our story, something happened. +They started saying, "This is interesting. +I would be glad to join your effort. +I would be willing to participate." +And they didn't say, "Where's the MTA?" +They didn't say, "Where is my authorship?" +They didn't say, "Is this data going to be mine? Am I going to own it?" +They basically said, "Let's work on this in an open, crowd-sourced, team way to do this decoding." +Six months ago, we locked down the screening key for this decoder. +My co-lead, a brilliant scientist, Eric Schadt at the Icahn Mount Sinai School of Medicine in New York, and his team, locked in that decoder key ring, and we began looking for samples, because what we realized is, maybe we could just go and look at some existing samples to get some sense of feasibility. +Maybe we could take two, three percent of the project on, and see if it was there. +And so we started asking people such as Hakon at the Children's Hospital in Philadelphia. +We asked Leif up in Finland. +We talked to Anne Wojcicki at 23andMe, and Wang Jun at BGI, and again, something remarkable happened. +They said, "Huh, not only do we have samples, but often we've analyzed them, and we would be glad to go into our anonymized samples and see if we could find those that you're looking for." +And instead of being 20,000 or 30,000, last month we passed one half million samples that we've already analyzed. +So you must be going, "Huh, did you find any unexpected heroes?" +And the answer is, we didn't find one or two. +We found dozens of these strong candidate unexpected heroes. +So we think that the time is now to launch the beta phase of this project and actually start getting prospective individuals. +Basically all we need is information. +We need a swab of DNA and a willingness to say, "What's inside me? +I'm willing to be re-contacted." +Most of us spend our lives, when it comes to health and disease, acting as if we're voyeurs. We delegate the responsibility for the understanding of our disease, for the treatment of our disease, to anointed experts. +What are our genes?" and looking within ourselves for information we used to say we should go to the outside, to experts, and to be willing to share that with others. +Thank you very much. +As a student of adversity, I've been struck over the years by how some people with major challenges seem to draw strength from them, and I've heard the popular wisdom that that has to do with finding meaning. +And for a long time, I thought the meaning was out there, some great truth waiting to be found. +But over time, I've come to feel that the truth is irrelevant. +We call it finding meaning, but we might better call it forging meaning. +They're a gift because that's what we have chosen." +We make those choices all our lives. +When I was in second grade, Bobby Finkel had a birthday party and invited everyone in our class but me. +My mother assumed there had been some sort of error, and she called Mrs. Finkel, who said that Bobby didn't like me and didn't want me at his party. +And that day, my mom took me to the zoo and out for a hot fudge sundae. +When I was in seventh grade, one of the kids on my school bus nicknamed me "Percy" as a shorthand for my demeanor, and sometimes, he and his cohort would chant that provocation the entire school bus ride, 45 minutes up, 45 minutes back, "Percy! Percy! Percy! Percy!" +When I was in eighth grade, our science teacher told us that all male homosexuals develop fecal incontinence because of the trauma to their anal sphincter. +And I graduated high school without ever going to the cafeteria, where I would have sat with the girls and been laughed at for doing so, or sat with the boys and been laughed at for being a boy who should be sitting with the girls. +I survived that childhood through a mix of avoidance and endurance. +What I didn't know then, and do know now, is that avoidance and endurance can be the entryway to forging meaning. +After you've forged meaning, you need to incorporate that meaning into a new identity. +You need to take the traumas and make them part of who you've come to be, and you need to fold the worst events of your life into a narrative of triumph, evincing a better self in response to things that hurt. +One of the other mothers I interviewed when I was working on my book had been raped as an adolescent, and had a child following that rape, which had thrown away her career plans and damaged all of her emotional relationships. +But when I met her, she was 50, and I said to her, "Do you often think about the man who raped you?" +And she said, "I used to think about him with anger, but now only with pity." +And I thought she meant pity because he was so unevolved as to have done this terrible thing. +And I said, "Pity?" +And she said, "Yes, because he has a beautiful daughter and two beautiful grandchildren and he doesn't know that, and I do. +So as it turns out, I'm the lucky one." +Some of our struggles are things we're born to: our gender, our sexuality, our race, our disability. +And some are things that happen to us: being a political prisoner, being a rape victim, being a Katrina survivor. +Identity involves entering a community to draw strength from that community, and to give strength there too. +It involves substituting "and" for "but" -- not "I am here but I have cancer," but rather, "I have cancer and I am here." +When we're ashamed, we can't tell our stories, and stories are the foundation of identity. +Forge meaning, build identity, forge meaning and build identity. +That became my mantra. +Forging meaning is about changing yourself. +Building identity is about changing the world. +All of us with stigmatized identities face this question daily: how much to accommodate society by constraining ourselves, and how much to break the limits of what constitutes a valid life? +Forging meaning and building identity does not make what was wrong right. +It only makes what was wrong precious. +In January of this year, I went to Myanmar to interview political prisoners, and I was surprised to find them less bitter than I'd anticipated. +Most of them had knowingly committed the offenses that landed them in prison, and they had walked in with their heads held high, and they walked out with their heads still held high, many years later. +Dr. Ma Thida, a leading human rights activist who had nearly died in prison and had spent many years in solitary confinement, told me she was grateful to her jailers for the time she had had to think, for the wisdom she had gained, for the chance to hone her meditation skills. +She had sought meaning and made her travail into a crucial identity. +But if the people I met were less bitter than I'd anticipated about being in prison, they were also less thrilled than I'd expected about the reform process going on in their country. +Ma Thida said, "We Burmese are noted for our tremendous grace under pressure, but we also have grievance under glamour," she said, "and the fact that there have been these shifts and changes doesn't erase the continuing problems in our society that we learned to see so well while we were in prison." +And I understood her to be saying that concessions confer only a little humanity, where full humanity is due, that crumbs are not the same as a place at the table, which is to say you can forge meaning and build identity and still be mad as hell. +I've never been raped, and I've never been in anything remotely approaching a Burmese prison, but as a gay American, I've experienced prejudice and even hatred, and I've forged meaning and I've built identity, which is a move I learned from people who had experienced far worse privation than I've ever known. +In my own adolescence, I went to extreme lengths to try to be straight. +I enrolled myself in something called sexual surrogacy therapy, in which people I was encouraged to call doctors prescribed what I was encouraged to call exercises with women I was encouraged to call surrogates, who were not exactly prostitutes but who were also not exactly anything else. +My particular favorite was a blonde woman from the Deep South who eventually admitted to me that she was really a necrophiliac and had taken this job after she got in trouble down at the morgue. +These experiences eventually allowed me to have some happy physical relationships with women, for which I'm grateful, but I was at war with myself, and I dug terrible wounds into my own psyche. +We don't seek the painful experiences that hew our identities, but we seek our identities in the wake of painful experiences. +We cannot bear a pointless torment, but we can endure great pain if we believe that it's purposeful. +Ease makes less of an impression on us than struggle. +We could have been ourselves without our delights, but not without the misfortunes that drive our search for meaning. +"Therefore, I take pleasure in infirmities," St. Paul wrote in Second Corinthians, "for when I am weak, then I am strong." +In 1988, I went to Moscow to interview artists of the Soviet underground, and I expected their work to be dissident and political. +But the radicalism in their work actually lay in reinserting humanity into a society that was annihilating humanity itself, as, in some senses, Russian society is now doing again. +One of the artists I met said to me, "We were in training to be not artists but angels." +In 1991, I went back to see the artists I'd been writing about, and I was with them during the putsch that ended the Soviet Union, and they were among the chief organizers of the resistance to that putsch. +And on the third day of the putsch, one of them suggested we walk up to Smolenskaya. +And we went there, and we arranged ourselves in front of one of the barricades, and a little while later, a column of tanks rolled up, and the soldier on the front tank said, "We have unconditional orders to destroy this barricade. +If you get out of the way, we don't need to hurt you, but if you won't move, we'll have no choice but to run you down." +And the artists I was with said, "Give us just a minute. +Give us just a minute to tell you why we're here." +And the soldier folded his arms, and the artist launched into a Jeffersonian panegyric to democracy such as those of us who live in a Jeffersonian democracy would be hard-pressed to present. +And they went on and on, and the soldier watched, and then he sat there for a full minute after they were finished and looked at us so bedraggled in the rain, and said, "What you have said is true, and we must bow to the will of the people. +If you'll clear enough space for us to turn around, we'll go back the way we came." +And that's what they did. +Sometimes, forging meaning can give you the vocabulary you need to fight for your ultimate freedom. +Russia awakened me to the lemonade notion that oppression breeds the power to oppose it, and I gradually understood that as the cornerstone of identity. +It took identity to rescue me from sadness. +The gay rights movement posits a world in which my aberrances are a victory. +Identity politics always works on two fronts: to give pride to people who have a given condition or characteristic, and to cause the outside world to treat such people more gently and more kindly. +Those are two totally separate enterprises, but progress in each sphere reverberates in the other. +Identity politics can be narcissistic. +People extol a difference only because it's theirs. +People narrow the world and function in discrete groups without empathy for one another. +But properly understood and wisely practiced, identity politics should expand our idea of what it is to be human. +Identity itself should be not a smug label or a gold medal but a revolution. +I would have had an easier life if I were straight, but I would not be me, and I now like being myself better than the idea of being someone else, someone who, to be honest, I have neither the option of being nor the ability fully to imagine. +But if you banish the dragons, you banish the heroes, and we become attached to the heroic strain in our own lives. +I've sometimes wondered whether I could have ceased to hate that part of myself without gay pride's technicolor fiesta, of which this speech is one manifestation. +Someday, being gay will be a simple fact, free of party hats and blame, but not yet. +A friend of mine who thought gay pride was getting very carried away with itself, once suggested that we organize Gay Humility Week. +It's a great idea, but its time has not yet come. +And neutrality, which seems to lie halfway between despair and celebration, is actually the endgame. +In 29 states in the U.S., I could legally be fired or denied housing for being gay. +In Russia, the anti-propaganda law has led to people being beaten in the streets. +Twenty-seven African countries have passed laws against sodomy, and in Nigeria, gay people can legally be stoned to death, and lynchings have become common. +In Saudi Arabia recently, two men who had been caught in carnal acts, were sentenced to 7,000 lashes each, and are now permanently disabled as a result. +So who can forge meaning and build identity? +Gay rights are not primarily marriage rights, and for the millions who live in unaccepting places with no resources, dignity remains elusive. +I am lucky to have forged meaning and built identity, but that's still a rare privilege, and gay people deserve more collectively than the crumbs of justice. +And yet, every step forward is so sweet. +In 2007, six years after we met, my partner and I decided to get married. +Meeting John had been the discovery of great happiness and also the elimination of great unhappiness, and sometimes, I was so occupied with the disappearance of all that pain that I forgot about the joy, which was at first the less remarkable part of it to me. +Marrying was a way to declare our love as more a presence than an absence. +Marriage soon led us to children, and that meant new meanings and new identities, ours and theirs. +I want my children to be happy, and I love them most achingly when they are sad. +As a gay father, I can teach them to own what is wrong in their lives, but I believe that if I succeed in sheltering them from adversity, I will have failed as a parent. +A Buddhist scholar I know once explained to me that Westerners mistakenly think that nirvana is what arrives when all your woe is behind you and you have only bliss to look forward to. +But he said that would not be nirvana, because your bliss in the present would always be shadowed by the joy from the past. +Nirvana, he said, is what you arrive at when you have only bliss to look forward to and find in what looked like sorrows the seedlings of your joy. +And I sometimes wonder whether I could have found such fulfillment in marriage and children if they'd come more readily, if I'd been straight in my youth or were young now, in either of which cases this might be easier. +Perhaps I could. +Perhaps all the complex imagining I've done could have been applied to other topics. +But if seeking meaning matters more than finding meaning, the question is not whether I'd be happier for having been bullied, but whether assigning meaning to those experiences has made me a better father. +I tend to find the ecstasy hidden in ordinary joys, because I did not expect those joys to be ordinary to me. +I know many heterosexuals who have equally happy marriages and families, but gay marriage is so breathtakingly fresh, and gay families so exhilaratingly new, and I found meaning in that surprise. +In October, it was my 50th birthday, and my family organized a party for me, and in the middle of it, my son said to my husband that he wanted to make a speech, and John said, "George, you can't make a speech. You're four." +"Only Grandpa and Uncle David and I are going to make speeches tonight." +But George insisted and insisted, and finally, John took him up to the microphone, and George said very loudly, "Ladies and gentlemen, may I have your attention please." +And everyone turned around, startled. +And George said, "I'm glad it's Daddy's birthday. +I'm glad we all get cake. +And daddy, if you were little, I'd be your friend." +And I thought Thank you. +I thought that I was indebted even to Bobby Finkel, because all those earlier experiences were what had propelled me to this moment, and I was finally unconditionally grateful for a life I'd once have done anything to change. +The gay activist Harvey Milk was once asked by a younger gay man what he could do to help the movement, and Harvey Milk said, "Go out and tell someone." +There's always somebody who wants to confiscate our humanity, and there are always stories that restore it. +If we live out loud, we can trounce the hatred and expand everyone's lives. +Forge meaning. Build identity. +Forge meaning. +Build identity. +And then invite the world to share your joy. +Thank you. +Thank you. Thank you. Thank you. +I'm excited to be here to speak about vets, because I didn't join the Army because I wanted to go to war. +I didn't join the Army because I had a lust or a need to go overseas and fight. +Frankly, I joined the Army because college is really damn expensive, and they were going to help with that, and I joined the Army because it was what I knew, and it was what I knew that I thought I could do well. +I didn't come from a military family. +I'm not a military brat. +No one in my family ever had joined the military at all, and how I first got introduced to the military was when I was 13 years old and I got sent away to military school, because my mother had been threatening me with this idea of military school ever since I was eight years old. +I had some issues when I was coming up, and my mother would always tell me, she's like, "You know, if you don't get this together, I'm going to send you to military school." +And I'd look at her, and I'd say, "Mommy, I'll work harder." +And then when I was nine years old, she started giving me brochures to show me she wasn't playing around, so I'd look at the brochures, and I'm like, "Okay, Mommy, I can see you're serious, and I'll work harder." +And then when I was 10 and 11, my behavior just kept on getting worse. +I was on academic and disciplinary probation before I hit double digits, and I first felt handcuffs on my wrists when I was 11 years old. +And so when I was 13 years old, my mother came up to me, and she was like, "I'm not going to do this anymore. +I'm going to send you to military school." +And I looked at her, and I said, "Mommy, I can see you're upset, and I'm going to work harder." +And she was like, "No, you're going next week." +And that was how I first got introduced to this whole idea of the military, because she thought this was a good idea. +I had to disagree with her wholeheartedly when I first showed up there, because literally in the first four days, I had already run away five times from this school. +They had these big black gates that surrounded the school, and every time they would turn their backs, I would just simply run out of the black gates and take them up on their offer that if we don't want to be there, we can leave at any time. +So I just said, "Well, if that's the case, then I'd like to leave." And it never worked. +And I kept on getting lost. +But then eventually, after staying there for a little while, and after the end of that first year at this military school, I realized that I actually was growing up. +And so when it was time for me to actually finish up high school, I started thinking about what I wanted to do, and just like probably most students, had no idea what that meant or what I wanted to do. +And I thought about the people who I respected and admired. +I thought about a lot of the people, in particular a lot of the men, in my life who I looked up to. +They all happened to wear the uniform of the United States of America, so for me, the question and the answer really became pretty easy. +The question of what I wanted to do was filled in very quickly with saying, I guess I'll be an Army officer. +So the Army then went through this process and they trained me up, and when I say I didn't join the Army because I wanted to go to war, the truth is, I joined in 1996. +There really wasn't a whole lot going on. +I didn't ever feel like I was in danger. +When I went to my mom, I first joined the Army when I was 17 years old, so I literally needed parental permission to join the Army, so I kind of gave the paperwork to my mom, and she just assumed it was kind of like military school. +She was like, "Well, it was good for him before, so I guess I'll just let him keep doing it," having no idea that the paperwork that she was signing was actually signing her son up to become an Army officer. +And I went through the process, and again the whole time still just thinking, this is great, maybe I'll serve on a weekend, or two weeks during the year, do drill, and then a couple years after I signed up, a couple years after my mother signed those papers, the whole world changed. +And after 9/11, there was an entirely new context about the occupation that I chose. +When I first joined, I never joined to fight, but now that I was in, this is exactly what was now going to happen. +And I thought about so much about the soldiers who I eventually had to end up leading. +I remember when we first, right after 9/11, three weeks after 9/11, I was on a plane heading overseas, but I wasn't heading overseas with the military, I was heading overseas because I got a scholarship to go overseas. +They were now about to find themselves in the middle of places the fact is the vast majority of people, the vast majority of us as we were training, couldn't even point out on a map. +That was the new reality. +By the time I finished that up and I rejoined my military unit and we were getting ready to deploy to Afghanistan, there were soldiers in my unit who were now on their second and third deployments before I even had my first. +I remember walking out with my unit for the first time, and when you join the Army and you go through a combat tour, everyone looks at your shoulder, because on your shoulder is your combat patch. +And so immediately as you meet people, you shake their hand, and then your eyes go to their shoulder, because you want to see where did they serve, or what unit did they serve with? +And I was the only person walking around with a bare shoulder, and it burned every time someone stared at it. +But you get a chance to talk to your soldiers, and you ask them why did they sign up. +I signed up because college was expensive. +A lot of my soldiers signed up for completely different reasons. +They signed up because of a sense of obligation. +They signed up because they were angry and they wanted to do something about it. +They signed up because their family said this was important. +They signed up because they wanted some form of revenge. +They signed for a whole collection of different reasons. +And now we all found ourselves overseas fighting in these conflicts. +And what was amazing to me was that I very naively started hearing this statement that I never fully understood, because right after 9/11, you start hearing this idea where people come up to you and they say, "Well, thank you for your service." +And I just kind of followed in and started saying the same things to all my soldiers. +This is even before I deployed. +But I really had no idea what that even meant. +I just said it because it sounded right. +I said it because it sounded like the right thing to say to people who had served overseas. +"Thank you for your service." +But I had no idea what the context was or what that even, what it even meant to the people who heard it. +When I first came back from Afghanistan, I thought that if you make it back from conflict, then the dangers were all over. +I thought that if you made it back from a conflict zone that somehow you could kind of wipe the sweat off your brow and say, "Whew, I'm glad I dodged that one," without understanding that for so many people, as they come back home, the war keeps going. +It keeps playing out in all of our minds. +It plays out in all of our memories. +It plays out in all of our emotions. +Please forgive us if we don't like being in big crowds. +Please forgive us when we spend one week in a place that has 100 percent light discipline, because you're not allowed to walk around with white lights, because if anything has a white light, it can be seen from miles away, versus if you use little green or little blue lights, they cannot be seen from far away. +So please forgive us if out of nowhere, we go from having 100 percent light discipline to then a week later being back in the middle of Times Square, and we have a difficult time adjusting to that. +Please forgive us when you transition back to a family who has completely been maneuvering without you, and now when you come back, it's not that easy to fall back into a sense of normality, because the whole normal has changed. +I remember when I came back, I wanted to talk to people. +I wanted people to ask me about my experiences. +I wanted people to come up to me and tell me, "What did you do?" +I wanted people to come up to me and tell me, "What was it like? What was the food like? What was the experience like? How are you doing?" +And the only questions I got from people was, "Did you shoot anybody?" +And those were the ones who were even curious enough to say anything. +Because sometimes there's this fear and there's this apprehension that if I say anything, I'm afraid I'll offend, or I'm afraid I'll trigger something, so the common default is just saying nothing. +The problem with that is then it feels like your service was not even acknowledged, like no one even cared. +"Thank you for your service," and we move on. +What I wanted to better understand was what's behind that, and why "thank you for your service" isn't enough. +The fact is, we have literally 2.6 million men and women who are veterans of Iraq or Afghanistan who are all amongst us. +Sometimes we know who they are, sometimes we don't, but there is that feeling, the shared experience, the shared bond where we know that that experience and that chapter of our life, while it might be closed, it's still not over. +We think about "thank you for your service," and people say, "So what does 'thank you for your service' mean to you?" +Well, "Thank you for your service" means to me, it means acknowledging our stories, asking us who we are, understanding the strength that so many people, so many people who we serve with, have, and why that service means so much. +"Thank you for your service" means acknowledging the fact that just because we've now come home and we've taken off the uniform does not mean our larger service to this country is somehow over. +The fact is, there's still a tremendous amount that can be offered and can be given. +When I look at people like our friend Taylor Urruela, who in Iraq loses his leg, had two big dreams in his life. +One was to be a soldier. The other was to be a baseball player. +He loses his leg in Iraq. +He comes back and instead of deciding that, well, now since I've lost my leg, that second dream is over, he decides that he still has that dream of playing baseball, and he starts this group called VETSports, which now works with veterans all over the country and uses sports as a way of healing. +People like Tammy Duckworth, who was a helicopter pilot and with the helicopter that she was flying, you need to use both your hands and also your legs to steer, and her helicopter gets hit, and she's trying to steer the chopper, but the chopper's not reacting to her instructions and to her commands. +She's trying to land the chopper safely, but the chopper doesn't land safely, and the reason it's not landing safely is because it's not responding to the commands that her legs are giving because her legs were blown off. +She barely survives. +Medics come and they save her life, but then as she's doing her recuperation back at home, she realizes that, "My job's still not done." +And now she uses her voice as a Congresswoman from Illinois to fight and advocate for a collection of issues to include veterans issues. +We signed up because we love this country we represent. +We signed up because we believe in the idea and we believe in the people to our left and to our right. +These are the people who I served with, and these are the people who I honor. +So thank you for your service. +As a little girl, I always imagined I would one day run away. +From the age of six on, I kept a packed bag with some clothes and cans of food tucked away in the back of a closet. +There was a deep restlessness in me, a primal fear that I would fall prey to a life of routine and boredom. +And so, many of my early memories involved intricate daydreams where I would walk across borders, forage for berries, and meet all kinds of strange people living unconventional lives on the road. +Years have passed, but many of the adventures I fantasized about as a child -- traveling and weaving my way between worlds other than my own have become realities through my work as a documentary photographer. +But no other experience has felt as true to my childhood dreams as living amongst and documenting the lives of fellow wanderers across the United States. +This is the nomadic dream, a different kind of American dream lived by young hobos, travelers, hitchhikers, vagrants and tramps. +In most of our minds, the vagabond is a creature from the past. +The word "hobo" conjures up an old black and white image of a weathered old man covered in coal, legs dangling out of a boxcar, but these photographs are in color, and they portray a community swirling across the country, fiercely alive and creatively free, seeing sides of America that no one else gets to see. +Like their predecessors, today's nomads travel the steel and asphalt arteries of the United States. +By day, they hop freight trains, stick out their thumbs, and ride the highways with anyone from truckers to soccer moms. +By night, they sleep beneath the stars, huddled together with their packs of dogs, cats and pet rats between their bodies. +renouncing materialism, traditional jobs and university degrees in exchange for a glimmer of adventure. +Others come from the underbelly of society, never given a chance to mobilize upwards: foster care dropouts, teenage runaways escaping abuse and unforgiving homes. +Where others see stories of privation and economic failure, travelers view their own existence through the prism of liberation and freedom. +of what they view as a wasteful consumer society than slave away at an unrealistic chance at the traditional American dream. +They take advantage of the fact that in the United States, up to 40 percent of all food ends up in the garbage by scavenging for perfectly good produce in dumpsters and trash cans. +They sacrifice material comforts in exchange for the space and the time to explore a creative interior, to dream, to read, to work on music, art and writing. +But there are many aspects to this life that are far from idyllic. +No one loses their inner demons by taking to the road. +Addiction is real, the elements are real, freight trains maim and kill, and anyone who has lived on the streets can attest to the exhaustive list of laws that criminalize homeless existence. +Who here knows that in many cities across the United States it is now illegal to sit on the sidewalk, to wrap oneself in a blanket, to sleep in your own car, to offer food to a stranger? +I know about these laws because I've watched as friends and other travelers were hauled off to jail or received citations for committing these so-called crimes. +Many of you might be wondering why anyone would choose a life like this, under the thumb of discriminatory laws, eating out of trash cans, sleeping under bridges, picking up seasonal jobs here and there. +The answer to such a question is as varied as the people that take to the road, but travelers often respond with a single word: freedom. +Until we live in a society where every human is assured dignity in their labor so that they can work to live well, not only work to survive, there will always be an element of those who seek the open road as a means of escape, of liberation and, of course, of rebellion. +Thank you. +Some of my earliest memories are of giant ships blocking the end of my street, as well as the sun, for a lot of the year. +Every morning as a child, I'd watch thousands of men walk down that hill to work in the shipyard. +I'd watch those same men walking back home every night. +It has to be said, the shipyard was not the most pleasant place to live next door to, or indeed work in. +The shipyard was noisy, dangerous, highly toxic, with an appalling health and safety record. +Despite that, the men and women who worked on those ships were extraordinarily proud of the work they did, and justifiably so. +Some of the largest vessels ever constructed on planet Earth were built right at the end of my street. +My grandfather had been a shipwright, and as a child, as there were few other jobs in the town, I would wonder with some anxiety whether that would be my destiny too. +I was fairly determined that it wouldn't be. +I had other dreams, not necessarily practical ones, but at the age of eight, I was bequeathed a guitar. +It was a battered old thing with five rusty strings, and was out of tune, but quickly I learned to play it and realized that I'd found a friend for life, an accomplice, a co-conspirator in my plan to escape from this surreal industrial landscape. +Well, they say if you dream something hard enough, it will come to pass. +Either that, or I was extremely lucky, but this was my dream. +I dreamt I would leave this town, and just like those ships, once they were launched, I'd never come back. +So far, so good, right? And then one day, the songs stopped coming, and while you've suffered from periods of writer's block before, albeit briefly, this is something chronic. +Day after day, you face a blank page, and nothing's coming. +And those days turned to weeks, and weeks to months, and pretty soon those months have turned into years with very little to show for your efforts. No songs. +So you start asking yourself questions. +What have I done to offend the gods that they would abandon me so? +Is the gift of songwriting taken away as easily as it seems to have been bestowed? +Or perhaps there's a more -- a deeper psychological reason. +It was always a Faustian pact anyway. +You're rewarded for revealing your innermost thoughts, your private emotions on the page for the entertainment of others, for the analysis, the scrutiny of others, and perhaps you've given enough of your privacy away. +And yet, if you look at your work, could it be argued that your best work wasn't about you at all, it was about somebody else? +Did your best work occur when you sidestepped your own ego and you stopped telling your story, but told someone else's story, someone perhaps without a voice, where empathetically, you stood in his shoes for a while or saw the world through his eyes? +Well they say, write what you know. +If you can't write about yourself anymore, then who do you write about? +So it's ironic that the landscape I'd worked so hard to escape from, and the community that I'd more or less abandoned and exiled myself from should be the very landscape, the very community I would have to return to to find my missing muse. +And as soon as I did that, as soon as I decided to honor the community I came from and tell their story, that the songs started to come thick and fast. +I've described it as a kind of projectile vomiting, a torrent of ideas, of characters, of voices, of verses, couplets, entire songs almost formed whole, materialized in front of me as if they'd been bottled up inside me for many, many years. +One of the first things I wrote was just a list of names of people I'd known, and they become characters in a kind of three-dimensional drama, where they explain who they are, what they do, their hopes and their fears for the future. +This is Jackie White. +He's the foreman of the shipyard. +My name is Jackie White, and I'm foreman of the yard, and you don't mess with Jackie on this quayside. +I'm as hard as iron plate, woe betide you if you're late when we have to push a boat out on the spring tide. +Now you can die and hope for heaven, but you need to work your shift, and I'd expect you all to back us to the hilt, for if St. Peter at his gate were to ask you why you're late, why, you tell him that you had to get a ship built. +This song is called "Dead Man's Boots," which is an expression which describes how difficult it is to get a job; in other words, you'd only get a job in the shipyard if somebody else died. +Or perhaps your father could finagle you an apprenticeship at the age of 15. +But sometimes a father's love can be misconstrued as controlling, and conversely, the scope of his son's ambition can seem like some pie-in-the-sky fantasy. +So whenever they'd launch a big ship, they would invite some dignitary up from London on the train to make a speech, break a bottle of champagne over the bows, launch it down the slipway into the river and out to sea. +Occasionally on a really important ship, they'd get a member of the royal family to come, Duke of Edinburgh, Princess Anne or somebody. +And you have to remember, it wasn't that long ago that the royal family in England were considered to have magical healing powers. +Sick children were held up in crowds to try and touch the cloak of the king or the queen to cure them of some terrible disease. +It wasn't like that in my day, but we still got very excited. +So it's a launch day, it's a Saturday, and my mother has dressed me up in my Sunday best. +I'm not very happy with her. +All the kids are out in the street, and we have little Union Jacks to wave, and at the top of the hill, there's a motorcycle cortege appears. +In the middle of the motorcycles, there's a big, black Rolls-Royce. +Inside the Rolls-Royce is the Queen Mother. +This is a big deal. +So the procession is moving at a stately pace down my street, and as it approaches my house, I start to wave my flag vigorously, and there is the Queen Mother. +I see her, and she seems to see me. +She acknowledges me. She waves, and she smiles. +And I wave my flag even more vigorously. +We're having a moment, me and the Queen Mother. +She's acknowledged me. +And then she's gone. +Well, I wasn't cured of anything. +It was the opposite, actually. +I was infected. +I was infected with an idea. +I don't belong in this street. +I don't want to live in that house. +I don't want to end up in that shipyard. +I want to be in that car. I want a bigger life. +I want a life beyond this town. +I want a life that's out of the ordinary. +It's my right. +It's my right as much as hers. +And so here I am at TED, I suppose to tell that story, and I think it's appropriate to say the obvious that there's a symbiotic and intrinsic link between storytelling and community, between community and art, between community and science and technology, between community and economics. +It's my belief that abstract economic theory that denies the needs of community or denies the contribution that community makes to economy is shortsighted, cruel and untenable. +The fact is, whether you're a rock star or whether you're a welder in a shipyard, or a tribesman in the upper Amazon, or the queen of England, at the end of the day, we're all in the same boat. +Thank you. Thank you. +Okay, you have to join in if you know it. +It's very easy. Sing in unison. +Here we go. + Sending out an S.O.S. Come on now. +People say things about religion all the time. +The late, great Christopher Hitchens wrote a book called "God Is Not Great" whose subtitle was, "Religion Poisons Everything." +But last month, in Time magazine, Rabbi David Wolpe, who I gather is referred to as America's rabbi, said, to balance that against that negative characterization, that no important form of social change can be brought about except through organized religion. +Now, remarks of this sort on the negative and the positive side are very old. +So there have been these long debates over the centuries, in that case, actually, we can say over the millennia, about religion. +People have talked about it a lot, and they've said good and bad and indifferent things about it. +What I want to persuade you of today is of a very simple claim, which is that these debates are in a certain sense preposterous, because there is no such thing as religion about which to make these claims. +There isn't a thing called religion, and so it can't be good or bad. +It can't even be indifferent. +And if you think about claims about the nonexistence of things, one obvious way to try and establish the nonexistence of a purported thing would be to offer a definition of that thing and then to see whether anything satisfied it. +I'm going to start out on that little route to begin with. +So if you look in the dictionaries and if you think about it, one very natural definition of religion is that it involves belief in gods or in spiritual beings. +As I say, this is in many dictionaries, but you'll also find it actually in the work of Sir Edward Tylor, who was the first professor of anthropology at Oxford, one of the first modern anthropologists. +In his book on primitive culture, he says the heart of religion is what he called animism, that is, the belief in spiritual agency, belief in spirits. +The first problem for that definition is from a recent novel by Paul Beatty called "Tuff." +There's a guy talking to a rabbi. +The rabbi says he doesn't believe in God. +The guy says, "You're a rabbi, how can you not believe in God?" +And the reply is, "It's what's so great about being Jewish. +That seems like a pretty counterintuitive thought. +Here's another argument against this view. +A friend of mine, an Indian friend of mine, went to his grandfather when he was very young, a child, and said to him, "I want to talk to you about religion," and his grandfather said, "You're too young. +Come back when you're a teenager." +So he came back when he was a teenager, and he said to his grandfather, "It may be a bit late now because I've discovered that I don't believe in the gods." +And his grandfather, who was a wise man, said, "Oh, so you belong to the atheist branch of the Hindu tradition." And finally, there's this guy, who famously doesn't believe in God. +His name is the Dalai Lama. +He often jokes that he's one of the world's leading atheists. +But it's true, because the Dalai Lama's religion does not involve belief in God. +I think the way our concept of religion works is that we actually have, we have a list of paradigm religions and their sub-parts, right, and if something new comes along that purports to be a religion, what we ask is, "Well, is it like one of these?" +Right? +And I think that's not only how we think about religion, and that's, as it were, so from our point of view, anything on that list had better be a religion, which is why I don't think an account of religion that excludes Buddhism and Judaism has a chance of being a good starter, because they're on our list. +But why do we have such a list? +What's going on? How did it come about that we have this list? +I think the answer is a pretty simple one and therefore crude and contentious. +I'm sure a lot of people will disagree with it, but here's my story, and true or not, it's a story that I think gives you a good sense of how the list might have come about, and therefore helps you to think about what use the list might be. +I think the answer is, European travelers, starting roughly about the time of Columbus, started going around the world. +They came from a Christian culture, and when they arrived in a new place, they noticed that some people didn't have Christianity, and so they asked themselves the following question: what have they got instead of Christianity? +And that list was essentially constructed. +It consists of the things that other people had instead of Christianity. +Now there's a difficulty with proceeding in that way, which is that Christianity is extremely, even on that list, it's an extremely specific tradition. +It's a religion in which people are really concerned about whether you believe the right things. +Now that's a very specific and particular history that Christianity has, and not everywhere is everything that has ever been put on this sort of list like it. +Here's another problem, I think. +A very specific thing happened. +You couldn't give an account of the natural world that didn't say something about its relationship, for example, to the creation story in the Abrahamic tradition, the creation story in the first book of the Torah. +So everything was framed in that way. +But this changes in the late 19th century, and for the first time, it's possible for people to develop serious intellectual careers as natural historians like Darwin. +Darwin worried about the relationship between what he said and the truths of religion, but he could proceed, he could write books about his subject without having to say what the relationship was to the religious claims, and similarly, geologists increasingly could talk about it. +In the early 19th century, if you were a geologist and made a claim about the age of the Earth, you had to explain whether that was consistent or how it was or wasn't consistent with the age of the Earth implied by the account in Genesis. +By the end of the 19th century, you can just write a geology textbook in which you make arguments about how old the Earth is. +So imagine someone who's coming out of that world, that late-19th-century world, coming into the country that I grew up in, Ghana, the society that I grew up in, Asante, coming into that world at the turn of the 20th century with this question that made the list: what have they got instead of Christianity? +Well, here's one thing he would have noticed, and by the way, there was a person who actually did this. +His name was Captain Rattray, he was sent as the British government anthropologist, and he wrote a book about Asante religion. +This is a soul disc. +There are many of them in the British Museum. +I could give you an interesting, different history of how it comes about that many of the things from my society ended up in the British Museum, but we don't have time for that. +So this object is a soul disc. What is a soul disc? +It was worn around the necks of the soul-washers of the Asante king. +What was their job? To wash the king's soul. +It would take a long while to explain how a soul could be the kind of thing that could be washed, but Rattray knew that this was religion because souls were in play. +And similarly, there were many other things, many other practices. +For example, every time anybody had a drink, more or less, they poured a little bit on the ground in what's called the libation, and they gave some to the ancestors. +And finally, there were these huge public ceremonials. +That's a large part of his job, and people think that if he doesn't do it, things will fall apart. +So he's a religious figure, as Rattray would have said, as well as a political figure. +So all this would count as religion for Rattray, but my point is that when you look into the lives of those people, you also find that every time they do anything, they're conscious of the ancestors. +Every morning at breakfast, you can go outside the front of the house and make an offering to the god tree, the nyame dua outside your house, and again, you'll talk to the gods and the high gods and the low gods and the ancestors and so on. +This is not a world in which the separation between religion and science has occurred. +This great separation, in other words, between religion and science hasn't happened. +Now, this would be a mere historical curiosity, except that in large parts of the world, this is still the truth. +I had the privilege of going to a wedding the other day in northern Namibia, 20 miles or so south of the Angolan border in a village of 200 people. +These were modern people. +They meant, even though she was a dead person, they meant that she was still around. +So in large parts of the world today, that separation between science and religion hasn't occurred in large parts of the world today, and as I say, these are not -- This guy used to work for Chase and at the World Bank. +These are fellow citizens of the world with you, but they come from a place in which religion is occupying a very different role. +So what I want you to think about next time somebody wants to make some vast generalization about religion is that maybe there isn't such a thing as a religion, such a thing as religion, and that therefore what they say cannot possibly be true. +At every stage of our lives we make decisions that will profoundly influence the lives of the people we're going to become, and then when we become those people, we're not always thrilled with the decisions we made. +So young people pay good money to get tattoos removed that teenagers paid good money to get. +Middle-aged people rushed to divorce people who young adults rushed to marry. +Older adults work hard to lose what middle-aged adults worked hard to gain. +On and on and on. +The question is, as a psychologist, that fascinates me is, why do we make decisions that our future selves so often regret? +Now, I think one of the reasons -- I'll try to convince you today is that we have a fundamental misconception about the power of time. +Every one of you knows that the rate of change slows over the human lifespan, that your children seem to change by the minute but your parents seem to change by the year. +But what is the name of this magical point in life where change suddenly goes from a gallop to a crawl? +Is it teenage years? Is it middle age? +Is it old age? The answer, it turns out, for most people, is now, wherever now happens to be. +What I want to convince you today is that all of us are walking around with an illusion, an illusion that history, our personal history, has just come to an end, that we have just recently become the people that we were always meant to be and will be for the rest of our lives. +Let me give you some data to back up that claim. +So here's a study of change in people's personal values over time. +Here's three values. +Everybody here holds all of them, but you probably know that as you grow, as you age, the balance of these values shifts. +So how does it do so? +Well, we asked thousands of people. +We asked half of them to predict for us how much their values would change in the next 10 years, and the others to tell us how much their values had changed in the last 10 years. +And this enabled us to do a really interesting kind of analysis, because it allowed us to compare the predictions of people, say, 18 years old, to the reports of people who were 28, and to do that kind of analysis throughout the lifespan. +Here's what we found. +First of all, you are right, change does slow down as we age, but second, you're wrong, because it doesn't slow nearly as much as we think. +At every age, from 18 to 68 in our data set, people vastly underestimated how much change they would experience over the next 10 years. +We call this the "end of history" illusion. +To give you an idea of the magnitude of this effect, you can connect these two lines, and what you see here is that 18-year-olds anticipate changing only as much as 50-year-olds actually do. +Now it's not just values. It's all sorts of other things. +For example, personality. +Many of you know that psychologists now claim that there are five fundamental dimensions of personality: neuroticism, openness to experience, agreeableness, extraversion, and conscientiousness. +And it isn't just ephemeral things like values and personality. +You can ask people about their likes and dislikes, their basic preferences. +For example, name your best friend, your favorite kind of vacation, what's your favorite hobby, what's your favorite kind of music. +People can name these things. +We ask half of them to tell us, "Do you think that that will change over the next 10 years?" +and half of them to tell us, "Did that change over the last 10 years?" +Does any of this matter? +Is this just a form of mis-prediction that doesn't have consequences? +No, it matters quite a bit, and I'll give you an example of why. +It bedevils our decision-making in important ways. +Bring to mind right now for yourself your favorite musician today and your favorite musician 10 years ago. +I put mine up on the screen to help you along. +Now we asked people to predict for us, to tell us how much money they would pay right now to see their current favorite musician perform in concert 10 years from now, and on average, people said they would pay 129 dollars for that ticket. +And yet, when we asked them how much they would pay to see the person who was their favorite 10 years ago perform today, they say only 80 dollars. +Now, in a perfectly rational world, these should be the same number, but we overpay for the opportunity to indulge our current preferences because we overestimate their stability. +Why does this happen? We're not entirely sure, but it probably has to do with the ease of remembering versus the difficulty of imagining. +Most of us can remember who we were 10 years ago, but we find it hard to imagine who we're going to be, and then we mistakenly think that because it's hard to imagine, it's not likely to happen. +Sorry, when people say "I can't imagine that," they're usually talking about their own lack of imagination, and not about the unlikelihood of the event that they're describing. +The bottom line is, time is a powerful force. +It transforms our preferences. +It reshapes our values. +It alters our personalities. +We seem to appreciate this fact, but only in retrospect. +Only when we look backwards do we realize how much change happens in a decade. +It's as if, for most of us, the present is a magic time. +It's a watershed on the timeline. +It's the moment at which we finally become ourselves. +Human beings are works in progress that mistakenly think they're finished. +The person you are right now is as transient, as fleeting and as temporary as all the people you've ever been. +The one constant in our life is change. +Thank you. +I read poetry all the time and write about it frequently and take poems apart to see how they work because I'm a word person. +I understand the world best, most fully, in words rather than, say, pictures or numbers, and when I have a new experience or a new feeling, I'm a little frustrated until I can try to put it into words. +I think I've always been that way. +I devoured science fiction as a child. I still do. +And I became a poetry critic because I wanted to know how and why. +Now, poetry isn't one thing that serves one purpose any more than music or computer programming serve one purpose. +The greek word poem, it just means "a made thing," and poetry is a set of techniques, ways of making patterns that put emotions into words. +The more techniques you know, the more things you can make, and the more patterns you can recognize in things you might already like or love. +That said, poetry does seem to be especially good at certain things. +For example, we are all going to die. +Poetry can help us live with that. +Poems are made of words, nothing but words. +The particulars in poems are like the particularities, the personalities, that distinguish people from one another. +Poems are easy to share, easy to pass on, and when you read a poem, you can imagine someone's speaking to you or for you, maybe even someone far away or someone made up or someone deceased. +That's why we can go to poems when we want to remember something or someone, to celebrate or to look beyond death or to say goodbye, and that's one reason poems can seem important, even to people who aren't me, who don't so much live in a world of words. +The poet Frank O'Hara said, "If you don't need poetry, bully for you," but he also said when he didn't want to be alive anymore, the thought that he wouldn't write any more poems had stopped him. +Poetry helps me want to be alive, and I want to show you why by showing you how, how a couple of poems react to the fact that we're alive in one place at one time in one culture, and in another we won't be alive at all. +So here's one of the first poems I memorized. +It could address a child or an adult. +"From far, from eve and morning From yon twelve-winded sky, The stuff of life to knit me Blew hither; here am I. +Now for a breath I tarry Nor yet disperse apart Take my hand quick and tell me, What have you in your heart. +Speak now, and I will answer; How shall I help you, say; Ere to the wind's twelve quarters I take my endless way." [A. E. Housman] Now, this poem has appealed to science fiction writers. +It's furnished at least three science fiction titles, I think because it says poems can brings us news from the future or the past or across the world, because their patterns can seem to tell you what's in somebody's heart. +It plays up the fact that we die by exaggerating the speed of our lives. +A few years on Earth become one speech, one breath. +It would not be the first time a poet had written the poem that he wanted to hear. +Now, this next poem really changed what I liked and what I read and what I felt I could read as an adult. +It might not make any sense to you if you haven't seen it before. +"The Garden" "Oleander: coral from lipstick ads in the 50's. +Fruit of the tree of such knowledge To smack (thin air) meaning kiss or hit. +It appears in the guise of outworn usages because we are bad? +Big masculine threat, insinuating and slangy." [Rae Armantrout] Now, I found this poem in an anthology of almost equally confusing poems in 1989. +It's about the Garden of Eden and the Fall and the Biblical story of the Fall, in which sex as we know it and death and guilt come into the world at the same time. +It's also about how appearances deceive, how our culture can sweep us along into doing and saying things we didn't intend or don't like, and Armantrout's style is trying to help us stop or slow down. +"Smack" can mean "kiss" as in air kisses, but that can lead to "smack" as in "hit" as in domestic abuse, because sexual attraction can seem threatening. +The red that means fertility can also mean poison. +Oleander is poisonous. +And outworn usages like "smack" for "kiss" or "hit" can help us see how our unacknowledged assumptions can make us believe we are bad, either because sex is sinful or because we tolerate so much sexism. +We let guys tell women what to do. +The poem reacts to old lipstick ads, and its edginess about statement, its reversals and halts, have everything to do with resisting the language of ads that want to tell us so easily what to want, what to do, what to think. +Now, how do I know that I'm right about this somewhat confusing poem? +Well in this case, I emailed the poet a draft of my talk and she said, "Yeah, yeah, that's about it." +Yeah. But usually, you can't know. You never know. +You can't be sure, and that's okay. +All we can do we is listen to poems and look at poems and guess and see if they can bring us what we need, and if you're wrong about some part of a poem, nothing bad will happen. +Now, this next poem is older than Armantrout's, but a little younger than A. E. Housman's. +"The Brave Man" "The sun, that brave man, Comes through boughs that lie in wait, That brave man. +Green and gloomy eyes In dark forms of the grass Run away. +The good stars, Pale helms and spiky spurs, Run away. +Fears of my bed, Fears of life and fears of death, Run away. +That brave man comes up From below and walks without meditation, That brave man." [Wallace Stevens] Now, the sun in this poem, in Wallace Stevens' poem, seems so grave because the person in the poem is so afraid. +The sun comes up in the morning through branches, dispels the dew, the eyes, on the grass, and defeats stars envisioned as armies. +"Brave" has its old sense of showy as well as its modern sense, courage. +This sun is not afraid to show his face. +But the person in the poem is afraid. +He might have been up all night. +That is the reveal Stevens saves for that fourth stanza, where run away has become a refrain. +This person might want to run away too, but fortified by the sun's example, he might just rise. +Stevens saves that sonically odd word "meditation" for the end. +Unlike the sun, human beings think. +We meditate on past and future, life and death, above and below. +And it can make us afraid. +Poems, the patterns in poems, show us not just what somebody thought or what someone did or what happened but what it was like to be a person like that, to be so anxious, so lonely, so inquisitive, so goofy, so preposterous, so brave. +That's why poems can seem at once so durable, so personal, and so ephemeral, like something inside and outside you at once. +The Scottish poet Denise Riley compares poetry to a needle, a sliver of outside I cradle inside, and the American poet Terrance Hayes wrote six poems called "Wind in a Box." +One of them asks, "Tell me, what am I going to do when I'm dead?" +And the answer is that he'll stay with us or won't stay with us inside us as wind, as air, as words. +It is easier than ever to find poems that might stay inside you, that might stay with you, from long, long ago, or from right this minute, from far away or from right close to where you live, almost no matter where you live. +Poems can help you say, help you show how you're feeling, but they can also introduce you to feelings, ways of being in the world, people, very much unlike you, maybe even people from long, long ago. +Some poems even tell you that that is what they can do. +That's what John Keats is doing in his most mysterious, perhaps, poem. +Thanks. +Even nature's most disgusting creatures have important secrets, but who would want a swarm of cockroaches coming towards them? +Yet one of the greatest differences between natural and human technologies relates to robustness. +Robust systems are stable in complex and new environments. +Remarkably, cockroaches can self-stabilize running over rough terrain. +When we put a jet pack on them, or give them a perturbation like an earthquake, we discovered that their wonderfully tuned legs allow them to self-stabilize without using any of their brainpower. +They can go over complex terrain like grass, no problem, and not get destabilized. +We discovered a new behavior where, because of their shape, they actually roll automatically to their side to go through this artificial test bit of grass. +Robust systems can perform multiple tasks with the same structure. +Here's a new behavior we've discovered. +The animals rapidly invert and disappear in less than 150 milliseconds you never see them using the same structures that they use to run, their legs. +They can run upside down very rapidly on rods, branches and wires, and if you perturb one of those branches, they can do this. +They can perform gymnastic maneuvers like no robot we have yet. +And they have nearly unlimited maneuverability with that same structure and unprecedented access to a variety of different areas. +They have wings for flying when they get warm, but they use those same wings to flip over if they get destabilized. +Very effective. +Robust systems are also fault tolerant and fail-safe. +This is the foot of a cockroach. +It has spines, gluey pads and claws, but if you take off those feet, they can still go over rough terrain, like the bottom video that you see, without hardly slowing down. Extraordinary. +They can run up mesh without their feet. +Here's an animal using a normal, alternating tripod: three legs, three legs, three legs, but in nature, the insects often have lost their legs. +Here's one moving with two middle legs gone. +It can even lose three legs, in a tripod, and adopt a new gait, a hopping gait. +And I point out that all of these videos are slowed down 20 times, so they're actually really fast, when you see this. +Robust systems are also damage resistant. +Here's an animal climbing up a wall. +It looks like a rapid, smooth, vertical climb, but when you slow it down, you see something very different. +Here's what they do. +They intentionally have a head-on collision with the wall so they don't slow down and can transition up it in 75 milliseconds. +And they can do this in part because they have extraordinary exoskeletons. +And they're really just made up of compliant joints that are tubes and plates connected to one another. +Here's a dissection of an abdomen of a cockroach. +You see these plates, and you see the compliant membrane. +My engineering colleague at Berkeley designed with his students a novel manufacturing technique where you essentially origami the exoskeleton, you laser cut it, laminate it, and you fold it up into a robot. +And you can do that now in less than 15 minutes. +These robots, called DASH, for Dynamic Autonomous Sprawled Hexapod, are highly compliant robots, and they're remarkably robust as a result of these features. +They're certainly incredibly damage resistant. +They even have some of the behaviors of the cockroaches. +So they can use their smart, compliant body to transition up a wall in a very simple way. +They even have some of the beginnings of the rapid inversion behavior where they disappear. +Now we want to know why they can go anywhere. +We discovered that they can go through three-millimeter gaps, the height of two pennies, two stacked pennies, and when they do this, they can actually run through those confined spaces at high speeds, although you never see it. +To understand it better, we did a CT scan of the exoskeleton and showed that they can compress their body by over 40 percent. +We put them in a materials testing machine to look at the stress strain analysis and showed that they can withstand forces 800 times their body weight, and after this they can fly and run absolutely normally. +So you never know where curiosity-based research will lead, and someday you may want a swarm of cockroach-inspired robots to come at you. +Thank you. +Election night 2008 was a night that tore me in half. +It was the night that Barack Obama was elected. +[One hundred and forty-three] years after the end of slavery, and [43] years after the passage of the Voting Rights Act, an African-American was elected president. +Many of us never thought that this was possible until the moment that it happened. +And in many ways, it was the climax of the black civil rights movement in the United States. +I was in California that night, which was ground zero at the time for another movement: the marriage equality movement. +Gay marriage was on the ballot in the form of Proposition 8, and as the election returns started to come in, it became clear that the right for same sex couples to marry, which had recently been granted by the California courts, was going to be taken away. +So on the same night that Barack Obama won his historic presidency, the lesbian and gay community suffered one of our most painful defeats. +And then it got even worse. +Pretty much immediately, African-Americans started to be blamed for the passage of Proposition 8. +This was largely due to an incorrect poll that said that blacks had voted for the measure by something like 70 percent. +This turned out not to be true, but this idea of pervasive black homophobia set in, and was grabbed on by the media. +I couldn't tear myself away from the coverage. +I listened to some gay commentator say that the African-American community was notoriously homophobic, and now that civil rights had been achieved for us, we wanted to take away other people's rights. +There were even reports of racist epithets being thrown at some of the participants of the gay rights rallies that took place after the election. +And on the other side, some African-Americans dismissed or ignored homophobia that was indeed real in our community. +And others resented this comparison between gay rights and civil rights, and once again, the sinking feeling that two minority groups of which I'm both a part of were competing with each other instead of supporting each other overwhelmed and, frankly, pissed me off. +Now, I'm a documentary filmmaker, so after going through my pissed off stage and yelling at the television and radio, my next instinct was to make a movie. +And what guided me in making this film was, how was this happening? +How was it that the gay rights movement was being pitted against the civil rights movement? +And this wasn't just an abstract question. +I'm a beneficiary of both movements, so this was actually personal. +But then something else happened after that election in 2008. +The march towards gay equality accelerated at a pace that surprised and shocked everyone, and is still reshaping our laws and our policies, our institutions and our entire country. +Let's just look at a few of these strategies. +First off, it's really interesting to see, to actually visually see, how quick the gay rights movement has made its gains, if you look at a few of the major events on a timeline of both freedom movements. +Now, there are tons of milestones in the civil rights movement, but the first one we're going to start with is the 1955 Montgomery bus boycott. +This was a protest campaign against Montgomery, Alabama's segregation on their public transit system, and it began when a woman named Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat to a white person. +The campaign lasted a year, and it galvanized the civil rights movement like nothing had before it. +And I call this strategy the "I'm tired of your foot on my neck" strategy. +So gays and lesbians have been in society since societies began, but up until the mid-20th century, homosexual acts were still illegal in most states. +So just 14 years after the Montgomery bus boycott, a group of LGBT folks took that same strategy. +It's known as Stonewall, in 1969, and it's where a group of LGBT patrons fought back against police beatings at a Greenwich Village bar that sparked three days of rioting. +Incidentally, black and latino LGBT folks were at the forefront of this rebellion, and it's a really interesting example of the intersection of our struggles against racism, homophobia, gender identity and police brutality. +After Stonewall happened, gay liberation groups sprang up all over the country, and the modern gay rights movement as we know it took off. +So the next moment to look at on the timeline is the 1963 March on Washington. +This was a seminal event in the civil rights movement and it's where African-Americans called for both civil and economic justice. +And it's of course where Martin Luther King delivered his famous "I have a dream" speech, but what's actually less known is that this march was organized by a man named Bayard Rustin. +Bayard was an out gay man, and he's considered one of the most brilliant strategists of the civil rights movement. +He later in his life became a fierce advocate of LGBT rights as well, and his life is testament to the intersection of the struggles. +The March on Washington is one of the high points of the movement, and it's where there was a fervent belief that African-Americans too could be a part of American democracy. +I call this strategy the "We are visible and many in numbers" strategy. +Some early gay activists were actually directly inspired by the march, and some had taken part. +Gay pioneer Jack Nichols said, "We marched with Martin Luther King, seven of us from the Mattachine Society" -- which was an early gay rights organization "and from that moment on, we had our own dream about a gay rights march of similar proportions." +Several years later, a series of marches took place, each one gaining the momentum of the gay freedom struggle. +The first one was in 1979, and the second one took place in 1987. +The third one was held in 1993. +Almost a million people showed up, and people were so energized and excited by what had taken place, they went back to their own communities and started their own political and social organizations, further increasing the visibility of the movement. +The day of that march, October 11, was then declared National Coming Out Day, and is still celebrated all over the world. +These marches set the groundwork for the historic changes that we see happening today in the United States. +And lastly, the "Loving" strategy. +The name speaks for itself. +In 1967, the Supreme Court ruled in Loving v. Virginia, and invalidated all laws that prohibited interracial marriage. +This is considered one of the Supreme Court's landmark civil rights cases. +In 1996, President Clinton signed the Defense of Marriage Act, known as DOMA, and that made the federal government only have to recognize marriages between a man and a woman. +In United States v. Windsor, a 79-year-old lesbian named Edith Windsor sued the federal government when she was forced to pay estate taxes on her deceased wife's property, something that heterosexual couples don't have to do. +And as the case wound its way through the lower courts, the Loving case was repeatedly cited as precedent. +When it got to the Supreme Court in 2013, the Supreme Court agreed, and DOMA was thrown out. +It was incredible. +But the gay marriage movement has been making gains for years now. +To date, 17 states have passed laws allowing marriage equality. +It's become the de facto battle for gay equality, and it seems like daily, laws prohibiting it are being challenged in the courts, even in places like Texas and Utah, which no one saw coming. +So a lot has changed since that night in 2008 when I felt torn in half. +I did go on to make that film. +It's a documentary film, and it's called "The New Black," and it looks at how the African-American community is grappling with the gay rights issue in light of the gay marriage movement and this fight over the meaning of civil rights. +And I wanted to capture some of this incredible change that was happening, and as luck or politics would have it, another marriage battle started gearing up, this time in Maryland, where African-Americans make up 30 percent of the electorate. +So this tension between gay rights and civil rights started to bubble up once again, and I was lucky enough to capture how some people were making the connection between the movements this time. +This is a clip of Karess Taylor-Hughes and Samantha Masters, two characters in the film, as they hit the streets of Baltimore and try to convince potential voters. +Samantha Masters: That's what's up, man, this is a righteous man over here. +Okay, are you registered to vote? +Man: No. Karess Taylor-Hughes: Okay. How old are you? +Man: 21. KTH: 21? You gotta get registered to vote. +We got to get you registered to vote. +Man: I ain't voting on no gay shit. +SM: Okay, why? What's up? Man: I ain't with that. +SM: That's not cool. +Man: What made you be gay? SM: So what made you be straight? +So what made you be straight? +Man 2: You can't answer that question. KSM: I used to not have the same rights as you, but I know that because a black man like yourself stood up for a woman like me, I know that I've got the same opportunities. +So you, as a black man, have the opportunity to stand up for somebody else. +Whether you're gay or not, these are your brothers and sisters out here, and they need you to represent. +Man 2: Who is you to tell somebody who they can't have sex with, who they can't be with? +They ain't got that power. +Nobody has that power to say, you can't marry that young lady. +Who has that power? Nobody. +SM: But you know what? +Our state has put the power in your hands, and so what we need you to do is vote for, you gonna vote for 6. +Man 2: I got you. +SM: Vote for 6, okay? Man 2: I got you. +KSM: All right, do y'all need community service hours? +You do? All right, you can always volunteer with us to get community service hours. +Y'all want to do that? +We feed you. We bring you pizza. +Yoruba Richen: Thank you. +What's amazing to me about that clip that we just captured as we were filming is, it really shows how Karess understands the history of the civil rights movement, but she's not restricted by it. +She doesn't just limit it to black people. +She sees it as a blueprint for expanding rights to gays and lesbians. +Maybe because she's younger, she's like 25, she's able to do this a little bit more easily, but the fact is that Maryland voters did pass that marriage equality amendment, and in fact it was the first time that marriage equality was directly voted on and passed by the voters. +African-Americans supported it at a higher level than had ever been recorded. +It was a complete turnaround from that night in 2008 when Proposition 8 was passed. +It was, and feels, monumental. +We in the LGBT community have gone from being a pathologized and reviled and criminalized group to being seen as part of the great human quest for dignity and equality. +We've gone from having to hide our sexuality in order to maintain our jobs and our families to literally getting a place at the table with the president and a shout out at his second inauguration. +I just want to read what he said at that inauguration: "We the people declare today that the most evident of truths, that all of us are created equal. +It is the star that guides us still, just as it guided our forebears through Seneca Falls and Selma and Stonewall." +His statement demonstrates not only the interconnectedness of those movements, but how each one borrowed and was inspired by the other. +Maybe one more other reason for the relative quick progress of the gay rights movement. +Whereas a lot of us continue to still live in racially segregated spaces, LGBT folks, we are everywhere. +We are in urban communities and rural communities, communities of color, immigrant communities, churches and mosques and synagogues. +We are your mothers and brothers and sisters and sons. +And when someone that you love or a family member comes out, it may be easier to support their quest for equality. +And in fact, the gay rights movement asks us to support justice and equality from a space of love. +That may be the biggest, greatest gift that the movement has given us. +It calls on us to access that which is most universal and most intimate: a love of our brother and our sister and our neighbor. +I just want to end with a quote by one of our greatest freedom fighters who's no longer with us, Nelson Mandela of South Africa. +Nelson Mandela led South Africa after the dark and brutal days of Apartheid, and out of the ashes of that legalized racial discrimination, he led South Africa to become the first country in the world to ban discrimination based on sexual orientation within its constitution. +Mandela said, "For to be free is not merely to cast off one's chains, but to live in a way that respects and enhances the freedom of others." +So as these movements continue on, and as freedom struggles around the world continue on, let's remember that not only are they interconnected, but they must support and enhance each other for us to be truly victorious. +Thank you. +It was less than a year after September 11, and I was at the Chicago Tribune writing about shootings and murders, and it was leaving me feeling pretty dark and depressed. +I had done some activism in college, so I decided to help a local group hang door knockers against animal testing. +I thought it would be a safe way to do something positive, but of course I have the absolute worst luck ever, and we were all arrested. +Police took this blurry photo of me holding leaflets as evidence. +My charges were dismissed, but a few weeks later, two FBI agents knocked on my door, and they told me that unless I helped them by spying on protest groups, they would put me on a domestic terrorist list. +I'd love to tell you that I didn't flinch, but I was terrified, and when my fear subsided, I became obsessed with finding out how this happened, how animal rights and environmental activists who have never injured anyone could become the FBI's number one domestic terrorism threat. +A few years later, I was invited to testify before Congress about my reporting, and I told lawmakers that, while everybody is talking about going green, some people are risking their lives to defend forests and to stop oil pipelines. +They're physically putting their bodies on the line between the whalers' harpoons and the whales. +These are everyday people, like these protesters in Italy who spontaneously climbed over barbed wire fences to rescue beagles from animal testing. +And these movements have been incredibly effective and popular, so in 1985, their opponents made up a new word, eco-terrorist, to shift how we view them. +They just made it up. +Now these companies have backed new laws like the Animal Enterprise Terrorism Act, which turns activism into terrorism if it causes a loss of profits. +Now most people never even heard about this law, including members of Congress. +Less than one percent were in the room when it passed the House. +The rest were outside at a new memorial. +They were praising Dr. King as his style of activism was branded as terrorism if done in the name of animals or the environment. +Supporters say laws like this are needed for the extremists: the vandals, the arsonists, the radicals. +But right now, companies like TransCanada are briefing police in presentations like this one about how to prosecute nonviolent protesters as terrorists. +The FBI's training documents on eco-terrorism are not about violence, they're about public relations. +Today, in multiple countries, corporations are pushing new laws that make it illegal to photograph animal cruelty on their farms. +The latest was in Idaho just two weeks ago, and today we released a lawsuit challenging it as unconstitutional as a threat to journalism. +The first of these ag-gag prosecutions, as they're called, was a young woman named Amy Meyer, and Amy saw a sick cow being moved by a bulldozer outside of a slaughterhouse as she was on the public street. +And Amy did what any of us would: She filmed it. +When I found out about her story, I wrote about it, and within 24 hours, it created such an uproar that the prosecutors just dropped all the charges. +But apparently, even exposing stuff like that is a threat. +Through the Freedom of Information Act, I learned that the counter-terrorism unit has been monitoring my articles and speeches like this one. +They even included this nice little write-up of my book. +They described it as "compelling and well-written." +Blurb on the next book, right? +The point of all of this is to make us afraid, but as a journalist, I have an unwavering faith in the power of education. +Our best weapon is sunlight. +Dostoevsky wrote that the whole work of man is to prove he's a man and not a piano key. +Over and over throughout history, people in power have used fear to silence the truth and to silence dissent. +It's time we strike a new note. +Thank you. +Four years ago, a security researcher, or, as most people would call it, a hacker, found a way to literally make ATMs throw money at him. +His name was Barnaby Jack, and this technique was later called "jackpotting" in his honor. +I'm here today because I think we actually need hackers. +Barnaby Jack could have easily turned into a career criminal or James Bond villain with his knowledge, but he chose to show the world his research instead. +He believed that sometimes you have to demo a threat to spark a solution. +And I feel the same way. +That's why I'm here today. +We are often terrified and fascinated by the power hackers now have. +They scare us. +But the choices they make have dramatic outcomes that influence us all. +So I am here today because I think we need hackers, and in fact, they just might be the immune system for the information age. +Sometimes they make us sick, but they also find those hidden threats in our world, and they make us fix it. +I knew that I might get hacked for giving this talk, so let me save you the effort. +In true TED fashion, here is my most embarrassing picture. +But it would be difficult for you to find me in it, because I'm the one who looks like a boy standing to the side. +I was such a nerd back then that even the boys on the Dungeons and Dragons team wouldn't let me join. +This is who I was, but this is who I wanted to be: Angelina Jolie. +She portrayed Acid Burn in the '95 film "Hackers." +She was pretty and she could rollerblade, but being a hacker, that made her powerful. +And I wanted to be just like her, so I started spending a lot of time on hacker chat rooms and online forums. +I remember one late night I found a bit of PHP code. +I didn't really know what it did, but I copy-pasted it and used it anyway to get into a password-protected site like that. +Open Sesame. +It was a simple trick, and I was just a script kiddie back then, but to me, that trick, it felt like this, like I had discovered limitless potential at my fingertips. +This is the rush of power that hackers feel. +It's geeks just like me discovering they have access to superpower, one that requires the skill and tenacity of their intellect, but thankfully no radioactive spiders. +But with great power comes great responsibility, and you all like to think that if we had such powers, we would only use them for good. +But what if you could read your ex's emails, or add a couple zeros to your bank account. +What would you do then? +Indeed, many hackers do not resist those temptations, and so they are responsible in one way or another to billions of dollars lost each year to fraud, malware or plain old identity theft, which is a serious issue. +But there are other hackers, hackers who just like to break things, and it is precisely those hackers that can find the weaker elements in our world and make us fix it. +This is what happened last year when another security researcher called Kyle Lovett discovered a gaping hole in the design of certain wireless routers like you might have in your home or office. +He learned that anyone could remotely connect to these devices over the Internet and download documents from hard drives attached to those routers, no password needed. +He reported it to the company, of course, but they ignored his report. +Perhaps they thought universal access was a feature, not a bug, until two months ago when a group of hackers used it to get into people's files. +But they didn't steal anything. +They left a note: Your router and your documents can be accessed by anyone in the world. +Here's what you should do to fix it. +We hope we helped. +By getting into people's files like that, yeah, they broke the law, but they also forced that company to fix their product. +Making vulnerabilities known to the public is a practice called full disclosure in the hacker community, and it is controversial, but it does make me think of how hackers have an evolving effect on technologies we use every day. +This is what Khalil did. +Khalil is a Palestinian hacker from the West Bank, and he found a serious privacy flaw on Facebook which he attempted to report through the company's bug bounty program. +These are usually great arrangements for companies to reward hackers disclosing vulnerabilities they find in their code. +Unfortunately, due to some miscommunications, his report was not acknowledged. +Frustrated with the exchange, he took to use his own discovery to post on Mark Zuckerberg's wall. +This got their attention, all right, and they fixed the bug, but because he hadn't reported it properly, he was denied the bounty usually paid out for such discoveries. +Thankfully for Khalil, a group of hackers were watching out for him. +In fact, they raised more than 13,000 dollars to reward him for this discovery, raising a vital discussion in the technology industry about how we come up with incentives for hackers to do the right thing. +But I think there's a greater story here still. +Even companies founded by hackers, like Facebook was, still have a complicated relationship when it comes to hackers. +And so for more conservative organizations, it is going to take time and adapting in order to embrace hacker culture and the creative chaos that it brings with it. +But I think it's worth the effort, because the alternative, to blindly fight all hackers, is to go against the power you cannot control at the cost of stifling innovation and regulating knowledge. +These are things that will come back and bite you. +It is even more true if we go after hackers that are willing to risk their own freedom for ideals like the freedom of the web, especially in times like this, like today even, as governments and corporates fight to control the Internet. +I find it astounding that someone from the shadowy corners of cyberspace can become its voice of opposition, its last line of defense even, perhaps someone like Anonymous, the leading brand of global hacktivism. +This universal hacker movement needs no introduction today, but six years ago they were not much more than an Internet subculture dedicated to sharing silly pictures of funny cats and Internet trolling campaigns. +Their moment of transformation was in early 2008 when the Church of Scientology attempted to remove certain leaked videos from appearing on certain websites. +This is when Anonymous was forged out of the seemingly random collection of Internet dwellers. +It turns out, the Internet doesn't like it when you try to remove things from it, and it will react with cyberattacks and elaborate pranks and with a series of organized protests all around the world, from my hometown of Tel Aviv to Adelaide, Australia. +This proved that Anonymous and this idea can rally the masses from the keyboards to the streets, and it laid the foundations for dozens of future operations against perceived injustices to their online and offline world. +Since then, they've gone after many targets. +They've uncovered corruption, abuse. +They've hacked popes and politicians, and I think their effect is larger than simple denial of service attacks that take down websites or even leak sensitive documents. +I think that, like Robin Hood, they are in the business of redistribution, but what they are after isn't your money. +It's not your documents. It's your attention. +They grab the spotlight for causes they support, forcing us to take note, acting as a global magnifying glass for issues that we are not as aware of but perhaps we should be. +They have been called many names from criminals to terrorists, and I cannot justify their illegal means, but the ideas they fight for are ones that matter to us all. +The reality is, hackers can do a lot more than break things. +They can bring people together. +And if the Internet doesn't like it when you try to remove things from it, just watch what happens when you try to shut the Internet down. +This took place in Egypt in January 2011, and as President Hosni Mubarak attempted a desperate move to quash the rising revolution on the streets of Cairo, he sent his personal troops down to Egypt's Internet service providers and had them physically kill the switch on the country's connection to the world overnight. +For a government to do a thing like that was unprecedented, and for hackers, it made it personal. +Hackers like the Telecomix group were already active on the ground, helping Egyptians bypass censorship using clever workarounds like Morse code and ham radio. +It was high season for low tech, which the government couldn't block, but when the Net went completely down, Telecomix brought in the big guns. +They found European service providers that still had 20-year-old analog dial-up access infrastructure. +They opened up 300 of those lines for Egyptians to use, serving slow but sweet Internet connection for Egyptians. +This worked. +It worked so well, in fact, one guy even used it to download an episode of "How I Met Your Mother." +But while Egypt's future is still uncertain, when the same thing happened in Syria just one year later, Telecomix were prepared with those Internet lines, and Anonymous, they were perhaps the first international group to officially denounce the actions of the Syrian military by defacing their website. +But with this sort of power, it really depends on where you stand, because one man's hero can be another's villain, and so the Syrian Electronic Army is a pro-Assad group of hackers who support his contentious regime. +They've taken down multiple high-profile targets in the past few years, including the Associated Press's Twitter account, in which they posted a message about an attack on the White House injuring President Obama. +This tweet was fake, of course, but the resulting drop in the Dow Jones index that day was most certainly not, and a lot of people lost a lot of money. +This sort of thing is happening all over the world right now. +In conflicts from the Crimean Peninsula to Latin America, from Europe to the United States, hackers are a force for social, political and military influence. +As individuals or in groups, volunteers or military conflicts, there are hackers everywhere. +They come from all walks of life, ethnicities, ideologies and genders, I might add. +They are now shaping the world's stage. +Hackers represent an exceptional force for change in the 21st century. +This is because access to information is a critical currency of power, one which governments would like to control, a thing they attempt to do by setting up all-you-can-eat surveillance programs, a thing they need hackers for, by the way. +And so the establishment has long had a love-hate relationship when it comes to hackers, because the same people who demonize hacking also utilize it at large. +Two years ago, I saw General Keith Alexander. +He's the NSA director and U.S. cyber commander, but instead of his four star general uniform, he was wearing jeans and a t-shirt. +This was at DEF CON, the world's largest hacker conference. +Perhaps like me, General Alexander didn't see 12,000 criminals that day in Vegas. +I think he saw untapped potential. +In fact, he was there to give a hiring pitch. +"In this room right here," he said, "is the talent our nation needs." +Well, hackers in the back row replied, "Then stop arresting us." +Indeed, for years, hackers have been on the wrong side of the fence, but in light of what we know now, who is more watchful of our online world? +The rules of the game are not that clear anymore, but hackers are perhaps the only ones still capable of challenging overreaching governments and data-hoarding corporates on their own playing field. +To me, that represents hope. +For the past three decades, hackers have done a lot of things, but they have also impacted civil liberties, innovation and Internet freedom, so I think it's time we take a good look at how we choose to portray them, because if we keep expecting them to be the bad guys, how can they be the heroes too? +My years in the hacker world have made me realize both the problem and the beauty about hackers: They just can't see something broken in the world and leave it be. +They are compelled to either exploit it or try and change it, and so they find the vulnerable aspects in our rapidly changing world. +They make us, they force us to fix things or demand something better, and I think we need them to do just that, because after all, it is not information that wants to be free, it's us. +Thank you very much. +Thank you. Hack the planet! +In the middle of my Ph.D., I was hopelessly stuck. +Every research direction that I tried led to a dead end. +It seemed like my basic assumptions just stopped working. +I felt like a pilot flying through the mist, and I lost all sense of direction. +I stopped shaving. +I couldn't get out of bed in the morning. +I felt unworthy of stepping across the gates of the university, because I wasn't like Einstein or Newton or any other scientist whose results I had learned about, because in science, we just learn about the results, not the process. +And so obviously, I couldn't be a scientist. +But I had enough support and I made it through and discovered something new about nature. +This is an amazing feeling of calmness, being the only person in the world who knows a new law of nature. +And I started the second project in my Ph.D, and it happened again. +I got stuck and I made it through. +And I started thinking, maybe there's a pattern here. +I asked the other graduate students, and they said, "Yeah, that's exactly what happened to us, except nobody told us about it." +We'd all studied science as if it's a series of logical steps between question and answer, but doing research is nothing like that. +At the same time, I was also studying to be an improvisation theater actor. +So physics by day, and by night, laughing, jumping, singing, playing my guitar. +Improvisation theater, just like science, goes into the unknown, because you have to make a scene onstage without a director, without a script, without having any idea what you'll portray or what the other characters will do. +But unlike science, in improvisation theater, they tell you from day one what's going to happen to you when you get onstage. +You're going to fail miserably. +You're going to get stuck. +And we would practice staying creative inside that stuck place. +For example, we had an exercise where we all stood in a circle, and each person had to do the world's worst tap dance, and everybody else applauded and cheered you on, supporting you onstage. +When I became a professor and had to guide my own students through their research projects, I realized again, I don't know what to do. +I'd studied thousands of hours of physics, biology, chemistry, but not one hour, not one concept on how to mentor, how to guide someone to go together into the unknown, about motivation. +So I turned to improvisation theater, and I told my students from day one what's going to happen when you start research, and this has to do with our mental schema of what research will be like. +Because you see, whenever people do anything, for example if I want to touch this blackboard, my brain first builds up a schema, a prediction of exactly what my muscles will do before I even start moving my hand, and if I get blocked, if my schema doesn't match reality, that causes extra stress called cognitive dissonance. +That's why your schemas had better match reality. +But if you believe the way science is taught, and if you believe textbooks, you're liable to have the following schema of research. +If A is the question, and B is the answer, then research is a direct path. +The problem is that if an experiment doesn't work, or a student gets depressed, it's perceived as something utterly wrong and causes tremendous stress. +And that's why I teach my students a more realistic schema. +Here's an example where things don't match your schema. +So I teach my students a different schema. +If A is the question, B is the answer, stay creative in the cloud, and you start going, and experiments don't work, experiments don't work, experiments don't work, experiments don't work, until you reach a place linked with negative emotions where it seems like your basic assumptions have stopped making sense, like somebody yanked the carpet beneath your feet. +And I call this place the cloud. +Now you can be lost in the cloud for a day, a week, a month, a year, a whole career, but sometimes, if you're lucky enough and you have enough support, you can see in the materials at hand, or perhaps meditating on the shape of the cloud, a new answer, C, and you decide to go for it. +And experiments don't work, experiments don't work, but you get there, and then you tell everyone about it by publishing a paper that reads A arrow C, which is a great way to communicate, but as long as you don't forget the path that brought you there. +Now this cloud is an inherent part of research, an inherent part of our craft, because the cloud stands guard at the boundary. +It stands guard at the boundary between the known and the unknown, because in order to discover something truly new, at least one of your basic assumptions has to change, and that means that in science, we do something quite heroic. +Every day, we try to bring ourselves to the boundary between the known and the unknown and face the cloud. +Now notice that I put B in the land of the known, because we knew about it in the beginning, but C is always more interesting and more important than B. +So B is essential in order to get going, but C is much more profound, and that's the amazing thing about resesarch. +Now just knowing that word, the cloud, has been transformational in my research group, because students come to me and say, "Uri, I'm in the cloud," and I say, "Great, you must be feeling miserable." +And as a mentor, I know what to do, which is to step up my support for the student, because research in psychology shows that if you're feeling fear and despair, your mind narrows down to very safe and conservative ways of thinking. +It's based on the central principle of improvisation theater, so here improvisation theater came to my help again. +It's called saying "Yes, and" to the offers made by other actors. +That means accepting the offers and building on them, saying, "Yes, and." +For example, if one actor says, "Here is a pool of water," and the other actor says, "No, that's just a stage," the improvisation is over. +It's dead, and everybody feels frustrated. +That's called blocking. +If you're not mindful of communications, scientific conversations can have a lot of blocking. +Saying "Yes, and" sounds like this. +"Here is a pool of water." "Yeah, let's jump in." +"Look, there's a whale! Let's grab it by its tail. +It's pulling us to the moon!" +So saying "Yes, and" bypasses our inner critic. +We all have an inner critic that kind of guards what we say, so people don't think that we're obscene or crazy or unoriginal, and science is full of the fear of appearing unoriginal. +Saying "Yes, and" bypasses the critic and unlocks hidden voices of creativity you didn't even know that you had, and they often carry the answer about the cloud. +So you see, knowing about the cloud and about saying "Yes, and" made my lab very creative. +Students started playing off of each others' ideas, and we made surprising discoveries in the interface between physics and biology. +We call them network motifs, and they're the elementary circuits that help us understand the logic of the way cells make decisions in all organisms, including our body. +Soon enough, after this, I started being invited to give talks to thousands of scientists across the world, but the knowledge about the cloud and saying "Yes, and" just stayed within my own lab, because you see, in science, we don't talk about the process, anything subjective or emotional. +We talk about the results. +So there was no way to talk about it in conferences. +That was unthinkable. +And I saw scientists in other groups get stuck without even having a word to describe what they're seeing, and their ways of thinking narrowed down to very safe paths, their science didn't reach its full potential, and they were miserable. +I thought, that's the way it is. +I'll try to make my lab as creative as possible, and if everybody else does the same, science will eventually become more and more better and better. +That way of thinking got turned on its head when by chance I went to hear Evelyn Fox Keller give a talk about her experiences as a woman in science. +And she asked, "Why is it that we don't talk about the subjective and emotional aspects of doing science? +It's not by chance. It's a matter of values." +You see, science seeks knowledge that's objective and rational. +That's the beautiful thing about science. +But we also have a cultural myth that the doing of science, what we do every day to get that knowledge, is also only objective and rational, like Mr. Spock. +And when you label something as objective and rational, automatically, the other side, the subjective and emotional, become labeled as non-science or anti-science or threatening to science, and we just don't talk about it. +And when I heard that, that science has a culture, everything clicked into place for me, because if science has a culture, culture can be changed, and I can be a change agent working to change the culture of science wherever I could. +And so the very next lecture I gave in a conference, I talked about my science, and then I talked about the importance of the subjective and emotional aspects of doing science and how we should talk about them, and I looked at the audience, and they were cold. +They couldn't hear what I was saying in the context of a 10 back-to-back PowerPoint presentation conference. +And I tried again and again, conference after conference, but I wasn't getting through. +I was in the cloud. +And eventually I managed to get out the cloud using improvisation and music. +Since then, every conference I go to, I give a science talk and a second, special talk called "Love and fear in the lab," and I start it off by doing a song about scientists' greatest fear, which is that we work hard, we discover something new, and somebody else publishes it before we do. +We call it being scooped, and being scooped feels horrible. +Sounds like this. + I've been scooped again Scoop! Scoop! And then we go for it. +Thank you for your backup singing. +So everybody starts laughing, starts breathing, notices that there's other scientists around them with shared issues, and we start talking about the emotional and subjective things that go on in research. +It feels like a huge taboo has been lifted. +Finally, we can talk about this in a scientific conference. +And scientists have gone on to form peer groups where they meet regularly and create a space to talk about the emotional and subjective things that happen as they're mentoring, as they're going into the unknown, and even started courses about the process of doing science, about going into the unknown together, and many other things. +So my vision is that, just like every scientist knows the word "atom," that matter is made out of atoms, every scientist would know the words like "the cloud," saying "Yes, and," and science will become much more creative, make many, many more unexpected discoveries for the benefit of us all, and would also be much more playful. +And what I might ask you to remember from this talk is that next time you face a problem you can't solve in work or in life, there's a word for what you're going to see: the cloud. +Thank you. +Six months ago, I got an email from a man in Israel who had read one of my books, and the email said, "You don't know me, but I'm your 12th cousin." +And it said, "I have a family tree with 80,000 people on it, including you, Karl Marx, and several European aristocrats." +Now I did not know what to make of this. +Part of me was like, okay, when's he going to ask me to wire 10,000 dollars to his Nigerian bank, right? +I also thought, 80,000 relatives, do I want that? +I have enough trouble with some of the ones I have already. +And I won't name names, but you know who you are. +But another part of me said, this is remarkable. +Here I am alone in my office, but I'm not alone at all. +I'm connected to 80,000 people around the world, and that's four Madison Square Gardens full of cousins. +And some of them are going to be great, and some of them are going to be irritating, but they're all related to me. +So this email inspired me to dive into genealogy, which I always thought was a very staid and proper field, but it turns out it's going through a fascinating revolution, and a controversial one. +Partly, this is because of DNA and genetic testing, but partly, it's because of the Internet. +I'm on something on Geni called the world family tree, which has no less than a jaw-dropping 75 million people. +So that's 75 million people connected by blood or marriage, sometimes both. +It's in all seven continents, including Antarctica. +I'm on it. Many of you are on it, whether you know it or not, and you can see the links. +Here's my cousin Gwyneth Paltrow. +She has no idea I exist, but we are officially cousins. +We have just 17 links between us. +And there's my cousin Barack Obama. +And he is my aunt's fifth great-aunt's husband's father's wife's seventh great-nephew, so practically my old brother. +And my cousin, of course, the actor Kevin Bacon -- who is my first cousin's twice removed's wife's niece's husband's first cousin once removed's niece's husband. +So six degrees of Kevin Bacon, plus or minus several degrees. +Now, I'm not boasting, because all of you have famous people and historical figures in your tree, because we are all connected, and 75 million may seem like a lot, but in a few years, it's quite likely we will have a family tree with all, almost all, seven billion people on Earth. +But does it really matter? +What's the importance? +And I do think it is important, and I'll give you five reasons why, really quickly. +First, it's got scientific value. +This is an unprecedented history of the human race, and it's giving us valuable data about how diseases are inherited, how people migrate, and there's a team of scientists at MIT right now studying the world family tree. +Number two, it brings history alive. +I found out I'm connected to Albert Einstein, so I told my seven-year-old son that, and he was totally engaged. +Now Albert Einstein is not some dead white guy with weird hair. +He's Uncle Albert. And my son wanted to know, "What did he say? What is E = MC squared?" +Also, it's not all good news. +I found a link to Jeffrey Dahmer, the serial killer, but I will say that's on my wife's side. +So I want to make that clear. Sorry, honey. +Number three, interconnectedness. +We all come from the same ancestor, and you don't have to believe the literal Bible version, but scientists talk about Y chromosomal Adam and mitochondrial Eve, and these were about 100,000 to 300,000 years ago. +We all have a bit of their DNA in us. +They are our great-great-great-great-great-great -- continue that for about 7,000 times -- grandparents, and so that means we literally all are biological cousins as well, and estimates vary, but probably the farthest cousin you have on Earth is about a 50th cousin. +Now, it's not just ancestors we share, descendants. +If you have kids, and they have kids, look how quickly the descendants accumulate. +So in 10, 12 generations, you're going to have thousands of offspring, and millions of offspring. +Number four, a kinder world. +Now, I know that there are family feuds. +I have three sons, so I see how they fight. +But I think that there's also a human bias to treat your family a little better than strangers. +We're not just part of the same species. +We're part of the same family. +We share 99.9 percent of our DNA. +Now the final one is number five, a democratizing effect. +Some genealogy has an elitist strain, like people say, "Oh, I'm descended from Mary Queen of Scots and you're not, so you cannot join my country club." +But that's really going to be hard to do now, because everyone is related. +I'm descended from Mary Queen of Scots -- by marriage, but still. +So it's really a fascinating time in the history of family, because it's changing so fast. +There is gay marriage and sperm donors and there's intermarriage on an unprecedented scale, and this makes some of my more conservative cousins a little nervous, but I actually think it's a good thing. +I think the more inclusive the idea of family is, the better, because then you have more potential caretakers, and as my aunt's eighth cousin twice removed Hillary Clinton says -- it takes a village. +So I have all these hundreds and thousands, millions of new cousins. +I thought, what can I do with this information? +And that's when I decided, why not throw a party? +So that's what I'm doing. +And you're all invited. +Next year, next summer, I will be hosting what I hope is the biggest and best family reunion in history. +Thank you. I want you there. +I want you there. +It's going to be at the New York Hall of Science, which is a great venue, but it's also on the site of the former World's Fair, which is, I think, very appropriate, because I see this as a family reunion meets a world's fair. +There's going to be exhibits and food, music. +Paul McCartney is 11 steps away, so I'm hoping he brings his guitar. +He hasn't RSVP'd yet, but fingers crossed. +And there is going to be a day of speakers, of fascinating cousins. +It's early, but I've already, I've got some lined up. +Cass Sunstein, my cousin who is perhaps the most brilliant legal scholar, will be talking. +He was a former member of the Obama administration. +And on the other side of the political spectrum, George H.W. Bush, number 41, the father, he has agreed to participate, and Nick Kroll, the comedian, and Dr. Oz, and many more to come. +Only together can we solve these big problems. +So from cousin to cousin, I thank you. I can't wait to see you. +Goodbye. +Think of a hard choice you'll face in the near future. +It might be between two careers -- artist and accountant -- or places to live -- the city or the country -- or even between two people to marry -- you could marry Betty or you could marry Lolita. +Or it might be a choice about whether to have children, to have an ailing parent move in with you, to raise your child in a religion that your partner lives by but leaves you cold. +Or whether to donate your life savings to charity. +Chances are, the hard choice you thought of was something big, something momentous, something that matters to you. +Hard choices seem to be occasions for agonizing, hand-wringing, the gnashing of teeth. +But I think we've misunderstood hard choices and the role they play in our lives. +Understanding hard choices uncovers a hidden power each of us possesses. +What makes a choice hard is the way the alternatives relate. +In any easy choice, one alternative is better than the other. +In a hard choice, one alternative is better in some ways, the other alternative is better in other ways, and neither is better than the other overall. +You agonize over whether to stay in your current job in the city or uproot your life for more challenging work in the country because staying is better in some ways, moving is better in others, and neither is better than the other overall. +We shouldn't think that all hard choices are big. +Let's say you're deciding what to have for breakfast. +You could have high fiber bran cereal or a chocolate donut. +Suppose what matters in the choice is tastiness and healthfulness. +The cereal is better for you, the donut tastes way better, but neither is better than the other overall, a hard choice. +Realizing that small choices can also be hard may make big hard choices seem less intractable. +After all, we manage to figure out what to have for breakfast, so maybe we can figure out whether to stay in the city or uproot for the new job in the country. +We also shouldn't think that hard choices are hard because we are stupid. +When I graduated from college, I couldn't decide between two careers, philosophy and law. +I really loved philosophy. +There are amazing things you can learn as a philosopher, and all from the comfort of an armchair. +But I came from a modest immigrant family where my idea of luxury was having a pork tongue and jelly sandwich in my school lunchbox, so the thought of spending my whole life sitting around in armchairs just thinking, well, that struck me as the height of extravagance and frivolity. +So I got out my yellow pad, I drew a line down the middle, and I tried my best to think of the reasons for and against each alternative. +I remember thinking to myself, if only I knew what my life in each career would be like. +If only God or Netflix would send me a DVD of my two possible future careers, I'd be set. +I'd compare them side by side, I'd see that one was better, and the choice would be easy. +But I got no DVD, and because I couldn't figure out which was better, I did what many of us do in hard choices: I took the safest option. +Fear of being an unemployed philosopher led me to become a lawyer, and as I discovered, lawyering didn't quite fit. +It wasn't who I was. +So now I'm a philosopher, and I study hard choices, and I can tell you that fear of the unknown, while a common motivational default in dealing with hard choices, rests on a misconception of them. +It's a mistake to think that in hard choices, one alternative really is better than the other, but we're too stupid to know which, and since we don't know which, we might as well take the least risky option. +Even taking two alternatives side by side with full information, a choice can still be hard. +Hard choices are hard not because of us or our ignorance; they're hard because there is no best option. +Now, if there's no best option, if the scales don't tip in favor of one alternative over another, then surely the alternatives must be equally good. +So maybe the right thing to say in hard choices is that they're between equally good options. +But that can't be right. +If alternatives are equally good, you should just flip a coin between them, and it seems a mistake to think, here's how you should decide between careers, places to live, people to marry: Flip a coin. +There's another reason for thinking that hard choices aren't choices between equally good options. +Suppose you have a choice between two jobs: you could be an investment banker or a graphic artist. +There are a variety of things that matter in such a choice, like the excitement of the work, achieving financial security, having time to raise a family, and so on. +Maybe the artist's career puts you on the cutting edge of new forms of pictorial expression. +Maybe the banking career puts you on the cutting edge of new forms of financial manipulation. +Imagine the two jobs however you like so that neither is better than the other. +Now suppose we improve one of them a bit. +Suppose the bank, wooing you, adds 500 dollars a month to your salary. +Does the extra money now make the banking job better than the artist one? +Not necessarily. +A higher salary makes the banking job better than it was before, but it might not be enough to make being a banker better than being an artist. +But if an improvement in one of the jobs doesn't make it better than the other, then the two original jobs could not have been equally good. +If you start with two things that are equally good, and you improve one of them, it now must be better than the other. +That's not the case with options in hard choices. +So now we've got a puzzle. +We've got two jobs. +Neither is better than the other, nor are they equally good. +So how are we supposed to choose? +Something seems to have gone wrong here. +Maybe the choice itself is problematic and comparison is impossible. +But that can't be right. +It's not like we're trying to choose between two things that can't be compared. +We're weighing the merits of two jobs, after all, not the merits of the number nine and a plate of fried eggs. +A comparison of the overall merits of two jobs is something we can make, and one we often do make. +I think the puzzle arises because of an unreflective assumption we make about value. +We unwittingly assume that values like justice, beauty, kindness, are akin to scientific quantities, like length, mass and weight. +Take any comparative question not involving value, such as which of two suitcases is heavier. +There are only three possibilities. +The weight of one is greater, lesser or equal to the weight of the other. +Properties like weight can be represented by real numbers -- one, two, three and so on -- and there are only three possible comparisons between any two real numbers. +One number is greater, lesser, or equal to the other. +Not so with values. +As post-Enlightenment creatures, we tend to assume that scientific thinking holds the key to everything of importance in our world, but the world of value is different from the world of science. +The stuff of the one world can be quantified by real numbers. +The stuff of the other world can't. +We shouldn't assume that the world of is, of lengths and weights, has the same structure as the world of ought, of what we should do. +So if what matters to us -- a child's delight, the love you have for your partner can't be represented by real numbers, then there's no reason to believe that in choice, there are only three possibilities -- that one alternative is better, worse or equal to the other. +We need to introduce a new, fourth relation beyond being better, worse or equal, that describes what's going on in hard choices. +I like to say that the alternatives are "on a par." +When alternatives are on a par, it may matter very much which you choose, but one alternative isn't better than the other. +Rather, the alternatives are in the same neighborhood of value, in the same league of value, while at the same time being very different in kind of value. +That's why the choice is hard. +Understanding hard choices in this way uncovers something about ourselves we didn't know. +Each of us has the power to create reasons. +Imagine a world in which every choice you face is an easy choice, that is, there's always a best alternative. +If there's a best alternative, then that's the one you should choose, because part of being rational is doing the better thing rather than the worse thing, choosing what you have most reason to choose. +In such a world, we'd have most reason to wear black socks instead of pink socks, to eat cereal instead of donuts, to live in the city rather than the country, to marry Betty instead of Lolita. +A world full of only easy choices would enslave us to reasons. +When you think about it, it's nuts to believe that the reasons given to you dictated that you had most reason to pursue the exact hobbies you do, to live in the exact house you do, to work at the exact job you do. +Instead, you faced alternatives that were on a par hard choices and you made reasons for yourself to choose that hobby, that house and that job. +When alternatives are on a par, the reasons given to us, the ones that determine whether we're making a mistake, are silent as to what to do. +It's here, in the space of hard choices, that we get to exercise our normative power, the power to create reasons for yourself, to make yourself into the kind of person for whom country living is preferable to the urban life. +When we choose between options that are on a par, we can do something really rather remarkable. +We can put our very selves behind an option. +Here's where I stand. +Here's who I am. I am for banking. +I am for chocolate donuts. +This response in hard choices is a rational response, but it's not dictated by reasons given to us. +Rather, it's supported by reasons created by us. +When we create reasons for ourselves to become this kind of person rather than that, we wholeheartedly become the people that we are. +You might say that we become the authors of our own lives. +So when we face hard choices, we shouldn't beat our head against a wall trying to figure out which alternative is better. +There is no best alternative. +Instead of looking for reasons out there, we should be looking for reasons in here: Who am I to be? +You might decide to be a pink sock-wearing, cereal-loving, country-living banker, and I might decide to be a black sock-wearing, urban, donut-loving artist. +What we do in hard choices is very much up to each of us. +Now, people who don't exercise their normative powers in hard choices are drifters. +We all know people like that. +I drifted into being a lawyer. +I didn't put my agency behind lawyering. +I wasn't for lawyering. +Drifters allow the world to write the story of their lives. +They let mechanisms of reward and punishment -- pats on the head, fear, the easiness of an option to determine what they do. +So the lesson of hard choices: reflect on what you can put your agency behind, on what you can be for, and through hard choices, become that person. +And that's why hard choices are not a curse but a godsend. +Thank you. +I'm a lifelong traveler. +Even as a little kid, I was actually working out that it would be cheaper to go to boarding school in England than just to the best school down the road from my parents' house in California. +So, from the time I was nine years old I was flying alone several times a year over the North Pole, just to go to school. +And of course the more I flew the more I came to love to fly, so the very week after I graduated from high school, I got a job mopping tables so that I could spend every season of my 18th year on a different continent. +And then, almost inevitably, I became a travel writer so my job and my joy could become one. +Except, as you all know, one of the first things you learn when you travel is that nowhere is magical unless you can bring the right eyes to it. +You take an angry man to the Himalayas, he just starts complaining about the food. +And I found that the best way that I could develop more attentive and more appreciative eyes was, oddly, by going nowhere, just by sitting still. +And of course sitting still is how many of us get what we most crave and need in our accelerated lives, a break. +But it was also the only way that I could find to sift through the slideshow of my experience and make sense of the future and the past. +And so, to my great surprise, I found that going nowhere was at least as exciting as going to Tibet or to Cuba. +And of course, this is what wise beings through the centuries from every tradition have been telling us. +It's an old idea. +More than 2,000 years ago, the Stoics were reminding us it's not our experience that makes our lives, it's what we do with it. +Imagine a hurricane suddenly sweeps through your town and reduces every last thing to rubble. +One man is traumatized for life. +But another, maybe even his brother, almost feels liberated, and decides this is a great chance to start his life anew. +It's exactly the same event, but radically different responses. +There is nothing either good or bad, as Shakespeare told us in "Hamlet," but thinking makes it so. +And this has certainly been my experience as a traveler. +Twenty-four years ago I took the most mind-bending trip across North Korea. +But the trip lasted a few days. +What I've done with it sitting still, going back to it in my head, trying to understand it, finding a place for it in my thinking, that's lasted 24 years already and will probably last a lifetime. +The trip, in other words, gave me some amazing sights, but it's only sitting still that allows me to turn those into lasting insights. +And I sometimes think that so much of our life takes place inside our heads, in memory or imagination or interpretation or speculation, that if I really want to change my life I might best begin by changing my mind. +Again, none of this is new; that's why Shakespeare and the Stoics were telling us this centuries ago, but Shakespeare never had to face 200 emails in a day. +The Stoics, as far as I know, were not on Facebook. +We all know that in our on-demand lives, one of the things that's most on demand is ourselves. +Wherever we are, any time of night or day, our bosses, junk-mailers, our parents can get to us. +Sociologists have actually found that in recent years Americans are working fewer hours than 50 years ago, but we feel as if we're working more. +We have more and more time-saving devices, but sometimes, it seems, less and less time. +We can more and more easily make contact with people on the furthest corners of the planet, but sometimes in that process we lose contact with ourselves. +And one of my biggest surprises as a traveler has been to find that often it's exactly the people who have most enabled us to get anywhere who are intent on going nowhere. +In other words, precisely those beings who have created the technologies that override so many of the limits of old, are the ones wisest about the need for limits, even when it comes to technology. +I once went to the Google headquarters and I saw all the things many of you have heard about; the indoor tree houses, the trampolines, workers at that time enjoying 20 percent of their paid time free so that they could just let their imaginations go wandering. +I have another friend in Silicon Valley who is really one of the most eloquent spokesmen for the latest technologies, and in fact was one of the founders of Wired magazine, Kevin Kelly. +And Kevin wrote his last book on fresh technologies without a smartphone or a laptop or a TV in his home. +And like many in Silicon Valley, he tries really hard to observe what they call an Internet sabbath, whereby for 24 or 48 hours every week they go completely offline in order to gather the sense of direction and proportion they'll need when they go online again. +The one thing perhaps that technology hasn't always given us is a sense of how to make the wisest use of technology. +And when you speak of the sabbath, look at the Ten Commandments -- there's only one word there for which the adjective "holy" is used, and that's the Sabbath. +I pick up the Jewish holy book of the Torah -- its longest chapter, it's on the Sabbath. +And we all know that it's really one of our greatest luxuries, the empty space. +In many a piece of music, it's the pause or the rest that gives the piece its beauty and its shape. +And I know I as a writer will often try to include a lot of empty space on the page so that the reader can complete my thoughts and sentences and so that her imagination has room to breathe. +Now, in the physical domain, of course, many people, if they have the resources, will try to get a place in the country, a second home. +I've never begun to have those resources, but I sometimes remember that any time I want, I can get a second home in time, if not in space, just by taking a day off. +And it's never easy because, of course, whenever I do I spend much of it worried about all the extra stuff that's going to crash down on me the following day. +I sometimes think I'd rather give up meat or sex or wine than the chance to check on my emails. +And every season I do try to take three days off on retreat but a part of me still feels guilty to be leaving my poor wife behind and to be ignoring all those seemingly urgent emails from my bosses and maybe to be missing a friend's birthday party. +But as soon as I get to a place of real quiet, I realize that it's only by going there that I'll have anything fresh or creative or joyful to share with my wife or bosses or friends. +Otherwise, really, I'm just foisting on them my exhaustion or my distractedness, which is no blessing at all. +And so when I was 29, I decided to remake my entire life in the light of going nowhere. +One evening I was coming back from the office, it was after midnight, I was in a taxi driving through Times Square, and I suddenly realized that I was racing around so much I could never catch up with my life. +And my life then, as it happened, was pretty much the one I might have dreamed of as a little boy. +I had really interesting friends and colleagues, I had a nice apartment on Park Avenue and 20th Street. +I had, to me, a fascinating job writing about world affairs, but I could never separate myself enough from them to hear myself think -- or really, to understand if I was truly happy. +And so, I abandoned my dream life for a single room on the backstreets of Kyoto, Japan, which was the place that had long exerted a strong, really mysterious gravitational pull on me. +Even as a child I would just look at a painting of Kyoto and feel I recognized it; I knew it before I ever laid eyes on it. +But it's also, as you all know, a beautiful city encircled by hills, filled with more than 2,000 temples and shrines, where people have been sitting still for 800 years or more. +But I realized that it gives me what I prize most, which is days and hours. +I have never once had to use a cell phone there. +I almost never have to look at the time, and every morning when I wake up, really the day stretches in front of me like an open meadow. +I'll always be a traveler -- my livelihood depends on it -- but one of the beauties of travel is that it allows you to bring stillness into the motion and the commotion of the world. +I once got on a plane in Frankfurt, Germany, and a young German woman came down and sat next to me and engaged me in a very friendly conversation for about 30 minutes, and then she just turned around and sat still for 12 hours. +She didn't once turn on her video monitor, she never pulled out a book, she didn't even go to sleep, she just sat still, and something of her clarity and calm really imparted itself to me. +I've noticed more and more people taking conscious measures these days to try to open up a space inside their lives. +Some people go to black-hole resorts where they'll spend hundreds of dollars a night in order to hand over their cell phone and their laptop to the front desk on arrival. +Some people I know, just before they go to sleep, instead of scrolling through their messages or checking out YouTube, just turn out the lights and listen to some music, and notice that they sleep much better and wake up much refreshed. +I was once fortunate enough to drive into the high, dark mountains behind Los Angeles, where the great poet and singer and international heartthrob Leonard Cohen was living and working for many years as a full-time monk in the Mount Baldy Zen Center. +And I wasn't entirely surprised when the record that he released at the age of 77, to which he gave the deliberately unsexy title of "Old Ideas," went to number one in the charts in 17 nations in the world, hit the top five in nine others. +Something in us, I think, is crying out for the sense of intimacy and depth that we get from people like that. +who take the time and trouble to sit still. +And I think many of us have the sensation, that we're standing about two inches away from a huge screen, and it's noisy and it's crowded and it's changing with every second, and that screen is our lives. +And it's only by stepping back, and then further back, and holding still, that we can begin to see what the canvas means and to catch the larger picture. +And a few people do that for us by going nowhere. +So, in an age of acceleration, nothing can be more exhilarating than going slow. +And in an age of distraction, nothing is so luxurious as paying attention. +And in an age of constant movement, nothing is so urgent as sitting still. +So you can go on your next vacation to Paris or Hawaii, or New Orleans; I bet you'll have a wonderful time. +But, if you want to come back home alive and full of fresh hope, in love with the world, I think you might want to try considering going nowhere. +Thank you. +My grandfather was a cobbler. +Back in the day, he made custom-made shoes. +I never got to meet him. +He perished in the Holocaust. +But I did inherit his love for making, except that it doesn't exist that much anymore. +You see, while the Industrial Revolution did a great deal to improve humanity, it eradicated the very skill that my grandfather loved, and it atrophied craftsmanship as we know it. +But all of that is about to change with 3D printing, and it all started with this, the very first part that was ever printed. +It's a little older than TED. +It was printed in 1983 by Chuck Hull, who invented 3D printing. +So think about useful things. +You all know your shoe size. +How many of you know the size of the bridge of your nose or the distance between your temples? +Anybody? +Wouldn't it be awesome if you could, for the first time, get eyewear that actually fits you perfectly and doesn't require any hinge assembly, so chances are, the hinges are not going to break? +But the implications of 3D printing go well beyond the tips of our noses. +When I met Amanda for the first time, she could already stand up and walk a little bit even though she was paralyzed from the waist down, but she complained to me that her suit was uncomfortable. +It was a beautiful robotic suit made by Ekso Bionics, but it wasn't inspired by her body. +It wasn't made to measure. +So she challenged me to make her something that was a little bit more feminine, a little bit more elegant, and lightweight, and like good tailors, we thought that we would measure her digitally. +And we did. We built her an amazing suit. +The incredible part about what I learned from Amanda is a lot of us are looking at 3D printing and we say to ourselves, it's going to replace traditional methods. +Amanda looked at it and she said, it's an opportunity for me to reclaim my symmetry and to embrace my authenticity. +And you know what? She's not standing still. +She now wants to walk in high heels. +It doesn't stop there. +3D printing is changing personalized medical devices as we know them, from new, beautiful, conformal, ventilated scoliosis braces to millions of dental restorations and to beautiful bracings for amputees, another opportunity to emotionally reconnect with your symmetry. +And as we sit here today, you can go wireless on your braces with clear aligners, or your dental restorations. +Millions of in-the-ear hearing aids are already 3D printed today. +Millions of people are served today from these devices. +What about full knee replacements, from your data, made to measure, where all of the tools and guides are 3D printed? +G.E. is using 3D printing to make the next generation LEAP engine that will save fuel to the tune of about 15 percent and cost for an airline of about 14 million dollars. +Good for G.E., right? +And their customers and the environment. +But, you know, the even better news is that this technology is no longer reserved for deep-pocketed corporations. +Planetary Resources, a startup for space explorations is going to put out its first space probe later this year. +It was a fraction of a NASA spaceship, it costs a fraction of its cost, and it's made with less than a dozen moving parts, and it's going to be out in space later this year. +Google is taking on this very audacious project of making the block phone, the Ara. +It's only possible because of the development of high-speed 3D printing that for the first time will make functional, usable modules that will go into it. +A real moonshot, powered by 3D printing. +How about food? +What if we could, for the first time, make incredible delectables like this beautiful TED Teddy here, that are edible? +What if we could completely change the experience, like you see with that absinthe serving that is completely 3D printed? +And what if we could begin to put ingredients and colors and flavors in every taste, which means not only delicious foods but the promise of personalized nutrition around the corner? +And that gets me to one of the biggest deals about 3D printing. +With 3D printing, complexity is free. +The printer doesn't care if it makes the most rudimentary shape or the most complex shape, and that is completely turning design and manufacturing on its head as we know it. +Many people think that 3D printing will be the end of manufacturing as we know it. +I think that it's the opportunity to put tomorrow's technology in the hands of youngsters that will create endless abundance of job opportunities, and with that, everybody can become an expert maker and an expert manufacturer. +That will take new tools. +Not everybody knows how to use CAD, so we're developing haptics, perceptual devices that will allow you to touch and feel your designs as if you play with digital clay. +When you do things like that, and we also developed things that take physical photographs that are instantly printable, it will make it easier to create content, but with all of the unimagined, we will also have the unintended, like democratized counterfeiting and ubiquitous illegal possession. +So many people ask me, will we have a 3D printer in every home? +I think it's the wrong question to ask. +The right question to ask is, how will 3D printing change my life? +Or, in other words, what room in my house will 3D printing fit in? +So everything that you see here has been 3D printed, including these shoes at the Amsterdam fashion show. +Now, these are not my grandfather's shoes. +These are shoes that represent the continuation of his passion for hyper-local manufacturing. +My grandfather didn't get to see Nike printing cleats for the recent Super Bowl, and my father didn't get to see me standing in my hybridized 3D printed shoes. +He passed away three years ago. +But Chuck Hull, the man that invented it all, is right here in the house today, and thanks to him, I can say, thanks to his invention, I can say that I am a cobbler too, and by standing in these shoes I am honoring my past while manufacturing the future. +Thank you. +Puzzles and magic. +I work in what most people think are two distinct fields, but I believe they are the same. +I am both a magician and a New York Times crossword puzzle constructor, which basically means I've taken the world's two nerdiest hobbies and combined them into one career. +And I believe that magic and puzzles are the same because they both key into one of the most important human drives: the urge to solve. +Human beings are wired to solve, to make order out of chaos. +It's certainly true for me. +I've been solving my whole life. +High school consisted of epic Scrabble matches in the cafeteria and not really talking to girls, and then at about that time I started learning magic tricks and definitely not talking to girls. +There's nothing like starting a conversation with, "Hey, did you know that 'prestidigitation' is worth 20 points in Scrabble?" +But back then, I noticed an intersection between puzzles and illusion. +When you do the crossword puzzle or when you watch a magic show, you become a solver, and your goal is to try to find the order in the chaos, the chaos of, say, a black-and-white puzzle grid, a mixed-up bag of Scrabble tiles, or a shuffled pack of playing cards. +And today, as a cruciverbalist 23 points and an illusion designer, I create that chaos. +I test your ability to solve. +Now, it turns out research tells us that solving is as primal as eating and sleeping. +From birth, we are wired to solve. +In one UCLA study, newborns still in the hospital were shown patterns, patterns like this: circle, cross, circle, cross. +And then the pattern was changed: triangle, square. +And by tracking an infant's gaze, we know that newborns as young as a day old can notice and respond to disruptions in order. +It's remarkable. +So from infancy through old age, the urge to solve unites us all, and I even found this photo on Instagram of pop star Katy Perry solving a crossword puzzle with her morning coffee. +Like. +Now, solving exists across all cultures. +The American invention is the crossword puzzle, and this year we are celebrating the 100th anniversary of the crossword puzzle, first published in The New York World. +But many other cultures have their signature puzzles as well. +China gives us tangrams, which would test solvers' abilities to form shapes from the jumbled pieces. +Chaos. Order. +Order. +And order. +That one's my favorite, let's hear it again. +Okay. +And how about this puzzle invented in 18th-century England: the jigsaw puzzle. +Is this not making order out of chaos? +So as you can see, we are always solving. +We are always trying to decode our world. +It's an eternal quest. +It's just like the one Cervantes wrote about in "Don Quixote," which by the way is the root of the word "quixotry," the highest-scoring Scrabble word of all time, 365 points. +But anyway, "Don Quixote" is an important book. +You guys have read "Don Quixote," yes? +I'm seeing some heads nod. +Come on guys, really? +Who's read "Don Quixote?" Let's do this. Raise your hands if you've read "Don Quixote." +There we go. Smart audience. +Who's read "Don Quixote?" Get them up. +Okay, good, because I need somebody smart here because now I'm going to demonstrate with the help of one of you just how deeply rooted your urge to solve is, just how wired to solve all of you really are, so I'm going to come into the audience and find somebody to help me. +Let's see. +Everybody's looking away all of a sudden. +Can I? Would you? What is your name? Gwen. +I'm not a mind reader, I can see your name tag. +Come with me, Gwen. Everyone give her a round of applause, make her feel welcome. +Gwen, after you. +Are you so excited? +Did you know that your name is worth eight points in Scrabble? +Okay, stand right here, Gwen, right here. +Now, Gwen, before we begin, I'd like to point out a piece of the puzzle, which is here in this envelope, and I will not go near it. Okay? +And over here we have a drawing of some farm animals. +You can see we have an owl, we have a horse, a donkey, a rooster, an ox, and a sheep, and then here, Gwen, we have some fancy art store markers, colors like, can you see that word right there? +Gwen: Cobalt. David Kwong: Cobalt, yes. Cobalt. +But we have a silver, a red, an emerald, and an amber marker, and Gwen, you are going to color this drawing just like you were five years old, one marker at a time. +It's going to be a lot of fun. +But I'm going to go over here. +I don't want to see what you're doing. +Okay, so don't start yet. +Wait for me to get over here and close my eyes. +Now Gwen, are you ready? +Pick up just one marker, pick up just one marker, and why don't you color in the horse for me? +Color in the horse big, big, big scribbles, broad strokes, don't worry about staying in the lines. +All right. Great. +And why don't you take that marker and recap it and place it on the table for me. +Okay, and pick up another marker out of the cup and take off the cap and color in the donkey for me, color in the donkey. +Big scribbles. +Okay, cool, and re-cap that marker and place it on the table. +And pick up another marker for me and take off the cap. Isn't this fun? +Color in the owl. +Okay, and recap that marker and pick up another marker out of the cup and color in the rooster for me, color in the rooster. +Good, good, good, good, good. +Big, big, big strokes. Good, good. +Pick up another marker out of the cup and color in the ox for me. Color in the ox. +Okay, good. +A lot of color on that, and recap, and place it on the table, and pick up another marker out of the cup. +Oh, I'm out? Okay, I'm going to turn around. +Did I forget? Oh, I forgot my purple marker. +This is still going to work, though. +I think this is still going to work, mostly. +So Gwen, I'm going to hand you this envelope. +Don't open it yet. Do not open it yet, but I am going to write down your choices so that everybody can see the choices that you made. +Okay, great. So we have a cobalt horse, amber owl, a silver ox, yes, okay, a red donkey, and what was the emerald color? A rooster. +An emerald rooster. Okay. +Now for the moment of truth, Gwen, we're going to take a look in that envelope. +Why don't you open it up and remove the one piece of paper from inside and hand it to me, and we will see if it matches your choices. +Yes, I think it does. +We have a cobalt horse, we have a red donkey, we have an amber owl, we have an emerald rooster, a silver ox, I forgot my purple marker so we have a blank sheep, but that's a pretty amazing coincidence, don't you think? +Gwen, well done. That's beautiful. I'll take that back from you. +So ladies and gentlemen, how is this possible? +How is this possible? Well, could it be that Gwen's brain is so wired to solve that she decoded hidden messages? +Well this is the puzzle I present to you. +Could there be order in the chaos that I created? +Let's take a closer look. +Do you recall when I showed you these puzzle pieces? +What image did it ultimately become? A cobalt horse. +The plot thickens. +And then we played a game of tangrams with an emerald rooster. +That one's my favorite. +And then we had an experiment with a silver ox. +And Katy Perry drinks her morning coffee out of an amber owl. +Thank you, Katy, for taking that photo for me. +Oh, and there's one more, there's one more. +I believe you colored a red donkey, Gwen. +Ladies and gentlemen, could you raise your hands for me if you've read "Don Quixote?" +Who's read "Don Quixote?" But wait, but wait, wait, wait, wait, there's more. +Gwen, I was so confident that you were going to make these choices that I made another prediction, and I put it in an even more indelible place, and it's right here. +Ladies and gentlemen, we have today's New York Times. +The date is March 18th, 2014. +Many of you in the first couple of rows have it underneath your seats as well. +Really dig. We hid them under there. +See if you can fish out the newspaper and open up to the arts section and you will find the crossword puzzle, and the crossword puzzle today was written by yours truly. +You can see my name above the grid. +I'm going to give this to you, Gwen, to take a look. +And I will also put it up on the screen. +Now let's take a look at another piece of the puzzle. +If you look at the first clue for 1-across, it starts with the letter C, for corrupt, and just below that we have an O, for outfielder, and if you keep reading the first letters of the clues down, you get cobalt horse, amber owl, silver ox, red donkey, and emerald rooster. +That's pretty cool, right? +It's The New York Times. +But wait, wait, wait, wait. Wait. +Oh, Gwen, do you recall how I forgot my purple marker, and you were unable to color the sheep? +Well, if you keep reading starting with 25-down, it says, "Oh, by the way, the sheep can be left blank." +But wait, wait, wait, there's one more thing, there's one final piece of the puzzle. +Gwen, I am so grateful for your choices because if we take a look at the first letters of your combinations, we get "C-H-A-O-S" for chaos and "O-R-D-E-R" for order. +That's chaos and order. +We've all made order out of chaos. +So ladies and gentlemen, the next time you find yourself with a puzzle, whether it's in your life or in your work, or maybe it's at the Sunday morning breakfast table with The New York Times, remember, you are all wired to solve. +Thank you. +Twenty-three years ago, at the age of 19, I shot and killed a man. +I was a young drug dealer with a quick temper and a semi-automatic pistol. +But that wasn't the end of my story. +In fact, it was beginning, and the 23 years since is a story of acknowledgment, apology and atonement. +But it didn't happen in the way that you might imagine or think. +These things occurred in my life in a way that was surprising, especially to me. +See, like many of you, growing up, I was an honor roll student, a scholarship student, with dreams of becoming a doctor. +But things went dramatically wrong when my parents separated and eventually divorced. +The actual events are pretty straightforward. +At the age of 17, I got shot three times standing on the corner of my block in Detroit. +My friend rushed me to the hospital. +Doctors pulled the bullets out, patched me up, and sent me back to the same neighborhood where I got shot. +Throughout this ordeal, no one hugged me, no one counseled me, no one told me I would be okay. +No one told me that I would live in fear, that I would become paranoid, or that I would react hyper-violently to being shot. +No one told me that one day, I would become the person behind the trigger. +Fourteen months later, at 2 a.m., I fired the shots that caused a man's death. +When I entered prison, I was bitter, I was angry, I was hurt. +I didn't want to take responsibility. +I blamed everybody from my parents to the system. +I rationalized my decision to shoot because in the hood where I come from, it's better to be the shooter than the person getting shot. +As I sat in my cold cell, I felt helpless, unloved and abandoned. +I felt like nobody cared, and I reacted with hostility to my confinement. +And I found myself getting deeper and deeper into trouble. +I ran black market stores, I loan sharked, and I sold drugs that were illegally smuggled into the prison. +I had in fact become what the warden of the Michigan Reformatory called "the worst of the worst." +And because of my activity, I landed in solitary confinement for seven and a half years out of my incarceration. +Now as I see it, solitary confinement is one of the most inhumane and barbaric places you can find yourself, but find myself I did. +One day, I was pacing my cell, when an officer came and delivered mail. +I looked at a couple of letters before I looked at the letter that had my son's squiggly handwriting on it. +And anytime I would get a letter from my son, it was like a ray of light in the darkest place you can imagine. +And on this particular day, I opened this letter, and in capital letters, he wrote, "My mama told me why you was in prison: murder." +He said, "Dad, don't kill. +Jesus watches what you do. Pray to Him." +Now, I wasn't religious at that time, nor am I religious now, but it was something so profound about my son's words. +They made me examine things about my life that I hadn't considered. +It was the first time in my life that I had actually thought about the fact that my son would see me as a murderer. +I sat back on my bunk and I reflected on something I had read in [Plato], where Socrates stated in "Apology" that the unexamined life isn't worth living. +At that point is when the transformation began. +But it didn't come easy. +One of the things I realized, which was part of the transformation, was that there were four key things. +The first thing was, I had great mentors. +Now, I know some of you all are probably thinking, how did you find a great mentor in prison? +But in my case, some of my mentors who are serving life sentences were some of the best people to ever come into my life, because they forced me to look at my life honestly, and they forced me to challenge myself about my decision making. +The second thing was literature. +Prior to going to prison, I didn't know that there were so many brilliant black poets, authors and philosophers, and then I had the great fortune of encountering Malcolm X's autobiography, and it shattered every stereotype I had about myself. +The third thing was family. +For 19 years, my father stood by my side with an unshakable faith, because he believed that I had what it took to turn my life around. +I also met an amazing woman who is now the mother of my two-year-old son Sekou, and she taught me how to love myself in a healthy way. +The final thing was writing. +It was the first time in my life that I ever felt open to forgiving myself. +One of the things that happened after that experience is that I thought about the other men who were incarcerated alongside of me, and how much I wanted to share this with them. +So I made it up in my mind that if I was ever released from prison that I would do everything in my power to help change that. +In 2010, I walked out of prison for the first time after two decades. +Now imagine, if you will, Fred Flintstone walking into an episode of "The Jetsons." +That was pretty much what my life was like. +For the first time, I was exposed to the Internet, social media, cars that talk like KITT from "Knight Rider." +But the thing that fascinated me the most was phone technology. +See, when I went to prison, our car phones were this big and required two people to carry them. +So imagine what it was like when I first grabbed my little Blackberry and I started learning how to text. +But the thing is, the people around me, they didn't realize that I had no idea what all these abbreviated texts meant, like LOL, OMG, LMAO, until one day I was having a conversation with one of my friends via text, and I asked him to do something, and he responded back, "K." +And I was like, "What is K?" +And he was like, "K is okay." +So in my head, I was like, "Well what the hell is wrong with K?" +And so I text him a question mark. +And he said, "K = okay." +And so I tap back, "FU." And then he texts back, and he asks me why was I cussing him out. +And I said, "LOL FU," as in, I finally understand. +And so fast forward three years, I'm doing relatively good. +I have a fellowship at MIT Media Lab, I work for an amazing company called BMe, I teach at the University of Michigan, but it's been a struggle because I realize that there are more men and women coming home who are not going to be afforded those opportunities. +I've been blessed to work with some amazing men and women, helping others reenter society, and one of them is my friend named Calvin Evans. +He served 24 years for a crime he didn't commit. +He's 45 years old. He's currently enrolled in college. +And one of the things that we talked about is the three things that I found important in my personal transformation, the first being acknowledgment. +I had to acknowledge that I had hurt others. +I also had to acknowledge that I had been hurt. +The second thing was apologizing. +I had to apologize to the people I had hurt. +Even though I had no expectations of them accepting it, it was important to do because it was the right thing. +But I also had to apologize to myself. +The third thing was atoning. +For me, atoning meant going back into my community and working with at-risk youth who were on the same path, but also becoming at one with myself. +My wish today is that we will embrace a more empathetic approach toward how we deal with mass incarceration, that we will do away with the lock-them-up-and-throw-away-the-key mentality, because it's proven it doesn't work. +My journey is a unique journey, but it doesn't have to be that way. +Anybody can have a transformation if we create the space for that to happen. +So what I'm asking today is that you envision a world where men and women aren't held hostage to their pasts, where misdeeds and mistakes don't define you for the rest of your life. +I think collectively, we can create that reality, and I hope you do too. +Thank you. +I am a computer science and engineering professor here at Carnegie Mellon, and my research focuses on usable privacy and security, and so my friends like to give me examples of their frustrations with computing systems, especially frustrations related to unusable privacy and security. +So passwords are something that I hear a lot about. +A lot of people are frustrated with passwords, and it's bad enough when you have to have one really good password that you can remember but nobody else is going to be able to guess. +But what do you do when you have accounts on a hundred different systems and you're supposed to have a unique password for each of these systems? +It's tough. +At Carnegie Mellon, they used to make it actually pretty easy for us to remember our passwords. +The password requirement up through 2009 was just that you had to have a password with at least one character. +Now, when they implemented this new policy, a lot of people, my colleagues and friends, came up to me and they said, "Wow, now that's really unusable. +Why are they doing this to us, and why didn't you stop them?" +And I said, "Well, you know what? +They didn't ask me." +Now entropy is a complicated term, but basically it measures the strength of passwords. +But the thing is, there isn't actually a standard measure of entropy. +Now, the National Institute of Standards and Technology has a set of guidelines which have some rules of thumb for measuring entropy, but they don't have anything too specific, and the reason they only have rules of thumb is it turns out they don't actually have any good data on passwords. +In fact, their report states, "Unfortunately, we do not have much data on the passwords users choose under particular rules. +NIST would like to obtain more data on the passwords users actually choose, but system administrators are understandably reluctant to reveal password data to others." +So this is a problem, but our research group looked at it as an opportunity. +We said, "Well, there's a need for good password data. +Maybe we can collect some good password data and actually advance the state of the art here. +So the first thing we did is, we got a bag of candy bars and we walked around campus and talked to students, faculty and staff, and asked them for information about their passwords. +Now we didn't say, "Give us your password." +No, we just asked them about their password. +How long is it? Does it have a digit? +Does it have a symbol? +And were you annoyed at having to create a new one last week? +So we got results from 470 students, faculty and staff, and indeed we confirmed that the new policy was very annoying, but we also found that people said they felt more secure with these new passwords. +We found that most people knew they were not supposed to write their password down, and only 13 percent of them did, but disturbingly, 80 percent of people said they were reusing their password. +Now, this is actually more dangerous than writing your password down, because it makes you much more susceptible to attackers. +So if you have to, write your passwords down, but don't reuse them. +We also found some interesting things about the symbols people use in passwords. +So CMU allows 32 possible symbols, but as you can see, there's only a small number that most people are using, so we're not actually getting very much strength from the symbols in our passwords. +So this was a really interesting study, and now we had data from 470 people, but in the scheme of things, that's really not very much password data, and so we looked around to see where could we find additional password data? +So it turns out there are a lot of people going around stealing passwords, and they often go and post these passwords on the Internet. +So we were able to get access to some of these stolen password sets. +This is still not really ideal for research, though, because it's not entirely clear where all of these passwords came from, or exactly what policies were in effect when people created these passwords. +So we wanted to find some better source of data. +So we decided that one thing we could do is we could do a study and have people actually create passwords for our study. +So we used a service called Amazon Mechanical Turk, and this is a service where you can post a small job online that takes a minute, a few minutes, an hour, and pay people, a penny, ten cents, a few dollars, to do a task for you, and then you pay them through Amazon.com. +So we paid people about 50 cents to create a password following our rules and answering a survey, and then we paid them again to come back two days later and log in using their password and answering another survey. +So we did this, and we collected 5,000 passwords, and we gave people a bunch of different policies to create passwords with. +So some people had a pretty easy policy, we call it Basic8, and here the only rule was that your password had to have at least eight characters. +Then some people had a much harder policy, and this was very similar to the CMU policy, that it had to have eight characters including uppercase, lowercase, digit, symbol, and pass a dictionary check. +And one of the other policies we tried, and there were a whole bunch more, but one of the ones we tried was called Basic16, and the only requirement here was that your password had to have at least 16 characters. +All right, so now we had 5,000 passwords, and so we had much more detailed information. +Again we see that there's only a small number of symbols that people are actually using in their passwords. +We also wanted to get an idea of how strong the passwords were that people were creating, but as you may recall, there isn't a good measure of password strength. +So what we decided to do was to see how long it would take to crack these passwords using the best cracking tools that the bad guys are using, or that we could find information about in the research literature. +So a dumb attacker will try every password in order. +They'll start with AAAAA and move on to AAAAB, and this is going to take a really long time before they get any passwords that people are really likely to actually have. +A smart attacker, on the other hand, does something much more clever. +They look at the passwords that are known to be popular from these stolen password sets, and they guess those first. +So they're going to start by guessing "password," and then they'll guess "I love you," and "monkey," and "12345678," because these are the passwords that are most likely for people to have. +In fact, some of you probably have these passwords. +So what we found by running all of these 5,000 passwords we collected through these tests to see how strong they were, we found that the long passwords were actually pretty strong, and the complex passwords were pretty strong too. +However, when we looked at the survey data, we saw that people were really frustrated by the very complex passwords, and the long passwords were a lot more usable, and in some cases, they were actually even stronger than the complex passwords. +So this suggests that, instead of telling people that they need to put all these symbols and numbers and crazy things into their passwords, we might be better off just telling people to have long passwords. +Now here's the problem, though: Some people had long passwords that actually weren't very strong. +You can make long passwords that are still the sort of thing that an attacker could easily guess. +So we need to do more than just say long passwords. +There has to be some additional requirements, and some of our ongoing research is looking at what additional requirements we should add to make for stronger passwords that also are going to be easy for people to remember and type. +Another approach to getting people to have stronger passwords is to use a password meter. +Here are some examples. +You may have seen these on the Internet when you were creating passwords. +We decided to do a study to find out whether these password meters actually work. +Do they actually help people have stronger passwords, and if so, which ones are better? +So we tested password meters that were different sizes, shapes, colors, different words next to them, and we even tested one that was a dancing bunny. +As you type a better password, the bunny dances faster and faster. +So this was pretty fun. +What we found was that password meters do work. +They tell you you're doing a good job too early, and if they would just wait a little bit before giving you that positive feedback, you probably would have better passwords. +Now another approach to better passwords, perhaps, is to use pass phrases instead of passwords. +He says, in fact, you've already remembered it. +And so we decided to do a research study to find out whether this was true or not. +In fact, everybody who I talk to, who I mention I'm doing password research, they point out this cartoon. +"Oh, have you seen it? That xkcd. +Correct horse battery staple." +So we did the research study to see what would actually happen. +So in our study, we used Mechanical Turk again, and we had the computer pick the random words in the pass phrase. +Now the reason we did this is that humans are not very good at picking random words. +If we asked a human to do it, they would pick things that were not very random. +So we tried a few different conditions. +In one condition, the computer picked from a dictionary of the very common words in the English language, and so you'd get pass phrases like "try there three come." +And we looked at that, and we said, "Well, that doesn't really seem very memorable." +So then we tried picking words that came from specific parts of speech, so how about noun-verb-adjective-noun. +That comes up with something that's sort of sentence-like. +So you can get a pass phrase like "plan builds sure power" or "end determines red drug." +And these seemed a little bit more memorable, and maybe people would like those a little bit better. +We wanted to compare them with passwords, and so we had the computer pick random passwords, and these were nice and short, but as you can see, they don't really look very memorable. +And then we decided to try something called a pronounceable password. +So here the computer picks random syllables and puts them together so you have something sort of pronounceable, like "tufritvi" and "vadasabi." +That one kind of rolls off your tongue. +So these were random passwords that were generated by our computer. +So what we found in this study was that, surprisingly, pass phrases were not actually all that good. +People were not really better at remembering the pass phrases than these random passwords, and because the pass phrases are longer, they took longer to type and people made more errors while typing them in. +So it's not really a clear win for pass phrases. +Sorry, all of you xkcd fans. +On the other hand, we did find that pronounceable passwords worked surprisingly well, and so we actually are doing some more research to see if we can make that approach work even better. +So one of the problems with some of the studies that we've done is that because they're all done using Mechanical Turk, these are not people's real passwords. +They're the passwords that they created or the computer created for them for our study. +And we wanted to know whether people would actually behave the same way with their real passwords. +So we talked to the information security office at Carnegie Mellon and asked them if we could have everybody's real passwords. +They audited our code. +They ran the code. +And so we never actually saw anybody's password. +We got some interesting results, and those of you Tepper students in the back will be very interested in this. +So we found that the passwords created by people affiliated with the school of computer science were actually 1.8 times stronger than those affiliated with the business school. +We have lots of other really interesting demographic information as well. +So that was good news. +Okay, I want to close by talking about some insights I gained while on sabbatical last year in the Carnegie Mellon art school. +One of the things that I did is I made a number of quilts, and I made this quilt here. +It's called "Security Blanket." +And this quilt has the 1,000 most frequent passwords stolen from the RockYou website. +And the size of the passwords is proportional to how frequently they appeared in the stolen dataset. +And what I did is I created this word cloud, and I went through all 1,000 words, and I categorized them into loose thematic categories. +And it was, in some cases, it was kind of difficult to figure out what category they should be in, and then I color-coded them. +So here are some examples of the difficulty. +So "justin." +Is that the name of the user, their boyfriend, their son? +Maybe they're a Justin Bieber fan. +Or "princess." +Is that a nickname? +Are they Disney princess fans? +Or maybe that's the name of their cat. +"Iloveyou" appears many times in many different languages. +There's a lot of love in these passwords. +If you look carefully, you'll see there's also some profanity, but it was really interesting to me to see that there's a lot more love than hate in these passwords. +And there are animals, a lot of animals, and "monkey" is the most common animal and the 14th most popular password overall. +And this was really curious to me, and I wondered, "Why are monkeys so popular?" +And so in our last password study, any time we detected somebody creating a password with the word "monkey" in it, we asked them why they had a monkey in their password. +And what we found out -- we found 17 people so far, I think, who have the word "monkey" -- We found out about a third of them said they have a pet named "monkey" or a friend whose nickname is "monkey," and about a third of them said that they just like monkeys and monkeys are really cute. +And that guy is really cute. +So it seems that at the end of the day, when we make passwords, we either make something that's really easy to type, a common pattern, or things that remind us of the word password or the account that we've created the password for, or whatever. +Or we think about things that make us happy, and we create our password based on things that make us happy. +And while this makes typing and remembering your password more fun, it also makes it a lot easier to guess your password. +So I know a lot of these TED Talks are inspirational and they make you think about nice, happy things, but when you're creating your password, try to think about something else. +Thank you. +I don't know if you've noticed, but there's been a spate of books that have come out lately contemplating or speculating on the cognition and emotional life of dogs. +Do they think, do they feel and, if so, how? +So this afternoon, in my limited time, I wanted to take the guesswork out of a lot of that by introducing you to two dogs, both of whom have taken the command "speak" quite literally. +The first dog is the first to go, and he is contemplating an aspect of his relationship to his owner, and the title is "A Dog on His Master." +"As young as I look, I am growing older faster than he. +Seven to one is the ratio, they tend to say. +Whatever the number, I will pass him one day and take the lead, the way I do on our walks in the woods, and if this ever manages to cross his mind, it would be the sweetest shadow I have ever cast on snow or grass." +Thank you. +And our next dog speaks in something called the revenant, which means a spirit that comes back to visit you. +"I am the dog you put to sleep, as you like to call the needle of oblivion, come back to tell you this simple thing: I never liked you." +"When I licked your face, I thought of biting off your nose. +When I watched you toweling yourself dry, I wanted to leap and unman you with a snap. +I resented the way you moved, your lack of animal grace, the way you would sit in a chair to eat, a napkin on your lap, a knife in your hand. +I would have run away but I was too weak, a trick you taught me while I was learning to sit and heel and, greatest of insults, shake hands without a hand. +I admit the sight of the leash would excite me, but only because it meant I was about to smell things you had never touched. +You do not want to believe this, but I have no reason to lie: I hated the car, hated the rubber toys, disliked your friends, and worse, your relatives. +The jingling of my tags drove me mad. +You always scratched me in the wrong place." +"All I ever wanted from you was food and water in my bowls. +While you slept, I watched you breathe as the moon rose in the sky. +It took all of my strength not to raise my head and howl. +Thank you. +Every day we face issues like climate change or the safety of vaccines where we have to answer questions whose answers rely heavily on scientific information. +Scientists tell us that the world is warming. +Scientists tell us that vaccines are safe. +But how do we know if they are right? +Why should be believe the science? +The fact is, many of us actually don't believe the science. +Public opinion polls consistently show that significant proportions of the American people don't believe the climate is warming due to human activities, don't think that there is evolution by natural selection, and aren't persuaded by the safety of vaccines. +So why should we believe the science? +Well, scientists don't like talking about science as a matter of belief. +In fact, they would contrast science with faith, and they would say belief is the domain of faith. +And faith is a separate thing apart and distinct from science. +Indeed they would say religion is based on faith or maybe the calculus of Pascal's wager. +Blaise Pascal was a 17th-century mathematician who tried to bring scientific reasoning to the question of whether or not he should believe in God, and his wager went like this: Well, if God doesn't exist but I decide to believe in him nothing much is really lost. +Maybe a few hours on Sunday. +But if he does exist and I don't believe in him, then I'm in deep trouble. +And so Pascal said, we'd better believe in God. +Or as one of my college professors said, "He clutched for the handrail of faith." +He made that leap of faith leaving science and rationalism behind. +Now the fact is though, for most of us, most scientific claims are a leap of faith. +We can't really judge scientific claims for ourselves in most cases. +And indeed this is actually true for most scientists as well outside of their own specialties. +So if you think about it, a geologist can't tell you whether a vaccine is safe. +Most chemists are not experts in evolutionary theory. +A physicist cannot tell you, despite the claims of some of them, whether or not tobacco causes cancer. +So, if even scientists themselves have to make a leap of faith outside their own fields, then why do they accept the claims of other scientists? +Why do they believe each other's claims? +And should we believe those claims? +So what I'd like to argue is yes, we should, but not for the reason that most of us think. +Most of us were taught in school that the reason we should believe in science is because of the scientific method. +We were taught that scientists follow a method and that this method guarantees the truth of their claims. +The method that most of us were taught in school, we can call it the textbook method, is the hypothetical deductive method. +According to the standard model, the textbook model, scientists develop hypotheses, they deduce the consequences of those hypotheses, and then they go out into the world and they say, "Okay, well are those consequences true?" +Can we observe them taking place in the natural world? +And if they are true, then the scientists say, "Great, we know the hypothesis is correct." +So there are many famous examples in the history of science of scientists doing exactly this. +One of the most famous examples comes from the work of Albert Einstein. +When Einstein developed the theory of general relativity, one of the consequences of his theory was that space-time wasn't just an empty void but that it actually had a fabric. +And that that fabric was bent in the presence of massive objects like the sun. +So if this theory were true then it meant that light as it passed the sun should actually be bent around it. +That was a pretty startling prediction and it took a few years before scientists were able to test it but they did test it in 1919, and lo and behold it turned out to be true. +Starlight actually does bend as it travels around the sun. +This was a huge confirmation of the theory. +It was considered proof of the truth of this radical new idea, and it was written up in many newspapers around the globe. +Now, sometimes this theory or this model is referred to as the deductive-nomological model, mainly because academics like to make things complicated. +But also because in the ideal case, it's about laws. +So nomological means having to do with laws. +And in the ideal case, the hypothesis isn't just an idea: ideally, it is a law of nature. +Why does it matter that it is a law of nature? +Because if it is a law, it can't be broken. +If it's a law then it will always be true in all times and all places no matter what the circumstances are. +And all of you know of at least one example of a famous law: Einstein's famous equation, E=MC2, which tells us what the relationship is between energy and mass. +And that relationship is true no matter what. +Now, it turns out, though, that there are several problems with this model. +The main problem is that it's wrong. +It's just not true. And I'm going to talk about three reasons why it's wrong. +So the first reason is a logical reason. +It's the problem of the fallacy of affirming the consequent. +So that's another fancy, academic way of saying that false theories can make true predictions. +So just because the prediction comes true doesn't actually logically prove that the theory is correct. +And I have a good example of that too, again from the history of science. +This is a picture of the Ptolemaic universe with the Earth at the center of the universe and the sun and the planets going around it. +The Ptolemaic model was believed by many very smart people for many centuries. +Well, why? +Well the answer is because it made lots of predictions that came true. +The Ptolemaic system enabled astronomers to make accurate predictions of the motions of the planet, in fact more accurate predictions at first than the Copernican theory which we now would say is true. +So that's one problem with the textbook model. +A second problem is a practical problem, and it's the problem of auxiliary hypotheses. +Auxiliary hypotheses are assumptions that scientists are making that they may or may not even be aware that they're making. +So an important example of this comes from the Copernican model, which ultimately replaced the Ptolemaic system. +So when Nicolaus Copernicus said, actually the Earth is not the center of the universe, the sun is the center of the solar system, the Earth moves around the sun. +Scientists said, well okay, Nicolaus, if that's true we ought to be able to detect the motion of the Earth around the sun. +And so this slide here illustrates a concept known as stellar parallax. +If we now make the same observation six months later when the Earth has moved to this position in June, we look at that same star and we see it against a different backdrop. +That difference, that angular difference, is the stellar parallax. +So this is a prediction that the Copernican model makes. +Astronomers looked for the stellar parallax and they found nothing, nothing at all. +And many people argued that this proved that the Copernican model was false. +So what happened? +Well, in hindsight we can say that astronomers were making two auxiliary hypotheses, both of which we would now say were incorrect. +The first was an assumption about the size of the Earth's orbit. +Astronomers were assuming that the Earth's orbit was large relative to the distance to the stars. +Today we would draw the picture more like this, this comes from NASA, and you see the Earth's orbit is actually quite small. +In fact, it's actually much smaller even than shown here. +The stellar parallax therefore, is very small and actually very hard to detect. +And that leads to the second reason why the prediction didn't work, because scientists were also assuming that the telescopes they had were sensitive enough to detect the parallax. +And that turned out not to be true. +It wasn't until the 19th century that scientists were able to detect the stellar parallax. +So, there's a third problem as well. +The third problem is simply a factual problem, that a lot of science doesn't fit the textbook model. +A lot of science isn't deductive at all, it's actually inductive. +And by that we mean that scientists don't necessarily start with theories and hypotheses, often they just start with observations of stuff going on in the world. +And the most famous example of that is one of the most famous scientists who ever lived, Charles Darwin. +When Darwin went out as a young man on the voyage of the Beagle, he didn't have a hypothesis, he didn't have a theory. +He just knew that he wanted to have a career as a scientist and he started to collect data. +Mainly he knew that he hated medicine because the sight of blood made him sick so he had to have an alternative career path. +So he started collecting data. +And he collected many things, including his famous finches. +When he collected these finches, he threw them in a bag and he had no idea what they meant. +Many years later back in London, Darwin looked at his data again and began to develop an explanation, and that explanation was the theory of natural selection. +Besides inductive science, scientists also often participate in modeling. +One of the things scientists want to do in life is to explain the causes of things. +And how do we do that? +Well, one way you can do it is to build a model that tests an idea. +So this is a picture of Henry Cadell, who was a Scottish geologist in the 19th century. +You can tell he's Scottish because he's wearing a deerstalker cap and Wellington boots. +And Cadell wanted to answer the question, how are mountains formed? +And one of the things he had observed is that if you look at mountains like the Appalachians, you often find that the rocks in them are folded, and they're folded in a particular way, which suggested to him that they were actually being compressed from the side. +And this idea would later play a major role in discussions of continental drift. +So he built this model, this crazy contraption with levers and wood, and here's his wheelbarrow, buckets, a big sledgehammer. +I don't know why he's got the Wellington boots. +Maybe it's going to rain. +And he created this physical model in order to demonstrate that you could, in fact, create patterns in rocks, or at least, in this case, in mud, that looked a lot like mountains if you compressed them from the side. +So it was an argument about the cause of mountains. +Nowadays, most scientists prefer to work inside, so they don't build physical models so much as to make computer simulations. +But a computer simulation is a kind of a model. +It's a model that's made with mathematics, and like the physical models of the 19th century, it's very important for thinking about causes. +So one of the big questions to do with climate change, we have tremendous amounts of evidence that the Earth is warming up. +This slide here, the black line shows the measurements that scientists have taken for the last 150 years showing that the Earth's temperature has steadily increased, and you can see in particular that in the last 50 years there's been this dramatic increase of nearly one degree centigrade, or almost two degrees Fahrenheit. +So what, though, is driving that change? +How can we know what's causing the observed warming? +Well, scientists can model it using a computer simulation. +So this diagram illustrates a computer simulation that has looked at all the different factors that we know can influence the Earth's climate, so sulfate particles from air pollution, volcanic dust from volcanic eruptions, changes in solar radiation, and, of course, greenhouse gases. +And they asked the question, what set of variables put into a model will reproduce what we actually see in real life? +So here is the real life in black. +Here's the model in this light gray, and the answer is a model that includes, it's the answer E on that SAT, all of the above. +The only way you can reproduce the observed temperature measurements is with all of these things put together, including greenhouse gases, and in particular you can see that the increase in greenhouse gases tracks this very dramatic increase in temperature over the last 50 years. +And so this is why climate scientists say it's not just that we know that climate change is happening, we know that greenhouse gases are a major part of the reason why. +So now because there all these different things that scientists do, the philosopher Paul Feyerabend famously said, "The only principle in science that doesn't inhibit progress is: anything goes." +Now this quotation has often been taken out of context, because Feyerabend was not actually saying that in science anything goes. +What he was saying was, actually the full quotation is, "If you press me to say what is the method of science, I would have to say: anything goes." +What he was trying to say is that scientists do a lot of different things. +Scientists are creative. +But then this pushes the question back: If scientists don't use a single method, then how do they decide what's right and what's wrong? +And who judges? +And the answer is, scientists judge, and they judge by judging evidence. +Scientists collect evidence in many different ways, but however they collect it, they have to subject it to scrutiny. +And this led the sociologist Robert Merton to focus on this question of how scientists scrutinize data and evidence, and he said they do it in a way he called "organized skepticism." +And by that he meant it's organized because they do it collectively, they do it as a group, and skepticism, because they do it from a position of distrust. +That is to say, the burden of proof is on the person with a novel claim. +And in this sense, science is intrinsically conservative. +It's quite hard to persuade the scientific community to say, "Yes, we know something, this is true." +So despite the popularity of the concept of paradigm shifts, what we find is that actually, really major changes in scientific thinking are relatively rare in the history of science. +So we can think of scientific knowledge as a consensus of experts. +We can also think of science as being a kind of a jury, except it's a very special kind of jury. +It's not a jury of your peers, it's a jury of geeks. +It's a jury of men and women with Ph.D.s, and unlike a conventional jury, which has only two choices, guilty or not guilty, the scientific jury actually has a number of choices. +Scientists can say yes, something's true. +Scientists can say no, it's false. +Or, they can say, well it might be true but we need to work more and collect more evidence. +Or, they can say it might be true, but we don't know how to answer the question and we're going to put it aside and maybe we'll come back to it later. +That's what scientists call "intractable." +But this leads us to one final problem: If science is what scientists say it is, then isn't that just an appeal to authority? +And weren't we all taught in school that the appeal to authority is a logical fallacy? +Well, here's the paradox of modern science, the paradox of the conclusion I think historians and philosophers and sociologists have come to, that actually science is the appeal to authority, but it's not the authority of the individual, no matter how smart that individual is, like Plato or Socrates or Einstein. +It's the authority of the collective community. +You can think of it is a kind of wisdom of the crowd, but a very special kind of crowd. +Science does appeal to authority, but it's not based on any individual, no matter how smart that individual may be. +It's based on the collective wisdom, the collective knowledge, the collective work, of all of the scientists who have worked on a particular problem. +Scientists have a kind of culture of collective distrust, this "show me" culture, illustrated by this nice woman here showing her colleagues her evidence. +Of course, these people don't really look like scientists, because they're much too happy. +Okay, so that brings me to my final point. +Most of us get up in the morning. +Most of us trust our cars. +Well, see, now I'm thinking, I'm in Manhattan, this is a bad analogy, but most Americans who don't live in Manhattan get up in the morning and get in their cars and turn on that ignition, and their cars work, and they work incredibly well. +The modern automobile hardly ever breaks down. +So why is that? Why do cars work so well? +It's not because of the genius of Henry Ford or Karl Benz or even Elon Musk. +It's because the modern automobile is the product of more than 100 years of work by hundreds and thousands and tens of thousands of people. +The modern automobile is the product of the collected work and wisdom and experience of every man and woman who has ever worked on a car, and the reliability of the technology is the result of that accumulated effort. +We benefit not just from the genius of Benz and Ford and Musk but from the collective intelligence and hard work of all of the people who have worked on the modern car. +And the same is true of science, only science is even older. +Our basis for trust in science is actually the same as our basis in trust in technology, and the same as our basis for trust in anything, namely, experience. +But it shouldn't be blind trust any more than we would have blind trust in anything. +Our trust in science, like science itself, should be based on evidence, and that means that scientists have to become better communicators. +They have to explain to us not just what they know but how they know it, and it means that we have to become better listeners. +Thank you very much. +The human voice: It's the instrument we all play. +It's the most powerful sound in the world, probably. +It's the only one that can start a war or say "I love you." +And yet many people have the experience that when they speak, people don't listen to them. +And why is that? +How can we speak powerfully to make change in the world? +What I'd like to suggest, there are a number of habits that we need to move away from. +I've assembled for your pleasure here seven deadly sins of speaking. +I'm not pretending this is an exhaustive list, but these seven, I think, are pretty large habits that we can all fall into. +First, gossip. +Speaking ill of somebody who's not present. +Not a nice habit, and we know perfectly well the person gossiping, five minutes later, will be gossiping about us. +Second, judging. +We know people who are like this in conversation, and it's very hard to listen to somebody if you know that you're being judged and found wanting at the same time. +Third, negativity. +You can fall into this. +My mother, in the last years of her life, became very negative, and it's hard to listen. +I remember one day, I said to her, "It's October 1 today," and she said, "I know, isn't it dreadful?" +It's hard to listen when somebody's that negative. +And another form of negativity, complaining. +Well, this is the national art of the U.K. +It's our national sport. +We complain about the weather, sport, about politics, about everything, but actually, complaining is viral misery. +It's not spreading sunshine and lightness in the world. +Excuses. We've all met this guy. +Maybe we've all been this guy. +Some people have a blamethrower. +They just pass it on to everybody else and don't take responsibility for their actions, and again, hard to listen to somebody who is being like that. +Penultimate, the sixth of the seven, embroidery, exaggeration. +It demeans our language, actually, sometimes. +For example, if I see something that really is awesome, what do I call it? +And then, of course, this exaggeration becomes lying, and we don't want to listen to people we know are lying to us. +And finally, dogmatism. +The confusion of facts with opinions. +When those two things get conflated, you're listening into the wind. +You know, somebody is bombarding you with their opinions as if they were true. +It's difficult to listen to that. +So here they are, seven deadly sins of speaking. +These are things I think we need to avoid. +But is there a positive way to think about this? +Yes, there is. +I'd like to suggest that there are four really powerful cornerstones, foundations, that we can stand on if we want our speech to be powerful and to make change in the world. +Fortunately, these things spell a word. +The word is "hail," and it has a great definition as well. +I'm not talking about the stuff that falls from the sky and hits you on the head. +I'm talking about this definition, to greet or acclaim enthusiastically, which is how I think our words will be received if we stand on these four things. +So what do they stand for? +See if you can guess. +The H, honesty, of course, being true in what you say, being straight and clear. +The A is authenticity, just being yourself. +A friend of mine described it as standing in your own truth, which I think is a lovely way to put it. +The I is integrity, being your word, actually doing what you say, and being somebody people can trust. +And the L is love. +I don't mean romantic love, but I do mean wishing people well, for two reasons. +First of all, I think absolute honesty may not be what we want. +I mean, my goodness, you look ugly this morning. +Perhaps that's not necessary. +Tempered with love, of course, honesty is a great thing. +But also, if you're really wishing somebody well, it's very hard to judge them at the same time. +I'm not even sure you can do those two things simultaneously. +So hail. +Also, now that's what you say, and it's like the old song, it is what you say, it's also the way that you say it. +You have an amazing toolbox. +This instrument is incredible, and yet this is a toolbox that very few people have ever opened. +I'd like to have a little rummage in there with you now and just pull a few tools out that you might like to take away and play with, which will increase the power of your speaking. +Register, for example. +Now, falsetto register may not be very useful most of the time, but there's a register in between. +I'm not going to get very technical about this for any of you who are voice coaches. +You can locate your voice, however. +So if I talk up here in my nose, you can hear the difference. +If I go down here in my throat, which is where most of us speak from most of the time. +But if you want weight, you need to go down here to the chest. +You hear the difference? +We vote for politicians with lower voices, it's true, because we associate depth with power and with authority. +That's register. +Then we have timbre. +It's the way your voice feels. +Again, the research shows that we prefer voices which are rich, smooth, warm, like hot chocolate. +Well if that's not you, that's not the end of the world, because you can train. +Go and get a voice coach. +And there are amazing things you can do with breathing, with posture, and with exercises to improve the timbre of your voice. +Then prosody. I love prosody. +This is the sing-song, the meta-language that we use in order to impart meaning. +It's root one for meaning in conversation. +People who speak all on one note are really quite hard to listen to if they don't have any prosody at all. +That's where the word "monotonic" comes from, or monotonous, monotone. +Also, we have repetitive prosody now coming in, where every sentence ends as if it were a question when it's actually not a question, it's a statement? +And if you repeat that one, it's actually restricting your ability to communicate through prosody, which I think is a shame, so let's try and break that habit. +Pace. +I can get very excited by saying something really quickly, or I can slow right down to emphasize, and at the end of that, of course, is our old friend silence. +There's nothing wrong with a bit of silence in a talk, is there? +We don't have to fill it with ums and ahs. +It can be very powerful. +Of course, pitch often goes along with pace to indicate arousal, but you can do it just with pitch. +Where did you leave my keys? +(Higher pitch) Where did you leave my keys? +So, slightly different meaning in those two deliveries. +And finally, volume. +I can get really excited by using volume. +Sorry about that, if I startled anybody. +Or, I can have you really pay attention by getting very quiet. +Some people broadcast the whole time. +Try not to do that. +That's called sodcasting, Imposing your sound on people around you carelessly and inconsiderately. +Not nice. +Of course, where this all comes into play most of all is when you've got something really important to do. +It might be standing on a stage like this and giving a talk to people. +It might be proposing marriage, asking for a raise, a wedding speech. +Whatever it is, if it's really important, you owe it to yourself to look at this toolbox and the engine that it's going to work on, and no engine works well without being warmed up. +Warm up your voice. +Actually, let me show you how to do that. +Would you all like to stand up for a moment? +I'm going to show you the six vocal warm-up exercises that I do before every talk I ever do. +Any time you're going to talk to anybody important, do these. +First, arms up, deep breath in, and sigh out, ahhhhh, like that. +One more time. +Ahhhh, very good. +Now we're going to warm up our lips, and we're going to go Ba, Ba, Ba, Ba, Ba, Ba, Ba, Ba. Very good. +And now, brrrrrrrrrr, just like when you were a kid. +Brrrr. Now your lips should be coming alive. +We're going to do the tongue next with exaggerated la, la, la, la, la, la, la, la, la. +Beautiful. You're getting really good at this. +And then, roll an R. Rrrrrrr. +That's like champagne for the tongue. +Finally, and if I can only do one, the pros call this the siren. +It's really good. It starts with "we" and goes to "aw." +The "we" is high, the "aw" is low. +So you go, weeeaawww, weeeaawww. +Fantastic. Give yourselves a round of applause. +Take a seat, thank you. Next time you speak, do those in advance. +Now let me just put this in context to close. +This is a serious point here. +This is where we are now, right? +We speak not very well to people who simply aren't listening in an environment that's all about noise and bad acoustics. +I have talked about that on this stage in different phases. +What would the world be like if we were speaking powerfully to people who were listening consciously in environments which were actually fit for purpose? +Or to make that a bit larger, what would the world be like if we were creating sound consciously and consuming sound consciously and designing all our environments consciously for sound? +That would be a world that does sound beautiful, and one where understanding would be the norm, and that is an idea worth spreading. +Thank you. +This is a lot of ones and zeros. +It's what we call binary information. +This is how computers talk. +It's how they store information. +It's how computers think. +It's how computers do everything it is that computers do. +I'm a cybersecurity researcher, which means my job is to sit down with this information and try to make sense of it, to try to understand what all the ones and zeroes mean. +Unfortunately for me, we're not just talking about the ones and zeros I have on the screen here. +We're not just talking about a few pages of ones and zeros. +We're talking about billions and billions of ones and zeros, more than anyone could possibly comprehend. +Those are important things, but that's not how I wanted to spend my life. +But after 30 minutes of work as a defense contractor, I soon found out that my idea of cyber was a little bit off. +In fact, in terms of national security, keeping viruses off of my grandma's computer was surprisingly low on their priority list. +And the reason for that is cyber is so much bigger than any one of those things. +Cyber is an integral part of all of our lives, because computers are an integral part of all of our lives, even if you don't own a computer. +Computers control everything in your car, from your GPS to your airbags. +They control your phone. +They're the reason you can call 911 and get someone on the other line. +They control our nation's entire infrastructure. +They're the reason you have electricity, heat, clean water, food. +Computers control our military equipment, everything from missile silos to satellites to nuclear defense networks. +All of these things are made possible because of computers, and therefore because of cyber, and when something goes wrong, cyber can make all of these things impossible. +But that's where I step in. +A big part of my job is defending all of these things, keeping them working, but once in a while, part of my job is to break one of these things, because cyber isn't just about defense, it's also about offense. +We're entering an age where we talk about cyberweapons. +In fact, so great is the potential for cyber offense that cyber is considered a new domain of warfare. +Warfare. +It's not necessarily a bad thing. +On the one hand, it means we have whole new front on which we need to defend ourselves, but on the other hand, it means we have a whole new way to attack, a whole new way to stop evil people from doing evil things. +So let's consider an example of this that's completely theoretical. +Suppose a terrorist wants to blow up a building, and he wants to do this again and again in the future. +So he doesn't want to be in that building when it explodes. +He's going to use a cell phone as a remote detonator. +Now, it used to be the only way we had to stop this terrorist was with a hail of bullets and a car chase, but that's not necessarily true anymore. +We're entering an age where we can stop him with the press of a button from 1,000 miles away, because whether he knew it or not, as soon as he decided to use his cell phone, he stepped into the realm of cyber. +A well-crafted cyber attack could break into his phone, disable the overvoltage protections on his battery, drastically overload the circuit, cause the battery to overheat, and explode. +No more phone, no more detonator, maybe no more terrorist, all with the press of a button from a thousand miles away. +So how does this work? +It all comes back to those ones and zeros. +Binary information makes your phone work, and used correctly, it can make your phone explode. +So when you start to look at cyber from this perspective, spending your life sifting through binary information starts to seem kind of exciting. +But here's the catch: This is hard, really, really hard, and here's why. +Think about everything you have on your cell phone. +You've got the pictures you've taken. +You've got the music you listen to. +In cyber, we call this finding a needle in a stack of needles, because everything pretty much looks alike. +I'm looking for one key piece, but it just blends in with everything else. +So let's step back from this theoretical situation of making a terrorist's phone explode, and look at something that actually happened to me. +Pretty much no matter what I do, my job always starts with sitting down with a whole bunch of binary information, and I'm always looking for one key piece to do something specific. +In this case, I was looking for a very advanced, very high-tech piece of code that I knew I could hack, but it was somewhere buried inside of a billion ones and zeroes. +Unfortunately for me, I didn't know quite what I was looking for. +I didn't know quite what it would look like, which makes finding it really, really hard. +When I have to do that, what I have to do is basically look at various pieces of this binary information, try to decipher each piece, and see if it might be what I'm after. +So after a while, I thought I had found the piece I was looking for. +I thought maybe this was it. +It seemed to be about right, but I couldn't quite tell. +I couldn't tell what those ones and zeros represented. +So I spent some time trying to put this together, but wasn't having a whole lot of luck, and finally I decided, I'm going to get through this, I'm going to come in on a weekend, and I'm not going to leave until I figure out what this represents. +So that's what I did. I came in on a Saturday morning, and about 10 hours in, I sort of had all the pieces to the puzzle. +I just didn't know how they fit together. +I didn't know what these ones and zeros meant. +At the 15-hour mark, I started to get a better picture of what was there, but I had a creeping suspicion that what I was looking at was not at all related to what I was looking for. +By 20 hours, the pieces started to come together very slowly and I was pretty sure I was going down the wrong path at this point, but I wasn't going to give up. +After 30 hours in the lab, I figured out exactly what I was looking at, and I was right, it wasn't what I was looking for. +I spent 30 hours piecing together the ones and zeros that formed a picture of a kitten. +I wasted 30 hours of my life searching for this kitten that had nothing at all to do with what I was trying to accomplish. +So I was frustrated, I was exhausted. +After 30 hours in the lab, I probably smelled horrible. +But instead of just going home and calling it quits, I took a step back and asked myself, what went wrong here? +How could I make such a stupid mistake? +I'm really pretty good at this. +I do this for a living. +So what happened? +Well I thought, when you're looking at information at this level, it's so easy to lose track of what you're doing. +It's easy to not see the forest through the trees. +It's easy to go down the wrong rabbit hole and waste a tremendous amount of time doing the wrong thing. +But I had this epiphany. +We were looking at the data completely incorrectly since day one. +This is how computers think, ones and zeros. +It's not how people think, but we've been trying to adapt our minds to think more like computers so that we can understand this information. +Instead of trying to make our minds fit the problem, we should have been making the problem fit our minds, because our brains have a tremendous potential for analyzing huge amounts of information, just not like this. +So what if we could unlock that potential just by translating this to the right kind of information? +So with these ideas in mind, I sprinted out of my basement lab at work to my basement lab at home, which looked pretty much the same. +The main difference is, at work, I'm surrounded by cyber materials, and cyber seemed to be the problem in this situation. +At home, I'm surrounded by everything else I've ever learned. +So I poured through every book I could find, every idea I'd ever encountered, to see how could we translate a problem from one domain to something completely different? +The biggest question was, what do we want to translate it to? +What do our brains do perfectly naturally that we could exploit? +My answer was vision. +We have a tremendous capability to analyze visual information. +We can combine color gradients, depth cues, all sorts of these different signals into one coherent picture of the world around us. +That's incredible. +So if we could find a way to translate these binary patterns to visual signals, we could really unlock the power of our brains to process this stuff. +So I started looking at the binary information, and I asked myself, what do I do when I first encounter something like this? +And the very first thing I want to do, the very first question I want to answer, is what is this? +I don't care what it does, how it works. +All I want to know is, what is this? +And the way I can figure that out is by looking at chunks, sequential chunks of binary information, and I look at the relationships between those chunks. +When I gather up enough of these sequences, I begin to get an idea of exactly what this information must be. +So let's go back to that blow up the terrorist's phone situation. +This is what English text looks like at a binary level. +This is what your contacts list would look like if I were examining it. +It's really hard to analyze this at this level, but if we take those same binary chunks that I would be trying to find, and instead translate that to a visual representation, translate those relationships, this is what we get. +This is what English text looks like from a visual abstraction perspective. +All of a sudden, it shows us all the same information that was in the ones and zeros, but show us it in an entirely different way, a way that we can immediately comprehend. +We can instantly see all of the patterns here. +It takes me seconds to pick out patterns here, but hours, days, to pick them out in ones and zeros. +It takes minutes for anybody to learn what these patterns represent here, but years of experience in cyber to learn what those same patterns represent in ones and zeros. +So this piece is caused by lower case letters followed by lower case letters inside of that contact list. +This is upper case by upper case, upper case by lower case, lower case by upper case. +This is caused by spaces. This is caused by carriage returns. +We can go through every little detail of the binary information in seconds, as opposed to weeks, months, at this level. +This is what an image looks like from your cell phone. +But this is what it looks like in a visual abstraction. +This is what your music looks like, but here's its visual abstraction. +Most importantly for me, this is what the code on your cell phone looks like. +This is what I'm after in the end, but this is its visual abstraction. +If I can find this, I can't make the phone explode. +I could spend weeks trying to find this in ones and zeros, but it takes me seconds to pick out a visual abstraction like this. +One of those most remarkable parts about all of this is it gives us an entirely new way to understand new information, stuff that we haven't seen before. +So I know what English looks like at a binary level, and I know what its visual abstraction looks like, but I've never seen Russian binary in my entire life. +It would take me weeks just to figure out what I was looking at from raw ones and zeros, but because our brains can instantly pick up and recognize these subtle patterns inside of these visual abstractions, we can unconsciously apply those in new situations. +So this is what Russian looks like in a visual abstraction. +Because I know what one language looks like, I can recognize other languages even when I'm not familiar with them. +This is what a photograph looks like, but this is what clip art looks like. +This is what the code on your phone looks like, but this is what the code on your computer looks like. +Our brains can pick up on these patterns in ways that we never could have from looking at raw ones and zeros. +But we've really only scratched the surface of what we can do with this approach. +We've only begun to unlock the capabilities of our minds to process visual information. +If we take those same concepts and translate them into three dimensions instead, we find entirely new ways of making sense of information. +In seconds, we can pick out every pattern here. +we can see the cross associated with code. +We can see cubes associated with text. +We can even pick up the tiniest visual artifacts. +So this is really nice and helpful, but all this tells me is what I'm looking at. +So at this point, based on visual patterns, I can find the code on the phone. +But that's not enough to blow up a battery. +The next thing I need to find is the code that controls the battery, but we're back to the needle in a stack of needles problem. +That code looks pretty much like all the other code on that system. +So I might not be able to find the code that controls the battery, but there's a lot of things that are very similar to that. +You have code that controls your screen, that controls your buttons, that controls your microphones, so even if I can't find the code for the battery, I bet I can find one of those things. +So the next step in my binary analysis process is to look at pieces of information that are similar to each other. +It's really, really hard to do at a binary level, but if we translate those similarities to a visual abstraction instead, I don't even have to sift through the raw data. +All I have to do is wait for the image to light up to see when I'm at similar pieces. +I follow these strands of similarity like a trail of bread crumbs to find exactly what I'm looking for. +So at this point in the process, I've located the code responsible for controlling your battery, but that's still not enough to blow up a phone. +The last piece of the puzzle is understanding how that code controls your battery. +For this, I need to identify very subtle, very detailed relationships within that binary information, another very hard thing to do when looking at ones and zeros. +But if we translate that information into a physical representation, we can sit back and let our visual cortex do all the hard work. +It can find all the detailed patterns, all the important pieces, for us. +It can find out exactly how the pieces of that code work together to control that battery. +All of this can be done in a matter of hours, whereas the same process would have taken months in the past. +This is all well and good in a theoretical blow up a terrorist's phone situation. +I wanted to find out if this would really work in the work I do every day. +So I was playing around with these same concepts with some of the data I've looked at in the past, and yet again, I was trying to find a very detailed, specific piece of code inside of a massive piece of binary information. +So I looked at it at this level, thinking I was looking at the right thing, only to see this doesn't have the connectivity I would have expected for the code I was looking for. +In fact, I'm not really sure what this is, but when I stepped back a level and looked at the similarities within the code I saw, this doesn't have similarities like any code that exists out there. +I can't even be looking at code. +In fact, from this perspective, I could tell, this isn't code. +This is an image of some sort. +And from here, I can see, it's not just an image, this is a photograph. +Now that I know it's a photograph, I've got dozens of other binary translation techniques to visualize and understand that information, so in a matter of seconds, we can take this information, shove it through a dozen other visual translation techniques in order to find out exactly what we were looking at. +I saw it was that darn kitten again. +All this is enabled because we were able to find a way to translate a very hard problem to something our brains do very naturally. +So what does this mean? +Well, for kittens, it means no more hiding in ones and zeros. +For me, it means no more wasted weekends. +For cyber, it means we have a radical new way to tackle the most impossible problems. +It means we have a new weapon in the evolving theater of cyber warfare, but for all of us, it means that cyber engineers now have the ability to become first responders in emergency situations. +When seconds count, we've unlocked the means to stop the bad guys. +Thank you. +I've been thinking a lot about the world recently and how it's changed over the last 20, 30, 40 years. +Twenty or 30 years ago, if a chicken caught a cold and sneezed and died in a remote village in East Asia, it would have been a tragedy for the chicken and its closest relatives, but I don't think there was much possibility of us fearing a global pandemic and the deaths of millions. +Twenty or 30 years ago, if a bank in North America lent too much money to some people who couldn't afford to pay it back and the bank went bust, that was bad for the lender and bad for the borrower, but we didn't imagine it would bring the global economic system to its knees for nearly a decade. +This is globalization. +This is the miracle that has enabled us to transship our bodies and our minds and our words and our pictures and our ideas and our teaching and our learning around the planet ever faster and ever cheaper. +It's brought a lot of bad stuff, like the stuff that I just described, but it's also brought a lot of good stuff. +A lot of us are not aware of the extraordinary successes of the Millennium Development Goals, several of which have achieved their targets long before the due date. +That proves that this species of humanity is capable of achieving extraordinary progress if it really acts together and it really tries hard. +But if I had to put it in a nutshell these days, I sort of feel that globalization has taken us by surprise, and we've been slow to respond to it. +If you look at the downside of globalization, it really does seem to be sometimes overwhelming. +All of the grand challenges that we face today, like climate change and human rights and demographics and terrorism and pandemics and narco-trafficking and human slavery and species loss, I could go on, we're not making an awful lot of progress against an awful lot of those challenges. +So in a nutshell, that's the challenge that we all face today at this interesting point in history. +That's clearly what we've got to do next. +We've somehow got to get our act together and we've got to figure out how to globalize the solutions better so that we don't simply become a species which is the victim of the globalization of problems. +Why are we so slow at achieving these advances? +What's the reason for it? +Well, there are, of course, a number of reasons, but perhaps the primary reason is because we're still organized as a species in the same way that we were organized 200 or 300 years ago. +There's one superpower left on the planet and that is the seven billion people, the seven billion of us who cause all these problems, the same seven billion, by the way, who will resolve them all. +But how are those seven billion organized? +They're still organized in 200 or so nation-states, and the nations have governments that make rules and cause us to behave in certain ways. +And that's a pretty efficient system, but the problem is that the way that those laws are made and the way those governments think is absolutely wrong for the solution of global problems, because it all looks inwards. +The politicians that we elect and the politicians we don't elect, on the whole, have minds that microscope. +They don't have minds that telescope. +They look in. They pretend, they behave, as if they believed that every country was an island that existed quite happily, independently of all the others on its own little planet in its own little solar system. +This is the problem: countries competing against each other, countries fighting against each other. +This week, as any week you care to look at, you'll find people actually trying to kill each other from country to country, but even when that's not going on, there's competition between countries, each one trying to shaft the next. +This is clearly not a good arrangement. +We clearly need to change it. +We clearly need to find ways of encouraging countries to start working together a little bit better. +And why won't they do that? +Why is it that our leaders still persist in looking inwards? +Well, the first and most obvious reason is because that's what we ask them to do. +That's what we tell them to do. +When we elect governments or when we tolerate unelected governments, we're effectively telling them that what we want is for them to deliver us in our country a certain number of things. +We want them to deliver prosperity, growth, competitiveness, transparency, justice and all of those things. +So unless we start asking our governments to think outside a little bit, to consider the global problems that will finish us all if we don't start considering them, then we can hardly blame them if what they carry on doing is looking inwards, if they still have minds that microscope rather than minds that telescope. +That's the first reason why things tend not to change. +The second reason is that these governments, just like all the rest of us, are cultural psychopaths. +I don't mean to be rude, but you know what a psychopath is. +A psychopath is a person who, unfortunately for him or her, lacks the ability to really empathize with other human beings. +When they look around, they don't see other human beings with deep, rich, three-dimensional personal lives and aims and ambitions. +What they see is cardboard cutouts, and it's very sad and it's very lonely, and it's very rare, fortunately. +But actually, aren't most of us not really so very good at empathy? +And this is a question we need to ask ourselves. +I think constantly we have to monitor it. +Are we and our politicians to a degree cultural psychopaths? +The third reason is hardly worth mentioning because it's so silly, but there's a belief amongst governments that the domestic agenda and the international agenda are incompatible and always will be. +This is just nonsense. +In my day job, I'm a policy adviser. +And so you may say, well, given all of that, why then doesn't it work? +Why can we not make our politicians change? +Why can't we demand them? +Well I, like a lot of us, spend a lot of time complaining about how hard it is to make people change, and I don't think we should fuss about it. +I think we should just accept that we are an inherently conservative species. +We don't like to change. +It exists for very sensible evolutionary reasons. +We probably wouldn't still be here today if we weren't so resistant to change. +But of course, there are exceptions to that. +Otherwise, we'd never get anywhere. +And one of the exceptions, the interesting exception, is when you can show to people that there might be some self-interest in them making that leap of faith and changing a little bit. +And this is where I discovered something quite important. +In 2005, I launched a study called the Nation Brands Index. +What it is, it's a very large-scale study that polls a very large sample of the world's population, a sample that represents about 70 percent of the planet's population, and I started asking them a series of questions about how they perceive other countries. +And the Nation Brands Index over the years has grown to be a very, very large database. +It's about 200 billion data points tracking what ordinary people think about other countries and why. +Why did I do this? Well, because the governments that I advise are very, very keen on knowing how they are regarded. +They've known, partly because I've encouraged them to realize it, that countries depend enormously on their reputations in order to survive and prosper in the world. +If a country has a great, positive image, like Germany has or Sweden or Switzerland, everything is easy and everything is cheap. +You get more tourists. You get more investors. +You sell your products more expensively. +If, on the other hand, you have a country with a very weak or a very negative image, everything is difficult and everything is expensive. +So governments care desperately about the image of their country, because it makes a direct difference to how much money they can make, and that's what they've promised their populations they're going to deliver. +So a couple of years ago, I thought I would take some time out and speak to that gigantic database and ask it, why do some people prefer one country more than another? +And the answer that the database gave me completely staggered me. +It was 6.8. +I haven't got time to explain in detail. +Basically what it told me was the kinds of countries we prefer are good countries. +We don't admire countries primarily because they're rich, because they're powerful, because they're successful, because they're modern, because they're technologically advanced. +We primarily admire countries that are good. +What do we mean by good? +We mean countries that seem to contribute something to the world in which we live, countries that actually make the world safer or better or richer or fairer. +Those are the countries we like. +This is a discovery of significant importance you see where I'm going because it squares the circle. +I can now say, and often do, to any government, in order to do well, you need to do good. +If you want to sell more products, if you want to get more investment, if you want to become more competitive, then you need to start behaving, because that's why people will respect you and do business with you, and therefore, the more you collaborate, the more competitive you become. +This is quite an important discovery, and as soon as I discovered this, I felt another index coming on. +I swear that as I get older, my ideas become simpler and more and more childish. +This one is called the Good Country Index, and it does exactly what it says on the tin. +It measures, or at least it tries to measure, exactly how much each country on Earth contributes not to its own population but to the rest of humanity. +Bizarrely, nobody had ever thought of measuring this before. +So my colleague Dr. Robert Govers and I have spent the best part of the last two years, with the help of a large number of very serious and clever people, cramming together all the reliable data in the world we could find about what countries give to the world. +And you're waiting for me to tell you which one comes top. +And I'm going to tell you, but first of all I want to tell you precisely what I mean when I say a good country. +I do not mean morally good. +When I say that Country X is the goodest country on Earth, and I mean goodest, I don't mean best. +Best is something different. +When you're talking about a good country, you can be good, gooder and goodest. +It's not the same thing as good, better and best. +This is a country which simply gives more to humanity than any other country. +I don't talk about how they behave at home because that's measured elsewhere. +And the winner is Ireland. +According to the data here, no country on Earth, per head of population, per dollar of GDP, contributes more to the world that we live in than Ireland. +What does this mean? +This means that as we go to sleep at night, all of us in the last 15 seconds before we drift off to sleep, our final thought should be, godammit, I'm glad that Ireland exists. +And that In the depths of a very severe economic recession, I think that there's a really important lesson there, that if you can remember your international obligations whilst you are trying to rebuild your own economy, that's really something. +Finland ranks pretty much the same. +The only reason why it's below Ireland is because its lowest score is lower than Ireland's lowest score. +Now the other thing you'll notice about the top 10 there is, of course, they're all, apart from New Zealand, Western European nations. +They're also all rich. +This depressed me, because one of the things that I did not want to discover with this index is that it's purely the province of rich countries to help poor countries. +This is not what it's all about. +And indeed, if you look further down the list, I don't have the slide here, you will see something that made me very happy indeed, that Kenya is in the top 30, and that demonstrates one very, very important thing. +This is not about money. +This is about attitude. +This is about culture. +This is about a government and a people that care about the rest of the world and have the imagination and the courage to think outwards instead of only thinking selfishly. +I'm going to whip through the other slides just so you can see some of the lower-lying countries. +There's Germany at 13th, the U.S. comes 21st, Mexico comes 66th, and then we have some of the big developing countries, like Russia at 95th, China at 107th. +Countries like China and Russia and India, which is down in the same part of the index, well, in some ways, it's not surprising. +They've spent a great deal of time over the last decades building their own economy, building their own society and their own polity, but it is to be hoped that the second phase of their growth will be somewhat more outward-looking than the first phase has been so far. +And then you can break down each country in terms of the actual datasets that build into it. +I'll allow you to do that. +From midnight tonight it's going to be on goodcountry.org, and you can look at the country. +You can look right down to the level of the individual datasets. +Now that's the Good Country Index. +What's it there for? +Well, it's there really because I want to try to introduce this word, or reintroduce this word, into the discourse. +I've had enough hearing about competitive countries. +I've had enough hearing about prosperous, wealthy, fast-growing countries. +I've even had enough hearing about happy countries because in the end that's still selfish. +That's still about us, and if we carry on thinking about us, we are in deep, deep trouble. +I think we all know what it is that we want to hear about. +We want to hear about good countries, and so I want to ask you all a favor. +I'm not asking a lot. +It's something that you might find easy to do and you might even find enjoyable and even helpful to do, and that's simply to start using the word "good" in this context. +When you think about your own country, when you think about other people's countries, when you think about companies, when you talk about the world that we live in today, start using that word in the way that I've talked about this evening. +Not good, the opposite of bad, because that's an argument that never finishes. +Good, the opposite of selfish, good being a country that thinks about all of us. +That's what I would like you to do, and I'd like you to use it as a stick with which to beat your politicians. +When you elect them, when you reelect them, when you vote for them, when you listen to what they're offering you, use that word, "good," and ask yourself, "Is that what a good country would do?" +And if the answer is no, be very suspicious. +Ask yourself, is that the behavior of my country? +Do I want to come from a country where the government, in my name, is doing things like that? +Or do I, on the other hand, prefer the idea of walking around the world with my head held high thinking, "Yeah, I'm proud to come from a good country"? +And everybody will welcome you. +And everybody in the last 15 seconds before they drift off to sleep at night will say, "Gosh, I'm glad that person's country exists." +Ultimately, that, I think, is what will make the change. +That word, "good," and the number 6.8 and the discovery that's behind it have changed my life. +I think they can change your life, and I think we can use it to change the way that our politicians and our companies behave, and in doing so, we can change the world. +I've started thinking very differently about my own country since I've been thinking about these things. +I used to think that I wanted to live in a rich country, and then I started thinking I wanted to live in a happy country, but I began to realize, it's not enough. +I don't want to live in a rich country. +I don't want to live in a fast-growing or competitive country. +I want to live in a good country, and I so, so hope that you do too. +Thank you. +I'm a veteran of the starship Enterprise. +I soared through the galaxy driving a huge starship with a crew made up of people from all over this world, many different races, many different cultures, many different heritages, all working together, and our mission was to explore strange new worlds, to seek out new life and new civilizations, to boldly go where no one has gone before. +Well I am the grandson of immigrants from Japan who went to America, boldly going to a strange new world, seeking new opportunities. +My mother was born in Sacramento, California. +My father was a San Franciscan. +They met and married in Los Angeles, and I was born there. +I was four years old when Pearl Harbor was bombed on December 7, 1941 by Japan, and overnight, the world was plunged into a world war. +America suddenly was swept up by hysteria. +Japanese-Americans, American citizens of Japanese ancestry, were looked on with suspicion and fear and with outright hatred simply because we happened to look like the people that bombed Pearl Harbor. +And the hysteria grew and grew until in February 1942, the president of the United States, Franklin Delano Roosevelt, ordered all Japanese-Americans on the West Coast of America to be summarily rounded up with no charges, with no trial, with no due process. +Due process, this is a core pillar of our justice system. +That all disappeared. +We were to be rounded up and imprisoned in 10 barbed-wire prison camps in some of the most desolate places in America: the blistering hot desert of Arizona, the sultry swamps of Arkansas, the wastelands of Wyoming, Idaho, Utah, Colorado, and two of the most desolate places in California. +On April 20th, I celebrated my fifth birthday, and just a few weeks after my birthday, my parents got my younger brother, my baby sister and me up very early one morning, and they dressed us hurriedly. +My brother and I were in the living room looking out the front window, and we saw two soldiers marching up our driveway. +They carried bayonets on their rifles. +They stomped up the front porch and banged on the door. +My father answered it, and the soldiers ordered us out of our home. +My father gave my brother and me small luggages to carry, and we walked out and stood on the driveway waiting for our mother to come out, and when my mother finally came out, she had our baby sister in one arm, a huge duffel bag in the other, and tears were streaming down both her cheeks. +I will never be able to forget that scene. +It is burned into my memory. +We were taken from our home and loaded on to train cars with other Japanese-American families. +There were guards stationed at both ends of each car, as if we were criminals. +We were taken two thirds of the way across the country, rocking on that train for four days and three nights, to the swamps of Arkansas. +I still remember the barbed wire fence that confined me. +I remember the tall sentry tower with the machine guns pointed at us. I remember the searchlight that followed me when I made the night runs from my barrack to the latrine. +But to five-year-old me, I thought it was kind of nice that they'd lit the way for me to pee. +I was a child, too young to understand the circumstances of my being there. +Children are amazingly adaptable. +What would be grotesquely abnormal became my normality in the prisoner of war camps. +It became routine for me to line up three times a day to eat lousy food in a noisy mess hall. +It became normal for me to go with my father to bathe in a mass shower. +Being in a prison, a barbed-wire prison camp, became my normality. +When the war ended, we were released, and given a one-way ticket to anywhere in the United States. +My parents decided to go back home to Los Angeles, but Los Angeles was not a welcoming place. +We were penniless. +Everything had been taken from us, and the hostility was intense. +Our first home was on Skid Row in the lowest part of our city, living with derelicts, drunkards and crazy people, the stench of urine all over, on the street, in the alley, in the hallway. +It was a horrible experience, and for us kids, it was terrorizing. +I remember once a drunkard came staggering down, fell down right in front of us, and threw up. +My baby sister said, "Mama, let's go back home," because behind barbed wires was for us home. +My parents worked hard to get back on their feet. +We had lost everything. +They were at the middle of their lives and starting all over. +They worked their fingers to the bone, and ultimately they were able to get the capital together to buy a three-bedroom home in a nice neighborhood. +And I was a teenager, and I became very curious about my childhood imprisonment. +I had read civics books that told me about the ideals of American democracy. +All men are created equal, we have an inalienable right to life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness, and I couldn't quite make that fit with what I knew to be my childhood imprisonment. +I read history books, and I couldn't find anything about it. +And so I engaged my father after dinner in long, sometimes heated conversations. +We had many, many conversations like that, and what I got from them was my father's wisdom. +He was the one that suffered the most under those conditions of imprisonment, and yet he understood American democracy. +He told me that our democracy is a people's democracy, and it can be as great as the people can be, but it is also as fallible as people are. +He told me that American democracy is vitally dependent on good people who cherish the ideals of our system and actively engage in the process of making our democracy work. +And he took me to a campaign headquarters the governor of Illinois was running for the presidency and introduced me to American electoral politics. +And he also told me about young Japanese-Americans during the Second World War. +When Pearl Harbor was bombed, young Japanese-Americans, like all young Americans, rushed to their draft board to volunteer to fight for our country. +That act of patriotism was answered with a slap in the face. +We were denied service, and categorized as enemy non-alien. +It was outrageous to be called an enemy when you're volunteering to fight for your country, but that was compounded with the word "non-alien," "citizen" in the negative. +They even took the word "citizen" away from us, and imprisoned them for a whole year. +And then the government realized that there's a wartime manpower shortage, and as suddenly as they'd rounded us up, they opened up the military for service by young Japanese-Americans. +It was totally irrational, but the amazing thing, the astounding thing, is that thousands of young Japanese-American men and women again went from behind those barbed-wire fences, put on the same uniform as that of our guards, leaving their families in imprisonment, to fight for this country. +They said that they were going to fight not only to get their families out from behind those barbed-wire fences, but because they cherished the very ideal of what our government stands for, should stand for, and that was being abrogated by what was being done. +All men are created equal. +And they went to fight for this country. +They were put into a segregated all Japanese-American unit and sent to the battlefields of Europe, and they threw themselves into it. +They fought with amazing, incredible courage and valor. +They were sent out on the most dangerous missions and they sustained the highest combat casualty rate of any unit proportionally. +There is one battle that illustrates that. +It was a battle for the Gothic Line. +The Germans were embedded in this mountain hillside, rocky hillside, in impregnable caves, and three allied battalions had been pounding away at it for six months, and they were stalemated. +The 442nd was called in to add to the fight, but the men of the 442nd came up with a unique but dangerous idea: The backside of the mountain was a sheer rock cliff. +The Germans thought an attack from the backside would be impossible. +The men of the 442nd decided to do the impossible. +On a dark, moonless night, they began scaling that rock wall, a drop of more than 1,000 feet, in full combat gear. +They climbed all night long on that sheer cliff. +In the darkness, some lost their handhold in the ravine below. They all fell silently. +Not a single one cried out, so as not to give their position away. +The men climbed for eight hours straight, and those who made it to the top stayed there until the first break of light, and as soon as light broke, they attacked. +The Germans were surprised, and they took the hill and broke the Gothic Line. +A six-month stalemate was broken by the 442nd in 32 minutes. +It was an amazing act, and when the war ended, the 442nd returned to the United States as the most decorated unit of the entire Second World War. +They were greeted back on the White House Lawn by President Truman, who said to them, "You fought not only the enemy but prejudice, and you won." +They are my heroes. +They clung to their belief in the shining ideals of this country, and they proved that being an American is not just for some people, that race is not how we define being an American. +They expanded what it means to be an American, including Japanese-Americans that were feared and suspected and hated. +They were change agents, and they left for me a legacy. +They are my heroes and my father is my hero, who understood democracy and guided me through it. +Thank you very much. +On March 10, 2011, I was in Cambridge at the MIT Media Lab meeting with faculty, students and staff, and we were trying to figure out whether I should be the next director. +That night, at midnight, a magnitude 9 earthquake hit off of the Pacific coast of Japan. +My wife and family were in Japan, and as the news started to come in, I was panicking. +I was looking at the news streams and listening to the press conferences of the government officials and the Tokyo Power Company, and hearing about this explosion at the nuclear reactors and this cloud of fallout that was headed towards our house which was only about 200 kilometers away. +And the people on TV weren't telling us anything that we wanted to hear. +I wanted to know what was going on with the reactor, whether my family was in danger. +So I did what instinctively felt like the right thing, which was to go onto the Internet and try to figure out if I could take matters into my own hands. +Three years later, we have 16 million data points, we have designed our own Geiger counters that you can download the designs and plug it into the network. +We have an app that shows you most of the radiation in Japan and other parts of the world. +We are arguably one of the most successful citizen science projects in the world, and we have created the largest open dataset of radiation measurements. +And the interesting thing here is how did Thank you. +How did a bunch of amateurs who really didn't know what we were doing somehow come together and do what NGOs and the government were completely incapable of doing? +And I would suggest that this has something to do with the Internet. It's not a fluke. +It wasn't luck, and it wasn't because it was us. +It helped that it was an event that pulled everybody together, but it was a new way of doing things that was enabled by the Internet and a lot of the other things that were going on, and I want to talk a little bit about what those new principles are. +So remember before the Internet? I call this B.I. Okay? +So, in B.I., life was simple. +Things were Euclidian, Newtonian, somewhat predictable. +People actually tried to predict the future, even the economists. +Before the Internet, if you remember, when we tried to create services, what you would do is you'd create the hardware layer and the network layer and the software and it would cost millions of dollars to do anything that was substantial. +So when it costs millions of dollars to do something substantial, what you would do is you'd get an MBA who would write a plan and get the money from V.C.s or big companies, and then you'd hire the designers and the engineers, and they'd build the thing. +This is the Before Internet, B.I., innovation model. +So the Internet caused innovation, at least in software and services, to go from an MBA-driven innovation model to a designer-engineer-driven innovation model, and it pushed innovation to the edges, to the dorm rooms, to the startups, away from the large institutions, the stodgy old institutions that had the power and the money and the authority. +And we all know this. We all know this happened on the Internet. +It turns out it's happening in other things, too. +Let me give you some examples. +So at the Media Lab, we don't just do hardware. +We do all kinds of things. +We do biology, we do hardware, and Nicholas Negroponte famously said, "Demo or die," as opposed to "Publish or perish," which was the traditional academic way of thinking. +And he often said, the demo only has to work once, because the primary mode of us impacting the world was through large companies being inspired by us and creating products like the Kindle or Lego Mindstorms. +But today, with the ability to deploy things into the real world at such low cost, I'm changing the motto now, and this is the official public statement. +I'm officially saying, "Deploy or die." +You have to get the stuff into the real world for it to really count, and sometimes it will be large companies, and Nicholas can talk about satellites. +Thank you. +But we should be getting out there ourselves and not depending on large institutions to do it for us. +So last year, we sent a bunch of students to Shenzhen, and they sat on the factory floors with the innovators in Shenzhen, and it was amazing. +What was happening there was you would have these manufacturing devices, and they weren't making prototypes or PowerPoints. +They were fiddling with the manufacturing equipment and innovating right on the manufacturing equipment. +The factory was in the designer, and the designer was literally in the factory. +And so what you would do is, you'd go down to the stalls and you would see these cell phones. +So instead of starting little websites like the kids in Palo Alto do, the kids in Shenzhen make new cell phones. +They make new cell phones like kids in Palo Alto make websites, and so there's a rainforest of innovation going on in the cell phone. +What they do is, they make a cell phone, go down to the stall, they sell some, they look at the other kids' stuff, go up, make a couple thousand more, go down. +Doesn't this sound like a software thing? +It sounds like agile software development, A/B testing and iteration, and what we thought you could only do with software kids in Shenzhen are doing this in hardware. +My next fellow, I hope, is going to be one of these innovators from Shenzhen. +that is pushing innovation to the edges. +We talk about 3D printers and stuff like that, and that's great, but this is Limor. +She is one of our favorite graduates, and she is standing in front of a Samsung Techwin Pick and Place Machine. +This thing can put 23,000 components per hour onto an electronics board. +This is a factory in a box. +So what used to take a factory full of workers working by hand in this little box in New York, she's able to have effectively She doesn't actually have to go to Shenzhen to do this manufacturing. +She can buy this box and she can manufacture it. +So manufacturing, the cost of innovation, the cost of prototyping, distribution, manufacturing, hardware, is getting so low that innovation is being pushed to the edges and students and startups are being able to build it. +This is a recent thing, but this will happen and this will change just like it did with software. +Sorona is a DuPont process that uses a genetically engineered microbe to turn corn sugar into polyester. +It's 30 percent more efficient than the fossil fuel method, and it's much better for the environment. +Genetic engineering and bioengineering are creating a whole bunch of great new opportunities for chemistry, for computation, for memory. +We will probably be doing a lot, obviously doing health things, but we will probably be growing chairs and buildings soon. +The problem is, Sorona costs about 400 million dollars and took seven years to build. +It kind of reminds you of the old mainframe days. +The thing is, the cost of innovation in bioengineering is also going down. +This is desktop gene sequencer. +It used to cost millions and millions of dollars to sequence genes. +Now you can do it on a desktop like this, and kids can do this in dorm rooms. +This is Gen9 gene assembler, and so right now when you try to print a gene, what you do is somebody in a factory with pipettes puts the thing together by hand, you have one error per 100 base pairs, and it takes a long time and costs a lot of money. +This new device assembles genes on a chip, and instead of one error per 100 base pairs, it's one error per 10,000 base pairs. +In this lab, we will have the world's capacity of gene printing within a year, 200 million base pairs a year. +This is kind of like when we went from transistor radios wrapped by hand to the Pentium. +This is going to become the Pentium of bioengineering, pushing bioengineering into the hands of dorm rooms and startup companies. +So it's happening in software and in hardware and bioengineering, and so this is a fundamental new way of thinking about innovation. +It's a bottom-up innovation, it's democratic, it's chaotic, it's hard to control. +It's not bad, but it's very different, and I think that the traditional rules that we have for institutions don't work anymore, and most of us here operate with a different set of principles. +One of my favorite principles is the power of pull, which is the idea of pulling resources from the network as you need them rather than stocking them in the center and controlling everything. +So in the case of the Safecast story, I didn't know anything when the earthquake happened, but I was able to find Sean who was the hackerspace community organizer, and Peter, the analog hardware hacker who made our first Geiger counter, and Dan, who built the Three Mile Island monitoring system after the Three Mile Island meltdown. +And these people I wouldn't have been able to find beforehand and probably were better that I found them just in time from the network. +I'm a three-time college dropout, so learning over education is very near and dear to my heart, but to me, education is what people do to you and learning is what you do to yourself. +In the case of Safecast, a bunch of amateurs when we started three years ago, I would argue that we probably as a group know more than any other organization about how to collect data and publish data and do citizen science. +Compass over maps. +So this one, the idea is that the cost of writing a plan or mapping something is getting so expensive and it's not very accurate or useful. +So in the Safecast story, we knew we needed to collect data, we knew we wanted to publish the data, and instead of trying to come up with the exact plan, we first said, oh, let's get Geiger counters. +Oh, they've run out. +Let's build them. There aren't enough sensors. +Okay, then we can make a mobile Geiger counter. +We can drive around. We can get volunteers. +We don't have enough money. Let's Kickstarter it. +We could not have planned this whole thing, but by having a very strong compass, we eventually got to where we were going, and to me it's very similar to agile software development, but this idea of compasses is very important. +So I think the good news is that even though the world is extremely complex, what you need to do is very simple. +I think it's about stopping this notion that you need to plan everything, you need to stock everything, and you need to be so prepared, and focus on being connected, always learning, fully aware, and super present. +So I don't like the word "futurist." +I think we should be now-ists, like we are right now. +Thank you. +Could I protect my father from the Armed Islamic Group with a paring knife? +That was the question I faced one Tuesday morning in June of 1993, when I was a law student. +I woke up early that morning in Dad's apartment on the outskirts of Algiers, Algeria, to an unrelenting pounding on the front door. +It was a season as described by a local paper when every Tuesday a scholar fell to the bullets of fundamentalist assassins. +My father's university teaching of Darwin had already provoked a classroom visit from the head of the so-called Islamic Salvation Front, who denounced Dad as an advocate of biologism before Dad had ejected the man, and now whoever was outside would neither identify himself nor go away. +So my father tried to get the police on the phone, but perhaps terrified by the rising tide of armed extremism that had already claimed the lives of so many Algerian officers, they didn't even answer. +And that was when I went to the kitchen, got out a paring knife, and took up a position inside the entryway. +It was a ridiculous thing to do, really, but I couldn't think of anything else, and so there I stood. +When I look back now, I think that that was the moment that set me on the path was to writing a book called "Your Fatwa Does Not Apply Here: Untold Stories from the Fight Against Muslim Fundamentalism." +The title comes from a Pakistani play. +I think it was actually that moment that sent me on the journey to interview 300 people of Muslim heritage from nearly 30 countries, from Afghanistan to Mali, to find out how they fought fundamentalism peacefully like my father did, and how they coped with the attendant risks. +Luckily, back in June of 1993, our unidentified visitor went away, but other families were so much less lucky, and that was the thought that motivated my research. +In any case, someone would return a few months later and leave a note on Dad's kitchen table, which simply said, "Consider yourself dead." +Subsequently, Algeria's fundamentalist armed groups would murder as many as 200,000 civilians in what came to be known as the dark decade of the 1990s, including every single one of the women that you see here. +In its harsh counterterrorist response, the state resorted to torture and to forced disappearances, and as terrible as all of these events became, the international community largely ignored them. +For example, in a November 1994 series in the newspaper El Watan entitled "How Fundamentalism Produced a Terrorism without Precedent," he denounced what he called the terrorists' radical break with the true Islam as it was lived by our ancestors. +These were words that could get you killed. +My father's country taught me in that dark decade of the 1990s that the popular struggle against Muslim fundamentalism is one of the most important and overlooked human rights struggles in the world. +This remains true today, nearly 20 years later. +You see, in every country where you hear about armed jihadis targeting civilians, there are also unarmed people defying those militants that you don't hear about, and those people need our support to succeed. +In the West, it's often assumed that Muslims generally condone terrorism. +Some on the right think this because they view Muslim culture as inherently violent, and some on the left imagine this because they view Muslim violence, fundamentalist violence, solely as a product of legitimate grievances. +But both views are dead wrong. +In fact, many people of Muslim heritage around the world are staunch opponents both of fundamentalism and of terrorism, and often for very good reason. +You see, they're much more likely to be victims of this violence than its perpetrators. +Let me just give you one example. +According to a 2009 survey of Arabic language media resources, between 2004 and 2008, no more than 15 percent of al Qaeda's victims were Westerners. +That's a terrible toll, but the vast majority were people of Muslim heritage, killed by Muslim fundamentalists. +Now I've been talking for the last five minutes about fundamentalism, and you have a right to know exactly what I mean. +I cite the definition given by the Algerian sociologist Marieme Helie Lucas, and she says that fundamentalisms, note the "s," so within all of the world's great religious traditions, "fundamentalisms are political movements of the extreme right which in a context of globalization manipulate religion in order to achieve their political aims." +Sadia Abbas has called this the radical politicization of theology. +Now I want to avoid projecting the notion that there's sort of a monolith out there called Muslim fundamentalism that is the same everywhere, because these movements also have their diversities. +Some use and advocate violence. +Some do not, though they're often interrelated. +They take different forms. +Some may be non-governmental organizations, even here in Britain like Cageprisoners. +Some may become political parties, like the Muslim Brotherhood, and some may be openly armed groups like the Taliban. +But in any case, these are all radical projects. +They're not conservative or traditional approaches. +They're most often about changing people's relationship with Islam rather than preserving it. +What I am talking about is the Muslim extreme right, and the fact that its adherents are or purport to be Muslim makes them no less offensive than the extreme right anywhere else. +So in my view, if we consider ourselves liberal or left-wing, human rights-loving or feminist, we must oppose these movements and support their grassroots opponents. +Nor should anything I say be taken as a justification of violations of human rights, like the mass death sentences handed out in Egypt earlier this week. +But what I am saying is that we must challenge these Muslim fundamentalist movements because they threaten human rights across Muslim-majority contexts, and they do this in a range of ways, most obviously with the direct attacks on civilians by the armed groups that carry those out. +But that violence is just the tip of the iceberg. +These movements as a whole purvey discrimination against religious minorities and sexual minorities. +They seek to curtail the freedom of religion of everyone who either practices in a different way or chooses not to practice. +And most definingly, they lead an all-out war on the rights of women. +Now, faced with these movements in recent years, Western discourse has most often offered two flawed responses. +So what I'm seeking is a new way of talking about this all together, which is grounded in the lived experiences and the hope of the people on the front lines. +So now let me introduce you to four people whose stories I had the great honor of telling. +Faizan Peerzada and the Rafi Peer Theatre workshop named for his father have for years promoted the performing arts in Pakistan. +With the rise of jihadist violence, they began to receive threats to call off their events, which they refused to heed. +And so a bomber struck their 2008 eighth world performing arts festival in Lahore, producing rain of glass that fell into the venue injuring nine people, and later that same night, the Peerzadas made a very difficult decision: they announced that their festival would continue as planned the next day. +As Faizan said at the time, if we bow down to the Islamists, we'll just be sitting in a dark corner. +But they didn't know what would happen. +Would anyone come? +And she said, "I know that, but I came to your festival with my mother when I was their age, and I still have those images in my mind. +We have to be here." +With stalwart audiences like this, the Peerzadas were able to conclude their festival on schedule. +And then the next year, they lost all of their sponsors due to the security risk. +So when I met them in 2010, they were in the middle of the first subsequent event that they were able to have in the same venue, and this was the ninth youth performing arts festival held in Lahore in a year when that city had already experienced 44 terror attacks. +This was a time when the Pakistani Taliban had commenced their systematic targeting of girls' schools that would culminate in the attack on Malala Yousafzai. +What did the Peerzadas do in that environment? +They staged girls' school theater. +So I had the privilege of watching "Naang Wal," which was a musical in the Punjabi language, and the girls of Lahore Grammar School played all the parts. +They sang and danced, they played the mice and the water buffalo, and I held my breath, wondering, would we get to the end of this amazing show? +And when we did, the whole audience collectively exhaled, and a few people actually wept, and then they filled the auditorium with the peaceful boom of their applause. +And I remember thinking in that moment that the bombers made headlines here two years before but this night and these people are as important a story. +Maria Bashir is the first and only woman chief prosecutor in Afghanistan. +She's been in the post since 2008 and actually opened an office to investigate cases of violence against women, which she says is the most important area in her mandate. +When I meet her in her office in Herat, she enters surrounded by four large men with four huge guns. +In fact, she now has 23 bodyguards, because she has weathered bomb attacks that nearly killed her kids, and it took the leg off of one of her guards. +Why does she continue? +She says with a smile that that is the question that everyone asks as she puts it, "Why you risk not living?" +And it is simply that for her, a better future for all the Maria Bashirs to come is worth the risk, and she knows that if people like her do not take the risk, there will be no better future. +Later on in our interview, Prosecutor Bashir tells me how worried she is about the possible outcome of government negotiations with the Taliban, the people who have been trying to kill her. +"If we give them a place in the government," she asks, "Who will protect women's rights?" +And she urges the international community not to forget its promise about women because now they want peace with Taliban. +A few weeks after I leave Afghanistan, I see a headline on the Internet. +An Afghan prosecutor has been assassinated. +I google desperately, and thankfully that day I find out that Maria was not the victim, though sadly, another Afghan prosecutor was gunned down on his way to work. +And when I hear headlines like that now, I think that as international troops leave Afghanistan this year and beyond, we must continue to care about what happens to people there, to all of the Maria Bashirs. +Sometimes I still hear her voice in my head saying, with no bravado whatsoever, "The situation of the women of Afghanistan will be better someday. +We should prepare the ground for this, even if we are killed." +There are no words adequate to denounce the al Shabaab terrorists who attacked the Westgate Mall in Nairobi on the same day as a children's cooking competition in September of 2013. +They killed 67, including poets and pregnant women. +Far away in the American Midwest, I had the good fortune of meeting Somali-Americans who were working to counter the efforts of al Shabaab to recruit a small number of young people from their city of Minneapolis to take part in atrocities like Westgate. +Abdirizak Bihi's studious 17-year-old nephew Burhan Hassan was recruited here in 2008, spirited to Somalia, and then killed when he tried to come home. +Since that time, Mr. Bihi, who directs the no-budget Somali Education and Advocacy Center, has been vocally denouncing the recruitment and the failures of government and Somali-American institutions like the Abubakar As-Saddique Islamic Center where he believes his nephew was radicalized during a youth program. +But he doesn't just criticize the mosque. +He also takes on the government for its failure to do more to prevent poverty in his community. +Given his own lack of financial resources, Mr. Bihi has had to be creative. +To counter the efforts of al Shabaab to sway more disaffected youth, in the wake of the group's 2010 attack on World Cup viewers in Uganda, he organized a Ramadan basketball tournament in Minneapolis in response. +Scores of Somali-American kids came out to embrace sport despite the fatwa against it. +They played basketball as Burhan Hassan never would again. +For his efforts, Mr. Bihi has been ostracized by the leadership of the Abubakar As-Saddique Islamic Center, with which he used to have good relations. +Now I want to tell one last story, that of a 22-year-old law student in Algeria named Amel Zenoune-Zouani who had the same dreams of a legal career that I did back in the '90s. +She refused to give up her studies, despite the fact that the fundamentalists battling the Algerian state back then threatened all who continued their education. +On January 26, 1997, Amel boarded the bus in Algiers where she was studying to go home and spend a Ramadan evening with her family, and would never finish law school. +When the bus reached the outskirts of her hometown, it was stopped at a checkpoint manned by men from the Armed Islamic Group. +Carrying her schoolbag, Amel was taken off the bus and killed in the street. +The men who cut her throat then told everyone else, "If you go to university, the day will come when we will kill all of you just like this." +Amel died at exactly 5:17 p.m., which we know because when she fell in the street, her watch broke. +Her mother showed me the watch with the second hand still aimed optimistically upward towards a 5:18 that would never come. +Shortly before her death, Amel had said to her mother of herself and her sisters, "Nothing will happen to us, Inshallah, God willing, but if something happens, you must know that we are dead for knowledge. +You and father must keep your heads held high." +The loss of such a young woman is unfathomable, and so as I did my research I found myself searching for Amel's hope again and her name even means "hope" in Arabic. +I think I found it in two places. +The first is in the strength of her family and all the other families to continue telling their stories and to go on with their lives despite the terrorism. +In fact, Amel's sister Lamia overcame her grief, went to law school, and practices as a lawyer in Algiers today, something which is only possible because the armed fundamentalists were largely defeated in the country. +And the second place I found Amel's hope was everywhere that women and men continue to defy the jihadis. +We must support all of those in honor of Amel who continue this human rights struggle today, like the Network of Women Living Under Muslim Laws. +It is not enough, as the victims rights advocate Cherifa Kheddar told me in Algiers, it is not enough just to battle terrorism. +We must also challenge fundamentalism, because fundamentalism is the ideology that makes the bed of this terrorism. +Why is it that people like her, like all of them are not more well known? +Why is it that everyone knows who Osama bin Laden was and so few know of all of those standing up to the bin Ladens in their own contexts. +We must change that, and so I ask you to please help share these stories through your networks. +Look again at Amel Zenoune's watch, forever frozen, and now please look at your own watch and decide this is the moment that you commit to supporting people like Amel. +We don't have the right to be silent about them because it is easier or because Western policy is flawed as well, because 5:17 is still coming to too many Amel Zenounes in places like northern Nigeria, where jihadis still kill students. +The time to speak up in support of all of those who peacefully challenge fundamentalism and terrorism in their own communities is now. +Thank you. +When I was preparing for this talk, I went to search for a couple of quotes that I can share with you. +Now, bad news: I didn't know which one of these quotes to choose and share with you. +The sweet anxiety of choice. +In today's times of post-industrial capitalism, choice, together with individual freedom and the idea of self-making, has been elevated to an ideal. +Now, together with this, we also have a belief in endless progress. +But the underside of this ideology has been an increase of anxiety, feelings of guilt, feelings of being inadequate, feeling that we are failing in our choices. +Sadly, this ideology of individual choice has prevented us from thinking about social changes. +It appears that this ideology was actually very efficient in pacifying us as political and social thinkers. +Instead of making social critiques, we are more and more engaging in self-critique, sometimes to the point of self-destruction. +Now, how come that ideology of choice is still so powerful, even among people who have not many things to choose among? +How come that even people who are poor very much still identify with the idea of choice, the kind of rational idea of choice which we embrace? +Now, the ideology of choice is very successful in opening for us a space to think about some imagined future. +Let me give you an example. +My friend Manya, when she was a student at university in California, was earning money by working for a car dealer. +Now, Manya, when she encountered the typical customer, would debate with him about his lifestyle, how much he wants to spend, how many children he has, what does he need the car for? +They would usually come to a good conclusion what would be a perfect car. +Now, before Manya's customer would go home and think things through, she would say to him, "The car that you are buying now is perfect, but in a few year's time, when your kids will be already out of the house, when you will have a little bit more money, that other car will be ideal. +But what you are buying now is great." +Now, the majority of Manya's customers who came back the next day bought that other car, the car they did not need, the car that cost far too much money. +Now, Manya became so successful in selling cars that soon she moved on to selling airplanes. +And knowing so much about the psychology of people prepared her well for her current job, which is that of a psychoanalyst. +Now, why were Manya's customers so irrational? +Manya's success was that she was able to open in their heads an image of an idealized future, an image of themselves when they are already more successful, freer, and for them, choosing that other car was as if they are coming closer to this ideal in which it was as if Manya already saw them. +Now, we rarely make really totally rational choices. +Choices are influenced by our unconscious, by our community. +We're often choosing by guessing, what would other people think about our choice? +Also we are choosing by looking at what others are choosing. +We're also guessing what is socially acceptable choice. +Now, because of this, we actually even after we have already chosen, like bought a car, endlessly read reviews about cars, as if we still want to convince ourselves that we made the right choice. +Now, choices are anxiety-provoking. +They are linked to risks, losses. +They are highly unpredictable. +Now, because of this, people have now more and more problems that they are not choosing anything. +Not long ago, I was at a wedding reception, and I met a young, beautiful woman who immediately started telling me about her anxiety over choice. +She said to me, "I needed one month to decide which dress to wear." +Then she said, "For weeks I was researching which hotel to stay for this one night. +And now, I need to choose a sperm donor." +I looked at this woman in shock. +"Sperm donor? What's the rush?" +She said, "I'm turning 40 at the end of this year, and I've been so bad in choosing men in my life." +Now choice, because it's linked to risk, is anxiety-provoking, and it was already the famous Danish philosopher Sren Kierkegaard who pointed out that anxiety is linked to the possibility of possibility. +Now, we think today that we can prevent these risks. +We have endless market analysis, projections of the future earnings. +Even with market, which is about chance, randomness, we think we can predict rationally where it's going. +Now, chance is actually becoming very traumatic. +Last year, my friend Bernard Harcourt at the University of Chicago organized an event, a conference on the idea of chance. +He and I were together on the panel, and just before delivering our papers we didn't know each other's papers we decided to take chance seriously. +So we informed our audience that what they will just now hear will be a random paper, a mixture of the two papers which we didn't know what each was writing. +Now, we delivered the conference in such a way. +Bernard read his first paragraph, I read my first paragraph, Bernard read his second paragraph, I read my second paragraph, in this way towards the end of our papers. +Now, you will be surprised that a majority of our audience did not think that what they'd just listened to was a completely random paper. +They couldn't believe that speaking from the position of authority like two professors we were, we would take chance seriously. +They thought we prepared the papers together and were just joking that it's random. +Now, we live in times with a lot of information, big data, a lot of knowledge about the insides of our bodies. +We decoded our genome. +We know about our brains more than before. +But surprisingly, people are more and more turning a blind eye in front of this knowledge. +Ignorance and denial are on the rise. +Now, in regard to the current economic crisis, we think that we will just wake up again and everything will be the same as before, and no political or social changes are needed. +In regard to ecological crisis, we think nothing needs to be done just now, or others need to act before us. +Or even when ecological crisis already happens, like a catastrophe in Fukushima, often we have people living in the same environment with the same amount of information, and half of them will be anxious about radiation and half of them will ignore it. +Now, psychoanalysts know very well that people surprisingly don't have passion for knowledge but passion for ignorance. +Now, what does that mean? +Let's say when we are facing a life-threatening illness, a lot of people don't want to know that. +They'd rather prefer denying the illness, which is why it's not so wise to inform them if they don't ask. +Surprisingly, research shows that sometimes people who deny their illness live longer than those who are rationally choosing the best treatment. +Now, this ignorance, however, is not very helpful on the level of the social. +When we are ignorant about where we are heading, a lot of social damage can be caused. +Now, on top of facing ignorance, we are also facing today some kind of an obviousness. +Now, it was French philosopher Louis Althusser who pointed out that ideology functions in such a way that it creates a veil of obviousness. +Before we do any social critique, it is necessary really to lift that veil of obviousness and to think through a little bit differently. +If we go back to this ideology of individual, rational choice we often embrace, it's necessary precisely here to lift this obviousness and to think a little bit differently. +Now for me, a question often is why we still embrace this idea of a self-made man on which capitalism relied from its beginning? +Why do we think that we are really such masters of our lives that we can rationally make the best ideal choices, that we don't accept losses and risks? +And for me, it's very shocking to see sometimes very poor people, for example, not supporting the idea of the rich being taxed more. +Quite often here they still identify with a certain kind of a lottery mentality. +Okay, maybe they don't think that they will make it in the future, but maybe they think, my son might become the next Bill Gates. +And who would want to tax one's son? +Or, a question for me is also, why would people who have no health insurance not embrace universal healthcare? +Sometimes they don't embrace it, again identifying with the idea of choice, but they have nothing to choose from. +Now, Margaret Thatcher famously said that there is nothing like a society. +Society doesn't exist, it is only individuals and their families. +Sadly, this ideology still functions very well, which is why people who are poor might feel ashamed for their poverty. +We might endlessly feel guilty that we are not making the right choices, and that's why we didn't succeed. +We are anxious that we are not good enough. +That's why we work very hard, long hours at the workplace and equally long hours on remaking ourselves. +Now, when we are anxious over choices, sometimes we easily give our power of choice away. +We identify with the guru who tells us what to do, self-help therapist, or we embrace a totalitarian leader who appears to have no doubts about choices, who sort of knows. +Now, often people ask me, "What did you learn by studying choice?" +And there is an important message that I did learn. +When thinking about choices, I stopped taking choices too seriously, personally. +First, I realized a lot of choice I make is not rational. +It's linked to my unconscious, my guesses of what others are choosing, or what is a socially embraced choice. +I also embrace the idea that we should go beyond thinking about individual choices, that it's very important to rethink social choices, since this ideology of individual choice has pacified us. +It really prevented us to think about social change. +We spend so much time choosing things for ourselves and barely reflect on communal choices we can make. +Now, we should not forget that choice is always linked to change. +We can make individual changes, but we can make social changes. +We can choose to have more wolves. +We can choose to change our environment to have more bees. +We can choose to have different rating agencies. +We can choose to control corporations instead of allowing corporations to control us. +We have a possibility to make changes. +Now, I started with a quote from Samuel Johnson, who said that when we make choice in life, we shouldn't forget to live. +Finally, you can see I did have a choice to choose one of the three quotes with which I wanted to start my lecture. +I did have a choice, such as nations, as people, we have choices too to rethink in what kind of society we want to live in the future. +Thank you. +The first time I stood in the operating room and watched a real surgery, I had no idea what to expect. +I was a college student in engineering. +I thought it was going to be like on TV. +Ominous music playing in the background, beads of sweat pouring down the surgeon's face. +But it wasn't like that at all. +There was music playing on this day, I think it was Madonna's greatest hits. And there was plenty of conversation, not just about the patient's heart rate, but about sports and weekend plans. +And since then, the more surgeries I watched, the more I realized this is how it is. +In some weird way, it's just another day at the office. +But every so often the music gets turned down, everyone stops talking, and stares at exactly the same thing. +And that's when you know that something absolutely critical and dangerous is happening. +The first time I saw that I was watching a type of surgery called laparoscopic surgery And for those of you who are unfamiliar, laparoscopic surgery, instead of the large open incision you might be used to with surgery, a laparoscopic surgery is where the surgeon creates these three or more small incisions in the patient. +And then inserts these long, thin instruments and a camera, and actually does the procedure inside the patient. +This is great because there's much less risk of infection, much less pain, shorter recovery time. +But there is a trade-off, because these incisions are created with a long, pointed device called a trocar. +And the way the surgeon uses this device is that he takes it and he presses it into the abdomen until it punctures through. +And now the reason why everyone in the operating room was staring at that device on that day was because he had to be absolutely careful not to plunge it through and puncture it into the organs and blood vessels below. +But this problem should seem pretty familiar to all of you because I'm pretty sure you've seen it somewhere else. +Remember this? +You knew that at any second that straw was going to plunge through, and you didn't know if it was going to go out the other side and straight into your hand, or if you were going to get juice everywhere, but you were terrified. Right? +Every single time you did this, you experienced the same fundamental physics that I was watching in the operating room that day. +And it turns out it really is a problem. +In 2003, the FDA actually came out and said that trocar incisions might be the most dangerous step in minimally invasive surgery. +Again in 2009, we see a paper that says that trocars account for over half of all major complications in laparoscopic surgery. +And, oh by the way, this hasn't changed for 25 years. +So when I got to graduate school, this is what I wanted to work on. +I was trying to explain to a friend of mine what exactly I was spending my time doing, and I said, "It's like when you're drilling through a wall to hang something in your apartment. +There's that moment when the drill first punctures through the wall and there's this plunge. Right? +And he looked at me and he said, "You mean like when they drill into people's brains?" +And I said, "Excuse me?" And then I looked it up and they do drill into people's brains. +A lot of neurosurgical procedures actually start with a drill incision through the skull. +And if the surgeon isn't careful, he can plunge directly into the brain. +So this is the moment when I started thinking, okay, cranial drilling, laparoscopic surgery, why not other areas of medicine? +Because think about it, when was the last time you went to the doctor and you didn't get stuck with something? Right? +So the truth is in medicine puncture is everywhere. +And here are just a couple of the procedures that I've found that involve some tissue puncture step. +And if we take just three of them laparoscopic surgery, epidurals, and cranial drilling these procedures account for over 30,000 complications every year in this country alone. +I call that a problem worth solving. +So let's take a look at some of the devices that are used in these types of procedures. +I mentioned epidurals. This is an epidural needle. +It's used to puncture through the ligaments in the spine and deliver anesthesia during childbirth. +Here's a set of bone marrow biopsy tools. +These are actually used to burrow into the bone and collect bone marrow or sample bone lesions. +Here's a bayonette from the Civil War. +If I had told you it was a medical puncture device you probably would have believed me. +Because what's the difference? +So, the more I did this research the more I thought there has to be a better way to do this. +And for me the key to this problem is that all these different puncture devices share a common set of fundamental physics. +So what are those physics? +Let's go back to drilling through a wall. +So you're applying a force on a drill towards the wall. +And Newton says the wall is going to apply force back, equal and opposite. +So, as you drill through the wall, those forces balance. +But then there's that moment when the drill first punctures through the other side of the wall, and right at that moment the wall can't push back anymore. +But your brain hasn't reacted to that change in force. +So for that millisecond, or however long it takes you to react, you're still pushing, and that unbalanced force causes an acceleration, and that is the plunge. +But what if right at the moment of puncture you could pull that tip back, actually oppose the forward acceleration? +That's what I set out to do. +So imagine you have a device and it's got some kind of sharp tip to cut through tissue. +What's the simplest way you could pull that tip back? +I chose a spring. +So when you extend that spring, you extend that tip out so it's ready to puncture tissue, the spring wants to pull the tip back. +How do you keep the tip in place until the moment of puncture? +I used this mechanism. +When the tip of the device is pressed against tissue, the mechanism expands outwards and wedges in place against the wall. +And the friction that's generated locks it in place and prevents the spring from retracting the tip. +But right at the moment of puncture, the tissue can't push back on the tip anymore. +So the mechanism unlocks and the spring retracts the tip. +Let me show you that happening in slow motion. +This is about 2,000 frames a second, and I'd like you to notice the tip that's right there on the bottom, about to puncture through tissue. +And you'll see that right at the moment of puncture, right there, the mechanism unlocks and retracts that tip back. +I want to show it to you again, a little closer up. +You're going to see the sharp bladed tip, and right when it punctures that rubber membrane it's going to disappear into this white blunt sheath. +Right there. +That happens within four 100ths of a second after puncture. +And because this device is designed to address the physics of puncture and not the specifics of cranial drilling or laparoscopic surgery, or another procedure, it's applicable across these different medical disciplines and across different length scales. +But it didn't always look like this. +This was my first prototype. +Yes, those are popsicle sticks, and there's a rubber band at the top. +It took about 30 minutes to do this, but it worked. +And it proved to me that my idea worked and it justified the next couple years of work on this project. +I worked on this because this problem really fascinated me. +It kept me up at night. +But I think it should fascinate you too, because I said puncture is everywhere. +That means at some point it's going to be your problem too. +That first day in the operating room I never expected to find myself on the other end of a trocar. +But last year, I got appendicitis when I was visiting Greece. +So I was in the hospital in Athens, and the surgeon was telling me he was going to perform a laparoscopic surgery. +He was going to remove my appendix through these tiny incisions, and he was talking about what I could expect for the recovery, and what was going to happen. +He said, "Do you have any questions?" And I said, "Just one, doc. +What kind of trocar do you use?" +So my favorite quote about laparoscopic surgery comes from a Doctor H. C. Jacobaeus: "It is puncture itself that causes risk." +That's my favorite quote because H.C. Jacobaeus was the first person to ever perform laparoscopic surgery on humans, and he wrote that in 1912. +This is a problem that's been injuring and even killing people for over 100 years. +So it's easy to think that for every major problem out there there's some team of experts working around the clock to solve it. +The truth is that's not always the case. +We have to be better at finding those problems and finding ways to solve them. +So if you come across a problem that grabs you, let it keep you up at night. +Allow yourself to be fascinated, because there are so many lives to save. +I was born in Taiwan. +I grew up surrounded by different types of hardware stores, and I like going to night markets. +I love the energy of the night markets, the colors, the lights, the toys, and all the unexpected things I find every time I go, things like watermelon with straw antennas or puppies with mohawks. +When I was growing up, I liked taking toys apart, any kind of toys I'd find around the house, like my brother's BB gun when he's not home. +I also liked to make environments for people to explore and play. +In these early installations, I would take plastic sheets, plastic bags, and things I would find in the hardware store or around the house. +I would take things like highlighter pen, mix it with water, pump it through plastic tubing, creating these glowing circulatory systems for people to walk through and enjoy. +I like these materials because of the way they look, the way they feel, and they're very affordable. +I also liked to make devices that work with body parts. +I would take camera LED lights and a bungee cord and strap it on my waist and I would videotape my belly button, get a different perspective, and see what it does. +I also like to modify household appliances. +This is an automatic night light. +Some of you might have them at home. +I would cut out the light sensor, add an extension line, and use modeling clay, stick it onto the television, and then I would videotape my eye, and using the dark part of my eye tricking the sensor into thinking it's night time, so you turn on the lightbulb. +The white of the eye and the eyelid will trick the sensor into thinking it's daytime, and it will shut off the light. +I wanted to collect more different types of eyes, so I built this device using bicycle helmets, some lightbulbs and television sets. +It would be easier for other people to wear the helmet and record their eyes. +This device allows me to symbolically extract other people's eyes, so I have a diversity of eyes to use for my other sculptures. +This sculpture has four eyes. +Each eye is controlling a different device. +This eye is turning itself around in a television. +This eye is inflating a plastic tube. +This eye is watching a video of another piece being made. +And these two eyes are activating glowing water. +Many of these pieces are later on shown in museums, biennials, triennial exhibitions around the world. +I love science and biology. +In 2007, I was doing a research fellowship at the Smithsonian Natural History Museum looking at bioluminous organisms in the oean. +I love these creatures. I love the way they look, the way they feel. +They're soft, they're slimy, and I was fascinated by the way they use light in their environment, either to attract mates, for self-defense, or to attract food. +This research inspired my work in many different ways, things like movement or different light patterns. +So I started gathering a lot of different types of material in my studio and just experimenting and trying this out, trying that out, and seeing what types of creatures I can come up with. +I used a lot of computer cooling fans and just kind of put them together and see what happens. +This is an 8,000-square-foot installation composed of many different creatures, some hanging from the ceiling and some resting on the floor. +From afar, they look alien-like, but when you look closer, they're all made out of black garbage bags or Tupperware containers. +I'd like to share with you how ordinary things can become something magical and wondrous. +Thank you. +I'd like to introduce you to an organism: a slime mold, Physarum polycephalum. +It's a mold with an identity crisis, because it's not a mold, so let's get that straight to start with. +It is one of 700 known slime molds belonging to the kingdom of the amoeba. +It is a single-celled organism, a cell, that joins together with other cells to form a mass super-cell to maximize its resources. +So within a slime mold you might find thousands or millions of nuclei, all sharing a cell wall, all operating as one entity. +In its natural habitat, you might find the slime mold foraging in woodlands, eating rotting vegetation, but you might equally find it in research laboratories, classrooms, and even artists' studios. +I first came across the slime mold about five years ago. +A microbiologist friend of mine gave me a petri dish with a little yellow blob in it and told me to go home and play with it. +The only instructions I was given, that it likes it dark and damp and its favorite food is porridge oats. +I'm an artist who's worked for many years with biology, with scientific processes, so living material is not uncommon for me. +I've worked with plants, bacteria, cuttlefish, fruit flies. +So I was keen to get my new collaborator home to see what it could do. +So I took it home and I watched. +I fed it a varied diet. +I observed as it networked. +It formed a connection between food sources. +I watched it leave a trail behind it, indicating where it had been. +And I noticed that when it was fed up with one petri dish, it would escape and find a better home. +I captured my observations through time-lapse photography. +Slime mold grows at about one centimeter an hour, so it's not really ideal for live viewing unless there's some form of really extreme meditation, but through the time lapse, I could observe some really interesting behaviors. +For instance, having fed on a nice pile of oats, the slime mold goes off to explore new territories in different directions simultaneously. +When it meets itself, it knows it's already there, it recognizes it's there, and instead retreats back and grows in other directions. +I was quite impressed by this feat, at how what was essentially just a bag of cellular slime could somehow map its territory, know itself, and move with seeming intention. +I found countless scientific studies, research papers, journal articles, all citing incredible work with this one organism, and I'm going to share a few of those with you. +For example, a team in Hokkaido University in Japan filled a maze with slime mold. +It joined together and formed a mass cell. +They introduced food at two points, oats of course, and it formed a connection between the food. +It retracted from empty areas and dead ends. +There are four possible routes through this maze, yet time and time again, the slime mold established the shortest and the most efficient route. +Quite clever. +The conclusion from their experiment was that the slime mold had a primitive form of intelligence. +Another study exposed cold air at regular intervals to the slime mold. +It didn't like it. It doesn't like it cold. +It doesn't like it dry. +They did this at repeat intervals, and each time, the slime mold slowed down its growth in response. +However, at the next interval, the researchers didn't put the cold air on, yet the slime mold slowed down in anticipation of it happening. +It somehow knew that it was about the time for the cold air that it didn't like. +The conclusion from their experiment was that the slime mold was able to learn. +A third experiment: the slime mold was invited to explore a territory covered in oats. +It fans out in a branching pattern. +As it goes, each food node it finds, it forms a network, a connection to, and keeps foraging. +After 26 hours, it established quite a firm network between the different oats. +Now there's nothing remarkable in this until you learn that the center oat that it started from represents the city of Tokyo, and the surrounding oats are suburban railway stations. +The slime mold had replicated the Tokyo transport network a complex system developed over time by community dwellings, civil engineering, urban planning. +What had taken us well over 100 years took the slime mold just over a day. +The conclusion from their experiment was that the slime mold can form efficient networks and solve the traveling salesman problem. +It is a biological computer. +As such, it has been mathematically modeled, algorithmically analyzed. +It's been sonified, replicated, simulated. +World over, teams of researchers are decoding its biological principles to understand its computational rules and applying that learning to the fields of electronics, programming and robotics. +So the question is, how does this thing work? +It doesn't have a central nervous system. +It doesn't have a brain, yet it can perform behaviors that we associate with brain function. +It can learn, it can remember, it can solve problems, it can make decisions. +So where does that intelligence lie? +So this is a microscopy, a video I shot, and it's about 100 times magnification, sped up about 20 times, and inside the slime mold, there is a rhythmic pulsing flow, a vein-like structure carrying cellular material, nutrients and chemical information through the cell, streaming first in one direction and then back in another. +And it is this continuous, synchronous oscillation within the cell that allows it to form quite a complex understanding of its environment, but without any large-scale control center. +This is where its intelligence lies. +So it's not just academic researchers in universities that are interested in this organism. +A few years ago, I set up SliMoCo, the Slime Mould Collective. +It's an online, open, democratic network for slime mold researchers and enthusiasts to share knowledge and experimentation across disciplinary divides and across academic divides. +The Slime Mould Collective membership is self-selecting. +People have found the collective as the slime mold finds the oats. +And it comprises of scientists and computer scientists and researchers but also artists like me, architects, designers, writers, activists, you name it. +It's a very interesting, eclectic membership. +Just a few examples: an artist who paints with fluorescent Physarum; a collaborative team who are combining biological and electronic design with 3D printing technologies in a workshop; another artist who is using the slime mold as a way of engaging a community to map their area. +Here, the slime mold is being used directly as a biological tool, but metaphorically as a symbol for ways of talking about social cohesion, communication and cooperation. +Other public engagement activities, I run lots of slime mold workshops, a creative way of engaging with the organism. +So people are invited to come and learn about what amazing things it can do, and they design their own petri dish experiment, an environment for the slime mold to navigate so they can test its properties. +Everybody takes home a new pet and is invited to post their results on the Slime Mould Collective. +And the collective has enabled me to form collaborations with a whole array of interesting people. +I've been working with filmmakers on a feature-length slime mold documentary, and I stress feature-length, which is in the final stages of edit and will be hitting your cinema screens very soon. +It's also enabled me to conduct what I think is the world's first human slime mold experiment. +This is part of an exhibition in Rotterdam last year. +We invited people to become slime mold for half an hour. +So we essentially tied people together so they were a giant cell, and invited them to follow slime mold rules. +You have to communicate through oscillations, no speaking. +You have to operate as one entity, one mass cell, no egos, and the motivation for moving and then exploring the environment is in search of food. +So a chaotic shuffle ensued as this bunch of strangers tied together with yellow ropes wearing "Being Slime Mold" t-shirts wandered through the museum park. +When they met trees, they had to reshape their connections and reform as a mass cell through not speaking. +This is a ludicrous experiment in many, many ways. +This isn't hypothesis-driven. +We're not trying to prove, demonstrate anything. +But what it did provide us was a way of engaging a broad section of the public with ideas of intelligence, agency, autonomy, and provide a playful platform for discussions about the things that ensued. +One of the most exciting things about this experiment was the conversation that happened afterwards. +An entirely spontaneous symposium happened in the park. +People talked about the human psychology, of how difficult it was to let go of their individual personalities and egos. +Other people talked about bacterial communication. +Each person brought in their own individual interpretation, and our conclusion from this experiment was that the people of Rotterdam were highly cooperative, especially when given beer. +We didn't just give them oats. +We gave them beer as well. +But they weren't as efficient as the slime mold, and the slime mold, for me, is a fascinating subject matter. +It's biologically fascinating, it's computationally interesting, but it's also a symbol, a way of engaging with ideas of community, collective behavior, cooperation. +A lot of my work draws on the scientific research, so this pays homage to the maze experiment but in a different way. +And the slime mold is also my working material. +It's a coproducer of photographs, prints, animations, participatory events. +Whilst the slime mold doesn't choose to work with me, exactly, it is a collaboration of sorts. +I can predict certain behaviors by understanding how it operates, but I can't control it. +The slime mold has the final say in the creative process. +And after all, it has its own internal aesthetics. +These branching patterns that we see we see across all forms, scales of nature, from river deltas to lightning strikes, from our own blood vessels to neural networks. +There's clearly significant rules at play in this simple yet complex organism, and no matter what our disciplinary perspective or our mode of inquiry, there's a great deal that we can learn from observing and engaging with this beautiful, brainless blob. +I give you Physarum polycephalum. +Thank you. +This is the human test, a test to see if you are a human. +Please raise your hand if something applies to you. +Are we agreed? Yes? +Then let's begin. +Have you ever eaten a booger long past your childhood? +It's okay, it's safe here. +Have you ever made a small, weird sound when you remembered something embarrassing? +Have you ever purposely lowercased the first letter of a text in order to come across as sad or disappointed? +Okay. +Have you ever ended a text with a period as a sign of aggression? Okay. Period. +Have you ever laughed or smiled when someone said something shitty to you and then spent the rest of the day wondering why you reacted that way? +Yes. +Have you ever seemed to lose your airplane ticket a thousand times as you walked from the check-in to the gate? +Yes. +Have you ever put on a pair of pants and then much later realized that there was a loose sock smushed up against your thigh? +Good. +Have you ever tried to guess someone else's password so many times that it locked their account? +Mmm. +Have you ever had a nagging feeling that one day you will be discovered as a fraud? +Yes, it's safe here. +Have you ever hoped that there was some ability you hadn't discovered yet that you were just naturally great at? +Mmm. +Have you ever broken something in real life, and then found yourself looking for an "undo" button in real life? +Have you ever misplaced your TED badge and then immediately started imagining what a three-day Vancouver vacation might look like? +Have you ever marveled at how someone you thought was so ordinary could suddenly become so beautiful? +Have you ever stared at your phone smiling like an idiot while texting with someone? +Have you ever subsequently texted that person the phrase "I'm staring at the phone smiling like an idiot"? +Have you ever been tempted to, and then gave in to the temptation, of looking through someone else's phone? +Have you ever had a conversation with yourself and then suddenly realized you're a real asshole to yourself? +Has your phone ever run out of battery in the middle of an argument, and it sort of felt like the phone was breaking up with both of you? +Have you ever thought that working on an issue between you was futile because it should just be easier than this, or this is supposed to happen just naturally? +Have you ever realized that very little, in the long run, just happens naturally? +Have you ever woken up blissfully and suddenly been flooded by the awful remembrance that someone had left you? +Have you ever lost the ability to imagine a future without a person that no longer was in your life? +Have you ever looked back on that event with the sad smile of autumn and the realization that futures will happen regardless? +Congratulations. +You have now completed the test. +You are all human. +I would like to share with you a new model of higher education, a model that, once expanded, can enhance the collective intelligence of millions of creative and motivated individuals that otherwise would be left behind. +Look at the world. +Pick up a place and focus on it. +You will find humans chasing higher education. +Let's meet some of them. +Patrick. +Patrick was born in Liberia to a family of 20 children. +During the civil war, he and his family were forced to flee to Nigeria. +There, in spite of his situation, he graduated high school with nearly perfect grades. +He wanted to continue to higher education, but due to his family living on the poverty line, he was soon sent to South Africa to work and send back money Patrick never gave up his dream of higher education. +Late at night, after work, he surfed the Net looking for ways to study. +Meet Debbie. +Debbie is from Florida. +Her parents didn't go to college, and neither did any of her siblings. +Debbie has worked all her life, pays taxes, supports herself month to month, proud of the American dream, a dream that just won't be complete without higher education. +But Debbie doesn't have the savings for higher education. +She can't pay the tuition. +Neither could she leave work. +Meet Wael. +Wael is from Syria. +He's firsthand experiencing the misery, fear and failure imposed on his country. +He's a big believer in education. +He knew that if he would find an opportunity for higher education, an opportunity to get ahead of the rest, he has a better chance to survive in a world turned upside down. +The higher education system failed Patrick, Debbie and Wael, exactly as it is failing millions of potential students, millions that graduate high school, millions that are qualified for higher education, millions that want to study yet cannot access for various reasons. +First, financial. +Universities are expensive. We all know it. +In large parts of the world, higher education is unattainable for an average citizen. +This is probably the biggest problem facing our society. +Higher education stopped being a right for all and became a privilege for the few. +Second, cultural. +Students who are qualified for higher education, can afford, want to study, cannot because it is not decent, it is not a place for a woman. +This is the story of countless women in Africa, for example, prevented from higher education because of cultural barriers. +And here comes the third reason: UNESCO stated that in 2025, 100 million students will be deprived from higher education simply because there will not be enough seats to accommodate them, to meet the demand. +They will take a placement test, they will pass it, but they still won't have access because there are no places available. +Patrick, Debbie and Wael are only three examples out of the 1,700 accepted students from 143 countries. +We Thank you. +We didn't need to reinvent the wheel. +We just looked at what wasn't working and used the amazing power of the Internet to get around it. +We set out to build a model that will cut down almost entirely the cost of higher education, and that's how we did it. +First, bricks and mortar cost money. +Universities have expenses that virtual universities don't. +We don't need to pass these expenses onto our students. +They don't exist. +We also don't need to worry about capacity. +There are no limits of seats in virtual university. +Actually, nobody needs to stand at the back of the lecture hall. +Textbooks is also something our students don't need to buy. +By using open educational resources and the generosity of professors who are putting their material free and accessible, we don't need to send our students to buy textbooks. +All of our materials come free. +Even professors, the most expensive line in any university balance sheet, come free to our students, over 3,000 of them, including presidents, vice chancellors, professors and academic advisors from top universities such as NYU, Yale, Berkeley and Oxford, came on board to help our students. +Finally, it's our belief in peer-to-peer learning. +We use this sound pedagogical model to encourage our students from all over the world to interact and study together and also to reduce the time our professors need to labor over class assignments. +If the Internet has made us a global village, this model can develop its future leadership. +Look how we do it. +We only offer two programs: business administration and computer science, the two programs that are most in demand worldwide, the two programs that are likeliest to help our students find a job. +When our students are accepted, they are placed in a small classroom of 20 to 30 students to ensure that those who need personalized attention get it. +Moreover, for every nine weeks' course, they meet a new peer, a whole new set of students from all over the world. +Every week, when they go into the classroom, they find the lecture notes of the week, the reading assignment, the homework assignment, and the discussion question, which is the core of our studies. +Every week, every student must contribute to the class discussion and also must comment on the contribution of others. +This way, we open our students' minds, we develop a positive shift in attitude toward different cultures. +By the end of each week, the students take a quiz, hand in their homework, which are assessed by their peers under the supervision of the instructors, get a grade, move to the next week. +By the end of the course, they take the final exam, get a grade, and follow to the next course. +We opened the gates for higher education for every qualified student. +Every student with a high school diploma, sufficient English and Internet connection can study with us. +We don't use audio. We don't use video. +Broadband is not necessary. +Any student from any part of the world with any Internet connection can study with us. +We are tuition-free. +All we ask our students to cover is the cost of their exams, 100 dollars per exam. +A full-time bachelor degree student taking 40 courses, will pay 1,000 dollars a year, 4,000 dollars for the entire degree, and for those who cannot afford even this, we offer them a variety of scholarships. +It is our mission that nobody will be left behind for financial reasons. +With 5,000 students in 2016, this model is financially sustainable. +Five years ago, it was a vision. +Today, it is a reality. +Last month, we got the ultimate academic endorsement to our model. +University of the People is now fully accredited. +Thank you. +With this accreditation, it's our time now to scale up. +We have demonstrated that our model works. +I invite universities and, even more important, developing countries' governments, to replicate this model to ensure that the gates of higher education will open widely. +A new era is coming, an era that will witness the disruption of the higher education model as we know it today, from being a privilege for the few to becoming a basic right, affordable and accessible for all. +Thank you. +Take a look at this drawing. +Can you tell what it is? +I'm a molecular biologist by training, and I've seen a lot of these kinds of drawings. +They're usually referred to as a model figure, a drawing that shows how we think a cellular or molecular process occurs. +This particular drawing is of a process called clathrin-mediated endocytosis. +It's a process by which a molecule can get from the outside of the cell to the inside by getting captured in a bubble or a vesicle that then gets internalized by the cell. +There's a problem with this drawing, though, and it's mainly in what it doesn't show. +From lots of experiments, from lots of different scientists, we know a lot about what these molecules look like, how they move around in the cell, and that this is all taking place in an incredibly dynamic environment. +So in collaboration with a clathrin expert Tomas Kirchhausen, we decided to create a new kind of model figure that showed all of that. +So we start outside of the cell. +Now we're looking inside. +Clathrin are these three-legged molecules that can self-assemble into soccer-ball-like shapes. +Through connections with a membrane, clathrin is able to deform the membrane and form this sort of a cup that forms this sort of a bubble, or a vesicle, that's now capturing some of the proteins that were outside of the cell. +Proteins are coming in now that basically pinch off this vesicle, making it separate from the rest of the membrane, and now clathrin is basically done with its job, and so proteins are coming in now we've covered them yellow and orange that are responsible for taking apart this clathrin cage. +And so all of these proteins can get basically recycled and used all over again. +These processes are too small to be seen directly, even with the best microscopes, so animations like this provide a really powerful way of visualizing a hypothesis. +Here's another illustration, and this is a drawing of how a researcher might think that the HIV virus gets into and out of cells. +And again, this is a vast oversimplification and doesn't begin to show what we actually know about these processes. +You might be surprised to know that these simple drawings are the only way that most biologists visualize their molecular hypotheses. +Why? +Because creating movies of processes as we think they actually occur is really hard. +I spent months in Hollywood learning 3D animation software, and I spend months on each animation, and that's just time that most researchers can't afford. +The payoffs can be huge, though. +Molecular animations are unparalleled in their ability to convey a great deal of information to broad audiences with extreme accuracy. +And I'm working on a new project now called "The Science of HIV" where I'll be animating the entire life cycle of the HIV virus as accurately as possible and all in molecular detail. +The animation will feature data from thousands of researchers collected over decades, data on what this virus looks like, how it's able to infect cells in our body, and how therapeutics are helping to combat infection. +Over the years, I found that animations aren't just useful for communicating an idea, but they're also really useful for exploring a hypothesis. +Biologists for the most part are still using a paper and pencil to visualize the processes they study, and with the data we have now, that's just not good enough anymore. +The process of creating an animation can act as a catalyst that allows researchers to crystalize and refine their own ideas. +One researcher I worked with who works on the molecular mechanisms of neurodegenerative diseases came up with experiments that were related directly to the animation that she and I worked on together, and in this way, animation can feed back into the research process. +I believe that animation can change biology. +It can change the way that we communicate with one another, how we explore our data and how we teach our students. +But for that change to happen, we need more researchers creating animations, and toward that end, I brought together a team of biologists, animators and programmers to create a new, free, open-source software we call it Molecular Flipbook that's created just for biologists just to create molecular animations. +From our testing, we've found that it only takes 15 minutes for a biologist who has never touched animation software before to create her first molecular animation of her own hypothesis. +We're also building an online database where anyone can view, download and contribute their own animations. +We're really excited to announce that the beta version of the molecular animation software toolkit will be available for download today. +We are really excited to see what biologists will create with it and what new insights they're able to gain from finally being able to animate their own model figures. +Thank you. +I didn't know when I agreed to do this whether I was expected to talk or to sing. +But when I was told that the topic was language, I felt that I had to speak about something for a moment. +I have a problem. +It's not the worst thing in the world. +I'm fine. +I'm not on fire. +I know that other people in the world have far worse things to deal with, but for me, language and music are inextricably linked through this one thing. +And the thing is that I have a stutter. +It might seem curious given that I spend a lot of my life on the stage. +One would assume that I'm comfortable in the public sphere and comfortable here, speaking to you guys. +But the truth is that I've spent my life up until this point and including this point, living in mortal dread of public speaking. +Public singing, whole different thing. But we'll get to that in a moment. +I've never really talked about it before so explicitly. +I think that that's because I've always lived in hope that when I was a grown-up, I wouldn't have one. +I sort of lived with this idea that when I'm grown, I'll have learned to speak French, and when I'm grown, I'll learn how to manage my money, and when I'm grown, I won't have a stutter, and then I'll be able to public speak and maybe be the prime minister and anything's possible and, you know. +So I can talk about it now because I've reached this point, where I mean, I'm 28. +I'm pretty sure that I'm grown now. +And I'm an adult woman who spends her life as a performer, with a speech impediment. +So, I might as well come clean about it. +There are some interesting angles to having a stutter. +For me, the worst thing that can happen is meeting another stutterer. +This happened to me in Hamburg, when this guy, we met and he said, "Hello, m-m-m-my name is Joe," and I said, "Oh, hello, m-m-m-my name is Meg." +Imagine my horror when I realized he thought I was making fun of him. +People think I'm drunk all the time. +People think that I've forgotten their name when I hesitate before saying it. +And it is a very weird thing, because proper nouns are the worst. +If I'm going to use the word "Wednesday" in a sentence, and I'm coming up to the word, and I can feel that I'm going to stutter or something, I can change the word to "tomorrow," or "the day after Tuesday," or something else. +It's clunky, but you can get away with it, because over time I've developed this loophole method of using speech where right at the last minute you change the thing and you trick your brain. +But with people's names, you can't change them. +When I was singing a lot of jazz, I worked a lot with a pianist whose name was Steve. +As you can probably gather, S's and T's, together or independently, are my kryptonite. +But I would have to introduce the band over this rolling vamp, and when I got around to Steve, I'd often find myself stuck on the "St." +And it was a bit awkward and uncomfortable and it totally kills the vibe. +So after a few instances of this, Steve happily became "Seve," and we got through it that way. I've had a lot of therapy, and a common form of treatment is to use this technique that's called smooth speech, which is where you almost sing everything that you say. +You kind of join everything together in this very singsong, kindergarten teacher way, and it makes you sound very serene, like you've had lots of Valium, and everything is calm. That's not actually me. +And I do use that. I do. +I use it when I have to be on panel shows, or when I have to do radio interviews, when the economy of airtime is paramount. +I get through it that way for my job. +But as an artist who feels that their work is based solely on a platform of honesty and being real, that feels often like cheating. +Which is why before I sing, I wanted to tell you what singing means to me. +It's more than making nice sounds, and it's more than making nice songs. +It's more than feeling known, or understood. +It's more than making you feel the things that I feel. +It's not about mythology, or mythologizing myself to you. +Somehow, through some miraculous synaptic function of the human brain, it's impossible to stutter when you sing. +And when I was younger, that was a method of treatment that worked very well for me, singing, so I did it a lot. +And that's why I'm here today. +Thank you. +Singing for me is sweet relief. +It is the only time when I feel fluent. +It is the only time when what comes out of my mouth is comprehensively exactly what I intended. +So I know that this is a TED Talk, but now i'm going to TED sing. +This is a song that I wrote last year. +Thank you very much. Thank you. +As a kid I always loved information that I could get from data and the stories that could be told with numbers. +I remember, growing up, I'd be frustrated at how my own parents would lie to me using numbers. +"Talithia, if I've told you once I've told you a thousand times." +No dad, you've only told me 17 times and twice it wasn't my fault. I think that is one of the reasons I got a Ph.D. in statistics. +I always wanted to know, what are people trying to hide with numbers? +As a statistician, I want people to show me the data so I can decide for myself. +Donald and I were pregnant with our third child and we were at about 41 and a half weeks, what some of you may refer to as being overdue. +Statisticians, we call that being within the 95 percent confidence interval. +And at this point in the process we had to come in every couple of days to do a stress test on the baby, and this is just routine, it tests whether or not the baby is feeling any type of undue stress. +And you are rarely, if ever, seen by your actual doctor, just whoever happens to be working at the hospital that day. +So we go in for a stress test and after 20 minutes the doctor comes out and he says, "Your baby is under stress, we need to induce you." +Now, as a statistician, what's my response? +Show me the data! +So then he proceeds to tell us the baby's heart rate trace went from 18 minutes, the baby's heart rate was in the normal zone and for two minutes it was in what appeared to be my heart rate zone and I said, "Is it possible that maybe this was my heart rate? +I was moving around a little bit, it's hard to lay still on your back, 41 weeks pregnant for 20 minutes. +Maybe it was shifting around." +He said, "Well, we don't want to take any chances." +I said okay. +I said, "What if I was at 36 weeks with this same data? +Would your decision be to induce?" +"Well, no, I would wait until you were at least 38 weeks, but you are almost 42, there is no reason to leave that baby inside, let's get you a room." +I said, "Well, why don't we just do it again? +We can collect more data. +I can try to be really still for 20 minutes. +We can average the two and see what that means. And he goes, "Ma'am, I just don't want you to have a miscarriage." +That makes three of us. +And then he says, "Your chances of having a miscarriage double when you go past your due date. Let's get you a room." +Wow. So now as a statistician, what's my response? +Show me the data! +Dude, you're talking chances, I do chances all day long, tell me all about chances. +Let's talk chances. Let's talk chances. So I say, "Okay, great. +Do I go from a 30-percent chance to a 60-percent chance? +Where are we here with this miscarriage thing? +And he goes, "Not quite, but it doubles, and we really just want what's best for the baby." +Undaunted, I try a different angle. +I said, "Okay, out of 1,000 full-term pregnant women, how many of them are going to miscarry just before their due date? +And then he looks at me and looks at Donald, and he goes, about one in 1,000. +I said, "Okay, so of those 1,000 women, how many are going to miscarry just after their due date?" +And then I said, "And I really don't think my due date is accurate." +And so this really stunned him and he looked sort of puzzled and I said, "You may not know this, but pregnancy due dates are calculated assuming that you have a standard 28-day cycle, and my cycle ranges sometimes it's 27, sometimes it's up to 38 and I have been collecting the data to prove it. +And so we ended up leaving the hospital that day without being induced. +We actually had to sign a waiver to walk out of the hospital. +And I'm not advocating that you not listen to your doctors, because even with our first child, we were induced at 38 weeks; cervical fluid was low. +I'm not anti-medical intervention. +But why were confident to leave that day? +Well, we had data that told a different story. +We had been collecting data for six years. +I had this temperature data, and it told a different story. +In fact, we could probably pretty accurately estimate conception. +Yeah, that's a story you want to tell at your kid's wedding reception. I remember like it was yesterday. +My temperature was a sizzling 97.8 degrees as I stared into your father's eyes. Oh, yeah. Twenty-two more years, we're telling that story. +But we were confident to leave because we had been collecting data. +Now, what does that data look like? +Here's a standard chart of a woman's waking body temperature during the course of a cycle. +So from the beginning of the menstrual cycle till the beginning of the next. +You'll see that the temperature is not random. +Clearly there is a low pattern at the beginning of her cycle and then you see this jump and then a higher set of temperatures at the end of her cycle. +So what's happening here? What is that data telling you? +Well, ladies, at the beginning of our cycle, the hormone estrogen is dominant and that estrogen causes a suppression of your body temperature. +And at ovulation, your body releases an egg and progesterone takes over, pro-gestation. +And so your body heats up in anticipation of housing this new little fertilized egg. +So why this temperature jump? +Well, think about when a bird sits on her eggs. +Why is she sitting on them? +She wants to keep them warm, protect them and keep them warm. +Ladies, this is exactly what our bodies do every month, they heat up in anticipation of keeping a new little life warm. +And if nothing happens, if you are not pregnant, then estrogen takes back over and that cycle starts all over again. +But if you do get pregnant, sometimes you actually see another shift in your temperatures and it stays elevated for those whole nine months. +That's why you see those pregnant women just sweating and hot, because their temperatures are high. +Here's a chart that we had about three or four years ago. +We were really very excited about this chart. +You'll see the low temperature level and then a shift and for about five days, that's about the time it takes for the egg to travel down the fallopian tube and implant, and then you see those temperatures start to go up a little bit. +And in fact, we had a second temperature shift, confirmed with a pregnancy test that were indeed pregnant with our first child, very exciting. +Until a couple of days later I saw some spotting and then I noticed heavy blood flow, and we had in fact had an early stage miscarriage. +Had I not been taking my temperature I really would have just thought my period was late that month, but we actually had data to show that we had miscarried this baby, and even though this data revealed a really unfortunate event in our lives, it was information that we could then take to our doctor. +So if there was a fertility issue or some problem, I had data to show: Look, we got pregnant, our temperature shifted, we somehow lost this baby. +What is it that we can do to help prevent this problem? +And it's not just about temperatures and it's not just about fertility; we can use data about our bodies to tell us a lot of things. +For instance, did you know that taking your temperature can tell you a lot about the condition of your thyroid? +So, your thyroid works a lot like the thermostat in your house. +There is an optimal temperature that you want in your house; you set your thermostat. +When it gets too cold in the house, your thermostat kicks in and says, "Hey, we need to blow some heat around." +Or if it gets too hot, your thermostat registers, "Turn the A.C. on. Cool us off." +That's exactly how your thyroid works in your body. +Your thyroid tries to keep an optimal temperature for your body. +If it gets too cold, your thyroid says, "Hey, we need to heat up." +If it gets too hot, your thyroid cools you down. +But what happens when your thyroid is not functioning well? +When it doesn't function, then it shows up in your body temperatures, they tend to be lower than normal or very erratic. +And so by collecting this data you can find out information about your thyroid. +Now, what is it, if you had a thyroid problem and you went to the doctor, your doctor would actually test the amount of thyroid stimulating hormone in your blood. +Fine. But the problem with that test is it doesn't tell you how active the hormone is in your body. +So you might have a lot of hormone present, but it might not be actively working to regulate your body temperature. +So just by collecting your temperature every day, you get information about the condition of your thyroid. +So, what if you don't want to take your temperature every day? +I advocate that you do, but there are tons of other things you could take. +You could take your blood pressure, you could take your weight yeah, who's excited about taking their weight every day? Early on in our marriage, Donald had a stuffy nose and he had been taking a slew of medications to try to relieve his stuffy nose, to no avail. +And so, that night he comes and he wakes me up and he says, "Honey, I can't breath out of my nose." +And I roll over and I look, and I said, "Well, can you breath out of your mouth?" +And he goes, "Yes, but I can't breath out of my nose!" +And so like any good wife, I rush him to the emergency room at 2 o'clock in the morning. +And the whole time I'm driving and I'm thinking, you can't die on me now. +And he said, "You can't breath out of your nose? +No, but he can breath out of his mouth. He takes a step back and he looks at both of us and he says "Sir, I think I know the problem. +You're having a heart attack. I'm going to order an EKG and a CAT scan And we are thinking, no, no, no. It's not a heart attack. He can breathe, just out of his mouth. No, no, no, no, no. +And so we go back and forth with this doctor because we think this is the incorrect diagnosis, and he's like, "No really, it'll be fine, just calm down." +And I'm thinking, how do you calm down? But I don't think he's having a heart attack. +And so fortunately for us, this doctor was at the end of the shift. +So this new doctor comes in, he sees us clearly distraught, with a husband who can't breath out of his nose. And he starts asking us questions. +He says, "Well, do you two exercise?" +We ride our bikes, we go to the gym occasionally. +We move around. +And he says, "What were you doing just before you came here?" +I'm thinking, I was sleeping, honestly. +But okay, what was Donald doing just before? +So Donald goes into this slew of medications he was taking. +He lists, "I took this decongestant and then I took this nasal spray," and then all of a sudden a lightbulb goes off and he says, "Oh! You should never mix this decongestant with this nasal spray. +Clogs you up every time. Here, take this one instead." +He gives us a prescription. +We're looking at each other, and I looked at the doctor, and I said, "Why is it that it seems like you were able to accurately diagnose his condition, but this previous doctor wanted to order an EKG and a CAT scan?" +And he looks at us and says, "Well, when a 350-pound man walks in the emergency room and says he can't breath, you assume he's having a heart attack and you ask questions later." +Now, emergency room doctors are trained to make decisions quickly, but not always accurately. +And so had we had some information about our heart health to share with him, maybe we would have gotten a better diagnosis the first time. +I want you to consider the following chart, of systolic blood pressure measurements from October 2010 to July 2012. +You'll see that these measurements start in the prehypertension/hypertension zone, but over about the course of a year and a half they move into the normal zone. +This is about the heart rate of a healthy 16-year-old. +What story is this data telling you? +Obviously it's the data from someone who's made a drastic transformation, and fortunately for us, that person happens to be here today. +So that 350-pound guy that walked into the emergency room with me is now an even sexier and healthier 225-pound guy, and that's his blood pressure trace. +So over the course of that year and a half Donald's eating changed and our exercise regimen changed, and his heart rate responded, his blood pressure responded to that change that he made in his body. +So what's the take-home message that I want you to leave with today? +By taking ownership of your data just like we've done, just by taking this daily measurements about yourself, you become the expert on your body. +You become the authority. +It's not hard to do. +You don't have to have a Ph.D. in statistics to be an expert in yourself. +You don't have to have a medical degree to be your body's expert. +Medical doctors, they're experts on the population, but you are the expert on yourself. +And so when two of you come together, when two experts come together, the two of you are able to make a better decision than just your doctor alone. +Now that you understand the power of information that you can get through personal data collection, I'd like you all to stand and raise your right hand. +Yes, get it up. +I challenge you to take ownership of your data. +And today, I hereby confer upon you a TEDx associate's degree in elementary statistics with a concentration in time-dependent data analysis with all the rights and privileges appertaining thereto. +And so the next time you are in your doctor's office, as newly inducted statisticians, what should always be your response? +Audience: Show me the data! Talithia Williams: I can't hear you! +Audience: Show me the data! +TW: One more time! Audience: Show me the data! +TW: Show me the data. +Thank you. +Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., in a 1968 speech where he reflects upon the Civil Rights Movement, states, "In the end, we will remember not the words of our enemies but the silence of our friends." +As a teacher, I've internalized this message. +Every day, all around us, we see the consequences of silence manifest themselves in the form of discrimination, violence, genocide and war. +In the classroom, I challenge my students to explore the silences in their own lives through poetry. +We work together to fill those spaces, to recognize them, to name them, to understand that they don't have to be sources of shame. +In an effort to create a culture within my classroom where students feel safe sharing the intimacies of their own silences, I have four core principles posted on the board that sits in the front of my class, which every student signs at the beginning of the year: read critically, write consciously, speak clearly, tell your truth. +And I find myself thinking a lot about that last point, tell your truth. +And I realized that if I was going to ask my students to speak up, I was going to have to tell my truth and be honest with them about the times where I failed to do so. +So I tell them that growing up, as a kid in a Catholic family in New Orleans, during Lent I was always taught that the most meaningful thing one could do was to give something up, sacrifice something you typically indulge in to prove to God you understand his sanctity. +I've given up soda, McDonald's, French fries, French kisses, and everything in between. +But one year, I gave up speaking. +I figured the most valuable thing I could sacrifice was my own voice, but it was like I hadn't realized that I had given that up a long time ago. +When Christian was beat up for being gay, I put my hands in my pocket and walked with my head down as if I didn't even notice. +I couldn't use my locker for weeks because the bolt on the lock reminded me of the one I had put on my lips when the homeless man on the corner looked at me with eyes up merely searching for an affirmation that he was worth seeing. +I was more concerned with touching the screen on my Apple than actually feeding him one. +When the woman at the fundraising gala said "I'm so proud of you. +It must be so hard teaching those poor, unintelligent kids," I bit my lip, because apparently we needed her money more than my students needed their dignity. +We spend so much time listening to the things people are saying that we rarely pay attention to the things they don't. +Silence is the residue of fear. +It is feeling your flaws gut-wrench guillotine your tongue. +It is the air retreating from your chest because it doesn't feel safe in your lungs. +Silence is Rwandan genocide. Silence is Katrina. +It is what you hear when there aren't enough body bags left. +It is the sound after the noose is already tied. +It is charring. It is chains. It is privilege. It is pain. +There is no time to pick your battles when your battles have already picked you. +I will not let silence wrap itself around my indecision. +I will tell Christian that he is a lion, a sanctuary of bravery and brilliance. +I will ask that homeless man what his name is and how his day was, because sometimes all people want to be is human. +I will tell that woman that my students can talk about transcendentalism like their last name was Thoreau, and just because you watched one episode of "The Wire" doesn't mean you know anything about my kids. +So this year, instead of giving something up, I will live every day as if there were a microphone tucked under my tongue, a stage on the underside of my inhibition. +Because who has to have a soapbox when all you've ever needed is your voice? +Thank you. +I'm a teacher and a practitioner of civics in America. +Now, I will kindly ask those of you who have just fallen asleep to please wake up. Why is it that the very word "civics" has such a soporific, even a narcoleptic effect on us? +I think it's because the very word signifies something exceedingly virtuous, exceedingly important, and exceedingly boring. +Well, I think it's the responsibility of people like us, people who show up for gatherings like this in person or online, in any way we can, to make civics sexy again, as sexy as it was during the American Revolution, as sexy as it was during the Civil Rights Movement. +And I believe the way we make civics sexy again is to make explicitly about the teaching of power. +The way we do that, I believe, is at the level of the city. +This is what I want to talk about today, and I want to start by defining some terms and then I want to describe the scale of the problem I think we face and then suggest the ways that I believe cities can be the seat of the solution. +So let me start with some definitions. +By civics, I simply mean the art of being a pro-social, problem-solving contributor in a self-governing community. +Civics is the art of citizenship, what Bill Gates Sr. calls simply showing up for life, and it encompasses three things: a foundation of values, an understanding of the systems that make the world go round, and a set of skills that allow you to pursue goals and to have others join in that pursuit. +And that brings me to my definition of power, which is simply this: the capacity to make others do what you would have them do. +It sounds menacing, doesn't it? +We don't like to talk about power. +We find it scary. We find it somehow evil. +We feel uncomfortable naming it. +In the culture and mythology of democracy, power resides with the people. +Period. End of story. +Any further inquiry not necessary and not really that welcome. +Power has a negative moral valence. +It sounds Machiavellian inherently. +It seems inherently evil. +But in fact power is no more inherently good or evil than fire or physics. +It just is. +And power governs how any form of government operates, whether a democracy or a dictatorship. +This is why it is so fundamental for us right now to grab hold of this idea of power and to democratize it. +One of the things that is so profoundly exciting and challenging about this moment is that as a result of this power illiteracy that is so pervasive, there is a concentration of knowledge, of understanding, of clout. +I mean, think about it: How does a friendship become a subsidy? +Seamlessly, when a senior government official decides to leave government and become a lobbyist for a private interest and convert his or her relationships into capital for their new masters. +How does a bias become a policy? +Insidiously, just the way that stop-and-frisk, for instance, became over time a bureaucratic numbers game. +How does a slogan become a movement? +Virally, in the way that the Tea Party, for instance, was able to take the "Don't Tread on Me" flag from the American Revolution, or how, on the other side, a band of activists could take a magazine headline, "Occupy Wall Street," and turn that into a global meme and movement. +The thing is, though, most people aren't looking for and don't want to see these realities. +So much of this ignorance, this civic illiteracy, is willful. +There are some millennials, for instance, who think the whole business is just sordid. +They don't want to have anything to do with politics. +They'd rather just opt out and engage in volunteerism. +There are some techies out there who believe that the cure-all for any power imbalance or power abuse is simply more data, more transparency. +There are some on the left who think power resides only with corporations, and some on the right who think power resides only with government, each side blinded by their selective outrage. +There are the naive who believe that good things just happen and the cynical who believe that bad things just happen, the fortunate and unfortunate alike who think that their lot is simply what they deserve rather than the eminently alterable result of a prior arrangement, an inherited allocation, of power. +As a result of all of this creeping fatalism in public life, we here, particularly in America today, have depressingly low levels of civic knowledge, civic engagement, participation, awareness. +The whole business of politics has been effectively subcontracted out to a band of professionals, money people, outreach people, message people, research people. +The rest of us are meant to feel like amateurs in the sense of suckers. +We become demotivated to learn more about how things work. +We begin to opt out. +Well, this problem, this challenge, is a thing that we must now confront, and I believe that when you have this kind of disengagement, this willful ignorance, it becomes both a cause and a consequence of this concentration of opportunity of wealth and clout that I was describing a moment ago, this profound civic inequality. +This is why it is so important in our time right now to reimagine civics as the teaching of power. +Perhaps it's never been more important at any time in our lifetimes. +If people don't learn power, people don't wake up, and if they don't wake up, they get left out. +Now, part of the art of practicing power means being awake and having a voice, but it also is about having an arena where you can plausibly practice deciding. +All of civics boils down to the simple question of who decides, and you have to play that out in a place, in an arena. +And this brings me to the third point that I want to make today, which is simply that there is no better arena in our time for the practicing of power than the city. +Think about the city where you live, where you're from. +Think about a problem in the common life of your city. +It can be something small, like where a street lamp should go, or something medium like which library should have its hours extended or cut, or maybe something bigger, like whether a dilapidated waterfront should be turned into a highway or a greenway, or whether all the businesses in your town should be required to pay a living wage. +Think about the change that you want in your city, and then think about how you would get it, how you would make it happen. +Take an inventory of all the forms of power that are at play in your city's situation: money, of course, people, yes, ideas, information, misinformation, the threat of force, the force of norms. +All of these form of power are at play. +Now think about how you would activate or perhaps neutralize these various forms of power. +This is not some Game of Thrones These are questions that play out in every single place on the planet. +I'll just tell you quickly about two stories drawn from recent headlines. +In Boulder, Colorado, voters not too long ago approved a process to replace the private power company, literally the power company, the electric company Xcel, with a publicly owned utility that would forego profits and attend far more to climate change. +Well, Xcel fought back, and Xcel has now put in play a ballot measure that would undermine or undo this municipalization. +And so the citizen activists in Boulder who have been pushing this now literally have to fight the power in order to fight for power. +In Tuscaloosa, at the University of Alabama, there's an organization on campus called, kind of menacingly, the Machine, and it draws from largely white sororities and fraternities on campus, and for decades, the Machine has dominated student government elections. +Well now, recently, the Machine has started to get involved in actual city politics, and they've engineered the election of a former Machine member, a young, pro-business recent graduate to the Tuscaloosa city school board. +Now, as I say, these are just two examples drawn almost at random from the headlines. +Every day, there are thousands more like them. +And you may like or dislike the efforts I'm describing here in Boulder or in Tuscaloosa, but you cannot help but admire the power literacy of the players involved, their skill. +You cannot help but reckon with and recognize the command they have of the elemental questions of civic power what objective, what strategy, what tactics, what is the terrain, who are your enemies, who are your allies? +Now I want you to return to thinking about that problem or that opportunity or that challenge in your city, and the thing it was that you want to fix or create in your city, and ask yourself, do you have command of these elemental questions of power? +Could you put into practice effectively what it is that you know? +This is the challenge and the opportunity for us. +We live in a time right now where in spite of globalization or perhaps because of globalization, all citizenship is ever more resonantly, powerfully local. +Indeed, power in our time is flowing ever faster to the city. +Here in the United States, the national government has tied itself up in partisan knots. +This is emergent. +The localism of our time is networked powerfully. +And so, for instance, consider the ways that strategies for making cities more bike-friendly have spread so rapidly from Copenhagen to New York to Austin to Boston to Seattle. +Think about how experiments in participatory budgeting, where everyday citizens get a chance to allocate and decide upon the allocation of city funds. +Those experiments have spread from Porto Alegre, Brazil to here in New York City, to the wards of Chicago. +Migrant workers from Rome to Los Angeles and many cities between are now organizing to stage strikes to remind the people who live in their cities what a day without immigrants would look like. +In China, all across that country, members of the New Citizens' Movement are beginning to activate and organize to fight official corruption and graft, and they're drawing the ire of officials there, but they're also drawing the attention of anti-corruption activists all around the world. +In Seattle, where I'm from, we've become part of a great global array of cities that are now working together bypassing government altogether, national government altogether, in order to try to meet the carbon reduction goals of the Kyoto Protocol. +All of these citizens, united, are forming a web, a great archipelago of power that allows us to bypass brokenness and monopolies of control. +And our task now is to accelerate this work. +Our task now is to bring more and more people into the fold of this work. +That's why my organization, Citizen University, has undertaken a project now to create an everyman's curriculum in civic power. +And this curriculum starts with this triad that I described earlier of values, systems and skills. +And what I'd like to do is to invite all of you to help create this curriculum with the stories and the experiences and the challenges that each of you lives and faces, to create something powerfully collective. +And I want to invite you in particular to try a simple exercise drawn from the early frameworks of this curriculum. +Describe the values of your fellow citizens that you activated, and the sense of moral purpose that you were able to stir. +Recount all the different ways that you engaged the systems of government, of the marketplace, of social institutions, of faith organizations, of the media. +Catalog all the skills you had to deploy, how to negotiate, how to advocate, how to frame issues, how to navigate diversity in conflict, all those skills that enabled you to bring folks on board and to overcome resistance. +What you'll be doing when you write that narrative is you'll be discovering how to read power, and in the process, how to write power. +So share what you write, do you what you write, and then share what you do. +I invite you to literally share the narratives that you create on our Facebook page for Citizen University. +But even beyond that, it's in the conversations that we have today all around the world in the simultaneous gatherings that are happening on this topic at this moment, and to think about how we can become one another's teachers and students in power. +If we do that, then together we can make civics sexy again. +Together, we can democratize democracy and make it safe again for amateurs. +Together, we can create a great network of city that will be the most powerful collective laboratory for self-government this planet has ever seen. +We have the power to do that. +Thank you very much. +TED is 30. +The world wide web is celebrating this month its 25th anniversary. +So I've got a question for you. +Let's talk about the journey, mainly about the future. +Let's talk about the state. +Let's talk about what sort of a web we want. +So 25 years ago, then, I was working at CERN. +I got permission in the end after about a year to basically do it as a side project. +I wrote the code. +I was I suppose the first user. +There was a lot of concern that people didn't want to pick it up because it would be too complicated. +A lot of persuasion, a lot of wonderful collaboration with other people, and bit by bit, it worked. +It took off. It was pretty cool. +And in fact, a few years later in 2000, five percent of the world population were using the world wide web. +In 2007, seven years later, 17 percent. +In 2008, we formed the World Wide Web Foundation partly to look at that and worry about that figure. +And now here we are in 2014, and 40 percent of the world are using the world wide web, and counting. +Obviously it's increasing. +I want you to think about both sides of that. +Okay, obviously to anybody here at TED, the first question you ask is, what can we do to get the other 60 percent on board as quickly as possible? +Lots of important things. Obviously it's going to be around mobile. +But also, I want you to think about the 40 percent, because if you're sitting there yourself sort of with a web-enabled life, you don't remember things anymore, you just look them up, then you may feel that it's been a success and we can all sit back. +But in fact, yeah, it's been a success, there's lots of things, Khan Academy for crying out loud, there's Wikipedia, there's a huge number of free e-books that you can read online, lots of wonderful things for education, things in many areas. +Online commerce has in some cases completely turned upside down the way commerce works altogether, made types of commerce available which weren't available at all before. +Commerce has been almost universally affected. +Government, not universally affected, but very affected, and on a good day, lots of open data, lots of e-government, so lots of things which are visible happening on the web. +Also, lots of things which are less visible. +The healthcare, late at night when they're worried about what sort of cancer somebody they care about might have, when they just talk across the Internet to somebody who they care about very much in another country. +Those sorts of things are not, they're not out there, and in fact they've acquired a certain amount of privacy. +So we cannot assume that part of the web, part of the deal with the web, is when I use the web, it's just a transparent, neutral medium. +I can talk to you over it without worrying about what we in fact now know is happening, without worrying about the fact that not only will surveillance be happening but it'll be done by people who may abuse the data. +So in fact, something we realized, we can't just use the web, we have to worry about what the underlying infrastructure of the whole thing, is it in fact of a quality that we need? +We revel in the fact that we have this wonderful free speech. +So we must protest and make sure that censorship is cut down, that the web is opened up where there is censorship. +We love the fact that the web is open. +It allows us to talk. Anybody can talk to anybody. +It doesn't matter who we are. +And then we join these big social networking companies which are in fact effectively built as silos, so that it's much easier to talk to somebody in the same social network than it is to talk to somebody in a different one, so in fact we're sometimes limiting ourselves. +And we also have, if you've read the book about the filter bubble, the filter bubble phenomenon is that we love to use machines which help us find stuff we like. +So we love it when we're bathed in what things we like to click on, and so the machine automatically feeds us the stuff that we like and we end up with this rose-colored spectacles view of the world called a filter bubble. +So here are some of the things which maybe threaten the social web we have. +What sort of web do you want? +I want one which is not fragmented into lots of pieces, as some countries have been suggesting they should do in reaction to recent surveillance. +I want a web which has got, for example, is a really good basis for democracy. +I want a web where I can use healthcare with privacy and where there's a lot of health data, clinical data is available to scientists to do research. +I want a web where the other 60 percent get on board as fast as possible. +I want a web which is such a powerful basis for innovation that when something nasty happens, some disaster strikes, that we can respond by building stuff to respond to it very quickly. +So this is just some of the things that I want, from a big list, obviously it's longer. +You have your list. +I want us to use this 25th anniversary to think about what sort of a web we want. +You can go to webat25.org and find some links. +There are lots of sites where people have started to put together a Magna Carta, a bill of rights for the web. +How about we do that? +How about we decide, these are, in a way, becoming fundamental rights, the right to communicate with whom I want. +What would be on your list for that Magna Carta? +Let's crowdsource a Magna Carta for the web. +Let's do that this year. +Let's use the energy from the 25th anniversary to crowdsource a Magna Carta to the web. Thank you. And do me a favor, will you? +Fight for it for me. Okay? Thanks. +When my first children's book was published in 2001, I returned to my old elementary school to talk to the students about being an author and an illustrator, and when I was setting up my slide projector in the cafetorium, I looked across the room, and there she was: my old lunch lady. +She was still there at the school and she was busily preparing lunches for the day. +So I approached her to say hello, and I said, "Hi, Jeannie! How are you?" +And she looked at me, and I could tell that she recognized me, but she couldn't quite place me, and she looked at me and she said, "Stephen Krosoczka?" +And I was amazed that she knew I was a Krosoczka, but Stephen is my uncle who is 20 years older than I am, and she had been his lunch lady when he was a kid. +And she started telling me about her grandkids, and that blew my mind. +My lunch lady had grandkids, and therefore kids, and therefore left school at the end of the day? +I thought she lived in the cafeteria with the serving spoons. +I had never thought about any of that before. +And it's been amazing, because the series was so welcomed into the reading lives of children, and they sent me the most amazing letters and cards and artwork. +And I would notice as I would visit schools, the lunch staff would be involved in the programming in a very meaningful way. +And coast to coast, all of the lunch ladies told me the same thing: "Thank you for making a superhero in our likeness." +Because the lunch lady has not been treated very kindly in popular culture over time. +But it meant the most to Jeannie. +When the books were first published, I invited her to the book launch party, and in front of everyone there, everyone she had fed over the years, I gave her a piece of artwork and some books. +And two years after this photo was taken, she passed away, and I attended her wake, and nothing could have prepared me for what I saw there, because next to her casket was this painting, and her husband told me it meant so much to her that I had acknowledged her hard work, I had validated what she did. +And that inspired me to create a day where we could recreate that feeling in cafeterias across the country: School Lunch Hero Day, a day where kids can make creative projects for their lunch staff. +And I partnered with the School Nutrition Association, and did you know that a little over 30 million kids participate in school lunch programs every day. +That equals up to a little over five billion lunches made every school year. +And the stories of heroism go well beyond just a kid getting a few extra chicken nuggets on their lunch tray. +There is Ms. Brenda in California, who keeps a close eye on every student that comes through her line and then reports back to the guidance counselor if anything is amiss. +There are the lunch ladies in Kentucky who realized that 67 percent of their students relied on those meals every day, and they were going without food over the summer, so they retrofitted a school bus to create a mobile feeding unit, and they traveled around the neighborhoods feedings 500 kids a day during the summer. +And kids made the most amazing projects. +I knew they would. +Kids made hamburger cards that were made out of construction paper. +They took photos of their lunch lady's head and plastered it onto my cartoon lunch lady and fixed that to a milk carton and presented them with flowers. +And they made their own comics, starring the cartoon lunch lady alongside their actual lunch ladies. +And they made thank you pizzas, where every kid signed a different topping of a construction paper pizza. +For me, I was so moved by the response that came from the lunch ladies, because one woman said to me, she said, "Before this day, I felt like I was at the end of the planet at this school. +I didn't think that anyone noticed us down here." +Another woman said to me, "You know, what I got out of this is that what I do is important." +And of course what she does is important. +What they all do is important. +They're feeding our children every single day, and before a child can learn, their belly needs to be full, and these women and men are working on the front lines to create an educated society. +So I hope that you don't wait for School Lunch Hero Day to say thank you to your lunch staff, and I hope that you remember how powerful a thank you can be. +A thank you can change a life. +It changes the life of the person who receives it, and it changes the life of the person who expresses it. +Thank you. +These are simple objects: clocks, keys, combs, glasses. +They are the things the victims of genocide in Bosnia carried with them on their final journey. +We are all familiar with these mundane, everyday objects. +The fact that some of the victims carried personal items such as toothpaste and a toothbrush is a clear sign they had no idea what was about to happen to them. +Usually, they were told that they were going to be exchanged for prisoners of war. +These items have been recovered from numerous mass graves across my homeland, and as we speak, forensics are exhuming bodies from newly discovered mass graves, 20 years after the war. +And it is quite possibly the largest ever discovered. +During the four years of conflict that devastated the Bosnian nation in the early '90s, approximately 30,000 citizens, mainly civilians, went missing, presumed killed, and another 100,000 were killed during combat operations. +Most of them were killed either in the early days of the war or towards the end of the hostilities, when U.N. safe zones like Srebrenica fell into the hands of the Serb army. +The international criminal tribunal delivered a number of sentences for crimes against humanity and genocide. +Genocide is a systematic and deliberate destruction of a racial, political, religious or ethnic group. +As much as genocide is about killing. +It is also about destroying their property, their cultural heritage, and ultimately the very notion that they ever existed. +Genocide is not only about the killing; it is about the denied identity. +There are always traces no such thing as a perfect crime. +There are always remnants of the perished ones that are more durable than their fragile bodies and our selective and fading memory of them. +These items are recovered from numerous mass graves, and the main goal of this collection of the items is a unique process of identifying those who disappeared in the killings, the first act of genocide on European soil since the Holocaust. +Not a single body should remain undiscovered or unidentified. +Once recovered, these items that the victims carried with them on their way to execution are carefully cleaned, analyzed, catalogued and stored. +Thousands of artifacts are packed in white plastic bags just like the ones you see on CSI. +These objects are used as a forensic tool in visual identification of the victims, but they are also used as very valuable forensic evidence in the ongoing war crimes trials. +Survivors are occasionally called to try to identify these items physically, but physical browsing is extremely difficult, an ineffective and painful process. +Once the forensics and doctors and lawyers are done with these objects, they become orphans of the narrative. +Many of them get destroyed, believe it or not, or they get simply shelved, out of sight and out of mind. +I decided a few years ago to photograph every single exhumed item in order to create a visual archive that survivors could easily browse. +As a storyteller, I like to give back to the community. +I like to move beyond raising awareness. +And in this case, someone may recognize these items or at least their photographs will remain as a permanent, unbiased and accurate reminder of what happened. +Photography is about empathy, and the familiarity of these items guarantee empathy. +In this case, I am merely a tool, a forensic, if you like, and the result is a photography that is as close as possible of being a document. +Once all the missing persons are identified, only decaying bodies in their graves and these everyday items will remain. +In all their simplicity, these items are the last testament to the identity of the victims, the last permanent reminder that these people ever existed. +Thank you very much. +I would like to share with you today a project that has changed how I approach and practice architecture: the Fez River Rehabilitation Project. +My hometown of Fez, Morocco, boasts one of the largest walled medieval cities in the world, called the medina, nestled in a river valley. +The entire city is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. +Since the 1950s, as the population of the medina grew, basic urban infrastructure such as green open spaces and sewage quickly changed and got highly stressed. +One of the biggest casualties of the situation was the Fez River, which bisects the medina in its middle and has been considered for many centuries as the city's very soul. +In fact, one can witness the presence of the river's extensive water network all throughout the city, in places such as private and public fountains. +Unfortunately, because of the pollution of the river, it has been covered little by little by concrete slabs since 1952. +This process of erasure was coupled with the destruction of many houses along the river banks to be able to make machineries enter the narrow pedestrian network of the medina. +Those urban voids quickly became illegal parking or trash yards. +Actually, the state of the river before entering the medina is pretty healthy. +Then pollution takes its toll, mainly due to untreated sewage and chemical dumping from crafts such as tanning. +At some point, I couldn't bear the desecration of the river, such an important part of my city, and I decided to take action, especially after I heard that the city received a grant to divert sewage water and to treat it. +With clean water, suddenly the uncovering of the river became possible, and with luck and actually a lot of pushing, my partner Takako Tajima and I were commissioned by the city to work with a team of engineers to uncover the river. +However, we were sneaky, and we proposed more: to convert riverbanks into pedestrian pathways, and then to connect these pathways back to the city fabric, and finally to convert the urban voids along the riverbanks into public spaces that are lacking in the Medina of Fez. +I will show you briefly now two of these public spaces. +The first one is the Rcif Plaza, which sits actually right on top of the river, which you can see here in dotted lines. +This plaza used to be a chaotic transportation hub that actually compromised the urban integrity of the medina, that has the largest pedestrian network in the world. +And right beyond the historic bridge that you can see here, right next to the plaza, you can see that the river looked like a river of trash. +Instead, what we proposed is to make the plaza entirely pedestrian, to cover it with recycled leather canopies, and to connect it to the banks of the river. +The second site of intervention is also an urban void along the river banks, and it used to be an illegal parking, and we proposed to transform it into the first playground in the medina. +The playground is constructed using recycled tires and also is coupled with a constructed wetland that not only cleans the water of the river but also retains it when floods occur. +As the project progressed and received several design awards, new stakeholders intervened and changed the project goals and design. +The only way for us to be able to bring the main goals of the project ahead was for us to do something very unusual that usually architects don't do. +It was for us to take our design ego and our sense of authorship and put it in the backseat and to focus mainly on being activists all of the agendas of stakeholders and focus on the main goals of the project: that is, to uncover the river, treat its water, and provide public spaces for all. +We were actually very lucky, and many of those goals happened or are in the process of happening. +Like, you can see here in the Rcif Plaza. +This is how it looked like about six years ago. +This is how it looks like today. +It's still under construction, but actually it is heavily used by the local population. +And finally, this is how the Rcif Plaza will look like when the project is completed. +This is the river, covered, used as a trash yard. +Then after many years of work, the river with clean water, uncovered. +And finally, you can see here the river when the project will be completed. +Thank you very much. +Ten years ago, I wrote a book which I entitled "Our Final Century?" Question mark. +My publishers cut out the question mark. The American publishers changed our title to "Our Final Hour." +Americans like instant gratification and the reverse. +And my theme was this: Our Earth has existed for 45 million centuries, but this one is special it's the first where one species, ours, has the planet's future in its hands. +Over nearly all of Earth's history, threats have come from nature disease, earthquakes, asteroids and so forth but from now on, the worst dangers come from us. +And it's now not just the nuclear threat; in our interconnected world, network breakdowns can cascade globally; air travel can spread pandemics worldwide within days; and social media can spread panic and rumor literally at the speed of light. +We fret too much about minor hazards improbable air crashes, carcinogens in food, low radiation doses, and so forth but we and our political masters are in denial about catastrophic scenarios. +The worst have thankfully not yet happened. +Indeed, they probably won't. +But if an event is potentially devastating, it's worth paying a substantial premium to safeguard against it, even if it's unlikely, just as we take out fire insurance on our house. +And as science offers greater power and promise, the downside gets scarier too. +We get ever more vulnerable. +Within a few decades, millions will have the capability to misuse rapidly advancing biotech, just as they misuse cybertech today. +Freeman Dyson, in a TED Talk, foresaw that children will design and create new organisms just as routinely as his generation played with chemistry sets. +Well, this may be on the science fiction fringe, but were even part of his scenario to come about, our ecology and even our species would surely not survive long unscathed. +For instance, there are some eco-extremists who think that it would be better for the planet, for Gaia, if there were far fewer humans. +What happens when such people have mastered synthetic biology techniques that will be widespread by 2050? +And by then, other science fiction nightmares may transition to reality: dumb robots going rogue, or a network that develops a mind of its own threatens us all. +Well, can we guard against such risks by regulation? +We must surely try, but these enterprises are so competitive, so globalized, and so driven by commercial pressure, that anything that can be done will be done somewhere, whatever the regulations say. +It's like the drug laws we try to regulate, but can't. +And the global village will have its village idiots, and they'll have a global range. +So as I said in my book, we'll have a bumpy ride through this century. +There may be setbacks to our society indeed, a 50 percent chance of a severe setback. +But are there conceivable events that could be even worse, events that could snuff out all life? +When a new particle accelerator came online, some people anxiously asked, could it destroy the Earth or, even worse, rip apart the fabric of space? +Well luckily, reassurance could be offered. +I and others pointed out that nature has done the same experiments zillions of times already, via cosmic ray collisions. +But scientists should surely be precautionary about experiments that generate conditions without precedent in the natural world. +Biologists should avoid release of potentially devastating genetically modified pathogens. +And by the way, our special aversion to the risk of truly existential disasters depends on a philosophical and ethical question, and it's this: Consider two scenarios. +Scenario A wipes out 90 percent of humanity. +Scenario B wipes out 100 percent. +How much worse is B than A? +Some would say 10 percent worse. +The body count is 10 percent higher. +But I claim that B is incomparably worse. +As an astronomer, I can't believe that humans are the end of the story. +It is five billion years before the sun flares up, and the universe may go on forever, so post-human evolution, here on Earth and far beyond, could be as prolonged as the Darwinian process that's led to us, and even more wonderful. +And indeed, future evolution will happen much faster, on a technological timescale, not a natural selection timescale. +So we surely, in view of those immense stakes, shouldn't accept even a one in a billion risk that human extinction would foreclose this immense potential. +Some scenarios that have been envisaged may indeed be science fiction, but others may be disquietingly real. +It's an important maxim that the unfamiliar is not the same as the improbable, and in fact, that's why we at Cambridge University are setting up a center to study how to mitigate these existential risks. +It seems it's worthwhile just for a few people to think about these potential disasters. +And we need all the help we can get from others, because we are stewards of a precious pale blue dot in a vast cosmos, a planet with 50 million centuries ahead of it. +And so let's not jeopardize that future. +And I'd like to finish with a quote from a great scientist called Peter Medawar. +I quote, "The bells that toll for mankind are like the bells of Alpine cattle. +They are attached to our own necks, and it must be our fault if they do not make a tuneful and melodious sound." +Thank you very much. +So in 1781, an English composer, technologist and astronomer called William Herschel noticed an object on the sky that didn't quite move the way the rest of the stars did. +And Herschel's recognition that something was different, that something wasn't quite right, was the discovery of a planet, the planet Uranus, a name that has entertained countless generations of children, but a planet that overnight doubled the size of our known solar system. +Just last month, NASA announced the discovery of 517 new planets in orbit around nearby stars, almost doubling overnight the number of planets we know about within our galaxy. +So astronomy is constantly being transformed by this capacity to collect data, and with data almost doubling every year, within the next two decades, me may even reach the point for the first time in history where we've discovered the majority of the galaxies within the universe. +So what is the next window into our universe? +What is the next chapter for astronomy? +Well, I'm going to show you some of the tools and the technologies that we're going to develop over the next decade, and how these technologies, together with the smart use of data, may once again transform astronomy by opening up a window into our universe, the window of time. +Why time? Well, time is about origins, and it's about evolution. +The origins of our solar system, how our solar system came into being, is it unusual or special in any way? +About the evolution of our universe. +Why our universe is continuing to expand, and what is this mysterious dark energy that drives that expansion? +But first, I want to show you how technology is going to change the way we view the sky. +So imagine if you were sitting in the mountains of northern Chile looking out to the west towards the Pacific Ocean a few hours before sunrise. +This is the view of the night sky that you would see, and it's a beautiful view, with the Milky Way just peeking out over the horizon. +but it's also a static view, and in many ways, this is the way we think of our universe: eternal and unchanging. +But the universe is anything but static. +It constantly changes on timescales of seconds to billions of years. +Galaxies merge, they collide at hundreds of thousands of miles per hour. +Stars are born, they die, they explode in these extravagant displays. +Ten supernova per second explode somewhere in our universe. +If we could hear it, it would be popping like a bag of popcorn. +Now, if we fade out the supernovae, it's not just brightness that changes. +Our sky is in constant motion. +This swarm of objects you see streaming across the sky are asteroids as they orbit our sun, and it's these changes and the motion and it's the dynamics of the system that allow us to build our models for our universe, to predict its future and to explain its past. +But the telescopes we've used over the last decade are not designed to capture the data at this scale. +The Hubble Space Telescope: for the last 25 years it's been producing some of the most detailed views of our distant universe, but if you tried to use the Hubble to create an image of the sky, it would take 13 million individual images, about 120 years to do this just once. +We expect it to start taking data by the end of this decade. +I'm going to show you how we think it's going to transform our views of the universe, because one image from the LSST is equivalent to 3,000 images from the Hubble Space Telescope, each image three and a half degrees on the sky, seven times the width of the full moon. +Well, how do you capture an image at this scale? +So if you wanted to look at an image in its full resolution, just a single LSST image, it would take about 1,500 high-definition TV screens. +And this camera will image the sky, taking a new picture every 20 seconds, constantly scanning the sky so every three nights, we'll get a completely new view of the skies above Chile. +Over the mission lifetime of this telescope, it will detect 40 billion stars and galaxies, and that will be for the first time we'll have detected more objects in our universe than people on the Earth. +Now, we can talk about this in terms of terabytes and petabytes and billions of objects, but a way to get a sense of the amount of data that will come off this camera is that it's like playing every TED Talk ever recorded simultaneously, 24 hours a day, seven days a week, for 10 years. +And to process this data means searching through all of those talks for every new idea and every new concept, looking at each part of the video to see how one frame may have changed from the next. +And this is changing the way that we do science, changing the way that we do astronomy, to a place where software and algorithms have to mine through this data, where the software is as critical to the science as the telescopes and the cameras that we've built. +Now, thousands of discoveries will come from this project, but I'm just going to tell you about two of the ideas about origins and evolution that may be transformed by our access to data at this scale. +In the last five years, NASA has discovered over 1,000 planetary systems around nearby stars, but the systems we're finding aren't much like our own solar system, and one of the questions we face is is it just that we haven't been looking hard enough or is there something special or unusual about how our solar system formed? +And if we want to answer that question, we have to know and understand the history of our solar system in detail, and it's the details that are crucial. +So now, if we look back at the sky, at our asteroids that were streaming across the sky, these asteroids are like the debris of our solar system. +The positions of the asteroids are like a fingerprint of an earlier time when the orbits of Neptune and Jupiter were much closer to the sun, and as these giant planets migrated through our solar system, they were scattering the asteroids in their wake. +So studying the asteroids is like performing forensics, performing forensics on our solar system, but to do this, we need distance, and we get the distance from the motion, and we get the motion because of our access to time. +So what does this tell us? +Well, if you look at the little yellow asteroids flitting across the screen, these are the asteroids that are moving fastest, because they're closest to us, closest to Earth. +So studying the forensics of our solar system doesn't just tell us about the past, it can also predict the future, including our future. +Now when we get distance, we get to see the asteroids in their natural habitat, in orbit around the sun. +So every point in this visualization that you can see is a real asteroid. +Its orbit has been calculated from its motion across the sky. +The colors reflect the composition of these asteroids, dry and stony in the center, water-rich and primitive towards the edge, water-rich asteroids which may have seeded the oceans and the seas that we find on our planet when they bombarded the Earth at an earlier time. +Because the LSST will be able to go faint and not just wide, we will be able to see these asteroids far beyond the inner part of our solar system, to asteroids beyond the orbits of Neptune and Mars, to comets and asteroids that may exist almost a light year from our sun. +Now, distance and changes in our universe distance equates to time, as well as changes on the sky. +Every foot of distance you look away, or every foot of distance an object is away, you're looking back about a billionth of a second in time, and this idea or this notion of looking back in time has revolutionized our ideas about the universe, not once but multiple times. +The first time was in 1929, when an astronomer called Edwin Hubble showed that the universe was expanding, leading to the ideas of the Big Bang. +And the observations were simple: just 24 galaxies and a hand-drawn picture. +But just the idea that the more distant a galaxy, the faster it was receding, was enough to give rise to modern cosmology. +A second revolution happened 70 years later, when two groups of astronomers showed that the universe wasn't just expanding, it was accelerating, a surprise like throwing up a ball into the sky and finding out the higher that it gets, the faster it moves away. +And they showed this by measuring the brightness of supernovae, and how the brightness of the supernovae got fainter with distance. +And these observations were more complex. +They required new technologies and new telescopes, because the supernovae were in galaxies that were 2,000 times more distant than the ones used by Hubble. +And it took three years to find just 42 supernovae, because a supernova only explodes once every hundred years within a galaxy. +Three years to find 42 supernovae by searching through tens of thousands of galaxies. +And once they'd collected their data, this is what they found. +Now, this may not look impressive, but this is what a revolution in physics looks like: a line predicting the brightness of a supernova 11 billion light years away, and a handful of points that don't quite fit that line. +Small changes give rise to big consequences. +Small changes allow us to make discoveries, like the planet found by Herschel. +Small changes turn our understanding of the universe on its head. +So what is the next revolution likely to be? +Well, what is dark energy and why does it exist? +Each of these lines shows a different model for what dark energy might be, showing the properties of dark energy. +They all are consistent with the 42 points, but the ideas behind these lines are dramatically different. +Some people think about a dark energy that changes with time, or whether the properties of the dark energy are different depending on where you look on the sky. +Others make differences and changes to the physics at the sub-atomic level. +Or, they look at large scales and change how gravity and general relativity work, or they say our universe is just one of many, part of this mysterious multiverse, but all of these ideas, all of these theories, amazing and admittedly some of them a little crazy, but all of them consistent with our 42 points. +So how can we hope to make sense of this over the next decade? +Well, imagine if I gave you a pair of dice, and I said you wanted to see whether those dice were loaded or fair. +One roll of the dice would tell you very little, but the more times you rolled them, the more data you collected, the more confident you would become, not just whether they're loaded or fair, but by how much, and in what way. +It took three years to find just 42 supernovae because the telescopes that we built could only survey a small part of the sky. +With the LSST, we get a completely new view of the skies above Chile every three nights. +In its first night of operation, it will find 10 times the number of supernovae used in the discovery of dark energy. +This will increase by 1,000 within the first four months: 1.5 million supernovae by the end of its survey, each supernova a roll of the dice, each supernova testing which theories of dark energy are consistent, and which ones are not. +And so, by combining these supernova data with other measures of cosmology, we'll progressively rule out the different ideas and theories of dark energy until hopefully at the end of this survey around 2030, we would expect to hopefully see a theory for our universe, a fundamental theory for the physics of our universe, to gradually emerge. +Now, in many ways, the questions that I posed are in reality the simplest of questions. +We may not know the answers, but we at least know how to ask the questions. +But if looking through tens of thousands of galaxies revealed 42 supernovae that turned our understanding of the universe on its head, when we're working with billions of galaxies, how many more times are we going to find 42 points that don't quite match what we expect? +Like the planet found by Herschel or dark energy or quantum mechanics or general relativity, all ideas that came because the data didn't quite match what we expected. +What's so exciting about the next decade of data in astronomy is, we don't even know how many answers are out there waiting, answers about our origins and our evolution. +How many answers are out there that we don't even know the questions that we want to ask? +Thank you. +Hi, kids. +I'm 71. +My husband is 76. +My parents are in their late 90s, and Olivia, the dog, is 16. +So let's talk about aging. +Let me tell you how I feel when I see my wrinkles in the mirror and I realize that some parts of me have dropped and I can't find them down there. +Mary Oliver says in one of her poems, "Tell me, what is it that you plan to do with your one wild and precious life?" +Me, I intend to live passionately. +When do we start aging? +Society decides when we are old, usually around 65, when we get Medicare, but we really start aging at birth. +We are aging right now, and we all experience it differently. +We all feel younger than our real age, because the spirit never ages. +I am still 17. +Sophia Loren. Look at her. +She says that everything you see she owes to spaghetti. +I tried it and gained 10 pounds in the wrong places. +But attitude, aging is also attitude and health. +But my real mentor in this journey of aging is Olga Murray. +This California girl at 60 started working in Nepal to save young girls from domestic bondage. +At 88, she has saved 12,000 girls, and she has changed the culture in the country. +Now it is illegal for fathers to sell their daughters into servitude. +She has also founded orphanages and nutritional clinics. +She is always happy and eternally young. +What have I lost in the last decades? +People, of course, places, and the boundless energy of my youth, and I'm beginning to lose independence, and that scares me. +Ram Dass says that dependency hurts, but if you accept it, there is less suffering. +After a very bad stroke, his ageless soul watches the changes in the body with tenderness, and he is grateful to the people who help him. +What have I gained? +Freedom: I don't have to prove anything anymore. +I'm not stuck in the idea of who I was, who I want to be, or what other people expect me to be. +I don't have to please men anymore, only animals. +I keep telling my superego to back off and let me enjoy what I still have. +My body may be falling apart, but my brain is not, yet. +I love my brain. +I feel lighter. +I don't carry grudges, ambition, vanity, none of the deadly sins that are not even worth the trouble. +It's great to let go. +I should have started sooner. +And I also feel softer because I'm not scared of being vulnerable. +I don't see it as weakness anymore. +And I've gained spirituality. +I'm aware that before, death was in the neighborhood. +Now, it's next door, or in my house. +I try to live mindfully and be present in the moment. +By the way, the Dalai Lama is someone who has aged beautifully, but who wants to be vegetarian and celibate? +Meditation helps. +Child: Ommm. Ommm. Ommm. +Isabel Allende: Ommm. Ommm. There it is. +And it's good to start early. +You know, for a vain female like myself, it's very hard to age in this culture. +Inside, I feel good, I feel charming, seductive, sexy. +Nobody else sees that. I'm invisible. +I want to be the center of attention. +I hate to be invisible. +This is Grace Dammann. +She has been in a wheelchair for six years after a terrible car accident. +She says that there is nothing more sensual than a hot shower, that every drop of water is a blessing to the senses. +She doesn't see herself as disabled. +In her mind, she's still surfing in the ocean. +Ethel Seiderman, a feisty, beloved activist in the place where I live in California. +She wears red patent shoes, and her mantra is that one scarf is nice but two is better. +She has been a widow for nine years, but she's not looking for another mate. +She says that there is only a limited number of ways you can screw well, she says it in another way and she has tried them all. +I, on the other hand, I still have erotic fantasies with Antonio Banderas and my poor husband has to put up with it. +So how can I stay passionate? +I cannot will myself to be passionate at 71. +I have been training for some time, and when I feel flat and bored, I fake it. +Attitude, attitude. +How do I train? I train by saying yes to whatever comes my way: drama, comedy, tragedy, love, death, losses. +Yes to life. +And I train by trying to stay in love. +It doesn't always work, but you cannot blame me for trying. +And, on a final note, retirement in Spanish is jubilacin. +Jubilation. Celebration. +We have paid our dues. +We have contributed to society. +Now it's our time, and it's a great time. +Unless you are ill or very poor, you have choices. +I have chosen to stay passionate, engaged with an open heart. +I am working on it every day. +Want to join me? +Thank you. +June Cohen: So Isabel IA: Thank you. +JC: First of all, I never like to presume to speak for the TED community, but I would like to tell you that I have a feeling we can all agree that you are still charming, seductive and sexy. Yes? +IA: Aww, thank you. JC: Hands down. IA: No, it's makeup. +Moderator: Now, would it be awkward if I asked you a follow-up question about your erotic fantasies? +IA: Oh, of course. About what? +Moderator: About your erotic fantasies. IA: With Antonio Banderas. +Moderator: I was just wondering if you have anything more to share. +IA: Well, one of them is that One of them is that I place a naked Antonio Banderas on a Mexican tortilla, I slather him with guacamole and salsa, I roll him up, and I eat him. Thank you. +How many times have you used the word "awesome" today? +Once? Twice? Seventeen times? +Do you remember what you were describing when you used the word? +No, I didn't think so, because it's come down to this, people: You're using the word incorrectly, and tonight I hope to show you how to put the "awe" back in "awesome." +Recently, I was dining at an outdoor cafe, and the server came up to our table, and asked us if we had dined there before, and I said, "Yes, yes, we have." +And she said, "Awesome." +And I thought, "Really? +Awesome or just merely good that we decided to visit your restaurant again?" +The other day, one of my coworkers asked me if I could save that file as a PDF, and I said, "Well, of course," and he said, "Awesome." +Seriously, can saving anything as a PDF be awesome? +Sadly, the frequent overuse of the word "awesome" has now replaced words like "great" and "thank you." +So Webster's dictionary defines the word "awesome" as fear mingled with admiration or reverence, a feeling produced by something majestic. +Now, with that in mind, was your Quiznos sandwich awesome? +How about that parking space? Was that awesome? +Or that game the other day? Was that awesome? +The answer is no, no and no. +A sandwich can be delicious, that parking space can be nearby, and that game can be a blowout, but not everything can be awesome. +So when you use the word "awesome" to describe the most mundane of things, you're taking away the very power of the word. +This author says, "Snowy days or finding money in your pants is awesome." +Um, no, it is not, and we need to raise the bar for this poor schmuck. So in other words, if you have everything, you value nothing. +It's a lot like drinking from a firehose like this jackass right here. +There's no dynamic, there's no highs or lows, if everything is awesome. +Ladies and gentlemen, here are 10 things that are truly awesome. +Imagine, if you will, having to schlep everything on your back. +Wouldn't this be easier for me if I could roll this home? +Yes, so I think I'll invent the wheel. +The wheel, ladies and gentlemen. +Is the wheel awesome? Say it with me. +Yes, the wheel is awesome! +The Great Pyramids were the tallest man-made structure in the world for 4,000 years. +Pharaoh had his slaves move millions of blocks just to this site to erect a big freaking headstone. +Were the Great Pyramids awesome? +Yes, the pyramids were awesome. +The Grand Canyon. Come on. +It's almost 80 million years old. +Is the Grand Canyon awesome? +Yes, the Grand Canyon is. +Louis Daguerre invented photography in 1829, and earlier today, when you whipped out your smartphone and you took a shot of your awesome sandwich, and you know who you are wasn't that easier than exposing the image to copper plates coated with iodized silver? +I mean, come on. Is photography awesome? +Yes, photography is awesome. +D-Day, June 6, 1944, the Allied invasion of Normandy, the largest amphibious invasion in world history. +Was D-Day awesome? Yes, it was awesome. +Did you eat food today? Did you eat? +Then you can thank the honeybee, that's the one, because if crops aren't pollinated, we can't grow food, and then we're all going to die. +It's just like that. +But it's not like a flower can just get up and have sex with another flower, although that would be awesome. +Bees are awesome. Are you kidding me? +Landing on the moon! Come on! +Apollo 11. Are you kidding me? +Sixty-six years after the Wright Brothers took off from Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, Neil Armstrong was 240,000 miles away. +That's like from here to the moon. +That's one small step for a man, one giant leap for awesome! +You're damn right, it was. +Woodstock, 1969: Rolling Stone Magazine said this changed the history of rock and roll. +Tickets were only 24 dollars back then. +You can't even buy a freaking t-shirt for that now. +Jimi Hendrix's version of "The Star-Spangled Banner" was the most iconic. +Was Woodstock awesome? Yes, it was awesome. +Sharks! They're at the top of the food chain. +Sharks have multiple rows of teeth that grow in their jaw and they move forward like a conveyor belt. +Some sharks can lose 30,000 teeth in their lifetime. +Does awesome inspire fear? +Oh, hell yeah, sharks are awesome! +The Internet was born in 1982 and it instantly took over global communication, and later tonight, when all these PowerPoints are uplifted to the Internet so that a guy in Siberia can get drunk and watch this crap, the Internet is awesome. +And finally, finally some of you can't wait to come up and tell me how awesome my PowerPoint was. +I will save you the time. +It was not awesome, but it was true, and I hope it was entertaining, and out of all the audiences I've ever had, y'all are the most recent. Thank you and good night. +Why does the universe exist? +Why is there Okay. Okay. This is a cosmic mystery. Be solemn. +Why is there a world, why are we in it, and why is there something rather than nothing at all? +I mean, this is the super ultimate "why" question? +So I'm going to talk about the mystery of existence, the puzzle of existence, where we are now in addressing it, and why you should care, and I hope you do care. +The philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer said that those who don't wonder about the contingency of their existence, of the contingency of the world's existence, are mentally deficient. +That's a little harsh, but still. So this has been called the most sublime and awesome mystery, the deepest and most far-reaching question man can pose. +It's obsessed great thinkers. +Ludwig Wittgenstein, perhaps the greatest philosopher of the 20th century, was astonished that there should be a world at all. +He wrote in his "Tractatus," Proposition 4.66, "It is not how things are in the world that is the mystical, it's that the world exists." +And if you don't like taking your epigrams from a philosopher, try a scientist. +John Archibald Wheeler, one of the great physicists of the 20th century, the teacher of Richard Feynman, the coiner of the term "black hole," he said, "I want to know how come the quantum, how come the universe, how come existence?" +And my friend Martin Amis sorry that I'll be doing a lot of name-dropping in this talk, so get used to it my dear friend Martin Amis once said that we're about five Einsteins away from answering the mystery of where the universe came from. +And I've no doubt there are five Einsteins in the audience tonight. +Any Einsteins? Show of hands? No? No? No? +No Einsteins? Okay. +So this question, why is there something rather than nothing, this sublime question, was posed rather late in intellectual history. +It was towards the end of the 17th century, the philosopher Leibniz who asked it, a very smart guy, Leibniz, who invented the calculus independently of Isaac Newton, at about the same time, but for Leibniz, who asked why is there something rather than nothing, this was not a great mystery. +He either was or pretended to be an Orthodox Christian in his metaphysical outlook, and he said it's obvious why the world exists: because God created it. +And God created, indeed, out of nothing at all. +That's how powerful God is. +He doesn't need any preexisting materials to fashion a world out of. +He can make it out of sheer nothingness, creation ex nihilo. +And by the way, this is what most Americans today believe. +There is no mystery of existence for them. +God made it. +So let's put this in an equation. +I don't have any slides so I'm going to mime my visuals, so use your imaginations. +So it's God + nothing = the world. +Okay? Now that's the equation. +And so maybe you don't believe in God. +Maybe you're a scientific atheist or an unscientific atheist, and you don't believe in God, and you're not happy with it. +By the way, even if we have this equation, God + nothing = the world, there's already a problem: Why does God exist? +God doesn't exist by logic alone unless you believe the ontological argument, and I hope you don't, because it's not a good argument. +So it's conceivable, if God were to exist, he might wonder, I'm eternal, I'm all-powerful, but where did I come from? +Whence then am I? +God speaks in a more formal English. +And so one theory is that God was so bored with pondering the puzzle of His own existence that He created the world just to distract himself. +But anyway, let's forget about God. +Take God out of the equation: We have ________ + nothing = the world. +Now, if you're a Buddhist, you might want to stop right there, because essentially what you've got is nothing = the world, and by symmetry of identity, that means the world = nothing. Okay? +And to a Buddhist, the world is just a whole lot of nothing. +It's just a big cosmic vacuity. +And we think there's a lot of something out there but that's because we're enslaved by our desires. +If we let our desires melt away, we'll see the world for what it truly is, a vacuity, nothingness, and we'll slip into this happy state of nirvana which has been defined as having just enough life to enjoy being dead. So that's the Buddhist thinking. +But I'm a Westerner, and I'm still concerned with the puzzle of existence, so I've got ________ + this is going to get serious in a minute, so ________ + nothing = the world. +What are we going to put in that blank? +Well, how about science? +Science is our best guide to the nature of reality, and the most fundamental science is physics. +That tells us what naked reality really is, that reveals what I call TAUFOTU, the True And Ultimate Furniture Of The Universe. +So maybe physics can fill this blank, and indeed, since about the late 1960s or around 1970, physicists have purported to give a purely scientific explanation of how a universe like ours could have popped into existence out of sheer nothingness, a quantum fluctuation out of the void. +The laws of quantum field theory, the state-of-the-art physics, can show how out of sheer nothingness, no space, no time, no matter, nothing, a little nugget of false vacuum can fluctuate into existence, and then, by the miracle of inflation, blow up into this huge and variegated cosmos we see around us. +Okay, this is a really ingenious scenario. +It's very speculative. It's fascinating. +But I've got a big problem with it, and the problem is this: It's a pseudo-religious point of view. +Now, Lawrence thinks he's an atheist, but he's still in thrall to a religious worldview. +He sees physical laws as being like divine commands. +The laws of quantum field theory for him are like fiat lux, "Let there be light." +The laws have some sort of ontological power or clout that they can form the abyss, that it's pregnant with being. +They can call a world into existence out of nothing. +But that's a very primitive view of what a physical law is, right? +We know that physical laws are actually generalized descriptions of patterns and regularities in the world. +They don't exist outside the world. +They don't have any ontic cloud of their own. +They can't call a world into existence out of nothingness. +That's a very primitive view of what a scientific law is. +And if you don't believe me on this, listen to Stephen Hawking, who himself put forward a model of the cosmos that was self-contained, didn't require any outside cause, any creator, and after proposing this, Hawking admitted that he was still puzzled. +He said, this model is just equations. +What breathes fire into the equations and creates a world for them to describe? +He was puzzled by this, so equations themselves can't do the magic, can't resolve the puzzle of existence. +And besides, even if the laws could do that, why this set of laws? +Why quantum field theory that describes a universe with a certain number of forces and particles and so forth? +Why not a completely different set of laws? +There are many, many mathematically consistent sets of laws. +Why not no laws at all? Why not sheer nothingness? +We just see a little tiny part of reality that's described by the laws of quantum field theory, but there are many, many other worlds, parts of reality that are described by vastly different theories that are different from ours in ways we can't imagine, that are inconceivably exotic. +Steven Weinberg, the father of the standard model of particle physics, has actually flirted with this idea himself, that all possible realities actually exist. +Also, a younger physicist, Max Tegmark, who believes that all mathematical structures exist, and mathematical existence is the same thing as physical existence, so we have this vastly rich multiverse that encompasses every logical possibility. +Now, in taking this metaphysical way out, these physicists and also philosophers are actually reaching back to a very old idea that goes back to Plato. +It's the principle of plenitude or fecundity, or the great chain of being, that reality is actually as full as possible. +It's as far removed from nothingness as it could possibly be. +So we have these two extremes now. +We have sheer nothingness on one side, and we have this vision of a reality that encompasses every conceivable world at the other extreme: the fullest possible reality, nothingness, the simplest possible reality. +Now what's in between these two extremes? +There are all kinds of intermediate realities that include some things and leave out others. +So one of these intermediate realities is, say, the most mathematically elegant reality, that leaves out the inelegant bits, the ugly asymmetries and so forth. +Now, there are some physicists who will tell you that we're actually living in the most elegant reality. +I think that Brian Greene is in the audience, and he has written a book called "The Elegant Universe." +He claims that the universe we live in mathematically is very elegant. +Don't believe him. It's a pious hope, I wish it were true, but I think the other day he admitted to me it's really an ugly universe. +It's stupidly constructed, it's got way too many arbitrary coupling constants and mass ratios and superfluous families of elementary particles, and what the hell is dark energy? +It's a stick and bubble gum contraption. +It's not an elegant universe. And then there's the best of all possible worlds in an ethical sense. +You should get solemn now, because a world in which sentient beings don't suffer needlessly, in which there aren't things like childhood cancer or the Holocaust. +This is an ethical conception. +Anyway, so between nothingness and the fullest possible reality, various special realities. +Nothingness is special. It's the simplest. +Then there's the most elegant possible reality. +That's special. +The fullest possible reality, that's special. +But what are we leaving out here? +There's also just the crummy, generic realities that aren't special in any way, that are sort of random. +They're infinitely removed from nothingness, but they fall infinitely short of complete fullness. +They're a mixture of chaos and order, of mathematical elegance and ugliness. +So I would describe these realities as an infinite, mediocre, incomplete mess, a generic reality, a kind of cosmic junk shot. +And these realities, is there a deity in any of these realities? +Maybe, but the deity isn't perfect like the Judeo-Christian deity. +The deity isn't all-good and all-powerful. +It might be instead 100 percent malevolent but only 80 percent effective, which pretty much describes the world we see around us, I think. So I would like to propose that the resolution to the mystery of existence is that the reality we exist in is one of these generic realities. +Reality has to turn out some way. +It can either turn out to be nothing or everything or something in between. +So if it has some special feature, like being really elegant or really full or really simple, like nothingness, that would require an explanation. +But if it's just one of these random, generic realities, there's no further explanation for it. +And indeed, I would say that's the reality we live in. +That's what science is telling us. +I'm sure you all know about this. +So anyway, I think there's some evidence that this really is the reality that we're stuck with. +Now, why should you care? +Well the question, "Why does the world exist?" +that's the cosmic question, it sort of rhymes with a more intimate question: Why do I exist? Why do you exist? +you know, our existence would seem to be amazingly improbable, because there's an enormous number of genetically possible humans, if you can compute it by looking at the number of the genes and the number of alleles and so forth, and a back-of-the-envelope calculation will tell you there are about 10 to the 10,000th possible humans, genetically. +That's between a googol and a googolplex. +And the number of the actual humans that have existed is 100 billion, maybe 50 billion, an infinitesimal fraction, so all of us, we've won this amazing cosmic lottery. +We're here. Okay. +So what kind of reality do we want to live in? +Do we want to live in a special reality? +What if we were living in the most elegant possible reality? +Imagine the existential pressure on us to live up to that, to be elegant, not to pull down the tone of it. +Or, what if we were living in the fullest possible reality? +Well then our existence would be guaranteed, because every possible thing exists in that reality, but our choices would be meaningless. +If I really struggle morally and agonize and I decide to do the right thing, what difference does it make, because there are an infinite number of versions of me also doing the right thing and an infinite number doing the wrong thing. +So my choices are meaningless. +So we don't want to live in that special reality. +And as for the special reality of nothingness, we wouldn't be having this conversation. +So I think living in a generic reality that's mediocre, there are nasty bits and nice bits and we could make the nice bits bigger and the nasty bits smaller and that gives us a kind of purpose in life. +The universe is absurd, but we can still construct a purpose, and that's a pretty good one, and the overall mediocrity of reality kind of resonates nicely with the mediocrity we all feel in the core of our being. +And I know you feel it. +I know you're all special, but you're still kind of secretly mediocre, don't you think? +So anyway, you may say, this puzzle, the mystery of existence, it's just silly mystery-mongering. +You're not astonished at the existence of the universe and you're in good company. +Bertrand Russell said, "I should say the universe is just there, and that's all." +Just a brute fact. +And my professor at Columbia, Sidney Morgenbesser, a great philosophical wag, when I said to him, "Professor Morgenbesser, why is there something rather than nothing?" +And he said, "Oh, even if there was nothing, you still wouldn't be satisfied." +So okay. +So you're not astonished. I don't care. +But I will tell you something to conclude that I guarantee you will astonish you, because it's astonished all of the brilliant, wonderful people I've met at this TED conference, when I've told them, and it's this: Never in my life have I had a cell phone. +Thank you. +So recently, some white guys and some black women swapped Twitter avatars, or pictures online. +They didn't change their content, they kept tweeting the same as usual, but suddenly, the white guys noticed they were getting called the n-word all the time and they were getting the worst kind of online abuse, whereas the black women all of a sudden noticed things got a lot more pleasant for them. +Now, if you're my five-year-old, your Internet consists mostly of puppies and fairies and occasionally fairies riding puppies. +That's a thing. Google it. +But the rest of us know that the Internet can be a really ugly place. +I'm not talking about the kind of colorful debates that I think are healthy for our democracy. +I'm talking about nasty personal attacks. +Maybe it's happened to you, but it's at least twice as likely to happen, and be worse, if you're a woman, a person of color, or gay, or more than one at the same time. +In fact, just as I was writing this talk, I found a Twitter account called @SallyKohnSucks. +The bio says that I'm a "man-hater and a bull dyke and the only thing I've ever accomplished with my career is spreading my perverse sexuality." +Which, incidentally, is only a third correct. +I mean, lies! But seriously, we all say we hate this crap. +The question is whether you're willing to make a personal sacrifice to change it. +I don't mean giving up the Internet. +I mean changing the way you click, because clicking is a public act. +It's no longer the case that a few powerful elites control all the media and the rest of us are just passive receivers. +Increasingly, we're all the media. +I used to think, oh, okay, I get dressed up, I put on a lot of makeup, I go on television, I talk about the news. +That is a public act of making media. +And then I go home and I browse the web and I'm reading Twitter, and that's a private act of consuming media. +I mean, of course it is. I'm in my pajamas. +Wrong. +Everything we blog, everything we Tweet, and everything we click is a public act of making media. +We are the new editors. +We decide what gets attention based on what we give our attention to. +That's how the media works now. +There's all these hidden algorithms that decide what you see more of and what we all see more of based on what you click on, and that in turn shapes our whole culture. +Over three out of five Americans think we have a major incivility problem in our country right now, but I'm going to guess that at least three out of five Americans are clicking on the same insult-oriented, rumor-mongering trash that feeds the nastiest impulses in our society. +In an increasingly noisy media landscape, the incentive is to make more noise to be heard, and that tyranny of the loud encourages the tyranny of the nasty. +It does not have to be that way. +It does not. +We can change the incentive. +For starters, there are two things we can all do. +First, don't just stand by the sidelines when you see someone getting hurt. +If someone is being abused online, do something. +Be a hero. This is your chance. +Speak up. Speak out. Be a good person. +Drown out the negative with the positive. +And second, we've got to stop clicking on the lowest-common-denominator, bottom-feeding linkbait. +If you don't like the 24/7 all Kardashian all the time programming, you've got to stop clicking on the stories about Kim Kardashian's sideboob. +I know you do it. You too, apparently. +I mean, really, same example: if you don't like politicians calling each other names, stop clicking on the stories about what one guy in one party called the other guy in the other party. +Clicking on a train wreck just pours gasoline on it. +It makes it worse, the fire spreads. +Our whole culture gets burned. +If what gets the most clicks wins, then we have to start shaping the world we want with our clicks, because clicking is a public act. +So click responsibly. Thank you. +This is a photograph of a man whom for many years I plotted to kill. +This is my father, Clinton George "Bageye" Grant. +He's called Bageye because he has permanent bags under his eyes. +As a 10-year-old, along with my siblings, I dreamt of scraping off the poison from fly-killer paper into his coffee, grounded down glass and sprinkling it over his breakfast, loosening the carpet on the stairs so he would trip and break his neck. +But come the day, he would always skip that loose step, he would always bow out of the house without so much as a swig of coffee or a bite to eat. +And so for many years, I feared that my father would die before I had a chance to kill him. +Up until our mother asked him to leave and not come back, Bageye had been a terrifying ogre. +He teetered permanently on the verge of rage, rather like me, as you see. +So that lesson was the lesson that "Do not draw attention to yourself either in the home or outside of the home." +Maybe it's a migrant lesson. +Well the sound that we looked forward to was the click of the door closing, which meant he'd gone and would not come back. +So for three decades, I never laid eyes on my father, nor he on me. +We never spoke to each other for three decades, and then a couple of years ago, I decided to turn the spotlight on him. +"You are being watched. +Actually, you are. +You are being watched." +That was his mantra to us, his children. +Time and time again he would say this to us. +And this was the 1970s, it was Luton, where he worked at Vauxhall Motors, and he was a Jamaican. +And what he meant was, you as a child of a Jamaican immigrant are being watched to see which way you turn, to see whether you conform to the host nation's stereotype of you, of being feckless, work-shy, destined for a life of crime. +You are being watched, so confound their expectations of you. +To that end, Bageye and his friends, mostly Jamaican, exhibited a kind of Jamaican bella figura: Turn your best side to the world, show your best face to the world. +If you have seen some of the images of the Caribbean people arriving in the '40s and '50s, you might have noticed that a lot of the men wear trilbies. +Now, there was no tradition of wearing trilbies in Jamaica. +They invented that tradition for their arrival here. +They wanted to project themselves in a way that they wanted to be perceived, so that the way they looked and the names that they gave themselves defined them. +So Bageye is bald and has baggy eyes. +Tidy Boots is very fussy about his footwear. +Anxious is always anxious. +Clock has one arm longer than the other. +And my all-time favorite was the guy they called Summerwear. +When Summerwear came to this country from Jamaica in the early '60s, he insisted on wearing light summer suits, no matter the weather, and in the course of researching their lives, I asked my mom, "Whatever became of Summerwear?" +And she said, "He caught a cold and died." But men like Summerwear taught us the importance of style. +You did not just represent yourself. +You represented the group, and it was a terrifying thing to come to terms with, in a way, that maybe you were going to be perceived in the same light. +So that was what needed to be challenged. +Our father and many of his colleagues exhibited a kind of transmission but not receiving. +They were built to transmit but not receive. +We were to keep quiet. +When our father did speak to us, it was from the pulpit of his mind. +They clung to certainty in the belief that doubt would undermine them. +But when I am working in my house and writing, after a day's writing, I rush downstairs and I'm very excited to talk about Marcus Garvey or Bob Marley and words are tripping out of my mouth like butterflies and I'm so excited that my children stop me, and they say, "Dad, nobody cares." +But they do care, actually. +They cross over. +Somehow they find their way to you. +They shape their lives according to the narrative of your life, as I did with my father and my mother, perhaps, and maybe Bageye did with his father. +And that was clearer to me in the course of looking at his life and understanding, as they say, the Native Americans say, "Do not criticize the man until you can walk in his moccasins." +But in conjuring his life, it was okay and very straightforward to portray a Caribbean life in England in the 1970s with bowls of plastic fruit, polystyrene ceiling tiles, settees permanently sheathed in their transparent covers that they were delivered in. +But what's more difficult to navigate is the emotional landscape between the generations, and the old adage that with age comes wisdom is not true. +With age comes the veneer of respectability and a veneer of uncomfortable truths. +But what was true was that my parents, my mother, and my father went along with it, did not trust the state to educate me. +So listen to how I sound. +They determined that they would send me to a private school, but my father worked at Vauxhall Motors. +It's quite difficult to fund a private school education and feed his army of children. +I remember going on to the school for the entrance exam, and my father said to the priest it was a Catholic school he wanted a better "heducation" for the boy, but also, he, my father, never even managed to pass worms, never mind entrance exams. +But in order to fund my education, he was going to have to do some dodgy stuff, so my father would fund my education by trading in illicit goods from the back of his car, and that was made even more tricky because my father, that's not his car by the way. +My father aspired to have a car like that, but my father had a beaten-up Mini, and he never, being a Jamaican coming to this country, he never had a driving license, he never had any insurance or road tax or MOT. +He thought, "I know how to drive; why do I need the state's validation?" +But it became a little tricky when we were stopped by the police, and we were stopped a lot by the police, and I was impressed by the way that my father dealt with the police. +He would promote the policeman immediately, so that P.C. Bloggs became Detective Inspector Bloggs in the course of the conversation and wave us on merrily. +So my father was exhibiting what we in Jamaica called "playing fool to catch wise." +But it lent also an idea that actually he was being diminished or belittled by the policeman as a 10-year-old boy, I saw that but also there was an ambivalence towards authority. +So on the one hand, there was a mocking of authority, but on the other hand, there was a deference towards authority, and these Caribbean people had an overbearing obedience towards authority, which is very striking, very strange in a way, because migrants are very courageous people. +They leave their homes. My father and my mother left Jamaica and they traveled 4,000 miles, and yet they were infantilized by travel. +They were timid, and somewhere along the line, the natural order was reversed. +The children became the parents to the parent. +Although there's still the kind of temporariness that our parents felt about being here, but we children knew that the game was up. +I think there was a feeling that they would not be able to continue with the ideals of the life that they expected. +The reality was very much different. +And also, that was true of the reality of trying to educate me. +Having started the process, my father did not continue. +It was left to my mother to educate me, and as George Lamming would say, it was my mother who fathered me. +Even in his absence, that old mantra remained: You are being watched. +But such ardent watchfulness can lead to anxiety, so much so that years later, when I was investigating why so many young black men were diagnosed with schizophrenia, six times more than they ought to be, I was not surprised to hear the psychiatrist say, "Black people are schooled in paranoia." +And I wonder what Bageye would make of that. +Now I also had a 10-year-old son, and turned my attention to Bageye and I went in search of him. +He was back in Luton, he was now 82, and I hadn't seen him for 30-odd years, and when he opened the door, I saw this tiny little man with lambent, smiling eyes, and he was smiling, and I'd never seen him smile. +I was very disconcerted by that. +But we sat down, and he had a Caribbean friend with him, talking some old time talk, and my father would look at me, and he looked at me as if I would miraculously disappear as I had arisen. +And he turned to his friend, and he said, "This boy and me have a deep, deep connection, deep, deep connection." +But I never felt that connection. +If there was a pulse, it was very weak or hardly at all. +And I almost felt in the course of that reunion that I was auditioning to be my father's son. +When the book came out, it had fair reviews in the national papers, but the paper of choice in Luton is not The Guardian, it's the Luton News, and the Luton News ran the headline about the book, "The Book That May Heal a 32-Year-Old Rift." +And I understood that could also represent the rift between one generation and the next, between people like me and my father's generation, but there's no tradition in Caribbean life of memoirs or biographies. +It was a tradition that you didn't chat about your business in public. +But I welcomed that title, and I thought actually, yes, there is a possibility that this will open up conversations that we'd never had before. +This will close the generation gap, perhaps. +This could be an instrument of repair. +And I even began to feel that this book may be perceived by my father as an act of filial devotion. +Poor, deluded fool. +Bageye was stung by what he perceived to be the public airing of his shortcomings. +He was stung by my betrayal, and he went to the newspapers the next day and demanded a right of reply, and he got it with the headline "Bageye Bites Back." +And it was a coruscating account of my betrayal. +I was no son of his. +He recognized in his mind that his colors had been dragged through the mud, and he couldn't allow that. +He had to restore his dignity, and he did so, and initially, although I was disappointed, I grew to admire that stance. +There was still fire bubbling through his veins, even though he was 82 years old. +And if it meant that we would now return to 30 years of silence, my father would say, "If it's so, then it's so." +Jamaicans will tell you that there's no such thing as facts, there are only versions. +We all tell ourselves the versions of the story that we can best live with. +Each generation builds up an edifice which they are reluctant or sometimes unable to disassemble, but in the writing, my version of the story began to change, and it was detached from me. +I lost my hatred of my father. +I did no longer want him to die or to murder him, and I felt free, much freer than I'd ever felt before. +And I wonder whether that freedness could be transferred to him. +In that initial reunion, I was struck by an idea that I had very few photographs of myself as a young child. +This is a photograph of me, nine months old. +In the original photograph, I'm being held up by my father, Bageye, but when my parents separated, my mother excised him from all aspects of our lives. +She took a pair of scissors and cut him out of every photograph, and for years, I told myself the truth of this photograph was that you are alone, you are unsupported. +But there's another way of looking at this photograph. +This is a photograph that has the potential for a reunion, a potential to be reunited with my father, and in my yearning to be held up by my father, I held him up to the light. +In that first reunion, it was very awkward and tense moments, and to lessen the tension, we decided to go for a walk. +And as we walked, I was struck that I had reverted to being the child even though I was now towering above my father. +I was almost a foot taller than my father. +He was still the big man, and I tried to match his step. +And I realized that he was walking as if he was still under observation, but I admired his walk. +He walked like a man on the losing side of the F.A. Cup Final mounting the steps to collect his condolence medal. +There was dignity in defeat. +Thank you. +I'm an industrial engineer. +The goal in my life has always been to make more and more products in the least amount of time and resources. +While working at Toyota, all I knew was how to make cars until I met Dr. Akira Miyawaki, who came to our factory to make a forest in it in order to make it carbon-neutral. +I was so fascinated that I decided to learn this methodology by joining his team as a volunteer. +Soon, I started making a forest in the backyard of my own house, and this is how it looks after three years. +These forests, compared to a conventional plantation, grow 10 times faster, they're 30 times more dense, and 100 times more biodiverse. +Within two years of having this forest in our backyard, I could observe that the groundwater didn't dry during summers, the number of bird species I spotted in this area doubled. +Quality of air became better, and we started harvesting seasonal fruits growing effortlessly right in the backyard of our house. +I wanted to make more of these forests. +I was so moved by these results that I wanted to make these forests with the same acumen with which we make cars or write software or do any mainstream business, so I founded a company which is an end-to-end service provider to create these native natural forests. +But to make afforestation as a mainstream business or an industry, we had to standardize the process of forest-making. +So we benchmarked the Toyota Production System known for its quality and efficiency for the process of forest-making. +For an example, the core of TPS, Toyota Production System, lies in heijunka, which is making manufacturing of different models of cars on a single assembly line. +We replaced these cars with trees, using which now we can make multi-layered forests. +These forests utilize 100 percent vertical space. +They are so dense that one can't even walk into them. +For an example, we can make a 300-tree forest in an area as small as the parking spaces of six cars. +In order to reduce cost and our own carbon footprint, we started utilizing local biomass as soil amender and fertilizers. +For example, coconut shells crushed in a machine mixed with rice straw, powder of rice husk mixed with organic manure is finally dumped in soil on which our forest is planted. +Once planted, we use grass or rice straw to cover the soil so that all the water which goes into irrigation doesn't get evaporated back into the atmosphere. +And using these simple improvisations, today we can make a forest for a cost as low as the cost of an iPhone. +Today, we are making forests in houses, in schools, even in factories with the corporates. +But that's not enough. +There is a huge number of people who want to take matters into their own hands. +So we let it happen. +Today, we are working on an Internet-based platform where we are going to share our methodology on an open source using which anyone and everyone can make their own forest without our physical presence being there, using our methodology. +At the click of a button, they can get to know all the native species of their place. +By installing a small hardware probe on site, we can do remote soil testing, using which we can give step-by-step instructions on forest-making remotely. +Also we can monitor the growth of this forest without being on site. +This methodology, I believe, has a potential. +By sharing, we can actually bring back our native forests. +Now, when you go back home, if you see a barren piece of land, do remember that it can be a potential forest. +Thank you very much. Thanks. +For over a decade as a doctor, I've cared for homeless veterans, for working-class families. +I've cared for people who live and work in conditions that can be hard, if not harsh, and that work has led me to believe that we need a fundamentally different way of looking at healthcare. +We simply need a healthcare system that moves beyond just looking at the symptoms that bring people into clinics, but instead actually is able to look and improve health where it begins. +And where health begins is not in the four walls of a doctor's office, but where we live and where we work, where we eat, sleep, learn and play, where we spend the majority of our lives. +So what does this different approach to healthcare look like, an approach that can improve health where it begins? +To illustrate this, I'll tell you about Veronica. +Veronica was the 17th patient out of my 26-patient day at that clinic in South Central Los Angeles. +She came into our clinic with a chronic headache. +This headache had been going on for a number of years, and this particular episode was very, very troubling. +In fact, three weeks before she came to visit us for the first time, she went to an emergency room in Los Angeles. +The emergency room doctors said, "We've run some tests, Veronica. +The results are normal, so here's some pain medication, and follow up with a primary care doctor, but if the pain persists or if it worsens, then come on back." +Veronica followed those standard instructions and she went back. +She went back not just once, but twice more. +In the three weeks before Veronica met us, she went to the emergency room three times. +She went back and forth, in and out of hospitals and clinics, just like she had done in years past, trying to seek relief but still coming up short. +Veronica came to our clinic, and despite all these encounters with healthcare professionals, Veronica was still sick. +When she came to our clinic, though, we tried a different approach. +Our approach started with our medical assistant, someone who had a GED-level training but knew the community. +Our medical assistant asked some routine questions. +She asked, "What's your chief complaint?" +"Headache." +"Let's get your vital signs" measure your blood pressure and your heart rate, but let's also ask something equally as vital to Veronica and a lot of patients like her in South Los Angeles. +"Veronica, can you tell me about where you live? +Specifically, about your housing conditions? +Do you have mold? Do you have water leaks? +Do you have roaches in your home?" +Turns out, Veronica said yes to three of those things: roaches, water leaks, mold. +I received that chart in hand, reviewed it, and I turned the handle on the door and I entered the room. +You should understand that Veronica, like a lot of patients that I have the privilege of caring for, is a dignified person, a formidable presence, a personality that's larger than life, but here she was doubled over in pain sitting on my exam table. +Her head, clearly throbbing, was resting in her hands. +She lifted her head up, and I saw her face, said hello, and then I immediately noticed something across the bridge of her nose, a crease in her skin. +In medicine, we call that crease the allergic salute. +It's usually seen among children who have chronic allergies. +It comes from chronically rubbing one's nose up and down, trying to get rid of those allergy symptoms, and yet, here was Veronica, a grown woman, with the same telltale sign of allergies. +A few minutes later, in asking Veronica some questions, and examining her and listening to her, I said, "Veronica, I think I know what you have. +I think you have chronic allergies, and I think you have migraine headaches and some sinus congestion, and I think all of those are related to where you live." +She looked a little bit relieved, because for the first time, she had a diagnosis, but I said, "Veronica, now let's talk about your treatment. +We're going to order some medications for your symptoms, but I also want to refer you to a specialist, if that's okay." +Now, specialists are a little hard to find in South Central Los Angeles, so she gave me this look, like, "Really?" +Veronica came back in a few months later. +She agreed to all of those treatment plans. +She told us that her symptoms had improved by 90 percent. +She was spending more time at work and with her family and less time shuttling back and forth between the emergency rooms of Los Angeles. +Veronica had improved remarkably. +Her sons, one of whom had asthma, were no longer as sick as they used to be. +She had gotten better, and not coincidentally, Veronica's home was better too. +What was it about this different approach we tried that led to better care, fewer visits to the E.R., better health? +Well, quite simply, it started with that question: "Veronica, where do you live?" +But more importantly, it was that we put in place a system that allowed us to routinely ask questions to Veronica and hundreds more like her about the conditions that mattered in her community, about where health, and unfortunately sometimes illness, do begin in places like South L.A. +In that community, substandard housing and food insecurity are the major conditions that we as a clinic had to be aware of, but in other communities it could be transportation barriers, obesity, access to parks, gun violence. +The important thing is, we put in place a system that worked, and it's an approach that I call an upstream approach. +It's a term many of you are familiar with. +It comes from a parable that's very common in the public health community. +This is a parable of three friends. +Imagine that you're one of these three friends who come to a river. +It's a beautiful scene, but it's shattered by the cries of a child, and actually several children, in need of rescue in the water. +So you do hopefully what everybody would do. +You jump right in along with your friends. +The first friend says, I'm going to rescue those who are about to drown, those at most risk of falling over the waterfall. +The second friends says, I'm going to build a raft. +I'm going to make sure that fewer people need to end up at the waterfall's edge. +Let's usher more people to safety by building this raft, coordinating those branches together. +Over time, they're successful, but not really, as much as they want to be. +More people slip through, and they finally look up and they see that their third friend is nowhere to be seen. +They finally spot her. +She's in the water. She's swimming away from them upstream, rescuing children as she goes, and they shout to her, "Where are you going? There are children here to save." +And she says back, "I'm going to find out who or what is throwing these children in the water." +In healthcare, we have that first friend we have the specialist, we have the trauma surgeon, the ICU nurse, the E.R. doctors. +We have those people that are vital rescuers, people you want to be there when you're in dire straits. +We also know that we have the second friend we have that raft-builder. +That's the primary care clinician, people on the care team who are there to manage your chronic conditions, your diabetes, your hypertension, there to give you your annual checkups, there to make sure your vaccines are up to date, but also there to make sure that you have a raft to sit on and usher yourself to safety. +But while that's also vital and very necessary, what we're missing is that third friend. +We don't have enough of that upstreamist. +Now you might ask, and it's a very obvious question that a lot of colleagues in medicine ask: "Doctors and nurses thinking about transportation and housing? +Shouldn't we just provide pills and procedures and just make sure we focus on the task at hand?" +Certainly, rescuing people at the water's edge is important enough work. +Who has the time? +I would argue, though, that if we were to use science as our guide, that we would find an upstream approach is absolutely necessary. +All together, living and working conditions account for 60 percent of preventable death. +Let me give you an example of what this feels like. +Let's say there was a company, a tech startup that came to you and said, "We have a great product. +It's going to lower your risk of death from heart disease." +Now, you might be likely to invest if that product was a drug or a device, but what if that product was a park? +A study in the U.K., a landmark study that reviewed the records of over 40 million residents in the U.K., looked at several variables, controlled for a lot of factors, and found that when trying to adjust the risk of heart disease, one's exposure to green space was a powerful influence. +The closer you were to green space, to parks and trees, the lower your chance of heart disease, and that stayed true for rich and for poor. +That study illustrates what my friends in public health often say these days: that one's zip code matters more than your genetic code. +We're also learning that zip code is actually shaping our genetic code. +The science of epigenetics looks at those molecular mechanisms, those intricate ways in which our DNA is literally shaped, genes turned on and off based on the exposures to the environment, to where we live and to where we work. +So it's clear that these factors, these upstream issues, do matter. +They matter to our health, and therefore our healthcare professionals should do something about it. +And yet, Veronica asked me perhaps the most compelling question I've been asked in a long time. +In that follow-up visit, she said, "Why did none of my doctors ask about my home before? +In those visits to the emergency room, I had two CAT scans, I had a needle placed in the lower part of my back to collect spinal fluid, I had nearly a dozen blood tests. +I went back and forth, I saw all sorts of people in healthcare, and no one asked about my home." +The honest answer is that in healthcare, we often treat symptoms without addressing the conditions that make you sick in the first place. +And there are many reasons for that, but the big three are first, we don't pay for that. +In healthcare, we often pay for volume and not value. +We pay doctors and hospitals usually for the number of services they provide, but not necessarily on how healthy they make you. +That leads to a second phenomenon that I call the "don't ask, don't tell" approach to upstream issues in healthcare. +We don't ask about where you live and where you work, because if there's a problem there, we don't know what to tell you. +It's not that doctors don't know these are important issues. +There's this gap between knowing that patients' lives, the context of where they live and work, matters, and the ability to do something about it in the systems in which we work. +This is a huge problem right now, because it leads them to this next question, which is, whose responsibility is it? +And that brings me to that third point, that third answer to Veronica's compelling question. +Part of the reason that we have this conundrum is because there are not nearly enough upstreamists in the healthcare system. +There are not nearly enough of that third friend, that person who is going to find out who or what is throwing those kids in the water. +Now, there are many upstreamists, and I've had the privilege of meeting many of them, in Los Angeles and in other parts of the country and around the world, and it's important to note that upstreamists sometimes are doctors, but they need not be. +They can be nurses, other clinicians, care managers, social workers. +It's not so important what specific degree upstreamists have at the end of their name. +What's more important is that they all seem to share the same ability to implement a process that transforms their assistance, transforms the way they practice medicine. +That process is a quite simple process. +It's one, two and three. +First, they sit down and they say, let's identify the clinical problem among a certain set of patients. +Let's say, for instance, let's try to help children who are bouncing in and out of the hospital with asthma. +After identifying the problem, they then move on to that second step, and they say, let's identify the root cause. +Now, a root cause analysis, in healthcare, usually says, well, let's look at your genes, let's look at how you're behaving. +Maybe you're not eating healthy enough. +Eat healthier. +It's a pretty simplistic approach to root cause analyses. +It turns out, it doesn't really work when we just limit ourselves that worldview. +The root cause analysis that an upstreamist brings to the table is to say, let's look at the living and the working conditions in your life. +Perhaps, for children with asthma, it's what's happening in their home, or perhaps they live close to a freeway with major air pollution that triggers their asthma. +And perhaps that's what we should mobilize our resources to address, because that third element, that third part of the process, is that next critical part of what upstreamists do. +It's clear to me that there are so many stories of upstreamists who are doing remarkable things. +The problem is that there's just not nearly enough of them out there. +By some estimates, we need one upstreamist for every 20 to 30 clinicians in the healthcare system. +In the U.S., for instance, that would mean that we need 25,000 upstreamists by the year 2020. +But we only have a few thousand upstreamists out there right now, by all accounts, and that's why, a few years ago, my colleagues and I said, you know what, we need to train and make more upstreamists. +So we decided to start an organization called Health Begins, and Health Begins simply does that: We train upstreamists. +And there are a lot of measures that we use for our success, but the main thing that we're interested in is making sure that we're changing the sense of confidence, that "don't ask, don't tell" metric among clinicians. +We're trying to make sure that clinicians, and therefore their systems that they work in have the ability, the confidence to address the problems in the living and working conditions in our lives. +We're seeing nearly a tripling of that confidence in our work. +It's remarkable, but I'll tell you the most compelling part with upstreamists to gather them together. +What is most compelling is that every day, every week, I hear stories just like Veronica's. +These stories are compelling because not only do they tell us that we're this close to getting the healthcare system that we want, but that there's something that we can all do to get there. +Doctors and nurses can get better at asking about the context of patients' lives, not simply because it's better bedside manner, but frankly, because it's a better standard of care. +Healthcare systems and payers can start to bring in public health agencies and departments and say, let's look at our data together. +Let's see if we can discover some patterns in our data about our patients' lives and see if we can identify an upstream cause, and then, as importantly, can we align the resources to be able to address them? +Medical schools, nursing schools, all sorts of health professional education programs can help by training the next generation of upstreamists. +We can also make sure that these schools certify a backbone of the upstream approach, and that's the community health worker. +We need many more of them in the healthcare system if we're truly going to have it be effective, to move from a sickcare system to a healthcare system. +But finally, and perhaps most importantly, what do we do? What do we do as patients? +We can start by simply going to our doctors and our nurses, to our clinics, and asking, "Is there something in where I live and where I work that I should be aware of?" +And what can we do together to improve my health where it begins? +If we're all able to do this work, doctors and healthcare systems, payers, and all of us together, we'll realize something about health. +Health is not just a personal responsibility or phenomenon. +Health is a common good. +It comes from our personal investment in knowing that our lives matter, the context of where we live and where we work, eat, and sleep, matter, and that what we do for ourselves, we also should do for those whose living and working conditions again, can be hard, if not harsh. +We can all invest in making sure that we improve the allocation of resources upstream, but at the same time work together and show that we can move healthcare upstream. +We can improve health where it begins. +Thank you. +Today I want to tell you about a project being carried out by scientists all over the world to paint a neural portrait of the human mind. +And the central idea of this work is that the human mind and brain is not a single, general-purpose processor, but a collection of highly specialized components, each solving a different specific problem, and yet collectively making up who we are as human beings and thinkers. +To give you a feel for this idea, imagine the following scenario: You walk into your child's day care center. +As usual, there's a dozen kids there waiting to get picked up, but this time, the children's faces look weirdly similar, and you can't figure out which child is yours. +Do you need new glasses? +Are you losing your mind? +You run through a quick mental checklist. +No, you seem to be thinking clearly, and your vision is perfectly sharp. +And everything looks normal except the children's faces. +You can see the faces, but they don't look distinctive, and none of them looks familiar, and it's only by spotting an orange hair ribbon that you find your daughter. +This sudden loss of the ability to recognize faces actually happens to people. +It's called prosopagnosia, and it results from damage to a particular part of the brain. +The striking thing about it is that only face recognition is impaired; everything else is just fine. +Prosopagnosia is one of many surprisingly specific mental deficits that can happen after brain damage. +These syndromes collectively have suggested for a long time that the mind is divvied up into distinct components, but the effort to discover those components has jumped to warp speed with the invention of brain imaging technology, especially MRI. +So MRI enables you to see internal anatomy at high resolution, so I'm going to show you in a second a set of MRI cross-sectional images through a familiar object, and we're going to fly through them and you're going to try to figure out what the object is. +Here we go. +It's not that easy. It's an artichoke. +Okay, let's try another one, starting from the bottom and going through the top. +Broccoli! It's a head of broccoli. +Isn't it beautiful? I love that. +Okay, here's another one. It's a brain, of course. +In fact, it's my brain. +We're going through slices through my head like that. +That's my nose over on the right, and now we're going over here, right there. +So this picture's nice, if I do say so myself, but it shows only anatomy. +The really cool advance with functional imaging happened when scientists figured out how to make pictures that show not just anatomy but activity, that is, where neurons are firing. +So here's how this works. +Brains are like muscles. +When they get active, they need increased blood flow to supply that activity, and lucky for us, blood flow control to the brain is local, so if a bunch of neurons, say, right there get active and start firing, then blood flow increases just right there. +So functional MRI picks up on that blood flow increase, producing a higher MRI response where neural activity goes up. +So to give you a concrete feel for how a functional MRI experiment goes and what you can learn from it and what you can't, let me describe one of the first studies I ever did. +So I was the first subject. +I went into the scanner, I lay on my back, I held my head as still as I could while staring at pictures of faces like these and objects like these and faces and objects for hours. +So as somebody who has pretty close to the world record of total number of hours spent inside an MRI scanner, I can tell you that one of the skills that's really important for MRI research is bladder control. +When I got out of the scanner, I did a quick analysis of the data, looking for any parts of my brain that produced a higher response when I was looking at faces than when I was looking at objects, and here's what I saw. +Now this image looks just awful by today's standards, but at the time I thought it was beautiful. +What it shows is that region right there, that little blob, it's about the size of an olive and it's on the bottom surface of my brain about an inch straight in from right there. +And what that part of my brain is doing is producing a higher MRI response, that is, higher neural activity, when I was looking at faces than when I was looking at objects. +So that's pretty cool, but how do we know this isn't a fluke? +Well, the easiest way is to just do the experiment again. +So I got back in the scanner, I looked at more faces and I looked at more objects and I got a similar blob, and then I did it again and I did it again and again and again, and around about then I decided to believe it was for real. +But still, maybe this is something weird about my brain and no one else has one of these things in there, so to find out, we scanned a bunch of other people and found that pretty much everyone has that little face-processing region in a similar neighborhood of the brain. +So the next question was, what does this thing really do? +Is it really specialized just for face recognition? +Well, maybe not, right? +Maybe it responds not only to faces but to any body part. +Maybe it responds to anything human or anything alive or anything round. +The only way to be really sure that that region is specialized for face recognition is to rule out all of those hypotheses. +So have we finally nailed the case that this region is necessary for face recognition? +No, we haven't. +Brain imaging can never tell you if a region is necessary for anything. +All you can do with brain imaging is watch regions turn on and off as people think different thoughts. +To tell if a part of the brain is necessary for a mental function, you need to mess with it and see what happens, and normally we don't get to do that. +But an amazing opportunity came about very recently when a couple of colleagues of mine tested this man who has epilepsy and who is shown here in his hospital bed where he's just had electrodes placed on the surface of his brain to identify the source of his seizures. +So it turned out by total chance that two of the electrodes happened to be right on top of his face area. +So with the patient's consent, the doctors asked him what happened when they electrically stimulated that part of his brain. +Now, the patient doesn't know where those electrodes are, and he's never heard of the face area. +So let's watch what happens. +It's going to start with a control condition that will say "Sham" nearly invisibly in red in the lower left, when no current is delivered, and you'll hear the neurologist speaking to the patient first. So let's watch. +Neurologist: Okay, just look at my face and tell me what happens when I do this. +All right? +Patient: Okay. +Neurologist: One, two, three. +Patient: Nothing. Neurologist: Nothing? Okay. +I'm going to do it one more time. +Look at my face. +One, two, three. +Patient: You just turned into somebody else. +Your face metamorphosed. +Your nose got saggy, it went to the left. +You almost looked like somebody I'd seen before, but somebody different. +That was a trip. +Nancy Kanwisher: So this experiment this experiment finally nails the case that this region of the brain is not only selectively responsive to faces but causally involved in face perception. +So I went through all of these details about the face region to show you what it takes to really establish that a part of the brain is selectively involved in a specific mental process. +Next, I'll go through much more quickly some of the other specialized regions of the brain that we and others have found. +So to do this, I've spent a lot of time in the scanner over the last month so I can show you these things in my brain. +So let's get started. Here's my right hemisphere. +So we're oriented like that. You're looking at my head this way. +Imagine taking the skull off and looking at the surface of the brain like that. +Okay, now as you can see, the surface of the brain is all folded up. +So that's not good. Stuff could be hidden in there. +We want to see the whole thing, so let's inflate it so we can see the whole thing. +Next, let's find that face area I've been talking about that responds to images like these. +To see that, let's turn the brain around and look on the inside surface on the bottom, and there it is, that's my face area. +Just to the right of that is another region that is shown in purple that responds when you process color information, and near those regions are other regions that are involved in perceiving places, like right now, I'm seeing this layout of space around me and these regions in green right there are really active. +There's another one out on the outside surface again where there's a couple more face regions as well. +Now all these regions I've shown you so far are involved in specific aspects of visual perception. +Do we also have specialized brain regions for other senses, like hearing? +Yes, we do. So if we turn the brain around a little bit, here's a region in dark blue that we reported just a couple of months ago, and this region responds strongly when you hear sounds with pitch, like these. +(Cello music) In contrast, that same region does not respond strongly when you hear perfectly familiar sounds that don't have a clear pitch, like these. +(Drum roll) (Toilet flushing) Okay. Next to the pitch region is another set of regions that are selectively responsive when you hear the sounds of speech. +Okay, now let's look at these same regions. +In my left hemisphere, there's a similar arrangement not identical, but similar and most of the same regions are in here, albeit sometimes different in size. +Now, everything I've shown you so far are regions that are involved in different aspects of perception, vision and hearing. +Do we also have specialized brain regions for really fancy, complicated mental processes? +Yes, we do. +So here in pink are my language regions. +So it's been known for a very long time that that general vicinity of the brain is involved in processing language, but we showed very recently that these pink regions respond extremely selectively. +They respond when you understand the meaning of a sentence, but not when you do other complex mental things, like mental arithmetic or holding information in memory or appreciating the complex structure in a piece of music. +The most amazing region that's been found yet is this one right here in turquoise. +This region responds when you think about what another person is thinking. +So that may seem crazy, but actually, we humans do this all the time. +You're doing this when you realize that your partner is going to be worried if you don't call home to say you're running late. +I'm doing this with that region of my brain right now when I realize that you guys are probably now wondering about all that gray, uncharted territory in the brain, and what's up with that? +Well, I'm wondering about that too, and we're running a bunch of experiments in my lab right now to try to find a number of other possible specializations in the brain for other very specific mental functions. +But importantly, I don't think we have specializations in the brain for every important mental function, even mental functions that may be critical for survival. +In fact, a few years ago, there was a scientist in my lab who became quite convinced that he'd found a brain region for detecting food, and it responded really strongly in the scanner when people looked at images like this. +And further, he found a similar response in more or less the same location in 10 out of 12 subjects. +So he was pretty stoked, and he was running around the lab telling everyone that he was going to go on "Oprah" with his big discovery. +But then he devised the critical test: He showed subjects images of food like this and compared them to images with very similar color and shape, but that weren't food, like these. +And his region responded the same to both sets of images. +So it wasn't a food area, it was just a region that liked colors and shapes. +So much for "Oprah." +But then the question, of course, is, how do we process all this other stuff that we don't have specialized brain regions for? +Well, I think the answer is that in addition to these highly specialized components that I've been describing, we also have a lot of very general- purpose machinery in our heads that enables us to tackle whatever problem comes along. +In fact, we've shown recently that these regions here in white respond whenever you do any difficult mental task well, of the seven that we've tested. +So each of the brain regions that I've described to you today is present in approximately the same location in every normal subject. +I could take any of you, pop you in the scanner, and find each of those regions in your brain, and it would look a lot like my brain, although the regions would be slightly different in their exact location and in their size. +What's important to me about this work is not the particular locations of these brain regions, but the simple fact that we have selective, specific components of mind and brain in the first place. +I mean, it could have been otherwise. +The brain could have been a single, general-purpose processor, more like a kitchen knife than a Swiss Army knife. +Instead, what brain imaging has delivered is this rich and interesting picture of the human mind. +So we have this picture of very general-purpose machinery in our heads in addition to this surprising array of very specialized components. +It's early days in this enterprise. +We've painted only the first brushstrokes in our neural portrait of the human mind. +The most fundamental questions remain unanswered. +So for example, what does each of these regions do exactly? +Why do we need three face areas and three place areas, and what's the division of labor between them? +Second, how are all these things connected in the brain? +With diffusion imaging, you can trace bundles of neurons that connect to different parts of the brain, and with this method shown here, you can trace the connections of individual neurons in the brain, potentially someday giving us a wiring diagram of the entire human brain. +Third, how does all of this very systematic structure get built, both over development in childhood and over the evolution of our species? +To address questions like that, scientists are now scanning other species of animals, and they're also scanning human infants. +Many people justify the high cost of neuroscience research by pointing out that it may help us someday to treat brain disorders like Alzheimer's and autism. +That's a hugely important goal, and I'd be thrilled if any of my work contributed to it, but fixing things that are broken in the world is not the only thing that's worth doing. +The effort to understand the human mind and brain is worthwhile even if it never led to the treatment of a single disease. +What could be more thrilling than to understand the fundamental mechanisms that underlie human experience, to understand, in essence, who we are? +This is, I think, the greatest scientific quest of all time. +My dream is to build the world's first underground park in New York City. +Now, why would someone want to build an underground park, and why in New York City? +These three tough little buggers are, on the left, my grandmother, age five, and then her sister and brother, ages 11 and nine. +This photo was taken just before they left from Italy to immigrate to the United States, just about a century ago. +And like many immigrants at the time, they arrived on the Lower East Side in New York City and they encountered a crazy melting pot. +What was amazing about their generation was that they were not only building new lives in this new, unfamiliar area, but they were also literally building the city. +I've always been fascinated by those decades and by that history, and I would often beg my grandmother to tell me as many stories as possible about the old New York. +But she would often just shrug it off, tell me to eat more meatballs, more pasta, and so I very rarely got any of the history that I wanted to hear about. +The New York City that I encountered felt pretty built up. +I always knew as a kid that I wanted to make a difference, and to somehow make the world more beautiful, more interesting and more just. +I just didn't really know how. +At first, I thought I wanted to go work abroad, so I took a job with UNICEF in Kenya. +But it felt weird to me that I knew more about local Kenyan politics than the politics of my own hometown. +I took a job with the City of New York, but very quickly felt frustrated with the slowness of government bureaucracy. +I even took a job at Google, where very fast I drank the Kool-Aid and believed almost wholeheartedly that technology could solve all social problems. +But I still didn't feel like I was making the world a better place. +It was in 2009 that my friend and now business partner James Ramsey alerted me to the location of a pretty spectacular site, which is this. +This is the former trolley terminal that was the depot for passengers traveling over the Williamsburg Bridge from Brooklyn to Manhattan, and it was open between 1908 and 1948, just around the time when my grandparents were living right in the area. +And we learned also that the site was entirely abandoned in 1948. +Fascinated by this discovery, we begged the authorities to draw us into the space, and we finally got a tour, and this is what we saw. +Now, this photo doesn't really do it justice. +It's kind of hard to imagine the unbelievably magical feeling that you have when you get in this space. +It's a football field of unused land immediately below a very crowded area of the city, and it almost feels like you're Indiana Jones on an archaeological dig, and all the details are all still there. +It's really pretty remarkable. +Now, the site itself is located at the very heart of the Lower East Side, and today it still remains one of the most crowded neighborhoods in the city. +New York City has two thirds the green space per resident as other big cities, and this neighborhood as one tenth the green space. +So we immediately started thinking about how we could take this site and turn it into something that could be used for the public, but also could potentially even be green. +Our plan, in a nutshell, is to draw natural sunlight underground using a simple system that harvests sunlight above the street, directs it below the city sidewalks, and would allow plants and trees to grow with the light that's directed underneath. +With this approach, you could take a site that looks like this today and transform it into something that looks like this. +In 2011, we first released some of these images, and what was funny was, a lot of people said to us, "Oh, it kind of looks like the High Line underground." +And so what our nickname ended up becoming, and what ended up sticking, was the Lowline, so the Lowline was born. +What was also clear was that people really wanted to know a lot more about how the technology would look and feel, and that there was really much more interest in this than we had ever thought possible. +So, like a crazy person, I decided to quit my job and focus entirely on this project. +Here is us with our team putting together a technology demonstration in a warehouse. +Here's the underbelly of this solar canopy which we built to show the technology. +You can see the six solar collectors at the center there. +And here's the full exhibit all put together in this warehouse. +You can see the solar canopy overhead, the light streaming in, and this entirely live green space below. +So in the course of just a few weeks, tens of thousands of people came to see our exhibit, and since that time, we've grown our numbers of supporters both locally and among design enthusiasts all over the world. +Here's a rendering of the neighborhood just immediately above the Line's site, and a rendering of how it will look after major redevelopment that is coming over the course of the next 10 years. +Notice how crowded the neighborhood still feels and how there's really a lack of green space. +So what we're proposing is really something that will add one football field of green space underneath this neighborhood, but more importantly will introduce a really community-driven focus in a rapidly gentrifying area. +And right now, we're focusing very closely on how we engage with the City of New York on really transforming the overall ecosystem in an integrated way. +Here's our rendering of how we would actually invite people into the space itself. +So here you see this iconic entrance in which we would literally peel up the street and reveal the historical layers of the city, and invite people into this warm underground space. +In the middle of winter, when it's absolutely freezing outside, the last place you'd want to go would be an outdoor space or outdoor park. +The Lowline would really be a four-season space and a respite for the city. +So I like to think that the Lowline actually brings my own family's story full circle. +If my grandparents and my parents were really focused on building the city up and out, I think my generation is focused on reclaiming the spaces that we already have, rediscovering our shared history, and reimagining how we can make our communities more interesting, more beautiful and more just. +Thanks. +What do you guys think? +For those who watched Sir Ken's memorable TED Talk, I am a typical example of what he describes as "the body as a form of transport for the head," a university professor. +You might think it was not fair that I've been lined up to speak after these first two talks to speak about science. +I can't move my body to the beat, and after a scientist who became a philosopher, I have to talk about hard science. +It could be a very dry subject. +Yet, I feel honored. +Never in my career, and it's been a long career, have I had the opportunity to start a talk feeling so inspired, like this one. +Usually, talking about science is like exercising in a dry place. +However, I've had the pleasure of being invited to come here to talk about water. +The words "water" and "dry" do not match, right? +It is even better to talk about water in the Amazon, which is the splendid cradle of life. Fresh life. +So this is what inspired me. +That's why I'm here, although I'm carrying my head over here. +I am trying, or will try to convey this inspiration. +I hope this story will inspire you and that you'll spread the word. +We know that there is controversy. +The Amazon is the "lung of the world," because of its massive power to have vital gases exchanged between the forest and the atmosphere. +We also hear about the storehouse of biodiversity. +While many believe it, few know it. +If you go out there, in this marsh, you'll be amazed at the -- You can barely see the animals. +The Indians say, "The forest has more eyes than leaves." +That is true, and I will try to show you something. +But today, I'm going to use a different approach, one that is inspired by these two initiatives here, a harmonic one and a philosophical one. +I'll try to use an approach that's slightly materialistic, but it also attempts to convey that, in nature, there is extraordinary philosophy and harmony. +There'll be no music in my presentation, but I hope you'll all notice the music of the reality I'm going to show you. +I'm going to talk about physiology not about lungs, but other analogies with human physiology, especially the heart. +We'll start by thinking that water is like blood. +The circulation in our body distributes fresh blood, which feeds, nurtures and supports us, and brings the used blood back to be renewed. +In the Amazon, things happen similarly. +We'll start by talking about the power of all these processes. +This is an image of rain in motion. +What you see there is the years passing in seconds. +Rains all over the world. What do you see? +The equatorial region, in general, and the Amazon specifically, is extremely important for the world's climate. +It's a powerful engine. +There is a frantic evaporation taking place here. +If we take a look at this other image, which shows the water vapor flow, you have dry air in black, moist air in gray, and clouds in white. +What you see there is an extraordinary resurgence in the Amazon. +What phenomenon -- if it's not a desert, what phenomenon makes water gush from the ground into the atmosphere with such power that it can be seen from space? +What phenomenon is this? +It could be a geyser. +A geyser is underground water heated by magma, exploding into the atmosphere and transferring this water into the atmosphere. +There are no geysers in the Amazon, unless I am wrong. +I don't know of any. +But we have something that plays the same role, with much more elegance though: the trees, our good old friends that, like geysers, can transfer an enormous amount of water from the ground into the atmosphere. +There are 600 billion trees in the Amazon forest, 600 billion geysers. +That is done with an extraordinary sophistication. +They don't need the heat of magma. +They use sunlight to do this process. +So, in a typical sunny day in the Amazon, a big tree manages to transfer 1,000 liters of water through its transpiration -- 1,000 liters. +If we take all the Amazon, which is a very large area, and add it up to all that water that is released by transpiration, which is the sweat of the forest, we'll get to an incredible number: 20 billion metric tons of water. +In one day. +Do you know how much that is? +The Amazon River, the largest river on Earth, one fifth of all the fresh water that leaves the continents of the whole world and ends up in the oceans, dumps 17 billion metric tons of water a day in the Atlantic Ocean. +This river of vapor that comes up from the forest and goes into the atmosphere is greater than the Amazon River. +Just to give you an idea. +If we could take a gigantic kettle, the kind you could plug into a power socket, an electric one, and put those 20 billion metric tons of water in it, how much power would you need to have this water evaporated? +Any idea? A really big kettle. +A gigantic kettle, right? +50 thousand Itaipus. +Itaipu is still the largest hydroelectric plant in the world. +and Brazil is very proud of it because it provides more than 30 percent of the power that is consumed in Brazil. +And the Amazon is here, doing this for free. +It's a vivid and extremely powerful plant, providing environmental services. +Related to this subject, we are going to talk about what I call the paradox of chance, which is curious. +If you look at the world map -- it's easy to see this -- you'll see that there are forests in the equatorial zone, and deserts are organized at 30 degrees north latitude, 30 degrees south latitude, aligned. +Look over there, in the southern hemisphere, the Atacama; Namibia and Kalahari in Africa; the Australian desert. +In the northern hemisphere, the Sahara, Sonoran, etc. +There is an exception, and it's curious: It's the quadrangle that ranges from Cuiab to Buenos Aires, and from So Paulo to the Andes. +This quadrangle was supposed to be a desert. +It's on the line of deserts. +Why isn't it? That's why I call it the paradox of chance. +What do we have in South America that is different? +If we could use the analogy of the blood circulating in our bodies, like the water circulating in the landscape, we see that rivers are veins, they drain the landscape, they drain the tissue of nature. +Where are the arteries? +Any guess? +What takes -- How does water get to irrigate the tissues of nature and bring everything back through rivers? +There is a new type of river, which originates in the blue sea, which flows through the green ocean -- it not only flows, but it is also pumped by the green ocean -- and then it falls on our land. +All our economy, that quadrangle, 70 percent of South America's GDP comes from that area. +It depends on this river. +This river flows invisibly above us. +We are floating here on this floating hotel, on one of the largest rivers on Earth, the Negro River. +It's a bit dry and rough, but we are floating here, and there is this invisible river running above us. +This river has a pulse. +Here it is, pulsing. +That's why we also talk about the heart. +You can see the different seasons there. +There's the rainy season. In the Amazon, we used to have two seasons, the humid season and the even more humid season. +Now we have a dry season. +You can see the river covering that region which, otherwise, would be a desert. And it is not. +We, scientists -- You see that I'm struggling here to move my head from one side to the other. +Scientists study how it works, why, etc. +and these studies are generating a series of discoveries, which are absolutely fabulous, to raise our awareness of the wealth, the complexity, and the wonder that we have, the symphony we have in this process. +One of them is: How is rain formed? +Above the Amazon, there is clean air, as there is clean air above the ocean. +The blue sea has clean air above it and forms pretty few clouds; there's almost no rain there. +The green ocean has the same clean air, but forms a lot of rain. +What is happening here that is different? +The forest emits smells, and these smells are condensation nuclei, which form drops in the atmosphere. +Then, clouds are formed and there is torrential rain. +The sprinkler of the Garden of Eden. +This relation between a living thing, which is the forest, and a nonliving thing, which is the atmosphere, is ingenious in the Amazon, because the forest provides water and seeds, and the atmosphere forms the rain and gives water back, guaranteeing the forest's survival. +There are other factors as well. +We've talked a little about the heart, and let's now talk about another function: the liver! +When humid air, high humidity and radiation are combined with these organic compounds, which I call exogenous vitamin C, generous vitamin C in the form of gas, the plants release antioxidants which react with pollutants. +You can rest assured that you are breathing the purest air on Earth, here in the Amazon, because the plants take care of this characteristic as well. +This benefits the very way plants work, which is another ingenious cycle. +Speaking of fractals, and their relation with the way we work, we can establish other comparisons. +As in the upper airways of our lungs, the air in the Amazon gets cleaned up from the excess of dust. +The dust in the air that we breathe is cleaned by our airways. +This keeps the excess of dust from affecting the rainfall. +When there are fires in the Amazon, the smoke stops the rain, it stops raining, the forest dries up and catches fire. +There is another fractal analogy. +Like in the veins and arteries, the rain water is a feedback. +It returns to the atmosphere. +Like endocrinal glands and hormones, there are those gases which I told you about before, that are formed and released into the atmosphere, like hormones, which help in the formation of rain. +Like the liver and the kidneys, as I've said, cleaning the air. +And, finally, like the heart: pumping water from outside, from the sea, into the forest. +We call it the biotic moisture pump, a new theory that is explained in a very simple way. +If there is a desert in the continent with a nearby sea, evaporation's greater on the sea, and it sucks the air above the desert. +The desert is trapped in this condition. It will always be dry. +If you have the opposite situation, a forest, the evaporation, as we showed, is much greater, because of the trees, and this relation is reversed. +The air above the sea is sucked into the continent and humidity is imported. +This satellite image was taken one month ago that's Manaus down there, we're down there and it shows this process. +It's not a common little river that flows into a canal. +It's a mighty river that irrigates South America, among other things. +This image shows those paths, all the hurricanes that have been recorded. +You can see that, in the red square, there hardly are any hurricanes. +That is no accident. +This pump that sucks the moisture into the continent also speeds up the air above the sea, and this prevents hurricane formations. +To close this part and sum up, I'd like to talk about something a little different. +I have several colleagues who worked in the development of these theories. +They think, and so do I, that we can save planet Earth. +I'm not talking only about the Amazon. +The Amazon teaches us a lesson on how pristine nature works. +We didn't understand these processes before because the rest of the world is messed up. +We could understand it here, though. +These colleagues propose that, yes, we can save other areas, including deserts. +If we could establish forests in those other areas, we can reverse climate change, including global warming. +I have a dear colleague in India, whose name is Suprabha Seshan, and she has a motto. +Her motto is, "Gardening back the biosphere," "Reajardinando a biosfera" in Portuguese. +She does a wonderful job rebuilding ecosystems. +We need to do this. +Having closed this quick introduction, we see the reality that we have out here, which is drought, this climate change, things that we already knew. +I'd like to tell you a short story. +Once, about four years ago, I attended a declamation, of a text by Davi Kopenawa, a wise representative of the Yanomami people, and it went more or less like this: "Doesn't the white man know that, if he destroys the forest, there will be no more rain? +And that, if there's no more rain, there'll be nothing to drink, or to eat?" +I heard that, and my eyes welled up and I went, "Oh, my! +I've been studying this for 20 years, with a super computer, dozens, thousands of scientists, and we are starting to get to this conclusion, which he already knows!" +A critical point is the Yanomami have never deforested. +How could they know the rain would end? +This bugged me and I was befuddled. +How could he know that? +Some months later, I met him at another event and said, "Davi, how did you know that if the forest was destroyed, there'd be no more rain?" +He replied: "The spirit of the forest told us." +For me, this was a game changer, a radical change. +I said, "Gosh! +Why am I doing all this science to get to a conclusion that he already knows?" +Then, something absolutely critical hit me, which is, Out of sight, out of mind. +This is a need the previous speaker pointed out: We need to see things -- I mean, we, Western society, which is becoming global, civilized -- we need to see. +If we don't see, we don't register the information. +We live in ignorance. +So, I propose the following -- of course, the astronomer wouldn't like the idea -- but let's turn the Hubble telescope upside down. +And let's make it look down here, rather than to the far reaches of the universe. +The universe is wonderful, but we have a practical reality, which is we live in an unknown cosmos, and we're ignorant about it. +We're trampling on this wonderful cosmos that shelters us and houses us. +Talk to any astrophysicist. +The Earth is a statistical improbability. +The stability and comfort that we enjoy, despite the droughts of the Negro River, and all the heat and cold and typhoons, etc., there is nothing like it in the universe, that we know of. +Then, let's turn Hubble in our direction, and let's look at the Earth. +Let's start with the Amazon! +Let's dive, let's reach out the reality we live in every day, and look carefully at it, since that's what we need. +Davi Kopenawa doesn't need this. +He has something already that I think I missed. +I was educated by television. +I think that I missed this, an ancestral record, a valuation of what I don't know, what I haven't seen. +He is not a doubting Thomas. +He believes, with veneration and reverence, in what his ancestors and the spirits taught him. +We can't do it, so let's look into the forest. +Even with Hubble up there -- this is a bird's-eye view, right? +Even when this happens, we also see something that we don't know. +The Spanish called it the green inferno. +If you go out there into the bushes and get lost, and, let's say, if you head west, it's 900 kilometers to Colombia, and another 1,000 to somewhere else. +So, you can figure out why they called it the green inferno. +But go and look at what is in there. +It is a live carpet. +Each color you see is a tree species. +Each tree, each tree top, has up to 10,000 species of insects in it, let alone the millions of species of fungi, bacteria, etc. +All invisible. +All of it is an even stranger cosmos to us than the galaxies billions of light years away from the Earth, which Hubble brings to our newspapers everyday. +I'm going to end my talk here -- I have a few seconds left -- by showing you this wonderful being. +When we see the morpho butterfly in the forest, we feel like someone's left open the door to heaven, and this creature escaped from there, because it's so beautiful. +However, I cannot finish without showing you a tech side. +We are tech-arrogant. +We deprive nature of its technology. +A robotic hand is technological, mine is biological, and we don't think about it anymore. +Let's then look at the morpho butterfly, an example of an invisible technological competence of life, which is at the very heart of our possibility of surviving on this planet, and let's zoom in on it. Again, Hubble is there. +Let's get into the butterfly's wings. +Scholars have tried to explain: Why is it blue? +Let's zoom in on it. +What you see is that the architecture of the invisible humiliates the best architects in the world. +All of this on a tiny scale. +Besides its beauty and functioning, there is another side to it. +In nature, all that is organized in extraordinary structures has a function. +This function of the morpho butterfly it is not blue; it does not have blue pigments. +It has photonic crystals on its surface, according to people who studied it, which are extremely sophisticated crystals. +Our technology had nothing like that at the time. +Hitachi has now made a monitor that uses this technology, and it is used in optical fibers to transmit -- Janine Benyus, who's been here several times, talks about it: biomimetics. +My time's up. +Then, I'll wrap it up with what is at the base of this capacity, of this competence of biodiversity, producing all these wonderful services: the living cell. +It is a structure with a few microns, which is an internal wonder. +There are TED Talks about it. I won't talk much longer, but each person in this room, including myself, has 100 trillion of these micromachines in their body, so that we can enjoy well-being. +Imagine what is out there in the Amazon forest: 100 trillion. This is greater than the number of stars in the sky. +And we are not aware of it. +Thank you so much. +Good afternoon. +My name is Uldus. +I am a photo-based artist from Russia. +I focus on balancing meaningful message, aesthetic, beauty, composition, some irony, and artifacts. +Today, I'm going to tell you about my project, which is named Desperate Romantics. +They're my artifacts, or paintings from pre-Raphaelites Brotherhood England mid-19th century. +I took the painting and gifted new, contemporary meaning talking about issues which are surrounding me in Russia, capturing people who are non-models but have an interesting story. +This boy is a professional dancer, only 12 years old, but at secondary school, he hides his dancing classes and is wearing the mask of brutality, trying to be united with the rest of his classmates like a storm trooper has no personality. +But this boy has goals and dreams but hides it to be socially accepted, because being different isn't easy, especially in Russia. +Next portrait interpretation is metaphoric. +And this is Nikita, a security guard from one of the bars in St. Petersburg. +He likes to say, "You wouldn't like me when I'm angry," quoting Hulk from the movie, but I've never seen him angry. +He hides his sensitivities and romantic side, because in Russia, among guys, that's not cool to be romantic, but it's cool to be surrounded with women and look like an aggressive hulk. +Sometimes, in my project, I would take the painting and give it new meaning and new temptation about it. +Sometimes, I would compare facial features and playing with words: irony, Iron Man, ironing man. +Through the artifacts, I bring social issues which surround me in Russia into the conversation. +Interesting fact about marriage in Russia, that most of the 18, 19-year-old girls are already ready, and dream to get married. +We're taught from childhood, successful marriage means successful life, so most of the girls kind of fight to get a good husband. +And what about me? +I'm 27 years old. +For Russian society, I'm an old maid and hopeless to ever get married. +That's why you see me in a Mexican fighter mask, in the wedding dress, all desperate in my garden. +But remember, irony is the key, and this is actually to motivate girls to fight for goals, for dreams, and change stereotypes. +Be brave. Be ironic it helps. +Be funny and create some magic. +Hans Rosling: I'm going to ask you three multiple choice questions. +Use this device. Use this device to answer. +The first question is, how did the number of deaths per year from natural disaster, how did that change during the last century? +Did it more than double, did it remain about the same in the world as a whole, or did it decrease to less than half? +Please answer A, B or C. +I see lots of answers. This is much faster than I do it at universities. +They are so slow. They keep thinking, thinking, thinking. +Oh, very, very good. +And we go to the next question. +So how long did women 30 years old in the world go to school: seven years, five years or three years? +A, B or C? Please answer. +And we go to the next question. +In the last 20 years, how did the percentage of people in the world who live in extreme poverty change? +Extreme poverty not having enough food for the day. +Did it almost double, did it remain more or less the same, or did it halve? +A, B or C? +Now, answers. +You see, deaths from natural disasters in the world, you can see it from this graph here, from 1900 to 2000. +In 1900, there was about half a million people who died every year from natural disasters: floods, earthquakes, volcanic eruption, whatever, droughts. +And then, how did that change? +Gapminder asked the public in Sweden. +This is how they answered. +The Swedish public answered like this: Fifty percent thought it had doubled, 38 percent said it's more or less the same, 12 said it had halved. +This is the best data from the disaster researchers, and it goes up and down, and it goes to the Second World War, and after that it starts to fall and it keeps falling and it's down to much less than half. +The world has been much, much more capable as the decades go by to protect people from this, you know. +So only 12 percent of the Swedes know this. +So I went to the zoo and I asked the chimps. +The chimps don't watch the evening news, so the chimps, they choose by random, so the Swedes answer worse than random. +Now how did you do? +That's you. +You were beaten by the chimps. +But it was close. +You were three times better than the Swedes, but that's not enough. +You shouldn't compare yourself to Swedes. +You must have higher ambitions in the world. +Let's look at the next answer here: women in school. +Here, you can see men went eight years. +How long did women go to school? +Well, we asked the Swedes like this, and that gives you a hint, doesn't it? +The right answer is probably the one the fewest Swedes picked, isn't it? +Let's see, let's see. Here we come. +Yes, yes, yes, women have almost caught up. +This is the U.S. public. +And this is you. Here you come. +Ooh. +Well, congratulations, you're twice as good as the Swedes, but you don't need me So how come? I think it's like this, that everyone is aware that there are countries and there are areas where girls have great difficulties. +They are stopped when they go to school, and it's disgusting. +But in the majority of the world, where most people in the world live, most countries, girls today go to school as long as boys, more or less. +That doesn't mean that gender equity is achieved, not at all. +They still are confined to terrible, terrible limitations, but schooling is there in the world today. +Now, we miss the majority. +When you answer, you answer according to the worst places, and there you are right, but you miss the majority. +What about poverty? +Well, it's very clear that poverty here was almost halved, and in U.S., when we asked the public, only five percent got it right. +And you? +Ah, you almost made it to the chimps. +That little, just a few of you! +There must be preconceived ideas, you know. +And many in the rich countries, they think that oh, we can never end extreme poverty. +Of course they think so, because they don't even know what has happened. +The first thing to think about the future is to know about the present. +So already the pilots reveal this, that so many in the public score worse than random, so we have to think about preconceived ideas, and one of the main preconceived ideas is about world income distribution. +Look here. This is how it was in 1975. +It's the number of people on each income, from one dollar a day See, there was one hump here, around one dollar a day, and then there was one hump here somewhere between 10 and 100 dollars. +The world was two groups. +It was a camel world, like a camel with two humps, the poor ones and the rich ones, and there were fewer in between. +But look how this has changed: As I go forward, what has changed, the world population has grown, and the humps start to merge. +The lower humps merged with the upper hump, and the camel dies and we have a dromedary world with one hump only. +The percent in poverty has decreased. +Still it's appalling that so many remain in extreme poverty. +We still have this group, almost a billion, over there, but that can be ended now. +The challenge we have now is to get away from that, understand where the majority is, and that is very clearly shown in this question. +We asked, what is the percentage of the world's one-year-old children who have got those basic vaccines against measles and other things that we have had for many years: 20, 50 or 80 percent? +Now, this is what the U.S. public and the Swedish answered. +Look at the Swedish result: you know what the right answer is. +Who the heck is a professor of global health in that country? +Well, it's me. It's me. +It's very difficult, this. It's very difficult. +However, Ola's approach to really measure what we know made headlines, and CNN published these results on their web and they had the questions there, millions answered, and I think there were about 2,000 comments, and this was one of the comments. +"I bet no member of the media passed the test," he said. +So Ola told me, "Take these devices. +You are invited to media conferences. +Give it to them and measure what the media know." +And ladies and gentlemen, for the first time, the informal results from a conference with U.S. media. +And then, lately, from the European Union media. +You see, the problem is not that people don't read and listen to the media. +The problem is that the media doesn't know themselves. +What shall we do about this, Ola? +Do we have any ideas? +Ola Rosling: Yes, I have an idea, but first, I'm so sorry that you were beaten by the chimps. +Fortunately, I will be able to comfort you by showing why it was not your fault, actually. +Then, I will equip you with some tricks for beating the chimps in the future. +That's basically what I will do. +But first, let's look at why are we so ignorant, and it all starts in this place. +It's Hudiksvall. It's a city in northern Sweden. +It's a neighborhood where I grew up, and it's a neighborhood with a large problem. +Actually, it has exactly the same problem which existed in all the neighborhoods where you grew up as well. +It was not representative. Okay? +It gave me a very biased view of how life is on this planet. +So this is the first piece of the ignorance puzzle. +We have a personal bias. +We have all different experiences from communities and people we meet, and on top of this, we start school, and we add the next problem. +Well, I like schools, but teachers tend to teach outdated worldviews, because they learned something when they went to school, and now they describe this world to the students without any bad intentions, and those books, of course, that are printed are outdated in a world that changes. +And there is really no practice to keep the teaching material up to date. +So that's what we are focusing on. +So we have these outdated facts added on top of our personal bias. +What happens next is news, okay? +An excellent journalist knows how to pick the story that will make headlines, and people will read it because it's sensational. +Unusual events are more interesting, no? +And they are exaggerated, and especially things we're afraid of. +A shark attack on a Swedish person will get headlines for weeks in Sweden. +So these three skewed sources of information were really hard to get away from. +They kind of bombard us and equip our mind with a lot of strange ideas, and on top of it we put the very thing that makes us humans, our human intuition. +It was good in evolution. +It helped us generalize and jump to conclusions very, very fast. +It helped us exaggerate what we were afraid of, and we seek causality where there is none, and we then get an illusion of confidence where we believe that we are the best car drivers, above the average. +Everybody answered that question, "Yeah, I drive cars better." +Okay, this was good evolutionarily, but now when it comes to the worldview, it is the exact reason why it's upside down. +The trends that are increasing are instead falling, and the other way around, and in this case, the chimps use our intuition against us, and it becomes our weakness instead of our strength. +It was supposed to be our strength, wasn't it? +So how do we solve such problems? +First, we need to measure it, and then we need to cure it. +So by measuring it we can understand what is the pattern of ignorance. +We started the pilot last year, and now we're pretty sure that we will encounter a lot of ignorance across the whole world, and the idea is really to scale it up to all domains or dimensions of global development, such as climate, endangered species, human rights, gender equality, energy, finance. +All different sectors have facts, and there are organizations trying to spread awareness about these facts. +So I've started actually contacting some of them, like WWF and Amnesty International and UNICEF, and asking them, what are your favorite facts which you think the public doesn't know? +Okay, I gather those facts. +Imagine a long list with, say, 250 facts. +And then we poll the public and see where they score worst. +So we get a shorter list with the terrible results, like some few examples from Hans, and we have no problem finding these kinds of terrible results. +Okay, this little shortlist, what are we going to do with it? +Well, we turn it into a knowledge certificate, a global knowledge certificate, which you can use, if you're a large organization, a school, a university, or maybe a news agency, to certify yourself as globally knowledgeable. +Basically meaning, we don't hire people who score like chimpanzees. +Of course you shouldn't. +So maybe 10 years from now, if this project succeeds, you will be sitting in an interview having to fill out this crazy global knowledge. +So now we come to the practical tricks. +How are you going to succeed? +There is, of course, one way, which is to sit down late nights and learn all the facts by heart by reading all these reports. +That will never happen, actually. +Not even Hans thinks that's going to happen. +People don't have that time. +People like shortcuts, and here are the shortcuts. +We need to turn our intuition into strength again. +We need to be able to generalize. +So now I'm going to show you some tricks where the misconceptions are turned around into rules of thumb. +Let's start with the first misconception. +This is very widespread. +Everything is getting worse. +You heard it. You thought it yourself. +The other way to think is, most things improve. +So you're sitting with a question in front of you and you're unsure. You should guess "improve." +Okay? Don't go for the worse. +That will help you score better on our tests. +That was the first one. +There are rich and poor and the gap is increasing. +It's a terrible inequality. +Yeah, it's an unequal world, but when you look at the data, it's one hump. +Okay? If you feel unsure, go for "the most people are in the middle." +That's going to help you get the answer right. +Now, the next preconceived idea is first countries and people need to be very, very rich to get the social development like girls in school and be ready for natural disasters. +No, no, no. That's wrong. +Look: that huge hump in the middle already have girls in school. +So if you are unsure, go for the "the majority already have this," like electricity and girls in school, these kinds of things. +They're only rules of thumb, so of course they don't apply to everything, but this is how you can generalize. +Let's look at the last one. +If something, yes, this is a good one, sharks are dangerous. +No well, yes, but they are not so important in the global statistics, that is what I'm saying. +I actually, I'm very afraid of sharks. +So as soon as I see a question about things I'm afraid of, which might be earthquakes, other religions, maybe I'm afraid of terrorists or sharks, anything that makes me feel, assume you're going to exaggerate the problem. +That's a rule of thumb. +Of course there are dangerous things that are also great. +Sharks kill very, very few. That's how you should think. +With these four rules of thumb, you could probably answer better than the chimps, because the chimps cannot do this. +They cannot generalize these kinds of rules. +And hopefully we can turn your world around and we're going to beat the chimps. Okay? +That's a systematic approach. +Now the question, is this important? +Yeah, it's important to understand poverty, extreme poverty and how to fight it, and how to bring girls in school. +When we realize that actually it's succeeding, we can understand it. +But is it important for everyone else who cares about the rich end of this scale? +I would say yes, extremely important, for the same reason. +If you have a fact-based worldview of today, you might have a chance to understand what's coming next in the future. +We're going back to these two humps in 1975. +That's when I was born, and I selected the West. +That's the current EU countries and North America. +Let's now see how the rest and the West compares in terms of how rich you are. +These are the people who can afford to fly abroad with an airplane for a vacation. +In 1975, only 30 percent of them lived outside EU and North America. +But this has changed, okay? +So first, let's look at the change up till today, 2014. +Today it's 50/50. +The Western domination is over, as of today. +That's nice. So what's going to happen next? +Do you see the big hump? Did you see how it moved? +I did a little experiment. I went to the IMF, International Monetary Fund, website. +They have a forecast for the next five years of GDP per capita. +So I can use that to go five years into the future, assuming the income inequality of each country is the same. +I did that, but I went even further. +I used those five years for the next 20 years with the same speed, just as an experiment what might actually happen. +Let's move into the future. +In 2020, it's 57 percent in the rest. +In 2025, 63 percent. +2030, 68. And in 2035, the West is outnumbered in the rich consumer market. +These are just projections of GDP per capita into the future. +Seventy-three percent of the rich consumers are going to live outside North America and Europe. +So yes, I think it's a good idea for a company to use this certificate to make sure to make fact- based decisions in the future. +Thank you very much. +Bruno Giussani: Hans and Ola Rosling! +Hi everybody. So my name is Mac. +My job is that I lie to children, but they're honest lies. +I write children's books, and there's a quote from Pablo Picasso, "We all know that Art is not truth. +Art is a lie that makes us realize truth or at least the truth that is given us to understand. +The artist must know the manner whereby to convince others of the truthfulness of his lies." +I first heard this when I was a kid, and I loved it, but I had no idea what it meant. +So I thought, you know what, it's what I'm here to talk to you today about, though, truth and lies, fiction and reality. +So how could I untangle this knotted bunch of sentences? +And I said, I've got PowerPoint. Let's do a Venn diagram. +["Truth. Lies."] So there it is, right there, boom. +We've got truth and lies and then there's this little space, the edge, in the middle. +That liminal space, that's art. +All right. Venn diagram. But that's actually not very helpful either. +The thing that made me understand that quote and really kind of what art, at least the art of fiction, was, was working with kids. +I used to be a summer camp counselor. +I would do it on my summers off from college, and I loved it. +It was a sports summer camp for four- to six-year-olds. +I was in charge of the four-year-olds, which is good, because four-year-olds can't play sports, and neither can I. +I would tell them about how, on the weekends, I would go home and I would spy for the Queen of England. +And soon, other kids who weren't even in my group of kids, they would come up to me, and they would say, "You're Mac Barnett, right? +You're the guy who spies for the Queen of England." +And I had been waiting my whole life for strangers to come up and ask me that question. +In my fantasy, they were svelte Russian women, but, you know, four-year-olds you take what you can get in Berkeley, California. +And I realized that the stories that I was telling were real in this way that was familiar to me and really exciting. +I think the pinnacle of this for me I'll never forget this there was this little girl named Riley. She was tiny, and she used to always take out her lunch every day and she would throw out her fruit. +She would just take her fruit, her mom packed her a melon every day, and she would just throw it in the ivy and then she would eat fruit snacks and pudding cups, and I was like, "Riley, you can't do that, you have to eat the fruit." +And she was like, "Why?" +And I was like, "Well, when you throw the fruit in the ivy, pretty soon, it's going to be overgrown with melons," which is why I think I ended up telling stories to children and not being a nutritionist for children. +And so Riley was like, "That will never happen. +That's not going to happen." +And so, on the last day of camp, I got up early and I got a big cantaloupe from the grocery store and I hid it in the ivy, and then at lunchtime, I was like, "Riley, why don't you go over there and see what you've done." +And she went trudging through the ivy, and then her eyes just got so wide, and she pointed out this melon that was bigger than her head, and then all the kids ran over there and rushed around her, and one of the kids was like, "Hey, why is there a sticker on this?" +And I was like, "That is also why I say do not throw your stickers in the ivy. +Put them in the trash can. It ruins nature when you do this." +And Riley carried that melon around with her all day, and she was so proud. +And Riley knew she didn't grow a melon in seven days, but she also knew that she did, and it's a weird place, but it's not just a place that kids can get to. +It's anything. Art can get us to that place. +She was right in that place in the middle, that place which you could call art or fiction. +I'm going to call it wonder. +It's what Coleridge called the willing suspension of disbelief or poetic faith, for those moments where a story, no matter how strange, has some semblance of the truth, and then you're able to believe it. +It's not just kids who can get there. +Adults can too, and we get there when we read. +It's why in two days, people will be descending on Dublin to take the walking tour of Bloomsday and see everything that happened in "Ulysses," even though none of that happened. +Or people go to London and they visit Baker Street to see Sherlock Holmes' apartment, even though 221B is just a number that was painted on a building that never actually had that address. +We know these characters aren't real, but we have real feelings about them, and we're able to do that. +We know these characters aren't real, and yet we also know that they are. +Kids can get there a lot more easily than adults can, and that's why I love writing for kids. +I think kids are the best audience for serious literary fiction. +When I was a kid, I was obsessed with secret door novels, things like "Narnia," where you would open a wardrobe and go through to a magical land. +And I was convinced that secret doors really did exist and I would look for them and try to go through them. +I wanted to live and cross over into that fictional world, which is I would always just open people's closet doors. I would just go through my mom's boyfriend's closet, and there was not a secret magical land there. +There was some other weird stuff that I think my mom should know about. +And I was happy to tell her all about it. +After college, my first job was working behind one of these secret doors. +This is a place called 826 Valencia. +It's at 826 Valencia Street in the Mission in San Francisco, and when I worked there, there was a publishing company headquartered there called McSweeney's, a nonprofit writing center called 826 Valencia, but then the front of it was a strange shop. +You see, this place was zoned retail, and in San Francisco, they were not going to give us a variance, and so the writer who founded it, a writer named Dave Eggers, to come into compliance with code, he said, "Fine, I'm just going to build a pirate supply store." +And that's what he did. And it's beautiful. It's all wood. +There's drawers you can pull out and get citrus so you don't get scurvy. +They have eyepatches in lots of colors, because when it's springtime, pirates want to go wild. +You don't know. Black is boring. Pastel. +Or eyes, also in lots of colors, just glass eyes, depending on how you want to deal with that situation. +It's a secret door that you can walk through. +So I ran the 826 in Los Angeles, and it was my job to build the store down there. +So we have The Echo Park Time Travel Mart. +That's our motto: "Whenever you are, we're already then." +And it's on Sunset Boulevard in Los Angeles. +Our friendly staff is ready to help you. +They're from all eras, including just the 1980s, that guy on the end, he's from the very recent past. +There's our Employees of the Month, including Genghis Khan, Charles Dickens. +Some great people have come up through our ranks. +This is our kind of pharmacy section. +We have some patent medicines, Canopic jars for your organs, communist soap that says, "This is your soap for the year." Our slushy machine broke on the opening night and we didn't know what to do. +Our architect was covered in red syrup. +It looked like he had just murdered somebody, which it was not out of the question for this particular architect, and we didn't know what to do. +It was going to be the highlight of our store. +So we just put that sign on it that said, "Out of order. Come back yesterday." And that ended up being a better joke than slushies, so we just left it there forever. +Mammoth Chunks. These things weigh, like, seven pounds each. +Barbarian repellent. It's full of salad and potpourri things that barbarians hate. +Dead languages. +Leeches, nature's tiny doctors. +And Viking Odorant, which comes in lots of great scents: toenails, sweat and rotten vegetables, pyre ash. +Because we believe that Axe Body Spray is something that you should only find on the battlefield, not under your arms. And these are robot emotion chips, so robots can feel love or fear. +Our biggest seller is Schadenfreude, which we did not expect. +We did not think that was going to happen. +But there's a nonprofit behind it, and kids go through a door that says "Employees Only" and they end up in this space where they do homework and write stories and make films and this is a book release party where kids will read. +There's a quarterly that's published with just writing that's done by the kids who come every day after school, and we have release parties and they eat cake and read for their parents and drink milk out of champagne glasses. +And it's a very special space, because it's this weird space in the front. +The joke isn't a joke. +You can't find the seams on the fiction, and I love that. It's this little bit of fiction that's colonized the real world. +I see it as kind of a book in three dimensions. +There's a term called metafiction, and that's just stories about stories, and meta's having a moment now. +Its last big moment was probably in the 1960s with novelists like John Barth and William Gaddis, but it's been around. +It's almost as old as storytelling itself. +And one metafictive technique is breaking the fourth wall. Right? +It's when an actor will turn to the audience and say, "I am an actor, these are just rafters." +And even that supposedly honest moment, I would argue, is in service of the lie, but it's supposed to foreground the artificiality of the fiction. +For me, I kind of prefer the opposite. +If I'm going to break down the fourth wall, I want fiction to escape and come into the real world. +I want a book to be a secret door that opens and lets the stories out into reality. +And so I try to do this in my books. +And here's just one example. +This is the first book that I ever made. +It's called "Billy Twitters and his Blue Whale Problem." +And it's about a kid who gets a blue whale as a pet but it's a punishment and it ruins his life. +So it's delivered overnight by FedUp. +And he has to take it to school with him. +He lives in San Francisco very tough city to own a blue whale in. +A lot of hills, real estate is at a premium. +This market's crazy, everybody. +But underneath the jacket is this case, and that's the cover underneath the book, the jacket, and there's an ad that offers a free 30-day risk-free trial for a blue whale. +And you can just send in a self-addressed stamped envelope and we'll send you a whale. +And kids do write in. +So here's a letter. It says, "Dear people, I bet you 10 bucks you won't send me a blue whale. +Eliot Gannon (age 6)." +But it finishes off by saying that your whale would love to hear from you. +He's got a phone number, and you can call and leave him a message. +And when you call and leave him a message, you just, on the outgoing message, it's just whale sounds and then a beep, which actually sounds a lot like a whale sound. +And they get a picture of their whale too. +So this is Randolph, and Randolph belongs to a kid named Nico who was one of the first kids to ever call in, and I'll play you some of Nico's message. +This is the first message I ever got from Nico. +Nico: Hello, this is Nico. +I am your owner, Randolph. Hello. +So this is the first time I can ever talk to you, and I might talk to you soon another day. Bye. +Mac Barnett: So Nico called back, like, an hour later. +And here's another one of Nico's messages. +Nico: Hello, Randolph, this is Nico. +I haven't talked to you for a long time, but I talked to you on Saturday or Sunday, yeah, Saturday or Sunday, so now I'm calling you again to say hello and I wonder what you're doing right now, and I'm going to probably call you again tomorrow or today, so I'll talk to you later. Bye. +MB: So he did, he called back that day again. +He's left over 25 messages for Randolph over four years. +You find out all about him and the grandma that he loves and the grandma that he likes a little bit less and the crossword puzzles that he does, and this is I'll play you one more message from Nico. +This is the Christmas message from Nico. +[Beep] Nico: Hello, Randolph, sorry I haven't talked to you in a long time. +It's just that I've been so busy because school started, as you might not know, probably, since you're a whale, you don't know, and I'm calling you to just say, to wish you a merry Christmas. +So have a nice Christmas, and bye-bye, Randolph. Goodbye. +MB: I actually got Nico, I hadn't heard from in 18 months, and he just left a message two days ago. +His voice is completely different, but he put his babysitter on the phone, and she was very nice to Randolph as well. +But Nico's the best reader I could hope for. +I would want anyone I was writing for to be in that place emotionally with the things that I create. +I feel lucky. Kids like Nico are the best readers, and they deserve the best stories we can give them. +Thank you very much. +When, in 1960, still a student, I got a traveling fellowship to study housing in North America. +We traveled the country. +We saw public housing high-rise buildings in all major cities: New York, Philadelphia. +Those who have no choice lived there. +And then we traveled from suburb to suburb, and I came back thinking, we've got to reinvent the apartment building. +There has to be another way of doing this. +We can't sustain suburbs, so let's design a building which gives the qualities of a house to each unit. +Habitat would be all about gardens, contact with nature, streets instead of corridors. +We prefabricated it so we would achieve economy, and there it is almost 50 years later. +It's a very desirable place to live in. +It's now a heritage building, but it did not proliferate. +In 1973, I made my first trip to China. +It was the Cultural Revolution. +We traveled the country, met with architects and planners. +This is Beijing then, not a single high rise building in Beijing or Shanghai. Shenzhen didn't even exist as a city. +There were hardly any cars. +Thirty years later, this is Beijing today. +This is Hong Kong. +If you're wealthy, you live there, if you're poor, you live there, but high density it is, and it's not just Asia. +So Paulo, you can travel in a helicopter 45 minutes seeing those high-rise buildings consume the 19th-century low-rise environment. +And with it, comes congestion, and we lose mobility, and so on and so forth. +So a few years ago, we decided to go back and rethink Habitat. +Could we make it more affordable? +Could we actually achieve this quality of life in the densities that are prevailing today? +And we realized, it's basically about light, it's about sun, it's about nature, it's about fractalization. +Can we open up the surface of the building so that it has more contact with the exterior? +We came up with a number of models: economy models, cheaper to build and more compact; membranes of housing where people could design their own house and create their own gardens. +And then we decided to take New York as a test case, and we looked at Lower Manhattan. +And we mapped all the building area in Manhattan. +On the left is Manhattan today: blue for housing, red for office buildings, retail. +On the right, we reconfigured it: the office buildings form the base, and then rising 75 stories above, are apartments. +There's a street in the air on the 25th level, a community street. +It's permeable. +There are gardens and open spaces for the community, almost every unit with its own private garden, and community space all around. +And most important, permeable, open. +It does not form a wall or an obstruction in the city, and light permeates everywhere. +And in the last two or three years, we've actually been, for the first time, realizing the quality of life of Habitat in real-life projects across Asia. +This in Qinhuangdao in China: middle-income housing, where there is a bylaw that every apartment must receive three hours of sunlight. That's measured in the winter solstice. +And under construction in Singapore, again middle-income housing, gardens, community streets and parks and so on and so forth. +And Colombo. +And I want to touch on one more issue, which is the design of the public realm. +A hundred years after we've begun building with tall buildings, we are yet to understand how the tall high-rise building becomes a building block in making a city, in creating the public realm. +In Singapore, we had an opportunity: 10 million square feet, extremely high density. +Taking the concept of outdoor and indoor, promenades and parks integrated with intense urban life. +And that's all I can tell you in five minutes. +Thank you. +We are at a remarkable moment in time. +We face over the next two decades two fundamental transformations that will determine whether the next 100 years is the best of centuries or the worst of centuries. +Let me illustrate with an example. +I first visited Beijing 25 years ago to teach at the People's University of China. +China was getting serious about market economics and about university education, so they decided to call in the foreign experts. +Like most other people, I moved around Beijing by bicycle. +Apart from dodging the occasional vehicle, it was a safe and easy way to get around. +Cycling in Beijing now is a completely different prospect. +The roads are jammed by cars and trucks. +The air is dangerously polluted from the burning of coal and diesel. +When I was there last in the spring, there was an advisory for people of my age over 65 to stay indoors and not move much. +How did this come about? +It came from the way in which Beijing has grown as a city. +It's doubled over those 25 years, more than doubled, from 10 million to 20 million. +It's become a sprawling urban area dependent on dirty fuel, dirty energy, particularly coal. +China burns half the world's coal each year, and that's why, it is a key reason why, it is the world's largest emitter of greenhouse gases. +At the same time, we have to recognize that in that period China has grown remarkably. +It has become the world's second largest economy. +Hundreds of millions of people have been lifted out of poverty. +That's really important. +But at the same time, the people of China are asking the question: What's the value of this growth if our cities are unlivable? +They've analyzed, diagnosed that this is an unsustainable path of growth and development. +China's planning to scale back coal. +It's looking to build its cities in different ways. +Now, the growth of China is part of a dramatic change, fundamental change, in the structure of the world economy. +Just 25 years ago, the developing countries, the poorer countries of the world, were, notwithstanding being the vast majority of the people, they accounted for only about a third of the world's output. +Now it's more than half; 25 years from now, it will probably be two thirds from the countries that we saw 25 years ago as developing. +That's a remarkable change. +It means that most countries around the world, rich or poor, are going to be facing the two fundamental transformations that I want to talk about and highlight. +Now, the first of these transformations is the basic structural change of the economies and societies that I've already begun to illustrate through the description of Beijing. +Fifty percent now in urban areas. +That's going to go to 70 percent in 2050. +Over the next two decades, we'll see the demand for energy rise by 40 percent, and the growth in the economy and in the population is putting increasing pressure on our land, on our water and on our forests. +This is profound structural change. +If we manage it in a negligent or a shortsighted way, we will create waste, pollution, congestion, destruction of land and forests. +If we think of those three areas that I have illustrated with my numbers cities, energy, land if we manage all that badly, then the outlook for the lives and livelihoods of the people around the world would be poor and damaged. +And more than that, the emissions of greenhouse gases would rise, with immense risks to our climate. +Concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere are already higher than they've been for millions of years. +If we go on increasing those concentrations, we risk temperatures over the next century or so that we have not seen on this planet for tens of millions of years. +We've been around as Homo sapiens that's a rather generous definition, sapiens for perhaps a quarter of a million years, a quarter of a million. +We risk temperatures we haven't seen for tens of millions of years over a century. +That would transform the relationship between human beings and the planet. +It would lead to changing deserts, changing rivers, changing patterns of hurricanes, changing sea levels, hundreds of millions of people, perhaps billions of people who would have to move, and if we've learned anything from history, that means severe and extended conflict. +And we couldn't just turn it off. +You can't make a peace treaty with the planet. +You can't negotiate with the laws of physics. +You're in there. You're stuck. +Those are the stakes we're playing for, and that's why we have to make this second transformation, the climate transformation, and move to a low-carbon economy. +Now, the first of these transformations is going to happen anyway. +We have to decide whether to do it well or badly, the economic, or structural, transformation. +But the second of the transformations, the climate transformations, we have to decide to do. +Those two transformations face us in the next two decades. +The next two decades are decisive for what we have to do. +Now, the more I've thought about this, the two transformations coming together, the more I've come to realize It's an opportunity which we can use or it's an opportunity which we can lose. +And let me explain through those three key areas that I've identified: cities, energy and land. +And let me start with cities. +I've already described the problems of Beijing: pollution, congestion, waste and so on. +Surely we recognize that in many of our cities around the world. +Now, with cities, like life but particularly cities, you have to think ahead. +The cities that are going to be built and there are many, and many big ones we have to think of how to design them in a compact way so we can save travel time and we can save energy. +The cities that already are there, well established, we have to think about renewal and investment in them so that we can connect ourselves much better within those cities, and make it easier, encourage more people, to live closer to the center. +We've got examples building around the world of the kinds of ways in which we can do that. +Now, some things in cities do take time. +Some things in cities can happen much more quickly. +Take my hometown, London. +In 1952, smog in London killed 4,000 people and badly damaged the lives of many, many more. +And it happened all the time. +For those of you live outside London in the U.K. +will remember it used to be called The Smoke. +That's the way London was. +By regulating coal, within a few years the problems of smog were rapidly reduced. +I remember the smogs well. +When the visibility dropped to [less] than a few meters, they stopped the buses and I had to walk. +This was the 1950s. +I had to walk home three miles from school. +Again, breathing was a hazardous activity. +But it was changed. It was changed by a decision. +Good decisions can bring good results, striking results, quickly. +We've seen more: In London, we've introduced the congestion charge, actually quite quickly and effectively, and we've seen great improvements in the bus system, and cleaned up the bus system. +You can see that the two transformations I've described, the structural and the climate, come very much together. +But we have to invest. We have to invest in our cities, and we have to invest wisely, and if we do, we'll see cleaner cities, quieter cities, safer cities, more attractive cities, more productive cities, and stronger community in those cities public transport, recycling, reusing, all sorts of things that bring communities together. +We can do that, but we have to think, we have to invest, we have to plan. +Let me turn to energy. +Now, energy over the last 25 years has increased by about 50 percent. +Eighty percent of that comes from fossil fuels. +Over the next 20 years, perhaps it will increase by another 40 percent or so. +We have to invest strongly in energy, we have to use it much more efficiently, and we have to make it clean. +We can see how to do that. +Take the example of California. +It would be in the top 10 countries in the world if it was independent. +I don't want to start any California's a big place. +In the next five or six years, they will likely move from around 20 percent in renewables wind, solar and so on to over 33 percent, and that would bring California back to greenhouse gas emissions in 2020 to where they were in 1990, a period when the economy in California would more or less have doubled. +That's a striking achievement. +It shows what can be done. +Not just California the incoming government of India is planning to get solar technology to light up the homes of 400 million people who don't have electricity in India. +They've set themselves a target of five years. +I think they've got a good chance of doing that. +We'll see, but what you're seeing now is people moving much more quickly. +Four hundred million, more than the population of the United States. +Those are the kinds of ambitions now people are setting themselves in terms of rapidity of change. +Again, you can see good decisions can bring quick results, and those two transformations, the economy and the structure and the climate and the low carbon, are intimately intertwined. +Do the first one well, the structural, the second one on the climate becomes much easier. +Look at land, land and particularly forests. +Forests are the hosts to valuable plant and animal species. +They hold water in the soil and they take carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere, fundamental to the tackling of climate change. +But we're losing our forests. +In the last decade, we've lost a forest area the size of Portugal, and much more has been degraded. +But we're already seeing that we can do so much about that. +We can recognize the problem, but we can also understand how to tackle it. +In Brazil, the rate of deforestation has been reduced by 70 percent over the last 10 years. +How? By involving local communities, investing in their agriculture and their economies, by monitoring more carefully, by enforcing the law more strictly. +And it's not just stopping deforestation. +That's of course of first and fundamental importance, but it's also regrading degraded land, regenerating, rehabilitating degraded land. +I first went to Ethiopia in 1967. +It was desperately poor. In the following years, it suffered devastating famines and profoundly destructive social conflict. +Over the last few years, actually more than a few, Ethiopia has been growing much more rapidly. +It has ambitions to be a middle-income country 15 years from now and to be carbon neutral. +Again, I think it's a strong ambition but it is a plausible one. +You're seeing that commitment there. +You're seeing what can be done. +Ethiopia is investing in clean energy. +It's working in the rehabilitation of land. +In Humbo, in southwest Ethiopia, a wonderful project to plant trees on degraded land and work with local communities on sustainable forest management has led to big increases in living standards. +So we can see, from Beijing to London, from California to India, from Brazil to Ethiopia, we do understand how to manage those two transformations, the structural and the climate. +We do understand how to manage those well. +And technology is changing very rapidly. +I don't have to list all those things to an audience like this, but you can see the electric cars, you can see the batteries using new materials. +You can see that we can manage remotely now our household appliances on our mobile phones when we're away. +You can see better insulation. +And there's much more coming. +But, and it's a big but, the world as a whole is moving far too slowly. +We're not cutting emissions in the way we should. +We're not managing those structural transformations as we can. +The depth of understanding of the immense risks of climate change are not there yet. +The depth of understanding of the attractiveness of what we can do is not there yet. +We need political pressure to build. +We need leaders to step up. +We can have better growth, better climate, a better world. +We can make, by managing those two transformations well, the next 100 years the best of centuries. +If we make a mess of it, we, you and me, if we make a mess of it, if we don't manage those transformations properly, it will be, the next 100 years will be the worst of centuries. +That's the major conclusion of the report on the economy and climate chaired by ex-President Felipe Caldern of Mexico, and I co-chaired that with him, and we handed that report yesterday here in New York, in the United Nations Building to the Secretary-General of the U.N., Ban Ki-moon. +We know that we can do this. +Now, two weeks ago, I became a grandfather for the fourth time. +Our daughter (Baby cries) Our daughter gave birth to Rosa here in New York two weeks ago. Here are Helen and Rosa. +Two weeks old. +Are we going to look our grandchildren in the eye and tell them that we understood the issues, that we recognized the dangers and the opportunities, and still we failed to act? +Surely not. Let's make the next 100 years the best of centuries. +When I turned 19, I started my career as the first female photojournalist in the Gaza Strip, Palestine. +My work as a woman photographer was considered a serious insult to local traditions, and created a lasting stigma for me and my family. +The male-dominated field made my presence unwelcome by all possible means. +They made clear that a woman must not do a man's job. +Photo agencies in Gaza refused to train me because of my gender. +The "No" sign was pretty clear. +Three of my colleagues went as far as to drive me to an open air strike area where the explosion sounds were the only thing I could hear. +Dust was flying in the air, and the ground was shaking like a swing beneath me. +I only realized we weren't there to document the event when the three of them got back into the armored Jeep and drove away, waving and laughing, leaving me behind in the open air strike zone. +For a moment, I felt terrified, humiliated, and sorry for myself. +My colleagues' action was not the only death threat I have received, but it was the most dangerous one. +The perception of women's life in Gaza is passive. +Until a recent time, a lot of women were not allowed to work or pursue education. +At times of such doubled war including both social restrictions on women and the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, women's dark and bright stories were fading away. +To men, women's stories were seen as inconsequential. +I started paying closer attention to women's lives in Gaza. +Because of my gender, I had access to worlds where my colleagues were forbidden. +Beyond the obvious pain and struggle, there was a healthy dose of laughter and accomplishments. +In front of a police compound in Gaza City during the first war in Gaza, an Israeli air raid managed to destroy the compound and break my nose. +For a moment, all I saw was white, bright white, like these lights. +I thought to myself I either got blind or I was in heaven. +By the time I managed to open my eyes, I had documented this moment. +Mohammed Khader, a Palestinian worker who spent two decades in Israel, as his retirement plan, he decided to build a four-floor house, only by the first field operation at his neighborhood, the house was flattened to the ground. +Nothing was left but the pigeons he raised and a jacuzzi, a bathtub that he got from Tel Aviv. +Mohammed got the bathtub on the top of the rubble and started giving his kids an every morning bubble bath. +My work is not meant to hide the scars of war, but to show the full frame of unseen stories of Gazans. +As a Palestinian female photographer, the journey of struggle, survival and everyday life has inspired me to overcome the community taboo and see a different side of war and its aftermath. +I became a witness with a choice: to run away or stand still. +Thank you. +I've been a critical care EMT for the past seven years in Suffolk County, New York. +I've been a first responder in a number of incidents ranging from car accidents to Hurricane Sandy. +If you are like most people, death might be one of your greatest fears. +Some of us will see it coming. +Some of us won't. +There is a little-known documented medical term called impending doom. +It's almost a symptom. +As a medical provider, I'm trained to respond to this symptom like any other, so when a patient having a heart attack looks at me and says, "I'm going to die today," we are trained to reevaluate the patient's condition. +Throughout my career, I have responded to a number of incidents where the patient had minutes left to live and there was nothing I could do for them. +With this, I was faced with a dilemma: Do I tell the dying that they are about to face death, or do I lie to them to comfort them? +Early in my career, I faced this dilemma by simply lying. +I was afraid. +I was afraid if I told them the truth, that they would die in terror, in fear, just grasping for those last moments of life. +That all changed with one incident. +Five years ago, I responded to a motorcycle accident. +The rider had suffered critical, critical injuries. +As I assessed him, I realized that there was nothing that could be done for him, and like so many other cases, he looked me in the eye and asked that question: "Am I going to die?" +In that moment, I decided to do something different. +I decided to tell him the truth. +I decided to tell him that he was going to die and that there was nothing I could do for him. +His reaction shocked me to this day. +He simply laid back and had a look of acceptance on his face. +He was not met with that terror or fear that I thought he would be. +He simply laid there, and as I looked into his eyes, I saw inner peace and acceptance. +From that moment forward, I decided it was not my place to comfort the dying with my lies. +Having responded to many cases since then where patients were in their last moments and there was nothing I could do for them, in almost every case, they have all had the same reaction to the truth, of inner peace and acceptance. +In fact, there are three patterns I have observed in all these cases. +The first pattern always kind of shocked me. +Regardless of religious belief or cultural background, there's a need for forgiveness. +Whether they call it sin or they simply say they have a regret, their guilt is universal. +I had once cared for an elderly gentleman who was having a massive heart attack. +As I prepared myself and my equipment for his imminent cardiac arrest, I began to tell the patient of his imminent demise. +He already knew by my tone of voice and body language. +As I placed the defibrillator pads on his chest, prepping for what was going to happen, he looked me in the eye and said, "I wish I had spent more time with my children and grandchildren instead of being selfish with my time." +Faced with imminent death, all he wanted was forgiveness. +The second pattern I observe is the need for remembrance. +Whether it was to be remembered in my thoughts or their loved ones', they needed to feel that they would be living on. +There's a need for immortality within the hearts and thoughts of their loved ones, myself, my crew, or anyone around. +Countless times, I have had a patient look me in the eyes and say, "Will you remember me?" +The final pattern I observe always touched me the deepest, to the soul. +The dying need to know that their life had meaning. +They need to know that they did not waste their life on meaningless tasks. +This came to me very, very early in my career. +I had responded to a call. +There was a female in her late 50s severely pinned within a vehicle. +She had been t-boned at a high rate of speed, critical, critical condition. +As the fire department worked to remove her from the car, I climbed in to begin to render care. +As we talked, she had said to me, "There was so much more I wanted to do with my life." +She had felt she had not left her mark on this Earth. +As we talked further, it would turn out that she was a mother of two adopted children who were both on their way to medical school. +Because of her, two children had a chance they never would have had otherwise and would go on to save lives in the medical field as medical doctors. +It would end up taking 45 minutes to free her from the vehicle. +However, she perished prior to freeing her. +I believed what you saw in the movies: when you're in those last moments that it's strictly terror, fear. +I have come to realize, regardless of the circumstance, it's generally met with peace and acceptance, that it's the littlest things, the littlest moments, the littlest things you brought into the world that give you peace in those final moments. +Thank you. +I am an engineering professor, and for the past 14 years I've been teaching crap. +Not that I'm a bad teacher, but I've been studying and teaching about human waste and how waste is conveyed through these wastewater treatment plants, and how we engineer and design these treatment plants so that we can protect surface water like rivers. +I've based my scientific career on using leading-edge molecular techniques, DNA- and RNA-based methods to look at microbial populations in biological reactors, and again to optimize these systems. +And over the years, I have developed an unhealthy obsession with toilets, and I've been known to sneak into toilets and take my camera phone all over the world. +But along the way, I've learned that it's not just the technical side, but there's also this thing called the culture of crap. +So for example, how many of you are washers and how many of you are wipers? +If, well, I guess you know what I mean. +If you're a washer, then you use water for anal cleansing. That's the technical term. +And if you're a wiper, then you use toilet paper or, in some regions of the world where it's not available, newspaper or rags or corncobs. +And this is not just a piece of trivia, but it's really important to understand and solve the sanitation problem. +And it is a big problem: There are 2.5 billion people in the world who don't have access to adequate sanitation. +For them, there's no modern toilet. +And there are 1.1 billion people whose toilets are the streets or river banks or open spaces, and again, the technical term for that is open defecation, but that is really simply shitting in the open. +And if you're living in fecal material and it's surrounding you, you're going to get sick. +It's going to get into your drinking water, into your food, into your immediate surroundings. +So the United Nations estimates that every year, there are 1.5 million child deaths because of inadequate sanitation. +That's one preventable death every 20 seconds, 171 every hour, 4,100 every day. +And so, to avoid open defecation, municipalities and cities build infrastructure, for example, like pit latrines, in peri-urban and rural areas. +For example, in KwaZulu-Natal province in South Africa, they've built tens of thousands of these pit latrines. +But there's a problem when you scale up to tens of thousands, and the problem is, what happens when the pits are full? +This is what happens. +People defecate around the toilet. +In schools, children defecate on the floors and then leave a trail outside the building and start defecating around the building, and these pits have to be cleaned and manually emptied. +And who does the emptying? You've got these workers who have to sometimes go down into the pits and manually remove the contents. +It's a dirty and dangerous business. +As you can see, there's no protective equipment, no protective clothing. +There's one worker down there. +I hope you can see him. +He's got a face mask on, but no shirt. +And in some countries, like India, the lower castes are condemned to empty the pits, and they're further condemned by society. +So you ask yourself, how can we solve this and why don't we just build Western-style flush toilets for these two and a half billion? +And the answer is, it's just not possible. +And is this really the solution? +Because essentially, what you're doing is you're using clean water and you're using it to flush your toilet, convey it to a wastewater treatment plant which then discharges to a river, and that river, again, is a drinking water source. +So we've got to rethink sanitation, and we've got to reinvent the sanitation infrastructure, and I'm going to argue that to do this, you have to employ systems thinking. +We have to look at the whole sanitation chain. +We start with a human interface, and then we have to think about how feces are collected and stored, transported, treated and reused and not just disposal but reuse. +So let's start with the human user interface. +I say, it doesn't matter if you're a washer or a wiper, a sitter or a squatter, the human user interface should be clean and easy to use, because after all, taking a dump should be pleasurable. +And when we open the possibilities to understanding this sanitation chain, then the back-end technology, the collection to the reuse, should not really matter, and then we can apply locally adoptable and context-sensitive solutions. +So we can open ourselves to possibilities like, for example, this urine-diverting toilet, and there's two holes in this toilet. +and the front collects the urine, and the back collects the fecal material. +And so what you're doing is you're separating the urine, which has 80 percent of the nitrogen and 50 percent of the phosphorus, and then that can then be treated and precipitated to form things like struvite, which is a high-value fertilizer, and then the fecal material can then be disinfected and again converted to high-value end products. +Or, for example, in some of our research, you can reuse the water by treating it in on-site sanitation systems like planter boxes or constructed wetlands. +So we can open up all these possibilities if we take away the old paradigm of flush toilets and treatment plants. +So you might be asking, who's going to pay? +Well, I'm going to argue that governments should fund sanitation infrastructure. +NGOs and donor organizations, they can do their best, but it's not going to be enough. +Governments should fund sanitation the same way they fund roads and schools and hospitals and other infrastructure like bridges, because we know, and the WHO has done this study, Let's go back to the problem of pit emptying. +We tested it in South Africa, and it works. +We need to make it more robust, and we're going to do more testing in Malawi and South Africa this coming year. +And our idea is to make this a professionalized pit-emptying service so that we can create a small business out of it, create profits and jobs, and the hope is that, as we are rethinking sanitation, we are extending the life of these pits so that we don't have to resort to quick solutions that don't really make sense. +I believe that access to adequate sanitation is a basic human right. +We need to stop the practice of lower castes and lower-status people going down and being condemned to empty pits. +It is our moral, it is our social and our environmental obligation. +Thank you. +I want to tell you how 20,000 remarkable young people from over 100 countries ended up in Cuba and are transforming health in their communities. +Ninety percent of them would never have left home at all if it weren't for a scholarship to study medicine in Cuba and a commitment to go back to places like the ones they'd come from remote farmlands, mountains, ghettos to become doctors for people like themselves, to walk the walk. +Havana's Latin American Medical School: It's the largest medical school in the world, graduating 23,000 young doctors since its first class of 2005, with nearly 10,000 more in the pipeline. +Its mission, to train physicians for the people who need them the most: the over one billion who have never seen a doctor, the people who live and die under every poverty line ever invented. +Its students defy all norms. +They're the school's biggest risk and also its best bet. +The hope is that they will help transform access to care, the health picture in impoverished areas, and even the way medicine itself is learned and practiced, and that they will become pioneers in our global reach for universal health coverage, surely a tall order. +Two big storms and this notion of "walk the walk" prompted creation of ELAM back in 1998. +The Hurricanes Georges and Mitch had ripped through the Caribbean and Central America, leaving 30,000 dead and two and a half million homeless. +Hundreds of Cuban doctors volunteered for disaster response, but when they got there, they found a bigger disaster: whole communities with no healthcare, doors bolted shut on rural hospitals for lack of staff, and just too many babies dying before their first birthday. +What would happen when these Cuban doctors left? +New doctors were needed to make care sustainable, but where would they come from? +Where would they train? +In Havana, the campus of a former naval academy was turned over to the Cuban Health Ministry to become the Latin American Medical School, ELAM. +Tuition, room and board, and a small stipend were offered to hundreds of students from the countries hardest hit by the storms. +As a journalist in Havana, I watched the first 97 Nicaraguans arrive in March 1999, settling into dorms barely refurbished and helping their professors not only sweep out the classrooms but move in the desks and the chairs and the microscopes. +Over the next few years, governments throughout the Americas requested scholarships for their own students, and the Congressional Black Caucus asked for and received hundreds of scholarships for young people from the USA. +Today, among the 23,000 are graduates from 83 countries in the Americas, Africa and Asia, and enrollment has grown to 123 nations. +More than half the students are young women. +They come from 100 ethnic groups, speak 50 different languages. +WHO Director Margaret Chan said, "For once, if you are poor, female, or from an indigenous population, you have a distinct advantage, an ethic that makes this medical school unique." +Luther Castillo comes from San Pedro de Tocamacho on the Atlantic coast of Honduras. +There's no running water, no electricity there, and to reach the village, you have to walk for hours or take your chances in a pickup truck like I did skirting the waves of the Atlantic. +Luther was one of 40 Tocamacho children who started grammar school, the sons and daughters of a black indigenous people known as the Garfuna, 20 percent of the Honduran population. +The nearest healthcare was fatal miles away. +Luther had to walk three hours every day to middle school. +Only 17 made that trip. +Only five went on to high school, and only one to university: Luther, to ELAM, among the first crop of Garfuna graduates. +Just two Garfuna doctors had preceded them in all of Honduran history. +Now there are 69, thanks to ELAM. +Big problems need big solutions, sparked by big ideas, imagination and audacity, but also solutions that work. +ELAM's faculty had no handy evidence base to guide them, so they learned the hard way, by doing and correcting course as they went. +Even the brightest students from these poor communities weren't academically prepared for six years of medical training, so a bridging course was set up in sciences. +Then came language: these were Mapuche, Quechuas, Guaran, Garfuna, indigenous peoples who learned Spanish as a second language, or Haitians who spoke Creole. +So Spanish became part of the pre-pre-med curriculum. +Even so, in Cuba, the music, the food, the smells, just about everything was different, so faculty became family, ELAM home. +Religions ranged from indigenous beliefs to Yoruba, Muslim and Christian evangelical. +Embracing diversity became a way of life. +Why have so many countries asked for these scholarships? +First, they just don't have enough doctors, and where they do, their distribution is skewed against the poor, because our global health crisis is fed by a crisis in human resources. +We are short four to seven million health workers just to meet basic needs, and the problem is everywhere. +Doctors are concentrated in the cities, where only half the world's people live, and within cities, not in the shantytowns or South L.A. +Here in the United States, where we have healthcare reform, we don't have the professionals we need. +By 2020, we will be short 45,000 primary care physicians. +And we're also part of the problem. +The United States is the number one importer of doctors from developing countries. +The second reasons students flock to Cuba is the island's own health report card, relying on strong primary care. +A commission from The Lancet rates Cuba among the best performing middle-income countries in health. +Save the Children ranks Cuba the best country in Latin America to become a mother. +Cuba has similar life expectancy and lower infant mortality than the United States, with fewer disparities, while spending per person one 20th of what we do on health here in the USA. +Academically, ELAM is tough, but 80 percent of its students graduate. +The subjects are familiar basic and clinical sciences but there are major differences. +First, training has moved out of the ivory tower and into clinic classrooms and neighborhoods, the kinds of places most of these grads will practice. +Sure, they have lectures and hospital rotations too, but community-based learning starts on day one. +Second, students treat the whole patient, mind and body, in the context of their families, their communities and their culture. +Third, they learn public health: to assess their patients' drinking water, housing, social and economic conditions. +Fourth, they are taught that a good patient interview and a thorough clinical exam provide most of the clues for diagnosis, saving costly technology for confirmation. +And finally, they're taught over and over again the importance of prevention, especially as chronic diseases cripple health systems worldwide. +Such an in-service learning also comes with a team approach, as much how to work in teams as how to lead them, with a dose of humility. +Upon graduation, these doctors share their knowledge with nurse's aids, midwives, community health workers, to help them become better at what they do, not to replace them, to work with shamans and traditional healers. +ELAM's graduates: Are they proving this audacious experiment right? +Dozens of projects give us an inkling of what they're capable of doing. +Take the Garfuna grads. +They not only went to work back home, but they organized their communities to build Honduras' first indigenous hospital. +With an architect's help, residents literally raised it from the ground up. +The first patients walked through the doors in December 2007, and since then, the hospital has received nearly one million patient visits. +And government is paying attention, upholding the hospital as a model of rural public health for Honduras. +ELAM's graduates are smart, strong and also dedicated. +Haiti, January 2010. +The pain. +People buried under 30 million tons of rubble. +Overwhelming. +Three hundred forty Cuban doctors were already on the ground long term. +More were on their way. Many more were needed. +At ELAM, students worked round the clock to contact 2,000 graduates. +As a result, hundreds arrived in Haiti, 27 countries' worth, from Mali in the Sahara to St. Lucia, Bolivia, Chile and the USA. +They spoke easily to each other in Spanish and listened to their patients in Creole thanks to Haitian medical students flown in from ELAM in Cuba. +Many stayed for months, even through the cholera epidemic. +Hundreds of Haitian graduates had to pick up the pieces, overcome their own heartbreak, and then pick up the burden of building a new public health system for Haiti. +Today, with aid of organizations and governments from Norway to Cuba to Brazil, dozens of new health centers have been built, staffed, and in 35 cases, headed by ELAM graduates. +Yet the Haitian story also illustrates some of the bigger problems faced in many countries. +Take a look: 748 Haitian graduates by 2012, when cholera struck, nearly half working in the public health sector but one quarter unemployed, and 110 had left Haiti altogether. +So in the best case scenarios, these graduates are staffing and thus strengthening public health systems, where often they're the only doctors around. +In the worst cases, there are simply not enough jobs in the public health sector, where most poor people are treated, not enough political will, not enough resources, not enough anything just too many patients with no care. +The grads face pressure from their families too, desperate to make ends meet, so when there are no public sector jobs, these new MDs decamp into private practice, or go abroad to send money home. +Worst of all, in some countries, medical societies influence accreditation bodies not to honor the ELAM degree, fearful these grads will take their jobs or reduce their patient loads and income. +It's not a question of competencies. +Here in the USA, the California Medical Board accredited the school after rigorous inspection, and the new physicians are making good on Cuba's big bet, passing their boards and accepted into highly respected residencies from New York to Chicago to New Mexico. +Two hundred strong, they're coming back to the United States energized, and also dissatisfied. +As one grad put it, in Cuba, "We are trained to provide quality care with minimal resources, so when I see all the resources we have here, and you tell me that's not possible, I know it's not true. +Not only have I seen it work, I've done the work." +ELAM's graduates, some from right here in D.C. and Baltimore, have come from the poorest of the poor to offer health, education and a voice to their communities. +They've done the heavy lifting. +Now we need to do our part to support the 23,000 and counting, All of us foundations, residency directors, press, entrepreneurs, policymakers, people need to step up. +We need to do much more globally to give these new doctors the opportunity to prove their mettle. +They need to be able to take their countries' licensing exams. +They need jobs in the public health sector or in nonprofit health centers to put their training and commitment to work. +They need the chance to be the doctors their patients need. +To move forward, we may have to find our way back to that pediatrician who would knock on my family's door on the South Side of Chicago when I was a kid, who made house calls, who was a public servant. +These aren't such new ideas of what medicine should be. +What's new is the scaling up and the faces of the doctors themselves: an ELAM graduate is more likely to be a she than a he; In the Amazon, Peru or Guatemala, an indigenous doctor; in the USA, a doctor of color who speaks fluent Spanish. +She is well trained, can be counted on, and shares the face and culture of her patients, and she deserves our support surely, because whether by subway, mule, or canoe, she is teaching us to walk the walk. +Thank you. +Women represent 50 percent of middle management and professional positions, but the percentages of women at the top of organizations represent not even a third of that number. +So some people hear that statistic and they ask, why do we have so few women leaders? +So some of you might be some of those women who are in middle management and seeking to move up in your organization. +Well, Tonya is a great example of one of these women. +I met her two years ago. +I don't understand why I'm being passed over." +So what Tonya doesn't realize is that there's a missing 33 percent of the career success equation for women, and it's understanding what this missing 33 percent is that's required to close the gender gap at the top. +In order to move up in organizations, you have to be known for your leadership skills, and this would apply to any of you, women or men. +It means that you have to be recognized for using the greatness in you to achieve and sustain extraordinary outcomes by engaging the greatness in others. +Put in other language, it means you have to use your skills and talents and abilities to help the organization achieve its strategic financial goals and do that by working effectively with others inside of the organization and outside. +And although all three of these elements of leadership are important, when it comes to moving up in organizations, they aren't equally important. +So pay attention to the green box as I move forward. +In seeking and identifying employees with high potential, the potential to go to the top of organizations, the skills and competencies that relate to that green box are rated twice as heavily as those in the other two elements of leadership. +These skills and competencies can be summarized as business, strategic, and financial acumen. +In other words, this skill set has to do with understanding where the organization is going, what its strategy is, what financial targets it has in place, and understanding your role in moving the organization forward. +This is that missing 33 percent of the career success equation for women, not because it's missing in our capabilities or abilities, but because it's missing in the advice that we're given. +Here's what I mean by that. +Five years ago, I was asked to moderate a panel of executives, and the topic for the evening was "What do you look for in high-potential employees?" +So think about the three elements of leadership as I summarize for you what they told me. +They said, "We look for people who are smart and hard working and committed and trustworthy and resilient." +So which element of leadership does that relate to? +Personal greatness. +They said, "We look for employees who are great with our customers, who empower their teams, who negotiate effectively, who are able to manage conflict well, and are overall great communicators." +Which element of leadership does that equate to? +Engaging the greatness in others. +And then they pretty much stopped. +So I asked, "Well, what about people who understand your business, and their role in taking it there? +And what about people who are able to scan the external environment, identify risks and opportunities, make strategy or make strategic recommendations? +And what about people who are able to look at the financials of your business, understand the story that the financials tell, and either take appropriate action or make appropriate recommendations?" +And to a man, they said, "That's a given." +So I turned to the audience of 150 women and I asked, "How many of you have ever been told that the door-opener for career advancement is your business, strategic and financial acumen, and that all the other important stuff is what differentiates you in the talent pool?" +Three women raised their hand, and I've asked this question of women all around the globe in the five years since, and the percentage is never much different. +So this is obvious, right? +But how can it be? +Well, there are primarily three reasons that there's this missing 33 percent in the career success advice given to women? +When organizations direct women toward resources that focus on the conventional advice that we've been hearing for over 40 years, there's a notable absence of advice that relates to business, strategic and financial acumen. +This doesn't mean that this advice is unimportant. +What it means is that this is advice that's absolutely essential for breaking through from career start to middle management, but it's not the advice that gets women to break through from the middle, where we're 50 percent, to senior and executive positions. +And this is why conventional advice to women in 40 years hasn't closed the gender gap at the top and won't close it. +Now, the second reason relates to Tonya's comments about having had excellent performance evals, great feedback from her teams, and having taken every management training program she can lay her hands on. +So you would think that she's getting messages from her organization through the talent development systems and performance management systems that let her know how important it is to develop business, strategic and financial acumen, but here again, that green square is quite small. +Now, Tonya also talked about working with a mentor, and this is really important to talk about, because if organizations, talent and performance systems aren't giving people in general information about the importance of business, strategic and financial acumen, how are men getting to the top? +Well, there are primarily two ways. +One is because of the positions they're guided into, and the other is because of informal mentoring and sponsorship. +So what's women's experience as it relates to mentoring? +Well, this comment from an executive that I worked with recently illustrates that experience. +He was very proud of the fact that last year, he had two protgs: a man and a woman. +And he said, "I helped the woman build confidence, I helped the man learn the business, and I didn't realize that I was treating them any differently." +And he was sincere about that. +So what this illustrates is that as managers, whether we're women or men, we have mindsets about women and men, about careers in leadership, and these unexamined mindsets won't close the gender gap at the top. +So how do we take this idea of the missing 33 percent and turn it into action? +Well, for women, the answer is obvious: we have to begin to focus more on developing and demonstrating the skills we have that show that we're people who understand our businesses, where they're headed, and our role in taking it there. +That's what enables that breakthrough But you don't have to be a middle manager to do this. +One young scientist that works in a biotech firm used her insight about the missing 33 percent to weave financial impact data into a project update she did and got tremendous positive feedback from the managers in the room. +So we don't want to put 100 percent of the responsibility on women's shoulders, nor would it be wise to do so, and here's why: In order for companies to achieve their strategic financial goals, executives understand that they have to have everyone pulling in the same direction. +In other words, the term we use in business is, we have to have strategic alignment. +And executives know this very well, and yet only 37 percent, according to a recent Conference Board report, believe that they have that strategic alignment in place. +So for 63 percent of organizations, achieving their strategic financial goals is questionable. +It's important for directors on boards to expect from their executives proportional pools of women when they sit down once a year for their succession discussions. +Why? Because if they aren't seeing that, it could be a red flag that their organization isn't as aligned as it could potentially be. +It's important for CEOs to also expect these proportional pools, and if they hear comments like, "Well, she doesn't have enough business experience," ask the question, "What are we going to do about that?" +It's important for H.R. executives to make sure that the missing 33 percent is appropriately emphasized, and it's important for women and men who are in management positions to examine the mindsets we hold about women and men, about careers and success, to make sure we are creating a level playing field for everybody. +So let me close with the latest chapter in Tonya's story. +Thank you. +Recently, I flew over a crowd of thousands of people in Brazil playing music by George Frideric Handel. +I also drove along the streets of Amsterdam, again playing music by this same composer. +Let's take a look. +(Music: George Frideric Handel, "Allegro." Performed by Daria van den Bercken.) Daria van den Bercken: I live there on the third floor. +(In Dutch) I live there on the corner. +I actually live there, around the corner. +and you'd be really welcome. +Man: (In Dutch) Does that sound like fun? Child: (In Dutch) Yes! +[(In Dutch) "Handel house concert"] Daria van den Bercken: All this was a real magical experience for hundreds of reasons. +Now you may ask, why have I done these things? +They're not really typical for a musician's day-to-day life. +Well, I did it because I fell in love with the music and I wanted to share it with as many people as possible. +It started a couple of years ago. +I was sitting at home on the couch with the flu and browsing the Internet a little, when I found out that Handel had written works for the keyboard. +Well, I was surprised. I did not know this. +So I downloaded the sheet music and started playing. +And what happened next was that I entered this state of pure, unprejudiced amazement. +It was an experience of being totally in awe of the music, and I had not felt that in a long time. +It might be easier to relate to this when you hear it. +The first piece that I played through started like this. +Well this sounds very melancholic, doesn't it? +And I turned the page and what came next was this. +Well, this sounds very energetic, doesn't it? +So within a couple of minutes, and the piece isn't even finished yet, I experienced two very contrasting characters: beautiful melancholy and sheer energy. +And I consider these two elements to be vital human expressions. +And the purity of the music makes you hear it very effectively. +I've given a lot of children's concerts for children of seven and eight years old, and whatever I play, whether it's Bach, Beethoven, even Stockhausen, or some jazzy music, they are open to hear it, really willing to listen, and they are comfortable doing so. +And when classes come in with children who are just a few years older, 11, 12, I felt that I sometimes already had trouble in reaching them like that. +The complexity of the music does become an issue, and actually the opinions of others parents, friends, media they start to count. +But the young ones, they don't question their own opinion. +They are in this constant state of wonder, and I do firmly believe that we can keep listening like these seven-year-old children, even when growing up. +And that is why I have played not only in the concert hall but also on the street, online, in the air: to feel that state of wonder, to truly listen, and to listen without prejudice. +And I would like to invite you to do so now. +(Music: George Frideric Handel, "Chaconne in G Major." Performed by Daria van den Bercken.) Thank you. +I have the feeling that we can all agree that we're moving towards a new model of the state and society. +But, we're absolutely clueless as to what this is or what it should be. +It seems like we need to have a conversation about democracy in our day and age. +Let's think about it this way: We are 21st-century citizens, doing our very, very best to interact with 19th century-designed institutions that are based on an information technology of the 15th century. +Let's have a look at some of the characteristics of this system. +First of all, it's designed for an information technology that's over 500 years old. +And the best possible system that could be designed for it is one where the few make daily decisions in the name of the many. +And the many get to vote once every couple of years. +In the second place, the costs of participating in this system are incredibly high. +You either have to have a fair bit of money and influence, or you have to devote your entire life to politics. +You have to become a party member and slowly start working up the ranks until maybe, one day, you'll get to sit at a table where a decision is being made. +And last but not least, the language of the system it's incredibly cryptic. +It's done for lawyers, by lawyers, and no one else can understand. +So, it's a system where we can choose our authorities, but we are completely left out on how those authorities reach their decisions. +So, in a day where a new information technology allows us to participate globally in any conversation, our barriers of information are completely lowered and we can, more than ever before, express our desires and our concerns. +Our political system remains the same for the past 200 years and expects us to be contented with being simply passive recipients of a monologue. +So, it's really not surprising that this kind of system is only able to produce two kinds of results: silence or noise. +Silence, in terms of citizens not engaging, simply not wanting to participate. +There's this commonplace [idea] that I truly, truly dislike, and it's this idea that we citizens are naturally apathetic. That we shun commitment. +But, can you really blame us for not jumping at the opportunity of going to the middle of the city in the middle of a working day to attend, physically, a public hearing that has no impact whatsoever? +Conflict is bound to happen between a system that no longer represents, nor has any dialogue capacity, and citizens that are increasingly used to representing themselves. +And, then we find noise: Chile, Argentina, Brazil, Mexico Italy, France, Spain, the United States, they're all democracies. +Their citizens have access to the ballot boxes. But they still feel the need, they need to take to the streets in order to be heard. +To me, it seems like the 18th-century slogan that was the basis for the formation of our modern democracies, "No taxation without representation," can now be updated to "No representation without a conversation." +We want our seat at the table. +And rightly so. +But in order to be part of this conversation, we need to know what we want to do next, because political action is being able to move from agitation to construction. +My generation has been incredibly good at using new networks and technologies to organize protests, protests that were able to successfully impose agendas, roll back extremely pernicious legislation, and even overthrow authoritarian governments. +And we should be immensely proud of this. +But our democracy is neither just a matter of voting once every couple of years. +But it's not either the ability to bring millions onto the streets. +So the question I'd like to raise here, and I do believe it's the most important question we need to answer, is this one: If Internet is the new printing press, then what is democracy for the Internet era? +What institutions do we want to build for the 21st-century society? +I don't have the answer, just in case. +I don't think anyone does. +But I truly believe we can't afford to ignore this question anymore. +So, I'd like to share our experience and what we've learned so far and hopefully contribute two cents to this conversation. +Two years ago, with a group of friends from Argentina, we started thinking, "how can we get our representatives, our elected representatives, to represent us?" +Marshall McLuhan once said that politics is solving today's problems with yesterday's tools. +So the question that motivated us was, can we try and solve some of today's problems with the tools that we use every single day of our lives? +Our first approach was to design and develop a piece of software called DemocracyOS. +DemocracyOS is an open-source web application that is designed to become a bridge between citizens and their elected representatives to make it easier for us to participate from our everyday lives. +So first of all, you can get informed so every new project that gets introduced in Congress gets immediately translated and explained in plain language on this platform. +But we all know that social change is not going to come from just knowing more information, but from doing something with it. +So better access to information should lead to a conversation about what we're going to do next, and DemocracyOS allows for that. +Because we believe that democracy is not just a matter of stacking up preferences, one on top of each other, but that our healthy and robust public debate should be, once again, one of its fundamental values. +So DemocracyOS is about persuading and being persuaded. +It's about reaching a consensus as much as finding a proper way of channeling our disagreement. +And finally, you can vote how you would like your elected representative to vote. +And if you do not feel comfortable voting on a certain issue, you can always delegate your vote to someone else, allowing for a dynamic and emerging social leadership. +It suddenly became very easy for us to simply compare these results with how our representatives were voting in Congress. +But, it also became very evident that technology was not going to do the trick. +What we needed to do to was to find actors that were able to grab this distributed knowledge in society and use it to make better and more fair decisions. +So we reached out to traditional political parties and we offered them DemocracyOS. +We said, "Look, here you have a platform that you can use to build a two-way conversation with your constituencies." +And yes, we failed. +We failed big time. +We were sent to play outside like little kids. +Amongst other things, we were called naive. +And I must be honest: I think, in hindsight, we were. +Because the challenges that we face, they're not technological, they're cultural. Political parties were never willing to change the way they make their decisions. +So it suddenly became a bit obvious that if we wanted to move forward with this idea, we needed to do it ourselves. +And so we took quite a leap of faith, and in August last year, we founded our own political party, El Partido de la Red, or the Net Party, in the city of Buenos Aires. +And taking an even bigger leap of faith, we ran for elections in October last year with this idea: if we want a seat in Congress, our candidate, our representatives were always going to vote according to what citizens decided on DemocracyOS. +Every single project that got introduced in Congress, we were going vote according to what citizens decided on an online platform. +It was our way of hacking the political system. +We understood that if we wanted to become part of the conversation, to have a seat at the table, we needed to become valid stakeholders, and the only way of doing it is to play by the system rules. +But we were hacking it in the sense that we were radically changing the way a political party makes its decisions. +For the first time, we were making our decisions together with those who we were affecting directly by those decisions. +It was a very, very bold move for a two-month-old party in the city of Buenos Aires. +But it got attention. +We got 22,000 votes, that's 1.2 percent of the votes, and we came in second for the local options. +Of course, our elected representatives are not saying, "Yes, we're going to vote according to what citizens decide," but they're willing to try. +They're willing to open up a new space for citizen engagement and hopefully they'll be willing to listen as well. +Our political system can be transformed, and not by subverting it, by destroying it, but by rewiring it with the tools that Internet affords us now. +But a real challenge is to find, to design to create, to empower those connectors that are able to innovate, to transform noise and silence into signal and finally bring our democracies to the 21st century. +I'm not saying it's easy. +But in our experience, we actually stand a chance of making it work. +And in my heart, it's most definitely worth trying. +Thank you. +Fifty-four percent of the world's population lives in our cities. +In developing countries, one third of that population is living in slums. +Seventy-five percent of global energy consumption occurs in our cities, and 80 percent of gas emissions that cause global warming come from our cities. +So things that you and I might think about as global problems, like climate change, the energy crisis or poverty, are really, in many ways, city problems. +They will not be solved unless people who live in cities, like most of us, actually start doing a better job, because right now, we are not doing a very good one. +And that becomes very clear when we look into three aspects of city life: first, our citizens' willingness to engage with democratic institutions; second, our cities' ability to really include all of their residents; and lastly, our own ability to live fulfilling and happy lives. +When it comes to engagement, the data is very clear. +Voter turnout around the world peaked in the late '80s, and it has been declining at a pace that we have never seen before, and if those numbers are bad at the national level, at the level of our cities, they are just dismal. +In the last two years, two of the world's most consolidated, oldest democracies, the U.S. and France, held nationwide municipal elections. +In France, voter turnout hit a record low. +Almost 40 percent of voters decided not to show up. +In the U.S., the numbers were even scarier. +In some American cities, voter turnout was close to five percent. +I'll let that sink in for a second. +We're talking about democratic cities in which 95 percent of people decided that it was not important to elect their leaders. +The city of L.A., a city of four million people, elected its mayor with just a bit over 200,000 votes. +That was the lowest turnout the city had seen in 100 years. +Right here, in my city of Rio, in spite of mandatory voting, almost 30 percent of the voting population chose to either annul their votes or stay home and pay a fine in the last mayoral elections. +When it comes to inclusiveness, our cities are not the best cases of success either, and again, you don't need to look very far in order to find proof of that. +The city of Rio is incredibly unequal. +This is Leblon. +Leblon is the city's richest neighborhood. +And this is Complexo do Alemo. +This is where over 70,000 of the city's poorest residents live. +Leblon has an HDI, a Human Development Index, of .967. +That is higher than Norway, Switzerland or Sweden. +Complexo do Alemo has an HDI of .711. +It sits somewhere in between the HDI of Algeria and Gabon. +So Rio, like so many cities across the global South, is a place where you can go from northern Europe to sub-Saharan Africa in the space of 30 minutes. +If you drive, that is. +If you take public transit, it's about two hours. +And lastly, perhaps most importantly, cities, with the incredible wealth of relations that they enable, could be the ideal places for human happiness to flourish. +We like being around people. +We are social animals. +Instead, countries where urbanization has already peaked seem to be the very countries in which cities have stopped making us happy. +The United States population has suffered from a general decrease in happiness for the past three decades, and the main reason is this. +The American way of building cities has caused good quality public spaces to virtually disappear in many, many American cities, and as a result, they have seen a decline of relations, of the things that make us happy. +Many studies show an increase in solitude and a decrease in solidarity, honesty, and social and civic participation. +So how do we start building cities that make us care? +Cities that value their most important asset: the incredible diversity of the people who live in them? +Cities that make us happy? +Well, I believe that if we want to change what our cities look like, then we really have to change the decision-making processes that have given us the results that we have right now. +We need a participation revolution, and we need it fast. +The idea of voting as our only exercise in citizenship does not make sense anymore. +People are tired of only being treated as empowered individuals every few years when it's time to delegate that power to someone else. +If the protests that swept Brazil in June 2013 have taught us anything, it's that every time we try to exercise our power outside of an electoral context, we are beaten up, humiliated or arrested. +But there is a catch, obviously: Enabling widespread participation and redistributing power can be a logistical nightmare, and there's where technology can play an incredibly helpful role, by making it easier for people to organize, communicate and make decisions without having to be in the same room at the same time. +Unfortunately for us, when it comes to fostering democratic processes, our city governments have not used technology to its full potential. +So far, most city governments have been effective at using tech to turn citizens into human sensors who serve authorities with data on the city: potholes, fallen trees or broken lamps. +That's not participation, and in fact, governments have not been very good at using technology to enable participation on what matters the way we allocate our budget, the way we occupy our land, and the way we manage our natural resources. +Those are the kinds of decisions that can actually impact global problems that manifest themselves in our cities. +The good news is, and I do have good news to share with you, we don't need to wait for governments to do this. +I have reason to believe that it's possible for citizens to build their own structures of participation. +Three years ago, I cofounded an organization called Meu Rio, and we make it easier for people in the city of Rio to organize around causes and places that they care about in their own city, and have an impact on those causes and places every day. +In these past three years, Meu Rio grew to a network of 160,000 citizens of Rio. +About 40 percent of those members are young people aged 20 to 29. +That is one in every 15 young people of that age in Rio today. +Amongst our members is this adorable little girl, Bia, to your right, and Bia was just 11 years old when she started a campaign using one of our tools to save her model public school from demolition. +Her school actually ranks among the best public schools in the country, and it was going to be demolished by the Rio de Janeiro state government to build, I kid you not, a parking lot for the World Cup right before the event happened. +Bia started a campaign, and we even watched her school 24/7 through webcam monitoring, and many months afterwards, the government changed their minds. +Bia's school stayed in place. +There's also Jovita. +She's an amazing woman whose daughter went missing about 10 years ago, and since then, she has been looking for her daughter. +In that process, she found out that first, she was not alone. +In the last year alone, 2013, 6,000 people disappeared in the state of Rio. +But she also found out that in spite of that, Rio had no centralized intelligence system for solving missing persons cases. +In other Brazilian cities, those systems have helped solve up to 80 percent of missing persons cases. +She started a campaign, and after the secretary of security got 16,000 emails from people asking him to do this, he responded, and started to build a police unit specializing in those cases. +It was open to the public at the end of last month, and Jovita was there giving interviews and being very fancy. +And then, there is Leandro. +Leandro is an amazing guy in a slum in Rio, and he created a recycling project in the slum. +At the end of last year, December 16, he received an eviction order by the Rio de Janeiro state government giving him two weeks to leave the space that he had been using for two years. +The plan was to hand it over to a developer, who planned to turn it into a construction site. +Leandro started a campaign using one of our tools, the Pressure Cooker, the same one that Bia and Jovita used, and the state government changed their minds before Christmas Eve. +These stories make me happy, but not just because they have happy endings. +They make me happy because they are happy beginnings. +The teacher and parent community at Bia's school is looking for other ways they could improve that space even further. +Leandro has ambitious plans to take his model to other low-income communities in Rio, and Jovita is volunteering at the police unit that she helped created. +Bia, Jovita and Leandro are living examples of something that citizens and city governments around the world need to know: We are ready. +With the Our Cities network, the Meu Rio team hopes to share what we have learned with other people who want to create similar initiatives in their own cities. +We have already started doing it in So Paulo with incredible results, and want to take it to cities around the world through a network of citizen-centric, citizen-led organizations that can inspire us, challenge us, and remind us to demand real participation in our city lives. +Obrigado. Thank you. +So imagine that a plane is about to crash with 250 children and babies, and if you knew how to stop that, would you? +Now imagine that 60 planes full of babies under five crash every single day. +That's the number of kids that never make it to their fifth birthday. +6.6 million children never make it to their fifth birthday. +Most of these deaths are preventable, and that doesn't just make me sad, it makes me angry, and it makes me determined. +Diarrhea and pneumonia are among the top two killers of children under five, and what we can do to prevent these diseases isn't some smart, new technological innovations. +It's one of the world's oldest inventions: a bar of soap. +Washing hands with soap, a habit we all take for granted, can reduce diarrhea by half, can reduce respiratory infections by one third. +Handwashing with soap can have an impact on reducing flu, trachoma, SARS, and most recently in the case of cholera and Ebola outbreak, one of the key interventions is handwashing with soap. +Handwashing with soap keeps kids in school. +It stops babies from dying. +Handwashing with soap is one of the most cost-effective ways of saving children's lives. +It can save over 600,000 children every year. +That's the equivalent of stopping 10 jumbo jets full of babies and children from crashing every single day. +I think you'll agree with me that that's a pretty useful public health intervention. +So now just take a minute. +I think you need to get to know the person next to you. +Why don't you just shake their hands. +Please shake their hands. +All right, get to know each other. +They look really pretty. +All right. +So what if I told you that the person whose hands you just shook actually didn't wash their hands when they were coming out of the toilet? They don't look so pretty anymore, right? +Pretty yucky, you would agree with me. +Well, statistics are actually showing that four people out of five don't wash their hands when they come out of the toilet, globally. +And the same way, we don't do it when we've got fancy toilets, running water, and soap available, it's the same thing in the countries where child mortality is really high. +What is it? Is there no soap? +Actually, soap is available. +In 90 percent of households in India, 94 percent of households in Kenya, you will find soap. +Even in countries where soap is the lowest, like Ethiopia, we are at 50 percent. +So why is it? +Why aren't people washing their hands? +Why is it that Mayank, this young boy that I met in India, isn't washing his hands? +Well, in Mayank's family, soap is used for bathing, soap is used for laundry, soap is used for washing dishes. +His parents think sometimes it's a precious commodity, so they'll keep it in a cupboard. +They'll keep it away from him so he doesn't waste it. +On average, in Mayank's family, they will use soap for washing hands once a day at the very best, and sometimes even once a week for washing hands with soap. +What's the result of that? +Children pick up disease in the place that's supposed to love them and protect them the most, in their homes. +Think about where you learned to wash your hands. +Did you learn to wash your hands at home? +Did you learn to wash your hands in school? +I think behavioral scientists will tell you that it's very difficult to change the habits that you have had early in life. +However, we all copy what everyone else does, and local cultural norms are something that shape how we change our behavior, and this is where the private sector comes in. +Every second in Asia and Africa, 111 mothers will buy this bar to protect their family. +Many women in India will tell you they learned all about hygiene, diseases, from this bar of soap from Lifebuoy brand. +Iconic brands like this one have a responsibility to do good in the places where they sell their products. +It's that belief, plus the scale of Unilever, that allows us to keep talking about handwashing with soap and hygiene to these mothers. +Big businesses and brands can change and shift those social norms and make a difference for those habits that are so stubborn. +Think about it: Marketeers spend all their time making us switch from one brand to the other. +And actually, they know how to transform science and facts into compelling messages. +Just for a minute, imagine when they put all their forces behind a message as powerful as handwashing with soap. +The profit motive is transforming health outcomes in this world. +But it's been happening for centuries: the Lifebuoy brand was launched in 1894 in Victorian England to actually combat cholera. +Last week, I was in Ghana with the minister of health, because if you don't know, there's a cholera outbreak in Ghana at the moment. +A hundred and eighteen years later, the solution is exactly the same: It's about ensuring that they have access to this bar of soap, and that they're using it, because that's the number one way to actually stop cholera from spreading. +I think this drive for profit is extremely powerful, sometimes more powerful than the most committed charity or government. +Government is doing what they can, especially in terms of the pandemics and epidemics such as cholera, or Ebola at the moment, but with competing priorities. +The budget is not always there. +And when you think about this, you think about what is required to make handwashing a daily habit, it requires sustained funding to refine this behavior. +In short, those that fight for public health are actually dependent upon the soap companies to keep promoting handwashing with soap. +We have friends like USAID, the Global Public-Private Partnership for Handwashing with Soap, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Plan, WaterAid, that all believe for a win-win-win partnership. +Win for the public sector, because we help them reach their targets. +Win for the private sector, because we build new generations of future handwashers. +And most importantly, win for the most vulnerable. +On October 15, we will celebrate Global Handwashing Day. +Schools, communities, our friends in the public sector and our friends in the private sector yes, on that day even our competitors, we all join hands to celebrate the world's most important public health intervention. +What's required, and again where the private sector can make a huge difference, is coming up with this big, creative thinking that drives advocacy. +If you take our Help a Child Reach 5 campaign, we've created great films that bring the message of handwashing with soap to the everyday person in a way that can relate to them. +We've had over 30 million views. +Most of these discussions are still happening online. +I urge you to take five minutes and look at those films. +I come from Mali, one of the world's poorest countries. +I grew up in a family where every dinner conversation was around social justice. +I trained in Europe's premier school of public health. +I think I'm probably one of the only women in my country with this high degree in health, and the only one with a doctorate in handwashing with soap. +Nine years ago, I decided, with a successful public health career in the making, that I could make the biggest impact coming, selling and promoting the world's best invention in public health: soap. +We run today the world's largest handwashing program by any public health standards. +We've reached over 183 million people in 16 countries. +My team and I have the ambition to reach one billion by 2020. +Over the last four years, business has grown double digits, whilst child mortality has reduced in all the places where soap use has increased. +It may be uncomfortable for some to hear business growth and lives saved somehow equated in the same sentence but it is that business growth that allows us to keep doing more. +Without it, and without talking about it, we cannot achieve the change that we need. +Last week, my team and I spent time visiting mothers that have all experienced the same thing: the death of a newborn. +I'm a mom. I can't imagine anything more powerful and more painful. +This one is from Myanmar. +She had the most beautiful smile, the smile, I think, that life gives you when you've had a second chance. +Her son, Myo, is her second one. +And that's what inspires me, inspires me to continue in this mission, to know that I can equip her with what's needed so that she can do the most beautiful job in the world: nurturing her newborn. +And next time you think of a gift for a new mom and her family, don't look far: buy her soap. +It's the most beautiful invention in public health. +I hope you will join us and make handwashing part of your daily lives and our daily lives and help more children like Myo reach their fifth birthday. +Thank you. +Almost a year ago, my aunt started suffering back pains. +She went to see the doctor and they told her it was a normal injury for someone who had been playing tennis for almost 30 years. +They recommended that she do some therapy, but after a while she wasn't feeling better, so the doctors decided to do further tests. +They did an x-ray and discovered an injury in her lungs, and at the time they thought that the injury was a strain in the muscles and tendons between her ribs, but after a few weeks of treatment, again her health wasn't getting any better. +So finally, they decided to do a biopsy, and two weeks later, the results of the biopsy came back. +It was stage 3 lung cancer. +Her lifestyle was almost free of risk. +She never smoked a cigarette, she never drank alcohol, and she had been playing sports for almost half her life. +Perhaps, that is why it took them almost six months to get her properly diagnosed. +My story might be, unfortunately, familiar to most of you. +One out of three people sitting in this audience will be diagnosed with some type of cancer, and one out of four will die because of it. +Not only did that cancer diagnosis change the life of our family, but that process of going back and forth with new tests, different doctors describing symptoms, discarding diseases over and over, was stressful and frustrating, especially for my aunt. +And that is the way cancer diagnosis has been done since the beginning of history. +We have 21st-century medical treatments and drugs to treat cancer, but we still have 20th-century procedures and processes for diagnosis, if any. +Today, most of us have to wait for symptoms to indicate that something is wrong. +Today, the majority of people still don't have access to early cancer detection methods, even though we know that catching cancer early is basically the closest thing we have to a silver bullet cure against it. +We know that we can change this in our lifetime, and that is why my team and I have decided to begin this journey, this journey to try to make cancer detection at the early stages and monitoring the appropriate response at the molecular level easier, cheaper, smarter and more accessible than ever before. +The context, of course, is that we're living at a time where technology is disrupting our present at exponential rates, and the biological realm is no exception. +It is said today that biotech is advancing at least six times faster than the growth rate of the processing power of computers. +But progress in biotech is not only being accelerated, it is also being democratized. +Just as personal computers or the Internet or smartphones leveled the playing field for entrepreneurship, politics or education, recent advances have leveled it up for biotech progress as well, and that is allowing multidisciplinary teams like ours to try to tackle and look at these problems with new approaches. +We are a team of scientists and technologists from Chile, Panama, Mexico, Israel and Greece, and based on recent scientific discoveries, we believe that we have found a reliable and accurate way of detecting several types of cancer at the very early stages through a blood sample. +We do it by detecting a set of very small molecules that circulate freely in our blood called microRNAs. +To explain what microRNAs are and their important role in cancer, I need to start with proteins, because when cancer is present in our body, protein modification is observed in all cancerous cells. +So microRNAs are small molecules that regulate gene expression. +Unlike DNA, which is mainly fixed, microRNAs can vary depending on internal and environmental conditions at any given time, telling us which genes are actively expressed at that particular moment. +And that is what makes microRNAs such a promising biomarker for cancer, because as you know, cancer is a disease of altered gene expression. +It is the uncontrolled regulation of genes. +Another important thing to consider is that no two cancers are the same, but at the microRNA level, there are patterns. +Several scientific studies have shown that abnormal microRNA expression levels varies and creates a unique, specific pattern for each type of cancer, even at the early stages, reflecting the progression of the disease, and whether it's responding to medication or in remission, making microRNAs a perfect, highly sensitive biomarker. +However, the problem with microRNAs is that we cannot use existing DNA-based technology to detect them in a reliable way, because they are very short sequences of nucleotides, much smaller than DNA. +And also, all microRNAs are very similar to each other, with just tiny differences. +So imagine trying to differentiate two molecules, extremely similar, extremely small. +We believe that we have found a way to do so, and this is the first time that we've shown it in public. +Let me do a demonstration. +Imagine that next time you go to your doctor and do your next standard blood test, a lab technician extracts a total RNA, which is quite simple today, and puts it in a standard 96-well plate like this one. +Each well of these plates has specific biochemistry that we assign, that is looking for a specific microRNA, acting like a trap that closes only when the microRNA is present in the sample, and when it does, it will shine with green color. +To run the reaction, you put the plate inside a device like this one, and then you can put your smartphone on top of it. +If we can have a camera here so you can see my screen. +A smartphone is a connected computer and it's also a camera, good enough for our purpose. +The smartphone is taking pictures, and when the reaction is over, it will send the pictures to our online database for processing and interpretation. +This entire process lasts around 60 minutes, but when the process is over, wells that shine are matched with the specific microRNAs and analyzed in terms of how much and how fast they shine. +And then, when this entire process is over, this is what happens. +This chart is showing the specific microRNAs present in this sample and how they reacted over time. +Then, if we take this specific pattern of microRNA of this person's samples and compare it with existing scientific documentation that correlates microRNA patterns with a specific presence of a disease, this is how pancreatic cancer looks like. +This inside is a real sample where we just detected pancreatic cancer. +Another important aspect of this approach is the gathering and mining of data in the cloud, so we can get results in real time and analyze them with our contextual information. +If we want to better understand and decode diseases like cancer, we need to stop treating them as acute, isolated episodes, and consider and measure everything that affects our health on a permanent basis. +This entire platform is a working prototype. +It uses state-of-the-art molecular biology, a low-cost, 3D-printed device, and data science to try to tackle one of humanity's toughest challenges. +Since we believe early cancer detection should really be democratized, this entire solution costs at least 50 times less than current available methods, and we know that the community can help us accelerate this even more, so we're making the design of the device open-source. +Let me say very clearly that we are at the very early stages, but so far, we have been able to successfully identify the microRNA pattern of pancreatic cancer, lung cancer, breast cancer and hepatic cancer. +And currently, we're doing a clinical trial in collaboration with the German Cancer Research Center with 200 women for breast cancer. +This is the single non-invasive, accurate and affordable test that has the potential to dramatically change how cancer procedures and diagnostics have been done. +Since we're looking for the microRNA patterns in your blood at any given time, you don't need to know which cancer you're looking for. +You don't need to have any symptoms. +You only need one milliliter of blood and a relatively simple array of tools. +Today, cancer detection happens mainly when symptoms appear. +That is, at stage 3 or 4, and I believe that is too late. +It is too expensive for our families. +It is too expensive for humanity. +We cannot lose the war against cancer. +It not only costs us billions of dollars, but it also costs us the people we love. +Today, my aunt, she's fighting bravely and going through this process with a very positive attitude. +However, I want fights like this to become very rare. +I want to see the day when cancer is treated easily because it can be routinely diagnosed at the very early stages, and I'm certain that in the very near future, and other breakthroughs that we are seeing every day in the life sciences, the way we see cancer will radically change. +It will give us the chance of detecting it early, understanding it better, and finding a cure. +Thank you very much. +So I started working with refugees because I wanted to make a difference, and making a difference starts with telling their stories. +So when I meet refugees, I always ask them questions. +Who bombed your house? +Who killed your son? +Did the rest of your family make it out alive? +How are you coping in your life in exile? +But there's one question that always seems to me to be most revealing, and that is: What did you take? +What was that most important thing that you had to take with you when the bombs were exploding in your town, and the armed gangs were approaching your house? +A Syrian refugee boy I know told me that he didn't hesitate when his life was in imminent danger. +He took his high school diploma, and later he told me why. +He said, "I took my high school diploma because my life depended on it." +And he would risk his life to get that diploma. +On his way to school, he would dodge snipers. +His classroom sometimes shook with the sound of bombs and shelling, and his mother told me, "Every day, I would say to him every morning, 'Honey, please don't go to school.'" And when he insisted, she said, "I would hug him as if it were for the last time." +But he said to his mother, "We're all afraid, but our determination to graduate is stronger than our fear." +But one day, the family got terrible news. +Hany's aunt, his uncle and his cousin were murdered in their homes for refusing to leave their house. +Their throats were slit. +It was time to flee. +They left that day, right away, in their car, Hany hidden in the back because they were facing checkpoints of menacing soldiers. +And they would cross the border into Lebanon, where they would find peace. +But they would begin a life of grueling hardship and monotony. +They had no choice but to build a shack on the side of a muddy field, and this is Hany's brother Ashraf, who plays outside. +And that day, they joined the biggest population of refugees in the world, in a country, Lebanon, that is tiny. +It only has four million citizens, and there are one million Syrian refugees living there. +There's not a town, a city or a village that is not host to Syrian refugees. +This is generosity and humanity that is remarkable. Think about it this way, proportionately. +It would be as if the entire population of Germany, 80 million people, would flee to the United States in just three years. +Half of the entire population of Syria is now uprooted, most of them inside the country. +Six and a half million people have fled for their lives. +Over and well over three million people have crossed the borders and have found sanctuary in the neighboring countries, and only a small proportion, as you see, have moved on to Europe. +What I find most worrying is that half of all Syrian refugees are children. +I took this picture of this little girl. It was just two hours after she had arrived after a long trek from Syria into Jordan. +And most troubling of all is that only 20 percent of Syrian refugee children are in school in Lebanon. +And yet, Syrian refugee children, all refugee children tell us education is the most important thing in their lives. +Why? Because it allows them to think of their future rather than the nightmare of their past. +It allows them to think of hope rather than hatred. +I'm reminded of a recent visit I took to a Syrian refugee camp in northern Iraq, and I met this girl, and I thought, "She's beautiful," and I went up to her and asked her, "Can I take your picture?" +And she said yes, but she refused to smile. +I think she couldn't, because I think she must realize that she represents a lost generation of Syrian refugee children, a generation isolated and frustrated. +And yet, look at what they fled: utter destruction, buildings, industries, schools, roads, homes. +Hany's home was also destroyed. +This will need to be rebuilt by architects, by engineers, by electricians. +Communities will need teachers and lawyers and politicians interested in reconciliation and not revenge. +Shouldn't this be rebuilt by the people with the largest stake, the societies in exile, the refugees? +Refugees have a lot of time to prepare for their return. +You might imagine that being a refugee is just a temporary state. +Well far from it. +With wars going on and on, the average time a refugee will spend in exile is 17 years. +Hany was into his second year in limbo when I went to visit him recently, and we conducted our entire conversation in English, which he confessed to me he learned from reading all of Dan Brown's novels and from listening to American rap. +We also spent some nice moments of laughter and fun with his beloved brother Ashraf. +But I'll never forget what he told me when we ended our conversation that day. +"If I am not a student, I am nothing." +Hany is one of 50 million people uprooted in this world today. +Never since World War II have so many people been forcibly displaced. +So while we're making sweeping progress in human health, in technology, in education and design, we are doing dangerously little to help the victims and we are doing far too little to stop and prevent the wars that are driving them from their homes. +And there are more and more victims. +Every day, on average, by the end of this day, 32,000 people will be forcibly displaced from their homes 32,000 people. +They flee across borders like this one. +We captured this on the Syrian border to Jordan, and this is a typical day. +Or they flee on unseaworthy and overcrowded boats, risking their lives in this case just to reach safety in Europe. +This Syrian young man survived one of these boats that capsized most of the people drowned and he told us, "Syrians are just looking for a quiet place where nobody hurts you, where nobody humiliates you, and where nobody kills you." +Well, I think that should be the minimum. +How about a place of healing, of learning, and even opportunity? +So wealthy countries in the world should recognize the humanity and the generosity of the countries that are hosting so many refugees. +And all countries should make sure that no one fleeing war and persecution arrives at a closed border. +Thank you. +But there is something more that we can do than just simply helping refugees survive. +We can help them thrive. +We should think of refugee camps and communities as more than just temporary population centers where people languish waiting for the war to end. +Rather, as centers of excellence, where refugees can triumph over their trauma and train for the day that they can go home as agents of positive change and social transformation. +It makes so much sense, but I'm reminded of the terrible war in Somalia that has been raging on for 22 years. +And imagine living in this camp. +I visited this camp. +It's in Djibouti, neighboring Somalia, and it was so remote that we had to take a helicopter to fly there. +It was dusty and it was terribly hot. +And we went to visit a school and started talking to the children, and then I saw this girl across the room who looked to me to be the same age as my own daughter, and I went up and talked to her. +And I asked her the questions that grown-ups ask kids, like, "What is your favorite subject?" +and, "What do you want to be when you grow up?" +And this is when her face turned blank, and she said to me, "I have no future. My schooling days are over." +And I thought, there must be some misunderstanding, so I turned to my colleague and she confirmed to me there is no funding for secondary education in this camp. +And how I wished at that moment that I could say to her, "We will build you a school." +And I also thought, what a waste. +She should be and she is the future of Somalia. +A boy named Jacob Atem had a different chance, but not before he experienced terribly tragedy. +He watched this is in Sudan as his village he was only seven years old burned to the ground, and he learned that his mother and his father and his entire family were killed that day. +Only his cousin survived, and the two of them walked for seven months this is boys like him chased and pursued by wild animals and armed gangs, and they finally made it to refugee camps where they found safety, and he would spend the next seven years in Kenya in a refugee camp. +But his life changed when he got the chance to be resettled to the United States, and he found love in a foster family and he was able to go to school, and he wanted me to share with you this proud moment when he graduated from university. +I spoke to him on Skype the other day, and he was in his new university in Florida pursuing his Ph.D. in public health, and he proudly told me how he was able to raise enough funds from the American public to establish a health clinic back in his village back home. +So I want to take you back to Hany. +When I told him I was going to have the chance to speak to you here on the TED stage, he allowed me to read you a poem that he sent in an email to me. +He wrote: "I miss myself, my friends, times of reading novels or writing poems, birds and tea in the morning. +My room, my books, myself, and everything that was making me smile. +Oh, oh, I had so many dreams that were about to be realized." +So here is my point: Not investing in refugees is a huge missed opportunity. +Leave them abandoned, and they risk exploitation and abuse, and leave them unskilled and uneducated, and delay by years the return to peace and prosperity in their countries. +I believe how we treat the uprooted will shape the future of our world. +The victims of war can hold the keys to lasting peace, and it's the refugees who can stop the cycle of violence. +Hany is at a tipping point. +We would love to help him go to university and to become an engineer, but our funds are prioritized for the basics in life: tents and blankets and mattresses and kitchen sets, food rations and a bit of medicine. +University is a luxury. +But leave him to languish in this muddy field, and he will become a member of a lost generation. +Hany's story is a tragedy, but it doesn't have to end that way. +Thank you. +I know a man who soars above the city every night. +In his dreams, he twirls and swirls with his toes kissing the Earth. +Everything has motion, he claims, even a body as paralyzed as his own. +This man is my father. +Three years ago, when I found out that my father had suffered a severe stroke in his brain stem, I walked into his room in the ICU at the Montreal Neurological Institute and found him lying deathly still, tethered to a breathing machine. +Paralysis had closed over his body slowly, beginning in his toes, then legs, torso, fingers and arms. +It made its way up his neck, cutting off his ability to breathe, and stopped just beneath the eyes. +He never lost consciousness. +Rather, he watched from within as his body shut down, limb by limb, muscle by muscle. +In that ICU room, I walked up to my father's body, and with a quivering voice and through tears, I began reciting the alphabet. +A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K. +At K, he blinked his eyes. +I began again. +A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I. +He blinked again at the letter I, then at T, then at R, and A: Kitra. +He said "Kitra, my beauty, don't cry. +This is a blessing." +There was no audible voice, but my father called out my name powerfully. +Just 72 hours after his stroke, he had already embraced the totality of his condition. +Despite his extreme physical state, he was completely present with me, guiding, nurturing, and being my father as much if not more than ever before. +Locked-in syndrome is many people's worst nightmare. +In French, it's sometimes called "maladie de l'emmur vivant." +Literally, "walled-in-alive disease." +As a rabbi and spiritual man dangling between mind and body, life and death, the paralysis opened up a new awareness for him. +He realized he no longer needed to look beyond the corporeal world in order to find the divine. +"Paradise is in this body. +It's in this world," he said. +I slept by my father's side for the first four months, tending as much as I could to his every discomfort, understanding the deep human psychological fear of not being able to call out for help. +My mother, sisters, brother and I, we surrounded him in a cocoon of healing. +We became his mouthpiece, spending hours each day reciting the alphabet as he whispered back sermons and poetry with blinks of his eye. +His room, it became our temple of healing. +His bedside became a site for those seeking advice and spiritual counsel, and through us, my father was able to speak and uplift, letter by letter, blink by blink. +Everything in our world became slow and tender as the din, drama and death of the hospital ward faded into the background. +I want to read to you one of the first things that we transcribed in the week following the stroke. +He composed a letter, addressing his synagogue congregation, and ended it with the following lines: "When my nape exploded, I entered another dimension: inchoate, sub-planetary, protozoan. +Universes are opened and closed continually. +There are many when low, who stop growing. +Last week, I was brought so low, but I felt the hand of my father around me, and my father brought me back." +When we weren't his voice, we were his legs and arms. +I moved them like I know I would have wanted my own arms and legs to be moved were they still for all the hours of the day. +I remember I'd hold his fingers near my face, bending each joint to keep it soft and limber. +I'd ask him again and again to visualize the motion, to watch from within as the finger curled and extended, and to move along with it in his mind. +Then, one day, from the corner of my eye, I saw his body slither like a snake, an involuntary spasm passing through the course of his limbs. +At first, I thought it was my own hallucination, having spent so much time tending to this one body, so desperate to see anything react on its own. +But he told me he felt tingles, sparks of electricity flickering on and off just beneath the surface of the skin. +The following week, he began ever so slightly to show muscle resistance. +Connections were being made. +Body was slowly and gently reawakening, limb by limb, muscle by muscle, twitch by twitch. +As a documentary photographer, I felt the need to photograph each of his first movements like a mother with her newborn. +I photographed him taking his first unaided breath, the celebratory moment after he showed muscle resistance for the very first time, the new adapted technologies that allowed him to gain more and more independence. +I photographed the care and the love that surrounded him. +But my photographs only told the outside story of a man lying in a hospital bed attached to a breathing machine. +I wasn't able to portray his story from within, and so I began to search for a new visual language, one which strived to express the ephemeral quality of his spiritual experience. +Finally, I want to share with you a video from a series that I've been working on that tries to express the slow, in-between existence that my father has experienced. +As he began to regain his ability to breathe, I started recording his thoughts, and so the voice that you hear in this video is his voice. +Ronnie Cahana: You have to believe you're paralyzed to play the part of a quadriplegic. +I don't. +In my mind, and in my dreams every night over the city twirl and swirl with my toes kissing the floor. +I know nothing about the statement of man without motion. +Everything has motion. +The heart pumps. +The body heaves. +The mouth moves. +We never stagnate. +Life triumphs up and down. +Kitra Cahana: For most of us, our muscles begin to twitch and move long before we are conscious, but my father tells me his privilege is living on the far periphery of the human experience. +Like an astronaut who sees a perspective that very few of us will ever get to share, he wonders and watches as he takes his first breaths and dreams about crawling back home. +So begins life at 57, he says. +A toddler has no attitude in its being, but a man insists on his world every day. +Few of us will ever have to face physical limitations to the degree that my father has, but we will all have moments of paralysis in our lives. +I know I frequently confront walls that feel completely unscalable, but my father insists that there are no dead ends. +Instead, he invites me into his space of co-healing to give the very best of myself, and for him to give the very best of himself to me. +Paralysis was an opening for him. +It was an opportunity to emerge, to rekindle life force, to sit still long enough with himself so as to fall in love with the full continuum of creation. +Today, my father is no longer locked in. +He moves his neck with ease, has had his feeding peg removed, breathes with his own lungs, speaks slowly with his own quiet voice, and works every day to gain more movement in his paralyzed body. +But the work will never be finished. +As he says, "I'm living in a broken world, and there is holy work to do." +Thank you. +Technology has brought us so much: the moon landing, the Internet, the ability to sequence the human genome. +But it also taps into a lot of our deepest fears, and about 30 years ago, the culture critic Neil Postman wrote a book called "Amusing Ourselves to Death," which lays this out really brilliantly. +And here's what he said, comparing the dystopian visions of George Orwell and Aldous Huxley. +He said, Orwell feared we would become a captive culture. +Huxley feared we would become a trivial culture. +Orwell feared the truth would be concealed from us, and Huxley feared we would be drowned in a sea of irrelevance. +In a nutshell, it's a choice between Big Brother watching you and you watching Big Brother. +But it doesn't have to be this way. +We are not passive consumers of data and technology. +We shape the role it plays in our lives and the way we make meaning from it, but to do that, we have to pay as much attention to how we think as how we code. +We have to ask questions, and hard questions, to move past counting things to understanding them. +We're constantly bombarded with stories about how much data there is in the world, but when it comes to big data and the challenges of interpreting it, size isn't everything. +There's also the speed at which it moves, and the many varieties of data types, and here are just a few examples: images, text, video, audio. +And what unites this disparate types of data is that they're created by people and they require context. +Now, there's a group of data scientists out of the University of Illinois-Chicago, and they're called the Health Media Collaboratory, and they've been working with the Centers for Disease Control to better understand how people talk about quitting smoking, how they talk about electronic cigarettes, and what they can do collectively to help them quit. +The interesting thing is, if you want to understand how people talk about smoking, first you have to understand what they mean when they say "smoking." +And on Twitter, there are four main categories: number one, smoking cigarettes; number two, smoking marijuana; number three, smoking ribs; and number four, smoking hot women. +So then you have to think about, well, how do people talk about electronic cigarettes? +And there are so many different ways that people do this, and you can see from the slide it's a complex kind of a query. +And what it reminds us is that language is created by people, and people are messy and we're complex and we use metaphors and slang and jargon and we do this 24/7 in many, many languages, and then as soon as we figure it out, we change it up. +So did these ads that the CDC put on, these television ads that featured a woman with a hole in her throat and that were very graphic and very disturbing, did they actually have an impact on whether people quit? +And the Health Media Collaboratory respected the limits of their data, but they were able to conclude that those advertisements and you may have seen them that they had the effect of jolting people into a thought process that may have an impact on future behavior. +And what I admire and appreciate about this project, aside from the fact, including the fact that it's based on real human need, is that it's a fantastic example of courage in the face of a sea of irrelevance. +And so it's not just big data that causes challenges of interpretation, because let's face it, we human beings have a very rich history of taking any amount of data, no matter how small, and screwing it up. +So many years ago, you may remember that former President Ronald Reagan was very criticized for making a statement that facts are stupid things. +And it was a slip of the tongue, let's be fair. +He actually meant to quote John Adams' defense of British soldiers in the Boston Massacre trials that facts are stubborn things. +But I actually think there's a bit of accidental wisdom in what he said, because facts are stubborn things, but sometimes they're stupid, too. +I want to tell you a personal story about why this matters a lot to me. +I need to take a breath. +My son Isaac, when he was two, was diagnosed with autism, and he was this happy, hilarious, loving, affectionate little guy, but the metrics on his developmental evaluations, which looked at things like the number of words at that point, none communicative gestures and minimal eye contact, put his developmental level at that of a nine-month-old baby. +And the diagnosis was factually correct, but it didn't tell the whole story. +And about a year and a half later, when he was almost four, I found him in front of the computer one day running a Google image search on women, spelled "w-i-m-e-n." +And I did what any obsessed parent would do, which is immediately started hitting the "back" button to see what else he'd been searching for. +And they were, in order: men, school, bus and computer. +And I was stunned, because we didn't know that he could spell, much less read, and so I asked him, "Isaac, how did you do this?" +And he looked at me very seriously and said, "Typed in the box." +He was teaching himself to communicate, but we were looking in the wrong place, and this is what happens when assessments and analytics overvalue one metric in this case, verbal communication and undervalue others, such as creative problem-solving. +Communication was hard for Isaac, and so he found a workaround to find out what he needed to know. +And when you think about it, it makes a lot of sense, because forming a question is a really complex process, but he could get himself a lot of the way there by putting a word in a search box. +And so this little moment had a really profound impact on me and our family because it helped us change our frame of reference for what was going on with him, and worry a little bit less and appreciate his resourcefulness more. +Facts are stupid things. +And they're vulnerable to misuse, willful or otherwise. +I have a friend, Emily Willingham, who's a scientist, and she wrote a piece for Forbes not long ago entitled "The 10 Weirdest Things Ever Linked to Autism." +It's quite a list. +The Internet, blamed for everything, right? +And of course mothers, because. +And actually, wait, there's more, there's a whole bunch in the "mother" category here. +And you can see it's a pretty rich and interesting list. +I'm a big fan of being pregnant near freeways, personally. +The final one is interesting, because the term "refrigerator mother" was actually the original hypothesis for the cause of autism, and that meant somebody who was cold and unloving. +And at this point, you might be thinking, "Okay, Susan, we get it, you can take data, you can make it mean anything." +And this is true, it's absolutely true, but the challenge is that we have this opportunity to try to make meaning out of it ourselves, because frankly, data doesn't create meaning. We do. +So as businesspeople, as consumers, as patients, as citizens, we have a responsibility, I think, to spend more time focusing on our critical thinking skills. +Why? +Because at this point in our history, as we've heard many times over, we can process exabytes of data at lightning speed, and we have the potential to make bad decisions far more quickly, efficiently, and with far greater impact than we did in the past. +Great, right? +And so what we need to do instead is spend a little bit more time on things like the humanities and sociology, and the social sciences, rhetoric, philosophy, ethics, because they give us context that is so important for big data, and because they help us become better critical thinkers. +Because after all, if I can spot a problem in an argument, it doesn't much matter whether it's expressed in words or in numbers. +And it means questioning disciplines like demographics. +Why? Because they're based on assumptions about who we all are based on our gender and our age and where we live as opposed to data on what we actually think and do. +And since we have this data, we need to treat it with appropriate privacy controls and consumer opt-in, and beyond that, we need to be clear about our hypotheses, the methodologies that we use, and our confidence in the result. +As my high school algebra teacher used to say, show your math, because if I don't know what steps you took, I don't know what steps you didn't take, and if I don't know what questions you asked, I don't know what questions you didn't ask. +And it means asking ourselves, really, the hardest question of all: Did the data really show us this, or does the result make us feel more successful and more comfortable? +So the Health Media Collaboratory, at the end of their project, they were able to find that 87 percent of tweets about those very graphic and disturbing anti-smoking ads expressed fear, but did they conclude that they actually made people stop smoking? +No. It's science, not magic. +So if we are to unlock the power of data, we don't have to go blindly into Orwell's vision of a totalitarian future, or Huxley's vision of a trivial one, or some horrible cocktail of both. +What we have to do is treat critical thinking with respect and be inspired by examples like the Health Media Collaboratory, and as they say in the superhero movies, let's use our powers for good. +Thank you. +I experienced my first coup d'tat at the age of four. +Because of the coup d'tat, my family had to leave my native home of Ghana and move to the Gambia. +As luck would have it, six months after we arrived, they too had a military coup. +I vividly remember being woken up in the middle of the night and gathering the few belongings we could and walking for about two hours to a safe house. +For a week, we slept under our beds because we were worried that bullets might fly through the window. +Then, at the age of eight, we moved to Botswana. +This time, it was different. +There were no coups. +Everything worked. Great education. +They had such good infrastructure that even at the time they had a fiber-optic telephone system, long before it had reached Western countries. +The only thing they didn't have their own national television station, and so I remember watching TV from neighboring South Africa, and watching Nelson Mandela in jail being offered a chance to come out if he would give up the apartheid struggle. +But he didn't. He refused to do that until he actually achieved his objective of freeing South Africa from apartheid. +And I remember feeling how just one good leader could make such a big difference in Africa. +Then at the age of 12, my family sent me to high school in Zimbabwe. +Initially, this too was amazing: growing economy, excellent infrastructure, and it seemed like it was a model for economic development in Africa. +I graduated from high school in Zimbabwe and I went off to college. +Six years later, I returned to the country. +Everything was different. +It had shattered into pieces. +Millions of people had emigrated, the economy was in a shambles, and it seemed all of a sudden that 30 years of development had been wiped out. +How could a country go so bad so fast? +Most people would agree that it's all because of leadership. +One man, President Robert Mugabe, is almost single-handedly responsible for having destroyed this country. +Now, all these experiences of living in different parts of Africa growing up did two things to me. +The first is it made me fall in love with Africa. +Everywhere I went, I experienced the wonderful beauty of our continent and saw the resilience and the spirit of our people, and at the time, I realized that I wanted to dedicate the rest of my life to making this continent great. +But I also realized that making Africa great would require addressing this issue of leadership. +You see, all these countries I lived in, the coups d'tat and the corruption I'd seen in Ghana and Gambia and in Zimbabwe, contrasted with the wonderful examples I had seen in Botswana and in South Africa of good leadership. +It made me realize that Africa would rise or fall because of the quality of our leaders. +Now, one might think, of course, leadership matters everywhere. +But if there's one thing you take away from my talk today, it is this: In Africa, more than anywhere else in the world, the difference that just one good leader can make is much greater than anywhere else, and here's why. +It's because in Africa, we have weak institutions, like the judiciary, the constitution, civil society and so forth. +So here's a general rule of thumb that I believe in: When societies have strong institutions, the difference that one good leader can make is limited, but when you have weak institutions, then just one good leader can make or break that country. +Let me make it a bit more concrete. +You become the president of the United States. +You think, "Wow, I've arrived. +I'm the most powerful man in the world." +So you decide, perhaps let me pass a law. +All of a sudden, Congress taps you on the shoulder and says, "No, no, no, no, no, you can't do that." +You say, "Let me try this way." +The Senate comes and says, "Uh-uh, we don't think you can do that." +You say, perhaps, "Let me print some money. +I think the economy needs a stimulus." +The central bank governor will think you're crazy. +You might get impeached for that. +But if you become the president of Zimbabwe, and you say, "You know, I really like this job. +I think I'd like to stay in it forever." Well, you just can. +You decide you want to print money. +You call the central bank governor and you say, "Please double the money supply." +He'll say, "Okay, yes, sir, is there anything else I can do for you?" +This is the power that African leaders have, and this is why they make the most difference on the continent. +The good news is that the quality of leadership in Africa has been improving. +We've had three generations of leaders, in my mind. +Generation one are those who appeared in the '50s and '60s. +These are people like Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana and Julius Nyerere of Tanzania. +The legacy they left is that they brought independence to Africa. +They freed us from colonialism, and let's give them credit for that. +They were followed by generation two. +These are people that brought nothing but havoc to Africa. +Think warfare, corruption, human rights abuses. +This is the stereotype of the typical African leader Mobutu Sese Seko from Zaire, Sani Abacha from Nigeria. +The good news is that most of these leaders have moved on, and they were replaced by generation three. +These are people like the late Nelson Mandela and most of the leaders that we see in Africa today, like Paul Kagame and so forth. +Now these leaders are by no means perfect, but the one thing they have done is that they have cleaned up much of the mess of generation two. +They've stopped the fighting, and I call them the stabilizer generation. +They're much more accountable to their people, they've improved macroeconomic policies, and we are seeing for the first time Africa's growing, and in fact it's the second fastest growing economic region in the world. +So these leaders are by no means perfect, but they are by and large the best leaders we've seen in the last 50 years. +So where to from here? +I believe that the next generation to come after this, generation four, has a unique opportunity to transform the continent. +Specifically, they can do two things that previous generations have not done. +The first thing they need to do is they need to create prosperity for the continent. +Why is prosperity so important? +Because none of the previous generations have been able to tackle this issue of poverty. +Africa today has the fastest growing population in the world, but also is the poorest. +By 2030, Africa will have a larger workforce than China, and by 2050, it will have the largest workforce in the world. +One billion people will need jobs in Africa, so if we don't grow our economies fast enough, we're sitting on a ticking time bomb, not just for Africa but for the entire world. +Let me show you an example of one person who is living up to this legacy of creating prosperity: Laetitia. +Laetitia's a young woman from Kenya who at the age of 13 had to drop out of school because her family couldn't afford to pay fees for her. +So she started her own business rearing rabbits, which happen to be a delicacy in this part of Kenya that she's from. +This business did so well that within a year, she was employing 15 women and was able to generate enough income that she was able to send herself to school, and through these women fund another 65 children to go to school. +The profits that she generated, she used that to build a school, and today she educates 400 children in her community. +And she's just turned 18. +Another example is Erick Rajaonary. +Erick comes from the island of Madagascar. +Now, Erick realized that agriculture would be the key to creating jobs in the rural areas of Madagascar, but he also realized that fertilizer was a very expensive input for most farmers in Madagascar. +Madagascar has these very special bats that produce these droppings that are very high in nutrients. +In 2006, Erick quit his job as a chartered accountant and started a company to manufacture fertilizer from the bat droppings. +Today, Erick has built a business that generates several million dollars of revenue, and he employs 70 people full time and another 800 people during the season when the bats drop their droppings the most. +Now, what I like about this story is that it shows that opportunities to create prosperity can be found almost anywhere. +Erick is known as the Batman. +And who would have thought that you would have been able to build a multimillion-dollar business employing so many people just from bat poo? +The second thing that this generation needs to do is to create our institutions. +They need to build these institutions such that we are never held to ransom again by a few individuals like Robert Mugabe. +Now, all of this sounds great, but where are we going to get this generation four from? +Do we just sit and hope that they emerge by chance, or that God gives them to us? +No, I don't think so. +It's too important an issue for us to leave it to chance. +I believe that we need to create African institutions, home-grown, that will identify and develop these leaders in a systematic, practical way. +We've been doing this for the last 10 years through the African Leadership Academy. +Laetitia is one of our young leaders. +Today, we have 700 of them that are being groomed for the African continent, and over the next 50 years, we expect to create 6,000 of them. +But one thing has been troubling me. +We would get about 4,000 applications a year for 100 young leaders that we could take into this academy, and so I saw the tremendous hunger that existed for this leadership training that we're offering. +But we couldn't satisfy it. +So today, I'm announcing for the first time in public an extension to this vision for the African Leadership Academy. +We're building 25 brand new universities in Africa that are going to cultivate this next generation of African leaders. +Each campus will have 10,000 leaders at a time so we'll be educating and developing 250,000 leaders at any given time. +Over the next 50 years, this institution will create three million transformative leaders for the continent. +My hope is that half of them will become the entrepreneurs that we need, who will create these jobs that we need, and the other half will go into government and the nonprofit sector, and they will build the institutions that we need. +But they won't just learn academics. +They will also learn how to become leaders, and they will develop their skills as entrepreneurs. +So think of this as Africa's Ivy League, but instead of getting admitted because of your SAT scores or because of how much money you have or which family you come from, the main criteria for getting into this university will be what is the potential that you have for transforming Africa? +But what we're doing is just one group of institutions. +We cannot transform Africa by ourselves. +My hope is that many, many other home-grown African institutions will blossom, and these institutions will all come together with a common vision of developing this next generation of African leaders, generation four, and they will teach them this common message: create jobs, build our institutions. +Nelson Mandela once said, "Every now and then, a generation is called upon to be great. +You can be that great generation." +I believe that if we carefully identify and cultivate the next generation of African leaders, then this generation four that is coming up will be the greatest generation that Africa and indeed the entire world has ever seen. +Thank you. +Because to a veteran aid worker, the idea of putting cold, hard cash into the hands of the poorest people on Earth doesn't sound crazy, it sounds really satisfying. +I had that moment right about the 10-year mark, and luckily, that's also when I learned that this idea actually exists, and it might be just what the aid system needs. +Economists call it an unconditional cash transfer, and it's exactly that: It's cash given with no strings attached. +Governments in developing countries have been doing this for decades, and it's only now, with more evidence and new technology that it's possible to make this a model for delivering aid. +It's a pretty simple idea, right? +Well, why did I spend a decade doing other stuff for the poor? +Honestly, I believed that I could do more good with money for the poor than the poor could do for themselves. +I held two assumptions: One, that poor people are poor in part because they're uneducated and don't make good choices; two is that we then need people like me to figure out what they need and get it to them. +It turns out, the evidence says otherwise. +In recent years, researchers have been studying what happens when we give poor people cash. +Dozens of studies show across the board that people use cash transfers to improve their own lives. +Pregnant women in Uruguay buy better food and give birth to healthier babies. +Sri Lankan men invest in their businesses. +Researchers who studied our work in Kenya found that people invested in a range of assets, from livestock to equipment to home improvements, and they saw increases in income from business and farming one year after the cash was sent. +None of these studies found that people spend more on drinking or smoking or that people work less. +In fact, they work more. +Now, these are all material needs. +In Vietnam, elderly recipients used their cash transfers to pay for coffins. +As someone who wonders if Maslow got it wrong, I find this choice to prioritize spiritual needs deeply humbling. +I don't know if I would have chosen to give food or equipment or coffins, which begs the question: How good are we at allocating resources on behalf of the poor? +Are we worth the cost? +Again, we can look at empirical evidence on what happens when we give people stuff of our choosing. +One very telling study looked at a program in India that gives livestock to the so-called ultra-poor, and they found that 30 percent of recipients had turned around and sold the livestock they had been given for cash. +The real irony is, for every 100 dollars worth of assets this program gave someone, they spent another 99 dollars to do it. +What if, instead, we use technology to put cash, whether from aid agencies or from any one of us directly into a poor person's hands. +Today, three in four Kenyans use mobile money, which is basically a bank account that can run on any cell phone. +A sender can pay a 1.6 percent fee and with the click of a button send money directly to a recipient's account with no intermediaries. +Like the technologies that are disrupting industries in our own lives, payments technology in poor countries could disrupt aid. +It's spreading so quickly that it's possible to imagine reaching billions of the world's poor this way. +That's what we've started to do at GiveDirectly. +We're the first organization dedicated to providing cash transfers to the poor. +We've sent cash to 35,000 people across rural Kenya and Uganda in one-time payments of 1,000 dollars per family. +So far, we've looked for the poorest people in the poorest villages, and in this part of the world, they're the ones living in homes made of mud and thatch, not cement and iron. +So let's say that's your family. +We show up at your door with an Android phone. +We'll get your name, take your photo and a photo of your hut and grab the GPS coordinates. +That night, we send all the data to the cloud, and each piece gets checked by an independent team using, for one example, satellite images. +Then, we'll come back, we'll sell you a basic cell phone if you don't have one already, and a few weeks later, we send money to it. +Something that five years ago would have seemed impossible we can now do efficiently and free of corruption. +The more cash we give to the poor, and the more evidence we have that it works, the more we have to reconsider everything else we give. +Today, the logic behind aid is too often, well, we do at least some good. +When we're complacent with that as our bar, when we tell ourselves that giving aid is better than no aid at all, we tend to invest inefficiently, in our own ideas that strike us as innovative, on writing reports, on plane tickets and SUVs. +What if the logic was, will we do better than cash given directly? +Organizations would have to prove that they're doing more good for the poor than the poor can do for themselves. +Of course, giving cash won't create public goods like eradicating disease or building strong institutions, but it could set a higher bar for how we help individual families improve their lives. +I believe in aid. +I believe most aid is better than just throwing money out of a plane. +I am also absolutely certain that a lot of aid today isn't better than giving directly to the poor. +I hope that one day, it will be. +Thank you. +Humanity takes center stage at TED, but I would like to add a voice for the animals, whose bodies and minds and spirits shaped us. +Some years ago, it was my good fortune to meet a tribal elder on an island not far from Vancouver. +His name is Jimmy Smith, and he shared a story with me that is told among his people, who call themselves the Kwikwasut'inuxw. +Once upon a time, he told me, all animals on Earth were one. +Even though they look different on the outside, inside, they're all the same, and from time to time they would gather at a sacred cave deep inside the forest to celebrate their unity. +When they arrived, they would all take off their skins. +Raven shed his feathers, bear his fur, and salmon her scales, and then, they would dance. +But one day, a human made it to the cave and laughed at what he saw because he did not understand. +Embarrassed, the animals fled, and that was the last time they revealed themselves this way. +The ancient understanding that underneath their separate identities, all animals are one, has been a powerful inspiration to me. +I like to get past the fur, the feathers and the scales. +I want to get under the skin. +No matter whether I'm facing a giant elephant or a tiny tree frog, my goal is to connect us with them, eye to eye. +You may wonder, do I ever photograph people? +Sure. People are always present in my photos, no matter whether they appear to portray tortoises or cougars or lions. +You just have to learn how to look past their disguise. +As a photographer, I try to reach beyond the differences in our genetic makeup to appreciate all we have in common with every other living thing. +When I use my camera, I drop my skin like the animals at that cave so I can show who they really are. +As animals blessed with the power of rational thought, we can marvel at the intricacies of life. +As citizens of a planet in trouble, it is our moral responsibility to deal with the dramatic loss in diversity of life. +But as humans with hearts, we can all rejoice in the unity of life, and perhaps we can change what once happened in that sacred cave. +Let's find a way to join the dance. +Thank you. +I came here to show you the Fotokite. +It's a tethered, flying camera. +But before I do that, I want to tell you a bit about where it came from, what motivated it. +So I was born in Russia, and three years ago, in 2011, there were the Russian federal elections. +There were massive irregularities reported, and people came out to protest, which was very unlikely for Russia. +And no one really knew how significant these protests were, because, for whatever reason, the world media largely ignored it. +Now, there was a group of photographers who kind of flew flying cameras as a hobby usually photographing things like the Sphinx, the Pyramids who happened to be right around the corner, and they flew a camera and they took some snapshots, some panoramas of this demonstration. +Just completely independent entity, completely random occurrence, and the image, when I saw it, it really struck me. +Here's one of the panoramas. +So in a single image, you can really see the scale of this event just the number of people, the colors, the banners. +You just can't consider this insignificant. +All in a single image, which was really cool to me. +And I think, in the future, journalism and many other professions, there are flying cameras already quite commonly out there, but I think, you wait a few months, a few years, and for many professions, it's really going to be a requirement. +And it make sense. It's such a unique perspective. +Nothing really communicates this scale, for example, in context, in a way that this does. +But there are a few hurdles, and they are quite basic and quite fundamental. +One is piloting. +So for this image, they flew a camera, a five kilogram device with an SLR under it. +It's quite heavy, lots of spinning, sharp things. +It's a bit uncomfortable to fly, probably also for the operator. +In fact, you can see that on the back of the pilot's shirt, it says, "No questions until landing" in Russian and in English, because people are curious, and they'll go tap you, and then you lose your focus and things happen. +And these guys are great. They're professionals; they're really careful in what they do. +So in the protests, maybe you noticed, they flew over the river so it was quite safe. +But this doesn't necessarily apply to all people and all conditions, so we really have to make piloting easier. +The other problem is regulations, or rather, the lack of good regulation. +For many good reasons, it's just difficult to come up with common sense laws to regulate flying cameras. +So we already have cameras. +Everyone here, I'm sure, has a smartphone with a camera, right? +There are more and more of them. +You hear about people with Google Glass being attacked. +You hear about, actually, a drone pilot, a hobbyist, was attacked two weeks ago because he was flying near a beach. +Here's some personal input I didn't expect. +Just yesterday, I was attacked by a guy who claimed that I was filming him. +I was checking my email right here easy way to get input for your talk. +But I think there are better solutions. +I think we have to defuse the situation. +We have to come up with responsible solutions that address the privacy issues and the safety, accountability issues but still give us that perspective. +And this is one potential solution. +So this is the Fotokite. +Well, let me see, it's a quadrocopter, but what's kind of special about it is there's a leash. +It's literally a dog leash. It's very convenient. +And the neat thing about it is, to fly it, there's no joysticks, nothing like this. +You just turn it on and you point in the direction that you want to fly. +You give it a little twist. +That's kind of the way you communicate. +And there it goes. +So the interaction is super simple. +It's like a personal flying pet. +It just always maintains a certain angle to you, and if I move around with it, it'll actually follow me naturally. +And of course, we can build on top of this. +So this leash has some additional electronics. +You can turn it on. +And now, it's like telling your dog to fly lower, if you have such a dog. So, I can press a button and manipulate it rather easily. +So I just shifted its position. +And it's really safe. +I don't know about you guys in the front row but at least in principle, you have to agree that you feel safer because there is a physical connection. +Live demos are hard, right? +Things go wrong all the time. +But no matter what, this thing will actually prevent this thing from going into you. +What's more, it tells you immediately that I am the one responsible for this device. +You don't have to look for someone controlling it. +Now, I can tell you that it's easy a lot, but I think a really good way to prove that is to grab a second one and launch it. +And if I can do this on stage live, then I can show each and every one of you in five minutes how to operate one of these devices. +So now we have two eyes in the sky. And now the trick is getting them back. +So my question now to you is, well, it's a nice solution, it's very accessible, it's safe. +What would you use it for? +What would you use such a camera for in your life? +Thank you. +And what I'm wondering is, of those three things, is any one of them surviving some kind of trauma? +Cancer survivor, rape survivor, Holocaust survivor, incest survivor. +Ever notice how we tend to identify ourselves by our wounds? +And where I have seen this survivor identity have the most consequences is in the cancer community. +And I've been around this community for a long time, because I've been a hospice and a hospital chaplain for almost 30 years. +And in 2005, I was working at a big cancer center when I received the news that my mother had breast cancer. +And then five days later, I received the news that I had breast cancer. +My mother and I can be competitive but I was really not trying to compete with her on this one. +if you have to have cancer, it's pretty convenient to be working at a place that treats it. +But this is what I heard from a lot of outraged people. +What? +You're the chaplain. +You should be immune. +Like, maybe I should have just gotten off with a warning instead of an actual ticket, because I'm on the force. +And then I'll move or I'll gesture and they'll go, "No, it's that one." +So now you know. +I learned a lot being a patient, and one of the surprising things was that only a small part of the cancer experience is about medicine. +Most of it is about feelings and faith and losing and finding your identity and discovering strength and flexibility you never even knew you had. +It's about realizing that the most important things in life are not things at all, but relationships, and it's about laughing in the face of uncertainty and learning that the way to get out of almost anything is to say, "I have cancer." +So the other thing I learned was that I don't have to take on "cancer survivor" as my identity, but, boy, are there powerful forces pushing me to do just that. +Now, don't, please, misunderstand me. +Cancer organizations and the drive for early screening and cancer awareness and cancer research have normalized cancer, and this is a wonderful thing. +We can now talk about cancer without whispering. +We can talk about cancer and we can support one another. +But sometimes, it feels like people go a little overboard and they start telling us how we're going to feel. +So about a week after my surgery, we had a houseguest. +That was probably our first mistake. +And keep in mind that at this point in my life I had been a chaplain for over 20 years, and issues like dying and death and the meaning of life, these are all things I'd been yakking about forever. +So at dinner that night, our houseguest proceeds to stretch his arms up over his head, and say, "You know, Deb, now you're really going to learn what's important. +Yes, you are going to make some big changes in your life, and now you're going to start thinking about your death. +Yep, this cancer is your wakeup call." +Now, these are golden words coming from someone who is speaking about their own experience, but when someone is telling you how you are going to feel, it's instant crap. +The only reason I did not kill him with my bare hands was because I could not lift my right arm. +But I did say a really bad word to him, followed by a regular word, that made my husband say, "She's on narcotics." +And then after my treatment, it just felt like everyone was telling me what my experience was going to mean. +"Oh, this means you're going to be doing the walk." +"Oh, this means you're coming to the luncheon." +"This means you're going to be wearing the pink ribbon and the pink t-shirt and the headband and the earrings and the bracelet and the panties." +Panties. No, seriously, google it. +How is that raising awareness? +Only my husband should be seeing my panties. +He's pretty aware of cancer already. +It was at that point where I felt like, oh my God, this is just taking over my life. +And that's when I told myself, claim your experience. +Don't let it claim you. +We all know that the way to cope with trauma, with loss, with any life-changing experience, is to find meaning. +But here's the thing: No one can tell us what our experience means. +We have to decide what it means. +And it doesn't have to be some gigantic, extroverted meaning. +We don't all have to start a foundation or an organization or write a book or make a documentary. +Meaning can be quiet and introverted. +Maybe we make one small decision about our lives that can bring about big change. +Many years ago, I had a patient, just a wonderful young man who was loved by the staff, and so it was something of a shock to us to realize that he had no friends. +He lived by himself, he would come in for chemotherapy by himself, he would receive his treatment, and then he'd walk home alone. +And I even asked him. I said, "Hey, how come you never bring a friend with you?" +And he said, "I don't really have any friends." +But he had tons of friends on the infusion floor. +We all loved him, and people were going in and out of his room all the time. +we sang him the song and we put the crown on his head and we blew the bubbles, and then I asked him, I said, "So what are you going to do now?" +And he answered, "Make friends." +And he did. +He started volunteering and he made friends there, and he began going to a church and he made friends there, and at Christmas he invited my husband and me to a party in his apartment, and the place was filled with his friends. +Claim your experience. +Don't let it claim you. +He decided that the meaning of his experience was to know the joy of friendship, and then learn to make friends. +So what about you? +How are you going to find meaning in your crappy experience? +It could be a recent one, or it could be one that you've been carrying around for a really long time. +It's never too late to change what it means, because meaning is dynamic. +What it means today may not be what it means a year from now, or 10 years from now. +It's never too late to become someone other than simply a survivor. +Hear how static that word sounds? +Survivor. +No movement, no growth. +Claim your experience. +Don't let it claim you, because if you do, I believe you will become trapped, you will not grow, you will not evolve. +But of course, sometimes it's not outside pressures that cause us to take on that identity of survivor. +Sometimes we just like the perks. +Sometimes there's a payoff. +But then we get stuck. +Now, one of the first things I learned as a chaplain intern was the three C's of the chaplain's job: Comfort, clarify and, when necessary, confront or challenge. +Now, we all pretty much love the comforting and the clarifying. +The confronting, not so much. One of the other things that I loved about being a chaplain was seeing patients a year, or even several years after their treatment, because it was just really cool to see how they had changed and how their lives had evolved and what had happened to them. +So I was thrilled one day to get a page down into the lobby of the clinic from a patient who I had seen the year before, and she was there with her two adult daughters, who I also knew, for her one year follow-up exam. +So I got down to the lobby, and they were ecstatic because she had just gotten all of her test results back and she was NED: No Evidence of Disease. +Which I used to think meant Not Entirely Dead. +So they were ecstatic, we sat down to visit, and it was so weird, because within two minutes, she started retelling me the story of her diagnosis and her surgery and her chemo, even though, as her chaplain, I saw her every week, and so I knew this story. +And she was using words like suffering, agony, struggle. +And she ended her story with, "I felt crucified." +And at that point, her two daughters got up and said, "We're going to go get coffee." +And they left. +Tell me three things about yourself before the next stop. +People were leaving the bus before she even got to number two or number three. +So I handed her a tissue, and I gave her a hug, and then, because I really cared for this woman, I said, "Get down off your cross." +And she said, "What?" +And I repeated, "Get down off your cross." +And to her credit, she could talk about her reasons for embracing and then clinging to this identity. +It got her a lot of attention. +People were taking care of her for a change. +But now, it was having the opposite effect. +It was pushing people away. +People kept leaving to get coffee. +She felt crucified by her experience, but she didn't want to let that crucified self die. +Now, perhaps you are thinking I was a little harsh with her, so I must tell you that I was speaking out of my own experience. +But we all know that with any resurrection story, you have to die first. +The Christian story, Jesus was dead a whole day in the tomb before he was resurrected. +And I believe that for us, being in the tomb means doing our own deep inner work around our wounds and allowing ourselves to be healed. +We have to let that crucified self die so that a new self, a truer self, is born. +We have to let that old story go so that a new story, a truer story, can be told. +Claim your experience. Don't let it claim you. +What if there were no survivors, meaning, what if people decided to just claim their trauma as an experience instead of taking it on as an identity? +Maybe it would be the end of being trapped in our wounds and the beginning of amazing self-exploration and discovery and growth. +Maybe it would be the start of defining ourselves by who we have become and who we are becoming. +So perhaps survivor was not one of the three things that you would tell me. +No matter. +I just want you all to know that I am really glad that we are on this bus together, and this is my stop. +So this is Anna Hazare, and Anna Hazare may well be the most cutting-edge digital activist in the world today. +And you wouldn't know it by looking at him. +Hazare is a 77-year-old Indian anticorruption and social justice activist. +And in 2011, he was running a big campaign to address everyday corruption in India, a topic that Indian elites love to ignore. +So as part of this campaign, he was using all of the traditional tactics that a good Gandhian organizer would use. +So he was on a hunger strike, and Hazare realized through his hunger that actually maybe this time, in the 21st century, a hunger strike wouldn't be enough. +So he started playing around with mobile activism. +So the first thing he did is he said to people, "Okay, why don't you send me a text message if you support my campaign against corruption?" +So he does this, he gives people a short code, and about 80,000 people do it. +Okay, that's pretty respectable. +But then he decides, "Let me tweak my tactics a little bit." +He says, "Why don't you leave me a missed call?" +Now, for those of you who have lived in the global South, you'll know that missed calls are a really critical part of global mobile culture. +I see people nodding. +People leave missed calls all the time: If you're running late for a meeting and you just want to let them know that you're on the way, you leave them a missed call. +If you're dating someone and you just want to say "I miss you" you leave them a missed call. +So a note for a dating tip here, in some cultures, if you want to please your lover, you call them and hang up. So why do people leave missed calls? +Well, the reason of course is that they're trying to avoid charges associated with making calls and sending texts. +So when Hazare asked people to leave him a missed call, let's have a little guess how many people actually did this? +Thirty-five million. +So this is one of the largest coordinated actions in human history. +It's remarkable. +And this reflects the extraordinary strength of the emerging Indian middle class and the power that their mobile phones bring. +But he used that, Hazare ended up with this massive CSV file of mobile phone numbers, and he used that to deploy real people power on the ground to get hundreds of thousands of people out on the streets in Delhi to make a national point of everyday corruption in India. +It's a really striking story. +So this is me when I was 12 years old. +I hope you see the resemblance. +And I was also an activist, and I have been an activist all my life. +I had this really funny childhood where I traipsed around the world meeting world leaders and Noble prize winners, talking about Third World debt, as it was then called, and demilitarization. +I was a very, very serious child. And back then, in the early '90s, I had a very cutting-edge tech tool of my own: the fax. +And the fax was the tool of my activism. +And at that time, it was the best way to get a message to a lot of people all at once. +I'll give you one example of a fax campaign that I ran. +It was the eve of the Gulf War and I organized a global campaign to flood the hotel, the Intercontinental in Geneva, where James Baker and Tariq Aziz were meeting on the eve of the war, and I thought if I could flood them with faxes, we'll stop the war. +Well, unsurprisingly, that campaign was wholly unsuccessful. +There are lots of reasons for that, but there's no doubt that one sputtering fax machine in Geneva was a little bit of a bandwidth constraint in terms of the ability to get a message to lots of people. +And so, I went on to discover some better tools. +I cofounded Avaaz, which uses the Internet to mobilize people and now has almost 40 million members, and I now run Purpose, which is a home for these kinds of technology-powered movements. +So what's the moral of this story? +Is the moral of this story, you know what, the fax is kind of eclipsed by the mobile phone? +This is another story of tech-determinism? +Well, I would argue that there's actually more to it than that. +I'd argue that in the last 20 years, something more fundamental has changed than just new tech. +I would argue that there has been a fundamental shift in the balance of power in the world. +You ask any activist how to understand the world, and they'll say, "Look at where the power is, who has it, how it's shifting." +And I think we all sense that something big is happening. +So Henry Timms and I Henry's a fellow movement builder got talking one day and we started to think, how can we make sense of this new world? +How can we describe it and give it a framework that makes it more useful? +Because we realized that many of the lessons that we were discovering in movements actually applied all over the world in many sectors of our society. +So I want to introduce you to this framework: Old power, meet new power. +And I want to talk to you about what new power is today. +New power is the deployment of mass participation and peer coordination these are the two key elements to create change and shift outcomes. +And we see new power all around us. +This is Beppe Grillo he was a populist Italian blogger who, with a minimal political apparatus and only some online tools, won more than 25 percent of the vote in recent Italian elections. +This is Airbnb, which in just a few years has radically disrupted the hotel industry without owning a single square foot of real estate. +This is Kickstarter, which we know has raised over a billion dollars from more than five million people. +Now, we're familiar with all of these models. +But what's striking is the commonalities, the structural features of these new models and how they differ from old power. +Let's look a little bit at this. +Old power is held like a currency. +New power works like a current. +Old power is held by a few. +New power isn't held by a few, it's made by many. +Old power is all about download, and new power uploads. +And you see a whole set of characteristics that you can trace, whether it's in media or politics or education. +So we've talked a little bit about what new power is. +Let's, for a second, talk about what new power isn't. +New power is not your Facebook page. +I assure you that having a social media strategy can enable you to do just as much download as you used to do when you had the radio. +Just ask Syrian dictator Bashar al-Assad, I assure you that his Facebook page has not embraced the power of participation. +New power is not inherently positive. +In fact, this isn't an normative argument that we're making, there are many good things about new power, but it can produce bad outcomes. +More participation, more peer coordination, sometimes distorts outcomes and there are some things, like things, for example, in the medical profession that we want new power to get nowhere near. +And thirdly, new power is not the inevitable victor. +In fact, unsurprisingly, as many of these new power models get to scale, what you see is this massive pushback from the forces of old power. +Just look at this really interesting epic struggle going on right now between Edward Snowden and the NSA. +You'll note that only one of the two people on this slide is currently in exile. +And so, it's not at all clear that new power will be the inevitable victor. +That said, keep one thing in mind: We're at the beginning of a very steep curve. +So you think about some of these new power models, right? +These were just like someone's garage idea a few years ago, and now they're disrupting entire industries. +And so, what's interesting about new power, is the way it feeds on itself. +Once you have an experience of new power, you tend to expect and want more of it. +So let's say you've used a peer-to-peer lending platform like Lending Tree or Prosper, then you've figured out that you don't need the bank, and who wants the bank, right? +And so, that experience tends to embolden you it tends to make you want more participation across more aspects of your life. +And what this gives rise to is a set of values. +We talked about the models that new power has engendered the Airbnbs, the Kickstarters. +What about the values? +And this is an early sketch at what new power values look like. +New power values prize transparency above all else. +It's almost a religious belief in transparency, a belief that if you shine a light on something, it will be better. +And remember that in the 20th century, this was not at all true. +People thought that gentlemen should sit behind closed doors and make comfortable agreements. +New power values of informal, networked governance. +New power folks would never have invented the U.N. today, for better or worse. +New power values participation, and new power is all about do-it-yourself. +In fact, what's interesting about new power is that it eschews some of the professionalization and specialization that was all the rage in the 20th century. +So what's interesting about these new power values and these new power models is what they mean for organizations. +So we've spent a bit of time thinking, how can we plot organizations on a two-by-two where, essentially, we look at new power values and new power models and see where different people sit? +We started with a U.S. analysis, and let me show you some interesting findings. +So the first is Apple. +In this framework, we actually described Apple as an old power company. +That's because the ideology, the governing ideology of Apple is the ideology of the perfectionist product designer in Cupertino. +It's absolutely about that beautiful, perfect thing descending upon us in perfection. +And it does not value, as a company, transparency. +In fact, it's very secretive. +Now, Apple is one of the most succesful companies in the world. +So this shows that you can still pursue a successful old power strategy. +But one can argue that there's real vulnerabilites in that model. +I think another interesting comparison is that of the Obama campaign versus the Obama presidency. +Now, I like President Obama, but he ran with new power at his back, right? +And he said to people, we are the ones we've been waiting for. +And he used crowdfunding to power a campaign. +But when he got into office, he governed like more or less all the other presidents did. +And this is a really interesting trend, is when new power gets powerful, what happens? +So this is a framework you should look at and think about where your own organization sits on it. +And think about where it should be in five or 10 years. +So what do you do if you're old power? +Well, if you're there thinking, in old power, this won't happen to us. +Then just look at the Wikipedia entry for Encyclopdia Britannica. +Let me tell you, it's a very sad read. +But if you are old power, the most important thing you can do is to occupy yourself before others occupy you, before you are occupied. +Imagine that a group of your biggest skeptics are camped in the heart of your organization asking the toughest questions and they can see everything inside of your organization. +And ask them, would they like what they see and should our model change? +What about if you're new power? +Is new power kind of just riding the wave to glory? +I would argue no. +I would argue that there are some very real challenges to new power in this nascent phase. +Let's stick with the Occupy Wall Street example for a moment. +Occupy was this incredible example of new power, the purest example of new power. +And yet, it failed to consolidate. +So the energy that it created was great for the meme phase, but they were so committed to participation, that they never got anything done. +And in fact that model means that the challenge for new power is: how do you use institutional power without being institutionalized? +One the other end of the spectra is Uber. +Uber is an amazing, highly scalable new power model. +That network is getting denser and denser by the day. +But what's really interesting about Uber is it hasn't really adopted new power values. +This is a real quote from the Uber CEO recently: He says, "Once we get rid of the dude in the car" he means drivers "Uber will be cheaper." +Now, new power models live and die by the strength of their networks. +By whether the drivers and the consumers who use the service actually believe in it. +Because they're not an exercise of top-down perfectionism, they are about the network. +And so, the challenge, and this is why it's in no way surprising, is that Uber's drivers are now unionizing. +It's extraordinary. +Uber's drivers are turning on Uber. +And the challenge for Uber this isn't an easy situation for them is that they are locked into a broader superstrcuture that is really old power. +They've raised more than a billion dollars in the capital markets. +Those markets expect a financial return, and they way you get a financial return is by squeezing and squeezing your users and your drivers for more and more value and giving that value to your investors. +So the big question about the future of new power, in my view, is: Will that old power just emerge? +So will new power elites just become old power and squeeze? +Or will that new power base bite back? +Will the next big Uber be co-owned by Uber drivers? +And I think this going to be a very interesting structural question. +Finally, think about new power being more than just an entity that scales things that make us have slightly better consumer experiences. +My call to action for new power is to not be an island. +We have major structural problems in the world today that could benefit enormously from the kinds of mass participation and peer coordination that these new power players know so well how to generate. +And we badly need them to turn their energies and their power to big, what economists might call public goods problems, that are often beyond markets where investors can easily be found. +And to me, that's absolutely worth trying for. +Thank you very much. +I grew up diagnosed as phobically shy, and, like at least 20 other people in a room of this size, I was a stutterer. +Do you dare raise your hand? +And it sticks with us. It really does stick with us, because when we are treated that way, we feel invisible sometimes, or talked around and at. +And as I started to look at people, which is mostly all I did, I noticed that some people really wanted attention and recognition. +Remember, I was young then. +So what did they do? +What we still do perhaps too often. +We talk about ourselves. +And yet there are other people I observed who had what I called a mutuality mindset. +In each situation, they found a way to talk about us and create that "us" idea. +So my idea to reimagine the world is to see it one where we all become greater opportunity-makers with and for others. +There's no greater opportunity or call for action for us now than to become opportunity-makers who use best talents together more often for the greater good and accomplish things we couldn't have done on our own. +And I want to talk to you about that, because even more than giving, even more than giving, is the capacity for us to do something smarter together for the greater good that lifts us both up and that can scale. +That's why I'm sitting here. +But I also want to point something else out: Each one of you is better than anybody else at something. +That disproves that popular notion that if you're the smartest person in the room, you're in the wrong room. +So let me tell you about a Hollywood party I went to a couple years back, and I met this up-and-coming actress, and we were soon talking about something that we both felt passionately about: public art. +And she had the fervent belief that every new building in Los Angeles should have public art in it. +She wanted a regulation for it, and she fervently started who is here from Chicago? she fervently started talking about these bean-shaped reflective sculptures in Millennium Park, and people would walk up to it and they'd smile in the reflection of it, and they'd pose and they'd vamp and they'd take selfies together, and they'd laugh. +And as she was talking, a thought came to my mind. +I said, "I know someone you ought to meet. +He's getting out of San Quentin in a couple of weeks" "and he shares your fervent desire that art should engage and enable people to connect." +He spent five years in solitary, and I met him because I gave a speech at San Quentin, and he's articulate and he's rather easy on the eyes because he's buff. +He had workout regime he did every day. +I think she was following me at that point. +I said, "He'd be an unexpected ally." +And not just that. There's James. He's an architect and he's a professor, and he loves place-making, and place-making is when you have those mini-plazas and those urban walkways and where they're dotted with art, where people draw and come up and talk sometimes. +I think they'd make good allies. +And indeed they were. +They met together. They prepared. +They spoke in front of the Los Angeles City Council. +And the council members not only passed the regulation, half of them came down and asked to pose with them afterwards. +They were startling, compelling and credible. +You can't buy that. +What I'm asking you to consider is what kind of opportunity- makers we might become, because more than wealth or fancy titles or a lot of contacts, it's our capacity to connect around each other's better side and bring it out. +And I'm not saying this is easy, and I'm sure many of you have made the wrong moves too about who you wanted to connect with, but what I want to suggest is, this is an opportunity. +I started thinking about it way back when I was a Wall Street Journal reporter and I was in Europe and I was supposed to cover trends and trends that transcended business or politics or lifestyle. +So I had to have contacts in different worlds very different than mine, because otherwise you couldn't spot the trends. +And third, I had to write the story in a way stepping into the reader's shoes, so they could see how these trends could affect their lives. +That's what opportunity-makers do. +They're not affronted by differences, they're fascinated by them, and that is a huge shift in mindset, and once you feel it, you want it to happen a lot more. +This world is calling out for us to have a collective mindset, and I believe in doing that. +It's especially important now. +Why is it important now? +Because things can be devised like drones and drugs and data collection, and they can be devised by more people and cheaper ways for beneficial purposes and then, as we know from the news every day, they can be used for dangerous ones. +It calls on us, each of us, to a higher calling. +But here's the icing on the cake: It's not just the first opportunity that you do with somebody else that's probably your greatest, as an institution or an individual. +It's after you've had that experience and you trust each other. +It's the unexpected things that you devise later on you never could have predicted. +For example, Marty is the husband of that actress I mentioned, and he watched them when they were practicing, and he was soon talking to Wally, my friend the ex-con, about that exercise regime. +And he thought, I have a set of racquetball courts. +That guy could teach it. +A lot of people who work there are members at my courts. +They're frequent travelers. +They could practice in their hotel room, no equipment provided. +That's how Wally got hired. +Not only that, years later he was also teaching racquetball. +Years after that, he was teaching the racquetball teachers. +What I'm suggesting is, when you connect with people around a shared interest and action, you're accustomed to serendipitous things happening into the future, and I think that's what we're looking at. +We open ourselves up to those opportunities, and in this room are key players in technology, key players who are uniquely positioned to do this, to scale systems and projects together. +So here's what I'm calling for you to do. +Remember the three traits of opportunity-makers. +Opportunity-makers keep honing their top strength and they become pattern seekers. +They get involved in different worlds than their worlds so they're trusted and they can see those patterns, and they communicate to connect around sweet spots of shared interest. +So what I'm asking you is, the world is hungry. +Just remember, as Dave Liniger once said, "You can't succeed coming to the potluck with only a fork." +Thank you very much. +Thank you. +About 12 years ago, I gave up my career in banking to try to make the world a safer place. +This involved a journey into national and global advocacy and meeting some of the most extraordinary people in the world. +In the process, I became a civil society diplomat. +Civil society diplomats do three things: They voice the concerns of the people, are not pinned down by national interests, and influence change through citizen networks, not only state ones. +And if you want to change the world, we need more of them. +But many people still ask, "Can civil society really make a big difference? +Can citizens influence and shape national and global policy?" +I never thought I would ask myself these questions, but here I am to share some lessons about two powerful civil society movements that I've been involved in. +They are in issues that I'm passionate about: gun control and drug policy. +And these are issues that matter here. +Latin America is ground zero for both of them. +For example, Brazil -- this beautiful country hosting TEDGlobal has the world's ugliest record. +We are the number one champion in homicidal violence. +One in every 10 people killed around the world is a Brazilian. +This translates into over 56,000 people dying violently each year. +Most of them are young, black boys dying by guns. +Brazil is also one of the world's largest consumers of drugs, and the War on Drugs has been especially painful here. +Around 50 percent of the homicides in the streets in Brazil are related to the War on Drugs. +The same is true for about 25 percent of people in jail. +And it's not just Brazil that is affected by the twin problems of guns and drugs. +Virtually every country and city across Central and South America is in trouble. +Latin America has nine percent of the world's population, but 25 percent of its global violent deaths. +These are not problems we can run away from. +I certainly could not. +So the first campaign I got involved with started here in 2003 to change Brazil's gun law and to create a program to buy back weapons. +In just a few years, we not only changed national legislation that made it much more difficult for civilians to buy a gun, but we collected and destroyed almost half a million weapons. +This was one of the biggest buyback programs in history -- -- but we also suffered some setbacks. +We lost a referendum to ban gun sales to civilians in 2005. +The second initiative was also home-grown, but is today a global movement to reform the international drug control regime. +I am the executive coordinator of something called the Global Commission on Drug Policy. +The commission is a high-level group of global leaders brought together to identify more humane and effective approaches to the issue of drugs. +Since we started in 2008, the taboo on drugs is broken. +Across the Americas, from the US and Mexico to Colombia and Uruguay, change is in the air. +But rather than tell you the whole story about these two movements, I just want to share with you four key insights. +I call them lessons to change the world. +There are certainly many more, but these are the ones that stand out to me. +So the first lesson is: Change and control the narrative. +It may seem obvious, but a key ingredient to civil society diplomacy is first changing and then controlling the narrative. +This is something that veteran politicians understand, but that civil society groups generally do not do very well. +In the case of drug policy, our biggest success has been to change the discussion away from prosecuting a War on Drugs to putting people's health and safety first. +In a cutting-edge report we just launched in New York, we also showed that the groups benefiting most from this $320 billion market are criminal gangs and cartels. +So in order to undermine the power and profit of these groups, we need to change the conversation. +We need to make illegal drugs legal. +But before I get you too excited, I don't mean drugs should be a free-for-all. +What I'm talking about, and what the Global Commission advocates for is creating a highly regulated market, where different drugs would have different degrees of regulation. +As for gun control, we were successful in changing, but not so much in controlling, the narrative. +And this brings me to my next lesson: Never underestimate your opponents. +If you want to succeed in changing the world, you need to know who you're up against. +You need to learn their motivations and points of view. +In the case of gun control, we really underestimated our opponents. +After a very successful gun-collection program, we were elated. +We had support from 80 percent of Brazilians, and thought that this could help us win the referendum to ban gun sales to civilians. +But we were dead wrong. +During a televised 20-day public debate, our opponent used our own arguments against us. +We ended up losing the popular vote. +It was really terrible. +The National Rifle Association -- yes, the American NRA -- came to Brazil. +They inundated our campaign with their propaganda, that as you know, links the right to own guns to ideas of freedom and democracy. +They simply threw everything at us. +They used our national flag, our independence anthem. +They invoked women's rights and misused images of Mandela, Tiananmen Square, and even Hitler. +They won by playing with people's fears. +In fact, guns were almost completely ignored in their campaign. +Their focus was on individual rights. +But I ask you, which right is more important, the right to life or the right to have a gun that takes life away? +We thought people would vote in defense of life, but in a country with a recent past of military dictatorship, the anti-government message of our opponents resonated, and we were not prepared to respond. +Lesson learned. +We've been more successful in the case of drug policy. +If you asked most people 10 years ago if an end to the War on Drugs was possible, they would have laughed. +After all, there are huge military police prisons and financial establishments benefiting from this war. +But today, the international drug control regime is starting to crumble. +Governments and civil societies are experimenting with new approaches. +The Global Commission on Drug Policy really knew its opposition, and rather than fighting them, our chair -- former Brazilian President Fernando Henrique Cardoso -- reached out to leaders from across the political spectrum, from liberals to conservatives. +This high level group agreed to honestly discuss the merits and flaws of drug policies. +It was this reasoned, informed and strategic discussion that revealed the sad truth about the War on Drugs. +The War on Drugs has simply failed across every metric. +Drugs are cheaper and more available than ever, and consumption has risen globally. +But even worse, it also generated massive negative unintended consequences. +It is true that some people have made these arguments before, but we've made a difference by anticipating the arguments of our opponents and by leveraging powerful voices that a few years ago would probably have resisted change. +Third lesson: Use data to drive your argument. +Guns and drugs are emotive issues, and as we've painfully learned in the gun referendum campaign in Brazil, sometimes it's impossible to cut through the emotions and get to the facts. +But this doesn't mean that we shouldn't try. +Until quite recently, we simply didn't know how many Brazilians were killed by guns. +Amazingly, it was a local soap opera called "Mulheres Apaixonadas" -- or "Women in Love" -- that kicked off Brazil's national gun control campaign. +In one highly viewed episode, a soap opera lead actress was killed by a stray bullet. +Brazilian grannies and housewives were outraged, and in a case of art imitating life, this episode also included footage of a real gun control march that we had organized right here, outside in Copacabana Beach. +The televised death and march had a huge impact on public opinion. +Within weeks, our national congress approved the disarmament bill that had been languishing for years. +We were then able to mobilize data to show the successful outcomes of the change in the law and gun collection program. +Here is what I mean: We could prove that in just one year, we saved more than 5,000 lives. +And in the case of drugs, in order to undermine this fear and prejudice that surrounds the issue, we managed to gather and present data that shows that today's drug policies cause much more harm than drug use per se, and people are starting to get it. +My fourth insight is: Don't be afraid to bring together odd bedfellows. +What we've learned in Brazil -- and this doesn't only apply to my country -- is the importance of bringing diverse and eclectic folks together. +If you want to change the world, it helps to have a good cross-section of society on your side. +In both the case of guns and drugs, we brought together a wonderful mix of people. +We mobilized the elite and got huge support from the media. +We gathered the victims, human rights champions, cultural icons. +We also assembled the professional classes -- doctors, lawyers, academia and more. +What I've learned over the last years is that you need coalitions of the willing and of the unwilling to make change. +In the case of drugs, we needed libertarians, anti-prohibitionists, legalizers, and liberal politicians. +They may not agree on everything; in fact, they disagree on almost everything. +But the legitimacy of the campaign is based on their diverse points of view. +Over a decade ago, I had a comfortable future working for an investment bank. +I was as far removed from the world of civil society diplomacy as you can imagine. +But I took a chance. +I changed course, and on the way, I helped to create social movements that I believe have made some parts of the world safer. +Each and every one of us has the power to change the world. +No matter what the issue, and no matter how hard the fight, civil society is central to the blueprint for change. +Thank you. +So, I thought a lot about the first word I'd say today, and I decided to say "Colombia." +And the reason, I don't know how many of you have visited Colombia, but Colombia is just north of the border with Brazil. +It's a beautiful country with extraordinary people, like me and others -- -- and it's populated with incredible fauna, flora. +It's got water; it's got everything to be the perfect place. +But we have a few problems. +You may have heard of some of them. +We have the oldest standing guerrilla in the world. +It's been around for over 50 years, which means that in my lifetime, I have never lived one day of peace in my country. +This guerrilla -- and the main group is the FARC guerrillas, Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia -- they have financed their war by kidnapping, by extortion, by getting into the drug trade, by illegal mining. +There has been terrorism. There have been random bombs. +So it's not good. It's not really good. +And if you look at the human cost of this war over 50 years, we have had more than 5.7 million displaced population. +It's one of the biggest displaced populations in the world, and this conflict has cost over 220,000 lives. +So it's a little bit like the Bolvar wars again. +It's a lot of people who have died unnecessarily. +We are now in the middle of peace talks, and we've been trying to help resolve this problem peacefully, and as part of that, we decided to try something completely lateral and different: Christmas lights. +So Christmas lights, and you're saying, what the hell is this guy going to talk about? +I am going to talk about gigantic trees that we put in nine strategic pathways in the jungle covered with Christmas lights. +These trees helped us demobilize 331 guerrillas, roughly five percent of the guerrilla force at the time. +These trees were lit up at night, and they had a sign beside them that said, "If Christmas can come to the jungle, you can come home. +Demobilize. +At Christmas, everything is possible." +So how do we know these trees worked? +Well, we got 331, which is okay, but we also know that not a lot of guerrillas saw them, but we know that a lot of guerrillas heard about them, and we know this because we are constantly talking to demobilized guerrillas. +So let me take you back four years before the trees. +Four years before the trees, we were approached by the government to help them come up with a communications strategy to get as many guerrillas as we could out of the jungle. +But we didn't know very much about it. +We didn't understand in Colombia, if you live in the cities, you're very far away from where the war is actually happening, so you don't really understand it, and we asked the government to give us access to as many demobilized guerrillas as possible. +And we talked to about 60 of them before we felt we fully understood the problem. +We talked about -- they told us why they had joined the guerrillas, why the left the guerrillas, what their dreams were, what their frustrations were, and from those conversations came the underlying insight that has guided this whole campaign, which is that guerrillas are as much prisoners of their organizations as the people they hold hostage. +I want to tell you one of these stories. +This person you see here is Giovanni Andres. +Giovanni Andres is 25 when we took that picture. +He had been seven years in the guerrilla, and he had demobilized very recently. +His story is the following: He was recruited when he was 17, and sometime later, in his squadron, if you will, this beautiful girl was recruited, and they fell in love. +Their conversations were about what their family was going to be like, what their kids' names would be, how their life would be when they left the guerrilla. +But it turns out that love is very strictly forbidden in the lower ranks of the guerrilla, so their romance was discovered and they were separated. +He was sent very far away, and she was left behind. +She had the balls to get out. I need to do the same thing." +And he did. +He walked for two days and two nights, and he risked his life and he got out, and the only thing he wanted was to see her. +The only thing that was in his mind was to see her. +The story was, they did meet. +I know you're wondering if they did meet. +They did meet. +She had been recruited when she was 15, and she left when she was 17, so there were a lot of other complications, but they did eventually meet. +I don't know if they're together now, but I can find out. But what I can tell you is that our radio strategy was working. +The problem is that it was working in the lower ranks of the guerrilla. +It was not working with the commanders, the people that are more difficult to replace, because you can easily recruit but you can't get the older commanders. +So we thought, well, we'll use the same strategy. +We'll have commanders talking to commanders. +And we even went as far as asking ex-commanders of the guerrilla to fly on helicopters with microphones telling the people that used to fight with them, "There is a better life out there," "I'm doing good," "This is not worth it," etc. +But, as you can all imagine, it was very easy to counteract, because what was the guerrilla going to say? +"Yeah, right, if he doesn't do that, he's going to get killed." +So it was easy, so we were suddenly left with nothing, because the guerrilla were spreading the word that all of those things are done because if they don't do it, they're in danger. +And somebody, some brilliant person in our team, came back and said, "You know what I noticed? +I noticed that around Christmastime, there have been peaks of demobilization since this war has started." +And that was incredible, because that led us to think that we needed to talk to the human being and not to the soldier. +We needed to step away from talking from government to army, from army to army, and we needed to talk about the universal values, and we needed to talk about humanity. +And that was when the Christmas tree happened. +This picture that I have here, you see this is the planning of the Christmas trees, and that man you see there with the three stars, he's Captain Juan Manuel Valdez. +Captain Valdez was the first high-ranking official to give us the helicopters and the support we needed to put these Christmas trees up, and he said in that meeting something that I will never forget. +He said, "I want to do this because being generous makes me stronger, makes my men feel stronger." +And I get very emotional when I remember him because he was killed later in combat and we really miss him, but I wanted you all to see him, because he was really, really important. +He gave us all the support to put up the first Christmas trees. +What happened later is that the guerrillas who came out during the Christmas tree operation and all of that said, "That's really good, Christmas trees are really cool, but you know what? We really don't walk anymore. +We use rivers." +So rivers are the highways of the jungle, and this is something we learned, and most of the recruiting was being done in and around the river villages. +So we went to these river villages, and we asked the people, and probably some of them were direct acquaintances of the guerrillas. +We asked them, "Can you send guerrillas a message?" +We collected over 6,000 messages. +Some of them were notes saying, get out. +Some of them were toys. Some of them were candy. +Even people took off their jewelry, their little crosses and religious things, and put them in these floating balls that we sent down the rivers so that they could be picked up at night. +And we sent thousands of these down the rivers, and then picked them up later if they weren't. +But lots of them were picked up. +This generated, on average, a demobilization every six hours, so this was incredible and it was about: Come home at Christmas. +Then came the peace process, and when the peace process started, the whole mindset of the guerrilla changed. +And it changed because it makes you think, "Well, if there's a peace process, this is probably going to be over. +At some point I'm going to get out." +And their fears completely changed, and their fears were not about, "Am I going to get killed?" +Their fears were, "Am I going to be rejected? +When I get out of this, am I going to be rejected?" +You can see the pictures here. I'll show you a couple. +Thank you. +And these pictures were placed in many different places, and a lot of them came back, and it was really, really beautiful. +And then we decided to work with society. +So we did mothers around Christmastime. +Now let's talk about the rest of the people. +And you may be aware of this or not, but there was a World Cup this year, and Colombia played really well, and it was a unifying moment for Colombia. +And what we did was tell the guerrillas, "Come, get out of the jungle. We're saving a place for you." +So this was television, this was all different types of media saying, "We are saving a place for you." +The soldier here in the commercial says, "I'm saving a place for you right here in this helicopter so that you can get out of this jungle and go enjoy the World Cup." +Ex-football players, radio announcers, everybody was saving a place for the guerrilla. +So since we started this work a little over eight years ago, 17,000 guerrillas have demobilized. +I do not -- Thank you. +I don't want to say in any way that it only has to do with what we do, but what I do know is that our work and the work that we do may have helped a lot of them start thinking about demobilization, and it may have helped a lot of them take the final decision. +If that is true, advertising is still one of the most powerful tools of change that we have available. +And I speak not only my behalf, but on behalf of all the colleagues I see here who work in advertising, and of all the team that has worked with me to do this, that if you want to change the world, or if you want to achieve peace, please call us. +We'd love to help. +Thank you. +You know, it's a big privilege for me to be working in one of the biodiversity hotspots in the world: the Mascarene Islands in the Indian Ocean. +These islands Mauritius, Rodrigues, and Runion along with the island of Madagascar, they are blessed with unique plants found nowhere else in the world. +And today I will tell you about five of them and their particular features and why these plants are so unique. +Take a look at this plant. +I call it benjoin in the local vernacular, and the botanical name is Terminalia bentzoe, subspecies bentzoe. +This subspecies is endemic to Mauritius, and its particular feature is its heterophylly. +What do I mean by heterophylly? +It's that the same plant has got leaves that are different shapes and sizes. +Now, these plants have evolved very far away from the mainland, and within specific ecosystems. +Often, these particular features have evolved as a response to the threat presented by the local fauna, in this case, grazing tortoises. +Tortoises are known to have poor eyesight, and as such, they tend to avoid the plants they don't recognize. +So this evolutionary foil safeguards the plant against these rather cute animals, and protects it and of course ensures its survival. +Now the question you're probably asking yourself is, why is she telling us all these stories? +The reason for that is that we tend to overlook the diversity and the variety of the natural world. +These particular habitats are unique and they are host to a whole lot of plants. +We don't realize how valuable and how precious these resources are, and yet, through our insouciance, we keep on destroying them. +And here we have a very prime example of the iconic dodo, which comes from Mauritius, and, of course, we know is now a symbol of extinction. +We know plants have a fundamental role to play. +Well, first of all, they feed us and they also give us the oxygen we breathe, but plants are also the source of important, biologically active ingredients that we should be studying very carefully, because human societies over the millennia, they have developed important knowledge, cultural traditions, and important plant-based medicinal resources. +And as you can see, the island of Mauritius where I work and where I live, belongs to one such biodiversity hotspot, and I study the unique plants on the island for their biomedical applications. +Now, let's go back again to that first plant I showed you, the one, of course, with different-shaped leaves and different sizes, Terminalia bentzoe, subspecies bentzoe, a plant only found in Mauritius. +Now, the local people, they used a decoction of the leaves against infectious diseases. +Now our work, that is, the scientific validation of this traditional information, has shown that precisely that leaf extract shows activity, potent activity, against a wide range of bacteria that could be pathogenic to humans. +Now, could this plant be the answer to antibiotic resistance? +You know, antibiotic resistance is proving to be a big challenge globally. +While we may not be sure, one thing is certain: we will not want this plant to disappear. +But the harsh reality is that this particular plant is in fact considered to be vulnerable in its natural habitat. +This brings me to another example. +This bush here is known as baume de l'ile plate in the local vernacular. +The botanical name is Psiadia arguta. +It's a plant which is rare, which is endemic to Mauritius. +It used to grow on the mainland, but through the sheer pressures of urbanization has been pushed out of the mainland, and we've managed to bring it back from the brink of extinction by developing in vitro plants which are now growing in the wild. +Now, one thing I must point out straightaway is that not all plants can be developed in vitro. +While we humans, we are happy in our comfort zone, these plants also need their ecosystem to be preserved, and they don't react endemic plants don't react to very harsh changes in their ecosystem, and yet we know what are the challenges that climate change, for example, is posing to these plants. +Now, the local people again use the leaves in traditional medicine against respiratory problems. +Now, our preliminary labwork on the leaf extract has shown that precisely these leaves contain ingredients that are very close, in terms of structures, chemical structures, to those medicines which are sold in the chemist's shop against asthma. +So who knows what humanity will benefit from should this plant decide to reveal all its secrets. +Now, I come from the developing world where we are forever being challenged with this issue of population explosion. +Africa is the continent which is getting younger, and whenever one talks about population explosion, one talks about the issue of food security as being the other side of the same coin. +Now this plant here, the baobab, could be part of the answer. +It's an underutilized, neglected food plant. +It defines the landscape of West Africa, where it is known as the tree of life, and later on I will tell you why the Africans consider it to be the tree of life. +Now interestingly, there are many legends which are associated with this plant. +Because of its sheer size, it was meant to be lording over lesser plants, so God didn't like this arrogance, uprooted it, and planted it upside down, hence its particular shape. +And if you look at this tree again within the African context, in West Africa, it's known as the palaver tree, because it performs great social functions. +Now if you have a problem in the community, meeting under the palaver tree with the chiefs or the tribesmen would be synonymous to trying to find a solution to that particular problem, and also to reinforce trust and respect among members of the community. +From the scientific point of view, there are eight species of baobab in the world. +There's one from Africa, one from Australia, and six are endemic to the island of Madagascar. +The one I have showed you is the one from Africa, Adansonia digitata. +Now, the flower, this beautiful white flower, it opens at night, is pollinated by bats, and it gives rise to the fruit which is curiously known as the monkey apple. +The monkeys are not stupid animals. +They know what's good for them. +Now, if you open the fruit of the baobab, you'll see a white, floury pulp, which is very rich in nutrients and has got protein, more protein than in human milk. +Yes, you heard right: more protein than in human milk. +And this is one of the reasons why the nutrition companies of this world, they are looking for this fruit to provide what we know as reinforced food. +The seeds give an oil, a very stable oil which is sought after by the cosmetic industry to give to produce body lotions, for example. +And if you look at the trunk, the trunk, of course, safeguards water, which is often harvested by a thirsty traveler, and the leaves are used in traditional medicine against infectious disease. +Now, you can see now why the Africans consider it to be the tree of life. +It's a complete plant, and in fact, the sheer size of these trees is hiding a massive potential, not only for the pharma, nutrition, and the cosmetic industry. +What I have showed you here is only the species from Africa, Adansonia digitata. +We have six species yet in Madagascar, and we don't know what is the potential of this plant, but one thing we know is that the flora is considered to be threatened with extinction. +Let me take you to Africa again, and introduce you to one of my very favorite, the resurrection plant. +Now here you'll find that even Jesus has competition. +Now, this plant here has developed remarkable tolerance to drought, which enables it to withstand up to 98 percent dehydration over the period of a year without damage, and yet it can regenerate itself almost completely overnight, over 24 hours, and flower. +Now, us human beings, we're always on the lookout for the elixir of youth. +We don't want to get old, and rightly so. +Why should we, especially if you can afford it? +And this gives you an indication of what the plant looks like before. +Now, if you are an inexperienced gardener, the first thing you'll do when you visit the garden is to uproot this plant because it's dead. +But if you water it, this is what you get. +Absolutely amazing. +Now, if you look at our aging process, the aging process is in fact the loss of water from the upper epidermis, resulting in wrinkling as we know it, especially women, we are so conscious of this. +And this plant, in fact, is giving the cosmetic chemists very important ingredients that are actually finding ways to slow down the aging process and at the same time reinforce the cells against the onslaught of environmental toxins. +Now, these four examples I have just given you are just a very tiny reminder as to how our health and our survival are closely linked to the health and the resilience of our ecosystem, and why we should be very careful about preserving biodiversity. +Every time a forest is cut down, every time a marsh is filled in, it is a potential lab that goes with it, and which we will never, ever recover. +And I know what I'm talking about, coming from Mauritius and missing the dodo. +Let me finish with just one last example. +Conservation issues are normally guided towards rare, endemic plants, but what we call exotic plants, that is, the ones which grow in many different habitats across the world, they also need to be considered. +You know why? Because the environment plays a very important role in modifying the composition of that plant. +So let's take a look at this plant here, Centella asiatica. It's a weed. +We call it a weed. +Now, Centella asiatica grows across the world in many different habitats in Africa, in Asia and this plant has been instrumental in providing a solution to that dreadful disease called leprosy in Madagascar in the 1940s. +Now, while Centella grows across the world in Africa, in Asia the best quality Centella comes from Madagascar, because that Centella contains the three vital ingredients which are sought after by the pharma and the cosmetic companies. +And the cosmetic companies are already using it to make regenerating cream. +Now, there is an ancient saying that for every disease known to mankind, there is a plant to cure it. +Now, you may not believe in ancient sayings. +You may think they're obsolete now that our science and technology are so powerful. +So you may look on Centella as being an insignificant, humble weed, which, if destroyed, won't be missed. +But you know, there is no such thing as a weed. +It's a plant. +It's a living biological lab that may well have answers to the question that we may have, but we have to ensure that it has the right to live. +Thank you. +If there's any power in design, that's the power of synthesis. +The more complex the problem, the more the need for simplicity. +So allow me to share three cases where we tried to apply design's power of synthesis. +Let's start with the global challenge of urbanization. +It's a fact that people are moving towards cities. +and even if counterintuitive, it's good news. +Evidence shows that people are better off in cities. +But there's a problem that I would call the "3S" menace: The scale, speed, and scarcity of means with which we will have to respond to this phenomenon has no precedence in history. +For you to have an idea, out of the three billion people living in cities today, one billion are under the line of poverty. +By 2030, out of the five billion people that will be living in cities, two billion are going to be under the line of poverty. +That means that we will have to build a one million-person city per week with 10,000 dollars per family during the next 15 years. +A one million-person city per week with 10,000 dollars per family. +If we don't solve this equation, it is not that people will stop coming to cities. +They will come anyhow, but they will live in slums, favelas and informal settlements. +So what to do? Well, an answer may come from favelas and slums themselves. +A clue could be in this question we were asked 10 years ago. +And by the way, they said, the cost of the land, because it's in the center of the city, is three times more than what social housing can normally afford. +Due to the difficulty of the question, we decided to include the families in the process of understanding the constraints, and we started a participatory design process, and testing what was available there in the market. +Detached houses, 30 families could be accommodated. +Row houses, 60 families. +["100 families"] The only way to accommodate all of them was by building in height, and they threatened us to go on a hunger strike if we even dared to offer this as a solution, because they could not make the tiny apartments expand. +So the conclusion with the families and this is important, not our conclusion with the families, was that we had a problem. +We had to innovate. +So what did we do? +Well, a middle-class family lives reasonably well in around 80 square meters, but when there's no money, what the market does is to reduce the size of the house to 40 square meters. +What we said was, what if, instead of thinking of 40 square meters as a small house, why don't we consider it half of a good one? +When you rephrase the problem as half of a good house instead of a small one, the key question is, which half do we do? +And we thought we had to do with public money the half that families won't be able to do individually. +We identified five design conditions that belonged to the hard half of a house, and we went back to the families to do two things: join forces and split tasks. +Our design was something in between a building and a house. +As a building, it could pay for expensive, well-located land, and as a house, it could expand. +If, in the process of not being expelled to the periphery while getting a house, families kept their network and their jobs, we knew that the expansion would begin right away. +So we went from this initial social housing to a middle-class unit achieved by families themselves within a couple of weeks. +This was our first project in Iquique 10 years ago. +This is our last project in Chile. +Different designs, same principle: You provide the frame, and from then on, families take over. +So the purpose of design, trying to understand and trying to give an answer to the "3S" menace, scale, speed, and scarcity, is to channel people's own building capacity. +We won't solve the one million people per week equation unless we use people's own power for building. +So, with the right design, slums and favelas may not be the problem but actually the only possible solution. +The second case is how design can contribute to sustainability. +In 2012, we entered the competition for the Angelini Innovation Center, and the aim was to build the right environment for knowledge creation. +It is accepted that for such an aim, knowledge creation, interaction among people, face-to-face contact, it's important, and we agreed on that. +But for us, the question of the right environment was a very literal question. +We wanted to have a working space with the right light, with the right temperature, with the right air. +So we asked ourselves: Does the typical office building help us in that sense? +Well, how does that building look, typically? +It's a collection of floors, one on top of each other, with a core in the center with elevators, stairs, pipes, wires, everything, and then a glass skin on the outside that, due to direct sun radiation, creates a huge greenhouse effect inside. +In addition to that, let's say a guy working on the seventh floor goes every single day through the third floor, but has no idea what the guy on that floor is working on. +So we thought, well, maybe we have to turn this scheme inside out. +And what we did was, let's have an open atrium, a hollowed core, the same collection of floors, but have the walls and the mass in the perimeter, so that when the sun hits, it's not impacting directly glass, but a wall. +When you have an open atrium inside, you are able to see what others are doing from within the building, and you have a better way to control light, and when you place the mass and the walls in the perimeter, then you are preventing direct sun radiation. +You may also open those windows and get cross-ventilation. +We just made those openings of such a scale that they could work as elevated squares, outdoor spaces throughout the entire height of the building. +None of this is rocket science. +You don't require sophisticated programming. +It's not about technology. +This is just archaic, primitive common sense, and by using common sense, we went from 120 kilowatts per square meter per year, which is the typical energy consumption for cooling a glass tower, to 40 kilowatts per square meter per year. +So with the right design, sustainability is nothing but the rigorous use of common sense. +Last case I would like to share is how design can provide more comprehensive answers against natural disasters. +You may know that Chile, in 2010, was hit by an 8.8 Richter scale earthquake and tsunami, and we were called to work in the reconstruction of the Constitucin, in the southern part of the country. +We were given 100 days, three months, to design almost everything, from public buildings to public space, street grid, transportation, housing, and mainly how to protect the city against future tsunamis. +This was new in Chilean urban design, and there were in the air a couple of alternatives. +First one: Forbid installation on ground zero. +Thirty million dollars spent mainly in land expropriation. +This is exactly what's being discussed in Japan nowadays, and if you have a disciplined population like the Japanese, this may work, but we know that in Chile, this land is going to be occupied illegally anyhow, so this alternative was unrealistic and undesirable. +Second alternative: build a big wall, heavy infrastructure to resist the energy of the waves. +This alternative was conveniently lobbied by big building companies, because it meant 42 million dollars in contracts, and was also politically preferred, because it required no land expropriation. +But Japan proved that trying to resist the force of nature is useless. +So this alternative was irresponsible. +As in the housing process, we had to include the community in the way of finding a solution for this, and we started a participatory design process. +[In Spanish] Loudspeaker: What kind of city do you want? +Vote for Constitucin. +Go to the Open House and express your options. +Participate! +Fisherman: I am a fisherman. +Twenty-five fishermen work for me. +Where should I take them? To the forest? +Man: So why can't we have a concrete defense? +Done well, of course. +Man 2: I am the history of Constitucin. +And you come here to tell me that I cannot keep on living here? +My whole family has lived here, I raised my children here, and my children will also raise their children here. +and my grandchildren and everyone else will. +But why are you imposing this on me? +You! You are imposing this on me! +In danger zone I am not authorized to build. +He himself is saying that. +Man 3: No, no, no, Nieves... +Alejandro Aravena: I don't know if you were able to read the subtitles, but you can tell from the body language that participatory design is not a hippie, romantic, let's-all-dream-together-about- the-future-of-the-city kind of thing. +It is actually It is actually not even with the families trying to find the right answer. +It is mainly trying to identify with precision what is the right question. +There is nothing worse than answering well the wrong question. +So it was pretty obvious after this process that, well, we chicken out here and go away because it's too tense, or we go even further in asking, what else is bothering you? +What other problems do you have and you want us to take care of now that the city will have to be rethought from scratch? +And what they said was, look, fine to protect the city against future tsunamis, we really appreciate, but the next one is going to come in, what, 20 years? +But every single year, we have problems of flooding due to rain. +In addition, we are in the middle of the forest region of the country, and our public space sucks. +It's poor and it's scarce. +And the origin of the city, our identity, is not really connected to the buildings that fell, it is connected to the river, but the river cannot be accessed publicly, because its shores are privately owned. +So we thought that we had to produce a third alternative, and our approach was against geographical threats, have geographical answers. +What if, in between the city and the sea we have a forest, a forest that doesn't try to resist the energy of nature, but dissipates it by introducing friction? +A forest that may be able to laminate the water and prevent the flooding? +That may pay the historical debt of public space, and that may provide, finally, democratic access to the river. +So as a conclusion of the participatory design, the alternative was validated politically and socially, but there was still the problem of the cost: 48 million dollars. +So what we did was a survey in the public investment system, and found out that there were three ministries with three projects in the exact same place, not knowing of the existence of the other projects. +The sum of them: 52 million dollars. +So design's power of synthesis is trying to make a more efficient use of the scarcest resource in cities, which is not money but coordination. +By doing so, we were able to save four million dollars, and that is why the forest is today under construction. +So be it the force of self construction, the force of common sense, or the force of nature, all these forces need to be translated into form, and what that form is modeling and shaping is not cement, bricks, or wood. +It is life itself. +Design's power of synthesis is just an attempt to put at the innermost core of architecture the force of life. +Thank you so much. +Dre Urhahn: This theater is built on Copacabana, which is the most famous beach in the world, but 25 kilometers away from here in the North Zone of Rio lies a community called Vila Cruzeiro, and roughly 60,000 people live there. +Now, the people here in Rio mostly know Vila Cruzeiro from the news, and unfortunately, news from Vila Cruzeiro often is not good news. +But Vila Cruzeiro is also the place where our story begins. +Jeroen Koolhaas: Ten years ago, we first came to Rio to shoot a documentary about life in the favelas. +Now, we learned that favelas are informal communities. +They emerged over the years when immigrants from the countryside came to the cities looking for work, like cities within the cities, known for problems like crime, poverty, and the violent drug war between police and the drug gangs. +So what struck us was that these were communities that the people who lived there had built with their own hands, without a master plan and like a giant work in progress. +Where we're from, in Holland, everything is planned. +We even have rules for how to follow the rules. +And then we imagined one big design, one big work of art. +Who would expect something like that in a place like this? +So we thought, would that even be possible? +So first we started to count the houses, but we soon lost count. +But somehow the idea stuck. +JK: We had a friend. He ran an NGO in Vila Cruzeiro. +His name was Nanko, and he also liked the idea. +He said, "You know, everybody here would pretty much love to have their houses plastered and painted. +It's when a house is finished." +So he introduced us to the right people, and Vitor and Maurinho became our crew. +We picked three houses in the center of the community and we start here. We made a few designs, and everybody liked this design of a boy flying a kite the best. +So we started painting, and the first thing we did was to paint everything blue, and we thought that looked already pretty good. +But they hated it. The people who lived there really hated it. +They said, "What did you do? +You painted our house in exactly the same color as the police station." +In a favela, that is not a good thing. +Also the same color as the prison cell. +So we quickly went ahead and we painted the boy, and then we thought we were finished, we were really happy, but still, it wasn't good because the little kids started coming up to us, and they said, "You know, there's a boy flying the kite, but where is his kite?" +We said, "Uh, it's art. You know, you have to imagine the kite." +And they said, "No, no, no, we want to see the kite." +So we quickly installed a kite way up high on the hill, so that you could see the boy flying the kite and you could actually see a kite. +So the local news started writing about it, which was great, and then even The Guardian wrote about it: "Notorious slum becomes open-air gallery." +JK: So, encouraged by this success, we went back to Rio for a second project, and we stumbled upon this street. +It was covered in concrete to prevent mudslides, and somehow we saw a sort of river in it, and we imagined this river to be a river in Japanese style with koi carp swimming upstream. +So we decided to paint that river, and we invited Rob Admiraal, who is a tattoo artist, and he specialized in the Japanese style. +So little did we know that we would spend almost an entire year painting that river, together with Geovani and Robinho and Vitor, who lived nearby. +And we even moved into the neighborhood when one of the guys that lived on the street, Elias, told us that we could come and live in his house, together with his family, which was fantastic. +Unfortunately, during that time, another war broke out between the police and the drug gangs. +We learned that during those times, people in communities really stick together during these times of hardship, but we also learned a very important element, the importance of barbecues. Because, when you throw a barbecue, it turns you from a guest into a host, almost every other week, and we got to know everybody in the neighborhood. +JK: We still had this idea of the hill, though. +DU: Yeah, yeah, we were talking about the scale of this, because this painting was incredibly big, and it was insanely detailed, and this process almost drove us completely insane ourselves. +But we figured that maybe, during this process, all the time that we had spent in the neighborhood was maybe actually even more important than the painting itself. +JK: So after all that time, this hill, this idea was still there, and we started to make sketches, models, and we figured something out. +We figured that our ideas, our designs had to be a little bit more simple than that last project so that we could paint with more people and cover more houses at the same time. +And this image somehow went all over the world. +DU: So then we received an unexpected phone call from the Philadelphia Mural Arts Program, and they had this question if this idea, our approach, if this would actually work in North Philly, which is one of the poorest neighborhoods in the United States. +So we immediately said yes. +We had no idea how, but it seemed like a very interesting challenge, so we did exactly the same as we did in Rio, and we moved into the neighborhood and started barbecuing. +So the project took almost two years to complete, and we made individual designs for every single house on the avenue that we painted, and we made these designs together with the local store owners, the building owners, and a team of about a dozen young men and women. +They were hired, and then they were trained as painters, and together they transformed their own neighborhood, the whole street, into a giant patchwork of color. +And at the end, the city of Philadelphia thanked every single one of them and gave them a merit for their accomplishment. +JK: So now we had painted a whole street. +How about we do this whole hill now? +We started looking for funding, but instead, we just ran into questions, like, how many houses are you going to paint? +How many square meters is that? +How much paint are you going to use, and how many people are you going to employ? +And we did try for years to write plans for the funding and answer all those questions, but then we thought, in order to answer all those questions, you have to know exactly what you're going to do before you actually get there and start. +And maybe it's a mistake to think like that. +And instead of looking for funding, we started a crowdfunding campaign, and in a little over a month, more than 1,500 people put together and donated over 100,000 dollars. +So for us, this was an amazing moment, because now because now we finally had the freedom to use all the lessons that we had learned and create a project that was built the same way that the favela was built, from the ground on up, bottom up, with no master plan. +JK: So we went back, and we employed Angelo, and he's a local artist from Vila Cruzeiro, very talented guy, and he knows almost everybody there, and then we employed Elias, our former landlord who invited us into his house, and he's a master of construction. +Together with them, we decided where to start. +We picked this spot in Vila Cruzeiro, and houses are being plastered as we speak. +And the good thing about them is that they are deciding which houses go next. +They're even printing t-shirts, they're putting up banners explaining everything to everybody, and talking to the press. +This article about Angelo appeared. +DU: So while this is happening, we are bringing this idea all over the world. +So, like the project we did in Philadelphia, we are also invited to do workshops, for instance in Curaao, and right now we're planning a huge project in Haiti. +DU: So we want to thank everybody who wanted to become part of this dream and supported us along the way, and we are looking at continuing. +JK: Yeah. And so one day pretty soon, when the colors start going up on these walls, we hope more people will join us, and join this big dream, and maybe one day, the whole of Vila Cruzeiro will be painted. +DU: Thank you. +What has the War on Drugs done to the world? +It's my country's history with alcohol prohibition and Al Capone, times 50. +Which is why it's particularly galling to me as an American that we've been the driving force behind this global drug war. +Why did we do this? +Some people, especially in Latin America, think it's not really about drugs. +It's just a subterfuge for advancing the realpolitik interests of the U.S. +But by and large, that's not it. +We don't want gangsters and guerrillas funded with illegal drug money terrorizing and taking over other nations. +No, the fact is, America really is crazy when it comes to drugs. +I mean, don't forget, we're the ones who thought that we could prohibit alcohol. +So think about our global drug war not as any sort of rational policy, but as the international projection of a domestic psychosis. +But here's the good news. +Now it's the Russians leading the Drug War and not us. +Most politicians in my country want to roll back the Drug War now, put fewer people behind bars, not more, and I'm proud to say as an American that we now lead the world in reforming marijuana policies. +It's now legal for medical purposes in almost half our 50 states, millions of people can purchase their marijuana, their medicine, in government- licensed dispensaries, and over half my fellow citizens now say it's time to legally regulate and tax marijuana more or less like alcohol. +That's what Colorado and Washington are doing, and Uruguay, and others are sure to follow. +So that's what I do: work to end the Drug War. +Now, that hypocrisy kept bugging me, so I wrote my Ph.D dissertation on international drug control. +I talked my way into the State Department. +I got a security clearance. +I interviewed hundreds of DEA and other law enforcement agents all around Europe and the Americas, and I'd ask them, "What do you think the answer is?" +Well, in Latin America, they'd say to me, "You can't really cut off the supply. +The answer lies back in the U.S., in cutting off the demand." +So then I go back home and I talk to people involved in anti-drug efforts there, and they'd say, "You know, Ethan, you can't really cut off the demand. +The answer lies over there. You've got to cut off the supply." +Then I'd go and talk to the guys in customs trying to stop drugs at the borders, and they'd say, "You're not going to stop it here. +The answer lies over there, in cutting off supply and demand." +And it hit me: Everybody involved in this thought the answer lay in that area about which they knew the least. +So that's when I started reading everything I could about psychoactive drugs: the history, the science, the politics, all of it, and the more one read, the more it hit you how a thoughtful, enlightened, intelligent approach took you over here, whereas the politics and laws of my country were taking you over here. +And that disparity struck me as this incredible intellectual and moral puzzle. +There's probably never been a drug-free society. +Virtually every society has ingested psychoactive substances to deal with pain, increase our energy, socialize, even commune with God. +Our desire to alter our consciousness may be as fundamental as our desires for food, companionship and sex. +So our true challenge is to learn how to live with drugs so they cause the least possible harm and in some cases the greatest possible benefit. +I'll tell you something else I learned, that the reason some drugs are legal and others not has almost nothing to do with science or health or the relative risk of drugs, and almost everything to do with who uses and who is perceived to use particular drugs. +In the late 19th century, when most of the drugs that are now illegal were legal, the principal consumers of opiates in my country and others were middle-aged white women, using them to alleviate aches and pains when few other analgesics were available. +And nobody thought about criminalizing it back then because nobody wanted to put Grandma behind bars. +The first cocaine prohibition laws, similarly prompted by racist fears of black men sniffing that white powder and forgetting their proper place in Southern society. +And the first marijuana prohibition laws, all about fears of Mexican migrants in the West and the Southwest. +And what was true in my country, is true in so many others as well, with both the origins of these laws and their implementation. +Put it this way, and I exaggerate only slightly: If the principal smokers of cocaine were affluent older white men and the principal consumers of Viagra were poor young black men, then smokable cocaine would be easy to get with a prescription from your doctor and selling Viagra would get you five to 10 years behind bars. +I used to be a professor teaching about this. +Now I'm an activist, a human rights activist, and what drives me is my shame at living in an otherwise great nation that has less than five percent of the world's population but almost 25 percent of the world's incarcerated population. +It's the people I meet who have lost someone they love to drug-related violence or prison or overdose or AIDS because our drug policies emphasize criminalization over health. +It's good people who have lost their jobs, their homes, their freedom, even their children to the state, not because they hurt anyone but solely because they chose to use one drug instead of another. +So is legalization the answer? +On that, I'm torn: three days a week I think yes, three days a week I think no, and on Sundays I'm agnostic. +I mean, look, the markets in marijuana, cocaine, heroin and methamphetamine are global commodities markets just like the global markets in alcohol, tobacco, coffee, sugar, and so many other things. +Where there is a demand, there will be a supply. +Knock out one source and another inevitably emerges. +People tend to think of prohibition as the ultimate form of regulation when in fact it represents the abdication of regulation with criminals filling the void. +Which is why putting criminal laws and police front and center in trying to control a dynamic global commodities market is a recipe for disaster. +And what we really need to do is to bring the underground drug markets as much as possible aboveground and regulate them as intelligently as we can to minimize both the harms of drugs and the harms of prohibitionist policies. +Now, with marijuana, that obviously means legally regulating and taxing it like alcohol. +The benefits of doing so are enormous, the risks minimal. +Will more people use marijuana? +Maybe, but it's not going to be young people, because it's not going to be legalized for them, and quite frankly, they already have the best access to marijuana. +As for the other drugs, look at Portugal, where nobody goes to jail for possessing drugs, and the government's made a serious commitment to treating addiction as a health issue. +Look at New Zealand, which recently enacted a law allowing certain recreational drugs to be sold legally provided their safety had been established. +Look here in Brazil, and some other countries, where a remarkable psychoactive substance, ayahuasca, can be legally bought and consumed provided it's done so within a religious context. +Look in Bolivia and Peru, where all sorts of products made from the coca leaf, the source of cocaine, are sold legally over the counter with no apparent harm to people's public health. +I mean, don't forget, Coca-Cola had cocaine in it until 1900, and so far as we know was no more addictive than Coca-Cola is today. +Conversely, think about cigarettes: Nothing can both hook you and kill you like cigarettes. +When researchers ask heroin addicts what's the toughest drug to quit, most say cigarettes. +Yet in my country and many others, half of all the people who were ever addicted to cigarettes have quit without anyone being arrested or put in jail or sent to a "treatment program" by a prosecutor or a judge. +What did it were higher taxes and time and place restrictions on sale and use and effective anti-smoking campaigns. +Now, could we reduce smoking even more by making it totally illegal? Probably. +But just imagine the drug war nightmare that would result. +So the challenges we face today are twofold. +The first is the policy challenge of designing and implementing alternatives to ineffective prohibitionist policies, even as we need to get better at regulating and living with the drugs that are now legal. +But the second challenge is tougher, because it's about us. +The obstacles to reform lie not just out there in the power of the prison industrial complex or other vested interests that want to keep things the way they are, but within each and every one of us. +It's our fears and our lack of knowledge and imagination that stands in the way of real reform. +And ultimately, I think that boils down to the kids, and to every parent's desire to put our baby in a bubble, and the fear that somehow drugs will pierce that bubble and put our young ones at risk. +In fact, sometimes it seems like the entire War on Drugs gets justified as one great big child protection act, which any young person can tell you it's not. +So here's what I say to teenagers. +First, don't do drugs. +Second, don't do drugs. +Third, if you do do drugs, there's some things I want you to know, because my bottom line as your parent is, come home safely at the end of the night and grow up and lead a healthy and good adulthood. +That's my drug education mantra: Safety first. +Thank you. +Thank you. Thank you. +Chris Anderson: Ethan, congrats quite the reaction. +That was a powerful talk. +Not quite a complete standing O, though, and I'm guessing that some people here and maybe a few watching online, maybe someone knows a teenager or a friend or whatever who got sick, maybe died from some drug overdose. +I'm sure you've had these people approach you before. +What do you say to them? +Ethan Nadelmann: Chris, the most amazing thing that's happened of late is that I've met a growing number of people who have actually lost a sibling or a child to a drug overdose, and 10 years ago, those people just wanted to say, let's line up all the drug dealers and shoot them and that will solve it. +And what they've come to understand is that the Drug War did nothing to protect their kids. +If anything, it made it more likely that those kids were put at risk. +And so they're now becoming part of this drug policy reform movement. +There's other people who have kids, one's addicted to alcohol, the other one's addicted to cocaine or heroin, and they ask themselves the question: Why does this kid get to take one step at a time and try to get better and that one's got to deal with jail and police and criminals all the time? +So everybody's understanding, the Drug War's not protecting anybody. +CA: Certainly in the U.S., you've got political gridlock on most issues. +Is there any realistic chance of anything actually shifting on this issue in the next five years? +EN: I'd say it's quite remarkable. I'm getting all these calls from journalists now who are saying to me, "Ethan, it seems like the only two issues advancing politically in America right now are marijuana law reform and gay marriage. +What are you doing right?" +And then you're looking at bipartisanship breaking out with, actually, Republicans in the Congress and state legislatures allowing bills to be enacted with majority Democratic support, so we've gone from being sort of the third rail, the most fearful issue of American politics, to becoming one of the most successful. +CA: Ethan, thank you so much for coming to TEDGlobal. EN: Chris, thanks so much. +CA: Thank you. EN: Thank you. +Vincent Moon: How can we use computers, cameras, microphones to represent the world in an alternative way, as much as possible? +How, maybe, is it possible to use the Internet to create a new form of cinema? +And actually, why do we record? +Well, it is with such simple questions in mind that I started to make films 10 years ago, first with a friend, Christophe Abric. +He had a website, La Blogothque, dedicated to independent music. +We were crazy about music. +We wanted to represent music in a different way, to film the music we love, the musicians we admired, as much as possible, far from the music industry and far from the cliches attached to it. +We started to publish every week sessions on the Internet. +We are going to see a few extracts now. +From Grizzly Bear in the shower to Sigur Ros playing in a Parisian cafe. +From Phoenix playing by the Eiffel Tower to Tom Jones in his hotel room in New York. +From Arcade Fire in an elevator in the Olympia to Beirut going down a staircase in Brooklyn. +From R.E.M. in a car to The National around a table at night in the south of France. +From Bon Iver playing with some friends in an apartment in Montmartre to Yeasayer having a long night, and many, many, many more unknown or very famous bands. +We published all those films for free on the Internet, and we wanted to share all those films and represent music in a different way. +We wanted to create another type of intimacy using all those new technologies. +At the time, 10 years ago actually, there was no such project on the Internet, and I guess that's why the project we were making, the Take Away Shows, got quite successful, reaching millions of viewers. +After a while, I got a bit I wanted to go somewhere else. +I felt the need to travel and to discover some other music, to explore the world, going to other corners, and actually it was also this idea of nomadic cinema, sort of, that I had in mind. +How could the use of new technologies and the road fit together? +How could I edit my films in a bus crossing the Andes? +So I went on five-year travels around the globe. +I started at the time in the digital film and music label collection Petites Plantes, which was also an homage to French filmmaker Chris Marker. +We're going to see now a few more extracts of those new films. +From the tecno brega diva of northern Brazil, Gaby Amarantos to a female ensemble in Chechnya. +From experimental electronic music in Singapore with One Man Nation to Brazilian icon Tom Z singing on his rooftop in So Paolo. +From The Bambir, the great rock band from Armenia to some traditional songs in a restaurant in Tbilisi, Georgia. +From White Shoes, a great retro pop band from Jakarta, Indonesia to DakhaBrakha, the revolutionary band from Kiev, Ukraine. +From Tomi Lebrero and his bandoneon and his friends in Buenos Aires, Argentina, to many other places and musicians around the world. +My desire was to make it as a trek. +To do all those films, it would have been impossible with a big company behind me, with a structure or anything. +I was traveling alone with a backpack computer, camera, microphones in it. +Alone, actually, but just with local people, meeting my team, which was absolutely not professional people, on the spot there, going from one place to another and to make cinema as a trek. +I really believed that cinema could be this very simple thing: I want to make a film and you're going to give me a place to stay for the night. +I give you a moment of cinema and you offer me a capirinha. +Well, or other drinks, depending on where you are. +In Peru, they drink pisco sour. +Well, when I arrived in Peru, actually, I had no idea about what I would do there. +And I just had one phone number, actually, of one person. +Three months later, after traveling all around the country, I had recorded 33 films, only with the help of local people, only with the help of people that I was asking all the time the same question: What is important to record here today? +By living in such a way, by working without any structure, I was able to react to the moment and to decide, oh, this is important to make now. +This is important to record that whole person. +This is important to create this exchange. +When I went to Chechnya, the first person I met looked at me and was like, "What are you doing here? +Are you a journalist? NGO? Politics? +What kind of problems are you going to study?" +Well, I was there to research on Sufi rituals in Chechnya, actually incredible culture of Sufism in Chechnya, which is absolutely unknown outside of the region. +As soon as people understood that I would give them those films I would publish them online for free under a Creative Commons license, but I would also really give them to the people and I would let them do what they want with it. +I just want to represent them in a beautiful light. +I just want to portray them in a way that their grandchildren are going to look at their grandfather, and they're going to be like, "Whoa, my grandfather is as cool as Beyonc." It's a really important thing. +It's really important, because that's the way people are going to look differently at their own culture, at their own land. +They're going to think about it differently. +It may be a way to maintain a certain diversity. +Why you will record? +Hmm. There's a really good quote by American thinker Hakim Bey which says, "Every recording is a tombstone of a live performance." +It's a really good sentence to keep in mind nowadays in an era saturated by images. +What's the point of that? +Where do we go with it? +I was researching. I was still keeping this idea in mind: What's the point? +I was researching on music, trying to pull, trying to get closer to a certain origin of it. +Where is this all coming from? +I am French. I had no idea about what I would discover, which is a very simple thing: Everything was sacred, at first, and music was spiritual healing. +How could I use my camera, my little tool, to get closer and maybe not only capture the trance but find an equivalent, a cine-trance, maybe, something in complete harmony with the people? +That is now my new research I'm doing on spirituality, on new spirits around the world. +Maybe a few more extracts now. +From the Tana Toraja funeral ritual in Indonesia to an Easter ceremony in the north of Ethiopia. +From jathilan, a popular trance ritual on the island of Java, to Umbanda in the north of Brazil. +The Sufi rituals of Chechnya to a mass in the holiest church of Armenia. +Some Sufi songs in Harar, the holy city of Ethiopia, to an ayahuasca ceremony deep in the Amazon of Peru with the Shipibo. +Then to my new project, the one I'm doing now here in Brazil, named "Hbridos." +I'm doing it with Priscilla Telmon. +It's research on the new spiritualities all around the country. +This is my quest, my own little quest of what I call experimental ethnography, trying to hybrid all those different genres, trying to regain a certain complexity. +Why do we record? +I was still there. +I really believe cinema teaches us to see. +The way we show the world is going to change the way we see this world, and we live in a moment where the mass media are doing a terrible, terrible job at representing the world: violence, extremists, only spectacular events, only simplifications of everyday life. +I think we are recording to regain a certain complexity. +To reinvent life today, we have to make new forms of images. +And it's very simple. +Muito obrigado. +Bruno Giussani: Vincent, Vincent, Vincent. +Merci. We have to prepare for the following performance, and I have a question for you, and the question is this: You show up in places like the ones you just have shown us, and you are carrying a camera and I assume that you are welcome but you are not always absolutely welcome. +You walk into sacred rituals, private moments in a village, a town, a group of people. +How do you break the barrier when you show up with a lens? +VM: I think you break it with your body, more than with your knowledge. +That's what it taught me to travel, to trust the memory of the body more than the memory of the brain. +The respect is stepping forward, not stepping backward, and I really think that by engaging your body in the moment, in the ceremony, in the places, people welcome you and understand your energy. +BG: You told me that most of the videos you have made are actually one single shot. +You don't do much editing. +I mean, you edited the ones for us at the beginning of the sessions because of the length, etc. +Otherwise, you just go in and capture whatever happens in front of your eyes without much planning, and so is that the case? +It's correct? +VM: My idea is that I think that as long as we don't cut, in a way, as long as we let the viewer watch, more and more viewers are going to feel closer, are going to get closer to the moment, to that moment and to that place. +I really think of that as a matter of respecting the viewer, to not cut all the time from one place to another, to just let the time go. +BG: Tell me in a few words about your new project, "Hbridos," here in Brazil. +Just before coming to TEDGlobal, you have actually been traveling around the country for that. +Tell us a couple of things. +VM: "Hbridos" is I really believe Brazil, far from the cliches, is the greatest religious country in the world, the greatest country in terms of spirituality and in experimentations in spiritualities. +And it's a big project I'm doing over this year, which is researching in very different regions of Brazil, in very different forms of cults, and trying to understand how people live together with spirituality nowadays. +BG: The man who is going to appear onstage momentarily, and Vincent's going to introduce him, is one of the subjects of one of his past videos. +When did you do a video with him? +VM: I guess four years ago, four years in my first travel. +BG: So it was one of your first ones in Brazil. +VM: It was amongst the first ones in Brazil, yeah. +I shot the film in Recife, in the place where he is from. +BG: So let's introduce him. Who are we waiting for? +VM: I'll just make it very short. +It's a very great honor for me to welcome onstage one of the greatest Brazilian musicians of all time. +Please welcome Nan Vasconcelos. +BG: Nan Vasconcelos! +Nan Vasconcelos: Let's go to the jungle. +The first patient to ever be treated with an antibiotic was a policeman in Oxford. +On his day off from work, he was scratched by a rose thorn while working in the garden. +That small scratch became infected. +Over the next few days, his head was swollen with abscesses, and in fact his eye was so infected that they had to take it out, and by February of 1941, this poor man was on the verge of dying. +So they gave Albert Alexander, this Oxford policeman, the drug, and within 24 hours, he started getting better. +His fever went down, his appetite came back. +Second day, he was doing much better. +They were starting to run out of penicillin, so what they would do was run with his urine across the road to re-synthesize the penicillin from his urine and give it back to him, and that worked. +Day four, well on the way to recovery. +This was a miracle. +Day five, they ran out of penicillin, and the poor man died. +So that story didn't end that well, but fortunately for millions of other people, like this child who was treated again in the early 1940s, who was again dying of a sepsis, and within just six days, you can see, recovered thanks to this wonder drug, penicillin. +Millions have lived, and global health has been transformed. +Just to save a few pennies on the price of meat, we've spent a lot of antibiotics on animals, not for treatment, not for sick animals, but primarily for growth promotion. +Now, what did that lead us to? +Basically, the massive use of antibiotics around the world has imposed such large selection pressure on bacteria that resistance is now a problem, because we've now selected for just the resistant bacteria. +And I'm sure you've all read about this in the newspapers, you've seen this in every magazine that you come across, but I really want you to appreciate the significance of this problem. +This is serious. +The next slide I'm about to show you is of carbapenem resistance in acinetobacter. +Acinetobacter is a nasty hospital bug, and carbapenem is pretty much the strongest class of antibiotics that we can throw at this bug. +And you can see in 1999 this is the pattern of resistance, mostly under about 10 percent across the United States. +Now watch what happens when we play the video. +So I don't know where you live, but wherever it is, it certainly is a lot worse now than it was in 1999, and that is the problem of antibiotic resistance. +It's a global issue affecting both rich and poor countries, and at the heart of it, you might say, well, isn't this really just a medical issue? +If we taught doctors how not to use antibiotics as much, if we taught patients how not to demand antibiotics, perhaps this really wouldn't be an issue, and maybe the pharmaceutical companies should be working harder to develop more antibiotics. +Now, that's a problem that's similar to another area that we all know about, which is of fuel use and energy, and of course energy use both depletes energy as well as leads to local pollution and climate change. +And typically, in the case of energy, there are two ways in which you can deal with the problem. +Now, these are not separate. +They're related, because if we invest heavily in new oil wells, we reduce the incentives for conservation of oil in the same way that's going to happen for antibiotics. +The reverse is also going to happen, which is that if we use our antibiotics appropriately, we don't necessarily have to make the investments in new drug development. +And if you thought that these two were entirely, fully balanced between these two options, you might consider the fact that this is really a game that we're playing. +The game is really one of coevolution, and coevolution is, in this particular picture, between cheetahs and gazelles. +Cheetahs have evolved to run faster, because if they didn't run faster, they wouldn't get any lunch. +Gazelles have evolved to run faster because if they don't run faster, they would be lunch. +Now, this is the game we're playing against the bacteria, except we're not the cheetahs, we're the gazelles, and the bacteria would, just in the course of this little talk, would have had kids and grandkids and figured out how to be resistant just by selection and trial and error, trying it over and over again. +Whereas how do we stay ahead of the bacteria? +We have drug discovery processes, screening molecules, we have clinical trials, and then, when we think we have a drug, then we have the FDA regulatory process. +And once we go through all of that, then we try to stay one step ahead of the bacteria. +Now, this is clearly not a game that can be sustained, or one that we can win by simply innovating to stay ahead. +We've got to slow the pace of coevolution down, and there are ideas that we can borrow from energy that are helpful in thinking about how we might want to do this in the case of antibiotics as well. +Now, if you think about how we deal with energy pricing, for instance, we consider emissions taxes, which means we're imposing the costs of pollution on people who actually use that energy. +We might consider doing that for antibiotics as well, and perhaps that would make sure that antibiotics actually get used appropriately. +There are clean energy subsidies, which are to switch to fuels which don't pollute as much or perhaps don't need fossil fuels. +Now, the analogy here is, perhaps we need to move away from using antibiotics, and if you think about it, what are good substitutes for antibiotics? +Well, turns out that anything that reduces the need for the antibiotic would really work, so that could include improving hospital infection control or vaccinating people, particularly against the seasonal influenza. +And the seasonal flu is probably the biggest driver of antibiotic use, both in this country as well as in many other countries, and that could really help. +A third option might include something like tradeable permits. +And certainly consumer education works. +A hospital in St. Louis basically would put up on a chart the names of surgeons in the ordering of how much antibiotics they'd used in the previous month, and this was purely an informational feedback, there was no shaming, but essentially that provided some information back to surgeons that maybe they could rethink how they were using antibiotics. +Now, there's a lot that can be done on the supply side as well. +If you look at the price of penicillin, the cost per day is about 10 cents. +It's a fairly cheap drug. +If you take drugs that have been introduced since then linezolid or daptomycin those are significantly more expensive, so to a world that has been used to paying 10 cents a day for antibiotics, the idea of paying 180 dollars per day seems like a lot. +But what is that really telling us? +That price is telling us that we should no longer take cheap, effective antibiotics as a given into the foreseeable future, and that price is a signal to us that perhaps we need to be paying much more attention to conservation. +That price is also a signal that maybe we need to start looking at other technologies, in the same way that gasoline prices are a signal and an impetus, to, say, the development of electric cars. +So this is going to involve a whole new paradigm shift, and it's also a scary shift because in many parts of this country, in many parts of the world, the idea of paying 200 dollars for a day of antibiotic treatment is simply unimaginable. +So we need to think about that. +Now, there are backstop options, which is other alternative technologies that people are working on. +It includes bacteriophages, probiotics, quorum sensing, synbiotics. +Now, all of these are useful avenues to pursue, and they will become even more lucrative when the price of new antibiotics starts going higher, and we've seen that the market does actually respond, and the government is now considering ways of subsidizing new antibiotics and development. +But there are challenges here. +We don't want to just throw money at a problem. +What we want to be able to do is invest in new antibiotics in ways that actually encourage appropriate use and sales of those antibiotics, and that really is the challenge here. +Now, going back to these technologies, you all remember the line from that famous dinosaur film, "Nature will find a way." +So it's not as if these are permanent solutions. +We really have to remember that, whatever the technology might be, that nature will find some way to work around it. +You might think, well, this is just a problem just with antibiotics and with bacteria, but it turns out that we have the exact same identical problem in many other fields as well, which is a serious problem in India and South Africa. +Thousands of patients are dying because the second-line drugs are so expensive, and in some instances, even those don't work and you have XDR TB. +Viruses are becoming resistant. +Agricultural pests. Malaria parasites. +Right now, much of the world depends on one drug, artemisinin drugs, essentially to treat malaria. +Resistance to artemisinin has already emerged, and if this were to become widespread, that puts at risk the single drug that we have to treat malaria around the world in a way that's currently safe and efficacious. +Mosquitos develop resistance. +If you have kids, you probably know about head lice, and if you're from New York City, I understand that the specialty there is bedbugs. +So those are also resistant. +And we have to bring an example from across the pond. +Turns out that rats are also resistant to poisons. +And we really now need to start thinking about them as natural resources. +And so we stand at a crossroads. +An option is to go through that rethinking and carefully consider incentives to change how we do business. +The alternative is a world in which even a blade of grass is a potentially lethal weapon. +Thank you. +They told me that I'm a traitor to my own profession, that I should be fired, have my medical license taken away, that I should go back to my own country. +My email got hacked. +In a discussion forum for other doctors, someone took credit for "Twitter-bombing" my account. +Now, I didn't know if this was a good or bad thing, but then came the response: "Too bad it wasn't a real bomb." +I never thought that I would do something that would provoke this level of anger among other doctors. +Becoming a doctor was my dream. +I grew up in China, and my earliest memories are of being rushed to the hospital because I had such bad asthma that I was there nearly every week. +I had this one doctor, Dr. Sam, who always took care of me. +She was about the same age as my mother. +She had this wild, curly hair, and she always wore these bright yellow flowery dresses. +She was one of those doctors who, if you fell and you broke your arm, she would ask you why you weren't laughing because it's your humerus. Get it? +See, you'd groan, but she'd always make you feel better after having seen her. +Well, we all have that childhood hero that we want to grow up to be just like, right? +Well, I wanted to be just like Dr. Sam. +When I was eight, my parents and I moved to the U.S., and ours became the typical immigrant narrative. +My parents cleaned hotel rooms and washed dishes and pumped gas so that I could pursue my dream. +Well, eventually I learned enough English, and my parents were so happy the day that I got into medical school and took my oath of healing and service. +But then one day, everything changed. +My mother called me to tell me that she wasn't feeling well, she had a cough that wouldn't go away, she was short of breath and tired. +Well, I knew that my mother was someone who never complained about anything. +For her to tell me that something was the matter, I knew something had to be really wrong. +And it was: We found out that she had stage IV breast cancer, cancer that by then had spread to her lungs, her bones, and her brain. +My mother was brave, though, and she had hope. +She went through surgery and radiation, and was on her third round of chemotherapy when she lost her address book. +She tried to look up her oncologist's phone number on the Internet and she found it, but she found something else too. +On several websites, he was listed as a highly paid speaker to a drug company, and in fact often spoke on behalf of the same chemo regimen that he had prescribed her. +She called me in a panic, and I didn't know what to believe. +Maybe this was the right chemo regimen for her, but maybe it wasn't. +It made her scared and it made her doubt. +When it comes to medicine, having that trust is a must, and when that trust is gone, then all that's left is fear. +There's another side to this fear. +As a medical student, I was taking care of this 19-year-old who was biking back to his dorm when he got struck and hit, run over by an SUV. +He had seven broken ribs, shattered hip bones, and he was bleeding inside his belly and inside his brain. +Now, imagine being his parents who flew in from Seattle, 2,000 miles away, to find their son in a coma. +I mean, you'd want to find out what's going on with him, right? +They asked to attend our bedside rounds where we discussed his condition and his plan, which I thought was a reasonable request, and also would give us a chance to show them how much we were trying and how much we cared. +The head doctor, though, said no. +He gave all kinds of reasons. +Maybe they'll get in the nurse's way. +Maybe they'll stop students from asking questions. +He even said, "What if they see mistakes and sue us?" +What I saw behind every excuse was deep fear, and what I learned was that to become a doctor, we have to put on our white coats, put up a wall, and hide behind it. +There's a hidden epidemic in medicine. +Of course, patients are scared when they come to the doctor. +Imagine you wake up with this terrible bellyache, you go to the hospital, you're lying in this strange place, you're on this hospital gurney, you're wearing this flimsy gown, strangers are coming to poke and prod at you. +You don't know what's going to happen. +You don't even know if you're going to get the blanket you asked for 30 minutes ago. +But it's not just patients who are scared; doctors are scared too. +We're scared of patients finding out who we are and what medicine is all about. +And so what do we do? +We put on our white coats and we hide behind them. +Of course, the more we hide, the more people want to know what it is that we're hiding. +The more fear then spirals into mistrust and poor medical care. +We don't just have a fear of sickness, we have a sickness of fear. +Can we bridge this disconnect between what patients need and what doctors do? +Can we overcome the sickness of fear? +Let me ask you differently: If hiding isn't the answer, what if we did the opposite? +What if doctors were to become totally transparent with their patients? +Last fall, I conducted a research study to find out what it is that people want to know about their healthcare. +I didn't just want to study patients in a hospital, but everyday people. +So my two medical students, Suhavi Tucker and Laura Johns, literally took their research to the streets. +They went to banks, coffee shops, senior centers, Chinese restaurants and train stations. +What did they find? +Well, when we asked people, "What do you want to know about your healthcare?" +people responded with what they want to know about their doctors, because people understand health care to be the individual interaction between them and their doctors. +When we asked, "What do you want to know about your doctors?" +people gave three different answers. +Some want to know that their doctor is competent and certified to practice medicine. +Some want to be sure that their doctor is unbiased and is making decisions based on evidence and science, not on who pays them. +Surprisingly to us, many people want to know something else about their doctors. +Jonathan, a 28-year-old law student, says he wants to find someone who is comfortable with LGBTQ patients and specializes in LGBT health. +Serena, a 32-year-old accountant, says that it's important to her for her doctor to share her values when it comes to reproductive choice and women's rights. +Frank, a 59-year-old hardware store owner, doesn't even like going to the doctor and wants to find someone who believes in prevention first, but who is comfortable with alternative treatments. +One after another, our respondents told us that that doctor-patient relationship is a deeply intimate one that to show their doctors their bodies and tell them their deepest secrets, they want to first understand their doctor's values. +Just because doctors have to see every patient doesn't mean that patients have to see every doctor. +People want to know about their doctors first so that they can make an informed choice. +As a result of this, I formed a campaign, Who's My Doctor? +that calls for total transparency in medicine. +Participating doctors voluntarily disclose on a public website not just information about where we went to medical school and what specialty we're in, but also our conflicts of interest. +We go beyond the Government in the Sunshine Act about drug company affiliations, and we talk about how we're paid. +Incentives matter. +If you go to your doctor because of back pain, you might want to know he's getting paid 5,000 dollars to perform spine surgery versus 25 dollars to refer you to see a physical therapist, or if he's getting paid the same thing no matter what he recommends. +Then, we go one step further. +We add our values when it comes to women's health, LGBT health, alternative medicine, preventive health, and end-of-life decisions. +We pledge to our patients that we are here to serve you, so you have a right to know who we are. +We believe that transparency can be the cure for fear. +I thought some doctors would sign on and others wouldn't, but I had no idea of the huge backlash that would ensue. +Within one week of starting Who's My Doctor? +Medscape's public forum and several online doctors' communities had thousands of posts about this topic. +Here are a few. +From a gastroenterologist in Portland: "I devoted 12 years of my life to being a slave. +I have loans and mortgages. +I depend on lunches from drug companies to serve patients." +Well, times may be hard for everyone, but try telling your patient making 35,000 dollars a year to serve a family of four that you need the free lunch. +From an orthopedic surgeon in Charlotte: "I find it an invasion of my privacy to disclose where my income comes from. +My patients don't disclose their incomes to me." +But your patients' sources of income don't affect your health. +From a psychiatrist in New York City: "Pretty soon we will have to disclose whether we prefer cats to dogs, what model of car we drive, and what toilet paper we use." +Well, how you feel about Toyotas or Cottonelle won't affect your patients' health, but your views on a woman's right to choose and preventive medicine and end-of-life decisions just might. +And my favorite, from a Kansas City cardiologist: "More government-mandated stuff? +Dr. Wen needs to move back to her own country." +Well, two pieces of good news. +First of all, this is meant to be voluntary and not mandatory, and second of all, I'm American and I'm already here. +Within a month, my employers were getting calls asking for me to be fired. +I received mail at my undisclosed home address with threats to contact the medical board to sanction me. +My friends and family urged me to quit this campaign. +After the bomb threat, I was done. +But then I heard from patients. +Over social media, a TweetChat, which I'd learned what that was by then, generated 4.3 million impressions, and thousands of people wrote to encourage me to continue. +They wrote with things like, "If doctors are doing something they're that ashamed of, they shouldn't be doing it." +"Elected officials have to disclose campaign contributions. +Lawyers have to disclose conflicts of interests. +Why shouldn't doctors?" +And finally, many people wrote and said, "Let us patients decide what's important when we're choosing a doctor." +In our initial trial, over 300 doctors have taken the total transparency pledge. +What a crazy new idea, right? +But actually, this is not that new of a concept at all. +Remember Dr. Sam, my doctor in China, with the goofy jokes and the wild hair? +Well, she was my doctor, but she was also our neighbor who lived in the building across the street. +I went to the same school as her daughter. +My parents and I trusted her because we knew who she was and what she stood for, and she had no need to hide from us. +Just one generation ago, this was the norm in the U.S. as well. +You knew that your family doctor was the father of two teenage boys, that he quit smoking a few years ago, that he says he's a regular churchgoer, but you see him twice a year: once at Easter and once when his mother-in-law comes to town. +You knew what he was about, and he had no need to hide from you. +But the sickness of fear has taken over, and patients suffer the consequences. +I know this firsthand. +My mother fought her cancer for eight years. +She was a planner, and she thought a lot about how she wanted to live and how she wanted to die. +Not only did she sign advance directives, she wrote a 12-page document about how she had suffered enough, how it was time for her to go. +One day, when I was a resident physician, I got a call to say that she was in the intensive care unit. +By the time I got there, she was about to be intubated and put on a breathing machine. +"But this is not what she wants," I said, "and we have documents." +The ICU doctor looked at me in the eye, pointed at my then 16-year-old sister, and said, "Do you remember when you were that age? +How would you have liked to grow up without your mother?" +Her oncologist was there too, and said, "This is your mother. +Can you really face yourself for the rest of your life if you don't do everything for her?" +I knew my mother so well. +I understood what her directives meant so well, but I was a physician. +That was the single hardest decision I ever made, to let her die in peace, and I carry those words of those doctors with me every single day. +We can bridge the disconnect between what doctors do and what patients need. +We can get there, because we've been there before, and we know that transparency gets us to that trust. +Research has shown us that openness also helps doctors, that having open medical records, being willing to talk about medical errors, will increase patient trust, improve health outcomes, and reduce malpractice. +That openness, that trust, is only going to be more important as we move from the infectious to the behavioral model of disease. +Bacteria may not care so much about trust and intimacy, but for people to tackle the hard lifestyle choices, to address issues like smoking cessation, blood-pressure management and diabetes control, well, that requires us to establish trust. +Here's what other transparent doctors have said. +Brandon Combs, an internist in Denver: "This has brought me closer to my patients. +The type of relationship I've developed that's why I entered medicine." +Aaron Stupple, an internist in Denver: "I tell my patients that I am totally open with them. +I don't hide anything from them. +This is me. Now tell me about you. +We're in this together." +May Nguyen, a family physician in Houston: "My colleagues are astounded by what I'm doing. +They ask me how I could be so brave. +I said, I'm not being brave, it's my job." +I leave you today with a final thought. +Being totally transparent is scary. +You feel naked, exposed and vulnerable, but that vulnerability, that humility, it can be an extraordinary benefit to the practice of medicine. +When doctors are willing to step off our pedestals, take off our white coats, and show our patients who we are and what medicine is all about, that's when we begin to overcome the sickness of fear. +That's when we establish trust. +That's when we change the paradigm of medicine from one of secrecy and hiding to one that is fully open and engaged for our patients. +Thank you. +On January 4, 1934, a young man delivered a report to the United States Congress that 80 years on, still shapes the lives of everyone in this room today, still shapes the lives of everyone on this planet. +That young man wasn't a politician, he wasn't a businessman, a civil rights activist or a faith leader. +He was that most unlikely of heroes, an economist. +His name was Simon Kuznets and the report that he delivered was called "National Income, 1929-1932." +Now, you might think this is a rather dry and dull report. +And you're absolutely right. +It's dry as a bone. +But this report is the foundation of how, today, we judge the success of countries: what we know best as Gross Domestic Product, GDP. +GDP has defined and shaped our lives for the last 80 years. +And today I want to talk about a different way to measure the success of countries, a different way to define and shape our lives for the next 80 years. +But first, we have to understand how GDP came to dominate our lives. +Kuznets' report was delivered at a moment of crisis. +The U.S. economy was plummeting into the Great Depression and policy makers were struggling to respond. +Struggling because they didn't know what was going on. +They didn't have data and statistics. +So what Kuznet's report gave them was reliable data on what the U.S. economy was producing, updated year by year. +And armed with this information, policy makers were, eventually, able to find a way out of the slump. +And because Kuznets' invention was found to be so useful, it spread around the world. +And now today, every country produces GDP statistics. +But, in that first report, Kuznets himself delivered a warning. +It's in the introductory chapter. +On page seven he says, "The welfare of a nation can, therefore, scarcely be inferred from a measurement of national income as defined above." +It's not the greatest sound bite in the world, and it's dressed up in the cautious language of the economist. +But his message was clear: GDP is a tool to help us measure economic performance. +It's not a measure of our well-being. +And it shouldn't be a guide to all decision making. +But we have ignored Kuznets' warning. +We live in a world where GDP is the benchmark of success in a global economy. +Our politicians boast when GDP goes up. +Markets move and trillions of dollars of capital move around the world based on which countries are going up and which countries are going down, all measured in GDP. +Our societies have become engines to create more GDP. +But we know that GDP is flawed. +It ignores the environment. +It counts bombs and prisons as progress. +It can't count happiness or community. +And it has nothing to say about fairness or justice. +Is it any surprise that our world, marching to the drumbeat of GDP, is teetering on the brink of environmental disaster and filled with anger and conflict? +We need a better way to measure our societies, a measure based on the real things that matter to real people. +Do I have enough to eat? +Can I read and write? +Am I safe? +Do I have rights? +Do I live in a society where I'm not discriminated against? +Is my future and the future of my children prevented from environmental destruction? +These are questions that GDP does not and cannot answer. +There have, of course, been efforts in the past to move beyond GDP. +But I believe that we're living in a moment when we are ready for a measurement revolution. +We're ready because we've seen, in the financial crisis of 2008, how our fetish for economic growth led us so far astray. +We've seen, in the Arab Spring, how countries like Tunisia were supposedly economic superstars, but they were societies that were seething with discontentment. +We're ready, because today we have the technology to gather and analyze data in ways that would have been unimaginable to Kuznets. +Today, I'd like to introduce you to the Social Progress Index. +It's a measure of the well-being of society, completely separate from GDP. +It's a whole new way of looking at the world. +The Social Progress Index begins by defining what it means to be a good society based around three dimensions. +The first is, does everyone have the basic needs for survival: food, water, shelter, safety? +Secondly, does everyone have access to the building blocks to improve their lives: education, information, health and sustainable environment? +And then third, does every individual have access to a chance to pursue their goals and dreams and ambitions free from obstacles? +Do they have rights, freedom of choice, freedom from discrimination and access to the the world's most advanced knowledge? +Together, these 12 components form the Social Progress framework. +And for each of these 12 components, we have indicators to measure how countries are performing. +Not indicators of effort or intention, but real achievement. +We don't measure how much a country spends on healthcare, we measure the length and quality of people's lives. +We don't measure whether governments pass laws against discrimination, we measure whether people experience discrimination. +But what you want to know is who's top, don't you? I knew that, I knew that, I knew that. +Okay, I'm going to show you. +I'm going to show you on this chart. +So here we are, what I've done here is put on the vertical axis social progress. +Higher is better. +And then, just for comparison, just for fun, on the horizontal axis is GDP per capita. +Further to the right is more. +So the country in the world with the highest social progress, the number one country on social progress is New Zealand. +Well done! Never been; must go. +The country with the least social progress, I'm sorry to say, is Chad. +I've never been; maybe next year. +Or maybe the year after. +Now, I know what you're thinking. +You're thinking, "Aha, but New Zealand has a higher GDP than Chad!" +It's a good point, well made. +But let me show you two other countries. +Here's the United States considerably richer than New Zealand, but with a lower level of social progress. +And then here's Senegal it's got a higher level of social progress than Chad, but the same level of GDP. +So what's going on? Well, look. +Let me bring in the rest of the countries of the world, the 132 we've been able to measure, each one represented by a dot. +There we go. Lots of dots. +Now, obviously I can't do all of them, so a few highlights for you: The highest ranked G7 country is Canada. +My country, the United Kingdom, is sort of middling, sort of dull, but who cares at least we beat the French. +And then looking at the emerging economies, top of the BRICS, pleased to say, is Brazil. +Come on, cheer! +Go, Brazil! +Beating South Africa, then Russia, then China and then India. +Tucked away on the right-hand side, you will see a dot of a country with a lot of GDP but not a huge amount of social progress that's Kuwait. +Just above Brazil is a social progress superpower that's Costa Rica. +It's got a level of social progress the same as some Western European countries, with a much lower GDP. +Now, my slide is getting a little cluttered and I'd like to step back a bit. +So let me take away these countries, and then pop in the regression line. +So this shows the average relationship between GDP and social progress. +The first thing to notice, is that there's lots of noise around the trend line. +And what this shows, what this empirically demonstrates, is that GDP is not destiny. +At every level of GDP per capita, there are opportunities for more social progress, risks of less. +The second thing to notice is that for poor countries, the curve is really steep. +So what this tells us is that if poor countries can get a little bit of extra GDP, and if they reinvest that in doctors, nurses, water supplies, sanitation, etc., there's a lot of social progress bang for your GDP buck. +And that's good news, and that's what we've seen over the last 20, 30 years, with a lot of people lifted out of poverty by economic growth and good policies in poorer countries. +But go on a bit further up the curve, and then we see it flattening out. +Each extra dollar of GDP is buying less and less social progress. +And with more and more of the world's population living on this part of the curve, it means GDP is becoming less and less useful as a guide to our development. +I'll show you an example of Brazil. +Here's Brazil: social progress of about 70 out of 100, GDP per capita about 14,000 dollars a year. +And look, Brazil's above the line. +Brazil is doing a reasonably good job of turning GDP into social progress. +But where does Brazil go next? +Let's say that Brazil adopts a bold economic plan to double GDP in the next decade. +But that is only half a plan. +It's less than half a plan, because where does Brazil want to go on social progress? +Brazil, it's possible to increase your growth, increase your GDP, while stagnating or going backwards on social progress. +We don't want Brazil to become like Russia. +What you really want is for Brazil to get ever more efficient at creating social progress from its GDP, so it becomes more like New Zealand. +And what that means is that Brazil needs to prioritize social progress in its development plan and see that it's not just growth alone, it's growth with social progress. +And that's what the Social Progress Index does: It reframes the debate about development, not just about GDP alone, but inclusive, sustainable growth that brings real improvements in people's lives. +And it's not just about countries. +Earlier this year, with our friends from the Imazon nonprofit here in Brazil, we launched the first subnational Social Progress Index. +We did it for the Amazon region. +It's an area the size of Europe, 24 million people, one of the most deprived parts of the country. +And here are the results, and this is broken down into nearly 800 different municipalities. +And this is just the beginning, You can create a Social Progress Index for any state, region, city or municipality. +We all know and love TEDx; this is Social Pogress-x. +This is a tool for anyone to come and use. +Contrary to the way we sometimes talk about it, GDP was not handed down from God on tablets of stone. It's a measurement tool invented in the 20th century to address the challenges of the 20th century. +In the 21st century, we face new challenges: aging, obesity, climate change, and so on. +To face those challenges, we need new tools of measurement, new ways of valuing progress. +Imagine if we could measure what nonprofits, charities, volunteers, civil society organizations really contribute to our society. +Imagine if businesses competed not just on the basis of their economic contribution, but on their contribution to social progress. +Imagine if we could hold politicians to account for really improving people's lives. +Imagine if we could work together government, business, civil society, me, you and make this century the century of social progress. +Thank you. +Picture this: It's Monday morning, you're at the office, you're settling in for the day at work, and this guy that you sort of recognize from down the hall, walks right into your cubicle and he steals your chair. +Doesn't say a word just rolls away with it. +Doesn't give you any information about why he took your chair out of all the other chairs that are out there. +Doesn't acknowledge the fact that you might need your chair to get some work done today. +You wouldn't stand for it. You'd make a stink. +You'd follow that guy back to his cubicle and you'd say, "Why my chair?" +Okay, so now it's Tuesday morning and you're at the office, and a meeting invitation pops up in your calendar. +And it's from this woman who you kind of know from down the hall, and the subject line references some project that you heard a little bit about. +But there's no agenda. +There's no information about why you were invited to the meeting. +And yet you accept the meeting invitation, and you go. +And when this highly unproductive session is over, you go back to your desk, and you stand at your desk and you say, "Boy, I wish I had those two hours back, like I wish I had my chair back." +Every day, we allow our coworkers, who are otherwise very, very nice people, to steal from us. +And I'm talking about something far more valuable than office furniture. +I'm talking about time. Your time. +In fact, I believe that we are in the middle of a global epidemic of a terrible new illness known as MAS: Mindless Accept Syndrome. +The primary symptom of Mindless Accept Syndrome is just accepting a meeting invitation the minute it pops up in your calendar. +It's an involuntary reflex ding, click, bing it's in your calendar, "Gotta go, I'm already late for a meeting." Meetings are important, right? +And collaboration is key to the success of any enterprise. +And a well-run meeting can yield really positive, actionable results. +But between globalization and pervasive information technology, the way that we work has really changed dramatically over the last few years. +And we're miserable. And we're miserable not because the other guy can't run a good meeting, it's because of MAS, our Mindless Accept Syndrome, which is a self-inflicted wound. +Actually, I have evidence to prove that MAS is a global epidemic. +Let me tell you why. +A couple of years ago, I put a video on Youtube, and in the video, I acted out every terrible conference call you've ever been on. +It goes on for about five minutes, and it has all the things that we hate about really bad meetings. +There's the moderator who has no idea how to run the meeting. +There are the participants who have no idea why they're there. +The whole thing kind of collapses into this collaborative train wreck. +And everybody leaves very angry. +It's kind of funny. +Let's take a quick look. +Our goal today is to come to an agreement on a very important proposal. +As a group, we need to decide if bloop bloop Hi, who just joined? +Hi, it's Joe. I'm working from home today. +Hi, Joe. Thanks for joining us today, great. +I was just saying, we have a lot of people on the call we'd like to get through, so let's skip the roll call and I'm gonna dive right in. +Our goal today is to come to an agreement on a very important proposal. +As a group, we need to decide if bloop bloop Hi, who just joined? +No? I thought I heard a beep. Sound familiar? +Yeah, it sounds familiar to me, too. +A couple of weeks after I put that online, 500,000 people in dozens of countries, I mean dozens of countries, watched this video. +And three years later, it's still getting thousands of views every month. +It's close to about a million right now. +And in fact, some of the biggest companies in the world, companies that you've heard of but I won't name, have asked for my permission to use this video in their new-hire training to teach their new employees how not to run a meeting at their company. +And if the numbers there are a million views and it's being used by all these companies aren't enough proof that we have a global problem with meetings, there are the many, many thousands of comments posted online after the video went up. +Thousands of people wrote things like, "OMG, that was my day today!" +"That was my day every day!" +"This is my life." +One guy wrote, "It's funny because it's true. +Eerily, sadly, depressingly true. +It made me laugh until I cried. +And cried. And I cried some more." +This poor guy said, "My daily life until retirement or death, sigh." +These are real quotes and it's real sad. +A common theme running through all of these comments online is this fundamental belief that we are powerless to do anything other than go to meetings and suffer through these poorly run meetings and live to meet another day. +But the truth is, we're not powerless at all. +In fact, the cure for MAS is right here in our hands. +It's right at our fingertips, literally. +It's something that I call No MAS! +Which, if I remember my high school Spanish, means something like, "Enough already, make it stop!" +Here's how No MAS works. It's very simple. +First of all, the next time you get a meeting invitation that doesn't have a lot of information in it at all, click the tentative button! +It's okay, you're allowed, that's why it's there. +It's right next to the accept button. +Or the maybe button, or whatever button is there for you not to accept immediately. +Then, get in touch with the person who asked you to the meeting. +Tell them you're very excited to support their work, ask them what the goal of the meeting is, and tell them you're interested in learning how you can help them achieve their goal. +And if we do this often enough, and we do it respectfully, people might start to be a little bit more thoughtful about the way they put together meeting invitations. +And you can make more thoughtful decisions about accepting it. +People might actually start sending out agendas. Imagine! +Or they might not have a conference call with 12 people to talk about a status when they could just do a quick email and get it done with. +People just might start to change their behavior because you changed yours. +And they just might bring your chair back, too. No MAS! +Thank you. +I haven't told many people this, but in my head, I've got thousands of secret worlds all going on all at the same time. +I am also autistic. +People tend to diagnose autism with really specific check-box descriptions, but in reality, it's a whole variation as to what we're like. +For instance, my little brother, he's very severely autistic. +He's nonverbal. He can't talk at all. +But I love to talk. +People often associate autism with liking maths and science and nothing else, but I know so many autistic people who love being creative. +But that is a stereotype, and the stereotypes of things are often, if not always, wrong. +For instance, a lot of people think autism and think "Rain Man" immediately. +That's the common belief, that every single autistic person is Dustin Hoffman, and that's not true. +But that's not just with autistic people, either. +I've seen it with LGBTQ people, with women, with POC people. +People are so afraid of variety that they try to fit everything into a tiny little box with really specific labels. +This is something that actually happened to me in real life: I googled "autistic people are ..." +and it comes up with suggestions as to what you're going to type. +I googled "autistic people are ..." +and the top result was "demons." +That is the first thing that people think when they think autism. +They know. +One of the things I can do because I'm autistic it's an ability rather than a disability is I've got a very, very vivid imagination. +Let me explain it to you a bit. +It's like I'm walking in two worlds most of the time. +There's the real world, the world that we all share, and there's the world in my mind, and the world in my mind is often so much more real than the real world. +Like, it's very easy for me to let my mind loose because I don't try and fit myself into a tiny little box. +That's one of the best things about being autistic. +You don't have the urge to do that. +You find what you want to do, you find a way to do it, and you get on with it. +If I was trying to fit myself into a box, I wouldn't be here, I wouldn't have achieved half the things that I have now. +There are problems, though. +There are problems with being autistic, and there are problems with having too much imagination. +School can be a problem in general, but having also to explain to a teacher on a daily basis that their lesson is inexplicably dull and you are secretly taking refuge in a world inside your head in which you are not in that lesson, that adds to your list of problems. +Also, when my imagination takes hold, my body takes on a life of its own. +When something very exciting happens in my inner world, I've just got to run. +I've got to rock backwards and forwards, or sometimes scream. +This gives me so much energy, and I've got to have an outlet for all that energy. +But I've done that ever since I was a child, ever since I was a tiny little girl. +And my parents thought it was cute, so they didn't bring it up, but when I got into school, they didn't really agree that it was cute. +It can be that people don't want to be friends with the girl that starts screaming in an algebra lesson. +And this doesn't normally happen in this day and age, but it can be that people don't want to be friends with the autistic girl. +It can be that people don't want to associate with anyone who won't or can't fit themselves into a box that's labeled normal. +But that's fine with me, because it sorts the wheat from the chaff, and I can find which people are genuine and true and I can pick these people as my friends. +But if you think about it, what is normal? +What does it mean? +Imagine if that was the best compliment you ever received. +"Wow, you are really normal." +But compliments are, "you are extraordinary" or "you step outside the box." +It's "you're amazing." +So if people want to be these things, why are so many people striving to be normal? +Why are people pouring their brilliant individual light into a mold? +People are so afraid of variety that they try and force everyone, even people who don't want to or can't, to become normal. +There are camps for LGBTQ people or autistic people to try and make them this "normal," and that's terrifying that people would do that in this day and age. +All in all, I wouldn't trade my autism and my imagination for the world. +And people would often write off someone who's nonverbal, but that's silly, because my little brother and sister are the best siblings that you could ever hope for. +They're just the best, and I love them so much and I care about them more than anything else. +I'm going to leave you with one question: If we can't get inside the person's minds, no matter if they're autistic or not, instead of punishing anything that strays from normal, why not celebrate uniqueness and cheer every time someone unleashes their imagination? +Thank you. +Well, good afternoon. +How many of you took the ALS Ice Bucket Challenge? +Woo hoo! +Well, I have to tell you, from the bottom of our hearts, thank you so very, very much. +Do you know to date the ALS Association has raised 125 million dollars? +Woo hoo! It takes me back to the summer of 2011. +My family, my kids had all grown up. +We were officially empty nesters, and we decided, let's go on a family vacation. +Jenn, my daughter, and my son-in-law came down from New York. +My youngest, Andrew, he came down from his home in Charlestown where he was working in Boston, and my son Pete, who had played at Boston College, baseball, had played baseball professionally in Europe, and had now come home and was selling group insurance, he also joined us. +And one night, I found myself having a beer with Pete, and Pete was looking at me and he just said, "You know, Mom, I don't know, selling group insurance is just not my passion." +He said, "I just don't feel I'm living up to my potential. +I don't feel this is my mission in life." +And he said, "You know, oh by the way, Mom, I have to leave early from vacation because my inter-city league team that I play for made the playoffs, and I have to get back to Boston because I can't let my team down. +I'm just not as passionate about my job as I am about baseball." +So off Pete went, and left the family vacation break a mother's heart and he went, and we followed four days later to see the next playoff game. +We're at the playoff game, Pete's at the plate, and a fastball's coming in, and it hits him on the wrist. +Oh, Pete. +His wrist went completely limp, like this. +So for the next six months, Pete went back to his home in Southie, kept working that unpassionate job, and was going to doctors to see what was wrong with this wrist that never came back. +Six months later, in March, he called my husband and me, and he said, "Oh, Mom and Dad, we have a doctor that found a diagnosis for that wrist. +Do you want to come with the doctor's appointment with me?" +I said, "Sure, we'll come in." +That morning, Pete, John and I all got up, got dressed, got in our cars three separate cars because we were going to go to work after the doctor's appointment to find out what happened to the wrist. +We walked into the neurologist's office, sat down, four doctors walk in, and the head neurologist sits down. +And he says, "Well, Pete, we've been looking at all the tests, and I have to tell you, it's not a sprained wrist, it's not a broken wrist, it's not nerve damage in the wrist, it's not an infection, it's not Lyme disease." +and I was thinking to myself, where is he going with this? +Then he put his hands on his knees, he looked right at my 27-year-old kid, and said, "I don't know how to tell a 27-year-old this: Pete, you have ALS." +ALS? +I had had a friend whose 80-year-old father had ALS. +I looked at my husband, he looked at me, and then we looked at the doctor, and we said, "ALS? +Okay, what treatment? Let's go. +What do we do? Let's go." +And he looked at us, and he said, "Mr. and Mrs. Frates, but there's no treatment and there's no cure." +We were the worst culprits. +We didn't even understand that it had been 75 years since Lou Gehrig and nothing had been done in the progress against ALS. +So we all went home, and Jenn and Dan flew home from Wall Street, Andrew came home from Charlestown, and Pete went to B.C. to pick up his then-girlfriend Julie and brought her home, and six hours later after diagnosis, we're sitting around having a family dinner, and we're having small chat. +I don't even remember cooking dinner that night. +But then our leader, Pete, set the vision, and talked to us just like we were his new team. +He said, "There will be no wallowing, people." +He goes, "We're not looking back, we're looking forward. +What an amazing opportunity we have to change the world. +I'm going to change the face of this unacceptable situation of ALS. +We're going to move the needle, and I'm going to get it in front of philanthropists like Bill Gates." +And that was it. We were given our directive. +So in the days and months that followed, within a week, we had our brothers and sisters and our family come to us, that they were already creating Team Frate Train. +Uncle Dave, he was the webmaster; Uncle Artie, he was the accountant; Auntie Dana, she was the graphic artist; and my youngest son, Andrew, quit his job, left his apartment in Charlestown and says, "I'm going to take care of Pete and be his caregiver." +Then all those people, classmates, teammates, coworkers that Pete had inspired throughout his whole life, the circles of Pete all started intersecting with one another, and made Team Frate Train. +Six months after diagnosis, Pete was given an award at a research summit for advocacy. +He got up and gave a very eloquent speech, and at the end of the speech, there was a panel, and on the panel were these pharmaceutical executives and biochemists and clinicians and I'm sitting there and I'm listening to them and most of the content went straight over my head. I avoided every science class I ever could. +But I was watching these people, and I was listening to them, and they were saying, "I, I do this, I do that," and there was a real unfamiliarity between them. +So at the end of their talk, the panel, they had questions and answers, and boom, my hand went right up, and I get the microphone, and I look at them and I say, "Thank you. +Thank you so much for working in ALS. +It means so very much to us." +I said, "But I do have to tell you that I'm watching your body language and I'm listening to what you're saying. +It just doesn't seem like there's a whole lot of collaboration going on here. +And not only that, where's the flip chart with the action items and the follow-up and the accountability? +What are you going to do after you leave this room?" +And then I turned around and there was about 200 pairs of eyes just staring at me. +And it was that point that I realized that I had talked about the elephant in the room. +Thus my mission had begun. +So over the next couple of years, Pete we've had our highs and our lows. +Pete was put on a compassionate use drug. +It was hope in a bottle for the whole ALS community. +It was in a phase III trial. +Then six months later, the data comes back: no efficacy. +We were supposed to have therapies overseas, and the rug was pulled out from under us. +So for the next two years, we just watched my son be taken away from me, little by little every day. +Two and a half years ago, Pete was hitting home runs at baseball fields. +Today, Pete's completely paralyzed. +He can't hold his head up any longer. +He's confined to a motorized wheelchair. +He can no longer swallow or eat. +He has a feeding tube. +He can't speak. +He talks with eye gaze technology and a speech generating device, and we're watching his lungs, because his diaphragm eventually is going to give out and then the decision will be made to put him on a ventilator or not. +ALS robs the human of all their physical parts, but the brain stays intact. +So July 4th, 2014, 75th year of Lou Gehrig's inspirational speech comes, and Pete is asked by MLB.com to write an article in the Bleacher Report. +And it was very significant, because he wrote it using his eye gaze technology. +Twenty days later, the ice started to fall. +On July 27th, Pete's roommate in New York City, wearing a Quinn For The Win shirt, signifying Pat Quinn, another ALS patient known in New York, and B.C. shorts said, "I'm taking the ALS Ice Bucket Challenge," picked up the ice, put it over his head. +"And I'm nominating ..." And he sent it up to Boston. +And that was on July 27th. +Over the next couple of days, our news feed was full of family and friends. +If you haven't gone back, the nice thing about Facebook is that you have the dates, you can go back. +You've got to see Uncle Artie's human Bloody Mary. +I'm telling you, it's one of the best ones, and that was probably in day two. +By about day four, Uncle Dave, the webmaster, he isn't on Facebook, and I get a text from him, and it says, "Nancy, what the hell is going on?" +Uncle Dave gets a hit every time Pete's website is gone onto, and his phone was blowing up. +So we all sat down and we realized, money is coming in how amazing. +So we knew awareness would lead to funding, we just didn't know it would only take a couple of days. +So we got together, put our best 501s on Pete's website, So week one, Boston media. +Week two, national media. +It was during week two that our neighbor next door opened up our door and threw a pizza across the kitchen floor, saying, "I think you people might need food in there." +Week three, celebrities Entertainment Tonight, Access Hollywood. +Week four, global BBC, Irish Radio. +Did anyone see "Lost In Translation"? +My husband did Japanese television. +It was interesting. +And those videos, the popular ones. +Paul Bissonnette's glacier video, incredible. +How about the redemption nuns of Dublin? +Who's seen that one? +It's absolutely fantastic. +J.T., Justin Timberlake. +That's when we knew, that was a real A-list celebrity. +I go back on my texts, and I can see "JT! JT!" My sister texting me. +Angela Merkel, the chancellor of Germany. +Incredible. +And the ALS patients, you know what their favorite ones are, and their families'? +All of them. +Because this misunderstood and underfunded "rare" disease, they just sat and watched people saying it over and over: "ALS, ALS." +It was unbelievable. +And those naysayers, let's just talk a couple of stats, shall we? +Okay, so the ALS Association, they think by year end, it'll be 160 million dollars. +ALS TDI in Cambridge, they raised three million dollars. +Well, guess what? +They had a clinical trial for a drug that they've been developing. +It was on a three-year track for funding. +Two months. +It's coming out starting in two months. +And YouTube has reported that over 150 countries have posted Ice Bucket Challenges for ALS. +And Facebook, 2.5 million videos, and I had the awesome adventure visiting the Facebook campus last week, and I said to them, "I know what it was like in my house. +I can't imagine what it was like around here." +All she said was, "Jaw-dropping." +And my family's favorite video? +Bill Gates. +Because the night Pete was diagnosed, he told us that he was going to get ALS in front of philanthropists like Bill Gates, and he did it. +Goal number one, check. +Now on to the treatment and cure. +So okay, after all of this ice, we know that it was much more than just pouring buckets of ice water over your head, and I really would like to leave you with a couple of things that I'd like you to remember. +The first thing is, every morning when you wake up, you can choose to live your day in positivity. +Would any of you blame me if I just was in the fetal position and pulled the covers over my head every day? +No, I don't think anybody would blame me, but Pete has inspired us to wake up every morning and be positive and proactive. +spraying their lawns with chemicals, that's why they got ALS, and I was like, "I don't think so," but I had to get away from the negativity. +The second thing I want to leave you with is the person at the middle of the challenge has to be willing to have the mental toughness to put themselves out there. +Pete still goes to baseball games and he still sits with his teammates in the dugout, and he hangs his gravity feed bag right on the cages. +You'll see the kids, they're up there hanging it up. +"Pete, is that okay?" "Yup." +And then they put it right into his stomach. +Because he wants them to see what the reality of this is, and how he's never, ever going to give up. +And the third thing I want to leave you with: If you ever come across a situation that you see as so unacceptable, I want you to dig down as deep as you can and find your best mother bear and go after it. +Thank you. +I know that I'm running over, but I've got to leave you with this: the gifts that my son has given me. +I have had 29 years of having the honor of being the mother of Pete Frates. +Pete Frates has been inspiring and leading his whole life. +He's thrown out kindness, and all that kindness has come back to him. +He walks the face of the Earth right now and knows why he's here. +What a gift. +The second thing that my son has given me is he's given me my mission in life. +Now I know why I'm here. +I'm going to save my son, and if it doesn't happen in time for him, I'm going to work so that no other mother has to go through what I'm going through. +And the third thing, and last but not least gift that my son has given me, as an exclamation point to the miraculous month of August 2014: That girlfriend that he went to get on the night of diagnosis is now his wife, and Pete and Julie have given me my granddaughter, Lucy Fitzgerald Frates. +Lucy Fitzgerald Frates came two weeks early on August 31st, 2014. +And so And so let me leave you with Pete's words of inspiration that he would use to classmates, coworkers and teammates. +Be passionate. +Be genuine. +Be hardworking. +And don't forget to be great. +Thank you. +I want you guys to imagine that you're a soldier running through the battlefield. +Now, you're shot in the leg with a bullet, which severs your femoral artery. +Now, this bleed is extremely traumatic and can kill you in less than three minutes. +Unfortunately, by the time that a medic actually gets to you, what the medic has on his or her belt can take five minutes or more, with the application of pressure, to stop that type of bleed. +Now, this problem is not only a huge problem for the military, but it's also a huge problem that's epidemic throughout the entire medical field, which is how do we actually look at wounds and how do we stop them quickly in a way that can work with the body? +So now, what I've been working on for the last four years is to develop smart biomaterials, which are actually materials that will work with the body, helping it to heal and helping it to allow the wounds to heal normally. +So now, before we do this, we have to take a much closer look at actually how does the body work. +So now, everybody here knows that the body is made up of cells. +So the cell is the most basic unit of life. +But not many people know what else. +But it actually turns out that your cells sit in this mesh of complicated fibers, proteins and sugars known as the extracellular matrix. +So now, the ECM is actually this mesh that holds the cells in place, provides structure for your tissues, but it also gives the cells a home. +It allows them to feel what they're doing, where they are, and tells them how to act and how to behave. +And it actually turns out that the extracellular matrix is different from every single part of the body. +So the ECM in my skin is different than the ECM in my liver, and the ECM in different parts of the same organ actually vary, so it's very difficult to be able to have a product that will react to the local extracellular matrix, which is exactly what we're trying to do. +So now, for example, think of the rainforest. +You have the canopy, you have the understory, and you have the forest floor. +Now, all of these parts of the forest are made up of different plants, and different animals call them home. +So just like that, the extracellular matrix is incredibly diverse in three dimensions. +On top of that, the extracellular matrix is responsible for all wound healing, so if you imagine cutting the body, you actually have to rebuild this very complex ECM in order to get it to form again, and a scar, in fact, is actually poorly formed extracellular matrix. +So now, behind me is an animation of the extracellular matrix. +So as you see, your cells sit in this complicated mesh and as you move throughout the tissue, the extracellular matrix changes. +So now every other piece of technology on the market can only manage a two- dimensional approximation of the extracellular matrix, which means that it doesn't fit in with the tissue itself. +So when I was a freshman at NYU, what I discovered was you could actually take small pieces of plant-derived polymers and reassemble them onto the wound. +So if you have a bleeding wound like the one behind me, and just like Lego blocks, it'll reassemble into the local tissue. +So that means if you put it onto liver, it turns into something that looks like liver, and if you put it onto skin, it turns into something that looks just like skin. +So when you put the gel on, it actually reassembles into this local tissue. +So now, this has a whole bunch of applications, but basically the idea is, wherever you put this product, you're able to reassemble into it immediately. +Now, this is a simulated arterial bleed blood warning at twice human artery pressure. +So now, this type of bleed is incredibly traumatic, and like I said before, would actually take five minutes or more with pressure to be able to stop. +So now this technology Thank you. +So now this technology, by January, will be in the hands of veterinarians, and we're working very diligently to try to get it into the hands of doctors, hopefully within the next year. +But really, once again, I want you guys to imagine that you are a soldier running through a battlefield. +Now, you get hit in the leg with a bullet, and instead of bleeding out in three minutes, you pull a small pack of gel out of your belt, and with the press of a button, you're able to stop your own bleed and you're on your way to recovery. +Thank you very much. +We can cut violent deaths around the world by 50 percent in the next three decades. +All we have to do is drop killing by 2.3 percent a year, and we'll hit that target. +You don't believe me? +Well, the leading epidemiologists and criminologists around the world seem to think we can, and so do I, but only if we focus on our cities, especially the most fragile ones. +You see, I've been thinking about this a lot. +For the last 20 years, I've been working in countries and cities ripped apart by conflict, violence, terrorism, or some insidious combination of all. +I've tracked gun smugglers from Russia to Somalia, I've worked with warlords in Afghanistan and the Congo, I've counted cadavers in Colombia, in Haiti, in Sri Lanka, in Papua New Guinea. +You don't need to be on the front line, though, to get a sense that our planet is spinning out of control, right? +There's this feeling that international instability is the new normal. +But I want you to take a closer look, and I think you'll see that the geography of violence is changing, because it's not so much our nation states that are gripped by conflict and crime as our cities: Aleppo, Bamako, Caracas, Erbil, Mosul, Tripoli, Salvador. +Violence is migrating to the metropole. +And maybe this is to be expected, right? +After all, most people today, they live in cities, not the countryside. +Just 600 cities, including 30 megacities, account for two thirds of global GDP. +But when it comes to cities, the conversation is dominated by the North, that is, North America, Western Europe, Australia and Japan, where violence is actually at historic lows. +As a result, city enthusiasts, they talk about the triumph of the city, of the creative classes, and the mayors that will rule the world. +Now, I hope that mayors do one day rule the world, but, you know, the fact is, we don't hear any conversation, really, about what is happening in the South. +And by South, I mean Latin America, Africa, Asia, where violence in some cases is accelerating, where infrastructure is overstretched, and where governance is sometimes an aspiration and not a reality. +Now, some diplomats and development experts and specialists, they talk about 40 to 50 fragile states that will shape security in the 21st century. +I think it's fragile cities which will define the future of order and disorder. +That's because warfare and humanitarian action are going to be concentrated in our cities, and the fight for development, whether you define that as eradicating poverty, universal healthcare, beating back climate change, will be won or lost in the shantytowns, slums and favelas of our cities. +I want to talk to you about four megarisks that I think will define fragility in our time, and if we can get to grips with these, I think we can do something with that lethal violence problem. +So let me start with some good news. +Fact is, we're living in the most peaceful moment in human history. +Steven Pinker and others have shown how the intensity and frequency of conflict is actually at an all-time low. +Now, Gaza, Syria, Sudan, Ukraine, as ghastly as these conflicts are, and they are horrific, they represent a relatively small blip upwards in a 50-year-long secular decline. +What's more, we're seeing a dramatic reduction in homicide. +Manuel Eisner and others have shown that for centuries, we've seen this incredible drop in murder, especially in the West. +Most Northern cities today are 100 times safer than they were just 100 years ago. +These two facts -- the decline in armed conflict and the decline in murder -- are amongst the most extraordinary, if unheralded, accomplishments of human history, and we should be really excited, right? +Well, yeah, we should. +There's just one problem: These two scourges are still with us. +You see, 525,000 people -- men, women, boys and girls -- die violently every single year. +Research I've been doing with Keith Krause and others has shown that between 50,000 and 60,000 people are dying in war zones violently. +The rest, almost 500,000 people, are dying outside of conflict zones. +In other words, 10 times more people are dying outside of war than inside war. +What's more, violence is moving south, to Latin America and the Caribbean, to parts of Central and Southern Africa, and to bits of the Middle East and Central Asia. +Forty of the 50 most dangerous cities in the world are right here in Latin America, 13 in Brazil, and the most dangerous of all, it's San Pedro Sula, Honduras' second city, with a staggering homicide rate of 187 murders per 100,000 people. +That's 23 times the global average. +Now, if violence is re-concentrating geographically, it's also being reconfigured to the world's new topography, because when it comes to cities, the world ain't flat, like Thomas Friedman likes to say. +It's spiky. +The dominance of the city as the primary mode of urban living is one of the most extraordinary demographic reversals in history, and it all happened so fast. +You all know the figures, right? +There's 7.3 billion people in the world today; there will be 9.6 billion by 2050. +But consider this one fact: In the 1800s, one in 30 people lived in cities, today it's one in two, and tomorrow virtually everyone is going to be there. +And this expansion in urbanization is going to be neither even nor equitable. +The vast majority, 90 percent, will be happening in the South, in cities of the South. +So urban geographers and demographers, they tell us that it's not necessarily the size or even the density of cities that predicts violence, no. +Tokyo, with 35 million people, is one of the largest, and some might say safest, urban metropolises in the world. +No, it's the speed of urbanization that matters. +I call this turbo-urbanization, and it's one of the key drivers of fragility. +When you think about the incredible expansion of these cities, and you think about turbo-urbanization, think about Karachi. +Karachi was about 500,000 people in 1947, a hustling, bustling city. +Today, it's 21 million people, and apart from accounting for three quarters of Pakistan's GDP, it's also one of the most violent cities in South Asia. +Dhaka, Lagos, Kinshasa, these cities are now 40 times larger than they were in the 1950s. +Now take a look at New York. +The Big Apple, it took 150 years to get to eight million people. +So Paulo, Mexico City, took 15 to reach that same interval. +Now, what do these medium, large, mega-, and hypercities look like? +What is their profile? +Well, for one thing, they're young. +What we're seeing in many of them is the rise of the youth bulge. +Now, this is actually a good news story. +It's a function of reductions in child mortality rates. +But the youth bulge is something we've got to watch. +What it basically means is the proportion of young people living in our fragile cities is much larger than those living in our healthier and wealthier ones. +In some fragile cities, 75 percent of the population is under the age of 30. +Think about that: Three in four people are under 30. +It's like Palo Alto on steroids. +Now, if you look at Mogadishu for example, in Mogadishu the mean age is 16 years old. +Ditto for Dhaka, Dili and Kabul. +And Tokyo? It's 46. +Same for most Western European cities. +Now, it's not just youth that necessarily predicts violence. +That's one factor among many, but youthfulness combined with unemployment, lack of education, and -- this is the kicker -- being male, is a deadly proposition. +They're statistically correlated, all those risk factors, with youth, and they tend to relate to increases in violence. +Now, for those of you who are parents of teenage sons, you know what I'm talking about, right? +Just imagine your boy without any structure with those unruly friends of his, out there cavorting about. +Now, take away the parents, take away the education, limit the education possibilities, sprinkle in a little bit of drugs, alcohol and guns, and sit back and watch the fireworks. +The implications are disconcerting. +Right here in Brazil, the life expectancy is 73.6 years. +If you live in Rio, I'm sorry, shave off two right there. +But if you're young, you're uneducated, you lack employment, you're black, and you're male, your life expectancy drops to less than 60 years old. +There's a reason why youthfulness and violence are the number one killers in this country. +Okay, so it's not all doom and gloom in our cities. +After all, cities are hubs of innovation, dynamism, prosperity, excitement, connectivity. +They're where the smart people gather. +And those young people I just mentioned, they're more digitally savvy and tech-aware than ever before. +And this explosion, the Internet, and mobile technology, means that the digital divide separating the North and the South between countries and within them, is shrinking. +But as we've heard so many times, these new technologies are dual-edged, right? +Take the case of law enforcement. +Police around the world are starting to use remote sensing and big data to anticipate crime. +Some cops are able to predict criminal violence before it even happens. +The future crime scenario, it's here today, and we've got to be careful. +We have to manage the issues of the public safety against rights to individual privacy. +But it's not just the cops who are innovating. +We've heard extraordinary activities of civil society groups who are engaging in local and global collective action, and this is leading to digital protest and real revolution. +But most worrying of all are criminal gangs who are going online and starting to colonize cyberspace. +In Ciudad Jurez in Mexico, where I've been working, groups like the Zetas and the Sinaloa cartel are hijacking social media. +They're using it to recruit, to sell their products, to coerce, to intimidate and to kill. +Violence is going virtual. +So this is just a partial sketch of a fast-moving and dynamic and complex situation. +I mean, there are many other megarisks that are going to define fragility in our time, not least income inequality, poverty, climate change, impunity. +But we're facing a stark dilemma where some cities are going to thrive and drive global growth and others are going to stumble and pull it backwards. +If we're going to change course, we need to start a conversation. +We can't only focus on those cities that work, the Singapores, the Kuala Lumpurs, the Dubais, the Shanghais. +We've got to bring those fragile cities into the conversation. +One way to do this might be to start twinning our fragile cities with our healthier and wealthier ones, kickstarting a process of learning and collaboration and sharing of practices, of what works and what doesn't. +We can also focus on hot cities, but also hot spots. +Place and location matter fundamentally in shaping violence in our cities. +Did you know that between one and two percent of street addresses in any fragile city can predict up to 99 percent of violent crime? +Take the case of So Paulo, where I've been working. +It's gone from being Brazil's most dangerous city to one of its safest, and it did this by doubling down on information collection, hot spot mapping, and police reform, and in the process, it dropped homicide by 70 percent in just over 10 years. +We also got to focus on those hot people. +It's tragic, but being young, unemployed, uneducated, male, increases the risks of being killed and killing. +We have to break this cycle of violence and get in there early with our children, our youngest children, and valorize them, not stigmatize them. +There's wonderful work that's happening that I've been involved with in Kingston, Jamaica and right here in Rio, which is putting education, employment, recreation up front for these high-risk groups, and as a result, we're seeing violence going down in their communities. +We've also got to make our cities safer, more inclusive, and livable for all. +The fact is, social cohesion matters. +Mobility matters in our cities. +We've got to get away from this model of segregation, exclusion, and cities with walls. +My favorite example of how to do this comes from Medelln. +And finally, there's technology. +Technology has enormous promise but also peril. +We've seen examples here of extraordinary innovation, and much of it coming from this room, The police are engaging in predictive analytics. +Citizens are engaging in new crowdsourcing solutions. +Even my own group is involved in developing applications to provide more accountability over police and increase safety among citizens. +But we need to be careful. +If I have one single message for you, it's this: There is nothing inevitable about lethal violence, and we can make our cities safer. +Folks, we have the opportunity of a lifetime to drop homicidal violence in half within our lifetime. +So I have just one question: What are we waiting for? +Thank you. +So in the oasis of intelligentsia that is TED, I stand here before you this evening as an expert in dragging heavy stuff around cold places. +I've been leading polar expeditions for most of my adult life, and last month, my teammate Tarka L'Herpiniere and I finished the most ambitious expedition I've ever attempted. +In fact, it feels like I've been transported straight here from four months in the middle of nowhere, mostly grunting and swearing, straight to the TED stage. +So you can imagine that's a transition that hasn't been entirely seamless. +One of the interesting side effects seems to be that my short-term memory is entirely shot. +So I've had to write some notes to avoid too much grunting and swearing in the next 17 minutes. +This is the first talk I've given about this expedition, and while we weren't sequencing genomes or building space telescopes, this is a story about giving everything we had to achieve something that hadn't been done before. +So I hope in that you might find some food for thought. +It was a journey, an expedition in Antarctica, the coldest, windiest, driest and highest altitude continent on Earth. +It's a fascinating place. It's a huge place. +It's twice the size of Australia, a continent that is the same size as China and India put together. +As an aside, I have experienced an interesting phenomenon in the last few days, something that I expect Chris Hadfield may get at TED in a few years' time, conversations that go something like this: "Oh, Antarctica. Awesome. +My husband and I did Antarctica with Lindblad for our anniversary." +Or, "Oh cool, did you go there for the marathon?" +Our journey was, in fact, 69 marathons back to back in 105 days, an 1,800-mile round trip on foot from the coast of Antarctica to the South Pole and back again. +In the process, we broke the record for the longest human-powered polar journey in history by more than 400 miles. +For those of you from the Bay Area, it was the same as walking from here to San Francisco, then turning around and walking back again. +So as camping trips go, it was a long one, and one I've seen summarized most succinctly here on the hallowed pages of Business Insider Malaysia. +["Two Explorers Just Completed A Polar Expedition That Killed Everyone The Last Time It Was Attempted"] Chris Hadfield talked so eloquently about fear and about the odds of success, and indeed the odds of survival. +Of the nine people in history that had attempted this journey before us, none had made it to the pole and back, and five had died in the process. +This is Captain Robert Falcon Scott. +He led the last team to attempt this expedition. +Scott and his rival Sir Ernest Shackleton, over the space of a decade, both led expeditions battling to become the first to reach the South Pole, to chart and map the interior of Antarctica, a place we knew less about, at the time, than the surface of the moon, because we could see the moon through telescopes. +Antarctica was, for the most part, a century ago, uncharted. +Some of you may know the story. +Scott's last expedition, the Terra Nova Expedition in 1910, started as a giant siege-style approach. +He had a big team using ponies, using dogs, using petrol-driven tractors, dropping multiple, pre-positioned depots of food and fuel through which Scott's final team of five would travel to the Pole, where they would turn around and ski back to the coast again on foot. +Scott and his final team of five arrived at the South Pole in January 1912 to find they had been beaten to it by a Norwegian team led by Roald Amundsen, who rode on dogsled. +Scott's team ended up on foot. +And for more than a century this journey has remained unfinished. +Scott's team of five died on the return journey. +And for the last decade, I've been asking myself why that is. +How come this has remained the high-water mark? +Scott's team covered 1,600 miles on foot. +No one's come close to that ever since. +So this is the high-water mark of human endurance, human endeavor, human athletic achievement in arguably the harshest climate on Earth. +It was as if the marathon record has remained unbroken since 1912. +And of course some strange and predictable combination of curiosity, stubbornness, and probably hubris led me to thinking I might be the man to try to finish the job. +Unlike Scott's expedition, there were just two of us, and we set off from the coast of Antarctica in October last year, dragging everything ourselves, a process Scott called "man-hauling." +When I say it was like walking from here to San Francisco and back, I actually mean it was like dragging something that weighs a shade more than the heaviest ever NFL player. +Our sledges weighed 200 kilos, or 440 pounds each at the start, the same weights that the weakest of Scott's ponies pulled. +Early on, we averaged 0.5 miles per hour. +Perhaps the reason no one had attempted this journey until now, in more than a century, was that no one had been quite stupid enough to try. +And while I can't claim we were exploring in the genuine Edwardian sense of the word we weren't naming any mountains or mapping any uncharted valleys I think we were stepping into uncharted territory in a human sense. +Certainly, if in the future we learn there is an area of the human brain that lights up when one curses oneself, I won't be at all surprised. +You've heard that the average American spends 90 percent of their time indoors. +We didn't go indoors for nearly four months. +We didn't see a sunset either. +It was 24-hour daylight. +Living conditions were quite spartan. +I changed my underwear three times in 105 days and Tarka and I shared 30 square feet on the canvas. +Though we did have some technology that Scott could never have imagined. +And we blogged live every evening from the tent via a laptop and a custom-made satellite transmitter, all of which were solar-powered: we had a flexible photovoltaic panel over the tent. +And the writing was important to me. +As a kid, I was inspired by the literature of adventure and exploration, and I think we've all seen here this week the importance and the power of storytelling. +So we had some 21st-century gear, but the reality is that the challenges that Scott faced were the same that we faced: those of the weather and of what Scott called glide, the amount of friction between the sledges and the snow. +The lowest wind chill we experienced was in the -70s, and we had zero visibility, what's called white-out, for much of our journey. +We traveled up and down one of the largest and most dangerous glaciers in the world, the Beardmore glacier. +It's 110 miles long; most of its surface is what's called blue ice. +You can see it's a beautiful, shimmering steel-hard blue surface covered with thousands and thousands of crevasses, these deep cracks in the glacial ice up to 200 feet deep. +Planes can't land here, so we were at the most risk, technically, when we had the slimmest chance of being rescued. +We got to the South Pole after 61 days on foot, with one day off for bad weather, and I'm sad to say, it was something of an anticlimax. +There's a permanent American base, the Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station at the South Pole. +They have an airstrip, they have a canteen, they have hot showers, they have a post office, a tourist shop, a basketball court that doubles as a movie theater. +So it's a bit different these days, and there are also acres of junk. +I think it's a marvelous thing that humans can exist 365 days of the year with hamburgers and hot showers and movie theaters, but it does seem to produce a lot of empty cardboard boxes. +You can see on the left of this photograph, several square acres of junk waiting to be flown out from the South Pole. +But there is also a pole at the South Pole, and we got there on foot, unassisted, unsupported, by the hardest route, 900 miles in record time, dragging more weight than anyone in history. +And if we'd stopped there and flown home, which would have been the eminently sensible thing to do, then my talk would end here and it would end something like this. +If you have the right team around you, the right tools, the right technology, and if you have enough self-belief and enough determination, then anything is possible. +But then we turned around, and this is where things get interesting. +High on the Antarctic plateau, over 10,000 feet, it's very windy, very cold, very dry, we were exhausted. +And it is an exquisite form of torture to exhaust yourself to the point of starvation day after day while dragging a sledge full of food. +For years, I'd been writing glib lines in sponsorship proposals about pushing the limits of human endurance, but in reality, that was a very frightening place to be indeed. +We had, before we'd got to the Pole, two weeks of almost permanent headwind, which slowed us down. +As a result, we'd had several days of eating half rations. +We had a finite amount of food in the sledges to make this journey, so we were trying to string that out by reducing our intake to half the calories we should have been eating. +As a result, we both became increasingly hypoglycemic we had low blood sugar levels day after day and increasingly susceptible to the extreme cold. +Tarka took this photo of me one evening after I'd nearly passed out with hypothermia. +We both had repeated bouts of hypothermia, something I hadn't experienced before, and it was very humbling indeed. +As much as you might like to think, as I do, that you're the kind of person who doesn't quit, that you'll go down swinging, hypothermia doesn't leave you much choice. +You become utterly incapacitated. +It's like being a drunk toddler. +You become pathetic. +I remember just wanting to lie down and quit. +It was a peculiar, peculiar feeling, and a real surprise to me to be debilitated to that degree. +And then we ran out of food completely, 46 miles short of the first of the depots that we'd laid on our outward journey. +We'd laid 10 depots of food, literally burying food and fuel, for our return journey the fuel was for a cooker so you could melt snow to get water and I was forced to make the decision to call for a resupply flight, a ski plane carrying eight days of food to tide us over that gap. +They took 12 hours to reach us from the other side of Antarctica. +Calling for that plane was one of the toughest decisions of my life. +And I sound like a bit of a fraud standing here now with a sort of belly. +I've put on 30 pounds in the last three weeks. +Being that hungry has left an interesting mental scar, which is that I've been hoovering up every hotel buffet that I can find. +But we were genuinely quite hungry, and in quite a bad way. +I don't regret calling for that plane for a second, because I'm still standing here alive, with all digits intact, telling this story. +But getting external assistance like that was never part of the plan, and it's something my ego is still struggling with. +This was the biggest dream I've ever had, and it was so nearly perfect. +On the way back down to the coast, our crampons they're the spikes on our boots that we have for traveling over this blue ice on the glacier broke on the top of the Beardmore. +We still had 100 miles to go downhill on very slippery rock-hard blue ice. +They needed repairing almost every hour. +To give you an idea of scale, this is looking down towards the mouth of the Beardmore Glacier. +You could fit the entirety of Manhattan in the gap on the horizon. +That's 20 miles between Mount Hope and Mount Kiffin. +I've never felt as small as I did in Antarctica. +When we got down to the mouth of the glacier, we found fresh snow had obscured the dozens of deep crevasses. +One of Shackleton's men described crossing this sort of terrain as like walking over the glass roof of a railway station. +We fell through more times than I can remember, usually just putting a ski or a boot through the snow. +Occasionally we went in all the way up to our armpits, but thankfully never deeper than that. +And less than five weeks ago, after 105 days, we crossed this oddly inauspicious finish line, the coast of Ross Island on the New Zealand side of Antarctica. +You can see the ice in the foreground and the sort of rubbly rock behind that. +Behind us lay an unbroken ski trail of nearly 1,800 miles. +We'd made the longest ever polar journey on foot, something I'd been dreaming of doing for a decade. +As I said, there are very few superficial signs that I've been away. +I've put on 30 pounds. +I've got some very faint, probably covered in makeup now, frostbite scars. +I've got one on my nose, one on each cheek, from where the goggles are, but inside I am a very different person indeed. +If I'm honest, Antarctica challenged me and humbled me so deeply that I'm not sure I'll ever be able to put it into words. +I'm still struggling to piece together my thoughts. +That I'm standing here telling this story is proof that we all can accomplish great things, through ambition, through passion, through sheer stubbornness, by refusing to quit, that if you dream something hard enough, as Sting said, it does indeed come to pass. +But I'm also standing here saying, you know what, that cliche about the journey being more important than the destination? +There's something in that. +A lot of people have asked me, what next? +Right now, I am very happy just recovering and in front of hotel buffets. +But as Bob Hope put it, I feel very humble, but I think I have the strength of character to fight it. Thank you. +2014 is a very special year for me: 20 years as a consultant, 20 years of marriage, and I'm turning 50 in one month. +That means I was born in 1964 in a small town in Germany. +It was a gray November day, and I was overdue. +The hospital's maternity ward was really stressed out because a lot of babies were born on this gray November day. +As a matter of fact, 1964 was the year with the highest birth rate ever in Germany: more than 1.3 million. +Last year, we just hit over 600,000, so half of my number. +What you can see here is the German age pyramid, and there, the small black point at the top, that's me. +In red, you can see the potential working-age population, so people over 15 and under 65, and I'm actually only interested in this red area. +Now, let's do a simple simulation of how this age structure will develop over the next couple of years. +As you can see, the peak is moving to the right, and I, with many other baby boomers, will retire in 2030. +By the way, I don't need any forecasts of birth rates for predicting this red area. +The red area, so the potential working-age population in 2030, is already set in stone today, except for much higher migration rates. +And if you compare this red area in 2030 with the red area in 2014, it is much, much smaller. +So before I show you the rest of the world, what does this mean for Germany? +So what we know from this picture is that the labor supply, so people who provide labor, will go down in Germany, and will go down significantly. +Now, what about labor demand? +That's where it gets tricky. +As you might know, the consultant's favorite answer to any question is, "It depends." +So I would say it depends. +We didn't want to forecast the future. +Highly speculative. +We did something else. +We looked at the GDP and productivity growth of Germany over the last 20 years, and calculated the following scenario: if Germany wants to continue this GDP and productivity growth, we could directly calculate how many people Germany would need to support this growth. +And this is the green line: labor demand. +So Germany will run into a major talent shortage very quickly. +Eight million people are missing, which is more than 20 percent of our current workforce, so big numbers, really big numbers. +And we calculated several scenarios, and the picture always looked like this. +Now, to close the gap, Germany has to significantly increase migration, get many more women in the workforce, increase retirement age by the way, we just lowered it this year and all these measures at once. +If Germany fails here, Germany will stagnate. +We won't grow anymore. Why? +Because the workers are not there who can generate this growth. +And companies will look for talents somewhere else. +But where? +Now, we simulated labor supply and labor demand for the largest 15 economies in the world, representing more than 70 percent of world GDP, and the overall picture looks like this by 2020. +Blue indicates a labor surplus, red indicates a labor shortfall, and gray are those countries which are borderline. +So by 2020, we still see a labor surplus in some countries, like Italy, France, the U.S., but this picture will change dramatically by 2030. +By 2030, we will face a global workforce crisis in most of our largest economies, including three out of the four BRIC countries. +China, with its former one-child policy, will be hit, as well as Brazil and Russia. +Now, to tell the truth, in reality, the situation will be even more challenging. +What you can see here are average numbers. +We de-averaged them and broke them down into different skill levels, and what we found were even higher shortfalls for high-skilled people and a partial surplus for low-skilled workers. +So on top of an overall labor shortage, we will face a big skill mismatch in the future, and this means huge challenges in terms of education, qualification, upskilling for governments and companies. +Now, the next thing we looked into was robots, automation, technology. +Will technology change this picture and boost productivity? +Now, the short answer would be that our numbers already include a significant growth in productivity driven by technology. +A long answer would go like this. +Let's take Germany again. +The Germans have a certain reputation in the world when it comes to productivity. +In the '90s, I worked in our Boston office for almost two years, and when I left, an old senior partner told me, literally, "Send me more of these Germans, they work like machines." +That was 1998. +Sixteen years later, you'd probably say the opposite. +"Send me more of these machines. They work like Germans." +Technology will replace a lot of jobs, regular jobs. +Not only in the production industry, but even office workers are in jeopardy and might be replaced by robots, artificial intelligence, big data, or automation. +So the key question is not if technology replaces some of these jobs, but when, how fast, and to what extent? +Or in other words, will technology help us to solve this global workforce crisis? +Yes and no. +This is a more sophisticated version of "it depends." +Let's take the automotive industry as an example, because there, more than 40 percent of industrial robots are already working and automation has already taken place. +In 1980, less than 10 percent of the production cost of a car was caused by electronic parts. +Today, this number is more than 30 percent and it will grow to more than 50 percent by 2030. +And these new electronic parts and applications require new skills and have created a lot of new jobs, like the cognitive systems engineer who optimizes the interaction between driver and electronic system. +In 1980, no one had the slightest clue that such a job would ever exist. +As a matter of fact, the overall number of people involved in the production of a car has only changed slightly in the last decades, in spite of robots and automation. +So what does this mean? +Yes, technology will replace a lot of jobs, but we will also see a lot of new jobs and new skills on the horizon, and that means technology will worsen our overall skill mismatch. +And this kind of de-averaging reveals the crucial challenge for governments and businesses. +So people, high-skilled people, talents, will be the big thing in the next decade. +If they are the scarce resource, we have to understand them much better. +Are they actually willing to work abroad? +What are their job preferences? +To find out, this year we conducted a global survey among more than 200,000 job seekers from 189 countries. +Migration is certainly one key measure to close a gap, at least in the short term, so we asked about mobility. +More than 60 percent of these 200,000 job seekers are willing to work abroad. +For me, a surprisingly high number. +If you look at the employees aged 21 to 30, this number is even higher. +If you split this number up by country, yes, the world is mobile, but only partly. +The least mobile countries are Russia, Germany and the U.S. +Now where would these people like to move? +Number seven is Australia, where 28 percent could imagine moving. +Then France, Switzerland, Germany, Canada, U.K., and the top choice worldwide is the U.S. +Now, what are the job preferences of these 200,000 people? +So, what are they looking for? +Out of a list of 26 topics, salary is only number eight. +The top four topics are all around culture. +Number four, having a great relationship with the boss; three, enjoying a great work-life balance; two, having a great relationship with colleagues; and the top priority worldwide is being appreciated for your work. +So, do I get a thank you? +Not only once a year with the annual bonus payment, but every day. +And now, our global workforce crisis becomes very personal. +People are looking for recognition. +Aren't we all looking for recognition in our jobs? +Now, let me connect the dots. +We will face a global workforce crisis which consists of an overall labor shortage plus a huge skill mismatch, plus a big cultural challenge. +And this global workforce crisis is approaching very fast. +Right now, we are just at the turning point. +So what can we, what can governments, what can companies do? +Every company, but also every country, needs a people strategy, and to act on it immediately, and such a people strategy consists of four parts. +Number one, a plan for how to forecast supply and demand for different jobs and different skills. +Workforce planning will become more important than financial planning. +Two, a plan for how to attract great people: generation Y, women, but also retirees. +Three, a plan for how to educate and upskill them. +There's a huge upskilling challenge ahead of us. +And four, for how to retain the best people, or in other words, how to realize an appreciation and relationship culture. +However, one crucial underlying factor is to change our attitudes. +Employees are resources, are assets, not costs, not head counts, not machines, not even the Germans. +Thank you. +Ten years ago, I got a phone call that changed my life. +At the time, I was cardiologist at UCLA, specializing in cardiac imaging techniques. +The call came from a veterinarian at the Los Angeles Zoo. +An elderly female chimpanzee had woken up with a facial droop and the veterinarians were worried that she'd had a stroke. +They asked if I'd come to the zoo and image the animal's heart to look for a possible cardiac cause. +Now, to be clear, North American zoos are staffed by highly qualified, board-certified veterinarians who take outstanding care of their animal patients. +But occasionally, they do reach into the human medical community, particularly for some speciality consultation, and I was one of the lucky physicians who was invited in to help. +And this procedure, which I have done on many human patients, was identical, with the exception of that paw and that tail. +Now most of the time, I was working at UCLA Medical Center with physicians, discussing symptoms and diagnoses and treatments for my human patients, but some of the time, I was working at the Los Angeles Zoo with veterinarians, discussing symptoms and diagnoses and treatments for their animal patients. +And occasionally, on the very same day, I went on rounds at UCLA Medical Center and at the Los Angeles Zoo. +And here's what started coming into very clear focus for me. +Physicians and veterinarians were essentially taking care of the same disorders in their animal and human patients: congestive heart failure, brain tumors, leukemia, diabetes, arthritis, ALS, breast cancer, even psychiatric syndromes like depression, anxiety, compulsions, eating disorders and self-injury. +Now, I've got a confession to make. +Even though I studied comparative physiology and evolutionary biology as an undergrad -- I had even written my senior thesis on Darwinian theory -- learning about the significant overlap between the disorders of animals and humans, it came as a much needed wake-up call for me. +So I started wondering, with all of these overlaps, how was it that I had never thought to ask a veterinarian, or consult the veterinary literature, for insights into one of my human patients? +Why had I never, nor had any of my physician friends and colleagues whom I asked, ever attended a veterinary conference? +For that matter, why was any of this a surprise? +I mean, look, every single physician accepts some biological connection between animals and humans. +Every medication that we prescribe or that we've taken ourselves or we've given to our families has first been tested on an animal. +But there's something very different about giving an animal a medication or a human disease and the animal developing congestive heart failure or diabetes or breast cancer on their own. +Now, maybe some of the surprise comes from the increasing separation in our world between the urban and the nonurban. +You know, we hear about these city kids who think that wool grows on trees or that cheese comes from a plant. +Well, today's human hospitals, increasingly, are turning into these gleaming cathedrals of technology. +And this creates a psychological distance between the human patients who are being treated there and animal patients who are living in oceans and farms and jungles. +But I think there's an even deeper reason. +Physicians and scientists, we accept intellectually that our species, Homo sapiens, is merely one species, no more unique or special than any other. +But in our hearts, we don't completely believe that. +I feel it myself when I'm listening to Mozart or looking at pictures of the Mars Rover on my MacBook. +I feel that tug of human exceptionalism, even as I recognize the scientifically isolating cost of seeing ourselves as a superior species, apart. +Well, I'm trying these days. +When I see a human patient now, I always ask, what do the animal doctors know about this problem that I don't know? +And, might I be taking better care of my human patient if I saw them as a human animal patient? +Here are a few examples of the kind of exciting connections that this kind of thinking has led me to. +Fear-induced heart failure. +Around the year 2000, human cardiologists "discovered" emotionally induced heart failure. +It was described in a gambling father who had lost his life's savings with a roll of the dice, in a bride who'd been left at the alter. +But it turns out, this "new" human diagnosis was neither new, nor was it uniquely human. +Veterinarians had been diagnosing, treating and even preventing emotionally induced symptoms in animals ranging from monkeys to flamingos, from to deer to rabbits, since the 1970s. +How many human lives might have been saved if this veterinary knowledge had been put into the hands of E.R. docs and cardiologists? +Self-injury. +Some human patients harm themselves. +Some pluck out patches of hair, others actually cut themselves. +Some animal patients also harm themselves. +There are birds that pluck out feathers. +There are stallions that repetitively bite their flanks until they bleed. +But veterinarians have very specific and very effective ways of treating and even preventing self-injury in their self-injuring animals. +Shouldn't this veterinary knowledge be put into the hands of psychotherapists and parents and patients struggling with self-injury? +Postpartum depression and postpartum psychosis. +Sometimes, soon after giving birth, some women become depressed, and sometimes they become seriously depressed and even psychotic. +They may neglect their newborn, and in some extreme cases, even harm the child. +Equine veterinarians also know that occasionally, a mare, soon after giving birth, will neglect the foal, refusing to nurse, and in some instances, kick the foal, even to death. +But veterinarians have devised an intervention to deal with this foal rejection syndrome that involves increasing oxytocin in the mare. +Oxytocin is the bonding hormone, and this leads to renewed interest, on the part of the mare, in her foal. +Shouldn't this information be put into the hands of ob/gyn's and family doctors and patients who are struggling with postpartum depression and psychosis? +Well, despite all of this promise, unfortunately the gulf between our fields remains large. +To explain it, I'm afraid I'm going to have to air some dirty laundry. +Some physicians can be real snobs about doctors who are not M.D.'s. +I'm talking about dentists and optometrists and psychologists, but maybe especially animal doctors. +So I don't blame the vets for feeling annoyed by my profession's condescension and ignorance. +But here's one from the vets: What do you call a veterinarian who can only take care of one species? +A physician. Closing the gap has become a passion for me, and I'm doing this through programs like Darwin on Rounds at UCLA, where we're bringing animal experts and evolutionary biologists and embedding them on our medical teams with our interns and our residents. +And through Zoobiquity conferences, where we bring medical schools together with veterinary schools for collabortive discussions of the shared diseases and disorders of animal and human patients. +In the United States and now internationally, at Zoobiquity conferences physicians and veterinarians check their attitudes and their preconceptions at the door and come together as colleagues, as peers, as doctors. +After all, we humans are animals, too, and it's time for us physicians to embrace our patients' and our own animal natures and join veterinarians in a species-spanning approach to health. +Because it turns out, some of the best and most humanistic medicine is being practiced by doctors whose patients aren't human. +And one of the best ways we can take care of the human patient is by paying close attention to how all the other patients on the planet live, grow, get sick and heal. +Thank you. +When I arrived in Kiev, on February 1 this year, Independence Square was under siege, surrounded by police loyal to the government. +The protesters who occupied Maidan, as the square is known, prepared for battle, stockpiling homemade weapons and mass-producing improvised body armor. +The Euromaidan protests began peacefully at the end of 2013, after the president of Ukraine, Viktor Yanukovych, rejected a far-reaching accord with the European Union in favor of stronger ties with Russia. +In response, tens of thousands of dissatisfied citizens poured into central Kiev to demonstrate against this allegiance. +As the months passed, confrontations between police and civilians intensified. +I set up a makeshift portrait studio by the barricades on Hrushevsky Street. +There, I photographed the fighters against a black curtain, a curtain that obscured the highly seductive and visual backdrop of fire, ice and smoke. +In order to tell the individual human stories here, I felt that I needed to remove the dramatic visuals that had become so familiar and repetitive within the mainstream media. +What I was witnessing was not only news, but also history. +With this realization, I was free from the photojournalistic conventions of the newspaper and the magazine. +Oleg, Vasiliy and Maxim were all ordinary men, with ordinary lives from ordinary towns. +But the elaborate costumes that they had bedecked themselves in were quite extraordinary. +I say the word "costume" because these were not clothes that had been issued or coordinated by anyone. +They were improvised uniforms made up of decommissioned military equipment, irregular combat fatigues and trophies taken from the police. +I became interested in the way they were choosing to represent themselves, this outward expression of masculinity, the ideal of the warrior. +I worked slowly, using an analog film camera with a manual focusing loop and a handheld light meter. +The process is old-fashioned. +It gives me time to speak with each person and to look at them, in silence, while they look back at me. +Rising tensions culminated in the worst day of violence on February 20, which became known as Bloody Thursday. +Snipers, loyal to the government, started firing on the civilians and protesters on Institutskaya Street. +Many were killed in a very short space of time. +The reception of the Hotel Ukraine became a makeshift morgue. +There were lines of bodies laid in the street. +And there was blood all over the pavements. +The following day, President Yanukovych fled Ukraine. +In all, three months of protests resulted in more than 120 confirmed dead and many more missing. +History unfolded quickly, but celebration remained elusive in Maidan. +As the days passed in Kiev's central square, streams of armed fighters were joined by tens of thousands of ordinary people, filling the streets in an act of collective mourning. +Many were women who often carried flowers that they had brought to lay as marks of respect for the dead. +They came day after day and they covered the square with millions of flowers. +Sadness enveloped Maidan. +It was quiet and I could hear the birds singing. +I hadn't heard that before. +I stopped women as they approached the barricades to lay their tributes and asked to make their picture. +Most women cried when I photographed them. +On the first day, my fixer, Emine, and I cried with almost every woman who visited our studio. +There had been such a noticeable absence of women up until that point. And the color of their pastel coats, their shiny handbags, and the bunches of red carnations, white tulips and yellow roses that they carried jarred with the blackened square and the blackened men who were encamped there. +It is clear to me that these two sets of pictures don't make much sense without the other. +They are about men and women and the way we are -- not the way we look, but the way we are. +They speak about different gender roles in conflict, not only in Maidan, and not only in Ukraine. +Men fight most wars and women mourn them. +If the men showed the ideal of the warrior, then the women showed the implications of such violence. +When I made these pictures, I believed that I was documenting the end of violent events in Ukraine. +But now I understand that it is a record of the beginning. +Today, the death toll stands around 3,000, while hundreds of thousands have been displaced. +I was in Ukraine again six weeks ago. +In Maidan, the barricades have been dismantled, and the paving stones which were used as weapons during the protests replaced, so that traffic flows freely through the center of the square. +The fighters, the women and the flowers are gone. +A huge billboard depicting geese flying over a wheat field covers the burned-out shell of the trade union's building and proclaims, "Glory to Ukraine. +Glory to heroes." +Thank you. +Thank you. +I have only got 18 minutes to explain something that lasts for hours and days, so I'd better get started. +Let's start with a clip from Al Jazeera's Listening Post. +Richard Gizbert: Norway is a country that gets relatively little media coverage. +Even the elections this past week passed without much drama. +And that's the Norwegian media in a nutshell: not much drama. +A few years back, Norway's public TV channel NRK decided to broadcast live coverage of a seven-hour train ride -- seven hours of simple footage, a train rolling down the tracks. +Norwegians, more than a million of them according to the ratings, loved it. +A new kind of reality TV show was born, and it goes against all the rules of TV engagement. +There is no story line, no script, no drama, no climax, and it's called Slow TV. +For the past two months, Norwegians have been watching a cruise ship's journey up the coast, and there's a lot of fog on that coast. +Executives at Norway's National Broadcasting Service are now considering broadcasting a night of knitting nationwide. +On the surface, it sounds boring, because it is, but something about this TV experiment has gripped Norwegians. +So we sent the Listening Post's Marcela Pizarro to Oslo to find out what it is, but first a warning: Viewers may find some of the images in the following report disappointing. +Thomas Hellum: And then follows an eight-minute story on Al Jazeera about some strange TV programs in little Norway. +Al Jazeera. CNN. How did we get there? +We have to go back to 2009, when one of my colleagues got a great idea. +Where do you get your ideas? +In the lunchroom. +So he said, why don't we make a radio program marking the day of the German invasion of Norway in 1940. +We tell the story at the exact time during the night. +Wow. Brilliant idea, except this was just a couple of weeks before the invasion day. +So we sat in our lunchroom and discussed what other stories can you tell as they evolve? +What other things take a really long time? +So one of us came up with a train. +"Oh," we said, "full length." +"Yes, but we mean the program." +And back and forth. +Luckily for us, they met us with laughter, very, very good laughter, so one bright day in September, we started a program that we thought should be seven hours and four minutes. +Actually, it turned out to be seven hours and 14 minutes due to a signal failure at the last station. +We had four cameras, three of them pointing out to the beautiful nature. +Some talking to the guests, some information. +Train announcement: We will arrive at Haugastl Station. +TH: And that's about it, but of course, also the 160 tunnels gave us the opportunity to do some archives. +Narrator [in Norwegian]: Then a bit of flirting while the food is digested. +The last downhill stretch before we reach our destination. +We pass Mjlfjell Station. +Then a new tunnel. +TH: And now we thought, yes, we have a brilliant program. +It will fit for the 2,000 train spotters in Norway. +We brought it on air in November 2009. +But no, this was far more attractive. +This is the five biggest TV channels in Norway on a normal Friday, and if you look at NRK2 over here, look what happened when they put on the Bergen Railway show: 1.2 million Norwegians watched part of this program. +And another funny thing: When the host on our main channel, after they have got news for you, she said, "And on our second channel, the train has now nearly reached Myrdal station." +Thousands of people just jumped on the train on our second channel like this. This was also a huge success in terms of social media. +It was so nice to see all the thousands of Facebook and Twitter users discussing the same view, talking to each other as if they were on the same train together. +And especially, I like this one. It's a 76-year-old man. +He's watched all the program, and at the end station, he rises up to pick up what he thinks is his luggage, and his head hit the curtain rod, and he realized he is in his own living room. +So that's strong and living TV. +Four hundred and thirty-six minute by minute on a Friday night, and during that first night, the first Twitter message came: Why be a chicken? +Why stop at 436 when you can expand that to 8,040, minute by minute, and do the iconic journey in Norway, the coastal ship journey Hurtigruten from Bergen to Kirkenes, almost 3,000 kilometers, covering most of our coast. +It has 120-year-old, very interesting history, and literally takes part in life and death along the coast. +So just a week after the Bergen Railway, we called the Hurtigruten company and we started planning for our next show. +We wanted to do something different. +The Bergen Railway was a recorded program. +So when we sat in our editing room, we watched this picture -- it's all l Station -- we saw this journalist. +We had called him, we had spoken to him, and when we left the station, he took this picture of us and he waved to the camera, and we thought, what if more people knew that we were on board that train? +Would more people show up? +What would it look like? +So we decided our next project, it should be live. +We wanted this picture of us on the fjord and on the screen at the same time. +So this is not the first time NRK had been on board a ship. +This is back in 1964, when the technical managers have suits and ties and NRK rolled all its equipment on board a ship, and 200 meters out of the shore, transmitting the signal back, and in the machine room, they talked to the machine guy, and on the deck, they have splendid entertainment. +So being on a ship, it's not the first time. +But five and a half days in a row, and live, we wanted some help. +And we asked our viewers out there, what do you want to see? +What do you want us to film? How do you want this to look? +Do you want us to make a website? What do you want on it? +And we got some answers from you out there, and it helped us a very lot to build the program. +So in June 2011, 23 of us went on board the Hurtigruten coastal ship and we set off. +I have some really strong memories from that week, and it's all about people. +This guy, for instance, he's head of research at the University in Troms And I will show you a piece of cloth, this one. +It's the other strong memory. +It belongs to a guy called Erik Hansen. +And it's people like those two who took a firm grip of our program, and together with thousands of others along the route, they made the program what it became. +They made all the stories. +This is Karl. He's in the ninth grade. +It says, "I will be a little late for school tomorrow." +He was supposed to be in the school at 8 a.m. +He came at 9 a.m., and he didn't get a note from his teacher, because the teacher had watched the program. +How did we do this? +Yes, we took a conference room on board the Hurtigruten. +We turned it into a complete TV control room. +We made it all work, of course, and then we took along 11 cameras. +This is one of them. +This is my sketch from February, and when you give this sketch to professional people in the Norwegian broadcasting company NRK, you get some cool stuff back. +And with some very creative solutions. +Narrator [in Norwegian]: Run it up and down. +This is Norway's most important drill right now. +It regulates the height of a bow camera in NRK's live production, one of 11 that capture great shots from the MS Nord-Norge. +Eight wires keep the camera stable. +Cameraman: I work on different camera solutions. +They're just tools used in a different context. +TH: Another camera is this one. It's normally used for sports. +It made it possible for us to take close-up pictures of people 100 kilomteres away, like this one. People called us and asked, how is this man doing? +He's doing fine. Everything went well. +We also could take pictures of people waving at us, people along the route, thousands of them, and they all had a phone in their hand. +And when you take a picture of them, and they get the message, "Now we are on TV, dad," they start waving back. +This was waving TV for five and a half days, and people get so extremely happy when they can send a warm message to their loved ones. +It was also a great success on social media. +On the last day, we met Her Majesty the Queen of Norway, and Twitter couldn't quite handle it. +Thank you. +But it's a long program, so some watched part of it, like the Prime Minister. +Some watched a little bit more. +It says, "I haven't used my bed for five days." +And he's 82 years old, and he hardly slept. +He kept watching because something might happen, though it probably won't. This is the number of viewers along the route. +You can see the famous Trollfjord and a day after, all-time high for NRK2. +If you see the four biggest channels in Norway during June 2011, they will look like this, and as a TV producer, it's a pleasure to put Hurtigruten on top of it. +It looks like this: 3.2 million Norwegians watched part of this program, and we are only five million here. +Even the passengers on board the Hurtigruten coastal ship -- -- they chose to watched the telly instead of turning 90 degrees and watching out the window. +So we were allowed to be part of people's living room with this strange TV program, with music, nature, people. +And Slow TV was now a buzzword, and we started looking for other things we could make Slow TV about. +So we could either take something long and make it a topic, like with the railway and the Hurtigruten, or we could take a topic and make it long. +This is the last project. It's the peep show. +It's 14 hours of birdwatching on a TV screen, actually 87 days on the web. +We have made 18 hours of live salmon fishing. +It actually took three hours before we got the first fish, and that's quite slow. +We have made 12 hours of boat ride into the beautiful Telemark Canal, and we have made another train ride with the northern railway, and because this we couldn't do live, we did it in four seasons just to give the viewer another experience on the way. +So our next project got us some attention outside Norway. +This is from the Colbert Report on Comedy Central. +And get this, almost 20 percent of the Norwegian population tuned in, 20 percent. +TH: So, when wood fire and wood chopping can be that interesting, why not knitting? +So on our next project, we used more than eight hours to go live from a sheep to a sweater, and Jimmy Kimmel in the ABC show, he liked that. +Jimmy Kimmel: Even the people on the show are falling asleep, and after all that, the knitters actually failed to break the world record. +They did not succeed, but remember the old Norwegian saying, it's not whether you win or lose that counts. +In fact, nothing counts, and death is coming for us all. +TH: Exactly. So why does this stand out? +This is so completely different to other TV programming. +We take the viewer on a journey that happens right now in real time, and the viewer gets the feeling of actually being there, actually being on the train, on the boat, and knitting together with others, and the reason I think why they're doing that is because we don't edit the timeline. +It's important that we don't edit the timeline, and it's also important that what we make Slow TV about is something that we all can relate to, that the viewer can relate to, and that somehow has a root in our culture. +This is a picture from last summer when we traveled the coast again for seven weeks. +And of course this is a lot of planning, this is a lot of logistics. +So this is the working plan for 150 people last summer, but more important is what you don't plan. +You don't plan what's going to happen. +You have to just take your cameras with you. +It's like a sports event. +You rig them and you see what's happening. +So this is actually the whole running order for Hurtigruten, 134 hours, just written on one page. +We didn't know anything more when we left Bergen. +So you have to let the viewers make the stories themselves, and I'll give you an example of that. +This is from last summer, and as a TV producer, it's a nice picture, but now you can cut to the next one. +But this is Slow TV, so you have to keep this picture until it really starts hurting your stomach, and then you keep it a little bit longer, and when you keep it that long, I'm sure some of you now have noticed the cow. +Some of you have seen the flag. +Some of you start wondering, is the farmer at home? +Has he left? Is he watching the cow? +And where is that cow going? +So my point is, the longer you keep a picture like this, and we kept it for 10 minutes, you start making the stories in your own head. +That's Slow TV. +When people smile, it might be a very good slow idea, so after all, life is best when it's a bit strange. +Thank you. +The shocking police crackdown on protestors in Ferguson, Missouri, in the wake of the police shooting of Michael Brown, underscored the extent to which advanced military weapons and equipment, designed for the battlefield, are making their way to small-town police departments across the United States. +Although much tougher to observe, this same thing is happening with surveillance equipment. +NSA-style mass surveillance is enabling local police departments to gather vast quantities of sensitive information about each and every one of us in a way that was never previously possible. +Location information can be very sensitive. +If you drive your car around the United States, it can reveal if you go to a therapist, attend an Alcoholics Anonymous meeting, if you go to church or if you don't go to church. +And when that information about you is combined with the same information about everyone else, the government can gain a detailed portrait of how private citizens interact. +This information used to be private. +Thanks to modern technology, the government knows far too much about what happens behind closed doors. +And local police departments make decisions about who they think you are based on this information. +One of the key technologies driving mass location tracking is the innocuous-sounding Automatic License Plate Reader. +If you haven't seen one, it's probably because you didn't know what to look for -- they're everywhere. +Mounted on roads or on police cars, Automatic License Plate Readers capture images of every passing car and convert the license plate into machine-readable text so that they can be checked against hot lists of cars potentially wanted for wrongdoing. +But more than that, increasingly, local police departments are keeping records not just of people wanted for wrongdoing, but of every plate that passes them by, resulting in the collection of mass quantities of data about where Americans have gone. +Did you know this was happening? +When Mike Katz-Lacabe asked his local police department for information about the plate reader data they had on him, this is what they got: in addition to the date, time and location, the police department had photographs that captured where he was going and often who he was with. +The second photo from the top is a picture of Mike and his two daughters getting out of their car in their own driveway. +The government has hundreds of photos like this about Mike going about his daily life. +And if you drive a car in the United States, I would bet money that they have photographs like this of you going about your daily life. +Mike hasn't done anything wrong. +Why is it okay that the government is keeping all of this information? +The reason it's happening is because, as the cost of storing this data has plummeted, the police departments simply hang on to it, just in case it could be useful someday. +The issue is not just that one police department is gathering this information in isolation or even that multiple police departments are doing it. +At the same time, the federal government is collecting all of these individual pots of data, and pooling them together into one vast database with hundreds of millions of hits, showing where Americans have traveled. +This document from the Federal Drug Enforcement Administration, which is one of the agencies primarily interested in this, is one of several that reveal the existence of this database. +Meanwhile, in New York City, the NYPD has driven police cars equipped with license plate readers past mosques in order to figure out who is attending. +The uses and abuses of this technology aren't limited to the United States. +In the U.K., the police department put 80-year-old John Kat on a plate reader watch list after he had attended dozens of lawful political demonstrations where he liked to sit on a bench and sketch the attendees. +License plate readers aren't the only mass location tracking technology available to law enforcement agents today. +Through a technique known as a cell tower dump, law enforcement agents can uncover who was using one or more cell towers at a particular time, a technique which has been known to reveal the location of tens of thousands and even hundreds of thousands of people. +Also, using a device known as a StingRay, law enforcement agents can send tracking signals inside people's houses to identify the cell phones located there. +And if they don't know which house to target, they've been known to drive this technology around through whole neighborhoods. +Just as the police in Ferguson possess high-tech military weapons and equipment, so too do police departments across the United States possess high-tech surveillance gear. +Just because you don't see it, doesn't mean it's not there. +The question is, what should we do about this? +I think this poses a serious civil liberties threat. +History has shown that once the police have massive quantities of data, tracking the movements of innocent people, it gets abused, maybe for blackmail, maybe for political advantage, or maybe for simple voyeurism. +Fortunately, there are steps we can take. +Local police departments can be governed by the city councils, which can pass laws requiring the police to dispose of the data about innocent people while allowing the legitimate uses of the technology to go forward. +Thank you. +When we think about mapping cities, we tend to think about roads and streets and buildings, and the settlement narrative that led to their creation, or you might think about the bold vision of an urban designer, but there's other ways to think about mapping cities and how they got to be made. +Today, I want to show you a new kind of map. +This is not a geographic map. +This is a map of the relationships between people in my hometown of Baltimore, Maryland, and what you can see here is that each dot represents a person, each line represents a relationship between those people, and each color represents a community within the network. +We see the same people over and over again, but that's because we're not really exploring the full depth and breadth of the city. +On the other end of the network, you have folks who are interested in things like hip-hop music and they even identify with living in the DC/Maryland/Virginia area over, say, the Baltimore city designation proper. +But in the middle, you see that there's something that connects the two communities together, and that's sports. +We have the Baltimore Orioles, the Baltimore Ravens football team, Michael Phelps, the Olympian. +Under Armour, you may have heard of, is a Baltimore company, and that community of sports acts as the only bridge between these two ends of the network. +Let's take a look at San Francisco. +You see something a little bit different happening in San Francisco. +So you can see, though, that the tensions that we've heard about in San Francisco in terms of people being concerned about gentrification and all the new tech companies that are bringing new wealth and settlement into the city are real, and you can actually see that documented here. +You can see the LGBT community is not really getting along with the geek community that well, the arts community, the music community. +And so it leads to things like this. +["Evict Twitter"] Somebody sent me this photo a few weeks ago, and it shows what is happening on the ground in San Francisco, and I think you can actually try to understand that through looking at a map like this. +Let's take a look at Rio de Janeiro. +I spent the last few weeks gathering data about Rio, and one of the things that stood out to me about this city is that everything's really kind of mixed up. +It's a very heterogenous city in a way that Baltimore or San Francisco is not. +You still have the lobe of people involved with government, newspapers, politics, columnists. +TEDxRio is down in the lower right, right next to bloggers and writers. +But then you also have this tremendous diversity of people that are interested in different kinds of music. +Even Justin Bieber fans are represented here. +Other boy bands, country singers, gospel music, funk and rap and stand-up comedy, and there's even a whole section around drugs and jokes. +How cool is that? +And then the Flamengo football team is also represented here. +So you have that same kind of spread of sports and civics and the arts and music, but it's represented in a very different way, and I think that maybe fits with our understanding of Rio as being a very multicultural, musically diverse city. +So we have all this data. +It's an incredibly rich set of data that we have about cities now, maybe even richer than any data set that we've ever had before. +So what can we do with it? +Well, I think the first thing that we can try to understand is that segregation is a social construct. +It's something that we choose to do, and we could choose not to do it, and if you kind of think about it, what we're doing with this data is aiming a space telescope at a city and looking at it as if was a giant high school cafeteria, and seeing how everybody arranged themselves in a seating chart. +Well maybe it's time to shake up the seating chart a little bit. +The other thing that we start to realize is that race is a really poor proxy for diversity. +We've got people represented from all different types of races across the entire map here -- only looking at race doesn't really contribute to our development of diversity. +So if we're trying to use diversity as a way to tackle some of our more intractable problems, we need to start to think about diversity in a new way. +And lastly, we have the ability to create interventions to start to reshape our cities in a new way, and I believe that if we have that capability, we may even bear some responsibility to do so. +So what is a city? +Thank you. +While preparing for my talk I was reflecting on my life and trying to figure out where exactly was that moment when my journey began. +A long time passed by, and I simply couldn't figure out the beginning or the middle or the end of my story. +I always used to think that my beginning was one afternoon in my community when my mother had told me that I had escaped three arranged marriages by the time I was two. +Or one evening when electricity had failed for eight hours in our community, and my dad sat, surrounded by all of us, telling us stories of when he was a little kid struggling to go to school while his father, who was a farmer, wanted him to work in the fields with him. +Or that dark night when I was 16 when three little kids had come to me and they whispered in my ear that my friend was murdered in something called the honor killings. +In a way, I feel like my life is kind of a result of some wise choices and decisions they've made. +And just like that, another of their decisions was to keep me and my siblings connected to our roots. +While we were living in a community I fondly remember as called Ribabad, which means community of the poor, my dad made sure that we also had a house in our rural homeland. +I come from an indigenous tribe in the mountains of Balochistan called Brahui. +Brahui, or Brohi, means mountain dweller, and it is also my language. +Thanks to my father's very strict rules about connecting to our customs, I had to live a beautiful life of songs, cultures, traditions, stories, mountains, and a lot of sheep. +But then, living in two extremes between the traditions of my culture, of my village, and then modern education in my school wasn't easy. +I was aware that I was the only girl who got to have such freedom, and I was guilty of it. +While going to school in Karachi and Hyderabad, a lot of my cousins and childhood friends were getting married off, some to older men, some in exchange, some even as second wives. +I got to see the beautiful tradition and its magic fade in front of me when I saw that the birth of a girl child was celebrated with sadness, when women were told to have patience as their main virtue. +Up until I was 16, I healed my sadness by crying, mostly at nights when everyone would sleep and I would sob in my pillow, until that one night when I found out my friend was killed in the name of honor. +Honor killings is a custom where men and women are suspected of having relationships before or outside of the marriage, and they're killed by their family for it. +Usually the killer is the brother or father or the uncle in the family. +The U.N. reports there are about 1,000 honor murders every year in Pakistan, and these are only the reported cases. +A custom that kills did not make any sense to me, and I knew I had to do something about it this time. +I was not going to cry myself to sleep. +I was going to do something, anything, to stop it. +I was 16 -- I started writing poetry and going door to door telling everybody about honor killings and why it happens, why it should be stopped, and raising awareness about it until I actually found a much, much better way to handle this issue. +In those days, we were living in a very small, one-roomed house in Karachi. +Every year, during the monsoon seasons, our house would flood up with water -- rainwater and sewage -- and my mom and dad would be taking the water out. +In those days, my dad brought home a huge machine, a computer. +It was so big it looked as if it was going to take up half of the only room we had, and had so many pieces and wires that needed to be connected. +But it was still the most exciting thing that has ever happened to me and my sisters. +My oldest brother Ali got to be in charge of taking care of the computer, and all of us were given 10 to 15 minutes every day to use it. +In those days, I had discovered a website called Joogle. +It became enormous in just a few months. +I got a lot of support from all around the world. +Media was connecting to us. +A lot of people were reaching out trying to raise awareness with us. +It became so big that it went from online to the streets of my hometown, where we would do rallies and strikes trying to change the policies in Pakistan for women's support. +And while I thought everything was perfect, my team -- which was basically my friends and neighbors at that time -- thought everything was going so well, we had no idea a big opposition was coming to us. +My community stood up against us, saying we were spreading un-Islamic behavior. +We were challenging centuries-old customs in those communities. +I remember my father receiving anonymous letters saying, "Your daughter is spreading Western culture in the honorable societies." +Our car was stoned at one point. +One day I went to the office and found our metal signboard wrinkled and broken as if a lot of people had been hitting it with something heavy. +Things got so bad that I had to hide myself in many ways. +I would put up the windows of the car, veil my face, not speak while I was in public, but eventually situations got worse when my life was threatened, and I had to leave, back to Karachi, and our actions stopped. +Back in Karachi, as an 18-year-old, I thought this was the biggest failure of my entire life. +I was devastated. +As a teenager, I was blaming myself for everything that happened. +And it turns out, when we started reflecting, we did realize that it was actually me and my team's fault. +There were two big reasons why our campaign had failed big time. +One of those, the first reason, is we were standing against core values of people. +We were saying no to something that was very important to them, challenging their code of honor, and hurting them deeply in the process. +And number two, which was very important for me to learn, and amazing, and surprising for me to learn, was that we were not including the true heroes who should be fighting for themselves. +The women in the villages had no idea we were fighting for them in the streets. +Every time I would go back, I would find my cousins and friends with scarves on their faces, and I would ask, "What happened?" +And they'd be like, "Our husbands beat us." +But we are working in the streets for you! +We are changing the policies. +How is that not impacting their life? +So then we found out something which was very amazing for us. +The policies of a country do not necessarily always affect the tribal and rural communities. +It was devastating -- like, oh, we can't actually do something about this? +And we found out there's a huge gap when it comes to official policies and the real truth on the ground. +So this time, we were like, we are going to do something different. +We are going to use strategy, and we are going to go back and apologize. +Yes, apologize. +We went back to the communities and we said we are very ashamed of what we did. +We are here to apologize, and in fact, we are here to make it up to you. +How do we do that? +We are going to promote three of your main cultures. +We know that it's music, language, and embroidery. +Nobody believed us. +Nobody wanted to work with us. +It took a lot of convincing and discussions with these communities until they agreed that we are going to promote their language by making a booklet of their stories, fables and old tales in the tribe, and we would promote their music by making a CD of the songs from the tribe, and some drumbeating. +And the third, which was my favorite, was we would promote their embroidery by making a center in the village where women would come every day to make embroidery. +And so it began. +We worked with one village, and we started our first center. +It was a beautiful day. +We started the center. +Women have so much status that we have not been hearing, that they have not been hearing, and we needed to tell them that they need to know where their rights are and how to take them by themselves, because they can do it and we can't. +So this was the model which actually came out -- very amazing. +Through embroidery we were promoting their traditions. +We went into the village. We would mobilize the community. +We would make a center inside where 30 women will come for six months to learn about value addition of traditional embroidery, enterprise development, life skills and basic education, and about their rights and how to say no to those customs and how to stand as leaders for themselves and the society. +After six months, we would connect these women to loans and to markets where they can become local entrepreneurs in their communities. +We soon called this project Sughar. +Sughar is a local word used in many, many languages in Pakistan. +It means skilled and confident women. +I truly believe, to create women leaders, there's only one thing you have to do: Just let them know that they have what it takes to be a leader. +These women you see here, they have strong skills and potential to be leaders. +All we had to do was remove the barriers that surrounded them, and that's what we decided to do. +But then while we were thinking everything was going well, once again everything was fantastic, we found our next setback: A lot of men started seeing the visible changes in their wife. +She's speaking more, she's making decisions -- oh my gosh, she's handling everything in the house. +They stopped them from coming to the centers, and this time, we were like, okay, time for strategy two. +We went to the fashion industry in Pakistan and decided to do research about what happens there. +Turns out the fashion industry in Pakistan is very strong and growing day by day, but there is less contribution from the tribal areas and to the tribal areas, especially women. +So we decided to launch our first ever tribal women's very own fashion brand, which is now called Nomads. +And so women started earning more, they started contributing more financially to the house, and men had to think again before saying no to them when they were coming to the centers. +Thank you, thank you. +In 2013, we launched our first Sughar Hub instead of a center. +We partnered with TripAdvisor and created a cement hall in the middle of a village and invited so many other organizations to work over there. +We created this platform for the nonprofits so they can touch and work on the other issues that Sughar is not working on, which would be an easy place for them to give trainings, use it as a farmer school, even as a marketplace, and anything they want to use it for, and they have been doing really amazingly. +And so far, we have been able to support 900 women in 24 villages around Pakistan. +But that's actually not what I want. +My dream is to reach out to one million women in the next 10 years, and to make sure that happens, this year we launched Sughar Foundation in the U.S. +It is not just going to fund Sughar but many other organizations in Pakistan to replicate the idea and to find even more innovative ways to unleash the rural women's potential in Pakistan. +Thank you so much. +Thank you. Thank you. Thank you. +Chris Anderson: Khalida, you are quite the force of nature. +I mean, this story, in many ways, just seems beyond belief. +It's incredible that someone so young could do achieve this much through so much force and ingenuity. +So I guess one question: This is a spectacular dream to reach out and empower a million women -- how much of the current success depends on you, the force of this magnetic personality? +How does it scale? +Khalida Brohi: I think my job is to give the inspiration out, give my dream out. +I can't teach how to do it, because there are so many different ways. +We have been experimenting with three ways only. +There are a hundred different ways to unleash potential in women. +I would just give the inspiration and that's my job. +I will keep doing it. Sughar will still be growing. +We are planning to reach out to two more villages, and soon I believe we will be scaling out of Pakistan into South Asia and beyond. +CA: I love that when you talked about your team in the talk, I mean, you were all 18 at the time. +What did this team look like? +This was school friends, right? +KB: Do people here believe that I'm at an age where I'm supposed to be a grandmother in my village? +My mom was married at nine, and I am the oldest woman not married and not doing anything in my life in my village. +CA: Wait, wait, wait, not doing anything? +KB: No. CA: You're right. +KB: People feel sorry for me, a lot of times. +CA: But how much time are you spending now actually back in Balochistan? +KB: I live over there. +We live between, still, Karachi and Balochistan. +My siblings are all going to school. +I am still the oldest of eight siblings. +CA: But what you're doing is definitely threatening to some people there. +How do you handle safety? Do you feel safe? +Are there issues there? +KB: This question has come to me a lot of times before, and I feel like the word "fear" just comes to me and then drops, but there is one fear that I have that is different from that. +The fear is that if I get killed, what would happen to the people who love me so much? +My mom waits for me till late at night that I should come home. +My sisters want to learn so much from me, and there are many, many girls in my community who want to talk to me and ask me different things, and I recently got engaged. CA: Is he here? You've got to stand up. +KB: Escaping arranged marriages, I chose my own husband across the world in L.A., a really different world. +I had to fight for a whole year. That's totally a different story. +But I think that's the only thing that I'm afraid of, and I don't want my mom to not see anyone when she waits in the night. +CA: So people who want to help you on their way, they can go on, they can maybe buy some of these clothes that you're bringing over that are actually made, the embroidery is done back in Balochistan? +KB: Yeah. +CA: Or they can get involved in the foundation. +KB: Definitely. We are looking for as many people as we can, because now that the foundation's in the beginning process, I am trying to learn a lot about how to operate, how to get funding or reach out to more organizations, and especially in the e-commerce, which is very new for me. +I mean, I am not a fashion person, believe me. +CA: Well, it's been incredible to have you here. +Please go on being courageous, go on being smart, and please stay safe. +KB: Thank you so much. CA: Thank you, Khalida. +Today I want to talk to you about the mathematics of love. +Now, I think that we can all agree that mathematicians are famously excellent at finding love. +But it's not just because of our dashing personalities, superior conversational skills and excellent pencil cases. +It's also because we've actually done an awful lot of work into the maths of how to find the perfect partner. +Now, in my favorite paper on the subject, which is entitled, "Why I Don't Have a Girlfriend" -- -- Peter Backus tries to rate his chances of finding love. +Now, Peter's not a very greedy man. +Of all of the available women in the U.K., all Peter's looking for is somebody who lives near him, somebody in the right age range, somebody with a university degree, somebody he's likely to get on well with, somebody who's likely to be attractive, somebody who's likely to find him attractive. +And comes up with an estimate of 26 women in the whole of the UK. +It's not looking very good, is it Peter? +Now, just to put that into perspective, that's about 400 times fewer than the best estimates of how many intelligent extraterrestrial life forms there are. +And it also gives Peter a 1 in 285,000 chance of bumping into any one of these special ladies on a given night out. +I'd like to think that's why mathematicians don't really bother going on nights out anymore. +The thing is that I personally don't subscribe to such a pessimistic view. +Because I know, just as well as all of you do, that love doesn't really work like that. +Human emotion isn't neatly ordered and rational and easily predictable. +But I also know that that doesn't mean that mathematics hasn't got something that it can offer us because, love, as with most of life, is full of patterns and mathematics is, ultimately, all about the study of patterns. +Patterns from predicting the weather to the fluctuations in the stock market, to the movement of the planets or the growth of cities. +And if we're being honest, none of those things are exactly neatly ordered and easily predictable, either. +Because I believe that mathematics is so powerful that it has the potential to offer us a new way of looking at almost anything. +Even something as mysterious as love. +And so, to try to persuade you of how totally amazing, excellent and relevant mathematics is, I want to give you my top three mathematically verifiable tips for love. +Okay, so Top Tip #1: How to win at online dating. +So my favorite online dating website is OkCupid, not least because it was started by a group of mathematicians. +Now, because they're mathematicians, they have been collecting data on everybody who uses their site for almost a decade. +And they've been trying to search for patterns in the way that we talk about ourselves and the way that we interact with each other on an online dating website. +And they've come up with some seriously interesting findings. +But my particular favorite is that it turns out that on an online dating website, how attractive you are does not dictate how popular you are, and actually, having people think that you're ugly can work to your advantage. +Let me show you how this works. +In a thankfully voluntary section of OkCupid, you are allowed to rate how attractive you think people are on a scale between 1 and 5. +Now, if we compare this score, the average score, to how many messages a selection of people receive, you can begin to get a sense of how attractiveness links to popularity on an online dating website. +This is the graph that the OkCupid guys have come up with. +And the important thing to notice is that it's not totally true that the more attractive you are, the more messages you get. +But the question arises then of what is it about people up here who are so much more popular than people down here, even though they have the same score of attractiveness? +And the reason why is that it's not just straightforward looks that are important. +So let me try to illustrate their findings with an example. +So if you take someone like Portia de Rossi, for example, everybody agrees that Portia de Rossi is a very beautiful woman. +Nobody thinks that she's ugly, but she's not a supermodel, either. +If you compare Portia de Rossi to someone like Sarah Jessica Parker, now, a lot of people, myself included, I should say, think that Sarah Jessica Parker is seriously fabulous and possibly one of the most beautiful creatures to have ever have walked on the face of the Earth. +But the way that people would vote would be very different. +So Portia's scores would all be clustered around the 4 because everybody agrees that she's very beautiful, whereas Sarah Jessica Parker completely divides opinion. +There'd be a huge spread in her scores. +And actually it's this spread that counts. +It's this spread that makes you more popular on an online Internet dating website. +So what that means then is that if some people think that you're attractive, you're actually better off having some other people think that you're a massive minger. +That's much better than everybody just thinking that you're the cute girl next door. +Now, I think this begins makes a bit more sense when you think in terms of the people who are sending these messages. +So let's say that you think somebody's attractive, but you suspect that other people won't necessarily be that interested. +That means there's less competition for you and it's an extra incentive for you to get in touch. +Whereas compare that to if you think somebody is attractive but you suspect that everybody is going to think they're attractive. +Well, why would you bother humiliating yourself, let's be honest? +Here's where the really interesting part comes. +Because when people choose the pictures that they use on an online dating website, they often try to minimize the things that they think some people will find unattractive. +The classic example is people who are, perhaps, a little bit overweight deliberately choosing a very cropped photo, or bald men, for example, deliberately choosing pictures where they're wearing hats. +But actually this is the opposite of what you should do if you want to be successful. +You should really, instead, play up to whatever it is that makes you different, even if you think that some people will find it unattractive. +Because the people who fancy you are just going to fancy you anyway, and the unimportant losers who don't, well, they only play up to your advantage. +Okay, Top Tip #2: How to pick the perfect partner. +So let's imagine then that you're a roaring success on the dating scene. +But the question arises of how do you then convert that success into longer-term happiness and in particular, how do you decide when is the right time to settle down? +Now generally, it's not advisable to just cash in and marry the first person who comes along and shows you any interest at all. +But, equally, you don't really want to leave it too long if you want to maximize your chance of long-term happiness. +As my favorite author, Jane Austen, puts it, "An unmarried woman of seven and twenty can never hope to feel or inspire affection again." +Thanks a lot, Jane. What do you know about love? +So the question is then, how do you know when is the right time to settle down given all the people that you can date in your lifetime? +Thankfully, there's a rather delicious bit of mathematics that we can use to help us out here, called optimal stopping theory. +So let's imagine then, that you start dating when you're 15 and ideally, you'd like to be married by the time that you're 35. +And there's a number of people that you could potentially date across your lifetime, and they'll be at varying levels of goodness. +Now the rules are that once you cash in and get married, you can't look ahead to see what you could have had, and equally, you can't go back and change your mind. +In my experience at least, I find that typically people don't much like being recalled years after being passed up for somebody else, or that's just me. +So the math says then that what you should do in the first 37 percent of your dating window, you should just reject everybody as serious marriage potential. +And then, you should pick the next person that comes along that is better than everybody that you've seen before. +So here's the example. +Now if you do this, it can be mathematically proven, in fact, that this is the best possible way of maximizing your chances of finding the perfect partner. +Now unfortunately, I have to tell you that this method does come with some risks. +For instance, imagine if your perfect partner appeared during your first 37 percent. +Now, unfortunately, you'd have to reject them. +Now, if you're following the maths, I'm afraid no one else comes along that's better than anyone you've seen before, so you have to go on rejecting everyone and die alone. +Probably surrounded by cats nibbling at your remains. +Okay, another risk is, let's imagine, instead, that the first people that you dated in your first 37 percent are just incredibly dull, boring, terrible people. +Now, that's okay, because you're in your rejection phase, so thats fine, you can reject them. +But then imagine, the next person to come along is just marginally less boring, dull and terrible than everybody that you've seen before. +Now, if you are following the maths, I'm afraid you have to marry them and end up in a relationship which is, frankly, suboptimal. +Sorry about that. +But I do think that there's an opportunity here for Hallmark to cash in on and really cater for this market. +A Valentine's Day card like this. "My darling husband, you are marginally less terrible than the first 37 percent of people I dated." +It's actually more romantic than I normally manage. +Okay, so this method doesn't give you a 100 percent success rate, but there's no other possible strategy that can do any better. +And actually, in the wild, there are certain types of fish which follow and employ this exact strategy. +So they reject every possible suitor that turns up in the first 37 percent of the mating season, and then they pick the next fish that comes along after that window that's, I don't know, bigger and burlier than all of the fish that they've seen before. +I also think that subconsciously, humans, we do sort of do this anyway. +We give ourselves a little bit of time to play the field, get a feel for the marketplace or whatever when we're young. +And then we only start looking seriously at potential marriage candidates once we hit our mid-to-late 20s. +I think this is conclusive proof, if ever it were needed, that everybody's brains are prewired to be just a little bit mathematical. +Okay, so that was Top Tip #2. +Now, Top Tip #3: How to avoid divorce. +Okay, so let's imagine then that you picked your perfect partner and you're settling into a lifelong relationship with them. +Now, I like to think that everybody would ideally like to avoid divorce, apart from, I don't know, Piers Morgan's wife, maybe? +But it's a sad fact of modern life that 1 in 2 marriages in the States ends in divorce, with the rest of the world not being far behind. +Now, you can be forgiven, perhaps for thinking that the arguments that precede a marital breakup are not an ideal candidate for mathematical investigation. +For one thing, it's very hard to know what you should be measuring or what you should be quantifying. +But this didn't stop a psychologist, John Gottman, who did exactly that. +Gottman observed hundreds of couples having a conversation and recorded, well, everything you can think of. +So he recorded what was said in the conversation, he recorded their skin conductivity, he recorded their facial expressions, their heart rates, their blood pressure, basically everything apart from whether or not the wife was actually always right, which incidentally she totally is. +But what Gottman and his team found was that one of the most important predictors for whether or not a couple is going to get divorced was how positive or negative each partner was being in the conversation. +Now, couples that were very low-risk scored a lot more positive points on Gottman's scale than negative. +Whereas bad relationships, by which I mean, probably going to get divorced, they found themselves getting into a spiral of negativity. +Now just by using these very simple ideas, Gottman and his group were able to predict whether a given couple was going to get divorced with a 90 percent accuracy. +But it wasn't until he teamed up with a mathematician, James Murray, that they really started to understand what causes these negativity spirals and how they occur. +And the results that they found I think are just incredibly impressively simple and interesting. +So these equations, they predict how the wife or husband is going to respond in their next turn of the conversation, how positive or negative they're going to be. +And these equations, they depend on the mood of the person when they're on their own, the mood of the person when they're with their partner, but most importantly, they depend on how much the husband and wife influence one another. +Now, I think it's important to point out at this stage, that these exact equations have also been shown to be perfectly able at describing what happens between two countries in an arms race. +So that -- an arguing couple spiraling into negativity and teetering on the brink of divorce -- is actually mathematically equivalent to the beginning of a nuclear war. +But the really important term in this equation is the influence that people have on one another, and in particular, something called the negativity threshold. +Now, the negativity threshold, you can think of as how annoying the husband can be before the wife starts to get really pissed off, and vice versa. +Now, I always thought that good marriages were about compromise and understanding and allowing the person to have the space to be themselves. +So I would have thought that perhaps the most successful relationships were ones where there was a really high negativity threshold. +Where couples let things go and only brought things up if they really were a big deal. +But actually, the mathematics and subsequent findings by the team have shown the exact opposite is true. +The best couples, or the most successful couples, are the ones with a really low negativity threshold. +These are the couples that don't let anything go unnoticed and allow each other some room to complain. +These are the couples that are continually trying to repair their own relationship, that have a much more positive outlook on their marriage. +Couples that don't let things go and couples that don't let trivial things end up being a really big deal. +Now of course, it takes bit more than just a low negativity threshold and not compromising to have a successful relationship. +But I think that it's quite interesting to know that there is really mathematical evidence to say that you should never let the sun go down on your anger. +So those are my top three tips of how maths can help you with love and relationships. +But I hope that aside from their use as tips, they also give you a little bit of insight into the power of mathematics. +Because for me, equations and symbols aren't just a thing. +They're a voice that speaks out about the incredible richness of nature and the startling simplicity in the patterns that twist and turn and warp and evolve all around us, from how the world works to how we behave. +So I hope that perhaps, for just a couple of you, a little bit of insight into the mathematics of love can persuade you to have a little bit more love for mathematics. +Thank you. +Has anyone among you ever been exposed to tear gas? +Tear gas? Anyone? +I'm sorry to hear that, so you might know that it's a very toxic substance, but you might not know that it's a very simple molecule with an unpronouncable name: it's called chlorobenzalmalononitrile. +I made it. +It's decades old, but it's becoming very trendy among police forces around the planet lately, it seems, and according to my experience as a non-voluntary breather of it, tear gas has two main but quite opposite effects. +One, it can really burn your eyes, and two, it can also help you to open them. +Tear gas definitely helped to open mine to something that I want to share with you this afternoon: that livestreaming the power of independent broadcasts through the web can be a game-changer in journalism, in activism, and as I see it, in the political discourse as well. +That idea started to dawn on me in early 2011 when I was covering a protest in So Paulo. +It was the marijuana march, a gathering of people asking for the legalization of cannabis. +When that group started to move, the riot police came from the back with rubber bullets, bombs, and then the gas. +So in the following week, I was back in the streets, but that time, I wasn't a member of any media outlet anymore. +I was there as an independent livestreamer, and all I had with me was basically borrowed equipment. +I had a very simple camera and a backpack with 3G modems. +And I had this weblink that could be shared through social media, could be put in any website, and that time, the protest went along fine. +There was no violence. +There was no action scenes. +But there was something really exciting, because I could see at a distance the TV channels covering it, and they had these big vans and the teams and the cameras, and I was basically doing the same thing and all I had was a backpack. +And I learned something else, that that was actually the first time that somebody had ever done a livestreaming in a street protest in the country. +And that really shocked me, because I was no geek, I was no technology guy, and all the equipment needed was already there, was easily available. +And that sounded revolutionary in my mind. +So for the next couple of years, I started to experiment with livestreaming in different ways, not only in the streets but mostly in studios and in homes, until the beginning of 2013, last year, when I became the cofounder of a group called Mdia NINJA. +NINJA is an acronym that stands for Narrativas Independentes Jornalismo e Ao, or in English, independent narratives, journalism, and action. +It was a media group that had little media plan. +We didn't have any financial structure. +We were not planning to make money out of this, which was wise, because you shouldn't try to make money out of journalism now. +But we had a very solid and clear conviction, that we knew that the hyperconnected environment of social media could maybe allow us to consolidate a network of experimental journalists throughout the country. +So we launched a Facebook page first, and then a manifesto, and started to cover the streets in a very simple way. +But then something happened, something that wasn't predicted, that no one could have anticipated. +Street protests started to erupt in So Paulo. +They began as very local and specific. +They were against the bus fare hike that had just happened in the city. +This is a bus. +It's written there, "Theft." +But those kind of manifestations started to grow, and they kept happening. +So the police violence against them started to grow as well. +But there was another conflict, the one I believe that's more important here to make my point that it was a narrative conflict. +There was this mainstream media version of the facts that anyone who was on the streets could easily challenge if they presented their own vision of what was actually happening there. +And it was this clash of visions, this clash of narratives, that I think turned those protests into a long period in the country of political reckoning where hundreds of thousands of people, probably more than a million people took to the streets in the whole country. +But it wasn't about the bus fare hike anymore. +It was about everything. +The people's demands, their expectations, the reasons why they were on the streets could be as diverse as they could be contradictory in many cases. +If you could read it, you would understand me. +But it was in this environment of political catharsis that the country was going through that it had to do with politics, indeed, but it had to do also with a new way of organizing, through a new way of communicating. +It was in that environment that Mdia NINJA emerged from almost anonymity to become a national phenomenon, because we did have the right equipment. +We are not using big cameras. +We are using basically this. +We are using smartphones. +And that, actually, allowed us to become invisible in the middle of the protests, but it allowed us to do something else: to show what it was like to be in the protests, to present to people at home a subjective perspective. +But there was something that is more important, I think, than the equipment. +It was our mindset, because we are not behaving as a media outlet. +We are not competing for news. +We are trying to encourage people, to invite people, and to actually teach people how to do this, how they also could become broadcasters. +And that was crucial to turn Mdia NINJA from a small group of people, and in a matter of weeks, we multiplied and we grew exponentially throughout the country. +So in a matter of a week or two, as the protests kept happening, we were hundreds of young people connected in this network throughout the country. +We were covering more than 50 cities at the same time. +That's something that no TV channel could ever do. +That was responsible for turning us suddenly, actually, into kind of the mainstream media of social media. +So we had a couple of thousands of followers on our Facebook page, and soon we had a quarter of a million followers. +Our posts and our videos were being seen by more than 11 million timelines a week. +It was way more than any newspaper or any magazine could ever do. +And that turned Mdia NINJA into something else, more than a media outlet, than a media project. +It became almost like a public service to the citizen, to the protester, to the activist, because they had a very simple and efficient and peaceful tool to confront both police and media authority. +Many of our images started to be used in regular TV channels. +Our livestreams started to be broadcast even in regular televisions when things got really rough. +Some our images were responsible to take some people out of jail, people who were being arrested unfairly under false accusations, and we could prove them innocent. +And that also turned Mdia NINJA very soon to be seen as almost an enemy of cops, unfortunately, and we started to be severely beaten, and eventually arrested on the streets. +It happened in many cases. +But that was also useful, because we were still at the web, so that helped to trigger an important debate in the country on the role of the media itself and the state of the freedom of the press in the country. +So Mdia NINJA now evolved and finally consolidated itself in what we hoped it would become: a national network of hundreds of young people, self-organizing themselves locally to cover social, human rights issues, and expressing themselves not only politically but journalistically. +What I started to do in the beginning of this year, as Mdia NINJA is already a self-organizing network, I'm dedicating myself to another project. +It's called Fluxo, which is Portuguese for "stream." +It's a journalism studio in So Paulo downtown, where I used livestream to experiment with what I call post-television formats. +But I'm also trying to come up with ways to finance independent journalism through a direct relationship with an audience, with an active audience, because now I really want to try to make a living out of my tear gas resolution back then. +But there's something more significant here, something that I believe is more important and more crucial than my personal example. +And that idea, I think, should be the intention, should be the goal of any good journalism, any good activism, but most of all, any good politics. +Thank you very much. It was an honor. +The power of yet. +I heard about a high school in Chicago where students had to pass a certain number of courses to graduate, and if they didn't pass a course, they got the grade "Not Yet." +And I thought that was fantastic, because if you get a failing grade, you think, I'm nothing, I'm nowhere. +But if you get the grade "Not Yet" you understand that you're on a learning curve. +It gives you a path into the future. +"Not Yet" also gave me insight into a critical event early in my career, a real turning point. +I wanted to see how children coped with challenge and difficulty, so I gave 10-year-olds problems that were slightly too hard for them. +Some of them reacted in a shockingly positive way. +They said things like, "I love a challenge," or, "You know, I was hoping this would be informative." +They understood that their abilities could be developed. +They had what I call a growth mindset. +But other students felt it was tragic, catastrophic. +From their more fixed mindset perspective, their intelligence had been up for judgment and they failed. +Instead of luxuriating in the power of yet, they were gripped in the tyranny of now. +So what do they do next? +I'll tell you what they do next. +In one study, they told us they would probably cheat the next time instead of studying more if they failed a test. +In another study, after a failure, they looked for someone who did worse than they did so they could feel really good about themselves. +And in study after study, they have run from difficulty. +Scientists measured the electrical activity from the brain as students confronted an error. +On the left, you see the fixed mindset students. +There's hardly any activity. +They run from the error. +They don't engage with it. +But on the right, you have the students with the growth mindset, the idea that abilities can be developed. +They engage deeply. +Their brain is on fire with yet. +They engage deeply. +They process the error. +They learn from it and they correct it. +How are we raising our children? +Are we raising them for now instead of yet? +Are we raising kids who are obsessed with getting A's? +Are we raising kids who don't know how to dream big dreams? +Their biggest goal is getting the next A or the next test score? +And are they carrying this need for constant validation with them into their future lives? +Maybe, because employers are coming to me and saying, we have already raised a generation of young workers who can't get through the day without an award. +So what can we do? +How can we build that bridge to yet? +Here are some things we can do. +First of all, we can praise wisely, not praising intelligence or talent. +That has failed. +Don't do that anymore. +But praising the process that kids engage in: their effort, their strategies, their focus, their perseverance, their improvement. +This process praise creates kids who are hardy and resilient. +There are other ways to reward yet. +We recently teamed up with game scientists from the University of Washington to create a new online math game that rewarded yet. +In this game, students were rewarded for effort, strategy and progress. +The usual math game rewards you for getting answers right right now, but this game rewarded process. +And we got more effort, more strategies, more engagement over longer periods of time, and more perseverance when they hit really, really hard problems. +Just the words "yet" or "not yet," we're finding, give kids greater confidence, give them a path into the future that creates greater persistence. +And we can actually change students' mindsets. +In one study, we taught them that every time they push out of their comfort zone to learn something new and difficult, the neurons in their brain can form new, stronger connections, and over time they can get smarter. +Look what happened: in this study, students who were not taught this growth mindset continued to show declining grades over this difficult school transition, but those who were taught this lesson showed a sharp rebound in their grades. +We have shown this now, this kind of improvement, with thousands and thousands of kids, especially struggling students. +So let's talk about equality. +In our country, there are groups of students who chronically underperform, for example, children in inner cities, or children on Native American reservations. +And they've done so poorly for so long that many people think it's inevitable. +But when educators create growth mindset classrooms steeped in yet, equality happens. +And here are just a few examples. +In one year, a kindergarten class in Harlem, New York scored in the 95th percentile on the National Achievement Test. +Many of those kids could not hold a pencil when they arrived at school. +In one year, fourth grade students in the South Bronx, way behind, became the number one fourth grade class in the state of New York on the state math test. +In a year to a year and a half, Native American students in a school on a reservation went from the bottom of their district to the top, and that district included affluent sections of Seattle. +So the native kids outdid the Microsoft kids. +This happened because the meaning of effort and difficulty were transformed. +Before, effort and difficulty made them feel dumb, made them feel like giving up, but now, effort and difficulty, that's when their neurons are making new connections, stronger connections. +That's when they're getting smarter. +I received a letter recently from a 13-year-old boy. +He said, "Dear Professor Dweck, I appreciate that your writing is based on solid scientific research, and that's why I decided to put it into practice. +I put more effort into my schoolwork, into my relationship with my family, and into my relationship with kids at school, and I experienced great improvement in all of those areas. +I now realize I've wasted most of my life." +Let's not waste any more lives, because once we know that abilities are capable of such growth, it becomes a basic human right for children, all children, to live in places that create that growth, to live in places filled with yet. +Thank you. +Our world has many superheroes. +But they have the worst of all superpowers: invisibility. +For example, the catadores, workers who collect recyclable materials for a living. +Catadores emerged from social inequality, unemployment, and the abundance of solid waste from the deficiency of the waste collection system. +Catadores provide a heavy, honest and essential work that benefits the entire population. But they are not acknowledged for it. +Here in Brazil, they collect 90 percent of all the waste that's actually recycled. +Most of the catadores work independently, picking waste from the streets and selling to junk yards at very low prices. +They may collect over 300 kilos in their bags, shopping carts, bicycles and carroas. +Carroas are carts built from wood or metal and found in several streets in Brazil, much like graffiti and street art. +And this is how I first met these marginalized superheroes. +I am a graffiti artist and activist and my art is social, environmental and political in nature. +In 2007, I took my work beyond walls and onto the carroas, as a new urban support for my message. +But at this time, giving voice to the catadores. +By adding art and humor to the cause, it became more appealing, which helped call attention to the catadores and improve their self-esteem. +And also, they are famous now on the streets, on mass media and social. +So, the thing is, I plunged into this universe and have not stopped working since. +I have painted over 200 carroas in many cities and have been invited to do exhibitions and trips worldwide. +And then I realized that catadores, in their invisibility, are not exclusive to Brazil. +I met them in Argentina, Chile, Bolivia, South Africa, Turkey and even in developed countries such as the United States and Japan. +And this was when I realized that I needed to have more people join the cause because it's a big challenge. +And then, I created a collaborative movement called Pimp My Carroa -- -- which is a large crowdfunded event. +Thank you. +So Pimp My Carroa is a large crowdfunded event to help catadores and their carroas. +Catadores are assisted by well-being professionals and healthcare, like physicians, dentists, podiatrists, hair stylists, massage therapists and much more. +But also, they also receive safety shirts, gloves, raincoats and eyeglasses to see in high-definition the city, while their carroas are renovated by our incredible volunteers. +And then they receive safety items, too: reflective tapes, horns and mirrors. +Then, finally, painted by a street artist and become part of part of this huge, amazing mobile art exhibition. +Pimp My Carroa took to the streets of So Paulo, Rio de Janeiro and Curitiba. +But to meet the demand in other cities, including outside of Brazil, we have created Pimpx, which is inspired by TEDx, and it's a simplified, do-it-yourself, crowdfunded edition of Pimp My Carroa. +So now everybody can join. +In two years, over 170 catadores, 800 volunteers and 200 street artists and more than 1,000 donors have been involved in the Pimp My Carroa movement, whose actions have even been used in teaching recycling at a local school. +So catadores are leaving invisibility behind and becoming increasingly respected and valued. +Because of their pimped carroas, they are able to fight back to prejudice, increase their income and their interaction with society. +So now, I'd like to challenge you to start looking at and acknowledging the catadores and other invisible superheroes from your city. +Try to see the world as one, without boundaries or frontiers. +Believe it or not, there are over 20 million catadores worldwide. +So next time you see one, recognize them as a vital part of our society. +Muito obrigado, thank you. +I'm a lexicographer. +I make dictionaries. +And my job as a lexicographer is to try to put all the words possible into the dictionary. +My job is not to decide what a word is; that is your job. +Everybody who speaks English decides together what's a word and what's not a word. +Every language is just a group of people who agree to understand each other. +Now, sometimes when people are trying to decide whether a word is good or bad, they don't really have a good reason. +So they say something like, "Because grammar!" +I don't actually really care about grammar too much -- don't tell anybody. +But the word "grammar," actually, there are two kinds of grammar. +There's the kind of grammar that lives inside your brain, and if you're a native speaker of a language or a good speaker of a language, it's the unconscious rules that you follow when you speak that language. +And this is what you learn when you learn a language as a child. +And here's an example: This is a wug, right? +It's a wug. +Now there is another one. +There are two of these. +There are two ... +Audience: Wugs. +Erin McKean: Exactly! You know how to make the plural of wug. +That rule lives in your brain. +You never had to be taught this rule, you just understand it. +This is an experiment that was invented by a professor at [Boston University] named Jean Berko Gleason back in 1958. +So we've been talking about this for a long time. +Now, these kinds of natural rules that exist in your brain, they're not like traffic laws, they're more like laws of nature. +And nobody has to remind you to obey a law of nature, right? +When you leave the house in the morning, your mom doesn't say, "Hey, honey, I think it's going to be cold, take a hoodie, don't forget to obey the law of gravity." +Nobody says this. +Now, there are other rules that are more about manners than they are about nature. +So you can think of a word as like a hat. +Once you know how hats work, nobody has to tell you, "Don't wear hats on your feet." +What they have to tell you is, "Can you wear hats inside? +Who gets to wear a hat? +What are the kinds of hats you get to wear?" +Those are more of the second kind of grammar, which linguists often call usage, as opposed to grammar. +Now, sometimes people use this kind of rules-based grammar to discourage people from making up words. +And I think that is, well, stupid. +So, for example, people are always telling you, "Be creative, make new music, do art, invent things, science and technology." +But when it comes to words, they're like, "Don't! No. Creativity stops right here, whippersnappers. Give it a rest." +But that makes no sense to me. +Words are great. We should have more of them. +I want you to make as many new words as possible. +And I'm going to tell you six ways that you can use to make new words in English. +The first way is the simplest way. +Basically, steal them from other languages. +["Go rob other people"] Linguists call this borrowing, but we never give the words back , so I'm just going to be honest and call it stealing. +We usually take words for things that we like, like delicious food. +We took "kumquat" from Chinese, we took "caramel" from French. +We also take words for cool things like "ninja," right? +We took that from Japanese, which is kind of a cool trick because ninjas are hard to steal from. +So another way that you can make words in English is by squishing two other English words together. +This is called compounding. +Words in English are like Lego: If you use enough force, you can put any two of them together. +We do this all the time in English: Words like "heartbroken," "bookworm," "sandcastle" all are compounds. +So go ahead and make words like "duckface," just don't make duckface. +Another way that you can make words in English is kind of like compounding, but instead you use so much force when you squish the words together that some parts fall off. +So these are blend words, like "brunch" is a blend of "breakfast" and "lunch." +"Motel" is a blend of "motor" and "hotel." +Who here knew that "motel" was a blend word? +Yeah, that word is so old in English that lots of people don't know that there are parts missing. +"Edutainment" is a blend of "education" and "entertainment." +And of course, "electrocute" is a blend of "electric" and "execute." +You can also make words by changing how they operate. +This is called functional shift. +You take a word that acts as one part of speech, and you change it into another part of speech. +Okay, who here knew that "friend" hasn't always been a verb? +"Friend" used to be noun and then we verbed it. +Almost any word in English can be verbed. +You can also take adjectives and make them into nouns. +"Commercial" used to be an adjective and now it's a noun. +And of course, you can "green" things. +Another way to make words in English is back-formation. +You can take a word and you can kind of squish it down a little bit. +So for example, in English we had the word "editor" before we had the word "edit." +"Edit" was formed from "editor." +Sometimes these back-formations sound a little silly: Bulldozers bulldoze, butlers butle and burglers burgle. +Another way to make words in English So National Aeronautics and Space Administration becomes NASA. +And of course you can do this with anything, OMG! +So it doesn't matter how silly the words are. +They can be really good words of English. +"Absquatulate" is a perfectly good word of English. +"Mugwump" is a perfectly good word of English. +So the words don't have have to sound normal, they can sound really silly. +Why should you make words? +You should make words because every word is a chance to express your idea and get your meaning across. +And new words grab people's attention. +They get people to focus on what you're saying and that gives you a better chance to get your meaning across. +A lot of people on this stage today have said, "In the future, you can do this, you can help with this, you can help us explore, you can help us invent." +You can make a new word right now. +English has no age limit. +Go ahead, start making words today, send them to me, and I will put them in my online dictionary, Wordnik. +Thank you so much. +So over the past few centuries, microscopes have revolutionized our world. +They revealed to us a tiny world of objects, life and structures that are too small for us to see with our naked eyes. +They are a tremendous contribution to science and technology. +Today I'd like to introduce you to a new type of microscope, a microscope for changes. +It doesn't use optics like a regular microscope to make small objects bigger, but instead it uses a video camera and image processing to reveal to us the tiniest motions and color changes in objects and people, changes that are impossible for us to see with our naked eyes. +And it lets us look at our world in a completely new way. +So what do I mean by color changes? +Our skin, for example, changes its color very slightly when the blood flows under it. +That change is incredibly subtle, which is why, when you look at other people, when you look at the person sitting next to you, you don't see their skin or their face changing color. +When we look at this video of Steve here, it appears to us like a static picture, but once we look at this video through our new, special microscope, suddenly we see a completely different image. +What you see here are small changes in the color of Steve's skin, magnified 100 times so that they become visible. +We can actually see a human pulse. +We can see how fast Steve's heart is beating, but we can also see the actual way that the blood flows in his face. +And we can do that not just to visualize the pulse, but also to actually recover our heart rates, and measure our heart rates. +And we can do it with regular cameras and without touching the patients. +So here you see the pulse and heart rate we extracted from a neonatal baby from a video we took with a regular DSLR camera, and the heart rate measurement we get is as accurate as the one you'd get with a standard monitor in a hospital. +And it doesn't even have to be a video we recorded. +We can do it essentially with other videos as well. +So I just took a short clip from "Batman Begins" here just to show Christian Bale's pulse. +And you know, presumably he's wearing makeup, the lighting here is kind of challenging, but still, just from the video, we're able to extract his pulse and show it quite well. +So how do we do all that? +We basically analyze the changes in the light that are recorded at every pixel in the video over time, and then we crank up those changes. +We make them bigger so that we can see them. +The tricky part is that those signals, those changes that we're after, are extremely subtle, so we have to be very careful when you try to separate them from noise that always exists in videos. +So we use some clever image processing techniques to get a very accurate measurement of the color at each pixel in the video, and then the way the color changes over time, and then we amplify those changes. +We make them bigger to create those types of enhanced videos, or magnified videos, that actually show us those changes. +But it turns out we can do that not just to show tiny changes in color, but also tiny motions, and that's because the light that gets recorded in our cameras will change not only if the color of the object changes, but also if the object moves. +So this is my daughter when she was about two months old. +It's a video I recorded about three years ago. +And as new parents, we all want to make sure our babies are healthy, that they're breathing, that they're alive, of course. +So I too got one of those baby monitors so that I could see my daughter when she was asleep. +And this is pretty much what you'll see with a standard baby monitor. +You can see the baby's sleeping, but there's not too much information there. +There's not too much we can see. +Wouldn't it be better, or more informative, or more useful, if instead we could look at the view like this. +So here I took the motions and I magnified them 30 times, and then I could clearly see that my daughter was indeed alive and breathing. +Here is a side-by-side comparison. +So again, in the source video, in the original video, there's not too much we can see, but once we magnify the motions, the breathing becomes much more visible. +And it turns out, there's a lot of phenomena we can reveal and magnify with our new motion microscope. +We can see how our veins and arteries are pulsing in our bodies. +We can see that our eyes are constantly moving in this wobbly motion. +And that's actually my eye, and again this video was taken right after my daughter was born, so you can see I wasn't getting too much sleep. Even when a person is sitting still, there's a lot of information we can extract about their breathing patterns, small facial expressions. +Maybe we could use those motions to tell us something about our thoughts or our emotions. +We can also magnify small mechanical movements, like vibrations in engines, that can help engineers detect and diagnose machinery problems, or see how our buildings and structures sway in the wind and react to forces. +Those are all things that our society knows how to measure in various ways, but measuring those motions is one thing, and actually seeing those motions as they happen is a whole different thing. +And ever since we discovered this new technology, we made our code available online so that others could use and experiment with it. +It's very simple to use. +It can work on your own videos. +Our collaborators at Quanta Research even created this nice website where you can upload your videos and process them online, so even if you don't have any experience in computer science or programming, you can still very easily experiment with this new microscope. +And I'd like to show you just a couple of examples of what others have done with it. +So this video was made by a YouTube user called Tamez85. +I don't know who that user is, but he, or she, used our code to magnify small belly movements during pregnancy. +It's kind of creepy. +People have used it to magnify pulsing veins in their hands. +And you know it's not real science unless you use guinea pigs, and apparently this guinea pig is called Tiffany, and this YouTube user claims it is the first rodent on Earth that was motion-magnified. +You can also do some art with it. +So this video was sent to me by a design student at Yale. +She wanted to see if there's any difference in the way her classmates move. +She made them all stand still, and then magnified their motions. +It's like seeing still pictures come to life. +And the nice thing with all those examples is that we had nothing to do with them. +We just provided this new tool, a new way to look at the world, and then people find other interesting, new and creative ways of using it. +But we didn't stop there. +This tool not only allows us to look at the world in a new way, it also redefines what we can do and pushes the limits of what we can do with our cameras. +So as scientists, we started wondering, what other types of physical phenomena produce tiny motions that we could now use our cameras to measure? +And one such phenomenon that we focused on recently is sound. +Sound, as we all know, is basically changes in air pressure that travel through the air. +Those pressure waves hit objects and they create small vibrations in them, which is how we hear and how we record sound. +But it turns out that sound also produces visual motions. +Those are motions that are not visible to us but are visible to a camera with the right processing. +So here are two examples. +This is me demonstrating my great singing skills. +And I took a high-speed video of my throat while I was humming. +Again, if you stare at that video, there's not too much you'll be able to see, but once we magnify the motions 100 times, we can see all the motions and ripples in the neck that are involved in producing the sound. +That signal is there in that video. +We also know that singers can break a wine glass if they hit the correct note. +So here, we're going to play a note that's in the resonance frequency of that glass through a loudspeaker that's next to it. +Once we play that note and magnify the motions 250 times, we can very clearly see how the glass vibrates and resonates in response to the sound. +It's not something you're used to seeing every day. +But this made us think. It gave us this crazy idea. +Can we actually invert this process and recover sound from video by analyzing the tiny vibrations that sound waves create in objects, and essentially convert those back into the sounds that produced them. +In this way, we can turn everyday objects into microphones. +So that's exactly what we did. +So here's an empty bag of chips that was lying on a table, and we're going to turn that bag of chips into a microphone by filming it with a video camera and analyzing the tiny motions that sound waves create in it. +So here's the sound that we played in the room. +(Music: "Mary Had a Little Lamb") And this is a high-speed video we recorded of that bag of chips. +Again it's playing. +There's no chance you'll be able to see anything going on in that video just by looking at it, but here's the sound we were able to recover just by analyzing the tiny motions in that video. +(Music: "Mary Had a Little Lamb") I call it -- Thank you. +I call it the visual microphone. +We actually extract audio signals from video signals. +And just to give you a sense of the scale of the motions here, a pretty loud sound will cause that bag of chips to move less than a micrometer. +That's one thousandth of a millimeter. +That's how tiny the motions are that we are now able to pull out just by observing how light bounces off objects and gets recorded by our cameras. +We can recover sounds from other objects, like plants. +(Music: "Mary Had a Little Lamb") And we can recover speech as well. +So here's a person speaking in a room. +Voice: Mary had a little lamb whose fleece was white as snow, and everywhere that Mary went, that lamb was sure to go. +Michael Rubinstein: And here's that speech again recovered just from this video of that same bag of chips. +Voice: Mary had a little lamb whose fleece was white as snow, and everywhere that Mary went, that lamb was sure to go. +MR: We used "Mary Had a Little Lamb" because those are said to be the first words that Thomas Edison spoke into his phonograph in 1877. +It was one of the first sound recording devices in history. +It basically directed the sounds onto a diaphragm that vibrated a needle that essentially engraved the sound on tinfoil that was wrapped around the cylinder. +Here's a demonstration of recording and replaying sound with Edison's phonograph. +Voice: Testing, testing, one two three. +Mary had a little lamb whose fleece was white as snow, and everywhere that Mary went, the lamb was sure to go. +Testing, testing, one two three. +Mary had a little lamb whose fleece was white as snow, and everywhere that Mary went, the lamb was sure to go. +MR: And now, 137 years later, we're able to get sound in pretty much similar quality but by just watching objects vibrate to sound with cameras, and we can even do that when the camera is 15 feet away from the object, behind soundproof glass. +So this is the sound that we were able to recover in that case. +Voice: Mary had a little lamb whose fleece was white as snow, and everywhere that Mary went, the lamb was sure to go. +MR: And of course, surveillance is the first application that comes to mind. +But it might actually be useful for other things as well. +Maybe in the future, we'll be able to use it, for example, to recover sound across space, because sound can't travel in space, but light can. +We've only just begun exploring other possible uses for this new technology. +It lets us see physical processes that we know are there but that we've never been able to see with our own eyes until now. +This is our team. +Everything I showed you today is a result of a collaboration with this great group of people you see here, and I encourage you and welcome you to check out our website, try it out yourself, and join us in exploring this world of tiny motions. +Thank you. +In the 1600s, there were so many right whales in Cape Cod Bay off the east coast of the U.S. +that apparently you could walk across their backs from one end of the bay to the other. +Today, they number in the hundreds, and they're endangered. +Like them, many species of whales saw their numbers drastically reduced by 200 years of whaling, where they were hunted and killed for their whale meat, oil and whale bone. +We only have whales in our waters today because of the Save the Whales movement of the '70s. +It was instrumental in stopping commercial whaling, and was built on the idea that if we couldn't save whales, what could we save? +It was ultimately a test of our political ability to halt environmental destruction. +So in the early '80s, there was a ban on commercial whaling that came into force as a result of this campaign. +Whales in our waters are still low in numbers, however, because they do face a range of other human-induced threats. +Unfortunately, many people still think that whale conservationists like myself do what we do only because these creatures are charismatic and beautiful. +This is actually a disservice, because whales are ecosystem engineers. +They help maintain the stability and health of the oceans, and even provide services to human society. +So let's talk about why saving whales is critical to the resiliency of the oceans. +It boils down to two main things: whale poop and rotting carcasses. +As whales dive to the depths to feed and come up to the surface to breathe, they actually release these enormous fecal plumes. +This whale pump, as it's called, actually brings essential limiting nutrients from the depths to the surface waters where they stimulate the growth of phytoplankton, which forms the base of all marine food chains. +So really, having more whales in the oceans pooping is really beneficial to the entire ecosystem. +Whales are also known to undertake some of the longest migrations of all mammals. +Gray whales off America migrate 16,000 kilometers between productive feeding areas and less productive calving, or birthing, areas and back every year. +As they do so, they transport fertilizer in the form of their feces from places that have it to places that need it. +So clearly, whales are really important in nutrient cycling, both horizontally and vertically, through the oceans. +But what's really cool is that they're also really important after they're dead. +Whale carcasses are some of the largest form of detritus to fall from the ocean's surface, and they're called whale fall. +As these carcasses sink, they provide a feast to some 400-odd species, including the eel-shaped, slime-producing hagfish. +Sometimes these carcasses also wash up on beaches and provide a meal to a number of predatory species on land. +The 200 years of whaling was clearly detrimental and caused a reduction in the populations of whales between 60 to 90 percent. +Clearly, the Save the Whales movement was instrumental in preventing commercial whaling from going on, but we need to revise this. +We need to address the more modern, pressing problems that these whales face in our waters today. +Amongst other things, we need to stop them from getting plowed down by container ships when they're in their feeding areas, and stop them from getting entangled in fishing nets as they float around in the ocean. +We also need to learn to contextualize our conservation messages, so people really understand the true ecosystem value of these creatures. +So, let's save the whales again, but this time, let's not just do it for their sake. +Let's also do it for ours. +Thank you. +I'm a tourism entrepreneur and a peacebuilder, but this is not how I started. +When I was seven years old, I remember watching television and seeing people throwing rocks, and thinking, this must be a fun thing to do. +So I got out to the street and threw rocks, not realizing I was supposed to throw rocks at Israeli cars. +Instead, I ended up stoning my neighbors' cars. They were not enthusiastic about my patriotism. +This is my picture with my brother. +This is me, the little one, and I know what you're thinking: "You used to look cute, what the heck happened to you?" +But my brother, who is older than me, was arrested when he was 18, taken to prison on charges of throwing stones. +He was beaten up when he refused to confess that he threw stones, and as a result, had internal injuries that caused his death soon after he was released from prison. +I was angry, I was bitter, and all I wanted was revenge. +But that changed when I was 18. +I decided that I needed Hebrew to get a job, and going to study Hebrew in that classroom was the first time I ever met Jews who were not soldiers. +And we connected over really small things, like the fact that I love country music, which is really strange for Palestinians. +But it was then that I realized also that we have a wall of anger, of hatred and of ignorance that separates us. +I decided that it doesn't matter what happens to me. +What really matters is how I deal with it. +And therefore, I decided to dedicate my life to bringing down the walls that separate people. +I do so through many ways. +Tourism is one of them, but also media and education, and you might be wondering, really, can tourism change things? +Can it bring down walls? Yes. +Tourism is the best sustainable way to bring down those walls and to create a sustainable way of connecting with each other and creating friendships. +I remember running a trip together with a friend named Kobi -- Jewish congregation from Chicago, the trip was in Jerusalem -- and we took them to a refugee camp, a Palestinian refugee camp, and there we had this amazing food. +By the way, this is my mother. She's cool. +And that's the Palestinian food called maqluba. +It means "upside-down." +You cook it with rice and chicken, and you flip it upside-down. +It's the best meal ever. +And we'll eat together. +Then we had a joint band, Israeli and Palestinian musicians, and we did some belly-dancing. +If you don't know any, I'll teach you later. +But when we left, both sides, they were crying because they did not want to leave. +Three years later, those relationships still exist. +Imagine with me if the one billion people who travel internationally every year travel like this, not being taken in the bus from one side to another, from one hotel to another, taking pictures from the windows of their buses of people and cultures, but actually connecting with people. +You know, I remember having a Muslim group from the U.K. +going to the house of an Orthodox Jewish family, and having their first Friday night dinners, that Sabbath dinner, and eating together hamin, which is a Jewish food, a stew, just having the connection of realizing, after a while, that a hundred years ago, their families came out of the same place in Northern Africa. +This is not a photo profile for your Facebook. +This is not disaster tourism. +This is the future of travel, and I invite you to join me to do that, to change your travel. +We're doing it all over the world now, from Ireland to Iran to Turkey, and we see ourselves going everywhere to change the world. +Thank you. +I have a confession to make. +As a scientist and engineer, I've focused on efficiency for many years. +But efficiency can be a cult, and today I'd like to tell you about a journey that moved me out of the cult and back to a far richer reality. +A few years ago, after finishing my Ph.D. in London, I moved to Boston. +I lived in Boston and worked in Cambridge. +I bought a racing bicycle that summer, and I bicycled every day to work. +To find my way, I used my phone. +It sent me over Mass. Ave., Massachusetts Avenue, the shortest route from Boston to Cambridge. +But after a month that I was cycling every day on the car-packed Mass. Ave., I took a different route one day. +I'm not entirely sure why I took a different route that day, a detour. +I just remember a feeling of surprise; surprise at finding a street with no cars, as opposed to the nearby Mass. Ave. full of cars; surprise at finding a street draped by leaves and surrounded by trees. +But after the feeling of surprise, I felt shame. +How could I have been so blind? +For an entire month, I was so trapped in my mobile app that a journey to work became one thing only: the shortest path. +In this single journey, there was no thought of enjoying the road, no pleasure in connecting with nature, no possibility of looking people in the eyes. +And why? +Because I was saving a minute out of my commute. +Now let me ask you: Am I alone here? +How many of you have never used a mapping app for finding directions? +Most of you, if not all, have. +And don't get me wrong -- mapping apps are the greatest game-changer for encouraging people to explore the city. +You take your phone out and you know immediately where to go. +However, the app also assumes there are only a handful of directions to the destination. +It has the power to make those handful of directions the definitive direction to that destination. +After that experience, I changed. +I changed my research from traditional data-mining to understanding how people experience the city. +I used computer science tools to replicate social science experiments at scale, at web scale. +I became captivated by the beauty and genius of traditional social science experiments done by Jane Jacobs, Stanley Milgram, Kevin Lynch. +The result of that research has been the creation of new maps, maps where you don't only find the shortest path, the blue one, but also the most enjoyable path, the red one. +How was that possible? +Einstein once said, "Logic will get you from A to B. +Imagination will take you everywhere." +So with a bit of imagination, we needed to understand which parts of the city people find beautiful. +At the University of Cambridge, with colleagues, we thought about this simple experiment. +If I were to show you these two urban scenes, and I were to ask you which one is more beautiful, which one would you say? +Don't be shy. +Who says A? Who says B? +Brilliant. +Based on that idea, we built a crowdsourcing platform, a web game. +Players are shown pairs of urban scenes, and they're asked to choose which one is more beautiful, quiet and happy. +Based on thousands of user votes, then we are able to see where consensus emerges. +We are able to see which are the urban scenes that make people happy. +After that work, I joined Yahoo Labs, and I teamed up with Luca and Rossano, and together, we aggregated those winning locations in London to build a new map of the city, a cartography weighted for human emotions. +On this cartography, you're not only able to see and connect from point A to point B the shortest segments, but you're also able to see the happy segment, the beautiful path, the quiet path. +In tests, participants found the happy, the beautiful, the quiet path far more enjoyable than the shortest one, and that just by adding a few minutes to travel time. +Participants also love to attach memories to places. +Shared memories -- that's where the old BBC building was; and personal memories -- that's where I gave my first kiss. +They also recalled how some paths smelled and sounded. +So what if we had a mapping tool that would return the most enjoyable routes based not only on aesthetics but also based on smell, sound, and memories? +That's where our research is going right now. +More generally, my research, what it tries to do is avoid the danger of the single path, to avoid robbing people of fully experiencing the city in which they live. +Walk the path through the park, not through the car park, and you have an entirely different path. +Walk the path full of people you love and not full of cars, and you have an entirely different path. +It's that simple. +I would like to end with this thought: do you remember "The Truman Show?" +It's a media satire in which a real person doesn't know he's living in a fabricated world. +Perhaps we live in a world fabricated for efficiency. +Look at some of your daily habits, and as Truman did in the movie, escape the fabricated world. +Why? +Well, if you think that adventure is dangerous, try routine. It's deadly. +Thank you. +It's said that to be a poet you have to go to hell and back. +The first time I visited the prison, I was not surprised by the noise of the padlocks, or the closing doors, or the cell bars, or by any of the things I had imagined. +Maybe because the prison is in a quite open space. +You can see the sky. +Seagulls fly overhead, and you feel like you're next to the sea, that you're really close to the beach. +But in fact, the gulls are looking for food in the dump near the prison. +I went farther inside and I suddenly saw inmates moving across the corridors. +Then it was as if I stepped back and thought that I could have very well been one of them. +If I had another story, another context, different luck. +Because nobody - nobody - can choose where they're born. +In 2009, I was invited to join a project that San Martn National University conducted at the Unit 48 penitentiary, to coordinate a writing workshop. +The prison service ceded some land at the end of the prison, which is where they constructed the University Center building. +The first time I met with the prisoners, I asked them why they were asking for a writing workshop and they told me they wanted to put on paper all that they couldn't say and do. +Right then I decided that I wanted poetry to enter the prison. +So I said to them why don't we work with poetry, if they knew what poetry was. +But nobody had a clue what poetry really was. +They also suggested to me that the workshop should be not just for the inmates taking university classes, but for all the inmates. +And so I said that to start this workshop, I needed to find a tool that we all had in common. +That tool was language. +We had language, we had the workshop. We could have poetry. +But what I hadn't considered was that inequality exists in prison, too. +Many of the prisoners hadn't even completed grammar school. +Many couldn't use cursive, could barely print. +They didn't write fluently, either. +So we started looking for short poems. Very short, but very powerful. +And we started to read, and we'd read one author, then another author, and by reading such short poems, they all began to realize that what the poetic language did was to break a certain logic, and create another system. +Breaking the logic of language also breaks the logic of the system under which they've learned to respond. +So a new system appeared, new rules that made them understand very quickly, that with poetic language they would be able to say absolutely whatever they wanted. +It's said that to be a poet you have to go to hell and back. +And they have plenty of hell. Plenty of hell. +One of them once said: "In prison you never sleep. +You can never sleep in jail. You can never close your eyelids." +And so, like Im doing now, I gave them a moment of silence, then said, That's what poetry is, you guys. +It's in this prison universe that you have all around you. +Everything you say about how you never sleep, it exudes fear. All the things that go unwritten -- all of that is poetry." +So we started appropriating that hell; we plunged ourselves, headfirst, into the seventh circle. +And in that seventh circle of hell, our very own, beloved circle, they learned that they could make the walls invisible, that they could make the windows yell, and that we could hide inside the shadows. +When the first year of the workshop had ended, we organized a little closing party, like you do when a job is done with so much love, and you want to celebrate with a party. +We called family, friends, the university authorities. +The only thing the inmates had to do was read a poem, and receive their diplomas and applause. That was our simple party. +The only thing I want to leave you with is the moment in which those men, some of them just huge when standing next to me, or the young boys - so young, but with an enormous pride, held their papers and trembled like little kids and sweated, and read their poems with their voices completely broken. +That moment made me think a lot that for most of them, it was surely the very first time that someone applauded them for something they had done. +In prison there are things that can't be done. +In prison, you can't dream. In prison, you can't cry. +There are words that are virtually forbidden, like the word "time," the word "future," the word "wish". +But we dared to dream, and to dream a lot. +We decided that they were going to write a book. +Not only did they write a book, but they also bound it themselves. +That was at the end of 2010. +Then, we doubled the bet and wrote another book. +And we bound that one, too. +That was a short time ago, at the end of last year. +What I see week after week, is how they're turning into different people; how they're being transformed. +How words are empowering them with a dignity they had never known, that they couldn't even imagine. +They had no idea such dignity could come from them. +At the workshop, in that beloved hell we share, we all give something. +We open our hands and hearts and give what we have, what we can. +All of us; all of us equally. +And so you feel that at least in a small way you're repairing that huge social fracture which makes it so that for many of them, prison is their only destination. +I remember a verse by a tremendous poet, a great poet, from our Unit 48 workshop, Nicols Dorado: "I will need an infinite thread to sew up this huge wound." +Poetry does that; it sews up the wounds of exclusion. +It opens doors. Poetry works as a mirror. +It creates a mirror, which is the poem. +They recognize themselves, they look at themselves in the poem and write from who they are, and are from what they write. +In order to write, they need to appropriate the moment of writing which is a moment of extraordinary freedom. +I told you a lot about the prison, a lot about what I experience every week, and how I enjoy it and transform myself with the inmates. +But you don't know how much I'd like it if you could feel, live, experience, even for a few seconds, what I enjoy every week and what makes me who I am. +Martn Bustamante: The heart chews tears of time; blinded by that light, it hides the speed of existence where the images go rowing by. +It fights; it hangs on. +The heart cracks under sad gazes, rides on storms that spread fire, lifts chests lowered by shame, knows that it's not just reading and going on, it also wishes to see the infinite blue. +The heart sits down to think about things, fights to avoid being ordinary, tries to love without hurting, breathes the sun, giving courage to itself, surrenders, travels toward reason. +The heart fights among the swamps, skirts the edge of the underworld, falls exhausted, but won't give in to what's easy, while irregular steps of intoxication wake up, wake the stillness. +I'm Martn Bustamante, I'm a prisoner in Unit 48 of San Martn, today is my day of temporary release. +And for me, poetry and literature have changed my life. +Thank you very much! +Cristina Domenech: Thank you! +Guatemala is recovering from a 36-year armed conflict. +A conflict that was fought during the Cold War. +It was really just a small leftist insurgency and a devastating response by the state. +What we have as a result is 200,000 civilian victims, 160,000 of those killed in the communities: small children, men, women, the elderly even. +And then we have about 40,000 others, the missing, the ones we're still looking for today. +We call them the Desaparecidos. +Now, 83 percent of the victims are Mayan victims, victims that are the descendants of the original inhabitants of Central America. +And only about 17 percent are of European descent. +But the most important thing here is that the very people who are supposed to defend us, the police, the military, are the ones that committed most of the crimes. +Now the families, they want information. +They want to know what happened. +They want the bodies of their loved ones. +But most of all, what they want is they want you, they want everyone to know that their loved ones did nothing wrong. +Now, my case was that my father received death threats in 1980. +And we left. +We left Guatemala and we came here. +So I grew up in New York, I grew up in Brooklyn as a matter of fact, and I went to New Utrecht High School and I graduated from Brooklyn College. +The only thing was that I really didn't know what was happening in Guatemala. +I didn't care for it; it was too painful. +But it wasn't till 1995 that I decided to do something about it. +So I went back. +I went back to Guatemala, to look for the bodies, to understand what happened and to look for part of myself as well. +The way we work is that we give people information. +We talk to the family members and we let them choose. +We let them decide to tell us the stories, to tell us what they saw, to tell us about their loved ones. +And even more important, we let them choose to give us a piece of themselves. +A piece, an essence, of who they are. +And that DNA is what we're going to compare to the DNA that comes from the skeletons. +While we're doing that, though, we're looking for the bodies. +And these are skeletons by now, most of these crimes happened 32 years ago. +When we find the grave, we take out the dirt and eventually clean the body, document it, and exhume it. +We literally bring the skeleton out of the ground. +Once we have those bodies, though, we take them back to the city, to our lab, and we begin a process of trying to understand mainly two things: One is how people died. +So here you see a gunshot wound to the back of the head or a machete wound, for example. +The other thing we want to understand is who they are. +Whether it's a baby, or an adult. +Whether it's a woman or a man. +But when we're done with that analysis what we'll do is we'll take a small fragment of the bone and we'll extract DNA from it. +We'll take that DNA and then we'll compare it with the DNA of the families, of course. +The best way to explain this to you is by showing you two cases. +The first is the case of the military diary. +Now this is a document that was smuggled out of somewhere in 1999. +And what you see there is the state following individuals, people that, like you, wanted to change their country, and they jotted everything down. +And one of the things that they wrote down is when they executed them. +Inside that yellow rectangle, you see a code, it's a secret code: 300. +And then you see a date. +The 300 means "executed" and the date means when they were executed. +Now that's going to come into play in a second. +What we did is we conducted an exhumation in 2003, where we exhumed 220 bodies from 53 graves in a military base. +Grave 9, though, matched the family of Sergio Saul Linares. +Now Sergio was a professor at the university. +He graduted from Iowa State University and went back to Guatemala to change his country. +And he was captured on February 23, 1984. +And if you can see there, he was executed on March 29, 1984, which was incredible. +We had the body, we had the family's information and their DNA, and now we have documents that told us exactly what happened. +But most important is about two weeks later, we go another hit, another match from the same grave to Amancio Villatoro. +The DNA of that body also matched the DNA of that family. +And then we noticed that he was also in the diary. +But it was amazing to see that he was also executed on March 29, 1984. +So that led us to think, hmm, how many bodies were in the grave? +Six. +So then we said, how many people were executed on March 29, 1984? +That's right, six as well. +So we have Juan de Dios, Hugo, Moises and Zoilo. +All of them executed on the same date, all captured at different locations and at different moments. +All put in that grave. +The only thing we needed now was the DNA of those four families So we went and we looked for them and we found them. +And we identified those six bodies and gave them back to the families. +The other case I want to tell you about is that of a military base called CREOMPAZ. +It actually means, "to believe in peace," but the acronym really means Regional Command Center for Peacekeeping Operations. +And this is where the Guatemalan military trains peacekeepers from other countries, the ones that serve with the U.N. +and go to countries like Haiti and the Congo. +Well, we have testimony that said that within this military base, there were bodies, there were graves. +So we went in there with a search warrant and about two hours after we went in, we found the first of 84 graves, a total of 533 bodies. +Now, if you think about that, peacekeepers being trained on top of bodies. +It's very ironic. +But the bodies -- face down, most of them, hands tied behind their backs, blindfolded, all types of trauma -- these were people who were defenseless who were being executed. +People that 533 families are looking for. +So we're going to focus on Grave 15. +Grave 15, what we noticed, was a grave full of women and children, 63 of them. +And that immediately made us think, my goodness, where is there a case like this? +When I got to Guatemala in 1995, I heard of a case of a massacre that happened on May 14, 1982, where the army came in, killed the men, and took the women and children in helicopters to an unknown location. +Well, guess what? +The clothing from this grave matched the clothing from the region where these people were taken from, where these women and children were taken from. +So we conducted some DNA analysis, and guess what? +We identified Martina Rojas and Manuel Chen. +Both of them disappeared in that case, and now we could prove it. +We have physical evidence that proves that this happened and that those people were taken to this base. +Now, Manuel Chen was three years old. +His mother went to the river to wash clothes, and she left him with a neighbor. +That's when the army came and that's when he was taken away in a helicopter and never seen again until we found him in Grave 15. +So now with science, with archaeology, with anthropology, with genetics, what we're doing is, we're giving a voice to the voiceless. +But we're doing more than that. +We're actually providing evidence for trials, like the genocide trial that happened last year in Guatemala where General Ros Montt was found guilty of genocide and sentenced to 80 years. +So I came here to tell you today that this is happening everywhere -- it's happening in Mexico right in front of us today -- and we can't let it go on anymore. +We have to now come together and decide that we're not going to have any more missing. +So no more missing, guys. +Okay? No more missing. +Thank you. +Let's go south. +All of you are actually going south. +This is the direction of south, this way, and if you go 8,000 kilometers out of the back of this room, you will come to as far south as you can go anywhere on Earth, the Pole itself. +Now, I am not an explorer. +I'm not an environmentalist. +I'm actually just a survivor, and these photographs that I'm showing you here are dangerous. +They are the ice melt of the South and North Poles. +And ladies and gentlemen, we need to listen to what these places are telling us, and if we don't, we will end up with our own survival situation here on planet Earth. +I have faced head-on these places, and to walk across a melting ocean of ice is without doubt the most frightening thing that's ever happened to me. +Antarctica is such a hopeful place. +It is protected by the Antarctic Treaty, signed in 1959. +In 1991, a 50-year agreement was entered into that stops any exploitation in Antarctica, and this agreement could be altered, changed, modified, or even abandoned starting in the year 2041. +Ladies and gentlemen, people already far up north from here in the Arctic are already taking advantage of this ice melt, taking out resources from areas already that have been covered in ice for the last 10, 20, 30,000, 100,000 years. +Can they not join the dots and think, "Why is the ice actually melting?" +This is such an amazing place, the Antarctic, and I have worked hard for the last 23 years on this mission to make sure that what's happening up here in the North does never happen, cannot happen in the South. +Where did this all begin? +It began for me at the age of 11. +Check out that haircut. It's a bit odd. And at the age of 11, I was inspired by the real explorers to want to try to be the first to walk to both Poles. +I found it incredibly inspiring that the idea of becoming a polar traveler went down pretty well with girls at parties when I was at university. +That was a bit more inspiring. +In this photograph, we are standing in an area the size of the United States of America, and we're on our own. +We have no radio communications, no backup. +Beneath our feet, 90 percent of all the world's ice, 70 percent of all the world's fresh water. +We're standing on it. +This is the power of Antarctica. +On this journey, we faced the danger of crevasses, intense cold, so cold that sweat turns to ice inside your clothing, your teeth can crack, water can freeze in your eyes. +Let's just say it's a bit chilly. And after 70 desperate days, we arrive at the South Pole. +We had done it. +But something happened to me on that 70-day journey in 1986 that brought me here, and it hurt. +My eyes changed color in 70 days through damage. +Our faces blistered out. +The skin ripped off and we wondered why. +And when we got home, we were told by NASA that a hole in the ozone had been discovered above the South Pole, and we'd walked underneath it the same year it had been discovered. +Ultraviolet rays down, hit the ice, bounced back, fried out the eyes, ripped off our faces. +It was a bit of a shock -- -- and it started me thinking. +In 1989, we now head north. +Sixty days, every step away from the safety of land across a frozen ocean. +It was desperately cold again. +Here's me coming in from washing naked at -60 Celsius. +And if anybody ever says to you, "I am cold" -- -- if they look like this, they are cold, definitely. +And 1,000 kilometers away from the safety of land, disaster strikes. +The Arctic Ocean melts beneath our feet four months before it ever had in history, and we're 1,000 kilometers from safety. +The ice is crashing around us, grinding, and I'm thinking, "Are we going to die?" +But something clicked in my head on this day, as I realized we, as a world, are in a survival situation, and that feeling has never gone away for 25 long years. +Back then, we had to march or die. +And we're not some TV survivor program. +When things go wrong for us, it's life or death, and our brave African-American Daryl, who would become the first American to walk to the North Pole, his heel dropped off from frostbite 200 klicks out. +He must keep going, he does, and after 60 days on the ice, we stood at the North Pole. +We had done it. +Yes, I became the first person in history stupid enough to walk to both Poles, but it was our success. +And sadly, on return home, it was not all fun. +I became very low. +To succeed at something is often harder than actually making it happen. +I was empty, lonely, financially destroyed. +I was without hope, but hope came in the form of the great Jacques Cousteau, and he inspired me to take on the 2041 mission. +Being Jacques, he gave me clear instructions: Engage the world leaders, talk to industry and business, and above all, Rob, inspire young people, because they will choose the future of the preservation of Antarctica. +For the last 11 years, we have taken over 1,000 people, people from industry and business, women and men from companies, students from all over the world, down to Antarctica, and during those missions, we've managed to pull out over 1,500 tons of twisted metal left in Antarctica. +That took eight years, and I'm so proud of it because we recycled all of it back here in South America. +I have been inspired ever since I could walk to recycle by my mum. +Here she is, and my mum -- -- my mum is still recycling, and as she is in her 100th year, isn't that fantastic? +And when -- I love my mum. +But when Mum was born, the population of our planet was only 1.8 billion people, and talking in terms of billions, we have taken young people from industry and business from India, from China. +These are game-changing nations, and will be hugely important in the decision about the preservation of the Antarctic. +Unbelievably, we've engaged and inspired women to come from the Middle East, often for the first time they've represented their nations in Antarctica. +Fantastic people, so inspired. +To look after Antarctica, you've got to first engage people with this extraordinary place, form a relationship, form a bond, form some love. +It is such a privilege to go to Antarctica, I can't tell you. +I feel so lucky, and I've been 35 times in my life, and all those people who come with us return home as great champions, not only for Antarctica, but for local issues back in their own nations. +Let's go back to where we began: the ice melt of the North and South Poles. +And it's not good news. NASA informed us six months ago that the Western Antarctic Ice Shelf is now disintegrating. +Huge areas of ice -- look how big Antarctica is even compared to here -- Huge areas of ice are breaking off from Antarctica, the size of small nations. +And NASA have calculated that the sea level will rise, it is definite, by one meter in the next 100 years, the same time that my mum has been on planet Earth. +It's going to happen, and I've realized that the preservation of Antarctica and our survival here on Earth are linked. +And there is a very simple solution. +If we are using more renewable energy in the real world, if we are being more efficient with the energy here, running our energy mix in a cleaner way, there will be no financial reason to go and exploit Antarctica. +It won't make financial sense, and if we manage our energy better, we also may be able to slow down, maybe even stop, this great ice melt that threatens us. +It's a big challenge, and what is our response to it? +We've got to go back one last time, and at the end of next year, we will go back to the South Geographic Pole, where we arrived 30 years ago on foot, and retrace our steps of 1,600 kilometers, but this time only using renewable energy to survive. +We will walk across those icecaps, which far down below are melting, hopefully inspiring some solutions on that issue. +This is my son, Barney. +He is coming with me. +He is committed to walking side by side with his father, and what he will do is to translate these messages and inspire these messages to the minds of future young leaders. +I'm extremely proud of him. Good on him, Barney. +Ladies and gentlemen, a survivor -- and I'm good -- a survivor sees a problem and doesn't go, "Whatever." +A survivor sees a problem and deals with that problem before it becomes a threat. +We have 27 years to preserve the Antarctic. +We all own it. +We all have responsibility. +The fact that nobody owns it maybe means that we can succeed. +Antarctica is a moral line in the snow, and on one side of that line we should fight, fight hard for this one beautiful, pristine place left alone on Earth. +I know it's possible. +We are going to do it. +And I'll leave you with these words from Goethe. +I've tried to live by them. +"If you can do, or dream you can, begin it now, for boldness has genius, power and magic in it." +Good luck to you all. +Thank you very much. +When the Portuguese arrived in Latin America about 500 years ago, they obviously found this amazing tropical forest. +And among all this biodiversity that they had never seen before, they found one species that caught their attention very quickly. +This species, when you cut the bark, you find a very dark red resin that was very good to paint and dye fabric to make clothes. +The indigenous people called this species pau brasil, and that's the reason why this land became "land of Brasil," and later on, Brazil. +That's the only country in the world that has the name of a tree. +So you can imagine that it's very cool to be a forester in Brazil, among other reasons. +Forest products are all around us. +Apart from all those products, the forest is very important for climate regulation. +In Brazil, almost 70 percent of the evaporation that makes rain actually comes from the forest. +Just the Amazon pumps to the atmosphere 20 billion tons of water every day. +This is more than what the Amazon River, which is the largest river in the world, puts in the sea per day, which is 17 billion tons. +If we had to boil water to get the same effect as evapotranspiration, we would need six months of the entire power generation capacity of the world. +So it's a hell of a service for all of us. +We have in the world about four billion hectares of forests. +This is more or less China, U.S., Canada and Brazil all together, in terms of size, to have an idea. +Three quarters of that is in the temperate zone, and just one quarter is in the tropics, but this one quarter, one billion hectares, holds most of the biodiversity, and very importantly, 50 percent of the living biomass, the carbon. +Now, we used to have six billion hectares of forest -- 50 percent more than what we have -- 2,000 years ago. +We've actually lost two billion hectares in the last 2,000 years. +But in the last 100 years, we lost half of that. +That was when we shifted from deforestation of temperate forests to deforestation of tropical forests. +So think of this: In 100 years, we lost the same amount of forest in the tropics that we lost in 2,000 years in temperate forests. +That's the speed of the destruction that we are having. +Now, Brazil is an important piece of this puzzle. +We have the second largest forest in the world, just after Russia. +It means 12 percent of all the world's forests are in Brazil, most of that in the Amazon. +It's the largest piece of forest we have. It's a very big, large area. +You can see that you could fit many of the European countries there. +We still have 80 percent of the forest cover. +That's the good news. +But we lost 15 percent in just 30 years. +So if you go with that speed, very soon, we will loose this powerful pump that we have in the Amazon that regulates our climate. +Deforestation was growing fast and accelerating at the end of the '90s and the beginning of the 2000s. +(Chainsaw sound) (Sound of falling tree) Twenty-seven thousand square kilometers in one year. +This is 2.7 million hectares. +It's almost like half of Costa Rica every year. +So at this moment -- this is 2003, 2004 -- I happened to be coming to work in the government. +And together with other teammates in the National Forest Department, we were assigned a task to join a team and find out the causes of deforestation, and make a plan to combat that at a national level, involving the local governments, the civil society, business, local communities, in an effort that could tackle those causes. +So we came up with this plan with 144 actions in different areas. +Now I will go through all of them one by one -- no, just giving some examples of what we had done in the next few years. +So the first thing, we set up a system with the national space agency that could actually see where deforestation is happening, almost in real time. +So now in Brazil, we have this system, DETER, where every month, or every two months, we get information on where deforestation is happening so we can actually act when it's happening. +And all the information is fully transparent so others can replicate that in independent systems. +This allows us, among other things, to apprehend 1.4 million cubic meters of logs that were illegally taken. +Part of that we saw and sell, and all the revenue becomes a fund that now funds conservation projects of local communities as an endowment fund. +This also allows us to make a big operation to seize corruption and illegal activities that ended up having 700 people in prison, including a lot of public servants. +Then we made the connection that areas that have been doing illegal deforestation should not get any kind of credit or finance. +So we cut this through the bank system and then linked this to the end users. +So supermarkets, the slaughterhouses, and so on that buy products from illegal clear-cut areas, they also can be liable for the deforestation. +So making all these connections to help to push the problem down. +And also we work a lot on land tenure issues. +It's very important for conflicts. +Fifty million hectares of protected areas were created, which is an area the size of Spain. +And of those, eight million were indigenous lands. +Now we start to see results. +So in the last 10 years, deforestation came down in Brazil 75 percent. +So if we compare it with the average deforestation that we had in the last decade, we saved 8.7 million hectares, which is the size of Austria. +But more importantly, it avoided the emission of three billion tons of CO2 in the atmosphere. +This is by far the largest contribution to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, until today, as a positive action. +One may think that when you do these kinds of actions to decrease, to push down deforestation, you will have an economic impact because you will not have economic activity or something like that. +But it's interesting to know that it's quite the opposite. +In fact, in the period when we have the deepest decline of deforestation, the economy grew, on average, double from the previous decade, when deforestation was actually going up. +So it's a good lesson for us. +Maybe this is completely disconnected, as we just learned by having deforestation come down. +Now this is all good news, and it's quite an achievement, and we obviously should be very proud about that. +But it's not even close to sufficient. +In fact, if you think about the deforestation in the Amazon in 2013, that was over half a million hectares, which means that every minute, an area the size of two soccer fields is being cut in the Amazon last year, just last year. +If we sum up the deforestation we have in the other biomes in Brazil, we are talking about still the largest deforestation rate in the world. +It's more or less like we are forest heroes, but still deforestation champions. +So we can't be satisfied, not even close to satisfied. +So the next step, I think, is to fight to have zero loss of forest cover in Brazil and to have that as a goal for 2020. +That's our next step. +Now I've always been interested in the relationship between climate change and forests. +First, because 15 percent of greenhouse gas emissions come from deforestation, so it's a big part of the problem. +But also, forests can be a big part of the solution since that's the best way we know to sink, capture and store carbon. +Now, there is another relationship of climate and forests that really stuck me in 2008 and made me change my career from forests to working with climate change. +I went to visit Canada, in British Columbia, together with the chiefs of the forest services of other countries that we have a kind of alliance of them, like Canada, Russia, India, China, U.S. +And when we were there we learned about this pine beetle that is literally eating the forests in Canada. +What we see here, those brown trees, these are really dead trees. +They are standing dead trees because of the larvae of the beetle. +What happens is that this beetle is controlled by the cold weather in the winter. +For many years now, they don't have the sufficient cold weather to actually control the population of this beetle. +And it became a disease that is really killing billions of trees. +So I came back with this notion that the forest is actually one of the earliest and most affected victims of climate change. +So I was thinking, if I succeed in working with all my colleagues to actually help to stop deforestation, maybe we will lose the battle later on for climate change by floods, heat, fires and so on. +So I decided to leave the forest service and start to work directly on climate change, find a way to think and understand the challenge, and go from there. +Now, the challenge of climate change is pretty straightforward. +The goal is very clear. +We want to limit the increase of the average temperature of the planet to two degrees. +There are several reasons for that. +I will not get into that now. +But in order to get to this limit of two degrees, which is possible for us to survive, the IPCC, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, defines that we have a budget of emissions of 1,000 billion tons of CO2 from now until the end of the century. +So if we divide this by the number of years, what we have is an average budget of 11 billion tons of CO2 per year. +Now what is one ton of CO2? +It's more or less what one small car, running 20 kilometers a day, will emit in one year. +Or it's one flight, one way, from So Paulo to Johannesburg or to London, one way. +Two ways, two tons. +So 11 billion tons is twice that. +Now the emissions today are 50 billion tons, and it's growing. +It's growing and maybe it will be 61 by 2020. +Now we need to go down to 10 by 2050. +And while this happens, the population will grow from seven to nine billion people, the economy will grow from 60 trillion dollars in 2010 to 200 trillion dollars. +And so what we need to do is to be much more efficient in a way that we can go from seven tons of carbon per capita per person, per year, into something like one. +You have to choose. You take the airplane or you have a car. +So the question is, can we make it? +And that's the exactly the same question I got when I was developing a plan to combat deforestation. +It's such a big problem, so complex. Can we really do it? +I think so. Think of this: Deforestation means 60 percent of the greenhouse gas emissions in Brazil in the last decade. +Now it's a little bit less than 30 percent. +In the world, 60 percent is energy. +So if we can tackle directly the energy, the same way we could tackle deforestation, maybe we can have a chance. +So there are five things that I think we should do. +First, we need to disconnect development from carbon emissions. +We don't need to clear-cut all the forests to actually get more jobs and agriculture and have more economy. +That's what we proved when we decreased deforestation and the economy continued to grow. +Same thing could happen in the energy sector. +Second, we have to move the incentives to the right place. +Today, 500 billion dollars a year goes into subsidies for fossil fuels. +Why don't we put a price on carbon and transfer this to the renewable energy? +Third, we need to measure and make it transparent where, when and who is emitting greenhouse gases so we can have actions specifically for each one of those opportunities. +Fourth, we need to leapfrog the routes of development, which means, you don't need to go to the landline telephone before you get to the mobile phones. +Same way we don't need to go to fossil fuels to the one billion people who don't have access to energy before we get to the clean energy. +And fifth and last, we need to share responsibility between governments, business and civil society. +There is work to do for everybody, and we need to have everybody on board. +So to finalize, I think the future is not like a fate that you have to just go as business as usual goes. +We need to have the courage to actually change the route, invest in something new, think that we can actually change the route. +I think we are doing this with deforestation in Brazil, and I hope we can do it also with climate change in the world. +Thank you. +When you grow up in a developing country like India, as I did, you instantly learn to get more value from limited resources and find creative ways to reuse what you already have. +Take Mansukh Prajapati, a potter in India. +He has created a fridge made entirely of clay that consumes no electricity. +He can keep fruits and vegetables fresh for many days. +That's a cool invention, literally. +In Africa, if you run out of your cell phone battery, don't panic. +You will find some resourceful entrepreneurs who can recharge your cell phone using bicycles. +And since we are in South America, let's go to Lima in Peru, a region with high humidity that receives only one inch of rainfall each year. +An engineering college in Lima designed a giant advertising billboard that absorbs air humidity and converts it into purified water, generating over 90 liters of water every day. +The Peruvians are amazing. +They can literally create water out of thin air. +For the past seven years, I have met and studied hundreds of entrepreneurs in India, China, Africa and South America, and they keep amazing me. +Many of them did not go to school. +They don't invent stuff in big R&D labs. +The street is the lab. +Why do they do that? +Because they don't have the kind of basic resources we take for granted, like capital and energy, and basic services like healthcare and education are also scarce in those regions. +When external resources are scarce, you have to go within yourself to tap the most abundant resource, human ingenuity, and use that ingenuity to find clever ways to solve problems with limited resources. +In India, we call it Jugaad. +Jugaad is a Hindi word that means an improvised fix, a clever solution born in adversity. +Jugaad solutions are not sophisticated or perfect, but they create more value at lower cost. +For me, the entrepreneurs who will create Jugaad solutions are like alchemists. +They can magically transform adversity into opportunity, and turn something of less value into something of high value. +In other words, they mastered the art of doing more with less, which is the essence of frugal innovation. +Frugal innovation is the ability to create more economic and social value using fewer resources. +Frugal innovation is not about making do; it's about making things better. +Now I want to show you how, across emerging markets, entrepreneurs and companies are adopting frugal innovation on a larger scale to cost-effectively deliver healthcare and energy to billions of people who may have little income but very high aspirations. +Let's first go to China, where the country's largest I.T. service provider, Neusoft, has developed a telemedicine solution to help doctors in cities remotely treat old and poor patients in Chinese villages. +This solution is based on simple-to-use medical devices that less qualified health workers like nurses can use in rural clinics. +China desperately needs these frugal medical solutions because by 2050 it will be home to over half a billion senior citizens. +Now let's go to Kenya, a country where half the population uses M-Pesa, a mobile payment solution. +This is a great solution for the African continent because 80 percent of Africans don't have a bank account, but what is exciting is that M-Pesa is now becoming the source of other disruptive business models in sectors like energy. +Take M-KOPA, the home solar solution that comes literally in a box that has a solar rooftop panel, three LED lights, a solar radio, and a cell phone charger. +The whole kit, though, costs 200 dollars, which is too expensive for most Kenyans, and this is where mobile telephony can make the solution more affordable. +Today, you can buy this kit by making an initial deposit of just 35 dollars, and then pay off the rest by making a daily micro-payment of 45 cents using your mobile phone. +Once you've made 365 micro-payments, the system is unlocked, and you own the product and you start receiving clean, free electricity. +This is an amazing solution for Kenya, where 70 percent of people live off the grid. +This shows that with frugal innovation what matters is that you take what is most abundant, mobile connectivity, to deal with what is scarce, which is energy. +With frugal innovation, the global South is actually catching up and in some cases even leap-frogging the North. +Instead of building expensive hospitals, China is using telemedicine to cost-effectively treat millions of patients, and Africa, instead of building banks and electricity grids, is going straight to mobile payments and distributed clean energy. +Frugal innovation is diametrically opposed to the way we innovate in the North. +I live in Silicon Valley, where we keep chasing the next big technology thing. +Think of the iPhone 5, 6, then 7, 8. +Companies in the West spend billions of dollars investing in R&D, and use tons of natural resources to create ever more complex products, to differentiate their brands from competition, and they charge customers more money for new features. +So the conventional business model in the West is more for more. +But sadly, this more for more model is running out of gas, for three reasons: First, a big portion of customers in the West because of the diminishing purchasing power, can no longer afford these expensive products. +Second, we are running out of natural water and oil. +In California, where I live, water scarcity is becoming a big problem. +And third, most importantly, because of the growing income disparity between the rich and the middle class in the West, there is a big disconnect between existing products and services and basic needs of customers. +Do you know that today, there are over 70 million Americans today who are underbanked, because existing banking services are not designed to address their basic needs. +The prolonged economic crisis in the West is making people think that they are about to lose the high standard of living and face deprivation. +I believe that the only way we can sustain growth and prosperity in the West is if we learn to do more with less. +The good news is, that's starting to happen. +Several Western companies are now adopting frugal innovation to create affordable products for Western consumers. +Let me give you two examples. +When I first saw this building, I told myself it's some kind of postmodern house. +Actually, it's a small manufacturing plant set up by Grameen Danone, a joint venture between Grameen Bank of Muhammad Yunus and the food multinational Danone to make high-quality yogurt in Bangladesh. +This factory is 10 percent the size of existing Danone factories and cost much less to build. +I guess you can call it a low-fat factory. +Now this factory, unlike Western factories that are highly automated, relies a lot on manual processes in order to generate jobs for local communities. +Danone was so inspired by this model that combines economic efficiency and social sustainability, they are planning to roll it out in other parts of the world as well. +Now, when you see this example, you might be thinking, "Well, frugal innovation is low tech." +Actually, no. +Frugal innovation is also about making high tech more affordable and more accessible to more people. +Let me give you an example. +In China, the R&D engineers of Siemens Healthcare have designed a C.T. scanner that is easy enough to be used by less qualified health workers, like nurses and technicians. +This device can scan more patients on a daily basis, and yet consumes less energy, which is great for hospitals, but it's also great for patients because it reduces the cost of treatment by 30 percent and radiation dosage by up to 60 percent. +This solution was initially designed for the Chinese market, but now it's selling like hotcakes in the U.S. and Europe, where hospitals are pressured to deliver quality care at lower cost. +But the frugal innovation revolution in the West is actually led by creative entrepreneurs who are coming up with amazing solutions to address basic needs in the U.S. and Europe. +Let me quickly give you three examples of startups that personally inspire me. +The first one happens to be launched by my neighbor in Silicon Valley. +It's called gThrive. +They make these wireless sensors designed like plastic rulers that farmers can stick in different parts of the field and start collecting detailed information like soil conditions. +This dynamic data allows farmers to optimize use of water energy while improving quality of the products and the yields, which is a great solution for California, which faces major water shortage. +It pays for itself within one year. +Second example is Be-Bound, also in Silicon Valley, that enables you to connect to the Internet even in no-bandwidth areas where there's no wi-fi or 3G or 4G. +How do they do that? +They simply use SMS, a basic technology, but that happens to be the most reliable and most widely available around the world. +Three billion people today with cell phones can't access the Internet. +This solution can connect them to the Internet in a frugal way. +And in France, there is a startup calle Compte Nickel, which is revolutionizing the banking sector. +It allows thousands of people to walk into a Mom and Pop store and in just five minutes activate the service that gives them two products: an international bank account number and an international debit card. +They charge a flat annual maintenance fee of just 20 Euros. +That means you can do all banking transactions -- send and receive money, pay with your debit card -- all with no additional charge. +This is what I call low-cost banking without the bank. +Amazingly, 75 percent of the customers using this service are the middle-class French who can't afford high banking fees. +Now, I talked about frugal innovation, initially pioneered in the South, now being adopted in the North. +Ultimately, we would like to see developed countries and developing countries come together and co-create frugal solutions that benefit the entire humanity. +The exciting news is that's starting to happen. +Let's go to Nairobi to find that out. +Nairobi has horrendous traffic jams. +When I first saw them, I thought, "Holy cow." +Literally, because you have to dodge cows as well when you drive in Nairobi. +To ease the situation, the engineers at the IBM lab in Kenya are piloting a solution called Megaffic, which initially was designed by the Japanese engineers. +Unlike in the West, Megaffic doesn't rely on roadside sensors, which are very expensive to install in Nairobi. +Instead they process images, traffic data, collected from a small number of low-resolution webcams in Nairobi streets, and then they use analytic software to predict congestion points, and they can SMS drivers alternate routes to take. +Granted, Megaffic is not as sexy as self-driving cars, but it promises to take Nairobi drivers from point A to point B at least 20 percent faster. +And earlier this year, UCLA Health launched its Global Lab for Innovation, which seeks to identify frugal healthcare solutions anywhere in the world that will be at least 20 percent cheaper than existing solutions in the U.S. +and yet more effective. +It also tries to bring together innovators from North and South to cocreate affordable healthcare solutions for all of humanity. +I gave tons of examples of frugal innovators from around the world, but the question is, how do you go about adopting frugal innovation? +Well, I gleaned out three principles from frugal innovators around the world that I want to share with you that you can apply in your own organization to do more with less. +The first principle is: Keep it simple. +Don't create solutions to impress customers. +Make them easy enough to use and widely accessible, like the C.T. scanner we saw in China. +Second principle: Do not reinvent the wheel. +Try to leverage existing resources and assets that are widely available, like using mobile telephony to offer clean energy or Mom and Pop stores to offer banking services. +Third principle is: Think and act horizontally. +Companies tend to scale up vertically by centralizing operations in big factories and warehouses, but if you want to be agile and deal with immense customer diversity, you need to scale out horizontally using a distributed supply chain with smaller manufacturing and distribution units, like Grameen Bank has shown. +The South pioneered frugal innovation out of sheer necessity. +The North is now learning to do more and better with less as it faces resource constraints. +As an Indian-born French national who lives in the United States, my hope is that we transcend this artificial North-South divide so that we can harness the collective ingenuity of innovators from around the world to cocreate frugal solutions that will improve the quality of life of everyone in the world, while preserving our precious planet. +Thank you very much. +So we humans have an extraordinary potential for goodness, but also an immense power to do harm. +Any tool can be used to build or to destroy. +That all depends on our motivation. +Therefore, it is all the more important to foster an altruistic motivation rather than a selfish one. +So now we indeed are facing many challenges in our times. +Those could be personal challenges. +Our own mind can be our best friend or our worst enemy. +There's also societal challenges: poverty in the midst of plenty, inequalities, conflict, injustice. +And then there are the new challenges, which we don't expect. +Ten thousand years ago, there were about five million human beings on Earth. +Whatever they could do, the Earth's resilience would soon heal human activities. +After the Industrial and Technological Revolutions, that's not the same anymore. +We are now the major agent of impact on our Earth. +We enter the Anthropocene, the era of human beings. +So in a way, if we were to say we need to continue this endless growth, endless use of material resources, it's like if this man was saying -- and I heard a former head of state, I won't mention who, saying -- "Five years ago, we were at the edge of the precipice. +Today we made a big step forward." +So this edge is the same that has been defined by scientists as the planetary boundaries. +And within those boundaries, they can carry a number of factors. +We can still prosper, humanity can still prosper for 150,000 years if we keep the same stability of climate as in the Holocene for the last 10,000 years. +But this depends on choosing a voluntary simplicity, growing qualitatively, not quantitatively. +So in 1900, as you can see, we were well within the limits of safety. +Now, in 1950 came the great acceleration. +Now hold your breath, not too long, to imagine what comes next. +Now we have vastly overrun some of the planetary boundaries. +Just to take biodiversity, at the current rate, by 2050, 30 percent of all species on Earth will have disappeared. +Even if we keep their DNA in some fridge, that's not going to be reversible. +So here I am sitting in front of a 7,000-meter-high, 21,000-foot glacier in Bhutan. +At the Third Pole, 2,000 glaciers are melting fast, faster than the Arctic. +So what can we do in that situation? +Well, however complex politically, economically, scientifically the question of the environment is, it simply boils down to a question of altruism versus selfishness. +I'm a Marxist of the Groucho tendency. +Groucho Marx said, "Why should I care about future generations? +What have they ever done for me?" +Unfortunately, I heard the billionaire Steve Forbes, on Fox News, saying exactly the same thing, but seriously. +He was told about the rise of the ocean, and he said, "I find it absurd to change my behavior today for something that will happen in a hundred years." +So if you don't care for future generations, just go for it. +When the environmentalists speak with economists, it's like a schizophrenic dialogue, completely incoherent. +They don't speak the same language. +Now, for the last 10 years, I went around the world meeting economists, scientists, neuroscientists, environmentalists, philosophers, thinkers in the Himalayas, all over the place. +It seems to me, there's only one concept that can reconcile those three time scales. +It is simply having more consideration for others. +If you have more consideration for others, you will have a caring economics, where finance is at the service of society and not society at the service of finance. +You will not play at the casino with the resources that people have entrusted you with. +If you have more consideration for others, you will make sure that you remedy inequality, that you bring some kind of well-being within society, in education, at the workplace. +Otherwise, a nation that is the most powerful and the richest but everyone is miserable, what's the point? +And if you have more consideration for others, you are not going to ransack that planet that we have and at the current rate, we don't have three planets to continue that way. +So the question is, okay, altruism is the answer, it's not just a novel ideal, but can it be a real, pragmatic solution? +And first of all, does it exist, true altruism, or are we so selfish? +So some philosophers thought we were irredeemably selfish. +But are we really all just like rascals? +That's good news, isn't it? +Many philosophers, like Hobbes, have said so. +But not everyone looks like a rascal. +Or is man a wolf for man? +But this guy doesn't seem too bad. +He's one of my friends in Tibet. +He's very kind. +So now, we love cooperation. +There's no better joy than working together, is there? +And then not only humans. +Then, of course, there's the struggle for life, the survival of the fittest, social Darwinism. +But in evolution, cooperation -- though competition exists, of course -- cooperation has to be much more creative to go to increased levels of complexity. +We are super-cooperators and we should even go further. +So now, on top of that, the quality of human relationships. +The OECD did a survey among 10 factors, including income, everything. +The first one that people said, that's the main thing for my happiness, is quality of social relationships. +Not only in humans. +And look at those great-grandmothers. +So now, this idea that if we go deep within, we are irredeemably selfish, this is armchair science. +There is not a single sociological study, psychological study, that's ever shown that. +Rather, the opposite. +My friend, Daniel Batson, spent a whole life putting people in the lab in very complex situations. +And of course we are sometimes selfish, and some people more than others. +But he found that systematically, no matter what, there's a significant number of people who do behave altruistically, no matter what. +If you see someone deeply wounded, great suffering, you might just help out of empathic distress -- you can't stand it, so it's better to help than to keep on looking at that person. +So we tested all that, and in the end, he said, clearly people can be altruistic. +So that's good news. +And even further, we should look at the banality of goodness. +Now look at here. +When we come out, we aren't going to say, "That's so nice. +There was no fistfight while this mob was thinking about altruism." +No, that's expected, isn't it? +If there was a fistfight, we would speak of that for months. +So the banality of goodness is something that doesn't attract your attention, but it exists. +Now, look at this. +So some psychologists said, when I tell them I run 140 humanitarian projects in the Himalayas that give me so much joy, they said, "Oh, I see, you work for the warm glow. +That is not altruistic. You just feel good." +You think this guy, when he jumped in front of the train, he thought, "I'm going to feel so good when this is over?" +But that's not the end of it. +They say, well, but when you interviewed him, he said, "I had no choice. I had to jump, of course." +He has no choice. Automatic behavior. It's neither selfish nor altruistic. +No choice? +Well of course, this guy's not going to think for half an hour, "Should I give my hand? Not give my hand?" +He does it. There is a choice, but it's obvious, it's immediate. +And then, also, there he had a choice. +There are people who had choice, like Pastor Andr Trocm and his wife, and the whole village of Le Chambon-sur-Lignon in France. +For the whole Second World War, they saved 3,500 Jews, gave them shelter, brought them to Switzerland, against all odds, at the risk of their lives and those of their family. +So altruism does exist. +So what is altruism? +It is the wish: May others be happy and find the cause of happiness. +Now, empathy is the affective resonance or cognitive resonance that tells you, this person is joyful, this person suffers. +But empathy alone is not sufficient. +If you keep on being confronted with suffering, you might have empathic distress, burnout, so you need the greater sphere of loving-kindness. +With Tania Singer at the Max Planck Institute of Leipzig, we showed that the brain networks for empathy and loving-kindness are different. +Now, that's all well done, so we got that from evolution, from maternal care, parental love, but we need to extend that. +It can be extended even to other species. +Now, if we want a more altruistic society, we need two things: individual change and societal change. +So is individual change possible? +Two thousand years of contemplative study said yes, it is. +Now, 15 years of collaboration with neuroscience and epigenetics said yes, our brains change when you train in altruism. +So I spent 120 hours in an MRI machine. +This is the first time I went after two and a half hours. +And then the result has been published in many scientific papers. +It shows without ambiguity that there is structural change and functional change in the brain when you train the altruistic love. +Just to give you an idea: this is the meditator at rest on the left, meditator in compassion meditation, you see all the activity, and then the control group at rest, nothing happened, in meditation, nothing happened. +They have not been trained. +So do you need 50,000 hours of meditation? No, you don't. +Four weeks, 20 minutes a day, of caring, mindfulness meditation already brings a structural change in the brain compared to a control group. +That's only 20 minutes a day for four weeks. +Even with preschoolers -- Richard Davidson did that in Madison. +An eight-week program: gratitude, loving- kindness, cooperation, mindful breathing. +You would say, "Oh, they're just preschoolers." +Look after eight weeks, the pro-social behavior, that's the blue line. +And then comes the ultimate scientific test, the stickers test. +Before, you determine for each child who is their best friend in the class, their least favorite child, an unknown child, and the sick child, and they have to give stickers away. +So before the intervention, they give most of it to their best friend. +Four, five years old, 20 minutes three times a week. +After the intervention, no more discrimination: the same amount of stickers to their best friend and the least favorite child. +That's something we should do in all the schools in the world. +Now where do we go from there? +When the Dalai Lama heard that, he told Richard Davidson, "You go to 10 schools, 100 schools, the U.N., the whole world." +So now where do we go from there? +Individual change is possible. +Now do we have to wait for an altruistic gene to be in the human race? +That will take 50,000 years, too much for the environment. +Fortunately, there is the evolution of culture. +Cultures, as specialists have shown, change faster than genes. +That's the good news. +Look, attitude towards war has dramatically changed over the years. +So now individual change and cultural change mutually fashion each other, and yes, we can achieve a more altruistic society. +So where do we go from there? +Myself, I will go back to the East. +Now we treat 100,000 patients a year in our projects. +We have 25,000 kids in school, four percent overhead. +Some people say, "Well, your stuff works in practice, but does it work in theory?" +There's always positive deviance. +So I will also go back to my hermitage to find the inner resources to better serve others. +But on the more global level, what can we do? +We need three things. +Enhancing cooperation: Cooperative learning in the school instead of competitive learning, Unconditional cooperation within corporations -- there can be some competition between corporations, but not within. +We need sustainable harmony. I love this term. +Not sustainable growth anymore. +Sustainable harmony means now we will reduce inequality. +In the future, we do more with less, and we continue to grow qualitatively, not quantitatively. +We need caring economics. +The Homo economicus cannot deal with poverty in the midst of plenty, cannot deal with the problem of the common goods of the atmosphere, of the oceans. +We need a caring economics. +If you say economics should be compassionate, they say, "That's not our job." +But if you say they don't care, that looks bad. +We need local commitment, global responsibility. +We need to extend altruism to the other 1.6 million species. +Sentient beings are co-citizens in this world. +and we need to dare altruism. +So, long live the altruistic revolution. +Viva la revolucin de altruismo. +Thank you. +I'm a blogger, a filmmaker and a butcher, and I'll explain how these identities come together. +It started four years ago, when a friend and I opened our first Ramadan fast at one of the busiest mosques in New York City. +Crowds of men with beards and skullcaps were swarming the streets. +It was an FBI agent's wet dream. But being a part of this community, we knew how welcoming this space was. +For years, I'd seen photos of this space being documented as a lifeless and cold monolith, much like the stereotypical image painted of the American Muslim experience. +Frustrated by this myopic view, my friend and I had this crazy idea: Let's break our fast at a different mosque in a different state each night of Ramadan and share those stories on a blog. +We called it "30 Mosques in 30 Days," and we drove to all the 50 states and shared stories from over 100 vastly different Muslim communities, ranging from the Cambodian refugees in the L.A. projects to the black Sufis living in the woods of South Carolina. +What emerged was a beautiful and complicated portrait of America. +The media coverage forced local journalists to revisit their Muslim communities, but what was really exciting was seeing people from around the world being inspired to take their own 30-mosque journey. +There were even these two NFL athletes who took a sabbatical from the league to do so. +And as 30 Mosques was blossoming around the world, I was actually stuck in Pakistan working on a film. +My codirector, Omar, and I were at a breaking point with many of our friends on how to position the film. +The movie is called "These Birds Walk," and it is about wayward street kids who are struggling to find some semblance of family. +We focus on the complexities of youth and family discord, but our friends kept on nudging us to comment on drones and target killings to make the film "more relevant," essentially reducing these people who have entrusted us with their stories into sociopolitical symbols. +Of course, we didn't listen to them, and instead, we championed the tender gestures of love and headlong flashes of youth. +The agenda behind our cinematic immersion was only empathy, an emotion that's largely deficient from films that come from our region of the world. +And as "These Birds Walk" played at film festivals and theaters internationally, I finally had my feet planted at home in New York, and with all the extra time and still no real money, my wife tasked me to cook more for us. +And whenever I'd go to the local butcher to purchase some halal meat, something felt off. +For those that don't know, halal is a term used for meat that is raised and slaughtered humanely following very strict Islamic guidelines. +Unfortunately, the majority of halal meat in America doesn't rise to the standard that my faith calls for. +The more I learned about these unethical practices, the more violated I felt, particularly because businesses from my own community were the ones taking advantage of my orthodoxy. +So, with emotions running high, and absolutely no experience in butchery, some friends and I opened a meat store in the heart of the East Village fashion district. +We call it Honest Chops, and we're reclaiming halal by sourcing organic, humanely raised animals, and by making it accessible and affordable to working-class families. +There's really nothing like it in America. +The unbelievable part is actually that 90 percent of our in-store customers are not even Muslim. +For many, it is their first time interacting with Islam on such an intimate level. +So all these disparate projects -- -- are the result of a restlessness. +They are a visceral response to the businesses and curators who work hard to oversimplify my beliefs and my community, and the only way to beat their machine is to play by different rules. +We must fight with an inventive approach. +But the call for creative courage is not for novelty or relevance. +It is simply because our communities are so damn unique and so damn beautiful. +They demand us to find uncompromising ways to be acknowledged and respected. +Thank you. +My students and I work on very tiny robots. +Now, you can think of these as robotic versions of something that you're all very familiar with: an ant. +We all know that ants and other insects at this size scale can do some pretty incredible things. +We've all seen a group of ants, or some version of that, carting off your potato chip at a picnic, for example. +But what are the real challenges of engineering these ants? +Well, first of all, how do we get the capabilities of an ant in a robot at the same size scale? +Well, first we need to figure out how to make them move when they're so small. +We need mechanisms like legs and efficient motors in order to support that locomotion, and we need the sensors, power and control in order to pull everything together in a semi-intelligent ant robot. +And finally, to make these things really functional, we want a lot of them working together in order to do bigger things. +So I'll start with mobility. +Insects move around amazingly well. +This video is from UC Berkeley. +It shows a cockroach moving over incredibly rough terrain without tipping over, and it's able to do this because its legs are a combination of rigid materials, which is what we traditionally use to make robots, and soft materials. +Jumping is another really interesting way to get around when you're very small. +So these insects store energy in a spring and release that really quickly to get the high power they need to jump out of water, for example. +So one of the big contributions from my lab has been to combine rigid and soft materials in very, very small mechanisms. +So this jumping mechanism is about four millimeters on a side, so really tiny. +The hard material here is silicon, and the soft material is silicone rubber. +And the basic idea is that we're going to compress this, store energy in the springs, and then release it to jump. +So there's no motors on board this right now, no power. +This is actuated with a method that we call in my lab "graduate student with tweezers." So what you'll see in the next video is this guy doing amazingly well for its jumps. +So this is Aaron, the graduate student in question, with the tweezers, and what you see is this four-millimeter-sized mechanism jumping almost 40 centimeters high. +That's almost 100 times its own length. +And it survives, bounces on the table, it's incredibly robust, and of course survives quite well until we lose it because it's very tiny. +Ultimately, though, we want to add motors to this too, and we have students in the lab working on millimeter-sized motors to eventually integrate onto small, autonomous robots. +But in order to look at mobility and locomotion at this size scale to start, we're cheating and using magnets. +So this shows what would eventually be part of a micro-robot leg, and you can see the silicone rubber joints and there's an embedded magnet that's being moved around by an external magnetic field. +So this leads to the robot that I showed you earlier. +The really interesting thing that this robot can help us figure out is how insects move at this scale. +We have a really good model for how everything from a cockroach up to an elephant moves. +We all move in this kind of bouncy way when we run. +But when I'm really small, the forces between my feet and the ground are going to affect my locomotion a lot more than my mass, which is what causes that bouncy motion. +So this guy doesn't work quite yet, but we do have slightly larger versions that do run around. +So this is about a centimeter cubed, a centimeter on a side, so very tiny, and we've gotten this to run about 10 body lengths per second, so 10 centimeters per second. +It's pretty quick for a little, small guy, and that's really only limited by our test setup. +But this gives you some idea of how it works right now. +We can also make 3D-printed versions of this that can climb over obstacles, a lot like the cockroach that you saw earlier. +But ultimately we want to add everything onboard the robot. +We want sensing, power, control, actuation all together, and not everything needs to be bio-inspired. +So this robot's about the size of a Tic Tac. +And in this case, instead of magnets or muscles to move this around, we use rockets. +So this is a micro-fabricated energetic material, and we can create tiny pixels of this, and we can put one of these pixels on the belly of this robot, and this robot, then, is going to jump when it senses an increase in light. +So the next video is one of my favorites. +So you have this 300-milligram robot jumping about eight centimeters in the air. +It's only four by four by seven millimeters in size. +And you'll see a big flash at the beginning when the energetic is set off, and the robot tumbling through the air. +So there was that big flash, and you can see the robot jumping up through the air. +So there's no tethers on this, no wires connecting to this. +Everything is onboard, and it jumped in response to the student just flicking on a desk lamp next to it. +So I think you can imagine all the cool things that we could do with robots that can run and crawl and jump and roll at this size scale. +Imagine the rubble that you get after a natural disaster like an earthquake. +Imagine these small robots running through that rubble to look for survivors. +Or imagine a lot of small robots running around a bridge in order to inspect it and make sure it's safe so you don't get collapses like this, which happened outside of Minneapolis in 2007. +Or just imagine what you could do if you had robots that could swim through your blood. +Right? "Fantastic Voyage," Isaac Asimov. +Or they could operate without having to cut you open in the first place. +Or we could radically change the way we build things if we have our tiny robots work the same way that termites do, and they build these incredible eight-meter-high mounds, effectively well ventilated apartment buildings for other termites in Africa and Australia. +So I think I've given you some of the possibilities of what we can do with these small robots. +And we've made some advances so far, but there's still a long way to go, and hopefully some of you can contribute to that destination. +Thanks very much. +When I was young, I prided myself as a nonconformist in the conservative U.S. state I live in, Kansas. +I didn't follow along with the crowd. +I wasn't afraid to try weird clothing trends or hairstyles. +I was outspoken and extremely social. +Even these pictures and postcards of my London semester abroad 16 years ago show that I obviously didn't care if I was perceived as weird or different. +But that same year I was in London, 16 years ago, I realized something about myself that actually was somewhat unique, and that changed everything. +I became the opposite of who I thought I once was. +I stayed in my room instead of socializing. +I stopped engaging in clubs and leadership activities. +I didn't want to stand out in the crowd anymore. +I told myself it was because I was growing up and maturing, not that I was suddenly looking for acceptance. +I had always assumed I was immune to needing acceptance. +After all, I was a bit unconventional. +But I realize now that the moment I realized something was different about me was the exact same moment that I began conforming and hiding. +Hiding is a progressive habit, and once you start hiding, it becomes harder and harder to step forward and speak out. +In fact, even now, when I was talking to people about what this talk was about, I made up a cover story and I even hid the truth about my TED Talk. +So it is fitting and scary that I have returned to this city 16 years later and I have chosen this stage to finally stop hiding. +What have I been hiding for 16 years? +I am a lesbian. +Thank you. +I've struggled to say those words, because I didn't want to be defined by them. +Every time I would think about coming out in the past, I would think to myself, but I just want to be known as Morgana, uniquely Morgana, but not "my lesbian friend Morgana," or "my gay coworker Morgana." +Just Morgana. +For those of you from large metropolitan areas, this may not seem like a big deal to you. +It may seem strange that I have suppressed the truth and hidden this for so long. +But I was paralyzed by my fear of not being accepted. +And I'm not alone, of course. +A 2013 Deloitte study found that a surprisingly large number of people hide aspects of their identity. +Of all the employees they surveyed, 61 percent reported changing an aspect of their behavior or their appearance in order to fit in at work. +Of all the gay, lesbian and bisexual employees, 83 percent admitted to changing some aspects of themselves so they would not appear at work "too gay." +The study found that even in companies with diversity policies and inclusion programs, employees struggle to be themselves at work because they believe conformity is critical to their long-term career advancement. +And while I was surprised that so many people just like me waste so much energy trying to hide themselves, I was scared when I discovered that my silence has life-or-death consequences and long-term social repercussions. +Twelve years: the length by which life expectancy is shortened for gay, lesbian and bisexual people in highly anti-gay communities compared to accepting communities. +Twelve years reduced life expectancy. +When I read that in The Advocate magazine this year, I realized I could no longer afford to keep silent. +The effects of personal stress and social stigmas are a deadly combination. +The study found that gays in anti-gay communities had higher rates of heart disease, violence and suicide. +What I once thought was simply a personal matter I realized had a ripple effect that went into the workplace and out into the community for every story just like mine. +My choice to hide and not share who I really am may have inadvertently contributed to this exact same environment and atmosphere of discrimination. +I'd always told myself there's no reason to share that I was gay, but the idea that my silence has social consequences was really driven home this year when I missed an opportunity to change the atmosphere of discrimination in my own home state of Kansas. +In February, the Kansas House of Representatives brought up a bill for vote that would have essentially allowed businesses to use religious freedom as a reason to deny gays services. +A former coworker and friend of mine has a father who serves in the Kansas House of Representatives. +He voted in favor of the bill, in favor of a law that would allow businesses to not serve me. +How does my friend feel about lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer and questioning people? +How does her father feel? +I don't know, because I was never honest with them about who I am. +And that shakes me to the core. +What if I had told her my story years ago? +Could she have told her father my experience? +Could I have ultimately helped change his vote? +I will never know, and that made me realize I had done nothing to try to make a difference. +How ironic that I work in human resources, a profession that works to welcome, connect and encourage the development of employees, a profession that advocates that the diversity of society should be reflected in the workplace, and yet I have done nothing to advocate for diversity. +When I came to this company one year ago, I thought to myself, this company has anti-discrimination policies that protect gay, lesbian, bisexual and transgender people. +Their commitment to diversity is evident through their global inclusion programs. +When I walk through the doors of this company, I will finally come out. +But I didn't. +Instead of taking advantage of the opportunity, I did nothing. +When I was looking through my London journal and scrapbook from my London semester abroad 16 years ago, I came across this modified quote from Toni Morrison's book, "Paradise." +"There are more scary things inside than outside." +And then I wrote a note to myself at the bottom: "Remember this." +I'm sure I was trying to encourage myself to get out and explore London, but the message I missed was the need to start exploring and embracing myself. +What I didn't realize until all these years later is that the biggest obstacles I will ever have to overcome are my own fears and insecurities. +I believe that by facing my fears inside, I will be able to change reality outside. +I made a choice today to reveal a part of myself that I have hidden for too long. +I hope that this means I will never hide again, and I hope that by coming out today, I can do something to change the data and also to help others who feel different be more themselves and more fulfilled in both their professional and personal lives. +Thank you. +On June 12, 2014, precisely at 3:33 in a balmy winter afternoon in So Paulo, Brazil, a typical South American winter afternoon, this kid, this young man that you see celebrating here like he had scored a goal, Juliano Pinto, 29 years old, accomplished a magnificent deed. +Juliano Pinto delivered the opening kick of the 2014 Brazilian World Soccer Cup here just by thinking. +He could not move his body, but he could imagine the movements needed to kick a ball. +He was an athlete before the lesion. He's a para-athlete right now. +He's going to be in the Paralympic Games, I hope, in a couple years. +But what the spinal cord lesion did not rob from Juliano was his ability to dream. +And dream he did that afternoon, for a stadium of about 75,000 people and an audience of close to a billion watching on TV. +And despite that, a Scot and a Brazilian persevered, because that's how we were raised in our respective countries, and for 12, 15 years, we made demonstration after demonstration suggesting that this was possible. +And a brain-machine interface is not rocket science, it's just brain research. +And by doing that, we converted these signals into digital commands that any mechanical, electronic, or even a virtual device can understand so that the subject can imagine what he, she or it wants to make move, and the device obeys that brain command. +By sensorizing these devices with lots of different types of sensors, as you are going to see in a moment, we actually sent messages back to the brain to confirm that that voluntary motor will was being enacted, no matter where -- next to the subject, next door, or across the planet. +And as this message gave feedback back to the brain, the brain realized its goal: to make us move. +So this is just one experiment that we published a few years ago, where a monkey, without moving its body, learned to control the movements of an avatar arm, a virtual arm that doesn't exist. +What you're listening to is the sound of the brain of this monkey as it explores three different visually identical spheres in virtual space. +The perfect Brazilian lunch: not moving a muscle and getting your orange juice. +So as we saw this happening, we actually came and proposed the idea that we had published 15 years ago. +We reenacted this paper. +We got it out of the drawers, and we proposed that perhaps we could get a human being that is paralyzed to actually use the brain-machine interface to regain mobility. +The idea was that if you suffered -- and that can happen to any one of us. +Let me tell you, it's very sudden. +It's a millisecond of a collision, a car accident that transforms your life completely. +If you have a complete lesion of the spinal cord, you cannot move because your brainstorms cannot reach your muscles. +However, your brainstorms continue to be generated in your head. +Paraplegic, quadriplegic patients dream about moving every night. +They have that inside their head. +The problem is how to get that code out of it and make the movement be created again. +So what we proposed was, let's create a new body. +Let's create a robotic vest. +And that's exactly why Juliano could kick that ball just by thinking, because he was wearing the first brain-controlled robotic vest that can be used by paraplegic, quadriplegic patients to move and to regain feedback. +That was the original idea, 15 years ago. +What I'm going to show you is how 156 people from 25 countries all over the five continents of this beautiful Earth, dropped their lives, dropped their patents, dropped their dogs, wives, kids, school, jobs, and congregated to come to Brazil for 18 months to actually get this done. +Because a couple years after Brazil was awarded the World Cup, we heard that the Brazilian government wanted to do something meaningful in the opening ceremony in the country that reinvented and perfected soccer until we met the Germans, of course. +But that's a different talk, and a different neuroscientist needs to talk about that. +But what Brazil wanted to do is to showcase a completely different country, a country that values science and technology, and can give a gift to millions, 25 million people around the world that cannot move any longer because of a spinal cord injury. +Well, we went to the Brazilian government and to FIFA and proposed, well, let's have the kickoff of the 2014 World Cup be given by a Brazilian paraplegic using a brain-controlled exoskeleton that allows him to kick the ball and to feel the contact of the ball. +They looked at us, thought that we were completely nuts, and said, "Okay, let's try." +We had 18 months to do everything from zero, from scratch. +We had no exoskeleton, we had no patients, we had nothing done. +These people came all together and in 18 months, we got eight patients in a routine of training and basically built from nothing this guy, that we call Bra-Santos Dumont 1. +The first brain-controlled exoskeleton to be built was named after the most famous Brazilian scientist ever, Alberto Santos Dumont, who, on October 19, 1901, created and flew himself the first controlled airship on air in Paris for a million people to see. +Sorry, my American friends, I live in North Carolina, but it was two years before the Wright Brothers flew on the coast of North Carolina. +This exoskeleton was covered with an artificial skin invented by Gordon Cheng, one of my greatest friends, in Munich, to allow sensation from the joints moving and the foot touching the ground to be delivered back to the patient through a vest, a shirt. +It is a smart shirt with micro-vibrating elements that basically delivers the feedback and fools the patient's brain by creating a sensation that it is not a machine that is carrying him, but it is he who is walking again. +So we got this going, and what you'll see here is the first time one of our patients, Bruno, actually walked. +And he just got it right, and now he starts walking. +After nine years without being able to move, he is walking by himself. +And more than that -- -- more than just walking, he is feeling the ground, and if the speed of the exo goes up, he tells us that he is walking again on the sand of Santos, the beach resort where he used to go before he had the accident. +That's why the brain is creating a new sensation in Bruno's head. +So he walks, and at the end of the walk -- I am running out of time already -- he says, "You know, guys, I need to borrow this thing from you when I get married, because I wanted to walk to the priest and see my bride and actually be there by myself. +Of course, he will have it whenever he wants. +And this is what we wanted to show during the World Cup, and couldn't, because for some mysterious reason, FIFA cut its broadcast in half. +What you are going to see very quickly is Juliano Pinto in the exo doing the kick a few minutes before we went to the pitch and did the real thing in front of the entire crowd, and the lights you are going to see just describe the operation. +Basically, the blue lights pulsating indicate that the exo is ready to go. +It can receive thoughts and it can deliver feedback, and when Juliano makes the decision to kick the ball, you are going to see two streams of green and yellow light coming from the helmet and going to the legs, representing the mental commands that were taken by the exo to actually make that happen. +And in basically 13 seconds, Juliano actually did. +You can see the commands. +He gets ready, the ball is set, and he kicks. +And the most amazing thing is, 10 seconds after he did that, and looked at us on the pitch, he told us, celebrating as you saw, "I felt the ball." +And that's priceless. +So where is this going to go? +I have two minutes to tell you that it's going to the limits of your imagination. +Brain-actuating technology is here. +So this is the first demo. +I'm going to be very quick because I want to show you the latest. +But what you see here is the first rat getting informed by a light that is going to show up on the left of the cage that he has to press the left cage to basically get a reward. +He goes there and does it. +And the same time, he is sending a mental message to the second rat that didn't see any light, and the second rat, in 70 percent of the times is going to press the left lever and get a reward without ever experiencing the light in the retina. +One monkey is controlling the x dimension, the other monkey is controlling the y dimension. +And they actually do. +The black dot is the average of all these brains working in parallel, in real time. +That is the definition of a biological computer, interacting by brain activity and achieving a motor goal. +Where is this going? +We have no idea. +We're just scientists. +We are paid to be children, to basically go to the edge and discover what is out there. +Thank you. +Thank you. +Bruno Giussani: Miguel, thank you for sticking to your time. +I actually would have given you a couple more minutes, because there are a couple of points we want to develop, and, of course, clearly it seems that we need connected brains to figure out where this is going. +So let's connect all this together. +So if I'm understanding correctly, one of the monkeys is actually getting a signal and the other monkey is reacting to that signal just because the first one is receiving it and transmitting the neurological impulse. +Miguel Nicolelis: No, it's a little different. +No monkey knows of the existence of the other two monkeys. +They are getting a visual feedback in 2D, but the task they have to accomplish is 3D. +They have to move an arm in three dimensions. +But each monkey is only getting the two dimensions on the video screen that the monkey controls. +And to get that thing done, you need at least two monkeys to synchronize their brains, but the ideal is three. +So what we found out is that when one monkey starts slacking down, the other two monkeys enhance their performance to get the guy to come back, so this adjusts dynamically, but the global synchrony remains the same. +Now, if you flip without telling the monkey the dimensions that each brain has to control, like this guy is controlling x and y, but he should be controlling now y and z, instantaneously, that animal's brain forgets about the old dimensions and it starts concentrating on the new dimensions. +So what I need to say is that no Turing machine, no computer can predict what a brain net will do. +So we will absorb technology as part of us. +Technology will never absorb us. +It's simply impossible. +BG: How many times have you tested this? +And how many times have you succeeded versus failed? +MN: Oh, tens of times. +With the three monkeys? Oh, several times. +I wouldn't be able to talk about this here unless I had done it a few times. +And I forgot to mention, because of time, that just three weeks ago, a European group just demonstrated the first man-to-man brain-to-brain connection. +BG: And how does that play? +MN: There was one bit of information -- big ideas start in a humble way -- but basically the brain activity of one subject was transmitted to a second object, all non-invasive technology. +So the first subject got a message, like our rats, a visual message, and transmitted it to the second subject. +The second subject received a magnetic pulse in the visual cortex, or a different pulse, two different pulses. +In one pulse, the subject saw something. +On the other pulse, he saw something different. +And he was able to verbally indicate what was the message the first subject was sending through the Internet across continents. +Moderator: Wow. Okay, that's where we are going. +That's the next TED Talk at the next conference. +Miguel Nicolelis, thank you. MN: Thank you, Bruno. Thank you. +It is very fashionable and proper to speak about food in all its forms, all its colors, aromas and tastes. +But after the food goes through the digestive system, when it is thrown out as crap, it is no longer fashionable to speak about it. +It is rather revolting. +I'm a guy who has graduated from bullshit to full-shit. +My organization, Gram Vikas, which means "village development organization," was working in the area of renewable energy. +On the most part, we were producing biogas, biogas for rural kitchens. +We produce biogas in India by using animal manure, which usually, in India, is called cow dung. +But as the gender-sensitive person that I am, I would like to call it bullshit. +But realizing later on how important were sanitation and the disposal of crap in a proper way, we went into the arena of sanitation. +Eighty percent of all diseases in India and most developing countries are because of poor quality water. +And when we look at the reason for poor quality water, you find that it is our abysmal attitude to the disposal of human waste. +Human waste, in its rawest form, finds its way back to drinking water, bathing water, washing water, irrigation water, whatever water you see. +And this is the cause for 80 percent of the diseases in rural areas. +In India, it is unfortunately only the women who carry water. +So for all domestic needs, women have to carry water. +So that is a pitiable state of affairs. +Open defecation is rampant. +Seventy percent of India defecates in the open. +They sit there out in the open, with the wind on their sails, hiding their faces, exposing their bases, and sitting there in pristine glory -- 70 percent of India. +And if you look at the world total, 60 percent of all the crap that is thrown into the open is by Indians. +A fantastic distinction. +I don't know if we Indians can be proud of such a distinction. +So we, together with a lot of villages, we began to talk about how to really address this situation of sanitation. +And we came together and formed a project called MANTRA. +MANTRA stands for Movement and Action Network for Transformation of Rural Areas. +So we are speaking about transformation, transformation in rural areas. +Villages that agree to implement this project, they organize a legal society where the general body consists of all members who elect a group of men and women who implement the project and, later on, who look after the operation and maintenance. +They decide to build a toilet and a shower room. +And from a protected water source, water will be brought to an elevated water reservoir and piped to all households through three taps: one in the toilet, one in the shower, one in the kitchen, 24 hours a day. +The pity is that our cities, like New Delhi and Bombay, do not have a 24-hour water supply. +But in these villages, we want to have it. +There is a distinct difference in the quality. +Well in India, we have a theory, which is very much accepted by the government bureaucracy and all those who matter, that poor people deserve poor solutions and absolutely poor people deserve pathetic solutions. +This, combined with a Nobel Prize-worthy theory that the cheapest is the most economic, is the heady cocktail that the poor are forced to drink. +We are fighting against this. +We feel that the poor have been humiliated for centuries. +And even in sanitation, they should not be humiliated. +Sanitation is more about dignity than about human disposal of waste. +And so you build these toilets and very often, we have to hear that the toilets are better than their houses. +And you can see that in front are the attached houses and the others are the toilets. +So these people, without a single exception of a family in a village, decide to build a toilet, a bathing room. +And for that, they come together, collect all the local materials -- local materials like rubble, sand, aggregates, usually a government subsidy is available to meet at least part of the cost of external materials like cement, steel, toilet commode. +And they build a toilet and a bathing room. +Also, all the unskilled laborers, that is daily wage earners, mostly landless, are given an opportunity to be trained as masons and plumbers. +So while these people are being trained, others are collecting the materials. +And when both are ready, they build a toilet, a shower room, and of course also a water tower, an elevated water reservoir. +We use a system of two leach pits to treat the waste. +From the toilet, the muck comes into the first leach pit. +And when it is full, it is blocked and it can go to the next. +But we discovered that if you plant banana trees, papaya trees on the periphery of these leach pits, they grow very well because they suck up all the nutrients and you get very tasty bananas, papayas. +If any of you come to my place, I would be happy to share these bananas and papayas with you. +So there you can see the completed toilets, the water towers. +This is in a village where most of the people are even illiterate. +It is always a 24-hour water supply because water gets polluted very often when you store it -- a child dips his or her hand into it, something falls into it. +So no water is stored. It's always on tap. +This is how an elevated water reservoir is constructed. +And that is the end product. +Because it has to go high, and there is some space available, two or three rooms are made under the water tower, which are used by the village for different committee meetings. +We have had clear evidence of the great impact of this program. +Before we started, there were, as usual, more than 80 percent of people suffering from waterborne diseases. +But after this, we have empirical evidence that 82 percent, on average, among all these villages -- 1,200 villages have completed it -- waterborne diseases have come down 82 percent. +Women usually used to spend, especially in the summer months, about six to seven hours a day carrying water. +And when they went to carry water, because, as I said earlier, it's only women who carry water, they used to take their little children, girl children, also to carry water, or else to be back at home to look after the siblings. +So there were less than nine percent of girl children attending school, even if there was a school. +And boys, about 30 percent. +But girls, it has gone to about 90 percent and boys, almost to 100 percent. +The most vulnerable section in a village are the landless laborers who are the daily wage-earners. +Because they have gone through this training to be masons and plumbers and bar benders, now their ability to earn has increased 300 to 400 percent. +So this is a democracy in action because there is a general body, a governing board, the committee. +People are questioning, people are governing themselves, people are learning to manage their own affairs, they are taking their own futures into their hands. +And that is democracy at the grassroots level in action. +More than 1,200 villages have so far done this. +It benefits over 400,000 people and it's still going on. +And I hope it continues to move ahead. +For India and such developing countries, armies and armaments, software companies and spaceships may not be as important as taps and toilets. +Thank you. Thank you very much. +Thank you. +I want to speak about a forgotten conflict. +It's a conflict that rarely hits the headlines. +It happens right here, in the Democratic Republic of Congo. +Now, most people outside of Africa don't know much about the war in Congo, so let me give you a couple of key facts. +The Congolese conflict is the deadliest conflict since World War II. +It has caused almost four million deaths. +It has destabilized most of Central Africa for the past 18 years. +It is the largest ongoing humanitarian crisis in the world. +That's why I first went to Congo in 2001. +I was a young humanitarian aid worker, and I met this woman who was my age. +She was called Isabelle. +Local militias had attacked Isabelle's village. +They had killed many men, raped many women. +They had looted everything. +And then they wanted to take Isabelle, but her husband stepped in, and he said, "No, please don't take Isabelle. +Take me instead." +So he had gone to the forest with the militias, and Isabelle had never seen him again. +Well, it's because of people like Isabelle and her husband that I have devoted my career to studying this war that we know so little about. +Although there is one story about Congo that you may have heard. +It's a story about minerals and rape. +Policy statements and media reports both usually focus on a primary cause of violence in Congo -- the illegal exploitation and trafficking of natural resources -- and on a main consequence -- sexual abuse of women and girls as a weapon of war. +So, not that these two issues aren't important and tragic. They are. +But today I want to tell you a different story. +I want to tell you a story that emphasizes a core cause of the ongoing conflict. +Violence in Congo is in large part driven by local bottom-up conflicts that international peace efforts have failed to help address. +The story starts from the fact that not only is Congo notable for being the world's worst ongoing humanitarian crisis, but it is also home to some of the largest international peacebuilding efforts in the world. +Congo hosts the largest and most expensive United Nations peacekeeping mission in the world. +It was also the site of the first European-led peacekeeping mission, and for its first cases ever, the International Criminal Court chose to prosecute Congolese warlords. +In 2006, when Congo held the first free national elections in its history, many observers thought that an end to violence in the region had finally come. +The international community lauded the successful organization of these elections as finally an example of successful international intervention in a failed state. +But the eastern provinces have continued to face massive population displacements and horrific human rights violations. +Shortly before I went back there last summer, there was a horrible massacre in the province of South Kivu. +Thirty-three people were killed. +They were mostly women and children, and many of them were hacked to death. +During the past eight years, fighting in the eastern provinces has regularly reignited full-scale civil and international war. +So basically, every time we feel that we are on the brink of peace, the conflict explodes again. +Why? +Why have the massive international efforts failed to help Congo achieve lasting peace and security? +Well, my answer to this question revolves around two central observations. +First, one of the main reasons for the continuation of violence in Congo is fundamentally local -- and when I say local, I really mean at the level of the individual, the family, the clan, the municipality, the community, the district, sometimes the ethnic group. +For instance, you remember the story of Isabelle that I told you. +Well, the reason why militias had attacked Isabelle's village was because they wanted to take the land that the villagers needed to cultivate food and to survive. +The second central observation is that international peace efforts have failed to help address local conflicts because of the presence of a dominant peacebuilding culture. +So what I mean is that Western and African diplomats, United Nations peacekeepers, donors, the staff of most nongovernmental organizations that work with the resolution of conflict, they all share a specific way of seeing the world. +And I was one of these people, and I shared this culture, so I know all too well how powerful it is. +Throughout the world, and throughout conflict zones, this common culture shapes the intervener's understanding of the causes of violence as something that is primarily located in the national and international spheres. +It shapes our understanding of the path toward peace as something again that requires top-down intervention to address national and international tensions. +And it shapes our understanding of the roles of foreign actors as engaging in national and international peace processes. +Even more importantly, this common culture enables international peacebuilders to ignore the micro-level tensions that often jeopardize the macro-level settlements. +So for instance, in Congo, because of how they are socialized and trained, United Nations officials, donors, diplomats, the staff of most nongovernmental organizations, they interpret continued fighting and massacres as a top-down problem. +To them, the violence they see is the consequence of tensions between President Kabila and various national opponents, and tensions between Congo, Rwanda and Uganda. +In addition, these international peacebuilders view local conflicts as simply the result of national and international tensions, insufficient state authority, and what they call the Congolese people's so-called inherent penchant for violence. +The dominant culture also constructs intervention at the national and international levels as the only natural and legitimate task for United Nations staffers and diplomats. +And it elevates the organization of general elections, which is now a sort of cure-all, as the most crucial state reconstruction mechanism over more effective state-building approaches. +And that happens not only in Congo but also in many other conflict zones. +But let's dig deeper, into the other main sources of violence. +In Congo, continuing violence is motivated not only by the national and international causes but also by longstanding bottom-up agendas whose main instigators are villagers, traditional chiefs, community chiefs or ethnic leaders. +Many conflicts revolve around political, social and economic stakes that are distinctively local. +For instance, there is a lot of competition at the village or district level over who can be chief of village or chief of territory according to traditional law, and who can control the distribution of land and the exploitation of local mining sites. +This competition often results in localized fighting, for instance in one village or territory, and quite frequently, it escalates into generalized fighting, so across a whole province, and even at times into neighboring countries. +Take the conflict between Congolese of Rwandan descent and the so-called indigenous communities of the Kivus. +This conflict started in the 1930s during Belgian colonization, when both communities competed over access to land and to local power. +Then, in 1960, after Congolese independence, it escalated because each camp tried to align with national politicians, but still to advance their local agendas. +And then, at the time of the 1994 genocide in Rwanda, these local actors allied with Congolese and Rwandan armed groups, but still to advance their local agendas in the provinces of the Kivus. +And since then, these local disputes over land and local power have fueled violence, and they have regularly jeopardized the national and international settlements. +So we can wonder why in these circumstances the international peacebuilders have failed to help implement local peacebuilding programs. +And the answer is that international interveners deem the resolution of grassroots conflict an unimportant, unfamiliar, and illegitimate task. +The very idea of becoming involved at the local level clashes fundamentally with existing cultural norms, and it threatens key organizational interests. +For instance, the very identity of the United Nations as this macro-level diplomatic organization would be upended if it were to refocus on local conflicts. +And the result is that neither the internal resistance to the dominant ways of working nor the external shocks have managed to convince international actors that they should reevaluate their understanding of violence and intervention. +And so far, there have been only very few exceptions. +There have been exceptions, but only very few exceptions, to this broad pattern. +So to wrap up, the story I just told you is a story about how a dominant peacebuilding culture shapes the intervener's understanding of what the causes of violence are, how peace is made, and what interventions should accomplish. +These understandings enable international peacebuilders to ignore the micro-level foundations that are so necessary for sustainable peace. +The resulting inattention to local conflicts leads to inadequate peacebuilding in the short term and potential war resumption in the long term. +And what's fascinating is that this analysis helps us to better understand many cases of lasting conflict and international intervention failures, in Africa and elsewhere. +Local conflicts fuel violence in most war and post-war environments, from Afghanistan to Sudan to Timor-Leste, and in the rare cases where there have been comprehensive, bottom-up peacebuilding initiatives, these attempts have been successful at making peace sustainable. +One of the best examples is the contrast between the relatively peaceful situation in Somaliland, which benefited from sustained grassroots peacebuilding initiatives, and the violence prevalent in the rest of Somalia, where peacebuilding has been mostly top-down. +And there are several other cases in which local, grassroots conflict resolution has made a crucial difference. +So if we want international peacebuilding to work, in addition to any top-down intervention, conflicts must be resolved from the bottom up. +And again, it's not that national and international tensions don't matter. +They do. +And it's not that national and international peacebuilding isn't necessary. +It is. +Instead, it is that both macro-level and micro-level peacebuilding are needed to make peace sustainable, and local nongovernmental organizations, local authorities and civil society representatives should be the main actors in the bottom-up process. +So of course, there are obstacles. +Local actors often lack the funding and sometimes the logistical means and the technical capacity to implement effective, local peacebuilding programs. +So international actors should expand their funding and support for local conflict resolution. +As for Congo, what can be done? +After two decades of conflict and the deaths of millions, it's clear that we need to change our approach. +Based on my field research, I believe that international and Congolese actors should pay more attention to the resolution of land conflict and the promotion of inter-community reconciliation. +So for instance, in the province of the Kivus, the Life and Peace Institute and its Congolese partners have set up inter-community forums to discuss the specifics of local conflicts over land, and these forums have found solutions to help manage the violence. +That's the kind of program that is sorely needed throughout eastern Congo. +It's with programs like this that we can help people like Isabelle and her husband. +So these will not be magic wands, but because they take into account deeply rooted causes of the violence, they could definitely be game-changers. +Thank you. +So recently, we heard a lot about how social media helps empower protest, and that's true, but after more than a decade of studying and participating in multiple social movements, I've come to realize that the way technology empowers social movements can also paradoxically help weaken them. +This is not inevitable, but overcoming it requires diving deep into what makes success possible over the long term. +And the lessons apply in multiple domains. +Now, take Turkey's Gezi Park protests, July 2013, which I went back to study in the field. +Twitter was key to its organizing. +It was everywhere in the park -- well, along with a lot of tear gas. +It wasn't all high tech. +But the people in Turkey had already gotten used to the power of Twitter because of an unfortunate incident about a year before when military jets had bombed and killed 34 Kurdish smugglers near the border region, and Turkish media completely censored this news. +Editors sat in their newsrooms and waited for the government to tell them what to do. +One frustrated journalist could not take this anymore. +He purchased his own plane ticket, and went to the village where this had occurred. +And he was confronted by this scene: a line of coffins coming down a hill, relatives wailing. +He later he told me how overwhelmed he felt, and didn't know what to do, so he took out his phone, like any one of us might, and snapped that picture and tweeted it out. +And voila, that picture went viral and broke the censorship and forced mass media to cover it. +So when, a year later, Turkey's Gezi protests happened, it started as a protest about a park being razed, but became an anti-authoritarian protest. +It wasn't surprising that media also censored it, but it got a little ridiculous at times. +When things were so intense, when CNN International was broadcasting live from Istanbul, CNN Turkey instead was broadcasting a documentary on penguins. +Now, I love penguin documentaries, but that wasn't the news of the day. +An angry viewer put his two screens together and snapped that picture, and that one too went viral, and since then, people call Turkish media the penguin media. But this time, people knew what to do. +They just took out their phones and looked for actual news. +Better, they knew to go to the park and take pictures and participate and share it more on social media. +Digital connectivity was used for everything from food to donations. +Everything was organized partially with the help of these new technologies. +And using Internet to mobilize and publicize protests actually goes back a long way. +Remember the Zapatistas, the peasant uprising in the southern Chiapas region of Mexico led by the masked, pipe-smoking, charismatic Subcomandante Marcos? +That was probably the first movement that got global attention thanks to the Internet. +Or consider Seattle '99, when a multinational grassroots effort brought global attention to what was then an obscure organization, the World Trade Organization, by also utilizing these digital technologies to help them organize. +And more recently, movement after movement has shaken country after country: the Arab uprisings from Bahrain to Tunisia to Egypt and more; indignados in Spain, Italy, Greece; the Gezi Park protests; Taiwan; Euromaidan in Ukraine; Hong Kong. +And think of more recent initiatives, like the #BringBackOurGirls hashtags. +Nowadays, a network of tweets can unleash a global awareness campaign. +A Facebook page can become the hub of a massive mobilization. +Amazing. +But think of the moments I just mentioned. +The achievements they were able to have, their outcomes, are not really proportional to the size and energy they inspired. +The hopes they rightfully raised are not really matched by what they were able to have as a result in the end. +And this raises a question: As digital technology makes things easier for movements, why haven't successful outcomes become more likely as well? +In embracing digital platforms for activism and politics, are we overlooking some of the benefits of doing things the hard way? +Now, I believe so. +I believe that the rule of thumb is: Easier to mobilize does not always mean easier to achieve gains. +Now, to be clear, technology does empower in multiple ways. +It's very powerful. +In Turkey, I watched four young college students organize a countrywide citizen journalism network called 140Journos that became the central hub for uncensored news in the country. +In Egypt, I saw another four young people use digital connectivity to organize the supplies and logistics for 10 field hospitals, very large operations, during massive clashes near Tahrir Square in 2011. +And I asked the founder of this effort, called Tahrir Supplies, how long it took him to go from when he had the idea to when he got started. +"Five minutes," he said. Five minutes. +And he had no training or background in logistics. +Or think of the Occupy movement which rocked the world in 2011. +It started with a single email from a magazine, Adbusters, to 90,000 subscribers in its list. +About two months after that first email, there were in the United States 600 ongoing occupations and protests. +Less than one month after the first physical occupation in Zuccotti Park, a global protest was held in about 82 countries, 950 cities. +It was one of the largest global protests ever organized. +Now, compare that to what the Civil Rights Movement had to do in 1955 Alabama to protest the racially segregated bus system, which they wanted to boycott. +They'd been preparing for many years and decided it was time to swing into action after Rosa Parks was arrested. +But how do you get the word out -- tomorrow we're going to start the boycott -- when you don't have Facebook, texting, Twitter, none of that? +So they had to mimeograph 52,000 leaflets by sneaking into a university duplicating room and working all night, secretly. +They then used the 68 African-American organizations that criss-crossed the city to distribute those leaflets by hand. +And the logistical tasks were daunting, because these were poor people. +They had to get to work, boycott or no, so a massive carpool was organized, again by meeting. +No texting, no Twitter, no Facebook. +They had to meet almost all the time to keep this carpool going. +Today, it would be so much easier. +We could create a database, available rides and what rides you need, have the database coordinate, and use texting. +We wouldn't have to meet all that much. +But again, consider this: the Civil Rights Movement in the United States navigated a minefield of political dangers, faced repression and overcame, won major policy concessions, navigated and innovated through risks. +In contrast, three years after Occupy sparked that global conversation about inequality, the policies that fueled it are still in place. +Europe was also rocked by anti-austerity protests, but the continent didn't shift its direction. +In embracing these technologies, are we overlooking some of the benefits of slow and sustained? +To understand this, I went back to Turkey about a year after the Gezi protests and I interviewed a range of people, from activists to politicians, from both the ruling party and the opposition party and movements. +I found that the Gezi protesters were despairing. +They were frustrated, and they had achieved much less than what they had hoped for. +This echoed what I'd been hearing around the world from many other protesters that I'm in touch with. +And I've come to realize that part of the problem is that today's protests have become a bit like climbing Mt. Everest with the help of 60 Sherpas, and the Internet is our Sherpa. +What we're doing is taking the fast routes and not replacing the benefits of the slower work. +And if you're in power, you realize you have to take the capacity signaled by that march, not just the march, but the capacity signaled by that march, seriously. +In contrast, when you look at Occupy's global marches that were organized in two weeks, you see a lot of discontent, but you don't necessarily see teeth that can bite over the long term. +And crucially, the Civil Rights Movement innovated tactically from boycotts to lunch counter sit-ins to pickets to marches to freedom rides. +Today's movements scale up very quickly without the organizational base that can see them through the challenges. +They feel a little like startups that got very big without knowing what to do next, and they rarely manage to shift tactically because they don't have the depth of capacity to weather such transitions. +Now, I want to be clear: The magic is not in the mimeograph. +It's in that capacity to work together, think together collectively, which can only be built over time with a lot of work. +To understand all this, I interviewed a top official from the ruling party in Turkey, and I ask him, "How do you do it?" +They too use digital technology extensively, so that's not it. +So what's the secret? +Well, he told me. +He said the key is he never took sugar with his tea. +I said, what has that got to do with anything? +Well, he said, his party starts getting ready for the next election the day after the last one, and he spends all day every day meeting with voters in their homes, in their wedding parties, circumcision ceremonies, and then he meets with his colleagues to compare notes. +We had met in the afternoon, and he was already way over-caffeinated. +But his party won two major elections within a year of the Gezi protests with comfortable margins. +To be sure, governments have different resources to bring to the table. +It's not the same game, but the differences are instructive. +And like all such stories, this is not a story just of technology. +It's what technology allows us to do converging with what we want to do. +Today's social movements want to operate informally. +They do not want institutional leadership. +They want to stay out of politics because they fear corruption and cooptation. +They have a point. +Modern representative democracies are being strangled in many countries by powerful interests. +But operating this way makes it hard for them to sustain over the long term and exert leverage over the system, which leads to frustrated protesters dropping out, and even more corrupt politics. +And politics and democracy without an effective challenge hobbles, because the causes that have inspired the modern recent movements are crucial. +Climate change is barreling towards us. +Inequality is stifling human growth and potential and economies. +Authoritarianism is choking many countries. +We need movements to be more effective. +Now, some people have argued that the problem is today's movements are not formed of people who take as many risks as before, and that is not true. +From Gezi to Tahrir to elsewhere, I've seen people put their lives and livelihoods on the line. +It's also not true, as Malcolm Gladwell claimed, that today's protesters form weaker virtual ties. +No, they come to these protests, just like before, with their friends, existing networks, and sometimes they do make new friends for life. +I still see the friends that I made in those Zapatista-convened global protests more than a decade ago, and the bonds between strangers are not worthless. +When I got tear-gassed in Gezi, people I didn't know helped me and one another instead of running away. +In Tahrir, I saw people, protesters, working really hard to keep each other safe and protected. +And digital awareness-raising is great, because changing minds is the bedrock of changing politics. +But movements today have to move beyond participation at great scale very fast and figure out how to think together collectively, develop strong policy proposals, create consensus, figure out the political steps and relate them to leverage, because all these good intentions and bravery and sacrifice by itself are not going to be enough. +And there are many efforts. +In New Zealand, a group of young people are developing a platform called Loomio for participatory decision making at scale. +In Turkey, 140Journos are holding hack-a-thons so that they support communities as well as citizen journalism. +In Argentina, an open-source platform called DemocracyOS is bringing participation to parliaments and political parties. +These are all great, and we need more, but the answer won't just be better online decision-making, because to update democracy, we are going to need to innovate at every level, from the organizational to the political to the social. +Because to succeed over the long term, sometimes you do need tea without sugar along with your Twitter. +Thank you. +When I was invited to give this talk a couple of months ago, we discussed a number of titles with the organizers, and a lot of different items were kicked around and were discussed. +But nobody suggested this one, and the reason for that was two months ago, Ebola was escalating exponentially and spreading over wider geographic areas than we had ever seen, and the world was terrified, concerned and alarmed by this disease, in a way we've not seen in recent history. +But today, I can stand here and I can talk to you about beating Ebola because of people whom you've never heard of, people like Peter Clement, a Liberian doctor who's working in Lofa County, a place that many of you have never heard of, probably, in Liberia. +The reason that Lofa County is so important is because about five months ago, when the epidemic was just starting to escalate, Lofa County was right at the center, the epicenter of this epidemic. +At that time, MSF and the treatment center there, they were seeing dozens of patients every single day, and these patients, these communities were becoming more and more terrified as time went by, with this disease and what it was doing to their families, to their communities, to their children, to their relatives. +And so Peter Clement was charged with driving that 12-hour-long rough road from Monrovia, the capital, up to Lofa County, to try and help bring control to the escalating epidemic there. +And what Peter found when he arrived was the terror that I just mentioned to you. +So he sat down with the local chiefs, and he listened. +And what he heard was heartbreaking. +He heard about the devastation and the desperation of people affected by this disease. +He heard the heartbreaking stories about not just the damage that Ebola did to people, but what it did to families and what it did to communities. +And he listened to the local chiefs there and what they told him -- They said, "When our children are sick, when our children are dying, we can't hold them at a time when we want to be closest to them. +When our relatives die, we can't take care of them as our tradition demands. +We are not allowed to wash the bodies to bury them the way our communities and our rituals demand. +And for this reason, they were deeply disturbed, deeply alarmed and the entire epidemic was unraveling in front of them. +People were turning on the healthcare workers who had come, the heroes who had come to try and help save the community, to help work with the community, and they were unable to access them. +And what happened then was Peter explained to the leaders. +The leaders listened. They turned the tables. +And Peter explained what Ebola was. He explained what the disease was. +He explained what it did to their communities. +And he explained that Ebola threatened everything that made us human. +Ebola means you can't hold your children the way you would in this situation. +You can't bury your dead the way that you would. +You have to trust these people in these space suits to do that for you. +And ladies and gentlemen, what happened then was rather extraordinary: The community and the health workers, Peter, they sat down together and they put together a new plan for controlling Ebola in Lofa County. +And the reason that this is such an important story, ladies and gentlemen, is because today, this county, which is right at the center of this epidemic you've been watching, you've been seeing in the newspapers, you've been seeing on the television screens, today Lofa County is nearly eight weeks without seeing a single case of Ebola. +Now, this doesn't mean that the job is done, obviously. +There's still a huge risk that there will be additional cases there. +But what it does teach us is that Ebola can be beaten. +That's the key thing. +Even on this scale, even with the rapid kind of growth that we saw in this environment here, we now know Ebola can be beaten. +When communities come together with health care workers, work together, that's when this disease can be stopped. +But how did Ebola end up in Lofa County in the first place? +Well, for that, we have to go back 12 months, to the start of this epidemic. +And as many of you know, this virus went undetected, it evaded detection for three or four months when it began. +That's because this is not a disease of West Africa, it's a disease of Central Africa, half a continent away. +People hadn't seen the disease before; health workers hadn't seen the disease before. +They didn't know what they were dealing with, and to make it even more complicated, the virus itself was causing a symptom, a type of a presentation that wasn't classical of the disease. +So people didn't even recognize the disease, people who knew Ebola. +For that reason it evaded detection for some time, But contrary to public belief sometimes these days, once the virus was detected, there was a rapid surge in of support. +MSF rapidly set up an Ebola treatment center, as many of you know, in the area. +The World Health Organization and the partners that it works with deployed eventually hundreds of people over the next two months to be able to help track the virus. +The problem, ladies and gentlemen, is by then, this virus, well known now as Ebola, had spread too far. +It had already outstripped what was one of the largest responses that had been mounted so far to an Ebola outbreak. +By the middle of the year, not just Guinea but now Sierra Leone and Liberia were also infected. +As the virus was spreading geographically, the numbers were increasing and at this time, not only were hundreds of people infected and dying of the disease, but as importantly, the front line responders, the people who had gone to try and help, the health care workers, the other responders were also sick and dying by the dozens. +The presidents of these countries recognized the emergencies. +They met right around that time, they agreed on common action and they put together an emergency joint operation center in Conakry to try and work together to finish this disease and get it stopped, to implement the strategies we talked about. +But what happened then was something we had never seen before with Ebola. +What happened then was the virus, or someone sick with the virus, boarded an airplane, flew to another country, and for the first time, we saw in another distant country the virus pop up again. +This time it was in Nigeria, in the teeming metropolis of Lagos, 21 million people. +Now the virus was in that environment. +And as you can anticipate, there was international alarm, international concern on a scale that we hadn't seen in recent years caused by a disease like this. +The World Health Organization immediately called together an expert panel, looked at the situation, declared an international emergency. +And in doing so, the expectation would be that there would be a huge outpouring of international assistance to help these countries which were in so much trouble and concern at that time. +But what we saw was something very different. +There was some great response. +A number of countries came to assist -- many, many NGOs and others, as you know, but at the same time, the opposite happened in many places. +Alarm escalated, and very soon these countries found themselves not receiving the support they needed, but increasingly isolated. +What we saw was commercial airlines [stopped] flying into these countries and people who hadn't even been exposed to the virus were no longer allowed to travel. +This caused not only problems, obviously, for the countries themselves, but also for the response. +Those organizations that were trying to bring people in, to try and help them respond to the outbreak, they could not get people on airplanes, they could not get them into the countries to be able to respond. +In that situation, ladies and gentleman, a virus like Ebola takes advantage. +And what we saw then was something also we hadn't seen before. +Ladies and gentleman, this was one of the most concerning international emergencies in public health we've ever seen. +And what happened in these countries then, many of you saw, again, on the television, read about in the newspapers, we saw the health system start to collapse under the weight of this epidemic. +We saw the schools begin to close, markets no longer started, no longer functioned the way that they should in these countries. +We saw that misinformation and misperceptions started to spread even faster through the communities, which became even more alarmed about the situation. +They started to recoil from those people that you saw in those space suits, as they call them, who had come to help them. +And then the situation deteriorated even further. +The countries had to declare a state of emergency. +Large populations needed to be quarantined in some areas, and then riots broke out. +It was a very, very terrifying situation. +Around the world, many people began to ask, can we ever stop Ebola when it starts to spread like this? +And they started to ask, how well do we really know this virus? +The reality is we don't know Ebola extremely well. +It's a relatively modern disease in terms of what we know about it. +We've known the disease only for 40 years, since it first popped up in Central Africa in 1976. +But despite that, we do know many things: We know that this virus probably survives in a type of a bat. +We know that it probably enters a human population when we come in contact with a wild animal that has been infected with the virus and probably sickened by it. +Then we know that the virus spreads from person to person through contaminated body fluids. +And as you've all seen, we know the horrific disease that it then causes in humans, where we see this disease cause severe fevers, diarrhea, vomiting, and then unfortunately, in 70 percent of the cases or often more, death. +This is a very dangerous, debilitating, and deadly disease. +But despite the fact that we've not known this disease for a particularly long time, and we don't know everything about it, we do know how to stop this disease. +There are four things that are critical to stopping Ebola. +First and foremost, the communities have got to understand this disease, they've got to understand how it spreads and how to stop it. +And then we've got to be able to have systems that can find every single case, every contact of those cases, and begin to track the transmission chains so that you can stop transmission. +We have to have treatment centers, specialized Ebola treatment centers, where the workers can be protected as they try to provide support to the people who are infected, so that they might survive the disease. +And then for those who do die, we have to ensure there is a safe, but at the same time dignified, burial process, so that there is no spread at that time as well. +So we do know how to stop Ebola, and these strategies work, ladies and gentlemen. +The virus was stopped in Nigeria by these four strategies and the people implementing them, obviously. +It was stopped in Senegal, where it had spread, and also in the other countries that were affected by this virus, in this outbreak. +So there's no question that these strategies actually work. +The big question, ladies and gentlemen, was whether these strategies could work on this scale, in this situation, with so many countries affected with the kind of exponential growth that you saw. +That was the big question that we were facing just two or three months ago. +Today we know the answer to that question. +And we know that answer because of the extraordinary work of an incredible group of NGOs, of governments, of local leaders, of U.N. agencies and many humanitarian and other organizations that came and joined the fight to try and stop Ebola in West Africa. +But what had to be done there was slightly different. +These countries took those strategies I just showed you; the community engagement, the case finding, contact tracing, etc., and they turned them on their head. +There was so much disease, they approached it differently. +What they decided to do was they would first try and slow down this epidemic by rapidly building as many beds as possible in specialized treatment centers so that they could prevent the disease from spreading from those were infected. +They would rapidly build out many, many burial teams so that they could safely deal with the dead, and with that, they would try and slow this outbreak to see if it could actually then be controlled using the classic approach of case finding and contact tracing. +And when I went to West Africa about three months ago, when I was there what I saw was extraordinary. +I saw presidents opening emergency operation centers themselves against Ebola so that they could personally coordinate and oversee and champion this surge of international support to try and stop this disease. +We saw militaries from within those countries and from far beyond coming in to help build Ebola treatment centers that could be used to isolate those who were sick. +We saw the Red Cross movement working with its partner agencies on the ground there to help train the communities so that they could actually safely bury their dead in a dignified manner themselves. +And we saw the U.N. agencies, the World Food Program, build a tremendous air bridge that could get responders to every single corner of these countries rapidly to be able to implement the strategies that we just talked about. +What we saw, ladies and gentlemen, which was probably most impressive, was this incredible work by the governments, by the leaders in these countries, with the communities, to try to ensure people understood this disease, understood the extraordinary things they would have to do to try and stop Ebola. +And as a result, ladies and gentlemen, we saw something that we did not know only two or three months earlier, whether or not it would be possible. +What we saw was what you see now in this graph, when we took stock on December 1. +What we saw was we could bend that curve, so to speak, change this exponential growth, and bring some hope back to the ability to control this outbreak. +And for this reason, ladies and gentlemen, there's absolutely no question now that we can catch up with this outbreak in West Africa and we can beat Ebola. +The big question, though, that many people are asking, even when they saw this curve, they said, "Well, hang on a minute -- that's great you can slow it down, but can you actually drive it down to zero?" +We already answered that question back at the beginning of this talk, when I spoke about Lofa County in Liberia. +We told you the story how Lofa County got to a situation where they have not seen Ebola for eight weeks. +But there are similar stories from the other countries as well. +From Gueckedou in Guinea, the first area where the first case was actually diagnosed. +The challenge now, of course, is doing this on the scale needed right across these three countries, and that is a huge challenge. +Because when you've been at something for this long, on this scale, two other big threats come in to join the virus. +The first of those is complacency, the risk that as this disease curve starts to bend, the media look elsewhere, the world looks elsewhere. +Complacency always a risk. +And the other risk, of course, is when you've been working so hard for so long, and slept so few hours over the past months, people are tired, people become fatigued, and these new risks start to creep into the response. +Ladies and gentlemen, I can tell you today I've just come back from West Africa. +The people of these countries, the leaders of these countries, they are not complacent. +They want to drive Ebola to zero in their countries. +And these people, yes, they're tired, but they are not fatigued. +They have an energy, they have a courage, they have the strength to get this finished. +What they need, ladies and gentlemen, at this point, is the unwavering support of the international community, to stand with them, to bolster and bring even more support at this time, to get the job finished. +Because finishing Ebola right now means turning the tables on this virus, and beginning to hunt it. +Remember, this virus, this whole crisis, rather, started with one case, and is going to finish with one case. +But it will only finish if those countries have got enough epidemiologists, enough health workers, enough logisticians and enough other people working with them to be able to find every one of those cases, track their contacts and make sure that this disease stops once and for all. +Ladies and gentleman, Ebola can be beaten. +Now we need you to take this story out to tell it to the people who will listen and educate them on what it means to beat Ebola, and more importantly, we need you to advocate with the people who can help us bring the resources we need to these countries, to beat this disease. +There are a lot of people out there who will survive and will thrive, in part because of what you do to help us beat Ebola. +Thank you. +You've heard of your I.Q., your general intelligence, but what's your Psy-Q? +How much do you know about what makes you tick, and how good are you at predicting other people's behavior or even your own? +And how much of what you think you know about psychology is wrong? +Let's find out by counting down the top 10 myths of psychology. +You've probably heard it said that when it comes to their psychology, it's almost as if men are from Mars and women are from Venus. +But how different are men and women really? +To find out, let's start by looking at something on which men and women really do differ and plotting some psychological gender differences on the same scale. +One thing men and women do really differ on is how far they can throw a ball. +So if we look at the data for men here, we see what is called a normal distribution curve. +A few men can throw a ball really far, and a few men not far at all, but most a kind of average distance. +And women share the same distribution as well, but actually there's quite a big difference. +In fact, the average man can throw a ball further than about 98 percent of all women. +So now let's look at what some psychological gender differences look like on the same standardized scale. +Any psychologist will tell you that men are better at spatial awareness than women -- so things like map-reading, for example -- and it's true, but let's have a look at the size of this difference. +It's tiny; the lines are so close together they almost overlap. +In fact, the average woman is better than 33 percent of all men, and of course, if that was 50 percent, then the two genders would be exactly equal. +It's worth bearing in mind that this difference and the next one I'll show you are pretty much the biggest psychological gender differences ever discovered in psychology. +So here's the next one. +Any psychologist will tell you that women are better with language and grammar than men. +So here's performance on the standardized grammar test. +There go the women. There go the men. +Again, yes, women are better on average, but the lines are so close that 33 percent of men are better than the average woman, and again, if it was 50 percent, that would represent complete gender equality. +So it's not really a case of Mars and Venus. +It's more a case of, if anything, Mars and Snickers: basically the same, but one's maybe slightly nuttier than the other. +I won't say which. +Now we've got you warmed up. +Let's psychoanalyze you using the famous Rorschach inkblot test. +So you can probably see two, I dunno, two bears or two people or something. +But what do you think they're doing? +Put your hand up if you think they're saying hello. +Not many people. Okay. +Put your hands up if you think they are high-fiving. +Okay. What if you think they're fighting? +Only a few people there. +Okay, so if you think they're saying hello or high-fiving, then that means you're a friendly person. +If you think they're fighting, you're a bit more of a nasty, aggressive person. +Are you a lover or a fighter, basically. +What about this one? +This isn't really a voting one, so on three everyone shout out what you see. +One, two, three. (Audience shouting) I heard hamster. Who said hamster? +That was very worrying. +A guy there said hamster. +Well, you should see some kind of two-legged animal here, and then the mirror image of them there. +If you didn't, then this means that you have difficulty processing complex situations where there's a lot going on. +Except, of course, it doesn't mean that at all. +Rorschach inkblot tests have basically no validity when it comes to diagnosing people's personality and are not used by modern-day psychologists. +In fact, one recent study found that when you do try to diagnose people's personalities using Rorschach inkblot tests, schizophrenia was diagnosed in about one sixth of apparently perfectly normal participants. +So if you didn't do that well on this, maybe you are not a very visual type of person. +So let's do another quick quiz to find out. +When making a cake, do you prefer to -- so hands up for each one again -- do you prefer to use a recipe book with pictures? +Yeah, a few people. +Have a friend talk you through? +Or have a go, making it up as you go along? +Quite a few people there. +Okay, so if you said A, then this means that you are a visual learner and you learn best when information is presented in a visual style. +If you said B, it means you're an auditory learner, that you learn best when information is presented to you in an auditory format. +And if you said C, it means that you're a kinesthetic learner, that you learn best when you get stuck in and do things with your hands. +Except, of course, as you've probably guessed, that it doesn't, because the whole thing is a complete myth. +Learning styles are made up and are not supported by scientific evidence. +So we know this because in tightly controlled experimental studies, when learners are given material to learn either in their preferred style or an opposite style, it makes no difference at all to the amount of information that they retain. +And if you think about it for just a second, it's just obvious that this has to be true. +It's obvious that the best presentation format depends not on you, but on what you're trying to learn. +Could you learn to drive a car, for example, just by listening to someone telling you what to do with no kinesthetic experience? +Could you solve simultaneous equations by talking them through in your head and without writing them down? +Could you revise for your architecture exams using interpretive dance if you're a kinesthetic learner? +No. What you need to do is match the material to be learned to the presentation format, not you. +I know many of you are A-level students that will have recently gotten your GCSE results. +And if you didn't quite get what you were hoping for, then you can't really blame your learning style, but one thing that you might want to think about blaming is your genes. +So what this is all about is a recent study at University College London found that 58 percent of the variation between different students and their GCSE results was down to genetic factors. +That sounds like a very precise figure, so how can we tell? +Well, when we want to unpack the relative contributions of genes and the environment, what we can do is do a twin study. +So identical twins share 100 percent of their environment and 100 percent of their genes, whereas non-identical twins share 100 percent of their environment, but just like any brother and sister, share only 50 percent of their genes. +So by comparing how similar GCSE results are in identical twins versus non-identical twins, and doing some clever math, we can an idea of how much variation and performance is due to the environment and how much is due to genes. +And it turns out that it's about 58 percent due to genes. +So this isn't to undermine the hard work that you and your teachers here put in. +If you didn't quite get the GCSE results that you were hoping for, then you can always try blaming your parents, or at least their genes. +One thing that you shouldn't blame is being a left-brained or right-brained learner, because again, this is a myth. +So the myth here is that the left brain is logical, it's good with equations like this, and the right brain is more creative, so the right brain is better at music. +But again, this is a myth because nearly everything that you do involves nearly all parts of your brain talking together, even just the most mundane thing like having a normal conversation. +However, perhaps one reason why this myth has survived is that there is a slight grain of truth to it. +So a related version of the myth is that left-handed people are more creative than right-handed people, which kind of makes sense because your brain controls the opposite hands, so left-handed people, the right side of the brain is slightly more active than the left-hand side of the brain, and the idea is the right-hand side is more creative. +Now, it isn't true per se that left-handed people are more creative than right-handed people. +What is true that ambidextrous people, or people who use both hands for different tasks, are more creative thinkers than one-handed people, because being ambidextrous involves having both sides of the brain talk to each other a lot, which seems to be involved in creating flexible thinking. +The myth of the creative left-hander arises from the fact that being ambidextrous is more common amongst left-handers than right-handers, so a grain of truth in the idea of the creative left-hander, but not much. +A related myth that you've probably heard of is that we only use 10 percent of our brains. +This is, again, a complete myth. +Nearly everything that we do, even the most mundane thing, uses nearly all of our brains. +That said, it is of course true that most of us don't use our brainpower quite as well as we could. +So what could we do to boost our brainpower? +Maybe we could listen to a nice bit of Mozart. +Have you heard of the idea of the Mozart effect? +So the idea is that listening to Mozart makes you smarter and improves your performance on I.Q. tests. +Now again, what's interesting about this myth is that although it's basically a myth, there is a grain of truth to it. +So the original study found that participants who were played Mozart music for a few minutes did better on a subsequent I.Q. test than participants who simply sat in silence. +But a follow-up study recruited some people who liked Mozart music and then another group of people who were fans of the horror stories of Stephen King. +And they played the people the music or the stories. +The people who preferred Mozart music to the stories got a bigger I.Q. boost from the Mozart than the stories, but the people who preferred the stories to the Mozart music got a bigger I.Q. boost from listening to the Stephen King stories than the Mozart music. +So the truth is that listening to something that you enjoy perks you up a bit and gives you a temporary I.Q. boost on a narrow range of tasks. +There's no suggestion that listening to Mozart, or indeed Stephen King stories, is going to make you any smarter in the long run. +Another version of the Mozart myth is that listening to Mozart can make you not only cleverer but healthier, too. +Unfortunately, this doesn't seem to be true of someone who listened to the music of Mozart almost every day, Mozart himself, who suffered from gonorrhea, smallpox, arthritis, and, what most people think eventually killed him in the end, syphilis. +This suggests that Mozart should have bit more careful, perhaps, when choosing his sexual partners. +But how do we choose a partner? +So a myth that I have to say is sometimes spread a bit by sociologists is that our preferences in a romantic partner are a product of our culture, that they're very culturally specific. +But in fact, the data don't back this up. +A famous study surveyed people from [37] different cultures across the globe, from Americans to Zulus, on what they look for in a partner. +And in every single culture across the globe, men placed more value on physical attractiveness in a partner than did women, and in every single culture, too, women placed more importance than did men on ambition and high earning power. +In every culture, too, men preferred women who were younger than themselves, an average of, I think it was 2.66 years, and in every culture, too, women preferred men who were older than them, so an average of 3.42 years, which is why we've got here "Everybody needs a Sugar Daddy." +So moving on from trying to score with a partner to trying to score in basketball or football or whatever your sport is. +The myth here is that sportsmen go through hot-hand streaks, Americans call them, or purple patches, we sometimes say in England, where they just can't miss, like this guy here. +But in fact, what happens is that if you analyze the pattern of hits and misses statistically, it turns out that it's nearly always at random. +Your brain creates patterns from the randomness. +So an exception to this, however, is penalty shootouts. +A recent study looking at penalty shootouts in football shows that players who represent countries with a very bad record in penalty shootouts, like, for example, England, tend to be quicker to take their shots than countries with a better record, and presumably as a result, they're more likely to miss. +Which raises the question of if there's any way that we could improve people's performance. +And one thing you might think about doing is punishing people for their misses and seeing if that improves them. +This idea, the effect that punishment can improve performance, is what participants thought they were testing in Milgram's famous learning and punishment experiment that you've probably heard about if you're a psychology student. +The story goes that participants were prepared to give what they believed to be fatal electric shocks to a fellow participant when they got a question wrong, just because someone in a white coat told them to. +But this story is a myth for three reasons. +Firstly and most crucially, the lab coat wasn't white, it was in fact grey. +Secondly, the participants were told before the study and reminded any time they raised a concern, that although the shocks were painful, they were not fatal and indeed caused no permanent damage whatsoever. +And thirdly, participants didn't give the shocks just because someone in the coat told them to. +When they were interviewed after the study, all the participants said that they firmly believed that the learning and punishment study served a worthy scientific purpose which would have enduring gains for science as opposed to the momentary nonfatal discomfort caused to the participants. +Interestingly, there is one exception: TV appeals for missing relatives. +It's quite easy to predict when the relatives are missing and when the appealers have in fact murdered the relatives themselves. +So hoax appealers are more likely to shake their heads, to look away, and to make errors in their speech, whereas genuine appealers are more likely to express hope that the person will return safely and to avoid brutal language. +So, for example, they might say "taken from us" rather than "killed." +Speaking of which, it's about time I killed this talk, but before I do, I just want to give you in 30 seconds the overarching myth of psychology. +So the myth is that psychology is just a collection of interesting theories, all of which say something useful and all of which have something to offer. +What I hope to have shown you in the past few minutes is that this isn't true. +And it's only by doing so that we can hope to discover which of these theories are well supported, and which, like all the ones I've told you about today, are myths. +Thank you. +Some years ago, I stumbled across a simple design exercise that helps people understand and solve complex problems, and like many of these design exercises, it kind of seems trivial at first, but under deep inspection, it turns out that it reveals unexpected truths about the way that we collaborate and make sense of things. +The exercise has three parts and begins with something that we all know how to do, which is how to make toast. +It begins with a clean sheet of paper, a felt marker, and without using any words, you begin to draw how to make toast. +And most people draw something like this. +They draw a loaf of bread, which is sliced, then put into a toaster. +The toast is then deposited for some time. +It pops up, and then voila! After two minutes, toast and happiness. +Now, over the years, I've collected many hundreds of drawings of these toasts, and some of them are very good, because they really illustrate the toast-making process quite clearly. +And then there are some that are, well, not so good. +They really suck, actually, because you don't know what they're trying to say. +Under close inspection, some reveal some aspects of toast-making while hiding others. +So there's some that are all about the toast, and all about the transformation of toast. +And there's others that are all about the toaster, and the engineers love to draw the mechanics of this. +And then there are others that are about people. +It's about visualizing the experience that people have. +And then there are others that are about the supply chain of making toast that goes all the way back to the store. +It goes through the supply chain networks of teleportation and all the way back to the field and wheat, and one all actually goes all the way back to the Big Bang. +So it's crazy stuff. +But I think it's obvious that even though these drawings are really wildly different, they share a common quality, and I'm wondering if you can see it. +Do you see it? What's common about these? +Most drawings have nodes and links. +So nodes represent the tangible objects like the toaster and people, and links represent the connections between the nodes. +And it's the combination of links and nodes that produces a full systems model, and it makes our private mental models visible about how we think something works. +So that's the value of these things. +What's interesting about these systems models is how they reveal our various points of view. +So for example, Americans make toast with a toaster. +That seems obvious. +Whereas many Europeans make toast with a frying pan, of course, and many students make toast with a fire. +I don't really understand this. A lot of MBA students do this. +So you can measure the complexity by counting the number of nodes, and the average illustration has between four and eight nodes. +Less than that, the drawing seems trivial, but it's quick to understand, and more than 13, the drawing produces a feeling of map shock. +It's too complex. +So the sweet spot is between 5 and 13. +So if you want to communicate something visually, have between five and 13 nodes in your diagram. +So though we may not be skilled at drawing, the point is that we intuitively know how to break down complex things into simple things and then bring them back together again. +So this brings us to our second part of the exercise, which is how to make toast, but now with sticky notes or with cards. +So what happens then? +Well, with cards, most people tend to draw clear, more detailed, and more logical nodes. +You can see the step by step analysis that takes place, and as they build up their model, they move their nodes around, rearranging them like Lego blocks. +Now, though this might seem trivial, it's actually really important. +This rapid iteration of expressing and then reflecting and analyzing is really the only way in which we get clarity. +It's the essence of the design process. +And systems theorists do tell us that the ease with which we can change a representation correlates to our willingness to improve the model. +So sticky note systems are not only more fluid, they generally produce way more nodes than static drawings. +The drawings are much richer. +And this brings us to our third part of the exercise, which is to draw how to make toast, but this time in a group. +So what happens then? +Well, here's what happens. +It starts out messy, and then it gets really messy, and then it gets messier, but as people refine the models, the best nodes become more prominent, and with each iteration, the model becomes clearer because people build on top of each other's ideas. +What emerges is a unified systems model that integrates the diversity of everyone's individual points of view, so that's a really different outcome from what usually happens in meetings, isn't it? +So these drawings can contain 20 or more nodes, but participants don't feel map shock because they participate in the building of their models themselves. +Now, what's also really interesting, that the groups spontaneously mix and add additional layers of organization to it. +To deal with contradictions, for example, they add branching patterns and parallel patterns. +Oh, and by the way, if they do it in complete silence, they do it much better and much more quickly. +Really interesting -- talking gets in the way. +So here's some key lessons that can emerge from this. +First, drawing helps us understand the situations as systems with nodes and their relationships. +Movable cards produce better systems models, because we iterate much more fluidly. +And then the group notes produce the most comprehensive models because we synthesize several points of view. +So that's interesting. +When people work together under the right circumstances, group models are much better than individual models. +So this approach works really great for drawing how to make toast, but what if you wanted to draw something more relevant or pressing, like your organizational vision, or customer experience, or long-term sustainability? +There's a visual revolution that's taking place as more organizations are addressing their wicked problems by collaboratively drawing them out. +And I'm convinced that those who see their world as movable nodes and links really have an edge. +And the practice is really pretty simple. +You start with a question, you collect the nodes, you refine the nodes, you do it over again, you refine and refine and refine, and the patterns emerge, and the group gets clarity and you answer the question. +So this simple act of visualizing and doing over and over again produces some really remarkable outcomes. +What's really important to know is that it's the conversations that are the important aspects, not just the models themselves. +And these visual frames of reference can grow to several hundreds or even thousands of nodes. +So, one example is from an organization called Rodale. +Big publishing company. +They lost a bunch of money one year, and their executive team for three days visualized their entire practice. +And what's interesting is that after visualizing the entire business, systems upon systems, they reclaimed 50 million dollars of revenue, and they also moved from a D rating to an A rating from their customers. +Why? Because there's alignment from the executive team. +So I'm now on a mission to help organizations solve their wicked problems by using collaborative visualization, and on a site that I've produced called drawtoast.com, I've collected a bunch of best practices. +and so you can learn how to run a workshop here, you can learn more about the visual language and the structure of links and nodes that you can apply to general problem-solving, and download examples of various templates for unpacking the thorny problems that we all face in our organizations. +So the seemingly trivial design exercise of drawing toast helps us get clear, engaged and aligned. +So next time you're confronted with an interesting challenge, remember what design has to teach us. +Make your ideas visible, tangible, and consequential. +It's simple, it's fun, it's powerful, and I believe it's an idea worth celebrating. +Thank you. +I'm an artist and I cut books. +This is one of my first book works. +It's called "Alternate Route to Knowledge." +I wanted to create a stack of books so that somebody could come into the gallery and think they're just looking at a regular stack of books, but then as they got closer they would see this rough hole carved into it, and wonder what was happening, wonder why, and think about the material of the book. +So I'm interested in the texture, but I'm more interested in the text and the images that we find within books. +I'm just carving around whatever I find interesting. +So everything you see within the finished piece is exactly where it was in the book before I began. +I think of my work as sort of a remix, in a way, because I'm working with somebody else's material in the same way that a D.J. might be working with somebody else's music. +This was a book of Raphael paintings, the Renaissance artist, and by taking his work and remixing it, carving into it, I'm sort of making it into something that's more new and more contemporary. +I'm thinking also about breaking out of the box of the traditional book and pushing that linear format, and try to push the structure of the book itself so that the book can become fully sculptural. +I'm using clamps and ropes and all sorts of materials, weights, in order to hold things in place before I varnish so that I can push the form before I begin, so that something like this can become a piece like this, which is just made from a single dictionary. +Or something like this can become a piece like this. +Or something like this, which who knows what that's going to be or why that's in my studio, will become a piece like this. +So books really are alive. +So I think of the book as a body, and I think of the book as a technology. +I think of the book as a tool. +And I also think of the book as a machine. +I also think of the book as a landscape. +This is a full set of encyclopedias that's been connected and sanded together, and as I carve through it, I'm deciding what I want to choose. +So with encyclopedias, I could have chosen anything, but I specifically chose images of landscapes. +And with the material itself, I'm using sandpaper and sanding the edges so not only the images suggest landscape, but the material itself suggests a landscape as well. +We're sort of creating images when we're reading text, and when we're looking at an image, we actually use language in order to understand what we're looking at. +So there's sort of a yin-yang that happens, sort of a flip flop. +So I'm creating a piece that the viewer is completing themselves. +And I think of my work as almost an archaeology. +I'm excavating and I'm trying to maximize the potential and discover as much as I possibly can and exposing it within my own work. +And I have several dictionaries in my own studio, and I do use a computer every day, and if I need to look up a word, I'll go on the computer, because I can go directly and instantly to what I'm looking up. +I think that the book was never really the right format for nonlinear information, which is why we're seeing reference books becoming the first to be endangered or extinct. +So I don't think that the book will ever really die. +People think that now that we have digital technology, the book is going to die, and we are seeing things shifting and things evolving. +I think that the book will evolve, and just like people said painting would die when photography and printmaking became everyday materials, but what it really allowed painting to do was it allowed painting to quit its day job. +It allowed painting to not have to have that everyday chore of telling the story, and painting became free and was allowed to tell its own story, and that's when we saw Modernism emerge, and we saw painting go into different branches. +And I think that's what's happening with books now, now that most of our technology, most of our information, most of our personal and cultural records are in digital form, I think it's really allowing the book to become something new. +So I think it's a very exciting time for an artist like me, and it's very exciting to see what will happen with the book in the future. +Thank you. +So infectious diseases, right? +Infectious diseases are still the main cause of human suffering and death around the world. +Every year, millions of people die of diseases such as T.B., malaria, HIV, around the world and even in the United States. +Every year, thousands of Americans die of seasonal flu. +Now of course, humans, we are creative. Right? +We have come up with ways to protect ourselves against these diseases. +We have drugs and vaccines. +And we're conscious -- we learn from our experiences and come up with creative solutions. +We used to think we're alone in this, but now we know we're not. +We're not the only medical doctors. +Now we know that there's a lot of animals out there that can do it too. +Most famous, perhaps, chimpanzees. +Not so much different from us, they can use plants to treat their intestinal parasites. +But the last few decades have shown us that other animals can do it too: elephants, porcupines, sheep, goats, you name it. +And even more interesting than that is that recent discoveries are telling us that insects and other little animals with smaller brains can use medication too. +The problem with infectious diseases, as we all know, is that pathogens continue to evolve, and a lot of the drugs that we have developed are losing their efficacy. +And therefore, there is this great need to find new ways to discover drugs that we can use against our diseases. +Now, I think that we should look at these animals, and we can learn from them how to treat our own diseases. +As a biologist, I have been studying monarch butterflies for the last 10 years. +Now, monarchs are extremely famous for their spectacular migrations from the U.S. and Canada down to Mexico every year, where millions of them come together, but it's not why I started studying them. +I study monarchs because they get sick. +They get sick like you. They get sick like me. +And I think what they do can tell us a lot about drugs that we can develop for humans. +Now, the parasites that monarchs get infected with are called ophryocystis elektroscirrha -- a mouthful. +What they do is they produce spores, millions of spores on the outside of the butterfly that are shown as little specks in between the scales of the butterfly. +And this is really detrimental to the monarch. +It shortens their lifespan, it reduces their ability to fly, it can even kill them before they're even adults. +Very detrimental parasite. +As part of my job, I spend a lot of time in the greenhouse growing plants, and the reason for this is that monarchs are extremely picky eaters. +They only eat milkweed as larvae. +Luckily, there are several species of milkweed that they can use, and all these milkweeds have cardenolides in them. +These are chemicals that are toxic. +They're toxic to most animals, but not to monarchs. +In fact, monarchs can take up the chemicals, put it in their own bodies, and it makes them toxic against their predators, such as birds. +And what they do, then, is advertise this toxicity through their beautiful warning colorations with this orange, black and white. +So what I did during my job is grow plants in the greenhouse, different ones, different milkweeds. +Some were toxic, including the tropical milkweed, with very high concentrations of these cardenolides. +And some were not toxic. +And then I fed them to monarchs. +Some of the monarchs were healthy. They had no disease. +But some of the monarchs were sick, and what I found is that some of these milkweeds are medicinal, meaning they reduce the disease symptoms in the monarch butterflies, meaning these monarchs can live longer when they are infected when feeding on these medicinal plants. +And when I found this, I had this idea, and a lot of people said it was a crazy idea, but I thought, what if monarchs can use this? +What if they can use these plants as their own form of medicine? +What if they can act as medical doctors? +So my team and I started doing experiments. +In the first types of experiments, we had caterpillars, and gave them a choice: medicinal milkweed versus non-medicinal milkweed. +And then we measured how much they ate of each species over their lifetime. +And the result, as so often in science, was boring: Fifty percent of their food was medicinal. Fifty percent was not. +These caterpillars didn't do anything for their own welfare. +So then we moved on to adult butterflies, and we started asking the question whether it's the mothers that can medicate their offspring. +Can the mothers lay their eggs on medicinal milkweed that will make their future offspring less sick? +We have done these experiments now over several years, and always get the same results. +What we do is we put a monarch in a big cage, a medicinal plant on one side, a non-medicinal plant on the other side, and then we measure the number of eggs that the monarchs lay on each plant. +And what we find when we do that is always the same. +What we find is that the monarchs strongly prefer the medicinal milkweed. +In other words, what these females are doing is they're laying 68 percent of their eggs in the medicinal milkweed. +Intriguingly, what they do is they actually transmit the parasites when they're laying the eggs. +They cannot prevent this. +They can also not medicate themselves. +But what these experiments tell us is that these monarchs, these mothers, can lay their eggs on medicinal milkweed that will make their future offspring less sick. +Now, this is a really important discovery, I think, not just because it tells us something cool about nature, but also because it may tell us something more about how we should find drugs. +Now, these are animals that are very small and we tend to think of them as very simple. +They have tiny little brains, yet they can do this very sophisticated medication. +Now, we know that even today, most of our drugs derive from natural products, including plants, and in indigenous cultures, traditional healers often look at animals to find new drugs. +In this way, elephants have told us how to treat stomach upset, and porcupines have told people how to treat bloody diarrhea. +What I think is important, though, is to move beyond these large-brained mammals and give these guys more credit, these simple animals, these insects that we tend to think of as very, very simple with tiny little brains. +The discovery that these animals can also use medication opens up completely new avenues, and I think that maybe one day, we will be treating human diseases with drugs that were first discovered by butterflies, and I think that is an amazing opportunity worth pursuing. +Thank you so much. +What's the fastest growing threat to Americans' health? +Cancer? Heart attacks? Diabetes? +The answer is actually none of these; it's Alzheimer's disease. +Every 67 seconds, someone in the United States is diagnosed with Alzheimer's. +As the number of Alzheimer's patients triples by the year 2050, caring for them, as well as the rest of the aging population, will become an overwhelming societal challenge. +My family has experienced firsthand the struggles of caring for an Alzheimer's patient. +Growing up in a family with three generations, I've always been very close to my grandfather. +When I was four years old, my grandfather and I were walking in a park in Japan when he suddenly got lost. +It was one of the scariest moments I've ever experienced in my life, and it was also the first instance that informed us that my grandfather had Alzheimer's disease. +Over the past 12 years, his condition got worse and worse, and his wandering in particular caused my family a lot of stress. +My aunt, his primary caregiver, really struggled to stay awake at night to keep an eye on him, and even then often failed to catch him leaving the bed. +I became really concerned about my aunt's well-being as well as my grandfather's safety. +I searched extensively for a solution that could help my family's problems, but couldn't find one. +Then, one night about two years ago, I was looking after my grandfather and I saw him stepping out of the bed. +The moment his foot landed on the floor, I thought, why don't I put a pressure sensor on the heel of his foot? +Once he stepped onto the floor and out of the bed, the pressure sensor would detect an increase in pressure caused by body weight and then wirelessly send an audible alert to the caregiver's smartphone. +That way, my aunt could sleep much better at night without having to worry about my grandfather's wandering. +So now I'd like to perform a demonstration of this sock. +Could I please have my sock model on the stage? +Great. +So once the patient steps onto the floor -- -- an alert is sent to the caregiver's smartphone. +Thank you. Thank you, sock model. +So this is a drawing of my preliminary design. +My desire to create a sensor-based technology perhaps stemmed from my lifelong love for sensors and technology. +When I was six years old, an elderly family friend fell down in the bathroom and suffered severe injuries. +I became concerned about my own grandparents and decided to invent a smart bathroom system. +Motion sensors would be installed inside the tiles of bathroom floors to detect the falls of elderly patients whenever they fell down in the bathroom. +Since I was only six years old at the time and I hadn't graduated from kindergarten yet, I didn't have the necessary resources and tools to translate my idea into reality, but nonetheless, my research experience really implanted in me a firm desire to use sensors to help the elderly people. +I really believe that sensors can improve the quality of life of the elderly. +When I laid out my plan, I realized that I faced three main challenges: first, creating a sensor; second, designing a circuit; and third, coding a smartphone app. +This made me realize that my project was actually much harder to realize than I initially had thought it to be. +First, I had to create a wearable sensor that was thin and flexible enough to be worn comfortably on the bottom of the patient's foot. +After extensive research and testing of different materials like rubber, which I realized was too thick to be worn snugly on the bottom of the foot, I decided to print a film sensor with electrically conductive pressure-sensitive ink particles. +Once pressure is applied, the connectivity between the particles increases. +Therefore, I could design a circuit that would measure pressure by measuring electrical resistance. +Next, I had to design a wearable wireless circuit, but wireless signal transmission consumes lots of power and requires heavy, bulky batteries. +Thankfully, I was able to find out about the Bluetooth low energy technology, which consumes very little power and can be driven by a coin-sized battery. +This prevented the system from dying in the middle of the night. +Lastly, I had to code a smartphone app that would essentially transform the care-giver's smartphone into a remote monitor. +For this, I had to expand upon my knowledge of coding with Java and XCode and I also had to learn about how to code for Bluetooth low energy devices by watching YouTube tutorials and reading various textbooks. +Integrating these components, I was able to successfully create two prototypes, one in which the sensor is embedded inside a sock, and another that's a re-attachable sensor assembly that can be adhered anywhere that makes contact with the bottom of the patient's foot. +I've tested the device on my grandfather for about a year now, and it's had a 100 percent success rate in detecting the over 900 known cases of his wandering. +Last summer, I was able to beta test my device at several residential care facilities in California, and I'm currently incorporating the feedback to further improve the device into a marketable product. +Testing the device on a number of patients made me realize that I needed to invent solutions for people who didn't want to wear socks to sleep at night. +So sensor data, collected on a vast number of patients, can be useful for improving patient care and also leading to a cure for the disease, possibly. +For example, I'm currently examining correlations between the frequency of a patient's nightly wandering and his or her daily activities and diet. +One thing I'll never forget is when my device first caught my grandfather's wandering out of bed at night. +At that moment, I was really struck by the power of technology to change lives for the better. +People living happily and healthfully -- that's the world that I imagine. +Thank you very much. +One of the first patients I had to see as a pediatrician was Sol, a beautiful month-old baby who was admitted with signs of a severe respiratory infection. +Until then, I had never seen a patient worsen so fast. +In just two days she was connected to a respirator and on the third day she died. +Sol had whooping cough. +After discussing the case in the room and after a quite distressing catharsis, I remember my chief resident said to me, "Okay, take a deep breath. Wash your face. +And now comes the hardest part: We have to go talk to her parents." +At that time, a thousand questions came to mind, from, "How could a one-month-old baby be so unfortunate?" +to, "Could we have done something about it?" +Before vaccines existed, many infectious diseases killed millions of people per year. +During the 1918 flu pandemic 50 million people died. +That's greater than Argentina's current population. +Perhaps, the older ones among you remember the polio epidemic that occurred in Argentina in 1956. +At that time, there was no vaccine available against polio. +People didn't know what to do. They were going crazy. +They would go painting trees with caustic lime. +They'd put little bags of camphor in their children's underwear, as if that could do something. +During the polio epidemic, thousands of people died. +And thousands of people were left with very significant neurological damage. +I know this because I read about it, because thanks to vaccines, my generation was lucky to not live through an epidemic as terrible as this. +Vaccines are one of the great successes of the 20th century's public health. +After potable water, they are the interventions that have most reduced mortality, even more than antibiotics. +Vaccines eradicated terrible diseases such as smallpox from the planet and succeeded in significantly reducing mortality due to other diseases such as measles, whooping cough, polio and many more. +All these diseases are considered vaccine-preventable diseases. +What does this mean? +That they are potentially preventable, but in order to be so, something must be done. +You need to get vaccinated. +I imagine that most, if not all of us here today, received a vaccine at some point in our life. +Now, I'm not so sure that many of us know which vaccines or boosters we should receive after adolescence. +Have you ever wondered who we are protecting when we vaccinate? +What do I mean by that? +Is there any other effect beyond protecting ourselves? +Let me show you something. +Imagine for a moment that we are in a city that has never had a case of a particular disease, such as the measles. +This would mean that no one in the city has ever had contact with the disease. +No one has natural defenses against, nor been vaccinated against measles. +If one day, a person sick with the measles appears in this city the disease won't find much resistance and will begin spreading from person to person, and in no time it will disseminate throughout the community. +After a certain time a big part of the population will be ill. +This happened when there were no vaccines. +Now, imagine the complete opposite case. +We are in a city where more than 90 percent of the population has defenses against the measles, which means that they either had the disease, survived, and developed natural defenses; or that they had been immunized against measles. +If one day, a person sick with the measles appears in this city, the disease will find much more resistance and won't be transmitted that much from person to person. +The spread will probably remain contained and a measles outbreak won't happen. +I would like you to pay attention to something. +People who are vaccinated are not only protecting themselves, but by blocking the dissemination of the disease within the community, they are indirectly protecting the people in this community who are not vaccinated. +They create a kind of protective shield which prevents them from coming in contact with the disease, so that these people are protected. +This indirect protection that the unvaccinated people within a community receive simply by being surrounded by vaccinated people, is called herd immunity. +Many people in the community depend almost exclusively on this herd immunity to be protected against disease. +The unvaccinated people you see in infographics are not just hypothetical. +Those people are our nieces and nephews, our children, who may be too young to receive their first shots. +They are our parents, our siblings, our acquaintances, who may have a disease, or take medication that lowers their defenses. +There are also people who are allergic to a particular vaccine. +They could even be among us, any of us who got vaccinated, but the vaccine didn't produce the expected effect, because not all vaccines are always 100 percent effective. +All these people depend almost exclusively on herd immunity to be protected against diseases. +To achieve this effect of herd immunity, it is necessary that a large percentage of the population be vaccinated. +This percentage is called the threshold. +The threshold depends on many variables: It depends on the germ's characteristics, and those of the immune response that the vaccine generates. +But they all have something in common. +If the percentage of the population in a vaccinated community is below this threshold number, the disease will begin to spread more freely and may generate an outbreak of this disease within the community. +Even diseases which were at some point controlled may reappear. +This is not just a theory. +This has happened, and is still happening. +In 1998, a British researcher published an article in one of the most important medical journals, saying that the MMR vaccine, which is given for measles, mumps and rubella, was associated with autism. +This generated an immediate impact. +People began to stop getting vaccinated, and stopped vaccinating their children. +And what happened? +The number of people vaccinated, in many communities around the world, fell below this threshold. +And there were outbreaks of measles in many cities in the world -- in the U.S., in Europe. +Many people got sick. +People died of measles. +What happened? +This article also generated a huge stir within the medical community. +Dozens of researchers began to assess if this was actually true. +Not only could no one find a causal association between MMR and autism at the population level, but it was also found that this article had incorrect claims. +Even more, it was fraudulent. +It was fraudulent. +In fact, the journal publicly retracted the article in 2010. +One of the main concerns and excuses for not getting vaccinated are the adverse effects. +Vaccines, like other drugs, can have potential adverse effects. +Most are mild and temporary. +But the benefits are always greater than possible complications. +When we are ill, we want to heal fast. +Many of us who are here take antibiotics when we have an infection, we take anti-hypertensives when we have high blood pressure, we take cardiac medications. +Why? Because we are sick and we want to heal fast. +And we don't question it much. +Why is it so difficult to think of preventing diseases, by taking care of ourselves when we are healthy? +We take care of ourselves a lot when affected by an illness, or in situations of imminent danger. +I imagine most of us here, remember the influenza-A pandemic which broke out in 2009 in Argentina and worldwide. +When the first cases began to come to light, we, here in Argentina, were entering the winter season. +We knew absolutely nothing. +Everything was a mess. +People wore masks on the street, ran into pharmacies to buy alcohol gel. +People would line up in pharmacies to get a vaccine, without even knowing if it was the right vaccine that would protect them against this new virus. +We knew absolutely nothing. +At that time, in addition to doing my fellowship at the Infant Foundation, I worked as a home pediatrician for a prepaid medicine company. +I remember that I started my shift at 8 a.m., and by 8, I already had a list of 50 scheduled visits. +It was chaos; people didn't know what to do. +I remember the types of patients that I was examining. +The patients were a little older than what we were used to seeing in winter, with longer fevers. +And I mentioned that to my fellowship mentor, and he, for his part, had heard the same from a colleague, about the large number of pregnant women and young adults being hospitalized in intensive care, with hard-to-manage clinical profiles. +At that time, we set out to understand what was happening. +First thing Monday morning, we took the car and went to a hospital in Buenos Aires Province, that served as a referral hospital for cases of the new influenza virus. +We arrived at the hospital; it was crowded. +All health staff were dressed in NASA-like bio-safety suits. +We all had face masks in our pockets. +I, being a hypochondriac, didn't breathe for two hours. +But we could see what was happening. +Immediately, we started reaching out to pediatricians from six hospitals in the city and in Buenos Aires Province. +Our main goal was to find out how this new virus behaved in contact with our children, in the shortest time possible. +A marathon work. +In less than three months, we could see what effect this new H1N1 virus had on the 251 children hospitalized by this virus. +We could see which children got more seriously ill: children under four, especially those less than one year old; patients with neurological diseases; and young children with chronic pulmonary diseases. +Identifying these at-risk groups was important to include them as priority groups in the recommendations for getting the influenza vaccine, not only here in Argentina, but also in other countries which the pandemic not yet reached. +A year later, when a vaccine against the pandemic H1N1 virus became available, we wanted to see what happened. +After a huge vaccination campaign aimed at protecting at-risk groups, these hospitals, with 93 percent of the at-risk groups vaccinated, had not hospitalized a single patient for the pandemic H1N1 virus. +In 2009: 251. +In 2010: zero. +Vaccination is an act of individual responsibility, but it has a huge collective impact. +If I get vaccinated, not only am I protecting myself, but I am also protecting others. +Sol had whooping cough. +Sol was very young, and she hadn't yet received her first vaccine against whooping cough. +I still wonder what would have happened if everyone around Sol had been vaccinated. +I grew up with my identical twin, who was an incredibly loving brother. +Now, one thing about being a twin is that it makes you an expert at spotting favoritism. +If his cookie was even slightly bigger than my cookie, I had questions. +And clearly, I wasn't starving. +When I became a psychologist, I began to notice favoritism of a different kind, and that is how much more we value the body than we do the mind. +I spent nine years at university earning my doctorate in psychology, and I can't tell you how many people look at my business card and say, "Oh, a psychologist. So not a real doctor," as if it should say that on my card. +This favoritism we show the body over the mind, I see it everywhere. +I recently was at a friend's house, and their five-year-old was getting ready for bed. +He was standing on a stool by the sink brushing his teeth, when he slipped, and scratched his leg on the stool when he fell. +He cried for a minute, but then he got back up, got back on the stool, and reached out for a box of Band-Aids to put one on his cut. +Now, this kid could barely tie his shoelaces, but he knew you have to cover a cut, so it doesn't become infected, and you have to care for your teeth by brushing twice a day. +We all know how to maintain our physical health and how to practice dental hygiene, right? +We've known it since we were five years old. +But what do we know about maintaining our psychological health? +Well, nothing. +What do we teach our children about emotional hygiene? +Nothing. +How is it that we spend more time taking care of our teeth than we do our minds. +Why is it that our physical health is so much more important to us than our psychological health? +We sustain psychological injuries even more often than we do physical ones, injuries like failure or rejection or loneliness. +And they can also get worse if we ignore them, and they can impact our lives in dramatic ways. +And yet, even though there are scientifically proven techniques we could use to treat these kinds of psychological injuries, we don't. +It doesn't even occur to us that we should. +"Oh, you're feeling depressed? Just shake it off; it's all in your head." +Can you imagine saying that to somebody with a broken leg: "Oh, just walk it off; it's all in your leg." +It is time we closed the gap between our physical and our psychological health. +It's time we made them more equal, more like twins. +Speaking of which, my brother is also a psychologist. +So he's not a real doctor, either. +We didn't study together, though. +In fact, the hardest thing I've ever done in my life is move across the Atlantic to New York City to get my doctorate in psychology. +We were apart then for the first time in our lives, and the separation was brutal for both of us. +But while he remained among family and friends, I was alone in a new country. +We missed each other terribly, but international phone calls were really expensive then and we could only afford to speak for five minutes a week. +When our birthday rolled around, it was the first we wouldn't be spending together. +We decide to splurge, and that week we would talk for 10 minutes. +I spent the morning pacing around my room, waiting for him to call -- and waiting and waiting, but the phone didn't ring. +Given the time difference, I assumed, "Ok, he's out with friends, he will call later." +There were no cell phones then. +But he didn't. +And I began to realize that after being away for over 10 months, he no longer missed me the way I missed him. +I knew he would call in the morning, but that night was one of the saddest and longest nights of my life. +I woke up the next morning. +I glanced down at the phone, and I realized I had kicked it off the hook when pacing the day before. +I stumbled out off bed, I put the phone back on the receiver, and it rang a second later, and it was my brother, and, boy, was he pissed. +It was the saddest and longest night of his life as well. +Now I tried to explain what happened, but he said, "I don't understand. If you saw I wasn't calling you, why didn't you just pick up the phone and call me?" +He was right. Why didn't I call him? +I didn't have an answer then, but I do today, and it's a simple one: loneliness. +Loneliness creates a deep psychological wound, one that distorts our perceptions and scrambles our thinking. +It makes us believe that those around us care much less than they actually do. +It make us really afraid to reach out, because why set yourself up for rejection and heartache when your heart is already aching more than you can stand? +I was in the grips of real loneliness back then, but I was surrounded by people all day, so it never occurred to me. +But loneliness is defined purely subjectively. +It depends solely on whether you feel emotionally or socially disconnected from those around you. +And I did. +There is a lot of research on loneliness, and all of it is horrifying. +Loneliness won't just make you miserable, it will kill you. +I'm not kidding. +Chronic loneliness increases your likelihood of an early death by 14 percent. +Loneliness causes high blood pressure, high cholesterol. +It even suppress the functioning of your immune system, making you vulnerable to all kinds of illnesses and diseases. +In fact, scientists have concluded that taken together, chronic loneliness poses as significant a risk for your longterm health and longevity as cigarette smoking. +Now cigarette packs come with warnings saying, "This could kill you." +But loneliness doesn't. +And that's why it's so important that we prioritize our psychological health, that we practice emotional hygiene. +Because you can't treat a psychological wound if you don't even know you're injured. +Loneliness isn't the only psychological wound that distorts our perceptions and misleads us. +Failure does that as well. +I once visited a day care center, where I saw three toddlers play with identical plastic toys. +You had to slide the red button, and a cute doggie would pop out. +One little girl tried pulling the purple button, then pushing it, and then she just sat back and looked at the box, with her lower lip trembling. +The little boy next to her watched this happen, then turned to his box and and burst into tears without even touching it. +Meanwhile, another little girl tried everything she could think of until she slid the red button, the cute doggie popped out, and she squealed with delight. +So three toddlers with identical plastic toys, but with very different reactions to failure. +The first two toddlers were perfectly capable of sliding a red button. +The only thing that prevented them from succeeding was that their mind tricked them into believing they could not. +Now, adults get tricked this way as well, all the time. +In fact, we all have a default set of feelings and beliefs that gets triggered whenever we encounter frustrations and setbacks. +Are you aware of how your mind reacts to failure? +You need to be. +Because if your mind tries to convince you you're incapable of something and you believe it, then like those two toddlers, you'll begin to feel helpless and you'll stop trying too soon, or you won't even try at all. +And then you'll be even more convinced you can't succeed. +You see, that's why so many people function below their actual potential. +Because somewhere along the way, sometimes a single failure convinced them that they couldn't succeed, and they believed it. +Once we become convinced of something, it's very difficult to change our mind. +I learned that lesson the hard way when I was a teenager with my brother. +We were driving with friends down a dark road at night, when a police car stopped us. +There had been a robbery in the area and they were looking for suspects. +The officer approached the car, and he shined his flashlight on the driver, then on my brother in the front seat, and then on me. +And his eyes opened wide and he said, "Where have I seen your face before?" +And I said, "In the front seat." +But that made no sense to him whatsoever. +So now he thought I was on drugs. +So he drags me out of the car, he searches me, he marches me over to the police car, and only when he verified I didn't have a police record, could I show him I had a twin in the front seat. +But even as we were driving away, you could see by the look on his face he was convinced that I was getting away with something. +Our mind is hard to change once we become convinced. +So it might be very natural to feel demoralized and defeated after you fail. +But you cannot allow yourself to become convinced you can't succeed. +You have to fight feelings of helplessness. +You have to gain control over the situation. +And you have to break this kind of negative cycle before it begins. +Our minds and our feelings, they're not the trustworthy friends we thought they were. +They are more like a really moody friend, who can be totally supportive one minute, and really unpleasant the next. +I once worked with this woman who after 20 years marriage and an extremely ugly divorce, was finally ready for her first date. +She had met this guy online, and he seemed nice and he seemed successful, and most importantly, he seemed really into her. +So she was very excited, she bought a new dress, and they met at an upscale New York City bar for a drink. +Ten minutes into the date, the man stands up and says, "I'm not interested," and walks out. +Rejection is extremely painful. +The woman was so hurt she couldn't move. All she could do was call a friend. +Here's what the friend said: "Well, what do you expect? +You have big hips, you have nothing interesting to say, why would a handsome, successful man like that ever go out with a loser like you?" +Shocking, right, that a friend could be so cruel? +But it would be much less shocking if I told you it wasn't the friend who said that. +It's what the woman said to herself. +And that's something we all do, especially after a rejection. +We all start thinking of all our faults and all our shortcomings, what we wish we were, what we wish we weren't, we call ourselves names. +Maybe not as harshly, but we all do it. +And it's interesting that we do, because our self-esteem is already hurting. +Why would we want to go and damage it even further? +We wouldn't make a physical injury worse on purpose. +You wouldn't get a cut on your arm and decide, "Oh, I know! +I'm going to take a knife and see how much deeper I can make it." +But we do that with psychological injuries all the time. +Why? Because of poor emotional hygiene. +Because we don't prioritize our psychological health. +We know from dozens of studies that when your self-esteem is lower, you are more vulnerable to stress and to anxiety, that failures and rejections hurt more and it takes longer to recover from them. +So when you get rejected, the first thing you should be doing is to revive your self-esteem, not join Fight Club and beat it into a pulp. +When you're in emotional pain, treat yourself with the same compassion you would expect from a truly good friend. +We have to catch our unhealthy psychological habits and change them. +One of unhealthiest and most common is called rumination. +To ruminate means to chew over. +It's when your boss yells at you, or your professor makes you feel stupid in class, or you have big fight with a friend and you just can't stop replaying the scene in your head for days, sometimes for weeks on end. +Ruminating about upsetting events in this way can easily become a habit, and it's a very costly one. +Because by spending so much time focused on upsetting and negative thoughts, you are actually putting yourself at significant risk for developing clinical depression, alcoholism, eating disorders, and even cardiovascular disease. +The problem is the urge to ruminate can feel really strong and really important, so it's a difficult habit to stop. +I know this for a fact, because a little over a year ago, I developed the habit myself. +You see, my twin brother was diagnosed with stage III non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. +His cancer was extremly aggressive. +He had visible tumors all over his body. +And he had to start a harsh course of chemotherapy. +And I couldn't stop thinking about what he was going through. +I couldn't stop thinking about how much he was suffering, even though he never complained, not once. +He had this incredibly positive attitude. +His psychological health was amazing. +I was physically healthy, but psychologically I was a mess. +But I knew what to do. +Studies tell us that even a two-minute distraction is sufficient to break the urge to ruminate in that moment. +And so each time I had a worrying, upsetting, negative thought, I forced myself to concentrate on something else until the urge passed. +And within one week, my whole outlook changed and became more positive and more hopeful. +Nine weeks after he started chemotherapy, my brother had a CAT scan, and I was by his side when he got the results. +All the tumors were gone. +He still had three more rounds of chemotherapy to go, but we knew he would recover. +This picture was taken two weeks ago. +By taking action when you're lonely, by changing your responses to failure, by protecting your self-esteem, by battling negative thinking, you won't just heal your psychological wounds, you will build emotional resilience, you will thrive. +A hundred years ago, people began practicing personal hygiene, and life expectancy rates rose by over 50 percent in just a matter of decades. +I believe our quality of life could rise just as dramatically if we all began practicing emotional hygiene. +Can you imagine what the world would be like if everyone was psychologically healthier? +If there were less loneliness and less depression? +If people knew how to overcome failure? +If they felt better about themselves and more empowered? +If they were happier and more fulfilled? +I can, because that's the world I want to live in, and that's the world my brother wants to live in as well. +And if you just become informed and change a few simple habits, well, that's the world we can all live in. +Thank you very much. +As an Arab female photographer, I have always found ample inspiration for my projects in personal experiences. +The passion I developed for knowledge, which allowed me to break barriers towards a better life was the motivation for my project I Read I Write. +Pushed by my own experience, as I was not allowed initially to pursue my higher education, I decided to explore and document stories of other women who changed their lives through education, while exposing and questioning the barriers they face. +I covered a range of topics that concern women's education, keeping in mind the differences among Arab countries due to economic and social factors. +These issues include female illiteracy, which is quite high in the region; educational reforms; programs for dropout students; and political activism among university students. +As I started this work, it was not always easy to convince the women to participate. +Only after explaining to them how their stories might influence other women's lives, how they would become role models for their own community, did some agree. +Seeking a collaborative and reflexive approach, I asked them to write their own words and ideas on prints of their own images. +Those images were then shared in some of the classrooms, and worked to inspire and motivate other women going through similar educations and situations. +Aisha, a teacher from Yemen, wrote, "I sought education in order to be independent and to not count on men with everything." +One of my first subjects was Umm El-Saad from Egypt. +When we first met, she was barely able to write her name. +She was attending a nine-month literacy program run by a local NGO in the Cairo suburbs. +Months later, she was joking that her husband had threatened to pull her out of the classes, as he found out that his now literate wife was going through his phone text messages. +Naughty Umm El-Saad. +Of course, that's not why Umm El-Saad joined the program. +I saw how she was longing to gain control over her simple daily routines, small details that we take for granted, from counting money at the market to helping her kids in homework. +Despite her poverty and her community's mindset, which belittles women's education, Umm El-Saad, along with her Egyptian classmates, was eager to learn how to read and write. +In Tunisia, I met Asma, one of the four activist women I interviewed. +The secular bioengineering student is quite active on social media. +Regarding her country, which treasured what has been called the Arab Spring, she said, "I've always dreamt of discovering a new bacteria. +Now, after the revolution, we have a new one every single day." +Asma was referring to the rise of religious fundamentalism in the region, which is another obstacle to women in particular. +Out of all the women I met, Fayza from Yemen affected me the most. +Fayza was forced to drop out of school at the age of eight when she was married. +That marriage lasted for a year. +At 14, she became the third wife of a 60-year-old man, and by the time she was 18, she was a divorced mother of three. +Despite her poverty, despite her social status as a divorce in an ultra-conservative society, and despite the opposition of her parents to her going back to school, Fayza knew that her only way to control her life was through education. +She is now 26. +She received a grant from a local NGO to fund her business studies at the university. +Her goal is to find a job, rent a place to live in, and bring her kids back with her. +The Arab states are going through tremendous change, and the struggles women face are overwhelming. +Just like the women I photographed, I had to overcome many barriers to becoming the photographer I am today, many people along the way telling me what I can and cannot do. +Umm El-Saad, Asma and Fayza, and many women across the Arab world, show that it is possible to overcome barriers to education, which they know is the best means to a better future. +And here I would like to end with a quote by Yasmine, one of the four activist women I interviewed in Tunisia. +Yasmine wrote, "Question your convictions. +Be who you to want to be, not who they want you to be. +Don't accept their enslavement, for your mother birthed you free." +Thank you. +I am multidisciplinary. +As a scientist, I've been a crew commander for a NASA Mars simulation last year, and as an artist, I create multicultural community art all over the planet. +And recently, I've actually been combining both. +But let me first talk a little more about that NASA mission. +This is the HI-SEAS program. +HI-SEAS is a NASA-funded planetary surface analogue on the Mauna Loa volcano in Hawaii, and it's a research program that is specifically designed to study the effects of long-term isolation of small crews. +I lived in this dome for four months with a crew of six, a very interesting experience, of course. +We did all kinds of research. +Our main research was actually a food study, but apart from that food study -- developing a new food system for astronauts living in deep space -- we also did all kinds of other research. +We did extra-vehicular activities, as you can see here, wearing mock-up space suits, but we also had our chores and lots of other stuff to do, like questionnaires at the end of every day. +Busy, busy work. +Now, as you can imagine, it's quite challenging to live with just a small group of people in a small space for a long time. +There's all kinds of psychological challenges: how to keep a team together in these circumstances; how to deal with the warping of time you start to sense when you're living in these circumstances; sleep problems that arise; etc. +But also we learned a lot. +I learned a lot about how individual crew members actually cope with a situation like this; how you can keep a crew productive and happy, for example, giving them a good deal of autonomy is a good trick to do that; and honestly, I learned a lot about leadership, because I was a crew commander. +So doing this mission, I really started thinking more deeply about our future in outer space. +We will venture into outer space, and we will start inhabiting outer space. +I have no doubt about it. +It might take 50 years or it might take 500 years, but it's going to happen nevertheless. +So I came up with a new art project called Seeker. +And the Seeker project is actually challenging communities all over the world to come up with starship prototypes that re-envision human habitation and survival. +That's the core of the project. +Now, one important thing: This is not a dystopian project. +This is not about, "Oh my God, the world is going wrong and we have to escape because we need another future somewhere else." +No, no. +The project is basically inviting people to take a step away from earthbound constraints and, as such, reimagine our future. +And it's really helpful, and it works really well, so that's really the important part of what we're doing. +Now, in this project, I'm using a cocreation approach, which is a slightly different approach from what you would expect from many artists. +I'm essentially dropping a basic idea into a group, into a community, people start gravitating to the idea, and together, we shape and build the artwork. +It's a little bit like termites, really. +We just work together, and even, for example, when architects visit what we're doing, sometimes they have a bit of a hard time understanding how we build without a master plan. +We always come up with these fantastic large-scale scupltures that actually we can also inhabit. +The first version was done in Belgium and Holland. +It was built with a team of almost 50 people. +This is the second iteration of that same project, but in Slovenia, in a different country, and the new group was like, we're going to do the architecture differently. +So they took away the architecture, they kept the base of the artwork, and they built an entirely new, much more biomorphic architecture on top of that. +And that's another crucial part of the project. +It's an evolving artwork, evolving architecture. +This was the last version that was just presented a few weeks ago in Holland, which was using caravans as modules to build a starship. +We bought some second-hand caravans, cut them open, and reassembled them into a starship. +Now, when we're thinking about starships, we're not just approaching it as a technological challenge. +We're really looking at it as a combination of three systems: ecology, people and technology. +So there's always a strong ecological component in the project. +Here you can see aquaponic systems that are actually surrounding the astronauts, so they're constantly in contact with part of the food that they're eating. +Now, a very typical thing for this project is that we run our own isolation missions inside these art and design projects. +We actually lock ourselves up for multiple days on end, and test what we build. +And this is, for example, on the right hand side you can see an isolation mission in the Museum of Modern Art in Ljubljana in Slovenia, where six artists and designers locked themselves up -- I was part of that -- for four days inside the museum. +And, of course, obviously, this is a very performative and very strong experience for all of us. +Now, the next version of the project is currently being developed together with Camilo Rodriguez-Beltran, who is also a TED Fellow, in the Atacama Desert in Chile, a magical place. +First of all, it's really considered a Mars analogue. +It really does look like Mars in certain locations and has been used by NASA to test equipment. +And it has a long history of being connected to space through observations of the stars. +It's now home to ALMA, the large telescope that's being developed there. +But also, it's the driest location on the planet, and that makes it extremely interesting to build our project, because suddenly, sustainability is something we have to explore fully. +We have no other option, so I'm very curious to see what's going to happen. +Now, a specific thing for this particular version of the project is that I'm very interested to see how we can connect with the local population, the native population. +These people have been living there for a very long time and can be considered experts in sustainability, and so I'm very interested to see what we can learn from them, and have an input of indigenous knowledge into space exploration. +So we're trying to redefine how we look at our future in outer space by exploring integration, biology, technology and people; by using a cocreation approach; and by using and exploring local traditions and to see how we can learn from the past and integrate that into our deep future. +Thank you. +An 18-year-old, African-American male joined the United States Air Force and was assigned to Mountain Home Air Force Base and was a part of the air police squadron. +Upon first arriving there, the first goal that I had was for me to identify an apartment, so I could bring my wife and my new baby, Melanie, out to join me in Idaho. +I immediately went to the personnel office, and talking with the guys in personnel, they said, "Hey, no problem finding an apartment in Mountain Home, Idaho. +The people down there love us because they know if they have an airman who is coming in to rent one of their apartments, they'll always get their money." +And that was a really important thing. +He said, "So here is a list of people that you can call, and then they will then allow you to select the apartment that you want." +So I got the list; I made the call. +The lady answered on the other end and I told her what I wanted. +She said, "Oh, great you called. +We have four or five apartments available right now." +She said, "Do you want a one-bedroom or two-bedroom?" +Then she said, "Let's not talk about that. +Just come on down, select the apartment that you want. +We'll sign the contract and you'll have keys in your hand to get your family out here right away." +So I was excited. +I jumped in my car. I went downtown and knocked on the door. +When I knocked on the door, the woman came to the door, and she looked at me, and she said, "Can I help you?" +I said, "Yes, I'm the person who called about the apartments. +I was just coming down to make my selection." +She said, "You know what? I'm really sorry, but my husband rented those apartments and didn't tell me about them." +I said, "You mean he rented all five of them in one hour?" +She didn't give me a response, and what she said was this: She said, "Why don't you leave your number, and if we have some openings, I'll give you a call?" +Needless to say, I did not get a call from her. +Nor did I get any responses from the other people that they gave me on the list where I could get apartments. +So as a result of that, and feeling rejected, I went back to the base, and I talked to the squadron commander. +His name was McDow, Major McDow. +I said, "Major McDow, I need your help." +I told him what happened, and here's what he said to me: He said, "James, I would love to help you. +But you know the problem: We can't make people rent to folks that they don't want to rent to. +And besides, we have a great relationship with people in the community and we really don't want to damage that." +He said, "So maybe this is what you should do. +Why don't you let your family stay home, because you do know that you get a 30-day leave. +So once a year, you can go home to your family, spend 30 days and then come on back." +Needless to say, that didn't resonate for me. +So after leaving him, I went back to personnel, and talking to the clerk, he said, "Jim, I think I have a solution for you. +There's an airman who is leaving and he has a trailer. +If you noticed, in Mountain Home, there are trailer parks and trailers all over the place. +You can buy his trailer, and you'd probably get a really good deal because he wants to get out of town as soon as possible. +And that would take care of your problem, and that would provide the solution for you." +So I immediately jumped in my car, went downtown, saw the trailer -- it was a small trailer, but under the circumstances, I figured that was the best thing that I could do. +So I bought the trailer. +And then I asked him, "Can I just leave the trailer here, and that would take care of all my problems, I wouldn't have to find another trailer park?" +He said, "Before I say yes to that, I need to check with management." +So I get back to the base, he called me back and management said, "No, you can't leave the trailer here because we had promised that slot to some other people." +And that was strange to me because there were several other slots that were open, but it just so happened that he had promised that slot to someone else. +So, what I did -- and he said, "You shouldn't worry, Jim, because there are a lot of trailer parks." +So I put out another exhaustive list of going to trailer parks. +I went to one after another, after another. +And I got the same kind of rejection there that I received when I was looking for the apartment. +And as a result, the kind of comments that they made to me, in addition to saying that they didn't have any slots open, one person said, "Jim, the reason why we can't rent to you, we already have a Negro family in the trailer park." +He said, "And it's not me, because I like you people." +And that's what I did, too. I chuckled, too. +He said, "But here's the problem: If I let you in, the other tenants will move out and I can't afford to take that kind of a hit." +He said, "I just can't rent to you." +Even though that was discouraging, it didn't stop me. +I kept looking, and I looked at the far end of the town in Mountain Home, and there was a small trailer park. +I mean, a really small trailer park. +It didn't have any paved roads in it, it didn't have the concrete slabs, it didn't have fencing to portion off your trailer slot from other trailer slots. +It didn't have a laundry facility. +But the conclusion I reached at that moment was that I didn't have a lot of other options. +So I called my wife, and I said, "We're going to make this one work." +And we moved into it and we became homeowners in Mountain Home, Idaho. +And of course, eventually things settled down. +Four years after that, I received papers to move from Mountain Home, Idaho to a place called Goose Bay, Labrador. +We won't even talk about that. It was another great location. So my challenge then was to get my family from Mountain Home, Idaho to Sharon, Pennsylvania. +That wasn't a problem because we had just purchased a brand-new automobile. +My mother called and said she'll fly out. +She'll be with us as we drive, she'll help us manage the children. +So she came out, her and Alice put a lot of food together for the trip. +That morning, we left at about 5 a.m. +Great trip, having a great time, good conversation. +Somewhere around 6:30, 7 o'clock, we got a little bit tired, and we said, "Why don't we get a motel so that we can rest and then have an early start in the morning?" +So we were looking at a number of the motels as we drove down the road, and we saw one, it was a great big, bright flashing light that said, "Vacancies, Vacancies, Vacanies." +So we stopped in. +They were in the parking lot, I went inside. +When I walked inside, the lady was just finishing up one contract with some folks, some other people were coming in behind me. +And so I walked to the counter, and she said, "How can I help you?" +I said, "I would like to get a motel for the evening for my family." +She said, "You know, I'm really sorry, I just rented the last one. +We will not have any more until the morning." +She said, "But if you go down the road about an hour, 45 minutes, there's another trailer park down there." +I said, "Yeah, but you still have the 'Vacancies' light on, and it's flashing." +She said, "Oh, I forgot." +And she reached over and turned the light off. +She looked at me and I looked at her. +There were other people in the room. +She kind of looked at them. No one said anything. +So I just got the hint and I left, and went outside to the parking lot. +And I told my mother and I told my wife and also Melanie, and I said, "It looks like we're going to have to drive a little bit further down the road to be able to sleep tonight." +And we did drive down the road, but just before we took off and pulled out of the parking lot, guess what happened? +The light came back on. +And it said, "Vacancies, Vacancies, Vacancies." +We were able to find a nice place. +It wasn't our preference, but it was secure and it was clean. +And so we had a great sleep that night. +The piece that's important about that is that we had similar kinds of experiences from Idaho all the way through to Pennsylvania, where we were rejected from hotels, motels and restaurants. +But we made it to Pennsylvania. +We got the family settled. Everyone was glad to see the kids. +I jumped on a plane and shot off to Goose Bay, Labrador, which is another story, right? +Here it is, 53 years later, I now have nine grandchildren, two great-grandchildren. +Five of the grandchildren are boys. +I have master's, Ph.D., undergrad, one in medical school. +I have a couple that are trending. +They're almost there but not quite. I have one who has been in college now for eight years. +He doesn't have a degree yet, but he wants to be a comedian. +So we're just trying to get him to stay in school. +Because you never know, just because you're funny at home, does not make you a comedian, right? +But the thing about it, they're all good kids -- no drugs, no babies in high school, no crime. +So with that being the backdrop, I was sitting in my TV room watching TV, and they were talking about Ferguson and all the hullabaloo that was going on. +And all of a sudden, one of the news commentators got on the air and she said, "In the last three months, eight unarmed African-American males have been killed by police, white homeowners, or white citizens." +For some reason, at that moment it just all hit me. +I said, "What is it? It is so insane. +What is the hatred that's causing people to do these kinds of things?" +Just then, one of my grandsons called. +He said, "Granddad, did you hear what they said on TV?" +I said, "Yes, I did." +He said, "I'm just so confused. +We do everything we do, but it seems that driving while black, walking while black, talking while black, it's just dangerous. +What can we do? We do everything that you told us to do. +When stopped by the police, we place both hands on the steering wheel at the 12 o'clock position. +After it's over, call us and we'll be the ones to challenge." +He said, "And this is the piece that really bugs me: Our white friends, our buddies, we kind of hang together. +When they hear about these kinds of things happening to us, they say, 'Why do you take it? +You need to push back. You need to challenge. +You need to ask them for their identification.'" And here's what the boys have been taught to tell them: "We know that you can do that, but please do not do that while we're in the car because the consequences for you are significantly different than the consequences for us." +And so as a grandparent, what do I tell my grandsons? +How do I keep them safe? How do I keep them alive? +As a result of this, people have come to me and said, "Jim, are you angry?" +And my response to that is this: "I don't have the luxury of being angry, and I also know the consequences of being enraged." +So therefore, the only thing that I can do is take my collective intellect and my energy and my ideas and my experiences and dedicate myself to challenge, at any point in time, anything that looks like it might be racist. +So the first thing I have to do is to educate, the second thing I have to do is to unveil racism, and the last thing I need to do is do everything within my power to eradicate racism in my lifetime by any means necessary. +The second thing I do is this: I want to appeal to Americans. +I want to appeal to their humanity, to their dignity, to their civic pride and ownership to be able to not react to these heinous crimes in an adverse manner. +We have to challenge that. It doesn't make any sense. +The only way I think we can do that is through a collective. +We need to have black and white and Asian and Hispanic just to step forward and say, "We are not going to accept that kind of behavior anymore." +Six thousand miles of road, 600 miles of subway track, 400 miles of bike lanes and a half a mile of tram track, if you've ever been to Roosevelt Island. +These are the numbers that make up the infrastructure of New York City. +These are the statistics of our infrastructure. +They're the kind of numbers you can find released in reports by city agencies. +For example, the Department of Transportation will probably tell you how many miles of road they maintain. +The MTA will boast how many miles of subway track there are. +Most city agencies give us statistics. +This is from a report this year from the Taxi and Limousine Commission, where we learn that there's about 13,500 taxis here in New York City. +Pretty interesting, right? +But did you ever think about where these numbers came from? +Because for these numbers to exist, someone at the city agency had to stop and say, hmm, here's a number that somebody might want want to know. +Here's a number that our citizens want to know. +So they go back to their raw data, they count, they add, they calculate, and then they put out reports, and those reports will have numbers like this. +The problem is, how do they know all of our questions? +We have lots of questions. +In fact, in some ways there's literally an infinite number of questions that we can ask about our city. +The agencies can never keep up. +So the paradigm isn't exactly working, and I think our policymakers realize that, because in 2012, Mayor Bloomberg signed into law what he called the most ambitious and comprehensive open data legislation in the country. +In a lot of ways, he's right. +In the last two years, the city has released 1,000 datasets on our open data portal, and it's pretty awesome. +So you go and look at data like this, and instead of just counting the number of cabs, we can start to ask different questions. +So I had a question. +When's rush hour in New York City? +It can be pretty bothersome. When is rush hour exactly? +And I thought to myself, these cabs aren't just numbers, these are GPS recorders driving around in our city streets recording each and every ride they take. +There's data there, and I looked at that data, and I made a plot of the average speed of taxis in New York City throughout the day. +You can see that from about midnight to around 5:18 in the morning, speed increases, and at that point, things turn around, and they get slower and slower and slower until about 8:35 in the morning, when they end up at around 11 and a half miles per hour. +The average taxi is going 11 and a half miles per hour on our city streets, and it turns out it stays that way for the entire day. +So I said to myself, I guess there's no rush hour in New York City. +There's just a rush day. +Makes sense. And this is important for a couple of reasons. +If you're a transportation planner, this might be pretty interesting to know. +But if you want to get somewhere quickly, you now know to set your alarm for 4:45 in the morning and you're all set. +New York, right? +But there's a story behind this data. +This data wasn't just available, it turns out. +It actually came from something called a Freedom of Information Law Request, or a FOIL Request. +This is a form you can find on the Taxi and Limousine Commission website. +In order to access this data, you need to go get this form, fill it out, and they will notify you, and a guy named Chris Whong did exactly that. +Chris went down, and they told him, "Just bring a brand new hard drive down to our office, leave it here for five hours, we'll copy the data and you take it back." +And that's where this data came from. +Now, Chris is the kind of guy who wants to make the data public, and so it ended up online for all to use, and that's where this graph came from. +And the fact that it exists is amazing. These GPS recorders -- really cool. +But the fact that we have citizens walking around with hard drives picking up data from city agencies to make it public -- it was already kind of public, you could get to it, but it was "public," it wasn't public. +And we can do better than that as a city. +We don't need our citizens walking around with hard drives. +Now, not every dataset is behind a FOIL Request. +Here is a map I made with the most dangerous intersections in New York City based on cyclist accidents. +So the red areas are more dangerous. +And what it shows is first the East side of Manhattan, especially in the lower area of Manhattan, has more cyclist accidents. +That might make sense because there are more cyclists coming off the bridges there. +But there's other hotspots worth studying. +There's Williamsburg. There's Roosevelt Avenue in Queens. +And this is exactly the kind of data we need for Vision Zero. +This is exactly what we're looking for. +But there's a story behind this data as well. +This data didn't just appear. +How many of you guys know this logo? +Yeah, I see some shakes. +Have you ever tried to copy and paste data out of a PDF and make sense of it? +I see more shakes. +More of you tried copying and pasting than knew the logo. I like that. +So what happened is, the data that you just saw was actually on a PDF. +In fact, hundreds and hundreds and hundreds of pages of PDF put out by our very own NYPD, and in order to access it, you would either have to copy and paste for hundreds and hundreds of hours, or you could be John Krauss. +John Krauss was like, I'm not going to copy and paste this data. I'm going to write a program. +It's called the NYPD Crash Data Band-Aid, and it goes to the NYPD's website and it would download PDFs. +Every day it would search; if it found a PDF, it would download it and then it would run some PDF-scraping program, and out would come the text, and it would go on the Internet, and then people could make maps like that. +And the fact that the data's here, the fact that we have access to it -- Every accident, by the way, is a row in this table. +You can imagine how many PDFs that is. +The fact that we have access to that is great, but let's not release it in PDF form, because then we're having our citizens write PDF scrapers. +It's not the best use of our citizens' time, and we as a city can do better than that. +Now, the good news is that the de Blasio administration actually recently released this data a few months ago, and so now we can actually have access to it, but there's a lot of data still entombed in PDF. +For example, our crime data is still only available in PDF. +And not just our crime data, our own city budget. +Our city budget is only readable right now in PDF form. +And it's not just us that can't analyze it -- our own legislators who vote for the budget also only get it in PDF. +So our legislators cannot analyze the budget that they are voting for. +And I think as a city we can do a little better than that as well. +Now, there's a lot of data that's not hidden in PDFs. +This is an example of a map I made, and this is the dirtiest waterways in New York City. +Now, how do I measure dirty? +Well, it's kind of a little weird, but I looked at the level of fecal coliform, which is a measurement of fecal matter in each of our waterways. +The larger the circle, the dirtier the water, so the large circles are dirty water, the small circles are cleaner. +What you see is inland waterways. +This is all data that was sampled by the city over the last five years. +And inland waterways are, in general, dirtier. +That makes sense, right? And the bigger circles are dirty. And I learned a few things from this. +Number one: Never swim in anything that ends in "creek" or "canal." +But number two: I also found the dirtiest waterway in New York City, by this measure, one measure. +In Coney Island Creek, which is not the Coney Island you swim in, luckily. +It's on the other side. +But Coney Island Creek, 94 percent of samples taken over the last five years have had fecal levels so high that it would be against state law to swim in the water. +And this is not the kind of fact that you're going to see boasted in a city report, right? +It's not going to be the front page on nyc.gov. +but the fact that we can get to that data is awesome. +But once again, it wasn't super easy, because this data was not on the open data portal. +If you were to go to the open data portal, you'd see just a snippet of it, a year or a few months. +It was actually on the Department of Environmental Protection's website. +And each one of these links is an Excel sheet, and each Excel sheet is different. +Every heading is different: you copy, paste, reorganize. +When you do you can make maps and that's great, but once again, we can do better than that as a city, we can normalize things. +And we're getting there, because there's this website that Socrata makes called the Open Data Portal NYC. +This is where 1,100 data sets that don't suffer from the things I just told you live, and that number is growing, and that's great. +You can download data in any format, be it CSV or PDF or Excel document. +Whatever you want, you can download the data that way. +The problem is, once you do, you will find that each agency codes their addresses differently. +So one is street name, intersection street, street, borough, address, building, building address. +So once again, you're spending time, even when we have this portal, you're spending time normalizing our address fields. +And that's not the best use of our citizens' time. +We can do better than that as a city. +We can standardize our addresses, and if we do, we can get more maps like this. +This is a map of fire hydrants in New York City, but not just any fire hydrants. +These are the top 250 grossing fire hydrants in terms of parking tickets. +So I learned a few things from this map, and I really like this map. +Number one, just don't park on the Upper East Side. +Just don't. It doesn't matter where you park, you will get a hydrant ticket. +Number two, I found the two highest grossing hydrants in all of New York City, and they're on the Lower East Side, and they were bringing in over 55,000 dollars a year in parking tickets. +And that seemed a little strange to me when I noticed it, so I did a little digging and it turns out what you had is a hydrant and then something called a curb extension, which is like a seven-foot space to walk on, and then a parking spot. +And so these cars came along, and the hydrant -- "It's all the way over there, I'm fine," and there was actually a parking spot painted there beautifully for them. +They would park there, and the NYPD disagreed with this designation and would ticket them. +And it wasn't just me who found a parking ticket. +This is the Google Street View car driving by finding the same parking ticket. +So I wrote about this on my blog, on I Quant NY, and the DOT responded, "While the DOT has not received any complaints about this location, we will review the roadway markings and make any appropriate alterations." +And I thought to myself, typical government response, all right, moved on with my life. +But then, a few weeks later, something incredible happened. +They repainted the spot, and for a second I thought I saw the future of open data, because think about what happened here. +For five years, this spot was being ticketed, and it was confusing, and then a citizen found something, they told the city, and within a few weeks the problem was fixed. +It's amazing. And a lot of people see open data as being a watchdog. +It's not, it's about being a partner. +We can empower our citizens to be better partners for government, and it's not that hard. +All we need are a few changes. +If you're FOILing data, if you're seeing your data being FOILed over and over again, let's release it to the public, that's a sign that it should be made public. +And if you're a government agency releasing a PDF, let's pass legislation that requires you to post it with the underlying data, because that data is coming from somewhere. +I don't know where, but it's coming from somewhere, and you can release it with the PDF. +And let's adopt and share some open data standards. +Let's start with our addresses here in New York City. +Let's just start normalizing our addresses. +Because New York is a leader in open data. +It's not science fiction. We're actually quite close. +And by the way, who are we empowering with this? +Because it's not just John Krauss and it's not just Chris Whong. +There are hundreds of meetups going on in New York City right now, active meetups. +There are thousands of people attending these meetups. +These people are going after work and on weekends, and they're attending these meetups to look at open data and make our city a better place. +Groups like BetaNYC, who just last week released something called citygram.nyc that allows you to subscribe to 311 complaints around your own home, or around your office. +You put in your address, you get local complaints. +And it's not just the tech community that are after these things. +It's urban planners like the students I teach at Pratt. +It's policy advocates, it's everyone, it's citizens from a diverse set of backgrounds. +And with some small, incremental changes, we can unlock the passion and the ability of our citizens to harness open data and make our city even better, whether it's one dataset, or one parking spot at a time. +Thank you. +I dedicated the past two years to understanding how people achieve their dreams. +When we think about the dreams we have, and the dent we want to leave in the universe, it is striking to see how big of an overlap there is between the dreams that we have and projects that never happen. +So I'm here to talk to you today about five ways how not to follow your dreams. +One: Believe in overnight success. +You know the story, right? +The tech guy built a mobile app and sold it very fast for a lot of money. +You know, the story may seem real, but I bet it's incomplete. +If you go investigate further, the guy has done 30 apps before and he has done a master's on the topic, a Ph.D. +He has been working on the topic for 20 years. +This is really interesting, I myself have a story in Brazil that people think is an overnight success. +I come from a humble family, and two weeks before the deadline to apply to MIT, I started the application process. +And, voila! I got in. +People may think it's an overnight success, but that only worked because for the 17 years prior to that, I took life and education seriously. +Your overnight success story is always a result of everything you've done in your life through that moment. +Two: Believe someone else has the answers for you. +Constantly, people want to help out, right? +All sorts of people: your family, your friends, your business partners, they all have opinions on which path you should take: "And let me tell you, go through this pipe." +But whenever you go inside, there are other ways you have to pick as well. +And you need to make those decisions yourself. +No one else has the perfect answers for your life. +And you need to keep picking those decisions, right? +The pipes are infinite and you're going to bump your head, and it's a part of the process. +Three, and it's very subtle but very important: Decide to settle when growth is guaranteed. +So when your life is going great, you have put together a great team, and you have growing revenue, and everything is set -- time to settle. +When I launched my first book, I worked really, really hard to distribute it everywhere in Brazil. +With that, over three million people downloaded it, over 50,000 people bought physical copies. +When I wrote a sequel, some impact was guaranteed. +Even if I did little, sales would be okay. +But okay is never okay. +When you're growing towards a peak, you need to work harder than ever and find yourself another peak. +Maybe if I did little, a couple hundred thousand people would read it, and that's great already. +But if I work harder than ever, I can bring this number up to millions. +That's why I decided, with my new book, to go to every single state of Brazil. +And I can already see a higher peak. +There's no time to settle down. +Fourth tip, and that's really important: Believe the fault is someone else's. +I constantly see people saying, "Yes, I had this great idea, but no investor had the vision to invest." +"Oh, I created this great product, but the market is so bad, the sales didn't go well." +Or, "I can't find good talent; my team is so below expectations." +If you have dreams, it's your responsibility to make them happen. +Yes, it may be hard to find talent. +Yes, the market may be bad. +But if no one invested in your idea, if no one bought your product, for sure, there is something there that is your fault. +Definitely. +You need to get your dreams and make them happen. +And no one achieved their goals alone. +But if you didn't make them happen, it's your fault and no one else's. +Be responsible for your dreams. +And one last tip, and this one is really important as well: Believe that the only things that matter are the dreams themselves. +Once I saw an ad, and it was a lot of friends, they were going up a mountain, it was a very high mountain, and it was a lot of work. +You could see that they were sweating and this was tough. +And they were going up, and they finally made it to the peak. +Of course, they decided to celebrate, right? +I'm going to celebrate, so, "Yes! We made it, we're at the top!" +Two seconds later, one looks at the other and says, "Okay, let's go down." +Life is never about the goals themselves. +Life is about the journey. +Yes, you should enjoy the goals themselves, but people think that you have dreams, and whenever you get to reaching one of those dreams, it's a magical place where happiness will be all around. +But achieving a dream is a momentary sensation, and your life is not. +The only way to really achieve all of your dreams is to fully enjoy every step of your journey. +That's the best way. +And your journey is simple -- it's made of steps. +Some steps will be right on. +Sometimes you will trip. +If it's right on, celebrate, because some people wait a lot to celebrate. +And if you tripped, turn that into something to learn. +If every step becomes something to learn or something to celebrate, you will for sure enjoy the journey. +So, five tips: Believe in overnight success, believe someone else has the answers for you, believe that when growth is guaranteed, you should settle down, believe the fault is someone else's, and believe that only the goals themselves matter. +Believe me, if you do that, you will destroy your dreams. +Thank you. +We humans have always been very concerned about the health of our bodies, but we haven't always been that good at figuring out what's important. +Take the ancient Egyptians, for example: very concerned about the body parts they thought they'd need in the afterlife, but they left some parts out. +This part, for example. +Although they very carefully preserved the stomach, the lungs, the liver, and so forth, they just mushed up the brain, drained it out through the nose, and threw it away, which makes sense, really, because what does a brain do for us anyway? +But imagine if there were a kind of neglected organ in our bodies that weighed just as much as the brain and in some ways was just as important to who we are, but we knew so little about and treated with such disregard. +And imagine if, through new scientific advances, we were just beginning to understand its importance to how we think of ourselves. +Wouldn't you want to know more about it? +Well, it turns out that we do have something just like that: our gut, or rather, its microbes. +But it's not just the microbes in our gut that are important. +Microbes all over our body turn out to be really critical to a whole range of differences that make different people who we are. +So for example, have you ever noticed how some people get bitten by mosquitos way more often than others? +It turns out that everyone's anecdotal experience out camping is actually true. +For example, I seldom get bitten by mosquitos, but my partner Amanda attracts them in droves, and the reason why is that we have different microbes on our skin that produce different chemicals that the mosquitos detect. +Now, microbes are also really important in the field of medicine. +So, for example, what microbes you have in your gut determine whether particular painkillers are toxic to your liver. +They also determine whether or not other drugs will work for your heart condition. +And, if you're a fruit fly, at least, your microbes determine who you want to have sex with. +We haven't demonstrated this in humans yet but maybe it's just a matter of time before we find out. So microbes are performing a huge range of functions. +They help us digest our food. +They help educate our immune system. +They help us resist disease, and they may even be affecting our behavior. +So what would a map of all these microbial communities look like? +Well, it wouldn't look exactly like this, but it's a helpful guide for understanding biodiversity. +Different parts of the world have different landscapes of organisms that are immediately characteristic of one place or another or another. +With microbiology, it's kind of the same, although I've got to be honest with you: All the microbes essentially look the same under a microscope. +So instead of trying to identify them visually, what we do is we look at their DNA sequences, and in a project called the Human Microbiome Project, NIH funded this $173 million project where hundreds of researchers came together to map out all the A's, T's, G's, and C's, and all of these microbes in the human body. +So when we take them together, they look like this. +It's a bit more difficult to tell who lives where now, isn't it? +What my lab does is develop computational techniques that allow us to take all these terabytes of sequence data and turn them into something that's a bit more useful as a map, and so when we do that with the human microbiome data from 250 healthy volunteers, it looks like this. +Each point here represents all the complex microbes in an entire microbial community. +See, I told you they basically all look the same. +So what we're looking at is each point represents one microbial community from one body site of one healthy volunteer. +And so you can see that there's different parts of the map in different colors, almost like separate continents. +And what it turns out to be is that those, as the different regions of the body, have very different microbes in them. +So what we have is we have the oral community up there in green. +Over on the other side, we have the skin community in blue, the vaginal community in purple, and then right down at the bottom, we have the fecal community in brown. +And we've just over the last few years found out that the microbes in different parts of the body are amazingly different from one another. +So if I look at just one person's microbes in the mouth and in the gut, it turns out that the difference between those two microbial communities is enormous. +It's bigger than the difference between the microbes in this reef and the microbes in this prairie. +So this is incredible when you think about it. +What it means is that a few feet of difference in the human body makes more of a difference to your microbial ecology than hundreds of miles on Earth. +And this is not to say that two people look basically the same in the same body habitat, either. +So you probably heard that we're pretty much all the same in terms of our human DNA. +You're 99.99 percent identical in terms of your human DNA to the person sitting next to you. +But that's not true of your gut microbes: you might only share 10 percent similarity with the person sitting next to you in terms of your gut microbes. +So that's as different as the bacteria on this prairie and the bacteria in this forest. +So these different microbes have all these different kinds of functions that I told you about, everything from digesting food to involvement in different kinds of diseases, metabolizing drugs, and so forth. +So how do they do all this stuff? +Well, in part it's because although there's just three pounds of those microbes in our gut, they really outnumber us. +And so how much do they outnumber us? +Well, it depends on what you think of as our bodies. +Is it our cells? +Well, each of us consists of about 10 trillion human cells, but we harbor as many as 100 trillion microbial cells. +So they outnumber us 10 to one. +Now, you might think, well, we're human because of our DNA, but it turns out that each of us has about 20,000 human genes, depending on what you count exactly, but as many as two million to 20 million microbial genes. +So whichever way we look at it, we're vastly outnumbered by our microbial symbionts. +And it turns out that in addition to traces of our human DNA, we also leave traces of our microbial DNA on everything we touch. +We showed in a study a few years ago that you can actually match the palm of someone's hand up to the computer mouse that they use routinely with up to 95 percent accuracy. +So this came out in a scientific journal a few years ago, but more importantly, it was featured on "CSI: Miami," so you really know it's true. +So where do our microbes come from in the first place? +Well if, as I do, you have dogs or kids, you probably have some dark suspicions about that, all of which are true, by the way. +So just like we can match you to your computer equipment by the microbes you share, we can also match you up to your dog. +But it turns out that in adults, microbial communities are relatively stable, so even if you live together with someone, you'll maintain your separate microbial identity over a period of weeks, months, even years. +It turns out that our first microbial communities depend a lot on how we're born. +So babies that come out the regular way, all of their microbes are basically like the vaginal community, whereas babies that are delivered by C-section, all of their microbes instead look like skin. +When my own daughter was born a couple of years ago by emergency C-section, we took matters into our own hands and made sure she was coated with those vaginal microbes that she would have gotten naturally. +Now, it's really difficult to tell whether this has had an effect on her health specifically, right? +With a sample size of just one child, no matter how much we love her, you don't really have enough of a sample size to figure out what happens on average, but at two years old, she hasn't had an ear infection yet, so we're keeping our fingers crossed on that one. +And what's more, we're starting to do clinical trials with more children to figure out whether this has a protective effect generally. +So how we're born has a tremendous effect on what microbes we have initially, but where do we go after that? +What I'm showing you again here is this map of the Human Microbiome Project Data, so each point represents a sample from one body site from one of 250 healthy adults. +And you've seen children develop physically. +You've seen them develop mentally. +Now, for the first time, you're going to see one of my colleague's children develop microbially. +So what we are going to look at is we're going to look at this one baby's stool, the fecal community, which represents the gut, sampled every week for almost two and a half years. +And so we're starting on day one. +What's going to happen is that the infant is going to start off as this yellow dot, and you can see that he's starting off basically in the vaginal community, as we would expect from his delivery mode. +And what's going to happen over these two and a half years is that he's going to travel all the way down to resemble the adult fecal community from healthy volunteers down at the bottom. +So I'm just going to start this going and we'll see how that happens. +And you can see he's starting to approach the adult fecal community. +This is up to about two years. +But something amazing is about to happen here. +So he's getting antibiotics for an ear infection. +What you can see is this huge change in the community, followed by a relatively rapid recovery. +I'll just rewind that for you. +So this is really interesting because it raises fundamental questions about what happens when we intervene at different ages in a child's life. +So does what we do early on, where the microbiome is changing so rapidly, actually matter, or is it like throwing a stone into a stormy sea, where the ripples will just be lost? +So I mentioned that microbes have all these important functions, and they've also now, just over the past few years, been connected to a whole range of different diseases, including inflammatory bowel disease, heart disease, colon cancer, and even obesity. +Obesity has a really large effect, as it turns out, and today, we can tell whether you're lean or obese with 90 percent accuracy by looking at the microbes in your gut. +So that's amazing, right? +What it means that the three pounds of microbes that you carry around with you may be more important for some health conditions than every single gene in your genome. +And then in mice, we can do a lot more. +So in mice, microbes have been linked to all kinds of additional conditions, including things like multiple sclerosis, depression, autism, and again, obesity. +But how can we tell whether these microbial differences that correlate with disease are cause or effect? +Well, one thing we can do is we can raise some mice without any microbes of their own in a germ-free bubble. +Then we can add in some microbes that we think are important, and see what happens. +When we take the microbes from an obese mouse and transplant them into a genetically normal mouse that's been raised in a bubble with no microbes of its own, it becomes fatter than if it got them from a regular mouse. +Why this happens is absolutely amazing, though. +Sometimes what's going on is that the microbes are helping them digest food more efficiently from the same diet, so they're taking more energy from their food, but other times, the microbes are actually affecting their behavior. +What they're doing is they're eating more than the normal mouse, so they only get fat if we let them eat as much as they want. +So this is really remarkable, right? +The implication is that microbes can affect mammalian behavior. +We can also do this for malnutrition. +This is truly amazing because it suggests that we can pilot therapies by trying them out in a whole bunch of different mice with individual people's gut communities and perhaps tailor those therapies all the way down to the individual level. +So I think it's really important that everyone has a chance to participate in this discovery. +So, a couple of years ago, we started this project called American Gut, which allows you to claim a place for yourself on this microbial map. +This is now the largest crowd-funded science project that we know of -- over 8,000 people have signed up at this point. +What happens is, they send in their samples, we sequence the DNA of their microbes and then release the results back to them. +We also release them, de-identified, to scientists, to educators, to interested members of the general public, and so forth, so anyone can have access to the data. +On the other hand, when we do tours of our lab at the BioFrontiers Institute, and we explain that we use robots and lasers to look at poop, it turns out that not everyone wants to know. +But I'm guessing that many of you do, and so I brought some kits here if you're interested in trying this out for yourself. +So why might we want to do this? +Well, it turns out that microbes are not just important for finding out where we are in terms of our health, but they can actually cure disease. +This is one of the newest things we've been able to visualize with colleagues at the University of Minnesota. +So here's that map of the human microbiome again. +What we're looking at now -- I'm going to add in the community of some people with C. diff. +So, this is a terrible form of diarrhea where you have to go up to 20 times a day, and these people have failed antibiotic therapy for two years before they're eligible for this trial. +So what would happen if we transplanted some of the stool from a healthy donor, that star down at the bottom, into these patients. +Would the good microbes do battle with the bad microbes and help to restore their health? +So let's watch exactly what happens there. +Four of those patients are about to get a transplant from that healthy donor at the bottom, and what you can see is that immediately, you have this radical change in the gut community. +So one day after you do that transplant, all those symptoms clear up, the diarrhea vanishes, and they're essentially healthy again, coming to resemble the donor's community, and they stay there. +So we're just at the beginning of this discovery. +We're just finding out that microbes have implications for all these different kinds of diseases, ranging from inflammatory bowel disease to obesity, and perhaps even autism and depression. +As a software developer and technologist, I've worked on a number of civic technology projects over the years. +Civic tech is sometimes referred to as tech for good, using technology to solve humanitarian problems. +This is in 2010 in Uganda, working on a solution that allowed local populations to avoid government surveillance on their mobile phones for expressing dissent. +That same technology was deployed later in North Africa for similar purposes to help activists stay connected when governments were deliberately shutting off connectivity as a means of population control. +But over the years, as I have thought about these technologies and the things that I work on, a question kind of nags in the back of my mind, which is, what if we're wrong about the virtues of technology, and if it sometimes actively hurts the communities that we're intending to help? +The tech industry around the world tends to operate under similar assumptions that if we build great things, it will positively affect everyone. +Eventually, these innovations will get out and find everyone. +But that's not always the case. +I like to call this blind championing of technology "trickle-down techonomics," to borrow a phrase. We tend to think that if we design things for the select few, eventually those technologies will reach everyone, and that's not always the case. +Technology and innovation behaves a lot like wealth and capital. +They tend to consolidate in the hands of the few, and sometimes they find their way out into the hands of the many. +And so most of you aren't tackling oppressive regimes on the weekends, so I wanted to think of a few examples that might be a little bit more relatable. +In the world of wearables and smartphones and apps, there's a big movement to track people's personal health with applications that track the number of calories that you burn or whether you're sitting too much or walking enough. +These technologies make patient intake in medical facilities much more efficient, and in turn, these medical facilities are starting to expect these types of efficiencies. +As these digital tools find their way into medical rooms, and they become digitally ready, what happens to the digitally invisible? +What does the medical experience look like for someone who doesn't have the $400 phone or watch tracking their every movement? +Do they now become a burden on the medical system? +Is their experience changed? +In the world of finance, Bitcoin and crypto-currencies are revolutionizing the way we move money around the world, but the challenge with these technologies is the barrier to entry is incredibly high, right? +You need access to the same phones, devices, connectivity, and even where you don't, where you can find a proxy agent, usually they require a certain amount of capital to participate. +And so the question that I ask myself is, what happens to the last community using paper notes when the rest of the world moves to digital currency? +Another example from my hometown in Philadelphia: I recently went to the public library there, and they are facing an existential crisis. +Public funding is dwindling, they have to reduce their footprint to stay open and stay relevant, and so one of the ways they're going about this is digitizing a number of the books and moving them to the cloud. +This is great for most kids. Right? +You can check out books from home, you can research on the way to school or from school, but these are really two big assumptions, that one, you have access at home, and two, that you have access to a mobile phone, and in Philadelphia, many kids do not. +So what does their education experience look like in the wake of a completely cloud-based library, what used to be considered such a basic part of education? +How do they stay competitive? +A final example from across the world in East Africa: there's been a huge movement to digitize land ownership rights, for a number of reasons. +Migrant communities, older generations dying off, and ultimately poor record-keeping have led to conflicts over who owns what. +And so there was a big movement to put all this information online, to track all the ownership of these plots of land, put them in the cloud, and give them to the communities. +But actually, the unintended consequence of this has been that venture capitalists, investors, real estate developers, have swooped in and they've begun buying up these plots of land right out from under these communities, because they have access to the technologies and the connectivity that makes that possible. +So that's the common thread that connects these examples, the unintended consequences of the tools and the technologies that we make. +As engineers, as technologists, we sometimes prefer efficiency over efficacy. +We think more about doing things than the outcomes of what we are doing. +This needs to change. +We have a responsibility to think about the outcomes of the technologies we build, especially as they increasingly control the world in which we live. +In the late '90s, there was a big push for ethics in the world of investment and banking. +I think in 2014, we're long overdue for a similar movement in the area of tech and technology. +So, I just encourage you, as you are all thinking about the next big thing, as entrepreneurs, as CEOs, as engineers, as makers, that you think about the unintended consequences of the things that you're building, because the real innovation is in finding ways to include everyone. +Thank you. +(Rainforest noises) In the summer of 2011, as a tourist, I visited the rainforests of Borneo for the very first time, and as you might imagine, it was the overwhelming sounds of the forest that struck me the most. +There's this constant cacophony of noise. +Some things actually do stick out. +For example, this here is a big bird, a rhinoceros hornbill. +This buzzing is a cicada. +This is a family of gibbons. +It's actually singing to each other over a great distance. +The place where this was recorded was in fact a gibbon reserve, which is why you can hear so many of them, but in fact the most important noise that was coming out of the forest that time was one that I didn't notice, and in fact nobody there had actually noticed it. +So, as I said, this was a gibbon reserve. +They spend most of their time rehabilitating gibbons, but they also have to spend a lot of their time protecting their area from illegal logging that takes place on the side. +And so if we take the sound of the forest and we actually turn down the gibbons, the insects, and the rest, in the background, the entire time, in recordings you heard, was the sound of a chainsaw at great distance. +They hadn't been able to hear the chainsaws, because as you heard, the forest is very, very loud. +It struck me as quite unacceptable that in this modern time, just a few hundred meters away from a ranger station in a sanctuary, that in fact nobody could hear it when someone who has a chainsaw gets fired up. +It sounds impossible, but in fact, it was quite true. +So how do we stop illegal logging? +It's really tempting, as an engineer, always to come up with a high-tech, super-crazy high-tech solution, but in fact, you're in the rainforest. +It has to be simple, it has to be scalable, and so what we also noticed while were there was that everything we needed was already there. +We could build a system that would allow us to stop this using what's already there. +Who was there? What was already in the forest? +Well, we had people. +We had this group there that was dedicated, three full-time guards, that was dedicated to go and stop it, but they just needed to know what was happening out in the forest. +The real surprise, this is the big one, was that there was connectivity out in the forest. +There was cell phone service way out in the middle of nowhere. +But you have to have a device to go up in the trees. +So if we can use some device to listen to the sounds of the forest, connect to the cell phone network that's there, and send an alert to people on the ground, perhaps we could have a solution to this issue for them. +But let's take a moment to talk about saving the rainforest, because it's something that we've definitely all heard about forever. +People in my generation have heard about saving the rainforest since we were kids, and it seems that the message has never changed: We've got to save the rainforest, it's super urgent, this many football fields have been destroyed yesterday. +and yet here we are today, about half of the rainforest remains, and we have potentially more urgent problems like climate change. +But in fact, this is the little-known fact that I didn't realize at the time: Deforestation accounts for more greenhouse gas than all of the world's planes, trains, cars, trucks and ships combined. +It's the second highest contributor to climate change. +Also, according to Interpol, as much as 90 percent of the logging that takes place in the rainforest is illegal logging, like the illegal logging that we saw. +So if we can help people in the forest enforce the rules that are there, then in fact we could eat heavily into this 17 percent and potentially have a major impact in the short term. +It might just be the cheapest, fastest way to fight climate change. +And so here's the system that we imagine. +It looks super high tech. +The moment a sound of a chainsaw is heard in the forest, the device picks up the sound of the chainsaw, it sends an alert through the standard GSM network that's already there to a ranger in the field who can in fact show up in real time and stop the logging. +It's no more about going out and finding a tree that's been cut. +It's not about seeing a tree from a satellite in an area that's been clear cut, it's about real-time intervention. +So I said it was the cheapest and fastest way to do it, but in fact, actually, as you saw, they weren't able to do it, so it may not be so cheap and fast. +But if the devices in the trees were actually cell phones, it could be pretty cheap. +Cell phones are thrown away by the hundreds of millions every year, hundreds of millions in the U.S. alone, not counting the rest of the world, which of course we should do, but in fact, cell phones are great. +They're full of sensors. +They can listen to the sounds of the forest. +We do have to protect them. +We have to put them in this box that you see here, and we do have to power them. +These are strips that are cut down. +So this is me putting it all together in my parents' garage, actually. +Thanks very much to them for allowing me to do that. +As you can see, this is a device up in a tree. +What you can see from here, perhaps, is that they are pretty well obscured up in the tree canopy at a distance. +That's important, because although they are able to hear chainsaw noises up to a kilometer in the distance, allowing them to cover about three square kilometers, if someone were to take them, it would make the area unprotected. +So does it actually work? +Well, to test it, we took it back to Indonesia, not the same place, but another place, to another gibbon reserve that was threatened daily by illegal logging. +On the very second day, it picked up illegal chainsaw noises. +We were able to get a real-time alert. +I got an email on my phone. +Actually, we had just climbed the tree. Everyone had just gotten back down. +All these guys are smoking cigarettes, and then I get an email, and they all quiet down, and in fact you can hear the chainsaw really, really faint in the background, but no one had noticed it until that moment. +And so then we took off to actually stop these loggers. +I was pretty nervous. +This is the moment where we've actually arrived close to where the loggers are. +This is the moment where you can see where I'm actually regretting perhaps the entire endeavor. +I'm not really sure what's on the other side of this hill. +That guy's much braver than I am. +But he went, so I had to go, walking up, and in fact, he made it over the hill, and interrupted the loggers in the act. +they had never, ever been interrupted before -- that we've heard from our partners they have not been back since. +They were, in fact, great guys. +They showed us how the entire operation works, and what they really convinced us on the spot was that if you can show up in real time and stop people, it's enough of a deterrent they won't come back. +So -- Thank you. Word of this spread, possibly because we told a lot of people, and in fact, then some really amazing stuff started to happen. +People from around the world started to send us emails, phone calls. +What we saw was that people throughout Asia, people throughout Africa, people throughout South America, they told us that they could use it too, and what's most important, what we'd found that we thought might be exceptional, in the forest there was pretty good cell phone service. +That was not exceptional, we were told, and that particularly is on the periphery of the forests that are most under threat. +And then something really amazing happened, which was that people started sending us their own old cell phones. +And if the rest of the device can be completely recycled, then we believe it's an entirely upcycled device. +So again, this didn't come because of any sort of high-tech solution. +It just came from using what's already there, and I'm thoroughly convinced that if it's not phones, that there's always going to be enough there that you can build similar solutions that can be very effective in new contexts. +Thank you very much. +Twenty-five years ago, scientists at CERN created the World Wide Web. +Since then, the Internet has transformed the way we communicate, the way we do business, and even the way we live. +In many ways, the ideas that gave birth to Google, Facebook, Twitter, and so many others, have now really transformed our lives, and this has brought us many real benefits such as a more connected society. +However, there are also some downsides to this. +Today, the average person has an astounding amount of personal information online, and we add to this online information every single time we post on Facebook, each time we search on Google, and each time we send an email. +Now, many of us probably think, well, one email, there's nothing in there, right? +But if you consider a year's worth of emails, or maybe even a lifetime of email, collectively, this tells a lot. +It tells where we have been, who we have met, and in many ways, even what we're thinking about. +And the more scary part about this is our data now lasts forever, so your data can and will outlive you. +What has happened is that we've largely lost control over our data and also our privacy. +So this year, as the web turns 25, it's very important for us to take a moment and think about the implications of this. +We have to really think. +We've lost privacy, yes, but actually what we've also lost is the idea of privacy itself. +If you think about it, most of us here today probably remember what life was like before the Internet, but today, there's a new generation that is being taught from a very young age to share everything online, and this is a generation that is not going to remember when data was private. +So we keep going down this road, 20 years from now, the word 'privacy' is going to have a completely different meaning from what it means to you and I. +So, it's time for us to take a moment and think, is there anything we can do about this? +And I believe there is. +Let's take a look at one of the most widely used forms of communication in the world today: email. +Before the invention of email, we largely communicated using letters, and the process was quite simple. +You would first start by writing your message on a piece of paper, then you would place it into a sealed envelope, and from there, you would go ahead and send it after you put a stamp and address on it. +Unfortunately, today, when we actually send an email, we're not sending a letter. +What you are sending, in many ways, is actually a postcard, and it's a postcard in the sense that everybody that sees it from the time it leaves your computer to when it gets to the recipient can actually read the entire contents. +So, the solution to this has been known for some time, and there's many attempts to do it. +The most basic solution is to use encryption, and the idea is quite simple. +First, you encrypt the connection between your computer and the email server. +Then, you also encrypt the data as it sits on the server itself. +But there's a problem with this, and that is, the email servers also hold the encryption keys, so now you have a really big lock with a key placed right next to it. +But not only that, any government could lawfully ask for and get the key to your data, and this is all without you being aware of it. +So the way we fix this problem is actually relatively easy, in principle: You give everybody their own keys, and then you make sure the server doesn't actually have the keys. +This seems like common sense, right? +So the question that comes up is, why hasn't this been done yet? +Well, if we really think about it, we see that the business model of the Internet today really isn't compatible with privacy. +Just take a look at some of the biggest names on the web, and you see that advertising plays a huge role. +In fact, this year alone, advertising is 137 billion dollars, and to optimize the ads that are shown to us, companies have to know everything about us. +They need to know where we live, how old we are, what we like, what we don't like, and anything else they can get their hands on. +And if you think about it, the best way to get this information is really just to invade our privacy. +So these companies aren't going to give us our privacy. +If we want to have privacy online, what we have to do is we've got to go out and get it ourselves. +For many years, when it came to email, the only solution was something known as PGP, which was quite complicated and only accessible to the tech-savvy. +Here's a diagram that basically shows the process for encrypting and decrypting messages. +So needless to say, this is not a solution for everybody, and this actually is part of the problem, because if you think about communication, by definition, it involves having someone to communicate with. +So while PGP does a great job of what it's designed to do, for the people out there who can't understand how to use it, the option to communicate privately simply does not exist. +And this is a problem that we need to solve. +So if we want to have privacy online, the only way we can succeed is if we get the whole world on board, and this is only possible if we bring down the barrier to entry. +I think this is actually the key challenge that lies in the tech community. +What we really have to do is work and make privacy more accessible. +So last summer, when the Edward Snowden story came out, several colleagues and I decided to see if we could make this happen. +At that time, we were working at the European Organization for Nuclear Research at the world's largest particle collider, which collides protons, by the way. +We were all scientists, so we used our scientific creativity and came up with a very creative name for our project: ProtonMail. Many startups these days actually begin in people's garages or people's basements. +We were a bit different. +We started out at the CERN cafeteria, which actually is great, because look, you have all the food and water you could ever want. +But even better than this is that every day between 12 p.m. and 2 p.m., free of charge, the CERN cafeteria comes with several thousand scientists and engineers, and these guys basically know the answers to everything. +So it was in this environment that we began working. +What we actually want to do is we want to take your email and turn it into something that looks more like this, but more importantly, we want to do it in a way that you can't even tell that it's happened. +So to do this, we actually need a combination of technology and also design. +So how do we go about doing something like this? +Well, it's probably a good idea not to put the keys on the server. +So what we do is we generate encryption keys on your computer, and we don't generate a single key, but actually a pair of keys, so there's an RSA private key and an RSA public key, and these keys are mathematically connected. +So let's have a look and see how this works when multiple people communicate. +So here we have Bob and Alice, who want to communicate privately. +So the key challenge is to take Bob's message and to get it to Alice in such a way that the server cannot read that message. +So what we have to do is we have to encrypt it before it even leaves Bob's computer, and one of the tricks is, we encrypt it using the public key from Alice. +Now this encrypted data is sent through the server to Alice, and because the message was encrypted using Alice's public key, the only key that can now decrypt it is a private key that belongs to Alice, and it turns out Alice is the only person that actually has this key. +So we've now accomplished the objective, which is to get the message from Bob to Alice without the server being able to read what's going on. +Actually, what I've shown here is a highly simplified picture. +The reality is much more complex and it requires a lot of software that looks a bit like this. +And that's actually the key design challenge: How do we take all this complexity, all this software, and implement it in a way that the user cannot see it. +I think with ProtonMail, we have gotten pretty close to doing this. +So let's see how it works in practice. +Here, we've got Bob and Alice again, who also want to communicate securely. +They simply create accounts on ProtonMail, which is quite simple and takes a few moments, and all the key encryption and generation is happening automatically in the background as Bob is creating his account. +Once his account is created, he just clicks "compose," and now he can write his email like he does today. +So he fills in his information, and then after that, all he has to do is click "send," and just like that, without understanding cryptography, and without doing anything different from how he writes email today, Bob has just sent an encrypted message. +What we have here is really just the first step, but it shows that with improving technology, privacy doesn't have to be difficult, it doesn't have to be disruptive. +If we change the goal from maximizing ad revenue to protecting data, we can actually make it accessible. +Now, I know a question on everybody's minds is, okay, protecting privacy, this is a great goal, but can you actually do this without the tons of money that advertisements give you? +And I think the answer is actually yes, because today, we've reached a point where people around the world really understand how important privacy is, and when you have that, anything is possible. +Earlier this year, ProtonMail actually had so many users that we ran out of resources, and when this happened, our community of users got together and donated half a million dollars. +So this is just an example of what can happen when you bring the community together towards a common goal. +We can also leverage the world. +Right now, we have a quarter of a million people that have signed up for ProtonMail, and these people come from everywhere, and this really shows that privacy is not just an American or a European issue, it's a global issue that impacts all of us. +It's something that we really have to pay attention to going forward. +So what do we have to do to solve this problem? +Well, first of all, we need to support a different business model for the Internet, one that does not rely entirely on advertisements for revenue and for growth. +We actually need to build a new Internet where our privacy and our ability to control our data is first and foremost. +But even more importantly, we have to build an Internet where privacy is no longer just an option but is also the default. +We have done the first step with ProtonMail, but this is really just the first step in a very, very long journey. +The good news I can share with you guys today, the exciting news, is that we're not traveling alone. +The movement to protect people's privacy and freedom online is really gaining momentum, and today, there are dozens of projects from all around the world who are working together to improve our privacy. +These projects protect things from our chat to voice communications, also our file storage, our online search, our online browsing, and many other things. +And these projects are not backed by billions of dollars in advertising, but they've found support really from the people, from private individuals like you and I from all over the world. +This really matters, because ultimately, privacy depends on each and every one of us, and we have to protect it now because our online data is more than just a collection of ones and zeros. +It's actually a lot more than that. +It's our lives, our personal stories, our friends, our families, and in many ways, also our hopes and our aspirations. +We need to spend time now to really protect our right to share this only with people that we want to share this with, because without this, we simply can't have a free society. +So now's the time for us to collectively stand up and say, yes, we do want to live in a world with online privacy, and yes, we can work together to turn this vision into a reality. +Thank you. +I'd like to start my performance by saying 90 percent of everything is crap. +It's called Sturgeon's law, and what that means is that the majority of anything is always bad. +I have a giraffe here. +I'm going to throw the giraffe behind my back and whoever catches it is going to help me on this next thing. +Sir, you caught the giraffe. +I have a playing card in my hand. +Freely name any card in the deck. +Audience member: 10 of hearts. +Helder Guimares: 10 of hearts. +You could have named any card in the deck, but you said the 10 of hearts. +Ninety percent of everything is crap, so there's this to prove that Sturgeon was correct. +Sir, this is not your show. +Keep the giraffe for a moment, okay? +Jesus. +Crazy people. +Well, the truth is, why is the majority of everything bad? +And my answer is: I think we stop thinking too soon. +I'll give you a clear little example, something that people used to do around the turn of the century -- not this century, the other one. +The idea was to take a piece of paper and fold it inside out using only your weaker hand, in my case, the left hand. +Something that would look like this. +By the way you reacted, I can see your lack of interest. +But that's okay, I understand why. +We stop thinking too soon. +But if we give it a little bit more thought, like a paper clip. +A paper clip makes this a little bit more interesting. +Not only that, if instead of using my hand with the fingers, I use my hand closed into a fist, that makes this even a little bit more interesting. +Not only that, but I will impose myself a time limit of one second, something that would look like this. +Now -- no, no, no. +Sturgeon may be correct. +But he doesn't have to be correct forever. Things can always change. +Sir, what was the card? +The 10 of hearts? +There's this to prove that things can always change -- the 10 of hearts. +Secrets are important. +And secrets are valuable. +And this is the best secret I've ever experienced. +It starts with a deck of cards onto the table, an old man and a claim, "I will not touch the deck till the end." +It doesn't matter who the man was, all that matters was that sentence ringing in my head: "I will not touch the deck till the end." +Now, during all this time, he was holding a small notebook that sometimes he would open and flip through the pages and look at something. +But I was not really paying attention to the book because I was paying attention the deck and the claim he had made before, "I will not touch the deck till the end." +Now sir, you have the giraffe. +Go ahead, throw it in any direction so that you can find someone else at random. +Perfect. Sir, you're going to play my role in this story. +The old man turned to me and he said, "You could pick a red card or a black card." +My answer was ... +Audience member 2: The black card. +HG: Indeed! +It was a black card. +He said, "It could be a club or a spade," and my answer was ... +Audience member 2: Spade. +HG: Indeed! It was a spade. +He said, "It could be a high spade or a low spade." +And my answer was ... +Audience member 2: A high spade. +HG: Indeed! It was a high spade. +Since it's a high spade, it could be a nine, a 10, a jack, king, queen or the ace of spades. +And my answer was ... +Audience member 2: The king. +HG: The king of spades, indeed. +Now sir, let's be fair. +You selected black, you selected spade, you selected the high spade, and you selected -- sorry? +Audience member 2: King. HG: King of spades. +Did you feel I influenced you in any decision? +Audience member 2: No, I just felt your energy. +HG: But it was a free choice, correct? +Because if not, we could start all over again. +But it was really fair? Audience member 2: Absolutely. +HG: Now, the old man turned to me and he asked me one more question, a number between one and 52. +And the first number I thought of was ... +Audience member 2: 17. +HG: Indeed! It was the 17. +The old man only said one more thing: "This is the end." +And I knew exactly what that meant. +I knew that he was going to touch the deck. +Everything that you're about to see is exactly as it looked. +He took the deck out of the box. +Nothing in the box. +He counted, "One, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, 10." +The tension was building. +"11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17." +And on the 17, instead of the king of spades, something appeared in the middle of the deck, that later, I would realize was actually a secret. +The old man stood up, he left. +I never saw him again. +But he left his notebook that was there from the beginning. +And when I picked it up, that was the best secret I've ever experienced. +We are defined by the secrets we keep and by the secrets we share. +And this was his way of sharing a secret with me. +Crazy shit! Now -- I believe that amazing things happen all the time. +I really do. +And the reason why we don't see them as often, it's because we don't place ourselves in a position to search for those amazing things. +But what if we decided to search for those amazing things, for those small coincidences in life that are truly amazing? +So you have the giraffe, go ahead, throw it in any direction so you find one last person at random. +Sir, I'm going to ask you, do you have, with you, a United States $1 bill? +Audience member 3: I think so. +HG: Yes? You see, a coincidence! +Let's make sure you have it. +Do you have it? +Audience member 3: Yes. HG: Yes! Perfect. +Now, I want you to do exactly the same thing I am about to do. +I have a dollar bill here to explain. +I want you to take the dollar bill, and fold the Washington part inside, like this. +So you get this kind of big square, okay? +Now, I want you to take the bill and fold it like this, lengthwise, so it becomes like a rectangle, and then again -- really fold it, really crease it -- and when you have it, please fold the bill again into a little square like this and let me know when you have it. +Do you have it? Perfect. +Now, I'm going to approach, and before we start, I want to make sure that we do this in very, very serious conditions. +First of all, I want to ensure that we have a marker and we have a paper clip. +First of all, take the marker and go ahead and sign the bill. +And this is the reason why: later, I'm going to be doing a bunch of stuff on stage and I don't want you to think, oh, while I was distracted by Helder, someone came onstage and swapped the bill. +So I want to make sure it's exactly the same bill. +Now not only that, I want you to take the paper clip and put it around the bill. +So even if nobody comes onstage and switches the bill, I don't have enough time to go open the bill and close it and see what I don't want to see. +Is that fair? +Now you can give me the marker back. +And just like that, very clearly, I want to make sure that we place this in full view from the beginning of this experience and to make sure that everyone is going to see it, we're going to actually have a camera man onstage. +Yes, perfect, so that you can see. +That's your signature? Yes? Perfect. +Now, we're going to use also the deck and a glass for this. +And we're going to put ourselves in a position to search for an amazing coincidence. +Do you mind, can you help me with this? +Go ahead and take some cards and shuffle. +And do you mind, can you take some cards and shuffle? +You can shuffle cards in a variety of ways. +You can shuffle cards like this. +You can shuffle cards in a more messed up way, something like this. +You can shuffle cards in the American way. +As a Portuguese, I don't feel entitled to teach you guys how to do it. +But the important part is after shuffling the cards, always remember to cut and complete the cards. +Do you mind doing that for me, sir? Please cut and complete. +And when you have it, place the cards up in the air. +And you too, cut and complete and up in the air. +Up in the air. +A deck of cards cut and shuffled by one, two, three, four and five people. +Now, very clearly, I'm going to gather the deck together. +And just like that. +I'm going to search for a coincidence in front of everyone. +I'm going to try. +I have some cards that maybe, maybe they don't mean anything. +But maybe that's because we are not paying close attention. +Because maybe, maybe they mean a lot. +Before we start, sir, you gave me a dollar bill. +Is that your signature? +Audience member 3: Yes it is. +HG: I want you to see very clearly that I'm going to open your bill and reveal a small secret that we created. +And the secret of this dollar bill is the serial number. +Madam, can you take the dollar bill? +In the serial number, there is a letter. +What is the first number after the letter? +Audience member 4: Seven. +HG: Seven. +Seven. +But, that's maybe just one coincidence. +What is the second number? Audience member 4: Nine. +So after the seven, we have a nine. +And after the nine? Audience member 4: Two. +HG: The two. And after the two? Audience member 4: Three. +HG: Three, and after? +Audience member 4: Three. HG: Three. +Audience member 4: Seven. HG: Seven. +Audience member 4: Four. HG: Four. +Audience member 4: Two. HG: Two, and? +Audience member 4: Q. +HG: Q like in queen? +The queen of clubs! +All the cards in order, just for you. +And that's my show. +Thank you very much and have a nice night. +We need to change the culture in our jails and prisons, especially for young inmates. +New York state is one of only two in the U.S. +that automatically arrests and tries 16- to 17-year-olds as adults. +This culture of violence takes these young people and puts them in a hostile environment, and the correctional officers pretty much allow any and everything to go on. +There's not really much for these young people to do to actually enhance their talent and actually rehabilitate them. +Until we can raise the age of criminal responsibility to 18, we need to focus on changing the daily lives of these young people. +I know firsthand. +Before I ever turned 18, I spent approximately 400 days on Rikers Island, and to add to that I spent almost 300 days in solitary confinement, and let me tell you this: Screaming at the top of your lungs all day on your cell door or screaming at the top of your lungs out the window, it gets tiring. +Since there's not much for you to do while you're in there, you start pacing back and forth in your cell, you start talking to yourself, your thoughts start running wild, and then your thoughts become your own worst enemy. +Jails are actually supposed to rehabilitate a person, not cause him or her to become more angry, frustrated, and feel more hopeless. +Since there's not a discharge plan put in place for these young people, they pretty much reenter society with nothing. +And there's not really much for them to do to keep them from recidivating. +But it all starts with the C.O.s. +It's very easy for some people to look at these correctional officers as the good guys and the inmates as the bad guys, or vice versa for some, but it's a little more than that. +See, these C.O.s are normal, everyday people. +They come from the same neighborhoods as the population they "serve." +They're just normal people. +They're not robots, and there's nothing special about them. +They do pretty much everything anybody else in society does. +The male C.O.s want to talk and flirt with the female C.O.s. +They play the little high school kid games with each other. +They politic with one another. +And the female C.O.s gossip to each other. +So I spent numerous amounts of time with numerous amounts of C.O.s, and let me tell you about this one in particular named Monroe. +One day he pulled me in between the A and B doors which separate the north and south sides of our housing unit. +He pulled me there because I had a physical altercation with another young man in my housing unit, and he felt, since there was a female officer working on the floor, that I violated his shift. +So he punched me in my chest. +He kind of knocked the wind out of me. +I wasn't impulsive, I didn't react right away, because I know this is their house. +I have no wins. +All he has to do is pull his pin and backup will come immediately. +So I just gave him a look in his eyes and I guess he saw the anger and frustration just burning, and he said to me, "Your eyes are going to get you in a lot of trouble, because you're looking like you want to fight." +So he commenced to taking off his utility belt, he took off his shirt and his badge, and he said, "We could fight." +So I asked him, "You gonna hold it down?" +Now, that's a term that's commonly used on Rikers Island meaning that you're not going to say anything to anybody, and you're not going to report it. +He said, "Yeah, I'm gonna hold it down. You gonna hold it down?" +I didn't even respond. +I just punched him right in his face, and we began fighting right then and there. +Towards the end of the fight, he slammed me up against the wall, so while we were tussled up, he said to me, "You good?" +as if he got the best of me, but in my mind, I know I got the best of him, so I replied very cocky, "Oh, I'm good, you good?" +He said, "Yeah, I'm good, I'm good." +We let go, he shook my hand, said he gave me my respect, gave me a cigarette and sent me on my way. +Believe it or not, you come across some C.O.s on Rikers Island that'll fight you one-on-one. +They feel that they understand how it is, and they feel that I'm going to meet you where you're at. +Since this is how you commonly handle your disputes, we can handle it in that manner. +I walk away from it like a man, you walk away from it like a man, and that's it. +Some C.O.s feel that they're jailing with you. +This is why they have that mentality and that attitude and they go by that concept. +In some instances, we're in it together with the C.O.s. +However, institutions need to give these correctional officers proper trainings on how to properly deal with the adolescent population, and they also need to give them proper trainings on how to deal with the mental health population as well. +These C.O.s play a big factor in these young people's lives for x amount of time until a disposition is reached on their case. +So why not try to mentor these young people while they're there? +Why not try to give them some type of insight to make a change, so once they reenter back into society, they're doing something positive? +A second big thing to help our teens in jails is better programming. +When I was on Rikers Island, the huge thing was solitary confinement. +Solitary confinement was originally designed to break a person mentally, physically and emotionally. +That's what it was designed for. +The U.S. Attorney General recently released a report stating that they're going to ban solitary confinement in New York state for teens. +One thing that kept me sane while I was in solitary confinement was reading. +I tried to educate myself as much as possible. +I read any and everything I could get my hands on. +And aside from that, I wrote music and short stories. +Some programs that I feel would benefit our young people are art therapy programs for the kids that like to draw and have that talent, and what about the young individuals that are musically inclined? +How about a music program for them that actually teaches them how to write and make music? +Just a thought. +When adolescents come to Rikers Island, C74, RNDC is the building that they're housed in. +That's nicknamed "gladiator school," because you have a young individual coming in from the street thinking that they're tough, being surrounded by a bunch of other young individuals from all of the five boroughs, and everybody feels that they're tough. +So now you have a bunch of young gentlemen poking their chests out feeling that I have to prove I'm equally as tough as you or I'm tougher than you, you and you. +But let's be honest: That culture is very dangerous and damaging to our young people. +We need to help institutions and these teens realize that they don't have to lead the previous lifestyle that they led when they were on the street, that they can actually make a change. +It's sad to report that while I was in prison, I used to hear dudes talking about when they get released from prison, what type of crimes they're going to commit when they get back in the street. +The conversations used to sound something like this: "Oh, when I hit the street, my brother got this connection for this, that and the third," or, "My man over here got this connection for the low price. +Let's exchange information," and, "When we hit the town, we're going to do it real big." +I used to hear these conversations and think to myself, "Wow, these dudes are really talking about going back in the street and committing future crimes." +So I came up with a name for that: I called it a go-back-to-jail-quick scheme because really, how long is that going to last? +You get a retirement plan with that? +Nice little pension? 401? 403? +You get health insurance? Dental? +But I will tell you this: Being in jail and being in prison, I came across some of the most intelligent, brilliant, and talented people that I would ever meet. +I've seen individuals take a potato chip bag and turn it into the most beautiful picture frame. +I've seen individuals take the state soap that's provided for free and turn them into the most beautiful sculptures that would make Michelangelo look like a kindergartner made it. +At the age of 21, I was in a maximum-security prison called Elmira Correctional Facility. +I just came out of the weight shack from working out, and I saw an older gentleman that I knew standing in the middle of the yard just looking up at the sky. +Mind you, this older gentlemen was serving a 33-and-a-third-to-life sentence in which he already had served 20 years of that sentence. +So I walk up to him and I said, "O.G., what's going on, man, you good?" +He looked at me, and he said, "Yeah, I'm good, young blood." +I'm like, "So what are you looking up at the sky for, man? +What's so fascinating up there?" +He said, "You look up and you tell me what you see." +"Clouds." He said, "All right. What else do you see?" +At that time, it was a plane passing by. +I said, "All right, I see an airplane." +He said, "Exactly, and what's on that airplane?" "People." +"Exactly. Now where's that plane and those people going?" +"I don't know. You know? +Please let me know if you do. Then let me get some lottery numbers." +He said, "You're missing the big picture, young blood. +That plane with those people is going somewhere, while we're here stuck. +The big picture is this: That plane with those people going somewhere, that's life passing us by while we behind these walls, stuck." +Ever since that day, that sparked something in my mind and made me know I had to make a change. +Growing up, I was always a good, smart kid. +Some people would say I was a little too smart for my own good. +I had dreams of becoming an architect or an archaeologist. +Currently, I'm working at the Fortune Society, which is a reentry program, and I work with people as a case manager that are at high risk for recidivism. +So I connect them with the services that they need once they're released from jail and prison so they can make a positive transition back into society. +If I was to see my 15-year-old self today, I would sit down and talk to him and try to educate him and I would let him know, "Listen, this is me. I'm you. +This is us. We are one. +Everything that you're about to do, I know what you're gonna do before you do it because I already did it, and I would encourage him not to hang out with x, y and z people. +I would tell him not to be in such-and-such place. +I would tell him, keep your behind in school, man, because that's where you need to be, because that's what's going to get you somewhere in life. +This is the message that we should be sharing with our young men and young women. +We shouldn't be treating them as adults and putting them in cultures of violence that are nearly impossible for them to escape. +Thank you. +Hello. +I'm a toy developer. +With a dream of creating new toys that have never been seen before, I began working at a toy company nine years ago. +When I first started working there, I proposed many new ideas to my boss every day. +However, my boss always asked if I had the data to prove it would sell, and asked me to think of product development after analyzing market data. +Data, data, data. +So I analyzed the market data before thinking of a product. +However, I was unable to think of anything new at that moment. +My ideas were unoriginal. +I wasn't getting any new ideas and I grew tired of thinking. +It was so hard that I became this skinny. +It's true. You've all probably had similar experiences and felt this way too. +Your boss was being difficult. The data was difficult. +You become sick of thinking. +Now, I throw out the data. +It's my dream to create new toys. +And now, instead of data, I'm using a game called Shiritori to come up with new ideas. +I would like to introduce this method today. +What is Shiritori? +Take apple, elephant and trumpet, for example. +It's a game where you take turns saying words that start with the last letter of the previous word. +It's the same in Japanese and English. +You can play Shiritori as you like: "neko, kora, raibu, burashi," etc, etc. [Cat, cola, concert, brush] Many random words will come out. +You force those words to connect to what you want to think of and form ideas. +In my case, for example, since I want to think of toys, what could a toy cat be? +A cat that lands after doing a somersault from a high place? +How about a toy with cola? +A toy gun where you shoot cola and get someone soaking wet? +Ridiculous ideas are okay. The key is to keep them flowing. +The more ideas you produce, you're sure to come up with some good ones, too. +A brush, for example. Can we make a toothbrush into a toy? +We could combine a toothbrush with a guitar and -- (Music noises) -- you've got a toy you can play with while brushing your teeth. +Kids who don't like to brush their teeth might begin to like it. +Can we make a hat into a toy? +How about something like a roulette game, where you try the hat on one by one, and then, when someone puts it on, a scary alien breaks through the top screaming, "Ahh!" +I wonder if there would be a demand for this at parties? +Ideas that didn't come out while you stare at the data will start to come out. +Actually, this bubble wrap, which is used to pack fragile objects, combined with a toy, made Mugen Pop Pop, a toy where you can pop the bubbles as much as you like. +It was a big hit when it reached stores. +Data had nothing to do with its success. +Although it's only popping bubbles, it's a great way to kill time, so please pass this around amongst yourselves today and play with it. +Anyway, you continue to come up with useless ideas. +Think up many trivial ideas, everyone. +If you base your ideas on data analysis and know what you're aiming for, you'll end up trying too hard, and you can't produce new ideas. +Even if you know what your aim is, think of ideas as freely as if you were throwing darts with your eyes closed. +If you do this, you surely will hit somewhere near the center. +At least one will. +That's the one you should choose. +If you do so, that idea will be in demand and, moreover, it will be brand new. +That is how I think of new ideas. +It doesn't have to be Shiritori; there are many different methods. +You just have to choose words at random. +You can flip through a dictionary and choose words at random. +For example, you could look up two random letters and gather the results or go to the store and connect product names with what you want to think of. +The point is to gather random words, not information from the category you're thinking for. +If you do this, the ingredients for the association of ideas are collected and form connections that will produce many ideas. +The greatest advantage to this method is the continuous flow of images. +Because you're thinking of one word after another, the image of the previous word is still with you. +That image will automatically be related with future words. +Unconsciously, a concert will be connected to a brush and a roulette game will be connected to a hat. +You wouldn't even realize it. +You can come up with ideas that you wouldn't have thought of otherwise. +This method is, of course, not just for toys. +You can collect ideas for books, apps, events, and many other projects. +I hope you all try this method. +There are futures that are born from data. +However, using this silly game called Shiritori, I look forward to the exciting future you will create, a future you couldn't even imagine. +Thank you very much. +My name is Harry Baker. Harry Baker is my name. +If your name was Harry Baker, then our names would be the same. +It's a short introductory part. +Yeah, I'm Harry. +I study maths. I write poetry. +So I thought I'd start with a love poem about prime numbers. +This is called "59." +I was going to call it "Prime Time Loving." +That reaction is why I didn't. +So, "59." +59 wakes up on the wrong side of the bed. +Realizes all his hair is on one side of his head. +Takes just under a minute to work out that its because of the way that he slept. +He finds some clothes and gets dressed. +He cant help but look in the mirror and be subtly impressed How he looks rough around the edges and yet casually messed. +And as he glances out the window, he sees the sight that he gets blessed with of 60 from across the street. +Now 60 was beautiful. +With perfectly trimmed cuticles, dressed in something suitable. +Never rude or crude at all. +Unimprovable, right on time as usual, more on cue than a snooker ball but liked to play it super cool. +59 wanted to tell her that he knew her favorite flower. +He thought of her every second, every minute, every hour. +But he knew it wouldnt work, hed never get the girl. +Because although she lived across the street they came from different worlds. +While 59 admired 60s perfectly round figure, 60 thought 59 was odd. One of his favorite films was "101 Dalmatians." +She preferred the sequel. +He romanticized the idea they were star-crossed lovers. +They could overcome the odds and evens because they had each other. +While she maintained the strict views imposed on her by her mother That separate could not be equal. +And though at the time he felt stupid and dumb For trying to love a girl controlled by her stupid mum, He should have been comforted by the simple sum. +Take 59 away from 60, and youre left with the one. +Sure enough after two months of moping around, 61 days later, 61 was who he found, He had lost his keys and his parents were out. +So one day after school he went into a house As he noticed the slightly wonky numbers on the door, He wondered why hed never introduced himself before, As she let him in, his jaw dropped in awe. +61 was like 60, but a little bit more. She had prettier eyes, and an approachable smile, And like him, rough around the edges, casual style, And like him, everything was in disorganized piles, And like him, her mum didnt mind if friends stayed a while. +Because she was like him, and he liked her. +He reckoned she would like him if she knew he was like her, And it was different this time. I mean, this girl was wicked, So he plucked up the courage and asked for her digits. +She said, "I'm 61." He grinned, said, "I'm 59." +Today Ive had a really nice time, So tomorrow if you wanted you could come over to mine? +She said, "Sure." +She loved talking to someone just as quirky, She agreed to this unofficial first date. +In the end he was only ready one minute early, But it didnt matter because she arrived one minute late. +And from that moment on there was nonstop chatter, How they loved "X Factor," how they had two factors, How that did not matter, distinctiveness made them better, By the end of the night they knew they were meant together. +And one day she was talking about stuck-up 60, She noticed that 59 looked a bit shifty. +He blushed, told her of his crush: The best thing that never happened because it led to us. 61 was clever, see, not prone to jealousy, She looked him in the eyes and told him quite tenderly, "Youre 59, Im 61, together we combine to become twice what 60 could ever be." +At this point 59 had tears in his eyes, Was so glad to have this one-of-a-kind girl in his life. +He told her the very definition of being prime Was that with only one and himself could his heart divide, And she was the one he wanted to give his heart to, She said she felt the same and now she knew the films were half true. +Because that wasn't real love, that love was just a sample, When it came to real love, they were a prime example. +Cheers. +That was the first poem that I wrote and it was for a prime number-themed poetry night -- -- which turned out to be a prime number-themed poetry competition. +And each performer got three minutes to perform and then random audience members would hold up scorecards, and they would end up with a numerical score, and what this meant is, it kind of broke down the barrier between performer and audience and encouraged the kind of connection with the listener. +And what it also means is you can win. +And if you win a poetry slam, you can call yourself a slam champion and pretend you're a wrestler, and if you lose a poetry slam you can say, "Oh, what? Poetry's a subjective art form, you can't put numbers on such things." +But I loved it, and I got involved in these slams, and I became the U.K. slam champion and got invited to the Poetry World Cup in Paris, which was unbelievable. +It was people from all around the world speaking in their native languages to be judged by five French strangers. +And somehow, I won, which was great, and I've been able to travel the world since doing it, but it also means that this next piece is technically the best poem in the world. +So... +According to five French strangers. +So this is "Paper People." +I like people. +I'd like some paper people. +Theyd be purple paper people. Maybe pop-up purple paper people. +Proper pop-up purple paper people. +"How do you prop up pop-up purple paper people?" +I hear you cry. Well I ... +Id probably prop up proper pop-up purple paper people with a proper pop-up purple people paperclip, but Id pre-prepare appropriate adhesives as alternatives, a cheeky pack of Blu Tack just in case the paper slipped. +Because I could build a pop-up metropolis. +but I wouldnt wanna deal with all the paper people politics. +paper politicians with their paper-thin policies, broken promises without appropriate apologies. +Thered be a little paper me. And a little paper you. +And we could watch paper TV and it would all be pay-per-view. +Wed see the poppy paper rappers rap about their paper package or watch paper people carriers get stuck in paper traffic on the A4. +Paper. +Thered be a paper princess Kate but wed all stare at paper Pippa, and then wed all live in fear of killer Jack the Paper-Ripper, because the paper propaganda propagates the people's prejudices, papers printing pictures of the photogenic terrorists. +A little paper me. And a little paper you. +And in a pop-up population peoples problems pop up too. +Thered be a pompous paper parliament who remained out of touch, and who ignored the people's protests about all the paper cuts, then the peaceful paper protests would get blown to paper pieces, by the confetti cannons manned by pre-emptive police. +And yes thered still be paper money, so thered still be paper greed, and the paper piggy bankers pocketing more than they need, purchasing the potpourri to pepper their paper properties, others live in poverty and aint acknowledged properly. +A proper poor economy where so many are proper poor, but while their needs are ignored the money goes to big wars. +I like people. +'Cause even when the situations dire, it is only ever people who are able to inspire, and on paper, its hard to see how we all cope. +But in the bottom of Pandoras box theres still hope, and I still hope 'cause I believe in people. +People like my grandparents. +Who every single day since I was born, have taken time out of their morning to pray for me. +Thats 7892 days straight of someone checking Im okay, and thats amazing. +People like my aunt who puts on plays with prisoners. +People who are capable of genuine forgiveness. +People like the persecuted Palestinians. +People who go out of their way to make your life better, and expect nothing in return. +You see, people have potential to be powerful. +Just because the people in power tend to pretend to be victims we dont need to succumb to that system. +And a paper population is no different. +Theres a little paper me. And a little paper you. +And in a pop-up population people's problems pop up too, but even if the whole world fell apart then wed still make it through. +Because were people. +Thank you. +Thank you very much. I've just got time for one more. +For me, poetry has been the ultimate way of ideas without frontiers. +When I first started, the people who inspired me were the ones with the amazing stories, and I thought, as an 18-year-old with a happy life, it was too normal, but I could create these worlds where I could talk about my experiences and dreams and beliefs. +So it's amazing to be here in front of you today. +Thank you for being here. +If you weren't here, it would be pretty much like the sound check yesterday. +And this is more fun. +So this last one is called "The Sunshine Kid." +Thank you very much for listening. +Old man sunshine was proud of his sun, And it brightened his day to see his little boy run, Not because of what hed done, nor the problems overcome, But that despite that his disposition remained a sunny one. +It hadnt always been like this. +Thered been times when hed tried to hide his brightness, You see, every star hits periods of hardship, It takes a brighter light to inspire them through the darkness. +But thats when Little Miss Sunshine came along Singing her favorite song about how were made to be strong, And you dont have to be wrong to belong, Just be true to who you are, because we are all stars at heart. +She said: All the darkness in the world cannot put out the light from a single candle So how the hell can they handle your light? +Only you can choose to dim it, and the sky is the limit, so silence the critics by burning. And if eyes are windows to the soul then she drew back the curtains And let the sun shine through the hurting. +In a universe of adversity these stars stuck together, And though days became nights the memories would last forever, Whether the weatherman said it or not, it would be fine, 'Cause even behind the clouds the kid could still shine. +Yes, the Sunshine Kid was bright, with a warm personality, And inside he burned savagely, Fueled by the fire inspired across galaxies By the girl who showed him belief. +Thank you very much. +I have a confession to make. +I'm a business professor whose ambition has been to help people learn to lead. +But recently, I've discovered that what many of us think of as great leadership does not work when it comes to leading innovation. +I'm an ethnographer. +I use the methods of anthropology to understand the questions in which I'm interested. +So along with three co-conspirators, I spent nearly a decade observing up close and personal exceptional leaders of innovation. +We studied 16 men and women, located in seven countries across the globe, working in 12 different industries. +In total, we spent hundreds of hours on the ground, on-site, watching these leaders in action. +We ended up with pages and pages and pages of field notes that we analyzed and looked for patterns in what our leaders did. +The bottom line? +If we want to build organizations that can innovate time and again, we must unlearn our conventional notions of leadership. +Leading innovation is not about creating a vision, and inspiring others to execute it. +But what do we mean by innovation? +An innovation is anything that is both new and useful. +It can be a product or service. +It can be a process or a way of organizing. +It can be incremental, or it can be breakthrough. +We have a pretty inclusive definition. +How many of you recognize this man? +Put your hands up. +Keep your hands up, if you know who this is. +How about these familiar faces? +From your show of hands, it looks like many of you have seen a Pixar movie, but very few of you recognized Ed Catmull, the founder and CEO of Pixar -- one of the companies I had the privilege of studying. +My first visit to Pixar was in 2005, when they were working on "Ratatouille," that provocative movie about a rat becoming a master chef. +Computer-generated movies are really mainstream today, but it took Ed and his colleagues nearly 20 years to create the first full-length C.G. movie. +In the 20 years hence, they've produced 14 movies. +I was recently at Pixar, and I'm here to tell you that number 15 is sure to be a winner. +When many of us think about innovation, though, we think about an Einstein having an 'Aha!' moment. +But we all know that's a myth. +Innovation is not about solo genius, it's about collective genius. +Let's think for a minute about what it takes to make a Pixar movie: No solo genius, no flash of inspiration produces one of those movies. +On the contrary, it takes about 250 people four to five years, to make one of those movies. +To help us understand the process, an individual in the studio drew a version of this picture. +He did so reluctantly, because it suggested that the process was a neat series of steps done by discrete groups. +Even with all those arrows, he thought it failed to really tell you just how iterative, interrelated and, frankly, messy their process was. +Throughout the making of a movie at Pixar, the story evolves. +So think about it. +Some shots go through quickly. +They don't all go through in order. +It depends on how vexing the challenges are that they come up with when they are working on a particular scene. +So if you think about that scene in "Up" where the boy hands the piece of chocolate to the bird, that 10 seconds took one animator almost six months to perfect. +The other thing about a Pixar movie is that no part of the movie is considered finished until the entire movie wraps. +Partway through one production, an animator drew a character with an arched eyebrow that suggested a mischievous side. +When the director saw that drawing, he thought it was great. +It was beautiful, but he said, "You've got to lose it; it doesn't fit the character." +Two weeks later, the director came back and said, "Let's put in those few seconds of film." +Because that animator was allowed to share what we referred to as his slice of genius, he was able to help that director reconceive the character in a subtle but important way that really improved the story. +What we know is, at the heart of innovation is a paradox. +You have to unleash the talents and passions of many people and you have to harness them into a work that is actually useful. +Innovation is a journey. +It's a type of collaborative problem solving, usually among people who have different expertise and different points of view. +Innovations rarely get created full-blown. +As many of you know, they're the result, usually, of trial and error. +Lots of false starts, missteps and mistakes. +Innovative work can be very exhilarating, but it also can be really downright scary. +So when we look at why it is that Pixar is able to do what it does, we have to ask ourselves, what's going on here? +For sure, history and certainly Hollywood, is full of star-studded teams that have failed. +Most of those failures are attributed to too many stars or too many cooks, if you will, in the kitchen. +So why is it that Pixar, with all of its cooks, is able to be so successful time and time again? +When we studied an Islamic Bank in Dubai, or a luxury brand in Korea, or a social enterprise in Africa, we found that innovative organizations are communities that have three capabilities: creative abrasion, creative agility and creative resolution. +Creative abrasion is about being able to create a marketplace of ideas through debate and discourse. +In innovative organizations, they amplify differences, they don't minimize them. +Creative abrasion is not about brainstorming, where people suspend their judgment. +No, they know how to have very heated but constructive arguments to create a portfolio of alternatives. +Individuals in innovative organizations learn how to inquire, they learn how to actively listen, but guess what? +They also learn how to advocate for their point of view. +They understand that innovation rarely happens unless you have both diversity and conflict. +Creative agility is about being able to test and refine that portfolio of ideas through quick pursuit, reflection and adjustment. +It's about discovery-driven learning where you act, as opposed to plan, your way to the future. +It's about design thinking where you have that interesting combination of the scientific method and the artistic process. +It's about running a series of experiments, and not a series of pilots. +Experiments are usually about learning. +When you get a negative outcome, you're still really learning something that you need to know. +Pilots are often about being right. +When they don't work, someone or something is to blame. +The final capability is creative resolution. +This is about doing decision making in a way that you can actually combine even opposing ideas to reconfigure them in new combinations to produce a solution that is new and useful. +When you look at innovative organizations, they never go along to get along. +They don't compromise. +They don't let one group or one individual dominate, even if it's the boss, even if it's the expert. +Instead, they have developed a rather patient and more inclusive decision making process that allows for both/and solutions to arise and not simply either/or solutions. +These three capabilities are why we see that Pixar is able to do what it does. +Let me give you another example, and that example is the infrastructure group of Google. +The infrastructure group of Google is the group that has to keep the website up and running 24/7. +So when Google was about to introduce Gmail and YouTube, they knew that their data storage system wasn't adequate. +The head of the engineering group and the infrastructure group at that time was a man named Bill Coughran. +Bill and his leadership team, who he referred to as his brain trust, had to figure out what to do about this situation. +They thought about it for a while. +Instead of creating a group to tackle this task, they decided to allow groups to emerge spontaneously around different alternatives. +Two groups coalesced. +One became known as Big Table, the other became known as Build It From Scratch. +Big Table proposed that they build on the current system. +Build It From Scratch proposed that it was time for a whole new system. +Separately, these two teams were allowed to work full-time on their particular approach. +In engineering reviews, Bill described his role as, "Injecting honesty into the process by driving debate." +Early on, the teams were encouraged to build prototypes so that they could "bump them up against reality and discover for themselves the strengths and weaknesses of their particular approach." +When Build It From Scratch shared their prototype with the group whose beepers would have to go off in the middle of the night if something went wrong with the website, they heard loud and clear about the limitations of their particular design. +As the need for a solution became more urgent and as the data, or the evidence, began to come in, it became pretty clear that the Big Table solution was the right one for the moment. +So they selected that one. +But to make sure that they did not lose the learning of the Build it From Scratch team, Bill asked two members of that team to join a new team that was emerging to work on the next-generation system. +This whole process took nearly two years, but I was told that they were all working at breakneck speed. +Early in that process, one of the engineers had gone to Bill and said, "We're all too busy for this inefficient system of running parallel experiments." +But as the process unfolded, he began to understand the wisdom of allowing talented people to play out their passions. +He admitted, "If you had forced us to all be on one team, we might have focused on proving who was right, and winning, and not on learning and discovering what was the best answer for Google." +Why is it that Pixar and Google are able to innovate time and again? +It's because they've mastered the capabilities required for that. +They know how to do collaborative problem solving, they know how to do discovery-driven learning and they know how to do integrated decision making. +Some of you may be sitting there and saying to yourselves right now, "We don't know how to do those things in my organization. +So why do they know how to do those things at Pixar, and why do they know how to do those things at Google?" +When many of the people that worked for Bill told us, in their opinion, that Bill was one of the finest leaders in Silicon Valley, we completely agreed; the man is a genius. +Leadership is the secret sauce. +But it's a different kind of leadership, not the kind many of us think about when we think about great leadership. +One of the leaders I met with early on said to me, "Linda, I don't read books on leadership. +All they do is make me feel bad." "In the first chapter they say I'm supposed to create a vision. +But if I'm trying to do something that's truly new, I have no answers. +I don't know what direction we're going in and I'm not even sure I know how to figure out how to get there." +For sure, there are times when visionary leadership is exactly what is needed. +But if we want to build organizations that can innovate time and again, we must recast our understanding of what leadership is about. +Leading innovation is about creating the space where people are willing and able to do the hard work of innovative problem solving. +At this point, some of you may be wondering, "What does that leadership really look like?" +At Pixar, they understand that innovation takes a village. +The leaders focus on building a sense of community and building those three capabilities. +How do they define leadership? +They say leadership is about creating a world to which people want to belong. +What kind of world do people want to belong in at Pixar? +A world where you're living at the frontier. +What do they focus their time on? +Not on creating a vision. +Instead they spend their time thinking about, "How do we design a studio that has the sensibility of a public square so that people will interact? +Let's put in a policy that anyone, no matter what their level or role, is allowed to give notes to the director about how they feel about a particular film. +What can we do to make sure that all the disruptors, all the minority voices in this organization, speak up and are heard? +And, finally, let's bestow credit in a very generous way." +I don't know if you've ever looked at the credits of a Pixar movie, but the babies born during a production are listed there. +How did Bill think about what his role was? +Bill said, "I lead a volunteer organization. +Talented people don't want to follow me anywhere. +They want to cocreate with me the future. +My job is to nurture the bottom-up and not let it degenerate into chaos." +How did he see his role? +"I'm a role model, I'm a human glue, I'm a connector, I'm an aggregator of viewpoints. +I'm never a dictator of viewpoints." +Advice about how you exercise the role? +Hire people who argue with you. +And, guess what? +Sometimes it's best to be deliberately fuzzy and vague. +Some of you may be wondering now, what are these people thinking? +They're thinking, "I'm not the visionary, I'm the social architect. +I'm creating the space where people are willing and able to share and combine their talents and passions." +If some of you are worrying now that you don't work at a Pixar, or you don't work at a Google, I want to tell you there's still hope. +We've studied many organizations that were really not organizations you'd think of as ones where a lot of innovation happens. +We studied a general counsel in a pharmaceutical company who had to figure out how to get the outside lawyers, 19 competitors, to collaborate and innovate. +We studied the head of marketing at a German automaker where, fundamentally, they believed that it was the design engineers, not the marketeers, who were allowed to be innovative. +We also studied Vineet Nayar at HCL Technologies, an Indian outsourcing company. +When we met Vineet, his company was about, in his words, to become irrelevant. +We watched as he turned that company into a global dynamo of I.T. innovation. +At HCL technologies, like at many companies, the leaders had learned to see their role as setting direction and making sure that no one deviated from it. +What he did is tell them it was time for them to think about rethinking what they were supposed to do. +Because what was happening is that everybody was looking up and you weren't seeing the kind of bottom-up innovation we saw at Pixar or Google. +So they began to work on that. +They stopped giving answers, they stopped trying to provide solutions. +Instead, what they did is they began to see the people at the bottom of the pyramid, the young sparks, the people who were closest to the customers, as the source of innovation. +They began to transfer the organization's growth to that level. +In Vineet's language, this was about inverting the pyramid so that you could unleash the power of the many by loosening the stranglehold of the few, and increase the quality and the speed of innovation that was happening every day. +For sure, Vineet and all the other leaders that we studied were in fact visionaries. +For sure, they understood that that was not their role. +So I don't think it is accidental that many of you did not recognize Ed. +Because Ed, like Vineet, understands that our role as leaders is to set the stage, not perform on it. +If we want to invent a better future, and I suspect that's why many of us are here, then we need to reimagine our task. +Our task is to create the space where everybody's slices of genius can be unleashed and harnessed, and turned into works of collective genius. +Thank you. +I cannot forget them. +Their names were Aslan, Alik, Andrei, Fernanda, Fred, Galina, Gunnhild, Hans, Ingeborg, Matti, Natalya, Nancy, Sheryl, Usman, Zarema, and the list is longer. +For many, their existence, their humanity, has been reduced to statistics, coldly recorded as "security incidents." +For me, they were colleagues belonging to that community of humanitarian aid workers that tried to bring a bit of comfort to the victims of the wars in Chechnya in the '90s. +They were nurses, logisticians, shelter experts, paralegals, interpreters. +And for this service, they were murdered, their families torn apart, and their story largely forgotten. +No one was ever sentenced for these crimes. +I cannot forget them. +They live in me somehow, their memories giving me meaning every day. +But they are also haunting the dark street of my mind. +As humanitarian aid workers, they made the choice to be at the side of the victim, to provide some assistance, some comfort, some protection, but when they needed protection themselves, it wasn't there. +When you see the headlines of your newspaper these days with the war in Iraq or in Syria -- aid worker abducted, hostage executed -- but who were they? +Why were they there? +What motivated them? +How did we become so indifferent to these crimes? +This is why I am here today with you. +We need to find better ways to remember them. +We also need to explain the key values to which they dedicated their lives. +We also need to demand justice. +When in '96 I was sent by the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees to the North Caucasus, I knew some of the risks. +Five colleagues had been killed, three had been seriously injured, seven had already been taken hostage. +So we were careful. +We were using armored vehicles, decoy cars, changing patterns of travel, changing homes, all sorts of security measures. +Yet on a cold winter night of January '98, it was my turn. +When I entered my flat in Vladikavkaz with a guard, we were surrounded by armed men. +They took the guard, they put him on the floor, they beat him up in front of me, tied him, dragged him away. +I was handcuffed, blindfolded, and forced to kneel, as the silencer of a gun pressed against my neck. +When it happens to you, there is no time for thinking, no time for praying. +My brain went on automatic, rewinding quickly the life I'd just left behind. +It took me long minutes to figure out that those masked men there were not there to kill me, but that someone, somewhere, had ordered my kidnapping. +Then a process of dehumanization started that day. +I was no more than just a commodity. +I normally don't talk about this, but I'd like to share a bit with you some of those 317 days of captivity. +I was kept in an underground cellar, total darkness, for 23 hours and 45 minutes every day, and then the guards would come, normally two. +They would bring a big piece of bread, a bowl of soup, and a candle. +That candle would burn for 15 minutes, 15 minutes of precious light, and then they would take it away, and I returned to darkness. +I was chained by a metal cable to my bed. +I could do only four small steps. +I always dreamt of the fifth one. +And no TV, no radio, no newspaper, no one to talk to. +I had no towel, no soap, no toilet paper, just two metal buckets open, one for water, for one waste. +Can you imagine that mock execution can be a pastime for guards when they are sadistic or when they are just bored or drunk? +We are breaking my nerves very slowly. +Isolation and darkness are particularly difficult to describe. +How do you describe nothing? +There are no words for the depths of loneliness I reached in that very thin border between sanity and madness. +In the darkness, sometimes I played imaginary games of checkers. +I would start with the black, play with the white, back to the black trying to trick the other side. +I don't play checkers anymore. +I was tormented by the thoughts of my family and my colleague, the guard, Edik. +I didn't know what had happened to him. +I was trying not to think, I tried to fill up my time by doing all sorts of physical exercise on the spot. +I tried to pray, I tried all sorts of memorization games. +But darkness also creates images and thoughts that are not normal. +One part of your brain wants you to resist, to shout, to cry, and the other part of the brain orders you to shut up and just go through it. +It's a constant internal debate; there is no one to arbitrate. +Once a guard came to me, very aggressively, and he told me, "Today you're going to kneel and beg for your food." +I wasn't in a good mood, so I insulted him. +I insulted his mother, I insulted his ancestors. +The consequence was moderate: he threw the food into my waste. +The day after he came back with the same demand. +He got the same answer, which had the same consequence. +Four days later, the body was full of pain. +I didn't know hunger hurt so much when you have so little. +So when the guards came down, I knelt. +I begged for my food. +Submission was the only way for me to make it to another candle. +After my kidnapping, I was transferred from North Ossetia to Chechnya, three days of slow travel in the trunks of different cars, and upon arrival, I was interrogated for 11 days by a guy called Ruslan. +The routine was always the same: a bit more light, 45 minutes. +He would come down to the cellar, he would ask the guards to tie me on the chair, and he would turn on the music loud. +And then he would yell questions. +He would scream. He would beat me. +I'll spare you the details. +There are many questions I could not understand, and there are some questions I did not want to understand. +The length of the interrogation was the duration of the tape: 15 songs, 45 minutes. +I would always long for the last song. +On one day, one night in that cellar, I don't know what it was, I heard a child crying above my head, a boy, maybe two or three years old. +Footsteps, confusion, people running. +So when Ruslan came the day after, before he put the first question to me, I asked him, "How is your son today? Is he feeling better?" +Ruslan was taken by surprise. +He was furious that the guards may have leaked some details about his private life. +I kept talking about NGOs supplying medicines to local clinics that may help his son to get better. +And we talked about education, we talked about families. +He talked to me about his children. +I talked to him about my daughters. +And then he'd talk about guns, about cars, about women, and I had to talk about guns, about cars, about women. +And we talked until the last song on the tape. +Ruslan was the most brutal man I ever met. +He did not touch me anymore. +He did not ask any other questions. +I was no longer just a commodity. +Two days after, I was transferred to another place. +There, a guard came to me, very close -- it was quite unusual -- and he said with a very soft voice, he said, "I'd like to thank you for the assistance your organization provided my family when we were displaced in nearby Dagestan." +What could I possibly reply? +It was so painful. It was like a blade in the belly. +It took me weeks of internal thinking to try to reconcile the good reasons we had to assist that family and the soldier of fortune he became. +He was young, he was shy. +I never saw his face. +He probably meant well. +But in those 15 seconds, he made me question everything we did, all the sacrifices. +He made me think also how they see us. +Until then, I had assumed that they know why we are there and what we are doing. +One cannot assume this. +Well, explaining why we do this is not that easy, even to our closest relatives. +We are not perfect, we are not superior, we are not the world's fire brigade, we are not superheroes, we don't stop wars, we know that humanitarian response is not a substitute for political solution. +Yet we do this because one life matters. +Sometimes that's the only difference you make -- one individual, one family, a small group of individuals -- and it matters. +When you have a tsunami, an earthquake or a typhoon, you see teams of rescuers coming from all over the world, searching for survivors for weeks. +Why? Nobody questions this. +Every life matters, or every life should matter. +This is the same for us when we help refugees, people displaced within their country by conflict, or stateless persons, I know many people, when they are confronted by overwhelming suffering, they feel powerless and they stop there. +It's a pity, because there are so many ways people can help. +We don't stop with that feeling. +We try to do whatever we can to provide some assistance, some protection, some comfort. +We have to. +We can't do otherwise. +It's what makes us feel, I don't know, simply human. +That's a picture of me the day of my release. +Months after my release, I met the then-French prime minister. +The second thing he told me: "You were totally irresponsible to go to the North Caucasus. +You don't know how many problems you've created for us." +It was a short meeting. +I think helping people in danger is responsible. +In that war, that nobody seriously wanted to stop, and we have many of these today, bringing some assistance to people in need and a bit of protection was not just an act of humanity, it was making a real difference for the people. +Why could he not understand this? +We have a responsibility to try. +You've heard about that concept: Responsibility to Protect. +Outcomes may depend on various parameters. +We may even fail, but there is worse than failing -- it's not even trying when we can. +Well, if you are met this way, if you sign up for this sort of job, your life is going to be full of joy and sadness, because there are a lot of people we cannot help, a lot of people we cannot protect, a lot of people we did not save. +I call them my ghost, and by having witnessed their suffering from close, you take a bit of that suffering on yourself. +Many young humanitarian workers go through their first experience with a lot of bitterness. +They are thrown into situations where they are witness, but they are powerless to bring any change. +They have to learn to accept it and gradually turn this into positive energy. +It's difficult. +Many don't succeed, but for those who do, there is no other job like this. +You can see the difference you make every day. +Humanitarian aid workers know the risk they are taking in conflict areas or in post-conflict environments, yet our life, our job, is becoming increasingly life-threatening, and the sanctity of our life is fading. +Do you know that since the millennium, the number of attacks on humanitarian aid workers has tripled? +2013 broke new records: 155 colleagues killed, 171 seriously wounded, 134 abducted. +So many broken lives. +Until the beginning of the civil war in Somalia in the late '80s, humanitarian aid workers were sometimes victims of what we call collateral damages, but by and large we were not the target of these attacks. +This has changed. +Look at this picture. +Baghdad, August 2003: 24 colleagues were killed. +Gone are the days when a U.N. blue flag or a Red Cross would automatically protect us. +Criminal groups and some political groups have cross-fertilized over the last 20 years, and they've created these sort of hybrids with whom we have no way of communicating. +Humanitarian principles are tested, questioned, and often ignored, but perhaps more importantly, we have abandoned the search for justice. +There seems to be no consequence whatsoever for attacks against humanitarian aid workers. +After my release, I was told not to seek any form of justice. +It won't do you any good, that's what I was told. +Plus, you're going to put in danger the life of other colleagues. +It took me years to see the sentencing of three people associated with my kidnapping, but this was the exception. +There was no justice for any of the humanitarian aid workers killed or abducted in Chechnya between '95 and '99, and it's the same all over the world. +This is unacceptable. +This is inexcusable. +Attacks on humanitarian aid workers are war crimes in international law. +Those crimes should not go unpunished. +We must end this cycle of impunity. +We must consider that those attacks against humanitarian aid workers are attacks against humanity itself. +That makes me furious. +I know I'm very lucky compared to the refugees I work for. +I don't know what it is to have seen my whole town destroyed. +I don't know what it is to have seen my relatives shot in front of me. +I don't know what it is to lose the protection of my country. +I also know that I'm very lucky compared to other hostages. +Four days before my eventful release, four hostages were beheaded a few miles away from where I was kept in captivity. +Why them? +Why am I here today? +No easy answer. +I was received with a lot of support that I got from my relatives, from colleagues, from friends, from people I didn't know. +They have helped me over the years to come out of the darkness. +Not everyone was treated with the same attention. +How many of my colleagues, after a traumatic incident, took their own life? +I can count nine that I knew personally. +How many of my colleagues went through a difficult divorce after a traumatic experience because they could not explain anything anymore to their spouse? +I've lost that count. +There is a price for this type of life. +In Russia, all war monuments have this beautiful inscription at the top. +It says, (In Russian) "No one is forgotten, nothing is forgotten." +I do not forget my lost colleagues. +I cannot forget anything. +I call on you to remember their dedication and demand that humanitarian aid workers around the world be better protected. +We should not let that light of hope they have brought to be switched off. +After my ordeal, a lot of colleagues asked me, "But why do you continue? +Why do you do this sort of job? +Why do you have to go back to it?" +My answer was very simple: If I had quit, that would have meant my kidnapper had won. +They would have taken my soul and my humanity. +Thank you. +I'd like to tell you a story about death and architecture. +A hundred years ago, we tended to die of infectious diseases like pneumonia, that, if they took hold, would take us away quite quickly. +We tended to die at home, in our own beds, looked after by family, although that was the default option because a lot of people lacked access to medical care. +And then in the 20th century a lot of things changed. +We developed new medicines like penicillin so we could treat those infectious diseases. +New medical technologies like x-ray machines were invented. +And because they were so big and expensive, we needed large, centralized buildings to keep them in, and they became our modern hospitals. +After the Second World War, a lot of countries set up universal healthcare systems so that everyone who needed treatment could get it. +The result was that lifespans extended from about 45 at the start of the century to almost double that today. +The 20th century was this time of huge optimism about what science could offer, but with all of the focus on life, death was forgotten, even as our approach to death changed dramatically. +Now, I'm an architect, and for the past year and a half I've been looking at these changes and at what they mean for architecture related to death and dying. +We now tend to die of cancer and heart disease, and what that means is that many of us will have a long period of chronic illness at the end of our lives. +we'll likely spend a lot of time in hospitals and hospices and care homes. +Now, we've all been in a modern hospital. +You know those fluorescent lights and the endless corridors and those rows of uncomfortable chairs. +Hospital architecture has earned its bad reputation. +But the surprising thing is, it wasn't always like this. +This is L'Ospedale degli Innocenti, built in 1419 by Brunelleschi, who was one of the most famous and influential architects of his time. +And when I look at this building and then think about hospitals today, what amazes me is this building's ambition. +It's just a really great building. +It has these courtyards in the middle so that all of the rooms have daylight and fresh air, and the rooms are big and they have high ceilings, so they just feel more comfortable to be in. +And it's also beautiful. +Somehow, we've forgotten that that's even possible for a hospital. +Now, if we want better buildings for dying, then we have to talk about it, but because we find the subject of death uncomfortable, we don't talk about it, and we don't question how we as a society approach death. +One of the things that surprised me most in my research, though, is how changeable attitudes actually are. +This is the first crematorium in the U.K., which was built in Woking in the 1870s. +And when this was first built, there were protests in the local village. +Cremation wasn't socially acceptable, and 99.8 percent of people got buried. +And yet, only a hundred years later, three quarters of us get cremated. +People are actually really open to changing things if they're given the chance to talk about them. +So this conversation about death and architecture was what I wanted to start when I did my first exhibition on it in Venice in June, which was called "Death in Venice." +It was designed to be quite playful so that people would literally engage with it. +This is one of our exhibits, which is an interactive map of London that shows just how much of the real estate in the city is given over to death and dying, and as you wave your hand across the map, the name of that piece of real estate, the building or cemetery, is revealed. +Another of our exhibits was a series of postcards that people could take away with them. +And they showed people's homes and hospitals and cemeteries and mortuaries, and they tell the story of the different spaces that we pass through on either side of death. +We wanted to show that where we die is a key part of how we die. +Now, the strangest thing was the way that visitors reacted to the exhibition, especially the audio-visual works. +We had people dancing and running and jumping as they tried to activate the exhibits in different ways, and at a certain point they would kind of stop and remember that they were in an exhibition about death, and that maybe that's not how you're supposed to act. +Thank you. +Traditional prescriptions for growth in Africa are not working very well. +After one trillion dollars in African development-related aid in the last 60 years, real per capita income today is lower than it was in the 1970s. +Aid is not doing too well. +In response, the Bretton Woods institutions -- the IMF and the World Bank -- pushed for free trade not aid, yet the historical record shows little empirical evidence that free trade leads to economic growth. +The newly prescribed silver bullet is microcredit. +We seem to be fixated on this romanticized idea that every poor peasant in Africa is an entrepreneur. +Yet my work and travel in 40-plus countries across Africa have taught me that most people want jobs instead. +My solution: Forget micro-entrepreneurs. +Let's invest in building pan-African titans like Sudanese businessman Mo Ibrahim. +Mo took a contrarian bet on Africa when he founded Celtel International in '98 and built it into a mobile cellular provider with 24 million subscribers across 14 African countries by 2004. +The Mo model might be better than the everyman entrepreneur model, which prevents an effective means of diffusion and knowledge-sharing. +Perhaps we are not at a stage in Africa where many actors and small enterprises leads to growth through competition. +Consider these two alternative scenarios. +One: You loan 200 dollars to each of 500 banana farmers allowing them to dry their surplus bananas and fetch 15 percent more revenue at the local market. +Or two: You give 100,000 dollars to one savvy entrepreneur and help her set up a factory that yields 40 percent additional income to all 500 banana farmers and creates 50 additional jobs. +We invested in the second scenario, and backed 26-year-old Kenyan entrepreneur Eric Muthomi to set up an agro-processing factory called Stawi to produce gluten-free banana-based flour and baby food. +Stawi is leveraging economies of scale and using modern manufacturing processes to create value for not only its owners but its workers, who have an ownership in the business. +Our dream is to take an Eric Muthomi and try to help him become a Mo Ibrahim, which requires skill, financing, local and global partnerships, and extraordinary perseverance. +But why pan-African? +The scramble for Africa during the Berlin Conference of 1884 -- where, quite frankly, we Africans were not exactly consulted -- -- resulted in massive fragmentation and many sovereign states with small populations: Liberia, four million; Cape Verde, 500,000. +Pan-Africa gives you one billion people, granted across 55 countries with trade barriers and other impediments, but our ancestors traded across the continent before Europeans drew lines around us. +The pan-African opportunities outweigh the challenges, and that's why we're expanding Stawi's markets from just Kenya to Algeria, Nigeria, Ghana, and anywhere else that will buy our food. +We hope to help solve food security, empower farmers, create jobs, develop the local economy, and we hope to become rich in the process. +While it's not the sexiest approach, and maybe it doesn't achieve the same feel-good as giving a woman 100 dollars to buy a goat on kiva.org, perhaps supporting fewer, higher-impact entrepreneurs to build massive businesses that scale pan-Africa can help change this. +The political freedom for which our forebearers fought is meaningless without economic freedom. +We hope to aid this fight for economic freedom by building world-class businesses, creating indigenous wealth, providing jobs that we so desperately need, and hopefully helping achieve this. +Africa shall rise. +Thank you. +Tom Rielly: So Sangu, of course, this is strong rhetoric. +You're making 100 percent contrast between microcredit and regular investment and growing regular investment. +Do you think there is a role for microcredit at all? +Sangu Delle: I think there is a role. +Microcredit has been a great, innovative way to expand financial access to the bottom of the pyramid. +But for the problems we face in Africa, when we are looking at the Marshall Plan to revitalize war-torn Europe, it was not full of donations of sheep. +We need more than just microcredit. +We need more than just give 200 dollars. +We need to build big businesses, and we need jobs. +TR: Very good. Thank you so much. +How many people here have heard of PMS? +Everybody, right? +Everyone knows that women go a little crazy right before they get their period, that the menstrual cycle throws them onto an inevitable hormonal roller coaster of irrationality and irritability. +There's a general assumption that fluctuations in reproductive hormones cause extreme emotions and that the great majority of women are affected by this. +Well, I am here to tell you that scientific evidence says neither of those assumptions is true. +I'm here to give you the good news about PMS. +But first, let's take a look at how firmly the idea of PMS is entrenched in American culture. +If you examine newspaper or magazine articles, you'll see how widely assumed it is that everyone gets PMS. +In an article in the magazine Redbook titled "You: PMS Free," readers were informed that between 80 to 90 percent of women suffer from PMS. +From all these articles, you would think there must be a mountain of research verifying the widespread nature of PMS. +However, after five decades of research, there's no strong consensus on the definition, the cause, the treatment, or even the existence of PMS. +As most commonly defined by psychologists, PMS involves negative behavioral, cognitive and physical symptoms from the time of ovulation to menstruation. +But here's where it gets tricky. +Over 150 different symptoms have been used to diagnose PMS, and here are just a few of those. +Now, I want to be clear here. +I'm not saying women don't get some of these symptoms. +What I'm saying is that getting some of these symptoms doesn't amount to a mental disorder, and when psychologists come up with a disorder that's so vaguely defined, the label eventually becomes meaningless. +With a list of symptoms this long and wide, I could have PMS, you could have PMS, the guy in the third row here could have PMS, my dog could have PMS. Some researchers said you had to have five symptoms. +Some said three. +Other researchers said that symptoms were only meaningful if they were highly disturbing to you, but others said minor symptoms were just as important. +For many years, because there was no standardization in the definition of PMS, when psychologists tried to report prevalence rates, their estimates ranged from five percent of women to 97 percent of women, so at the same time almost no one and almost everyone had PMS. +Overall, the weaknesses in the methods of research on PMS have been considerable. +First, many studies asked women to report their symptoms retrospectively, looking to the past and relying on memory, which is known to inflate reporting of PMS compared to what's called prospective reporting, which involves keeping a daily log of symptoms for at least two months in a row. +Many studies also exclusively focused on white, middle-class women, which makes it problematic to apply study findings to all women. +We know there's a strong cultural component to the belief in PMS because it's nearly unheard of outside of Western nations. +Third, many studies failed to use control groups. +If we want to understand the specific characteristics of women who have PMS, we need to be able to compare them to women who don't have PMS. +And finally, many different types of questionnaires were used to diagnose PMS, focusing on different symptoms, symptom duration and severity. +To do reliable research on any condition, scientists must agree on the specific characteristics that make up that condition so they're all talking about the same thing, and with PMS, this has not been the case. +However, in 1994, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, known as the DSM, thankfully -- it's also the manual for mental health professionals -- they redefined PMS as PMDD, Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder. +And dysphoria refers to a feeling of agitation or unease. +And according to these new DSM guidelines, in most menstrual cycles in the last year, at least five of 11 possible symptoms must appear in the week before menstruation starts; the symptoms must improve once menstruation has begun; and the symptoms must be absent the week after menstruation has ended. +One of these symptoms must come from this list of four: marked mood swings, irritability, anxiety, or depression. +The other symptoms could come from the first slide or from those on the second slide, including symptoms like feeling out of control and changes in sleep or appetite. +The DSM also required now that the symptoms should be associated with clinically significant distress -- there should be some kind of disturbance in work or school or social relationships -- and that symptoms and symptom severity should now be documented by keeping a daily log for at least two cycles in a row. +And finally, the DSM required that the emotional disturbance should be more than simply an exacerbation of an already existing disorder. +So scientifically speaking, this is an improvement. +We now have a limited number of symptoms, and a high impact on functioning that's required, and the reporting and timing of symptoms have both become very specific. +Well, using this criteria and looking at most recent studies, we see that on average, three to eight percent of women suffer from PMDD. +Not all women, not most women, not the majority of women, not even a lot of women: three to eight percent. +For everyone else, variables like stressful events or happy occasions or even day of the week are more powerful predictors of mood than time of the month, and this is the information the scientific community has had since the 1990s. +In 2002, my colleagues and I published an article describing the PMS and PMDD research, and several similar articles have appeared in psychology journals. +The questions is, why hasn't this information trickled down to the public? +Why do these myths persist? +Well, certainly the onslaught of messages that women receive from books, TV, movies, the Internet, that everyone gets PMS go a long way in convincing them it must be true. +Research tells us that the more a woman believes that everyone gets PMS, the more likely she is to erroneously report that she has it. +Let me tell you what I mean by "erroneously." +You might ask her, "Do you have PMS?" +and she says yes, but then, when you have her keep a daily log of psychological symptoms for two months, no correlation is found between her symptoms and time of the month. +Another reason for the persistence of the PMS myth has to do with the narrow boundaries of the feminine role. +Feminist psychologists like Joan Chrisler have suggested that taking on the label of PMS allows women to express emotions that would otherwise be considered unladylike. +The near universal definition of a good woman is one who is happy, loving, caring for others, and taking great satisfaction from that role. +Well, PMS has become a permission slip to be angry, complain, be irritated, without losing the title of good woman. +We know that the variables in a woman's environment are much more likely to cause her to be angry than her hormones, but when she attributes anger to hormones, she's absolved of responsibility or criticism. +"Oh, that's not who she is. It's out of her control." +And while this can be a useful tool, it serves to invalidate women's emotions. +When people respond to a woman's anger with the thought, "Oh, it's just that time of the month," her ability to be taken seriously or effect change is severely limited. +So who else benefits from the myth of PMS? +Well, I can tell you that treating PMS has become a profitable, thriving industry. +Amazon.com currently offers over 1,900 books on PMS treatment. +A quick Google search will bring up a cornucopia of clinics, workshops and seminars. +Reputable Internet sources of medical information like WebMD or the Mayo Clinic list PMS as a known disorder. +It's not a known disorder, but they list it. +And they also list the medications that physicians have prescribed to treat it, like anti-depressants or hormones. +Interestingly, though, both websites say that the success of medication in treating PMS symptoms vary from woman to woman. +Well, that doesn't make sense. +If you've got a distinct disorder with a distinct cause, which PMS is supposed to be, then the treatment should bring improvement for a great number of women. +This has not been the case with these treatments, and FDA regulations say that for a drug to be deemed effective, a large portion of the target population should see clinically significant improvement. +So we have not had that at all with these so-called treatments. +However, the financial gain of perpetuating the myth that PMS is a common mental disorder and is treatable is quite substantial. +When women are prescribed drugs like anti-depressants or hormones, medical protocol requires that they have physician follow-up every three months. +That's a lot of doctor visits. +Pharmaceutical companies reap untold profits when women are convinced they should take a prescribed medication for all of their child-bearing lives. +Over-the-counter drugs like Midol even claim to treat PMS symptoms like tension and irritability, even though they only contain a diuretic, a pain reliever and caffeine. +Now, far be it from me to argue with the magical powers of caffeine, but I don't think reducing tension is one of them. +Since 2002, Midol has marketed a Teen Midol to adolescents. +They are aiming at young girls early, to convince them that everyone gets PMS and that it will make you a monster, but wait, there's something you can do about it: Take Midol and you will be a human being again. +In 2013, Midol took in 48 million dollars in sales revenue. +So while perpetuating the myth of PMS has been lucrative for some, it comes with some serious adverse consequences for women. +First, it contributes to the medicalization of women's reproductive health. +The medical field has a long history of conceptualizing women's reproductive processes as illnesses that require treatment, and this has come at many costs, including excessive Cesarean deliveries, hysterectomies and prescribed hormone treatments that have harmed rather than enhanced women's health. +Second, the PMS myth also contributes to the stereotype of women as irrational and overemotional. +When the menstrual cycle is described as a hormonal roller coaster that turns women into angry beasts, it becomes easy to question the competence of all women. +Psychologists know that the moods of men and women are more similar than different. +One study followed men and women for four to six months and found that the number of mood swings they experienced and the severity of those mood swings were no different. +And finally, the PMS myth keeps women from dealing with the actual issues causing them emotional upset. +Individual issues like quality of relationship or work conditions or societal issues like racism or sexism or the daily grind of poverty are all strongly related to daily mood. +Sweeping emotions under the rug of PMS keeps women from understanding the source of their negative emotions, but it also takes away the opportunity to take any action to change them. +So the good news about PMS is that while some women get some symptoms because of the menstrual cycle, the great majority don't get a mental disorder. +They go to work or school, take care of their families, and function at a normal level. +We know the emotions and moods of men and women are more similar than different, so let's walk away from the tired old PMS myth of women as witches and embrace the reality of high emotional and professional functioning the great majority of women live every day. +Thank you. +We are built out of very small stuff, and we are embedded in a very large cosmos, and the fact is that we are not very good at understanding reality at either of those scales, and that's because our brains haven't evolved to understand the world at that scale. +Instead, we're trapped on this very thin slice of perception right in the middle. +But it gets strange, because even at that slice of reality that we call home, we're not seeing most of the action that's going on. +So take the colors of our world. +This is light waves, electromagnetic radiation that bounces off objects and it hits specialized receptors in the back of our eyes. +But we're not seeing all the waves out there. +In fact, what we see is less than a 10 trillionth of what's out there. +So you have radio waves and microwaves and X-rays and gamma rays passing through your body right now and you're completely unaware of it, because you don't come with the proper biological receptors for picking it up. +There are thousands of cell phone conversations and you're utterly blind to it. +Now, it's not that these things are inherently unseeable. +Snakes include some infrared in their reality, and honeybees include ultraviolet in their view of the world, and of course we build machines in the dashboards of our cars to pick up on signals in the radio frequency range, and we built machines in hospitals to pick up on the X-ray range. +But you can't sense any of those by yourself, at least not yet, because you don't come equipped with the proper sensors. +Now, what this means is that our experience of reality is constrained by our biology, and that goes against the common sense notion that our eyes and our ears and our fingertips are just picking up the objective reality that's out there. +Instead, our brains are sampling just a little bit of the world. +Now, across the animal kingdom, different animals pick up on different parts of reality. +So in the blind and deaf world of the tick, the important signals are temperature and butyric acid; in the world of the black ghost knifefish, its sensory world is lavishly colored by electrical fields; and for the echolocating bat, its reality is constructed out of air compression waves. +That's the slice of their ecosystem that they can pick up on, and we have a word for this in science. +It's called the umwelt, which is the German word for the surrounding world. +Now, presumably, every animal assumes that its umwelt is the entire objective reality out there, because why would you ever stop to imagine that there's something beyond what we can sense. +Instead, what we all do is we accept reality as it's presented to us. +Let's do a consciousness-raiser on this. +Imagine that you are a bloodhound dog. +Your whole world is about smelling. +You've got a long snout that has 200 million scent receptors in it, and you have wet nostrils that attract and trap scent molecules, and your nostrils even have slits so you can take big nosefuls of air. +Everything is about smell for you. +So one day, you stop in your tracks with a revelation. +You look at your human owner and you think, "What is it like to have the pitiful, impoverished nose of a human? +What is it like when you take a feeble little noseful of air? +How can you not know that there's a cat 100 yards away, or that your neighbor was on this very spot six hours ago?" +So because we're humans, we've never experienced that world of smell, so we don't miss it, because we are firmly settled into our umwelt. +But the question is, do we have to be stuck there? +So as a neuroscientist, I'm interested in the way that technology might expand our umwelt, and how that's going to change the experience of being human. +So we already know that we can marry our technology to our biology, because there are hundreds of thousands of people walking around with artificial hearing and artificial vision. +So the way this works is, you take a microphone and you digitize the signal, and you put an electrode strip directly into the inner ear. +Or, with the retinal implant, you take a camera and you digitize the signal, and then you plug an electrode grid directly into the optic nerve. +And as recently as 15 years ago, there were a lot of scientists who thought these technologies wouldn't work. +Why? It's because these technologies speak the language of Silicon Valley, and it's not exactly the same dialect as our natural biological sense organs. +But the fact is that it works; the brain figures out how to use the signals just fine. +Now, how do we understand that? +Well, here's the big secret: Your brain is not hearing or seeing any of this. +Your brain is locked in a vault of silence and darkness inside your skull. +All it ever sees are electrochemical signals that come in along different data cables, and this is all it has to work with, and nothing more. +Now, amazingly, the brain is really good at taking in these signals and extracting patterns and assigning meaning, so that it takes this inner cosmos and puts together a story of this, your subjective world. +But here's the key point: Your brain doesn't know, and it doesn't care, where it gets the data from. +Whatever information comes in, it just figures out what to do with it. +And this is a very efficient kind of machine. +It's essentially a general purpose computing device, and it just takes in everything and figures out what it's going to do with it, and that, I think, frees up Mother Nature to tinker around with different sorts of input channels. +The brain figures out what to do with the data that comes in. +And when you look across the animal kingdom, you find lots of peripheral devices. +So snakes have heat pits with which to detect infrared, and the ghost knifefish has electroreceptors, and the star-nosed mole has this appendage with 22 fingers on it with which it feels around and constructs a 3D model of the world, and many birds have magnetite so they can orient to the magnetic field of the planet. +So what this means is that nature doesn't have to continually redesign the brain. +Instead, with the principles of brain operation established, all nature has to worry about is designing new peripherals. +Okay. So what this means is this: The lesson that surfaces is that there's nothing really special or fundamental about the biology that we come to the table with. +It's just what we have inherited from a complex road of evolution. +But it's not what we have to stick with, and our best proof of principle of this comes from what's called sensory substitution. +And that refers to feeding information into the brain via unusual sensory channels, and the brain just figures out what to do with it. +Now, that might sound speculative, but the first paper demonstrating this was published in the journal Nature in 1969. +So a scientist named Paul Bach-y-Rita put blind people in a modified dental chair, and he set up a video feed, and he put something in front of the camera, and then you would feel that poked into your back with a grid of solenoids. +So if you wiggle a coffee cup in front of the camera, you're feeling that in your back, and amazingly, blind people got pretty good at being able to determine what was in front of the camera just by feeling it in the small of their back. +Now, there have been many modern incarnations of this. +The sonic glasses take a video feed right in front of you and turn that into a sonic landscape, so as things move around, and get closer and farther, it sounds like "Bzz, bzz, bzz." +It sounds like a cacophony, but after several weeks, blind people start getting pretty good at understanding what's in front of them just based on what they're hearing. +And it doesn't have to be through the ears: this system uses an electrotactile grid on the forehead, so whatever's in front of the video feed, you're feeling it on your forehead. +Why the forehead? Because you're not using it for much else. +The most modern incarnation is called the brainport, and this is a little electrogrid that sits on your tongue, and the video feed gets turned into these little electrotactile signals, and blind people get so good at using this that they can throw a ball into a basket, or they can navigate complex obstacle courses. +They can come to see through their tongue. +Now, that sounds completely insane, right? +But remember, all vision ever is is electrochemical signals coursing around in your brain. +Your brain doesn't know where the signals come from. +It just figures out what to do with them. +So my interest in my lab is sensory substitution for the deaf, and this is a project I've undertaken with a graduate student in my lab, Scott Novich, who is spearheading this for his thesis. +And here is what we wanted to do: we wanted to make it so that sound from the world gets converted in some way so that a deaf person can understand what is being said. +And we wanted to do this, given the power and ubiquity of portable computing, we wanted to make sure that this would run on cell phones and tablets, and also we wanted to make this a wearable, something that you could wear under your clothing. +So here's the concept. +So as I'm speaking, my sound is getting captured by the tablet, and then it's getting mapped onto a vest that's covered in vibratory motors, just like the motors in your cell phone. +So as I'm speaking, the sound is getting translated to a pattern of vibration on the vest. +Now, this is not just conceptual: this tablet is transmitting Bluetooth, and I'm wearing the vest right now. +So as I'm speaking -- -- the sound is getting translated into dynamic patterns of vibration. +I'm feeling the sonic world around me. +So, we've been testing this with deaf people now, and it turns out that after just a little bit of time, people can start feeling, they can start understanding the language of the vest. +So this is Jonathan. He's 37 years old. He has a master's degree. +He was born profoundly deaf, which means that there's a part of his umwelt that's unavailable to him. +So we had Jonathan train with the vest for four days, two hours a day, and here he is on the fifth day. +Scott Novich: You. +David Eagleman: So Scott says a word, Jonathan feels it on the vest, and he writes it on the board. +SN: Where. Where. +DE: Jonathan is able to translate this complicated pattern of vibrations into an understanding of what's being said. +SN: Touch. Touch. +Now, this technology has the potential to be a game-changer, because the only other solution for deafness is a cochlear implant, and that requires an invasive surgery. +And this can be built for 40 times cheaper than a cochlear implant, which opens up this technology globally, even for the poorest countries. +Now, we've been very encouraged by our results with sensory substitution, but what we've been thinking a lot about is sensory addition. +How could we use a technology like this to add a completely new kind of sense, to expand the human umvelt? +For example, could we feed real-time data from the Internet directly into somebody's brain, and can they develop a direct perceptual experience? +So here's an experiment we're doing in the lab. +A subject is feeling a real-time streaming feed from the Net of data for five seconds. +Then, two buttons appear, and he has to make a choice. +He doesn't know what's going on. +He makes a choice, and he gets feedback after one second. +Now, here's the thing: The subject has no idea what all the patterns mean, but we're seeing if he gets better at figuring out which button to press. +He doesn't know that what we're feeding is real-time data from the stock market, and he's making buy and sell decisions. +And the feedback is telling him whether he did the right thing or not. +And what we're seeing is, can we expand the human umvelt a direct perceptual experience of the economic movements of the planet. +So we'll report on that later to see how well this goes. +Here's another thing we're doing: During the talks this morning, we've been automatically scraping Twitter for the TED2015 hashtag, and we've been doing an automated sentiment analysis, which means, are people using positive words or negative words or neutral? +And while this has been going on, I have been feeling this, and so I am plugged in to the aggregate emotion of thousands of people in real time, and that's a new kind of human experience, because now I can know how everyone's doing and how much you're loving this. +It's a bigger experience than a human can normally have. +We're also expanding the umvelt of pilots. +So in this case, the vest is streaming nine different measures from this quadcopter, so pitch and yaw and roll and orientation and heading, and that improves this pilot's ability to fly it. +It's essentially like he's extending his skin up there, far away. +And that's just the beginning. +What we're envisioning is taking a modern cockpit full of gauges and instead of trying to read the whole thing, you feel it. +We live in a world of information now, and there is a difference between accessing big data and experiencing it. +So I think there's really no end to the possibilities on the horizon for human expansion. +Just imagine an astronaut being able to feel the overall health of the International Space Station, or, for that matter, having you feel the invisible states of your own health, like your blood sugar and the state of your microbiome, or having 360-degree vision or seeing in infrared or ultraviolet. +So the key is this: As we move into the future, we're going to increasingly be able to choose our own peripheral devices. +We no longer have to wait for Mother Nature's sensory gifts on her timescales, but instead, like any good parent, she's given us the tools that we need to go out and define our own trajectory. +So the question now is, how do you want to go out and experience your universe? +Thank you. +Chris Anderson: Can you feel it? DE: Yeah. +Actually, this was the first time I felt applause on the vest. +It's nice. It's like a massage. CA: Twitter's going crazy. Twitter's going mad. +So that stock market experiment. +This could be the first experiment that secures its funding forevermore, right, if successful? +DE: Well, that's right, I wouldn't have to write to NIH anymore. +CA: Well look, just to be skeptical for a minute, I mean, this is amazing, but isn't most of the evidence so far that sensory substitution works, not necessarily that sensory addition works? +I mean, isn't it possible that the blind person can see through their tongue because the visual cortex is still there, ready to process, and that that is needed as part of it? +DE: That's a great question. We actually have no idea what the theoretical limits are of what kind of data the brain can take in. +The general story, though, is that it's extraordinarily flexible. +So when a person goes blind, what we used to call their visual cortex gets taken over by other things, by touch, by hearing, by vocabulary. +So what that tells us is that the cortex is kind of a one-trick pony. +It just runs certain kinds of computations on things. +And when we look around at things like braille, for example, people are getting information through bumps on their fingers. +So I don't think we have any reason to think there's a theoretical limit that we know the edge of. +CA: If this checks out, you're going to be deluged. +There are so many possible applications for this. +Are you ready for this? What are you most excited about, the direction it might go? +DE: I mean, I think there's a lot of applications here. +In terms of beyond sensory substitution, the things I started mentioning about astronauts on the space station, they spend a lot of their time monitoring things, and they could instead just get what's going on, because what this is really good for is multidimensional data. +The key is this: Our visual systems are good at detecting blobs and edges, but they're really bad at what our world has become, which is screens with lots and lots of data. +We have to crawl that with our attentional systems. +So this is a way of just feeling the state of something, just like the way you know the state of your body as you're standing around. +So I think heavy machinery, safety, feeling the state of a factory, of your equipment, that's one place it'll go right away. +CA: David Eagleman, that was one mind-blowing talk. Thank you very much. +DE: Thank you, Chris. +I'm thrilled to be here tonight to share with you something we've been working on for over two years, and it's in the area of additive manufacturing, also known as 3D printing. +You see this object here. +It looks fairly simple, but it's quite complex at the same time. +It's a set of concentric geodesic structures with linkages between each one. +In its context, it is not manufacturable by traditional manufacturing techniques. +It has a symmetry such that you can't injection mold it. +You can't even manufacture it through milling. +This is a job for a 3D printer, but most 3D printers would take between three and 10 hours to fabricate it, and we're going to take the risk tonight to try to fabricate it onstage during this 10-minute talk. +Wish us luck. +Now, 3D printing is actually a misnomer. +It's actually 2D printing over and over again, and it in fact uses the technologies associated with 2D printing. +Think about inkjet printing where you lay down ink on a page to make letters, and then do that over and over again to build up a three-dimensional object. +In microelectronics, they use something called lithography to do the same sort of thing, to make the transistors and integrated circuits and build up a structure several times. +These are all 2D printing technologies. +Now, I'm a chemist, a material scientist too, and my co-inventors are also material scientists, one a chemist, one a physicist, and we began to be interested in 3D printing. +And very often, as you know, new ideas are often simple connections between people with different experiences in different communities, and that's our story. +by the "Terminator 2" scene for T-1000, and we thought, why couldn't a 3D printer operate in this fashion, where you have an object arise out of a puddle in essentially real time with essentially no waste to make a great object? +Okay, just like the movies. +And could we be inspired by Hollywood and come up with ways to actually try to get this to work? +And that was our challenge. +And our approach would be, if we could do this, then we could fundamentally address the three issues holding back 3D printing from being a manufacturing process. +One, 3D printing takes forever. +There are mushrooms that grow faster than 3D printed parts. The layer by layer process leads to defects in mechanical properties, and if we could grow continuously, we could eliminate those defects. +And in fact, if we could grow really fast, we could also start using materials that are self-curing, and we could have amazing properties. +So if we could pull this off, imitate Hollywood, we could in fact address 3D manufacturing. +Our approach is to use some standard knowledge in polymer chemistry to harness light and oxygen to grow parts continuously. +Light and oxygen work in different ways. +Light can take a resin and convert it to a solid, can convert a liquid to a solid. +Oxygen inhibits that process. +So light and oxygen are polar opposites from one another from a chemical point of view, and if we can control spatially the light and oxygen, we could control this process. +And we refer to this as CLIP. [Continuous Liquid Interface Production.] It has three functional components. +One, it has a reservoir that holds the puddle, just like the T-1000. +At the bottom of the reservoir is a special window. +I'll come back to that. +In addition, it has a stage that will lower into the puddle and pull the object out of the liquid. +The third component is a digital light projection system underneath the reservoir, illuminating with light in the ultraviolet region. +Now, the key is that this window in the bottom of this reservoir, it's a composite, it's a very special window. +It's not only transparent to light but it's permeable to oxygen. +It's got characteristics like a contact lens. +So we can see how the process works. +But with our very special window, what we're able to do is, with oxygen coming through the bottom as light hits it, that oxygen inhibits the reaction, and we form a dead zone. +And so we have a number of key variables that we control: oxygen content, the light, the light intensity, the dose to cure, the viscosity, the geometry, and we use very sophisticated software to control this process. +The result is pretty staggering. +It's 25 to 100 times faster than traditional 3D printers, which is game-changing. +In addition, because we're growing things, we eliminate the layers, and the parts are monolithic. +You don't see the surface structure. +You have molecularly smooth surfaces. +And the mechanical properties of most parts made in a 3D printer are notorious for having properties that depend on the orientation with which how you printed it, because of the layer-like structure. +But when you grow objects like this, the properties are invariant with the print direction. +These look like injection-molded parts, which is very different than traditional 3D manufacturing. +In addition, we're able to throw the entire polymer chemistry textbook at this, and we're able to design chemistries that can give rise to the properties you really want in a 3D-printed object. +There it is. That's great. +You always take the risk that something like this won't work onstage, right? +But we can have materials with great mechanical properties. +For the first time, we can have elastomers that are high elasticity or high dampening. +Think about vibration control or great sneakers, for example. +We can make materials that have incredible strength, high strength-to-weight ratio, really strong materials, really great elastomers, so throw that in the audience there. +So great material properties. +And so the opportunity now, if you actually make a part that has the properties to be a final part, and you do it in game-changing speeds, you can actually transform manufacturing. +Right now, in manufacturing, what happens is, the so-called digital thread in digital manufacturing. +We go from a CAD drawing, a design, to a prototype to manufacturing. +Often, the digital thread is broken right at prototype, because you can't go all the way to manufacturing because most parts don't have the properties to be a final part. +Or digital dentistry, and making these kinds of structures even while you're in the dentist chair. +And look at the structures that my students are making at the University of North Carolina. +These are amazing microscale structures. +You know, the world is really good at nano-fabrication. +Moore's Law has driven things from 10 microns and below. +We're really good at that, but it's actually very hard to make things from 10 microns to 1,000 microns, the mesoscale. +And subtractive techniques from the silicon industry can't do that very well. +They can't etch wafers that well. +But this process is so gentle, we can grow these objects up from the bottom using additive manufacturing and make amazing things in tens of seconds, opening up new sensor technologies, new drug delivery techniques, new lab-on-a-chip applications, really game-changing stuff. +Thanks for listening. +You're looking at a woman who was publicly silent for a decade. +Obviously, that's changed, but only recently. +It was several months ago that I gave my very first major public talk at the Forbes 30 Under 30 summit: 1,500 brilliant people, all under the age of 30. +That meant that in 1998, the oldest among the group were only 14, and the youngest, just four. +I joked with them that some might only have heard of me from rap songs. +Yes, I'm in rap songs. +Almost 40 rap songs. But the night of my speech, a surprising thing happened. +At the age of 41, I was hit on by a 27-year-old guy. +I know, right? +He was charming and I was flattered, and I declined. +You know what his unsuccessful pickup line was? +He could make me feel 22 again. +I realized later that night, I'm probably the only person over 40 who does not want to be 22 again. +At the age of 22, I fell in love with my boss, and at the age of 24, I learned the devastating consequences. +Can I see a show of hands of anyone here who didn't make a mistake or do something they regretted at 22? +Yep. That's what I thought. +So like me, at 22, a few of you may have also taken wrong turns and fallen in love with the wrong person, maybe even your boss. +Unlike me, though, your boss probably wasn't the president of the United States of America. +Of course, life is full of surprises. +Not a day goes by that I'm not reminded of my mistake, and I regret that mistake deeply. +In 1998, after having been swept up into an improbable romance, I was then swept up into the eye of a political, legal and media maelstrom like we had never seen before. +Remember, just a few years earlier, news was consumed from just three places: reading a newspaper or magazine, listening to the radio, or watching television. +That was it. +But that wasn't my fate. +Instead, this scandal was brought to you by the digital revolution. +That meant we could access all the information we wanted, when we wanted it, anytime, anywhere, and when the story broke in January 1998, it broke online. +It was the first time the traditional news was usurped by the Internet for a major news story, a click that reverberated around the world. +What that meant for me personally was that overnight I went from being a completely private figure to a publicly humiliated one worldwide. +I was patient zero of losing a personal reputation on a global scale almost instantaneously. +This rush to judgment, enabled by technology, led to mobs of virtual stone-throwers. +Granted, it was before social media, but people could still comment online, email stories, and, of course, email cruel jokes. +News sources plastered photos of me all over to sell newspapers, banner ads online, and to keep people tuned to the TV. +Do you recall a particular image of me, say, wearing a beret? +Now, I admit I made mistakes, especially wearing that beret. +But the attention and judgment that I received, not the story, but that I personally received, was unprecedented. +I was branded as a tramp, tart, slut, whore, bimbo, and, of course, that woman. +I was seen by many but actually known by few. +And I get it: it was easy to forget that that woman was dimensional, had a soul, and was once unbroken. +When this happened to me 17 years ago, there was no name for it. +Now we call it cyberbullying and online harassment. +Today, I want to share some of my experience with you, talk about how that experience has helped shape my cultural observations, and how I hope my past experience can lead to a change that results in less suffering for others. +In 1998, I lost my reputation and my dignity. +I lost almost everything, and I almost lost my life. +Let me paint a picture for you. +It is September of 1998. +I'm sitting in a windowless office room inside the Office of the Independent Counsel underneath humming fluorescent lights. +I'm listening to the sound of my voice, my voice on surreptitiously taped phone calls that a supposed friend had made the year before. +I'm here because I've been legally required to personally authenticate all 20 hours of taped conversation. +For the past eight months, the mysterious content of these tapes has hung like the Sword of Damocles over my head. +I mean, who can remember what they said a year ago? +A few days later, the Starr Report is released to Congress, and all of those tapes and transcripts, those stolen words, form a part of it. +That people can read the transcripts is horrific enough, but a few weeks later, the audio tapes are aired on TV, and significant portions made available online. +The public humiliation was excruciating. +Life was almost unbearable. +This was not something that happened with regularity back then in 1998, and by this, I mean the stealing of people's private words, actions, conversations or photos, and then making them public -- public without consent, public without context, and public without compassion. +Fast forward 12 years to 2010, and now social media has been born. +The landscape has sadly become much more populated with instances like mine, whether or not someone actually make a mistake, and now it's for both public and private people. +The consequences for some have become dire, very dire. +I was on the phone with my mom in September of 2010, and we were talking about the news of a young college freshman from Rutgers University named Tyler Clementi. +Sweet, sensitive, creative Tyler was secretly webcammed by his roommate while being intimate with another man. +When the online world learned of this incident, the ridicule and cyberbullying ignited. +A few days later, Tyler jumped from the George Washington Bridge to his death. +He was 18. +Today, too many parents haven't had the chance to step in and rescue their loved ones. +Too many have learned of their child's suffering and humiliation after it was too late. +Tyler's tragic, senseless death was a turning point for me. +It served to recontextualize my experiences, and I then began to look at the world of humiliation and bullying around me and see something different. +In 1998, we had no way of knowing where this brave new technology called the Internet would take us. +Since then, it has connected people in unimaginable ways, joining lost siblings, saving lives, launching revolutions, but the darkness, cyberbullying, and slut-shaming that I experienced had mushroomed. +Every day online, people, especially young people who are not developmentally equipped to handle this, are so abused and humiliated that they can't imagine living to the next day, and some, tragically, don't, and there's nothing virtual about that. +ChildLine, a U.K. nonprofit that's focused on helping young people on various issues, released a staggering statistic late last year: From 2012 to 2013, there was an 87 percent increase in calls and emails related to cyberbullying. +A meta-analysis done out of the Netherlands showed that for the first time, cyberbullying was leading to suicidal ideations more significantly than offline bullying. +And you know what shocked me, although it shouldn't have, was other research last year that determined humiliation was a more intensely felt emotion than either happiness or even anger. +Cruelty to others is nothing new, but online, technologically enhanced shaming is amplified, uncontained, and permanently accessible. +The echo of embarrassment used to extend only as far as your family, village, school or community, but now it's the online community too. +Millions of people, often anonymously, can stab you with their words, and that's a lot of pain, and there are no perimeters around how many people can publicly observe you and put you in a public stockade. +There is a very personal price to public humiliation, and the growth of the Internet has jacked up that price. +For nearly two decades now, we have slowly been sowing the seeds of shame and public humiliation in our cultural soil, both on- and offline. +Gossip websites, paparazzi, reality programming, politics, news outlets and sometimes hackers all traffic in shame. +It's led to desensitization and a permissive environment online which lends itself to trolling, invasion of privacy, and cyberbullying. +This shift has created what Professor Nicolaus Mills calls a culture of humiliation. +Consider a few prominent examples just from the past six months alone. +Snapchat, the service which is used mainly by younger generations and claims that its messages only have the lifespan of a few seconds. +You can imagine the range of content that that gets. +A third-party app which Snapchatters use to preserve the lifespan of the messages was hacked, and 100,000 personal conversations, photos, and videos were leaked online to now have a lifespan of forever. +Jennifer Lawrence and several other actors had their iCloud accounts hacked, and private, intimate, nude photos were plastered across the Internet without their permission. +One gossip website had over five million hits for this one story. +And what about the Sony Pictures cyberhacking? +The documents which received the most attention were private emails that had maximum public embarrassment value. +But in this culture of humiliation, there is another kind of price tag attached to public shaming. +The price does not measure the cost to the victim, which Tyler and too many others, notably women, minorities, and members of the LGBTQ community have paid, but the price measures the profit of those who prey on them. +This invasion of others is a raw material, efficiently and ruthlessly mined, packaged and sold at a profit. +A marketplace has emerged where public humiliation is a commodity and shame is an industry. +How is the money made? +Clicks. +The more shame, the more clicks. +The more clicks, the more advertising dollars. +We're in a dangerous cycle. +The more we click on this kind of gossip, the more numb we get to the human lives behind it, and the more numb we get, the more we click. +All the while, someone is making money off of the back of someone else's suffering. +With every click, we make a choice. +The more we saturate our culture with public shaming, the more accepted it is, the more we will see behavior like cyberbullying, trolling, some forms of hacking, and online harassment. +Why? Because they all have humiliation at their cores. +This behavior is a symptom of the culture we've created. +Just think about it. +Changing behavior begins with evolving beliefs. +We've seen that to be true with racism, homophobia, and plenty of other biases, today and in the past. +As we've changed beliefs about same-sex marriage, more people have been offered equal freedoms. +When we began valuing sustainability, more people began to recycle. +So as far as our culture of humiliation goes, what we need is a cultural revolution. +Public shaming as a blood sport has to stop, and it's time for an intervention on the Internet and in our culture. +The shift begins with something simple, but it's not easy. +We need to return to a long-held value of compassion -- compassion and empathy. +Online, we've got a compassion deficit, an empathy crisis. +Researcher Bren Brown said, and I quote, "Shame can't survive empathy." +Shame cannot survive empathy. +I've seen some very dark days in my life, and it was the compassion and empathy from my family, friends, professionals, and sometimes even strangers that saved me. +Even empathy from one person can make a difference. +The theory of minority influence, proposed by social psychologist Serge Moscovici, says that even in small numbers, when there's consistency over time, change can happen. +In the online world, we can foster minority influence by becoming upstanders. +To become an upstander means instead of bystander apathy, we can post a positive comment for someone or report a bullying situation. +Trust me, compassionate comments help abate the negativity. +We can also counteract the culture by supporting organizations that deal with these kinds of issues, like the Tyler Clementi Foundation in the U.S., In the U.K., there's Anti-Bullying Pro, and in Australia, there's Project Rockit. +We talk a lot about our right to freedom of expression, but we need to talk more about our responsibility to freedom of expression. +We all want to be heard, but let's acknowledge the difference between speaking up with intention and speaking up for attention. +The Internet is the superhighway for the id, but online, showing empathy to others benefits us all and helps create a safer and better world. +We need to communicate online with compassion, consume news with compassion, and click with compassion. +Just imagine walking a mile in someone else's headline. +I'd like to end on a personal note. +In the past nine months, the question I've been asked the most is why. +Why now? Why was I sticking my head above the parapet? +You can read between the lines in those questions, and the answer has nothing to do with politics. +The top note answer was and is because it's time: time to stop tip-toeing around my past; time to stop living a life of opprobrium; and time to take back my narrative. +It's also not just about saving myself. +Anyone who is suffering from shame and public humiliation needs to know one thing: You can survive it. +I know it's hard. +It may not be painless, quick or easy, but you can insist on a different ending to your story. +Have compassion for yourself. +We all deserve compassion, and to live both online and off in a more compassionate world. +Thank you for listening. +Let me show you something. +Girl: Okay, that's a cat sitting in a bed. +The boy is petting the elephant. +Those are people that are going on an airplane. +That's a big airplane. +Fei-Fei Li: This is a three-year-old child describing what she sees in a series of photos. +She might still have a lot to learn about this world, but she's already an expert at one very important task: to make sense of what she sees. +Our society is more technologically advanced than ever. +We send people to the moon, we make phones that talk to us or customize radio stations that can play only music we like. +Yet, our most advanced machines and computers still struggle at this task. +So I'm here today to give you a progress report on the latest advances in our research in computer vision, one of the most frontier and potentially revolutionary technologies in computer science. +Yes, we have prototyped cars that can drive by themselves, but without smart vision, they cannot really tell the difference between a crumpled paper bag on the road, which can be run over, and a rock that size, which should be avoided. +We have made fabulous megapixel cameras, but we have not delivered sight to the blind. +Drones can fly over massive land, but don't have enough vision technology to help us to track the changes of the rainforests. +Security cameras are everywhere, but they do not alert us when a child is drowning in a swimming pool. +Photos and videos are becoming an integral part of global life. +They're being generated at a pace that's far beyond what any human, or teams of humans, could hope to view, and you and I are contributing to that at this TED. +Yet our most advanced software is still struggling at understanding and managing this enormous content. +So in other words, collectively as a society, we're very much blind, because our smartest machines are still blind. +"Why is this so hard?" you may ask. +Cameras can take pictures like this one by converting lights into a two-dimensional array of numbers known as pixels, but these are just lifeless numbers. +They do not carry meaning in themselves. +Just like to hear is not the same as to listen, to take pictures is not the same as to see, and by seeing, we really mean understanding. +In fact, it took Mother Nature 540 million years of hard work to do this task, and much of that effort went into developing the visual processing apparatus of our brains, not the eyes themselves. +So vision begins with the eyes, but it truly takes place in the brain. +So for 15 years now, starting from my Ph.D. at Caltech and then leading Stanford's Vision Lab, I've been working with my mentors, collaborators and students to teach computers to see. +Our research field is called computer vision and machine learning. +It's part of the general field of artificial intelligence. +So ultimately, we want to teach the machines to see just like we do: naming objects, identifying people, inferring 3D geometry of things, understanding relations, emotions, actions and intentions. +You and I weave together entire stories of people, places and things the moment we lay our gaze on them. +The first step towards this goal is to teach a computer to see objects, the building block of the visual world. +In its simplest terms, imagine this teaching process as showing the computers some training images of a particular object, let's say cats, and designing a model that learns from these training images. +How hard can this be? +After all, a cat is just a collection of shapes and colors, and this is what we did in the early days of object modeling. +We'd tell the computer algorithm in a mathematical language that a cat has a round face, a chubby body, two pointy ears, and a long tail, and that looked all fine. +But what about this cat? +It's all curled up. +Now you have to add another shape and viewpoint to the object model. +But what if cats are hidden? +What about these silly cats? +Now you get my point. +Even something as simple as a household pet can present an infinite number of variations to the object model, and that's just one object. +So about eight years ago, a very simple and profound observation changed my thinking. +No one tells a child how to see, especially in the early years. +They learn this through real-world experiences and examples. +If you consider a child's eyes as a pair of biological cameras, they take one picture about every 200 milliseconds, the average time an eye movement is made. +So by age three, a child would have seen hundreds of millions of pictures of the real world. +That's a lot of training examples. +So instead of focusing solely on better and better algorithms, my insight was to give the algorithms the kind of training data that a child was given through experiences in both quantity and quality. +Once we know this, we knew we needed to collect a data set that has far more images than we have ever had before, perhaps thousands of times more, and together with Professor Kai Li at Princeton University, we launched the ImageNet project in 2007. +Luckily, we didn't have to mount a camera on our head and wait for many years. +We went to the Internet, the biggest treasure trove of pictures that humans have ever created. +We downloaded nearly a billion images and used crowdsourcing technology like the Amazon Mechanical Turk platform to help us to label these images. +At its peak, ImageNet was one of the biggest employers of the Amazon Mechanical Turk workers: together, almost 50,000 workers from 167 countries around the world helped us to clean, sort and label nearly a billion candidate images. +That was how much effort it took to capture even a fraction of the imagery a child's mind takes in in the early developmental years. +In hindsight, this idea of using big data to train computer algorithms may seem obvious now, but back in 2007, it was not so obvious. +We were fairly alone on this journey for quite a while. +Some very friendly colleagues advised me to do something more useful for my tenure, and we were constantly struggling for research funding. +Once, I even joked to my graduate students that I would just reopen my dry cleaner's shop to fund ImageNet. +After all, that's how I funded my college years. +So we carried on. +In 2009, the ImageNet project delivered a database of 15 million images across 22,000 classes of objects and things organized by everyday English words. +In both quantity and quality, this was an unprecedented scale. +As an example, in the case of cats, we have more than 62,000 cats of all kinds of looks and poses and across all species of domestic and wild cats. +We were thrilled to have put together ImageNet, and we wanted the whole research world to benefit from it, so in the TED fashion, we opened up the entire data set to the worldwide research community for free. +Now that we have the data to nourish our computer brain, we're ready to come back to the algorithms themselves. +As it turned out, the wealth of information provided by ImageNet was a perfect match to a particular class of machine learning algorithms called convolutional neural network, pioneered by Kunihiko Fukushima, Geoff Hinton, and Yann LeCun back in the 1970s and '80s. +Just like the brain consists of billions of highly connected neurons, a basic operating unit in a neural network is a neuron-like node. +It takes input from other nodes and sends output to others. +Moreover, these hundreds of thousands or even millions of nodes are organized in hierarchical layers, also similar to the brain. +In a typical neural network we use to train our object recognition model, it has 24 million nodes, 140 million parameters, and 15 billion connections. +That's an enormous model. +Powered by the massive data from ImageNet and the modern CPUs and GPUs to train such a humongous model, the convolutional neural network blossomed in a way that no one expected. +It became the winning architecture to generate exciting new results in object recognition. +This is a computer telling us this picture contains a cat and where the cat is. +Of course there are more things than cats, so here's a computer algorithm telling us the picture contains a boy and a teddy bear; a dog, a person, and a small kite in the background; or a picture of very busy things like a man, a skateboard, railings, a lampost, and so on. +We applied this algorithm to millions of Google Street View images across hundreds of American cities, and we have learned something really interesting: first, it confirmed our common wisdom that car prices correlate very well with household incomes. +But surprisingly, car prices also correlate well with crime rates in cities, or voting patterns by zip codes. +So wait a minute. Is that it? +Has the computer already matched or even surpassed human capabilities? +Not so fast. +So far, we have just taught the computer to see objects. +This is like a small child learning to utter a few nouns. +It's an incredible accomplishment, but it's only the first step. +Soon, another developmental milestone will be hit, and children begin to communicate in sentences. +So instead of saying this is a cat in the picture, you already heard the little girl telling us this is a cat lying on a bed. +So to teach a computer to see a picture and generate sentences, the marriage between big data and machine learning algorithm has to take another step. +Now, the computer has to learn from both pictures as well as natural language sentences generated by humans. +Just like the brain integrates vision and language, we developed a model that connects parts of visual things like visual snippets with words and phrases in sentences. +About four months ago, we finally tied all this together and produced one of the first computer vision models that is capable of generating a human-like sentence when it sees a picture for the first time. +Now, I'm ready to show you what the computer says when it sees the picture that the little girl saw at the beginning of this talk. +Computer: A man is standing next to an elephant. +A large airplane sitting on top of an airport runway. +FFL: Of course, we're still working hard to improve our algorithms, and it still has a lot to learn. +And the computer still makes mistakes. +Computer: A cat lying on a bed in a blanket. +FFL: So of course, when it sees too many cats, it thinks everything might look like a cat. +Computer: A young boy is holding a baseball bat. +FFL: Or, if it hasn't seen a toothbrush, it confuses it with a baseball bat. +Computer: A man riding a horse down a street next to a building. +FFL: We haven't taught Art 101 to the computers. +Computer: A zebra standing in a field of grass. +FFL: And it hasn't learned to appreciate the stunning beauty of nature like you and I do. +So it has been a long journey. +To get from age zero to three was hard. +The real challenge is to go from three to 13 and far beyond. +Let me remind you with this picture of the boy and the cake again. +So far, we have taught the computer to see objects or even tell us a simple story when seeing a picture. +Computer: A person sitting at a table with a cake. +FFL: But there's so much more to this picture than just a person and a cake. +What the computer doesn't see is that this is a special Italian cake that's only served during Easter time. +The boy is wearing his favorite t-shirt given to him as a gift by his father after a trip to Sydney, and you and I can all tell how happy he is and what's exactly on his mind at that moment. +This is my son Leo. +On my quest for visual intelligence, I think of Leo constantly and the future world he will live in. +When machines can see, doctors and nurses will have extra pairs of tireless eyes to help them to diagnose and take care of patients. +Cars will run smarter and safer on the road. +Robots, not just humans, will help us to brave the disaster zones to save the trapped and wounded. +We will discover new species, better materials, and explore unseen frontiers with the help of the machines. +Little by little, we're giving sight to the machines. +First, we teach them to see. +Then, they help us to see better. +For the first time, human eyes won't be the only ones pondering and exploring our world. +We will not only use the machines for their intelligence, we will also collaborate with them in ways that we cannot even imagine. +This is my quest: to give computers visual intelligence and to create a better future for Leo and for the world. +Thank you. +"Where are you from?" said the pale, tattooed man. +"Where are you from?" +It's September 21, 2001, 10 days after the worst attack on America since World War II. +Everyone wonders about the next plane. +People are looking for scapegoats. +The president, the night before, pledges to "bring our enemies to justice or bring justice to our enemies." +And in the Dallas mini-mart, a Dallas mini-part surrounded by tire shops and strip joints a Bangladeshi immigrant works the register. +Back home, Raisuddin Bhuiyan was a big man, an Air Force officer. +But he dreamed of a fresh start in America. +If he had to work briefly in a mini-mart to save up for I.T. classes and his wedding in two months, so be it. +Then, on September 21, that tattooed man enters the mart. +He holds a shotgun. +Raisuddin knows the drill: puts cash on the counter. +This time, the man doesn't touch the money. +"Where are you from?" he asks. +"Excuse me?" Raisuddin answers. +His accent betrays him. +The tattooed man, a self-styled true American vigilante, shoots Raisuddin in revenge for 9/11. +Raisuddin feels millions of bees stinging his face. +In fact, dozens of scalding, birdshot pellets puncture his head. +Behind the counter, he lays in blood. +He cups a hand over his forehead to keep in the brains on which he'd gambled everything. +He recites verses from the Koran, begging his God to live. +He senses he is dying. +He didn't die. +His right eye left him. +His fiance left him. +His landlord, the mini-mart owner, kicked him out. +Soon he was homeless and 60,000 dollars in medical debt, including a fee for dialing for an ambulance. +But Raisuddin lived. +And years later, he would ask what he could do to repay his God and become worthy of this second chance. +He would come to believe, in fact, that this chance called for him to give a second chance to a man we might think deserved no chance at all. +Twelve years ago, I was a fresh graduate seeking my way in the world. +Born in Ohio to Indian immigrants, I settled on the ultimate rebellion against my parents, moving to the country they had worked so damn hard to get out of. +What I thought might be a six-month stint in Mumbai stretched to six years. +I became a writer and found myself amid a magical story: the awakening of hope across much of the so-called Third World. +Six years ago, I returned to America and realized something: The American Dream was thriving, but only in India. +In America, not so much. +In fact, I observed that America was fracturing into two distinct societies: a republic of dreams and a republic of fears. +And then, I stumbled onto this incredible tale of two lives and of these two Americas that brutally collided in that Dallas mini-mart. +I knew at once I wanted to learn more, and eventually that I would write a book about them, for their story was the story of America's fracturing and of how it might be put back together. +After he was shot, Raisuddin's life grew no easier. +The day after admitting him, the hospital discharged him. +His right eye couldn't see. +He couldn't speak. +Metal peppered his face. +But he had no insurance, so they bounced him. +His family in Bangladesh begged him, "Come home." +But he told them he had a dream to see about. +He found telemarketing work, then he became an Olive Garden waiter, because where better to get over his fear of white people than the Olive Garden? +Now, as a devout Muslim, he refused alcohol, didn't touch the stuff. +Then he learned that not selling it would slash his pay. +So he reasoned, like a budding American pragmatist, "Well, God wouldn't want me to starve, would he?" +And before long, in some months, Raisuddin was that Olive Garden's highest grossing alcohol pusher. +He found a man who taught him database administration. +He got part-time I.T. gigs. +Eventually, he landed a six-figure job at a blue chip tech company in Dallas. +But as America began to work for Raisuddin, he avoided the classic error of the fortunate: assuming you're the rule, not the exception. +In fact, he observed that many with the fortune of being born American were nonetheless trapped in lives that made second chances like his impossible. +He saw it at the Olive Garden itself, where so many of his colleagues had childhood horror stories of family dysfunction, chaos, addiction, crime. +He'd heard a similar tale about the man who shot him back when he attended his trial. +The closer Raisuddin got to the America he had coveted from afar, the more he realized there was another, equally real, America that was stingier with second chances. +The man who shot Raisuddin grew up in that stingier America. +From a distance, Mark Stroman was always the spark of parties, always making girls feel pretty. +Always working, no matter what drugs or fights he'd had the night before. +But he'd always wrestled with demons. +He entered the world through the three gateways that doom so many young American men: bad parents, bad schools, bad prisons. +His mother told him, regretfully, as a boy that she'd been just 50 dollars short of aborting him. +Sometimes, that little boy would be at school, he'd suddenly pull a knife on his fellow classmates. +Sometimes that same little boy would be at his grandparents', tenderly feeding horses. +He was getting arrested before he shaved, first juvenile, then prison. +He became a casual white supremacist and, like so many around him, a drug-addled and absent father. +And then, before long, he found himself on death row, for in his 2001 counter-jihad, he had shot not one mini-mart clerk, but three. +Only Raisuddin survived. +Strangely, death row was the first institution that left Stroman better. +His old influences quit him. +The people entering his life were virtuous and caring: pastors, journalists, European pen-pals. +They listened to him, prayed with him, helped him question himself. +And sent him on a journey of introspection and betterment. +He finally faced the hatred that had defined his life. +He read Viktor Frankl, the Holocaust survivor and regretted his swastika tattoos. +He found God. +Then one day in 2011, 10 years after his crimes, Stroman received news. +One of the men he'd shot, the survivor, was fighting to save his life. +You see, late in 2009, eight years after that shooting, Raisuddin had gone on his own journey, a pilgrimage to Mecca. +Amid its crowds, he felt immense gratitude, but also duty. +He recalled promising God, as he lay dying in 2001, that if he lived, he would serve humanity all his days. +Then, he'd gotten busy relaying the bricks of a life. +Now it was time to pay his debts. +And he decided, upon reflection, that his method of payment would be an intervention in the cycle of vengeance between the Muslim and Western worlds. +And how would he intervene? +By forgiving Stroman publicly in the name of Islam and its doctrine of mercy. +And then suing the state of Texas and its governor Rick Perry to prevent them from executing Stroman, exactly like most people shot in the face do. +Yet Raisuddin's mercy was inspired not only by faith. +A newly minted American citizen, he had come to believe that Stroman was the product of a hurting America that couldn't just be lethally injected away. +That insight is what moved me to write my book "The True American." +This immigrant begging America to be as merciful to a native son as it had been to an adopted one. +In the mini-mart, all those years earlier, not just two men, but two Americas collided. +An America that still dreams, still strives, still imagines that tomorrow can build on today, and an America that has resigned to fate, buckled under stress and chaos, lowered expectations, an ducked into the oldest of refuges: the tribal fellowship of one's own narrow kind. +And it was Raisuddin, despite being a newcomer, despite being attacked, despite being homeless and traumatized, who belonged to that republic of dreams and Stroman who belonged to that other wounded country, despite being born with the privilege of a native white man. +I realized these men's stories formed an urgent parable about America. +The country I am so proud to call my own wasn't living through a generalized decline as seen in Spain or Greece, where prospects were dimming for everyone. +America is simultaneously the most and the least successful country in the industrialized world. +Launching the world's best companies, even as record numbers of children go hungry. +Seeing life-expectancy drop for large groups, even as it polishes the world's best hospitals. +America today is a sprightly young body, hit by one of those strokes that sucks the life from one side, while leaving the other worryingly perfect. +On July 20, 2011, right after a sobbing Raisuddin testified in defense of Stroman's life, Stroman was killed by lethal injection by the state he so loved. +Hours earlier, when Raisuddin still thought he could still save Stroman, the two men got to speak for the second time ever. +Here is an excerpt from their phone call. +Raisuddin: "Mark, you should know that I am praying for God, the most compassionate and gracious. +I forgive you and I do not hate you. +I never hated you." +Stroman: "You are a remarkable person. +Thank you from my heart. +I love you, bro." +Even more amazingly, after the execution, Raisuddin reached out to Stroman's eldest daughter, Amber, an ex-convinct and an addict. +and offered his help. +"You may have lost a father," he told her, "but you've gained an uncle." +He wanted her, too, to have a second chance. +If human history were a parade, America's float would be a neon shrine to second chances. +But America, generous with second chances to the children of other lands, today grows miserly with first chances to the children of its own. +America still dazzles at allowing anybody to become an American. +But it is losing its luster at allowing every American to become a somebody. +Over the last decade, seven million foreigners gained American citizenship. +Remarkable. +In the meanwhile, how many Americans gained a place in the middle class? +Actually, the net influx was negative. +Go back further, and it's even more striking: Since the 60s, the middle class has shrunk by 20 percent, mainly because of the people tumbling out of it. +And my reporting around the country tells me the problem is grimmer than simple inequality. +What I observe is a pair of secessions from the unifying center of American life. +An affluent secession of up, up and away, into elite enclaves of the educated and into a global matrix of work, money and connections, and an impoverished secession of down and out into disconnected, dead-end lives that the fortunate scarcely see. +And don't console yourself that you are the 99 percent. +Other generations had to build a fresh society after slavery, pull through a depression, defeat fascism, freedom-ride in Mississippi. +The moral challenge of my generation, I believe, is to reacquaint these two Americas, to choose union over secession once again. +This ins't a problem we can tax or tax-cut away. +It won't be solved by tweeting harder, building slicker apps, or starting one more artisanal coffee roasting service. +It is a moral challenge that begs each of us in the flourishing America to take on the wilting America as our own, as Raisuddin tried to do. +Like him, we can make pilgrimages. +And there, in Baltimore and Oregon and Appalachia, find new purpose, as he did. +We can immerse ourselves in that other country, bear witness to its hopes and sorrows, and, like Raisuddin, ask what we can do. +What can you do? +What can you do? +What can we do? +How might we build a more merciful country? +We, the greatest inventors in the world, can invent solutions to the problems of that America, not only our own. +We, the writers and the journalists, can cover that America's stories, instead of shutting down bureaus in its midst. +We can finance that America's ideas, instead of ideas from New York and San Francisco. +We can put our stethoscopes to its backs, teach there, go to court there, make there, live there, pray there. +This, I believe, is the calling of a generation. +An America whose two halves learn again to stride, to plow, to forge, to dare together. +A republic of chances, rewoven, renewed, begins with us. +Thank you. +I'm a potter, which seems like a fairly humble vocation. +I know a lot about pots. +I've spent about 15 years making them. +I feel like, as a potter, you also start to learn how to shape the world. +There have been times in my artistic capacity that I wanted to reflect on other really important moments in the history of the U.S., the history of the world where tough things happened, but how do you talk about tough ideas without separating people from that content? +Could I use art like these old, discontinued firehoses from Alabama, to talk about the complexities of a moment of civil rights in the '60s? +Is it possible to talk about my father and I doing labor projects? +My dad was a roofer, construction guy, he owned small businesses, and at 80, he was ready to retire and his tar kettle was my inheritance. +Now, a tar kettle doesn't sound like much of an inheritance. It wasn't. +It was stinky and it took up a lot of space in my studio, but I asked my dad if he would be willing to make some art with me, if we could reimagine this kind of nothing material as something very special. +And by elevating the material and my dad's skill, could we start to think about tar just like clay, in a new way, shaping it differently, helping us to imagine what was possible? +After clay, I was then kind of turned on to lots of different kinds of materials, and my studio grew a lot because I thought, well, it's not really about the material, it's about our capacity to shape things. +I became more and more interested in ideas and more and more things that were happening just outside my studio. +Just to give you a little bit of context, I live in Chicago. +I live on the South Side now. I'm a West Sider. +For those of you who are not Chicagoans, that won't mean anything, but if I didn't mention that I was a West Sider, there would be a lot of people in the city that would be very upset. +The neighborhood that I live in is Grand Crossing. +It's a neighborhood that has seen better days. +It is not a gated community by far. +There is lots of abandonment in my neighborhood, and while I was kind of busy making pots and busy making art and having a good art career, there was all of this stuff that was happening just outside my studio. +All of us know about failing housing markets and the challenges of blight, and I feel like we talk about it with some of our cities more than others, but I think a lot of our U.S. cities and beyond have the challenge of blight, abandoned buildings that people no longer know what to do anything with. +And so I thought, is there a way that I could start to think about these buildings as an extension or an expansion of my artistic practice? +And that if I was thinking along with other creatives -- architects, engineers, real estate finance people -- that us together might be able to kind of think in more complicated ways about the reshaping of cities. +And so I bought a building. +The building was really affordable. +We tricked it out. +We made it as beautiful as we could to try to just get some activity happening on my block. +Once I bought the building for about 18,000 dollars, I didn't have any money left. +So I started sweeping the building as a kind of performance. +This is performance art, and people would come over, and I would start sweeping. +Because the broom was free and sweeping was free. +It worked out. +But we would use the building, then, to stage exhibitions, small dinners, and we found that that building on my block, Dorchester -- we now referred to the block as Dorchester projects -- that in a way that building became a kind of gathering site for lots of different kinds of activity. +We turned the building into what we called now the Archive House. +The Archive House would do all of these amazing things. +Very significant people in the city and beyond would find themselves in the middle of the hood. +And that's when I felt like maybe there was a relationship between my history with clay and this new thing that was starting to develop, that we were slowly starting to reshape how people imagined the South Side of the city. +One house turned into a few houses, and we always tried to suggest that not only is creating a beautiful vessel important, but the contents of what happens in those buildings is also very important. +So we were not only thinking about development, but we were thinking about the program, thinking about the kind of connections that could happen between one house and another, between one neighbor and another. +This building became what we call the Listening House, and it has a collection of discarded books from the Johnson Publishing Corporation, and other books from an old bookstore that was going out of business. +I was actually just wanting to activate these buildings as much as I could with whatever and whoever would join me. +In Chicago, there's amazing building stock. +This building, which had been the former crack house on the block, and when the building became abandoned, it became a great opportunity to really imagine what else could happen there. +So this space we converted into what we call Black Cinema House. +Black Cinema House was an opportunity in the hood to screen films that were important and relevant to the folk who lived around me, that if we wanted to show an old Melvin Van Peebles film, we could. +If we wanted to show "Car Wash," we could. +That would be awesome. +The building we soon outgrew, and we had to move to a larger space. +Black Cinema House, which was made from just a small piece of clay, had to grow into a much larger piece of clay, which is now my studio. +What I realized was that for those of you who are zoning junkies, that some of the things that I was doing in these buildings that had been left behind, they were not the uses by which the buildings were built, and that there are city policies that say, "Hey, a house that is residential needs to stay residential." +But what do you do in neighborhoods when ain't nobody interested in living there? +That the people who have the means to leave have already left? +What do we do with these abandoned buildings? +And so I was trying to wake them up using culture. +We found that that was so exciting for folk, and people were so responsive to the work, that we had to then find bigger buildings. +By the time we found bigger buildings, there was, in part, the resources necessary to think about those things. +In this bank that we called the Arts Bank, it was in pretty bad shape. +There was about six feet of standing water. +It was a difficult project to finance, because banks weren't interested in the neighborhood because people weren't interested in the neighborhood because nothing had happened there. +It was dirt. It was nothing. It was nowhere. +And so we just started imagining, what else could happen in this building? +One of the archives that we'll have there is this Johnson Publishing Corporation. +We've also started to collect memorabilia from American history, from people who live or have lived in that neighborhood. +Some of these images are degraded images of black people, kind of histories of very challenging content, and where better than a neighborhood with young people who are constantly asking themselves about their identity to talk about some of the complexities of race and class? +In some ways, it feels very much like I'm a potter, that we tackle the things that are at our wheel, we try with the skill that we have to think about this next bowl that I want to make. +And it went from a bowl to a singular house to a block to a neighborhood to a cultural district to thinking about the city, and at every point, there were things that I didn't know that I had to learn. +I've never learned so much about zoning law in my life. +I never thought I'd have to. +But as a result of that, I'm finding that there's not just room for my own artistic practice, there's room for a lot of other artistic practices. +So people started asking us, "Well, Theaster, how are you going to go to scale?" +and, "What's your sustainability plan?" +So now, we're starting to give advice around the country on how to start with what you got, how to start with the things that are in front of you, how to make something out of nothing, how to reshape your world at a wheel or at your block or at the scale of the city. +Thank you so much. +June Cohen: Thank you. So I think many people watching this will be asking themselves the question you just raised at the end: How can they do this in their own city? +You can't export yourself. +Give us a few pages out of your playbook about what someone who is inspired about their city can do to take on projects like yours? +Theaster Gates: One of the things I've found that's really important is giving thought to not just the kind of individual project, like an old house, but what's the relationship between an old house, a local school, a small bodega, and is there some kind of synergy between those things? +Can you get those folk talking? +I've found that in cases where neighborhoods have failed, they still often have a pulse. +How do you identify the pulse in that place, the passionate people, and then how do you get folk who have been fighting, slogging for 20 years, reenergized about the place that they live? +And so someone has to do that work. +If I were a traditional developer, I would be talking about buildings alone, and then putting a "For Lease" sign in the window. +I think that you actually have to curate more than that, that there's a way in which you have to be mindful about, what are the businesses that I want to grow here? +And then, are there people who live in this place who want to grow those businesses with me? +Because I think it's not just a cultural space or housing; there has to be the recreation of an economic core. +So thinking about those things together feels right. +JC: It's hard to get people to create the spark again when people have been slogging for 20 years. +Are there any methods you've found that have helped break through? +So I've found that if you're a theater person, you have outdoor street theater festivals. +JC: So interesting. +And how can you make sure that the projects you're creating are actually for the disadvantaged and not just for the sort of vegetarian indie movie crowd that might move in to take advantage of them. +TG: Right on. So I think this is where it starts to get into the thick weeds. +JC: Let's go there. TG: Right now, Grand Crossing is 99 percent black, or at least living, and we know that maybe who owns property in a place is different from who walks the streets every day. +So it's reasonable to say that Grand Crossing is already in the process of being something different than it is today. +So how do you start to grow up important watchdogs that ensure that the resources that are made available to new folk that are coming in are also distributed to folk who have lived in a place for a long time. +JC: That makes so much sense. One more question: You make such a compelling case for beauty and the importance of beauty and the arts. +There would be others who would argue that funds would be better spent on basic services for the disadvantaged. +How do you combat that viewpoint, or come against it? +TG: I believe that beauty is a basic service. +JC: It makes perfect sense to me. +Theaster, thank you so much for being here with us today. +Thank you. Theaster Gates. +People back home call me a heckler, a troublemaker, an irritant, a rebel, an activist, the voice of the people. +But that wasn't always me. +Growing up, I had a nickname. +They used to call me Softy, meaning the soft, harmless boy. +Like every other human being, I avoided trouble. +In my childhood, they taught me silence. +Don't argue, do as you're told. +In Sunday school, they taught me don't confront, don't argue, even if you're right, turn the other cheek. +This was reinforced by the political climate of the time. +Kenya is a country where you are guilty until proven rich. +Kenya's poor are five times more likely to be shot dead by the police who are meant to protect them than by criminals. +This was reinforced by the political climate of the day. +We had a president, Moi, who was a dictator. +He ruled the country with an iron fist, and anyone who dared question his authority was arrested, tortured, jailed or even killed. +That meant that people were taught to be smart cowards, stay out of trouble. +Being a coward was not an insult. +Being a coward was a compliment. +We used to be told that a coward goes home to his mother. +What that meant: that if you stayed out of trouble you're going to stay alive. +I used to question this advice, and eight years ago we had an election in Kenya, and the results were violently disputed. +What followed that election was terrible violence, rape, and the killing of over 1,000 people. +My work was to document the violence. +As a photographer, I took thousands of images, and after two months, the two politicians came together, had a cup of tea, signed a peace agreement, and the country moved on. +I was a very disturbed man because I saw the violence firsthand. +I saw the killings. I saw the displacement. +I met women who had been raped, and it disturbed me, but the country never spoke about it. +We pretended. We all became smart cowards. +We decided to stay out of trouble and not talk about it. +Ten months later, I quit my job. I said I could not stand it anymore. +After quitting my job, I decided to organize my friends to speak about the violence in the country, to speak about the state of the nation, and June 1, 2009 was the day that we were meant to go to the stadium and try and get the president's attention. +It's a national holiday, it's broadcast across the country, and I showed up at the stadium. +My friends did not show up. +I found myself alone, and I didn't know what to do. +I was scared, but I knew very well that that particular day, I had to make a decision. +Was I able to live as a coward, like everyone else, or was I going to make a stand? +And when the president stood up to speak, I found myself on my feet shouting at the president, telling him to remember the post-election violence victims, to stop the corruption. +And suddenly, out of nowhere, the police pounced on me like hungry lions. +They held my mouth and dragged me out of the stadium, where they thoroughly beat me up and locked me up in jail. +I spent that night in a cold cement floor in the jail, and that got me thinking. +What was making me feel this way? +My friends and family thought I was crazy because of what I did, and the images that I took were disturbing my life. +The images that I took were just a number to many Kenyans. +Most Kenyans did not see the violence. +It was a story to them. +And so I decided to actually start a street exhibition to show the images of the violence across the country and get people talking about it. +We traveled the country and showed the images, and this was a journey that has started me to the activist path, where I decided to become silent no more, to talk about those things. +We traveled, and our general site from our street exhibit became for political graffiti about the situation in the country, talking about corruption, bad leadership. +We have even done symbolic burials. +We have delivered live pigs to Kenya's parliament as a symbol of our politicians' greed. +It has been done in Uganda and other countries, and what is most powerful is that the images have been picked by the media and amplified across the country, across the continent. +Where I used to stand up alone seven years ago, now I belong to a community of many people who stand up with me. +I am no longer alone when I stand up to speak about these things. +I belong to a group of young people who are passionate about the country, who want to bring about change, and they're no longer afraid, and they're no longer smart cowards. +So that was my story. +That day in the stadium, I stood up as a smart coward. +By that one action, I said goodbye to the 24 years living as a coward. +There are two most powerful days in your life: the day you're born, and the day you discover why. +That day standing up in that stadium shouting at the President, I discovered why I was truly born, that I would no longer be silent in the face of injustice. +Do you know why you were born? +Thank you. +Tom Rielly: It's an amazing story. +I just want to ask you a couple quick questions. +So PAWA254: you've created a studio, a place where young people can go and harness the power of digital media to do some of this action. +What's happening now with PAWA? +Boniface Mwangi: So we have this community of filmmakers, graffiti artists, musicians, and when there's an issue in the country, we come together, we brainstorm, and take up on that issue. +So our most powerful tool is art, because we live in a very busy world where people are so busy in their life, and they don't have time to read. +So we package our activism and we package our message in art. +So from the music, the graffiti, the art, that's what we do. +Can I say one more thing? +TR: Yeah, of course. BM: In spite of being arrested, beaten up, threatened, the moment I discovered my voice, that I could actually stand up for what I really believed in, I'm no longer afraid. +I used to be called softy, but I'm no longer softy, because I discovered who I really am, as in, that's what I want to do, and there's such beauty in doing that. +There's nothing as powerful as that, knowing that I'm meant to do this, because you don't get scared, you just continue living your life. +Thank you. +Tonight, I'm going to try to make the case that inviting a loved one, a friend or even a stranger to record a meaningful interview with you just might turn out to be one of the most important moments in that person's life, and in yours. +When I was 22 years old, I was lucky enough to find my calling when I fell into making radio stories. +At almost the exact same time, I found out that my dad, who I was very, very close to, was gay. +I was taken completely by surprise. +We were a very tight-knit family, and I was crushed. +At some point, in one of our strained conversations, my dad mentioned the Stonewall riots. +He told me that one night in 1969, a group of young black and Latino drag queens fought back against the police at a gay bar in Manhattan called the Stonewall Inn, and how this sparked the modern gay rights movement. +It was an amazing story, and it piqued my interest. +So I decided to pick up my tape recorder and find out more. +With the help of a young archivist named Michael Shirker, we tracked down all of the people we could find who had been at the Stonewall Inn that night. +Recording these interviews, I saw how the microphone gave me the license to go places I otherwise never would have gone and talk to people I might not otherwise ever have spoken to. +I had the privilege of getting to know some of the most amazing, fierce and courageous human beings I had ever met. +It was the first time the story of Stonewall had been told to a national audience. +I dedicated the program to my dad, it changed my relationship with him, and it changed my life. +Over the next 15 years, I made many more radio documentaries, working to shine a light on people who are rarely heard from in the media. +Over and over again, I'd see how this simple act of being interviewed could mean so much to people, particularly those who had been told that their stories didn't matter. +I could literally see people's back straighten as they started to speak into the microphone. +In 1998, I made a documentary about the last flophouse hotels on the Bowery in Manhattan. +Guys stayed up in these cheap hotels for decades. +They lived in cubicles the size of prison cells covered with chicken wire so you couldn't jump from one room into the next. +Later, I wrote a book on the men with the photographer Harvey Wang. +I remember walking into a flophouse with an early version of the book and showing one of the guys his page. +He stood there staring at it in silence, then he grabbed the book out of my hand and started running down the long, narrow hallway holding it over his head shouting, "I exist! I exist." +In many ways, "I exist" became the clarion call for StoryCorps, this crazy idea that I had a dozen years ago. +The thought was to take documentary work and turn it on its head. +So in Grand Central Terminal 11 years ago, we built a booth where anyone can come to honor someone else by interviewing them about their life. +You come to this booth and you're met by a facilitator who brings you inside. +You sit across from, say, your grandfather for close to an hour and you listen and you talk. +Many people think of it as, if this was to be our last conversation, what would I want to ask of and say to this person who means so much to me? +At the end of the session, you walk away with a copy of the interview and another copy goes to the American Folklife Center at the Library of Congress so that your great-great-great-grandkids can someday get to know your grandfather through his voice and story. +So we open this booth in one of the busiest places in the world and invite people to have this incredibly intimate conversation with another human being. +I had no idea if it would work, but from the very beginning, it did. +People treated the experience with incredible respect, and amazing conversations happened inside. +I want to play just one animated excerpt from an interview recorded at that original Grand Central Booth. +This is 12-year-old Joshua Littman interviewing his mother, Sarah. +Josh has Asperger's syndrome. +As you may know, kids with Asperger's are incredibly smart but have a tough time socially. +They usually have obsessions. +In Josh's case, it's with animals, so this is Josh talking with his mom Sarah at Grand Central nine years ago. +Josh Littman: From a scale of one to 10, do you think your life would be different without animals? +Sarah Littman: I think it would be an eight without animals, because they add so much pleasure to life. +JL: How else do you think your life would be different without them? +SL: I could do without things like cockroaches and snakes. +JL: Well, I'm okay with snakes as long as they're not venomous or constrict you or anything. +SL: Yeah, I'm not a big snake person -- JL: But cockroach is just the insect we love to hate. +SL: Yeah, it really is. +JL: Have you ever thought you couldn't cope with having a child? +SL: I remember when you were a baby, you had really bad colic, so you would just cry and cry. +JL: What's colic? SL: It's when you get this stomach ache and all you do is scream for, like, four hours. +JL: Even louder than Amy does? +SL: You were pretty loud, but Amy's was more high-pitched. +JL: I think it feels like everyone seems to like Amy more, like she's the perfect little angel. +SL: Well, I can understand why you think that people like Amy more, and I'm not saying it's because of your Asperger's syndrome, but being friendly comes easily to Amy, whereas I think for you it's more difficult, but the people who take the time to get to know you love you so much. +JL: Like Ben or Eric or Carlos? SL: Yeah -- JL: Like I have better quality friends but less quantity? SL: I wouldn't judge the quality, but I think -- JL: I mean, first it was like, Amy loved Claudia, then she hated Claudia, she loved Claudia, then she hated Claudia. +SL: Part of that's a girl thing, honey. +The important thing for you is that you have a few very good friends, and really that's what you need in life. +JL: Did I turn out to be the son you wanted when I was born? +Did I meet your expectations? +SL: You've exceeded my expectations, sweetie, because, sure, you have these fantasies of what your child's going to be like, but you have made me grow so much as a parent, because you think -- JL: Well, I was the one who made you a parent. +JL: And that helped when Amy was born? +SL: And that helped when Amy was born, but you are so incredibly special to me and I'm so lucky to have you as my son. +David Isay: After this story ran on public radio, Josh received hundreds of letters telling him what an amazing kid he was. +His mom, Sarah, bound them together in a book, and when Josh got picked on at school, they would read the letters together. +I just want to acknowledge that two of my heroes are here with us tonight. +Sarah Littman and her son Josh, who is now an honors student in college. +You know, a lot of people talk about crying when they hear StoryCorps stories, and it's not because they're sad. +Most of them aren't. +I think it's because you're hearing something authentic and pure at this moment, when sometimes it's hard to tell what's real and what's an advertisement. +It's kind of the anti-reality TV. +Nobody comes to StoryCorps to get rich. +Nobody comes to get famous. +It's simply an act of generosity and love. +So many of these are just everyday people talking about lives lived with kindness, courage, decency and dignity, and when you hear that kind of story, it can sometimes feel like you're walking on holy ground. +So this experiment in Grand Central worked, and we expanded across the country. +Today, more than 100,000 people in all 50 states in thousands of cities and towns across America have recorded StoryCorps interviews. +It's now the largest single collection of human voices ever gathered. +We've hired and trained hundreds of facilitators to help guide people through the experience. +Most serve a year or two with StoryCorps traveling the country, gathering the wisdom of humanity. +They call it bearing witness, and if you ask them, all of the facilitators will tell you that the most important thing they've learned from being present during these interviews is that people are basically good. +I've also learned so much from these interviews. +I've learned about the poetry and the wisdom and the grace that can be found in the words of people all around us when we simply take the time to listen, like this interview between a betting clerk in Brooklyn named Danny Perasa who brought his wife Annie to StoryCorps to talk about his love for her. +Danny Perasa: You see, the thing of it is, I always feel guilty when I say "I love you" to you. +And I say it so often. I say it to remind you that as dumpy as I am, it's coming from me. +It's like hearing a beautiful song from a busted old radio, and it's nice of you to keep the radio around the house. +Annie Perasa: If I don't have a note on the kitchen table, I think there's something wrong. +You write a love letter to me every morning. +DP: Well, the only thing that could possibly be wrong is I couldn't find a silly pen. +AP: To my princess: The weather outside today is extremely rainy. +I'll call you at 11:20 in the morning. +DP: It's a romantic weather report. +AP: And I love you. I love you. I love you. +DP: When a guy is happily married, no matter what happens at work, no matter what happens in the rest of the day, there's a shelter when you get home, there's a knowledge knowing that you can hug somebody without them throwing you downstairs and saying, "Get your hands off me." +Being married is like having a color television set. +You never want to go back to black and white. +DI: Danny was about five feet tall with crossed eyes and one single snaggletooth, but Danny Perasa had more romance in his little pinky than all of Hollywood's leading men put together. +What else have I learned? +I've learned about the almost unimaginable capacity for the human spirit to forgive. +I've learned about resilience and I've learned about strength. +Like an interview with Oshea Israel and Mary Johnson. +When Oshea was a teenager, he murdered Mary's only son, Laramiun Byrd, in a gang fight. +A dozen years later, Mary went to prison to meet Oshea and find out who this person was who had taken her son's life. +Slowly and remarkably, they became friends, and when he was finally released from the penitentiary, Oshea actually moved in next door to Mary. +This is just a short excerpt of a conversation they had soon after Oshea was freed. +Mary Johnson: My natural son is no longer here. +I didn't see him graduate, and now you're going to college. +I'll have the opportunity to see you graduate. +I didn't see him get married. +Hopefully one day, I'll be able to experience that with you. +Oshea Israel: Just to hear you say those things and to be in my life in the manner in which you are is my motivation. +It motivates me to make sure that I stay on the right path. +You still believe in me, and the fact that you can do it despite how much pain I caused you, it's amazing. +MJ: I know it's not an easy thing to be able to share our story together, even with us sitting here looking at each other right now. +I know it's not an easy thing, so I admire that you can do this. +OI: I love you, lady. MJ: I love you too, son. +DI: And I've been reminded countless times of the courage and goodness of people, and how the arc of history truly does bend towards justice. +Like the story of Alexis Martinez, who was born Arthur Martinez in the Harold Ickes projects in Chicago. +In the interview, she talks with her daughter Lesley about joining a gang as a young man, and later in life transitioning into the woman she was always meant to be. +This is Alexis and her daughter Lesley. +Alexis Martinez: One of the most difficult things for me was I was always afraid that I wouldn't be allowed to be in my granddaughters' lives, and you blew that completely out of the water, you and your husband. +One of the fruits of that is, in my relationship with my granddaughters, they fight with each other sometimes over whether I'm he or she. +Lesley Martinez: But they're free to talk about it. +AM: They're free to talk about it, but that, to me, is a miracle. +LM: You don't have to apologize. You don't have to tiptoe. +We're not going to cut you off, and that's something I've always wanted you to just know, that you're loved. +AM: You know, I live this every day now. +I walk down the streets as a woman, and I really am at peace with who I am. +I mean, I wish I had a softer voice maybe, but now I walk in love and I try to live that way every day. +DI: Now I walk in love. +I'm going to tell you a secret about StoryCorps. +It takes some courage to have these conversations. +StoryCorps speaks to our mortality. +Participants know this recording will be heard long after they're gone. +There's a hospice doctor named Ira Byock who has worked closely with us on recording interviews with people who are dying. +He wrote a book called "The Four Things That Matter Most" about the four things you want to say to the most important people in your life before they or you die: thank you, I love you, forgive me, I forgive you. +They're just about the most powerful words we can say to one another, and often that's what happens in a StoryCorps booth. +It's a chance to have a sense of closure with someone you care about -- no regrets, nothing left unsaid. +And it's hard and it takes courage, but that's why we're alive, right? +So, the TED Prize. +When I first heard from TED and Chris a few months ago about the possibility of the Prize, I was completely floored. +They asked me to come up with a very brief wish for humanity, no more than 50 words. +So I thought about it, I wrote my 50 words, and a few weeks later, Chris called and said, "Go for it." +So here is my wish: that you will help us take everything we've learned through StoryCorps and bring it to the world so that anyone anywhere can easily record a meaningful interview with another human being which will then be archived for history. +How are we going to do that? With this. +We're fast moving into a future where everyone in the world will have access to one of these, and it has powers I never could have imagined 11 years ago when I started StoryCorps. +It has a microphone, it can tell you how to do things, and it can send audio files. +Those are the key ingredients. +So the first part of the wish is already underway. +Over the past couple of months, the team at StoryCorps has been working furiously to create an app that will bring StoryCorps out of our booths so that it can be experienced by anyone, anywhere, anytime. +Remember, StoryCorps has always been two people and a facilitator helping them record their conversation, which is preserved forever, but at this very moment, we're releasing a public beta version of the StoryCorps app. +The app is a digital facilitator that walks you through the StoryCorps interview process, helps you pick questions, and gives you all the tips you need to record a meaningful StoryCorps interview, and then with one tap upload it to our archive at the Library of Congress. +That's the easy part, the technology. +The real challenge is up to you: to take this tool and figure out how we can use it all across America and around the world, so that instead of recording thousands of StoryCorps interviews a year, we could potentially record tens of thousands or hundreds of thousands or maybe even more. +Imagine, for example, a national homework assignment where every high school student studying U.S. history across the country records an interview with an elder over Thanksgiving, so that in one single weekend an entire generation of American lives and experiences are captured. +Ten years ago, I recorded a StoryCorps interview with my dad who was a psychiatrist, and became a well-known gay activist. +This is the picture of us at that interview. +I never thought about that recording until a couple of years ago, when my dad, who seemed to be in perfect health and was still seeing patients 40 hours a week, was diagnosed with cancer. +He passed away very suddenly a few days later. +It was June 28, 2012, the anniversary of the Stonewall riots. +I listened to that interview for the first time at three in the morning on the day that he died. +I have a couple of young kids at home, and I knew that the only way they were going to get to know this person who was such a towering figure in my life would be through that session. +I thought I couldn't believe in StoryCorps any more deeply than I did, but it was at that moment that I fully and viscerally grasped the importance of making these recordings. +Every day, people come up to me and say, "I wish I had interviewed my father or my grandmother or my brother, but I waited too long." +Now, no one has to wait anymore. +At this moment, when so much of how we communicate is fleeting and inconsequential, join us in creating this digital archive of conversations that are enduring and important. +Help us create this gift to our children, this testament to who we are as human beings. +I hope you'll help us make this wish come true. +Interview a family member, a friend or even a stranger. +Together, we can create an archive of the wisdom of humanity, and maybe in doing so, we'll learn to listen a little more and shout a little less. +Maybe these conversations will remind us what's really important. +And maybe, just maybe, it will help us recognize that simple truth that every life, every single life, matters equally and infinitely. +Thank you very much. +Thank you. Thank you. +Thank you. +When I wrote my memoir, the publishers were really confused. +Was it about me as a child refugee, or as a woman who set up a high-tech software company back in the 1960s, one that went public and eventually employed over 8,500 people? +Or was it as a mother of an autistic child? +Or as a philanthropist that's now given away serious money? +Well, it turns out, I'm all of these. +So let me tell you my story. +All that I am stems from when I got onto a train in Vienna, part of the Kindertransport that saved nearly 10,000 Jewish children from Nazi Europe. +I was five years old, clutching the hand of my nine-year-old sister and had very little idea as to what was going on. +"What is England and why am I going there?" +I'm only alive because so long ago, I was helped by generous strangers. +I was lucky, and doubly lucky to be later reunited with my birth parents. +But, sadly, I never bonded with them again. +But I've done more in the seven decades since that miserable day when my mother put me on the train than I would ever have dreamed possible. +And I love England, my adopted country, with a passion that perhaps only someone who has lost their human rights can feel. +I decided to make mine a life that was worth saving. +And then, I just got on with it. +Let me take you back to the early 1960s. +To get past the gender issues of the time, I set up my own software house at one of the first such startups in Britain. +But it was also a company of women, a company for women, an early social business. +And people laughed at the very idea because software, at that time, was given away free with hardware. +Nobody would buy software, certainly not from a woman. +Although women were then coming out of the universities with decent degrees, there was a glass ceiling to our progress. +And I'd hit that glass ceiling too often, and I wanted opportunities for women. +I recruited professionally qualified women who'd left the industry on marriage, or when their first child was expected and structured them into a home-working organization. +We pioneered the concept of women going back into the workforce after a career break. +We pioneered all sorts of new, flexible work methods: job shares, profit-sharing, and eventually, co-ownership when I took a quarter of the company into the hands of the staff at no cost to anyone but me. +For years, I was the first woman this, or the only woman that. +And in those days, I couldn't work on the stock exchange, I couldn't drive a bus or fly an airplane. +Indeed, I couldn't open a bank account without my husband's permission. +My generation of women fought the battles for the right to work and the right for equal pay. +Nobody really expected much from people at work or in society because all the expectations then were about home and family responsibilities. +And I couldn't really face that, so I started to challenge the conventions of the time, even to the extent of changing my name from "Stephanie" to "Steve" in my business development letters, so as to get through the door before anyone realized that he was a she. +My company, called Freelance Programmers, and that's precisely what it was, couldn't have started smaller: on the dining room table, and financed by the equivalent of 100 dollars in today's terms, and financed by my labor and by borrowing against the house. +My interests were scientific, the market was commercial -- things such as payroll, which I found rather boring. +So I had to compromise with operational research work, which had the intellectual challenge that interested me and the commercial value that was valued by the clients: things like scheduling freight trains, time-tabling buses, stock control, lots and lots of stock control. +And eventually, the work came in. +We disguised the domestic and part-time nature of the staff by offering fixed prices, one of the very first to do so. +And who would have guessed that the programming of the black box flight recorder of Supersonic Concord would have been done by a bunch of women working in their own homes. +All we used was a simple "trust the staff" approach and a simple telephone. +We even used to ask job applicants, "Do you have access to a telephone?" +An early project was to develop software standards on management control protocols. +And software was and still is a maddeningly hard-to-control activity, so that was enormously valuable. +We used the standards ourselves, we were even paid to update them over the years, and eventually, they were adopted by NATO. +Our programmers -- remember, only women, including gay and transgender -- worked with pencil and paper to develop flowcharts defining each task to be done. +And they then wrote code, usually machine code, sometimes binary code, which was then sent by mail to a data center to be punched onto paper tape or card and then re-punched, in order to verify it. +All this, before it ever got near a computer. +That was programming in the early 1960s. +In 1975, 13 years from startup, equal opportunity legislation came in in Britain and that made it illegal to have our pro-female policies. +And as an example of unintended consequences, my female company had to let the men in. +When I started my company of women, the men said, "How interesting, because it only works because it's small." +And later, as it became sizable, they accepted, "Yes, it is sizable now, but of no strategic interest." +And later, when it was a company valued at over three billion dollars, and I'd made 70 of the staff into millionaires, they sort of said, "Well done, Steve!" +You can always tell ambitious women by the shape of our heads: They're flat on top for being patted patronizingly. +And we have larger feet to stand away from the kitchen sink. +Let me share with you two secrets of success: Surround yourself with first-class people and people that you like; and choose your partner very, very carefully. +Because the other day when I said, "My husband's an angel," a woman complained -- "You're lucky," she said, "mine's still alive." +If success were easy, we'd all be millionaires. +But in my case, it came in the midst of family trauma and indeed, crisis. +Our late son, Giles, was an only child, a beautiful, contented baby. +And then, at two and a half, like a changeling in a fairy story, he lost the little speech that he had and turned into a wild, unmanageable toddler. +Not the terrible twos; he was profoundly autistic and he never spoke again. +Giles was the first resident in the first house of the first charity that I set up to pioneer services for autism. +And then there's been a groundbreaking Prior's Court school for pupils with autism and a medical research charity, again, all for autism. +Because whenever I found a gap in services, I tried to help. +I like doing new things and making new things happen. +And I've just started a three-year think tank for autism. +And so that some of my wealth does go back to the industry from which it stems, I've also founded the Oxford Internet Institute and other IT ventures. +The Oxford Internet Institute focuses not on the technology, but on the social, economic, legal and ethical issues of the Internet. +Giles died unexpectedly 17 years ago now. +And I have learned to live without him, and I have learned to live without his need of me. +Philanthropy is all that I do now. +I need never worry about getting lost because several charities would quickly come and find me. +It's one thing to have an idea for an enterprise, but as many people in this room will know, making it happen is a very difficult thing and it demands extraordinary energy, self-belief and determination, the courage to risk family and home, and a 24/7 commitment that borders on the obsessive. +So it's just as well that I'm a workaholic. +I believe in the beauty of work when we do it properly and in humility. +Work is not just something I do when I'd rather be doing something else. +We live our lives forward. +So what has all that taught me? +I learned that tomorrow's never going to be like today, and certainly nothing like yesterday. +And that made me able to cope with change, indeed, eventually to welcome change, though I'm told I'm still very difficult. +Thank you very much. +I was born with bilateral retinoblastoma, retinal cancer. +My right eye was removed at seven months of age. +I was 13 months when they removed my left eye. +The first thing I did upon awakening from that last surgery was to climb out of my crib and begin wandering around the intensive care nursery, probably looking for the one who did this to me. +Evidently, wandering around the nursery was not a problem for me without eyes. +The problem was getting caught. +It's impressions about blindness that are far more threatening to blind people than the blindness itself. +Think for a moment about your own impressions of blindness. +Think about your reactions when I first came onto the stage, or the prospect of your own blindness, or a loved one going blind. +The terror is incomprehensible to most of us, because blindness is thought to epitomize ignorance and unawareness, hapless exposure to the ravages of the dark unknown. +How poetic. +Fortunately for me, my parents were not poetic. +They were pragmatic. +They understood that ignorance and fear were but matters of the mind, and the mind is adaptable. +They believed that I should grow up to enjoy the same freedoms and responsibilities as everyone else. +In their own words, I would move out -- which I did when I was 18 -- I will pay taxes -- thanks -- -- and they knew the difference between love and fear. +Fear immobilizes us in the face of challenge. +They knew that blindness would pose a significant challenge. +I was not raised with fear. +They put my freedom first before all else, because that is what love does. +Now, moving forward, how do I manage today? +The world is a much larger nursery. +Fortunately, I have my trusty long cane, longer than the canes used by most blind people. +I call it my freedom staff. +It will keep me, for example, from making an undignified departure from the stage. I do see that cliff edge. +They warned us earlier that every imaginable mishap has occurred to speakers up here on the stage. +I don't care to set a new precedent. +But beyond that, many of you may have heard me clicking as I came onto the stage -- -- with my tongue. +Those are flashes of sound that go out and reflect from surfaces all around me, just like a bat's sonar, and return to me with patterns, with pieces of information, much as light does for you. +And my brain, thanks to my parents, has been activated to form images in my visual cortex, which we now call the imaging system, from those patterns of information, much as your brain does. +I call this process flash sonar. +It is how I have learned to see through my blindness, to navigate my journey through the dark unknowns of my own challenges, which has earned me the moniker "the remarkable Batman." +Now, Batman I will accept. +Bats are cool. Batman is cool. +But I was not raised to think of myself as in any way remarkable. +I have always regarded myself much like anyone else who navigates the dark unknowns of their own challenges. +Is that so remarkable? +I do not use my eyes, I use my brain. +Now, someone, somewhere, must think that's remarkable, or I wouldn't be up here, but let's consider this for a moment. +Everyone out there who faces or who has ever faced a challenge, raise your hands. +Whoosh. Okay. +Lots of hands going up, a moment, let me do a head count. +This will take a while. Okay, lots of hands in the air. +Keep them up. I have an idea. +Those of you who use your brains to navigate these challenges, put your hands down. +Okay, anyone with your hands still up has challenges of your own. So we all face challenges, and we all face the dark unknown, which is endemic to most challenges, which is what most of us fear, okay? +But we all have brains that allow us, that activate to allow us to navigate the journey through these challenges. Okay? +Case in point: I came up here and -- -- they wouldn't tell me where the lectern was. +So you can't trust those TED folks. +"Find it yourself," they said. +So -- And the feedback for the P.A. system is no help at all. +So now I present to you a challenge. +So if you'd all close your eyes for just a moment, okay? +And you're going to learn a bit of flash sonar. +I'm going to make a sound. +I'm going to hold this panel in front of me, but I'm not going to move it. +Just listen to the sound for a moment. +Shhhhhhhhhh. +Okay, nothing very interesting. +Now, listen to what happens to that same exact sound when I move the panel. +Shhhhhhhhhhh. (Pitch getting higher and lower) You do not know the power of the dark side. +I couldn't resist. +Okay, now keep your eyes closed because, did you hear the difference? +Okay. Now, let's be sure. +For your challenge, you tell me, just say "now" when you hear the panel start to move. +Okay? We'll relax into this. +Shhhhhhh. +Audience: Now. Daniel Kish: Good. Excellent. +Open your eyes. +All right. So just a few centimeters, you would notice the difference. +You've experienced sonar. +You'd all make great blind people. Let's have a look at what can happen when this activation process is given some time and attention. +Juan Ruiz: It's like you guys can see with your eyes and we can see with our ears. +Brian Bushway: It's not a matter of enjoying it more or less, it's about enjoying it differently. +Shawn Marsolais: It goes across. DK: Yeah. +SM: And then it's gradually coming back down again. +DK: Yes! SM: That's amazing. +I can, like, see the car. Holy mother! +J. Louchart: I love being blind. +If I had the opportunity, honestly, I wouldn't go back to being sighted. +JR: The bigger the goal, the more obstacles you'll face, and on the other side of that goal is victory. +[In Italian] DK: Now, do these people look terrified? +Not so much. +We have delivered activation training to tens of thousands of blind and sighted people from all backgrounds in nearly 40 countries. +When blind people learn to see, sighted people seem inspired to want to learn to see their way better, more clearly, with less fear, because this exemplifies the immense capacity within us all to navigate any type of challenge, through any form of darkness, to discoveries unimagined when we are activated. +I wish you all a most activating journey. +Thank you very much. +Chris Anderson: Daniel, my friend. +As I know you can see, it's a spectacular standing ovation at TED. +Thank you for an extraordinary talk. +Just one more question about your world, your inner world that you construct. +We think that we have things in our world that you as a blind person don't have, but what's your world like? +What do you have that we don't have? +DK: Three hundred and sixty-degree view, so my sonar works about as well behind me as it does in front of me. +It works around corners. +It works through surfaces. +Generally, it's kind of a fuzzy three-dimensional geometry. +One of my students, who has now become an instructor, when he lost his vision, after a few months he was sitting in his three story house and he realized that he could hear everything going on throughout the house: conversations, people in the kitchen, people in the bathroom, several floors away, several walls away. +He said it was something like having x-ray vision. +CA: What do you picture that you're in right now? +How do you picture this theater? +DK: Lots of loudspeakers, quite frankly. +It's interesting. When people make a sound, when they laugh, when they fidget, when they take a drink or blow their nose or whatever, I hear everything. +I hear every little movement that every single person makes. +None of it really escapes my attention, and then, from a sonar perspective, the size of the room, the curvature of the audience around the stage, it's the height of the room. +Like I say, it's all that kind of three-dimensional surface geometry all around me. +CA: Well, Daniel, you have done a spectacular job of helping us all see the world in a different way. +Thanks so much for that, truly. DK: Thank you. +When I was a kid, the disaster we worried about most was a nuclear war. +That's why we had a barrel like this down in our basement, filled with cans of food and water. +When the nuclear attack came, we were supposed to go downstairs, hunker down, and eat out of that barrel. +Today the greatest risk of global catastrophe doesn't look like this. +Instead, it looks like this. +If anything kills over 10 million people in the next few decades, it's most likely to be a highly infectious virus rather than a war. +Not missiles, but microbes. +Now, part of the reason for this is that we've invested a huge amount in nuclear deterrents. +But we've actually invested very little in a system to stop an epidemic. +We're not ready for the next epidemic. +Let's look at Ebola. +I'm sure all of you read about it in the newspaper, lots of tough challenges. +I followed it carefully through the case analysis tools we use to track polio eradication. +And as you look at what went on, the problem wasn't that there was a system that didn't work well enough, the problem was that we didn't have a system at all. +In fact, there's some pretty obvious key missing pieces. +We didn't have a group of epidemiologists ready to go, who would have gone, seen what the disease was, seen how far it had spread. +The case reports came in on paper. +It was very delayed before they were put online and they were extremely inaccurate. +We didn't have a medical team ready to go. +We didn't have a way of preparing people. +Now, Mdecins Sans Frontires did a great job orchestrating volunteers. +But even so, we were far slower than we should have been getting the thousands of workers into these countries. +And a large epidemic would require us to have hundreds of thousands of workers. +There was no one there to look at treatment approaches. +No one to look at the diagnostics. +No one to figure out what tools should be used. +As an example, we could have taken the blood of survivors, processed it, and put that plasma back in people to protect them. +But that was never tried. +So there was a lot that was missing. +And these things are really a global failure. +The WHO is funded to monitor epidemics, but not to do these things I talked about. +Now, in the movies it's quite different. +There's a group of handsome epidemiologists ready to go, they move in, they save the day, but that's just pure Hollywood. +The failure to prepare could allow the next epidemic to be dramatically more devastating than Ebola Let's look at the progression of Ebola over this year. +About 10,000 people died, and nearly all were in the three West African countries. +There's three reasons why it didn't spread more. +The first is that there was a lot of heroic work by the health workers. +They found the people and they prevented more infections. +The second is the nature of the virus. +Ebola does not spread through the air. +And by the time you're contagious, most people are so sick that they're bedridden. +Third, it didn't get into many urban areas. +And that was just luck. +If it had gotten into a lot more urban areas, the case numbers would have been much larger. +So next time, we might not be so lucky. +You can have a virus where people feel well enough while they're infectious that they get on a plane or they go to a market. +The source of the virus could be a natural epidemic like Ebola, or it could be bioterrorism. +So there are things that would literally make things a thousand times worse. +In fact, let's look at a model of a virus spread through the air, like the Spanish Flu back in 1918. +So here's what would happen: It would spread throughout the world very, very quickly. +And you can see over 30 million people died from that epidemic. +So this is a serious problem. +We should be concerned. +But in fact, we can build a really good response system. +We have the benefits of all the science and technology that we talk about here. +We've got cell phones to get information from the public and get information out to them. +We have satellite maps where we can see where people are and where they're moving. +We have advances in biology that should dramatically change the turnaround time to look at a pathogen and be able to make drugs and vaccines that fit for that pathogen. +So we can have tools, but those tools need to be put into an overall global health system. +And we need preparedness. +The best lessons, I think, on how to get prepared are again, what we do for war. +For soldiers, we have full-time, waiting to go. +We have reserves that can scale us up to large numbers. +NATO has a mobile unit that can deploy very rapidly. +NATO does a lot of war games to check, are people well trained? +Do they understand about fuel and logistics and the same radio frequencies? +So they are absolutely ready to go. +So those are the kinds of things we need to deal with an epidemic. +What are the key pieces? +First, we need strong health systems in poor countries. +That's where mothers can give birth safely, kids can get all their vaccines. +But, also where we'll see the outbreak very early on. +We need a medical reserve corps: lots of people who've got the training and background who are ready to go, with the expertise. +And then we need to pair those medical people with the military. +taking advantage of the military's ability to move fast, do logistics and secure areas. +We need to do simulations, germ games, not war games, so that we see where the holes are. +The last time a germ game was done in the United States was back in 2001, and it didn't go so well. +So far the score is germs: 1, people: 0. +Finally, we need lots of advanced R&D in areas of vaccines and diagnostics. +There are some big breakthroughs, like the Adeno-associated virus, that could work very, very quickly. +Now I don't have an exact budget for what this would cost, but I'm quite sure it's very modest compared to the potential harm. +The World Bank estimates that if we have a worldwide flu epidemic, global wealth will go down by over three trillion dollars and we'd have millions and millions of deaths. +These investments offer significant benefits beyond just being ready for the epidemic. +The primary healthcare, the R&D, those things would reduce global health equity and make the world more just as well as more safe. +So I think this should absolutely be a priority. +There's no need to panic. +We don't have to hoard cans of spaghetti or go down into the basement. +But we need to get going, because time is not on our side. +In fact, if there's one positive thing that can come out of the Ebola epidemic, it's that it can serve as an early warning, a wake-up call, to get ready. +If we start now, we can be ready for the next epidemic. +Thank you. +G'day, my name's Kevin. +I'm from Australia. I'm here to help. +Tonight, I want to talk about a tale of two cities. +One of those cities is called Washington, and the other is called Beijing. +You see that bloke? He's French. +His name is Napoleon. +A couple of hundred years ago, he made this extraordinary projection: "China is a sleeping lion, and when she awakes, the world will shake." +Napoleon got a few things wrong; he got this one absolutely right. +Because China is today not just woken up, China has stood up and China is on the march, and the question for us all is where will China go and how do we engage this giant of the 21st century? +You start looking at the numbers, they start to confront you in a big way. +It's projected that China will become, by whichever measure -- PPP, market exchange rates -- the largest economy in the world over the course of the decade ahead. +They're already the largest trading nation, already the largest exporting nation, already the largest manufacturing nation, and they're also the biggest emitters of carbon in the world. +America comes second. +So if China does become the world's largest economy, think about this: It'll be the first time since this guy was on the throne of England -- George III, not a good friend of Napoleon's -- that in the world we will have as the largest economy a non-English speaking country, a non-Western country, a non-liberal democratic country. +And if you don't think that's going to affect the way in which the world happens in the future, then personally, I think you've been smoking something, and it doesn't mean you're from Colorado. +So in short, the question we have tonight is, how do we understand this mega-change, which I believe to be the biggest change for the first half of the 21st century? +It'll affect so many things. +It will go to the absolute core. +It's happening quietly. It's happening persistently. +It's happening in some senses under the radar, as we are all preoccupied with what's going in Ukraine, what's going on in the Middle East, what's going on with ISIS, what's going on with ISIL, what's happening with the future of our economies. +This is a slow and quiet revolution. +And with a mega-change comes also a mega-challenge, and the mega-challenge is this: Can these two great countries, China and the United States -- China, the Middle Kingdom, and the United States, Migu -- which in Chinese, by the way, means "the beautiful country." +Think about that -- that's the name that China has given this country for more than a hundred years. +Whether these two great civilizations, these two great countries, can in fact carve out a common future for themselves and for the world? +In short, can we carve out a future which is peaceful and mutually prosperous, or are we looking at a great challenge of war or peace? +And I have 15 minutes to work through war or peace, which is a little less time than they gave this guy to write a book called "War and Peace." +People ask me, why is it that a kid growing up in rural Australia got interested in learning Chinese? +Well, there are two reasons for that. +Here's the first of them. +That's Betsy the cow. +Now, Betsy the cow was one of a herd of dairy cattle that I grew up with on a farm in rural Australia. +See those hands there? These are not built for farming. +So very early on, I discovered that in fact, working in a farm was not designed for me, and China was a very safe remove from any career in Australian farm life. +Here's the second reason. +That's my mom. +Anyone here ever listen to what their mom told them to do? +Everyone ever do what their mom told them to do? +I rarely did, but what my mom said to me was, one day, she handed me a newspaper, a headline which said, here we have a huge change. +And that change is China entering the United Nations. +1971, I had just turned 14 years of age, and she handed me this headline. +And she said, "Understand this, learn this, because it's going to affect your future." +So being a very good student of history, I decided that the best thing for me to do was, in fact, to go off and learn Chinese. +The great thing about learning Chinese is that your Chinese teacher gives you a new name. +And so they gave me this name: K, which means to overcome or to conquer, and Wn, and that's the character for literature or the arts. +K Wn, Conqueror of the Classics. +Any of you guys called "Kevin"? +It's a major lift from being called Kevin to be called Conqueror of the Classics. +I've been called Kevin all my life. +Have you been called Kevin all your life? +Would you prefer to be called Conqueror of the Classics? +And so I went off after that and joined the Australian Foreign Service, but here is where pride -- before pride, there always comes a fall. +So there I am in the embassy in Beijing, off to the Great Hall of the People with our ambassador, who had asked me to interpret for his first meeting in the Great Hall of the People. +And so there was I. +If you've been to a Chinese meeting, it's a giant horseshoe. +At the head of the horsehoe are the really serious pooh-bahs, and down the end of the horseshoe are the not-so-serious pooh-bahs, the junior woodchucks like me. +And so the ambassador began with this inelegant phrase. +He said, "China and Australia are currently enjoying a relationship of unprecedented closeness." +And I thought to myself, "That sounds clumsy. That sounds odd. +I will improve it." +Note to file: Never do that. +It needed to be a little more elegant, a little more classical, so I rendered it as follows. +[In Chinese] There was a big pause on the other side of the room. +You could see the giant pooh-bahs at the head of the horseshoe, the blood visibly draining from their faces, and the junior woodchucks at the other end of the horseshoe engaged in peals of unrestrained laughter. +Because when I rendered his sentence, "Australia and China are enjoying a relationship of unprecedented closeness," in fact, what I said was that Australia and China were now experiencing fantastic orgasm. +That was the last time I was asked to interpret. +But in that little story, there's a wisdom, which is, as soon as you think you know something about this extraordinary civilization of 5,000 years of continuing history, there's always something new to learn. +History is against us when it comes to the U.S. and China forging a common future together. +This guy up here? +He's not Chinese and he's not American. +He's Greek. His name's Thucydides. +He wrote the history of the Peloponnesian Wars. +And he made this extraordinary observation about Athens and Sparta. +"It was the rise of Athens and the fear that this inspired in Sparta that made war inevitable." +And hence, a whole literature about something called the Thucydides Trap. +This guy here? He's not American and he's not Greek. He's Chinese. +His name is Sun Tzu. He wrote "The Art of War," and if you see his statement underneath, it's along these lines: "Attack him where he is unprepared, appear where you are not expected." +Not looking good so far for China and the United States. +This guy is an American. His name's Graham Allison. +In fact, he's a teacher at the Kennedy School over there in Boston. +He's working on a single project at the moment, which is, does the Thucydides Trap about the inevitably of war between rising powers and established great powers apply to the future of China-U.S. relations? +It's a core question. +And what Graham has done is explore 15 cases in history since the 1500s to establish what the precedents are. +And in 11 out of 15 of them, let me tell you, they've ended in catastrophic war. +You may say, "But Kevin -- or Conqueror of the Classics -- that was the past. +We live now in a world of interdependence and globalization. +It could never happen again." +Guess what? +The economic historians tell us that in fact, the time which we reached the greatest point of economic integration and globalization was in 1914, just before that happened, World War I, a sobering reflection from history. +So if we are engaged in this great question of how China thinks, feels, and positions itself towards the United States, and the reverse, how do we get to the baseline of how these two countries and civilizations can possibly work together? +Let me first go to, in fact, China's views of the U.S. and the rest of the West. +Number one: China feels as if it's been humiliated at the hands of the West through a hundred years of history, beginning with the Opium Wars. +When after that, the Western powers carved China up into little pieces, so that by the time it got to the '20s and '30s, signs like this one appeared on the streets of Shanghai. +["No dogs and Chinese allowed"] How would you feel if you were Chinese, in your own country, if you saw that sign appear? +China also believes and feels as if, in the events of 1919, at the Peace Conference in Paris, when Germany's colonies were given back to all sorts of countries around in the world, what about German colonies in China? +They were, in fact, given to Japan. +When Japan then invaded China in the 1930s the world looked away and was indifferent to what would happen to China. +And then, on top of that, the Chinese to this day believe that the United States and the West do not accept the legitimacy of their political system because it's so radically different from those of us who come from liberal democracies, and believe that the United States to this day is seeking to undermine their political system. +China also believes that it is being contained by U.S. allies and by those with strategic partnerships with the U.S. +right around its periphery. +And beyond all that, the Chinese have this feeling in their heart of hearts and in their gut of guts that those of us in the collective West are just too damned arrogant. +That is, we don't recognize the problems in our own system, in our politics and our economics, and are very quick to point the finger elsewhere, and believe that, in fact, we in the collective West are guilty of a great bunch of hypocrisy. +Of course, in international relations, it's not just the sound of one hand clapping. +There's another country too, and that's called the U.S. +So how does the U.S. respond to all of the above? +The U.S. has a response to each of those. +On the question of is the U.S. containing China, they say, "No, look at the history of the Soviet Union. That was containment." +Instead, what we have done in the U.S. and the West is welcome China into the global economy, and on top of that, welcome them into the World Trade Organization. +The U.S. and the West say China cheats on the question of intellectual property rights, and through cyberattacks on U.S. and global firms. +Furthermore, the United States says that the Chinese political system is fundamentally wrong because it's at such fundamental variance to the human rights, democracy, and rule of law that we enjoy in the U.S. and the collective West. +And on top of all the above, what does the United States say? +That they fear that China will, when it has sufficient power, establish a sphere of influence in Southeast Asia and wider East Asia, boot the United States out, and in time, when it's powerful enough, unilaterally seek to change the rules of the global order. +So apart from all of that, it's just fine and dandy, the U.S.-China relationship. +No real problems there. +The challenge, though, is given those deep-rooted feelings, those deep-rooted emotions and thought patterns, what the Chinese call "Swi," ways of thinking, how can we craft a basis for a common future between these two? +I argue simply this: We can do it on the basis on a framework of constructive realism for a common purpose. +What do I mean by that? +Be realistic about the things that we disagree on, and a management approach that doesn't enable any one of those differences to break into war or conflict until we've acquired the diplomatic skills to solve them. +Be constructive in areas of the bilateral, regional and global engagement between the two, which will make a difference for all of humankind. +Build a regional institution capable of cooperation in Asia, an Asia-Pacific community. +And worldwide, act further, like you've begun to do at the end of last year by striking out against climate change with hands joined together rather than fists apart. +Of course, all that happens if you've got a common mechanism and political will to achieve the above. +These things are deliverable. +But the question is, are they deliverable alone? +This is what our head tells us we need to do, but what about our heart? +I have a little experience in the question back home of how you try to bring together two peoples who, frankly, haven't had a whole lot in common in the past. +And that's when I apologized to Australia's indigenous peoples. +This was a day of reckoning in the Australian government, the Australian parliament, and for the Australian people. +After 200 years of unbridled abuse towards the first Australians, it was high time that we white folks said we were sorry. +The important thing -- The important thing that I remember is staring in the faces of all those from Aboriginal Australia as they came to listen to this apology. +It was extraordinary to see, for example, old women telling me the stories of when they were five years old and literally ripped away from their parents, like this lady here. +It was extraordinary for me to then be able to embrace and to kiss Aboriginal elders as they came into the parliament building, and one woman said to me, it's the first time a white fella had ever kissed her in her life, and she was over 70. +That's a terrible story. +And then I remember this family saying to me, "You know, we drove all the way from the far North down to Canberra to come to this thing, drove our way through redneck country. +On the way back, stopped at a cafe after the apology for a milkshake." +And they walked into this cafe quietly, tentatively, gingerly, a little anxious. +I think you know what I'm talking about. +But the day after the apology, what happened? +Everyone in that cafe, every one of the white folks, stood up and applauded. +Something had happened in the hearts of these people in Australia. +The white folks, our Aboriginal brothers and sisters, and we haven't solved all these problems together, but let me tell you, there was a new beginning because we had gone not just to the head, we'd gone also to the heart. +So where does that conclude in terms of the great question that we've been asked to address this evening, which is the future of U.S.-China relations? +The head says there's a way forward. +The head says there is a policy framework, there's a common narrative, there's a mechanism through regular summitry to do these things and to make them better. +But the heart must also find a way to reimagine the possibilities of the America-China relationship, and the possibilities of China's future engagement in the world. +Sometimes, folks, we just need to take a leap of faith not quite knowing where we might land. +In China, they now talk about the Chinese Dream. +In America, we're all familiar with the term "the American Dream." +I think it's time, across the world, that we're able to think also of something we might also call a dream for all humankind. +Because if we do that, we might just change the way that we think about each other. +[In Chinese] That's my challenge to America. That's my challenge to China. +That's my challenge to all of us, but I think where there's a will and where there is imagination we can turn this into a future driven by peace and prosperity and not once again repeat the tragedies of war. +I thank you. +Chris Anderson: Thanks so much for that. Thanks so much for that. +It feels like you yourself have a role to play in this bridging. +You, in a way, are uniquely placed to speak to both sides. +Kevin Rudd: Well, what we Australians do best is organize the drinks, so you get them together in one room, and we suggest this and suggest that, then we go and get the drinks. +But no, look, for all of us who are friends of these two great countries, America and China, you can do something. +You can make a practical contribution, and for all you good folks here, next time you meet someone from China, sit down and have a conversation. +See what you can find out about where they come from and what they think, and my challenge for all the Chinese folks who are going to watch this TED Talk at some time is do the same. +Two of us seeking to change the world can actually make a huge difference. +Those of us up the middle, we can make a small contribution. +CA: Kevin, all power to you, my friend. Thank you. +KR: Thank you. Thank you, folks. +Virtual reality started for me in sort of an unusual place. +It was the 1970s. +I got into the field very young: I was seven years old. +And the tool that I used to access virtual reality was the Evel Knievel stunt cycle. +This is a commercial for that particular item: Voice-over: What a jump! +Evel's riding the amazing stunt cycle. +That gyro-power sends him over 100 feet at top speed. +Chris Milk: So this was my joy back then. +I rode this motorcycle everywhere. +And I was there with Evel Knievel; we jumped the Snake River Canyon together. +I wanted the rocket. +I never got the rocket, I only got the motorcycle. +I felt so connected to this world. +I didn't want to be a storyteller when I grew up, I wanted to be stuntman. +I was there. Evel Knievel was my friend. +I had so much empathy for him. +But it didn't work out. I went to art school. +I started making music videos. +And this is one of the early music videos that I made: (Music: "Touch the Sky" by Kanye West) CM: You may notice some slight similarities here. +And I got that rocket. +So, now I'm a filmmaker, or, the beginning of a filmmaker, and I started using the tools that are available to me as a filmmaker to try to tell the most compelling stories that I can to an audience. +And film is this incredible medium that allows us to feel empathy for people that are very different than us and worlds completely foreign from our own. +Unfortunately, Evel Knievel did not feel the same empathy for us that we felt for him, and he sued us for this video -- -- shortly thereafter. +On the upside, the man that I worshipped as a child, the man that I wanted to become as an adult, I was finally able to get his autograph. +Let's talk about film now. +Film, it's an incredible medium, but essentially, it's the same now as it was then. +It's a group of rectangles that are played in a sequence. +And we've done incredible things with those rectangles. +But I started thinking about, is there a way that I can use modern and developing technologies to tell stories in different ways and tell different kinds of stories that maybe I couldn't tell using the traditional tools of filmmaking that we've been using for 100 years? +So I started experimenting, and what I was trying to do was to build the ultimate empathy machine. +And here's one of the early experiments: So this is called "The Wilderness Downtown." +It was a collaboration with Arcade Fire. +It asked you to put in the address where you grew up at the beginning of it. +It's a website. +And out of it starts growing these little boxes with different browser windows. +And you see this teenager running down a street, and then you see Google Street View and Google Maps imagery and you realize the street he's running down is yours. +And when he stops in front of a house, he stops in front of your house. +And this was great, and I saw people having an even deeper emotional reaction to this than the things that I had made in rectangles. +And I'm essentially taking a piece of your history and putting it inside the framing of the story. +But then I started thinking, okay, well that's a part of you, but how do I put all of you inside of the frame? +So to do that, I started making art installations. +And this is one called "The Treachery of Sanctuary." +It's a triptych. I'm going to show you the third panel. +So now I've got you inside of the frame, and I saw people having even more visceral emotional reactions to this work than the previous one. +But then I started thinking about frames, and what do they represent? +And a frame is just a window. +I mean, all the media that we watch -- television, cinema -- they're these windows into these other worlds. +And I thought, well, great. I got you in a frame. +But I don't want you in the frame, I don't want you in the window, I want you through the window, I want you on the other side, in the world, inhabiting the world. +So that leads me back to virtual reality. +Let's talk about virtual reality. +Unfortunately, talking about virtual reality is like dancing about architecture. +And this is actually someone dancing about architecture in virtual reality. +So, it's difficult to explain. Why is it difficult to explain? +It's difficult because it's a very experiential medium. +You feel your way inside of it. +It's a machine, but inside of it, it feels like real life, it feels like truth. +And you feel present in the world that you're inside and you feel present with the people that you're inside of it with. +So, I'm going to show you a demo of a virtual reality film: a full-screen version of all the information that we capture when we shoot virtual reality. +So we're shooting in every direction. +This is a camera system that we built that has 3D cameras that look in every direction and binaural microphones that face in every direction. +We take this and we build, basically, a sphere of a world that you inhabit. +So what I'm going to show you is not a view into the world, it's basically the whole world stretched into a rectangle. +So this film is called "Clouds Over Sidra," and it was made in conjunction with our virtual reality company called VRSE and the United Nations, and a co-collaborator named Gabo Arora. +And we went to a Syrian refugee camp in Jordan in December and shot the story of a 12-year-old girl there named Sidra. +And she and her family fled Syria through the desert into Jordan and she's been living in this camp for the last year and a half. +Sidra: My name is Sidra. +I am 12 years old. +I am in the fifth grade. +I am from Syria, in the Daraa Province, Inkhil City. +I have lived here in the Zaatari camp in Jordan for the last year and a half. +I have a big family: three brothers, one is a baby. +He cries a lot. +I asked my father if I cried when I was a baby and he says I did not. +I think I was a stronger baby than my brother. +CM: So, when you're inside of the headset. +you're not seeing it like this. +You're looking around through this world. +You'll notice you see full 360 degrees, in all directions. +And when you're sitting there in her room, watching her, you're not watching it through a television screen, you're not watching it through a window, you're sitting there with her. +When you look down, you're sitting on the same ground that she's sitting on. +And because of that, you feel her humanity in a deeper way. +You empathize with her in a deeper way. +And I think that we can change minds with this machine. +And we've already started to try to change a few. +So we took this film to the World Economic Forum in Davos in January. +And we showed it to a group of people whose decisions affect the lives of millions of people. +And these are people who might not otherwise be sitting in a tent in a refugee camp in Jordan. +But in January, one afternoon in Switzerland, they suddenly all found themselves there. +And they were affected by it. +So we're going to make more of them. +We're working with the United Nations right now to shoot a whole series of these films. +We just finished shooting a story in Liberia. +And now, we're going to shoot a story in India. +And we're taking these films, and we're showing them at the United Nations to people that work there and people that are visiting there. +And we're showing them to the people that can actually change the lives of the people inside of the films. +And that's where I think we just start to scratch the surface of the true power of virtual reality. +It's not a video game peripheral. +It connects humans to other humans in a profound way that I've never seen before in any other form of media. +And it can change people's perception of each other. +And that's how I think virtual reality has the potential to actually change the world. +So, it's a machine, but through this machine we become more compassionate, we become more empathetic, and we become more connected. +And ultimately, we become more human. +Thank you. +It would be nice to be objective in life, in many ways. +The problem is that we have these color-tinted glasses as we look at all kinds of situations. +For example, think about something as simple as beer. +If I gave you a few beers to taste and I asked you to rate them on intensity and bitterness, different beers would occupy different space. +But what if we tried to be objective about it? +In the case of beer, it would be very simple. +What if we did a blind taste? +Well, if we did the same thing, you tasted the same beer, now in the blind taste, things would look slightly different. +Most of the beers will go into one place. +You will basically not be able to distinguish them, and the exception, of course, will be Guinness. +Similarly, we can think about physiology. +What happens when people expect something from their physiology? +For example, we sold people pain medications. +Some people, we told them the medications were expensive. +Some people, we told them it was cheap. +And the expensive pain medication worked better. +It relieved more pain from people, because expectations do change our physiology. +And of course, we all know that in sports, if you are a fan of a particular team, you can't help but see the game develop from the perspective of your team. +So all of those are cases in which our preconceived notions and our expectations color our world. +But what happened in more important questions? +What happened with questions that had to do with social justice? +So we wanted to think about what is the blind tasting version for thinking about inequality? +So we started looking at inequality, and we did some large-scale surveys around the U.S. and other countries. +So we asked two questions: Do people know what kind of level of inequality we have? +And then, what level of inequality do we want to have? +So let's think about the first question. +Imagine I took all the people in the U.S. +and I sorted them from the poorest on the right to the richest on the left, and then I divided them into five buckets: the poorest 20 percent, the next 20 percent, the next, the next, and the richest 20 percent. +And then I asked you to tell me how much wealth do you think is concentrated in each of those buckets. +So to make it simpler, imagine I ask you to tell me, how much wealth do you think is concentrated in the bottom two buckets, the bottom 40 percent? +Take a second. Think about it and have a number. +Usually we don't think. +Think for a second, have a real number in your mind. +You have it? +Okay, here's what lots of Americans tell us. +They think that the bottom 20 percent has about 2.9 percent of the wealth, the next group has 6.4, so together it's slightly more than nine. +The next group, they say, has 12 percent, 20 percent, and the richest 20 percent, people think has 58 percent of the wealth. +You can see how this relates to what you thought. +Now, what's reality? +Reality is slightly different. +The bottom 20 percent has 0.1 percent of the wealth. +The next 20 percent has 0.2 percent of the wealth. +Together, it's 0.3. +The next group has 3.9, 11.3, and the richest group has 84-85 percent of the wealth. +So what we actually have and what we think we have are very different. +What about what we want? +How do we even figure this out? +So to look at this, to look at what we really want, we thought about the philosopher John Rawls. +If you remember John Rawls, he had this notion of what's a just society. +He said a just society is a society that if you knew everything about it, you would be willing to enter it in a random place. +And it's a beautiful definition, because if you're wealthy, you might want the wealthy to have more money, the poor to have less. +If you're poor, you might want more equality. +But if you're going to go into that society in every possible situation, and you don't know, you have to consider all the aspects. +It's a little bit like blind tasting in which you don't know what the outcome will be when you make a decision, and Rawls called this the "veil of ignorance." +So, we took another group, a large group of Americans, and we asked them the question in the veil of ignorance. +What are the characteristics of a country that would make you want to join it, knowing that you could end randomly at any place? +And here is what we got. +What did people want to give to the first group, the bottom 20 percent? +They wanted to give them about 10 percent of the wealth. +The next group, 14 percent of the wealth, 21, 22 and 32. +Now, nobody in our sample wanted full equality. +Nobody thought that socialism is a fantastic idea in our sample. +But what does it mean? It means that we have this knowledge gap between what we have and what we think we have, but we have at least as big a gap between what we think is right to what we think we have. +Now, we can ask these questions, by the way, not just about wealth. +We can ask it about other things as well. +So for example, we asked people from different parts of the world about this question, people who are liberals and conservatives, and they gave us basically the same answer. +We asked rich and poor, they gave us the same answer, men and women, NPR listeners and Forbes readers. +We asked people in England, Australia, the U.S. -- very similar answers. +We even asked different departments of a university. +We went to Harvard and we checked almost every department, and in fact, from Harvard Business School, where a few people wanted the wealthy to have more and the [poor] to have less, the similarity was astonishing. +I know some of you went to Harvard Business School. +We also asked this question about something else. +We asked, what about the ratio of CEO pay to unskilled workers? +So you can see what people think is the ratio, and then we can ask the question, what do they think should be the ratio? +And then we can ask, what is reality? +What is reality? And you could say, well, it's not that bad, right? +The red and the yellow are not that different. +But the fact is, it's because I didn't draw them on the same scale. +It's hard to see, there's yellow and blue in there. +So what about other outcomes of wealth? +Wealth is not just about wealth. +We asked, what about things like health? +What about availability of prescription medication? +What about life expectancy? +What about life expectancy of infants? +How do we want this to be distributed? +What about education for young people? +And for older people? +And across all of those things, what we learned was that people don't like inequality of wealth, but there's other things where inequality, which is an outcome of wealth, is even more aversive to them: for example, inequality in health or education. +We also learned that people are particularly open to changes in equality when it comes to people who have less agency -- basically, young kids and babies, because we don't think of them as responsible for their situation. +So what are some lessons from this? +We have two gaps: We have a knowledge gap and we have a desirability gap And the knowledge gap is something that we think about, how do we educate people? +How do we get people to think differently about inequality and the consequences of inequality in terms of health, education, jealousy, crime rate, and so on? +Then we have the desirability gap. +How do we get people to think differently about what we really want? +You see, the Rawls definition, the Rawls way of looking at the world, the blind tasting approach, takes our selfish motivation out of the picture. +How do we implement that to a higher degree on a more extensive scale? +And finally, we also have an action gap. +How do we take these things and actually do something about it? +I think part of the answer is to think about people like young kids and babies that don't have much agency, because people seem to be more willing to do this. +To summarize, I would say, next time you go to drink beer or wine, first of all, think about, what is it in your experience that is real, and what is it in your experience that is a placebo effect coming from expectations? +And then think about what it also means for other decisions in your life, and hopefully also for policy questions that affect all of us. +Thanks a lot. +I'd like to take you on the epic quest of the Rosetta spacecraft. +To escort and land the probe on a comet, this has been my passion for the past two years. +In order to do that, I need to explain to you something about the origin of the solar system. +When we go back four and a half billion years, there was a cloud of gas and dust. +In the center of this cloud, our sun formed and ignited. +Along with that, what we now know as planets, comets and asteroids formed. +What then happened, according to theory, is that when the Earth had cooled down a bit after its formation, comets massively impacted the Earth and delivered water to Earth. +They probably also delivered complex organic material to Earth, and that may have bootstrapped the emergence of life. +You can compare this to having to solve a 250-piece puzzle and not a 2,000-piece puzzle. +Afterwards, the big planets like Jupiter and Saturn, they were not in their place where they are now, and they interacted gravitationally, and they swept the whole interior of the solar system clean, and what we now know as comets ended up in something called the Kuiper Belt, which is a belt of objects beyond the orbit of Neptune. +And sometimes these objects run into each other, and they gravitationally deflect, and then the gravity of Jupiter pulls them back into the solar system. +And they then become the comets as we see them in the sky. +The important thing here to note is that in the meantime, the four and a half billion years, these comets have been sitting on the outside of the solar system, and haven't changed -- deep, frozen versions of our solar system. +In the sky, they look like this. +We know them for their tails. +There are actually two tails. +One is a dust tail, which is blown away by the solar wind. +The other one is an ion tail, which is charged particles, and they follow the magnetic field in the solar system. +There's the coma, and then there is the nucleus, which here is too small to see, and you have to remember that in the case of Rosetta, the spacecraft is in that center pixel. +We are only 20, 30, 40 kilometers away from the comet. +So what's important to remember? +Comets contain the original material from which our solar system was formed, so they're ideal to study the components that were present at the time when Earth, and life, started. +Comets are also suspected of having brought the elements which may have bootstrapped life. +In 1983, ESA set up its long-term Horizon 2000 program, which contained one cornerstone, which would be a mission to a comet. +In parallel, a small mission to a comet, what you see here, Giotto, was launched, and in 1986, flew by the comet of Halley with an armada of other spacecraft. +From the results of that mission, it became immediately clear that comets were ideal bodies to study to understand our solar system. +And thus, the Rosetta mission was approved in 1993, and originally it was supposed to be launched in 2003, but a problem arose with an Ariane rocket. +However, our P.R. department, in its enthusiasm, had already made 1,000 Delft Blue plates with the name of the wrong comets. +So I've never had to buy any china since. That's the positive part. +Once the whole problem was solved, we left Earth in 2004 to the newly selected comet, Churyumov-Gerasimenko. +This comet had to be specially selected because A, you have to be able to get to it, and B, it shouldn't have been in the solar system too long. +This particular comet has been in the solar system since 1959. +That's the first time when it was deflected by Jupiter, and it got close enough to the sun to start changing. +So it's a very fresh comet. +Rosetta made a few historic firsts. +It's the first satellite to orbit a comet, and to escort it throughout its whole tour through the solar system -- closest approach to the sun, as we will see in August, and then away again to the exterior. +It's the first ever landing on a comet. +We actually orbit the comet using something which is not normally done with spacecraft. +Normally, you look at the sky and you know where you point and where you are. +In this case, that's not enough. +We navigated by looking at landmarks on the comet. +We recognized features -- boulders, craters -- and that's how we know where we are respective to the comet. +And, of course, it's the first satellite to go beyond the orbit of Jupiter on solar cells. +Now, this sounds more heroic than it actually is, because the technology to use radio isotope thermal generators wasn't available in Europe at that time, so there was no choice. +But these solar arrays are big. +This is one wing, and these are not specially selected small people. +They're just like you and me. +We have two of these wings, 65 square meters. +Now later on, of course, when we got to the comet, you find out that 65 square meters of sail close to a body which is outgassing is not always a very handy choice. +Now, how did we get to the comet? +Because we had to go there for the Rosetta scientific objectives very far away -- four times the distance of the Earth to the sun -- and also at a much higher velocity than we could achieve with fuel, because we'd have to take six times as much fuel as the whole spacecraft weighed. +So what do you do? +You use gravitational flybys, slingshots, where you pass by a planet at very low altitude, a few thousand kilometers, and then you get the velocity of that planet around the sun for free. +We did that a few times. +We did Earth, we did Mars, we did twice Earth again, and we also flew by two asteroids, Lutetia and Steins. +Then in 2011, we got so far from the sun that if the spacecraft got into trouble, we couldn't actually save the spacecraft anymore, so we went into hibernation. +Everything was switched off except for one clock. +Here you see in white the trajectory, and the way this works. +You see that from the circle where we started, the white line, actually you get more and more and more elliptical, and then finally we approached the comet in May 2014, and we had to start doing the rendezvous maneuvers. +On the way there, we flew by Earth and we took a few pictures to test our cameras. +This is the moon rising over Earth, and this is what we now call a selfie, which at that time, by the way, that word didn't exist. It's at Mars. It was taken by the CIVA camera. +That's one of the cameras on the lander, and it just looks under the solar arrays, and you see the planet Mars and the solar array in the distance. +Now, when we got out of hibernation in January 2014, we started arriving at a distance of two million kilometers from the comet in May. +However, the velocity the spacecraft had was much too fast. +We were going 2,800 kilometers an hour faster than the comet, so we had to brake. +We had to do eight maneuvers, and you see here, some of them were really big. +Then we got in the vicinity of the comet, and these were the first pictures we saw. +The true comet rotation period is 12 and a half hours, so this is accelerated, but you will understand that our flight dynamics engineers thought, this is not going to be an easy thing to land on. +We had hoped for some kind of spud-like thing where you could easily land. +But we had one hope: maybe it was smooth. +No. That didn't work either. So at that point in time, it was clearly unavoidable: we had to map this body in all the detail you could get, because we had to find an area which is 500 meters in diameter and flat. +Why 500 meters? That's the error we have on landing the probe. +So we went through this process, and we mapped the comet. +We used a technique called photoclinometry. +You use shadows thrown by the sun. +What you see here is a rock sitting on the surface of the comet, and the sun shines from above. +From the shadow, we, with our brain, can immediately determine roughly what the shape of that rock is. +You can program that in a computer, you then cover the whole comet, and you can map the comet. +For that, we flew special trajectories starting in August. +First, a triangle of 100 kilometers on a side at 100 kilometers' distance, and we repeated the whole thing at 50 kilometers. +At that time, we had seen the comet at all kinds of angles, and we could use this technique to map the whole thing. +Now, this led to a selection of landing sites. +This whole process we had to do, to go from the mapping of the comet to actually finding the final landing site, was 60 days. +We didn't have more. +To give you an idea, the average Mars mission takes hundreds of scientists for years to meet about where shall we go? +We had 60 days, and that was it. +We finally selected the final landing site and the commands were prepared for Rosetta to launch Philae. +The way this works is that Rosetta has to be at the right point in space, and aiming towards the comet, because the lander is passive. +The lander is then pushed out and moves towards the comet. +Rosetta had to turn around to get its cameras to actually look at Philae while it was departing and to be able to communicate with it. +Now, the landing duration of the whole trajectory was seven hours. +Now do a simple calculation: if the velocity of Rosetta is off by one centimeter per second, seven hours is 25,000 seconds. +That means 252 meters wrong on the comet. +So we had to know the velocity of Rosetta much better than one centimeter per second, and its location in space better than 100 meters at 500 million kilometers from Earth. +That's no mean feat. +Let me quickly take you through some of the science and the instruments. +I won't bore you with all the details of all the instruments, but it's got everything. +We can sniff gas, we can measure dust particles, the shape of them, the composition, there are magnetometers, everything. +This is one of the results from an instrument which measures gas density at the position of Rosetta, so it's gas which has left the comet. +The bottom graph is September of last year. +There is a long-term variation, which in itself is not surprising, but you see the sharp peaks. +This is a comet day. +You can see the effect of the sun on the evaporation of gas and the fact that the comet is rotating. +So there is one spot, apparently, where there is a lot of stuff coming from, it gets heated in the Sun, and then cools down on the back side. +And we can see the density variations of this. +These are the gases and the organic compounds that we already have measured. +You will see it's an impressive list, and there is much, much, much more to come, because there are more measurements. +Actually, there is a conference going on in Houston at the moment where many of these results are presented. +Also, we measured dust particles. +Now, for you, this will not look very impressive, but the scientists were thrilled when they saw this. +Two dust particles: the right one they call Boris, and they shot it with tantalum in order to be able to analyze it. +Now, we found sodium and magnesium. +What this tells you is this is the concentration of these two materials at the time the solar system was formed, so we learned things about which materials were there when the planet was made. +Of course, one of the important elements is the imaging. +This is one of the cameras of Rosetta, the OSIRIS camera, and this actually was the cover of Science magazine on January 23 of this year. +Nobody had expected this body to look like this. +Boulders, rocks -- if anything, it looks more like the Half Dome in Yosemite than anything else. +We also saw things like this: dunes, and what look to be, on the righthand side, wind-blown shadows. +Now we know these from Mars, but this comet doesn't have an atmosphere, so it's a bit difficult to create a wind-blown shadow. +It may be local outgassing, stuff which goes up and comes back. +We don't know, so there is a lot to investigate. +Here, you see the same image twice. +On the left-hand side, you see in the middle a pit. +On the right-hand side, if you carefully look, there are three jets coming out of the bottom of that pit. +So this is the activity of the comet. +Apparently, at the bottom of these pits is where the active regions are, and where the material evaporates into space. +There is a very intriguing crack in the neck of the comet. +You see it on the right-hand side. +It's a kilometer long, and it's two and a half meters wide. +Some people suggest that actually, when we get close to the sun, the comet may split in two, and then we'll have to choose, which comet do we go for? +The lander -- again, lots of instruments, mostly comparable except for the things which hammer in the ground and drill, etc. +But much the same as Rosetta, and that is because you want to compare what you find in space with what you find on the comet. +These are called ground truth measurements. +These are the landing descent images that were taken by the OSIRIS camera. +You see the lander getting further and further away from Rosetta. +On the top right, you see an image taken at 60 meters by the lander, 60 meters above the surface of the comet. +The boulder there is some 10 meters. +So this is one of the last images we took before we landed on the comet. +Here, you see the whole sequence again, but from a different perspective, and you see three blown-ups from the bottom-left to the middle of the lander traveling over the surface of the comet. +Then, at the top, there is a before and an after image of the landing. +The only problem with the after image is, there is no lander. +But if you carefully look at the right-hand side of this image, we saw the lander still there, but it had bounced. +It had departed again. +Now, on a bit of a comical note here is that originally Rosetta was designed to have a lander which would bounce. +That was discarded because it was way too expensive. +Now, we forgot, but the lander knew. +During the first bounce, in the magnetometers, you see here the data from them, from the three axes, x, y and z. +Halfway through, you see a red line. +At that red line, there is a change. +What happened, apparently, is during the first bounce, somewhere, we hit the edge of a crater with one of the legs of the lander, and the rotation velocity of the lander changed. +So we've been rather lucky that we are where we are. +This is one of the iconic images of Rosetta. +It's a man-made object, a leg of the lander, standing on a comet. +This, for me, is one of the very best images of space science I have ever seen. +One of the things we still have to do is to actually find the lander. +The blue area here is where we know it must be. +We haven't been able to find it yet, but the search is continuing, as are our efforts to start getting the lander to work again. +We listen every day, and we hope that between now and somewhere in April, the lander will wake up again. +The findings of what we found on the comet: This thing would float in water. +It's half the density of water. +So it looks like a very big rock, but it's not. +The activity increase we saw in June, July, August last year was a four-fold activity increase. +By the time we will be at the sun, there will be 100 kilos a second leaving this comet: gas, dust, whatever. +That's 100 million kilos a day. +Then, finally, the landing day. +I will never forget -- absolute madness, 250 TV crews in Germany. +The BBC was interviewing me, and another TV crew who was following me all day were filming me being interviewed, and it went on like that for the whole day. +The Discovery Channel crew actually caught me when leaving the control room, and they asked the right question, and man, I got into tears, and I still feel this. +For a month and a half, I couldn't think about landing day without crying, and I still have the emotion in me. +With this image of the comet, I would like to leave you. +Thank you. +I am a Hazara, and the homeland of my people is Afghanistan. +Like hundreds of thousands of other Hazara kids, I was born in exile. +The ongoing persecution and operation against the Hazaras forced my parents to leave Afghanistan. +This persecution has had a long history going back to the late 1800s, and the rule of King Abdur Rahman. +He killed 63 percent of the Hazara population. +He built minarets with their heads. +Many Hazaras were sold into slavery, and many others fled the country for neighboring Iran and Pakistan. +My parents also fled to Pakistan, and settled in Quetta, where I was born. +After the September 11 attack on the Twin Towers, I got a chance to go to Afghanistan for the first time, with foreign journalists. +I was only 18, and I got a job working as an interpreter. +After four years, I felt it was safe enough to move to Afghanistan permanently, and I was working there as a documentary photographer, and I worked on many stories. +One of the most important stories that I did was the dancing boys of Afghanistan. +It is a tragic story about an appalling tradition. +It involves young kids dancing for warlords and powerful men in the society. +These boys are often abducted or bought from their poor parents, and they are put to work as sex slaves. +This is Shukur. +He was kidnapped from Kabul by a warlord. +He was taken to another province, where he was forced to work as a sex slave for the warlord and his friends. +When this story was published in the Washington Post, I started receiving death threats, and I was forced to leave Afghanistan, as my parents were. +Along with my family, I returned back to Quetta. +The situation in Quetta had changed dramatically since I left in 2005. +Once a peaceful haven for the Hazaras, it had now turned into the most dangerous city in Pakistan. +Hazaras are confined into two small areas, and they are marginalized socially, educationally, and financially. +This is Nadir. +I had known him since my childhood. +He was injured when his van was ambushed by terrorists in Quetta. +He later died of his injuries. +Around 1,600 Hazara members had been killed in various attacks, and around 3,000 of them were injured, and many of them permanently disabled. +The attacks on the Hazara community would only get worse, so it was not surprising that many wanted to flee. +After Afghanistan, Iran, Pakistan, Australia is home to the fourth largest population of Hazaras in the world. +When it came time to leave Pakistan, Australia seemed the obvious choice. +Financially, only one of us could leave, and it was decided that I would go, in the hope that if I arrived at my destination safely, I could work to get the rest of my family to join me later. +We all knew about the risks, and how terrifying the journey is, and I met many people who lost loved ones at sea. +It was a desperate decision to take, to leave everything behind, and no one makes this decision easily. +If I had been able to simply fly to Australia, it would have taken me less than 24 hours. +But getting a visa was impossible. +My journey was much longer, much more complicated, and certainly more dangerous, traveling to Thailand by air, and then by road and boat to Malaysia and into Indonesia, paying people and smugglers all the way and spending a lot of time hiding and a lot of time in fear of being caught. +In Indonesia, I joined a group of seven asylum seekers. +We all shared a bedroom in a town outside of Jakarta called Bogor. +After spending a week in Bogor, three of my roommates left for the perilous journey, and we got the news two days later that a distressed boat sank in the sea en route to Christmas Island. +We found out that our three roommates -- Nawroz, Jaffar and Shabbir -- were also among those. +Only Jaffar was rescued. +Shabbir and Nawroz were never seen again. +It made me think, am I doing the right thing? +I concluded I really had no other choice but to go on. +A few weeks later, we got the call from the people smuggler to alert us that the boat is ready for us to commence our sea journey. +Taken in the night towards the main vessel on a motorboat, we boarded an old fishing boat that was already overloaded. +There were 93 of us, and we were all below deck. +No one was allowed up on the top. +We all paid 6,000 dollars each for this part of the trip. +The first night and day went smoothly, but by the second night, the weather turned. +Waves tossed the boat around, and the timbers groaned. +People below deck were crying, praying, recalling their loved ones. +They were screaming. +It was a terrible moment. +It was like a scene from doomsday, or maybe like one of those scenes from those Hollywood movies that shows that everything is breaking apart and the world is just ending. +It was happening to us for real. +We didn't have any hope. +Our boat was floating like a matchbox on the water without any control. +The waves were much higher than our boat, and the water poured in faster than the motor pumps could take it out. +We all lost hope. +We thought, this is the end. +We were watching our deaths, and I was documenting it. +The captain told us that we are not going to make it, we have to turn back the boat. +We went on the deck and turned our torches on and off to attract the attention of any passing boat. +We kept trying to attract their attention by waving our life jackets and whistling. +Eventually, we made it to a small island. +Our boat crashing onto the rocks, I slipped into the water and destroyed my camera, whatever I had documented. +But luckily, the memory card survived. +It was a thick forest. +We all split up into many groups as we argued over what to do next. +We were all scared and confused. +Then, after spending the night on the beach, we found a jetty and coconuts. +We hailed a boat from a nearby resort, and then were quickly handed over to Indonesian water police. +At Serang Detention Center, an immigration officer came and furtively strip-searched us. +He took our mobile, my $300 cash, our shoes that we should not be able to escape, but we kept watching the guards, checking their movements, and around 4 a.m. when they sat around a fire, we removed two glass layers from an outside facing window and slipped through. +We climbed a tree next to an outer wall that was topped with the shards of glass. +We put the pillow on that and wrapped our forearms with bedsheets and climbed the wall, and we ran away with bare feet. +I was free, with an uncertain future, no money. +The only thing I had was the memory card with the pictures and footage. +When my documentary was aired on SBS Dateline, many of my friends came to know about my situation, and they tried to help me. +They did not allow me to take any other boat to risk my life. +I also decided to stay in Indonesia and process my case through UNHCR, but I was really afraid that I would end up in Indonesia for many years doing nothing and unable to work, like every other asylum seeker. +But it had happened to be a little bit different with me. +I was lucky. +My contacts worked to expedite my case through UNHCR, and I got resettled in Australia in May 2013. +Not every asylum seeker is lucky like me. +It is really difficult to live a life with an uncertain fate, in limbo. +The issue of asylum seekers in Australia has been so extremely politicized that it has lost its human face. +The asylum seekers have been demonized and then presented to the people. +I hope my story and the story of other Hazaras could shed some light to show the people how these people are suffering in their countries of origin, and how they suffer, why they risk their lives to seek asylum. +Thank you. +This is a kindergarten we designed in 2007. +We made this kindergarten to be a circle. +It's a kind of endless circulation on top of the roof. +If you are a parent, you know that kids love to keep making circles. +This is how the rooftop looks. +And why did we design this? +The principal of this kindergarten said, "No, I don't want a handrail." +I said, "It's impossible." +But he insisted: "How about having a net sticking out from the edge of the roof? +So that it can catch the children falling off?" +I said, "It's impossible." +And of course, the government official said, "Of course you have to have a handrail." +But we could keep that idea around the trees. +There are three trees popping through. +And we were allowed to call this rope as a handrail. +But of course, rope has nothing to do with them. +They fall into the net. +And you get more, and more, more. +Sometimes 40 children are around a tree. +The boy on the branch, he loves the tree so he is eating the tree. +And at the time of an event, they sit on the edge. +It looks so nice from underneath. +Monkeys in the zoo. +Feeding time. +And we made the roof as low as possible, because we wanted to see children on top of the roof, not only underneath the roof. +And if the roof is too high, you see only the ceiling. +And the leg washing place -- there are many kinds of water taps. +You see with the flexible tubes, you want to spray water to your friends, and the shower, and the one in front is quite normal. +But if you look at this, the boy is not washing his boots, he's putting water into his boots. +This kindergarten is completely open, most of the year. +And there is no boundary between inside and outside. +So it means basically this architecture is a roof. +And also there is no boundary between classrooms. +So there is no acoustic barrier at all. +When you put many children in a quiet box, some of them get really nervous. +But in this kindergarten, there is no reason they get nervous. +Because there is no boundary. +And the principal says if the boy in the corner doesn't want to stay in the room, we let him go. +He will come back eventually, because it's a circle, it comes back. +But the point is, in that kind of occasion, usually children try to hide somewhere. +But here, just they leave and come back. +It's a natural process. +And secondly, we consider noise very important. +You know that children sleep better in noise. +They don't sleep in a quiet space. +And in this kindergarten, these children show amazing concentration in class. +And you know, our kind grew up in the jungle with noise. +They need noise. +And you know, you can talk to your friends in a noisy bar. +You are not supposed to be in silence. +And you know, these days we are trying to make everything under control. +You know, it's completely open. +And you should know that we can go skiing in -20 degrees in winter. +In summer you go swimming. +The sand is 50 degrees. +And also, you should know that you are waterproof. +You never melt in rain. +So, children are supposed to be outside. +So that is how we should treat them. +This is how they divide classrooms. +They are supposed to help teachers. +They don't. +I didn't put him in. +A classroom. +And a washbasin. +They talk to each other around the well. +And there are always some trees in the classroom. +A monkey trying to fish another monkey from above. +Monkeys. +And each classroom has at least one skylight. +And this is where Santa Claus comes down at the time of Christmas. +This is the annex building, right next to that oval-shaped kindergarten. +The building is only five meters tall with seven floors. +And of course, the ceiling height is very low. +So you have to consider safety. +So, we put our children, a daughter and a son. +They tried to go in. +He hit his head. +He's okay. His skull is quite strong. +He is resilient. It's my son. +And he is trying to see if it is safe to jump off. +And then we put other children. +The traffic jam is awful in Tokyo, as you know. +The driver in front, she needs to learn how to drive. +Now these days, kids need a small dosage of danger. +And in this kind of occasion, they learn to help each other. +This is society. This is the kind of opportunity we are losing these days. +Now, this drawing is showing the movement of a boy between 9:10 and 9:30. +And the circumference of this building is 183 meters. +So it's not exactly small at all. +And this boy did 6,000 meters in the morning. +But the surprise is yet to come. +The children in this kindergarten do 4,000 meters on average. +And these children have the highest athletic abilities among many kindergartens. +The principal says, "I don't train them. We leave them on top of the roof. +Just like sheep." +They keep running. +My point is don't control them, don't protect them too much, and they need to tumble sometimes. +They need to get some injury. +And that makes them learn how to live in this world. +I think architecture is capable of changing this world, and people's lives. +And this is one of the attempts to change the lives of children. +Thank you very much. +Today, I am going to talk about anger. +When I was 11, seeing some of my friends leaving the school because their parents could not afford textbooks made me angry. +When I was 27, hearing the plight of a desperate slave father whose daughter was about to be sold to a brothel made me angry. +At the age of 50, lying on the street, in a pool of blood, along with my own son, made me angry. +Dear friends, for centuries we were taught anger is bad. +Our parents, teachers, priests -- everyone taught us how to control and suppress our anger. +But I ask why? +Why can't we convert our anger for the larger good of society? +Why can't we use our anger to challenge and change the evils of the world? +That I tried to do. +Friends, most of the brightest ideas came to my mind out of anger. +Like when I was 35 and sat in a locked-up, tiny prison. +The whole night, I was angry. +But it has given birth to a new idea. +But I will come to that later on. +Let me begin with the story of how I got a name for myself. +I had been a big admirer of Mahatma Gandhi since my childhood. +Gandhi fought and lead India's freedom movement. +But more importantly, he taught us how to treat the most vulnerable sections, the most deprived people, with dignity and respect. +And so, when India was celebrating Mahatma Gandhi's birth centenary in 1969 -- at that time I was 15 -- an idea came to my mind. +Why can't we celebrate it differently? +I knew, as perhaps many of you might know, that in India, a large number of people are born in the lowest segment of caste. +And they are treated as untouchables. +These are the people -- forget about allowing them to go to the temples, they cannot even go into the houses and shops of high-caste people. +So I was very impressed with the leaders of my town who were speaking very highly against the caste system and untouchability and talking of Gandhian ideals. +So inspired by that, I thought, let us set an example by inviting these people to eat food cooked and served by the untouchable community. +I went to some low-caste, so-called untouchable, people, tried to convince them, but it was unthinkable for them. +They told me, "No, no. It's not possible. It never happened." +I said, "Look at these leaders, they are so great, they are against untouchability. +They will come. If nobody comes, we can set an example." +These people thought that I was too naive. +Finally, they were convinced. +My friends and I took our bicycles and invited political leaders. +And I was so thrilled, rather, empowered to see that each one of them agreed to come. +I thought, "Great idea. We can set an example. +We can bring about change in the society." +The day has come. +All these untouchables, three women and two men, they agreed to come. +I could recall that they had used the best of their clothes. +They brought new utensils. +They had taken baths hundreds of times because it was unthinkable for them to do. +It was the moment of change. +They gathered. Food was cooked. +It was 7 o'clock. +By 8 o'clock, we kept on waiting, because it's not very uncommon that the leaders become late, for an hour or so. +So after 8 o'clock, we took our bicycles and went to these leaders' homes, just to remind them. +One of the leader's wives told me, "Sorry, he is having some headache, perhaps he cannot come." +I went to another leader and his wife told me, "Okay, you go, he will definitely join." +So I thought that the dinner will take place, though not at that large a scale. +I went back to the venue, which was a newly built Mahatma Gandhi Park. +It was 10 o'clock. +None of the leaders showed up. +That made me angry. +I was standing, leaning against Mahatma Gandhi's statue. +I was emotionally drained, rather exhausted. +Then I sat down where the food was lying. +I kept my emotions on hold. +But then, when I took the first bite, I broke down in tears. +And suddenly I felt a hand on my shoulder. +And it was the healing, motherly touch of an untouchable woman. +And she told me, "Kailash, why are you crying? +You have done your bit. +You have eaten the food cooked by untouchables, which has never happened in our memory." +She said, "You won today." +And my friends, she was right. +I came back home, a little after midnight, shocked to see that several high-caste elderly people were sitting in my courtyard. +I saw my mother and elderly women were crying and they were pleading to these elderly people because they had threatened to outcaste my whole family. +And you know, outcasting the family is the biggest social punishment one can think of. +Somehow they agreed to punish only me, and the punishment was purification. +That means I had to go 600 miles away from my hometown to the River Ganges to take a holy dip. +And after that, I should organize a feast for priests, 101 priests, wash their feet and drink that water. +It was total nonsense, and I refused to accept that punishment. +How did they punish me? +I was barred from entering into my own kitchen and my own dining room, my utensils were separated. +But the night when I was angry, they wanted to outcaste me. +But I decided to outcaste the entire caste system. +And that was possible because the beginning would have been to change the family name, or surname, because in India, most of the family names are caste names. +So I decided to drop my name. +And then, later on, I gave a new name to myself: Satyarthi, that means, "seeker of truth." +And that was the beginning of my transformative anger. +Friends, maybe one of you can tell me, what was I doing before becoming a children's rights activist? +Does anybody know? +No. +I was an engineer, an electrical engineer. +And then I learned how the energy of burning fire, coal, the nuclear blast inside the chambers, raging river currents, fierce winds, could be converted into the light and lives of millions. +I also learned how the most uncontrollable form of energy could be harnessed for good and making society better. +So I'll come back to the story of when I was caught in the prison: I was very happy freeing a dozen children from slavery, handing them over to their parents. +I cannot explain my joy when I free a child. +I was so happy. +But when I was waiting for my train to come back to my hometown, Delhi, I saw that dozens of children were arriving; they were being trafficked by someone. +I stopped them, those people. +I complained to the police. +So the policemen, instead of helping me, they threw me in this small, tiny shell, like an animal. +And that was the night of anger when one of the brightest and biggest ideas was born. +I thought that if I keep on freeing 10 children, and 50 more will join, that's not done. +And I believed in the power of consumers, and let me tell you that this was the first time when a campaign was launched by me or anywhere in the world, to educate and sensitize the consumers to create a demand for child-labor-free rugs. +In Europe and America, we have been successful. +And it has resulted in a fall in child labor in South Asian countries by 80 percent. +Not only that, but this first-ever consumer's power, or consumer's campaign has grown in other countries and other industries, maybe chocolate, maybe apparel, maybe shoes -- it has gone beyond. +My anger at the age of 11, when I realized how important education is for every child, I got an idea to collect used books and help the poorest children. +I created a book bank at the age of 11. +But I did not stop. Later on, I cofounded the world's single largest civil society campaign for education that is the Global Campaign for Education. +That has helped in changing the whole thinking towards education from the charity mode to the human rights mode, and that has concretely helped the reduction of out-of-school children by half in the last 15 years. +My anger at the age of 27, to free that girl who was about to be sold to a brothel, has given me an idea to go for a new strategy of raid and rescue, freeing children from slavery. +And I am so lucky and proud to say that it is not one or 10 or 20, but my colleagues and I have been able to physically liberate 83,000 child slaves and hand them over back to their families and mothers. +I knew that we needed global policies. +We organized the worldwide marches against child labor and that has also resulted in a new international convention to protect the children who are in the worst forms. +And the concrete result was that the number of child laborers globally has gone down by one third in the last 15 years. +So, in each case, it began from anger, turned into an idea, and action. +So anger, what next? +Idea, and -- Audience: Action Kailash Satyarthi: Anger, idea, action. Which I tried to do. +Anger is a power, anger is an energy, and the law of nature is that energy can never be created and never be vanished, can never be destroyed. +So why can't the energy of anger be translated and harnessed to create a better and beautiful world, a more just and equitable world? +Anger is within each one of you, and I will share a secret for a few seconds: that if we are confined in the narrow shells of egos, and the circles of selfishness, then the anger will turn out to be hatred, violence, revenge, destruction. +But if we are able to break the circles, then the same anger could turn into a great power. +We can break the circles by using our inherent compassion and connect with the world through compassion to make this world better. +That same anger could be transformed into it. +So dear friends, sisters and brothers, again, as a Nobel Laureate, I am urging you to become angry. +I am urging you to become angry. +And the angriest among us is the one who can transform his anger into idea and action. +Thank you so much. +Chris Anderson: For many years, you've been an inspiration to others. +Who or what inspires you and why? +KS: Good question. +And I am so lucky that not once, as I said before, but thousands of times, I have been able to witness my God in the faces of those children and they are my biggest inspirations. +Thank you. +This is a story about capitalism. +It's a system I love because of the successes and opportunities it's afforded me and millions of others. +I started in my 20s trading commodities, cotton in particular, in the pits, and if there was ever a free market free-for-all, this was it, where men wearing ties but acting like gladiators fought literally and physically for a profit. +Fortunately, I was good enough that by the time I was 30, I was able to move into the upstairs world of money management, where I spent the next three decades as a global macro trader. +And over that time, I've seen a lot of crazy things in the markets, and I've traded a lot of crazy manias. +And unfortunately, I'm sad to report that right now we might be in the grips of one of the most disastrous, certainly of my career, and one consistent takeaway is manias never end well. +Now, over the past 50 years, we as a society have come to view our companies and corporations in a very narrow, almost monomaniacal fashion with regard to how we value them, and we have put so much emphasis on profits, on short-term quarterly earnings and share prices, at the exclusion of all else. +It's like we've ripped the humanity out of our companies. +Now, we don't do that -- conveniently reduce something to a set of numbers that you can play with like Lego toys -- we don't do that in our individual life. +We don't treat somebody or value them based on their monthly income or their credit score, but we have this double standard when it comes to the way that we value our businesses, and you know what? +It's threatening the very underpinnings of our society. +And here's how you'll see. +This chart is corporate profit margins going back 40 years as a percentage of revenues, and you can see that we're at a 40-year high of 12.5 percent. +Now, hooray if you're a shareholder, but if you're the other side of that, and you're the average American worker, then you can see it's not such a good thing. +["U.S. Share of Income Going to Labor vs. CEO-to-Worker Compensation Ratio"] Now, higher profit margins do not increase societal wealth. +What they actually do is they exacerbate income inequality, and that's not a good thing. +But intuitively, that makes sense, right? +Because if the top 10 percent of American families own 90 percent of the stocks, as they take a greater share of corporate profits, then there's less wealth left for the rest of society. +Again, income inequality is not a good thing. +This next chart, made by The Equality Trust, shows 21 countries from Austria to Japan to New Zealand. +On the horizontal axis is income inequality. +The further to the right you go, the greater the income inequality. +On the vertical axis are nine social and health metrics. +The more you go up that, the worse the problems are, and those metrics include life expectancy, teenage pregnancy, literacy, social mobility, just to name a few. +Now, those of you in the audience who are Americans may wonder, well, where does the United States rank? +Where does it lie on that chart? +And guess what? +We're literally off the chart. +Yes, that's us, with the greatest income inequality and the greatest social problems, according to those metrics. +Now, here's a macro forecast that's easy to make, and that's, that gap between the wealthiest and the poorest, it will get closed. +History always does it. +It typically happens in one of three ways: either through revolution, higher taxes, or wars. +None of those are on my bucket list. +Now, there's another way to do it, and that's by increasing justness in corporate behavior, but the way that we're operating right now, that would require a tremendous change in behavior, and like an addict trying to kick a habit, the first step is to acknowledge that you have a problem. +And let me just say, this profits mania that we're on is so deeply entrenched that we don't even realize how we're harming society. +Here's a small but startling example of exactly how we're doing that: this chart shows corporate giving as a percentage of profits, not revenues, over the last 30 years. +Juxtapose that to the earlier chart of corporate profit margins, and I ask you, does that feel right? +In all fairness, when I started writing this, I thought, "Oh wow, what does my company, what does Tudor do?" +And I realized we give one percent of corporate profits to charity every year. +And I'm supposed to be a philanthropist. +When I realized that, I literally wanted to throw up. +But the point is, this mania is so deeply entrenched that well-intentioned people like myself don't even realize that we're part of it. +Now, we're not going to change corporate behavior by simply increasing corporate philanthropy or charitable contributions. +And oh, by the way, we've since quadrupled that, but -- -- Please. +But we can do it by driving more just behavior. +And one way to do it is actually trusting the system that got us here in the first place, and that's the free market system. +About a year ago, some friends of mine and I started a not-for-profit called Just Capital. +Its mission is very simple: to help companies and corporations learn how to operate in a more just fashion by using the public's input to define exactly what the criteria are for just corporate behavior. +Now, this is a model that's going to start in the United States but can be expanded anywhere around the globe, and maybe we'll find out that the most important thing for the public is that we create living wage jobs, or make healthy products, or help, not harm, the environment. +At Just Capital, we don't know, and it's not for us to decide. +We're but messengers, but we have 100 percent confidence and faith in the American public to get it right. +So we'll release the findings this September for the first time, and then next year, we'll poll again, and we'll take the additive step this time of ranking the 1,000 largest U.S. companies from number one to number 1,000 and everything in between. +We're calling it the Just Index, and remember, we're an independent not-for-profit with no bias, and we will be giving the American public a voice. +And maybe over time, we'll find out that as people come to know which companies are the most just, human and economic resources will be driven towards them, and they'll become the most prosperous and help our country be the most prosperous. +Now, capitalism has been responsible for every major innovation that's made this world a more inspiring and wonderful place to live in. +Capitalism has to be based on justice. +It has to be, and now more than ever, with economic divisions growing wider every day. +It's estimated that 47 percent of American workers can be displaced in the next 20 years. +I'm not against progress. +I want the driverless car and the jet pack just like everyone else. +But I'm pleading for recognition that with increased wealth and profits has to come greater corporate social responsibility. +"If justice is removed," said Adam Smith, the father of capitalism, "the great, the immense fabric of human society must in a moment crumble into atoms." +Now, when I was young, and there was a problem, my mama used to always sigh and shake her head and say, "Have mercy, have mercy." +Now's not the time for us, for the rest of us to show them mercy. +The time is now for us to show them fairness, and we can do that, you and I, by starting where we work, in the businesses that we operate in. +And when we put justness on par with profits, we'll get the most wonderful thing in all the world. +We'll take back our humanity. +Thank you. +Well, you know, sometimes the most important things come in the smallest packages. +I am going to try to convince you, in the 15 minutes I have, that microbes have a lot to say about questions such as, "Are we alone?" +and they can tell us more about not only life in our solar system but also maybe beyond, and this is why I am tracking them down in the most impossible places on Earth, in extreme environments where conditions are really pushing them to the brink of survival. +Actually, sometimes me too, when I'm trying to follow them too close. +But here's the thing: We are the only advanced civilization in the solar system, but that doesn't mean that there is no microbial life nearby. +In fact, the planets and moons you see here could host life -- all of them -- and we know that, and it's a strong possibility. +And if we were going to find life on those moons and planets, then we would answer questions such as, are we alone in the solar system? +Where are we coming from? +Do we have family in the neighborhood? +Is there life beyond our solar system? +Think of it as conditions in the subsurface of a planet where you are very far away from a sun, but you still have water, energy, nutrients, which for some of them means food, and a protection. +And when you look at the Earth, very far away from any sunlight, deep in the ocean, you have life thriving and it uses only chemistry for life processes. +So when you think of it at that point, all walls collapse. +You have no limitations, basically. +And if you have been looking at the headlines lately, then you will see that we have discovered a subsurface ocean on Europa, on Ganymede, on Enceladus, on Titan, and now we are finding a geyser and hot springs on Enceladus, Our solar system is turning into a giant spa. +For anybody who has gone to a spa knows how much microbes like that, right? +So at that point, think also about Mars. +There is no life possible at the surface of Mars today, but it might still be hiding underground. +So, we have been making progress in our understanding of habitability, but we also have been making progress in our understanding of what the signatures of life are on Earth. +And you can have what we call organic molecules, and these are the bricks of life, and you can have fossils, and you can minerals, biominerals, which is due to the reaction between bacteria and rocks, and of course you can have gases in the atmosphere. +And when you look at those tiny green algae on the right of the slide here, they are the direct descendants of those who have been pumping oxygen a billion years ago in the atmosphere of the Earth. +When they did that, they poisoned 90 percent of the life at the surface of the Earth, but they are the reason why you are breathing this air today. +But as much as our understanding grows of all of these things, there is one question we still cannot answer, and this is, where are we coming from? +And you know, it's getting worse, because we won't be able to find the physical evidence of where we are coming from on this planet, and the reason being is that anything that is older than four billion years is gone. +All record is gone, erased by plate tectonics and erosion. +This is what I call the Earth's biological horizon. +Beyond this horizon we don't know where we are coming from. +So is everything lost? Well, maybe not. +And we might be able to find evidence of our own origin in the most unlikely place, and this place in Mars. +How is this possible? +Well clearly at the beginning of the solar system, Mars and the Earth were bombarded by giant asteroids and comets, and there were ejecta from these impacts all over the place. +Earth and Mars kept throwing rocks at each other for a very long time. +Pieces of rocks landed on the Earth. +Pieces of the Earth landed on Mars. +So clearly, those two planets may have been seeded by the same material. +So yeah, maybe Granddady is sitting there on the surface and waiting for us. +But that also means that we can go to Mars and try to find traces of our own origin. +Mars may hold that secret for us. +This is why Mars is so special to us. +But for that to happen, Mars needed to be habitable at the time when conditions were right. +So was Mars habitable? +We have a number of missions telling us exactly the same thing today. +At the time when life appeared on the Earth, Mars did have an ocean, it had volcanoes, it had lakes, and it had deltas like the beautiful picture you see here. +This picture was sent by the Curiosity rover only a few weeks ago. +It shows the remnants of a delta, and this picture tells us something: water was abundant and stayed founting at the surface for a very long time. +This is good news for life. +Life chemistry takes a long time to actually happen. +So this is extremely good news, but does that mean that if we go there, life will be easy to find on Mars? +Not necessarily. +Here's what happened: At the time when life exploded at the surface of the Earth, then everything went south for Mars, literally. +The atmosphere was stripped away by solar winds, Mars lost its magnetosphere, and then cosmic rays and U.V. bombarded the surface and water escaped to space and went underground. +So if we want to be able to understand, if we want to be able to find those traces of the signatures of life at the surface of Mars, if they are there, we need to understand what was the impact of each of these events on the preservation of its record. +So to do that, it's easy. +You only need to go back 3.5 billion years ago in the past of a planet. +We just need a time machine. +Easy, right? +Well, actually, it is. +Look around you -- that's planet Earth. +This is our time machine. +Geologists are using it to go back in the past of our own planet. +I am using it a little bit differently. +I use planet Earth to go in very extreme environments where conditions were similar to those of Mars at the time when the climate changed, and there I'm trying to understand what happened. +What are the signatures of life? +What is left? How are we going to find it? +So for one moment now I'm going to take you with me on a trip into that time machine. +And now, what you see here, we are at 4,500 meters in the Andes, but in fact we are less than a billion years after the Earth and Mars formed. +The Earth and Mars will have looked pretty much exactly like that -- volcanoes everywhere, evaporating lakes everywhere, minerals, hot springs, and then you see those mounds on the shore of those lakes? +Those are built by the descendants of the first organisms that gave us the first fossil on Earth. +But if we want to understand what's going on, we need to go a little further. +And the other thing about those sites is that exactly like on Mars three and a half billion years ago, the climate is changing very fast, and water and ice are disappearing. +But we need to go back to that time when everything changed on Mars, and to do that, we need to go higher. +Why is that? +Because when you go higher, the atmosphere is getting thinner, it's getting more unstable, the temperature is getting cooler, and you have a lot more U.V. radiation. +Basically, you are getting to those conditions on Mars when everything changed. +So I was not promising anything about a leisurely trip on the time machine. +You are not going to be sitting in that time machine. +You have to haul 1,000 pounds of equipment to the summit of this 20,000-foot volcano in the Andes here. +That's about 6,000 meters. +And you also have to sleep on 42-degree slopes and really hope that there won't be any earthquake that night. +But when we get to the summit, we actually find the lake we came for. +At this altitude, this lake is experiencing exactly the same conditions as those on Mars three and a half billion years ago. +And now we have to change our voyage into an inner voyage inside that lake, and to do that, we have to remove our mountain gear and actually don suits and go for it. +But at the time we enter that lake, at the very moment we enter that lake, we are stepping back three and a half billion years in the past of another planet, and then we are going to get the answer came for. +Life is everywhere, absolutely everywhere. +Everything you see in this picture is a living organism. +Maybe not so the diver, but everything else. +But this picture is very deceiving. +Life is abundant in those lakes, but like in many places on Earth right now and due to climate change, there is a huge loss in biodiversity. +In the samples that we took back home, 36 percent of the bacteria in those lakes were composed of three species, and those three species are the ones that have survived so far. +Here's another lake, right next to the first one. +The red color you see here is not due to minerals. +It's actually due to the presence of a tiny algae. +In this region, the U.V. radiation is really nasty. +Anywhere on Earth, 11 is considered to be extreme. +During U.V. storms there, the U.V. Index reaches 43. +SPF 30 is not going to do anything to you over there, and the water is so transparent in those lakes that the algae has nowhere to hide, really, and so they are developing their own sunscreen, and this is the red color you see. +But they can adapt only so far, and then when all the water is gone from the surface, microbes have only one solution left: They go underground. +And those microbes, the rocks you see in that slide here, well, they are actually living inside rocks and they are using the protection of the translucence of the rocks to get the good part of the U.V. +and discard the part that could actually damage their DNA. +And this is why we are taking our rover to train them to search for life on Mars in these areas, because if there was life on Mars three and a half billion years ago, it had to use the same strategy to actually protect itself. +Now, it is pretty obvious that going to extreme environments is helping us very much for the exploration of Mars and to prepare missions. +So far, it has helped us to understand the geology of Mars. +It has helped to understand the past climate of Mars and its evolution, but also its habitability potential. +Our most recent rover on Mars has discovered traces of organics. +Yeah, there are organics at the surface of Mars. +And it also discovered traces of methane. +And we don't know yet if the methane in question is really from geology or biology. +Regardless, what we know is that because of the discovery, the hypothesis that there is still life present on Mars today remains a viable one. +So by now, I think I have convinced you that Mars is very special to us, but it would be a mistake to think that Mars is the only place in the solar system that is interesting to find potential microbial life. +And the reason is because Mars and the Earth could have a common root to their tree of life, but when you go beyond Mars, it's not that easy. +Celestial mechanics is not making it so easy for an exchange of material between planets, and so if we were to discover life on those planets, it would be different from us. +It would be a different type of life. +But in the end, it might be just us, it might be us and Mars, or it can be many trees of life in the solar system. +I don't know the answer yet, but I can tell you something: No matter what the result is, no matter what that magic number is, it is going to give us a standard by which we are going to be able to measure the life potential, abundance and diversity beyond our own solar system. +And this can be achieved by our generation. +This can be our legacy, but only if we dare to explore. +Now, finally, if somebody tells you that looking for alien microbes is not cool because you cannot have a philosophical conversation with them, let me show you why and how you can tell them they're wrong. +Well, organic material is going to tell you about environment, about complexity and about diversity. +DNA, or any information carrier, is going to tell you about adaptation, about evolution, about survival, about planetary changes and about the transfer of information. +All together, they are telling us what started as a microbial pathway, and why what started as a microbial pathway sometimes ends up as a civilization or sometimes ends up as a dead end. +Look at the solar system, and look at the Earth. +On Earth, there are many intelligent species, but only one has achieved technology. +Right here in the journey of our own solar system, there is a very, very powerful message that says here's how we should look for alien life, small and big. +So yeah, microbes are talking and we are listening, and they are taking us, one planet at a time and one moon at a time, towards their big brothers out there. +And they are telling us about diversity, they are telling us about abundance of life, and they are telling us how this life has survived thus far to reach civilization, intelligence, technology and, indeed, philosophy. +Thank you. +Hi. I'm going to talk to you today about laughter, and I just want to start by thinking about the first time I can ever remember noticing laughter. +This is when I was a little girl. I would've been about six. +And I came across my parents doing something unusual, where they were laughing. +They were laughing very, very hard. +They were lying on the floor laughing. +They were screaming with laughter. +I did not know what they were laughing at, but I wanted in. +I wanted to be part of that, and I kind of sat around at the edge going, "Hoo hoo!" Now, incidentally, what they were laughing at was a song which people used to sing, which was based around signs in toilets on trains telling you what you could and could not do in toilets on trains. +And the thing you have to remember about the English is, of course, we do have an immensely sophisticated sense of humor. +At the time, though, I didn't understand anything of that. +I just cared about the laughter, and actually, as a neuroscientist, I've come to care about it again. +And it is a really weird thing to do. +What I'm going to do now is just play some examples of real human beings laughing, and I want you think about the sound people make and how odd that can be, and in fact how primitive laughter is as a sound. +It's much more like an animal call than it is like speech. +So here we've got some laughter for you. The first one is pretty joyful. +(Audio: Laughing) Now this next guy, I need him to breathe. +There's a point in there where I'm just, like, you've got to get some air in there, mate, because he just sounds like he's breathing out. +(Audio: Laughing) This hasn't been edited; this is him. +(Audio: Laughing) And finally we have -- this is a human female laughing. +And laughter can take us to some pretty odd places in terms of making noises. +(Audio: Laughing) She actually says, "Oh my God, what is that?" in French. +We're all kind of with her. I have no idea. +Now, to understand laughter, you have to look at a part of the body that psychologists and neuroscientists don't normally spend much time looking at, which is the ribcage, and it doesn't seem terribly exciting, but actually you're all using your ribcage all the time. +What you're all doing at the moment with your ribcage, and don't stop doing it, is breathing. +You're all doing it. Don't stop. +As soon as you start talking, you start using your breathing completely differently. +So what I'm doing now is you see something much more like this. +In talking, you use very fine movements of the ribcage to squeeze the air out -- and in fact, we're the only animals that can do this. +It's why we can talk at all. +Now, both talking and breathing has a mortal enemy, and that enemy is laughter, because what happens when you laugh is those same muscles start to contract very regularly, and you get this very marked sort of zig-zagging, and that's just squeezing the air out of you. +It literally is that basic a way of making a sound. +You could be stamping on somebody, it's having the same effect. +You're just squeezing air out, and each of those contractions -- Ha! -- gives you a sound. +And as the contractions run together, you can get these spasms, and that's when you start getting these -- -- things happening. +I'm brilliant at this. Now, in terms of the science of laughter, there isn't very much, but it does turn out that pretty much everything we think we know about laughter is wrong. +So it's not at all unusual, for example, to hear people to say humans are the only animals that laugh. +Nietzsche thought that humans are the only animals that laugh. +In fact, you find laughter throughout the mammals. +It's been well-described and well-observed in primates, but you also see it in rats, and wherever you find it -- humans, primates, rats -- you find it associated with things like tickling. +That's the same for humans. +You find it associated with play, and all mammals play. +And wherever you find it, it's associated with interactions. +So Robert Provine, who has done a lot of work on this, has pointed out that you are 30 times more likely to laugh if you are with somebody else than if you're on your own, and where you find most laughter is in social interactions like conversation. +So if you ask human beings, "When do you laugh?" +they'll talk about comedy and they'll talk about humor and they'll talk about jokes. +If you look at when they laugh, they're laughing with their friends. +And when we laugh with people, we're hardly ever actually laughing at jokes. +You are laughing to show people that you understand them, that you agree with them, that you're part of the same group as them. +You're laughing to show that you like them. +You might even love them. +You're doing all that at the same time as talking to them, and the laughter is doing a lot of that emotional work for you. +Something that Robert Provine has pointed out, as you can see here, and the reason why we were laughing when we heard those funny laughs at the start, and why I was laughing when I found my parents laughing, is that it's an enormously behaviorally contagious effect. +You can catch laughter from somebody else, and you are more likely to catch laughter off somebody else if you know them. +So it's still modulated by this social context. +You have to put humor to one side and think about the social meaning of laughter because that's where its origins lie. +Now, something I've got very interested in is different kinds of laughter, and we have some neurobiological evidence about how human beings vocalize that suggests there might be two kinds of laughs that we have. +In our evolution, we have developed two different ways of vocalizing. +Involuntary vocalizations are part of an older system than the more voluntary vocalizations like the speech I'm doing now. +So we might imagine that laughter might actually have two different roots. +So I've been looking at this in more detail. +To do this, we've had to make recordings of people laughing, and we've had to do whatever it takes to make people laugh, and we got those same people to produce more posed, social laughter. +So imagine your friend told a joke, and you're laughing because you like your friend, but not really because the joke's all that. +So I'm going to play you a couple of those. +I want you to tell me if you think this laughter is real laughter, or if you think it's posed. +So is this involuntary laughter or more voluntary laughter? +(Audio: Laughing) What does that sound like to you? +Audience: Posed. Sophie Scott: Posed? Posed. +How about this one? +(Audio: Laughing) I'm the best. +Not really. +No, that was helpless laughter, and in fact, to record that, all they had to do was record me watching one of my friends listening to something I knew she wanted to laugh at, and I just started doing this. +What you find is that people are good at telling the difference between real and posed laughter. +They seem to be different things to us. +Interestingly, you see something quite similar with chimpanzees. +Chimpanzees laugh differently if they're being tickled than if they're playing with each other, and we might be seeing something like that here, involuntary laughter, tickling laughter, being different from social laughter. +They're acoustically very different. +The real laughs are longer. They're higher in pitch. +When you start laughing hard, you start squeezing air out from your lungs under much higher pressures than you could ever produce voluntarily. +For example, I could never pitch my voice that high to sing. +Also, you start to get these sort of contractions and weird whistling sounds, all of which mean that real laughter is extremely easy, or feels extremely easy to spot. +In contrast, posed laughter, we might think it sounds a bit fake. +Actually, it's not, it's actually an important social cue. +We use it a lot, we're choosing to laugh in a lot of situations, and it seems to be its own thing. +So, for example, you find nasality in posed laughter, that kind of "ha ha ha ha ha" sound that you never get, you could not do, if you were laughing involuntarily. +So they do seem to be genuinely these two different sorts of things. +We took it into the scanner to see how brains respond when you hear laughter. +And when you do this, this is a really boring experiment. +We just played people real and posed laughs. +We didn't tell them it was a study on laughter. +We put other sounds in there to distract them, and all they're doing is lying listening to sounds. +We don't tell them to do anything. +Nonetheless, when you hear real laughter and when you hear posed laughter, the brains are responding completely differently, significantly differently. +What you see in the regions in blue, which lies in auditory cortex, are the brain areas that respond more to the real laughs, and what seems to be the case, when you hear somebody laughing involuntarily, you hear sounds you would never hear in any other context. +It's very unambiguous, and it seems to be associated with greater auditory processing of these novel sounds. +In contrast, when you hear somebody laughing in a posed way, what you see are these regions in pink, which are occupying brain areas associated with mentalizing, thinking about what somebody else is thinking. +And I think what that means is, even if you're having your brain scanned, which is completely boring and not very interesting, when you hear somebody going, "A ha ha ha ha ha," you're trying to work out why they're laughing. +Laughter is always meaningful. +You are always trying to understand it in context, even if, as far as you are concerned, at that point in time, it has not necessarily anything to do with you, you still want to know why those people are laughing. +Now, we've had the opportunity to look at how people hear real and posed laughter across the age range. +So this is an online experiment we ran with the Royal Society, and here we just asked people two questions. +First of all, they heard some laughs, and they had to say, how real or posed do these laughs sound? +The real laughs are shown in red and the posed laughs are shown in blue. +What you see is there is a rapid onset. +As you get older, you get better and better at spotting real laughter. +So six-year-olds are at chance, they can't really hear the difference. +By the time you are older, you get better, but interestingly, you do not hit peak performance in this dataset until you are in your late 30s and early 40s. +You don't understand laughter fully by the time you hit puberty. +You don't understand laughter fully by the time your brain has matured at the end of your teens. +You're learning about laughter throughout your entire early adult life. +If we turn the question around and now say not, what does the laughter sound like in terms of being real or posed, but we say, how much does this laughter make you want to laugh, how contagious is this laughter to you, we see a different profile. +And here, the younger you are, the more you want to join in when you hear laughter. +Remember me laughing with my parents when I had no idea what was going on. +You really can see this. +Now everybody, young and old, finds the real laughs more contagious than the posed laughs, but as you get older, it all becomes less contagious to you. +Now, either we're all just becoming really grumpy as we get older, or it may mean that as you understand laughter better, and you are getting better at doing that, you need more than just hearing people laugh to want to laugh. +You need the social stuff there. +So we've got a very interesting behavior about which a lot of our lay assumptions are incorrect, but I'm coming to see that actually there's even more to laughter than it's an important social emotion we should look at, because it turns out people are phenomenally nuanced in terms of how we use laughter. +There's a really lovely set of studies coming out from Robert Levenson's lab in California, where he's doing a longitudinal study with couples. +He gets married couples, men and women, into the lab, and he gives them stressful conversations to have while he wires them up to a polygraph so he can see them becoming stressed. +So you've got the two of them in there, and he'll say to the husband, "Tell me something that your wife does that irritates you." +And what you see is immediately -- just run that one through your head briefly, you and your partner -- you can imagine everybody gets a bit more stressed as soon as that starts. +You can see physically, people become more stressed. +So in fact, when you look at close relationships, laughter is a phenomenally useful index of how people are regulating their emotions together. +We're not just emitting it at each other to show that we like each other, we're making ourselves feel better together. +Now, I don't think this is going to be limited to romantic relationships. +He's cold. He's about to get wet. He's got swimming trunks on, got a towel. +Ice. +What might possibly happen? +Video starts. +Serious mood. +And his friends are already laughing. They are already laughing, hard. +He's not laughing yet. +He's starting to go now. +And now they're all off. +They're on the floor. +The thing I really like about that is it's all very serious until he jumps onto the ice, and as soon as he doesn't go through the ice, but also there isn't blood and bone everywhere, his friends start laughing. +And imagine if that had played him out with him standing there going, "No seriously, Heinrich, I think this is broken," we wouldn't enjoy watching that. That would be stressful. +Or if he was running around with a visibly broken leg laughing, and his friends are going, "Heinrich, I think we need to go to the hospital now," that also wouldn't be funny. +The fact that the laughter works, it gets him from a painful, embarrassing, difficult situation, into a funny situation, into what we're actually enjoying there, and I think that's a really interesting use, and it's actually happening all the time. +For example, I can remember something like this happening at my father's funeral. +We weren't jumping around on the ice in our underpants. +We're not Canadian. +It was a very basic reaction to find some reason we can do this. +We can laugh together. We're going to get through this. +We're going to be okay. +And in fact, all of us are doing this all the time. +You do it so often, you don't even notice it. +Everybody underestimates how often they laugh, and you're doing something, when you laugh with people, that's actually letting you access a really ancient evolutionary system that mammals have evolved to make and maintain social bonds, and clearly to regulate emotions, to make ourselves feel better. +It's not something specific to humans -- it's a really ancient behavior which really helps us regulate how we feel and makes us feel better. +In other words, when it comes to laughter, you and me, baby, ain't nothing but mammals. Thank you. +My first love was for the night sky. +Love is complicated. +You're looking at a fly-through of the Hubble Space Telescope Ultra-Deep Field, one of the most distant images of our universe ever observed. +Everything you see here is a galaxy, comprised of billions of stars each. +And the farthest galaxy is a trillion, trillion kilometers away. +As an astrophysicist, I have the awesome privilege of studying some of the most exotic objects in our universe. +The objects that have captivated me from first crush throughout my career are supermassive, hyperactive black holes. +Weighing one to 10 billion times the mass of our own sun, these galactic black holes are devouring material, at a rate of upwards of 1,000 times more than your "average" supermassive black hole. +These two characteristics, with a few others, make them quasars. +At the same time, the objects I study are producing some of the most powerful particle streams ever observed. +These narrow streams, called jets, are moving at 99.99 percent of the speed of light, and are pointed directly at the Earth. +These jetted, Earth-pointed, hyperactive and supermassive black holes are called blazars, or blazing quasars. +What makes blazars so special is that they're some of the universe's most efficient particle accelerators, transporting incredible amounts of energy throughout a galaxy. +Here, I'm showing an artist's conception of a blazar. +The dinner plate by which material falls onto the black hole is called the accretion disc, shown here in blue. +Some of that material is slingshotted around the black hole and accelerated to insanely high speeds in the jet, shown here in white. +Although the blazar system is rare, the process by which nature pulls in material via a disk, and then flings some of it out via a jet, is more common. +We'll eventually zoom out of the blazar system to show its approximate relationship to the larger galactic context. +Beyond the cosmic accounting of what goes in to what goes out, one of the hot topics in blazar astrophysics right now is where the highest-energy jet emission comes from. +In this image, I'm interested in where this white blob forms and if, as a result, there's any relationship between the jet and the accretion disc material. +Clear answers to this question were almost completely inaccessible until 2008, when NASA launched a new telescope that better detects gamma ray light -- that is, light with energies a million times higher than your standard x-ray scan. +I simultaneously compare variations between the gamma ray light data and the visible light data from day to day and year to year, to better localize these gamma ray blobs. +My research shows that in some instances, these blobs form much closer to the black hole than we initially thought. +As we more confidently localize where these gamma ray blobs are forming, we can better understand how jets are being accelerated, and ultimately reveal the dynamic processes by which some of the most fascinating objects in our universe are formed. +This all started as a love story. +And it still is. +This love transformed me from a curious, stargazing young girl to a professional astrophysicist, hot on the heels of celestial discovery. +Who knew that chasing after the universe would ground me so deeply to my mission here on Earth. +Then again, when do we ever know where love's first flutter will truly take us. +Thank you. +These dragons from deep time are incredible creatures. +They're bizzarre, they're beautiful, and there's very little we know about them. +These thoughts were going through my head when I looked at the pages of my first dinosaur book. +I was about five years old at the time, and I decided there and then that I would become a paleontologist. +Paleontology allowed me to combine my love for animals with my desire to travel to far-flung corners of the world. +And now, a few years later, I've led several expeditions to the ultimate far-flung corner on this planet, the Sahara. +I've worked in the Sahara because I've been on a quest to uncover new remains of a bizarre, giant predatory dinosaur called Spinosaurus. +A few bones of this animal have been found in the deserts of Egypt and were described about 100 years ago by a German paleontologist. +Unfortunately, all his Spinosaurus bones were destroyed in World War II. +So all we're left with are just a few drawings and notes. +From these drawings, we know that this creature, which lived about 100 million years ago, was very big, it had tall spines on its back, forming a magnificent sail, and it had long, slender jaws, a bit like a crocodile, with conical teeth, that may have been used to catch slippery prey, like fish. +But that was pretty much all we knew about this animal for the next 100 years. +My fieldwork took me to the border region between Morocco and Algeria, a place called the Kem Kem. +It's a difficult place to work in. +You have to deal with sandstorms and snakes and scorpions, and it's very difficult to find good fossils there. +But our hard work paid off. +We discovered many incredible specimens. +There's the largest dinosaur bone that had ever been found in this part of the Sahara. +We found remains of giant predatory dinosaurs, medium-sized predatory dinosaurs, and seven or eight different kinds of crocodile-like hunters. +These fossils were deposited in a river system. +The river system was also home to a giant, car-sized coelacanth, a monster sawfish, and the skies over the river system were filled with pterosaurs, flying reptiles. +It was a pretty dangerous place, not the kind of place where you'd want to travel to if you had a time machine. +So we're finding all these incredible fossils of animals that lived alongside Spinosaurus, but Spinosaurus itself proved to be very elusive. +We were just finding bits and pieces and I was hoping that we'd find a partial skeleton at some point. +Finally, very recently, we were able to track down a dig site where a local fossil hunter found several bones of Spinosaurus. +We returned to the site, we collected more bones. +And so after 100 years we finally had another partial skeleton of this bizarre creature. +And we were able to reconstruct it. +We now know that Spinosaurus had a head a little bit like a crocodile, very different from other predatory dinosaurs, very different from the T. rex. +But the really interesting information came from the rest of the skeleton. +We had long spines, the spines forming the big sail. +We had leg bones, we had skull bones, we had paddle-shaped feet, wide feet -- again, very unusual, no other dinosaur has feet like this -- and we think they may have been used to walk on soft sediment, or maybe for paddling in the water. +We also looked at the fine microstructure of the bone, the inside structure of Spinosaurus bones, and it turns out that they're very dense and compact. +Again, this is something we see in animals that spend a lot of time in the water, it's useful for buoyancy control in the water. +We C.T.-scanned all of our bones and built a digital Spinosaurus skeleton. +And when we looked at the digital skeleton, we realized that yes, this was a dinosaur unlike any other. +So, as we fleshed out our Spinosaurus -- I'm looking at muscle attachments and wrapping our dinosaur in skin -- we realize that we're dealing with a river monster, a predatory dinosaur, bigger than T. rex, the ruler of this ancient river of giants, feeding on the many aquatic animals I showed you earlier on. +So that's really what makes this an incredible discovery. +It's a dinosaur like no other. +And some people told me, "Wow, this is a once-in-a-lifetime discovery. +There are not many things left to discover in the world." +Well, I think nothing could be further from the truth. +I think the Sahara's still full of treasures, and when people tell me there are no places left to explore, I like to quote a famous dinosaur hunter, Roy Chapman Andrews, and he said, "Always, there has been an adventure just around the corner -- and the world is still full of corners." +That was true many decades ago when Roy Chapman Andrews wrote these lines. +And it is still true today. +Thank you. +To be honest, by personality, I'm just not much of a crier. +But I think in my career that's been a good thing. +I'm a civil rights lawyer, and I've seen some horrible things in the world. +I began my career working police abuse cases in the United States. +And then in 1994, I was sent to Rwanda to be the director of the U.N.'s genocide investigation. +It turns out that tears just aren't much help when you're trying to investigate a genocide. +The things I had to see, and feel and touch were pretty unspeakable. +What I can tell you is this: that the Rwandan genocide was one of the world's greatest failures of simple compassion. +That word, compassion, actually comes from two Latin words: cum passio, which simply mean "to suffer with." +And the things that I saw and experienced in Rwanda as I got up close to human suffering, it did, in moments, move me to tears. +But I just wish that I, and the rest of the world, had been moved earlier. +And not just to tears, but to actually stop the genocide. +Now by contrast, I've also been involved with one of the world's greatest successes of compassion. +And that's the fight against global poverty. +It's a cause that probably has involved all of us here. +I don't know if your first introduction might have been choruses of "We Are the World," or maybe the picture of a sponsored child on your refrigerator door, or maybe the birthday you donated for fresh water. +I don't really remember what my first introduction to poverty was but I do remember the most jarring. +It was when I met Venus -- she's a mom from Zambia. +She's got three kids and she's a widow. +When I met her, she had walked about 12 miles in the only garments she owned, to come to the capital city and to share her story. +She sat down with me for hours, just ushered me in to the world of poverty. +She described what it was like when the coals on the cooking fire finally just went completely cold. +When that last drop of cooking oil finally ran out. +When the last of the food, despite her best efforts, ran out. +She had to watch her youngest son, Peter, suffer from malnutrition, as his legs just slowly bowed into uselessness. +As his eyes grew cloudy and dim. +And then as Peter finally grew cold. +For over 50 years, stories like this have been moving us to compassion. +We whose kids have plenty to eat. +And we're moved not only to care about global poverty, but to actually try to do our part to stop the suffering. +Now there's plenty of room for critique that we haven't done enough, and what it is that we've done hasn't been effective enough, but the truth is this: The fight against global poverty is probably the broadest, longest running manifestation of the human phenomenon of compassion in the history of our species. +And so I'd like to share a pretty shattering insight that might forever change the way you think about that struggle. +But first, let me begin with what you probably already know. +Thirty-five years ago, when I would have been graduating from high school, they told us that 40,000 kids every day died because of poverty. +That number, today, is now down to 17,000. +Way too many, of course, but it does mean that every year, there's eight million kids who don't have to die from poverty. +Moreover, the number of people in our world who are living in extreme poverty, which is defined as living off about a dollar and a quarter a day, that has fallen from 50 percent, to only 15 percent. +This is massive progress, and this exceeds everybody's expectations about what is possible. +And I think you and I, I think, honestly, that we can feel proud and encouraged to see the way that compassion actually has the power to succeed in stopping the suffering of millions. +But here's the part that you might not hear very much about. +If you move that poverty mark just up to two dollars a day, it turns out that virtually the same two billion people who were stuck in that harsh poverty when I was in high school, are still stuck there, 35 years later. +So why, why are so many billions still stuck in such harsh poverty? +Well, let's think about Venus for a moment. +Now for decades, my wife and I have been moved by common compassion to sponsor kids, to fund microloans, to support generous levels of foreign aid. +But until I had actually talked to Venus, I would have had no idea that none of those approaches actually addressed why she had to watch her son die. +"We were doing fine," Venus told me, "until Brutus started to cause trouble." +Now, Brutus is Venus' neighbor and "cause trouble" is what happened the day after Venus' husband died, when Brutus just came and threw Venus and the kids out of the house, stole all their land, and robbed their market stall. +You see, Venus was thrown into destitution by violence. +And then it occurred to me, of course, that none of my child sponsorships, none of the microloans, none of the traditional anti-poverty programs were going to stop Brutus, because they weren't meant to. +This became even more clear to me when I met Griselda. +She's a marvelous young girl living in a very poor community in Guatemala. +And one of the things we've learned over the years is that perhaps the most powerful thing that Griselda and her family can do to get Griselda and her family out of poverty is to make sure that she goes to school. +The experts call this the Girl Effect. +But when we met Griselda, she wasn't going to school. +In fact, she was rarely ever leaving her home. +Days before we met her, while she was walking home from church with her family, in broad daylight, men from her community just snatched her off the street, and violently raped her. +See, Griselda had every opportunity to go to school, it just wasn't safe for her to get there. +And Griselda's not the only one. +Around the world, poor women and girls between the ages of 15 and 44, they are -- when victims of the everyday violence of domestic abuse and sexual violence -- those two forms of violence account for more death and disability than malaria, than car accidents, than war combined. +The truth is, the poor of our world are trapped in whole systems of violence. +In South Asia, for instance, I could drive past this rice mill and see this man hoisting these 100-pound sacks of rice upon his thin back. +But I would have no idea, until later, that he was actually a slave, held by violence in that rice mill since I was in high school. +Decades of anti-poverty programs right in his community were never able to rescue him or any of the hundred other slaves from the beatings and the rapes and the torture of violence inside the rice mill. +In fact, half a century of anti-poverty programs have left more poor people in slavery than in any other time in human history. +Experts tell us that there's about 35 million people in slavery today. +That's about the population of the entire nation of Canada, where we're sitting today. +This is why, over time, I have come to call this epidemic of violence the Locust Effect. +Because in the lives of the poor, it just descends like a plague and it destroys everything. +In fact, now when you survey very, very poor communities, residents will tell you that their greatest fear is violence. +But notice the violence that they fear is not the violence of genocide or the wars, it's everyday violence. +So for me, as a lawyer, of course, my first reaction was to think, well, of course we've got to change all the laws. +We've got to make all this violence against the poor illegal. +But then I found out, it already is. +The problem is not that the poor don't get laws, it's that they don't get law enforcement. +In the developing world, basic law enforcement systems are so broken that recently the U.N. issued a report that found that "most poor people live outside the protection of the law." +Now honestly, you and I have just about no idea of what that would mean because we have no first-hand experience of it. +Functioning law enforcement for us is just a total assumption. +In fact, nothing expresses that assumption more clearly than three simple numbers: 9-1-1, which, of course, is the number for the emergency police operator here in Canada and in the United States, where the average response time to a police 911 emergency call is about 10 minutes. +So we take this just completely for granted. +But what if there was no law enforcement to protect you? +A woman in Oregon recently experienced what this would be like. +She was home alone in her dark house on a Saturday night, when a man started to tear his way into her home. +This was her worst nightmare, because this man had actually put her in the hospital from an assault just two weeks before. +So terrified, she picks up that phone and does what any of us would do: She calls 911 -- but only to learn that because of budget cuts in her county, law enforcement wasn't available on the weekends. +Listen. +Dispatcher: I don't have anybody to send out there. +Woman: OK Dispatcher: Um, obviously if he comes inside the residence and assaults you, can you ask him to go away? +Or do you know if he is intoxicated or anything? +Woman: I've already asked him. I've already told him I was calling you. +He's broken in before, busted down my door, assaulted me. +Dispatcher: Uh-huh. +Woman: Um, yeah, so ... +Dispatcher: Is there any way you could safely leave the residence? +Woman: No, I can't, because he's blocking pretty much my only way out. +Dispatcher: Well, the only thing I can do is give you some advice, and call the sheriff's office tomorrow. +Obviously, if he comes in and unfortunately has a weapon or is trying to cause you physical harm, that's a different story. +You know, the sheriff's office doesn't work up there. +I don't have anybody to send." +Gary Haugen: Tragically, the woman inside that house was violently assaulted, choked and raped because this is what it means to live outside the rule of law. +And this is where billions of our poorest live. +What does that look like? +In Bolivia, for example, if a man sexually assaults a poor child, statistically, he's at greater risk of slipping in the shower and dying than he is of ever going to jail for that crime. +In South Asia, if you enslave a poor person, you're at greater risk of being struck by lightning than ever being sent to jail for that crime. +And so the epidemic of everyday violence, it just rages on. +And it devastates our efforts to try to help billions of people out of their two-dollar-a-day hell. +Because the data just doesn't lie. +It turns out that you can give all manner of goods and services to the poor, but if you don't restrain the hands of the violent bullies from taking it all away, you're going to be very disappointed in the long-term impact of your efforts. +So you would think that the disintegration of basic law enforcement in the developing world would be a huge priority for the global fight against poverty. +But it's not. +Auditors of international assistance recently couldn't find even one percent of aid going to protect the poor from the lawless chaos of everyday violence. +And honestly, when we do talk about violence against the poor, sometimes it's in the weirdest of ways. +A fresh water organization tells a heart-wrenching story of girls who are raped on the way to fetching water, and then celebrates the solution of a new well that drastically shortens their walk. +End of story. +But not a word about the rapists who are still right there in the community. +If a young woman on one of our college campuses was raped on her walk to the library, we would never celebrate the solution of moving the library closer to the dorm. +And yet, for some reason, this is okay for poor people. +Now the truth is, the traditional experts in economic development and poverty alleviation, they don't know how to fix this problem. +And so what happens? +They don't talk about it. +But the more fundamental reason that law enforcement for the poor in the developing world is so neglected, is because the people inside the developing world, with money, don't need it. +I was at the World Economic Forum not long ago talking to corporate executives who have massive businesses in the developing world and I was just asking them, "How do you guys protect all your people and property from all the violence?" +And they looked at each other, and they said, practically in unison, "We buy it." +Indeed, private security forces in the developing world are now, four, five and seven times larger than the public police force. +In Africa, the largest employer on the continent now is private security. +But see, the rich can pay for safety and can keep getting richer, but the poor can't pay for it and they're left totally unprotected and they keep getting thrown to the ground. +This is a massive and scandalous outrage. +And it doesn't have to be this way. +Broken law enforcement can be fixed. +Violence can be stopped. +Almost all criminal justice systems, they start out broken and corrupt, but they can be transformed by fierce effort and commitment. +The path forward is really pretty clear. +Number one: We have to start making stopping violence indispensable to the fight against poverty. +In fact, any conversation about global poverty that doesn't include the problem of violence must be deemed not serious. +And secondly, we have to begin to seriously invest resources and share expertise to support the developing world as they fashion new, public systems of justice, not private security, that give everybody a chance to be safe. +These transformations are actually possible and they're happening today. +You know, from the hindsight of history, what's always most inexplicable and inexcusable are the simple failures of compassion. +Because I think history convenes a tribunal of our grandchildren and they just ask us, "Grandma, Grandpa, where were you? +Where were you, Grandpa, when the Jews were fleeing Nazi Germany and were being rejected from our shores? +Where were you? +And Grandma, where were you when they were marching our Japanese-American neighbors off to internment camps? +And Grandpa, where were you when they were beating our African-American neighbors just because they were trying to register to vote?" +Likewise, when our grandchildren ask us, "Grandma, Grandpa, where were you when two billion of the world's poorest were drowning in a lawless chaos of everyday violence?" +I hope we can say that we had compassion, that we raised our voice, and as a generation, we were moved to make the violence stop. +Thank you very much. +Chris Anderson: Really powerfully argued. +Talk to us a bit about some of the things that have actually been happening to, for example, boost police training. +How hard a process is that? +GH: Well, one of the glorious things that's starting to happen now is that the collapse of these systems and the consequences are becoming obvious. +There's actually, now, political will to do that. +But it just requires now an investment of resources and transfer of expertise. +There's a political will struggle that's going to take place as well, but those are winnable fights, because we've done some examples around the world at International Justice Mission that are very encouraging. +CA: So just tell us in one country, how much it costs to make a material difference to police, for example -- I know that's only one piece of it. +GH: In Guatemala, for instance, we've started a project there with the local police and court system, prosecutors, to retrain them so that they can actually effectively bring these cases. +And we've seen prosecutions against perpetrators of sexual violence increase by more than 1,000 percent. +CA: But to make this happen, you have to look at each part in the chain -- the police, who else? +CA: Gary, I think you've done a spectacular job of bringing this to the world's attention in your book and right here today. +Thanks so much. +Gary Haugen. +Growing up, I didn't always understand why my parents made me follow the rules that they did. +Like, why did I really have to mow the lawn? +Why was homework really that important? +Why couldn't I put jelly beans in my oatmeal? +My childhood was abound with questions like this. +Normal things about being a kid and realizing that sometimes, it was best to listen to my parents even when I didn't exactly understand why. +And it's not that they didn't want me to think critically. +Their parenting always sought to reconcile the tension between having my siblings and I understand the realities of the world, while ensuring that we never accepted the status quo as inevitable. +I came to realize that this, in and of itself, was a very purposeful form of education. +One of my favorite educators, Brazilian author and scholar Paulo Freire, speaks quite explicitly about the need for education to be used as a tool for critical awakening and shared humanity. +In his most famous book, "Pedagogy of the Oppressed," he states, "No one can be authentically human while he prevents others from being so." +I've been thinking a lot about this lately, this idea of humanity, and specifically, who in this world is afforded the privilege of being perceived as fully human. +Over the course of the past several months, the world has watched as unarmed black men, and women, have had their lives taken at the hands of police and vigilante. +These events and all that has transpired after them have brought me back to my own childhood and the decisions that my parents made about raising a black boy in America that growing up, I didn't always understand in the way that I do now. +I think of how hard it must have been, how profoundly unfair it must have felt for them to feel like they had to strip away parts of my childhood just so that I could come home at night. +For example, I think of how one night, when I was around 12 years old, on an overnight field trip to another city, my friends and I bought Super Soakers and turned the hotel parking lot into our own water-filled battle zone. +We hid behind cars, running through the darkness that lay between the streetlights, boundless laughter ubiquitous across the pavement. +But within 10 minutes, my father came outside, grabbed me by my forearm and led me into our room with an unfamiliar grip. +Before I could say anything, tell him how foolish he had made me look in front of my friends, he derided me for being so naive. +Looked me in the eye, fear consuming his face, and said, "Son, I'm sorry, but you can't act the same as your white friends. +You can't pretend to shoot guns. +You can't run around in the dark. +You can't hide behind anything other than your own teeth." +I know now how scared he must have been, how easily I could have fallen into the empty of the night, that some man would mistake this water for a good reason to wash all of this away. +These are the sorts of messages I've been inundated with my entire life: Always keep your hands where they can see them, don't move too quickly, take off your hood when the sun goes down. +My parents raised me and my siblings in an armor of advice, an ocean of alarm bells so someone wouldn't steal the breath from our lungs, so that they wouldn't make a memory of this skin. +So that we could be kids, not casket or concrete. +And it's not because they thought it would make us better than anyone else it's simply because they wanted to keep us alive. +All of my black friends were raised with the same message, the talk, given to us when we became old enough to be mistaken for a nail ready to be hammered to the ground, when people made our melanin synonymous with something to be feared. +But what does it do to a child to grow up knowing that you cannot simply be a child? +That the whims of adolescence are too dangerous for your breath, that you cannot simply be curious, that you are not afforded the luxury of making a mistake, that someone's implicit bias might be the reason you don't wake up in the morning. +But this cannot be what defines us. +Because we have parents who raised us to understand that our bodies weren't meant for the backside of a bullet, but for flying kites and jumping rope, and laughing until our stomachs burst. +We had teachers who taught us how to raise our hands in class, and not just to signal surrender, and that the only thing we should give up is the idea that we aren't worthy of this world. +Thank you. +Isadora Duncan -- -- crazy, long-legged woman from San Francisco, got tired of this country, and she wanted to get out. +Isadora was famous somewhere around 1908 for putting up a blue curtain, and she would stand with her hands over her solar plexus and she would wait, and she would wait, and then, she would move. +Josh and I and Somi call this piece "The Red Circle and the Blue Curtain." +Red circle. +Blue curtain. +But, this is not the beginning of the 20th century. +This is a morning in Vancouver in 2015. +Come on, Josh! +Go! +Are we there yet? +I don't think so. +Hey, yeah! +What time is it? +Where are we? +Josh. +Somi. +Bill T. +Josh. +Somi. +Bill T. +Yeah, yeah! +I work with a bunch of mathematicians, philosophers and computer scientists, and we sit around and think about the future of machine intelligence, among other things. +Some people think that some of these things are sort of science fiction-y, far out there, crazy. +But I like to say, okay, let's look at the modern human condition. +This is the normal way for things to be. +But if we think about it, we are actually recently arrived guests on this planet, the human species. +Think about if Earth was created one year ago, the human species, then, would be 10 minutes old. +The industrial era started two seconds ago. +Another way to look at this is to think of world GDP over the last 10,000 years, I've actually taken the trouble to plot this for you in a graph. +It looks like this. +It's a curious shape for a normal condition. +I sure wouldn't want to sit on it. +Let's ask ourselves, what is the cause of this current anomaly? +Some people would say it's technology. +Now it's true, technology has accumulated through human history, and right now, technology advances extremely rapidly -- that is the proximate cause, that's why we are currently so very productive. +But I like to think back further to the ultimate cause. +Look at these two highly distinguished gentlemen: We have Kanzi -- he's mastered 200 lexical tokens, an incredible feat. +And Ed Witten unleashed the second superstring revolution. +If we look under the hood, this is what we find: basically the same thing. +One is a little larger, it maybe also has a few tricks in the exact way it's wired. +These invisible differences cannot be too complicated, however, because there have only been 250,000 generations since our last common ancestor. +We know that complicated mechanisms take a long time to evolve. +So a bunch of relatively minor changes take us from Kanzi to Witten, from broken-off tree branches to intercontinental ballistic missiles. +So this then seems pretty obvious that everything we've achieved, and everything we care about, depends crucially on some relatively minor changes that made the human mind. +And the corollary, of course, is that any further changes that could significantly change the substrate of thinking could have potentially enormous consequences. +Some of my colleagues think we're on the verge of something that could cause a profound change in that substrate, and that is machine superintelligence. +Artificial intelligence used to be about putting commands in a box. +You would have human programmers that would painstakingly handcraft knowledge items. +You build up these expert systems, and they were kind of useful for some purposes, but they were very brittle, you couldn't scale them. +Basically, you got out only what you put in. +But since then, a paradigm shift has taken place in the field of artificial intelligence. +Today, the action is really around machine learning. +So rather than handcrafting knowledge representations and features, we create algorithms that learn, often from raw perceptual data. +Basically the same thing that the human infant does. +The result is A.I. that is not limited to one domain -- the same system can learn to translate between any pairs of languages, or learn to play any computer game on the Atari console. +Now of course, A.I. is still nowhere near having the same powerful, cross-domain ability to learn and plan as a human being has. +The cortex still has some algorithmic tricks that we don't yet know how to match in machines. +So the question is, how far are we from being able to match those tricks? +A couple of years ago, we did a survey of some of the world's leading A.I. experts, to see what they think, and one of the questions we asked was, "By which year do you think there is a 50 percent probability that we will have achieved human-level machine intelligence?" +We defined human-level here as the ability to perform almost any job at least as well as an adult human, so real human-level, not just within some limited domain. +And the median answer was 2040 or 2050, depending on precisely which group of experts we asked. +Now, it could happen much, much later, or sooner, the truth is nobody really knows. +What we do know is that the ultimate limit to information processing in a machine substrate lies far outside the limits in biological tissue. +This comes down to physics. +A biological neuron fires, maybe, at 200 hertz, 200 times a second. +But even a present-day transistor operates at the Gigahertz. +Neurons propagate slowly in axons, 100 meters per second, tops. +But in computers, signals can travel at the speed of light. +There are also size limitations, like a human brain has to fit inside a cranium, but a computer can be the size of a warehouse or larger. +So the potential for superintelligence lies dormant in matter, much like the power of the atom lay dormant throughout human history, patiently waiting there until 1945. +In this century, scientists may learn to awaken the power of artificial intelligence. +And I think we might then see an intelligence explosion. +Now most people, when they think about what is smart and what is dumb, I think have in mind a picture roughly like this. +So at one end we have the village idiot, and then far over at the other side we have Ed Witten, or Albert Einstein, or whoever your favorite guru is. +And then, after many, many more years of really hard work, lots of investment, maybe eventually we get to chimpanzee-level artificial intelligence. +And then, after even more years of really, really hard work, we get to village idiot artificial intelligence. +And a few moments later, we are beyond Ed Witten. +The train doesn't stop at Humanville Station. +It's likely, rather, to swoosh right by. +Now this has profound implications, particularly when it comes to questions of power. +For example, chimpanzees are strong -- pound for pound, a chimpanzee is about twice as strong as a fit human male. +And yet, the fate of Kanzi and his pals depends a lot more on what we humans do than on what the chimpanzees do themselves. +Once there is superintelligence, the fate of humanity may depend on what the superintelligence does. +Think about it: Machine intelligence is the last invention that humanity will ever need to make. +Machines will then be better at inventing than we are, and they'll be doing so on digital timescales. +What this means is basically a telescoping of the future. +Think of all the crazy technologies that you could have imagined maybe humans could have developed in the fullness of time: cures for aging, space colonization, self-replicating nanobots or uploading of minds into computers, all kinds of science fiction-y stuff that's nevertheless consistent with the laws of physics. +All of this superintelligence could develop, and possibly quite rapidly. +Now, a superintelligence with such technological maturity would be extremely powerful, and at least in some scenarios, it would be able to get what it wants. +We would then have a future that would be shaped by the preferences of this A.I. +Now a good question is, what are those preferences? +Here it gets trickier. +To make any headway with this, we must first of all avoid anthropomorphizing. +And this is ironic because every newspaper article about the future of A.I. has a picture of this: So I think what we need to do is to conceive of the issue more abstractly, not in terms of vivid Hollywood scenarios. +We need to think of intelligence as an optimization process, a process that steers the future into a particular set of configurations. +A superintelligence is a really strong optimization process. +It's extremely good at using available means to achieve a state in which its goal is realized. +This means that there is no necessary conenction between being highly intelligent in this sense, and having an objective that we humans would find worthwhile or meaningful. +Suppose we give an A.I. the goal to make humans smile. +When the A.I. is weak, it performs useful or amusing actions that cause its user to smile. +When the A.I. becomes superintelligent, it realizes that there is a more effective way to achieve this goal: take control of the world and stick electrodes into the facial muscles of humans to cause constant, beaming grins. +Another example, suppose we give A.I. the goal to solve a difficult mathematical problem. +When the A.I. becomes superintelligent, it realizes that the most effective way to get the solution to this problem is by transforming the planet into a giant computer, so as to increase its thinking capacity. +And notice that this gives the A.I.s an instrumental reason to do things to us that we might not approve of. +Human beings in this model are threats, we could prevent the mathematical problem from being solved. +Of course, perceivably things won't go wrong in these particular ways; these are cartoon examples. +But the general point here is important: if you create a really powerful optimization process to maximize for objective x, you better make sure that your definition of x incorporates everything you care about. +This is a lesson that's also taught in many a myth. +King Midas wishes that everything he touches be turned into gold. +He touches his daughter, she turns into gold. +He touches his food, it turns into gold. +This could become practically relevant, not just as a metaphor for greed, but as an illustration of what happens if you create a powerful optimization process and give it misconceived or poorly specified goals. +Now you might say, if a computer starts sticking electrodes into people's faces, we'd just shut it off. +A, this is not necessarily so easy to do if we've grown dependent on the system -- like, where is the off switch to the Internet? +B, why haven't the chimpanzees flicked the off switch to humanity, or the Neanderthals? +They certainly had reasons. +We have an off switch, for example, right here. +The reason is that we are an intelligent adversary; we can anticipate threats and plan around them. +But so could a superintelligent agent, and it would be much better at that than we are. +The point is, we should not be confident that we have this under control here. +And we could try to make our job a little bit easier by, say, putting the A.I. in a box, like a secure software environment, a virtual reality simulation from which it cannot escape. +But how confident can we be that the A.I. couldn't find a bug. +Given that merely human hackers find bugs all the time, I'd say, probably not very confident. +So we disconnect the ethernet cable to create an air gap, but again, like merely human hackers routinely transgress air gaps using social engineering. +Right now, as I speak, I'm sure there is some employee out there somewhere who has been talked into handing out her account details by somebody claiming to be from the I.T. department. +More creative scenarios are also possible, like if you're the A.I., you can imagine wiggling electrodes around in your internal circuitry to create radio waves that you can use to communicate. +Or maybe you could pretend to malfunction, and then when the programmers open you up to see what went wrong with you, they look at the source code -- Bam! -- the manipulation can take place. +Or it could output the blueprint to a really nifty technology, and when we implement it, it has some surreptitious side effect that the A.I. had planned. +The point here is that we should not be confident in our ability to keep a superintelligent genie locked up in its bottle forever. +Sooner or later, it will out. +I believe that the answer here is to figure out how to create superintelligent A.I. such that even if -- when -- it escapes, it is still safe because it is fundamentally on our side because it shares our values. +I see no way around this difficult problem. +Now, I'm actually fairly optimistic that this problem can be solved. +We wouldn't have to write down a long list of everything we care about, or worse yet, spell it out in some computer language like C++ or Python, that would be a task beyond hopeless. +Instead, we would create an A.I. that uses its intelligence to learn what we value, and its motivation system is constructed in such a way that it is motivated to pursue our values or to perform actions that it predicts we would approve of. +We would thus leverage its intelligence as much as possible to solve the problem of value-loading. +This can happen, and the outcome could be very good for humanity. +But it doesn't happen automatically. +The initial conditions for the intelligence explosion might need to be set up in just the right way if we are to have a controlled detonation. +The values that the A.I. has need to match ours, not just in the familiar context, like where we can easily check how the A.I. behaves, but also in all novel contexts that the A.I. might encounter in the indefinite future. +And there are also some esoteric issues that would need to be solved, sorted out: the exact details of its decision theory, how to deal with logical uncertainty and so forth. +So the technical problems that need to be solved to make this work look quite difficult -- not as difficult as making a superintelligent A.I., but fairly difficult. +Here is the worry: Making superintelligent A.I. is a really hard challenge. +Making superintelligent A.I. that is safe involves some additional challenge on top of that. +The risk is that if somebody figures out how to crack the first challenge without also having cracked the additional challenge of ensuring perfect safety. +So I think that we should work out a solution to the control problem in advance, so that we have it available by the time it is needed. +Now it might be that we cannot solve the entire control problem in advance because maybe some elements can only be put in place once you know the details of the architecture where it will be implemented. +But the more of the control problem that we solve in advance, the better the odds that the transition to the machine intelligence era will go well. +This to me looks like a thing that is well worth doing and I can imagine that if things turn out okay, that people a million years from now look back at this century and it might well be that they say that the one thing we did that really mattered was to get this thing right. +Thank you. +The brain is an amazing and complex organ. +And while many people are fascinated by the brain, they can't really tell you that much about the properties about how the brain works because we don't teach neuroscience in schools. +And one of the reasons why is that the equipment is so complex and so expensive that it's really only done at major universities and large institutions. +And so in order to be able to access the brain, you really need to dedicate your life and spend six and a half years as a graduate student just to become a neuroscientist to get access to these tools. +And that's a shame because one out of five of us, that's 20 percent of the entire world, will have a neurological disorder. +And there are zero cures for these diseases. +And so it seems that what we should be doing is reaching back earlier in the eduction process and teaching students about neuroscience so that in the future, they may be thinking about possibly becoming a brain scientist. +When I was a graduate student, my lab mate Tim Marzullo and myself, decided that what if we took this complex equipment that we have for studying the brain and made it simple enough and affordable enough that anyone that you know, an amateur or a high school student, could learn and actually participate in the discovery of neuroscience. +And so we did just that. +A few years ago, we started a company called Backyard Brains and we make DIY neuroscience equipment and I brought some here tonight, and I want to do some demonstrations. +You guys want to see some? +So I need a volunteer. +So right before -- what is your name? Sam Kelly: Sam. +Greg Gage: All right, Sam, I'm going to record from your brain. +Have you had this before? +SK: No. +GG: I need you to stick out your arm for science, roll up your sleeve a bit, So what I'm going to do, I'm putting electrodes on your arm, and you're probably wondering, I just said I'm going to record from your brain, what am I doing with your arm? +Well, you have about 80 billion neurons inside your brain right now. +They're sending electrical messages back and forth, and chemical messages. +But some of your neurons right here in your motor cortex are going to send messages down when you move your arm like this. +They're going to go down across your corpus callosum, down onto your spinal cord to your lower motor neuron out to your muscles here, and that electrical discharge is going to be picked up by these electrodes right here and we're going to be able to listen to exactly what your brain is going to be doing. +So I'm going to turn this on for a second. +Have you ever heard what your brain sounds like? +SK: No. +GG: Let's try it out. So go ahead and squeeze your hand. +So what you're listening to, so this is your motor units happening right here. +Let's take a look at it as well. +So I'm going to stand over here, and I'm going to open up our app here. +So now I want you to squeeze. +So right here, these are the motor units that are happening from her spinal cord out to her muscle right here, and as she's doing it, you're seeing the electrical activity that's happening here. +You can even click here and try to see one of them. +So keep doing it really hard. +So now we've paused on one motor action potential that's happening right now inside of your brain. +Do you guys want to see some more? +That's interesting, but let's get it better. +I need one more volunteer. +What is your name, sir? +Miguel Goncalves: Miguel. +GG: Miguel, all right. +You're going to stand right here. +So when you're moving your arm like this, your brain is sending a signal down to your muscles right here. +I want you to move your arm as well. +So your brain is going to send a signal down to your muscles. +So in a sense, she will take away your free will and you will no longer have any control over this hand. +You with me? +So I just need to hook you up. +So I'm going to find your ulnar nerve, which is probably right around here. +You don't know what you're signing up for when you come up. +So now I'm going to move away and we're going to plug it in to our human-to-human interface over here. +Okay, so Sam, I want you to squeeze your hand again. +Do it again. Perfect. +So now I'm going to hook you up over here so that you get the -- It's going to feel a little bit weird at first, this is going to feel like a -- You know, when you lose your free will, and someone else becomes your agent, it does feel a bit strange. +Now I want you to relax your hand. +Sam, you're with me? +So you're going to squeeze. +I'm not going to turn it on yet, so go ahead and give it a squeeze. +So now, are you ready, Miguel? +MG: Ready as I'll ever be. +GG: I've turned it on, so go ahead and turn your hand. +Do you feel that a little bit? MG: Nope. +GG: Okay, do it again? MG: A little bit. +GG: A little bit? So relax. +So hit it again. +Oh, perfect, perfect. +So relax, do it again. +All right, so right now, your brain is controlling your arm and it's also controlling his arm, so go ahead and just do it one more time. +All right, so it's perfect. So now, what would happen if I took over my control of your hand? +And so, just relax your hand. +What happens? +Ah, nothing. +Why not? +Because the brain has to do it. +So you do it again. +All right, that's perfect. +Thank you guys for being such a good sport. +This is what's happening all across the world -- electrophysiology! +We're going to bring on the neuro-revolution. +Thank you. +You may not realize this, but there are more bacteria in your body than stars in our entire galaxy. +This fascinating universe of bacteria inside of us is an integral part of our health, and our technology is evolving so rapidly that today we can program these bacteria like we program computers. +Now, the diagram that you see here, I know it looks like some kind of sports play, but it is actually a blueprint of the first bacterial program I developed. +And like writing software, we can print and write DNA into different algorithms and programs inside of bacteria. +What this program does is produces fluorescent proteins in a rhythmic fashion and generates a small molecule that allows bacteria to communicate and synchronize, as you're seeing in this movie. +The growing colony of bacteria that you see here is about the width of a human hair. +Now, what you can't see is that our genetic program instructs these bacteria to each produce small molecules, and these molecules travel between the thousands of individual bacteria telling them when to turn on and off. +And the bacteria synchronize quite well at this scale, but because the molecule that synchronizes them together can only travel so fast, in larger colonies of bacteria, this results in traveling waves between bacteria that are far away from each other, and you can see these waves going from right to left across the screen. +Now, our genetic program relies on a natural phenomenon called quorum sensing, in which bacteria trigger coordinated and sometimes virulent behaviors once they reach a critical density. +You can observe quorum sensing in action in this movie, where a growing colony of bacteria only begins to glow once it reaches a high or critical density. +Our genetic program continues producing these rhythmic patterns of fluorescent proteins as the colony grows outwards. +This particular movie and experiment we call The Supernova, because it looks like an exploding star. +Now, besides programming these beautiful patterns, I wondered, what else can we get these bacteria to do? +And I decided to explore how we can program bacteria to detect and treat diseases in our bodies like cancer. +One of the surprising facts about bacteria is that they can naturally grow inside of tumors. +This happens because typically tumors are areas where the immune system has no access, and so bacteria find these tumors and use them as a safe haven to grow and thrive. +We started using probiotic bacteria which are safe bacteria that have a health benefit, and found that when orally delivered to mice, these probiotics would selectively grow inside of liver tumors. +We went on to show that this technology could sensitively and specifically detect liver cancer, one that is challenging to detect otherwise. +Now, since these bacteria specifically localize to tumors, we've been programming them to not only detect cancer but also to treat cancer by producing therapeutic molecules from within the tumor environment that shrink the existing tumors, and we've been doing this using quorum sensing programs like you saw in the previous movies. +Altogether, imagine in the future taking a programmed probiotic that could detect and treat cancer, or even other diseases. +Our ability to program bacteria and program life opens up new horizons in cancer research, and to share this vision, I worked with artist Vik Muniz to create the symbol of the universe, made entirely out of bacteria or cancer cells. +Ultimately, my hope is that the beauty and purpose of this microscopic universe can inspire new and creative approaches for the future of cancer research. +Thank you. +On the path that American children travel to adulthood, two institutions oversee the journey. +The first is the one we hear a lot about: college. +Some of you may remember the excitement that you felt when you first set off for college. +Some of you may be in college right now and you're feeling this excitement at this very moment. +College has some shortcomings. +It's expensive; it leaves young people in debt. +But all in all, it's a pretty good path. +Young people emerge from college with pride and with great friends and with a lot of knowledge about the world. +And perhaps most importantly, a better chance in the labor market than they had before they got there. +Today I want to talk about the second institution overseeing the journey from childhood to adulthood in the United States. +And that institution is prison. +Young people on this journey are meeting with probation officers instead of with teachers. +They're going to court dates instead of to class. +Their junior year abroad is instead a trip to a state correctional facility. +And they're emerging from their 20s not with degrees in business and English, but with criminal records. +This institution is also costing us a lot, about 40,000 dollars a year to send a young person to prison in New Jersey. +But here, taxpayers are footing the bill and what kids are getting is a cold prison cell and a permanent mark against them when they come home and apply for work. +There are more and more kids on this journey to adulthood than ever before in the United States and that's because in the past 40 years, our incarceration rate has grown by 700 percent. +I have one slide for this talk. +Here it is. +Here's our incarceration rate, about 716 people per 100,000 in the population. +Here's the OECD countries. +What's more, it's poor kids that we're sending to prison, too many drawn from African-American and Latino communities so that prison now stands firmly between the young people trying to make it and the fulfillment of the American Dream. +This is the hidden underside to our historic experiment in punishment: young people worried that at any moment, they will be stopped, searched and seized. +Not just in the streets, but in their homes, at school and at work. +I got interested in this other path to adulthood when I was myself a college student attending the University of Pennsylvania in the early 2000s. +Penn sits within a historic African-American neighborhood. +So you've got these two parallel journeys going on simultaneously: the kids attending this elite, private university, and the kids from the adjacent neighborhood, some of whom are making it to college, and many of whom are being shipped to prison. +In my sophomore year, I started tutoring a young woman who was in high school who lived about 10 minutes away from the university. +Soon, her cousin came home from a juvenile detention center. +He was 15, a freshman in high school. +I began to get to know him and his friends and family, and I asked him what he thought about me writing about his life for my senior thesis in college. +This senior thesis became a dissertation at Princeton and now a book. +By the end of my sophomore year, I moved into the neighborhood and I spent the next six years trying to understand what young people were facing as they came of age. +The first week I spent in this neighborhood, I saw two boys, five and seven years old, play this game of chase, where the older boy ran after the other boy. +He played the cop. +When the cop caught up to the younger boy, he pushed him down, handcuffed him with imaginary handcuffs, took a quarter out of the other child's pocket, saying, "I'm seizing that." +He asked the child if he was carrying any drugs or if he had a warrant. +Many times, I saw this game repeated, sometimes children would simply give up running, and stick their bodies flat against the ground with their hands above their heads, or flat up against a wall. +Children would yell at each other, "I'm going to lock you up, I'm going to lock you up and you're never coming home!" +Once I saw a six-year-old child pull another child's pants down and try to do a cavity search. +In the first 18 months that I lived in this neighborhood, I wrote down every time I saw any contact between police and people that were my neighbors. +So in the first 18 months, I watched the police stop pedestrians or people in cars, search people, run people's names, chase people through the streets, pull people in for questioning, or make an arrest every single day, with five exceptions. +Fifty-two times, I watched the police break down doors, chase people through houses or make an arrest of someone in their home. +Fourteen times in this first year and a half, I watched the police punch, choke, kick, stomp on or beat young men after they had caught them. +Bit by bit, I got to know two brothers, Chuck and Tim. +Chuck was 18 when we met, a senior in high school. +He was playing on the basketball team and making C's and B's. +His younger brother, Tim, was 10. +And Tim loved Chuck; he followed him around a lot, looked to Chuck to be a mentor. +They lived with their mom and grandfather in a two-story row home with a front lawn and a back porch. +Their mom was struggling with addiction all while the boys were growing up. +She never really was able to hold down a job for very long. +It was their grandfather's pension that supported the family, not really enough to pay for food and clothes and school supplies for growing boys. +The family was really struggling. +So when we met, Chuck was a senior in high school. +He had just turned 18. +That winter, a kid in the schoolyard called Chuck's mom a crack whore. +Chuck pushed the kid's face into the snow and the school cops charged him with aggravated assault. +The other kid was fine the next day, I think it was his pride that was injured more than anything. +But anyway, since Chuck was 18, this agg. assault case sent him to adult county jail on State Road in northeast Philadelphia, where he sat, unable to pay the bail -- he couldn't afford it -- while the trial dates dragged on and on and on through almost his entire senior year. +Finally, near the end of this season, the judge on this assault case threw out most of the charges and Chuck came home with only a few hundred dollars' worth of court fees hanging over his head. +Tim was pretty happy that day. +The next fall, Chuck tried to re-enroll as a senior, but the school secretary told him that he was then 19 and too old to be readmitted. +Then the judge on his assault case issued him a warrant for his arrest because he couldn't pay the 225 dollars in court fees that came due a few weeks after the case ended. +Then he was a high school dropout living on the run. +Tim's first arrest came later that year after he turned 11. +Chuck had managed to get his warrant lifted and he was on a payment plan for the court fees and he was driving Tim to school in his girlfriend's car. +So a cop pulls them over, runs the car, and the car comes up as stolen in California. +Chuck had no idea where in the history of this car it had been stolen. +His girlfriend's uncle bought it from a used car auction in northeast Philly. +Chuck and Tim had never been outside of the tri-state, let alone to California. +But anyway, the cops down at the precinct charged Chuck with receiving stolen property. +And then a juvenile judge, a few days later, charged Tim, age 11, with accessory to receiving a stolen property and then he was placed on three years of probation. +With this probation sentence hanging over his head, Chuck sat his little brother down and began teaching him how to run from the police. +They would sit side by side on their back porch looking out into the shared alleyway and Chuck would coach Tim how to spot undercover cars, how to negotiate a late-night police raid, how and where to hide. +I want you to imagine for a second what Chuck and Tim's lives would be like if they were living in a neighborhood where kids were going to college, not prison. +A neighborhood like the one I got to grow up in. +Okay, you might say. +But Chuck and Tim, kids like them, they're committing crimes! +Don't they deserve to be in prison? +Don't they deserve to be living in fear of arrest? +Well, my answer would be no. +They don't. +And certainly not for the same things that other young people with more privilege are doing with impunity. +If Chuck had gone to my high school, that schoolyard fight would have ended there, as a schoolyard fight. +It never would have become an aggravated assault case. +Not a single kid that I went to college with has a criminal record right now. +Not a single one. +But can you imagine how many might have if the police had stopped those kids and searched their pockets for drugs as they walked to class? +Or had raided their frat parties in the middle of the night? +Okay, you might say. +But doesn't this high incarceration rate partly account for our really low crime rate? +Crime is down. That's a good thing. +Totally, that is a good thing. Crime is down. +It dropped precipitously in the '90s and through the 2000s. +But according to a committee of academics convened by the National Academy of Sciences last year, the relationship between our historically high incarceration rates and our low crime rate is pretty shaky. +It turns out that the crime rate goes up and down irrespective of how many young people we send to prison. +We tend to think about justice in a pretty narrow way: good and bad, innocent and guilty. +Injustice is about being wrongfully convicted. +So if you're convicted of something you did do, you should be punished for it. +There are innocent and guilty people, there are victims and there are perpetrators. +Maybe we could think a little bit more broadly than that. +Why are we not providing support to young kids facing these challenges? +Why are we offering only handcuffs, jail time and this fugitive existence? +Can we imagine something better? +Can we imagine a criminal justice system that prioritizes recovery, prevention, civic inclusion, rather than punishment? +A criminal justice system that acknowledges the legacy of exclusion that poor people of color in the U.S. have faced and that does not promote and perpetuate those exclusions. +And finally, a criminal justice system that believes in black young people, rather than treating black young people as the enemy to be rounded up. +The good news is that we already are. +A few years ago, Michelle Alexander wrote "The New Jim Crow," which got Americans to see incarceration as a civil rights issue of historic proportions in a way they had not seen it before. +President Obama and Attorney General Eric Holder have come out very strongly on sentencing reform, on the need to address racial disparity in incarceration. +We're seeing states throw out Stop and Frisk as the civil rights violation that it is. +We're seeing cities and states decriminalize possession of marijuana. +New York, New Jersey and California have been dropping their prison populations, closing prisons, while also seeing a big drop in crime. +Texas has gotten into the game now, also closing prisons, investing in education. +I did not think I would see this political moment in my lifetime. +I think many of the people who have been working tirelessly to write about the causes and consequences of our historically high incarceration rates did not think we would see this moment in our lifetime. +The question for us now is, how much can we make of it? +How much can we change? +I want to end with a call to young people, the young people attending college and the young people struggling to stay out of prison or to make it through prison and return home. +It may seem like these paths to adulthood are worlds apart, but the young people participating in these two institutions conveying us to adulthood, they have one thing in common: Both can be leaders in the work of reforming our criminal justice system. +Young people have always been leaders in the fight for equal rights, the fight for more people to be granted dignity and a fighting chance at freedom. +The mission for the generation of young people coming of age in this, a sea-change moment, potentially, is to end mass incarceration and build a new criminal justice system, emphasis on the word justice. +Thanks. +In June of 1998, Tori Murden McClure left Nags Head, North Carolina for France. +That's her boat, the American Pearl. +It's 23 feet long and just six feet across at its widest point. +The deck was the size of a cargo bed of a Ford F-150 pickup truck. +Tori and her friends built it by hand, and it weighed about 1,800 pounds. +Her plan was to row it alone across the Atlantic Ocean -- no motor, no sail -- something no woman and no American had ever done before. +This would be her route: over 3,600 miles across the open North Atlantic Ocean. +Professionally, Tori worked as a project administrator for the city of Louisville, Kentucky, her hometown, but her real passion was exploring. +This was not her first big expedition. +Several years earlier, she'd become the first woman to ski to the South Pole. +She was an accomplished rower in college, even competed for a spot on the 1992 U.S. Olympic team, but this, this was different. +Tori Murden McClure: Hi. It's Sunday, July 5. +Sector time 9 a.m. +So that's Kentucky time now. +Dawn Landes: Tori made these videos as she rowed. +This is her 21st day at sea. +At this point, she'd covered over 1,000 miles, had had no radio contact in more than two weeks following a storm that disabled all her long-range communications systems just five days in. +Most days looked like this. +At this point, she'd rowed over 200,000 strokes, fighting the current and the wind. +Some days, she traveled as little as 15 feet. +Yeah. +And as frustrating as those days were, other days were like this. +TMM: And I want to show you my little friends. +DL: She saw fish, dolphins, whales, sharks, and even some sea turtles. +After two weeks with no human contact, Tori was able to contact a local cargo ship via VHF radio. +TMM: Do you guys have a weather report, over? +Man: Heading up to a low ahead of you but it's heading, and you're obviously going northeast and there's a high behind us. +That'd be coming east-northeast also. +TMM: Good. +DL: She's pretty happy to talk to another human at this point. +TMM: So weather report says nothing dramatic is going to happen soon. +DL: What the weather report didn't tell her was that she was rowing right into the path of Hurricane Danielle in the worst hurricane season on record in the North Atlantic. +TMM: Just sprained my ankle. +There's a very strong wind from the east now. +It's blowing about. +It's blowing! +After 12 days of storm I get to row for four hours without a flagging wind. +I'm not very happy right now. +As happy as I was this morning, I am unhappy now, so ... +DL: After nearly three months at sea, she'd covered over 3,000 miles. +She was two thirds of the way there, but in the storm, the waves were the size of a seven-story building. +Her boat kept capsizing. +Some of them were pitchpole capsizes, flipping her end over end, and rowing became impossible. +TMM: It's 6:30 a.m. +I'm in something big, bad and ugly. +Two capsizes. +Last capsize, I took the rib off the top of my ceiling with my back. +I've had about six capsizes now. +The last one was a pitchpole. +I have the Argus beacon with me. +I would set off the distress signal, but quite frankly, I don't think they'd ever be able to find this little boat. +It's so far underwater right now, the only part that's showing pretty much is the cabin. +It's about 10 a.m. +I've lost track of the number of capsizes. +I seem to capsize about every 15 minutes. +I think I may have broken my left arm. +The waves are tearing the boat to shreds. +I keep praying because I'm not sure I'm going to make it through this. +DL: Tori set off her distress beacon and was rescued by a passing container ship. +They found her abandoned boat two months later adrift near France. +I read about it in the newspaper. +In 1998, I was a high school student living in Louisville, Kentucky. +Now, I live in New York City. I'm a songwriter. +And her bravery stuck with me, and I'm adapting her story into a musical called "Row." +When Tori returned home, she was feeling disheartened, She was having a hard time making the transition back into civilization. +In this scene, she sits at home. +The phone is ringing, her friends are calling, but she doesn't know how to talk to them. +She sings this song. It's called "Dear Heart." +When I was dreaming, I took my body to beautiful places I'd never been. +I saw Gibraltar, and stars of Kentucky burned in the moonlight, making me smile. +And when I awoke here, the sky was so cloudy. +I walked to a party where people I know try hard to know me and ask where I've been, but I can't explain what I've seen to them. +Ah, listen, dear heart. +Just pay attention, go right from the start. +Ah, listen, dear heart. +You can fall off the map, but don't fall apart. +Ooh ooh ooh, ah ah ah ah ah. +Ah ah, ah ah ah. +When I was out there, the ocean would hold me, rock me and throw me, light as a child. +But now I'm so heavy, nothing consoles me. +My mind floats like driftwood, wayward and wild. +Ah, listen, dear heart. +Just pay attention, go right from the start. +Ah, listen, dear heart. +You can fall off the map, but don't fall apart. +Ooh. +Eventually, Tori starts to get her feet under her. +She starts hanging out with her friends again. +She meets a guy and falls in love for the first time. +She gets a new job working for another Louisville native, Muhammad Ali. +One day, at lunch with her new boss, Tori shares the news that two other women are setting out to row across the mid-Atlantic, to do something that she almost died trying to do. +His response was classic Ali: "You don't want to go through life as the woman who almost rowed across the ocean." +He was right. +Tori rebuilt the American Pearl, and in December of 1999, she did it. +Thank you. +These bees are in my backyard in Berkeley, California. +Until last year, I'd never kept bees before, but National Geographic asked me to photograph a story about them, and I decided, to be able to take compelling images, I should start keeping bees myself. +And as you may know, bees pollinate one third of our food crops, and lately they've been having a really hard time. +So as a photographer, I wanted to explore what this problem really looks like. +So I'm going to show you what I found over the last year. +This furry little creature is a fresh young bee halfway emerged from its brood cell, and bees right now are dealing with several different problems, including pesticides, diseases, and habitat loss, but the single greatest threat is a parasitic mite from Asia, Varroa destructor. +And this pinhead-sized mite crawls onto young bees and sucks their blood. +This eventually destroys a hive because it weakens the immune system of the bees, and it makes them more vulnerable to stress and disease. +Now, bees are the most sensitive when they're developing inside their brood cells, and I wanted to know what that process really looks like, so I teamed up with a bee lab at U.C. Davis and figured out how to raise bees in front of a camera. +I'm going to show you the first 21 days of a bee's life condensed into 60 seconds. +This is a bee egg as it hatches into a larva, and those newly hatched larvae swim around their cells feeding on this white goo that nurse bees secrete for them. +Then, their head and their legs slowly differentiate as they transform into pupae. +Here's that same pupation process, and you can actually see the mites running around in the cells. +Then the tissue in their body reorganizes and the pigment slowly develops in their eyes. +The last step of the process is their skin shrivels up and they sprout hair. +So -- As you can see halfway through that video, the mites were running around on the baby bees, and the way that beekeepers typically manage these mites is they treat their hives with chemicals. +In the long run, that's bad news, so researchers are working on finding alternatives to control these mites. +This is one of those alternatives. +It's an experimental breeding program at the USDA Bee Lab in Baton Rouge, and this queen and her attendant bees are part of that program. +Now, the researchers figured out that some of the bees have a natural ability to fight mites, so they set out to breed a line of mite-resistant bees. +This is what it takes to breed bees in a lab. +The virgin queen is sedated and then artificially inseminated using this precision instrument. +Now, this procedure allows the researchers to control exactly which bees are being crossed, but there's a tradeoff in having this much control. +They succeeded in breeding mite-resistant bees, but in that process, those bees started to lose traits like their gentleness and their ability to store honey, so to overcome that problem, these researchers are now collaborating with commercial beekeepers. +This is Bret Adee opening one of his 72,000 beehives. +He and his brother run the largest beekeeping operation in the world, and the USDA is integrating their mite-resistant bees into his operation with the hope that over time, they'll be able to select the bees that are not only mite-resistant but also retain all of these qualities that make them useful to us. +And to say it like that makes it sound like we're manipulating and exploiting bees, and the truth is, we've been doing that for thousands of years. +So when people talk about saving bees, my interpretation of that is we need to save our relationship to bees, and in order to design new solutions, we have to understand the basic biology of bees and understand the effects of stressors that we sometimes cannot see. +In other words, we have to understand bees up close. +Thank you. +Dannielle Hadley: Life in Pennsylvania means just that: life without the possibility of parole. +For us lifers, as we call ourselves, our only chance for release is through commutation, which has only been granted to two women since 1989, close to 30 years ago. +Our song, "This Is Not Our Home," it tells of our experiences while doing life without the possibility of parole. +Brenda Watkins: I'm a woman. +I'm a grandmother. +I'm a daughter. +I have a son. +I'm not an angel. +I'm not the devil. +I came to jail when I was so young. +I spend my time here inside these prison walls. +Lost friends to death, saw some go home. +Watch years pass, people come and go, while I do life without parole. +I am a prisoner for the wrong I've done. +I'm doing time here. +This is not my home. +Dream of freedom, hope for mercy. +Will I see my family or die alone? +As the years go by, I hold back my tears, because if I cry I'd give in to fear. +I must be strong, have to hold on. +Gotta get through another year. +I am a prisoner for the wrong I've done. +I'm doing time here. This is not my home. +Dream of freedom, hope for mercy. +Will I see my family or die alone? +I'm not saying that I'm not guilty, I'm not saying that I shouldn't pay. +All I'm asking is for forgiveness. +Gotta have hope I'll be free someday. +Is there a place for me in the world out there? +Will they ever know or care that I'm chained? +Is there redemption for the sin of my younger days? +Because I've changed. +Lord knows I've changed. +I am a prisoner for the wrong I've done. +I'm doing time here. This is not my home. +Dream of freedom, hope for mercy. +Will I see my family or die alone? +Will I see my family or die alone? +I'm known to you as Inmate 008106. +Incarcerated 29 years. +My name is Brenda Watkins. +I was born and raised in Hoffman, North Carolina. +This is not my home. +Thelma Nichols: Inmate number 0B2472. +I've been incarcerated for 27 years. +My name is Thelma Nichols. +I was born and raised in Philadelphia, P.A. +This is not my home. +DH: 008494. +I've been incarcerated for 27 years. +My name is Dannielle Hadley. +I was born and raised in Philadelphia, P.A, and this is not my home. +Theresa Battles: Inmate 008309. +I've been incarcerated for 27 years. +My name is Theresa Battles. +I'm from Norton, New Jersey, and this is not my home. +Debra Brown: I am known as Inmate 007080. +I've been incarcerated for 30 years. +My name is Debra Brown. +I'm from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. +This is not my home. +Joann Butler: 005961. +I've been incarcerated for 37 years. +My name is Joann Butler, and I was born and raised in Philadelphia. +This is not my home. +Diane Hamill Metzger: Number 005634. +I've been incarcerated for 39 and one half years. +My name is Diane Hamill Metzger. +I'm from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and this is not my home. +Lena Brown: I am 004867. +Incarcerated 40 years. +My name is Lena Brown, and I was born and raised in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, and this is not my home. +Trina Garnett: My number is 005545. +My name is Trina Garnett, I've been incarcerated for 37 years, since I was 14 years old. +Born and raised in Chester, Pennsylvania, and this is not my home. +Will I see my family or die alone? +Or die alone? +When I was nine years old, my mom asked me what I would want my house to look like, and I drew this fairy mushroom. +And then she actually built it. +I don't think I realized this was so unusual at the time, and maybe I still haven't, because I'm still designing houses. +This is a six-story bespoke home on the island of Bali. +It's built almost entirely from bamboo. +The living room overlooks the valley from the fourth floor. +You enter the house by a bridge. +It can get hot in the tropics, so we make big curving roofs to catch the breezes. +But some rooms have tall windows to keep the air conditioning in and the bugs out. +This room we left open. +We made an air-conditioned, tented bed. +And one client wanted a TV room in the corner of her living room. +Boxing off an area with tall walls just didn't feel right, so instead, we made this giant woven pod. +Now, we do have all the necessary luxuries, like bathrooms. +This one is a basket in the corner of the living room, and I've got tell you, some people actually hesitate to use it. +We have not quite figured out our acoustic insulation. +So there are lots of things that we're still working on, but one thing I have learned is that bamboo will treat you well if you use it right. +It's actually a wild grass. +It grows on otherwise unproductive land -- deep ravines, mountainsides. +It lives off of rainwater, spring water, sunlight, and of the 1,450 species of bamboo that grow across the world, we use just seven of them. +That's my dad. +He's the one who got me building with bamboo, and he is standing in a clump of Dendrocalamus asper niger that he planted just seven years ago. +Each year, it sends up a new generation of shoots. +That shoot, we watched it grow a meter in three days just last week, so we're talking about sustainable timber in three years. +Now, we harvest from hundreds of family-owned clumps. +Betung, as we call it, it's really long, up to 18 meters of usable length. +Try getting that truck down the mountain. +And it's strong: it has the tensile strength of steel, the compressive strength of concrete. +Slam four tons straight down on a pole, and it can take it. +Because it's hollow, it's lightweight, light enough to be lifted by just a few men, or, apparently, one woman. +And when my father built Green School in Bali, he chose bamboo for all of the buildings on campus, because he saw it as a promise. +It's a promise to the kids. +It's one sustainable material that they will not run out of. +And when I first saw these structures under construction about six years ago, I just thought, this makes perfect sense. +It is growing all around us. +It's strong. It's elegant. +It's earthquake-resistant. +Why hasn't this happened sooner, and what can we do with it next? +So along with some of the original builders of Green School, I founded Ibuku. +Ibu means "mother," and ku means "mine," so it represents my Mother Earth, and at Ibuku, we are a team of artisans, architects and designers, and what we're doing together is creating a new way of building. +Over the past five years together, we have built over 50 unique structures, most of them in Bali. +Nine of them are at Green Village -- you've just seen inside some of these homes -- and we fill them with bespoke furniture, we surround them with veggie gardens, we would love to invite you all to come visit someday. +And while you're there, you can also see Green School -- we keep building classrooms there each year -- as well as an updated fairy mushroom house. +We're also working on a little house for export. +This is a traditional Sumbanese home that we replicated, right down to the details and textiles. +A restaurant with an open-air kitchen. +It looks a lot like a kitchen, right? +And a bridge that spans 22 meters across a river. +Now, what we're doing, it's not entirely new. +From little huts to elaborate bridges like this one in Java, bamboo has been in use across the tropical regions of the world for literally tens of thousands of years. +There are islands and even continents that were first reached by bamboo rafts. +But until recently, it was almost impossible to reliably protect bamboo from insects, and so, just about everything that was ever built out of bamboo is gone. +Unprotected bamboo weathers. +Untreated bamboo gets eaten to dust. +And so that's why most people, especially in Asia, think that you couldn't be poor enough or rural enough to actually want to live in a bamboo house. +And so we thought, what will it take to change their minds, to convince people that bamboo is worth building with, much less worth aspiring to? +First, we needed safe treatment solutions. +Borax is a natural salt. +It turns bamboo into a viable building material. +Treat it properly, design it carefully, and a bamboo structure can last a lifetime. +Second, build something extraordinary out of it. +Inspire people. +Fortunately, Balinese culture fosters craftsmanship. +It values the artisan. +So combine those with the adventurous outliers from new generations of locally trained architects and designers and engineers, and always remember that you are designing for curving, tapering, hollow poles. +No two poles alike, no straight lines, no two-by-fours here. +The tried-and-true, well-crafted formulas and vocabulary of architecture do not apply here. +We have had to invent our own rules. +We ask the bamboo what it's good at, what it wants to become, and what it says is: respect it, design for its strengths, protect it from water, and to make the most of its curves. +So we design in real 3D, making scale structural models out of the same material that we'll later use to build the house. +And bamboo model-making, it's an art, as well as some hardcore engineering. +So that's the blueprint of the house. +And we bring it to site, and with tiny rulers, we measure each pole, and consider each curve, and we choose a piece of bamboo from the pile to replicate that house on site. +When it comes down to the details, we consider everything. +Why are doors so often rectangular? +Why not round? +How could you make a door better? +Well, its hinges battle with gravity, and gravity will always win in the end, so why not have it pivot on the center where it can stay balanced? +And while you're at it, why not doors shaped like teardrops? +To reap the selective benefits and work within the constraints of this material, we have really had to push ourselves, and within that constraint, we have found space for something new. +It's a challenge: how do you make a ceiling if you don't have any flat boards to work with? +Let me tell you, sometimes I dream of sheet rock and plywood. +But if what you've got is skilled craftsmen and itsy bitsy little splits, weave that ceiling together, stretch a canvas over it, lacquer it. +How do you design durable kitchen countertops that do justice to this curving structure you've just built? +Slice up a boulder like a loaf of bread, hand-carve each to fit the other, leave the crusts on, and what we're doing, it is almost entirely handmade. +The structural connections of our buildings are reinforced by steel joints, but we use a lot of hand-whittled bamboo pins. +There are thousands of pins in each floor. +This floor is made of glossy and durable bamboo skin. +You can feel the texture under bare feet. +And the floor that you walk on, can it affect the way that you walk? +Can it change the footprint that you'll ultimately leave on the world? +I remember being nine years old and feeling wonder, and possibility, and a little bit of idealism. +And we've got a really long way to go, there's a lot left to learn, but one thing I know is that with creativity and commitment, you can create beauty and comfort and safety and even luxury out of a material that will grow back. +Thank you. +I know what you're thinking: "Why does that guy get to sit down?" +That's because this is radio. +I tell radio stories about design, and I report on all kinds of stories: buildings and toothbrushes and mascots and wayfinding and fonts. +My mission is to get people to engage with the design that they care about so they begin to pay attention to all forms of design. +When you decode the world with design intent in mind, the world becomes kind of magical. +Instead of seeing the broken things, you see all the little bits of genius that anonymous designers have sweated over to make our lives better. +And that's essentially the definition of design: making life better and providing joy. +And few things give me greater joy than a well-designed flag. +Yeah! +Happy 50th anniversary on your flag, Canada. +It is beautiful, gold standard. Love it. +I'm kind of obsessed with flags. +Sometimes I bring up the topic of flags, and people are like, "I don't care about flags," and then we start talking about flags, and trust me, 100 percent of people care about flags. +There's just something about them that works on our emotions. +My family wrapped my Christmas presents as flags this year, including the blue gift bag that's dressed up as the flag of Scotland. +I put this picture online, and sure enough, within the first few minutes, someone left a comment that said, "You can take that Scottish Saltire and shove it up your ass." Which -- see, people are passionate about flags, you know? +That's the way it is. +What I love about flags is that once you understand the design of flags, what makes a good flag, what makes a bad flag, you can understand the design of almost anything. +Voice: Sssssound. +RM: All right, got it? Here we go. +Three, two. +This is 99% Invisible. I'm Roman Mars. +Narrator: The five basic principles of flag design. +Roman Mars: According to the North American Vexillological Association. +Vexillological. +Ted Kaye: Vexillology is the study of flags. +RM: It's that extra "lol" that makes it sound weird. +Narrator: Number one, keep it simple. +The flag should be so simple that a child can draw it from memory. +RM: Before I moved to Chicago in 2005, I didn't even know cities had their own flags. +TK: Most larger cities do have flags. +RM: Well, I didn't know that. That's Ted Kaye, by the way. +TK: Hello. RM: He's a flag expert. +He's a totally awesome guy. +TK: I'm Ted Kaye. I have edited a scholarly journal on flag studies, and I am currently involved with the Portland Flag Association and the North American Vexillological Association. +RM: Ted literally wrote the book on flag design. +Narrator: "Good Flag, Bad Flag." +RM: It's more of a pamphlet, really. It's about 16 pages. +TK: Yes, it's called "Good Flag, Bad Flag: How to Design a Great Flag." +RM: And that first city flag I discovered in Chicago is a beaut: white field, two horizontal blue stripes, and four six-pointed red stars down the middle. +Narrator: Number two: use meaningful symbolism. +TK: The blue stripes represent the water, the river and the lake. +Narrator: The flag's images, colors or pattern should relate to what it symbolizes. +TK: The red stars represent significant events in Chicago's history. +RM: Namely, the founding of Fort Dearborn on the future site of Chicago, the Great Chicago Fire, the World Columbian Exposition, which everyone remembers because of the White City, and the Century of Progress Exposition, which no one remembers at all. +Narrator: Number three, use two to three basic colors. +TK: The basic rule for colors is to use two to three colors from the standard color set: red, white, blue, green, yellow and black. +RM: The design of the Chicago flag has complete buy-in with an entire cross-section of the city. +It is everywhere; every municipal building flies the flag. +Whet Moser: Like, there's probably at least one store on every block near where I work that sells some sort of Chicago flag paraphernalia. +RM: That's Whet Moser from Chicago magazine. +WM: Today, just for example, I went to get a haircut, and when I sat down in the barber's chair, there was a Chicago flag on the box that the barber kept all his tools in, and then in the mirror there was a Chicago flag on the wall behind me. +When I left, a guy passed me who had a Chicago flag badge on his backpack. +RM: It's adaptable and remixable. +The six-pointed stars in particular show up in all kinds of places. +WM: The coffee I bought the other day had a Chicago star on it. +RM: It's a distinct symbol of Chicago pride. +TK: When a police officer or a firefighter dies in Chicago, often it's not the flag of the United States on his casket. +It can be the flag of the city of Chicago. +That's how deeply the flag has gotten into the civic imagery of Chicago. +RM: And it isn't just that people love Chicago and therefore love the flag. +I also think that people love Chicago more because the flag is so cool. +TK: A positive feedback loop there between great symbolism and civic pride. +RM: Okay. So when I moved back to San Francisco in 2008, I researched its flag, because I had never seen it in the previous eight years I lived there. +And I found it, I am sorry to say, sadly lacking. +I know. +It hurts me, too. +TK: Well, let me start from the top. +Narrator: Number one, keep it simple. +TK: Keeping it simple. +Narrator: The flag should be so simple that a child can draw it from memory. +TK: It's a relatively complex flag. +RM: Okay, here we go. Okay. +The main component of the San Francisco flag is a phoenix representing the city rising from the ashes after the devastating fires of the 1850s. +TK: A powerful symbol for San Francisco. +RM: I still don't really dig the phoenix. +Design-wise, it manages to both be too crude and have too many details at the same time, which if you were trying for that, you wouldn't be able to do it, and it just looks bad at a distance, but having deep meaning puts that element in the plus column. +Behind the phoenix, the background is mostly white, and then it has a substantial gold border around it. +TK: Which is a very attractive design element. +RM: I think it's okay. But -- -- here come the big no-nos of flag design. +Narrator: Number four, no lettering or seals. +Never use writing of any kind. +RM: Underneath the phoenix, there's a motto on a ribbon that translates to "Gold in peace, iron in war," plus -- and this is the big problem -- it says San Francisco across the bottom. +TK: If you need to write the name of what you're representing on your flag, your symbolism has failed. +RM: The United States flag doesn't say "USA" across the front. +In fact, country flags, they tend to behave. +Like, hats off to South Africa and Turkey and Israel and Somalia and Japan and Gambia. +There's a bunch of really great country flags, but they obey good design principles because the stakes are high. +They're on the international stage. +But city, state and regional flags are another story. +There is a scourge of bad flags, and they must be stopped. +That is the truth and that is the dare. +The first step is to recognize that we have a problem. +A lot of people tend to think that good design is just a matter of taste, and quite honestly, sometimes it is, actually, but sometimes it isn't, all right? +Here's the full list of NAVA flag design principles. +Narrator: The five basic principles of flag design. +Number one. TK: Keep it simple. +Narrator: Number two. TK: Use meaningful symbolism. +Narrator: Number three. TK: Use two to three basic colors. +Narrator: Number four. TK: No lettering or seals. +Narrator: Never use writing of any kind. +TK: Because you can't read that at a distance. +Narrator: Number five. TK: And be distinctive. +RM: All the best flags tend to stick to these principles. +And like I said before, most country flags are okay. +But here's the thing: if you showed this list of principles to any designer of almost anything, they would say these principles -- simplicity, deep meaning, having few colors or being thoughtful about colors, uniqueness, don't have writing you can't read -- all those principles apply to them, too. +But sadly, good design principles are rarely invoked in U.S. city flags. +Our biggest problem seems to be that fourth one. +We just can't stop ourselves from putting our names on our flags, or little municipal seals with tiny writing on them. +Here's the thing about municipal seals: They were designed to be on pieces of paper where you can read them, not on flags 100 feet away flapping in the breeze. +So here's a bunch of flags again. +Vexillologists call these SOBs: seals on a bedsheet -- -- and if you can't tell what city they go to, yeah, that's exactly the problem, except for Anaheim, apparently. +They fixed it. These flags are everywhere in the U.S. +The European equivalent of the municipal seal is the city coat of arms, and this is where we can learn a lesson for how to do things right. +So this is the city coat of arms of Amsterdam. +Now, if this were a United States city, the flag would probably look like this. +You know, yeah. But instead, the flag of Amsterdam looks like this. +Rather than plopping the whole coat of arms on a solid background and writing "Amsterdam" below it, they just take the key elements of the escutcheon, the shield, and they turn it into the most badass city flag in the world. +And because it's so badass, those flags and crosses are found throughout Amsterdam, just like Chicago, they're used. +Even though seal-on-a-bedsheet flags are particularly painful and offensive to me, nothing can quite prepare you for one of the biggest train wrecks in vexillological history. +Are you ready? +It's the flag of Milwaukee, Wisconsin. +I mean, it's distinctive, I'll give them that. +Steve Kodis: It was adopted in 1955. +RM: The city ran a contest and gathered a bunch of submissions with all kinds of designs. +SK: And an alderman by the name of Fred Steffan cobbled together parts of the submissions to make what is now the Milwaukee flag. +RM: It's a kitchen sink flag. +There's a gigantic gear representing industry, there's a ship recognizing the port, a giant stalk of wheat paying homage to the brewing industry. +It's a hot mess, and Steve Kodis, a graphic designer from Milwaukee, wants to change it. +SK: It's really awful. +It's a misstep on the city's behalf, to say the least. +RM: But what puts the Milwaukee flag over the top, almost to the point of self-parody, is on it is a picture of the Civil War battle flag of the Milwaukee regiment. +SK: So that's the final element in it that just makes it that much more ridiculous, that there is a flag design within the Milwaukee flag. +RM: On the flag. Yeah. Yeah. Yeah. +Now, Milwaukee is a fantastic city. +I've been there. I love it. +The most depressing part of this flag, though, is that there have been two major redesign contests. +The last one was held in 2001. +One hundred and five entries were received. +TK: But in the end, the members of the Milwaukee Arts Board decided that none of the new entries were worthy of flying over the city. +RM: They couldn't agree to change that thing! That's discouraging enough to make you think that good design and democracy just simply do not go together. +But Steve Kotas is going to try one more time to redesign the Milwaukee flag. +SK: I believe Milwaukee is a great city. +Every great city deserves a great flag. +RM: Steve isn't ready to reveal his design yet. +One of the things about proposing one of these things is you have to get people on board, and then you reveal your design. +But here's the trick: If you want to design a great flag, a kickass flag like Chicago's or D.C.'s, which also has a great flag, start by drawing a one-by-one-and-a-half- inch rectangle on a piece of paper. +Your design has to fit within that tiny rectangle. +Here's why. +TK: A three-by-five-foot flag on a pole 100 feet away looks about the same size as a one-by-one-and-a-half-inch rectangle seen about 15 inches from your eye. +You'd be surprised by how compelling and simple the design can be when you hold yourself to that limitation. +RM: Meanwhile, back in San Francisco. +Is there anything we can do? +TK: I like to say that in every bad flag there's a good flag trying to get out. The way to make San Francisco's flag a good flag is to take the motto off because you can't read that at a distance. +Take the name off, and the border might even be made thicker, so it's more a part of the flag. +And I would simply take the phoenix and make it a great big element in the middle of the flag. +RM: But the current phoenix, that's got to go. +TK: I would simplify or stylize the phoenix. +Depict a big, wide-winged bird coming out of flames. +Emphasize those flames. +RM: So this San Francisco flag was designed by Frank Chimero based on Ted Kaye's suggestions. +I don't know what he would do if we was completely unfettered and didn't follow those guidelines. +Fans of my radio show and podcast, they've heard me complain about bad flags. +They've sent me other suggested designs. +This one's by Neil Mussett. +Both are so much better. +And I think if they were adopted, I would see them around the city. +In my crusade to make flags of the world more beautiful, many listeners have taken it upon themselves to redesign their flags and look into the feasibility of getting them officially adopted. +If you see your city flag and like it, fly it, even if it violates a design rule or two. +I don't care. +But if you don't see your city flag, maybe it doesn't exist, but maybe it does, and it just sucks, and I dare you to join the effort to try to change that. +As we move more and more into cities, the city flag will become not just a symbol of that city as a place, but also it could become a symbol of how that city considers design itself, especially today, as the populace is becoming more design-aware. +And I think design awareness is at an all-time high. +A well-designed flag could be seen as an indicator of how a city considers all of its design systems: its public transit, its parks, its signage. +It might seem frivolous, but it's not. +TK: Often when city leaders say, "We have more important things to do than worry about a city flag," my response is, "If you had a great city flag, you would have a banner for people to rally under to face those more important things." +RM: I've seen firsthand what a good city flag can do in the case of Chicago. +The marriage of good design and civic pride is something that we need in all places. +The best part about municipal flags is that we own them. +They are an open-source, publicly owned design language of the community. +When they are done well, they are remixable, adaptable, and they are powerful. +We could control the branding and graphical imagery of our cities with a good flag, but instead, by having bad flags we don't use, we cede that territory to sports teams and chambers of commerce and tourism boards. +Sports teams can leave and break our hearts. +And besides, some of us don't really care about sports. +And tourism campaigns can just be cheesy. +But a great city flag is something that represents a city to its people and its people to the world at large. +And when that flag is a beautiful thing, that connection is a beautiful thing. +Yeah. +That thing has a trademark symbol on it, people. That hurts me just to look at. +Thank you so much for listening. +["Music by: Melodium and Keegan DeWitt "] +I'd like to have you look at this pencil. +It's a thing. It's a legal thing. +And so are books you might have or the cars you own. +They're all legal things. +The great apes that you'll see behind me, they too are legal things. +Now, I can do that to a legal thing. +I can do whatever I want to my book or my car. +These great apes, you'll see. +The photographs are taken by a man named James Mollison who wrote a book called "James & Other Apes." +And he tells in his book how every single one them, almost every one of them, is an orphan who saw his mother and father die before his eyes. +They're legal things. +So for centuries, there's been a great legal wall that separates legal things from legal persons. +On one hand, legal things are invisible to judges. +They don't count in law. +They don't have any legal rights. +They don't have the capacity for legal rights. +They are the slaves. +On the other side of that legal wall are the legal persons. +Legal persons are very visible to judges. +They count in law. +They may have many rights. +They have the capacity for an infinite number of rights. +And they're the masters. +Right now, all nonhuman animals are legal things. +All human beings are legal persons. +But being human and being a legal person has never been, and is not today, synonymous with a legal person. +Humans and legal persons are not synonymous. +On the one side, there have been many human beings over the centuries who have been legal things. +Slaves were legal things. +Women, children, were sometimes legal things. +Indeed, a great deal of civil rights struggle over the last centuries has been to punch a hole through that wall and begin to feed these human things through the wall and have them become legal persons. +But alas, that hole has closed up. +Now, on the other side are legal persons, but they've never only been limited to human beings. +There are, for example, there are many legal persons who are not even alive. +In the United States, we're aware of the fact that corporations are legal persons. +In pre-independence India, a court held that a Hindu idol was a legal person, that a mosque was a legal person. +In 2000, the Indian Supreme Court held that the holy books of the Sikh religion was a legal person, and in 2012, just recently, there was a treaty between the indigenous peoples of New Zealand and the crown, in which it was agreed that a river was a legal person who owned its own riverbed. +And I began to work as an animal protection lawyer. +And by 1985, I realized that I was trying to accomplish something that was literally impossible, the reason being that all of my clients, all the animals whose interests I was trying to defend, were legal things; they were invisible. +Now, at that time, there was very little known about or spoken about truly animal rights, about the idea of having legal personhood or legal rights for a nonhuman animal, and I knew it was going to take a long time. +And so, in 1985, I figured that it would take about 30 years before we'd be able to even begin a strategic litigation, long-term campaign, in order to be able to punch another hole through that wall. +It turned out that I was pessimistic, that it only took 28. +So what we had to do in order to begin was not only to write law review articles and teach classes, write books, but we had to then begin to get down to the nuts and bolts of how you litigate that kind of case. +So one of the first things we needed to do was figure out what a cause of action was, a legal cause of action. +And a legal cause of action is a vehicle that lawyers use to put their arguments in front of courts. +It turns out there's a very interesting case that had occurred almost 250 years ago in London called Somerset vs. Stewart, whereby a black slave had used the legal system and had moved from a legal thing to a legal person. +I was so interested in it that I eventually wrote an entire book about it. +James Somerset was an eight-year-old boy when he was kidnapped from West Africa. +He survived the Middle Passage, and he was sold to a Scottish businessman named Charles Stewart in Virginia. +Now, 20 years later, Stewart brought James Somerset to London, and after he got there, James decided he was going to escape. +And so one of the first things he did was to get himself baptized, because he wanted to get a set of godparents, because to an 18th-century slave, they knew that one of the major responsibilities of godfathers was to help you escape. +And so in the fall of 1771, James Somerset had a confrontation with Charles Stewart. +We don't know exactly what happened, but then James dropped out of sight. +Well now James' godparents swung into action. +They approached the most powerful judge, Lord Mansfield, who was chief judge of the court of King's Bench, and they demanded that he issue a common law writ of habeus corpus on behalf of James Somerset. +Now, the common law is the kind of law that English-speaking judges can make when they're not cabined in by statutes or constitutions, and a writ of habeus corpus is called the Great Writ, capital G, capital W, and it's meant to protect any of us who are detained against our will. +A writ of habeus corpus is issued. +The detainer is required to bring the detainee in and give a legally sufficient reason for depriving him of his bodily liberty. +Well, Lord Mansfield had to make a decision right off the bat, because if James Somerset was a legal thing, he was not eligible for a writ of habeus corpus, only if he could be a legal person. +So Lord Mansfield decided that he would assume, without deciding, that James Somerset was indeed a legal person, by the captain of the ship. +There were a series of hearings over the next six months. +On June 22, 1772, Lord Mansfield said that slavery was so odious, and he used the word "odious," that the common law would not support it, and he ordered James free. +At that moment, James Somerset underwent a legal transubstantiation. +The free man who walked out of the courtroom looked exactly like the slave who had walked in, but as far as the law was concerned, they had nothing whatsoever in common. +The next thing we did is that the Nonhuman Rights Project, which I founded, then began to look at what kind of values and principles do we want to put before the judges? +What values and principles did they imbibe with their mother's milk, were they taught in law school, do they use every day, do they believe with all their hearts -- and we chose liberty and equality. +Now, liberty right is the kind of right to which you're entitled because of how you're put together, and a fundamental liberty right protects a fundamental interest. +And the supreme interest in the common law are the rights to autonomy and self-determination. +So they are so powerful that in a common law country, if you go to a hospital and you refuse life-saving medical treatment, a judge will not order it forced upon you, because they will respect your self-determination and your autonomy. +Now, an equality right is the kind of right to which you're entitled because you resemble someone else in a relevant way, and there's the rub, relevant way. +So if you are that, then because they have the right, you're like them, you're entitled to the right. +Now, courts and legislatures draw lines all the time. +Some are included, some are excluded. +But you have to, at the bare minimum you must -- that line has to be a reasonable means to a legitimate end. +The Nonhuman Rights Project argues that drawing a line in order to enslave an autonomous and self-determining being like you're seeing behind me, that that's a violation of equality. +We then searched through 80 jurisdictions, it took us seven years, to find the jurisdiction where we wanted to begin filing our first suit. +We chose the state of New York. +Then we decided upon who our plaintiffs are going to be. +We decided upon chimpanzees, not just because Jane Goodall was on our board of directors, but because they, Jane and others, have studied chimpanzees intensively for decades. +We know the extraordinary cognitive capabilities that they have, and they also resemble the kind that human beings have. +And so we chose chimpanzees, and we began to then canvass the world to find the experts in chimpanzee cognition. +We found them in Japan, Sweden, Germany, Scotland, England and the United States, and amongst them, they wrote 100 pages of affidavits in which they set out more than 40 ways in which their complex cognitive capability, either individually or together, all added up to autonomy and self-determination. +Now, these included, for example, that they were conscious. +But they're also conscious that they're conscious. +They know they have a mind. They know that others have minds. +They know they're individuals, and that they can live. +They understand that they lived yesterday and they will live tomorrow. +They engage in mental time travel. They remember what happened yesterday. +They can anticipate tomorrow, which is why it's so terrible to imprison a chimpanzee, especially alone. +It's the thing that we do to our worst criminals, and we do that to chimpanzees without even thinking about it. +They have some kind of moral capacity. +When they play economic games with human beings, they'll spontaneously make fair offers, even when they're not required to do so. +They are numerate. They understand numbers. +They can do some simple math. +They can engage in language -- or to stay out of the language wars, they're involved in intentional and referential communication in which they pay attention to the attitudes of those with whom they are speaking. +They have culture. +They have a material culture, a social culture. +They have a symbolic culture. +Scientists in the Ta Forests in the Ivory Coast found chimpanzees who were using these rocks to smash open the incredibly hard hulls of nuts. +It takes a long time to learn how to do that, and they excavated the area and they found that this material culture, this way of doing it, these rocks, had passed down for at least 4,300 years through 225 chimpanzee generations. +So now we needed to find our chimpanzee. +Our chimpanzee, first we found two of them in the state of New York. +Both of them would die before we could even get our suits filed. +Then we found Tommy. +Tommy is a chimpanzee. You see him behind me. +Tommy was a chimpanzee. We found him in that cage. +We found him in a small room that was filled with cages in a larger warehouse structure on a used trailer lot in central New York. +We found Kiko, who is partially deaf. +Kiko was in the back of a cement storefront in western Massachusetts. +And we found Hercules and Leo. +They're two young male chimpanzees who are being used for biomedical, anatomical research at Stony Brook. +We found them. +And so on the last week of December 2013, the Nonhuman Rights Project filed three suits all across the state of New York using the same common law writ of habeus corpus argument that had been used with James Somerset, and we demanded that the judges issue these common law writs of habeus corpus. +We wanted the chimpanzees out, and we wanted them brought to Save the Chimps, a tremendous chimpanzee sanctuary in South Florida which involves an artificial lake with 12 or 13 islands -- there are two or three acres where two dozen chimpanzees live on each of them. +And these chimpanzees would then live the life of a chimpanzee, with other chimpanzees in an environment that was as close to Africa as possible. +Now, all these cases are still going on. +We have not yet run into our Lord Mansfield. +We shall. We shall. +This is a long-term strategic litigation campaign. We shall. +And to quote Winston Churchill, the way we view our cases is that they're not the end, they're not even the beginning of the end, but they are perhaps the end of the beginning. +Thank you. +So if I told you that this was the face of pure joy, would you call me crazy? +I wouldn't blame you, because every time I look at this Arctic selfie, I shiver just a little bit. +I want to tell you a little bit about this photograph. +I was swimming around in the Lofoten Islands in Norway, just inside the Arctic Circle, and the water was hovering right at freezing. +The air? A brisk -10 with windchill, and I could literally feel the blood trying to leave my hands, feet and face, and rush to protect my vital organs. +It was the coldest I've ever been. +But even with swollen lips, sunken eyes, and cheeks flushed red, I have found that this place right here is somewhere I can find great joy. +Now, when it comes to pain, psychologist Brock Bastian probably said it best when he wrote, "Pain is a kind of shortcut to mindfulness. +It makes us suddenly aware of everything in the environment. +It brutally draws us in to a virtual sensory awareness of the world much like meditation." +If shivering is a form of meditation, then I would consider myself a monk. +Now, before we get into the why would anyone ever want to surf in freezing cold water? +I would love to give you a little perspective on what a day in my life can look like. +Man: I mean, I know we were hoping for good waves, but I don't think anybody thought that was going to happen. +I can't stop shaking. +I am so cold. +Chris Burkard: So, surf photographer, right? +I don't even know if it's a real job title, to be honest. +My parents definitely didn't think so when I told them at 19 I was quitting my job to pursue this dream career: blue skies, warm tropical beaches, and a tan that lasts all year long. +I mean, to me, this was it. Life could not get any better. +Sweating it out, shooting surfers in these exotic tourist destinations. +But there was just this one problem. +You see, the more time I spent traveling to these exotic locations, the less gratifying it seemed to be. +I set out seeking adventure, and what I was finding was only routine. +It was things like wi-fi, TV, fine dining, and a constant cellular connection that to me were all the trappings of places heavily touristed in and out of the water, and it didn't take long for me to start feeling suffocated. +I began craving wild, open spaces, and so I set out to find the places others had written off as too cold, too remote, and too dangerous to surf, and that challenge intrigued me. +I began this sort of personal crusade against the mundane, because if there's one thing I've realized, it's that any career, even one as seemingly glamorous as surf photography, has the danger of becoming monotonous. +So in my search to break up this monotony, I realized something: There's only about a third of the Earth's oceans that are warm, and it's really just that thin band around the equator. +So if I was going to find perfect waves, it was probably going to happen somewhere cold, where the seas are notoriously rough, and that's exactly where I began to look. +And it was my first trip to Iceland that I felt like I found exactly what I was looking for. +I was blown away by the natural beauty of the landscape, but most importantly, I couldn't believe we were finding perfect waves in such a remote and rugged part of the world. +At one point, we got to the beach only to find massive chunks of ice had piled on the shoreline. +They created this barrier between us and the surf, and we had to weave through this thing like a maze just to get out into the lineup. +and once we got there, we were pushing aside these ice chunks trying to get into waves. +It was an incredible experience, one I'll never forget, because amidst those harsh conditions, I felt like I stumbled onto one of the last quiet places, somewhere that I found a clarity and a connection with the world I knew I would never find on a crowded beach. +I was hooked. I was hooked. Cold water was constantly on my mind, and from that point on, my career focused on these types of harsh and unforgiving environments, and it took me to places like Russia, Norway, Alaska, Iceland, Chile, the Faroe Islands, and a lot of places in between. +And one of my favorite things about these places was simply the challenge and the creativity it took just to get there: hours, days, weeks spent on Google Earth trying to pinpoint any remote stretch of beach or reef we could actually get to. +And once we got there, the vehicles were just as creative: snowmobiles, six-wheel Soviet troop carriers, and a couple of super-sketchy helicopter flights. +Helicopters really scare me, by the way. +There was this one particularly bumpy boat ride up the coast of Vancouver Island to this kind of remote surf spot, where we ended up watching helplessly from the water as bears ravaged our camp site. +They walked off with our food and bits of our tent, clearly letting us know that we were at the bottom of the food chain and that this was their spot, not ours. +But to me, that trip was a testament to the wildness I traded for those touristy beaches. +Now, it wasn't until I traveled to Norway -- -- that I really learned to appreciate the cold. +So this is the place where some of the largest, the most violent storms in the world send huge waves smashing into the coastline. +We were in this tiny, remote fjord, just inside the Arctic Circle. +It had a greater population of sheep than people, so help if we needed it was nowhere to be found. +I was in the water taking pictures of surfers, and it started to snow. +And then the temperature began to drop. +And I told myself, there's not a chance you're getting out of the water. +You traveled all this way, and this is exactly what you've been waiting for: freezing cold conditions with perfect waves. +And although I couldn't even feel my finger to push the trigger, I knew I wasn't getting out. +So I just did whatever I could. I shook it off, whatever. +But that was the point that I felt this wind gush through the valley and hit me, and what started as this light snowfall quickly became a full-on blizzard, and I started to lose perception of where I was. +I didn't know if I was drifting out to sea or towards shore, and all I could really make out was the faint sound of seagulls and crashing waves. +Now, I knew this place had a reputation for sinking ships and grounding planes, and while I was out there floating, I started to get a little bit nervous. +Actually, I was totally freaking out -- -- and I was borderline hypothermic, and my friends eventually had to help me out of the water. +And I don't know if it was delirium setting in or what, but they told me later I had a smile on my face the entire time. +Now, it was this trip and probably that exact experience where I really began to feel like every photograph was precious, because all of a sudden in that moment, it was something I was forced to earn. +And I realized, all this shivering had actually taught me something: In life, there are no shortcuts to joy. +Anything that is worth pursuing is going to require us to suffer just a little bit, and that tiny bit of suffering that I did for my photography, it added a value to my work that was so much more meaningful to me than just trying to fill the pages of magazines. +See, I gave a piece of myself in these places, and what I walked away with was a sense of fulfillment I had always been searching for. +So I look back at this photograph. +It's easy to see frozen fingers and cold wetsuits and even the struggle that it took just to get there, but most of all, what I see is just joy. +Thank you so much. +In 2011, during the final six months of Kim Jong-Il's life, I lived undercover in North Korea. +I was born and raised in South Korea, their enemy. +I live in America, their other enemy. +Since 2002, I had visited North Korea a few times. +And I had come to realize that to write about it with any meaning, or to understand the place beyond the regime's propaganda, the only option was total immersion. +So I posed as a teacher and a missionary at an all-male university in Pyongyang. +The Pyongyang University of Science and Technology was founded by Evangelical Christians who cooperate with the regime to educate the sons of the North Korean elite, without proselytizing, which is a capital crime there. +The students were 270 young men, expected to be the future leaders of the most isolated and brutal dictatorship in existence. +When I arrived, they became my students. +2011 was a special year, marking the 100th anniversary of the birth of North Korea's original Great Leader, Kim Il-Sung. +To celebrate the occasion, the regime shut down all universities, and sent students off to the fields to build the DPRK's much-heralded ideal as the world's most powerful and prosperous nation. +My students were the only ones spared from that fate. +North Korea is a gulag posing as a nation. +Everything there is about the Great Leader. +Every book, every newspaper article, every song, every TV program -- there is just one subject. +The flowers are named after him, the mountains are carved with his slogans. +Every citizen wears the badge of the Great Leader at all times. +Even their calendar system begins with the birth of Kim Il-Sung. +The school was a heavily guarded prison, posing as a campus. +Teachers could only leave on group outings accompanied by an official minder. +Even then, our trips were limited to sanctioned national monuments celebrating the Great Leader. +The students were not allowed to leave the campus, or communicate with their parents. +Their days were meticulously mapped out, and any free time they had was devoted to honoring their Great Leader. +Lesson plans had to meet the approval of North Korean staff, every class was recorded and reported on, every room was bugged, and every conversation, overheard. +Every blank space was covered with the portraits of Kim Il-Sung and Kim Jong-Il, like everywhere else in North Korea. +We were never allowed to discuss the outside world. +As students of science and technology, many of them were computer majors but they did not know the existence of the Internet. +They had never heard of Mark Zuckerberg or Steve Jobs. +Facebook, Twitter -- none of those things would have meant a thing. +And I could not tell them. +I went there looking for truth. +But where do you even start when an entire nation's ideology, my students' day-to-day realities, and even my own position at the universities, were all built on lies? +I started with a game. +We played "Truth and Lie." +A volunteer would write a sentence on the chalkboard, and the other students had to guess whether it was a truth or a lie. +Once a student wrote, "I visited China last year on vacation," and everyone shouted, "Lie!" +They all knew this wasn't possible. +Virtually no North Korean is allowed to leave the country. +Even traveling within their own country requires a travel pass. +I had hoped that this game would reveal some truth about my students, because they lie so often and so easily, whether about the mythical accomplishments of their Great Leader, or the strange claim that they cloned a rabbit as fifth graders. +The difference between truth and lies seemed at times hazy to them. +It took me a while to understand the different types of lies; they lie to shield their system from the world, or they were taught lies, and were just regurgitating them. +Or, at moments, they lied out of habit. +But if all they have ever known were lies, how could we expect them to be otherwise? +Next, I tried to teach them essay writing. +But that turned out to be nearly impossible. +Essays are about coming up with one's own thesis, and making an evidence-based argument to prove it. +These students, however, were simply told what to think, and they obeyed. +In their world, critical thinking was not allowed. +I also gave them the weekly assignment of writing a personal letter, to anybody. +It took a long time, but eventually some of them began to write to their mothers, their friends, their girlfriends. +Although those were just homework, and would never reach their intended recipients, my students slowly began to reveal their true feelings in them. +They wrote that they were fed up with the sameness of everything. +They were worried about their future. +In those letters, they rarely ever mentioned their Great Leader. +I was spending all of my time with these young men. +We all ate meals together, played basketball together. +I often called them gentlemen, which made them giggle. +They blushed at the mention of girls. +And I came to adore them. +And watching them open up even in the tiniest of ways, was deeply moving. +But something also felt wrong. +During those months of living in their world, I often wondered if the truth would, in fact, improve their lives. +I wanted so much to tell them the truth, of their country and of the outside world, where Arab youth were turning their rotten regime inside out, using the power of social media, where everyone except them was connected through the world wide web, which wasn't worldwide after all. +But for them, the truth was dangerous. +By encouraging them to run after it, I was putting them at risk -- of persecution, of heartbreak. +When you're not allowed to express anything in the open, you become good at reading what is unspoken. +In one of their personal letters to me, a student wrote that he understood why I always called them gentlemen. +It was because I was wishing them to be gentle in life, he said. +On my last day in December of 2011, the day Kim Jong-Il's death was announced, their world shattered. +I had to leave without a proper goodbye. +But I think they knew how sad I was for them. +Once, toward the end of my stay, a student said to me, "Professor, we never think of you as being different from us. +Our circumstances are different, but you're the same as us. +We want you to know that we truly think of you as being the same." +Today, if I could respond to my students with a letter of my own, which is of course impossible, I would tell them this: "My dear gentlemen, It's been a bit over three years since I last saw you. +And now, you must be 22 -- maybe even as old as 23. +At our final class, I asked you if there was anything you wanted. +The only wish you expressed, the only thing you ever asked of me in all those months we spent together, was for me to speak to you in Korean. +Just once. +I was there to teach you English; you knew it wasn't allowed. +But I understood then, you wanted to share that bond of our mother tongue. +I called you my gentlemen, but I don't know if being gentle in Kim Jong-Un's merciless North Korea is a good thing. +I don't want you to lead a revolution -- let some other young person do it. +The rest of the world might casually encourage or even expect some sort of North Korean Spring, but I don't want you to do anything risky, because I know in your world, someone is always watching. +I don't want to imagine what might happen to you. +If my attempts to reach you have inspired something new in you, I would rather you forget me. +Become soldiers of your Great Leader, and live long, safe lives. +You once asked me if I thought your city of Pyongyang was beautiful, and I could not answer truthfully then. +But I know why you asked. +I know that it was important for you to hear that I, your teacher, the one who has seen the world that you are forbidden from, declare your city as the most beautiful. +I know hearing that would make your lives there a bit more bearable, but no, I don't find your capital beautiful. +Not because it's monotone and concrete, but because of what it symbolizes: a monster that feeds off the rest of the country, where citizens are soldiers and slaves. +All I see there is darkness. +But it's your home, so I cannot hate it. +And I hope instead that you, my lovely young gentlemen, will one day help make it beautiful. +Thank you. +When I was growing up, I really liked playing hide-and-seek a lot. +One time, though, I thought climbing a tree would lead to a great hiding spot, but I fell and broke my arm. +I actually started first grade with a big cast all over my torso. +It was taken off six weeks later, but even then, I couldn't extend my elbow, and I had to do physical therapy to flex and extend it, 100 times per day, seven days per week. +I barely did it, because I found it boring and painful, and as a result, it took me another six weeks to get better. +Many years later, my mom developed frozen shoulder, which leads to pain and stiffness in the shoulder. +The person I believed for half of my life to have superpowers suddenly needed help to get dressed or to cut food. +She went each week to physical therapy, but just like me, she barely followed the home treatment, and it took her over five months to feel better. +Both my mom and I required physical therapy, a process of doing a suite of repetitive exercises in order to regain the range of movement lost due to an accident or injury. +At first, a physical therapist works with patients, but then it's up to the patients to do their exercises at home. +But patients find physical therapy boring, frustrating, confusing and lengthy before seeing results. +Sadly, patient noncompliance can be as high as 70 percent. +This means the majority of patients don't do their exercises and therefore take a lot longer to get better. +All physical therapists agree that special exercises reduce the time needed for recovery, but patients lack the motivation to do them. +So together with three friends, all of us software geeks, we asked ourselves, wouldn't it be interesting if patients could play their way to recovery? +We started building MIRA, A P.C. software platform that uses this Kinect device, a motion capture camera, to transform traditional exercises into video games. +My physical therapist has already set up a schedule for my particular therapy. +Let's see how this looks. +The first game asks me to fly a bee up and down to gather pollen to deposit in beehives, all while avoiding the other bugs. +I control the bee by doing elbow extension and flexion, just like when I was seven years old after the cast was taken off. +When designing a game, we speak to physical therapists at first to understand what movement patients need to do. +We then make that a video game to give patients simple, motivating objectives to follow. +But the software is very customizable, and physical therapists can also create their own exercises. +Using the software, my physical therapist recorded herself performing a shoulder abduction, which is one of the movements my mom had to do when she had frozen shoulder. +I can follow my therapist's example on the left side of the screen, while on the right, I see myself doing the recommended movement. +I feel more engaged and confident, as I'm exercising alongside my therapist with the exercises my therapist thinks are best for me. +This basically extends the application for physical therapists to create whatever exercises they think are best. +This is an auction house game for preventing falls, designed to strengthen muscles and improve balance. +As a patient, I need to do sit and stand movements, and when I stand up, I bid for the items I want to buy. +In two days, my grandmother will be 82 years old, and there's a 50 percent chance for people over 80 to fall at least once per year, which could lead to a broken hip or even worse. +Poor muscle tone and impaired balance are the number one cause of falls, so reversing these problems through targeted exercise will help keep older people like my grandmother safer and independent for longer. +When my schedule ends, MIRA briefly shows me how I progressed throughout my session. +I have just shown you three different games for kids, adults and seniors. +These can be used with orthopedic or neurologic patients, but we'll soon have options for children with autism, mental health or speech therapy. +My physical therapist can go back to my profile and see the data gathered during my sessions. +She can see how much I moved, how many points I scored, with what speed I moved my joints, and so on. +My physical therapist can use all of this to adapt my treatment. +I'm so pleased this version is now in use in over 10 clinics across Europe and the U.S., and we're working on the home version. +We want to enable physical therapists to prescribe this digital treatment and help patients play their way to recovery at home. +If my mom or I had a tool like this when we needed physical therapy, then we would have been more successful following the treatment, and perhaps gotten better a lot sooner. +Thank you. +Tom Rielly: So Cosmin, tell me what hardware is this that they're rapidly putting away? +What is that made of, and how much does it cost? +Cosmin Milhau: So it's a Microsoft Surface Pro 3 for the demo, but you just need a computer and a Kinect, which is 120 dollars. +TR: Right, and the Kinect is the thing that people use for their Xboxes to do 3D games, right? +CM: Exactly, but you don't need the Xbox, you only need a camera. +TR: Right, so this is less than a $1,000 solution. +CM: Definitely, 400 dollars, you can definitely use it. +TR: So right now, you're doing clinical trials in clinics. +CM: Yes. +TR: And then the hope is to get it so it's a home version and I can do my exercise remotely, and the therapist at the clinic can see how I'm doing and stuff like that. +CM: Exactly. +TR: Cool. Thanks so much. CM: Thank you. +Chris Anderson: So I guess what we're going to do is we're going to talk about your life, and using some pictures that you shared with me. +And I think we should start right here with this one. +Okay, now who is this? +Martine Rothblatt: This is me with our oldest son Eli. +He was about age five. +This is taken in Nigeria right after having taken the Washington, D.C. bar exam. +CA: Okay. But this doesn't really look like a Martine. +MR: Right. That was myself as a male, the way I was brought up. +Before I transitioned from male to female and Martin to Martine. +CA: You were brought up Martin Rothblatt. +MR: Correct. +CA: And about a year after this picture, you married a beautiful woman. +Was this love at first sight? What happened there? +MR: It was love at the first sight. +I saw Bina at a discotheque in Los Angeles, and we later began living together, but the moment I saw her, I saw just an aura of energy around her. +I asked her to dance. +She said she saw an aura of energy around me. +I was a single male parent. She was a single female parent. +We showed each other our kids' pictures, and we've been happily married for a third of a century now. +CA: And at the time, you were kind of this hotshot entrepreneur, working with satellites. +I think you had two successful companies, and then you started addressing this problem of how could you use satellites to revolutionize radio. +Tell us about that. +MR: Right. I always loved space technology, and satellites, to me, are sort of like the canoes that our ancestors first pushed out into the water. +CA: Wow. So who here has used Sirius? +MR: Thank you for your monthly subscriptions. +CA: So that succeeded despite all predictions at the time. +It was a huge commercial success, but soon after this, in the early 1990s, there was this big transition in your life and you became Martine. +MR: Correct. CA: So tell me, how did that happen? +MR: It happened in consultation with Bina and our four beautiful children, and I discussed with each of them that I felt my soul was always female, and as a woman, but I was afraid people would laugh at me if I expressed it, so I always kept it bottled up and just showed my male side. +And each of them had a different take on this. +Bina said, "I love your soul, and whether the outside is Martin and Martine, it doesn't it matter to me, I love your soul." +My son said, "If you become a woman, will you still be my father?" +And I said, "Yes, I'll always be your father," and I'm still his father today. +My youngest daughter did an absolutely brilliant five-year-old thing. +She told people, "I love my dad and she loves me." +So she had no problem with a gender blending whatsoever. +CA: And a couple years after this, you published this book: "The Apartheid of Sex." +What was your thesis in this book? +MR: My thesis in this book is that there are seven billion people in the world, and actually, seven billion unique ways to express one's gender. +And while people may have the genitals of a male or a female, the genitals don't determine your gender or even really your sexual identity. +That's just a matter of anatomy and reproductive tracts, and people could choose whatever gender they want if they weren't forced by society into categories of either male or female the way South Africa used to force people into categories of black or white. +We know from anthropological science that race is fiction, even though racism is very, very real, and we now know from cultural studies that separate male or female genders is a constructed fiction. +The reality is a gender fluidity that crosses the entire continuum from male to female. +CA: You yourself don't always feel 100 percent female. +MR: Correct. I would say in some ways I change my gender about as often as I change my hairstyle. +CA: Okay, now, this is your gorgeous daughter, Jenesis. +And I guess she was about this age when something pretty terrible happened. +MR: Yes, she was finding herself unable to walk up the stairs in our house to her bedroom, and after several months of doctors, she was diagnosed to have a rare, almost invariably fatal disease called pulmonary arterial hypertension. +CA: So how did you respond to that? +MR: Well, we first tried to get her to the best doctors we could. +We ended up at Children's National Medical Center in Washington, D.C. +The head of pediatric cardiology told us that he was going to refer her to get a lung transplant, but not to hold out any hope, because there are very few lungs available, especially for children. +He said that all people with this illness died, and if any of you have seen the film "Lorenzo's Oil," there's a scene when the protagonist kind of rolls down the stairway crying and bemoaning the fate of his son, and that's exactly how we felt about Jenesis. +CA: But you didn't accept that as the limit of what you could do. +You started trying to research and see if you could find a cure somehow. +MR: Correct. She was in the intensive care ward for weeks at a time, and Bina and I would tag team to stay at the hospital while the other watched the rest of the kids, and when I was in the hospital and she was sleeping, I went to the hospital library. +I read every article that I could find on pulmonary hypertension. +I had not taken any biology, even in college, so I had to go from a biology textbook to a college-level textbook and then medical textbook and the journal articles, back and forth, and eventually I knew enough to think that it might be possible that somebody could find a cure. +So we started a nonprofit foundation. +I wrote a description asking people to submit grants and we would pay for medical research. +I became an expert on the condition -- doctors said to me, Martine, we really appreciate all the funding you've provided us, but we are not going to be able to find a cure in time to save your daughter. +However, there is a medicine that was developed at the Burroughs Wellcome Company that could halt the progression of the disease, but Burroughs Wellcome has just been acquired by Glaxo Wellcome. +They made a decision not to develop any medicines for rare and orphan diseases, and maybe you could use your expertise in satellite communications to develop this cure for pulmonary hypertension. +CA: So how on earth did you get access to this drug? +I wore down their resistance, and they had no hope this drug would even work, by the way, and they tried to tell me, "You're just wasting your time. +We're sorry about your daughter." +But finally, for 25,000 dollars and agreement to pay 10 percent of any revenues we might ever get, they agreed to give me worldwide rights to this drug. +CA: And so you put this drug on the market in a really brilliant way, by basically charging what it would take to make the economics work. +MR: Oh yes, Chris, but this really wasn't a drug that I ended up -- after I wrote the check for 25,000, and I said, "Okay, where's the medicine for Jenesis?" +they said, "Oh, Martine, there's no medicine for Jenesis. +This is just something we tried in rats." +And they gave me, like, a little plastic Ziploc bag of a small amount of powder. +They said, "Don't give it to any human," and they gave me a piece of paper which said it was a patent, and from that, we had to figure out a way to make this medicine. +A hundred chemists in the U.S. at the top universities all swore that little patent could never be turned into a medicine. +If it was turned into a medicine, it could never be delivered because it had a half-life of only 45 minutes. +CA: And yet, a year or two later, you were there with a medicine that worked for Jenesis. +MR: Chris, the astonishing thing is that this absolutely worthless piece of powder that had the sparkle of a promise of hope for Jenesis is not only keeping Jenesis and other people alive today, but produces almost a billion and a half dollars a year in revenue. +CA: So here you go. +So you took this company public, right? +And made an absolute fortune. +And how much have you paid Glaxo, by the way, after that 25,000? +MR: Yeah, well, every year we pay them 10 percent of 1.5 billion, 150 million dollars, last year 100 million dollars. +It's the best return on investment they ever received. CA: And the best news of all, I guess, is this. +MR: Yes. Jenesis is an absolutely brilliant young lady. +She's alive, healthy today at 30. +You see me, Bina and Jenesis there. +The most amazing thing about Jenesis is that while she could do anything with her life, and believe me, if you grew up your whole life with people in your face saying that you've got a fatal disease, I would probably run to Tahiti and just not want to run into anybody again. +But instead she chooses to work in United Therapeutics. +She says she wants to do all she can to help other people with orphan diseases get medicines, and today, she's our project leader for all telepresence activities, where she helps digitally unite the entire company to work together to find cures for pulmonary hypertension. +CA: But not everyone who has this disease has been so fortunate. +There are still many people dying, and you are tackling that too. How? +MR: Exactly, Chris. There's some 3,000 people a year in the United States alone, perhaps 10 times that number worldwide, who continue to die of this illness because the medicines slow down the progression but they don't halt it. +The only cure for pulmonary hypertension, pulmonary fibrosis, cystic fibrosis, emphysema, COPD, what Leonard Nimoy just died of, is a lung transplant, but sadly, there are only enough available lungs for 2,000 people in the U.S. a year to get a lung transplant, whereas nearly a half million people a year die of end-stage lung failure. +CA: So how can you address that? +MR: So I conceptualize the possibility that just like we keep cars and planes and buildings going forever with an unlimited supply of building parts and machine parts, why can't we create an unlimited supply of transplantable organs to keep people living indefinitely, and especially people with lung disease. +So we've teamed up with the decoder of the human genome, Craig Venter, and the company he founded with Peter Diamandis, the founder of the X Prize, to genetically modify the pig genome so that the pig's organs will not be rejected by the human body and thereby to create an unlimited supply of transplantable organs. +We do this through our company, United Therapeutics. +CA: So you really believe that within, what, a decade, that this shortage of transplantable lungs maybe be cured, through these guys? +MR: Absolutely, Chris. +I'm as certain of that as I was of the success that we've had with direct television broadcasting, Sirius XM. +It's actually not rocket science. +It's straightforward engineering away one gene after another. +We're so lucky to be born in the time that sequencing genomes is a routine activity, and the brilliant folks at Synthetic Genomics are able to zero in on the pig genome, find exactly the genes that are problematic, and fix them. +CA: But it's not just bodies that -- though that is amazing. +It's not just long-lasting bodies that are of interest to you now. +It's long-lasting minds. +And I think this graph for you says something quite profound. +What does this mean? +CA: And so that being so, you're actually getting ready for this world by believing that we will soon be able to, what, actually take the contents of our brains and somehow preserve them forever? +How do you describe that? +CA: Now you're not just messing around with this. +You're serious. I mean, who is this? +MR: This is a robot version of my beloved spouse, Bina. +And we call her Bina 48. +She was programmed by Hanson Robotics out of Texas. +There's the centerfold from National Geographic magazine with one of her caregivers, and she roams the web and has hundreds of hours of Bina's mannerisms, personalities. +She's kind of like a two-year-old kid, but she says things that blow people away, best expressed by perhaps a New York Times Pulitzer Prize-winning journalist Amy Harmon who says her answers are often frustrating, but other times as compelling as those of any flesh person she's interviewed. +CA: And is your thinking here, part of your hope here, is that this version of Bina can in a sense live on forever, or some future upgrade MR: Yes. Not just Bina, but everybody. +You know, it costs us virtually nothing to store our mind files on Facebook, Instagram, what-have-you. +CA: So the thing is, Martine, that in any normal conversation, this would sound stark-staring mad, but in the context of your life, what you've done, some of the things we've heard this week, the constructed realities that our minds give, I mean, you wouldn't bet against it. +MR: Well, I think it's really nothing coming from me. +If anything, I'm perhaps a bit of a communicator of activities that are being undertaken by the greatest companies in China, Japan, India, the U.S., Europe. +There are tens of millions of people working on writing code that expresses more and more aspects of our human consciousness, and you don't have to be a genius to see that all these threads are going to come together and ultimately create human consciousness, and it's something we'll value. +Each day, we are always saying, like, "Wow, I love you even more than 30 years ago. +And so for us, the prospect of mind clones and regenerated bodies is that our love affair, Chris, can go on forever. +And we never get bored of each other. I'm sure we never will. +CA: I think Bina's here, right? MR: She is, yeah. +CA: Would it be too much, I don't know, do we have a handheld mic? +Bina, could we invite you to the stage? I just have to ask you one question. +Besides, we need to see you. +Thank you, thank you. +Come and join Martine here. +I mean, look, when you got married, if someone had told you that, in a few years time, the man you were marrying would become a woman, and a few years after that, you would become a robot -- -- how has this gone? How has it been? +Bina Rothblatt: It's been really an exciting journey, and I would have never thought that at the time, but we started making goals and setting those goals and accomplishing things, and before you knew it, we just keep going up and up and we're still not stopping, so it's great. +CA: Martine told me something really beautiful, just actually on Skype before this, which was that he wanted to live for hundreds of years as a mind file, but not if it wasn't with you. +BR: That's right, we want to do it together. +We're cryonicists as well, and we want to wake up together. +CA: So just so as you know, from my point of view, this isn't only one of the most astonishing lives I have heard, it's one of the most astonishing love stories I've ever heard. +It's just a delight to have you both here at TED. +Thank you so much. +MR: Thank you. +So I grew up in Orlando, Florida. +I was the son of an aerospace engineer. +I lived and breathed the Apollo program. +We either saw the launches from our backyard or we saw it by driving in the hour over to the Cape. +I was impressed by, obviously, space and everything about it, but I was most impressed by the engineering that went into it. +Behind me you see an amazing view, a picture that was taken from the International Space Station, and it shows a portion of our planet that's rarely seen and rarely studied and almost never explored. +That place is called the stratosphere. +If you start on the planet and you go up and up and up, it gets colder and colder and colder, until you reach the beginning of the stratosphere, and then an amazing thing happens. +It gets colder at a much slower rate, and then it starts warming up, and then it gets warmer and warmer until the point where you can almost survive without any protection, about zero degrees, and then you end up getting colder and colder, and that's the top of the stratosphere. +It is one of the least accessible places on our planet. +Most often, when it's visited, it's by astronauts who are blazing up at it at probably several times the speed of sound, and they get a few seconds on the way up, and then they get this blazing ball of fire coming back in, on the way back in. +But the question I asked is, is it possible to linger in the stratosphere? +Is it possible to experience the stratosphere? +Is it possible to explore the stratosphere? +I studied this using my favorite search engine for quite a while, about a year, and then I made a scary phone call. +It was a reference from a friend of mine to call Taber MacCallum from Paragon Space Development Corporation, and I asked him the question: is it possible to build a system to go into the stratosphere? +And he said it was. +And after a period of about three years, we proceeded to do just that. +And on October 24 of last year, in this suit, I started on the ground, I went up in a balloon to 135,890 feet -- but who's counting? +Came back to Earth at speeds of up to 822 miles an hour. +It was a four-minute and 27-second descent. +And when I got to 10,000 feet, I opened a parachute and I landed. +But this is really a science talk, and it's really an engineering talk, and what was amazing to me about that experience is that Taber said, yes, I think we can build a stratospheric suit, and more than that, come down tomorrow and let's talk to the team that formed the core of the group that actually built it. +And they did something which I think is important, which is they took the analogy of scuba diving. +So in scuba diving, you have a self-contained system. +You have everything that you could ever need. +You have a scuba tank. +You have a wetsuit. +You have visibility. +And that scuba is exactly this system, and we're going to launch it into the stratosphere. +Three years later, this is what we have. +We've got an amazing suit that was made by ILC Dover. +ILC Dover was the company that made all of the Apollo suits and all of the extravehicular activity suits. +They had never sold a suit commercially, only to the government, but they sold one to me, which I am very grateful for. +Up here we have a parachute. This was all about safety. +Everyone on the team knew that I have a wife and two small children -- 10 and 15 -- and I wanted to come back safely. +So there's a main parachute and a reserve parachute, and if I do nothing, the reserve parachute is going to open because of an automatic opening device. +The suit itself can protect me from the cold. +This area in the front here has thermal protection. +It will actually heat water that will wrap around my body. +It has two redundant oxygen tanks. +Even if I was to get a quarter-inch hole in this suit, which is extremely unlikely, this system would still protect me from the low pressure of space. +The main advantage of this system is weight and complexity. +So the system weighs about 500 pounds, and if you compare it to the other attempt recently to go up in the stratosphere, they used a capsule. +And to do a capsule, there's an amazing amount of complexity that goes into it, and it weighed about 3,000 pounds, and to raise 3,000 pounds to an altitude of 135,000 feet, which was my target altitude, it would have taken a balloon that was 45 to 50 million cubic feet. +Because I only weighed 500 pounds in this system, we could do it with a balloon that was five times smaller than that, and that allowed us to use a launch system that was dramatically simpler than what needs to be done for a much larger balloon. +So with that, I want to take you to Roswell, New Mexico, on October 24. +We had an amazing team that got up in the middle of the night. +And here's the suit. +Again, this is using the front loader that you'll see in a second, and I want to play you a video of the actual launch. +Roswell's a great place to launch balloons, but it's a fantastic place to land under a parachute, especially when you're going to land 70 miles away from the place you started. +That's a helium truck in the background. +It's darkness. +I've already spent about an hour and a half pre-breathing. +And then here you see the suit going on. +It takes about an hour to get the suit on. +Astronauts get this really nice air-conditioned van to go to the launch pad, but I got a front loader. +You can see the top. You can see the balloon up there. +That's where the helium is. +This is Dave clearing the airspace with the FAA for 15 miles. +And there we go. +That's me waving with my left hand. +The reason I'm waving with my left hand is because on the right hand is the emergency cutaway. +My team forbade me from using my right hand. +So the trip up is beautiful. It's kind of like Google Earth in reverse. +It took two hours and seven minutes to go up, and it was the most peaceful two hours and seven minutes. +I was mostly trying to relax. +My heart rate was very low and I was trying not to use very much oxygen. +You can see how the fields in the background are relatively big at this point, and you can see me going up and up. +It's interesting here, because if you look, I'm right over the airport, and I'm probably at 50,000 feet, but immediately I'm about to go into a stratospheric wind of over 120 miles an hour. +This is my flight director telling me that I had just gone higher than anybody else had ever gone in a balloon, and I was about 4,000 feet from release. +This is what it looks like. +You can see the darkness of space, the curvature of the Earth, the fragile planet below. +I'm practicing my emergency procedures mentally right now. +If anything goes wrong, I want to be ready. +And the main thing that I want to do here is to have a release and fall and stay completely stable. +Ground control. Everyone ready? +Five. Four. Three. Two. One. +Alan Eustace: There's the balloon going by, fully inflated at this point. +And there you can see a drogue parachute, which I'll demonstrate in just a second, because that's really important. +There's the balloon going by a second time. +Right now, I'm about at the speed of sound. +There's nothing for me to tell it's the speed of sound, and very soon I will actually be as fast as I ever get, 822 miles an hour. +Ground control: We lost the data. +AE: So now I'm down low right now and you can basically see the parachute come out right there. +At this point, I'm very happy that there's a parachute out. +I thought I was the only one happy, but it turns out mission control was really happy as well. +The really nice thing about this is the moment I opened -- I had a close of friend of mine, Blikkies, my parachute guy. +He flew in another airplane, and he actually jumped out and landed right next to me. +He was my wingman on the descent. +This is my landing, but it's probably more properly called a crash. +I hate to admit it, but this wasn't even close to my worst landing. +Man: How are you doing? +AE: Hi there! +Yay. +So I want to tell you one thing that you might not have seen in that video, but one of the most critical parts of the entire thing was the release and what happens right after you release. +And what we tried to do was use something called a drogue parachute, and a drogue parachute was there to stabilize me. +And I'll show you one of those right now. +If any of you have ever gone tandem skydiving, you probably used one of these. +But the problem with one of these things is right when you release, you're in zero gravity. +So it's very easy for this to just turn right around you. +And before you know it, you can be tangled up or spinning, or you can release this drogue late, in which case what happens is you're going down at 800 miles an hour, and this thing is going to destroy itself and not be very useful. +But the guys at United Parachute Technologies came up with this idea, and it was a roll that looks like that, but watch what happens when I pull it out. +It's forming a pipe. +This pipe is so solid that you can take this drogue parachute and wrap it around, and there's no way it will ever tangle with you. +And that prevented a very serious potential problem. +So nothing is possible without an amazing team of people. +The core of this was about 20 people that worked on this for the three years, and they were incredible. +People asked me what the best part of this whole thing was, and it was a chance to work with the best experts in meteorology and ballooning and parachute technology and environmental systems and high altitude medicine. +It was fantastic. It's an engineer's dream to work with that group of people. +And I also at the same time wanted to thank my friends at Google, both for supporting me during this effort and also covering for me in the times that I was away. +But there's one other group I wanted to thank, and that's my family. +Yay. +I would constantly give them speeches about the safety of technology, and they weren't hearing any of it. +It was super hard on them, and the only reason that my wife put up with it was because I came back incredibly happy after each of the 250 tests, and she didn't want to take that away from me. +So I want to close with a story. +My daughter Katelyn, my 15-year-old, she and I were in the car, and we were driving down the road, and she was sitting there, and she had this idea, and she goes, "Dad, I've got this idea." +And so I listened to her idea and I said, "Katelyn, that's impossible." +And she looks at me and she goes, "Dad, after what you just did, how can you call anything impossible?" +And I laughed, and I said, "OK, it's not impossible, it's just very, very hard." +And then I paused for a second, and I said, "Katelyn, it may not be impossible, it may not even be very, very hard, it's just that I don't know how to do it." +Thank you. +I'm here to tell you about the real search for alien life. +Not little green humanoids arriving in shiny UFOs, although that would be nice. +But it's the search for planets orbiting stars far away. +Every star in our sky is a sun. +And if our sun has planets -- Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, etc., surely those other stars should have planets also, and they do. +And in the last two decades, astronomers have found thousands of exoplanets. +Our night sky is literally teeming with exoplanets. +We know, statistically speaking, that every star has at least one planet. +And in the search for planets, and in the future, planets that might be like Earth, we're able to help address some of the most amazing and mysterious questions that have faced humankind for centuries. +Why are we here? +Why does our universe exist? +How did Earth form and evolve? +How and why did life originate and populate our planet? +The second question that we often think about is: Are we alone? +Is there life out there? +Who is out there? +You know, this question has been around for thousands of years, since at least the time of the Greek philosophers. +But I'm here to tell you just how close we're getting to finding out the answer to this question. +It's the first time in human history that this really is within reach for us. +Now when I think about the possibilities for life out there, I think of the fact that our sun is but one of many stars. +This is a photograph of a real galaxy, we think our Milky Way looks like this galaxy. +It's a collection of bound stars. +But our [sun] is one of hundreds of billions of stars and our galaxy is one of upwards of hundreds of billions of galaxies. +Knowing that small planets are very common, you can just do the math. +And there are just so many stars and so many planets out there, that surely, there must be life somewhere out there. +Well, the biologists get furious with me for saying that, because we have absolutely no evidence for life beyond Earth yet. +Well, if we were able to look at our galaxy from the outside and zoom in to where our sun is, we see a real map of the stars. +And the highlighted stars are those with known exoplanets. +This is really just the tip of the iceberg. +Here, this animation is zooming in onto our solar system. +And you'll see here the planets as well as some spacecraft that are also orbiting our sun. +Now if we can imagine going to the West Coast of North America, and looking out at the night sky, here's what we'd see on a spring night. +And you can see the constellations overlaid and again, so many stars with planets. +There's a special patch of the sky where we have thousands of planets. +This is where the Kepler Space Telescope focused for many years. +Let's zoom in and look at one of the favorite exoplanets. +This star is called Kepler-186f. +It's a system of about five planets. +And by the way, most of these exoplanets, we don't know too much about. +We know their size, and their orbit and things like that. +But there's a very special planet here called Kepler-186f. +This planet is in a zone that is not too far from the star, so that the temperature may be just right for life. +Here, the artist's conception is just zooming in and showing you what that planet might be like. +So, many people have this romantic notion of astronomers going to the telescope on a lonely mountaintop and looking at the spectacular night sky through a big telescope. +But actually, we just work on our computers like everyone else, and we get our data by email or downloading from a database. +So instead of coming here to tell you about the somewhat tedious nature of the data and data analysis and the complex computer models we make, I have a different way to try to explain to you some of the things that we're thinking about exoplanets. +Here's a travel poster: "Kepler-186f: Where the grass is always redder on the other side." +That's because Kepler-186f orbits a red star, and we're just speculating that perhaps the plants there, if there is vegetation that does photosynthesis, it has different pigments and looks red. +"Enjoy the gravity on HD 40307g, a Super-Earth." +This planet is more massive than Earth and has a higher surface gravity. +"Relax on Kepler-16b, where your shadow always has company." +We know of a dozen planets that orbit two stars, and there's likely many more out there. +If we could visit one of those planets, you literally would see two sunsets and have two shadows. +So actually, science fiction got some things right. +Tatooine from Star Wars. +And I have a couple of other favorite exoplanets to tell you about. +This one is Kepler-10b, it's a hot, hot planet. +It orbits over 50 times closer to its star than our Earth does to our sun. +And actually, it's so hot, we can't visit any of these planets, but if we could, we would melt long before we got there. +We think the surface is hot enough to melt rock and has liquid lava lakes. +Gliese 1214b. +This planet, we know the mass and the size and it has a fairly low density. +It's somewhat warm. +We actually don't know really anything about this planet, but one possibility is that it's a water world, like a scaled-up version of one of Jupiter's icy moons that might be 50 percent water by mass. +And in this case, it would have a thick steam atmosphere overlaying an ocean, not of liquid water, but of an exotic form of water, a superfluid -- not quite a gas, not quite a liquid. +And under that wouldn't be rock, but a form of high-pressure ice, like ice IX. +So out of all these planets out there, and the variety is just simply astonishing, we mostly want to find the planets that are Goldilocks planets, we call them. +Not too big, not too small, not too hot, not too cold -- but just right for life. +But to do that, we'd have to be able to look at the planet's atmosphere, because the atmosphere acts like a blanket trapping heat -- the greenhouse effect. +We have to be able to assess the greenhouse gases on other planets. +Well, science fiction got some things wrong. +The Star Trek Enterprise had to travel vast distances at incredible speeds to orbit other planets so that First Officer Spock could analyze the atmosphere to see if the planet was habitable or if there were lifeforms there. +Well, we don't need to travel at warp speeds to see other planet atmospheres, although I don't want to dissuade any budding engineers from figuring out how to do that. +We actually can and do study planet atmospheres from here, from Earth orbit. +This is a picture, a photograph of the Hubble Space Telescope taken by the shuttle Atlantis as it was departing after the last human space flight to Hubble. +They installed a new camera, actually, that we use for exoplanet atmospheres. +And so far, we've been able to study dozens of exoplanet atmospheres, about six of them in great detail. +But those are not small planets like Earth. +They're big, hot planets that are easy to see. +We're not ready, we don't have the right technology yet to study small exoplanets. +But nevertheless, I wanted to try to explain to you how we study exoplanet atmospheres. +I want you to imagine, for a moment, a rainbow. +And if we could look at this rainbow closely, we would see that some dark lines are missing. +And here's our sun, the white light of our sun split up, not by raindrops, but by a spectrograph. +And you can see all these dark, vertical lines. +Some are very narrow, some are wide, some are shaded at the edges. +And this is actually how astronomers have studied objects in the heavens, literally, for over a century. +So here, each different atom and molecule has a special set of lines, a fingerprint, if you will. +And that's how we study exoplanet atmospheres. +And I'll just never forget when I started working on exoplanet atmospheres 20 years ago, how many people told me, "This will never happen. +We'll never be able to study them. Why are you bothering?" +And that's why I'm pleased to tell you about all the atmospheres studied now, and this is really a field of its own. +So when it comes to other planets, other Earths, in the future when we can observe them, what kind of gases would we be looking for? +Well, you know, our own Earth has oxygen in the atmosphere to 20 percent by volume. +That's a lot of oxygen. +But without plants and photosynthetic life, there would be no oxygen, virtually no oxygen in our atmosphere. +So oxygen is here because of life. +And our goal then is to look for gases in other planet atmospheres, gases that don't belong, that we might be able to attribute to life. +But which molecules should we search for? +I actually told you how diverse exoplanets are. +We expect that to continue in the future when we find other Earths. +And that's one of the main things I'm working on now, I have a theory about this. +It reminds me that nearly every day, I receive an email or emails from someone with a crazy theory about physics of gravity or cosmology or some such. +So, please don't email me one of your crazy theories. +Well, I had my own crazy theory. +But, who does the MIT professor go to? +Well, I emailed a Nobel Laureate in Physiology or Medicine and he said, "Sure, come and talk to me." +So I brought my two biochemistry friends and we went to talk to him about our crazy theory. +And that theory was that life produces all small molecules, so many molecules. +Like, everything I could think of, but not being a chemist. +Think about it: carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, molecular hydrogen, molecular nitrogen, methane, methyl chloride -- so many gases. +They also exist for other reasons, but just life even produces ozone. +So we go to talk to him about this, and immediately, he shot down the theory. +He found an example that didn't exist. +So, we went back to the drawing board and we think we have found something very interesting in another field. +But back to exoplanets, the point is that life produces so many different types of gases, literally thousands of gases. +And so what we're doing now is just trying to figure out on which types of exoplanets, which gases could be attributed to life. +And so when it comes time when we find gases in exoplanet atmospheres that we won't know if they're being produced by intelligent aliens or by trees, or a swamp, or even just by simple, single-celled microbial life. +So working on the models and thinking about biochemistry, it's all well and good. +But a really big challenge ahead of us is: how? +How are we going to find these planets? +There are actually many ways to find planets, several different ways. +But the one that I'm most focused on is how can we open a gateway so that in the future, we can find hundreds of Earths. +We have a real shot at finding signs of life. +And actually, I just finished leading a two-year project in this very special phase of a concept we call the starshade. +And the starshade is a very specially shaped screen and the goal is to fly that starshade so it blocks out the light of a star so that the telescope can see the planets directly. +Here, you can see myself and two team members holding up one small part of the starshade. +It's shaped like a giant flower, and this is one of the prototype petals. +The concept is that a starshade and telescope could launch together, with the petals unfurling from the stowed position. +The central truss would expand, with the petals snapping into place. +Now, this has to be made very precisely, literally, the petals to microns and they have to deploy to millimeters. +And this whole structure would have to fly tens of thousands of kilometers away from the telescope. +It's about tens of meters in diameter. +And the goal is to block out the starlight to incredible precision so that we'd be able to see the planets directly. +And it has to be a very special shape, because of the physics of defraction. +Now this is a real project that we worked on, literally, you would not believe how hard. +Just so you believe it's not just in movie format, here's a real photograph of a second-generation starshade deployment test bed in the lab. +And in this case, I just wanted you to know that that central truss has heritage left over from large radio deployables in space. +So after all of that hard work where we try to think of all the crazy gases that might be out there, and we build the very complicated space telescopes that might be out there, what are we going to find? +Well, in the best case, we will find an image of another exo-Earth. +Here is Earth as a pale blue dot. +And this is actually a real photograph of Earth taken by the Voyager 1 spacecraft, four billion miles away. +And that red light is just scattered light in the camera optics. +But what's so awesome to consider is that if there are intelligent aliens orbiting on a planet around a star near to us and they build complicated space telescopes of the kind that we're trying to build, all they'll see is this pale blue dot, a pinprick of light. +And so sometimes, when I pause to think about my professional struggle and huge ambition, it's hard to think about that in contrast to the vastness of the universe. +But nonetheless, I am devoting the rest of my life to finding another Earth. +And I can guarantee that in the next generation of space telescopes, in the second generation, we will have the capability to find and identity other Earths. +And the capability to split up the starlight so that we can look for gases and assess the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, estimate the surface temperature, and look for signs of life. +But there's more. +In this case of searching for other planets like Earth, we are making a new kind of map of the nearby stars and of the planets orbiting them, including [planets] that actually might be inhabitable by humans. +And so I envision that our descendants, hundreds of years from now, will embark on an interstellar journey to other worlds. +And they will look back at all of us as the generation who first found the Earth-like worlds. +Thank you. +June Cohen: And I give you, for a question, Rosetta Mission Manager Fred Jansen. +Fred Jansen: You mentioned halfway through that the technology to actually look at the spectrum of an exoplanet like Earth is not there yet. +When do you expect this will be there, and what's needed? +Actually, what we expect is what we call our next-generation Hubble telescope. +And this is called the James Webb Space Telescope, and that will launch in 2018, and that's what we're going to do, we're going to look at a special kind of planet called transient exoplanets, and that will be our first shot at studying small planets for gases that might indicate the planet is habitable. +JC: I'm going to ask you one follow-up question, too, Sara, as the generalist. +So I am really struck by the notion in your career of the opposition you faced, that when you began thinking about exoplanets, there was extreme skepticism in the scientific community that they existed, and you proved them wrong. +What did it take to take that on? +SS: Well, the thing is that as scientists, we're supposed to be skeptical, because our job to make sure that what the other person is saying actually makes sense or not. +But being a scientist, I think you've seen it from this session, it's like being an explorer. +You have this immense curiosity, this stubbornness, this sort of resolute will that you will go forward no matter what other people say. +JC: I love that. Thank you, Sara. +I've learned some of my most important life lessons from drug dealers and gang members and prostitutes, and I've had some of my most profound theological conversations not in the hallowed halls of a seminary but on a street corner on a Friday night, at 1 a.m. +That's a little unusual, since I am a Baptist minister, seminary-trained, and pastored a church for over 20 years, but it's true. +It came as a part of my participation in a public safety crime reduction strategy that saw a 79 percent reduction in violent crime over an eight-year period in a major city. +But I didn't start out wanting to be a part of somebody's crime reduction strategy. +I was 25, had my first church. +If you would have asked me what my ambition was, I would have told you I wanted to be a megachurch pastor. +I wanted a 15-, 20,000-member church. +I wanted my own television ministry. +I wanted my own clothing line. +I wanted to be your long distance carrier. +You know, the whole nine yards. +After about a year of pastoring, my membership went up about 20 members. +So megachurchdom was way down the road. +But seriously, if you'd have said, "What is your ambition?" +I would have said just to be a good pastor, to be able to be with people through all the passages of life, to preach messages that would have an everyday meaning for folks, and in the African-American tradition, to be able to represent the community that I serve. +But there was something else that was happening in my city and in the entire metro area, and in most metro areas in the United States, and that was the homicide rate started to rise precipitously. +And there were young people who were killing each other for reasons that I thought were very trivial, like bumping into someone in a high school hallway, and then after school, shooting the person. +Someone with the wrong color shirt on, on the wrong street corner at the wrong time. +And something needed to be done about that. +It got to the point where it started to change the character of the city. +You could go to any housing project, for example, like the one that was down the street from my church, and you would walk in, and it would be like a ghost town, because the parents wouldn't allow their kids to come out and play, even in the summertime, because of the violence. +You would listen in the neighborhoods on any given night, and to the untrained ear, it sounded like fireworks, but it was gunfire. +You'd hear it almost every night, when you were cooking dinner, telling your child a bedtime story, or just watching TV. +And you can go to any emergency room at any hospital, and you would see lying on gurneys young black and Latino men shot and dying. +And I was doing funerals, but not of the venerated matriarchs and patriarchs who'd lived a long life and there's a lot to say. +I was doing funerals of 18-year-olds, 17-year-olds, and 16-year-olds, and I was standing in a church or at a funeral home struggling to say something that would make some meaningful impact. +And so while my colleagues were building these cathedrals great and tall and buying property outside of the city and moving their congregations out so that they could create or recreate their cities of God, the social structures in the inner cities were sagging under the weight of all of this violence. +And so I stayed, because somebody needed to do something, and so I had looked at what I had and moved on that. +I started to preach decrying the violence in the community. +And I started to look at the programming in my church, and I started to build programs that would catch the at-risk youth, those who were on the fence to the violence. +I even tried to be innovative in my preaching. +You all have heard of rap music, right? +Rap music? +I even tried to rap sermon one time. +It didn't work, but at least I tried it. +I'll never forget the young person who came to me after that sermon. +He waited until everybody was gone, and he said, "Rev, rap sermon, huh?" And I was like, "Yeah, what do you think?" +And he said, "Don't do that again, Rev." +But I preached and I built these programs, and I thought maybe if my colleagues did the same that it would make a difference. +Things were out of control, and I didn't know what to do, and then something happened that changed everything for me. +It was a kid by the name of Jesse McKie, walking home with his friend Rigoberto Carrion to the housing project down the street from my church. +They met up with a group of youth who were from a gang in Dorchester, and they were killed. +But as Jesse was running from the scene mortally wounded, he was running in the direction of my church, and he died some 100, 150 yards away. +If he would have gotten to the church, it wouldn't have made a difference, because the lights were out; nobody was home. +And I took that as a sign. +When they caught some of the youth that had done this deed, to my surprise, they were around my age, but the gulf that was between us was vast. +It was like we were in two completely different worlds. +And so the paradox was this: If I really wanted the community that I was preaching for, I needed to reach out and embrace this group that I had cut out of my definition. +Which meant not about building programs to catch those who were on the fences of violence, but to reach out and to embrace those who were committing the acts of violence, the gang bangers, the drug dealers. +As soon as I came to that realization, a quick question came to my mind. +Why me? +I mean, isn't this a law enforcement issue? +This is why we have the police, right? +As soon as the question, "Why me?" came, the answer came just as quickly: Why me? Because I'm the one who can't sleep at night thinking about it. +Because I'm the one looking around saying somebody needs to do something about this, and I'm starting to realize that that someone is me. +I mean, isn't that how movements start anyway? +They don't start with a grand convention and people coming together and then walking in lockstep with a statement. +But it starts with just a few, or maybe just one. +It started with me that way, and so I decided to figure out the culture of violence in which these young people who were committing them existed, and I started to volunteer at the high school. +After about two weeks of volunteering at the high school, I realized that the youth that I was trying to reach, they weren't going to high school. +I started to walk in the community, and it didn't take a rocket scientist to realize that they weren't out during the day. +So I started to walk the streets at night, late at night, going into the parks where they were, building the relationship that was necessary. +A tragedy happened in Boston that brought a number of clergy together, and there was a small cadre of us who came to the realization that we had to come out of the four walls of our sanctuary and meet the youth where they were, and not try to figure out how to bring them in. +And so we decided to walk together, and we would get together in one of the most dangerous neighborhoods in the city on a Friday night and on a Saturday night at 10 p.m., and we would walk until 2 or 3 in the morning. +I imagine we were quite the anomaly when we first started walking. +I mean, we weren't drug dealers. +We weren't drug customers. +We weren't the police. Some of us would have collars on. +It was probably a really odd thing. +Because there was always somebody who would say, "We're going to take back the streets," but they would always seem to have a television camera with them, or a reporter, and they would enhance their own reputation to the detriment of those on the streets. +So when they saw that we had none of that, they decided to talk to us. +And then we did an amazing thing for preachers. +We decided to listen and not preach. +Come on, give it up for me. +All right, come on, you're cutting into my time now, okay? But it was amazing. +We said to them, "We don't know our own communities after 9 p.m. at night, between 9 p.m. and 5 a.m., but you do. +You are the subject matter experts, if you will, of that period of time. +So talk to us. Teach us. +Help us to see what we're not seeing. +Help us to understand what we're not understanding." +And they were all too happy to do that, and we got an idea of what life on the streets was all about, very different than what you see on the 11 o'clock news, very different than what is portrayed in popular media and even social media. +And as we were talking with them, a number of myths were dispelled about them with us. +And one of the biggest myths was that these kids were cold and heartless and uncharacteristically bold in their violence. +What we found out was the exact opposite. +Most of the young people who were out there on the streets are just trying to make it on the streets. +And we also found out that some of the most intelligent and creative and magnificent and wise people that we've ever met were on the street, engaged in a struggle. +And I know some of them call it survival, but I call them overcomers, because when you're in the conditions that they're in, to be able to live every day is an accomplishment of overcoming. +And as a result of that, we said to them, "How do you see this church, how do you see this institution helping this situation?" +And we developed a plan in conversation with these youths. +We stopped looking at them as the problem to be solved, and we started looking at them as partners, as assets, as co-laborers in the struggle to reduce violence in the community. +Imagine developing a plan, you have one minister at one table and a heroin dealer at the other table, coming up with a way in which the church can help the entire community. +The Boston Miracle was about bringing people together. +We had other partners. +We had law enforcement partners. +We had police officers. +It wasn't the entire force, because there were still some who still had that lock-'em-up mentality, but there were other cops who saw the honor in partnering with the community, who saw the responsibility from themselves to be able to work as partners with community leaders and faith leaders in order to reduce violence in the community. +I helped to start an organization 20 years ago, a faith-based organization, to deal with this issue. +Now, there is a movement in the United States of young people who I am very proud of who are dealing with the structural issues that need to change if we're going to be a better society. +But there is this political ploy to try to pit police brutality and police misconduct against black-on-black violence. +But it's a fiction. +It's all connected. +And then the response that comes from the state is more cops and more suppression of hot spots. +It's all connected, and one of the wonderful things that we've been able to do is to be able to show the value of partnering together -- community, law enforcement, private sector, the city -- in order to reduce violence. +You have to value that community component. +I believe that we can end the era of violence in our cities. +I believe that it is possible and that people are doing it even now. +But I need your help. +It can't just come from folks who are burning themselves out in the community. +They need support. They need help. +Go back to your city. +Find those people. +"You need some help? I'll help you out." +Find those people. They're there. +Bring them together with law enforcement, the private sector, and the city, with the one aim of reducing violence, but make sure that that community component is strong. +Because the old adage that comes from Burundi is right: that you do for me, without me, you do to me. +God bless you. Thank you. +Someone who looks like me walks past you in the street. +Do you think they're a mother, a refugee or a victim of oppression? +Or do you think they're a cardiologist, a barrister or maybe your local politician? +Do you look me up and down, wondering how hot I must get or if my husband has forced me to wear this outfit? +What if I wore my scarf like this? +I can walk down the street in the exact same outfit and what the world expects of me and the way I'm treated depends on the arrangement of this piece of cloth. +But this isn't going to be another monologue about the hijab because Lord knows, Muslim women are so much more than the piece of cloth they choose, or not, to wrap their head in. +This is about looking beyond your bias. +What if I walked past you and later on you'd found out that actually I was a race car engineer, and that I designed my own race car and I ran my university's race team, because it's true. +What if I told you that I was actually trained as a boxer for five years, because that's true, too. +Would it surprise you? +Why? +Ladies and gentlemen, ultimately, that surprise and the behaviors associated with it are the product of something called unconscious bias, or implicit prejudice. +And that results in the ridiculously detrimental lack of diversity in our workforce, particularly in areas of influence. +Hello, Australian Federal Cabinet. +Let me just set something out from the outset: Unconscious bias is not the same as conscious discrimination. +I'm not saying that in all of you, there's a secret sexist or racist or ageist lurking within, waiting to get out. +That's not what I'm saying. +We all have our biases. +They're the filters through which we see the world around us. +I'm not accusing anyone, bias is not an accusation. +Rather, it's something that has to be identified, acknowledged and mitigated against. +Bias can be about race, it can be about gender. +It can also be about class, education, disability. +The fact is, we all have biases against what's different, what's different to our social norms. +The thing is, if we want to live in a world where the circumstances of your birth do not dictate your future and where equal opportunity is ubiquitous, then each and every one of us has a role to play in making sure unconscious bias does not determine our lives. +There's this really famous experiment in the space of unconscious bias and that's in the space of gender in the 1970s and 1980s. +So orchestras, back in the day, were made up mostly of dudes, up to only five percent were female. +And apparently, that was because men played it differently, presumably better, presumably. +But in 1952, The Boston Symphony Orchestra started an experiment. +They started blind auditions. +So rather than face-to-face auditions, you would have to play behind a screen. +Now funnily enough, no immediate change was registered until they asked the audition-ers to take their shoes off before they entered the room. +because the clickity-clack of the heels against the hardwood floors was enough to give the ladies away. +Now get this, there results of the audition showed that there was a 50 percent increased chance a woman would progress past the preliminary stage. +And it almost tripled their chances of getting in. +What does that tell us? +Well, unfortunately for the guys, men actually didn't play differently, but there was the perception that they did. +And it was that bias that was determining their outcome. +So what we're doing here is identifying and acknowledging that a bias exists. +And look, we all do it. +Let me give you an example. +A son and his father are in a horrible car accident. +The father dies on impact and the son, who's severely injured, is rushed to hospital. +The surgeon looks at the son when they arrive and is like, "I can't operate." +Why? +"The boy is my son." +How can that be? +Ladies and gentlemen, the surgeon is his mother. +Now hands up -- and it's okay -- but hands up if you initially assumed the surgeon was a guy? +There's evidence that that unconscious bias exists, but we all just have to acknowledge that it's there and then look at ways that we can move past it so that we can look at solutions. +Now one of the interesting things around the space of unconscious bias is the topic of quotas. +And this something that's often brought up. +And of of the criticisms is this idea of merit. +Look, I don't want to be picked because I'm a chick, I want to be picked because I have merit, because I'm the best person for the job. +It's a sentiment that's pretty common among female engineers that I work with and that I know. +And yeah, I get it, I've been there. +But, if the merit idea was true, why would identical resumes, in an experiment done in 2012 by Yale, identical resumes sent out for a lab technician, why would Jennifers be deemed less competent, be less likely to be offered the job, and be paid less than Johns. +The unconscious bias is there, but we just have to look at how we can move past it. +And, you know, it's interesting, there's some research that talks about why this is the case and it's called the merit paradox. +And in organizations -- and this is kind of ironic -- in organizations that talk about merit being their primary value-driver in terms of who they hire, they were more likely to hire dudes and more likely to pay the guys more because apparently merit is a masculine quality. +But, hey. +So you guys think you've got a good read on me, you kinda think you know what's up. +Can you imagine me running one of these? +Can you imagine me walking in and being like, "Hey boys, this is what's up. This is how it's done." +Well, I'm glad you can. +Because ladies and gentlemen, that's my day job. +And the cool thing about it is that it's pretty entertaining. +Actually, in places like Malaysia, Muslim women on rigs isn't even comment-worthy. +There are that many of them. +But, it is entertaining. +I remember, I was telling one of the guys, "Hey, mate, look, I really want to learn how to surf." +And he's like, "Yassmin, I don't know how you can surf with all that gear you've got on, and I don't know any women-only beaches." +And then, the guy came up with a brilliant idea, he was like, "I know, you run that organization Youth Without Borders, right? +Why don't you start a clothing line for Muslim chicks in beaches. +You can call it Youth Without Boardshorts." +And I was like, "Thanks, guys." +And I remember another bloke telling me that I should eat all the yogurt I could because that was the only culture I was going to get around there. +But, the problem is, it's kind of true because there's an intense lack of diversity in our workforce, particularly in places of influence. +Now, in 2010, The Australian National University did an experiment where they sent out 4,000 identical applications to entry level jobs, essentially. +To get the same number of interviews as someone with an Anglo-Saxon name, if you were Chinese, you had to send out 68 percent more applications. +If you were Middle Eastern -- Abdel-Magied -- you had to send out 64 percent, and if you're Italian, you're pretty lucky, you only have to send out 12 percent more. +In places like Silicon Valley, it's not that much better. +In Google, they put out some diversity results and 61 percent white, 30 percent Asian and nine, a bunch of blacks, Hispanics, all that kind of thing. +And the rest of the tech world is not that much better and they've acknowledged it, but I'm not really sure what they're doing about it. +The thing is, it doesn't trickle up. +In a study done by Green Park, who are a British senior exec supplier, they said that over half of the FTSE 100 companies don't have a nonwhite leader at their board level, executive or non-executive. +And two out of every three don't have an executive who's from a minority. +And most of the minorities that are at that sort of level are non-executive board directors. +So their influence isn't that great. +I've told you a bunch of terrible things. +You're like, "Oh my god, how bad is that? What can I do about it?" +Well, fortunately, we've identified that there's a problem. +There's a lack of opportunity, and that's due to unconscious bias. +But you might be sitting there thinking, "I ain't brown. What's that got to do with me?" +Let me offer you a solution. +And as I've said before, we live in a world where we're looking for an ideal. +And if we want to create a world where the circumstances of your birth don't matter, we all have to be part of the solution. +And interestingly, the author of the lab resume experiment offered some sort of a solution. +She said the one thing that brought the successful women together, the one thing that they had in common, was the fact that they had good mentors. +So mentoring, we've all kind of heard that before, it's in the vernacular. +Here's another challenge for you. +I challenge each and every one of you to mentor someone different. +Think about it. +Everyone wants to mentor someone who kind of is familiar, who looks like us, we have shared experiences. +If I see a Muslim chick who's got a bit of attitude, I'm like, "What's up? We can hang out." +You walk into a room and there's someone who went to the same school, you play the same sports, there's a high chance that you're going to want to help that person out. +But for the person in the room who has no shared experiences with you it becomes extremely difficult to find that connection. +The idea of finding someone different to mentor, someone who doesn't come from the same background as you, whatever that background is, is about opening doors for people who couldn't even get to the damn hallway. +Because ladies and gentlemen, the world is not just. +People are not born with equal opportunity. +I was born in one of the poorest cities in the world, Khartoum. +I was born brown, I was born female, and I was born Muslim in a world that is pretty suspicious of us for reasons I can't control. +However, I also acknowledge the fact that I was born with privilege. +I was born with amazing parents, I was given an education and had the blessing of migrating to Australia. +But also, I've been blessed with amazing mentors who've opened doors for me that I didn't even know were there. +A mentor who said to me, "Hey, your story's interesting. +Let's write something about it so that I can share it with people." +A mentor who said, "I know you're all those things that don't belong on an Australian rig, And here I am, talking to you. And I'm not the only one. +There's all sorts of people in my communities that I see have been helped out by mentors. +A young Muslim man in Sydney who ended up using his mentor's help to start up a poetry slam in Bankstown and now it's a huge thing. +And he's able to change the lives of so many other young people. +Or a lady here in Brisbane, an Afghan lady who's a refugee, who could barely speak English when she came to Australia, her mentors helped her become a doctor and she took our Young Queenslander of the Year Award in 2008. +She's an inspiration. +This is so not smooth. +This is me. +But I'm also the woman in the rig clothes, and I'm also the woman who was in the abaya at the beginning. +Would you have chosen to mentor me if you had seen me in one of those other versions of who I am? +Because I'm that same person. +We have to look past our unconscious bias, find someone to mentor who's at the opposite end of your spectrum because structural change takes time, and I don't have that level of patience. +So if we're going to create a change, if we're going to create a world where we all have those kinds of opportunities, then choose to open doors for people. +Because you might think that diversity has nothing to do with you, but we are all part of this system and we can all be part of that solution. +And if you don't know where to find someone different, go to the places you wouldn't usually go. +If you enroll in private high school tutoring, go to your local state school or maybe just drop into your local refugee tutoring center. +Or perhaps you work at an office. +Ladies and gentlemen, there is a problem in our community with lack of opportunity, especially due to unconscious bias. +But each and every one one of you has the potential to change that. +I know you've been given a lot of challenges today, but if you can take this one piece and think about it a little differently, because diversity is magic. +And I encourage you to look past your initial perceptions because I bet you, they're probably wrong. +Thank you. +The FBI is responsible for more terrorism plots in the United States than any other organization. +More than al Qaeda, more than al Shabaab, more than the Islamic State, more than all of them combined. +This isn't likely how you think about the FBI. +You probably think of FBI agents gunning down bad guys like John Dillinger, or arresting corrupt politicians. +After the 9/11 terrorist attacks, the FBI became less concerned with gangsters and crooked elected officials. +The new target became terrorists, and the pursuit of terrorists has consumed the FBI. +Every year, the Bureau spends 3.3 billion dollars on domestic counterterrorism activities. +Compare than to just 2.6 billion dollars combined for organized crime, financial fraud, public corruption and all other types of traditional criminal activity. +I've spent years pouring through the case files of terrorism prosecutions in the United States, and I've come to the conclusion that the FBI is much better at creating terrorists than it is at catching terrorists. +In the 14 years since 9/11, you can count about six real terrorist attacks in the United States. +These include the Boston Marathon bombings in 2013, as well as failed attacks, such as the time when a man named Faisal Shahzad tried to deliver a car bomb to Times Square. +In those same 14 years, the Bureau, however, has bragged about how it's foiled dozens of terrorism plots. +In all, the FBI has arrested more than 175 people in aggressive, undercover conterterrorism stings. +These operations, which are usually led by an informant, provide the means and opportunity, and sometimes even the idea, for mentally ill and economically desperate people to become what we now term terrorists. +After 9/11, the FBI was given an edict: never again. +Never another attack on American soil. +FBI agents were told to find terrorists before they struck. +To do this, agents recruited a network of more than 15,000 informants nationwide, all looking for anyone who might be dangerous. +An informant can earn 100,000 dollars or more for every terrorism case they bring to the FBI. +That's right, the FBI is paying mostly criminals and con men six figures to spy on communities in the United States, but mostly Muslim American communities. +These informants nab people like Abu Khalid Abdul-Latif and Walli Mujahidh. +Both are mentally ill. +Abdul-Latif had a history of huffing gasoline and attempting suicide. +Mujahidh had schizoaffective disorder, he had trouble distinguishing between reality and fantasy. +In 2012, the FBI arrested these two men for conspiring to attack a military recruiting station outside Seattle with weapons provided, of course, by the FBI. +The FBI's informant was Robert Childs, a convicted rapist and child molester who was paid 90,000 dollars for his work on the case. +This isn't an outlier. +In 2009, an FBI informant who had fled Pakistan on murder charges led four men in a plot to bomb synagogues in the Bronx. +The lead defendant was James Cromitie, a broke Walmart employee with a history of mental problems. +And the informant had offered him 250,000 dollars if he participated in that plot. +There are many more examples. +Today, The Intercept published my new story about a counterterrorism sting in Tampa involving Sami Osmakac, a young man who was living near Tampa, Florida. +Osmakac also had schizoaffective disorder. +He too was broke, and he had no connections to international terrorist groups. +Nonetheless, an FBI informant gave him a job, handed him money, introduced him to an undercover agent posing as a terrorist, and lured him in a plot to bomb an Irish bar. +But here's what's interesting: The lead undercover agent -- you can see him in this picture with his face blurred -- would go back to the Tampa field office with his recording equipment on. +Behind closed doors, FBI agents admitted that what they were doing was farcical. +A federal judge doesn't want you to hear about these conversations. +He sealed the transcripts and placed them under a protective order in an attempt to prevent someone like me from doing something like this. +Behind closed doors, the lead agent, the squad supervisor, described their would-be terrorist as a "retarded fool who didn't have a pot to piss in." +They described his terrorist ambitions as wishy-washy and a pipe dream scenario. +But that didn't stop the FBI. +They provided Sami Osmakac everything he needed. +They gave him a car bomb, they gave him an AK-47, they helped him make a so-called martyrdom video, and they even gave him money for a taxi cab so that he could get to where they wanted him to go. +As they were working the sting, the squad supervisor tells his agents he wanted a Hollywood ending. +And he got a Hollywood ending. +When Sami Osmakac attempted to deliver what he thought was a car bomb, he was arrested, convicted and sentenced to 40 years in prison. +Sami Osmakac isn't alone. +He's one of more than 175 so-called terrorists, for whom the FBI has created Hollywood endings. +U.S. government officials call this the War on Terror. +It's really just theater, a national security theater, with mentally ill men like Sami Osmakac unwitting actors in a carefully choreographed production brought to you by the FBI. +Thank you. +Tom Rielly: So, those are some pretty strong accusations, pretty strong charges. +How can you back this up? +Trevor Aaronson: My research began in 2010 when I received a grant from the Investigative Reporting Program at U.C. Berkeley, and a research assistant and I put together a database of all terrorism prosecutions at the time during the first decade after 9/11. +And we used the court file to find out whether the defendants had any connections to international terrorist groups, whether an informant was used, and whether the informant played the role of an agent provocateur by providing the means and opportunity. +And we submitted that to the FBI and we asked them to respond to our database. +If they believed there were any errors, we asked them to tell us what they were and we'd go back and check and they never challenged any of our findings. +Later, I used that data in a magazine article and later in my book, and on appearances on places like CBS and NPR, they were offered that opportunity again to say, "Trevor Aaronson's findings are wrong." +And they've never come forward and said, "These are the problems with those findings." +So the data has since been used by groups like Human Rights Watch on its recent report on these types of sting operations. +And so far, the FBI has never really responded to these charges that it's really not catching terrorists so much as it's catching mentally ill people that it can dress up as terrorists in these types of sting operations. +TR: So The Intercept is that new investigative journalism website, that's cofounded by Glenn Greenwald. +Tell us about your article and why there. +So a place like The Intercept was set up to protect journalists and publish their work when they're dealing with very sensitive matters like this. +So my story in The Intercept, which was just published today, tells the story of how Sami Osmakac was set up in this FBI sting and goes into much greater detail. +In this talk, I could only highlight the things that they said, such as calling him a "retarded fool." +But it was much more elaborate, they went to great lengths to put money in Sami Osmakac's hands, which he then used to purchase weapons from the undercover agent. +When he went to trial, the central piece of evidence was that he paid for these weapons, when in truth, these transcripts show how the FBI orchestrated someone who was essentially mentally ill and broke to get money to then pay for weapons that they could then charge him in a conspiracy for. +TR: One final question. +Less than 10 days ago, the FBI arrested some potential ISIS suspects in Brooklyn, saying that they might be headed to Syria, and were those real, or examples of more of the same? +TA: Well so far, we only know what's come out in the court file, but they seem to suggest it's another example of the same. +These types of sting operations have moved from flavor to flavor. +So initially it was al Qaeda plots, and now the Islamic State is the current flavor. +What's worth noting about that case is that the three men that were charged only began the plot to go to Syria after the introduction of the FBI informant, and in fact, the FBI informant had helped them with the travel documents that they needed. +In kind of a comical turn in that particular case, one of the defendant's mother had found out that he was interested in going to Syria and had hid his passport. +So it's unclear that even if he had showed up at the airport, that he ever could have gone anywhere. +So yes, there are people who might be interested in joining the Islamic State in the United States, and those are people that the United States government should be looking at to see if they're interested in violence here. +In this particular case, given the evidence that's so far come out, it suggests the FBI made it possible for these guys to move along in a plan to go to Syria when they were never close to that in the first place. +TR: Thanks a lot, that's amazing. TA: Thank you. +Now, I've been making pictures for quite a long time, and normally speaking, a picture like this, for me, should be straightforward. +I'm in southern Ethiopia. I'm with the Daasanach. +There's a big family, there's a very beautiful tree, and I make these pictures with this very large, extremely cumbersome, very awkward technical plate film camera. +Does anybody know 4x5 and 10x8 sheets of film, and you're setting it up, putting it on the tripod. +I've got the family, spent the better part of a day talking with them. +They sort of understand what I'm on about. +They think I'm a bit crazy, but that's another story. +And what's most important for me is the beauty and the aesthetic, and that's based on the light. +So the light's setting on my left-hand side, and there's a balance in the communication with the Daasanach, the family of 30, all ages. +There's babies and there's grandparents, I'm getting them in the tree and waiting for the light to set, and it's going, going, and I've got one sheet of film left, and I think, I'm okay, I'm in control, I'm in control. +I'm setting it up and I'm setting up, and the light's just about to go, and I want it to be golden, I want it to be beautiful. +I want it to be hanging on the horizon so it lights these people, in all the potential glory that they could be presented. +Wait, I need the light. Stay still! Stay still!" +And they start screaming, and then one of the men turns around and starts screaming, shouting, and the whole tree collapses, not the tree, but the people in the tree. +They're all running around screaming, and they run back off into the village in this sort of cloud of smoke, and I'm left there standing behind my tripod. +I've got my sheet, and the light's gone, and I can't make the picture. +Where have they all gone? I had no idea. +It took me a week, it took me a week to make the picture which you see here today, and I'll tell you why. It's very, very, very simple -- I spent a week going around the village, and I went to every single one: "Hello, can you meet at the tree? +What's your story? Who are you?" +And it all turned out to be about a boyfriend, for crying out loud. +I mean, I have teenage kids. I should know. +It was about a boyfriend. The girl on the top, she'd kissed the wrong boy, and they'd started having a fight. +And there was a very, very beautiful lesson for me in that: If I was going to photograph these people in the dignified, respectful way that I had intended, and put them on a pedestal, I had to understand them. +It wasn't just about turning up. It wasn't just about shaking a hand. +It wasn't about just saying, "I'm Jimmy, I'm a photographer." +I had to get to know every single one of them, right down to whose boyfriend is who and who is allowed to kiss who. +So in the end, a week later, and I was absolutely exhausted, I mean on my knees going, "Please get back up in that tree. It's a picture I need to make." +They all came back. I put them all back up in the tree. +I made sure the girls were in the right position, and the ones that slapped, one was over there. They did look at each other. If you look at it later, they're staring at each other very angrily, and I've got the tree and everything, and then at the last minute, I go, "The goat, the goat! +I need something for the eye to look at. I need a white goat in the middle." +So I swapped all the goats around. I put the goats in. +But even then I got it wrong, because if you can see on the left-hand side, another little boy storms off because I didn't choose his goat. +So the moral being I have to learn to speak Goat as well as Daasanach. +But anyway, the effort that goes into that picture and the story that I've just related to you, as you can imagine, there are hundreds of other bizarre, eccentric stories of hundreds of other people around the world. +And this was about four years ago, and I set off on a journey, to be honest, a very indulgent journey. +I'm a real romantic. I'm an idealist, perhaps in some ways naive. +But I truly believe that there are people on the planet that are beautiful. +It's very, very simple. It's not rocket science. +I wanted to put these people on a pedestal. +I wanted to put them on a pedestal like they'd never been seen before. +So, I chose about 35 different groups, tribes, indigenous cultures. +They were chosen purely because of their aesthetic, and I'll talk more about that later. +I'm not an anthropologist, I have no technical study with the subject, but I do have a very, very, very deep passion, and I believe that I had to choose the most beautiful people on the planet in the most beautiful environment that they lived in, and put the two together and present them to you. +About a year ago, I published the first pictures, and something extraordinarily exciting happened. +The whole world came running, and it was a bizarre experience, because everybody, from everywhere: "Who are they? What are they? How many are they? +Where did you find them? Are they real? You faked it. +Tell me. Tell me. Tell me. Tell me." Millions of questions for which, to be honest, I don't have the answers. +I really didn't have the answers, and I could sort of understand, okay, they're beautiful, that was my intention, but the questions that I was being fired at, I could not answer them. +Until, it was quite amusing, about a year ago somebody said, "You've been invited to do a TED Talk." +And I said, "Ted? Ted? Who's Ted? I haven't met Ted before." +He said, "No, a TED Talk." I said, "But who's Ted? +Do I have to talk to him or do we sit with each other on the stage?" +And, "No, no, the TED group. You must know about it." +And I said, "I've been in a teepee and in a yurt for the last five years. +How do I know who Ted is? Introduce me to him." +Anyway, to cut a long story short, he said, "We have to do a TED Talk." +Researched. Oh, exciting. That's great! +And then eventually you're going to go to TEDGlobal. +Even more exciting. +But what you need to do, you need to teach the people lessons, lessons that you've learned on your travels around the world with these tribes. +I thought, lessons, okay, well, what did I learn? Good question. +Three. You need three lessons, and they need to be terribly profound. +And I thought, three lessons, well, I'm going to think about it. +So I thought long and hard, and I stood here two days ago, and I had my test run, and I had my cards and my clicker in my hands and my pictures were on the screen, and I had my three lessons, and I started presenting them, and I had this very odd out-of-body experience. +I sort of looked at myself standing there, going, "Oh, Jimmy, this is complete loads of codswallop. +All these people sitting here, they've had more of these talks, they've heard more lessons in their life. +Who are you to tell them what you've learned? +Who are you to guide them and who are you to show them what is right, what is wrong, what these people have to say?" +And I had a little bit of a, it was very private, a little bit of a meltdown. +I went back, and a little bit like the boy walking away from the tree with his goats, very disgruntled, going, that didn't work, It wasn't what I wanted to communicate. +And I thought long and hard about it, and I thought, well, the only thing I can communicate is very, very basic. +You have to turn it all the way around. +There's only one person I know here, and that's me. +I'm still getting to know myself, and it's a lifelong journey, and I probably won't have all the answers, but I did learn some extraordinary things on this journey. +So what I'm going to do is share with you my lessons. +It's a very, as I explained at the beginning, very indulgent, very personal, how and why I made these pictures, and I leave it to you as the audience to interpret what these lessons have meant to me, what they could perhaps mean to you. +I traveled enormously as a child. +I was very nomadic. It was actually very exciting. +All around the world, and I had this feeling that I was pushed off at great speed to become somebody, become that individual, Jimmy. +Go off into the planet, and so I ran, and I ran, and my wife sometimes kids me, "Jimmy, you look a bit like Forrest Gump," but I'm, "No, it's all about something, trust me." +So I kept running and I kept running, and I sort of got somewhere and I sort of stood there and looked around me and I thought, well, where do I belong? Where do I fit? +What am I? Where am I from? I had no idea. +So I hope there aren't too many psychologists in this audience. +Perhaps part of this journey is about me trying to find out where I belonged. +So whilst going, and don't worry, I didn't when I arrived with these tribes, I didn't paint myself yellow and run around with these spears and loincloths. +But what I did find were people that belonged themselves, and they inspired me, some extraordinary people, and I'd like to introduce you to some heroes of mine. +They're the Huli. +Now, the Huli are some of the most extraordinarily beautiful people on the planet. +They're proud. They live in the Papua New Guinean highlands. +There's not many of them left, and they're called the Huli wigmen. +And images like this, I mean, this is what it's all about for me. +And you've spent weeks and months there talking with them, getting there, and I want to put them on a pedestal, and I said, "You have something that many people have not seen. +You sit in this stunning nature." +And it really does look like this, and they really do look like this. +This is the real thing. +And you know why they're proud? You know why they look like this, and why I broke my back literally to photograph them and present them to you? +It's because they have these extraordinary rituals. +And the Huli have this ritual: When they're teenagers, becoming a man, they have to shave their heads, and they spend the rest of their life shaving their heads every single day, and what they do with that hair, they make it into a creation, a creation that's a very personal creation. +It's their creation. It's their Huli creation. So they're called the Huli wigmen. +That's a wig on his head. +It's all made out of his human hair. +And then they decorate that wig with the feathers of the birds of paradise, and don't worry, there are many birds there. +So the Huli inspired me in that they belong. +Perhaps I have to work harder at finding a ritual which matters for me and going back into my past to see where I actually fit. +An extremely important part of this project was about how I photograph these extraordinary people. +And it's basically beauty. I think beauty matters. +We spend the whole of our existence revolving around beauty: beautiful places, beautiful things, and ultimately, beautiful people. +It's very, very, very significant. +I've spent all of my life analyzing what do I look like? +Am I perceived as beautiful? +Does it matter if I'm a beautiful person or not, or is it purely based on my aesthetic? +And then when I went off, I came to a very narrow conclusion. +Do I have to go around the world photographing, excuse me, women between the age of 25 and 30? Is that what beauty is going to be? +Is everything before and after that utterly irrelevant? +And it was only until I went on a journey, a journey that was so extreme, I still get shivers when I think about it. +I went to a part of the world, and I don't know whether any of you have ever heard of Chukotka. Has anybody ever heard of Chukotka? +Chukotka probably is, technically, as far as one can go and still be on the living planet. +It's 13 hours' flight from Moscow. +First you've got to get to Moscow, and then 13 hours' flight nonstop from Moscow. +And that's if you get there. +As you can see, some people sort of miss the runway. +And then when you land there, in Chukotka are the Chukchis. +Now, the Chukchis are the last indigenous Inuits of Siberia, and they're people I'd heard about, I'd hardly seen any images of, but I knew they were there, and I'd been in touch with this guide, and this guide said, "There's this fantastic tribe. There's only about 40 of them. +You'll be okay. We'll find them." So off we went on this journey. +When we arrived there, after a month of traveling across the ice, and we'd got to them, but then I was not allowed to photograph them. +They said, "You cannot photograph us. You have to wait. +You have to wait until you get to know us. You have to wait until you understand us. +You have to wait until you see how we interact with one another." +And only then, it was many, many weeks later, I saw a respect. +They had zero judgment. +They observed one another, from the youth, from the middle aged to the old. +They need each other. +The children need to chew the meat all day because the adults don't have any teeth, but at the same time, the children take the old aged people out to the toilet because they're infirm, so there's this fantastic community of respect. +And they adore and admire one another, and they truly taught me what beauty was. +Now I'm going to ask for a little bit of audience interaction. +This is extremely important for the end of my talk. +If you could look at somebody left to the right of you, and I want you to observe them, and I want you to give them a compliment. This is very important. +Now, it may be their nose or their hair or even their aura, I don't mind, but please look at each other, give them a compliment. +You have to be quick, because I'm running out of time. +And you have to remember it. +Okay, thank you, thank you, thank you, you've given each other compliments. +Hold that compliment very, very tightly. Hold it for later. +And the last thing, it was extraordinarily profound, and it happened only two weeks ago. Two weeks ago I went back to the Himba. +Now, the Himba live in northern Namibia on the border of Angola, and I'd been there a few times before, and I'd gone back to present this book I'd made, to show them the pictures, to get into a discussion with them, to say, "This is how I saw you. This is how I love you. +This is how I respect you. What do you think? Am I right? Am I wrong?" +Wasn't there a fence here last time I came? +You know, this big protective fence around the village, and they sort of looked at me and go, "Yeah, chief die." +And I thought, okay, chief dying, right, you know, look up at the stars again, look at the campfire. +Chief die. What on Earth does chief die have to do with the fence? +"Chief die. +First we destroy, yeah? Then we reflect. +Then we rebuild. Then we respect." +And I burst out in tears, because my father had only just died prior to this journey, and I didn't ever acknowledge him, I didn't ever appreciate him for the fact that I'm probably standing here today because of him. +These people taught me that we are only who we are because of our parents and our grandparents and our forefathers going on and on and on before that, and I, no matter how romantic or how idealistic I am on this journey, I did not know that until two weeks ago. +I did not know that until two weeks ago. +So what's this all about? +Well, there's an image I'd like to show you, quite a special image, and it wasn't essentially the image I wanted to choose. +I was sitting there the other day, and I have to finish on a strong image. +And somebody said, "You have to show them the picture of the Nenets. The Nenets." +I was like, yeah, but that's not my favorite picture. She went, "No no no no no no no. It's an amazing picture. +You're in his eyes." +I said, "What do you mean I'm in his eyes? It's a picture of the Nenets." +She said, "No, look, look closely, you're in his eyes." +And when you look closely at this picture, there is a reflection of me in his eyes, so I think perhaps he has my soul, and I'm in his soul, and whilst these pictures look at you, I ask you to look at them. +You may not be reflected in his eyes, but there is something extraordinarily important about these people. +I don't ultimately have the answers, as I've just shared with you, but you must do. There must be something there. +So if you can briefly reflect on what I was discussing about beauty and about belonging and about our ancestors and our roots, and I need you all to stand for me, please. +Now you have no excuse. It's almost lunchtime, and this is not a standing ovation, so don't worry, I'm not fishing for compliments. +But you were given a compliment a few minutes ago. +Now I want you to stand tall. +I want you to breathe in. This is what I say. +I'm not going to get on my knees for two weeks. +I'm not going to ask you to carry a goat, and I know you don't have any camels. +Photography's extraordinarily powerful. +It's this language which we now all understand. +We truly do all understand it, and we have this global digital fireplace, don't we, but I want to share you with the world, because you are also a tribe. +You are the TED tribe, yeah? But you have to remember that compliment. +You have to stand tall, breathe in through your nose, and I'm going to photograph you. Okay? +I need to do a panoramic shot, so it's going to take a minute, so you have to concentrate, okay? +Breathe in, stand tall, no laughing. Shh, breathe through your nose. +I'm going to photograph. +Thank you. +Mark Twain summed up what I take to be one of the fundamental problems of cognitive science with a single witticism. +He said, "There's something fascinating about science. +One gets such wholesale returns of conjecture out of such a trifling investment in fact." +Twain meant it as a joke, of course, but he's right: There's something fascinating about science. +From a few bones, we infer the existence of dinosuars. +From spectral lines, the composition of nebulae. +From fruit flies, the mechanisms of heredity, and from reconstructed images of blood flowing through the brain, or in my case, from the behavior of very young children, we try to say something about the fundamental mechanisms of human cognition. +In particular, in my lab in the Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences at MIT, I have spent the past decade trying to understand the mystery of how children learn so much from so little so quickly. +Because, it turns out that the fascinating thing about science is also a fascinating thing about children, which, to put a gentler spin on Mark Twain, is precisely their ability to draw rich, abstract inferences rapidly and accurately from sparse, noisy data. +I'm going to give you just two examples today. +One is about a problem of generalization, and the other is about a problem of causal reasoning. +And although I'm going to talk about work in my lab, this work is inspired by and indebted to a field. +I'm grateful to mentors, colleagues, and collaborators around the world. +Let me start with the problem of generalization. +Generalizing from small samples of data is the bread and butter of science. +We poll a tiny fraction of the electorate and we predict the outcome of national elections. +We see how a handful of patients responds to treatment in a clinical trial, and we bring drugs to a national market. +But this only works if our sample is randomly drawn from the population. +If our sample is cherry-picked in some way -- say, we poll only urban voters, or say, in our clinical trials for treatments for heart disease, we include only men -- the results may not generalize to the broader population. +So scientists care whether evidence is randomly sampled or not, but what does that have to do with babies? +Well, babies have to generalize from small samples of data all the time. +They see a few rubber ducks and learn that they float, or a few balls and learn that they bounce. +And they develop expectations about ducks and balls that they're going to extend to rubber ducks and balls for the rest of their lives. +And the kinds of generalizations babies have to make about ducks and balls they have to make about almost everything: shoes and ships and sealing wax and cabbages and kings. +So do babies care whether the tiny bit of evidence they see is plausibly representative of a larger population? +Let's find out. +I'm going to show you two movies, one from each of two conditions of an experiment, and because you're going to see just two movies, you're going to see just two babies, and any two babies differ from each other in innumerable ways. +But these babies, of course, here stand in for groups of babies, and the differences you're going to see represent average group differences in babies' behavior across conditions. +In each movie, you're going to see a baby doing maybe just exactly what you might expect a baby to do, and we can hardly make babies more magical than they already are. +But to my mind the magical thing, and what I want you to pay attention to, is the contrast between these two conditions, because the only thing that differs between these two movies is the statistical evidence the babies are going to observe. +We're going to show babies a box of blue and yellow balls, and my then-graduate student, now colleague at Stanford, Hyowon Gweon, is going to pull three blue balls in a row out of this box, and when she pulls those balls out, she's going to squeeze them, and the balls are going to squeak. +And if you're a baby, that's like a TED Talk. +It doesn't get better than that. +But the important point is it's really easy to pull three blue balls in a row out of a box of mostly blue balls. +You could do that with your eyes closed. +It's plausibly a random sample from this population. +And if you can reach into a box at random and pull out things that squeak, then maybe everything in the box squeaks. +So maybe babies should expect those yellow balls to squeak as well. +Now, those yellow balls have funny sticks on the end, so babies could do other things with them if they wanted to. +They could pound them or whack them. +But let's see what the baby does. +Hyowon Gweon: See this? (Ball squeaks) Did you see that? (Ball squeaks) Cool. +See this one? +(Ball squeaks) Wow. +Laura Schulz: Told you. HG: See this one? (Ball squeaks) Hey Clara, this one's for you. You can go ahead and play. +LS: I don't even have to talk, right? +All right, it's nice that babies will generalize properties of blue balls to yellow balls, and it's impressive that babies can learn from imitating us, but we've known those things about babies for a very long time. +The really interesting question is what happens when we show babies exactly the same thing, and we can ensure it's exactly the same because we have a secret compartment and we actually pull the balls from there, but this time, all we change is the apparent population from which that evidence was drawn. +This time, we're going to show babies three blue balls pulled out of a box of mostly yellow balls, and guess what? +You [probably won't] randomly draw three blue balls in a row out of a box of mostly yellow balls. +That is not plausibly randomly sampled evidence. +That evidence suggests that maybe Hyowon was deliberately sampling the blue balls. +Maybe there's something special about the blue balls. +Maybe only the blue balls squeak. +Let's see what the baby does. +HG: See this? (Ball squeaks) See this toy? (Ball squeaks) Oh, that was cool. See? (Ball squeaks) Now this one's for you to play. You can go ahead and play. +LS: So you just saw two 15-month-old babies do entirely different things based only on the probability of the sample they observed. +Let me show you the experimental results. +On the vertical axis, you'll see the percentage of babies who squeezed the ball in each condition, and as you'll see, babies are much more likely to generalize the evidence when it's plausibly representative of the population than when the evidence is clearly cherry-picked. +And this leads to a fun prediction: Suppose you pulled just one blue ball out of the mostly yellow box. +You [probably won't] pull three blue balls in a row at random out of a yellow box, but you could randomly sample just one blue ball. +That's not an improbable sample. +And if you could reach into a box at random and pull out something that squeaks, maybe everything in the box squeaks. +So even though babies are going to see much less evidence for squeaking, and have many fewer actions to imitate in this one ball condition than in the condition you just saw, we predicted that babies themselves would squeeze more, and that's exactly what we found. +So 15-month-old babies, in this respect, like scientists, care whether evidence is randomly sampled or not, and they use this to develop expectations about the world: what squeaks and what doesn't, what to explore and what to ignore. +Let me show you another example now, this time about a problem of causal reasoning. +And it starts with a problem of confounded evidence that all of us have, which is that we are part of the world. +And this might not seem like a problem to you, but like most problems, it's only a problem when things go wrong. +Take this baby, for instance. +Things are going wrong for him. +He would like to make this toy go, and he can't. +I'll show you a few-second clip. +And there's two possibilities, broadly: Maybe he's doing something wrong, or maybe there's something wrong with the toy. +So in this next experiment, we're going to give babies just a tiny bit of statistical data supporting one hypothesis over the other, and we're going to see if babies can use that to make different decisions about what to do. +Here's the setup. +Hyowon is going to try to make the toy go and succeed. +I am then going to try twice and fail both times, and then Hyowon is going to try again and succeed, and this roughly sums up my relationship to my graduate students in technology across the board. +But the important point here is it provides a little bit of evidence that the problem isn't with the toy, it's with the person. +Some people can make this toy go, and some can't. +Now, when the baby gets the toy, he's going to have a choice. +His mom is right there, so he can go ahead and hand off the toy and change the person, but there's also going to be another toy at the end of that cloth, and he can pull the cloth towards him and change the toy. +So let's see what the baby does. +HG: Two, three. Go! LS: One, two, three, go! +Arthur, I'm going to try again. One, two, three, go! +YG: Arthur, let me try again, okay? +One, two, three, go! Look at that. Remember these toys? +See these toys? Yeah, I'm going to put this one over here, and I'm going to give this one to you. +You can go ahead and play. +LS: Okay, Laura, but of course, babies love their mommies. +Of course babies give toys to their mommies when they can't make them work. +So again, the really important question is what happens when we change the statistical data ever so slightly. +This time, babies are going to see the toy work and fail in exactly the same order, but we're changing the distribution of evidence. +This time, Hyowon is going to succeed once and fail once, and so am I. +And this suggests it doesn't matter who tries this toy, the toy is broken. +It doesn't work all the time. +Again, the baby's going to have a choice. +Her mom is right next to her, so she can change the person, and there's going to be another toy at the end of the cloth. +Let's watch what she does. +HG: Two, three, go! Let me try one more time. One, two, three, go! +Hmm. +LS: Let me try, Clara. +One, two, three, go! +Hmm, let me try again. +One, two, three, go! HG: I'm going to put this one over here, and I'm going to give this one to you. +You can go ahead and play. +LS: Let me show you the experimental results. +On the vertical axis, you'll see the distribution of children's choices in each condition, and you'll see that the distribution of the choices children make depends on the evidence they observe. +So in the second year of life, babies can use a tiny bit of statistical data to decide between two fundamentally different strategies for acting in the world: asking for help and exploring. +I've just shown you two laboratory experiments out of literally hundreds in the field that make similar points, because the really critical point is that children's ability to make rich inferences from sparse data underlies all the species-specific cultural learning that we do. +Children learn about new tools from just a few examples. +They learn new causal relationships from just a few examples. +They even learn new words, in this case in American Sign Language. +I want to close with just two points. +If you've been following my world, the field of brain and cognitive sciences, for the past few years, three big ideas will have come to your attention. +The first is that this is the era of the brain. +And indeed, there have been staggering discoveries in neuroscience: localizing functionally specialized regions of cortex, turning mouse brains transparent, activating neurons with light. +A second big idea is that this is the era of big data and machine learning, and machine learning promises to revolutionize our understanding of everything from social networks to epidemiology. +And maybe, as it tackles problems of scene understanding and natural language processing, to tell us something about human cognition. +And the final big idea you'll have heard is that maybe it's a good idea we're going to know so much about brains and have so much access to big data, because left to our own devices, humans are fallible, we take shortcuts, we err, we make mistakes, we're biased, and in innumerable ways, we get the world wrong. +I think these are all important stories, and they have a lot to tell us about what it means to be human, but I want you to note that today I told you a very different story. +It's a story about minds and not brains, and in particular, it's a story about the kinds of computations that uniquely human minds can perform, which involve rich, structured knowledge and the ability to learn from small amounts of data, the evidence of just a few examples. +And fundamentally, it's a story about how starting as very small children and continuing out all the way to the greatest accomplishments of our culture, we get the world right. +Folks, human minds do not only learn from small amounts of data. +Human minds think of altogether new ideas. +Human minds generate research and discovery, and human minds generate art and literature and poetry and theater, and human minds take care of other humans: our old, our young, our sick. +We even heal them. +In the years to come, we're going to see technological innovations beyond anything I can even envision, but we are very unlikely to see anything even approximating the computational power of a human child in my lifetime or in yours. +If we invest in these most powerful learners and their development, in babies and children and mothers and fathers and caregivers and teachers the ways we invest in our other most powerful and elegant forms of technology, engineering and design, we will not just be dreaming of a better future, we will be planning for one. +Thank you very much. +Chris Anderson: Laura, thank you. I do actually have a question for you. +First of all, the research is insane. +I mean, who would design an experiment like that? I've seen that a couple of times, and I still don't honestly believe that that can truly be happening, but other people have done similar experiments; it checks out. +The babies really are that genius. +LS: You know, they look really impressive in our experiments, but think about what they look like in real life, right? +It starts out as a baby. +Eighteen months later, it's talking to you, and babies' first words aren't just things like balls and ducks, they're things like "all gone," which refer to disappearance, or "uh-oh," which refer to unintentional actions. +It has to be that powerful. +It has to be much more powerful than anything I showed you. +They're figuring out the entire world. +A four-year-old can talk to you about almost anything. +CA: And if I understand you right, the other key point you're making is, we've been through these years where there's all this talk of how quirky and buggy our minds are, that behavioral economics and the whole theories behind that that we're not rational agents. +You're really saying that the bigger story is how extraordinary, and there really is genius there that is underappreciated. +LS: One of my favorite quotes in psychology comes from the social psychologist Solomon Asch, and he said the fundamental task of psychology is to remove the veil of self-evidence from things. +There are orders of magnitude more decisions you make every day that get the world right. +You know about objects and their properties. +You know them when they're occluded. You know them in the dark. +You can walk through rooms. +You can figure out what other people are thinking. You can talk to them. +You can navigate space. You know about numbers. +You know causal relationships. You know about moral reasoning. +You do this effortlessly, so we don't see it, but that is how we get the world right, and it's a remarkable and very difficult-to-understand accomplishment. +CA: I suspect there are people in the audience who have this view of accelerating technological power who might dispute your statement that never in our lifetimes will a computer do what a three-year-old child can do, but what's clear is that in any scenario, our machines have so much to learn from our toddlers. +LS: I think so. You'll have some machine learning folks up here. +I mean, you should never bet against babies or chimpanzees or technology as a matter of practice, but it's not just a difference in quantity, it's a difference in kind. +We have incredibly powerful computers, and they do do amazingly sophisticated things, often with very big amounts of data. +Human minds do, I think, something quite different, and I think it's the structured, hierarchical nature of human knowledge that remains a real challenge. +CA: Laura Schulz, wonderful food for thought. Thank you so much. +LS: Thank you. +I'm really excited to share with you some findings that really surprise me about what makes companies succeed the most, what factors actually matter the most for startup success. +I believe that the startup organization is one of the greatest forms to make the world a better place. +If you take a group of people with the right equity incentives and organize them in a startup, you can unlock human potential in a way never before possible. +You get them to achieve unbelievable things. +But if the startup organization is so great, why do so many fail? +That's what I wanted to find out. +I wanted to find out what actually matters most for startup success. +And I wanted to try to be systematic about it, avoid some of my instincts and maybe misperceptions I have from so many companies I've seen over the years. +I wanted to know this because I've been starting businesses since I was 12 years old when I sold candy at the bus stop in junior high school, to high school, when I made solar energy devices, to college, when I made loudspeakers. And when I graduated from college, I started software companies. +And 20 years ago, I started Idealab, and in the last 20 years, we started more than 100 companies, many successes, and many big failures. +We learned a lot from those failures. +So I tried to look across what factors accounted the most for company success and failure. +So I looked at these five. +First, the idea. I used to think that the idea was everything. +I named my company Idealab for how much I worship the "aha!" moment when you first come up with the idea. +But then over time, I came to think that maybe the team, the execution, adaptability, that mattered even more than the idea. +I never thought I'd be quoting boxer Mike Tyson on the TED stage, but he once said, "Everybody has a plan, until they get punched in the face." And I think that's so true about business as well. +So much about a team's execution is its ability to adapt to getting punched in the face by the customer. +The customer is the true reality. +And that's why I came to think that the team maybe was the most important thing. +Then I started looking at the business model. +Does the company have a very clear path generating customer revenues? +That started rising to the top in my thinking about maybe what mattered most for success. +Then I looked at the funding. +Sometimes companies received intense amounts of funding. +Maybe that's the most important thing? +And then of course, the timing. Is the idea way too early and the world's not ready for it? +Is it early, as in, you're in advance and you have to educate the world? +Or is it too late, and there's already too many competitors? +So I tried to look very carefully at these five factors across many companies. +And I looked across all 100 Idealab companies, and 100 non-Idealab companies to try and come up with something scientific about it. +So first, on these Idealab companies, the top five companies -- Citysearch, CarsDirect, GoTo, NetZero, Tickets.com -- those all became billion-dollar successes. +And the five companies on the bottom -- Z.com, Insider Pages, MyLife, Desktop Factory, Peoplelink -- we all had high hopes for, but didn't succeed. +So I tried to rank across all of those attributes how I felt those companies scored on each of those dimensions. +And then for non-Idealab companies, I looked at wild successes, like Airbnb and Instagram and Uber and Youtube and LinkedIn. +And some failures: Webvan, Kozmo, Pets.com Flooz and Friendster. +The bottom companies had intense funding, they even had business models in some cases, but they didn't succeed. +I tried to look at what factors actually accounted the most for success and failure across all of these companies, and the results really surprised me. +The number one thing was timing. +Timing accounted for 42 percent of the difference between success and failure. +Team and execution came in second, and the idea, the differentiability of the idea, the uniqueness of the idea, that actually came in third. +Now, this isn't absolutely definitive, it's not to say that the idea isn't important, but it very much surprised me that the idea wasn't the most important thing. +Sometimes it mattered more when it was actually timed. +The last two, business model and funding, made sense to me actually. +I think business model makes sense to be that low because you can start out without a business model and add one later if your customers are demanding what you're creating. +And funding, I think as well, if you're underfunded at first but you're gaining traction, especially in today's age, it's very, very easy to get intense funding. +So now let me give you some specific examples about each of these. +So take a wild success like Airbnb that everybody knows about. +Well, that company was famously passed on by many smart investors because people thought, "No one's going to rent out a space in their home to a stranger." +Of course, people proved that wrong. +But one of the reasons it succeeded, aside from a good business model, a good idea, great execution, is the timing. +That company came out right during the height of the recession when people really needed extra money, and that maybe helped people overcome their objection to renting out their own home to a stranger. +Same thing with Uber. Uber came out, incredible company, incredible business model, great execution, too. +But the timing was so perfect for their need to get drivers into the system. +Drivers were looking for extra money; it was very, very important. +Some of our early successes, Citysearch, came out when people needed web pages. +GoTo.com, which we announced actually at TED in 1998, was when companies were looking for cost-effective ways to get traffic. +We thought the idea was so great, but actually, the timing was probably maybe more important. +And then some of our failures. +We started a company called Z.com, it was an online entertainment company. +We were so excited about it -- we raised enough money, we had a great business model, we even signed incredibly great Hollywood talent to join the company. +But broadband penetration was too low in 1999-2000. +It was too hard to watch video content online, you had to put codecs in your browser and do all this stuff, and the company eventually went out of business in 2003. +Just two years later, when the codec problem was solved by Adobe Flash and when broadband penetration crossed 50 percent in America, YouTube was perfectly timed. +Great idea, but unbelievable timing. +In fact, YouTube didn't even have a business model when it first started. +It wasn't even certain that that would work out. But that was beautifully, beautifully timed. +So what I would say, in summary, is execution definitely matters a lot. +The idea matters a lot. +But timing might matter even more. +And the best way to really assess timing is to really look at whether consumers are really ready for what you have to offer them. +And to be really, really honest about it, not be in denial about any results that you see, because if you have something you love, you want to push it forward, but you have to be very, very honest about that factor on timing. +As I said earlier, I think startups can change the world and make the world a better place. +I hope some of these insights can maybe help you have a slightly higher success ratio, and thus make something great come to the world that wouldn't have happened otherwise. +Thank you very much, you've been a great audience. +In the great 1980s movie "The Blues Brothers," there's a scene where John Belushi goes to visit Dan Aykroyd in his apartment in Chicago for the very first time. +It's a cramped, tiny space and it's just three feet away from the train tracks. +As John sits on Dan's bed, a train goes rushing by, rattling everything in the room. +John asks, "How often does that train go by?" +Dan replies, "So often, you won't even notice it." +And then, something falls off the wall. +We all know what he's talking about. +As human beings, we get used to everyday things really fast. +As a product designer, it's my job to see those everyday things, to feel them, and try to improve upon them. +For example, see this piece of fruit? +See this little sticker? +That sticker wasn't there when I was a kid. +But somewhere as the years passed, someone had the bright idea to put that sticker on the fruit. +Why? So it could be easier for us to check out at the grocery counter. +Well that's great, we can get in and out of the store quickly. +But now, there's a new problem. +When we get home and we're hungry and we see this ripe, juicy piece of fruit on the counter, we just want to pick it up and eat it. +Except now, we have to look for this little sticker. +And dig at it with our nails, damaging the flesh. +Then rolling up that sticker -- you know what I mean. +And then trying to flick it off your fingers. +It's not fun, not at all. +But something interesting happened. +See the first time you did it, you probably felt those feelings. +You just wanted to eat the piece of fruit. +You just wanted to dive in. +By the 10th time, you started to become less upset and you just started peeling the label off. +By the 100th time, at least for me, I became numb to it. +I simply picked up the piece of fruit, dug at it with my nails, tried to flick it off, and then wondered, "Was there another sticker?" +So why is that? +Why do we get used to everyday things? +Well as human beings, we have limited brain power. +And so our brains encode the everyday things we do into habits so we can free up space to learn new things. +It's a process called habituation and it's one of the most basic ways, as humans, we learn. +Now, habituation isn't always bad. +Remember learning to drive? +I sure do. +Your hands clenched at 10 and 2 on the wheel, looking at every single object out there -- the cars, the lights, the pedestrians. +It's a nerve-wracking experience. +So much so, that I couldn't even talk to anyone else in the car and I couldn't even listen to music. +But then something interesting happened. +As the weeks went by, driving became easier and easier. +You habituated it. +It started to become fun and second nature. +And then, you could talk to your friends again and listen to music. +So there's a good reason why our brains habituate things. +If we didn't, we'd notice every little detail, all the time. +It would be exhausting, and we'd have no time to learn about new things. +But sometimes, habituation isn't good. +If it stops us from noticing the problems that are around us, well, that's bad. +And if it stops us from noticing and fixing those problems, well, then that's really bad. +Comedians know all about this. +Jerry Seinfeld's entire career was built on noticing those little details, those idiotic things we do every day that we don't even remember. +He tells us about the time he visited his friends and he just wanted to take a comfortable shower. +He'd reach out and grab the handle and turn it slightly one way, and it was 100 degrees too hot. +And then he'd turn it the other way, and it was 100 degrees too cold. +He just wanted a comfortable shower. +Now, we've all been there, we just don't remember it. +But Jerry did, and that's a comedian's job. +But designers, innovators and entrepreneurs, it's our job to not just notice those things, but to go one step further and try to fix them. +See this, this person, this is Mary Anderson. +In 1902 in New York City, she was visiting. +It was a cold, wet, snowy day and she was warm inside a streetcar. +As she was going to her destination, she noticed the driver opening the window to clean off the excess snow so he could drive safely. +When he opened the window, though, he let all this cold, wet air inside, making all the passengers miserable. +Now probably, most of those passengers just thought, "It's a fact of life, he's got to open the window to clean it. +That's just how it is." +But Mary didn't. +Mary thought, "What if the diver could actually clean the windshield from the inside so that he could stay safe and drive and the passengers could actually stay warm?" +So she picked up her sketchbook right then and there, and began drawing what would become the world's first windshield wiper. +Now as a product designer, I try to learn from people like Mary to try to see the world the way it really is, not the way we think it is. +Why? Because it's easy to solve a problem that almost everyone sees. +But it's hard to solve a problem that almost no one sees. +Now some people think you're born with this ability or you're not, as if Mary Anderson was hardwired at birth to see the world more clearly. +That wasn't the case for me. +I had to work at it. +During my years at Apple, Steve Jobs challenged us to come into work every day, to see our products through the eyes of the customer, the new customer, the one that has fears and possible frustrations and hopeful exhilaration that their new technology product could work straightaway for them. +He called it staying beginners, and wanted to make sure that we focused on those tiny little details to make them faster, easier and seamless for the new customers. +So I remember this clearly in the very earliest days of the iPod. +See, back in the '90s, being a gadget freak like I am, I would rush out to the store for the very, very latest gadget. +I'd take all the time to get to the store, I'd check out, I'd come back home, I'd start to unbox it. +And then, there was another little sticker: the one that said, "Charge before use." +What! +I can't believe it! +I just spent all this time buying this product and now I have to charge before use. +I have to wait what felt like an eternity to use that coveted new toy. +It was crazy. +But you know what? +Almost every product back then did that. +When it had batteries in it, you had to charge it before you used it. +Well, Steve noticed that and he said, "We're not going to let that happen to our product." +So what did we do? +Typically, when you have a product that has a hard drive in it, you run it for about 30 minutes in the factory to make sure that hard drive's going to be working years later for the customer after they pull it out of the box. +What did we do instead? +We ran that product for over two hours. +Why? +Well, first off, we could make a higher quality product, be easy to test, and make sure it was great for the customer. +But most importantly, the battery came fully charged right out of the box, ready to use. +So that customer, with all that exhilaration, could just start using the product. +It was great, and it worked. +People liked it. +Today, almost every product that you get that's battery powered comes out of the box fully charged, even if it doesn't have a hard drive. +But back then, we noticed that detail and we fixed it, and now everyone else does that as well. +No more, "Charge before use." +So why am I telling you this? +Well, it's seeing the invisible problem, not just the obvious problem, that's important, not just for product design, but for everything we do. +You see, there are invisible problems all around us, ones we can solve. +But first we need to see them, to feel them. +So, I'm hesitant to give you any tips about neuroscience or psychology. +There's far too many experienced people in the TED community who would know much more about that than I ever will. +But let me leave you with a few tips that I do, that we all can do, to fight habituation. +My first tip is to look broader. +You see, when you're tackling a problem, sometimes, there are a lot of steps that lead up to that problem. +And sometimes, a lot of steps after it. +If you can take a step back and look broader, maybe you can change some of those boxes before the problem. +Maybe you can combine them. +Maybe you can remove them altogether to make that better. +Take thermostats, for instance. +In the 1900s when they first came out, they were really simple to use. +You could turn them up or turn them down. +People understood them. +But in the 1970s, the energy crisis struck, and customers started thinking about how to save energy. +So what happened? +Thermostat designers decided to add a new step. +Instead of just turning up and down, you now had to program it. +So you could tell it the temperature you wanted at a certain time. +Now that seemed great. +Every thermostat had started adding that feature. +But it turned out that no one saved any energy. +Now, why is that? +Well, people couldn't predict the future. +They just didn't know how their weeks would change season to season, year to year. +So no one was saving energy, and what happened? +Thermostat designers went back to the drawing board and they focused on that programming step. +They made better U.I.s, they made better documentation. +But still, years later, people were not saving any energy because they just couldn't predict the future. +So what did we do? +We put a machine-learning algorithm in instead of the programming that would simply watch when you turned it up and down, when you liked a certain temperature when you got up, or when you went away. +And you know what? It worked. +People are saving energy without any programming. +So, it doesn't matter what you're doing. +If you take a step back and look at all the boxes, maybe there's a way to remove one or combine them so that you can make that process much simpler. +So that's my first tip: look broader. +For my second tip, it's to look closer. +One of my greatest teachers was my grandfather. +He taught me all about the world. +He taught me how things were built and how they were repaired, the tools and techniques necessary to make a successful project. +I remember one story he told me about screws, and about how you need to have the right screw for the right job. +There are many different screws: wood screws, metal screws, anchors, concrete screws, the list went on and on. +Our job is to make products that are easy to install for all of our customs themselves without professionals. +So what did we do? +I remembered that story that my grandfather told me, and so we thought, "How many different screws can we put in the box? +Was it going to be two, three, four, five? +Because there's so many different wall types." +So we thought about it, we optimized it, and we came up with three different screws to put in the box. +We thought that was going to solve the problem. +But it turned out, it didn't. +So we shipped the product, and people weren't having a great experience. +So what did we do? +We went back to the drawing board just instantly after we figured out we didn't get it right. +And we designed a special screw, a custom screw, much to the chagrin of our investors. +They were like, "Why are you spending so much time on a little screw? +Get out there and sell more!" +And we said, "We will sell more if we get this right." +And it turned out, we did. +With that custom little screw, there was just one screw in the box, that was easy to mount and put on the wall. +So if we focus on those tiny details, the ones we may not see and we look at them as we say, "Are those important or is that the way we've always done it? +Maybe there's a way to get rid of those." +So my last piece of advice is to think younger. +Every day, I'm confronted with interesting questions from my three young kids. +They come up with questions like, "Why can't cars fly around traffic?" +Or, "Why don't my shoelaces have Velcro instead?" +Sometimes, those questions are smart. +My son came to me the other day and I asked him, "Go run out to the mailbox and check it." +He looked at me, puzzled, and said, "Why doesn't the mailbox just check itself and tell us when it has mail?" I was like, "That's a pretty good question." +So, they can ask tons of questions and sometimes we find out we just don't have the right answers. +We say, "Son, that's just the way the world works." +So the more we're exposed to something, the more we get used to it. +But kids haven't been around long enough to get used to those things. +And so when they run into problems, they immediately try to solve them, and sometimes they find a better way, and that way really is better. +So my advice that we take to heart is to have young people on your team, or people with young minds. +Because if you have those young minds, they cause everyone in the room to think younger. +Picasso once said, "Every child is an artist. +The problem is when he or she grows up, is how to remain an artist." +We all saw the world more clearly when we saw it for the first time, before a lifetime of habits got in the way. +Our challenge is to get back there, to feel that frustration, to see those little details, to look broader, look closer, and to think younger so we can stay beginners. +It's not easy. +It requires us pushing back against one of the most basic ways we make sense of the world. +But if we do, we could do some pretty amazing things. +For me, hopefully, that's better product design. +For you, that could mean something else, something powerful. +Our challenge is to wake up each day and say, "How can I experience the world better?" +And if we do, maybe, just maybe, we can get rid of these dumb little stickers. +Thank you very much. +About 10 years ago, I went through a little bit of a hard time. +So I decided to go see a therapist. +I had been seeing her for a few months, when she looked at me one day and said, "Who actually raised you until you were three?" +Seemed like a weird question. I said, "My parents." +And she said, "I don't think that's actually the case; because if it were, we'd be dealing with things that are far more complicated than just this." +It sounded like the setup to a joke, but I knew she was serious. +Because when I first started seeing her, I was trying to be the funniest person in the room. +And I would try and crack these jokes, but she caught on to me really quickly, and whenever I tried to make a joke, she would look at me and say, "That is actually really sad." +It's terrible. +So I knew I had to be serious, and I asked my parents who had actually raised me until I was three? +And to my surprise, they said my primary caregiver had been a distant relative of the family. +I had called her my auntie. +I remember my auntie so clearly, it felt like she had been part of my life when I was much older. +I remember the thick, straight hair, and how it would come around me like a curtain when she bent to pick me up; her soft, southern Thai accent; the way I would cling to her, even if she just wanted to go to the bathroom or get something to eat. +I loved her, but [with] the ferocity that a child has sometimes before she understands that love also requires letting go. +But my clearest and sharpest memory of my auntie, is also one of my first memories of life at all. +I remember her being beaten and slapped by another member of my family. +I remember screaming hysterically and wanting it to stop, as I did every single time it happened, for things as minor as wanting to go out with her friends, or being a little late. +I became so hysterical over her treatment, that eventually, she was just beaten behind closed doors. +Things got so bad for her that eventually she ran away. +As an adult, I learned later that she had been just 19 when she was brought over from Thailand to the States to care for me, on a tourist visa. +She wound up working in Illinois for a time, before eventually returning to Thailand, which is where I ran into her again, at a political rally in Bangkok. +I clung to her again, as I had when I was a child, and I let go, and then I promised that I would call. +I never did, though. +Because she had saved me. +And I had not saved her. +I'm a journalist, and I've been writing and researching human trafficking for the past eight years or so, and even so, I never put together this personal story with my professional life until pretty recently. +I think this profound disconnect actually symbolizes most of our understanding about human trafficking. +Because human trafficking is far more prevalent, complex and close to home than most of us realize. +I spent time in jails and brothels, interviewed hundreds of survivors and law enforcement, NGO workers. +And when I think about what we've done about human trafficking, I am hugely disappointed. +Partly because we don't even talk about the problem right at all. +When I say "human trafficking," most of you probably don't think about someone like my auntie. +You probably think about a young girl or woman, who's been brutally forced into prostitution by a violent pimp. +That is real suffering, and that is a real story. +That story makes me angry for far more than just the reality of that situation, though. +As a journalist, I really care about how we relate to each other through language, and the way we tell that story, with all the gory, violent detail, the salacious aspects -- I call that "look at her scars" journalism. +We use that story to convince ourselves that human trafficking is a bad man doing a bad thing to an innocent girl. +That story lets us off the hook. +It takes away all the societal context that we might be indicted for, for the structural inequality, or the poverty, or the barriers to migration. +We let ourselves think that human trafficking is only about forced prostitution, when in reality, human trafficking is embedded in our everyday lives. +Let me show you what I mean. +Forced prostitution accounts for 22 percent of human trafficking. +Ten percent is in state- imposed forced labor. +but a whopping 68 percent is for the purpose of creating the goods and delivering the services that most of us rely on every day, in sectors like agricultural work, domestic work and construction. +That is food and care and shelter. +And somehow, these most essential workers are also among the world's most underpaid and exploited today. +Human trafficking is the use of force, fraud or coercion to compel another person's labor. +And it's found in cotton fields, and coltan mines, and even car washes in Norway and England. +It's found in U.S. military bases in Iraq and Afghanistan. +It's found in Thailand's fishing industry. +That country has become the largest exporter of shrimp in the world. +But what are the circumstances behind all that cheap and plentiful shrimp? +Thai military were caught selling Burmese and Cambodian migrants onto fishing boats. +Those fishing boats were taken out, the men put to work, and they were thrown overboard if they made the mistake of falling sick, or trying to resist their treatment. +Those fish were then used to feed shrimp, The shrimp were then sold to four major global retailers: Costco, Tesco, Walmart and Carrefour. +Human trafficking is found on a smaller scale than just that, and in places you would never even imagine. +Traffickers have forced young people to drive ice cream trucks, or to sing in touring boys' choirs. +Trafficking has even been found in a hair braiding salon in New Jersey. +The scheme in that case was incredible. +The traffickers found young families who were from Ghana and Togo, and they told these families that "your daughters are going to get a fine education in the United States." +They then located winners of the green card lottery, and they told them, "We'll help you out. +We'll get you a plane ticket. We'll pay your fees. +All you have to do is take this young girl with you, say that she's your sister or your spouse. +Once everyone arrived in New Jersey, the young girls were taken away, and put to work for 14-hour days, seven days a week, for five years. +They made their traffickers nearly four million dollars. +This is a huge problem. +So what have we done about it? +We've mostly turned to the criminal justice system. +But keep in mind, most victims of human trafficking are poor and marginalized. +They're migrants, people of color. +Sometimes they're in the sex trade. +And for populations like these, the criminal justice system is too often part of the problem, rather than the solution. +In study after study, in countries ranging from Bangladesh to the United States, between 20 and 60 percent of the people in the sex trade who were surveyed said that they had been raped or assaulted by the police in the past year alone. +People in prostitution, including people who have been trafficked into it, regularly receive multiple convictions for prostitution. +Having that criminal record makes it so much more difficult to leave poverty, leave abuse, or leave prostitution, if that person so desires. +Workers outside of the sex sector -- if they try and resist their treatment, they risk deportation. +In case after case I've studied, employers have no problem calling on law enforcement to try and threaten or deport their striking trafficked workers. +If those workers run away, they risk becoming part of the great mass of undocumented workers who are also subject to the whims of law enforcement if they're caught. +Law enforcement is supposed to identify victims and prosecute traffickers. +But out of an estimated 21 million victims of human trafficking in the world, they have helped and identified fewer than 50,000 people. +That's like comparing the population of the world to the population of Los Angeles, proportionally speaking. +As for convictions, out of an estimated 5,700 convictions in 2013, fewer than 500 were for labor trafficking. +Keep in mind that labor trafficking accounts for 68 percent of all trafficking, but fewer than 10 percent of the convictions. +I've heard one expert say that trafficking happens where need meets greed. +I'd like to add one more element to that. +Trafficking happens in sectors where workers are excluded from protections, and denied the right to organize. +Trafficking doesn't happen in a vacuum. +It happens in systematically degraded work environments. +You might be thinking, oh, she's talking about failed states, or war-torn states, or -- I'm actually talking about the United States. +Let me tell you what that looks like. +I spent many months researching a trafficking case called Global Horizons, involving hundreds of Thai farm workers. +They were sent all over the States, to work in Hawaii pineapple plantations, and Washington apple orchards, and anywhere the work was needed. +They were promised three years of solid agricultural work. +So they made a calculated risk. +They sold their land, they sold their wives' jewelry, to make thousands in recruitment fees for this company, Global Horizons. +But once they were brought over, their passports were confiscated. +Some of the men were beaten and held at gunpoint. +They worked so hard they fainted in the fields. +This case hit me so hard. +After I came back home, I was wandering through the grocery store, and I froze in the produce department. +I was remembering the over-the-top meals the Global Horizons survivors would make for me every time I showed up to interview them. +They finished one meal with this plate of perfect, long-stemmed strawberries, and as they handed them to me, they said, "Aren't these the kind of strawberries you eat with somebody special in the States? +And don't they taste so much better when you know the people whose hands picked them for you?" +As I stood in that grocery store weeks later, I realized I had no idea of who to thank for this plenty, and no idea of how they were being treated. +So, like the journalist I am, I started digging into the agricultural sector. +And I found there are too many fields, and too few labor inspectors. +I found multiple layers of plausible deniability between grower and distributor and processor, and God knows who else. +The Global Horizons survivors had been brought to the States on a temporary guest worker program. +That guest worker program ties a person's legal status to his or her employer, and denies that worker the right to organize. +Mind you, none of what I am describing about this agricultural sector or the guest worker program is actually human trafficking. +It is merely what we find legally tolerable. +And I would argue this is fertile ground for exploitation. +And all of this had been hidden to me, before I had tried to understand it. +I wasn't the only person grappling with these issues. +Pierre Omidyar, founder of eBay, is one of the biggest anti-trafficking philanthropists in the world. +And even he wound up accidentally investing nearly 10 million dollars in the pineapple plantation cited as having the worst working conditions in that Global Horizons case. +When he found out, he and his wife were shocked and horrified, and they wound up writing an op-ed for a newspaper, saying that it was up to all of us to learn everything we can about the labor and supply chains of the products that we support. +I totally agree. +What would happen if each one of us decided that we are no longer going to support companies if they don't eliminate exploitation from their labor and supply chains? +If we demanded laws calling for the same? +If all the CEOs out there decided that they were going to go through their businesses and say, "no more"? +If we ended recruitment fees for migrant workers? +If we decided that guest workers should have the right to organize without fear of retaliation? +These would be decisions heard around the world. +This isn't a matter of buying a fair-trade peach and calling it a day, buying a guilt-free zone with your money. +That's not how it works. +This is the decision to change a system that is broken, and that we have unwittingly but willingly allowed ourselves to profit from and benefit from for too long. +We often dwell on human trafficking survivors' victimization. +But that is not my experience of them. +Over all the years that I've been talking to them, they have taught me that we are more than our worst days. +Each one of us is more than what we have lived through. +Especially trafficking survivors. +These people were the most resourceful and resilient and responsible in their communities. +They were the people that you would take a gamble on. +You'd say, I'm gong to sell my rings, because I have the chance to send you off to a better future. +They were the emissaries of hope. +These survivors don't need saving. +They need solidarity, because they're behind some of the most exciting social justice movements out there today. +The nannies and housekeepers who marched with their families and their employers' families -- their activism got us an international treaty on domestic workers' rights. +The Nepali women who were trafficked into the sex trade -- they came together, and they decided that they were going to make the world's first anti-trafficking organization actually headed and run by trafficking survivors themselves. +These Indian shipyard workers were trafficked to do post-Hurricane Katrina reconstruction. +They were threatened with deportation, but they broke out of their work compound and they marched from New Orleans to Washington, D.C., to protest labor exploitation. +They cofounded an organization called the National Guest Worker Alliance, and through this organization, they have wound up helping other workers bring to light exploitation and abuses in supply chains in Walmart and Hershey's factories. +And although the Department of Justice declined to take their case, a team of civil rights lawyers won the first of a dozen civil suits this February, and got their clients 14 million dollars. +These survivors are fighting for people they don't even know yet, other workers, and for the possibility of a just world for all of us. +This is our chance to do the same. +This is our chance to make the decision that tells us who we are, as a people and as a society; that our prosperity is no longer prosperity, as long as it is pinned to other people's pain; that our lives are inextricably woven together; and that we have the power to make a different choice. +I was so reluctant to share my story of my auntie with you. +Before I started this TED process and climbed up on this stage, I had told literally a handful of people about it, because, like many a journalist, I am far more interested in learning about your stories than sharing much, if anything, about my own. +I also haven't done my journalistic due diligence on this. +I haven't issued my mountains of document requests, and interviewed everyone and their mother, and I haven't found my auntie yet. +I don't know her story of what happened, and of her life now. +The story as I've told it to you is messy and unfinished. +But I think it mirrors the messy and unfinished situation we're all in, when it comes to human trafficking. +We are all implicated in this problem. +But that means we are all also part of its solution. +Figuring out how to build a more just world is our work to do, and our story to tell. +So let us tell it the way we should have done, from the very beginning. +Let us tell this story together. +Thank you so much. +It was November 1, 2002, my first day as a principal, but hardly my first day in the school district of Philadelphia. +I graduated from Philadelphia public schools, and I went on to teach special education for 20 years in a low-income, low-performing school in North Philadelphia, where crime is rampant and deep poverty is among the highest in the nation. +Shortly after I walked into my new school, a huge fight broke out among the girls. +After things were quickly under control, I immediately called a meeting in the school's auditorium to introduce myself as the school's new principal. +I walked in angry, a little nervous -- -- but I was determined to set the tone for my new students. +I started listing as forcefully as I could my expectations for their behavior and my expectations for what they would learn in school. +When, all of a sudden, a girl way in the back of the auditorium, she stood up and she said, "Miss! +Miss!" +When our eyes locked, she said, "Why do you keep calling this a school? +This is not a school." +In one outburst, Ashley had expressed what I felt and never quite was able to articulate about my own experience when I attended a low-performing school in the same neighborhood, many, many, many years earlier. +That school was definitely not a school. +Fast forwarding a decade later to 2012, I was entering my third low-performing school as principal. +I was to be Strawberry Mansion's fourth principal in four years. +It was labeled "low-performing and persistently dangerous" due to its low test scores and high number of weapons, drugs, assaults and arrests. +Shortly as I approached the door of my new school and attempted to enter, and found the door locked with chains, I could hear Ashley's voice in my ears going, "Miss! Miss! +This is not a school." +The halls were dim and dark from poor lighting. +There were tons of piles of broken old furniture and desks in the classrooms, and there were thousands of unused materials and resources. +This was not a school. +As the year progressed, I noticed that the classrooms were nearly empty. +The students were just scared: scared to sit in rows in fear that something would happen; scared because they were often teased in the cafeteria for eating free food. +They were scared from all the fighting and all the bullying. +This was not a school. +And then, there were the teachers, who were incredibly afraid for their own safety, so they had low expectations for the students and themselves, and they were totally unaware of their role in the destruction of the school's culture. +This was the most troubling of all. +You see, Ashley was right, and not just about her school. +For far too many schools, for kids who live in poverty, their schools are really not schools at all. +But this can change. +Let me tell you how it's being done at Strawberry Mansion High School. +Anybody who's ever worked with me will tell you I am known for my slogans. +So today, I am going to use three that have been paramount in our quest for change. +My first slogan is: if you're going to lead, lead. +I always believed that what happens in a school and what does not happen in a school is up to the principal. +I am the principal, and having that title required me to lead. +I was not going to stay in my office, I was not going to delegate my work, and I was not going to be afraid to address anything that was not good for children, whether that made me liked or not. +I am a leader, so I know I cannot do anything alone. +So, I assembled a top-notch leadership team who believed in the possibility of all the children, and together, we tackled the small things, like resetting every single locker combination by hand so that every student could have a secure locker. +We decorated every bulletin board in that building with bright, colorful, and positive messages. +We took the chains off the front doors of the school. +We got the lightbulbs replaced, and we cleaned every classroom to its core, recycling every, every textbook that was not needed, and discarded thousands of old materials and furniture. +We used two dumpsters per day. +And, of course, of course, we tackled the big stuff, like rehauling the entire school budget so that we can reallocate funds to have more teachers and support staff. +We rebuilt the entire school day schedule from scratch to add a variety of start and end times, remediation, honors courses, extracurricular activities, and counseling, all during the school day. +All during the school day. +We created a deployment plan that specified where every single support person and police officer would be every minute of the day, and we monitored at every second of the day, and, our best invention ever, we devised a schoolwide discipline program titled "Non-negotiables." +It was a behavior system -- designed to promote positive behavior at all times. +The results? +Strawberry Mansion was removed from the Persistently Dangerous List our first year after being -- -- after being on the Persistently Dangerous List for five consecutive years. +Leaders make the impossible possible. +That brings me to my second slogan: So what? Now what? +When we looked at the data, and we met with the staff, there were many excuses for why Strawberry Mansion was low-performing and persistently dangerous. +After they got through telling us all the stories of how awful the conditions and the children were, I looked at them, and I said, "So what. Now what? +What are we gonna do about it?" +Eliminating excuses at every turn became my primary responsibility. +We addressed every one of those excuses through a mandatory professional development, paving the way for intense focus on teaching and learning. +After many observations, what we determined was that teachers knew what to teach but they did not know how to teach so many children with so many vast abilities. +So, we developed a lesson delivery model for instruction that focused on small group instruction, making it possible for all the students to get their individual needs met in the classroom. +The results? +After one year, state data revealed that our scores have grown by 171 percent in Algebra and 107 percent in literature. +We have a very long way to go, a very long way to go, but we now approach every obstacle with a "So What. Now What?" attitude. +And that brings me to my third and final slogan. +If nobody told you they loved you today, you remember I do, and I always will. +My students have problems: social, emotional and economic problems you could never imagine. +Some of them are parents themselves, and some are completely alone. +If someone asked me my real secret for how I truly keep Strawberry Mansion moving forward, I would have to say that I love my students and I believe in their possibilities unconditionally. +When I look at them, I can only see what they can become, and that is because I am one of them. +I grew up poor in North Philadelphia too. +I know what it feels like to go to a school that's not a school. +I know what it feels like to wonder if there's ever going to be any way out of poverty. +But because of my amazing mother, I got the ability to dream despite the poverty that surrounded me. +So -- -- if I'm going to push my students toward their dream and their purpose in life, I've got to get to know who they are. +So I have to spend time with them, so I manage the lunchroom every day. +And while I'm there, I talk to them about deeply personal things, and when it's their birthday, I sing "Happy Birthday" even though I cannot sing at all. +I often ask them, "Why do you want me to sing when I cannot sing at all?" +And they respond by saying, "Because we like feeling special." +We hold monthly town hall meetings to listen to their concerns, to find out what is on their minds. +They ask us questions like, "Why do we have to follow rules?" +"Why are there so many consequences?" +"Why can't we just do what we want to do?" +They ask, and I answer each question honestly, and this exchange in listening helps to clear up any misconceptions. +Every moment is a teachable moment. +My reward, my reward for being non-negotiable in my rules and consequences is their earned respect. +I insist on it, and because of this, we can accomplish things together. +They are clear about my expectations for them, and I repeat those expectations every day over the P.A. system. +I remind them -- I remind them of those core values of focus, tradition, excellence, integrity and perseverance, and I remind them every day how education can truly change their lives. +And I end every announcement the same: "If nobody told you they loved you today, you remember I do, and I always will." +Ashley's words of "Miss, Miss, this is not a school," is forever etched in my mind. +If we are truly going to make real progress in addressing poverty, then we have to make sure that every school that serves children in poverty is a real school, a school, a school -- -- a school that provides them with knowledge and mental training to navigate the world around them. +I do not know all the answers, but what I do know is for those of us who are privileged and have the responsibility of leading a school that serves children in poverty, we must truly lead, and when we are faced with unbelievable challenges, we must stop and ask ourselves, "So what. Now what? +What are we going to do about it?" +Thank you. +Thank you, Jesus. +This is a play called "Sell/Buy/Date." +It's my first since "Bridge and Tunnel," which I did on Broadway, and this one, I -- thank you -- I've excerpted it just for you, so here we go. +Right. Class, let's be absolutely certain all electronic devices are switched off before we begin. +So class, hopefully you'll recognize what you just heard me say as the -- ? +Very good, the cellular phone announcement. +Right? This was also known as a mobile phone. +So you'll remember, people of that era would have had an external electronic device, right, something like this, and they all would have carried one of these around with them, and amongst their biggest fears was the sheer mortification that one of these might ring at some inopportune moment. +Right? So a bit of trivia about that era for you. +So the format of today's class is I will be presenting multiple BERT modules today from that period in history, right, so starting circa 2016. +And remember, this was the very first year of the BERT program. +So we've got quite a few of these to get through. +Bear in mind, I will be living into various different bodies, different ages, also what were then called races, or ethnic groups, as you'll remember from Unit 1. +And -- -- and along the gender continuum, I will be living into males as well. +It was quite binary at that time. +Also, don't forget, we are reading the book module for next week's focus on gender. +Now, I know some of you have requested the book in pill form. +I know people still believe ingesting it is better for retention, but since we are trying to experience what our forebears did, right, let's please just consider doing the actual ocular reading, okay? +And also, how many people have your emotional shunts engaged? +Right. Please toggle them off. Okay? +I know it's challenging, but I want you to be able to feel the entire natural emo range, all right? +It is essential to this part of the syllabus. +Yes, Macy? +All right. I understand. If you're unwilling to -- All right, well, we can discuss that after class. +All right, we will discuss your concerns. +Just relax. Nobody's died and gone to composting. +Okay. After class. Okay? After class. +Let's just get started, okay. +This first subject identified as a middle-class homemaker. +Remember, these early modules in these people's full identities were protected, and this allowed them to speak more freely on our topic, which for many of them was taboo. +Okay honey, now, I'm ready when you are. +No, sweetheart, I said, I'm ready when you are. +I'm freezing. +It's like a meat locker in here in this recording studio. +I should have brought a shmata. +All this fancy technology but they can't afford heat. +What is he saying? I can't hear you! +I can't hear you through the glass, honey! +There you are in my ear. +Oh, you can hear me? +The whole time. +Oh, yes, I am a little chilly. +Yes, oh the cold is for the machines, the new technology. Okay. +Yes, now remind me again, you're recording not only my voice but my feelings and my memories? Right. +Yes, BERT, yes, I read about it. +Bio-Empathetic Resonant Technology. +Right, right, so people will be able to feel my experience and my memory? Okay. +No, right, I'm ready. +I just thought you were going to give me a test to see how my memory's doing. +I was going to tell you you're too late, it's already bad news. +No, no, go ahead, honey. +Oh, that's the first question? +What do I think of prostitution? +Are you soliciting me, young man? +I've heard of May-December romances, but what are you, about 20 years old? +Eighteen? Eighteen years. +I think I have candies in my purse older than 18 years old. +I'm teasing you, sweetheart. No, I'm comfortable with any question. +Sure. So about the prostitution -- oh, sex worker, sex worker. +No, just in my day, they called it prostitution, not sex work. +Oh, because it includes pornography also? +Okay. +No, well, I guess when I was a girl, we didn't really have a name for that either. +We would have said dirty magazines, I suppose, or dirty movies. +Well, it's not like what you have with the Internet. +No, well, I don't mind sharing. +My late husband and I, we were a very romantic couple. +Lots of tenderness, you understand. +Well, as you get older, you know, at one point I thought my husband might be helped by using some of the pills men can take, but he wasn't interested in those, so I thought, what about maybe watching an adult movie on the Internet? +Just for inspiration, you understand. +Well, at the time, neither of us were very good on the computer, so usually, if we needed help with the Internet, we would just call our children or our grandchildren, but obviously, in this case, that wasn't an option, so I thought, I'll have a look myself, just to see. +How difficult could it be? +You search for certain key words and you look -- Oh wow is right, young man. +You can't imagine what I saw. +Well, first of all, I was just trying to find, you know, couples, normal couples making love, but this, so many people together at one time. +You couldn't tell which part belonged to which body. +How they even got the cameras to capture some of this, I couldn't tell you. +But the one thing they didn't capture was making love. +There was lots of making of something, but they took the love part right out of it, you know, the fun. +It was all very extreme, you know? +Like you would say, with the extreme sports. +Lots of endurance, but never tenderness. +So anyway, needless to say, that was $19.95 I'll never get back again, but it only showed up on the credit card as "entertainment services," so my husband was never the wiser, and after all of that, well, you could say it turned out he didn't need the extra inspiration after all. +Right, so next subject is a young woman -- -- Next subject, class, is a young woman called Bella, a university student interviewed in 2016 during what was called an Intro to Feminist Porn class as part of her major in sex work at a college in the Bay Area. +Yeah, I just want to, like, get a recording of, like, you guys recording me, like a meta recording, or whatever. +It's just like this whole experience is just, like, really amazing, and I'd like to capture that for, like, Instagram and my Tumblr. +So, like, hi guys, it's me, Bella, and I am, like, being interviewed right now for this, like, really amazing Bio-Empathetic Resonance Technology, which is, like, basically where they are, like, recording, as you can see from these, whatever, like, electrodes, the formation of, like, neuropeptides in my hippocampus, or whatever. +They will later be able to reconstitute these as, like, my own actual memory, like actual experiences, so other people can, like, actually feel what I'm feeling right now. +Okay. Okay. +So, like, hello, BERT person of the future who is experiencing me. +This is what it feels like to be, like, a college freshman, and also the, like, headache that you are experiencing through me is the, like, residual effect of the Jell-O shots which I had last night at the bi-weekly feminist pole dancing party which I cohost on Wednesdays. +It's called "Don't Get All Pole-emical" -- -- and it's in Beekman Hall, and, what else, like, non-Jell-O shots are also available for vegans, and, oh, okay, yeah, totally, yeah, we should also focus on your questions also. +So for your record, I am, like, a sex work studies major but minoring in social media with a concentration on notable YouTube memes. +Yes, well, of course, like, I consider myself to be, like, obviously, like, a feminist. +I was named for Bella Abzug, who was, like, a famous, like, feminist from history, and, like, also I feel that it is, like, important to, like, represent women who are, like, sex-positive feminists. +What is sex-negative? +Yeah, but like, I don't think of myself like, providing direct sex care services per se as, like, being a requirement for me to be, like, an advocate. +Like, I support other women's right to choose it voluntarily, like, if they enjoy it. +Yeah, but, like, I see myself going forward as more likely, like, protecting sex workers', like, legal freedoms and rights. +Yeah, so, like, basically, I'm planning on becoming a lawyer. +Right, class. So these next two modules are also circa 2016. +One subject is an Irishwoman with a particularly noteworthy relationship to this issue, but first will be a West Indian woman, a self-described escort who was recorded at a sex workers' rights rally and parade. +She was interviewed whilst marching in full carnival headdress and very little else. +All right, you want me to start talking now. +Yeah, I told you, you can put those wires anywhere you want to as long as it don't get in the way. +Yeah, no, but, tell me again what the name of -- BERT? BERT. +Yeah, I was telling you, you know, I think I have in all my time I have had at least one client with that name, so this won't be the first time I had BERT all over me. +Oh, I'm sorry, but you got to get into the spirit of it if you're going to interview me. +All right? You can say it. +No justice, no piece! No justice, no piece! +But you see the sign? You get it? P-I-E-C-E. No justice, no piece of us. +You understand? +Right, so that's the part where I was telling you is that when I first came to this country, I worked every job I could find. +I was a nanny; I was a home care attendant for all these different old people, and then I said, child, if I have to touch another white man's backside, I might as well get paid a lot more money for it than this, you understand? +Pshh, you know how hard it is being a domestic worker? +Some of these men, they're heavy. +You have to pick them up and flip them over. +Now, I let them pick me up and flip me over, you understand? +Well, you have to have a sense of humor about it, that's what I think. +No, but see, listen, you find me somebody who don't hate some part of their job. +I mean, there's a lot of things about this job that I hate, but the money is not one of them, and I will tell you, as long as this is the best possibility for me to make real money, I am going to be Jamaican-No-Fakin' if that's what they want to call me. +No, I'm not even from Jamaica. That's how they market me. +My family is from Trinidad and the Virgin Islands. +They don't know what I do, but you know what? +My children, they know that their school fees are paid, they have their books and their computer, and this way, I know that they have a chance. +So I'm not going to tell you that what I do, it's easy, I'm not going to tell you that I feel -- what's that you said, liberated? +But I'm going to tell you that I feel paid. +Right. Thanks, that's lovely, and just the cup of tea, love, and just a splash of the whiskey. +It's perfect, that's grand. Just a drop more. A splash. Perfect. +What was your name? Peter? Is that right, so, Peter? +Right. So that, that is the unique part of it for me, right, is that I ended up in both, first in the convent, and then in the prostitution after. That's right. +So one woman at the university here in Dublin, she wrote about me. +She said, Maureen Fitzroy is the living embodiment of the whore-virgin dichotomy. +Right? Doesn't it sound like something you need to go into hospital? +Well, I've got this terrible dichotomy. +Doesn't it. +Right. Well, for me though, it was, as a girl, it started with me dad. +I mean, half the time, when he spoke to us, it was just a sort of tell us we were all useless rotten idiots and we had no morals, that type of thing. +And I certainly didn't do myself any favors. +By the time I was 16, I had started messing about with this older fella, and he wanted it to be our little secret, and I did as I was told, didn't I, and when that got back to me dad, he had me sent straightaway to the convent. +Well no, that older fella, he would still come to find me in the convent. +Yeah, he'd leave me notes tucked into the holes in the brick at the back of the charity shop so we could meet. +And he'd tell me how he's leaving his wife, and I believed him, until I got pregnant. +I did, Peter, and I left him a note about it in our special place there, and I never did hear from him again. +No, I gave it up for adoption so it could have a decent life, and then they wouldn't let me back into the convent. +No, my one sister Virginia gave me a fiver for the coach to Dublin, and that's how I ended up here. +Well, surprise, surprise, I fell in love with another fella much older than me, and I always say I was just so happy because he didn't drink, I married the bastard. +Well, he didn't drink, but he did have just the wee heroin problem, didn't he, and -- That's right, and before I knew it, he was the one who turned me on to the prostitution, my own husband. +He had me supporting the both of us. +I was 18. +Well, it wasn't Pretty Woman, I can tell you that. +That Julia Roberts, if she'd ever had to sleep with a man to put a few pounds in her pocket, I don't think she'd ever have made that film. +Well, for your record, my opinion of the legalization, I'd say I'm against it. +I just, I don't care what these young girls say. +You know, living like that, you're just lost, and, you know, I'm 63 years old. +I'm still trying to find who I am. +You know, I never was a wife or a nun, or a prostitute even, really, not really. +Nobody ever asked who I wanted to be. +They just told me, and if you legalize it, then you're really telling these girls, "Go on and get lost for a living," and a lot of them, they'll do as they're told. +All right, so four perspectives from four quite -- -- four quite different voices there, right? +One woman saying sex itself is natural but the sex industry seems to mechanize or industrialize it. +Then the second woman considered sex work to be empowering, liberating, and feminist, though she, herself, notably, did not seem keen to do it. +The third woman, who actually was a so-called sex worker did not agree that it was liberating but she wanted the right to the economic empowerment, and then we hear the fourth woman saying not only prostitution itself but proscribed roles for women in general prevented her from ever finding who she was, right? +So another fact most people did not know was the average age of an at-risk girl being introduced to the sex industry was 12 or 13. +Also consider that the age when all girls in that society first became exposed to sexualized images of women was quite a bit earlier, right? +This was a doll called Barbie, right? +I initially thought she was an educational tool for anorexia prevention -- -- but actually she was considered by many to be a wholesome symbol of femininity, and often young girls began what was called dieting. +Remember this? This was restricting food intake on purpose by the age of six, and defining themselves based on attractiveness by around that same time. Right? +Yes? +Right, Bradley, okay, excellent point. +So there was a lucrative market in that society in convincing all people they had to look a certain way to even have a sex life, right? +But girls, especially, were expected to be "sexy" while avoiding being perceived as "sluts" for being sexual. Right? +So there's that shame piece we've heard about. +Yes. +Valerie, right? Okay, very good. +Of course, men were having sex as well, but you'll remember from the reading, what were male sluts called? +Very good, they were called men. +So not easy living in a world like that, right? +Though it was not all bad news either. +Most women in the early 2000s considered themselves empowered, and men generally felt they were also evolved in this area, and, in fact, most people would have been aware of issues like human trafficking, for example, but they would have seen that as quite separate from more recreational adult entertainment. +And so we'll just very briefly, class -- we don't have a lot of time -- we'll just very briefly hear from a man on our topic at this stage. +So this next subject was interviewed on the night of his bachelor party. +Dude, can you, all right, can you just keep it down? +I'm trying to talk to BERT right now. +Oh, your name's not BERT. +BERT's the name of the, oh, all right. +No, no, no, totally, it's totally fine. I'm mostly sober, so I just want to be helpful. +Yeah, and I totally believe in causes, yeah, like, all that stuff. +And actually, I'm wearing Toms right now. +Yeah, Toms, like, the shoes, like, you buy a pair and then a kid in Africa gets clean water. +Yeah. Totally. +But what was the question again? Sorry. +Of course I believe in women's rights. I'm marrying a woman. +No, but I mean, like, just because I'm in a strip club parking lot doesn't mean that I'm, like, a sexist or whatever. +My fiancee is totally amazing, she's totally a strong girl, woman, smart woman, like, the whole thing. +Yeah, she knows I'm here. She's probably at a strip club herself right now, like, as a joke, same as me. +My best man, I told him he could surprise me, and he thought this would be hilarious, but this is not something. +Yeah, we all went to B school together. +Wharton. +Yeah, so, dude, can you guys -- All right, but it's my bachelor party, and I can spend it in the parking lot with Anderson Cooper if I want to. +All right, I'll see you in there. +All right, okay, so Anderson, so, like, first of all, stripping, but then, like, all the other things you're talking about, prostitution and all that stuff, that's, like, not the same thing at all. +You know? Like, you keep calling it the sex industry or whatever, but it's like, if the girl wants to be an exotic dancer and she's 18, like, that's her right. +Whoa, whoa, I hear what you're saying, but I just feel like people, they just want to make it seem like all dudes are just, like, predators, that we would just automatically go to a prostitute, or whatever. +Even, like, when I pledged, you know, like when I rushed my fraternity. +My brothers who I'm close to, those guys, they're all like me. +We're just normal people, but, like, there's this myth that you must be that guy who is kind of an asshole, and like, all bros before hos or whatever. +And actually, like, bros before hos, it doesn't mean like what it sounds like. +It's actually just like a joking way of saying that you care about your brothers and you put them first. +Yeah, but, you can't blame the media, either. +I mean, like, if you go watch "Hangover 2," and you think that's an instruction manual for your life, like, I don't know what to tell you. +You know? You don't watch "Bourne Identity" and go drive your car over a gondola in Venice. Well, yeah, okay, like, if you're a little kid or whatever, of course it's different, but -- Yeah, all right, I remember one thing like that. +I was at this kid's house one time playing GTA, uh, Grand Theft Auto? +Dude, are you from Canada? So, like, whatever, with Grand Theft Auto, you're this kid, like, you're this guy walking around or whatever, and you can basically, like, the more cops you kill, the more points you get, and stuff like that. +But also, you can find prostitutes and obviously you can do sexual stuff with them, but you can, like, kill them and take your money back. +Yeah, this kid, I remember he ran over a couple of them a few times with his car and he got all these points. +We were, like, 10, I think. +It felt pretty terrible, actually. +No, I don't think I said anything, I just finished playing and went home. +Thank you so much, you beautiful TED audience. +I will see you for "Sell/Buy/Date." +Our emotions influence every aspect of our lives, from our health and how we learn, to how we do business and make decisions, big ones and small. +Our emotions also influence how we connect with one another. +We've evolved to live in a world like this, but instead, we're living more and more of our lives like this -- this is the text message from my daughter last night -- in a world that's devoid of emotion. +So I'm on a mission to change that. +I want to bring emotions back into our digital experiences. +I started on this path 15 years ago. +I was a computer scientist in Egypt, and I had just gotten accepted to a Ph.D. program at Cambridge University. +So I did something quite unusual for a young newlywed Muslim Egyptian wife: With the support of my husband, who had to stay in Egypt, I packed my bags and I moved to England. +At Cambridge, thousands of miles away from home, I realized I was spending more hours with my laptop than I did with any other human. +Yet despite this intimacy, my laptop had absolutely no idea how I was feeling. +It had no idea if I was happy, having a bad day, or stressed, confused, and so that got frustrating. +Even worse, as I communicated online with my family back home, I felt that all my emotions disappeared in cyberspace. +I was homesick, I was lonely, and on some days I was actually crying, but all I had to communicate these emotions was this. +Today's technology has lots of I.Q., but no E.Q.; lots of cognitive intelligence, but no emotional intelligence. +So that got me thinking, what if our technology could sense our emotions? +What if our devices could sense how we felt and reacted accordingly, just the way an emotionally intelligent friend would? +Those questions led me and my team to create technologies that can read and respond to our emotions, and our starting point was the human face. +So our human face happens to be one of the most powerful channels that we all use to communicate social and emotional states, everything from enjoyment, surprise, empathy and curiosity. +In emotion science, we call each facial muscle movement an action unit. +So for example, action unit 12, it's not a Hollywood blockbuster, it is actually a lip corner pull, which is the main component of a smile. +Try it everybody. Let's get some smiles going on. +Another example is action unit 4. It's the brow furrow. +It's when you draw your eyebrows together and you create all these textures and wrinkles. +We don't like them, but it's a strong indicator of a negative emotion. +So we have about 45 of these action units, and they combine to express hundreds of emotions. +Teaching a computer to read these facial emotions is hard, because these action units, they can be fast, they're subtle, and they combine in many different ways. +So take, for example, the smile and the smirk. +They look somewhat similar, but they mean very different things. +So the smile is positive, a smirk is often negative. +Sometimes a smirk can make you become famous. +But seriously, it's important for a computer to be able to tell the difference between the two expressions. +So how do we do that? +We give our algorithms tens of thousands of examples of people we know to be smiling, from different ethnicities, ages, genders, and we do the same for smirks. +And then, using deep learning, the algorithm looks for all these textures and wrinkles and shape changes on our face, and basically learns that all smiles have common characteristics, all smirks have subtly different characteristics. +And the next time it sees a new face, this face has the same characteristics of a smile, and it says, "Aha, I recognize this. This is a smile expression." +So the best way to demonstrate how this technology works is to try a live demo, so I need a volunteer, preferably somebody with a face. +Cloe's going to be our volunteer today. +So over the past five years, we've moved from being a research project at MIT to a company, where my team has worked really hard to make this technology work, as we like to say, in the wild. +And we've also shrunk it so that the core emotion engine works on any mobile device with a camera, like this iPad. +So let's give this a try. +As you can see, the algorithm has essentially found Cloe's face, so it's this white bounding box, and it's tracking the main feature points on her face, so her eyebrows, her eyes, her mouth and her nose. +The question is, can it recognize her expression? +So we're going to test the machine. +So first of all, give me your poker face. Yep, awesome. And then as she smiles, this is a genuine smile, it's great. +So you can see the green bar go up as she smiles. +Now that was a big smile. +Can you try a subtle smile to see if the computer can recognize? +It does recognize subtle smiles as well. +We've worked really hard to make that happen. +And then eyebrow raised, indicator of surprise. +Brow furrow, which is an indicator of confusion. +Frown. Yes, perfect. +So these are all the different action units. There's many more of them. +This is just a slimmed-down demo. +But we call each reading an emotion data point, and then they can fire together to portray different emotions. +So on the right side of the demo -- look like you're happy. +So that's joy. Joy fires up. +And then give me a disgust face. +Try to remember what it was like when Zayn left One Direction. +Yeah, wrinkle your nose. Awesome. +And the valence is actually quite negative, so you must have been a big fan. +So valence is how positive or negative an experience is, and engagement is how expressive she is as well. +So imagine if Cloe had access to this real-time emotion stream, and she could share it with anybody she wanted to. +Thank you. +So, so far, we have amassed 12 billion of these emotion data points. +It's the largest emotion database in the world. +We've collected it from 2.9 million face videos, people who have agreed to share their emotions with us, and from 75 countries around the world. +It's growing every day. +It blows my mind away that we can now quantify something as personal as our emotions, and we can do it at this scale. +So what have we learned to date? +Gender. +Our data confirms something that you might suspect. +Women are more expressive than men. +Not only do they smile more, their smiles last longer, and we can now really quantify what it is that men and women respond to differently. +Let's do culture: So in the United States, women are 40 percent more expressive than men, but curiously, we don't see any difference in the U.K. between men and women. +Age: People who are 50 years and older are 25 percent more emotive than younger people. +Women in their 20s smile a lot more than men the same age, perhaps a necessity for dating. +But perhaps what surprised us the most about this data is that we happen to be expressive all the time, even when we are sitting in front of our devices alone, and it's not just when we're watching cat videos on Facebook. +We are expressive when we're emailing, texting, shopping online, or even doing our taxes. +Where is this data used today? +In understanding how we engage with media, so understanding virality and voting behavior; and also empowering or emotion-enabling technology, and I want to share some examples that are especially close to my heart. +Emotion-enabled wearable glasses can help individuals who are visually impaired read the faces of others, and it can help individuals on the autism spectrum interpret emotion, something that they really struggle with. +In education, imagine if your learning apps sense that you're confused and slow down, or that you're bored, so it's sped up, just like a great teacher would in a classroom. +What if your wristwatch tracked your mood, or your car sensed that you're tired, or perhaps your fridge knows that you're stressed, so it auto-locks to prevent you from binge eating. I would like that, yeah. +What if, when I was in Cambridge, I had access to my real-time emotion stream, and I could share that with my family back home in a very natural way, just like I would've if we were all in the same room together? +I think five years down the line, all our devices are going to have an emotion chip, and we won't remember what it was like when we couldn't just frown at our device and our device would say, "Hmm, you didn't like that, did you?" +Our biggest challenge is that there are so many applications of this technology, my team and I realize that we can't build them all ourselves, so we've made this technology available so that other developers can get building and get creative. +We recognize that there are potential risks and potential for abuse, but personally, having spent many years doing this, I believe that the benefits to humanity from having emotionally intelligent technology far outweigh the potential for misuse. +And I invite you all to be part of the conversation. +The more people who know about this technology, the more we can all have a voice in how it's being used. +So as more and more of our lives become digital, we are fighting a losing battle trying to curb our usage of devices in order to reclaim our emotions. +So what I'm trying to do instead is to bring emotions into our technology and make our technologies more responsive. +So I want those devices that have separated us to bring us back together. +And by humanizing technology, we have this golden opportunity to reimagine how we connect with machines, and therefore, how we, as human beings, connect with one another. +Thank you. +Along the ancient path of the Monongahela River, Braddock, Pennsylvania sits in the eastern region of Allegheny County, approximately nine miles outside of Pittsburgh. +An industrial suburb, Braddock is home to Andrew Carnegie's first steel mill, the Edgar Thomson Works. +Operating since 1875, it is the last functioning steel mill in the region. +For 12 years, I have produced collaborative portraits, still lifes, landscapes and aerial views in order to build a visual archive to address the intersection of the steel industry, the environment, and the health care system's impact on the bodies of my family and community. +The tradition and grand narrative of Braddock is mostly comprised of stories of industrialists and trade unions. +Currently, the new narrative about Braddock, a poster child for Rust Belt revitalization, is a story of urban pioneers discovering a new frontier. +Mass media has omitted the fact that Braddock is predominantly black. +Our existence has been co-opted, silenced and erased. +Fourth generation in a lineage of women, I was raised under the protection and care of Grandma Ruby, off 8th Street at 805 Washington Avenue. +She worked as a manager for Goodwill. +Mom was a nurse's aid. +She watched the steel mills close and white flight to suburban developments. +By the time my generation walked the streets, disinvestment at the local, state and federal level, eroded infrastructure, and the War on Drugs dismantled my family and community. +Grandma Ruby's stepfather Gramps was one of few black men to retire from Carnegie's mill with his pension. +He worked in high temperatures, tearing down and rebuilding furnaces, cleaning up spilt metal and slag. +The history of a place is written on the body and the landscape. +Areas of heavy truck traffic, exposure to benzene and atomized metals, risk cancer and lupus. +One hundred twenty-three licensed beds, 652 employees, rehabilitation programs decimated. +A housing discrimination lawsuit against Allegheny County removed where the projects Talbot Towers once stood. +Recent rezoning for more light industry has since appeared. +Google Maps and Google Earth pixelations conceal the flammable waste being used to squeeze the Bunn family off their home and land. +In 2013, I chartered a helicopter with my cameras to document this aggressive dispossession. +In flight, my observation reveals thousands of plastic white bundles owned by a conservation industry that claims it's eco-friendly and recycles millions of tires to preserve people's lives and to improve people's lives. +My work spirals from the micro to the macro level, excavating hidden histories. +Recently, at the Seattle Art Museum, Isaac Bunn and I mounted this exhibition, and the exhibition was used as a platform to launch his voice. +Through reclamation of our narrative, we will continue to fight historic erasure and socioeconomic inequality. +Thank you. +The first time I uttered a prayer was in a glass-stained cathedral. +I was kneeling long after the congregation was on its feet, dip both hands into holy water, trace the trinity across my chest, my tiny body drooping like a question mark all over the wooden pew. +I asked Jesus to fix me, and when he did not answer I befriended silence in the hopes that my sin would burn and salve my mouth would dissolve like sugar on tongue, but shame lingered as an aftertaste. +And in an attempt to reintroduce me to sanctity, my mother told me of the miracle I was, said I could grow up to be anything I want. +I decided to be a boy. +It was cute. +I had snapback, toothless grin, used skinned knees as street cred, played hide and seek with what was left of my goal. +I was it. +The winner to a game the other kids couldn't play, I was the mystery of an anatomy, a question asked but not answered, tightroping between awkward boy and apologetic girl, and when I turned 12, the boy phase wasn't deemed cute anymore. +It was met with nostalgic aunts who missed seeing my knees in the shadow of skirts, who reminded me that my kind of attitude would never bring a husband home, that I exist for heterosexual marriage and child-bearing. +And I swallowed their insults along with their slurs. +Naturally, I did not come out of the closet. +The kids at my school opened it without my permission. +Called me by a name I did not recognize, said "lesbian," but I was more boy than girl, more Ken than Barbie. +My mother fears I have named myself after fading things. +As she counts the echoes left behind by Mya Hall, Leelah Alcorn, Blake Brockington. +She fears that I'll die without a whisper, that I'll turn into "what a shame" conversations at the bus stop. +She claims I have turned myself into a mausoleum, that I am a walking casket, news headlines have turned my identity into a spectacle, Bruce Jenner on everyone's lips while the brutality of living in this body becomes an asterisk at the bottom of equality pages. +They'll put me back into the closet, hang me with all the other skeletons. +I will be the best attraction. +Can you see how easy it is to talk people into coffins, to misspell their names on gravestones. +And people still wonder why there are boys rotting, they go away in high school hallways they are afraid of becoming another hashtag in a second afraid of classroom discussions becoming like judgment day and now oncoming traffic is embracing more transgender children than parents. +I wonder how long it will be before the trans suicide notes start to feel redundant, before we realize that our bodies become lessons about sin way before we learn how to love them. +Like God didn't save all this breath and mercy, like my blood is not the wine that washed over Jesus' feet. +My prayers are now getting stuck in my throat. +Maybe I am finally fixed, maybe I just don't care, maybe God finally listened to my prayers. +Thank you. +An evolutionary biologist at Purdue University named William Muir studied chickens. +He was interested in productivity -- I think it's something that concerns all of us -- but it's easy to measure in chickens because you just count the eggs. +He wanted to know what could make his chickens more productive, so he devised a beautiful experiment. +Chickens live in groups, so first of all, he selected just an average flock, and he let it alone for six generations. +But then he created a second group of the individually most productive chickens -- you could call them superchickens -- and he put them together in a superflock, and each generation, he selected only the most productive for breeding. +After six generations had passed, what did he find? +Well, the first group, the average group, was doing just fine. +They were all plump and fully feathered and egg production had increased dramatically. +What about the second group? +Well, all but three were dead. +They'd pecked the rest to death. +The individually productive chickens had only achieved their success by suppressing the productivity of the rest. +Now, as I've gone around the world talking about this and telling this story in all sorts of organizations and companies, people have seen the relevance almost instantly, and they come up and they say things to me like, "That superflock, that's my company." +Or, "That's my country." +Or, "That's my life." +All my life I've been told that the way we have to get ahead is to compete: get into the right school, get into the right job, get to the top, and I've really never found it very inspiring. +I've started and run businesses because invention is a joy, and because working alongside brilliant, creative people is its own reward. +And I've never really felt very motivated by pecking orders or by superchickens or by superstars. +But for the past 50 years, we've run most organizations and some societies along the superchicken model. +We've thought that success is achieved by picking the superstars, the brightest men, or occasionally women, in the room, and giving them all the resources and all the power. +And the result has been just the same as in William Muir's experiment: aggression, dysfunction and waste. +If the only way the most productive can be successful is by suppressing the productivity of the rest, then we badly need to find a better way to work and a richer way to live. +So what is it that makes some groups obviously more successful and more productive than others? +Well, that's the question a team at MIT took to research. +They brought in hundreds of volunteers, they put them into groups, and they gave them very hard problems to solve. +And what happened was exactly what you'd expect, that some groups were very much more successful than others, but what was really interesting was that the high-achieving groups were not those where they had one or two people with spectacularly high I.Q. +Nor were the most successful groups the ones that had the highest aggregate I.Q. +Instead, they had three characteristics, the really successful teams. +First of all, they showed high degrees of social sensitivity to each other. +This is measured by something called the Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test. +It's broadly considered a test for empathy, and the groups that scored highly on this did better. +Secondly, the successful groups gave roughly equal time to each other, so that no one voice dominated, but neither were there any passengers. +And thirdly, the more successful groups had more women in them. +Now, was this because women typically score more highly on the Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test, so you're getting a doubling down on the empathy quotient? +Or was it because they brought a more diverse perspective? +We don't really know, but the striking thing about this experiment is that it showed what we know, which is some groups do better than others, but what's key to that is their social connectedness to each other. +So how does this play out in the real world? +Well, it means that what happens between people really counts, because in groups that are highly attuned and sensitive to each other, ideas can flow and grow. +People don't get stuck. They don't waste energy down dead ends. +An example: Arup is one of the world's most successful engineering firms, and it was commissioned to build the equestrian center for the Beijing Olympics. +Now, this building had to receive two and a half thousand really highly strung thoroughbred horses that were coming off long-haul flights, highly jet-lagged, not feeling their finest. +And the problem the engineer confronted was, what quantity of waste to cater for? +Now, you don't get taught this in engineering school -- -- and it's not really the kind of thing you want to get wrong, so he could have spent months talking to vets, doing the research, tweaking the spreadsheet. +Instead, he asked for help and he found someone who had designed the Jockey Club in New York. +The problem was solved in less than a day. +Arup believes that the culture of helpfulness is central to their success. +Now, helpfulness sounds really anemic, but it's absolutely core to successful teams, and it routinely outperforms individual intelligence. +Helpfulness means I don't have to know everything, I just have to work among people who are good at getting and giving help. +At SAP, they reckon that you can answer any question in 17 minutes. +But there isn't a single high-tech company I've worked with that imagines for a moment that this is a technology issue, because what drives helpfulness is people getting to know each other. +Now that sounds so obvious, and we think it'll just happen normally, but it doesn't. +When I was running my first software company, I realized that we were getting stuck. +There was a lot of friction, but not much else, and I gradually realized the brilliant, creative people that I'd hired didn't know each other. +They were so focused on their own individual work, they didn't even know who they were sitting next to, and it was only when I insisted that we stop working and invest time in getting to know each other that we achieved real momentum. +Now, that was 20 years ago, and now I visit companies that have banned coffee cups at desks because they want people to hang out around the coffee machines and talk to each other. +The Swedes even have a special term for this. +They call it fika, which means more than a coffee break. +It means collective restoration. +At Idexx, a company up in Maine, they've created vegetable gardens on campus so that people from different parts of the business can work together and get to know the whole business that way. +Have they all gone mad? +Quite the opposite -- they've figured out that when the going gets tough, and it always will get tough if you're doing breakthrough work that really matters, what people need is social support, and they need to know who to ask for help. +Companies don't have ideas; only people do. +And what motivates people are the bonds and loyalty and trust they develop between each other. +What matters is the mortar, not just the bricks. +Now, when you put all of this together, what you get is something called social capital. +Social capital is the reliance and interdependency that builds trust. +The term comes from sociologists who were studying communities that proved particularly resilient in times of stress. +Social capital is what gives companies momentum, and social capital is what makes companies robust. +What does this mean in practical terms? +It means that time is everything, because social capital compounds with time. +So teams that work together longer get better, because it takes time to develop the trust you need for real candor and openness. +And time is what builds value. +When Alex Pentland suggested to one company that they synchronize coffee breaks so that people would have time to talk to each other, profits went up 15 million dollars, and employee satisfaction went up 10 percent. +Not a bad return on social capital, which compounds even as you spend it. +Now, this isn't about chumminess, and it's no charter for slackers, because people who work this way tend to be kind of scratchy, impatient, absolutely determined to think for themselves because that's what their contribution is. +Conflict is frequent because candor is safe. +And that's how good ideas turn into great ideas, because no idea is born fully formed. +It emerges a little bit as a child is born, kind of messy and confused, but full of possibilities. +And it's only through the generous contribution, faith and challenge that they achieve their potential. +And that's what social capital supports. +Now, we aren't really used to talking about this, about talent, about creativity, in this way. +We're used to talking about stars. +So I started to wonder, well, if we start working this way, does that mean no more stars? +So I went and I sat in on the auditions at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art in London. +And what I saw there really surprised me, because the teachers weren't looking for individual pyrotechnics. +They were looking for what happened between the students, because that's where the drama is. +And when I talked to producers of hit albums, they said, "Oh sure, we have lots of superstars in music. +It's just, they don't last very long. +It's the outstanding collaborators who enjoy the long careers, because bringing out the best in others is how they found the best in themselves." +And when I went to visit companies that are renowned for their ingenuity and creativity, I couldn't even see any superstars, because everybody there really mattered. +And when I reflected on my own career, and the extraordinary people I've had the privilege to work with, I realized how much more we could give each other if we just stopped trying to be superchickens. +Once you appreciate truly how social work is, a lot of things have to change. +Management by talent contest has routinely pitted employees against each other. +Now, rivalry has to be replaced by social capital. +For decades, we've tried to motivate people with money, even though we've got a vast amount of research that shows that money erodes social connectedness. +Now, we need to let people motivate each other. +And for years, we've thought that leaders were heroic soloists who were expected, all by themselves, to solve complex problems. +Now, we need to redefine leadership as an activity in which conditions are created in which everyone can do their most courageous thinking together. +We know that this works. +When the Montreal Protocol called for the phasing out of CFCs, the chlorofluorocarbons implicated in the hole in the ozone layer, the risks were immense. +CFCs were everywhere, and nobody knew if a substitute could be found. +But one team that rose to the challenge adopted three key principles. +The first was the head of engineering, Frank Maslen, said, there will be no stars in this team. +We need everybody. +Everybody has a valid perspective. +Second, we work to one standard only: the best imaginable. +And third, he told his boss, Geoff Tudhope, that he had to butt out, because he knew how disruptive power can be. +Now, this didn't mean Tudhope did nothing. +He gave the team air cover, and he listened to ensure that they honored their principles. +And it worked: Ahead of all the other companies tackling this hard problem, this group cracked it first. +And to date, the Montreal Protocol is the most successful international environmental agreement ever implemented. +There was a lot at stake then, and there's a lot at stake now, and we won't solve our problems if we expect it to be solved by a few supermen or superwomen. +Now we need everybody, because it is only when we accept that everybody has value that we will liberate the energy and imagination and momentum we need to create the best beyond measure. +Thank you. +A few years ago, my mom developed rheumatoid arthritis. +Her wrists, knees and toes swelled up, causing crippling, chronic pain. +She had to file for disability. +She stopped attending our local mosque. +Some mornings it was too painful for her to brush her teeth. +I wanted to help. +But I didn't know how. +I'm not a doctor. +So, what I am is a historian of medicine. +So I started to research the history of chronic pain. +Turns out, UCLA has an entire history of pain collection in their archives. +And I found a story -- a fantastic story -- of a man who saved -- rescued -- millions of people from pain; people like my mom. +Yet, I had never heard of him. +There were no biographies of him, no Hollywood movies. +His name was John J. Bonica. +But when our story begins, he was better known as Johnny "Bull" Walker. +It was a summer day in 1941. +The circus had just arrived in the tiny town of Brookfield, New York. +Spectators flocked to see the wire-walkers, the tramp clowns -- if they were lucky, the human cannonball. +They also came to see the strongman, Johnny "Bull" Walker, a brawny bully who'd pin you for a dollar. +You know, on that particular day, a voice rang out over the circus P.A. system. +They needed a doctor urgently, in the live animal tent. +Something had gone wrong with the lion tamer. +The climax of his act had gone wrong, and his head was stuck inside the lion's mouth. +He was running out of air; the crowd watched in horror as he struggled and then passed out. +When the lion finally did relax its jaws, the lion tamer just slumped to the ground, motionless. +When he came to a few minutes later, he saw a familiar figure hunched over him. +It was Bull Walker. +The strongman had given the lion tamer mouth-to-mouth, and saved his life. +Now, the strongman hadn't told anyone, but he was actually a third-year medical student. +He toured with the circus during summers to pay tuition, but kept it a secret to protect his persona. +He was supposed to be a brute, a villain -- not a nerdy do-gooder. +His medical colleagues didn't know his secret, either. +As he put it, "If you were an athlete, you were a dumb dodo." +So he didn't tell them about the circus, or about how he wrestled professionally on evenings and weekends. +He used a pseudonym like Bull Walker, or later, the Masked Marvel. +He even kept it a secret that same year, when he was crowned the Light Heavyweight Champion of the world. +Over the years, John J. Bonica lived these parallel lives. +He was a wrestler; he was a doctor. +He was a heel; he was a hero. +He inflicted pain, and he treated it. +And he didnt know it at the time, but over the next five decades, he'd draw on these dueling identities to forge a whole new way to think about pain. +It'd change modern medicine so much so, that decades later, Time magazine would call him pain relief's founding father. +But that all happened later. +In 1942, Bonica graduated medical school and married Emma, his sweetheart, whom he had met at one of his matches years before. +He still wrestled in secret -- he had to. +His internship at New York's St. Vincent's Hospital paid nothing. +With his championship belt, he wrestled in big-ticket venues, like Madison Square Garden, against big-time opponents, like Everett "The Blonde Bear" Marshall, or three-time world champion, Angelo Savoldi. +The matches took a toll on his body; he tore hip joints, fractured ribs. +One night, The Terrible Turk's big toe scratched a scar like Capone's down the side of his face. +The next morning at work, he had to wear a surgical mask to hide it. +Twice Bonica showed up to the O.R. with one eye so bruised, he couldn't see out of it. +But worst of all were his mangled cauliflower ears. +He said they felt like two baseballs on the sides of his head. +Pain just kept accumulating in his life. +Next, he watched his wife go into labor at his hospital. +She heaved and pushed, clearly in anguish. +Her obstetrician called out to the intern on duty to give her a few drops of ether to ease her pain. +But the intern was a young guy, just three weeks on the job -- he was jittery, and in applying the ether, irritated Emma's throat. +She vomited and choked, and started to turn blue. +Bonica, who was watching all this, pushed the intern out of the way, cleared her airway, and saved his wife and his unborn daughter. +At that moment, he decided to devote his life to anesthesiology. +Later, he'd even go on to help develop the epidural, for delivering mothers. +But before he could focus on obstetrics, Bonica had to report for basic training. +Right around D-Day, Bonica showed up to Madigan Army Medical Center, near Tacoma. +At 7,700 beds, it was one of the largest army hospitals in America. +Bonica was in charge of all pain control there. +He was only 27. +Treating so many patients, Bonica started noticing cases that contradicted everything he had learned. +Pain was supposed to be a kind of alarm bell -- in a good way -- a body's way of signaling an injury, like a broken arm. +But in some cases, like after a patient had a leg amputated, that patient might still complain of pain in that nonexistent leg. +But if the injury had been treated, why would the alarm bell keep ringing? +There were other cases in which there was no evidence of an injury whatsoever, and yet, still the patient hurt. +Bonica tracked down all the specialists at his hospital -- surgeons, neurologists, psychiatrists, others. +And he tried to get their opinions on his patients. +It took too long, so he started organizing group meetings over lunch. +It would be like a tag team of specialists going up against the patient's pain. +No one had ever focused on pain this way before. +After that, he hit the books. +He read every medical textbook he could get his hands on, carefully noting every mention of the word "pain." +Out of the 14,000 pages he read, the word "pain" was on 17 and a half of them. +Seventeen and a half. +For the most basic, most common, most frustrating part of being a patient. +Bonica was shocked -- I'm quoting him, he said, "What the hell kind of conclusion can you come to there? +The most important thing from the patient's perspective, they don't talk about." +So over the next eight years, Bonica would talk about it. +He'd write about it; he'd write those missing pages. +He wrote what would later be known as the Bible of Pain. +In it he proposed new strategies, new treatments using nerve-block injections. +He proposed a new institution, the Pain Clinic, based on those lunchtime meetings. +But the most important thing about his book was that it was kind of an emotional alarm bell for medicine. +A desperate plea to doctors to take pain seriously in patients' lives. +He recast the very purpose of medicine. +The goal wasn't to make patients better; it was to make patients feel better. +He pushed his pain agenda for decades, before it finally took hold in the mid-'70s. +Hundreds of pain clinics sprung up all over the world. +But as they did -- a tragic twist. +Bonica's years of wrestling caught up to him. +He had been out of the ring for over 20 years, but those 1,500 professional bouts had left a mark on his body. +Still in his mid-50s, he suffered severe osteoarthritis. +Over the next 20 years he'd have 22 surgeries, including four spine operations, and hip replacement after hip replacement. +He could barely raise his arm, turn his neck. +He needed aluminum crutches to walk. +His friends and former students became his doctors. +One recalled that he probably had more nerve-block injections than anyone else on the planet. +Already a workaholic, he worked even more -- 15- to 18-hour days. +Healing others became more than just his job, it was his own most effective form of relief. +"If I wasn't as busy as I am," he told a reporter at the time, "I would be a completely disabled guy." +On a business trip to Florida in the early 1980s, Bonica got a former student to drive him to the Hyde Park area in Tampa. +They drove past palm trees and pulled up to an old mansion, with giant silver howitzer cannons hidden in the garage. +The house belonged to the Zacchini family, who were something like American circus royalty. +Decades earlier, Bonica had watched them, clad in silver jumpsuits and goggles, doing the act they pioneered -- the Human Cannonball. +But now they were like him: retired. +That generation is all dead now, including Bonica, so there's no way to know exactly what they said that day. +But still, I love imagining it. +The strongman and the human cannonballs reunited, showing off old scars, and new ones. +Maybe Bonica gave them medical advice. +Maybe he told them what he later said in an oral history, which is that his time in the circus and wrestling deeply molded his life. +Bonica saw pain close up. +He felt it. He lived it. +And it made it impossible for him to ignore in others. +Out of that empathy, he spun a whole new field, played a major role in getting medicine to acknowledge pain In that same oral history, Bonica claimed that pain is the most complex human experience. +That it involves your past life, your current life, your interactions, your family. +That was definitely true for Bonica. +But it was also true for my mom. +It's easy for doctors to see my mom as a kind of professional patient, a woman who just spends her days in waiting rooms. +Sometimes I get stuck seeing her that same way. +But as I saw Bonica's pain -- a testament to his fully lived life -- I started to remember all the things that my mom's pain holds. +Before they got swollen and arthritic, my mom's fingers clacked away in the hospital H.R. department where she worked. +They folded samosas for our entire mosque. +When I was a kid, they cut my hair, wiped my nose, tied my shoes. +Thank you. +Every group of female friends has the funny one, the one you go to when you need a good cry, the one who tells you to suck it up when you've had a hard day. +And this group was no different. +Except that this was a community of groundbreaking women who came together -- first to become teammates, then friends, and then family -- in the least likely of places: on the Special Operations battlefield. +This was a group of women whose friendship and valor was cemented not only by what they had seen and done at the tip of the spear, but by the fact that they were there at a time when women -- officially, at least -- remained banned from ground combat, and America had no idea they existed. +This story begins with Special Operations leaders, some of the most tested men in the United States military, saying, "We need women to help us wage this war." +"America would never kill its way to the end of its wars," it argued. +"Needed more knowledge and more understanding." +And as everyone knows, if you want to understand what's happening in a community and in a home, you talk to women, whether you're talking about Southern Afghanistan, or Southern California. +But in this case, men could not talk to women, because in a conservative and traditional society like Afghanistan, that would cause grave offense. +So you needed women soldiers out there. +That meant, at this time in the war, that the women who would be recruited to serve alongside Army Rangers and Navy SEALs, would be seeing the kind of combat experienced by less than five percent of the entire United States military. +Less than five percent. +So the call went out. +"Female soldiers: Become a part of history. +Join Special Operations on the battlefield in Afghanistan." +This is in 2011. +And from Alabama to Alaska, a group of women who had always wanted to do something that mattered alongside the best of the best, and to make a difference for their country, answered that call to serve. +And for them it was not about politics, it was about serving with purpose. +And so, the women who came to North Carolina to compete for a spot on these teams which would put women on the Special Operations front lines, landed and found very quickly a community, the likes of which they had never seen. +Full of women who were as fierce and as fit as they were, and as driven to make a difference. +They didn't have to apologize for who they were, and in fact, they could celebrate it. +And what they found when they were there was that all of a sudden, there were lots of people like them. +As one of them said, "It was like you looked around and realized there was more than one giraffe at the zoo." +Among this team of standouts was Cassie, a young woman who managed to be an ROTC cadet, a sorority sister and a Women's Studies minor, all in one person. +Tristan, a West Point track star, who always ran and road marched with no socks, and had shoes whose smell proved it. +Amber, a Heidi look-alike, who had always wanted to be in the infantry, and when she found out that women couldn't be, she decided to become an intel officer. +She served in Bosnia, and later helped the FBI to bust drug gangs in Pennsylvania. +And then there was Kate, who played high school football all four years, and actually wanted to drop out after the first, to go into the glee club, but when boys told her that girls couldn't play football, she decided to stay for all the little girls who would come after her. +For them, biology had shaped part of their destiny, and put, as Cassie once said, "everything noble out of reach for girls." +And yet, here was a chance to serve with the best of the best on a mission that mattered to their country, not despite the fact that they were female, but because of it. +This team of women, in many ways, was like women everywhere. +They wore makeup, and in fact, they would bond in the ladies' room over eyeliner and eye pencil. +They also wore body armor. +They would put 50 pounds of weight on their backs, and board the helicopter for an operation, and they would come back and watch a movie called "Bridesmaids." +They even wore a thing called Spanx, because, as they found very quickly, the uniforms made for men were big where they should be small, and small where they should be big. +So Lane, an Iraq War veteran -- you see her here on my left -- decided she was going to go on Amazon and order a pair of Spanx to her base, so that her pants would fit better when she went out on mission each night. +These women would get together over video conference from all around Afghanistan from their various bases, and they would talk about what it was like to be one of the only women doing what they were doing. +They would swap jokes, they would talk about what was working, what wasn't, what they had learned to do well, what they needed to do better. +And they would talk about some of the lighter moments of being women out on the Special Operations front lines, including the Shewee, which was a tool that let you pee like a guy, although it's said to have had only a 40 percent accuracy rate out there. +These women lived in the "and." +They proved you could be fierce and you could be feminine. +You could wear mascara and body armor. +You could love CrossFit, and really like cross-stitch. +You could love to climb out of helicopters and you could also love to bake cookies. +Women live in the and every single day, and these women brought that to this mission as well. +On this life and death battlefield they never forgot that being female may have brought them to the front lines, but being a soldier is what would prove themselves there. +There was the night Amber went out on mission, and in talking to the women of the house, realized that there was a barricaded shooter lying in wait for the Afghan and American forces who were waiting to enter the home. +Another night it was Tristan who found out that there were pieces that make up explosives all around the house in which they were standing, and that in fact, explosives lay all the way between there and where they were about to head that night. +There was the night another one of their teammates proved herself to a decidedly skeptical team of SEALs, when she found the intel item they were looking for wrapped up in a baby's wet diaper. +And there was the night that Isabel, another one of their teammates, found the things that they were looking for, and received an Impact Award from the Rangers who said that without her, the things and the people they were looking for that night would never have been found. +That night and so many others, they went out to prove themselves, not only for one another, but for everybody who would come after them. +And also for the men alongside whom they served. +We talk a lot about how behind every great man is a good woman. +And in this case, next to these women stood men who wanted to see them succeed. +The Army Ranger who trained them had served 12 deployments. +And when they told him that he had to go train girls, he had no idea what to expect. +But at the end of eight days with these women in the summer of 2011, he told his fellow Ranger, "We have just witnessed history. +These may well be our own Tuskegee Airmen." +At the heart of this team was the one person who everyone called "the best of us." +She was a petite blonde dynamo, who barely reached five-foot-three. +And she was this wild mix of Martha Stewart, and what we know as G.I. Jane. +She was someone who loved to make dinner for her husband, her Kent State ROTC sweetheart who pushed her to be her best, and to trust herself, and to test every limit she could. +She also loved to put 50 pounds of weight on her back and run for miles, and she loved to be a soldier. +She was somebody who had a bread maker in her office in Kandahar, and would bake a batch of raisin bread, and then go to the gym and bust out 25 or 30 pull-ups from a dead hang. +She was the person who, if you needed an extra pair of boots or a home-cooked dinner, would be on your speed dial. +Because she never, ever would talk to you about how good she was, but let her character speak through action. +She was famous for taking the hard right over the easy wrong. +And she was also famous for walking up to a 15-foot rope, climbing it using only her arms, and then shuffling away and apologizing, because she knew she was supposed to use both her arms and her legs, as the Rangers had trained them. +Some of our heroes return home to tell their stories. +And some of them don't. +And on October 22, 2011, First Lieutenant Ashley White was killed alongside two Rangers, Christopher Horns and Kristoffer Domeij. +Her death threw this program built for the shadows into a very public spotlight. +Because after all, the ban on women in combat was still very much in place. +And at her funeral, the head of Army Special Operations came, and gave a public testimony not just to the courage of Ashley White, but to all her team of sisters. +"Make no mistake about it," he said, "these women are warriors, and they have written a new chapter in what it means to be a female in the United States Army." +Ashley's mom is a teacher's aide and a school bus driver, who bakes cookies on the side. +She doesn't remember much about that overwhelming set of days, in which grief -- enormous grief -- mixed with pride. +But she does remember one moment. +A stranger with a child in her hand came up to her and she said, "Mrs. White, I brought my daughter here today, because I wanted her to know what a hero was. +And I wanted her to know that heroes could be women, too." +It is time to celebrate all the unsung heroines who reach into their guts and find the heart and the grit to keep going and to test every limit. +This very unlikely band of sisters bound forever in life and afterward did indeed become part of history, and they paved the way for so many who would come after them, as much as they stood on the shoulders of those who had come before. +These women showed that warriors come in all shapes and sizes. +And women can be heroes, too. +Thank you so much. +So in 1885, Karl Benz invented the automobile. +Later that year, he took it out for the first public test drive, and -- true story -- crashed into a wall. +For the last 130 years, we've been working around that least reliable part of the car, the driver. +We've made the car stronger. +We've added seat belts, we've added air bags, and in the last decade, we've actually started trying to make the car smarter to fix that bug, the driver. +Now, today I'm going to talk to you a little bit about the difference between patching around the problem with driver assistance systems and actually having fully self-driving cars and what they can do for the world. +I'm also going to talk to you a little bit about our car and allow you to see how it sees the world and how it reacts and what it does, but first I'm going to talk a little bit about the problem. +And it's a big problem: 1.2 million people are killed on the world's roads every year. +In America alone, 33,000 people are killed each year. +To put that in perspective, that's the same as a 737 falling out of the sky every working day. +It's kind of unbelievable. +Cars are sold to us like this, but really, this is what driving's like. +Right? It's not sunny, it's rainy, and you want to do anything other than drive. +And the reason why is this: Traffic is getting worse. +In America, between 1990 and 2010, the vehicle miles traveled increased by 38 percent. +We grew by six percent of roads, so it's not in your brains. +Traffic really is substantially worse than it was not very long ago. +And all of this has a very human cost. +So if you take the average commute time in America, which is about 50 minutes, you multiply that by the 120 million workers we have, that turns out to be about six billion minutes wasted in commuting every day. +Now, that's a big number, so let's put it in perspective. +You take that six billion minutes and you divide it by the average life expectancy of a person, that turns out to be 162 lifetimes spent every day, wasted, just getting from A to B. +It's unbelievable. +And then, there are those of us who don't have the privilege of sitting in traffic. +So this is Steve. +He's an incredibly capable guy, but he just happens to be blind, and that means instead of a 30-minute drive to work in the morning, it's a two-hour ordeal of piecing together bits of public transit or asking friends and family for a ride. +He doesn't have that same freedom that you and I have to get around. +We should do something about that. +Now, conventional wisdom would say that we'll just take these driver assistance systems and we'll kind of push them and incrementally improve them, and over time, they'll turn into self-driving cars. +Well, I'm here to tell you that's like me saying that if I work really hard at jumping, one day I'll be able to fly. +We actually need to do something a little different. +And so I'm going to talk to you about three different ways that self-driving systems are different than driver assistance systems. +And I'm going to start with some of our own experience. +So back in 2013, we had the first test of a self-driving car where we let regular people use it. +Well, almost regular -- they were 100 Googlers, but they weren't working on the project. +And we gave them the car and we allowed them to use it in their daily lives. +But unlike a real self-driving car, this one had a big asterisk with it: They had to pay attention, because this was an experimental vehicle. +We tested it a lot, but it could still fail. +And so we gave them two hours of training, we put them in the car, we let them use it, and what we heard back was something awesome, as someone trying to bring a product into the world. +Every one of them told us they loved it. +In fact, we had a Porsche driver who came in and told us on the first day, "This is completely stupid. What are we thinking?" +But at the end of it, he said, "Not only should I have it, everyone else should have it, because people are terrible drivers." +So this was music to our ears, but then we started to look at what the people inside the car were doing, and this was eye-opening. +Sure enough, the phone is charging. +All the time he's been doing 65 miles per hour down the freeway. +Right? Unbelievable. +So we thought about this and we said, it's kind of obvious, right? +The better the technology gets, the less reliable the driver is going to get. +So by just making the cars incrementally smarter, we're probably not going to see the wins we really need. +Let me talk about something a little technical for a moment here. +So we're looking at this graph, and along the bottom is how often does the car apply the brakes when it shouldn't. +You can ignore most of that axis, because if you're driving around town, and the car starts stopping randomly, you're never going to buy that car. +And the vertical axis is how often the car is going to apply the brakes when it's supposed to to help you avoid an accident. +Now, if we look at the bottom left corner here, this is your classic car. +It doesn't apply the brakes for you, it doesn't do anything goofy, but it also doesn't get you out of an accident. +Now, if we want to bring a driver assistance system into a car, say with collision mitigation braking, we're going to put some package of technology on there, and that's this curve, and it's going to have some operating properties, but it's never going to avoid all of the accidents, because it doesn't have that capability. +But we'll pick some place along the curve here, and maybe it avoids half of accidents that the human driver misses, and that's amazing, right? +We just reduced accidents on our roads by a factor of two. +There are now 17,000 less people dying every year in America. +But if we want a self-driving car, we need a technology curve that looks like this. +We're going to have to put more sensors in the vehicle, and we'll pick some operating point up here where it basically never gets into a crash. +They'll happen, but very low frequency. +Now you and I could look at this and we could argue about whether it's incremental, and I could say something like "80-20 rule," and it's really hard to move up to that new curve. +But let's look at it from a different direction for a moment. +So let's look at how often the technology has to do the right thing. +And so this green dot up here is a driver assistance system. +It turns out that human drivers make mistakes that lead to traffic accidents about once every 100,000 miles in America. +In contrast, a self-driving system is probably making decisions about 10 times per second, so order of magnitude, that's about 1,000 times per mile. +So if you compare the distance between these two, it's about 10 to the eighth, right? +Eight orders of magnitude. +That's like comparing how fast I run to the speed of light. +It doesn't matter how hard I train, I'm never actually going to get there. +So there's a pretty big gap there. +And then finally, there's how the system can handle uncertainty. +So this pedestrian here might be stepping into the road, might not be. +I can't tell, nor can any of our algorithms, but in the case of a driver assistance system, that means it can't take action, because again, if it presses the brakes unexpectedly, that's completely unacceptable. +Whereas a self-driving system can look at that pedestrian and say, I don't know what they're about to do, slow down, take a better look, and then react appropriately after that. +So it can be much safer than a driver assistance system can ever be. +So that's enough about the differences between the two. +Let's spend some time talking about how the car sees the world. +So this is our vehicle. +It starts by understanding where it is in the world, by taking a map and its sensor data and aligning the two, and then we layer on top of that what it sees in the moment. +So here, all the purple boxes you can see are other vehicles on the road, and the red thing on the side over there is a cyclist, and up in the distance, if you look really closely, you can see some cones. +Then we know where the car is in the moment, but we have to do better than that: we have to predict what's going to happen. +So here the pickup truck in top right is about to make a left lane change because the road in front of it is closed, so it needs to get out of the way. +Knowing that one pickup truck is great, but we really need to know what everybody's thinking, so it becomes quite a complicated problem. +And then given that, we can figure out how the car should respond in the moment, so what trajectory it should follow, how quickly it should slow down or speed up. +And then that all turns into just following a path: turning the steering wheel left or right, pressing the brake or gas. +It's really just two numbers at the end of the day. +So how hard can it really be? +Back when we started in 2009, this is what our system looked like. +So you can see our car in the middle and the other boxes on the road, driving down the highway. +The car needs to understand where it is and roughly where the other vehicles are. +It's really a geometric understanding of the world. +Once we started driving on neighborhood and city streets, the problem becomes a whole new level of difficulty. +You see pedestrians crossing in front of us, cars crossing in front of us, going every which way, the traffic lights, crosswalks. +It's an incredibly complicated problem by comparison. +And then once you have that problem solved, the vehicle has to be able to deal with construction. +So here are the cones on the left forcing it to drive to the right, but not just construction in isolation, of course. +It has to deal with other people moving through that construction zone as well. +And of course, if anyone's breaking the rules, the police are there and the car has to understand that that flashing light on the top of the car means that it's not just a car, it's actually a police officer. +Similarly, the orange box on the side here, it's a school bus, and we have to treat that differently as well. +When we're out on the road, other people have expectations: So, when a cyclist puts up their arm, it means they're expecting the car to yield to them and make room for them to make a lane change. +And when a police officer stood in the road, our vehicle should understand that this means stop, and when they signal to go, we should continue. +Now, the way we accomplish this is by sharing data between the vehicles. +The first, most crude model of this is when one vehicle sees a construction zone, having another know about it so it can be in the correct lane to avoid some of the difficulty. +But we actually have a much deeper understanding of this. +We could take all of the data that the cars have seen over time, the hundreds of thousands of pedestrians, cyclists, and vehicles that have been out there and understand what they look like and use that to infer what other vehicles should look like and other pedestrians should look like. +And then, even more importantly, we could take from that a model of how we expect them to move through the world. +So here the yellow box is a pedestrian crossing in front of us. +Here the blue box is a cyclist and we anticipate that they're going to nudge out and around the car to the right. +Here there's a cyclist coming down the road and we know they're going to continue to drive down the shape of the road. +Here somebody makes a right turn, and in a moment here, somebody's going to make a U-turn in front of us, and we can anticipate that behavior and respond safely. +Now, that's all well and good for things that we've seen, but of course, you encounter lots of things that you haven't seen in the world before. +And so just a couple of months ago, our vehicles were driving through Mountain View, and this is what we encountered. +This is a woman in an electric wheelchair chasing a duck in circles on the road. Now it turns out, there is nowhere in the DMV handbook that tells you how to deal with that, but our vehicles were able to encounter that, slow down, and drive safely. +Now, we don't have to deal with just ducks. +Watch this bird fly across in front of us. The car reacts to that. +Here we're dealing with a cyclist that you would never expect to see anywhere other than Mountain View. +And of course, we have to deal with drivers, even the very small ones. +Watch to the right as someone jumps out of this truck at us. +And now, watch the left as the car with the green box decides he needs to make a right turn at the last possible moment. +Here, as we make a lane change, the car to our left decides it wants to as well. +And here, we watch a car blow through a red light and yield to it. +And similarly, here, a cyclist blowing through that light as well. +And of course, the vehicle responds safely. +And of course, we have people who do I don't know what sometimes on the road, like this guy pulling out between two self-driving cars. +You have to ask, "What are you thinking?" +Now, I just fire-hosed you with a lot of stuff there, so I'm going to break one of these down pretty quickly. +So what we're looking at is the scene with the cyclist again, and you might notice in the bottom, we can't actually see the cyclist yet, but the car can: it's that little blue box up there, and that comes from the laser data. +And that's not actually really easy to understand, so what I'm going to do is I'm going to turn that laser data and look at it, and if you're really good at looking at laser data, you can see a few dots on the curve there, right there, and that blue box is that cyclist. +Now as our light is red, the cyclist's light has turned yellow already, and if you squint, you can see that in the imagery. +But the cyclist, we see, is going to proceed through the intersection. +Our light has now turned green, his is solidly red, and we now anticipate that this bike is going to come all the way across. +Unfortunately the other drivers next to us were not paying as much attention. +They started to pull forward, and fortunately for everyone, this cyclists reacts, avoids, and makes it through the intersection. +And off we go. +Now, as you can see, we've made some pretty exciting progress, and at this point we're pretty convinced this technology is going to come to market. +We do three million miles of testing in our simulators every single day, so you can imagine the experience that our vehicles have. +We are looking forward to having this technology on the road, and we think the right path is to go through the self-driving rather than driver assistance approach because the urgency is so large. +In the time I have given this talk today, 34 people have died on America's roads. +How soon can we bring it out? +Well, it's hard to say because it's a really complicated problem, but these are my two boys. +My oldest son is 11, and that means in four and a half years, he's going to be able to get his driver's license. +My team and I are committed to making sure that doesn't happen. +Thank you. +Chris Anderson: Chris, I've got a question for you. +Chris Urmson: Sure. +CA: So certainly, the mind of your cars is pretty mind-boggling. +On this debate between driver-assisted and fully driverless -- I mean, there's a real debate going on out there right now. +So some of the companies, for example, Tesla, are going the driver-assisted route. +What you're saying is that that's kind of going to be a dead end because you can't just keep improving that route and get to fully driverless at some point, and then a driver is going to say, "This feels safe," and climb into the back, and something ugly will happen. +CU: Right. No, that's exactly right, and it's not to say that the driver assistance systems aren't going to be incredibly valuable. +CA: We will be tracking your progress with huge interest. +Thanks so much, Chris. CU: Thank you. +When you're a child, anything and everything is possible. +The challenge, so often, is hanging on to that as we grow up. +And as a four-year-old, I had the opportunity to sail for the first time. +I will never forget the excitement as we closed the coast. +I will never forget the feeling of adventure as I climbed on board the boat and stared into her tiny cabin for the first time. +But the most amazing feeling was the feeling of freedom, the feeling that I felt when we hoisted her sails. +As a four-year-old child, it was the greatest sense of freedom that I could ever imagine. +I made my mind up there and then that one day, somehow, I was going to sail around the world. +So I did what I could in my life to get closer to that dream. +Age 10, it was saving my school dinner money change. +Every single day for eight years, I had mashed potato and baked beans, which cost 4p each, and gravy was free. +Every day I would pile up the change on the top of my money box, and when that pile reached a pound, I would drop it in and cross off one of the 100 squares I'd drawn on a piece of paper. +Finally, I bought a tiny dinghy. +I spent hours sitting on it in the garden dreaming of my goal. +I read every book I could on sailing, and then eventually, having been told by my school I wasn't clever enough to be a vet, left school age 17 to begin my apprenticeship in sailing. +So imagine how it felt just four years later to be sitting in a boardroom in front of someone who I knew could make that dream come true. +I felt like my life depended on that moment, and incredibly, he said yes. +And I could barely contain my excitement as I sat in that first design meeting designing a boat on which I was going to sail solo nonstop around the world. +From that first meeting to the finish line of the race, it was everything I'd ever imagined. +Just like in my dreams, there were amazing parts and tough parts. +We missed an iceberg by 20 feet. +Nine times, I climbed to the top of her 90-foot mast. +We were blown on our side in the Southern Ocean. +But the sunsets, the wildlife, and the remoteness were absolutely breathtaking. +After three months at sea, age just 24, I finished in second position. +I'd loved it, so much so that within six months I decided to go around the world again, but this time not in a race: to try to be the fastest person ever to sail solo nonstop around the world. +Now for this, I needed a different craft: bigger, wider, faster, more powerful. +Just to give that boat some scale, I could climb inside her mast all the way to the top. +Seventy-five foot long, 60 foot wide. +I affectionately called her Moby. +She was a multihull. +When we built her, no one had ever made it solo nonstop around the world in one, though many had tried, but whilst we built her, a Frenchman took a boat 25 percent bigger than her and not only did he make it, but he took the record from 93 days right down to 72. +The bar was now much, much higher. +And these boats were exciting to sail. +This was a training sail off the French coast. +This I know well because I was one of the five crew members on board. +Five seconds is all it took from everything being fine to our world going black as the windows were thrust underwater, and that five seconds goes quickly. +Just see how far below those guys the sea is. +Imagine that alone in the Southern Ocean plunged into icy water, thousands of miles away from land. +It was Christmas Day. +I was forging into the Southern Ocean underneath Australia. +The conditions were horrendous. +I was approaching a part in the ocean which was 2,000 miles away from the nearest town. +The nearest land was Antarctica, and the nearest people would be those manning the European Space Station above me. +You really are in the middle of nowhere. +If you need help, and you're still alive, it takes four days for a ship to get to you and then four days for that ship to get you back to port. +No helicopter can reach you out there, and no plane can land. +We are forging ahead of a huge storm. +Within it, there was 80 knots of wind, which was far too much wind for the boat and I to cope with. +The waves were already 40 to 50 feet high, and the spray from the breaking crests was blown horizontally like snow in a blizzard. +If we didn't sail fast enough, we'd be engulfed by that storm, and either capsized or smashed to pieces. +We were quite literally hanging on for our lives and doing so on a knife edge. +The speed I so desperately needed brought with it danger. +We all know what it's like driving a car 20 miles an hour, 30, 40. +It's not too stressful. We can concentrate. +We can turn on the radio. +Take that 50, 60, 70, accelerate through to 80, 90, 100 miles an hour. +Now you have white knuckles and you're gripping the steering wheel. +Now take that car off road at night and remove the windscreen wipers, the windscreen, the headlights and the brakes. +That's what it's like in the Southern Ocean. +You could imagine it would be quite difficult to sleep in that situation, even as a passenger. +But you're not a passenger. +You're alone on a boat you can barely stand up in, and you have to make every single decision on board. +I was absolutely exhausted, physically and mentally. +Eight sail changes in 12 hours. +The mainsail weighed three times my body weight, and after each change, I would collapse on the floor soaked with sweat with this freezing Southern Ocean air burning the back of my throat. +But out there, those lowest of the lows are so often contrasted with the highest of the highs. +A few days later, we came out of the back of the low. +Against all odds, we'd been able to drive ahead of the record within that depression. +The sky cleared, the rain stopped, and our heartbeat, the monstrous seas around us were transformed into the most beautiful moonlit mountains. +It's hard to explain, but you enter a different mode when you head out there. +Your boat is your entire world, and what you take with you when you leave is all you have. +If I said to you all now, "Go off into Vancouver and find everything you will need for your survival for the next three months," that's quite a task. +That's food, fuel, clothes, even toilet roll and toothpaste. +That's what we do, and when we leave we manage it down to the last drop of diesel and the last packet of food. +No experience in my life could have given me a better understanding of the definition of the word "finite." +What we have out there is all we have. +There is no more. +And never in my life had I ever translated that definition of finite that I'd felt on board to anything outside of sailing until I stepped off the boat at the finish line having broken that record. +Suddenly I connected the dots. +Our global economy is no different. +It's entirely dependent on finite materials we only have once in the history of humanity. +And it was a bit like seeing something you weren't expecting under a stone and having two choices: I either put that stone to one side and learn more about it, or I put that stone back and I carry on with my dream job of sailing around the world. +I chose the first. +I put it to one side and I began a new journey of learning, speaking to chief executives, experts, scientists, economists to try to understand just how our global economy works. +And my curiosity took me to some extraordinary places. +This photo was taken in the burner of a coal-fired power station. +I was fascinated by coal, fundamental to our global energy needs, but also very close to my family. +My great-grandfather was a coal miner, and he spent 50 years of his life underground. +This is a photo of him, and when you see that photo, you see someone from another era. +No one wears trousers with a waistband quite that high in this day and age. But yet, that's me with my great-grandfather, and by the way, they are not his real ears. We were close. I remember sitting on his knee listening to his mining stories. +He talked of the camaraderie underground, and the fact that the miners used to save the crusts of their sandwiches to give to the ponies they worked with underground. +It was like it was yesterday. +And on my journey of learning, I went to the World Coal Association website, and there in the middle of the homepage, it said, "We have about 118 years of coal left." +And I thought to myself, well, that's well outside my lifetime, and a much greater figure than the predictions for oil. +But I did the math, and I realized that my great-grandfather had been born exactly 118 years before that year, and I sat on his knee until I was 11 years old, and I realized it's nothing in time, nor in history. +And it made me make a decision I never thought I would make: to leave the sport of solo sailing behind me and focus on the greatest challenge I'd ever come across: the future of our global economy. +And I quickly realized it wasn't just about energy. +It was also materials. +In 2008, I picked up a scientific study looking at how many years we have of valuable materials to extract from the ground: copper, 61; tin, zinc, 40; silver, 29. +These figures couldn't be exact, but we knew those materials were finite. +We only have them once. +And yet, our speed that we've used these materials has increased rapidly, exponentially. +With more people in the world with more stuff, we've effectively seen 100 years of price declines in those basic commodities erased in just 10 years. +And this affects all of us. +It's brought huge volatility in prices, so much so that in 2011, your average European car manufacturer saw a raw material price increase of 500 million Euros, wiping away half their operating profits through something they have absolutely no control over. +And the more I learned, the more I started to change my own life. +I started traveling less, doing less, using less. +It felt like actually doing less was what we had to do. +But it sat uneasy with me. +It didn't feel right. +It felt like we were buying ourselves time. +We were eking things out a bit longer. +Even if everybody changed, it wouldn't solve the problem. +It wouldn't fix the system. +It was vital in the transition, but what fascinated me was, in the transition to what? What could actually work? +It struck me that the system itself, the framework within which we live, is fundamentally flawed, and I realized ultimately that our operating system, the way our economy functions, the way our economy's been built, is a system in itself. +At sea, I had to understand complex systems. +I had to take multiple inputs, I had to process them, and I had to understand the system to win. +I had to make sense of it. +And as I looked at our global economy, I realized it too is that system, but it's a system that effectively can't run in the long term. +It's an economy that fundamentally can't run in the long term, and if we know that we have finite materials, why would we build an economy that would effectively use things up, that would create waste? +Life itself has existed for billions of years and has continually adapted to use materials effectively. +It's a complex system, but within it, there is no waste. +Everything is metabolized. +It's not a linear economy at all, but circular. +And I felt like the child in the garden. +For the first time on this new journey, I could see exactly where we were headed. +If we could build an economy that would use things rather than use them up, we could build a future that really could work in the long term. +I was excited. +This was something to work towards. +We knew exactly where we were headed. We just had to work out how to get there, and it was exactly with this in mind that we created the Ellen MacArthur Foundation in September 2010. +Many schools of thought fed our thinking and pointed to this model: industrial symbiosis, performance economy, sharing economy, biomimicry, and of course, cradle-to-cradle design. +Materials would be defined as either technical or biological, waste would be designed out entirely, and we would have a system that could function absolutely in the long term. +So what could this economy look like? +Maybe we wouldn't buy light fittings, but we'd pay for the service of light, and the manufacturers would recover the materials and change the light fittings when we had more efficient products. +What if packaging was so nontoxic it could dissolve in water and we could ultimately drink it? It would never become waste. +What if engines were re-manufacturable, and we could recover the component materials and significantly reduce energy demand. +What if we could recover components from circuit boards, reutilize them, and then fundamentally recover the materials within them through a second stage? +What if we could collect food waste, human waste? +What if we could turn that into fertilizer, heat, energy, ultimately reconnecting nutrients systems and rebuilding natural capital? +And cars -- what we want is to move around. +We don't need to own the materials within them. +Could cars become a service and provide us with mobility in the future? +All of this sounds amazing, but these aren't just ideas, they're real today, and these lie at the forefront of the circular economy. +What lies before us is to expand them and scale them up. +So how would you shift from linear to circular? +Well, the team and I at the foundation thought you might want to work with the top universities in the world, with leading businesses within the world, with the biggest convening platforms in the world, and with governments. +We thought you might want to work with the best analysts and ask them the question, "Can the circular economy decouple growth from resource constraints? +Is the circular economy able to rebuild natural capital? +Could the circular economy replace current chemical fertilizer use?" +Yes was the answer to the decoupling, but also yes, we could replace current fertilizer use by a staggering 2.7 times. +But what inspired me most about the circular economy was its ability to inspire young people. +When young people see the economy through a circular lens, they see brand new opportunities on exactly the same horizon. +They can use their creativity and knowledge to rebuild the entire system, and it's there for the taking right now, and the faster we do this, the better. +So could we achieve this in their lifetimes? +Is it actually possible? +I believe yes. +When you look at the lifetime of my great-grandfather, anything's possible. +When he was born, there were only 25 cars in the world; they had only just been invented. +When he was 14, we flew for the first time in history. +Now there are 100,000 charter flights every single day. +When he was 45, we built the first computer. +Many said it wouldn't catch on, but it did, and just 20 years later we turned it into a microchip of which there will be thousands in this room here today. +Ten years before he died, we built the first mobile phone. +It wasn't that mobile, to be fair, but now it really is, and as my great-grandfather left this Earth, the Internet arrived. +Now we can do anything, but more importantly, now we have a plan. +Thank you. +My colleagues and I are fascinated by the science of moving dots. +So what are these dots? +Well, it's all of us. +And we're moving in our homes, in our offices, as we shop and travel throughout our cities and around the world. +And wouldn't it be great if we could understand all this movement? +If we could find patterns and meaning and insight in it. +And luckily for us, we live in a time where we're incredibly good at capturing information about ourselves. +So whether it's through sensors or videos, or apps, we can track our movement with incredibly fine detail. +So it turns out one of the places where we have the best data about movement is sports. +So whether it's basketball or baseball, or football or the other football, we're instrumenting our stadiums and our players to track their movements every fraction of a second. +So what we're doing is turning our athletes into -- you probably guessed it -- moving dots. +So we've got mountains of moving dots and like most raw data, it's hard to deal with and not that interesting. +But there are things that, for example, basketball coaches want to know. +And the problem is they can't know them because they'd have to watch every second of every game, remember it and process it. +And a person can't do that, but a machine can. +The problem is a machine can't see the game with the eye of a coach. +At least they couldn't until now. +So what have we taught the machine to see? +So, we started simply. +We taught it things like passes, shots and rebounds. +Things that most casual fans would know. +And then we moved on to things slightly more complicated. +Events like post-ups, and pick-and-rolls, and isolations. +And if you don't know them, that's okay. Most casual players probably do. +Now, we've gotten to a point where today, the machine understands complex events like down screens and wide pins. +Basically things only professionals know. +So we have taught a machine to see with the eyes of a coach. +So how have we been able to do this? +If I asked a coach to describe something like a pick-and-roll, they would give me a description, and if I encoded that as an algorithm, it would be terrible. +The pick-and-roll happens to be this dance in basketball between four players, two on offense and two on defense. +And here's kind of how it goes. +So there's the guy on offense without the ball the ball and he goes next to the guy guarding the guy with the ball, and he kind of stays there and they both move and stuff happens, and ta-da, it's a pick-and-roll. +So that is also an example of a terrible algorithm. +So, if the player who's the interferer -- he's called the screener -- goes close by, but he doesn't stop, it's probably not a pick-and-roll. +Or if he does stop, but he doesn't stop close enough, it's probably not a pick-and-roll. +Or, if he does go close by and he does stop but they do it under the basket, it's probably not a pick-and-roll. +Or I could be wrong, they could all be pick-and-rolls. +It really depends on the exact timing, the distances, the locations, and that's what makes it hard. +So, luckily, with machine learning, we can go beyond our own ability to describe the things we know. +So how does this work? Well, it's by example. +So we go to the machine and say, "Good morning, machine. +Here are some pick-and-rolls, and here are some things that are not. +Please find a way to tell the difference." +And the key to all of this is to find features that enable it to separate. +So if I was going to teach it the difference between an apple and orange, I might say, "Why don't you use color or shape?" +And the problem that we're solving is, what are those things? +What are the key features that let a computer navigate the world of moving dots? +So figuring out all these relationships with relative and absolute location, distance, timing, velocities -- that's really the key to the science of moving dots, or as we like to call it, spatiotemporal pattern recognition, in academic vernacular. +Because the first thing is, you have to make it sound hard -- because it is. +The key thing is, for NBA coaches, it's not that they want to know whether a pick-and-roll happened or not. +It's that they want to know how it happened. +And why is it so important to them? So here's a little insight. +It turns out in modern basketball, this pick-and-roll is perhaps the most important play. +And knowing how to run it, and knowing how to defend it, is basically a key to winning and losing most games. +So it turns out that this dance has a great many variations and identifying the variations is really the thing that matters, and that's why we need this to be really, really good. +So, here's an example. +There are two offensive and two defensive players, getting ready to do the pick-and-roll dance. +So the guy with ball can either take, or he can reject. +His teammate can either roll or pop. +The guy guarding the ball can either go over or under. +His teammate can either show or play up to touch, or play soft and together they can either switch or blitz and I didn't know most of these things when I started and it would be lovely if everybody moved according to those arrows. +It would make our lives a lot easier, but it turns out movement is very messy. +People wiggle a lot and getting these variations identified with very high accuracy, both in precision and recall, is tough because that's what it takes to get a professional coach to believe in you. +And despite all the difficulties with the right spatiotemporal features we have been able to do that. +Coaches trust our ability of our machine to identify these variations. +We're at the point where almost every single contender for an NBA championship this year is using our software, which is built on a machine that understands the moving dots of basketball. +So not only that, we have given advice that has changed strategies that have helped teams win very important games, and it's very exciting because you have coaches who've been in the league for 30 years that are willing to take advice from a machine. +And it's very exciting, it's much more than the pick-and-roll. +Our computer started out with simple things and learned more and more complex things and now it knows so many things. +Frankly, I don't understand much of what it does, and while it's not that special to be smarter than me, we were wondering, can a machine know more than a coach? +Can it know more than person could know? +And it turns out the answer is yes. +The coaches want players to take good shots. +So if I'm standing near the basket and there's nobody near me, it's a good shot. +If I'm standing far away surrounded by defenders, that's generally a bad shot. +But we never knew how good "good" was, or how bad "bad" was quantitatively. +Until now. +So what we can do, again, using spatiotemporal features, we looked at every shot. +We can see: Where is the shot? What's the angle to the basket? +Where are the defenders standing? What are their distances? +What are their angles? +For multiple defenders, we can look at how the player's moving and predict the shot type. +We can look at all their velocities and we can build a model that predicts what is the likelihood that this shot would go in under these circumstances? +So why is this important? +We can take something that was shooting, which was one thing before, and turn it into two things: the quality of the shot and the quality of the shooter. +So here's a bubble chart, because what's TED without a bubble chart? +Those are NBA players. +The size is the size of the player and the color is the position. +On the x-axis, we have the shot probability. +People on the left take difficult shots, on the right, they take easy shots. +On the [y-axis] is their shooting ability. +People who are good are at the top, bad at the bottom. +So for example, if there was a player who generally made 47 percent of their shots, that's all you knew before. +But today, I can tell you that player takes shots that an average NBA player would make 49 percent of the time, and they are two percent worse. +And the reason that's important is that there are lots of 47s out there. +And so it's really important to know if the 47 that you're considering giving 100 million dollars to is a good shooter who takes bad shots or a bad shooter who takes good shots. +Machine understanding doesn't just change how we look at players, it changes how we look at the game. +So there was this very exciting game a couple of years ago, in the NBA finals. +Miami was down by three, there was 20 seconds left. +They were about to lose the championship. +A gentleman named LeBron James came up and he took a three to tie. +He missed. +His teammate Chris Bosh got a rebound, passed it to another teammate named Ray Allen. +He sank a three. It went into overtime. +They won the game. They won the championship. +It was one of the most exciting games in basketball. +And our ability to know the shot probability for every player at every second, and the likelihood of them getting a rebound at every second can illuminate this moment in a way that we never could before. +Now unfortunately, I can't show you that video. +But for you, we recreated that moment at our weekly basketball game about 3 weeks ago. +And we recreated the tracking that led to the insights. +So, here is us. This is Chinatown in Los Angeles, a park we play at every week, and that's us recreating the Ray Allen moment and all the tracking that's associated with it. +So, here's the shot. +I'm going to show you that moment and all the insights of that moment. +The only difference is, instead of the professional players, it's us, and instead of a professional announcer, it's me. +So, bear with me. +Miami. +Down three. +Twenty seconds left. +Jeff brings up the ball. +Josh catches, puts up a three! +[Calculating shot probability] [Shot quality] [Rebound probability] Won't go! +[Rebound probability] Rebound, Noel. +Back to Daria. +[Shot quality] Her three-pointer -- bang! +Tie game with five seconds left. +The crowd goes wild. +That's roughly how it happened. +Roughly. +That moment had about a nine percent chance of happening in the NBA and we know that and a great many other things. +I'm not going to tell you how many times it took us to make that happen. +Okay, I will! It was four. +Way to go, Daria. +But the important thing about that video and the insights we have for every second of every NBA game -- it's not that. +It's the fact you don't have to be a professional team to track movement. +You do not have to be a professional player to get insights about movement. +In fact, it doesn't even have to be about sports because we're moving everywhere. +We're moving in our homes, in our offices, as we shop and we travel throughout our cities and around our world. +What will we know? What will we learn? +Perhaps, instead of identifying pick-and-rolls, a machine can identify the moment and let me know when my daughter takes her first steps. +Which could literally be happening any second now. +Perhaps we can learn to better use our buildings, better plan our cities. +I believe that with the development of the science of moving dots, we will move better, we will move smarter, we will move forward. +Thank you very much. +I'll begin today by sharing a poem written by my friend from Malawi, Eileen Piri. +Eileen is only 13 years old, but when we were going through the collection of poetry that we wrote, I found her poem so interesting, so motivating. +So I'll read it to you. +She entitled her poem "I'll Marry When I Want." +"I'll marry when I want. +My mother can't force me to marry. +My father cannot force me to marry. +My uncle, my aunt, my brother or sister, cannot force me to marry. +No one in the world can force me to marry. +I'll marry when I want. +Even if you beat me, even if you chase me away, even if you do anything bad to me, I'll marry when I want. +I'll marry when I want, but not before I am well educated, and not before I am all grown up. +I'll marry when I want." +This poem might seem odd, written by a 13-year-old girl, but where I and Eileen come from, this poem, which I have just read to you, is a warrior's cry. +I am from Malawi. +Malawi is one of the poorest countries, very poor, where gender equality is questionable. +Growing up in that country, I couldn't make my own choices in life. +I couldn't even explore personal opportunities in life. +I will tell you a story of two different girls, two beautiful girls. +These girls grew up under the same roof. +They were eating the same food. +Sometimes, they would share clothes, and even shoes. +But their lives ended up differently, in two different paths. +The other girl is my little sister. +My little sister was only 11 years old when she got pregnant. +It's a hurtful thing. +Not only did it hurt her, even me. +I was going through a hard time as well. +As it is in my culture, once you reach puberty stage, you are supposed to go to initiation camps. +In these initiation camps, you are taught how to sexually please a man. +There is this special day, which they call "Very Special Day" where a man who is hired by the community comes to the camp and sleeps with the little girls. +Imagine the trauma that these young girls go through every day. +Most girls end up pregnant. +They even contract HIV and AIDS and other sexually transmitted diseases. +For my little sister, she ended up being pregnant. +Today, she's only 16 years old and she has three children. +Her first marriage did not survive, nor did her second marriage. +On the other side, there is this girl. +She's amazing. +I call her amazing because she is. +She's very fabulous. +That girl is me. When I was 13 years old, I was told, you are grown up, you have now reached of age, you're supposed to go to the initiation camp. +I was like, "What? +I'm not going to go to the initiation camps." +You know what the women said to me? +"You are a stupid girl. Stubborn. +You do not respect the traditions of our society, of our community." +I said no because I knew where I was going. +I knew what I wanted in life. +I had a lot of dreams as a young girl. +I wanted to get well educated, to find a decent job in the future. +I was imagining myself as a lawyer, seated on that big chair. +Those were the imaginations that were going through my mind every day. +And I knew that one day, I would contribute something, a little something to my community. +But every day after refusing, women would tell me, "Look at you, you're all grown up. Your little sister has a baby. +What about you?" +That was the music that I was hearing every day, and that is the music that girls hear every day when they don't do something that the community needs them to do. +When I compared the two stories between me and my sister, I said, "Why can't I do something? +Why can't I change something that has happened for a long time in our community?" +That was when I called other girls just like my sister, who have children, who have been in class but they have forgotten how to read and write. +I said, "Come on, we can remind each other how to read and write again, how to hold the pen, how to read, to hold the book." +It was a great time I had with them. +Nor did I just learn a little about them, but they were able to tell me their personal stories, what they were facing every day as young mothers. +That was when I was like, 'Why can't we take all these things that are happening to us and present them and tell our mothers, our traditional leaders, that these are the wrong things?" +It was a scary thing to do, because these traditional leaders, they are already accustomed to the things that have been there for ages. +A hard thing to change, but a good thing to try. +So we tried. +It was very hard, but we pushed. +And I'm here to say that in my community, it was the first community after girls pushed so hard to our traditional leader, and our leader stood up for us and said no girl has to be married before the age of 18. +In my community, that was the first time a community, they had to call the bylaws, the first bylaw that protected girls in our community. +We did not stop there. +We forged ahead. +We were determined to fight for girls not just in my community, but even in other communities. +When the child marriage bill was being presented in February, we were there at the Parliament house. +Every day, when the members of Parliament were entering, we were telling them, "Would you please support the bill?" +And we don't have much technology like here, but we have our small phones. +So we said, "Why can't we get their numbers and text them?" +So we did that. It was a good thing. +So when the bill passed, we texted them back, "Thank you for supporting the bill." +And when the bill was signed by the president, making it into law, it was a plus. +Now, in Malawi, 18 is the legal marriage age, from 15 to 18. +It's a good thing to know that the bill passed, but let me tell you this: There are countries where 18 is the legal marriage age, but don't we hear cries of women and girls every day? +Every day, girls' lives are being wasted away. +This is high time for leaders to honor their commitment. +In honoring this commitment, it means keeping girls' issues at heart every time. +We don't have to be subjected as second, but they have to know that women, as we are in this room, we are not just women, we are not just girls, we are extraordinary. +We can do more. +And another thing for Malawi, and not just Malawi but other countries: The laws which are there, you know how a law is not a law until it is enforced? +The law which has just recently passed and the laws that in other countries have been there, they need to be publicized at the local level, at the community level, where girls' issues are very striking. +Girls face issues, difficult issues, at the community level every day. +So if these young girls know that there are laws that protect them, they will be able to stand up and defend themselves because they will know that there is a law that protects them. +And another thing I would say is that girls' voices and women's voices are beautiful, they are there, but we cannot do this alone. +Male advocates, they have to jump in, to step in and work together. +It's a collective work. +What we need is what girls elsewhere need: good education, and above all, not to marry whilst 11. +And furthermore, I know that together, we can transform the legal, the cultural and political framework that denies girls of their rights. +I am standing here today and declaring that we can end child marriage in a generation. +This is the moment where a girl and a girl, and millions of girls worldwide, will be able to say, "I will marry when I want." +Thank you. +Over the past 10 years, I've been researching the way people organize and visualize information. +And I've noticed an interesting shift. +For a long period of time, we believed in a natural ranking order in the world around us, also known as the great chain of being, or "Scala naturae" in Latin, a top-down structure that normally starts with God at the very top, followed by angels, noblemen, common people, animals, and so on. +This idea was actually based on Aristotle's ontology, which classified all things known to man in a set of opposing categories, like the ones you see behind me. +But over time, interestingly enough, this concept adopted the branching schema of a tree in what became known as the Porphyrian tree, also considered to be the oldest tree of knowledge. +The branching scheme of the tree was, in fact, such a powerful metaphor for conveying information that it became, over time, an important communication tool to map a variety of systems of knowledge. +We can see trees being used to map morality, with the popular tree of virtues and tree of vices, as you can see here, with these beautiful illustrations from medieval Europe. +We can see trees being used to map consanguinity, the various blood ties between people. +We can also see trees being used to map genealogy, perhaps the most famous archetype of the tree diagram. +I think many of you in the audience have probably seen family trees. +Many of you probably even have your own family trees drawn in such a way. +We can see trees even mapping systems of law, the various decrees and rulings of kings and rulers. +And finally, of course, also a very popular scientific metaphor, we can see trees being used to map all species known to man. +And trees ultimately became such a powerful visual metaphor because in many ways, they really embody this human desire for order, for balance, for unity, for symmetry. +However, nowadays we are really facing new complex, intricate challenges that cannot be understood by simply employing a simple tree diagram. +And a new metaphor is currently emerging, and it's currently replacing the tree in visualizing various systems of knowledge. +It's really providing us with a new lens to understand the world around us. +And this new metaphor is the metaphor of the network. +And we can see this shift from trees into networks in many domains of knowledge. +We can see this shift in the way we try to understand the brain. +While before, we used to think of the brain as a modular, centralized organ, where a given area was responsible for a set of actions and behaviors, the more we know about the brain, the more we think of it as a large music symphony, played by hundreds and thousands of instruments. +This is a beautiful snapshot created by the Blue Brain Project, where you can see 10,000 neurons and 30 million connections. +And this is only mapping 10 percent of a mammalian neocortex. +We can also see this shift in the way we try to conceive of human knowledge. +These are some remarkable trees of knowledge, or trees of science, by Spanish scholar Ramon Llull. +And Llull was actually the precursor, the very first one who created the metaphor of science as a tree, a metaphor we use every single day, when we say, "Biology is a branch of science," when we say, "Genetics is a branch of science." +But perhaps the most beautiful of all trees of knowledge, at least for me, was created for the French encyclopedia by Diderot and d'Alembert in 1751. +This was really the bastion of the French Enlightenment, and this gorgeous illustration was featured as a table of contents for the encyclopedia. +And it actually maps out all domains of knowledge as separate branches of a tree. +But knowledge is much more intricate than this. +These are two maps of Wikipedia showing the inter-linkage of articles -- related to history on the left, and mathematics on the right. +And I think by looking at these maps and other ones that have been created of Wikipedia -- arguably one of the largest rhizomatic structures ever created by man -- we can really understand how human knowledge is much more intricate and interdependent, just like a network. +We can also see this interesting shift in the way we map social ties between people. +This is the typical organization chart. +I'm assuming many of you have seen a similar chart as well, in your own corporations, or others. +It's a top-down structure that normally starts with the CEO at the very top, and where you can drill down all the way to the individual workmen on the bottom. +But humans sometimes are, well, actually, all humans are unique in their own way, and sometimes you really don't play well under this really rigid structure. +I think the Internet is really changing this paradigm quite a lot. +This is a fantastic map of online social collaboration between Perl developers. +Perl is a famous programming language, and here, you can see how different programmers are actually exchanging files, and working together on a given project. +And here, you can notice that this is a completely decentralized process -- there's no leader in this organization, it's a network. +We can also see this interesting shift when we look at terrorism. +One of the main challenges of understanding terrorism nowadays is that we are dealing with decentralized, independent cells, where there's no leader leading the whole process. +And here, you can actually see how visualization is being used. +The diagram that you see behind me shows all the terrorists involved in the Madrid attack in 2004. +And what they did here is, they actually segmented the network into three different years, represented by the vertical layers that you see behind me. +And the blue lines tie together the people that were present in that network year after year. +So even though there's no leader per se, these people are probably the most influential ones in that organization, the ones that know more about the past, and the future plans and goals of this particular cell. +We can also see this shift from trees into networks in the way we classify and organize species. +The image on the right is the only illustration that Darwin included in "The Origin of Species," which Darwin called the "Tree of Life." +There's actually a letter from Darwin to the publisher, expanding on the importance of this particular diagram. +It was critical for Darwin's theory of evolution. +But recently, scientists discovered that overlaying this tree of life is a dense network of bacteria, and these bacteria are actually tying together species that were completely separated before, to what scientists are now calling not the tree of life, but the web of life, the network of life. +And finally, we can really see this shift, again, when we look at ecosystems around our planet. +No more do we have these simplified predator-versus-prey diagrams we have all learned at school. +This is a much more accurate depiction of an ecosystem. +This is a diagram created by Professor David Lavigne, mapping close to 100 species that interact with the codfish off the coast of Newfoundland in Canada. +And I think here, we can really understand the intricate and interdependent nature of most ecosystems that abound on our planet. +But even though recent, this metaphor of the network, is really already adopting various shapes and forms, and it's almost becoming a growing visual taxonomy. +It's almost becoming the syntax of a new language. +And this is one aspect that truly fascinates me. +And these are actually 15 different typologies I've been collecting over time, and it really shows the immense visual diversity of this new metaphor. +And here is an example. +On the very top band, you have radial convergence, a visualization model that has become really popular over the last five years. +At the top left, the very first project is a gene network, followed by a network of IP addresses -- machines, servers -- followed by a network of Facebook friends. +You probably couldn't find more disparate topics, yet they are using the same metaphor, the same visual model, to map the never-ending complexities of its own subject. +And here are a few more examples of the many I've been collecting, of this growing visual taxonomy of networks. +But networks are not just a scientific metaphor. +As designers, researchers, and scientists try to map a variety of complex systems, they are in many ways influencing traditional art fields, like painting and sculpture, and influencing many different artists. +And perhaps because networks have this huge aesthetical force to them -- they're immensely gorgeous -- they are really becoming a cultural meme, and driving a new art movement, which I've called "networkism." +And we can see this influence in this movement in a variety of ways. +This is just one of many examples, where you can see this influence from science into art. +The example on your left side is IP-mapping, a computer-generated map of IP addresses; again -- servers, machines. +And on your right side, you have "Transient Structures and Unstable Networks" by Sharon Molloy, using oil and enamel on canvas. +And here are a few more paintings by Sharon Molloy, some gorgeous, intricate paintings. +And here's another example of that interesting cross-pollination between science and art. +On your left side, you have "Operation Smile." +It is a computer-generated map of a social network. +And on your right side, you have "Field 4," by Emma McNally, using only graphite on paper. +Emma McNally is one of the main leaders of this movement, and she creates these striking, imaginary landscapes, where you can really notice the influence from traditional network visualization. +But networkism doesn't happen only in two dimensions. +This is perhaps one of my favorite projects of this new movement. +And I think the title really says it all -- it's called: "Galaxies Forming Along Filaments, Like Droplets Along the Strands of a Spider's Web." +And I just find this particular project to be immensely powerful. +It was created by Toms Saraceno, and he occupies these large spaces, creates these massive installations using only elastic ropes. +As you actually navigate that space and bounce along those elastic ropes, the entire network kind of shifts, almost like a real organic network would. +And here's yet another example of networkism taken to a whole different level. +This was created by Japanese artist Chiharu Shiota in a piece called "In Silence." +And Chiharu, like Toms Saraceno, fills these rooms with this dense network, this dense web of elastic ropes and black wool and thread, sometimes including objects, as you can see here, sometimes even including people, in many of her installations. +But networks are also not just a new trend, and it's too easy for us to dismiss it as such. +Networks really embody notions of decentralization, of interconnectedness, of interdependence. +And this new way of thinking is critical for us to solve many of the complex problems we are facing nowadays, from decoding the human brain, to understanding the vast universe out there. +On your left side, you have a snapshot of a neural network of a mouse -- very similar to our own at this particular scale. +And on your right side, you have the Millennium Simulation. +It was the largest and most realistic simulation of the growth of cosmic structure. +It was able to recreate the history of 20 million galaxies in approximately 25 terabytes of output. +And coincidentally or not, I just find this particular comparison between the smallest scale of knowledge -- the brain -- and the largest scale of knowledge -- the universe itself -- to be really quite striking and fascinating. +Because as Bruce Mau once said, "When everything is connected to everything else, for better or for worse, everything matters." +Thank you so much. +It was the middle of summer and well past closing time in the downtown Berkeley bar where my friend Polly and I worked together as bartenders. +Usually at the end of our shift we had a drink -- but not that night. +"I'm pregnant. +Not sure what I'm going to do yet," I told Polly. +Without hesitation, she replied, "I've had an abortion." +Before Polly, no one had ever told me that she'd had an abortion. +I'd graduated from college just a few months earlier and I was in a new relationship when I found out that I was pregnant. +When I thought about my choices, I honestly did not know how to decide, what criteria I should use. +How would I know what the right decision was? +I worried that I would regret an abortion later. +Coming of age on the beaches of Southern California, I grew up in the middle of our nation's abortion wars. +I was born in a trailer on the third anniversary of Roe vs. Wade. +Our community was surfing Christians. +We cared about God, the less fortunate, and the ocean. +Everyone was pro-life. +As a kid, the idea of abortion made me so sad that I knew if I ever got pregnant I could never have one. +And then I did. +It was a step towards the unknown. +But Polly had given me a very special gift: the knowledge that I wasn't alone and the realization that abortion was something that we can talk about. +Abortion is common. +According to the Guttmacher Institute, one in three women in America will have an abortion in their lifetime. +But for the last few decades, the dialogue around abortion in the United States has left little room for anything beyond pro-life and pro-choice. +It's political and polarizing. +But as much as abortion is hotly debated, it's still rare for us, whether as fellow women or even just as fellow people, to talk with one another about the abortions that we have. +There is a gap. +Between what happens in politics and what happens in real life, and in that gap, a battlefield mentality. +An "are you with us or against us?" stance takes root. +This isn't just about abortion. +There are so many important issues that we can't talk about. +And so finding ways to shift the conflict to a place of conversation is the work of my life. +There are two main ways to get started. +One way is to listen closely. +And the other way is to share stories. +So, 15 years ago, I cofounded an organization called Exhale to start listening to people who have had abortions. +The first thing we did was create a talk-line, where women and men could call to get emotional support. +Free of judgment and politics, believe it or not, nothing like our sevice had ever existed. +We needed a new framework that could hold all the experiences that we were hearing on our talk-line. +The feminist who regrets her abortion. +The Catholic who is grateful for hers. +The personal experiences that weren't fitting neatly into one box or the other. +We didn't think it was right to ask women to pick a side. +We wanted to show them that the whole world was on their side, as they were going through this deeply personal experience. +So we invented "pro-voice." +Beyond abortion, pro-voice works on hard issues that we've struggled with globally issues like immigration, religious tolerance, violence against women. +It also works on deeply personal topics that might only matter to you and your immediate family and friends. +They have a terminal illness, their mother just died, they have a child with special needs and they can't talk about it. +Listening and storytelling are the hallmarks of pro-voice practice. +Listening and storytelling. +That sounds pretty nice. +Sounds maybe, easy? We could all do that. +It's not easy. It's very hard. +Pro-voice is hard because we are talking about things everyone's fighting about or the things that no one wants to talk about. +I wish I could tell you that when you decide to be pro-voice, that you'll find beautiful moments of breakthrough and gardens full of flowers, where listening and storytelling creates wonderful "a-ha" moments. +I wish I could tell you that there would be a feminist welcoming party for you, or that there's a long-lost sisterhood of people who are just ready to have your back when you get slammed. +But it can be vulnerable and exhausting to tell our own stories when it feels like nobody cares. +And if we truly listen to one another, we will hear things that demand that we shift our own perceptions. +There is no perfect time and there is no perfect place to start a difficult conversation. +There's never a time when everyone will be on the same page, share the same lens, or know the same history. +So, let's talk about listening and how to be a good listener. +There's lots of ways to be a good listener and I'm going to give you just a couple. +One is to ask open-ended questions. +You can ask yourself or someone that you know, "How are you feeling?" +"What was that like?" +"What do you hope for, now?" +Another way to be a good listener is to use reflective language. +If someone is talking about their own personal experience, use the words that they use. +If someone is talking about an abortion and they say the word "baby," you can say "baby." +If they say "fetus," you can say "fetus." +If someone describes themselves as gender queer to you, you can say "gender queer." +If someone kind of looks like a he, but they say they're a she -- it's cool. +Call that person a she. +When we reflect the language of the person who is sharing their own story, we are conveying that we are interested in understanding who they are and what they're going through. +The same way that we hope people are interested in knowing us. +So, I'll never forget being in one of the Exhale counselor meetings, listening to a volunteer talk about how she was getting a lot of calls from Christian women who were talking about God. +Now, some of our volunteers are religious, but this particular one was not. +At first, it felt a little weird for her to talk to callers about God. +So, she decided to get comfortable. +And she stood in front of her mirror at home, and she said the word "God." +"God." +Over and over and over again until the word no longer felt strange coming out her mouth. +Saying the word God did not turn this volunteer into a Christian, but it did make her a much better listener of Christian women. +So, another way to be pro-voice is to share stories, and one risk that you take on, when you share your story with someone else, is that given the same set of circumstances as you they might actually make a different decision. +For example, if you're telling a story about your abortion, realize that she might have had the baby. +She might have placed for adoption. +She might have told her parents and her partner -- or not. +She might have felt relief and confidence, even though you felt sad and lost. +This is okay. +Empathy gets created the moment we imagine ourselves in someone else's shoes. +It doesn't mean we all have to end up in the same place. +It's not agreement, it's not sameness that pro-voice is after. +It creates a culture and a society that values what make us special and unique. +It values what makes us human, our flaws and our imperfections. +And this way of thinking allows us to see our differences with respect, instead of fear. +And it generates the empathy that we need to overcome all the ways that we try to hurt one another. +Stigma, shame, prejudice, discrimination, oppression. +Pro-voice is contagious, and the more it's practiced the more it spreads. +So, last year I was pregnant again. +This time I was looking forward to the birth of my son. +And while pregnant, I had never been asked how I was feeling so much in all my life. +And however I replied, whether I was feeling wonderful and excited or scared and totally freaked out, there was always someone there giving me a "been there" response. +It was awesome. +It was a welcome, yet dramatic departure from what I experience when I talk about my mixed feelings of my abortion. +Pro-voice is about the real stories of real people making an impact on the way abortion and so many other politicized and stigmatized issues are understood and discussed. +From sexuality and mental health to poverty and incarceration. +Far beyond definition as single right or wrong decisions, our experiences can exist on a spectrum. +Pro-voice focuses that conversation on human experience and it makes support and respect possible for all. +Thank you. +One of my earliest memories is of trying to wake up one of my relatives and not being able to. +And I was just a little kid, so I didn't really understand why, but as I got older, I realized we had drug addiction in my family, including later cocaine addiction. +I'd been thinking about it a lot lately, partly because it's now exactly 100 years since drugs were first banned in the United States and Britain, and we then imposed that on the rest of the world. +It's a century since we made this really fateful decision to take addicts and punish them and make them suffer, because we believed that would deter them; it would give them an incentive to stop. +And a few years ago, I was looking at some of the addicts in my life who I love, and trying to figure out if there was some way to help them. +And I realized there were loads of incredibly basic questions I just didn't know the answer to, like, what really causes addiction? +Why do we carry on with this approach that doesn't seem to be working, and is there a better way out there that we could try instead? +So I read loads of stuff about it, and I couldn't really find the answers I was looking for, so I thought, okay, I'll go and sit with different people around the world who lived this and studied this and talk to them and see if I could learn from them. +And the thing I realized that really blew my mind is, almost everything we think we know about addiction is wrong, and if we start to absorb the new evidence about addiction, I think we're going to have to change a lot more than our drug policies. +But let's start with what we think we know, what I thought I knew. +Let's think about this middle row here. +Imagine all of you, for 20 days now, went off and used heroin three times a day. +Some of you look a little more enthusiastic than others at this prospect. +Don't worry, it's just a thought experiment. +Imagine you did that, right? +What would happen? +Now, we have a story about what would happen that we've been told for a century. +We think, because there are chemical hooks in heroin, as you took it for a while, your body would become dependent on those hooks, you'd start to physically need them, and at the end of those 20 days, you'd all be heroin addicts. Right? +That's what I thought. +First thing that alerted me to the fact that something's not right with this story is when it was explained to me. +If I step out of this TED Talk today and I get hit by a car and I break my hip, I'll be taken to hospital and I'll be given loads of diamorphine. +Diamorphine is heroin. +It's actually much better heroin than you're going to buy on the streets, because the stuff you buy from a drug dealer is contaminated. +Actually, very little of it is heroin, whereas the stuff you get from the doctor is medically pure. +And you'll be given it for quite a long period of time. +There are loads of people in this room, you may not realize it, you've taken quite a lot of heroin. +And anyone who is watching this anywhere in the world, this is happening. +And if what we believe about addiction is right -- those people are exposed to all those chemical hooks -- What should happen? They should become addicts. +This has been studied really carefully. +He's a professor of psychology in Vancouver who carried out an incredible experiment I think really helps us to understand this issue. +Professor Alexander explained to me, the idea of addiction we've all got in our heads, that story, comes partly from a series of experiments that were done earlier in the 20th century. +They're really simple. +You can do them tonight at home if you feel a little sadistic. +You get a rat and you put it in a cage, and you give it two water bottles: One is just water, and the other is water laced with either heroin or cocaine. +If you do that, the rat will almost always prefer the drug water and almost always kill itself quite quickly. +So there you go, right? That's how we think it works. +In the '70s, Professor Alexander comes along and he looks at this experiment and he noticed something. +He said ah, we're putting the rat in an empty cage. +It's got nothing to do except use these drugs. +Let's try something different. +So Professor Alexander built a cage that he called "Rat Park," which is basically heaven for rats. +They've got loads of cheese, they've got loads of colored balls, they've got loads of tunnels. +Crucially, they've got loads of friends. They can have loads of sex. +And they've got both the water bottles, the normal water and the drugged water. +But here's the fascinating thing: In Rat Park, they don't like the drug water. +They almost never use it. +None of them ever use it compulsively. +None of them ever overdose. +You go from almost 100 percent overdose when they're isolated to zero percent overdose when they have happy and connected lives. +Now, when he first saw this, Professor Alexander thought, maybe this is just a thing about rats, they're quite different to us. +Maybe not as different as we'd like, but, you know -- But fortunately, there was a human experiment into the exact same principle happening at the exact same time. +It was called the Vietnam War. +In Vietnam, 20 percent of all American troops were using loads of heroin, and if you look at the news reports from the time, they were really worried, because they thought, my God, we're going to have hundreds of thousands of junkies on the streets of the United States when the war ends; it made total sense. +Now, those soldiers who were using loads of heroin were followed home. +The Archives of General Psychiatry did a really detailed study, and what happened to them? +It turns out they didn't go to rehab. They didn't go into withdrawal. +Ninety-five percent of them just stopped. +Now, if you believe the story about chemical hooks, that makes absolutely no sense, but Professor Alexander began to think there might be a different story about addiction. +He said, what if addiction isn't about your chemical hooks? +What if addiction is about your cage? +What if addiction is an adaptation to your environment? +Looking at this, there was another professor called Peter Cohen in the Netherlands who said, maybe we shouldn't even call it addiction. +Maybe we should call it bonding. +Human beings have a natural and innate need to bond, and when we're happy and healthy, we'll bond and connect with each other, but if you can't do that, because you're traumatized or isolated or beaten down by life, you will bond with something that will give you some sense of relief. +Now, that might be gambling, that might be pornography, that might be cocaine, that might be cannabis, but you will bond and connect with something because that's our nature. +That's what we want as human beings. +And at first, I found this quite a difficult thing to get my head around, but one way that helped me to think about it is, I can see, I've got over by my seat a bottle of water, right? +I'm looking at lots of you, and lots of you have bottles of water with you. +Forget the drugs. Forget the drug war. +Totally legally, all of those bottles of water could be bottles of vodka, right? +We could all be getting drunk -- I might after this -- -- but we're not. +Now, because you've been able to afford the approximately gazillion pounds that it costs to get into a TED Talk, I'm guessing you guys could afford to be drinking vodka for the next six months. +You wouldn't end up homeless. +You're not going to do that, and the reason you're not going to do that is not because anyone's stopping you. +It's because you've got bonds and connections that you want to be present for. +You've got work you love. You've got people you love. +You've got healthy relationships. +And a core part of addiction, I came to think, and I believe the evidence suggests, is about not being able to bear to be present in your life. +Now, this has really significant implications. +The most obvious implications are for the War on Drugs. +Now, that's a very extreme example, obviously, in the case of the chain gang, but actually almost everywhere in the world we treat addicts to some degree like that. +We punish them. We shame them. We give them criminal records. +We put barriers between them reconnecting. +There was a doctor in Canada, Dr. Gabor Mat, an amazing man, who said to me, if you wanted to design a system that would make addiction worse, you would design that system. +Now, there's a place that decided to do the exact opposite, and I went there to see how it worked. +In the year 2000, Portugal had one of the worst drug problems in Europe. +One percent of the population was addicted to heroin, which is kind of mind-blowing, and every year, they tried the American way more and more. +They punished people and stigmatized them and shamed them more, and every year, the problem got worse. +And one day, the Prime Minister and the leader of the opposition got together, and basically said, look, we can't go on with a country where we're having ever more people becoming heroin addicts. +Let's set up a panel of scientists and doctors to figure out what would genuinely solve the problem. +And that's not really what we think of as drug treatment in the United States and Britain. +So they do do residential rehab, they do psychological therapy, that does have some value. +But the biggest thing they did was the complete opposite of what we do: a massive program of job creation for addicts, and microloans for addicts to set up small businesses. +So say you used to be a mechanic. +When you're ready, they'll go to a garage, and they'll say, if you employ this guy for a year, we'll pay half his wages. +The goal was to make sure that every addict in Portugal had something to get out of bed for in the morning. +And when I went and met the addicts in Portugal, what they said is, as they rediscovered purpose, they rediscovered bonds and relationships with the wider society. +It'll be 15 years this year since that experiment began, and the results are in: injecting drug use is down in Portugal, according to the British Journal of Criminology, by 50 percent, five-zero percent. +Overdose is massively down, HIV is massively down among addicts. +Addiction in every study is significantly down. +One of the ways you know it's worked so well is that almost nobody in Portugal wants to go back to the old system. +Now, that's the political implications. +I actually think there's a layer of implications to all this research below that. +We live in a culture where people feel really increasingly vulnerable to all sorts of addictions, whether it's to their smartphones or to shopping or to eating. +But I increasingly began to think that the connections we have or think we have, are like a kind of parody of human connection. +If you have a crisis in your life, you'll notice something. +It won't be your Twitter followers who come to sit with you. +It won't be your Facebook friends who help you turn it round. +It'll be your flesh and blood friends who you have deep and nuanced and textured, face-to-face relationships with, and there's a study I learned about from Bill McKibben, the environmental writer, that I think tells us a lot about this. +It looked at the number of close friends the average American believes they can call on in a crisis. +That number has been declining steadily since the 1950s. +The amount of floor space an individual has in their home has been steadily increasing, and I think that's like a metaphor for the choice we've made as a culture. +We've traded floorspace for friends, we've traded stuff for connections, and the result is we are one of the loneliest societies there has ever been. +And Bruce Alexander, the guy who did the Rat Park experiment, says, we talk all the time in addiction about individual recovery, and it's right to talk about that, but we need to talk much more about social recovery. +Something's gone wrong with us, not just with individuals but as a group, and we've created a society where, for a lot of us, life looks a whole lot more like that isolated cage and a whole lot less like Rat Park. +If I'm honest, this isn't why I went into it. +I didn't go in to the discover the political stuff, the social stuff. +I wanted to know how to help the people I love. +And when I came back from this long journey and I'd learned all this, I looked at the addicts in my life, and if you're really candid, it's hard loving an addict, and there's going to be lots of people who know in this room. +You are angry a lot of the time, and I think one of the reasons why this debate is so charged is because it runs through the heart of each of us, right? +Everyone has a bit of them that looks at an addict and thinks, I wish someone would just stop you. +And the kind of scripts we're told for how to deal with the addicts in our lives is typified by, I think, the reality show "Intervention," if you guys have ever seen it. +I think everything in our lives is defined by reality TV, but that's another TED Talk. +If you've ever seen the show "Intervention," it's a pretty simple premise. +Get an addict, all the people in their life, gather them together, confront them with what they're doing, and they say, if you don't shape up, we're going to cut you off. +So what they do is they take the connection to the addict, and they threaten it, they make it contingent on the addict behaving the way they want. +And I began to think, I began to see why that approach doesn't work, and I began to think that's almost like the importing of the logic of the Drug War into our private lives. +So I was thinking, how could I be Portuguese? +And what I've tried to do now, and I can't tell you I do it consistently and I can't tell you it's easy, is to say to the addicts in my life that I want to deepen the connection with them, to say to them, I love you whether you're using or you're not. +I love you, whatever state you're in, and if you need me, I'll come and sit with you because I love you and I don't want you to be alone or to feel alone. +And I think the core of that message -- you're not alone, we love you -- has to be at every level of how we respond to addicts, socially, politically and individually. +For 100 years now, we've been singing war songs about addicts. +I think all along we should have been singing love songs to them, because the opposite of addiction is not sobriety. +The opposite of addiction is connection. +Thank you. +Alec Soth: So about 10 years ago, I got a call from a woman in Texas, Stacey Baker, and she'd seen some of my photographs in an art exhibition and was wondering if she could commission me to take a portrait of her parents. +Now, at the time I hadn't met Stacey, and I thought this was some sort of wealthy oil tycoon and I'd struck it rich, but it was only later that I found out she'd actually taken out a loan to make this happen. +I took the picture of her parents, but I was actually more excited about photographing Stacey. +The picture I made that day ended up becoming one of my best-known portraits. +At the time I made this picture, Stacey was working as an attorney for the State of Texas. +Not long after, she left her job to study photography in Maine, and while she was there, she ended up meeting the director of photography at the New York Times Magazine and was actually offered a job. +Stacey Baker: In the years since, Alec and I have done a number of magazine projects together, and we've become friends. +A few months ago, I started talking to Alec about a fascination of mine. +I've always been obsessed with how couples meet. +I asked Alec how he and his wife Rachel met, and he told me the story of a high school football game where she was 16 and he was 15, and he asked her out. +He liked her purple hair. +She said yes, and that was it. +I then asked Alec if he'd be interested in doing a photography project exploring this question. +AS: And I was interested in the question, but I was actually much more interested in Stacey's motivation for asking it, particularly since I'd never known Stacey to have a boyfriend. +So as part of this project, I thought it'd be interesting if she tried to meet someone. +So my idea was to have Stacey here go speed dating in Las Vegas on Valentine's Day. +SB: We ended up at what was advertised as the world's largest speed dating event. +I had 19 dates and each date lasted three minutes. +Participants were given a list of ice- breaker questions to get the ball rolling, things like, "If you could be any kind of animal, what would you be?" +That sort of thing. +My first date was Colin. +He's from England, and he once married a woman he met after placing an ad for a Capricorn. +Alec and I saw him at the end of the evening, and he said he'd kissed a woman in line at one of the concession stands. +Zack and Chris came to the date-a-thon together. +This is Carl. +I asked Carl, "What's the first thing you notice about a woman?" +He said, "Tits." +Matthew is attracted to women with muscular calves. +We talked about running. He does triathlons, I run half-marathons. +Alec actually liked his eyes and asked if I was attracted to him, but I wasn't, and I don't think he was attracted to me either. +Austin and Mike came together. +Mike asked me a hypothetical question. +He said, "You're in an elevator running late for a meeting. +Someone makes a dash for the elevator. +Do you hold it open for them?" +And I said I would not. +Cliff said the first thing he notices about a woman is her teeth, and we complimented each other's teeth. +Because he's an open mouth sleeper, he says he has to floss more to help prevent gum disease, and so I asked him how often he flosses, and he said, "Every other day." +Now, as someone who flosses twice a day, I wasn't really sure that that was flossing more but I don't think I said that out loud. +Bill is an auditor, and we talked the entire three minutes about auditing. The first thing Spencer notices about a woman is her complexion. +He feels a lot of women wear too much makeup, and that they should only wear enough to accentuate the features that they have. +I told him I didn't wear any makeup at all and he seemed to think that that was a good thing. +Craig told me he didn't think I was willing to be vulnerable. +He was also frustrated when I couldn't remember my most embarrassing moment. +He thought I was lying, but I wasn't. +I didn't think he liked me at all, but at the end of the night, he came back to me and he gave me a box of chocolates. +William was really difficult to talk to. +I think he was drunk. +Actor Chris McKenna was the MC of the event. +He used to be on "The Young and the Restless." +I didn't actually go on a date with him. +Alec said he saw several women give their phone numbers to him. +Needless to say, I didn't fall in love. +I didn't feel a particular connection with any of the men that I went on dates with, and I didn't feel like they felt a particular connection with me either. +AS: Now, the most beautiful thing to me -- -- as a photographer is the quality of vulnerability. +The physical exterior reveals a crack in which you can get a glimpse at a more fragile interior. +At this date-a-thon event, I saw so many examples of that, but as I watched Stacey's dates and talked to her about them, I realized how different photographic love is from real love. +What is real love? How does it work? +In order to work on this question and to figure out how someone goes from meeting on a date to having a life together, Stacey and I went to Sun City Summerlin, which is the largest retirement community in Las Vegas. +Our contact there was George, who runs the community's photography club. +He arranged for us to meet other couples in their makeshift photo studio. +SB: After 45 years of marriage, Anastasia's husband died two years ago, so we asked if she had an old wedding picture. +She met her husband when she was a 15-year-old waitress at a small barbecue place in Michigan. +He was 30. +She'd lied about her age. +He was the first person she'd dated. +Dean had been named photographer of the year in Las Vegas two years in a row, and this caught Alec's attention, as did the fact that he met his wife, Judy, at the same age when Alec met Rachel. +Dean admitted that he likes to look at beautiful women, but he's never questioned his decision to marry Judy. +AS: George met Josephine at a parish dance. +He was 18, she was 15. +Like a lot of the couples we met, they weren't especially philosophical about their early choices. +George said something that really stuck with me. +He said, "When you get that feeling, you just go with it." +Bob and Trudy met on a blind date when she was still in high school. +They said they weren't particularly attracted to each other when the first met. +Nevertheless, they were married soon after. +SB: The story that stayed with me the most was that of George, the photography club president, and his wife, Mary. +This was George and Mary's second marriage. +They met at a country-western club in Louisville, Kentucky called the Sahara. +He was there alone drinking and she was with friends. +When they started dating, he owed the IRS 9,000 dollars in taxes, and she offered to help him get out of debt, so for the next year, he turned his paychecks over to Mary, and she got him out of debt. +George was actually an alcoholic when they married, and Mary knew it. +At some point in their marriage, he says he consumed 54 beers in one day. +Another time, when he was drunk, he threatened to kill Mary and her two kids, but they escaped and a SWAT team was called to the house. +Amazingly, Mary took him back, and eventually things got better. +George has been involved in Alcoholics Anonymous and hasn't had a drink in 36 years. +At the end of the day, after we left Sun City, I told Alec that I didn't actually think that the stories of how these couples met were all that interesting. +What was more interesting was how they managed to stay together. +AS: They all had this beautiful quality of endurance, but that was true of the singles, too. +The world is hard, and the singles were out there trying to connect with other people, and the couples were holding onto each other after all these decades. +My favorite pictures on this trip were of Joe and Roseanne. +Now, by the time we met Joe and Roseanne, we'd gotten in the habit of asking couples if they had an old wedding photograph. +In their case, they simultaneously pulled out of their wallets the exact same photograph. +What's more beautiful, I thought to myself, this image of a young couple who has just fallen in love or the idea of these two people holding onto this image for decades? +Thank you. +So, people are more afraid of insects than they are of dying. +At least, according to a 1973 "Book of Lists" survey which preceded all those online best, worst, funniest lists that you see today. +Only heights and public speaking And I suspect if you had put spiders in there, the combinations of insects and spiders would have just topped the chart. +Now, I am not one of those people. +I really love insects. +I think they're interesting and beautiful, and sometimes even cute. +And I'm not alone. +For centuries, some of the greatest minds in science, from Charles Darwin to E.O. Wilson, have drawn inspiration from studying some of the smallest minds on Earth. +Well, why is that? +What is that keeps us coming back to insects? +Some of it, of course, is just the sheer magnitude of almost everything about them. +They're more numerous than any other kind of animal. +We don't even know how many species of insects there are, because new ones are being discovered all the time. +There are at least a million, maybe as many as 10 million. +This means that you could have an insect-of-the-month calendar and not have to reuse a species for over 80,000 years. +Take that, pandas and kittens! +More seriously, insects are essential. +We need them. +It's been estimated that 1 out of every 3 bites of food is made possible by a pollinator. +Scientist use insects to make fundamental discoveries about everything from the structure of our nervous systems to how our genes and DNA work. +But what I love most about insects is what they can tell us about our own behavior. +Insects seem like they do everything that people do. +They meet, they mate, they fight, they break up. +And they do so with what looks like love or animosity. +But what drives their behaviors is really different than what drives our own, and that difference can be really illuminating. +There's nowhere where that's more true than when it comes to one of our most consuming interests -- sex. +Now, I will maintain. and I think I can defend, what may seem like a surprising statement. +I think sex in insects is more interesting than sex in people. +And the wild variety that we see makes us challenge some of our own assumptions about what it means to be male and female. +Of course, to start with, a lot of insects don't need to have sex at all to reproduce. +Female aphids can make little, tiny clones of themselves without ever mating. +Virgin birth, right there. +On your rose bushes. +When they do have sex, even their sperm is more interesting than human sperm. +There are some kinds of fruit flies whose sperm is longer than the male's own body. +And that's important because the males use their sperm to compete. +Now, male insects do compete with weapons, like the horns on these beetles. +But they also compete after mating with their sperm. +Dragonflies and damselflies have penises that look kind of like Swiss Army knives with all of the attachments pulled out. +They use these formidable devices like scoops, to remove the sperm from previous males that the female has mated with. +So, what can we learn from this? +All right, it is not a lesson in the sense of us imitating them or of them setting an example for us to follow. +Which, given this, is probably just as well. +And also, did I mention sexual cannibalism is rampant among insects? +So, no, that's not the point. +But what I think insects do, is break a lot of the rules that we humans have about the sex roles. +So, people have this idea that nature dictates kind of a 1950s sitcom version of what males and females are like. +So that males are always supposed to be dominant and aggressive, and females are passive and coy. +But that's just not the case. +So for example, take katydids, which are relatives of crickets and grasshoppers. +The males are very picky about who they mate with, because they not only transfer sperm during mating, they also give the female something called a nuptial gift. +You can see two katydids mating in these photos. +In both panels, the male's the one on the right, and that sword-like appendage is the female's egg-laying organ. +The white blob is the sperm, the green blob is the nuptial gift, and the male manufactures this from his own body and it's extremely costly to produce. +It can weigh up to a third of his body mass. +I will now pause for a moment and let you think about what it would be like if human men, every time they had sex, had to produce something that weighed 50, 60, 70 pounds. +Okay, they would not be able to do that very often. +And indeed, neither can the katydids. +And so what that means is the katydid males are very choosy about who they offer these nuptial gifts to. +Now, the gift is very nutritious, and the female eats it during and after mating. +So, the bigger it is, the better off the male is, because that means more time for his sperm to drain into her body and fertilize her eggs. +But it also means that the males are very passive about mating, whereas the females are extremely aggressive and competitive, in an attempt to get as many of these nutritious nuptial gifts as they can. +So, it's not exactly a stereotypical set of rules. +Even more generally though, males are actually not all that important in the lives of a lot of insects. +In the social insects -- the bees and wasps and ants -- the individuals that you see every day -- the ants going back and forth to your sugar bowl, the honey bees that are flitting from flower to flower -- all of those are always female. +People have had a hard time getting their head around that idea for millennia. +The ancient Greeks knew that there was a class of bees, the drones, that are larger than the workers, although they disapproved of the drones' laziness because they could see that the drones just hang around the hive until the mating flight -- they're the males. +They hang around until the mating flight, but they don't participate in gathering nectar or pollen. +The Greeks couldn't figure out the drones' sex, and part of the confusion was that they were aware of the stinging ability of bees but they found it difficult to believe that any animals that bore such a weapon could possibly be a female. +Aristotle tried to get involved as well. +He suggested, "OK, if the stinging individuals are going to be the males ..." +Then he got confused, because that would have meant the males were also taking care of the young in a colony, and he seemed to think that would be completely impossible. +He then concluded that maybe bees had the organs of both sexes in the same individual, which is not that far-fetched, some animals do that, but he never really did get it figured out. +And you know, even today, my students, for instance, call every animal they see, including insects, a male. +And when I tell them that the ferocious army-ant soldiers with their giant jaws, used to defend the colony, are all always female, they seem to not quite believe me. +And certainly all of the movies -- Antz, Bee Movie -- portray the main character in the social insects as being male. +Well, what difference does this make? +These are movies. They're fiction. +They have talking animals in them. +What difference does it make if they talk like Jerry Seinfeld? +I think it does matter, and it's a problem that actually is part of a much deeper one that has implications for medicine and health and a lot of other aspects of our lives. +You all know that scientists use what we call model systems, which are creatures -- white rats or fruit flies -- that are kind of stand-ins for all other animals, including people. +And the idea is that what's true for a person will also be true for the white rat. +And by and large, that turns out to be the case. +But you can take the idea of a model system too far. +And what I think we've done, is use males, in any species, as though they are the model system. +The norm. +The way things are supposed to be. +And females as a kind of variant -- something special that you only study after you get the basics down. +And so, back to the insects. +I think what that means is that people just couldn't see what was in front of them. +Because they assumed that the world's stage was largely occupied by male players and females would only have minor, walk-on roles. +But when we do that, we really miss out on a lot of what nature is like. +And we can also miss out on the way natural, living things, including people, can vary. +And I think that's why we've used males as models in a lot of medical research, something that we know now to be a problem if we want the results to apply to both men and women. +Well, the last thing I really love about insects is something that a lot of people find unnerving about them. +They have little, tiny brains with very little cognitive ability, the way we normally think of it. +They have complicated behavior, but they lack complicated brains. +And so, we can't just think of them as though they're little people because they don't do things the way that we do. +I really love that it's difficult to anthropomorphize insects, to look at them and just think of them like they're little people in exoskeletons, with six legs. +Instead, you really have to accept them on their own terms, because insects make us question what's normal and what's natural. +Now, you know, people write fiction and talk about parallel universes. +They speculate about the supernatural, maybe the spirits of the departed walking among us. +The allure of another world is something that people say is part of why they want to dabble in the paranormal. +But as far as I'm concerned, who needs to be able to see dead people, when you can see live insects? +Thank you. +In the early days of Twitter, it was like a place of radical de-shaming. +People would admit shameful secrets about themselves, and other people would say, "Oh my God, I'm exactly the same." +Voiceless people realized that they had a voice, and it was powerful and eloquent. +If a newspaper ran some racist or homophobic column, we realized we could do something about it. +We could get them. +We could hit them with a weapon that we understood but they didn't -- a social media shaming. +Advertisers would withdraw their advertising. +When powerful people misused their privilege, we were going to get them. +This was like the democratization of justice. +Hierarchies were being leveled out. +We were going to do things better. +Soon after that, a disgraced pop science writer called Jonah Lehrer -- he'd been caught plagiarizing and faking quotes, and he was drenched in shame and regret, he told me. +And he had the opportunity to publicly apologize at a foundation lunch. +This was going to be the most important speech of his life. +Maybe it would win him some salvation. +He knew before he arrived that the foundation was going to be live-streaming his event, but what he didn't know until he turned up, was that they'd erected a giant screen Twitter feed right next to his head. +Another one in a monitor screen in his eye line. +I don't think the foundation did this because they were monstrous. +I think they were clueless: I think this was a unique moment when the beautiful naivety of Twitter was hitting the increasingly horrific reality. +And here were some of the Tweets that were cascading into his eye line, as he was trying to apologize: "Jonah Lehrer, boring us into forgiving him." +And, "Jonah Lehrer has not proven that he is capable of feeling shame." +That one must have been written by the best psychiatrist ever, to know that about such a tiny figure behind a lectern. +And, "Jonah Lehrer is just a frigging sociopath." +That last word is a very human thing to do, to dehumanize the people we hurt. +It's because we want to destroy people but not feel bad about it. +Imagine if this was an actual court, and the accused was in the dark, begging for another chance, and the jury was yelling out, "Bored! Sociopath!" +You know, when we watch courtroom dramas, we tend to identify with the kindhearted defense attorney, but give us the power, and we become like hanging judges. +Power shifts fast. +We were getting Jonah because he was perceived to have misused his privilege, but Jonah was on the floor then, and we were still kicking, and congratulating ourselves for punching up. +And it began to feel weird and empty when there wasn't a powerful person who had misused their privilege that we could get. +A day without a shaming began to feel like a day picking fingernails and treading water. +Let me tell you a story. +It's about a woman called Justine Sacco. +She was a PR woman from New York with 170 Twitter followers, and she'd Tweet little acerbic jokes to them, like this one on a plane from New York to London: [Weird German Dude: You're in first class. It's 2014. Get some deodorant." +So Justine chuckled to herself, and pressed send, and got no replies, and felt that sad feeling that we all feel when the Internet doesn't congratulate us for being funny. +Black silence when the Internet doesn't talk back. +And then another message from a best friend, "You need to call me right now. +You are the worldwide number one trending topic on Twitter." +What had happened is that one of her 170 followers had sent the Tweet to a Gawker journalist, and he retweeted it to his 15,000 followers: [And now, a funny holiday joke from IAC's PR boss] And then it was like a bolt of lightning. +A few weeks later, I talked to the Gawker journalist. +I emailed him and asked him how it felt, and he said, "It felt delicious." +And then he said, "But I'm sure she's fine." +But she wasn't fine, because while she slept, Twitter took control of her life and dismantled it piece by piece. +First there were the philanthropists: [If @JustineSacco's unfortunate words ... bother you, join me in supporting @CARE's work in Africa.] [In light of ... disgusting, racist tweet, I'm donating to @care today] Then came the beyond horrified: [... no words for that horribly disgusting racist as fuck tweet from Justine Sacco. +Was anybody on Twitter that night? A few of you. +Did Justine's joke overwhelm your Twitter feed the way it did mine? +It did mine, and I thought what everybody thought that night, which was, "Wow, somebody's screwed! +Somebody's life is about to get terrible!" +And I sat up in my bed, and I put the pillow behind my head, and then I thought, I'm not entirely sure that joke was intended to be racist. +Maybe instead of gleefully flaunting her privilege, she was mocking the gleeful flaunting of privilege. +There's a comedy tradition of this, like South Park or Colbert or Randy Newman. +Maybe Justine Sacco's crime was not being as good at it as Randy Newman. +In fact, when I met Justine a couple of weeks later in a bar, she was just crushed, and I asked her to explain the joke, and she said, "Living in America puts us in a bit of a bubble when it comes to what is going on in the Third World. +I was making of fun of that bubble." +And so to her shame, she wrote, she shut up and watched as Justine's life got torn apart. +It started to get darker: [Everyone go report this cunt @JustineSacco] Then came the calls for her to be fired. +[Good luck with the job hunt in the new year. #GettingFired] Thousands of people around the world decided it was their duty to get her fired. +[@JustineSacco last tweet of your career. #SorryNotSorry Corporations got involved, hoping to sell their products on the back of Justine's annihilation: [Next time you plan to tweet something stupid before you take off, make sure you are getting on a @Gogo flight!] A lot of companies were making good money that night. +You know, Justine's name was normally Googled 40 times a month. +That month, between December the 20th and the end of December, her name was Googled 1,220,000 times. +And one Internet economist told me that that meant that Google made somewhere between 120,000 dollars and 468,000 dollars from Justine's annihilation, whereas those of us doing the actual shaming -- we got nothing. +We were like unpaid shaming interns for Google. +And then came the trolls: [I'm actually kind of hoping Justine Sacco gets aids? lol] Somebody else on that wrote, "Somebody HIV-positive should rape this bitch and then we'll find out if her skin color protects her from AIDS." +And that person got a free pass. +Nobody went after that person. +We were all so excited about destroying Justine, and our shaming brains are so simple-minded, that we couldn't also handle destroying somebody who was inappropriately destroying Justine. +Justine was really uniting a lot of disparate groups that night, from philanthropists to "rape the bitch." +[@JustineSacco I hope you get fired! You demented bitch... +Just let the world know you're planning to ride bare back while in Africa.] Women always have it worse than men. +When a man gets shamed, it's, "I'm going to get you fired." +When a woman gets shamed, it's, "I'm going to get you fired and raped and cut out your uterus." +And then Justine's employers got involved: [IAC on @JustineSacco tweet: This is an outrageous, offensive comment. +Before she even KNOWS she's getting fired.] What we had was a delightful narrative arc. +We knew something that Justine didn't. +Can you think of anything less judicial than this? +Justine was asleep on a plane and unable to explain herself, and her inability was a huge part of the hilarity. +On Twitter that night, we were like toddlers crawling towards a gun. +Somebody worked out exactly which plane she was on, so they linked to a flight tracker website. +[British Airways Flight 43 On-time - arrives in 1 hour 34 minutes] A hashtag began trending worldwide: # hasJustineLandedYet? +Come on, twitter! I'd like pictures] And guess what? Yes there was. +[@JustineSacco HAS in fact landed at Cape Town international. +And if you want to know what it looks like to discover that you've just been torn to shreds because of a misconstrued liberal joke, not by trolls, but by nice people like us, this is what it looks like: [... She's decided to wear sunnies as a disguise.] So why did we do it? +I think some people were genuinely upset, but I think for other people, it's because Twitter is basically a mutual approval machine. +We surround ourselves with people who feel the same way we do, and we approve each other, and that's a really good feeling. +And if somebody gets in the way, we screen them out. +And do you know what that's the opposite of? +It's the opposite of democracy. +We wanted to show that we cared about people dying of AIDS in Africa. +Our desire to be seen to be compassionate is what led us to commit this profoundly un-compassionate act. +As Meghan O'Gieblyn wrote in the Boston Review, "This isn't social justice. It's a cathartic alternative." +For the past three years, I've been going around the world meeting people like Justine Sacco -- and believe me, there's a lot of people like Justine Sacco. +There's more every day. +And we want to think they're fine, but they're not fine. +The people I met were mangled. +They talked to me about depression, and anxiety and insomnia and suicidal thoughts. +One woman I talked to, who also told a joke that landed badly, she stayed home for a year and a half. +Before that, she worked with adults with learning difficulties, and was apparently really good at her job. +Justine was fired, of course, because social media demanded it. +But it was worse than that. +She was losing herself. +She was waking up in the middle of the night, forgetting who she was. +She was got because she was perceived to have misused her privilege. +And of course, that's a much better thing to get people for than the things we used to get people for, like having children out of wedlock. +But the phrase "misuse of privilege" is becoming a free pass to tear apart pretty much anybody we choose to. +It's becoming a devalued term, and it's making us lose our capacity for empathy and for distinguishing between serious and unserious transgressions. +Justine had 170 Twitter followers, and so to make it work, she had to be fictionalized. +Word got around that she was the daughter the mining billionaire Desmond Sacco. +[Let us not be fooled by #JustineSacco her father is a SA mining billionaire. +She's not sorry. And neither is her father.] I thought that was true about Justine, until I met her at a bar, and I asked her about her billionaire father, and she said, "My father sells carpets." +And I think back on the early days of Twitter, when people would admit shameful secrets about themselves, and other people would say, "Oh my God, I'm exactly the same." +These days, the hunt is on for people's shameful secrets. +You can lead a good, ethical life, but some bad phraseology in a Tweet can overwhelm it all, become a clue to your secret inner evil. +Maybe there's two types of people in the world: those people who favor humans over ideology, and those people who favor ideology over humans. +I favor humans over ideology, but right now, the ideologues are winning, and they're creating a stage for constant artificial high dramas where everybody's either a magnificent hero or a sickening villain, even though we know that's not true about our fellow humans. +What's true is that we are clever and stupid; what's true is that we're grey areas. +The great thing about social media was how it gave a voice to voiceless people, but we're now creating a surveillance society, where the smartest way to survive is to go back to being voiceless. +Let's not do that. +Thank you. +Bruno Giussani: Thank you, Jon. +Jon Ronson: Thanks, Bruno. +BG: Don't go away. +What strikes me about Justine's story is also the fact that if you Google her name today, this story covers the first 100 pages of Google results -- there is nothing else about her. +In your book, you mention another story of another victim who actually got taken on by a reputation management firm, and by creating blogs and posting nice, innocuous stories about her love for cats and holidays and stuff, managed to get the story off the first couple pages of Google results, but it didn't last long. +A couple of weeks later, they started creeping back up to the top result. +Is this a totally lost battle? +But if a shaming happens and there's a babble of voices, like in a democracy, where people are discussing it, I think that's much less damaging. +So I think that's the way forward, but it's hard, because if you do stand up for somebody, it's incredibly unpleasant. +BG: So let's talk about your experience, because you stood up by writing this book. +By the way, it's mandatory reading for everybody, okay? +You stood up because the book actually puts the spotlight on shamers. +And I assume you didn't only have friendly reactions on Twitter. +JR: It didn't go down that well with some people. +I mean, you don't want to just concentrate -- because lots of people understood, and were really nice about the book. +But yeah, for 30 years I've been writing stories about abuses of power, and when I say the powerful people over there in the military, or in the pharmaceutical industry, everybody applauds me. +As soon as I say, "We are the powerful people abusing our power now," I get people saying, "Well you must be a racist too." +BG: So the other night -- yesterday -- we were at dinner, and there were two discussions going on. +On one side you were talking with people around the table -- and that was a nice, constructive discussion. +On the other, every time you turned to your phone, there is this deluge of insults. +JR: Yeah. This happened last night. We had like a TED dinner last night. +We were chatting and it was lovely and nice, and I decided to check Twitter. +Somebody said, "You are a white supremacist." +And then I went back and had a nice conversation with somebody, and then I went back to Twitter, somebody said my very existence made the world a worse place. +My friend Adam Curtis says that maybe the Internet is like a John Carpenter movie from the 1980s, when eventually everyone will start screaming at each other and shooting each other, and then eventually everybody would flee to somewhere safer, and I'm starting to think of that as a really nice option. +BG: Jon, thank you. JR: Thank you, Bruno. +This back here was my brain cancer. +Isn't it nice? +The key phrase is "was," phew. +Having brain cancer was really, as you can imagine, shocking news for me. +I knew nothing about cancer. +In Western cultures, when you have cancer, it's as if you disappear in a way. +Your life as a complex human being is replaced by medical data: Your images, your exams, your lab values, a list of medicines. +And everyone changes as well. +You suddenly become a disease on legs. +Doctors start speaking a language which you don't understand. +They start pointing their fingers at your body and your images. +People start changing as well because they start dealing with the disease, instead of with the human being. +They say, "What did the doctor say?" +before even saying, "Hello." +And in the meanwhile, you're left with questions to which nobody gives an answer. +These are the "Can I?" questions: Can I work while I have cancer? +Can I study? Can I make love? Can I be creative? +And you wonder, "What have I done to deserve this?" +You wonder, "Can I change something about my lifestyle?" +You wonder, "Can I do something? +Are there any other options?" +And, obviously, doctors are the good guys in all these scenarios, because they are very professional and dedicated to curing you. +But they also are very used to having to deal with patients, so I'd say that they sometimes lose the idea that this is torture for you and that you become, literally, a patient -- "patient" means "the one who waits." +Things are changing, but classically, they tend to not engage you in any way to learn about your condition, to get your friends and family engaged, or showing you ways in which you can change your lifestyle to minimize the risks of what you're going through. +But instead, you're forced there to wait in the hands of a series of very professional strangers. +While I was in the hospital, I asked for a printed-out picture of my cancer and I spoke with it. +It was really hard to obtain, because it's not common practice to ask for a picture of your own cancer. +I talked to it and I said, "Okay, cancer, you're not all there is to me. +There's more to me. +A cure, whichever it is, will have to deal with the whole of me." +And so, the next day, I left the hospital against medical advice. +I was determined to change my relationship with the cancer and I was determined to learn more about my cancer before doing anything as drastic as a surgery. +I'm an artist, I use several forms of open-source technologies and open information in my practice. +So my best bet was to get it all out there, get the information out there, and use it so that it could be accessed by anyone. +So I created a website, which is called La Cura, on which I put my medical data, online. +I actually had to hack it and that's a thing which we can talk about in another speech. +I chose this word, La Cura -- La Cura in Italian means "the cure" -- because in many different cultures, the word "cure" can mean many different things. +In our Western cultures, it means eradicating or reversing a disease, but in different cultures, for example, a culture from Asia, from the Mediterranean, from Latin countries, from Africa, it can mean many more things. +Of course, I was interested in the opinions of doctors and healthcare providers, but I was also interested in the cure of the artist, of the poet, of the designer, of, who knows, the musicians. +I was interested in the social cure, I was interested in the psychological cure, I was interested in the spiritual cure, I was interested in the emotional cure, I was interested in any form of cure. +And, it worked. +The La Cura website went viral. +I received lots of media attention from Italy and from abroad and I quickly received more than 500,000 contacts -- emails, social networking -- most of them were a suggestion on how to cure my cancer, but more of them were about how to cure myself as a full individual. +For example, many thousands of videos, images, pictures, art performances were produced for La Cura. +For example, here we see Francesca Fini in her performance. +Or, as artist Patrick Lichty has done: He produced a 3D sculpture of my tumor and put it on sale on Thingiverse. +Now you can have my cancer, too! +Which is a nice thing, if you think about it, we can share our cancer. +And this was going on -- scientists, the traditional medicine experts, several researchers, doctors -- all connected with me to give advice. +With all this information and support, I was able to form a team of several neurosurgeons, traditional doctors, oncologists, and several hundred volunteers with whom I was able to discuss the information I was receiving, which is very important. +And together, we were able to form a strategy for my own cure in many languages, according to many cultures. +And the current strategy spans the whole world and thousands of years of human history, which is quite remarkable for me. +[Surgery] The follow-up MRIs showed, luckily, little to no growth of the cancer. +So I was able to take my time and choose. +I chose the doctor I wanted to work with, I chose the hospital I wanted to stay in, and in the meanwhile, I was supported by thousands of people, none of whom felt pity for me. +Everyone felt like they could take an active role in helping me to get well, and this was the most important part of La Cura. +What are the outcomes? +I'm fine, as you can see, pretty fine. +I had excellent news after the surgery -- I have -- I had a very low-grade glioma, which is a "good" kind of cancer which doesn't grow a lot. +I have completely changed my life and my lifestyle. +Everything I did was thoughtfully designed to get me engaged. +Up until the very last few minutes of the surgery, which was very intense, a matrix of electrodes was implanted in my brain from this side, to be able to build a functional map of what the brain controls. +And right before the operation, we were able to discuss the functional map of my brain with the doctor, to understand which risks I was running into and if there were any I wanted to avoid. +Obviously, there were. +[Open] And this openness was really the fundamental part of La Cura. +Thousands of people shared their stories, their experiences. +Doctors got to talk with people they don't usually consult when they think about cancer. +I'm a self-founding, continuous state of translation among many different languages, in which science meets emotion and conventional research meets traditional research. +[Society] The most important thing of La Cura was to feel like a part of a really engaged and connected society whose wellness really depends on the wellness of all of its components. +This global performance is my open-source cure for cancer. +And from what I feel, it's a cure for me, but for us all. +Thank you. +In 2012, when I painted the minaret of Jara Mosque in my hometown of Gabs, in the south of Tunisia, I never thought that graffiti would bring so much attention to a city. +At the beginning, I was just looking for a wall in my hometown, and it happened that the minaret was built in '94. +And for 18 years, those 57 meters of concrete stayed grey. +When I met the imam for the first time, and I told him what I wanted to do, he was like, "Thank God you finally came," and he told me that for years he was waiting for somebody to do something on it. +The most amazing thing about this imam is that he didn't ask me anything -- neither a sketch, or what I was going to write. +In every work that I create, I write messages with my style of calligraffiti -- a mix of calligraphy and graffiti. +I use quotes or poetry. +For the minaret, I thought that the most relevant message to be put on a mosque should come from the Quran, so I picked this verse: "Oh humankind, we have created you from a male and a female, and made you people and tribe, so you may know each other." +It was a universal call for peace, tolerance, and acceptance coming from the side that we don't usually portray in a good way in the media. +I was amazed to see how the local community reacted to the painting, and how it made them proud to see the minaret getting so much attention from international press all around the world. +For the imam, it was not just the painting; it was really deeper than that. +He hoped that this minaret would become a monument for the city, and attract people to this forgotten place of Tunisia. +The universality of the message, the political context of Tunisia at this time, and the fact that I was writing Quran in a graffiti way were not insignificant. +It reunited the community. +Bringing people, future generations, together through Arabic calligraphy is what I do. +Writing messages is the essence of my artwork. +What is funny, actually, is that even Arabic-speaking people really need to focus a lot to decipher what I'm writing. +You don't need to know the meaning to feel the piece. +I think that Arabic script touches your soul before it reaches your eyes. +There is a beauty in it that you don't need to translate. +Arabic script speaks to anyone, I believe; to you, to you, to you, to anybody, and then when you get the meaning, you feel connected to it. +I always make sure to write messages that are relevant to the place where I'm painting, but messages that have a universal dimension, so anybody around the world can connect to it. +I was born and raised in France, in Paris, and I started learning how to write and read Arabic when I was 18. +Today I only write messages in Arabic. +One of the reasons this is so important to me, is because of all the reaction that I've experienced all around the world. +In Rio de Janeiro, I translated this Portuguese poem from Gabriela Trres Barbosa, who was giving an homage to the poor people of the favela, and then I painted it on the rooftop. +The local community were really intrigued by what I was doing, but as soon as I gave them the meaning of the calligraphy, they thanked me, as they felt connected to the piece. +In South Africa, in Cape Town, the local community of Philippi offered me the only concrete wall of the slum. +It was a school, and I wrote on it a quote from Nelson Mandela, saying, "[in Arabic]," which means, "It seems impossible until it's done." +Then this guy came to me and said, "Man, why you don't write in English?" +and I replied to him, "I would consider your concern legit if you asked me why I didn't write in Zulu." +In Paris, once, there was this event, and someone gave his wall to be painted. +And when he saw I was painting in Arabic, he got so mad -- actually, hysterical -- and he asked for the wall to be erased. +I was mad and disappointed. +But a week later, the organizer of the event asked me to come back, and he told me that there was a wall right in front of this guy's house. +So, this guy -- like, was forced to see it every day. +At the beginning, I was going to write, "[In Arabic]," which means, "In your face," but -- I decided to be smarter and I wrote, "[In Arabic]," which means, "Open your heart." +I'm really proud of my culture, and I'm trying to be an ambassador of it through my artwork. +And I hope that I can break the stereotypes we all know, with the beauty of Arabic script. +Today, I don't write the translation of the message anymore on the wall. +I don't want the poetry of the calligraphy to be broken, as it's art and you can appreciate it without knowing the meaning, as you can enjoy any music from other countries. +Some people see that as a rejection or a closed door, but for me, it's more an invitation -- to my language, to my culture, and to my art. +Thank you. +This is a map of New York State that was made in 1937 by the General Drafting Company. +Agloe, New York, is very famous to cartographers, because it's a paper town. +It's also known as a copyright trap. +Mapmakers -- because my map of New York and your map of New York are going to look very similar, on account of the shape of New York -- often, mapmakers will insert fake places onto their maps, in order to protect their copyright. +Because then, if my fake place shows up on your map, I can be well and truly sure that you have robbed me. +Agloe is a scrabblization of the initials of the two guys who made this map, Ernest Alpers and Otto [G.] Lindberg, and they released this map in 1937. +Decades later, Rand McNally releases a map with Agloe, New York, on it, at the same exact intersection of two dirt roads in the middle of nowhere. +Well, you can imagine the delight over at General Drafting. +They immediately call Rand McNally, and they say, "We've caught you! We made Agloe, New York, up. +It is a fake place. It's a paper town. +We're going to sue your pants off!" +And Rand McNally says, "No, no, no, no, Agloe is real." +Because people kept going to that intersection of two dirt roads -- in the middle of nowhere, expecting there to be a place called Agloe -- someone built a place called Agloe, New York. +It had a gas station, a general store, two houses at its peak. +And this is of course a completely irresistible metaphor to a novelist, because we would all like to believe that the stuff that we write down on paper can change the actual world in which we're actually living, which is why my third book is called "Paper Towns". +But what interests me ultimately more than the medium in which this happened, is the phenomenon itself. +It's easy enough to say that the world shapes our maps of the world, right? +Like the overall shape of the world is obviously going to affect our maps. +But what I find a lot more interesting is the way that the manner in which we map the world changes the world. +Because the world would truly be a different place if North were down. +And the world would be a truly different place if Alaska and Russia weren't on opposite sides of the map. +And the world would be a different place if we projected Europe to show it in its actual size. +The world is changed by our maps of the world. +The way that we choose -- sort of, our personal cartographic enterprise, also shapes the map of our lives, and that in turn shapes our lives. +I believe that what we map changes the life we lead. +And I don't mean that in some, like, secret-y Oprah's Angels network, like, you-can-think-your-way- out-of-cancer sense. +But I do believe that while maps don't show you where you will go in your life, they show you where you might go. +You very rarely go to a place that isn't on your personal map. +So I was a really terrible student when I was a kid. +My GPA was consistently in the low 2s. +And I think the reason that I was such a terrible student is that I felt like education was just a series of hurdles that had been erected before me, and I had to jump over in order to achieve adulthood. +And I didn't really want to jump over these hurdles, because they seemed completely arbitrary, so I often wouldn't, and then people would threaten me, you know, they'd threaten me with this "going on [my] permanent record," or "You'll never get a good job." +I didn't want a good job! +As far as I could tell at eleven or twelve years old, like, people with good jobs woke up very early in the morning, and the men who had good jobs, one of the first things they did was tie a strangulation item of clothing around their necks. +They literally put nooses on themselves, and then they went off to their jobs, whatever they were. +That's not a recipe for a happy life. +These people -- in my, symbol-obsessed, twelve year-old imagination -- these people who are strangling themselves as one of the first things they do each morning, they can't possibly be happy. +Why would I want to jump over all of these hurdles and have that be the end? +That's a terrible end! +And then, when I was in tenth grade, I went to this school, Indian Springs School, a small boarding school, outside of Birmingham, Alabama. +And all at once I became a learner. +And I became a learner, because I found myself in a community of learners. +I found myself surrounded by people who celebrated intellectualism and engagement, and who thought that my ironic oh-so-cool disengagement wasn't clever, or funny, but, like, it was a simple and unspectacular response to very complicated and compelling problems. +And so I started to learn, because learning was cool. +I learned that some infinite sets are bigger than other infinite sets, and I learned that iambic pentameter is and why it sounds so good to human ears. +I learned that the Civil War was a nationalizing conflict, I learned some physics, I learned that correlation shouldn't be confused with causation -- all of these things, by the way, enriched my life on a literally daily basis. +And it's true that I don't use most of them for my "job," but that's not what it's about for me. +It's about cartography. +What is the process of cartography? +It's, you know, sailing upon some land, and thinking, "I think I'll draw that bit of land," and then wondering, "Maybe there's some more land to draw." +And that's when learning really began for me. +It's true that I had teachers that didn't give up on me, and I was very fortunate to have those teachers, because I often gave them cause to think there was no reason to invest in me. +But a lot of the learning that I did in high school wasn't about what happened inside the classroom, it was about what happened outside of the classroom. +The reason I can tell you what opportunity cost is, is because one day when I was playing Super Mario Kart on my couch, my friend Emmet walked in, and he said, "How long have you been playing Super Mario Kart?" +And I said, "I don't know, like, six hours?" and he said, "Do you realize that if you'd worked at Baskin-Robbins those six hours, you could have made 30 dollars, so in some ways, you just paid thirty dollars to play Super Mario Kart." +And I was, like, "I'll take that deal." +But I learned what opportunity cost is. +And along the way, the map of my life got better. +It got bigger; it contained more places. +There were more things that might happen, more futures I might have. +It wasn't a formal, organized learning process, and I'm happy to admit that. +It was spotty, it was inconsistent, there was a lot I didn't know. +I might know, you know, Cantor's idea that some infinite sets are larger than other infinite sets, but I didn't really understand the calculus behind that idea. +I might know the idea of opportunity cost, but I didn't know the law of diminishing returns. +But the great thing about imagining learning as cartography, instead of imagining it as arbitrary hurdles that you have to jump over, is that you see a bit of coastline, and that makes you want to see more. +And so now I do know at least some of the calculus that underlies all of that stuff. +So, I had one learning community in high school, then I went to another for college, and then I went to another, when I started working at a magazine called "Booklist," where I was an assistant, surrounded by astonishingly well-read people. +And then I wrote a book. +And like all authors dream of doing, I promptly quit my job. +And for the first time since high school, I found myself without a learning community, and it was miserable. +I hated it. +I read many, many books during this two-year period. +And then, in 2006, I met that guy. +His name is Ze Frank. +I didn't actually meet him, just on the Internet. +Ze Frank was running, at the time, a show called "The Show with Ze Frank," and I discovered the show, and that was my way back into being a community learner again. +Here's Ze talking about Las Vegas: Ze Frank: Las Vegas was built in the middle of a huge, hot desert. +Almost everything here was brought from somewhere else -- the sort of rocks, the trees, the waterfalls. +These fish are almost as out of place as my pig that flew. +Contrasted to the scorching desert that surrounds this place, so are these people. +Things from all over the world have been rebuilt here, away from their histories, and away from the people that experience them differently. +Sometimes improvements were made -- even the Sphinx got a nose job. +Here, there's no reason to feel like you're missing anything. +This New York means the same to me as it does to everyone else. +Everything is out of context, and that means context allows for everything: Self Parking, Events Center, Shark Reef. +This fabrication of place could be one of the world's greatest achievements, because no one belongs here; everyone does. +As I walked around this morning, I noticed most of the buildings were huge mirrors reflecting the sun back into the desert. +But unlike most mirrors, which present you with an outside view of yourself embedded in a place, these mirrors come back empty. +John Green: Makes me nostalgic for the days when you could see the pixels in online video. +Ze isn't just a great public intellectual, he's also a brilliant community builder, and the community of people that built up around these videos was in many ways a community of learners. +So we played Ze Frank at chess collaboratively, and we beat him. +We organized ourselves to take a young man on a road trip across the United States. +We turned the Earth into a sandwich, by having one person hold a piece of bread at one point on the Earth, and on the exact opposite point of the Earth, have another person holding a piece of bread. +I realize that these are silly ideas, but they are also "learny" ideas, and that was what was so exciting to me, and if you go online, you can find communities like this all over the place. +Follow the calculus tag on Tumblr, and yes, you will see people complaining about calculus, but you'll also see people re-blogging those complaints, making the argument that calculus is interesting and beautiful, and here's a way in to thinking about the problem that you find unsolvable. +You can go to places like Reddit, and find sub-Reddits, like "Ask a Historian" or "Ask Science," where you can ask people who are in these fields a wide range of questions, from very serious ones to very silly ones. +But to me, the most interesting communities of learners that are growing up on the Internet right now are on YouTube, and admittedly, I am biased. +But I think in a lot of ways, the YouTube page resembles a classroom. +Look for instance at "Minute Physics," a guy who's teaching the world about physics: Let's cut to the chase. +As of July 4, 2012, the Higgs boson is the last fundamental piece of the standard model of particle physics to be discovered experimentally. +But, you might ask, why was the Higgs boson included in the standard model, alongside well-known particles like electrons and photons and quarks, if it hadn't been discovered back then in the 1970s? +Good question. There are two main reasons. +First, just like the electron is an excitation in the electron field, the Higgs boson is simply a particle which is an excitation of the everywhere-permeating Higgs field. +The Higgs field in turn plays an integral role in our model for the weak nuclear force. +In particular, the Higgs field helps explain why it's so weak. +We'll talk more about this in a later video, but even though weak nuclear theory was confirmed in the 1980s, in the equations, the Higgs field is so inextricably jumbled with the weak force, that until now we've been unable to confirm its actual and independent existence. +JG: Or here's a video that I made as part of my show "Crash Course," talking about World War I: The immediate cause was of course the assassination in Sarajevo of the Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand, on June 28, 1914, by a Bosnian-Serb nationalist named Gavrilo Princip. +Quick aside: It's worth noting that the first big war of the twentieth century began with an act of terrorism. +So Franz Ferdinand wasn't particularly well-liked by his uncle, the emperor Franz Joseph -- now that is a mustache! +But even so, the assassination led Austria to issue an ultimatum to Serbia, whereupon Serbia accepted some, but not all, of Austria's demands, leading Austria to declare war against Serbia. +And then Russia, due to its alliance with the Serbs, mobilized its army. +Germany, because it had an alliance with Austria, told Russia to stop mobilizing, which Russia failed to do, so then Germany mobilized its own army, declared war on Russia, cemented an alliance with the Ottomans, and then declared war on France, because, you know, France. +And it's not just physics and world history that people are choosing to learn through YouTube. +Here's a video about abstract mathematics. +So you're me, and you're in math class yet again, because they make you go every single day. +And you're learning about, I don't know, the sums of infinite series. +That's a high school topic, right? +Which is odd, because it's a cool topic, but they somehow manage to ruin it anyway. +So I guess that's why they allow infinite series in the curriculum. +So, in a quite understandable need for distraction, you're doodling and thinking more about what the plural of "series" should be than about the topic at hand: "serieses," "seriese," "seriesen," and "serii?" +Or is it that the singular should be changed: one "serie," or "serum," just like the singular of "sheep" should be "shoop." +Which is at least a tiny bit awesome, because you can get an infinite number of elephants in a line, and still have it fit across a single notebook page. +JG: And lastly, here's Destin, from "Smarter Every Day," talking about the conservation of angular momentum, and, since it's YouTube, cats: Hey, it's me, Destin. Welcome back to "Smarter Every Day." +So you've probably observed that cats almost always land on their feet. +Today's question is: why? +Like most simple questions, there's a very complex answer. +For instance, let me reword this question: How does a cat go from feet-up to feet-down in a falling reference frame, without violating the conservation of angular momentum? +JG: So, here's something all four of these videos have in common: They all have more than half a million views on YouTube. +And those are people watching not in classrooms, but because they are part of the communities of learning that are being set up by these channels. +And I said earlier that YouTube is like a classroom to me, and in many ways it is, because here is the instructor -- it's like the old-fashioned classroom: here's the instructor, and then beneath the instructor are the students, and they're all having a conversation. +And I know that YouTube comments have a very bad reputation in the world of the Internet, but in fact, if you go on comments for these channels, what you'll find is people engaging the subject matter, asking difficult, complicated questions that are about the subject matter, and then other people answering those questions. +And because the YouTube page is set up so that the page in which I'm talking to you is on the exact -- the place where I'm talking to you is on the exact same page as your comments, you are participating in a live and real and active way in the conversation. +And because I'm in comments usually, I get to participate with you. +And you find this whether it's world history, or mathematics, or science, or whatever it is. +You also see young people using the tools and the sort of genres of the Internet in order to create places for intellectual engagement, instead of the ironic detachment that maybe most of us associate with memes and other Internet conventions -- you know, "Got bored. Invented calculus." +Or, here's Honey Boo Boo criticizing industrial capitalism: ["Liberal capitalism is not at all the Good of humanity. +Quite the contrary; it is the vehicle of savage, destructive nihilism."] In case you can't see what she says ... yeah. +I really believe that these spaces, these communities, have become for a new generation of learners, the kind of communities, the kind of cartographic communities that I had when I was in high school, and then again when I was in college. +And as an adult, re-finding these communities has re-introduced me to a community of learners, and has encouraged me to continue to be a learner even in my adulthood, so that I no longer feel like learning is something reserved for the young. +Vi Hart and "Minute Physics" introduced me to all kinds of things that I didn't know before. +And I know that we all hearken back to the days of the Parisian salon in the Enlightenment, or to the Algonquin Round Table, and wish, "Oh, I wish I could have been a part of that, I wish I could have laughed at Dorothy Parker's jokes." +But I'm here to tell you that these places exist, they still exist. +They exist in corners of the Internet, where old men fear to tread. +And I truly, truly believe that when we invented Agloe, New York, in the 1960s, when we made Agloe real, we were just getting started. +Thank you. +There's this quote by activist and punk rock musician Jello Biafra that I love. +He says, "Don't hate the media. Be the media." +I'm an artist. +I like working with media and technology because A, I'm familiar with them and I like the power they hold. +And B, I hate them and I'm terrified of the power they hold. +I remember watching, in 2003, an interview between Fox News host Tony Snow and then-US Defense Secretary, Donald Rumsfeld. +They were talking about the recent invasion of Iraq, and Rumsfeld is asked the question, "Well, we're hear about our body counts, but we never hear about theirs, why?" +And Rumsfeld's answer is, "Well, we don't do body counts on other people." +Right? +It's estimated that between 150,000 to one million Iraqis, civilians, have died as a result of the US-led invasion in 2003. +That number is in stark contrast with the 4,486 US service members who died during that same window of time. +I wanted to do more than just bring awareness to this terrifying number. +I wanted to create a monument for the individual civilians who died as a result of the invasion. +Monuments to war, such as Maya Lin's Vietnam Memorial, are often enormous in scale. +Very powerful and very one-sided. +I wanted my monument to live in the world, and to circulate. +I remember when I was a boy in school, my teacher assigned us this classic civics assignment where you take a sheet of paper and you write a member of your government. +And we were told, if we wrote a really good letter, if we really thought about it, we would get back more than just a simple formed letter as a reply. +This is my "Notepad." +What looks like an everyday, yellow legal tablet of paper is actually a monument to the individual Iraqi civilians that died as a result of the US invasion. +"Notepad" is an act of protest and an act of commemoration disguised as an everyday tablet of paper. +The lines of the paper, when magnified, are revealed to be micro-printed text that contains the details, the names, the dates and locations of individual Iraqi civilians that died. +So, for the last 5 years, I've been taking pads of this paper, tons of this stuff, and smuggling it into the stationery supplies of the United States and the Coalition governments. +I don't have to tell you guys this is not the place to discuss how I did that. +But also, I've been meeting one-on-one with members and former members of the so-called Coalition of the Willing, who assisted in the invasion. +And so, whenever I can, I meet with one of them, and I share the project with them. +And last summer, I had the chance to meet with former United States Attorney General and Torture Memo author, Alberto Gonzales. +Matt Kenyon: May I give this to you? +This is a special legal tablet. +It's actually part of an ongoing art project. +Alberto Gonzalez: This is a special legal pad? +MK: Yes. You won't believe me, but it's in the collection of the Museum of Modern Art; I'm an artist. +MK: And all of the lines of the paper are actually -- AG: Are they going to disappear? +MK: No, they're micro-printed text that contains the names of individual Iraqi civilians who have died since the invasion of Iraq. +AG: Yeah. OK. +AG: Thank you. MK: Thank you. +The way he says "thank you" really creeps me out. +OK, so I'd like each of you to look under your chairs. +There's an envelope. +And please open it. +The paper you're holding in your hand contains the details of Iraqi civilians that died as result of the invasion. +I'd like you to use this paper and write a member of government. +You can help to smuggle this civilian body count into government archives. +Because every letter that's sent in to the government, and this is all across the world, of course -- every letter that is sent in is archived, filed and recorded. +Together, we can put this in the mailboxes and under the noses of people in power. +Everything that's sent in eventually becomes part of the permanent archive of our government, our shared historical record. +Thank you. +Tom Rielly: So, tell me Matt, how did this idea come into your head, of "Notepad"? +And so, I became aware that there was a spectacle associated with our own people who were dying overseas, but a disproportionate amount of casualties were the civilian casualties. +TR: Thank you so much. +MK: Thank you. +Seventy-thousand years ago, our ancestors were insignificant animals. +The most important thing to know about prehistoric humans is that they were unimportant. +Their impact on the world was not much greater than that of jellyfish or fireflies or woodpeckers. +Today, in contrast, we control this planet. +And the question is: How did we come from there to here? +How did we turn ourselves from insignificant apes, minding their own business in a corner of Africa, into the rulers of planet Earth? +Usually, we look for the difference between us and all the other animals on the individual level. +We want to believe -- I want to believe -- that there is something special about me, about my body, about my brain, that makes me so superior to a dog or a pig, or a chimpanzee. +But the truth is that, on the individual level, I'm embarrassingly similar to a chimpanzee. +And if you take me and a chimpanzee and put us together on some lonely island, and we had to struggle for survival to see who survives better, I would definitely place my bet on the chimpanzee, not on myself. +And this is not something wrong with me personally. +I guess if they took almost any one of you, and placed you alone with a chimpanzee on some island, the chimpanzee would do much better. +The real difference between humans and all other animals is not on the individual level; it's on the collective level. +Humans control the planet because they are the only animals that can cooperate both flexibly and in very large numbers. +Now, there are other animals -- like the social insects, the bees, the ants -- that can cooperate in large numbers, but they don't do so flexibly. +Their cooperation is very rigid. +There is basically just one way in which a beehive can function. +And if there's a new opportunity or a new danger, the bees cannot reinvent the social system overnight. +They cannot, for example, execute the queen and establish a republic of bees, or a communist dictatorship of worker bees. +Other animals, like the social mammals -- the wolves, the elephants, the dolphins, the chimpanzees -- they can cooperate much more flexibly, but they do so only in small numbers, because cooperation among chimpanzees is based on intimate knowledge, one of the other. +I'm a chimpanzee and you're a chimpanzee, and I want to cooperate with you. +I need to know you personally. +What kind of chimpanzee are you? +Are you a nice chimpanzee? +Are you an evil chimpanzee? +Are you trustworthy? +If I don't know you, how can I cooperate with you? +The only animal that can combine the two abilities together and cooperate both flexibly and still do so in very large numbers is us, Homo sapiens. +One versus one, or even 10 versus 10, chimpanzees might be better than us. +But, if you pit 1,000 humans against 1,000 chimpanzees, the humans will win easily, for the simple reason that a thousand chimpanzees cannot cooperate at all. +And if you now try to cram 100,000 chimpanzees into Oxford Street, or into Wembley Stadium, or Tienanmen Square or the Vatican, you will get chaos, complete chaos. +Just imagine Wembley Stadium with 100,000 chimpanzees. +Complete madness. +In contrast, humans normally gather there in tens of thousands, and what we get is not chaos, usually. +What we get is extremely sophisticated and effective networks of cooperation. +All the huge achievements of humankind throughout history, whether it's building the pyramids or flying to the moon, have been based not on individual abilities, but on this ability to cooperate flexibly in large numbers. +Think even about this very talk that I'm giving now: I'm standing here in front of an audience of about 300 or 400 people, most of you are complete strangers to me. +Similarly, I don't really know all the people who have organized and worked on this event. +I don't know the pilot and the crew members of the plane that brought me over here, yesterday, to London. +I don't know the people who invented and manufactured this microphone and these cameras, which are recording what I'm saying. +I don't know the people who wrote all the books and articles that I read in preparation for this talk. +And I certainly don't know all the people who might be watching this talk over the Internet, somewhere in Buenos Aires or in New Delhi. +Nevertheless, even though we don't know each other, we can work together to create this global exchange of ideas. +This is something chimpanzees cannot do. +They communicate, of course, but you will never catch a chimpanzee traveling to some distant chimpanzee band to give them a talk about bananas or about elephants, or anything else that might interest chimpanzees. +Now cooperation is, of course, not always nice; all the horrible things humans have been doing throughout history -- and we have been doing some very horrible things -- all those things are also based on large-scale cooperation. +Prisons are a system of cooperation; slaughterhouses are a system of cooperation; concentration camps are a system of cooperation. +Chimpanzees don't have slaughterhouses and prisons and concentration camps. +Now suppose I've managed to convince you perhaps that yes, we control the world because we can cooperate flexibly in large numbers. +The next question that immediately arises in the mind of an inquisitive listener is: How, exactly, do we do it? +What enables us alone, of all the animals, to cooperate in such a way? +The answer is our imagination. +We can cooperate flexibly with countless numbers of strangers, because we alone, of all the animals on the planet, can create and believe fictions, fictional stories. +And as long as everybody believes in the same fiction, everybody obeys and follows the same rules, the same norms, the same values. +All other animals use their communication system only to describe reality. +A chimpanzee may say, "Look! There's a lion, let's run away!" +Or, "Look! There's a banana tree over there! Let's go and get bananas!" +Humans, in contrast, use their language not merely to describe reality, but also to create new realities, fictional realities. +A human can say, "Look, there is a god above the clouds! +And if you don't do what I tell you to do, when you die, God will punish you and send you to hell." +And if you all believe this story that I've invented, then you will follow the same norms and laws and values, and you can cooperate. +This is something only humans can do. +You can never convince a chimpanzee to give you a banana by promising him, "... after you die, you'll go to chimpanzee heaven ..." +"... and you'll receive lots and lots of bananas for your good deeds. +So now give me this banana." +No chimpanzee will ever believe such a story. +Only humans believe such stories, which is why we control the world, whereas the chimpanzees are locked up in zoos and research laboratories. +Now you may find it acceptable that yes, in the religious field, humans cooperate by believing in the same fictions. +Millions of people come together to build a cathedral or a mosque or fight in a crusade or a jihad, because they all believe in the same stories about God and heaven and hell. +But what I want to emphasize is that exactly the same mechanism underlies all other forms of mass-scale human cooperation, not only in the religious field. +Take, for example, the legal field. +Most legal systems today in the world are based on a belief in human rights. +But what are human rights? +Human rights, just like God and heaven, are just a story that we've invented. +They are not an objective reality; they are not some biological effect about homo sapiens. +Take a human being, cut him open, look inside, you will find the heart, the kidneys, neurons, hormones, DNA, but you won't find any rights. +The only place you find rights are in the stories that we have invented and spread around over the last few centuries. +They may be very positive stories, very good stories, but they're still just fictional stories that we've invented. +The same is true of the political field. +The most important factors in modern politics are states and nations. +But what are states and nations? +They are not an objective reality. +A mountain is an objective reality. +You can see it, you can touch it, you can ever smell it. +But a nation or a state, like Israel or Iran or France or Germany, this is just a story that we've invented and became extremely attached to. +The same is true of the economic field. +The most important actors today in the global economy are companies and corporations. +Many of you today, perhaps, work for a corporation, like Google or Toyota or McDonald's. +What exactly are these things? +They are what lawyers call legal fictions. +They are stories invented and maintained by the powerful wizards we call lawyers. +And what do corporations do all day? +Mostly, they try to make money. +Yet, what is money? +Again, money is not an objective reality; it has no objective value. +Take this green piece of paper, the dollar bill. +Look at it -- it has no value. +You cannot eat it, you cannot drink it, you cannot wear it. +But then came along these master storytellers -- the big bankers, the finance ministers, the prime ministers -- and they tell us a very convincing story: "Look, you see this green piece of paper? +It is actually worth 10 bananas." +And if I believe it, and you believe it, and everybody believes it, it actually works. +I can take this worthless piece of paper, go to the supermarket, give it to a complete stranger whom I've never met before, and get, in exchange, real bananas which I can actually eat. +This is something amazing. +You could never do it with chimpanzees. +Chimpanzees trade, of course: "Yes, you give me a coconut, I'll give you a banana." +That can work. +But, you give me a worthless piece of paper and you except me to give you a banana? +No way! +What do you think I am, a human? +Money, in fact, is the most successful story ever invented and told by humans, because it is the only story everybody believes. +Not everybody believes in God, not everybody believes in human rights, not everybody believes in nationalism, but everybody believes in money, and in the dollar bill. +Take, even, Osama Bin Laden. +He hated American politics and American religion and American culture, but he had no objection to American dollars. +He was quite fond of them, actually. +To conclude, then: We humans control the world because we live in a dual reality. +All other animals live in an objective reality. +Their reality consists of objective entities, like rivers and trees and lions and elephants. +We humans, we also live in an objective reality. +In our world, too, there are rivers and trees and lions and elephants. +But over the centuries, we have constructed on top of this objective reality a second layer of fictional reality, a reality made of fictional entities, like nations, like gods, like money, like corporations. +And what is amazing is that as history unfolded, this fictional reality became more and more powerful so that today, the most powerful forces in the world are these fictional entities. +Today, the very survival of rivers and trees and lions and elephants depends on the decisions and wishes of fictional entities, like the United States, like Google, like the World Bank -- entities that exist only in our own imagination. +Thank you. +Bruno Giussani: Yuval, you have a new book out. +After Sapiens, you wrote another one, and it's out in Hebrew, but not yet translated into ... +Yuval Noah Harari: I'm working on the translation as we speak. +BG: In the book, if I understand it correctly, you argue that the amazing breakthroughs that we are experiencing right now not only will potentially make our lives better, but they will create -- and I quote you -- "... new classes and new class struggles, just as the industrial revolution did." +Can you elaborate for us? +YNH: Yes. In the industrial revolution, we saw the creation of a new class of the urban proletariat. +And much of the political and social history of the last 200 years involved what to do with this class, and the new problems and opportunities. +Now, we see the creation of a new massive class of useless people. +As computers become better and better in more and more fields, there is a distinct possibility that computers will out-perform us in most tasks and will make humans redundant. +And then the big political and economic question of the 21st century will be, "What do we need humans for?", or at least, "What do we need so many humans for?" +BG: Do you have an answer in the book? +YNH: At present, the best guess we have is to keep them happy with drugs and computer games ... +but this doesn't sound like a very appealing future. +BG: Ok, so you're basically saying in the book and now, that for all the discussion about the growing evidence of significant economic inequality, we are just kind of at the beginning of the process? +YNH: Again, it's not a prophecy; it's seeing all kinds of possibilities before us. +One possibility is this creation of a new massive class of useless people. +Another possibility is the division of humankind into different biological castes, with the rich being upgraded into virtual gods, and the poor being degraded to this level of useless people. +BG: I feel there is another TED talk coming up in a year or two. +Thank you, Yuval, for making the trip. +YNH: Thanks! +Imagine a place where your neighbors greet your children by name; a place with splendid vistas; a place where you can drive just 20 minutes and put your sailboat on the water. +It's a seductive place, isn't it? +I don't live there. +But I did journey on a 27,000-mile trip for two years, to the fastest-growing and whitest counties in America. +What is a Whitopia? +I define Whitopia in three ways: First, a Whitopia has posted at least six percent population growth since 2000. +Secondly, the majority of that growth comes from white migrants. +And third, the Whitopia has an ineffable charm, a pleasant look and feel, a je Ne sais quoi. +To learn how and why Whitopias are ticking, I immersed myself for several months apiece in three of them: first, St. George, Utah; second, Coeur d'Alene, Idaho; and third, Forsyth County, Georgia. +First stop, St. George -- a beautiful town of red rock landscapes. +In the 1850s, Brigham Young dispatched families to St. George to grow cotton because of the hot, arid climate. +And so they called it Utah's Dixie, and the name sticks to this day. +I approached my time in each Whitopia like an anthropologist. +I made detailed spreadsheets of all the power brokers in the communities, who I needed to meet, where I needed to be, and I threw myself with gusto in these communities. +I went to zoning board meetings, I went to Democratic clubs and Republican clubs. +I went to poker nights. +In St. George, I rented a home at the Entrada, one of the town's premier gated communities. +There were no Motel 6's or Howard Johnsons for me. +I lived in Whitopia as a resident, and not like a visitor. +I rented myself this home by phone. +Golf is the perfect seductive symbol of Whitopia. +When I went on my journey, I had barely ever held a golf club. +By the time I left, I was golfing at least three times a week. +Golf helps people bond. +Some of the best interviews I ever scored during my trip were on the golf courses. +One venture capitalist, for example, invited me to golf in his private club that had no minority members. +I also went fishing. +Because I had never fished, this fellow had to teach me how to cast my line and what bait to use. +I also played poker every weekend. +It was Texas Hold 'em with a $10 buy-in. +My poker mates may have been bluffing about the hands that they drew, but they weren't bluffing about their social beliefs. +Some of the most raw, salty conversations I ever had during my journey were at the poker table. +I'm a gung ho entertainer. +I love to cook, I hosted many dinner parties, and in return, people invited me to their dinner parties, and to their barbecues, and to their pool parties, and to their birthday parties. +But it wasn't all fun. +Immigration turned out to be a big issue in this Whitopia. +The St. George's Citizens Council on Illegal Immigration held regular and active protests against immigration, and so what I gleaned from this Whitopia is what a hot debate this would become. +It was a real-time preview, and so it has become. +Next stop: Almost Heaven, a cabin I rented for myself in Coeur d'Alene, in the beautiful North Idaho panhandle. +I rented this place for myself, also by phone. +The book "A Thousand Places To See Before You Die" lists Coeur d'Alene -- it's a gorgeous paradise for huntsmen, boatmen and fishermen. +My growing golf skills came in handy in Coeur d'Alene. +I golfed with retired LAPD cops. +In 1993, around 11,000 families and cops fled Los Angeles after the L.A. racial unrest, for North Idaho, and they've built an expatriated community. +Given the conservatism of these cops, there's no surprise that North Idaho has a strong gun culture. +In fact, it is said, North Idaho has more gun dealers than gas stations. +So what's a resident to do to fit in? +I hit the gun club. +When I rented a gun, the gentleman behind the counter was perfectly pleasant and kind, until I showed him my New York City driver's license. +That's when he got nervous. +I'm not as bad a shot as I thought I might have been. +What I learned from North Idaho is the peculiar brand of paranoia that can permeate a community when so many cops and guns are around. +In North Idaho, in my red pickup truck, I kept a notepad. +And in that notepad I counted more Confederate flags than black people. +In North Idaho, I found Confederate flags on key chains, on cellphone paraphernalia, and on cars. +About a seven-minute drive from my hidden lake cabin was the compound of Aryan Nations, the white supremacist group. +America's Promise Ministries, the religious arm of Aryan Nations, happened to have a three-day retreat during my visit. +So I decided to crash it. +I'm the only non-Aryan journalist I'm aware of ever to have done so. +Among the many memorable episodes of that retreat... +...is when Abe, an Aryan, sidled up next to me. +He slapped my knee, and he said, "Hey Rich, I just want you to know one thing. +We are not white supremacists. We are white separatists. +We don't think we're better than you, we just want to be away from you." +Indeed, most white people in Whitopia are neither white supremacists or white separatists; in fact, they're not there for explicitly racial reasons at all. +Rather, they emigrate there for friendliness, comfort, security, safety -- reasons that they implicitly associate to whiteness in itself. +Next stop was Georgia. +In Georgia, I stayed in an exurb north of Atlanta. +In Utah, I found poker; in Idaho, I found guns; in Georgia, I found God. +The way that I immersed myself in this Whitopia was to become active at First Redeemer Church, a megachurch that's so huge that it has golf carts to escort the congregants around its many parking lots on campus. +I was active in the youth ministry. +And for me, personally, I was more comfortable in this Whitopia than say, in a Colorado, or an Idaho, or even a suburban Boston. +That is because [there], in Georgia, white people and black people are more historically familiar to one another. +I was less exotic in this Whitopia. +But what does it all mean? +Whitopian dreaming, Whitopia migration, is a push-pull phenomenon, full of alarming pushes and alluring pulls, and Whitopia operates at the level of conscious and unconscious bias. +It's possible for people to be in Whitopia not for racist reasons, though it has racist outcomes. +Many Whitopians feel pushed by illegals, social welfare abuse, minorities, density, crowded schools. +Many Whitopians feel pulled by merit, freedom, the allure of privatism -- privatized places, privatized people, privatized things. +And I learned in Whitopia how a country can have racism without racists. +Many of my smug urban liberal friends couldn't believe I would go on such a venture. +The reality is that many white Americans are affable and kind. +Interpersonal race relations -- how we treat each other as human beings -- are vastly better than in my parents' generation. +Can you imagine me going to Whitopia 40 years ago? +What a journey that would have been. +And yet, some things haven't changed. +America is as residentially and educationally segregated today as it was in 1970. +As Americans, we often find ways to cook for each other, to dance with each other, to host with each other, but why can't that translate into how we treat each other as communities? +It's a devastating irony, how we have gone forward as individuals, and backwards as communities. +One of the Whitopian outlooks that really hit me was a proverbial saying: "One black man is a delightful dinner guest; 50 black men is a ghetto." +One of the big contexts animating my Whitopian journey was the year 2042. +By 2042, white people will no longer be the American majority. +As such, will there be more Whitopias? +In looking at this, the danger of Whitopia is that the more segregation we have, the less we can look at and confront conscious and unconscious bias. +I ventured on my two-year, 27,000 mile journey to learn where, why, and how white people are fleeing, but I didn't expect to have so much fun on my journey. +I didn't expect to learn so much about myself. +I don't expect I'll be living in a Whitopia -- or a Blacktopia, for that matter. +I do plan to continue golfing every chance I get. +And I'll just have to leave the guns and megachurches back in Whitopia. +Thank you. +Today, I want to talk to you about dreams. +I have been a lucid dreamer my whole life, and it's cooler than in the movies. +Beyond flying, breathing fire, and making hot men spontaneously appear ... +I can do things like read and write music. +Fun fact is that I wrote my personal statement to college in a dream. +And I did accepted. So, yeah. +I am a very visual thinker. +I think in pictures, not words. +To me, words are more like instincts and language. +There are many people like me; Nikola Tesla, for example, who could visualize, design, test, and troubleshoot everything -- all of his inventions -- in his mind, accurately. +Language is kind of exclusive to our species, anyway. +I am a bit more primitive, like a beta version of Google Translate. +My brain has the ability to hyper-focus on things that interest me. +For example, once I had an affair with calculus that lasted longer than some celebrity marriages. +There are some other unusual things about me. +You may have noticed that I don't have much inflection in my voice. +That's why people often confuse me with a GPS. +This can make basic communication a challenge, unless you need directions. +Thank you. +A few years ago, when I started doing presentations, I went to get head shots done for the first time. +The photographer told me to look flirty. +And I had no idea what she was talking about. +She said, "Do that thing, you know, with your eyes, when you're flirting with guys." +"What thing?" I asked. +"You know, squint." +And so I tried, really. +It looked something like this. +I looked like I was searching for Waldo. +There's a reason for this, as there is a reason that Waldo is hiding. +I have Asperger's, a high-functioning form of autism that impairs the basic social skills one is expected to display. +It's made life difficult in many ways, and growing up, I struggled to fit in socially. +My friends would tell jokes, but I didn't understand them. +My personal heroes were George Carlin and Stephen Colbert -- and they taught me humor. +My personality switched from being shy and awkward to being defiant and cursing out a storm. +Needless to say, I did not have many friends. +I was also hypersensitive to texture. +The feel of water on my skin was like pins and needles, and so for years, I refused to shower. +I can assure you that my hygiene routine is up to standards now, though. +I had to do a lot to get here, and my parents -- things kind of got out of control when I was sexually assaulted by a peer, and on top of everything, it made a difficult situation worse. +And I had to travel 2,000 miles across the country to get treatment, but within days of them prescribing a new medication, my life turned into an episode of the Walking Dead. +I became paranoid, and began to hallucinate that rotting corpses were coming towards me. +My family finally rescued me, but by that time, I had lost 19 pounds in those three weeks, as well as developing severe anemia, and was on the verge of suicide. +I transferred to a new treatment center that understood my aversions, my trauma, and my social anxiety, and they knew how to treat it, and I got the help I finally needed. +And after 18 months of hard work, I went on to do incredible things. +One of the things with Asperger's is that oftentimes, these people have a very complex inner life, and I know for myself, I have a very colorful personality, rich ideas, and just a lot going on in my mind. +But there's a gap between where that stands, and how I communicate it with the rest of the world. +And this can make basic communication a challenge. +Not many places would hire me, due to my lack of social skills, which is why I applied to Waffle House. +Waffle House is an exceptional 24-hour diner -- thank you -- where you can order your hash browns the many ways that someone would dispose of a human corpse ... +Sliced, diced, peppered, chunked, topped, capped, and covered. +As social norms would have it, you should only go to Waffle House at an ungodly hour in the night. +So one time, at 2 am, I was chatting with a waitress, and I asked her, "What's the most ridiculous thing that's happened to you on the job?" +And she told me that one time, a man walked in completely naked. +I said, "Great! Sign me up for the graveyard shift!" +Needless to say, Waffle House did not hire me. +So in terms of having Asperger's, it can be viewed as a disadvantage, and sometimes it is a real pain in the butt, but it's also the opposite. +It's a gift, and it allows me to think innovatively. +At 19, I won a research competition for my research on coral reefs, and I ended up speaking at the UN Convention of Biological Diversity, presenting this research. +Thank you. +And at 22, I'm getting ready to graduate college, and I am a co-founder of a biotech company called AutismSees. +Thank you. +But consider what I had to do to get here: 25 therapists, 11 misdiagnoses, and years of pain and trauma. +I spent a lot of time thinking if there's a better way, and I think there is: autism-assistive technology. +This technology could play an integral role in helping people with autistic spectrum disorder, or ASD. +The app Podium, released by my company, AutismSees, has the ability to independently assess and help develop communication skills. +In addition to this, it tracks eye contact through camera and simulates a public-speaking and job-interview experience. +And so maybe one day, Waffle House will hire me, after practicing on it some more. +And one of the great things is that I've used Podium to help me prepare for today, and it's been a great help. +But it's more than that. There's more that can be done. +For people with ASD -- it has been speculated that many innovative scientists, researchers, artists, and engineers have it; like, for example, Emily Dickinson, Jane Austen, Isaac Newton, and Bill Gates are some examples. +But the problem that's encountered is that these brilliant ideas often can't be shared if there are communication roadblocks. +And so, many people with autism are being overlooked every day, and they're being taken advantage of. +So my dream for people with autism is to change that, to remove the roadblocks that prevent them from succeeding. +One of the reasons I love lucid dreaming is because it allows me to be free, without judgment of social and physical consequences. +When I'm flying over scenes that I create in my mind, I am at peace. +I am free from judgment, and so I can do whatever I want, you know? +I'm making out with Brad Pitt, and Angelina is totally cool with it. +But the goal of autism-assistive technology is bigger than that, and more important. +My goal is to shift people's perspective of autism and people with higher-functioning Asperger's because there is a lot they can do. +I mean, look at Temple Grandin, for example. +And by doing so, we allow people to share their talents with this world and move this world forward. +In addition, we give them the courage to pursue their dreams in the real world, in real time. +Thank you. +Thank you. +I will always remember the first time I met the girl in the blue uniform. +I was eight at the time, living in the village with my grandmother, who was raising me and other children. +Famine had hit my country of Zimbabwe, and we just didn't have enough to eat. +We were hungry. +And that's when the girl in the blue uniform came to my village with the United Nations to feed the children. +As she handed me my porridge, I asked her why she was there, and without hesitation, she said, "As Africans, we must uplift all the people of Africa." +I had absolutely no idea what she meant. +But her words stuck with me. +Two years later, famine hit my country for the second time. +My grandmother had no choice but to send me to the city to live with an aunt I had never met before. +So at the age of 10, I found myself in school for the very first time. +And there, at the city school, I would experience what it was to be unequal. +You see, in the village, we were all equal. +But in the eyes and the minds of the other kids, I was not their equal. +I couldn't speak English, and I was way behind in terms of reading and writing. +But this feeling of inequality would get even more complex. +Every school holiday spent back in the village with my grandmother made me consciously aware of the inequalities this incredible opportunity had created within my own family. +Suddenly, I had much more than the rest of my village. +And in their eyes, I was no longer their equal. +I felt guilty. +But I thought about the girl in the blue uniform, and I remember thinking, "That's who I want to be -- someone like her, someone who uplifts other people." +This childhood experience led me to the United Nations, and to my current role with UN Women, where we are addressing one of the greatest inequalities that affects more than half of the world's population -- women and girls. +Today, I want to share with you a simple idea that seeks to uplift all of us together. +Eight months ago, under the visionary leadership of Phumzile Mlambo-Ngcuka, head of UN Women, we launched a groundbreaking initiative called HeForShe, inviting men and boys from around the world to stand in solidarity with each other and with women, to create a shared vision for gender equality. +This is an invitation for those who believe in equality for women and men, and those who don't yet know that they believe. +The initiative is based on a simple idea: that what we share is much more powerful than what divides us. +We all feel the same things. +We all want the same things, even when those things sometimes remain unspoken. +HeForShe is about uplifting all of us, women and men together. +It's moving us towards an inflection point for gender equality. +Imagine a blank page with one horizontal line splitting it in half. +Now imagine that women are represented here, and men are represented here. +In our current population, HeForShe is about moving the 3.2 billion men, one man at a time, across that line, so that ultimately, men can stand alongside women and be on the right side of history, making gender equality a reality in the 21st century. +However, engaging men in the movement would prove quite controversial. +Why invite men? They are the problem. +In fact, men don't care, we were told. +But something incredible happened when we launched HeForShe. +In just three days, more than 100,000 men had signed up and committed to be agents of change for equality. +Within that first week, at least one man in every single country in the world stood up to be counted, and within that same week, HeForShe created more than 1.2 billion conversations on social media. +And that's when the emails started pouring in, sometimes as many as a thousand a day. +We heard from a man out of Zimbabwe, who, after hearing about HeForShe, created a "husband school." +He literally went around his village, hand-picking all of the men that were abusive to their partners, and committed to turn them into better husbands and fathers. +In Pune, India, a youth advocate organized an innovative bicycle rally, mobilizing 700 cyclists to share the HeForShe messages within their own community. +In another impact story, a man sent a very personal note of something that had happened in his own community. +He wrote, "Dear Madam, I have lived all of my life next door to a man who continuously beats up his wife. +Two weeks ago, I was listening to my radio, and you spoke about something called the HeForShe, and the need for men to play their role. +Within a few hours, I heard the woman cry again next door, but for the first time, I didn't just sit there. +I felt compelled to do something, so I went over and I confronted the husband. +Madam, it has been two weeks, and the woman has not cried since. +Thank you for giving me a voice." +Personal impact stories such as these show that we are tapping into something within men, but getting to a world where women and men are equal is not just a matter of bringing men to the cause. +We want concrete, systematic, structural change that can equalize the political, economic and social realities for women and men. +We are asking men to make concrete actions, calling them to intervene at a personal level, to change their behavior. +We are calling upon governments, businesses, universities, to change their policies. +We want male leaders to become role models and change agents within their own institutions. +Already, a number of prominent men and leaders have stepped up and made some concrete HeForShe commitments. +In a few early success stories, a leading French hospitality company, Accor, has committed to eliminate the pay gap for all of its 180,000 employees by 2020. +The government of Sweden, under its current feminist government, has committed to close both the employment and the pay gap for all of its citizens within the current electoral term. +In Japan, the University of Nagoya is building, as part of their HeForShe commitments, what will become one of Japan's leading gender-research centers. +Now, eight months later, a movement is building. +We are seeing men sign up from every single walk of life, and from every single corner in the world, from the United Nations' own Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon to the Secretary-Generals of NATO and the EU Council, from the prime minister of Bhutan to the president of Sierra Leone. +In Europe alone, all the male EU Commissioners and the members of Parliament of the Swedish and Iceland governments have signed up to be HeForShe. +In fact, one in 20 men in Iceland has joined the movement. +The rallying call of our passionate goodwill ambassador, Emma Watson, has garnered more than five billion media impressions, mobilizing hundreds and thousands of students around the world to create more than a hundred HeForShe student associations. +Now this is the beginning of the vision that HeForShe has for the world that we want to see. +Einstein once said, "A human being is part of the whole ... +but he experiences himself, his thoughts and feelings, as something separate from the rest ... +This delusion is a kind of prison for us ... +Our task must be to free ourselves from this prison by widening our circle of compassion." +If women and men are part of a greater whole, as Einstein suggests, it is my hope that HeForShe can help free us to realize that it is not our gender that defines us, but ultimately, our shared humanity. +HeForShe is tapping into women's and men's dreams, the dreams that we have for ourselves, and the dreams that we have for our families, our children, friends, communities. +So that's what it is about. +HeForShe is about uplifting all of us together. +Thank you. +For more than 100 years, the telephone companies have provided wiretapping assistance to governments. +For much of this time, this assistance was manual. +Surveillance took place manually and wires were connected by hand. +Calls were recorded to tape. +But as in so many other industries, computing has changed everything. +The telephone companies built surveillance features into the very core of their networks. +I want that to sink in for a second: Our telephones and the networks that carry our calls were wired for surveillance first. +First and foremost. +So what that means is that when you're talking to your spouse, your children, a colleague or your doctor on the telephone, someone could be listening. +Now, that someone might be your own government; it could also be another government, a foreign intelligence service, or a hacker, or a criminal, or a stalker or any other party that breaks into the surveillance system, that hacks into the surveillance system of the telephone companies. +But while the telephone companies have built surveillance as a priority, Silicon Valley companies have not. +And increasingly, over the last couple years, Silicon Valley companies have built strong encryption technology into their communications products that makes surveillance extremely difficult. +For example, many of you might have an iPhone, and if you use an iPhone to send a text message to other people who have an iPhone, those text messages cannot easily be wiretapped. +And in fact, according to Apple, they're not able to even see the text messages themselves. +Likewise, if you use FaceTime to make an audio call or a video call with one of your friends or loved ones, that, too, cannot be easily wiretapped. +And it's not just Apple. +WhatsApp, which is now owned by Facebook and used by hundreds of millions of people around the world, also has built strong encryption technology into its product, which means that people in the Global South can easily communicate without their governments, often authoritarian, wiretapping their text messages. +So, after 100 years of being able to listen to any telephone call -- anytime, anywhere -- you might imagine that government officials are not very happy. +And in fact, that's what's happening. +Government officials are extremely mad. +And they're not mad because these encryption tools are now available. +What upsets them the most is that the tech companies have built encryption features into their products and turned them on by default. +It's the default piece that matters. +In short, the tech companies have democratized encryption. +And so, government officials like British Prime Minister David Cameron, they believe that all communications -- emails, texts, voice calls -- all of these should be available to governments, and encryption is making that difficult. +Now, look -- I'm extremely sympathetic to their point of view. +We live in a dangerous time in a dangerous world, and there really are bad people out there. +There are terrorists and other serious national security threats that I suspect we all want the FBI and the NSA to monitor. +But those surveillance features come at a cost. +The reason for that is that there is no such thing as a terrorist laptop, or a drug dealer's cell phone. +We all use the same communications devices. +What that means is that if the drug dealers' telephone calls or the terrorists' telephone calls can be intercepted, then so can the rest of ours, too. +And I think we really need to ask: Should a billion people around the world be using devices that are wiretap friendly? +So the scenario of hacking of surveillance systems that I've described -- this is not imaginary. +In 2009, the surveillance systems that Google and Microsoft built into their networks -- the systems that they use to respond to lawful surveillance requests from the police -- those systems were compromised by the Chinese government, because the Chinese government wanted to figure out which of their own agents the US government was monitoring. +By the same token, in 2004, the surveillance system built into the network of Vodafone Greece -- Greece's largest telephone company -- was compromised by an unknown entity, and that feature, the surveillance feature, was used to wiretap the Greek Prime Minister and members of the Greek cabinet. +The foreign government or hackers who did that were never caught. +And really, this gets to the very problem with these surveillance features, or backdoors. +When you build a backdoor into a communications network or piece of technology, you have no way of controlling who's going to go through it. +You have no way of controlling whether it'll be used by your side or the other side, by good guys, or by bad guys. +And so for that reason, I think that it's better to build networks to be as secure as possible. +Yes, this means that in the future, encryption is going to make wiretapping more difficult. +It means that the police are going to have a tougher time catching bad guys. +But the alternative would mean to live in a world where anyone's calls or anyone's text messages could be surveilled by criminals, by stalkers and by foreign intelligence agencies. +And I don't want to live in that kind of world. +And so right now, you probably have the tools to thwart many kinds of government surveillance already on your phones and already in your pockets, you just might not realize how strong and how secure those tools are, or how weak the other ways you've used to communicate really are. +And so, my message to you is this: We need to use these tools. +We need to secure our telephone calls. +We need to secure our text messages. +I want you to use these tools. +I want you to tell your loved ones, I want you to tell your colleagues: Use these encrypted communications tools. +Don't just use them because they're cheap and easy, but use them because they're secure. +Thank you. +This is a painting from the 16th century from Lucas Cranach the Elder. +It shows the famous Fountain of Youth. +If you drink its water or you bathe in it, you will get health and youth. +Every culture, every civilization has dreamed of finding eternal youth. +There are people like Alexander the Great or Ponce De Len, the explorer, who spent much of their life chasing the Fountain of Youth. +They didn't find it. +But what if there was something to it? +What if there was something to this Fountain of Youth? +I will share an absolutely amazing development in aging research that could revolutionize the way we think about aging and how we may treat age-related diseases in the future. +It started with experiments that showed, in a recent number of studies about growing, that animals -- old mice -- that share a blood supply with young mice can get rejuvenated. +This is similar to what you might see in humans, in Siamese twins, and I know this sounds a bit creepy. +But what Tom Rando, a stem-cell researcher, reported in 2007, was that old muscle from a mouse can be rejuvenated if it's exposed to young blood through common circulation. +This was reproduced by Amy Wagers at Harvard a few years later, and others then showed that similar rejuvenating effects could be observed in the pancreas, the liver and the heart. +But what I'm most excited about, and several other labs as well, is that this may even apply to the brain. +So, what we found is that an old mouse exposed to a young environment in this model called parabiosis, shows a younger brain -- and a brain that functions better. +And I repeat: an old mouse that gets young blood through shared circulation looks younger and functions younger in its brain. +So when we get older -- we can look at different aspects of human cognition, and you can see on this slide here, we can look at reasoning, verbal ability and so forth. +And up to around age 50 or 60, these functions are all intact, and as I look at the young audience here in the room, we're all still fine. +But it's scary to see how all these curves go south. +And as we get older, diseases such as Alzheimer's and others may develop. +We know that with age, the connections between neurons -- the way neurons talk to each other, the synapses -- they start to deteriorate; neurons die, the brain starts to shrink, and there's an increased susceptibility for these neurodegenerative diseases. +One big problem we have -- to try to understand how this really works at a very molecular mechanistic level -- is that we can't study the brains in detail, in living people. +We can do cognitive tests, we can do imaging -- all kinds of sophisticated testing. +But we usually have to wait until the person dies to get the brain and look at how it really changed through age or in a disease. +This is what neuropathologists do, for example. +So, how about we think of the brain as being part of the larger organism. +Could we potentially understand more about what happens in the brain at the molecular level if we see the brain as part of the entire body? +So if the body ages or gets sick, does that affect the brain? +And vice versa: as the brain gets older, does that influence the rest of the body? +And what connects all the different tissues in the body is blood. +Blood is the tissue that not only carries cells that transport oxygen, for example, the red blood cells, or fights infectious diseases, but it also carries messenger molecules, hormone-like factors that transport information from one cell to another, from one tissue to another, including the brain. +So if we look at how the blood changes in disease or age, can we learn something about the brain? +We know that as we get older, the blood changes as well, so these hormone-like factors change as we get older. +And by and large, factors that we know are required for the development of tissues, for the maintenance of tissues -- they start to decrease as we get older, while factors involved in repair, in injury and in inflammation -- they increase as we get older. +So there's this unbalance of good and bad factors, if you will. +And to illustrate what we can do potentially with that, I want to talk you through an experiment that we did. +We had almost 300 blood samples from healthy human beings 20 to 89 years of age, and we measured over 100 of these communication factors, these hormone-like proteins that transport information between tissues. +And what we noticed first is that between the youngest and the oldest group, about half the factors changed significantly. +So our body lives in a very different environment as we get older, when it comes to these factors. +And using statistical or bioinformatics programs, we could try to discover those factors that best predict age -- in a way, back-calculate the relative age of a person. +And the way this looks is shown in this graph. +So, on the one axis you see the actual age a person lived, the chronological age. +So, how many years they lived. +And then we take these top factors that I showed you, and we calculate their relative age, their biological age. +And what you see is that there is a pretty good correlation, so we can pretty well predict the relative age of a person. +But what's really exciting are the outliers, as they so often are in life. +You can see here, the person I highlighted with the green dot is about 70 years of age but seems to have a biological age, if what we're doing here is really true, of only about 45. +So is this a person that actually looks much younger than their age? +But more importantly: Is this a person who is maybe at a reduced risk to develop an age-related disease and will have a long life -- will live to 100 or more? +On the other hand, the person here, highlighted with the red dot, is not even 40, but has a biological age of 65. +Is this a person at an increased risk of developing an age-related disease? +So in our lab, we're trying to understand these factors better, and many other groups are trying to understand, what are the true aging factors, and can we learn something about them to possibly predict age-related diseases? +So what I've shown you so far is simply correlational, right? +You can just say, "Well, these factors change with age," but you don't really know if they do something about aging. +So what I'm going to show you now is very remarkable and it suggests that these factors can actually modulate the age of a tissue. +And that's where we come back to this model called parabiosis. +So, parabiosis is done in mice by surgically connecting the two mice together, and that leads then to a shared blood system, where we can now ask, "How does the old brain get influenced by exposure to the young blood?" +And for this purpose, we use young mice that are an equivalency of 20-year-old people, and old mice that are roughly 65 years old in human years. +What we found is quite remarkable. +We find there are more neural stem cells that make new neurons in these old brains. +There's an increased activity of the synapses, the connections between neurons. +There are more genes expressed that are known to be involved in the formation of new memories. +But we observed that there are no cells entering the brains of these animals. +So when we connect them, there are actually no cells going into the old brain, in this model. +Instead, we've reasoned, then, that it must be the soluble factors, so we could collect simply the soluble fraction of blood which is called plasma, and inject either young plasma or old plasma into these mice, and we could reproduce these rejuvenating effects, but what we could also do now is we could do memory tests with mice. +As mice get older, like us humans, they have memory problems. +It's just harder to detect them, but I'll show you in a minute how we do that. +But we wanted to take this one step further, one step closer to potentially being relevant to humans. +What I'm showing you now are unpublished studies, where we used human plasma, young human plasma, and as a control, saline, and injected it into old mice, and asked, can we again rejuvenate these old mice? +Can we make them smarter? +And to do this, we used a test. It's called a Barnes maze. +This is a big table that has lots of holes in it, and there are guide marks around it, and there's a bright light, as on this stage here. +The mice hate this and they try to escape, and find the single hole that you see pointed at with an arrow, where a tube is mounted underneath where they can escape and feel comfortable in a dark hole. +So we teach them, over several days, to find this space on these cues in the space, and you can compare this for humans, to finding your car in a parking lot after a busy day of shopping. +Many of us have probably had some problems with that. +So, let's look at an old mouse here. +This is an old mouse that has memory problems, as you'll notice in a moment. +It just looks into every hole, but it didn't form this spacial map that would remind it where it was in the previous trial or the last day. +In stark contrast, this mouse here is a sibling of the same age, but it was treated with young human plasma for three weeks, with small injections every three days. +And as you noticed, it almost looks around, "Where am I?" -- and then walks straight to that hole and escapes. +So, it could remember where that hole was. +So by all means, this old mouse seems to be rejuvenated -- it functions more like a younger mouse. +And it also suggests that there is something not only in young mouse plasma, but in young human plasma that has the capacity to help this old brain. +So to summarize, we find the old mouse, and its brain in particular, are malleable. +They're not set in stone; we can actually change them. +It can be rejuvenated. +Young blood factors can reverse aging, and what I didn't show you -- in this model, the young mouse actually suffers from exposure to the old. +So there are old-blood factors that can accelerate aging. +And most importantly, humans may have similar factors, because we can take young human blood and have a similar effect. +Old human blood, I didn't show you, does not have this effect; it does not make the mice younger. +So, is this magic transferable to humans? +We're running a small clinical study at Stanford, where we treat Alzheimer's patients with mild disease with a pint of plasma from young volunteers, 20-year-olds, and do this once a week for four weeks, and then we look at their brains with imaging. +We test them cognitively, and we ask their caregivers for daily activities of living. +What we hope is that there are some signs of improvement from this treatment. +And if that's the case, that could give us hope that what I showed you works in mice might also work in humans. +Now, I don't think we will live forever. +But maybe we discovered that the Fountain of Youth is actually within us, and it has just dried out. +And if we can turn it back on a little bit, maybe we can find the factors that are mediating these effects, we can produce these factors synthetically and we can treat diseases of aging, such as Alzheimer's disease or other dementias. +Thank you very much. +I'd like to introduce you to an emerging area of science, one that is still speculative but hugely exciting, and certainly one that's growing very rapidly. +Quantum biology asks a very simple question: Does quantum mechanics -- that weird and wonderful and powerful theory of the subatomic world of atoms and molecules that underpins so much of modern physics and chemistry -- also play a role inside the living cell? +In other words: Are there processes, mechanisms, phenomena in living organisms that can only be explained with a helping hand from quantum mechanics? +Now, quantum biology isn't new; it's been around since the early 1930s. +But it's only in the last decade or so that careful experiments -- in biochemistry labs, using spectroscopy -- have shown very clear, firm evidence that there are certain specific mechanisms that require quantum mechanics to explain them. +Quantum biology brings together quantum physicists, biochemists, molecular biologists -- it's a very interdisciplinary field. +I come from quantum physics, so I'm a nuclear physicist. +I've spent more than three decades trying to get my head around quantum mechanics. +One of the founders of quantum mechanics, Niels Bohr, said, If you're not astonished by it, then you haven't understood it. +So I sort of feel happy that I'm still astonished by it. +That's a good thing. +But it means I study the very smallest structures in the universe -- the building blocks of reality. +If we think about the scale of size, start with an everyday object like the tennis ball, and just go down orders of magnitude in size -- from the eye of a needle down to a cell, down to a bacterium, down to an enzyme -- you eventually reach the nano-world. +Now, nanotechnology may be a term you've heard of. +A nanometer is a billionth of a meter. +My area is the atomic nucleus, which is the tiny dot inside an atom. +It's even smaller in scale. +This is the domain of quantum mechanics, and physicists and chemists have had a long time to try and get used to it. +Biologists, on the other hand, have got off lightly, in my view. +They are very happy with their balls-and-sticks models of molecules. +The balls are the atoms, the sticks are the bonds between the atoms. +And when they can't build them physically in the lab, nowadays, they have very powerful computers that will simulate a huge molecule. +This is a protein made up of 100,000 atoms. +It doesn't really require much in the way of quantum mechanics to explain it. +Quantum mechanics was developed in the 1920s. +It is a set of beautiful and powerful mathematical rules and ideas that explain the world of the very small. +And it's a world that's very different from our everyday world, made up of trillions of atoms. +It's a world built on probability and chance. +It's a fuzzy world. +It's a world of phantoms, where particles can also behave like spread-out waves. +If we imagine quantum mechanics or quantum physics, then, as the fundamental foundation of reality itself, then it's not surprising that we say quantum physics underpins organic chemistry. +After all, it gives us the rules that tell us how the atoms fit together to make organic molecules. +Organic chemistry, scaled up in complexity, gives us molecular biology, which of course leads to life itself. +So in a way, it's sort of not surprising. +It's almost trivial. +You say, "Well, of course life ultimately must depend of quantum mechanics." +But so does everything else. +So does all inanimate matter, made up of trillions of atoms. +Ultimately, there's a quantum level where we have to delve into this weirdness. +But in everyday life, we can forget about it. +Because once you put together trillions of atoms, that quantum weirdness just dissolves away. +Quantum biology isn't about this. +Quantum biology isn't this obvious. +Of course quantum mechanics underpins life at some molecular level. +Quantum biology is about looking for the non-trivial -- the counterintuitive ideas in quantum mechanics -- and to see if they do, indeed, play an important role in describing the processes of life. +Here is my perfect example of the counterintuitiveness of the quantum world. +This is the quantum skier. +He seems to be intact, he seems to be perfectly healthy, and yet, he seems to have gone around both sides of that tree at the same time. +Well, if you saw tracks like that you'd guess it was some sort of stunt, of course. +But in the quantum world, this happens all the time. +Particles can multitask, they can be in two places at once. +They can do more than one thing at the same time. +Particles can behave like spread-out waves. +It's almost like magic. +Physicists and chemists have had nearly a century of trying to get used to this weirdness. +I don't blame the biologists for not having to or wanting to learn quantum mechanics. +You see, this weirdness is very delicate; and we physicists work very hard to maintain it in our labs. +We cool our system down to near absolute zero, we carry out our experiments in vacuums, we try and isolate it from any external disturbance. +That's very different from the warm, messy, noisy environment of a living cell. +Biology itself, if you think of molecular biology, seems to have done very well in describing all the processes of life in terms of chemistry -- chemical reactions. +And these are reductionist, deterministic chemical reactions, showing that, essentially, life is made of the same stuff as everything else, and if we can forget about quantum mechanics in the macro world, then we should be able to forget about it in biology, as well. +Well, one man begged to differ with this idea. +Erwin Schrdinger, of Schrdinger's Cat fame, was an Austrian physicist. +He was one of the founders of quantum mechanics in the 1920s. +In 1944, he wrote a book called "What is Life?" +It was tremendously influential. +It influenced Francis Crick and James Watson, the discoverers of the double-helix structure of DNA. +To paraphrase a description in the book, he says: At the molecular level, living organisms have a certain order, a structure to them that's very different from the random thermodynamic jostling of atoms and molecules in inanimate matter of the same complexity. +In fact, living matter seems to behave in this order, in a structure, just like inanimate matter cooled down to near absolute zero, where quantum effects play a very important role. +There's something special about the structure -- the order -- inside a living cell. +So, Schrdinger speculated that maybe quantum mechanics plays a role in life. +It's a very speculative, far-reaching idea, and it didn't really go very far. +But as I mentioned at the start, in the last 10 years, there have been experiments emerging, showing where some of these certain phenomena in biology do seem to require quantum mechanics. +I want to share with you just a few of the exciting ones. +This is one of the best-known phenomena in the quantum world, quantum tunneling. +The box on the left shows the wavelike, spread-out distribution of a quantum entity -- a particle, like an electron, which is not a little ball bouncing off a wall. +It's a wave that has a certain probability of being able to permeate through a solid wall, like a phantom leaping through to the other side. +You can see a faint smudge of light in the right-hand box. +Quantum tunneling suggests that a particle can hit an impenetrable barrier, and yet somehow, as though by magic, disappear from one side and reappear on the other. +The nicest way of explaining it is if you want to throw a ball over a wall, you have to give it enough energy to get over the top of the wall. +In the quantum world, you don't have to throw it over the wall, you can throw it at the wall, and there's a certain non-zero probability that it'll disappear on your side, and reappear on the other. +This isn't speculation, by the way. +We're happy -- well, "happy" is not the right word -- we are familiar with this. +Quantum tunneling takes place all the time; in fact, it's the reason our Sun shines. +The particles fuse together, and the Sun turns hydrogen into helium through quantum tunneling. +Back in the 70s and 80s, it was discovered that quantum tunneling also takes place inside living cells. +Enzymes, those workhorses of life, the catalysts of chemical reactions -- enzymes are biomolecules that speed up chemical reactions in living cells, by many, many orders of magnitude. +And it's always been a mystery how they do this. +Well, it was discovered that one of the tricks that enzymes have evolved to make use of, is by transferring subatomic particles, like electrons and indeed protons, from one part of a molecule to another via quantum tunneling. +It's efficient, it's fast, it can disappear -- a proton can disappear from one place, and reappear on the other. +Enzymes help this take place. +This is research that's been carried out back in the 80s, particularly by a group in Berkeley, Judith Klinman. +Other groups in the UK have now also confirmed that enzymes really do this. +Research carried out by my group -- so as I mentioned, I'm a nuclear physicist, but I've realized I've got these tools of using quantum mechanics in atomic nuclei, and so can apply those tools in other areas as well. +One question we asked is whether quantum tunneling plays a role in mutations in DNA. +Again, this is not a new idea; it goes all the way back to the early 60s. +The two strands of DNA, the double-helix structure, are held together by rungs; it's like a twisted ladder. +And those rungs of the ladder are hydrogen bonds -- protons, that act as the glue between the two strands. +So if you zoom in, what they're doing is holding these large molecules -- nucleotides -- together. +Zoom in a bit more. +So, this a computer simulation. +The two white balls in the middle are protons, and you can see that it's a double hydrogen bond. +One prefers to sit on one side; the other, on the other side of the two strands of the vertical lines going down, which you can't see. +It can happen that these two protons can hop over. +Watch the two white balls. +They can jump over to the other side. +If the two strands of DNA then separate, leading to the process of replication, and the two protons are in the wrong positions, this can lead to a mutation. +This has been known for half a century. +The question is: How likely are they to do that, and if they do, how do they do it? +Do they jump across, like the ball going over the wall? +Or can they quantum-tunnel across, even if they don't have enough energy? +Early indications suggest that quantum tunneling can play a role here. +We still don't know yet how important it is; this is still an open question. +It's speculative, but it's one of those questions that is so important that if quantum mechanics plays a role in mutations, surely this must have big implications, to understand certain types of mutations, possibly even those that lead to turning a cell cancerous. +Another example of quantum mechanics in biology is quantum coherence, in one of the most important processes in biology, photosynthesis: plants and bacteria taking sunlight, and using that energy to create biomass. +Quantum coherence is the idea of quantum entities multitasking. +It's the quantum skier. +It's an object that behaves like a wave, so that it doesn't just move in one direction or the other, but can follow multiple pathways at the same time. +Some years ago, the world of science was shocked when a paper was published showing experimental evidence that quantum coherence takes place inside bacteria, carrying out photosynthesis. +The idea is that the photon, the particle of light, the sunlight, the quantum of light captured by a chlorophyll molecule, is then delivered to what's called the reaction center, where it can be turned into chemical energy. +And in getting there, it doesn't just follow one route; it follows multiple pathways at once, to optimize the most efficient way of reaching the reaction center without dissipating as waste heat. +Quantum coherence taking place inside a living cell. +A remarkable idea, and yet evidence is growing almost weekly, with new papers coming out, confirming that this does indeed take place. +My third and final example is the most beautiful, wonderful idea. +It's also still very speculative, but I have to share it with you. +The European robin migrates from Scandinavia down to the Mediterranean, every autumn, and like a lot of other marine animals and even insects, they navigate by sensing the Earth's magnetic field. +Now, the Earth's magnetic field is very, very weak; it's 100 times weaker than a fridge magnet, and yet it affects the chemistry -- somehow -- within a living organism. +That's not in doubt -- a German couple of ornithologists, Wolfgang and Roswitha Wiltschko, in the 1970s, confirmed that indeed, the robin does find its way by somehow sensing the Earth's magnetic field, to give it directional information -- a built-in compass. +The puzzle, the mystery was: How does it do it? +Well, the only theory in town -- we don't know if it's the correct theory, but the only theory in town -- is that it does it via something called quantum entanglement. +Inside the robin's retina -- I kid you not -- inside the robin's retina is a protein called cryptochrome, which is light-sensitive. +Within cryptochrome, a pair of electrons are quantum-entangled. +Now, quantum entanglement is when two particles are far apart, and yet somehow remain in contact with each other. +Even Einstein hated this idea; he called it "spooky action at a distance." +So if Einstein doesn't like it, then we can all be uncomfortable with it. +Two quantum-entangled electrons within a single molecule dance a delicate dance that is very sensitive to the direction the bird flies in the Earth's magnetic field. +We don't know if it's the correct explanation, but wow, wouldn't it be exciting if quantum mechanics helps birds navigate? +Quantum biology is still in it infancy. +It's still speculative. +But I believe it's built on solid science. +I also think that in the coming decade or so, we're going to start to see that actually, it pervades life -- that life has evolved tricks that utilize the quantum world. +Watch this space. +Thank you. +The child's symptoms begin with mild fever, headache, muscle pains, followed by vomiting and diarrhea, then bleeding from the mouth, nose and gums. +Death follows in the form of organ failure from low blood pressure. +Sounds familiar? +If you're thinking this is Ebola, actually, in this case, it's not. +It's an extreme form of dengue fever, a mosquito-born disease which also does not have an effective therapy or a vaccine, and kills 22,000 people each year. +That is actually twice the number of people that have been killed by Ebola in the nearly four decades that we've known about it. +As for measles, so much in the news recently, the death toll is actually tenfold higher. +Yet for the last year, it has been Ebola that has stolen all of the headlines and the fear. +Clearly, there is something deeply rooted about it, something which scares us and fascinates us more than other diseases. +But what is it, exactly? +Well, it's hard to acquire Ebola, but if you do, the risk of a horrible death is high. +Why? +Because right now, we don't have any effective therapy or vaccine available. +And so, that's the clue. +We may have it someday. +So we rightfully fear Ebola, because it doesn't kill as many people as other diseases. +In fact, it's much less transmissible than viruses such as flu or measles. +We fear Ebola because of the fact that it kills us and we can't treat it. +We fear the certain inevitability that comes with Ebola. +Ebola has this inevitability that seems to defy modern medical science. +But wait a second, why is that? +We've known about Ebola since 1976. +We've known what it's capable of. +We've had ample opportunity to study it in the 24 outbreaks that have occurred. +And in fact, we've actually had vaccine candidates available now for more than a decade. +Why is that those vaccines are just going into clinical trials now? +This goes to the fundamental problem we have with vaccine development for infectious diseases. +It goes something like this: The people most at risk for these diseases are also the ones least able to pay for vaccines. +This leaves little in the way of market incentives for manufacturers to develop vaccines, unless there are large numbers of people who are at risk in wealthy countries. +It's simply too commercially risky. +As for Ebola, there is absolutely no market at all, so the only reason we have two vaccines in late-stage clinical trials now, is actually because of a somewhat misguided fear. +Ebola was relatively ignored until September 11 and the anthrax attacks, when all of a sudden, people perceived Ebola as, potentially, a bioterrorism weapon. +Why is it that the Ebola vaccine wasn't fully developed at this point? +Well, partially, because it was really difficult -- or thought to be difficult -- to weaponize the virus, but mainly because of the financial risk in developing it. +And this is really the point. +The sad reality is, we develop vaccines not based upon the risk the pathogen poses to people, but on how economically risky it is to develop these vaccines. +Vaccine development is expensive and complicated. +It can cost hundreds of millions of dollars to take even a well-known antigen and turn it into a viable vaccine. +Fortunately for diseases like Ebola, there are things we can do to remove some of these barriers. +The first is to recognize when there's a complete market failure. +In that case, if we want vaccines, we have to provide incentives or some type of subsidy. +We also need to do a better job at being able to figure out which are the diseases that most threaten us. +By creating capabilities within countries, we then create the ability for those countries to create epidemiological and laboratory networks which are capable of collecting and categorizing these pathogens. +The data from that then can be used to understand the geographic and genetic diversity, which then can be used to help us understand how these are being changed immunologically, and what type of reactions they promote. +So these are the things that can be done, but to do this, if we want to deal with a complete market failure, we have to change the way we view and prevent infectious diseases. +We have to stop waiting until we see evidence of a disease becoming a global threat before we consider it as one. +Every year, we spend billions of dollars, keeping a fleet of nuclear submarines permanently patrolling the oceans to protect us from a threat that almost certainly will never happen. +And yet, we spend virtually nothing to prevent something as tangible and evolutionarily certain as epidemic infectious diseases. +And make no mistake about it -- it's not a question of "if," but "when." +These bugs are going to continue to evolve and they're going to threaten the world. +And vaccines are our best defense. +So if we want to be able to prevent epidemics like Ebola, we need to take on the risk of investing in vaccine development and in stockpile creation. +And we need to view this, then, as the ultimate deterrent -- something we make sure is available, but at the same time, praying we never have to use it. +Thank you. +Over a million people are killed each year in disasters. +Two and a half million people will be permanently disabled or displaced, and the communities will take 20 to 30 years to recover and billions of economic losses. +If you can reduce the initial response by one day, you can reduce the overall recovery by a thousand days, or three years. +See how that works? +A major insurance company told me that if they can get a homeowner's claim processed one day earlier, it'll make a difference of six months in that person getting their home repaired. +And that's why I do disaster robotics -- because robots can make a disaster go away faster. +Now, you've already seen a couple of these. +These are the UAVs. +These are two types of UAVs: a rotorcraft, or hummingbird; a fixed-wing, a hawk. +And they're used extensively since 2005 -- Hurricane Katrina. +Let me show you how this hummingbird, this rotorcraft, works. +Fantastic for structural engineers. +Being able to see damage from angles you can't get from binoculars on the ground or from a satellite image, or anything flying at a higher angle. +But it's not just structural engineers and insurance people who need this. +You've got things like this fixed-wing, this hawk. +Now, this hawk can be used for geospatial surveys. +That's where you're pulling imagery together and getting 3D reconstruction. +We used both of these at the Oso mudslides up in Washington State, because the big problem was geospatial and hydrological understanding of the disaster -- not the search and rescue. +The search and rescue teams had it under control and knew what they were doing. +The bigger problem was that river and mudslide might wipe them out and flood the responders. +And not only was it challenging to the responders and property damage, it's also putting at risk the future of salmon fishing along that part of Washington State. +So they needed to understand what was going on. +In seven hours, going from Arlington, driving from the Incident Command Post to the site, flying the UAVs, processing the data, driving back to Arlington command post -- seven hours. +We gave them in seven hours data that they could take only two to three days to get any other way -- and at higher resolution. +It's a game changer. +And don't just think about the UAVs. +I mean, they are sexy -- but remember, 80 percent of the world's population lives by water, and that means our critical infrastructure is underwater -- the parts that we can't get to, like the bridges and things like that. +And that's why we have unmanned marine vehicles, one type of which you've already met, which is SARbot, a square dolphin. +It goes underwater and uses sonar. +Well, why are marine vehicles so important and why are they very, very important? +They get overlooked. +Think about the Japanese tsunami -- 400 miles of coastland totally devastated, twice the amount of coastland devastated by Hurricane Katrina in the United States. +You're talking about your bridges, your pipelines, your ports -- wiped out. +And if you don't have a port, you don't have a way to get in enough relief supplies to support a population. +That was a huge problem at the Haiti earthquake. +So we need marine vehicles. +Now, let's look at a viewpoint from the SARbot of what they were seeing. +We were working on a fishing port. +We were able to reopen that fishing port, using her sonar, in four hours. +That fishing port was told it was going to be six months before they could get a manual team of divers in, and it was going to take the divers two weeks. +They were going to miss the fall fishing season, which was the major economy for that part, which is kind of like their Cape Cod. +UMVs, very important. +But you know, all the robots I've shown you have been small, and that's because robots don't do things that people do. +They go places people can't go. +And a great example of that is Bujold. +Unmanned ground vehicles are particularly small, so Bujold -- Say hello to Bujold. +Bujold was used extensively at the World Trade Center to go through Towers 1, 2 and 4. +You're climbing into the rubble, rappelling down, going deep in spaces. +And just to see the World Trade Center from Bujold's viewpoint, look at this. +You're talking about a disaster where you can't fit a person or a dog -- and it's on fire. +The only hope of getting to a survivor way in the basement, you have to go through things that are on fire. +It was so hot, on one of the robots, the tracks began to melt and come off. +Robots don't replace people or dogs, or hummingbirds or hawks or dolphins. +They do things new. +They assist the responders, the experts, in new and innovative ways. +The biggest problem is not making the robots smaller, though. +It's not making them more heat-resistant. +It's not making more sensors. +The biggest problem is the data, the informatics, because these people need to get the right data at the right time. +So wouldn't it be great if we could have experts immediately access the robots without having to waste any time of driving to the site, so whoever's there, use their robots over the Internet. +Well, let's think about that. +Let's think about a chemical train derailment in a rural county. +What are the odds that the experts, your chemical engineer, your railroad transportation engineers, have been trained on whatever UAV that particular county happens to have? +Probably, like, none. +So we're using these kinds of interfaces to allow people to use the robots without knowing what robot they're using, or even if they're using a robot or not. +What the robots give you, what they give the experts, is data. +The problem becomes: who gets what data when? +One thing to do is to ship all the information to everybody and let them sort it out. +Well, the problem with that is it overwhelms the networks, and worse yet, it overwhelms the cognitive abilities of each of the people trying to get that one nugget of information they need to make the decision that's going to make the difference. +So we need to think about those kinds of challenges. +So it's the data. +Going back to the World Trade Center, we tried to solve that problem by just recording the data from Bujold only when she was deep in the rubble, because that's what the USAR team said they wanted. +What we didn't know at the time was that the civil engineers would have loved, needed the data as we recorded the box beams, the serial numbers, the locations, as we went into the rubble. +We lost valuable data. +So the challenge is getting all the data and getting it to the right people. +Now, here's another reason. +We've learned that some buildings -- things like schools, hospitals, city halls -- get inspected four times by different agencies throughout the response phases. +Now, we're looking, if we can get the data from the robots to share, not only can we do things like compress that sequence of phases to shorten the response time, but now we can begin to do the response in parallel. +Everybody can see the data. +We can shorten it that way. +So really, "disaster robotics" is a misnomer. +It's not about the robots. +It's about the data. +So my challenge to you: the next time you hear about a disaster, look for the robots. +They may be underground, they may be underwater, they may be in the sky, but they should be there. +Look for the robots, because robots are coming to the rescue. +When I was 14 years old, I was interested in science -- fascinated by it, excited to learn about it. +And I had a high school science teacher who would say to the class, "The girls don't have to listen to this." +Encouraging, yes. +I chose not to listen -- but to that statement alone. +So let me take you to the Andes mountains in Chile, 500 kilometers, 300 miles northeast of Santiago. +It's very remote, it's very dry and it's very beautiful. +And there's not much there. +There are condors, there are tarantulas, and at night, when the light dims, it reveals one of the darkest skies on Earth. +It's kind of a magic place, the mountain. +It's a wonderful combination of very remote mountaintop with exquisitely sophisticated technology. +And our ancestors, for as long as there's been recorded history, have looked at the night sky and pondered the nature of our existence. +And we're no exception, our generation. +The only difficulty is that the night sky now is blocked by the glare of city lights. +And so astronomers go to these very remote mountaintops to view and to study the cosmos. +So telescopes are our window to the cosmos. +It's no exaggeration to say that the Southern Hemisphere is going to be the future of astronomy for the 21st century. +We have an array of existing telescopes already, in the Andes mountains in Chile, and that's soon to be joined by a really sensational array of new capability. +There will be two international groups that are going to be building giant telescopes, sensitive to optical radiation, as our eyes are. +There will be a survey telescope that will be scanning the sky every few nights. +There will be radio telescopes, sensitive to long-wavelength radio radiation. +And then there will be telescopes in space. +There'll be a successor to the Hubble Space Telescope; it's called the James Webb Telescope, and it will be launched in 2018. +There'll be a satellite called TESS that will discover planets outside of our solar system. +For the last decade, I've been leading a group -- a consortium -- international group, to build what will be, when it's finished, the largest optical telescope in existence. +It's called the Giant Magellan Telescope, or GMT. +This telescope is going to have mirrors that are 8.4 meters in diameter -- each of the mirrors. +That's almost 27 feet. +So it dwarfs this stage -- maybe out to the fourth row in this audience. +Each of the seven mirrors in this telescope will be almost 27 feet in diameter. +Together, the seven mirrors in this telescope will comprise 80 feet in diameter. +So, essentially the size of this entire auditorium. +The whole telescope will stand about 43 meters high, and again, being in Rio, some of you have been to see the statue of the giant Christ. +The scale is comparable in height; in fact, it's smaller than this telescope will be. +It's comparable to the size of the Statue of Liberty. +And it's going to be housed in an enclosure that's 22 stories -- 60 meters high. +But it's an unusual building to protect this telescope. +It will have open windows to the sky, and it will actually rotate on a base -- 2,000 tons of rotating building. +The Giant Magellan Telescope will have 10 times the resolution of the Hubble Space Telescope. +It will be 20 million times more sensitive than the human eye. +And it may, for the first time ever, be capable of finding life on planets outside of our solar system. +It's going to allow us to look back at the first light in the universe -- literally, the dawn of the cosmos. The cosmic dawn. +It's a telescope that's going to allow us to peer back, witness galaxies as they were when they were actually assembling, the first black holes in the universe, the first galaxies. +Now, for thousands of years, we have been studying the cosmos, we've been wondering about our place in the universe. +The ancient Greeks told us that the Earth was the center of the universe. +Five hundred years ago, Copernicus displaced the Earth, and put the Sun at the heart of the cosmos. +And as we've learned over the centuries, since Galileo Galilei, the Italian scientist, first turned, in that time, a two-inch, very small telescope, to the sky, every time we have built larger telescopes, we have learned something about the universe; we've made discoveries, without exception. +We've learned in the 20th century that the universe is expanding and that our own solar system is not at the center of that expansion. +We know now that the universe is made of about 100 billion galaxies that are visible to us, and each one of those galaxies has 100 billion stars within it. +So we're looking now at the deepest image of the cosmos that's ever been taken. +It was taken using the Hubble Space Telescope, and by pointing the telescope at what was previously a blank region of sky, before the launch of Hubble. +And if you can imagine this tiny area, it's only one-fiftieth of the size of the full moon. +So, if you can imagine the full moon. +And there are now 10,000 galaxies visible within that image. +And the faintness of those images and the tiny size is only a result of the fact that those galaxies are so far away, the vast distances. +And each of those galaxies may contain within it a few billion or even hundreds of billions of individual stars. +Telescopes are like time machines. +So the farther back we look in space, the further back we see in time. +And they're like light buckets -- literally, they collect light. +So larger the bucket, the larger the mirror we have, the more light we can see, and the farther back we can view. +So, we've learned in the last century that there are exotic objects in the universe -- black holes. +We've even learned that there's dark matter and dark energy that we can't see. +So you're looking now at an actual image of dark matter. +You got it. Not all audiences get that. +So the way we infer the presence of dark matter -- we can't see it -- but there's an unmistakable tug, due to gravity. +We now can look out, we see this sea of galaxies in a universe that's expanding. +What I do myself is to measure the expansion of the universe, and one of the projects that I carried out in the 1990s used the Hubble Space Telescope to measure how fast the universe is expanding. +We can now trace back to 14 billion years. +We've learned over time that stars have individual histories; that is, they have birth, they have middle ages and some of them even have dramatic deaths. +So the embers from those stars actually then form the new stars that we see, most of which turn out to have planets going around them. +And one of the really surprising results in the last 20 years has been the discovery of other planets going around other stars. +These are called exoplanets. +And until 1995, we didn't even know the existence of any other planets, other than going around our own sun. +But now, there are almost 2,000 other planets orbiting other stars that we can now detect, measure masses for. +There are 500 of those that are multiple-planet systems. +And there are 4,000 -- and still counting -- other candidates for planets orbiting other stars. +They come in a bewildering variety of different kinds. +There are Jupiter-like planets that are hot, there are other planets that are icy, there are water worlds and there are rocky planets like the Earth, so-called "super-Earths," and there have even been planets that have been speculated diamond worlds. +So we know there's at least one planet, our own Earth, in which there is life. +We've even found planets that are orbiting two stars. +That's no longer the province of science fiction. +So around our own planet, we know there's life, we've developed a complex life, we now can question our own origins. +And given all that we've discovered, the overwhelming numbers now suggest that there may be millions, perhaps -- maybe even hundreds of millions -- of other [planets] that are close enough -- just the right distance from their stars that they're orbiting -- to have the existence of liquid water and maybe could potentially support life. +So we marvel now at those odds, the overwhelming odds, and the amazing thing is that within the next decade, the GMT may be able to take spectra of the atmospheres of those planets, and determine whether or not they have the potential for life. +So, what is the GMT project? +It's an international project. +It includes Australia, South Korea, and I'm happy to say, being here in Rio, that the newest partner in our telescope is Brazil. +It also includes a number of institutions across the United States, including Harvard University, the Smithsonian and the Carnegie Institutions, and the Universities of Arizona, Chicago, Texas-Austin and Texas A&M University. +It also involves Chile. +So, the making of the mirrors in this telescope is also fascinating in its own right. +Take chunks of glass, melt them in a furnace that is itself rotating. +This happens underneath the football stadium at the University of Arizona. +It's tucked away under 52,000 seats. +Nobody know it's happening. +And there's essentially a rotating cauldron. +The mirrors are cast and they're cooled very slowly, and then they're polished to an exquisite precision. +And so, if you think about the precision of these mirrors, the bumps on the mirror, over the entire 27 feet, amount to less than one-millionth of an inch. +So, can you visualize that? +Ow! +That's one five-thousandths of the width of one of my hairs, over this entire 27 feet. +It's a spectacular achievement. +It's what allows us to have the precision that we will have. +So, what does that precision buy us? +So the GMT, if you can imagine -- if I were to hold up a coin, which I just happen to have, and I look at the face of that coin, I can see from here the writing on the coin; I can see the face on that coin. +My guess that even in the front row, you can't see that. +But if we were to turn the Giant Magellan Telescope, all 80-feet diameter that we see in this auditorium, and point it 200 miles away, if I were standing in So Paulo, we could resolve the face of this coin. +That's the extraordinary resolution and power of this telescope. +And if we were -- If an astronaut went up to the Moon, a quarter of a million miles away, and lit a candle -- a single candle -- then we would be able to detect it, using the GMT. +Quite extraordinary. +This is a simulated image of a cluster in a nearby galaxy. +"Nearby" is astronomical, it's all relative. +It's tens of millions of light-years away. +This is what this cluster would look like. +So look at those four bright objects, and now lets compare it with a camera on the Hubble Space Telescope. +You can see faint detail that starts to come through. +And now finally -- and look how dramatic this is -- this is what the GMT will see. +So, keep your eyes on those bright images again. +This is what we see on one of the most powerful existing telescopes on the Earth, and this, again, what the GMT will see. +Extraordinary precision. +So, where are we? +We have now leveled the top of the mountaintop in Chile. +We blasted that off. +We've tested and polished the first mirror. +We've cast the second and the third mirrors. +And we're about to cast the fourth mirror. +We had a series of reviews this year, international panels that came in and reviewed us, and said, "You're ready to go to construction." +And so we plan on building this telescope with the first four mirrors. +We want to get on the air quickly, and be taking science data -- what we astronomers call "first light," in 2021. +And the full telescope will be finished in the middle of the next decade, with all seven mirrors. +So we're now poised to look back at the distant universe, the cosmic dawn. +We'll be able to study other planets in exquisite detail. +But for me, one of the most exciting things about building the GMT is the opportunity to actually discover something that we don't know about -- that we can't even imagine at this point, something completely new. +And my hope is that with the construction of this and other facilities, that many young women and men will be inspired to reach for the stars. +Thank you very much. +Obrigado. +Bruno Giussani: Thank you, Wendy. +Stay with me, because I have a question for you. +You mentioned different facilities. +So the Magellan Telescope is going up, but also ALMA and others in Chile and elsewhere, including in Hawaii. +Is it about cooperation and complementarity, or about competition? +I know there's competition in terms of funding, but what about the science? +Wendy Freedman: In terms of the science, they're very complementary. +The telescopes that are in space, the telescopes on the ground, telescopes with different wavelength capability, telescopes even that are similar, but different instruments -- they will all look at different parts of the questions that we're asking. +So when we discover other planets, we'll be able to test those observations, we'll be able to measure the atmospheres, be able to look in space with very high resolution. +So, they're very complementary. +You're right about the funding, we compete; but scientifically, it's very complementary. +BG: Wendy, thank you very much for coming to TEDGlobal. +WF: Thank you. +If you want to buy high-quality, low-price cocaine, there really is only one place to go, and that is the dark net anonymous markets. +Now, you can't get to these sites with a normal browser -- Chrome or Firefox -- because they're on this hidden part of the Internet, known as Tor hidden services, where URLs are a string of meaningless numbers and letters that end in .onion, and which you access with a special browser called the Tor browser. +Now, the Tor browser was originally a U.S. Naval intelligence project. +It then became open source, and it allows anybody to browse the net without giving away their location. +And it does this by encrypting your IP address and then routing it via several other computers around the world that use the same software. +You can use it on the normal Internet, but it's also your key to the dark net. +And because of this fiendishly clever encryption system, the 20 or 30 -- we don't know exactly -- thousand sites that operate there are incredibly difficult to shut down. +It is a censorship-free world visited by anonymous users. +Little wonder, then, that it's a natural place to go for anybody with something to hide, and that something, of course, need not be illegal. +On the dark net, you will find whistle-blower sites, The New Yorker. +You will find political activism blogs. +You will find libraries of pirated books. +But you'll also find the drugs markets, illegal pornography, commercial hacking services, and much more besides. +Now, the dark net is one of the most interesting, exciting places anywhere on the net. +And the reason is, because although innovation, of course, takes place in big businesses, takes place in world-class universities, it also takes place in the fringes, because those on the fringes -- the pariahs, the outcasts -- they're often the most creative, because they have to be. +In this part of the Internet, you will not find a single lolcat, a single pop-up advert anywhere. +And that's one of the reasons why I think many of you here will be on the dark net fairly soon. +Not that I'm suggesting anyone in this audience would use it to go and procure high-quality narcotics. +But let's say for a moment that you were. +Bear with me. +The first thing you will notice on signing up to one of these sites is how familiar it looks. +Every single product -- thousands of products -- has a glossy, high-res image, a detailed product description, a price. +There's a "Proceed to checkout" icon. +There is even, most beautifully of all, a "Report this item" button. +Incredible. +You browse through the site, you make your choice, you pay with the crypto-currency bitcoin, you enter an address -- preferably not your home address -- and you wait for your product to arrive in the post, which it nearly always does. +And the reason it does is not because of the clever encryption. +That's important. +Something far simpler than that. +It's the user reviews. +You see, every single vendor on these sites uses a pseudonym, naturally enough, but they keep the same pseudonym to build up a reputation. +And because it's easy for the buyer to change allegiance whenever they want, the only way of trusting a vendor is if they have a good history of positive feedback from other users of the site. +And this introduction of competition and choice does exactly what the economists would predict. +Prices tend to go down, product quality tends to go up, and the vendors are attentive, they're polite, they're consumer-centric, offering you all manner of special deals, one-offs, buy-one-get-one-frees, free delivery, to keep you happy. +I spoke to Drugsheaven. +Drugsheaven was offering excellent and consistent marijuana at a reasonable price. +He had a very generous refund policy, detailed T's and C's, and good shipping times. +"Dear Drugsheaven," I wrote, via the internal emailing system that's also encrypted, of course. +"I'm new here. Do you mind if I buy just one gram of marijuana?" +A couple of hours later, I get a reply. +They always reply. +"Hi there, thanks for your email. +Starting small is a wise thing to do. I would, too, if I were you." +"So no problem if you'd like to start with just one gram. +I do hope we can do business together. +Best wishes, Drugsheaven." +I don't know why he had a posh English accent, but I assume he did. +Now, this kind of consumer-centric attitude is the reason why, when I reviewed 120,000 pieces of feedback that had been left on one of these sites over a three-month period, 95 percent of them were five out of five. +The customer, you see, is king. +But what does that mean? +Well, on the one hand, that means there are more drugs, more available, more easily, to more people. +And by my reckoning, that is not a good thing. +But, on the other hand, if you are going to take drugs, you have a reasonably good way of guaranteeing a certain level of purity and quality, which is incredibly important if you're taking drugs. +And you can do so from the comfort of your own home, without the risks associated with buying on the streets. +Now, as I said, you've got to be creative and innovative to survive in this marketplace. +And the 20 or so sites that are currently in operation -- by the way, they don't always work, they're not always perfect; the site that I showed you was shut down 18 months ago, but not before it had turned over a billion dollars' worth of trade. +But these markets, because of the difficult conditions in which they are operating, the inhospitable conditions, are always innovating, always thinking of ways of getting smarter, more decentralized, harder to censor, and more customer-friendly. +Let's take the payment system. +You don't pay with your credit card, of course -- that would lead directly back to you. +So you use the crypto-currency bitcoin, which is easily exchanged for real-world currencies and gives quite a high degree of anonymity to its users. +But at the beginning of these sites, people noticed a flaw. +Some of the unscrupulous dealers were running away with peoples' bitcoin before they'd mailed the drugs out. +The community came up with a solution, called multi-signature escrow payments. +So on purchasing my item, I would send my bitcoin to a neutral, secure third digital wallet. +Brilliant! +Elegant. +It works. +But then they realized there was a problem with bitcoin, because every bitcoin transaction is actually recorded publicly in a public ledger. +So if you're clever, you can try and work out who's behind them. +So they came up with a tumbling service. +Hundreds of people send their bitcoin into one address, they're tumbled and jumbled up, and then the right amount is sent on to the right recipients, but they're different bitcoins: micro-laundering systems. +It's incredible. +Interested in what drugs are trending right now on the dark net markets? +Check Grams, the search engine. +You can even buy some advertising space. +Are you an ethical consumer worried about what the drugs industry is doing? +Yeah. +One vendor will offer you fair trade organic cocaine. +That's not being sourced from Colombian druglords, but Guatemalan farmers. +They even promised to reinvest 20 percent of any profits into local education programs. +There's even a mystery shopper. +Now, whatever you think about the morality of these sites -- and I submit that it's not actually an easy question -- the creation of functioning, competitive, anonymous markets, where nobody knows who anybody else is, constantly at risk of being shut down by the authorities, is a staggering achievement, a phenomenal achievement. +And it's that kind of innovation that's why those on the fringes are often the harbingers of what is to come. +It's easy to forget that because of its short life, the Internet has actually changed many times over the last 30 years or so. +It started in the '70s as a military project, morphed in the 1980s to an academic network, co-opted by commercial companies in the '90s, and then invaded by all of us via social media in the noughties, but I think it's going to change again. +And I think things like the dark net markets -- creative, secure, difficult to censor -- I think that's the future. +And the reason it's the future is because we're all worried about our privacy. +Surveys consistently show concerns about privacy. +The more time we spend online, the more we worry about them, and those surveys show our worries are growing. +We're worried about what happens to our data. +We're worried about who might be watching us. +Since the revelations from Edward Snowden, there's been a huge increase in the number of people using various privacy-enhancing tools. +There are now between two and three million daily users of the Tor browser, the majority of which use is perfectly legitimate, sometimes even mundane. +And there are hundreds of activists around the world working on techniques and tools to keep you private online -- default encrypted messaging services. +Ethereum, which is a project which tries to link up the connected but unused hard drives of millions of computers around the world, to create a sort of distributed Internet that no one really controls. +Now, we've had distributed computing before, of course. +We use it for everything from Skype to the search for extraterrestrial life. +But you add distributed computing and powerful encryption -- that's very, very hard to censor and control. +Another called MaidSafe works on similar principles. +Another called Twister, and so on and so on. +And here's the thing -- the more of us join, the more interesting those sites become, and then the more of us join, and so on. +And I think that's what's going to happen. +In fact, it's already happening. +The dark net is no longer a den for dealers and a hideout for whistle-blowers. +It's already going mainstream. +Just recently, the musician Aphex Twin released his album as a dark net site. +Facebook has started a dark net site. +A group of London architects have opened a dark net site for people worried about regeneration projects. +Yes, the dark net is going mainstream, and I predict that fairly soon, every social media company, every major news outlet, and therefore most of you in this audience, will be using the dark net, too. +So the Internet is about to get more interesting, more exciting, more innovative, more terrible, more destructive. +That's good news if you care about liberty. +It's good news if you care about freedom. +It's good news if you care about democracy. +It's also good news if you want to browse for illegal pornography and if you want to buy and sell drugs with impunity. +Neither entirely dark, nor entirely light. +It's not one side or the other that's going to win out, but both. +Thank you very much, indeed. +Chris Anderson: You were something of a mathematical phenom. +You had already taught at Harvard and MIT at a young age. +And then the NSA came calling. +What was that about? +Jim Simons: Well the NSA -- that's the National Security Agency -- they didn't exactly come calling. +They had an operation at Princeton, where they hired mathematicians to attack secret codes and stuff like that. +And I knew that existed. +And they had a very good policy, because you could do half your time at your own mathematics, and at least half your time working on their stuff. +And they paid a lot. +So that was an irresistible pull. +So, I went there. +CA: You were a code-cracker. +JS: I was. +CA: Until you got fired. +JS: Well, I did get fired. Yes. +CA: How come? +JS: Well, how come? +I got fired because, well, the Vietnam War was on, and the boss of bosses in my organization was a big fan of the war and wrote a New York Times article, a magazine section cover story, about how we would win in Vietnam. +And I didn't like that war, I thought it was stupid. +And I wrote a letter to the Times, which they published, saying not everyone who works for Maxwell Taylor, if anyone remembers that name, agrees with his views. +And I gave my own views ... +CA: Oh, OK. I can see that would -- JS: ... which were different from General Taylor's. +But in the end, nobody said anything. +But then, I was 29 years old at this time, and some kid came around and said he was a stringer from Newsweek magazine and he wanted to interview me and ask what I was doing about my views. +And I told him, "I'm doing mostly mathematics now, and when the war is over, then I'll do mostly their stuff." +Then I did the only intelligent thing I'd done that day -- I told my local boss that I gave that interview. +And he said, "What'd you say?" +And I told him what I said. +And then he said, "I've got to call Taylor." +He called Taylor; that took 10 minutes. +I was fired five minutes after that. +CA: OK. +JS: But it wasn't bad. +CA: It wasn't bad, because you went on to Stony Brook and stepped up your mathematical career. +You started working with this man here. +Who is this? +JS: Oh, [Shiing-Shen] Chern. +Chern was one of the great mathematicians of the century. +I had known him when I was a graduate student at Berkeley. +And I had some ideas, and I brought them to him and he liked them. +Together, we did this work which you can easily see up there. +There it is. +CA: It led to you publishing a famous paper together. +Can you explain at all what that work was? +JS: No. +JS: I mean, I could explain it to somebody. +CA: How about explaining this? +JS: But not many. Not many people. +CA: I think you told me it had something to do with spheres, so let's start here. +JS: Well, it did, but I'll say about that work -- it did have something to do with that, but before we get to that -- that work was good mathematics. +I was very happy with it; so was Chern. +It even started a little sub-field that's now flourishing. +But, more interestingly, it happened to apply to physics, something we knew nothing about -- at least I knew nothing about physics, and I don't think Chern knew a heck of a lot. +And about 10 years after the paper came out, a guy named Ed Witten in Princeton started applying it to string theory and people in Russia started applying it to what's called "condensed matter." +Today, those things in there called Chern-Simons invariants have spread through a lot of physics. +And it was amazing. +We didn't know any physics. +It never occurred to me that it would be applied to physics. +But that's the thing about mathematics -- you never know where it's going to go. +CA: This is so incredible. +So, we've been talking about how evolution shapes human minds that may or may not perceive the truth. +Somehow, you come up with a mathematical theory, not knowing any physics, discover two decades later that it's being applied to profoundly describe the actual physical world. +How can that happen? +JS: God knows. +But there's a famous physicist named [Eugene] Wigner, and he wrote an essay on the unreasonable effectiveness of mathematics. +Somehow, this mathematics, which is rooted in the real world in some sense -- we learn to count, measure, everyone would do that -- and then it flourishes on its own. +But so often it comes back to save the day. +General relativity is an example. +[Hermann] Minkowski had this geometry, and Einstein realized, "Hey! It's the very thing in which I can cast general relativity." +So, you never know. It is a mystery. +It is a mystery. +CA: So, here's a mathematical piece of ingenuity. +Tell us about this. +JS: Well, that's a ball -- it's a sphere, and it has a lattice around it -- you know, those squares. +What I'm going to show here was originally observed by [Leonhard] Euler, the great mathematician, in the 1700s. +And it gradually grew to be a very important field in mathematics: algebraic topology, geometry. +That paper up there had its roots in this. +So, here's this thing: it has eight vertices, 12 edges, six faces. +And if you look at the difference -- vertices minus edges plus faces -- you get two. +OK, well, two. That's a good number. +Here's a different way of doing it -- these are triangles covering -- this has 12 vertices and 30 edges and 20 faces, 20 tiles. +And vertices minus edges plus faces still equals two. +And in fact, you could do this any which way -- cover this thing with all kinds of polygons and triangles and mix them up. +And you take vertices minus edges plus faces -- you'll get two. +Here's a different shape. +This is a torus, or the surface of a doughnut: 16 vertices covered by these rectangles, 32 edges, 16 faces. +Vertices minus edges comes out to be zero. +It'll always come out to zero. +Every time you cover a torus with squares or triangles or anything like that, you're going to get zero. +So, this is called the Euler characteristic. +And it's what's called a topological invariant. +It's pretty amazing. +No matter how you do it, you're always get the same answer. +So that was the first sort of thrust, from the mid-1700s, into a subject which is now called algebraic topology. +CA: And your own work took an idea like this and moved it into higher-dimensional theory, higher-dimensional objects, and found new invariances? +JS: Yes. Well, there were already higher-dimensional invariants: Pontryagin classes -- actually, there were Chern classes. +There were a bunch of these types of invariants. +I was struggling to work on one of them and model it sort of combinatorially, instead of the way it was typically done, and that led to this work and we uncovered some new things. +But if it wasn't for Mr. Euler -- who wrote almost 70 volumes of mathematics and had 13 children, who he apparently would dandle on his knee while he was writing -- if it wasn't for Mr. Euler, there wouldn't perhaps be these invariants. +CA: OK, so that's at least given us a flavor of that amazing mind in there. +Let's talk about Renaissance. +Because you took that amazing mind and having been a code-cracker at the NSA, you started to become a code-cracker in the financial industry. +I think you probably didn't buy efficient market theory. +Somehow you found a way of creating astonishing returns over two decades. +The way it's been explained to me, what's remarkable about what you did wasn't just the size of the returns, it's that you took them with surprisingly low volatility and risk, compared with other hedge funds. +So how on earth did you do this, Jim? +JS: I did it by assembling a wonderful group of people. +When I started doing trading, I had gotten a little tired of mathematics. +I was in my late 30s, I had a little money. +I started trading and it went very well. +I made quite a lot of money with pure luck. +I mean, I think it was pure luck. +It certainly wasn't mathematical modeling. +But in looking at the data, after a while I realized: it looks like there's some structure here. +And I hired a few mathematicians, and we started making some models -- just the kind of thing we did back at IDA [Institute for Defense Analyses]. +You design an algorithm, you test it out on a computer. +Does it work? Doesn't it work? And so on. +CA: Can we take a look at this? +Because here's a typical graph of some commodity. +I look at that, and I say, "That's just a random, up-and-down walk -- maybe a slight upward trend over that whole period of time." +How on earth could you trade looking at that, and see something that wasn't just random? +JS: In the old days -- this is kind of a graph from the old days, commodities or currencies had a tendency to trend. +Not necessarily the very light trend you see here, but trending in periods. +And if you decided, OK, I'm going to predict today, by the average move in the past 20 days -- maybe that would be a good prediction, and I'd make some money. +And in fact, years ago, such a system would work -- not beautifully, but it would work. +You'd make money, you'd lose money, you'd make money. +But this is a year's worth of days, and you'd make a little money during that period. +It's a very vestigial system. +CA: So you would test a bunch of lengths of trends in time and see whether, for example, a 10-day trend or a 15-day trend was predictive of what happened next. +JS: Sure, you would try all those things and see what worked best. +Trend-following would have been great in the '60s, and it was sort of OK in the '70s. +By the '80s, it wasn't. +CA: Because everyone could see that. +So, how did you stay ahead of the pack? +JS: We stayed ahead of the pack by finding other approaches -- shorter-term approaches to some extent. +The real thing was to gather a tremendous amount of data -- and we had to get it by hand in the early days. +We went down to the Federal Reserve and copied interest rate histories and stuff like that, because it didn't exist on computers. +We got a lot of data. +And very smart people -- that was the key. +I didn't really know how to hire people to do fundamental trading. +I had hired a few -- some made money, some didn't make money. +I couldn't make a business out of that. +But I did know how to hire scientists, because I have some taste in that department. +So, that's what we did. +And gradually these models got better and better, and better and better. +CA: You're credited with doing something remarkable at Renaissance, which is building this culture, this group of people, who weren't just hired guns who could be lured away by money. +Their motivation was doing exciting mathematics and science. +JS: Well, I'd hoped that might be true. +But some of it was money. +CA: They made a lot of money. +JS: I can't say that no one came because of the money. +I think a lot of them came because of the money. +But they also came because it would be fun. +CA: What role did machine learning play in all this? +JS: In a certain sense, what we did was machine learning. +You look at a lot of data, and you try to simulate different predictive schemes, until you get better and better at it. +It doesn't necessarily feed back on itself the way we did things. +But it worked. +CA: So these different predictive schemes can be really quite wild and unexpected. +I mean, you looked at everything, right? +You looked at the weather, length of dresses, political opinion. +JS: Yes, length of dresses we didn't try. +CA: What sort of things? +JS: Well, everything. +Everything is grist for the mill -- except hem lengths. +Weather, annual reports, quarterly reports, historic data itself, volumes, you name it. +Whatever there is. +We take in terabytes of data a day. +And store it away and massage it and get it ready for analysis. +You're looking for anomalies. +You're looking for -- like you said, the efficient market hypothesis is not correct. +CA: But any one anomaly might be just a random thing. +So, is the secret here to just look at multiple strange anomalies, and see when they align? +JS: Any one anomaly might be a random thing; however, if you have enough data you can tell that it's not. +You can see an anomaly that's persistent for a sufficiently long time -- the probability of it being random is not high. +But these things fade after a while; anomalies can get washed out. +So you have to keep on top of the business. +CA: A lot of people look at the hedge fund industry now and are sort of ... shocked by it, by how much wealth is created there, and how much talent is going into it. +Do you have any worries about that industry, and perhaps the financial industry in general? +Kind of being on a runaway train that's -- I don't know -- helping increase inequality? +How would you champion what's happening in the hedge fund industry? +JS: I think in the last three or four years, hedge funds have not done especially well. +We've done dandy, but the hedge fund industry as a whole has not done so wonderfully. +The stock market has been on a roll, going up as everybody knows, and price-earnings ratios have grown. +So an awful lot of the wealth that's been created in the last -- let's say, five or six years -- has not been created by hedge funds. +People would ask me, "What's a hedge fund?" +And I'd say, "One and 20." +Which means -- now it's two and 20 -- it's two percent fixed fee and 20 percent of profits. +Hedge funds are all different kinds of creatures. +CA: Rumor has it you charge slightly higher fees than that. +JS: We charged the highest fees in the world at one time. +Five and 44, that's what we charge. +CA: Five and 44. +So five percent flat, 44 percent of upside. +You still made your investors spectacular amounts of money. +JS: We made good returns, yes. +People got very mad: "How can you charge such high fees?" +I said, "OK, you can withdraw." +But "How can I get more?" was what people were -- But at a certain point, as I think I told you, we bought out all the investors because there's a capacity to the fund. +CA: But should we worry about the hedge fund industry attracting too much of the world's great mathematical and other talent to work on that, as opposed to the many other problems in the world? +JS: Well, it's not just mathematical. +We hire astronomers and physicists and things like that. +I don't think we should worry about it too much. +It's still a pretty small industry. +And in fact, bringing science into the investing world has improved that world. +It's reduced volatility. It's increased liquidity. +Spreads are narrower because people are trading that kind of stuff. +So I'm not too worried about Einstein going off and starting a hedge fund. +CA: You're at a phase in your life now where you're actually investing, though, at the other end of the supply chain -- you're actually boosting mathematics across America. +This is your wife, Marilyn. +You're working on philanthropic issues together. +Tell me about that. +JS: Well, Marilyn started -- there she is up there, my beautiful wife -- she started the foundation about 20 years ago. +I think '94. +I claim it was '93, she says it was '94, but it was one of those two years. +We started the foundation, just as a convenient way to give charity. +She kept the books, and so on. +We did not have a vision at that time, but gradually a vision emerged -- which was to focus on math and science, to focus on basic research. +And that's what we've done. +Six years ago or so, I left Renaissance and went to work at the foundation. +So that's what we do. +CA: And so Math for America is basically investing in math teachers around the country, giving them some extra income, giving them support and coaching. +And really trying to make that more effective and make that a calling to which teachers can aspire. +JS: Yeah -- instead of beating up the bad teachers, which has created morale problems all through the educational community, in particular in math and science, we focus on celebrating the good ones and giving them status. +Yeah, we give them extra money, 15,000 dollars a year. +We have 800 math and science teachers in New York City in public schools today, as part of a core. +There's a great morale among them. +They're staying in the field. +Next year, it'll be 1,000 and that'll be 10 percent of the math and science teachers in New York [City] public schools. +CA: Jim, here's another project that you've supported philanthropically: Research into origins of life, I guess. +What are we looking at here? +JS: Well, I'll save that for a second. +And then I'll tell you what you're looking at. +Origins of life is a fascinating question. +How did we get here? +Well, there are two questions: One is, what is the route from geology to biology -- how did we get here? +And the other question is, what did we start with? +What material, if any, did we have to work with on this route? +Those are two very, very interesting questions. +The first question is a tortuous path from geology up to RNA or something like that -- how did that all work? +And the other, what do we have to work with? +Well, more than we think. +So what's pictured there is a star in formation. +Now, every year in our Milky Way, which has 100 billion stars, about two new stars are created. +Don't ask me how, but they're created. +And it takes them about a million years to settle out. +So, in steady state, there are about two million stars in formation at any time. +That one is somewhere along this settling-down period. +And there's all this crap sort of circling around it, dust and stuff. +And it'll form probably a solar system, or whatever it forms. +But here's the thing -- in this dust that surrounds a forming star have been found, now, significant organic molecules. +Molecules not just like methane, but formaldehyde and cyanide -- things that are the building blocks -- the seeds, if you will -- of life. +So, that may be typical. +And it may be typical that planets around the universe start off with some of these basic building blocks. +Now does that mean there's going to be life all around? +Maybe. +But it's a question of how tortuous this path is from those frail beginnings, those seeds, all the way to life. +And most of those seeds will fall on fallow planets. +CA: So for you, personally, finding an answer to this question of where we came from, of how did this thing happen, that is something you would love to see. +JS: Would love to see. +And like to know -- if that path is tortuous enough, and so improbable, that no matter what you start with, we could be a singularity. +But on the other hand, given all this organic dust that's floating around, we could have lots of friends out there. +It'd be great to know. +CA: Jim, a couple of years ago, I got the chance to speak with Elon Musk, and I asked him the secret of his success, and he said taking physics seriously was it. +Listening to you, what I hear you saying is taking math seriously, that has infused your whole life. +It's made you an absolute fortune, and now it's allowing you to invest in the futures of thousands and thousands of kids across America and elsewhere. +Could it be that science actually works? +That math actually works? +JS: Well, math certainly works. Math certainly works. +But this has been fun. +Working with Marilyn and giving it away has been very enjoyable. +CA: I just find it -- it's an inspirational thought to me, that by taking knowledge seriously, so much more can come from it. +So thank you for your amazing life, and for coming here to TED. +Thank you. +Jim Simons! +Today I'm going to talk about work. +And the question I want to ask and answer is this: "Why do we work?" +Why do we drag ourselves out of bed every morning instead of living our lives just filled with bouncing from one TED-like adventure to another? +You may be asking yourselves that very question. +Now, I know of course, we have to make a living, but nobody in this room thinks that that's the answer to the question, "Why do we work?" +For folks in this room, the work we do is challenging, it's engaging, it's stimulating, it's meaningful. +And if we're lucky, it might even be important. +So, we wouldn't work if we didn't get paid, but that's not why we do what we do. +And in general, I think we think that material rewards are a pretty bad reason for doing the work that we do. +When we say of somebody that he's "in it for the money," we are not just being descriptive. +Now, I think this is totally obvious, but the very obviousness of it raises what is for me an incredibly profound question. +Why, if this is so obvious, why is it that for the overwhelming majority of people on the planet, the work they do has none of the characteristics that get us up and out of bed and off to the office every morning? +How is it that we allow the majority of people on the planet to do work that is monotonous, meaningless and soul-deadening? +Why is it that as capitalism developed, it created a mode of production, of goods and services, in which all the nonmaterial satisfactions that might come from work were eliminated? +Workers who do this kind of work, whether they do it in factories, in call centers, or in fulfillment warehouses, do it for pay. +There is certainly no other earthly reason to do what they do except for pay. +So the question is, "Why?" +And here's the answer: the answer is technology. +Now, I know, I know -- yeah, yeah, yeah, technology, automation screws people, blah blah -- that's not what I mean. +I'm not talking about the kind of technology that has enveloped our lives, and that people come to TED to hear about. +I'm not talking about the technology of things, profound though that is. +I'm talking about another technology. +I'm talking about the technology of ideas. +I call it, "idea technology" -- how clever of me. +In addition to creating things, science creates ideas. +Science creates ways of understanding. +And in the social sciences, the ways of understanding that get created are ways of understanding ourselves. +And they have an enormous influence on how we think, what we aspire to, and how we act. +If you think your poverty is God's will, you pray. +If you think your poverty is the result of your own inadequacy, you shrink into despair. +And if you think your poverty is the result of oppression and domination, then you rise up in revolt. +Whether your response to poverty is resignation or revolution, depends on how you understand the sources of your poverty. +This is the role that ideas play in shaping us as human beings, and this is why idea technology may be the most profoundly important technology that science gives us. +And there's something special about idea technology, that makes it different from the technology of things. +With things, if the technology sucks, it just vanishes, right? +Bad technology disappears. +With ideas -- false ideas about human beings will not go away if people believe that they're true. +Because if people believe that they're true, they create ways of living and institutions that are consistent with these very false ideas. +And that's how the industrial revolution created a factory system in which there was really nothing you could possibly get out of your day's work, except for the pay at the end of the day. +Because the father -- one of the fathers of the Industrial Revolution, Adam Smith -- was convinced that human beings were by their very natures lazy, and wouldn't do anything unless you made it worth their while, and the way you made it worth their while was by incentivizing, by giving them rewards. +That was the only reason anyone ever did anything. +So we created a factory system consistent with that false view of human nature. +But once that system of production was in place, there was really no other way for people to operate, except in a way that was consistent with Adam Smith's vision. +So the work example is merely an example of how false ideas can create a circumstance that ends up making them true. +It is not true that you "just can't get good help anymore." +It is true that you "can't get good help anymore" when you give people work to do that is demeaning and soulless. +And interestingly enough, Adam Smith -- the same guy who gave us this incredible invention of mass production, and division of labor -- understood this. +He said, of people who worked in assembly lines, of men who worked in assembly lines, he says: "He generally becomes as stupid as it is possible for a human being to become." +Now, notice the word here is "become." +"He generally becomes as stupid as it is possible for a human being to become." +Whether he intended it or not, what Adam Smith was telling us there, is that the very shape of the institution within which people work creates people who are fitted to the demands of that institution and deprives people of the opportunity to derive the kinds of satisfactions from their work that we take for granted. +The thing about science -- natural science -- is that we can spin fantastic theories about the cosmos, and have complete confidence that the cosmos is completely indifferent to our theories. +It's going to work the same damn way no matter what theories we have about the cosmos. +But we do have to worry about the theories we have of human nature, because human nature will be changed by the theories we have that are designed to explain and help us understand human beings. +The distinguished anthropologist, Clifford Geertz, said, years ago, that human beings are the "unfinished animals." +And what he meant by that was that it is only human nature to have a human nature that is very much the product of the society in which people live. +That human nature, that is to say our human nature, is much more created than it is discovered. +We design human nature by designing the institutions within which people live and work. +And so you people -- pretty much the closest I ever get to being with masters of the universe -- you people should be asking yourself a question, as you go back home to run your organizations. +Just what kind of human nature do you want to help design? +Thank you. +Thanks. +Well, we all need a reason to wake up. +For me, it just took 11,000 volts. +I know you're too polite to ask, so I will tell you. +One night, sophomore year of college, just back from Thanksgiving holiday, a few of my friends and I were horsing around, and we decided to climb atop a parked commuter train. +It was just sitting there, with the wires that run overhead. +Somehow, that seemed like a great idea at the time. +We'd certainly done stupider things. +I scurried up the ladder on the back, and when I stood up, the electrical current entered my arm, blew down and out my feet, and that was that. +Would you believe that watch still works? +Takes a licking! +My father wears it now in solidarity. +That night began my formal relationship with death -- my death -- and it also began my long run as a patient. +It's a good word. +It means one who suffers. +So I guess we're all patients. +Now, the American health care system has more than its fair share of dysfunction -- to match its brilliance, to be sure. +I'm a physician now, a hospice and palliative medicine doc, so I've seen care from both sides. +And believe me: almost everyone who goes into healthcare really means well -- I mean, truly. +But we who work in it are also unwitting agents for a system that too often does not serve. +Why? +Well, there's actually a pretty easy answer to that question, and it explains a lot: because healthcare was designed with diseases, not people, at its center. +Which is to say, of course, it was badly designed. +And nowhere are the effects of bad design more heartbreaking or the opportunity for good design more compelling than at the end of life, where things are so distilled and concentrated. +There are no do-overs. +My purpose today is to reach out across disciplines and invite design thinking into this big conversation. +That is, to bring intention and creativity to the experience of dying. +We have a monumental opportunity in front of us, before one of the few universal issues as individuals as well as a civil society: to rethink and redesign how it is we die. +So let's begin at the end. +For most people, the scariest thing about death isn't being dead, it's dying, suffering. +It's a key distinction. +To get underneath this, it can be very helpful to tease out suffering which is necessary as it is, from suffering we can change. +The former is a natural, essential part of life, part of the deal, and to this we are called to make space, adjust, grow. +It can be really good to realize forces larger than ourselves. +They bring proportionality, like a cosmic right-sizing. +After my limbs were gone, that loss, for example, became fact, fixed -- necessarily part of my life, and I learned that I could no more reject this fact than reject myself. +It took me a while, but I learned it eventually. +Now, another great thing about necessary suffering is that it is the very thing that unites caregiver and care receiver -- human beings. +This, we are finally realizing, is where healing happens. +Yes, compassion -- literally, as we learned yesterday -- suffering together. +Now, on the systems side, on the other hand, so much of the suffering is unnecessary, invented. +It serves no good purpose. +But the good news is, since this brand of suffering is made up, well, we can change it. +How we die is indeed something we can affect. +Making the system sensitive to this fundamental distinction between necessary and unnecessary suffering gives us our first of three design cues for the day. +After all, our role as caregivers, as people who care, is to relieve suffering -- not add to the pile. +True to the tenets of palliative care, I function as something of a reflective advocate, as much as prescribing physician. +Quick aside: palliative care -- a very important field but poorly understood -- while it includes, it is not limited to end of life care. +It is not limited to hospice. +It's simply about comfort and living well at any stage. +So please know that you don't have to be dying anytime soon to benefit from palliative care. +Now, let me introduce you to Frank. +Sort of makes this point. +I've been seeing Frank now for years. +He's living with advancing prostate cancer on top of long-standing HIV. +We work on his bone pain and his fatigue, but most of the time we spend thinking out loud together about his life -- really, about our lives. +In this way, Frank grieves. +In this way, he keeps up with his losses as they roll in, so that he's ready to take in the next moment. +Loss is one thing, but regret, quite another. +Frank has always been an adventurer -- he looks like something out of a Norman Rockwell painting -- and no fan of regret. +So it wasn't surprising when he came into clinic one day, saying he wanted to raft down the Colorado River. +Was this a good idea? +With all the risks to his safety and his health, some would say no. +Many did, but he went for it, while he still could. +It was a glorious, marvelous trip: freezing water, blistering dry heat, scorpions, snakes, wildlife howling off the flaming walls of the Grand Canyon -- all the glorious side of the world beyond our control. +Frank's decision, while maybe dramatic, is exactly the kind so many of us would make, if we only had the support to figure out what is best for ourselves over time. +So much of what we're talking about today is a shift in perspective. +After my accident, when I went back to college, I changed my major to art history. +Studying visual art, I figured I'd learn something about how to see -- a really potent lesson for a kid who couldn't change so much of what he was seeing. +Perspective, that kind of alchemy we humans get to play with, turning anguish into a flower. +Flash forward: now I work at an amazing place in San Francisco called the Zen Hospice Project, where we have a little ritual that helps with this shift in perspective. +When one of our residents dies, the mortuary men come, and as we're wheeling the body out through the garden, heading for the gate, we pause. +Anyone who wants -- fellow residents, family, nurses, volunteers, the hearse drivers too, now -- shares a story or a song or silence, as we sprinkle the body with flower petals. +Cleaning crew swoops in, the body's whisked away, and it all feels as though that person had never really existed. +Well-intended, of course, in the name of sterility, but hospitals tend to assault our senses, and the most we might hope for within those walls is numbness -- I revere hospitals for what they can do; I am alive because of them. +But we ask too much of our hospitals. +They are places for acute trauma and treatable illness. +They are no place to live and die; that's not what they were designed for. +Now mind you -- I am not giving up on the notion that our institutions can become more humane. +Beauty can be found anywhere. +I spent a few months in a burn unit at St. Barnabas Hospital in Livingston, New Jersey, where I got really great care at every turn, including good palliative care for my pain. +And one night, it began to snow outside. +I remember my nurses complaining about driving through it. +And there was no window in my room, but it was great to just imagine it coming down all sticky. +Next day, one of my nurses smuggled in a snowball for me. +She brought it in to the unit. +I cannot tell you the rapture I felt holding that in my hand, and the coldness dripping onto my burning skin; the miracle of it all, the fascination as I watched it melt and turn into water. +In that moment, just being any part of this planet in this universe mattered more to me than whether I lived or died. +That little snowball packed all the inspiration I needed to both try to live and be OK if I did not. +In a hospital, that's a stolen moment. +In my work over the years, I've known many people who were ready to go, ready to die. +Not because they had found some final peace or transcendence, but because they were so repulsed by what their lives had become -- in a word, cut off, or ugly. +There are already record numbers of us living with chronic and terminal illness, and into ever older age. +And we are nowhere near ready or prepared for this silver tsunami. +We need an infrastructure dynamic enough to handle these seismic shifts in our population. +Now is the time to create something new, something vital. +I know we can because we have to. +The alternative is just unacceptable. +And the key ingredients are known: policy, education and training, systems, bricks and mortar. +We have tons of input for designers of all stripes to work with. +We know, for example, from research what's most important to people who are closer to death: comfort; feeling unburdened and unburdening to those they love; existential peace; and a sense of wonderment and spirituality. +Over Zen Hospice's nearly 30 years, we've learned much more from our residents in subtle detail. +Little things aren't so little. +Take Janette. +She finds it harder to breathe one day to the next due to ALS. +Well, guess what? +She wants to start smoking again -- and French cigarettes, if you please. +Not out of some self-destructive bent, but to feel her lungs filled while she has them. +Priorities change. +Or Kate -- she just wants to know her dog Austin is lying at the foot of her bed, his cold muzzle against her dry skin, instead of more chemotherapy coursing through her veins -- she's done that. +Sensuous, aesthetic gratification, where in a moment, in an instant, we are rewarded for just being. +So much of it comes down to loving our time by way of the senses, by way of the body -- the very thing doing the living and the dying. +Probably the most poignant room in the Zen Hospice guest house is our kitchen, which is a little strange when you realize that so many of our residents can eat very little, if anything at all. +But we realize we are providing sustenance on several levels: smell, a symbolic plane. +Seriously, with all the heavy-duty stuff happening under our roof, one of the most tried and true interventions we know of, is to bake cookies. +As long as we have our senses -- even just one -- we have at least the possibility of accessing what makes us feel human, connected. +Imagine the ripples of this notion for the millions of people living and dying with dementia. +Primal sensorial delights that say the things we don't have words for, impulses that make us stay present -- no need for a past or a future. +So, if teasing unnecessary suffering out of the system was our first design cue, then tending to dignity by way of the senses, by way of the body -- the aesthetic realm -- is design cue number two. +Now this gets us quickly to the third and final bit for today; namely, we need to lift our sights, to set our sights on well-being, so that life and health and healthcare can become about making life more wonderful, rather than just less horrible. +Beneficence. +Here, this gets right at the distinction between a disease-centered and a patient- or human-centered model of care, and here is where caring becomes a creative, generative, even playful act. +"Play" may sound like a funny word here. +But it is also one of our highest forms of adaptation. +Consider every major compulsory effort it takes to be human. +The need for food has birthed cuisine. +The need for shelter has given rise to architecture. +The need for cover, fashion. +And for being subjected to the clock, well, we invented music. +So, since dying is a necessary part of life, what might we create with this fact? +By "play" I am in no way suggesting we take a light approach to dying or that we mandate any particular way of dying. +There are mountains of sorrow that cannot move, and one way or another, we will all kneel there. +Rather, I am asking that we make space -- physical, psychic room, to allow life to play itself all the way out -- so that rather than just getting out of the way, aging and dying can become a process of crescendo through to the end. +We can't solve for death. +I know some of you are working on this. +Meanwhile, we can -- We can design towards it. +Parts of me died early on, and that's something we can all say one way or another. +I got to redesign my life around this fact, and I tell you it has been a liberation to realize you can always find a shock of beauty or meaning in what life you have left, like that snowball lasting for a perfect moment, all the while melting away. +If we love such moments ferociously, then maybe we can learn to live well -- not in spite of death, but because of it. +Let death be what takes us, not lack of imagination. +Thank you. +What I'd like to do is talk to you a little bit about fear and the cost of fear and the age of fear from which we are now emerging. +I would like you to feel comfortable with my doing that by letting you know that I know something about fear and anxiety. +I'm a Jewish guy from New Jersey. +I could worry before I could walk. +Please, applaud that. +Thank you. +But I also grew up in a time where there was something to fear. +We were brought out in the hall when I was a little kid and taught how to put our coats over our heads to protect us from global thermonuclear war. +Now even my seven-year-old brain knew that wasn't going to work. +But I also knew that global thermonuclear war was something to be concerned with. +And yet, despite the fact that we lived for 50 years with the threat of such a war, the response of our government and of our society was to do wonderful things. +We created the space program in response to that. +We built our highway system in response to that. +We created the Internet in response to that. +So sometimes fear can produce a constructive response. +But sometimes it can produce an un-constructive response. +On September 11, 2001, 19 guys took over four airplanes and flew them into a couple of buildings. +They exacted a horrible toll. +It is not for us to minimize what that toll was. +But the response that we had was clearly disproportionate -- disproportionate to the point of verging on the unhinged. +We rearranged the national security apparatus of the United States and of many governments to address a threat that, at the time that those attacks took place, was quite limited. +In fact, according to our intelligence services, on September 11, 2001, there were 100 members of core Al-Qaeda. +There were just a few thousand terrorists. +They posed an existential threat to no one. +But we rearranged our entire national security apparatus in the most sweeping way since the end of the Second World War. +We launched two wars. +We spent trillions of dollars. +We suspended our values. +We violated international law. +We embraced torture. +We embraced the idea that if these 19 guys could do this, anybody could do it. +And therefore, for the first time in history, we were seeing everybody as a threat. +And what was the result of that? +Surveillance programs that listened in on the emails and phone calls of entire countries -- hundreds of millions of people -- setting aside whether those countries were our allies, setting aside what our interests were. +Now you have to ask, where did we go wrong? +What did we do? What was the mistake that was made? +And you might say, well look, Washington is a dysfunctional place. +There are political food fights. +We've turned our discourse into a cage match. +And that's true. +But there are other problems. +And the other problems came from the fact that in Washington and in many capitals right now, we're in a creativity crisis. +In Washington, in think tanks, where people are supposed to be thinking of new ideas, you don't get bold new ideas, because if you offer up a bold new idea, not only are you attacked on Twitter, but you will not get confirmed in a government job. +Because we are reactive to the heightened venom of the political debate, you get governments that have an us-versus-them mentality, tiny groups of people making decisions. +When you sit in a room with a small group of people making decisions, what do you get? +You get groupthink. +Everybody has the same worldview, and any view from outside of the group is seen as a threat. +That's a danger. +You also have processes that become reactive to news cycles. +And so the parts of the U.S. government that do foresight, that look forward, that do strategy -- the parts in other governments that do this -- can't do it, because they're reacting to the news cycle. +And so we're not looking ahead. +On 9/11, we had a crisis because we were looking the wrong way. +In fact, the things that we are seeing in those parts of the world may be symptoms. +They may be a reaction to bigger trends. +And if we are treating the symptom and ignoring the bigger trend, then we've got far bigger problems to deal with. +And so what are those trends? +Well, to a group like you, the trends are apparent. +We are living at a moment in which the very fabric of human society is being rewoven. +If you saw the cover of The Economist a couple of days ago -- it said that 80 percent of the people on the planet, by the year 2020, would have a smartphone. +They would have a small computer connected to the Internet in their pocket. +In most of Africa, the cell phone penetration rate is 80 percent. +We passed the point last October when there were more mobile cellular devices, SIM cards, out in the world than there were people. +We are within years of a profound moment in our history, when effectively every single human being on the planet is going to be part of a man-made system for the first time, able to touch anyone else -- touch them for good, touch them for ill. +And the changes associated with that are changing the very nature of every aspect of governance and life on the planet in ways that our leaders ought to be thinking about, when they're thinking about these immediate threats. +On the security side, we've come out of a Cold War in which it was too costly to fight a nuclear war, and so we didn't, to a period that I call Cool War, cyber war, where the costs of conflict are actually so low, that we may never stop. +We may enter a period of constant warfare, and we know this because we've been in it for several years. +And yet, we don't have the basic doctrines to guide us in this regard. +We don't have the basic ideas formulated. +If someone attacks us with a cyber attack, do have the ability to respond with a kinetic attack? +We don't know. +If somebody launches a cyber attack, how do we deter them? +When China launched a series of cyber attacks, what did the U.S. government do? +It said, we're going to indict a few of these Chinese guys, who are never coming to America. +They're never going to be anywhere near a law enforcement officer who's going to take them into custody. +It's a gesture -- it's not a deterrent. +Special forces operators out there in the field today discover that small groups of insurgents with cell phones have access to satellite imagery that once only superpowers had. +In fact, if you've got a cell phone, you've got access to power that a superpower didn't have, and would have highly classified 10 years ago. +In my cell phone, I have an app that tells me where every plane in the world is, and its altitude, and its speed, and what kind of aircraft it is, and where it's going and where it's landing. +They have apps that allow them to know what their adversary is about to do. +They're using these tools in new ways. +When a cafe in Sydney was taken over by a terrorist, he went in with a rifle... +and an iPad. +And the weapon was the iPad. +Because he captured people, he terrorized them, he pointed the iPad at them, and then he took the video and he put it on the Internet, and he took over the world's media. +But it doesn't just affect the security side. +The relations between great powers -- we thought we were past the bipolar era. +We thought we were in a unipolar world, where all the big issues were resolved. +Remember? It was the end of history. +But we're not. +We're now seeing that our basic assumptions about the Internet -- that it was going to connect us, weave society together -- are not necessarily true. +In countries like China, you have the Great Firewall of China. +You've got countries saying no, if the Internet happens within our borders we control it within our borders. +We control the content. We are going to control our security. +We are going to manage that Internet. +We are going to say what can be on it. +We're going to set a different set of rules. +Now you might think, well, that's just China. +But it's not just China. +It's China, India, Russia. +It's Saudi Arabia, it's Singapore, it's Brazil. +After the NSA scandal, the Russians, the Chinese, the Indians, the Brazilians, they said, let's create a new Internet backbone, because we can't be dependent on this other one. +And so all of a sudden, what do you have? +You have a new bipolar world in which cyber-internationalism, our belief, is challenged by cyber-nationalism, another belief. +We are seeing these changes everywhere we look. +We are seeing the advent of mobile money. +It's happening in the places you wouldn't expect. +It's happening in Kenya and Tanzania, where millions of people who haven't had access to financial services now conduct all those services on their phones. +There are 2.5 million people who don't have financial service access that are going to get it soon. +A billion of them are going to have the ability to access it on their cell phone soon. +It's not just going to give them the ability to bank. +It's going to change what monetary policy is. +It's going to change what money is. +Education is changing in the same way. +Healthcare is changing in the same way. +How government services are delivered is changing in the same way. +And yet, in Washington, we are debating whether to call the terrorist group that has taken over Syria and Iraq ISIS or ISIL or Islamic State. +But it was the canals and railroads and telegraph; it was radar and the Internet. +It was Tang, the breakfast drink -- probably not the most important of those developments. +But what you had was a partnership and a dialogue, and the dialogue has broken down. +It's broken down because in Washington, less government is considered more. +It's broken down because there is, believe it or not, in Washington, a war on science -- despite the fact that in all of human history, every time anyone has waged a war on science, science has won. +But we have a government that doesn't want to listen, that doesn't have people at the highest levels that understand this. +In the nuclear age, when there were people in senior national security jobs, they were expected to speak throw-weight. +They were expected to know the lingo, the vocabulary. +If you went to the highest level of the U.S. government now and said, "Talk to me about cyber, about neuroscience, about the things that are going to change the world of tomorrow," you'd get a blank stare. +I know, because when I wrote this book, I talked to 150 people, many from the science and tech side, who felt like they were being shunted off to the kids' table. +Meanwhile, on the tech side, we have lots of wonderful people creating wonderful things, but they started in garages and they didn't need the government and they don't want the government. +Many of them have a political view that's somewhere between libertarian and anarchic: leave me alone. +But the world's coming apart. +All of a sudden, there are going to be massive regulatory changes and massive issues associated with conflict and massive issues associated with security and privacy. +And we haven't even gotten to the next set of issues, which are philosophical issues. +If you can't vote, if you can't have a job, if you can't bank, if you can't get health care, if you can't be educated without Internet access, is Internet access a fundamental right that should be written into constitutions? +If Internet access is a fundamental right, is electricity access for the 1.2 billion who don't have access to electricity a fundamental right? +These are fundamental issues. Where are the philosophers? +Where's the dialogue? +And that brings me to the reason that I'm here. +I live in Washington. Pity me. +The dialogue isn't happening there. +These big issues that will change the world, change national security, change economics, create hope, create threats, can only be resolved when you bring together groups of people who understand science and technology back together with government. +Both sides need each other. +And until we recreate that connection, until we do what helped America grow and helped other countries grow, then we are going to grow ever more vulnerable. +The risks associated with 9/11 will not be measured in terms of lives lost by terror attacks or buildings destroyed or trillions of dollars spent. +We are not there yet, but discussions like this and groups like you are the places where those questions can be formulated and posed. +And that's why I believe that groups like TED, discussions like this around the planet, are the place where the future of foreign policy, of economic policy, of social policy, of philosophy, will ultimately take place. +And that's why it's been a pleasure speaking to you. +Thank you very, very much. +Billie Jean King: Hi, everyone! +Thanks, Pat. +Thank you! +Getting me all wound up, now! +Pat Mitchell: Good! +You know, when I was watching the video again of the match, you must have felt like the fate of the world's women was on every stroke you took. +Were you feeling that? +BJK: First of all, Bobby Riggs -- he was the former number one player, he wasn't just some hacker, by the way. +He was one of my heroes and I admired him. +And that's the reason I beat him, actually, because I respected him. +It's true -- my mom and especially my dad always said: "Respect your opponent, and never underestimate them, ever." +And he was correct. He was absolutely correct. +But I knew it was about social change. +And I was really nervous whenever we announced it, and I felt like the whole world was on my shoulders. +And I thought, "If I lose, it's going to put women back 50 years, at least." +Title IX had just been passed the year before -- June 23, 1972. +And women's professional tennis -- there were nine of us who signed a one-dollar contract in 1970 -- now remember, the match is in '73. +So we were only in our third year of having a tour where we could actually play, have a place to compete and make a living. +So there were nine of us that signed that one-dollar contract. +And our dream was for any girl, born any place in the world -- if she was good enough -- there would be a place for her to compete and for us to make a living. +Because before 1968, we made 14 dollars a day, and we were under the control of organizations. +So we really wanted to break away from that. +But we knew it wasn't really about our generation so much; we knew it was about the future generations. +We do stand on the shoulders of the people that came before us, there is no question. +But every generation has the chance to make it better. +That was really on my mind. +I really wanted to start matching the hearts and minds to Title IX. +Title IX, in case anybody doesn't know, which a lot of people probably don't, said that any federal funds given to a high school, college or university, either public or private, had to -- finally -- give equal monies to boys and girls. +And that changed everything. +So you can have a law, but it's changing the hearts and minds to match up with it. +That's when it really rocks, totally. +So that was on my mind. +I wanted to start that change in the hearts and minds. +But two things came out of that match. +For women: self-confidence, empowerment. +They actually had enough nerve to ask for a raise. +Some women have waited 10, 15 years to ask. +I said, "More importantly, did you get it?" +And they did! +And for the men? +A lot of the men today don't realize it, but if you're in your 50s, 60s or whatever, late 40s, you're the first generation of men of the Women's Movement -- whether you like it or not! +And for the men, what happened for the men, they'd come up to me -- and most times, the men are the ones who have tears in their eyes, it's very interesting. +They go, "Billie, I was very young when I saw that match, and now I have a daughter. +And I am so happy I saw that as a young man." +And one of those young men, at 12 years old, was President Obama. +And he actually told me that when I met him, he said: "You don't realize it, but I saw that match at 12. +And now I have two daughters, and it has made a difference in how I raise them." +So both men and women got a lot out of it, but different things. +PM: And now there are generations -- at least one or two -- who have experienced the equality that Title IX and other fights along the way made possible. +And for women, there are generations who have also experienced teamwork. +They got to play team sports in a way they hadn't before. +So you had a legacy already built in terms of being an athlete, a legacy of the work you did to lobby for equal pay for women athletes and the Women's Sports Foundation. +What now are you looking to accomplish with The Billie Jean King Leadership Initiative? +BJK: I think it goes back to an epiphany I had at 12. +At 11, I wanted to be the number one tennis player in the world, and a friend had asked me to play and I said, "What's that?" +Tennis was not in my family -- basketball was, other sports. +Fast forward to 12 years old, and I'm finally starting to play in tournaments where you get a ranking at the end of the year. +So I was daydreaming at the Los Angeles Tennis Club, and I started thinking about my sport and how tiny it was, but also that everybody who played wore white shoes, white clothes, played with white balls -- everybody who played was white. +And I said to myself, at 12 years old, "Where is everyone else?" +And that just kept sticking in my brain. +And that moment, I promised myself I'd fight for equal rights and opportunities for boys and girls, men and women, the rest of my life. +And that tennis, if I was fortunate enough to become number one -- and I knew, being a girl, it would be harder to have influence, already at that age -- that I had this platform. +And tennis is global. +And I thought, "You know what? +I've been given an opportunity that very few people have had." +I didn't know if I was going to make it -- this was only 12. +I sure wanted it, but making it is a whole other discussion. +I just remember I promised myself, and I really try to keep my word. +That's who I truly am, just fighting for people. +And, unfortunately, women have had less. +And we are considered less. +And so my attentions, where did they have to go? +It was just ... you have to. +And learn to stick up for yourself, hear your own voice. +You hear the same words keep coming out all the time, and I got really lucky because I had an education. +And I think if you can see it you can be it, you know? +If you can see it, you can be it. +You look at Pat, you look at other leaders, you look at these speakers, look at yourself, because everyone -- everyone -- can do something extraordinary. +Every single person. +PM: And your story, Billie, has inspired so many women everywhere. +Now with the Billie Jean King Leadership Initiative, you're taking on an even bigger cause. +Because one thing we hear a lot about is women taking their voice, working to find their way into leadership positions. +But what you're talking about is even bigger than that. +It's inclusive leadership. +And this is a generation that has grown up thinking more inclusively -- BJK: Isn't it great? Look at the technology! +It's amazing how it connects us all! It's about connection. +It's simply amazing what's possible because of it. +But the Billie Jean King Leadership Initiative is really about the workforce mostly, and trying to change it, so people can actually go to work and be their authentic selves. +Because most of us have two jobs: One, to fit in -- I'll give you a perfect example. +An African American woman gets up an hour earlier to go to work, straightens her hair in the bathroom, goes to the bathroom probably four, five, six times a day to keep straightening her hair, to keep making sure she fits in. +So she's working two jobs. +She's got this other job, whatever that may be, but she's also trying to fit in. +Or this poor man who kept his diploma -- he went to University of Michigan, but he never would talk about his poverty as a youngster, ever -- just would not mention it. +So he made sure they saw he was well-educated. +And then you see a gay guy who has an NFL -- which means American football for all of you out there, it's a big deal, it's very macho -- and he talked about football all the time, because he was gay and he didn't want anybody to know. +It just goes on and on. +So my wish for everyone is to be able to be their authentic self 24/7, that would be the ultimate. +And we catch ourselves -- I mean, I catch myself to this day. +Even being gay I catch myself, you know, like, a little uncomfortable, a little surge in my gut, feeling not totally comfortable in my own skin. +So, I think you have to ask yourself -- I want people to be themselves, whatever that is, just let it be. +PM: And the first research the Leadership Initiative did showed that, that these examples you just used -- that many of us have the problem of being authentic. +But what you've just looked at is this millennial generation, who have benefited from all these equal opportunities -- which may not be equal but exist everywhere -- BJK: First of all, I'm really lucky. +Partnership with Teneo, a strategic company that's amazing. +That's really the reason I'm able to do this. +I've had two times in my life where I've actually had men really behind me with power. +And that was in the old days with Philip Morris with Virginia Slims, and this is the second time in my entire life. +And then Deloitte. +The one thing I wanted was data -- facts. +So Deloitte sent out a survey, and over 4,000 people now have answered, and we're continuing in the workplace. +And what do the millennials feel? +Well, they feel a lot, but what they're so fantastic about is -- you know, our generation was like, "Oh, we're going to get representation." +So if you walk into a room, you see everybody represented. +That's not good enough anymore, which is so good! +So the millennials are fantastic; they want connection, engagement. +They just want you to tell us what you're feeling, what you're thinking, and get into the solution. +They're problem-solvers, and of course, you've got the information at your fingertips, compared to when I was growing up. +PM: What did the research show you about millennials? +Are they going to make a difference? +Are they going to create a world where there is really an inclusive work force? +BJK: Well, in 2025, 75 percent of the global workforce is going to be millennials. +I think they are going to help solve problems. +I think they have the wherewithal to do it. +I know they care a lot. +They have big ideas and they can make big things happen. +I want to stay in the now with the young people, I don't want to get behind. +PM: I don't think there's any chance! +But what you found out in the research about millennials is not really the experience that a lot of people have with millennials. +BJK: No, well, if we want to talk -- OK, I've been doing my little mini-survey. +I've been talking to the Boomers, who are their bosses, and I go, "What do you think about the millennials?" +And I'm pretty excited, like it's good, and they get this face -- "Oh, you mean the 'Me' generation?" +I say, "Do you really think so? +Because I do think they care about the environment and all these things." +And they go, "Oh, Billie, they cannot focus." +They actually have proven that the average focus for an 18-year-old is 37 seconds. +They can't focus. +And they don't really care. +I just heard a story the other night: a woman owns a gallery and she has these workers. +She gets a text from one of the workers, like an intern, she's just starting -- she goes, "Oh, by the way, I'm going to be late because I'm at the hairdresser's." +So she arrives, and this boss says, "What's going on?" +And she says, "Oh, I was late, sorry, how's it going?" +She says, "Well, guess what? I'd like you leave, you're finished." +She goes, "OK." +No problem! +PM: Now Billie, that story -- I know, but that's what scares the boomers -- I'm just telling you -- so I think it's good for us to share. +No, it is good for us to share, because we're our authentic selves and what we're really feeling, so we've got to take it both ways, you know? +But I have great faith because -- if you've been in sports like I have -- every generation gets better. +It's a fact. +With the Women's Sports Foundation being the advocates for Title IX still, because we're trying to keep protecting the law, because it's in a tenuous position always, so we really are concerned, and we do a lot of research. +That's very important to us. +And I want to hear from people. +But we really have to protect what Title IX stands for worldwide. +And you heard President Carter talk about how Title IX is protected. +And do you know that every single lawsuit that girls, at least in sports, have gone up against -- whatever institutions -- has won? +Title IX is there to protect us. +And it is amazing. +But we still have to get the hearts and minds -- the hearts and minds to match the legislation is huge. +PM: So what gets you up every morning? +What keeps you sustaining your work, sustaining the fight for equality, extending it, always exploring new areas, trying to find new ways ... ? +BJK: Well, I always drove my parents crazy because I was always the curious one. +I'm highly motivated. +My younger brother was a Major League Baseball player. +My poor parents did not care if we were any good. +And we drove them crazy because we pushed, we pushed because we wanted to be the best. +And I think it's because of what I'm hearing today in TED talks. +I think to listen to these different women, to listen to different people, to listen to President Carter -- 90 years old, by the way, and he we was throwing these figures out that I would never -- I'd have to go, "Excuse me, wait a minute, I need to get a list out of these figures." +He was rattling off -- I mean, that's amazing, I'm sorry. +PM: He's an amazing man. +BJK: And then you're going to have President Mary Robinson, who's a former president -- Thank you, Irish! 62 percent! LGBTQ! Yes! +Congress is voting in June on same-sex marriage, so these are things that for some people are very hard to hear. +But always remember, every one of us is an individual, a human being with a beating heart, who cares and wants to live their authentic life. +OK? You don't have to agree with somebody, but everyone has the opportunity. +I think we all have an obligation to continue to keep moving the needle forward, always. +And these people have been so inspiring. +Everyone matters. +And every one of you is an influencer. +You out there listening, out there in the world, plus the people here -- every single person's an influencer. +Never, ever forget that. OK? +So don't ever give up on yourself. +PM: Billie, you have been an inspiration for us. +BJK: Thanks, Pat! +Thanks, TED! +Thanks a lot! +I'm here to recruit men to support gender equality. +Wait, wait. What? +What do men have to do with gender equality? +Gender equality is about women, right? +I mean, the word gender is about women. +Actually, I'm even here speaking as a middle class white man. +Now, I wasn't always a middle class white man. +It all happened for me about 30 years ago when I was in graduate school, and a bunch of us graduate students got together one day, and we said, you know, there's an explosion of writing and thinking in feminist theory, but there's no courses yet. +So we did what graduate students typically do in a situation like that. +We said, OK, let's have a study group. +We'll read a text, we'll talk about it, we'll have a potluck dinner. +So every week, 11 women and me got together. +We would read some text in feminist theory and have a conversation about it. +And during one of our conversations, I witnessed an interaction that changed my life forever. +It was a conversation between two women. +One of the women was white, and one was black. +And the white woman said -- this is going to sound very anachronistic now -- the white woman said, "All women face the same oppression as women. +All women are similarly situated in patriarchy, and therefore all women have a kind of intuitive solidarity or sisterhood." +And the black woman said, "I'm not so sure. +Let me ask you a question." +So the black woman says to the white woman, "When you wake up in the morning and you look in the mirror, what do you see?" +And the white woman said, "I see a woman." +And the black woman said, "You see, that's the problem for me. +Because when I wake up in the morning and I look in the mirror," she said, "I see a black woman. +To me, race is visible. But to you, race is invisible. You don't see it." +And then she said something really startling. +She said, "That's how privilege works. +Privilege is invisible to those who have it." +It is a luxury, I will say to the white people sitting in this room, not to have to think about race every split second of our lives. +Privilege is invisible to those who have it. +Now remember, I was the only man in this group, so when I witnessed this, I went, "Oh no." +And somebody said, "Well what was that reaction?" +And I said, "Well, when I wake up in the morning and I look in the mirror, I see a human being. +I'm kind of the generic person. +You know, I'm a middle class white man. I have no race, no class, no gender. +I'm universally generalizable." +So I like to think that was the moment I became a middle class white man, that class and race and gender were not about other people, they were about me. +I had to start thinking about them, and it had been privilege that had kept it invisible to me for so long. +Now, I wish I could tell you this story ends 30 years ago in that little discussion group, but I was reminded of it quite recently at my university where I teach. +I have a colleague, and she and I both teach the sociology of gender course on alternate semesters. +So she gives a guest lecture for me when I teach. +I give a guest lecture for her when she teaches. +So I walk into her class to give a guest lecture, about 300 students in the room, and as I walk in, one of the students looks up and says, "Oh, finally, an objective opinion." +All that semester, whenever my colleague opened her mouth, what my students saw was a woman. +I mean, if you were to say to my students, "There is structural inequality based on gender in the United States," they'd say, "Well of course you'd say that. +You're a woman. You're biased." +When I say it, they go, "Wow, is that interesting. +Is that going to be on the test? How do you spell 'structural'?" +So I hope you all can see, this is what objectivity looks like. +Disembodied Western rationality. +And that, by the way, is why I think men so often wear ties. +Because if you are going to embody disembodied Western rationality, you need a signifier, and what could be a better signifier of disembodied Western rationality than a garment that at one end is a noose and the other end points to the genitals? +That is mind-body dualism right there. +So making gender visible to men is the first step to engaging men to support gender equality. +Now, when men first hear about gender equality, when they first start thinking about it, they often think, many men think, well, that's right, that's fair, that's just, that's the ethical imperative. +But not all men. +Some men think -- the lightning bolt goes off, and they go, "Oh my God, yes, gender equality," and they will immediately begin to mansplain to you your oppression. +They see supporting gender equality something akin to the cavalry, like, "Thanks very much for bringing this to our attention, ladies, we'll take it from here." +This results in a syndrome that I like to call 'premature self-congratulation.' There's another group, though, that actively resists gender equality, that sees gender equality as something that is detrimental to men. +I was on a TV talk show opposite four white men. +This is the beginning of the book I wrote, 'Angry White Men.' These were four angry white men who believed that they, white men in America, were the victims of reverse discrimination in the workplace. +And they all told stories about how they were qualified for jobs, qualified for promotions, they didn't get them, they were really angry. +And the reason I'm telling you this is I want you to hear the title of this particular show. +It was a quote from one of the men, and the quote was, "A Black Woman Stole My Job." +And they all told their stories, qualified for jobs, qualified for promotions, didn't get it, really angry. +And then it was my turn to speak, and I said, "I have just one question for you guys, and it's about the title of the show, 'A Black Woman Stole My Job.' Actually, it's about one word in the title. +I want to know about the word 'my.' Where did you get the idea it was your job? +Why isn't the title of the show, 'A Black Woman Got the Job?' or 'A Black Woman Got A Job?'" Because without confronting men's sense of entitlement, I don't think we'll ever understand why so many men resist gender equality. +Look, we think this is a level playing field, so any policy that tilts it even a little bit, we think, "Oh my God, water's rushing uphill. +It's reverse discrimination against us." +So let me be very clear: white men in Europe and the United States are the beneficiaries of the single greatest affirmative action program in the history of the world. +It is called "the history of the world." +So, now I've established some of the obstacles to engaging men, but why should we support gender equality? +Of course, it's fair, it's right and it's just. +But more than that, gender equality is also in our interest as men. +If you listen to what men say about what they want in their lives, gender equality is actually a way for us to get the lives we want to live. +Gender equality is good for countries. +It turns out, according to most studies, that those countries that are the most gender equal are also the countries that score highest on the happiness scale. +And that's not just because they're all in Europe. +Even within Europe, those countries that are more gender equal also have the highest levels of happiness. +It is also good for companies. +Research by Catalyst and others has shown conclusively that the more gender-equal companies are, the better it is for workers, the happier their labor force is. +They have lower job turnover. They have lower levels of attrition. +They have an easier time recruiting. +They have higher rates of retention, higher job satisfaction, higher rates of productivity. +So the question I'm often asked in companies is, "Boy, this gender equality thing, that's really going to be expensive, huh?" +And I say, "Oh no, in fact, what you have to start calculating is how much gender inequality is already costing you. +It is extremely expensive." +So it is good for business. +And the other thing is, it's good for men. +It is good for the kind of lives we want to live, because young men especially have changed enormously, and they want to have lives that are animated by terrific relationships with their children. +They expect their partners, their spouses, their wives, to work outside the home and be just as committed to their careers as they are. +I was talking, to give you an illustration of this change -- Some of you may remember this. +When I was a lot younger, there was a riddle that was posed to us. +Some of you may wince to remember this riddle. +This riddle went something like this. +A man and his son are driving on the freeway, and they're in a terrible accident, and the father is killed, and as they're bringing the son into the hospital emergency room, the emergency room attending physician sees the boy and says, "Oh, I can't treat him, that's my son." +How is this possible? +We were flummoxed by this. +We could not figure this out. +Well, I decided to do a little experiment with my 16-year old son. +He had a bunch of his friends hanging out at the house watching a game on TV recently. +So I decided I would pose this riddle to them, just to see, to gauge the level of change. +Well, 16-year-old boys, they immediately turned to me and said, "It's his mom." Right? +No problem. Just like that. +Except for my son, who said, "Well, he could have two dads." +That's an index, an indicator of how things have changed. +Younger men today expect to be able to balance work and family. +They want to be dual-career, dual-carer couples. +They want to be able to balance work and family with their partners. +They want to be involved fathers. +that the more egalitarian our relationships, the happier both partners are. +Data from psychologists and sociologists are quite persuasive here. +I think we have the persuasive numbers, the data, to prove to men that gender equality is not a zero-sum game, but a win-win. +Here's what the data show. +Now, when men begin the process of engaging with balancing work and family, we often have two phrases that we use to describe what we do. +We pitch in and we help out. +And I'm going to propose something a little bit more radical, one word: "share." +Because here's what the data show: when men share housework and childcare, their children do better in school. +Their children have lower rates of absenteeism, higher rates of achievement. +They are less likely to be diagnosed with ADHD. +They are less likely to see a child psychiatrist. +They are less likely to be put on medication. +So when men share housework and childcare, their children are happier and healthier, and men want this. +When men share housework and childcare, their wives are happier. Duh. +Not only that, their wives are healthier. +Their wives are less likely to see a therapist, less likely to be diagnosed with depression, less likely to be put on medication, more likely to go to the gym, report higher levels of marital satisfaction. +So when men share housework and childcare, their wives are happier and healthier, and men certainly want this as well. +When men share housework and childcare, the men are healthier. +They smoke less, drink less, take recreational drugs less often. +They are less likely to go to the ER but more like to go to a doctor for routine screenings. +They are less likely to see a therapist, less likely to be diagnosed with depression, less likely to be taking prescription medication. +So when men share housework and childcare, the men are happier and healthier. +And who wouldn't want that? +And finally, when men share housework and childcare, they have more sex. +Now, of these four fascinating findings, which one do you think Men's Health magazine put on its cover? +"Housework Makes Her Horny. +(Not When She Does It.)" just to remind the men in the audience, these data were collected over a really long period of time, so I don't want listeners to say, "Hmm, OK, I think I'll do the dishes tonight." +These data were collected over a really long period of time. +But I think it shows something important, that when Men's Health magazine put it on their cover, they also called, you'll love this, "Choreplay." +So, what we found is something really important, that gender equality is in the interest of countries, of companies, and of men, and their children and their partners, that gender equality is not a zero-sum game. +It's not a win-lose. +It is a win-win for everyone. +And what we also know is we cannot fully empower women and girls unless we engage boys and men. +We know this. +And my position is that men need the very things that women have identified that they need to live the lives they say they want to live in order to live the lives that we say we want to live. +In 1915, on the eve of one of the great suffrage demonstrations down Fifth Avenue in New York City, a writer in New York wrote an article in a magazine, and the title of the article was, "Feminism for Men." +And this was the first line of that article: "Feminism will make it possible for the first time for men to be free." +Thank you. +A question I'm often asked is, where did I get my passion for human rights and justice? +It started early. +I grew up in the west of Ireland, wedged between four brothers, two older than me and two younger than me. +So of course I had to be interested in human rights, and equality and justice, and using my elbows! +And those issues stayed with me and guided me, and in particular, when I was elected the first woman President of Ireland, from 1990 to 1997. +I dedicated my presidency to having a space for those who felt marginalized on the island of Ireland, and bringing together communities from Northern Ireland with those from the Republic, trying to build peace. +And I went as the first Irish president to the United Kingdom and met with Queen Elizabeth II, and also welcomed to my official residence -- which we call "ras an Uachtarin," the house of the president -- members of the royal family, including, notably, the Prince of Wales. +And I was aware that at the time of my presidency, Ireland was a country beginning a rapid economic progress. +We were a country that was benefiting from the solidarity of the European Union. +Indeed, when Ireland first joined the European Union in 1973, there were parts of the country that were considered developing, including my own beloved native county, County Mayo. +I led trade delegations here to the United States, to Japan, to India, to encourage investment, to help to create jobs, to build up our economy, to build up our health system, our education -- our development. +What I didn't have to do as president was buy land on mainland Europe, so that Irish citizens could go there because our island was going underwater. +What I didn't have to think about, either as president or as a constitutional lawyer, was the implications for the sovereignty of the territory because of the impact of climate change. +But that is what President Tong, of the Republic of Kiribati, has to wake up every morning thinking about. +He has bought land in Fiji as an insurance policy, what he calls, "migration with dignity," because he knows that his people may have to leave their islands. +As I listened to President Tong describing the situation, I really felt that this was a problem that no leader should have to face. +And as I heard him speak about the pain of his problems, I thought about Eleanor Roosevelt. +I thought about her and those who worked with her on the Commission on Human Rights, which she chaired in 1948, and drew up the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. +For them, it would have been unimaginable that a whole country could go out of existence because of human-induced climate change. +I came to climate change not as a scientist or an environmental lawyer, and I wasn't really impressed by the images of polar bears or melting glaciers. +It was because of the impact on people, and the impact on their rights -- their rights to food and safe water, health, education and shelter. +And I say this with humility, because I came late to the issue of climate change. +When I served as UN High Commissioner for Human Rights from 1997 to 2002, climate change wasn't at the front of my mind. +I don't remember making a single speech on climate change. +I knew that there was another part of the United Nations -- the UN Convention on Climate Change -- that was dealing with the issue of climate change. +It was later when I started to work in African countries on issues of development and human rights. +And I kept hearing this pervasive sentence: "Oh, but things are so much worse now, things are so much worse." +And then I explored what was behind that; it was about changes in the climate -- climate shocks, changes in the weather. +But, in recent years, at the time of this conversation, they had nothing but long periods of drought, and then flash flooding, and then more drought. +The school had been destroyed, livelihoods had been destroyed, their harvest had been destroyed. +She forms this women's group to try to keep her community together. +And this was a reality that really struck me, because of course, Constance Okollet wasn't responsible for the greenhouse gas emissions that were causing this problem. +Indeed, I was very struck about the situation in Malawi in January of this year. +There was an unprecedented flooding in the country, it covered about a third of the country, over 300 people were killed, and hundreds of thousands lost their livelihoods. +And the average person in Malawi emits about 80 kg of CO2 a year. +The average US citizen emits about 17.5 metric tons. +So those who are suffering disproportionately don't drive cars, don't have electricity, don't consume very significantly, and yet they are feeling more and more the impacts of the changes in the climate, the changes that are preventing them from knowing how to grow food properly, and knowing how to look after their future. +I think it was really the importance of the injustice that really struck me very forcibly. +And I know that we're not able to address some of that injustice because we're not on course for a safe world. +Governments around the world agreed at the conference in Copenhagen, and have repeated it at every conference on climate, that we have to stay below two degrees Celsius of warming above pre-Industrial standards. +But we're on course for about four degrees. +So we face an existential threat to the future of our planet. +And that made me realize that climate change is the greatest threat to human rights in the 21st century. +And that brought me then to climate justice. +Climate justice responds to the moral argument -- both sides of the moral argument -- to address climate change. +First of all, to be on the side of those who are suffering most and are most effected. +And secondly, to make sure that they're not left behind again, when we start to move and start to address climate change with climate action, as we are doing. +In our very unequal world today, it's very striking how many people are left behind. +In our world of 7.2 billion people, about 3 billion are left behind. +1.3 billion don't have access to electricity, and they light their homes with kerosene and candles, both of which are dangerous. +And in fact they spend a lot of their tiny income on that form of lighting. +2.6 billion people cook on open fires -- on coal, wood and animal dung. +And this causes about 4 million deaths a year from indoor smoke inhalation, and of course, most of those who die are women. +So we have a very unequal world, and we need to change from "business as usual." +And we shouldn't underestimate the scale and the transformative nature of the change which will be needed, because we have to go to zero carbon emissions by about 2050, if we're going to stay below two degrees Celsius of warming. +And that means we have to leave about two-thirds of the known resources of fossil fuels in the ground. +It's a very big change, and it means that obviously, industrialized countries must cut their emissions, must become much more energy-efficient, and must move as quickly as possible to renewable energy. +For developing countries and emerging economies, the problem and the challenge is to grow without emissions, because they must develop; they have very poor populations. +So they must develop without emissions, and that is a different kind of problem. +Indeed, no country in the world has actually grown without emissions. +All the countries have developed with fossil fuels, and then may be moving to renewable energy. +So it is a very big challenge, and it requires the total support of the international community, with the necessary finance and technology, and systems and support, because no country can make itself safe from the dangers of climate change. +This is an issue that requires complete human solidarity. +Human solidarity, if you like, based on self-interest -- because we are all in this together, and we have to work together to ensure that we reach zero carbon by 2050. +The good news is that change is happening, and it's happening very fast. +Here in California, there's a very ambitious emissions target to cut emissions. +In Hawaii, they're passing legislation to have 100 percent renewable energy by 2045. +And governments are very ambitious around the world. +In Costa Rica, they have committed to being carbon-neutral by 2021. +In Ethiopia, the commitment is to be carbon-neutral by 2027. +Apple have pledged that their factories in China will use renewable energy. +And there is a race on at the moment to convert electricity from tidal and wave power, in order that we can leave the coal in the ground. +And that change is both welcome and is happening very rapidly. +But it's still not enough, and the political will is still not enough. +Let me come back to President Tong and his people in Kiribati. +They actually could be able to live on their island and have a solution, but it would take a lot of political will. +President Tong told me about his ambitious idea to either build up or even float the little islands where his people live. +This, of course, is beyond the resources of Kiribati itself. +It would require great solidarity and support from other countries, and it would require the kind of imaginative idea that we bring together when we want to have a space station in the air. +But wouldn't it be wonderful to have this engineering wonder and to allow a people to remain in their sovereign territory, and be part of the community of nations? +That is the kind of idea that we should be thinking about. +Yes, the challenges of the transformation we need are big, but they can be solved. +We are actually, as a people, very capable of coming together to solve problems. +I was very conscious of this as I took part this year in commemoration of the 70th anniversary of the end of the Second World War in 1945. +1945 was an extraordinary year. +It was a year when the world faced what must have seemed almost insoluble problems -- the devastation of the world wars, particularly the Second World War; the fragile peace that had been brought about; the need for a whole economic regeneration. +But the leaders of that time didn't flinch from this. +They had the capacity, they had a sense of being driven by never again must the world have this kind of problem. +And they had to build structures for peace and security. +And what did we get? What did they achieve? +The Charter of the United Nations, the Bretton Woods institutions, as they're called, The World Bank, and the International Monetary Fund. +A Marshall Plan for Europe, a devastated Europe, to reconstruct it. +And indeed a few years later, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. +2015 is a year that is similar in its importance to 1945, with similar challenges and similar potential. +There will be two big summits this year: the first one, in September in New York, is the summit for the sustainable development goals. +And then the summit in Paris in December, to give us a climate agreement. +The sustainable development goals are intended to help countries to live sustainably, in tune with Mother Earth, not to take out of Mother Earth and destroy ecosystems, but rather, to live in harmony with Mother Earth, by living under sustainable development. +And the sustainable development goals will come into operation for all countries on January 1, 2016. +The climate agreement -- a binding climate agreement -- is needed because of the scientific evidence that we're on a trajectory for about a four-degree world and we have to change course to stay below two degrees. +So we need to take steps that will be monitored and reviewed, so that we can keep increasing the ambition of how we cut emissions, and how we move more rapidly to renewable energy, so that we have a safe world. +The reality is that this issue is much too important to be left to politicians and to the United Nations. +It's an issue for all of us, and it's an issue where we need more and more momentum. +Indeed, the face of the environmentalist has changed, because of the justice dimension. +It's now an issue for faith-based organizations, under very good leadership from Pope Francis, and indeed, the Church of England, which is divesting from fossil fuels. +It's an issue for the business community, and the good news is that the business community is changing very rapidly -- except for the fossil fuel industries -- Even they are beginning to slightly change their language -- but only slightly. +But business is not only moving rapidly to the benefits of renewable energy, but is urging politicians to give them more signals, so that they can move even more rapidly. +It's an issue for the trade union movement. +It's an issue for the women's movement. +It's an issue for young people. +I was very struck when I learned that Jibreel Khazan, one of the Greensboro Four who had taken part in the Woolworth sit-ins, said quite recently that climate change is the lunch counter moment for young people. +So, lunch counter moment for young people of the 21st century -- the sort of real human rights issue of the 21st century, because he said it is the greatest challenge to humanity and justice in our world. +I recall very much the Climate March last September, and that was a huge momentum, not just in New York, but all around the world. +and we have to build on that. +That's what I felt. +And I have five grandchildren now, I feel very happy as an Irish grandmother to have five grandchildren, and I think about their world, and what it will be like when they will share that world with about 9 billion other people in 2050. +No one is left behind. +And just as we've been looking back this year -- in 2015 to 1945, looking back 70 years -- I would like to think that they will look back, that world will look back 35 years from 2050, 35 years to 2015, and that they will say, "Weren't they good to do what they did in 2015? +We really appreciate that they took the decisions that made a difference, and that put the world on the right pathway, and we benefit now from that pathway," that they will feel that somehow we took our responsibilities, we did what was done in 1945 in similar terms, we didn't miss the opportunity, we lived up to our responsibilities. +That's what this year is about. +And somehow for me, it's captured in words of somebody that I admired very much. +She was a mentor of mine, she was a friend, she died much too young, she was an extraordinary personality, a great champion of the environment: Wangari Maathai. +Wangari said once, "In the course of history, there comes a time when humanity is called upon to shift to a new level of consciousness, to reach a higher moral ground." +And that's what we have to do. +We have to reach a new level of consciousness, a higher moral ground. +And we have to do it this year in those two big summits. +And that won't happen unless we have the momentum from people around the world who say: "We want action now, we want to change course, we want a safe world, a safe world for future generations, a safe world for our children and our grandchildren, and we're all in this together." +Thank you. +Last year, I went on my first book tour. +In 13 months, I flew to 14 countries and gave some hundred talks. +Every talk in every country began with an introduction, and every introduction began, alas, with a lie: "Taiye Selasi comes from Ghana and Nigeria," or "Taiye Selasi comes from England and the States." +Whenever I heard this opening sentence, no matter the country that concluded it -- England, America, Ghana, Nigeria -- I thought, "But that's not true." +Yes, I was born in England and grew up in the United States. +My mum, born in England, and raised in Nigeria, currently lives in Ghana. +My father was born in Gold Coast, a British colony, raised in Ghana, and has lived for over 30 years in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. +For this reason, my introducers also called me "multinational." +"But Nike is multinational," I thought, "I'm a human being." +Then, one fine day, mid-tour, I went to Louisiana, a museum in Denmark where I shared the stage with the writer Colum McCann. +We were discussing the role of locality in writing, when suddenly it hit me. +I'm not multinational. +I'm not a national at all. +How could I come from a nation? +How can a human being come from a concept? +It's a question that had been bothering me for going on two decades. +From newspapers, textbooks, conversations, I had learned to speak of countries as if they were eternal, singular, naturally occurring things, but I wondered: to say that I came from a country suggested that the country was an absolute, some fixed point in place in time, a constant thing, but was it? +In my lifetime, countries had disappeared -- Czechoslovakia; appeared -- Timor-Leste; failed -- Somalia. +My parents came from countries that didn't exist when they were born. +To me, a country -- this thing that could be born, die, expand, contract -- hardly seemed the basis for understanding a human being. +And so it came as a huge relief to discover the sovereign state. +What we call countries are actually various expressions of sovereign statehood, an idea that came into fashion only 400 years ago. +When I learned this, beginning my masters degree in international relations, I felt a sort of surge of relief. +It was as I had suspected. +History was real, cultures were real, but countries were invented. +For the next 10 years, I sought to re- or un-define myself, my world, my work, my experience, beyond the logic of the state. +In 2005, I wrote an essay, "What is an Afropolitan," sketching out an identity that privileged culture over country. +It was thrilling how many people could relate to my experience, and instructional how many others didn't buy my sense of self. +"How can Selasi claim to come from Ghana," one such critic asked, "when she's never known the indignities of traveling abroad on a Ghanian passport?" +Now, if I'm honest, I knew just what she meant. +I've got a friend named Layla who was born and raised in Ghana. +Her parents are third-generation Ghanians of Lebanese descent. +Layla, who speaks fluent Twi, knows Accra like the back of her hand, but when we first met years ago, I thought, "She's not from Ghana." +In my mind, she came from Lebanon, despite the patent fact that all her formative experience took place in suburban Accra. +I, like my critics, was imagining some Ghana where all Ghanaians had brown skin or none held U.K. passports. +I'd fallen into the limiting trap that the language of coming from countries sets -- the privileging of a fiction, the singular country, over reality: human experience. +Speaking with Colum McCann that day, the penny finally dropped. +"All experience is local," he said. +"All identity is experience," I thought. +"I'm not a national," I proclaimed onstage. +"I'm a local. I'm multi-local." +See, "Taiye Selasi comes from the United States," isn't the truth. +I have no relationship with the United States, all 50 of them, not really. +My relationship is with Brookline, the town where I grew up; with New York City, where I started work; with Lawrenceville, where I spend Thanksgiving. +What makes America home for me is not my passport or accent, but these very particular experiences and the places they occur. +Despite my pride in Ewe culture, the Black Stars, and my love of Ghanaian food, I've never had a relationship with the Republic of Ghana, writ large. +My relationship is with Accra, where my mother lives, where I go each year, with the little garden in Dzorwulu where my father and I talk for hours. +These are the places that shape my experience. +My experience is where I'm from. +What if we asked, instead of "Where are you from?" -- "Where are you a local?" +This would tell us so much more about who and how similar we are. +Tell me you're from France, and I see what, a set of clichs? +Adichie's dangerous single story, the myth of the nation of France? +Tell me you're a local of Fez and Paris, better yet, Goutte d'Or, and I see a set of experiences. +Our experience is where we're from. +So, where are you a local? +I propose a three-step test. +I call these the three "Rs": rituals, relationships, restrictions. +First, think of your daily rituals, whatever they may be: making your coffee, driving to work, harvesting your crops, saying your prayers. +What kind of rituals are these? +Where do they occur? +In what city or cities in the world do shopkeepers know your face? +As a child, I carried out fairly standard suburban rituals in Boston, with adjustments made for the rituals my mother brought from London and Lagos. +We took off our shoes in the house, we were unfailingly polite with our elders, we ate slow-cooked, spicy food. +In snowy North America, ours were rituals of the global South. +The first time I went to Delhi or to southern parts of Italy, I was shocked by how at home I felt. +The rituals were familiar. +"R" number one, rituals. +Now, think of your relationships, of the people who shape your days. +To whom do you speak at least once a week, be it face to face or on FaceTime? +Be reasonable in your assessment; I'm not talking about your Facebook friends. +I'm speaking of the people who shape your weekly emotional experience. +My mother in Accra, my twin sister in Boston, my best friends in New York: these relationships are home for me. +"R" number two, relationships. +We're local where we carry out our rituals and relationships, but how we experience our locality depends in part on our restrictions. +By restrictions, I mean, where are you able to live? +What passport do you hold? +Are you restricted by, say, racism, from feeling fully at home where you live? +By civil war, dysfunctional governance, economic inflation, from living in the locality where you had your rituals as a child? +This is the least sexy of the Rs, less lyric than rituals and relationships, but the question takes us past "Where are you now?" +to "Why aren't you there, and why?" +Rituals, relationships, restrictions. +Take a piece of paper and put those three words on top of three columns, then try to fill those columns as honestly as you can. +A very different picture of your life in local context, of your identity as a set of experiences, may emerge. +So let's try it. +I have a friend named Olu. +He's 35 years old. +His parents, born in Nigeria, came to Germany on scholarships. +Olu was born in Nuremberg and lived there until age 10. +When his family moved to Lagos, he studied in London, then came to Berlin. +He loves going to Nigeria -- the weather, the food, the friends -- but hates the political corruption there. +Where is Olu from? +I have another friend named Udo. +He's also 35 years old. +Udo was born in Crdoba, in northwest Argentina, where his grandparents migrated from Germany, what is now Poland, after the war. +Udo studied in Buenos Aires, and nine years ago came to Berlin. +He loves going to Argentina -- the weather, the food, the friends -- but hates the economic corruption there. +Where is Udo from? +With his blonde hair and blue eyes, Udo could pass for German, but holds an Argentinian passport, so needs a visa to live in Berlin. +That Udo is from Argentina has largely to do with history. +That he's a local of Buenos Aires and Berlin, that has to do with life. +Olu, who looks Nigerian, needs a visa to visit Nigeria. +He speaks Yoruba with an English accent, and English with a German one. +To claim that he's "not really Nigerian," though, denies his experience in Lagos, the rituals he practiced growing up, his relationship with family and friends. +Meanwhile, though Lagos is undoubtedly one of his homes, Olu always feels restricted there, not least by the fact that he's gay. +Both he and Udo are restricted by the political conditions of their parents' countries, from living where some of their most meaningful rituals and relationships occur. +To say Olu is from Nigeria and Udo is from Argentina distracts from their common experience. +Their rituals, their relationships, and their restrictions are the same. +Of course, when we ask, "Where are you from?" +we're using a kind of shorthand. +It's quicker to say "Nigeria" than "Lagos and Berlin," and as with Google Maps, we can always zoom in closer, from country to city to neighborhood. +But that's not quite the point. +The difference between "Where are you from?" +and "Where are you a local?" +isn't the specificity of the answer; it's the intention of the question. +Replacing the language of nationality with the language of locality asks us to shift our focus to where real life occurs. +Even that most glorious expression of countryhood, the World Cup, gives us national teams comprised mostly of multilocal players. +As a unit of measurement for human experience, the country doesn't quite work. +That's why Olu says, "I'm German, but my parents come from Nigeria." +The "but" in that sentence belies the inflexibility of the units, one fixed and fictional entity bumping up against another. +"I'm a local of Lagos and Berlin," suggests overlapping experiences, layers that merge together, that can't be denied or removed. +You can take away my passport, but you can't take away my experience. +That I carry within me. +Where I'm from comes wherever I go. +To be clear, I'm not suggesting that we do away with countries. +There's much to be said for national history, more for the sovereign state. +Culture exists in community, and community exists in context. +Geography, tradition, collective memory: these things are important. +What I'm questioning is primacy. +All of those introductions on tour began with reference to nation, as if knowing what country I came from would tell my audience who I was. +What are we really seeking, though, when we ask where someone comes from? +And what are we really seeing when we hear an answer? +Here's one possibility: basically, countries represent power. +"Where are you from?" Mexico. Poland. Bangladesh. Less power. +America. Germany. Japan. More power. +China. Russia. Ambiguous. +It's possible that without realizing it, we're playing a power game, especially in the context of multi-ethnic countries. +As any recent immigrant knows, the question "Where are you from?" or "Where are you really from?" +is often code for "Why are you here?" +Then we have the scholar William Deresiewicz's writing of elite American colleges. +"Students think that their environment is diverse if one comes from Missouri and another from Pakistan -- never mind that all of their parents are doctors or bankers." +I'm with him. +To call one student American, another Pakistani, then triumphantly claim student body diversity ignores the fact that these students are locals of the same milieu. +The same holds true on the other end of the economic spectrum. +A Mexican gardener in Los Angeles and a Nepali housekeeper in Delhi have more in common in terms of rituals and restrictions than nationality implies. +Perhaps my biggest problem with coming from countries is the myth of going back to them. +I'm often asked if I plan to "go back" to Ghana. +I go to Accra every year, but I can't "go back" to Ghana. +It's not because I wasn't born there. +My father can't go back, either. +The country in which he was born, that country no longer exists. +We can never go back to a place and find it exactly where we left it. +Something, somewhere will always have changed, most of all, ourselves. +People. +Finally, what we're talking about is human experience, this notoriously and gloriously disorderly affair. +In creative writing, locality bespeaks humanity. +The more we know about where a story is set, the more local color and texture, the more human the characters start to feel, the more relatable, not less. +The myth of national identity and the vocabulary of coming from confuses us into placing ourselves into mutually exclusive categories. +In fact, all of us are multi -- multi-local, multi-layered. +To begin our conversations with an acknowledgement of this complexity brings us closer together, I think, not further apart. +So the next time that I'm introduced, I'd love to hear the truth: "Taiye Selasi is a human being, like everybody here. +She isn't a citizen of the world, but a citizen of worlds. +She is a local of New York, Rome and Accra." +Thank you. +So I've had the great privilege of traveling to some incredible places, photographing these distant landscapes and remote cultures all over the world. +I love my job. +But people think it's this string of epiphanies and sunrises and rainbows, when in reality, it looks more something like this. +This is my office. +We can't afford the fanciest places to stay at night, so we tend to sleep a lot outdoors. +As long as we can stay dry, that's a bonus. +We also can't afford the fanciest restaurants. +So we tend to eat whatever's on the local menu. +And if you're in the Ecuadorian Pramo, you're going to eat a large rodent called a cuy. +And why is storytelling important? +Well, it helps us to connect with our cultural and our natural heritage. +And in the Southeast, there's an alarming disconnect between the public and the natural areas that allow us to be here in the first place. +We're visual creatures, so we use what we see to teach us what we know. +Now the majority of us aren't going to willingly go way down to a swamp. +So how can we still expect those same people to then advocate on behalf of their protection? +We can't. +So my job, then, is to use photography as a communication tool, to help bridge the gap between the science and the aesthetics, to get people talking, to get them thinking, and to hopefully, ultimately, get them caring. +I started doing this 15 years ago right here in Gainesville, right here in my backyard. +And I fell in love with adventure and discovery, going to explore all these different places that were just minutes from my front doorstep. +There are a lot of beautiful places to find. +Despite all these years that have passed, I still see the world through the eyes of a child and I try to incorporate that sense of wonderment and that sense of curiosity into my photography as often as I can. +And we're pretty lucky because here in the South, we're still blessed with a relatively blank canvas that we can fill with the most fanciful adventures and incredible experiences. +It's just a matter of how far our imagination will take us. +See, a lot of people look at this and they say, "Oh yeah, wow, that's a pretty tree." +But I don't just see a tree -- I look at this and I see opportunity. +I see an entire weekend. +Because when I was a kid, these were the types of images that got me off the sofa and dared me to explore, dared me to go find the woods and put my head underwater and see what we have. +And folks, I've been photographing all over the world and I promise you, what we have here in the South, what we have in the Sunshine State, rivals anything else that I've seen. +But yet our tourism industry is busy promoting all the wrong things. +Before most kids are 12, they'll have been to Disney World more times than they've been in a canoe or camping under a starry sky. +And I have nothing against Disney or Mickey; I used to go there, too. +But they're missing out on those fundamental connections that create a real sense of pride and ownership for the place that they call home. +And this is compounded by the issue that the landscapes that define our natural heritage and fuel our aquifer for our drinking water have been deemed as scary and dangerous and spooky. +When our ancestors first came here, they warned, "Stay out of these areas, they're haunted. +They're full of evil spirits and ghosts." +I don't know where they came up with that idea. +But it's actually led to a very real disconnect, a very real negative mentality that has kept the public disinterested, silent, and ultimately, our environment at risk. +We're a state that's surrounded and defined by water, and yet for centuries, swamps and wetlands have been regarded as these obstacles to overcome. +And so we've treated them as these second-class ecosystems, because they have very little monetary value and of course, they're known to harbor alligators and snakes -- which, I'll admit, these aren't the most cuddly of ambassadors. +So it became assumed, then, that the only good swamp was a drained swamp. +And in fact, draining a swamp to make way for agriculture and development was considered the very essence of conservation not too long ago. +But now we're backpedaling, because the more we come to learn about these sodden landscapes, the more secrets we're starting to unlock about interspecies relationships and the connectivity of habitats, watersheds and flyways. +Take this bird, for example: this is the prothonotary warbler. +I love this bird because it's a swamp bird, through and through, a swamp bird. +They nest and they mate and they breed in these old-growth swamps in these flooded forests. +And so after the spring, after they raise their young, they then fly thousand of miles over the Gulf of Mexico into Central and South America. +And then after the winter, the spring rolls around and they come back. +They fly thousands of miles over the Gulf of Mexico. +And where do they go? Where do they land? +Right back in the same tree. +That's nuts. +This is a bird the size of a tennis ball -- I mean, that's crazy! +I used a GPS to get here today, and this is my hometown. +It's crazy. +So what happens, then, when this bird flies over the Gulf of Mexico into Central America for the winter and then the spring rolls around and it flies back, and it comes back to this: a freshly sodded golf course? +This is a narrative that's all too commonly unraveling here in this state. +And this is a natural process that's occurred for thousands of years and we're just now learning about it. +So you can imagine all else we have to learn about these landscapes if we just preserve them first. +Now despite all this rich life that abounds in these swamps, they still have a bad name. +Many people feel uncomfortable with the idea of wading into Florida's blackwater. +I can understand that. +But what I loved about growing up in the Sunshine State is that for so many of us, we live with this latent but very palpable fear that when we put our toes into the water, there might be something much more ancient and much more adapted than we are. +Knowing that you're not top dog is a welcomed discomfort, I think. +How often in this modern and urban and digital age do you actually get the chance to feel vulnerable, or consider that the world may not have been made for just us? +So for the last decade, I began seeking out these areas where the concrete yields to forest and the pines turn to cypress, and I viewed all these mosquitoes and reptiles, all these discomforts, as affirmations that I'd found true wilderness, and I embrace them wholly. +Now as a conservation photographer obsessed with blackwater, it's only fitting that I'd eventually end up in the most famous swamp of all: the Everglades. +Growing up here in North Central Florida, it always had these enchanted names, places like Loxahatchee and Fakahatchee, Corkscrew, Big Cypress. +I started what turned into a five-year project to hopefully reintroduce the Everglades in a new light, in a more inspired light. +But I knew this would be a tall order, because here you have an area that's roughly a third the size the state of Florida, it's huge. +And when I say Everglades, most people are like, "Oh, yeah, the national park." +So sure, the national park is the southern end of this system, but all the things that make it unique are these inputs that come in, the fresh water that starts 100 miles north. +So no manner of these political or invisible boundaries protect the park from polluted water or insufficient water. +And unfortunately, that's precisely what we've done. +Over the last 60 years, we have drained, we have dammed, we have dredged the Everglades to where now only one third of the water that used to reach the bay now reaches the bay today. +So this story is not all sunshine and rainbows, unfortunately. +For better or for worse, the story of the Everglades is intrinsically tied to the peaks and the valleys of mankind's relationship with the natural world. +But I'll show you these beautiful pictures, because it gets you on board. +And while I have your attention, I can tell you the real story. +It's that we're taking this, and we're trading it for this, at an alarming rate. +And what's lost on so many people is the sheer scale of which we're discussing. +Because the Everglades is not just responsible for the drinking water for 7 million Floridians; today it also provides the agricultural fields for the year-round tomatoes and oranges for over 300 million Americans. +And it's that same seasonal pulse of water in the summer that built the river of grass 6,000 years ago. +Ironically, today, it's also responsible for the over half a million acres of the endless river of sugarcane. +These are the same fields that are responsible for dumping exceedingly high levels of fertilizers into the watershed, forever changing the system. +But in order for you to not just understand how this system works, but to also get personally connected to it, I decided to break the story down into several different narratives. +And I wanted that story to start in Lake Okeechobee, the beating heart of the Everglade system. +And to do that, I picked an ambassador, an iconic species. +This is the Everglade snail kite. +It's a great bird, and they used to nest in the thousands, thousands in the northern Everglades. +And then they've gone down to about 400 nesting pairs today. +And why is that? +Well, it's because they eat one source of food, an apple snail, about the size of a ping-pong ball, an aquatic gastropod. +So as we started damming up the Everglades, as we started diking Lake Okeechobee and draining the wetlands, we lost the habitat for the snail. +And thus, the population of the kites declined. +And so, I wanted a photo that would not only communicate this relationship between wetland, snail and bird, but I also wanted a photo that would communicate how incredible this relationship was, and how very important it is that they've come to depend on each other, this healthy wetland and this bird. +And to do that, I brainstormed this idea. +I started sketching out these plans to make a photo, and I sent it to the wildlife biologist down in Okeechobee -- this is an endangered bird, so it takes special permission to do. +So I built this submerged platform that would hold snails just right under the water. +And I spent months planning this crazy idea. +And I took this platform down to Lake Okeechobee and I spent over a week in the water, to get one image that I thought might communicate this. +And here's the day that it finally worked: [Video: (Mac Stone narrating) After setting up the platform, I look off and I see a kite coming over the cattails. +And I see him scanning and searching. +And he gets right over the trap, and I see that he's seen it. +And he beelines, he goes straight for the trap. +And in that moment, all those months of planning, waiting, all the sunburn, mosquito bites -- suddenly, they're all worth it. +(Mac Stone in film) Oh my gosh, I can't believe it!] You can believe how excited I was when that happened. +But what the idea was, is that for someone who's never seen this bird and has no reason to care about it, these photos, these new perspectives, will help shed a little new light on just one species that makes this watershed so incredible, so valuable, so important. +Now, I know I can't come here to Gainesville and talk to you about animals in the Everglades without talking about gators. +I love gators, I grew up loving gators. +My parents always said I had an unhealthy relationship with gators. +But what I like about them is, they're like the freshwater equivalent of sharks. +They're feared, they're hated, and they are tragically misunderstood. +Because these are a unique species, they're not just apex predators. +In the Everglades, they are the very architects of the Everglades, because as the water drops down in the winter during the dry season, they start excavating these holes called gator holes. +And they do this because as the water drops down, they'll be able to stay wet and they'll be able to forage. +And now this isn't just affecting them, other animals also depend on this relationship, so they become a keystone species as well. +So how do you make an apex predator, an ancient reptile, at once look like it dominates the system, but at the same time, look vulnerable? +Well, you wade into a pit of about 120 of them, then you hope that you've made the right decision. +I still have all my fingers, it's cool. +But I understand, I know I'm not going to rally you guys, I'm not going to rally the troops to "Save the Everglades for the gators!" +It won't happen because they're so ubiquitous, we see them now, they're one of the great conservation success stories of the US. +But there is one species in the Everglades that no matter who you are, you can't help but love, too, and that's the roseate spoonbill. +These birds are great, but they've had a really tough time in the Everglades, because they started out with thousands of nesting pairs in Florida Bay, and at the turn of the 20th century, they got down to two -- two nesting pairs. +And why? +That's because women thought they looked better on their hats then they did flying in the sky. +Then we banned the plume trade, and their numbers started rebounding. +And as their numbers started rebounding, scientists began to pay attention, they started studying these birds. +And what they found out is that these birds' behavior is intrinsically tied to the annual draw-down cycle of water in the Everglades, the thing that defines the Everglades watershed. +What they found out is that these birds started nesting in the winter as the water drew down, because they're tactile feeders, so they have to touch whatever they eat. +And so they wait for these concentrated pools of fish to be able to feed enough to feed their young. +So these birds became the very icon of the Everglades -- an indicator species of the overall health of the system. +And just as their numbers were rebounding in the mid-20th century -- shooting up to 900, 1,000, 1,100, 1,200 -- just as that started happening, we started draining the southern Everglades. +And we stopped two-thirds of that water from moving south. +And it had drastic consequences. +And just as those numbers started reaching their peak, unfortunately, today, the real spoonbill story, the real photo of what it looks like is more something like this. +And we're down to less than 70 nesting pairs in Florida Bay today, because we've disrupted the system so much. +So all these different organizations are shouting, they're screaming, "The Everglades is fragile! It's fragile!" +It is not. +It is resilient. +Because despite all we've taken, despite all we've done and we've drained and we've dammed and we've dredged it, pieces of it are still here, waiting to be put back together. +And this is what I've loved about South Florida, that in one place, you have this unstoppable force of mankind meeting the immovable object of tropical nature. +And it's at this new frontier that we are forced with a new appraisal. +What is wilderness worth? +What is the value of biodiversity, or our drinking water? +And fortunately, after decades of debate, we're finally starting to act on those questions. +We're slowly undertaking these projects to bring more freshwater back to the bay. +But it's up to us as citizens, as residents, as stewards to hold our elected officials to their promises. +What can you do to help? +It's so easy. +Just get outside, get out there. +Take your friends out, take your kids out, take your family out. +Hire a fishing guide. +Show the state that protecting wilderness not only makes ecological sense, but economic sense as well. +It's a lot of fun, just do it -- put your feet in the water. +The swamp will change you, I promise. +Over the years, we've been so generous with these other landscapes around the country, cloaking them with this American pride, places that we now consider to define us: Grand Canyon, Yosemite, Yellowstone. +And we use these parks and these natural areas as beacons and as cultural compasses. +And sadly, the Everglades is very commonly left out of that conversation. +But I believe it's every bit as iconic and emblematic of who we are as a country as any of these other wildernesses. +It's just a different kind of wild. +But I'm encouraged, because maybe we're finally starting to come around, because what was once deemed this swampy wasteland, today is a World Heritage site. +It's a wetland of international importance. +And we've come a long way in the last 60 years. +And as the world's largest and most ambitious wetland restoration project, the international spotlight is on us in the Sunshine State. +Because if we can heal this system, it's going to become an icon for wetland restoration all over the world. +But it's up to us to decide which legacy we want to attach our flag to. +They say that the Everglades is our greatest test. +If we pass it, we get to keep the planet. +I love that quote, because it's a challenge, it's a prod. +Can we do it? Will we do it? +We have to, we must. +But the Everglades is not just a test. +It's also a gift, and ultimately, our responsibility. +Thank you. +For the last year, everyone's been watching the same show, and I'm not talking about "Game of Thrones," but a horrifying, real-life drama that's proved too fascinating to turn off. +It's a show produced by murderers and shared around the world via the Internet. +Their names have become familiar: James Foley, Steven Sotloff, David Haines, Alan Henning, Peter Kassig, Haruna Yukawa, Kenji Goto Jogo. +Their beheadings by the Islamic State were barbaric, but if we think they were archaic, from a remote, obscure age, then we're wrong. +They were uniquely modern, because the murderers acted knowing well that millions of people would tune in to watch. +The headlines called them savages and barbarians, because the image of one man overpowering another, killing him with a knife to the throat, conforms to our idea of ancient, primitive practices, the polar opposite of our urban, civilized ways. +We don't do things like that. +But that's the irony. +We think a beheading has nothing to do with us, even as we click on the screen to watch. +But it is to do with us. +The Islamic State beheadings are not ancient or remote. +They're a global, 21st century event, a 21st century event that takes place in our living rooms, at our desks, on our computer screens. +They're entirely dependent on the power of technology to connect us. +And whether we like it or not, everyone who watches is a part of the show. +And lots of people watch. +We don't know exactly how many. +Obviously, it's difficult to calculate. +But a poll taken in the UK, for example, in August 2014, estimated that 1.2 million people had watched the beheading of James Foley in the few days after it was released. +And that's just the first few days, and just Britain. +A similar poll taken in the United States in November 2014 found that nine percent of those surveyed had watched beheading videos, and a further 23 percent had watched the videos but had stopped just before the death was shown. +Nine percent may be a small minority of all the people who could watch, but it's still a very large crowd. +And of course that crowd is growing all the time, because every week, every month, more people will keep downloading and keep watching. +If we go back 11 years, before sites like YouTube and Facebook were born, it was a similar story. +When innocent civilians like Daniel Pearl, Nick Berg, Paul Johnson, were beheaded, those videos were shown during the Iraq War. +Nick Berg's beheading quickly became one of the most searched for items on the Internet. +Within a day, it was the top search term across search engines like Google, Lycos, Yahoo. +In the week after Nick Berg's beheading, these were the top 10 search terms in the United States. +The Berg beheading video remained the most popular search term for a week, and it was the second most popular search term for the whole month of May, runner-up only to "American Idol." +The al-Qaeda-linked website that first showed Nick Berg's beheading had to close down within a couple of days due to overwhelming traffic to the site. +One Dutch website owner said that his daily viewing figures rose from 300,000 to 750,000 every time a beheading in Iraq was shown. +He told reporters 18 months later that it had been downloaded many millions of times, and that's just one website. +A similar pattern was seen again and again when videos of beheadings were released during the Iraq War. +Social media sites have made these images more accessible than ever before, but if we take another step back in history, we'll see that it was the camera that first created a new kind of crowd in our history of beheadings as public spectacle. +As soon as the camera appeared on the scene, a full lifetime ago on June 17, 1939, it had an immediate and unequivocal effect. +That day, the first film of a public beheading was created in France. +It was the execution, the guillotining, of a German serial killer, Eugen Weidmann, outside the prison Saint-Pierre in Versailles. +Weidmann was due to be executed at the crack of dawn, as was customary at the time, but his executioner was new to the job, and he'd underestimated how long it would take him to prepare. +So Weidmann was executed at 4:30 in the morning, by which time on a June morning, there was enough light to take photographs, and a spectator in the crowd filmed the event, unbeknownst to the authorities. +Several still photographs were taken as well, and you can still watch the film online today and look at the photographs. +The crowd on the day of Weidmann's execution was called "unruly" and "disgusting" by the press, but that was nothing compared to the untold thousands of people who could now study the action over and over again, freeze-framed in every detail. +The camera may have made these scenes more accessible than ever before, but it's not just about the camera. +If we take a bigger leap back in history, we'll see that for as long as there have been public judicial executions and beheadings, there have been the crowds to see them. +In London, as late as the early 19th century, there might be four or five thousand people to see a standard hanging. +There could be 40,000 or 50,000 to see a famous criminal killed. +And a beheading, which was a rare event in England at the time, attracted even more. +In May 1820, five men known as the Cato Street Conspirators were executed in London for plotting to assassinate members of the British government. +They were hung and then decapitated. +It was a gruesome scene. +Each man's head was hacked off in turn and held up to the crowd. +And 100,000 people, that's 10,000 more than can fit into Wembley Stadium, had turned out to watch. +The streets were packed. +People had rented out windows and rooftops. +People had climbed onto carts and wagons in the street. +People climbed lamp posts. +People had been known to have died in the crush on popular execution days. +Evidence suggests that throughout our history of public beheadings and public executions, the vast majority of the people who come to see are either enthusiastic or, at best, unmoved. +Disgust has been comparatively rare, and even when people are disgusted and are horrified, it doesn't always stop them from coming out all the same to watch. +Perhaps the most striking example of the human ability to watch a beheading and remain unmoved and even be disappointed was the introduction in France in 1792 of the guillotine, that famous decapitation machine. +To us in the 21st century, the guillotine may seem like a monstrous contraption, but to the first crowds who saw it, it was actually a disappointment. +They were used to seeing long, drawn-out, torturous executions on the scaffold, where people were mutilated and burned and pulled apart slowly. +To them, watching the guillotine in action, it was so quick, there was nothing to see. +The blade fell, the head fell into a basket, out of sight immediately, and they called out, "Give me back my gallows, give me back my wooden gallows." +The end of torturous public judicial executions in Europe and America was partly to do with being more humane towards the criminal, but it was also partly because the crowd obstinately refused to behave in the way that they should. +All too often, execution day was more like a carnival than a solemn ceremony. +Today, a public judicial execution in Europe or America is unthinkable, but there are other scenarios that should make us cautious about thinking that things are different now and we don't behave like that anymore. +Take, for example, the incidents of suicide baiting. +This is when a crowd gathers to watch a person who has climbed to the top of a public building in order to kill themselves, and people in the crowd shout and jeer, "Get on with it! Go on and jump!" +This is a well-recognized phenomenon. +One paper in 1981 found that in 10 out of 21 threatened suicide attempts, there was incidents of suicide baiting and jeering from a crowd. +And there have been incidents reported in the press this year. +This was a very widely reported incident in Telford and Shropshire in March this year. +And when it happens today, people take photographs and they take videos on their phones and they post those videos online. +When it comes to brutal murderers who post their beheading videos, the Internet has created a new kind of crowd. +Today, the action takes place in a distant time and place, which gives the viewer a sense of detachment from what's happening, a sense of separation. +It's nothing to do with me. +It's already happened. +We are also offered an unprecedented sense of intimacy. +Today, we are all offered front row seats. +We can all watch in private, in our own time and space, and no one need ever know that we've clicked on the screen to watch. +This sense of separation -- from other people, from the event itself -- seems to be key to understanding our ability to watch, and there are several ways in which the Internet creates a sense of detachment that seems to erode individual moral responsibility. +Our activities online are often contrasted with real life, as though the things we do online are somehow less real. +We feel less accountable for our actions when we interact online. +There's a sense of anonymity, a sense of invisibility, so we feel less accountable for our behavior. +The Internet also makes it far easier to stumble upon things inadvertently, things that we would usually avoid in everyday life. +Today, a video can start playing before you even know what you're watching. +Or you may be tempted to look at material that you wouldn't look at in everyday life or you wouldn't look at if you were with other people at the time. +And when the action is pre-recorded and takes place in a distant time and space, watching seems like a passive activity. +There's nothing I can do about it now. +It's already happened. +All these things make it easier as an Internet user for us to give in to our sense of curiosity about death, to push our personal boundaries, to test our sense of shock, to explore our sense of shock. +But we're not passive when we watch. +On the contrary, we're fulfilling the murderer's desire to be seen. +When the victim of a decapitation is bound and defenseless, he or she essentially becomes a pawn in their killer's show. +Unlike a trophy head that's taken in battle, that represents the luck and skill it takes to win a fight, when a beheading is staged, when it's essentially a piece of theater, the power comes from the reception the killer receives as he performs. +In other words, watching is very much part of the event. +The event no longer takes place in a single location at a certain point in time as it used to and as it may still appear to. +Now the event is stretched out in time and place, and everyone who watches plays their part. +We should stop watching, but we know we won't. +History tells us we won't, and the killers know it too. +Thank you. +Bruno Giussani: Thank you. Let me get this back. Thank you. +Let's move here. While they install for the next performance, I want to ask you the question that probably many here have, which is how did you get interested in this topic? +Frances Larson: I used to work at a museum called the Pitt Rivers Museum in Oxford, which was famous for its display of shrunken heads from South America. +People used to say, "Oh, the shrunken head museum, the shrunken head museum!" +And at the time, I was working on the history of scientific collections of skulls. +So I wanted to kind of twist it round and say, "Let's look at us." +We're looking through the glass case at these shrunken heads. +Let's look at our own history and our own cultural fascination with these things. +BG: Thank you for sharing that. +FL: Thank you. +When I was only three or four, I fell in love with poetry, with the rhythms and the music of language; with the power of metaphor and of imagery, poetry being the essence of communication -- the discipline, the distillation. +And all these years later, the poems I'll read today are from my just-finished seventh book of poetry. +Well, five years ago, I was diagnosed with Parkinson's disease. +Though there's no cure yet, advances in treatment are really impressive. +But you can imagine that I was appalled to learn that women are largely left out of research trials, despite gender-specific medical findings having demonstrated that we are not actually just small men -- who happen to have different reproductive systems. +Gender-specific medicine is good for men, too. +But you bring to a crisis the person you already are, including the, yes, momentum that you've learned to invoke through passionate caring and through action, both of which require but also create energy. +So as an activist, I began working with the Parkinson's Disease Foundation -- that's pdf.org -- to create a major initiative to put women on the Parkinson's disease map. +And as a poet, I began working with this subject matter, finding it tragic, hilarious, sometimes even joyful. +I do not feel diminished by Parkinson's; I feel distilled by it, and I actually very much like the woman I'm distilling into. +"No Signs of Struggle" Growing small requires enormity of will: just sitting still in the doctor's waiting room watching the future shuffle in and out, watching it stoop; stare at you while you try not to look. +Rare is an exchange: a smile of brief, wry recognition. +You are the new kid on the block. +Everyone here was you once. +You are still learning that growing small requires a largeness of spirit you can't fit into yet: acceptance of irritating help from those who love you; giving way and over, but not up. +You've swallowed hard the contents of the "Drink Me" bottle, and felt yourself shrink. +Now, familiar furniture looms, floors tilt, and doorknobs yield only when wrestled round with both hands. +It demands colossal patience, all this growing small: your diminished sleep at night, your handwriting, your voice, your height. +You are more the incredible shrinking woman than the Buddhist mystic, serene, making do with less. +Less is not always more. +Yet in this emptying space, space glimmers, becoming visible. +Here is a place behind the eyes of those accustomed by what some would call diminishment. +It is a place of merciless poetry, a gift of presence previously ignored, drowned in the daily clutter. +Here every gesture needs intention, is alive with consciousness. +Nothing is automatic. +You can spot it in the provocation of a button, an arm poking at a sleeve, a balancing act at a night-time curb while negotiating the dark. +Feats of such modest valor, who would suspect them to be exercises in an intimate, fierce discipline, a metaphysics of being relentlessly aware? +Such understated power here, in these tottering dancers who exert stupendous effort on tasks most view as insignificant. +Such quiet beauty here, in these, my soft-voiced, stiff-limbed people; such resolve masked by each placid face. +There is immensity required in growing small, so bent on such unbending grace. +Thank you. +This one is called "On Donating My Brain to Science." +Not a problem. +Skip over all the pages reassuring religious people. +Already a universal donor: kidneys, corneas, liver, lungs, tissue, heart, veins, whatever. +Odd that the modest brain never imagined its unique value in research, maybe saving someone else from what it is they're not quite sure I have. +Flattering, that. +So fill in the forms, drill through the answers, trill out a blithe spirit. +And slice me, dice me, spread me on your slides. +Find what I'm trying to tell you. +Earn me, learn me, scan me, squint through your lens. +Uncover what I'd hint at if I could. +Be my guest, do your best, harvest me, track the clues. +This was a good brain while alive. +This was a brain that paid its dues. +So slice me, dice me, smear me on your slides, stain me, explain me, drain me like a cup. +Share me, hear me: I want to be used I want to be used I want to be used up. +(Applause ends) And this one's called "The Ghost Light." +Lit from within is the sole secure way to traverse dark matter. +Some life forms -- certain mushrooms, snails, jellyfish, worms -- glow bioluminescent, and people as well; we emit infra-red light from our most lucent selves. +Our tragedy is we can't see it. +We see by reflecting. +We need biofluorescence to show our true colors. +External illumination can distort, though. +When gravity bends light, huge galaxy clusters can act as telescopes, elongating background images of star systems to faint arcs -- a lensing effect like viewing distant street lamps through a glass of wine. +A glass of wine or two now makes me weave as if acting the drunkard's part; as if, besotted with unrequited love for the dynamic Turner canvasses spied out by the Hubble, I could lurch down a city street set without provoking every pedestrian walk-on stare. +Stare as long as you need to. +If you think about it, walking, even standing, is illogical -- such tiny things, feet! -- especially when one's body is not al dente anymore. +Besides, creature of extremes and excess, I've always thought Apollo beautiful but boring, and a bit of a dumb blonde. +Dionysians don't do balance. +Balance, in other words, has never been my strong point. +But I digress. +More and more these days, digression seems the most direct route through from where I've lost or found myself out of place, mind, turn, time. +Place your foot just so, mind how you turn: too swift a swivel can bring you down. +Take your time ushering the audience out, saying goodbye to the actors. +The ghost light is what they call the single bulb hanging above the bare stage in an empty theater. +And this is the last one. +"This Dark Hour" Late summer, 4 A.M. +The rain slows to a stop, dripping still from the broad leaves of blue hostas unseen in the garden's dark. +Barefoot, careful on the slick slate slabs, I need no light, I know the way, stoop by the mint bed, scoop a fistful of moist earth, then grope for a chair, spread a shawl, and sit, breathing in the wet green August air. +This is the small, still hour before the newspaper lands in the vestibule like a grenade, the phone shrills, the computer screen blinks and glares awake. +There is this hour: poem in my head, soil in my hand: unnamable fullness. +This hour, when blood of my blood bone of bone, child grown to manhood now -- stranger, intimate, not distant but apart -- lies safe, off dreaming melodies while love sleeps, safe, in his arms. +To have come to this place, lived to this moment: immeasurable lightness. +The density of black starts to blur umber. +Tentative, a cardinal's coloratura, then the mourning dove's elegy. +Sable glimmers toward grey; objects emerge, trailing shadows; night ages toward day. +The city stirs. +There will be other dawns, nights, gaudy noons. +Likely, I'll lose my way. +There will be stumbling, falling, cursing the dark. +Whatever comes, there was this hour when nothing mattered, all was unbearably dear. +And when I'm done with daylights, should those who loved me grieve too long a while, let them remember that I had this hour -- this dark, perfect hour -- and smile. +Thank you. +Imagine being unable to say, "I am hungry," "I am in pain," "thank you," or "I love you." +Being trapped inside your body, a body that doesn't respond to commands. +Surrounded by people, yet utterly alone. +Wishing you could reach out, to connect, to comfort, to participate. +For 13 long years, that was my reality. +Most of us never think twice about talking, about communicating. +I've thought a lot about it. +I've had a lot of time to think. +For the first 12 years of my life, I was a normal, happy, healthy little boy. +Then everything changed. +I contracted a brain infection. +The doctors weren't sure what it was, but they treated me the best they could. +However, I progressively got worse. +Eventually, I lost my ability to control my movements, make eye contact, and finally, my ability to speak. +While in hospital, I desperately wanted to go home. +I said to my mother, "When home?" +Those were the last words I ever spoke with my own voice. +I would eventually fail every test for mental awareness. +My parents were told I was as good as not there. +A vegetable, having the intelligence of a three-month-old baby. +They were told to take me home and try to keep me comfortable until I died. +My parents, in fact my entire family's lives, became consumed by taking care of me the best they knew how. +Their friends drifted away. +One year turned to two, two turned to three. +It seemed like the person I once was began to disappear. +The Lego blocks and electronic circuits I'd loved as a boy were put away. +I had been moved out of my bedroom into another more practical one. +I had become a ghost, a faded memory of a boy people once knew and loved. +Meanwhile, my mind began knitting itself back together. +Gradually, my awareness started to return. +But no one realized that I had come back to life. +I was aware of everything, just like any normal person. +I could see and understand everything, but I couldn't find a way to let anybody know. +My personality was entombed within a seemingly silent body, a vibrant mind hidden in plain sight within a chrysalis. +The stark reality hit me that I was going to spend the rest of my life locked inside myself, totally alone. +I was trapped with only my thoughts for company. +I would never be rescued. +No one would ever show me tenderness. +I would never talk to a friend. +No one would ever love me. +I had no dreams, no hope, nothing to look forward to. +Well, nothing pleasant. +I lived in fear, and, to put it bluntly, was waiting for death to finally release me, expecting to die all alone in a care home. +I don't know if it's truly possible to express in words what it's like not to be able to communicate. +Your personality appears to vanish into a heavy fog and all of your emotions and desires are constricted, stifled and muted within you. +For me, the worst was the feeling of utter powerlessness. +I simply existed. +It's a very dark place to find yourself because in a sense, you have vanished. +Other people controlled every aspect of my life. +They decided what I ate and when. +Whether I was laid on my side or strapped into my wheelchair. +I often spent my days positioned in front of the TV watching Barney reruns. +I think because Barney is so happy and jolly, and I absolutely wasn't, it made it so much worse. +I was completely powerless to change anything in my life or people's perceptions of me. +I was a silent, invisible observer of how people behaved when they thought no one was watching. +Unfortunately, I wasn't only an observer. +With no way to communicate, I became the perfect victim: a defenseless object, seemingly devoid of feelings that people used to play out their darkest desires. +For more than 10 years, people who were charged with my care abused me physically, verbally and sexually. +Despite what they thought, I did feel. +The first time it happened, I was shocked and filled with disbelief. +How could they do this to me? +I was confused. +What had I done to deserve this? +Part of me wanted to cry and another part wanted to fight. +Hurt, sadness and anger flooded through me. +I felt worthless. +There was no one to comfort me. +But neither of my parents knew this was happening. +I lived in terror, knowing it would happen again and again. +I just never knew when. +All I knew was that I would never be the same. +I remember once listening to Whitney Houston singing, "No matter what they take from me, they can't take away my dignity." +And I thought to myself, "You want to bet?" +Perhaps my parents could have found out and could have helped. +But the years of constant caretaking, having to wake up every two hours to turn me, combined with them essentially grieving the loss of their son, had taken a toll on my mother and father. +Following yet another heated argument between my parents, in a moment of despair and desperation, my mother turned to me and told me that I should die. +I was shocked, but as I thought about what she had said, I was filled with enormous compassion and love for my mother, yet I could do nothing about it. +There were many moments when I gave up, sinking into a dark abyss. +I remember one particularly low moment. +My dad left me alone in the car while he quickly went to buy something from the store. +A random stranger walked past, looked at me and he smiled. +I may never know why, but that simple act, the fleeting moment of human connection, transformed how I was feeling, making me want to keep going. +My existence was tortured by monotony, a reality that was often too much to bear. +Alone with my thoughts, I constructed intricate fantasies about ants running across the floor. +I taught myself to tell the time by noticing where the shadows were. +As I learned how the shadows moved as the hours of the day passed, I understood how long it would be before I was picked up and taken home. +Seeing my father walk through the door to collect me was the best moment of the day. +My mind became a tool that I could use to either close down to retreat from my reality or enlarge into a gigantic space that I could fill with fantasies. +I hoped that my reality would change and someone would see that I had come back to life. +But I had been washed away like a sand castle built too close to the waves, and in my place was the person people expected me to be. +To some I was Martin, a vacant shell, the vegetable, deserving of harsh words, dismissal and even abuse. +To others, I was the tragically brain-damaged boy who had grown to become a man. +Someone they were kind to and cared for. +Good or bad, I was a blank canvas onto which different versions of myself were projected. +It took someone new to see me in a different way. +An aromatherapist began coming to the care home about once a week. +Whether through intuition or her attention to details that others failed to notice, she became convinced that I could understand what was being said. +She urged my parents to have me tested by experts in augmentative and alternative communication. +And within a year, I was beginning to use a computer program to communicate. +It was exhilarating, but frustrating at times. +I had so many words in my mind, that I couldn't wait to be able to share them. +Sometimes, I would say things to myself simply because I could. +In myself, I had a ready audience, and I believed that by expressing my thoughts and wishes, others would listen, too. +But as I began to communicate more, I realized that it was in fact only just the beginning of creating a new voice for myself. +I was thrust into a world I didn't quite know how to function in. +I stopped going to the care home and managed to get my first job making photocopies. +As simple as this may sound, it was amazing. +My new world was really exciting but often quite overwhelming and frightening. +I was like a man-child, and as liberating as it often was, I struggled. +I also learned that many of those who had known me for a long time found it impossible to abandon the idea of Martin they had in their heads. +While those I had only just met struggled to look past the image of a silent man in a wheelchair. +I realized that some people would only listen to me if what I said was in line with what they expected. +Otherwise, it was disregarded and they did what they felt was best. +I discovered that true communication is about more than merely physically conveying a message. +It is about getting the message heard and respected. +Still, things were going well. +My body was slowly getting stronger. +I had a job in computing that I loved, and had even got Kojak, the dog I had been dreaming about for years. +However, I longed to share my life with someone. +I remember staring out the window as my dad drove me home from work, thinking I have so much love inside of me and nobody to give it to. +Just as I had resigned myself to being single for the rest of my life, I met Joan. +Not only is she the best thing that has ever happened to me, but Joan helped me to challenge my own misconceptions about myself. +Joan said it was through my words that she fell in love with me. +However, after all I had been through, I still couldn't shake the belief that nobody could truly see beyond my disability and accept me for who I am. +I also really struggled to comprehend that I was a man. +The first time someone referred to me as a man, it stopped me in my tracks. +I felt like looking around and asking, "Who, me?" +That all changed with Joan. +We have an amazing connection and I learned how important it is to communicate openly and honestly. +I felt safe, and it gave me the confidence to truly say what I thought. +I started to feel whole again, a man worthy of love. +I began to reshape my destiny. +I spoke up a little more at work. +I asserted my need for independence to the people around me. +Being given a means of communication changed everything. +I used the power of words and will to challenge the preconceptions of those around me and those I had of myself. +Communication is what makes us human, enabling us to connect on the deepest level with those around us -- telling our own stories, expressing wants, needs and desires, or hearing those of others by really listening. +All this is how the world knows who we are. +So who are we without it? +True communication increases understanding and creates a more caring and compassionate world. +Once, I was perceived to be an inanimate object, a mindless phantom of a boy in a wheelchair. +Today, I am so much more. +A husband, a son, a friend, a brother, a business owner, a first-class honors graduate, a keen amateur photographer. +It is my ability to communicate that has given me all this. +We are told that actions speak louder than words. +But I wonder, do they? +Our words, however we communicate them, are just as powerful. +Whether we speak the words with our own voices, type them with our eyes, or communicate them non-verbally to someone who speaks them for us, words are among our most powerful tools. +I have come to you through a terrible darkness, pulled from it by caring souls and by language itself. +The act of you listening to me today brings me farther into the light. +We are shining here together. +If there is one most difficult obstacle to my way of communicating, it is that sometimes I want to shout and other times simply to whisper a word of love or gratitude. +It all sounds the same. +But if you will, please imagine these next two words as warmly as you can: Thank you. +Over our lifetimes, we've all contributed to climate change. +Actions, choices and behaviors will have led to an increase in greenhouse gas emissions. +And I think that that's quite a powerful thought. +But it does have the potential to make us feel guilty when we think about decisions we might have made around where to travel to, how often and how, about the energy that we choose to use in our homes or in our workplaces, or quite simply the lifestyles that we lead and enjoy. +But we can also turn that thought on its head, and think that if we've had such a profound but a negative impact on our climate already, then we have an opportunity to influence the amount of future climate change that we will need to adapt to. +So we have a choice. +We can either choose to start to take climate change seriously, and significantly cut and mitigate our greenhouse gas emissions, and then we will have to adapt to less of the climate change impacts in future. +Alternatively, we can continue to really ignore the climate change problem. +But if we do that, we are also choosing to adapt to very much more powerful climate impacts in future. +And not only that. +As people who live in countries with high per capita emissions, we're making that choice on behalf of others as well. +But the choice that we don't have is a no climate change future. +Over the last two decades, our government negotiators and policymakers have been coming together to discuss climate change, and they've been focused on avoiding a two-degree centigrade warming above pre-industrial levels. +That's the temperature that's associated with dangerous impacts across a range of different indicators, to humans and to the environment. +So two degrees centigrade constitutes dangerous climate change. +But dangerous climate change can be subjective. +So if we think about an extreme weather event that might happen in some part of the world, and if that happens in a part of the world where there is good infrastructure, where there are people that are well-insured and so on, then that impact can be disruptive. +It can cause upset, it could cause cost. +It could even cause some deaths. +But if that exact same weather event happens in a part of the world where there is poor infrastructure, or where people are not well-insured, or they're not having good support networks, then that same climate change impact could be devastating. +It could cause a significant loss of home, but it could also cause significant amounts of death. +So this is a graph of the CO2 emissions at the left-hand side from fossil fuel and industry, and time from before the Industrial Revolution out towards the present day. +And what's immediately striking about this is that emissions have been growing exponentially. +And then in 2012, we had the Rio+20 event. +And all the way through, during all of these meetings and many others as well, emissions have continued to rise. +And if we focus on our historical emission trend in recent years, and we put that together with our understanding of the direction of travel in our global economy, then we are much more on track for a four-degree centigrade global warming than we are for the two-degree centigrade. +Now, let's just pause for a moment and think about this four-degree global average temperature. +Most of our planet is actually made up of the sea. +Now, because the sea has a greater thermal inertia than the land, the average temperatures over land are actually going to be higher than they are over the sea. +The second thing is that we as human beings don't experience global average temperatures. +We experience hot days, cold days, rainy days, especially if you live in Manchester like me. +So now put yourself in a city center. +Imagine somewhere in the world: Mumbai, Beijing, New York, London. +It's the hottest day that you've ever experienced. +There's sun beating down, there's concrete and glass all around you. +Now imagine that same day -- but it's six, eight, maybe 10 to 12 degrees warmer on that day during that heat wave. +That's the kind of thing we're going to experience under a four-degree global average temperature scenario. +And the problem with these extremes, and not just the temperature extremes, but also the extremes in terms of storms and other climate impacts, is our infrastructure is just not set up to deal with these sorts of events. +So our roads and our rail networks have been designed to last for a long time and withstand only certain amounts of impacts in different parts of the world. +And this is going to be extremely challenged. +Our power stations are expected to be cooled by water to a certain temperature to remain effective and resilient. +And our buildings are designed to be comfortable within a particular temperature range. +And this is all going to be significantly challenged under a four-degree-type scenario. +Our infrastructure has not been designed to cope with this. +So if we go back, also thinking about four degrees, it's not just the direct impacts, but also some indirect impacts. +So if we take food security, for example. +Maize and wheat yields in some parts of the world are expected to be up to 40 percent lower under a four-degree scenario, rice up to 30 percent lower. +This will be absolutely devastating for global food security. +So all in all, the kinds of impacts anticipated under this four-degree centigrade scenario are going to be incompatible with global organized living. +So back to our trajectories and our graphs of four degrees and two degrees. +Is it reasonable still to focus on the two-degree path? +There are quite a lot of my colleagues and other scientists who would say that it's now too late to avoid a two-degree warming. +But I would just like to draw on my own research on energy systems, on food systems, aviation and also shipping, just to say that I think there is still a small fighting chance of avoiding this two-degree dangerous climate change. +But we really need to get to grips with the numbers to work out how to do it. +So if you focus in on this trajectory and these graphs, the yellow circle there highlights that the departure from the red four-degree pathway to the two-degree green pathway is immediate. +And that's because of cumulative emissions, or the carbon budget. +So in other words, because of the lights and the projectors that are on in this room right now, the CO2 that is going into our atmosphere as a result of that electricity consumption lasts a very long time. +Some of it will be in our atmosphere for a century, maybe much longer. +It will accumulate, and greenhouse gases tend to be cumulative. +And that tells us something about these trajectories. +First of all, it tells us that it's the area under these curves that matter, not where we reach at a particular date in future. +And that's important, because it doesn't matter if we come up with some amazing whiz-bang technology to sort out our energy problem on the last day of 2049, just in the nick of time to sort things out. +Because in the meantime, emissions will have accumulated. +So if we continue on this red, four-degree centigrade scenario pathway, the longer we continue on it, that will need to be made up for in later years to keep the same carbon budget, to keep the same area under the curve, which means that that trajectory, the red one there, becomes steeper. +So in other words, if we don't reduce emissions in the short to medium term, then we'll have to make more significant year-on-year emission reductions. +We also know that we have to decarbonize our energy system. +But if we don't start to cut emissions in the short to medium term, then we will have to do that even sooner. +So this poses really big challenges for us. +The other thing it does is tells us something about energy policy. +If you live in a part of the world where per capita emissions are already high, it points us towards reducing energy demand. +And that's because with all the will in the world, the large-scale engineering infrastructure that we need to roll out rapidly to decarbonize the supply side of our energy system is just simply not going to happen in time. +So it doesn't matter whether we choose nuclear power or carbon capture and storage, upscale our biofuel production, or go for a much bigger roll-out of wind turbines and wave turbines. +All of that will take time. +So because it's the area under the curve that matters, we need to focus on energy efficiency, but also on energy conservation -- in other words, using less energy. +And if we do that, that also means that as we continue to roll out the supply-side technology, we will have less of a job to do if we've actually managed to reduce our energy consumption, because we will then need less infrastructure on the supply side. +Another issue that we really need to grapple with is the issue of well-being and equity. +There are many parts of the world where the standard of living needs to rise. +Bbut with energy systems currently reliant on fossil fuel, as those economies grow so will emissions. +And now, if we're all constrained by the same amount of carbon budget, that means that if some parts of the world's emissions are needing to rise, then other parts of the world's emissions need to reduce. +So that poses very significant challenges for wealthy nations. +Because according to our research, if you're in a country where per capita emissions are really high -- so North America, Europe, Australia -- emissions reductions of the order of 10 percent per year, and starting immediately, will be required for a good chance of avoiding the two-degree target. +Let me just put that into context. +The economist Nicholas Stern said that emission reductions of more than one percent per year had only ever been associated with economic recession or upheaval. +So this poses huge challenges for the issue of economic growth, because if we have our high carbon infrastructure in place, it means that if our economies grow, then so do our emissions. +So I'd just like to take a quote from a paper by myself and Kevin Anderson back in 2011 where we said that to avoid the two-degree framing of dangerous climate change, economic growth needs to be exchanged at least temporarily for a period of planned austerity in wealthy nations. +This is a really difficult message to take, because what it suggests is that we really need to do things differently. +This is not about just incremental change. +This is about doing things differently, about whole system change, and sometimes it's about doing less things. +And this applies to all of us, whatever sphere of influence we have. +So it could be from writing to our local politician to talking to our boss at work or being the boss at work, or talking with our friends and family, or, quite simply, changing our lifestyles. +Because we really need to make significant change. +At the moment, we're choosing a four-degree scenario. +If we really want to avoid the two-degree scenario, there really is no time like the present to act. +Thank you. +Bruno Giussani: Alice, basically what you're saying, the talk is, unless wealthy nations start cutting 10 percent per year the emissions now, this year, not in 2020 or '25, we are going to go straight to the four-plus-degree scenario. +I am wondering what's your take on the cut by 70 percent for 2070. +Alice Bows-Larkin: Yeah, it's just nowhere near enough to avoid two degrees. +One of the things that often -- when there are these modeling studies that look at what we need to do, is they tend to hugely overestimate how quickly other countries in the world can start to reduce emissions. +So they make kind of heroic assumptions about that. +The more we do that, because it's the cumulative emissions, the short-term stuff that really matters. +So it does make a huge difference. +If a big country like China, for example, continues to grow even for just a few extra years, that will make a big difference to when we need to decarbonize. +So I don't think we can even say when it will be, because it all depends on what we have to do in the short term. +But I think we've just got huge scope, and we don't pull those levers that allow us to reduce the energy demand, which is a shame. +BG: Alice, thank you for coming to TED and sharing this data. +ABL: Thank you. +Can we, as adults, grow new nerve cells? +There's still some confusion about that question, as this is a fairly new field of research. +For example, I was talking to one of my colleagues, Robert, who is an oncologist, and he was telling me, "Sandrine, this is puzzling. +Some of my patients that have been told they are cured of their cancer still develop symptoms of depression." +And I responded to him, "Well, from my point of view that makes sense. +The drug you give to your patients that stops the cancer cells multiplying also stops the newborn neurons being generated in their brain." +And then Robert looked at me like I was crazy and said, "But Sandrine, these are adult patients -- adults do not grow new nerve cells." +And much to his surprise, I said, "Well actually, we do." +And this is a phenomenon that we call neurogenesis. +[Neurogenesis] Now Robert is not a neuroscientist, and when he went to medical school he was not taught what we know now -- that the adult brain can generate new nerve cells. +So Robert, you know, being the good doctor that he is, wanted to come to my lab to understand the topic a little bit better. +And I took him for a tour of one of the most exciting parts of the brain when it comes to neurogenesis -- and this is the hippocampus. +So this is this gray structure in the center of the brain. +And what we've known already for very long, is that this is important for learning, memory, mood and emotion. +However, what we have learned more recently is that this is one of the unique structures of the adult brain where new neurons can be generated. +And if we slice through the hippocampus and zoom in, what you actually see here in blue is a newborn neuron in an adult mouse brain. +So when it comes to the human brain -- my colleague Jonas Frisn from the Karolinska Institutet, has estimated that we produce 700 new neurons per day in the hippocampus. +You might think this is not much, compared to the billions of neurons we have. +But by the time we turn 50, we will have all exchanged the neurons we were born with in that structure with adult-born neurons. +So why are these new neurons important and what are their functions? +First, we know that they're important for learning and memory. +And in the lab we have shown that if we block the ability of the adult brain to produce new neurons in the hippocampus, then we block certain memory abilities. +And this is especially new and true for spatial recognition -- so like, how you navigate your way in the city. +We are still learning a lot, and neurons are not only important for memory capacity, but also for the quality of the memory. +And they will have been helpful to add time to our memory and they will help differentiate very similar memories, like: how do you find your bike that you park at the station every day in the same area, but in a slightly different position? +And more interesting to my colleague Robert is the research we have been doing on neurogenesis and depression. +So in an animal model of depression, we have seen that we have a lower level of neurogenesis. +And if we give antidepressants, then we increase the production of these newborn neurons, and we decrease the symptoms of depression, establishing a clear link between neurogenesis and depression. +But moreover, if you just block neurogenesis, then you block the efficacy of the antidepressant. +So by then, Robert had understood that very likely his patients were suffering from depression even after being cured of their cancer, because the cancer drug had stopped newborn neurons from being generated. +And it will take time to generate new neurons that reach normal functions. +So, collectively, now we think we have enough evidence to say that neurogenesis is a target of choice if we want to improve memory formation or mood, or even prevent the decline associated with aging, or associated with stress. +So the next question is: can we control neurogenesis? +The answer is yes. +And we are now going to do a little quiz. +I'm going to give you a set of behaviors and activities, and you tell me if you think they will increase neurogenesis or if they will decrease neurogenesis. +Are we ready? +OK, let's go. +So what about learning? +Increasing? Yes. +Learning will increase the production of these new neurons. +How about stress? +Yes, stress will decrease the production of new neurons in the hippocampus. +How about sleep deprivation? +Indeed, it will decrease neurogenesis. +How about sex? +Oh, wow! +Yes, you are right, it will increase the production of new neurons. +However, it's all about balance here. +We don't want to fall in a situation -- about too much sex leading to sleep deprivation. +How about getting older? +So the neurogenesis rate will decrease as we get older, but it is still occurring. +And then finally, how about running? +I will let you judge that one by yourself. +So this is one of the first studies that was carried out by one of my mentors, Rusty Gage from the Salk Institute, showing that the environment can have an impact on the production of new neurons. +And here you see a section of the hippocampus of a mouse that had no running wheel in its cage. +And the little black dots you see are actually newborn neurons-to-be. +And now, you see a section of the hippocampus of a mouse that had a running wheel in its cage. +So you see the massive increase of the black dots representing the new neurons-to-be. +So activity impacts neurogenesis, but that's not all. +What you eat will have an effect on the production of new neurons in the hippocampus. +So here we have a sample of diet -- of nutrients that have been shown to have efficacy. +And I'm just going to point a few out to you: Calorie restriction of 20 to 30 percent will increase neurogenesis. +Intermittent fasting -- spacing the time between your meals -- will increase neurogenesis. +Intake of flavonoids, which are contained in dark chocolate or blueberries, will increase neurogenesis. +Omega-3 fatty acids, present in fatty fish, like salmon, will increase the production of these new neurons. +Conversely, a diet rich in high saturated fat will have a negative impact on neurogenesis. +Ethanol -- intake of alcohol -- will decrease neurogenesis. +However, not everything is lost; resveratrol, which is contained in red wine, has been shown to promote the survival of these new neurons. +So next time you are at a dinner party, you might want to reach for this possibly "neurogenesis-neutral" drink. +And then finally, let me point out the last one -- a quirky one. +So Japanese groups are fascinated with food textures, and they have shown that actually soft diet impairs neurogenesis, as opposed to food that requires mastication -- chewing -- or crunchy food. +So all of this data, where we need to look at the cellular level, has been generated using animal models. +So we think that the effect of diet on mental health, on memory and mood, is actually mediated by the production of the new neurons in the hippocampus. +And it's not only what you eat, but it's also the texture of the food, when you eat it and how much of it you eat. +On our side -- neuroscientists interested in neurogenesis -- we need to understand better the function of these new neurons, and how we can control their survival and their production. +We also need to find a way to protect the neurogenesis of Robert's patients. +And on your side -- I leave you in charge of your neurogenesis. +Thank you. +Margaret Heffernan: Fantastic research, Sandrine. +Now, I told you you changed my life -- I now eat a lot of blueberries. +Sandrine Thuret: Very good. +MH: I'm really interested in the running thing. +Do I have to run? +Or is it really just about aerobic exercise, getting oxygen to the brain? +Could it be any kind of vigorous exercise? +ST: So for the moment, we can't really say if it's just the running itself, but we think that anything that indeed will increase the production -- or moving the blood flow to the brain, should be beneficial. +MH: So I don't have to get a running wheel in my office? +ST: No, you don't! +MH: Oh, what a relief! That's wonderful. +Sandrine Thuret, thank you so much. +ST: Thank you, Margaret. +I want to talk to you about the future of medicine. +But before I do that, I want to talk a little bit about the past. +Now, throughout much of the recent history of medicine, we've thought about illness and treatment in terms of a profoundly simple model. +In fact, the model is so simple that you could summarize it in six words: have disease, take pill, kill something. +Now, the reason for the dominance of this model is of course the antibiotic revolution. +Many of you might not know this, but we happen to be celebrating the hundredth year of the introduction of antibiotics into the United States. +But what you do know is that that introduction was nothing short of transformative. +Here you had a chemical, either from the natural world or artificially synthesized in the laboratory, and it would course through your body, it would find its target, lock into its target -- a microbe or some part of a microbe -- and then turn off a lock and a key with exquisite deftness, exquisite specificity. +And you would end up taking a previously fatal, lethal disease -- a pneumonia, syphilis, tuberculosis -- and transforming that into a curable, or treatable illness. +You have a pneumonia, you take penicillin, you kill the microbe and you cure the disease. +So seductive was this idea, so potent the metaphor of lock and key and killing something, that it really swept through biology. +It was a transformation like no other. +And we've really spent the last 100 years trying to replicate that model over and over again in noninfectious diseases, in chronic diseases like diabetes and hypertension and heart disease. +And it's worked, but it's only worked partly. +Let me show you. +You know, if you take the entire universe of all chemical reactions in the human body, every chemical reaction that your body is capable of, most people think that that number is on the order of a million. +Let's call it a million. +And now you ask the question, what number or fraction of reactions can actually be targeted by the entire pharmacopoeia, all of medicinal chemistry? +That number is 250. +The rest is chemical darkness. +In other words, 0.025 percent of all chemical reactions in your body are actually targetable by this lock and key mechanism. +You know, if you think about human physiology as a vast global telephone network with interacting nodes and interacting pieces, then all of our medicinal chemistry is operating on one tiny corner at the edge, the outer edge, of that network. +It's like all of our pharmaceutical chemistry is a pole operator in Wichita, Kansas who is tinkering with about 10 or 15 telephone lines. +So what do we do about this idea? +What if we reorganized this approach? +In fact, it turns out that the natural world gives us a sense of how one might think about illness in a radically different way, rather than disease, medicine, target. +In fact, the natural world is organized hierarchically upwards, not downwards, but upwards, and we begin with a self-regulating, semi-autonomous unit called a cell. +These self-regulating, semi-autonomous units give rise to self-regulating, semi-autonomous units called organs, and these organs coalesce to form things called humans, and these organisms ultimately live in environments, which are partly self-regulating and partly semi-autonomous. +What's nice about this scheme, this hierarchical scheme building upwards rather than downwards, is that it allows us to think about illness as well in a somewhat different way. +Take a disease like cancer. +Since the 1950s, we've tried rather desperately to apply this lock and key model to cancer. +We've tried to kill cells using a variety of chemotherapies or targeted therapies, and as most of us know, that's worked. +It's worked for diseases like leukemia. +It's worked for some forms of breast cancer, but eventually you run to the ceiling of that approach. +And it's only in the last 10 years or so that we've begun to think about using the immune system, remembering that in fact the cancer cell doesn't grow in a vacuum. +It actually grows in a human organism. +And could you use the organismal capacity, the fact that human beings have an immune system, to attack cancer? +In fact, it's led to the some of the most spectacular new medicines in cancer. +And finally there's the level of the environment, isn't there? +You know, we don't think of cancer as altering the environment. +But let me give you an example of a profoundly carcinogenic environment. +It's called a prison. +You take loneliness, you take depression, you take confinement, and you add to that, rolled up in a little white sheet of paper, one of the most potent neurostimulants that we know, called nicotine, and you add to that one of the most potent addictive substances that you know, and you have a pro-carcinogenic environment. +But you can have anti-carcinogenic environments too. +There are attempts to create milieus, change the hormonal milieu for breast cancer, for instance. +We're trying to change the metabolic milieu for other forms of cancer. +Or take another disease, like depression. +Again, working upwards, since the 1960s and 1970s, we've tried, again, desperately to turn off molecules that operate between nerve cells -- serotonin, dopamine -- and tried to cure depression that way, and that's worked, but then that reached the limit. +Can we imagine a more immersive environment that will change depression? +Can you lock out the signals that elicit depression? +Again, moving upwards along this hierarchical chain of organization. +What's really at stake perhaps here is not the medicine itself but a metaphor. +Rather than killing something, in the case of the great chronic degenerative diseases -- kidney failure, diabetes, hypertension, osteoarthritis -- maybe what we really need to do is change the metaphor to growing something. +And that's the key, perhaps, to reframing our thinking about medicine. +Now, this idea of changing, of creating a perceptual shift, as it were, came home to me to roost in a very personal manner about 10 years ago. +About 10 years ago -- I've been a runner most of my life -- I went for a run, a Saturday morning run, I came back and woke up and I basically couldn't move. +My right knee was swollen up, and you could hear that ominous crunch of bone against bone. +And one of the perks of being a physician is that you get to order your own MRIs. +And I had an MRI the next week, and it looked like that. +Essentially, the meniscus of cartilage that is between bone had been completely torn and the bone itself had been shattered. +Now, if you're looking at me and feeling sorry, let me tell you a few facts. +If I was to take an MRI of every person in this audience, 60 percent of you would show signs of bone degeneration and cartilage degeneration like this. +85 percent of all women by the age of 70 would show moderate to severe cartilage degeneration. +50 to 60 percent of the men in this audience would also have such signs. +So this is a very common disease. +Well, the second perk of being a physician is that you can get to experiment on your own ailments. +So about 10 years ago we began, we brought this process into the laboratory, and we began to do simple experiments, mechanically trying to fix this degeneration. +We tried to inject chemicals into the knee spaces of animals to try to reverse cartilage degeneration, and to put a short summary on a very long and painful process, essentially it came to naught. +Nothing happened. +And then about seven years ago, we had a research student from Australia. +The nice thing about Australians is that they're habitually used to looking at the world upside down. +And so Dan suggested to me, "You know, maybe it isn't a mechanical problem. +Maybe it isn't a chemical problem. Maybe it's a stem cell problem." +In other words, he had two hypotheses. +Number one, there is such a thing as a skeletal stem cell -- a skeletal stem cell that builds up the entire vertebrate skeleton, bone, cartilage and the fibrous elements of skeleton, just like there's a stem cell in blood, just like there's a stem cell in the nervous system. +And two, that maybe that, the degeneration or dysfunction of this stem cell is what's causing osteochondral arthritis, a very common ailment. +So really the question was, were we looking for a pill when we should have really been looking for a cell. +So we switched our models, and now we began to look for skeletal stem cells. +And to cut again a long story short, about five years ago, we found these cells. +They live inside the skeleton. +Here's a schematic and then a real photograph of one of them. +The white stuff is bone, and these red columns that you see and the yellow cells are cells that have arisen from one single skeletal stem cell -- columns of cartilage, columns of bone coming out of a single cell. +These cells are fascinating. They have four properties. +Number one is that they live where they're expected to live. +They live just underneath the surface of the bone, underneath cartilage. +You know, in biology, it's location, location, location. +And they move into the appropriate areas and form bone and cartilage. +That's one. +Here's an interesting property. +You can take them out of the vertebrate skeleton, you can culture them in petri dishes in the laboratory, and they are dying to form cartilage. +Remember how we couldn't form cartilage for love or money? +These cells are dying to form cartilage. +They form their own furls of cartilage around themselves. +They're also, number three, the most efficient repairers of fractures that we've ever encountered. +This is a little bone, a mouse bone that we fractured and then let it heal by itself. +These stem cells have come in and repaired, in yellow, the bone, in white, the cartilage, almost completely. +So much so that if you label them with a fluorescent dye you can see them like some kind of peculiar cellular glue coming into the area of a fracture, fixing it locally and then stopping their work. +Now, the fourth one is the most ominous, and that is that their numbers decline precipitously, precipitously, tenfold, fiftyfold, as you age. +And so what had happened, really, is that we found ourselves in a perceptual shift. +We had gone hunting for pills but we ended up finding theories. +And in some ways we had hooked ourselves back onto this idea: cells, organisms, environments, because we were now thinking about bone stem cells, we were thinking about arthritis in terms of a cellular disease. +And then the next question was, are there organs? +Can you build this as an organ outside the body? +Can you implant cartilage into areas of trauma? +And perhaps most interestingly, can you ascend right up and create environments? +You know, we know that exercise remodels bone, but come on, none of us is going to exercise. +So could you imagine ways of passively loading and unloading bone so that you can recreate or regenerate degenerating cartilage? +And perhaps more interesting, and more importantly, the question is, can you apply this model more globally outside medicine? +What's at stake, as I said before, is not killing something, but growing something. +And it raises a series of, I think, some of the most interesting questions about how we think about medicine in the future. +Could your medicine be a cell and not a pill? +How would we grow these cells? +What we would we do to stop the malignant growth of these cells? +We heard about the problems of unleashing growth. +Could we implant suicide genes into these cells to stop them from growing? +Could your medicine be an organ that's created outside the body and then implanted into the body? +Could that stop some of the degeneration? +What if the organ needed to have memory? +In cases of diseases of the nervous system some of those organs had memory. +How could we implant those memories back in? +Could we store these organs? +Would each organ have to be developed for an individual human being and put back? +And perhaps most puzzlingly, could your medicine be an environment? +Could you patent an environment? +You know, in every culture, shamans have been using environments as medicines. +Could we imagine that for our future? +I've talked a lot about models. I began this talk with models. +So let me end with some thoughts about model building. +That's what we do as scientists. +You know, when an architect builds a model, he or she is trying to show you a world in miniature. +But when a scientist is building a model, he or she is trying to show you the world in metaphor. +He or she is trying to create a new way of seeing. +The former is a scale shift. The latter is a perceptual shift. +Now, antibiotics created such a perceptual shift in our way of thinking about medicine that it really colored, distorted, very successfully, the way we've thought about medicine for the last hundred years. +But we need new models to think about medicine in the future. +That's what's at stake. +You know, there's a popular trope out there that the reason we haven't had the transformative impact on the treatment of illness is because we don't have powerful-enough drugs, and that's partly true. +But perhaps the real reason is that we don't have powerful-enough ways of thinking about medicines. +It's certainly true that it would be lovely to have new medicines. +But perhaps what's really at stake are three more intangible M's: mechanisms, models, metaphors. +Thank you. +Chris Anderson: I really like this metaphor. +How does it link in? +There's a lot of talk in technologyland about the personalization of medicine, that we have all this data and that medical treatments of the future will be for you specifically, your genome, your current context. +Does that apply to this model you've got here? +Siddhartha Mukherjee: It's a very interesting question. +We've thought about personalization of medicine very much in terms of genomics. +That's because the gene is such a dominant metaphor, again, to use that same word, in medicine today, that we think the genome will drive the personalization of medicine. +But of course the genome is just the bottom of a long chain of being, as it were. +That chain of being, really the first organized unit of that, is the cell. +So, if we are really going to deliver in medicine in this way, we have to think of personalizing cellular therapies, and then personalizing organ or organismal therapies, and ultimately personalizing immersion therapies for the environment. +So I think at every stage, you know -- there's that metaphor, there's turtles all the way. +Well, in this, there's personalization all the way. +CA: So when you say medicine could be a cell and not a pill, you're talking about potentially your own cells. +SM: Absolutely. CA: So converted to stem cells, perhaps tested against all kinds of drugs or something, and prepared. +SM: And there's no perhaps. This is what we're doing. +This is what's happening, and in fact, we're slowly moving, not away from genomics, but incorporating genomics into what we call multi-order, semi-autonomous, self-regulating systems, like cells, like organs, like environments. +CA: Thank you so much. +SM: Pleasure. Thanks. +Singing is sharing. +When you sing, you have to know what you're talking about intimately, and you have to be willing to share this insight and give away a piece of yourself. +I look for this intention to share in everything, and I ask: what are the intentions behind this architecture or this product or this restaurant or this meal? +And if your intentions are to impress people or to get the big applause at the end, then you are taking, not giving. +And this is a song that's about -- it's the kind of song that everyone has their version of. +In my lab, we build autonomous aerial robots like the one you see flying here. +Unlike the commercially available drones that you can buy today, this robot doesn't have any GPS on board. +So without GPS, it's hard for robots like this to determine their position. +This robot uses onboard sensors, cameras and laser scanners, to scan the environment. +It detects features from the environment, and it determines where it is relative to those features, using a method of triangulation. +And then it can assemble all these features into a map, like you see behind me. +And this map then allows the robot to understand where the obstacles are and navigate in a collision-free manner. +What I want to show you next is a set of experiments we did inside our laboratory, where this robot was able to go for longer distances. +So here you'll see, on the top right, what the robot sees with the camera. +And on the main screen -- and of course this is sped up by a factor of four -- on the main screen you'll see the map that it's building. +So this is a high-resolution map of the corridor around our laboratory. +And in a minute you'll see it enter our lab, which is recognizable by the clutter that you see. +But the main point I want to convey to you is that these robots are capable of building high-resolution maps at five centimeters resolution, allowing somebody who is outside the lab, or outside the building to deploy these without actually going inside, and trying to infer what happens inside the building. +Now there's one problem with robots like this. +The first problem is it's pretty big. +Because it's big, it's heavy. +And these robots consume about 100 watts per pound. +And this makes for a very short mission life. +The second problem is that these robots have onboard sensors that end up being very expensive -- a laser scanner, a camera and the processors. +That drives up the cost of this robot. +So we asked ourselves a question: what consumer product can you buy in an electronics store that is inexpensive, that's lightweight, that has sensing onboard and computation? +And we invented the flying phone. +So this robot uses a Samsung Galaxy smartphone that you can buy off the shelf, and all you need is an app that you can download from our app store. +And you can see this robot reading the letters, "TED" in this case, looking at the corners of the "T" and the "E" and then triangulating off of that, flying autonomously. +That joystick is just there to make sure if the robot goes crazy, Giuseppe can kill it. +In addition to building these small robots, we also experiment with aggressive behaviors, like you see here. +So this robot is now traveling at two to three meters per second, pitching and rolling aggressively as it changes direction. +The main point is we can have smaller robots that can go faster and then travel in these very unstructured environments. +And in this next video, just like you see this bird, an eagle, gracefully coordinating its wings, its eyes and feet to grab prey out of the water, our robot can go fishing, too. +In this case, this is a Philly cheesesteak hoagie that it's grabbing out of thin air. +So you can see this robot going at about three meters per second, which is faster than walking speed, coordinating its arms, its claws and its flight with split-second timing to achieve this maneuver. +In another experiment, I want to show you how the robot adapts its flight to control its suspended payload, whose length is actually larger than the width of the window. +So in order to accomplish this, it actually has to pitch and adjust the altitude and swing the payload through. +But of course we want to make these even smaller, and we're inspired in particular by honeybees. +So if you look at honeybees, and this is a slowed down video, they're so small, the inertia is so lightweight -- that they don't care -- they bounce off my hand, for example. +This is a little robot that mimics the honeybee behavior. +And smaller is better, because along with the small size you get lower inertia. +Along with lower inertia -- (Robot buzzing, laughter) along with lower inertia, you're resistant to collisions. +And that makes you more robust. +So just like these honeybees, we build small robots. +And this particular one is only 25 grams in weight. +It consumes only six watts of power. +And it can travel up to six meters per second. +So if I normalize that to its size, it's like a Boeing 787 traveling ten times the speed of sound. +And I want to show you an example. +This is probably the first planned mid-air collision, at one-twentieth normal speed. +These are going at a relative speed of two meters per second, and this illustrates the basic principle. +The two-gram carbon fiber cage around it prevents the propellers from entangling, but essentially the collision is absorbed and the robot responds to the collisions. +And so small also means safe. +In my lab, as we developed these robots, we start off with these big robots and then now we're down to these small robots. +And if you plot a histogram of the number of Band-Aids we've ordered in the past, that sort of tailed off now. +Because these robots are really safe. +The small size has some disadvantages, and nature has found a number of ways to compensate for these disadvantages. +The basic idea is they aggregate to form large groups, or swarms. +So, similarly, in our lab, we try to create artificial robot swarms. +And this is quite challenging because now you have to think about networks of robots. +And within each robot, you have to think about the interplay of sensing, communication, computation -- and this network then becomes quite difficult to control and manage. +So from nature we take away three organizing principles that essentially allow us to develop our algorithms. +The first idea is that robots need to be aware of their neighbors. +They need to be able to sense and communicate with their neighbors. +So this video illustrates the basic idea. +You have four robots -- one of the robots has actually been hijacked by a human operator, literally. +But because the robots interact with each other, they sense their neighbors, they essentially follow. +And here there's a single person able to lead this network of followers. +So again, it's not because all the robots know where they're supposed to go. +It's because they're just reacting to the positions of their neighbors. +So the next experiment illustrates the second organizing principle. +And this principle has to do with the principle of anonymity. +Here the key idea is that the robots are agnostic to the identities of their neighbors. +They're asked to form a circular shape, and no matter how many robots you introduce into the formation, or how many robots you pull out, each robot is simply reacting to its neighbor. +It's aware of the fact that it needs to form the circular shape, but collaborating with its neighbors it forms the shape without central coordination. +Now if you put these ideas together, the third idea is that we essentially give these robots mathematical descriptions of the shape they need to execute. +And these shapes can be varying as a function of time, and you'll see these robots start from a circular formation, change into a rectangular formation, stretch into a straight line, back into an ellipse. +And they do this with the same kind of split-second coordination that you see in natural swarms, in nature. +So why work with swarms? +Let me tell you about two applications that we are very interested in. +The first one has to do with agriculture, which is probably the biggest problem that we're facing worldwide. +As you well know, one in every seven persons in this earth is malnourished. +Most of the land that we can cultivate has already been cultivated. +And the efficiency of most systems in the world is improving, but our production system efficiency is actually declining. +And that's mostly because of water shortage, crop diseases, climate change and a couple of other things. +So what can robots do? +Well, we adopt an approach that's called Precision Farming in the community. +And the basic idea is that we fly aerial robots through orchards, and then we build precision models of individual plants. +So just like personalized medicine, while you might imagine wanting to treat every patient individually, what we'd like to do is build models of individual plants and then tell the farmer what kind of inputs every plant needs -- the inputs in this case being water, fertilizer and pesticide. +Here you'll see robots traveling through an apple orchard, and in a minute you'll see two of its companions doing the same thing on the left side. +And what they're doing is essentially building a map of the orchard. +Within the map is a map of every plant in this orchard. +(Robot buzzing) Let's see what those maps look like. +In the next video, you'll see the cameras that are being used on this robot. +On the top-left is essentially a standard color camera. +On the left-center is an infrared camera. +And on the bottom-left is a thermal camera. +And on the main panel, you're seeing a three-dimensional reconstruction of every tree in the orchard as the sensors fly right past the trees. +Armed with information like this, we can do several things. +The first and possibly the most important thing we can do is very simple: count the number of fruits on every tree. +By doing this, you tell the farmer how many fruits she has in every tree and allow her to estimate the yield in the orchard, optimizing the production chain downstream. +The second thing we can do is take models of plants, construct three-dimensional reconstructions, and from that estimate the canopy size, and then correlate the canopy size to the amount of leaf area on every plant. +And this is called the leaf area index. +So if you know this leaf area index, you essentially have a measure of how much photosynthesis is possible in every plant, which again tells you how healthy each plant is. +By combining visual and infrared information, we can also compute indices such as NDVI. +And in this particular case, you can essentially see there are some crops that are not doing as well as other crops. +This is easily discernible from imagery, not just visual imagery but combining both visual imagery and infrared imagery. +And then lastly, one thing we're interested in doing is detecting the early onset of chlorosis -- and this is an orange tree -- which is essentially seen by yellowing of leaves. +But robots flying overhead can easily spot this autonomously and then report to the farmer that he or she has a problem in this section of the orchard. +Systems like this can really help, and we're projecting yields that can improve by about ten percent and, more importantly, decrease the amount of inputs such as water by 25 percent by using aerial robot swarms. +Lastly, I want you to applaud the people who actually create the future, Yash Mulgaonkar, Sikang Liu and Giuseppe Loianno, who are responsible for the three demonstrations that you saw. +Thank you. +Do you think the world is going to be a better place next year? +In the next decade? +Can we end hunger, achieve gender equality, halt climate change, all in the next 15 years? +Well, according to the governments of the world, yes we can. +In the last few days, the leaders of the world, meeting at the UN in New York, agreed a new set of Global Goals for the development of the world to 2030. +And here they are: these goals are the product of a massive consultation exercise. +The Global Goals are who we, humanity, want to be. +Now that's the plan, but can we get there? +Can this vision for a better world really be achieved? +Well, I'm here today because we've run the numbers, and the answer, shockingly, is that maybe we actually can. +But not with business as usual. +Now, the idea that the world is going to get a better place may seem a little fanciful. +Watch the news every day and the world seems to be going backwards, not forwards. +And let's be frank: it's pretty easy to be skeptical about grand announcements coming out of the UN. +But please, I invite you to suspend your disbelief for just a moment. +Because back in 2001, the UN agreed another set of goals, the Millennium Development Goals. +And the flagship target there was to halve the proportion of people living in poverty by 2015. +The target was to take from a baseline of 1990, when 36 percent of the world's population lived in poverty, to get to 18 percent poverty this year. +Did we hit this target? +Well, no, we didn't. +We exceeded it. +This year, global poverty is going to fall to 12 percent. +Now, that's still not good enough, and the world does still have plenty of problems. +But the pessimists and doomsayers who say that the world can't get better are simply wrong. +So how did we achieve this success? +Well, a lot of it was because of economic growth. +Some of the biggest reductions in poverty were in countries such as China and India, which have seen rapid economic growth in recent years. +So can we pull off the same trick again? +Can economic growth get us to the Global Goals? +Well, to answer that question, we need to benchmark where the world is today against the Global Goals and figure out how far we have to travel. +But that ain't easy, because the Global Goals aren't just ambitious, they're also pretty complicated. +Over 17 goals, there are then 169 targets and literally hundreds of indicators. +Also, while some of the goals are pretty specific -- end hunger -- others are a lot vaguer -- promote peaceful and tolerant societies. +So to help us with this benchmarking, I'm going to use a tool called the Social Progress Index. +What this does is measures all the stuff the Global Goals are trying to achieve, but sums it up into a single number that we can use as our benchmark and track progress over time. +The Social Progress Index basically asks three fundamental questions about a society. +First of all, does everyone have the basic needs of survival: food, water, shelter, safety? +Secondly, does everyone have the building blocks of a better life: education, information, health and a sustainable environment? +And does everyone have the opportunity to improve their lives, through rights, freedom of choice, freedom from discrimination, and access to the world's most advanced knowledge? +The Social Progress Index sums all this together using 52 indicators to create an aggregate score on a scale of 0 to 100. +And what we find is that there's a wide diversity of performance in the world today. +The highest performing country, Norway, scores 88. +The lowest performing country, Central African Republic, scores 31. +And we can add up all the countries together, weighting for the different population sizes, and that global score is 61. +In concrete terms, that means that the average human being is living on a level of social progress about the same of Cuba or Kazakhstan today. +That's where we are today: 61 out of 100. +What do we have to get to to achieve the Global Goals? +Now, the Global Goals are certainly ambitious, but they're not about turning the world into Norway in just 15 years. +So having looked at the numbers, my estimate is that a score of 75 would not only be a giant leap forward in human well-being, it would also count as hitting the Global Goals target. +So there's our target, 75 out of 100. +Can we get there? +Well, the Social Progress Index can help us calculate this, because as you might have noticed, there are no economic indicators in there; there's no GDP or economic growth in the Social Progress Index model. +And what that lets us do is understand the relationship between economic growth and social progress. +Let me show you on this chart. +So here on the vertical axis, I've put social progress, the stuff the Global Goals are trying to achieve. +Higher is better. +And then on the horizontal axis, is GDP per capita. +Further to the right means richer. +And in there, I'm now going to put all the countries of the world, each one represented by a dot, and on top of that I'm going to put the regression line that shows the average relationship. +And what this tells us is that as we get richer, social progress does tend to improve. +However, as we get richer, each extra dollar of GDP is buying us less and less social progress. +And now we can use this information to start building our forecast. +So here is the world in 2015. +We have a social progress score of 61 and a GDP per capita of $14,000. +And the place we're trying to get to, remember, is 75, that Global Goals target. +So here we are today, $14,000 per capita GDP. +How rich are we going to be in 2030? +That's what we need to know next. +Well, the best forecast we can find comes from the US Department of Agriculture, which forecasts 3.1 percent average global economic growth over the next 15 years, which means that in 2030, if they're right, per capita GDP will be about $23,000. +So now the question is: if we get that much richer, how much social progress are we going to get? +Well, we asked a team of economists at Deloitte who checked and crunched the numbers, and they came back and said, well, look: if the world's average wealth goes from $14,000 a year to $23,000 a year, social progress is going to increase from 61 to 62.4. +Just 62.4. Just a tiny increase. +Now this seems a bit strange. +Economic growth seems to have really helped in the fight against poverty, but it doesn't seem to be having much impact on trying to get to the Global Goals. +So what's going on? +Well, I think there are two things. +The first is that in a way, we're the victims of our own success. +We've used up the easy wins from economic growth, and now we're moving on to harder problems. +And also, we know that economic growth comes with costs as well as benefits. +There are costs to the environment, costs from new health problems like obesity. +So that's the bad news. +We're not going to get to the Global Goals just by getting richer. +So are the pessimists right? +Well, maybe not. +Because the Social Progress Index also has some very good news. +Let me take you back to that regression line. +So this is the average relationship between GDP and social progress, and this is what our last forecast was based on. +But as you saw already, there is actually lots of noise around this trend line. +What that tells us, quite simply, is that GDP is not destiny. +We have countries that are underperforming on social progress, relative to their wealth. +Russia has lots of natural resource wealth, but lots of social problems. +China has boomed economically, but hasn't made much headway on human rights or environmental issues. +India has a space program and millions of people without toilets. +Now, on the other hand, we have countries that are overperforming on social progress relative to their GDP. +Costa Rica has prioritized education, health and environmental sustainability, and as a result, it's achieving a very high level of social progress, despite only having a rather modest GDP. +And Costa Rica's not alone. +From poor countries like Rwanda to richer countries like New Zealand, we see that it's possible to get lots of social progress, even if your GDP is not so great. +And that's really important, because it tells us two things. +First of all, it tells us that we already in the world have the solutions to many of the problems that the Global Goals are trying to solve. +It also tells us that we're not slaves to GDP. +Our choices matter: if we prioritize the well-being of people, then we can make a lot more progress than our GDP might expect. +How much? Enough to get us to the Global Goals? +Well, let's look at some numbers. +What we know already: the world today is scoring 61 on social progress, and the place we want to get to is 75. +If we rely on economic growth alone, we're going to get to 62.4. +So let's assume now that we can get the countries that are currently underperforming on social progress -- the Russia, China, Indias -- just up to the average. +How much social progress does that get us? +Well, that takes us to 65. +It's a bit better, but still quite a long way to go. +So let's get a little bit more optimistic and say, what if every country gets a little bit better at turning its wealth into well-being? +Well then, we get to 67. +And now let's be even bolder still. +What if every country in the world chose to be like Costa Rica in prioritizing human well-being, using its wealth for the well-being of its citizens? +Well then, we get to nearly 73, very close to the Global Goals. +Can we achieve the Global Goals? +Certainly not with business as usual. +Even a flood tide of economic growth is not going to get us there, if it just raises the mega-yachts and the super-wealthy and leaves the rest behind. +If we're going to achieve the Global Goals we have to do things differently. +We have to prioritize social progress, and really scale solutions around the world. +I believe the Global Goals are a historic opportunity, because the world's leaders have promised to deliver them. +Let's not dismiss the goals or slide into pessimism; let's hold them to that promise. +And we need to hold them to that promise by holding them accountable, tracking their progress all the way through the next 15 years. +And I want to finish by showing you a way to do that, called the People's Report Card. +The People's Report Card brings together all this data into a simple framework that we'll all be familiar with from our school days, to hold them to account. +It grades our performance on the Global Goals on a scale from F to A, where F is humanity at its worst, and A is humanity at its best. +Our world today is scoring a C-. +The Global Goals are all about getting to an A, and that's why we're going to be updating the People's Report Card annually, for the world and for all the countries of the world, so we can hold our leaders to account to achieve this target and fulfill this promise. +Because getting to the Global Goals will only happen if we do things differently, if our leaders do things differently, and for that to happen, that needs us to demand it. +So let's reject business as usual. +Let's demand a different path. +Let's choose the world that we want. +Thank you. +Bruno Giussani: Thank you, Michael. +Michael, just one question: the Millennium Development Goals established 15 years ago, they were kind of applying to every country but it turned out to be really a scorecard for emerging countries. +Now the new Global Goals are explicitly universal. +They ask for every country to show action and to show progress. +How can I, as a private citizen, use the report card to create pressure for action? +Michael Green: This is a really important point; it's a big shift in priorities -- it's no longer about poor countries and just poverty. +It's about every country. +And every country is going to have challenges in getting to the Global Goals. +Even, I'm sorry to say, Bruno, Switzerland has got to work to do. +And so that's why we're going to produce these report cards in 2016 for every country in the world. +Then we can really see, how are we doing? +And it's not going to be rich countries scoring straight A's. +And that, then, I think, is to provide a point of focus for people to start demanding action and start demanding progress. +BG: Thank you very much. +We all go to doctors. +And we do so with trust and blind faith that the test they are ordering and the medications they're prescribing are based upon evidence -- evidence that's designed to help us. +However, the reality is that that hasn't always been the case for everyone. +What if I told you that the medical science discovered over the past century has been based on only half the population? +I'm an emergency medicine doctor. +I was trained to be prepared in a medical emergency. +It's about saving lives. How cool is that? +OK, there's a lot of runny noses and stubbed toes, but no matter who walks through the door to the ER, we order the same tests, we prescribe the same medication, without ever thinking about the sex or gender of our patients. +Why would we? +We were never taught that there were any differences between men and women. +A recent Government Accountability study revealed that 80 percent of the drugs withdrawn from the market are due to side effects on women. +So let's think about that for a minute. +Why are we discovering side effects on women only after a drug has been released to the market? +Do you know that it takes years for a drug to go from an idea to being tested on cells in a laboratory, to animal studies, to then clinical trials on humans, finally to go through a regulatory approval process, to be available for your doctor to prescribe to you? +Not to mention the millions and billions of dollars of funding it takes to go through that process. +So why are we discovering unacceptable side effects on half the population after that has gone through? +What's happening? +Well, it turns out that those cells used in that laboratory, they're male cells, and the animals used in the animal studies were male animals, and the clinical trials have been performed almost exclusively on men. +How is it that the male model became our framework for medical research? +Let's look at an example that has been popularized in the media, and it has to do with the sleep aid Ambien. +Ambien was released on the market over 20 years ago, and since then, hundreds of millions of prescriptions have been written, primarily to women, because women suffer more sleep disorders than men. +But just this past year, the Food and Drug Administration recommended cutting the dose in half for women only, because they just realized that women metabolize the drug at a slower rate than men, causing them to wake up in the morning with more of the active drug in their system. +And then they're drowsy and they're getting behind the wheel of the car, and they're at risk for motor vehicle accidents. +And I can't help but think, as an emergency physician, how many of my patients that I've cared for over the years were involved in a motor vehicle accident that possibly could have been prevented if this type of analysis was performed and acted upon 20 years ago when this drug was first released. +How many other things need to be analyzed by gender? +What else are we missing? +World War II changed a lot of things, and one of them was this need to protect people from becoming victims of medical research without informed consent. +So some much-needed guidelines or rules were set into place, and part of that was this desire to protect women of childbearing age from entering into any medical research studies. +There was fear: what if something happened to the fetus during the study? +Who would be responsible? +And so the scientists at this time actually thought this was a blessing in disguise, because let's face it -- men's bodies are pretty homogeneous. +They don't have the constantly fluctuating levels of hormones that could disrupt clean data they could get if they had only men. +It was easier. It was cheaper. +Not to mention, at this time, there was a general assumption that men and women were alike in every way, apart from their reproductive organs and sex hormones. +So it was decided: medical research was performed on men, and the results were later applied to women. +What did this do to the notion of women's health? +Women's health became synonymous with reproduction: breasts, ovaries, uterus, pregnancy. +It's this term we now refer to as "bikini medicine." +Since that time, an overwhelming amount of evidence has come to light that shows us just how different men and women are in every way. +You know, we have this saying in medicine: children are not just little adults. +And we say that to remind ourselves that children actually have a different physiology than normal adults. +And it's because of this that the medical specialty of pediatrics came to light. +And we now conduct research on children in order to improve their lives. +And I know the same thing can be said about women. +Women are not just men with boobs and tubes. +But they have their own anatomy and physiology that deserves to be studied with the same intensity. +Let's take the cardiovascular system, for example. +This area in medicine has done the most to try to figure out why it seems men and women have completely different heart attacks. +Heart disease is the number one killer for both men and women, but more women die within the first year of having a heart attack than men. +Men will complain of crushing chest pain -- an elephant is sitting on their chest. +And we call this typical. +Women have chest pain, too. +But more women than men will complain of "just not feeling right," "can't seem to get enough air in," "just so tired lately." +And for some reason we call this atypical, even though, as I mentioned, women do make up half the population. +And so what is some of the evidence to help explain some of these differences? +If we look at the anatomy, the blood vessels that surround the heart are smaller in women compared to men, and the way that those blood vessels develop disease is different in women compared to men. +And the test that we use to determine if someone is at risk for a heart attack, well, they were initially designed and tested and perfected in men, and so aren't as good at determining that in women. +And then if we think about the medications -- common medications that we use, like aspirin. +We give aspirin to healthy men to help prevent them from having a heart attack, but do you know that if you give aspirin to a healthy woman, it's actually harmful? +What this is doing is merely telling us that we are scratching the surface. +Emergency medicine is a fast-paced business. +In how many life-saving areas of medicine, like cancer and stroke, are there important differences between men and women that we could be utilizing? +Or even, why is it that some people get those runny noses more than others, or why the pain medication that we give to those stubbed toes work in some and not in others? +The Institute of Medicine has said every cell has a sex. +What does this mean? +Sex is DNA. +Gender is how someone presents themselves in society. +And these two may not always match up, as we can see with our transgendered population. +But it's important to realize that from the moment of conception, every cell in our bodies -- skin, hair, heart and lungs -- contains our own unique DNA, and that DNA contains the chromosomes that determine whether we become male or female, man or woman. +It used to be thought that those sex-determining chromosomes pictured here -- XY if you're male, XX if you're female -- merely determined whether you would be born with ovaries or testes, and it was the sex hormones that those organs produced that were responsible for the differences we see in the opposite sex. +But we now know that that theory was wrong -- or it's at least a little incomplete. +This new knowledge is the game-changer, and it's up to those scientists that continue to find that evidence, but it's up to the clinicians to start translating this data at the bedside, today. +Right now. +And to help do this, I'm a co-founder of a national organization called Sex and Gender Women's Health Collaborative, and we collect all of this data so that it's available for teaching and for patient care. +And we're working to bring together the medical educators to the table. +That's a big job. +It's changing the way medical training has been done since its inception. +But I believe in them. +I know they're going to see the value of incorporating the gender lens into the current curriculum. +It's about training the future health care providers correctly. +We've created a 360-degree model of education. +We have programs for the doctors, for the nurses, for the students and for the patients. +Because this cannot just be left up to the health care leaders. +We all have a role in making a difference. +But I must warn you: this is not easy. +In fact, it's hard. +It's essentially changing the way we think about medicine and health and research. +It's changing our relationship to the health care system. +But there's no going back. +We now know just enough to know that we weren't doing it right. +Martin Luther King, Jr. has said, "Change does not roll in on the wheels of inevitability, but comes through continuous struggle." +And the first step towards change is awareness. +This is not just about improving medical care for women. +This is about personalized, individualized health care for everyone. +This awareness has the power to transform medical care for men and women. +And from now on, I want you to ask your doctors whether the treatments you are receiving are specific to your sex and gender. +They may not know the answer -- yet. +But the conversation has begun, and together we can all learn. +Remember, for me and my colleagues in this field, your sex and gender matter. +Thank you. +As a singer-songwriter, people often ask me about my influences or, as I like to call them, my sonic lineages. +And I could easily tell you that I was shaped by the jazz and hip hop that I grew up with, by the Ethiopian heritage of my ancestors, or by the 1980s pop on my childhood radio stations. +But beyond genre, there is another question: how do the sounds we hear every day influence the music that we make? +I believe that everyday soundscape can be the most unexpected inspiration for songwriting, and to look at this idea a little bit more closely, I'm going to talk today about three things: nature, language and silence -- or rather, the impossibility of true silence. +And through this I hope to give you a sense of a world already alive with musical expression, with each of us serving as active participants, whether we know it or not. +I'm going to start today with nature, but before we do that, let's quickly listen to this snippet of an opera singer warming up. +Here it is. +(Singing ends) It's beautiful, isn't it? +Gotcha! +That is actually not the sound of an opera singer warming up. +That is the sound of a bird slowed down to a pace that the human ear mistakenly recognizes as its own. +It was released as part of Peter Szke's 1987 Hungarian recording "The Unknown Music of Birds," where he records many birds and slows down their pitches to reveal what's underneath. +Let's listen to the full-speed recording. +(Bird singing) Now, let's hear the two of them together so your brain can juxtapose them. +(Bird singing at slow then full speed) (Singing ends) It's incredible. +Perhaps the techniques of opera singing were inspired by birdsong. +As humans, we intuitively understand birds to be our musical teachers. +In Ethiopia, birds are considered an integral part of the origin of music itself. +The story goes like this: 1,500 years ago, a young man was born in the Empire of Aksum, a major trading center of the ancient world. +His name was Yared. +When Yared was seven years old his father died, and his mother sent him to go live with an uncle, who was a priest of the Ethiopian Orthodox tradition, one of the oldest churches in the world. +Now, this tradition has an enormous amount of scholarship and learning, and Yared had to study and study and study and study, and one day he was studying under a tree, when three birds came to him. +One by one, these birds became his teachers. +They taught him music -- scales, in fact. +And Yared, eventually recognized as Saint Yared, used these scales to compose five volumes of chants and hymns for worship and celebration. +And he used these scales to compose and to create an indigenous musical notation system. +And these scales evolved into what is known as kiit, the unique, pentatonic, five-note, modal system that is very much alive and thriving and still evolving in Ethiopia today. +Now, I love this story because it's true at multiple levels. +Saint Yared was a real, historical figure, and the natural world can be our musical teacher. +And we have so many examples of this: the Pygmies of the Congo tune their instruments to the pitches of the birds in the forest around them. +Musician and natural soundscape expert Bernie Krause describes how a healthy environment has animals and insects taking up low, medium and high-frequency bands, in exactly the same way as a symphony does. +And countless works of music were inspired by bird and forest song. +Yes, the natural world can be our cultural teacher. +So let's go now to the uniquely human world of language. +Every language communicates with pitch to varying degrees, whether it's Mandarin Chinese, where a shift in melodic inflection gives the same phonetic syllable an entirely different meaning, to a language like English, where a raised pitch at the end of a sentence ... +(Going up in pitch) implies a question? +As an Ethiopian-American woman, I grew up around the language of Amharic, Amharia. +It was my first language, the language of my parents, one of the main languages of Ethiopia. +And there are a million reasons to fall in love with this language: its depth of poetics, its double entendres, its wax and gold, its humor, its proverbs that illuminate the wisdom and follies of life. +But there's also this melodicism, a musicality built right in. +And I find this distilled most clearly in what I like to call emphatic language -- language that's meant to highlight or underline or that springs from surprise. +Take, for example, the word: "indey." +Now, if there are Ethiopians in the audience, they're probably chuckling to themselves, because the word means something like "No!" +or "How could he?" or "No, he didn't." +It kind of depends on the situation. +But when I was a kid, this was my very favorite word, and I think it's because it has a pitch. +It has a melody. +You can almost see the shape as it springs from someone's mouth. +"Indey" -- it dips, and then raises again. +And as a musician and composer, when I hear that word, something like this is floating through my mind. +(Music and singing "Indey") (Music ends) Or take, for example, the phrase for "It is right" or "It is correct" -- "Lickih nehu ... Lickih nehu." +It's an affirmation, an agreement. +"Lickih nehu." +When I hear that phrase, something like this starts rolling through my mind. +(Music and singing "Lickih nehu") (Music ends) And in both of those cases, what I did was I took the melody and the phrasing of those words and phrases and I turned them into musical parts to use in these short compositions. +And I like to write bass lines, so they both ended up kind of as bass lines. +Now, this is based on the work of Jason Moran and others who work intimately with music and language, but it's also something I've had in my head since I was a kid, how musical my parents sounded when they were speaking to each other and to us. +It was from them and from Amharia that I learned that we are awash in musical expression with every word, every sentence that we speak, every word, every sentence that we receive. +Perhaps you can hear it in the words I'm speaking even now. +Finally, we go to the 1950s United States and the most seminal work of 20th century avant-garde composition: John Cage's "4:33," written for any instrument or combination of instruments. +The musician or musicians are invited to walk onto the stage with a stopwatch and open the score, which was actually purchased by the Museum of Modern Art -- the score, that is. +And this score has not a single note written and there is not a single note played for four minutes and 33 seconds. +And, at once enraging and enrapturing, Cage shows us that even when there are no strings being plucked by fingers or hands hammering piano keys, still there is music, still there is music, still there is music. +And what is this music? +It was that sneeze in the back. +It is the everyday soundscape that arises from the audience themselves: their coughs, their sighs, their rustles, their whispers, their sneezes, the room, the wood of the floors and the walls expanding and contracting, creaking and groaning with the heat and the cold, the pipes clanking and contributing. +And controversial though it was, and even controversial though it remains, Cage's point is that there is no such thing as true silence. +Even in the most silent environments, we still hear and feel the sound of our own heartbeats. +The world is alive with musical expression. +We are already immersed. +Now, I had my own moment of, let's say, remixing John Cage a couple of months ago when I was standing in front of the stove cooking lentils. +And it was late one night and it was time to stir, so I lifted the lid off the cooking pot, and I placed it onto the kitchen counter next to me, and it started to roll back and forth making this sound. +(Sound of metal lid clanking against a counter) (Clanking ends) And it stopped me cold. +I thought, "What a weird, cool swing that cooking pan lid has." +So when the lentils were ready and eaten, I hightailed it to my backyard studio, and I made this. +(Music, including the sound of the lid, and singing) (Music ends) Now, John Cage wasn't instructing musicians to mine the soundscape for sonic textures to turn into music. +He was saying that on its own, the environment is musically generative, that it is generous, that it is fertile, that we are already immersed. +Musician, music researcher, surgeon and human hearing expert Charles Limb is a professor at Johns Hopkins University and he studies music and the brain. +And he has a theory that it is possible -- it is possible -- that the human auditory system actually evolved to hear music, because it is so much more complex than it needs to be for language alone. +And if that's true, it means that we're hard-wired for music, that we can find it anywhere, that there is no such thing as a musical desert, that we are permanently hanging out at the oasis, and that is marvelous. +We can add to the soundtrack, but it's already playing. +And it doesn't mean don't study music. +Study music, trace your sonic lineages and enjoy that exploration. +But there is a kind of sonic lineage to which we all belong. +So the next time you are seeking percussion inspiration, look no further than your tires, as they roll over the unusual grooves of the freeway, or the top-right burner of your stove and that strange way that it clicks as it is preparing to light. +When seeking melodic inspiration, look no further than dawn and dusk avian orchestras or to the natural lilt of emphatic language. +We are the audience and we are the composers and we take from these pieces we are given. +We make, we make, we make, we make, knowing that when it comes to nature or language or soundscape, there is no end to the inspiration -- if we are listening. +Thank you. +Father Daniel Berrigan once said that "writing about prisoners is a little like writing about the dead." +I think what he meant is that we treat prisoners as ghosts. +They're unseen and unheard. +It's easy to simply ignore them and it's even easier when the government goes to great lengths to keep them hidden. +As a journalist, I think these stories of what people in power do when no one is watching, are precisely the stories that we need to tell. +That's why I began investigating the most secretive and experimental prison units in the United States, for so-called "second-tier" terrorists. +The government calls these units Communications Management Units or CMUs. +Prisoners and guards call them "Little Guantanamo." +They are islands unto themselves. +But unlike Gitmo they exist right here, at home, floating within larger federal prisons. +There are 2 CMUs. +One was opened inside the prison in Terre Haute, Indiana, and the other is inside this prison, in Marion, Illinois. +Neither of them underwent the formal review process that is required by law when they were opened. +CMU prisoners have all been convicted of crimes. +Some of their cases are questionable and some involve threats and violence. +I'm not here to argue the guilt or innocence of any prisoner. +I'm here because as Supreme Court Justice Thurgood Marshall said, "When the prisons and gates slam shut, prisoners do not lose their human quality." +Every prisoner I've interviewed has said there are three flecks of light in the darkness of prison: phone calls, letters and visits from family. +CMUs aren't solitary confinement, but they radically restrict all of these to levels that meet or exceed the most extreme prisons in the United States. +Their phone calls can be limited to 45 minutes a month, compared to the 300 minutes other prisoners receive. +Their letters can be limited to six pieces of paper. +Their visits can be limited to four hours per month, compared to the 35 hours that people like Olympic Park bomber Eric Rudolph receive in the supermax. +On top of that, CMU visits are non-contact which means prisoners are not allowed to even hug their family. +As one CMU prisoner said, "We're not being tortured here, except psychologically." +The government won't say who is imprisoned here. +But through court documents, open records requests and interviews with current and former prisoners, some small windows into the CMUs have opened. +There's an estimated 60 to 70 prisoners here, and they're overwhelmingly Muslim. +They include people like Dr. Rafil Dhafir, who violated the economic sanctions on Iraq by sending medical supplies for the children there. +They've included people like Yassin Aref. +Aref and his family fled to New York from Saddam Hussein's Iraq as refugees. +He was arrested in 2004 as part of an FBI sting. +Aref is an imam and he was asked to bear witness to a loan, which is a tradition in Islamic culture. +It turned out that one of the people involved in the loan was trying to enlist someone else in a fake attack. +Aref didn't know. +For that, he was convicted of conspiracy to provide material support to a terrorist group. +The CMUs also include some non-Muslim prisoners. +The guards call them "balancers," meaning they help balance out the racial numbers, in hopes of deflecting law suits. +These balancers include animal rights and environmental activists like Daniel McGowan. +McGowan was convicted of participating in two arsons in the name of defending the environment as part of the Earth Liberation Front. +During his sentencing, he was afraid that he would be sent to a rumored secret prison for terrorists. +The judge dismissed all those fears, saying that they weren't supported by any facts. +But that might be because the government hasn't fully explained why some prisoners end up in a CMU, and who is responsible for these decisions. +When McGowan was transferred, he was told it's because he is a "domestic terrorist," a term the FBI uses repeatedly when talking about environmental activists. +Now, keep in mind there are about 400 prisoners in US prisons who are classified as terrorists, and only a handful of them are in the CMUs. +In McGowan's case, he was previously at a low-security prison and he had no communications violations. +So, why was he moved? +Like other CMU prisoners, McGowan repeatedly asked for an answer, a hearing, or some opportunity for an appeal. +This example from another prisoner shows how those requests are viewed. +"Wants a transfer." "Told him no." +At one point, the prison warden himself recommended McGowan's transfer out of the CMU citing his good behavior, but the warden was overruled by the Bureau of Prison's Counterterrorism Unit, working with the Joint Terrorism Task Force of the FBI. +Later I found out that McGowan was really sent to a CMU not because of what he did, but what he has said. +A memo from the Counterterrorism Unit cited McGowan's "anti-government beliefs." +While imprisoned, he continued writing about environmental issues, saying that activists must reflect on their mistakes and listen to each other. +Now, in fairness, if you've spent any time at all in Washington, DC, you know this is really a radical concept for the government. +I actually asked to visit McGowan in the CMU. +And I was approved. +That came as quite a shock. +First, because as I've discussed on this stage before, I learned that the FBI has been monitoring my work. +Second, because it would make me the first and only journalist to visit a CMU. +I had even learned through the Bureau of Prisons Counterterrorism Unit, that they had been monitoring my speeches about CMUs, like this one. +So how could I possibly be approved to visit? +A few days before I went out to the prison, I got an answer. +I was allowed to visit McGowan as a friend, not a journalist. +Journalists are not allowed here. +McGowan was told by CMU officials that if I asked any questions or published any story, that he would be punished for my reporting. +When I arrived for our visit, the guards reminded me that they knew who I was and knew about my work. +And they said that if I attempted to interview McGowan, the visit would be terminated. +The Bureau of Prisons describes CMUs as "self-contained housing units." +But I think that's an Orwellian way of describing black holes. +When you visit a CMU, you go through all the security checkpoints that you would expect. +But then the walk to the visitation room is silent. +When a CMU prisoner has a visit, the rest of the prison is on lockdown. +I was ushered into a small room, so small my outstretched arms could touch each wall. +There was a grapefruit-sized orb in the ceiling for the visit to be live-monitored by the Counterterrorism Unit in West Virginia. +The unit insists that all the visits have to be in English for CMU prisoners, which is an additional hardship for many of the Muslim families. +There is a thick sheet of foggy, bulletproof glass and on the other side was Daniel McGowan. +We spoke through these handsets attached to the wall and talked about books and movies. +We did our best to find reasons to laugh. +To fight boredom and amuse himself while in the CMU, McGowan had been spreading a rumor that I was secretly the president of a Twilight fan club in Washington, DC For the record, I'm not. +But I kind of the hope the FBI now thinks that Bella and Edward are terrorist code names. +During our visit, McGowan spoke most and at length about his niece Lily, his wife Jenny and how torturous it feels to never be able to hug them, to never be able to hold their hands. +Three months after our visit, McGowan was transferred out of the CMU and then, without warning, he was sent back again. +I had published leaked CMU documents on my website and the Counterterrorism Unit said that McGowan had called his wife and asked her to mail them. +He wanted to see what the government was saying about him, and for that he was sent back to the CMU. +When he was finally released at the end of his sentence, his story got even more Kafkaesque. +He wrote an article for the Huffington Post headlined, "Court Documents Prove I was Sent to a CMU for my Political Speech." +The next day he was thrown back in jail for his political speech. +His attorneys quickly secured his release, but the message was very clear: Don't talk about this place. +Today, nine years after they were opened by the Bush administration, the government is codifying how and why CMUs were created. +According to the Bureau of Prisons, they are for prisoners with "inspirational significance." +I think that is very nice way of saying these are political prisons for political prisoners. +Prisoners are sent to a CMU because of their race, their religion or their political beliefs. +Now, if you think that characterization is too strong, just look at some of the government's own documents. +When some of McGowan's mail was rejected by the CMU, the sender was told it's because the letters were intended "for political prisoners." +When another prisoner, animal rights activist Andy Stepanian, was sent to a CMU, it was because of his anti-government and anti-corporate views. +Now, I know all of this may be hard to believe, that it's happening right now, and in the United States. +But the unknown reality is that the US has a dark history of disproportionately punishing people because of their political beliefs. +In the 1960s, before Marion was home to the CMU, it was home to the notorious Control Unit. +Prisoners were locked down in solitary for 22 hours a day. +The warden said the unit was to "control revolutionary attitudes." +In the 1980s, another experiment called the Lexington High Security Unit held women connected to the Weather Underground, Black Liberation and Puerto Rican independent struggles. +The prison radically restricted communication and used sleep deprivation, and constant light for so-called "ideological conversion." +Those prisons were eventually shut down, but only through the campaigning of religious groups and human rights advocates, like Amnesty International. +Today, civil rights lawyers with the Center for Constitutional Rights are challenging CMUs in court for depriving prisoners of their due process rights and for retaliating against them for their protected political and religious speech. +Many of these documents would have never come to light without this lawsuit. +The message of these groups and my message for you today is that we must bear witness to what is being done to these prisoners. +Their treatment is a reflection of the values held beyond prison walls. +This story is not just about prisoners. +It is about us. +It is about our own commitment to human rights. +It is about whether we will choose to stop repeating the mistakes of our past. +If we don't listen to what Father Berrigan described as the stories of the dead, they will soon become the stories of ourselves. +Thank you. +Tom Rielly: I have a couple questions. +When I was in high school, I learned about the Bill of Rights, the Constitution, freedom of speech, due process and about 25 other laws and rights that seem to be violated by this. +How could this possibly be happening? +Will Potter: I think that's the number one question I get throughout all of my work, and the short answer is that people don't know. +I think the solution to any of these types of situations, any rights abuses, are really dependent on two things. +They're dependent on knowledge that it's actually happening and then a means and efficacy to actually make a change. +And unfortunately with these prisoners, one, people don't know what's happening at all and then they're already disenfranchised populations who don't have access to attorneys, not native English speakers. +In some of these cases, they have great representation that I mentioned, but there's just not a public awareness of what's happening. +TR: Isn't it guaranteed in prison that you have right to council or access to council? +WP: There's a tendency in our culture to see when people have been convicted of a crime, no matter if that charge was bogus or legitimate, that whatever happens to them after that is warranted. +And I think that's a really damaging and dangerous narrative that we have, that allows these types of things to happen, as the general public just kind of turns a blind eye to it. +TR: All those documents on screen were all real documents, word for word, unchanged at all, right? +WP: Absolutely. I've actually uploaded all of them to my website. +It's willpotter.com/CMU and it's a footnoted version of the talk, so you can see the documents for yourself without the little snippets. +You can see the full version. +I relied overwhelmingly on primary source documents or on primary interviews with former and current prisoners, with people that are dealing with this situation every day. +And like I said, I've been there myself, as well. +TR: You're doing courageous work. +WP: Thank you very much. Thank you all. +So this right here is the tiny village of Elle, close to Lista. +It's right at the southernmost tip of Norway. +And on January 2 this year, an elderly guy who lives in the village, he went out to see what was cast ashore during a recent storm. +And on a patch of grass right next to the water's edge, he found a wetsuit. +It was grey and black, and he thought it looked cheap. +Out of each leg of the wetsuit there were sticking two white bones. +It was clearly the remains of a human being. +And usually, in Norway, dead people are identified quickly. +So the police started searching through missing reports from the local area, national missing reports, and looked for accidents with a possible connection. +They found nothing. +So they ran a DNA profile, and they started searching internationally through Interpol. +Nothing. +This was a person that nobody seemed to be missing. +It was an invisible life heading for a nameless grave. +But then, after a month, the police in Norway got a message from the police in the Netherlands. +A couple of months earlier, they had found a body, in an identical wetsuit, and they had no idea who this person was. +But the police in the Netherlands managed to trace the wetsuit by an RFID chip that was sewn in the suit. +So they were then able to tell that both wetsuits were bought by the same customer at the same time, October 7, 2014, in the French city of Calais by the English Channel. +But this was all they were able to figure out. +The customer paid cash. +There was no surveillance footage from the shop. +So it became a cold case. +We heard this story, and it triggered me and my colleague, photographer Tomm Christiansen, and we of course had the obvious question: who were these people? +At the time, I'd barely heard about Calais, but it took about two or three seconds to figure out Calais is basically known for two things. +It's the spot in continental Europe closest to Britain, and a lot of migrants and refugees are staying in this camp and are trying desperately to cross over to Britain. +And right there was a plausible theory about the identity of the two people, and the police made this theory as well. +Because if you or I or anybody else with a firm connection to Europe goes missing off the coast of France, people would just know. +Your friends or family would report you missing, the police would come search for you, the media would know, and there would be pictures of you on lampposts. +It's difficult to disappear without a trace. +But if you just fled the war in Syria, and your family, if you have any family left, don't necessarily know where you are, and you're staying here illegally amongst thousands of others who come and go every day. +Well, if you disappear one day, nobody will notice. +The police won't come search for you because nobody knows you're gone. +And this is what happened to Shadi Omar Kataf and Mouaz Al Balkhi from Syria. +It is a story about the fact that everybody has a name, everybody has a story, everybody is someone. +But it is also a story about what it's like to be a refugee in Europe today. +So this is where we started our search. +This is in Calais. +Right now, between 3,500 and 5,000 people are living here under horrible conditions. +It has been dubbed the worst refugee camp in Europe. +Limited access to food, limited access to water, limited access to health care. +Disease and infections are widespread. +And they're all stuck here because they're trying to get to England in order to claim asylum. +And they do that by hiding in the back of trucks headed for the ferry, or the Eurotunnel, or they sneak inside the tunnel terminal at night to try to hide on the trains. +Most want to go to Britain because they know the language, and so they figure it would be easier to restart their lives from there. +They want to work, they want to study, they want to be able to continue their lives. +A lot of these people are highly educated and skilled workers. +If you go to Calais and talk to refugees, you'll meet lawyers, politicians, engineers, graphic designers, farmers, soldiers. +You've got the whole spectrum. +But who all of these people are usually gets lost in the way we talk about refugees and migrants, because we usually do that in statistics. +So you have 60 million refugees globally. +About half a million have made the crossing over the Mediterranean into Europe so far this year, and roughly 4,000 are staying in Calais. +But these are numbers, and the numbers don't say anything about who these people are, where they came from, or why they're here. +And first, I want to tell you about one of them. +This is 22-year-old Mouaz Al Balkhi from Syria. +We first heard about him after being in Calais the first time looking for answers to the theory of the two dead bodies. +And after a while, we heard this story about a Syrian man who was living in Bradford in England, and had been desperately searching for his nephew Mouaz for months. +And it turned out the last time anybody had heard anything from Mouaz was October 7, 2014. +That was the same date the wetsuits were bought. +So we flew over there and we met the uncle and we did DNA samples of him, and later on got additional DNA samples from Mouaz's closest relative who now lives in Jordan. +The analysis concluded the body who was found in a wetsuit on a beach in the Netherlands was actually Mouaz Al Balkhi. +And while we were doing all this investigation, we got to know Mouaz's story. +He was born in the Syrian capital of Damascus in 1991. +He was raised in a middle class family, and his father in the middle there is a chemical engineer who spent 11 years in prison for belonging to the political opposition in Syria. +While his father was in prison, Mouaz took responsibility and he cared for his three sisters. +They said he was that kind of guy. +Mouaz studied to become an electrical engineer at the University of Damascus. +So a couple of years into the Syrian war, the family fled Damascus and went to the neighboring country, Jordan. +Their father had problems finding work in Jordan, and Mouaz could not continue his studies, so he figured, "OK, the best thing I can do to help my family would be to go somewhere where I can finish my studies and find work." +So he goes to Turkey. +In Turkey, he's not accepted at a university, and once he had left Jordan as a refugee, he was not allowed to reenter. +So then he decides to head for the UK, where his uncle lives. +He makes it into Algeria, walks into Libya, pays a people smuggler to help him with the crossing into Italy by boat, and from there on he heads to Dunkirk, the city right next to Calais by the English Channel. +We know he made at least 12 failed attempts to cross the English Channel by hiding in a truck. +But at some point, he must have given up all hope. +The last night we know he was alive, he spent at a cheap hotel close to the train station in Dunkirk. +We found his name in the records, and he seems to have stayed there alone. +The day after, he went into Calais, entered a sports shop a couple of minutes before 8 o'clock in the evening, along with Shadi Kataf. +They both bought wetsuits, and the woman in the shop was the last person we know of to have seen them alive. +We have tried to figure out where Shadi met Mouaz, but we weren't able to do that. +But they do have a similar story. +We first heard about Shadi after a cousin of his, living in Germany, had read an Arabic translation of the story made of Mouaz on Facebook. +So we got in touch with him. +Shadi, a couple of years older than Mouaz, was also raised in Damascus. +He was a working kind of guy. +He ran a tire repair shop and later worked in a printing company. +He lived with his extended family, but their house got bombed early in the war. +So the family fled to an area of Damascus known as Camp Yarmouk. +Yarmouk is being described as the worst place to live on planet Earth. +They've been bombed by the military, they've been besieged, they've been stormed by ISIS and they've been cut off from supplies for years. +There was a UN official who visited last year, and he said, "They ate all the grass so there was no grass left." +Out of a population of 150,000, only 18,000 are believed to still be left in Yarmouk. +Shadi and his sisters got out. +The parents are still stuck inside. +So Shadi and one of his sisters, they fled to Libya. +This was after the fall of Gaddafi, but before Libya turned into full-blown civil war. +And in this last remaining sort of stability in Libya, Shadi took up scuba diving, and he seemed to spend most of his time underwater. +He fell completely in love with the ocean, so when he finally decided that he could no longer be in Libya, late August 2014, he hoped to find work as a diver when he reached Italy. +Reality was not that easy. +We don't know much about his travels because he had a hard time communicating with his family, but we do know that he struggled. +And by the end of September, he was living on the streets somewhere in France. +On October 7, he calls his cousin in Belgium, and explains his situation. +He said, "I'm in Calais. I need you to come get my backpack and my laptop. +I can't afford to pay the people smugglers to help me with the crossing to Britain, but I will go buy a wetsuit and I will swim." +His cousin, of course, tried to warn him not to, but Shadi's battery on the phone went flat, and his phone was never switched on again. +What was left of Shadi was found nearly three months later, 800 kilometers away in a wetsuit on a beach in Norway. +He's still waiting for his funeral in Norway, and none of his family will be able to attend. +Many may think that the story about Shadi and Mouaz is a story about death, but I don't agree. +To me, this is a story about two questions that I think we all share: what is a better life, and what am I willing to do to achieve it? +And to me, and probably a lot of you, a better life would mean being able to do more of what we think of as meaningful, whether that be spending more time with your family and friends, travel to an exotic place, or just getting money to buy that cool new device or a pair of new sneakers. +And this is all within our reach pretty easily. +But if you are fleeing a war zone, the answers to those two questions are dramatically different. +A better life is a life in safety. +It's a life in dignity. +A better life means not having your house bombed, not fearing being kidnapped. +It means being able to send your children to school, go to university, or just find work to be able to provide for yourself and the ones you love. +A better life would be a future of some possibilities compared to nearly none, and that's a strong motivation. +And I have no trouble imagining that after spending weeks or even months as a second-grade citizen, living on the streets or in a horrible makeshift camp with a stupid, racist name like "The Jungle," most of us would be willing to do just about anything. +If I could ask Shadi and Mouaz the second they stepped into the freezing waters of the English Channel, they would probably say, "This is worth the risk," because they could no longer see any other option. +And that's desperation, but that's the reality of living as a refugee in Western Europe in 2015. +Thank you. +Bruno Giussani: Thank you, Anders. +This is Tomm Christiansen, who took most of the pictures you have seen and they've done reporting together. +Tomm, you two have been back to Calais recently. +This was the third trip. +It was after the publication of the article. +What has changed? What have you seen there? +Tomm Christiansen: The first time we were in Calais, it was about 1,500 refugees there. +They had a difficult time, but they were positive, they had hope. +The last time, the camp has grown, maybe four or five thousand people. +It seemed more permanent, NGOs have arrived, a small school has opened. +But the thing is that the refugees have stayed for a longer time, and the French government has managed to seal off the borders better, so now The Jungle is growing, along with the despair and hopelessness among the refugees. +BG: Are you planning to go back? And continue the reporting? +TC: Yes. +BG: Anders, I'm a former journalist, and to me, it's amazing that in the current climate of slashing budgets and publishers in crisis, Dagbladet has consented so many resources for this story, which tells a lot about newspapers taking the responsibility, but how did you sell it to your editors? +Anders Fjellberg: It wasn't easy at first, because we weren't able to know what we actually could figure out. +As soon as it became clear that we actually could be able to identify who the first one was, we basically got the message that we could do whatever we wanted, just travel wherever you need to go, do whatever you need to do, just get this done. +BG: That's an editor taking responsibility. +The story, by the way, has been translated and published across several European countries, and certainly will continue to do. +And we want to read the updates from you. Thank you Anders. Thank you Tomm. +A few years ago, with my colleague, Emmanuelle Charpentier, I invented a new technology for editing genomes. +It's called CRISPR-Cas9. +The CRISPR technology allows scientists to make changes to the DNA in cells that could allow us to cure genetic disease. +You might be interested to know that the CRISPR technology came about through a basic research project that was aimed at discovering how bacteria fight viral infections. +Bacteria have to deal with viruses in their environment, and we can think about a viral infection like a ticking time bomb -- a bacterium has only a few minutes to defuse the bomb before it gets destroyed. +So, many bacteria have in their cells an adaptive immune system called CRISPR, that allows them to detect viral DNA and destroy it. +Part of the CRISPR system is a protein called Cas9, that's able to seek out, cut and eventually degrade viral DNA in a specific way. +The CRISPR technology has already been used to change the DNA in the cells of mice and monkeys, other organisms as well. +Chinese scientists showed recently that they could even use the CRISPR technology to change genes in human embryos. +And scientists in Philadelphia showed they could use CRISPR to remove the DNA of an integrated HIV virus from infected human cells. +The opportunity to do this kind of genome editing also raises various ethical issues that we have to consider, because this technology can be employed not only in adult cells, but also in the embryos of organisms, including our own species. +And so, together with my colleagues, I've called for a global conversation about the technology that I co-invented, so that we can consider all of the ethical and societal implications of a technology like this. +What I want to do now is tell you what the CRISPR technology is, what it can do, where we are today and why I think we need to take a prudent path forward in the way that we employ this technology. +When viruses infect a cell, they inject their DNA. +And in a bacterium, the CRISPR system allows that DNA to be plucked out of the virus, and inserted in little bits into the chromosome -- the DNA of the bacterium. +And these integrated bits of viral DNA get inserted at a site called CRISPR. +CRISPR stands for clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats. +A big mouthful -- you can see why we use the acronym CRISPR. +It's a mechanism that allows cells to record, over time, the viruses they have been exposed to. +And importantly, those bits of DNA are passed on to the cells' progeny, so cells are protected from viruses not only in one generation, but over many generations of cells. +This allows the cells to keep a record of infection, and as my colleague, Blake Wiedenheft, likes to say, the CRISPR locus is effectively a genetic vaccination card in cells. +Once those bits of DNA have been inserted into the bacterial chromosome, the cell then makes a little copy of a molecule called RNA, which is orange in this picture, that is an exact replicate of the viral DNA. +RNA is a chemical cousin of DNA, and it allows interaction with DNA molecules that have a matching sequence. +So those little bits of RNA from the CRISPR locus associate -- they bind -- to protein called Cas9, which is white in the picture, and form a complex that functions like a sentinel in the cell. +It searches through all of the DNA in the cell, to find sites that match the sequences in the bound RNAs. +And when those sites are found -- as you can see here, the blue molecule is DNA -- this complex associates with that DNA and allows the Cas9 cleaver to cut up the viral DNA. +It makes a very precise break. +So we can think of the Cas9 RNA sentinel complex like a pair of scissors that can cut DNA -- it makes a double-stranded break in the DNA helix. +And importantly, this complex is programmable, so it can be programmed to recognize particular DNA sequences, and make a break in the DNA at that site. +As I'm going to tell you now, we recognized that that activity could be harnessed for genome engineering, to allow cells to make a very precise change to the DNA at the site where this break was introduced. +That's sort of analogous to the way that we use a word-processing program to fix a typo in a document. +The reason we envisioned using the CRISPR system for genome engineering is because cells have the ability to detect broken DNA and repair it. +So if we have a way to introduce double-stranded breaks into DNA at precise places, we can trigger cells to repair those breaks, by either the disruption or incorporation of new genetic information. +So if we were able to program the CRISPR technology to make a break in DNA at the position at or near a mutation causing cystic fibrosis, for example, we could trigger cells to repair that mutation. +Genome engineering is actually not new, it's been in development since the 1970s. +We've had technologies for sequencing DNA, for copying DNA, and even for manipulating DNA. +And these technologies were very promising, but the problem was that they were either inefficient, or they were difficult enough to use that most scientists had not adopted them for use in their own laboratories, or certainly for many clinical applications. +So, the opportunity to take a technology like CRISPR and utilize it has appeal, because of its relative simplicity. +We can think of older genome engineering technologies as similar to having to rewire your computer each time you want to run a new piece of software, whereas the CRISPR technology is like software for the genome, we can program it easily, using these little bits of RNA. +So once a double-stranded break is made in DNA, we can induce repair, and thereby potentially achieve astounding things, like being able to correct mutations that cause sickle cell anemia or cause Huntington's Disease. +I actually think that the first applications of the CRISPR technology are going to happen in the blood, where it's relatively easier to deliver this tool into cells, compared to solid tissues. +Right now, a lot of the work that's going on applies to animal models of human disease, such as mice. +The technology is being used to make very precise changes that allow us to study the way that these changes in the cell's DNA affect either a tissue or, in this case, an entire organism. +Now in this example, the CRISPR technology was used to disrupt a gene by making a tiny change in the DNA in a gene that is responsible for the black coat color of these mice. +Imagine that these white mice differ from their pigmented litter-mates by just a tiny change at one gene in the entire genome, and they're otherwise completely normal. +And when we sequence the DNA from these animals, we find that the change in the DNA has occurred at exactly the place where we induced it, using the CRISPR technology. +Additional experiments are going on in other animals that are useful for creating models for human disease, such as monkeys. +And here we find that we can use these systems to test the application of this technology in particular tissues, for example, figuring out how to deliver the CRISPR tool into cells. +We also want to understand better how to control the way that DNA is repaired after it's cut, and also to figure out how to control and limit any kind of off-target, or unintended effects of using the technology. +I think that we will see clinical application of this technology, certainly in adults, within the next 10 years. +I think that it's likely that we will see clinical trials and possibly even approved therapies within that time, which is a very exciting thing to think about. +And because of the excitement around this technology, there's a lot of interest in start-up companies that have been founded to commercialize the CRISPR technology, and lots of venture capitalists that have been investing in these companies. +But we have to also consider that the CRISPR technology can be used for things like enhancement. +Imagine that we could try to engineer humans that have enhanced properties, such as stronger bones, or less susceptibility to cardiovascular disease or even to have properties that we would consider maybe to be desirable, like a different eye color or to be taller, things like that. +"Designer humans," if you will. +Right now, the genetic information to understand what types of genes would give rise to these traits is mostly not known. +But it's important to know that the CRISPR technology gives us a tool to make such changes, once that knowledge becomes available. +This raises a number of ethical questions that we have to carefully consider, and this is why I and my colleagues have called for a global pause in any clinical application of the CRISPR technology in human embryos, to give us time to really consider all of the various implications of doing so. +And actually, there is an important precedent for such a pause from the 1970s, when scientists got together to call for a moratorium on the use of molecular cloning, until the safety of that technology could be tested carefully and validated. +So, genome-engineered humans are not with us yet, but this is no longer science fiction. +Genome-engineered animals and plants are happening right now. +And this puts in front of all of us a huge responsibility, to consider carefully both the unintended consequences as well as the intended impacts of a scientific breakthrough. +Thank you. +(Applause ends) Bruno Giussani: Jennifer, this is a technology with huge consequences, as you pointed out. +Your attitude about asking for a pause or a moratorium or a quarantine is incredibly responsible. +There are, of course, the therapeutic results of this, but then there are the un-therapeutic ones and they seem to be the ones gaining traction, particularly in the media. +This is one of the latest issues of The Economist -- "Editing humanity." +It's all about genetic enhancement, it's not about therapeutics. +What kind of reactions did you get back in March from your colleagues in the science world, when you asked or suggested that we should actually pause this for a moment and think about it? +Jennifer Doudna: My colleagues were actually, I think, delighted to have the opportunity to discuss this openly. +It's interesting that as I talk to people, my scientific colleagues as well as others, there's a wide variety of viewpoints about this. +So clearly it's a topic that needs careful consideration and discussion. +BG: There's a big meeting happening in December that you and your colleagues are calling, together with the National Academy of Sciences and others, what do you hope will come out of the meeting, practically? +JD: Well, I hope that we can air the views of many different individuals and stakeholders who want to think about how to use this technology responsibly. +It may not be possible to come up with a consensus point of view, but I think we should at least understand what all the issues are as we go forward. +BG: Now, colleagues of yours, like George Church, for example, at Harvard, they say, "Yeah, ethical issues basically are just a question of safety. +We test and test and test again, in animals and in labs, and then once we feel it's safe enough, we move on to humans." +So that's kind of the other school of thought, that we should actually use this opportunity and really go for it. +Is there a possible split happening in the science community about this? +I mean, are we going to see some people holding back because they have ethical concerns, and some others just going forward because some countries under-regulate or don't regulate at all? +JD: Well, I think with any new technology, especially something like this, there are going to be a variety of viewpoints, and I think that's perfectly understandable. +I think that in the end, this technology will be used for human genome engineering, but I think to do that without careful consideration and discussion of the risks and potential complications would not be responsible. +BG: There are a lot of technologies and other fields of science that are developing exponentially, pretty much like yours. +I'm thinking about artificial intelligence, autonomous robots and so on. +No one seems -- aside from autonomous warfare robots -- nobody seems to have launched a similar discussion in those fields, in calling for a moratorium. +Do you think that your discussion may serve as a blueprint for other fields? +JD: Well, I think it's hard for scientists to get out of the laboratory. +Speaking for myself, it's a little bit uncomfortable to do that. +But I do think that being involved in the genesis of this really puts me and my colleagues in a position of responsibility. +And I would say that I certainly hope that other technologies will be considered in the same way, just as we would want to consider something that could have implications in other fields besides biology. +BG: Jennifer, thanks for coming to TED. +JD: Thank you. +I'd like to start by asking you all to go to your happy place, please. +Yes, your happy place, I know you've got one even if it's fake. +OK, so, comfortable? +Good. +Now I'd like to you to mentally answer the following questions. +Is there any strip lighting in your happy place? +Any plastic tables? +Polyester flooring? +Mobile phones? +No? +I think we all know that our happy place is meant to be somewhere natural, outdoors -- on a beach, fireside. +We'll be reading or eating or knitting. +And we're surrounded by natural light and organic elements. +Natural things make us happy. +And happiness is a great motivator; we strive for happiness. +Perhaps that's why we're always redesigning everything, in the hopes that our solutions might feel more natural. +So let's start there -- with the idea that good design should feel natural. +Your phone is not very natural. +And you probably think you're addicted to your phone, but you're really not. +We're not addicted to devices, we're addicted to the information that flows through them. +I wonder how long you would be happy in your happy place without any information from the outside world. +I'm interested in how we access that information, how we experience it. +Humans also like simple tools. +Your phone is not a very simple tool. +A fork is a simple tool. +And we don't like them made of plastic, in the same way I don't really like my phone very much -- it's not how I want to experience information. +I think there are better solutions than a world mediated by screens. +I don't hate screens, but I don't feel -- and I don't think any of us feel that good about how much time we spend slouched over them. +Fortunately, the big tech companies seem to agree. +They're actually heavily invested in touch and speech and gesture, and also in senses -- things that can turn dumb objects, like cups, and imbue them with the magic of the Internet, potentially turning this digital cloud into something we might touch and move. +The parents in crisis over screen time need physical digital toys teaching their kids to read, as well as family-safe app stores. +And I think, actually, that's already really happening. +Reality is richer than screens. +For example, I love books. +For me they are time machines -- atoms and molecules bound in space, from the moment of their creation to the moment of my experience. +But frankly, the content's identical on my phone. +So what makes this a richer experience than a screen? +I mean, scientifically. +We need screens, of course. +I'm going to show film, I need the enormous screen. +But there's more than you can do with these magic boxes. +Your phone is not the Internet's door bitch. +We can build things -- physical things, using physics and pixels, that can integrate the Internet into the world around us. +And I'm going to show you a few examples of those. +A while ago, I got to work with a design agency, Berg, on an exploration of what the Internet without screens might actually look like. +And they showed us a range ways that light can work with simple senses and physical objects to really bring the Internet to life, to make it tangible. +Like this wonderfully mechanical YouTube player. +And this was an inspiration to me. +Next I worked with the Japanese agency, AQ, on a research project into mental health. +We wanted to create an object that could capture the subjective data around mood swings that's so essential to diagnosis. +This object captures your touch, so you might press it very hard if you're angry, or stroke it if you're calm. +It's like a digital emoji stick. +And then you might revisit those moments later, and add context to them online. +Most of all, we wanted to create an intimate, beautiful thing that could live in your pocket and be loved. +The binoculars are actually a birthday present for the Sydney Opera House's 40th anniversary. +Our friends at Tellart in Boston brought over a pair of street binoculars, the kind you might find on the Empire State Building, and they fitted them with 360-degree views of other iconic world heritage sights -- using Street View. +And then we stuck them under the steps. +So, they became this very physical, simple reappropriation, or like a portal to these other icons. +So you might see Versailles or Shackleton's Hut. +Basically, it's virtual reality circa 1955. +In our office we use hacky sacks to exchange URLs. +This is incredibly simple, it's like your Opal card. +You basically put a website on the little chip in here, and then you do this and ... bosh! -- the website appears on your phone. +It's about 10 cents. +Treehugger is a project that we're working on with Grumpy Sailor and Finch, here in Sydney. +And I'm very excited about what might happen when you pull the phones apart and you put the bits into trees, and that my children might have an opportunity to visit an enchanted forest guided by a magic wand, where they could talk to digital fairies and ask them questions, and be asked questions in return. +As you can see, we're at the cardboard stage with this one. +But I'm very excited by the possibility of getting kids back outside without screens, but with all the powerful magic of the Internet at their fingertips. +And we hope to have something like this working by the end of the year. +So let's recap. +Humans like natural solutions. +Humans love information. +Humans need simple tools. +These principles should underpin how we design for the future, not just for the Internet. +You may feel uncomfortable about the age of information that we're moving into. +You may feel challenged, rather than simply excited. +Guess what? Me too. +It's a really extraordinary period of human history. +We are the people that actually build our world, there are no artificial intelligences... +yet. +It's us -- designers, architects, artists, engineers. +And if we challenge ourselves, I think that actually we can have a happy place filled with the information we love that feels as natural and as simple as switching on lightbulb. +And although it may seem inevitable, that what the public wants is watches and websites and widgets, maybe we could give a bit of thought to cork and light and hacky sacks. +Thank you very much. +Every day, I listen to harrowing stories of people fleeing for their lives, across dangerous borders and unfriendly seas. +But there's one story that keeps me awake at night, and it's about Doaa. +A Syrian refugee, 19 years old, she was living a grinding existence in Egypt working day wages. +Her dad was constantly thinking of his thriving business back in Syria that had been blown to pieces by a bomb. +And the war that drove them there was still raging in its fourth year. +And the community that once welcomed them there had become weary of them. +And one day, men on motorcycles tried to kidnap her. +Once an aspiring student thinking only of her future, now she was scared all the time. +But she was also full of hope, because she was in love with a fellow Syrian refugee named Bassem. +Bassem was also struggling in Egypt, and he said to Doaa, "Let's go to Europe; seek asylum, safety. +I will work, you can study -- the promise of a new life." +And he asked her father for her hand in marriage. +But they knew to get to Europe they had to risk their lives, traveling across the Mediterranean Sea, putting their hands in smugglers', notorious for their cruelty. +And Doaa was terrified of the water. +She always had been. She never learned to swim. +It was August that year, and already 2,000 people had died trying to cross the Mediterranean, but Doaa knew of a friend who had made it all the way to Northern Europe, and she thought, "Maybe we can, too." +So she asked her parents if they could go, and after a painful discussion, they consented, and Bassem paid his entire life savings -- 2,500 dollars each -- to the smugglers. +It was a Saturday morning when the call came, and they were taken by bus to a beach, hundreds of people on the beach. +They were taken then by small boats onto an old fishing boat, 500 of them crammed onto that boat, 300 below, [200] above. +There were Syrians, Palestinians, Africans, Muslims and Christians, 100 children, including Sandra -- little Sandra, six years old -- and Masa, 18 months. +There were families on that boat, crammed together shoulder to shoulder, feet to feet. +Doaa was sitting with her legs crammed up to her chest, Bassem holding her hand. +Day two on the water, they were sick with worry and sick to their stomachs from the rough sea. +Day three, Doaa had a premonition. +And she said to Bassem, "I fear we're not going to make it. +I fear the boat is going to sink." +And Bassem said to her, "Please be patient. +We will make it to Sweden, we will get married and we will have a future." +Day four, the passengers were getting agitated. +They asked the captain, "When will we get there?" +He told them to shut up, and he insulted them. +He said, "In 16 hours we will reach the shores of Italy." +They were weak and weary. +Soon they saw a boat approach -- a smaller boat, 10 men on board, who started shouting at them, hurling insults, throwing sticks, asking them to all disembark and get on this smaller, more unseaworthy boat. +The parents were terrified for their children, and they collectively refused to disembark. +So the boat sped away in anger, and a half an hour later, came back and started deliberately ramming a hole in the side of Doaa's boat, just below where she and Bassem were sitting. +And she heard how they yelled, "Let the fish eat your flesh!" +And they started laughing as the boat capsized and sank. +The 300 people below deck were doomed. +Doaa was holding on to the side of the boat as it sank, and watched in horror as a small child was cut to pieces by the propeller. +Bassem said to her, "Please let go, or you'll be swept in and the propeller will kill you, too." +And remember -- she can't swim. +But she let go and she started moving her arms and her legs, thinking, "This is swimming." +And miraculously, Bassem found a life ring. +It was one of those child's rings that they use to play in swimming pools and on calm seas. +And Doaa climbed onto the ring, her arms and her legs dangling by the side. +Bassem was a good swimmer, so he held her hand and tread water. +Around them there were corpses. +Around 100 people survived initially, and they started coming together in groups, praying for rescue. +But when a day went by and no one came, some people gave up hope, and Doaa and Bassem watched as men in the distance took their life vests off and sank into the water. +One man approached them with a small baby perched on his shoulder, nine months old -- Malek. +He was holding onto a gas canister to stay afloat, and he said to them, "I fear I am not going to survive. +I'm too weak. I don't have the courage anymore." +And he handed little Malek over to Bassem and to Doaa, and they perched her onto the life ring. +So now they were three, Doaa, Bassem and little Malek. +And let me take a pause in this story right here and ask the question: why do refugees like Doaa take these kinds of risks? +Millions of refugees are living in exile, in limbo. +They're living in countries [fleeing] from a war that has been raging for four years. +Even if they wanted to return, they can't. +Their homes, their businesses, their towns and their cities have been completely destroyed. +This is a UNESCO World Heritage City, Homs, in Syria. +So people continue to flee into neighboring countries, and we build refugee camps for them in the desert. +Hundreds of thousands of people live in camps like these, and thousands and thousands more, millions, live in towns and cities. +And the communities, the neighboring countries that once welcomed them with open arms and hearts are overwhelmed. +There are simply not enough schools, water systems, sanitation. +Even rich European countries could never handle such an influx without massive investment. +The Syria war has driven almost four million people over the borders, but over seven million people are on the run inside the country. +That means that over half the Syrian population has been forced to flee. +Back to those neighboring countries hosting so many. +They feel that the richer world has done too little to support them. +And days have turned into months, months into years. +A refugee's stay is supposed to be temporary. +Back to Doaa and Bassem in the water. +It was their second day, and Bassem was getting very weak. +And now it was Doaa's turn to say to Bassem, "My love, please hold on to hope, to our future. We will make it." +And he said to her, "I'm sorry, my love, that I put you in this situation. +I have never loved anyone as much as I love you." +And he released himself into the water, and Doaa watched as the love of her life drowned before her eyes. +Later that day, a mother came up to Doaa with her small 18-month-old daughter, Masa. +This was the little girl I showed you in the picture earlier, with the life vests. +Her older sister Sandra had just drowned, and her mother knew she had to do everything in her power to save her daughter. +And she said to Doaa, "Please take this child. +Let her be part of you. I will not survive." +And then she went away and drowned. +So Doaa, the 19-year-old refugee who was terrified of the water, who couldn't swim, found herself in charge of two little baby kids. +And they were thirsty and they were hungry and they were agitated, and she tried her best to amuse them, to sing to them, to say words to them from the Quran. +Around them, the bodies were bloating and turning black. +The sun was blazing during the day. +At night, there was a cold moon and fog. +It was very frightening. +On the fourth day in the water, this is how Doaa probably looked on the ring with her two children. +A woman came on the fourth day and approached her and asked her to take another child -- a little boy, just four years old. +When Doaa took the little boy and the mother drowned, she said to the sobbing child, "She just went away to find you water and food." +But his heart soon stopped, and Doaa had to release the little boy into the water. +Later that day, she looked up into the sky with hope, because she saw two planes crossing in the sky. +And she waved her arms, hoping they would see her, but the planes were soon gone. +But that afternoon, as the sun was going down, she saw a boat, a merchant vessel. +And she said, "Please, God, let them rescue me." +She waved her arms and she felt like she shouted for about two hours. +And it had become dark, but finally the searchlights found her and they extended a rope, astonished to see a woman clutching onto two babies. +They pulled them onto the boat, they got oxygen and blankets, and a Greek helicopter came to pick them up and take them to the island of Crete. +But Doaa looked down and asked, "What of Malek?" +And they told her the little baby did not survive -- she drew her last breath in the boat's clinic. +But Doaa was sure that as they had been pulled up onto the rescue boat, that little baby girl had been smiling. +Only 11 people survived that wreck, of the 500. +There was never an international investigation into what happened. +There were some media reports about mass murder at sea, a terrible tragedy, but that was only for one day. +And then the news cycle moved on. +Meanwhile, in a pediatric hospital on Crete, little Masa was on the edge of death. +She was really dehydrated. Her kidneys were failing. +Her glucose levels were dangerously low. +The doctors did everything in their medical power to save them, and the Greek nurses never left her side, holding her, hugging her, singing her words. +My colleagues also visited and said pretty words to her in Arabic. +Amazingly, little Masa survived. +And soon the Greek press started reporting about the miracle baby, who had survived four days in the water without food or anything to drink, and offers to adopt her came from all over the country. +And meanwhile, Doaa was in another hospital on Crete, thin, dehydrated. +An Egyptian family took her into their home as soon as she was released. +And soon word went around about Doaa's survival, and a phone number was published on Facebook. +Messages started coming in. +"Doaa, do you know what happened to my brother? +My sister? My parents? My friends? Do you know if they survived?" +One of those messages said, "I believe you saved my little niece, Masa." +And it had this photo. +This was from Masa's uncle, a Syrian refugee who had made it to Sweden with his family and also Masa's older sister. +Soon, we hope, Masa will be reunited with him in Sweden, and until then, she's being cared for in a beautiful orphanage in Athens. +And Doaa? Well, word went around about her survival, too. +And the media wrote about this slight woman, and couldn't imagine how she could survive all this time under such conditions in that sea, and still save another life. +The Academy of Athens, one of Greece's most prestigious institutions, gave her an award of bravery, and she deserves all that praise, and she deserves a second chance. +But she wants to still go to Sweden. +She wants to reunite with her family there. +She wants to bring her mother and her father and her younger siblings away from Egypt there as well, and I believe she will succeed. +She wants to become a lawyer or a politician or something that can help fight injustice. +She is an extraordinary survivor. +But I have to ask: what if she didn't have to take that risk? +Why did she have to go through all that? +Why wasn't there a legal way for her to study in Europe? +Why couldn't Masa have taken an airplane to Sweden? +Why couldn't Bassem have found work? +Why is there no massive resettlement program for Syrian refugees, the victims of the worst war of our times? +The world did this for the Vietnamese in the 1970s. Why not now? +Why is there so little investment in the neighboring countries hosting so many refugees? +And why, the root question, is so little being done to stop the wars, the persecution and the poverty that is driving so many people to the shores of Europe? +Until these issues are resolved, people will continue to take to the seas and to seek safety and asylum. +And what happens next? +Well, that is largely Europe's choice. +And I understand the public fears. +People are worried about their security, their economies, the changes of culture. +But is that more important than saving human lives? +Because there is something fundamental here that I think overrides the rest, and it is about our common humanity. +No person fleeing war or persecution should have to die crossing a sea to reach safety. +One thing is for sure, that no refugee would be on those dangerous boats if they could thrive where they are. +And no migrant would take that dangerous journey if they had enough food for themselves and their children. +And no one would put their life savings in the hands of those notorious smugglers if there was a legal way to migrate. +So on behalf of little Masa and on behalf of Doaa and of Bassem and of those 500 people who drowned with them, can we make sure that they did not die in vain? +Could we be inspired by what happened, and take a stand for a world in which every life matters? +Thank you. +I would like to invite you to come along on a visit to a dark continent. +It is the continent hidden under the surface of the earth. +It is largely unexplored, poorly understood, and the stuff of legends. +But it is made also of dramatic landscapes like this huge underground chamber, and it is rich with surprising biological and mineralogical worlds. +Thanks to the efforts of intrepid voyagers in the last three centuries -- actually, we know also thanks to satellite technology, of course -- we know almost every single square meter of our planet's surface. +However, we know still very little about what is hidden inside the earth. +Because a cave landscape, like this deep shaft in Italy, is hidden, the potential of cave exploration -- the geographical dimension -- is poorly understood and unappreciated. +Because we are creatures living on the surface, our perception of the inner side of the planet is in some ways skewed, as is that of the depth of the oceans or of the upper atmosphere. +However, since systematic cave exploration started about one century ago, we know actually that caves exist in every continent of the world. +A single cave system, like Mammoth Cave, which is in Kentucky, can be as long as more than 600 kilometers. +And an abyss like Krubera Voronya, which is in the Caucasus region, actually the deepest cave explored in the world, can go as far as more than 2,000 meters below the surface. +That means a journey of weeks for a cave explorer. +Caves form in karstic regions. +So karstic regions are areas of the world where the infiltrating water along cracks, fractures, can easily dissolve soluble lithologies, forming a drainage system of tunnels, conduits -- a three-dimensional network, actually. +Karstic regions cover almost 20 percent of the continents' surface, and we know actually that speleologists in the last 50 years have explored roughly 30,000 kilometers of cave passages around the world, which is a big number. +But geologists have estimated that what is still missing, to be discovered and mapped, is something around 10 million kilometers. +That means that for each meter of a cave that we already know, that we have explored, there are still some tens of kilometers of undiscovered passages. +That means that this is really an endless continent, and we will never be able to explore it completely. +And this estimation is made without considering other types of caves, like, for example, inside glaciers or even volcanic caves, which are not karstic, but are formed by lava flows. +And if we have a look at other planets like, for example, Mars, you will see that this characteristic is not so specific of our home planet. +However, I will show to you now that we do not need to go to Mars to explore alien worlds. +I'm a speleologist, that means a cave explorer. +And I started with this passion when I was really young in the mountains not far from my hometown in North Italy, in the karstic regions of the Alps and the Dolomites. +But soon, the quest for exploration brought me to the farthest corner of the planet, searching for new potential entrances of this undiscovered continent. +And in 2009, I had the opportunity to visit the tepui table mountains, which are in the Orinoco and Amazon basins. +These massifs enchanted me from the first time I saw them. +They are surrounded by vertical, vertiginous rock walls with silvery waterfalls that are lost in the forest. +They really inspired in me a sense of wilderness, with a soul older than millions and millions of years. +And this dramatic landscape inspired among other things also Conan Doyle's "The Lost World" novel in 1912. +And they are, really, a lost world. +Scientists consider those mountains as islands in time, being separated from the surrounding lowlands since tens of millions of years ago. +They are surrounded by up to 1,000-meter-high walls, resembling a fortress, impregnable by humans. +And, in fact, only a few of these mountains have been climbed and explored on their top. +These mountains contain also a scientific paradox: They are made by quartz, which is a very common mineral on the earth's crust, and the rock made up by quartz is called quartzite, and quartzite is one of the hardest and least soluble minerals on earth. +So we do not expect at all to find a cave there. +Despite this, in the last 10 years, speleologists from Italy, Slovakia, Czech Republic, and, of course, Venezuela and Brazil, have explored several caves in this area. +So how can it be possible? +So you can imagine that the water had tens or even hundreds of millions of years to sculpt the strangest forms on the tepuis' surfaces, but also to open the fractures and form stone cities, rock cities, fields of towers which are characterized in the famous landscape of the tepuis. +But nobody could have imagined what was happening inside a mountain in so long a time frame. +And so I was focusing in 2010 on one of those massifs, the Auyn-tepui, which is very famous because it hosts Angel Falls, which is the highest waterfall in the world -- about 979 meters of vertical drop. +And I was searching for hints of the existence of cave systems through satellite images, and finally we identified an area of collapses of the surface -- so, big boulders, rock piles -- and that means that there was a void below. +It was a clear indication that there was something inside the mountain. +So we did several attempts to reach this area, by land and with a helicopter, but it was really difficult because -- you have to imagine that these mountains are covered by clouds most of the year, by fog. +There are strong winds, and there are almost 4,000 millimeters of rainfall per year, so it's really, really difficult to find good conditions. +And only in 2013 we finally landed on the spot and we started the exploration of the cave. +The cave is huge. +It's a huge network under the surface of the tepui plateau, and in only ten days of expedition, we explored more than 20 kilometers of cave passages. +And it's a huge network of underground rivers, channels, big rooms, extremely deep shafts. +So it's really an incredible place. +And we named it Imawar Yeuta. +That means, in the Pemn indigenous language, "The House of the Gods." +You have to imagine that indigenous people have never been there. +It was impossible for them to reach this area. +However, there were legends about the existence of a cave in the mountain. +So when we started the exploration, we had to explore with a great respect, both because of the religious beliefs of the indigenous people, but also because it was really a sacred place, because no human had entered there before. +So we had to use special protocols to not contaminate the environment with our presence, and we tried also to share with the community, with the indigenous community, our discoveries. +And the caves represent, really, a snapshot of the past. +The time needed for their formation could be as long as 50 or even 100 million years, which makes them possibly the oldest caves that we can explore on earth. +What you can find there is really evidence of a lost world. +When you enter a quartzite cave, you have to completely forget what you know about caves -- classic limestone caves or the touristic caves that you can visit in several places in the world. +Because what seems a simple stalactite here is not made by calcium carbonate, but is made by opal, and one of those stalactites can require tens of millions of years to be formed. +But you can find even stranger forms, like these mushrooms of silica growing on a boulder. +And you can imagine our talks when we were exploring the cave. +We were the first entering and discovering those unknown things, things like those monster eggs. +And we were a bit scared because it was all a discovery, and we didn't want to find a dinosaur. +We didn't find a dinosaur. +Anyway, actually, we know that this kind of formation, after several studies, we know that these kinds of formations are living organisms. +They are bacterial colonies using silica to build mineral structures resembling stromatolites. +Stromatolites are some of the oldest forms of life that we can find on earth. +And here in the tepuis, the interesting thing is that these bacteria colonies have evolved in complete isolation from the external surface, and without being in contact with humans. +They have never been in contact with humans. +So the implications for science are enormous, because here you could find, for example, microbes that could be useful to resolve diseases in medicine, or you could find even a new kind of material with unknown properties. +And, in fact, we discovered in the cave a new mineral structure for science, which is rossiantonite, a phosphate-sulfate. +So whatever you find in the cave, even a small cricket, has evolved in the dark in complete isolation. +And, really, everything that you can feel in the cave are real connections between the biological and the mineralogical world. +So as we explore this dark continent and discover its mineralogical and biological diversity and uniqueness, we will find probably clues about the origin of life on our planet and on the relationship and evolution of life in relationship with the mineral world. +What seems only a dark, empty environment could be in reality a chest of wonders full of useful information. +With a team of Italian, Venezuelan and Brazilian speleologists, which is called La Venta Teraphosa, we will be back soon to Latin America, because we want to explore other tepuis in the farthest areas of the Amazon. +There are still very unknown mountains, like Marahuaca, which is almost 3,000 meters high above sea level, or Arac, which is in the upper region of Rio Negro in Brazil. +And we suppose that we could find there even bigger cave systems, and each one with its own undiscovered world. +Thank you. +Bruno Giussani: Thank you, Francesco. Give me that to start so we don't forget. +Francesco, you said we don't need to go to Mars to find alien life, and indeed, last time we spoke, you were in Sardinia and you were training European astronauts. +So what do you, a speleologist, tell and teach to the astronauts? +Francesco Sauro: Yeah, we are -- it's a program of training for not only European, but also NASA, Roskosmos, JAXA astronauts, in a cave. +So they stay in a cave for about one week in isolation. +They have to work together in a real, real dangerous environment, and it's a real alien environment for them because it's unusual. +It's always dark. They have to do science. They have a lot of tasks. +And it's very similar to a journey to Mars or the International Space Station. +BG: In principle. FS: Yes. +BG: I want to go back to one of the pictures that was in your slide show, and it's just representative of the other photos -- Weren't those photos amazing? Yeah? +Audience: Yeah! +FS: I have to thank the photographers from the team La Venta, because all of those photos are from the photographers. +BG: You bring, actually, photographers with you in the expedition. +They're professionals, they're speleologists and photographers. +But when I look at these pictures, I wonder: there is zero light down there, and yet they look incredibly well-exposed. +How do you take these pictures? +How do your colleagues, the photographers, take these pictures? +FS: Yeah. They are working in a darkroom, basically, so you can open the shutter of the camera and use the lights to paint the environment. +BG: So you're basically -- FS: Yes. You can even keep the shutter open for one minute and then paint the environment. +The final result is what you want to achieve. +BG: You spray the environment with light and that's what you get. +Maybe we can try this at home someday, I don't know. +BG: Francesco, grazie. FS: Grazie. +A girl I've never met before changed my life and the life of thousands of other people. +I'm the CEO of DoSomething.org. +It's one of the largest organizations in the world for young people. +In fact it's bigger than the Boy Scouts in the United States. +And we're not homophobic. +And it's true -- the way we communicate with young people is by text, because that's how young people communicate. +So we'll run over 200 campaigns this year, things like collecting peanut butter for food pantries, or making Valentine's Day cards for senior citizens who are homebound. +And we'll text them. +And we'll have a 97 percent open rate. +It'll over-index Hispanic and urban. +We collected 200,000 jars of peanut butter and over 365,000 Valentine's Day cards. +This is big scale. OK -- But there's one weird side effect. +Every time we send out a text message, we get back a few dozen text messages having nothing to do with peanut butter or hunger or senior citizens -- but text messages about being bullied, text messages about being addicted to pot. +And the worst message we ever got said exactly this: "He won't stop raping me. +It's my dad. +He told me not to tell anyone. Are you there?" +We couldn't believe this was happening. +We couldn't believe that something so horrific could happen to a human being, and that she would share it with us -- something so intimate, so personal. +And we realized we had to stop triaging this and we had to build a crisis text line for these people in pain. +So we launched Crisis Text Line, very quietly, in Chicago and El Paso -- just a few thousand people in each market. +And in four months, we were in all 295 area codes in America. +Just to put that into perspective, that's zero marketing and faster growth than when Facebook first launched. +Text is unbelievably private. +No one hears you talking. +So we spike everyday at lunch time -- kids are sitting at the lunch table and you think that she's texting the cute boy across the hall, but she's actually texting us about her bulimia. +And we don't get the word "like" or "um" or hyperventilating or crying. +We just get facts. +We get things like, "I want to die. +I have a bottle of pills on the desk in front of me." +And so the crisis counselor says, "How about you put those pills in the drawer while we text?" +And they go back and forth for a while. +And the crisis counselor gets the girl to give her her address, because if you're texting a text line, you want help. +So she gets the address and the counselor triggers an active rescue while they're texting back and forth. +And then it goes quiet -- 23 minutes with no response from this girl. +And the next message that comes in says -- it's the mom -- "I had no idea, and I was in the house, we're in an ambulance on our way to the hospital." +As a mom that one just -- The next message comes a month later. +"I just got out of the hospital. +I was diagnosed as bipolar, and I think I'm going to be OK." +I would love to tell you that that's an unusual exchange, but we're doing on average 2.41 active rescues a day. +Thirty percent of our text messages are about suicide and depression -- huge. +The beautiful thing about Crisis Text Line is that these are strangers counseling other strangers on the most intimate issues, and getting them from hot moments to cold moments. +It's exciting, and I will tell you that we have done a total of more than 6.5 million text messages in less than two years. +But the thing that really gets me hot and sweaty about this, the thing that really gets me psyched is the data: 6.5 million messages -- that's the volume, velocity and variety to provide a really juicy corpus. +We can do things like predictive work. +We can do all kinds of conclusions and learnings from that data set. +So we can be better, and the world can be better. +So how do we use the data to make us better? +Alright, chances are someone here, someone watching this has seen a therapist or a shrink at some point in time in your life -- you do not have to raise your hand. +How do you know that person's any good? +Oh, they have a degree from Harvard on the wall? +Are you sure he didn't graduate in the bottom 10 percent? +When my husband and I saw a marriage counselor, I thought she was a genius when she said, "I'll see you guys in two weeks -- but I need to see you next week, sir." +We have the data to know what makes a great counselor. +We know that if you text the words "numbs" and "sleeve," there's a 99 percent match for cutting. +We know that if you text in the words "mg" and "rubber band," there's a 99 percent match for substance abuse. +And we know that if you text in "sex," "oral" and "Mormon," you're questioning if you're gay. +Now that's interesting information that a counselor could figure out but that algorithm in our hands means that an automatic pop-up says, "99 percent match for cutting -- try asking one of these questions" to prompt the counselor. +Or "99 percent match for substance abuse, here are three drug clinics near the texter." +It makes us more accurate. +On the day that Robin Williams committed suicide, people flooded hotlines all over this country. +It was sad to see an icon, a funnyman, commit suicide, and there were three hour wait times on every phone hotline in the country. +We had a spike in volume also. +The difference was if you text us, "I want to die," or "I want to kill myself," the algorithm reads that, you're code orange, and you become number one in the queue. +So we can handle severity, not chronological. +This data is also making the world better because I'm sitting on the world's first map of real-time crises. +Think about it: those 6.5 million messages, auto-tagging through natural language processes, all of these data points -- I can tell you that the worst day of the week for eating disorders: Monday. +The worst time of day for substance abuse: 5am. +And that Montana is a beautiful place to visit but you do not want to live there, because it is the number one state for suicidal ideation. +And we've made this data public and free and open. +We've pulled all the personally identifiable information. +And it's in a place called CrisisTrends.org. +Because I want schools to be able to see that Monday is the worst day for eating disorders, so that they can plan meals and guidance counselors to be there on Mondays. +And I want families to see that substance abuse questions spike at 5am. +I want somebody to take care of those Native American reservations in Montana. +Data, evidence makes policy, research, journalism, policing, school boards -- everything better. +I don't think of myself as a mental health activist. +I think of myself as a national health activist. +I get really excited about this data, I'm a little nerdy. +Yeah, that sounded too girly. +I'm nerdy. +I love data. +And the only difference really between me and those people in hoodies down the road with their fat-funded companies, is that I'm not inspired by helping you find Chinese food at 2am in Dallas, or helping you touch your wrist and get a car immediately, or swipe right and get laid. +I'm inspired -- (Laughter, applause) I want to use tech and data to make the world a better place. +I want to use it to help that girl, who texted in about being raped by her father. +Because the truth is we never heard from her again. +And I hope that she is somewhere safe and healthy, and I hope that she sees this talk and she knows that her desperation and her courage inspired the creation of Crisis Text Line and inspires me every freaking day. +I want to tell you three stories about the power of relationships to solve the deep and complex social problems of this century. +You know, sometimes it seems like all these problems of poverty, inequality, ill health, unemployment, violence, addiction -- they're right there in one person's life. +So I want to tell you about someone like this that I know. +I'm going to call her Ella. +Ella lives in a British city on a run down estate. +The shops are closed, the pub's gone, the playground's pretty desolate and never used, and inside Ella's house, the tension is palpable and the noise levels are deafening. +The TV's on at full volume. +One of her sons is fighting with one of her daughters. +Another son, Ryan, is keeping up this constant stream of abuse from the kitchen, and the dogs are locked behind the bedroom door and straining. +Ella is stuck. +She has lived with crisis for 40 years. +She knows nothing else, and she knows no way out. +She's had a whole series of abusive partners, and, tragically, one of her children has been taken into care by social services. +The three children that still live with her suffer from a whole range of problems, and none of them are in education. +And Ella says to me that she is repeating the cycle of her own mother's life before her. +But when I met Ella, there were 73 different services on offer for her and her family in the city where she lives, 73 different services run out of 24 departments in one city, and Ella and her partners and her children were known to most of them. +They think nothing of calling social services to try and mediate one of the many arguments that broke out. +And the family home was visited on a regular basis by social workers, youth workers, a health officer, a housing officer, a home tutor and the local policemen. +And the governments say that there are 100,000 families in Britain today like Ella's, struggling to break the cycle of economic, social and environmental deprivation. +And they also say that managing this problem costs a quarter of a million pounds per family per year and yet nothing changes. +None of these well-meaning visitors are making a difference. +This is a chart we made in the same city with another family like Ella's. +This shows 30 years of intervention in that family's life. +And just as with Ella, not one of these interventions is part of an overall plan. +There's no end goal in sight. +None of the interventions are dealing with the underlying issues. +These are just containment measures, ways of managing a problem. +One of the policemen says to me, "Look, I just deliver the message and then I leave." +So, I've spent time living with families like Ella's in different parts of the world, because I want to know: what can we learn from places where our social institutions just aren't working? +I want to know what it feels like to live in Ella's family. +I want to know what's going on and what we can do differently. +Well, the first thing I learned is that cost is a really slippery concept. +Because when the government says that a family like Ella's costs a quarter of a million pounds a year to manage, what it really means is that this system costs a quarter of a million pounds a year. +Because not one penny of this money actually touches Ella's family in a way that makes a difference. +Instead, the system is just like this costly gyroscope that spins around the families, keeping them stuck at its heart, exactly where they are. +And I also spent time with the frontline workers, and I learned that it is an impossible situation. +So he says to Ryan, "How often have you been smoking? Have you been drinking? +When did you go to school?" +And this kind of interaction rules out the possibility of a normal conversation. +It rules out the possibility of what's needed to build a relationship between Tom and Ryan. +When we made this chart, the frontline workers, the professionals -- they stared at it absolutely amazed. +It snaked around the walls of their offices. +So many hours, so well meant, but ultimately so futile. +And there was this moment of absolute breakdown, and then of clarity: we had to work in a different way. +So in a really brave step, the leaders of the city where Ella lives agreed that we could start by reversing Ryan's ratio. +So everyone who came into contact with Ella or a family like Ella's would spend 80 percent of their time working with the families and only 20 percent servicing the system. +And even more radically, the families would lead and they would decide who was in a best position to help them. +So Ella and another mother were asked to be part of an interview panel, to choose from amongst the existing professionals who would work with them. +And many, many people wanted to join us, because you don't go into this kind of work to manage a system, you go in because you can and you want to make a difference. +So Ella and the mother asked everybody who came through the door, "What will you do when my son starts kicking me?" +And so the first person who comes in says, "Well, I'll look around for the nearest exit and I will back out very slowly, and if the noise is still going on, I'll call my supervisor." +And the mothers go, "You're the system. Get out of here!" +And then the next person who comes is a policeman, and he says, "Well, I'll tackle your son to the ground and then I'm not sure what I'll do." +And the mothers say, "Thank you." +So, they chose professionals who confessed they didn't necessarily have the answers, who said -- well, they weren't going to talk in jargon. +They showed their human qualities and convinced the mothers that they would stick with them through thick and thin, even though they wouldn't be soft with them. +So these new teams and the families were then given a sliver of the former budget, but they could spend the money in any way they chose. +And so one of the families went out for supper. +They went to McDonald's and they sat down and they talked and they listened for the first time in a long time. +Another family asked the team if they would help them do up their home. +And one mother took the money and she used it as a float to start a social enterprise. +And in a really short space of time, something new started to grow: a relationship between the team and the workers. +And then some remarkable changes took place. +Maybe it's not surprising that the journey for Ella has had some big steps backwards as well as forwards. +But today, she's completed an IT training course, she has her first paid job, her children are back in school, and the neighbors, who previously just hoped this family would be moved anywhere except next door to them, are fine. +They've made some new friendships. +And all the same people have been involved in this transformation -- same families, same workers. +But the relationship between them has been supported to change. +So I'm telling you about Ella because I think that relationships are the critical resource we have in solving some of these intractable problems. +But today, our relationships are all but written off by our politics, our social policies, our welfare institutions. +And I've learned that this really has to change. +So what do I mean by relationships? +I'm talking about the simple human bonds between us, a kind of authentic sense of connection, of belonging, the bonds that make us happy, that support us to change, to be brave like Ella and try something new. +And, you know, it's no accident that those who run and work in the institutions that are supposed to support Ella and her family don't talk about relationships, because relationships are expressly designed out of a welfare model that was drawn up in Britain and exported around the world. +The contemporaries of William Beveridge, who was the architect of the first welfare state and the author of the Beveridge Report, had little faith in what they called the average sensual or emotional man. +Instead, they trusted this idea of the impersonal system and the bureaucrat who would be detached and work in this system. +And the impact of Beveridge on the way the modern state sees social issues just can't be underestimated. +The Beveridge Report sold over 100,000 copies in the first weeks of publication alone. +People queued in the rain on a November night to get hold of a copy, and it was read across the country, across the colonies, across Europe, across the United States of America, and it had this huge impact on the way that welfare states were designed around the globe. +The cultures, the bureaucracies, the institutions -- they are global, and they've come to seem like common sense. +They've become so ingrained in us, that actually we don't even see them anymore. +And I think it's really important to say that in the 20th century, they were remarkably successful, these institutions. +They led to longer lifespans, the eradication of mass disease, mass housing, almost universal education. +But at the same time, Beveridge sowed the seeds of today's challenges. +So let me tell you a second story. +What do you think today is a bigger killer than a lifetime of smoking? +It's loneliness. +According to government statistics, one person over 60 -- one in three -- doesn't speak to or see another person in a week. +One person in 10, that's 850,000 people, doesn't speak to anyone else in a month. +And we're not the only people with this problem; this problem touches the whole of the Western world. +And it's even more acute in countries like China, where a process of rapid urbanization, mass migration, has left older people alone in the villages. +And so the services that Beveridge designed and exported -- they can't address this kind of problem. +Loneliness is like a collective relational challenge, and it can't be addressed by a traditional bureaucratic response. +So some years ago, wanting to understand this problem, I started to work with a group of about 60 older people in South London, where I live. +I went shopping, I played bingo, but mainly I was just observing and listening. +I wanted to know what we could do differently. +And if you ask them, people tell you they want two things. +They want somebody to go up a ladder and change a light bulb, or to be there when they come out of hospital. +They want on-demand, practical support. +And they want to have fun. +They want to go out, do interesting things with like-minded people, and make friends like we've all made friends at every stage of our lives. +So we rented a phone line, hired a couple of handymen, and started a service we called "Circle." +And Circle offers its local membership a toll-free 0 800 number that they can call on demand for any support. +And people have called us for so many reasons. +They've called because their pets are unwell, their DVD is broken, they've forgotten how to use their mobile phone, or maybe they are coming out of hospital and they want someone to be there. +And Circle also offers a rich social calendar -- knitting, darts, museum tours, hot air ballooning -- you name it. +But here's the interesting thing, the really deep change: over time, the friendships that have formed have begun to replace the practical offer. +So let me tell you about Belinda. +Belinda's a Circle member, and she was going into hospital for a hip operation, so she called her local Circle to say they wouldn't see her for a bit. +And Damon, who runs the local Circle, calls her back and says, "How can I help?" +And Belinda says, "Oh no, I'm fine -- Jocelyn is doing the shopping, Tony's doing the gardening, Melissa and Joe are going to come in and cook and chat." +So five Circle members had organized themselves to take care of Belinda. +And Belinda's 80, although she says that she feels 25 inside, but she also says that she felt stuck and pretty down when she joined Circle. +But the simple act of encouraging her to come along to that first event led to a process where natural friendships formed, friendships that today are replacing the need for expensive services. +It's relationships that are making the difference. +So I think that three factors have converged that enable us to put relationships at the heart and center of how we solve social problems today. +Firstly, the nature of the problems -- they've changed, and they require different solutions. +Secondly, the cost, human as much as financial, of doing business as usual. +And thirdly, technology. +I've talked about the first two factors. +It's technology that enables these approaches to scale and potentially now support thousands of people. +So the technology we've used is really simple, it's made up of available things like databases, mobile phones. +Circle has got this very simple system that underpins it, enables a small local team to support a membership of up to a thousand. +And you can contrast this with a neighborhood organization of the 1970s, when this kind of scale just wasn't possible, neither was the quality or the longevity that the spine of technology can provide. +So it's relationships underpinned by technology that can turn the Beveridge models on their heads. +The Beveridge models are all about institutions with finite resources, anonymously managing access. +In my work at the front line, I've seen again and again how up to 80 percent of resource is spent keeping people out. +So professionals have to administer these increasingly complex forms of administration that are basically about stopping people accessing the service or managing the queue. +And Circle, like the relational services that we and others have designed, inverts this logic. +What it says is, the more people, the more relationships, the stronger the solution. +So I want to tell you my third and final story, which is about unemployment. +In Britain, as in most places in the world, our welfare states were primarily designed to get people into work, to educate them for this, and to keep them healthy. +But here, too, the systems are failing. +And so the response has been to try and make these old systems even more efficient and transactional -- to speed up processing times, divide people into ever-smaller categories, try and target services at them more efficiently -- in other words, the very opposite of relational. +But guess how most people find work today? +Through word of mouth. +It turns out that in Britain today, most new jobs are not advertised. +So it's friends that tell you about a job, it's friends that recommend you for a job, and it's a rich and diverse social network that helps you find work. +Maybe some of you here this evening are thinking, "But I found my job through an advert," but if you think back, it was probably a friend that showed you the ad and then encouraged you to apply. +But not surprisingly, people who perhaps most need this rich and diverse network are those who are most isolated from it. +So knowing this, and also knowing about the costs and failure of current systems, we designed something new with relationships at its heart. +We designed a service that encourages people to meet up, people in and out of work, to work together in structured ways and try new opportunities. +And, well, it's very hard to compare the results of these new systems with the old transactional models, but it looks like, with our first 1,000 members, we outperformed existing services by a factor of three, at a fraction of the cost. +And here, too, we've used technology, but not to network people in the way that a social platform would do. +We've used it to bring people face to face and connect them with each other, building real relationships and supporting people to find work. +At the end of his life, in 1948, Beveridge wrote a third report. +And in it he said he had made a dreadful mistake. +He had left people and their communities out. +And this omission, he said, led to seeing people, and people starting to see themselves, within the categories of the bureaucracies and the institutions. +And human relationships were already withering. +But unfortunately, this third report was much less read than Beveridge's earlier work. +But today, we need to bring people and their communities back into the heart of the way we design new systems and new services, in an approach that I call "Relational Welfare." +It is all about relationships. +Relationships are the critical resource we have. +Thank you. +A year ago, we were invited by the Swiss Embassy in Berlin to present our art projects. +We are used to invitations, but this invitation really thrilled us. +The Swiss Embassy in Berlin is special. +It is the only old building in the government district that was not destroyed during the Second World War, and it sits right next to the Federal Chancellery. +No one is closer to Chancellor Merkel than the Swiss diplomats. +The government district in Berlin also contains the Reichstag -- Germany's parliament -- and the Brandenburg Gate, and right next to the gate there are other embassies, in particular the US and the British Embassy. +Although Germany is an advanced democracy, citizens are limited in their constitutional rights in its government district. +The right of assembly and the right to demonstrate are restricted there. +And this is interesting from an artistic point of view. +The opportunities to exercise participation and to express oneself are always bound to a certain order and always subject to a specific regulation. +With an awareness of the dependencies of these regulations, we can gain a new perspective. +The given terms and conditions shape our perception, our actions and our lives. +And this is crucial in another context. +Over the last couple of years, we learned that from the roofs of the US and the British Embassy, the secret services have been listening to the entire district, including the mobile phone of Angela Merkel. +The antennas of the British GCHQ are hidden in a white cylindrical radome, while the listening post of the American NSA is covered by radio transparent screens. +But how to address these hidden and disguised forces? +With my colleague, Christoph Wachter, we accepted the invitation of the Swiss Embassy. +And we used this opportunity to exploit the specific situation. +If people are spying on us, it stands to reason that they have to listen to what we are saying. +On the roof of the Swiss Embassy, we installed a series of antennas. +They weren't as sophisticated as those used by the Americans and the British. +They were makeshift can antennas, not camouflaged but totally obvious and visible. +The Academy of Arts joined the project, and so we built another large antenna on their rooftop, exactly between the listening posts of the NSA and the GCHQ. +Never have we been observed in such detail while building an art installation. +A helicopter circled over our heads with a camera registering each and every move we made, and on the roof of the US Embassy, security officers patrolled. +Although the government district is governed by a strict police order, there are no specific laws relating to digital communication. +Our installation was therefore perfectly legal, and the Swiss Ambassador informed Chancellor Merkel about it. +We named the project "Can You Hear Me?" +The antennas created an open and free Wi-Fi communication network in which anyone who wanted to would be able to participate using any Wi-Fi-enabled device without any hindrance, and be able to send messages to those listening on the frequencies that were being intercepted. +Text messages, voice chat, file sharing -- anything could be sent anonymously. +And people did communicate. +Over 15,000 messages were sent. +Here are some examples. +"Hello world, hello Berlin, hello NSA, hello GCHQ." +"NSA Agents, Do the Right Thing! Blow the whistle!" +"This is the NSA. In God we trust. All others we track!!!!!" +"#@nonymous is watching #NSA #GCHQ - we are part of your organizations. +# expect us. We will #shutdown" "This is the NSA's Achilles heel. Open Networks." +"Agents, what twisted story of yourself will you tell your grandchildren?" +"@NSA My neighbors are noisy. Please send a drone strike." +"Make Love, Not cyberwar." +We invited the embassies and the government departments to participate in the open network, too, and to our surprise, they did. +Files appeared on the network, including classified documents leaked from the parliamentary investigation commission, which highlights that the free exchange and discussion of vital information is starting to become difficult, even for members of a parliament. +We also organized guided tours to experience and sound out the power constellations on-site. +The tours visited the restricted zones around the embassies, and we discussed the potential and the highlights of communication. +If we become aware of the constellation, the terms and conditions of communication, it not only broadens our horizon, it allows us to look behind the regulations that limit our worldview, our specific social, political or aesthetic conventions. +Let's look at an actual example. +The fate of people living in the makeshift settlements on the outskirts of Paris is hidden and faded from view. +It's a vicious circle. +It's not poverty, not racism, not exclusion that are new. +What is new is how these realities are hidden and how people are made invisible in an age of global and overwhelming communication and exchange. +Such makeshift settlements are considered illegal, and therefore those living in them don't have a chance of making their voices heard. +On the contrary, every time they appear, every time they risk becoming visible, merely gives grounds for further persecution, expulsion and suppression. +What interested us was how we could come to know this hidden side. +We were searching for an interface and we found one. +It's not a digital interface, but a physical one: it's a hotel. +We named the project "Hotel Gelem." +Together with Roma families, we created several Hotel Gelems in Europe, for example, in Freiburg in Germany, in Montreuil near Paris, and also in the Balkans. +These are real hotels. +People can stay there. +But they aren't a commercial enterprise. +They are a symbol. +You can go online and ask for a personal invitation to come and live for a few days in the Hotel Gelem, in their homes, eating, working and living with the Roma families. +Here, the Roma families are not the travelers; the visitors are. +Here, the Roma families are not a minority; the visitors are. +The point is not to make judgments, but rather to find out about the context that determines these disparate and seemingly insurmountable contradictions. +In the world of globalization, the continents are drifting closer to each other. +Cultures, goods and people are in permanent exchange, but at the same time, the gap between the world of the privileged and the world of the excluded is growing. +We were recently in Australia. +For us, it was no problem to enter the country. +We have European passports, visas and air tickets. +But asylum seekers who arrive by boat in Australia are deported or taken to prison. +The interception of the boats and the disappearance of the people into the detention system are veiled by the Australian authorities. +These procedures are declared to be secret military operations. +After dramatic escapes from crisis zones and war zones, men, women and children are detained by Australia without trial, sometimes for years. +During our stay, however, we managed to reach out and work with asylum seekers who were imprisoned, despite strict screening and isolation. +From these contexts was born an installation in the art space of the Queensland University of Technology in Brisbane. +On the face of it, it was a very simple installation. +On the floor, a stylized compass gave the direction to each immigration detention center, accompanied by the distance and the name of the immigration facility. +But the exhibition step came in the form of connectivity. +Above every floor marking, there was a headset. +Visitors were offered the opportunity to talk directly to a refugee who was or had been imprisoned in a specific detention facility and engage in a personal conversation. +In the protected context of the art exhibition, asylum seekers felt free to talk about themselves, their story and their situation, without fear of consequences. +Visitors immersed themselves in long conversations about families torn apart, about dramatic escapes from war zones, about suicide attempts, about the fate of children in detention. +Emotions ran deep. Many wept. +Several revisited the exhibition. +It was a powerful experience. +Europe is now facing a stream of migrants. +The situation for the asylum seekers is made worse by contradictory policies and the temptation of militarized responses. +We have also established communication systems in remote refugee centers in Switzerland and Greece. +They are all about providing basic information -- medical costs, legal information, guidance. +But they are significant. +Information on the Internet that could ensure survival along dangerous routes is being censored, and the provision of such information is becoming increasingly criminalized. +This brings us back to our network and to the antennas on the roof of the Swiss Embassy in Berlin and the "Can You Hear Me?" project. +We should not take it for granted to be boundlessly connected. +We should start making our own connections, fighting for this idea of an equal and globally interconnected world. +This is essential to overcome our speechlessness and the separation provoked by rival political forces. +It is only in truly exposing ourselves to the transformative power of this experience that we can overcome prejudice and exclusion. +Thank you. +Bruno Giussani: Thank you, Mathias. +The other half of your artistic duo is also here. +Christoph Wachter, come onstage. +First, tell me just a detail: the name of the hotel is not a random name. +Gelem means something specific in the Roma language. +Mathias Jud: Yes, "Gelem, Gelem" is the title of the Romani hymn, the official, and it means "I went a long way." +BG: That's just to add the detail to your talk. +But you two traveled to the island of Lesbos very recently, you're just back a couple of days ago, in Greece, where thousands of refugees are arriving and have been arriving over the last few months. +What did you see there and what did you do there? +Christoph Wachter: Well, Lesbos is one of the Greek islands close to Turkey, and during our stay, many asylum seekers arrived by boat on overcrowded dinghies, and after landing, they were left completely on their own. +They are denied many services. +For example, they are not allowed to buy a bus ticket or to rent a hotel room, so many families literally sleep in the streets. +And we installed networks there to allow basic communication, because I think, I believe, it's not only that we have to speak about the refugees, I think we need to start talking to them. +And by doing so, we can realize that it is about human beings, about their lives and their struggle to survive. +BG: And allow them to talk as well. +Christoph, thank you for coming to TED. +Mathias, thank you for coming to TED and sharing your story. +(Guitar music starts) (Music ends) (Distorted guitar music starts) (Music ends) (Ambient/guitar music starts) (Music ends) +This is one of the most amazing animals on the face of the Earth. +This is a tapir. +Now this, this is a baby tapir, the cutest animal offspring in the animal kingdom. +By far. +There is no competition here. +I have dedicated the past 20 years of my life to the research and conservation of tapirs in Brazil, and it has been absolutely amazing. +But at the moment, I've been thinking really, really hard about the impact of my work. +I've been questioning myself about the real contributions I have made for the conservation of these animals I love so much. +Am I being effective in safeguarding their survival? +Am I doing enough? +I guess the big question here is, am I studying tapirs and contributing to their conservation, or am I just documenting their extinction? +The world is facing so many different conservation crises. +We all know that. It's all over the news every day. +Tropical forests and other ecosystems are being destroyed, climate change, so many species on the brink of extinction: tigers, lions, elephants, rhinos, tapirs. +This is the lowland tapir, the tapir species I work with, the largest terrestrial mammal of South America. +They're massive. They're powerful. +Adults can weigh up to 300 kilos. +That's half the size of a horse. +They're gorgeous. +Tapirs are mostly found in tropical forests such as the Amazon, and they absolutely need large patches of habitat in order to find all the resources they need to reproduce and survive. +But their habitat is being destroyed, and they have been hunted out of several parts of their geographic distribution. +And you see, this is very, very unfortunate because tapirs are extremely important for the habitats where they are found. +They're herbivores. +Fifty percent of their diet consists of fruit, and when they eat the fruit, they swallow the seeds, which they disperse throughout the habitat through their feces. +They play this major role in shaping and maintaining the structure and diversity of the forest, and for that reason, tapirs are known as gardeners of the forest. +Isn't that amazing? +If you think about it, the extinction of tapirs would seriously affect biodiversity as a whole. +I started my tapir work in 1996, still very young, fresh out of college, and it was a pioneer research and conservation program. +At that point, we had nearly zero information about tapirs, mostly because they're so difficult to study. +They're nocturnal, solitary, very elusive animals, and we got started getting very basic data about these animals. +But what is it that a conservationist does? +Well, first, we need data. +We need field research. +We need those long-term datasets to support conservation action, and I told you tapirs are very hard to study, so we have to rely on indirect methods to study them. +We have to capture and anesthetize them so that we can install GPS collars around their necks and follow their movements, which is a technique used by many other conservationists around the world. +And then we can gather information about how they use space, how they move through the landscape, what are their priority habitats, and so much more. +Next, we must disseminate what we learn. +We have to educate people about tapirs and how important these animals are. +And it's amazing how many people around the world do not know what a tapir is. +In fact, many people think this is a tapir. +Let me tell you, this is not a tapir. +This is a giant anteater. +Tapirs do not eat ants. Never. Ever. +And then next we have to provide training, capacity building. +It is our responsibility to prepare the conservationists of the future. +We are losing several conservation battles, and we need more people doing what we do, and they need the skills, and they need the passion to do that. +Ultimately, we conservationists, we must be able to apply our data, to apply our accumulated knowledge to support actual conservation action. +Our first tapir program took place in the Atlantic Forest in the eastern part of Brazil, one of the most threatened biomes in the world. +The destruction of the Atlantic Forest began in the early 1500s, when the Portuguese first arrived in Brazil, beginning European colonization in the eastern part of South America. +This forest was almost completely cleared for timber, agriculture, cattle ranching and the construction of cities, and today only seven percent of the Atlantic forest is still left standing. +And tapirs are found in very, very small, isolated, disconnected populations. +In the Atlantic Forest, we found out that tapirs move through open areas of pastureland and agriculture going from one patch of forest to patch of forest. +So our main approach in this region was to use our tapir data to identify the potential places for the establishment of wildlife corridors in between those patches of forest, reconnecting the habitat so that tapirs and many other animals could cross the landscape safely. +After 12 years in the Atlantic Forest, in 2008, we expanded our tapir conservation efforts to the Pantanal in the western part of Brazil near the border with Bolivia and Paraguay. +This is the largest continuous freshwater floodplain in the world, an incredible place and one of the most important strongholds for lowland tapirs in South America. +And working in the Pantanal has been extremely refreshing because we found large, healthy tapir populations in the area, and we have been able to study tapirs in the most natural conditions we'll ever find, very much free of threats. +In the Pantanal, besides the GPS collars, we are using another technique: camera traps. +This camera is equipped with a movement sensor and it photographs animals when they walk in front of it. +So thanks to these amazing devices, we have been able to gather precious information about tapir reproduction and social organization which are very important pieces of the puzzle when you're trying to develop those conservation strategies. +And right now, 2015, we are expanding our work once again to the Brazilian Cerrado, the open grasslands and shrub forests in the central part of Brazil. +Today this region is the very epicenter of economic development in my country, where natural habitat and wildlife populations are rapidly being eradicated by several different threats, including once again cattle ranching, large sugarcane and soybean plantations, poaching, roadkill, just to name a few. +And somehow, tapirs are still there, which gives me a lot of hope. +But I have to say that starting this new program in the Cerrado was a bit of a slap in the face. +When you drive around and you find dead tapirs along the highways and signs of tapirs wandering around in the middle of sugarcane plantations where they shouldn't be, and you talk to kids and they tell you that they know how tapir meat tastes because their families poach and eat them, it really breaks your heart. +The situation in the Cerrado made me realize -- it gave me the sense of urgency. +I am swimming against the tide. +It made me realize that despite two decades of hard work trying to save these animals, we still have so much work to do if we are to prevent them from disappearing. +We have to find ways to solve all these problems. +We really do, and you know what? +We really came to a point in the conservation world where we have to think out of the box. +We'll have to be a lot more creative than we are right now. +And I told you, roadkill is a big problem for tapirs in the Cerrado, so we just came up with the idea of putting reflective stickers on the GPS collars we put on the tapirs. +These are the same stickers used on big trucks to avoid collision. +Tapirs cross the highways after dark, so the stickers will hopefully help drivers see this shining thing crossing the highway, and maybe they will slow down a little bit. +For now, this is just a crazy idea. +We don't know. We'll see if it will reduce the amount of tapir roadkill. +But the point is, maybe this is the kind of stuff that needs to be done. +And although I'm struggling with all these questions in my mind right now, I have a pact with tapirs. +I know in my heart that tapir conservation is my cause. +This is my passion. +I am not alone. +I have this huge network of supporters behind me, and there is no way I'm ever going to stop. +I will continue doing this, most probably for the rest of my life. +And I'll keep doing this for Patrcia, my namesake, one of the first tapirs we captured and monitored in the Atlantic Forest many, many years ago; for Rita and her baby Vincent in the Pantanal. +And I'll keep doing this for Ted, a baby tapir we captured in December last year also in the Pantanal. +And I will keep doing this for the hundreds of tapirs that I've had the pleasure to meet over the years and the many others I know I will encounter in the future. +These animals deserve to be cared for. +They need me. They need us. +And you know? We human beings deserve to live in a world where we can get out there and see and benefit from not only tapirs but all the other beautiful species, now and in the future. +Thank you so much. +I would like to demonstrate for the first time in public that it is possible to transmit a video from a standard off-the-shelf LED lamp to a solar cell with a laptop acting as a receiver. +There is no Wi-Fi involved, it's just light. +And you may wonder, what's the point? +And the point is this: There will be a massive extension of the Internet to close the digital divide, and also to allow for what we call "The Internet of Things" -- tens of billions of devices connected to the Internet. +In my view, such an extension of the Internet can only work if it's almost energy-neutral. +This means we need to use existing infrastructure as much as possible. +And this is where the solar cell and the LED come in. +I demonstrated for the first time, at TED in 2011, Li-Fi, or Light Fidelity. +Li-Fi uses off-the-shelf LEDs to transmit data incredibly fast, and also in a safe and secure manner. +Data is transported by the light, encoded in subtle changes of the brightness. +If we look around, we have many LEDs around us, so there's a rich infrastructure of Li-Fi transmitters around us. +But so far, we have been using special devices -- small photo detectors, to receive the information encoded in the data. +I wanted to find a way to also use existing infrastructure to receive data from our Li-Fi lights. +And this is why I have been looking into solar cells and solar panels. +A solar cell absorbs light and converts it into electrical energy. +This is why we can use a solar cell to charge our mobile phone. +But now we need to remember that the data is encoded in subtle changes of the brightness of the LED, so if the incoming light fluctuates, so does the energy harvested from the solar cell. +This means we have a principal mechanism in place to receive information from the light and by the solar cell, because the fluctuations of the energy harvested correspond to the data transmitted. +Of course the question is: can we receive very fast and subtle changes of the brightness, such as the ones transmitted by our LED lights? +And the answer to that is yes, we can. +We have shown in the lab that we can receive up to 50 megabytes per second from a standard, off-the-shelf solar cell. +And this is faster than most broadband connections these days. +Now let me show you in practice. +In this box is a standard, off-the-shelf LED lamp. +This is a standard, off-the-shelf solar cell; it is connected to the laptop. +And also we have an instrument here to visualize the energy we harvest from the solar cell. +And this instrument shows something at the moment. +This is because the solar cell already harvests light from the ambient light. +Now what I would like to do first is switch on the light, and I'll simply, only switch on the light, for a moment, and what you'll notice is that the instrument jumps to the right. +So the solar cell, for a moment, is harvesting energy from this artificial light source. +If I turn it off, we see it drops. +I turn it on ... +So we harvest energy with the solar cell. +But next I would like to activate the streaming of the video. +And I've done this by pressing this button. +So now this LED lamp here is streaming a video by changing the brightness of the LED in a very subtle way, and in a way that you can't recognize with your eye, because the changes are too fast to recognize. +But in order to prove the point, I can block the light of the solar cell. +So first you notice the energy harvesting drops and the video stops as well. +If I remove the blockage, the video will restart. +And I can repeat that. +So we stop the transmission of the video and energy harvesting stops as well. +So that is to show that the solar cell acts as a receiver. +But now imagine that this LED lamp is a street light, and there's fog. +And so I want to simulate fog, and that's why I brought a handkerchief with me. +And let me put the handkerchief over the solar cell. +First you notice the energy harvested drops, as expected, but now the video still continues. +This means, despite the blockage, there's sufficient light coming through the handkerchief to the solar cell, so that the solar cell is able to decode and stream that information, in this case, a high-definition video. +What's really important here is that a solar cell has become a receiver for high-speed wireless signals encoded in light, while it maintains its primary function as an energy-harvesting device. +That's why it is possible to use existing solar cells on the roof of a hut to act as a broadband receiver from a laser station on a close by hill, or indeed, lamp post. +And It really doesn't matter where the beam hits the solar cell. +And the same is true for translucent solar cells integrated into windows, solar cells integrated into street furniture, or indeed, solar cells integrated into these billions of devices that will form the Internet of Things. +Because simply, we don't want to charge these devices regularly, or worse, replace the batteries every few months. +As I said to you, this is the first time I've shown this in public. +It's very much a lab demonstration, a prototype. +But my team and I are confident that we can take this to market within the next two to three years. +And we hope we will be able to contribute to closing the digital divide, and also contribute to connecting all these billions of devices to the Internet. +And all of this without causing a massive explosion of energy consumption -- because of the solar cells, quite the opposite. +Thank you. +So whenever I visit a school and talk to students, I always ask them the same thing: Why do you Google? +Why is Google the search engine of choice for you? +Strangely enough, I always get the same three answers. +One, "Because it works," which is a great answer; that's why I Google, too. +Two, somebody will say, "I really don't know of any alternatives." +It's not an equally great answer and my reply to that is usually, "Try to Google the word 'search engine,' you may find a couple of interesting alternatives." +And last but not least, thirdly, inevitably, one student will raise her or his hand and say, "With Google, I'm certain to always get the best, unbiased search result." +Certain to always get the best, unbiased search result. +Now, as a man of the humanities, albeit a digital humanities man, that just makes my skin curl, even if I, too, realize that that trust, that idea of the unbiased search result is a cornerstone in our collective love for and appreciation of Google. +I will show you why that, philosophically, is almost an impossibility. +But let me first elaborate, just a little bit, on a basic principle behind each search query that we sometimes seem to forget. +So whenever you set out to Google something, start by asking yourself this: "Am I looking for an isolated fact?" +What is the capital of France? +What are the building blocks of a water molecule? +Great -- Google away. +There's not a group of scientists who are this close to proving that it's actually London and H30. +You don't see a big conspiracy among those things. +We agree, on a global scale, what the answers are to these isolated facts. +But if you complicate your question just a little bit and ask something like, "Why is there an Israeli-Palestine conflict?" +You're not exactly looking for a singular fact anymore, you're looking for knowledge, which is something way more complicated and delicate. +And to get to knowledge, you have to bring 10 or 20 or 100 facts to the table and acknowledge them and say, "Yes, these are all true." +But because of who I am, young or old, black or white, gay or straight, I will value them differently. +And I will say, "Yes, this is true, but this is more important to me than that." +And this is where it becomes interesting, because this is where we become human. +This is when we start to argue, to form society. +And to really get somewhere, we need to filter all our facts here, through friends and neighbors and parents and children and coworkers and newspapers and magazines, to finally be grounded in real knowledge, which is something that a search engine is a poor help to achieve. +So, I promised you an example just to show you why it's so hard to get to the point of true, clean, objective knowledge -- as food for thought. +I will conduct a couple of simple queries, search queries. +We'll start with "Michelle Obama," the First Lady of the United States. +And we'll click for pictures. +It works really well, as you can see. +It's a perfect search result, more or less. +It's just her in the picture, not even the President. +How does this work? +Quite simple. +Google uses a lot of smartness to achieve this, but quite simply, they look at two things more than anything. +First, what does it say in the caption under the picture on each website? +Does it say "Michelle Obama" under the picture? +Pretty good indication it's actually her on there. +Second, Google looks at the picture file, the name of the file as such uploaded to the website. +Again, is it called "MichelleObama.jpeg"? +Pretty good indication it's not Clint Eastwood in the picture. +So, you've got those two and you get a search result like this -- almost. +Now, in 2009, Michelle Obama was the victim of a racist campaign, where people set out to insult her through her search results. +There was a picture distributed widely over the Internet where her face was distorted to look like a monkey. +And that picture was published all over. +And people published it very, very purposefully, to get it up there in the search results. +They made sure to write "Michelle Obama" in the caption and they made sure to upload the picture as "MichelleObama.jpeg," or the like. +You get why -- to manipulate the search result. +And it worked, too. +So when you picture-Googled for "Michelle Obama" in 2009, that distorted monkey picture showed up among the first results. +Now, the results are self-cleansing, and that's sort of the beauty of it, because Google measures relevance every hour, every day. +However, Google didn't settle for that this time, they just thought, "That's racist and it's a bad search result and we're going to go back and clean that up manually. +We are going to write some code and fix it," which they did. +And I don't think anyone in this room thinks that was a bad idea. +Me neither. +But then, a couple of years go by, and the world's most-Googled Anders, Anders Behring Breivik, did what he did. +This is July 22 in 2011, and a terrible day in Norwegian history. +This man, a terrorist, blew up a couple of government buildings walking distance from where we are right now in Oslo, Norway and then he traveled to the island of Utya and shot and killed a group of kids. +Almost 80 people died that day. +And a lot of people would describe this act of terror as two steps, that he did two things: he blew up the buildings and he shot those kids. +It's not true. +It was three steps. +He blew up those buildings, he shot those kids, and he sat down and waited for the world to Google him. +And he prepared all three steps equally well. +And if there was somebody who immediately understood this, it was a Swedish web developer, a search engine optimization expert in Stockholm, named Nikke Lindqvist. +He's also a very political guy and he was right out there in social media, on his blog and Facebook. +And he told everybody, "If there's something that this guy wants right now, it's to control the image of himself. +Let's see if we can distort that. +Let's see if we, in the civilized world, can protest against what he did through insulting him in his search results." +And how? +He told all of his readers the following, "Go out there on the Internet, find pictures of dog poop on sidewalks -- find pictures of dog poop on sidewalks -- publish them in your feeds, on your websites, on your blogs. +Make sure to write the terrorist's name in the caption, make sure to name the picture file "Breivik.jpeg." +Let's teach Google that that's the face of the terrorist." +And it worked. +Two years after that campaign against Michelle Obama, this manipulation campaign against Anders Behring Breivik worked. +If you picture-Googled for him weeks after the July 22 events from Sweden, you'd see that picture of dog poop high up in the search results, as a little protest. +Strangely enough, Google didn't intervene this time. +They did not step in and manually clean those search results up. +So the million-dollar question, is there anything different between these two happenings here? +Is there anything different between what happened to Michelle Obama and what happened to Anders Behring Breivik? +Of course not. +It's the exact same thing, yet Google intervened in one case and not in the other. +Why? +Because Michelle Obama is an honorable person, that's why, and Anders Behring Breivik is a despicable person. +See what happens there? +An evaluation of a person takes place and there's only one power-player in the world with the authority to say who's who. +"We like you, we dislike you. +We believe in you, we don't believe in you. +You're right, you're wrong. You're true, you're false. +You're Obama, and you're Breivik." +That's power if I ever saw it. +So I'm asking you to remember that behind every algorithm is always a person, a person with a set of personal beliefs that no code can ever completely eradicate. +And my message goes out not only to Google, but to all believers in the faith of code around the world. +You need to identify your own personal bias. +You need to understand that you are human and take responsibility accordingly. +And I say this because I believe we've reached a point in time when it's absolutely imperative that we tie those bonds together again, tighter: the humanities and the technology. +Tighter than ever. +And, if nothing else, to remind us that that wonderfully seductive idea of the unbiased, clean search result is, and is likely to remain, a myth. +Thank you for your time. +Jenni Chang: When I told my parents I was gay, the first thing they said to me was, "We're bringing you back to Taiwan." +In their minds, my sexual orientation was America's fault. +The West had corrupted me with divergent ideas, and if only my parents had never left Taiwan, this would not have happened to their only daughter. +In truth, I wondered if they were right. +Of course, there are gay people in Asia, just as there are gay people in every part of the world. +But is the idea of living an "out" life, in the "I'm gay, this is my spouse, and we're proud of our lives together" kind of way just a Western idea? +If I had grown up in Taiwan, or any place outside of the West, would I have found models of happy, thriving LGBT people? +Lisa Dazols: I had similar notions. +As an HIV social worker in San Francisco, I had met many gay immigrants. +They told me their stories of persecution in their home countries, just for being gay, and the reasons why they escaped to the US. +I saw how this had beaten them down. +After 10 years of doing this kind of work, I needed better stories for myself. +I knew the world was far from perfect, but surely not every gay story was tragic. +JC: So as a couple, we both had a need to find stories of hope. +So we set off on a mission to travel the world and look for the people we finally termed as the "Supergays." +These would be the LGBT individuals who were doing something extraordinary in the world. +They would be courageous, resilient, and most of all, proud of who they were. +They would be the kind of person that I aspire to be. +Our plan was to share their stories to the world through film. +LD: There was just one problem. +We had zero reporting and zero filmmaking experience. +We didn't even know where to find the Supergays, so we just had to trust that we'd figure it all out along the way. +So we picked 15 countries in Asia, Africa and South America, countries outside the West that varied in terms of LGBT rights. +We bought a camcorder, ordered a book on how to make a documentary -- you can learn a lot these days -- and set off on an around-the-world trip. +JC: One of the first countries that we traveled to was Nepal. +Despite widespread poverty, a decade-long civil war, and now recently, a devastating earthquake, Nepal has made significant strides in the fight for equality. +One of the key figures in the movement is Bhumika Shrestha. +A beautiful, vibrant transgendered woman, Bhumika has had to overcome being expelled from school and getting incarcerated because of her gender presentation. +But, in 2007, Bhumika and Nepal's LGBT rights organization successfully petitioned the Nepali Supreme Court to protect against LGBT discrimination. +Here's Bhumika: BS: What I'm most proud of? +I'm a transgendered person. +I'm so proud of my life. +On December 21, 2007, the supreme court gave the decision for the Nepal government to give transgender identity cards and same-sex marriage. +LD: I can appreciate Bhumika's confidence on a daily basis. +Something as simple as using a public restroom can be a huge challenge when you don't fit in to people's strict gender expectations. +Traveling throughout Asia, I tended to freak out women in public restrooms. +They weren't used to seeing someone like me. +I had to come up with a strategy, so that I could just pee in peace. +So anytime I would enter a restroom, I would thrust out my chest to show my womanly parts, and try to be as non-threatening as possible. +Putting out my hands and saying, "Hello", just so that people could hear my feminine voice. +This all gets pretty exhausting, but it's just who I am. +I can't be anything else. +JC: After Nepal, we traveled to India. +On one hand, India is a Hindu society, without a tradition of homophobia. +On the other hand, it is also a society with a deeply patriarchal system, which rejects anything that threatens the male-female order. +When we spoke to activists, they told us that empowerment begins with ensuring proper gender equality, where the women's status is established in society. +And in that way, the status of LGBT people can be affirmed as well. +LD: There we met Prince Manvendra. +He's the world's first openly gay prince. +Prince Manvendra came out on the "Oprah Winfrey Show," very internationally. +His parents disowned him and accused him of bringing great shame to the royal family. +We sat down with Prince Manvendra and talked to him about why he decided to come out so very publicly. +Here he is: Prince Manvendra: I felt there was a lot of need to break this stigma and discrimination which is existing in our society. +And that instigated me to come out openly and talk about myself. +Whether we are gay, we are lesbian, we are transgender, bisexual or whatever sexual minority we come from, we have to all unite and fight for our rights. +Gay rights cannot be won in the court rooms, but in the hearts and the minds of the people. +JC: While getting my hair cut, the woman cutting my hair asked me, "Do you have a husband?" +Now, this was a dreaded question that I got asked a lot by locals while traveling. +When I explained to her that I was with a woman instead of a man, she was incredulous, and she asked me a lot of questions about my parents' reactions and whether I was sad that I'd never be able to have children. +I told her that there are no limitations to my life and that Lisa and I do plan to have a family some day. +Now, this woman was ready to write me off as yet another crazy Westerner. +She couldn't imagine that such a phenomenon could happen in her own country. +That is, until I showed her the photos of the Supergays that we interviewed in India. +She recognized Prince Manvendra from television and soon I had an audience of other hairdressers interested in meeting me. +And in that ordinary afternoon, I had the chance to introduce an entire beauty salon to the social changes that were happening in their own country. +LD: From India, we traveled to East Africa, a region known for intolerance towards LGBT people. +In Kenya, 89 percent of people who come out to their families are disowned. +Homosexual acts are a crime and can lead to incarceration. +In Kenya, we met the soft-spoken David Kuria. +David had a huge mission of wanting to work for the poor and improve his own government. +So he decided to run for senate. +He became Kenya's first openly gay political candidate. +David wanted to run his campaign without denying the reality of who he was. +But we were worried for his safety because he started to receive death threats. +David Kuria: At that point, I was really scared because they were actually asking for me to be killed. +And, yeah, there are some people out there who do it and they feel that they are doing a religious obligation. +JC: David wasn't ashamed of who he was. +Even in the face of threats, he stayed authentic. +LD: At the opposite end of the spectrum is Argentina. +Argentina's a country where 92 percent of the population identifies as Catholic. +Yet, Argentina has LGBT laws that are even more progressive than here in the US. +In 2010, Argentina became the first country in Latin America and the 10th in the world to adopt marriage equality. +There, we met Mara Rachid. +Mara was a driving force behind that movement. +JC: When we made the visit to my ancestral lands, I wish I could have shown my parents what we found there. +Because here is who we met: One, two, three. Welcome gays to Shanghai! +A whole community of young, beautiful Chinese LGBT people. +Sure, they had their struggles. +But they were fighting it out. +In Shanghai, I had the chance to speak to a local lesbian group and tell them our story in my broken Mandarin Chinese. +In Taipei, each time we got onto the metro, we saw yet another lesbian couple holding hands. +And we learned that Asia's largest LGBT pride event happens just blocks away from where my grandparents live. +If only my parents knew. +LD: By the time we finished our not-so-straight journey around the world, we had traveled 50,000 miles and logged 120 hours of video footage. +We traveled to 15 countries and interviewed 50 Supergays. +Turns out, it wasn't hard to find them at all. +JC: Yes, there are still tragedies that happen on the bumpy road to equality. +And let's not forget that 75 countries still criminalize homosexuality today. +But there are also stories of hope and courage in every corner of the world. +What we ultimately took away from our journey is, equality is not a Western invention. +LD: One of the key factors in this equality movement is momentum, momentum as more and more people embrace their full selves and use whatever opportunities they have to change their part of the world, and momentum as more and more countries find models of equality in one another. +When Nepal protected against LGBT discrimination, India pushed harder. +When Argentina embraced marriage equality, Uruguay and Brazil followed. +When Ireland said yes to equality, the world stopped to notice. +When the US Supreme Court makes a statement to the world that we can all be proud of. +JC: As we reviewed our footage, what we realized is that we were watching a love story. +It wasn't a love story that was expected of me, but it is one filled with more freedom, adventure and love than I could have ever possibly imagined. +One year after returning home from our trip, marriage equality came to California. +And in the end, we believe, love will win out. +By the power vested in me, by the state of California and by God Almighty, I now pronounce you spouses for life. +You may kiss. +This is the Air Jordan 3 Black Cement. +This might be the most important sneaker in history. +First released in 1988, this is the shoe that started Nike marketing as we know it. +This is the shoe that propelled the entire Air Jordan lineage, and perhaps saved Nike. +The Air Jordan 3 Black Cement did for sneakers what the iPhone did for phones. +It's been re-released four times. +Every celebrity's been seen wearing it. +There's a site about what to wear with the Black Cement. +It's been right under your nose for decades and you never looked down. +And right about now, most of you are probably thinking, "Sneakers?" +Yes. +Yes, sneakers. +Some extraordinary things about sneakers and data and Nike and how they're all related, possibly, to the future of all online commerce. +In 2011, the last time the Jordan 3 Black Cement was released, at a retail of 160 dollars, it sold out globally in minutes. +And that's because people were camped outside of sneaker stores for days before it went on sale. +And just minutes after that, thousands of those pairs were on eBay for two and three times retail. +In fact, there's over 1,000 pairs on eBay right now, four years later. +But here's the thing: this happens every single Saturday. +Every week there's another release or two or three, and every shoe has a story as rich and compelling as the Jordan 3 Black Cement. +This is Nike building the marketplace for sneakerheads -- people who collect sneakers -- and my daughter. +That's an "I love Dad" T-shirt. +For the brands, sneakerheads are a very important demographic. +These are the tastemakers; these are the Apple fanboys. +Because who else is going to buy a pair of $8,000 Back to the Future sneakers? +Yeah, 8,000 dollars. +And while that's obviously the anomaly, the resell sneaker market is definitely not. +Thirty years in the making, what started as an underground culture of a few people who like sneakers just a bit too much -- Now we have sneaker addictions. +In a market where in the past 12 months, there have been over nine million pairs of shoes resold in the United States alone, at a value of 1.2 billion dollars. +And that's a conservative estimate -- I should know, I am a sneakerhead. +This is my collection. +In the pantheon of great collections, mine doesn't even register. +I have about 250 pairs, but trust me, I am small-time. +People have thousands. +I'm a very typical 37-year-old sneakerhead. +I grew up playing basketball when Michael Jordan played, I always wanted Air Jordans, my mother would never buy me Air Jordans, as soon as I got some money I bought Air Jordans -- literally, we all have the exact same story. +But here's where mine diverged. +After starting three companies, I took a job as a strategy consultant, when I very quickly realized that I didn't know the first thing about data. +But I learned, because I had to, and I liked it. +So I thought, I wonder if I could get ahold of some sneaker data, just to play with for my own amusement. +The goal was to develop a price guide, a real data-driven view of the market. +And four years later, we're analyzing over 25 million transactions, providing real-time analytics on thousands of sneakers. +Now sneakerheads check prices while camping out for releases. +Others have used the data to validate insurance claims. +And the top investment banks in the world now use resell data to analyze the retail footwear industry. +And here's the best part: sneakerheads have sneaker portfolios. +Sneakerheads can track the value of their collection over time, compare it to others, and have access to the same analytics you might for your online brokerage account. +So sneakerhead Dan builds his collection and identifies which 352 are his. +He can see it's worth 103,000 dollars -- frankly, a modest collection. +At the asset level, he can see gain-loss by shoe. +Here he's made over 600 dollars on one pair. +I have one of those. +So an unregulated 1.2 billion dollar industry that thrives as much on the street as it does online, and has spawned fundamental financial services for sneakers? +At some point I asked myself what's really going on in the market, and two comparisons started to emerge. +Are sneakers more like stocks or drugs? +In fact, one guy emailed to say he thought his 15-year-old son was selling drugs and later found out he was selling sneakers. +And now they use the data to do it together. +And that's because sneakers are an investment opportunity where none other exists. +And I don't just mean the kid selling sneakers instead of drugs. +How about all kids? +You have to be 18 to play the stock market. +I sold chewing gum in sixth grade, Blow Pops in ninth grade and collected baseball cards through high school. +The cards are long dead, and the candy market's usually quite local. +For a lot of people, sneakers are a legal and accessible investment opportunity -- a democratized stock market, but also unregulated. +Which is why the story you're probably most familiar with is people killing each other for sneakers. +And while that definitely happens and is tragic, it's not nearly the epidemic some media would have you believe. +In fact, it's a very small piece of a much bigger and better story. +So sneakers have clear similarities to both the stock exchange and the illegal drug trade, but perhaps the most fundamental is the existence of a central actor. +Someone is making the rules. +In the case of sneakers, that someone is Nike. +Let me walk you through some numbers. +The resell market, we know, is $1.2 billion. +Nike, including Jordan brand, accounts for 96 percent of all shoes sold on the secondary market. +Just complete domination. +Sneakerheads love Jordans. +And profit on the secondary market is about a third. +That means that sneakerheads made 380 million dollars selling Nikes last year. +Let's jump to retail for a second. +Skechers, earlier this year, became the number two footwear brand in the country, surpassing Adidas -- this was a big deal. +And in the 12 months ending in June, Skechers's net income was 209 million dollars. +That means that Nike's customers make almost twice as much profit as their closest competitor. +That -- How is that even possible? +The sneaker market is just supply and demand, but Nike's gotten very good at using supply -- limited sneakers -- and the distribution of those sneakers to their own benefit. +So it's really just supply. +Sneakerheads joke that as long as it's limited and Nike, they'll buy it. +Shoes that sell for 8,000 dollars do so because they're very rare. +It's no different than any other collectible market, only this isn't a market at all. +It's a false construct created by Nike -- ingeniously created by Nike, in the most positive sense -- to sell more shoes. +And in the process, it provided tens of thousands of people with life-long passions, myself included. +If Nike wanted to kill the resell market, they could do so tomorrow, all they have to do is release more shoes. +But we certainly don't want them to, nor is it in their best interest. +That's because unlike Apple, who will sell an iPhone to anyone who wants one, Nike doesn't make their money by just selling $200 sneakers. +They sell millions of shoes to millions of people for 60 dollars. +And sneakerheads are the ones who drive the marketing and the hype and the PR and the brand cachet, and enable Nike to sell millions of $60 sneakers. +It's marketing. +It's marketing the likes of which has never been seen before -- this isn't in any textbook. +For 15 years Nike has propped up an artificial commodities market, with a Facebook-level hyped IPO every single weekend. +Drive by any Footlocker at 8am on a Saturday morning, and there will be a line down the street and around the block, and sometimes those kids have been waiting there all week. +You know those crazy iPhone lines you see on the news every other year? +Nike lines happen 104 times more often. +So Nike sets the rules. +And they do so by controlling supply and distribution. +But once a pair leaves the retail channel, it's the Wild West. +There are very few -- if any -- legal, unregulated markets of this size. +So Nike is definitely not the stock exchange. +In fact, there is no central exchange. +By last count, there were 48 different online markets that I know of. +Some are eBay clones, some are mobile markets, and then you have consignment shops and brick-and-mortar stores, and sneaker conventions, and reseller sites, and Facebook and Instagram and Twitter -- literally, anywhere sneakerheads come into contact with each other, shoes will be bought and sold. +But that means no efficiencies, no transparency, sometimes not even authenticity. +Can you imagine if that's how stocks were bought? +What if the way to buy a share of Apple stock was to search over 100 places online and off, including every time you walk down the street just hoping to pass someone wearing some Apple stock? +Never knowing who had the best price, or even if the stock you were looking at was real. +That would surely make you say: [WTF?] Of course that's not how we buy stock. +But what if that's not how we need to buy sneakers either? +What if the inverse is true, and what if we could buy sneakers exactly the same way as we buy stock? +And what if it wasn't just sneakers, but any similar product, like watches and handbags and women's shoes, and any collectible, any seasonal item and any markdown item? +What if there was a stock market for commerce? +A stock market of things. +And not only could you buy in a much more educated and efficient manner, but you could engage in all the sophisticated financial transactions you can with the stock market. +Shorts and options and futures and well, maybe you see where this is going. +Maybe you want to invest in a stock market of things. +Because if you had invested in a pair of Air Jordan 3 Black Cement in 2011, you could either be wearing them onstage, or have earned 162 percent on your money -- double the S&P and 20 percent more than Apple. +And that's why we're talking about sneakers. +Thank you. +Religion is more than belief. +It's power, and it's influence. +And that influence affects all of us, every day, regardless of your own belief. +Despite the enormous influence of religion on the world today, we hold them to a different standard of scrutiny and accountability than any other sector of our society. +For example, if there were a multinational organization, government or corporation today that said no female could be on a leadership board, not one woman could have a decision-making authority, not one woman could handle any financial matter, we would have outrage. +There would be sanctions. +And yet this is a common practice in almost every world religion today. +We accept things in our religious lives that we do not accept in our secular lives, and I know this because I've been doing it for three decades. +I was the type of girl that fought every form of gender discrimination growing up. +I played pickup basketball games with the boys and inserted myself. +I said I was going to be the first female President of the United States. +I have been fighting for the Equal Rights Amendment, which has been dead for 40 years. +I'm the first woman in both sides of my family to ever work outside the home and ever receive a higher education. +I never accepted being excluded because I was a woman, except in my religion. +Throughout all of that time, I was a part of a very patriarchal orthodox Mormon religion. +I grew up in an enormously traditional family. +I have eight siblings, a stay-at-home mother. +My father's actually a religious leader in the community. +And I grew up in a world believing that my worth and my standing was in keeping these rules that I'd known my whole life. +You get married a virgin, you never drink alcohol, you don't smoke, you always do service, you're a good kid. +Some of the rules we had were strict, but you followed the rules because you loved the people and you loved the religion and you believed. +Everything about Mormonism determined what you wore, who you dated, who you married. +It determined what underwear we wore. +I was the kind of religious where everyone I know donated 10 percent of everything they earned to the church, including myself. +From paper routes and babysitting, I donated 10 percent. +I was the kind of religious where I heard parents tell children when they're leaving on a two-year proselytizing mission that they would rather have them die than return home without honor, having sinned. +I was the type and the kind of religious where kids kill themselves every single year because they're terrified of coming out to our community as gay. +But I was also the kind of religious where it didn't matter where in the world I lived, I had friendship, instantaneous mutual aid. +This was where I felt safe. This is certainty and clarity about life. +I had help raising my little daughter. +So that's why I accepted without question that only men can lead, and I accepted without question that women can't have the spiritual authority of God on the Earth, which we call the priesthood. +And I allowed discrepancies between men and women in operating budgets, disciplinary councils, in decision-making capacities, and I gave my religion a free pass because I loved it. +Until I stopped, and I realized that I had been allowing myself to be treated as the support staff to the real work of men. +And I faced this contradiction in myself, and I joined with other activists in my community. +We've been working very, very, very hard for the last decade and more. +The first thing we did was raise consciousness. +You can't change what you can't see. +We started podcasting, blogging, writing articles. +I created lists of hundreds of ways that men and women are unequal in our community. +The next thing we did was build advocacy organizations. +We tried to do things that were unignorable, like wearing pants to church and trying to attend all-male meetings. +These seem like simple things, but to us, the organizers, they were enormously costly. +We lost relationships. We lost jobs. +We got hate mail on a daily basis. +We were attacked in social media and national press. +We received death threats. +We lost standing in our community. Some of us got excommunicated. +Most of us got put in front of a disciplinary council, and were rejected from the communities that we loved because we wanted to make them better, because we believed that they could be. +And I began to expect this reaction from my own people. +I know what it feels like when you feel like someone's trying to change you or criticize you. +But what utterly shocked me was throughout all of this work I received equal measures of vitriol from the secular left, the same vehemence as the religious right. +And what my secular friends didn't realize was that this religious hostility, these phrases of, "Oh, all religious people are crazy or stupid." +"Don't pay attention to religion." +"They're going to be homophobic and sexist." +What they didn't understand was that that type of hostility did not fight religious extremism, it bred religious extremism. +Those arguments don't work, and I know because I remember someone telling me that I was stupid for being Mormon. +And what it caused me to do was defend myself and my people and everything we believe in, because we're not stupid. +So criticism and hostility doesn't work, and I didn't listen to these arguments. +When I hear these arguments, I still continue to bristle, because I have family and friends. +These are my people, and I'm the first to defend them, but the struggle is real. +How do we respect someone's religious beliefs while still holding them accountable for the harm or damage that those beliefs may cause others? +It's a tough question. I still don't have a perfect answer. +My parents and I have been walking on this tightrope for the last decade. +They're intelligent people. They're lovely people. +And let me try to help you understand their perspective. +In Mormonism, we believe that after you die, if you keep all the rules and you follow all the rituals, you can be together as a family again. +And to my parents, me doing something as simple as having a sleeveless top right now, showing my shoulders, that makes me unworthy. +I won't be with my family in the eternities. +But even more, I had a brother die in a tragic accident at 15, and something as simple as this means we won't be together as a family. +And to my parents, they cannot understand why something as simple as fashion or women's rights would prevent me from seeing my brother again. +And that's the mindset that we're dealing with, and criticism does not change that. +And so my parents and I have been walking this tightrope, explaining our sides, respecting one another, but actually invalidating each other's very basic beliefs by the way we live our lives, and it's been difficult. +The way that we've been able to do that is to get past those defensive shells and really see the soft inside of unbelief and belief and try to respect each other while still holding boundaries clear. +The other thing that the secular left and the atheists and the orthodox and the religious right, what they all don't understand was why even care about religious activism? +I cannot tell you the hundreds of people who have said, "If you don't like religion, just leave." +Why would you try to change it? +Because what is taught on the Sabbath leaks into our politics, our health policy, violence around the world. +It leaks into education, military, fiscal decision-making. +These laws get legally and culturally codified. +In fact, my own religion has had an enormous effect on this nation. +For example, during Prop 8, my church raised over 22 million dollars to fight same-sex marriage in California. +Forty years ago, political historians will say, that if it wasn't for the Mormon opposition to the Equal Rights Amendment, we'd have an Equal Rights Amendment in our Constitution today. +How many lives did that affect? +And we can spend time fighting every single one of these little tiny laws and rules, or we can ask ourselves, why is gender inequality the default around the world? +Why is that the assumption? +Because religion doesn't just create the roots of morality, it creates the seeds of normality. +Religions can liberate or subjugate, they can empower or exploit, they can comfort or destroy, and the people that tip the scales over to the ethical and the moral are often not those in charge. +Religions can't be dismissed or ignored. +We need to take them seriously. +But it's not easy to influence a religion, like we just talked about. +But I'll tell you what my people have done. +My groups are small, there's hundreds of us, but we've had huge impact. +Right now, women's pictures are hanging in the halls next to men for the first time. +Women are now allowed to pray in our church-wide meetings, and they never were before in the general conferences. +As of last week, in a historic move, three women were invited down to three leadership boards that oversee the entire church. +We've seen perceptual shifts in the Mormon community that allow for talk of gender inequality. +We've opened up space, regardless of being despised, for more conservative women to step in and make real changes, and the words "women" and "the priesthood" can now be uttered in the same sentence. +I never had that. +My daughter and my nieces are inheriting a religion that I never had, that's more equal -- we've had an effect. +It wasn't easy standing in those lines trying to get into those male meetings. +There were hundreds of us, and one by one, when we got to the door, we were told, "I'm sorry, this meeting is just for men," and we had to step back and watch men get into the meeting as young as 12 years old, escorted and walked past us as we all stood in line. +But not one woman in that line will forget that day, and not one little boy that walked past us will forget that day. +If we were a multinational corporation or a government, and that had happened, there would be outrage, but we're just a religion. +We're all just part of religions. +We can't keep looking at religion that way, because it doesn't only affect me, it affects my daughter and all of your daughters and what opportunities they have, what they can wear, who they can love and marry, if they have access to reproductive healthcare. +We need to reclaim morality in a secular context that creates ethical scrutiny and accountability for religions all around the world, but we need to do it in a respectful way that breeds cooperation and not extremism. +And we can do it through unignorable acts of bravery, standing up for gender equality. +It's time that half of the world's population had voice and equality within our world's religions, churches, synagogues, mosques and shrines around the world. +I'm working on my people. What are you doing for yours? +Have you ever wondered what animals think and feel? +Let's start with a question: Does my dog really love me, or does she just want a treat? +Well, it's easy to see that our dog really loves us, easy to see, right, what's going on in that fuzzy little head. +What is going on? +Something's going on. +But why is the question always do they love us? +Why is it always about us? +Why are we such narcissists? +I found a different question to ask animals. +Who are you? +There are capacities of the human mind that we tend to think are capacities only of the human mind. +But is that true? +What are other beings doing with those brains? +What are they thinking and feeling? +Is there a way to know? +I think there is a way in. +I think there are several ways in. +We can look at evolution, we can look at their brains and we can watch what they do. +The first thing to remember is: our brain is inherited. +The first neurons came from jellyfish. +Jellyfish gave rise to the first chordates. +The first chordates gave rise to the first vertebrates. +The vertebrates came out of the sea, and here we are. +But it's still true that a neuron, a nerve cell, looks the same in a crayfish, a bird or you. +What does that say about the minds of crayfish? +Can we tell anything about that? +Well, it turns out that if you give a crayfish a lot of little tiny electric shocks every time it tries to come out of its burrow, it will develop anxiety. +If you give the crayfish the same drug used to treat anxiety disorder in humans, it relaxes and comes out and explores. +How do we show how much we care about crayfish anxiety? +Mostly, we boil them. +Octopuses use tools, as well as do most apes and they recognize human faces. +How do we celebrate the ape-like intelligence of this invertebrate? +Mostly boiled. +If a grouper chases a fish into a crevice in the coral, it will sometimes go to where it knows a moray eel is sleeping and it will signal to the moray, "Follow me," and the moray will understand that signal. +The moray may go into the crevice and get the fish, but the fish may bolt and the grouper may get it. +This is an ancient partnership that we have just recently found out about. +How do we celebrate that ancient partnership? +Mostly fried. +A pattern is emerging and it says a lot more about us than it does about them. +Sea otters use tools and they take time away from what they're doing to show their babies what to do, which is called teaching. +Chimpanzees don't teach. +Killer whales teach and killer whales share food. +When evolution makes something new, it uses the parts it has in stock, off the shelf, before it fabricates a new twist. +And our brain has come to us through the enormity of the deep sweep of time. +If you look at the human brain compared to a chimpanzee brain, what you see is we have basically a very big chimpanzee brain. +It's a good thing ours is bigger, because we're also really insecure. +But, uh oh, there's a dolphin, a bigger brain with more convolutions. +OK, maybe you're saying, all right, well, we see brains, but what does that have to say about minds? +Well, we can see the working of the mind in the logic of behaviors. +So these elephants, you can see, obviously, they are resting. +They have found a patch of shade under the palm trees under which to let their babies sleep, while they doze but remain vigilant. +We make perfect sense of that image just as they make perfect sense of what they're doing because under the arc of the same sun on the same plains, listening to the howls of the same dangers, they became who they are and we became who we are. +We've been neighbors for a very long time. +No one would mistake these elephants as being relaxed. +They're obviously very concerned about something. +What are they concerned about? +It turns out that if you record the voices of tourists and you play that recording from a speaker hidden in bushes, elephants will ignore it, because tourists never bother elephants. +But if you record the voices of herders who carry spears and often hurt elephants in confrontations at water holes, the elephants will bunch up and run away from the hidden speaker. +Not only do elephants know that there are humans, they know that there are different kinds of humans, and that some are OK and some are dangerous. +They have been watching us for much longer than we have been watching them. +They know us better than we know them. +We have the same imperatives: take care of our babies, find food, try to stay alive. +Whether we're outfitted for hiking in the hills of Africa or outfitted for diving under the sea, we are basically the same. +We are kin under the skin. +The elephant has the same skeleton, the killer whale has the same skeleton, as do we. +We see helping where help is needed. +We see curiosity in the young. +We see the bonds of family connections. +We recognize affection. +Courtship is courtship. +And then we ask, "Are they conscious?" +When you get general anesthesia, it makes you unconscious, which means you have no sensation of anything. +Consciousness is simply the thing that feels like something. +If you see, if you hear, if you feel, if you're aware of anything, you are conscious, and they are conscious. +Some people say well, there are certain things that make humans humans, and one of those things is empathy. +Empathy is the mind's ability to match moods with your companions. +It's a very useful thing. +If your companions start to move quickly, you have to feel like you need to hurry up. +We're all in a hurry now. +The oldest form of empathy is contagious fear. +If your companions suddenly startle and fly away, it does not work very well for you to say, "Jeez, I wonder why everybody just left." +Empathy is old, but empathy, like everything else in life, comes on a sliding scale and has its elaboration. +So there's basic empathy: you feel sad, it makes me sad. +I see you happy, it makes me happy. +Then there's something that I call sympathy, a little more removed: "I'm sorry to hear that your grandmother has just passed away. +I don't feel that same grief, but I get it; I know what you feel and it concerns me." +And then if we're motivated to act on sympathy, I call that compassion. +Far from being the thing that makes us human, human empathy is far from perfect. +We round up empathic creatures, we kill them and we eat them. +Now, maybe you say OK, well, those are different species. +That's just predation, and humans are predators. +But we don't treat our own kind too well either. +People who seem to know only one thing about animal behavior know that you must never attribute human thoughts and emotions to other species. +Well, I think that's silly, because attributing human thoughts and emotions to other species is the best first guess about what they're doing and how they're feeling, because their brains are basically the same as ours. +They have the same structures. +The same hormones that create mood and motivation in us are in those brains as well. +It is not scientific to say that they are hungry when they're hunting and they're tired when their tongues are hanging out, and then say when they're playing with their children and acting joyful and happy, we have no idea if they can possibly be experiencing anything. +That is not scientific. +So OK, so a reporter said to me, "Maybe, but how do you really know that other animals can think and feel?" +And I started to rifle through all the hundreds of scientific references that I put in my book and I realized that the answer was right in the room with me. +When my dog gets off the rug and comes over to me -- not to the couch, to me -- and she rolls over on her back and exposes her belly, she has had the thought, "I would like my belly rubbed. +I know that I can go over to Carl, he will understand what I'm asking. +I know I can trust him because we're family. +He'll get the job done, and it will feel good." +She has thought and she has felt, and it's really not more complicated than that. +But we see other animals and we say, "Oh look, killer whales, wolves, elephants: that's not how they see it." +That tall-finned male is L41. +He's 38 years old. +The female right on his left side is L22. +She's 44. +They've known each other for decades. +They know exactly who they are. +They know who their friends are. +They know who their rivals are. +Their life follows the arc of a career. +They know where they are all the time. +This is an elephant named Philo. +He was a young male. +This is him four days later. +Humans not only can feel grief, we create an awful lot of it. +We want to carve their teeth. +Why can't we wait for them to die? +Elephants once ranged from the shores of the Mediterranean Sea all the way down to the Cape of Good Hope. +In 1980, there were vast strongholds of elephant range in Central and Eastern Africa. +And now their range is shattered into little shards. +This is the geography of an animal that we are driving to extinction, a fellow being, the most magnificent creature on land. +Of course, we take much better care of our wildlife in the United States. +In Yellowstone National Park, we killed every single wolf. +We killed every single wolf south of the Canadian border, actually. +But in the park, park rangers did that in the 1920s, and then 60 years later they had to bring them back, because the elk numbers had gotten out of control. +And then people came. +People came by the thousands to see the wolves, the most accessibly visible wolves in the world. +And I went there and I watched this incredible family of wolves. +A pack is a family. +It has some breeding adults and the young of several generations. +And I watched the most famous, most stable pack in Yellowstone National Park. +And then, when they wandered just outside the border, two of their adults were killed, including the mother, which we sometimes call the alpha female. +The rest of the family immediately descended into sibling rivalry. +Sisters kicked out other sisters. +That one on the left tried for days to rejoin her family. +They wouldn't let her because they were jealous of her. +She was getting too much attention from two new males, and she was the precocious one. +That was too much for them. +She wound up wandering outside the park and getting shot. +The alpha male wound up being ejected from his own family. +As winter was coming in, he lost his territory, his hunting support, the members of his family and his mate. +We cause so much pain to them. +The mystery is, why don't they hurt us more than they do? +This whale had just finished eating part of a grey whale with his companions who had killed that whale. +Those people in the boat had nothing at all to fear. +This whale is T20. +He had just finished tearing a seal into three pieces with two companions. +The seal weighed about as much as the people in the boat. +They had nothing to fear. +They eat seals. +Why don't they eat us? +Why can we trust them around our toddlers? +Why is it that killer whales have returned to researchers lost in thick fog and led them miles until the fog parted and the researchers' home was right there on the shoreline? +And that's happened more than one time. +In the Bahamas, there's a woman named Denise Herzing, and she studies spotted dolphins and they know her. +She knows them very well. She knows who they all are. +They know her. They recognize the research boat. +When she shows up, it's a big happy reunion. +Except, one time showed up and they didn't want to come near the boat, and that was really strange. +And they couldn't figure out what was going on until somebody came out on deck and announced that one of the people onboard had died during a nap in his bunk. +How could dolphins know that one of the human hearts had just stopped? +Why would they care? +And why would it spook them? +These mysterious things just hint at all of the things that are going on in the minds that are with us on Earth that we almost never think about at all. +At an aquarium in South Africa was a little baby bottle-nosed dolphin named Dolly. +She was nursing, and one day a keeper took a cigarette break and he was looking into the window into their pool, smoking. +Dolly came over and looked at him, went back to her mother, nursed for a minute or two, came back to the window and released a cloud of milk that enveloped her head like smoke. +Somehow, this baby bottle-nosed dolphin got the idea of using milk to represent smoke. +When human beings use one thing to represent another, we call that art. +The things that make us human are not the things that we think make us human. +What makes us human is that, of all these things that our minds and their minds have, we are the most extreme. +We are the most compassionate, most violent, most creative and most destructive animal that has ever been on this planet, and we are all of those things all jumbled up together. +But love is not the thing that makes us human. +It's not special to us. +We are not the only ones who care about our mates. +We are not the only ones who care about our children. +Albatrosses frequently fly six, sometimes ten thousand miles over several weeks to deliver one meal, one big meal, to their chick who is waiting for them. +They nest on the most remote islands in the oceans of the world, and this is what it looks like. +Passing life from one generation to the next is the chain of being. +If that stops, it all goes away. +If anything is sacred, that is, and into that sacred relationship comes our plastic trash. +All of these birds have plastic in them now. +This is an albatross six months old, ready to fledge -- died, packed with red cigarette lighters. +This is not the relationship we are supposed to have with the rest of the world. +But we, who have named ourselves after our brains, never think about the consequences. +When we welcome new human life into the world, we welcome our babies into the company of other creatures. +We paint animals on the walls. +We don't paint cell phones. +We don't paint work cubicles. +We paint animals to show them that we are not alone. +We have company. +And every one of those animals in every painting of Noah's ark, deemed worthy of salvation is in mortal danger now, and their flood is us. +So we started with a question: Do they love us? +We're going to ask another question. +Are we capable of using what we have to care enough to simply let them continue? +Thank you very much. +For much of the past century, architecture was under the spell of a famous doctrine. +"Form follows function" had become modernity's ambitious manifesto and detrimental straitjacket, as it liberated architecture from the decorative, but condemned it to utilitarian rigor and restrained purpose. +Of course, architecture is about function, but I want to remember a rewriting of this phrase by Bernard Tschumi, and I want to propose a completely different quality. +If form follows fiction, we could think of architecture and buildings as a space of stories -- stories of the people that live there, of the people that work in these buildings. +And we could start to imagine the experiences our buildings create. +In this sense, I'm interested in fiction not as the implausible but as the real, as the reality of what architecture means for the people that live in it and with it. +Our buildings are prototypes, ideas for how the space of living or how the space of working could be different, and what a space of culture or a space of media could look like today. +Our buildings are real; they're being built. +They're an explicit engagement in physical reality and conceptual possibility. +I think of our architecture as organizational structures. +At their core is indeed structural thinking, like a system: How can we arrange things in both a functional and experiential way? +How can we create structures that generate a series of relationships and narratives? +And how can fictive stories of the inhabitants and users of our buildings script the architecture, while the architecture scripts those stories at the same time? +And here comes the second term into play, what I call "narrative hybrids" -- structures of multiple simultaneous stories that unfold throughout the buildings we create. +So we could think of architecture as complex systems of relationships, both in a programmatic and functional way and in an experiential and emotive or social way. +This is the headquarters for China's national broadcaster, which I designed together with Rem Koolhaas at OMA. +When I first arrived in Beijing in 2002, the city planners showed us this image: a forest of several hundred skyscrapers to emerge in the central business district, except at that time, only a handful of them existed. +So we had to design in a context that we knew almost nothing about, except one thing: it would all be about verticality. +Of course, the skyscraper is vertical -- it's a profoundly hierarchical structure, the top always the best, the bottom the worst, and the taller you are, the better, so it seems. +And we wanted to ask ourselves, could a building be about a completely different quality? +Could it undo this hierarchy, and could it be about a system that is more about collaboration, rather than isolation? +So we took this needle and bent it back into itself, into a loop of interconnected activities. +Our idea was to bring all aspects of television-making into one single structure: news, program production, broadcasting, research and training, administration -- all into a circuit of interconnected activities where people would meet in a process of exchange and collaboration. +I still very much like this image. +It reminds one of biology classes, if you remember the human body with all its organs and circulatory systems, like at school. +And suddenly you think of architecture no longer as built substance, but as an organism, as a life form. +And as you start to dissect this organism, you can identify a series of primary technical clusters -- program production, broadcasting center and news. +Those are tightly intertwined with social clusters: meeting rooms, canteens, chat areas -- informal spaces for people to meet and exchange. +So the organizational structure of this building was a hybrid between the technical and the social, the human and the performative. +And of course, we used the loop of the building as a circulatory system, to thread everything together and to allow both visitors and staff to experience all these different functions in a great unity. +With 473,000 square meters, it is one of the largest buildings ever built in the world. +It has a population of over 10,000 people, and of course, this is a scale that exceeds the comprehension of many things and the scale of typical architecture. +So we stopped work for a while and sat down and cut 10,000 little sticks and glued them onto a model, just simply to confront ourselves with what that quantity actually meant. +So it was a way to script and design the building, but of course, also to communicate its experiences. +This was part of an exhibition with the Museum of Modern Art in both New York and Beijing. +This is the main broadcast control room, a technical installation so large, it can broadcast over 200 channels simultaneously. +And this is how the building stands in Beijing today. +Its first broadcast live was the London Olympics 2012, after it had been completed from the outside for the Beijing Olympics. +And you can see at the very tip of this 75-meter cantilever, those three little circles. +And they're indeed part of a public loop that goes through the building. +They're a piece of glass that you can stand on and watch the city pass by below you in slow motion. +The building has become part of everyday life in Beijing. +It is there. +It has also become a very popular backdrop for wedding photography. +But its most important moment is maybe sill this one. +"That's Beijing" is similar to "Time Out," a magazine that broadcasts what is happening in town during the week, and suddenly you see the building portrayed no longer as physical matter, but actually as an urban actor, as part of a series of personas that define the life of the city. +So architecture suddenly assumes the quality of a player, of something that writes stories and performs stories. +And I think that could be one of its primary meanings that we believe in. +But of course, there's another story to this building. +It is the story of the people that made it -- 400 engineers and architects that I was guiding over almost a decade of collaborative work that we spent together in scripting this building, in imagining its reality and ultimately getting it built in China. +This is a residential development in Singapore, large scale. +How could we think about creating a communal environment in which sharing things was as great as having your own? +And you see that these courtyards are not hermetically sealed spaces. +They're open, permeable; they're interconnected. +We called the project "The Interlace," thinking that we interlace and interconnect the human beings and the spaces alike. +And the detailed quality of everything we designed was about animating the space and giving the space to the inhabitants. +And, in fact, it was a system where we would layer primarily communal spaces, stacked to more and more individual and private spaces. +So we would open up a spectrum between the collective and the individual. +A little piece of math: if we count all the green that we left on the ground, minus the footprint of the buildings, and we would add back the green of all the terraces, we have 112 percent green space, so more nature than not having built a building. +And of course this little piece of math shows you that we are multiplying the space available to those who live there. +This is, in fact, the 13th floor of one of these terraces. +So you see new datum planes, new grounds planes for social activity. +We paid a lot of attention to sustainability. +In the tropics, the sun is the most important thing to pay attention to, and, in fact, it is seeking protection from the sun. +We first proved that all apartments would have sufficient daylight through the year. +We then went on to optimize the glazing of the facades to minimize the energy consumption of the building. +But most importantly, we could prove that through the geometry of the building design, the building itself would provide sufficient shading to the courtyards so that those would be usable throughout the entire year. +We further placed water bodies along the prevailing wind corridors, so that evaporative cooling would create microclimates that, again, would enhance the quality of those spaces available for the inhabitants. +And it was the idea of creating this variety of choices, of freedom to think where you would want to be, where you would want to escape, maybe, within the own complexity of the complex in which you live. +But coming from Asia to Europe: a building for a German media company based in Berlin, transitioning from the traditional print media to the digital media. +And its CEO asked a few very pertinent questions: Why would anyone today still want to go to the office, because you can actually work anywhere? +And how could a digital identity of a company be embodied in a building? +We created not only an object, but at the center of this object we created a giant space, and this space was about the experience of a collective, the experience of collaboration and of togetherness. +Communication, interaction as the center of a space that in itself would float, like what we call the collaborative cloud, in the middle of the building, surrounded by an envelope of standard modular offices. +So with only a few steps from your quiet work desk, you could participate in the giant collective experience of the central space. +Finally, we come to London, a project commissioned by the London Legacy Development Corporation of the Mayor of London. +We were asked to undertake a study and investigate the potential of a site out in Stratford in the Olympic Park. +In the 19th century, Prince Albert had created Albertopolis. +And Boris Johnson thought of creating Olympicopolis. +The idea was to bring together some of Britain's greatest institutions, some international ones, and to create a new system of synergies. +Prince Albert, as yet, created Albertopolis in the 19th century, thought of showcasing all achievements of mankind, bringing arts and science closer together. +And he built Exhibition Road, a linear sequence of those institutions. +But of course, today's society has moved on from there. +We no longer live in a world in which everything is as clearly delineated or separated from each other. +We live in a world in which boundaries start to blur between the different domains, and in which collaboration and interaction becomes far more important than keeping separations. +So we wanted to think of a giant culture machine, a building that would orchestrate and animate the various domains, but allow them to interact and collaborate. +At the base of it is a very simple module, a ring module. +It can function as a double-loaded corridor, has daylight, has ventilation. +It can be glazed over and turned into a giant exhibitional performance space. +These modules were stacked together with the idea that almost any function could, over time, occupy any of these modules. +So institutions could shrink or contract, as, of course, the future of culture is, in a way, the most uncertain of all. +This is how the building sits, adjacent to the Aquatics Centre, opposite the Olympic Stadium. +And you can see how its cantilevering volumes project out and engage the public space and how its courtyards animate the public inside. +The idea was to create a complex system in which institutional entities could maintain their own identity, in which they would not be subsumed in a singular volume. +Here's a scale comparison to the Centre Pompidou in Paris. +It both shows the enormous scale and potential of the project, but also the difference: here, it is a multiplicity of a heterogeneous structure, in which different entities can interact without losing their own identity. +And I want to end on a project that is very small, in a way, very different: a floating cinema in the ocean of Thailand. +Friends of mine had founded a film festival, and I thought, if we think of the stories and narratives of movies, we should also think of the narratives of the people that watch them. +So I designed a small modular floating platform, based on the techniques of local fishermen, how they built their lobster and fish farms. +We collaborated with the local community and built, out of recycled materials of their own, this fantastical floating platform that gently moved in the ocean as we watched films from the British film archive, [1903] "Alice in Wonderland," for example. +The most primordial experiences of the audience merged with the stories of the movies. +So I believe that architecture exceeds the domain of physical matter, of the built environment, but is really about how we want to live our lives, how we script our own stories and those of others. +Thank you. +What if I could present you a story that you would remember with your entire body and not just with your mind? +My whole life as a journalist, I've really been compelled to try to make stories that can make a difference and maybe inspire people to care. +I've worked in print. I've worked in documentary. +I've worked in broadcast. +But it really wasn't until I got involved with virtual reality that I started seeing these really intense, authentic reactions from people that really blew my mind. +So the deal is that with VR, virtual reality, I can put you on scene in the middle of the story. +By putting on these goggles that track wherever you look, you get this whole-body sensation, like you're actually, like, there. +So five years ago was about when I really began to push the envelope with using virtual reality and journalism together. +And I wanted to do a piece about hunger. +Families in America are going hungry, food banks are overwhelmed, and they're often running out of food. +Now, I knew I couldn't make people feel hungry, but maybe I could figure out a way to get them to feel something physical. +So -- again, this is five years ago -- so doing journalism and virtual reality together was considered a worse-than-half-baked idea, and I had no funding. +Believe me, I had a lot of colleagues laughing at me. +And I did, though, have a really great intern, a woman named Michaela Kobsa-Mark. +And together we went out to food banks and started recording audio and photographs. +Until one day she came back to my office and she was bawling, she was just crying. +She had been on scene at a long line, where the woman running the line was feeling extremely overwhelmed, and she was screaming, "There's too many people! +And this man with diabetes doesn't get food in time, his blood sugar drops too low, and he collapses into a coma. +As soon as I heard that audio, I knew that this would be the kind of evocative piece that could really describe what was going on at food banks. +So here's the real line. You can see how long it was, right? +And again, as I said, we didn't have very much funding, so I had to reproduce it with virtual humans that were donated, and people begged and borrowed favors to help me create the models and make things as accurate as we could. +And then we tried to convey what happened that day with as much as accuracy as is possible. +Voice: There's too many people! There's too many people! +Voice: OK, he's having a seizure. +Voice: We need an ambulance. +Nonny de la Pea: So the man on the right, for him, he's walking around the body. +For him, he's in the room with that body. +Like, that guy is at his feet. +And even though, through his peripheral vision, he can see that he's in this lab space, he should be able to see that he's not actually on the street, but he feels like he's there with those people. +He's very cautious not to step on this guy who isn't really there, right? +So that piece ended up going to Sundance in 2012, a kind of amazing thing, and it was the first virtual reality film ever, basically. +And when we went, I was really terrified. +I didn't really know how people were going to react and what was going to happen. +And we showed up with this duct-taped pair of goggles. +Oh, you're crying. You're crying. Gina, you're crying. +So you can hear the surprise in my voice, right? +And this kind of reaction ended up being the kind of reaction we saw over and over and over: people down on the ground trying to comfort the seizure victim, trying to whisper something into his ear or in some way help, even though they couldn't. +And I had a lot of people come out of that piece saying, "Oh my God, I was so frustrated. I couldn't help the guy," and take that back into their lives. +So after this piece was made, the dean of the cinema school at USC, the University of Southern California, brought in the head of the World Economic Forum to try "Hunger," and he took off the goggles, and he commissioned a piece about Syria on the spot. +And I really wanted to do something about Syrian refugee kids, because children have been the worst affected by the Syrian civil war. +I sent a team to the border of Iraq to record material at refugee camps, basically an area I wouldn't send a team now, as that's where ISIS is really operating. +And then we also recreated a street scene in which a young girl is singing and a bomb goes off. +Now, when you're in the middle of that scene and you hear those sounds, and you see the injured around you, it's an incredibly scary and real feeling. +I've had individuals who have been involved in real bombings tell me that it evokes the same kind of fear. +[The civil war in Syria may seem far away] [until you experience it yourself.] (Girl singing) [Project Syria] [A virtual reality experience] NP: We were then invited to take the piece to the Victoria and Albert Museum in London. +And it wasn't advertised. +And we were put in this tapestry room. +There was no press about it, so anybody who happened to walk into the museum to visit it that day would see us with these crazy lights. +You know, maybe they would want to see the old storytelling of the tapestries. +They were confronted by our virtual reality cameras. +But a lot of people tried it, and over a five-day run we ended up with 54 pages of guest book comments, and we were told by the curators there that they'd never seen such an outpouring. +Things like, "It's so real," "Absolutely believable," or, of course, the one that I was excited about, "A real feeling as if you were in the middle of something that you normally see on the TV news." +So, it works, right? This stuff works. +And it doesn't really matter where you're from or what age you are -- it's really evocative. +Now, don't get me wrong -- I'm not saying that when you're in a piece you forget that you're here. +But it turns out we can feel like we're in two places at once. +We can have what I call this duality of presence, and I think that's what allows me to tap into these feelings of empathy. +Right? +So that means, of course, that I have to be very cautious about creating these pieces. +I have to really follow best journalistic practices and make sure that these powerful stories are built with integrity. +If we don't capture the material ourselves, we have to be extremely exacting about figuring out the provenance and where did this stuff come from and is it authentic? +Let me give you an example. With this Trayvon Martin case, this is a guy, a kid, who was 17 years old and he bought soda and a candy at a store, and on his way home he was tracked by a neighborhood watchman named George Zimmerman who ended up shooting and killing him. +To make that piece, we got the architectural drawings of the entire complex, and we rebuilt the entire scene inside and out, based on those drawings. +All of the action is informed by the real 911 recorded calls to the police. +And interestingly, we broke some news with this story. +The forensic house that did the audio reconstruction, Primeau Productions, they say that they would testify that George Zimmerman, when he got out of the car, he cocked his gun before he went to give chase to Martin. +So you can see that the basic tenets of journalism, We're still following the same principles that we would always. +What is different is the sense of being on scene, whether you're watching a guy collapse from hunger or feeling like you're in the middle of a bomb scene. +And this is kind of what has driven me forward with these pieces, and thinking about how to make them. +We're trying to make this, obviously, beyond the headset, more available. +We're creating mobile pieces like the Trayvon Martin piece. +And these things have had impact. +I've had Americans tell me that they've donated, direct deductions from their bank account, money to go to Syrian children refugees. +And "Hunger in LA," well, it's helped start a new form of doing journalism that I think is going to join all the other normal platforms in the future. +Thank you. +There's something about caves -- a shadowy opening in a limestone cliff that draws you in. +As you pass through the portal between light and dark, you enter a subterranean world -- a place of perpetual gloom, of earthy smells, of hushed silence. +Long ago in Europe, ancient people also entered these underground worlds. +As witness to their passage, they left behind mysterious engravings and paintings, like this panel of humans, triangles and zigzags from Ojo Guarea in Spain. +You now walk the same path as these early artists. +And in this surreal, otherworldly place, it's almost possible to imagine that you hear the muffled footfall of skin boots on soft earth, or that you see the flickering of a torch around the next bend. +When I'm in a cave, I often find myself wondering what drove these people to go so deep to brave dangerous and narrow passageways to leave their mark? +In this video clip, that was shot half a kilometer, or about a third of a mile, underground, in the cave of Cudon in Spain, we found a series of red paintings on a ceiling in a previously unexplored section of the cave. +As we crawled forward, military-style, with the ceiling getting ever lower, we finally got to a point where the ceiling was so low that my husband and project photographer, Dylan, could no longer achieve focus on the ceiling with his DSLR camera. +So while he filmed me, I kept following the trail of red paint with a single light and a point-and-shoot camera that we kept for that type of occasion. +Half a kilometer underground. +Seriously. +What was somebody doing down there with a torch or a stone lamp? +I mean -- me, it makes sense, right? +But you know, this is the kind of question that I'm trying to answer with my research. +I study some of the oldest art in the world. +It was created by these early artists in Europe, between 10,000 and 40,000 years ago. +And the thing is that I'm not just studying it because it's beautiful, though some of it certainly is. +But what I'm interested in is the development of the modern mind, of the evolution of creativity, of imagination, of abstract thought, about what it means to be human. +While all species communicate in one way or another, only we humans have really taken it to another level. +Our desire and ability to share and collaborate has been a huge part of our success story. +Our modern world is based on a global network of information exchange made possible, in large part, by our ability to communicate -- in particular, using graphic or written forms of communication. +The thing is, though, that we've been building on the mental achievements of those that came before us for so long that it's easy to forget that certain abilities haven't already existed. +It's one of the things I find most fascinating about studying our deep history. +Those people didn't have the shoulders of any giants to stand on. +They were the original shoulders. +And while a surprising number of important inventions come out of that distant time, what I want to talk to you about today is the invention of graphic communication. +There are three main types of communication, spoken, gestural -- so things like sign language -- and graphic communication. +Spoken and gestural are by their very nature ephemeral. +It requires close contact for a message to be sent and received. +And after the moment of transmission, it's gone forever. +Graphic communication, on the other hand, decouples that relationship. +And with its invention, it became possible for the first time for a message to be transmitted and preserved beyond a single moment in place and time. +Europe is one of the first places that we start to see graphic marks regularly appearing in caves, rock shelters and even a few surviving open-air sites. +But this is not the Europe we know today. +This was a world dominated by towering ice sheets, three to four kilometers high, with sweeping grass plains and frozen tundra. +This was the Ice Age. +Over the last century, more than 350 Ice Age rock art sites have been found across the continent, decorated with animals, abstract shapes and even the occasional human like these engraved figures from Grotta dell'Addaura in Sicily. +They provide us with a rare glimpse into the creative world and imagination of these early artists. +Since their discovery, it's been the animals that have received the majority of the study like this black horse from Cullalvera in Spain, or this unusual purple bison from La Pasiega. +But for me, it was the abstract shapes, what we call geometric signs, that drew me to study the art. +The funny this is that at most sites the geometric signs far outnumber the animal and human images. +But when I started on this back in 2007, there wasn't even a definitive list of how many shapes there were, nor was there a strong sense of whether the same ones appeared across space or time. +Before I could even get started on my questions, my first step was to compile a database of all known geometric signs from all of the rock art sites. +The problem was that while they were well documented at some sites, usually the ones with the very nice animals, there was also a large number of them where it was very vague -- there wasn't a lot of description or detail. +Some of them hadn't been visited in half a century or more. +These were the ones that I targeted for my field work. +Over the course of two years, my faithful husband Dylan and I each spent over 300 hours underground, hiking, crawling and wriggling around 52 sites in France, Spain, Portugal and Sicily. +And it was totally worth it. +We found new, undocumented geometric signs at 75 percent of the sites we visited. +This is the level of accuracy I knew I was going to need if I wanted to start answering those larger questions. +So let's get to those answers. +Barring a handful of outliers, there are only 32 geometric signs. +Only 32 signs across a 30,000-year time span and the entire continent of Europe. +That is a very small number. +Now, if these were random doodles or decorations, we would expect to see a lot more variation, but instead what we find are the same signs repeating across both space and time. +Some signs start out strong, before losing popularity and vanishing, while other signs are later inventions. +But 65 percent of those signs stayed in use during that entire time period -- things like lines, rectangles triangles, ovals and circles like we see here from the end of the Ice Age, at a 10,000-year-old site high in the Pyrenees Mountains. +On a side note, there is surprising degree of similarity in the earliest rock art found all the way from France and Spain to Indonesia and Australia. +With many of the same signs appearing in such far-flung places, especially in that 30,000 to 40,000-year range, it's starting to seem increasingly likely that this invention actually traces back to a common point of origin in Africa. +But that I'm afraid, is a subject for a future talk. +So back to the matter at hand. +There could be no doubt that these signs were meaningful to their creators, like these 25,000-year-old bas-relief sculptures from La Roque de Venasque in France. +We might not know what they meant, but the people of the time certainly did. +The repetition of the same signs, for so long, and at so many sites tells us that the artists were making intentional choices. +If we're talking about geometric shapes, with specific, culturally recognized, agreed-upon meanings, than we could very well be looking at one of the oldest systems of graphic communication in the world. +I'm not talking about writing yet. +There's just not enough characters at this point to have represented all of the words in the spoken language, something which is a requirement for a full writing system. +Nor do we see the signs repeating regularly enough to suggest that they were some sort of alphabet. +But what we do have are some intriguing one-offs, like this panel from La Pasiega in Spain, known as "The Inscription," with its symmetrical markings on the left, possible stylized representations of hands in the middle, and what looks a bit like a bracket on the right. +The oldest systems of graphic communication in the world -- Sumerian cuneiform, Egyptian hieroglyphs, the earliest Chinese script, all emerged between 4,000 and 5,000 years ago, with each coming into existence from an earlier protosystem made up of counting marks and pictographic representations, where the meaning and the image were the same. +So a picture of a bird would really have represented that animal. +It's only later that we start to see these pictographs become more stylized, until they almost become unrecognizable and that we also start to see more symbols being invented to represent all those other missing words in language -- things like pronouns, adverbs, adjectives. +So knowing all this, it seems highly unlikely that the geometric signs from Ice Age Europe were truly abstract written characters. +Instead, what's much more likely is that these early artists were also making counting marks, maybe like this row of lines from Riparo di Za Minic in Sicily, as well as creating stylized representations of things from the world around them. +Could some of the signs be weaponry or housing? +Or what about celestial objects like star constellations? +Or maybe even rivers, mountains, trees -- landscape features, possibly like this black penniform surrounded by strange bell-shaped signs from the site of El Castillo in Spain. +The term penniform means "feather-shaped" in Latin, but could this actually be a depiction of a plant or a tree? +Some researchers have begun to ask these questions about certain signs at specific sites, but I believe the time has come to revisit this category as a whole. +The irony in all of this, of course, is that having just carefully classified all of the signs into a single category, I have a feeling that my next step will involve breaking it back apart as different types of imagery are identified and separated off. +Now don't get me wrong, the later creation of fully developed writing was an impressive feat in its own right. +But it's important to remember that those early writing systems didn't come out of a vacuum. +Thank you. +Announcer: 10 seconds. +Five, four, three, two, one. +Official top. +Plus one, two, three, four, five six, seven, eight, nine, ten. +Guillaume Nry, France. +Constant weight, 123 meters, three minutes and 25 seconds. +National record attempt. +70 meters. +[123 meters] Judge: White card. Guillaume Nry! National record! +Guillaume Nry: Thank you. +Thank you very much, thanks for the warm welcome. +That dive you just watched is a journey -- a journey between two breaths. +A journey that takes place between two breaths -- the last one before diving into the water, and the first one, coming back to the surface. +That dive is a journey to the very limits of human possibility, a journey into the unknown. +But it's also, and above all, an inner journey, where a number of things happen, physiologically as well as mentally. +And that's why I'm here today, to share my journey with you and to take you along with me. +So, we start with the last breath. +(Breathing in) (Breathing out) As you noticed, that last breath in is slow, deep and intense. +It ends with a special technique called the carp, which allows me to store one to two extra liters of air in my lungs by compressing it. +When I leave the surface, I have about 10 liters of air in my lungs. +As soon as I leave the surface the first mechanism kicks in: the diving reflex. +The first thing the diving reflex does is make your heart rate drop. +My heart beat will drop from about 60-70 per minute to about 30-40 beats per minute in a matter of seconds; almost immediately. +Next, the diving reflex causes peripheral vasoconstriction, which means that the blood flow will leave the body's extremities to feed the most important organs: the lungs, the heart and the brain. +This mechanism is innate. +I cannot control it. +If you go underwater, even if you've never done it before, you'll experience the exact same effects. +All human beings share this characteristic. +And what's extraordinary is that we share this instinct with marine mammals -- all marine mammals: dolphins, whales, sea lions, etc. +When they dive deep into the ocean, these mechanisms become activated, but to a greater extent. +And, of course, it works much better for them. +It's absolutely fascinating. +Right as I leave the surface, nature gives me a push in the right direction, allowing me to descend with confidence. +So as I dive deeper into the blue, the pressure slowly starts to squeeze my lungs. +And since it's the amount of air in my lungs that makes me float, the farther down I go, the more pressure there is on my lungs, the less air they contain and the easier it is for my body to fall. +And at one point, around 35 or 40 meters down, I don't even need to swim. +My body is dense and heavy enough to fall into the depths by itself, and I enter what's called the free fall phase. +The free fall phase is the best part of the dive. +It's the reason I still dive. +Because it feels like you're being pulled down and you don't need to do anything. +I can go from 35 meters to 123 meters without making a single movement. +I let myself be pulled by the depths, and it feels like I'm flying underwater. +It's truly an amazing feeling -- an extraordinary feeling of freedom. +And so I slowly continue sliding to the bottom. +40 meters down, 50 meters down, and between 50 and 60 meters, a second physiological response kicks in. +My lungs reach residual volume, below which they're not supposed to be compressed, in theory. +And this second response is called blood shift, or "pulmonary erection" in French. +I prefer "blood shift." +So blood shift -- how does it work? +The capillaries in the lungs become engorged with blood -- which is caused by the suction -- so the lungs can harden and protect the whole chest cavity from being crushed. +It prevents the two walls of the lungs from collapsing, from sticking together and caving in. +Thanks to this phenomenon, which we also share with marine mammals, I'm able to continue with my dive. +60, 70 meters down, I keep falling, faster and faster, because the pressure is crushing my body more and more. +Below 80 meters, the pressure becomes a lot stronger, and I start to feel it physically. +I really start to feel the suffocation. +You can see what it looks like -- not pretty at all. +The diaphragm is completely collapsed, the rib cage is squeezed in, and mentally, there is something going on as well. +You may be thinking, "This doesn't look enjoyable. +How do you do it?" +If I relied on my earthly reflexes -- what do we do above water when there's a problem? +We resist, we go against it. +Underwater, that doesn't work. +If you try that underwater, you might tear your lungs, spit up blood, develop an edema and you'll have to stop diving for a good amount of time. +So what you need to do, mentally, is to tell yourself that nature and the elements are stronger than you. +And so I let the water crush me. +I accept the pressure and go with it. +At this point, my body receives this information, and my lungs start relaxing. +I relinquish all control, and relax completely. +The pressure starts crushing me, and it doesn't feel bad at all. +I even feel like I'm in a cocoon, protected. +And the dive continues. +80, 85 meters down, 90, 100. +100 meters -- the magic number. +In every sport, it's a magic number. +For swimmers and athletes and also for us, free divers, it's a number everyone dreams of. +Everyone wishes one day to be able to get to 100 meters. +And it's a symbolic number for us, because in the 1970s, doctors and physiologists did their math, and predicted that the human body would not be able to go below 100 meters. +Below that, they said, the human body would implode. +And then the Frenchman, Jacques Mayol -- you all know him as the hero in "The Big Blue" -- came along and dived down to 100 meters. +He even reached 105 meters. +At that time, he was doing "no limits." +He'd use weights to descend faster and come back up with a balloon, just like in the movie. +Today, we go down 200 meters in no limit free diving. +I can do 123 meters by simply using muscle strength. +And in a way, it's all thanks to him, because he challenged known facts, and with a sweep of his hand, got rid of the theoretical beliefs and all the mental limits that we like to impose on ourselves. +He showed us that the human body has an infinite ability to adapt. +So I carry on with my dive. +105, 110, 115. +The bottom is getting closer. +120, 123 meters. +I'm at the bottom. +And now, I'd like to ask you to join me and put yourself in my place. +Close your eyes. +Imagine you get to 123 meters. +The surface is far, far away. +You're alone. +There's hardly any light. +It's cold -- freezing cold. +The pressure is crushing you completely -- 13 times stronger than on the surface. +And I know what you're thinking: "This is horrible. +What the hell am I doing here? +He's insane." +But no. +That's not what I think when I'm down there. +When I'm at the bottom, I feel good. +I get this extraordinary feeling of well-being. +Maybe it's because I've completely released all tensions and let myself go. +I feel great, without the need to breathe. +Although, you'd agree, I should be worried. +I feel like a tiny dot, a little drop of water, floating in the middle of the ocean. +And each time, I picture the same image. +[The Pale Blue Dot] It's that small dot the arrow is pointing to. +Do you know what it is? +It's planet Earth. +Planet Earth, photographed by the Voyager probe, from 4 billion kilometers away. +And it shows that our home is that small dot over there, floating in the middle of nothing. +That's how I feel when I'm at the bottom, at 123 meters. +I feel like a small dot, a speck of dust, stardust, floating in the middle of the cosmos, in the middle of nothing, in the immensity of space. +It's a fascinating sensation, because when I look up, down, left, right, in front, behind, I see the same thing: the infinite deep blue. +Nowhere else on Earth you can experience this -- looking all around you, and seeing the same thing. +It's extraordinary. +And at that moment, I still get that feeling each time, building up inside of me -- the feeling of humility. +Looking at this picture, I feel very humble -- just like when I'm all the way down at the bottom -- because I'm nothing, I'm a little speck of nothingness lost in all of time and space. +And it still is absolutely fascinating. +I decide to go back to the surface, because this is not where I belong. +I belong up there, on the surface. +So I start heading back up. +I get something of a shock at the very moment when I decide to go up. +First, because it takes a huge effort to tear yourself away from the bottom. +It pulled you down on the way in, and will do the same on the way up. +You have to swim twice as hard. +Then, I'm hit with another phenomenon known as narcosis. +I don't know if you've heard of that. +It's called nitrogen narcosis. +It's something that happens to scuba divers, but it can happen to free divers. +It's caused by nitrogen dissolving in the blood, which causes confusion between the conscious and unconscious mind. +A flurry of thoughts goes spinning through your head. +You can't control them, and you shouldn't try to -- you have to let it happen. +The more you try to control it, the harder it is to manage. +Then, a third thing happens: the desire to breathe. +I'm not a fish, I'm a human being, and the desire to breathe reminds me of that fact. +Around 60, 70 meters, you start to feel the need to breathe. +And with everything else that's going on, you can very easily lose your ground and start to panic. +When that happens, you think, "Where's the surface? I want to go up. I want to breathe now." +You should not do that. +Never look up to the surface -- not with your eyes, or your mind. +You should never picture yourself up there. +You have to stay in the present. +I look at the rope right in front of me, leading me back to the surface. +And I focus on that, on the present moment. +Because if I think about the surface, I panic. +And if I panic, it's over. +Time goes faster this way. +And at 30 meters: deliverance. I'm not alone any more. +The safety divers, my guardian angels, join me. +They leave the surface, we meet at 30 meters, and they escort me for the final few meters, where potential problems could arise. +Every time I see them, I think to myself, "It's thanks to you." +It's thanks to them, my team, that I'm here. +It brings back the sense of humility. +Without my team, without all the people around me, the adventure into the deep would be impossible. +A journey into the deep is above all a group effort. +So I'm happy to finish my journey with them, because I wouldn't be here if it weren't for them. +20 meters, 10 meters, my lungs slowly return to their normal volume. +Buoyancy pushes me up to the surface. +Five meters below the surface, I start to breathe out, so that as soon as I get to the surface all I do is breathe in. +And so I arrive at the surface. +(Breathing in) Air floods into my lungs. +It's like being born again, a relief. +It feels good. +Though the journey was extraordinary, I do need to feel those small oxygen molecules fueling my body. +It's an extraordinary sensation, but at the same time it's traumatizing. +It's a shock to the system, as you can you imagine. +I go from complete darkness to the light of day, from the near-silence of the depths to the commotion up top. +In terms of touch, I go from the soft, velvety feeling of the water, to air rubbing across my face. +In terms of smell, there is air rushing into my lungs. +And in return, my lungs open up. They were completely squashed just 90 seconds ago, and now, they've opened up again. +So all of this affects quite a lot of things. +I need a few seconds to come back, and to feel "all there" again. +But that needs to happen quickly, because the judges are there to verify my performance; I need to show them I'm in perfect physical condition. +You saw in the video, I was doing a so-called exit protocol. +Once at the surface, I have 15 seconds to take off my nose clip, give this signal and say "I am OK." +Plus, you need to be bilingual. +On top of everything -- that's not very nice. +Once the protocol is completed, the judges show me a white card, and that's when the joy starts. +I can finally celebrate what has just happened. +So, the journey I've just described to you is a more extreme version of free diving. +Luckily, it's far from just that. +For the past few years, I've been trying to show another side of free diving, because the media mainly talks about competitions and records. +But free diving is more than just that. +It's about being at ease in the water. +It's extremely beautiful, very poetic and artistic. +So my wife and I decided to film it and try to show another side of it, mostly to make people want to go into the water. +Let me show you some images to finish my story. +It's a mix of beautiful underwater photos. +I'd like you to know that if one day you try to stop breathing, you'll realize that when you stop breathing, you stop thinking, too. +It calms your mind. +Today, in the 21st century, we're under so much pressure. +Our minds are overworked, we think at a million miles an hour, we're always stressed. +Being able to free dive lets you, just for a moment, relax your mind. +Holding your breath underwater means giving yourself the chance to experience weightlessness. +It means being underwater, floating, with your body completely relaxed, letting go of all your tensions. +This is our plight in the 21st century: our backs hurt, our necks hurt, everything hurts, because we're stressed and tense all the time. +But when you're in the water, you let yourself float, as if you were in space. +You let yourself go completely. +It's an extraordinary feeling. +You can finally get in touch with your body, mind and spirit. +Everything feels better, all at once. +Learning how to free dive is also about learning to breathe correctly. +We breathe with our first breath at birth, up until our last one. +Breathing gives rhythm to our lives. +Learning how to breathe better is learning how to live better. +Holding your breath in the sea, not necessarily at 100 meters, but maybe at two or three, putting on your goggles, a pair of flippers, means you can go see another world, another universe, completely magical. +You can see little fish, seaweed, the flora and fauna, you can watch it all discreetly, sliding underwater, looking around, and coming back to the surface, leaving no trace. +It's an amazing feeling to become one with nature like that. +And if I may say one more thing, holding your breath, being in the water, finding this underwater world -- it's all about connecting with yourself. +You heard me talk a lot about the body's memory that dates back millions of years, to our marine origins. +The day you get back into the water, when you hold your breath for a few seconds, you will reconnect with those origins. +And I guarantee it's absolute magic. +I encourage you to try it out. +Thank you. +Chris Anderson: Perhaps we could start by just telling us about your country. +It's three dots there on the globe. Those dots are pretty huge. +I think each one is about the size of California. +Tell us about Kiribati. +Anote Tong: Well, let me first begin by saying how deeply grateful I am for this opportunity to share my story with people who do care. +I think I've been sharing my story with a lot of people who don't care too much. +But Kiribati is comprised of three groups of islands: the Gilbert Group on the west, we have the Phoenix Islands in the middle, and the Line Islands in the east. +And quite frankly, Kiribati is perhaps the only country that is actually in the four corners of the world, because we are in the Northern Hemisphere, in the Southern Hemisphere, and also in the east and the west of the International Date Line. +These islands are entirely made up of coral atolls, and on average about two meters above sea level. +And so this is what we have. +Usually not more than two kilometers in width. +And so, on many occasions, I've been asked by people, "You know, you're suffering, why don't you move back?" +They don't understand. +They have no concept of what it is that's involved. +With the rising sea, they say, "Well, you can move back." +And so this is what I tell them. +If we move back, we will fall off on the other side of the ocean. OK? +But these are the kinds of issues that people don't understand. +CA: So certainly this is just a picture of fragility there. +When was it that you yourself realized that there might be impending peril for your country? +AT: Well, the story of climate change has been one that has been going on for quite a number of decades. +And when I came into office in 2003, I began talking about climate change at the United Nations General Assembly, but not with so much passion, because then there was still this controversy among the scientists whether it was human-induced, whether it was real or it wasn't. +But I think that that debate was fairly much concluded in 2007 with the Fourth Assessment Report of the IPCC, which made a categorical statement that it is real, it's human-induced, and it's predicting some very serious scenarios for countries like mine. +And so that's when I got very serious. +In the past, I talked about it. +We were worried. +But when the scenarios, the predictions came in 2007, it became a real issue for us. +CA: Now, those predictions are, I think, that by 2100, sea levels are forecast to rise perhaps three feet. +There's scenarios where it's higher than that, for sure, but what would you say to a skeptic who said, "What's three feet? +You're on average six feet above sea level. +What's the problem?" +AT: Well, I think it's got to be understood that a marginal rise in sea level would mean a loss of a lot of land, because much of the land is low. +And quite apart from that, we are getting the swells at the moment. +So it's not about getting two feet. +I think what many people do not understand is they think climate change is something that is happening in the future. +Well, we're at the very bottom end of the spectrum. +It's already with us. +We have communities who already have been dislocated. +CA: And then, I think the country suffered its first cyclone, and this is connected, yes? What happened here? +AT: Well, we're on the equator, and I'm sure many of you understand that when you're on the equator, it's supposed to be in the doldrums. We're not supposed to get the cyclones. +We create them, and then we send them either north or south. +But they aren't supposed to come back. +But for the first time, at the beginning of this year, the Cyclone Pam, which destroyed Vanuatu, and in the process, the very edges of it actually touched our two southernmost islands, and all of Tuvalu was underwater when Hurricane Pam struck. +But for our two southernmost islands, we had waves come over half the island, and so this has never happened before. +It's a new experience. +And I've just come back from my own constituency, and I've seen these beautiful trees which had been there for decades, they've been totally destroyed. +So this is what's happening, but when we talk about the rising sea level, we think it's something that happens gradually. +It comes with the winds, it comes with the swells, and so they can be magnified, but what we are beginning to witness is the change in the weather pattern, which is perhaps the more urgent challenge that we will face sooner than perhaps the rising sea level. +CA: So the country is already seeing effects now. +As you look forward, what are your options as a country, as a nation? +AT: Well, I've been telling this story every year. +I think I visit a number of -- I've been traveling the world to try and get people to understand. +We have a plan, we think we have a plan. +And on one occasion, I think I spoke in Geneva and there was a gentleman who was interviewing me on something like this, and I said, "We are looking at floating islands," and he thought it was funny, but somebody said, "No, this is not funny. These people are looking for solutions." +And so I have been looking at floating islands. +The Japanese are interested in building floating islands. +But, as a country, we have made a commitment that no matter what happens, we will try as much as possible to stay and continue to exist as a nation. +What that will take, it's going to be something quite significant, very, very substantial. +Either we live on floating islands, or we have to build up the islands to continue to stay out of the water as the sea level rises and as the storms get more severe. +But even that, it's going to be very, very difficult to get the kind of resourcing that we would need. +CA: And then the only recourse is some form of forced migration. +AT: Well, we are also looking at that because in the event that nothing comes forward from the international community, we are preparing, we don't want to be caught like what's happening in Europe. +OK? We don't want to mass migrate at some point in time. +We want to be able to give the people the choice today, those who choose and want to do that, to migrate. +We don't want something to happen that they are forced to migrate without having been prepared to do so. +Of course, our culture is very different, our society is very different, and once we migrate into a different environment, a different culture, there's a whole lot of adjustments that are required. +CA: Well, there's forced migration in your country's past, and I think just this week, just yesterday or the day before yesterday, you visited these people. +What happened here? What's the story here? +AT: Yes, and I'm sorry, I think somebody was asking why we were sneaking off to visit that place. +I had a very good reason, because we have a community of Kiribati people living in that part of the Solomon Islands, but these were people who were relocated from the Phoenix Islands, in fact, in the 1960s. +There was serious drought, and the people could not continue to live on the island, and so they were moved to live here in the Solomon Islands. +And so yesterday it was very interesting to meet with these people. +They didn't know who I was. They hadn't heard of me. +Some of them later recognized me, but I think they were very happy. +Later they really wanted to have the opportunity to welcome me formally. +But I think what I saw yesterday was very interesting because here I see our people. +I spoke in our language, and of course they spoke back, they replied, but their accent, they are beginning not to be able to speak Kiribati properly. +I saw them, there was this lady with red teeth. +She was chewing betel nuts, and it's not something we do in Kiribati. +We don't chew betel nuts. +I met also a family who have married the local people here, and so this is what is happening. +As you go into another community, there are bound to be changes. +There is bound to be a certain loss of identity, and this is what we will be looking for in the future if and when we do migrate. +CA: It must have been just an extraordinarily emotional day because of these questions about identity, the joy of seeing you and perhaps an emphasized sense of what they had lost. +And it's very inspiring to hear you say you're going to fight to the end to try to preserve the nation in a location. +AT: This is our wish. +Nobody wants ever to leave their home, and so it's been a very difficult decision for me. +As a leader, you don't make plans to leave your island, your home, and so I've been asked on a number of occasions, "So how do you feel?" +And it doesn't feel good at all. +It's an emotional thing, and I've tried to live with it, and I know that on occasions, I'm accused of not trying to solve the problem because I can't solve the problem. +It's something that's got to be done collectively. +Climate change is a global phenomenon, and as I've often argued, unfortunately, the countries, when we come to the United Nations -- I was in a meeting with the Pacific Island Forum countries where Australia and New Zealand are also members, and we had an argument. +There was a bit of a story in the news because they were arguing that to cut emissions, it would be something that they're unable to do because it would affect the industries. +And so here I was saying, OK, I hear you, I understand what you're saying, but try also to understand what I'm saying because if you do not cut your emissions, then our survival is on the line. +And so it's a matter for you to weigh this, these moral issues. +It's about industry as opposed to the survival of a people. +CA: You know, I ask you yesterday what made you angry, and you said, "I don't get angry." But then you paused. +I think this made you angry. +AT: I'd refer you to my earlier statement at the United Nations. +I was very angry, very frustrated and then depressed. +There was a sense of futility that we are fighting a fight that we have no hope of winning. +I had to change my approach. +I had to become more reasonable because I thought people would listen to somebody who was rational, but I remain radically rational, whatever that is. +CA: Now, a core part of your nation's identity is fishing. +I think you said pretty much everyone is involved in fishing in some way. +AT: Well, we eat fish every day, every day, and I think there is no doubt that our rate of consumption of fish is perhaps the highest in the world. +We don't have a lot of livestock, so it's fish that we depend on. +CA: So you're dependent on fish, both at the local level and for the revenues that the country receives from the global fishing business for tuna, and yet despite that, a few years ago you took a very radical step. +Can you tell us about that? +I think something happened right here in the Phoenix Islands. +AT: Let me give some of the background of what fish means for us. +We have one of the largest tuna fisheries remaining in the world. +In the Pacific, I think we own something like 60 percent of the remaining tuna fisheries, and it remains relatively healthy for some species, but not all. +And Kiribati is one of the three major resource owners, tuna resource owners. +And at the moment, we have been getting something like 80 to 90 percent of our revenue from access fees, license fees. +CA: Of your national revenue. +AT: National revenue, which drives everything that we do in governments, hospitals, schools and what have you. +But we decided to close this, and it was a very difficult decision. +I can assure you, politically, locally, it was not easy, but I was convinced that we had to do this in order to ensure that the fishery remains sustainable. +There had been some indications that some of the species, in particular the bigeye, was under serious threat. +The yellowfin was also heavily fished. +Skipjack remains healthy. +And so we had to do something like that, and so that was the reason I did that. +Another reason why I did that was because I had been asking the international community that in order to deal with climate change, in order to fight climate change, there has got to be sacrifice, there has got to be commitment. +So in asking the international community to make a sacrifice, I thought we ourselves need to make that sacrifice. +And so we made the sacrifice. +And forgoing commercial fishing in the Phoenix Islands protected area would mean a loss of revenue. +We are still trying to assess what that loss would be because we actually closed it off at the beginning of this year, and so we will see by the end of this year what it means in terms of the lost revenue. +CA: So there's so many things playing into this. +On the one hand, it may prompt healthier fisheries. +I mean, how much are you able to move the price up that you charge for the remaining areas? +AT: The negotiations have been very difficult, but we have managed to raise the cost of a vessel day. +For any vessel to come in to fish for a day, we have raised the fee from -- it was $6,000 and $8,000, now to $10,000, $12,000 per vessel day. +And so there's been that significant increase. +But at the same time, what's important to note is, whereas in the past these fishing boats might be fishing in a day and maybe catch 10 tons, now they're catching maybe 100 tons because they've become so efficient. +And so we've got to respond likewise. +We've got to be very, very careful because the technology has so improved. +There was a time when the Brazilian fleet moved from the Atlantic to the Pacific. +They couldn't. +They started experimenting if they could, per se. +But now they've got ways of doing it, and they've become so efficient. +CA: Can you give us a sense of what it's like in those negotiations? +Because you're up against companies that have hundreds of millions of dollars at stake, essentially. +How do you hold the line? +Is there any advice you can give to other leaders who are dealing with the same companies about how to get the most for your country, get the most for the fish? +What advice would you give? +AT: Well, I think we focus too often on licensing in order to get the rate of return, because what we are getting from license fees is about 10 percent of the landed value of the catch on the side of the wharf, not in the retail shops. +And we only get about 10 percent. +What we have been trying to do over the years is actually to increase our participation in the industry, in the harvesting, in the processing, and eventually, hopefully, the marketing. +They're not easy to penetrate, but we are working towards that, and yes, the answer would be to enhance. +In order to increase our rate of return, we have to become more involved. +And so we've started doing that, and we have to restructure the industry. +We've got to tell these people that the world has changed. +Now we want to produce the fish ourselves. +CA: And meanwhile, for your local fishermen, they are still able to fish, but what is business like for them? +Is it getting harder? Are the waters depleted? +Or is that being run on a sustainable basis? +AT: For the artisanal fishery, we do not participate in the commercial fishing activity except only to supply the domestic market. +The tuna fishery is really entirely for the foreign market, mostly here in the US, Europe, Japan. +So I am a fisherman, very much, and I used to be able to catch yellowfin. +Now it's very, very rare to be able to catch yellowfin because they are being lifted out of the water by the hundreds of tons by these purse seiners. +CA: So here's a couple of beautiful girls from your country. +I mean, as you think about their future, what message would you have for them and what message would you have for the world? +AT: Well, I've been telling the world that we really have to do something about what is happening to the climate because for us, it's about the future of these children. +I have 12 grandchildren, at least. +I think I have 12, my wife knows. +And I think I have eight children. +It's about their future. +Every day I see my grandchildren, about the same age as these young girls, and I do wonder, and I get angry sometimes, yes I do. +I wonder what is to become of them. +And so it's about them that we should be telling everybody, that it's not about their own national interest, because climate change, regrettably, unfortunately, is viewed by many countries as a national problem. It's not. +And this is the argument we got into recently with our partners, the Australians and New Zealanders, because they said, "We can't cut any more." +This is what one of the leaders, the Australian leader, said, that we've done our part, we are cutting back. +I said, What about the rest? Why don't you keep it? +If you could keep the rest of your emissions within your boundaries, within your borders, we'd have no question. +You can go ahead as much as you like. +But unfortunately, you're sending it our way, and it's affecting the future of our children. +And so surely I think that is the heart of the problem of climate change today. +CA: People are incredibly bad at responding to graphs and numbers, and we shut our minds to it. +Somehow, to people, we're slightly better at responding to that sometimes. +And it seems like it's very possible that your nation, despite, actually because of the intense problems you face, you may yet be the warning light to the world that shines most visibly, most powerfully. +I just want to thank you, I'm sure, on behalf of all of us, for your extraordinary leadership and for being here. +Mr. President, thank you so much. +AT: Thank you. +Your company launches a search for an open position. +The applications start rolling in, and the qualified candidates are identified. +Now the choosing begins. +Person A: Ivy League, 4.0, flawless resume, great recommendations. +All the right stuff. +Person B: state school, fair amount of job hopping, and odd jobs like cashier and singing waitress. +But remember -- both are qualified. +So I ask you: who are you going to pick? +My colleagues and I created very official terms to describe two distinct categories of candidates. +We call A "the Silver Spoon," the one who clearly had advantages and was destined for success. +And we call B "the Scrapper," the one who had to fight against tremendous odds to get to the same point. +You just heard a human resources director refer to people as Silver Spoons and Scrappers -- which is not exactly politically correct and sounds a bit judgmental. +But before my human resources certification gets revoked -- let me explain. +A resume tells a story. +And over the years, I've learned something about people whose experiences read like a patchwork quilt, that makes me stop and fully consider them before tossing their resumes away. +A series of odd jobs may indicate inconsistency, lack of focus, unpredictability. +Or it may signal a committed struggle against obstacles. +At the very least, the Scrapper deserves an interview. +To be clear, I don't hold anything against the Silver Spoon; getting into and graduating from an elite university takes a lot of hard work and sacrifice. +But if your whole life has been engineered toward success, how will you handle the tough times? +One person I hired felt that because he attended an elite university, there were certain assignments that were beneath him, like temporarily doing manual labor to better understand an operation. +Eventually, he quit. +But on the flip side, what happens when your whole life is destined for failure and you actually succeed? +I want to urge you to interview the Scrapper. +I know a lot about this because I am a Scrapper. +Before I was born, my father was diagnosed with paranoid schizophrenia, and he couldn't hold a job in spite of his brilliance. +Our lives were one part "Cuckoo's Nest," one part "Awakenings" and one part "A Beautiful Mind." +I'm the fourth of five children raised by a single mother in a rough neighborhood in Brooklyn, New York. +We never owned a home, a car, a washing machine, and for most of my childhood, we didn't even have a telephone. +So I was highly motivated to understand the relationship between business success and Scrappers, because my life could easily have turned out very differently. +As I met successful business people and read profiles of high-powered leaders, I noticed some commonality. +Many of them had experienced early hardships, anywhere from poverty, abandonment, death of a parent while young, to learning disabilities, alcoholism and violence. +The conventional thinking has been that trauma leads to distress, and there's been a lot of focus on the resulting dysfunction. +But during studies of dysfunction, data revealed an unexpected insight: that even the worst circumstances can result in growth and transformation. +A remarkable and counterintuitive phenomenon has been discovered, which scientists call Post Traumatic Growth. +In one study designed to measure the effects of adversity on children at risk, among a subset of 698 children who experienced the most severe and extreme conditions, fully one-third grew up to lead healthy, successful and productive lives. +In spite of everything and against tremendous odds, they succeeded. +One-third. +Take this resume. +This guy's parents give him up for adoption. +He never finishes college. +He job-hops quite a bit, goes on a sojourn to India for a year, and to top it off, he has dyslexia. +Would you hire this guy? +His name is Steve Jobs. +In a study of the world's most highly successful entrepreneurs, it turns out a disproportionate number have dyslexia. +In the US, 35 percent of the entrepreneurs studied had dyslexia. +What's remarkable -- among those entrepreneurs who experience post traumatic growth, they now view their learning disability as a desirable difficulty which provided them an advantage because they became better listeners and paid greater attention to detail. +They don't think they are who they are in spite of adversity, they know they are who they are because of adversity. +They embrace their trauma and hardships as key elements of who they've become, and know that without those experiences, they might not have developed the muscle and grit required to become successful. +One of my colleagues had his life completely upended as a result of the Chinese Cultural Revolution in 1966. +At age 13, his parents were relocated to the countryside, the schools were closed and he was left alone in Beijing to fend for himself until 16, when he got a job in a clothing factory. +But instead of accepting his fate, he made a resolution that he would continue his formal education. +Eleven years later, when the political landscape changed, he heard about a highly selective university admissions test. +He had three months to learn the entire curriculum of middle and high school. +So, every day he came home from the factory, took a nap, studied until 4am, went back to work and repeated this cycle every day for three months. +He did it, he succeeded. +His commitment to his education was unwavering, and he never lost hope. +Today, he holds a master's degree, and his daughters each have degrees from Cornell and Harvard. +Scrappers are propelled by the belief that the only person you have full control over is yourself. +When things don't turn out well, Scrappers ask, "What can I do differently to create a better result?" +Scrappers have a sense of purpose that prevents them from giving up on themselves, kind of like if you've survived poverty, a crazy father and several muggings, you figure, "Business challenges? -- Really? +Piece of cake. I got this." +And that reminds me -- humor. +Scrappers know that humor gets you through the tough times, and laughter helps you change your perspective. +And finally, there are relationships. +People who overcome adversity don't do it alone. +Somewhere along the way, they find people who bring out the best in them and who are invested in their success. +Having someone you can count on no matter what is essential to overcoming adversity. +I was lucky. +In my first job after college, I didn't have a car, so I carpooled across two bridges with a woman who was the president's assistant. +She watched me work and encouraged me to focus on my future and not dwell on my past. +Along the way I've met many people who've provided me brutally honest feedback, advice and mentorship. +These people don't mind that I once worked as a singing waitress to help pay for college. +I'll leave you with one final, valuable insight. +Companies that are committed to diversity and inclusive practices tend to support Scrappers and outperform their peers. +According to DiversityInc, a study of their top 50 companies for diversity outperformed the S&P 500 by 25 percent. +So back to my original question. +Who are you going to bet on: Silver Spoon or Scrapper? +I say choose the underestimated contender, whose secret weapons are passion and purpose. +Hire the Scrapper. +Now... +let's go back in time. +It's 1974. +There is the gallery somewhere in the world, and there is a young girl, age 23, standing in the middle of the space. +In the front of her is a table. +On the table there are 76 objects for pleasure and for pain. +Some of the objects are a glass of water, a coat, a shoe, a rose. +But also the knife, the razor blade, the hammer and the pistol with one bullet. +There are instructions which say, "I'm an object. +You can use everything on the table on me. +I'm taking all responsibility -- even killing me. +And the time is six hours." +The beginning of this performance was easy. +People would give me the glass of water to drink, they'd give me the rose. +But very soon after, there was a man who took the scissors and cut my clothes, and then they took the thorns of the rose and stuck them in my stomach. +Somebody took the razor blade and cut my neck and drank the blood, and I still have the scar. +The women would tell the men what to do. +And the men didn't rape me because it was just a normal opening, and it was all public, and they were with their wives. +They carried me around and put me on the table, and put the knife between my legs. +And somebody took the pistol and bullet and put it against my temple. +And another person took the pistol and they started a fight. +And after six hours were finished, I... +started walking towards the public. +I was a mess. +I was half-naked, I was full of blood and tears were running down my face. +And everybody escaped, they just ran away. +They could not confront myself, with myself as a normal human being. +And then -- what happened is I went to the hotel, it was at two in the morning. +And I looked at myself in the mirror, and I had a piece of gray hair. +Alright -- please take off your blindfolds. +Welcome to the performance world. +First of all, let's explain what the performance is. +So many artists, so many different explanations, but my explanation for performance is very simple. +Performance is a mental and physical construction that the performer makes in a specific time in a space in front of an audience and then energy dialogue happens. +The audience and the performer make the piece together. +And the difference between performance and theater is huge. +In the theater, the knife is not a knife and the blood is just ketchup. +In the performance, the blood is the material, and the razor blade or knife is the tool. +It's all about being there in the real time, and you can't rehearse performance, because you can't do many of these types of things twice -- ever. +Which is very important, the performance is -- you know, all human beings are always afraid of very simple things. +We're afraid of suffering, we're afraid of pain, we're afraid of mortality. +So what I'm doing -- I'm staging these kinds of fears in front of the audience. +I'm using your energy, and with this energy I can go and push my body as far as I can. +And then I liberate myself from these fears. +And I'm your mirror. +If I can do this for myself, you can do it for you. +After Belgrade, where I was born, I went to Amsterdam. +And you know, I've been doing performances since the last 40 years. +And here I met Ulay, and he was the person I actually fell in love with. +And we made, for 12 years, performances together. +You know the knife and the pistols and the bullets, I exchange into love and trust. +So to do this kind work you have to trust the person completely because this arrow is pointing to my heart. +So, heart beating and adrenaline is rushing and so on, is about trust, is about total trust to another human being. +Our relationship was 12 years, and we worked on so many subjects, both male and female energy. +And as every relationship comes to an end, ours went too. +We didn't make phone calls like normal human beings do and say, you know, "This is over." +We walked the Great Wall of China to say goodbye. +I started at the Yellow Sea, and he started from the Gobi Desert. +We walked, each of us, three months, two and a half thousand kilometers. +It was the mountains, it was difficult. +It was climbing, it was ruins. +It was, you know, going through the 12 Chinese provinces, this was before China was open in '87. +And we succeeded to meet in the middle to say goodbye. +And then our relationship stopped. +And now, it completely changed how I see the public. +And one very important piece I made in those days was "Balkan Baroque." +And this was the time of the Balkan Wars, and I wanted to create some very strong, charismatic image, something that could serve for any war at any time, because the Balkan Wars are now finished, but there's always some war, somewhere. +So here I am washing two and a half thousand dead, big, bloody cow bones. +You can't wash the blood, you never can wash shame off the wars. +So I'm washing this six hours, six days, and wars are coming off these bones, and becoming possible -- an unbearable smell. +But then something stays in the memory. +I want to show you the one who really changed my life, and this was the performance in MoMa, which I just recently made. +This performance -- when I said to the curator, "I'm just going to sit at the chair, and there will be an empty chair at the front, and anybody from the public can come and sit as long as they want." +The curator said to me, "That's ridiculous, you know, this is New York, this chair will be empty, nobody has time to sit in front of you." +But I sit for three months. +And I sit everyday, eight hours -- the opening of the museum -- and 10 hours on Friday when the museum is open 10 hours, and I never move. +And I removed the table and I'm still sitting, and this changed everything. +This performance, maybe 10 or 15 years ago -- nothing would have happened. +But the need of people to actually experience something different, the public was not anymore the group -- relation was one to one. +I was watching these people, they would come and sit in front of me, but they would have to wait for hours and hours and hours to get to this position, and finally, they sit. +And what happened? +They are observed by the other people, they're photographed, they're filmed by the camera, they're observed by me and they have nowhere to escape except in themselves. +And that makes a difference. +There was so much pain and loneliness, there's so much incredible things when you look in somebody else's eyes, because in the gaze with that total stranger, that you never even say one word -- everything happened. +And I understood when I stood up from that chair after three months, I am not the same anymore. +And I understood that I have a very strong mission, that I have to communicate this experience to everybody. +And this is how, for me, was born the idea to have an institute of immaterial performing arts. +Because thinking about immateriality, performance is time-based art. +It's not like a painting. +You have the painting on the wall, the next day it's there. +Performance, if you are missing it, you only have the memory, or the story of somebody else telling you, but you actually missed the whole thing. +So you have to be there. +And in my point, if you talk about immaterial art, music is the highest -- absolutely highest art of all, because it's the most immaterial. +And then after this is performance, and then everything else. +That's my subjective way. +This institute is going to happen in Hudson, upstate New York, and we are trying to build with Rem Koolhaas, an idea. +And it's very simple. +If you want to get experience, you have to give me your time. +You have to sign the contract before you enter the building, that you will spend there a full six hours, you have to give me your word of honor. +It's something so old-fashioned, but if you don't respect your own word of honor and you leave before -- that's not my problem. +But it's six hours, the experience. +And then after you finish, you get a certificate of accomplishment, so get home and frame it if you want. +This is orientation hall. +The public comes in, and the first thing you have to do is dress in lab coats. +It's this importance of stepping from being just a viewer into experimenter. +And then you go to the lockers and you put your watch, your iPhone, your iPod, your computer and everything digital, electronic. +And you are getting free time for yourself for the first time. +Because there is nothing wrong with technology, our approach to technology is wrong. +We are losing the time we have for ourselves. +This is an institute to actually give you back this time. +So what you do here, first you start slow walking, you start slowing down. +You're going back to simplicity. +After slow walking, you're going to learn how to drink water -- very simple, drinking water for maybe half an hour. +After this, you're going to the magnet chamber, where you're going to create some magnet streams on your body. +Then after this, you go to crystal chamber. +After crystal chamber, you go to eye-gazing chamber, after eye-gazing chamber, you go to a chamber where you are lying down. +So it's the three basic positions of the human body, sitting, standing and lying. +And slow walking. +And there is a sound chamber. +And then after you've seen all of this, and prepared yourself mentally and physically, then you are ready to see something with a long duration, like in immaterial art. +It can be music, it can be opera, it can be a theater piece, it can be film, it can be video dance. +You go to the long duration chairs because now you are comfortable. +In the long duration chairs, you're transported to the big place where you're going to see the work. +And if you fall asleep, which is very possible because it's been a long day, you're going to be transported to the parking lot. +And you know, sleeping is very important. +In sleeping, you're still receiving art. +So in the parking lot you stay for a certain amount of time, and then after this you just, you know, go back, you see more of the things you like to see or go home with your certificate. +So this institute right now is virtual. +Right now, I am just making my institute in Brazil, then it's going to be in Australia, then it's coming here, to Canada and everywhere. +And this is to experience a kind of simple method, how you go back to simplicity in your own life. +Counting rice will be another thing. +You know, if you count rice you can make life, too. +How to count rice for six hours? +It's incredibly important. +You know, you go through this whole range of being bored, being angry, being completely frustrated, not finishing the amount of rice you're counting. +And then this unbelievable amount of peace you get when satisfying work is finished -- or counting sand in the desert. +Or having the sound-isolated situation -- that you have headphones, that you don't hear anything, and you're just there together without sound, with the people experiencing silence, just the simple silence. +We are always doing things we like in our life. +And this is why you're not changing. +You do things in life -- it's just nothing happens if you always do things the same way. +But my method is to do things I'm afraid of, the things I fear, the things I don't know, to go to territory that nobody's ever been. +And then also to include the failure. +I think failure is important because if you go, if you experiment, you can fail. +If you don't go into that area and you don't fail, you are actually repeating yourself over and over again. +And I think that human beings right now need a change, and the only change to be made is a personal level change. +You have to make the change on yourself. +Because the only way to change consciousness and to change the world around us, is to start with yourself. +It's so easy to criticize how it's different, the things in the world and they're not right, and the governments are corrupted and there's hunger in the world and there's wars -- the killing. +But what we do on the personal level -- what is our contribution to this whole thing? +Can you turn to your neighbor, the one you don't know, and look at them for two full minutes in their eyes, right now? +I'm asking two minutes of your time, that's so little. +Breathe slowly, don't try to blink, don't be self-conscious. +Be relaxed. +And just look a complete stranger in your eyes, in his eyes. +Thank you for trusting me. +Chris Anderson: Thank you. +Thank you so much. +It's often said that you can tell a lot about a person by looking at what's on their bookshelves. +What do my bookshelves say about me? +Well, when I asked myself this question a few years ago, I made an alarming discovery. +I'd always thought of myself as a fairly cultured, cosmopolitan sort of person. +But my bookshelves told a rather different story. +Pretty much all the titles on them were by British or North American authors, and there was almost nothing in translation. +Discovering this massive, cultural blind spot in my reading came as quite a shock. +And when I thought about it, it seemed like a real shame. +I knew there had to be lots of amazing stories out there by writers working in languages other than English. +And it seemed really sad to think that my reading habits meant I would probably never encounter them. +So, I decided to prescribe myself an intensive course of global reading. +2012 was set to be a very international year for the UK; it was the year of the London Olympics. +And so I decided to use it as my time frame to try to read a novel, short story collection or memoir from every country in the world. +And so I did. +And it was very exciting and I learned some remarkable things and made some wonderful connections that I want to share with you today. +But it started with some practical problems. +After I'd worked out which of the many different lists of countries in the world to use for my project, I ended up going with the list of UN-recognized nations, to which I added Taiwan, which gave me a total of 196 countries. +And after I'd worked out how to fit reading and blogging about, roughly, four books a week around working five days a week, I then had to face up to the fact that I might even not be able to get books in English from every country. +Only around 4.5 percent of the literary works published each year in the UK are translations, and the figures are similar for much of the English-speaking world. +Although, the proportion of translated books published in many other countries is a lot higher. +4.5 percent is tiny enough to start with, but what that figure doesn't tell you is that many of those books will come from countries with strong publishing networks and lots of industry professionals primed to go out and sell those titles to English-language publishers. +So, for example, although well over 100 books are translated from French and published in the UK each year, most of them will come from countries like France or Switzerland. +French-speaking Africa, on the other hand, will rarely ever get a look-in. +The upshot is that there are actually quite a lot of nations that may have little or even no commercially available literature in English. +Their books remain invisible to readers of the world's most published language. +But when it came to reading the world, the biggest challenge of all for me was that fact that I didn't know where to start. +Having spent my life reading almost exclusively British and North American books, I had no idea how to go about sourcing and finding stories and choosing them from much of the rest of the world. +I couldn't tell you how to source a story from Swaziland. +I wouldn't know a good novel from Namibia. +There was no hiding it -- I was a clueless literary xenophobe. +So how on earth was I going to read the world? +I was going to have to ask for help. +So in October 2011, I registered my blog, ayearofreadingtheworld.com, and I posted a short appeal online. +I explained who I was, how narrow my reading had been, and I asked anyone who cared to to leave a message suggesting what I might read from other parts of the planet. +Now, I had no idea whether anyone would be interested, but within a few hours of me posting that appeal online, people started to get in touch. +At first, it was friends and colleagues. +Then it was friends of friends. +And pretty soon, it was strangers. +Four days after I put that appeal online, I got a message from a woman called Rafidah in Kuala Lumpur. +She said she loved the sound of my project, could she go to her local English-language bookshop and choose my Malaysian book and post it to me? +I accepted enthusiastically, and a few weeks later, a package arrived containing not one, but two books -- Rafidah's choice from Malaysia, and a book from Singapore that she had also picked out for me. +Now, at the time, I was amazed that a stranger more than 6,000 miles away would go to such lengths to help someone she would probably never meet. +But Rafidah's kindness proved to be the pattern for that year. +Time and again, people went out of their way to help me. +Some took on research on my behalf, and others made detours on holidays and business trips to go to bookshops for me. +It turns out, if you want to read the world, if you want to encounter it with an open mind, the world will help you. +When it came to countries with little or no commercially available literature in English, people went further still. +Books often came from surprising sources. +My Panamanian read, for example, came through a conversation I had with the Panama Canal on Twitter. +Yes, the Panama Canal has a Twitter account. +And when I tweeted at it about my project, it suggested that I might like to try and get hold of the work of the Panamanian author Juan David Morgan. +I found Morgan's website and I sent him a message, asking if any of his Spanish-language novels had been translated into English. +And he said that nothing had been published, but he did have an unpublished translation of his novel "The Golden Horse." +He emailed this to me, allowing me to become one of the first people ever to read that book in English. +Morgan was by no means the only wordsmith to share his work with me in this way. +From Sweden to Palau, writers and translators sent me self-published books and unpublished manuscripts of books that hadn't been picked up by Anglophone publishers or that were no longer available, giving me privileged glimpses of some remarkable imaginary worlds. +I read, for example, about the Southern African king Ngungunhane, who led the resistance against the Portuguese in the 19th century; and about marriage rituals in a remote village on the shores of the Caspian sea in Turkmenistan. +I met Kuwait's answer to Bridget Jones. +And I read about an orgy in a tree in Angola. +But perhaps the most amazing example of the lengths that people were prepared to go to to help me read the world, came towards the end of my quest, when I tried to get hold of a book from the tiny, Portuguese-speaking African island nation of So Tom and Prncipe. +Now, having spent several months trying everything I could think of to find a book that had been translated into English from the nation, it seemed as though the only option left to me was to see if I could get something translated for me from scratch. +Now, I was really dubious whether anyone was going to want to help with this, and give up their time for something like that. +But, within a week of me putting a call out on Twitter and Facebook for Portuguese speakers, I had more people than I could involve in the project, including Margaret Jull Costa, a leader in her field, who has translated the work of Nobel Prize winner Jos Saramago. +With my nine volunteers in place, I managed to find a book by a So Toman author that I could buy enough copies of online. +Here's one of them. +And I sent a copy out to each of my volunteers. +They all took on a couple of short stories from this collection, stuck to their word, sent their translations back to me, and within six weeks, I had the entire book to read. +In that case, as I found so often during my year of reading the world, my not knowing and being open about my limitations had become a big opportunity. +When it came to So Tom and Prncipe, it was a chance not only to learn something new and discover a new collection of stories, but also to bring together a group of people and facilitate a joint creative endeavor. +My weakness had become the project's strength. +The books I read that year opened my eyes to many things. +As those who enjoy reading will know, books have an extraordinary power to take you out of yourself and into someone else's mindset, so that, for a while at least, you look at the world through different eyes. +That can be an uncomfortable experience, particularly if you're reading a book from a culture that may have quite different values to your own. +But it can also be really enlightening. +Wrestling with unfamiliar ideas can help clarify your own thinking. +And it can also show up blind spots in the way you might have been looking at the world. +When I looked back at much of the English-language literature I'd grown up with, for example, I began to see how narrow a lot of it was, compared to the richness that the world has to offer. +And as the pages turned, something else started to happen, too. +Little by little, that long list of countries that I'd started the year with, changed from a rather dry, academic register of place names into living, breathing entities. +Now, I don't want to suggest that it's at all possible to get a rounded picture of a country simply by reading one book. +But cumulatively, the stories I read that year made me more alive than ever before to the richness, diversity and complexity of our remarkable planet. +It was as though the world's stories and the people who'd gone to such lengths to help me read them had made it real to me. +These days, when I look at my bookshelves or consider the works on my e-reader, they tell a rather different story. +It's the story of the power books have to connect us across political, geographical, cultural, social, religious divides. +It's the tale of the potential human beings have to work together. +And, it's testament to the extraordinary times we live in, where, thanks to the Internet, it's easier than ever before for a stranger to share a story, a worldview, a book with someone she may never meet, on the other side of the planet. +I hope it's a story I'm reading for many years to come. +And I hope many more people will join me. +If we all read more widely, there'd be more incentive for publishers to translate more books, and we would all be richer for that. +Thank you. +You might think there are many things that I can't do because I cannot see. +That's largely true. +Actually, I just needed to have a bit of help to come up to the stage. +But there is also a lot that I can do. +This is me rock climbing for the first time. +Actually, I love sports and I can play many sports, like swimming, skiing, skating, scuba diving, running and so on. +But there is one limitation: somebody needs to help me. +I want to be independent. +I lost my sight at the age of 14 in a swimming pool accident. +I was an active, independent teenager, and suddenly I became blind. +The hardest thing for me was losing my independence. +Things that until then seemed simple became almost impossible to do alone. +For example, one of my challenges was textbooks. +Back then, there were no personal computers, no Internet, no smartphones. +So I had to ask one of my two brothers to read me textbooks, and I had to create my own books in Braille. +Can you imagine? +Of course, my brothers were not happy about it, and later, I noticed they were not there whenever I needed them. +I think they tried to stay away from me. +I don't blame them. +I really wanted to be freed from relying on someone. +That became my strong desire to ignite innovation. +Jump ahead to the mid-1980s. +I got to know cutting-edge technologies and I thought to myself, how come there is no computer technology to create books in Braille? +These amazing technologies must be able to also help people with limitations like myself. +That's the moment my innovation journey began. +I started developing digital book technologies, such as a digital Braille editor, digital Braille dictionary and a digital Braille library network. +Today, every student who is visually impaired can read textbooks, by using personal computers and mobile devices, in Braille or in voice. +This may not surprise you, since everyone now has digital books in their tablets in 2015. +But Braille went digital many years before digital books, already in the late 1980s, almost 30 years ago. +Strong and specific needs of the blind people made this opportunity to create digital books way back then. +And this is actually not the first time this happened, because history shows us accessibility ignites innovation. +The telephone was invented while developing a communication tool for hearing impaired people. +Some keyboards were also invented to help people with disabilities. +Now I'm going to give you another example from my own life. +In the '90s, people around me started talking about the Internet and web browsing. +I remember the first time I went on the web. +I was astonished. +I could access newspapers at any time and every day. +I could even search for any information by myself. +I desperately wanted to help the blind people have access to the Internet, and I found ways to render the web into synthesized voice, which dramatically simplified the user interface. +This led me to develop the Home Page Reader in 1997, first in Japanese and later, translated into 11 languages. +When I developed the Home Page Reader, I got many comments from users. +One that I strongly remember said, "For me, the Internet is a small window to the world." +It was a revolutionary moment for the blind. +The cyber world became accessible, and this technology that we created for the blind has many uses, way beyond what I imagined. +It can help drivers listen to their emails or it can help you listen to a recipe while cooking. +Today, I am more independent, but it is still not enough. +For example, when I approached the stage just now, I needed assistance. +My goal is to come up here independently. +And not just here. +My goal is to be able to travel and do things that are simple to you. +OK, now let me show you the latest technologies. +This is a smartphone app that we are working on. +Electronic voice: 51 feet to the door, and keep straight. +EV: Take the two doors to go out. The door is on your right. +EV: Nick is approaching. Looks so happy. +Chieko Asakawa: Hi, Nick! +CA: Where are you going? You look so happy. +Nick: Oh -- well, my paper just got accepted. +CA: That's great! Congratulations. +Nick: Thanks. Wait -- how'd you know it was me, and that I look happy? +(Chieko and Nick laugh) Man: Hi. +CA: Oh ... hi. +EV: He is not talking to you, but on his phone. +EV: Potato chips. +EV: Dark chocolate with almonds. +EV: You gained 5 pounds since yesterday; take apple instead of chocolate. +EV: Approaching. +EV: You arrived. +CA: Now ... +Thank you. +So now the app navigates me by analyzing beacon signals and smartphone sensors and permits me to move around indoor and outdoor environments all by myself. +But the computer vision part that showed who is approaching, in which mood -- we are still working on that part. +And recognizing facial expressions is very important for me to be social. +So now the fusions of technologies are ready to help me see the real world. +We call this cognitive assistance. +It understands our surrounding world and whispers to me in voice or sends a vibration to my fingers. +Cognitive assistance will augment missing or weakened abilities -- in other words, our five senses. +This technology is only in an early stage, but eventually, I'll be able to find a classroom on campus, enjoy window shopping or find a nice restaurant while walking along a street. +It will be amazing if I can find you on the street before you notice me. +It will become my best buddy, and yours. +So, this really is a great challenge. +It is a challenge that needs collaboration, which is why we are creating an open community to accelerate research activities. +Just this morning, we announced the open-source fundamental technologies you just saw in the video. +The frontier is the real world. +The blind community is exploring this technical frontier and the pathfinder. +I hope to work with you to explore the new era, and the next time that I'm on this stage, through technology and innovation, I will be able to walk up here all by myself. +Thank you so much. +What does a working mother look like? +If you ask the Internet, this is what you'll be told. +Never mind that this is what you'll actually produce if you attempt to work at a computer with a baby on your lap. +But no, this isn't a working mother. +You'll notice a theme in these photos. We'll look at a lot of them. +That theme is amazing natural lighting, which, as we all know, is the hallmark of every American workplace. +There are thousands of images like these. +Just put the term "working mother" into any Google image search engine, stock photo site. +They're all over the Internet, they're topping blog posts and news pieces, and I've become kind of obsessed with them and the lie that they tell us and the comfort that they give us, that when it comes to new working motherhood in America, everything's fine. +But it's not fine. +As a country, we are sending millions of women back to work every year, incredibly and kind of horrifically soon after they give birth. +That's a moral problem but today I'm also going to tell you why it's an economic problem. +I'm just going to show you two of them. +Nothing says "Give that girl a promotion" like leaking breast milk through your dress during a presentation. +You'll notice that there's no baby in this photo, because that's not how this works, not for most working mothers. +Did you know, and this will ruin your day, that every time a toilet is flushed, its contents are aerosolized and they'll stay airborne for hours? +And yet, for many new working mothers, this is the only place during the day that they can find to make food for their newborn babies. +I put these things, a whole dozen of them, into the world. +I wanted to make a point. +I didn't know what I was also doing was opening a door, because now, total strangers from all walks of life write to me all the time just to tell me what it's like for them to go back to work within days or weeks of having a baby. +I'm going to share 10 of their stories with you today. +They are totally real, some of them are very raw, and not one of them looks anything like this. +Here's the first. +"I was an active duty service member at a federal prison. +I returned to work after the maximum allowed eight weeks for my C-section. +A male coworker was annoyed that I had been out on 'vacation,' so he intentionally opened the door on me while I was pumping breast milk and stood in the doorway with inmates in the hallway." +Most of the stories that these women, total strangers, send to me now, are not actually even about breastfeeding. +A woman wrote to me to say, "I gave birth to twins and went back to work after seven unpaid weeks. +Emotionally, I was a wreck. +Physically, I had a severe hemorrhage during labor, and major tearing, so I could barely get up, sit or walk. +My employer told me I wasn't allowed to use my available vacation days because it was budget season." +I've come to believe that we can't look situations like these in the eye because then we'd be horrified, and if we get horrified then we have to do something about it. +So we choose to look at, and believe, this image. +I don't really know what's going on in this picture, because I find it weird and slightly creepy. +Like, what is she doing? +But I know what it tells us. +It tells us that everything's fine. +This working mother, all working mothers and all of their babies, are fine. +There's nothing to see here. +And anyway, women have made a choice, so none of it's even our problem. +I want to break this choice thing down into two parts. +The first choice says that women have chosen to work. +So, that's not true. +Today in America, women make up 47 percent of the workforce, and in 40 percent of American households a woman is the sole or primary breadwinner. +Our paid work is a part, a huge part, of the engine of this economy, and it is essential for the engines of our families. +On a national level, our paid work is not optional. +Choice number two says that women are choosing to have babies, so women alone should bear the consequences of those choices. +You know, that's one of those things that when you hear it in passing, can sound correct. +I didn't make you have a baby. +I certainly wasn't there when that happened. +But that stance ignores a fundamental truth, which is that our procreation on a national scale is not optional. +The babies that women, many of them working women, are having today, will one day fill our workforce, protect our shores, make up our tax base. +Our procreation on a national scale is not optional. +These aren't choices. +We need women to work. We need working women to have babies. +So we should make doing those things at the same time at least palatable, right? +OK, this is pop quiz time: what percentage of working women in America do you think have no access to paid maternity leave? +88 percent. +88 percent of working mothers will not get one minute of paid leave after they have a baby. +So now you're thinking about unpaid leave. +It exists in America. It's called FMLA. It does not work. +Because of the way it's structured, all kinds of exceptions, half of new mothers are ineligible for it. +Here's what that looks like. +"We adopted our son. +When I got the call, the day he was born, I had to take off work. +I had not been there long enough to qualify for FMLA, so I wasn't eligible for unpaid leave. +When I took time off to meet my newborn son, I lost my job." +These corporate stock photos hide another reality, another layer. +Of those who do have access to just that unpaid leave, most women can't afford to take much of it at all. +A nurse told me, "I didn't qualify for short-term disability because my pregnancy was considered a preexisting condition. +We used up all of our tax returns and half of our savings during my six unpaid weeks. +We just couldn't manage any longer. +Physically it was hard, but emotionally it was worse. +I struggled for months being away from my son." +So this decision to go back to work so early, it's a rational economic decision driven by family finances, but it's often physically horrific because putting a human into the world is messy. +A waitress told me, "With my first baby, I was back at work five weeks postpartum. +With my second, I had to have major surgery after giving birth, so I waited until six weeks to go back. +I had third degree tears." +23 percent of new working mothers in America will be back on the job within two weeks of giving birth. +"I worked as a bartender and cook, average of 75 hours a week while pregnant. +I had to return to work before my baby was a month old, working 60 hours a week. +One of my coworkers was only able to afford 10 days off with her baby." +Of course, this isn't just a scenario with economic and physical implications. +Childbirth is, and always will be, an enormous psychological event. +A teacher told me, "I returned to work eight weeks after my son was born. +I already suffer from anxiety, but the panic attacks I had prior to returning to work were unbearable." +Statistically speaking, the shorter a woman's leave after having a baby, the more likely she will be to suffer from postpartum mood disorders like depression and anxiety, and among many potential consequences of those disorders, suicide is the second most common cause of death in a woman's first year postpartum. +Heads up that this next story -- I've never met this woman, but I find it hard to get through. +"I feel tremendous grief and rage that I lost an essential, irreplaceable and formative time with my son. +Labor and delivery left me feeling absolutely broken. +For months, all I remember is the screaming: colic, they said. +On the inside, I was drowning. +Every morning, I asked myself how much longer I could do it. +I was allowed to bring my baby to work. +I closed my office door while I rocked and shushed and begged him to stop screaming so I wouldn't get in trouble. +I hid behind that office door every damn day and cried while he screamed. +I cried in the bathroom while I washed out the pump equipment. +Every day, I cried all the way to work and all the way home again. +I promised my boss that the work I didn't get done during the day, I'd make up at night from home. +I thought, there's just something wrong with me that I can't swing this." +So those are the mothers. +What of the babies? +As a country, do we care about the millions of babies born every year to working mothers? +I say we don't, not until they're of working and tax-paying and military-serving age. +We tell them we'll see them in 18 years, and getting there is kind of on them. +One of the reasons I know this is that babies whose mothers have 12 or more weeks at home with them are more likely to get their vaccinations and their well checks in their first year, so those babies are more protected from deadly and disabling diseases. +But those things are hidden behind images like this. +America has a message for new mothers who work and for their babies. +Whatever time you get together, you should be grateful for it, and you're an inconvenience to the economy and to your employers. +That narrative of gratitude runs through a lot of the stories I hear. +A woman told me, "I went back at eight weeks after my C-section because my husband was out of work. +Without me, my daughter had failure to thrive. +She wouldn't take a bottle. +She started losing weight. +Thankfully, my manager was very understanding. +He let my mom bring my baby, who was on oxygen and a monitor, four times a shift so I could nurse her." +There's a little club of countries in the world that offer no national paid leave to new mothers. +Care to guess who they are? +The first eight make up eight million in total population. +They are Papua New Guinea, Suriname and the tiny island nations of Micronesia, Marshall Islands, Nauru, Niue, Palau and Tonga. +Number nine is the United States of America, with 320 million people. +Oh, that's it. +That's the end of the list. +Every other economy on the planet has found a way to make some level of national paid leave work for the people doing the work of the future of those countries, but we say, "We couldn't possibly do that." +We say that the market will solve this problem, and then we cheer when corporations offer even more paid leave to the women who are already the highest-educated and highest-paid among us. +Remember that 88 percent? +Those middle- and low-income women are not going to participate in that. +We know that there are staggering economic, financial, physical and emotional costs to this approach. +We have decided -- decided, not an accident, to pass these costs directly on to working mothers and their babies. +We know the price tag is higher for low-income women, therefore disproportionately for women of color. +We pass them on anyway. +All of this is to America's shame. +But it's also to America's risk. +Because what would happen if all of these individual so-called choices to have babies started to turn into individual choices not to have babies. +One woman told me, "New motherhood is hard. It shouldn't be traumatic. +When we talk about expanding our family now, we focus on how much time I would have to care for myself and a new baby. +If we were to have to do it again the same way as with our first, we might stick with one kid." +The birthrate needed in America to keep the population stable is 2.1 live births per woman. +In America today, we are at 1.86. +We need women to have babies, and we are actively disincentivizing working women from doing that. +What would happen to work force, to innovation, to GDP, if one by one, the working mothers of this country were to decide that they can't bear to do this thing more than once? +I'm here today with only one idea worth spreading, and you've guessed what it is. +It is long since time for the most powerful country on Earth to offer national paid leave to the people doing the work of the future of this country and to the babies who represent that future. +Childbirth is a public good. +This leave should be state-subsidized. +It should have no exceptions for small businesses, length of employment or entrepreneurs. +It should be able to be shared between partners. +I've talked today a lot about mothers, but co-parents matter on so many levels. +Not one more woman should have to go back to work while she is hobbling and bleeding. +Not one more family should have to drain their savings account to buy a few days of rest and recovery and bonding. +Not one more fragile infant should have to go directly from the incubator to day care because his parents have used up all of their meager time sitting in the NICU. +Not one more working family should be told that the collision of their work, their needed work and their needed parenthood, is their problem alone. +The catch is that when this is happening to a new family, it is consuming, and a family with a new baby is more financially vulnerable than they've ever been before, so that new mother cannot afford to speak up on her own behalf. +But all of us have voices. +I am done, done having babies, and you might be pre-baby, you might be post-baby, you might be no baby. +It should not matter. +We have to stop framing this as a mother's issue, or even a women's issue. +This is an American issue. +We need to stop buying the lie that these images tell us. +We need to stop being comforted by them. +We need to question why we're told that this can't work when we see it work everywhere all over the world. +We need to recognize that this American reality is to our dishonor and to our peril. +Because this is not, this is not, and this is not what a working mother looks like. +What was the most difficult job you ever did? +Was it working in the sun? +Was it working to provide food for a family or a community? +Was it working days and nights trying to protect lives and property? +Was it working alone or working on a project that wasn't guaranteed to succeed, but that might improve human health or save a life? +Was it working to build something, create something, make a work of art? +Was it work for which you were never sure you were fully understood or appreciated? +The people in our communities who do these jobs deserve our attention, our love and our deepest support. +But people aren't the only ones in our communities who do these difficult jobs. +These jobs are also done by the plants, the animals and the ecosystems on our planet, including the ecosystems I study: the tropical coral reefs. +Coral reefs are farmers. +They provide food, income and food security for hundreds of millions of people around the world. +Coral reefs are security guards. +The structures that they build protect our shorelines from storm surge and waves, and the biological systems that they house filter the water and make it safer for us to work and play. +Coral reefs are chemists. +The molecules that we're discovering on coral reefs are increasingly important in the search for new antibiotics and new cancer drugs. +And coral reefs are artists. +The structures that they build are some of the most beautiful things on planet Earth. +And this beauty is the foundation of the tourism industry in many countries with few or little other natural resources. +So for all of these reasons, all of these ecosystem services, economists estimate the value of the world's coral reefs in the hundreds of billions of dollars per year. +And yet despite all that hard work being done for us and all that wealth that we gain, we have done almost everything we possibly could to destroy that. +We have taken the fish out of the oceans and we have added in fertilizer, sewage, diseases, oil, pollution, sediments. +We have trampled the reefs physically with our boats, our fins, our bulldozers, and we have changed the chemistry of the entire sea, warmed the waters and made storms worse. +And these would all be bad on their own, but these threats magnify each other and compound one another and make each other worse. +I'll give you an example. +Where I live and work, in Curaao, a tropical storm went by a few years ago. +And on the eastern end of the island, where the reefs are intact and thriving, you could barely tell a tropical storm had passed. +But in town, where corals had died from overfishing, from pollution, the tropical storm picked up the dead corals and used them as bludgeons to kill the corals that were left. +This is a coral that I studied during my PhD -- I got to know it quite well. +And after this storm took off half of its tissue, it became infested with algae, the algae overgrew the tissue and that coral died. +This magnification of threats, this compounding of factors is what Jeremy Jackson describes as the "slippery slope to slime." +It's hardly even a metaphor because many of our reefs now are literally bacteria and algae and slime. +Now, this is the part of the talk where you may expect me to launch into my plea for us to all save the coral reefs. +But I have a confession to make: that phrase drives me nuts. +Whether I see it in a tweet, in a news headline or the glossy pages of a conservation brochure, that phrase bothers me, because we as conservationists have been sounding the alarms about the death of coral reefs for decades. +And yet, almost everyone I meet, no matter how educated, is not sure what a coral is or where they come from. +How would we get someone to care about the world's coral reefs when it's an abstract thing they can barely understand? +If they don't understand what a coral is or where it comes from, or how funny or interesting or beautiful it is, why would we expect them to care about saving them? +So let's change that. +What is a coral and where does it come from? +Corals are born in a number of different ways, but most often by mass spawning: all of the individuals of a single species on one night a year, releasing all the eggs they've made that year into the water column, packaged into bundles with sperm cells. +And those bundles go to the surface of the ocean and break apart. +And hopefully -- hopefully -- at the surface of the ocean, they meet the eggs and sperm from other corals. +And that is why you need lots of corals on a coral reef -- so that all of their eggs can meet their match at the surface. +When they're fertilized, they do what any other animal egg does: divides in half again and again and again. +Taking these photos under the microscope every year is one of my favorite and most magical moments of the year. +At the end of all this cell division, they turn into a swimming larva -- a little tiny blob of fat the size of a poppy seed, but with all of the sensory systems that we have. +They can sense color and light, textures, chemicals, pH. +They can even feel pressure waves; they can hear sound. +And they use those talents to search the bottom of the reef for a place to attach and live the rest of their lives. +So imagine finding a place where you would live the rest of your life when you were just two days old. +They attach in the place they find most suitable, they build a skeleton underneath themselves, they build a mouth and tentacles, and then they begin the difficult work of building the world's coral reefs. +One coral polyp will divide itself again and again and again, leaving a limestone skeleton underneath itself and growing up toward the sun. +Given hundreds of years and many species, what you get is a massive limestone structure that can be seen from space in many cases, covered by a thin skin of these hardworking animals. +Now, there are only a few hundred species of corals on the planet, maybe 1,000. +But these systems house millions and millions of other species, and that diversity is what stabilizes the systems, and it's where we're finding our new medicines. +It's how we find new sources of food. +I'm lucky enough to work on the island of Curaao, where we still have reefs that look like this. +But, indeed, much of the Caribbean and much of our world is much more like this. +Scientists have studied in increasing detail the loss of the world's coral reefs, and they have documented with increasing certainty the causes. +But in my research, I'm not interested in looking backward. +My colleagues and I in Curaao are interested in looking forward at what might be. +And we have the tiniest reason to be optimistic. +Because even in some of these reefs that we probably could have written off long ago, we sometimes see baby corals arrive and survive anyway. +And we're starting to think that baby corals may have the ability to adjust to some of the conditions that the adults couldn't. +They may be able to adjust ever so slightly more readily to this human planet. +So in the research I do with my colleagues in Curaao, we try to figure out what a baby coral needs in that critical early stage, what it's looking for and how we can try to help it through that process. +I'm going to show you three examples of the work we've done to try to answer those questions. +A few years ago we took a 3D printer and we made coral choice surveys -- different colors and different textures, and we simply asked the coral where they preferred to settle. +And we found that corals, even without the biology involved, still prefer white and pink, the colors of a healthy reef. +And they prefer crevices and grooves and holes, where they will be safe from being trampled or eaten by a predator. +So we can use this knowledge, we can go back and say we need to restore those factors -- that pink, that white, those crevices, those hard surfaces -- in our conservation projects. +We can also use that knowledge if we're going to put something underwater, like a sea wall or a pier. +We can choose to use the materials and colors and textures that might bias the system back toward those corals. +Now in addition to the surfaces, we also study the chemical and microbial signals that attract corals to reefs. +Starting about six years ago, I began culturing bacteria from surfaces where corals had settled. +And I tried those one by one by one, looking for the bacteria that would convince corals to settle and attach. +And we now have many bacterial strains in our freezer that will reliably cause corals to go through that settlement and attachment process. +So as we speak, my colleagues in Curaao are testing those bacteria to see if they'll help us raise more coral settlers in the lab, and to see if those coral settlers will survive better when we put them back underwater. +Now in addition to these tools, we also try to uncover the mysteries of species that are under-studied. +This is one of my favorite corals, and always has been: dendrogyra cylindrus, the pillar coral. +I love it because it makes this ridiculous shape, because its tentacles are fat and look fuzzy and because it's rare. +Finding one of these on a reef is a treat. +In fact, it's so rare, that last year it was listed as a threatened species on the endangered species list. +And this was in part because in over 30 years of research surveys, scientists had never found a baby pillar coral. +We weren't even sure if they could still reproduce, or if they were still reproducing. +So four years ago, we started following these at night and watching to see if we could figure out when they spawn in Curaao. +We got some good tips from our colleagues in Florida, who had seen one in 2007, one in 2008, and eventually we figured out when they spawn in Curaao and we caught it. +Here's a female on the left with some eggs in her tissue, about to release them into the seawater. +And here's a male on the right, releasing sperm. +We collected this, we got it back to the lab, we got it to fertilize and we got baby pillar corals swimming in our lab. +Thanks to the work of our scientific aunts and uncles, and thanks to the 10 years of practice we've had in Curaao at raising other coral species, we got some of those larvae to go through the rest of the process and settle and attach, and turn into metamorphosed corals. +So this is the first pillar coral baby that anyone ever saw. +And I have to say -- if you think baby pandas are cute, this is cuter. +So we're starting to figure out the secrets to this process, the secrets of coral reproduction and how we might help them. +And this is true all around the world; scientists are figuring out new ways to handle their embryos, to get them to settle, maybe even figuring out the methods to preserve them at low temperatures, so that we can preserve their genetic diversity and work with them more often. +But this is still so low-tech. +We are limited by the space on our bench, the number of hands in the lab and the number of coffees we can drink in any given hour. +Now, compare that to our other crises and our other areas of concern as a society. +We have advanced medical technology, we have defense technology, we have scientific technology, we even have advanced technology for art. +But our technology for conservation is behind. +Think back to the most difficult job you ever did. +Many of you would say it was being a parent. +My mother described being a parent as something that makes your life far more amazing and far more difficult than you could've ever possibly imagined. +I've been trying to help corals become parents for over 10 years now. +And watching the wonder of life has certainly filled me with amazement to the core of my soul. +But I've also seen how difficult it is for them to become parents. +The pillar corals spawned again two weeks ago, and we collected their eggs and brought them back to the lab. +And here you see one embryo dividing, alongside 14 eggs that didn't fertilize and will blow up. +They'll be infected with bacteria, they will explode and those bacteria will threaten the life of this one embryo that has a chance. +We don't know if it was our handling methods that went wrong and we don't know if it was just this coral on this reef, always suffering from low fertility. +Whatever the cause, we have much more work to do before we can use baby corals to grow or fix or, yes, maybe save coral reefs. +So never mind that they're worth hundreds of billions of dollars. +Coral reefs are hardworking animals and plants and microbes and fungi. +They're providing us with art and food and medicine. +And we almost took out an entire generation of corals. +But a few made it anyway, despite our best efforts, and now it's time for us to thank them for the work they did and give them every chance they have to raise the coral reefs of the future, their coral babies. +Thank you so much. +Great things happen at intersections. +In fact, I would argue that some of the most interesting things of the human experience occur at the intersections, in the liminal space, where by liminal I mean the space in-between. +There's freedom in that in-between, freedom to create from the indefiniteness of not-quite-here, not-quite-there, a new self-definition. +Some of the great intersections of the world come to mind, like the Arc de Triomphe in Paris, or Times Square in New York City, both bustling with the excitement of a seemingly endless stream of people. +Other intersections, like the Edmund Pettus Bridge in Selma, Alabama, or Canfield Drive and Copper Creek Court in Ferguson, Missouri, also come to mind because of the tremendous energy at the intersection of human beings, ideologies and the ongoing struggle for justice. +Beyond the physical landscape of our planet, some of the most famous celestial images are of intersections. +Stars are born at the messy intersection of gas and dust, instigated by gravity's irrevocable pull. +Stars die by this same intersection, this time flung outward in a violent collision of smaller atoms, intersecting and efficiently fusing into altogether new and heavier things. +We can all think of intersections that have special meaning to us. +To be intersectional, then, is to occupy a position at an intersection. +I've lived the entirety of my life in the in-between, in the liminal space between dreams and reality, race and gender, poverty and plenty, science and society. +I am both black and a woman. +Like the birth of stars in the heavenlies, this robust combination of knowing results in a shining example of the explosive fusion of identities. +I am also an astrophysicist. +I study blazars, supermassive, hyperactive black holes that sit at the centers of massive galaxies and shoot out jets nearby those black holes at speeds approaching the speed of light in a process we are still trying to completely understand. +I have dreamed of becoming an astrophysicist since I was 12 years old. +As I journeyed along my path, I encountered the best and worst of life at an intersection: the tremendous opportunity to self-define, the collision of expectation and experience, the exhilaration of victorious breakthroughs and, sometimes, the explosive pain of regeneration. +I began my college experience just after my family had fallen apart. +Our financial situation disintegrated just after my father's departure from our lives. +This thrust my mother, my sister and I out of the relative comfort of middle-class life and into the almost constant struggle to make ends meet. +Thus, I was one of roughly 60 percent of women of color who find finances to be a major barrier to their educational goals. +Thankfully, Norfolk State University provided me with full funding, and I was able to achieve my bachelor's in physics. +After graduation, and despite knowing that I wanted a PhD in astrophysics, I fell through the cracks. +It was a poster that saved my dream, and some really incredible people and programs. +The American Physical Society had this beautiful poster encouraging students of color to become physicists. +It was striking to me because it featured a young black girl, probably around 12 years old, looking studiously at some physics equations. +I remember thinking I was looking directly back at the little girl who first dared to dream this dream. +I immediately wrote to the Society and requested my personal copy of the poster, which to this day still hangs in my office. +I described to them in the email my educational path, and my desire to find myself again in pursuit of the PhD. +They directed me to the Fisk-Vanderbilt University Bridge Program, itself an intersection of the master's and PhD degrees at two institutions. +After two years out of school, they accepted me into the program, and I found myself again on the path to the PhD. +After receiving my master's at Fisk, I went on to Yale to complete my PhD. +Once I was physically occupying the space that would ultimately give way to my childhood aspirations, I anticipated a smooth glide to the PhD. +It became immediately apparent that not everyone was thrilled to have that degree of liminality in their space. +I was ostracized by many of my classmates, one of whom went so far as to invite me to "do what I really came here to do" as he pushed all the dirty dishes from our meal in front of me to clean up. +I wish that were an isolated occurrence, but for many women of color in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics, or STEM, this is something they have long endured. +One hundred percent of the 60 women of color interviewed in a recent study by Joan C. Williams at UC Hastings reported facing racialized gender bias, including being mistaken for the janitorial staff. +This mistaken identity was not reported by any of the white women interviewed for this study, which comprised 557 women in total. +While there is nothing inherently wrong with a janitorial position, and in fact my forefathers and foremothers were able to attend college because many of their parents worked these jobs, it was a clear attempt to put me in my place. +While there was certainly the acute pain of the encounter, the real issue is that my appearance can tell anyone anything about my ability. +Beyond that, though, it underscores that the women of color in STEM do not experience the same set of barriers that just women or just people of color face. +That's why today I want to highlight women of color in STEM, who are inexorably, unapologetically living as the inseparable sum of identities. +STEM itself is an intersectional term, such that its true richness cannot be appreciated without considering the liminal space between disciplines. +Science, the pursuit of understanding the physical world by way of chemistry, physics, biology, cannot be accomplished in the absence of mathematics. +Engineering requires the application of basic science and math to the lived experience. +Technology sits firmly on the foundation of math, engineering and science. +Math itself serves the critical role of Rosetta Stone, decoding and encoding the physical principles of the world. +STEM is utterly incomplete without each individual piece. +This is to say nothing of the enrichment that is realized when STEM is combined with other disciplines. +The purpose for this talk is twofold: first, to say directly to every black, Latina, indigenous, First Nation or any other woman or girl who finds herself resting at the blessed intersection of race and gender, that you can be anything you want to be. +My personal hope is that you'll become an astrophysicist, but beyond that, anything you want. +Do not think for one minute that because you are who you are, you cannot be who you imagine yourself to be. +Hold fast to those dreams and let them carry you into a world you can't even imagine. +Secondly, among the most pressing issues of our time, most now find their intersection with STEM. +We have as a global society solved most of the single-faceted issues of our time. +Those that remain require a thorough investigation of the liminal space between disciplines to create the multifaceted solutions of tomorrow. +Who better to solve these liminal problems than those who have faced their whole lives at the intersections. +We as thought leaders and decision makers must push past the first steps of diversity and into the richer and more robust territory of full inclusion and equal opportunity. +One of my favorite examples of liminal excellence comes from the late Dr. Claudia Alexander, a black woman plasma physicist, who passed away this past July after a 10-year bout with breast cancer. +She was a NASA project scientist who spearheaded the NASA side of the Rosetta mission, which became famous this year for landing a rover on a comet, and the 1.5 billion dollar Galileo mission to Jupiter, two high-profile scientific victories for NASA, the United States and the world. +Dr. Alexander said it this way: "I'm used to walking between two cultures. +For me, it's among the purposes of my life to take us from states of ignorance to states of understanding with bold exploration that you can't do every day." +This shows exactly the power of a liminal person. +She had the technical ability to spearhead some of the most ambitious space missions of our time, and she perfectly understood her place of being exactly who she was in any place she was. +Jessica Matthews, inventor of the SOCCKET line of sports products, like soccer balls, that generate renewable energy as you play with them, said it this way: "A major part of invention isn't just creating things, it's understanding people and understanding the systems that make this world." +The reason I tell my story and the story of Dr. Alexander and Jessica Matthews is because they are fundamentally intersectional stories, the stories of lives lived at the nexus of race, gender and innovation. +Despite implicit and explicit questions of my right to be in an elite space, I'm proud to report that when I graduated, I was the first black woman to earn a PhD in astrophysics in Yale's then 312-year history. +I am now part of a small but growing cadre of women of color in STEM who are poised to bring new perspectives and new ideas to life on the most pressing issues of our time: things like educational inequities, police brutality, HIV/AIDS, climate change, genetic editing, artificial intelligence and Mars exploration. +This is to say nothing of the things we haven't even thought of yet. +Women of color in STEM occupy some of the toughest and most exciting sociotechnological issues of our time. +Thus, we are uniquely positioned to contribute to and drive these conversations in ways that are more inclusive of a wider variety of lived experience. +This outlook can be expanded to the many intersectional people whose experiences, positive and negative, enrich the conversations in ways that outmatch even the best-resourced homogenous groups. +This is not a request born out of a desire to fit in. +It's a reminder that we cannot get to the best possible outcomes for the totality of humanity without precisely this collaboration, this bringing together of the liminal, the differently lived, distinctly experienced and disparately impacted. +Simply put, we cannot be the most excellent expression of our collective genius without the full measure of humanity brought to bear. +Thank you. +In the past few months, I've been traveling for weeks at a time with only one suitcase of clothes. +One day, I was invited to an important event, and I wanted to wear something special and new for it. +So I looked through my suitcase and I couldn't find anything to wear. +I was lucky to be at the technology conference on that day, and I had access to 3D printers. +So I quickly designed a skirt on my computer, and I loaded the file on the printer. +It just printed the pieces overnight. +The next morning, I just took all the pieces, assembled them together in my hotel room, and this is actually the skirt that I'm wearing right now. +So it wasn't the first time that I printed clothes. +For my senior collection at fashion design school, I decided to try and 3D print an entire fashion collection from my home. +The problem was that I barely knew anything about 3D printing, and I had only nine months to figure out how to print five fashionable looks. +I always felt most creative when I worked from home. +I loved experimenting with new materials, and I always tried to develop new techniques to make the most unique textiles for my fashion projects. +I loved going to old factories and weird stores in search of leftovers of strange powders and weird materials, and then bring them home to experiment on. +As you can probably imagine, my roommates didn't like that at all. +So I decided to move on to working with big machines, ones that didn't fit in my living room. +I love the exact and the custom work I can do with all kinds of fashion technologies, like knitting machines and laser cutting and silk printing. +One summer break, I came here to New York for an internship at a fashion house in Chinatown. +We worked on two incredible dresses that were 3D printed. +They were amazing -- like you can see here. +But I had a few issues with them. +They were made from hard plastics and that's why they were very breakable. +The models couldn't sit in them, and they even got scratched from the plastics under their arms. +With 3D printing, the designers had so much freedom to make the dresses look exactly like they wanted, but still, they were very dependent on big and expensive industrial printers that were located in a lab far from their studio. +Later that year, a friend gave me a 3D printed necklace, printed using a home printer. +I knew that these printers were much cheaper and much more accessible than the ones we used at my internship. +So I looked at the necklace, and then I thought, "If I can print a necklace from home, why not print my clothes from home, too?" +I really liked the idea that I wouldn't have to go to the market and pick fabrics that someone else chose to sell -- I could just design them and print them directly from home. +I found a small makerspace, where I learned everything I know about 3D printing. +Right away, they literally gave me the key to the lab, so I could experiment into the night, every night. +The main challenge was to find the right filament for printing clothes with. +So what is a filament? +Filament is the material you feed the printer with. +And I spent a month or so experimenting with PLA, which is a hard and scratchy, breakable material. +The breakthrough came when I was introduced to Filaflex, which is a new kind of filament. +It's strong, yet very flexible. +And with it, I was able to print the first garment, the red jacket that had the word "Libert" -- "freedom" in French -- embedded into it. +I chose this word because I felt so empowered and free when I could just design a garment from my home and then print it by myself. +And actually, you can easily download this jacket, and easily change the word to something else. +For example, your name or your sweetheart's name. +So the printer plates are small, so I had to piece the garment together, just like a puzzle. +And I wanted to solve another challenge. +I wanted to print textiles that I would use just like regular fabrics. +That's when I found an open-source file from an architect who designed a pattern that I love. +And with it, I was able to print a beautiful textile that I would use just like a regular fabric. +And it actually even looks a little bit like lace. +So I took his file and I modified it, and changed it, played with it -- many kinds of versions out of it. +And I needed to print another 1,500 more hours to complete printing my collection. +So I brought six printers to my home and just printed 24-7. +And this is actually a really slow process, but let's remember the Internet was significantly slower 20 years ago, so 3D printing will also accelerate and in no time you'll be able to print a T-Shirt in your home in just a couple of hours, or even minutes. +So you guys, you want to see what it looks like? +Audience: Yeah! +Danit Peleg: Rebecca is wearing one of my five outfits. +Almost everything here she's wearing, I printed from my home. +Even her shoes are printed. +Audience: Wow! +Audience: Cool! +Danit Peleg: Thank you, Rebecca. +(To audience) Thank you, guys. +So I think in the future, materials will evolve, and they will look and feel like fabrics we know today, like cotton or silk. +Imagine personalized clothes that fit exactly to your measurements. +Music was once a very physical thing. +You would have to go to the record shop and buy CDs, but now you can just download the music -- digital music -- directly to your phone. +Fashion is also a very physical thing. +And I wonder what our world will look like when our clothes will be digital, just like this skirt is. +Thank you so much. +[Thank You] +So when I was a kid ... +this was my team. +I stunk at sports. +I didn't like to play them, I didn't like to watch them. +So this is what I did. I went fishing. +And for all of my growing up I fished on the shores of Connecticut, and these are the creatures that I saw on a regular basis. +But after I grew up and went to college, and I came home in the early 90's, this is what I found. +My team had shrunk. +It was like literally having your roster devastated. +And as I sort of looked into that, from a very personal point of view as a fisherman, I started to kind of figure out, well, what was the rest of the world thinking about it? +First place I started to look was fish markets. +And when I went to fish markets, in spite of where I was -- whether I was in North Carolina, or Paris, or London, or wherever -- I kept seeing this weirdly repeating trope of four creatures, again and again -- on the menus, on ice -- shrimp, tuna, salmon and cod. +And I thought this was pretty strange, and as I looked at it, I was wondering, did anyone else notice this sort of shrinking of the market? +Well, when I looked into it, I realized that people didn't look at it as their team. +Ordinary people, the way they looked at seafood was like this. +It's not an unusual human characteristic to reduce the natural world down to very few elements. +We did it before, 10,000 years ago, when we came out of our caves. +If you look at fire pits from 10,000 years ago, you'll see raccoons, you'll see, you know, wolves, you'll see all kinds of different creatures. +But if you telescope to the age of -- you know, 2,000 years ago, you'll see these four mammals: pigs, cows, sheep and goats. +It's true of birds, too. +You look at the menus in New York City restaurants 150 years ago, 200 years ago, you'll see snipe, woodcock, grouse, dozens of ducks, dozens of geese. +But telescope ahead to the age of modern animal husbandry, and you'll see four: turkeys, ducks, chicken and geese. +So it makes sense that we've headed in this direction. +But how have we headed in this direction? +Well ... +first it's a very, very new problem. +This is the way we've been fishing the oceans over the last 50 years. +World War II was a tremendous incentive to arm ourselves in a war against fish. +All of the technology that we perfected during World War II -- sonar, lightweight polymers -- all these things were redirected towards fish. +And so you see this tremendous buildup in fishing capacity, quadrupling in the course of time, from the end of World War II to the present time. +And right now that means we're taking between 80 and 90 million metric tons out of the sea every year. +That's the equivalent of the human weight of China taken out of the sea every year. +And it's no coincidence that I use China as the example because China is now the largest fishing nation in the world. +Well, that's only half the story. +The other half of the story is this incredible boom in fish farming and aquaculture, which is now, only in the last year or two, starting to exceed the amount of wild fish that we produce. +So that if you add wild fish and farmed fish together, you get the equivalent of two Chinas created from the ocean each and every year. +And again, it's not a coincidence that I use China as the example, because China, in addition to being the biggest catcher of fish, is also the biggest farmer of fish. +So let's look though at the four choices we are making right now. +The first one -- by far the most consumed seafood in America and in much of the West, is shrimp. +Shrimp in the wild -- as a wild product -- is a terrible product. +5, 10, 15 pounds of wild fish are regularly killed to bring one pound of shrimp to the market. +They're also incredibly fuel inefficient to bring to the market. +In a recent study that was produced out of Dalhousie University, it was found that dragging for shrimp is one of the most carbon-intensive ways of fishing that you can find. +So you can farm them, and people do farm them, and they farm them a lot in this very area. +Problem is ... +the place where you farm shrimp is in these wild habitats -- in mangrove forests. +Now look at those lovely roots coming down. +Those are the things that hold soil together, protect coasts, create habitats for all sorts of young fish, young shrimp, all sorts of things that are important to this environment. +Well, this is what happens to a lot of coastal mangrove forests. +We've lost millions of acres of coastal mangroves over the last 30 or 40 years. +That rate of destruction has slowed, but we're still in a major mangrove deficit. +The other thing that's going on here is a phenomenon that the filmmaker Mark Benjamin called "Grinding Nemo." +This phenomenon is very, very relevant to anything that you've ever seen on a tropical reef. +Because what's going on right now, we have shrimp draggers dragging for shrimp, catching a huge amount of bycatch, that bycatch in turn gets ground up and turned into shrimp food. +And sometimes, many of these vessels -- manned by slaves -- are catching these so-called "trash fish," fish that we would love to see on a reef, grinding them up and turning them into shrimp feed -- an ecosystem literally eating itself and spitting out shrimp. +The next most consumed seafood in America, and also throughout the West, is tuna. +So tuna is this ultimate global fish. +These huge management areas have to be observed in order for tuna to be well managed. +Our own management area, called a Regional Fisheries Management Organization, is called ICCAT, the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas. +The great naturalist Carl Safina once called it, "The International Conspiracy to Catch all the Tunas." +Of course we've seen incredible improvement in ICCAT in the last few years, there is total room for improvement, but it remains to be said that tuna is a global fish, and to manage it, we have to manage the globe. +Well, we could also try to grow tuna but tuna is a spectacularly bad animal for aquaculture. +Many people don't know this but tuna are warm-blooded. +They can heat their bodies 20 degrees above ambient temperature, they can swim at over 40 miles an hour. +So that pretty much eliminates all the advantages of farming a fish, right? +A farmed fish is -- or a fish is cold-blooded, it doesn't move too much. +That's a great thing for growing protein. +But if you've got this crazy, wild creature that swims at 40 miles an hour and heats its blood -- not a great candidate for aquaculture. +The next creature -- most consumed seafood in America and throughout the West -- is salmon. +Now salmon got its plundering, too, but it didn't really necessarily happen through fishing. +This is my home state of Connecticut. +Connecticut used to be home to a lot of wild salmon. +But if you look at this map of Connecticut, every dot on that map is a dam. +There are over 3,000 dams in the state of Connecticut. +I often say this is why people in Connecticut are so uptight -- If somebody could just unblock Connecticut's chi, I feel that we could have an infinitely better world. +But I made this particular comment at a convention once of national parks officers, and this guy from North Carolina sidled up to me, he says, "You know, you oughtn't be so hard on your Connecticut, cause we here in North Carolina, we got 35,000 dams." +So it's a national epidemic, it's an international epidemic. +And there are dams everywhere, and these are precisely the things that stop wild salmon from reaching their spawning grounds. +So as a result, we've turned to aquaculture, and salmon is one the most successful, at least from a numbers point of view. +When they first started farming salmon, it could take as many as six pounds of wild fish to make a single pound of salmon. +The industry has, to its credit, greatly improved. +They've gotten it below two to one, although it's a little bit of a cheat because if you look at the way aquaculture feed is produced, they're measuring pellets -- pounds of pellets per pound of salmon. +Those pellets are in turn reduced fish. +So the actual -- what's called the FIFO, the fish in and the fish out -- kind of hard to say. +But in any case, credit to the industry, it has lowered the amount of fish per pound of salmon. +Problem is we've also gone crazy with the amount of salmon that we're producing. +Aquaculture is the fastest growing food system on the planet. +It's growing at something like seven percent per year. +And so even though we're doing less per fish to bring it to the market, we're still killing a lot of these little fish. +And it's not just fish that we're feeding fish to, we're also feeding fish to chickens and pigs. +So we've got chickens and they're eating fish, but weirdly, we also have fish that are eating chickens. +Because the byproducts of chickens -- feathers, blood, bone -- get ground up and fed to fish. +So I often wonder, is there a fish that ate a chicken that ate a fish? +It's sort of a reworking of the chicken and egg thing. Anyway -- All together, though, it results in a terrible mess. +What you're talking about is something between 20 and 30 million metric tons of wild creatures that are taken from the ocean and used and ground up. +That's the equivalent of a third of a China, or of an entire United States of humans that's taken out of the sea each and every year. +The last of the four is a kind of amorphous thing. +It's what the industry calls "whitefish." +There are many fish that get cycled into this whitefish thing but the way to kind of tell the story, I think, is through that classic piece of American culinary innovation, the Filet-O-Fish sandwich. +So the Filet-O-Fish sandwich actually started as halibut. +And it started because a local franchise owner found that when he served his McDonald's on Friday, nobody came. +Because it was a Catholic community, they needed fish. +So he went to Ray Kroc and he said, "I'm going to bring you a fish sandwich, going to be made out of halibut." +Ray Kroc said, "I don't think it's going to work. +I want to do a Hula Burger, and there's going to be a slice of pineapple on a bun. +But let's do this, let's have a bet. +Whosever sandwich sells more, that will be the winning sandwich." +Well, it's kind of sad for the ocean that the Hula Burger didn't win. +So he made his halibut sandwich. +Unfortunately though, the sandwich came in at 30 cents. +Ray wanted the sandwich to come in at 25 cents, so he turned to Atlantic cod. +We all know what happened to Atlantic cod in New England. +So now the Filet-O-Fish sandwich is made out of Alaska pollock, it's the largest fin fish fishery in the United States, 2 to 3 billion pounds of fish taken out of the sea every single year. +If we go through the pollock, the next choice is probably going to be tilapia. +Tilapia is one of those fish nobody ever heard of 20 years ago. +It's actually a very efficient converter of plant protein into animal protein, and it's been a godsend to the third world. +It's actually a tremendously sustainable solution, it goes from an egg to an adult in nine months. +The problem is that when you look about the West, it doesn't do what the West wants it to do. +It really doesn't have what's called an oily fish profile. +It doesn't have the EPA and DHA omega-3s that we all think are going to make us live forever. +So what do we do? +I mean, first of all, what about this poor fish, the clupeids? +The fish that represent a huge part of that 20 to 30 million metric tons. +Well, one possibility that a lot of conservationists have raised is could we eat them? +Could we eat them directly instead of feeding them to salmon? +There are arguments for it. +They are tremendously fuel efficient to bring to market, a fraction of the fuel cost of say, shrimp, and at the very top of the carbon efficiency scale. +They also are omega-3 rich, a great source for EPA and DHA. +So that is a potential. +And if we were to go down that route what I would say is, instead of paying a few bucks a pound -- or a few bucks a ton, really -- and making it into aquafeed, could we halve the catch and double the price for the fishermen and make that our way of treating these particular fish? +Other possibility though, which is much more interesting, is looking at bivalves, particularly mussels. +Now, mussels are very high in EPA and DHA, they're similar to canned tuna. +They're also extremely fuel efficient. +To bring a pound of mussels to market is about a thirtieth of the carbon as required to bring beef to market. +They require no forage fish, they actually get their omega-3s by filtering the water of microalgae. +In fact, that's where omega-3s come from, they don't come from fish. +Microalgae make the omega-3s, they're only bioconcentrated in fish. +Mussels and other bivalves do tremendous amounts of water filtration. +A single mussel can filter dozens of gallons every single day. +And this is incredibly important when we look at the world. +Right now, nitrification, overuse of phosphates in our waterways are causing tremendous algal blooms. +Over 400 new dead zones have been created in the last 20 years, tremendous sources of marine life death. +We also could look at not a fish at all. +We could look at a vegetable. +We could look at seaweed, the kelps, all these different varieties of things that can be high in omega-3s, can be high in proteins, tremendously good things. +They filter the water just like mussels do. +And weirdly enough, it turns out that you can actually feed this to cows. +Now, I'm not a big fan of cattle. +But if you wanted to keep growing cattle in a time and place where water resources are limited, you're growing seaweed in the water, you don't have to water it -- major consideration. +And the last fish is a question mark. +We have the ability to create aquacultured fish that creates a net gain of marine protein for us. +This creature would have to be vegetarian, it would have to be fast growing, it would have to be adaptable to a changing climate and it would have to have that oily fish profile, that EPA, DHA, omega-3 fatty acid profile that we're looking for. +This exists kind of on paper. +I have been reporting on these subjects for 15 years. +Every time I do a new story, somebody tells me, "We can do all that. We can do it. We've figured it all out. +We can produce a fish that's a net gain of marine protein and has omega-3s." +Great. +It doesn't seem to be getting scaled up. +It is time to scale this up. +If we do, 30 million metric tons of seafood, a third of the world catch, stays in the water. +So I guess what I'm saying is this is what we've been going with. +We tend to go with our appetites rather than our minds. +But if we went with this, or some configuration of it, we might have a little more of this. +Thank you. +Nicole Paris: TEDYouth, make some noise! +TEDYouth, make some -- (Beatboxing ends) Are you ready? +(Cheers and applause) Are you ready? +Ed Cage: Yeah, yeah, yeah! +EC: Y'all like that? Let me show you how we used to do it -- NP: Get it pops, go ahead. +EC: ... when I was growing up in the '90s. +(Beatboxing ends) NP: Pops, pops, pops, pops, pops, pops, hold up, hold up, hold up, hold up! +Oh my God. +OK, he's trying to battle me. +Hold on, right now, hold on. +Do you remember when you used to beatbox me to sleep? +EC: Yeah, yeah, I remember. +That's when she was a little baby. +We would do something like this. +NP: I remember that. +NP: All right, pops, pops, pops, chill out, chill out. +Hold up, hold up, hold up. +EC: Y'all remember the video. +This is like a little payback or something for 50 million people calling me the loser. +NP: Hold up, hold up. +But a lot of people out there don't really know what beatboxing is, where it started from. +EC: Right, right. +NP: Where it came from. +So why don't you give them a little history -- just a tickle -- a bit of history of where it comes from. +EC: Beatbox started here in New York. +That's right, that's right. New York, New York! +Everybody like, "Yeah!" +Well, we from St. Louis. +NP: Now you can put y'all hands down. +EC: But beatbox started here in New York. +What you would have is that, when we would go to parties, you would have the DJ and you would have the rapper. +But because I don't have electricity coming out of me, we had to emulate what the beats was doing. +So when you would see the beatboxer, you would see us over to the side. +Then you would see a rapper, and when the rapper began to rap, because back then the beats were simple -- or -- Those were simple beats. +Well, I'm taking that to heart. +But now we do something different in our house, so we have these jam sessions, and our jam sessions consist of us jamming in church. +You know, in church, we'll look at each other like, and we'll text the beat to each other. +Or we'll be in the kitchen cooking, road trips, airports. +NP: Standing right there in the corner, "Aw, Dad -- listen to that." +Naw, I'm kidding. But you know what? +We're talking all about this jam session and everything. +EC: Yeah. +NP: Why don't we give them a little peek, just a tiny bit of our jam session? +NP: Y'all want to hear some jam session? EC: Y'all ready for a jam session? +NP: Sorry? I can't hear you. +Yeah! Kick it, pops! +(Beatboxing ends) NP: I'm getting ready to go! +EC: Y'all ready? Everybody stand up! Come on, everybody stand up! +Get on up! Come on, stretch! +(Beatboxing ends) NP: That's it. +(Cheers and applause) Thank you! Make some noise! +EG: Thank you, everybody! +NP: Make some noise! Make some noise! +Thank you! +So, I have an overlooked but potentially lucrative investment opportunity for you. +Over the past 10 years in the UK, the return on burial plots has outperformed the UK property market by a ratio of around three to one. +There are private cemeteries being set up with plots for sale to investors, and they start at around 3,900 pounds. +And they're projected to achieve about 40 percent growth. +The biggest advantage is that this is a market with continuous demand. +Now, this is a real proposition, and there are companies out there that really are offering this investment, but my interest in it is quite different. +I'm an architect and urban designer, and for the past year and a half, I've been looking at approaches to death and dying and at how they've shaped our cities and the buildings within them. +So in the summer, I did my first exhibition on death and architecture in Venice, and it was called "Death in Venice." +And because death is a subject that many of us find quite uncomfortable to talk about, the exhibition was designed to be quite playful, so that people would literally engage with it. +So one of our exhibits was an interactive map of London which showed just how much of the real estate in the city is given over to death. +As you wave your hand across the map, the name of the piece of real estate -- the building or the cemetery -- is revealed. +And those white shapes that you can see, they're all of the hospitals and hospices and mortuaries and cemeteries in the city. +In fact, the majority are cemeteries. +We wanted to show that, even though death and burial are things they're all around us, and they're important parts of our cities. +So about half a million people die in the UK each year, and of those, around a quarter will want to be buried. +But the UK, like many Western European countries, is running out of burial space, especially in the major cities. +And the Greater London Authority has been aware of this for a while, and the main causes are population growth, the fact that existing cemeteries are almost full. +There's a custom in the UK that graves are considered to be occupied forever, and there's also development pressure -- people want to use that same land to build houses or offices or shops. +So they came up with a few solutions. +They were like, well, maybe we can reuse those graves after 50 years. +Or maybe we can bury people, like, four deep, so that four people can be buried in the same plot, and we can make more efficient use of the land that way, and in that way, hopefully London will still have space to bury people in the near future. +But, traditionally, cemeteries haven't been taken care of by the local authority. +In fact, the surprising thing is that there's no legal obligation on anyone in the UK to provide burial space. +Traditionally, it's been done by private and religious organizations, like churches and mosques and synagogues. +But there's also occasionally been a for-profit group who has wanted to get in on the act. +And, you know, they look at the small size of a burial plot and that high cost, and it looks like there's serious money to be made. +So, actually, if you want to go out and start your own cemetery, you kind of can. +There was this couple in South Wales, and they had a farmhouse and a load of fields next to it, and they wanted to develop the land. +They had a load of ideas. +They first thought about making a caravan park, but the council said no. +And then they wanted to make a fish farm and again the council said no. +Then they hit on the idea of making a cemetery and they calculated that by doing this, they could increase the value of their land from about 95,000 pounds to over one million pounds. +But just to come back to this idea of making profit from cemeteries, like, it's kind of ludicrous, right? +The thing is that the high cost of those burial plots is actually very misleading. +They look like they're expensive, but that cost reflects the fact that you need to maintain the burial plot -- like, someone has to cut the grass for the next 50 years. +That means it's very difficult to make money from cemeteries. +And it's the reason that normally they're run by the council or by a not-for-profit group. +But anyway, the council granted these people permission, and they're now trying to build their cemetery. +So just to explain to you kind of how this works: If I want to build something in the UK, like a cemetery for example, then I have to apply for planning permission first. +So if I want to build a new office building for a client or if I want to extend my home or, you know, if I have a shop and I want to convert it into an office, I have to do a load of drawings, and I submit them to the council for permission. +And they'll look at things like how it fits in the surroundings. +So they'll look at what it looks like. +But they'll also think about things like what impact is it going to have on the local environment? +And they'll be thinking about things like, is this thing going to cause pollution or is there going to be a lot of traffic that wants to go to this thing that I've built? +But also good things. +Is it going to add local services like shops to the neighborhood that local people would like to use? +And they'll weigh up the advantages and the disadvantages and they'll make a decision. +So that's how it works if I want to build a large cemetery. +But what if I've got a piece of land and I just want to bury a few people, like five or six? +Well, then -- actually, I don't need permission from anyone! +There's actually almost no regulation in the UK around burial, and the little bit that there is, is about not polluting water courses, like not polluting rivers or groundwater. +So actually, if you want to go and make your own mini-cemetery, then you can. +But I mean, like -- really, who does this? Right? +Well, if you're an aristocratic family and you have a large estate, then there's a chance that you'll have a mausoleum on it, and you'll bury your family there. +But the really weird thing is that you don't need to have a piece of land of a certain size before you're allowed to start burying people on it. +And so that means that, technically, this applies to, like, the back garden of your house in the suburbs. +So what if you wanted to try this yourself at home? +Well, there's a few councils that have guidance on their website which can help you. +So, the first thing that they tell you is that you need to have a certificate of burial before you can go ahead -- you're not allowed to just murder people and put them under the patio. +They also tell you that you need to keep a record of where the grave is. +But that's pretty much it for formal requirements. +Now, they do warn you that your neighbors might not like this, but, legally speaking, there's almost nothing that they can do about it. +And just in case any of you still had that profit idea in your mind about how much those burial plots cost and how much money you might be able to make, they also warn that it might cause the value of your house to drop by 20 percent. +Although, actually, it's more likely that no one will want to buy your house at all after that. +So what I find fascinating about this is the fact that it kind of sums up many of our attitudes towards death. +In the UK, and I think that the figures across Europe are probably similar, only about 30 percent of people have ever talked to anyone about their wishes around death, and even for people over 75, only 45 percent of people have ever talked about this. +And the reasons that people give ... you know, they think that their death is far off or they think that they're going to make people uncomfortable by talking about it. +And you know, to a certain extent, there are other people out there who are taking care of things for us. +The government has all this regulation and bureaucracy around things like burying a death, for example, and there's people like funeral directors who devote their entire working lives to this issue. +But when it comes to our cities and thinking about how death fits in our cities, there's much less regulation and design and thought than we might imagine. +So we're not thinking about this, but all of the people we imagine are thinking about it -- they're not taking care of it either. +Thank you. +Pat Mitchell: So I was thinking about female friendship a lot, and by the way, these two women, I'm very honored to say, have been my friends for a very long time, too. +Jane Fonda: Yes we have. +PM: And one of the things that I read about female friendship is something that Cervantes said. +He said, "You can tell a lot about someone," in this case a woman, "by the company that she keeps." +So let's start with -- JF: We're in big trouble. +Lily Tomlin: Hand me one of those waters, I'm extremely dry. +JF: You're taking up our time. +We have a very limited -- LT: Just being with her sucks the life out of me. +JF: You ain't seen nothing yet. +Anyway -- sorry. +PM: So tell me, what do you look for in a friend? +LT: I look for someone who has a sense of fun, who's audacious, who's forthcoming, who has politics, who has even a small scrap of passion for the planet, someone who's decent, has a sense of justice and who thinks I'm worthwhile. +JF: You know, I was thinking this morning, I don't even know what I would do without my women friends. +I mean it's, "I have my friends, therefore I am." +LT: JF: No, it's true. +I exist because I have my women friends. They -- You're one of them. +I don't know about you. But anyway -- You know, they make me stronger, they make me smarter, they make me braver. +They tap me on the shoulder when I might be in need of course-correcting. +And most of them are a good deal younger than me, too. +You know? I mean, it's nice -- LT: Thank you. +JF: No, I do, I include you in that, because listen, you know -- it's nice to have somebody still around to play with and learn from when you're getting toward the end. +I'm approaching -- I'll be there sooner than you. +LT: No, I'm glad to have you parallel aging alongside me. +JF: I'm showing you the way. +LT: Well, you are and you have. +PM: Well, as we grow older, and as we go through different kinds of life's journeys, what do you do to keep your friendships vital and alive? +LT: Well you have to use a lot of -- JF: She doesn't invite me over much, I'll tell you that. +LT: I have to use a lot of social media -- You be quiet now. And so -- LT: And I look through my emails, I look through my texts to find my friends, so I can answer them as quickly as possible, because I know they need my counsel. +They need my support, because most of my friends are writers, or activists, or actors, and you're all three ... +and a long string of other descriptive phrases, and I want to get to you as soon as possible, I want you to know that I'm there for you. +JF: Do you do emojis? +LT: Oh ... JF: No? +LT: That's embarrassing. JF: I'm really into emojis. +LT: No, I spell out my -- I spell out my words of happiness and congratulations, and sadness. +JF: You spell it right out -- LT: I spell it, every letter. +JF: Such a purist. +You know, as I've gotten older, I've understood more the importance of friendships, and so, I really make an effort to reach out and make play dates -- not let too much time go by. +I read a lot so, as Lily knows all too well, my books that I like, I send to my friends. +LT: When we knew we would be here today you sent me a lot of books about women, female friendships, and I was so surprised to see how many books, how much research has been done recently -- JF: And were you grateful? LT: I was grateful. +PM: And -- LT: Wait, no, it's really important because this is another example of how women are overlooked, put aside, marginalized. +There's been very little research done on us, even though we volunteered lots of times. +JF: That's for sure. +LT: This is really exciting, and you all will be interested in this. +The Harvard Medical School study has shown that women who have close female friendships are less likely to develop impairments -- physical impairments as they age, and they are likely to be seen to be living much more vital, exciting -- JF: And longer -- LT: Joyful lives. +JF: We live five years longer than men. +LT: I think I'd trade the years for joy. +LT: But the most important part is they found -- the results were so exciting and so conclusive -- the researchers found that not having close female friends is detrimental to your health, as much as smoking or being overweight. +JF: And there's something else, too -- LT: I've said my part, so ... +JF: OK, well, listen to my part, because there's an additional thing. +Because they only -- for years, decades -- they only researched men when they were trying to understand stress, only very recently have they researched what happens to women when we're stressed, and it turns out that when we're stressed -- women, our bodies get flooded by oxytocin. +Which is a feel-good, calming, stress-reducing hormone. +Which is also increased when we're with our women friends. +And I do think that's one reason why we live longer. +And I feel so bad for men because they don't have that. +Testosterone in men diminishes the effects of oxytocin. +LT: Well, when you and I and Dolly made "9 to 5" ... +JF: Oh -- LT: We laughed, we did, we laughed so much, we found we had so much in common and we're so different. +Here she is, like Hollywood royalty, I'm like a tough kid from Detroit, [Dolly's] a Southern kid from a poor town in Tennessee, and we found we were so in sync as women, and we must have -- we laughed -- we must have added at least a decade onto our lifespans. +JF: I think -- we sure crossed our legs a lot. +If you know what I mean. +LT: I think we all know what you mean. +PM: You're adding decades to our lives right now. +So among the books that Jane sent us both to read on female friendship was one by a woman we admire greatly, Sister Joan Chittister, who said about female friendship that women friends are not just a social act, they're a spiritual act. +Do you think of your friends as spiritual? +Do they add something spiritual to your lives? +LT: Spiritual -- I absolutely think that. +Because -- especially people you've known a long time, people you've spent time with -- I can see the spiritual essence inside them, the tenderness, the vulnerability. +There's actually kind of a love, an element of love in the relationship. +I just see deeply into your soul. +PM: Do you think that, Jane -- LT: But I have special powers. +JF: Well, there's all kinds of friends. +There's business friends, and party friends, I've got a lot of those. +But the oxytocin-producing friendships have ... +They feel spiritual because it's a heart opening, right? +You know, we go deep. And -- I find that I shed tears a lot with my intimate friends. +Not because I'm sad but because I'm so touched and inspired by them. +LT: And you know one of you is going to go soon. +PM: Well, two of us are sitting here, Lily, which one are you talking about? +And I always think, when women talk about their friendships, that men always look a little mystified. +What are the differences, in your opinion, between men friendships and women friendships? +JF: There's a lot of difference, and I think we have to have a lot of empathy for men -- that they don't have what we have. +Which I think may be why they die sooner. +I have a lot of compassion for men, because women, no kidding, we -- women's relationships, our friendships are full disclosure, we go deep. +They're revelatory. +We risk vulnerability -- this is something men don't do. +I mean how many times have I asked you, "Am I doing OK?" +"Did I really screw up there?" +PM: You're doing great. +JF: But I mean, we ask questions like that of our women friends, and men don't. +You know, people describe women's relationships as face-to-face, whereas men's friendships are more side-by-side. +LT: I mean most of the time men don't want to reveal their emotions, they want to bury deeper feelings. +I mean, that's the general, conventional thought. +They would rather go off in their man cave and watch a game or hit golf balls, or talk about sports, or hunting, or cars or have sex. +I mean, it's just the kind of -- it's a more manly behavior. +JF: You meant -- LT: They talk about sex. +I meant they might have sex if they could get somebody in their man cave to -- JF: You know something, though, that I find very interesting -- and again, psychologists didn't know this until relatively recently -- is that men are born every bit as relational as women are. +If you look at films of newborn baby boys and girls, you'll see the baby boys just like the girls, gazing into their mother's eyes, you know, needing that relational exchange of energy. +When the mother looks away, they could see the dismay on the child, even the boy would cry. +They need relationship. +So the question is why, as they grow older, does that change? +And the answer is patriarchal culture, which says to boys and young men that to be needing of relationship, to be emotional with someone is girly. +That a real man doesn't ask directions or express a need, they don't go to doctors if they feel bad. +They don't ask for help. +There's a quote that I really like, "Men fear that becoming 'we' will erase his 'I'." +You know, his sense of self. +Whereas women's sense of self has always been kind of porous. +But our "we" is our saving grace, it's what makes us strong. +It's not that we're better than men, we just don't have our masculinity to prove. +LT: And, well -- JF: That's a Gloria Steinem quote. +So we can express our humanity -- LT: I know who Gloria Steinem is. +JF: I know you know who she is, but I think it's a -- No, but it's a great quote, I think. +We're not better than men, we just don't have our masculinity to prove. +And that's really important. +LT: But men are so inculcated in the culture to be comfortable in the patriarchy. +And we've got to make something different happen. +JF: Women's friendships are like a renewable source of power. +LT: Well, that's what's exciting about this subject. +It's because our friendships -- female friendships are just a hop to our sisterhood, and sisterhood can be a very powerful force, to give the world -- to make it what it should be -- the things that humans desperately need. +PM: It is why we're talking about it, because women's friendships are, as you said, Jane, a renewable source of power. +So how do we use that power? +JF: Well, women are the fastest growing demographic in the world, especially older women. +And if we harness our power, we can change the world. +And guess what? We need to. +And we need to do it soon. +And one of the things that we need to do -- and we can do it as women -- for one thing, we kind of set the consumer standards. +We need to consume less. +We in the Western world need to consume less and when we buy things, we need to buy things that are made locally, when we buy food, we need to buy food that's grown locally. +We are the ones that need to get off the grid. +We need to make ourselves independent from fossil fuels. +And the fossil fuel companies -- the Exxons and the Shell Oils and those bad guys -- cause they are -- are going to tell us that we can't do it without going back to the Stone Age. +You know, that the alternatives just aren't quite there yet, and that's not true. +There are countries in the world right now that are living mostly on renewable energy and doing just fine. +And they tell us that if we do wean ourselves from fossil fuel that we're going to be back in the Stone Age, and in fact, if we begin to use renewable energy, and not drill in the Arctic, and not drill -- LT: Oh, boy. +JF: And not drill in the Alberta tar sands -- Right. +That we will be -- there will be more democracy and more jobs and more well-being, and it's women that are going to lead the way. +LT: Maybe we have the momentum to start a third-wave feminist movement with our sisterhood around the world, with women we don't see, women we may never meet, but we join together that way, because -- Aristotle said -- most people -- people would die without male friendships. +And the operative word here was "male." +Because they thought that friendships should be between equals and women were not considered equal -- JF: They didn't think we had souls even, the Greeks. +LT: No, exactly. That shows you just how limited Aristotle was. +And wait, no, here's the best part. +It's like, you know, men do need women now. +The planet needs women. +The US Constitution needs women. +We are not even in the Constitution. +JF: You're talking about the Equal Rights Amendment. +LT: Right. +Justice Ginsberg said something like -- every constitution that's been written since the end of World War II included a provision that made women citizens of equal stature, but ours does not. +So that would be a good place to start. +Very, very mild -- JF: Right. +And gender equality, it's like a tide, it would lift all boats, not just women. +PM: Needing new role models on how to do that. +How to be friends, how to think about our power in different ways, as consumers, as citizens of the world, and this is what makes Jane and Lily a role model of how women can be friends -- for a very long time, and even if they occasionally disagree. +Thank you. +Thank you both. +JF: Thanks. +LT: Thank you. +JF: Thank you. +In 2008, Burhan Hassan, age 17, boarded a flight from Minneapolis to the Horn of Africa. +And while Burhan was the youngest recruit, he was not alone. +Al-Shabaab managed to recruit over two dozen young men in their late teens and early 20s with a heavy presence on social media platforms like Facebook. +With the Internet and other technologies, they've changed our everyday lives, but they've also changed recruitment, radicalization and the front lines of conflict today. +What about the links connecting Twitter, Google and protesters fighting for democracy? +These numbers represent Google's public DNS servers, effectively the only digital border crossing protesters had and could use to communicate with each other, to reach the outside world and to spread viral awareness of what was happening in their own country. +Today, conflict is essentially borderless. +If there are bounds to conflict today, they're bound by digital, not physical geography. +And under all this is a vacuum of power where non-state actors, individuals and private organizations have the advantage over slow, outdated military and intelligence agencies. +And this is because, in the digital age of conflict, there exists a feedback loop where new technologies, platforms like the ones I mentioned, and more disruptive ones, can be adapted, learned, and deployed by individuals and organizations faster than governments can react. +To understand the pace of our own government thinking on this, I like to turn to something aptly named the Worldwide Threat Assessment, where every year the Director of National Intelligence in the US looks at the global threat landscape, and he says, "These are the threats, these are the details, and this is how we rank them." +In 2007, there was absolutely no mention of cyber security. +It took until 2011, when it came at the end, where other things, like West African drug trafficking, took precedence. +In 2012, it crept up, still behind things like terrorism and proliferation. +In 2013, it became the top threat, in 2014 and for the foreseeable future. +What things like that show us is that there is a fundamental inability today on the part of governments to adapt and learn in digital conflict, where conflict can be immaterial, borderless, often wholly untraceable. +And conflict isn't just online to offline, as we see with terrorist radicalization, but it goes the other way as well. +We all know the horrible events that unfolded in Paris this year with the Charlie Hebdo terrorist attacks. +What an individual hacker or a small group of anonymous individuals did was enter those social media conversations that so many of us took part in. +#JeSuisCharlie. +On Facebook, on Twitter, on Google, all sorts of places where millions of people, myself included, were talking about the events and saw images like this, the emotional, poignant image of a baby with "Je suis Charlie" on its wrist. +And this turned into a weapon. +What the hackers did was weaponize this image, where unsuspecting victims, like all of us in those conversations, saw this image, downloaded it but it was embedded with malware. +And so when you downloaded this image, it hacked your system. +It took six days to deploy a global malware campaign. +The divide between physical and digital domains today ceases to exist, where we have offline attacks like those in Paris appropriated for online hacks. +And it goes the other way as well, with recruitment. +We see online radicalization of teens, who can then be deployed globally for offline terrorist attacks. +With all of this, we see that there's a new 21st century battle brewing, and governments don't necessarily take a part. +So in another case, Anonymous vs. Los Zetas. +In early September 2011 in Mexico, Los Zetas, one of the most powerful drug cartels, hung two bloggers with a sign that said, "This is what will happen to all Internet busybodies." +A week later, they beheaded a young girl. +They severed her head, put it on top of her computer with a similar note. +And taking the digital counteroffensive because governments couldn't even understand what was going on or act, Anonymous, a group we might not associate as the most positive force in the world, took action, not in cyber attacks, but threatening information to be free. +On social media, they said, "We will release information that ties prosecutors and governors to corrupt drug deals with the cartel." +And escalating that conflict, Los Zetas said, "We will kill 10 people for every bit of information you release." +And so it ended there because it would become too gruesome to continue. +But what was powerful about this was that anonymous individuals, not federal policia, not military, not politicians, could strike fear deep into the heart of one of the most powerful, violent organizations in the world. +And so we live in an era that lacks the clarity of the past in conflict, in who we're fighting, in the motivations behind attacks, in the tools and techniques used, and how quickly they evolve. +And the question still remains: what can individuals, organizations and governments do? +For answers to these questions, it starts with individuals, and I think peer-to-peer security is the answer. +Those people in relationships that bought over teens online, we can do that with peer-to-peer security. +Individuals have more power than ever before to affect national and international security. +And we can create those positive peer-to-peer relationships on and offline, we can support and educate the next generation of hackers, like myself, instead of saying, "You can either be a criminal or join the NSA." +That matters today. +And it's not just individuals -- it's organizations, corporations even. +They have an advantage to act across more borders, more effectively and more rapidly than governments can, and there's a set of real incentives there. +It's profitable and valuable to be seen as trustworthy in the digital age, and will only be more so in future generations to come. +But we still can't ignore government, because that's who we turn to for collective action to keep us safe and secure. +But we see where that's gotten us so far, where there's an inability to adapt and learn in digital conflict, where at the highest levels of leadership, the Director of the CIA, Secretary of Defense, they say, "Cyber Pearl Harbor will happen." "Cyber 9/11 is imminent." +But this only makes us more fearful, not more secure. +By banning encryption in favor of mass surveillance and mass hacking, sure, GCHQ and the NSA can spy on you. +But that doesn't mean that they're the only ones that can. +Capabilities are cheap, even free. +Technical ability is rising around the world, and individuals and small groups have the advantage. +So today it might just be the NSA and GCHQ, but who's to say that the Chinese can't find that backdoor? +Or in another generation, some kid in his basement in Estonia? +And so I would say that it's not what governments can do, it's that they can't. +Governments today need to give up power and control in order to help make us more secure. +Giving up mass surveillance and hacking and instead fixing those backdoors means that, yeah, they can't spy on us, but neither can the Chinese or that hacker in Estonia a generation from now. +And government support for technologies like Tor and Bitcoin mean giving up control, but it means that developers, translators, anybody with an Internet connection, in countries like Cuba, Iran and China, can sell their skills, their products, in the global marketplace, but more importantly sell their ideas, show us what's happening in their own countries. +It should be inspiring. +What keeps us healthy and happy as we go through life? +If you were going to invest now in your future best self, where would you put your time and your energy? +There was a recent survey of millennials asking them what their most important life goals were, and over 80 percent said that a major life goal for them was to get rich. +And another 50 percent of those same young adults said that another major life goal was to become famous. +And we're constantly told to lean in to work, to push harder and achieve more. +We're given the impression that these are the things that we need to go after in order to have a good life. +Pictures of entire lives, of the choices that people make and how those choices work out for them, those pictures are almost impossible to get. +Most of what we know about human life we know from asking people to remember the past, and as we know, hindsight is anything but 20/20. +We forget vast amounts of what happens to us in life, and sometimes memory is downright creative. +But what if we could watch entire lives as they unfold through time? +What if we could study people from the time that they were teenagers all the way into old age to see what really keeps people happy and healthy? +We did that. +The Harvard Study of Adult Development may be the longest study of adult life that's ever been done. +For 75 years, we've tracked the lives of 724 men, year after year, asking about their work, their home lives, their health, and of course asking all along the way without knowing how their life stories were going to turn out. +Studies like this are exceedingly rare. +Almost all projects of this kind fall apart within a decade because too many people drop out of the study, or funding for the research dries up, or the researchers get distracted, or they die, and nobody moves the ball further down the field. +But through a combination of luck and the persistence of several generations of researchers, this study has survived. +About 60 of our original 724 men are still alive, still participating in the study, most of them in their 90s. +And we are now beginning to study the more than 2,000 children of these men. +And I'm the fourth director of the study. +Since 1938, we've tracked the lives of two groups of men. +The first group started in the study when they were sophomores at Harvard College. +They all finished college during World War II, and then most went off to serve in the war. +And the second group that we've followed was a group of boys from Boston's poorest neighborhoods, boys who were chosen for the study specifically because they were from some of the most troubled and disadvantaged families in the Boston of the 1930s. +Most lived in tenements, many without hot and cold running water. +When they entered the study, all of these teenagers were interviewed. +They were given medical exams. +We went to their homes and we interviewed their parents. +And then these teenagers grew up into adults who entered all walks of life. +They became factory workers and lawyers and bricklayers and doctors, one President of the United States. +Some developed alcoholism. A few developed schizophrenia. +Some climbed the social ladder from the bottom all the way to the very top, and some made that journey in the opposite direction. +The founders of this study would never in their wildest dreams have imagined that I would be standing here today, 75 years later, telling you that the study still continues. +Every two years, our patient and dedicated research staff calls up our men and asks them if we can send them yet one more set of questions about their lives. +Many of the inner city Boston men ask us, "Why do you keep wanting to study me? My life just isn't that interesting." +The Harvard men never ask that question. +To get the clearest picture of these lives, we don't just send them questionnaires. +We interview them in their living rooms. +We get their medical records from their doctors. +We draw their blood, we scan their brains, we talk to their children. +We videotape them talking with their wives about their deepest concerns. +And when, about a decade ago, we finally asked the wives if they would join us as members of the study, many of the women said, "You know, it's about time." +So what have we learned? +What are the lessons that come from the tens of thousands of pages of information that we've generated on these lives? +Well, the lessons aren't about wealth or fame or working harder and harder. +The clearest message that we get from this 75-year study is this: Good relationships keep us happier and healthier. Period. +We've learned three big lessons about relationships. +The first is that social connections are really good for us, and that loneliness kills. +It turns out that people who are more socially connected to family, to friends, to community, are happier, they're physically healthier, and they live longer than people who are less well connected. +And the experience of loneliness turns out to be toxic. +People who are more isolated than they want to be from others find that they are less happy, their health declines earlier in midlife, their brain functioning declines sooner and they live shorter lives than people who are not lonely. +And the sad fact is that at any given time, more than one in five Americans will report that they're lonely. +And we know that you can be lonely in a crowd and you can be lonely in a marriage, so the second big lesson that we learned is that it's not just the number of friends you have, and it's not whether or not you're in a committed relationship, but it's the quality of your close relationships that matters. +It turns out that living in the midst of conflict is really bad for our health. +High-conflict marriages, for example, without much affection, turn out to be very bad for our health, perhaps worse than getting divorced. +And living in the midst of good, warm relationships is protective. +Once we had followed our men all the way into their 80s, we wanted to look back at them at midlife and to see if we could predict who was going to grow into a happy, healthy octogenarian and who wasn't. +And when we gathered together everything we knew about them at age 50, it wasn't their middle age cholesterol levels that predicted how they were going to grow old. +It was how satisfied they were in their relationships. +The people who were the most satisfied in their relationships at age 50 were the healthiest at age 80. +And good, close relationships seem to buffer us from some of the slings and arrows of getting old. +Our most happily partnered men and women reported, in their 80s, that on the days when they had more physical pain, their mood stayed just as happy. +But the people who were in unhappy relationships, on the days when they reported more physical pain, it was magnified by more emotional pain. +And the third big lesson that we learned about relationships and our health is that good relationships don't just protect our bodies, they protect our brains. +It turns out that being in a securely attached relationship to another person in your 80s is protective, that the people who are in relationships where they really feel they can count on the other person in times of need, those people's memories stay sharper longer. +And the people in relationships where they feel they really can't count on the other one, those are the people who experience earlier memory decline. +And those good relationships, they don't have to be smooth all the time. +Some of our octogenarian couples could bicker with each other but as long as they felt that they could really count on the other when the going got tough, those arguments didn't take a toll on their memories. +So this message, that good, close relationships are good for our health and well-being, this is wisdom that's as old as the hills. +Why is this so hard to get and so easy to ignore? +Well, we're human. +What we'd really like is a quick fix, something we can get that'll make our lives good and keep them that way. +Relationships are messy and they're complicated and the hard work of tending to family and friends, it's not sexy or glamorous. +It's also lifelong. It never ends. +The people in our 75-year study who were the happiest in retirement were the people who had actively worked to replace workmates with new playmates. +Just like the millennials in that recent survey, many of our men when they were starting out as young adults really believed that fame and wealth and high achievement were what they needed to go after to have a good life. +But over and over, over these 75 years, our study has shown that the people who fared the best were the people who leaned in to relationships, with family, with friends, with community. +So what about you? +Let's say you're 25, or you're 40, or you're 60. +What might leaning in to relationships even look like? +Well, the possibilities are practically endless. +It might be something as simple as replacing screen time with people time or livening up a stale relationship by doing something new together, long walks or date nights, or reaching out to that family member who you haven't spoken to in years, because those all-too-common family feuds take a terrible toll on the people who hold the grudges. +I'd like to close with a quote from Mark Twain. +More than a century ago, he was looking back on his life, and he wrote this: "There isn't time, so brief is life, for bickerings, apologies, heartburnings, callings to account. +There is only time for loving, and but an instant, so to speak, for that." +The good life is built with good relationships. +Thank you. +I once said, "If you want to liberate a society, all you need is the Internet." +I was wrong. +I said those words back in 2011, when a Facebook page I anonymously created helped spark the Egyptian revolution. +The Arab Spring revealed social media's greatest potential, but it also exposed its greatest shortcomings. +The same tool that united us to topple dictators eventually tore us apart. +I would like to share my own experience in using social media for activism, and talk about some of the challenges I have personally faced and what we could do about them. +In the early 2000s, Arabs were flooding the web. +Thirsty for knowledge, for opportunities, for connecting with the rest of the people around the globe, we escaped our frustrating political realities and lived a virtual, alternative life. +Just like many of them, I was completely apolitical until 2009. +At the time, when I logged into social media, I started seeing more and more Egyptians aspiring for political change in the country. +It felt like I was not alone. +In June 2010, Internet changed my life forever. +While browsing Facebook, I saw a photo, a terrifying photo, of a tortured, dead body of a young Egyptian guy. +His name was Khaled Said. +Khaled was a 29-year-old Alexandrian who was killed by police. +I saw myself in his picture. +I thought, "I could be Khaled." +I could not sleep that night, and I decided to do something. +I anonymously created a Facebook page and called it "We are all Khaled Said." +In just three days, the page had over 100,000 people, fellow Egyptians who shared the same concern. +Whatever was happening had to stop. +I recruited my co-admin, AbdelRahman Mansour. +We worked together for hours and hours. +We were crowdsourcing ideas from the people. +We were engaging them. +We were calling collectively for actions, and sharing news that the regime did not want Egyptians to know. +The page became the most followed page in the Arab world. +It had more fans than established media organizations and even top celebrities. +On January 14, 2011, Ben Ali fled out of Tunisia after mounting protests against his regime. +I saw a spark of hope. +Egyptians on social media were wondering, "If Tunisia did it, why can't we?" +I posted an event on Facebook and called it "A Revolution against Corruption, Injustice and Dictatorship." +I posed a question to the 300,000 users of the page at the time: "Today is the 14th of January. +The 25th of January is Police Day. +It's a national holiday. +If 100,000 of us take to the streets of Cairo, no one is going to stop us. +I wonder if we could do it." +In just a few days, the invitation reached over a million people, and over 100,000 people confirmed attendance. +Social media was crucial for this campaign. +It helped a decentralized movement arise. +It made people realize that they were not alone. +And it made it impossible for the regime to stop it. +At the time, they didn't even understand it. +And on January 25th, Egyptians flooded the streets of Cairo and other cities, calling for change, breaking the barrier of fear and announcing a new era. +Then came the consequences. +A few hours before the regime cut off the Internet and telecommunications, I was walking in a dark street in Cairo, around midnight. +I had just tweeted, "Pray for Egypt. +The government must be planning a massacre tomorrow." +I was hit hard on my head. +I lost my balance and fell down, to find four armed men surrounding me. +One covered my mouth and the others paralyzed me. +I knew I was being kidnapped by state security. +I found myself in a cell, handcuffed, blindfolded. +I was terrified. +So was my family, who started looking for me in hospitals, police stations and even morgues. +After my disappearance, a few of my fellow colleagues who knew I was the admin of the page told the media about my connection with that page, and that I was likely arrested by state security. +My colleagues at Google started a search campaign trying to find me, and the fellow protesters in the square demanded my release. +After 11 days of complete darkness, I was set free. +And three days later, Mubarak was forced to step down. +It was the most inspiring and empowering moment of my life. +It was a time of great hope. +Egyptians lived a utopia for 18 days during the revolution. +They all shared the belief that we could actually live together despite our differences, that Egypt after Mubarak would be for all. +But unfortunately, the post-revolution events were like a punch in the gut. +The euphoria faded, we failed to build consensus, and the political struggle led to intense polarization. +Social media only amplified that state, by facilitating the spread of misinformation, rumors, echo chambers and hate speech. +The environment was purely toxic. +My online world became a battleground filled with trolls, lies, hate speech. +I started to worry about the safety of my family. +But of course, this wasn't just about me. +The polarization reached its peak between the two main powers -- the army supporters and the Islamists. +People in the center, like me, started feeling helpless. +Both groups wanted you to side with them; you were either with them or against them. +And on the 3rd of July 2013, the army ousted Egypt's first democratically elected president, after three days of popular protest that demanded his resignation. +That day I made a very hard decision. +I decided to go silent, completely silent. +It was a moment of defeat. +I stayed silent for more than two years, and I used the time to reflect on everything that happened, trying to understand why did it happen. +It became clear to me that while it's true that polarization is primarily driven by our human behavior, social media shapes this behavior and magnifies its impact. +Say you want to say something that is not based on a fact, pick a fight or ignore someone that you don't like. +These are all natural human impulses, but because of technology, acting on these impulses is only one click away. +In my view, there are five critical challenges facing today's social media. +First, we don't know how to deal with rumors. +Rumors that confirm people's biases are now believed and spread among millions of people. +Second, we create our own echo chambers. +We tend to only communicate with people that we agree with, and thanks to social media, we can mute, un-follow and block everybody else. +Third, online discussions quickly descend into angry mobs. +All of us probably know that. +It's as if we forget that the people behind screens are actually real people and not just avatars. +And fourth, it became really hard to change our opinions. +Because of the speed and brevity of social media, we are forced to jump to conclusions and write sharp opinions in 140 characters about complex world affairs. +And once we do that, it lives forever on the Internet, and we are less motivated to change these views, even when new evidence arises. +Fifth -- and in my point of view, this is the most critical -- today, our social media experiences are designed in a way that favors broadcasting over engagements, posts over discussions, shallow comments over deep conversations. +It's as if we agreed that we are here to talk at each other instead of talking with each other. +I witnessed how these critical challenges contributed to an already polarized Egyptian society, but this is not just about Egypt. +Polarization is on the rise in the whole world. +We need to work hard on figuring out how technology could be part of the solution, rather than part of the problem. +There's a lot of debate today on how to combat online harassment and fight trolls. +This is so important. +No one could argue against that. +But we need to also think about how to design social media experiences that promote civility and reward thoughtfulness. +I know for a fact if I write a post that is more sensational, more one-sided, sometimes angry and aggressive, I get to have more people see that post. +I will get more attention. +But what if we put more focus on quality? +What is more important: the total number of readers of a post you write, or who are the people who have impact that read what you write? +Couldn't we just give people more incentives to engage in conversations, rather than just broadcasting opinions all the time? +Or reward people for reading and responding to views that they disagree with? +And also, make it socially acceptable that we change our minds, or probably even reward that? +What if we have a matrix that says how many people changed their minds, and that becomes part of our social media experience? +If I could track how many people are changing their minds, I'd probably write more thoughtfully, trying to do that, rather than appealing to the people who already agree with me and "liking" because I just confirmed their biases. +We also need to think about effective crowdsourcing mechanisms, to fact-check widely spread online information, and reward people who take part in that. +In essence, we need to rethink today's social media ecosystem and redesign its experiences to reward thoughtfulness, civility and mutual understanding. +As a believer in the Internet, I teamed up with a few friends, started a new project, trying to find answers and explore possibilities. +Our first product is a new media platform for conversations. +We're hosting conversations that promote mutual understanding and hopefully change minds. +We don't claim to have the answers, but we started experimenting with different discussions about very divisive issues, such as race, gun control, the refugee debate, relationship between Islam and terrorism. +These are conversations that matter. +Today, at least one out of three people on the planet have access to the Internet. +But part of this Internet is being held captive by the less noble aspects of our human behavior. +Five years ago, I said, "If you want to liberate society, all you need is the Internet." +Today, I believe if we want to liberate society, we first need to liberate the Internet. +Thank you very much. +Late in January 1975, a 17-year-old German girl called Vera Brandes walked out onto the stage of the Cologne Opera House. +The auditorium was empty. +It was lit only by the dim, green glow of the emergency exit sign. +This was the most exciting day of Vera's life. +She was the youngest concert promoter in Germany, and she had persuaded the Cologne Opera House to host a late-night concert of jazz from the American musician, Keith Jarrett. +1,400 people were coming. +And in just a few hours, Jarrett would walk out on the same stage, he'd sit down at the piano and without rehearsal or sheet music, he would begin to play. +But right now, Vera was introducing Keith to the piano in question, and it wasn't going well. +Jarrett looked to the instrument a little warily, played a few notes, walked around it, played a few more notes, muttered something to his producer. +Then the producer came over to Vera and said ... +"If you don't get a new piano, Keith can't play." +There'd been a mistake. +The opera house had provided the wrong instrument. +This one had this harsh, tinny upper register, because all the felt had worn away. +The black notes were sticking, the white notes were out of tune, the pedals didn't work and the piano itself was just too small. +It wouldn't create the volume that would fill a large space such as the Cologne Opera House. +So Keith Jarrett left. +He went and sat outside in his car, leaving Vera Brandes to get on the phone to try to find a replacement piano. +Now she got a piano tuner, but she couldn't get a new piano. +And so she went outside and she stood there in the rain, talking to Keith Jarrett, begging him not to cancel the concert. +And he looked out of his car at this bedraggled, rain-drenched German teenager, took pity on her, and said, "Never forget ... only for you." +And so a few hours later, Jarrett did indeed step out onto the stage of the opera house, he sat down at the unplayable piano and began. +Within moments it became clear that something magical was happening. +Jarrett was avoiding those upper registers, he was sticking to the middle tones of the keyboard, which gave the piece a soothing, ambient quality. +But also, because the piano was so quiet, he had to set up these rumbling, repetitive riffs in the bass. +And he stood up twisting, pounding down on the keys, desperately trying to create enough volume to reach the people in the back row. +It's an electrifying performance. +It somehow has this peaceful quality, and at the same time it's full of energy, it's dynamic. +And the audience loved it. +Audiences continue to love it because the recording of the Kln Concert is the best-selling piano album in history and the best-selling solo jazz album in history. +Keith Jarrett had been handed a mess. +He had embraced that mess, and it soared. +But let's think for a moment about Jarrett's initial instinct. +He didn't want to play. +Of course, I think any of us, in any remotely similar situation, would feel the same way, we'd have the same instinct. +We don't want to be asked to do good work with bad tools. +We don't want to have to overcome unnecessary hurdles. +But Jarrett's instinct was wrong, and thank goodness he changed his mind. +And I think our instinct is also wrong. +I think we need to gain a bit more appreciation for the unexpected advantages of having to cope with a little mess. +So let me give you some examples from cognitive psychology, from complexity science, from social psychology, and of course, rock 'n' roll. +So cognitive psychology first. +We've actually known for a while that certain kinds of difficulty, certain kinds of obstacle, can actually improve our performance. +For example, the psychologist Daniel Oppenheimer, a few years ago, teamed up with high school teachers. +And he asked them to reformat the handouts that they were giving to some of their classes. +So the regular handout would be formatted in something straightforward, such as Helvetica or Times New Roman. +But half these classes were getting handouts that were formatted in something sort of intense, like Haettenschweiler, or something with a zesty bounce, like Comic Sans italicized. +Now, these are really ugly fonts, and they're difficult fonts to read. +But at the end of the semester, students were given exams, and the students who'd been asked to read the more difficult fonts, had actually done better on their exams, in a variety of subjects. +And the reason is, the difficult font had slowed them down, forced them to work a bit harder, to think a bit more about what they were reading, to interpret it ... +and so they learned more. +Another example. +The psychologist Shelley Carson has been testing Harvard undergraduates for the quality of their attentional filters. +What do I mean by that? +What I mean is, imagine you're in a restaurant, you're having a conversation, there are all kinds of other conversations going on in the restaurant, you want to filter them out, you want to focus on what's important to you. +Can you do that? +If you can, you have good, strong attentional filters. +But some people really struggle with that. +Some of Carson's undergraduate subjects struggled with that. +They had weak filters, they had porous filters -- let a lot of external information in. +And so what that meant is they were constantly being interrupted by the sights and the sounds of the world around them. +If there was a television on while they were doing their essays, they couldn't screen it out. +Now, you would think that that was a disadvantage ... +but no. +When Carson looked at what these students had achieved, the ones with the weak filters were vastly more likely to have some real creative milestone in their lives, to have published their first novel, to have released their first album. +These distractions were actually grists to their creative mill. +They were able to think outside the box because their box was full of holes. +Let's talk about complexity science. +So how do you solve a really complex -- the world's full of complicated problems -- how do you solve a really complicated problem? +For example, you try to make a jet engine. +There are lots and lots of different variables, the operating temperature, the materials, all the different dimensions, the shape. +You can't solve that kind of problem all in one go, it's too hard. +So what do you do? +Well, one thing you can do is try to solve it step-by-step. +So you have some kind of prototype and you tweak it, you test it, you improve it. +You tweak it, you test it, you improve it. +Now, this idea of marginal gains will eventually get you a good jet engine. +And it's been quite widely implemented in the world. +So you'll hear about it, for example, in high performance cycling, web designers will talk about trying to optimize their web pages, they're looking for these step-by-step gains. +That's a good way to solve a complicated problem. +But you know what would make it a better way? +A dash of mess. +You add randomness, early on in the process, you make crazy moves, you try stupid things that shouldn't work, and that will tend to make the problem-solving work better. +And the reason for that is the trouble with the step-by-step process, the marginal gains, is they can walk you gradually down a dead end. +And if you start with the randomness, that becomes less likely, and your problem-solving becomes more robust. +Let's talk about social psychology. +So the psychologist Katherine Phillips, with some colleagues, recently gave murder mystery problems to some students, and these students were collected in groups of four and they were given dossiers with information about a crime -- alibis and evidence, witness statements and three suspects. +And the groups of four students were asked to figure out who did it, who committed the crime. +And there were two treatments in this experiment. +In some cases these were four friends, they all knew each other well. +In other cases, three friends and a stranger. +And you can see where I'm going with this. +Obviously I'm going to say that the groups with the stranger solved the problem more effectively, which is true, they did. +Actually, they solved the problem quite a lot more effectively. +So the groups of four friends, they only had a 50-50 chance of getting the answer right. +Which is actually not that great -- in multiple choice, for three answers? 50-50's not good. +The three friends and the stranger, even though the stranger didn't have any extra information, even though it was just a case of how that changed the conversation to accommodate that awkwardness, the three friends and the stranger, they had a 75 percent chance of finding the right answer. +That's quite a big leap in performance. +But I think what's really interesting is not just that the three friends and the stranger did a better job, but how they felt about it. +So when Katherine Phillips interviewed the groups of four friends, they had a nice time, they also thought they'd done a good job. +They were complacent. +When she spoke to the three friends and the stranger, they had not had a nice time -- it's actually rather difficult, it's rather awkward ... +and they were full of doubt. +They didn't think they'd done a good job even though they had. +And I think that really exemplifies the challenge that we're dealing with here. +Because, yeah -- the ugly font, the awkward stranger, the random move ... +these disruptions help us solve problems, they help us become more creative. +But we don't feel that they're helping us. +We feel that they're getting in the way ... +and so we resist. +And that's why the last example is really important. +So I want to talk about somebody from the background of the world of rock 'n' roll. +And you may know him, he's actually a TED-ster. +His name is Brian Eno. +He is an ambient composer -- rather brilliant. +He's also a kind of catalyst behind some of the great rock 'n' roll albums of the last 40 years. +He's worked with David Bowie on "Heroes," he worked with U2 on "Achtung Baby" and "The Joshua Tree," he's worked with DEVO, he's worked with Coldplay, he's worked with everybody. +And what does he do to make these great rock bands better? +Well, he makes a mess. +He disrupts their creative processes. +It's his role to be the awkward stranger. +It's his role to tell them that they have to play the unplayable piano. +And one of the ways in which he creates this disruption is through this remarkable deck of cards -- I have my signed copy here -- thank you, Brian. +They're called The Oblique Strategies, he developed them with a friend of his. +And when they're stuck in the studio, Brian Eno will reach for one of the cards. +He'll draw one at random, and he'll make the band follow the instructions on the card. +So this one ... +"Change instrument roles." +Yeah, everyone swap instruments -- Drummer on the piano -- Brilliant, brilliant idea. +"Look closely at the most embarrassing details. Amplify them." +"Make a sudden, destructive, unpredictable action. Incorporate." +These cards are disruptive. +Now, they've proved their worth in album after album. +The musicians hate them. +So Phil Collins was playing drums on an early Brian Eno album. +He got so frustrated he started throwing beer cans across the studio. +Carlos Alomar, great rock guitarist, working with Eno on David Bowie's "Lodger" album, and at one point he turns to Brian and says, "Brian, this experiment is stupid." +But the thing is it was a pretty good album, but also, Carlos Alomar, 35 years later, now uses The Oblique Strategies. +And he tells his students to use The Oblique Strategies because he's realized something. +Just because you don't like it doesn't mean it isn't helping you. +The strategies actually weren't a deck of cards originally, they were just a list -- list on the recording studio wall. +A checklist of things you might try if you got stuck. +The list didn't work. +Know why? +Not messy enough. +Your eye would go down the list and it would settle on whatever was the least disruptive, the least troublesome, which of course misses the point entirely. +And what Brian Eno came to realize was, yes, we need to run the stupid experiments, we need to deal with the awkward strangers, we need to try to read the ugly fonts. +These things help us. +They help us solve problems, they help us be more creative. +But also ... +we really need some persuasion if we're going to accept this. +So however we do it ... +whether it's sheer willpower, whether it's the flip of a card or whether it's a guilt trip from a German teenager, all of us, from time to time, need to sit down and try and play the unplayable piano. +Thank you. +I am in search of another planet in the universe where life exists. +I can't see this planet with my naked eyes or even with the most powerful telescopes we currently possess. +But I know that it's there. +And understanding contradictions that occur in nature will help us find it. +On our planet, where there's water, there's life. +So we look for planets that orbit at just the right distance from their stars. +At this distance, shown in blue on this diagram for stars of different temperatures, planets could be warm enough for water to flow on their surfaces as lakes and oceans where life might reside. +Some astronomers focus their time and energy on finding planets at these distances from their stars. +What I do picks up where their job ends. +I model the possible climates of exoplanets. +And here's why that's important: there are many factors besides distance from its star that control whether a planet can support life. +Take the planet Venus. +It's named after the Roman goddess of love and beauty, because of its benign, ethereal appearance in the sky. +But spacecraft measurements revealed a different story. +The surface temperature is close to 900 degrees Fahrenheit, 500 Celsius. +That's hot enough to melt lead. +Its thick atmosphere, not its distance from the sun, is the reason. +It causes a greenhouse effect on steroids, trapping heat from the sun and scorching the planet's surface. +The reality totally contradicted initial perceptions of this planet. +From these lessons from our own solar system, we've learned that a planet's atmosphere is crucial to its climate and potential to host life. +We don't know what the atmospheres of these planets are like because the planets are so small and dim compared to their stars and so far away from us. +For example, one of the closest planets that could support surface water -- it's called Gliese 667 Cc -- such a glamorous name, right, nice phone number for a name -- it's 23 light years away. +So that's more than 100 trillion miles. +Trying to measure the atmospheric composition of an exoplanet passing in front of its host star is hard. +It's like trying to see a fruit fly passing in front of a car's headlight. +OK, now imagine that car is 100 trillion miles away, and you want to know the precise color of that fly. +So I use computer models to calculate the kind of atmosphere a planet would need to have a suitable climate for water and life. +Here's an artist's concept of the planet Kepler-62f, with the Earth for reference. +It's 1,200 light years away, and just 40 percent larger than Earth. +Our NSF-funded work found that it could be warm enough for open water from many types of atmospheres and orientations of its orbit. +So I'd like future telescopes to follow up on this planet to look for signs of life. +Ice on a planet's surface is also important for climate. +Ice absorbs longer, redder wavelengths of light, and reflects shorter, bluer light. +That's why the iceberg in this photo looks so blue. +The redder light from the sun is absorbed on its way through the ice. +Only the blue light makes it all the way to the bottom. +Then it gets reflected back to up to our eyes and we see blue ice. +My models show that planets orbiting cooler stars could actually be warmer than planets orbiting hotter stars. +There's another contradiction -- that ice absorbs the longer wavelength light from cooler stars, and that light, that energy, heats the ice. +Using climate models to explore how these contradictions can affect planetary climate is vital to the search for life elsewhere. +And it's no surprise that this is my specialty. +I'm an African-American female astronomer and a classically trained actor who loves to wear makeup and read fashion magazines, so I am uniquely positioned to appreciate contradictions in nature -- ... and how they can inform our search for the next planet where life exists. +My organization, Rising Stargirls, teaches astronomy to middle-school girls of color, using theater, writing and visual art. +Thank you. +Who would have thought that this plant with round leaves, inflated stems, and showy, lavender flowers would cause such havoc in these communities. +The plant is known as water hyacinth and its botanical name, Eichhornia crassipes. +Interestingly, in Nigeria, the plant is also known by other names, names associated with historical events, as well as myths. +In some places, the plant is called Babangida. +When you hear Babangida, you remember the military and military coups. +And you think: fear, restraint. +In parts of Nigeria in the Niger Delta, the plant is also known as Abiola. +When you hear Abiola, you remember annulled elections and you think: dashed hopes. +In the southwestern part of Nigeria, the plant is known as Gbe'borun. +Gbe'borun is a Yoruba phrase which translates to "gossip," or "talebearer." +When you think of gossip, you think: rapid reproduction, destruction. +And in the Igala-speaking part of Nigeria, the plant is known as A Kp'iye Kp'oma, And when you hear that, you think of death. +It literally translates to "death to mother and child." +I personally had my encounter with this plant in the year 2009. +It was shortly after I had relocated from the US to Nigeria. +I'd quit my job in corporate America and decided to take this big leap of faith, a leap of faith that came out of a deep sense of conviction that there was a lot of work to do in Nigeria in the area of sustainable development. +And so here I was in the year 2009, actually, at the end of 2009, in Lagos on the Third Mainland Bridge. +And I looked to my left and saw this very arresting image. +It was an image of fishing boats that had been hemmed in by dense mats of water hyacinth. +And I was really pained by what I saw because I thought to myself, "These poor fisherfolk, how are they going to go about their daily activities with these restrictions." +And then I thought, "There's got to be a better way." +A win-win solution whereby the environment is taken care of by the weeds being cleared out of the way and then this being turned into an economic benefit for the communities whose lives are impacted the most by the infestation of the weed. +That, I would say, was my spark moment. +And so I did further research to find out more about the beneficial uses of this weed. +Out of the several, one struck me the most. +It was the use of the plant for handicrafts. +And I thought, "What a great idea." +Personally, I love handicrafts, especially handicrafts that are woven around a story. +And so I thought, "This could be easily deployed within the communities without the requirement of technical skills." +And I thought to myself, "Three simple steps to a mega solution." +First step: Get out into the waterways and harvest the water hyacinth. +That way, you create access. +Secondly, you dry the water hyacinth stems. +And thirdly, you weave the water hyacinth into products. +The third step was a challenge. +See, I'm a computer scientist by background and not someone in the creative arts. +And so I began my quest to find out how I can learn how to weave. +And this quest took me to a community in Ibadan, where I lived, called Sabo. +Sabo translates to "strangers' quarters." +And the community is predominantly made up of people from the northern part of the country. +So I literally took my dried weeds in hand, there were several more of them, and went knocking from door to door to find out who could teach me how to weave these water hyacinth stems into ropes. +And I was directed to the shed of Malam Yahaya. +The problem, though, is that Malam Yahaya doesn't speak English and neither did I speak Hausa. +But some little kids came to the rescue and helped translate. +And that began my journey of learning how to weave and transform these dried water hyacinth stems into long ropes. +With my long ropes in hand, I was now equipped to make products. +And that was the beginning of partnerships. +Working with rattan basket makers to come up with products. +So with this in hand, I felt confident that I would be able to take this knowledge back into the riverine communities and help them to transform their adversity into prosperity. +So taking these weeds and actually weaving them into products that can be sold. +So we have pens, we have tableware, we have purses, we have tissue boxes. +Thereby, helping the communities to see water hyacinth in a different light. +Seeing water hyacinth as being valuable, being aesthetic, being durable, tough, resilient. +Changing names, changing livelihoods. +From Gbe'borun, gossip, to Olusotan, storyteller. +And from A Kp'iye Kp'oma, which is "killer of mother and child," to Ya du j'ewn w'Iye kp'Oma, "provider of food for mother and child." +And I'd like to end with a quote by Michael Margolis. +He said, "If you want to learn about a culture, listen to the stories. +And if you want to change a culture, change the stories." +And so, from Makoko community, to Abobiri, to Ewoi, to Kolo, to Owahwa, Esaba, we have changed the story. +Thank you for listening. +We've evolved with tools, and tools have evolved with us. +Our ancestors created these hand axes 1.5 million years ago, shaping them to not only fit the task at hand but also their hand. +However, over the years, tools have become more and more specialized. +These sculpting tools have evolved through their use, and each one has a different form which matches its function. +And they leverage the dexterity of our hands in order to manipulate things with much more precision. +But as tools have become more and more complex, we need more complex controls to control them. +And so designers have become very adept at creating interfaces that allow you to manipulate parameters while you're attending to other things, such as taking a photograph and changing the focus or the aperture. +But the computer has fundamentally changed the way we think about tools because computation is dynamic. +So it can do a million different things and run a million different applications. +However, computers have the same static physical form for all of these different applications and the same static interface elements as well. +And I believe that this is fundamentally a problem, because it doesn't really allow us to interact with our hands and capture the rich dexterity that we have in our bodies. +And my belief is that, then, we must need new types of interfaces that can capture these rich abilities that we have and that can physically adapt to us and allow us to interact in new ways. +And so that's what I've been doing at the MIT Media Lab and now at Stanford. +So with my colleagues, Daniel Leithinger and Hiroshi Ishii, we created inFORM, where the interface can actually come off the screen and you can physically manipulate it. +Or you can visualize 3D information physically and touch it and feel it to understand it in new ways. +Or you can interact through gestures and direct deformations to sculpt digital clay. +Or interface elements can arise out of the surface and change on demand. +And the idea is that for each individual application, the physical form can be matched to the application. +And I believe this represents a new way that we can interact with information, by making it physical. +So the question is, how can we use this? +Traditionally, urban planners and architects build physical models of cities and buildings to better understand them. +So with Tony Tang at the Media Lab, we created an interface built on inFORM to allow urban planners to design and view entire cities. +And now you can walk around it, but it's dynamic, it's physical, and you can also interact directly. +Or you can look at different views, such as population or traffic information, but it's made physical. +We also believe that these dynamic shape displays can really change the ways that we remotely collaborate with people. +So when we're working together in person, I'm not only looking at your face but I'm also gesturing and manipulating objects, and that's really hard to do when you're using tools like Skype. +And so using inFORM, you can reach out from the screen and manipulate things at a distance. +So we used the pins of the display to represent people's hands, allowing them to actually touch and manipulate objects at a distance. +And you can also manipulate and collaborate on 3D data sets as well, so you can gesture around them as well as manipulate them. +And that allows people to collaborate on these new types of 3D information in a richer way than might be possible with traditional tools. +And so you can also bring in existing objects, and those will be captured on one side and transmitted to the other. +Or you can have an object that's linked between two places, so as I move a ball on one side, the ball moves on the other as well. +And so we do this by capturing the remote user using a depth-sensing camera like a Microsoft Kinect. +Now, you might be wondering how does this all work, and essentially, what it is, is 900 linear actuators that are connected to these mechanical linkages that allow motion down here to be propagated in these pins above. +So it's not that complex compared to what's going on at CERN, but it did take a long time for us to build it. +And so we started with a single motor, a single linear actuator, and then we had to design a custom circuit board to control them. +And then we had to make a lot of them. +And so the problem with having 900 of something is that you have to do every step 900 times. +And so that meant that we had a lot of work to do. +So we sort of set up a mini-sweatshop in the Media Lab and brought undergrads in and convinced them to do "research" -- and had late nights watching movies, eating pizza and screwing in thousands of screws. +You know -- research. +But anyway, I think that we were really excited by the things that inFORM allowed us to do. +Increasingly, we're using mobile devices, and we interact on the go. +But mobile devices, just like computers, are used for so many different applications. +So you use them to talk on the phone, to surf the web, to play games, to take pictures or even a million different things. +But again, they have the same static physical form for each of these applications. +And so we wanted to know how can we take some of the same interactions that we developed for inFORM and bring them to mobile devices. +So at Stanford, we created this haptic edge display, which is a mobile device with an array of linear actuators that can change shape, so you can feel in your hand where you are as you're reading a book. +Or you can feel in your pocket new types of tactile sensations that are richer than the vibration. +Or buttons can emerge from the side that allow you to interact where you want them to be. +Or you can play games and have actual buttons. +And so we were able to do this by embedding 40 small, tiny linear actuators inside the device, and that allow you not only to touch them but also back-drive them as well. +But we've also looked at other ways to create more complex shape change. +So we've used pneumatic actuation to create a morphing device where you can go from something that looks a lot like a phone ... +to a wristband on the go. +And so together with Ken Nakagaki at the Media Lab, we created this new high-resolution version that uses an array of servomotors to change from interactive wristband to a touch-input device to a phone. +And we're also interested in looking at ways that users can actually deform the interfaces to shape them into the devices that they want to use. +So you can make something like a game controller, and then the system will understand what shape it's in and change to that mode. +So, where does this point? +How do we move forward from here? +I think, really, where we are today is in this new age of the Internet of Things, where we have computers everywhere -- they're in our pockets, they're in our walls, they're in almost every device that you'll buy in the next five years. +But what if we stopped thinking about devices and think instead about environments? +And so how can we have smart furniture or smart rooms or smart environments or cities that can adapt to us physically, and allow us to do new ways of collaborating with people and doing new types of tasks? +So for the Milan Design Week, we created TRANSFORM, which is an interactive table-scale version of these shape displays, which can move physical objects on the surface; for example, reminding you to take your keys. +But it can also transform to fit different ways of interacting. +So if you want to work, then it can change to sort of set up your work system. +And so as you bring a device over, it creates all the affordances you need and brings other objects to help you accomplish those goals. +So, in conclusion, I really think that we need to think about a new, fundamentally different way of interacting with computers. +We need computers that can physically adapt to us and adapt to the ways that we want to use them and really harness the rich dexterity that we have of our hands, and our ability to think spatially about information by making it physical. +But looking forward, I think we need to go beyond this, beyond devices, to really think about new ways that we can bring people together, and bring our information into the world, and think about smart environments that can adapt to us physically. +So with that, I will leave you. +Thank you very much. +I have a question. +Can a computer write poetry? +This is a provocative question. +You think about it for a minute, and you suddenly have a bunch of other questions like: What is a computer? +What is poetry? +What is creativity? +But these are questions that people spend their entire lifetime trying to answer, not in a single TED Talk. +So we're going to have to try a different approach. +So up here, we have two poems. +One of them is written by a human, and the other one's written by a computer. +I'm going to ask you to tell me which one's which. +Have a go: Poem 1: Little Fly / Thy summer's play, / My thoughtless hand / Has brush'd away. +Am I not / A fly like thee? / Or art not thou / A man like me? +Poem 2: We can feel / Activist through your life's / morning / Pauses to see, pope I hate the / Non all the night to start a / great otherwise Alright, time's up. +Hands up if you think Poem 1 was written by a human. +OK, most of you. +Hands up if you think Poem 2 was written by a human. +Very brave of you, because the first one was written by the human poet William Blake. +The second one was written by an algorithm that took all the language from my Facebook feed on one day and then regenerated it algorithmically, according to methods that I'll describe a little bit later on. +So let's try another test. +Again, you haven't got ages to read this, so just trust your gut. +Poem 1: A lion roars and a dog barks. It is interesting / and fascinating that a bird will fly and not / roar or bark. Enthralling stories about animals are in my dreams and I will sing them all if I / am not exhausted or weary. +Poem 2: Oh! kangaroos, sequins, chocolate sodas! / You are really beautiful! +Pearls, / harmonicas, jujubes, aspirins! All / the stuff they've always talked about Alright, time's up. +So if you think the first poem was written by a human, put your hand up. +OK. +And if you think the second poem was written by a human, put your hand up. +We have, more or less, a 50/50 split here. +It was much harder. +The answer is, the first poem was generated by an algorithm called Racter, that was created back in the 1970s, and the second poem was written by a guy called Frank O'Hara, who happens to be one of my favorite human poets. +So what we've just done now is a Turing test for poetry. +The Turing test was first proposed by this guy, Alan Turing, in 1950, in order to answer the question, can computers think? +Alan Turing believed that if a computer was able to have a to have a text-based conversation with a human, with such proficiency such that the human couldn't tell whether they are talking to a computer or a human, then the computer can be said to have intelligence. +So in 2013, my friend Benjamin Laird and I, we created a Turing test for poetry online. +It's called bot or not, and you can go and play it for yourselves. +But basically, it's the game we just played. +You're presented with a poem, you don't know whether it was written by a human or a computer and you have to guess. +So thousands and thousands of people have taken this test online, so we have results. +And what are the results? +Well, Turing said that if a computer could fool a human 30 percent of the time that it was a human, then it passes the Turing test for intelligence. +We have poems on the bot or not database that have fooled 65 percent of human readers into thinking it was written by a human. +So, I think we have an answer to our question. +According to the logic of the Turing test, can a computer write poetry? +Well, yes, absolutely it can. +But if you're feeling a little bit uncomfortable with this answer, that's OK. +If you're having a bunch of gut reactions to it, that's also OK because this isn't the end of the story. +Let's play our third and final test. +Again, you're going to have to read and tell me which you think is human. +Poem 1: Red flags the reason for pretty flags. / And ribbons. +Ribbons of flags / And wearing material / Reasons for wearing material. Poem 2: A wounded deer leaps highest, / I've heard the daffodil I've heard the flag to-day / I've heard the hunter tell; / 'Tis but the ecstasy of death, / And then the brake is almost done OK, time is up. +So hands up if you think Poem 1 was written by a human. +Hands up if you think Poem 2 was written by a human. +Whoa, that's a lot more people. +So you'd be surprised to find that Poem 1 was written by the very human poet Gertrude Stein. +And Poem 2 was generated by an algorithm called RKCP. +Now before we go on, let me describe very quickly and simply, how RKCP works. +So RKCP is an algorithm designed by Ray Kurzweil, who's a director of engineering at Google and a firm believer in artificial intelligence. +So, you give RKCP a source text, it analyzes the source text in order to find out how it uses language, and then it regenerates language that emulates that first text. +So in the poem we just saw before, Poem 2, the one that you all thought was human, it was fed a bunch of poems by a poet called Emily Dickinson it looked at the way she used language, learned the model, and then it regenerated a model according to that same structure. +But the important thing to know about RKCP is that it doesn't know the meaning of the words it's using. +The language is just raw material, it could be Chinese, it could be in Swedish, it could be the collected language from your Facebook feed for one day. +It's just raw material. +And nevertheless, it's able to create a poem that seems more human than Gertrude Stein's poem, and Gertrude Stein is a human. +So what we've done here is, more or less, a reverse Turing test. +So Gertrude Stein, who's a human, is able to write a poem that fools a majority of human judges into thinking that it was written by a computer. +Therefore, according to the logic of the reverse Turing test, Gertrude Stein is a computer. +Feeling confused? +I think that's fair enough. +So far we've had humans that write like humans, we have computers that write like computers, we have computers that write like humans, but we also have, perhaps most confusingly, humans that write like computers. +So what do we take from all of this? +Do we take that William Blake is somehow more of a human than Gertrude Stein? +Or that Gertrude Stein is more of a computer than William Blake? +These are questions I've been asking myself for around two years now, and I don't have any answers. +But what I do have are a bunch of insights about our relationship with technology. +So my first insight is that, for some reason, we associate poetry with being human. +So that when we ask, "Can a computer write poetry?" +we're also asking, "What does it mean to be human and how do we put boundaries around this category? +How do we say who or what can be part of this category?" +This is an essentially philosophical question, I believe, and it can't be answered with a yes or no test, like the Turing test. +I also believe that Alan Turing understood this, and that when he devised his test back in 1950, he was doing it as a philosophical provocation. +So my second insight is that, when we take the Turing test for poetry, we're not really testing the capacity of the computers because poetry-generating algorithms, they're pretty simple and have existed, more or less, since the 1950s. +What we are doing with the Turing test for poetry, rather, is collecting opinions about what constitutes humanness. +So, what I've figured out, we've seen this when earlier today, we say that William Blake is more of a human than Gertrude Stein. +Of course, this doesn't mean that William Blake was actually more human or that Gertrude Stein was more of a computer. +It simply means that the category of the human is unstable. +This has led me to understand that the human is not a cold, hard fact. +Rather, it is something that's constructed with our opinions and something that changes over time. +So my final insight is that the computer, more or less, works like a mirror that reflects any idea of a human We show it Emily Dickinson, it gives Emily Dickinson back to us. +We show it William Blake, that's what it reflects back to us. +We show it Gertrude Stein, what we get back is Gertrude Stein. +More than any other bit of technology, the computer is a mirror that reflects any idea of the human we teach it. +So I'm sure a lot of you have been hearing a lot about artificial intelligence recently. +And much of the conversation is, can we build it? +Can we build an intelligent computer? +Can we build a creative computer? +What we seem to be asking over and over is can we build a human-like computer? +But what we've seen just now is that the human is not a scientific fact, that it's an ever-shifting, concatenating idea and one that changes over time. +So that when we begin to grapple with the ideas of artificial intelligence in the future, we shouldn't only be asking ourselves, "Can we build it?" +But we should also be asking ourselves, "What idea of the human do we want to have reflected back to us?" +This is an essentially philosophical idea, and it's one that can't be answered with software alone, but I think requires a moment of species-wide, existential reflection. +Thank you. +Code is the next universal language. +In the seventies, it was punk music that drove the whole generation. +In the eighties, it was probably money. +But for my generation of people, software is the interface to our imagination and our world. +And that means that we need a radically, radically more diverse set of people to build those products, to not see computers as mechanical and lonely and boring and magic, to see them as things that they can tinker and turn around and twist, and so forth. +My personal journey into the world of programming and technology started at the tender age of 14. +I had this mad teenage crush on an older man, and the older man in question just happened to be the then Vice President of the United States, Mr. Al Gore. +And I did what every single teenage girl would want to do. +I wanted to somehow express all of this love, so I built him a website, it's over here. +And in 2001, there was no Tumblr, there was no Facebook, there was no Pinterest. +So I needed to learn to code in order to express all of this longing and loving. +And that is how programming started for me. +It started as a means of self-expression. +Just like when I was smaller, I would use crayons and legos. +And when I was older, I would use guitar lessons and theater plays. +But then, there were other things to get excited about, like poetry and knitting socks and conjugating French irregular verbs and coming up with make-believe worlds and Bertrand Russell and his philosophy. +And I started to be one of those people who felt that computers are boring and technical and lonely. +Here's what I think today. +Little girls don't know that they are not supposed to like computers. +Little girls are amazing. +They are really, really good at concentrating on things and being exact and they ask amazing questions like, "What?" and "Why?" and "How?" and "What if?" +And they don't know that they are not supposed to like computers. +It's the parents who do. +It's us parents who feel like computer science is this esoteric, weird science discipline that only belongs to the mystery makers. +That it's almost as far removed from everyday life as, say, nuclear physics. +And they are partly right about that. +There's a lot of syntax and controls and data structures and algorithms and practices, protocols and paradigms in programming. +And we as a community, we've made computers smaller and smaller. +We've built layers and layers of abstraction on top of each other between the man and the machine to the point that we no longer have any idea how computers work or how to talk to them. +And we do teach our kids how the human body works, we teach them how the combustion engine functions and we even tell them that if you want to really be an astronaut you can become one. +But when the kid comes to us and asks, "So, what is a bubble sort algorithm?" +Or, "How does the computer know what happens when I press 'play,' how does it know which video to show?" +Or, "Linda, is Internet a place?" +We adults, we grow oddly silent. +"It's magic," some of us say. +"It's too complicated," the others say. +Well, it's neither. +It's not magic and it's not complicated. +It all just happened really, really, really fast. +Computer scientists built these amazing, beautiful machines, but they made them very, very foreign to us, and also the language we speak to the computers so that we don't know how to speak to the computers anymore without our fancy user interfaces. +And that's why no one recognized that when I was conjugating French irregular verbs, I was actually practicing my pattern recognition skills. +And when I was excited about knitting, I actually was following a sequence of symbolic commands that included loops inside of them. +And that Bertrand Russell's lifelong quest to find an exact language between English and mathematics found its home inside of a computer. +I was a programmer, but no one knew it. +The kids of today, they tap, swipe and pinch their way through the world. +But unless we give them tools to build with computers, we are raising only consumers instead of creators. +This whole quest led me to this little girl. +Her name is Ruby, she is six years old. +She is completely fearless, imaginative and a little bit bossy. +And every time I would run into a problem in trying to teach myself programming like, "What is object-oriented design or what is garbage collection?", I would try to imagine how a six-year-old little girl would explain the problem. +And I wrote a book about her and I illustrated it and the things Ruby taught me go like this. +Ruby taught me that you're not supposed to be afraid of the bugs under your bed. +And even the biggest of the problems are a group of tiny problems stuck together. +And Ruby also introduced me to her friends, the colorful side of the Internet culture. +She has friends like the Snow Leopard, who is beautiful but doesn't want to play with the other kids. +And she has friends like the green robots that are really friendly but super messy. +And she has friends like Linux the penguin who's really ruthlessly efficient, but somewhat hard to understand. +And idealistic foxes, and so on. +In Ruby's world, you learn technology through play. +And, for instance, computers are really good at repeating stuff, so the way Ruby would teach loops goes like this. +This is Ruby's favorite dance move, it goes, "Clap, clap, stomp, stomp clap, clap and jump." +And you learn counter loops by repeating that four times. +And you learn while loops by repeating that sequence while I'm standing on one leg. +And you learn until loops by repeating that sequence until mom gets really mad. +And most of all, you learn that there are no ready answers. +When coming up with the curriculum for Ruby's world, I needed to really ask the kids how they see the world and what kind of questions they have and I would organize play testing sessions. +I would start by showing the kids these four pictures. +I would show them a picture of a car, a grocery store, a dog and a toilet. +And I would ask, "Which one of these do you think is a computer?" +And the kids would be very conservative and go, "None of these is a computer. +I know what a computer is: it's that glowing box in front of which mom or dad spends way too much time." +But then we would talk and we would discover that actually, a car is a computer, it has a navigation system inside of it. +And a dog -- a dog might not be a computer, but it has a collar and the collar might have a computer inside of it. +And grocery stores, they have so many different kinds of computers, like the cashier system and the burglar alarms. +And kids, you know what? +In Japan, toilets are computers and there's even hackers who hack them. +And we go further and I give them these little stickers with an on/off button on them. +And I tell the kids, "Today you have this magic ability to make anything in this room into a computer." +And again, the kids go, "Sounds really hard, I don't know the right answer for this." +But I tell them, "Don't worry, your parents don't know the right answer, either. +They've just started to hear about this thing called The Internet of Things. +But you kids, you are going to be the ones who are really going to live up in a world where everything is a computer." +And then I had this little girl who came to me and took a bicycle lamp and she said, "This bicycle lamp, if it were a computer, it would change colors." +And I said, "That's a really good idea, what else could it do?" +And she thinks and she thinks, and she goes, "If this bicycle lamp were a computer, we could go on a biking trip with my father and we would sleep in a tent and this biking lamp could also be a movie projector." +And that's the moment I'm looking for, the moment when the kid realizes that the world is definitely not ready yet, that a really awesome way of making the world more ready is by building technology and that each one of us can be a part of that change. +Final story, we also built a computer. +And we got to know the bossy CPU and the helpful RAM and ROM that help it remember things. +And after we've assembled our computer together, we also design an application for it. +And my favorite story is this little boy, he's six years old and his favorite thing in the world is to be an astronaut. +And the boy, he has these huge headphones on and he's completely immersed in his tiny paper computer because you see, he's built his own intergalactic planetary navigation application. +And his father, the lone astronaut in the Martian orbit, is on the other side of the room and the boy's important mission is to bring the father safely back to earth. +And these kids are going to have a profoundly different view of the world and the way we build it with technology. +Finally, the more approachable, the more inclusive, and the more diverse we make the world of technology, the more colorful and better the world will look like. +So, imagine with me, for a moment, a world where the stories we tell about how things get made don't only include the twentysomething-year-old Silicon Valley boys, but also Kenyan schoolgirls and Norwegian librarians. +Imagine a world where the little Ada Lovelaces of tomorrow, who live in a permanent reality of 1s and 0s, they grow up to be very optimistic and brave about technology. +They embrace the powers and the opportunities and the limitations of the world. +A world of technology that is wonderful, whimsical and a tiny bit weird. +I wanted to be a storyteller. +I loved make-believe worlds and my favorite thing to do was to wake up in the mornings in Moominvalley. +In the afternoons, I would roam around the Tatooines. +And in the evenings, I would go to sleep in Narnia. +And programming turned out to be the perfect profession for me. +I still create worlds. +Instead of stories, I do them with code. +Programming gives me this amazing power to build my whole little universe with its own rules and paradigms and practices. +Create something out of nothing with the pure power of logic. +Thank you. +This is Pleurobot. +Pleurobot is a robot that we designed to closely mimic a salamander species called Pleurodeles waltl. +Pleurobot can walk, as you can see here, and as you'll see later, it can also swim. +So you might ask, why did we design this robot? +And in fact, this robot has been designed as a scientific tool for neuroscience. +Indeed, we designed it together with neurobiologists to understand how animals move, and especially how the spinal cord controls locomotion. +But the more I work in biorobotics, the more I'm really impressed by animal locomotion. +If you think of a dolphin swimming or a cat running or jumping around, or even us as humans, when you go jogging or play tennis, we do amazing things. +And in fact, our nervous system solves a very, very complex control problem. +It has to coordinate more or less 200 muscles perfectly, because if the coordination is bad, we fall over or we do bad locomotion. +And my goal is to understand how this works. +There are four main components behind animal locomotion. +The first component is just the body, and in fact we should never underestimate to what extent the biomechanics already simplify locomotion in animals. +Then you have the spinal cord, and in the spinal cord you find reflexes, multiple reflexes that create a sensorimotor coordination loop between neural activity in the spinal cord and mechanical activity. +A third component are central pattern generators. +These are very interesting circuits in the spinal cord of vertebrate animals that can generate, by themselves, very coordinated rhythmic patterns of activity while receiving only very simple input signals. +And these input signals coming from descending modulation from higher parts of the brain, like the motor cortex, the cerebellum, the basal ganglia, will all modulate activity of the spinal cord while we do locomotion. +But what's interesting is to what extent just a low-level component, the spinal cord, together with the body, already solve a big part of the locomotion problem. +You probably know it by the fact that you can cut the head off a chicken, it can still run for a while, showing that just the lower part, spinal cord and body, already solve a big part of locomotion. +Now, understanding how this works is very complex, because first of all, recording activity in the spinal cord is very difficult. +It's much easier to implant electrodes in the motor cortex than in the spinal cord, because it's protected by the vertebrae. +Especially in humans, very hard to do. +A second difficulty is that locomotion is really due to a very complex and very dynamic interaction between these four components. +So it's very hard to find out what's the role of each over time. +This is where biorobots like Pleurobot and mathematical models can really help. +So what's biorobotics? +Biorobotics is a very active field of research in robotics where people want to take inspiration from animals to make robots to go outdoors, like service robots or search and rescue robots or field robots. +And the big goal here is to take inspiration from animals to make robots that can handle complex terrain -- stairs, mountains, forests, places where robots still have difficulties and where animals can do a much better job. +The robot can be a wonderful scientific tool as well. +There are some very nice projects where robots are used, like a scientific tool for neuroscience, for biomechanics or for hydrodynamics. +And this is exactly the purpose of Pleurobot. +So what we do in my lab is to collaborate with neurobiologists like Jean-Marie Cabelguen, a neurobiologist in Bordeaux in France, and we want to make spinal cord models and validate them on robots. +And here we want to start simple. +So it's good to start with simple animals like lampreys, which are very primitive fish, and then gradually go toward more complex locomotion, like in salamanders, but also in cats and in humans, in mammals. +And here, a robot becomes an interesting tool to validate our models. +And in fact, for me, Pleurobot is a kind of dream becoming true. +Like, more or less 20 years ago I was already working on a computer making simulations of lamprey and salamander locomotion during my PhD. +But I always knew that my simulations were just approximations. +Like, simulating the physics in water or with mud or with complex ground, it's very hard to simulate that properly on a computer. +Why not have a real robot and real physics? +So among all these animals, one of my favorites is the salamander. +You might ask why, and it's because as an amphibian, it's a really key animal from an evolutionary point of view. +It makes a wonderful link between swimming, as you find it in eels or fish, and quadruped locomotion, as you see in mammals, in cats and humans. +And in fact, the modern salamander is very close to the first terrestrial vertebrate, so it's almost a living fossil, which gives us access to our ancestor, the ancestor to all terrestrial tetrapods. +So the salamander swims by doing what's called an anguilliform swimming gait, so they propagate a nice traveling wave of muscle activity from head to tail. +And if you place the salamander on the ground, it switches to what's called a walking trot gait. +In this case, you have nice periodic activation of the limbs which are very nicely coordinated with this standing wave undulation of the body, and that's exactly the gait that you are seeing here on Pleurobot. +Now, one thing which is very surprising and fascinating in fact is the fact that all this can be generated just by the spinal cord and the body. +So if you take a decerebrated salamander -- it's not so nice but you remove the head -- and if you electrically stimulate the spinal cord, at low level of stimulation this will induce a walking-like gait. +If you stimulate a bit more, the gait accelerates. +And at some point, there's a threshold, and automatically, the animal switches to swimming. +This is amazing. +Just changing the global drive, as if you are pressing the gas pedal of descending modulation to your spinal cord, makes a complete switch between two very different gaits. +And in fact, the same has been observed in cats. +If you stimulate the spinal cord of a cat, you can switch between walk, trot and gallop. +Or in birds, you can make a bird switch between walking, at a low level of stimulation, and flapping its wings at high-level stimulation. +And this really shows that the spinal cord is a very sophisticated locomotion controller. +So we studied salamander locomotion in more detail, and we had in fact access to a very nice X-ray video machine from Professor Martin Fischer in Jena University in Germany. +And thanks to that, you really have an amazing machine to record all the bone motion in great detail. +That's what we did. +So we basically figured out which bones are important for us and collected their motion in 3D. +And what we did is collect a whole database of motions, both on ground and in water, to really collect a whole database of motor behaviors that a real animal can do. +And then our job as roboticists was to replicate that in our robot. +So we did a whole optimization process to find out the right structure, where to place the motors, how to connect them together, to be able to replay these motions as well as possible. +And this is how Pleurobot came to life. +So let's look at how close it is to the real animal. +So what you see here is almost a direct comparison between the walking of the real animal and the Pleurobot. +You can see that we have almost a one-to-one exact replay of the walking gait. +If you go backwards and slowly, you see it even better. +But even better, we can do swimming. +So for that we have a dry suit that we put all over the robot -- and then we can go in water and start replaying the swimming gaits. +And here, we were very happy, because this is difficult to do. +The physics of interaction are complex. +Our robot is much bigger than a small animal, so we had to do what's called dynamic scaling of the frequencies to make sure we had the same interaction physics. +But you see at the end, we have a very close match, and we were very, very happy with this. +So let's go to the spinal cord. +So here what we did with Jean-Marie Cabelguen is model the spinal cord circuits. +And what's interesting is that the salamander has kept a very primitive circuit, which is very similar to the one we find in the lamprey, this primitive eel-like fish, and it looks like during evolution, new neural oscillators have been added to control the limbs, to do the leg locomotion. +And we know where these neural oscillators are but what we did was to make a mathematical model to see how they should be coupled to allow this transition between the two very different gaits. +And we tested that on board of a robot. +And this is how it looks. +So what you see here is a previous version of Pleurobot that's completely controlled by our spinal cord model programmed on board of the robot. +And the only thing we do is send to the robot through a remote control the two descending signals it normally should receive from the upper part of the brain. +And what's interesting is, by playing with these signals, we can completely control speed, heading and type of gait. +For instance, when we stimulate at a low level, we have the walking gait, and at some point, if we stimulate a lot, very rapidly it switches to the swimming gait. +And finally, we can also do turning very nicely by just stimulating more one side of the spinal cord than the other. +And I think it's really beautiful how nature has distributed control to really give a lot of responsibility to the spinal cord so that the upper part of the brain doesn't need to worry about every muscle. +It just has to worry about this high-level modulation, and it's really the job of the spinal cord to coordinate all the muscles. +So now let's go to cat locomotion and the importance of biomechanics. +So this is another project where we studied cat biomechanics, and we wanted to see how much the morphology helps locomotion. +And we found three important criteria in the properties, basically, of the limbs. +The first one is that a cat limb more or less looks like a pantograph-like structure. +So a pantograph is a mechanical structure which keeps the upper segment and the lower segments always parallel. +So a simple geometrical system that kind of coordinates a bit the internal movement of the segments. +A second property of cat limbs is that they are very lightweight. +Most of the muscles are in the trunk, which is a good idea, because then the limbs have low inertia and can be moved very rapidly. +The last final important property is this very elastic behavior of the cat limb, so to handle impacts and forces. +And this is how we designed Cheetah-Cub. +So let's invite Cheetah-Cub onstage. +So this is Peter Eckert, who does his PhD on this robot, and as you see, it's a cute little robot. +It looks a bit like a toy, but it was really used as a scientific tool to investigate these properties of the legs of the cat. +So you see, it's very compliant, very lightweight, and also very elastic, so you can easily press it down and it will not break. +It will just jump, in fact. +And this very elastic property is also very important. +And you also see a bit these properties of these three segments of the leg as pantograph. +Now, what's interesting is that this quite dynamic gait is obtained purely in open loop, meaning no sensors, no complex feedback loops. +And that's interesting, because it means that just the mechanics already stabilized this quite rapid gait, and that really good mechanics already basically simplify locomotion. +To the extent that we can even disturb a bit locomotion, as you will see in the next video, where we can for instance do some exercise where we have the robot go down a step, and the robot will not fall over, which was a surprise for us. +This is a small perturbation. +I was expecting the robot to immediately fall over, because there are no sensors, no fast feedback loop. +But no, just the mechanics stabilized the gait, and the robot doesn't fall over. +Obviously, if you make the step bigger, and if you have obstacles, you need the full control loops and reflexes and everything. +But what's important here is that just for small perturbation, the mechanics are right. +And I think this is a very important message from biomechanics and robotics to neuroscience, saying don't underestimate to what extent the body already helps locomotion. +Now, how does this relate to human locomotion? +Clearly, human locomotion is more complex than cat and salamander locomotion, but at the same time, the nervous system of humans is very similar to that of other vertebrates. +And especially the spinal cord is also the key controller for locomotion in humans. +That's why, if there's a lesion of the spinal cord, this has dramatic effects. +The person can become paraplegic or tetraplegic. +This is because the brain loses this communication with the spinal cord. +Especially, it loses this descending modulation to initiate and modulate locomotion. +So a big goal of neuroprosthetics is to be able to reactivate that communication using electrical or chemical stimulations. +And there are several teams in the world that do exactly that, especially at EPFL. +My colleagues Grgoire Courtine and Silvestro Micera, with whom I collaborate. +But to do this properly, it's very important to understand how the spinal cord works, how it interacts with the body, and how the brain communicates with the spinal cord. +This is where the robots and models that I've presented today will hopefully play a key role towards these very important goals. +Thank you. +Bruno Giussani: Auke, I've seen in your lab other robots that do things like swim in pollution and measure the pollution while they swim. +But for this one, you mentioned in your talk, like a side project, search and rescue, and it does have a camera on its nose. +Auke Ijspeert: Absolutely. So the robot -- We have some spin-off projects where we would like to use the robots to do search and rescue inspection, so this robot is now seeing you. +BG: Of course, assuming the survivors don't get scared by the shape of this. +AI: Yeah, we should probably change the appearance quite a bit, because here I guess a survivor might die of a heart attack just of being worried that this would feed on you. +But by changing the appearance and it making it more robust, I'm sure we can make a good tool out of it. +BG: Thank you very much. Thank you and your team. +When I was first learning to meditate, the instruction was to simply pay attention to my breath, and when my mind wandered, to bring it back. +Sounded simple enough. +Yet I'd sit on these silent retreats, sweating through T-shirts in the middle of winter. +I'd take naps every chance I got because it was really hard work. +Actually, it was exhausting. +The instruction was simple enough but I was missing something really important. +So why is it so hard to pay attention? +Well, studies show that even when we're really trying to pay attention to something -- like maybe this talk -- at some point, about half of us will drift off into a daydream, or have this urge to check our Twitter feed. +So what's going on here? +It turns out that we're fighting one of the most evolutionarily-conserved learning processes currently known in science, one that's conserved back to the most basic nervous systems known to man. +This reward-based learning process is called positive and negative reinforcement, and basically goes like this. +We see some food that looks good, our brain says, "Calories! ... Survival!" +We eat the food, we taste it -- it tastes good. +And especially with sugar, our bodies send a signal to our brain that says, "Remember what you're eating and where you found it." +We lay down this context-dependent memory and learn to repeat the process next time. +See food, eat food, feel good, repeat. +Trigger, behavior, reward. +Simple, right? +Well, after a while, our creative brains say, "You know what? +You can use this for more than just remembering where food is. +You know, next time you feel bad, why don't you try eating something good so you'll feel better?" +We thank our brains for the great idea, try this and quickly learn that if we eat chocolate or ice cream when we're mad or sad, we feel better. +Same process, just a different trigger. +Instead of this hunger signal coming from our stomach, this emotional signal -- feeling sad -- triggers that urge to eat. +Maybe in our teenage years, we were a nerd at school, and we see those rebel kids outside smoking and we think, "Hey, I want to be cool." +So we start smoking. +The Marlboro Man wasn't a dork, and that was no accident. +See cool, smoke to be cool, feel good. Repeat. +Trigger, behavior, reward. +And each time we do this, we learn to repeat the process and it becomes a habit. +So later, feeling stressed out triggers that urge to smoke a cigarette or to eat something sweet. +Now, with these same brain processes, we've gone from learning to survive to literally killing ourselves with these habits. +Obesity and smoking are among the leading preventable causes of morbidity and mortality in the world. +So back to my breath. +What if instead of fighting our brains, or trying to force ourselves to pay attention, we instead tapped into this natural, reward-based learning process ... +but added a twist? +What if instead we just got really curious about what was happening in our momentary experience? +I'll give you an example. +In my lab, we studied whether mindfulness training could help people quit smoking. +Now, just like trying to force myself to pay attention to my breath, they could try to force themselves to quit smoking. +And the majority of them had tried this before and failed -- on average, six times. +Now, with mindfulness training, we dropped the bit about forcing and instead focused on being curious. +In fact, we even told them to smoke. +What? Yeah, we said, "Go ahead and smoke, just be really curious about what it's like when you do." +And what did they notice? +Well here's an example from one of our smokers. +She said, "Mindful smoking: smells like stinky cheese and tastes like chemicals, YUCK!" +Now, she knew, cognitively that smoking was bad for her, that's why she joined our program. +What she discovered just by being curiously aware when she smoked was that smoking tastes like shit. +Now, she moved from knowledge to wisdom. +She moved from knowing in her head that smoking was bad for her to knowing it in her bones, and the spell of smoking was broken. +She started to become disenchanted with her behavior. +Now, the prefrontal cortex, that youngest part of our brain from an evolutionary perspective, it understands on an intellectual level that we shouldn't smoke. +And it tries it's hardest to help us change our behavior, to help us stop smoking, to help us stop eating that second, that third, that fourth cookie. +We call this cognitive control. +We're using cognition to control our behavior. +Unfortunately, this is also the first part of our brain that goes offline when we get stressed out, which isn't that helpful. +Now, we can all relate to this in our own experience. +We're much more likely to do things like yell at our spouse or kids when we're stressed out or tired, even though we know it's not going to be helpful. +We just can't help ourselves. +When the prefrontal cortex goes offline, we fall back into our old habits, which is why this disenchantment is so important. +Seeing what we get from our habits helps us understand them at a deeper level -- to know it in our bones so we don't have to force ourselves to hold back or restrain ourselves from behavior. +We're just less interested in doing it in the first place. +And this is what mindfulness is all about: Seeing really clearly what we get when we get caught up in our behaviors, becoming disenchanted on a visceral level and from this disenchanted stance, naturally letting go. +This isn't to say that, poof, magically we quit smoking. +But over time, as we learn to see more and more clearly the results of our actions, we let go of old habits and form new ones. +The paradox here is that mindfulness is just about being really interested in getting close and personal with what's actually happening in our bodies and minds from moment to moment. +This willingness to turn toward our experience rather than trying to make unpleasant cravings go away as quickly as possible. +And this willingness to turn toward our experience is supported by curiosity, which is naturally rewarding. +What does curiosity feel like? +It feels good. +And what happens when we get curious? +We start to notice that cravings are simply made up of body sensations -- oh, there's tightness, there's tension, there's restlessness -- and that these body sensations come and go. +These are bite-size pieces of experiences that we can manage from moment to moment rather than getting clobbered by this huge, scary craving that we choke on. +In other words, when we get curious, we step out of our old, fear-based, reactive habit patterns, and we step into being. +We become this inner scientist where we're eagerly awaiting that next data point. +Now, this might sound too simplistic to affect behavior. +But in one study, we found that mindfulness training was twice as good as gold standard therapy at helping people quit smoking. +So it actually works. +And when we studied the brains of experienced meditators, we found that parts of a neural network of self-referential processing called the default mode network were at play. +Now, one current hypothesis is that a region of this network, called the posterior cingulate cortex, is activated not necessarily by craving itself but when we get caught up in it, when we get sucked in, and it takes us for a ride. +In contrast, when we let go -- step out of the process just by being curiously aware of what's happening -- this same brain region quiets down. +Now we're testing app and online-based mindfulness training programs that target these core mechanisms and, ironically, use the same technology that's driving us to distraction to help us step out of our unhealthy habit patterns of smoking, of stress eating and other addictive behaviors. +Now, remember that bit about context-dependent memory? +We can deliver these tools to peoples' fingertips in the contexts that matter most. +So we can help them tap into their inherent capacity to be curiously aware right when that urge to smoke or stress eat or whatever arises. +It will just be another chance to perpetuate one of our endless and exhaustive habit loops ... +or step out of it. +Instead of see text message, compulsively text back, feel a little bit better -- notice the urge, get curious, feel the joy of letting go and repeat. +Thank you. +So I come from the tallest people on the planet -- the Dutch. +It hasn't always been this way. +In fact, all across the globe, people have been gaining height. +In the last 150 years, in developed countries, on average, we have gotten 10 centimeters taller. +And scientists have a lot of theories about why this is, but almost all of them involve nutrition, namely the increase of dairy and meat. +In the last 50 years, global meat consumption has more than quadrupled, from 71 million tons to 310 million tons. +Something similar has been going on with milk and eggs. +In every society where incomes have risen, so has protein consumption. +And we know that globally, we are getting richer. +And as the middle class is on the rise, so is our global population, from 7 billion of us today to 9.7 billion by 2050, which means that by 2050, we are going to need at least 70 percent more protein than what is available to humankind today. +And the latest prediction of the UN puts that population number, by the end of this century, at 11 billion, which means that we are going to need a lot more protein. +This challenge is staggering -- so much so, that recently, a team at Anglia Ruskin Global Sustainability Institute suggested that if we don't change our global policies and food production systems, our societies might actually collapse in the next 30 years. +Currently, our ocean serves as the main source of animal protein. +Over 2.6 billion people depend on it every single day. +At the same time, our global fisheries are two-and-a-half times larger than what our oceans can sustainably support, meaning that humans take far more fish from the ocean than the oceans can naturally replace. +WWF recently published a report showing that just in the last 40 years, our global marine life has been slashed in half. +And another recent report suggests that of our largest predatory species, such as swordfish and bluefin tuna, over 90 percent has disappeared since the 1950s. +And there are a lot of great, sustainable fishing initiatives across the planet working towards better practices and better-managed fisheries. +But ultimately, all of these initiatives are working towards keeping current catch constant. +It's unlikely, even with the best-managed fisheries, that we are going to be able to take much more from the ocean than we do today. +We have to stop plundering our oceans the way we have. +We need to alleviate the pressure on it. +And we are at a point where if we push much harder for more produce, we might face total collapse. +Our current systems are not going to feed a growing global population. +So how do we fix this? +What's the world going to look like in just 35 short years when there's 2.7 billion more of us sharing the same resources? +We could all become vegan. +Sounds like a great idea, but it's not realistic and it's impossibly hard to mandate globally. +People are eating animal protein whether we like it or not. +And suppose we fail to change our ways and continue on the current path, failing to meet demands. +The World Health Organization recently reported that 800 million people are suffering from malnutrition and food shortage, which is due to that same growing, global population and the declining access to resources like water, energy and land. +It takes very little imagination to picture a world of global unrest, riots and further malnutrition. +People are hungry, and we are running dangerously low on natural resources. +For so, so many reasons, we need to change our global food production systems. +We must do better and there is a solution. +And that solution lies in aquaculture -- the farming of fish, plants like seaweed, shellfish and crustaceans. +As the great ocean hero Jacques Cousteau once said, "We must start using the ocean as farmers instead of hunters. +That's what civilization is all about -- farming instead of hunting." +Fish is the last food that we hunt. +And why is it that we keep hearing phrases like, "Life's too short for farmed fish," or, "Wild-caught, of course!" +over fish that we know virtually nothing about? +We don't know what it ate during its lifetime, and we don't know what pollution it encounters. +And if it was a large predatory species, it might have gone through the coast of Fukushima yesterday. +We don't know. +Very few people realize the traceability in fisheries never goes beyond the hunter that caught the wild animal. +But let's back up for a second and talk about why fish is the best food choice. +It's healthy, it prevents heart disease, it provides key amino acids and key fatty acids like Omega-3s, which is very different from almost any other type of meat. +And aside from being healthy, it's also a lot more exciting and diverse. +Think about it -- most animal farming is pretty monotonous. +Cow is cow, sheep is sheep, pig's pig, and poultry -- turkey, duck, chicken -- pretty much sums it up. +And then there's 500 species of fish being farmed currently. +not that Western supermarkets reflect that on their shelves, but that's beside that point. +And you can farm fish in a very healthy manner that's good for us, good for the planet and good for the fish. +I know I sound fish-obsessed -- Let me explain: My brilliant partner and wife, Amy Novograntz, and I got involved in aquaculture a couple of years ago. +We were inspired by Sylvia Earle, who won the TED Prize in 2009. +We actually met on Mission Blue I in the Galapagos. +Amy was there as the TED Prize Director; me, an entrepreneur from the Netherlands and concerned citizen, love to dive, passion for the oceans. +Mission Blue truly changed our lives. +We fell in love, got married and we came away really inspired, thinking we really want to do something about ocean conservation -- something that was meant to last, that could make a real difference and something that we could do together. +Little did we expect that that would lead us to fish farming. +We were stunned when we heard the stats that we didn't know more about this industry already and excited about the chance to help get it right. +And to talk about stats -- right now, the amount of fish consumed globally, wild catch and farmed combined, is twice the tonnage of the total amount of beef produced on planet earth last year. +Every single fishing vessel combined, small and large, across the globe, together produce about 65 million tons of wild-caught seafood for human consumption. +Aquaculture this year, for the first time in history, actually produces more than what we catch from the wild. +But now this: Demand is going to go up. +In the next 35 years, we are going to need an additional 85 million tons to meet demand, which is one-and-a-half times as much, almost, as what we catch globally out of our oceans. +An enormous number. +It's safe to assume that that's not going to come from the ocean. +It needs to come from farming. +And talk about farming -- for farming you need resources. +As a human needs to eat to grow and stay alive, so does an animal. +A cow needs to eat eight to nine pounds of feed and drink almost 8,000 liters of water to create just one pound of meat. +Experts agree that it's impossible to farm cows for every inhabitant on this planet. +We just don't have enough feed or water. +And we can't keep cutting down rain forests for it. +And fresh water -- planet earth has a very limited supply. +We need something more efficient to keep humankind alive on this planet. +And now let's compare that with fish farming. +You can farm one pound of fish with just one pound of feed, and depending on species, even less. +And why is that? +Well, that's because fish, first of all, float. +They don't need to stand around all day resisting gravity like we do. +And most fish are cold-blooded -- they don't need to heat themselves. +Fish chills. +And it needs very little water, which is counterintuitive, but as we say, it swims in it but it hardly drinks it. +Fish are the most resource-efficient animal protein available to humankind, aside from insects. +How much we've learned since. +For example, on top of that 65 million tons that's annually caught for human consumption, there's an additional 30 million tons caught for animal feed, mostly sardines and anchovies for the aquaculture industry that's turned into fish meal and fish oil. +This is madness. +Sixty-five percent of these fisheries, globally, are badly managed. +Some of the worst issues of our time are connected to it. +It's destroying our oceans. +The worst slavery issues imaginable are connected to it. +Recently, an article came out of Stanford saying that if 50 percent of the world's aquaculture industry would stop using fish meal, our oceans would be saved. +Now think about that for a minute. +Now, we know that the oceans have far more problems -- they have pollution, there's acidification, coral reef destruction and so on. +But it underlines the impact of our fisheries, and it underlines how interconnected everything is. +Fisheries, aquaculture, deforestation, climate change, food security and so on. +In the search for alternatives, the industry, on a massive scale, has reverted to plant-based alternatives like soy, industrial chicken waste, blood meal from slaughterhouses and so on. +And we understand where these choices come from, but this is not the right approach. +It's not sustainable, it's not healthy. +Have you ever seen a chicken at the bottom of the ocean? +Of course not. +If you feed salmon soy with nothing else, it literally explodes. +Salmon is a carnivore, it has no way to digest soy. +Now, fish farming is by far the best animal farming available to humankind. +But it's had a really bad reputation. +There's been excessive use of chemicals, there's been virus and disease transfered to wild populations, ecosystem destruction and pollution, escaped fish breeding with wild populations, altering the overall genetic pool, and then of course, as just mentioned, the unsustainable feed ingredients. +How blessed were the days when we could just enjoy food that was on our plate, whatever it was. +Once you know, you know. +You can't go back. +It's not fun. +We really need a transparent food system that we can trust, that produces healthy food. +But the good news is that decades of development and research have led to a lot of new technologies and knowledge that allow us to do a lot better. +We can now farm fish without any of these issues. +I think of agriculture before the green revolution -- we are at aquaculture and the blue revolution. +New technologies means that we can now produce a feed that's perfectly natural, with a minimal footprint that consists of microbes, insects, seaweeds and micro-algae. +Healthy for the people, healthy for the fish, healthy for the planet. +Microbes, for example, can be a perfect alternative for high-grade fish meal -- at scale. +Insects are the -- well, first of all, the perfect recycling because they're grown on food waste; but second, think of fly-fishing, and you know how logical it actually is to use it as fish feed. +You don't need large tracts of land for it and you don't need to cut down rain forests for it. +And microbes and insects are actually net water producers. +This revolution is starting as we speak, it just needs scale. +We can now farm far more species than ever before in controlled, natural conditions, creating happy fish. +I imagine, for example, a closed system that's performing more efficiently than insect farming, where you can produce healthy, happy, delicious fish with little or no effluent, almost no energy and almost no water and a natural feed with a minimal footprint. +Or a system where you grow up to 10 species next to each other -- off of each other, mimicking nature. +You need very little feed, very little footprint. +I think of seaweed growing off the effluent of fish, for example. +There's great technologies popping up all over the globe. +From alternatives to battle disease so we don't need antibiotics and chemicals anymore, to automated feeders that feel when the fish are hungry, so we can save on feed and create less pollution. +Software systems that gather data across farms, so we can improve farm practices. +There's really cool stuff happening all over the globe. +And make no mistake -- all of these things are possible at a cost that's competitive to what a farmer spends today. +Tomorrow, there will be no excuse for anyone to not do the right thing. +So somebody needs to connect the dots and give these developments a big kick in the butt. +And that's what we've been working on the last couple of years, and that's what we need to be working on together -- rethinking everything from the ground up, with a holistic view across the value chain, connecting all these things across the globe, alongside great entrepreneurs that are willing to share a collective vision. +Now is the time to create change in this industry and to push it into a sustainable direction. +This industry is still young, much of its growth is still ahead. +It's a big task, but not as far-fetched as you might think. +It's possible. +So we need to take pressure off the ocean. +We want to eat good and healthy. +And if we eat an animal, it needs to be one that had a happy and healthy life. +We need to have a meal that we can trust, live long lives. +And this is not just for people in San Francisco or Northern Europe -- this is for all of us. +Even in the poorest countries, it's not just about money. +People prefer something fresh and healthy that they can trust over something that comes from far away that they know nothing about. +We're all the same. +The day will come where people will realize -- no, demand -- farmed fish on their plate that's farmed well and that's farmed healthy -- and refuse anything less. +You can help speed this up. +Ask questions when you order seafood. +Where does my fish come from? +Who raised it, and what did it eat? +Information about where your fish comes from and how it was produced needs to be much more readily available. +And consumers need to put pressure on the aquaculture industry to do the right thing. +So every time you order, ask for detail and show that you really care about what you eat and what's been given to you. +And eventually, they will listen. +And all of us will benefit. +Thank you. +15 years ago, I volunteered to participate in a research study that involved a genetic test. +When I arrived at the clinic to be tested, I was handed a questionnaire. +One of the very first questions asked me to check a box for my race: White, black, Asian, or Native American. +I wasn't quite sure how to answer the question. +Was it aimed at measuring the diversity of research participants' social backgrounds? +In that case, I would answer with my social identity, and check the box for "black." +But what if the researchers were interested in investigating some association between ancestry and the risk for certain genetic traits? +In that case, wouldn't they want to know something about my ancestry, which is just as much European as African? +And how could they make scientific findings about my genes if I put down my social identity as a black woman? +After all, I consider myself a black woman with a white father rather than a white woman with a black mother entirely for social reasons. +Which racial identity I check has nothing to do with my genes. +Well, despite the obvious importance of this question to the study's scientific validity, I was told, "Don't worry about it, just put down however you identify yourself." +So I check "black," but I had no confidence in the results of a study that treated a critical variable so unscientifically. +That personal experience with the use of race in genetic testing got me thinking: Where else in medicine is race used to make false biological predictions? +Well, I found out that race runs deeply throughout all of medical practice. +It shapes physicians' diagnoses, measurements, treatments, prescriptions, even the very definition of diseases. +And the more I found out, the more disturbed I became. +Sociologists like me have long explained that race is a social construction. +When we identify people as black, white, Asian, Native American, Latina, we're referring to social groupings with made up demarcations that have changed over time and vary around the world. +As a legal scholar, I've also studied how lawmakers, not biologists, have invented the legal definitions of races. +And it's not just the view of social scientists. +You remember when the map of the human genome was unveiled at a White House ceremony in June 2000? +President Bill Clinton famously declared, "I believe one of the great truths to emerge from this triumphant expedition inside the human genome is that in genetic terms, human beings, regardless of race, are more than 99.9 percent the same." +And he might have added that that less than one percent of genetic difference doesn't fall into racial boxes. +Francis Collins, who led the Human Genome Project and now heads NIH, echoed President Clinton. +"I am happy that today, the only race we're talking about is the human race." +Doctors are supposed to practice evidence-based medicine, and they're increasingly called to join the genomic revolution. +But their habit of treating patients by race lags far behind. +Take the estimate of glomerular filtration rate, or GFR. +Doctors routinely interpret GFR, this important indicator of kidney function, by race. +As you can see in this lab test, the exact same creatinine level, the concentration in the blood of the patient, automatically produces a different GFR estimate depending on whether or not the patient is African-American. +Why? +I've been told it's based on an assumption that African-Americans have more muscle mass than people of other races. +But what sense does it make for a doctor to automatically assume I have more muscle mass than that female bodybuilder? +Wouldn't it be far more accurate and evidence-based to determine the muscle mass of individual patients just by looking at them? +Well, doctors tell me they're using race as a shortcut. +It's a crude but convenient proxy for more important factors, like muscle mass, enzyme level, genetic traits they just don't have time to look for. +But race is a bad proxy. +In many cases, race adds no relevant information at all. +It's just a distraction. +But race also tends to overwhelm the clinical measures. +It blinds doctors to patients' symptoms, family illnesses, their history, their own illnesses they might have -- all more evidence-based than the patient's race. +Race can't substitute for these important clinical measures without sacrificing patient well-being. +Doctors also tell me race is just one of many factors they take into account, but there are numerous medical tests, like the GFR, that use race categorically to treat black, white, Asian patients differently just because of their race. +Race medicine also leaves patients of color especially vulnerable to harmful biases and stereotypes. +Black and Latino patients are twice as likely to receive no pain medication as whites for the same painful long bone fractures because of stereotypes that black and brown people feel less pain, exaggerate their pain, and are predisposed to drug addiction. +The Food and Drug Administration has even approved a race-specific medicine. +It's a pill called BiDil to treat heart failure in self-identified African-American patients. +A cardiologist developed this drug without regard to race or genetics, but it became convenient for commercial reasons to market the drug to black patients. +The FDA then allowed the company, the drug company, to test the efficacy in a clinical trial that only included African-American subjects. +It speculated that race stood in as a proxy for some unknown genetic factor that affects heart disease or response to drugs. +But think about the dangerous message it sent, that black people's bodies are so substandard, a drug tested in them is not guaranteed to work in other patients. +In the end, the drug company's marketing scheme failed. +For one thing, black patients were understandably wary of using a drug just for black people. +One elderly black woman stood up in a community meeting and shouted, "Give me what the white people are taking!" +And if you find race-specific medicine surprising, wait until you learn that many doctors in the United States still use an updated version of a diagnostic tool that was developed by a physician during the slavery era, a diagnostic tool that is tightly linked to justifications for slavery. +Dr. Samuel Cartwright graduated from the University of Pennsylvania Medical School. +He practiced in the Deep South before the Civil War, and he was a well-known expert on what was then called "Negro medicine." +He promoted the racial concept of disease, that people of different races suffer from different diseases and experience common diseases differently. +Cartwright argued in the 1850s that slavery was beneficial for black people for medical reasons. +He claimed that because black people have lower lung capacity than whites, forced labor was good for them. +He wrote in a medical journal, "It is the red vital blood sent to the brain that liberates their minds when under the white man's control, and it is the want of sufficiency of red vital blood that chains their minds to ignorance and barbarism when in freedom." +To support this theory, Cartwright helped to perfect a medical device for measuring breathing called the spirometer to show the presumed deficiency in black people's lungs. +Today, doctors still uphold Cartwright's claim the black people as a race have lower lung capacity than white people. +Some even use a modern day spirometer that actually has a button labeled "race" so the machine adjusts the measurement for each patient according to his or her race. +It's a well-known function called "correcting for race." +The problem with race medicine extends far beyond misdiagnosing patients. +You see, race is not a biological category that naturally produces these health disparities because of genetic difference. +Race is a social category that has staggering biological consequences, but because of the impact of social inequality on people's health. +Yet race medicine pretends the answer to these gaps in health can be found in a race-specific pill. +It's much easier and more lucrative to market a technological fix for these gaps in health than to deal with the structural inequities that produce them. +The reason I'm so passionate about ending race medicine isn't just because it's bad medicine. +I'm also on this mission because the way doctors practice medicine continues to promote a false and toxic view of humanity. +Despite the many visionary breakthroughs in medicine we've been learning about, there's a failure of imagination when it comes to race. +Would you imagine with me, just a moment: What would happen if doctors stopped treating patients by race? +Suppose they rejected an 18th-century classification system and incorporated instead the most advanced knowledge of human genetic diversity and unity, that human beings cannot be categorized into biological races? +What if, instead of using race as a crude proxy for some more important factor, doctors actually investigated and addressed that more important factor? +What if doctors joined the forefront of a movement to end the structural inequities caused by racism, not by genetic difference? +Race medicine is bad medicine, it's poor science and it's a false interpretation of humanity. +It is more urgent than ever to finally abandon this backward legacy and to affirm our common humanity by ending the social inequalities that truly divide us. +Thank you. +Thank you. Thanks. +Thank you. +So I'm a neurosurgeon. +And like most of my colleagues, I have to deal, every day, with human tragedies. +I realize how your life can change from one second to the other after a major stroke or after a car accident. +And what is very frustrating for us neurosurgeons is to realize that unlike other organs of the body, the brain has very little ability for self-repair. +And after a major injury of your central nervous system, the patients often remain with a severe handicap. +And that's probably the reason why I've chosen to be a functional neurosurgeon. +What is a functional neurosurgeon? +It's a doctor who is trying to improve a neurological function through different surgical strategies. +You've certainly heard of one of the famous ones called deep brain stimulation, where you implant an electrode in the depths of the brain in order to modulate a circuit of neurons to improve a neurological function. +It's really an amazing technology in that it has improved the destiny of patients with Parkinson's disease, with severe tremor, with severe pain. +However, neuromodulation does not mean neuro-repair. +And the dream of functional neurosurgeons is to repair the brain. +I think that we are approaching this dream. +And I would like to show you that we are very close to this. +And that with a little bit of help, the brain is able to help itself. +So the story started 15 years ago. +At that time, I was a chief resident working days and nights in the emergency room. +I often had to take care of patients with head trauma. +You have to imagine that when a patient comes in with a severe head trauma, his brain is swelling and he's increasing his intracranial pressure. +And in order to save his life, you have to decrease this intracranial pressure. +And to do that, you sometimes have to remove a piece of swollen brain. +So instead of throwing away these pieces of swollen brain, we decided with Jean-Franois Brunet, who is a colleague of mine, a biologist, to study them. +What do I mean by that? +We wanted to grow cells from these pieces of tissue. +It's not an easy task. +Growing cells from a piece of tissue is a bit the same as growing very small children out from their family. +So you need to find the right nutrients, the warmth, the humidity and all the nice environments to make them thrive. +So that's exactly what we had to do with these cells. +And after many attempts, Jean-Franois did it. +And that's what he saw under his microscope. +And that was, for us, a major surprise. +Why? +Because this looks exactly the same as a stem cell culture, with large green cells surrounding small, immature cells. +And you may remember from biology class that stem cells are immature cells, able to turn into any type of cell of the body. +The adult brain has stem cells, but they're very rare and they're located in deep and small niches in the depths of the brain. +So it was surprising to get this kind of stem cell culture from the superficial part of swollen brain we had in the operating theater. +And there was another intriguing observation: Regular stem cells are very active cells -- cells that divide, divide, divide very quickly. +And they never die, they're immortal cells. +But these cells behave differently. +They divide slowly, and after a few weeks of culture, they even died. +So we were in front of a strange new cell population that looked like stem cells but behaved differently. +And it took us a long time to understand where they came from. +They come from these cells. +These blue and red cells are called doublecortin-positive cells. +All of you have them in your brain. +They represent four percent of your cortical brain cells. +They have a very important role during the development stage. +When you were fetuses, they helped your brain to fold itself. +But why do they stay in your head? +This, we don't know. +We think that they may participate in brain repair because we find them in higher concentration close to brain lesions. +But it's not so sure. +But there is one clear thing -- that from these cells, we got our stem cell culture. +And we were in front of a potential new source of cells to repair the brain. +And we had to prove this. +So to prove it, we decided to design an experimental paradigm. +The idea was to biopsy a piece of brain in a non-eloquent area of the brain, and then to culture the cells exactly the way Jean-Franois did it in his lab. +And then label them, to put color in them in order to be able to track them in the brain. +And the last step was to re-implant them in the same individual. +We call these autologous grafts -- autografts. +So the first question we had, "What will happen if we re-implant these cells in a normal brain, and what will happen if we re-implant the same cells in a lesioned brain?" +Thanks to the help of professor Eric Rouiller, we worked with monkeys. +So in the first-case scenario, we re-implanted the cells in the normal brain and what we saw is that they completely disappeared after a few weeks, as if they were taken from the brain, they go back home, the space is already busy, they are not needed there, so they disappear. +In the second-case scenario, we performed the lesion, we re-implanted exactly the same cells, and in this case, the cells remained -- and they became mature neurons. +And that's the image of what we could observe under the microscope. +Those are the cells that were re-implanted. +And the proof they carry, these little spots, those are the cells that we've labeled in vitro, when they were in culture. +But we could not stop here, of course. +Do these cells also help a monkey to recover after a lesion? +So for that, we trained monkeys to perform a manual dexterity task. +They had to retrieve food pellets from a tray. +They were very good at it. +And when they had reached a plateau of performance, we did a lesion in the motor cortex corresponding to the hand motion. +So the monkeys were plegic, they could not move their hand anymore. +And exactly the same as humans would do, they spontaneously recovered to a certain extent, exactly the same as after a stroke. +Patients are completely plegic, and then they try to recover due to a brain plasticity mechanism, they recover to a certain extent, exactly the same for the monkey. +So when we were sure that the monkey had reached his plateau of spontaneous recovery, we implanted his own cells. +So on the left side, you see the monkey that has spontaneously recovered. +He's at about 40 to 50 percent of his previous performance before the lesion. +He's not so accurate, not so quick. +And look now, when we re-impant the cells: Two months after re-implantation, the same individual. +It was also very exciting results for us, I tell you. +Since that time, we've understood much more about these cells. +We know that we can cryopreserve them, we can use them later on. +We know that we can apply them in other neuropathological models, like Parkinson's disease, for example. +But our dream is still to implant them in humans. +And I really hope that I'll be able to show you soon that the human brain is giving us the tools to repair itself. +Thank you. +Bruno Giussani: Jocelyne, this is amazing, and I'm sure that right now, there are several dozen people in the audience, possibly even a majority, who are thinking, "I know somebody who can use this." +I do, in any case. +And of course the question is, what are the biggest obstacles before you can go into human clinical trials? +Jocelyne Bloch: The biggest obstacles are regulations. So, from these exciting results, you need to fill out about two kilograms of papers and forms to be able to go through these kind of trials. +BG: Which is understandable, the brain is delicate, etc. +JB: Yes, it is, but it takes a long time and a lot of patience and almost a professional team to do it, you know? +BG: If you project yourself -- having done the research and having tried to get permission to start the trials, if you project yourself out in time, how many years before somebody gets into a hospital and this therapy is available? +JB: So, it's very difficult to say. +It depends, first, on the approval of the trial. +Will the regulation allow us to do it soon? +And then, you have to perform this kind of study in a small group of patients. +So it takes, already, a long time to select the patients, do the treatment and evaluate if it's useful to do this kind of treatment. +And then you have to deploy this to a multicentric trial. +You have to really prove first that it's useful before offering this treatment up for everybody. +BG: And safe, of course. JB: Of course. +BG: Jocelyne, thank you for coming to TED and sharing this. +BG: Thank you. +There are a few things that all of us need. +We all need air to breathe. +We need clean water to drink. +We need food to eat. We need shelter and love. +You know. Love is great, too. +And we all need a safe place to pee. +Yeah? +As a trans person who doesn't fit neatly into the gender binary, if I could change the world tomorrow the very first thing I would do is blink and create single stall, gender-neutral bathrooms in all public places. +Trans people and trans issues, they've been getting a lot of mainstream media attention lately. +Fame and money insulates these television star trans people from most of the everyday challenges that the rest of us have to tackle on a daily basis. +Public bathrooms. +They've been a problem for me since as far back as I can remember, first when I was just a little baby tomboy and then later as a masculine-appearing, predominantly estrogen-based organism. +Now, today as a trans person, public bathrooms and change rooms are where I am most likely to be questioned or harassed. +I've often been verbally attacked behind their doors. +I've been hauled out by security guards with my pants still halfway pulled up. +I've been stared at, screamed at, whispered about, and one time I got smacked in the face by a little old lady's purse that from the looks of the shiner I took home that day I am pretty certain contained at least 70 dollars of rolled up small change and a large hard candy collection. +And I know what some of you are thinking, and you're mostly right. +I can and do just use the men's room most of the time these days. +But that doesn't solve my change room dilemmas, does it? +And I shouldn't have to use the men's room because I'm not a man. +I'm a trans person. +And now we've got these fearmongering politicians that keep trying to pass these bathroom bills. +Have you heard about these? +They try to legislate to try and force people like myself to use the bathroom that they deem most appropriate according to the gender I was assigned at birth. +And if these politicians ever get their way, in Arizona or California or Florida or just last week in Houston, Texas, or Ottawa, well then, using the men's room will not be a legal option for me either. +And every time one of these politicians brings one of these bills to the table, I can't help but wonder, you know, just who will and exactly how would we go about enforcing laws like these. Right? +Panty checks? +Really. +Genital inspections outside of bath change rooms at public pools? +There's no legal or ethical or plausible way to enforce laws like these anyway. +They exist only to foster fear and promote transphobia. +They don't make anyone safer. +But they do for sure make the world more dangerous for some of us. +And meanwhile, our trans children suffer. +They drop out of school, or they opt out of life altogether. +Trans people, especially trans and gender-nonconforming youth face additional challenges when accessing pools and gyms, but also universities, hospitals, libraries. +Don't even get me started on how they treat us in airports. +If we don't move now to make sure that these places are truly open and accessible to everyone, then we just need to get honest and quit calling them public places. +We need to just admit that they are really only open for people who fit neatly into one of two gender boxes, which I do not. +I never have. +And this starts very early. +I know a little girl. She's the daughter of a friend of mine. +She's a self-identified tomboy. +I'm talking about cowboy boots and Caterpillar yellow toy trucks and bug jars, the whole nine yards. +One time I asked her what her favorite color was. +She told me, "Camouflage." +So that awesome little kid, she came home from school last October from her half day of preschool with soggy pants on because the other kids at school were harassing her when she tried to use the girls' bathroom. +And the teacher had already instructed her to stay out of the boys' bathroom. +And she had drank two glasses of that red juice at the Halloween party, and I mean, who can resist that red juice, right? It's so good. +And she couldn't hold her pee any longer. +Her and her classmates were four years old. +They already felt empowered enough to police her use of the so-called public bathrooms. +She was four years old. +She had already been taught the brutal lesson that there was no bathroom door at preschool with a sign on it that welcomed people like her. +She'd already learned that bathrooms were going to be a problem, and that problem started with her and was hers alone. +So my friend asked me to talk to her little daughter, and I did. +I wanted to tell her that me and her mom were going to march on down and talk to that school, and the problem was going to go away, but I knew that wasn't true. +I wanted to tell her that it was all going to get better when she got older, but I couldn't. +So I asked her to tell me the story of what had happened, asked her to tell me how it made her feel. +"Mad and sad," she told me. +So I told her that she wasn't alone and that it wasn't right what had happened to her, and then she asked me if I had ever peed in my pants before. +I said yes, I had, but not for a really long time. +Which of course was a lie, because you know how you hit, like, 42 or 43, and sometimes you just, I don't know, you pee a little bit when you cough or sneeze, when you're running upstairs, or you're stretching. +Don't lie. +It happens. Right? +She doesn't need to know that, I figure. +I told her, when you get older, your bladder is going to grow bigger, too. +When you get old like me, you're going to be able to hold your pee for way longer, I promised her. +"Until you can get home?" +she asked me. +I said, "Yes, until you can get home." +She seemed to take some comfort in that. +So let's just build some single stall, gender-neutral bathrooms with a little bench for getting changed into your gym clothes. +We can't change the world overnight for our children, but we can give them a safe and private place to escape that world, if only for just a minute. +This we can do. +So let's just do it. +If you can't bring yourself to care enough about people like me, then what about women and girls with body image issues? +What about anyone with body image stuff going on? +What about that boy at school who is a foot shorter than his classmates, whose voice still hasn't dropped yet? Hey? +Oh, grade eight, what a cruel master you can be. +Right? +What about people with anxiety issues? +What about people with disabilities or who need assistance in there? +What about folks with bodies who, for whatever reason, don't fit into the mainstream idea of what a body should look like? +How many of us still feel shy or afraid to disrobe in front of our peers, and how many of us allow that fear to keep us from something as important as physical exercise? +Would all those people not benefit from these single stall facilities? +We can't change transphobic minds overnight, but we can give everybody a place to get changed in so that we can all get to work making the world safer for all of us. +Thank you for listening. +Thank you. +So you go to the doctor and get some tests. +The doctor determines that you have high cholesterol and you would benefit from medication to treat it. +So you get a pillbox. +You have some confidence, your physician has some confidence that this is going to work. +The company that invented it did a lot of studies, submitted it to the FDA. +They studied it very carefully, skeptically, they approved it. +They have a rough idea of how it works, they have a rough idea of what the side effects are. +It should be OK. +You have a little more of a conversation with your physician and the physician is a little worried because you've been blue, haven't felt like yourself, you haven't been able to enjoy things in life quite as much as you usually do. +Your physician says, "You know, I think you have some depression. +I'm going to have to give you another pill." +So now we're talking about two medications. +This pill also -- millions of people have taken it, the company did studies, the FDA looked at it -- all good. +Think things should go OK. +Think things should go OK. +Well, wait a minute. +How much have we studied these two together? +Well, it's very hard to do that. +In fact, it's not traditionally done. +We totally depend on what we call "post-marketing surveillance," after the drugs hit the market. +How can we figure out if bad things are happening between two medications? +Three? Five? Seven? +Ask your favorite person who has several diagnoses how many medications they're on. +Why do I care about this problem? +I care about it deeply. +I'm an informatics and data science guy and really, in my opinion, the only hope -- only hope -- to understand these interactions is to leverage lots of different sources of data in order to figure out when drugs can be used together safely and when it's not so safe. +So let me tell you a data science story. +And it begins with my student Nick. +Let's call him "Nick," because that's his name. +Nick was a young student. +I said, "You know, Nick, we have to understand how drugs work and how they work together and how they work separately, and we don't have a great understanding. +But the FDA has made available an amazing database. +It's a database of adverse events. +They literally put on the web -- publicly available, you could all download it right now -- hundreds of thousands of adverse event reports from patients, doctors, companies, pharmacists. +And these reports are pretty simple: it has all the diseases that the patient has, all the drugs that they're on, and all the adverse events, or side effects, that they experience. +It is not all of the adverse events that are occurring in America today, but it's hundreds and hundreds of thousands of drugs. +So I said to Nick, "Let's think about glucose. +Glucose is very important, and we know it's involved with diabetes. +Let's see if we can understand glucose response. +I sent Nick off. Nick came back. +"Russ," he said, "I've created a classifier that can look at the side effects of a drug based on looking at this database, and can tell you whether that drug is likely to change glucose or not." +He did it. It was very simple, in a way. +He took all the drugs that were known to change glucose and a bunch of drugs that don't change glucose, and said, "What's the difference in their side effects? +Differences in fatigue? In appetite? In urination habits?" +All those things conspired to give him a really good predictor. +He said, "Russ, I can predict with 93 percent accuracy when a drug will change glucose." +I said, "Nick, that's great." +He's a young student, you have to build his confidence. +"But Nick, there's a problem. +It's that every physician in the world knows all the drugs that change glucose, because it's core to our practice. +So it's great, good job, but not really that interesting, definitely not publishable." +He said, "I know, Russ. I thought you might say that." +Nick is smart. +"I thought you might say that, so I did one other experiment. +I looked at people in this database who were on two drugs, and I looked for signals similar, glucose-changing signals, for people taking two drugs, where each drug alone did not change glucose, but together I saw a strong signal." +And I said, "Oh! You're clever. Good idea. Show me the list." +And there's a bunch of drugs, not very exciting. +But what caught my eye was, on the list there were two drugs: paroxetine, or Paxil, an antidepressant; and pravastatin, or Pravachol, a cholesterol medication. +And I said, "Huh. There are millions of Americans on those two drugs." +In fact, we learned later, 15 million Americans on paroxetine at the time, 15 million on pravastatin, and a million, we estimated, on both. +So that's a million people who might be having some problems with their glucose if this machine-learning mumbo jumbo that he did in the FDA database actually holds up. +But I said, "It's still not publishable, because I love what you did with the mumbo jumbo, with the machine learning, but it's not really standard-of-proof evidence that we have." +So we have to do something else. +Let's go into the Stanford electronic medical record. +We have a copy of it that's OK for research, we removed identifying information. +And I said, "Let's see if people on these two drugs have problems with their glucose." +Now there are thousands and thousands of people in the Stanford medical records that take paroxetine and pravastatin. +But we needed special patients. +We needed patients who were on one of them and had a glucose measurement, then got the second one and had another glucose measurement, all within a reasonable period of time -- something like two months. +And when we did that, we found 10 patients. +However, eight out of the 10 had a bump in their glucose when they got the second P -- we call this P and P -- when they got the second P. +Either one could be first, the second one comes up, glucose went up 20 milligrams per deciliter. +Just as a reminder, you walk around normally, if you're not diabetic, with a glucose of around 90. +And if it gets up to 120, 125, your doctor begins to think about a potential diagnosis of diabetes. +So a 20 bump -- pretty significant. +I said, "Nick, this is very cool. +But, I'm sorry, we still don't have a paper, because this is 10 patients and -- give me a break -- it's not enough patients." +So we said, what can we do? +And we said, let's call our friends at Harvard and Vanderbilt, who also -- Harvard in Boston, Vanderbilt in Nashville, who also have electronic medical records similar to ours. +Let's see if they can find similar patients with the one P, the other P, the glucose measurements in that range that we need. +God bless them, Vanderbilt in one week found 40 such patients, same trend. +Harvard found 100 patients, same trend. +So at the end, we had 150 patients from three diverse medical centers that were telling us that patients getting these two drugs were having their glucose bump somewhat significantly. +More interestingly, we had left out diabetics, because diabetics already have messed up glucose. +When we looked at the glucose of diabetics, it was going up 60 milligrams per deciliter, not just 20. +This was a big deal, and we said, "We've got to publish this." +We submitted the paper. +It was all data evidence, data from the FDA, data from Stanford, data from Vanderbilt, data from Harvard. +We had not done a single real experiment. +But we were nervous. +So Nick, while the paper was in review, went to the lab. +We found somebody who knew about lab stuff. +I don't do that. +I take care of patients, but I don't do pipettes. +They taught us how to feed mice drugs. +We took mice and we gave them one P, paroxetine. +We gave some other mice pravastatin. +And we gave a third group of mice both of them. +And lo and behold, glucose went up 20 to 60 milligrams per deciliter in the mice. +So the paper was accepted based on the informatics evidence alone, but we added a little note at the end, saying, oh by the way, if you give these to mice, it goes up. +That was great, and the story could have ended there. +But I still have six and a half minutes. +So we were sitting around thinking about all of this, and I don't remember who thought of it, but somebody said, "I wonder if patients who are taking these two drugs are noticing side effects of hyperglycemia. +They could and they should. +How would we ever determine that?" +We said, well, what do you do? +You're taking a medication, one new medication or two, and you get a funny feeling. +What do you do? +You go to Google and type in the two drugs you're taking or the one drug you're taking, and you type in "side effects." +What are you experiencing? +So we said OK, let's ask Google if they will share their search logs with us, so that we can look at the search logs and see if patients are doing these kinds of searches. +Google, I am sorry to say, denied our request. +So I was bummed. +I was at a dinner with a colleague who works at Microsoft Research and I said, "We wanted to do this study, Google said no, it's kind of a bummer." +He said, "Well, we have the Bing searches." +Yeah. +That's great. +Now I felt like I was -- I felt like I was talking to Nick again. +He works for one of the largest companies in the world, and I'm already trying to make him feel better. +But he said, "No, Russ -- you might not understand. +We not only have Bing searches, but if you use Internet Explorer to do searches at Google, Yahoo, Bing, any ... +Then, for 18 months, we keep that data for research purposes only." +I said, "Now you're talking!" +This was Eric Horvitz, my friend at Microsoft. +So we did a study where we defined 50 words that a regular person might type in if they're having hyperglycemia, like "fatigue," "loss of appetite," "urinating a lot," "peeing a lot" -- forgive me, but that's one of the things you might type in. +So we had 50 phrases that we called the "diabetes words." +And we did first a baseline. +And it turns out that about .5 to one percent of all searches on the Internet involve one of those words. +So that's our baseline rate. +If people type in "paroxetine" or "Paxil" -- those are synonyms -- and one of those words, the rate goes up to about two percent of diabetes-type words, if you already know that there's that "paroxetine" word. +If it's "pravastatin," the rate goes up to about three percent from the baseline. +If both "paroxetine" and "pravastatin" are present in the query, it goes up to 10 percent, a huge three- to four-fold increase in those searches with the two drugs that we were interested in, and diabetes-type words or hyperglycemia-type words. +We published this, and it got some attention. +The reason it deserves attention is that patients are telling us their side effects indirectly through their searches. +We brought this to the attention of the FDA. +They were interested. +They have set up social media surveillance programs to collaborate with Microsoft, which had a nice infrastructure for doing this, and others, to look at Twitter feeds, to look at Facebook feeds, to look at search logs, to try to see early signs that drugs, either individually or together, are causing problems. +What do I take from this? Why tell this story? +Well, first of all, we have now the promise of big data and medium-sized data to help us understand drug interactions and really, fundamentally, drug actions. +How do drugs work? +This will create and has created a new ecosystem for understanding how drugs work and to optimize their use. +Nick went on; he's a professor at Columbia now. +He did this in his PhD for hundreds of pairs of drugs. +He found several very important interactions, and so we replicated this and we showed that this is a way that really works for finding drug-drug interactions. +However, there's a couple of things. +We don't just use pairs of drugs at a time. +As I said before, there are patients on three, five, seven, nine drugs. +Have they been studied with respect to their nine-way interaction? +Yes, we can do pair-wise, A and B, A and C, A and D, but what about A, B, C, D, E, F, G all together, being taken by the same patient, perhaps interacting with each other in ways that either makes them more effective or less effective or causes side effects that are unexpected? +We really have no idea. +It's a blue sky, open field for us to use data to try to understand the interaction of drugs. +Two more lessons: I want you to think about the power that we were able to generate with the data from people who had volunteered their adverse reactions through their pharmacists, through themselves, through their doctors, the people who allowed the databases at Stanford, Harvard, Vanderbilt, to be used for research. +People are worried about data. +They're worried about their privacy and security -- they should be. +We need secure systems. +But we can't have a system that closes that data off, because it is too rich of a source of inspiration, innovation and discovery for new things in medicine. +And the final thing I want to say is, in this case we found two drugs and it was a little bit of a sad story. +The two drugs actually caused problems. +They increased glucose. +They could throw somebody into diabetes who would otherwise not be in diabetes, and so you would want to use the two drugs very carefully together, perhaps not together, make different choices when you're prescribing. +But there was another possibility. +We could have found two drugs or three drugs that were interacting in a beneficial way. +We could have found new effects of drugs that neither of them has alone, but together, instead of causing a side effect, they could be a new and novel treatment for diseases that don't have treatments or where the treatments are not effective. +If we think about drug treatment today, all the major breakthroughs -- for HIV, for tuberculosis, for depression, for diabetes -- it's always a cocktail of drugs. +And so the upside here, and the subject for a different TED Talk on a different day, is how can we use the same data sources to find good effects of drugs in combination that will provide us new treatments, new insights into how drugs work and enable us to take care of our patients even better? +Thank you very much. +I'm a textile artist most widely known for starting the yarn bombing movement. +Yarn bombing is when you take knitted or crocheted material out into the urban environment, graffiti-style -- or, more specifically, without permission and unsanctioned. +But when I started this over 10 years ago, I didn't have a word for it, I didn't have any ambitious notions about it, I had no visions of grandeur. +All I wanted to see was something warm and fuzzy and human-like on the cold, steel, gray facade that I looked at everyday. +So I wrapped the door handle. +I call this the Alpha Piece. +Little did I know that this tiny piece would change the course of my life. +So clearly the reaction was interesting. +It intrigued me and I thought, "What else could I do?" +Could I do something in the public domain that would get the same reaction? +So I wrapped the stop sign pole near my house. +The reaction was wild. +People would park their cars and get out of their cars and stare at it, and scratch their heads and stare at it, and take pictures of it and take pictures next to it, and all of that was really exciting to me and I wanted to do every stop sign pole in the neighborhood. +And the more that I did, the stronger the reaction. +So at this point I'm smitten. +I'm hooked. +This was all seductive. +I found my new passion and the urban environment was my playground. +So this is some of my early work. +I was very curious about this idea of enhancing the ordinary, the mundane, even the ugly, and not taking away its identity or its functionality but just giving it a well-tailored suit out of knitting. +And this was fun for me. +It was really fun to take inanimate objects and have them come to life. +So ... +I think we all see the humor in this, but -- I was at a point where I wanted to take it seriously. +I wanted to analyze it. +I wanted to know why I was letting this take over my life, why I was passionate about it, why were other people reacting so strongly to it. +And I realized something. +We all live in this fast-paced, digital world, but we still crave and desire something that's relatable. +I think we've all become desensitized by our overdeveloped cities that we live in, and billboards and advertisements, and giant parking lots, and we don't even complain about that stuff anymore. +So when you stumble upon a stop sign pole that's wrapped in knitting and it seems so out of place and then gradually -- weirdly -- you find a connection to it, that is the moment. +That is the moment I love and that is the moment I love to share with others. +So at this point, my curiosity grew. +It went from the fire hydrants and the stop sign poles to what else can I do with this material. +Can I do something big and large-scale and insurmountable? +So that's when the bus happened. +This was a real game changer for me. +I'll always have a soft spot in my heart for this one. +At this point, people were recognizing my work but there wasn't much out there that was wrapped in knitting that was large-scale, and this definitely was the first city bus to be wrapped in knitting. +So at this point, I'm experiencing, or I'm witnessing something interesting. +I may have started yarn bombing but I certainly don't own it anymore. +It had reached global status. +People from all over the world were doing this. +And I know this because I would travel to certain parts of the world that I'd never been to, and I'd stumble upon a stop sign pole and I knew I didn't wrap it. +So as I pursued my own goals with my art -- this is a lot of my recent work -- so was yarn bombing. +Yarn bombing was also growing. +And that experience showed me the hidden power of this craft and showed me that there was this common language I had with the rest of the world. +It was through this granny hobby -- this unassuming hobby -- that I found commonality with people that I never thought I'd have a connection with. +So as I tell my story today, I'd also like to convey to you that hidden power can be found in the most unassuming places, and we all possess skills that are just waiting to be discovered. +If you think about our hands, these tools that are connected to us, and what they're capable of doing -- building houses and furniture, and painting giant murals -- and most of the time we hold a controller or a cell phone. +And I'm totally guilty of this as well. +But if you think about it, what would happen if you put those things down? +What would you make? What would you create with your own hands? +A lot of people think that I am a master knitter but I actually couldn't knit a sweater to save my life. +But I did something interesting with knitting that had never been done before. +I also wasn't "supposed to be" an artist in the sense that I wasn't formally trained to do this -- I'm a math major actually. +So I didn't think this was in the cards for me, but I also know that I didn't stumble upon this. +And when this happened to me, I held on tight, I fought for it and I'm proud to say that I am a working artist today. +So as we ponder the future, know that your future might not be so seamless. +And one day, you might be as bored as I was and knit a door handle to change your world forever. +Thank you. +1.3 billion years ago, in a distant, distant galaxy, two black holes locked into a spiral, falling inexorably towards each other and collided, converting three Suns' worth of stuff into pure energy in a tenth of a second. +For that brief moment in time, the glow was brighter than all the stars in all the galaxies in all of the known Universe. +It was a very big bang. +But they didn't release their energy in light. +I mean, you know, they're black holes. +All that energy was pumped into the fabric of space and time itself, making the Universe explode in gravitational waves. +Let me give you a sense of the timescale at work here. +1.3 billion years ago, Earth had just managed to evolve multicellular life. +Since then, Earth has made and evolved corals, fish, plants, dinosaurs, people and even -- God save us -- the Internet. +And about 25 years ago, a particularly audacious set of people -- Rai Weiss at MIT, Kip Thorne and Ronald Drever at Caltech -- decided that it would be really neat to build a giant laser detector with which to search for the gravitational waves from things like colliding black holes. +Now, most people thought they were nuts. +But enough people realized that they were brilliant nuts that the US National Science Foundation decided to fund their crazy idea. +So after decades of development, construction and imagination and a breathtaking amount of hard work, they built their detector, called LIGO: The Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory. +For the last several years, LIGO's been undergoing a huge expansion in its accuracy, a tremendous improvement in its detection ability. +It's now called Advanced LIGO as a result. +In early September of 2015, LIGO turned on for a final test run while they sorted out a few lingering details. +And on September 14 of 2015, just days after the detector had gone live, the gravitational waves from those colliding black holes passed through the Earth. +And they passed through you and me. +And they passed through the detector. +Scott Hughes: There's two moments in my life more emotionally intense than that. +One is the birth of my daughter. +The other is when I had to say goodbye to my father when he was terminally ill. +You know, it was the payoff of my career, basically. +Everything I'd been working on -- it's no longer science fiction! Allan Adams: So that's my very good friend and collaborator, Scott Hughes, a theoretical physicist at MIT, who has been studying gravitational waves from black holes and the signals that they could impart on observatories like LIGO, for the past 23 years. +So let me take a moment to tell you what I mean by a gravitational wave. +A gravitational wave is a ripple in the shape of space and time. +As the wave passes by, it stretches space and everything in it in one direction, and compresses it in the other. +This has led to countless instructors of general relativity doing a really silly dance to demonstrate in their classes on general relativity. +"It stretches and expands, it stretches and expands." +So the trouble with gravitational waves is that they're very weak; they're preposterously weak. +For example, the waves that hit us on September 14 -- and yes, every single one of you stretched and compressed under the action of that wave -- when the waves hit, they stretched the average person by one part in 10 to the 21. +That's a decimal place, 20 zeroes, and a one. +That's why everyone thought the LIGO people were nuts. +Even with a laser detector five kilometers long -- and that's already crazy -- they would have to measure the length of those detectors to less than one thousandth of the radius of the nucleus of an atom. +And that's preposterous. +So towards the end of his classic text on gravity, LIGO co-founder Kip Thorne described the hunt for gravitational waves as follows: He said, "The technical difficulties to be surmounted in constructing such detectors are enormous. +But physicists are ingenious, and with the support of a broad lay public, all obstacles will surely be overcome." +Thorne published that in 1973, 42 years before he succeeded. +Now, coming back to LIGO, Scott likes to say that LIGO acts like an ear more than it does like an eye. +I want to explain what that means. +Visible light has a wavelength, a size, that's much smaller than the things around you, the features on people's faces, the size of your cell phone. +And that's really useful, because it lets you make an image or a map of the things around you, by looking at the light coming from different spots in the scene about you. +Sound is different. +Audible sound has a wavelength that can be up to 50 feet long. +And that makes it really difficult -- in fact, in practical purposes, impossible -- to make an image of something you really care about. +Your child's face. +Instead, we use sound to listen for features like pitch and tone and rhythm and volume to infer a story behind the sounds. +That's Alice talking. +That's Bob interrupting. +Silly Bob. +So, the same is true of gravitational waves. +We can't use them to make simple images of things out in the Universe. +But by listening to changes in the amplitude and frequency of those waves, we can hear the story that those waves are telling. +And at least for LIGO, the frequencies that it can hear are in the audio band. +So if we convert the wave patterns into pressure waves and air, into sound, we can literally hear the Universe speaking to us. +For example, listening to gravity, just in this way, can tell us a lot about the collision of two black holes, something my colleague Scott has spent an awful lot of time thinking about. +SH: If the two black holes are non-spinning, you get a very simple chirp: whoop! +If the two bodies are spinning very rapidly, I have that same chirp, but with a modulation on top of it, so it kind of goes: whir, whir, whir! +It's sort of the vocabulary of spin imprinted on this waveform. +AA: It's worth pausing here to think about what that means. +Two black holes, the densest thing in the Universe, one with a mass of 29 Suns and one with a mass of 36 Suns, whirling around each other 100 times per second before they collide. +Just imagine the power of that. +It's fantastic. +And we know it because we heard it. +That's the lasting importance of LIGO. +It's an entirely new way to observe the Universe that we've never had before. +It's a way that lets us hear the Universe and hear the invisible. +And there's a lot out there that we can't see -- in practice or even in principle. +So supernova, for example: I would love to know why very massive stars explode in supernovae. +They're very useful; we've learned a lot about the Universe from them. +The problem is, all the interesting physics happens in the core, and the core is hidden behind thousands of kilometers of iron and carbon and silicon. +We'll never see through it, it's opaque to light. +Gravitational waves go through iron as if it were glass -- totally transparent. +The Big Bang: I would love to be able to explore the first few moments of the Universe, but we'll never see them, because the Big Bang itself is obscured by its own afterglow. +With gravitational waves, we should be able to see all the way back to the beginning. +Perhaps most importantly, I'm positive that there are things out there that we've never seen that we may never be able to see and that we haven't even imagined -- things that we'll only discover by listening. +And in fact, even in that very first event, LIGO found things that we didn't expect. +Here's my colleague and one of the key members of the LIGO collaboration, Matt Evans, my colleague at MIT, addressing exactly that: Matt Evans: The kinds of stars which produce the black holes that we observed here are the dinosaurs of the Universe. +They're these massive things that are old, from prehistoric times, and the black holes are kind of like the dinosaur bones with which we do this archeology. +So it lets us really get a whole nother angle on what's out there in the Universe and how the stars came to be, and in the end, of course, how we came to be out of this whole mess. +AA: Our challenge now is to be as audacious as possible. +Thanks to LIGO, we know how to build exquisite detectors that can listen to the Universe, to the rustle and the chirp of the cosmos. +Our job is to dream up and build new observatories -- a whole new generation of observatories -- on the ground, in space. +I mean, what could be more glorious than listening to the Big Bang itself? +Our job now is to dream big. +Dream with us. +Thank you. +What started as a platform for hobbyists is poised to become a multibillion-dollar industry. +Inspection, environmental monitoring, photography and film and journalism: these are some of the potential applications for commercial drones, and their enablers are the capabilities being developed at research facilities around the world. +For example, before aerial package delivery entered our social consciousness, an autonomous fleet of flying machines built a six-meter-tall tower composed of 1,500 bricks in front of a live audience at the FRAC Centre in France, and several years ago, they started to fly with ropes. +By tethering flying machines, they can achieve high speeds and accelerations in very tight spaces. +They can also autonomously build tensile structures. +Skills learned include how to carry loads, how to cope with disturbances, and in general, how to interact with the physical world. +Today we want to show you some new projects that we've been working on. +Their aim is to push the boundary of what can be achieved with autonomous flight. +Now, for a system to function autonomously, it must collectively know the location of its mobile objects in space. +Back at our lab at ETH Zurich, we often use external cameras to locate objects, which then allows us to focus our efforts on the rapid development of highly dynamic tasks. +For the demos you will see today, however, we will use new localization technology developed by Verity Studios, a spin-off from our lab. +There are no external cameras. +Each flying machine uses onboard sensors to determine its location in space and onboard computation to determine what its actions should be. +The only external commands are high-level ones such as "take off" and "land." +This is a so-called tail-sitter. +It's an aircraft that tries to have its cake and eat it. +Like other fixed-wing aircraft, it is efficient in forward flight, much more so than helicopters and variations thereof. +Unlike most other fixed-wing aircraft, however, it is capable of hovering, which has huge advantages for takeoff, landing and general versatility. +There is no free lunch, unfortunately. +One of the limitations with tail-sitters is that they're susceptible to disturbances such as wind gusts. +We're developing new control architectures and algorithms that address this limitation. +The idea is for the aircraft to recover no matter what state it finds itself in, and through practice, improve its performance over time. +OK. +When doing research, we often ask ourselves fundamental abstract questions that try to get at the heart of a matter. +For example, one such question would be, what is the minimum number of moving parts needed for controlled flight? +Now, there are practical reasons why you may want to know the answer to such a question. +Helicopters, for example, are affectionately known as machines with a thousand moving parts all conspiring to do you bodily harm. +It turns out that decades ago, skilled pilots were able to fly remote-controlled aircraft that had only two moving parts: a propeller and a tail rudder. +We recently discovered that it could be done with just one. +This is the monospinner, the world's mechanically simplest controllable flying machine, invented just a few months ago. +It has only one moving part, a propeller. +It has no flaps, no hinges, no ailerons, no other actuators, no other control surfaces, just a simple propeller. +Even though it's mechanically simple, there's a lot going on in its little electronic brain to allow it to fly in a stable fashion and to move anywhere it wants in space. +Even so, it doesn't yet have the sophisticated algorithms of the tail-sitter, which means that in order to get it to fly, I have to throw it just right. +And because the probability of me throwing it just right is very low, given everybody watching me, what we're going to do instead is show you a video that we shot last night. +If the monospinner is an exercise in frugality, this machine here, the omnicopter, with its eight propellers, is an exercise in excess. +What can you do with all this surplus? +The thing to notice is that it is highly symmetric. +As a result, it is ambivalent to orientation. +This gives it an extraordinary capability. +It can move anywhere it wants in space irrespective of where it is facing and even of how it is rotating. +It has its own complexities, mainly having to do with the interacting flows from its eight propellers. +Some of this can be modeled, while the rest can be learned on the fly. +Let's take a look. +If flying machines are going to enter part of our daily lives, they will need to become extremely safe and reliable. +This machine over here is actually two separate two-propeller flying machines. +This one wants to spin clockwise. +This other one wants to spin counterclockwise. +When you put them together, they behave like one high-performance quadrocopter. +If anything goes wrong, however -- a motor fails, a propeller fails, electronics, even a battery pack -- the machine can still fly, albeit in a degraded fashion. +We're going to demonstrate this to you now by disabling one of its halves. +This last demonstration is an exploration of synthetic swarms. +The large number of autonomous, coordinated entities offers a new palette for aesthetic expression. +We've taken commercially available micro quadcopters, each weighing less than a slice of bread, by the way, and outfitted them with our localization technology and custom algorithms. +Because each unit knows where it is in space and is self-controlled, there is really no limit to their number. +Hopefully, these demonstrations will motivate you to dream up new revolutionary roles for flying machines. +That ultrasafe one over there for example has aspirations to become a flying lampshade on Broadway. +The reality is that it is difficult to predict the impact of nascent technology. +And for folks like us, the real reward is the journey and the act of creation. +It's a continual reminder of how wonderful and magical the universe we live in is, that it allows creative, clever creatures to sculpt it in such spectacular ways. +The fact that this technology has such huge commercial and economic potential is just icing on the cake. +Thank you. +Today I wanted to -- well, this morning -- I want to talk about the future of human-driven transportation; about how we can cut congestion, pollution and parking by getting more people into fewer cars; and how we can do it with the technology that's in our pockets. +And yes, I'm talking about smartphones ... +not self-driving cars. +But to get started we've got to go back over 100 years. +Because it turns out there was an Uber way before Uber. +And if it had survived, the future of transportation would probably already be here. +So let me introduce you to the jitney. +In 1914 it was created or invented by a guy named LP Draper. +He was a car salesman from LA, and he had an idea. +Well, he was cruising around downtown Los Angeles, my hometown, and he saw trolleys with long lines of people trying to get to where they wanted to go. +He said, well, why don't I just put a sign on my car that takes people wherever they want to go for a jitney -- that was slang for a nickel. +And so people jumped on board, and not just in Los Angeles but across the country. +And within one year, by 1915, there were 50,000 rides per day in Seattle, 45,000 rides per day in Kansas and 150,000 rides per day in Los Angeles. +To give you some perspective, Uber in Los Angeles is doing 157,000 rides per day, today ... +100 years later. +And so these are the trolley guys, the existing transportation monopoly at the time. +They were clearly not happy about the jitney juggernaut. +And so they got to work and they went to cities across the country and got regulations put in place to slow down the growth of the jitney. +And there were all kinds of regulations. +There were licenses -- often they were pricey. +In some cities, if you were a jitney driver, you were required to be in the jitney for 16 hours a day. +In other cities, they required two jitney drivers for one jitney. +But there was a really interesting regulation which was they had to put a backseat light -- install it in every Jitney -- to stop a new pernicious innovation which they called spooning. +All right. So what happened? +Well, within a year this thing had taken off. +But the jitney, by 1919, was regulated completely out of existence. +That's unfortunate ... +because, well, when you can't share a car, then you have to own one. +And car ownership skyrocketed and it's no wonder that by 2007, there was a car for every man, woman and child in the United States. +And that phenomenon had gone global. +In China by 2011, there were more car sales happening in China than in the US. +Now, all this private ownership of course had a public cost. +In the US, we spend 7 billion hours a year, wasted, sitting in traffic. +160 billion dollars in lost productivity, of course also sitting in traffic, and one-fifth of all of our carbon footprint is spewed out in the air by those cars that we're sitting in. +Now, that's only four percent of our problem though. +Because if you have to own a car then that means 96 percent of the time your car is sitting idle. +And so, up to 30 percent of our land and our space is used storing these hunks of steel. +We even have skyscrapers built for cars. +That's the world we live in today. +Now, cities have been dealing with this problem for decades. +It's called mass transit. +And even in a city like New York City, one of the most densely populated in the world and one of the most sophisticated mass transit systems in the world, there are still 2.5 million cars that go over those bridges every day. +Why is that? +Well, it's because mass transit hasn't yet figured out how to get to everybody's doorstep. +And so back in San Francisco, where I live, the situation's much worse, in fact, much worse around the world. +And so the beginning of Uber in 2010 was -- well, we just wanted to push a button and get a ride. +We didn't have any grand ambitions. +But it just turned out that lots of people wanted to push a button and get a ride, and ultimately what we started to see was a lot of duplicate rides. +We saw a lot of people pushing the same button at the same time going essentially to the same place. +And so we started thinking about, well, how do we make those two trips and turn them into one. +Because if we did, that ride would be a lot cheaper -- up to 50 percent cheaper -- and of course for the city you've got a lot more people and a lot fewer cars. +And so the big question for us was: would it work? +Could you have a cheaper ride cheap enough that people would be willing to share it? +And the answer, fortunately, is a resounding yes. +In San Francisco, before uberPOOL, we had -- well, everybody would take their car wherever the heck they wanted. +And the bright colors is where we have the most cars. +And once we introduced uberPOOL, well, you see there's not as many bright colors. +More people getting around the city in fewer cars, taking cars off the road. +It looks like uberPOOL is working. +And so we rolled it out in Los Angeles eight months ago. +And since then, we've taken 7.9 million miles off the roads and we've taken 1.4 thousand metric tons of CO2 out of the air. +But the part that I'm really -- But my favorite statistic -- remember, I'm from LA, I spent years of my life sitting behind the wheel, going, "How do we fix this?" -- my favorite part is that eight months later, we have added 100,000 new people that are carpooling every week. +Now, in China everything is supersized, and so we're doing 15 million uberPOOL trips per month, that's 500,000 per day. +And of course we're seeing that exponential growth happen. +In fact, we're seeing it in LA, too. +And when I talk to my team, we don't talk about, "Hey, well, 100,000 people carpooling every week and we're done." +How do we get that to a million? +And in China, well, that could be several million. +And so uberPOOL is a very great solution for urban carpooling. +But what about the suburbs? +This is the street where I grew up in Los Angeles, it's actually a suburb called Northridge, California, and, well -- look, those mailboxes, they kind of just go on forever. +And every morning at about the same time, cars roll of out their driveway, most of them, one person in the car, and they go to work, they go to their place of work. +So the question for us is: well, how do we turn all of these commuter cars -- and literally there's tens of millions of them -- how do we turn all these commuter cars into shared cars? +Well, we have something for this that we recently launched called uberCOMMUTE. +You get up in the morning, get ready for work, get your coffee, go to your car and you light up the Uber app, and all of a sudden, you become an Uber driver. +And we'll match you up with one of your neighbors on your way to work and it's a really great thing. +There's just one hitch ... +it's called regulation. +So 54 cents a mile, what is that? +Well, that is what the US government has determined that the cost of owning a car is per mile. +You can pick up anybody in the United States and take them wherever they want to go at a moment's notice, for 54 cents a mile or less. +But if you charge 60 cents a mile, you're a criminal. +But what if for 60 cents a mile we could get half a million more people carpooling in Los Angeles? +And what if at 60 cents a mile we could get 50 million people carpooling in the United States? +If we could, it's obviously something we should do. +And so it goes back to the lesson of the jitney. +If by 1915 this thing was taking off, imagine without the regulations that happened, if that thing could just keep going. +How would our cities be different today? +Would we have parks in the place of parking lots? +Well, we lost that chance. +But technology has given us another opportunity. +Now, I'm as excited as anybody else about self-driving cars but do we have to really wait five, 10 or even 20 years to make our new cities a reality? +With the technology in our pockets today, and a little smart regulation, we can turn every car into a shared car, and we can reclaim our cities starting today. +Thank you. +Chris Anderson: Travis, thank you. +Travis Kalanick: Thank you. +CA: You know -- I mean the company you've built is absolutely astounding. +You only just talked about a small part of it here -- a powerful part -- the idea of turning cars into public transport like that, it's cool. +But I've got a couple other questions because I know they're out there on people's minds. +So first of all, last week I think it was, I switched on my phone and tried to book an Uber and I couldn't find the app. +You had this very radical, very bold, brave redesign. +TK: Sure. +CA: How did it go? +Did you notice other people not finding the app that day? +Are you going to win people over for this redesign? +TK: Well, first I should probably just say, well, what we were trying to accomplish. +And I think if you know a little bit about our history, it makes a lot more sense. +Which is, when we first got started, it was just black cars. +It was literally you push a button and get an S-Class. +And so what we did was almost what I would call an immature version of a luxury brand that looked like a badge on a luxury car. +And as we've gone worldwide and gone from S-Classes to auto rickshaws in India, it became something that was important for us to be more accessible, to be more hyperlocal, to be about the cities we were in and that's what you see with the patterns and colors. +And to be more iconic, because a U doesn't mean anything in Sanskrit, and a U doesn't mean anything in Mandarin. +And so that was a little bit what it was about. +Now, when you first roll out something like that, I mean, your hands are sweating, you've got -- you know, you're a little worried. +What we saw is a lot of people -- actually, at the beginning, we saw a lot more people opening the app because they were curious what they would find when they opened it. +And our numbers were slightly up from what we expected. +CA: OK, that's cool. +Now, so you, yourself, are something of an enigma, I would say. +Your supporters and investors, who have been with you the whole way, believe that the only chance of sort of taking on the powerful, entrenched interests of taxi industry and so forth, is to have someone who is a fierce, relentless competitor, which you've certainly proved to be. +Some people feel you've almost taken that culture too far, and you know -- like a year or two ago there was a huge controversy where a lot of women got upset. +How did it feel like inside the company during that period? +Did you notice a loss of business? +Did you learn anything from that? +TK: Well, look, I think -- I've been an entrepreneur since I've been in high school and you have -- In various different ways an entrepreneur will see hard times and for us, it was about a year and a half ago, and for us it was hard times, too. +Now, inside, we felt like -- I guess at the end of the day we felt like we were good people doing good work, but on the outside that wasn't evident. +And so there was a lot that we had to do to sort of -- We'd gone from a very small company -- I mean if you go literally two and a half years ago, our company was 400 people, and today it's 6,500. +And so when you go through that growth, you have to sort of cement your cultural values and talk about them all of the time. +And make sure that people are constantly checking to say, "Are we good people doing good work?" +And if you check those boxes, the next part of that is making sure you're telling your story. +And I think we learned a lot of lessons but I think at the end of it we came out stronger. +But it was certainly a difficult period. +CA: It seems to me, everywhere you turn, you're facing people who occasionally give you a hard time. +Some Uber drivers in New York and elsewhere are mad as hell now because you changed the fees and they can barely -- they claim -- barely afford the deal anymore. +How -- You know, you said that you started this originally -- just the coolness of pressing a button and summoning a ride. +This thing's taken off, you're affecting the whole global economy, basically, at this point. +You're being forced to be, whether you want it or not, a kind of global visionary who's changing the world. +I mean -- who are you? +Do you want that? +Are you ready to go with that and be what that takes? +TK: Well, there's a few things packed in that question, so -- First is on the pricing side -- I mean, keep in mind, right? +UberX, when we first started, was literally 10 or 15 percent cheaper than our black car product. +It's now in many cities, half the price of a taxi. +And we have all the data to show that the divers are making more per hour than they would as taxi drivers. +What happens is when the price goes down, people are more likely to take Uber at different times of the day than they otherwise would have, and they're more likely to use it in places they wouldn't have before. +And what that means for a driver is wherever he or she drops somebody off, they're much more likely to get a pickup and get back in. +And so what that means is more trips per hour, more minutes of the hour where they're productive and actually, earnings come up. +And we have cities where we've done literally five or six price cuts and have seen those price cuts go up over time. +So even in New York -- We have a blog post we call "4 Septembers" -- compare the earnings September after September after September. +Same month every year. +And we see the earnings going up over time as the price comes down. +And there's a perfect price point -- you can't go down forever. +And in those places where we bring the price down but we don't see those earnings pop, we bring the prices back up. +So that addresses that first part. +And then the enigma and all of this -- I mean, the kind of entrepreneur I am is one that gets really excited about solving hard problems. +And the way I like to describe it is it's kind of like a math professor. +You know? If a math professor doesn't have hard problems to solve, that's a really sad math professor. +And so at Uber we like the hard problems and we like getting excited about those and solving them. +But we don't want just any math problem, we want the hardest ones that we can possibly find, and we want the one that if you solve it, there's a little bit of a wow factor. +CA: In a couple years' time -- say five years' time, I don't know when -- you roll out your incredible self-driving cars, at probably a lower cost than you currently pay for an Uber ride. +What do you say to your army of a million drivers plus at that time? +TK: Explain that again -- at which time? +CA: At the time when self-driving cars are coming -- TK: Sure, sure, sure. Sorry, I missed that. +CA: What do you say to a driver? +TK: Well, look, I think the first part is it's going to take -- it's likely going to take a lot longer than I think some of the hype or media might expect. +That's part one. +Part two is it's going to also take -- there's going to be a long transition. +These cars will work in certain places and not in others. +For us it's an interesting challenge, right? +Because, well -- Google's been investing in this since 2007, Tesla's going to be doing it, Apple's going to be doing it, the manufacturers are going to be doing it. +This is a world that's going to exist, and for good reason. +A million people die a year in cars. +And we already looked at the billions or even trillions of hours worldwide that people are spending sitting in them, driving frustrated, anxious. +And think about the quality of life that improves when you give people their time back and it's not so anxiety-ridden. +So I think there's a lot of good. +And so the way we think about it is that it's a challenge, but one for optimistic leadership, Where instead of resisting -- resisting technology, maybe like the taxi industry, or the trolley industry -- we have to embrace it or be a part of the future. +But how do we optimistically lead through it? +Are there ways to partner with cities? +Are there ways to have education systems, vocational training, etc., for that transition period. +It will take a lot longer than I think we all expect, especially that transition period. +But it is a world that's going to exist, and it is going to be a better world. +CA: Travis, what you're building is absolutely incredible and I'm hugely grateful to you for coming to TED and sharing so openly. +Thank you so much. TK: Thank you very much. +In India, we have these huge families. +I bet a lot of you all must have heard about it. +Which means that there are a lot of family events. +So as a child, my parents used to drag me to these family events. +But the one thing that I always looked forward to was playing around with my cousins. +And there was always this one uncle who used to be there, always ready, jumping around with us, having games for us, making us kids have the time of our lives. +This man was extremely successful: he was confident and powerful. +But then I saw this hale and hearty person deteriorate in health. +He was diagnosed with Parkinson's. +Parkinson's is a disease that causes degeneration of the nervous system, which means that this person who used to be independent suddenly finds tasks like drinking coffee, because of tremors, much more difficult. +My uncle started using a walker to walk, and to take a turn, he literally had to take one step at a time, like this, and it took forever. +So this person, who used to be the center of attention in every family gathering, was suddenly hiding behind people. +He was hiding from the pitiful look in people's eyes. +And he's not the only one in the world. +Every year, 60,000 people are newly diagnosed with Parkinson's, and this number is only rising. +As designers, we dream that our designs solve these multifaceted problems, one solution that solves it all, but it need not always be like that. +You can also target simple problems and create small solutions for them and eventually make a big impact. +So my aim here was to not cure Parkinson's, but to make their everyday tasks much more simple, and then make an impact. +Well, the first thing I targeted was tremors, right? +My uncle told me that he had stopped drinking coffee or tea in public just out of embarrassment, so, well, I designed the no-spill cup. +It works just purely on its form. +The curve on top deflects the liquid back inside every time they have tremors, and this keeps the liquid inside compared to a normal cup. +But the key here is that it is not tagged as a Parkinson's patient product. +It looks like a cup that could be used by you, me, any clumsy person, and that makes it much more comforting for them to use, to blend in. +So, well, one problem solved, many more to go. +All this while, I was interviewing him, questioning him, and then I realized that I was getting very superficial information, or just answers to my questions. +But I really needed to dig deeper to get a new perspective. +So I thought, well, let's observe him in his daily tasks, while he's eating, while he's watching TV. +And then, when I was actually observing him walking to his dining table, it struck me, this man who finds it so difficult to walk on flat land, how does he climb a staircase? +Because in India we do not have a fancy rail that takes you up a staircase like in the developed countries. +One actually has to climb the stairs. +So he told me, "Well, let me show you how I do it." +Let's take a look at what I saw. +So he took really long to reach this position, and then all this while, I'm thinking, "Oh my God, is he really going to do it? +Is he really, really going to do it without his walker?" +And then ... +And the turns, he took them so easily. +So -- shocked? +Well, I was too. +So this person who could not walk on flat land was suddenly a pro at climbing stairs. +On researching this, I realized that it's because it's a continuous motion. +There's this other man who also suffers from the same symptoms and uses a walker, but the moment he's put on a cycle, all his symptoms vanish, because it is a continuous motion. +So the key for me was to translate this feeling of walking on a staircase back to flat land. +And a lot of ideas were tested and tried on him, but the one that finally worked was this one. Let's take a look. +He walked faster, right? +I call this the staircase illusion, and actually when the staircase illusion abruptly ended, he froze, and this is called freezing of gait. +So it happens a lot, so why not have a staircase illusion flowing through all their rooms, making them feel much more confident? +You know, technology is not always it. +What we need are human-centered solutions. +I could have easily made it into a projection, or a Google Glass, or something like that. +But I stuck to simple print on the floor. +This print could be taken into hospitals to make them feel much more welcome. +What I wish to do is make every Parkinson's patient feel like my uncle felt that day. +He told me that I made him feel like his old self again. +"Smart" in today's world has become synonymous to high tech, and the world is only getting smarter and smarter day by day. +But why can't smart be something that's simple and yet effective? +All we need is a little bit of empathy and some curiosity, to go out there, observe. +But let's not stop at that. +Let's find these complex problems. Don't be scared of them. +Break them, boil them down into much smaller problems, and then find simple solutions for them. +Test these solutions, fail if needed, but with newer insights to make it better. +Imagine what we all could do if we all came up with simple solutions. +What would the world be like if we combined all our simple solutions? +Let's make a smarter world, but with simplicity. +Thank you. +Hannah is excited to be going to college. +She couldn't wait to get out of her parents' house, to prove to them that she's an adult, and to prove to her new friends that she belongs. +She heads to a campus party where she sees a guy that she has a crush on. +Let's call him Mike. +The next day, Hannah wakes up with a pounding headache. +She can only remember the night in flashes. +But what she does remember is throwing up in the hall outside Mike's room and staring at the wall silently while he was inside her, wanting it to stop, then shakily stumbling home. +She doesn't feel good about what happened, but she thinks, "Maybe this is just what sex in college is?" +One in five women and one in 13 men will be sexually assaulted at some point during their college career in the United States. +Less than 10 percent will ever report their assault to their school or to the police. +And those who do, on average, wait 11 months to make the report. +Hannah initially just feels like dealing with what happened on her own. +But when she sees Mike taking girls home from parties, she's worried about them. +After graduation, Hannah learns that she was one of five women who Mike did the exact same thing to. +And this is not an unlikely scenario because 90 percent of sexual assaults are committed by repeat offenders. +But with such low reporting rates, it's fairly unlikely that even repeat perpetrators will be reported, much less anything happen if they are. +In fact, only six percent of assaults reported to the police end with the assailant spending a single day in prison. +Meaning, there's a 99 percent chance that they'll get away with it. +This means there's practically no deterrent to assault in the United States. +Now, I'm an infectious disease epidemiologist by training. +I'm interested in systems and networks and where we can concentrate our resources to do the most good. +So this, to me, is a tragic but a solvable problem. +So when the issue of campus assault started hitting the news a few years ago, it felt like a unique opportunity to make a change. +And so we did. +We started by talking to college survivors. +With the option to create a secure, timestamped document of what happened to them, preserving evidence even if they don't want to report yet. +And lastly, and perhaps most critically, with the ability to report their assault only if someone else reported the same assailant. +You see, knowing that you weren't the only one changes everything. +It changes the way you frame your own experience, it changes the way you think about your perpetrator, it means that if you do come forward, you'll have someone else's back and they'll have yours. +We created a website that actually does this and we launched it [...] in August, on two college campuses. +If a system like this had existed for Hannah and her peers, it's more likely that they would have reported, that they would have been believed, and that Mike would have been kicked off campus, gone to jail, or at least gotten the help that he needed. +And if we were able to stop repeat offenders like Mike after just their second assault following a match, survivors like Hannah would never even be assaulted in the first place. +We could prevent 59 percent of sexual assaults just by stopping repeat perpetrators earlier on. +And because we're creating a real deterrent to assault, for perhaps the first time, maybe the Mikes of the world would never even try to assault anyone. +The type of system I'm describing, the type of system that survivors want is a type of information escrow, meaning an entity that holds on to information for you and only releases it to a third party when certain pre-agreed upon conditions are met, such as a match. +The application that we built is for college campuses. +But the same type of system could be used in the military or even the workplace. +We don't have to live in a world where 99 percent of rapists get away with it. +We can create one where those who do wrong are held accountable, where survivors get the support and justice they deserve, where the authorities get the information they need, and where there's a real deterrent to violating the rights of another human being. +Thank you. diff --git a/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/en_es_data/train.es b/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/en_es_data/train.es new file mode 100644 index 0000000..b78d723 --- /dev/null +++ b/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/en_es_data/train.es @@ -0,0 +1,216617 @@ +Muchas gracias Chris. Y es en verdad un gran honor tener la oportunidad de venir a este escenario por segunda vez. Estoy extremadamente agradecido. +He quedado conmovido por esta conferencia, y deseo agradecer a todos ustedes sus amables comentarios acerca de lo que tena que decir la otra noche. +Y digo eso sinceramente, en parte porque -- (Sollozos fingidos) -- lo necesito! Pnganse en mi posicin! +Vol en el avin vicepresidencial por ocho aos. +Ahora tengo que quitarme mis zapatos o botas para subirme a un avin! +Les dir una rpida historia para ilustrar lo que ha sido para m. +Es una historia verdadera -- cada parte de esto es verdad. +Poco despus de que Tipper y yo dejamos la -- (Sollozos fingidos) -- Casa Blanca -- -- estbamos viajando desde nuestra casa en Nashville a una pequea granja que tenemos 50 millas al este de Nashville -- +conduciendo nosotros mismos. +S que suena como cualquier cosa para ustedes, pero -- -- mir en el retrovisor y de repente simplemente me golpe. No haba caravana de vehculos all atrs. +Han escuchado del dolor del miembro fantasma? +ste era un Ford Taurus rentado. Era la hora de la cena, y comenzamos a buscar un lugar para comer. +Estbamos en la I-40. Llegamos a la Salida 238, Lbano, Tennessee. +Nos alejamos de la salida, comenzamos a buscar un -- encontramos un restaurante Shoney's. +Cadena de restaurantes familiar de bajo costo, para aquellos de ustedes que no lo saben. +Entramos y nos sentamos en el rea reservada, y la mesera lleg y mostr una gran conmocin por Tipper. Tom nuestra orden, y luego fuimos hacia la pareja en el rea reservada junto a nosotros, y ella baj tanto su voz que realmente tuve que aguzar el odo para escuchar lo que estaba diciendo. +Y ella dijo "S, se es el antiguo Vice Presidente Al Gore y su esposa Tipper". +Y el hombre dijo, "Ha llegado hasta aqu abajo por un largo camino, no?" +Ha habido una especie de serie de epifanas. +Justo al da siguiente, continuando con una historia totalmente verdadera, me sub a un G-5 para volar a Africa para dar un discurso en Nigeria, en la ciudad de Lagos, sobre el tema de energa. +Y comenz el discurso dicindoles la historia de lo que me acababa de suceder el da anterior en Nashville. +Y la cont bastante del mismo modo en que la acabo de compartir con ustedes. Tipper y yo bamos conduciendo nosotros mismos, Shoney's, cadena de restaurantes familiar de bajo costo, lo que el hombre dijo -- ellos se rieron. +Di mi discurso, luego regres afuera hacia el aeropuerto para volar de regreso a casa. +Me qued dormido en el avin, hasta que durante la media noche aterrizamos en las Islas Azores para recargar combustible. +Me despert, abrieron la puerta, sal a tomar algo de aire fresco, y prest atencin y haba un hombre corriendo a lo largo de la pista de aterrizaje. +Y estaba agitando un papel, y estaba gritando, "Llamen a Washington! Llamen a Washington!" +Y pens hacia adentro, en medio de la noche, en medio del Atlntico, qu en el mundo podra estar mal en Washington? +Entonces record que podra ser un montn de cosas. +Pero lo que result ser fue que mi personal estaba extremadamente alterado porque uno de los servicios de teletipo en Nigeria ya haba escrito una historia acerca de mi discurso. Y ya haba sido imprimida en ciudades a todo lo largo de los Estados Unidos de Amrica. +Tres das despus, me lleg una bonita y larga carta escrita a mano de mi amigo y compaero y colega Bill Clinton diciendo, "Felicidades por el nuevo restaurante, Al!" +Nos gusta celebrar los xitos del uno y otro en la vida. +Iba a dar una pltica acerca de ecologa de la informacin, +pero estaba pensando que puesto que plane hacer un hbito de por vida el venir a TED, que tal vez podra hablar acerca de eso otro da. Chris Anderson: Es un trato! +Al Gore: Quiero enfocarme sobre lo que muchos de ustedes han dicho que les gustara que diera ms detalles. Qu pueden hacer ustedes acerca de la crisis climtica? Quiero empezar con -- voy a mostrar unas nuevas imgenes, y voy a recapitular slo cuatro o cinco. +Ahora, la presentacin de diapositivas. Actualizo la presentacin de diapositivas cada vez que la doy. +Agrego nuevas imgenes porque aprendo ms acerca de ello cada vez que la doy. +Es como el mar y las playas saben? Cada vez que una marea entra y sale, encuentras algunas conchas ms. +Slo en los ltimos dos das, obtuvimos los nuevos rcords de temperatura en enero. +Esto es slo para los Estados Unidos de Amrica. Promedio histrico para enero de 31 grados. El pasado mes fue de 39.5 grados. +Ahora, s que queran ms malas noticias acerca del medio ambiente. -- estoy bromeando -- pero stas son las diapositivas de recapitulacin, y luego voy a abordar nuevo material acerca de lo que ustedes pueden hacer. +Pero quera dar ms detalles sobre un par de stas. +Primero que nada, aqu es donde estamos proyectados llegar con la contribucin de Estados Unidos al calentamiento global, con el estatus quo de siempre. Eficiencia en electricidad de consumo final y consumo final de toda la energa es la fruta que est al alcance. Eficiencia y conservacin: +no es un costo, es una ganancia. El signo es errneo. +No es negativo, es positivo. stas son las inversiones que se pagan slas. +Pero tambin son muy efectivas en desviar nuestro camino. +Autos y camiones -- habl sobre eso en la presentacin de diapositivas, pero quiero que lo pongan en perspectiva. +Es un objetivo de inquietud fcil y visible, y debera serlo, pero hay ms contaminacin del calentamiento global que proviene de esos edificios que de autos y camiones. +Los autos y camiones son muy significativos, y tenemos los estndares ms bajos en el mundo, +y entonces deberamos encarar eso, pero es parte del rompecabezas. +Otra eficiencia de transportacin es tan importante como los autos y camiones! +Los renovables a los niveles actuales de eficiencia tecnolgica pueden hacer esta gran diferencia, y con lo que Vinod, y John Doerr, y otros, muchos de ustedes aqu -- mucha gente directamente involucrada en esto -- esta cua va a crecer mucho ms rpidamente de lo que la actual proyeccin la presenta. +Carbn capturado y secuestrado -- eso es lo que CCS significa -- es probable que se convierta en la aplicacin determinante que nos posibilitar continuar utilizando combustibles fsiles en un modo que sea seguro. +Todava no muy cerca. +OK. Ahora, qu pueden hacer? Reduzcan emisiones en sus casas. +La mayora de estos gastos tambin son redituables. +Aislamiento, mejor diseo, compren electricidad verde donde puedan. +Mencion automviles -- compren un hbrido. Usen tren ligero. +Piensen en otras de las opciones que son mucho mejores. Es importante. +Sean consumidores verdes. Tienen opciones con todo lo que compran, entre cosas que tienen un efecto severo o un mucho menor efecto severo sobre la crisis climtica global. +Consideren esto. Tomen una decisin de vivir una vida neutral de carbn. +Aquellos de ustedes que son buenos en el desarrollo de marcas, Me encantara obtener su consejo y ayuda sobre cmo decir esto en un modo que se concecte con la mayora de la gente. +Es ms fcil de lo que creen. Realmente lo es. +Muchos de nosotros aqu adentro hemos tomado esa decisin y realmente es muy fcil. +Reduzcan sus emisiones de dixido de carbono con todo el rango de opciones que tienen y luego compren o adquieran compensaciones para el resto que no han +reducido completamente. Y lo que significa es ampliado en climatecrisis.net. +Hay una calculadora de carbn. Participant Productions reuni, con mi activa participacin, a los lderes mundiales en escritura de software sobre esta misteriosa ciencia del clculo de carbn para construir una calculadora de carbn amigable para el consumidor. +Ustedes pueden con mucha precisin calcular cules son sus emisiones de CO2 y entonces se les dar opciones para reducir +y para cuando la pelcula salga en mayo, esto ser actualizado a 2.0 y tendremos compras de compensaciones a travs de clicks. +Despus, consideren convertir su negocio a neutral en carbono. De nuevo, algunos de nosotros hemos hecho eso, y no es tan difcil como ustedes creen. Integren soluciones climticas en todas sus innovaciones. Ya sea que ustedes sean de la tecnologa, o del entetenimiento, o comunidades de diseo y arquitectura. +Inviertan de manera sostenible. Majora mencion esto. +Escuchen, si han invertido dinero con administradores que compensan con base en la ejecucin anual, nunca se quejen de nuevo acerca de administraciones de ejecutivos reportadas trimestralmente. +Con el tiempo, la gente hace lo que se le paga por hacer. Y si ellos juzgan cunto +se les va a pagar con el capital de ustedes que ellos han invertido, basados en los rendimientos de corto plazo, van a obtener decisiones de corto plazo. +Mucho ms que decir acerca de eso. +Convirtanse en un catalizador del cambio. Ensenle a otros, aprendan sobre ello, hablen sobre ello. +La pelcula sale -- la pelcula es una versin en pelcula de la presentacin de las diapositivas que di hace dos noches, excepto que es mucho ms entretenida. Y sale en mayo. +Muchos de ustedes aqu tienen la oportunidad de asegurarse que mucha gente la vea. +Consideren enviar a alguien a Nashville. Escojan bien. +Y yo personalmente entrenar gente para que d esta presentacin de diapositivas, con nuevos propsitos, con algunas de las historias personales obviamente remplazadas por un enfoque genrico, y -- no slo son las diapositivas, es lo que significan, y es cmo ellas se eslabonan. +Y as voy a estar conduciendo un curso este verano para un grupo de gente que est nominada por diferentes personas para venir y luego darlo en masa, a comunidades a lo largo de todo el pas, y vamos a actualizar la presentacin de diapositivas para todos ellos cada semana para mantenerlo justo en la vanguardia. +Trabajando con Larry Lessig, ser en algn momento del proceso puesto con herramientas y derechos de autor de uso limitado, para que la gente joven lo pueda mezclar de nuevo y hacerlo a su propio modo. +De dnde sali la idea de que deberas quedarte alejado de la poltica? +No significa que si eres un republicano voy a intentar convencerte de ser un demcrata. Necesitamos a los republicanos tambin. ste sola ser un tema bipartidista, y s que en este grupo realmente lo es. Hganse activos polticamente. +Hagan que nuestra democracia funcione del modo en que se supone que debe de hacerlo. +Apoyen la idea de poner un lmite a las emisiones de dixido de carbono, a la contaminacin por calentamiento global, +y comercializarlo. He aqu por qu: en tanto Estados Unidos est fuera del sistema mundial, no es un sistema cerrado. +Una vez que se convierta en un sistema cerrado, con la participacin de Estados Unidos, entonces todos los que estn en una mesa directiva -- cunta gente aqu sirve en una mesa directiva de una corporacin? +Una vez que es un sistema cerrado, tendrn responsabilidad legal si no exhortan a su ejecutivo en jefe a obtener el mximo ingreso de la reduccin y comercializacin de emisiones de carbono que pueden ser evitadas. El mercado trabajar en resolver este problema si podemos lograr esto. +Ayuden con la campaa de persuasin masiva que comenzar esta primavera. +Tenemos que cambiar las mentes del pueblo norteamericano, porque actualmente +los polticos no tienen permiso de hacer lo que tiene que hacerse. +Y en nuestro moderno pas, el rol de la lgica y la razn ya no incluye mediar entre riqueza y poder del modo que lo hizo alguna vez. +Es ahora la repeticin de comerciales televisivos cortos, estimulantes, de 30 segundos, de 28 segundos. +Tenemos que comprar muchos de esos anuncios. +Renombremos el calentamiento global, como muchos de ustedes han sugerido. +Me gusta crisis climtica en vez de colapso climtico, pero de nuevo, aquellos de ustedes que son buenos en diseo de marcas, necesito su ayuda en esto. +Alguien dijo que el test que estamos encarando, un cientfico me indic, consiste en si la combinacin de un pulgar oponible con una neocorteza es una combinacin viable. +Eso es realmente cierto. Lo dije la otra noche, y lo repetir ahora: esto no es un asunto poltico. +De nuevo, los republicanos estn aqu, esto no debera ser partidista. +Ustedes tienen ms influencia que algunos de nosotros que somos demcratas. +sta es una oportunidad. No slo esto, sino conectado con las ideas que estn aqu para darles ms coherencia. +Nostros somos uno. +Muchas gracias, lo aprecio. +Quisiera comenzar diciendo: Houston, tenemos un problema. +Estamos entrando a una segunda generacin sin progreso en trminos de vuelos espaciales tripulados. De hecho, hemos retrocecido. +Nos encontramos con una gran posibilidad de perder nuestra capacidad de inspirar a nuestros jvenes a ir fuera y continuar esto tan importante que nosotros, como especie, siempre hemos hecho. +Y es que, instintivamente hemos ido fuera y sobrepasado sitios dificultosos, ido a sitios ms hostiles para luego descubrir, posiblemente para nuestra sorpresa, que es por esa razn que hemos sobrevivido. +Y creo firmemente que no es suficientemente bueno para nosotros tener generaciones de nios que creen que est bien desear una versin mejorada de un telfono mvil con vdeo. +Ellos deberan desear la exploracin, deberan pensar en colonizacin, ellos deberan pensar en los avances. Ellos deben... +...tenemos que inspirarlos, porque es necesario que nos guen y nos ayuden a sobrevivir en el futuro. +Estoy particularmente preocupado por lo que la NASA est haciendo ahora con esta nueva doctrina "Bush" de, para esta prxima dcada y media... oh rayos, la puse. +Aqu tenemos reglas especficas de no hablar de poltica. +Lo que deseamos es... ...lo que deseamos es no solo inspirar a nuestros nios pequeos, pero los planes actuales no estn permitiendo siquiera que la gente mas creativa de este pas, los ingenieros aeroespaciales de Boeing y Lockheed, tomen riesgos y prueben cosas nuevas. +Estaremos de vuelta a la luna... 50 aos despus, +y lo estamos haciendo de manera especficamente planeada para no aprender nada nuevo. +Estoy realmente preocupado por eso. Pero de todas formas -- la base de lo que quiero compartir con ustedes hoy, mas an, es regresar a donde inspiramos a aquellos que van a ser nuestros grandes lderes del maana. +Ese es el tema de mis prximos 15 minutos aqu. +Y creo que la inspiracin empieza cuando uno es muy joven: desde los 3 aos, hasta los 12 - 14 aos. +Lo que nosotros - lo que ellos miran es lo ms importante. +Veamos el caso de la aviacin, +donde hubo un corto perodo maravilloso de 4 aos en el que sucedieron cosas increbles. +Comenz en 1908, cuando los hermanos Wright volaron en Pars, y todo el mundo dijo: "Ooh! yo puedo hacer eso!" Muy poca gente vol a comienzos de 1908. En cuatro aos, 39 pases tenan cientos de aeronaves, miles de pilotos. Las aeronaves fueron inventadas por seleccin natural. +Ahora se puede decir que el diseo inteligente es quien disea las aeronaves de hoy en da, pero realmente no hubo diseo inteligente en el diseo de esas primeras aeronaves. +Se probaron - probablemente, 30.000 cosas distintas como mnimo, y cuando ocurran accidentes que matan al piloto..."no prueben eso de nuevo" +Los que volaron y aterrizaron bien porque no haba pilotos entrenados quienes tenan buenas cualidades de vuelo, por definicin. +As que, haciendo un montn de intentos, miles de intentos, en ese perodo de tiempo de cuatro aos, inventamos los conceptos de las aeronaves que volamos hoy en da. Y por eso son tan seguras, porque dimos muchas oportunidades para encontrar lo que funciona bien. +Esto no ha sucedido en los vuelos espaciales. +Solo se han probado dos conceptos - dos por los E.E.U.U y uno por los Rusos. +Y bien, quin ha sido inspirado durante ese tiempo? +Aviation Week me pidi hacerles una lista de quienes yo pensaba que fueron los protagonistas de los primeros 100 aos de aviacin. +Y los escrib, descubriendo luego que cada uno de ellos era un nio en ese maravilloso renacimiento de la aviacin. +Bueno, lo que ocurri cuando yo era un nio fueron cosas muy grandes tambin. +Comenz la era de la propulsin, la era de los misiles. Von Braun estaba all mostrando como ir a Marte -- y esto fue antes del Sputnik. +Y eso fue en un momento en que Marte era muchsimo ms interesante de lo que es hoy en da. Pensbamos que habra animales all, sabamos que haba plantas, los colores cambian, cierto?... +Pero ya saben, NASA arruin todo eso porque mandaron estos robots que han hecho aterrizar slo en los desiertos. +Si observan lo que sucedi -- esta pequea lnea negra es lo ms rpido que el hombre ha volado jams, y la lnea roja es el tope de la lnea de aviones de caza militares, y la lnea azul son las aerolneas comerciales. +Notan que existe un gran salto. Cuando yo era pequeo -- y creo que eso tuvo algo que ver con darme el valor para salir e intentar algo que el resto de la gente no tena valor para intentar. +Bueno, qu hice cuando era pequeo? +No salia con chicas ni sala a bailar. Y bueno, en esa poca no haba drogas. Pero si particip en competiciones de aeromodelismo. +Pas unos siete aos durante la guerra de Vietnam como piloto de pruebas de aviones para la Fuerza Area. +Y luego empec y me divert mucho construyendo aeronaves que las personas pudiesen construir en sus garajes. +Unos 3000 de esos estn volando. Y claro, uno de ellos es el Voyager, que di la vuelta al mundo. Fund otra compaa en 1982, que es mi compaa actual. +Y hemos desarrollado ms de un nuevo tipo de aeronave cada ao desde 1982. +Y hay muchos de ellos que de hecho no puedo mostrarles en stas lminas. +La aeronave ms impresionante, yo creo, fue diseada solo 12 aos despus del primer jet funcional. +Estuvo en servicio hasta que se oxid mucho como para volar y fu sacada de servicio. +Volvimos en 1998 de regreso a algo que se diseo en 1956. Qu fu? +La nave espacial ms impresionante, a mi parecer, fue el Alunizador de Grumman. Fue un -- bueno, ustedes saben, lleg a la luna, despeg de la luna, no necesit a nadie de mantenimiento -- eso s es impresionante. +Hemos perdido esa capacidad. La abandonamos en el '72 +Esta cosa fue diseada 3 aos despus del primer vuelo espacial de Gagarin en 1961. +3 aos, y aun no podemos hacer eso hoy da. +Alocado. Hablemos brevemente de los ciclos de innovacin, cosas que crecen, tienen mucha actividad, y desaparecen cuando son reemplazadas por otra cosa. +Estas cosas tienden a suceder cada 25 aos. +40 aos, con algn arreglo. Pueden aplicar esa declaracin en todo tipo de tecnologas diferentes. Lo interesante es -- por cierto, la velocidad aqu, perdn, viajes de alta velocidad es el ttulo de estos ciclos de innovacin. No hay ninguno aqu. +Estas dos nuevas aeronaves son de la misma velocidad que el DC8 que fue hecho en 1958. +Y aqu viene lo bueno, y es que uno no tiene ciclos de innovacin si el gobierno los desarrolla y el gobierno los usa. +Ustedes saben, un buen ejemplo, por supuesto, es la red DARPA. +Primero se usaron los ordenadores para artillera, luego para el IRS. +pero no fue hasta que los obtuvimos, que apareci todo el nivel de actividad, todos nos beneficiamos de ello. El sector privado es el que tiene que hacerlo. +Mantengan eso en mente. Hablo de la innovacin. He buscado ciclos de innovacin en el espacio, y no he encontrado ninguno. +En el primer ao, empezando cuando Gagarin vol al espacio, y Alan Shepherd unas cuantas semanas despus, hubo 5 vuelos espaciales tripulados en el mundo; tan solo el primer ao. +En el 2003, todos los que EEUU mand al espacio murieron. +Tan solo hubo 3 o 4 vuelos en el 2003. +En el 2004 hubo solamente 2 vuelos: 2 vuelos del Soyuz ruso a la estacin internacional tripulada. Y yo tuve que volar 3 en Mojave con mi pequeo grupo de un par de docenas de personas para poder completar un total de 5, que fue el mismo nmero de aquel 1961. +No hay crecimiento. No hay actividad. No hay nada. +Esta es una imagen tomada desde el SpaceShipOne. +Esta es una imagen tomada desde rbita. +Nuestra meta es hacer que puedan ver esta imagen y de verdad disfrutarlo. +Sabemos como hacer el vuelo sub-orbital seguro, suficientemente seguro, al menos tan seguro como las primeras aerolneas lo eran. +Y creo que quiero hablar un poco acerca del por qu tuvimos el valor de salir e intentarlo como una pequea compaia. +Bueno, primero que nada, que es lo siguiente que suceder? +La primera industria tendr un gran volumen, numerosos jugadores. +Justo la semana pasada se anunci otra nueva compaa. +Eso es... No querran dirigir un negocio con ese tipo de historial de seguridad. +Ser de gran volumen, pensamos que 100,000 personas estarn volando para el 2020. +No puedo decirles cuando empezar porque no quiero que mi competencia conozca mis planes +Pero una vez que empiece, encontraremos soluciones. y poco despues, vern hoteles en rbita. +y eso cosa sencilla de lograr, que es un giro alrededor de la Luna. para que tengan un vista magnifica, y eso ser genial. +Ya que la luna no tiene atmsfera -- puedes hacer rbitas elpticas y pasarla a 10 pies (3 metros) de distancia si as lo quieres. +Oh, esto va a ser tan divertido. +OK. Mis crticos dicen, "Hey, Rutan est gastando mucho del dinero de estos multimillonarios para paseos para multimillonarios. +Qu es esto? Esto no es un sistema de transporte, es solo diversin." +Y antes me molestaba eso, pero luego me puse a pensar, bueno, esperen un minuto. Yo compr mi primer ordenador Apple en 1978 y la compr porque poda decir, "tengo un ordenador en mi casa y t no." +- Para qu la usas? - Vente. Tiene Frogger." Vale. +No hablamos de los ordenadores de los bancos o de la compaia Lockheed. el ordenador domstico slo era para jugar. +Durante toda una decada, era para divertirse - ni siquiera sabamos para qu era til. +Pero sucedi que teniamos esta industria grande con un gran desarrollo, grandes mejoras, mas capacidad y dems, y estaban llegando a muchos hogares, y el momento de una nueva invencin lleg. +Y el inventor est en este auditorio. +As que, "slo por diversion" es una buena razn. +Ok, quiero mostrarles un diagrama, pero en l est mi prediccin acerca de lo que va a pasar. +Lo cual me lleva a otro punto, aqu mismo. +Hay un grupo de personas que ha salido adelante y no los conocemos a todos, pero los que han salido adelante fueron inspirados cuando eran nios, en ese pequeo lapso entre los 3 y 15 aos de edad, cuando nosotros orbitamos la tierra y fuimos a la luna aqu, justo en este periodo de tiempo. +Paul Allen, Elan Musk, Richard Branson, Jeff Bezos, la familia Ansari. quienes ahora estn financiando los proyectos sub-orbitales rusos. Bob Bigelow, una estacin espacial privada y Carmack. +Ellos fueron inspirados por un gran progreso. Pero miren el progreso que hubo despues de eso. +Hay un par de ejemplos aqu. +Los aviones militares llegaron a su mxima capacidad, con el SR71 Blackbird. Cumpli con su tiempo til hasta que se oxid. y lo sacaron de servicio. El Concorde duplic la velocidad de los vuelos comerciales. +Dur todo su tiempo de vida til sin competencia. y fue sacado de servicio. Y ahora estamos atascados aqu con la misma capacidad en aviones militares y lneas areas comerciales que la que tenamos al final de los 50. +Pero hay algo all afuera que va a inspirar a los jovenes de ahora. +Y estoy hablando sobre si tienes un beb ahora, o un nio de 10 aos ahora. +All afuera hay algo realmente interesante a punto de suceder. +Relativamente pronto, podrs comprar un ticket y volar ms alto, ms rapido que el avin militar de mejores prestaciones. Eso no haba ocurrido antes. +La razn de que nos hayamos quedado atascados en este nivel de prestaciones es que ahora, bueno, ya saben, pueden ganar la guerra en 12 minutos, para qu necesitas algo mejor? +Pero creo que cuando ustedes empiecen a comprar billetes y a volar en vuelos suborbitales al espacio, muy pronto -- esperen un segundo, lo que pasar es que habr aviones militares con capacidad de vuelo sub-orbital y creo que ser muy pronto. +Pero lo interesante es que las personas (rea comercial) irn primero. +Ok, yo anhelo una nueva carrera espacial capitalista, llamemosle as. +Recuerden que la carrera espacial de los 60 fue por orgullo nacional, ya que nos ganaron los primeros dos logros. +No los perdimos por falta de tecnologa. El hecho de que tenamos el equipo para poner algo en rbita cuando dejamos que Von Braun lo volara, nos permite argumentar que no fu una derrota tecnolgica. +El Sputnik tampoco fue una derrota tecnolgica, pero fue una derrota de orgullo. +Amrica -- el mundo ya no vi a Amrica como el lder en tecnologa, y eso fu una impresin muy fuerte. +y semanas despues de Gagarn mandamos a Alan Shepherd, no meses o dcadas, o lo que sea. As que tenamos la capacidad. +Pero Amrica perdi. Nosotros perdimos. Y debido a eso, hicimos un gran salto para recuperarnos. +Bueno, lo interesante aqu es que hemos vuelto a perder. ante los rusos con las primeros logros. +En Amrica no puedes comprar un billete comercial para volar al espacio. No se puede. En Rusia s lo puedes comprar. +Puedes volar con equipo ruso. Est disponible. porque el programa espacial ruso pasa hambre, y para ellos es bueno obtener 20 millones aqu y all a cambio de un asiento. +Es comercial. Se puede definir como turismo espacial. Ellos tambien ofrecen un viaje para dar la vuelta alrededor de la Luna, como lo hizo Apollo 8. +por 100 millones de dolares -- hey, yo puedo ir a la Luna! +Pero, ya saben, quin hubiera pensado all en los 60. cuando la carrera espacial estaba en marcha, que el primer vuelo comercial-capitalista donde se podra comprar un billete a la Luna sera con equipo ruso? +y hubieras pensado, hubieran pensado los rusos, que cuando finalmente llegaran a la Luna, usando su equipo, que los tripulantes no seran rusos? Seguramente sea un japons, o un multimillonario americano? Bueno, es extrao, realmente lo es. +De cualquier forma, creo que es el momento de volverles a ganar. +Creo que veremos una industria exitosa, muy exitosa, de vuelos espaciales privados. Si somos los primeros o no, no importa. +Los rusos de hecho volaron un vuelo supersnico comercial antes del Concorde. +Y volaron un par de vuelos de carga y lo sacaron de servicio. +Creo que podemos ver el mismo patrn en los viajes comerciales. +Ok, hablemos un poco acerca del desarrollo de vuelos comerciales para humanos. +Y predigo, que, aun con lo provechosa que ser esta industria -- y realmente es provechosa cuando ests haciendo volar a cada persona por 200,000 dlares. con algo que puedes operar con una dcima parte de ese coste, o menos, -- esto realmente ser provechoso. +Predigo tambin, que la inversin que llegar ser alrededor de la mitad de lo que estn pagando los contribuyentes americanos, en los vuelos tripulados de la NASA. +Y cada dlar que vaya a parar a esto se gastar de forma ms eficiente con un factor de 10 o 15. Y eso significa que, antes de que nos demos cuenta, el progreso del vuelo espacial tripulado, sin dinero del gobierno, estar unas 5 veces ms adelantado que lo que la NASA dedica al vuelo espacial tripulado. +Y eso se debe a nosotros. La industria privada. +Nunca se debe depender del gobierno para hacer este tipo de cosas -- y lo hemos hecho por mucho tiempo. La NACA, antes de la NASA, nunca desarroll un avin y nunca tuvo una aerolnea. +Pero NASA est desarrollando el avin espacial, siempre lo ha hecho, y tiene la nica aerolnea espacial, OK. Pero no la hemos usado porque le tenemos miedo. Pero empezando en Junio del 2004 cuando demostr que un pequeo grupo lo puede lograr, que puede empezar, todo cambi despues de ese momento. +OK, muchsimas gracias. +De lo que quiero hablar es, como trasfondo, es la idea de que los coches son arte. +As que los coches, como arte, traen esto a un plano emocional -- si lo aceptas -- que tienes que tratar al mismo nivel que usaras para el arte con A. +En este punto vais a ver una foto de Miguel ngel. +Esto es completamente diferente a los automviles. +Los automviles son cosas que se mueven por s mismas, no? Los ascensores son automviles. +Y no son muy emotivos, sirven a un motivo, y ciertamente los automviles han estado a nuestro alrededor durante 100 aos y han hecho de muchas maneras que nuestras vidas funcionen mucho mejor, tambin han sido un autntico dolor de muelas. Porque los automviles son en realidad la cosa que tenemos que solucionar. +Tenemos que solucionar la contaminacin, tenemos que solucionar los atascos -- pero no es eso lo que me interesa en esta charla. +Lo que me interesa en esta charla son los coches. Los automviles pueden ser lo que usas, pero los coches son, en muchos sentidos, lo que somos. +Ah es a donde quiero llegar. Los coches no son un traje, los coches son un avatar, los coches son una expansin de t mismo, toman tus pensamientos, tus ideas, tus emociones, y las multiplican -- tu rabia, lo que sea. Es un avatar. +Es un sper Waldo en el que resulta que ests dentro, y si te sientes sexy, el coche es sexy. Y si ests lleno de furia al volante, tienes un "Chevy: Como una roca", verdad? +Los coches son una escultura -- lo saban? +Que cada coche que veis ah fuera est esculpido a mano. +Mucha gente piensa, "Bueno, son ordenadores, y est hecho por mquinas y cosas as". +Bueno, lo reproducen, pero los originales se hacen todos a mano. +Los hacen hombres y mujeres que creen mucho en su habilidad. +Y ponen el mismo tipo de tensin en la escultura de un coche que la que pones en una gran escultura que iras a ver a un museo. +Esa tensin entre la necesidad de expresar, la necesidad de descubrir, luego pones algo nuevo en ello, y a la vez tienes limites tcnicos. +Reglas que dicen, as es como manipulas superficies, esto es de lo que trata el control, as es como demuestras que eres un maestro de tu oficio. +Y esa tensin, ese descubrimiento, ese empuje hacia algo nuevo -- y al mismo tiempo, ese sentido de respeto a las consideraciones tcnicas -- que es tan fuerte en los coches como lo es en cualquier otra cosa. +Trabajamos en barro, que no ha cambiado mucho desde que Miguel ngel empez a juguetear con l, y hay una analoga muy interesante con eso tambin. +Muy rpido -- Miguel ngel dijo una vez que estaba ah para "descubrir la figura en el interior", de acuerdo? +Ah vamos, el automvil. +Eso fue hace 100 aos nada menos, os disteis cuenta? +Entre ese de all, y este otro de ah, han cambiado un montn verdad? +De acuerdo, no es marketing, hay un concepto de coche muy interesante aqu, pero la parte de marketing no es de lo que quiero hablar aqu. +Quiero hablar de esto. +Por qu supone que hay que lavar un coche, qu es, esa sensualidad acerca de ello que tienes que tocar? Esa es la escultura que lleva dentro. Esa sensualidad. +Y lo hacen hombres y mujeres trabajando de esta manera, haciendo coches. +Ahora esta pequea cita de Henry Moore sobre la escultura, creo que esa "presin interna" de la que Moore est hablando -- al menos en lo que se refiere a los coches -- vuelve directamente a esta idea del medio. +Es esa voluntad de vivir, esa necesidad de sobrevivir, de expresarse a s mismo, que viene con un coche, y se apodera de gente como yo. +Y le decimos a otra gente, "Haz esto, haz esto, haz esto", hasta que esta cosa toma vida. +Estamos completamente contagiados. Y la belleza puede ser el resultado de este contagio, es bastante maravilloso. +Esta escultura est, por supuesto, en el centro de todo, y es realmente lo que pone la artesana en nuestros coches. +Y no es muy diferente, en realidad, cuando estn trabajando de este modo, o cuando alguien trabaja de este modo. +Es el mismo tipo de compromiso, el mismo tipo de belleza. +Bien, vale, voy al grano. Quiero hablar de los coches como arte. +El Arte, en el sentido platnico, es verdad, es belleza, y amor. +Ahora aqu es donde realmente los diseadores en el negocio de los coches se separan de los ingenieros. +No tenemos en realidad problemas para hablar de amor. +No tenemos problemas para hablar de la verdad o la belleza en ese sentido. +Eso es lo que estamos buscando -- cuando estamos trabajando en nuestro oficio, estamos en realidad tratando de encontrar la verdad ah fuera. +No estamos tratando de encontrar vanidad y belleza. +Estamos tratando de encontrar la belleza en la verdad. +Por el contrario, los ingenieros tienden a mirar las cosas de un modo ms newtoniano, en lugar de este enfoque cuntico. +Estamos tratando con cosas irracionales, y estamos tratando con paradojas que admitimos que existen, y los ingenieros tienden a mirar las cosas un poco ms como dos ms dos son cuatro, y si obtienes 4.0 es mejor, y 4.0000 es todava mejor. +Y eso a veces lleva a una cierta divergencia en por qu hacemos lo que hacemos. +Hemos aceptado en gran medida, no obstante, el hecho de que somos las mujeres en la organizacin de BMW -- BMW es un tipo de negocio muy masculino, -- hombres, hombres, hombres, son ingenieros. +Y somos un poco el lado femenino de eso. Est bien, es estupendo, t vas y eres masculino, nosotros vamos a ser un poco ms femeninos. +Porque lo que nos interesa es encontrar forma que sea ms que una simple funcin. +Estamos interesados en encontrar belleza que sea ms que una simple esttica, que sea en realidad una verdad. +Y creo que esta idea del alma, como corazn de los grandes coches, es muy aplicable. Todos lo sabis. Reconocis un coche cuando lo habis visto, con alma. Sabis lo fuerte que es esto. +Bien, esta experiencia del amor, y la experiencia del diseo, para m, son intercambiables. Y ahora llego a mi historia. +Descubr algo acerca del amor y el diseo a travs de un proyecto llamado Deep Blue. +Y lo primero de todo, tenis que seguirme durante un segundo, y decir, sabes, podras quitar la palabra amor de un montn de cosas en nuestra sociedad, poner la palabra diseo en su lugar, y seguira funcionando, como esta cita de aqu, sabes. Ms o menos funciona, sabes? +Puedes entender eso. Funciona en perogrulladas. +"Todo est permitido en el diseo y en la guerra". +Por supuesto que vivimos en una sociedad competitiva. +Creo que esta de aqu, hay una cancin pop que para m describe verdaderamente a Philippe Starck, sabes, es como, sabes, es como el cario hacia un cachorro, sabes, esto est bien no? +Cepillo de dientes, estupendo. +Slo se vuelve serio cuando miras a algo como esto, de acuerdo? +Esta es una sustitucin de la que creo que todos nosotros, en la gestin del diseo, somos culpables. +Y esta idea de que hay ms que amar, ms que disear, cuando llega hasta tu vecino, tu otro, puede ser fsica como esto, y puede que en el futuro lo sea. +Pero ahora mismo es en el trato con nuestra propia gente, nuestros propios equipos que estn creando. As que, a mi historia. +Aqu abordamos la idea de trabajo en equipo y tengo que establecer lazos con mis diseadores cuando estamos creando BMWs. +Tenemos que tener una intimidad compartida, una visin compartida Lo que quiere decir que tenemos que trabajar como una familia, tenemos que vernos a nosotros mismos de ese modo. +Hay momentos buenos, momentos interesantes, y tambin momentos estresantes. +Quieres hacer coches, tienes que salir afuera. +Tienes que hacer coches bajo la lluvia, tienes que hacer coches en la nieve. +Esa, por cierto, es una presentacin que hicimos a nuestra junta de directores. +Arrastramos sus traseros hasta la nieve tambin. Quieres conocer a los coches en el exterior? +Bien, tienes que estar en el exterior para ello. +Y dado que estos son artistas, tienen temperamentos muy artsticos. +De acuerdo? Bien una cosa sobre el arte es, el arte es descubrimiento, y el arte es descubrirte a ti mismo a travs de tu arte. Verdad? +Y una cosa sobre los coches es que todos somos un poco como Pigmalin, estamos completamente enamorados de nuestras creaciones. +Esta es una de mis pinturas favoritas, describe verdaderamente nuestra relacin con los coches. +Esto es increblemente morboso. +Pero debido a esto, la intimidad con la que trabajamos juntos como equipo adquiere una nueva dimensin, un nuevo significado. +Tenemos un centro compartido, tenemos un foco comn, de que el coche permanece en el centro de todas nuestras relaciones. +Y es mi trabajo, en el proceso competitivo, limitar esto. +Hoy escuch hablar de los genes de la muerte de Joseph que tienen que entrar y matar la reproduccin de las clulas. +Sabes, es lo que tengo que hacer a veces. +Empezamos con diez coches, lo reducimos a cinco, a tres coches, a dos coches, a un coche, y yo estoy en el medio de esa matanza, bsicamente. +El amor de alguien, el beb de alguien. +Esto es muy difcil, y tienes que tener un vnculo con tu equipo que te permite hacerlo, porque su vida est tambin contenida en ello. +Tienen ese gen contagiado dentro de ellos tambin, y quieren que viva, ms que cualquier otra cosa. +Bien, este proyecto, Deep Blue me puso en contacto con mi equipo de un modo que nunca esper, y quiero compartirlo con vosotros, porque quiero que reflexionis sobre esto, tal vez en vuestras propias relaciones. +Queramos hacer un coche que fuese un completo acto de fe para BMW. +Queramos crear un equipo que estuviese tan alejado del modo en que lo habamos hecho, que slo tena un nmero de telfono que me conectaba a ellos. +As que, lo que hicimos fue que en lugar de tener a un grupo de artistas que son bsicamente tu mueca, decidimos liberar un equipo de diseadores creativos e ingenieros para encontrar el suceso del fenmeno 4x4 en EE.UU. +Es en 1996 cuando hicimos este proyecto. As que los enviamos con su nombre de equipo, Deep Blue. Ahora mucha gente conoce Deep Blue por IBM, en realidad lo robamos de ellos porque pensamos que si alguien lea nuestros faxes pensaran que estbamos hablando de ordenadores. +Result ser bastante inteligente porque Deep Blue, en una compaa como BMW, tiene gancho -- Deep Blue, guau, buen nombre. +As que la gente se involucr en l. Y cogimos a un equipo de diseadores, y los enviamos a EE.UU. Y les dimos un presupuesto, lo que pensamos que era un conjunto de entregas, un calendario, y nada ms. +Como dije, slo tena un nmero de telfono que me conectaba a ellos. +Y un grupo de ingenieros trabajando en Alemania, y la idea era que trabajaran separadamente en este problema de cul es el sucesor del vehculo deportivo utilitario, +se juntaran, compararan notas. Entonces volveran a trabajar separados, a juntarse, y juntos produciran un conjunto monumental de opiniones diversas que no contaminasen las ideas de los otros -- pero que a la vez se uniesen y resolviesen los problemas. +Siendo optimista, entender de verdad al cliente a fondo, dnde est el cliente, vivir con ellos en EE.UU. As que -- enviamos al equipo, y en realidad ocurri algo diferente. Fueron a otros sitios. +Desaparecieron, francamente, y todo lo que reciba eran postales. +Bien, tengo algunas postales de esta gente en Las Vegas, y tengo algunas postales de esta gente en el Gran Can, y tengo estas postales de las cataratas del Nigara, y enseguida estn en Nueva York, y no s dnde ms. +Y me digo a m mismo, "Este va a ser un gran coche, estn haciendo investigacin en la que nunca antes habra pensado". +Verdad? Y decidieron que, en lugar de, por ejemplo, tener un estudio, y seis o siete apartamentos, era ms barato alquilar la antigua casa de Elizabeth Taylor en Malibu. +Y -- por lo menos me dijeron que era su casa, creo que una vez, celebr una fiesta all o algo. +Pero de todos modos, esta era la casa, y todos ellos vivan all. +Y as vivan todo el tiempo, media docena de personas que haban dejado -- algunos haban dejado a sus mujeres y a sus familias, y literalmente vivieron en esta casa durante los seis meses completos que el proyecto estuvo en EE.UU., pero los primeros tres meses fueron los ms intensivos. +Y una de las chicas en el proyecto, era una mujer fantstica, de verdad construy su habitacin en el bao. +El bao era tan grande, que construy su cama sobre la baera -- es bastante fascinante. +Por otra parte, yo no saba nada de todo esto, de acuerdo? +Nada. Todo esto est ocurriendo, y todo lo que recibo son postales de esta gente en Las Vegas, o lo que sea, diciendo, "No te preocupes Chris, esto va a ser bueno de verdad". Vale? +As que mi concepto de lo que era un estudio de diseo probablemente -- No haba llegado a dnde esta gente estaba. +Sin embargo, los ingenieros all en Mnich haban adoptado este tipo de solucin newtoniana, y estaban tratando de descubrir cuntos soportes para vasos pueden bailar en la cabeza de un alfiler, y, sabis, estas preguntas realmente importantes a las que se enfrenta el consumidor moderno. +Y uno esperaba que estos dos equipos se juntasen, y esta colisin de creatividad increble, en este entorno increble, y estos ingenieros increblemente estresados, crearan algunas soluciones increbles. +Bien, lo que yo no saba, y lo que descubrimos fue... que esta gente, ni siquiera pueden hablar entre ellos en estas condiciones. +Tienes una divergencia del pensamiento cuntico y newtoniano en ese punto, tienes una fractura en el dilogo que es tan profunda, y tan lejana, que no pueden unir todo esto de ninguna manera. +As que tuvimos nuestra primera reunin, despus de tres meses, en Tiburn, que est un poco ms arriba de aqu por la carretera -- conocis Tiburn? +Y la idea era que despus de los tres primeros meses de esta investigacin independiente presentaran todo al Dr. Goschel (que ahora es mi jefe, y que en aquella poca era mi co-mentor en el proyecto) y que presentaran sus resultados. +Veramos haca donde estbamos yendo, veramos el primer indicio de lo que podra ser el fenmeno sucesor del 4x4 en EE.UU. +As que tena estas ideas en mi cabeza, que esto iba a ser genial. +Quiero decir, voy a ver tanto trabajo, es tan intenso -- s que probablemente Las Vegas tuvo un montn de importancia, y no estoy del todo seguro donde entra el Gran Can tampoco -- pero de algn modo todo esto se va a unir, y voy a ver algn producto realmente genial. +As que fuimos a Tiburn, despus de tres meses, y el equipo se haba juntado la semana anterior, bastantes das antes de tiempo. +Los ingenieros volaron all, y los diseadores se reunieron con ellos, y juntos prepararon su presentacin. +Bien, resulta que los ingenieros no haban hecho nada. +Y no haban hecho nada porque -- un poco, digamos que en el negocio de los coches, los ingenieros estn ah para resolver problemas, y les estbamos pidiendo que creasen un problema. +Y los ingenieros estaban esperando a que los diseadores dijesen, "Este es el problema que hemos creado, ahora ayudadnos a resolverlo". +Y no pudieron hablar de ello. As que lo que sucedi fue, que los ingenieros aparecieron sin nada. +Y los ingenieros le dijeron a los diseadores, "Si entris con todo lo vuestro, nos vamos, abandonamos directamente el proyecto". +As que yo no saba nada de todo esto, y tuvimos una presentacin que tena una agenda, que tena este aspecto. +Hubo mucho dilogo. +Nos pasamos cuatro horas escuchando todo acerca del vocabulario que necesita crearse entre ingenieros y diseadores. +Y yo aqu esperando que en cualquier momento, "Bien, van a pasar la pgina, y voy a ver los coches, voy a ver los bocetos, voy a ver tal vez una idea de a dnde se dirige". +La conversacin segua adelante, con mapas mentales de palabras, y bastante pronto se estaba volviendo obvio que en lugar de ser deslumbrado por la brillantez, estaba siendo seriamente distrado con minucias. +Y os podis imaginar lo que es esto, tener todos estos meses de indicaciones por postales de lo bien que este equipo est trabajando, y estn ah fuera gastando todo este dinero, y estn aprendiendo, y estn haciendo todas estas cosas. +Me enfad mucho, vale? Me volv loco. +Probablemente podis recordar Tiburn, sola tener este aspecto. +Despus de cuatro horas de esto, me levant, e hice pedazos a este equipo. +Les abronqu, les grit, "Qu demonios estis haciendo? +Me estis decepcionando, sois mis diseadores, se supone que tenis que ser los creativos, qu coo est pasando aqu?" +Fue probablemente una de mis mejores broncas, tengo algunas buenas, pero esta probablemente fue una de las mejores. Y le dije a esta gente; cmo podan coger el dinero de BMW, cmo podan tomarse tres meses de vacaciones y no tener nada, nada? +As que nos fuimos a comer -- Y tengo que deciros, fue una comida tremendamente silenciosa. +Los ingenieros se sentaron todos en un extremo de la mesa, los diseadores y yo nos sentamos en el otro extremo de la mesa, muy silenciosos. +Y yo estaba furioso de la hostia, furioso. Vale? +Probablemente porque ellos haban disfrutado de toda la diversin y yo no, sabis. +Eso es por lo que te enfadas no? +Y alguien me pregunt por Catherine, mi mujer, sabes, haba venido conmigo o algo as? +Dije, "No", y eso provoc una serie de pensamientos sobre mi mujer. +Y me acord que cuando Catherine y yo nos casamos, el cura dio un sermn muy bonito, y dijo algo muy importante. +Dijo, "El amor no es egosta", dijo, "El amor no se trata de contar cuantas veces digo,'Te quiero'. No se trata de que hayas tenido sexo tantas veces este mes, y que sea dos veces menos que el mes pasado, as que eso significa que no me quieres tanto. +El amor no es egosta". Y pens sobre esto, y pens, "Sabes, no estoy demostrando amor aqu. De verdad que no estoy demostrando amor. +Estoy en el aire, estoy en el aire sin confianza. +Esto no puede ser. No puede ser que est esperando un cierto nmero de bocetos, y que para m ese sea el mtodo de medir la calidad de un equipo. +Esto no puede ser". +As que les cont esta historia. Dije, "Chicos, estoy aqu pensando en algo, esto no est bien. No puedo tener una relacin con vosotros basada en una premisa que es cuantificable. +Basada en una premisa impuesta que dice, "Soy un jefe, haced lo que diga, sin confianza". Dije "Esto no puede ser". +En realidad, todos nos pusimos a llorar, para ser sincero, porque todava no podan contarme cuanta frustracin haban acumulado dentro, sin ser capaces de ensearme lo que quera, y teniendo simplemente que pedirme que confiase en ellos, que llegara. +Y creo que nos sentimos mucho ms cercanos ese da, cortamos un montn de hilos que no tenan por qu estar ah, y fraguamos el concepto de lo que en realidad significan el equipo y la creatividad. +Pusimos el coche de nuevo en el centro de nuestros pensamientos, y pusimos amor, creo, realmente de nuevo en el centro del proceso. +Por cierto, ese equipo acab creando seis prototipos diferentes para el siguiente modelo de lo que sera la propuesta de la nueva generacin posterior a las 4x4 en EE.UU. +Una de ellas era la idea de las coups crossover... podis verlo abajo, el X Coupe, se lo pasaron muy bien con eso. +Era la interpretacin de nuestra motocicleta, la GS, como sola decir Carl Magnusson, "brutermosa" como idea de lo que poda ser una motocicleta, si le aades dos ruedas ms. +As que, para concluir, mi leccin que quera transmitiros a vosotros, era esta de aqu. Tambin voy a robar una pequea cita de "El Principito". +Hay mucho que decir acerca de la confianza y el amor, si sabes que esas dos palabras son sinnimos de diseo. +Tuve una relacin muy, muy significativa con mi equipo aquel da, y se ha mantenido as desde entonces. +Y espero que vosotros tambin descubris que hay ms en el diseo, y ms para con el arte del diseo, que hacerlo uno mismo. +Es cierto que la confianza y el amor, que hacen que merezca la pena. +Muchas gracias. +En la pausa, varias personas me preguntaron acerca de mis comentarios sobre el debate en torno al envejecimiento. +Y este ser mi nico comentario al respecto. +Y que es que, a mi entender los optimistas viven mucho ms que los pesimistas. +Lo que voy a contarles en mis dieciocho minutos es cmo estamos a punto de pasar de la lectura del cdigo gentico a las primeras etapas de comenzar a escribir el cdigo nosotros mismos. +Este mes se cumplen slo 10 aos de la publicacin de la primera secuencia de un organismo libre vivo, la del Haemophilus influenzae. +sta redujo un proyecto sobre el genoma de trece aos a cuatro meses. +Ahora podemos hacer este mismo proyecto sobre el genoma en el orden de entre dos y ocho horas. +Por lo tanto, en la ltima dcada, se han aadido un gran nmero de genomas: la mayora de patgenos humanos, un par de plantas, insectos varios y varios mamferos, genoma humano incluido. +La genmica en esta etapa de la reflexin de hace un poco ms de diez aos era que a finales de este ao, podramos tener entre tres y cinco genomas secuenciados; pues tenemos del orden de varios cientos. +Nos acaban de conceder una beca de la Fundacin Gordon y Betty Moore para secuenciar ciento treinta genomas este ao como un proyecto paralelo de organismos medioambientales. +Por lo tanto, la tasa de lectura del cdigo gentico ha cambiado. +Pero a medida que vemos lo que hay ah fuera, apenas hemos araado la superficie de lo que est disponible en este planeta. +La mayora de las personas no se dan cuenta de ello porque son invisibles, pero los microbios constituyen aproximadamente la mitad de la biomasa de la Tierra, mientras que todos los animales slo representan alrededor de una milsima de toda la biomasa. +Y tal vez sea algo que la gente de Oxford no lo hace muy a menudo, pero si alguna vez van al mar y tragan un buche de agua de mar, tengan presente que cada mililitro tiene alrededor de un milln de bacterias y del orden de diez millones de virus. +Menos de cinco mil especies microbianas haban sido caracterizadas hasta hace 2 aos, as que decidimos hacer algo al respecto. +Y empezamos la expedicin Sorcerer II, en la que, al igual que con las grandes expediciones oceanogrficas, intentamos muestrear el ocano cada 200 millas. +Empezamos en las Bermudas para nuestro proyecto de prueba. Luego nos trasladamos a Halifax, trabajando a lo largo de la Costa Este de los EE.UU., el Mar Caribe, el Canal de Panam, a travs de las Galpagos, a continuacin en el Pacfico y ahora estamos en el proceso de trabajar en el Ocano ndico. +Es una tarea dura; lo estamos haciendo en un velero, en parte para ayudar a entusiasmar a los jvenes para que se interesen por la ciencia. +Los experimentos son increblemente sencillos. +Nos limitamos a coger agua de mar, la filtramos y luego recogemos organismos de diferentes tamaos en distintos filtros. Y luego llevamos su ADN a nuestro laboratorio de Rockville, donde podemos secuenciar unos cien millones de letras del cdigo gentico cada veinticuatro horas. +Y con ello, hemos hecho algunos descubrimientos sorprendentes. +Por ejemplo, se pensaba que los pigmentos visuales que hay en nuestros ojos slo existan en uno o dos organismos en el medio ambiente. +Y resulta que, casi todas las especies de las capas superiores del ocano en las partes clidas del mundo tienen estos mismos fotorreceptores y usan la luz solar como fuente de energa y medio de comunicacin. +De un sitio de muestreo, a partir de un barril de agua de mar, descubrimos 1,3 millones de nuevos genes y hasta 50.000 nuevas especies. +Ahora hemos ampliado este muestreo al aire gracias a una donacin de la Fundacin Sloan. +Estamos midiendo la cantidad de virus y bacterias que todos nosotros respiramos cada da, sobre todo en aviones o auditorios cerrados. +Filtramos a travs de algunos aparatos sencillos y recogemos del orden de mil millones de microbios en slo un da filtrando en la parte superior de un edificio de la ciudad de Nueva York. +Y estamos en el proceso de secuenciarlos todos en la actualidad. +Slo en lo que se refiere a la recogida de datos, justo donde estamos a travs de las Galpagos, estamos descubriendo que casi cada 200 millas, podemos encontrar una enorme diversidad en las muestras ocenicas. +Parte de esta diversidad resulta lgica, en trminos de diferentes gradientes de temperatura. +Aqu tienen una fotografa de satlite basada en las temperaturas --rojo significa caliente, azul fro-- y nos encontramos que hay una enorme diferencia entre las muestras de agua caliente y las muestras de agua fra, en trminos de abundancia de especies. +Otra cosa que nos sorprendi un poco fue que estos fotorreceptores detectan diferentes longitudes de onda de la luz y que podemos predecirlo segn sus secuencias de aminocidos. +Y stas varan enormemente de una regin a otra. +Tal vez no sea sorprendente que en las profundidades del ocano, donde todo es azul, los fotorreceptores tienden a ver la luz azul. +Cuando hay una gran cantidad de clorofila en el entorno, estos ven mucha luz verde. +Pero varan an ms, posiblemente avanzado hacia el infrarrojos y el ultravioleta en los extremos. +Slo para tratar de obtener una evaluacin de lo que era nuestro repertorio de genes, reunimos todos los datos --incluidos todos los nuestros obtenidos hasta el momento en la expedicin, lo que representa ms de la mitad de todos los datos de genes en el planeta-- y que totalizaron alrededor de 29 millones de genes. +Y tratamos de clasificar dichos genes en familias para ver qu era los que estbamos descubriendo: Estamos slo descubriendo nuevos miembros de familias conocidas o estamos descubriendo nuevas familias? +Y resulta que tenemos alrededor de cincuenta mil grandes familias de genes, pero cada nueva muestra que tomamos en el medio ambiente aade de forma lineal a las nuevas familias. +Por lo tanto estamos en las primeras etapas del descubrimiento de los genes bsicos, los componentes y la vida en este planeta. +Cuando nos fijamos en el llamado rbol evolutivo, los humanos estamos en la esquina superior derecha con los animales. +De los aproximadamente 29 millones de genes, slo contamos con alrededor de 24.000 genes en nuestro genoma. +Y si tomamos todos los animales juntos, probablemente compartimos menos de 30.000 y, probablemente, tal vez unas doce mil o ms familias diferentes de genes. +Considero que estos genes ahora no slo son los componentes del diseo de la evolucin. +Y pensamos desde una perspectiva centrada en los genes tal vez volviendo a las ideas de Richard Dawkins ms que desde un punto de vista centrado en el genoma, que son diferentes constructos de estos genes componentes. +El ADN sinttico, la capacidad de sintetizar ADN, ha cambiado a un ritmo aproximadamente similar al de la secuenciacin del ADN en las dos ltimas dcadas y se est haciendo muy rpido y muy barato. +Nuestro primer pensamiento acerca de la genmica sinttica data de cuando secuenciamos el segundo genoma all por 1995, y que fue el del Mycoplasma genitalium. +Y tenemos unas camisetas estupendas que dicen, ya saben, Yo 'corazn' mis genitalium. +Se trata en realidad de un simple microorganismo. +Pero tiene unos quinientos genes. +Haemophilus tena mil ochocientos genes. +Y simplemente nos planteamos una pregunta: si una especie necesita ochocientos y otra quinientos, existe un conjunto menor de genes que podran incluir un sistema operativo mnimo? +As que empec a hacer mutagnesis de transposones. +Los transposones son slo pequeos fragmentos de ADN que se insertan al azar en el cdigo gentico. +Y, si se insertan en el medio de un gen, alteran su funcin. +As que hicimos un mapa de todos los genes que podan aceptar inserciones de transposones y los llamamos genes no esenciales. +Pero resulta que el entorno es fundamental para ello y slo se puede definir un gen esencial o no esencial sobre la base de lo que hay exactamente en el entorno. +Tambin tratamos de adoptar un planteamiento intelectual ms directo con los genomas de trece organismos relacionados e intentamos comparar la totalidad de ellos, para ver lo que tenan en comn. +Y obtuvimos estos crculos que se traslapan. Y slo encontramos 173 genes comunes a los 13 organismos. +El conjunto se amplaba un poco si ignoramos un parsito intracelular; y se ampli an ms cuando examinamos conjuntos bsicos de 310 genes o as. +Por lo tanto, creemos que podemos expandir o contraer genomas, dependiendo de su punto de vista aqu, tal vez hasta 300 a 400 genes del mnimo de 500. +La nica forma de probar estas ideas era construyendo un cromosoma artificial que contuviera estos genes en ellos, y tuvimos que hacer esto en utilizando la tcnica basada en casetes. +Y descubrimos que sintetizar con precisin grandes fragmentos de ADN era muy difcil. +Jamn Smith y Clyde Hutchison, mis colegas en esto, desarrollaron un mtodo nuevo y emocionante que nos permiti sintetizar un virus que contiene 5.000 pares de bases, en un perodo de tan slo dos semanas, que era cien por cien exacto, en trminos de su secuencia y su biologa. +Fue una experiencia muy emocionante cuando cogimos el fragmento de ADN sinttico, lo inyectamos en bacterias y, de repente, el ADN empez a dirigir la produccin de partculas virales que dieron vuelta y posteriormente mataron las bacteria. +ste no fue el primer virus sinttico ya se haba sintetizado un virus de la poliomielitis un ao antes pero tena slo una diez milsima parte de actividad y llev tres aos construirlo. +Esto es un dibujo de la estructura de Phi X-174. +Este es un caso en que el software ahora construye su propio hardware y stas son las nociones que tenemos sobre biologa. +La gente se preocupa de inmediato por la guerra biolgica y recientemente declar ante una comisin del Senado y una comisin especial creada por el gobierno de los Estados Unidos para estudiar este campo. +Y creo que es importante tener presente la realidad, frente a lo que sucede en la imaginacin de la gente. +Bsicamente, cualquier virus que se ha secuenciado hasta hoy, se puede construir este genoma. +Y la gente inmediatamente se asusta con la viruela o el bola, aunque el ADN de este organismo no sea infeccioso. +As que incluso si alguien sintetizara el genoma de la viruela, el ADN en s no causara infecciones. +La preocupacin real que tienen los departamentos de seguridad es los virus de diseo. +Y hay slo dos pases, los Estados Unidos y la antigua Unin Sovitica, que hicieron grandes esfuerzos por tratar de crear agentes de guerra biolgica. +En caso de que de verdad se hayan interrumpido dichas investigaciones, debera haber muy poca actividad en el know-how para hacer virus de diseo en el futuro. +Creo que los organismos unicelulares sern posibles en un plazo de dos aos. +Y posiblemente las clulas eucariotas, las que nosotros tenemos, sern posibles en plazo de una dcada. +As que ahora estamos haciendo varias docenas de constructos diferentes, porque podemos variar los casetes y los genes que van en este cromosoma artificial. +La clave es cmo poner todos los dems? +Empezamos con estos fragmentos y, a continuacin, tenemos un sistema de recombinacin homloga que los vuelve a ensamblar en un cromosoma. +Esto se deriva de un organismo, Deinococcus radiodurans, que puede soportar hasta tres millones de rads de radiacin sin morir. +Vuelve a ensamblar su genoma despus de la rfaga de radiacin en unas 12 o 24 horas, despus de que sus cromosomas han explotado literalmente. +Este organismo es ubicuo en el planeta y tal vez exista ahora en el espacio sideral a causa de todos nuestros viajes all. +Esto es un vaso de precipitados tras recibir en torno a medio milln de rads de radiacin. +El vidrio comenz a arder y agrietarse, mientras que los microbios acumulados en el fondo estn cada vez ms felices. +Aqu tienen una imagen real de lo que sucede: la parte superior muestra el genoma tras recibir 1,7 millones de rads de radiacin. +El cromosoma ha literalmente explotado. +Y aqu est el mismo ADN automticamente reensamblado 24 horas ms tarde. +Es realmente impresionante que estos organismos puedan conseguirlo probablemente tenemos miles, si no son decenas de miles de especies diferentes en este planeta que pueden hacerlo. +Despus de que se sinteticen estos genomas, el primer paso consiste slo en transplantarlos a una clula sin genoma. +As que creemos que las clulas sintticas van a tener un enorme potencial, no slo para la comprensin de la base de la biologa, sino que esperemos que tambin para los problemas del medio ambiente y la sociedad. +Por ejemplo, del tercer organismo que secuenciamos, Methanococcus jannaschii: vive a temperatura del punto de ebullicin del agua, su fuente de energa es el hidrgeno y todo su carbono proviene de la captura de CO2 procedente del medio ambiente. +As que sabemos de muchas rutas diferentes, miles de organismos diferentes ahora que viven del CO2 y que pueden volver a capturarlo. +As que en vez de utilizar carbono procedente del petrleo para los procesos de sntesis, ahora tenemos la oportunidad de utilizar el carbono y de volver a capturarlo de la atmsfera para convertirlo en biopolmeros u otros productos. +Tenemos un organismo que vive del monxido de carbono y que utilizamos como poder reductor para dividir el agua y producir hidrgeno y oxgeno. +Adems, hay numerosas rutas que se pueden disear para metabolizar metano. +Y DuPont cuenta con un importante programa en colaboracin con Statoil de Noruega para capturar y convertir el metano de los yacimientos de gas existente en productos tiles. +Dentro de poco, creo que va a haber un nuevo campo llamado genmica combinatoria, porque, con estas nuevas capacidades de sntesis, estos vastos repertorios de matrices de genes y la recombinacin homloga, creemos que podremos disear un robot para fabricar tal vez un milln de diferentes cromosomas al da. +Y, por tanto, como con toda la biologa, se puede seleccionar mediante el cribado, ya sea cribando para la produccin de hidrgeno o de sustancias qumicas, o simplemente por su viabilidad. +Entender el papel de estos genes va a estar pronto a nuestro alcance. +Estamos tratando de modificar la fotosntesis para producir hidrgeno directamente a partir de la luz solar. +La fotosntesis est modulada por el oxgeno y tenemos una hidrogenasa insensible al oxgeno que creemos que va a cambiar totalmente este proceso. +Tambin estamos combinando celulasas, las enzimas que descomponen los azcares complejos en azcares simples, y la fermentacin en la misma clula para producir etanol. +La produccin de medicamentos ya est en marcha en los principales laboratorios utilizando microbios. +La qumica de los compuestos existentes en el medio ambiente es varios rdenes de magnitud ms compleja que la que pueden producir nuestros mejores qumicos. +Creo que las especies de ingeniera del futuro podran ser la fuente de alimentos, esperemos que una fuente de energa, la recuperacin del medio ambiente y quizs la sustitucin de la industria petroqumica. +Permtanme concluir con los estudios ticos y polticos. +Retrasamos el comienzo de nuestros experimentos en 1999 hasta que concluimos un estudio de revisin biotica de ao y medio para saber si debamos tratar de fabricar una especie artificial. +Todas las religiones importantes participaron en el proceso. +Ahora la Fundacin Sloan ha financiado un estudio multiinstitucional sobre este tema para establecer los riesgos y los beneficios para la sociedad y las normas que los equipos de cientficos, como el mo, deberan estar aplicando en este mbito y estamos tratando establecer buenos ejemplos a medida que avanzamos. +Se trata de cuestiones complejas. +A excepcin de la amenaza del bioterrorismo, son cuestiones muy sencillas en trminos de si podemos disear cosas para producir energa limpia, tal vez revolucionando lo que los pases en desarrollo pueden hacer y facilitar a travs de diversos procesos simples. +Muchas gracias. +Hola contestadora automtica, mi vieja amiga. +He llamado a servicio tcnico de nuevo. +Ignor la advertencia de mi jefe. Llam un Lunes por la maana. +Ahora anochece, y mi cena primero se enfri-- y luego se enmoheci. +Todava sigo en espera. Estoy escuchando los sonidos del silencio. +No creo que me hayas entendido. Digo que nadie est atendiendo. +Ya he presionado cada tecla que me han indicado. Y an as he pasado 18 horas en espera. +No es suficiente que su software haya arruinado mi Mac y... Hace el sonido del silencio. +En mi sueos fantaseo dar rienda suelta a mi venganza contra ustedes. +Supongamos que choquen en motocicleta +sangre salpica de sus heridas. Con tu fuerza debilitandose +llamas al 911 y rezas por un paramdico entrenado. Pero en eso llego yo. +Y tu escuchas el sonido... del silencio. +Gracias. Buena tarde y bienvenidos a "Conozca al Presentador de TED que alguna vez fue Msico de Broadway" +Bien. Cuando me ofrecieron la columna del Times hace seis aos, el trato fue este: Se te enviarn los mas atractivos, modernos e ingeniosos gadgets. +Cada semana llegarn a tu casa. +Debers probarlos, jugar con ellos, evaluarlos hasta que pase la novedad, pero antes tendrs que devolverlos. Y te pagaremos por eso. Pinsalo y nos avisas. +Entonces, siempre he sido un fantico de la tecnologa y la adoro. +el trabajo, sin embargo, tena una pequea desventaja. Y era que intentaron agregar mi email al final de cada columna publicada. +Y lo que he notado es... primero que todo, que recibo una cantidad increible de correos electrnicos. +Si alguna vez te sientes solo hazte de una columna en el New York Times, porque tendrs miles y miles y miles de emails. Y el mensaje que recibo a menudo +es de acerca de la frustracin. +La gente siente que las cosas - OK Tengo una alarma saliendo en mi pantalla. Por suerte no la pueden ver. +La gente se siente abrumada. Sienten que es demasiada tecnologa, demasiado rpido. +Puede ser buena tecnologa. pero siento que no hay suficiente estructura de soporte. +No hay sufiente ayuda. No hay suficiente anlisis +dedicado al diseo de las cosas para hacerlas fciles y divertidas de usar. Cierta ocasin, escrib una columna sobre mis esfuerzos para contactar +al Servicio Tcnico de Dell. Y tras 12 horas, haban 700 comentarios en el artculo publicado en el sitio web del Times, de usuarios diciendo: "Me pas lo mismo!" "He vivido la misma desgracia." Yo llamo a esto ira de software. +Y permtanme decirles, quien logre sacar dinero +de estas frustraciones... Oh, Cmo lleg esto ac? Solo bromeo. +Ok, Entonces. Por qu este problema esta acelerndose? Y parte del problema es irnicamente, porque los fabricantes han puesto tanto anlisis en facilitar el uso de las cosas. +Les ensear de lo que hablo +As es como el entorno de una computadora se vea, DOS. +Con los aos, se ha vuelto mas fcil de usar. +Este es el sistema operativo original de Mac. +Reagan era Presidente. Madonna todava era morena. +Y todo el sistema operativo - sta es la parte buena--el sistema operativo completo, caba en 211 kb +Ahora no se puede ni poner el logo del sistema Mac10 en 211kb. +As que lo irnico es que, mientras stas cosas se volvan ms fciles de usar una comunidad menos preparada y ms amplia estaba entrando en contacto con estos equipos por primera vez. +Una vez, tuve el privilegio de visitar el centro de atencin al cliente de Apple por un da. +Un tipo tena doble auricular, para yo poder escuchar. +Y reciba llamadas -- ustedes saben como son... "Su llamada puede estar siendo grabada para asegurar la calidad de servicio." +Mm-Mmm. Su llamada puede ser grabada de modo que se puedan recopilar las ms divertidas historias de usuarios tontos y luego compartirlas en un CD. +Lo cual realmente hacen. +Y yo tengo una copia. +Hay una en sus bolsas de regalo. No, no. +Con sus voces en ella. +As que, algunas historias son tan clsicas, y an as comprensibles +Una mujer llam a Apple para quejarse +que su mouse estaba chillando - haciendo un sonido chilln. +Y el tcnico le dijo, "Bien seora, A qu se refiere con chillando?" +Ella dice, "Todo lo que le puedo decir es que chilla mas fuerte entre mas lo arrastro por la pantalla". +Y el tcnido confundido, "Seora, Est arrastrando el contra ratn sobre la pantalla?" +Ella responde, "Bueno, el mensaje deca 'Click aqu para continuar' " Si les gust esa historia, Cunto tiempo nos queda? +Una ms. Un tipo llam, esto es verdico! Su computadora se haba trabado, y le dijo al tcnico que no poda reiniciarla sin importar cuntas veces tecleara 11. +Y el tcnico le dijo "Qu? Por qu est tecleando 11?" +"Es que el mensaje dice 'Error de escritura 11' " As que hay que admitir que algunos de estos errores son totalmente culpa de los usuarios. +Pero, Por qu es la crisis de sobrecarga tcnica, la crisis de la complejidad, acelerndose ahora? En el mundo del hardware esto se debe a que los consumidores quieren todo ms pequeo, ms pequeo, ms pequeo. +As que los aparatos se vuelven ms pequeos y ms pequeos pero nuestros dedos se mantienen esencialmente del mismo tamao. +As que se vuelve ms y ms un reto. +Los programas son materia de otra fuerza primaria: la obligacin de lanzar ms y ms versiones. +Cuando compramos un programa, no es como comprar artesana o un caramelo, dnde es tuyo. +Es ms bien como unirse a un club donde pagas cuotas cada ao. Y cada ao te dicen, "Hemos agregado nuevas caractersticas y se las venderemos por 99 dlares" +Yo conozco a una persona que gast 4000 dolares slo en Photoshop en algunos aos. +Y las compaas desarrolladoras hacen 35% de sus ingresos slo de estas actualizaciones a sus programas. +Yo lo llamo La Paradoja de las Actualizaciones de Programas-- lo cual significa que, si actualizas un programa suficientes veces, eventualmente terminas aruinndolo. +Digo, Microsoft Word era al final slo un procesador de texto en, ya saben, desde la administracin Eisenhower. +Pero, Cul era la alternativa? Microsoft en realidad hizo un experimento, dijeron, +"Bien,espera un minuto. Todo el mundo se queja que estamos agregando muchas funciones +vamos a crear un procesador de texto que sea slo un procesador de texto simple, puro, que no haga pginas web, ni maneje bases de datos". +Y lo lanzaron. Y fue bautizado Microsoft Write. +Y ninguno de ustedes esta asintiendo en reconocimiento, porque muri. +Se estanc. Nadie nunca lo compr. +Yo llamo a esto "El Principio de la Ostentacin de Utilidad". A la gente le gusta rodearse +de poder innecesario, cierto? +Ellos no necesitan de bases de datos o pginas web, pero son como... "Pues voy a actualizarme, porque, algn da, quien sabe, quizs necesite esto." +As que el problema es, que si agregas mas funciones Dnde las vas a poner? +Dnde las vas a colocar? Slo hay cierta cantidad de herramientas de diseo. +Puedes hacer botones, pestaas, mens emergentes, sub mens. +Pero si no tienes cuidado al escojer, vas a terminar con algo as... +Esto es una no retocada - No es broma - no retocada foto de Microsoft Word. la copia que ustedes usan, con todas las barras abiertas. +Ustedes obviamente nunca abren todas las barras. Pero todo el lugar para escribir es esta pequea, mnima ventana de aqu. +Pero hemos llegado a la edad de los entornos matriciales, donde hay tantas funciones y opciones, que tienes que hacer dos dimensiones, saben. Una vertical y otra horizontal. Y todos se quejan al respecto. Como Microsoft Word siempre est enumerando listas y subrrayando los emails. +El switch de apagado est all, en algn lado. +Se los digo, est all! +Parte de disear una interface agradable y sencilla est en saber cuando usar cada funcin. +Miremos, esto aparece en el cierre de sesin de Windows 2000 +Solo existen 4 opciones. Entonces Por qu estn metidas en un men despelgable? +No es como s el resto de la pantalla est saturada de componentes, para que sea necesario amontonar las opciones. +Pudieron haberlas puesto a simple vista. +Aqu est la misma situacin pero para Apple. +Gracias - Si, yo disee esta caja de dialogo. No, no, no. +Ya, podemos ver como Apple y Microsoft estn abismalmente distanciados en diseo de software. +El acercamiento de Microsoft a simplicidad, tiende a ser: Desarmemos esto, pongamos ms pasos para todo. +Estn los ayudantes para cualquier cosa. +Y ya saben que hay una nueva versin de Windows lista para el otoo. +Si continan a este paso, no hay manera de adivinar dnde van a terminar. +Bienvenido al Ayudante para Escribir la Letra A. Ok, picar. Vams a hacer click en continuar. +Del men desplegable, escoja la primera letra que desea escribir. Bien. +As que hay un lmite al que no queremos llegar. Cul es la solucin? +Cmo juntar todas ests funciones en una forma simple e inteligente? +Yo creo que es posible cuando hay consistencia. equivalentes en el mundo real, eliminar carpetas usualmente, etiquetar la mayora de cosas. +Pero le ruego a los diseadores que paren todas esas reglas si violan la mayor regla de todas. que es la inteligencia A qu me refiero con esto? +Dar unos ejemplos donde la inteligencia hace algo que no parece consistente,pero da mejores resultados. +Si ests comprando algo en internet, se deben dar datos como la direccin y uno debe escojer en que pas vive, cierto? +Existen 200 paises en el mundo. Nos gusta pensar en Internet como una red global. +Lo siento, todava no lo es. +Es bsicamente, Estados Unidos, Europa y Japn +Entonces, Por qu Estados Unidos (United States) est en la U? +Uno debe bajar como 7 pantallas para llegar a la U. +Ahora, sera inconsistente poner United States de primero, pero sera inteligente. Est es otra muy mencionada pero, Por Dios, Por qu para apagar la computadora debemos dar click en el botn llamado "Inicio"? +Aqu hay otra de mis favoritas: Usted tiene una impresora, +la mayora de veces solo va a imprimir una copia del documento, en el orden normal, en la misma impresora. +Entonces, Por qu diantres tenemos esta pantalla cada vez que vamos a imprimir? +Es como la cabina de piloto de un 747. +Y uno de los botones al final,notarn, no es "Imprimir." +Ahora, no digo que Apple sea la nica compaia comprometida al culto de la simplicidad. +Palm es tambin, especialmente hace algn tiempo, magnifco en esto. +Justamente tuve la oportunidad de hablar en Palm en sus momentos de auge en los 90s. y luego de hablarles, conoc a uno de los empleados. +Dijo, "Buena charla" Y yo dije; "Gracias, Cul es tu trabajo?" +El dijo, "Soy un contador de golpes" +Qued "Qu tu qu?" El dijo "Pues, Jeff Hawkins, el Gerente dijo 'Si cualquier tarea en la Palm de prueba se toma mas de 3 golpes del lpiz es demasiado larga, y tiene que ser rediseada'. Entonces, yo soy el contador de golpes" +As que les mostrar un ejemplo de una compaia que no tiene +un contador de golpes +Esto es Microsoft Word, ok. Cuando quieres crear un nuevo documento en blanco, Podra pasar! +Vas al menu Archivo y escojes Nuevo, bien. +Qu pasa al escojer Nuevo? Obtienes tu documento nuevo? +No, claro que no. +Al lado opuesto del monitor, aparece una barra de tareas, y en algn lugar, en esos enlaces, -por cierto no el primero- en algn lugar en esos enlaces est el botn que te hace un nuevo documento. +Bien, esa es una empresa que no cuenta los golpes. +Saben, no quiero estr aca slo burlndome de Microsoft. +Pblico: Sigue! +La cancin de Bill Gates He sido un tcnico siempre, y escrib el primer DOS +Puse mi software y IBM juntos Obtuve las ganancias, ellos las prdidas. +Escrib el cdigo que mueve al mundo. +Estoy obteniendo beneficios de todos ustedes. +A veces es basura, pero la prensa es ciega. +Tu compras la caja, yo vendo el cdigo. +Toda compaa est usando Microsoft. +No puedes guardarte una buena idea estos das. +Incluso Windows es una copia. Estamos basados vagamente en la Mac. +As que es grande, es lento. No tienes donde ir. No estoy haciendo esto por elogios. +Yo hago el cdigo que responde al mundo hoy. +Gran mediocridad en todos lados. +Hemos entrado en modo dominacin del planeta +No tendrs opcin que comprar mi cdigo. +Yo soy Bill Gates, Yo escribo el cdigo!. +Realmente, creo que hay dos Microsofts. +Est el viejo, responsable de Windows y Office. +Estn desesperados por tirar todo y empezar desde cero, +pero no pueden. Estn atrapados por tantos agregados y otra compaia meti cerraduras en los viejos chasis de 1982. +Pero tambin est el nuevo Microsoft, que realmente est haciendo buenos y simples diseos de interfaces. +A mi me gusta el Media Center PC. Me gusta el Microsoft SPOT Watch +El Reloj Inalmbrico se hundi en el mercado pero no porque no fuera simple y con un diseo bello +Pongmoslo as: Ustedes pagaran US$10 al mes, por un reloj que deben recargar cada anoche, como un celular, y deja de funcionar cuando se alejan del rea especfica? +Todo parece indicar, que esta compleja maraa solo va a empeorar +Entonces, Hay esperanza? Las pantallas se vuelven mas pequeas. La gente solo recibe ayuda, de manuales en cajas. Las cosas estn lanzandose a un pasos rpidos. +No ser fcil. Me vern como un extrao. +Cuando intente explicar mi regreso. Tras pronosticar un futuro negro para Apple a la prensa. +No me creern. +Todo lo que ven es a un adolencente que inci todo en su garage con mi nico amigo llamado Woz. +Ustedes intenten rimar algo con garage! +No llores por mi, Cupertino! +La verdad es que nunca te dej. +Ahora s los gajes del oficio, s los trucos que hay. +Hice una fortuna de Pixar +No llores por mi, Cupertino! Todava tengo el talento y la visin. +Todava calzo sandalias en cualquier clima. Es slo que estos das son de cuero Gucci. +Gracias. As que Steve Jobs siempre ha credo en la simplicidad +y elegancia y belleza. Y lo cierto es que por aos yo estuve deprimido. Porque los Americanos, obviamente no lo valoramos eso, porque Mac tena el 3% de las acciones del mercado Windows tena el 95% de las acciones. La gente no crea que era valioso ponerle un precio. +As que me deprim un tanto. Entonces escuche a Al Gore, y me di cuenta que ni siquiera entenda qu es una depresin. +Pero resulta que estaba equivocado, no? Porque lanzaron el iPod y este viol totalmente el sentido comn. +Otros productos costaban menos, otros tenan mas funciones. Grabadores de voz, radio FM, +Los otros productos fueron apoyados por Microsoft con un estndar abierto, no con el estndar de propiedad de Apple. +Pero el iPod gan! Esto era lo que la gente quera. +La leccin fue: La Simplicidad Vende +Y existen seales, de como las industrias estn tomando el mensaje. +Hay una pequea empresa a la que le ha ido muy bien con la simplicidad y elegancia +Sonos -- se estn poniendo al da. +Tengo un par de ejemplos. Fsicamente, un realmente agradable +y elegante pensamiento que he tenido ltimamente. +Cuando toman fotos con la cmara digital, Cmo las bajan a su computador? +Bien, o consigues un cable USB o comprar un lector de memoria Terminas perdiendo cualquiera de los dos. Lo que yo hago es, extraer +la tarjeta de memoria, la doblo en la mitad y revelo los contactos USB. +Solo la inserto en la computadora, bajo las imgenes y la regreso a su lugar dentro la cmara. No hay riesgo de perder nada. +Aqu hay otro ejemplo. Chris, eres la fuente de toda energa +Seras mi toma de corriente? +Chris Anderson: S claro. +David: Sostn esto y no lo sueltes. Puede que hayan visto esto: +Esta nueva Apple, con su cable de corriente, se conecta as. +Y estoy seguro todos han hecho esto en algn momento de sus vidas, o alguno de sus hijos. Ests caminando despistado y.. +Estoy apunto de poner esto en el suelo. No me importa. Es un prstamo. +Vmos. Wow! Es magntico. No deja caer la laptop. +Para mi ltimo ejemplo - Hago mucho de mi trabajo +usando un programa de dictado, y tienen que estar algo silenciosos porque el programa es inquieto. Bien. +Los programas de dictado son geniales para hacer correos rpidos. Punto. +Como, recibo miles al da. Punto. +Y no solo lo que dicto es lo que escribe. Punto +Tengo la opcin llamada macros de voz. Punto. +Corregir "disuadir". No slo. +Bien, este no es el escenario ideal. por el eco del teatro y el ruido. +Pero el punto es, que puedo responder a la gente muy rpido, diciendo una palabra y escribiendo al instante +algo mas largo. As, cuando algn fan me escribe. Digo. "Gracias por eso" +Y por el contrario , si me llega un correo de odio- lo que sucede a diario - Yo digo, "Jdete" +Es mi sucio secreto, no le digan a nadie. +El punto es, que esta es una historia realmente interesante. +Est es la 8va versin del programa, y saben que agregaron a esta versin? +Nada nuevo. Algo inslito en los programas! +La compaia no agreg funciones. Dijeron. +"Haremos que el programa funcione bien", correcto. +Porque por aos la gente que compr el programa, lo prob.. 95% de exactitud era lo que obtenan , lo que significa que 1 de 20 palabras estaba mal y era un reclamo frecuente. La compaa se hart y dijeron, "En la nueva versin, slo nos aseguraremos de que sea completamente preciso" +Y eso hicieron. Esta ola de hacer las cosas bien se expande. +As que mi ltimo consejo para los consumidores de tecnologa es: Recuerde, si algo no funciona no es necesariamente por su culpa, s? +Puede que sea el diseo del aparato que est usando. +Estn atentos en la vida acerca del buen y mal diseo. +Y si usted est entre las personas que crean estas cosas, fcil es difcil. +Estudien bien a sus clientes. Cuenten los golpes. +Recuerden, lo difcil no es decidir qu funciones agregar, es decidir cul dejar fuera. +Y lo mejor, su motivacin debe ser: Lo Simple Vende. +CA: Bravo. DP: Gracias, muchas gracias. +CA: Oye, oye! +Kurt Andersen: Como a muchos arquitectos, a David le gusta llamar la atencin pero es lo suficientemente reticente -- o al menos pretende serlo -- que me ha pedido que lo interrogue en vez de conversar. +De hecho, de lo que hablaremos, pienso, es ciertamente un tema que es probablemente mejor servido por una conversacin que por un discurso. +Y supongo que tenemos un pequeo fragmento noticioso como anticipo. +Dan Rather: Desde el ataque del 11 de Septiembre en el World Trade Center, muchas personas han visitado Nueva York en masa para presenciar, y presentar sus respetos, a lo que se constituye en un cementerio de 16 acres. +Ahora, como reporta Jim Axelrod de CBS, se ponen los toques finales a una nueva manera para que la gente visite y admire la escena. +Jim Axelrod: Olviden el Edificio Empire State o la Estatua de la Libertad -- +hay un nuevo lugar en Nueva York donde son mayores las multitudes -- la Zona Cero +Turista: He trado a mi hijastra aqu desde Indianpolis. +Este fue -- de todos los sitios tursticos en la Ciudad de Nueva York -- su primera eleccin. +JA: Miles ahora se alinean en el Bajo Brodway. +Turista: He querido bajar aqu desde que esto pas. +JA: An en los das ms fros del Invierno. +Para honrar y recordar. +Turista: Es la realidad, somos nosotros. Ocurri aqu. +Esto es nuestro. +JA: Tantos, de hecho, que el ver se ha convertido en algo problemtico. +Turista: Pero pienso que la gente est muy frustrada de no poder acercarse para ver lo que sucede. +JA: Pero eso est a punto de cambiar. +En tiempo rcord, un equipo de arquitectos y trabajadores de la construccin han diseado y construido una plataforma mirador para aliviar la frustracin -- y acercar ms a la gente. +Hombre: Tendrn un panorama increble. Y entendern, pienso que de manera ms completa, la absoluta totalidad de la destruccin del lugar. +JA: Si se piensa al respecto, la Zona Cero es diferente de la mayora de otros sitios tursticos en Amrica. +Diferente del Gran Can o el Monumento a Washington, la gente viene aqu para ver lo que ya no sigue all. +David Rockwell: La primera experiencia que la gente tendr aqu, cuando vea esto, que no es como una obra de construccin, pero como este increblemente conmovedor camposanto. +JA: Las paredes estn desnudas por diseo, de manera que la gente pueda llenarlas con sus propios conmemoraciones de la misma manera que ya lo han hecho alrededor del permetro actual. +Turista: Desde nuestros corazones, nos afect igualmente. +JA: Las rampas son hechas de materiales simples -- del tipo de madera contrachapada que se observa en los sitios de construccin -- lo cual es realmente el punto. +Ante la presencia de la peor destruccin en Amrica, la gente construye de nuevo. +Jim Axelrod, Noticias CBS, Nueva York. +KA: Este no es un tema obvio para estar en el segmento de sensualidad, pero ciertamente, David, eres conocido como -- lo s, una frase que odias -- un arquitecto del entretenimiento. +Tu trabajo es ampliamente sensual, inclusive hedonista. +DR: Me gusta esa palabra. +KA: Est bien. Es acerca del placer -- casinos, hoteles y restaurantes. +Cmo la impresin que todos nosotros -- y especialmente todos nosotros en Nueva York -- sentimos el 11 de Septiembre se convierte en tu deseo de hacer sto? +De hecho, estamos terminando un libro que se llama "Placer," el cual se refiere a placer sensual en espacios. +Pero tengo que decirte -- se hizo imposible el hacer aquello. +Estbamos realmente paralizados. +y me encontr a mi mismo el viernes siguiente al 11 de Septiembre -- dos das despus -- literalmente imposibilitado de motivar a nadie ni de hacer ninguna cosa. +Dimos unos das libres en la oficina. +Y al discutir sto con otros arquitectos, habamos visto gente diciendo en la prensa que deban reconstruirse las torres tal como estaban -- y rehacerse con 50 pisos adicionales. +Y pens que era asombroso el especular como si esto fuera una competicin, sobre algo que era una herida tan fresca. +Y tuve una serie de discusiones -- primero con Rick Scofidio y Liz Diller, quienes colaboraron con nosotros en sto, y muchas otras personas -- y realmente sent como que tenamos que encontrar la relevancia en hacer algo. +Y que como gente que crea lugares, la manera fundamental de ayudar no era la de pontificar o hacer escenarios, sino ayudar ahora mismo. +As que tratamos de pensar en una manera, como grupo, de tener una especial de Grupo SWAT de Diseo. +Y esa fue la misin que hemos encontrado. +KA: Estabas consciente de que sbitamente -- como un diseador cuyo trabajo es todo acerca de cumplir requerimientos -- sbitamente satisfaciendo necesidades? +DR: Bueno, de lo que estaba consciente era, que haba esta abrumadora necesidad de actuar ahora mismo. +Y que nos haban pedido el participar en unos pocos proyectos antes que sto. +Haba una escuela, PS 234, que haba sido evacuada abajo en la Zona Cero. +Se mudaron a una escuela abandonada. +Llevamos 20 o 30 arquitectos y diseadores y artistas, y en el espacio de cuatro das -- era como un levantamiento de granja urbana para renovarlo, y todos quera ayudar. +Fue simplemente extraordinario. +Tom Otterness contribuy, Maira Kalman contribuy y se convirti en una experiencia catrtica para nosotros. +KA: Y esto fue hecho, efectivamente, en tres semanas -- Hacia Octubre Ocho ms o menos? +DR: S. +KA: Obviamente, lo que enfrentaron al tratar de hacer algo tan sustancial como este proyecto -- y ste es slo uno de cuatro que han diseado para rodear el sitio -- deben haber entrado en conflicto con la increiblemente bizantina, y atrincherada burocracia y los poderes establecidos en las Bienes Races y la Poltica de Nueva York. +DR: Bueno, es algo gracioso. +Terminamos PS 234, y cenamos con un grupo pequeo. +Me pidieron, de hecho, que fuese un lder de un comit del Instituto Americano de Arquitectos, para reconstruir. +Y particip en varias reuniones. +Y haba all los planes mas del tipo de grandes circuitos que tenan que ver con infraestructura de largo plazo y reconstruir la ciudad entera. +Y el hecho es que haba heridas inmediatas y necesidades que deban ser satisfechas, y se habl acerca de la inclusin y que se quera que fuese un proceso incluyente. +Y no era un grupo incluyente. +As que dijimos, lo que es -- KA: No era un grupo incluyente? +DR: No era un grupo incluyente. +Era predominantemente un grupo corporativo de blancos y ricos que no era representativo de la ciudad. +KA: Sorprendente! +DR: S, sorprendente. +As que Rick, Liz, Kevin y yo diseamos la idea. +La ciudad de hecho nos contact. +Y nosotros primeramente le tocamos a la ciudad el tema del muelle 94. +Vimos como el PS 234 funcion. +Las familias -- las vctimas de las familias -- iban a este muelle que era increblemente deshumanizante. +KA: En el Ro Hudson? +As que fui all abajo con Rick, Liz y Kevin, y tengo que decir, que fue la experiencia mas conmovedora de mi vida. +fue devastador ver la simple plataforma de contracenchapado con un baranda alrededor de ella, donde las familias de las vctimas haban dejado notas para ellos. +Y no haba mediacin entre nosotros y la experiencia. +No haba filtro. +Y record el 11 de Septiembre en la calle 14, en el techo de nuestro edificio -- podamos ver las torres del World Trade prominentemente y yo vi el primer edificio colapsar desde una sala de conferencias en el piso 8, en una televisin que habamos instalado. +Y entonces todos estaban arriba en el techo, y corr all. +Y era impresionante cuanto mas duro era el creerlo en la vida real que en la Televisin. +Haba algo en la comodidad del filtro y, sabes, cuanta informacin haba entre nosotros y la experiencia. +As que el ver esto de una manera sencilla, y digna fue una experiencia muy poderosa. +As que fuimos de vuelta a la Ciudad y les dijimos, no estamos particularmente interesados en elevar esto a una plataforma VIP, pero hemos pasado algn tiempo all abajo. +Y al mismo tiempo la Ciudad tena esta necesidad. +Buscaban una solucin para tratar con 30 o 40 mil personas diarias que estaban yendo all abajo, que no tenan ningn lugar a dnde ir. +Y no haba manera de controlar el trfico alrededor del sitio. +As que ocuparse de esto es justo un plan maestro inmediato. +Haba una manera -- tena que haber una manera -- para hacer que la gente se moviera alrededor del sitio. +KA: Pero entonces tienes que encontrar una manera -- nos saltaremos los insanamente fastidiosos procesos de obtener permisos e involucrando a todos -- pero simplemente para financiar esto. +Parece que es, sabes, algo muy simple. Pero ste fue un proyecto de medio milln de dlares? +DR: Bueno, sabamos que si no era financiado por la empresa privada, no iba a concretarse. +Este acto increble por parte de ellos, porque ellos realmente queran esto, y sentan que esto necesitaba ocurrir. +KA: Y haba entonces este reloj haciendo tictac? Porque Giuliani estaba obviamente fuera tres meses despus de eso? +S. As que lo primero que debamos hacer era encontrar una manera de llegar a esto -- tenamos que trabajar con las familias de las vctimas, a travs de la Ciudad, para asegurarnos que ellos saban que esto estaba ocurriendo. +Ya que esto no quera ser como una sorpresa. +Y tenamos adems que estar tan debajo de radares como se puede estar en Nueva York, ya que la clave era no levantar muchas objeciones y casi tratar de trabajar tan discretamente como fuese posible. +Llegamos a la conclusin de organizar una fundacin, principalmente porque cuando encontrasemos un contratista que edificara sto, el no acordara el hacerlo, an cuando le pagasemos el dinero. +Se necesitaba tener una fundacin. +As que organizamos una fundacin, y realmente lo que pas fue que un promotor inmobiliario grande en nueva York -- KA: Que debera mantenerse innombrado, supongo? +DR: S. Sus iniciales son JS, y el es dueo del Centro Rockefeller, si eso ayuda a alguien -- y se hizo voluntario para ayudar. +Y nos encontramos con l. +Los precios de los contratistas fueron entre quinientos a setecientos mil dlares. +Y Atlantic-Heydt, la cual es la contratista ms grande de andamiaje en el pais, se ofreci para hacerlo al costo. +As que este promotor dijo, "Saben que, avalaremos los gastos totales." +Y dijimos, "Esto es increble!" +Y pienso que esto fue el 21, y sabamos que esto deba estar erigido para el 28. +Y tenamos que comenzar la construccin el da siguiente. +Tuvimos una reunin esa noche con el contratista elegido, y el contratista se apareci con los planos de la plataforma aproximadamente de la mitad del tamao que nosotros la habamos dibujado. +KA: Casi como la escena de Spinal Tap dnde sale el pequesimo Stonehenge, supongo? +DR: De hecho, era como si esto iba a tener andamiaje para lavar ventanas. +No haba una sensacin de que esto es -- despus de Saint Paul -- que este es realmente un lugar que necesita ser dignificado de alguna manera, y un lugar para reflexionar y recordar. +y tengo que decir que invertimos mucho tiempo, en juntar sto, mirando las multitudes que se reunan en Saint Paul -- el cual se encuentra justo a la derecha -- y movindonos alrededor del sitio. +Y yo vivo all abajo, as que estuvimos mucho tiempo viendo la necesidad. +Y pienso que la gente estaban sorprendidas de dos cosas -- Pienso que estaban impresionadas por la destruccin, pero pienso que haba una sensacin de incredulidad acerca del herosmo de los Neoyorkinos que yo encontr muy conmovedor. +Just el tipo de herosmo cotidiano de los Neoyorkinos. +As que estbamos en esta reunin, y el contratista literalmente dijo, "Voy a cerrar la puerta con llave, ya que este urbanizador no aceptar que ustedes se vayan hasta que hayan cerrado este caso." +Y dijimos, "Bueno, ste es la mitad del tamao, no tiene ninguna de las caractersticas de diseo que han sido acordadas por todos -- todos en la ciudad. +Tendramos que volver al principio para hacer sto." +Y lo convenc de que debamos salir de la habitacin con el acuerdo de construir como fue diseado. +El da siguiente recib un correo electrnico del urbanizador diciendo que estaba retirando todo el financiamiento. +As que no sabamos qu hacer, pero decidimos lanzar una red muy amplia. +Enviamos nuestras cartas por correo electrnico a toda la gente que pudimos -- varias personas en la audiencia aqu -- que fueron de mucha ayuda. +KA: No hubo la idea de abandonar el barco en ese momento? +DR: No. De hecho le dije al contratista que siguiese adelante. +Ya l haba solicitado materiales basado en mi aprobacin. +Sabamos que de una manera u otra, esto iba a darse. +Y sentimos que tena que darse. +KA: Estaban financindose ustedes mismos, entonces, con contribuciones y esta fundacin. +Richard, pienso que muy correctamente, trat este punto al comienzo -- antes que todos los diseadores de sillas salieran -- acerca de la historia de los diseadores de sillas imponiendo soluciones estticas en este tipo de problema universal, banal y comn de sentarse. +Me parece a mi con sto, que era el contrario de aquello. +Porque este era un problema de diseo particular y sin precedentes. +DR: Bueno, he aqu el asunto. Sabimos que esto no era en el sentido de -- pensamos en el sitio, y pensamos en la necesidad de un monumento. +Era importante que sto no fuese categorizado como un monumento. +Que este era un lugar para que la gente reflexionara, para que recordara -- un lugar del tipo sosegado. +As que nos llev a usar soluciones de diseo que crearon menos filtros entre el espectador -- como dijimos acerca de la plataforma de las familias -- y la experiencia en lo posible. +Es todo un material increblemente humilde. +Es andamiaje y contraenchapado. +Y permite -- por la procesin del movimiento, arriba por Saint Paul y abajo del otro lado, te da unos 300 pies para subir 13 pies desde el suelo, para el sitio dnde tendrs la vista de 360 grados. +Pero el diseo fue impulsado por una necesidad de ser rpidos, econmicos, seguros, respetuosos, flexibles. +Una de las otras cosas es que esto est diseado para que pueda moverse. +Porque cuando miramos a las cuatro plataformas alrededor del sitio, uno de los cuales es una mejora a la plataforma de las familias, supimos que stas deban ser mviles para responder al cambio en las condiciones, y la definicin cambiante de lo que la Zona Cero es. +KA: Tu trabajo -- quiero decir, hemos hablado de esto antes -- mucho de tu trabajo, pienso, est informado por tu creencia, o tu enfoque en, la temporalidad de todas las cosas y la fugacidad de las cosas. Y un tipo de "Come, bebe, y s alegre, ya que maana moriremos," sentido de la existencia. +Esto es claramente no es un trabajo para las eras. +Sabes, en un par de aos esta cosa no va a estar aqu. +Eso requiri, como arquitecto, una nueva manera de pensar acerca de lo que estabas haciendo? +Para pensar en esto como una instalacin puramente temporal? +DR: No, no lo creo as +Pienso que esto es, obviamente, sustancialmente diferente de cualquier cosa que habamos pensado hacer aqu antes, solo por su propia naturaleza. +Donde se superpone con pensamientos acerca de nuestra obra en general es, nmero uno -- la nocin de colaboracin como una manera de lograr que las cosas se hagan. +Y Kevin Kennon, Rick Scofidio, Liz Diller y toda la gente en la Ciudad -- Norman Lear, con quien habl incluso 4 horas antes de nuestra fecha tope de financiamiento, ofreci darnos un prstamo puente para ayudarnos a conseguirlo. +As que la nocin de colaboracin -- Pienso que sto refuerza cuan importante es. +Y en trminos de su naturaleza temporal, nuestra meta no era el crear algo que estuviese all ms tiempo del necesario. +Pienso que estbamos ms interesados en promover un tipo de dilogo que sentamos que poda no estar pasando lo suficiente esta ciudad, acerca de lo que realmente est pasando aqu. +Y un da o dos antes de que abriera era el discurso de despedida de Giuliani, donde l propuso la idea de que toda la Zona Cero fuese un monumento. +Lo cual era muy controversial pero reson en mucha gente. +Y pienso que sin importar cul es la posicin acerca de cmo esta pieza sagrada de tierra ser usada, y haciendole salir a la luz del hecho de verla en un encuentro real, Pienso, que lo hace un dilogo ms poderoso. +Y es en eso en lo que estbamos interesados. +As que eso est, enfticamente, en el reino de las cosas en las que me he interesado antes. +KA: Me parece a m, enter otras cosas, una encantadora pieza de infraestructura cvica. +Le permite a la conversacin tornarse seria. +Y seis meses despus del hecho -- y slo unos pocos meses antes de que el sitio fuese limpiado -- estamos muy rpidamente, ahora, llegando al punto donde las conversaciones acerca de lo que debera ir all se ponen serias. +Tienes -- habiendo estado tan fsicamente involucrado en el sitio como lo has estado, haciendo este proyecto -- algunas ideas acerca de lo que debera o no hacerse? +DR: Bueno, pienso que algo que no debera hacerse es evaluar -- Pienso que ahora mismo la discusin est muy centrada en el plan maestro. +La Galera Protetch recientemente tuvo una muestra de ideas para edificios, la cual tuvo algunas ideas ingeniosas para edificios. +KA: Pero tena algunas ideas realmente terribles. +DR: Y tambin se sinti un poco como una suerte de competencia de ideas, donde pienso que el foco de las ideas debe estar en el planeamiento maestro y usos. +Y pienso que debera ampliarse -- lo cual est comenzando a ser. El dilogo est realmente abrindose hacia, hacia lo que este sitio realmente quiere ser? +Y verdaderamente pienso hasta que el asunto del monumento se decida, que va a ser muy difcil el tener una discusin inteligente. +Hay pocas discusiones ahora mismo que pienso que son muy positivas acerca de bajar la Autopista del Lado Oeste y conectar esto, para que haya un solo pedazo de tierra sin interrupciones. +KA: Bueno, pienso que es interesante. +Y esto lleva a otro asunto que era probablemente inapropiado de discutir hace seis meses, pero tal vez no ahora, que es, no a muchos de nosotros nos gusta el Centro de Comercio Mundial como una pieza de Arquitectura, tanto como lo que le haba hecho a esta ciudad, y esa inmensa plaza. +Es sta una oportunidad, es sta una oportunidad en la adversidad -- una oportunidad esperanzadora, aqui -- para reconstruir una malla citadina mas tradicional, o no? +DR: Pienso que hay una oportunidad real de comenzar una discusin del porqu vivimos en ciudades. +Y de Por qu vivimos en lugares donde gente tan diferente chocan con nosotros cada da? +No pienso que tenga mucho que ver con 50 o 60 o 70 u 80 mil nuevos espacios de oficinas, sin importar cul es el nmero. +As que si, pienso que hay una oportunidad de mirar de nuevo el cmo pensamos acerca de las ciudades +Y de hecho, hay una propuesta en la mesa para el edificio nmero siete. +KA: Era ese el edificio que estaba al Norte de las Torres? +DR: Correcto, sobre el cual las Torres cayeron. +Y la razn por la cual est paralizado es la indignacin de la comunidad ya que ellos no estn re-abriendo la calle para conectar aquello de vuelta con el resto de la Ciudad. +As que pienso que un dilogo pblico -- Creo, sabes, Me gustara ver una competencia internacional, y un llamado a las ideas para los usos. +KA: Ya sean las artes, ya sea la vivienda, Ya sea el monto de las compras? +DR: Correcto. Y estamos buscando otras cosas. +Esta pequea fundacin que hemos creado busca por otras maneras de ayudar. +Incluyendo el tomar una pequea pieza adyacente al sitio e invitar a 10 arquitectos que actualmente no tienen Voz en Nueva York para hacer alojamiento para artistas. +Y encontrar otras maneras de animar la discusin para estar en contra de las soluciones nicas y monolticas, y mas a favor de la multiplicidad de las cosas. +KA: Antes que terminemos, s que tienes una pieza de vdeo digital Sobre la experiencia de estar en esta plataforma? +DR: John Kamen -- que est aqu de hecho -- cre una pieza de dos minutos y medio que muestra la plataforma en uso. +As que pens que sera bueno finalizar con ella. +DR: Estamos viendo desde la Calle Fulton, Oeste. +Uno de los asuntos difciles que tenamos con la Administracin Giuliani era, que yo haba olvidado cuan anti-graffiti l era. +Y esencialmente nuestra estructura fue diseada para escribir sobre ella. +KA: Como tu bien dices, no es un monumento. +Pero eran ustedes conscientes de los monumentos?El monumento a Vietnam? +Este tipo de formas? +DR: Ciertamente hicimos tanta investigacin como pudimos, y estbamos conscientes de otros monumentos. +Y tambin de la complejidad y cantidad de tiempo que toman hacerse. +Son 350 personas en el comit de la Ciudad de Oklahoma, por lo cual pensamos en esto como una solucin espontnea y apropiada que se expandi hasta la Plaza de la Unin y los lugares que ya eran monumentos a propsito en la ciudad. +El andamiaje que puedes ver montado sobre la calle es desmontable. +Lo interesante ahora es que la naturaleza del sitio ha cambiado totalmente, de manera que ests al tanto de que no es slo la destruccin de los edificios en la Zona Cero, pero adems de todos los edificios alrededor de ella -- y las cicatrices en los edificios alrededor de ella, las cuales son enormes. +Esto muestra Saint Paul a la izquierda. +KA: Slo quiero agradecerte en nombre de los Neoyorkinos por hacer que esto sucediera y haber hecho sto. +Pero la naturaleza casi virtualmente instantnea de su edificacin, y el hecho de que est all, casi antes de que puedas creer que una respuesta de esta magnitud pueda ser lograda, es parte de su, pienso, extraordinaria -- No s si belleza es la palabra -- pero su presencia. +DR: Fue un honor hacerlo. +Y estuvimos encantados de poder mostrarlo aqu. +Como se ha dicho, cada vez que venimos aqu, aprendemos algo. +Esta maana, los expertos mundiales de tres o cuatro empresas dedicadas a la fabricacin de sillas, aparentemente han concludo que la solucin es que la gente no se siente. +Eso podra habrselo dicho yo. +Risas Ayer, los fabricantes de automviles nos mostraron nuevos descubrimientos. +Indicaron que, creo que dijeron en unos 30 a 50 aos, estarn manejando coches con controles electrnicos, sin toda la parte mecnica. +Resulta tranquilizador. +Entonces, comentaron que existira algo as como otros controles elctricos para deshacerse de toda la parte mecnica. +Y eso est muy bien pero, por qu no deshacerse de todos los cables? +As no necesitas nada para controlar el coche, salvo pensar en ello. +Me encantara hablar sobre tecnologa y en algn momento, cuando pasen mis 15 minutos, me gustara hablar con todos los "geeks" que haya de lo que hay aqu. +Pero si hay algo que decir sobre esto, antes de meternos en tema, sera que desde el momento que empezamos a construir esto, la idea principal no era la tecnologa. +Se convirti en una gran idea tecnolgica cuando empezamos a aplicarlo en el iBOT para la comunidad de discapacitados. +La gran idea aqu es, creo, una pieza nueva en la solucin a un problema bastante serio de transporte. +Y quiz para ponerlo en perspectiva... esto contiene tantos datos que me gustara droslos de distintas formas. +Nunca sabes lo que le llama la atencin a cada persona, pero todo el mundo acepta sin problemas que el coche cambi el mundo. +Y Henry Ford, hace unos 100 aos, empez a arrancar a manivela el Modelo T. +En lo que no creo que piense la mayora es en el contexto en que se aplica la tecnologa. +Por ejemplo, en ese momento, el 91% de los estadounidenses viva en granjas o pueblos pequeos. +De modo que el automvil... el carro sin caballos que sustituy al coche de caballos, fue todo un cambio; iba el doble de rpido que el coche de caballos; +ocupaba la mitad del largo; +y era una mejora medioambiental, porque por ejemplo, en 1903 prohibieron los coches de caballos en el centro de Manhattan, porque ya os podis imaginar el aspecto que tenan las calles cuando un milln de caballos andan por ah orinando y haciendo otras cosas... y los problemas de salud y de otras ndoles que creaban es casi inimaginable. +As que el coche fue la alternativa medioambiental limpia al carro de caballos. +Tambin fue la forma de que la gente fuera de granja a granja, o de la granja al pueblo, o del pueblo a la ciudad. +Todo tena sentido, ya que el 91% de la gente viva all. +Para los aos 50 empezamos a conectar todos los pueblos con lo que mucha gente proclam la Octava Maravilla del mundo, el sistema de carreteras. +Ciertamente es una maravilla. +Y por cierto, ahora que hablamos de tecnologas antiguas, quiero garantizarle a todo el mundo, y en particular a la industria automovilstica que nos ha apoyado mucho, que no creo que esto compita de ninguna manera con los aviones o los coches, +pero pensad en el lugar en el que est el mundo ahora. +El 50% de la poblacin mundial ahora vive en ciudades. +Eso son 3.200 millones de personas. +Hemos resuelto todos los problemas de transporte que han cambiado el mundo para llegar a donde estamos ahora. +Hace 500 aos, los barcos empezaron a lograr una relativa fiabilidad y encontramos un continente nuevo. +Hace 150 aos, las locomotoras lograron la suficiente eficiencia, el vapor, como para que convirtiramos el continente en un pas. +En el ltimo siglo hemos empezado a construir coches; en los ltimos 50 aos, hemos conectado todas las ciudades entre s de una forma increblemente eficaz, y ahora tenemos un nivel de vida muy alto como consecuencia de ello. +Pero durante todo ese proceso, han nacido cada vez ms personas, y cada vez ms gente se ha mudado a las ciudades. +Slo en China se mudarn de 400 a 600 millones de personas a las ciudades en la prxima dcada y media. +Y nadie, creo, discutira que los aviones, en los ltimos 50 aos, han convertido el continente y el pas en un barrio ms. +Y si observis cmo se ha aplicado la tecnologa, veris que hemos resuelto todos los problemas de cmo mover grandes pesos y grandes volmenes a gran velocidad y en grandes distancias. +Nadie quisiera dejar eso de lado. +Y sin duda, yo no quisiera dejar de usar mi avin, o mi helicptero, o mi todoterreno, o mi Porsche. +Me gustan todos. No los tengo encerrados en mi sala. +El hecho es que el ltimo kilmetro es el problema, y la mitad del mundo ahora vive en ciudades densamente pobladas. +La gente gasta, dependiendo de quines sean, entre el 90 y el 95% de su energa yendo a los sitios a pie. +Creo que... no s qu datos os impresionaran, pero alrededor de un 43% del petrleo refinado que se produce en el mundo lo consumen los coches de las zonas metropolitanas de los Estados Unidos. +3 millones de personas mueren por ao en las ciudades por culpa de la contaminacin del aire, y casi toda la contaminacin que existe en el planeta la producen los medios de transporte, especialmente en las ciudades. +Y repito que no lo digo para atacar a ninguna industria. Creo... de verdad que s, que adoro los aviones, y los coches que circulan por la carretera a 95 km/h son increblemente eficientes, tanto desde un punto de vista de ingeniera, como desde un punto de vista de consumo energtico y de practicidad. +A todos nos gustan nuestros coches, a m tambin. +El problema surge cuando ests en una ciudad, quieres ir a cuatro calles y deja de ser divertido, eficiente o productivo. +No es sostenible. +En China, en el ao 1998, 417 millones de personas usaban bicicleta, y 1,7 millones de personas usaban coche. +Es decir, por qu nos estamos peleando ahora? +Podemos tergiversarlo pero, por qu se est peleando el mundo ahora mismo? +As que me pareci que alguien tena que trabajar en ese ltimo kilmetro, y fue pura suerte que nosotros estuviramos trabajando en los iBOT. Pero en cuanto hicimos esto, decidimos al instante que podra ser una alternativa estupenda a las motos de agua. No necesitas agua. +O a las motos de nieve. No necesitas nieve. +O al esqu. Es divertido y a la gente le encanta andar por ah haciendo cosas divertidas. +Y cada una de esas industrias, por cierto... slo los carros de golf generan beneficios multimillonarios. +Es decir, mirad el tiempo que se tardaba en cruzar un continente en un vagn Conestoga, luego en tren, luego en avin. +Todas las dems formas de transporte han ido mejorando. +En 5.000 aos hemos ido hacia atrs en la manera de recorrer las ciudades. +Cada vez son ms grandes, estn ms extendidas. +La propiedad ms cara del planeta en cada ciudad, Wilshire Boulevard, o la Quinta Avenida, o Tokio, o Pars; las propiedades ms caras estn en el centro. +El 65% del terreno de nuestras ciudades lo ocupan coches aparcados. +Las 20 ciudades ms grandes del mundo. +As que te preguntas, y si las ciudades pudieran dar a sus peatones lo que damos por sentado cuando vamos de una ciudad a otra? +Y si pudiramos hacerlas divertidas, atractivas, limpias, y ecolgicas? +Y si tener acceso con esto, como ltimo enlace con el transporte pblico, para poder dejar el coche y que todos pudiramos vivir en la periferia y usramos los coches como quisiramos, y as nuestras ciudades se revitalizaran? +Creimos que estara muy bien poder hacer eso, y uno de los problemas que nos preocupaban era, cmo hacemos que sea legal usarlo por la acera? +Porque tcnicamente tiene motor, tiene ruedas... es un vehculo a motor. +No parezco un vehculo a motor. +Tengo el mismo tamao que un peatn, tengo la misma capacidad nica para lidiar con otros peatones en un lugar abarrotado. +Me llev esto a la Zona Cero, y me pas una hora sorteando a la gente. +Soy un peatn. Pero la ley suele relegar la tecnologa una o dos generaciones, y si nos dicen que no podemos estar en la acera, tenemos dos opciones. +Somos un vehculo de recreo que no tiene relevancia, y no gasto mi tiempo haciendo ese tipo de cosas. +O quiz debiramos estar en la calle, delante de un autobs o de un coche. +Hemos estado tan preocupados por eso que acudimos al Director de la Oficina de Correos de Estados Unidos como la primera persona fuera de la empresa a la que se lo enseamos y le dijimos, "Haz que tu gente lo use, todo el mundo se fa de los carteros. +Ellos van por la acera, y lo usarn formalmente". +Accedi. Acudimos a una serie de departamentos de polica que queran que sus agentes volvieran a los barrios, a patrullar, cargando con 30 kilos de cosas. Les encant. +Y no creo que un polica se ponga una multa a s mismo. +As que hemos trabajado mucho, mucho, aunque sabamos que la tecnologa no sera tan difcil de desarrollar como una actitud sobre qu es importante, y cmo aplicar la tecnologa. +Salimos a la calle y encontramos a algunos visionarios con bastante dinero para permitirnos construir estas cosas, y, con suerte, con el tiempo suficiente para que las aceptaran. +As que estoy contento, de verdad, me alegro de hablar de esto tanto como queris. +Y s, es muy divertido, y s, deberais salir a la calle y probarlo. +Una de las cosas ms emocionantes que se nos ocurri sobre porqu podra ser aceptado, ocurri aqu en California. +Y yo qu iba...? Bueno, cmo le iba a decir que no? +As que le dije, "Claro". +As que me baj, ella se subi, y con un poquito de susto inicial normal, se dio la vuelta, recorri unos seis metros, se dio la vuelta hacia nosotros y sonri. +Volvi a donde estaba yo, se detuvo y me dijo, "Por fin han hecho algo para nosotros". +La cmara le estaba apuntando. +Y yo pensaba, "Jo! Qu bien..." "... por favor, seora, no diga nada ms". +La cmara le estaba apuntando, y este chico tuvo que ponerle el micrfono en la cara le dice, "A qu se refiere con eso?" +Y pens, "Aqu se acaba todo". Y ella mir hacia arriba y dijo, "Bueno," todava estaba viendo a los dems y dice, "no s montar en bici". No, dijo, "no s montar en monopatn, y nunca me he puesto unos patines". Conoca los nombres... Y dijo, "Y han pasado 50 aos desde la ltima vez que mont en bici". +Entonces mir hacia arriba, nos estaba mirando y dijo, "Tengo 81 aos, ya no puedo conducir un coche, +todava tengo que ir de compras, y no puedo cargar con mucho peso". +Y entonces me d cuenta de que, entre mis muchos miedos, no era slo que la burocracia, la normativa y los legisladores no lo aceptaran, sino, esencialmente, crees que habr presin entre la gente para que no se invada el poco espacio libre que queda: las aceras de las ciudades. +Cuando ves que por ley tiene que haber 90 centmetros de acera, luego 2 metros y medio de aparcamiento, luego tres carriles, luego los otros dos metros y medio... es... ese pedacito es lo nico que queda. +As que, despus de haber visto eso y de haberme preocupado durante 8 aos, lo primero que hago es levantar el telfono y decirle a nuestra gente de mrketing y legislacin que llamen a la Asociacin de Personas Mayores y concierten una +cita. Tenemos que ensearles esto. +Se lo llevaron a Washington, se lo ensearon, y ahora se van a involucrar, observando cmo se adoptan estas cosas en una serie de ciudades como Atlanta, donde vamos a hacer pruebas para ver si realmente puede ayudar a reactivar la zona centro. +Lo importante es, ya les creas a las Naciones Unidas o a cualquier otro gabinete estratgico, en los prximos 20 aos todo el crecimiento de la poblacin de este planeta ser en las ciudades. +Slo en Asia ser de ms de 1.000 millones de personas. +Aprendieron a empezar con los mviles. +No tuvieron que recorrer el camino de un siglo que recorrimos nosotros. +Empezaron en lo ms alto de la cadena alimentaria tecnolgica. +Tenemos que empezar a construir ciudades y entornos humanos en los que una persona de 70 kilos pueda recorrer un par de kilmetros en un entorno verde, rico y denso sin necesitar una mquina de 2.000 kilos para hacerlo. +Los coches no se idearon para aparcar uno al lado de otro; son mquinas maravillosas para ir de ciudad en ciudad, pero pensad en ello. Hemos resuelto todos los problemas de largo alcance y gran velocidad. +Los griegos iban del teatro de Dionisos al Partenn en sandalias; +t lo haces en deportivas. +Las cosas no han cambiado tanto. +Si esta cosa va slo el triple de rpido que una persona caminando... el triple... un paseo de media hora se convierte en 10 minutos. +T eliges, cuando vives en una ciudad, si ahora son 10 minutos... porque cuando son 30 quieres una alternativa, ya sea el autobs, el tren... Tenemos que construir una infraestructura, un tren ligero, o vas a tener que seguir aparcando coches. +Pero si pudieras sealar la mayora de las ciudades e imaginar cunto podras recorrer, si tuvieras tiempo, en media hora, sera la ciudad. +Si pudieras hacerlo divertido y convertirlo en 8 10 minutos, no podras encontrar el coche, desaparcar, moverlo, volver a aparcar e ir a donde sea; no puedes hacerlo llamando a un taxi o en metro. +Podramos cambiar la forma en que la gente aprovecha sus recursos, la forma en que este planeta utiliza la energa, y hacerlo ms divertido. +Y esperamos que, hasta cierto punto, la historia diga que tenamos razn. +Eso es un Segway. Esto es un motor Stirling; eso se ha confundido con muchas cosas que estamos haciendo. +Esta pequea bestia, ahora mismo, est produciendo unos cientos de vatios de electricidad. +S, se podra colocar aqu, y s, con un kilo de propano podrais conducir de Nueva York a Boston si quisieras. +Quiz lo ms interesante de este motorcito es que quema cualquier tipo de combustible, porque algunos podrais ser escpticos en cuanto a la capacidad de esto de dejar su huella en los lugares del mundo donde simplemente no puedes enchufarlo a una toma de +Pero en cualquier caso, si puedes quemarlo con la misma eficiencia, porque es combustin externa como el fogn de tu cocina, si puedes quemar cualquier combustible, resulta que est bastante bien. +Genera la electricidad suficiente como para, por ejemplo, hacer esto... lo que por la noche es suficiente electricidad, en el resto del mundo, como seal el seor Holly -el doctor Holly- para hacer funcionar ordenadores y una bombilla. +Pero lo ms interesante es la termodinmica de esto. Digamos que nunca vas a obtener ms del 20% de eficiencia. +No importa mucho, dice que si obtienes 200 vatios de electricidad, tendrs 700 u 800 vatios de calor. +Si quisieras hervir agua y recondensarla a un ritmo de 40 litros por hora, necesitaras unos 25... un poco ms de 25,3 kilovatios... 25.000 vatios de potencia contnua para hacerlo. +Eso es mucha energa, no podras permitirte desalinizar o limpiar agua en este pas de esa forma. +Ciertamente, en el resto del mundo la opcin es destruir el lugar, convertir todo lo que se pueda quemar en calor, o beber el agua que haya disponible. +La causa nmero uno de muerte en este planeta en humanos es el agua insalubre. +Dependiendo de las cifras de quien te creas, est entre 60 y 85.000 personas al da. +No necesitamos sofisticados transplantes de corazn en el mundo. +Necesitamos agua. +Y las mujeres no tendran que pasarse cuatro horas al da yendo a buscarla o viendo cmo mueren sus hijos. +As que si ponemos esta caja aqu en unos aos, podramos tener la solucin al transporte, a la electricidad, y a las comunicaciones, y quiz al agua potable en un paquete sostenible que pesa... 30 kilos? +No s, pero lo intentaremos. +Ser mejor que me calle ya. +Las enfermedades cardiacas y cardiovasculares siguen matando a ms gente, no slo en este pas sino tambin en todo el mundo, que cualquier otra combinacin de lo dems, sin embargo casi todos podemos prevenirlo por completo. +Lo mostramos hace unos meses, publicamos el primer estudio que muestra cmo uno puede detener o revertir el avance del cncer de prstata haciendo cambios en la dieta y el estilo de vida, y disminuir en un 70% el crecimiento del tumor o inhibir el crecimiento del tumor, comparado con slo 9% en el grupo de control. +Aqu en la espectroscopia de MRI y MR, se muestra la actividad del tumor de prstata en rojo, como ven disminuy despus de un ao. +Sin embargo, la gente en Asia est empezando a comer como nosotros, por lo cual se estn empezando a enfermar como nosotros. +As que he estado trabajando con muchas compaas grandes de alimentos, que pueden hacer que comer alimentos saludables sea divertido, sexy, crujiente, moderno y conveniente. Presido la junta consultiva de McDonald's, Pepsico, Conagra y Safeway y pronto la del Del Monte y todos encuentran que es buen negocio. +Las ensaladas que ven en McDonald's provienen de este trabajo, van a tener una ensalada asitica. En Pepsi, dos terceras partes del crecimiento de sus ingresos provienen de mejores alimentos. +As que si podemos hacer esto, entonces podemos liberar recursos para comprar medicinas que en realidad se necesitan ms para tratar el SIDA y el VIH y para prevenir la gripe aviar. Gracias +Buenos das a todos. Siento que -- antes que nada, ha sido fantstico estar aqu durante estos das. +En segundo lugar, siento que es un gran honor cerrar esta extraordinaria reunin -- estas increbles charlas que hemos tenido. +Siento que me he identificado, de muchas formas, con algunas de las cosas que he escuchado. +Luchan para desarrollar su propia forma de vida dentro de la selva en un mundo que est limpio, un mundo sin contaminar, un mundo sin ensuciar. +El agua se limpi, pero como tienen muchas bateras, pueden almacenar muchsima electricidad. +De modo que cada casa -- y haba, creo, ocho casas en esta pequea comunidad -- pudiera tener luz creo que durante media hora cada tarde. +Y ah est el jefe, en su majestuosa elegancia, con una laptop. +Y este hombre, ha salido de la selva, pero regres, y l deca, "Saben, hemos entrado repentinamente en una era completamente nueva, y hace 50 aos ni siquiera conocamos al hombre blanco, y ahora aqu estamos con computadoras porttiles, y hay algunas cosas que queremos aprender del mundo moderno. +Queremos saber sobre salud pblica. +Queremos saber lo que hacen otras personas -- estamos muy interesados en ello. +Y queremos aprender otros idiomas. +Queremos aprender ingls, francs y quiz chino, somos buenos para los idiomas." +As que ah est con su pequea porttil, pero peleando contra el poder de la presin -- por la deuda, la deuda externa de Ecuador -- luchando contra la presin del Banco Mundial, el FMI y desde luego, las personas que quieren explotar la selva y llevarse el petrleo. +Y as, viniendo directamente desde ah. +Pero, desde luego, mi verdadero campo de estudio est en un tipo muy distinto de civilizacin -- no puedo llamarlo una civilizacin realmente. +Un estilo de vida diferente, un ser diferente. +Antes hubo una charla -- esta maravillosa charla de Wade Davis sobre las diferentes culturas humanas en el mundo -- pero el mundo no est compuesto nicamente por seres humanos, tambin hay otros animales. +Y propongo traer a esta conferencia de TED, como siempre lo hago en todo el mundo, la voz del reino animal. +Frecuentemente slo vemos unas pocas diapositivas, o parte de una pelcula, pero estos seres tienen voces que significan algo. +Entonces, quiero saludarles, como si lo hiciera un chimpanc en los bosques de Tanzania -- Uh, uh, uh, uh, uh, uh, uh, uh, uh, uh, uh, uh, uh, uh, uh! +He estudiado a los chimpancs en Tanzania desde 1960. +Durante este tiempo, ha habido tecnologas modernas que realmente han transformado el modo en que los bilogos de campo hacen su trabajo. +Por ejemplo, por primera vez, hace algunos aos, con slo recoger pequeas muestras fecales pudimos hacerlas analizar -- para hacer pruebas de ADN -- y por primera vez, pudimos saber realmente cul chimpanc macho era el padre de cada cra individual. +Porque los chimpancs tienen una sociedad muy promiscua. +Entonces esto abre todo un nuevo camino de investigacin. +Y usamos el GSI -- Geographic lo que sea, GSI -- para determinar el rango de distribucin de los chimpancs. +Y estamos usando -- pueden ver que no s mucho de estas cosas -- estamos usando imgenes satelitales para ver la deforestacin en el rea. +Y desde luego, ha habido desarrollos en infrarrojos, de forma que puedes ver a los animales en la noche, y los equipos de video-grabacin se vuelven cada vez mejores y ms ligeros. +As que de muchas, muchas formas, podemos hacer cosas ahora que no podamos hacer cuando empec en 1960 +Especialmente cuando los chimpancs, y otros animales con cerebros grandes, se estudian en cautiverio, la tecnologa moderna nos ayuda a investigar los niveles superiores de cognicin en algunos de estos animales no-humanos. +De manera que ahora sabemos que son capaces de hacer cosas que la ciencia habra considerado absolutamente imposibles cuando yo comenc. +Creo que el chimpanc en cautiverio ms hbil en funciones intelectuales es uno llamado Ai en Japn -- su nombre significa amor -- y ella trabaja con una compaera maravillosamente sensible. +Ama su computadora -- deja su gran grupo, su agua corriente, sus rboles y todo, +para venir a sentarse ante esta computadora -- es como un videojuego para un nio, se engancha. +Tiene 28, por cierto, y hace cosas con la pantalla de su computadora y un touch pad que puede usar ms rpido que la mayora de los humanos. +Hace tareas muy complejas, y no he tenido tiempo de meterme en ellas, pero lo maravilloso acerca de esta hembra es que no le gusta cometer errores. +Si tiene una mala racha, y su marcador no es bueno, se acerca y da golpecitos en el cristal -- porque no puede ver al experimentador -- queriendo pedir otra oportunidad. +Y su concentracin -- ya se ha concentrado mucho como por 20 minutos, y ahora quiere empezar de nuevo, slo por la satisfaccin de hacerlo mejor. +Y la comida no es importante -- obtiene una minscula recompensa, como una pasa, por su respuesta correcta -- pero lo hara gratis, si le dices de antemano. +As que ah tienen, un chimpanc usando una computadora. +Chimpancs, gorilas y orangutanes tambin aprenden la lengua de seas humana. +Era, afortunadamente, un macho adulto al que llam David Greybeard -- y por cierto, la ciencia entonces me deca que no deba dar nombre a los chimpancs, que todos deban tener nmeros, eso era ms cientfico. +Como sea, David Greybeard -- vi que l estaba arrancando pequeos trozos de pasto y los usaba para pescar termitas de su nido subterrneo. +Y no slo eso -- a veces cortaba una ramilla con hojas y le quitaba las hojas. Modificando un objeto para hacerlo adecuado para cumplir un propsito especfico-- el inicio de la creacin de herramientas. +La razn por la que esto era tan emocionante y un gran avance es que en ese tiempo, se pensaba que los humanos, y slo los humanos, usaban y creaban herramientas. +Cuando estaba en la escuela, nos definamos como 'hombre, el fabricante-de-herramientas'. +Entonces cuando Louis Leakey, mi mentor, escuch esta noticia, dijo, "Ah, ahora debemos redefinir 'hombre', redefinir 'herramienta', o aceptar a los chimpancs como humanos." +Ahora sabemos que tan slo en Gombe, hay nueve formas distintas en las que los chimpancs usan distintos objetos para diferentes propsitos. +adems, sabemos que en distintas partes de frica, dondequiera que se ha estudiado a los chimpancs, hay conductas de uso de herramientas completamente distintas. +Y como estos patrones parecen pasarse de una generacin a la siguiente, a travs de la observacin, imitacin y prctica -- eso es una definicin de la cultura humana. +Lo que descubrimos es que durante estos 40 y tantos aos en los que yo y otros hemos estado estudiando chimpancs y otros grandes simios, y, como digo, otros mamferos con cerebros complejos y sistemas sociales complejos, descubrimos que despus de todo, no hay una lnea definida que divida a los humanos del resto del reino animal. +Es una lnea muy confusa. +Que se vuelve ms confusa cada vez que descubrimos animales haciendo cosas que nosotros, en nuestra arrogancia, pensbamos que eran solamente humanas. +Los chimpancs -- no hay tiempo para discutir sus fascinantes vidas -- tienen una infancia larga, cinco aos de amamantarse y dormirse con su madre, y luego otros tres, cuatro o cinco aos dependiendo emocionalmente de ella, an cuando haya nacido el siguiente hijo. +La importancia de aprender durante ese tiempo, cuando el comportamiento es flexible -- y hay muchsimo que aprender en la sociedad chimpanc. +Los lazos afectivos a largo plazo que se desarrollan durante esta larga infancia con la madre, con los hermanos y hermanas, y que pueden durar toda la vida, que podra ser hasta los 60 aos. +De hecho, pueden vivir ms de 60 aos en cautiverio, as que slo los hemos estudiado durante 40 aos en la vida silvestre, hasta ahora. +Y descubrimos que los chimpancs son capaces de autntica compasin y altruismo. +Descubrimos en su comunicacin no-verbal, que es muy rica, que tienen muchos sonidos que usan en distintas situaciones, pero tambin usan el tacto, la postura y los gestos, y qu hacen? +Se besan, se abrazan, se toman de las manos. +Se dan palmaditas en la espalda, se pavonean, agitan su puo -- el tipo de cosas que hacemos nosotros -- y lo hacen en el mismo contexto. +Cooperan de una forma muy sofisticada. +A veces cazan -- no muy seguido, pero cuando cazan cooperan de manera sofisticada, y comparten la presa. +Encontramos que muestran emociones, similares -- a veces tal vez las mismas -- que las que describimos en nosotros como felicidad, tristeza, miedo, desolacin. +Pueden sufrir tanto fsica como mentalmente. +Y no tengo tiempo para extenderme con la informacin que les probara algunas de estas cosas, salvo decir que hay estudiantes brillantes en las mejores universidades que estn estudiando emociones en los animales, estudiando personalidades en los animales. +Sabemos que los chimpancs y algunas otras criaturas pueden reconocerse en los espejos -- diferenciarse de otros. +Tienen sentido del humor, y este tipo de cosas que tradicionalmente se ha pensado que eran prerrogativas humanas. +Pero esto nos ensea un nuevo respeto -- un nuevo respeto no slo para los chimpancs, dira, sino para algunos de los otros animales increbles con quienes compartimos este planeta. +Una vez que estemos preparados para admitir que despus de todo, no somos los nicos seres con personalidades, mentes y sobre todo sentimientos, y cuando empezamos a pensar en las formas en que usamos y abusamos de tantas otras criaturas sensibles y sapientes en este planeta, nos da un motivo para sentir una profunda vergenza, al menos para m. +Entonces, lo triste es que estos chimpancs -- que quizs nos han enseado, ms que cualquier otra criatura, un poco de humildad -- estn en el bosque, desapareciendo rpidamente. +Estn desapareciendo por las razones que todos ustedes en este cuarto conocen demasiado bien. +La deforestacin, el crecimiento de las poblaciones humanas que necesitan ms tierra. +Estn desapareciendo porque algunas compaas madereras avanzan abriendo claros. +Estn desapareciendo del corazn de frica porque las grandes compaas madereras multinacionales han venido y han hecho caminos -- como quieren hacer en Ecuador y otras partes donde los bosques permanecen intactos -- para extraer petrleo o madera. +Y esto ha llevado en la cuenca del Congo, y en otras partes del mundo, a lo que se conoce como comercio de carne de monte. +Esto significa que aunque durante cientos, tal vez miles de aos, ha vivido gente en esas selvas, o el hbitat que sea, en harmona con su mundo, slo matando a los animales que necesitan para el consumo familiar -- ahora, repentinamente, gracias a los caminos, los cazadores pueden entrar desde los pueblos. +Le disparan a todo, a todas y cada una de las cosas que se muevan que sean ms grandes que una rata pequea, lo secan al sol o lo ahman. +Y ahora tienen transporte, lo llevan en los camiones madereros o en los camiones mineros hacia los pueblos donde los venden. +Y la gente paga ms por esta "carne-de-monte", como le dicen, que por la carne domstica -- la prefieren culturalmente. +Y esto no es sustentable, y los gigantescos campamentos madereros en la selva ahora demandan carne, para corrompiendo a los cazadores Pigmeos de la cuenca del Congo que han vivido ah con su maravillosa forma de vida por tantos cientos de aos. +Les han dado armas, disparan en nombre de los campamentos, reciben dinero. +Su cultura est siendo destruida, junto con los animales de los que dependen. +Entonces, cuando se van los campamentos madereros, no queda nada. +Ya hemos hablado sobre la prdida de diversidad cultural humana, y lo he visto ocurrir con mis propios ojos. +Y la triste imgen en frica -- Amo a frica, y qu vemos en frica? +Vemos deforestacin, vemos que el desierto se expande, vemos hambrunas masivas, vemos enfermedades y crecimiento poblacional en reas donde hay ms personas viviendo en un pedazo de tierra que las que esa tierra puede soportar, y son muy pobres para comprar comida de algn otro lado. +Las personas sobre las que escuchamos ayer, en la Isla de Pascua, que talaron su ltimo rbol -- eran tontos? +No saban lo que estaba ocurriendo? +Por supuesto, pero si vieran la abrumadora pobreza que hay en algunas partes del mundo no es una cuestin de -- dejemos este rbol para maana. +Sino de "Cmo alimentar a mi familia hoy? +Tal vez pueda obtener unos pocos dlares por este ltimo rbol y con eso podremos seguir un poco ms, y despus rezaremos para que algo suceda que nos salve del inevitable final". +Esta es una imagen bastante desalentadora +Lo nico que tenemos, que nos hace tan diferentes de los chimpancs o de otras criaturas, es este sofisticado lenguaje -- un lenguaje con el que podemos decirle a los nios sobre cosas que no estn ah. +Podemos hablar sobre el pasado distante, planear hacia el futuro distante, discutir ideas unos con otros, para que las ideas crezcan mediante la sabidura acumulada de un grupo. +Podemos hacerlo hablando entre nosotros, podemos hacerlo mediante el video, podemos hacerlo mediante la palabra escrita. +Y estamos abusando de este grandioso poder que tenemos para ser sabios administradores, y estamos destruyendo el mundo. +En el mundo desarrollado, de cierta forma, es peor, porque podemos fcilmente saber la estupidez de lo que estamos haciendo. +Saben, estamos trayendo bebs a un mundo donde, en muchos lugares, el agua los est matando. +Y el aire los daa, y la comida que se cultiva en las tierras contaminadas los envenena. +Y eso no slo en el lejano mundo subdesarrollado, eso ocurre en todas partes. +Saban que todos tenemos como 50 qumicos en nuestros cuerpos que no estaban hace unos 50 aos? +Y muchas de estas enfermedades, como el asma y algunos tipos de cncer, se han incrementado en lugares donde nuestros asquerosos desechos txicos se tiran. +Nos estamos daando a nosotros mismos en todo el mundo, as como estamos daando a los animales y a la naturaleza misma. La Madre Naturaleza, que nos hizo ser. La Madre Naturaleza, donde creo que debemos pasar ms tiempo, donde hay rboles, flores y aves para nuestro buen desarrollo psicolgico. +Y an as, hay cientos y cientos de nios en el mundo desarrollado, quienes nunca han visto la naturaleza, porque han crecido en el cemento y todo lo que conocen es la realidad virtual, sin oportunidades de ir y echarse al sol, o en el bosque, con las moteadas pintas de sol que bajan de los altos doseles. +Mientras viajaba por el mundo, saben, tuve que dejar la selva -- que es donde me encanta estar. +Tuve que dejar a esos fascinantes chimpancs para que mis estudiantes y el equipo continuaran estudiando porque, al descubrir que se haban reducido de unos dos millones hace 100 aos hasta unos 150,000 ahora, supe que tena que abandonar la selva para hacer lo que pudiera para despertar la conciencia en todo el mundo. +Cmo lo podemos hacer? +Alguien dijo eso ayer, +y mientras viajaba porel mundo, me reun con jvenes que haban perdido la esperanza. +se sentan desesperados, ellos decan "bueno, no importa lo que hagamos, comer, beber y ser alegres, ya que maana moriremos. +ya no hay esperanza -- es lo que siempre nos dicen los medios." +Y luego conoc a algunos que estaban enojados, y el enojo puede convertirse en violencia, y todos estamos familiarizados con eso. +Tengo tres nietecitos, y cuando alguno de estos estudiantes me dice en el bachillerato o en la universidad, me dicen, "Estamos enojados," o "Hemos perdido la esperanza, porque sentimos que ustedes han comprometido nuestro futuro, y no hay nada que podamos hacer al respecto." +Y vi los ojos de mis nietecitos, y pienso en lo mucho que hemos daado este planeta desde que yo tena su edad. +Siento esta profunda vergenza, y por eso en 1991 en Tanzania, empec un programa llamado Roots and Shoots [Races y Brotes]. +Hay folletos afuera por todas partes, y si cualquiera de ustedes tiene algo que ver con los nios y les importa su futuro, les ruego que tomen uno. +Roots and Shoots es un programa para la esperanza. +Roots [Races] crea una base firme. +Shoots [los Brotes] se ven pequeos, pero para alcanzar el sol pueden romper paredes de ladrillo. +Vean la pared como los problemas que hemos provocado en este planeta. +Entonces, ven, este es un mensaje de esperanza. +Cientos y miles de jvenes en todo el mundo pueden atravesarlas, y pueden hacer de ste un mundo mejor. +Y el mensaje ms importante de Roots and Shoots es que cada individuo hace la diferencia. +Cada individuo tiene una tarea que realizar. +Cada uno de nosotros impactamos el mundo a nuestro alrededor cada da, y ustedes cientficos, saben que de hecho no pueden -- an si se quedan todo el da en cama, estn respirando oxgeno y liberando CO2, y probablemente van al bao, y cosas como esas. Estn haciendo una diferencia en el mundo. +Entonces, el programa Roots and Shoots involucra a la juventud en tres tipos de proyectos. +Y stos son proyectos que hacen el mundo a su alrededor un mejor lugar. +Un proyecto para ensear a cuidar y preocuparse por su propia comunidad humana. +Uno para animales, incluyendo animales domsticos -- y debo decir, aprend todo lo que s sobre comportamiento animal an antes de ir a Gombe y los chimpancs, de mi perro, Rusty, que fue mi compaero de la infancia. +Y el tercer tipo de proyecto, algo por el medio ambiente local. +Lo que hacen los nios depende, primero, de su edad. Y ahora vamos desde pre-escolar hasta la universidad. +depender si estn en un rea urbana o rural. +Depender si tienen recursos o son pobres. +Depender de qu parte, digamos, de EEUU estn. +Ahora estamos en todos los estados, y los problemas en Florida son diferentes a los problemas en Nueva York +Depender de en qu pas estn -- y ya estamos en ms de 60 pases, con unos 5,000 grupos activos -- y oigo de grupos en todos lados sobre los que nunca haba escuchado antes, porque los nios estn tomando el programa y esparcindolo ellos mismos. +Por qu? +Porque creen en el programa, y son quienes deciden lo que harn. +No es algo que les dicen sus padres, o sus maestros. +Eso es efectivo, pero si deciden por s mismos, "Queremos limpiar este ro y hacer que vuelvan los peces. +Queremos limpiar los txicos del suelo de esta zona y tener un jardn orgnico. +Queremos pasar tiempo con las personas mayores y escuchar y grabar sus historias. +Queremos trabajar en un refugio canino. +Queremos aprender sobre los animales. queremos..." Saben, esto sigue y sigue, y esto me da esperanza. +Cuando viajo alrededor del mundo 300 das al ao, en todas partes hay un grupo de diferentes edades de Roots and Shoots. +En todas partes hay nios con ojos brillantes diciendo, "Mira la diferencia que hemos hecho." +Y ahora entra en juego la nueva tecnologa, porque con esta nueva forma de comunicarse electrnicamente estos chicos pueden comunicarse entre s alrededor del mundo. +Y si a alguien le interesa ayudarnos, tenemos muchas ideas pero necesitamos ayuda -- necesitamos ayuda para crear el tipo de sistema adecuado que ayudar a estos jvenes a comunicar su emocin. +Pero tambin, y esto es importante, a comunicar su desesperacin, para decir, "Hemos intentado esto y no funciona, qu debemos hacer?" +Y luego, quin lo dira, est este otro grupo respondindole a estos nios que podran estar en EEUU, o tal vez sea un grupo en Israel, diciendo "S, se equivocaron un poco. As es como debe hacerse." +La filosofa es muy sencilla: +No creemos en la violencia. +No violencia, no bombas, no armas. +Esa no es la forma de arreglar los problemas. +La violencia conduce a la violencia, al menos desde mi punto de vista. +Entonces cmo lo resolvemos? +Las herramientas para resolver los problemas son el conocimiento y la comprensin. +Conocer los hechos, pero ver cmo es que caben en la situacin general. +Trabajo duro y persistencia -- no rendirse-- el amor y la compasin crean respeto hacia toda la vida. +Cuntos minutos ms? Dos, uno? +Chris Anderson: Uno -- uno o dos. +Jane goodall: Dos, dos, me tardar dos. +Vendrn a sacarme a rastras? +Bueno -- entonces, Roots and Shoots est empezando a cambiar la vida de los jvenes. +Es a lo que estoy dedicndole la mayor parte de mi energa. +Y creo que un grupo como ste puede tener un impacto muy grande, no slo porque pueden compartir la tecnologa con nosotros, sino porque muchos de ustedes tienen nios. +Y si toman este programa, y se lo dan a sus nios, tendrn una muy buena oportunidad para salir y hacer el bien, porque tienen padres como ustedes. +Y est claro cunto les importa intentar hacer de este mundo un mejor lugar. +Es muy motivante. +Pero los nios me preguntan -- y esto no tomar ms de dos minutos, lo prometo -- los nios dicen, "Dra. Jane, de verdad tiene esperanzas en el futuro? +Usted viaja, ve que ocurren estas cosas horribles." +Primero, el cerebro humano -- no necesito decir nada al respecto, +Ahora que sabemos qu problemas hay en el mundo, mentes como las suyas estn surgiendo para resorlver estos problemas. +Y hemos hablado bastante al respecto. +Segundo, la resiliencia de la naturaleza. +Podemos destruir un ro, y podemos volverlo a la vida. +Podemos ver un rea completa desolada, y podemos hacer que florezca nuevamente, con tiempo o un poco de ayuda. +Y tercero, el ltimo orador habl sobre -- o el penltimo, habl sobre el indomable espritu humano. +Estamos rodeados por las personas ms maravillosas que hacen cosas que parecieran ser absolutamente imposibles. +Nelson mandela -- Tom esta pieza de cal de la prisin Robben Island, donde trabaj por 27 aos, y sali con tanta amargura, que pudo sacar a su gente del horror del apartheid sin un bao de sangre. +An despus del 11 de Septiembre -- y yo estaba en Nueva york y sent el miedo -- sin embargo, haba tanto valor humano, tanto amor y tanta compasin. +Y justo despus de eso una mujer me dio esta campanita, y quiero terminar con esta nota. +Dijo, "Si hablas sobre esperanza y paz, haz sonar esto. +Esta campana est hecha con metal de una mina desactivada, de los campos de muerte de Pol Pot -- uno de los regmenes ms malvados de la historia -- donde las personas ahora comienzan a recuperar sus vidas despus de que este rgimen ha cado". +Entonces, s, hay esperanza, y dnde est? +Est ah donde los polticos? +Est en nuestras manos. +En sus manos y en las mas y en las de nuestros nios. +Realmente depende de nosotros. +Somos nosotros quienes podemos hacer la diferencia. +Si tenemos vidas en las que conscientemente dejamos la huella ecolgica ms ligera posible, si compramos las cosas que son ticas para nosotros y no compramos lo que no lo es, podemos cambiar el mundo de la noche a la maana. +Gracias. +Gracias! Es un gran honor y un privilegio estar aqu pasando mi ltimo da de adolescente. +Hoy les quiero hablar sobre el futuro, pero primero les voy a contar algo sobre el pasado. +Mi historia empieza mucho antes de que yo naciera. +Mi abuela estaba en un tren a Auschwitz, el campo de concentracin. +Iba a lo largo de las vas del tren, y las vas se dividieron. +Y de alguna forma -- no sabemos exactamente toda la historia -- pero el tren tom la va equivocada y fue a un campo de trabajo en vez de un campo de muerte. +Mi abuela sobrevivi y se cas con mi abuelo. +Se fueron a vivir a Hungra, y naci mi madre. +Y cuando mi madre tena dos aos, la revolucin hngara estaba causando estragos, y decidieron escapar de Hungra. +Tomaron un barco, y he aqu otra divisin -- el barco iba o a Canad o a Australia. +Abordaron y no supieron a dnde iban, y acabaron en Canad. +As que, en resumen, acabaron en Canad. +Mi abuela fue una qumica. Trabaj en el instituto Banting de Toronto, y a los 44 aos muri de cncer de estmago. Nunca conoc a mi abuela, pero llevo su nombre -- su nombre exacto, Eva Vertes -- y me gusta pensar que llevo tambin su pasin cientfica. +Encontr esta pasin no muy lejos de aqu, de hecho, cundo tena nueve aos. +Mi familia emprendi un viaje en automvil y llegamos al Gran Can. +Y yo nunca haba sido lectora de pequea -- mi padre haba intentado iniciarme con los Hardy Boys, yo prob con Nancy Drew, prob todo eso -- y simplemente no me gustaba leer libros. +Y mi madre trajo un libro cuando estbamos en el Gran Can llamado "La Zona Caliente." Trataba sobre de un brote del virus del bola. +Y algo en el libro hizo que me sintiera atrada hacia l. +Quera ser como los exploradores sobre los que lea en el libro, que iban a las junglas de frica, iban a laboratorios de investigacin y trataban de averiguar lo que era este virus letal. As que desde ese momento, le cada libro mdico que lograba encontrar, y me gustaban muchsimo. +Era una observadora pasiva del mundo mdico. +Y cuando entr al bachillerato pens: "Quizs ahora,-- que soy toda una bachiller -- quizs me pueda volver una parte activa de este gran mundo mdico." +Tena 14 aos, y le escrib por correo electrnico a profesores de la universidad local para ver si quizs podra ir a trabajar a su laboratorio. Y casi ninguno respondi. +Pero claro, por qu habran de responderle a una nia de 14 aos? +Y logr ir a hablar con un profesor, el Dr. Jacobs, que me acept dentro del laboratorio. +En ese entonces, yo estaba muy interesada en la neurociencia y quera hacer un proyecto de investigacin en neurologa -- especficamente observando los efectos de metales pesados en el sistema nervioso en desarrollo. +As empec, y trabaj en su laboratorio durante un ao, y encontr los resultados que supongo puede uno esperar cuando alimentas a moscas de la fruta con metales pesados -- es decir, encuentras sistemas nerviosos muy, muy deteriorados. +La columna vertebral tena rupturas. Las neuronas se cruzaban sin ningn orden. +Y de ah quera mirar no al deterioro, sino a la prevencin del deterioro. +As que eso fue lo que me condujo hacia el Alzheimer. Empec a leer sobre el Alzeheimer y trat de familiarizarme con la investigacin, y al mismo tiempo cuando estaba en la -- estaba leyendo en la librera mdica un da, y le este artculo acerca de algo llamado derivados de purina. +Y parecan tener propiedades de estimulacin del crecimiento celular. +Y sin saber mucho sobre el campo, pens algo as como, "Ah, tienes muerte celular en el Alzheimer que est causando el dficit de memoria, y luego tienes este compuesto -- los derivados de purina -- que promueven el crecimiento celular." +Y entonces pens, "Quizs si puedo promover el crecimiento celular, esto podra inhibir la muerte celular, tambin." +Y ese fue el proyecto en el que trabaj durante ese ao, y contina ahora todava, y descubr que un derivado de purina especfico llamado guanidina haba inhibido el crecimiento celular en aproximadamente el 60%. +As que present estos resultados en la Feria Internacional de la Ciencia, que fue una de las experiencias ms maravillosas de mi vida. +Y ah me fue otorgado el premio "Mejor del Mundo en Medicina", que me permiti entrar, o al menos poner un pie en la puerta del gran mundo mdico. +Y a partir de entonces, puesto que ya estaba en este mundo enorme y emocionante, quera explorarlo todo. Lo quera todo de una vez, pero saba que eso no era posible. +Y me tropec con algo llamado clulas madres cancerosas. +Y esto es sobre lo que les quiero hablar hoy -- sobre el cncer. +Al principio, cuando o hablar de las clulas madres cancerosas, no saba cmo hacer para combinar los dos conceptos. Haba odo hablar de clulas madre, como si fueran la panacea del futuro -- la futura terapia contra muchas enfermedades, quizs. +Pero haba odo hablar del cncer como la ms temida enfermedad de nuestro tiempo, as que cmo es que iban juntos lo bueno con lo malo? +El verano pasado trabaj en la universidad de Stanford, haciendo investigaciones sobre las clulas madre cancerosas. +Y mientras tanto, estaba leyendo la literatura sobre el cancer, intentando -- de nuevo -- familiarizarme con este nuevo campo mdico. +Y pareca que los tumores en realidad nacen de una clula madre. +Y eso me fascin. Entre ms lea, ms empezaba a mirar el cncer de una forma diferente y empez a darme menos miedo. +Parece que el cncer es el resultado directo de una lesin. +Si fumas, lesionas tu tejido pulmonar, y el cncer pulmonar aparece. +Si bebes alcohol, lesionas tu hgado, y el cncer de hgado se desarrolla. +Y era realmente interesante -- haba artculos mostrando la correlacin de cmo si tienes una fractura de hueso, el cncer de hueso aparece. +Porque lo que las clulas madres son -- son estas clulas fenomenales que realmente tienen la capacidad de diferenciarse en cualquier tipo de tejido. +As, si el cuerpo detecta que tienes dao en un rgano y luego est iniciando cncer, es casi como si esto fuera una respuesta curativa. +Y el cncer, el cuerpo, est diciendo que el tejido pulmonar est daado, necesitamos reparar el pulmn. Y el cncer se origina en ese pulmn que trata de repararse -- porque tienes esta excesiva proliferacin de estas clulas extraordinarias que tienen el potencial de convertirse en tejido pulmonar. +Pero es casi como si el cuerpo hubiera inventado esta respuesta ingeniosa, pero no puede controlarla muy bien. +Todava no se ha vuelto lo suficientemente preciso para terminar lo que inici. +Entonces esto realmente me fascin. +Y creo que no podemos pensar en el cncer -- por no mencionar cualquier enfermedad -- en trminos tan de blanco y negro. +Si eliminamos el cncer de la forma en que intentamos hacerlo ahora, con quimioterapia y radiacin, estamos bombardeando el cuerpo o el cncer con toxinas, o con radiacin, intentando matarlo. +Es casi como si estuviramos regresando al punto de partida. +Estamos eliminando las clulas cancerosas, pero estamos revelando el dao anterior que el cuerpo ha intentado reparar. +Acaso no deberamos pensar en manipulacin, ms que eliminacin? +Si de alguna forma podemos hacer que estas clulas se diferencien -- y se vuelvan tejido de hueso, tejido de pulmn, tejido de hgado, para lo que sea que el cncer ha sido puesto ah -- sera un proceso de reparacin. Acabaramos mejor que como estbamos antes del cncer. +Esto cambi totalmente mi forma de ver el cncer. +Y mientras lea todos estos artculos sobre el cncer, pareca que los artculos -- muchos de ellos -- se enfocaban en la gentica del cncer de pecho. Y en la gnesis y progresin del cncer de pecho -- rastreando el cncer a travs del cuerpo, dnde esta, y a dnde va. +Pero lo que me sorprendi fue que nunca haba odo hablar del cncer de corazn, o cncer de cualquier msculo esqueltico, de hecho. +Y el msculo esqueltico constituye el 50% de nuestro cuerpo, o ms del 50 por ciento de nuestro cuerpo. As que al principio pens algo as como, "Bueno, quizs haya una explicacin obvia de por qu el msculo esqueltico no desarrolla cncer -- al menos no que yo sepa." +As que segu ahondando en el tema, encontr tantos artculos como pude, y era sorprendente -- porque result que era muy raro. +Algunos artculos se atrevan a decir incluso que el tejido de msculo esqueltico es resistente al cncer, y lo que es ms, no slo al cncer, sino tambin a que la metstasis lo invada. +Y lo que las metstasis son es cuando el tumor -- cuando una pieza -- se separa y viaja a travs del torrente sanguneo y va a un rgano diferente. Eso es una metstasis. +Es la parte ms peligrosa del cncer. +Si el cncer permaneciera en un slo lugar, probablemente podramos eliminarlo, o de alguna forma -- est contenido. Est muy contenido. +Pero una vez que empieza a moverse a lo largo del cuerpo, entonces es cuando se vuelve letal. +El hecho era entonces que no slo el cncer no pareca originarse en los msculos esquelticos, sino que el cncer no pareca ir al msculo esqueltico en absoluto -- pareca haber algo ah. +Entonces estos artculos decan: la metstasis del msculo esqueltico -- es muy rara." +Pero se quedaba en eso. Nadie pareca preguntarse el porqu. +As que decid investigar por qu. Al principio -- lo primero que hice fue mandarle correos electrnicos a varios profesores especialistas en fisiologa del msculo esqueltico, y lo que les deca era, "Oiga, parece que el cncer no va al msculo esqueltico, +hay alguna razn para esto?" Y muchas de las respuestas que recib fueron que el msculo es tejido diferenciado terminalmente. +Lo que significa que tienes clulas musculares, pero no se estn dividiendo, as que no parecen ser un buen candidato para que el cncer las secuestre. +Pero al mismo tiempo, este hecho de que la metstasis no fuera para el msculo esqueltico haca que eso fuera poco probable. +Y an ms, al tejido nervioso -- al cerebro -- le da cncer, y las clulas cerebrales tambin se diferencian terminalmente. +As que decid investigar por qu. Y aqu estn algunas de, digamos, mis hiptesis que empezar a investigar este mayo en el instituto de cncer Sylvester en Miami +E imagino que seguir investigando hasta que obtenga las respuestas. +Pero s que en la ciencia, una vez que tienes las respuestas, inevitablemente te van a surgir ms preguntas. +As que creo que podra decirse que probablemente voy a hacer esto por el resto de mi vida. +Algunas de mis hiptesis son que cundo piensas por primera vez en el msculo esqueltico, hay muchos vasos sanguneos que van al msculo esqueltico. +Y la primera cosa que eso me hace pensar es que los vasos sanguneos son como carreteras para las clulas de un tumor. +Las clulas de un tumor pueden viajar a travs de los vasos sanguneos. +Y uno pensara, entre ms carreteras haya en un tejido, es ms probable que desarrolle cncer o metstasis. +Entonces en primer lugar pens, "No le sera favorable al cncer ir al msculo esqueltico?" Y asimismo, los tumores de cncer requieren un proceso llamado angiognesis, que consiste en realidad, en que el tumor recluta los vasos sanguneos para s mismo, para suplirse a s mismo de nutrientes para poder crecer. +Sin angiognesis, el tumor permanece del tamao de la punta de un alfiler y no es daino. +As que la angiognesis es realmente un proceso central en el desarrollo del cncer como enfermedad. +Y un artculo que me llam mucho la atencin cundo estaba leyendo sobre todo esto, intentando entender por qu el cncer no iba al msculo esqueltico, fue uno donde se informaba de un 16 por ciento de micro-metstasis en el msculo esqueltico bajo autopsia. +16 por ciento! Lo que significa que hay este tipo de tumores minsculos en el msculo esqueltico, pero slo un 0,16% de verdaderas metstasis -- lo que sugiere que quizs el msculo esqueltico sea capaz de controlar la angiognesis, sea capaz de controlar que los tumores recluten vasos sanguneos. +Usamos muchsimo los msculos esquelticos. Es la nica parte de nuestro cuerpo -- nuestro corazn siempre est latiendo. Siempre estamos moviendo los msculos. +Ser posible que el msculo de alguna forma sepa intuitivamente que necesita este suministro sanguneo? Necesita estar contrayndose constantemente, as que por eso es casi egosta. Arrebatando todos los vasos sanguneos para s mismo. +Por eso, cuando un tumor viene al tejido del msculo sanguneo, no puede obtener un suministro de sangre, y por lo tanto no crece. +As que esto sugiere que quizs, si hay un factor anti-angiognico en el msculo esqueltico -- o quizs aun ms, un factor que dirija la angiognesis, que de hecho dirija dnde han de crecer los vasos sanguneos -- esto podra ser una posible terapia futura contra el cncer. +Y otra cosa que es muy interesante es que hay todo este -- la forma en que los tumores se mueven a lo largo del cuerpo es un sistema muy complejo -- y hay algo llamado la red quemoquina. +Y las quemoquinas son esencialmente atractores qumicos, son los semforos del cncer. +Un tumor expresa receptores quemoquinos, y otro rgano -- un rgano distante en alguna parte del cuerpo -- va a tener las quemoquinas correspondientes, y el tumor va a ver estas quemoquinas y va a migrar hacia l. +Ser posible que el msculo esqueltico no exprese este tipo de molculas? +Y la otra cosa realmente interesante es que cuando el msculo esqueltico -- ha habido varios reportes de que cuando el msculo esqueltico se daa, es eso lo que se correlaciona con que la metstasis vaya al msculo esqueltico. +Y, an ms, cuando el msculo esqueltico se daa, eso es lo que causa que las quemoquinas -- estas seales diciendo, "Cncer, puedes venir a m," los semforos verdes para los tumores -- esto causa que expresen en gran cantidad estas quemoquinas. +As que, hay muchas cosas interactuando aqu. +Es decir, hay tantas posibilidades que pueden explicar por qu los tumores no van al msculo esqueltico. +Pero pareciera que investigando, atacando al cncer, buscando dnde no est el cncer, tiene que haber algo -- tiene que haber algo -- que est haciendo este tejido resistente a los tumores. +Y ser posible utilizar -- ser posible tomar esta propiedad, este compuesto, este receptor, lo que sea que este controlando estas propiedades anti-tumor y aplicarlas a la terapia contra el cncer en general? +Ahora, una cosa que en cierta forma relaciona la resistencia del msculo esqueltico al cncer -- con la idea del cncer como un mecanismo de respuesta del cuerpo fuera de control -- es que el msculo esqueltico tiene un factor en l llamado MyoD. +Y lo que el MyoD hace en esencia es causar que las clulas se diferencien en clulas musculares. As que este compuesto, MyoD, ha sido probado en muchos tipos de clulas diferentes y se ha visto cmo convierte toda esta variedad de tipos de clula en clulas de msculo esqueltico. +Entonces, ser posible que las clulas del tumor estn yendo al tejido del msculo esqueltico, pero una vez en contacto dentro del tejido del msculo esqueltico, el MyoD acta sobre estas clulas del tumor y causa que se conviertan en clulas de msculo esqueltico? +Quizs las clulas del tumor se estn disfrazando de clulas del msculo esqueltico, y sea por esto por lo que parece tan raro el cncer en ellas. +Aqu no es daino, sino que ha repararado el msculo. +El msculo est siendo usado constantemente -- est siendo constantemente lesionado. +Si cada vez que nos desgarrramos un msculo o cada vez que estirramos un msculo o nos moviramos de forma incorrecta, ocurriera el cncer -- pues, tendra cncer casi todo el mundo. +Es diferente cuando una bacteria entra al cuerpo, ese es un objeto externo -- lo queremos fuera. +Pero cuando el cuerpo es en realidad el que est iniciando un proceso y le llamamos a eso enfermedad, no parece que la eliminacin sea la solucin correcta. As que incluso partiendo de ah, es posible -- aunque es una hiptesis increble ahora -- que en el futuro casi pudiramos pensar en usar el cncer como terapia. +Si esas enfermedades donde los tejidos se deterioran -- por ejemplo, el Alzheimer, donde el cerebro, las clulas cerebrales, mueren y necesitamos restaurar nuevas clulas cerebrales, nuevas clulas cerebrales funcionales -- qu tal si pudiramos, en el futuro, usar el cncer? Un tumor -- ponerlo en el cerebro y hacerlo diferenciarse en clulas cerebrales? +Esa es una idea muy arriesgada e increble ahora, pero realmente creo que puede ser posible. +Estas clulas son tan verstiles, estas clulas de cncer son tan verstiles -- que slo tenemos que manipularlas de la forma correcta. +Y de nuevo, parte de esto puede ser arriesgado y sonar increble, pero creo que si hay algn lugar para presentar ideas arriesgadas es aqu en TED, as que muchas gracias. +Frank Gehry: Estuve escuchando a un cientfico esta maana, +y el Dr. Mullis estaba hablando sobre sus experimentos, y me di cuenta de que yo casi me convert en un cientfico. +Cuando tena 14 aos mis padres me compraron un juego de qumica. Y decid hacer agua +As que constru un generador de hidrgeno y uno de oxgeno. Y puse los dos tubos en un vaso de precipitados, y arroj un fsforo en l. +Y vidrio -- afortunadamente me volte. Y me cay todo en la espalda. Y estaba alrededor de 5 metros de distancia. +La pared estaba cubierta con -- +tuve una explosin. +Richard Saul Wurman: De verdad? +FG: La gente de la calle vino a tocar la puerta para ver si yo estaba bien. +RW: Me gustara recomenzar -- simplemente comenzar esta sesin otra vez. +El caballero a mi izquierda es el muy famoso, quizs demasiado famoso, Frank Gehry. +Y Frank, t has llegado a un lugar en tu vida que es sorprendente. +Quiero decir, es sorprendente para un artista --para un arquitecto-- convertirse en un cono, en una leyenda en su propio tiempo. +Y s que el camino fue extremadamente dificil. +y no parecia que tus capitulaciones, cualquiera que hayan sido, fueran muy grandes. +Te mantuviste moviendo hacia adelante en una vida en la que dependes de trabajar para alguien. +Pero eso es una cosa interesante para una persona creativa. +Muchos de nosotros trabajamos para la gente. Estamos en las manos de otra gente. +Y ese es uno de los grandes dilemas --estamos en una sesin creativa-- es uno de los grandes dilemas en la creatividad. Como realizar un trabajo que es suficientemente grande y no venderse. +y tu has logrado eso. Y eso hace que tu logro sea el doble de grande, --el triple. +No es una pregunta exactamente, pero puedes comentar sobre ello. +Es un asunto importante. +FG: Bueno, yo simplemente siempre he -- +En realidad, nunca he salido a buscar trabajo. +Siempre he esperado que de alguna forma me golpee en la cabeza. +Y cuando comenc, yo pensaba que la arquitectura era un negocio de servicio, y que uno tena que complacer a los clientes y as por el estilo. +Y me di cuenta, cuando llegaba a las reuniones con pedazos de metal corrugado y de cadenas, y la gente simplemente me miraba como si acabara de aterrizar de Marte. +Pero no poda hacer ninguna otra cosa. +Esa era mi respuesta a la gente y a la poca. +Y en realidad, estaba respondiendo a los clientes que tena que no tenan mucho dinero y que por tanto no podan permitirse mucho. +Creo que era circunstancial. +Hasta que llegu a mi casa, donde mi cliente era mi esposa. +Compramos una cabaa pequeita en Santa Mnica y como por 50 mil dolres constru una casa alrededor de ella. +y algunas personas se entusiasmaron con eso. +En una visita con un artista, Michael Heizer, en algn lugar en el desierto cerca de Las Vegas. +l estaba construyendo un inmenso lugar de concreto. +Y era tarde en la noche. Habiamos bebido mucho alcohol. +Estabamos solos parados en el desierto y l dijo -- pensando sobre mi casa-- l dijo, "Alguna vez se te ha ocurrido que si construyeras cosas ms permanentes, en algn lugar en 2000 aos, a alguna persona le va a gustar. +As que yo pens --s, probablemente esa es una buena idea. +Afortunadamente empec a conseguir algunos clientes que tenan un poco ms de dinero, as que las cosas eran un poco ms permanentes. +Pero me di cuenta de que el mundo no va a durar tanto. Un tipo nos estaba contando el otro da. +Entonces, para dnde vamos ahora? +Volver a -- todo es tan temporal. +No lo veo de la forma que t lo caracterizaste. +Para m, cada da es una nueva cosa. +Abordo cada proyecto con una nueva inseguridad, casi como el primer proyecto que realiz. Y me dan los sudores. Voy, empiezo a trabajar, y no estoy seguro adonde estoy yendo. Si supiera a donde voy, no lo hara. +Cuando puedo predecir o planear, no lo hago. +Lo descarto. +As que me aproximo con la misma inquietud. +Obviamente con el tiempo tengo mucha ms confianza de que todo va a estar bien. +Yo s manejo un tipo de negocio. Tengo 120 personas. Y hay que pagarles. As que implica mucha responsabilidad. Pero el trabajo real en el proyecto se hace, creo, con una inseguridad saludable. +Y como un dramaturgo dijo el otro da --me puedo identificar con l-- no ests seguro. +Cuando se termin lo de Bilbao y lo contempl, v todos los errores. +No eran errores. V todo lo que hubiera cambiado. y me avergonc por eso. +Sent tal vergenza --cmo puder haber hecho eso? +Cmo pude haber hecho formas como esas, o cosas como esas? +Me ha tomado varios aos poder mirarlo de una forma desapegada y decir, al caminar alrededor de la esquina y un pedazo de l funciona con la carretera y la calle, y parece que tienen relacin entre si, que me empez a gustar. +RW: Cul es el estado del proyecto de Nueva York? +FG: En verdad no s. +Tom Krens vino y me explic Bilbao completamente. Y yo pens que estaba loco, +y pens que l no saba lo que estaba haciendo. Pero lo logr. +Entonces pienso que l es Icaro y Fnix en una sola persona. +Y l va hasta arriba -- y luego baja. +Todava estn hablando de eso. +El 11 de Septiembre gener algo de inters en moverlo a la Zona Cero. Y yo estoy totalmente en contra de eso. +Simplemente me siento incmodo al hablar, o construir algo en Zona Cero. Pienso que por mucho tiempo. +RW: La imagen en la pantalla, es eso Disney? +FG: S. +RW: Qu tanto ms ha avanzado, y cundo ser terminado? +FG: Se terminar en el 2003 --septiembre, octubre. Y espero que Kyu, y Herbie y Yo Yo y todos estos tipos vengan a tocar con nosotros en ese lugar. +Afortunadamente, la mayoria de la gente con la que trabajo hoy son personas que en realidad me gustan. +Richard Koshalek es probablemente una de las razones principales por las cuales Disney me contact. +l ha sido un porrista por mucho tiempo. +No hay muchas personas que, como clientes, esten realmente comprometidos con la arquitectura. +T sabes, si piensas acerca del mundo, e incluso slo en esta audiencia, la mayoria de nosotros estamos involucrados con edificios. +Nada a lo que llamaras arquitectura, cierto? +y entonces, al encontrar un tipo como ese, uno se queda con l, sabes? +l se ha convertido en la cabeza del Centro de Arte, y hay un edificio de Craig Ellwood ah. +Yo conoca a Craig y lo respetaba. +y ellos quieren aadirle algo. y es difcil aadir algo a un edificio como ese. Es un edificio hermoso, minimalista, de acero negro, y Richard quiere aadirle un biblioteca y ms cosas para estudiantes. Y es un montn de hectreas. +Y lo convenc de que me dejara traer otro arquitecto de Portugal, lvaro Siza. +RW: Y por qu quieres eso? +FG: Saba que me preguntaras eso. +Fue intuitivo. +FG: lvaro Siza creci y vivi en Portugal, y es probablemente considerado el hombre portugus ms importante en arquitectura. +Lo visit hace unos aos y me mostr el trabajo de sus inicios. Y su trabajo tena un parecido con el mo. +Cuando sal de la universidad, empec a intentar hacer cosas contextualmente en California del Sur. Y uno se mete en la lgica de los techos coloniales espaoles y cosas como esas. +Trat de entender ese lenguaje como un comienzo, como un lugar del cual saltar. Y haba tanto de eso que estaba siendo hecho por los constructores del espectculo, y estaba siendo tan trivializado que no era... +Simplemente par. +Es decir, Charlie Moore hizo muchos de eso, Pero para m no se senta bien. +Siza, por otra parte, continuaba en Portugal, donde estaba la cosa real, y evolucion a un lenguaje moderno que se relaciona con ese lenguaje histrico. +Y siempre sent que l debera venir a California del Sur y hacer un edificio. +Trat de conseguirle un par de trabajos, pero no resultaron. +Y me gusta la idea de colaborar con gente como esa, porque te empuja. +Lo he hecho con Claes Oldenburg y con Richard Serra, quien no cree que la arquitectura es arte. +Viste esa cosa? +RW:Qu dijo? +FG: l llama a la arquitectura "plomera." +FG: De cualquier forma, el asunto con Siza. +Es una experiencia ms rica. +Tiene que ser as para Kyu, el hacer cosas con msicos. Es similar a lo que yo imaginara. Dnde t --- eh? +Audiencia: arquitectura lquida. +FG: Arquitectura lquida. +Es como el jazz-- uno improvisa, se trabaja juntos, uno toca del uno al otro, uno hace algo, ellos hacen algo. +Y creo que es una forma de ... para m, es una forma de tratar de entender la ciudad, y lo que podra pasar en la ciudad. +RW: Va a estar cerca del campus universitario actual? +O va a estar cerca abajo... +FG: No, es cerca del campus universitario actual. +De cualquier forma, l es uno de esos clientes. +No es su dinero, por supuesto. +RW: Cul es su horario en eso? +FG: No s. +Cul es el horario, Richard? +Richard: Comienza en el 2004. +FG: 2004. +Puedes venir a la inauguracin. Te invito. +No, pero el asunto de la construccin urbana en la democracia es interesante porque crea caos, verdad? +como el modelo del Centro Rockefeller, el cual es casi como de otra era. +RW: Descubr la cosa ms notable. +Mi preconcepcin de Bilbao era este edificio maravilloso, al que uno entrara y habran espacios extraordinarios. +Haba visto dibujos que habas presentado aqu, en TED. +La sorpresa de Bilbao estaba en su contexto con la ciudad. +Esa fue la sorpresa de atravesar el ro, ir por la autopista alrededor de este, caminar por la calle y encontrarlo. +Esa fue la verdadera sorpresa de Bilbao. +Bla, bla y todos esos asuntos. +Y es como limpiarse de tal forma que uno pueda +al decir todo eso, significar que el trabajo es bueno de alguna manera. +Y pienso que todo el mundo -- quiero decir que debera ser un hecho, como la gravedad. +Uno no va a desafiar la gravedad. +Uno tiene que trabajar con el departamento de construccin. +Si uno no se acomoda a los presupuestos, no va a conseguir mucho trabajo. +Si gotea -- Bilbao no gote. +Estuve tan orgulloso. +El proyecto del MIT -- me estaban entrevistando para el MIT. y ellos enviaron la gente de instalaciones a Bilbao. +Y me reun con ellos en Bilbao. +Vinieron por tres das. +RW: Este es el edicio de las computadoras? +FG: S, el el edificio de las computadoras. +Estuvieron all por tres das, y llovi cada da. Y ellos se mantuvieron caminando. Me di cuenta de que miraban por debajo de las cosas, y buscaban cosas. Y queran saber donde estaban escondidos los valdes, sabes? +La gente sac los valdes. +Estaba limpio. No haba una sola gotera en todo el lugar. Era simplemente fantstico. +Pero uno tiene que -- S, pero hasta entonces cada edificio haba goteado, as que esto-- +RW: Frank tena un tipo de-- +FG: Pregntale a Miriam! +RW: tena una fama-- su fama estaba basada en eso por un tiempo, en Los ngeles. +FG: Todos ustedes han odo la historia de Frank Lloyd Wright, cuando una mujer llam y dijo, "Seor Wright, estoy sentada en el sof, y el agua me est cayendo sobre la cabeza." +Y l dijo, "Seora, mueva su silla." +As que algunos aos ms tarde yo estaba construyendo un casita en la playa para Norton Simon, Y su secretaria, que era una pesadilla de mujer, me llam y me dijo, "Mr. Simon est sentado en su escritorio, y le est cayendo agua en la cabeza." +Y yo le cont la historia de Frank Lloyd Wright. +RW: No conseguiste una risa. +FG: No, ni tampoco ahora. +Pero mi punto es que --y lo llamo el "luego qu?" +Ok, Uno resolvi todos los problemas. Uno hizo todo. Uno ya fue bueno. Am sus clientes. Am la ciudad. Uno es un buen tipo --una buena persona. +Y luego qu? +Qu le pones? +Y creo que en eso en lo que siempre he estado interesado, es eso --que es un tipo de expresin personal. +Bilbao, creo, muestra que uno puede tener ese tipo de expresin personal, y todavia toca todas las bases que son necesarias para acomodarse a la ciudad. +Eso es lo que me hizo recordar eso. +Y creo que ese es el asunto, sabes? Es el "luego qu" lo que la mayora de los clientes que contratan arquitectos-- la mayora de clientes no estn contratando arquitectos para eso. +Ellos los estn contratando para tenerlo terminado, bajo el presupuesto. T sabes, ser amable. Y se estn perdiendo el valor real de un arquitecto. +RW: En cierto punto hace un nmero de aos, la gente-- cuando Michael Graves estaba de moda, antes de las teteras-- +FG: yo hice una tetera y nadie la compr. +RW: Goteaba? +FG: No. +RW: La gente quera un edificio de Michael Graves. +Es una maldicin que la gente quiera un edificio Bilbao? +FG: S. He sido llamado. +Desde que Bilbao abri -- lo cual fue hace cuatro, cinco aos, no s -- Ambos, Krens y yo hemos sido llamados con, no s, al menos 100 oportunidades. China, Brasil, otras partes de Espaa. Para ir y crear el efecto de Bilbao. +Y me he reunido con alguna de esta gente. +Normalmente, digo que no inmediatamente, pero algunos de ellos vienen con pedigr y suenan bien intencionados. Y lo consiguen a uno por al menos una o dos reuniones. +En un caso hice todo un viaje a Mlaga con un equipo, porque la cosa estaba firmada con sellos y varios -- t sabes--- sellos muy oficiales de la ciudad. Y que ellos queran que fuera a construir un edificio en su puerto. +Y les pregunt que tipo de edificio era. +"Cuando usted llegue le explicaremos --bla, bla, bla". +As que cuatro de nosotros fuimos. +Y nos llevaron --nos pusieron en un gran hotel, de donde veamos la baha. Y nos llevaron en un bote al mar y nos mostraron todas esas vistas del puerto. +Cada una ms hermosa que la otra. +Y luego ibamos a almorzar con el alcalde, e ibamos a cenar con la gente ms importante de Mlaga. +Y casi antes de ir a almorzar con el alcalde, fuimos al comisionado del puerto. +Haba una mesa tan larga como esta alfombra y el comisionado del puerto estaba aqu, y yo aqu, y mi gente. +Y nos sentamos y tomamos un vaso de agua, y todo el mundo estaba callado. +Y el tipo me mir y me dijo, "Y ahora que puedo hacer por usted, Sr. Gehry?" +RW: Ay, Dios mo. +FG: As que me par +Y le dije a mi equipo, "Vmonos de aqu." +Nos paramos, salimos. +Ellos nos siguieron--el tipo que nos arrastr all nos sigui y dijo, "Quiere decir que no van a almorzar con el alcalde? +Dije: "No" +"Definitivamente no van a ir a cenar?" +Nos haban llevado para presionar a este grupo-- sabes, para crear un proyecto. +Y recibimos mucho de eso. +Afortunadamente, soy suficientemente viejo, sabes, puedo quejarme de que no puedo viajar. +Todava no tengo my propio avin. +RW: Bueno, voy a redondear esto, y redondear la reunin, porque ha sido muy larga. +Pero djenme decir un par de palabras. +FG: Puedo decir algo? +Vas a hablar de m o de t? +RW: Una vez mierda, siempre una mierda! +FG: Porque quiero recibir una ovacin de pie como todo el mundo, as que -- +RW: Vas a recibir una! Vas a recibir una! +RW: Voy a hacerla para t! +FG: No, espera un minuto! +Imagina pasar siete aos en MIT y sus laboratorios de investigacin slo para descubrir que eres un un intrprete de performances. +Tambin soy ingeniero de sistemas, y puedo elaborar varias clases de arte con la computadora. +Y pienso que lo que ms me interesa es tratar de encontrar la forma de hacer de las computadores una forma personal de expresin. +Y muchos de ustedes, dirigentes de Macromedia y Microsoft, de alguna forma son mi pesadilla: Creo que hay un gran fuerza homogenizante que el software impone sobre la gente y limita su forma de pensar sobre lo que es posible en una computadora. +Por supuesto, tambin es una gran fuerza liberadora que hace posible publicaciones y todo eso, estndares y dems. +Pero, de alguna manera, las computadoras posibilitan ms de lo que la mayora de la gente piensa, y mi arte se ha centrado en intentar encontrar una forma personal de usar la computadora, as que termino escribiendo programas para lograr eso. +Chris me pidi que hiciera una performance corta as que slo tomare este tiempo -- tal vez 10 minutos -- para hacerlo, y al final espero tener un momento, quizs, para mostrarles un par de mis otros proyectos en video. +Gracias. +Tenemos an como un minuto +Me gustaria mostrarles in clip de mi ms reciente proyecto. +Hice una performance con dos cantantes que se especializan en hacer ruidos extraos con la boca. +Y esto recin salio el pasado mes de septiembre en ARS Electronica; lo repetimos en Inglaterra. +Y la idea es visualizar detrs de ellos su discurso y cancin con una pantalla grande. +Usamos un sistema de rastreo visual por computadora para saber dnde estaban. +Y porque sabemos dnde estn sus cabezas, y tenemos un micrfono inalmbrico en ellos desde donde procesamos el sonido, podemos crear visualizaciones que estn conectadas muy estrechamente a lo que estn haciendo con su discurso. +Este tomar unos 30 segundos. +l est haciendo una especie de sonido moviendo las mejillas. +Bueno, baste decir que no todo es as, pero es parte de ello. +Muchas gracias. Hay mucho ms. +Ya me pas de tiempo, solo quera decir que si ests en Nueva York, puedes ver mi trabajo en la Whitney Biennal la semana entrante, y tambin en Chelsea en la Bitforms Gallery. +Y con esto, creo que debera ya ceder el podio, as que gracias de nuevo. +Me gustara hablar hoy de dos grandes tendencias sociales del siglo venidero y quiz de los prximos 10,000 aos. +Voy a empezar con mi trabajo sobre el amor romntico ya que es mi ms reciente trabajo. +Lo que mis colegas y yo hicimos fue poner a 32 personas locamente enamoradas en un escner funcional IRM +De esas personas, 17 estaban locamente enamoradas y correspondidas y 15 locamente enamoradas y despechadas. +Entonces hablar sobre eso primero y luego ahondar sobre a dnde creo que se dirige el amor. +Shakespeare deca: "Qu es esto del amor?" +Creo que nuestros ancestros, los seres humanos se han estado haciendo esta pregunta desde hace un milln de aos cuando se sentaron o tiraron alrededor de sus fogatas y miraban las estrellas. +Mi intencin inicial fue entender qu era el amor romntico examinando los ltimos 45 aos de investigacin en... slo en investigacin psicolgica, y resulta que existe un grupo especfico de cosas que ocurren cuando uno se enamora. +La primero que sucede es lo que llamo cuando una persona empieza a tomar "un significado especial." +Como alguna vez me dijo un camionero: "El mundo tiene un nuevo centro y ese centro se llama Mary Anne." +George Bernard Shaw lo dijo ligeramente diferente, dijo: +"El amor consiste en sobrestimar las diferencias entre una mujer y otra." +Y en efecto eso es lo que hacemos . Entonces enfocas tu atencin en esta persona. +Puedes enlistar lo que no te gusta de ellos, pero entonces haces eso a un lado y te enfocas en lo que ests haciendo. +Como dijo Chaucer: "El amor es ciego." +Al tratar de entender el amor romntico, decid que leera poesa de todo el mundo, as que quisiera recitarles un breve poema chino del siglo VIII, porque es un ejemplo casi perfecto de un hombre que est totalmente enfocado en una mujer en particular. +Es un poco parecido a cuando ests perdidamente enamorado de alguien y caminas en el estacionamiento; su auto es diferente de los dems en el estacionamiento, +su copa de vino en la cena es diferente de cualquiera de las dems copas de la cena. +En este caso, el hombre se qued prendado del tapete de bamb para dormir. +Y dice as, el hombre se llama Yuan Chen: +"Es intolerable guardar el tapete de bamb para dormir, +cuando la noche que te traje a casa, te vi desenvolverlo." +Se qued prendado del tapete de bamb, probablemente a causa de la elevada actividad de la dopamina en su cerebro, al igual que ocurre con ustedes y conmigo. +Como sea, esta persona no slo cobra un significado especial, uno enfoca su atencin en ella. +La engrandeces y tienes mucha energa. +Como dijo un polinesio: "Siento que estoy saltando en el cielo." +Ests despierto toda la noche, caminas hasta el amanecer; +sientes una euforia intensa cuando las cosas van bien, el nimo se vuelve una horrible desesperacin cuando las cosas van mal, +se vuelve una verdadera dependencia de esta persona. +Como me dijo un hombre de negocios neoyorquino: "Me gusta todo lo que a ella le gusta." +Simple, el amor romntico es muy simple. +Te vuelves sexualmente posesivo en extremo. +Cuando tienes sexo casual con alguien no te importa si se est acostando con alguien ms. +Pero en el momento en que te enamoras, te vuelves sexualmente posesivo en extremo de ellos. +Yo pienso que esto tiene un propsito darwiniano. +El meollo de esto es unir a dos personas con la fuerza suficiente para empezar a criar bebs en equipo. +Las caractersticas principales del amor romntico son ansia: un ansia intensa de estar con una persona en particular, no slo en lo sexual, tambin en lo emocional. +Preferiras... estara bien ir a la cama juntos, pero lo que quieres es que te llame, te invite a salir, etctera. Que te diga que te ama. +La otra caracterstica principal es la motivacin, +el motor de tu cerebro empieza a arrancar y quieres a esa persona. +Por ltimo, pero no por eso menos importante, es una obsesin. +Antes de poner a estas personas en la mquina IRM, les hago todo tipo de preguntas; +pero mi pregunta ms importante es siempre la misma: +"qu porcentaje del da y la noche piensas en esa persona?" +Y en efecto contestan: "Todo el da, toda la noche, no dejo de pensar en l o ella." +Entonces la pregunta final que les hago, siempre me tengo que preparar para esta pregunta, ya que no soy psicloga +no trabajo con gente que tenga cualquier trauma. +Y mi pregunta final, que siempre es la misma, es: +"Moriras por l o por ella?" +Y de hecho contestan con un "S!" +como si hubiera pedido que me pasaran la sal. +Simplemente me deja estupefacta. Entonces escaneamos sus cerebros, cuando miran la foto de sus enamorados y luego una foto neutral, con una tarea de distraccin de por medio. +Pudimos hallar viendo el mismo cerebro en su estado exaltado y en su estado en reposo, +hallamos actividad en muchas regiones del cerebro. +De hecho, una de las ms importantes fue una regin cerebral que se activa cuando sientes el subidn de la cocana. +Y de hecho eso es exactamente lo que sucede. +Empec a darme cuenta que el amor romntico no es una emocin, +es ms, siempre haba pensado que era una serie de emociones, de muy intensas a muy bajas. +Pero en realidad es un impulso, originado en el motor de la mente, de la parte de la mente que desea, que ansa. +El tipo de mente, la parte de la mente, como cuando tomas esa pieza de chocolate, cuando quieres ganar una promocin en el trabajo. +El motor de la mente. Es un impulso. +De hecho pienso que es ms poderoso que el impulso sexual. +Cuando le preguntas a alguien si se acostara contigo y te dicen: "No, gracias," ciertamente no te suicidas y no te hundes en una depresin clnica. +Pero ciertamente, en todo el mundo, la gente despechada matara por amor. +La gente vive por amor, mata por amor, muere por amor, +hay canciones, poemas, novelas, esculturas, pinturas, mitos y leyendas. +En ms de 175 sociedades, la gente ha dejado evidencias de este poderoso sistema cerebral. +He llegado a pensar que es uno de los sistemas cerebrales ms poderosos en la Tierra tanto para nuestro jbilo como para nuestra desgracia. +Y he llegado a pensar que es uno de los tres sistemas cerebrales bsicamente diferentes que evolucionaron del apareamiento y la reproduccin. +Uno es el impulso sexual, el deseo de gratificacin sexual. +W.H. Auden la llam "la comezn neural intolerable," y en efecto eso es. +Te molesta un poco todo el tiempo, como tener hambre. +El segundo de estos tres sistemas cerebrales es el amor romntico: esa euforia, esa obsesin del amor fresco. +Y el tercer sistema cerebral es el apego: la sensacin de calma y seguridad que puedes sentir con una pareja a largo plazo. +Y creo que el impulso sexual evolucion para llevarnos ah, buscando toda una gama de parejas. +Puedes sentirlo cuando ests manejando tu auto. +Puede enfocarse en nadie. +Creo que el amor romntico evolucion para permitirte enfocar tu energa de apareamiento en un solo individuo a la vez, y de esa forma conservar tiempo y energa de apareamiento. +Y creo que el apego, el tercer sistema cerebral, evolucion para permitirte tolerar a ese ser humano , al menos el tiempo suficiente para criar a un nio juntos en equipo. +Con base a este prembulo, quisiera discutir las dos tendencias sociales ms profundas. +Una de los ltimos 10,000 aos y la otra, ciertamente de los ltimos 25 aos, que van a tener un impacto en estos tres distintos sistemas cerebrales: la lujuria, el amor romntico y el apego profundo a una pareja. +La primera es la mujer trabajadora, entrando a la fuerza de trabajo. +He analizado a 150... 130 sociedades usando los anuarios demogrficos de las Naciones Unidas, +y en todas partes, en 129 de las 130, las mujeres no slo estn entrando al mercado del trabajo, a veces muy lentamente, pero estn entrando al mercado de trabajo, y cerrando lentamente la brecha entre hombres y mujeres en trminos de poder econmico, salud y educacin. +Muy lentamente. +Por cada tendencia en el planeta, existe una contra tendencia. +Todos lo sabemos, pero... hay un antigua dicho rabe que dice: "Los perros ladran pero las caravanas siguen avanzando" +y en efecto la caravana avanza. +Las mujeres estn regresando al mercado de trabajo, +y digo regresando al mercado de trabajo, porque esto no es nuevo. +Durante millones de aos, en los pastizales de frica, cuando las mujeres todo los das recolectaban sus verduras +llegaban a casa con el 60 u 80 por ciento de la cena. +La familia con doble ingreso era estndar, +y a las mujeres se les consideraba igual de poderosas que los hombres en lo sexual, en lo social y lo econmico +En resumen, estamos avanzando hacia el pasado. +Por tanto, el peor invento de la mujer fue el arado. +Con el inicio de la agricultura usando arado, el rol del hombre se volvi poderoso en extremo. +Las mujeres perdieron sus antiguos trabajos como recolectoras, pero entonces con las revoluciones industrial y postindustrial estn regresando al mercado laboral. +En resumen, estn adquiriendo el estatus que tenan hace un milln de aos, hace 10,000 aos, hace 100,000 aos. +Estamos viendo una de las tradiciones ms notables en la historia del animal humano +y va a tener un impacto. +En general doy una conferencia completa sobre el impacto de la mujer en la comunidad de negocios, +aqu slo dir un par de cosas, y pasar al sexo y al amor. +Existen muchas diferencias de gnero, cualquiera que piense que hombres y mujeres son iguales simplemente nunca ha tenido un hijo y una hija. +No s porqu quieren pensar esto de que los hombres y las mujeres son iguales. +Hay mucho en comn, pero hay todo un montn de cosas que no tienen en comn. +Somos, en palabras de Ted Hughes: "Creo que fuimos hechos para ser como dos pies, nos necesitamos mutuamente para salir adelante." +Pero no evolucionamos para tener el mismo cerebro. +Y cada vez encontramos ms y ms diferencias de gnero en el cerebro. +Mencionar unas cuantas para continuar con el sexo y el amor. +Una de ellas es la habilidad verbal de la mujer, las mujeres s que pueden hablar. +La habilidad de la mujer para encontrar la palabra correcta rpidamente, la articulacin bsica sube a la mitad del ciclo menstrual, cuando los niveles de estrgeno alcanzan su pico; +aunque incluso en la menstruacin, son mejores que el hombre promedio. +Las mujeres s que pueden hablar. +cambio*: Lo han hecho por un milln de aos, las palabras fueron herramientas de la mujer. +Sostuvieron a ese beb enfrente de su cara, halagndolo, reprimindolo, educndolo con palabras; +y en efecto, se convierten en una fuerza muy poderosa. +Incluso en lugares como la India y Japn, donde las mujeres no estn entrando rpidamente al mercado laboral normal, estn ingresando al periodismo. +Y creo que la televisin es como una fogata global, +nos sentamos alrededor de ella y moldea nuestras mentes. +Casi siempre, cuando estoy en la tele, los productores que me llaman para negociar lo que voy a decir, son mujeres. +Es ms, alguna vez Solzhenitsyn dijo: "Tener un gran escritor es tener otro gobierno." +Hoy en da 54% de los escritores en Estados Unidos son mujeres. +Esta es una de muchsimas caractersticas que las mujeres tienen que llevarn al mercado laboral. +Tienen habilidades increbles, dotes de negociacin, +son altamente imaginativas. +Hoy conocemos la circuitera cerebral de la imaginacin, de la planeacin a largo plazo; +tienden a los pensamientos interconectados, +porque las partes del cerebro femenino estn mejor conectadas, tienden a reunir ms piezas de informacin cuando piensan, los ponen en patrones ms complejos, ven ms opciones y consecuencias. +Tienden a ser contextuales, holsticas, lo que llamo pensadoras en red. +Los hombres tienden, en promedio, a desechar lo que consideran superfluo, se enfocan en lo que hacen y se mueven en un patrn de pensamiento en pasos. +Ambas son formas de pensamiento perfectamente aceptables, +necesitamos ambas para seguir adelante. +De hecho, existen ms genios hombres en el mundo. +Cuandobueno tambin hay ms idiotas hombres en el mundo . Cuando el cerebro masculino funciona bien, funciona extremadamente bien; +y lo que creo que estamos haciendo es movernos hacia una sociedad colaborativa, una sociedad en la que los talentos tanto de hombres y mujeres se estn empezando a entender, valorar y emplear. +De hecho, la entrada de la mujer al mercado de trabajo est teniendo un enorme impacto en el sexo, el romance y la vida familiar. +Antes que nada, las mujeres estn empezando a expresar su sexualidad. +Siempre me sorprende cuando la gente viene y me pregunta: por qu los hombres son tan adlteros? +Les digo: "por qu creen que los hombres son ms adlteros que las mujeres?" +"Bueno porque los hombres son ms adlteros!" +Les digo: "con quin creen que estos hombres se acuestan?" +Es aritmtica elemental! +Como sea, +en el mundo occidental, las jovencitas empiezan las mujeres despiertan ms temprano al sexo, tienen ms parejas, expresan menos remordimiento que sus parejas, se casan ms tarde, tienen menos hijos, dejan malos matrimonios por tener buenos. +Estamos viendo el surgimiento de la expresin sexual femenina. +De hecho, una vez ms nos estamos moviendo hacia el tipo de expresin sexual que probablemente se vio en los pastizales africanos hace un milln de aos, porque este es el tipo de expresin sexual que vemos en las sociedades recolectoras y cazadoras de la actualidad. +Tambin estamos volviendo a una forma antigua de igualdad matrimonial, +Ahora dicen que el siglo XXI va a ser el siglo de lo que llaman "el matrimonio simtrico" el "matrimonio puro" o el "matrimonio amigable." +Este es el matrimonio entre iguales movindose hacia un patrn que es altamente compatible con el antiguo espritu humano. +Tambin estamos viendo un crecimiento en el amor romntico, +91 por ciento de las estadounidenses y 86 por ciento de los estadounidenses no se casaran con una pareja aunque tuviera todas las cualidades que buscan si no estuvieran enamorados de la persona. +La gente alrededor del mundo, en un estudio de 37 sociedades quiere estar enamorada de la persona con la que se casan. +En efecto, los matrimonios arreglados van de salida de la vida humana, +incluso creo que los matrimonios se pueden volver ms estables debido a la segunda gran tendencia mundial. +La primera es las mujeres entrando al mercado laboral, la segunda el envejecimiento de la poblacin mundial. +Dicen que ahora en los Estados Unidos, los 85 aos deberan ser considerados como la mediana edad, +porque en la parte alta de la categora de 76 a 85 solamente tanto como el 40 por ciento de la gente no tiene ningn problema. +As que estamos viendo una verdadera extensin de la mediana edad, +y para uno de mis libros, examin los datos de divorcio de 58 sociedades. +Y resulta que, entre ms viejo eres, es menos probable que te divorcies. +Entonces la tasa de divorcio en la actualidad es estable en los Estados Unidos y de hecho ha empezado a declinar +Y quizs decline ms. +Incluso agregara que con el Viagra, el reemplazo de estrgenos, reemplazo de caderas y las increblemente interesantes mujeres, las mujeres nunca haban sido tan interesantes como ahora; +en ninguna poca en este planeta, las mujeres han sido tan educadas, tan interesantes, tan capaces. +Honestamente pienso que si en verdad hubo una poca en la evolucin humana en que pudiramos tener buenos matrimonios, esa poca es el presente. +Sin embargo, no faltan cierto tipo de complicaciones en esto. +Estos tres sistemas cerebrales: lujuria, amor romntico y apego no siempre van de la mano, +pueden hacerlo, por cierto. +Por eso el sexo casual no es tan casual, +con un orgasmo obtienes un pico de dopamina; +la dopamina est asociada con el amor romntico, y puedes terminar enamorndote de la persona con quien tuviste sexo casual. +Con el orgasmo, entonces tienes una inyeccin de oxitocina y vasopresina, que estn asociados con el apego. +Es por eso que sientes tal sensacin de unin csmica con alguien despus de hacer el amor con la persona. +Pero estos tres sistemas cerebrales: lujuria, amor romntico y apego no siempre estn conectados entre s. +Puedes sentir un fuerte apego a una pareja de largo tiempo y sentir un intenso amor romntico por otra persona, mientras sientes deseo sexual por gente que no tiene que ver con estas otras parejas. +En resumen, somos capaces de amar a ms de una persona al mismo tiempo. +De hecho, te puedes acostar en la cama en la noche y oscilar de sentimientos profundos de apego por una persona a sentimientos profundos de amor romntico por otra. +Como si tuvieras una reunin de comit en tu cabeza, como si trataras de decidir qu hacer. +Por eso no creo, honestamente, que seamos un animal hecho para ser feliz; somos un animal hecho para reproducirse. +Pienso que la felicidad que encontramos, la hacemos +y sin embargo pienso que podemos tener buenas relaciones entre nosotros. +Entonces concluyo con dos cosas: +quiero concluir con una preocupacin, tengo una preocupacin que ilustrar con una historia maravillosa +La preocupacin son los antidepresivos +En los Estados Unidos cada ao se expiden ms de 100 millones de recetas de antidepresivos, +y estas drogas van a ser genricas. +Estn permeando alrededor del mundo. +Conozco una nia que ha estado bajo antidepresivos, estimulantes de serotonina, antidepresivos estimulantes de serotonina desde los 13 aos. +Tiene 23 y los ha tomado desde que tena 13 aos. +No tengo nada en contra de las personas que lo toman por una corta temporada cuando estn pasando por un momento terrible. +Cuando quieren suicidarse o matar a alguien; +lo recomendara. +Pero cada vez ms gente en los Estados Unidos las tomas por largo tiempo, +y en efecto, estn drogas elevan los niveles de serotonina, +los cuales al subir, suprimen el circuito de la dopamina. +Todo mundo lo sabe, +la dopamina est asociada al amor romntico. +No slo suprime el circuito de la dopamina, sino que mata el deseo sexual. +Y cuando matas el deseo sexual, matas al orgasmo, +y si matas el orgasmo, matas el flujo de drogas asociadas con el apego. +Estas cosas estn conectadas en el cerebro +y cuando interfieres con un sistema cerebral, vas a interferir con el otro. +Slo quiero decir que un mundo sin amor es una lugar muerto. +Entonces gracias. +Quiero terminar con una historia y luego un comentario. +He estado estudiando el amor romntico, el sexo y el apego durante 30 aos. +Soy una gemela idntica; me interesa el porqu somos todos iguales. +por qu t y yo somos iguales, por qu los iraques y los japoneses y los aborgenes australianos y la gente del Amazonas son todos iguales. +Hace un ao, un servicio de citas por Internet, Match.com, contact conmigo y me preguntaron si les diseara un nuevo sitio de citas. +Les dije: "Yo no s nada sobre personalidad, +no s, creen que hablan con la persona indicada?" +Dijeron que s. +Eso me puso a pensar por qu uno se enamora de cierta persona en lugar de otra. +Ese es mi proyecto actual y ser mi prximo libro. +Hay todo tipo de razones por las que nos enamoramos de cierta persona en lugar de otra. +El momento es importante, la proximidad es importante, +el misterio es importante. Te enamoras de alguien que en cierta forma es misterioso, en parte porque el misterio eleva la dopamina en el cerebro, probablemente te impulse hacia el umbral del enamoramiento. +Te enamoras de alguien que se ubica dentro de lo que llamo "el mapa del amor," una lista de rasgos que inconscientemente armaste en la niez conforme crecas. +Y tambin pienso que empiezas a gravitar hacia ciertas personas, de hecho, con sistemas cerebrales de alguna forma complementarios +y con eso estoy contribuyendo ahora . +Les quiero contar una historia para ilustrarlo. +He tratado hasta ahora sobre la biologa del amor, +quisiera mostrarles un poco sobre la cultura tambin la magia de esto. +Es una historia que me cont alguien que la haba escuchado de alguien ms.. posiblemente una historia verdadera. +rase un estudiante graduado -- yo y dos colegas estbamos en Rutgers -- Art Aaron que est en SUNY Stonybrook. +All es donde ponamos a la gente dentro del escner IRM. +Y este estudiante estaba locamente enamorada de otra estudiante, pero ella no estaba enamorada de l. +Y todos estbamos en un conferencia en Beijing. +l saba de nuestro trabajo que si haces algo muy novedoso con alguien, puedes subir la dopamina en el cerebro y quiz disparar el sistema cerebral del amor romntico As que l decidi poner la ciencia en prctica, +e invit a la chica a tomar un paseo en un carrito oriental con l. +Y es seguro -- nunca me he subido a uno -- pero aparentemente va por todos lados pasando autobuses, camiones es de locura, ruidoso y emocionante. +l calcul que esto subira la dopamina y que ella se enamorara de l. +Se encaminaron, ella chillaba y lo abrazaba y rean y pasaron un momento maravilloso. +Una hora despus se bajaron del carrito, levant los brazos y dijo: "No fue fantstico?, +Acaso no era guapo el chofer?!" +La magia del amor! +Quiero terminar diciendo que hace millones de aos, desarrollamos tres impulsos bsicos: el impulso sexual, el amor romntico y el apego a una pareja de largo plazo. +Estos tres circuitos estn profundamente integrados en el cerebro humano, +van a sobrevivir mientras sobrevivamos como especie en lo que Shakespeare llam: "este mortal trajn." +Gracias. +Es una emocin estar aqu en una conferencia dedicada a "Inspirados por la Naturaleza", como se podrn imaginar. +Pero tambin estoy encantada de estar en la seccin de jugueteo previo. +Se dieron cuenta que esta es la seccin de jugueteo previo? +Porque me toca hablar de una de mis criaturas favoritas: el achichilique pico amarillo. Uno no ha vivido hasta que ha visto a estos tipos hacer su danza de cortejo. +Estaba en el Lago Bowman en el Parque Nacional de los Glaciares, un lago largo y estrecho, con una especie de cerros volteados y mi pareja y yo tenemos una canoa de remo. +Estbamos remando y se acerc uno de estos achichiliques pico amarillo. +Y lo que hacen como danza de cortejo es, se van juntos, los dos, los dos compaeros, y comienzan a andar bajo el agua. +Patalean rpido, y ms rpido, y ms rpido, hasta que van tan rpido que literalmente se elevan fuera del agua, y all van elevados, en una especie de pataleo sobre la superficie del agua. +Y entonces uno de estos achichiliques se acerc mientras nosotros bamos remando. +Y aqu vamos como en una parvada, movindonos muy, muy rpidamente. +Y el achichilique creo que como que nos confunde con una oportunidad y empieza a correr sobre el agua junto a nosotros, en una danza de cortejo... durante varios kilmetros. +Podra parar, y luego empezar, y luego detenerse, y a continuacin empezar. +A eso le llamo: jugueteo previo +Bueno, casi; estuve as de cerca de cambiarme de especie en ese momento +Obviamente la vida siempre nos ensea algo en la seccin de entretenimiento. Bueno, la vida tiene mucho que ensearnos. +Pero de lo que quisiera hablar hoy es lo que la vida puede ensearnos respecto a tecnologa y diseo. +O, y esto se me hizo gracioso, queremos que nos lleven al mundo natural. Proponemos un reto en diseo y buscamos a los campeones mejor adaptados del mundo natural, que podran inspirarnos. +As que esa es una foto que tomamos en un viaje a las Galpagos con unos ingenieros especialistas en tratamiento de aguas servidas; ellos purifican las aguas servidas. +Y algunos de ellos se resistan, realmente, a estar all. +Lo que al principio nos decan era, ya saben, nosotros ya aplicamos la biomimtica. +Usamos bacterias para limpiar nuestra agua. Y entonces les dijimos, bueno, no exactamente -- eso no es exactamente estar inspirado por la Naturaleza. +Eso ms bien es bioprocesamiento, como quien dice biotecnologa aplicada usando un organismo para que haga el tratamiento de aguas servidas es una vieja, vieja tecnologa conocida como "domesticacin". +Esto es aprender algo, aprender una idea de un organismo para luego aplicarla. +As que ellos an no lo entendan. +Entonces fuimos a caminar por la playa y les dije: bueno, dnme uno de sus mayores problemas. Dnme un desafo de diseo, un obstculo para la sustentabilidad, que no les permita ser sustentables. +Y dijeron el sarro, que es la acumulacin de minerales dentro de los tubos. +Y me comentaron, sabes, lo que pasa es que el mineral igual que en tu casa, los minerales se acumulan. +Y entonces la abertura se cierra y tenemos que destapar los tubos con toxinas, o tenemos que escarbarlos. +Si tan solo hubiera una manera de parar este sarro... Y entonces levant unas conchas de la playa. Y les pregunt: Qu es el sarro? Qu hay dentro de sus tubos? +Y contestaron: carbonato de calcio. +Y dije: eso es esto; esto es carbonato de calcio. +Y ellos no lo saban. +Ellos no saban de qu es una concha marina, es modelada por protenas y luego los iones del agua marina se cristalizan en el sitio, bien, para formar la concha. +As que un proceso similar, pero sin las protenas, est pasando dentro de sus tubos. Y ellos no lo saban. +Esto no es por falta de informacin; es por falta de integracin. +Saben, es como un silo, gente dentro de silos. No saban que estaba pasando lo mismo. As que uno de ellos lo pens y dijo, bueno, est bien, si esto no es ms que la cristalizacin que ocurre automticamente del agua marina, el autoensamblaje, entonces por qu las conchas no son infinitas en tamao? Qu las detiene? +Por qu simplemente no siguen adelante? +Y dije, bueno, de la misma forma en que sueltan las pro... en que exudan una protena y empieza la cristalizacin, y ah fue cuando todos se inclinaron hacia adelante... liberan una protena que detiene la cristalizacin +Literalmente se adhiere a la cara creciente del cristal. +De hecho, hay un producto llamado APT que imita a esa proteina, esa proteina inhibidora y es una forma ecolgica de detener la formacin de sarro. +Eso cambi todo, despus de eso no podamos hacer regresar a los ingenieros al bote. +El primer da salan de paseo, y era clic, clic, clic, clic. Cinco minutos despus estaban de vuelta en el barco. +Ya acabamos, saben, ya haba visto esa isla. +Despus de esto iban por todas partes. Ellos no... buceaban todo el tiempo que los dejbamos. +Se dieron cuenta que hay organismos all afuera que ya resolvieron los problemas a los que han dedicado sus carreras, tratando de resolver. +Aprender acerca del mundo natural es una cosa. Aprender del mundo natural, he ah el cambio. +Es un cambio profundo. +Se dieron cuenta que las respuestas a sus problemas estaban por doquier. Slo necesitaban cambiar los lentes con los que ven al mundo. +3.8 miles de millones de aos de pruebas. +Craig Venter les dir que de 10 a 30; creo que hay ms de 30 millones de soluciones bien adaptadas. +Lo importante para m es que estas soluciones estn en contexto. +Y el contexto es la Tierra... el mismo contexto en el que estamos tratando de resolver nuestros problemas. +As que es la imitacin consciente de la genialidad en la Vida. +No es imitacin ciega, aunque aqu Al est tratando de lograr el peinado no es imitacin ciega. Es tomar los principios de diseo, la genialidad del mundo natural y aprender algo de ah. +Eso es por el lado del software. Lo que es interesante para m es que no lo hemos mirado tanto. Digo, estas mquinas... no son de tan alta tecnologa, en mi parecer, siendo que hay docenas y docenas de carcingenos en el agua de Silicon Valley. +As que el hardware no est al nivel de lo que la Vida llamara un xito. +Qu podemos aprender de la fabricacin, no slo de PCs, sino de todo? +Los aviones en los que llegaron, los autos, los asientos que estn usando. +Como rediseamos el mundo que estamos haciendo, el mundo fabricado? +Mas an, qu deberamos preguntar los siguientes 10 aos? +Hay muchas tecnologas geniales alla afuera que la vida usa. +Cul es el plan de estudios? +Hay tres preguntas que para m son la clave. +Cmo hace las cosas la Vida? +Esto es lo opuesto; cmo hacemos nosotros las cosas. +Se llama calentar, golpear y tratar as le llaman lo cientificos de materiales. +Se trata de tallar las cosas dejando un 96% de desechos. y slo 4% de producto final. Lo calientas, lo golpeas con presin, usas qumicos. Ok, calentar, golpear y tratar. +La Vida no puede desperdiciar as. Como hace las cosas la Vida? +Cmo hace la vida la mayora de las cosas? +Ese es un polen de geranio. +Y la forma es lo que le da la capacidad de... flotar por el aire fcilmente, ok. Miren la forma. +La vida le agrega informacin a la materia. +En otras palabras, estructura. +Le da informacin. Al agregar informacin a la materia, le da una funcin diferente que si no tuviera estructura. +Tercer punto: cmo hace la vida que las cosas se fusionen con el sistema? +Porque la vida realmente no trata con cosas; no hay cosas en el mundo natural divorciadas de sus sistemas. +Un plan de estudios breve. +Mientras voy leyendo ms y ms, y siguiendo la historia, hay algunas cosas increbles que han surgido en la biologa. +Al mismo tiempo escucho a muchos negocios y entiendo cules son sus retos. +Estos dos grupos no se estn comunicando. +Para nada. +Qu es lo que sera til de la biologa en este punto, para salir de este nudo evolutivo en el que estamos? +Voy a repasar doce puntos, brevemente. +Ok, uno que me emociona es el auto-ensamblaje. +Hemos escuchado de esto en la nanotecnologa. +De vuelta a la concha, la concha se auto-ensambla. +Abajo a la izquierda hay una imagen del ncar formndose a partir del agua de mar. Es una estructura de capas minerales y despus polmero, y lo hace muy muy duro. +Es dos veces ms duro que nuestras cermicas de alta tecnologa. +A diferencia de nuestra cermica que sale de hornos, esto sucede en el agua de mar. Sucede cerca y dentro del organismo. +Ok, y las personas empiezan a... +Este es el Laboratorio Nacional Sandia, alguien llamado Jeff Brinkler ha encontrado la forma de tener un proceso de cdigo auto-ensamblado. +Imaginen tener cermicas a temperatura ambiente, simplemente sumergiendo algo en un lquido, sacarlo del lquido y tener evaporacin forzando a las molculas del lquido a juntarse para que se junten como en un rompecabezas. en la misma forma que en la cristalizacin. +Imaginen crear todos nuestros materiales duros de esa forma. +Imaginen rociar una celda FV, una celda solar, con precursores sobre un techo, y que se auto-ensamblen en una estructura que recolecta luz. +Aqu algo interesante para el mundo de TI: bio-silicio. Esto es una diatomea, hecha de silicatos. +El silicio que hacemos actualmente, es parte del problema carcinognico en la fabricacin de chips. Este es un proceso de bio-mineralizacin que se est imitando. +Esto es en la UC de Santa Barbara. Miren estas diatomeas. +Esto es del trabajo de Ernst Haeckel. +Imaginen poder... de nuevo, es un proceso guiado, que se solidifica a partir de un proceso lquido, imaginen crear ese tipo de estructura a temperatura ambiente. +Imaginen poder fabricar lentes perfectas. +A la izquierda, esta es una ofiura, est cubierta de lentes que la gente de Lucent Technologies ha encontrado que no tienen distorsin detectable. +Es una de las lentes ms perfectas que conocemos. +Y tiene muchas, sobre todo su cuerpo. +Lo interesante, de nuevo, es que se auto-ensambla. +Una mujer, Joanna Aizenberg, en Lucent, est aprendiendo como crear con un proceso a baja temperatura este tipo de lente. Tambien est investigando sobre fibra ptica. +Esta es una esponja de mar que tiene fibra ptica. +Abajo, en la base, hay fibra ptica. que funciona mejor que la nuestra, mueven luz. Pero se pueden atar en un nudo, son increiblemente flexibles. +Otra idea grande: CO2 como materia prima. +Un tipo llamado Geoff Coates, de Cornell, se dijo a si mismo, saben, las plantas no consideran al CO2 como el peor veneno. +Nosotros s. Pero las plantas estn ocupadas formando cadenas de almidones y glucosa, a partir del CO2. l ha encontrado la forma... Ha encontrado un catalizador, y visto la forma de tomar el CO2 y crear policarbonatos. Plsticos biodegradables, a partir del CO2. Qu parecido a las plantas! +Transformaciones solares: es lo ms emocionante. +En nuestras celdas lo hacemos con platino La Naturaleza lo hace con un hierro muy, muy comn. +Un equipo ha logrado imitar la hidrogenasa, capaz de manejar el hidrgeno +Es emocionante en cuanto a las celdas poder hacer eso sin platino. +La importancia de la forma: hemos visto que las aletas de la ballena tienen abultamientos. Y esas pequeas protuberancias realmente incrementan la eficiencia, por ejemplo, en el ala de un avin, incrementan la eficiencia en un 32% +Lo cual es un ahorro increble de combustible fsil, si tan solo lo pusiramos en el borde de un ala. +Colores sin pigmentos: este pavo real crea colores con la forma. +La luz llega y rebota en las capas; se llama interferencia de laminas delgadas. Imaginen poder auto-ensamblar productos y que las ltimas capas jueguen con la luz para crear color. +Imaginen poder crear una textura sobre una superficie, para que se auto-limpie, slo con agua. Eso hacen las hojas. +Ven este acercamiento? +Es una esfera de agua, esas son partculas de polvo. +Ese es un acercamiento a la hoja de loto. +Una compaa est haciendo un producto llamado Lotusan, cuando la pintura est seca, imita los abultamientos de las hojas, y el agua de lluvia lava el edificio. +El agua ser nuestro gran reto: saciar la sed. +Aqu estn dos organismos que obtienen agua. +A la izquierda est el escarabajo namibio +Extrae el agua del aire. No la bebe. +Aqu esta extrayendo agua de la neblina y del aire hmedo de Atlanta antes de que entre a un edificio, son tecnologas clave. +Las tecnologas de separacin van a ser muy importantes. +Qu tal si dijeramos no ms minas? +Qu tal si furamos a separar metales de aguas residuales pequeas cantidades de metales en el agua? Eso hacen los microbios, ellos extraen los metales del agua. +Hay una compaa aqu en San Francisco llamada MR3 que est imitando las molculas microbiales en filtros para minar aguas residuales. +La qumica verde es trabajar con agua. +Hacemos qumica con solventes orgnicos. +Esta es una foto de las hileras de una araa, ok, y como estn tejiendo seda. No es bello? +La qumica ecolgica est reemplazando la qumica industrial. +No es fcil, puesto que la naturaleza usa slo un grupo de elementos de la tabla peridica. +Y nosostros usamos todos, hasta los txicos. +Para encontrar las recetas que slo usan una parte de la tabla peridica y crear materiales milagrosos como esa clula, es la tarea de la qumica ecolgica. +Degradacin paulatina: empaques que funcionen hasta que ya no se necesiten, despus se deshacen. +Este es un mejilln, lo pueden encontrar en estas aguas. y los hilos que lo fijan a la roca, slo duran 2 aos y despus se empiezan a disolver. +Curacin: esto est bueno. +El amiguito all es un tardgrado. +Uno de los problemas con las vacunas en el mundo es que no llegan a los pacientes. La razn es que la refrigeracin no es adecuada; se rompe la llamada "cadena de fro". +Un sujeto llamado Bruce Rosner, observ al tardgrado - que se seca completamente y an sigue vivo durante meses y meses y meses y an as es capaz de autoregenerarse. +l ha encontrado la forma de deshidratar las vacunas - encapsularlas en azcar como el tardgrado tiene en sus clulas - as las vacunas no tienen que ser refrigeradas. +Se pueden colocar en una guantera, ok. +Aprendiendo de los organimos. Esta es sobre el agua... aprender de los organismos que viven sin agua para poder crear una vacuna que dure sin refrigeracin. +No llegar al punto 12. +Lo que s les dir es que la cosa ms importante, aparte de todas estas adaptaciones, es el hecho que todos estos, han encontrado la forma de hacer lo que hacen, mientras cuidan del hbitat que cuidar a su descendencia. +Cuando estn en el jugueteo previo, estn pensando en algo muy muy importante, que es, preservar su material gentico, de aqu a 10.000 generaciones en el futuro. +Y eso requiere que hagan lo que hacen sin destruir el hbitat que cuidar a sus hijos. +Ese es el ms grande reto de diseo. +Afortunadamente, hay millones y millones de genios dispuestos a regalarnos sus mejores ideas. +Buena suerte en la charla con ellos. +Gracias. +Chris Anderson: Hablando de jugueteo... necesitamos llegar al punto 12. +Janine Benyus: En serio? +CA: Si claro!, pero tu sabes, la versin de 10 segundos. del 10, 11 y 12. Porque tus diapositivas son hermosas, y las ideas muy trascendentes, no puedo permitir que bajes sin ver 10, 11 y 12 +JB: Ok, pon esto, yo sostendr esto, muy bien. +Ok, eso fue en cuanto a curacin. +Deteccin y respuesta: la retroalimentacin es algo muy grande. +Hay una langosta. Puede haber 80 millones en un km cuadrado y an as no chocan contra otra. +Y nosotros tenemos 3.6 millones de choques de autos al ao. +Correcto. Hay una persona en Newcastle se dio cuenta, que se debe a una neurona muy grande. +Y ella est buscando como hacer circuitos de evasin de colisiones basado en esta gran neurona de la langosta. +Esto es realmente grande, nmero 11: +Es la fertilidad de las cosechas +Fertilidad neta en las granjas. +Deberamos incrementar la fertilidad. Y obtener comida. +Porque debemos aumentar la capacidad del planeta para crear ms y ms oportunidades de vida. +Realmente, eso hacen los otros organismos. +En conjunto, eso es lo que hace un ecosistema: crean cada vez ms oportunidades para la vida. +Nuestra agricultura ha hecho lo opuesto. +Una agricultura basada en cmo crea tierra la pradera, una ganadera basada en cmo una manada nativa incrementa el bienestar de los campos. Incluso tratamiento de aguas basado en como las marismas no slo limpian el agua, sino que, increblemente, incrementan la productividad. +Este es un pequeo informe de diseo. Digo, parece simple porque el sistema, a lo largo de 3.8 miles de millones de aos, lo ha perfeccionado. +Esto es, los organismos que no han podido encontrar como mejorar o "endulzar" sus hbitats, no estn aqui para contrnoslo. +Ese fue el doceavo punto. +La Vida - y he aqu el secreto; el truco de magia la vida crea condiciones para crear ms vida. +crea tierra, limpia el aire, limpia el agua, mezcla el cctel de gases que ustedes y yo necesitamos para vivir. +Y lo hace mientras est en el jugueteo y satisfaciendo sus necesitades. No son mutuamente excluyentes. +Tenemos que encontrar la forma de satisfacer nuestras necesidades y, al mismo tiempo, hacer un Edn de este lugar. +CA: Janine. Muchsimas gracias! +No s ustedes, pero Yo an no he descubierto lo que significa la tecnologa en mi vida. +El ltimo ao lo he dedicado a pensar sobre el tema. +Debera ser pro tecnologa? Debera adoptarla sin restricciones? +o con cautela? Como Uds., estoy tentado a hacer lo ltimo. +Sin embargo, por otro lado, hace un par de aos me deshice de mis pertenencias, vend mi tecnologa, a excepcin de una bicicleta con la que hice casi 5000 kms por las carreteras de EEUU con la energa de mi propio cuerpo alimentado con bollitos industriales de crema adems de otra comida basura. +Y desde entonces he intentado mantener en muchos aspectos la tecnologa a distancia para que no domine mi vida. +Al mismo tiempo, administro una pgina web en cool tools donde diariamente vivo mi pasin: lo ltimo en tecnologa. +Y sigo perplejo acerca del verdadero significado de la tecnologa en relacin a la humanidad, a la naturaleza y a lo espiritual. +Y todava no estoy seguro si sabemos que es tecnologa. +Una de las definiciones de tecnologa es aquello que se registr por primera vez. +ste es el primer ejemplo de la utilizacin de la tecnologa moderna que he podido encontrar. +Se trata del plan de estudios propuesto para hacer frente a las Artes y las Ciencias Aplicadas en la Universidad de Cambridge en 1829. +Antes de eso, obviamente, la tecnologa no exista. Pero, evidentemente, s que exista. +Hay una buena definicin que Alan Kay tiene para la tecnologa. +Dice que la tecnologa es todo lo que se invent despus de que Ud. naciera. +As que resume bastante de lo que hablamos. +Danny Hillis ha actualizado esa definicin dice que la tecnologa es aquello que no funciona todava. +Lo que va un poco en la direccin, creo, de nuestra idea. +Pero me interesaba otra definicin de tecnologa. +Algo que se remonta a algo ms fundamental. +Algo ms profundo. Y como he forcejeado por entenderlo, he llegado a una especie de metodologa para abordar el tema que parece funcionar en mis investigaciones. +Y hoy voy a hablar de esto por primera vez. +Por tanto, ste no es ms que un burdo intento de pensar en voz alta. +La pregunta que surgi fue a raz de la siguiente pregunta, a qu aspira, qu desea la tecnologa? Y con esto, no me refiero a que si desea chocolate o vainilla. Con ello me refiero a cul es la moda y tendencia tpica. +Qu corrientes imperan a lo largo del tiempo? Una forma de abordarlo es pensar en organismos biolgicos, muy en boga actualmente. +Y usar el truco aplicado por Richard Dawkins, es decir, percibirlos simplemente como genes, como vehculos de los genes. +As que la pregunta sera, qu quieren los genes? El gen egosta. +Y yo aplico el mismo procedimiento para preguntarme y si examinamos el universo de nuestra cultura a travs de los ojos de la tecnologa? A qu aspira la tecnologa? +Evidentemente, esta pregunta es incompleta, como tambin observar un organismo, slo a travs de un gen es una manera incompleta de observacin. +S es incompleta pero hoy por hoy sigue siendo muy productiva. As, As si recogemos la visin del mundo de la tecnologa, nos preguntamos qu persigue? +Una vez hecha la pregunta nos remontaremos, en realidad, a la vida en s. Porque obviamente, si seguimos nuestra mirada atrs sobre los orgenes de la tecnologa en algn momento volvemos a lo que es la vida. +As que a partir de ah es donde quiero comenzar mi pequea aportacin, a partir de la vida. +Y, como Uds. han podido escuchar de los oradores anteriores, no sabemos muy bien qu vida concreta existe ahora en la Tierra. +Realmente no tenemos idea. +El enorme y brillante intento de Craig Venter de secuenciar el ADN en el ocano es grande. +El trabajo de Brian Farrell es parte de este programa; intentar descubrir todas las especies sobre la Tierra. +Esto no es en otro planeta. Se trata de seres ocultos en nuestro planeta. +sta es una hormiga que almacena la miel de sus compaeras en el abdomen. +Cada uno de estos seres que hemos descrito, que han visto de Jamie y otros, estos entes magnficos, lo que hacen cada uno de ellos es boicotear las reglas de la vida. +No puedo pensar en un nico principio general de la biologa que no tenga su excepcin en algn organismo. +Esto aplica para cada cosa que podamos pensar; y si escuchan a Olivia Judson hablar sobre hbitos sexuales, se darn cuenta de que no existen reglas definitivas para todos los seres. Porque cada uno se salta alguna. +Aqu tenemos una babosa de mar alimentada por energa solar. Es un molusco nudibranquio que ha incorporado en su interior el cloroplasto para convertirlo en energa. +sta es otra versin de lo mismo. ste es un dragn de mar, y la imagen inferior, la azul, es uno menor que an no ha tragado cido, es decir, an no ha ingerido el alga verde-marrn para dar energa al cuerpo. +Son piratas, y si nos fijamos en los enfoques propuestos para clasificar la vida, existen, segn el consenso actual, seis reinos. Seis diferentes divisiones: plantas, animales, hongos, protistas y los procariotas, bacterias y arqueas. +As se dividen los seres vivos. Es una manera de conceptuar la vida en la Tierra hoy en da. +Pero otra manera ms interesante si cabe, sera la adopcin de una perspectiva a largo plazo, observar desde una perspectiva evolutiva. +Y aqu vemos una panormica de la evolucin que en vez de ir lineal con en tiermpo, tiene que salir desde el centro. +Y es el centro el indicador ms antiguo, aqu les muestro una grfica genealgica de todos los seres vivos en la Tierra. Aqu podemos ver los seis reinos. +4000 especies representativas y aqu se ve donde estamos. +Pero lo que me gusta de esto es ver que cada ser vivo sobre la Tierra hoy ha evolucionado por igual. +Los hongos y bacterias han evolucionado tanto como los seres humanos. +Ha sucedido en torno al mismo periodo de tiempo pasando por la misma sucesin de ensayo y error hasta llegar aqu. +Pero vemos que cada uno de ellos se salta la norma y tiene una forma diferente de cmo construir vida. +Y si miramos las tendencias a largo plazo de la vida y nos preguntamos, qu quiere la evolucin? Veremos varias cosas. +Una de las cosas acerca de la evolucin es que nada en la tierra hemos estado alguna vez en la que no encontramos la vida +Encontramos vida al final de cada larga era, perforando a mucha profundidad en el centro de una roca a la superficie y ah hay bacterias en los poros de la roca. +Y donde la vida existe, nunca se retira. Es omnipresente y aspira a ms. +Ms y ms de materia inerte del planeta est siendo acariciada y vivificada por la vida. +Lo segundo es la diversidad. Tambin vemos la especializacin. +Observamos el movimiento de una clula general a la ms especfica y especializada. +Y vemos una tendencia hacia la complejidad muy intuitiva. +Y, de hecho, los datos actuales muestran que existe un cambio hacia la complejidad real a lo largo del tiempo. +Y por ltimo recupero nuevamente el nudibranquio. +Una de las cosas que constatamos es que la vida se mueve desde el interior para aumentar la sociabilidad. Lo que significa que existe ms y ms vida all cuyo entorno vital completo se identifica por formas de vida diferentes. +Al igual que las clulas de los cloroplastos estn rodeadas completamente por otras formas de vida. +Y nunca tocan el interior de la materia. Hay cada vez ms co-evolucin. +Y en general, las largas tendencias de la evolucin se resumen en cinco: la omnipresencia, la diversidad, la especializacin, la complejidad y la socializacin. Ahora bien, y cules son las tendencias a largo plazo de la tecnologa? +Y de nuevo, mi pregunta es, qu quiere la tecnologa? +Y as, sorprendentemente, descubr que tambin hay una tendencia hacia la especializacin. +Vemos que existe un martillo y los martillos y se vuelven ms y ms especficos con el tiempo. +Existe, evidentemente, diversidad. Un gran nmero de cosas. +ste es todo el contenido de una casa Japonesa. +De hecho tuve a mi hija -- le di un contador y le encomend el pasado verano que salga afuera y contara cuntos tipos de tecnologa hay en nuestro hogar. +Y contabiliz 6000 productos diferentes. +Hice algunas investigaciones y descubr que el Rey de Inglaterra, Henry VIII, tena alrededor de 7000 artculos en su hogar. +Y l era el Rey de Inglaterra y ah se aglutinaba toda la riqueza de Inglaterra en el momento. +Entonces, estamos viendo un gran nmero de diversidad en el tipo de cosas. +sta es una escena de la "Guerra de las galaxias" cuando el 3PO sale y descubre a las mquinas fabricando mquinas. Qu degenerados! +Bueno, esto es, en realidad a lo que nos abocamos: hacia las mquinas mundo. +Y la tecnologa slo est siendo desplazada por otras tecnologas. +La mayora de las mquinas solo estar en contacto con otras tecnologas y con lo que no es tecnologa, incluso con la vida. +Y en tercer lugar, la idea de que las mquinas se estn volviendo complejas y biolgicas es un clich. Y me alegra decir que yo he sido en parte responsable del clich de que las mquinas se estn volviendo biolgicas, pero eso es bastante evidente. +De hecho, propongo que la tecnologa se convierta en el sptimo reino de la vida. +Su sistematizacin y su funcionamiento son tan similares que podemos pensar que es el sptimo reino. +Y por lo que sera aproximadamente el tipo de all arriba, saliendo desde el reino animal. Y si lo hiciramos as, descubriramos que realmente se puede abordar la tecnologa de esta manera. +ste es Niles Eldredge, co-desarrollador con Stephen Jay Gould de la teora del equilibrio puntuado. +Asimismo, tambin se dedica a coleccionar cornetas. +l cuenta con una de las ms colecciones ms grandes, alrededor de 500. +Y l ha decidido tratarlas como si fueran tribolites o caracoles con el fin de hacer un anlisis morfolgico y trazar la historia genealgica a travs del tiempo. +ste es el grfico por ahora no publicado. +Pero el aspecto ms interesante de esto es que si nos fijamos en las lneas rojas en la parte inferior, los que bsicamente indican una filiacin con un tipo de corneta que ya no se fabrica. Esto no ocurre en biologa. +Cuando algo se ha extinguido, no puede ser tu ancestro. +Pero s ocurre en tecnologa. Y resulta que es tan sintomtico que se puede observar el rbol y usarlo para determinar que se trata de un sistema tecnolgico frente a un sistema biolgico. +De hecho, este pensamiento de resucitar todo el conjunto de ideas me llev a pensar acerca de lo que ocurre con la vieja tecnologa. +Y resulta que, de hecho, las tecnologas no mueren. +As es que se lo propuse a un historiador de la ciencia, y dijo, "Bueno, qu pasa con los coches de vapor? +Ya no existen". Pero, en realidad, siguen existiendo. +De hecho, se puedes comprar nuevas piezas para un automvil Stanley de vapor. +ste es el sitio web dedicada a la venta de partes nuevas para el automvil Stanley. Y lo que me encanta es poder aadir a la cesta de la compra a golpe de botn as comprar vlvulas de vapor. Es decir que es muy fcil acceder, realmente estaba ah. +Por eso comenc a pensar, quizs se trata de slo un ejemplo casual. +Debera quiz abordar el asunto de una forma ms conservadora. +sin ser antigedades. Quiero saber cuntas de estas cosas estn todava en produccin. +Y la respuesta fue: todas. +Todas se siguen fabricando. As es que Uds. tienes desgranadoras de maiz. +No s quin necesita una desgranadora de maz. +Ya bien desgranadoras de maz, arados, molinos de viento, todas estas cosas que han dejado de ser antigedades. Todo se puede ordenar. Usted puede ir a la web y se pueden comprar ahora, nuevos de fbrica. As que en cierto sentido, las tecnologas no mueren. +De hecho, se puede comprar, por 50 dlares, un cuchillo de la edad de piedra piedra realizado exactamente de la misma manera que hace 10 000 aos. +Corto, mango de hueso y cuesta slo 50 dlares. Y lo importante es que esta informacin realmente no muere. +No es slo se haya resucitado. Se perpeta en el tiempo. +Y en Papua Nueva Guinea hacan hachas de piedra hasta hace dos dcadas en un curso de contenidos prcticos. +Incluso cuando tratamos de renunciar a la tecnologa, es realmente muy difcil. +Todos sabemos que los Amish renuncian a los automviles. +Sabemos que los Japoneses renuncian a las armas. +De eso se trata. Es para que las ideas no se extingan. +Estn cambiando la forma en que se forjan las ideas. +As que todos estos pasos en la evolucin van en aumento, son bsicamente la evolucin de la evolucionabilidad. +As lo que ocurre en la vida con el paso del tiempo es que la manera cmo generamos las nuevas ideas, los nuevos artificios van en aumento. Y el verdadero secreto estriba en la forma en que se investiga la forma de investigar. +Y entonces comprobamos la singularidad tecnolgica profetizada por Kurzweil y otros de que la tecnologa est acelerando la evolucin. +Est acelerando la forma en que buscamos ideas. +As es que pirateamos vida, la vida es saltarse las reglas es el juego de la supervivencia, por tanto, la evolucin es una manera de ampliar el juego al cambiar las reglas. +Y lo que realmente es la tecnologa es una mejora en la manera de evolucionar. +Eso es lo que se denomina un juego infinito. +sa es la definicin de juego infinito. En un juego finito se juega para ganar ganar y en un juego infinito se juega para seguir jugando. +Y creo que la tecnologa es en realidad una fuerza csmica. +Los orgenes de la tecnologa no comienzan en el ao 1829, sino comienza en realidad con el Big Bang, en ese momento donde una enormidad de miles de millones de estrellas en el universo se comprime. Todo el universo se comprime en minsculos puntos cunticos, y estaban tan apretados que no haba lugar para diferencias en absoluto. +Esa es la definicin. No haba temperatura. +No haba ninguna diferencia en absoluto. Y en el Big Bang lo que se expandi fue el potencial por la diferencia. +Por lo tanto, a medida que se expande y amplia las cosas dando paso a una posibilidad potencial para la diferencia, la diversidad, las opciones, las oportunidades, las posibilidades y las libertades. +A final, todos estos conceptos son bsicamente lo mismo. +Y esto nos aporta la tecnologa. +Eso es lo que nos aporta la tecnologa: opciones, posibilidades, libertades. +De eso se trata. Es la expansin del espacio para crear diferencias. +Y cuando agarramos un martillo, es lo que estamos agarrando, un martillo. +Y por eso seguimos agarrndonos a la tecnologa, porque nos conviene. Son cosas buenas. +Diferencias, libertad, opciones, posibilidades. +Y cada vez que creamos una nueva oportunidad, estamos permitiendo una plataforma para generar otras nuevas. +Y creo que es realmente importante. Porque imagnense a Mozart antes de la invencin tecnolgica del piano, vaya una prdida para la sociedad. +Imagnense que Van Gogh hubira nacido antes de la invencin de los leos asequibles. +Imagnense a Hitchcock antes de la tecnologa cinematogrfica. +En alguna parte, hoy, hay millones de nios que nacen sin que se haya inventado todava la tecnologa para expresarse libremente . +Tenemos la obligacin moral de desarrollar tecnologa para que cada persona del planeta disfrute del potencial para plasmar su verdadero carcter diferenciador. +Queremos tropecientos millones de especies particulares. +A eso es a lo que realmente aspira la tecnologa. +Voy a pasar por alto algunas objeciones porque no tengo respuestas a la deforestacin. +No tengo una respuesta al hecho de que existan, lo que parecen ser, malas tecnologas. No tengo una respuesta a cmo ello repercute en nuestra dignidad, a no ser para sugerir que tal vez el sptimo reino, por estar tan prximo a la vida, tal vez pueda contribuir a ayudarnos a controlar la vida. +Quiz de alguna manera estamos tratando de encontrar a la tecnologa un buen hogar para desarrollarse. +La fumigacin en los campos de algodn DDT es algo terrible, sin embargo, es muy til para eliminar millones de casos de muerte por malaria en un pequeo pueblo. +Nuestra humanidad en realidad est definida por la tecnologa. +Todas las cosas que creemos que realmente nos gustan de la humanidad se promueven a travs y por la tecnologa. ste es el juego infinito. +Eso es de lo que estamos hablando. +La tecnologa es una manera de que la evolucin evolucione. +Es una manera de explorar las posibilidades y oportunidades y crear ms. +Y es en realidad una forma de jugar el juego, de jugar todos los juegos. +A eso aspira la tecnologa. +Por eso, cuando pienso a lo que aspira la tecnologa, creo que est relacionado con el hecho de que cada persona aqu, y estoy convencido de ello, cada persona tiene una misin. Y la misin es ir por la vida descubriendo cul es su cometido. +Y su naturaleza recursiva es el juego infinito. +Y que si juegas bien, tendrs otras personas involucradas de manera que el juego se expande y contina incluso cuando ya no ests. +ste es el juego infinito. Y la tecnologa es el canal donde se desarrolla ese juego infinito. +Y as creo que debemos abrazar la tecnologa, ya que es una parte esencial de nuestro camino en saber lo que somos. +Gracias. +Se supona que iba a hablar de mi nuevo libro que se llama "Blink", y que trata sobre opiniones instantneas y primeras impresiones. +Y que sale en enero, y que espero que todos ustedes compren por triplicado. +Pero estaba pensando sobre esto y me he dado cuenta que aunque mi nuevo libro me hace feliz, y creo que hara feliz a mi madre, no trata realmente sobre la felicidad. +As que decid que en cambio hablara sobre alguien que creo que ha hecho ms por hacer felices a los estadounidenses que probablemente nadie en los ltimos 20 aos. Un hombre que es un gran hroe personal para m. Alguien llamado Howard Moskowitz, quien es famoso por reinventar la salsa de espagueti. +Howard es como de esta altura y es redondo y tiene sesenta y tantos aos y tiene unas gafas enormes y un pelo gris escaso y tiene una especie de maravillosa exuberancia y vitalidad y tiene un loro y le encanta la opera y es un gran aficionado a la historia medieval. +Y de profesin es psicofsico. +Ahora, debera decirles que no tenga ni idea de que es la psicofsica aunque en algn momento de mi vida sal dos aos con una chica que estaba obteniendo un doctorado en psicofsica. +Lo cual debera decirles algo sobre aquella relacin. Hasta donde s, la psicofsica trata sobre medir cosas. +Y Howard tiene un gran inters en medir cosas. +Y se gradu con su doctorado de Harvard y puso una pequea consultora en White Plains, Nueva York. +Y uno de sus primeros clientes fue -- esto fue hace muchos aos atrs, a principio de los 70 -- +uno de sus primeros clientes fue Pepsi. Y de Pepsi fueron a ver a Howard y le dijeron: "Sabes, hay una cosa nueva llamada aspartamo, y nos gustara hacer Pepsi Diet. +Nos gustara saber cuanto aspartamo deberamos poner en cada lata de Pepsi Diet, para tener la bebida perfecta." Bien? +Esto suena como una pregunta increblemente sencilla de responder, y eso fue lo que Howard pens. Porque Pepsi le dijo, "Mira, estamos trabajando con una franja de entre el 8 y el 12 por ciento. +Cualquier cosa por debajo del 8 por ciento de dulzura no es suficientemente dulce, cualquier cosa por encima del 12 por ciento es demasiado dulce. +Queremos saber, cul es el punto exacto de dulzura entre 8 y 12?" +Ahora, si les doy este problema a resolver, todos ustedes diran que es muy fcil. +Lo que hacemos es que hacemos una gran muestra experimental de Pepsi para cada grado de dulzura -- 8 por ciento, 8,1, 8,2, 8,3, as hasta 12 -- y lo probamos con miles de personas y trazamos los resultados en una curva y tomamos la concentracin ms popular. Correcto? Realmente simple. +Howard hace el experimento, y obtiene los datos y los traza en una curva y de pronto se da cuenta que no es una bonita curva de campana. +De hecho, los datos no tienen sentido. +Es un desastre. Est todo enredado. +Ahora bien, la mayora de la gente en este negocio, en el mundo de las pruebas de alimentos y dems, no se preocupan cuando los datos resultan enredados. +Piensan, bien, sabes qu, entender lo que la gente piensa sobre los refrescos de cola no es tan simple. +Sabes, a lo mejor cometimos algn error durante el proceso. +Sabes qu, mejor hagamos una suposicin, y simplemente apuntan y se van por el 10 por ciento, justo en el medio. +Howard no es tan fcil de convencer. +Howard es un hombre con un nivel particular de principios intelectuales. +Y esto no era suficientemente bueno para l as que esta pregunta lo tortur durante aos. +Y le daba vueltas y deca, qu estaba mal? +Por qu no tiene sentido este experimento con Pepsi Diet? +Y un da, estaba sentado en una cafetera en White Plains tratando de sacar alguna idea para un trabajo para Nescafe. +Y de repente, como un rayo, la respuesta vino a l. +Y esta era que cuando analizaron los datos de Pepsi Diet estaban haciendo la pregunta equivocada. +Estaban buscando la Pepsi perfecta y deberan haber estado buscando las Pepsis perfectas. Confen en m. +Esto fue una revelacin formidable. +Esto fue uno de los ms brillantes descubrimientos en toda la ciencia de los alimentos. +Y Howard en seguida se fue de gira e iba a conferencias alrededor del pas y se pona de pie y deca: "Han estado buscando la Pepsi perfecta. Estn equivocados. +Deberan haber estado buscando las Pepsis perfectas." +Y la gente lo miraba con incomprensin y decan: "De qu ests hablando? Esto es una locura." +Y decan, tu sabes: "Fuera de aqu! Siguiente!" +Intentaba conseguir proyectos y nadie lo contrataba -- pero estaba obsesionado y hablaba sobre ello, y hablaba y hablaba. +A Howard le encanta la expresin juda "para un gusano en un rbano, el mundo es un rbano." +ste era su rbano. Estaba obsesionado con esto! +Y finalmente, tuvo un avance. Fueron a verlo de Pepinillos Vlasic +y dijeron, "Seor Moskowitz -- Doctor Moskowitz -- queremos hacer el pepinillo perfecto." Y l dijo: "No existe el pepinillo perfecto, slo existen los pepinillos perfectos." +Y fue a verlos de nuevo y les dijo: "No slo necesitan mejorar el pepinillo normal, necesitan crear uno picante." +Y de ah fue de donde obtuvimos los pepinillos picantes. +Entonces la siguiente persona vino a verle, y fue Sopas Campbell's. +Y esto fue aun ms importante. De hecho, +Sopas Campbell's es donde Howard forj su reputacin. +Campbell's produca Prego, y Prego, a principios de los 80s, perda mercado frente a Rag, que era la salsa de espagueti dominante en los 70s y en los 80s. +Ahora, en la industria, no s si esto les interesa o cuanto tiempo tengo para profundizar en esto. +Pero tcnicamente hablando -- esto es un tema aparte -- Prego es mejor salsa de tomate que Rag. +La calidad del tomate es mucho mejor, la mezcla de especias es muy superior, se adhiere a la pasta de una manera ms satisfactoria. De hecho, +ya en los 70s llevaban a cabo la famosa prueba del plato hondo entre Rag y Prego. +Tenan un plato de espagueti y la vertan encima, de acuerdo? +Y la Rag se iba toda al fondo, y la Prego se mantena encima. +Esto se denomina "adherencia." +Y, de todas modos, a pesar del hecho de que eran superiores en adherencia y de la calidad de su pasta de tomate, Prego estaba en problemas. +As que fueron a ver a Howard, y le dijeron, arrglanos. +Y Howard mir en su linea de productos, y dijo: "Lo que tienen es una sociedad de tomate muertos". +As que dijo: "Esto es lo que quiero hacer". +Y se meti en la cocina de sopas de Campbell's, y elabor 45 variedades de salsa de espagueti. Y las vari +Y cogi la coleccin entera de 45 salsas de espagueti, y se fue de gira. +Fue a Nueva York, fue a Chicago, fue a Jacksonville, fue a Los ngeles. Y trajo gente por montones. A grandes salones. +Y los sent durante dos horas y les dio, durante el transcurso de esas dos horas, diez boles. +Diez pequeos boles de pasta, con una salsa de espagueti diferente en cada uno. +Y despus de que coman cada bol tenan que puntuarlo, de 0 a 100, por cun buena crean que era la salsa de espagueti. +Y al final de ese proceso, despus de hacerlo durante meses y meses, tena una montaa de datos acerca de cmo el pueblo norteamericano se senta respecto a la salsa de espagueti. +Y entonces analiz los datos. +Entonces, busc la variedad ms popular de salsa de espagueti? No! +Howard no cree que exista tal cosa. +En cambio, mir los datos y dijo "Veamos si podemos agrupar estos diferentes datos en conjuntos. +Veamos si confluyen alrededor de ciertas ideas. +Y si te sientas, y analizas todos estos datos sobre la salsa de espagueti te das cuenta que efectivamente todos los norteamericanos pertenecen a uno de tres grupos. +Hay gente a la que le gusta su salsa de espagueti normal, hay gente que a la que le gusta su salsa de espagueti picante y hay gente a la que le gusta con trocitos extra. +Y de esos 3 hechos, el tercero fue el ms significativo. Porque en aquel tiempo, a principios de los 80s, si ibas a un supermercado no encontrabas salsa de espagueti con trocitos extra. +Y durante los siguientes 10 aos, hicieron 600 millones de dlares con su lnea de salsas con trocitos extra. +Y todos en la industria vieron lo que Howard haba hecho y dijeron: "Oh, dios mo! Hemos estado haciendo todo mal!" +Y as es como empezaron a aparecer siete clases diferentes de vinagre y 14 clases diferentes de mostaza y 71 clases diferentes de aceite de oliva, +y al final incluso Rag contrat a Howard y Howard hizo para Rag exactamente lo mismo que haba hecho para Prego. +Y hoy en da si vas a un supermercado, uno realmente bueno, y miras cuantas Rags hay, +Saben cuntas hay? 36! +En seis variedades: Queso, Light, Robusto, Rico y Abundante, Viejo Mundo Tradicional, De jardn con trocitos extra. Esto es lo que Howard logr. Esto es el regalo de Howard a los estadounidenses. +Y bien, por qu es esto importante? Es, de hecho, tremendamente importante. Les explicar por qu. +Lo que Howard hizo es cambiar fundamentalmente la manera en que la industria de los alimentos piensa acerca de cmo hacerles felices. +La primera suposicin de la industria de los alimentos sola ser que la forma de averiguar lo que la gente quiere comer -- lo que hara feliz a la gente -- es preguntarles a ellos. +Y durante aos y aos y aos y aos, Rag y Prego tuvieron grupos focales donde sentaban a toda la gente y les decan: "Qu quieren en la salsa de espagueti? Dgannos que quieren en la salsa de espagueti." +Y durante todos esos aos -- 20, 30 aos -- a lo largo de todas aquellas sesiones de grupo, nadie nunca dijo que queran con trocitos extra. +Incluso cuando al menos un tercio de ellos, en el fondo de sus corazones, en realidad s los queran. +La gente no sabe lo que quiere! No es cierto? +Como Howard adora decir: "La mente no sabe lo que la lengua quiere". +Es un misterio! +Y un paso crticamente importante para entender nuestros propios deseos y gustos es darnos cuenta que no siempre podemos explicar que es lo que en el fondo queremos. +Si les hubiera preguntado a todos ustedes, por ejemplo en esta sala, qu es lo que quieren en un caf, saben que habran dicho? Todos y cada uno de ustedes habran dicho "Quiero un tostado oscuro, rico y generoso." +Es lo que la gente siempre dice cuando se les pregunta qu es lo que quieren en un caf. +Qu te gusta? Tostado oscuro, rico y generoso! +A qu porcentaje de ustedes verdaderamente les gusta un tostado oscuro, rico y generoso? +Segn Howard, a entre el 25 y el 27 por ciento de ustedes. +A la mayora de ustedes les gusta el caf poco cargado y con mucha leche. Pero nunca jams se lo dirn a alguien que les pregunte qu es lo que quieren, que "Quiero un caf poco cargado y con mucha leche." +As que esto es lo primero que Howard hizo. +Lo segundo que Howard hizo es que nos hizo darnos cuenta -- este es otro punto muy crtico -- nos hizo darnos cuenta de la importancia de lo que a l le gusta llamar segmentacin horizontal. +Por qu es esto crtico? Es crtico porque +esta es la forma en que la industria de los alimentos pensaba antes de Howard. Bien? +Con qu estaban obsesionados a principios de los 80? Estaban obsesionados con la mostaza. +En particular, estaban obsesionados con la historia de Grey Poupon. De acuerdo? +Sola haber dos mostazas. French's y Gulden's. +Qu eran? Mostaza amarilla. Qu hay en la mostaza amarilla? +Semillas de mostaza amarillas, crcuma, y pprika. Eso era la mostaza. +Grey Poupon se present con una Dijon. De acuerdo? +Una semilla de mostaza caf mucho ms voltil, un poco de vino blanco, un toque de nariz, aromas mucho ms delicados. Y que hicieron? +Lo pusieron en un frasquito de vidrio con una maravillosa etiqueta esmaltada para hacerlo parecer hecho en Francia, an cuando se hace en Oxnard, California. +Y en vez de cobrar un dlar con 50 por una botella de 225 gramos, como French's y Gulden's hacan, decidieron cobrar cuatro dlares. +Y tenan aquellos anuncios, no? Con el tipo en el Rolls Royce +comiendo la Grey Poupon, el otro Rolls Royce se para al lado +y le dice, tienes un poco de Grey Poupon? +Y el caso es que despus de que hicieron eso Grey Poupon despeg! +Se hizo con el negocio de la mostaza! +Y para todo el mundo la conclusin de esto fue que la manera de conseguir hacer feliz a la gente es darles algo que sea ms caro, algo a lo que aspirar. No? +Es que le den la espalda a lo que piensan que les gusta ahora y que apunten a algo superior en la jerarqua de las mostazas. +Una mostaza mejor! Una mostaza ms cara! +Una mostaza de mayor sofisticacin, cultura y significado. +Y Howard vio aquello y dijo: Esto est mal! +La mostaza no existe en una jerarqua. +La mostaza existe, al igual que la salsa de tomate, en un plano horizontal. +No hay mostaza buena ni mostaza mala. +No hay mostaza perfecta ni mostaza imperfecta. +Slo hay distintas clases de mostazas que se ajustan a diferentes clases de personas. +l bsicamente democratiz la manera en que pensamos sobre el gusto. +Y, nuevamente, por eso debemos estar enormemente agradecidos con Howard Moskowitz. +Lo tercero que Howard hizo y quizs lo ms importante es que Howard se enfrent al concepto del plato platnico. Qu quiero decir con esto? +Durante muchsimo tiempo en la industria de los alimentos exista la sensacin de que haba una manera, una manera perfecta, de preparar un plato. +Vas a Chez Panisse, te dan el sashimi de cola roja con semillas de calabaza tostadas en una reduccin de algo de algo. +No te dan cinco opciones para la reduccin, verdad? +No te dicen: quieres la reduccin con trozos extra grandes, o quieres la... No! +Slo te dan la reduccin. Por qu? Porque el chef de Chez Panisse tiene una nocin platnica acerca del sashimi de cola roja. +As es como debera ser. +Y ella lo sirve de esa forma una vez y otra vez y si no ests de acuerdo con ella, ella te dir, "Sabes qu? Ests equivocado! As es como mejor debiera ser en este restaurante". +Y la misma idea tambin impuls a la industria de los alimentos. +Tenan una idea, una nocin platnica, de lo que era la salsa de tomate. +Y de dnde vena eso? Vena de Italia. +La salsa de tomate italiana cmo es? Est triturada, es poco espesa. +La cultura de la salsa de tomate era poco espesa. +Cuando hablbamos de salsa de tomate autntica en los 70s hablbamos de la salsa de tomate italiana. Hablbamos de las primeras rags. Que no tenan slidos visibles, cierto? +Que eran poco espesas y que, si ponas un poco encima se colaba hasta el fondo de la pasta. +Eso es lo que era. Y por qu estbamos aferrados a eso? +Porque, A, pensbamos que lo que hara a la gente feliz era ofrecerles la salsa de tomate culturalmente ms autntica +y, B, pensbamos que si les dbamos la salsa de tomate culturalmente autntica la recibiran con los brazos abiertos. +Y esto complacera al nmero mximo de personas. +Y la razn por la que pensbamos esto, en otras palabras, la gente en el mundo de la cocina estaba buscando los principios universales de la cocina. +Estaban buscando una sola forma de tratarnos a todos nosotros. +Y hay una buena razn para que ellos se obsesionasen con los principios universales, porque toda la ciencia, a lo largo del siglo 19 y gran parte del 20, estaba obsesionada con principios universales. +Psiclogos, investigadores mdicos y economistas estaban todos interesados en descubrir las reglas que gobiernan la manera en que todos nosotros nos comportamos. +Pero eso cambi, verdad? +Cul ha sido la gran revolucin en la ciencia de los ltimos 10, 15 aos? +Ha sido la transformacin desde la bsqueda de principios universales a la comprensin de la variabilidad. +Ahora en la ciencia mdica, no queremos saber necesariamente cmo funciona el cncer, queremos saber cmo tu cncer es diferente de mi cncer. +Cmo mi cncer es diferente de tu cncer, perdn. +La gentica ha abierto la puerta al estudio de la variabilidad humana. +Lo que Howard Moskowitz estaba haciendo era decir que esta misma revolucin necesitaba darse en el mundo de la salsa de tomate. +Y por ello, le debemos estar agradecidos a Howard. +Les dar un ltimo ejemplo de variabilidad y este es -- oh, lo siento. +Howard no slo crea eso, sino que fue un paso ms all, que consisti en decir que cuando perseguimos principios universales en la comida no slo estamos cometiendo un error, sino que nos estamos ocasionando un enorme perjuicio a nosotros mismos. +Y el ejemplo que l us fue el caf. +Y el caf es algo con lo que l trabaj mucho, con Nescafe. +Y, si por el contrario, me permitieran dividirlos en grupos de caf, tal vez tres o cuatro grupos de caf, y pudiera preparar caf slo para cada uno de esos grupos individuales sus puntuaciones iran de 60 a 75 o 78. +La diferencia entre el caf de 60 y el caf de 78 es la diferencia entre el caf que tomas a regaadientes y el caf que te hace extremadamente feliz. +Esa es la ltima, y creo que la ms bella, leccin de Howard Moskowitz. Que aceptando la diversidad de los seres humanos encontraremos un camino ms certero a la verdadera felicidad. +Gracias. +Saben, los ltimos das, mientras me preparaba para mi discurso, me pona ms y ms nerviosa por lo que voy a decir y por estar en el mismo escenario que toda esta gente fascinante. +Estar en el mismo escenario que Al Gore, quien fue la primera persona por la que vot. +Y -- y -- me estaba poniendo muy nerviosa, saben, no saba que Chris se sienta en el escenario, y eso es ms estresante. +Pero despus empec a pensar en mi familia. +Empec a pensar en mi padre y mi abuelo y en mi tatarabuelo, y me di cuenta de que teniendo todos estos Teds fluyendo por mi sangre - - ste tena que ser mi elemento. +As que ... Quin soy? +Chris mencion que fund una compaa con mi esposo. +Tenemos como 125 colaboradores internacionalmente. +Si miraban el libro, eso es lo que vean, +lo que realmente me impact. +Como quera impresionarlos a todos con diapositivas, porque vi las geniales presentaciones de ayer con grficos, hice un grfico que se mueve, y habla sobre cmo estoy hecha. +As que, aparte de esta rareza, esta es mi diapositiva cientfica. Esto es matemticas, +y esto es ciencia, gentica. +Esta es mi abuela, de quien hered mi boca grande. +Entonces... Soy una bloguera, lo que probablemente para ustedes significa varias cosas. +Quizs oyeron el revuelo del candado Kryptonite, cuando un bloguero habl sobre cmo romperlo usando un bolgrafo, y todo el mundo se enter. Kryptonite tuvo que ajustar el candado +y tuvieron que referirse a ello para evitar preocupaciones de los clientes. +Quiz habrn odo sobre Rathergate, que bsicamente fue el resultado de que algunos blogueros se fijaran en las letras "th" en el nmero 111: como eso no se puede hacer con mquina de escribir, est en Word. +Los blogueros hicieron pblico esto, o se esforzaron por ello. +Saben, los blogs dan miedo. Esto es lo que vemos. +Si veo esto, de seguro me asusto terriblemente con los blogs, porque no es algo muy amigable. +Pero hay blogs que estn cambiando la manera en que consumimos noticias y medios, +y son ejemplos geniales. Estas personas estn llegando a miles de lectores, por no decir millones, Y eso es increblemente importante. +Saben, durante el huracn el canal MSNBC poste sobre el huracn en su blog, actualizndolo constantemente. Esto fue posible +por la facilidad de las herramientas de blogueo. +Saben, tengo un amigo que tiene un blog sobre GPDs, grabadoras personales digitales. +Slo con los anuncios gana suficiente dinero para mantener a su familia en Oregon. +Eso es todo lo que hace ahora y los blogs lo hicieron posible. +Otro ejemplo es Interplast. +Es una organizacin maravillosa de personas y doctores que van a pases en desarrollo a ofrecer ciruga plstica a los que la necesitan. +As, atienden a nios con paladar hendido +y documentan su historia en el blog. Es maravilloso. +Yo no soy tan caritativa. +Yo hablo sobre m misma. Eso es lo que soy, una bloguera. +Desde siempre tena decidido ser experta en algo, y soy una experta en m misma as que escribo sobre eso. +As que, esta es la historia corta de mi blog: empez en el 2001. Tena 23 aos. +No estaba contenta con mi trabajo, porque era diseadora pero no tena ninguna motivacin. +Haba estudiado ingls en la universidad. No lo estaba aplicando, +pero extraaba escribir. As que empec a escribir un blog y empec a crear cosas como estas historias. +Pueden rerse, est bien. +Esto es lo que me ha hecho ser yo, sta soy yo. +Esto es lo que me sucedi. +Cuando comenc mi blog tena una meta, me di cuenta de que no iba a ser famosa para todo el mundo pero poda ser famosa para gente en la Internet. +As que me puse una meta: Voy a ganar un premio, porque nunca haba ganado un premio en toda mi vida. +Entonces me propuse ganar el premio SXSW de blogs. +Y lo gan. Llegu a toda esta gente, y tena miles de personas leyendo sobre mi vida diariamente. +Despus escrib sobre un banjo. +Escrib sobre querer comprar un banjo de 300 dlares, lo cual es mucho dinero. +Adems, yo no toco instrumentos, no se nada de msica. +Me gusta la msica y los banjos, y creo que alguna vez escuch tocar a Steve Martin. As que me dije - yo puedo hacerlo! +Le pregunt a mi esposo, Puedo comprar un banjo? +Me dijo que no. ste es mi esposo, muy guapo - se gan un premio por ser guapo. +Me dijo, "No puedes comprar un banjo - +eres como tu pap, que colecciona instrumentos" +As que escrib sobre lo enojada que estaba con l, que fue un tirano porque no me dej comprar el banjo. +Le gente que me conoce entendi mi chiste. esta es Mena, as es como yo digo chistes. +Porque el chiste es que mi esposo no es un tirano, es una persona tan amorosa y dulce que me deja disfrazarlo y poner fotos de l en mi blog. +Y si supiera que les estoy mostrando esto, me matara. +la cosa fue que mis amigos leyeron lo que escrib y se lo tomaron a broma, ya saben, tontear sobre querer una cosa estpida. +Pero tambin recib e-mails de gente que me deca, Oh Dios mo!, tu esposo es un patn. +Cunto gasta l en cerveza al ao? +Podras usar ese dinero y comprar tu banjo. +Porqu no abres una cuenta separada? +Estoy con l desde que tena 17 aos - nunca hemos tenido cuentas separadas. +Dijeron "Separa tu cuenta de banco - +gasta tu dinero y su dinero. Eso es todo." +Otros dijeron "Djalo". +As que me pregunt Quienes son stas personas? +Y por qu estn leyendo esto? +Me di cuenta que no quera llegar a esas personas. +No quera escribir para un pblico. +Y empec a matar el blog lentamente. +Ya no quera escribir el blog, +y lentamente lo elimin. Contaba historias personales de vez en cuando. +Escrib sta sobre Einstein hoy. +Se me va a hacer un nudo en la garganta, sta fue mi primera mascota, que muri hace 2 aos. +Entonces tom un recreo del "No quiero escribir mi vida en pblico" porque quera hacerle un pequeo tributo. +De cualquier manera, son estas historias personales. Saben, hay blogs sobre poltica, o sobre medios de comunicacin, chismes y todo eso. Esos blogs estn ah, pero a m me interesa ms lo personal - saben sta es quien soy. +Por ejemplo, los crticos de arte ven a Norman Rockwell y dicen que no es arte. Los trabajos de Norman Rockwell cuelgan en +salas y baos, y eso no es algo que se considere arte. +Creo que esto es una de las cosas ms importantes para nosotros como humanos. +Este tipo de cosas nos conmueven. Y si piensan en blogs, tambin piensan en los que son como arte, como las pinturas histrias o las historias bblicas, y por otro lado tenemos esto. +Estos son los blogs que me interesan: La gente que slo cuenta historias. +Una de esas historias es sobre ste beb llamado Odin. +Cuyo padre es un bloguero. +Estaba escribiendo su blog un da, y su esposa di a luz a su beb a las 25 semanas de gestacin. +l nunca espero esto. +Era un da normal y al siguiente era un infierno. +Era un beb de menos de medio kilo. +As que la vida de Odin fue documentada da a da. +Le tomaron fotos todos los das, da uno, da dos. +Por ejemplo el da nueve su padre habl del apnea, el da 39 le di neumona. +Este beb es tan pequeo, y nunca encontr una imagen que fuera perturbadora, pero tan conmovedora. +Saben, estbamos leyndolo mientras ocurra, as, en el da 55 todos pudimos leer que el beb estaba teniendo dificultades respiratorias y del corazn, y no se sabe qu esperar. +Pero despus mejora. El da 96 se va a casa. +Y puedes leer sobre ello. +Esto no es algo que se vea en los peridicos o revistas, pero es algo que esta persona est sintiendo y la gente est emocionada al respecto. +Saben, 28 comentarios no es mucha gente, pero 28 personas importan. +Hoy es un beb saludable -lo pueden ver si leen el blog de su padre, es Snowdeal.org l sigue tomndole fotos, porque sigue siendo su hijo, y creo que ahora est nivelado con su edad porque ha recibido un tratamiento grandioso del hospital. +Entonces, los blogs. +Y qu? Seguramente habrn escuchado estas cosas antes. +Hemos hablado sobre well.com y hemos hablado sobre esta clase de cosas a travs de nuestra historia online. +Pero creo que los blogs son bsicamente una evolucin y ah es donde nos encontramos hoy da. +Es un registro acerca de quin eres, la persona que muestras. +Es posible buscar en Google quin es Mena Trott? +Y luego encuentras este tipo de cosas, y te hacen feliz o infeliz. +Pero tambin puedes encontrar blogs sobre personas y esos son los registros de gente que escribe diariamente. no necesariamente sobre el mismo tema, sino sobre cosas que les interesan. +Hablamos de cmo el mundo se hace ms abordable y pequeo y soy muy optimista al respecto. Cuando pienso en los blogs, quisiera llegar a todas esas personas. +Miles de millones de personas. +Saben, ahora estamos entrando en China, queremos estar ah, pero hay tantas personas que no tendrn acceso a escribir un blog. +Pero ver algo como la computadora de $100 USD es increble porque el software para bloguear es simple. +Saben, nosotros tenemos una compaa exitosa porque llegamos a tiempo y perseveramos, pero es algo sencillo, no es gran ciencia. +Eso tambin es algo asombroso a considerar. +As que, el registro de la vida en un blog es algo que considero increblemente importante. +Empezamos con una diapositiva de mis Teds y tena que aadirla porque saba que en cuanto mostrara esto -mi madre lo ver de algn modo, porque ella lee mi blog- y dir: Porque no haba una foto ma? +Esta es mi madre. Esta es toda la ascendencia que conozco. +Esta es la parte +de la familia que conozco en trminos de mi lnea directa. +Antes les mostr una pintura de Norman Rockwell; yo crec mirando esta pintura constantemente. +Me pasaba horas mirando las conexiones. Pensaba: "Oh, el nio pequeo del extremo tiene pelo rojo; tal como la primera generacin." +Y cositas como esa. No es ciencia, +pero era suficiente para m, para interesarme en cmo hemos evolucionado y cmo podemos rastrear nuestra ascendencia. +Eso siempre me ha influenciado. +Saben, tengo este registro del censo de 1910 de otro Grabowski. Ese es mi nombre de soltera, y hay un Theodore, porque siempre hay un Theodore. +Pero esto es todo lo que tengo. Tengo un par de datos sobre alguien. +Tengo su fecha de nacimiento, su edad, su ocupacin en el hogar y si hablaban ingls. Y eso es todo lo que s sobre estas personas. +Y es muy triste, porque slo puedo retroceder 5 generaciones +y eso es todo. Ni siquiera s lo que pas del lado materno, porque ella es de Cuba y no tengo esa informacin. +Y para hacer esto pas tiempo en los archivos -tambin por eso digo que mi esposo es un santo- pas tiempo en los archivos de Washington, sentada, buscando estas cosas. Ahora est online, +pero l me acompa en mi bsqueda. +En este registro tambin est mi tatarabuela. +Esta es la nica foto que tengo de ella. Y pensar +en lo que podemos hacer con nuestros blogs; pensar en la gente que est en esas computadoras de $100 USD hablando sobre quienes son, compartiendo sus historias personales, es algo increble. +Otra foto que me infuenciado en gran medida, mejor dicho, una serie de fotos, es este proyecto hecho por un argetino y su esposa. +l toma una foto de su familia todos los das desde hace... qu es, 76'? 20, oh Dios mo, soy del ao 77'... +29 aos? 29 aos. +Originalmente tena una broma sobre mi grfico, que dej afuera. Ven todas estas matemticas? Estoy feliz de haber logrado hacerlas sumar 100, porque hasta ah llegan mis habilidades. +As, tenemos a esta gente envejeciendo, y as estn hoy, o el ao pasado, +y poder llevar este registro es algo muy poderoso. +Me gustara tener esto de mi familia. +Se que un da, a mis hijos, a mis nietos, o a mis bisnietos -si algn da tengo nios- les gustara saber qu es lo que hago, +quien fu, as que hago algo muy narcisista. Soy una bloguera, que es algo increble para m, porque captura un momento en el tiempo todos los das. +Tomo una foto de m misma diariamante. Lo he hecho desde el ao pasado. +Y, saben, es la misma foto, es bsicamente la misma persona. +Slo un par de personas lo leen. No lo escribo para una audiencia. +Ahora lo estoy mostrando, pero me volvera loca si fuera realmente pblico. +Aproximadamente cuatro personas lo leen, y me dicen que no lo he actualizado. +Probablemente tendr gente que me lo diga cuando no lo actualice, +pero esto es increble, porque puedo ir a cualquier da -puedo ir a abril del 2005- +y decir, que estaba haciendo ese da? Lo veo y lo s exactamente. +Es una pista visual, que es muy importante para lo que hacemos. +Y saben, tambin puse las fotos malas, porque tambin hay fotos malas. +Y recuerdo al instante: estaba en Alemania, tuve que viajar por un da. +Estaba enferma, estaba en un cuarto de hotel y no quera estar ah. As pueden ver este tipo de cosas. +No siempre es sonrer. Ahora he evolucionado y tengo esta apariencia. +Si ven mi licencia de conducir tengo la misma apariencia, y es algo muy perturbador pero es algo realmente importante. +Y la ltima historia, realmente quiero compartirles esta historia, porque es probablemente la que significa ms para mi respecto a lo que estoy haciendo. +Probablemente se me haga un nudo en la garganta, me pasas siempre con esto. +Esta mujer se llamaba Emma y era una bloguera con nosotros en TypePad. Ella probaba una versin beta, +as que estuvo con nosotros en cuanto abrimos -saben, haba 100 personas- +y escribi sobre su vida luchando contra el cncer. +Emma escribi, escribi y escribi, y todos comenzamos a leerlo, porque tenamos pocos blogs en servicio, y podamos leerlos todos. +Estaba escribiendo un da y desapareci por un tiempo. Su hermana nos contact y nos dijo +que Emma haba fallecido. Fue muy conmovedor +para todo nuestro equipo de soporte, y fue un da muy duro en la compaa. Y ese fue - +uno de esos ejemplos donde me di cuenta de lo mucho que bloguear afecta nuestras relaciones, y hace ms pequeo este mundo. Esta mujer estaba en Inglaterra +y vive, mejor dicho, vivi, una vida donde pudo hablar sobre ella - y lo que ella haca. +Fue algo increble. +As que imprim su blog, o, ms bien, envi un PDF de su blog a su familia, y ellos lo compartieron en su funeral, incluso mencionaron el blog en su obituario porque haba sido una parte importante de su vida. +Eso es algo tremendo. +Ese es su legado. Creo que mi llamado a todos ustedes es que piensen en los blogs, en lo que son, lo que han pensado sobre los ellos, y despus llvenlo a la prctica porque es algo que realmente cambiar nuestras vidas. +Muchas gracias. +Hola, soy Michael Shermer, director de la Skeptics Society, editora de la revista Skeptic. +Investigamos alegatos de eventos paranormales, pseudociencias, grupos marginales, cultos y todo lo que est en el medio. Ciencias, pseudociencias, ciencia basura, ciencia voodoo, ciencia patolgica, mala ciencia, no ciencias y el conocido sin sentido. +A menos que hayan estado en Marte ltimamente sabrn que hay mucho de eso ah afuera. +Alguna gente nos llama los refutadores lo cual es un trmino algo negativo, +pero aceptmoslo, hay un montn de basura. +Somos como el escuadrn de calidad del departamento de polica refutando la basura, bueno, ms o menos como los Ralph Naders de las malas ideas, tratando de reemplazar malas ideas por buenas ideas. +Les muestro un ejemplo de una mala idea. +Traje esto conmigo, nos lo di Dateline, de NBC, para probarlo. +Lo produce la Quadro Corporation de Virginia Occidental, +se llama el Quadro 2000 Dowser Rod. +Esto estaba siendo vendido a los directores de escuelas por 900 dlares cada uno. +Es un pedazo de plstico con una antena de Radioshack pegada. +Pueden hacer uno de estos para buscar todo tipo de cosas, pero este en especial se dise para buscar marihuana en los casilleros de los estudiantes. +As funciona, van caminando por el pasillo y ven si la antena se mueve hacia un casillero en particular, y entonces abren el casillero. +Es algo as, +les muestro. +Bueno, tiene cierta tendencia de girar hacia la derecha +Esto es ciencia, as que haremos un experimento controlado, +seguro que va para el otro lado. +Seor, podra vaciar sus bolsillos, por favor? +Entonces la pregunta era, puedo encontrar marihuana en los casilleros de los +alumnos? Y la respuesta es, si abren suficientes casilleros, s. +Pero en ciencia debemos tener en cuenta los errores, no slo los aciertos +Esa es probablemente la principal leccin de mi corta charla aqu, es que as funcionan todos estos psquicos, astrlogos, lectores de cartas de tarot y +dems: La gente recuerda los aciertos y olvida los errores. +En ciencia, debemos mantener toda la base de datos y ver si el nmero de aciertos de alguna forma es mayor al nmero total que usted esperara por azar. +En este caso, hicimos pruebas. +Tenamos dos cajas opacas, una con THC marihuana aprobada por el gobierno, y la otra vaca. +Funcion el 50% de las veces, justo lo que esperaran lanzando una moneda. +Ese es slo un pequeo y divertido ejemplo del tipo de cosas que hacemos; +Skeptic es una publicacin trimestral, +cada una tiene un tema particular, como esta, es sobre el futuro de la inteligencia. +La gente se est volviendo ms inteligente o ms tonta? +Tengo una opinin propia al respecto, por el negocio en el que estoy. Pero, de hecho, resulta que la gente se est volviendo ms inteligente +Tres puntos de CI por cada 10 aos que pasan, +lo cual es una cosa interesante. +Con ciencia, no piensen en el escepticismo como una cosa o incluso en la +ciencia como una cosa Son la ciencia y la religin compatibles? +Es como preguntar si la ciencia y la plomera son compatibles. +Son, simplemente, cosas diferentes. +La ciencia no es una cosa, es un verbo. +Es una forma de pensar acerca de las cosas, +Es una forma de buscar una explicacin natural a todos los fenmenos. +Me refiero a, qu es ms probable? Que inteligencias extraterrestres o seres multidimensionales hayan viajado la vastedad del espacio interestelar para dejar una marca en las cosechas en el la granja de Bob en Puckerbrush, Kansas para promover Skeptic.com, nuestro sitio web? +o es ms probable que un lector de Skeptic haya hecho esto con Photoshop? +En cualquier caso, tenemos que preguntar cul es la explicacin ms probable, +y antes de decir que algo es de fuera de este mundo, tenemos que asegurarnos de que no est en este mundo +Qu es ms probable? Que Arnold haya tenido un poco de ayuda extraterrestre en las elecciones para gobernador, o que el World Weekly News invente cosas? +Y parte de eso, el mismo tema, se expresa muy bien en esta caricatura de Sidney Harris. +Para aquellos en el fondo, dice: "Entonces sucede un milagro". +"Creo que deberas ser ms explcito en el paso dos". +Esta diapositiva, sola, desmantela completamente los argumentos sobre el +diseo inteligente. No es nada ms que eso. +Pueden decir "Entonces un milagro sucede", slo que eso no explica nada, +no ofrece nada, no hay nada para probar. +Es el fin de la conversacin para los creacionistas de diseo inteligente. +Mientras que, es cierto, la ciencia a veces pone nombres tentativos para llenar el espacio lingistico, energa oscura o materia oscura, o algo as. Hasta que descubramos qu es lo llamaremos as. +Es el comienzo de la cadena causal para la ciencia. +para el creacionismo de diseo inteligente es el fin de la cadena. +Entonces, podemos preguntarnos esto, qu es ms probable? +Ovnis, platillos voladores, errores cognitivos perceptuales o incluso engaos? +Esta es la foto de un ovni desde mi casa en Altadena, California, mirando hacia Pasadena. +Y si se ve muy parecido a un plato desechable, es porque eso es. +Ni siquiera necesitan Photoshop ni equipos de alta tecnologa, no necesitan computadoras. +Esto fue tomado con una cmara Kodak desechable. +Alguien est al costado con el plato listo para tirarlo, +la cmara est lista, ya est. +Aunque es posible que la mayora de estas cosas sean engaos, o ilusiones o algo as, y algunas sean reales, es ms probable que todas sean falsas como las marcas en las cosechas. +En un plano ms serio, en todas las ciencias buscamos balance entre datos y teora. +En el caso de Galileo, l tuvo dos problemas al mirar con el telescopio hacia Saturno. +Primero, no haba una teora de anillos planetarios y, +segundo, sus datos eran vagos y difusos. No poda entender muy bien qu era lo que estaba mirando, +entonces escribi lo que vi: "He observado que el planeta ms lejano tiene tres cuerpos". +Esto es lo que termin concluyendo. +Entonces, sin una teora de anillos planetarios y slo datos vagos, no pueden tener una buena teora. +Esto no se resolvi sino hasta 1655. +Esto es del libro de Christiaan Huygens, en donde catalog todos los errores que las personas hicieron tratando de entender qu pasaba cuando miraban a +Saturno. No fue sino hasta que Huygens tuvo dos cosas: Una buena teora de anillos planetarios y de cmo operaba el sistema solar, y mejores telescopios, mejores datos. As pudo entender que lo que ocurra es que la Tierra iba ms rpido, de acuerdo a las leyes de Kepler, que Saturno y despus lo alcanzamos +y vemos los anillos en diferentes ngulos, ah. +Que es lo que de hecho result ser cierto. +El problema con tener una teora es que su teora puede estar cargada de sesgos cognitivos. +Entonces uno de los problemas explicando por qu las personas creen cosas extraas es que tenemos cosas a un nivel ms simple y despus ire a otras ms serias +como, tenemos una tendencia a ver caras. +Esta es la cara en Marte que era, +en 1976, donde haba todo un movimiento para que la NASA tomara fotografas del rea, porque la gente pensaba que era una monumental arquitectura hecha por marcianos. +Bueno, result que, ac hay un acercamiento del 2001, +si entrecierran los ojos todava pueden ver la cara. +Cuando entrecierran los ojos lo que estn haciendo es cambiando de alta calidad a baja calidad, reduciendo as la calidad de los datos. +Y si no les dijera qu buscar, todava podran ver la cara, porque estamos programados por la evolucin para reconocer rostros. +Los rostros son importantes para nosotros a nivel social. +Y claro, caras felices, caras de todo tipo son fciles de ver. +Pueden ver la cara feliz en Marte ah. +Si los astrnomos fuesen ranas quizs veran a la rana Ren, +la ven ah, +O si los gelogos fuesen elefantes... +Iconografa religiosa, +descubierta por un pastelero en Tennesee en 1996, +cobraba 5 dlares por cabeza para verla hasta que recibi una orden del abogado de la madre Teresa. +Esta es la Virgen de Guadalupe y la Virgen de Watsonville, ac bajando la calle o subiendo la calle desde ac. +Las ramas de rboles con particularmente buenas porque son irregulares, en blanco y negro, borrosas y pueden buscar patrones; los humanos somos animales buscadores de patrones. +Aqu est la Virgen Mara en una ventana de vidrio en Sao Paulo. +Aqu la Virgen Mara hizo su aparicion en un sndwich de queso que incluso pude sostener en un casino en las Vegas... Claro, esto es Estados Unidos... +Este casino pag 28.500 dlares en eBay por el sndwich de queso +Pero realmente a quin se parece? a la Virgen Mara? +Tiene esos labios de los aos 40... +La Virgen Mara en Clearwater, Florida. +Esta pude verla... +Hay un montn de personas, los creyentes que vienen, +sillas de ruedas y muletas y as. +Fuimos a investigar, +para darles idea del tamao, ese es Dawkins, yo y el asombroso Randi junto a esta imagen de dos, dos pisos y medio. +Muchas velas, miles de velas que la gente deja de tributo. +Entonces caminamos a la parte de atrs para ver qu estaba pasando aqu, +resulta que donde sea hay un rociador y una palmera se obtiene este efecto. +Aqu est la virgen Mara en la parte de atrs, la cual empezaron a limpiar... +Parece que slo pueden tener un milagro por edificio. +Entonces, realmente es el milagro de Mara o es el milagro de Marge? +Voy a terminar con otro ejemplo de esto con audio, ilusiones auditivas. +Est esta pelcula "Voces del Ms All" con Michael Keaton sobre los muertos hablndonos... +Por cierto, este negocio de hablar con los muertos, no es tan complicado, +cualquiera puede hacerlo; pero resulta +que lograr que los muertos respondan, esa es la parte difcil. +En este caso, supuestamente estos mensajes estn escondidos en fenmenos +electrnicos. Est esta pgina, reversespeech.com, de donde baj esto. +Aqu est la versin normal, este es uno de los ms famosos, +esta es la versin normal de una cancin muy famosa... +uno podra escuchar esto todo el da, cierto? +Aqu est al revs. A ver si pueden entender el mensaje que est supuestamente ah.. +Qu entendieron? (Audiencia: Satn) +Shermer: Satn? ok, por lo menos escuchamos Satn. +Ahora voy a preparar a la parte auditiva de su cerebro para decirle qu se supone que escuche y lo escucharemos de nuevo. +No pueden dejar de escucharlo cuando les digo que est ah. +Djenme terminar con una historia positiva... +Skeptics es una organizacin educacional sin fines de lucro, +siempre buscamos cositas buenas que la gente hace. +En Inglaterra hay una cantante de pop, +una cantante muy popular hoy en Inglaterra, Katie Melua. +Ella escribi una hermosa cancin que +estuvo en el top 5 en el 2005 llamada "Nine Millon Bicycles in Beijing" (nueve +millones de bicicletas en Beijing). Es una historia de amor, ella es como la Norah Jones de Reino Unido. Es sobre cunto ama a su novio, y lo compara con nueve millones de bicicletas y as... +Y tiene este pasaje +Bueno, eso es bonito. Por lo menos estuvo cerca. +En Estados Unidos sera estamos a 6000 aos luz del borde +Pero mi amigo Simon Singh, fsico de partculas que ahora se dedica a la divulgacin cientfica, escribi el libro "el Big Bang", usa cada oportunidad que tiene para promover la buena ciencia. +Entonces escribi un artculo acerca de la cancin de Katie en The Guardian diciendo, mm, bueno, sabemos exactamente a cunto estamos del borde +Son 13.7 mil millones de aos-luz, no es una suposicin, +lo sabemos dentro de margenes de error bien definidos. +Entonces podemos decirlo, aunque sin certeza absoluta, es bastante cercano +a ser verdad. Y para crdito suyo, Katie llam un poco despus de la aparicin del artculo. Dijo: "Estoy muy avergonzada, +era miembro del club de astronoma, deb de haberlo sabido". +Grab de nuevo la cancin, +entonces voy a terminar con la nueva versin. +Acaso no es esto genial? +Me encantan los rboles, y tengo mucha suerte porque vivimos cerca de un magnfico jardn botnico, y los domingos, usualmente solamos ir con mi esposa y ahora con mi hija de cuatro aos, y trepbamos a los rboles y jugbamos a las escondidas. +La segunda escuela a la que fui tambin tena grandes rboles, tena un tulpero fantstico, creo que era el ms grande del pas, y, tambin, tena muchos arbustos y vegetacin magnficos alrededor, alrededor de los campos de juego. +Y un da, me agarraron algunos de mis compaeros, me llevaron a los arbustos, me desvistieron, me atacaron, fui abusado, y esto ocurri de la nada. +Bien, la razn por la que digo esto, es porque despus pensaba... bien, regres a la escuela, me senta sucio, me senta traicionado, me senta avergonzado, pero, principalmente, me senta impotente, +y 30 aos despus estaba sentado en un avin, al lado de una seora llamada Vernica, que era de Chile, y estbamos en una gira por los derechos humanos, y ella haba comenzado a contarme cmo era ser torturado, y, desde mi posicin de privilegio, este fue el nico punto de referencia que tena. +Y fue una experiencia de aprendizaje asombrosa porque, para m, los derechos humanos era algo en lo que tena, saben, un inters de tiempo parcial, pero sobre todo era algo que le ocurra a otra gente all afuera. +Y entonces me involucr con la gira para Amnista, y luego, en el 88 me hice cargo del trabajo de Bono e intent aprender cmo movilizar +No lo hice tan bien, pero logr juntar a Youssou N'Dour, Sting, Tracy Chapman y Bruce Springsteen para dar la vuelta al mundo por Amnista, y fue una experiencia asombrosa. +Y, una vez ms, obtuve una extraordinaria enseanza, y fue la primera vez, en realidad, que conocera gente en diferentes pases, y estas historias de derechos humanos se corporizaron, y una vez ms, no pude, realmente, alejarme con comodidad. +Pero lo que realmente me sorprendi, sobre lo que no tena idea, fue que se poda sufrir de ese modo y que luego toda esa experiencia, tu historia, fuera negada, enterrada y olvidada. +Y pareca que siempre que hubiera una cmara por ah o un video o una cmara fotogrfica, era mucho ms dificil hacerlo para aquellos con poder para enterrar la historia. +Y Reebok estableci una fundacin para esas giras "Derechos Humanos Ya" y hubo una decisin entonces. bueno, hicimos una propuesta, por un par de aos, intentando armar un sector que le iba a dar cmaras a activistas de derechos humanos. +As comenz Witness en el 92 y desde entonces ha entregado cmaras en ms de 60 pases. +Y hacemos campaas con grupos activistas, y los ayudamos a contar su historia y, de hecho, les voy a mostrar, dentro de un momento, una de las ms recientes campaas, y me temo que es una historia de Uganda, y, aunque tuvimos una maravillosa historia de Uganda ayer, esta no es tan buena. +Y en el norte de Uganda, hay alrededor de un milln y medio de desplazados internos, personas que no son refugiados en otros pases, pero debido a la guerra civil que dura ya alrededor de 20 aos, no tienen dnde vivir. +Y 20.000 nios han sido arrebatados para convertirlos en soldados, y el Tribunal Penal Internacional est persiguiendo a cinco de los lderes de... cmo se llama? +Me olvido del nombre de ese ejrcito, creo que es el Ejrcito de Resistencia del Seor, pero el gobierno tampoco est limpio. As que si podramos pasar el primer video. +La vida en el campo nunca es simple. Aun hoy la vida es difcil. +Nos quedamos por miedo a lo que lo que nos empuj al campo... +todava exista en nuestra casa. +Cuando estbamos en casa, eran los soldados de Kony los que nos molestaban. +Al principio, estbamos seguros en el campo. +Pero despus, los soldados del gobierno comenzaron a maltratarnos mucho. +Jennifer: Un soldado se acerc y pregunt dnde habamos estado. +Evelyn y yo nos escondimos detrs de muestra madre. +Evelyn: Nos orden sentarnos, entonces nos sentamos. +Tambin vino el otro soldado. +Jennifer: El hombre vino y comenz a desvestirne. +El otro apart a Evelyn. +El que me viol luego fue a violar a Evelyn. +Y el que viol a Evelyn, vino y me viol a m tambin. +Hombre: Los soldados nos golpean con palos as de largos para obtener una confesin. +Nos dicen constantemente, "Diga la verdad!" mientras nos golpean. +Mujer: Insistan en que estaba mintiendo. +En ese momento dispararon y volaron mis dedos. +Ca. Corrieron a unirse con los otros... me dieron por muerta. +As que la tortura no es algo que siempre ocurre en otra tierra, +En mi pas fue... estuvimos viendo fotos de soldados britnicos golpeando jvenes iraques, y tenemos Abu Ghraib, y tenemos la baha de Guantnamo, +Y pienso que si miramos al mundo tanto como a las capas de hielo polar que se derriten, Los Derechos Humanos, por los que se ha luchado, durante cientos de aos en muchos casos, estn, tambin, erosionndose muy rpidamente, y eso es algo que necesitamos mirar y, tal vez, comenzar a hacer campaas a favor. +y como la historia del Sr. Morales en la calle, disculpe, Sr. Gabriel le molestara si demorsemos un poco su ejecucin? +No, para nada, ningn problema, tmese su tiempo. +Pero seguramente, quienquiera sea ese hombre, sin importar qu haya hecho, este es un castigo cruel e inusual. +En todo caso, Witness ha intentado armar a la gente valiente quienes, con frecuencia, ponen en riesgo sus vidas, en todo el mundo, con cmaras y me gustara mostrarles slo un poco ms. Gracias. +Witness naci de la innovacin tecnolgica, en el sentido de que la pequea cmara de DV porttil fue, en realidad, lo que le permiti existir. +Podra crecer un nuevo movimiento, levantndose desde el suelo, alcanzando la luz, y creciendo fuerte como un rbol. +Soy Rich Baraniuk. Y me gustara hablar un poco hoy sobre algunas ideas que creo tienen enorme resonancia con todas las cosas que se han hablado en los ltimos dos das. +De hecho, tantos puntos diferentes de resonancia que va a ser difcil hablar de todos ellos, pero har mi mejor esfuerzo. +Alguien recuerda estos? +Bien, estos son discos LP y han sido sustituidos. +Han sido barridos en las dos ltimas dcadas por estos tipos de tecnologas de digitalizacin que aplanan el mundo. +Y creo que esto se vi mucho mejor cuando Thomas estaba tocando msica mientras entrbamos al auditorio hoy. +Lo que ha sucedido en el mundo de la msica es que hay una cultura o un ecosistema que ha sido creado que, si toman unas palabras de Apple, es el slogan: creamos, copiamos, mezclamos y quemamos. +Lo que quiero decir con esto es que cualquier persona en el mundo es libre y tiene permitido crear nueva msica e ideas musicales. +Cualquier persona en el mundo puede copiar ideas musicales, usarlas de formas innovadoras. +Cualquier persona puede mezclarlas en diferentes maneras, sealar conexiones entre ideas musicales y la gente puede quemar o crear productos finales y continuar el ciclo. +Y lo que eso ha hecho es crear, como dije, una vibrante comunidad que es muy inclusiva con personas trabajando continuamente para conectar ideas musicales, innovar sobre ellas y mantener las cosas constantemente al da. +El tema que es un xito hoy no es el mismo tema que fue un xito el ao anterior, ok. +Pero, no estoy aqu para hablar de msica. +Estoy aqu para hablar de libros. +En particular, los libros de texto y el tipo de materiales educativos que usamos todos los das en la escuela. +Alguien aqu ha ido a la escuela? +Ok, alguien ha notado que hay una crisis en nuestras escuelas, alrededor del mundo? +Espero que s, ok, no voy a gastar demasiado tiempo en eso, pero sobre lo que quiero hablar es sobre algunas de las desconexiones que aparecen cuando un autor publica un libro +que de hecho, el proceso de publicacin -- slo por el hecho de que es complicado, es pesado, los libros son caros -- crea una especie de muro entre los autores de los libros y los usuarios finales de los libros, sean profesores, estudiantes o lectores en general. +Y esto es an ms cierto si usted habla un idioma diferente de una de las principales lenguas del mundo, especialmente ingls. +Y voy a llamar a estas personas por debajo de la barrera "excluidos", porque estn realmente excluidos del proceso de ser capaces de compartir sus conocimientos con el mundo. +As que quiero hablar hoy de tratar de tomar estas ideas, bien, que hemos visto en la cultura musical y tratar de traerlas para reinventar la forma en la que pensamos sobre escribir libros, usarlos y ensear con ellos, ok? +Entonces, eso es de lo que me gustara hablar y realmente, cmo llegamos desde donde estamos ahora a donde tenemos que ir? +As, la primera cosa que me gustara que hicieran es un pequeo experimento mental. +Imaginen tomar todos los libros del mundo. +Ok, todo el mundo imagine libros +e imaginen arrancar sus hojas, liberar estas pginas, e imaginen digitalizarlas, bien, y despus, almacenarlas en un repositorio vasto, interconectado y global. +Piensen en ello como un iTunes masivo, para contenido del tipo de libros. +Y luego tomen ese material e imaginen volverlo abierto, para que la gente pueda modificarlo, jugar con l, mejorarlo. +Imaginen volverlo gratuito, de modo que cualquier persona en el mundo pueda tener acceso a todo este conocimiento, e imaginen usar tecnologa de la informacin de modo que usted puede actualizar este contenido, mejorarlo, jugar con l, en una escala de tiempo que es ms del orden de segundos que de aos, +Ok, en lugar de las ediciones que salen cada dos aos, de un libro, imaginen esas ediciones saliendo cada 25 segundos. +Entonces, imaginen que podemos hacer eso e imaginen que ponemos a gente en esto. +Para que pudiramos construir verdaderamente un ecosistema no slo con los autores, sino con todas las personas que podran ser o quieren ser autores en todos los diferentes idiomas del mundo, y creo que si pudieran hacer esto, sera llamado, bueno, voy a referirme a ello como un ecosistema del conocimiento. +De hecho, este sueo en realidad est siendo realizado. +Nosotros estamos trabajando en la herramientas de cdigo abierto y el contenido, de acuerdo? +Entonces, eso es para ponerlo en perspectiva. +Entonces crear... qu es lo que son algunas de las personas que estn usando este tipo de herramientas? +Bueno, lo primero es que hay una comunidad de profesores de ingeniera, de Cambridge a Kioto, que estn desarrollando contenido sobre ingeniera elctrica para desarrollar lo que se puede pensar como un super libro de texto masivo, que cubre toda el rea de la ingeniera elctrica +y no slo eso, puede ser personalizado para su uso en cada una de sus propias instituciones. +Personas como Kitty Jones, una "excluida", profesora privada de msica y madre de Champagne, Illinois, que quera compartir su fantstico contenido musical con el mundo, sobre cmo ensear a los nios a tocar msica. Su material es utilizado ahora ms de 600.000 veces por mes. +Un uso tremendo, tremendo. +De hecho, mucho de este uso proviene de Estados Unidos, a travs de escuelas de primaria y secundaria porque cualquier persona que est involucrada en un recorte escolar, lo primero que corta es el currculo de msica +y as lo que esto indica, precisamente, es la tremenda sed por este tipo de contenido gratuito, abierto. +Muchos profesores estn utilizando este material. Bien, qu hay acerca de la copia? +Qu pasa con la copia, la reutilizacin? +Un equipo de voluntarios de la Universidad de Texas-El Paso, estudiantes graduados de ingeniera traduciendo las ideas de este super libro de texto +y en una semana, ms o menos, volvieron a este uno de nuestros materiales ms populares, con uso generalizado en toda Amrica Latina y, en particular, en Mxico, debido a la naturaleza abierta y extensible de esto. +Personas, voluntarios, e incluso empresas estn traduciendo materiales a idiomas asiticos como el chino, japons y tailands, para difundir el conocimiento an ms. +Bien, qu pasa con la gente que est mezclando? Qu significa mezclar? +Mezclar significa construir cursos personalizados, significa construir libros personalizados. +Empresas como National Instruments, estn incluyendo simulaciones interactivas muy poderosas en los materiales, de manera que podamos ir mucho ms all del libro de texto normal a una experiencia en donde usted puede en realidad interactuar y jugar con todos los materiales didcticos y cosas y, de hecho, aprender a medida que hace. +Hemos estado trabajando con Profesores sin Fronteras que estn muy interesados en mezclar nuestros materiales. +Ellos van a usar Connexions como plataforma para desarrollar y entregar materiales didcticos para ensear a los profesores cmo ensear en 84 pases alrededor del mundo. +TWB se encuentra actualmente en Iraq entrenando 20.000 profesores con el apoyo de USAID +Otras organizaciones con las que hemos venido trabajando, UC Merced, la gente sabe acerca de UC Merced. +Se trata de una nueva universidad en California, en el valle central, que trabaja muy de cerca con universidades comunitarias. +Estn desarrollando una gran parte de su plan de estudios de ciencias e ingeniera para difundir ampliamente en todo el mundo en nuestro sistema +y tambin estn tratando de desarrollar todas sus herramientas de software, completamente, de cdigo abierto. +Hemos estado trabajando con AMD, que tiene un proyecto llamado 50 por 15, que est tratando de llevar conectividad a Internet al 50 por ciento de la poblacin del mundo en 2015. +Vamos a proveerles contenido en toda una gama de diferentes idiomas, +y tambin hemos estado trabajando con una serie de otras organizaciones. +En particular, un puado de los proyectos que son financiados por la Fundacin Hewlett, que han tenido un verdadero papel de liderazgo en esta rea de contenido abierto. +Ok, quemar, creo que esto es muy interesante. +Quemar es la idea de tratar de crear la instanciacin fsica de uno de estos cursos +y creo que muchos de ustedes recibieron, creo que todos ustedes recibieron uno de estos libros de msica en su maleta de regalos. +Un regalo para ti. +Slo para decirles rpidamente sobre l, se trata de un libro de texto de ingeniera. +Se trata de 300 pginas de largo, de tapa dura. +Esto cuesta, alguien lo puede adivinar? +Cunto costara en una librera? +Pblico: 65 dlares. +Richard Baraniuk: Esto le cuesta 22 dlares al estudiante. +Por qu cuesta 22 dlares? +Porque es publicado segn demanda y es desarrollado a partir de este repositorio de materiales abiertos. +Si este libro fuera publicado por un editor normal, costara al menos 122 dlares. +Y creo que esta es un rea extraordinariamente interesante porque hay un enorme rea bajo esta larga cola de publicacin. +No estamos hablando del extremo de Harry Potter, justo al lado izquierdo. +Estamos hablando de libros de ecuaciones diferenciales parciales hipergeomtricas. +Libros que podran vender 100 ejemplares por ao, 1000 ejemplares por ao. +Hay un ingreso muy sostenible, bajo esta larga cola para mantener proyectos abiertos como el nuestro, pero tambin para sostener esta nueva aparicin de editores por demanda, como Coop que produjo estos dos libros. +Y creo que una de las cosas que ustedes deberan llevarse de esta charla, es que hay un inminente recorte en el intermediario. Desintermediacin. Va a ocurrir en la industria editorial +y va a alcanzar un crescendo en los prximos aos, y creo que es realmente para nuestro beneficio, y para beneficio del mundo. +Bien, cules son los facilitadores? +Qu est haciendo que todo esto suceda, en realidad? +Hay toneladas de tecnologa, y la nica pieza de tecnologa sobre la que realmente quiero hablar es XML. +Cuntas personas saben acerca de XML? +Genial, entonces es el futuro de la web. +Es la representacin semntica del comentario, el contenido, +y lo que realmente pueden pensar de XML en este caso, es que es el empaque que estamos poniendo en torno a estas pginas. +Recuerdan que tomamos el libro, y arrancamos sus pginas? +Bueno, lo que XML va a hacer es que va a ser bsicamente -- va a convertir esas pginas en bloques de Lego. +XML son los salientes sobre el Lego, que permiten encajarlo con otros, y que nos permite combinar el contenido en infinidad de formas diferentes y nos proporciona un marco para compartir contenido. +Por lo tanto, les permite tomar este ecosistema, en su estado primordial, de todos estos contenidos, todas las pginas que arrancaron de los libros y crear mquinas de aprendizaje altamente sofisticadas, bien? Libros, cursos, paquetes de cursos. +Les da la capacidad de personalizar la experiencia de aprendizaje a cada estudiante particular, de manera que cada estudiante puede tener un libro o un curso personalizado para su estilo de aprendizaje, su contexto, su lenguaje y las cosas que les interesan. +Les permite reutilizar los mismos materiales en mltiples formas diferentes, y sorprendentes nuevas maneras. +Les permite interconectar ideas indicando cmo los campos se relacionan entre s, +y yo slo les contar mi historia personal. +Esto se nos ocurri hace seis aos y medio porque yo enseo cosas como las que estn en la caja roja. +Y mi trabajo diario, como dice Chris, soy un profesor de ingeniera elctrica. +Doy clases de procesamiento de seales y mi reto era demostrar que esta matemtica -- wow, cerca de la mitad de ustedes ya se han dormido con slo mirar a la ecuacin -- +que esta matemtica aparentemente seca es en realidad el centro de esta web tremendamente poderosa que enlaza tecnologa -- que vincula aplicaciones estupendas como sintetizadores de msica a enormes oportunidades econmicas, pero regidas tambin por la propiedad intelectual. +Y de lo que me di cuenta es de que no haba manera que yo, como ingeniero, pudiera escribir este libro que conseguira todo esto. +Necesitbamos una comunidad para hacerlo y necesitbamos nuevas herramientas para ser capaces de interconectar estas ideas, +y creo que realmente, en cierto sentido, lo que estamos tratando de hacer es de hacer realidad el sueo de Minsky, donde se pueden imaginar todos los libros en una biblioteca empezando a hablar unos con otros, +y aquellos de ustedes que son profesores, quienes ensean, saben esto. Es acerca de las interconexiones entre las ideas de lo que se trata la enseanza realmente. +Ok, de vuelta a las matemticas, imaginen, esto es posible. Que cada ecuacin en la que se hace clic en uno de sus nuevos e-textos es algo que van a poder explorar y con lo que van a poder experimentar. +As que imaginen el libro de texto de lgebra de su hijo, en el sptimo grado. +Puede hacer clic en cada ecuacin y obtener una pequea herramienta para poder experimentar con ella, experimentar con ella, comprenderla, +porque realmente no entendemos hasta que hacemos. +El mismo tipo de lenguaje de marcado, como MathML, para la qumica. +Imaginen libros de texto de qumica que en realidad comprendan la estructura de cmo se forman las molculas. +Imaginen msica en XML que en realidad les permite profundizar en la estructura semntica de la msica, jugar con ella, comprenderla. +No es sorprendente que todo el mundo est entrando en esto, verdad? +Incluso los tres reyes magos. +Ok, el segundo gran facilitador, y aqu es donde dije una gran mentira, +el segundo gran facilitador es la propiedad intelectual, +porque en realidad me par aqu y habl mucho acerca de cmo es de fabulosa la cultura de la msica. +Podemos compartir y copiar, mezclar y quemar, pero en realidad todo eso es ilegal. +y seramos acusados de piratas por hacer eso, porque esta msica ha sido privatizada. +Ahora es propiedad, buena parte de ella, de las grandes industrias. +As que, realmente, la clave aqu es que no podemos permitir que esto suceda. +No podemos dejar que suceda aqu lo que pas con Napster. +Entonces, lo que tenemos que hacer es hacerlo bien desde el principio, +y lo que tenemos que hacer es encontrar un marco de propiedad intelectual que haga seguro compartir, y hacerlo fcilmente comprensible, +y la inspiracin aqu es tomada del software de cdigo abierto, +cosas como Linux y la GPL. +Y las ideas, las licencias Creative Commons. +Cuntas personas han odo hablar de Creative Commons? +Si no lo han hecho, deben aprender acerca de ellas. Creativecommons.org. +En la parte inferior de cada pieza de material en Connexions y en muchos otros proyectos, pueden encontrar este logotipo. +Hacer clic en ese logotipo los lleva a un documento con total sentido, legible por humanos, una escritura que les dice exactamente lo que pueden hacer con este contenido. +De hecho, usted es libre para compartirlo, para hacer todas estas cosas, para copiarlo, para cambiarlo, incluso para hacer uso comercial de l siempre y cuando atribuya el trabajo a su autor. +Porque en las publicaciones acadmicas, y gran parte de las publicaciones educativas, en realidad es por esta idea de compartir el conocimiento, por eso, y por tener impacto, +es por eso que la gente escribe, no necesariamente para hacer dlares. +No estamos hablando de Harry Potter. +Estamos en el extremo de la larga cola aqu. +Detrs de esto est el cdigo legal, construido de una manera muy cuidadosa, +y Creative Commons est despegando. Hay ms de 43 millones de cosas por ah, licenciadas bajo una licencia Creative Commons. +No slo texto sino msica, imgenes, video +y hay en realidad una enorme aceptacin del nmero de personas que estn licenciando msica para que sea libre para las personas que hacen todo esto de re-muestrear, copiar, mezclar, quemar y compartir. +As que me gustara concluir con tan slo unos ltimos puntos. +Hemos creado esta idea de un patrimonio comn. La gente la est usando. +Recibimos ms de 500.000 visitantes nicos por mes, slo nuestro sitio en particular. +OpenCourseWare de MIT, que es otro gran sitio de contenido abierto, recibe un nmero similar de accesos pero cmo protegemos esto? +Cmo podemos protegerlo en el futuro? +y la primera cosa que la gente est pensando es, probablemente, el control de calidad. +Porque estamos diciendo que cualquiera puede contribuir con cosas +a este patrimonio comn. Cualquiera puede aportar cualquier cosa, +de modo que esto podra ser un problema. +Entonces no pas mucho tiempo, para que la gente comenzara a contribuir, por ejemplo, con materiales sobre lencera, que en realidad es un muy buen mdulo. El nico problema es que es plagiado, +de una importante revista feminista francesa y cuando van al supuesto sitio web del curso, apunta a un sitio web de venta de ropa interior, de acuerdo? +As que este es un problema, +por lo que claramente necesitamos algn tipo de idea de control de calidad y es aqu en donde aparece la idea de la revisin y la revisin por pares. +Ok, usted viene a TED. Por qu viene a TED? +Porque Chris y su equipo han garantizado que las cosas son de muy, muy alta calidad, +as que necesitamos ser capaces de hacer lo mismo. +Y tenemos que ser capaces de disear estructuras y lo que estamos haciendo es diseando software social para permitir a cualquier persona construir su propio proceso de revisin de pares y llamamos a estas cosas lentes +y bsicamente lo que permiten a cualquier persona es desarrollar su propio proceso de revisin de pares, a fin de que puedan centrarse en el contenido en el repositorio que piensan que es realmente importante +y se puede pensar en TED como un lente potencial. +As que quisiera terminar diciendo, que ustedes puede ver esto como un llamado a la accin. +Connexions y el contenido abierto se tratan de compartir conocimiento. +Todos ustedes aqu estn tremendamente impregnados con enormes cantidades de conocimiento y lo que me gustara hacer es invitar a todos y cada uno de ustedes a contribuir a este proyecto y otros proyectos de su tipo, porque creo que juntos podemos cambiar verdaderamente el panorama de la educacin y las publicaciones educativas. +Entonces, muchas gracias. +Escrib este poema despus de escuchar a una actriz muy famosa decirle a un entrevistador muy reconocido en televisin: "ltimamente estoy haciendo mis pinitos en internet. +Ojal estuviera ms organizada". +Entonces -- +Si yo controlara internet, podras subastar tu corazn roto en eBay, +tomar el dinero, entrar en Amazon, comprar una gua telefnica de un pas en el que nunca has estado y llamar a gente al azar hasta que encuentres a alguien a quien se le de bien coquetear en una lengua extranjera. +Si yo controlara internet, podras buscar en Mapquest los cambios de humor de tu amante. +Girar a la izquierda en malhumorada, a la derecha en preocupada, dar media vuelta ante un silencio incmodo, seguir todo derecho hasta encontrar un beso con lengua y un buen amor, +y podras navegar y entender cada interseccin emocional. +Algunos das, soy tan superficial como un molde para hornear, pero an as me extiendo millas en todas las direcciones. +Si internet fuera mo, Napster, Monster y Friendster.com podran ser un nico y gran sitio. +As podras escuchar buena msica mientras haces que buscas un empleo y en realidad, ests charlando con los amigos. +Cielos! si yo controlara la web, podras enviar correos electrnicos a los difuntos. +Ellos no podran responderte -- pero tendras respuestas automticas. +Total, su nombre en tu buzn de entrada -- eso es todo lo que queras de ellos. +Y un mensaje diciendo, "Hola, soy yo. Te extrao. +Escucha, ya vers, estar muerto es genial. +Por ahora, ve a criar nios, pedir la paz y desear caramelos". +Si yo diseara internet, infancia.com sera un ciclo de un nio en un huerto, con un bastn de ski como espada, la tapa de un bote como escudo, gritando, "Soy el emperador de las naranjas. +Soy el emperador de las naranjas. Soy el emperador de las naranjas." +Ahora sganme! Vale? +Abuelita.com sera una receta para galletas e instrucciones para un bao relajado. +Uno, dos, tres. +Eso te enlazara con perritobiohmedo.com +Ese sera mi abuelo. +Que te llevara a ex-polica-gruon-casado-cuatro-veces.pap +que sera un archivo adjunto a excntrica-que-manda-galletas-de-gengibre-para-navidad.mam y que descarg al nio del jardn, al emperador de las naranjas, quien creci para convertirse en m -- ese tipo que normalmente va muy lejos. +As que si yo fuera el emperador de internet, supongo que an as sera mortal, no? +Pero para ese momento, probablemente tendra la hipoteca ms baja posible y el pene ms largo posible -- as que prohibira el spam desde mi primer da de trabajo. +Ya no lo necesitara ms. +Sera un tipo de genio de internet, y yo, me mejorara para ser algn tipo de deidad y entonces, como si nada -- pop - Me hara inalmbrico. +Eh? Tal vez Google podra contratarme. +Podra comprimirme entre tus servidores y firewalls como si fuera un virus hasta que la World Wide Web sea tan sabia, salvaje y organizada como creo que un milagro/orculo moderno puede serlo, pero, ooh-eee, quieres apostar como despertar y "des-PC-ear" lo que tu Mac o PC sern cuando yo sea el mandams, El dios gran cosa.net? +Supongo que es como la vida misma. +No se trata de si puedes. Simplemente lo es, sabes? +Podemos interferir con la interfase. +Podra hacer "Lo tienes, Aleluya" el himno nacional del ciberespacio. cantarlo cada vez que nos conectamos. +No diras una oracin. +No escribiras un salmo. +No cantaras un mantra "Om". +Slo enviaras un correo electrnico bendito dirigido a quien creas que debe recibirlo Gracias, TED. +Mi nombre es Lovegrove. Slo conozco a nueve Lovegroves, +dos de los cuales son mis padres. +Ellos son primos hermanos, y conocen lo que ocurre cuando, ustedes saben -- as que hay un terriblemente extrao, bizarro, lado de m, contra el que estoy luchando permanentemente. Entonces, para intentar superarlo hoy, me he autodisciplinado con una charla de 18 minutos. +He estado aguantando la orina. +Pens, tal vez, que si me aguantaba lo suficiente, eso me llevara a los 18 minutos. +Okey, soy conocido como Capitn Orgnico, y esa es una postura tanto filosfica como esttica. +Pero hoy, de lo que quisiera hablarles es de ese amor por la forma y de cmo la forma puede tocar el alma y la emocin de la gente. +No hace mucho tiempo, no muchos miles de aos atrs, vivamos realmente en cuevas, y no creo que hayamos perdido ese sistema de cdigos. +Respondemos muy bien a la forma, +pero estoy interesado en la creacin de forma inteligente. +Para nada estoy interesado en "amorfismos" o en alguna de esa porquera superficial que ven surgir como diseo. +Estos -- este consumismo artificialmente inducido -- pienso que es atroz. +Mi mundo es el mundo de gente como Amory Lovins, Janine Benyus, James Watson. +Yo estoy en ese mundo, pero trabajo de modo puramente instintivo. +No soy cientfico, pude haberlo sido, quizs, pero trabajo en este mundo donde confo en mis instintos. +As que soy un traductor de la tecnologa del siglo XXI a productos que usamos diariamente y con los que nos relacionamos bella y naturalmente. +Y deberamos estar desarrollando cosas -- deberamos estar desarrollando empaques para ideas que promuevan la percepcin de la gente y el respeto por las cosas que extraemos de la tierra, y convertirlos en productos de uso diario. +Bien, la botella de agua. +Comenzar con este concepto que llamo DNA. +ADN: Arte, Diseo, Naturaleza. Esas tres cosas son las que condicionan mi mundo. +Aqu est un dibujo de Leonardo da Vinci, 500 aos atrs, antes de la fotografa. +Muestra cmo la observacin, curiosidad e instinto operan para crear arte sorprendente. +El diseo industrial es la forma de arte del siglo XXI. +Gente como Leonardo -- no ha habido muchos -- tuvo esta curiosidad sorprendentemente instintiva. +Yo trabajo desde una postura similar. +No deseo sonar pretencioso diciendo eso, pero ste es mi dibujo hecho en un tablero digital hace un par de aos -- bien entrado el siglo XXI, 500 aos despus. +Es mi impresin del agua. +El impresionismo es la forma ms valiosa de arte sobre el planeta, tal como sabemos: 100 millones de dlares, fcilmente, por un Monet. +Yo utilizo, ahora, un proceso completamente nuevo. +Hace pocos aos, reinvent mi proceso para mantenerme al ritmo de gente como Greg Lynn, Tom Main, Zaha Hadid, Rem Koolhaas -- toda esta gente que pienso est perseverando y liderando con fantsticas nuevas ideas de cmo generar forma. +Todo esto es creado digitalmente. +Aqu ven el mecanizado, el labrado de un bloque de acrlico. +Esto es lo que muestro al cliente para decir: "eso es lo que deseo hacer". +En este punto, no s si es del todo posible. +Es un seductor, pero siento justo en mis huesos que aquello es posible. +As que vamos. Analizamos las herramientas. Analizamos cmo se produce. +stas son las cosas invisibles que nunca observan en sus vidas. +ste es el ruido de fondo del diseo industrial. +Aquello es como un Anish Kapoor fluyendo a travs de un Richard Serra. +A mis ojos, es ms valioso que el producto. No tengo uno. +Cuando obtenga algo de dinero, tendr uno fabricado para m. +ste es el producto final. Cuando me lo envan, pienso que he fallado. +Se siente cono nada. Tiene que sentirse como nada. +Fue cuando le introduje agua que me di cuenta que le haba puesto una piel al agua misma. +Es un icono del agua en s misma, y eleva la percepcin de la gente sobre el diseo contemporneo. +Cada botella es diferente, lo que significa que el nivel de agua te ofrecer una figura diferente. +Es individualismo de masas a partir de un nico producto. Se ajusta a la mano. +Se ajusta a las manos artrticas. Se ajusta a las manos de los nios. +Hace el producto fuerte, el teselado. +Es un "millefiori" de ideas. +En el futuro se vern como eso, porque necesitamos alejarnos de esas clases de polmeros y usar aquellos para equipamiento mdico y cosas ms importantes, quizs, en la vida. +Biopolmeros, estas nuevas ideas para materiales, entrarn en juego probablemente en una dcada. +Luce tan chvere, no es as? +Pero puedo estar a la altura de eso. No tengo problemas con ello. +Yo diseo para esa condicin, biopolmeros. Es el futuro. +Tom este video en Ciudad del Cabo el ao pasado. +ste es el lado inslito aflorando. +Tengo este especial inters en cosas como sta que me maravillan. +Yo no s si, saben, caer de rodillas, llorar. No s lo que pienso, salvo que slo s que la naturaleza mejora con cada vez mayor determinacin, aquello que alguna vez existi, y esa rareza es una consecuencia del pensamiento innovador. +Cuando observo estas cosas, se ven bastante normales para m. +Pero estas cosas evolucionaron durante muchos aos, y ahora lo que estamos intentado hacer -- Tengo tres semanas para disear un telfono. Cmo diablos hago un telfono en tres semanas, cuando tienes estas cosas que tardaron cientos de millones de aos en evolucionar? +Cmo condensas eso? +Se trata de volver al instinto. +No estoy hablando de disear telfonos que se vean as, y no estoy buscando disear arquitectura como esa. +Slo estoy interesado en los patrones naturales de crecimiento, y las hermosas formas que realmente slo la naturaleza crea. +Cmo aquello fluye por m y cmo emerge, es lo que estoy intentando comprender. +ste es un escner a travs del antebrazo humano. Luego es expandido por +prototipado rpido para revelar la estructura celular. Tengo estos en mi oficina. +Mi oficina es una mezcla del Museo de Historia Natural y un laboratorio espacial de la NASA. +Es una rareza, una suerte de lugar inslito. +ste es uno de mis especimenes. +Est hecho -- el hueso est hecho de una mezcla de minerales inorgnicos y polmeros. +Estudi cocina en la escuela durante cuatro aos, y en aquella experiencia, que era llamada ciencia domstica, fue un truco mo, algo barato, para intentar obtener la titulacin en ciencias. +Realmente, aad marihuana a todo lo que cocin -- -- y tuve acceso todas las mejores chicas. Fue fabuloso. +Ninguno de los tipos del equipo de rugby poda comprender, pero de cualquier modo -- +ste es un merengue. Es otro ejemplo que tengo. +Un merengue est formado exactamente del mismo modo, en mi apreciacin, que un hueso. +Est constituido por polisacridos y protenas. +Si viertes agua sobre l, se disuelve. +Podramos estar manufacturando a partir de preparados alimenticios en un futuro? +No es mala idea. No s. Necesito conversar con Janine +y algunas otras personas sobre eso, pero yo instintivamente creo que ese merengue puede convertirse en algo, un auto -- no s. +Tambin estoy interesado en patrones de crecimiento: el desenfrenado modo en que la naturaleza hace crecer las cosas sin que ests restringido, en lo absoluto, a la forma. +Estas formas interrelacionadas, inspiran todo lo que hago aunque luego termine haciendo algo increiblemente simple. +ste es un detalle de la silla que he diseado en magnesio. +Muestra esta interlocucin de elementos y la belleza de cierta ingeniera y pensamiento biolgico, expuestas casi como una estructura sea. +Cualquiera de esos elementos pudieras colgarlo en la pared como alguna suerte de objeto artstico. Es la primera silla del mundo elaborada en magnesio. +Cost 1.7 millones dlares desarrollarla. Se denomina Go por Bernhart, USA. +Sali en la revista Time en 2001 +como el nuevo lenguaje del siglo XXI. +Muchacho! Para alguien que creci en un pequeo pueblo de Gales, eso es demasiado. +Muestra cmo haces una forma holstica, igual que la industria del auto, y luego rompes aquello que necesitas. +sta es una forma absolutamente bella de trabajar. +Es una manera devota de trabajar. +Hay -- es orgnica y es esencial. +Es un diseo absolutamente libre de grasa, y cuando lo observas, ves seres humanos. Salud. +Cuando migre a polmeros, puedes variar la elasticidad, la fluidez de la forma. +sta es una idea para una silla, en una sola pieza, de polmero con gas inyectado. +Lo que la naturaleza hace es abrir agujeros en la cosas. Libera la forma. +Elimina todo lo superfluo. Eso es lo que hago. +Produzco cosas orgnicas que son esenciales. +Yo no -- y tambin se ven espectaculares -- pero no me propongo hacer cosas espectaculares porque creo que es una absoluta vergenza. +Propongo examinar las formas naturales. +Si tomaste la idea de la tecnologa fractal en profundidad, coge una membrana, achcala constantemente como lo hace la naturaleza: podra ser un asiento para una silla, +podra ser una suela para un zapato deportivo, +podra ser un carro convirtindose en asientos. +Guao! Vamos pues. Es sa la clase de cosas. +Esto es lo que existe en la naturaleza. La observacin ahora nos permite trasladar ese proceso natural al proceso de diseo cada da. Eso es lo que hago. +Esta es una muestra que est actualmente abierta en Tokio. +Se llama Superliquidez. Es mi investigacin escultrica. +Es como un Henry Moore del siglo XXI. Cuando ves un Henry Moore, +an ahora, tu cabello se eriza. Hay algo sorprendentemente espiritual que conecta. +Si hubiese sido un diseador de autos, Uf!, todos hubiramos conducido uno. +En sus das, fue el mayor contribuyente en Gran Bretaa. +Ese es el poder del diseo orgnico. +Contribuye inmensamente a nuestro sentido de existencia, nuestro sentido de las relaciones con las cosas, nuestra sensualidad y, saben, la suerte de -- incluso la suerte de lado socio-ertico, que es muy importante. +sta es mi obra. ste es todo mi proceso. +De hecho, stas son vendidas como obras de arte. +Son impresiones muy grandes. Pero as es como llego a aquel objeto. +Irnicamente, ese objeto fue elaborado por el mtodo Killarny, que es un proceso novsimo aqu para el siglo XXI, y puedo or a Greg Lynn riendo hasta perder sus calcetines cuando lo digo. +Les contar ms tarde. +Cuando examino estas imgenes informticas, veo nuevas cosas. +Estoy auto -- est auto-inspirado. Estructuras de diatomeas, radiolarios, las cosas que no podamos ver, pero que ahora podemos hacer. Nuevamente, estn ahuecadas. Virtualmente estn construidas con nada. +Estn hechas de slice. Por qu no estructuras para autos como esas? +El coral, todas estas fuerzas naturales eliminan lo que no necesitan y ofrecen la mxima belleza. +Necesitamos entrar en ese mbito. Deseo hacer cosas como esa. +Esta es una nueva silla que debera salir al mercado en septiembre. +Es para una compaa llamada Moroso en Italia. Es una silla de polmero inyectado con gas. +Esos agujeros que ven all son muy filtradas, diluidas versiones del extremismo estructural de las diatomeas. +Va con el flujo del polmero y vern -- ya hay una imagen apareciendo que muestra el objeto completo. +Es fabuloso tener compaas en Italia que apoyen esta manera de soar. +Si ven las sombras que arroja, de hecho son, probablemente, ms importantes que el producto, pero es el mnimo necesario. +El ahuecado del respaldar te deja respirar. +Se elimina cualquier material que no necesites y efectivamente, se logra flexibilidad tambin, as que -- +iba a arrancar a bailar a continuacin. +Esto es algo del trabajo ms reciente que estoy haciendo. +Estoy examinando estructuras de una superficie y cmo fluyen -- cmo se estiran y fluyen. Se basa en tipologas de mobiliario, +pero no es la motivacin final. Est hecha en "aluminum" , +a diferencia del "aluminium" , y est madura. +Est madura en mi mente, y entonces, est madura en trminos de todo el proceso por el que atravieso. +Esto fue dos semanas atrs en CCP, en Coventry, que fabrica partes para Bentley y dems. +Est siendo construido como conversamos, y estar en exhibicin en Phillips, el prximo ao en Nueva York. +Tengo una gran muestra con Phillips Auctioneers. +Cuando veo estas animaciones oh, Jess, estoy abrumado! +Esto es lo que sucede en mi estudio a diario. Camino -- Estoy viajando. Regreso. +Algn tipo lo tiene en una computadora -- hay este mismo: Oh, mi Seor! +As que intento crear esta energa de invencin cada da en mi estudio. +Esta clase de efervescente, totalmente cargada, sensacin de sopa de ideas. +Productos de superficie nica. El mobiliario es una bueno. +Cmo le sacas patas a una superficie. Deseara construirlo un da. Y quizs, tambin querra construirlo de harina, azcar, polmero, virutas de madera -- +No s, cabello humano. No s. Me gustara que fuera en eso. No s. Si apenas tuviese algo de tiempo. +se es el lado extrao emergiendo otra vez, y un montn de compaas no lo entienden. +Hace tres semanas estuve con Sony en Tokio. Dijeron, "Danos el sueo". +"Cul es nuestro sueo? Cmo derrotamos a Apple?" +Les dije, "Bien, no copien a Apple, tnganlo por seguro". +Dije, "Mtanse en biopolmeros". Miraron directo a travs de m. +Qu desperdicio. Como sea. No, es cierto. Jdanse. Jdanse. Saben lo que quiero decir. Lo estoy ofreciendo, no lo estn tomando. He tenido esta imagen 20 aos. +He tenido esta imagen de una gota de agua por 20 aos posando en un semillero. +Esa es una imagen de auto para m. +Ese es el auto del futuro. Es una gota de agua. +He estado dando lata con esto como no puedo creer. +Los autos estn del todo mal. +Voy a mostrarles algo un poco extrao ahora. +Rieron en cada lugar del mundo donde mostr esto. +El nico lugar donde no rieron fue Mosc. +Sus autos estn elaborados con 30.000 componentes. +Cun ridculo es eso? No podras hacerlos con 300? +Es una cpsula de carbono-nylon formada al vaco. Todo est holsticamente integrado. +Se abre y cierra como una panera. +No hay motor a combustin. Hay un panel solar atrs. y hay bateras en las ruedas. Estn empotrados como los Frmula Uno. Los sueltas de tu pared. +Los conectas. Desconectas, te vas de lo ms animado. +Un auto de tres ruedas: lento, femenino, transparente, as que puedes ver la gente all dentro. Manejas diferente. +Vean esa cosa. Lo hacen. +Lo hacen y no anestesiados, separados de la vida. +Hay un hueco al frente, y hay una razn para ello. +Es un auto urbano. Conduces un tiempo. Te bajas. +Sigues conduciendo hacia un mstil. Te bajas. Te lo levanta. +Expone el panel solar a la luz, +y en la noche es un farol. +Eso es lo que ocurre si te inspiras en el farol primero, y entonces haces el auto de segundo. Estas burbujas -- +Puedo ver estas burbujas con estos envases de hidrgeno, flotando dispersas por el terreno, conducidas por Al . +Cuando mostr esto en Sudfrica, todos despus iban: "S, ey! un auto sobre un palo. Me gusta". +Pueden imaginarlo? Un auto sobre un palo. +Si lo ubicas cerca de arquitectura contempornea, se percibe absolutamente natural para m. +Y eso es lo que hago con mi mobiliario. +Ya no estoy colocando ms mobiliario de Charles Eames en los edificios. +Estoy intentando construir mobiliario que encaje en la arquitectura. +Estoy tratando de construir sistemas de transportacin. +Trabajo en aviones para Airbus, por completo -- Hago todo esta clase de cosas intentando forzarlas hacia lo natural, +casa de sueos inspirada por la naturaleza. Voy a finalizar con dos cosas. +sta es la estereolitografa de una escalera. +Es un poco una dedicatoria a James, James Watson. +Constru esta cosa para mi estudio. +Me cost 250.000 dlares construir esto. +La mayora de la gente va y compra un Aston Martin. Yo constru esto. +Esta es la informacin que viene con ello. Increblemente compleja. +Tom cerca de dos aos porque estaba buscando un diseo "libre de grasa". +Cosas magras, eficientes. Productos saludables. +Est construido con materiales compuestos. Es un nico elemento +que rota alrededor para crear un elemento holstico, y ste es un pasamanos de fibras de carbono que est apoyado nicamente en dos lugares. +Los materiales modernos nos permiten hacer cosas modernas. +Esta es una foto en el estudio. +Esto es cmo luce ms o menos cada da. +No desearas tener pnico a las alturas bajndola. +Virtualmente, no hay pasamanos. No cumple con normativa alguna. +A quin le importa? +S, y tiene un pasamanos interno que le da su fuerza. Es una integracin holstica. +se es mi estudio. Es subterrneo. +Est en Notting Hill cerca de toda la porquera -- saben, las prostitutas y todo aquello. +Est cerca del estudio original de David Hockney. +Tiene un sistema de iluminacin que vara en el transcurso del da. +Mis muchachos salen a comer. La puerta est abierta. Regresan, porque habitualmente est lloviendo, y prefieren permanecer adentro. +ste es mi estudio. Calavera de elefante de la Universidad de Oxford, 1988. +Compr esa el ao pasado. Son difciles de conseguir. +Comprara -- si alguien tiene un esqueleto de ballena que quisiera venderme, lo colocar en el estudio. +As que slo voy a intersectar -- intercalar un poco con algunas de las cosas que vern en el video. +Es un video casero; lo hice yo mismo a las tres de la madrugada slo para mostrarles cmo es mi mundo real. Nunca ven eso. +Nunca ven arquitectos o diseadores mostrndoles su mundo real. +Se denomina Plasnet. Es una policarbono -- +una nueva silla de bio-policarbonato que estoy haciendo en Italia. +La primera bicicleta de bamb con manubrio plegable. +Todos deberamos estar montando una de estas. +As como China compra todos esos autos de porquera, +deberamos estar montando cosas como esta. Contrabalance. Como digo: es un cruce entre el Museo de Historia Natural y +un laboratorio de la NASA. Est lleno de prototipos y objetos. +Adems, es auto-inspirador. Quiero decir, las raras ocasiones cuando estoy all, lo disfruto y tengo montones de nios visitantes -- +montones y montones de nios visitantes. +Soy un contaminador para todos aquellos nios de inversionistas banqueros -- masturbanqueros. +Esto -- lo siento -- -- sa es una semilla solar. Es un concepto para nueva arquitectura. +Esa cosa en el tope es la primera lmpara de jardn a energa solar -- la primera producida. Giles Revell debera estar charlando hoy aqu -- sorprendente fotografa de cosas que no pueden ver. +El primer modelo escultural que hice para aquella cosa en Tokio. +Montones de cosas. Hay una pequea silla en hoja -- esa cosa de aspecto dorado se llama Hoja. +Est hecha de Kevlar. +Sobre el muro est mi libro llamado "Sobrenatural", el cual me permite recordar lo que he hecho, porque lo olvido. +Hay un ladrillo aireado que hice en Limoges el ao pasado, en Conceptos para Nuevas Cermicas en Arquitectura. +[Confuso], trabajando a las tres de la madrugada -- y no pago sobretiempo (horas extras). +El sobretiempo es la pasin del diseo, as que nete al club o no. +No, es cierto. Es cierto. Gente como Tom y Greg -- estamos viajando como ustedes no pueden -- nos encontramos exhaustos. No s cmo lo hacemos. +La prxima semana estoy en Electrolux en Suecia, +luego estoy en Beijing el viernes. Trabajas que colapsas. +Y cuando veo las fotografas de Ed, pienso, +por qu demonios voy a China? Es cierto. +Es cierto. Porque hay un alma en todo este asunto. +Necesitamos tener un nuevo instinto para el siglo XXI. +Necesitamos combinar todas estas cosas. +Si toda la gente que estuvo hablando durante este perodo trabajase junta en un auto, sera una dicha, absoluta dicha. +Bueno, hay un nuevo sistema de lmparas "X" que estoy haciendo en Japn. +Hay zapatos Tuareg del Norte de frica. Hay una mscara Kifwebe. +sas son mis esculturas. +Un molde de cobre para gelatina. +Suena a concurso de preguntas o algo as, no? +Entonces, va a finalizar. +Gracias, James, por tu gran inspiracin. +Muchsimas gracias. +Y uno de mis peores fracasos, en los ltimos aos, como profesional del marketing, una discogrfica que fund que tuvo un CD llamado "Salsa". +Antes de contarles todo lo anterior, tengo que contarles sobre el pan lactal, y un hombre llamado Otto Rohwedder. +Antes que el pan lactal fuera creado, alrededor de la dcada del 10 Me pregunto que diran en ese momento.... +algo como: "el mayor invento desde el telgrafo o desde alguna cosa". +Pero este hombre, llamado Otto Rohwedder cre el pan lactal, y se concentr, como todo inventor, en dos cuestiones: la patente y el proceso. +Y lo significativo acerca de la creacin del pan lactal es que... durante los primeros 15 aos que el pan lactal estuvo a la venta nadie lo compro, nadie oy nada acerca de l. Fue un completo y total fracaso. +Y la razn es que hasta que la empresa Wonder lleg e invent una forma para propagar la idea del pan lactal, nadie lo quera. +Ese es el triunfo en el pan lactal, como el triunfo en casi todas las cuestiones que vamos a hablar en esta charla, no siempre se trata de como es la patente, o como es la fbrica, es acerca si uno es capaz de propagar una idea o no. +Y creo que la manera en que se puede conseguir lo que se quiere, o hacer que el cambio que se quiera crear ocurra, es darse cuenta cual es el modo de difundir las ideas. +Y no me importa a que se dedica cada uno, si estn a cargo de un caf, o son un intelectual, o un empresario, o se dedican a hacer volar globos aerostticos. +Creo que todo esto se aplica a cualquiera sin importar a que nos dedicamos. +Que lo que estamos viviendo es un siglo de difusin de ideas. +Que las personas puedan propagar sus ideas, sin importar cuales son esas ideas, y ganar. +Generalmente cuando hablo de este tema, elijo a los negocios porque tienen las mejores imgenes que se pueden poner en una presentacin, y porque es la manera ms fcil de llevar la puntuacin. +Pero quisiera que me perdonen por usar estos ejemplos porque estoy hablando de cualquier cosa en la que decidan gastar su tiempo. +En el centro de la propagacin de ideas se puede encontrar a la televisin y cosas como la televisin. +la televisin y los medios masivos hacen, de algn modo, realmente fcil la difusin de ideas. +Yo lo llamo el complejo industrial televisivo. +El complejo industrial televisivo funciona de esta manera:uno compra publicidad, interrumpe a algunas personas, y as obtenes distribucin. +La distribucin que consegus la usas para vender ms productos. +Tomas la ganancia de eso y compras ms publicidad. +Y esto empieza de vuelta una y otra vez, de la misma manera que funcionaban los complejos militares e industriales hace mucho tiempo. +Y ese modelo, del cual oimos ayer, si solo pudieramos llegar a la pagina principal de Google, si solo pudieramos averiguar como publicitarnos alli, si solo pudieramos acogotar a esa persona, y explicarles que queremos hacer. +Si hicieramos eso todo el mundo nos prestaria atencion y entonces podriamos obtener lo que queremos. +Este complejo industrial televisivo me satur de informacin durante toda mi niez y problamente la tuya tambien. +Quiero decir, que todos estos productos triunfaron porque alguien se dio cuenta de cmo influir en las personas de un modo que ellas no esperaban, de un modo que ellas no queran, con un aviso publicitario, una y otra vez hasta que lo compraban. +Y lo que paso fue que cancelaron el complejo industrial televisivo. +Y eso solo en los ltimos aos, lo que cualquiera que hace marketing descubri es: ya nada funciona como sola funcionar. +Disculpen por la foto que est confusa, es que tena una tremenda gripe cuando la saqu. +Pero el producto que se ve en la caja azul del medio es mi mejor ejemplo. +Exacto. Voy a la tienda, estoy enfermo, necesito comprar algunos remedios. +El gerente de esa marca gasta en en ese producto azul 100 millones de dlares al ao tratando de interrumpirme. +100 millones de dlares interrumpiendome con publicidades televisivas y avisos publicitarios en revistas y en mails y cupones de descuento y obteniendo mucho espacio en las estanterias de los supermercados y comisiones por venta - y a pesar de todo esto, puedo elegir ignorar cada mensaje. +Y entonces ignoro cada mensaje, porque los remedios para el dolor de cabeza no significan un problema para m. +Yo compro lo que viene en la caja amarilla porque siempre lo hice as. +Y no pienso invertir ni un minuto de mi tiempo en resolver su problema, porque sencillamente no me interesa. +Esta es una revista llamada "Hidratate". Son 180 pginas que hablan de agua. +Exacto. Artculos sobre agua, publicidad sobre agua. +Imagnense el mundo como era hace 40 aos cuando solo existian el diario "Saturday Evening Post" y las revistas "Time" y "Newsweek". +Hoy existen revistas cuyo tema es el agua. +Nuevos productos de Coca-Cola de Japn, ensalada de agua. +Est bien. Coca-Cola de Japn saca a la venta un nuevo producto cada tres semanas. Porque no tienen idea que es lo que va a funcionar y que no. +No podria haberlo escrito yo mejor. Sali hace cuatro das, redondee las partes importantes para que las puedan ver. +Publicaron que "Arby" va a gastar 85 millones de dlares para promocionar una manopla para el horno que viene con la voz de Tom Arnold, esperando que eso haga que la gente vaya a Arby a comprar un sandwich de carne asada. +Ahora, yo he tratado de imaginarme que puede tener un comercial televisivo protagonizado por Tom Arnold, que te haga meterte en tu auto, manejar a traves de la ciudad y comprar un sanwich de carne asada. +Este es Coprnico, y el tena razn, cuando le hablaba a cualquiera que quisiera escuchar su idea. +El mundo da vueltas alrededor mo. Yo, yo, yo, yo, yo. Mi persona preferida, yo. +No quiero recibir ms mails, quiero recibir "yo-mails". +Es por eso que los consumidores, y no me refiero solo a las personas que compran cosas en Safeway (de manera prudente), me refiero a las personas en el Ministerio de Defensa que compren algo, o las personas en el "New Yorker" que pueden imprimir tu artculo. +Vos no le imports a los consumidores, sencillamente no les importa. +Y parte de la razn, es que tienen muchas ms ofertas de las que tenan, y muchisimo menos tiempo. +Y en un mundo en el que se ofrecen tantas opciones y tan poquito tiempo, lo lgico es sencillamente ignorar las cosas. +Mi parbola ac es sta: ests manejando por la ruta y ves una vaca, y seguis manejando porque ya has visto vacas antes. +Las vacas son invisibles. Las vacas son aburridas. +Quien va a parar, acercarse y decir: "Uy, miren, una vaca." Nadie. +Pero si la vaca fuera violeta, no sera ese un tremendo efecto especial? +Puedo hacer eso de vuelta si quieren. +Si la vaca fuera violeta, te asombraras por un rato. +Quiero decir, si todas las vacas fueran violetas, te aburririas de esas tambien. +Lo que har que se decida de que se habla, que se hace, que cambia, qu se compra, qu se contruye, es, es esto notable? +Y notable, es una palabra interesante porque significa elegante, pero tambin significa, algo que lo que vale la pena hacer una nota . +Y es esto la esencia de hacia donde esta yendo la expansin de las ideas. +Esos, son dos de los autos ms deseados en los Estados Unidos, es un auto gigantesco de 55.000 dolres, suficientemente grande como para guardar un Mini Cooper en su bal. +La gente est pagando todo lo que cuestan por cada uno, y lo nico que tienen en comn es que no tienen nada en comn. +Todas las semanas el DVD mas vendido en Estados Unidos cambia. +Nunca es ni "El Padrino", ni "Ciudadano Kane", Siempre es una pelcula de tercera clase con alguna personalidad de segunda clase. +Pero la razn es que es la numero uno, porque esa es la semana que sali a la venta. +Porque es nueva, porque est fresca. +Porque la gente la vio y dijo, "No saba que eso exista", y se dieron cuenta. +Dos de los casos de mayor gloria de los ltimos veinte aos en ventas al por menor, uno vende un producto extremadamente caro en una caja azul, y el otro vende un producto que es tan barato como lo puede hacer. +Lo unico que tienen en comn es que son diferentes. +Estamos en el negocio de la moda, no importa cual sea nuestra profesin, estamos en la industria de la moda. +Y la cosa es que, la gente en la industria de la moda sabe como es trabajar en la industria de la moda, porque estn acostumbrados a eso. +El resto de nosotros debe descifrar como pensar de esa manera. +Como entender que no es cuestion de interrumpir a la gente con grandes avisos de una pgina, o seguir insistiendo en reunirse con la gente. +Sino que es un proceso totalmente diferente el que determina que ideas se propagan, y cuales no. +Esta silla, se vendieron sillas Aeron por un valor de un billn de dlares reinventando el concepto de lo que es vender una silla. +Convirtieron a la silla, de algo que adquira el departamento de compras, a algo que es un smbolo de estatus acerca de donde te sentas para trabajar. +Lionel Poullain, este hombre, es el panadero ms famoso del mundo, se muri hace dos meses y medio, fue un dolo para m y un gran amigo. +Viva en Paris. El ao pasado vendi pan francs por un valor de 10 millones de dolres. +Cada hogaza era cocinada en su propia panadera, por un panadero a la vez, en un horno de lea. +Y cuando Lionel comenzo su panadera, los franceses lo escupan. +No queran comprar su pan. No se pareca en nada al pan francs. +No era lo que esperaban. +Era elegante, era notable, y despacito se propag de persona en persona, hasta que se convirti finalmente en el pan oficial de los restaurantes de tres estrellas de Paris. +Ahora se instal en Londres y hace envios via FedEx a todo el mundo. +Lo que la gente que se dedica a comercializacin haca era fabricar productos promedio para gente promedio. +Eso es comercializacin a gran escala. Alisa los bordes, y ve por el centro, +ah est el gran mercado. +Ignoraban a los "geeks" y Dios no lo permita, tambin a los rezagados. +Estaba todo abocado a ir por el centro. +Pero en un mundo en donde el complejo industrial televisivo est arruinado, no creo que esa sea una estrategia que queramos seguir usando +Creo que la estrategia que queremos usar es no venderle a esas personas porque son realmente buenas ignorndote. +Pero si tratar de venderle a estas personas porque les importa. +Estas son las personas que estn obsesionadas con algo. +Y cuando les hablas, te van a escuchar porque les gusta escuchar, les ests hablando de ellos. +Y si tens suerte, le van a contar a sus amigos del resto de la curva, y se va a propagar. +Se va a propagar a toda la curva. +Tienen algo que yo llamo "otaku", es una gran palabra japonesa. +Describe el deseo de alguien que esta obsesionado, de manera tal que maneja a travs de todo Tokio para comer en un nuevo lugar que sirven fideos ramen, porque eso es lo que les gusta hacer. Se obsesionaron con eso. +Para fabricar un producto, para comercializar una idea, para que aparezca un problema que queres resolver eso no se circunscribe con un "otaku", es casi imposible. +Por el contrario, tenes que encontrar un grupo que realmente, desesperadamente le interese lo que vos tenes para decir. +Hablales y haceles fcil el contarles a sus amigos. +Existe una salsa picante "otaku", pero no existe una mostaza "otaku". +Por eso existen montones y montones de diferentes tipos de salsa picante, y no tantos tipos distintos de mostaza. +No es dificil hacer una mostaza interesante -es posible hacer una mostaza interesante- pero la gente no se obsesiona con ella, y por lo tanto no le cuentan a sus amigos. +"Krispy Kreme" ha descifrado todo esto. +"Krispy Kreme" tiene una estrategia, esto es lo que hacen, entran a una ciudad, le hablan a la gente con "otaku", y luego se propagan a travs de la ciudad a la gente que acaba de cruzar la calle. +Este yoy cuesta 112 dlares, pero duerme durante 12 minutos. +No lo quiere todo el mundo, pero no les importa. +Quieren hablarle a la gente que lo quiere, y asi tal vez se propagu. +Estos chicos hacen el estereo para auto ms ruidoso del mundo. +Es tan ruidoso como un avin 747, no pods meterte +el auto tiene blindex en las ventanas porque sino explotara el parabrisas. +Pero el hecho es que cuando alguien quiera poner unos parlantes en su auto, si tienen "otaku" o escucharon de alguien que lo tiene, van a ir para adelante y elegir esto. +Es realmente muy sencillo, vos vendes al que te est escuchando y quizs, slo quizs esas personas le cuentan a sus amigos. +"Pearl Jam", 96 discos lanzados en los ltimos dos aos. +Todos tuvieron su ganancia. Cmo? +Solamente los vendieron en su pgina de internet. +Quienes lo compraron en su pgina de internet tienen "otaku", y entonces le cuentan a sus amigos, y se propaga y se propaga. +Esta cuna para hospital cuesta 10.000 dlares, 10 veces ms que una estndar. +Pero los hospitales la estn adquiriendo ms rpido que cualquier otro modelo. +El esmalte para uas "Hard Candy" no le gusta a todo el mundo, pero a la gente que lo ama, habla como loca de l. +Esta lata de pintura de ac salv a la empresa de pintura "Dutch Boy", hacindoles ganar una fortuna. Cuesta un 35% ms que una pintura comn porque "Dutch Boy" hizo una lata de la cual la gente habla, porque es extraordinaria. +No se remitieron a abofetearnos con una nueva publicidad del producto, cambiaron el significado de lo que significa fabricar un producto de pintura. +Amlhotornot.com -- todos los das reciben 250.000 visitas, dirigida por dos voluntarios, que yo puedo contarles de su exigencia a la hora de dar su veredicto, y no llegaron a esto publicitando mucho. +Llegaron, siendo extraordinarios, a veces un poco demasiado extraordinarios. +Y este marco fotogrfico tiene un cable que va hacia atrs, y lo pones en un enchufe en la pared. +Mi pap tiene uno de estos en su escritorio, y ve todos los das a sus nietos, cambiando a cada rato. +Y cada una de las personas que entra a su oficina escucha todo el cuento de como esta cosa termin en su escritorio. +Y una persona a la vez, esta idea se propaga. +Estos no son realmente diamantes. +Estn hechos de cenizas humanas. +Despus que tu cuerpo es cremado pods hacer que te conviertan en una joya. +Ah, les gusta mi anillo? Es mi abuela +El negocio con ms rpido crecimiento en toda la industria funeraria. +Pero no tienes que ser Ozzie Osborne no tienes que ser provocador para hacer esto. +Lo que tens que hacer es descifrar qu quiere la gente y drselos. +Un par de reglas rpidas para resumir. +La primera es: el diseo es gratis cuando lo llevas a escala. +Y a la gente se le ocurren cosas extraordinarias con ms frecuencia que no, se le ocurre un modo de poner el diseo a trabajar para ellas +Segundo: Lo ms arriesgado que pods hacer hoy es ser prudente. +"Procter and Gamble" sabe esto, verdad? +Todo el modelo acerca de ser "Procter and Gamble" se basa en productos promedio para gente promedio. +Eso es arriesgado. Lo prudente hoy, es estar en los lmites, ser extraordinario. +Y ser muy bueno es una de las peores cosas que pods hacer. +Ser muy bueno es aburrido. Ser muy bueno es mediocre. +No importa si ests armando un album discogrfico, o sos un arquitecto, o tens un tratado en sociologa. +Si es muy bueno, no va a funcionar, porque nadie lo va a notar. +Ahora si, mis tres historias. +"Silk". Coloca un producto que no necesita estar en la gondola refrigerada del supermercado al lado de la leche ubicada en la gndola refrigerada. +Se triplican las ventas. Por qu? +Leche, leche, leche, leche, leche -- algo que no es leche. +Para quien estuviera all mirando esa gndola, fue extraordinario. +No triplicaron sus ventas con publicidad, las triplicaron haciendo algo extraordinario. +Esta es una obra de arte extraordinaria. No tiene porque gustarte, pero un perro de 40 pies de alto hecho de arbustos en la mitad de la ciudad de Nueva York es extraordinario. Frank Gehry no slo modific un museo, cambi la economa de toda una ciudad diseando una construccin que gente de todo el mundo fuera para verla. +Hoy en da, en un sinfin de reuniones, ustedes sabrn, en la municipalidad de la ciudad de Portland, quin sabe dnde, dicen, necesitamos un arquitecto, podremos conseguir a Frank Gehry? +Porque l hizo algo que estuvo al lmite. +Y mi gran fracaso? Saqu todo un albm discogrfico y ojal toda una serie de albumes discogrficos en formato SACD - este extraordinario nuevo formato - y lo comercializ directamente a personas con estreos de 20.000 dlares. +A personas con estreos de 20.000 dlares no les interesa la msica nueva. +Entonces lo que hay que descifrar es a quien le interesa que cosa. +Quin es el que va a levantar la mano y decir, "Yo quiero saber que vas a hacer despus", y venderles a ellos. +El ltimo ejemplo que les doy. +Este es un mapa del Lago "Soap" en Washington. +Como ven, si eso es la nada, se encuentra ah en el medio. +Pero si tienen un lago. +Y las personas hacan miles de millas para nadar al lago. +No lo hacen ms. Entonces los padres fundadores dijeron: "Tenemos un poco de plata para gastar. +Qu podemos construir ac?". Y como en la mayoria de las comisiones, estaban por construir algo bastante prudente. +Y entonces un artista lleg - esta es una verdadera reproduccin del artista- y quiso construir una lmpara de lava de 55 pies de alto en el medio de la ciudad. +Eso es una vaca violeta, eso es algo que vale la pena prestarle atencin +No s ustedes, pero si la construyen, ese es el lugar al que voy a ir. +Muchas gracias a todos por su atencin. +Les encantar saber que no hablar de mi propia tragedia, sino de la de otros. +Es ms fcil tomar a la ligera la tragedia de otros que la propia y lo har para mantener el nimo de la conferencia. +Entonces si creen en los relatos de los medios, ser traficante en la cima de la epidemia de crack era una vida glamorosa, en palabras de Virginia Postrel, +tenas dinero, drogas, armas, mujeres, lo que quisieran... joyas, bling-bling... de todo. +Les voy a contar de una investigacin de 10 aos, de una oportunidad nica de entrar a una banda, de ver sus libros, los registros financieros reales de la banda, que pertenecer a una banda no es una vida glamorosa. +Creo, siendo ms realistas, que pertenecer a una banda y vender drogas es quiz el peor trabajo en todo los Estados Unidos. +Y hoy los quiero convencer de eso. +As que quiero hacer tres cosas. +Primero, explicar cmo y por qu el crack tuvo tan profunda influencia en las bandas urbanas. +Segundo, contarles cmo alguien como yo pudo ver el funcionamiento interno de una banda. Una historia interesante, creo yo, +y tercero, quiero contarles, someramente algunas cosas que descubrimos cuando vimos realmente los registros financieros, los libros de la banda. +Antes de eso, una advertencia: esta presentacin fue calificada como no apta para menores, +contiene temas para adultos, lenguaje para mayores. +Dado que yo dar la charla, les dar gusto saber que no contiene desnudez, salvo que hubiese un inesperado desperfecto de vestuario. +Comencemos hablando del crack y cmo transform las bandas. +Para eso debemos remontarnos al tiempo anterior al crack a inicios de los 80 y vanlo desde la perspectiva de un lder de banda. +A mediados de los 80, ser lder de una banda no era un mal negocio, inicios de los 80, digamos. +Tenas, poder, mandabas a golpear gente, tenas prestigio, respeto... +Pero no haba dinero de acuerdo? +La banda no tena manera de ganar dinero +y no podan cobrar a la gente en la banda porque ellos tampoco tenan dinero. +No se ganaba vendiendo marihuana. La marihuana resulta ser demasiado barata, +nadie se enriquece vendiendo marihuana. +No podan vender cocana que es un gran producto pero tienes que conocer gente blanca y rica. +Y los miembros de las bandas urbanas no conocan gente blanca y rica, no podan vender a ese mercado. +Tampoco podan cometer delitos menores, +que es una forma terrible de ganarse la vida. +Como resultado siendo lder de banda tenas, s, poder, una buena vida. Pero al final del da, terminabas viviendo en casa de tu madre. +As que no era una carrera +Tena lmites a cun poderoso e importante podas ser, si tenas que vivir con tu madre. +Entonces lleg el crack. +En palabras de Malcolm Gladwell, el crack fue la versin extra-sabrosa de la salsa de tomate. Porque el crack fue una innovacin increble +Hoy no me da tiempo de hablar al respecto. Pero si lo piensan, dira que en los ltimos 25 aos de todos los inventos o innovaciones en este pas, el ms grande por su impacto en el bienestar de la gente que vive en las ciudades, fue el crack, +para mal, no para bien, para peor. +Tuvo un enorme impacto en la vida. +Pero qu tena el crack? +Era una manera brillante de estimular el cerebro, +porque el crack lo puedes fumar y la cocana en polvo, no y fumar es un mecanismo ms eficiente para drogarse que aspirar. +Entonces haba este pblico que no saba que quera crack pero que cuando lleg, se dio cuenta +que era la droga perfecta. Podas venderla por comprar cocana que costaba un dlar y venderla en cinco dlares. +Altamente adictiva, el estmulo era muy breve. +Durante quince minutos estabas drogado. Luego, cuando terminaba, lo nico que queras era hacerlo otra vez. +Cre un mercado maravilloso +y para quienes dirigan la banda pareca una buena forma, en apariencia, de hacer mucho dinero; +al menos para aquellos en la cima. +Entonces es cuando entramos a escena. +No yo, en realidad mi papel es secundario. +Mi coautor, Sudhir Venkatesh, es el protagonista. +Graduado de matemticas con un gran corazn y decidido a obtener un doctorado en sociologa, vino a la Universidad de Chicago. +Tres meses antes de llegar a Chicago se la haba pasado siguiendo a "The Grateful Dead." +Y, en sus propias palabras, "se vea como un tipo raro". +Un surasitico de piel muy oscura, +un hombre grande y con pelo largo hasta "el culo". +Desafiaba cualquier clasificacin, blanco o negro? Hombre o mujer? +Verlo era realmente una visin curiosa. +Se present en la Universidad de Chicago y el famoso socilogo, William Julius Wilson, estaba escribiendo un libro y necesitaba hacer encuestas en todo Chicago. +Mir a Sudhir, quien iba a hacer algunas encuestas para l y supo exactamente el lugar a dnde iba a enviarlo, al ms peligroso y notorio de los proyectos de urbanizacin, no slo en Chicago, sino de todo Estados Unidos. +Entonces Sudhir, muchacho de la afueras que nunca haba estado dentro de la ciudad muy obediente tom su tabla y se encamin hacia ese proyecto urbano. Llega al primer edificio. +En el primer edificio? No hay nadie. +Pero oye voces en la escalera, as que sube y al doblar la esquina, se encuentra un grupo de afroamericanos jugando a los dados. +Esto fue como en los 90, en la cima de la epidemia de crack. +Pertenecer a una banda es un trabajo peligroso, no quieres ser sorprendido, +no te gusta ser sorprendido por gente doblando la esquina. +La regla era: dispara primero, pregunta despus. +Sudhir tuvo suerte. Era un tipo tan raro y quiz la tabla le salv la vida, pues pensaron que ninguna banda rival vendra a matarlos con una tabla. +Su bienvenida no fue especialmente clida pero le dijeron bueno, OK, oigamos tus preguntas. +Y, no les miento, la primera pregunta en la encuesta que le encomendaron era, "Cmo se siente ser pobre y negro en Estados Unidos?" +Da qu pensar de los acadmicos no? +Lo mantuvieron rehn toda la noche en esa escalera. +Hubo muchos tiroteos, muchas discusiones filosficas con miembros de la banda. +A la maana, lleg el lder de la banda, revis a Sudhir, decidi que no era una amenaza y lo dej ir. +Sudhir se fue a casa, se duch y tom una siesta. +Ustedes y yo ante esta situacin pensaramos bueno, creo que voy a escribir mi disertacin sobre "The Grateful Dead", pues ya los estuve siguiendo por tres meses. +Sudhir, por otro lado, volvi al proyecto de urbanizacin. Subi al segundo piso y dijo, " Amigos, me divert tanto con ustedes anoche, que me preguntaba si poda quedarme otra vez". +Pero la historia tuvo un final feliz para Sudhir, quien se convirti en uno de los socilogos ms respetados del pas. +Y para m, que estaba sentado en mi oficina con mi planilla de Excel abierta, esperando que Sudhir volviera y me entregara los datos ms recientes que haba conseguido de la banda. +Fue una de las relaciones de coautora ms desiguales que ha habido pero me congratulo de ser el beneficiario. +Qu descubrimos en la banda? Les dir una cosa. Realmente tuvimos acceso a todos en la banda, +conocimos a la banda por dentro desde bajo hasta arriba +Confiaron en Sudhir de una manera en que ningn acadmico o nadie ajeno a ellos ha ganado el respeto de estas bandas, al punto en que abrieron lo que ms me interesaba: sus libros, sus registros contables. Los tuvimos disponibles para nosotros +y no slo pudimos estudiarlos, sino que pudimos hacer preguntas sobre los mismos. +Primero, en un aspecto, quiz no el ms interesante pero es buen comienzo, es la manera de organizarse. La jerarqua de la banda, la manera como se ve. +Este es el organigrama de la banda. +No s si conocen acerca de organigramas, pero si tuvieran que simplificar el organigrama de McDonald's as es como se vera. +Es asombroso, pero el nivel superior de la banda se llama a s mismo la "junta de directores". +Y Sudhir dice que no es porque tengan una visin sofisticada de las corporaciones estadounidenses, sino porque han visto pelculas como "Wall Street" y como que aprendieron un poco sobre cmo es estar en ese mundo. +Debajo de la junta de directores tenemos esencialmente VP regionales gente que controla, digamos, el sur de Chicago, o el oeste. +Sudhir lleg a conocer al sujeto con la desafortunada tarea de tratar de dirigir la franquicia de Iowa. Que, para esta banda negra, no fue una de las ms brillantes operaciones financieras que hayan emprendido. +Pero lo que realmente hace que la banda parezca McDonald's son las franquicias. +Los sujetos que dirigen las bandas locales las reas de cuatro por cuatro cuadras son igual a los sujetos, que dirigen un McDonald's. +Ellos son los emprendedores, +tienen los derechos exclusivos de controlar la venta de drogas, +mantienen el nombre de la banda para la comercializacin y el mercadeo +y son los que bsicamente hacen o pierden las ganancias dependiendo de cmo dirigen el negocio. +El grupo en el que quiero que piensen, son los estn hasta abajo los soldados rasos. +Tpicamente son adolescentes parados en una esquina vendiendo las drogas, +un trabajo en extremo peligroso. +Y es importante notar que casi todo el peso, toda la gente en esta organizacin estn abajo, igual que en McDonald's +En cierto sentido, el soldado raso se parece a quien toma rdenes en McDonald's y no es casualidad que se parezcan. +De hecho, en estos vecindarios, son las mismas personas, +los mismos chicos que trabajan en la banda estn tambin al mismo tiempo, trabajando medio tiempo en un lugar como McDonald's. +Lo cual prefigura la conclusin de lo que estoy contando acerca de cun malo es el trabajo de estar en una banda. +Porque obviamente, si estar en una banda fuera un trabajo lucrativo por qu en el cielo estos chicos adems trabajan en McDonalds? +Cmo es la paga? Se sorprenderan. +Pero basados en los hechos... pudiendo hablar con ellos y ver sus registros as es como se ve en trminos de salarios. +La paga de los soldados rasos era 3.50 dlares la hora, +por debajo del salario mnimo y esto est documentado. +Es fcil ver, por los patrones de consumo que tienen. +Esto no es ficcin, es un hecho +Haba muy poco dinero en la banda especialmente en el rango bajo. +Si alcanzan a subir, digamos, hasta lder local, el equivalente al dueo de una franquicia de McDonalds ganaran 100 000 dlares al ao. +En cierta forma, es el mejor trabajo al que pueden aspirar, si crecieron en uno de estos vecindarios como joven negro. +Si alcanzan a subir a la cima 200 000 o 400000 dlares al ao es lo que podran ganar. +Ciertamente la suya sera una historia de xito. +Pero uno de los aspectos tristes de esto es que, entre otras ramificaciones del crack, es que los individuos ms talentosos en estas comunidades aspiran a esto. +No tratan de lograrlo de manera legtimas porque no hay opciones legtimas. +sta era la mejor opcin +y realmente era la opcin correcta, probablemente para lograrlo de esta manera. +Miren esto. La relacin con McDonald's termina aqu +El dinero es parecido. +Por qu es tan mal trabajo? +La razn por la que es tan mal trabajo es que habr alguien que te estar disparando a cada rato. +Habiendo tiroteos cules son las tasas de mortalidad? +En nuestra banda y, admitimos, que esta no es una situacin estndar, era un momento de intensa violencia --de guerras de bandas-- y esta banda lleg a ser bastante exitosa, pero hubo costos. +Y el ndice, sin mencionar el ndice de arrestos, condenas penales, heridos, el ndice de mortalidad en nuestra muestra fue del 7% por persona por ao. +Estando en la banda 4 aos tenas un 25% de probabilidades de morir. +Esto es lo ms alto que puedes alcanzar. +Para fines comparativos, pensemos en otra situacin que uno espera sea extremadamente riesgosa. +Digamos que eres un asesino, encarcelado por asesinato y condenado a pena de muerte. Resulta que los ndices de mortalidad de los condenados a muerte +por cualquier causa, incluyendo la ejecucin es de 2% anual. +Es mucho ms seguro estar condenado a muerte que vender droga en la calle. +Esto te hace pensar en aquellos que creen que la pena de muerte va a tener un efecto disuasivo en el crimen. +Eso es extremadamente alto. +Y esto es por muerte violenta; en cierto sentido, inverosmil. +Para ponerlo en perspectiva, si lo comparas con los soldados en Irak por ejemplo, estacionados en la guerra: 0.5 por ciento. +En una forma muy literal, los jvenes negros creciendo en este pas estn viviendo en una zona de guerra, en el mismo sentido en que los soldados en Irak estn peleando una guerra. +Por qu, se preguntarn, alguien estara dispuesto a vender drogas en una esquina por 3.50 la hora, sabiendo que tiene un 25% de probabilidad de morir en los prximos 4 aos? +Por qu lo haran? Creo que hay un par de respuestas. +Creo que la primera es que fueron engaados por la historia. +La banda sola ser un rito de transicin. Que la gente joven controlaba la banda y cuando envejecas, salas de la banda. +Lo que sucedi fue que quienes estuvieron a la hora correcta en el lugar correcto, quienes dirigieron la banda a mediados de los 80, se hizo muy, muy rica. +Y lo ms lgico de pensar era que: "La prxima generacin va a reemplazar la banda como sucede con todos y la prxima generacin va a llegar y apropiarse de la riqueza". +Hay sorprendentes similitudes, creo, con el boom de la Internet. +Los primeros en Silicon Valley se hicieron muy, muy ricos +y todos mis amigos dijeron: "Yo debera hacer eso tambin". +Aceptaron trabajar con poco salario a cambio de acciones que nunca redituaron. +En cierto sentido, eso es lo que sucedi a esta gente que analizamos, estaban dispuestos a comenzar desde abajo. +Al igual que un abogado en un bufete legal dispuesto a comenzar en su primer ao desde abajo, trabajando 80 horas por semana por poco dinero, porque cree que lo harn socio; +pero despus las reglas cambian y nunca lo hacen socio. +Las mismas personas que controlaban las bandas a fines de los 80 todava hoy controlan las principales bandas en Chicago, +nunca pasaron la riqueza. Todos se quedaron atascados con un trabajo de 3.50 la hora y fue un desastre. +La otra cosa fue que las bandas fueron muy buenas en comercializar. +Por ejemplo, algo que la banda haca es que los lderes tenan grandes recorridos, y conducan autos lujosos y tenan joyas caras. +Sudhir se dio cuenta, a medida que pasaba tiempo con ellos de que en realidad no eran dueos de esos autos. Los alquilaban porque no podan pagar un auto caro +Y su joyera no era de oro sino de chapa de oro. +Volvemos a lo real-real versus lo falso-real. +Y en verdad hicieron muchas cosas para engaar a los jvenes para convencerlos de que era buen negocio estar en la banda. +Por ejemplo, a un chico de 14 aos le daban un fajo de billetes para que lo guardara. +El chico de 14 aos dira: "Bien" Le dira entonces a sus amigos: "Miren el dinero que consegu en la banda". +No era su dinero, hasta que se lo gastaba. Y entonces esencialmente estaba en deuda con la banda y era un empleado endeudado. +Me queda un par de minutos. +Har una ltima cosa que no pens que tendra tiempo, que es hablar de lo que aprendimos, en general, sobre la economa del estudio de la banda. +Los economistas tienden a hablar con palabras tcnicas, +a menudo las teoras fallan miserablemente al recolectar datos. Pero lo que es interesante es que en este contexto algunas teoras que no funcionaron bien en la economa real, funcionaron en la economa de drogas, en cierta forma porque es capitalismo sin restricciones. +Aqu hay un principio econmico, +una idea bsica de economa laboral es el "diferencial de compensacin". +Bsicamente es el incremento de paga que requiere un trabajador para sentirse indiferente entre realizar dos tareas una de las cuales es ms desagradable que la otra; +a eso se le llama diferencial de compensacin Por eso pensamos que quienes recogen basura ganan ms que quienes limpian parques cierto? +En palabras de un miembro de la banda esto est claro +Me estoy adelantando, pero resulta que en la banda, cuando hay guerra, a los soldados rasos se les paga el doble. +Es exactamente este concepto, +porque no quieren arriesgarse. +Y las palabras del miembro de la banda lo expresan bien. Dice: "Te quedas aqu cuando toda esta mierda... los disparos, estn pasando? No, cierto? +Si vas a pedirme que ponga mi vida al frente, hombre, el efectivo por delante". +En esencia, creo que el miembro de la banda expresa lo que est pasando ms articuladamente que el economista. +Otra ms. +Los economistas hablan de la teora de juegos, que en cada juego entre dos personas hay un Equilibrio de Nash. +He aqu la traduccin del miembro de la banda. +Hablando acerca de la decisin del porqu no hacen tiroteos, algo que es una gran tctica de negocios en la banda, si vas y disparas al aire en el territorio de otra banda todos tendrn miedo de comprar drogas all y vendrn a tu vecindario. +Pero he aqu el porqu no hacen eso: "Si comenzamos a disparar por ah, en el territorio de la otra banda, nadie, entiendes, nadie va a pasar por su territorio. +Pero hay que tener cuidado, porque pueden disparar por aqu tambin y entonces nos jodemos todos". +Es exactamente el mismo concepto, +pero a veces, los economistas lo entienden mal. +Una cosa que observamos en los datos es que se ven como... El lder de la banda siempre cobra cierto? +Sin importar qu tan mal est la economa, siempre se paga a s mismo. +Tenemos algunas teoras acerca del flujo de efectivo y la falta de acceso al mercado de capitales, y cosas as +Pero cuando le preguntamos al miembro de la banda "Por qu siempre recibes paga y tus trabajadores no siempre cobran?" +Responde: "Tienes estos negros debajo que quieren tu trabajo entiendes? +Si empiezas a tener prdidas, entonces para ellos eres dbil y mierda". +Y pens en eso, y me dije "Los altos ejecutivos se pagan a s mismos bonos millonarios incluso cuando las compaas pierden dinero; +y nunca se le ocuri a un economista que esta idea de 'dbil y mierda' podra ser en verdad importante". Pero tal vez esto de "dbil y mierda" +tal vez sea una hiptesis importante que necesita ms anlisis. +Muchas gracias. +Haba una vez una enfermedad espantosa que afectaba a los nios. +Y, de hecho, entre todas las enfermedades que existan en esta tierra, era la peor. Mataba a la mayora de los nios. +Y con ella apareci un brillante inventor, un cientfico, a quien se le ocurri una cura parcial para esa enfermedad. +No era perfecta. Muchos nios todava moran, pero era claramente mejor que lo anterior. +Una de las cosas buenas de esta cura fue que era gratis, prcticamente gratis, y muy fcil de usar. +Pero lo peor de todo era que uno no poda usarla en nios jvenes, en nios pequeos, y en los de un ao. +Entonces, como consecuencia, unos aos despus a otro cientfico (puede que tal vez este cientfico no tan brillante como el que lo haba precedido, pero perfeccionando la invencin del primero) se le ocurri una segunda cura. +Y la belleza de la segunda cura para esta enfermedad era que poda ser usada en nios pequeos y en nios de un ao. +El problema con esta cura fue que era muy cara, y muy complicada de usar. +Y pese a que los padres trataron lo mejor que pudieron de usarla correctamente, casi todos terminaron usndola mal al final. +Pero lo que hicieron, ya que era tan complicada y cara, fue usarla slo en bebs de 0 a 1 aos. +Y continuaron usando la cura existente que ya tenan en los nios de dos y ms aos. +Y continu as por bastante tiempo. La gente era feliz. +Tenan sus dos curas, hasta que una madre peculiar cuyo hijo acababa de cumplir dos aos, muri de esta enfermedad. +Y pens para s: "Mi hijo acaba de cumplir dos aos, y hasta que el hijo cumpli dos aos, siempre haba usado esta cura complicada y cara, este tratamiento. +Y entonces el nio cumpli dos aos, y comenc a usar el tratamiento barato y fcil, y me pregunto..." Y ella se pregunt, como todos los padres que pierden un hijo, "... si hay algo que pudiera haber hecho, como seguir usando esa cura complicada y cara". +Ella le cont a toda la gente, y dijo: "Cmo podra ser posible que algo barato y simple funcione tan bien como algo complicado y caro?" +La gente pens: "Sabes, tienes razn, +probablemente sea incorrecto hacer el cambio y usar la solucin barata y simple". +Y el gobierno escuch la historia y otras personas dijeron: "Si, tienes razn, deberamos hacer una ley. +Deberamos declarar ilegal este tratamiento barato y simple y no dejar que nadie lo use con sus hijos". +Y la gente fue feliz, estaba satisfecha. +Durante muchos aos continu as, todo estaba bien. +Pero apareci un humilde economista, que tena hijos, y us el tratamiento caro y complicado. +Pero saba del barato y simple. +Y pens en eso, y el caro no le pareca tan bueno. As que pens: "No s nada de ciencia, pero s algo sobre datos as que tal vez debera ir y ver los datos y ver si este tratamiento caro y complicado realmente funciona mejor que el barato y simple". +Y he aqu que, al examinar los datos, encontr que no pareca que la solucin cara y complicada fuera mejor que la barata. Al menos para los nios que tenan dos aos y ms; la barata an no funcionaba en los nios ms pequeos. +Y entonces fue con la gente y les dijo: "He hecho este descubrimiento maravilloso, parece como si pudiramos usar la solucin simple y barata y ahorrarnos 300 millones de dlares al ao, y gastarlo en nuestros hijos en otras maneras". +Y los padres estuvieron muy descontentos, y dijeron: "Esto es algo terrible porque, Cmo puede ser lo barato y fcil tan bueno como lo difcil?" Y el gobierno estaba muy molesto, +y en particular quienes hicieron la solucin cara estaban muy molestas porque pensaron: "Cmo podemos competir con algo esencialmente gratis? +Perderamos todo nuestro mercado". +La gente estaba muy enfadada, y le dijeron de todo. +Y l decidi que quizs debera irse del pas por unos das, y buscar algunas personas ms inteligentes y de mente abierta, en un lugar llamado Oxford. Ir, probar y contar la historia en ese lugar. +Entonces, como sea, aqu estoy. No es un cuento de hadas. +Es una historia verdadera de Estados Unidos hoy, y la enfermedad a la que me refiero son los accidentes de auto con nios. +Y la cura gratis son los cinturones de seguridad para adultos, y la cura cara (de 300 millones de dlares al ao) son los asientos infantiles para coches. +Y finalmente hablar un poco de una tercera manera, de otra tecnologa, probablemente mejor que cualquier cosa que tenemos, pero de la que no ha habido ningn entusiasmo para su adopcin precisamente porque la gente est muy enamorada de la solucin del asiento infantil actual. OK. +Entonces, a menudo cuando uno trata de investigar los datos, ve historias complicadas. Es difcil encontrar en los datos... +este no resulta ser el caso cuando uno compara los cinturones con los asientos infantiles. +Estados Unidos lleva un registro de cada accidente mortal sucedido desde 1975. +As, de cada accidente de coche en el que muere al menos una persona, tienen informacin sobre todas las personas. +Si uno mira esos datos... estn precisamente en la web de la Administracin de Seguridad de Transportes en Carreteras Nacionales. Uno puede mirar los datos brutos, y comenzar a hacerse una idea de la poca evidencia a favor de los asientos infantiles para los nios de dos y ms aos. +Aqu estn los datos; nios de 2 a 6 aos los mayores de 6 no usan asientos infantiles as que no se puede comparar. El 29,3% de los nios que viajan sueltos en un choque en el cual al menos una persona muere, ellos mueren. +Si uno pone un nio en un asiento infantil, el 18,2% muere. +As que lo que hacemos en el estudio es presentar la misma informacin pero en forma grfica para que quede ms claro. +La barra amarilla representa los asientos de auto, la naranja los cinturones de regazo-hombro, y la roja los cinturones de regazo, +Y todo esto es relativo a los no asegurados. Cuanto ms grande la barra, mejor. Bien. +Estos son los datos que acabo de mostrar, OK? +La barra ms alta es lo que uno trata de vencer. +Uno puede controlar cosas bsicas, como lo duro del choque, en qu asiento estaba sentado el nio, etc. La edad del nio. +Y ese es el conjunto de barras del medio. +as uno puede ver que los cinturones de regazo comienzan a verse peor una vez que uno hace eso. +Y finalmente, el ltimo conjunto de barras, que realmente est controlando todo posiblemente uno podra imaginar el choque: 50, 75, 100 caractersticas diferentes del choque. +Y lo que encuentrs es que para los asientos y los cinturones de regazo-hombro, cuando se trata de salvar vidas, las muertes se ven exactamente idnticas. +y las franjas de error estndar son relativamente pequeas alrededor de estos clculos tambin. +Y no es slo en general. Es muy robusto por donde se lo mire. +Algo interesante: si uno ve a los choques de impacto frontal (cuando el auto choca, el frente golpea algo) lo que se ve es que los asientos de auto se ven un poco mejor. +Y pienso que esto no es casualidad. +Para aprobar el asiento de auto uno tiene que cumplir ciertos estndares federales y eso implica golpear el auto en un choque frontal directo. +Pero si uno ve otros tipos de choques, como los de impacto posterior, los asientos no funcionan tan bien. +Y creo que eso es porque han sido optimizados para pasar, como siempre esperamos que las personas hagan, optimizar lo relativo a las reglas claramente definidas acerca de qu tan efectivo ser el auto. +Y la otra cosa que uno podra argumentar es, bien, los asientos de auto han mejorado con el tiempo. +Entonces si uno ve choques recientes (el conjunto de datos contiene casi 30 aos de datos) uno no va a ver asientos en los choques recientes. Los asientos nuevos son mejores, mucho mejores. +Pero, de hecho, en los choques recientes a los cinturones de regazo-hombro les est yendo incluso mejor que a los asientos. +Ellos dicen: 'Eso es imposible, no puede ser'. +Y el argumento, si le pregunta a los padres, es: 'Pero los asientos de auto son tan caros y complicados, y tienen esta gran maraa de sistemas de montaje, Cmo podran no funcionar mejor que los cinturones si son tan caros y complicados? +Es una lgica interesante, que creo la gente usa. Y la otra lgica: 'Bien, el gobierno no nos hubiera dicho que los usemos si no fueran mucho mejores'. +Pero lo interesante es que el gobierno nos dice que los usemos sin mucho sustento. +Realmente se basa en algunas splicas apasionadas de padres cuyos hijos murieron despus de que cumplieron dos aos, (eso ha llevado a promulgar estas leyes) y no tanto en datos. +As que uno slo puede llegar, pienso, a contar su historia usando estas estadsticas abstractas. +Y as invit a unos amigos a cenar, y les preguntaba... tuvimos una barbacoa, les preguntaba qu consejo podran darme para demostrar mi idea. Dijeron: 'Por qu no haces unas pruebas de choques?' +Y dije: 'Esa es una gran idea' +As que tratamos de encargar algunas pruebas de choques. +Y resulta que mientras visitamos las compaas de pruebas de choques por todo el pas ninguna quera hacer el choque de prueba porque decan (algunas explcitamente, otras no tanto): 'Todos nuestros negocios vienen de fabricantes de asientos de autos. +No podemos arriesgar alejarlas probando cinturones en relacin con asientos de auto'. +Ahora, eventualmente, una acept bajo condiciones de anonimato. Dijeron que haran esta prueba con gusto. As que anonimato y 1.500 dlares por asiento chocado +y entonces fuimos a Buffalo, Nueva York, y aqu est el precursor de esto. +Estos son los muecos de choques de prueba esperando su oportunidad de entrar en escena +Y entonces as es cmo funciona el choque de prueba. +Aqu, realmente no chocan el auto completo, ya saben, no vale la pena arruinar un auto entero para hacerlo. +As que slo tienen estas bancas y les atan el asiento y el cinturn. +As que yo slo quera ver esto. +Y creo que esto da una buena idea de por qu los padres piensan que los asientos de auto son tan buenos. Miren al nio en ese asiento. +No se ve contento, listo para irse, como si pudiera sobrevivir a todo? Y entonces si ves al nio atrs, se ve como si ya estuviera ahogndose antes de que el choque suceda. +es difcil creer cuando uno ve esto que a ese nio atrs le va a ir muy bien cuando se produzca un choque. +As que este va a ser un choque donde van a chocar esta cosa directo contra la pared a 50 kms por hora y ver qu pasa. OK? +Djenme ensearles que pasa. +Estos son muecos de tres aos, por cierto. +Aqu, este es el asiento. Ahora observen dos cosas. Observen como la cabeza va hacia adelante, y golpea las rodillas, esto es en el asiento. Y observen como el asiento vuela alrededor en el rebote por el aire. +El asiento est movindose por todo el lugar. +Tengan en mente que hay dos cosas acerca de esto. +Este es un asiento de auto que fue instalado por alguien que ha instalado 1.000 asientos, que saba exactamente cmo hacerlo. +Y tambin result que estas bancas son la mejor manera de instalar asientos. +Una parte posterior plana hace mucho ms fcil instalarlos. +Esta es una prueba muy bien armada a favor del asiento de auto, OK? As que a ese nio en este choque le fue muy bien. +Los estndares federales son que uno tiene que sacar abajo de 1.000 para que el asiento sea aprobado en este choque, en algunas unidades mtricas que no son importantes. +Y este choque hubiera sido alrededor de 450. +As que este asiento de auto estuvo arriba del promedio de los Reportes de Consumidores; le fue muy bien. +De todos modos resulta que en esos dos choques al nio de tres aos le fue levemente peor. As que obtiene cerca de 500 de, ya saben, en este rango comparado con 400 y algo. +Pero an as, si uno slo tomara los datos del choque para el gobierno federal, y dijera: 'He inventado un asiento nuevo. +Me gustara aprobarlo para venderlo', entonces diran: 'Este es un nuevo asiento de auto fantstico, funciona genial'. +Slo sac 500, pudo haber sacado hasta 1000 +y este cinturn de seguridad habra pasado muy bien de ser aprobado como asiento de auto. +As que, en un sentido, lo que esto sugiere es que no slo las personas estn instalando sus asientos incorrectamente, lo que est poniendo a los nios en riesgo. Sino que, fundamentalmente, los asientos de auto no estn haciendo mucho. +As que aqu est el choque. Estos estn sincronizados. Entonces se puede ver que lleva mucho ms con el asiento en el rebote, lleva mucho ms tiempo, pero hay mucho menos movimiento para el nio que est con el cinturn de seguridad. +As que les mostrar los choques de los nios de seis aos tambin. +Los nios de seis aos en un asiento de auto, y resulta que eso se ve terrible, pero est genial. Eso es como un 400, OK? +As que a ese nio le ira bien en el choque. +Nada de eso habra sido problemtico para el nio en absoluto. +Y entonces aqu est el nio de seis aos con el cinturn de seguridad, y, de hecho, ellos quedan exactamente dentro, ya saben, dentro de uno o dos puntos del mismo. As que realmente, para el nio de seis aos, el asiento de auto no hizo nada en absoluto. +Eso es algo ms de evidencia, as que en algn sentido fui criticado por un cientfico que dijo: 'Nunca podras publicar un estudio con un N de 4, 'queriendo decir esos cuatro choques. +As que le respond diciendo: 'Qu tal un N de 45.004?' +Porque yo tena los otros 45.000 choques de la vida real. +Y entonces pienso que la respuesta para este acertijo es que hay una solucin mucho mejor ah afuera que no ha entusiasmado a nadie porque todos estn muy deleitados con que los asientos de auto estn supuestamente funcionando. +Si uno piensa desde la perspectiva de diseador, acerca de regresar al cuadro uno, y dice: 'Slo quiero proteger a los nios en el asiento trasero'. +no creo que haya alguien en este sala que dira, 'Bien, la manera correcta de comenzar seria, hagamos un asiento grande para adultos. +Y despus hagamos este artilugio realmente grande que tienes que ajustar en esta cadena'. +Por qu no comenzar? quin est atrs salvo los nios? +Hagan algo como esto, no s qu costo exacto tendra, pero no hay razn que pudiera haber para que fuese mucho ms caro que un asiento comn. +Es slo -- ya ven, esto se pliega -- est detrs del asiento. +Hay un asiento normal para adultos, lo pliegan, y el nio se sienta encima, y est integrado. +Me parece que esta no puede ser una solucin muy cara. y tiene que funcionar mejor que lo que ya tenemos. +As que la pregunta es: Hay alguna esperanza para adoptar algo como esto? Esto salvara muchas vidas. +Creo que quiz la respuesta yace en una historia. +As que mi padre tena pacientes que l pensaba que no estaban realmente enfermos. +y tena un frasco grande de pldoras placebo que les daba, y deca: 'Regresa en una semana si an te sientes mal'. +OK, la mayora no regresaba, pero algunos de ellos lo hacan. +Y cuando regresaban, l todava convencido de que no estaban enfermos. tena otro frasco de pastillas, en este frasco haba pastillas enormes. +Eran casi imposibles de tragar. +Y estas, para m, son las analogas de los asientos de auto, +Las personas al verlas diran: 'Hey, esta cosa es tan grande y tan difcil de tragar. Si esto no me hace sentir mejor, qu cosa podra hacerlo?' +Y result que la mayora de las personas no regresaba porque funcionaba. Pero, de vez en cuando, todava haba un paciente convencido que estaba enfermo, y regresaba. Y mi pap tena otro frasco con pastillas. +Y el frasco de pastillas que tena, l deca, eran las pastillas ms pequeitas que pudo encontrar, tan pequeas que apenas podan verse. +Y deca: s que te di una pastilla enorme, esa pastilla, complicada, difcil de tragar, pero ahora tengo una que es tan potente, que es realmente pequea y casi invisible, +es casi como esta de aqu, que ni siquiera puedes ver'. +Y result que nunca, en las ocasiones que mi pap dio estas pastillas, las muy pequeas, nadie regres jams quejndose de estar enfermo. +Eso es completamente posible. Y si ese es el caso, pienso que seguiremos con los asientos convencionales durante mucho tiempo. +Muchas gracias. +[Audiencia: quera preguntarle, cuando usamos cinturones no necesariamente los usamos para prevenir muertes, tambin para prevenir lesiones serias. +Sus datos ven las muertes. No ven a las lesiones serias. +Hay algn dato que muestre que los asientos para nios son menos efectivos, o slo tan efectivos como los cinturones para lesiones serias? Eso probara su idea.] S, es una buena pregunta. En mis datos, y en otro grupo de datos que he visto para los choques de Nueva Jersey, encuentro muy pequeas diferencias en las lesiones. +En estos datos, hay una diferencia estadsticamente significativa en lesiones entre asientos de auto y cinturones de regazo-hombros. +En los datos de Nueva Jersey, es diferente porque no son slo los choques fatales, sino todos los choques de Nueva Jersey. Hay una diferencia de 10% en las lesiones, pero generalmente son lesiones menores. +Lo interesante, debera decirlo como descargo de responsabilidad, hay literatura mdica que es muy difcil de resolver con estos otros datos los cuales sugieren que los asientos de auto son espectacularmente mejores. +y ellos usan una metodologa completamente diferente que implica, despus de ocurrido el choque, obtienen de las compaas aseguradoras los nombres de las personas que estuvieron en el choque, los llaman por telfono, y les preguntan qu sucedi. +Realmente an no puedo resolver y me gustara trabajar con estos investigadores mdicos, para tratar de entender cmo puede haber estas diferencias que estn en desacuerdo mutuo. +Pero es, obviamente, una pregunta crtica. +La pregunta es, incluso, si hay suficientes lesiones serias para hacer esto rentable. Es un poco engaoso. +Incluso si tienen razn, no est tan claro si son tan rentables. +--No s su nombre. --Miembro de la audiencia: Howard, Howard. +Thom Mayne: Howard? Estaba sentado al lado de Howard; no lo conozco, obviamente, y me dijo: "espero que Ud. no sea el prximo". +Muy, muy buen nmero. +Como que borr todo de mi mente para seguir eso. +Bueno, por algn lado tengo que empezar. Me interesa... Hago prcticamente lo mismo pero sin mover el cuerpo. Y en lugar de usar figuras humanas para desarrollar ideas de tiempo y espacio trabajo en el mundo mineral. Trabajo con materia ms o menos inerte. +Organizo la materia, bueno, es un poco diferente porque un arquitecto versus, digamos, una compaa de baile es en definitiva una negociacin entre el mundo interior el mundo conceptual, de las ideas, el mundo de las aspiraciones de las invenciones en relacin al mundo exterior con sus limitaciones, y los pesimistas. +Porque debo decir que a lo largo de mi carrera si hay algo consistente, es que siempre me han dicho que no podra. +Sin importar lo hecho, lo que haya intentado, todo el mundo deca que no podra. +Y esto es algo continuo en todo el espectro de las varias clases de realidades en que uno confronta con las ideas. +Y para ser arquitecto en cierta forma uno tiene que negociar entre izquierda y derecha negociar entre este lugar muy privado en el que ocurren las ideas y el mundo exterior, para luego hacerlo comprensible. +Es la idea calvinista de que el camino ms rpido entre dos puntos es la lnea sinuosa y no la recta. +Y, definitivamente, mi vida ha sido un poco as. +Voy a empezar con simples nociones de cmo organizamos las cosas. +Bsicamente lo que hacemos es intentar dar coherencia al mundo. +Hacemos objetos fsicos, edificios que forman parte de una proceso de acrecin que hace ciudades. +Y esas cosas son el reflejo de los procesos y el tiempo en que son hechos. +Y yo intento hacer una sntesis de la manera en que vemos el mundo y los territorios tiles como materia generativa. +Porque, en realidad, todo lo que siempre me interesa como arquitecto es la manera en que las cosas son producidas porque eso hago, correcto? +Y no se fundamenta en una nocin a priori. +Para m eso no es as, de ninguna manera. +No tengo ningn inters en eso para nada. +La arquitectura es el comienzo de algo porque... si no se est familiarizado con los primeros principios, si no ests involucrado del todo, el comienzo de ese proceso generativo, es pura decoracin de tortas. +No tengo nada en contra de la decoracin de tortas, ni de los decoradores, si alguien hace decoracin de tortas... no es algo que me interese hacer. Entonces, en la formacin de las cosas, al darles forma... al concretar estas cosas todo empieza con alguna nocin de organizacin. +Y me he interesado durante 30 aos en una serie de complejidades donde se ejerce una serie de fuerzas para soportar y entender que el resultado final de eso representa al edificio en cuestin. +Hay una relacin contnua entre los inventos, que son privados, y la realidad; algo importante para m. +Un proyecto exhibido en Copenague hace 10 aos, era el modelado de un hipocampo... la zona cerebral que almacena memoria a corto plazo... y su documentacin creativa a travs de dibujos que literalmente pretendan organizar dicha experiencia. +Esto tiene que ver con la nocin de caminar un kilmetro observando en cada kilmetro un objeto de deseo y ubicndolo dentro de esto. +Y la idea era que se poda crear una organizacin construda no sobre coherencias sino basada en incongruencias y aleatoriedad. +Me interes mucho en esta nocin de aleatoriedad dado que produce trabajo arquitectnico y que se relaciona con la nocin de ciudad, una nocin de acrecin de la ciudad que conduce a varias ideas de organizacin. +Llegando as a ideas ms amplias de construcciones que se encuentran en la multiplicidad de sistemas. +Y no es un solo sistema el que hace el trabajo. +Es la relacin, la dinmica entre sistemas, la que tiene el poder de transformar e inventar y producir una arquitectura que... que de otro modo no existira. +Y esos sistemas podran identificarse y agruparse. +Y, por supuesto, hoy con la tecnologa informtica y el prototipado rpido, etc., tenemos los mecanismos para entender y responder a estos sistemas y para permitirles acomodarse a los distintos alojamientos de funcionalidades porque eso es lo que hacemos. +Producimos espacios que alojan actividad humana. +Y lo que me interesa no es el estilo del espacio, sino su relacin ya que realza la actividad humana. +Y remite directamente a la idea de construccin de ciudades. +Este es un proyecto que acabamos de terminar en Penang para un proyecto de ciudad muy, muy grande, que surgi directamente de este proceso que es producto de la multiplicidad de fuerzas que lo producen. +Y el proyecto (de nuevo, una competencia enorme, enorme) sobre el Ro Hudson de Nueva York que nos solicitaron hace tres aos, que usa estos procesos. +Y lo que estn viendo son las posibilidades que tienen que ver con la generacin de la ciudad cuando uno aplica la metodologa que usa nociones de estas fuerzas mltiples, que trata con la enormidad del problema, con la complejidad del problema, cuando diseamos ciudades con conglomerados cada vez ms grandes. +Porque uno de los problemas de hoy es que la aglomeracin econmica produce una aglomeracin de desarrollo y a medida que crecen los conglomerados necesitamos cada vez procesos de investigacin ms complejos para resolver estos problemas. +Esto nos lleva directo a la Villa Olmpica. +Estuve en Nueva York el lunes en la presentacin ante el COI. +Ganamos la competencia... cundo fue? hace nueve meses? +De nuevo, un reflejo directo del uso de estos procesos para desarrollar organismos sumamente complicados, a gran escala. +Y luego, tambin, funcionaba con estrategias amplias. +En este caso slo usamos 6 de las 24 hectreas de tierra y las 18 hectreas eran un parque que se volvera el legado de la Villa Olmpica. +Y sera el segundo parque ms grande del municipio, etc. +Su ubicacin, claro, en el medio de Manhattan (est en Hunters Point). +Y luego la idea ms amplia de construccin de la ciudad comienza a tener influencia directa en la arquitectura en los elementos que constituyen el esquema ms amplio los edificios en s, y empieza a guiarnos. +La arquitectura para m ha sido la investigacin de una multiplicidad de fuerzas provenientes de, literalmente, cualquier lado. +Por eso puedo comenzar esta charla por varios lugares y he elegido tres o cuatro para contarles. +Y tambin tiene que ver con un inters en con la vastedad del territorio que abarca la arquitectura. +Literalmente se relaciona con todo en trminos de conocimiento. +No existe nada que, de algn modo, no tenga un tejido conectivo. +Este es Jim Dine, es la ausencia de presencia, etc. +Es la vestimenta, la piel, sin la presencia del personaje. +Se volvi una especie de idea para la nocin del rea de un proyecto y se us en un proyecto en el que podamos desentraar esa superficie era una idea figurativa que iba a ser desdoblada para trasformarse en un espacio muy complejo. +Y la idea era la relacin del espacio que estaba formado por el doblez de la imagen y la dialctica o el conflicto entre la figuracin y esa claridad de la imagen y la complejidad del espacio, que estaban dialogando. +Y nos hizo repensar completamente nuestra manera de trabajar y de hacer las cosas lo que nos condujo a ideas ms cercanas al diseo de moda cuando aplanamos la superficie para volverlas a juntar en combinaciones espaciales. +Este fue el primer prototipo en Corea trabajando con un envoltorio dinmico y luego la misma caracterstica de la tela. +Tiene identidad material, es translcida y porosa, nos da una idea diferente de lo que es la piel de un edificio. +Y eso se convierte de inmediato en otro proyecto. +Este es el edificio Caltrans de Los ngeles. +Y estamos viendo la piel y el cuerpo de manera separada. +De nuevo, es una nocin muy, muy simple. +Si nos fijamos en la mayora de los edificios lo que vemos es el edificio, la fachada, eso es el edificio. +Y, de repente, como que nos alejamos de eso y estamos separando la piel del cuerpo y eso nos va a llevar a un criterio de rendimiento ms amplio del cual voy a hablar en un minuto. +Y vemos cmo cuelga y se diferencia del cuerpo. +Y luego, de nuevo, el edificio en s, en el centro de Los ngeles, justo enfrente al City Hall. +Y, a medida que se mueve toma partes de la tierra. Se dobla. +Es parte de, una especie de sistema de signos, que formaba parte de una especie de legado de Los ngeles... la sealizacin en dos y en tres dimensiones, etc. +Y luego nos permite penetrar la obra misma. +Es transparente y permite comprender, pienso, lo que resulta siempre ms interesante en todo edificio que es su proceso real de construccin. +Y es el... como el ms, probablemente el tipo de territorio ms intenso del trabajo, que no est ocupado porque la arquitectura siempre es ms interesante en un mecanismo cuando est separada de la funcin y este es un rea que permite eso. +Y luego la piel comienza a transformarse en otros materiales. +Estamos usando luz como material de construccin en este caso. +Y eso era en gran medida parte de la nocin del objetivo urbano de este proyecto de Los ngeles. +Y, nuevamente, todo esto promueve la transparencia. +Y una imagen que puede estar ms cerca de hablar del uso de la luz como medio que la luz se vuelve literalmente un material de construccin. +Bueno, eso inmediatamente se volvi algo ms amplio... y como un alcance. +Y, otra vez, estamos viendo una especie de bosquejo temprano en el que estoy entendiendo ahora que la piel puede ser una transicin entre el piso y la torre. +Este es un edificio de San Francisco que est en construccin. +Y ahora se convirti en algo mucho, mucho ms amplio como problema y tiene que ver con el rendimiento. +Este ser el primer edificio de los EE.UU. que sacar... bueno, no puedo decir que sacar el aire acondicionado. Es un hbrido. +Quera algo puro, pero no pude obtenerlo. +Es una actitud equivocada, en realidad, porque el hbrido es probablemente ms interesante. +Pero sacamos el aire acondicionado de la torre. +Qued algo de aire acondicionado en la base pero la piel ahora se mueve por hidrulica. +Fuerza el aire... mediante un efecto Venturi, si no hay viento. +Se ajusta continuamente. Y sacamos el aire acondicionado. +Enorme, algo grande. Medio milln de dlares de diferencia al ao. +10 de ellos... es poco menos de 93 mil metros cuadrados 75 mil metros cuadrados... 10 de ellos abasteceran a Sausalito... con esa diferencia. +Y ahora estamos mirando, a medida que los proyectos crecen en escala, a medida que se vuelven... que encuentran problemas ms amplios que expanden esa suerte de capacidades en trminos de rendimiento. +Bueno, podra tambin empezar aqu. +Podramos hablar de la relacin en un sentido ms biolgico de la relacin entre el edificio y el suelo. +Bueno, nuestra investigacin... mi generacin al menos, gente que fue a la escuela a finales de los '60, ha generado un cambio en el enfoque interno de la arquitectura. observando la arquitectura en su propio territorio estbamos mucho ms influenciados por el cine que por lo que suceda en el mundo del arte, etc. +Este es, por supuesto, Michael Heizer. +Y cuando vi esto, primero una imagen y luego personalmente cambi totalmente mi manera de pensar a partir de entonces. +Y comprend que un edificio podra ser realmente una expansin de la superficie de la Tierra y eso cambi completamente mi idea de base de edificio en el sentido ms bsico. +Y luego, bueno, l probablemente estaba mirando esto... esto es Nazca hace 700 aos... las ms sorprendentes esculturas en tierra de cuatro kilmetros. +Son algo increble. +Y eso nos llev a repensar completamente la manera de dibujar, de trabajar. +Este es el primer boceto de una secundaria en Pomona. Bueno, sea lo que sea es un modelo, una especie de idea conceptual. +Se trata de la reconfiguracin de la tierra para hacerla habitable. +fueron 19 mil metros cuadrados de relleno que hizo posible una escuela en la superficie de esa tierra. +All est modelada como si fuera el desarrollo de una pieza de trabajo. +Y ah est, de nuevo, cuando se comenzaba a resolver tectnicamente y luego est la escuela. +Y, por supuesto, nos interesaba... nos interesaba participar en la educacin. +No me interesa para nada construir un edificio que contenga las funciones X, Y y Z. +Lo que me interesa es cmo estas ideas juegan en el proceso educativo de la gente joven. +Requiere una suerte de investigacin porque es un sistema que no se desarroll de modo escultrico. +Es una idea que comenz en mi primera discusin. +Tiene que ver con una lgica amplia, medio consistente, y esa lgica se puede entender cuando uno ocupa el edificio. +Y hay una nocin abierta... al menos hay un intento de hacer un edificio muy abierto que se conecte con la tierra en una manera muy diferente porque me interesaba un enfoque muy didctico al problema que uno lo comprendiera. +Y el segundo proyecto que acababa de terminar en Los ngeles que usa alguna de estas ideas. Utiliza el paisaje como idea principal. +Luego, de nuevo, estamos haciendo la sede del NOAA la Administracin Nacional Ocenica y Atmosfrica en las afueras de Washington, Maryland. +Y as es como ellos ven el mundo. +Tienen 22 satlites a ms o menos 160 kilmetros el lugar est marcado en rojo. +Ahora mismo all hay tres campos de bisbol, y se van a quedar all. +Pusimos una pieza directamente de norte a sur y apunta las antenas a los odos, no? +Y luego justo debajo est el procesamiento, el ascensor de la misin, y la sala de control de la misin; todos los dems espacios son subterrneos. +Y lo que ven es un portaaviones que se gua por el cono de visin de estas antenas satelitales. +Y ese, el edificio en s, ocupa la porcin inferior partido por una serie de canchas y hay dos hectreas de espacio horizontal ininterrumpido para sus oficinas administrativas. +Y eso, a su vez, nos impuls a mirar proyectos de mayor escala en los que esta idea de interfaz paisaje-edificio se vuelve un tejido conectivo. +La competencia de la nueva capital para Berln, hace 4 aos. +Y el edificio ya no se ve como una cosa autnoma sino como algo intrnsecamente conectado a esta ciudad y a este lugar en este momento. +Y puedo hablar de esa intensidad en trminos de las colisiones, de la clase de eventos que producen que tienen que ver con reunir una serie de sistemas y luego cuando parte de eso est en el terreno, parte de eso son elevaciones opuestas. +Uno ingresa al edificio a medida que este despega del terreno y se vuelve parte de la idea. +Y luego la piel, esa especie de borde todo all promueve la dinmica, el movimiento de la construccin como una serie de movimientos ssmicos, correcto? +Se dirige a un espacio para eventos y luego se abre en lugares que permiten mirar hacia el interior, y esos interiores, de nuevo promueven la transparencia para el lugar de trabajo que ha sido una suerte de inters continuo para nosotros. +Y luego, otra vez, en una especie de ambiente ms tradicional este es un alojamiento para estudiantes de grado en Toronto y tiene mucho que ver con la relacin de un edificio como tejido conectivo de la ciudad. +La idea principal era la puerta de entrada, donde el sitio se abre y el edificio ocupa tanto el espacio pblico como el privado. +Y es ese territorio de... es esa cosa. +Visit el lugar muchas veces y todos como que... puede verse esto desde dos kilmetros como el centro exacto de la calle y la idea es involucrar al pblico involucrar a los edificios en el tejido pblico de la ciudad. +Y, por ltimo, uno de los proyectos ms interesantes... es un palacio de justicia. +Y quiero hablar de... esta es la Corte Suprema, por supuesto... y bueno, estoy en contacto con Michael Hogan, el Presidente del Tribunal Supremo de Oregn. +No se puede continuar sin tener esta negociacin entre los propios valores y la relacin del personaje con el que uno trabaja y de cmo ste entiende al Tribunal porque le muestro, por supuesto, Villa Savoy de Le Corbusier de 1928, que es el comienzo de la arquitectura moderna +Bien, luego pasamos a esta imagen. +Y aqui comenz el proyecto. Porque yo, como que, voy a... me interesa el fenmeno que est ocurriendo aqu. +Y, en verdad, de lo que estamos hablando es de construir realidad. +Y soy un personaje que est muy interesado en comprender la naturaleza de esa realidad construida porque ya no existe tal cosa como la naturaleza. La naturaleza se fue. +La naturaleza en el sentido del siglo XIX, correcto? +La naturaleza hoy es un artilugio cultural, correcto? +La construimos como construmos esas ideas. +Y luego, claro, este, nuestro gobernador actual. +Y le dedicamos algo de tiempo a Conan, crase o no, y luego eso nos llev a las grandes diferencias de nuestros mundos de un marco jurdico y artstico, arquitectnico. +Y nos oblig a hablar de las nociones de cmo trabajamos y de la dinmica de eso y de otras fuentes del trabajo. +Y eso nos condujo al proyecto, al palacio de justicia que es absolutamente parte de una negociacin entre la tradicin y piezas del palacio de justicia tradicional. +Encontrarn una escalera de la misma longitud que la de la Corte Suprema. +Aqu hay un piano nobile, un arreglo utilizado en el Renacimiento. +Los tribunales se hicieron as. La piel de esta serie de capas que reflejan incluso cantera rstica pero que fue labrada con fragmentos de la Constitucin que formaban parte de este proceso ubicados en un zcalo que lo define de la comunidad. +Muchsimas gracias. +Me pidieron que viniera aqu para hablar sobre creacin. +Slo tengo 15 minutos y veo que ya estn corriendo. +Y puedo, en 15 minutos, creo que slo puedo tocar una rama muy prosaica de la creacin, a la cual llamo creatividad. +La creatividad es la forma en que lidiamos con la creacin. +Mientras la creacin a veces parece un poco incomprensible, o incluso carente de sentido la creatividad siempre es significativa. +Por ejemplo, vean esta fotografa. +Saben, la creacin es la que coloc a ese perro en esa foto y la creatividad es la que nos hace ver a un pollo en sus cuartos traseros. +Cuando lo piensan, la creatividad tambin tiene mucho que ver con la causalidad. +Saben, de adolescente, yo era un creador. +Simplemente haca cosas. +Luego me hice adulto y comenc a saber quin era y trat de preservar a esa persona, me volv creativo. +No fue hasta que hice un libro y una exposicin retrospectiva, que pude rastrear exactamente... parece como si todas las cosas ms locas que he hecho, todas mis borracheras, todas mis fiestas, siguieron una lnea recta que me llevaron al punto en que, en efecto, les estoy hablando en este momento. +Aunque esto realmente es verdad, saben, la razn por la que estoy hablndoles ahora mismo es porque nac en Brasil. +Si hubiese nacido en Monterey, probablemente estara en Brasil. +Saben, nac en Brasil y crec en los aos 70 en un clima de tensin poltica, y me vi obligado a aprender a comunicarme de un modo muy especfico, en una suerte de mercado negro de la semitica. +No podas decir lo que realmente queras decir, tenas que inventar formas de hacerlo. +No tenas mucha confianza en la informacin. +Eso me llev a otro paso en el porqu estoy hoy aqu, es porque me encantaban todo tipo de medios de comunicacin. +Era un adicto a los medios y con el tiempo me met en la publicidad. +Mi primer trabajo en Brasil, de hecho, fue desarrollar un mtodo para mejorar la legibilidad de las vallas basado en velocidad, ngulo de aproximacin y bloques de texto. +Fue muy... de hecho, fue un estudio muy bueno y me hizo obtener trabajo en una agencia publicitaria. +Y adems, decidieron que deba tener... que deban darme un feo trofeo de acrlico por ello. +Otra razn -- por la que estoy aqu -- es porque el da que fui a recoger el trofeo de acrlico, rent un esmoquin por primera vez en mi vida, recog aquella cosa... no tena amigos. +Camino a la salida, tuve que detener una pelea. +Alguien estaba golpeando con manoplas a otra persona. +Estaban de esmoquin y peleando, fue horrible. +A la primera persona vistiendo de etiqueta, de esmoquin. Fue a m. +Afortunadamente, no fue fatal, como todos pueden ver. +Y, para mayor suerte, el tipo dijo estar apenado y lo chantaje por una compensacin econmica o de lo contrario le denunciara. +Y es as cmo --con este dinero compr un boleto a los Estados Unidos en 1983, y esa es la razn bsica por la que estoy hoy aqu. Porque me dispararon. . Bueno, cuando empec a hacer mis propias obras, decid que no debera hacer imgenes. +Saben, me convert... tom este enfoque muy iconoclasta. +Porque cuando decid entrar a la publicidad, yo quera hacer... deseaba aerografiar desnudos en hielo, para anuncios de whisky, eso es lo que en realidad quera hacer. Pero yo -- no me dejaron hacerlo, as que yo slo, ya saben, slo me permitan hacer otras cosas. +Pero yo no tena inters en vender whisky, tena inters en vender hielo. +Las primeras obras en realidad fueron objetos. +Eran una suerte de mezcla de objetos encontrados, diseo de productos y publicidad. +Y les llam reliquias. +Se exhibieron por primera vez en la Galera Stux en 1983. +Esta es la Calavera de Payaso. +Es un vestigio de una raza, de una raza muy evolucionada de entretenedores. +Vivieron en Brasil hace mucho tiempo. ste es el joystick Ashanti. +Desafortunadamente, se volvi obsoleto porque fue diseado para la plataforma Atari. +Est por venir un Playstation II, quiz para el prximo TED lo traiga. +El Podio Mecedor. sta es la Cafetera Precolombina. De hecho, la idea surgi de una discusin que tuve en un Starbuck's, yo insista en que no estaba tomando caf colombiano, sino que en realidad era precolombino. +La Mesa Bonsi. +Toda la Enciclopedia Britnica encuadernada en un nico tomo para viajeros. +Y la Media Lpida, para la gente que an no ha muerto. +Quise llevar aquello al mundo de las imgenes, y decid hacer cosas que tuvieran los mismos conflictos de identidad. +As que decid trabajar con nubes. +Porque las nubes pueden ser todo lo que desees. +Pero ahora quera trabajar con tecnologa muy bsica, por lo tanto, algo que pudiera ser al mismo tiempo un bulto de algodn, una nube y unas manos en oracin de Durero, aunque stas se parecen mucho ms a las manos en oracin de Mickey Mouse. +Pero an estaba, saben, esta es una nube minina. +Se llaman "Equivalentes", por la obra de Alfred Stieglitz. +"El Caracol". +Pero an segua trabajando en escultura, y en realidad estaba tratando de hacer cosas cada vez ms planas. +"La Tetera". +Tuve oportunidad de ir a Florencia, en... creo que en el 94, y vi "Las Puertas del Paraso" de Ghiberthi. +Y l hizo algo muy difcil. +Ensambl dos medios diferentes provenientes de pocas distintas. +Primero, consigui un mtodo antiguo para hacerlo, el relieve y lo trabaj con la perspectiva de tres puntos, que era una nueva tecnologa en ese entonces. +Y es completamente demoledor. +Y tus ojos no saben a qu nivel mirar. +Y quedas atrapado en este tipo de representacin. +Y as que decid hacer estas bastante sencillas representaciones, que al principio se perciben como un dibujo lineal. Saben, algo muy... y luego lo hice con alambre. +La idea era --porque todos omiten el blanco-- como los dibujos a lpiz no? +Y al mirarlo, "Ah! Es un dibujo a lpiz". +Entonces tienes esta reaccin retardada y ves que en realidad es algo que existi en el tiempo. +Que tuvo materialidad, y comienzas a adentrarte ms y ms en una suerte de narrativa que va en esta direccin, hacia la imagen. As surgieron "Mono con Leica". +"Relajacin". +"Fiat Lux". +Y del mismo modo, el historial de representacin evolucion del dibujo lineal al dibujo sombreado. +Y yo deseaba abarcar otros temas. +Empec a tomarlos del mundo del paisaje, los cuales son algo como casi un cuadro de nada. +Hice estos cuadros llamados Cuadros de Hilo, y el nombre surgi por la cantidad de yardas que utilic para representar cada cuadro. +Al final estos siempre terminaban siendo una foto o ms bien como un grabado en este caso. +As que este es un faro. +Este es "6.500 Yardas" por Corot, "9.000 Yardas" por Gerhard Richter. +Y no s cuntas yardas por John Constable. +Alejndome de las lneas, decid abordar la idea de los puntos, como algo ms similar al tipo de representacin que hallamos en las propias fotografas. +Conoc un grupo de nios en la isla caribea de San Kitts, con quienes trabaj y jugu. +Les tom algunas fotos. +A mi llegada a Nueva York, decid... eran hijos de trabajadores de plantaciones de caa azucarera +y mediante la manipulacin de azcar sobre papel negro, hice sus retratos. +Son estos Gracias. Esta es "Valentina, la ms rpida". +Slo era el nombre de la nia, con ese poco que llegas a saber de alguien que apenas conociste. +"Valicia". +"Jacynthe". +Pero haba todava otra capa de representacin. +Porque estaba haciendo esto cuando realizaba estas imgenes y me di cuenta de que todava poda agregar otra cosa, estaba intentando hacer un sujeto algo que interfiriese con los temas, para lo que el chocolat...e es muy bueno, porque tiene evoca pensamientos que van de la escatologa al romance. +De esta manera decid hacer estos cuadros y eran muy grandes, por lo que tenas que alejarte de ellos para poder verlos. +As que se llaman Cuadros de Chocolate. +Quizs Freud podra explicar el chocolate mejor que yo. l fue el primer sujeto. +Y Jackson Pollock tambin. +Los cuadros de multitudes son particularmente interesantes, porque, saben, te acercas a aquello... tratas de resolver el umbral con algo que puedas identificar muy fcilmente, como una cara, que se va convirtiendo en slo una textura. +"Paparazzi". +Us polvo del Museo Whitney para representar algunas piezas de su coleccin. +Y escog piezas minimalistas porque tratan sobre la especificidad. +Y representas esto con el ms inespecfico de los materiales, el polvo mismo. +Como, ya saben, tienen las partculas cutneas de cada visitante del museo. +Si hicieran un anlisis de ADN de esto, saldran con una enorme lista de correos. +Este es Richard Serra. +Compr una computadora y me dijeron que tiene millones de colores. +Saben, la primera reaccin de un artista a eso es: quin los cont? +Y me di cuenta de que nunca trabaj con color, porque pas por una etapa difcil controlando la idea de colores nicos. +Pero si se aplica principalmente a estructuras numricas, entonces puedes sentirte ms cmodo. +As que la primera vez que trabaj con colores fue para hacer estos mosaicos con muestras de Pantone. +Terminaron siendo cuadros muy grandes, que fotografi con una enorme cmara, una cmara de 8x10. +De modo que ves la superficie de cada muestra como en este cuadro de Chuck Close. +Y tienes que alejarte mucho para poder verlo. +Adems, la referencia al uso de paletas cromticas de Gerhard Richter y tambin la idea de entrar en otro mbito de representacin que hoy en da nos es muy comn, el mapa de bits. +Acab limitando el tema a "Los Almiares" de Monet. +Esto es algo que haca como en broma, ya saben, hacer -- algo como -- "Malecn Espiral" de Robert Smithson y entonces dejar rastros, como si se hubiera hecho sobre una mesa. +Intentaba demostrar que l no construy esa cosa en Salt Lake. +Pero entones, con slo hacer los modelos, estaba tratando de explorar la relacin entre el modelo y el original. +Y sent que realmente tendra que ir all y realizar yo mismo algunos trabajos en tierra. +Opt por dibujos lineales muy simples, de aspecto un poco estpido. +Y, al mismo tiempo, estaba haciendo estas enormes construcciones, a 150 metros de distancia. +Ahora hara unas muy pequeas, que seran como... pero bajo la misma luz y las expondra juntas, de modo que el espectador tendra que descifrar cul de ellas estaba mirando. +No estaba interesado en las cosas muy grandes o en las muy pequeas. +Me interesaban ms las cosas intermedias, saben, porque puedes dejar all un enorme rango de ambigedad. +Esto es como lo ven, el tamao de una persona aqu. +Esta es una pipa. +Un gancho de ropa. +Y aqu est otra cosa que hice, saben, al trabajar a todos nos gusta mirar a alguien dibujar, pero no mucha gente tiene la oportunidad de mirar a alguien dibujando a mucha gente al mismo tiempo, que presencie un nico dibujo. +Y me encanta este trabajo, porque durante dos meses hice estas nubes de caricatura sobre Manhattan. +Y fue maravilloso porque tena un inters -- un inters precoz -- en el teatro que est justificado en esta cosa. +En teatro, tienes al personaje y al actor en el mismo lugar, tratando de negociar entre s, frente a una audiencia. +Y en esto, tendras como un... algo que se parece a una nube y es, a la vez, una nube. +As que son como actores perfectos. +Mi inters en la actuacin, en especial la mala actuacin, viene de mucho tiempo atrs. +De hecho, en una ocasin pagu 60 dlares para ver a un gran actor hacer una versin del Rey Lear, y sent que me robaron, porque para cuando el actor se convirti en el Rey Lear, dej de ser el gran actor por el que haba pagado para ver. +Por otro lado, saben, pagu como tres dlares, creo, y fui a una bodega en Queens para ver una versin de Otelo montado por un grupo aficionado. +Vean, pienso que en realidad no se trata de impresin, de hacer que la gente caiga por una ilusin realmente perfecta, tanto como hacer -- habitualmente trabajo en el umbral inferior de la ilusin visual. +Porque no se trata de engaar a alguien, sino, en realidad, de darle una medida de sus propias creencias: qu tanto desean ser engaados. +Por eso pagamos para ver espectculos de magia y cosas as. +Bueno, creo que eso es todo. +Mi tiempo ya casi se acaba. +Muchsimas gracias. +A menudo me preguntan la diferencia entre mi trabajo y el del tpico planificador estratgico del Pentgono. +Y la respuesta que me gusta dar es que ellos tpicamente piensan en el futuro de las guerras dentro del contexto de la guerra. +Y lo que yo llevo haciendo durante 15 aos (y me ha tomado casi 14 de ellos darme cuenta) es pensar en el futuro de las guerras en el contexto de todo lo dems. +Entonces tiendo a especializarme en el escenario entre la guerra y la paz. +El material que voy a mostrarles es una idea para un libro. Bueno, muchas ideas. +Es la que en este momento me lleva por el mundo interactuando bastante con ejrcitos extranjeros. +El material se gener durante dos aos de trabajo que hice para el Secretario de Defensa, imaginando una nueva gran estrategia nacional para Estados Unidos. +Voy a presentar un problema e intentar darles una respuesta. +Esta es mi estupidez favorita del Pentgono de los 90s; la teora de las estrategias asimtricas anti-acceso y de negacin de rea. +Por qu la llamamos as? +Porque tiene todas esas iniciales repetidas, supongo. +Este es un trabalenguas para decir que si EE.UU. lucha contra a- lguien vamos a ser enormes +y ellos pequeos. +Y si ellos intentan pelear en el sentido tradicional y directo les patearemos el trasero; que es por lo que ya nadie trata de hacerlo. +Conoc al ltimo General de la Fuerza Area responsable por derribar un avin enemigo en combate. +Hoy es un general de una estrella. +As de lejanos estamos de enfrentarnos a una fuerza area dispuesta a volar contra nosotros. +Y esa capacidad abrumadora crea problemas: la Casa Blanca los llam- a "xitos catastrficos". +Y estamos tratando de solucionarlo, porque es una capacidad extraordinaria. +La pregunta es: Qu de bueno se puede hacer con eso? +Ok? +La teora de las estrategias asimtricas anti-acceso y de negacin de rea (un trabalenguas que le vendemos al Congreso, porque si slo les dijramos que podemos patearle el culo a cualquiera no nos compraran todo lo que queremos.) +Entonces decimos: estrategias asimtricas anti-acceso de negacin de rea y sus ojos se apagan. +Y nos dicen: "Lo vas a construir en mi distrito?" +Es mi parodia y no es tanto tampoco. +Hablemos del espacio de batalla, +no s, el estrecho de Taiwn en 2025. +Hablemos de un enemigo contenido dentro de ese espacio. +No s, la tropa del milln de buzos. +EE.UU. debe tener acceso a ese espacio instantneamente. +Usan estrategias asimtricas anti-acceso de negacin de reas. +Como una banana en la pista de aterrizaje. +Caballos troyanos en nuestras redes electrnicas instantneamente revelan todas nuestras debilidades. +Decimos "China, es tuyo". +Enfoque de Prometeo, una definicin geogrfica, enfocarse casi exclusivamente en el inicio del conflicto. +Enviamos un equipo para el primer perodo en una liga que insiste en puntuar hasta el final del juego. +Ese es el problema. +Podemos aumentar la puntuacin contra cualquiera y luego terminar con el culo pateado en la segunda mitad; lo que llaman guerra de cuarta generacin. +As es como yo prefiero describirlo: +No existe un espacio de batalla que el ejrcito de EE.UU. no pueda acceder. +Decan que no podramos en Afganistn y lo hicimos fcilmente. +Decan que no podramos con Irak. +Lo hicimos con 150 bajas en seis semanas. +Lo hicimos tan rpido que no estbamos preparados para su cada. +No hay nadie al cual no podamos vencer. +La pregunta es: qu hacer con ese poder? +No hay problema en acceder a los espacios de batalla. +Lo que se nos hace difcil es acceder al espacio de transicin que naturalmente debe seguirle y crear el espacio de paz que nos permita terminar. +El problema es que el Departamento de Defensa te destruye. +El Departamento de Estado por ac dice: "Vamos, chico, puedes hacerlo". +Y ese pobre pas salta por el precipicio, hace como en los dibujos animados y cae. +No se trata de fuerza abrumadora, sino de fuerza proporcional. +Se trata de tecnologas no letales; porque si disparas balas reales a una multitud de mujeres y nios protestando vas a perder amigos muy rpidamente. +No se trata de proyectar poder, ms bien de poder de permanencia; lo cual implica tener legitimidad con los locales. +A quin buscas en este espacio de transicin? +Debes crear compaeros internos, buscar compaeros de coalicin. +Le pedimos a la India 17 mil tropas de paz. +Conozco a sus lderes; queran proporcionarlos. +Pero nos dijeron: Sabes qu? +En ese espacio de transicin ustedes son ms jefes que soldados. +No creemos que lo puedan lograr y no vamos a darles nuestros 17 mil tropas de paz como carne de can. +Le pedimos 40 mil a los rusos. +Dijeron que no. +Estuve en China en agosto y les dije: "Ustedes deberan tener 50 mil tropas de paz en Irak. +Es su petrleo, no el nuestro". +Lo cual es cierto; es SU petrleo. +Y los chinos me dijeron: "Dr. Barnett, tiene toda la razn. +En un mundo perfecto tendramos 50 mil ah. +Pero no es un mundo perfecto y su gobierno no est ayudndonos a lograrlo". +Pero tenemos problemas con los resultados. +Francamente, tuvimos suerte al seleccionar la guerra. +Tenemos distintos enemigos entre estos tres. +Y es hora de comenzar a admitir que no puedes pedirle al mismo chico de 19 aos que lo haga todo. +Simplemente es demasiado difcil. +Tenemos una capacidad sin par para combatir. +Todo lo dems no lo hacemos tan bien. +Lo hacemos mejor que nadie y an as somos espantosos. +Tenemos un Secretario de Guerra brillante. +No tenemos un Secretario de Todo lo Dems. +Porque de tenerlo el tipo an estara frente al Senado testificando por Abu Ghraib. +El problema es que l no existe. +No hay un Secretario de Todo lo Dems. +Creo que tenemos una capacidad sin par para hacer la guerra. +A eso lo llamo Fuerza Leviatn. +Lo que necesitamos es construir una fuerza para todo lo dems: +lo que llamo los Administradores de Sistema. +Pienso que esto representa la falta de un libro de reglas generales para procesar estados que quebraron polticamente. +Tenemos uno para procesar estados econmicamente quebrados. +Es el Plan de Bancarrota Soberana del FMI, correcto? +Discutimos cada vez que lo usamos. +Argentina acaba de pasar por l, rompi muchas reglas. +Terminaron el proceso, dijimos "est bien, no te preocupes". +Es transparente, entrega algo de certeza y da la sensacin de un resultado positivo. +No tenemos uno para procesar estados polticamente quebrados que, francamente, todos quieren eliminar. +Como Saddam, Mugabe, Kim Jong-Il; gente que mata cientos de miles o millones. +Como los 250 mil muertos hasta ahora en Sudn. +Cmo se vera un sistema de reglas as? +Voy a distinguir entre lo que llamo mitad delantera y mitad trasera. +Y digamos que esta lnea roja es "misin cumplida". +Lo que tenemos en este momento, en la... ...mitad delantera, es el Consejo de Seguridad de la ONU como gran jurado. +Qu pueden hacer? +Te pueden acusar. +Pueden debatirlo, escribirlo en una hoja de papel, +colocarlo en un sobre y mandrtelo por correo. Y decirte en trminos directos: "por favor deja de hacer eso". +Con eso obtienen unos 4 millones de muertos en frica Central en los 90s. +Obtienen 250 mil muertos en Sudn durante los ltimos 15 meses. +Todo el mundo va a tener que responderle a sus nietos algn da qu hicieron para el holocausto en frica. Y ms vale que tengan una respuesta. +No existe nada para convertir esa voluntad en accin. +Lo que s tenemos es la Fuerza Leviatn de EE.UU. que dice: "Quieres que liquide a ese tipo? Lo eliminar. +Lo har el martes. Te costar 20 mil millones de dlares". +Pero este es el trato: +Tan pronto no quede nadie ms a quien acribillar me voy inmediatamente. +Esa es la llamada Doctrina Powell. +Ro muy abajo tenemos la Corte Penal Internacional. +Adoran enjuiciarlos; en estos momentos tienen a Milosevic. +Qu nos falta? +Un ejecutivo funcional que convierta voluntad en accin. Como no lo tenemos, +cada vez que lideramos uno de estos esfuerzos, tenemos que adoptar una mentalidad de amenaza inminente. +No hemos tenido una amenaza inminente desde la Crisis de los Misiles Cubanos de 1962. +Pero usamos este lenguaje de una era pasada para asustarnos y as hacer algo porque es lo que hay que hacer en democracia. +Y si eso no funciona gritamos: "Tiene un arma!" +mientras entramos por la fuerza. +Y entonces registramos el cuerpo y slo encontramos un encendedor viejo y decimos: "Dios mo, estaba muy oscuro". +Francia, quieres hacerlo? +Francia dice: "No, pero disfrutar despus criticndote". +Lo que necesitamos ro abajo es la habilitacin de un gran poder; lo que llamo la Fuerza de Administracin de Sistemas. +Debimos tener 250 mil tropas entrando a Irak detrs de esa Fuerza Leviatn que barri Bagdad. +Qu hubiramos logrado as? +Cero saqueos, cero desapariciones de militares, cero desaparicin de armas o municiones, ningn Muqtada al-Sadr (lo hara trizas), cero insurgencia. +Habla con cualquiera que haya ido en los primeros seis meses. +Tuvimos seis meses para movernos, para terminar el trabajo y pasamos seis meses sin hacer nada. +Y luego se nos cambiaron de bando. +Por qu? Porque simplemente se hartaron. +Vieron lo que le hicimos a Saddam. +Dijeron: "Uds. son tan poderosos, pueden resucitar este pas. +Son EE.UU". +Lo que necesitamos es un fondo internacional de reconstruccin. Gran idea de Sebastian Mallaby del Washington Post. +Basado en el FMI. +En vez de pasar el sombrero cada vez, est bien? +Dnde lo vamos a conseguir? Eso es fcil, en el G20. +Revisen su programa desde el 11-S. +Dominado por temas de seguridad. +Van a decidir desde el principio cmo se gastar el dinero. Igual que en el FMI. +Votas de acuerdo a cunto dinero pones en el fondo. +Este es mi desafo al Departamento de Defensa: +Deben construir esta fuerza, sembrarla, +seguir a los socios de coalicin y crear un modelo exitoso. +Lograrn armar este modelo. +Me dicen que es demasiado difcil. +Pues les mostrar las seis etapas por las que pasamos en los Balcanes. +Lo hicimos como si nada. +Hablo de regularizarlo, de hacerlo transparente. +Quieren sacar a Mugabe? +Quieren que Kim Jong-Il, quien - ha matado dos millones de personas, quieren que se vaya? +Les gustara un sistema mejor? +Esto es lo que le importa al ejrcito. +Han experimentado una crisis de identidad desde la Guerra Fra. +No hablo de la diferencia entre la realidad y el deseo, cosa que puedo porque no estoy en Washington. +Hablemos de los 90s. +Cae el muro de Berln, hacemos Tormenta del Desierto. +Empieza a abrirse una brecha entre los militares que ven un futuro en el que pueden vivir y aquellos que ven un futuro que les asusta. Como la comunidad de submarinistas de EE.UU. que ve desaparecer la marina sovitica de un da al otro. +Ah! +Entonces empiezan a moverse de la realidad al deseo y crean su propio y especial lenguaje para describir su viaje de auto-descubrimiento. +El problema es que necesitas un oponente grande y sexy con quien pelear. +Y si no puedes conseguirlo tienes que crear uno. +China, agigantada, se va a ver muy sexy! +El resto del ejrcito se arrastr por la mugre durante los 90s. Y han desarrollado un trmino burln para describirlo: operaciones militares distintas a la guerra. +Quin ingresa al ejrcito para hacer algo distinto a la guerra? +En realidad la mayora lo hace. +Jessica Lynch nunca consider dispararle al enemigo. +La mayora nunca levanta un rifle. +Sigo diciendo que esto un cdigo del ejrcito para decir "no queremos hacerlo". +Pasaron los 90s trabajando en los lugares complejos entre las partes globalizadas del mundo. Lo que llamo el ncleo y la brecha. +La administracin Clinton no estaba interesada en esto. +Durante 8 aos, luego de estropear la relacin el primer da con lo de homosexuales en el ejrcito, fue algo brillante. +As que quedamos solos por ocho aos. +Y qu hicimos mientras estuvimos solos? +Compramos un ejrcito y manejamos otro. +Y es como el tipo que va al doctor y dice: "Doctor, me duele cuando hago esto". +El doctor dice: "Deja de hacerlo, idiota". +Sola dar una charla en el Pentgono a principio de los 90s. +Deca "Estn comprando un ejrcito y manejando otro. Y eventualmente les va a doler, est mal. +Malo Pentgono, malo!" +Y decan: "Dr. Barnett, tiene tanta razn". +"Puede regresar el prximo ao y recordrnoslo?" +Algunos dicen que el 11-S elimina esta brecha: sacude a los magos de la transformacin a largo plazo desde su mirada histrica de gran altura, los arrastra por la mugre y dice: quieres un oponente interconectado? +Tengo uno, est en todos lados, encuntralo". +Y eleva el MOOTW (como pronunciamos ese acrnimo) de basura a gran estrategia, ya que as es como reducirs esa brecha. +Algunos juntan estas dos cosas y las llaman "imperio", concepto que pienso es muy estpido. +"Imperio" no trata del cumplimiento de un mnimo de reglas, lo cual te es imposible, sino de hacer cumplir un conjunto mximo de reglas. +No es nuestro sistema de gobierno. +Jams hemos interactuado as con el mundo exterior. +Prefiero la frase Administracin de Sistemas. +Aplicamos un conjunto mnimo de reglas para mantenernos conectados con la economa global. +Slo hay algunas cosas malas que no puedes hacer. +Cmo impacta esto en como pensamos el futuro de la guerra? +Este es un concepto con el cual me satanizan en el Pentgono. +Tambin me hace muy popular. +Todo el mundo tiene una opinin. +Regresando al origen de nuestro pas: histricamente, defensa significaba proteccin interior. +Seguridad ha significado todo lo dems. +Tenemos definidas en nuestra Constitucin dos fuerzas distintas con dos funciones distintas. +Levanta un ejrcito cuando lo necesites y mantn una marina para conectividad cotidiana. +Un Departamento de Guerra, un- Departamento de Todo lo Dems. +Un gran garrote y una batuta. +Una lluvia de golpes y una fuerza que te conecte. +En 1947 fusionamos estas dos cosas en el Departamento de Defensa. +Nuestra lgica a largo plazo pas a ser: "Estamos en un delicado balance con los soviticos. +Atacar a EE.UU. es arriesgar la destruccin del mundo". +Unimos la seguridad nacional a la internacional con una diferencia de como siete minutos. +Hoy, ese dej de ser nuestro problema. +Pueden matar a tres millones en Chicago maana y no iremos a pelear con armas nucleares. +Esa es la parte aterradora. +La pregunta es: Cmo reconectamos la seguridad nacional de EE.UU. con la seguridad global para hacer al mundo ms tranquilo, y para asimilar y contextualizar nuestro empleo de fuerza planetaria? +Desde ese momento se ha generado la divisin que les he descrito. +Hemos hablado de esto desde el final de la Guerra Fra. +Tengamos un Departamento de Guerra- y un Departamento de Todo lo Dems. +Algunos dicen: "Diablos, el 11-S ya lo hizo para ti!". +Ahora tenemos un conflicto local y uno externo. +El Departamento de Seguridad Interior e- st estratgicamente para sentirse mejor. +Va a ser el Departamento de Agricultura del Siglo 21. +"Oficina de Seguridad del Trnsito": miles parados por ah. +Yo apoy la guerra en Irak. +Era un tipo malo con muchos antecedentes. +Tampoco era necesario descubrirlo justo matando a alguien para arrestarlo. +Saba que les patearamos el culo con la Fuerza Leviatn. +Saba que tendramos problemas con lo dems. +Pero s que esta organizacin no cambia hasta que experimenta el fracaso. +Qu quiero decir con estas dos fuerzas? +Esta es la Fuerza Hobbesiana. +Adoro esta fuerza, no quiero verla perderse, +esto ms armas nucleares anula la guerra entre grandes potencias. +Este es el ejrcito que el resto del mundo quiere que construyamos. +Por eso viajo por el mundo hablando con ejrcitos extranjeros. +Qu significa esto? +Significa que debemos dejar de aparentar que puedes hacer estas dos cosas muy distintas con el mismo muchacho de 19 aos. +Cambiar; maana, tarde, noche, maana, tarde, noche. +Repartiendo ayuda, disparando de vuelta, repartiendo ayuda, disparando de vuelta. +Es demasiado. +Los muchachos de 19 aos se cansan del cambio, s? +Puedes entrenar a un muchacho de 19 para que haga lo de la izquierda. +Lo de la derecha es ms como de un polica de 40 aos. +Necesitas experiencia. +Qu necesita esto en trminos de operaciones? +La regla ser esta: +Esa fuerza de Administracin de Si- stemas es la que nunca regresa a casa y hace la mayora de tu trabajo. +Desatas la Fuerza Leviatn slo de vez en cuando. +Pero esta es la promesa que haces al pblico de EE.UU., a tu gente, al mundo. +Desatas esa Fuerza Leviatn, y prometes, garantizas que -inmediatamente- vas a montar una increble fuerza de Administracin de Sistema. +No planees la guerra a menos que planees ganar la paz. +Otra diferencia es que para Leviatn; los socios tradicionales se parecen a los britnicos y sus antiguas colonias. +Incluyndonos, les recuerdo. +Para lo otro hay un rango ms amplio de socios. +Organizaciones internacionales, no gubernamentales, organizaciones privadas voluntarias y contratistas. +No te puedes alejar de eso. +La Fuerza Leviatn se basa en operacio- nes conjuntas entre servicios militares. +Eso ya no sirve. +Lo que necesitamos hacer son operaciones entre agencias, de las que francamente estaba encargada Condoleezza Rice. +Y me sorprendi que nadie le hiciera esa pregunta para su confirmacin. +A la Fuerza Leviatn la l- lamo el ejrcito de tu pap. +Me gustan jvenes, hombres, solteros y levemente molestos. +A la Fuerza de Administracin de Sis- temas la llamo el ejrcito de tu mam. +Es todo lo que el ejrcito del hombre odia. +Mucho ms equilibrio de gneros, mayores, educados, casados y con hijos. +La fuerza de la izquierda asciendes o te vas. +La de la derecha te quedas para siempre. +La de la izquierda respeta las restricciones Posse Comitatus sobre el uso de fuerza dentro de los EE.UU. +La de la derecha las destrozar. +La Guardia Nacional va a ser esto. +La fuerza de la izquierda nunca entra en el mbito de la Corte Penal Internacional. +La Fuerza de Administracin de Sistemas s. +Diferentes definiciones de centralizacin de redes. +Una fuerza las derriba, la otra las construye. +Y debes hacer la guerra de una manera que facilite esto. +Necesitamos un presupuesto ms grande? +Necesitamos reclutamiento obligatorio para lograrlo? +En absoluto. +Los de transformacin de asuntos militares me han dicho desde hace aos que se puede hacer ms rpido, ms barato, ms pequeo e igual de mortal. +Yo les digo "Genial, sacar el presupuesto de Administracin de Sistemas de tu dinero". +Este es el punto ms importante. +Primero hay que construir la Fuerza de Administracin de Sistemas dentro del Ejrcito. +Pero posteriormente hay que meterle civiles, probablemente dos tercios. +Hacerla inter-agencias, internacionalizarla. +Entonces s, empieza dentro del Pentgono, pero con el tiempo cruzar ese ro. +He estado en la cima del monte, puedo ver el futuro. +Puede que no lo suficiente como para que lo veamos, pero va a suceder. +Vamos a tener un Departamento de Todo lo Dems entre la guerra y la paz. +ltima lmina. +Quin se queda con los nios? +Aqu es cuando los marines de la audiencia se ponen tensos. +Y aqu es cuando piensan en golpearme despus de la charla. +Lean a Max Boon. +Esta es la historia de los marines; guerras y armas pequeas. +Los marines son como mi West Higland Terrier. +Cada da que se levantan, quieren cavar un hoyo y quieren matar algo. +No quiero a mis marines repartiendo ayuda, +quiero que sean marines. +Eso evita que la Administracin de- Sistemas sea una fuerza de maricas. +Evita que sea las Naciones Unidas. +Si le disparas a esta gente los marines vendrn y te matarn. +Para la Marina; los submarinos van por ac, los combatientes de superficie estn por all, y la noticia es que puede que sean as de pequeos. +La llamo la Marina de Nanoprticulas. +Le digo a los oficiales jvenes que pueden comandar +500 naves en su carrera; la mala noticia es que puede que no estn tripuladas. +Los portaaviones van a ambos lados porque sirven para todo. +Vern el patrn; los areos, igual que los portaaviones. +Los blindados van por ac. +Este es el secreto sucio de la Fuerza Area, se puede ganar bombardeando. +Pero necesitas muchos de estos tipos en el terreno para ganar la paz. +Shinseki tena razn en esa discusin. +Para la fuerza area, el transporte estratgico va a ambos lados. +Los bombarderos y cazas van por ac. +El Comando de Operacio- nes Especiales en Tampa: +los que disparan van por ac. +Asuntos Civiles, ese hijo bastardo, va por aqu. +Regresando al Ejrcito. +El tema de los que disparan y el Comando de Operaciones Especiales; +no tienen descanso, estos tipos siempre estn activos. +Ellos llegan, hacen lo suyo y desaparecen. +Ahora me ves, no hables despus. +Nunca estuve aqu. +El mundo es mi campo de juegos. +Quiero mantener felices a los que disparan. +Quiero que las reglas sean lo ms flexible posible. +Porque cuando prevenimos el asunto en Chicago con los tres millones de muertos que pervertira nuestro sistema poltico hasta el infinito; estos son los tipos que los matarn primero. +As que es mejor dejar que se equivoquen un poco en el camino a que veamos eso. +Componente de reserva; los reservistas de la Guardia Nacional - son casi todos Administracin de Sistemas. +Cmo hacer que trabajen para esta fuerza? +La mayora de los bomberos lo hacen gratis. +Esto no se trata de dinero. +Se trata de ser directos con estos hombres y mujeres. +El ltimo punto, comunidad de inteligencia; el msculo y las agencias de defensa van por aqu. +Lo que debera ser la CIA, abierta, analtica, de cdigo abierto debera venir por aqu. +La informacin necesaria para hacer esto no es secreta. +No es secreta. +Lean ese gran artculo en The New Yorker sobre cmo nuestros jvenes en Irak, de 19 a 25, se ensearon entre ellos cmo hacer Administracin de Sistemas en salones de chat por internet. +Les decan: "Al Qaeda podra estar escuchando". +Ellos decan: "Por Dios, ellos ya saben estas cosas". +Toma un regalo con la mano izquierda. +Estas son las gafas de sol que no asustan a la gente, cosas simples. +Censores y transparencia; los costos intrnsecos van a ambos lados. +Gracias. +El MIT averigu una cosa hace un par de aos. Ken Hale, que es lingista, dijo que de las 6.000 lenguas que se hablan ahora mismo en la Tierra, 3.000 no las hablan los nios. +De modo que dentro de una generacin, veremos reducida nuestra diversidad cultural a la mitad. +Continu diciendo que cada dos semanas un anciano se va a la tumba llevndose la ltima palabra hablada de esa cultura. +De modo que toda una filosofa, un conjunto de conocimientos sobre el mundo natural recogido empricamente a lo largo de siglos, desaparece. +Y esto ocurre cada dos semanas. +As que durante los ltimos 20 aos, desde mi ltima intervencin dental, he estado viajando por el mundo y volviendo con historias sobre algunos de esos pueblos. +Y... lo que me gustara hacer ahora es compartir algunas de esas historias con vosotros. +sta es Tamdin. +Es una monja de 69 aos. +La metieron en la crcel en Tibet durante dos aos por colocar una diminuta pancarta en protesta por la ocupacin de su pas. +Cuando la conoc, acababa de atravesar el Himalaya, desde Lhasa, la capital de Tibet, hasta Nepal, atravesando la India... 30 das... para conocer a su lder, el Dalai Lama. +El Dalai Lama vive en Dharamsala, India. +Saqu esta fotografa tres das despus de que llegara, y llevaba puesto un par de zapatillas destrozadas, con los dedos asomando por delante. +Y cruz en marzo, hay mucha nieve a 5.600 metros en marzo. +ste es Paldin. +Paldin es un monje de 62 aos. +Pas 33 aos en la crcel. +A todo su monasterio les metieron en la crcel en la poca de las revueltas, cuando el Dalai Lama tuvo que abandonar Tibet. +Y le golpearon, le privaron de comida, le torturaron... perdi todos los dientes en prisin. +Cuando yo le conoc, era un viejito amable y dulce. +Esto me impresion mucho... -le conoc dos semanas despus de salir de la crcel- que pasara por esa experiencia y acabara con el comportamiento que tena. +As que estuve en Dharamsala conociendo a esa gente, pas unas cinco semanas all, estuve escuchando historias parecidas de los refugiados que haban salido de Tibet para llegar a Dharamsala. +Y coincidi que, la quinta semana, se celebr una enseanza pblica del Dalai Lama. +Y yo observaba a la multitud de monjes y monjas, muchos de los cuales acababa de entrevistar, y de escuchar sus historias, y observ sus caras. Nos dieron una pequea radio FM para que pudiramos escuchar la traduccin de sus enseanzas. +Y lo que dijo fue: "trata a tus enemigos como si fueran joyas preciosas, porque son tus enemigos los que forjan tu tolerancia y paciencia en el camino hacia la iluminacin". +Yo no pude... eso me impact muchsimo, que le dijera eso a una gente que haba pasado por tanto. +As que dos meses despus fui al Tibet y empec a entrevistar a gente all, a tomar fotografas. Eso es lo que hago, +entrevisto y hago retratos. +Y sta es una niita, +a la que le saqu una foto subida en lo ms alto del Templo Jokhang. +Yo haba metido a escondidas... porque es totalmente ilegal tener fotos del Dalai Lama en Tibet, es la forma ms rpida de que te detengan. +Pero haba metido un puado de fotos pequeas del Dalai Lama, y las estuve repartiendo. +Cuando se las daba a la gente, o las sostenan contra el pecho, o las sostenan contra la frente y las dejaban ah. +Y eso es... bueno, en aquel momento, eso fue hace 10 aos, 36 aos despus de que el Dalai Lama se hubiera ido. +As que fui y estuve entrevistando a la gente y hacindoles fotografas. +stas son Jigme y su hermana, Sonam. +Viven en Chang Tang, en la Meseta Tibetana, en la parte ms occidental del pas. +Eso est a casi 5.200 metros. +Y acababan de bajar de los pastos de altura, a 5.500 metros. +Y lo mismo, le d una foto, y la sujet contra su frente. +Normalmente reparto Polaroids cuando hago esto, porque coloco luces, y compruebo mis luces, y cuando le ense una Polaroid, grit y corri a su tienda. +ste es Tenzin Gyatso, a los dos aos se descubri que era el Buda de la Compasin, en la casa de un campesino, en medio de la nada. +A los cuatro aos fue instaurado como el 14 Dalai Lama. +En la adolescencia se enfrent a la invasin de su pas, y tuvo que resolverlo, era el lder de su pas. +Ocho aos despus, cuando descubrieron que se tramaba su asesinato, le vistieron como un mendigo y le sacaron a escondidas a caballo del pas, haciendo el mismo viaje que hizo Tamdin. +Y ahora vive... nunca ha vuelto a su pas desde entonces. +Y si piensan en ese hombre, 46 aos ms tarde, an se aferra a su respuesta de no violencia ante un problema poltico y de derechos humanos muy serio. +Y la gente joven, los tibetanos jvenes, estn empezando a decir: "oye, no funciona". +O sea, la violencia como herramienta poltica es la ltima moda ahora mismo. +Y l sigue aferrndose a su postura. +As que ste es el icono de la no violencia en nuestro mundo... uno de nuestros iconos vivos. +ste es otro lder de su pueblo. +Es Moi y esto es en el Amazonas ecuatoriano. +Moi tiene 35 aos. +Y en esta zona del Amazonas ecuatoriano se descubri petrleo en 1972. +En este perodo de tiempo, desde entonces, la misma cantidad de petrleo, o el doble, de lo que se verti en el accidente del Exxon Valdez, se ha vertido en esta pequea zona del Amazonas, y las tribus de esa zona han tenido que mudarse constantemente. +Moi pertenece a la tribu huaorani, se dice que son muy feroces, y se los conoce como "auca". +Ellos han conseguido mantener a raya a sismlogos y empleados petroleros con lanzas y cerbatanas. +Yo pas... bueno, pasamos, fui con un equipo, dos semanas con estos tipos en la selva, viendo cmo cazaban. +Esto fue en una cacera de monos, cazando con dardos envenenados con curare. +El conocimiento que esta gente tiene de su entorno natural es increble. +Pueden or cosas, oler cosas y ver cosas que yo no puedo ver. +Yo no poda siquiera ver los monos que ellos estaban cazando con sus dardos. +sta es Yadira. Yadira tiene cinco aos. Ella pertenece a una tribu vecina de los huaorani. +Su tribu ha tenido que mudarse tres veces en los ltimos 10 aos por culpa de los derrames de petrleo. +Nosotros nunca hemos odo hablar de eso. El ltimo delito contra estos pueblos es que, como parte del Plan Colombia, estamos rociando con Paraquat o Roundup, o lo que sea, estamos defoliando miles de hectreas de Amazonas ecuatoriano en nuestra lucha contra la droga. +Y estos pueblos son los ms castigados por ello. +ste es Mengatoue. +Es el chamn de los huaorani, y l... bueno, nos dijo: "bueno, yo ya soy viejo, ya estoy cansado, sabes? Estoy cansado de alejar a esos explotadores petroleros, +ojal se marchasen". +Normalmente viajo solo cuando trabajo, pero esto lo hice - conduje un programa para Discovey - y cuando fui con el equipo me preocupaba bastante ir con todo un grupo de gente, sobre todo por los huaorani, por meternos en su tribu. +Y result que esos chicos me ensearon bien un par de cosas sobre cmo mezclarte con los lugareos. +Una de las cosas que hice justo antes del 11-S, en agosto de 2001, fue llevar a mi hijo Dax, que tena 16 aos entonces, a Paquistn. +Porque al principio quera, bueno, ya le haba llevado de viaje un par de veces, pero quera que viera a gente que vive con un dlar al da o menos. +As que era una gran experiencia para l. Estuvo toda la noche despierto con ellos, tocando el tambor y bailando. +l se llev una pelota de ftbol, y jugamos al ftbol todas las noches en ese pueblito. +Luego fuimos a conocer a su chamn. +Por cierto, Mengatoue tambin era el chamn de su tribu. +Y ste es John Doolikahn, que es el chamn de los kalash. +Vive arriba, en las montaas, justo en la frontera con Afganistn. +De hecho, al otro lado hay una zona, Tora Bora, que es donde se supone que est Osama bin Laden. sta es la zona tribal. +Nosotros vimos y estuvimos con John Doolikahn. +El chamn... yo he hecho toda una serie sobre el chamanismo, que es un fenmeno interesante. +Pero en distintas partes del mundo entran en trance de formas distintas, y en Paquistn ellos lo hacen quemando hojas de enebro y sacrificando a un animal; vierten la sangre del animal sobre las hojas y luego inhalan el humo. +Todos rezan a los dioses de la montaa mientras entran en trance. +y los problemas de seguridad que provocan. +As que hace cinco aos iniciamos un programa que enlaza a nios de comunidades indgenas con nios estadounidenses. +Primero conectamos a un grupo del Pueblo Navajo con una clase de Seattle. +Ahora tenemos 15 sitios web. +Tenemos uno en Katmand, Nepal; en Dharamsala, India; en Takaungu, Kenia... Takaungu es un tercio cristiano, un tercio musulmn y un tercio animus, es decir, la comunidad. En Ollantaytambo, Per; y en Arctic Village, Alaska. +ste es Daniel, es uno de nuestros estudiantes de Arctic Village, Alaska. +Vive en una cabaa de troncos, sin agua corriente, sin ms calefaccin que... sin ventanas ni conexin rpida a Internet. +Y esto es... esto es... veo que se estira por todas partes... ste es nuestro sitio de Ollantaytambo, Per, hace cuatro aos, cuando vieron sus primeros ordenadores. Ahora tienen ordenadores en las clases. +Y lo que hacemos es... enseamos a estos nios a contar historias digitalmente. +Hacemos que nos cuenten historias sobre los problemas de su comunidad que a ellos les importan. +Y esto es en Per, donde los nios contaron una historia sobre un ro que ellos limpiaron. +Y todo esto lo hacemos en talleres. Traemos a gente que quiere aprender a contar historias y a trabajar digitalmente y hacemos que trabajen con los nios. +Y justo el ao pasado hemos llevado a un grupo de adolescentes y ha funcionado a la perfeccin. +Nuestro sueo es reunir a adolescentes para que vivan la experiencia de un servicio comunitario, adems de una experiencia intercultural, mientras ensean a nios de esas zonas y les ayudan a construir una infraestructura de comunicaciones. +Esto es una clase de Photoshop en el pueblo de nios tibetanos de Dharamsala. +Tenemos un sitio web donde los nios ponen su pgina propia. +Estos son todos sus vdeos. Tenemos unos 60 vdeos que han hecho estos chicos, y son bastante impresionantes. +Ahora quiero ensearos... Despus de que hagan los vdeos, reservamos una noche para que se los enseen a la comunidad. +Esto es en Takaungu, donde tenemos un generador y un proyector digital y proyectamos contra la pared de un granero, y pasamos uno de los vdeos que han hecho. +Y si tenis la oportunidad, podis ir a nuestra web, y veris el trabajo increble que hacen estos nios. +Los nios de nuestro... eso es lo otro, quera dar voz a los pueblos indgenas. +sa fue una de las motivaciones principales. +Pero el otro motivo fundamental es la naturaleza insular de nuestro pas. +National Geographic acaba de publicar el Estudio Roper a chicos de entre 18 y 26 aos de nuestro pas y otros nueve pases industrializados. +Un estudio que ha costado dos millones de dlares. +Estados Unidos estaba penltimo en conocimientos geogrficos. +El 70% de los chicos no supo localizar Afganistn o Irak en un mapa. El 60% no supo encontrar la India; el 30% no saba dnde estaba el Ocano Pacfico. +Y ste es un estudio que se realiz apenas hace un par de aos. +As que me gustara ensearos, en el par de minutos que me quedan, un vdeo de un estudiante de Guatemala. +Acabbamos de celebrar un taller en Guatemala. +Una semana antes del taller, un enorme desprendimiento de tierra provocado por el huracn Stan de octubre pasado, haba enterrado vivas a 600 personas en su pueblo. +Este nio viva en el pueblo, pero no estaba all en ese momento, y ste es el vdeo que hizo sobre el tema. +Y antes de hacer este vdeo, nunca antes haba visto un ordenador. Le enseamos a manejar Photoshop y... s, podemos ponerlo. +Eso es un antiguo canto funerario maya que aprendi de su abuelo. +Muchsimas gracias. +Vaya, pens que habra un podio, as que estoy un poco asustado. +Chris me pidi que les contara otra vez cmo es que descubrimos la estructura del ADN. +Y como Uds. saben, sigo sus rdenes y lo har. +Pero me aburre un poco. +Y, como saben, escrib un libro. As que dir algo-- --dir un poco sobre, ya saben, cmo se hizo el descubrimiento, y porqu Francis y yo lo encontramos. +Y luego, espero tener al menos cinco minutos para decirles lo que me mueve ahora. +Atrs de mi hay una imagen de cuando tena 17. +Estaba en la Universidad de Chicago, en mi tercer ao, y estaba en mi tercer ao porque la Universidad de Chicago te permite entrar despus de dos aos de bachillerato. +Entonces --fue divertido escapar del bachillerato. Porque yo era muy pequeo, y no era bueno en los deportes, ni nada por el estilo. +Pero debo hablar de mis antecedentes -- mi padre fue, ya saben, criado para ser Episcopalista y Republicano. Pero luego de un ao de estudios superiores, se volvi Ateo y Demcrata. +Y mi madre era una Irlandesa Catlica, y -- pero no se tomaba la religin muy enserio. +Y cuando tena 11, ya no iba a la misa del domingo, me iba pasear y ver aves con mi padre. +As que a temprana edad escuch de Charles Darwin. +Supongo, ya saben, que l era el gran hroe. +Y, saben, la vida como es ahora se entiende a travs de la evolucin. +Y en la Universidad de Chicago estaba estudiando Zoologa. Y pens que terminara, ya saben, si era suficientemente brillante, tal vez obteniendo un Doctorado en ornitologa de Cornell. +Luego, en el peridico Chicago, haba una resea de un libro llamado "Qu es la vida?" escrito por el gran fsico, Schrodinger. +Y esa, desde luego, ha sido una pregunta que quera conocer. +Saben, Darwin explic la vida despus de que fue iniciada, pero cul era la escencia de la vida? +Y Schrodinger dijo que esta escencia era informacin presente en nuestros cromosomas, y que tena que estar presente en una molcula. Yo nunca haba pensado realmente en molculas anteriormente. +Ya saben, cromosomas, pero eso era una molcula, y de alguna forma toda la informacin estaba probablemente presente en forma digital. Y ah estaba la gran pregunta de, cmo se copiaba la informacin? +Entonces ese era el libro. Y, desde ese momento, quise ser un genetista -- entender los genes y a travs de ellos, entender la vida. +Entonces tuve, ya saben, un hroe a distancia. +No era un jugador de baseball, era Linus Pauling. +Entonces apliqu a Caltech y me rechazaron. +As que fui a Indiana, que era, de hecho, tan buena como Caltech en gentica, y adems, tenan un muy buen equipo de basketball. Asi que tuve una vida bastante feliz en Indiana. +Y fue en Indiana donde tuve la impresin de que, ya saben, que el gen era posiblemente ADN. +Y entonces, cuando obtuviera mi Doctorado, debera investigar el ADN. +Entonces primero fui a Copenague porque pens, bueno, tal vez me podra volver un bioqumico. Pero descubr que la bioqumica era muy aburrida. +No apuntaba hacia, ya saben, decir qu era el gen. Slo era ciencia del ncleo. Y ah, ese es el libro, un pequeo libro. +Lo pueden leer como en dos horas. +Y -- entonces me fui a un encuentro en Italia. +Y haba un orador inesperado que no estaba en el programa, y l habl sobre ADN. +Era Maurice Wilkins. Estudi fsica, y despus de la guerra quiso dedicarse a la biofsica, y escogi el ADN porque el ADN haba sido propuesto en el Rockefeller Institute a ser posiblemente la molcula gentica en los cromosomas. +La mayora de las personas crean que eran las protenas. +Pero Wilkins, saben, pens que el ADN era la mejor opcin, y mostr esta fotografa de rayos-x. +Aparentemente cristalina. As que el ADN tena la estructura, a pesar de que probablemente se lo deba a diferentes molculas que llevaran distintos grupos de instrucciones. +As que haba algo universal en la molcula de ADN. +Entonces quera trabajar con l, pero l no quera un ex-observador-de-aves, y termin en Cambridge, Inglaterra. +As que fui a Cambridge, porque era realmente el mejor lugar del mundo en ese entonces para cristalografa de rayos-x. Y ahora eso es ahora una materia en ya saben, los departamentos de qumica. +O sea, en esos das era terreno de la fsica. +As que el mejor lugar para cristalografa de rayos-x era el Laboratorio Cavendish en Cambridge. +Y ah conoc a Francis Crick. +Fui ah sin conocerlo. l tena 35, yo 23. +Y en un da, habamos decidido que tal vez podramos tomar un atajo para encontrar la estructura del ADN. +No resolverlo, saben, de la forma tradicional y rigurosa, sino construyendo un modelo. Un electro-modelo, usando algunas coordenadas de, ya saben, longitud, y ese tipo de cosas de las fotografas de rayos-x. +Pero tan solo preguntar si la molcula -- cmo se doblara? +Y la razn para hacerlo, al centro de esta fotografa, es Linus Pauling. Quien como seis meses antes, propuso la estructura alfa-hlice para las protenas. Y al hacerlo, desterr al hombre a la derecha, Sir Lawrence Bragg, quien era el profesor del Cavendish. +Esta es una fotografa varios aos despus, cuando Bragg tena razn para sonreir. +Realmente no estaba sonriendo cuando llegu ah, porque de alguna forma haba sido humillado porque Pauling consigui la alfa-hlice, y las personas de Cambridge fallaron porque no eran qumicos. +Y ciertamente, ni Crick ni yo eramos qumicos, as que tratamos de construir un modelo. Francis conoca a Wilkins. +As que Wilkins dijo que pensaba que era la hlice. +el diagrama de rayos-X, l pens que era compatible con la hlice. +As que construimos un modelo de tres cadenas. +Vinieron los de Londres. +Wilkins y su colaboradora, o posible colaboradora, Rosalind Franklin, vinieron y como que se rieron de nuestro modelo. +Dijeron que era malsimo, y lo era. +As que no hiciramos ms modelos; que eramos incompetentes. +As que no construimos ms modelos, y Francis como que continu trabajando en protenas. +Y bsiamente, yo no hice nada. Y --excepto leer. +Ya saben, bsicamente, leer es algo bueno; obtienes datos. +Y continuamos dicindole a las personas en Londres que Linus Pauling se cambiara al ADN. +si el ADN era tan importante, Linus lo sabra. +l construira un modelo, y nos quitaran la primicia. +Y, de hecho, l le haba escrito a las personas en Londres: si podra l ver su fotografa de rayos-X +Y ellos fueron sabios al decirle "no." As que no la obtuvo. +Pero haba unas en la literatura. +De hecho, Linus no las observ cuidadosamente. +Pero como, eh, 15 meses despus de que llegu a Cambridge, un rumor empez a surgir del hijo de Linus Pauling, quien estaba en Cambridge, deca que su padre estaba ahora trabajando con ADN. +Y entonces, un da Peter vino y dijo que l era Peter Pauling, y me dio una copia del manuscrito de su padre. +Y cielos, estaba asustado porque pens, saben, nos podran quitar la primicia. +No tena nada que hacer, no estaba calificado para nada. +Y entonces ah estaba el artculo, y l propona una estructura de tres hebras. +Lo le y era pura -- era una basura. +Entonces eso era, ya saben, inesperado desde -- -- y entonces, se mantena unido por puentes de hidrgeno entre grupos fosfato. +Bueno, si el pH ms alto de las clulas es cerca de siete, esos puentes de hidrgeno no podran existir. +Corrimos al departamento de qumica y dijimos, "Podra estar bien Pauling?" Y Alex Hust dijo, "No." As que nos pusimos felices. +Y Y, saben, seguamos en el juego, pero estbamos preocupados de que alguien en Caltech le dijera a Linus que estaba mal. +Y entonces Bragg nos dijo, "Hagan modelos." +Y un mes despus de conseguir el manuscrito de Pauling -- Debo decir que llev el manuscrito a Londres, y se los ense. +Bueno, les dije que Linus estaba equivocado y que seguamos en el juego y que deban comenzar inmediatamente a hacer modelos. +Pero Wilkins dijo que no, Rosalin Franklin se iba en dos meses, y una vez que se fuera entonces l empezara a hacer modelos. +Entonces volv a Cambridge con esas noticias, y Bragg dijo, "Hagan modelos." +Bueno, desde luego, yo quera hacer modelos. +Y aqu hay una imagen de Rosalind. Ella realmente, saben, de cierta forma era una qumica, pero en realidad ella habra sido capacitada -- ella no saba qumica orgnica o qumica cuntica. +Era una cristalgrafa. +Y creo que parte de la razn por la que no quera construir modelos era que no era una qumica, mientras que Pauling s lo era. +Entonces Crick y Yo, saben, empezamos a hacer modelos, y aprend un poco de qumica, pero no suficiente. +Bueno, obtuvimos la respuesta el 28 de Febrero de 1953. +Y fue por una regla, que para mi, es una muy buena regla: Nunca seas la persona ms brillante en un cuarto, y no lo ramos. +No ramos los mejores qumicos en el cuarto. +Fui y les ense un apareamiento que haba hecho, y Jerry Donohue -- l era qumico -- dijo, est mal. +Tienes -- los tomos de hidrgeno estn en el lugar equivocado. +Yo slo los puse como estaban en los libros. +l dijo que estaban mal. +As que al da siguiente, saben, despus de que pens, "Bueno, l podra estar en lo cierto." +Cambi las ubicaciones, y entonces encontramos el apareamiento de bases, y Francis inmediatamente dijo que la cadena corre en direcciones absolutas. +Y sabamos que estbamos en lo correcto. +As que yo estaba muy, ya saben, esto ocurri como en dos horas. +De la nada a algo. +Y sabamos que era algo grande porque, saben, si slo pones A junto a T y G junto a C, tienes un mecanismo de copiado. +As que vimos cmo es que se pasa la informacin gentica. +Es el orden de cuatro bases. +As que de cierta forma, es un tipo de informacin digital. +Y lo copias al separar las cadenas. +As que, saben, si no funcionaba as, podran al menos creerlo, porque no haba otro esquema. +Pero esa no es la forma en que piensa la mayora de los cientficos. +La mayora son en realidad aburridos. +Dicen que no pensarn al respecto hasta que nosotros sepamos que est bien. +Pero, saben, pensamos que estbamos al menos 95 o 99 por ciento bien. +As que pinsenlo. Los siguientes cinco aos, haba algo como cinco referencias a nuestro trabajo en Nature -- ninguna. +Entonces estbamos solos, intentando armar la tercia: cmo es que -- qu es lo que esta informacin gentica hace? +Era bastante obvio que aportaba la informacin para una molcula de ARN, y luego cmo vas de ARN a protena? +Como por tres aos nosotros slo -- Intent resolver la estructura del ARN. +No rindi frutos. No daba buenas fotografas de rayos-X +Era infeliz; una chica no quiso casarse conmigo. +Era, saben, un tiempecito de mierda. +Aqu hay una imagen de Francis y Yo antes de que conociera a esta chica, todava me veo feliz. +Pero hay algo que hicimos cuando no sabamos hacia dnde avanzar: formamos el club llamado RNA Tie Club [el Club de corbata ARN] +George Gamow, otro gran fsico, dise la corbata. +l era uno de los miembros. La pregunta era: Cmo llegas de un cdigo de cuatro letras al cdigo de 20 letras para las protenas? +Feynman era miembro, y Teller, y amigos de Gamow. +Pero esa es la nica -- no, nos fotografiaron slo dos veces. +Y en ambas ocasiones, saben, uno de nosotros no tena la corbata. +Ah est Francis arriba a la derecha, y lex rich -- el mdico-convertido-en-cristalgrafo -- junto a mi. +Esta se tom en Cambridge en Septiembre de 1955. +Y estoy sonriendo, obligadamente, supongo, porque la chica que tena, cielos, se haba ido. +As que no fui realmente feliz sino hasta 1960, porque entonces encontramos, saben, que hay tres formas de ARN. +Y sabamos, bsicamente, que el ADN provee la informacin para el ARN. +el ARN provee la informacin para la protena. +Y eso le permiti a Marshall Nirenberg, saben, tomar el ARN -- ARN sinttico -- ponerlo en un sistema haciendo protena. Hizo polifenilalanina, As que as se descubri el cdigo gentico por primera vez, y todo termin en 1966. +Y as fue, es lo que Chris quera que hiciera, fue -- entonces qu pas desde entonces? +Bueno, a ese tiempo debo volver. +Cuando encontramos la estructura del ADN, di mi primera charla en Cold Spring Harbor. El fsico, Leo Szilard, me vi y dijo, "Vas a patentar esto?" +Y -- pero l saba leyes de patentes, y que no podamos patentarlo, porque no podas. Era intil. +Entonces el ADN no se volvi una molcula til, y los abogados no entraron en la ecuacin sino hasta 1973, 20 aos despus, cuando Boyer y Cohen en San Francisco y Stanford dieron con su mtodo de ADN recombinante, y Stanford lo patent e hizo mucho dinero. +Al menos ellos patentaron algo que, saben, poda hacer cosas tiles. +Y entonces, aprendieron cmo leer las letras del cdigo. +Y pum!, tenamos, saben, tenamos la industria biotecnolgica. Y, pero todava tenamos un largo camino para, saben, Contestar la pregunta que de cierta forma marc mi infancia, que es: Cmo adquieres lo innato? +Y entonces seguir. Ya se me acab el tiempo, pero este es Michael Wigler, un matemtico muy muy listo que se volvi fsico. Y l desarroll una tcnica que escencialmente nos permite observar una muestra de ADN y, eventualmente, un milln de puntos en sta. +Ah hay un chip, uno convencional. Luego hay uno hecho por una fotolitografa por una compaa en Madison llamada NimbleGen, que est ms avanzada que Affymetrix. +Y usamos su tcnica. +Y lo que puedes hacer es comparar ADN normal. +Ah hay cncer, y puedes ver en la parte alta que los cnceres que son malos muestran inserciones o deleciones. +As que el ADN est realmente arruinado, mientras que si tienes oportunidad de sobrevivir, el ADN no est tan arruinado. +Entonces pensamos que eso eventualmente conducira a lo que llamamos "biopsia de ADN." Antes de recibir tratamiento para el cncer, realmente deberan mantenerse atentos a esta tcnica, y tener una idea de la cara del enemigo. +No es -- es slo una mirada parcial, pero es un -- creo que ser muy muy til. +Entonces, empezamos con cncer de mama porque hay mucho financiamiento para ello, no es dinero del gobierno. +Y ahora tengo cierto inters adquirido: Lo quiero hacer para el cncer de prstata. As que, ya saben, no recibes tratamiento para esto si no es peligroso. +Pero Wigler, adems de ver las clulas cancergenas, vi clulas normales, e hizo una observacin algo sorpresiva. +Que todos tenemos como 10 lugares en nuestro genoma donde hemos perdido un gen o adquirido otro. +Entonces todos somos como imperfectos. Y la pregunta es, si estamos aqu, saben, estas pequeas prdidas o ganancias no son tan malas. +Pero si estas deleciones o amplificaciones ocurrieran en el gen equivocado, tal vez nos sentiramos mal. +As que la primera enfermedad que observ fue el autismo. +Y la razn por la que observamos el autismo es porque tenamos el dinero para hacerlo. +Observar a un individuo cuesta como 3,000 dlares. Y el padre de un nio con la enfermedad de Asperger, el autismo de alta-inteligencia, envi su anlisis a una compaa convencional; no lo aceptaron. +No lo podan hacer por gentica convencional, pero slo explorndolo empezamos a encontrar genes para el autismo. +Y como pueden ver aqu, hay muchos de ellos. +Entonces, muchos de los nios autistas lo son porque perdieron una porcin grande de ADN. +Quiero decir, grande a nivel molecular. +Vimos un nio autista, que no tena como cinco millones de bases en uno de sus cromosomas. +Todava no hemos observado a los padres, pero probablemente no tengan esa prdida, o no podran ser padres. +Ahora, nuestro estudio del autismo acaba de empezar. Conseguimos 3 millones de dlares. +Creo que costar al menos 10 a 20 antes de que podamos ayudar a los padres que han tenido un nio autista, o que creen que podran tener un hijo autista, y podemos notar la diferencia? +Entonces esta misma tcnica debera verlos todos. +Es una forma maravillosa de encontrar genes. +Y entonces, concluir diciendo que hemos visto a 20 personas con esquizofrenia. +Y pensamos que tendramos que ver probablemente a varios cientos antes de ver todo el problema. Pero como pueden ver, hay siete de 20 que tuvieron un cambio muy grande. +Y an as, en los controles haba tres. +Entonces, cul es el significado de los controles? +Estaban locos tambin y no lo notamos? +O, saben, eran normales? Yo supongo que son normales. +Y lo que pensamos es que son genes que predisponen a la esquizofrenia, y ya sea que predisponga -- y luego hay slo un sub-segmento de la poblacin que es capaz de ser esquizofrnico. +Realmente no tenemos evidencia de esto, pero creo que, para darles una hiptesis, que la mejor suposicin es que si eres zurdo, eres vulnerable a la esquizofrenia. +30% de los esquizofrnicos son zurdos, y la esquizofrenia tiene una gentica muy peculiar, Lo que significa que 60% de las personas son genticamente zurdas, pero slo la mitad de ellos lo muestran. No tengo tiempo para decirlo. +Algunas personas que creen ser diestras son genticamente zurdas. Slo estoy diciendo que, si piensas, oh, yo no tengo gen zurdo, entonces mi, ya saben, hijos no tienen riesgo de tener esquizofrenia. Deberan reconsiderarlo. OK? +Entonces, para mi, estos son tiempos extraordinariamente emocionantes. +Debemos ser capaces de encontrar el gen para el trastorno bipolar; hay una relacin. +Y si consigo suficiente dinero, lo habremos encontrado todos este ao. +Gracias. +Djenme mostrarles algunas imgenes de lo que yo considero sern las ciudades del maana. +Esa es Kibera, la comuna ms grande en Nairobi. +Esta es la comuna en el parque nacional Sanjay Gandhi en Bombay, India, ahora llamada Mumbai. +Esta es Hosinia, la favela ms grande y urbanizada en Rio de Janeiro. +Y esta es Sultanbelyi, la cual es una de las comunas ms grandes en Estanbul. +Estas son lo que yo considero sern las ciudades del maana, el nuevo mundo urbano. +Ahora, porque digo esto? +Para contarles eso tengo que hablarles de este otro compaero, su nombre es Julius. +Y yo conoc a Julius la ultima semana que estuve viviendo en Kibera. +Yo llevaba casi tres meses ah, y estaba dando un tour por la ciudad, visitando distintas reas asentadas y Julius me segua, y estaba muy sorprendido y en ciertos puntos mientras caminbamos, el sostena mi mano para apoyarse, algo que la mayora de las personas de Kenya nunca consideraran hacer. +Ellos son muy amables y no son tan atrevidos tan rpido. +Despus descubr que este era el primer da de Julius en Nairobi, y el es uno de muchos. +As, que cerca de 200,000 personas al da migran desde las reas rurales hacia las urbanas. +Y voy a ser justo con los estadistas que hablaron esta maana, no son casi 1.5 millones de personas por semana, pero si casi 1.4 millones de personas por semana; pero yo soy un periodista, y nosotros exageramos, as que son casi 1.5 millones por semana, cercano a 70 millones de personas al ao. +Y si hacemos la matemtica, son 130 personas cada minuto. +As, que seria -- en los 18 minutos que me dan para esta charla, entre 2 y 3,000 personas han de haber viajado a las ciudades. +Y estas son las estadsticas. +Hoy --mil millones de ocupantes, uno de seis personas en el planeta. +2030 -- dos mil millones de asentados ilegales, uno de cada cuatro personas en el planeta. +Y el estimado es que en el ao 2050, sern tres mil millones de ocupantes. mas de uno de cada tres personas en la tierra. +As, que estas son las ciudades del futuro, y tenemos que involucrarnos con ellas. +Y yo estaba pensando esta maana acerca de la buena vida, y antes que les muestre el resto de mi presentacin, Voy a violar las reglas de TED aqui, y voy a leerles algo de mi libro tan rpido como me sea posible. +Porque yo creo que dice algo acerca de cambiar nuestra percepcin de lo que nosotros pensamos es la buena vida. +Entonces -- "La choza esta hecha de metal corrugado, fijada a una cama de concreto. +Esta era un celda de 10 por 10. +Armstrong O'Brian Jr. la comparta con otros tres hombres. +Armstrong y sus amigos no tenan agua, ellos la compraban de una persona cercana que tenia agua del grifo. No haba bao, las familias en esta comuna compartan una letrina de un solo pozo. y no haban alcantarillas o servicio de sanidad. +Ellos tenan electricidad, pero era un servicio ilegal conectado a los cables de otra persona, y nada mas poda dar energa para a un dbil bombillo. +Esta era Southland, una comunidad pequea y pobre en la parte oeste de Nairobi, Kenya. +Pero pudo haber sido cualquier parte de la ciudad, porque mas de la mitad de la ciudad de Nairobi es as. +1.5 millones de personas apretadas en las chozas de barro o metal. sin servicios, o baos, o derechos. +Armstrong explic la brutal realidad de su situacin, ellos pagan 1,500 chelines en arriendo, como 20 dolares al mes, un precio relativamente alto para un pueblo pobre en Kenya, y ellos no podan tomar el riesgo de demorarse con el dinero. +'En caso que uno deba un mes, el propietario llegara con sus secuaces y te sacaran. El confiscara tus cosas, 'dijo Armstrong. +'No un mes, un da,' habl su compaera de habitacin Hilary Kibagendi Onsomu, que cocinaba ugali, una mezcla de harina de maz blanca esponjosa que es un alimento bsico en el pas, interviniendo en la conversacin. +Ellos llamaban a su propietario un Wabenzi, queriendo decir que es una persona que tiene suficiente dinero para manejar un Mercedes-Benz. +Hilary sirvi el ugali con una fritura de carne y tomates, el sol golpeaba el delgado techo de acero, y sudamos mientras comimos. +Despus que terminamos, Armstrong enderez su corbata, se puso una chaqueta deportiva de lana, y salimos de frente al brillo. +Afuera una monte de basura formaba la frontera entre Southland y el barrio legal adjunto de Langata. +Tenia tal vez ocho piea de altura, 40 pies de largo, y 10 pies de ancho. +Y estaba localizado en un ancho exudado acuoso. +Mientras pasbamos dos nios estaban escalando el monte Kenya de basura. +Ellos tendran no mas de cinco o seis aos de edad. +Estaban descalzos, y cada paso sus dedos se hundan en la porquera desplazando cientos de moscas de la rancia pila. +Pens que ellos podran estar jugando al Rey de la Loma, pero estaba equivocado. +Una vez en la cima de la pila, uno de los nios bajo sus pantalones cortos, se agacho, y defeco. +Las moscas zumbaron ansiosamente alrededor de sus piernas. +Cuando veinte familias --100 personas mas o menos -- comparten una sola letrina, un nio haciendo popo en una pila de basura no es gran cosa tal vez . +Pero resaltaba en un discordante contraste a algo que Armstrong haba dicho mientras comimos -- que el valoraba la calidad de vida de su barrio. +Para Armstrong, Southland no estaba limitado por sus condiciones materiales. +En cambio, el espritu humano irradiaba de las paredes metlicas y los montones de basura para ofrecer algo que ningn barrio legal poda -- libertad. +'Este lugar es muy adictivo,' el haba dicho. +'Es una vida simple, pero nadie te esta restringiendo. +Nadie esta controlando lo que tu haces. +Una vez te has quedado aqu, ya no puedes regresar.' El quiso decir regresar, mas all de la montaa de basura, regresar a la ciudad legal, a los edificios legales, con derechos y arrendamientos legales. +'Una vez que te has quedado aqu,' dijo el, puedes quedarte por el resto de tu vida.'" As, que el tiene esperanza, y as es que estas comunidades comienzan. +Este es tal vez el barrio mas primitivo que alguien pueda encontrar en Kibera, un poco mas que una choza de palos y barro junto a una pila de basura. +Esto es la preparacin para un monzn en Bombay, India. +Estas son mejoras para el hogar. Poner lonas de plstico en tu techo. +Esto es Ri de Janeiro, y se esta poniendo un poco mejor, verdad? +Estamos viendo escavados de loza terracota y pequeos pedazos de sealamientos, y yeso sobre ladrillo, algo de color, y esto es la casa de Sulay Montakaya en Sultanbelyi, y se va mejorando. +El tiene una cerca, y ha hurgado una puerta de la basura. Tiene nuevas tejas en el techo. +Y despus te tienes Rocinha y puedes ver que se va mejorando. +Los edificios aqu tienen mltiples pisos. +Se desarrollan -- puede verse en el extremo derecho. uno donde parece que se apilan unos encima del otro habitacin, tras habitacin, tras habitacin. +Y lo que hace la gente es construir sus propios hogares en uno o dos pisos, y ellos venden su logia o derechos de techo, y alguien mas construye encima de su edificio, y despus esa persona vende los derechos de techo, y alguien mas construye encima de ese edificio. +Todos estos edificios estn hechos de concreto reforzado y ladrillo. +Y despus uno llega a Sultanbely, en Turqua, donde se construye a un nivel de diseo mas alto. +El crudo en el frente es relleno de colchn, y uno puede ver esto por toda Turqua. +La gente seca o airea su relleno de colchn en sus techos. +Pero el edificio verde, detrs, uno puede ver que el piso superior no esta ocupado, as que la gente esta construyendo con la posibilidad de expansin. +Y esta construido a un estndar de diseo bastante alto. +Y despus, cuando finalmente tienes casas de comuna como esta, que estn construidos en un modelo suburbano. +Ey, esto es un hogar de una familia en una comuna. +Esto tambin esta en Estanbul, Turqua. +Estas comunidades, son lugares bastante vitales. +Ese es el mayor estrecho de Rocinha, la Estrada da Gavea, y hay una ruta de autobs, que corre por ella, mucha gente esta en las calles. +Las comunidades en estas ciudades son verdaderamente mas vitales que las comunidades legales. +Hay mas cosas sucediendo en ellas. +Este es un camino tpico en Rocinha, llamado un beco -- de esta manera es como uno se mueve en la comunidad. +Esta en terreno muy inclinado. +Estn construidos en las lomas, tierra adentro de las playas de Rio, y uno puede ver que las casas estn sostenidas a forma de balcn sobre obstrucciones naturales. +Asi, eso es solamente una roca en la ladera. +Y los becos estn normalmente muy atestados, y la gente les encima muebles, o refrigeradores, todo tipo de cosas. +Toda la cerveza es acarreada sobre hombros. +La cerveza es algo muy importante en Brasil. +Esto es comercio en Kenya, justo a lo largo de la va del tren, tan cerca a la va del tren que los comerciantes algunas veces tienen que sacar su mercanca fuera del camino. +Este es un mercado, tambin en Kenya, El Mercado Toi, muchos negociantes, en casi todo lo que quiera uno comprar. +Esas cosas verdes en el primer plano son mangos. +Esta es un calle de compras en Kibera, y uno puede ver que hay un vendedor de bebidas gaseosas, una clnica de salud, dos salones de belleza, un bar, dos tiendas de mercado, una iglesia, y mucho mas. +Esta es una calle tpica del centro, parece ser estar auto-construida. +Esto aqu, a del lado derecho, es lo que se le llama -- si ves la letra pequea debajo del toldo -- es un hotel. +Y lo que un hotel significa, en Kenya y en India, es un lugar para comer. +As, que esto es un restaurante. +La gente roba la energa elctrica -- este es Ro. +La gente se aprovecha y tienen ladrones que les llaman grillos, y ellos roban la energa elctrica, y conectan todo el barrio. +La gente quema desperdicios para deshacerse de la basura, y ellos excavan sus propios canales de alcantarillado. +Hablando mas de bolsas de plstico que de plancton, +y a veces ellos tienen eliminacin natural de desechos. +Y cuando tienen mas dinero ellos pavimentan sus calles, y ponen alcantarillas y buenas tuberas de agua, y cosas por el estilo. +Esta es agua yendo a Ro, la gente tiene sus tuberas de agua por todo lado, y esa pequea choza ah tiene una bomba, y eso es lo que la gente usa. Roban electricidad, instalan una bomba e interceptan la tubera principal, y bombean agua hacia sus casas. +As que, la pregunta es, como se va de una villa de chozas de barro, a una ciudad desarrollada, hasta incluso, el altamente desarrollado Sultanbelyi? +Yo digo que hay dos cosas. +Una es que estas personas necesitan la garanta que no sern desalojados. +Eso no significa necesariamente derechos de propiedad, y yo estara en desacuerdo con Hernando Soto en este punto, porque los derechos de propiedad traen muchas complicaciones, +son frecuentemente vendidos a personas, y las personas despus terminan en deuda y tienen que pagar esta deuda, y algunas veces tienen que vender su propiedad para poder pagar esta deuda. +Existe otra variedad de razones por las cuales los derechos de propiedad algunas veces no funcionan en estos casos, pero ellos si necesitan seguridad de permanencia. +Y necesitan acceso a la poltica, y eso puede significar dos cosas. +Eso puede significar una comunidad organizndose desde abajo, pero tambin puede significar posibilidades desde arriba. +Y digo esto porque el sistema en Turqua es sobresaliente. +Turqua tiene dos de las mejores leyes para la proteccin de comunas. +Una es -- se llama gecekondu en Turco, que quiere decir construido de la noche a la maana, y si uno construye su casa de la noche a la maana en Turqua, uno no puede ser desalojado sin un proceso legal apropiado, si eres es descubierto durante la noche. +Y el segundo aspecto es que una vez tienes 2,000 personas en la comunidad, uno puede solicitar al gobierno para ser reconocido como una sub-municipalidad legal. +Y cuando uno es una sub-municipalidad legal, uno de repente tiene poltica. +Se te permite tener un gobierno electo, cobrar impuestos, proveer servicios municipales, y eso es exactamente lo que ellos hacen. +As, que estos son los lideres cvicos del futuro. +La mujer en el centro de Geeta Jiwa. +Ella vive en una de esas chozas en la autopista mediana en Mumbai. +Esta es Sureka Gundi, ella tambin vive con su familia en una choza al lado de la misma mediana de la autopista. +Ellas son muy francas. Ellas son muy activas. +Ellas pueden ser lideres comunitarios. +Esta mujer es Nine, que significa abuela en Turco. +y haban tres mujeres de edad que vivan en -- esta es su casa construida por ella detrs de ella -- y ellas viven ah por 30 o 40 aos, y ellas son la columna vertebral de la comunidad en este lugar. +Este es Richard Muthama Peter, y el es un fotgrafo callejero ambulante en Kibera. +El gana dinero tomando fotos del barrio, y de las personas en el barrio y es un gran recurso para la comunidad. +Y finalmente mi eleccin para que correr por la alcalda de Ri es Cezinio, el comerciante de fruta con sus dos hijos aqu, y una persona mas honesta y caritativa no he conocido. +El futuro de estas comunidades son la gente y nuestra habilidad de trabajar con esta gente. +As, que yo pienso que el mensaje que tomo, de lo que le del libro, de lo que Armstrong dijo, y de toda esta gente, es que estos son barrios. +El asunto no es pobreza urbana. +El asunto no la cosa de mas largo alcance. +El asunto es que nosotros reconozcamos que estos son barrios. Esta es una forma legitima de desarrollo urbano, y que las ciudades tienen que involucrar a estos residentes, porque ellos estn construyendo las ciudades del futuro. +Muchas gracias. +En 1962, Charles Van Doren ms tarde editor jefe de la Enciclopedia Britnica dijo que la enciclopedia ideal debera ser radical debera dejar de ser prudente. +Pero si saben algo de la historia de la Britnica desde 1962, fue todo menos radical. Era un tipo de enciclopedia poco arriesgada y muy pesada. +Por el contrario, Wikipedia parte de una idea muy radical, que todos imaginemos un mundo en el que todas las personas del planeta dispongan de acceso gratis a todo el conocimiento humano. +Y eso es lo que hacemos. As que Wikipedia, acaban de ver una pequea demostracin de esto es una enciclopedia de licencia libre. La escriben miles de voluntarios de todo el mundo en muchas lenguas. +Se escribe usando software Wiki, que es un tipo de software que se acaba de mostrar de modo que todos puedan editar y guardar, y aparece de inmediato en internet. +Y casi todo lo relativo a Wikipedia se organiza mediante una plantilla de voluntarios. +As que cuando Yochai habla de nuevos mtodos de organizacin, describe justamente Wikipedia. Y lo que har hoy es hablarles de cmo funciona realmente por dentro. +Wikipedia es propiedad de la Fundacin Wikimedia que yo fund, una organizacin sin nimo de lucro. Y el objetivo fundamental de la Fundacin Wikimedia, es dar acceso gratuito a una enciclopedia a cada una de las personas del planeta. +As que si piensan en lo que eso significa, implica mucho ms que simplemente crear una pgina web chula. +Estamos realmente interesados en la brecha social digital, en la pobreza del mundo, en empoderar a la gente en todas partes para que tengan la informacin que les permita tomar buenas decisiones. +As que tendremos mucho trabajo que va ms all de Internet. +Y eso explica en gran medida por qu hemos elegido un modelo de licencia libre, porque eso empodera a los empresarios locales, o a quien quiera, para que usen nuestros contenidos y hagan lo que quieran se puede copiar, redistribuir, y se puede usar con o sin fines comerciales. +As que surgirn muchas oportunidades en torno a Wikipedia en todo el mundo. +Nuestros fondos provienen de donaciones particulares, y una de las cosas ms interesantes sobre eso es lo poco que cuesta dirigir Wikipedia. +Yochai les mostr el grfico de lo que costaba una imprenta. +Y yo les dir cunto cuesta Wikipedia, +pero antes les mostrar cun grande es. +Tenemos ms de 600 000 artculos en ingls. +Y un total de dos millones de artculos en muchas lenguas diferentes. +Las lenguas con ms fuerza son el alemn, el japons, el francs. Todas las lenguas del oeste de Europa tienen bastante fuerza. +Pero solo alrededor de un tercio de todo el trfico a nuestro sitio desemboca en Wikipedia en ingls, lo cual sorprende a mucha gente. +Muchas personas piensan en Internet de modo muy anglo-cntrico, pero somos realmente globales. Existimos en muchas lenguas. +Lo populares que nos hemos hecho somos uno de los 50 sitios web ms visitados y somos ms populares que el New York Times. +Aqu es donde llegamos a la discusin de Yochai. +Esto nos muestra el crecimiento de Wikipedia somos la lnea azul de ah y este de ah es el New York Times. +Y lo interesante de esto es que el sitio del New York Times es una operacin corporativa enorme con no tengo ni idea de cuntos, cientos de empleados. +Nosotros tenemos exactamente un empleado, y ese empleado es nuestro principal programador de software. +Y es nuestro empleado desde solo enero de 2005, todo nuestro otro crecimiento vino antes de eso. +As que los servidores se organizan mediante un grupo de voluntarios, +as como todo el trabajo editorial. +Y la manera de organizarnos no es como la de cualquier otra organizacin que imaginen. +La gente siempre pregunta, "Quin dirige todo esto?" +o "Quin hace eso?" Y la respuesta es: quienquiera que quiera involucrarse. +Es algo poco usual y catico. +Ahora tenemos ms de 90 servidores en tres lugares. +Un sistema de administradores voluntarios en lnea los controlan. +Puedo contectarme a Internet en cualquier momento del da o noche y ver de 8 a 10 personas esperando a que les pregunte cualquier cosa acerca de los servidores. +Nunca uno se podra permitir eso en una compaa. +Nunca sera asequible tener un grupo de gente de guardia 24 horas al da, haciendo lo que hacemos en Wikipedia. +Tenemos 1.4 billones de visitas al mes, as que se ha convertido en algo enorme. +Y todo lo organizan voluntarios. +El coste mensual total de la banda ancha es de unos USD 5 000 . +Y ese es nuestro gasto principal. +De hecho podramos prescindir de ese empleado. En realidad, +contratamos a Brian porque llevaba trabajando dos aos a tiempo parcial y a tiempo completo en Wikipedia, as que al final lo contratamos para que pudiera tener vida propia e ir al cine de vez en cuando. +As que la gran pregunta cuando uno se enfrenta a una organizacin realmente catica como esta, es: cmo es que no es todo una porquera? por qu es tan bueno el sitio? +Primero, cun bueno es? Bastante. No es perfecto, pero es mucho mejor de lo que uno esperara, teniendo en cuenta un modelo tan catico como el nuestro. +As que cuando vieron como l editaba ridculamente mi pgina quiz piensen: "Esto degenerar en basura." +Pero al ver pruebas de calidad y de stas no ha habido suficientes todava, por eso animo sinceramente a la gente a que lo haga ms , comparando Wikipedia con productos tradicionales ganamos de calle. +Una revista alemana compar la Wikipedia alemana, que es mucho ms pequea que la inglesa, con Microsoft Encarta y Brockhaus Multimedia, y ganamos en todo. +Contrataron a expertos para que compararan la calidad de los artculos, y el resultado nos satisfizo mucho. +Mucha gente sabe de la controversia Bush-Kerry en Wikipedia. +Esto es, los medios de comunicacin han cubierto esto ampliamente. +Empez con un artculo en Red Herring. +Los reporteros me llamaron deletrearon bien mi nombre, ero lo que de verdad queran decir era: las elecciones Bush-Kerry son tan polmicas, que estn dividiendo a la comunidad de Wikipedia. Y me citaron diciendo: "Son las ms polmicas de la historia de Wikipedia." +Lo que dije en realidad es que no son polmicas, en absoluto. +Es una cita ligeramente errnea. Los artculos se editaron bastante. +Y es cierto que tuvimos que bloquear los artculos un par de veces. +La revista Time inform recientemente de que "A veces hay que tomar medidas extremas, y Wales bloque las entradas sobre Kerry y Bush durante la mayor parte de 2004." +Esto se dijo despus de que le dijera al periodista que tenamos que bloquearlo ocasionalmente, un poco aqu y all. +As que, la verdad, en general es que este tipo de polmicas que Uds. probablemente pensaran que tenemos en la comunidad de Wikipedia no son polmicas en absoluto. +Los artculos sobre temas controvertidos se editan mucho, pero no causan mucha polmica dentro de la comunidad. +Y la razn es que la mayora entiende la necesidad de ser neutrales. +La lucha de verdad no es entre la derecha y la izquierda, eso es lo que la mayora asume, sino entre el partido de los que piensan y el de los imbciles. +Y ninguna tendencia del espectro poltico tiene el monopolio de esas cualidades. +La autntica verdad sobre el incidente Bush-Kerry es que los artculos sobre Bush-Kerry fueron bloqueados menos del 1% del tiempo en 2004, y no fue porque fueran polmicos; fue porque estaban sujetos a vandalismo, lo cual sucede a veces incluso en el escenario, +a veces incluso los periodistas me han informado de que vandalizan Wikipedia y se sorprenden de lo rpido que se corrige. +Y les dije, siempre digo, por favor, no hagan eso, no es bueno. +As que, cmo lo hacemos? +Cmo regulamos el control de calidad? +Cmo se hace? cmo funciona? +Aqu tienen algunos elementos, sobre todo normas sociales y algunos elementos del software. +Lo ms importante es nuestra poltica de neutralidad. +Esto es algo que desde el principio constitu en un principio central de la comunidad que no est sujeto a debate. +Es un concepto social de cooperacin, as que no hablamos mucho de la verdad y la objetividad. +La razn es que si decimos que solo escribiremos la verdad sobre un tema, eso no nos ayuda a la hora de decidir qu escribir, porque no estoy de acuerdo contigo en qu es la verdad. +Pero tenemos este trmino de neutralidad, con una larga historia en la comunidad, que bsicamente explica que cuando haya un tema controvertido Wikipedia no debera tomar partido. +Debemos informar meramente de lo que fuentes acreditadas han dicho sobre ello. +Esta poltica de neutralidad es realmente importante para nosotros, porque empodera a una comunidad que es muy diversa para que se una y consiga cosas de verdad. +As que tenemos colaboradores con trasfondos polticos, religiosos y culturales muy diversos. +Al tener una poltica de neutralidad firme, que desde el principio no es negociable, nos aseguramos de que la gente puede trabajar junta y de que las entradas no se conviertan en una guerra constante entre izquierda y derecha. +Si alguien muestra ese comportamiento, se le pedir que abandone la comunidad. +As que hay revisiones hechas por colegas en tiempo real. +Todos y cada uno de los cambios en el sitio van a la pgina de cambios recientes. +As que en cuanto l hizo el cambio, fui a la pgina de cambios recientes. +Esa pgina de cambios recientes tambin llega a un canal de IRC, que es un canal de chat en Internet que la gente vigila con varias herramientas de software. +Y la gente puede acceder a feeds RSS y pueden recibir correos con los cambios. +Y luego los usuarios pueden crear una lista de vigilancia propia. +Mi pgina est en las listas de bastantes voluntarios, porque a veces es objeto de vandalismo. +Y lo que pasa es que alguien se dar cuenta del cambio rpidamente, y simplemente lo eliminar. +Por ejemplo, hay un nuevo feed de pginas que permite acceder a cierta pgina de Wikipedia y ver todas las pginas nuevas a media que se crean. +Esto es muy importante, porque muchas pginas nuevas son porquera y tienen que borrarse. +Pero esas son algunas de las cosas ms interesantes y divertidas en Wikipedia, algunos de esos artculos nuevos. +La gente empieza un artculo sobre un tema interesante, otras personas lo encontrarn fascinante y se unirn para ayudar y mejorarlo. +Tenemos a usuarios annimos que editan, esto es una de las cosas ms controvertidas y fascinantes sobre Wikipedia. +As que Chris pudo hacer su cambio, no tuvo que registrarse ni nada, simplemente estaba en la pgina e hizo un cambio. +Pero resulta que solo alrededor del 18 % de todas las correcciones las hacen usuarios annimos. +Y esto es algo importante de comprender la inmensa mayora de las correcciones que aparecen en el sitio provienen de una comunidad muy unida de entre 600 y 1 000 personas que se comunican constantemente. +Y tenemos ms de 40 canales IRC, 40 listas de correo. +Y todas estas personas se conocen. Se comunican, tienen reuniones offline. +Esas son las personas que crean la mayor parte del sitio y, en cierto modo, son semiprofesionales de lo que hacen, +en el sentido de que el control de calidad que nos exigimos es igual o mayor +que el de los profesionales. No siempre llegamos a ese nivel, pero es lo que intentamos. +As que esa comunidad tan unida es la que de verdad se preocupa del sitio, y son algunas de las personas ms brillantes que conozco. +Desde luego, es mi trabajo decir eso, pero es la verdad. +El tipo de gente a la que le atrae escribir una enciclopedia para divertirse tiende a ser bastante inteligente. +Las herramientas y el software: hay muchas herramientas que nos permiten a la comunidad autocontrolarnos y vigilar todo el trabajo. +Este es un ejemplo del historial de una pgina sobre la "tierra plana", y pueden ver algunos de los cambios hechos. +Lo que me gusta de esta pgina es que, de inmediato, se puede consultar esto y darse cuenta, "vale, ahora lo entiendo". +Cuando alguien lo consulta, se ve que alguien, un nmero IP annimo, edit mi pgina. +Sospechoso quin es esta persona? Alguien se fija, y puede ver inmediatamente resaltados en rojo todos los cambios hechos, y ver, bueno, vale, estas palabras han cambiado, cosas como esta. +Es una herramienta que se puede usar muy rpido para controlar el historial de una pgina. +Otra cosa que hacemos en la comunidad es dejar todo abierto. +La mayora de las normas sociales y mtodos de trabajo se dejan completamente abiertos en el software. +Todo eso est en pginas Wiki. +As que no hay nada en el software que haga valer las normas. +El ejemplo que muestro aqu es una pgina de consulta de borrado. +Como dije antes, la gente escribe tonteras, hay que borrarlo. En casos como ese, los administradores simplemente lo borran. +No hay por qu tener una discusin sobre eso. +Pero pueden imaginar que hay muchas otras reas en las que la pregunta es, es esto suficientemente importante para aparecer en una enciclopedia? +Es la informacin verificable? Es un engao? Es verdad? Qu es? +Necesitamos un mtodo social para encontrar la solucin. +Y el mtodo que surgi de modo natural dentro de la comunidad: es la pgina de consulta de borrado. +Y en el ejemplo particular que tenemos aqu, es una pelcula, "Twisted Issues", y la primera persona dice, "Se supone que esto es una pelcula. Falla el test de google estrepitosamente." +El test de Google es: miras en Google y ves si est ah, porque si algo ni siquiera est en Google, probablemente no existe en absoluto. +No es una regla perfecta, pero es un buen punto de partida para investigar con rapidez. +As que alguien dice, "Brrenlo, por favor. Brrenlo, no es importante." +Y entonces alguien dice, "Esperen, esperen, esperen. Lo encontr." Lo encontr en un libro, "Gua de vdeo de la Revista Film Threat: Las 20 pelculas underground que hay que ver." Oh, vale. As que la siguiente persona dice: "Limpimoslo." +Alguien dice, "Lo he encontrado en IMDB. Sigamos, sigamos." +Lo interesante de esto es que el software es... los votos son simplemente texto escrito en una pgina. +No es tanto un voto como un dilogo. +Es cierto que al final un administrador puede revisarlo y decir, 18 votos a favor de borrar, 2 a favor de seguir, lo borramos. +Y tambin importa quienes son las personas que votan. +Como digo, es una comunidad estrecha. +Aqu abajo, "Mantener, pelcula real," Rick Kay. +Rick Kay es un wikipedista famoso que trabaja mucho contra el vandalismo, los artculos falsos y los votos para borrar. +Su voz tiene mucho peso en la comunidad porque sabe lo que hace. +As que cmo se gobierna todo esto? +La gente realmente quiere saber cosas sobre los administradores, cosas de esas. +Eso no quiere decir que tengan el derecho a borrar pginas, +ellos tambin tienen que seguir normas, pero a ellos se les elige. +Son elegidos por la comunidad. A veces a la gente con bulos que surgen en Internet, le gusta acusarme de nombrar a dedo a los administradores para sesgar el contenido de la enciclopedia. +Siempre me ro de esto, porque no tengo ni idea de cmo se los elige. +Hay un cierto nivel de aristocracia. +Y puede que tuvieran un amago de eso cuando mencion que la voz de Rick Kay tiene mucho ms peso que la de alguien a quien no conocemos. +A veces doy esta charla con Angela, que acaba de ser reelegida para la Junta de la comunidad, para la Junta de la Fundacin, con ms del doble de los votos que la persona no seleccionada. +Y siempre la avergenzo porque digo que, por ejemplo, Angela podra salirse con la suya haciendo lo que le diera la real gana en Wikipedia porque se la admira mucho y es poderosa. +Pero la irona es, desde luego, que Angela puede hacer eso porque es la nica persona que nunca jams, rompe ninguna regla de Wikipedia. +Y tambin me gustara decir que es la nica persona que conoce todas las reglas de Wikipedia... +y tambin est la monarqua, y ese es mi papel en la comunidad... +Lo expliqu una vez en Berln y al da siguiente el titular de un peridico deca: "Soy la Reina de Inglaterra." +Y eso no es exactamente lo que dije, pero, lo que quiero aclarar es mi papel en la comunidad dentro del mundo del software. Ha habido una vieja y duradera tradicin del modelo del dictador benevolente. +As que al observar la mayora de los principales proyectos de software libre, tienen una sola persona a cargo y todos estn de acuerdo en que es el dictador benevolente. +No me gusta el trmino dictador benevolente, y no creo que sea mi trabajo o mi papel en el mundo de las ideas ser el dictador del futuro de todo el conocimiento humano compilado por el mundo. +Simplemente no es apropiado. +An as, hace falta un cierto nivel de monarqua, una cierta cantidad de... A veces hay que tomar una decisin, y no queremos atascarnos demasiado en tomas de decisin formales. +Como ejemplo de por qu ha sucedido esto o de qu manera puede ser relevante, recientemente tuvimos una situacin donde un sitio neo-nazi descubri Wikipedia, y dijeron, "Oh, esto es horrible, este sitio es una conspiracin juda y haremos que se borren ciertos artculos que no nos gustan. +Y como tienen un proceso de votacin, enviaremos votos. Tenemos 40.000 miembros y vamos a hacer que voten para conseguir que se borren estas pginas." +Solo consiguieron que aparecieran 18 personas. +Eso son matemticas neo-nazis. +Siempre piensan que son 40 000 miembros cuando son 18. +Pero consiguieron que 18 personas votaran de manera bastante absurda para borrar un artculo perfectamente vlido. +Desde luego, la votacin termin siendo ms o menos de 85 a 18, as que no haba un peligro real para nuestro proceso democrtico. +Por otra parte, la gente dice: "Pero, qu vamos a hacer? +Esto podra pasar y si un grupo se organiza de verdad y entra y quiere votar?" +Y entonces dije, "A la mierda, cambiaremos la normas." +Ese es mi trabajo en la comunidad: decir que no permitiremos que nuestro carcter abierto y nuestra libertad resten calidad al contenido. +As que mientras la gente confe en mi papel, hay un lugar vlido para m. +Evidentemente, por la licencia libre, si hago mal mi trabajo, los voluntarios son libres de irse. No puedo decirle a nadie qu hacer. +El ltimo punto es que para entender cmo funciona Wikipedia es importante entender que nuestro modelo Wiki es nuestra forma de trabajar, pero no somos anarquistas fanticos de la red. De hecho, +somos muy flexibles en cuanto a la metodologa social, porque la pasin de la comunidad estriba en la calidad del trabajo, no necesariamente por el proceso usado para generarlo. +Gracias. +Ben Saunders: S, hola, Ben Saunders. +Jimmy, mencionaste que la imparcialidad es un elemento clave del xito de Wikipedia. +Me choca que muchos de los libros de texto que se usan para educar a nuestros nios estn inherentemente sesgados. +Has encontrado a profesores que usan Wikipedia, y cmo crees que Wikipedia puede cambiar la educacin? +Jimmy Wales: Si, muchos profesores estn empezando a usar Wikipedoa. +Hay otra historia meditica sobre Wikipedia que creo que es falsa. +Se basa en la historia de los blogueros contra los peridicos. +Y la historia es, existe esta locura, Wikipedia, pero los acadmicos la odian y los profesores la odian. Y resulta que no es cierto. +La ltima vez que recib un correo de un periodista preguntaba: "Por que odian los acadmicos Wikipedia?" +Lo envi desde mi direccin de correo de Harvard, porque acaban de nombrarme miembro de la universidad. +Y dije, "Bueno, no todos la odian." +Pero creo que habr un gran impacto. +Y de hecho tenemos un proyecto que personalmente me emociona, que es el proyecto de libros Wiki, un esfuerzo por crear libros de texto en todas las lenguas. +Ese es un proyecto mucho mayor; +tardar unos 20 aos en dar frutos. +Pero parte de eso es para cumplir nuestra misin de dar una enciclopedia a todas y cada una de las personas del planeta. +Y no me refiero a que les vayamos a bombardear con CDs +Queremos decir que les daremos una herramienta que puedan usar. +Y para mucha gente en el mundo, si le doy una enciclopedia escrita a nivel universitario, no le hace ningn bien sin muchos materiales complementarios para formarle hasta llegar al punto en que pueda usarla de verdad. +Los libros Wiki son un intento de hacer eso. +Y creo que vamos a ver un inmenso... puede que no surja de nosotros, hay mucha innovacin en progreso. +Pero los libros de texto de licencia libre sern la prxima revolucin en educacin. +Bueno, es fantstico estar aqu. +Hemos escuchado mucho sobre la promesa de la tecnologa, y el riesgo. +He estado bastante interesado en ambos. +Si pudiramos convertir el 0,03 por ciento de la luz solar que cae sobre la tierra en energa, podramos satisfacer todas nuestras necesidades proyectadas para 2030. +No podemos hacer esto hoy porque los paneles solares son pesados, caros y muy ineficientes. +Existen diseos de nano-ingeniera, los cuales han sido analizados al menos tericamente, que muestran el potencial de ser muy livianos, muy baratos, muy eficientes, y podramos satisfacer todas nuestras necesidades de energa de esta forma renovable. +Clulas combustibles de nano-ingeniera podran proveer la energa donde se necesite. +Esa es la tendencia principal, la descentralizacin, ir de plantas nucleares de energa centralizadas y cisternas de gas natural lquido hacia recursos descentralizados que son ms amigables ecolgicamente, mucho ms eficientes, y capaces y seguros con respecto a la disrupcin. +Bono habl muy elocuentemente, sobre que tenemos las herramientas, por primera vez, para solucionar los viejos problemas de las enfermedades y la pobreza. +La mayor parte de las regiones del mundo van en esa direccin. +En 1990, en Asia del Este y la regin del Pacfico, haba 500 millones de personas viviendo en la pobreza -- ese nmero hoy est bajo los 200 millones. +El Banco Mundial tiene previsto para 2011 que est por debajo de los 20 millones, lo cual es una reduccin del 95 por ciento. +Me gust el comentario de Bono relacionando Haight-Ashbury con Silicon Valley. +Viniendo yo de la communidad de alta tecnologa de Massachusetts, remarcara que ramos hippies tambin en los 60, a pesar de que nos juntbamos por Harvard Square. +Pero tenemos el potencial de solucionar la enfermedad y la pobreza, y voy a hablar de esos temas, si tenemos ganas. +Kevin Kelly habl de la aceleracin de la tecnologa. +Esto ha sido de fuerte inters para m, y un tema que he desarrollado durante casi 30 aos. +Me di cuenta de que mis tecnologas deban tener sentido para cuando finalizara el proyecto. +Que, invariablemente, el mundo sera un lugar diferente para cuando introdujera una tecnologa. +Por lo cual, comenc a ser un estudiante ardiente de las tendencias de la tecnologa, y a rastrear dnde la tecnologa estara en diferentes puntos en el tiempo, y comenc a construir modelos matemticos de ello. +Tom vida propia, de alguna manera, +Tengo un grupo de 10 personas que trabajan conmigo para recabar informacin sobre mediciones clave de la tecnologa en diferentes reas, y construimos modelos. +Y escucharn a la gente decr, bueno, no podemos predecir el futuro. +Y si me preguntan, subir o bajar el precio de Google de aqu a tres aos? Eso es muy difcil de decir. +Ser WiMax CDMA G3 el estndar wireless de aqu a tres aos? Eso es difcil de decir. +Pero si me preguntan, cunto costar un MIPS de cmputo en 2010, o el costo de secuenciar un par de bases de ADN en 2012, o el costo de enviar un megabyte de datos por wireless en 2014, resulta que estos son muy predecibles. +Hay curvas exponenciales remarcadamente suaves que gobiernan el precio del comportamiento, capacidad, ancho de banda. +Y voy a mostrarles una pequea muestra de esto, aunque existe realmente una razn terica de por qu la tecnologa se desarrolla de manera exponencial. +Y mucha gente, cuando piensa en el futuro, lo piensa de manera lineal. +Piensan que continuarn desarrollando un problema o solucionando un problema usando las herramientas actuales, a la velocidad actual de progreso, y fracasan en tomar en consideracin este crecimiento exponencial. +El proyecto del genoma era un proyecto controvertido en 1990. +Pusimos a nuestros mejores estudiantes de medicina, nuestros ms avanzados equipos del mundo, logramos realizar 1/10.000 del proyecto, entonces cmo bamos a realizar esto en 15 aos? +Y tras 10 aos de proyecto, los escpticos eran todava fuertes -- decan "Llegaron a dos tercios de este proyecto, y han llegado slo ha secuenciar un porcentaje muy pequeo del genoma completo". +Pero es la naturaleza del crecimiento exponencial que una vez que llega a la inflexin de la curva, explota. +La mayor parte del proyecto fue realizado en los ltimos pocos aos del proyecto. +Nos llev 15 aos secuenciar el VIH -- secuenciamos el SARS en 31 das. +Por lo que estamos ganando el potencial para solucionar estos problemas. +Voy a mostrarles unos pocos ejemplos de cun penetrante es este fenmeno. +El ndice actual de cambio de paradigma, el ndice de adopcin de nuevas ideas, se est duplicando cada dcada, de acuerdo con nuestros modelos. +Estos son todos grficos logartmicos, as que a medida que vas subiendo el nivel que representa, generalmente multiplicando por un factor de 10 o 100. +Nos llev casi medio siglo adoptar el telfono, la primera tecnologa de realidad virtual. +Los telfonos mviles se adoptaron en casi 8 aos. +Si pusiramos diferentes tecnologas de comunicacin en este grfico logartmico, televisin, radio, telfono fueron adoptados en dcadas. +Tecnologas recientes --como el PC, la Web, tlefonos mviles-- se adoptaron en menos de una dcada. +Ahora, ste es un grfico interesante, y muestra realmente la razn fundamental por la que un proceso evolutivo --y la biologa y tecnologa lo son-- se aceleran. +Trabajan a travs de la interaccin --crean una capacidad, y luego utilizan esa capacidad para dar el prximo paso. +Entonces el primer paso en la evolucin biolgica, la evolucin del ADN --a decir verdad el ARN fue primero-- necesit billones de aos, pero entonces la evolucin utiliz ese pilar de procesamiento de la informacin para dar lugar al siguente nivel. +As, la Explosin Cmbrica, donde todos los planos corpreos de los animales evolucionaron, llev slo 10 millones de aos. Fue 200 veces ms rpida. +Y entonces la evolucin utiliz esos planos corpreos para evolucionar en funciones cognitivas ms elevadas, y la evolucin biolgica continu acelerando. +Es la naturaleza inherente a los procesos evolutivos. +Pero, de todas formas, la evolucin de nuestras especies tom cientos de miles de aos, y luego trabajando a travs de la interaccin, la evolucin us, esencialmente, la tecnologa de crear especies para dar lugar al prximo nivel, que fueron los primeros pasos de la evolucin tecnolgica. +Y los primeros pasos tomaron decenas de miles de aos --herramientas de piedra, fuego, la rueda-- continuaron acelerando. +Siempre usamos, entonces, la ltima generacin de tecnologa para crear la prxima generacin. +La imprenta llev un siglo en ser adoptada, las primeras computadoras fueron diseadas con papel y lpiz --ahora usamos computadoras. +Y hemos tenido una continua aceleracin de este proceso. +Dicho sea de paso, si miran este grfico lineal, parece que todo acaba de suceder, pero un observador dice: "Bueno, Kurzweil slo marca puntos en este grfico que caen sobre esa lnea recta". +Y, de nuevo, forma la misma lnea recta. Hay un poco de grosor en la lnea porque la gente tiene de hecho desacuerdos sobre cules son los puntos clave, hay diferencias de opinin sobre cundo comenz la agricultura, o cundo -- cunto tiempo dur la Explosin Cmbrica. +Pero pueden ver una muy clara tendencia. +Hay una bsica, profunda aceleracin de este proceso evolutivo. +Las tecnologas de la informacin duplican su capacidad, calidad/precio, ancho de banda, cada ao. +Y esa es una explosin profunda del crecimiento exponencial. +Una experiencia personal, cuando estaba en el MIT una computadora ocupaba casi el tamao de este recinto, y era menos poderosa que la de sus telfonos mviles. +Pero la Ley de Moore, usualmente identificada con este crecimiento exponencial, es slo un ejemplo de muchos, porque es bsicamente una caracterstica del proceso evolutivo de la tecnologa. +Si nosotros -- yo pongo 49 computadoras famosas en este grfico logartmico --dicho sea de paso, una lnea recta en un grfico logartmico es crecimiento exponencial-- esto es otro exponencial. +nos llev 3 aos doblar nuestro relacin calidad/precio de la computacin en 1900, dos aos en el medio, y ahora estamos duplicndol cada ao. +Y eso es crecimiento exponencial a travs de cinco diferentes paradigmas. +La Ley de Moore fue slo la ltima parte de eso en un circuito integrado, donde estbamos reduciendo transistores, pero tenamos calculadoras electromecnicas, computadoras basadas en rels que descifraron el Cdigo Enigma Alemn, vlvulas de vaco en los 50 predijeron la eleccin de Eisenhower, transistores discretos usados en los primeros viajes espaciales y luego la Ley de Moore. +Cada vez que un paradigma se quedaba sin combustible, otro paradigma apareca desde ese vaco para continuar el crecimiento exponencial. +Estaban reduciendo las vlvulas de vaco, hacindolas ms y ms pequeas. +Eso golpe contra una pared. No podan reducirlas y mantener el vaco. +Un paradigma totalmente nuevo -- los transistores aparecieron de la carpintera. +De hecho, cuando vemos el final de una lnea de un paradigma en especial, crea presin en la investigacin para crear el prximo paradigma. +Y porque hemos venido prediciendo el final de la Ley de Moore desde hace bastante tiempo --la primera prediccin deca 2002, y ahora es 2022. +Pero para los primeros aos, las caractersticas de los transistores sern del ancho de un par de tomos, y no seremos capaces de reducirlos ms. +Ese ser el final de la Ley de Moore, pero no ser el final de el crecimiento exponencial de la computacin, porque los chips son planos. +Vivimos en un mundo tridimensional, bien podremos usar la tercera dimensin. +Nos meteremos en la tercera dimensin y ha habido un tremendo progreso, slo en los tlimos aos, de poner a trabajar circuitos moleculares tridimensionales, auto-organizables. +Tendremos estos listos bien antes de que la Ley de Moore se quede sin combustible. +Con las supercomputadoras -- lo mismo. +El redimiento de los procesarores en los chips de Intel, el precio promedio de un transistor -- en 1968 podas comprar un transistor por un dlar. +Podas comprar 10 millones en 2002. +Es remarcable cun suave el proceso exponencial es. +Digo, quizs crean que esto es el resultado de algn experimento de mesa, pero esto es el resultado de comportamiento catico mundial --pases acusndose mtuamente de vertidos de productos, emisiones pblicas iniciales, quiebras bancarias, programas de marketing. +Creeran que esto sera un proceso muy errtico, y tienen un muy suave resultado de este proceso catico. +De la misma manera que no podemos predecir qu har una molcula en un gas -- es imposible predecir una sla molcula -- aun as podemos predecir las propiedades del gas completo, usando la termodinmica, muy precisamente. +Lo mismo ocurre aqu. No podemos predecir nign proyecto particular, pero el resultado de la completa, mundial catica, impredecible actividad de competicin y el proceso evolutivo de la tecnologa es muy previsible. +Y podemos predecir estas tendencias en el futuro lejano. +Al contrario de las rosas de Gertrude Stein, no es el caso que un transistor es un transistor. +A medida que los hacemos ms pequeos y baratos, los electrones tiene menos distancias que viajar. +Son ms rpidos, as que tenemos crecimiento exponencial en la velocidad de los transistores, por lo que el costo de un ciclo de un transistor ha ido bajando a una tasa de reduccin a la mitad de 1,1 aos. +Se agregan otras formas de innovacin y diseo de procesadores, y se obtiene una duplicacin calidad/precio en la computacin cada ao. +Y eso es bsicamente deflacin -- deflacin del 50%. +En trminos calidad/precio eso es un 50 -- 40 a 50 por ciento de tasa de deflacin. +Y los economistas se han empezado ciertamente a preocupar por esto. +Hemos tenido deflacin durante la Depresin, pero eso ha sido un colapso de la oferta de dinero, colapso de la confianza del consumidor, un fenmeno completamente diferente. +Esto es producto de una productividad mayor, pero el economista dice, "Pero no hay forma de que puedan mantener esto". +Si existe un 50% de deflacin, la gente incrementar su volumen un 30 o un 40 por ciento, pero no podrn seguir el tren. +Pero lo que en verdad vemos es que ciertamente sobrepasamos ms que mantenemos ese tren. +Hemos tenido un 28 por ciento de crecimiento compuesto anual en dlares en tecnologa de la informacin en los ltimos 50 aos. +Es decir, la gente no fabricaba iPods por 10.000 dlares hace diez aos. +A medida que la relacin calidad/precio hace posible nuevas aplicaciones, nuevas aplicaciones aparecen en el mercado. +Y este es un fenmeno muy difundido. +El almacenamiento magntico de datos --eso no es la Ley de Moore, es reducir los puntos magnticos, diferentes ingenieros, diferentes compaas, el mismo proceso exponencial. +Una revolucin clave es que estamos entendiendo nuestra biologa en estos trminos de informacin. +Estamos entendiendo los programas de software que hacen funcionar nuestro cuerpo. +Estos fueron evolucionando en tiempos muy diferentes -- querramos ciertamente cambiar esos programas. +Un pequeo programa, llamado el gen receptor insulnico de grasa, bsicamente dice: "guarda cada calora, porque la prxima temporada de caza puede que no vaya tan bien". +Eso estaba en los intereses de la especie diez mil aos atrs. +A decir verdad, querramos poder apagar ese programa. +Han probado eso en animales, y los ratones coman desaforadamente y se mantuvieron delgados y tuvieron los beneficios de salud de ser delgados. +No tuvieron diabetes, no tuvieron enfermedades coronarias, vivieron un 20% ms, disfrutaron de los beneficios de la restriccin calrica sin la restriccin. +Cuatro o cinco compaas farmacuticas han visto esto, sintieron que podra ser una droga interesante para el mercado humano, y eso es slo uno de los 30.000 genes que afectan nuestra bioqumica. +Hemos evolucionado en una era donde no nos interesa a la edad de la mayora de quienes estamos presentes en esta conferencia, como yo, vivir mucho ms, porque hemos ido agotando los preciados recursos que deberan haber sido desarrollados para lo nios y para aquellos que cuidan de ellos. +As que la vida -- larga longevidad -- esto es, ms all de los 30 -- no era elegida, pero estamos aprendiendo a manipular y cambiar estos programas de software a travs de la la revolucin biotecnolgica. +Por ejemplo, ahora podemos inhibir genes con interferencia de ARN. +Hay nuevas formas de terapia gnica muy prometedoras que pueden resolver el problema de ubicar el material gentico en el lugar correcto en el cromosoma. +Hay, de hecho, por primera vez, algo en experimentacin con humanos, que cura realmente la hipertensin pulmonar --una enfermedad fatal-- usando terapia gnica. +As que tendremos no slo bebs de diseo, sino "baby boomers" de diseo. +Y esta tecnologa est tambin acelerando. +Costaba 10 dlares por base en 1990, luego un centavo en el ao 2000. +Ahora est por debajo de una dcima de centavo. +La cantidad de datos genticos -- bsicamente aqu se muestra que el suave crecimiento exponencial se duplic cada ao, permitiendo que el proyecto genoma se completara. +Otra gran revolucin, la revolucin de las comunicaciones. +La relacin calidad/precio, ancho de banda, la capacidad de las comunicaciones medidas de diferentes formas almbricas, inalmbricas, est creciendo exponencialmente. +Internet se ha duplicado en potencia y contina, medida de diversas maneras. +Esto est basado en el nmero de hosts. +Miniaturizacin -- estamos reduciendo el tamao de la tecnologa a un ritmo exponencial, tanto almbrica como inalmbrica. +Estos son algunos diseos del libro de Eric Drexler que ahora demostramos que son viables con simulaciones de supercomputadoras, donde ciertamente hay cientficos construyendo robots a scala molecular. +Hay uno que de verdad camina con un paso sorprendentemente humano, que est construido con molculas. +Hay mquinas pequeas que estn haciendo cosas en bases experimentales. +La oportunidad ms excitante es realmente entrar dentro del cuerpo humano y realizar funciones teraputicas y de diagnstico. +Y esto es menos futurista de lo que pueda sonar. +Estas cosas se han hecho ya en animales. +Hay un dispositivo de nanoingeniera que cura la diabetes tipo I. Tiene el tamao de un glbulo rojo. +Se ponen diez miles de estos en el glbulo --han probado esto en ratas-- permite a la insulina salir de manera controlada, y finalmente cura la diabetes tipo I. +Lo que estn viendo es un diseo de un glbulo rojo robtico, y nos muestra el problema de que nuestra biologa no es tan ptima. a pesar de que es remarcable en su complejidad. +Una vez que entendamos sus principios de operacin, y la velocidad a la que estamos aplicando ingeniera inversa a la biologa est acelerando, podremos ciertamente disear estas cosas para que sean miles de veces ms capaces. +Un anlisis de este respirocito, diseado por Rob Freitas, indica que si uno reemplaza el 10 por ciento de nuestros glbulos rojos con estas versiones robticas, podramos hacer una carrera olmpica de 15 minutos sin respirar. +Podramos sentarnos en el fondo de nuestras piscinas por horas --entonces "querida, estoy en la piscina" tomar todo un nuevo significado. +Ser interesante ver lo que hacemos en los desafos olmpicos. +Presumiblemente los prohibiremos, pero luego tendremos el espectro de adolescentes en sus gimnasios de la preparatoria rutinariamente sobrepasando a los atletas olmpicos. +Freitas tiene un diseo para un glbulo blanco robtico. +Estos son escenarios para alrededor de 2020. pero no son tan futuristas como puedan sonar. +Existen 4 grandes conferencias sobre construccin de artefactos del tamao de una glbulo, hay muchos experimentos en animales. +Hay de hecho uno hacindose en humanos; as que es tecnologa viable. +Si volvemos a nuestro crecimiento exponencial de la computacin, 1.000 dlares de computacin est ahora entre el cerebro de un insecto y el de un ratn. +Intersectar la inteligencia humana en trminos de capacidad en la dcada de 2020, pero esa ser la parte del hardware en la ecuacin. +Dnde conseguiremos el software? +Bueno, resulta que podemos ver dentro del cerebro humano, y de hecho no sorprendentemente, la resolucin espacio-temporal del escaneo cerebral se est duplicando cada ao. +Y con la nueva generacin de herramientas de escaneo, por primera vez podemos ver realmente fibras individuales interneurales y verlas procesando y comunicando en tiempo real pero entonces la pregunta es, "De acuerdo, podemos obtener estos datos ahora, pero, podemos entenderlos?" +Doug Hofstader se pregunta si quizs nuestra inteligencia no es tan genial como para entender nuestra inteligencia, y si furamos ms astutos, entonces nuestros cerebros seran mucho ms complicados, y nunca podramos alcanzarlos. +Resulta que lo podemos entender. +Este es un diagrama de bloque de un modelo y una simulacin de la corteza auditva humana que a decir verdad funciona bastante bien y al aplicar tests psicoacsticos se obtienen resultados muy similares a la percepcin auditiva humana. +Ah otra simulacin del cerebelo. Eso son ms de la mitad de las clulas en el cerebro. De nuevo, trabaja muy similarmente a la formacin de habilidades humanas. +Esto es en una etapa muy temprana, pero se puede mostrar con el crecimiento exponencial de la cantidad de informacin sobre el cerebro y la mejora exponencial en la resolucin del escaneo del cerebro, habremos triunfado en aplicar ingeniera inversa al cerebro humano para la dcada de 2020. +Ya tenemos muy buenos modelos y simulacin de casi 15 regiones de las varias cientos de ellas. +Todo esto est haciendo crecer exponencialmente el progreso econmico. +Hemos logrado llevar la productividad de 20 dlares a 150 por hora de trabajo en los ltimos 50 aos. +El comercio electrnico ha crecido exponencialmente. Es ahora un trilln de dlares. +Se preguntarn, bueno, no ha habido una burbuja econmica? +Eso fue estrictamente un fenmeno del mercado de capitales. +Wall Street se dio cuenta de que esta era una tecnologa revolucionaria, que lo era, pero luego, seis meses despus, cuando no hubo revolucionado todos los modelos de negocios, se dijeron: "Bueno, nos equivocamos" y luego tuvimos esta explosin. +Bien, esta es una tecnologa que armamos usando algunas de las tecnologas en las que estamos involucrados. +Esta ser una aplicacin de rutina en un telfono mvil. +Podr traducir de una lengua a otra. +As que permtanme finalizar con un par de escenarios. +Para el ao 2010 las compuradoras desaparecern. +Sern tan pequeas, que estarn incrustadas en nuestra ropa, nuestro entorno. +Las imgenes sern escritas directamente en nuestra retina, proveyendo de una immersin total en realidad virtual, realidad real aumentada. Estaremos interactuando con personas virtuales. +Pero si nos vamos al 2029, s que tendremos estas tendecias maduras, y deben apreciar cuntas vueltas de tuerca en trmios de generaciones de tecnologa que se vuelven ms y ms rpidas, tendremos en ese punto. +Digo, tendremos de un orden exponencial de 2 a 25 en relacin calidad/precio, capacidad y ancho de banda de esas tecnologas, lo que es realmente fenomenal. +Ser millones de veces ms poderosa de lo que es hoy. +Habremos completado la ingeniera inversa del cerebro humano, 1.000 dlares de computacin sern mucho ms potentes que el cerebro humano en trminos de capacidad bsica cruda. +Las computadoras combinarn los poderes sutiles de reconocimiento global de la inteligencia humana con formas en las que las mquinas ya son superiores, en trminos de realizar pensamiento analtico, recordando billones de hechos de forma precisa. +Las mquinas pueden compartir su informacin muy rpidamente. +Pero no es simplemente una invasin extraterrestre de mquinas inteligentes. +Vamos a fusionarnos con nuestra tecnologa. +Estos nanobots que mencion van a ser primero usados para aplicaciones mdicas y de salud: limpiar el medioambiente, suministrando potentes clulas de combustible y paneles solares descentralizados ampliamente distribuidos, y mucho ms al medioambiente. +Pero tambin irn dentro de nuestro cerebro, interactuando con nuestras neuronas biolgicas. +Hemos demostrado los principios claves para poder hacer esto. +Entonces, por ejemplo, una immersin completa en realidad virtual desde nuestro sistema nervioso, los nano-bots inhibiendo las seales procedentes de nuestros sentidos reales, reemplazndolas con las seales que nuestro cerebro recibira si estuviramos en el ambiente virtual, y luego sera como estar en ese ambiente virtual. +Podramos ir all con otras personas, tener todo tipo de experiencias con cualquiera involucrando todos los sentidos. +"Rayos de experiencia" los llamo, que pondrn su flujo completo de experiencias sensoriales en los correlatos neurolgicos de sus emociones ah en Internet. +Podremos enchufarnos y experimentar lo que es ser otra persona. +Pero lo ms importante, ser una tremenda expansin de la inteligencia humana a travs de esta fusin directa con nuestra tecnologa, que de alguna manera ya estamos haciendo. +Hacemos de hecho proezas intelectuales que hubieran sido imposibles sin nuestra tecnologa. +La expectativa de vida humana se expande. Era de 37 aos en el 1800, y con esta clase de biotecnologa, revoluciones nanotecnolgicas, se extender rpidamente en los aos venideros. +Mi mensaje principal es que el progreso en tecnologa es exponencial, no lineal. +Muchos --incluso cientficos-- asumen el modelo lineal, y entonces dicen, "Oh, pasarn cientos de aos antes de que tengamos ensamblamiento nanotecnolgico de auto replicacin o inteligencia artificial". +Si realmente observan el poder del crecimiento exponencial, vern que estas cosas estarn muy pronto en nuestras manos. +Y la tecnologa de la informacin est abarcando cada vez ms toda nuestra vida, desde nuestra msica a lo que fabricamos, desde nuestra biologa a nuestra energa y nuestros materiales. +Podremos manufacturar casi todo lo que necesitamos en 2020, desde la informacin, a partir de materials crudos baratos, utilizando nano-tecnologa. +Estas son tecnologas muy poderosas. +Ambas potencian nuestra promesa y nuestro riesgo. +Por lo que tenemos que tener la voluntad de aplicarla a los problemas adecuados. +Muchas gracias. +18 minutos es absolutamente un lmite de tiempo brutal, de modo que me lanzar directamente al punto para lograr que esto salga bien. +Bueno. Hablar de cinco cosas diferentes. +Voy a hablar de por qu vale la pena vencer el envejecimiento. +Voy a hablar de por qu tenemos que organizarnos, y hablar de esto ms a menudo de lo que lo hacemos. +Voy a hablar de factibilidad tambin, por supuesto. +Voy a hablar de por qu somos tan fatalistas para hacer cualquier cosa acerca del envejecimiento. +Por lo tanto, voy a pasar tal vez la segunda mitad de la charla hablando de cmo podemos probar que el fatalismo es un error, en otras palabras, haciendo realmente algo al respecto. +Voy a hacerlo en dos etapas. +En la primera hablar acerca de cmo llegar desde una relativamente modesta extensin de vida... que voy a definir como 30 aos, aplicada a personas que estn ya en la mediana edad cuando empiezas... hasta un punto que verdaderamente se puede llamar vencer al envejecimiento. +Es decir, fundamentalmente una eliminacin de la relacin entre qu edad tienes, y qu probabilidades tienes de morir el prximo ao... o ciertamente , de enfermarte en un primer momento. +Y por supuesto, lo ltimo que hablar ser de cmo alcanzar la etapa intermedia, ese punto de casi 30 aos de vida. +Voy a empezar por el porqu deberiamos alcanzarlo. +Ahora ,quiero hacerles una pregunta. +Levanten la mano : Alguien de aqu est a favor de la malaria? +Eso fue fcil. OK. +OK. Levanten la mano: alguien de la audiencia que no est seguro si la malaria es algo bueno o malo? +OK. Entonces todos pensamos que la malaria es algo malo. +Eso es una muy buena noticia, ya que as pens que sera la respuesta. +Ahora el asunto es, me gustara plantearles que la razn principal de por qu creemos que la malaria es algo malo es porque una caracterstica de la malaria se relaciona con el envejecimiento. +Y aqu est esa caracterstica. +Lo nico diferente es que envejecer mata ms personas que la malaria. +Me gusta frente a una audiencia, en Gran Bretaa especialmente, hablar de la comparacin con la caza de zorros, que fue prohibida despus de una larga lucha, por el gobierno hace unos pocos meses. +Quiero decir, s que cuento hoy con un pblico comprensivo, pero, como vemos, a muchas personas no les convence esta lgica. +Y esto me parece a m una muy buena comparacin. +Mucha gente dijo, "Bueno, ya sabes, los urbanos no tienen por qu decirnos a los rurales qu hacer con nuestro tiempo. +Es una tradicin en nuestra vida, y deberan permitirnos continuar hacindolo. +Es ecolgicamente vlido; detiene la explosin demogrfica de los zorros". +Pero en ltima instancia, el gobierno se impuso al final, porque la mayora de los britnicos, y ciertamente la mayora de los miembros del Parlamento, llegaron a la conclusin que era algo realmente que no se deba tolerar en una sociedad civilizada. +Y yo creo que el envejecimiento humano comparte todas estas caractersticas sin lugar a dudas. +Qu parte de esto no entiende la gente? +No se trata slo de la vida, por supuesto... se trata de vida sana, ya saben... sentirse frgil y triste y dependiente no es divertido, morirse o no puede ser divertido. +As es como me gustara describirlo. +Es un trance global. +Son las increbles excusas que la gente da para el envejecimiento. +Sin embargo, no estoy diciendo que esas excusas no tengan valor. +Hay algunas buenas conclusiones que sacar de aqu. Cosas que deberamos estar pensando, planificando para que nada se... bueno, para que minimicemos la agitacin cuando descubramos cmo corregir el envejecimiento. +Pero todo esto es completamente absurdo, cuando recuerdas tu sentido de la proporcin. +Ya saben, son argumentos, cosas que seran legtimas que nos preocuparan. +Pero la pregunta es, son tan peligrosos... estos riesgos de hacer algo frente al envejecimiento... que superan la desventaja de hacer lo opuesto, en otras palabras, dejarlo as como est ? +Son tan malos estos riesgos que estn por encima de condenar a 100.000 personas al da a una temprana e innecesaria muerte? +Ya saben, si no tienes un argumento que sea tan slido, entonces no me hagan perder el tiempo, es lo que digo. +Sin embargo, hay un argumento que algunas personas creen realmente que es slido, y es ste. +La gente se preocupa por la sobrepoblacin; dicen, "Bueno, si corregimos el envejecimiento, nadie va a morir o al menos el nmero de muertos va a ser mucho ms bajo, slo cruzando St. Giles con cuidado. +Y por consiguiente, no vamos a poder tener muchos hijos, y los hijos son realmente muy importantes para mucha gente". +Y eso es verdad. +Y ya saben, mucha gente trata de eludir esta pregunta, y dan respuestas como stas. +No concuerdo con esas respuestas. Creo que bsicamente no funcionan. +Creo que es verdad, que nos enfrentaremos a un dilema al respecto. +Tendremos que decidir si tenemos una baja natalidad, o alta mortalidad. +Una alta mortalidad surgir simplemente al rechazar estas terapias, en favor de continuar teniendo muchos hijos. +Y, yo digo que eso est bien... el futuro de la humanidad tiene derecho a hacer esa eleccin. +Lo que no est bien es que nosotros hagamos esa eleccin en nombre del futuro. +sta es mi respuesta a la pregunta de la sobrepoblacin. +Correcto. Entonces el siguiente asunto es, por qu deberamos ser ms enrgicos en esto? +Y la respuesta fundamental es que el trance del pro-envejecimiento no es tan insensible como parece. +Es realmente una forma razonable de sobrellevar lo inevitable de envejecer. +Envejecer es horrible, pero es inevitable, asi que, ya saben, tenemos que encontrar alguna forma para eliminarlo de nuestras mentes, y es racional hacer algo que quisieramos hacer, hacerlo. +Como, por ejemplo, inventar esas razones ridculas de que envejecer es algo bueno despus de todo. +Pero por supuesto, que slo funciona cuando tenemos ambos componentes. +Y tan pronto como lo inevitable se hace un poquito confuso, y nos colocamos en el lmite de hacer algo al respecto, se convierte en parte del problema. +El trance del pro-envejecimiento es lo que nos impide alterarnos por estas cosas. +Por eso que tenemos que hablar mucho de esto... evangelizar, incluso me atrever a decir... para captar la atencin de la gente, y hacer que se den cuenta que estn en trance en este sentido. +Eso es todo lo que dir al respecto. +No voy a hablar de factibilidad. +Y la razn fundamental, creo, por la que sentimos que envejecer es inevitable est unida a una definicin de envejecimiento que ofrezco aqu. +Una definicin muy simple. +Envejecer es un efecto secundario de estar vivo en primer lugar, es decir, metabolismo. +Esto no es enteramente una declaracin de perogrullo; es una declaracin razonable. +Envejecer es un proceso que les ocurre a objetos inanimados como automviles, y tambin nos sucede a nosotros, a pesar de que tenemos muchos mecanismos automticos de reparacin, esos mecanismos automticos de reparacin no son perfectos. +El metabolismo, que se define como bsicamente todo aquello que nos mantiene vivos da a da, tiene efectos secundarios. +Esos efectos secundarios se acumulan y finalmente causan enfermedades. +Esta es una buena definicin. Entonces digmoslo as : podemos decir que, ya saben, tenemos esta cadena de acontecimientos. +Y hay, en realidad, dos enfoques, de acuerdo con la mayora de la gente, respecto a retrasar el envejecimiento. +Estn lo que llamo el enfoque gerontolgico y el enfoque geritrico. +El geriatra intervendr tarde en la vida, cuando la patologa se haga evidente, y el geriatra tratar y retendr el desgaste del tiempo. y evitar que la acumulacin de los efectos secundarios causen la enfermedad tan pronto. +Por supuesto, es una estrategia cortoplacista, es una batalla perdida, ya que las cosas que causan la patologa se tornan mas abundantes a medida que el tiempo pasa. +El enfoque gerontolgico se ve mucho ms prometedor en la superficie, por que, ya saben, prevenir es mejor que curar. +Desgraciadamente el asunto es que no entendemos el metabolismo muy bien. +De hecho, tenemos una deplorable comprensin de cmo funcionan los organismos, incluso de clulas no sabemos mucho todava. +Hemos descubierto cosas como, por ejemplo, la interferencia del ARN, slo hace unos aos, y esto es un componente fundamental del funcionamiento de las clulas. +Bsicamente, la gerontologa es un buen enfoque al final, pero no es el momento oportuno para esa perspectiva cuando hablamos de intervencin. +Entonces, qu hacemos? +quiero decir que es una buena lgica, que suena muy convincente, bastante slida, cierto? +Pero no es as. +Antes de que les diga por qu no lo es, voy a adentrarme en lo que yo llamo etapa dos. +Slo supongan, como les he dicho, que adquirimos... pongamos por caso hoy... la capacidad de conceder 30 aos ms de vida saludable a personas que ya estn en la mediana edad, digamos 55 aos. +Voy a llamarlo slido rejuvenecimiento humano. De acuerdo? +Qu significa esto en realidad? por canto tiempo las personas de diversas edades hoy en da... o de igual forma, de diversas edades en el momento en que esas terapias lleguen viviran en realidad? +Para responder esa pregunta... ustedes podran pensar que es simple, pero no es simple. +Podemos decir, "Bueno, si son bastante jvenes para beneficiarse de esas terapias, entonces vivirn 30 aos ms". +Esa es la respuesta equivocada. +Y la razn de que sea la respuesta equivocada es el progreso. +Hay dos clases de progreso tecnolgico en realidad, para este propsito. +Hay importantes y fundamentales avances, y hay mejoras graduales de esos avances. +Difieren mucho en trminos de previsibilidad de los plazos. +Avances fundamentales: muy difcil de predecir cunto tiempo se va a tardar en llevar a cabo un avance fundamental. +Hace mucho tiempo que decidimos que volar sera entretenido, y no fue hasta 1903 cuando averiguamos cmo hacerlo. +Despus, las cosas estuvieron bastante estables y uniformes. +Creo que es una secuencia razonable de hechos que sucedieron en el progreso de la tecnologa aeronutica. +Se puede pensar, realmente, que cada uno va ms all de la imaginacin del inventor de lo anterior, si se quiere. +Los avances graduales se deben a algo que ya no es gradual. +Esto es lo que se ve despus de un avance fundamental. +Y lo ves en toda clase de tecnologas. +Computadores, se puede ver una lnea de tiempo ms o menos paralela, sucediendo por supuesto un poco ms tarde. +En la atencin mdica, en cuanto a higiene, vacunas , antibioticos... ya saben, el mismo plazo de tiempo. +Creo que en realidad la etapa dos, que la he llamado etapa hace un momento, no es del todo una etapa. +De hecho, las personas que son lo bastante jvenes como para beneficiarse de estas primeras terapias que ofrecen esta moderada extensin de vida, aunque esas personas ya estn en la mediana edad cuando las terapias lleguen, estarn como en la cspide. +La mayora sobrevivirn lo suficiente para recibir tratamientos mejorados que les darn 30 o tal vez 50 aos ms. +En otras palabras, ellos jugarn con ventaja. +Las terapias mejorarn tan rpido que las restantes imperfecciones nos estn alcanzando. +Esto es un punto muy importante a considerar. +Porque, ya saben, la mayora de la gente cuando oye que pronostico que un gran nmero de gente va a vivir 1.000 aos o ms, piensan que estoy diciendo que vamos a inventar terapias en las prximas dcadas qur van a eliminar completamente el envejecimiento que esas terapias nos permitirn vivir 1.000 aos o ms. +No estoy diciendo eso. +Estoy diciendo que con la tasa de mejoramiento de esas terapias bastar. +Nunca sern perfectas, pero seremos capaces de dar respuesta a las enfermedades de las que mueren los de 200 aos de edad, antes de tenerlos. +Y lo mismo para los que alcancen 300... y 400 etc. +Decid darle a esto un nombre corto, es " velocidad de escape a la longevidad". +Bueno, parece que llegamos a lo importante. +Estos trayectos de aqu son bsicamente cmo esperamos que viva la gente, en trminos de expectativa de vida, segn los indicadores que marcan su salud, y los aos que tenan en el momento que llegan estas terapias. +Si usted ya tiene 100 aos, o incluso si tiene 80... y un promedio de 80 aos de edad, probablemente no podemos hacer mucho por usted con estas terapias, porque usted est a puertas de la muerte para que las terapias iniciales sean lo suficientemente buenas para usted. +Usted no podr resistirlas. +Pero si usted tiene slo 50 aos , entonces hay una posibilidad que podra rescatarlo y, ya saben... finalmente superar esto. Y empezar a ser biolgicamente ms joven en un sentido significativo, en trminos de juventud, fsica y mental, y en trminos de riesgo de muerte por causas relacionadas con el envejecimiento. +Y por supuesto que, si usted es un poco ms joven, nunca va a estar tan frgil como para morir por causas relacionadas con el envejecimiento... +sta es una conclusin a la que he llegado, que el primero que llegue a los 150 aos... no sabemos cuanto aos tiene hoy esa persona, porque no sabemos cunto tiempo se a va tardar en conseguir esa primera generacin de terapias. +Pero independientemente de esa edad, estoy afirmando que la primera persona que llegue a 1,000 aos dependiendo por supuesto, de las catstrofes globales... ser, probablemente slo 10 aos ms joven que el primero de 150 aos de edad. +Menudo pensamiento. +Vale, finalmente voy a dedicar el resto de la charla, mis ltimos siete minutos y medi, a la etapa uno. en otras palabras, cmo obtenemos esta moderada extensin de vida que nos permitir escapar de la velocidad? +Y para hacer esto, necesito hablar un poco de ratones. +Tengo un slido hito en lo que se refiere al rejuvenecimiento humano. +Lo voy a llamar rejuvenecimiento slido del ratn, no es muy original. +Y esto es lo que es. +Vamos a tomar un tramo largo de vida de un ratn, bsicamente significa que el ratn vive una media de tres aos. +No les hacemos nada hasta que tengan dos aos de edad. +Y entonces les hacemos un serie de cosas, y con esas terapias, los mantenemos vivos, de media, hasta su quinto cumpleaos. +Entonces, en otras palabras, agregamos dos aos... triplicamos su vida restante, empezando desde el punto en que empezamos las terapias, +La pregunta entonces es, qu signifcara eso para el plazo de vida hasta que alcancemos el hito, del que les habl antes, para los humanos? +Lo que ahora podemos, como he explicado, de forma similar, llamar slido rejuvenecimiento humano, o velocidad de escape a la longevidad. +En segundo lugar, qu significa desde el punto de vista del pblico el tiempo que vamos a tardar en alcanzar esas cosas, empezando desde el tiempo que tomamos a los ratones? +Y en tercer lugar, la pregunta es qu le har en realidad a la gente que lo desee? +Y me parece que la primera pregunta es enteramente un pregunta biolgica, y es extremadamente difcil de responder. +Uno tiene que ser muy especulativo, y muchos de mis colegas diran que no deberamos especular, que deberamos guardar silencio hasta que sepamos ms. +Yo digo que no tiene sentido. +Seramos irresponsables si nos mantenemos callados sobre esto. +Necesitamos dar nuestra mejor estimacin en cuanto a plazo de tiempo, para dar al la gente un sentido de proporcin para que puedan valorar sus prioridades. +As que yo digo que tenemos el 50 por ciento de posibilidades de alcanzar el hito RHR , slido rejuvenecimiento humano, dentro de 15 aos desde el punto que lleguemos al slido rejuvenecimiento del ratn. +15 aos a partir de lograr un ratn robusto . +La percepcin del pblico probablemente ser algo mejor. +El pblico tiende a subestimar lo difcil que son las cuestiones cientficas. +Entonces probablemente pensarn que faltan cinco aos. +Estarn equivocados, pero en realidad no importar mucho. +Y finalmente, por supuesto, creo que es justo decir que una gran parte de la razn por la que el pblico es tan ambivalente respecto al envejecimiento es el trance global del que ya les habl, la estrategia de enfrentar el problema. +Esa ser historia en este punto, porque ser imposible creer que envejecer es inevitable en humanos. ya que ha sido aplazado muy eficazmente en los ratones. +As que probablemente terminemos con un gran cambio de actitud en la gente, y eso por supuesto que tiene enormes implicaciones. +Para explicarles cmo vamos a conseguir estos ratones, voy a agregar algo a mi descripcin de envejecimiento. +Voy a usar la palabra "dao" para denotar esas cosas intermedias que son causadas por el metabolismo, y que finalmente causan una patologa. +Porque el asunto crtico de esto es que aunque a veces solamente el dao causa una patologa, el dao mismo es causado a lo largo de la vida, empezando antes de nacer. +Pero no es parte del metabolismo mismo. +Y esto resulta ser til. +Porque podemos redibujar nuestro diagrama original de esta forma. +Podemos decir que, bsicamente, las diferencias entre la gerontologa y la geriatra es que la gerontologa trata de inhibir la tasa a la cual el metabolismo sita este dao. +Y voy a explicar exactamente lo que significa dao en trminos concretos y biolgicos en un momento. +Y los geriatras tratan de retener el desgaste del tiempo deteniendo el dao y convirtindolo en patologa. +Y la razn de que sea una batalla perdida es porque el dao contina acumulndose. +Entonces, hay un tercer enfoque, si lo vemos de esta forma. +Lo podemos llamar el enfoque de la ingeniera. y afirmo que el enfoque de la ingeniera est dentro del lmite. +El enfoque de la ingeniera no interviene en ningn proceso. +No interviene en este proceso, o en ste. +Y eso es bueno porque significa que no es una batalla perdida, y es algo que est dentro del lmite de poder hacerlo, porque no implica mejorar en la evolucin. +El enfoque de la ingeniera simplemente dice, "Vamos a reparar peridicamente todas estas clases de daos... no necesariamente repararlos todos, pero s bastantes, para as mantener el nivel de dao bajo el lmite que debe existir, que hace que sea patgeno." +Sabemos que este lmite existe. porque no tenemos enfermedades relacionadas con la edad hasta que estamos en la mediana edad, aunque el dao se haya acumulado desde antes que naciramos. +Por qu digo que estamos en el lmite? Bueno, porque claramente es as. +Lo importante de esta diapositiva est en la parte de abajo. +Si tratamos de decir que parte del metabolismo es importante para el envejecimiento, estaremos aqu toda la noche, porque bsicamente todo el metabolismo es importante para envejecer de uno forma u otra. +Esta lista es slo como ilustracin, est incompleta. +La lista de la derecha tambin est incompleta. +Es una lista de tipos de patologa que se relacionan con la edad, y es una lista incompleta. +Pero me gustara afirmarles que esta lista del medio est completa, esta es la lista de indicadores que se califican como dao, efectos secundarios del metabolismo que al final causan patologa, o que podran causar patologa, +Y hay slo siete de ellos. +Son categoras de cosas, por supuesto, pero son slo siete. +Prdida de clulas, mutacines de cromosomas, mutaciones en la mitocondria etc. +Lo primero, me gustara darles un argumento del por qu esta lista est completa. +Por supuesto uno puede hacer un argumento biolgico. +Uno puede decir, OK, de qu estamos hechos? +Estamos hechos de clulas y materia entre las clulas. +en qu se puede acumular el dao? +La respuesta es, molculas de larga vida, porque si una molcula de corta vida sufre daos, y la molcula es destruida... como por una protena que es destruida por protelisis...el dao desaparece tambin. +Tiene que ser molculas de larga vida. +As, estas siete cosas estuvieron bajo discusin en gerontologa hace ya un tiempo y es muy buena noticia, porque significa que, hemos avanzado mucho en estos 20 aos, el hecho de que no hayamos ampliado esta lista es una buen indicio de que no hay que hacer ninguna ampliacin. +Sin embargo, es an mejor; sabemos realmente cmo corregirlos en los ratones, en principio... y cuando digo en principio es, que probablemente podamos en realidad implementar estas correcciones dentro de una dcada. +Algunas de ellas estn parcialmente implementadas, las de arriba. +No tengo tiempo para comentarlas, pero mi conclusin es que, si podemos conseguir un adecuado financiamiento, entonces podremos desarrollar slido rejuvenecimiento de la materia en slo 10 aos, pero tenemos que tomrnoslo en serio. +Tenemos que empezar a intentarlo de verdad. +Por supuesto, en la audiencia hay algunos bilogos, y quiero darles algunas respuestas a algunas de las preguntas que pudieran tener. +Puede que no les haya gustado esta charla, pero fundamentalmente tienen que ir y leer todo esto. +He publicado mucho a respecto; Cito el trabajo experimental en el cual se basa mi optimismo, y que contiene mucha informacin. +El detalle que me hace confiar en el plazo de tiempo bastante agresivo que pronostico aqu. +Asi si ustedes piensan que no tengo razn, sera mejor que fueran a investigar por qu creen que no la tengo. +Y por supuesto lo ms importante es que no deberan confiar en la gente que se llamen gerontologistas porque, como con cualquier desviacin extrema de un pensamiento dentro de un rea particular, se espera que en la corriente principal la gente sea un poco resistente y no se lo tome realmente en serio. +Asi que, ya lo saben, tienen que hacer los deberes, para comprender si esto es verdad. +y terminaremos con un par de cosas. +Una cosa es, ya saben, van a oir a una persona en la prxima sesin que dijo hace tiempo que poda secuenciar el genoma humano inmediatamente, y todos dijeron :"Bueno, es obviamente imposible" +Y ya saben lo que ocurri. +Entonces esto s ocurre. +Tenemos varias estrategias... Est el Premio Ratn Methuselah, que bsicamente es un incentivo para innovar, y hacer lo que crees que va a funcionar, y obtienes dinero si ganas. +Hay una propuesta que en realidad plante un instituto. +Esto va a requerir mucho dinero. +Lo que quiero decir es cunto tiempo se tarda en gastar eso en la guerra en Irak? +No mucho tiempo. OK. +Tiene que ser filantrpico, porque las ganancias distraen la biotecnologa, pero creo que bsicamente hay un 90 por ciento de posibilidades de xito. +Y creo que sabemos cmo hacerlo, y me detendr ah. +Gracias. +Chris Anderson: OK. No s si van a haber algunas preguntas pero pens que le dara oportunidad a la gente. +Audiencia: Ya que has estado hablando acerca del envejecimiento y tratar de derrotarlo, por qu tu mismo aparentas ser un hombre mayor? +AG: Porque soy un hombre mayor. Tengo en realidad 158 aos. +Audiencia: Algunas especies en este planeta han evolucionado con sistemas inmunes, combatiendo todas las enfermedades de tal modo que esos individuos viven lo suficiente para procrear. +Sin embargo, hasta donde yo s, todas las especies han evolucionado en realidad para morir, entonces cuando las clulas se dividen, la telomerasa se acorta y eventualmente la especie muere. +Entonces, por qu la evolucin parece haber seleccionado en contra de la inmortalidad, cuando es tan ventajoso, o es la evolucin algo incompleto? +AG: Brillante. Gracias por hacer una pregunta que puedo responder con una respuesta no controvertida. +Voy a darle la verdadera respuesta mayoritaria a su pregunta, con la cual concuerdo. Y es, no, envejecer no es un producto de la seleccin; la evolucin es simplemente un producto de negligencia evolutiva. +En otras palabras, envejecemos porque es tarea difcil no hacerlo; se necesita ms disposicin gentica, ms sofisticacin en sus genes para envejecer ms lentamente, y eso sigue siendo cierto por ms que lo rechace. +Asi que, hasta el punto de que no importa la evolucin, no importa si los genes son transmitidos por los individuos, que viven mucho tiempo o por procreacin, hay una cierta variacin en eso, que es por lo que diferentes especies tienen diferente duracin de vida, pero por eso no hay especies inmortales. +CA: No importan los genes pero nosotros s? +AG : As es. +Audiencia: Hola. Le en alguna parte que en los ltimos 20 aos, el promedio de vida de prcticamente cualquier persona del planeta ha crecido en 10 aos. +Si proyecto eso, me hara pensar que vivir hasta los 120 si no tengo un accidente con mi moto. +significa eso que yo soy uno de los sujetos que va llegar a 1000 aos? +AG: Si pierdes un poco de peso. +Sus nmeros son un poco exagerados. +Las cifras estndares son de duracin de vida que ha ido aumentando entre uno o dos aos por dcada. +Asi es que, no es tan bueno como piensa... o podra esperar. +Pero yo intento subir a un ao por ao tan pronto como sea posible. +Audiencia: Me han dicho que muchas de las clulas del cerebro que tenemos los adultos estn en realidad en el embrin humano, y que las clulas del cerebro duran 80 aos o ms. +De ser eso verdad, biolgicamente hay implicaciones en el mundo del rejuvenecimiento? +Si hay clulas en mi cuerpo que viven 80 aos, frente a un periodo normal, ya saben, un par de meses? +AG: Hay ciertamente implicaciones tcnicas. +Bsicamente lo que necesitamos hacer es reemplazar clulas en esas pocas reas del cerebro que pierden clulas a una tasa respetable, especialmente neuronas, pero no queremos reemplazarlas ms rpido... o no tan rpido de todas maneras, porque reemplazarlas muy rpido degradara la funcin cognitiva. +Lo que he dicho hace un rato sobre la existencia de especies que no envejecen fue un poco una simplificacin excesiva. +Hay especies que no envejecen, Hydra por ejemplo, pero lo logran no teniendo un sistema nervioso... y no teniendo ningn tejido que dependa para su funcionamiento de clulas de muy larga vida. +La Naturaleza es mi musa y mi pasin. +Como fotgrafo del National Geographic, la retrat mucho. +Pero hace cinco aos, comenc un viaje personal. +Quera visualizar la historia de la vida. +Es la aventura ms dura que he intentado nunca, y en muchas ocasiones he estado a punto de abandonar +Tambin hubo revelaciones. +Y uno de ellas es la que me gustara compartir hoy con ustedes. +Fui a una remota laguna en Australia, esperando ver la Tierra como era hace tres mil millones de aos, antes de que el cielo se volviera azul. +Hay estromatolitos all -- los primeros seres vivos en captar la fotosntesis -- y ese es el nico lugar donde eso ocurre actualmente +Ir all es como entrar en una cpsula del tiempo, y sal con un sentido diferente de m mismo en el tiempo. +El oxgeno exhalado por los estromatolitos es el que todos respiramos hoy. +Los estromatolitos son los hroes de mi historia. +Espero que esta historia que tenga cierta repercusin en nuestro tiempo. +Una historia sobre ti y sobre m, naturaleza y la ciencia. +Dicho esto, me gustara invitarles a un corto viaje de la vida a travs del tiempo. +El viaje comienza en el espacio, la materia se condensa en esferas en el tiempo. +Solidificndose en la superficie, moldendose por el fuego. +El fuego abri el camino, la Tierra emergi, pero como un planeta aliengena +La luna estaba ms cerca, las cosas eran diferentes. +El calor interior gener giseres en erupcin, +dando pie a los ocanos. El agua se congel en torno a los polos, y dio forma a los lmites de la Tierra. +El agua es clave para la vida, pero, congelada, es una fuerza latente. +Y cuando desaparece, la Tierra se convierte en Marte. +Pero este planeta es diferente - se agita en su interior +Y donde esa energa toca el agua, surge algo nuevo: la vida. +Surge alrededor de fisuras en la Tierra. +Barro y minerales se hacen sustrato, aparecen las bacterias. +Aprenden a multiplicarse, extendindose por todas partes. +Estructuras vitales crecen bajo un cielo extrao. +Los estromatolitos fueron los primeros exhalando oxgeno. +Y cambiaron la atmsfera. +Su aliento fosilizado es ahora como el hierro +Los meteoritos nos entregaron la qumica, y quizs las membranas. +La vida necesita una membrana que la contenga para que pueda replicarse y mutar. +Estos son diatomeas, fitoplancton unicelular con esqueletos de silicio. +Las placas de circuitos del futuro. +Los mares nutrieron la vida, y all se transform en formas ms complejas. +La vida creci con el oxgeno y la luz. +La vida se endureci y se puso a la defensiva. +Aprendi a moverse y a ver. Los primeros ojos crecieron en los trilobites. +La visin se perfeccion en los cangrejos de herradura, uno de los primeros en salir del mar. +Todava siguen haciendo lo mismo, sus enemigos ya se fueron. +Los escorpiones siguieron a sus presas fuera del mar. Las babosas se hicieron caracoles +Los peces probaron la vida anfibia. Las ranas se adaptaron a los desiertos. +Lquenes surgieron como cooperativas. Hongos casados con algas. +Aferrndose a las rocas, y comindoselas tambin. Transformaron la tierra yerma. +Las plantas terrestres, sin hojas al principio. +Aprendieron a mantenerse verticales, crecieron en tamao y forma. +Los tipos fundamentales de helechos las siguieron, lanzando esporas que anunciaban las semillas. +Floreci vida en los pantanos. +En tierra, la vida dio un giro. Primero las mandbulas. Los dientes llegaron ms tarde. +La tortuga lad y los tutaras son ecos de aquella poca. +La vida tard bastante tiempo en romper con el agua, y an le atrae todava. +La vida se volvi dura, debieron aventurarse tierra adentro. +Y aquellos dragones estn an entre nosotros. +Jurassic Park an reluce en cierta parte de Madagascar, y en el centro del Brasil. Las plantas llamadas ccadas continan tan duras como rocas. +Los bosques se alzaron y se llenaron de alas. +Las primeras especies que dejaron huellas, parece que hubiesen muerto ayer. +Y otras vuelan hoy como ecos del pasado. +En las aves, la vida adquiri nueva movilidad. +Los flamencos cubrieron los continentes. Las migraciones se pusieron en marcha. +Las aves fueron testigos de la aparicin de las plantas con flores. +Los lirios de agua estuvieron entre las primeras. +Las plantas empezaron a diversificarse y crecer, convirtindose en rboles. +En Australia, un lirio se converti en un rbol herbceo, y en Hawai, una margarita se convirti en una "Silver Sword". +En frica, Gondwana moldeaba a Proteas. +Pero cuando ese antiguo continente se separ, la vida se volvi exhuberante. +Surgieron las selvas tropicales, se crearon nuevas capas de interdependencia. +Los hongos se multiplicaron. Orqudeas surgieron, sus formas genitales atrajeron insectos. +Un truco compartido por la flor ms grande en la Tierra. +Coevolucin entrelazada de insectos, pjaros y plantas para siempre. +Y cuando las aves no pueden volar, se hacen vulnerables. +Como los kiwis, y estos halcones atrapados cerca de la Antrtida. +La extincin puede ir despacio, pero a veces llega rpido. +Cay un asteroide, y el mundo se vio envuelto en llamas. +Pero quedaron testigos, supervivientes en la oscuridad. +Cuando el cielo se aclar, un nuevo mundo naci. +Un mundo para los mamferos. Como las pequeas musaraas, o los tenrecs, adaptados a la oscuridad. +Nuevas especies como los murcilagos. Las civetas. +Y nuevos depredadores, las hienas, ms y ms veloces. +Las praderas crearon oportunidades, +La seguridad del rebao agudiz los sentidos. +Hacerse ms grandes fue otra respuesta, pero el tamao tiene un precio. +Algunos mamferos regresaron al agua. +Morsas adaptadas con capas de grasa. Brillantes lobos marinos. +Y los cetceos se movieron en un mundo sin lmites. +Hay muchas formas de ser un mamfero. Un canguro salta en Oz. Un caballo corre en Asia, y un lobo evoluciona sus patas como zancos en Brasil. +Los primates emergen de la selva, como tarseros primero, convertidos en lemures no mucho ms tarde. +Su aprendizaje se vio reforzado. Grupos de monos se aventuraron a salir a la luz. +Los bosques se secaron otra vez. Caminar erguido se convirti en estilo de vida. +Entonces, quines somos? Hermanos de los chimpancs. Hermanas de los femeninos bonobos. Somos todos ellos, y ms. +Estamos moldeados por la misma fuerza vital. +Las venas de sangre en nuestras manos, eco de los ros de agua que surcan la Tierra. +nuestros cerebros - clebres cerebros - semejan las mareas de un pantano. +La vida es fuerza en s misma. Un nuevo elemento. +Altera la Tierra. Cubre la Tierra como una piel. +Cuando no, como Groenlandia en invierno, Marte no parece estar muy lejos. +Pero todo desaparece al derritirse el hielo de nuevo. +Donde el agua es lquida, se hace tero. Para clulas verdes con clorofila - y esta maravilla molecular eso marca la diferencia - lo revive todo. +Todo el mundo animal vive hoy en una reserva bacteriana de oxgeno en un ciclo constante a travs de plantas y algas, sus residuos son nuestro aliento, y viceversa. +La Tierra est viva, y ha creado su propia membrana. +La llamamos atmsfera. Es el icono de nuestro viaje. +Y todos ustedes se pueden imaginar donde vamos ahora. +Gracias. Gracias. +He estado en el MIT durante 44 aos. Asist a TED I. +Slo hay otra persona aqu, creo, que tambin asisti. +En todas las otras TED (asist a todas, bajo el reinado de Ricky) habl de las actividades del Media Lab, que hoy cuenta con casi 500 personas. +Si leen la prensa, la semana pasada deca que renunci a Media Lab. +No lo hice; renunci a la presidencia... era un ttulo algo ridculo, pero alguien ms lo asumi, y una de las cosas que uno puede hacer como profesor, es seguir siendo profesor. +Ahora, y por el resto de mi vida, me dedicar a Una Laptop Por Nio, de todas formas, es algo que he estado haciendo durante un ao y medio. +As que les voy a contar sobre esto, voy a usar mis 18 minutos para contarles por qu, cmo y qu estoy haciendo. +Y en cierto momento har circular, inclusive, lo que podra ser la laptop de los 100 dlares. +Bueno, Chris me pidi que cuente los grandes retos, as que comenzar con los tres que me llevaron a hacer esto. +Y el primero es bastante obvio. +Es curioso, cuando uno conoce a un jefe de Estado y pregunta: "Cul es su recurso natural ms valioso?" +Los nios no son lo primero que mencionan, y al mencionar a los nios, rpidamente estn de acuerdo. +As que este punto no es tan difcil. +Todos concuerdan que cualquiera sea la solucin a los grandes problemas, se incluye la educacin; a veces es slo la educacin pero siempre hay un componente educativo. +Definitivamente es parte de la solucin. +El tercer elemento es un poco menos obvio. +Y es que todos en esta sala aprendimos a caminar y hablar no porque nos hayan enseado cmo caminar o hablar, sino interactuando con el mundo, obteniendo ciertos resultados a partir de saber pedir algo o de pararse y alcanzarlo. +Cerca de los seis aos nos dicen que ya no aprendamos as, y desde entonces todo aprendizaje se da mediante la enseanza, sea esta en forma presencial, como ahora, o mediante un libro, etc. +Pero era a travs de la enseanza. +Y uno de los aportes de la computacin a la enseanza es que ahora brinda una forma de aprender similar a la de caminar y hablar, en el sentido que tiene mucho de autodidacta. +Con esos principios... algunos ya conocen a Seymour Papert, +esto es en 1982, cuando trabajbamos en Senegal. +Algunos piensan que la laptop de 100 dlares surgi hace un ao, o dos aos, o que lleg por inspiracin divina. Esto en realidad se remonta a los '60s. +Aqu estamos en los '80s. +Steve Jobs nos don algunas laptops; estbamos en Senegal. +Esto no prosper pero al menos llev computadoras a pases en desarrollo, y aprendimos rpidamente que estos nios... si bien el ingls no era su idioma, y el alfabeto latino apenas les era familiar, se sentan como peces en el agua; +podan tocar los teclados como pianos. +Hace poco me involucr personalmente. +Y estas son dos ancdotas: una en Camboya, en una aldea sin electricidad, ni agua, ni televisin, ni telfono, pero ahora tiene banda ancha. +La primera palabra en ingls de estos nios es "Google", y slo conocen Skype. No conocen la telefona. +Bien, slo usan Skype. +Y por las noches en sus casas tienen banda ancha en una choza sin electricidad. +A los padres les encanta, porque cuando encienden la laptop, es la fuente de luz ms brillante de la casa. +En cuanto a metforas y realidades que se mezclan... esta es la escuela. +Al mismo tiempo, Seymur Papert logr que el gobernador de Maine legislara sobre Una Laptop Por Nio en 2002. +En ese momento 80% de los profesores se mostraban... digamos, reticentes. +Realmente estaban completamente en contra. +Preferan que ese dinero se usara en salarios, ms escuelas, etc. +Ahora, tres aos y medio despus, adivinen. +Se informan cinco cosas. Disminucin de ausentismo a casi cero; las reuniones de padres... a las que nadie asista y ahora todos asisten Disminucin de la indisciplina, aumento de la participacin estudiantil. +Los maestros ahora dicen que ensear es divertido; +los nios estn entusiasmados. Tienen laptops. Y el quinto punto, el que ms me interesa, es que los servidores tienen que apagarse a cierta hora de la noche porque los profesores reciben demasiados correos de los nios solicitndoles ayuda. +As, cuando vemos esas cosas, no es necesario hacer ms pruebas. +Se acabaron los proyectos pilotos, donde se deca: "Bueno, probaremos tres o cuatro mil en nuestro pas y veremos qu pasa". +Olvdenlo. Vaya al final de la cola, que otro lo har y cuando vean que esto funciona, pueden sumarse tambin. +Y esto es lo que estamos haciendo. +Una Laptop por Nio se constituy hace un ao y medio. +Es una organizacin sin fines de lucro que recaud unos 20 millones de dlares para la ingeniera previa y la construccin posterior. +La escala es en verdad importante. +No porque se puedan comprar componentes a precios bajos... +sino porque se puede ir al fabricante... (no lo voy a mencionar) queramos una pantalla pequea, no requera perfecta uniformidad de color, +poda faltarle uno o dos pxeles, o no ser tan brillante. +Y este fabricante en particular dijo: "Bien, no nos interesa. Nos interesa la sala de estar, +la perfecta uniformidad de color, +Nos interesan pantallas grandes, pantallas brillantes. +Ustedes no son parte de nuestro plan estratgico". +Y yo dije: "Bueno, es una lstima, porque necesitamos 100 millones por ao". +Y dijeron: "Bueno, quiz podamos formar parte de su plan estratgico". +Por eso es que importa la escala. +Y por eso no lo lanzaremos sin contar con 5 a 10 millones de unidades iniciales. +La idea es lanzarlo con una escala suficiente que ayude a bajar el precio, por eso dije de 7 a 10 millones. +Y lo estamos haciendo sin equipo de marketing y ventas. +Quiero decir, yo soy el equipo de ventas y marketing. +Lo haremos yendo a siete pases grandes para acordar el lanzamiento, y los dems nos seguirn. +Tenemos socios; es fcil adivinar que Google ser uno de ellos, +los dems estn en suspenso. +Esto ha recibido mucha cobertura de prensa. +Es la llamada Mquina Verde que presentamos con Kofi Annan en noviembre, en la Cumbre Mundial de Tnez. +La gente ve esto y dice: ah, es un proyecto de laptops. +Bueno, no, no lo es. Es un proyecto educativo. +Y lo gracioso es que (me he concentrado en esto) le digo a la gente que yo sola ser un foco pero ahora soy un lser. Slo quiero que esto sea realidad y resulta que no es tan difcil. +Porque los costos de las laptops son los siguientes: el 50%, o mejor el 60%, el 60% del costo de una laptop va a ventas, marketing, distribucin y utilidades. +No tenemos nada de eso aqu, bien? +Nada de eso entra en nuestro costo. Porque vendemos al costo y los gobiernos las distribuyen. +Se distribuyen a travs del sistema educativo como un libro. +As que esa parte del costo desaparece, y nos quedamos con la pantalla y el resto. +La pantalla de una laptop cuesta, aproximadamente, 10 dlares por pulgada diagonal. +Y eso puede bajar a 8, puede bajar a 7, pero no va a bajar a 2, o 1.5, a menos que actuemos ingeniosamente. +El resto (esa cajita marrn) es fascinante, porque el resto de la laptop est dedicada a s misma. +Es como una persona obesa que usa la mayor parte de su energa en mover su obesidad, bien? +Y hoy vemos una situacin increble. +Uso laptops desde que salieron. +Hoy mi laptop es ms lenta, menos confiable y placentera que antes. +Y este ao es peor. +Hoy la gente aplaude, a veces de pie, y digo: "Qu les pasa? Por qu quedamos ah sentados?" +Alguien, que no mencionar, llam a nuestra laptop un dispositivo. +Y dije: Dios, nuestra laptop va a ir rapidsimo. +Cuando la abran: bingo! Estar encendida, lista para usar. +Va a ser como en 1985, cuando uno compraba una Apple Macintosh 512. +Funcionaba muy bien. +Hemos ido empeorando continuamente. +La gente siempre pregunta qu es. +Es eso. +Las dos cosas ms notables: ser una red de malla, cuando los nios abran sus laptops conformarn una red, slo se necesita uno o dos puntos de distribucin. +Puede darse acceso a un par de miles de nios con 2Mb. +Se brinda acceso a una aldea, y luego las aldeas pueden comunicarse, puede hacerse bastante bien. +La pantalla bimodo: la idea es tener una pantalla que funcione al aire libre no es genial usar el celular al aire libre? +Bueno, la pantalla no se puede ver. +Una de las causas es la iluminacin de fondo de los celulares. +Ahora estamos haciendo iluminacin de frente y de fondo. +Ya sea manualmente o por software, se ver. Cuando es de fondo, es a color... +y de frente es en blanco y negro, a tres veces la resolucin. +Est todo resuelto? No. +Por eso mucha de nuestra gente ahora casi vive en Taiwan. +En 30 das sabremos si funcion. +Probablemente lo ms importante es que los nios pueden hacer el mantenimiento. +y esto, de nuevo, es algo que la gente no cree, pero pienso que es verdad. +Esa es la mquina que mostramos en Tnez +y esta es la direccin en la que vamos. +Es algo que pensbamos imposible. +Ir pasando esto. +No es un diseo, bien? +Es como un dispositivo mecnico para jugar. +Claramente, es un modelo. +El original est en MIT. +Lo voy a pasar a este guapo caballero. +Luego decidan si va a la izquierda o... ...el simulcast, lo siento. Lo olvid. Bien, donde est la cmara... +Bien, buen punto. Gracias, Chris. +La idea era que no sera slo una laptop sino que pudiera transformarse en un libro electrnico. +Es una especie de libro electrnico. +As se ve al aire libre, en blanco y negro. +Faltan los botones de juegos, ser para juegos y libros. +Puesto as es un televisor. +Etc., etc. Suficiente? Bien, lo siento. +Dejar que Jim decida cmo enviarlas despus. +Siete pases. Quizs para Massachusetts, porque tienen que ofertar. +Por ley hay que ofertar y todo eso. +Por eso casi no puedo nombrarlos. +En otros casos no es necesario. Pueden decidir. Es el gobierno federal en cada caso. +Es un poco angustiante; muchos dicen: "Bien, hagmoslo a nivel estatal". Por supuesto, los estados son ms giles dado su tamao. +Y todava esperamos. +Tratamos con el gobierno federal; +en realidad con los ministerios de educacin. +Y si miramos los gobiernos del mundo los ministerios de educacin tienden a ser ms conservadores y a tener nminas enormes. +Todos piensan que saben de educacin, pero hay mucho de cultura tambin. +Es difcil. Por cierto, es el camino ms difcil. +Los pases estn distribuidos geoculturalmente. +Hay acuerdo unnime? No, no totalmente; +quiz Tailandia, Brasil y Nigeria son los tres ms activos donde casi hay consenso. +Adrede, no hemos firmando nada con nadie hasta tener los casos testigo. +Y ya que visito cada pas al menos cada tres meses, doy la vuelta al mundo cada tres semanas. +Este es un cronograma, y abajo anot que podramos regalarlas aqu, en dos aos. +Todos dicen que no podremos hacer una laptop de 100 dlares. +Y adivinen qu: no podemos. +Probablemente alcancemos los $135. Luego bajar. +Eso es muy importante porque muchas cosas entran a un precio y luego suben. +Primero a prdida y luego, cuando se pone interesante, o no puede costearse o no se puede escalar. +Estamos proyectando 50 dlares para 2010. +pero nadie roba un camin del correo. Bien, por qu? +Porque no hay un mercado para los camiones del correo. +Parece un camin de correo. +Puedes pintarlo, o hacer cualquier cosa. +Hace poco supe que no robaban Volvos blancos en Sudfrica. +Punto. Ninguno. Cero. +Queremos hacerlas como un Volvo blanco. +Cada gobierno tiene un grupo de trabajo. Esto puede ser menos interesante, pero tratamos de lograr que los gobiernos trabajen juntos, y no es fcil. +El plan comercial consiste en comenzar con los gobiernos federales, y ms tarde pasar a otros... sea un financiamiento nio a nio as un nio compra una para un nio de otro pas en desarrollo, quizs del mismo gnero y edad. +Un to le regala una a un sobrino para su cumpleaos. +Como digo, sucedern todo tipo de cosas, todas muy, muy interesantes. +Y todos dicen, yo lo digo, es un proyecto educativo. +Proveemos el software? +La respuesta es que, obviamente, el sistema tiene software, pero no, no proveemos el contenido educativo. +Eso se elabora en los pases. +Somos construccionistas. +Creemos que se aprende haciendo y todo, desde Logo, que comenz en 1968 hasta el ms moderno Scratch (no s si lo conocen) vienen incluidos. +Ese es el lanzamiento. +Estamos soando? Es real? S, lo es. +La nica crtica- la gente en verdad no quiere criticar, porque es un esfuerzo humanitario, sin fines de lucro, y criticarlo sera algo tonto. +Pero algo criticable era: es una buena idea pero no podrn hacerlo. +Eso podra significar que estos tipos, profesores, etc., no podrn hacerlo o que no es posible. +Bien, el 12 de diciembre una empresa llamada Quanta acord contruirla y dado que hoy hacen un tercio de las laptops del planeta esa pregunta desapareci. +As que no dudamos si suceder o no. Va a suceder. +Y si cuesta 138 dlares, qu? +Y si sale seis meses ms tarde, qu? +Es un aterrizaje bastante suave. Gracias. +Si tomas 10000 personas al azar, 9999 tienen algo en comn. sus intereses en negocios yacen sobre o cerca de la superficie de la Tierra. +Lo extrao es un astrnomo, y yo soy uno de esa extraa casta. +Mi charla ser en dos partes. Primero hablar como astrnomo, y luego como miembro preocupado de la raza humana. +Pero comencemos recordando que Darwin demostr cmo somos el resultado de cuatro billones de aos de evolucin. +Y lo que intentamos hacer en astronoma y cosmologa es retroceder hasta antes del simple comienzo de Darwin, para establecer a nuestra Tierra en un contexto csmico. +Y djenme pasar algunas diapositivas. +Este fue el impacto que ocurri la semana pasada en un cometa. +Si hubieran mandado una atmica, hubiera sido un poco ms espectacular que lo que en realidad ocurri el Lunes pasado. +He ah otro proyecto para la NASA. +Ese es Marte desde el European Mars Express, y a fin de ao. +El dibujo de este artista se convirti en realidad cuando un paracadas descendi en Titn, la gigante luna de Saturno. +Aterriz en la superficie. Estas son imgenes tomadas durante el descenso. +Eso parece una lnea costera. +Lo es, de hecho, pero el ocano es metano lquido -- la temperatura -170 grados centgrados. +Si vamos ms all de nuestro sistema solar, hemos aprendido que las estrellas no son lucecitas tintineantes. +Cada una es como un sol con una coleccin de planetas orbitando a su alrededor, +y vemos lugares donde se estn formando estrellas, como la Nebulosa Aguila. Vemos estrellas muriendo. +En seis billones de aos, el sol se ver as. +Y algunas estrellas mueren espectacularmente en una explosin supernova, dejando despojos as. +En una escala an mayor, vemos galaxias enteras de estrellas. +Vemos enteros ecosistemas donde el gas es reciclado. +Y para el cosmlogo, estas galaxias son slo los tomos, as si lo fueran, de la inmensa escala del universo. +esta foto muestra un pedazo de cielo tan pequea que requeriran como 100 parches para cubrir la luna llena en el cielo. +A travs de un pequeo telescopio, esto se vera bastante vaco, pero ven aqu cientos de pequeas, tenues manchas. +Cada una es una galaxia, muy parecida a la nuestra o Andrmeda, pero se ven tan pequeas y tenues porque su luz recorri 10 billones de aos luz para llegar a nosotros. +Las estrellas en esas galaxias probablemente no tienen planetas a su alrededor. +La efmera chance de vida all -- eso es porque no hubo tiempo para la fusin nuclear en las estrellas de hacer silicio y carbono y hierro, los bloques de construccin para los planetas y la vida. +Creemos que todo esto emergi de un Big Bang -- un estado caliente y denso. Pero, cmo ese amorfo Big Bang se convirti en nuestro complejo cosmos? +Les voy a mostrar una simulacin 10 elevado a la 16 veces ms rpido que el tiempo real, que muestra un parche del universo donde las expansiones fueron registradas. +Pero, como ven, a medida que el tiempo avanza en giga-aos en la parte inferior, vern que las estructuras evolucionan a medida que la gravedad se alimenta de las pequeas, densas irregularidades, y las estructuras se desarrollan. +Y acabaramos despus de 13 billones de aos con algo similar a nuestro propio universo. +Y comparamos esos universos simulados como esos -- les voy a mostrar una mejor simulacin al final de mi charla -- con lo que realmente vemos en el cielo. +Bien, podemos reastrear cosas a las etapas ms tempranas del Big Bang, pero an no sabemos qu hizo Bang, ni por qu lo hizo. +Ese es un desafo para la ciencia del siglo 21. +Si mi grupo de investigacin tuviera un logo, sera esta imagen aqu: un Uroboros, donde pueden ver el micro-mundo a la izquierda -- el mundo cuntico -- y a la derecha el universo a gran-escala, de planetas, estrellas y galaxias. +Sabemos que nuestros universos estn unidos -- vnculos entre izquierda y derecha. +El mundo cotidiano est determinado por tomos, cmo se adhieren juntos para formar molculas. +Las estrellas se alimentan por cmo reaccionan los ncleos de esos tomos entre ellos. +Y como hemos aprendido en estos ltimos aos, las galaxias se mantienen juntas por la atraccin gravitacional de la 'materia oscura': partculas en inmensas aglomeraciones, mucho ms pequeas incluso que el ncleo atmico. +Pero nos gustara saber la sntesis simbolizada en lo ms alto. +El micro-mundo cuntico est entendido. +En la mano derecha, la gravedad las mantiene unidas. Einstein explic eso. +Y por eso necesitamos una teora que unifique lo muy grande y lo muy pequeo, que an no tenemos. +Una idea, incidente -- y voy a correr el riesgo de especular de aqu en adelante -- -- es que nuestro Big Bang no fue el nico. +Una idea es que nuestro universo tridimensional pueda estar embebido en un espacio polidimensional as como ustedes pueden imaginar acerca de estas hojas de papel. +Pueden imaginar homrigas en uno de ellas pensando que es un universo bidimensional, sin estar concientes de otra poblacin de hormigas en la otra. +As puede haber otro universo a un milmetro de nosotros, pero no podramos percibirlo, porque ese milmetro est contenido en una cuarta dimensin espacial, y nosotros estamos atrapados en nuestras tres. +Y por eso creemos que que puede haber mucho ms sobre la realidad fsica que lo que comunmente hemos llamado nuestro universo -- el resultado de nuestro Big Bang. Y he aqu otra imagen. +La parte inferior derecha respresenta nuestro universo, que en el horizonte no pasa de eso, pero eso es slo una burbuja, de alguna manera, en una realidad ms vasta. +Muchas personas sospechan que as como pasamos de creer en un solo sistema solar a zillones de sistemas solares, de una galaxia a muchas galaxias, tenemos que pasar de un solo Big Bang a muchos Big Bangs. Quizas estos Big Bangs muestren una inmensa variedad de propiedades. +Ahora bien, regresemos a esta imagen. +Hay un desafo simbolizado en la parte superior, pero hay otro desafo para la ciencia en la parte inferior. +No slo se quiere sintetizar lo muy grande y lo muy chico, sino que queremos entender lo 'muy complejo'. +Y lo ms complejo somos nosotros, entre medio de los tomos y las estrellas. +Dependemos de las estrellas para hacer los atomos de los que estamos hechos. +Dependemos de la qumica para determinar nuestra compleja estructura. +Claramente tenemos que ser grandes, comparados con los tomos, Para tener una capa sobre otra y formar una estructura compleja. +Claramente tenemos que ser pequeos, comparados con las estrellas y planetas -- de otra forma nos aplastara la gravedad. Y de hecho, estamos en el medio. +Requieren tantos cuerpos humanos para llenar el sol como tomos hay en cada uno de nosotros. +La razn geomtrica de masa en un protn y la masa en el Sol es de 50 kilogramos, que es aproximadamente la masa de cada persona aqu. +Bueno, de la mayora de ellas. +La ciencia de lo complejo es probablemente el mayor desafo de todos, mayor que el muy pequeo en la izquierda y que el muy grande en la derecha. +Y es esta ciencia, la que no slo ilumina nuestro entendimiento del mundo biolgico, sino que transforma nuestro mundo ms rpido que nuna. +An ms, est engendrando nuevos tipos de cambio. +Y ahora paso a la segunda parte de mi charla, y el libro 'Nuestro Siglo Final' fue mencionado. +Si no fuera un Britnico auto-adulador, habra mencionado el libro yo mismo, y habra agregado que est disponible en tapa de papel. +En Estados Unidos lo llamaron 'Nuestra Hora Final' porque a los Estadounidenses les gusta la gratificacin instantnea. +Pero en mi tema es que en este sigle, no slo la ciencia ha cambiado el mundo ms rpido que nunca, sino que en muchos aspectos nuevos y diferentes. +Drogas, modificacin genticas, inteligencia artificial, quizs hasta implantes en nuestros cerebros, quizs cambie el ser humano en s. Y el ser humano, su fsico y su personalidad, no han cambiado por miles de aos. +Y quizs cambie en este siglo. +Es nuevo en nuestra historia. +Y el impacto humano en el medio ambiente -- el efecto invernadero, extinciones masivas, etc. -- tampoco tiene precedentes. +Y por eso este siglo que se viene es un desafo. +Bio- y ciber-tecnologas son ambientalmente benignas en tanto ofrecen maravillosas propuestas, mientras, adems, alivian la presin en energa y recursos. +Pero tendrn un lado oscuro tambin. +En nuestro mundo interconectado, las tecnologas nveles pueden impulsar a un fantico, o a algn loco con la mente de esos que disean viruses de computadoras, a desatar algn tipo de desastre. +Sin duda, la catstrofe tambin puede desatarse de una falla tcnica -- por error en vez de por terror. +E incluso la ms mnima probabilidad de catstrofe es inaceptable si el resultado puede ser una consequencia a nivel global. +De hecho, hace unos aos, Bill Joy escribi un artculo expresando tremenda preocupacin acerca de que los robots nos conquistaran, etc. +Yo no comparto todo eso, pero es interesante que l tuvo una simple solucin. +Lo que l llam renunciamiento fino. +Quera abandonar los tipos peligrosos de ciencia y conservar los buenos. Bien, eso es absurdamente ingenuo por dos razones: +Primero, cualquier descubrimiento cientfico tiene consequencias tanto benignas como malignas. +Y adems, cuando un cientfico hace un descubrimiento, l o ella normalmente no tienen idea de las aplicaciones que va a tener. +Y lo que esto sifnifica, es que debemos aceptar los riesgos si vamos a disfrutar de los beneficios de la ciencia. +Tenemos que aceptar que van a haber riesgos. +Y yo creo que vamos a volver a lo que sucedi en la poca de post-guerra, post-segunda guerra mundial, cuando los cientficos nucleares que haban estado envueltos en realizar la bomba atmica, en muchos casos estuvieron preocupados de hacer todo lo que pudieran para alertar al mundo de los peligros. +Y estaban inspirados no slo por el joven Einstein, que hizo el gran trabajo en relatividad, sino tambin en el viejo Einstein, el icono de posters y camisetas, que fall en sus esfuerzos de unificar las leyes de la fsica. +Fue prematuro. Pero fue una brjula moral -- inspiracin para cientficos que estaban preocupados por el control de las armas. +Y quizs la mejor persona viviente, es alguien a quien tengo el privilegio de conocer, Joe Rothblatt. +Igual de desordenada es su oficina, como pueden ver. +Tiene 96 aos de edad, y es fundador del movimiento Pugwash. +Persuadi a Einstein, como ltimo acto, para que firmara el famoso memorandum de Bertrand Russell. +Y el da el ejemplo de cientfico preocupado. +Yo creo que hay que maniobrar a la ciencia de manera ptima, elegir qu puertas abrir y cules dejar cerradas, necesitamos ms contrapartes de gente como Joseph Rothblatt. +No necesitamos slo fsicos en campaa, necesitamos bilogos, expertos en computacin, y ambientalistas por igual. +Creo que los acadmicos y emprendedores independientes, tienen una obligacin especial porque tienen mayor libertad que esos al servicio del gobierno, o empleados de compaas sujetas a la presin comercial. +Escrib mi libro 'Nuestro Siglo Final' como cientfico, slo un cientfico general. Pero hay un aspecto, creo, en que el ser un cosmlogo me di una perspectiva especial, y es que eso ofrece una conciencia del inmenso futuro. +Los estupendos perodos de tiempo del pasado evolutivo son ahora parte de la cultura comn -- fuera del Cinturn Bblico Americano, esto es -- pero mucha gente, incluso quienes s reconocen la teora de la evolucin, no se percatan que an ms tiempo yace adelante. +El Sol ha brillado por cuatro billones de aos y medio, pero debern pasar otros seis billones antes de que se quede sin combustible. +En esa esquemtica imagen, una especie de imagen sin tiempo, estamos por la mitad del camino. +Y sern otros seis billones de aos hasta que eso ocurra, y toda vida en la Tierra sea vaporizada. +Hay una tendencia ignorante de imaginar que los humanos van a estar all, contemplando el ocaso del Sol, pero cualquier vida e inteligencia que exista entonces va a ser tan diferente de nosotros como nosotros lo somos de las bacterias. +El desarrollo de la inteligencia y complejidad an tiene un camino inmenso por recorrer, aqu en la Tierra y ms all. +As que an estamos en el comienzo del surgimiento de la complejidad de nuestra Tierra y ms all. +Si usted representa la vida de la Tierra con un solo ao, digamos, de Enero cuando fue creada hasta Diciembre, el siglo 21 sera un cuarto de segundo en Junio -- una nfima fraccin de ao. +Pero incluso en esta perspectiva csmica, nuestro siglo es muy, muy especial. El primero en que los humanos se pueden cambiar a s mismos y a su planeta primario. +Como tendra que haber mostrado esto antes, no sern los humanos quienes atestiguen el punto final del Sol, sern criaturas tan distintas a nosotros como nosotros a las bacterias. +Cuando Einstein muri en 1955, un tributo impactante a su estatus global fue esta tira, de Herblock en el Washington Post. +La placa dice, "Albert Einstein vivi aqu." +Y me gustara terminar con una vieta inspirada en esta imagen. +Hemos conocido 40 aos esta imagen: la frgil belleza de la tierra, el ocano y las nubes, contrastadas con el esteril panorama lunar en el que los astronautas dejaron sus huellas. +Pero supongamos que unos aliengenas hubieran estado observando nuestro plido punto azul desde un cosmos muy lejano, no slo por 40 aos, sino por los enteros 4.5 billones de aos de historia de nuestra Tierra. +Qu hubieran visto? +Durante casi todo ese inmenso tiempo, la apariencia de la Tierra hubiera cambiado muy gradualmente. +El nico cambio abrupto a nivel mundial hubiera sido un impacto importante de asteroides, o super erupciones volcnicas. +Fuera de esos breves traumas, nada sucede abruptamente. +Las masas continentales yendo y viniendo. +Las capas de hielo formndose y derritindose. +Sucesiones de nuevas especies que emergan, evolucionaban y se extinguan. +Pero en un lgero desliz de la historia de la Tierra, la ltima millonsima parte, unos pocos miles de aos, los patrones de vegetacin se alteraron mucho ms rpido que hasta ahora. +Esto seal el inicio de la agricultura. +El cambio se aceleraba a medida que la poblacin humana creca. +Y sucedieron cosas an ms abruptamente. +Slo en 50 aos -- eso es una centsima de una millonsima parte de la edad de la Tierra -- la cantidad de dixido de carbono en la atmsfera empez a aumentar, y ominsamente rpido. +El planeta se convirti en una emisora intensiva de ondas de radio -- el resultado neto de todas las TVs y telfonos celulares y transmisiones de radar. Y otra cosa ms sucedi. +Objetos metlicos -- a pesar de muy pequeos, unas pocas toneladas cuanto mucho -- entraron a orbitar alrededor de la Tierra. +Algunos viajaron a las lunas y planetas. +Una raza de avanzados extraterrestres observando nuestro sistema solar desde la lejana podra con confianza predecir el destino final de la Tierra en otros seis billones de aos. +Pero podran haber predecido esta singularidad sin precedentes en menos de la mitad de la vida de la Tierra? +Estas alteraciones inducidadas por los humanos ocupando en total menos de una millonsima parte del tiempo de vida trascurrido y aparentemente ocurriendo a una velocidad acelerada; +Si continuaran su vigilia, qu atestiguaran estos hipotticos aliengenas en los prximos cien aos? +Algn espasmo socavara el futuro de la Tierra? +O se estabilizara la bisfera? +O alguna clase de objeto metlico lanzado desde la Tierra generara nuevos oasis, una vida post-humana en algn lugar? +La ciencia hecha por el joven Einstein continuar mientras contine nuestra civilizacin. Pero para que sta sobreviva, necesitaremos la sabidura del viejo Einstein -- humana, global y visionaria. +Y lo que sea que ocurra en este nico y crucial siglo resonar en el remoto futuro y quizs ms all de la misma Tierra, ms all de la Tierra como la conocemos. +Muchas gracias. +Hola. De hecho, eso es "hola" en Bauer Bodoni para los apasionados por la tipografa entre nosotros. +Uno de los argumentos que parece llegar fuerte y claro en el ltimo par de das es la necesidad de reconciliar lo que el Grande quiere -- el "Grande" siendo la organizacin, el sistema, el pas -- y lo que el "Pequeo" quiere -- el individual, la persona. +Cmo podemos unir ambas cosas? +Charlie Ledbetter, ayer, yo pienso, habl muy articuladamente sobre est necesidad de incluir consumidores, traer gente al proceso de creacin de cosas. +Y de eso es de lo que les quiero hablar hoy. +Entonces, traer y unir El Pequeo para ayudar a facilitar y crear El Grande. Yo creo que es algo en lo que creamos - algo en lo que yo creo y algo a lo que ms o menos damos vida a travs de lo que hacemos en Ideo. +Yo llamo a este primer captulo -- para los Britnicos en la sala -- El Destello Cegador de lo Extremadamente Obvio. +Comnmente, las buenas ideas estn mirndote tan fijamente a la cara que como que se te escapan. Y yo creo, que muchas veces, lo que hacemos es, en cierto modo, levantar el espejo a nuestros clientes y decir: "Obvio! Mire lo que realmente est sucediendo." +Y en lugar de hablar sobre ello en teora, creo que que mejor les enseo un ejemplo. +Una empresa grande de asistencia mdica de Minnesota nos pidi que les describiramos cual era la experiencia de sus pacientes. +Y yo creo que estaban esperando -- ya haban trabajado con muchos asesores antes -- yo creo que esperaban algn tipo de organigrama horrendo con miles de burbujas y sistemticos estos, aquellos, otros ms, y todo tipo de diagramas. +O an peor, algn tipo de espantosa muerte-por-Powerpoint con diagramas "Wow" y todo tipo de, ustedes saben, Dios sabe, cosas. +La primer cosa que compartimos con ellos fue esto. +Lo voy a poner hasta que sus ojos se disuelvan. +Esto es 59 segundos entrados en el vdeo. +Al minuto y 59. +Tres minutos 19. +Creo que algo pasa. Creo que una cabeza aparece en un segundo. +Cinco minutos con diez. +Cinco minutos 58. +Seis minutos 20. +Les mostramos todo el vdeo y todos estaban preguntndose: qu es esto? +El punto es que cuando se est acostado en una cama de hospital todo el da y todo lo que se hace es mirar el techo, la experiencia es realmente mala. +Y slo hay que ponerse en la posicin del paciente. l es Christian, trabaja con nosotros en Ideo. +Simplemente se recost en la cama de hospital y, ms o menos, slo miro el techo de poliestireno por mucho tiempo. +As es como es ser un paciente en un hospital. +Y su reaccin fue como, ustedes saben: destello cegador de lo extremadamente obvio. +Vlgame Dios. Por lo tanto, viendo la situacin desde el punto de vista de la persona hacia afuera -- en contraste con la perspectiva tradicional de la organizacin hacia adentro -- fue, para ellos, una revelacin. +Y as, esto realmente fue un catalizador para ellos. +As que entraron en accin. +Dijeron, bien, no es sobre cambio sistemtico. +No es sobre gigantescas, ridculas cosas que se tienen que hacer. +Es sobre las pequeas cosas que pueden hacer una diferencia gigantesca. +As que comenzamos a crear prototipos de algunas pequeas acciones que pudiramos hacer para tener un gran impacto. +Lo primero que hicimos fue que tomamos un pequeo espejo de bicicleta y lo pegamos aqu, en una camilla, en una silla de ruedas para que cuando te paseaba una enfermera o un doctor pudieras, en efecto, tener una conversacin con ellos. +Podas, en cierta manera, verlos en tu espejo retrovisor, aso que creo una pequea interaccin humana. +Un ejemplo muy pequeo de algo que podan hacer. +De modo interesante, las enfermeras mismas entraron en accin -- dijeron, bien, adoptamos esto. Qu podemos hacer? +Lo primero que hicieron fue decorar el techo. +Lo que cre que era realmente -- Le mostr esto a mi madre recientemente. +Y creo que mi madre ahora cree que soy algn tipo de decorador de interiores. +As es como me gano la vida, un poco como Laurence Llewelyn-Bowen. +No particularmente la mejor solucin de diseo del mundo para aquellos de nosotros que somos apasionados diseadores de profesin. Sin embargo, una solucin fabuloso y emptica para la gente. +Cosas que empezaron a hacer ellos mismos -- como cambiar el piso entrando al cuarto del paciente para que significara: "Este es mi cuarte. Este es mi espacio personal." -- fue una solucin de diseo muy interesante para este problema. +As que se va del espacio pblico al privado. +Otra idea -- que me encanta -- que vino de una de las enfermeras fue que tomaron pizarras blancas tradicionales y las pusieron en una de las paredes del paciente con esta etiqueta adhesiva. +As lo que se puede hacer es entrar en el cuarto y escribir mensajes en la pared a la persona que estaba enferma en esa habitacin. Eso es encantador. +As pequeas, diminutas soluciones tuvieron un impacto enorme. +Yo creo que ese fue un muy buen ejemplo. +Esta no es una idea particularmente nueva: en cierta manera, ver oportunidades en las cosas que estn a tu alrededor y tomarlas y convertirlas en una solucin. +La historia de la invencin est basada en esto. +Voy a leer esto porque quiero decir bien los nombres. +Joan Ganz Cooney vi a su hija -- baj un sbado por la maana vi a su hija viendo la carta de prueba esperando a que programas comenzaran una maana y de eso result Plaza Ssamo. +Malcolm McLean se estaba mudando de un pas a otro y se preguntaba por qu le tomaba tanto tiempo a estos chicos subir las cajas al barco. +l invent el contenedor martimo. +George de Mestral -- estos no son bichos sobre una sandalia -- estaba caminando a su perro en un campo y qued cubierto de abrojo, pequeas cosas espinosas, y de eso sali el Velcro. +Y finalmente, para los britnicos, Percy Shaw -- este es un gran invento britnico -- vi los ojos de un gato al lado de la carretera mientras regresaba a casa una noche y de ah sali el catafaros. +Ah est toda una serie de ejemplos slo apoyndose de los ojos, viendo cosas por primera vez, viendo las cosas de nuevo y usndolas como una oportunidad para crear nuevas posibilidades. +La segunda, sin sonar demasiado zen, y esta es una cita de el Buda: "Encontrndote en los margenes, viendo a las orillas de las cosas es a menudo un lugar muy interesante para empezar." +Una visin estrecha tiende a producir, yo creo, soluciones restringidas. +As es que, mirando abiertamente, usando la visin perifrica, es un interesante lugar para buscar oportunidades. +Otro ejemplo mdico. +Nos pidi un fabricante de dispositivos -- nosotros hicimos la Palm Pilot y la Treo. +Hicimos mucha tecnologa sexy en Ideo -- ellos haban visto esto y queran una pieza sexy de tecnologa para diagnostico mdico. +Este era un dispositivo que usa una enfermera cuando estn haciendo un procedimiento de la columna vertebral en un hospital. +Le piden a las enfermeras que capturen datos. +Y tenan esta visin de la enfermera, de cierta manera, haciendo clic en un dispositivo de aluminio y todo esto siendo increblemente moderno y lujoso. +Cuando fuimos a observar este procedimiento -- y voy a explicar esto en un segundo -- fue muy obvio que haba una dimensin humana en esto que ellos no estaban reconociendo. +Cuando estn insertando una aguja de 12 centmetros en tu columna -- el procedimiento del que el dispositivo en cuestin deba capturar datos -- era para ayudar a controlar el dolor. Ests asustado -- perdiendo el control. +As es que lo primero que cada enfermera haca era sostener la mano del paciente para brindarles confort. Este gesto humano hacia que la fabulosa manera de capturar datos con dos manos que se quera fuera completamente imposible. +As result que el dispositivo que diseamos, mucho menos sexy pero mucho ms humano y prctico, fue este. +No es una Palm Pilot aunque se esfuerce la imaginacin, pero se puede navegar con el pulgar para que se pueda hacer todo con una mano. +As es que, volviendo a esto -- la idea de un pequeo gesto humano dirigi el diseo de este producto. +Y yo creo que esto es realmente muy importante. +De nuevo est aqu la idea de tener una solucin alternativa. +Usamos esta frase, "solucin alternativa" mucho, ms o menos, mirando a nuestro alrededor. De hecho viendo a mi alrededor aqu en TED y viendo todo este tipo de cosas suceder mientras estoy aqu. +Esta idea de la manera en que la gente junta soluciones en la vida y el tipo de cosas que hacemos en nuestro ambiente que son algo subconscientes pero tienen tremendo potencial - eso es algo que buscamos arduamente. +Escribimos un libro recientemente, quiz lo recibieron llamado "Actos Irreflexivos?" +Ha sido todo sobre este tipo de cosas irreflexivas que hace la gente que tienen gran intencin y gran oportunidad. +Por qu seguimos la lnea en la calle? +Es una imagen en un metro en Japn. +La gente inconscientemente sigue cosas aunque, por qu?, no lo sabemos. +Por qu alineamos el empaque cuadrado de lecho con la cerca cuadrada? +Porque tenemos que - simplemente estamos obligados a hacerlo. +No sabemos por qu, pero lo hacemos. +Por qu pasamos el cordn de la bolsa de te alrededor del asa? +De nuevo, estamos usando el mundo a nuestro alrededor para crear nuestras propias soluciones de diseo. +Y siempre le decimos a nuestros clientes: "Deberas mirar esto. +Estas cosas son importantes. Esto es lo realmente vital." +Esta es gente diseando sus propias experiencias. +Puedes conseguir algo de esto. +Asumimos que si hay un poste en la calle est bien usarlo. As que estacionamos nuestro carro de compras ah. +Est ah para nuestro uso, en cierta manera. +As que, de nuevo, nos apropiamos de nuestro ambiente para hacer todas estas cosas distintas. +Nos apropiamos de otras experiencias -- tomamos un artculo y lo transformamos en otro. +Y este es mi favorito. Mi madre me deca "Slo porque tu hermana brinque en el lago no significa que t debas hacer lo mismo" +Pero todos lo hacemos. Todos nos seguimos los unos a los otro todos los das. +As es que alguien supone que porque alguien haya hecho algo eso los deja a ellos hacer la misma cosa. +Y es como si hubiera este sealamiento alrededor de nosotros todo el tiempo. +Quiero decir, bolsa plstica significa "parqumetro descompuesto". +Y todos, ms o menos, sabemos leer estas seales. +Todos nos comunicamos en esta manera altamente visual sin darnos cuenta de lo que hacemos. +La tercer parte es sta idea de no saber. De ponerse a si mismo al revs conscientemente. +Estoy hablando sobre siempre estar des-pensando las cosas. +Como tener una mente de principiante, dejando la mente limpia y viendo las cosas de nuevo. +Un amigo mo era diseador en IKEA y su jefe le pidi que le ayudara a disear un sistema de almacenamiento a ser usado por nios. +Este es el librero "Billy" - es el producto de mejor venta en IKEA. +rmalo. Martillalo con un zapato si eres como yo porque son imposibles de armar. +Pero es un librero muy popular. Cmo repetimos esto pero para nios? +La realidad es que cuando miras a los nios, ellos no piensan en almacenar cosas en trminos lineales. +Los nios asumen permiso de manera muy distinta. +Ellos viven sobre cosas. Viven debajo de cosas. +Viven alrededor de cosas as que la relacin con su consciencia espacial y su manera de pensar en almacenaje es completamente distinta. +As es que lo primero que tienes que hacer -- este es Graham, el diseador -- es, de cierta manera, ponerte en sus zapatos. Y as, aqu lo tienen sentado debajo de la mesa. +Entonces, qu result de esto? +Este es el sistema de almacenaje que dise. +Que es esto? escucho que todos se preguntan. No, yo no. +Es esto, y yo creo que es una solucin particularmente linda. +As es, como saben, es una manera completamente distinta de abordar la situacin. +Es una solucin completamente emptica -- fuera del hecho de que el peluche probablemente no se la est pasando muy bien. +Pero es una manera muy simptica de cambiar la perspectiva a lo ordinario y este es un buen ejemplo. +De uno mismo ponerse en la posicin de la persona y yo creo que es uno de los temas que escucho de nuevo en esta conferencia es: cmo nos metemos en los zapatos de otras personas y realmente sentir lo que ellos sienten? +Y cmo usar esa informacin para crear soluciones? +Y yo creo que eso es de lo que se trata esto. +ltima parte: el brazalete verde. Todos tenemos uno, +de esto se trata. +Quiero decir, es sobre escoger batallas suficientemente grandes que importen pero suficientemente pequeas para ganar. +Y de nuevo, ese es uno de los temas que creo se ha dicho alto y claro en esta conferencia: Dnde empezamos? Cmo empezamos? Qu hacemos para empezar? +Entonces, de nuevo, se nos pidi disear una bomba de agua para una empresa llamada ApproTEC en Kenia. +Ahora se llaman KickStart. +Y de nuevo, como diseadores queramos hacer este aparato increblemente hermoso y gastar mucho tiempo pensando en la forma. +Y eso era completamente irrelevante. +Cuando te pones en el lugar de esta gente cosas como el hecho de que el aparato este de debe poder doblar y cargar en una bicicleta son mucho ms relevantes que la forma que tiene. La manera en que se produce: tiene que ser hecho con mtodos indgenas de manufactura y materiales indgenas. +As es que tena que ser visto completamente desde el punto de vista del usuario. +Nos tenamos que trasladar completamente a su mundo. +As es que lo que parece un producto torpe y tosco es, de hecho, increblemente til. +Est propulsado as como una escaladora -- bombeas hacia arriba y hacia abajo. +Nios lo pueden usar. Adultos lo pueden usar. Todos lo usan. +Est cambiando a esta gente -- de nuevo uno de los temas -- los est cambiando a emprendedores. +Esta gente lo estn usando de manera muy exitosa. +Y para nosotros, ha sido grandioso porque nos ha ganado montones de reconocimientos de diseo. +As es que logramos reconciliar las necesidades de la empresa de diseo con las necesidades de los individuos en la empresa -- sentirse bien sobre un producto que estaban diseando -- y las necesidades de los individuos para los cuales estbamos diseando. +Ah lo tienen bombeando agua a 9 metros. +Como un gesto final, repartimos estos brazaletes a todos ustedes esta maana. +Hemos realizado una donacin de parte de todos los aqu presentes a KickStart, sin doble sentido, a su siguiente proyecto. +Porque, de nuevo, yo creo que hay que poner nuestro dinero donde estn nuestras palabras. +Creemos que este es un gesto importante. +As que hemos repartido brazaletes. Lo pequeo es el nuevo grande. +Espero que todos los usen. +Eso es todo, muchas gracias. +Hoy quiero hablar sobre-- Me han pedido que mire a lo largo, y voy a decirles lo que yo pienso son los 3 ms grandes problemas de la humanidad desde este largo punto de vista. +Algunos de estos ya han sido nombrados por otros oradores y eso es alentador. +Parece ser que no es nada ms una persona la que piensa que estos problemas son importantes. +El primero es -- la muerte es un problema. +Si observamos las estadsticas, los nmeros no nos favorecen. +Hasta ahora, la mayora de personas que han vivido, tambin han muerto. +Aproximadamente el 90 % de todos los que han estado vivos ahora ya han muerto. +As que la tasa anual de mortalidad suma unos 150.000 -- perdn, la tasa diaria de mortalidad -- 150.000 personas por dia, lo que es un nmero enorme para cualquier estndar. +La tasa de mortalidad anual, entonces, se torna en 56 millones. +Si slo miramos a la primordial y mayor causa de muerte -- envejecimiento -- representa apenas dos tercios de todos los humanos que mueren. +Eso suma un total de muertos anuales mayor a la poblacin de Canada. +A veces, no vemos un problema ya sea porque es muy familiar, o porque es muy grande. +No podemos verlo porque es muy grande. +Yo pienso que la muerte puede que sea ambos, muy familiar y muy grande para que la mayora de la gente la vea como un problema. +Una vez que piensas en eso, ves que esto no es estadstica. Estos son -- a ver, cunto he hablado? +He hablado durante 3 minutos. +As que eso sera, aproximadametne, 324 personas se han muerto desde que he comenzado a hablar +Gente como -- es decir, la gente en esta aula se ha muerto. +Ahora, el costo humano de eso es obvio. Una vez que comienzas a pensarlo -- el sufrimiento, la prdida -- es tambin, econmicamente, muy grande. +Yo solo veo a la informacin, al conocimiento, y experiencia que se pierde por causas naturales de muerte en general, y de enjevecimiento, en particular. +Supongan que una persona signifique un libro. +Ahora, por supuesto, esto es una subestimacin +Lo que una persona aprende a lo largo de su experiencia de vida es mucho ms de lo que puedes poner en un solo libro. +Pero supongamos que hiciramos esto. +52 millones de personas mueren de causas naturales cada ao corresponde, entonces, a 52 millones de libros destruidos. +La Biblioteca del Congreso tiene 18 millones de libros. +Estamos indignados con el incendio de la Biblioteca de Alejandra. +Es una de las ms grandes tragedias culturales que recordamos hasta hoy. +Pero esto es el equivalente a 3 Bibliotecas del Congreso -- quemadas, perdidas para siempre -- cada ano. +As que ese es el primer gran problema. +Le deseo la velocidad de Dios a Aubrey de Grey y a otra gente como l, para que traten de hacer algo al respecto lo antes posible. +Riesgo existencial -- el segundo gran problema. +El riesgo existencial es una amenaza a la supervivencia humana, o al potencial de largo plazo de nuestra especie +Ahora: por qu digo que este es un gran problema? +Bueno, primero miremos a la probabilidad -- y esto es muy difcil de estimar -- pero slo ha habido 4 estudios en estos recientes aos, lo que es sorprendente. +Pensariamos que sera interesante tratar de investigar ms sobre esto ya que las estadsticas son grandes, pero es un rea muy descuidada. +Pero ha habido 4 estudios -- uno de John Lesley, que escribi un libro sobre esto. +Estim una estadistica que nosotros no sobreviremos el siglo actual -- 50% +Similarmente, el Astrnomo Real, a quien omos hablar ayer, tambin tiene una estimacin del 50% de probabilidad. +Otro autor no da estimativos numricos, pero dice que la probabilidad de fracaso es significativa. +Yo escrib un largo ensayo sobre esto. +Yo dije que asignar menos del 20% de probabilidad sera un error dada la evidencia actual con la que contamos. +Ahora, las cifras exactas de aqu, deberamos tomarlas con un grano grande de sal, pero parece ser que hay un consenso que el riesgo es sustancial. +Todo quien ha visto y estudiado esto, est de acuerdo. +Ahora, si pensamos solamente en reducir la probabilidad de la extincin humana en un 1% -- no mucho -- es el equivalente a 60 millones de vidas salvadas, si solo contamos con la gente que vive en la actualidad, la generacin actual. +Ahora 1% de seis mil millones de personas es equivalente a 60 millones. +As que ese es un nmero grande. +Si tuviramos en cuenta generaciones futuras eso nunca existir si volamos todos, entonces la cifra se vuelve astronomica. +Si pudisemos, ahora, eventualmente, colonizar un pedazo del universo -- la constelacion de Virgo -- tal vez nos tome 100 millones de aos llegar ahi, pero si nos extinguimos nunca lo lograremos. +Entonces, tan solo una reduccion del 1% en el riesgo de extincin sera equivalente a este numero astronmico -- 10 elevado a la potencia 32. +Asi que si tomas en cuenta a las generaciones futuras tanto como a la actual, cualquier imperativo moral de costo filantrpico se vuelve irrelevante. +La nica cosa en la que deberamos concentrarnos sera en reducir el riesgo existencial porque, inclusive, la ms mnima reduccin en el riesgo existencial sobrepasara cualquier otro beneficio que esperas obtener. +Inclusive si slo miras a la gente actual, he ignoras el potencial que podra perderse si nos extinguisemos, an as todava tendra una prioridad alta. +Ahora, djenme hablar lo que resta de tiempo del tercer gran problema, porque es ms sutil y, tal vez, difcil de entender. +Piensa en aquel momento de tu vida -- algunas personas tal vez nunca lo experimentaron -- pero algunas otras, existen aquellos momentos que han experimentado en donde la vida era fantastica. +tal vez fue en un momento de gran inspiracin creativa que han tenido cuando entran en este estado de flujo. +O cuando entiendes algo que nunca lo habas entendido antes. +o tal vez en el xtasis del amor romntico. +o una experiencia esttica -- un atardecer o una gran obra de arte. +De vez en cuando tenemos esos momentos, y nos damos cuenta de cuan buena puede ser la vida cuando estamos en un momento as. +y te preguntas, por qu no puede ser as todo el tiempo? +Te quieres aferrar a esto. +Y luego, por supuesto, se vuelve a la vida ordinaria y la memoria desaparece. +y es muy difcil recordar, en una franja mental normal, cuan buena la vida puede ser en su mejor estado. +o cuan fea puede serlo en su peor estado. +El tercer gran problema es que la vida usualmente no es tan grandiosa como podra serlo. +Yo pienso que eso es un gran, gran problema. +Es fcil decir lo que no queremos. +Aqu hay unas cuantas cosas que no queremos -- enfermedad, muerte involuntaria, sufrimiento inecesario, crueldad, prdida de memoria, ignorancia, ausencia de creatividad. +Supongamos que arreglsemos estas cosas -- que hicieramos algo al respecto de todo esto. +Fuimos muy exitosos. +Nos deshicimos de todas estas cosas. +Es probable que terminramos con algo como esto. Que es -- me refiero, es mucho mejor que eso. Quiero decir, +es esto en realidad lo mejor si -- podemos soarlo +Es esto lo mejor que podemos hacer? +O es posible encontrar algo mas inspirador para proyectar? +Y si pensamos en esto, pienso que est muy claro que hay formas en que cambiaramos cosas, no slo eliminando negativas, sino sumando positivas. +En mi lista de deseos, al menos, seria -- vidas mas largas y saludables, mayor bienestar personal, capacidades cognitivas mayores, ms conocimiento y entendimiento, oportunidad ilimitada de crecimiento personal mas alla de nuestros lmites biolgicos, mejores relaciones, un potencial ilimitado de espiritualidad, de moral y desarrollo intelectual. +Si queremos lograr esto, qu en el mundo, tendramos que cambiar? +Y esta es la respuesta: tendramos que cambiar nosotros. +No slo el mundo que nos rodea, sino nosotros mismos. +No slo la forma en la que pensamos el mundo sino nuestro ser en s -- nuestra biologa. +La naturaleza humana tendra que cambiar. +Ahora, cuando pensamos en cambiar la naturaleza humana, lo primero que se nos viene en mente son estas tecnologas de modificacin humana -- terapias hormonales, cirugas cosmticas, estimulantes como Ritalin, Adderall, antidepresivos, esteroides anablicos, corazones artificiales. +Es una lista bastante pattica. +Son muy tiles para muy pocos que sufren de una condicin especfica. Pero para la mayora, no transforma lo que es ser humano. +y tambin parecen ser un poquito -- la mayoria tienen este instinto que, bueno, por supuesto que tiene que haber antidepresivos para los que tienen depresin +Pero hay un sentir raro de que estas cosas de alguna manera no son naturales. +Vale la pena reconocer que hay muchos otras modificaciones y refuerzos tecnlogicos que utilizamos. +Tenemos cosmticos para la piel, ropa. +Puedo ver que todos ustedes son usuarios de estas tecnologias, y eso es bueno! +Se han usado modificadores del nimo desde tiempos inmemoriales -- cafena, alcohol, nicotina, reforzadores del sistema inmune, reforzadores de la vista, anestecias. Damos a esas cosas por hecho, pero slo piensa cuan gran progreso eso es -- por ejemplo, tener una operacion antes de la anestecia no era divertido. +Anticonceptivos, cosmeticos y tcnicas de reprogramacin cerebral -- eso suena siniestro. Pero la distincin entre lo que es una tecnologa -- un aparato sera el arquetipo. Y otras formas de cambiar y replantear la naturaleza humana es muy sutil. +As que, si piensas en lo que significa aprender aritmtica o aprender a leer, eventualmente estas reprogramando tu propio cerebro. +Ests cambiando la microestructura de tu cerebro mientras lo haces. +As que, en un sentido mas amplio, no necesitamos pensar en la tecnologa como slo aparatitos, como estas cosas de aqu. Pero inclusive instituciones y tcnicas, mtodos psicolgicos, etc. +Las formas de organizacin pueden tener un impacto profundo en la naturaleza humana +Mirando hacia adelante, hay un rango de tecnologas que es casi seguro que van a ser desarrolladas tarde o temprano. +Somos muy ignorantes sobre la escala de tiempo de estas cosas, pero son todas consistentes con el conocimiento que tenemos sobre leyes de la fsica, de la qumica, etctera. +Es posible suponer, dejando de lado la posibilidad de una catstrofe, tarde o temprano vamos a desarrollar todo esto. +e inclusive con tan solo un par de stas sera suficiente para transformar la condicin humana. +As que veamos algunas de las dimensiones de la naturaleza humana que parecen necesitar mejoras. +La salud es un gran y urgente problema, porque si no ests vivo, entonces todas las otras cosas seran de poca importancia. +Capacidad intelectual -- veamos esa caja. que desemboca en muchas otras subcategoras -- memoria, concentracin, energia mental, inteligencia, empata. +Estas son cosas grandiosas. +Parte de la razn por la que valoramos estas cualidades es por que nos hacen mejor cuando competimos con otra gente -- son bienes posicionales. +Pero parte de la razn -- y esa esa la razn por la que tenemos bases ticas para perseguir stas -- es por lo que son intrnsecamente valorables. +Es mejor poder entender ms del mundo que te rodea y la gente con la que te ests comunicando, y para recordar lo que has aprendido. +Modalidades y facultades especiales. +Ahora, la mente humana no es un procesador unitario de informacin, ya que tiene muchas otras modulaciones diferentes y evolucionadas que hacen cosas especificas por nosotros. +Si piensas en lo que normalmente significa darle a la vida mucho de su significado: msica, humor, erotismo, espiritualidad, estticas, importancia, cuidado, rumores, charlar con la gente. Todo esto es posible por un circuito especial que tenemos los humanos pero podras tener otra forma de vida inteligente que carezca de stos. +Somos afotunados en tener la maquinaria neural necesaria para procesar msica, apreciarla y disfrutarla. +Todo esto permitira, en principio, estar predispuesto a la mejora. +Algunos tienen mejores habilidades musicales y tambin una habilidad para apreciar msica ms desarrollada que otros. +Tambin es interesante pensar que otras cosas son -- entonces si todas stas nos permiten grandes valores: por qu deberiamos pensar que la evolucin nos ha proporcionado todas las modalidades que necesitamos tener con otros valores que quizas existan? +Imaginen a una especie que no tuviese esta maquinaria neural para procesar la msica +y se quedaran mirndonos con perplejidad al escuchar una hermosa ejecucin, como la que acabamos de escuchar -- porque la gente hace movimientos estpidos. Estaran realmente irritados y no podran ver lo que nosotros estamos haciendo. +Pero tal vez ellos tengan otra facultad, algo ms que nos pareceria igualmente irracional a nosotros, pero en realidad a lo mejor se topen con gran valor posible ahi. +Pero nosotros seramos literalmente sordos a tal tipo de valor. +As que podramos pensar en adherir diferente capacidad nueva sensorial y facultades mentales. +Funcionalidad del cuerpo y morfologa y autocontrol afectivo. +Mayor bienestar +Poder cambiar de relajacin a actividad -- poder ir lento cuando necesitas hacerlo, y tambin acelerar. +Poder cambiar de un estado al otro ms facilmente sera algo muy delicado de poder hacer -- poder adquirir un estado de flujo ms facilmente, cuando ests totalmente sumergido en algo que ests haciendo. +Concientizacin y simpata. +La habilidad de -- es otra aplicacin interesante eso tendra problemas grandes de ramificacin social. +Si en realidad pudieses preservar tu relacin romntica con una persona, sin que disminuya con el tiempo, eso no tendra que -- el amor nunca de desvanecera si no lo quisieras. +Eso probablemente no es tan difcil. +Tal vez sea una simple hormona o algo que pueda lograr esto. +Ha sido hecho en campaoles. +Puedes aplicar la ingeniera para volver a unos campaoles prairie mongamos cuando en realidad son polgamos. +Es tan solo un gen. +Puede que sea ms complicado en los humanos, pero no tanto. +Esta es la ultima impresin que quiero -- ahora tenemos que utilizar el apuntador lser. +Una forma posible de ser aqui, sera una forma de vida -- una forma de ser, de experimentar, pensar, ver, interactuar con el mundo. +Aqu abajo en este pequeo costado, aqu, tenemos poco subespacio de este largo espacio que es accesible a los humanos -- seres con nuestras capacidades biolgicas. +Es una parte del espacio accesible a los animales -- como somos animales nosotros, somos un subconjunto de esto. +Y luego puedes imaginarte algunas mejoras de las capacidades humanas. +Habra diferentes modos de ser que podras experimentar si pudieses mantenerte vivo por, digamos 200 aos. +Entonces podras vivir vidas distintas y acumular sabiduras que simplemente no son posibles para los humanos actuales. +Entonces, nos movemos hacia esta esfera grande de sumas y podras continuar ese proceso y eventualmente explorar mucho de este grande espacio de posibles formas de ser. +Ahora, por qu eso es algo bueno para hacer? +Bueno, nosotros sabemos que en este pequeo crculo, hay estos enormes y grandiosos modos de ser -- la vida humana en su mejor momento es maravillosa. +No tenemos razones para creer que dentro de este espacio ms grande no haya tambin modos grandiosos de ser. Tal vez algunos que vayan mas all de nuestras ms salvajes habilidades inclusive de imaginar o de soar. +as que para solucionar este tercer problema, Yo pienso que necesitamos -- lenta y cuidadosamente, con sabidura tica desarrollar los medios que nos permitan explorar este espacio. y encontrar los grandes valores que pueda que se escondan ah. +Gracias. +Hola a todos. Soy Sirena. +Tengo 11 aos y soy de Connecticut. +Bueno, realmente no estoy segura de por qu estoy aqu. +Quiero decir qu tiene que ver sto con la tecnologa, el entretenimiento y el diseo? +Bueno, s que mi iPod, mi mvil y mi computadora son tecnologa pero sto no tiene nada que ver con ello. +As que hice una pequea investigacin al respecto. +Bueno, sto es lo que encontr. +Por supuesto, espero poder recordarlo. El violn es bsicamente una caja de madera +y cuatro cuerdas principales. Al tocar la cuerda, sta vibra y produce una onda sonora. +Al tocar la cuerda, sta vibra y produce una onda sonora. El sonido atraviesa una pieza de madera llamada puente y baja hasta la caja de madera y se amplifica pero... djenme pensar. +Muy bien. Por otro lado al mover el dedo sobre el diapasn cambia la longitud de la cuerda lo que cambia la frecuencia de la onda sonora. +Oh Dios mo! +Muy bien. Esto es algo tecnolgico pero lo llamo tecnologa del siglo XVI. +Pero de hecho, lo ms fascinante que encontr fue que el sistema de sonido o de transmisin de onda hoy en da estn fundados bsicamente en el mismo principio de producir y proyectar el sonido. +No es genial? +Diseo. Me encanta su diseo. +Recuerdo cuando era pequea mi mam me pregunt, quieres tocar el violn o el piano? +Ech un vistazo a ese monstruo gigante y me dije a m misma: no voy a encadenarme a esa banca +todo el da. ste es pequeo y ligero. +Puedo tocar parada, sentada o caminando. +Y saben qu? +Lo mejor de todo es que si no quiero practicar puedo esconderlo. +El violn es hermoso. +Algunos dicen que tiene la forma de una mujer, +puede gustarles o no, pero ha tenido este diseo por ms de 400 aos, a diferencia de las cosas modernas que fcilmente lucen obsoletas. +Pero creo que es muy particular y nico que, aunque todos los violines lucen iguales no hay dos violines que suenen igual. Incluso si los fabric la misma persona o si fueron basados en el mismo modelo. +Entretenimiento. Me encanta el entretenimiento +aunque de hecho, el instrumento en s mismo no sea muy entretenido. +Quiero decir, cuando comenc con el violn y trat de tocarlo en realidad estuvo muy mal porque no sonaba del modo que le escuchaba a los otros nios tan horrible y chirriante +as que no era para nada entretenido. +Y adems, mi hermano lo encontr muy divertido. Yuk, yuk, yuk. +Hace algunos aos escuch un chiste acerca del gran violinista, Jascha Heifetz. +Despus del concierto del Sr. Heifetz una seorita se acerc a hacerle un cumplido. "Oh, Sr. Heifetz, su violn son magnfico esta noche." +Y el Sr. Heifetz era una persona genial as que levant su violn y dijo: "Es curioso, no escucho nada." +Ahora me doy cuenta que, al igual que el msico, los seres humanos tenemos una gran mente, sensibilidad artstica y habilidad que pueden convertir la tecnologa del siglo XVI y un diseo legendario en un entretenimiento maravilloso. +Ahora, ya se por qu estoy aqu. +Al principio pens que vena aqu solamente a tocar frente a ustedes pero inesperadamente, aprend y disfrut mucho ms. +Pero... aunque algunas de las charlas fueron muy elevadas para m. +Como la cuestin multidimensional. +Quiero decir, en serio, estara feliz si pudiera entender correctamente mis dos dimensiones en la escuela. +Pero de hecho, lo ms impresionante para m es que... bueno, de hecho, tambin me gustara decir esto en nombre de todos los nios decirles, gracias, a todos los adultos por preocuparse mucho por nosotros y por hacer el mundo en que estaremos mucho mejor. +Gracias. +Gracias. +Muchas gracias. +Tal como la persona que hablo antes que yo, soy una -- virgen en TED, creo -- +Es mi primera vez aqu, y no se que decir. +Estoy realmente feliz que el Sr. Anderson me haya invitado. +Y estoy tambin agradecida de que tengo la oportunidad de tocar para todos ustedes. +La pieza que acabo de tocar es de Jzef Hofmann. +se llama Caleidoscopio. +Hofmann es un pianista y compositor Polaco de finales del siglo XVIIII, y es considerado uno de los mas grandes pianistas de todos los tiempos. +Tengo otra pieza que quisiera tocar para ustedes +se llama "Variaciones de Abegg" de Robert Schumann Un compositor Alemn del siglo Diecinueve. +El Nombre de Abegg -- Abegg es de hecho A-B-E-G-G (por las notas en ingles), Y es el tema principal de la meloda +Estas letras vienen del apellido de una de las amigas de Schumann +Pero el la escribi para su esposa. +As que si escuchan cuidadosamente, deben haber supuestamente 5 variaciones en este tema de Abegg +Fue escrito alrededor de 1834, y aunque es una pieza musical antigua espero que les guste. +Ahora viene la parte que no me gusta. +Como el Sr. Anderson me dijo que esta sesin se llamada "Sincroniza y Fluye," estuve pensando. "Que se yo que estos genios no sepan?" +Entonces me dije, les hablare acerca de la composicin musical, aunque no se ni por donde empezar. +Como es que hago mis composiciones? +Pienso que Yamaha hace, realmente, un muy buen trabajo de ensearnos como componer. +Lo primero que hago es, crear varias ideas musicales pequeas -- que puedes improvisar aqu en el piano -- y escojo una de ellas para ser mi tema principal, mi meloda principal, tal como el Abegg que acaban de escuchar. +Y una vez que escojo mi tema principal, tengo que decidir, de entre todos los estilos de msica Que estilo quiero? +Y este ao he compuesto en estilo romntico. +As que para inspiracin escucho a Liszt y Tchaikovsky y a todos los grandes compositores romnticos. +Luego, creo la estructura de toda la pieza completa con mis maestros. +Ellos me ayudan a planear toda la pieza, +y luego la parte difcil es llenarla con ideas musicales, porque es cuando tienes que pensar. +Y entonces, cuando la pieza toma una forma constante -- consistente, perdn -- una forma consistente, ahora debes pulir esa pieza, pulir los detalles, Y despus pulir toda la ejecucin de la composicin. +Otra cosa que disfruto es dibujar -- +Dibujar, ustedes saben, como los dibujos del arte Japones del Anime. +Pienso que es la locura entre los adolescentes de nuestros das. +Y cuando me di cuenta, comprend que existe un paralelo entre el crear msica y el de crear arte, porque el mvil de esa pequea idea inicial de tu dibujo, es tu personaje -- lo primero es decidir a quien quieres dibujar, o si quieres dibujar un personaje completamente original. +Entonces decides, Como vas a dibujar a ese personaje? +Como, Voy a hacerlo en una hoja de papel? Voy a hacerlo en la computadora? +Voy a hacerlo en dos paginas como en las revistas de caricaturas +para un efecto mas grandioso? Supongo. +Y entonces tienes que hacer el bosquejo inicial del personaje, que es como la estructura de una musical, y entonces agregas lpiz, pluma y cualquier otro detalle que necesites -- eso es pulir el dibujo. +Otra cosa que el componer msica y el dibujar tienen en comn es tu estado mental, porque yo no -- Yo soy una de esas adolescentes que se distraen fcilmente, +as que, si estoy tratando de hacer mi tarea, y no me siento con ganas de hacerla, entonces me pongo a dibujar, tu sabes, perder el tiempo. +Y entonces lo que pasa es que, algunas veces, no puedo ni dibujar ni tampoco puedo componer, y es como si hay demasiadas cosas en tu cabeza. +Y no te puedes enfocar en lo que debes hacer. +Y luego algunas veces, si logras usar tu tiempo sabiamente y trabajas en ello, consigues lograr cosas buenas de ah, pero no viene de manera natural. +Lo que pasa entonces es, como si algo mgico sucediera, y se vuelve natural eso que te costaba trabajo, eres capaz de producir cosas bellas instantneamente, a eso es a lo que yo le llamo, fluir, porque es cuando a todo tiene sentido y eres capaz de hacer cualquier cosa. +Te sientes que estas completamente en control y que puedes hacer lo sea que quieras hacer. +Esta vez no voy a tocar mi propia composicin porque, aunque la termine, es demasiado larga. +En lugar de eso, quisiera intentar algo que se llama improvisacin. +Tengo aqu siete tarjetas con notas cada una con una una nota del alfabeto musical, +y me gustara que alguien viniera aqu y escogiera cinco. Alguien que quiera venir y escoger cinco? Entonces puedo formarlas en algn tipo de meloda improvisada. Wow, un voluntario, yay! +Gusto en conocerte. +Goldie Hawn: Gracias. Escojo cinco? +Jennifer Lin: Si, cinco cartas. Escoge las que quieras. +GH: Muy bien. Una. Dos. Tres. +Oh, D y F --- me recuerdan algo. (Calificacin baja en sistema N. Americano) +JL: Una mas. GH: Muy bien E de Entusiasmo. +JL: Podras por favor leerlas en el orden que las escogiste? +GH: Claro. C, G, B, A, y E. +JL: Muchas gracias +GH: Por Nada. Y que acerca de estas? +JL: No las voy a usar. Gracias +Ahora, ella escogi C, G, B, A, E. +Voy a tratar de ponerlas en algn tipo de orden. +Muy bien, esta agradable. +Ahora voy a tomar un momento para pensar, y tratare de hacer algo de esto. +La siguiente pieza que voy a tocar se llama "El Boogie del Abejorro" de Jack Fina. +Se nos ha dicho que nos arriesguemos y digamos algo sorprendente. +As que tratar de hacerlo. Pero Quiero comenzar con dos cosas que todos ya sabemos. +Actualmente esta idea tiene un nombre dramtico: Nave Espacial Tierra +Y la idea es que fuera de la nave, el Universo es implacablemente hostil, y que dentro est todo lo que tenemos, todo aquello de lo que dependemos. Y slo tenemos esta nica oportunidad: si destruimos nuestra nave, no tenemos adonde ms ir. +Ahora, lo segundo que todos saben es que al contrario de lo que se crea en la mayor parte de la historia humana los seres humanos no son el centro de la existencia. +Como Stephen Hawking dijo, somo solamente una escoria qumica en la superficie de un planeta tpico que orbita a una estrella tpica, que est en las afueras de una galaxia tpica, y as sigue. +Ahora la primera de las dos cosas que todos saben es como decir que estamos en lugar muy atpico, nicamente apropiado, etc., y la segunda es decir que estamos en un lugar tpico. +Y especialmente si vemos ambas como verdades profundas de nuestras vidas y la base para nuestras decisiones vitales, entonces parecen estar en conflicto entre ellas. +Pero eso no las libra a ambas de ser completamente falsas. Y lo son. As que djenme comenzar con la segunda: Tpico. Bueno -- Es ste un lugar tpico? Bueno, miremos alrededor, +y miremos en cualquier direccin,y vemos un muro, escoria qumica -- -- y eso no es tpico del Universo en lo absoluto. +Y la mayor parte de los lugares en el Universo, un lugar tpico en l, no est cerca de galaxia alguna. +As que vamos ms all, hasta que salgamos de la galaxia y miremos atrs, y, s, ah est la galaxia gigantesca con brazos espirales desplegada frente a nosotros. +En ese punto nos hemos alejado 100 000 aos luz de aqu. +Pero, todava no estamos cerca de un lugar tpico del Universo. +Para ir a un lugar tpico, debemos ir 1 000 veces ms lejos que eso, al espacio intergalctico. +Y cmo se ve eso? Tpico. +Cmo es un lugar tpico del Universo? +Bien, con un gasto enorme, TED ha preparado una inmersin de alta resolucin de realidad virtual representando el espacio intergalctico. -- la vista desde el espacio intergalctico. +Podemos apagar las luces, por favor, para poder verlo? +Bueno, no es tan perfecto -- vern, en el espacio intergalctico +-- el espacio intergalctico es completamente oscuro, muy oscuro. +Es tan oscuro que si uno mirara a la estrella ms cercana, y esa estrella explotara como una supernova, y tu estuvieras mirando directamente a ella en el momento que su luz te llegara, no seras capaz de ver ni un pequeo resplandor. +As de grande y oscuro es el Universo. +Y eso a pesar que una supernova es tan brillante, un evento tan brillante, que te matara en un rango de varios aos luz. +Pero, en el espacio intergalctico, est tan lejos que ni la veras. +Tambin hace mucho fro all -- menos de tres grados sobre el cero absoluto. +Y est muy vaco. El vaco ah es un milln de veces menos denso que el mayor vaco que nuestra mejor tecnologa en la Tierra puede actualmente +crear. As de diferente es un lugar tpico de este lugar. +Y as de atpico es este lugar. +Podemos encender nuevamente las luces? Gracias. +Ahora, Cmo es que sabemos acerca de un ambiente que est tan lejos, es tan diferente, tan ajeno a todo lo que estamos acostumbrados? +Bueno, la Tierra -- nuestro ambiente, por nuestro intermedio -- est creando conocimiento. +Qu significa eso? Miremos an ms lejos de donde recin estuvimos -- Desde aqu, con un telescopio -- vern cosas que parecen estrellas. +Se las llama quasares. Quasar significaba originalmente objecto cuasi-estelar. Que significa objetos que se ven como estrellas. Pero, no son estrellas. Y sabemos lo que son. Hace miles de millones de aos, y miles de millones de aos luz de aqu, el material en el centro de una galaxia colaps hacia un agujero negro super masivo. +Y entonces, campos magnticos intensos dirigieron una parte de la energa de ese colapso gravitacional. Y parte de la materia, volvi en la forma de chorros tremendos que iluminaron lbulos con el brillo de -- yo creo billones de soles. +Ahora, la fsica del cerebro humano no podra ser ms diferente de la fsica de un chorro como ese. +No podramos sobrevivir ni por un instante en l. El lenguaje no es capaz de describir como sera estar en uno de esos chorros. +Un sistema fsico, el cerebro, contiene un modelo exacto del otro -- el quasar. +No slo una imagen superficial de l, aunque la contiene tambin, sino que un modelo explicatorio, que incluye las mismas relaciones matemticas y la misma estructura causal. +Eso es conocimiento. Y si eso no fuera suficientemente raro, la fidelidad con la que una estructura se parece a la otra aumenta con el tiempo. Ese el crecimiento del conocimiento. +As que, las leyes de la fsica tienen esa propiedad especial. Que los objetos fsicos, por muy diferentes que sean, puede an inluir la misma estructura matemtica y causal y pueden hacerlo cada vez ms a lo largo del tiempo. +Somos, entonces, una escoria qumica diferente. esta escoria qumica tiene universalidad. +Cmo hace el Sistema Solar -- y nuestro medio ambiente, en la forma de nosotros -- para adquirir esta relacin especial con el resto del Universo? +Bueno, una cosa es cierta acerca del comentario de Stephen Hawking -- es decir, es verdad, pero tiene el nfasis equivocado. Lo que es cierto acerca de l es que +no necesita una fsica especial. No hay una dispensa especial, no hay milagros. Lo hace simplemente con tres cosas que tenemos aqu en abundancia. +Una de ellas es la materia, por que el crecimiento del conocimiento es una forma de procesamiento de informacin. Procesamiento de informacin es computacin, +la computacin requiere un computador -- no hay forma conocida de hacer un computador sin materia. +Tambin necesitamos energa para hacer el computador, y lo ms importante, para hacer los medios sobre los cuales registramos el conocimiento que descubrimos. +y en tercer lugar, menos tangible, pero tan esencial para la creacin ilimitada de conocimiento, de explicaciones, es la evidencia. +Nuestro medio ambiente est inundado con evidencia. +Pas que nos dedicamos a hacer pruebas --- por ejemplo la Ley de la Gravedad de Newton -- hace unos 300 aos. +Pero la evidencia que usamos para hacer eso caa sobre cada metro cuadrado de la Tierra miles de millones de aos antes, y continuar cayendo por miles de millones de aos +despus. Y lo mismo es cierto de todas las otras ciencias. +Hasta donde sabemos, la evidencia para descubrir las verdades ms fundamentales de todas las ciencias est aqu para que la tomemos en nuestro planeta. +Nuestro lugar est saturado de evidencia, y tambin de masa y de energa. +All afuera en el espacio intergalctico, estos tres pre requisitos para la creacin ilimitada de conocimiento estn en niveles mnimos de disponibilidad. Como dije. est vaco, hace fro y est oscuro. O no? +Ahora, en realidad, ese es slo otro concepto provincial equivocado. . Porque imaginen un cubo all afuera en el espacio intergalctico, del mismo tamao que nuestro hogar, el Sistema Solar. Ese cubo est muy vaco desde un punto de vista humano, pero an as contiene ms de un milln de toneladas de masa. +Y un milln de toneladas es suficiente para hacer, digamos, una estacin espacial auto contenida, en la cual hay una colonia de cientficos dedicados a crear un +flujo ilimitado de conocimiento, etc. Ahora bien, est lejos del alcance de la tecnologa actual incluso recoger el hidrgeno del espacio intergalctico y convertirlo en otros elementos y as sucesivamente. +Pero, el asunto es que, en un universo comprensible, si algo no est prohibido por las leyes de la fsica, entonces Que podra impedrnos hacerlo, que no sea el saber cmo? +En otras palabras, es un asunto de conocimiento, no de recursos. +Y lo mismo -- bueno, si pudiramos hacer eso automticamente tendramos una fuente de energa, porque la transmutacin sera un reactor de fusin -- Y la evidencia? +De nuevo, est oscuro all afuera para los sentidos humanos. Pero todo lo que tienen que hacer es tomar un telescopio, basta uno con un diseo actual, observen y vern las mismas galaxias que vemos desde aqu. +Y con un telescopio ms potente, podrn ver estrellas, y planetas. En esas galaxias, podrn hacer astrofsica, y aprender las leyes de la fsica. +Y localmente, podrn construir aceleradores de partculas all, y aprender fsica de partculas elementales, y qumica, y todo. +Es probable que la ciencia ms dificil de realizar seran las salidas a campo biolgicas, porque tardara varios centenares de millones de aos llegar al planeta ms cercano con capacidad para la vida y volver. +Debo decirles -- y lo siento, Richard -- pero nunca me gustaron mucho esas salidas a campo, y creo que con una cada pocos cientos de millones de aos es suficiente. +As que, de hecho, el espacio intergalctico no contiene todos los pre-requisitos para una ilimitada creacin de conocimiento. Cualquier cubo as, en cualquier parte del Universo, podra convertirse en el mismo ncleo que nosotros somos, si el conocimiento de cmo hacerlo estuviera presente all. +Por lo tanto no estamos en un nico lugar hospitalario. +Si el espacio intergalctico es capaz de crear un flujo ilimitado de explicaciones, tambin lo puede hacer cualquier otro ambiente. As pasa con la Tierra. As pasa con la Tierra contaminada. +El factor limitante, all y aqu, no son los recursos, porque hay muchos, sino el conocimiento, que es escaso. +Esta mirada csmica basada en el conocimiento puede -- y pienso que debera -- hacernos sentir muy especiales. pero debera hacernos sentir vulnerables, porque significa que sin el conocimiento especfico necesario para sobrevivir los constantes desafos del Universo, no sobreviviremos a ellos. +Basta con una supernova que explote a unos pocos aos luz de distancia, y todos moriremos! +Martn Rees escribi recientemente un libro acerca de nuestra vulnerabilidad frente a todo tipo de cosas, desde la astrofsica, a experimentos cientficos que resulten mal, y lo ms importante al terrorismo con armas de destruccin masiva. +l cree que la civilizacin slo tiene un 50% de probabilidades de sobrevivir a este siglo. +Creo que el hablar ms tarde en esta conferencia. +Ahora, no creo que probabilidad sea la categora apropiada para discutir esta cuestin. Pero estoy de acuerdo con l en esto. Podemos sobrevivir, o podemos fallar y no sobrevivir. +No depende de las probabilidades, sino de si creamos oportunamente el conocimiento relevante. +El peligro tiene precedentes. Se extinguen especies todo el tiempo. +Civilizaciones desaparecen. La gran mayora de todas las especies y de todas las civilizaciones que han alguna vez existido son ahora historia. +Y si queremos ser la excepcin a eso, entonces lgicamente nuestra nica esperanza es usar la nica caracterstica que distingue a nuestra especie, y a nuestra civilizacin, de todas las dems. Es decir, nuestra relacin especial con las leyes de la fsica. Nuestra habilidad para crear nuevas explicaciones, nuevos conocimientos -- para ser el centro de la existencia. +Djenme aplicar sto a una controversia vigente actualmente, no porque quiera abogar por alguna solucin en particular, sino slo para ilustrar lo que quiero decir. +La controversia es el calentamiento global. +Ahora bien, yo soy fsico, pero no el tipo de fsico adecuado. En lo que concierne al calentamiento global, +soy slo un lego. Y lo racional para un lego es tomarse en serio +la teora cientfica vigente. De acuerdo a esa teora, +Y las acciones por las que se aboga ni siquiera apuntan a resolver el problema, slo postergarlo un poco. As que ya es muy tarde para evitarlo, y probablemente ha sido muy tarde para evitarlo, incluso antes que alguien se diera cuenta del problema. +Probablemente ya era muy tarde en los 1970s, cuando la mejor teora cientfica disponible nos deca que las emisiones industriales estaban por precipitar una nueva era del hielo en la que miles de millones moriran. +La leccin a sacar de eso me parece clara, y no s por qu no es considerada en el debate pblico. +Es que no siempre podemos saber. Cuando sabemos de un desastre inminente, y como resolverlo aun costo menor que el costo mismo del desastre, entonces no va a haber mucha discusin, realmente. +Pero ninguna precaucin, y ningn principio de precaucin, puede evitar problemas que an no visualizamos. +Por lo tanto, necesitamos un postura de solucin de problemas, no slo de prevencin de problemas. +Es cierto que una onza de prevencin equivale a una libra de cura, pero eso es slo si sabemos qu prevenir. +Si a usted le han golpeado la nariz, entonces la ciencia de la medicina no consiste en ensearle cmo evitar golpes. +Si la ciencia mdica dejara de buscar curas y se concentrara slo en prevencim, entonces lograra muy poco de ambas. +El mundo est actualmente lleno de planes para forzar reducciones en emisiones de gas, a cualquier costo. +Debera estar lleno de planes para reducir la temperatura, y de planes para vivir en temperaturas ms altas. Y no a cualquier costo, sino eficientemente y de modo barato. Y planes como esos existen, cosas como enjambres de espejos en el espacio para deflectar la luz solar, y promover que organismos acuticos se alimenten con ms dixido de carbono. +Por el momento, esas cosas son investigaciones marginales. No son centrales en el esfuerzo humano para enfrentar el problema, o problemas en general. +Y con problemas de los que an no somos conscientes, la habilidad de arreglar algo -- no slo la buena suerte de evitar indefinidamente -- es nuestra nica esperanza, no slo de resolver los problemas, sino de sobrevivir. +As que tomen dos tablas de piedra, y graben en ellas. +En una de ellas, graben "Los problemas tienen solucin." +En la otra graben "Los problemas son inevitables." +Gracias +Entonces, quin son yo? +Generalmente contesto a la gente, cuando me preguntan, "Qu es lo que haces? +Digo, "Hago hardware," porque digamos que convenientemente abarca todo lo que hago. +Y recientemente dije eso a un inversionista de riesgo en un evento en el Valle, y respondi, "Qu pintoresco." +Y realmente estaba asombrado. +Y yo deb haber dicho algo inteligente. +Esto no quiere decir que debemos ignorar al "software", o a la informacin, o a la computacin. +Y esto es, de hecho, lo que voy a tratar de contarles. +Entonces, esta pltica va a ser sobre cmo hacemos las cosas y de cmo van las nuevas maneras en las que haremos las cosas en el futuro. +Ahora, TED te enva mucho correo basura si eres un conferencista de "haz esto, haz lo otro" y llname todos estos formularios, y nunca sabes realmente cmo te van a describir, me llego a mi escritorio que me iban a presentar como un futurista. +Siempre me ha puesto nervioso el trmino futurista, porque est destinado al fracaso porque realmente no puedes predecirlo. +y me estaba riendo de esto con unos colegas muy inteligentes que tengo, y dije, "saben, si tuvieran que hablar sobre el futuro, qu es?" +y George Homsey, un gran tipo, dijo, "Ah, el futuro es increble. +Es mucho mas extrao de lo que piensas. +Vamos a reprogramas las bacterias en tu estomago, y vamos a hacer que tus desechos huelan a hierba buena +Pues, pueden pensar que esto es una locura, pero hay algunas cosas muy asombrosas que estn pasando que hacen esto posible +Bueno, esto no es mi trabajo, pero es el trabajo de unos buenos amigo en el MIT. +Esto se llama el registro de partes biolgicas estndar. +Est liderado por Drew Endy y Tom Knight y otras personas muy, muy listas. +Bsicamente, lo que estn haciendo es viendo la biologa como un sistema programable. +Literalmente, piensen en las protenas como subrutinas que pueden enlazar para ejecutar un programa. +Ahora, esto se est tornando en una idea interesante. +ste es un diagrama de estados. Es una computadora extremadamente sencilla. +ste es un contador de dos "bits" +Eso es esencialmente el computo equivalente de dos contactos de luz. +Y esto esta siendo construido por un grupo de estudiantes en Zurich para un concurso de diseo en biologa. +Y de los resultados de la misma competencia el ao pasado, un equipo de estudiantes de la Universidad de Texas program bacterias para que pudieran detectar luz y se cambiaran encendido y apagado. +Esto es interesante en el sentido que ahora se puede hacer enunciados "si por lo tanto" en materiales, en la estructura. +Esto es una tendencia bastante interesante, Porque vivamos en un mundo donde todos decan fcilmente, forma sigue a la funcin, pero creo que he crecido en un mundo -- escucharon a Neil Gershenfeld ayer, Yo estaba en un laboratorio asociado con el suyo -- donde es realmente un mundo donde la informacin define a la forma y la funcin. +He pasado seis aos pensando sobre eso, pero para demostrar el poder del arte sobre la ciencia -- ste es precisamente uno de los dibujos que escribo. Se llaman "Cmo-dibujos" +Trabajo con un dibujante extraordinario llamando Nick Dragotta. +Me tom seis aos en el MIT, y como as de tantas pginas para describir qu es lo que estaba haciendo, y a l le tomo una hoja. Y sta es nuestra musa Tucker. +l es un nio muy interesante --- y su hermana, Celine-- y lo que est haciendo aqu est observando los auto-ensambles de su tazn de cereal "Cheerios". +y por cierto se pueden programar los auto-ensambles de cosas, as que empieza con las orillas con chocolate, cambiando la hidrofobia y la hidrofilia. +En teora, si programas estas cosas lo suficientemente, deberas poder hacer algo muy interesante y hacer estructuras muy complejas +En este caso, ha hecho una auto-rplica de una estructura 3D compleja +Y esto es lo que pens por mucho tiempo, porque as es como actualmente hacemos cosas. +Esto es una tabla de silicio, y esencialmente es solo un grupo de capas de dos dimensiones, de alguna manera apiladas +Lo importante es -- saben, la gente dir, [confuso] abajo y aproximadamente 65 nanmetros ahora. +En la derecha, eso es una "radiolara". +Esto es un organismo unicelular ubicuo en el ocano +y tiene caractersticas de aproximadamente 20 nanmetros, y estructura compleja en tres dimensiones +Podramos hacer mucho ms con computadoras y cosas en general si supiramos cmo construir cosas de esta manera. +El secreto a la biologa es, construye computacin en la manera que hace las cosas. Entonces esta pequea cosa, "polimerasa", es esencialmente una supercomputadora diseada para replicar DNA. +Y esta ribosoma, es otra pequea computadora que ayuda en la traduccin de protenas. +Pens sobre esto en el sentido de que es grandioso construir sobre materiales biolgicos, pero podemos hacer cosas similares? +Cmo podemos obtener un comportamiento auto replicable? +Podemos obtener complejas estructuras 3D que se ensamblan automticamente en sistemas inorgnicos? +Porque hay algunas ventajas en los sistemas inorgnicos, como semiconductores de mayor velocidad, etctera. +Bueno, esto es algo de mi trabajo de cmo haces un sistema auto replicable autnomo. +Y esto es, podramos decir que la revancha de Babbage. +stas son pequeas computadoras mecnicas. +stas son mquinas de cinco estados. +Y, esto son tres interruptores alineados. +En un estado neutral, no se uniran. +Ahora, si hacemos una lnea de estos, una lnea de bits, podrn replicarse. +Entonces comenzamos con blanco, azul, azul, blanco. +Eso codifica, eso ahora se copiar. De uno vienen dos, y de dos salen tres. +Y pues se obtiene un tipo de sistema de replicado. +Realmente fue trabajo de Lionel Penrose, padre de Roger Penrose, el chavo de los mosaicos. +Realiz mucho trabajo en los aos sesenta, y mucha de su teora lgica quedo empolvada y conforme avanzamos a la revolucin digital de las computadores, est regresando. +Ahora voy mostrar el manos libre, autnomo auto replicacin. +ahora hemos rastreado en el vdeo la lnea de entrada, que fue, verde, verde, amarillo, amarillo, verde. +Los colocamos en una mesa de hockey de aire. +Saben, la ciencia avanzada usa las mesas de hockey de aire -- -- y si observan esto por suficiente tiempo se van a marear, pero lo que realmente estn viendo son copias de la lnea original emergiendo de las partes que tenemos aqu. +Entonces tenemos lneas de bits que se estn replicando autnomamente. +Pero, por qu querramos replicar lneas de bits? +Bueno, resulta que la biologa tiene un muy interesante meme, puedes tomar una lnea, que sea conveniente de copiar, y lo puedes desdoblar en estructuras en tres dimensiones arbitrarias. +Estaba tratando, saben, de tomar la versin de ingeniero: Podemos construir sistemas mecnicos en materiales inorgnicos que hagan la misma cosa? +Lo que voy a mostrar aqu es que podemos hacer una figura en dos dimensiones -- la B -- ensamblada de lneas de componentes que siguen reglas extremadamente sencillas. +Y el punto de seguir reglas extremadamente sencillas , y el increble estado simple de las mquinas en diseos previos, fue que no necesitas lgica digital para hacer computacin. +Y de esta manera puedes escalar cosas mucho mas pequeas que microchips. +Entonces puedes literalmente usar estos pequeos componentes en un proceso de ensamblado. +Niel Gershenfeld les mostr este video el mircoles, creo, pero se los mostrar de nuevo. +Esto es literalmente una secuencia ilustrada de los mosaicos. +Cada diferente color tiene su propia polaridad magntica, y la secuencia est nicamente especificando la estructura resultante. +Pues saben, es un mundo muy interesante cuando comienzan a ver el mundo de forma diferente, +y el universo es ahora un compilador, +Y estoy pensando, saben, qu son los programas para programar el universo fsico? +Y cmo pensamos sobre materiales y estructura, como problemas de informacin y computacin? +No slo dnde adjuntas un mico controlador en esa esquina, pero que la estructura y los mecanismos son la lgica, son las computadoras. +Una vez que se absorbe totalmente esta filosofa , Comenc a ver los problemas algo diferentes. +Con el universo como una computadora, puedes ver esta gota de agua como si hubiera realizado las computaciones. +Colocas una serie de condiciones de frontera, como gravedad, la tensin superficial, densidad, etctera, y presiones ejecutar, y mgicamente, el universo produce una lente redonda perfecta. +Pues, esto se aplica al problema -- hay medio billn a un billn de personas en el mundo que no tiene acceso a lentes baratas. +Entonces puedes hacer una mquina que pueda hacer lentes de prescripcin rpidamente en el sitio? +sta es una maquina en la que literalmente defines condiciones de frontera. +Si es circular, haces lentes esfricas. +Si es elptica, haces lentes para astigmatismo. +Le colocas una membrana y le aplicas presin .. y esto es parte del programa extra. +Y literalmente con solamente estas dos entradas -- la forma de tu condicin de frontera y presin -- se pueden definir un numero infinito de lentes esto cubre todo el rango de error refractivo humano, de menos 12 a mas ocho dioptras, hasta cuatro dioptras cilndricas +Y despus, literalmente, viertes un monmero. +Saben, har un Julia Childs aqu. +Esto es tres minutos de luz ultravioleta. +E invertimos la presin en la membrana una vez que lo cocinas. Lo levantas. +He visto este video, pero no s si va a terminar bien. +Entonces inviertes esto. Esta pelcula es muy antigua, y con los nuevos prototipos, las dos superficies son flexibles, pero esto mostrara la idea. +Ahora has terminado el lente, y literalmente la liberas. +Este es el modelo "Yves Klein", para el ao pasado, saben, la forma de los lentes. +Y pueden ver que esto tiene una prescripcin suave de aproximadamente menos dos dioptras. +Y mientras lo giro contra este lado, vern que tiene un cilindro, y que esto estaba programado dentro de l -- literalmente dentro de la fsica del sistema. +Entonces, esto de pensar en la estructura como computacin y la estructura como informacin nos lleva a otras cosas, como sta. +Esto es algo en lo que mi gente en el Laboratorio SQUID estn trabajando, llamado cuerda electrnica. +Literalmente, piensas en una cuerda. Tiene estructuras muy complejas en el tejido. +Y bajo ninguna carga, es una estructura. +Bajo una distinta carga, es una estructura diferente. Y realmente puedes explotar eso poniendo un numero muy pequeo de fibras conductoras para realmente hacerlo un sensor. +Ahora esto es una cuerda que sabe cuanto peso esta cargando en cualquier punto particular en la cuerda. +Nada ms por pensar en la fsica del mundo, materiales como computadoras, puedes empezar a hacer cosas como stas. +Voy a continuar. +Supongo que solo voy a algunas cosas de manera informal que pienso sobre esto. +Y muchas conferencias aqu han expuesto los beneficios de tener mucha gente para ver los problemas, compartir la informacin y trabajar en las cosas conjuntamente. +Pues, un ventaja de ser humano es que nos movemos en tiempo linear, y a menos que Lisa Randall cambie esto, nos seguiremos moviendo en tiempo lineal. +Esto significa que cualquier cosa que hagas, o construyas, produces una secuencia de pasos -- y creo que Lego en los 70s dio en el clavo, y lo hicieron de una manera elegante. +Pero pueden mostrar cmo construir cosas en secuencia. +Entonces, estoy pensando, cmo podemos generalizar la manera que hacemos todo tipo de cosas, y acaban con un tipo as, correcto? +Y creo que esto aplica de forma muy amplia, digamos que en muchos conceptos. +Saben, Cameron Sinclair ayer dijo, "Cmo puedo hacer que todos colaboren en disear globalmente para hacer residencias para la humanidad?" +Y si han visto a Amy Smith, ella habla de cmo poner estudiantes al MIT a trabajar con comunidades en Hait. +Y creo que debemos redefinir y repensar cmo definimos estructura y materiales y en ensamble de cosas, para que realmente podamos compartir informacin en cmo hacer las cosas de una manera mas profunda y construir basndonos en las fuentes de cdigo para estructura de los dems. +No s cmo exactamente hacer esto todava pero, saben, es algo en lo que constantemente se ha pensado. +Y, saben, esto lleva a preguntas como, es esto un compilador? Es una subrutina? +Cosas interesantes como stas. +Tal vez me estoy poniendo algo abstracto, pero ya saben esto es parecido -- volviendo a nuestros personajes de cmic -- esto es como el universo, o una vista diferente del universo que creo que va a ser muy predominante en el futuro -- desde la biotecnologa al ensamble de materiales. Fue grandioso escuchar a Bill Joy. +Estn comenzando a invertir en ciencia de materiales, pero stas son novedades en ciencia de materiales. +Como ponemos informacin y estructura real en nuevas ideas, y ver el mundo de una manera distinta? Y no ser cdigo binario que define las computadoras del universo -- es como una computadora analgica. +Pero definitivamente es una nuevo punto de vista interesante. +He ido muy lejos. Al menos eso parece. +Probablemente tenga unos minutos para preguntas, o puedo mostrar -- creo que dijeron que hacia cosas extremas en la introduccin, por lo tanto tendr que explicarlo. +Tal vez lo har con este breve video. +Esto es realmente una papalote de 3,000 pies cuadrados (279 metros cuadrados) que es una superficie mnima de energa. +Si retornamos a la gota, de nuevo, pensando en el universo de una forma distinta +El papalote est diseado por un tipo llamado Dave Kulp. +Y para qu quieres un papalote de 3,000 pies cuadrados? +Esto es un papalote del tamao de tu casa. +Y lo quieres para remolcar barcos muy rpido. +Pues he estado trabajando en esto por un poco, con un par de otros tipos. +Pero, saben, sta es otra manera de ver --- si nos ponemos abstractos de nuevo, esta es una estructura que esta definida por la fsica del universo +Lo podras colgar como una sbana, pero de nuevo, la computacin de toda la fsica nos da la forma aerodinmica. +Y entones podras casi doblar la velocidad de tu barco con sistemas as. Y, esto es un aspecto interesante del futuro. +Voy a presentar tres proyectos muy rpidamente. +No tengo mucho tiempo para hacerlo +y quiero reforzar tres ideas con esa presentacin acelerada. +La primera es lo que me gusta llamar un proceso hiperracional. +Es un proceso que lleva la racionalidad a un nivel casi absurdo y trasciende la carga adicional que normalmente viene con lo que la gente llamara una conclusin racional de algo. +Y termina en algo que, vemos aqu, algo que uno realmente no esperara sea +el resultado de la racionalidad. La segunda idea -- [poco claro] eh -- la segunda es que el proceso +no lleva firma. +No hay autora. Los arquitectos se obsesionan con la autora. +Esto es algo que tiene revisiones y un equipo. De hecho, ya no vemos dentro de este proceso al maestro de arquitectos tradicional que crea un boceto para que luego sus lacayos lo lleven a cabo. +Y la tercera es que pone en tela de juicio es muy difcil sostener el por qu todas estas cosas se conectan-- pero cuestiona la nocin modernista de flexibilidad. +Los modernistas dicen: crearemos espacios singulares que sean genricos. Dentro de ellos casi todo puede suceder. +A esto lo llamo flexibilidad tipo escopeta. Giren la cabeza as, disparen, y seguro que aciertan. +As, esta es la promesa del alto modernismo: dentro de un espacio simple puede suceder cualquier clase de actividad. +Pero como vemos los costos operativos estn empezando a disminuir los costos de instalacin en trminos de los parmetros de diseo. +Y entonces, con este tipo de ideas, sucede que, sin importar lo que est en el edificio el da de la inauguracin, o lo que parezca ser la necesidad ms inmediata, comienza a disminuir la posibilidad y como que se deja de lado, la posibilidad de que pueda suceder alguna otra cosa. +Por eso estamos proponiendo una clase diferente de flexibilidad, algo que llamamos "flexibilidad compartimentada". +Y la idea es que uno, dentro de ese continuo, identifique una serie de puntos y disee especficamente para ellos. +Estos puntos pueden alejarse un poco del centro pero al final uno todava conserva mucho de ese espectro que originalmente haba esperado. +En verdad, esto no funciona con la alta flexibilidad modernista. +Ahora voy a hablar de voy a construir la Biblioteca Central de Seattle de esta manera frente a ustedes en cinco o seis diagramas y quiero decirles que ste es el proceso que van a ver. +Tanto con el personal de la biblioteca como con su junta directiva, acordamos dos puntos clave. +Este es el primero: muestra la evolucin del libro y otras tecnologas durante los ltimos 900 aos. +Este diagrama fue nuestro posicionamiento respecto del libro; nuestra postura fue que los libros son tecnologa esto es algo que la gente olvida -- pero es una forma de tecnologa que tendr que compartir su predominancia con otros medios o tecnologas muy dominantes. +La segunda premisa -- y nos cost mucho convencer a los bibliotecarios de esto al principio es que las bibliotecas, desde el comienzo de la tradicin de la Biblioteca Carnegie en EE.UU. tuvieron una segunda responsabilidad, un rol social. +Bien, voy a volver sobre esto despus, pero algo que decan los bibliotecarios al principio: "No, esa no es nuestra misin". +Nuestra misin son los medios y, en particular, los libros". +De modo que lo que estn viendo ahora es, en realidad, el diseo del edificio. +El diagrama de la parte superior es lo que hemos visto en una multitud de bibliotecas contemporneas que utilizan alta flexibilidad modernista. +Una suerte de: cualquier actividad puede ocurrir en cualquier lugar. +Desconocemos el futuro de la biblioteca, desconocemos el futuro del libro, por eso usamos este enfoque. +Y en este caso, eran obviadas estas responsabilidades sociales como consecuencia de la expansin del libro. +Y entonces propusimos lo que aparece en el diagrama de la parte inferior. +Un enfoque muy tonto: +simplemente compartimentar. Colocar aquellas cosas cuya evolucin podamos predecir -- y con esto no quiero decir que podramos predecir el futuro pero s que tenemos alguna certeza del espectro de cosas que podran suceder en el futuro colocarlas en cajas diseadas especficamente para eso y poner las cosas que no podemos predecir en el techo. +As que este fue el meollo de la cuestin. +Ahora, tenamos que convencer a la biblioteca de que el rol social era algo tan importante como los medios para lograr que ellos acepten esto. +Lo que vemos aqu es en realidad su programa, a la izquierda. +Esto es lo que nos dieron en toda su claridad y esplendor. +Lo primero que hicimos fue darles nuestra opinin luego de digerirlo, mostrrselo y decirles: "Saben qu? No lo hemos tocado pero slo un tercio del programa est dedicado a los medios y a los libros. +Dos tercios ya est dedicado -- esa es la banda blanca de abajo -- a lo que dijeron que no es importante: ya est dedicado a funciones sociales". +As, una vez que se lo presentamos nuevamente, estuvieron de acuerdo en que esta especie de concepto core podra funcionar. +Tenamos el derecho de volver a los primeros principios ese es el tercer diagrama. Recombinamos todo. +Y entonces comenzamos a tomar nuevas decisiones. +Lo que vemos a la derecha es el diseo de la biblioteca, especficamente, en trminos de metraje. +A la izquierda de ese diagrama, aqu, vern una serie de cinco plataformas -- especie de peines; programas colectivos. +Y a la derecha estn los espacios ms indeterminados, como las salas de lectura, cuya evolucin en 20, 30, 40 aos no podemos predecir. +Entonces, ese fue literalmente el diseo del edificio. +Ellos lo firmaron, y para su disgusto, volvimos una semana despus y les presentamos esto. +Correcto? Y como pueden ver, es literalmente el diagrama de la derecha. +De acuerdo? Simplemente los dimensionamos no, de verdad, literalmente. +Las cosas de la las de la izquierda del diagrama, esas son las cajas. +Los dimensionamos en cinco compartimentos. +Son sper eficientes. Contbamos con un presupuesto muy limitado. +Los impusimos en el sitio para establecer relaciones contextuales muy literales. +La sala de lectura debera ver el agua. +La entrada principal debera tener una plaza pblica en frente para acatar el cdigo de urbanizacin, y cosas por el estilo. +Entonces, vean las cinco plataformas -- +esas son las cajas en cada una slo ocurre una cosa muy discreta. +El rea de entremedio es una especie de continuo urbano, esas cosas cuya evolucin no podemos predecir en el mismo grado. +Para darles una nocin del poder de esta idea: el bloque ms grande es lo que llamamos la espiral de libros. +Se construy, literalmente, de una manera muy econmica es un garage para libros. +Da la casualidad que est entre los pisos seis y diez del edificio pero eso no es necesariamente un enfoque costoso. +Nos permiti organizar todo el sistema decimal de Dewey en una secuencia continua: sin importar como crezca o se contraiga dentro del edificio siempre tendr su claridad para finalizar esa especie de sendero de lgrimas que todos hemos experimentado en las bibliotecas pblicas. +Esta fue la operacin final que consisti en tomar estos bloques que estaban desordenados y retenerlos con un revestimiento. +Este revestimiento cumple una doble funcin, por consideraciones econmicas. +Una es la estabilidad lateral del edificio en su conjunto: es un elemento estructural. Pero sus dimensiones fueron diseadas no slo para la estructura sino tambin para sostener los vidrios. +El vidrio fue entonces --simplemente usar la palabra impregnado -- tena una capa de metal que llamamos metal estresado. +Este metal acta como una micro persiana de modo que desde el exterior del edificio el sol lo ve como totalmente opaco pero desde el interior es totalmente transparente. +Bueno, ahora los voy a llevar a dar una vuelta por el edificio. +Djenme ver si puedo encontrarlo. Para los que sean +sensibles al movimiento, pido disculpas. +Entonces, este es el edificio. +Creo que lo importante fue que cuando mostramos el edificio por primera vez el pblico pens que lo vio como si se tratara de un capricho, de nuestro ego. +Y fue defendido, crase o no, por los bibliotecarios. Ellos dijeron: +"Miren, no sabemos qu es, pero lo que sabemos es que todo lo que necesitamos est que hicimos sobre el programa". +Esto va en una de las entradas. +Es un edificio inusual para una biblioteca pblica. obviamente. +Ahora estamos entrando a lo que llamamos la sala de lectura -- disculpen, la sala de estar. +Este es, en verdad, un programa que inventamos con la biblioteca. +Fue reconocer que las bibliotecas pblicas constituyen el ltimo vestigio de espacio pblico gratuito. +Existen muchos centros comerciales que nos permiten refugiarnos de la lluvia en el centro de Seattle pero no hay tantos lugares gratuitos que nos permitan refugiarnos de la lluvia. +sta era un rea no programada donde la gente poda hacer cualquier cosa, entre ellas: comer, vociferar, jugar al ajedrez, etc. +Ahora subimos a la que denominamos la cmara de mezcla. +Ese era, digamos, el rea principal de tecnologa del edificio. +Dganme si voy muy rpido. +Ahora hacia arriba. +Este es el lugar que pusimos en el edificio para que yo propusiera matrimonio a mi mujer. Justo ah. +Ella dijo que s. +Me estoy quedando sin tiempo as que voy a terminar. +Puedo mostrarles esto ms tarde. +Pero veamos si puedo entrar rpidamente a la espiral de libros porque, pienso, como dije, que es la parte ms -- esta es la sala principal de lectura la parte ms singular del edificio. +Ya estn mareados? +OK, entonces aqu, esta es la espiral de libros. +Bien, es bastante irreconocible pero en realidad es una escalera continua. +Permite, en una manzana, subir un piso completo de modo que es una continuidad. +Bien, ahora voy a ir hacia atrs y as llegar a un segundo proyecto. +Voy a ir muy, muy rpido. +Este es el Teatro Dallas. Fue un cliente inusual para nosotros +porque vinieron y nos dijeron: "Necesitamos que hagan un nuevo edificio. Hemos estado trabajando en +un espacio provisorio durante 30 aos razn por la cual nos hemos convertido en una compaa teatral de reputacin. +La actividad teatral est concentrada en Nueva York, Chicago y Seattle con la excepcin de la Compaa Teatral de Dallas". +Y el hecho de trabajar en un espacio provisorio significaba en realidad que para Beckett podan quitar una pared; podan representar "El jardn de los cerezos y cavar un pozo en el piso y cosas por el estilo. +De manera que construir un edificio de estas caractersticas fue una tarea muy intimidante; un edificio capaz de albergar -- un edificio prstino pero capaz de albergar ese tipo de naturaleza experimental. +Lo segundo es que ellos eran lo que llamamos un teatro multiforme: ellos tienen distintas clases de representaciones en el repertorio. +As, por la maana hacen algo en un teatro circular, luego algo en el proscenio, y as siguen. +Por eso necesitaban adaptarse rpidamente a diferentes disposiciones teatrales; y por cuestiones presupuestarias operativas esto, en verdad, ya casi no ocurre en ningn teatro multiforme de los Estados Unidos de modo que tenamos que encontrar la manera de resolverlo. +As, nuestra idea fue literalmente poner el teatro de cabeza: tomar aquellas cosas definidas previamente como frente al escenario y detrs del escenario y apilarlas -- arriba y abajo -- y crear lo que comenzamos a llamar la mquina teatral. +Invertimos el dinero en el funcionamiento del edificio. +Es como si el edificio pudiera ubicarse en cualquier lado: dondequiera que uno lo ponga, el rea de abajo est lista para representaciones teatrales. Y esto nos permite volver a los primeros principios +y redefinir la torre escnica, la persiana acstica, el sistema de iluminacin, etc. +Y con slo pulsar un botn el director artstico puede cambiar escenarios: proscenio, teatro abierto y, de hecho, arena y de piso llano en transfiguraciones muy rpidas. +De manera que, usando presupuesto operativo podemos -- disculpen, gasto de instalacin -- podemos lograr en realidad lo que ya no era posible mediante costo operativo. +Y esto significa que el director artstico ahora cuenta con una paleta que le permite escoger entre una serie de formas y procesiones dado que lo que rodea al teatro generalmente atrapado en espacios frontales y traseros, ese espacio ha sido liberado. +Por lo tanto un director artstico puede mostrar -- ejecutar una representacin en la que ingresa una procesin wagneriana, muestra el primer acto en un escenario abierto, el entreacto en una procesin griega, el segundo acto en arena, y as. +Bueno, les voy a mostrar qu qu significa esto realmente. +Este es el teatro de cerca. +Cada parte del teatro puede ser abierta individualmente. +El sistema de luces se puede levantar en forma separada de la persiana acstica, y as se puede representar Beckett +con Dallas como teln de fondo. Se pueden abrir porciones y as permitir el ingreso de motocicletas a la representacin o, incluso, ejecutar una representacin al aire libre o para los entreactos. +Todo el anfiteatro se mueve entre esas configuraciones pero tambin puede desaparecer. +La lnea de proscenio tambin puede desaparecer. +Se pueden ingresar objetos enormes, de hecho el primer espectculo de la Compaa Teatral de Dallas ser una obra sobre Charles Lindbergh y quieren traer un avin de verdad. +Y luego, en la temporada baja, pueden alquilar el espacio para actividades completamente diferentes. +Esto es de noche lo siento, desde una distancia. +Abren porciones enteras para diferentes clases de eventos. +Y de noche. +Nuevamente, suprimen las luces; mantienen la persiana acstica. +Este es un espectculo de camiones monstruo. +Ahora les voy a mostrar el ltimo proyecto. +Este tambin es un cliente poco habitual. +Ellos invirtieron completamente la idea de desarrollo inmobiliario. +Vinieron y dijeron -- a diferencia de los desarrolladores tradicionales -- dijeron: "Necesitamos comenzar por proveer un museo de arte contemporneo +en Louisville. Ese es nuestro objetivo principal". +Entonces, en vez de ser desarrolladores inmobiliarios que ven una oportunidad de hacer dinero, ellos se consideraron catalizadores +en el centro de su ciudad. Y el hecho de que quisieran apoyar de modo que trabajaron al revs. +Y esa pro forma nos llev a un edificio de usos mltiples que era muy grande para respaldar sus aspiraciones artsticas pero tambin abri oportunidades para que el propio arte colabore, interacte con los espacios comerciales en los que, cada vez ms, los artistas queran trabajar. +Y tambin nos haca pensar en la manera de conseguir al mismo tiempo un edificio simple y una especie creble de subestructura. +Bien, ahora voy a-- este es el perfil de la ciudad de Louisville -- y les voy a mostrar varias restricciones que nos llevan al proyecto. +Primero, las restricciones fsicas. En realidad tenamos que operar en tres sitios independientes, todos mucho, mucho ms pequeos que el tamao del edificio. +Tenamos que operar al lado del nuevo centro Mohamed Al, y respetarlo. +Tenamos que operar en el rea inundable de 100 aos. +Ahora, esta rea se inunda tres o cuatro veces al ao, y hay un dique detrs de nuestro sitio similar al que se rompi en Nueva Orlens. +Tenamos que operar detrs del corredor I-64, una calle que atraviesa estos sitios separados. +Entonces stas -- comenzamos a construir una especie de pesadilla de restricciones en una baera. +Debajo de la baera estn las lneas troncales de electricidad de la ciudad. +Y hay un corredor peatonal que ellos queran que agregsemos que conectara una serie de edificios culturales y un corredor panormico -- porque este es el distrito histrico -- que no queran obstruir con el nuevo edificio. +Y vamos a agregar cerca de 102 mil metros cuadrados. +Y si siguiramos el mtodo tradicional, esos 102 mil metros cuadrados -- estos son programas diferentes -- el mtodo consistira en identificar los elementos pblicos, ubicarlos en sitios, y tendramos una situacin terrible: algo pblico en medio de una baera que se inunda. +Y luego deberamos dimensionar los otros elementos -- los distintos elementos comerciales: hoteles, residencias de lujo, oficinas, etc. y arrojarlos arriba. Y crearamos algo +que no sera viable. +De hecho -- lo saben esto se llama el edificio Time Warner. +Entonces nuestra estrategia fue muy simple. +Simplemente elevar todo el bloque, rotar alguno de los elementos, reposicionarlos, para que tengan vistas apropiadas y relaciones con el centro de la ciudad, hacer conexiones de circulacin y desviar la calle. +Ese es el concepto bsico y ahora les voy a mostrar adnde nos lleva. +OK, parece un gesto muy formal, deliberado, pero algo completamente derivado de las restricciones. +Y cuando lo mostramos por primera vez, hubo nerviosismo en el sentido que se trataba de arquitectos haciendo una declaracin, y no de arquitectos que tratan de resolver una serie de problemas. +Ahora, dentro de esa zona cntrica, como dije, tenemos la posibilidad de mezclar una serie de cosas. +Aqu pueden ver que estos rayos X las torres +Entonces surge una situacin como esta, donde hay artistas que pueden operar dentro de un espacio de arte que tiene una vista increble en el piso 22 pero que tambin tiene proximidad que el curador puede abrir o cerrar. +Permite que la gente que hace ejercicios en bicicleta sea vista o vea el arte, etc. +Tambin significa que si el artista quiere apropiarse de algo, como una piscina, puede exhibir en la piscina, de modo que no estn forzados a trabajar siempre dentro de los confines del espacio de la galera de arte contemporneo. +Bien, cmo construir esto? +Muy simple: es una silla. +Entonces, comenzamos construyendo el ncleo. +A medida que construimos el ncleo construimos el museo de arte contemporneo a nivel. +Eso nos permiti lograr una increble eficiencia y eficacia de costos. +Este no es un edificio de alto presupuesto. +En el momento en que el ncleo llega al nivel medio terminamos el museo de arte, le colocamos todo el equipamiento mecnico, y luego lo levantamos con un gato hidrulico. +Esta es la manera en que se construyen los inmensos hangares, por ejemplo, los que se construyeron para el A380. +Cuando se termina el ncleo, obtenemos algo como esto. +Ahora slo tengo cerca de 30 segundos as que quiero comenzar una animacin y voy a concluir con eso. +Chris me pidi que agregue que el teatro est en construccin y que este proyecto comenzar a construirse aproximadamente dentro de un ao y finalizar en 2010. +Hace 15 aos, fui a visitar a un amigo en Hong Kong. +En esa poca yo era muy supersticioso. +As que, al aterrizar -- todava en el antiguo aeropuerto de Hong Kong llamado Kai Tak, cuando estaba justo en medio de la ciudad -- -- pens: Si veo algo bueno, me lo voy a pasar muy bien aqu estas dos semanas. Y si veo algo negativo, va ser un desastre. +As que el avin aterriz entre los edificios y se detiene frente a este pequeo cartel. +Y de hecho fui a ver algunas de las compaias de diseo en Hong Kong durante mi estancia +y result que -- slo fui para ver, ya saben, que estn haciendo en Hong Kong. +Pero de hecho me fui con una gran oferte de trabajo. +Y volv a Austria, hice mis maletas. Y, una semana ms tarde, estaba de vuelta en Hong Kong todava supersticioso y pensando: Bueno, si todava est esa cartelera de "Winner" Lo voy a pasar muy bien trabajando aqu. +Pero si no est, va a ser estresante y un desastre. +As que result que no solo el cartel todava segua ah sino que haban puesto ste al lado. +Por otro lado, sto me ense a dnde me lleva la supersticin porque realmente lo pas fatal en Hong Kong. +De todos modos, tuve varios momentos de verdadera felicidad en mi vida -- -- de, ya saben, creo que el folleto de la conferencia se refiere a momentos que te quitan la respiracin. +Y como soy muy bueno haciendo listas, los puse a todos en una. +Ahora, no es necesario que se tomen la molestia de leerlo y yo no lo voy a leer para ustedes. +Ya s lo verdaderamente aburrido que es escuchar sobre la felicidad de otras personas. +Lo que hice, sin embargo, es mirarlos desde el punto de vista del diseo y elimin aquellos que no tenan nada que ver con el diseo. +Y, para mi sorpresa, alrededor de la mitad de ellos, tenan relacin con el diseo. +As que hay, por supuesto, dos opciones. +Hay uno desde el punto de vista del consumidor -- -- en el que soy feliz mientras experimento el diseo. +Y les dar un ejemplo. Haba recibido mi primer Walkman. +En 1983. +Mi hermano tena su gran moto Yamaha que estaba dispuesto a prestarme libremente. +Y el casete de "Synchronicity" de Police que justo acababa de salir y no haba ninguna ley para usar casco en mi pueblo natal de Bregenz. +As que poda conducir por las montaas disfrutando libremente a The Police en el nuevo Sony Walkman. +Y lo recuerdo como un momento de felicidad. +Por supuesto que stos estn relacionados en una combinacin de al menos dos objetos de diseo. +Y, ya saben, existe una escala de felicidad cuando hablamos de diseo pero el incidente con la moto estara, ya saben situado en algun lugar aqu -- entre Placer y Dicha. +Ahora, hay otra parte, desde el punto de vista del diseador -- -- si eres feliz cuando lo estas hacindolo. +Y una manera de ver cmo de feliz estn los diseadores cuando disean podra ser, mirar a las fotos en la parte de atrs de sus monografas? +As que, segn esto, los australianos y los japoneses al igual que los mejicanos son muy felices. +Mientras que, de algn modo, los espaoles +... y, en mi opinin, especialmente los suizos no la estn pasando tan bien. +El pasado Noviembre se inagur un museo en Tokyo, llamado Museo Mori en un rascacielos, arriba en el piso 56. +Y su exposicin inagural se llamaba "Felicidad". +Y fui muy emocionado a verla porque -- Bueno, estaba ya pensando en esta conferencia. +Y muy curiosamente la exhibicin estaba separada en cuatro reas. +Bajo "Arcadia" mostraban cosas como sta, del periodo Edo -- -- cien maneras distintas de escribir "felicidad". +O tenan esta manzana de Yoko Ono -- que, por supuesto, ms tarde se convertira en el sello para The Beatles. +Bajo "Nirvana" mostraban este cuadro de Constable. +Y aqu haba una pequea -- una interesante teora acerca de la abstraccin. +ste es un campo azul -- de hecho es un cuadro de Yves Kline. +Y la teora era, que si se abstrae una imagen, realmente, saben, se puede abrir un gran espacio para lo irrepresentable -- -- y que por lo tanto, permite al espectador involucrarse ms. +Luego, bajo "Deseo", mostraban estas pinturas Shunsho -- tambin del perodo Edo -- tinta sobre seda. +Y por ltimo, bajo "Harmona", tenan esta mandala del Tibet del siglo 13. +Ahora, lo que me hizo salir de la exhibicin fue, quizs con la exepcin de la mandala, la mayora de las piezas ah eran sobre de la visualizacin de la felicidad, no sobre la felicidad. +Y me sent un poco engaado, porque la visualizacin --es lo realmente fcil de hacer. +Y, ya saben, mi estudio -- lo hemos hecho todo el tiempo. +sto es, ya saben, un libro. +Un perro feliz -- y lo haces salir, es un perro agresivo. +sto es un David Bryne feliz y un David Bryne enojado. +O un poster de jazz con un rostro feliz y un rosto mas agresivo. +Saben, no es un gran logro. +Y se ha llevado al punto donde, uds. saben, en publicidad o en la industria del cine, "feliz" se ha ganado tan mala reputacin que si realmente se quiere hacer algo con el tema y an parecer autntico, casi hay que, ya saben hacerlo desde un punto de vista cnico. +sto es, ya saben, el poster de una pelcula. +O mi estudio, que diseamos hace un par de semanas una caja conjunto de "The Talking Heads" donde la felicidad que se visualizaba en la cubierta era definitivamente mucho mas oscura. +Mucho, bastante ms difcil es ste, donde el diseo de hecho puede evocar felicidad. Les mostrar tres que, de hecho, lograron este efecto conmigo. +sta es una campaa hecha por un artista joven en Nueva York, que se llama a s mismo "True" . +Todo aquel que haya usado el metro de Nueva York estar familiarizado con estas seales. +El artista pint su propia versin de estas seales +Se reuni cada mircoles en una parada del metro con 20 de sus amigos. +Dividieron las diferentes lneas del metro y aadiendo su propia versin +sta es una. +Pues, sto funciona porque nadie nunca mira estas seales. +As que si se est aburrido en el metro, y se mira a algn lugar, +y tarda un instante hasta que de hecho -- se entiende que dice algo distinto a lo que normalmente dira. +Quiero decir, al menos, cmo me hizo feliz. +Ahora, este artista "True" es un humanitario de verdad. +No quiso que arrestasen a ninguno de sus amigos, as que les dio a todos esta tarjeta falsa de voluntario. +Y tambin les dio esta carta falsa del AMT -- como pretendiendo que es un proyecto artstico financiado por la Autoridad Metropolitana del Trnsito. +Otro proyecto de Nueva York. +sto es en P.S. 1 -- una escultura que es bsicament un cuarto cuadrado de James Turrell, que tiene un techo retraible. +Se abre al atardecer y al amanecer todos los dias +No se v el horizonte, +simplemente se est ahi, viendo los increibles, sutiles cambios en el color del cielo. +El cuarto realmente merece la pena ser visto. +La gente cambia cuando entra ah +y, tengan claro, no he vuelto a mirar al cielo de la misma manera despus de pasar una hora ah. +Existen, por supuesto, mas que esos tres proyectos que les he mostrado. +Podra decir definitivamente que observando la "Nube" de Vik Muniz hace un par de aos en Manhattan, me hizo feliz tambin. +Pero mi ltimo proyecto es, de nuevo, de un joven diseador de Nueva York. +Es de origen Koreano. +Y se tom la tarea de imprimir 55.000 burbujas de dilogo -- pegatinas de burbujas de dilogo vacas, grandes y pequeas. +Y va por Nueva York y simplemente las coloca, vacas, en los psters. +Y otras personas las llenan. +sta dice: Por favor djenme morir en paz +Creo que fue -- lo ms sorprendente para mi fue que lo escrito de hecho estaba muy bien +sta est en un poster de un msico, que dice: Estoy preocupado de que mi CD no venda ms de 200.000 unidades y que, como consecuencia, el adelanto de la disquera me ser arrebatado Despus de ello, mi contrato ser cancelado y estar de nuevo haciendo covers de Journey en la Calle Bleecker +Creo que la razn por la cual sto funciona tan bien es que todo el que se involucre gana +Jee logra hacer su proyecto; el pblico obtiene un ambiente ms agradable; y distinto pblico obtiene un espacio donde expresarse; y los publicistas finalmente logran que alguien mire sus anuncios +Bueno, haba una pregunta, que por supuesto se me qued en la mente un tiempo: uds. saben, puedo hacer ms cosas de las que me gusta hacer de diseo y menos cosas de las que no me gusta hacer? +Lo que me hizo regresar a mis listas -- uds. saben, slo para ver qu es lo que realmente me gusta de mi trabajo +Una es: simplemente trabajar sin presin +Luego: trabajar concentrado, sin estar exhausto +O, como dijo Nancy antes, realmente sumergirse en ello +Tratar de no atorarse haciendo la misma cosa -- -- o tratar de no atorarse en la computadora todo el dia +sto est, claro, relacionado: salir del estudio +Luego, desde luego, tratar de, ya saben, trabajar en cosas donde el contenido sea realmente importante para mi +Y ser capaz de disfrutar de los resultados +Y entonces encuentro otra lista en uno de mis diarios que contena todas las cosas que pens que haba aprendido hasta ahora en mi vida +Y, casi justo en ese momento, una revista austraca llam a preguntar si quera hacer seis pginas -- disear seis pginas que funcionen como pginas divisorias entre los diferentes captulos de la revista +Y todo el asunto cay en su lugar +As que simplemente tom una de las cosas que pens haber aprendido -- en este caso, "Todo lo que hago siempre regresa a mi" -- e hicimos estas pginas con referencia a esto +As que fue: TODO LO QUE HAGO SIEMPRE SE VUELVE A MI. +Hace una par de semanas, una compaa francesa nos pidi disear cinco carteleras para ellos +De nuevo, pudimos proveer el contenido +As que tomamos otra +Y esto fue hace dos semanas +Volamos a Arizona -- el diseador que trabaja conmigo y yo -- -- y fotografiamos sta. +As que es : TRATAR DE VERME BIEN LIMITA MI VIDA. +Y luego hicimos una ms de stas +De nuevo para una revista, pginas separadoras +Esta es : TENER esto, es lo mismo -- solo, bueno, lo fotografiamos desde el costado +sta desde el frente +y es: AGALLAS +De nuevo, es la misma cosa -- "AGALLAS", solo que vuelto a hacer en el mismo lugar +y luego: SIEMPRE FUNCIONA +y luego "PARA" con la luz encendida +y este soy "MI". +Muchas gracias +El mito es que proteger el ambiente es costoso o ya lo hubiramos hecho +por lo que el Gobierno necesita que hagamos sacrificios para solucionarlo. +Ahora sabemos que la proteccin ambiental no solo no es costosa, sino que es rentable. +Esto fue un simple error de signo, porque es ms barato ahorrar combustible que comprarlo, como bien saben las compaas que lo hacen todo el tiempo por ejemplo, Dupont, SD micro electronics. +Muchas otras empresas estn reduciendo su consumo energtico un 6% anual al arreglar sus plantas y recuperan el dinero invertido en dos o tres aos. +Eso se llama ganancia. +Del mismo modo, el mito sobre el petrleo es que querer ahorrar demasiado sera muy costoso, o ya lo hubiramos hecho, porque los mercados son esencialmente perfectos. +Claro que, si esto fuera cierto, no habra innovacin y nadie podra ganar dinero. +Este proceso tambin ser catalizado por los militares por razones propias de efectividad en combate y prevencin de conflictos, en particular por petrleo. +Esta tesis est planteada en un libro llamado "Winning the Oil Endgame" (Jaque mate al petrleo) que escrib con cuatro colegas y al que se puede acceder de manera gratuita en http://www.oilendgame.com/. Hasta ahora fue bajado unas 170.000 veces +y fue copatrocinado por el Pentgono. Es independiente, revisado por pares y todas las cuentas estn publicadas, de forma transparente, para que las revisen. +Creo que puede resultar til un poco de historia econmica. +Alrededor de 1850, la caza de ballenas era una de las mayores industrias en Estados Unidos +y el aceite de ballena alumbraba casi todos los edificios. +Pero en los nueve aos anteriores a que Drake encontrara petrleo, en 1859, al menos un 83% de ese mercado de iluminacin con aceite de ballena desapareci gracias a unos contrincantes mortales, sobre todo el petrleo y el gas de carbn, a los que los balleneros no haban estado prestando atencin. +As que, inesperadamente, se quedaron sin clientes antes de quedarse sin ballenas. +Las poblaciones restantes de ballenas fueron salvadas por innovadores tecnolgicos y capitalistas maximizadores de ganancias. +Y es cmico; es un poco lo que est ocurriendo con el petrleo ahora. +Hemos pasado las ltimas dcadas acumulando un importante arsenal de tecnologas para ahorrar y reemplazar el petrleo y nadie se haba molestado en sumarlas. +As que, cuando lo hicimos, nos llevamos unas grandes sorpresas. +Hay dos grandes razones para estar preocupados por el petrleo. +Tanto la competitividad nacional como la seguridad nacional estn en riesgo. +En cuanto a la competitividad, todos sabemos que Toyota tiene ms capitalizacin de mercado que nuestras tres grandes automotrices juntas. +Y una fuerte competencia de Europa, Corea, y prximamente China, quien pronto ser una gran exportadora neta de autos. +Cunto tiempo creen que pasar hasta que lleven a casa su nuevo auto supereficiente fabricado por una automotriz de Shanghi? +Quizs una dcada, segn mis amigos de Detroit. +China tiene una poltica energtica basada en una eficiencia energtica radical y tecnologa avanzada. +No van a exportar el Buick de tu to. +Y luego de eso viene la India. +El punto aqu es que estos autos van a ser supereficientes. +La pregunta es quin los fabricar. +Continuaremos en Estados Unidos importando autos eficientes para reemplazar el petrleo extranjero o haremos autos eficientes para no importar ni el petrleo ni los autos? +Eso parece tener ms sentido. +Cuanto ms continuamos usando petrleo, en especial petrleo importado, ms nos enfrentamos a una serie de problemas evidente. +Nuestro anlisis asume que tienen un costo cero, pero cero no es el nmero correcto. +Por ejemplo, bien podra llegar a duplicar el precio del petrleo. +Y una de las peores consecuencias de esto es lo que le hace a nuestra posicin en el mundo si otros pases piensan que todo lo que hacemos est relacionado con el petrleo, si tenemos que tratar a los pases que tienen petrleo de manera diferente que a los que no tienen petrleo. +Y nuestros militares no estn demasiado felices de tener que proteger oleoductos en tierras lejanas cuando en realidad a lo que se comprometieron fue a proteger a los ciudadanos estadounidenses. +No les gusta pelear por petrleo, no les gusta estar en la arena y no les gusta hacia donde va el dinero del petrleo y la clase de inestabilidad que genera. +Bien, evitar estos problemas, cualquier sea el valor que crean que tienen, no es en realidad tan complicado. +Podemos ahorrar la mitad del petrleo usndolo de forma ms eficiente, a un costo de 12 dlares por barril ahorrado. +Y luego podemos reemplazar la otra mitad con una combinacin de biocombustibles avanzados y gas natural seguro. +Y el costo promedio de eso es de menos de 18 dlares por barril. +Y, en comparacin con el pronstico oficial, ese petrleo costar 26 dlares por barril en 2025, que es la mitad de lo que hemos estado pagando ltimamente. Eso nos permitir ahorrar 70 mil millones de dlares al ao, y para ello no habr que esperar demasiado. +Para hacer esto necesitamos invertir unos 180 mil millones de dlares. La mitad, para actualizar las industrias de autos, camiones y aviones, y la otra, para desarrollar la industria del biocombustible avanzado. +En el proceso generaremos cerca de un milln de puestos de trabajo, sobre todo rurales, +y protegeremos otro milln en riesgo, sobre todo en la industria automotriz. +Y tambin obtendremos una ganancia de unos 150 mil millones de dlares al ao. +As que esa es una ganancia considerable. +Es financiable en el mercado de capital privado. +Pero si lo quieren por las razones que acabo de mencionar, para que suceda ms pronto y con mayor seguridad, y tambin para expandir las alternativas y gestionar el riesgo, entonces quiz les gusten algunas polticas pblicas sutiles que apoyen la lgica de negocios en vez de distorsionarla u oponrsele. +Y estas polticas funcionan bien sin impuestos, subsidios o mandatos, +generan un poco de dinero neto para el tesoro, +tienen un amplio atractivo transideolgico y, dado que s queremos que se vuelvan realidad, encontramos modos de implementarlas que no requieren de demasiada legislacin federal y puede, de hecho, hacerse de manera administrativa o a nivel estatal. +Solo para ilustrar qu hacer respecto a la esencia del problema, esto es, los vehculos livianos, aqu hay cuatro autos conceptuales ultralivianos de compuesto de carbono y baja resistencia aerodinmica y todos, excepto el de arriba a la izquierda, son hbridos completos. +Con estos no hace falta privarse de nada. +Por ejemplo, este Opel de dos asientos alcanza los 250 km/h a razn de 40 km por litro. +Este deportivo de Toyota: 408 caballos de fuerza en un ultraliviano que acelera de 0 a 100 en menos de 4 segundos y aun as recorre 13,5 km por litro. Luego hablar ms sobre esto. +Y en la esquina superior izquierda, un logro pionero de hace 14 aos de GM: 36 km por litro sin siquiera usar un hbrido, en un auto de cuatro asientos. +Pues bien, ahorrar ese combustible, 69% del combustible en los vehculos livianos, cuesta unos 15 centavos por litro ahorrado. +Pero esto es aun mejor para los camiones pesados, donde se ahorra una cantidad similar a unos 6,6 centavos por litro por medio de una mejor aerodinmica, y ruedas, y motores y dems y quitando peso para poder aumentar la capacidad de carga. +As que se puede duplicar la eficiencia con una tasa interna de retorno del 60%. +Luego se puede ir ms all, y casi triplicar la eficiencia con algunas mejoras operacionales, y as duplicar los mrgenes de las grandes transportistas. +Y pretendemos usar esos nmeros para incrementar la demanda y dar vuelta el mercado. +En el negocio de los aviones ocurre algo parecido donde el primer 20% de ahorro de combustible es gratis como lo est demostrando Boeing con su nuevo Dreamliner. +Pero luego la siguiente generacin de aviones ahorra alrededor de la mitad. +De nuevo, mucho ms econmico que comprar el combustible. +Y si en los prximos 15 aos nos inclinamos por un cuerpo de ala combinada, una especie de ala voladora con motores internos, obtendremos el triple de eficiencia a un costo comparable o menor. +Permtanme enfocarme por un minuto en los vehculos livianos, los autos y camionetas, porque es con los que ms estamos familiarizados; probablemente todos aqu manejan uno. +Y aun as quizs no nos demos cuenta de que en un sedan estndar, de todo el combustible que se le pone al auto ms de un 87% nunca llega a las ruedas. Se pierde primero en el motor en ralent a 0 km por litro, el tren motriz y los accesorios. +As que de la energa que finalmente llega a las ruedas, que es slo un 12%, la mitad calienta los neumticos sobre el pavimento o el aire que el auto empuja +y slo esta pequea parte, slo un 6%, termina, en realidad, acelerando el auto y luego calentando los frenos al detenerse. +De hecho, dado que el 95% del peso que se est moviendo es el auto y no el conductor, menos del 1% de la energa del combustible termina moviendo al conductor. +Esto no es demasiado gratificante luego de ms de un siglo de dedicados esfuerzos de ingeniera. +Adems, el 75% del consumo de combustible se debe al peso del auto. +Y, como se ve en el diagrama, es obvio que cada unidad de energa que se ahorre en las ruedas va a evitar que se desperdicien otras siete unidades de energa en llevar esa energa a las ruedas. +As que hay una enorme presin para hacer los autos mucho ms livianos. +Pero estas objeciones estn desapareciendo gracias los avances en materiales. +Por ejemplo, usamos muchos compuestos de fibra de carbono en productos deportivos. +Y resulta que estos son sorprendentemente seguros. +Aqu hay un auto de carbono McLaren SLR hecho a mano que fue chocado por un Golf. +El Golf qued destruido. +Al McLaren slo se le sali y ray el panel lateral. +Se lo volvern a colocar y luego arreglarn el rayn. +Pero si este McLaren se estrellara contra un muro a 100 km/h, toda la energa del choque sera absorbida por un par de conos de compuesto de fibra de carbono, que pesan un total de 7 kilos, ocultos en la parte delantera, +porque estos materiales podran absorber de 6 a 12 veces la cantidad energa por libra que podra el acero y de un modo mucho ms suave. +Y esto significa que hemos descifrado el acertijo de la seguridad y el peso. +Podramos hacer autos ms grandes, lo cual brinda proteccin, pero hacerlos livianos. +Mientras que si los hiciramos pesados, seran tanto hostiles como ineficientes. +Y hacerlos livianos del modo correcto puede resultar ms simple y barato. +Se puede terminar ahorrando dinero y petrleo y salvar vidas todo al mismo tiempo. +Hace dos aos mostr un poco aqu sobre el diseo de un deportivo utilitario tipo de eficiencia quintuplicada en el que no se ha sacrificado nada. Y este es un diseo completamente virtual que es producible a un costo viable. +Y el proceso necesario para fabricarlo est comenzando a estar disponible en el mercado. +Y la fabricacin que se puede hacer de esta forma se simplifica radicalmente +porque el cuerpo del auto tiene solo, digamos, 14 partes en lugar de 100 o 150. +Cada una se forma con juego de troqueles bastante econmico en lugar de los cuatro costosos necesarios para el estampado de acero. +Cada una de las partes puede levantarse con facilidad sin una gra. +Se enganchan como si fueran un juguete, +por lo que se deshacen del taller de carrocera +y, si quieren, pueden agregar color en el molde y deshacerse del taller de pintura. +Esas son las dos partes ms difciles y costosas de fabricar un auto, +por lo que se acaba con, como mnimo, un 40% menos de intensidad de capital que la planta ms eficiente de la industria, que es la que GM tiene en Lansing. +La planta tambin se achica. +Y luego otros 6 pueden hacerse de forma competitiva de etanol de celulosa y un poco de biodisel sin interferir en absoluto con la tierra y el agua necesarias para la produccin de cultivos. +Hay una enorme cantidad de combustible que se puede ahorrar; alrededor de la mitad del combustible del pronstico a un 12% de lo que cuesta. +Y aqu hay algunos sustitutos bastante obvios, y queda un gran excedente. +Tanto, de hecho, que luego de haberse ocupado del pronstico de petrleo nacional de reas ya aprobadas, solo resta esta pequea parte, y veamos cmo podemos encargarnos de ella, porque hay un abanico de opciones bastante flexible. +Podramos, claro, comprar ms eficiencia: +quizs deberamos comprar eficiencia a 26 dlares en lugar de 12, +o esperar a que llegue la segunda parte. +O podramos, por supuesto, conseguir solo esta pequea parte si seguimos importando algo de petrleo de Canad y Mxico o el etanol que a los brasileros les encantara vendernos. +Pero, en cambio, se lo vendern a Japn y China, porque nosotros tenemos barreras tarifarias para proteger a nuestros agricultores y ellos, no. +O podramos directamente usar el combustible ahorrado para cubrir todo este resto, o si lo usramos como hidrgeno, que es mucho ms rentable y eficiente, nos libraramos del petrleo nacional tambin. +Y eso sin siquiera tener en cuenta que, por ejemplo, las tierras disponibles en Dakota del Norte y del Sur pueden generar suficiente energa elica como para hacer funcionar cada vehculo urbano en el pas. +As que tenemos muchsimas opciones. +Y la eleccin de opciones y tiempos es bastante flexible. +Bien, para hacer que esto suceda con mayor rapidez y seguridad, hay unas cuantas formas en que el Gobierno puede ayudar. +Por ejemplo, una combinacin de recargos y descuentos, en cualquier segmento de automvil que quieran, puede aumentar el precio de los vehculos ineficientes y, del mismo modo, otorgar un descuento en los vehculos eficientes. +No les pagan por cambiar de segmento; +les pagan por elegir la opcin eficiente dentro de un segmento, como si tuvieran en cuenta el ahorro de combustible a lo largo de los 14 aos de vida del vehculo en lugar de solo los primeros 2 o 3. +Esto expande rpidamente las alternativas en el mercado y, de hecho, tambin genera ms dinero para las automotrices. +Me gustara lidiar con la falta de movilidad personal asequible en este pas logrando que las familias de bajos ingresos puedan conseguir a bajo precio autos nuevos, eficientes, confiables y garantizados a los que, de otra manera, jams podran acceder. +Y por cada auto que se financie de este modo, desguazar uno viejo, preferentemente los ms sucios. +Para Detroit, esto significa que vendern un milln de autos ms por ao a clientes que de otro modo no hubieran tenido porque eran insolventes y jams podran haber comprado un auto nuevo. +Y Detroit ganar dinero con cada unidad. +Resulta que si, supongamos, las familias blancas y afroamericanas tuviesen la misma cantidad de autos, la desigualdad laboral se reducira a la mitad al existir mejor acceso a oportunidades laborales. +As que esta es tambin una gran victoria social. +Los Gobiernos compran cientos de miles de autos al ao. +Hay formas inteligentes de adquirirlos y sumar ese poder de compra de modo de introducir vehculos muy eficientes al mercado con mayor velocidad. +Y hasta podramos ofrecer una recompensa como la del X Prize para incentivar el desarrollo. +Por ejemplo, un premio de mil millones de dlares para la primera automotriz estadounidense que venda 200.000 vehculos realmente avanzados como algunos de los que vieron antes. +Las aerolneas tradicionales no pueden comprar los aviones nuevos y eficientes que necesitan desesperadamente para ahorrar combustible, pero si filosficamente sintieran deseos de hacer algo al respecto, existen modos de financiarlo. +y de, al mismo tiempo, desguazar los aviones viejos e ineficientes, porque, de otro modo, si volvieran a volar gastaran mas petrleo y obstaculizaran la adquisicin de aviones nuevos y eficientes. +Esos aviones relativamente ineficientes valen ms muertos que vivos para la sociedad. +Deberamos dispararles y hacer que los persigan los cazarrecompensas. +El ejrcito tambin juega un rol importante. +Para estimular la fabricacin comercial de grandes volmenes y a bajo costo de este tipo de materiales o, para el caso, de aceros ultralivianos, que son una buena tecnologa de respaldo, el ejrcito puede hacer lo mismo que hizo para transformar DARPAnet en Internet: +dejaron que se encargara el sector privado y as apareci Internet. +Lo mismo con el GPS. +Lo mismo para la industria moderna de los semiconductores. +Esto es, la tecnologa y la ciencia militar que ellos necesitan pueden crear el cluster industrial de materiales que transforme la economa civil y libre al pas del petrleo. Esto contribuira enormemente a eliminar los conflictos por el petrleo y a mejorar la seguridad nacional y global. +Luego tendremos que actualizar la industria automotriz y reentrenar al personal y cambiar la convergencia de las cadenas de valor agrcola y energtica para acelerar el cambio de los hidrocarburos a los carbohidratos y librarnos de otros modos de los obstculos que nos ponemos +y acelerar la transicin hacia vehculos ms eficientes. +Pero he aqu cmo encajan las partes. +En lugar de que los pronsticos oficiales de consumo de petrleo y las importaciones de petrleo continen aumentando por siempre, pueden disminuir con la eficiencia de 12 dlares por barril, disminuir drsticamente si aadimos los sustitutos de 18 dlares del lado de la oferta todo implementado a un ritmo ms lento que el que llevbamos cuando prestbamos atencin. +Y si comenzamos a agregar partes de hidrgeno pronto dejaremos de importar petrleo y para la dcada de 2040 ya no lo consumiremos. +Y lo que me gustara destacar aqu es que ya hemos hecho esto. +En este perodo de ocho aos, de 1977 a 1985, cuando prestamos atencin por ltima vez, la economa creci un 27% y el consumo de petrleo cay un 17%. La importacin de petrleo cay un 50%. La importacin de petrleo del Golfo Prsico cay un 87%. +Si hubisemos mantenido esa tendencia un ao ms, todas esas importaciones se habran terminado. +Bien, eso fue con tecnologas y mtodos de entrega muy antiguos. +Hoy podramos recrear esa jugada mucho mejor. +Sin embargo, lo que demostramos en aquel entonces fue que EE.UU. tiene mayor poder de mercado que la OPEC. +El nuestro est del lado de la demanda. +Somos la Arabia Saudita de los "negabarriles". Podemos reducir nuestro consumo de petrleo ms rpido de lo que ellos pueden reducir sus ventas. +Cualquiera sea la razn por la que quieran hacer esto, sea porque estn preocupados por la seguridad nacional o la volatilidad de los precios... ...o el trabajo, o el planeta, o sus nietos, creo que podemos dar jaque mate al petrleo y que todos deberamos jugar para ganar. +Por favor, descarguen sus copias, y muchas gracias. +Si estn presentes aqu hoy, y estoy muy contenta de que as sea, es porque han escuchado decir que el desarrollo sostenible nos salvar de nosotros mismos. Sin embargo, cuando no estamos en TED se nos dice que una agenda real de poltica sostenible no es viable. Especialmente en grandes reas urbanas como Nueva York. +Esto sucede porque los que tienen el poder de tomar decisiones, tanto en el sector pblico como en el privado, en realidad no sienten que estn en peligro. +El motivo por el cual estoy aqu hoy es, en parte, por un perro: una cachorrita abandonada que encontr bajo la lluvia en 1998, +que result ser una perra mucho ms grande de lo que imagin. +El rea tiene, adems, la menor cantidad de parques de la ciudad. +De modo que cuando me contactaron del Departamento de Parques para obtener un subsidio de 10 000 dlares en semillas para el desarrollo de proyectos a la orilla del ro, pens que las intenciones eran buenas pero un tanto ingenuas. +Viv en esta rea toda mi vida y no se poda ir al ro por todas esas hermosas instalaciones que he mencionado antes. +Un da, mientras corra en el parque, mi perra me condujo hacia lo que pens que era simplemente otro basurero ilegal. +Haba malezas, pilas de basura y dems sustancias que no mencionar aqu. Mi perra continu conducindome hasta que llegamos al ro. Supe que vala la pena salvar ese pequeo lugar olvidado, abandonado como la perra que me haba llevado all. +Y supe que crecera hasta ser el orgulloso comienzo de la revitalizacin llevada a cabo por la comunidad del nuevo sur del Bronx. +Y, como mi perra, fue una idea que creci ms de lo que haba imaginado. +Cosechamos mucho apoyo durante el camino. Y el Hunts Point Riverside Park se convirti en el primer parque de la ribera del ro, el primero que tuvo el sur del Bronx en ms de 60 aos. +Multiplicamos ese subsidio de 10 000 dlares en semillas por 300, y as se convirti en un parque de 3 millones de dlares. Y en el otoo... en realidad +voy a comprometerme con mi pareja. Muchas gracias. Ese fue l que presiona estos botones de aqu, lo hace todo el tiempo. +. Los que vivimos en comunidades de justicia ambiental somos el canario en la mina de carbn. Sentimos los problemas en el momento. +Para los que no estn familiarizados con el trmino, la justicia ambiental se trata de que ninguna comunidad debera llevar ms cargas ambientales y menos beneficios ambientales que otras. +Lamentablemente, las razas y las clases son indicadores confiables de dnde encontrar lo bueno, como parques y rboles, y dnde encontrar lo malo, como plantas nucleares y basureros. +Como persona negra en los EE.UU., tengo ms posibilidades que un blanco de vivir en un rea donde la contaminacin del aire sea un peligro para mi salud. +Tengo ms posibilidades de vivir muy cerca de una planta nuclear o qumica, y de hecho as es. Estas decisiones sobre el uso de la tierra crearon condiciones hostiles que provocan obesidad, diabetes y asma. +Por qu alguien saldra a caminar en un barrio txico? +El 27% de obesidad que tenemos es alto, incluso para este pas, y genera la diabetes. +Uno de cada cuatro nios del sur del Bronx tiene asma. +La tasa de hospitalizacin por asma es siete veces mayor a la media nacional. +Estas consecuencias nos afectan a todos. +Y todos pagamos un precio muy alto por el desperdicio slido, problemas de salud relacionados con la contaminacin y ms detestable aun el costo del encarcelamiento de nuestros jvenes negros y latinos, quienes tienen un potencial inmensurable sin explotar. +El 50% de nuestros residentes viven por debajo de la lnea de pobreza. El 25% de nosotros est desempleado. Los ciudadanos con bajos recursos +frecuentemente visitan las salas de emergencia como consultorios de atencin primaria. +Esto implica un alto costo para los contribuyentes sin beneficios proporcionales. +Los pobres no solo siguen siendo pobres, sino que siguen estando enfermos. +Felizmente, hay muchas personas que estamos esforzndonos por encontrar soluciones que no comprometan las vidas de las comunidades de bajos recursos a corto plazo y que no nos destruyan a largo plazo. +Nadie desea eso. Es lo que tenemos en comn.Y qu ms tenemos en comn? +En primer lugar, todos somos increblemente apuestos -- +-- nos graduamos de la secundaria, la universidad, el posgrado, viajamos a lugares interesantes, no tuvimos hijos en la adolescencia, somos econmicamente estables, nunca estuvimos en prisin, bien. +Bien. . Pero, adems, al ser una mujer negra, soy diferente a ustedes en muchos aspectos. +Vi incendiarse a casi la mitad de los edificios de mi barrio. +Mi hermano mayor, Lenny, luch en Vietnam y luego asesinado de un tiro a unas pocas manzanas de nuestra casa. +Por Dios! Crec al frente de una casa que produca y venda drogas. +S, soy una nia pobre del ghetto. +Estas son las cosas que nos diferencian. +Pero las cosas que tenemos en comn me separan de las personas de mi comunidad. Y me encuentro entre estos dos mundos, con el amor suficiente como para pelear por la justicia. +De modo que por qu las cosas fueron tan diferentes para nosotros? +A fines de la dcada de 1940, mi padre, un empleado del ferrocarril, hijo de esclavos, compr una casa en el rea de Hunts Point, en el sur del Bronx. y unos aos despus se cas con mi madre. +Entonces, la comunidad era un barrio de blancos de clase trabajadora. +Mi padre no estaba solo. +Y a medida que otros como l buscaban su propia versin del sueo americano, era comn que los blancos se mudaran del sur del Bronx y de muchas otras ciudades del pas. +Los bancos y ciertas reas de nuestra ciudad tenan lneas rojas y as quedaban fuera del alcance de cualquier inversin. +Muchos arrendadores crean que era ms rentable quemar sus edificios y cobrar el seguro que venderlos en esas condiciones, a pesar de los anteriores inquilinos muertos o heridos. +Hunts Point era anteriormente una comunidad de trabajadores, pero en ese momento los residentes se quedaron sin trabajo, y sin hogar. +A estos problemas se sum el auge de la construccin de autopistas nacionales. +En el estado de Nueva York, Robert Moses encabez una agresiva campaa de autopistas. +Uno de sus principales objetivos fue facilitar el camino para los residentes de comunidades ricas que deban viajar del condado de Westchester a Manhattan. +El sur del Bronx, que queda en el medio, no tuvo opcin. +Los residentes reciban un aviso con menos de un mes de anticipacin antes de la demolicin de sus edificios. Se desalojaron a 600 000 personas. +La percepcin comn era que los proxenetas, los narcotraficantes y las prostitutas eran del Bronx. +Y si desde nio te dicen que no hay nada bueno en tu comunidad que es mala y fea cmo no va a reflejarse en uno? +As, nuestra propiedad no vala nada, excepto que era nuestro hogar, todo lo que tenamos. +Y felizmente para m, esa casa y el amor que tena, ms la ayuda de mis maestros, mentores y amigos fue suficiente. +Ahora, por qu es importante esta historia? +Desde una perspectiva de planificacin, la degradacin econmica genera la degradacin ambiental, que a su vez genera la degradacin social. +La falta de inversin que comenz en la dcada de 1960 prepar el terreno para todas las injusticias ambientales que vendran. +An hoy se usan legislaciones anticuadas sobre el uso de la tierra para que sigan existiendo las instalaciones contaminantes en mi barrio. +Se tienen en cuenta estos factores cuando se decide la poltica del uso de la tierra? +Cul es el precio de estas decisiones? Quin paga? +Quin gana? Hay algo que justifique lo que sufre la comunidad? +Esta era una "planificacin", que no consideraba nuestros intereses. +Cuando nos dimos cuenta de esto, decidimos que debamos hacer nuestra propia planificacin. +El pequeo parque del que les he hablado fue la primera etapa de un movimiento ecologista en el sur del Bronx. +Solicit un subsidio federal de 1 milln 250 mil dlares para transporte para disear el plano de una explanada en la ribera del ro con ciclovas. +Las mejoras fsicas ayudan a informar la poltica pblica sobre seguridad vial, la ubicacin de basureros y otras instalaciones, que, si se hace correctamente, no compromete la calidad de vida de la comunidad. +Brindan oportunidades de ser ms activos fsicamente y de desarrollo econmico. +Tiendas de bicicletas, puestos de jugo... +Contamos con 20 millones de dlares para construir los proyectos de la primera fase. +Esta es Lafayette Avenue y aqu est rediseada por los arquitectos Matthews-Nielsen. +Este circuito conectar el sur del Bronx con ms de 160 hectreas del parque de Randall's Island. +En este momento nos separan alrededor de 7 metros de agua, pero esto cambiar. +A medida que cuidemos el medioambiente, su abundancia nos devolver an ms. +Conducimos un proyecto que se llama Bronx Ecological Stewardship Training que brinda capacitacin en restauraciones ecolgicas para que la gente de nuestra comunidad pueda aspirar a estos trabajos bien pagados. +Poco a poco, estamos sembrando el rea con trabajos de ecologa, y as la gente tendr participacin financiera y personal en el medioambiente. +La autopista Sheridan es una reliquia de la era de Robert Moses construida de detrimento de los barrios que quedaron divididos. +Incluso en las horas pico, casi no se utiliza. +La comunidad cre un plan de transporte alternativo que permite la eliminacin de la autopista. +Ahora podemos reunir a todos los interesados para prever cmo pueden utilizarse mejor estas 12 hectreas y crear parques, viviendas asequibles y desarrollo econmico local. +Tambin construimos el primer techo ecolgico y fresco de Nueva York sobre nuestras oficinas. +Los techos frescos son superficies altamente reflectantes que no absorben el calor solar y lo transportan al edificio o a la atmsfera. +Los techos ecolgicos son de tierra y plantas. +Y adems constituyen un hbitat para nuestros pequeos amigos. +. Qu guay! +Este proyecto es un trampoln para nuestro propio negocio de instalacin de techos ecolgicos que generar empleo y actividad econmica sostenible en el sur del Bronx. +. . Tambin me encanta eso. +S que Chris nos pidi que no publicitemos nada aqu, pero como tengo toda su atencin: necesitamos inversores. Fin de la publicidad. +Es mejor pedir perdn que pedir permiso. +. . +Antes del Katrina, el sur del Bronx y la Novena Guardia de Nueva Orleans tenan mucho en comn: gran cantidad de poblacin negra +y ambos son la cuna de la innovacin cultural, piensen en el hip-hop y el jazz. +Ambas son comunidades a orillas del ro que tienen industrias y residentes que viven cerca de ellas. +En la era post Katrina, tenemos an ms cosas en comn. +En el mejor de los casos somos ignorados, y en el peor, maldecidos y abusados por agencias reguladoras negligentes, zonificacin perniciosa y responsabilidad gubernamental dbil. +La destruccin de la Novena Guardia y del sur del Bronx fue inevitable. +Pero hemos aprendido valiosas lecciones sobre cmo desenterrarnos. +Somos ms que simples smbolos nacionales de las zonas urbanas deprimidas. O problemas que se resuelven con vacas promesas de campaa de presidentes que van y vienen. +Permitiremos que la costa del Golfo de Mxico languidezca por una o dos dcadas como el sur del Bronx? +O tomaremos medidas y aprenderemos del recurso propio de activistas radicales que surgieron de la desesperacin en comunidades como la ma? +No esperamos que los individuos, las empresas o el gobierno hagan de este mundo un lugar mejor porque es lo correcto. +Esta presentacin solo da cuenta de lo que he estado haciendo, +solo una pequesima parte. No tienen idea pero +si quieren saber les contar despus. +Pero s que es el resultado final, o lo que se percibe de ste, lo que motiva a las personas. +Me interesa lo que llamo el "triple resultado final" que puede producir el desarrollo sostenible. +Desarrollos que pueden generar frutos positivos para todos: los desarrolladores, el gobierno y la comunidad donde se realizan los proyectos. +Actualmente, eso no sucede en Nueva York. +Y estamos trabajando con un dficit en el planeamiento urbano integral. +Se destina una enorme cantidad de subsidios gubernamentales para la construccin de hipermercados y estadios en el sur del Bronx. Pero hay una coordinacin deficiente entre las agencias de la ciudad para tratar los efectos del aumento de trnsito, contaminacin y residuos slidos y el impacto en el aire. Y la manera en que abordan la economa local +y el desarrollo laboral es tan pobre que ni siquiera es gracioso. +Porque adems de ello, el equipo deportivo ms rico del mundo est reemplazando al estadio Yankee Stadium al destruir dos parques que la comunidad adora. +Tendremos an menos que el estadio que he mencionado antes. +Y si bien menos del 25% de los residentes del sur del Bronx tienen automviles estos proyectos incluyen miles de nuevos estacionamientos aunque carecen de importancia en trminos de trnsito pblico masivo. +Lo que le falta al debate amplio es un anlisis de la relacin costo-beneficio entre no arreglar una comunidad insalubre cambios estructurales sostenibles. +Mi agencia est trabajando de la mano de la Universidad de Columbia y otras para tratar estos problemas. +Pongamos las cosas en claro: yo no estoy en contra del desarrollo. +Vivimos en una ciudad, no en una reserva natural. Y he aceptado el capitalista que llevo dentro. +Y seguramente todos ustedes lo llevan tambin, y si no lo han aceptado deberan hacerlo. +. Entonces, no tengo ningn problema con que los desarrolladores ganen dinero. +Hay suficiente evidencia que demuestra que el desarrollo sostenible, que no daa la comunidad puede ser un negocio millonario. Compaeros de TED, Bill McDonough y Emery Lovins, personas que admiro por cierto, han demostrado que esto es posible. +S tengo problema con los desarrollos que hperexplotan comunidades vulnerables polticamente para obtener ganancias. +Que esto siga sucediendo es una vergenza para todos porque todos somos responsables del futuro que creamos. +Siempre trato de recordar que existen grandes posibilidades de aprender de visionarios de otras ciudades. +Esta es mi versin de la globalizacin. +Tomemos como ejemplo a Bogot: una ciudad pobre, latina, acosada por la violencia y el narcotrfico, una reputacin no muy diferente a la del sur del Bronx. +Y sin embargo, la ciudad tuvo la suerte en los 90 de contar con un intendente influyente llamado Enrique Pealosa. +Se fij en la demografa. +Aunque pocos bogotanos tienen automviles, los recursos de la ciudad estaban a su servicio. +Si eres alcalde, puedes hacer algo al respecto. +Su administracin redujo las vas pblicas principales de 5 carriles a 3 carriles, se prohibi el estacionamiento en ellos, se extendieron las peatonales y las ciclovas, se crearon plazas pblicas, y se cre uno de los sistemas de transporte pblico ms eficiente del mundo. +Por estos brillantes esfuerzos, el alcalde casi debi enfrentar un juicio poltico. +Pero cuando las personas vieron que ocupaban un lugar primordial en estos asuntos que reflejaban sus vidas diarias, sucedieron cosas increbles. +Las personas dejaron de arrojar basura en la calle. Se redujo la delincuencia. +Porque las calles estaban vivas, llenas de personas. +Su administracin se ocup de varios problemas urbanos tpicos de una sola vez y con un presupuesto del tercer mundo. +No tenemos excusas en este pas. Lo siento. +Pero el ejemplo de Bogot tiene el poder de cambiar esa visin. +Ustedes tienen el don de la influencia. +Por eso estn aqu y valoran la informacin que intercambiamos. +Utilicen su influencia para apoyar el cambio sostenible integral en cualquier parte. +No hablemos de ese cambio solo en TED. Estoy intentando construir una agenda poltica nacional y como todos sabemos, la poltica es personal. +Aydenme a hacer verde al nuevo negro, a hacer que la sostenibilidad sea sensual. +Lo convirtamos en parte de las conversaciones en las cenas o las fiestas. +Aydenme a luchar por la justicia ambiental y econmica. +Apoyen las inversiones que darn una ganancia final triple. +Aydenme a democratizar la sostenibilidad al reunir a todos en la mesa e insistir con que un planeamiento integral puede llevarse a cabo en cualquier lugar. +Uy qu bien! Tengo un poco ms de tiempo. +Cuando habl con Al Gore el otro da despus del desayuno, le pregunt cmo seran incluidos los activistas de la justicia ambiental en su nueva estrategia de marketing. +Me respondi que lo hara mediante un programa de subsidios. +Creo que no comprendi que yo no le estaba pidiendo financiamiento. +Yo le estaba haciendo una oferta. . Lo que me preocup es que esta visin de arriba hacia abajo an est presente. +Bueno, no me malinterpreten. S necesitamos dinero. . Pero necesitamos tambin que haya grupos en el proceso de decisiones. +Al 90% de energa que Gore nos record que desperdiciamos todos los das, no le agreguemos nuestra energa, inteligencia y experiencia que nos cost tanto adquirir. . He venido desde lejos para reunirme con ustedes, +no me desperdicien. Si trabajamos juntos, podemos convertirnos en esos grupos pequeos que crecen rpidamente y que tienen el coraje y la audacia de creer que en realidad podemos cambiar el mundo. +Podemos haber venido a esta conferencia en etapas muy diferentes en la vida, pero cranme, todos tenemos en comn algo increblemente poderoso: +no tenemos nada que perder y tenemos todo por ganar. +Ciao bellos! +Voy a llevaros en un viaje muy rpidamente. +Para explicar mi deseo, tendr que llevaros a un lugar donde muchas personas no han estado, y sto es alrededor del mundo. +Cuanto tenia 24 aos, Kate Stohr y yo fundamos una organizacin para que arquitectos y diseadores se involucraran en el trabajo humanitario. No slo para responder a desastres naturales, pero tambin para involucrarse en problemas sistmicos. +Creamos que dnde los recursos y la experiencia son escasos, la innovacin y diseo sostenible pueden cambiar la vida de las personas. +Todo comenz -- Yo comenc mi vida como arquitecto, o entrenando como arquitecto, y siempre me interes el diseo socialmente responsable, y cmo realmente crear un impacto. +Pero cuando estudiaba arquitectura, pareca que yo era la "oveja negra" de la familia. +Muchos arquitectos piensan que cuando diseas, diseas una joya, y es una joya lo que debes querer realizar. Pero yo senta que al disear, o mejoras, o bien empeoras la comunidad para la cual ests diseando. +As que no ests solamente creando un edificio para residentes o para las personas que lo van a usar, sino para toda la comunidad. +En 1999, comenzamos respondiendo al problema de la crisis de vivienda para los refugiados que regresaban a Kosovo +y yo no saba lo que estaba haciendo, como dije, era veinteaero, y pertenezco a la generacin de Internet, as que creamos un sitio web. +Hicimos una convocatoria, y para mi sorpresa, en un par de meses recibimos cientos de propuestas de todo el mundo. +Eso llev a a la construccin de unos cuantos prototipos y a experimentar con algunas ideas. +Dos aos despus empezamos un proyecto para desarrollar clnicas ambulantes en frica subsahariana, en respuesta a la pandemia de VIH/SIDA. +Eso -- llev a 550 propuestas de 53 pases. +Tambin tenemos diseadores de todo el mundo que participan. +Y tuvimos una exposicin del trabajo despus. +2004 fue un ao decisivo para nosotros. +Comenzamos a responder a desastres naturales y a involucrarnos en Iran y Bam, y tambin haciendo un seguimiento a nuestro trabajo en frica. +Trabajando dentro de los Estados Unidos, la mayora de la gente piensa en la pobreza y ve el rostro de un extranjero, +pero vayan a vivir --Yo vivo en Bozeman, Montana -- suban a las planicies norteas en las reservas de indios nativos, o bajen a Alabama o Mississippi antes de Katrina, y les hubiera mostrado lugares que estn en peores condiciones que muchos pases en vas de desarrollo. +As que nos involucramos y trabajamos en estos barrios de ciudad y en otras partes. Y tambin otros proyectos. +en el 2005 la Madre Naturaleza nos di una paliza. +Creo que podemos decir que el 2005 fu un ao terrible en lo que se refiere a desastres naturales. +Y debido a Internet, y a las conexiones a blogs y dems, a las pocas horas del tsunami, ya habamos recaudado fondos, involucrndonos, trabajando con las personas sobre el terreno. +Trabajamos con un par de porttiles en los primeros das, Me llegaron 4.000 correos electrnicos de personas que necesitaban ayuda. +As que comenzamos a meternos en proyectos ah, y les comentar acerca de otros. +Y por supuesto, este ao hemos respondido a Katrina, al mismo tiempo que hacamos un seguimiento de nuestros trabajos de reconstruccin. +Este es un breve resmen. +En 2004 yo no podia administrar ell nmero de personas que queran ayudar, ni el nmero de peticiones que estaba recibiendo. +Todo llegaba a mi porttil y telfono mvil +As que decidimos adoptar un -- modelo de negocio de cdigo abierto, en el que cualquiera, en cualquier parte del mundo, pudiera comenzar un captulo local, e involucrarse en problemas locales. +Porque creo que no existe la Utopa. +Los problemas son locales. Las soluciones son locales. +Entonces, eso significa que, alguien que vive en Mississippi, sabr ms sobre Mississippi que yo. Lo que pas fue que, +usamos "MeetUp" y otros tipo de herramientas de Internet, y tuvimos 40 captulos que iniciaron, miles de arquitectos en 104 pases. +Entonces, el punto principal --perdn, no soy de llevar traje, ya saba que me lo iba a quitar. +Bien, porque voy a hacer esto muy rpido. +En los ltimos siete aos, esto no se trata solamente del esfuerzo sin nimo de lucro. +Lo que me ense es que se est iniciando un gran movimiento de diseadores socialmente responsables que creen que este mundo se ha vuelto muy pequeo, y que tenemos la oportunidad -- no la responsabilidad, la oportunidad -- de involucrarnos de verdad hacia el cambio. +Voy a agregar eso a mi tiempo. +Lo que no sabeis es, que tenemos estos miles de diseadores trabajando en todo el mundo, conectados bsicamente por un sitio web, y tenemos slo a tres empleados. +Haciendo algo, el hecho de que nadie nos dijo que no lo podamos hacer, +lo hicimos. Esto dice algo de la ingenuidad. Siete aos despus, nos hemos desarrollado al punto de tener defensores, +instigacin e implementacin. Abogamos por el buen diseo, no slo mediante talleres con estudiantes, seminarios, foros pblicos, y artculos, tenemos un libro sobre trabajo humanitario, pero tambin sobre la mitigacin de desastres y como lidiar con la poltica pblica. +Podramos hablar de FEMA, pero eso sera otra charla. +Instigacin, desarrollo de ideas con las comunidades y ONGs creando concursos de diseo de cdigo abierto. +Arbitrando, comprometindonos con las comunidades +e implementando -- realmente ir a estos lugares y hacer el trabajo, porque cuando uno inventa, no se hace realidad hasta que se construye. +Es muy importante que si estamos diseando y tratando de cambiar las cosas, que seamos capazes de construir el cambio. +Estos son algunos de los proyectos. +Kosovo. Esto es Kosovo en el '99. Lanzamos un concurso abierto de diseo, +y, como os cont, surgi una gran variedad de ideas, +y no se trataba de refugios de emergencia, sino de refugios transicionales que duraran de 5 a 10 aos, que seran colocados junto al terreno en el que viva el residente, en el que reconstruiran su nuevo hogar. +No se trataba de imponer una arquitectura a la comunidad, se trataba de proporcionarles las herramientas y, el espacio para permitirles reconstruir y crecer de la manera que ellos quisieran. +Tenemos desde lo sublime hasta lo ridculo, pero funcionaron. +Esta es una casa de camo inflable. Se construy; funciona. +Esta es una caja contenedora. Construida y funcionando. +Y toda una variedad de ideas que no slo tratan con la construccin arquitectnica, pero tambin con problemas gubernamentales y la idea de crear comunidades mediante redes complejas. +As que no slo involucramos a diseadores, pero tambin a una variedad enorme de profesionales con bases tecnolgicas. +Usando escombros de casas destruidas para construir nuevas. +Usando fardos de paja para construir, creando muros de aislamiento. +Y entonces ocurri algo excepcional en el '99. +Fuimos a frica, originalmente a observar un problema de vivienda. +En tres das nos dimos cuenta que el problema no era la vivienda; era la creciente pandemia de VIH/SIDA. +Y no eran los mdicos los que nos decan esto; eran los habitantes de las aldeas quienes nos lo decan. +Y se nos ocurri la brillante idea de que, en lugar de que la gente caminara 10 o 15 kilmetros para ver al mdico, llevar los mdicos a la gente. +Y comenzamos a hablar con la comunidad mdica. Y yo pens, nosotros pensamos que ramos realmente brillantes, unos cracks -- se nos ocurre esta idea genial, clnicas ambulantes que -- pueden distribuirse por toda Africa subsahariana. +Y la comunidad mdica de ah dijo, "Esto lo llevamos diciendo durante la ltima dcada. Lo sabemos, esto. +Solamente que no sabamos cmo ilustrarlo". +As que, de alguna manera, tomamos una necesidad existente y dimos soluciones. +Y de nuevo, surgieron una gran variedad de ideas. +Esta en particular me encanta, porque la idea de esta arquitectura no es slo de soluciones, sino de crear conciencia. +Esta es una clnica hecha de kenaf. Se plantan semillas y se cultiva en un terreno, y entonces -- esto crece ms de 4 metros en un mes. +Y a la cuarta semana, los mdicos vienen y cortan una zona, colocan una estructura tensil en la parte de arriba y cuando los mdicos han terminado de tratar y de ver a los pacientes, se corta la clnica y se puede comer. Es una Clnica Comestible. +De esta manera, se est tratando con el hecho de que si se tiene SIDA se necesita tener una buena alimentacin, y la idea es que la alimentacin es tan importante como son los antivirales. +As que, sabeis, es una solucin seria. +sta me encanta. La idea es que no es solo una clnica -- es un centro comunitario. +Con esto se busca establecer rutas de comercio y motores econmicos dentro de la comunidad, para que pueda ser un proyecto auto-sostenible. +Cada uno de estos proyectos es sostenible. +Y no es porque yo sea una persona ecolgica. +Es porque, si vives con cuatro dlares al da, tienes que sobrevivir y para eso hay que ser sostenible. +Tienes que saber de donde viene tu energa. Tienes que saber de donde vienen tus recursos. Y tienes que mantener tus costes de mantenimiento al mnimo. +As que se trata de tener un motor econmico, y por la noche se convierte en un cine. +No es una clnica de SIDA. Es un centro comunitario. +Pueden ver las ideas. Y estas ideas se convierten en prototipos, y eventualmente se construyeron. En lo que va de ao, ya hay clnicas ambulantes en Nigeria y Kenia. +De ah tambin desarrollamos Siyathemba, que fue un proyecto -- +la comunidad vino a nosotros y nos dijo, que el problema es que las nias no tenan educacin. +Y estamos trabajando en un lugar donde jovencitas de entre 16 y 24 aos tienen una tasa del 50% de VIH/SIDA +Y no es porque sean promscuas, es porque no hay conocimiento. +Y por eso decidimos considerar la idea de los deportes y crear un centro de deportes para jvenes que a la vez sirviera de centro de divulgacin sobre VIH/SIDA y los entrenadores del equipo femenino tambin eran mdicos entrenados. +Para que lentamente se desarrollara un especie de confianza en el cuidado de la salud. +Seleccionamos a nueve finalistas, y esos nueve finalistas se distribuyeron en toda la regin, y despus la comunidad eligi su diseo. +Ellos dijeron, ste es nuestro diseo, porque no slo se trata de involucrar a la comunidad, es darle poder a esa comunidad y hacer que formen parte del proceso de reconstruccin. +El diseo ganador es este, y por supuesto, +fuimos y trabajamos con la comunidad y con los clientes. +Aqu est el diseador. El est ah afuera trabajando +con el primer equipo de ftbol femenino en Kwa-Zulu Natal, Siyathemba, +y ellos pueden contarlo mejor. +Video: Bueno, mi nombre es Sisi, porque trabajo en el centro Africano +Soy consultora y tambin soy jugadora nacional de ftbol +para Sudfrica, Bafana Bafana, +y tambin juego en la Liga Vodacom para el equipo llamado Tembisa, que ahora se llama Siyathemba. +Este es nuestro campo de juego. +Cameron Sinclair: Lo mostrar despus porque se me est acabando el tiempo. +Puedo ver a Chris mirndome de reojo. +Este fue un contacto, una reunin con alguien que quera desarrollar el primer centro de telemedicina, en Tanzania. +Y nos conocimos, literalmente, hace un par de meses. Ya hemos desarrollado un diseo, +y el equipo est all, trabajando en conjunto. +Fue un emparejamiento, gracias a dos personas de TED: Cheryl Heller y Andrew Zolli, que nos conectaron con esta increble mujer africana. +Comenzaremos la construccin en junio, y estar listo para TEDGlobal. +Asi que cuando vengan a TEDGlobal, podrn verlo. +Pero nos conocen mejor probablemente por nuestrs trabajo en desarrollo y en respuesta a desastres naturales, y nos hemos involucrado en muchos problemas, como el tsunami y como el huracn Katrina. +Esto es un refugio que cuesta 370 dlares y se puede montar fcilmente. +Esto es diseo comunitario. Un centro comunitario diseado por la misma comunidad. +Y eso significa que nosotros vivimos y trabajamos con la comunidad, y ellos son parte del proceso de diseo. +Los nios se involucran en la ubicacin en dnde debera estar el centro, y posteriormente, +la comunidad est entrenando adquiriendo habilidades, y terminan construyendo el edificio con nosotros. +Aqu est otra escuela. +Esto es lo que la O.N.U. d a estas personas para seis meses -- 12 lonas de plstico. +Esto fue en agosto. Esto fue el reemplazo, +y se supone que deba durar dos aos. +Cuando cae la lluvia no escuchas otra cosa, y en verano se est a 60 grados adentro. +Entonces dijimos, si llueve, capturemos el agua. +Cada una de nuestras escuelas tiene un sistemas de captura de lluvia, de muy bajo coste. +Una clase, tres aulas y un sistema de captura de lluvia son cinco mil dlares. +El dinero se recaud vendiendo chocolate caliente en Atlanta. +Est construido por los padres de los nios. +Los nios estn en el lugar, construyendo los edificios. +Y se inaugur hace un par de semanas, y ahora hay 600 nios que utilizan las escuelas. +Y el desastre lleg a casa. +Hemos visto historias terribles en CNN y en Fox, etcetera, pero nunca vemos las buenas noticias. +Esta comunidad que se uni y dijo no a esperar. +Formaron una alianza, una asociacin de diversos participantes para mapear Biloxi del Este, para averiguar quin se estaba involucrando +Tuvimos 1.500 voluntarios reconstruyendo y rehabilitando casas. +Investigando las normativas de FEMA, sin esperar a que ellos nos dijeran como reconstruir. +Trabajando con los residentes, sacndolos de sus casas, +para que no enfermaran. Esto es lo que ellos estn arreglando por s mismos. +Diseando la vivienda. Esta casa estar lista en un par de semanas. +Esta es una casa rehabilitada, realizada en cuatro das. +Esto es una lavandera para una mujer que camina con andador. +Tiene 70 aos. Esto es lo que di FEMA. +600 dlares, ocurri hace dos das. +Montamos rpidamente una estructura para el lavadero. +Est construido, funcionando y hoy arranc su negocio, donde lava ropa para la gente. +Estos son Shandra y los Calhouns. Son fotgrafos +que han documentado el barrio Lower Ninth durante los ltimos 40 aos. +Este era su hogar, estas son las fotografas que tomaron. +Y les ayudamos, trabajando con ellos para crear un edificio nuevo. +Proyectos que hemos hecho. Proyectos de los que formamos parte y apoyamos. +Por qu las agencias de ayuda no hacen sto?. Esta es una tienda de la O.N.U. +Esta es la nueva tienda de la O.N.U. de este ao. +Rpido de montar. Tiene una solapa, se es el invento. +Tardaron 20 aos en disear esto e implementarlo. +Yo tena 12 aos. Hay un problema aqu. +Por suerte no estamos slos. +Hay cientos, y cientos y cientos y cientos de arquitectos y diseadores e inventores alrededor del mundo que estn involucrados en trabajo humanitario. +Ms casas de camo -- muy popular en Japn aparentemente. +No estoy seguro que estarn fumando. +Esto es un gancho diseado por alguien que dijo, lo nico que necesitas es una manera de sujetar estructuras txtiles a vigas de soporte. +Esta persona dise para la NASA -- ahora hace casas. +Voy a comentar sto rpidamente, porque s que tengo slo un par de minutos. +Esto es todo lo que se ha hecho en los ltimos dos aos. +Os mostr algo que tard 20 aos en hacer. +Y sto es solo una parte de lo que se hizo en -- de lo que construimos el los ltimos dos aos. +Desde Brasil a India, Mxico, China Israel, Palestina, Vietnam +La edad media de un diseador que se involucra en este proyecto es de 32 -- es la edad que tengo yo. As que es un joven -- Tengo que detenerme aqui, porque Arup est por aqu y ste es el bao mejor diseado del mundo. +Si alguna vez estn en la India, vayan y usen este bao. +Chris Luebkeman os dir porqu. +Estoy seguro de que es as como l queria pasar la fiesta, pero -- +pero el futuro no sern ciudades de rascacielos como Nueva York, ser sto. Y cuando ves esto, ves crisis. +Y lo que yo veo son muchos, muchos inventores. +Mil millones de personas viven en pobreza extrema. +Omos hablar de ello todo el tiempo. +Cuatro mil millones viven en crecientes pero frgiles economas. +Uno de cada siete vive en asentamientos no planificados. +Si no hacemos nada respecto a la crsis de viviendoa que est a punto de ocurrir, dentro de 20 aos, una de cada tres personas vivir en un asentamiento informal o en un campo de refugiados. Mira a la izquierda, a la derecha: uno de vosotros estar ah. +Cmo mejorar los condiciones de vida de 5 mil millones de personas? +Con diez millones de soluciones. +Mi deseo es desarrollar una comunidad que activamente adopte el diseo innovador y sostenible para mejorar las condiciones de vida de todos. +Chris Anderson: Espera, espera un momento. se es tu deseo? +CS: se es mi deseo. +CA: se es su deseo! +Comenzamos Architecture for Humanity con 700 dlares y un sitio web. +Y mira tu, Chris ha decidido darme 100.000 dlares. +As que porqu no toda esta gente? +La aquitectura de cdigo abierto es la respuesta. +Tienes a una diversa comunidad de participantes -- y no hablamos solamente de inventores y diseadores, hablamos del modelo de financiacin. +Mi papel no es de diseador; soy un vnculo entre el mundo del diseo y el mundo humanitario. +Y lo que necesitamos es algo que replique lo que hago yo, globalmente, porque no he dormido en siete aos. +En segundo lugar qu ser esto? +Diseadores quieren responder a problemas de crisis humanitaria, pero no quieren que una compaa occidental se aproprie de su idea con fines lucrativos. +Creative Commons ha desarrollado una licencia para pases en desarrollo. +Y eso significa que un diseador puede - el proyecto Siyathemba que mostr fue el primero en construirse bajo una la licencia Creative Commons. +En cuanto est constuido, cualquiera en frica u otra nacin en desarrollo podr tener acceso a los documentos de construccin y replicarlos gratuitamente. +Entonces por qu no dar la oportunidad a los diseadores de hacer esto, pero all msmo tiempo proteger sus derechos, aqu? +Queremos tener una comunidad donde se puedan subir ideas, y esas ideas puedan probarse en terremotos, inundaciones, en todo tipo de ambientes austeros. Esto es importante porque no quiero esperar al siguiente huracn Katrina para saber si mi casa funciona. +Ser demasiado tarde. Necesitamos hacerlo ahora. +Hacindolo globalmente. Y quiero que todo esto funcione en muchos idiomas. +Cuando piensas en el rostro de un arquitecto, la mayora se imagina un seor blanco y canoso. +Yo no veo eso. Yo lo que veo es el rostro del mundo. +Quiero que todos en el mundo entero, puedan participar en este diseo y desarrollo. +La idea de concursos surgidos de la necesidad -- el Premio X para el otro 98%, +si quieren llamarlo as. Tambin quermos buscar formas de crear enlaces y juntar a patrocinadores. +Y la idea de integrar fabricantes -- laboratorios en cada pas. Cuando oigo hablar del porttil de 100 dlares +y que va a educar a todos los nios, eduquemos a todos los diseadores del mundo. Pongamos a uno en cada favela, +en cada barriada, porque sabes qu, la innovacin ocurrir. +Y yo necesito saberlo. Se le llama transferencia. +Hablamos de transferencia de tecnologas. Escribo para Worldchanging, y lo que hemos estado hablando es que, Aprendo ms sobre el terreno de lo que jams aprend aqu. +As que tomemos esas ideas, adaptmoslas y podremos usarlas. +Estas ideas deben ser adaptables, pueden ser -- deben tener el potencial para evolucionar, deberan ser desarrolladas por todas las naciones del mundo y ser tiles para cada nacin del mundo. Qu se necesita? +Debera haber una hoja. No tengo tiempo de leer esto, +porque me van a echar. +CA: Djalo ah por un momento. +CS: Bueno qu se necesita? Sois listos. +Requiere un gran esfuerzo de calculacin, porque yo quiero que -- Quiero que desde cualquier porttil en cualquier parte del mundo se pueda conectar al sistema y no solo participar en el desarrollo de estos diseos, sino utilizar los diseos. Tambin, un proceso de revisin de los diseos. +Quiero que todos los ingenieros Arup del mundo revisen y se aseguren de que estamos haciendo cosas que se mantengan de pie, porque esos tios son los mejores del mundo. Enchufe. +Y para que sepais, yo quiero estos -- debo decir, que tengo dos porttiles y uno de ellos est ah y contiene 3000 diseos. Si se daa ese portatil qu pasara? +Entonces es importante tener estas ideas probadas, subidas a la web, fcil de usar, fcil de acceder. +Mi mam una vez dijo, no hay nada peor que hablar demasiado y no llevar pantalones. +Estoy harto de hablar sobre el cambio. +Slo puedes realizarlo hacindolo. +Hemos cambiado las guas de FEMA. Hemos cambiado la poltica pblica. Hemos cambiado la respuesta internacional -- en base a la construccin de cosas. +Para mi, lo importante es que creemos un conducto real para la innovacin, la innovacin libre. +Piensa en la cultura libre -- esto es la innovacin libre. +Alguien dijo sto hace un par de aos. +Le dar puntos a quien lo conozca, +Creo que se adelant unos 25 aos, as que hagmoslo. +Gracias. +No puedo ms que con este deseo pensar en cuando eres nio y tu -- tus amigos te preguntaban si un genio -- te diera un slo deseo, qu le pediras? +Y siempre les contestaba, Yo quisiera que con el deseo supiera-- me gustara tener la sabidura para saber exactamente qu pedir." +Pues entonces estaras jodido pues sabrias qu desear pero ya habras usado tu deseo. Y ahora, ya que slo tenemos un deseoa diferencia del ao pasado cuando tenan tres -- No voy a desear eso. +Hablemos de lo que deseara, que es la paz mundial. +Ya s qu estarn pensando. Estn pensando, pobre nia -- cree que compite en un concurso de belleza. +Pero no lo est. Est en las charlas del Premio TED. +Pero yobuenoa m me parece que s tiene sentido, +y creo que la primera etapa en lograr la paz mundial es que la gente se conozca. +He conocido mucha gente diferente con los aos y he filmado a algunas -- desde un ejecutivo de internet de Nueva York que quera conquistar el mundo hasta un oficial militar de la prensa en Qatar que preferira no conquistar el mundo. +Si han visto la pelcula Control Room que se estren comprenderan un poco por qu. Gracias. +Qu bueno! Algunos de ustedes la vieron. Estupendo. Estupendo. +Asi que, de lo que quisiera hablar hoy es un medio que permite que la gente viaje, que se conozca entre s de manera distinta-- porque no puedes recorrer todo el mundo al mismo tiempo. +Y hace mucho tiempobueno, hace unos 40 aos, mi mam hospedaba a una estudiante de intercambio. +Y les voy a mostrar unas fotos de ella. +Ella es Donna. +Esta es Donna en la Estatua de la Libertad. +Esta es mi madre y ta enseando a Donna cmo montar en bicicleta. +Esta es Donna comiendo helado. +Y esta es Donna enseando a mi ta una danza filipina. +Y no todos podemos participar en programas de intercambio, y no puedo obligar a todo el mundo a viajar. De eso ya he hablado con Chris y Amy, y me dijeron que haba un problema con este plan. No puedes obligar a alguien que tiene libre albedro, y estoy de acuerdo. +Asi que no vamos a obligar a la gente a viajar. +Pero quiero hablar sobre otra manera de viajar que no necesita un buque o un avin, sino unicamente una cmara, un proyector y una pantalla. +Y de eso les voy a hablar hoy. +Me pidieron que les hablara un poco sobre mis propias races, y Cameron, no s cmo lograste salvarte de eso, pero creo que construir puentes es importante para m debido a mis races. +Soy hija de madre norteamericana y padre egipcio libans sirio. +As que soy el producto de la unin de dos culturas. +Sin nimo de bromas. +Tambin me han llamado-- como mujer norteamericana egipcia libanesa y siria con apellido persa-- la Crisis de Paz del Medio Oriente. +As que para m tal vez tomar fotos fue una manera de unir ambos lados de mi familia, una manera de llevar los mundos conmigo, de contar historias visualmente. +En cierta medida empez as, pero creo que me di cuenta en serio del poder de la imagen cuando fui por primera vez al pueblo de los basureros en Egipto. Cuando tena unos 16 aos, mi madre me llev all. +Ella cree firmemente en el servicio comunitario y decidi que esto era algo que yo necesitaba hacer +as que fui y conoc varias mujeres increbles ah. +Haba gente quehaba un centro all-- donde enseaban a la gente a leer y escribir y vacunarse contra las muchas enfermedades que puedes contraer por revisar la basura. +Y empec a ensear all. +Enseaba ingls, y conoc a unas increbles mujeres all. +Conoc a gente que vive con siete personas en una sola habitacin, que apenas puede comprar la cena, no obstante tienen una gran fuerza de voluntad y un gran sentido del humor. Y tienen cualidades increbles. +Me atrajo esta comunidad y empec a tomar fotos all. +Saqu fotos de bodas y de los miembros mayores de la familias, de cosas que ellos queran recordar. +Unos dos aos despus de comenzar a tomar fotografas, la Conferencia de la ONU sobre Poblacin y Desarrollo me pidi mostrar las fotos en la conferencia. +Tena 18 aos, estaba muy entusiasmada. +Era mi primera exhibicin de fotos y las haban puesto todas, y dos das despus, haban quitado las fotos excepto por tres. +La gente estaba muy ofendida, muy molesta de que mostrara esos lados sucios de Cairo, y por qu no cort el burro muerto de la foto? +Y mientras me quedaba all, me deprim mucho. +Miraba esta gran pared vaca que tena tres fotos solitarias, que eran unas fotos muy bonitas, pero sent que haba fracasado. +Pero vea estas intensas emociones y sentimientos que haba surgido de la gente con slo ver estas fotos. +All estaba yo, una tontita de 18 aos a quien nadie escuchaba, y de repente puse estas fotos en la pared y hubo discusiones y las tuvieron que quitar. +Y en ese momento vi el poder del imagen. Y fue increble. +Y creo que la reaccin ms importante que vi all vena de las personas que nunca habran ido al pueblo de los basureros, que nunca habran visto que el espritu humano podra florecer en circunstancias tan difciles. +Y creo que fue en ese momento que decid que quera utilizar la fotografa y la cinematografa para tender puentes, juntar culturas, juntar gente, cruzar fronteras. +Y eso fue lo que me hizo comenzar. +Hice un trabajo en MTV, un film llamado Startup.com, y luego como en el 2000 -- Hice un par de filmes musicales -- +pero en 2003, cuando la guerra en Irak estaba por comenzar, Sent -- fue un sentimiento surreal para mi porque antes de comenzar la guerra, haba esta guerra meditica. +Y estaba mirando la tele en Nueva York y pareca haber un nico punto de vista que se proyectaba, e iba de-- la cobertura iba del Departamento de Estado de EEUU a las tropas estacionadas +y lo que la gente -- lo que proyectaban las noticias era que habra una guerra limpia y bombardeos de precisin, y los iraques aclamaran a los norteamericanos como libertadores lanzando flores a sus pies en las calles de Baghdad. +Y yo saba que haba una historia completamente distinta ocurriendo en el Medio Oriente donde estaban mis padres. +Yo saba que all se contaba una historia totalmente diferente, y yo pensaba cmo se va a comunicar la gente entre s cuando reciben mensajes totalmente distintos y nadie sabe nada de lo que se dice al otro lado? +Cmo se va a llegar a una comprensin comn para saber cmo avanzar al futuro? +As que supe que tena que ir ah. +Slo quera estar en el centro. +No tena planes, no tena fondos. +As que yo pensaba, esta estacin que es odiada por tanta gente debe estar haciendo algo bien. +Tengo que investigarlo. +Tambin quera visitar Central Command, que quedaba a 10 minutos de distancia, y as +podra acceder a ver cmo se creaban las noticias desde el lado rabe para el mundo rabe, y desde el lado occidental para los EEUU. +Y cuando fui y me sent all, y conoc a estas personas que estaban en el centro de todo y me sent con estos personajes, conoc algunas personas sorprendentes, muy complejas. +Y me gustara compartir con ustedes un poco de esa experiencia de sentarte con una persona y filmarla, y escucharla, y permitirles ms que un segmento de cinco segundos, +y ver la asombrosa complejidad que surge. +Sameer Khader: Sin novedades. +Irak. He estado en Irak. +Pero entre t y yo, si Fox me ofrece trabajo, lo aceptar. +Transformar la pesadilla rabe en el sueo americano. +Todava sueo con esto. +Quiz nunca se cumpla. Pero tengo planes para mis hijos. +Cuando terminen la secundaria los mandar a Amrica a estudiar. +Les pagar los estudios. +Y se quedarn all. +Josh Rushing: la noche que mostraron los prisioneros de guerra y los soldados muertos -- Al Jazeera los mostr -- fue muy impactante porque en Amrica no se muestran este tipo de imgenes. +La mayora de las noticias norteamericanas no muestran imgenes muy sangrientas y esto mostraba soldados norteamericanos uniformados esparcidos por el suelo, un fro piso de losa. +Y era repugnante. +Era absolutamente repugnante. +Me hizo sentir mal del estmago. +Y lo que me impact fue que, la noche anterior, hubo un bombardeo en Basra, y Al Jazeera mostr imgenes de la gente. +Eran igual de horrorosas, si no ms que stas. +Y recuerdo haberlas visto en la oficina de Al Jazeera y pens, Ay, qu asqueroso! +Qu terrible!" +Y luego me fui, y cen o hice cualquier cosa. +Y no me impact tanto. +Entonces -- el impacto de darme cuenta de que acababa de ver la gente del otro lado, y esa gente de la oficina de Al Jazeera se senta como yo me sent aquella noche. Me afect a un nivel profundo que no me molestara tanto la noche anterior. +Me hace odiar la guerra. +Pero no me hace creer que estemos en un mundo que pueda vivir sin guerra an. +Jehane Noujaim: Me abrum la respuesta a la pelcula, +porque no sabamos si podramos lanzarla. +No tenamos fondos para la pelcula. +Tuvimos mucha suerte de que fuera seleccionada, +y cuando la mostramos, tanto en los Estados Unidos como en el mundo rabe recibimos unas reacciones increbles. +Fue asombroso ver cmo esta pelcula impact a la gente. +En el mundo rabeen realidad no era la pelcula lo que los impact, sino los personajes. Es decir, Josh Rushing era un personaje increblemente complejo que reflexionaba sobre muchas cosas. +Y cuando mostr el film en el Medio Oriente la gente deca- la gente quera conocer a Josh. +En cierta medida nos redefini como poblacin americana. +lla gente empezaba a preguntarme, dnde est ese tipo ahora? +Al Jazeera le ofreci un empleo. +Y Sameer, por otro lado, tambin era un personaje interesante para el mundo rabe, porque aflor la complejidad de esta relacin amor / odio que el mundo rabe tiene con Occidente. +En los Estados Unidos, me asombraron las motivaciones, las motivaciones positivas del pueblo norteamericano al ver esta pelcula. +Y vi este fenmeno en las audiencias. +Cmo comprendemos lo que est pensando la otra persona?" +Ahora, no s si una pelcula puede cambiar el mundo, +pero s s que comienza -- conozco el poder que-- S que hace que la gente comience a pensar en cmo cambiar el mundo. +No soy una filsofa, as que siento que no debo profundizar mucho en esto, sino mostrarles -- permitir que el cine hable por s mismo y los lleve a este otro mundo. +Porque creo que el cine es capaz de hacerte cruzar fronteras. Me gustara que se relajen para experimentar durante algunos minutos lo que es ser llevado a otro mundo. +T podras darles un largo discurso poltico y todava no comprenderan. +Pero te juro, cuando terminas la cancin, la gente dir, Carajo, entiendo a ustedes los negros. +Los entiendo. +Muerte al apartheid!" +Narrador: Se trata de la lucha por la libertad... +Es sobre esos nios que salieron a las calles, luchando, gritando, Liberen a Nelson Mandela!" +Es sobre los sindicatos que abandonaron sus herramientas y exigieron la libertad. +S. S! +La libertad! +Jehane Noujaim: Creo que todo el mundo ha tenido la experiencia de sentarse en un cine, en un cuarto oscuro con otros desconocidos, mirando una pelcula muy impactante, y tuvieron esa sensacin de transformacin. +Y estoy hablando de-- lo que quisiera discutir es cmo podemos usar esa sensacin para crear un movimiento a travs del cine? +He estado escuchando las charlas de la conferencia, y Robert Wright dijo ayer que si apreciamos la humanidad de otra persona, esa persona apreciar tambin la nuestra. +Y de eso se trata. +Se trata de unir a la gente a travs de la cinematografa, de propagar estas voces independientes. +Josh Rushing termin dejando el ejrcito y aceptando un empleo con Al Jazeera, +siente que est en Al Jazeera International porque siente que puede realmente utilizar los medios para tender puentes entre Oriente y Occidente. +Y es algo asombroso. +Pero he intentado pensar en maneras de apoderar a esas voces independientes, de apoderar a los cineastas, de apoderar a gente que quiere usar el cine para el cambio. +Y existen organismos increbles que ya lo estn haciendo. +Existe Witness, de la que ya han escuchado. +Existe Working Films y existe Current TV, que es una plataforma increble para que gente alrededor del mundo pueda poner sus-- s, es increble. +Lo vi y me-- me asombra el organismo y su potencial para unir voces alrededor del mundo, voces independientes de alrededor del mundo, y crear una televisin realmente democrtica y global. +Qu podemos hacer para crear una plataforma para estos organismos, para que adquieran velocidad, para involucrar a todo el mundo en este movimiento? +Quiero que imaginemos por un segundo -- imaginen un da +en que todo el mundo se una. +Tienes pueblos y ciudades y teatros alrededor del mundo unidos, sentados en la oscuridad, compartiendo la experiencia comunal de ver una pelcula, o un par de pelculas, juntos. +Viendo una pelcula que tal vez resalta un personaje que lucha por vivir, o simplemente un personaje que desafa los estereotipos, cuenta un chiste, canta una cancin. +Comedias, documentales, cortometrajes. +Este poder asombroso se puede usar para cambiar a la gente y para unirla, para cruzar fronteras y hacer que la gente sienta que tiene una experiencia comunal. +Si imaginan este da en que alrededor del mundo hay teatros en todo el mundo y lugares donde se proyectan pelculas. +Si imaginan desde -- proyectar desde Times Square hasta Tahir Square en Cairo, la misma pelcula en Ramallah, la misma pelcula en Jerusaln. +Incluso podramos usar -- hemos estado hablando con un amigo sobre usar un lado de la Gran Pirmide y La Gran Muralla China. +Hay-- La imaginacin es infinita, en cuanto a lugares donde proyectar pelculas y donde tener esta experiencia comunal. +Y creo que este da, si podemos crearlo, este da podra popularizar estas voces independientes. +No existe un lugar-- ni un organismo que est conectando las voces independientes del mundo para que se popularicen, y sin embargo escucho a lo largo de esta conferencia que el peligro ms grande en nuestro futuro ser comprender el otro y tener respeto mutuo por el otro y cruzar fronteras. +Y si el cine es capaz de hacerlo, y si podemos lograr que estas diferentes localidades del mundo vean juntos estas pelculas, podra ser un da increble. +Bueno, ya hemos establecido una relacin mediante el proyecto TED-- alguien de la comunidad TED, John Camen, me present a Steven Apkon, del Jacob Burns Film Center. +Y empezamos a llamar a todo el mundo. +Y esta ltima semana, ha habido tanta gente que ha respondido desde Palo Alto hasta Mongolia y la India. +Hay gente que quiere participar en este da global del cine, para poder ofrecer un espacio para que las voces independientes y las pelculas independientes se popularicen. +Hemos pensado en un nombre para este da y me gustara compartir esto con ustedes. +La parte ms increble de este proceso ha sido compartir ideas y deseos, as que los invito a formar tormentas de ideas sobre -- cmo sera ese da en el futuro? +Cmo usamos la tecnologa para que este da impacte el futuro, para que podamos construir comunidad y tener estas comunidades colaborando a travs del Internet? +Hubo un dahubo una poca, hace muchsimos aos, cuando todos los continentes estaban juntos. +Y a esa masa le llamamos Pangea. +As que quisieramos llamar este da como el Da Pangea del Cine. +Y si se imaginan, que toda la gente de los pueblos del mundo seran espectadores, entonces creo que realmente podemos crear un movimiento para que la gente se entienda mejor entre s. +S que es muy intangible, tocar los corazones y almas de la gente, pero la nica forma que s cmo hacerlo, la nica forma que conozco cmo alcanzar el corazn de alguien alrededor del mundo es mostrndole una pelcula. +Y s que hay cineastas y pelculas independientes all afuera que pueden lograr esto realmente. +Y se es mi deseo. +Supongo que debera expresarles mi deseo en una sola frase. pero ya se me acab el tiempo. +Chris Anderson: Es un deseo increble. +El Da Pangea del Cine el da en que se une el mundo entero. +JN: Es ms tangible que la paz mundial, y seguro que es ms inmediato. +Pero sera el dia en que el mundo se una a travs del cine, el poder del cine. +CA: Damas y caballeros, Jehane Noujaim. +Pasead durante cuatro meses con tres deseos, y las ideas empezarn a surgir. +Creo que todo el mundo debera hacerlo-- pensad que tenis tres deseos. +Y qu harais? Realmente es un buen ejercicio el profundizar en las cosas que sents que son importantes. y reflexionar profundamente acerca del mundo que nos rodea. +Y pensar que, puede realmente un individuo hacer algo, o que se le ocurra algo, que pueda conseguir arrastrar a otros ah fuera y marcar una diferencia? +Inspirado por la naturaleza - ese es el tema aqu. +Y pienso, francamente, as es como yo empec. +Me empez a interesar mucho el paisaje, como canadiense. +Tenemos este Gran Norte. Y haba una poblacin bastante pequea, y mi padre era un apasionado del aire libre +As que realmente tuve la oportunidad de experimentar eso. +Y nunca pude realmente entender qu era, o cmo eso me estaba informando. +Y eso, para m, fue un punto de referencia que pienso que necesitaba para ser capaz de hacer el trabajo que hice. +Y sal fuera e hice esta imagen de hierba brotando en primavera, al lado de un camino +Este renacimento de la hierba. Y entonces sal durante aos intentando fotografiar el paisaje prstino. +Pero como fotgrafo artstico, de algn modo senta que eso no iba a funcionar ah fuera -- que habra problemas para hacer de esto una carrera como fotgrafo artstico. +Y estaba contnuamente siendo engullido por ese tipo de foto de calendario, o algo de esa naturaleza, y que no poda salir de ah. +As que empec a pensar, cmo puedo pensar el paisaje de otro modo? +Decid pensar el paisaje de otro modo como el paisaje que hemos transformado. +Tuve una especie de epifana cuando estaba perdido en Pennsylvania, y gir a la izquierda para inentar volver a la autopista. +Y acab en un pueblo llamado Frackville. +Sal del coche, me puse de pie, y era un pueblo minero. Di una vuelta de 360 grados, y aquello se convirti en el paisaje ms surrealista que haya visto. +Totalmente transformado por el hombre. +Y eso me llev a salir y buscar minas como esa, y salir a buscar las mayores incursiones industriales en el paisaje, que pudiera encontrar. +Y eso se convirti en la base de lo que estaba haciendo. +Y se convirti tambien en el tema al que yo sent que poda agarrarme. sin tener que reinventarme. Que ese tema era suficientemente grande como para convertirse en el tema de mi vida -- para convertirse en algo en lo que pudiera hundir mis dientes y simplemente investigar y encontrar qu son estas industrias. +Y creo que una de las cosas que tambin quera decir en mi agradecimiento, que creo que faltaba, era agradecer a todas las corporaciones que me ayudaron a entrar +Porque hubo que negociar para casi cada una de estas fotografas -- para entrar en ese lugar para hacer esas fotografas. Y si no fuera por esa gente que me dej entrar y por los jefes de esas corporaciones, nunca hubiera podido hacer este proyecto. +As que en ese sentido, para m, no estoy en contra de las corporaciones. +Soy dueo de una corporacin. Trabajo con ellas, y siento que todos las necesitamos y que son importantes. +Pero tambin estoy a favor de la sostenibilidad. +As que est esta cosa que tira de m en dos direcciones. +Y no estoy haciendo un juicio sobre lo que est ocurriendo aqu, pero es una progresin lenta. +As que empec a pensar, bueno, vivimos todas esas edades del hombre: la edad de piedra, la edad del hierro y la edad del cobre. +Y esas edades del hombre todava estn vigentes hoy en da +Pero nos hemos desconectado totalmente de ellas. +Hay algo que nos estamos perdiendo aqu. +Y da miedo tambin. Porque cuando empezamos a observar al apetito colectivo de nuestros estilos de vida y lo que le estamos haciendo a ese paisaje -- para m, ese es un momento muy serio de contemplar +Y a travs de mis fotografas, espero poder comprometer a mi pblico para que se acerque y no sea rechazado inmediatamente por la imagen. +Que no diga, "Oh, Dios mo, qu es esto?. Sino que la imagen le desafe Que diga, "Guau, esto es precioso" a un nivel Pero a otro nivel diga, "esto da miedo y no debera estar disfrutando de ello" +Como un placer prohibido. Y es ese placer prohibido lo que creo que resuena ah, y hace que la gente mire a estas cosas, y hace que la gente se meta. Y eso, de alguna manera, define lo que siento tambin. Es que me siento atrado por tener una buena vida. +Quiero una casa, quiero un coche. +Pero estn las consecuencias. +Y cmo empiezo a tener esa atraccin, repulsin? +Incluso en mi propia conciencia, la tengo, y aqu en mi trabajo, intento construir ese mismo interruptor. +Estas cosas que he fotografiado -- este montn de neumticos de aqu tena 45 millones de neumticos. Era el montn ms grande. +Estaba a una hora y media de donde estaba yo, y se prendi fuego hace unos cuatro aos. Es cerca de Westley, California, cerca de Modesto. +Y decid empezar a observar algo que, para m, tena -- si el trabajo anterior de mirar al paisaje tena un sentido de lamento hacia lo que le estamos haciendo a la naturaleza, en el trabajo sobre reciclaje que podis ver aqu estaba empezando a apuntar a una direccin. Para m, fue nuestra redencin. +Que en el proyecto sobre reciclaje que estaba haciendo, estaba buscando una prctica -- una actividad humana que fuera sostenible. +Que si continuamos devolviendo cosas, a travs de de la existencia urbana e industrial, al sistema -- si seguimos haciendo eso -- podemos continuar. +Por supuesto, escuchando la conferencia, hay muchas, muchas cosas que estn llegando. Bio-mimetismo, y muchas otras que estn funcionando -- la nanotecnologa, que podra tambin evitar que tengamos que ir a ese lugar y destrozarlo. +Y todos esperamos estas cosas. +Pero mientras tanto, estas cosas estn aumentando. +Estas cosas continan pasando. +Lo que estis viendo aqu -- fui a Bangladesh empec a salir de Norteamrica. Empec a mirar nuestro mundo globalmente. +Y esto -- estas imgenes de Bangladesh -- salieron de un programa de radio que estaba escuchando. +Estaban hablando de Exxon Valdez, y de que iba a haber un exceso de petroleros debido a la industria de seguros. +y que muchos de esos petroleros iban a ser desmantelados y que 2004 sera el momento cumbre. +Y pens, "Dios, cmo ser eso? +Ver los barcos ms grandes siendo desmontados a mano, literalmente, en pases del tercer mundo. +En un principio iba a ir a India +pero no me dejaron debido a una situacin con Greenpeace. y entonces me fue posible entrar en Bangladesh Y vi por primera vez un tercer mundo, un panorama que nunca pens que fuera realmente posible. +130 millones de personas viviendo en una zona del tamao de Wisconsin, gente en todas partes, la polucin era intensa, y las condiciones de trabajo horribles +Aqu estis viendo algunos campos de petrleo en California algunos de los ms grandes. Y de nuevo, empec a pensar que -- era otra revelacin -- que el mundo entero en el que yo viva estaba siendo creado como resultado de tener abundacia de petrleo +Y eso, para m, era de nuevo algo que empec a construir y continu construyendo. +As que sta es una serie que espero tener lista dentro de dos o tres aos bajo el ttulo de "The Oil Party" +Porque creo que todo en lo que estamos envueltos -- nuestra ropa, nuestros coches, nuestras carreteras -- son un resultado directo de ello. +Voy a cambiar a unas fotos sobre China +y a travs de China -- empec a fotografiarla hace cuatro aos, y China verdaderamente es una cuestin de sostenibilidad en mi mente. Sin mencionar tambin que China, tiene un gran efecto sobre las industrias alrededor de las que crec. +Porque yo provengo de una ciudad obrera una ciudad GM, y mi padre trabaj en GM. Por lo que esa clase de industria era muy familiar para m. Y eso tambin sirvi a mi trabajo. Pero ya sabis, ver China y la escala a la que se est desarrollando, es asombroso. +Lo que estis viendo aqu es "La Presa de las Tres Gargantas" es la presa ms grande, un 50 por ciento, que ha hecho el hombre. +La mayora de los ingenieros del mundo dejaron el proyecto porque segn decan, "Es demasiado grande" +De hecho, cuando fue llenada con agua hace ao y medio fue posible medir un bamboleo dentro de la tierra mientras estaba rotando +se tard quince das en llenar. +Y se cre un pantano de 600 kilmetros de largo, uno de los pantanos ms grandes jams creados. +Y tambin lo que fue uno de los mayores proyectos de los alrededores que fue trasladar 13 ciudades enteras fuera del pantano, y aplastar todos los edificios para que pudieran pasar los barcos. +Esto es un antes y un despus. As que esto era antes. +Y esto es como 10 semanas despus, demolido a mano. +Creo que usaron dinamita para 11 de los edificios, todo lo dems fue a mano. Eso fue 10 semanas despus. +Y esto os da una idea. +Otra vez con --y era toda la gente que viva en esas casas, eran los que estaban realmente destruyendo y trabajando, y siendo pagados por destruir sus ciudades. +Y estas son algunas de las imgenes de eso. +Hice tres viajes a la Presa de Las Tres Gargantas, observando la transformacin masiva del paisaje. +Parece como un paisaje bombardeado, pero no lo es. +Lo que es, es un paisaje intencionado. +Esto es una necesidad de poder, y son capaces de pasar por esta transformacin masiva, a esta escala, para obtener ese poder. +Y de nuevo, es realmente un alivio para lo que est ocurriendo en China porque creo que ahora sobre la mesa, quedan 27 centrales nucleares para ser construidas. +no se ha construido ni una en Norteamrica en los ltimos 20 aos debido al movimiento NIMBY -- no en mi patio. +Pero en China dicen, "No, vamos a poner 27 en 10 aos". +Y hornos de carbn van ah para la energa hidroelctrica, literalmente cada semana. +As que el propio carbn es uno de los problemas mayores. +Y una de las otras cosas que sucedieron en Las Tres Gargantas un montn de tierra de cultivo que veis aqu a la izquierda se perdi Parte de la tierra de cultivo ms frtil se perdi en eso. +Y lleg un momento, en que dos millones de personas fueron reubicadas dependiendo de qu estadsticas estabas mirando. +Y esto es lo que estaban construyendo. +Esta es Wushan, una de las mayores ciudades que fueron reubicadas. +Este es el cuartel general, o el ayuntamiento, de la ciudad. +Y de nuevo, la reconstruccin de la ciudad. Para m fue triste ver que no han asimilado mucho, supongo, de lo que sabemos aqu, en trminos de planificacin urbanstica. +No haba parques, no haba espacios verdes. +Una alta densidad viviendo a un lado de una colina. +Y aqu ellos tenan la oportunidad de reconstruir las ciudades de abajo a arriba pero de alguna forma no conectamos con ellos. +Aqu hay un cartel que traducido dice, "Obedece la ley de control de natalidad. +Construye nuestra ciencia. Ideas civilizadas y avanzadas de matrimonio y nacimiento". +Aqu, si miris a este cartel, tiene todas las trampas de la cultura occidental. +veis los esmoquines, los ramos de novia. +Pero lo que realmente, para m, da miedo de esta foto y de este cartel es la refinera del fondo. +As que es como casar todas las cosas que tenemos y es una adaptacin de nuestro modo de vida, punto y aparte. +Y de nuevo, cuando empiezas a ver esa clase de aceptacin, y empiezas a verles, llevando su estilo de vida rural que deja una muy, muy pequea huella y se mudan a un estilo de vida urbano con una huella mayor, empieza a ser muy aleccionador. +Este es un disparo en una de las mayores plazas de Guangdong -- y esto es donde un montn de trabajadores inmigrantes llegan desde el campo. +Y hay unos 130 millones de inmigrantes intentando llegar a los centros urbanos todo el tiempo. Y entre los prximos 10 a 15 aos, se esperan otros 400 500 millones de personas que migrarn a los centros urbanos como Shanghai y a los centros industriales. +Los fabricantes son-- los locales son normalmente -- puedes reconocer una fbrica local por el hecho de que todos usan uniformes del mismo color. +Esto es un uniforme rosa en esta fbrica. Es una fbrica de zapatos. +Y tienen residencias para los obreros. +As los traen desde el campo y los colocan en residencias. +Esta es una de las mayores fbricas de zapatos, la fbrica de zapatos de Yuyuan cerca de Shenzen.Tiene 90.000 empleados haciendo zapatos +Esto es un cambio de turno, uno de tres. A cada cambio -- +hay otras dos fbricas de este tamao en esta misma ciudad. +Esta tiene 45.000. As que a la hora de comer hay unos 12.000 empleados yendo a comer +Se sientan, tienen unos 20 minutos. +Y llega el siguiente turno. Es una mano de obra increble en ese edificio de ah. Shanghai-- estoy observando la renovacin urbana de Shanghai, y sta es una rea entera que ser aplastada y convertida en rascacielos en los prximos cinco aos. +Lo que tambin est pasando en Shanghai es -- China est cambiando porque esto no habra sucedido hace cinco aos, por ejemplo. Esto es la resistencia. +Les llaman dengzahoos -- son como chinchetas en el suelo. +No se movern. No estn negociando. +No les dan lo suficiente, as que no se mudarn. +Y as estn resistiendo hasta que lleguen a un acuerdo. +Y actualmente estn teniendo bastante xito llegando a mejores acuerdos porque muchos de ellos estn recibiendo injusticias +A algunos les estn echando en dos horas -- comunidades que han estado ah literalmente cientos de aos, o quizs miles de aos se estn rompiendo y desperdigando por las reas suburbanas fuera de Shanghai. Pero sta es una serie entera de gente resistiendo en esta reconstruccin de Shanghai. +Probablemente el mayor proyecto de renovacin urbana, creo que se ha intentado en el planeta. +Y luego, las cosas con las que las estn remplazando -- y de nuevo, uno de mis deseos, y nunca logr ir all, era decirles de alguna forma que haba mejores maneras de construir una casa. +Esa clase de colisiones de estilos y cosas eran demasiado, y a stas les llamaban las villas. +Y tambin, como ahora mismo, ya se estn mudando +y los andamios estn todava puestos, y sta es la zona de los e-residuos, y si mirseis al primer plano de la foto grande verais que la industria -- su industria-- estn todos reciclando. +As que la industria est creciendo ya alrededor de estas nuevas urbanizaciones. +Este es un puente con cinco niveles en Shanghai. +Shanghai es una ciudad muy intrigante -- se est explotando a un nivel que no creo que ninguna otra ciudad haya experimentado. +De hecho, incluso Shenzhen, la zona industrial o econmica -- una de las primeras -- hace 15 aos tena unos 100,000 habitantes y hoy en da hospeda a entre 10 a 11 millones. +Eso os da una idea de la clase de migraciones y a la velocidad a la que va -- Estos son slo los taxis construidos por Volkswagen. +Hay 9,000 aqu, y se estn haciendo para la mayora de las ciudades grandes, Bejing y Shanghai, Shenzhen. +Y esto ni siquiera es el mercado domstico de coches, ste es el mercado de taxis. +Y lo que podemos ver aqu como una especie de desarrollo suburbano -- o algo parecido, pero todos son rascacielos +Hacen 20 40 a la vez y los construyen de la misma manera como si fuera en la zona la vivienda de una sola familia. +Y la densidad es bastante increble +Una de las cosas que quera resaltar de esta foto es que cuando vi esta clase de edificios, me asombr al ver que no estaban usando un sistema central de aire acondicionado. Cada ventana tena su aparato. +Estoy seguro de que aqu hay gente que probablemente sabe ms que yo sobre eficiencia pero no me puedo imaginar que teniendo cada apartamento su propio aire acondicionado es una forma eficiente de enfriar un edificio de este tamao. +Cuando empiezas a ver eso y te empiezas a dar cuenta de que una ciudad del tamao de Shanghai, es literalmente un bosque de rascacielos. +Es asombroso, en trminos de la velocidad a la que la ciudad se est transformando. +Y podis ver en el primer plano de esta foto es todava una de las ltimas zonas que se estaban manteniendo. +Ahora mismo, todo eso ha sido eliminado -- hace unos ocho meses, y los rascacielos estn ahora creciendo en ese punto central. +Literalmente, un rascacielos es construido cada noche en Shanghai. +Recientemente fui y empec a observar algunas de las mayores industrias de China. +Esto es Baosteel, justo fuera de Shanghai. +Esto es el suministro de carbn para la fbrica de acero -- 18 kilmetros cuadrados. +Es una operacin increblemente masiva, creo que 15, 000 obreros, cinco cpulas y la sexta se est haciendo aqu. +Estn construyendo altos hornos muy grandes para intentar hacer frente a la demanda de acero que hay en China. +Aqu estan tres de los altos hornos visibles en este disparo. +y de nuevo, mirando a estas imgenes, hay esta constante, como especie de neblina que vis. +Esto os va a mostrar en tiempo real, un ensamblador, es un corta circuitos +10 horas al da a esta velocidad. +Creo que uno de los temas a los que nos enfrentamos con China, es que ellos estn usando un montn de la ms moderna produccin tecnolgica. +En sta haba 400 personas que trabajaban en la planta. +Y le pregunt al director que sealara cinco de los trabajadores ms rpidos luego yo estuve mirando a cada uno durante 15 20 minutos y escog a esta mujer. +Iba a la velocidad del rayo, la forma en la que trabajaba era algo increble. +Pero ese el el truco que tienen ahora mismo, con el que estn ganando, es que estn usando toda la ltima tecnologa y mquinas de extrusin, y trayendo todos los componentes dentro del juego, pero el ensamblaje es donde realmente estn incorporando -- los trabajadores estn muy dispuestos a trabajar. Quieren trabajar. +Y hay una reserva masiva de obreros que quieren sus trabajos. +Esa condicin va a estar ah para los prximos 10 a 15 aos si se dan cuenta de lo que quieren, que es, ya sabis, de 400 a 500 millones de personas ms llegando a las ciudades +En este caso particular -- sta es la lnea de ensamblamiento que vsteis, y sta es una foto de eso. +Tuve que usar una apertura muy pequea para obtener la profundidad de campo. +Tuve que congelarles durante 10 segundos para conseguir esta foto. +Me cost cinco intentos en vano porque no paraban. Hacerles parar era literalmente imposible. +Estaban como una estaca haciendo eso todo el da, hasta que el director tuvo que decir, con una voz severa, "Ok, todo el mundo quieto." +No estaba demasiado mal pero les hacan producir estas cosas a una velocidad increble. +Este es un taller textil fabricando seda sinttica, un derivado del petrleo +Y lo que vis aqu es, de nuevo, uno de los ms modernos talleres +Hay 500 de estas mquinas, y cuestan aproximadamente 200,000 dlares cada una. +as que tienes unas 12 personas manejando esto, y slo lo inspeccionan -- slo andan por las lneas. +Las mquinas estn funcionando, es absolutamente increble ver la escala de las industrias. +Y empec a meterme ms y ms en las fbricas. +eso es un dptico, hago un montn de emparejamientos para intentar conseguir ensear la escala de estos lugares. +Esta es la lnea donde consiguen los hilos y enrollan los hilos juntos antes de llevarlos a la fbrica +Aqu hay algo que es ms que un trabajo intensivo, que es hacer zapatos +Esta planta tiene unos 1,500 trabajadores +La misma compaa tiene unos 10,000 empleados y estn haciendo zapatos nacionales. +No fue fcil entrar en compaas internacionales porque tena que conseguir permisos de compaas como Nike y Adidas, y eso era difcil de conseguir. +No me dejaban entrar. +Pero en las locales era mucho ms fcil. +eso os da la idea, de nuevo -- y eso es donde, realmente, la gran migracin por trabajo empez a ocurrir en China y haciendo zapatos. Nike fue uno de los primeros. +Y fue realmente --tuvo tan alto componente la mano de obra que tena sentido ir a ese mercado de trabajo. +Esto es un mvil de alta tecnologa. El telfono mvil Bird, uno de los mayores fabricantes de mviles en China. +Creo que las compaas de mviles estn apareciendo, literalmente sobre una base semanal, y tienen un crecimiento explosivo en los telfonos mviles. +Esta es una fbrica textil donde hacen camisas. Youngor, la fbrica de camisas y ropa ms grande de China. +Y la siguiente foto es de los comedores. +Todo es muy eficiente +Mientras preparaba esta foto la gente tardaba un pormedio de 8 a 10 minutos en comer. +Esta fue una de las mayores fbricas que yo haba visto jams. +Hacen cafeteras, el mayor fabricante de cafeteras y de planchas. Hacen unos 20 millones en el mundo. +Hay 21,000 empleados. Esta fbrica -- y tenan varias de ellas -- tiene medio kilmetro de largo. +Estas son recientes -- he vuelto hace un mes, as que sois los primeros en ver, estas nuevas fotos de fbricas que he sacado. +Tard casi un ao en conseguir acceso a estos sitios. +El otro aspecto de lo que est sucediendo en China es que tienen una gran necesidad de materiales. +Un montn de materiales que se recogen aqu se reciclan y se llevan a China en barcos. +Eso es metal hecho cubos.Estos son armaduras elctricas de donde sacan el cobre y el acero de gama alta de motores elctricos, y los reciclan. +Esto est ciertamente conectado a California y a Silicon Valley. +Esto es lo que les ocurre a la mayora de los ordenadores. +el 50 por ciento de los ordenadores del mundo terminan en China para ser reciclados +Esto es lo que se llama e-residuo all. +Este es un pequeo problema. La forma en la que reciclan las baldosas en realidad es que usan baldosas de carbn, y que son usadas en toda China, pero ellos calientan las baldosas, y con unos alicates sacan todos los componentes. +Intentan sacar todos los metales valiosos de esos componentes. +Pero los olores txicos -- cuando llegas a una ciudad que est haciendo esta clase de combustin de las baldosas, lo puedes oler 5 10 kilmetros antes de llegar. +Aqu hay otra operacin. Son todas industrias artesanales, o sea que no son sitios grandes. Se hace todo en los porches delanteros, en los patios de atrs, incluso dentro de sus casas queman esas baldosas. Si hay preocupacin por la gente que pasa-- porque hacer esto est considerado ilegal en China, pero no pueden parar de recibir el producto. +Este retrato -- no soy normalmente conocido por los retratos, pero no pude resistirme a ste, donde ella ha pasado por Mao, y ha pasado por "El gran salto adelante" y la revolucin cultural, y ahora ella est sentada en su porche con todo este e-residuo a su lado. Es demasiado. +Esta carretera donde se ha llenado de teclados de ordenadores est en una de las mayores ciudades donde se recicla. +Estas eran las fotos que quera ensearos. +Quiero dedicar mis deseos a mis dos hijas +que se han sentado sobre mis hombros todo el tiempo mientras estaba pensando. +Una es Megan, y la otra a la derecha es Katja. +Para m toda la nocin -- las cosas que fotografo son de una gran preocupacin sobre la escala de nuestro progreso y lo que llamamos progreso. +Y tanto como hay grandes cosas al torcer la esquina -- y eso es palpable en esta habitacin -- de todas las cosas que estn a punto de salir que pueden solucionar muchos problemas, realmente espero que esas cosas se extiendan por todo el mundo. Y que empiecen a tener un efecto positivo. +As que parte de mis pensamientos y mis deseos es sentarme con ellos en la mente, y pensar sobre, "Cmo va a ser su vida cuando ellas quieran tener hijos, o cuando ellas estn preparadas para casarse dentro de 20 aos -- o los que sean dentro de 15 aos?" +Para m eso es lo que hay detrs de la mayora de mis pensamientos. En mi trabajo, y tambin por esta increble oportunidad de tener deseos. +Deseo uno: el cambio del mundo. Quiero usar mis imgenes para persuadir a millones de personas a que se unan a la conversacin global sobre sostenibilidad. +Y es a travs de la comunicacin de hoy por lo que creo que no es una idea irreal. +Oh investigu -- quera poner lo que tena en mente, quera engancharlo en algo. No quera un deseo slo para empezar desde ningn sitio. +en uno de ellos empiezo desde casi nada, pero en el otro, quera averiguar lo que pasa y que est funcionando ahora mismo. +Y Worldchanging.com es un blog fantstico, y ese blog tiene unas visitas cercanas a medio milln de personas al mes. +Y slo empez hace unos 14 meses. +La belleza de lo que est pasando all es que el tono de la conversacin es el tono que me gusta. +Lo que hacen ahora es que ellos no -- creo que los movimientos mediambientales han fallado en que han usado el bastn demasiado. Han usado el tono apocalptico demasiado. No han vendido los aspectos positivos de estar medioambientalmente preocupados e intentar movernos, +mientras que la conversacin que se lleva a cabo en este blog es sobre movimientos positivos. Sobre cmo cambiar nuestro mundo de una forma mejor, rpidamente. +Y est mirando a la tecnologa y a los nuevos dispositivos para ahorrar energa, y est mirando a cmo repensar y cmo rehacer la estrategia del movimiento hacia la sostenibilidad. +Para m, una de las cosas que pens sera poner parte de mi trabajo al servicio de la promocin del website Worldchanging.com. +Algunos sabris, l es del TED -- Stephen Sagmeister y yo estamos trabajando en algunas plantillas. Est todava en etapas preliminares. No son las finales. Pero estas imgenes,con Worldchanging.com, se pueden colocar en cualquier tipo de medio. +Se pueden enviar por la Web, se pueden usar como vallas publicitarias o marquesinas de autobuses, o cualquier cosa parecida. +Observamos esto tratando de construir. +Y lo que acabamos discutiendo era que lo que ves en la mayora de los medios es una imagen con un montn de texto, y el texto lo llena todo. +Lo que era raro, segn Stephen, es que en menos del 5 por ciento de los anuncios lo principal es la imagen. +As que en este caso, porque es sobre un montn de estas imgenes y lo que ellas representan, y la clase de preguntas que sacan a la luz que pensamos dejar que las imgenes entraran en juego e hicieran que alguien dijera, "Bien, qu es lo que Worldchanging.com, con estas imgenes, tiene que hacer?" +Y ojal inspire a la gente a ir a ese website. +As que Worldchanging.com, y la construccin de ese blog, y es un blog no lo veo como la clase de blog donde vamos a seguirnos unos a otros hasta la muerte. +Este hablar alto y saldr, para empezar a alcanzar. Porque ahora mismo hay conversaciones en India, en China y en Sudamrica-- hay entradas desde todo el mundo. +Creo que existe la posibilidad de tener un dilogo, una conversacin sobre sostenibilidad en Worldchanging.com. +Y cualquier cosa que uno pueda hacer para promocinarla sera fantstica. +El deseo dos es ms de los de abajo a arriba, en tierra con el que estoy intentando trabajar. +Y este es: deseo lanzar una competicin pionera que motive a los nios a invertir en ideas, y a inventar ideas sobre sostenibilidad. +Una de las cosas que salieron -- Allison, que actualmente me nomin, dijo algo antes en una reunin creativa. Ella dijo que el reciclaje en Canad entr fantsticamente en nuestra psique a travs de los nios de entre cuarto y sexto grado. +Si lo piensas, sabes que cuarto grado -- mi esposa y yo decimos que los siete es la edad de la razn, as que ellos estn en la edad de la razn. Son pre-adolescentes. +As que es en esta gran ventana donde estn en realidad -- y puedes influenciarles. Sabis qu pasa en la adolescencia? +Sabis que lo sabemos de presentaciones anteriores. +As que lo que creo es que intentamos motivar a esos nios para que lleven las ideas a casa. Les hacemos comprender lo que es la sostenibilidad, para que ellos tengan un inters personal en que ocurra. +Y una de las formas que pens para hacerlo es usar mi premio, tomara 30,000 40,000 dlares de lo ganado y el resto ser para dirigir este proyecto. Usarlo como premios para llegar a sus manos. +La otra cosa que pens que sera fantstica era crear estos -- llammosles premios objetivos +Y as uno sera para la mejor idea sostenible para un proyecto en la escuela. El mejor para un proyecto domstico. O podra ser el mejor proyecto comunitario para la sostenibilidad. +y el premio tiene que ser algo verificable, no slo sobre ideas. +Las piezas artsticas son sobre las ideas y cmo presentarlas y hacerlas, pero estas tienen que ser verificables. +De ese mmodo, lo que est sucediendo es que estamos motivando a un determinado grupo de edad a empezar a pensar. +Y ellos van a empezar a empujar desde abajo hasta dentro de las casas. Y los padres reaccionarn e intentarn ayudarles en sus proyectos. +Creo que esto empieza a motivar toda la idea sobre sostenibilidad de un modo positivo, Y empieza a ensearles. Ellos saben sobre reciclaje ahora pero creo que no sacan la sostenibilidad de todas las cosas, y sobre la huella energtica, y cmo eso importa. +Y ensearles, para m, sera un fantstico deseo, y sera algo en lo que realmente pondra mi esfuerzo. +De nuevo, en "Mi mundo", el concurso -- usaramos el trabajo artstico de la competicin para promocionarla. +Me gustan las palabras, " En mi mundo," porque le da la posesin del mundo a la persona que lo est haciendo. +Es mi mundo, no el de nadie ms, y quiero ayudarlo. Quiero hacer algo con l. Creo que tiene una gran oportunidad para atraer a la imaginacin -- y las grades ideas, creo que vienen de los nios -- y atraer su imaginacin hacia el proyecto, y hacer algo por las escuelas. +Creo que las escuelas podran usar equipo extra y dinero extra -- ser un incentivo para que lo hagan. +Y stas son algnas ideas de donde podramos hacer promocin para "En mi mundo". +Y el deseo tres es una pelcula Imax. Me dijeron que podra hacer una yo mismo Y yo siempre he querido estar implicado en hacer algo. +y la escala de mi trabajo y la clase de ideas con las que estoy jugando -- la primera vez que vi una pelcula Imax, pens inmediatamente "Hay una resonancia real entre lo que intento hacer, y la escala de lo que intento hacer como fotgrafo". +Pienso que hay una posibilidad real de hacer una poderosa -- para llegar a nuevas audiencias si tuviera la oportunidad +as que estoy buscando a un profesor, porque justo ha sido mi cumpleaos. +He cumplido 50 y no tengo tiempo de volver al colegio ahora mismo -- Estoy demasiado ocupado. As que necesito a alguien que me pueda dar un curso rpido de cmo hacer algo as, y me guie a travs del laberinto de cmo se hace algo as. +Sera fantstico. Esos son mis tres deseos. +Voy a hablar con ustedes de tres de mis inventos que pueden tener efectos sobre decenas de millones de personas, lo cual esperamos ver que suceda. +En la pelcula anterior comentamos algunas de las cosas que hicimos antes, como los stents y las bombas de insulina para diabticos. +Y me gustara hablar muy brevemente sobre tres nuevos inventos que cambiarn las vidas de mucha gente. +En la actualidad, toma en promedio tres horas desde que el paciente reconoce los primeros sntomas de un ataque cardaco, hasta que ese paciente llega a una sala de emergencias. +Y a las personas con isquemia silente -- lo que en lenguaje simple significa que no tienen ningn sntoma -- les lleva an ms tiempo llegar al hospital. +El IAM, infarto agudo de miocardio, que son palabras tcnicas de mdico para cobrarles ms dinero -- -- es un ataque al corazn. Incidencia anual: 1.2 millones de Estadounidenses. +Mortalidad: 300,000 personas mueren por ao. +Cerca de la mitad, 600,000, quedan con daos permanentes al corazn que les causarn problemas muy graves ms tarde. +As, 900,000 personas habrn muerto o sufrirn daos significativos en los msculos del corazn. +Los pacientes suelen negar los sntomas, particularmente nosotros los hombres, porque somos muy valientes. Somos muy valientes, y no queremos admitir que estoy sintiendo un dolor del infierno en el pecho. +Entonces, aproximadamente 25% de todos los pacientes nunca tuvo sntomas. +Qu vamos a hacer con ellos? Cmo podemos salvar sus vidas? +Esto es particularmente cierto de los diabticos y mujeres ancianas. +Bien, qu hace falta para el aviso ms temprano posible de un ataque cardaco? +Una forma de determinar si hay una obstruccin completa de una arteria coronaria? +Eso, seores y seoras, es un ataque al corazn. +El medio consiste en notar algo un poco tcnico, la elevacin del segmento ST en el electrocardiograma. En lenguaje simple, eso significa que si hay una seal elctrica en el corazn, y una parte del ECG -- a la que llamamos el segmento ST -- se eleva, so es un signo seguro de un ataque al corazn. +Y si ponemos una computadora en el cuerpo de una persona en riesgo, podramos saber, an antes de que tenga sntomas, que est teniendo un ataque al corazn, para salvar su vida. +Bien, el doctor puede programar un nivel de voltaje de esta elevacin ST que disparar una alarma de emergencia, vibracin como la de su celular, pero justo en su clavcula. +Y cuando hace bip, bip, bip, mejor que hagas algo con eso, porque si quieres vivir tienes que buscar tratamiento mdico. +As que tenemos que probar estos dispositivos porque la FDA simplemente no nos deja usarlos en personas a menos que lo lo pongamos a prueba primero, y el mejor modelo para esto parecen ser los cerdos. +Y lo que intentamos con el cerdo fueron electrodos externos en la piel, como ven en una sala de emergencia, y les voy a mostrar por qu no andan bien. +Y luego ponemos un electrodo, o sea un cable, en el ventrculo derecho dentro del corazn, que hace el eletrocardiograma, o sea la seal de voltaje de adentro del corazn. +Bien, el cerdo, en la lnea base, antes de que bloqueramos su arteria para simular un ataque cardaco, esa era la seal. +Despus de 43 segundos, an un experto no notaba la diferencia, y despus de tres minutos -- bien, si ustedes realmente lo estudiaron, veran una diferencia. +Pero qu sucedi cuando miramos dentro del corazn del cerdo, al electrocardiograma? +Esta era la lnea base -- antes que nada, una seal mucho ms grande y confiable. +Segundo, apostara que an ustedes que no estn entrenados pueden ver la diferencia, y vemos aqu una elevacin del segmento ST justo despus de esta lnea puntiaguda. +Miren la diferencia aqu -- no es complicado, cualquier persona sin experiencia podra ver esa diferencia, y se pueden programar computadoras para detectarla fcilmente. +Luego, miren eso despus de tres minutos. +Vemos que la seal que est realmente en el corazn, podemos usarla para decirle a la gente que estn teniendo un ataque cardaco an antes de que tengan sntomas as podemos salvar sus vidas. +Luego lo probamos con mi hijo, el Dr. Tim Fischell, lo probamos con algunos pacientes humanos que tenan un stent colocado. +Bien, l dej el globo inflado para bloquear la arteria, para simular una obstruccin, eso es un ataque cardaco. +Y no es difcil ver que la lnea base es la primera imagen arriba a la izquierda. +Al lado, a los 30 segundos, ven esta elevacin aqu, luego esta elevacin -- esta es la elevacin ST. +Y si tenemos una computadora que pueda detectarlo, podemos decirle que est teniendo un ataque cardaco tan temprano que puede salvar su vida y prevenir una Insuficiencia Cardiaca Congestiva. +Y luego lo hizo de nuevo. Llenamos el globo de nuevo unos minutos despus y aqu ven, an despus de 10 segundos, una gran elevacin en este trozo, por lo que podemos poner computadoras adentro, bajo su pecho como un marcapasos, con un cable en su corazn como un marcapasos. +Y las computadoras no duermen. +Tenemos una pequea batera y con esta pequea batera la computadora funcionar 5 aos sin necesitar reemplazos. +Cmo se ve el sistema? +Bien, a la izquierda est el DMI, o sea dispositivo mdico implantable, y maana en la carpa pueden verlo -- lo han exhibido. +Es ms o menos de este tamao, como un marcapasos. +Se implanta con tcnicas muy convencionales. +Y el DEX es un dispositivo externo que pueden tener su la mesa de luz. +Los despertar y les dir que muevan su rabo a la sala de emergencia. cuando la cosa se apaga porque, si no lo hacen, estn en un lo serio. +Y luego, finalmente, un programador ajustar el nivel de la estimulacin, que es el nivel que dice que estn teniendo un ataque cardaco. +La FDA dice, OK, prueben este dispositivo final en algn animal antes de construirlo el cual decimos es un cerdo, as que tenemos que provocarle un ataque de corazn, +y cuando van a la granja, no es fcil provocar ataques al corazn a los cerdos, as que dijimos, bien, somos expertos en stents. +Esta noche vern algunos de los stents que inventamos. +Dijimos, le pondremos un stent, pero no vamos a ponerle un stent como el que ponemos a las personas, +vamos a ponerle un stent de cobre, y este stent de cobre erosiona la arteria y causa ataques al corazn. +No es muy lindo, pero, despus de todo, tenamos que encontrar la respuesta. +As que tomamos dos stents de cobre y los pusimos en la arteria de este cerdo, y djenme mostrarles el resultado que es muy gratificante en cuanto concierne a las personas que tengan enfermedades coronarias. +Ah est, el jueves a la maana detuvimos la medicacin del cerdo y ah est su electro, la seal de adentro del corazn del cerdo saliendo por radio telemetra. +Luego, el viernes a las 6:43, comenz a tener ciertas seales, que ms tarde hicimos correr al cerdo alrededor -- No voy a entrar en esta etapa inicial. +Pero miren lo que sucedi a las 10:06 despus de que quitamos la medicacin al cerdo que le evitaba un ataque cardaco. +Cualquiera de ustedes ahora es un experto en elevacin ST. Pueden verla aqu? +Pueden verla en la imagen despus del gran aumento del QRS, ven la elevacin ST? +El cerdo a las 10:06 estaba teniendo un ataque cardaco. +Qu sucede despus de que usted tiene el ataque cardaco, este bloqueo? +Su ritmo se vuelve irregular, y esto es lo que sucedi 45 minutos despus. +Luego, fibrilacin ventricular, el corazn tiembla en lugar de latir, esto es justo antes de la muerte del cerdo, y luego el cerdo muri, se puso plano. +Pero tuvimos un poco ms de una hora en que podramos haber salvado la vida del cerdo. +Bien, debido a la FDA, no salvamos la vida del cerdo, porque necesitamos hacer este tipo de investigacin animal por los humanos. +Pero cuando se trata del bien de un humano, podemos salvar su vida. +Podemos salvar las vidas de personas que estn en alto riesgo de ataque cardaco. +Cul es la respuesta al infarto agudo de miocardio, un ataque cardaco, hoy? +Bien, ustedes sienten algn dolor de pecho o indigestin. +No est tan mal, deciden no hacer nada. +Pasan varias horas y se pone peor, y an un hombre no lo ignorara. +Finalmente, van a la sala de emergencias. +Esperan que traten a los quemados y a otros pacientes crticos, porque el 75% de los pacientes que van a una sala de emergencia con dolor de pecho, no tienen un IAM, as que no los toman muy en serio. +Finalmente los atienden. Toma ms tiempo tomar el electrocardiograma sobre su piel y diagnosticarlo, y es difcil de hacer porque no tienen los datos de lnea base, que la computadora que les ponemos adentro tiene. +Finalmente, si tienen suerte, son tratados tres o cuatro horas despus del incidente, pero el msculo del corazn ha muerto. +Y ste es el tratamiento tpico. En el mundo desarrollado. No en Africa -- este es el tratamiento tpico en el mundo avanzado hoy. +As que desarrollamos el AngelMed Guardian System y ponemos un dispositivo dentro de este paciente, llamado el AngelMed Guardian implantado. +Y cuando ustedes tienen una obstruccin, la alarma suena y enva la alarma y el electro a un dispositivo externo, que tiene su electrocardograma basal de hace 24 horas y el que caus la alarma, as que puede llevarlos a la sala de emergencias y mostrarlos, y decir, atindanme ya. +Luego va a un centro de operaciones en red, donde toman sus datos de su base de datos de pacientes que pusieron en algn lugar central, digamos, en Estados Unidos. +Luego va a un centro de diagnstico, y dentro de un minuto de su ataque cardaco, su seal aparece en la pantalla de una computadora y la computadora analiza cul es su problema. +Y la persona que est ah, el practicante mdico, lo llama -- esto tambin es un celular -- y dice, "Sr. Smith, est est en un lo feo, tiene un problema. +Hemos llamado a la ambulancia. La ambulancia est en camino. +Lo pasar a buscar, y luego vamos a llamar a su doctor y decirle sobre esto. +Vamos a enviarle la seal a l, lo que tenemos, que dice que usted tiene un ataque cardaco, y vamos a enviar la seal al hospital y vamos a hacer que la analicen aqu, y usted va a estar con su doctor y lo cuidaremos para que usted no muera de un ataque al corazn". +Este es el primer invento que quera describir. +Y ahora quisiera hablar de algo enteramente diferente. +Al principio yo no crea que los dolores de migraa fueran un problema grave porque nunca haba tenido una migraa, pero luego habl con algunas personas que tienen tres o cuatro cada semana de su vida y sus vidas se arruinan completamente por ello. +En nuestra compaa tenemos una declaracin de misin con respecto a la migraa, que es, "Prevenir o mejorar los dolores de cabeza por migraa mediante la aplicacin de un pulso magntico seguro, controlado, aplicado, en la medida de lo necesario, por el paciente". +Ahora, probablemente hay muy pocos fsicos aqu. +Si usted es un fsico usted sabe que hay una cierta Ley de Faraday, que sice que si aplico un pulso magntico a agua salada -- de paso, eso es lo que son sus cerebros -- generar corrientes elctricas, y la corriente elctrica en el cerebro puede borrar un dolor de cabeza por migraa. +Eso es lo que hemos descubierto. +As que aqu hay una imagen de lo que estamos haciendo. +Los pacientes que tienen una migraa precedida por un aura tienen una franja de neuronas excitadas -- que se muestran en rojo -- que se mueve de tres a cinco milmetros por minuto hacia el centro del cerebro. +Y cuando llega al centro del cerebro, es cuando el dolor de cabeza comienza. +Ah est esta migraa que es precedida por un aura visual, y este aura visual, de paso -- y les mostrar una imagen -- pero es como que siendo pequea, con pequeas luces danzantes, se hace mayor y mayor hasta que llena todo su campo visual. +Y lo que hemos probado es esto, aqu est un dispositivo llamado el Cadwell Model MES10. +Pesa unos 32 kg, tiene un cable de cerca de una pulgada de dimetro. +Y aqu est uno de los pacientes que tiene un aura y siempre tiene un dolor de cabeza, uno malo, despus del aura. Qu hacemos? +As es como se ve un aura. +Is una especie de luces danzantes divertidas, se ven aqu en el lado izquierdo y el derecho. +Y esto es un aura visual completa, como vemos arriba. +En el medio, nuestro experimentador, el neurlogo, que dijo, "Voy a bajar esto un poco y voy a borrar la mitad de su aura". +Y, por Dios, el neurlogo la borr, y esto est en la imagen del centro, la mitad del aura borrada por un corto pulso magntico. +Qu significa eso? +Eso significa que el pulso magntico est generando una corriente elctrica que est interfiriendo con la actividad elctrica errnea en el cerebro. +Y finalmente l dice, "Ok, ahora voy a -- " toda el aura se borra con un pulso magntico ubicado apropiadamente. +Cul es el resultado? Diseamos un despolarizador magntico, que se ve as, que usted puede tener -- una dama, en su bolso, y cuando usted tiene un aura puede probarlo y ver cmo funciona. +Bien, lo siguiente que tienen para mostrar es lo que sali en ABC News, en Canal 7, la semana pasada en New York City, en las noticias de las 11. +Presentador: Para todos los que sufren dolores de migraa -- y hay 30 millones de estadounidenses as -- una posible respuesta esta noche. +La reportera de noticias testigo Stacy Sager esta noche, con una mquina pequea y porttil que literalmente borra sus migraas. +Christina Sidebottom: Bien, mi primera reaccin fue que esto era -- se vea terriblemente como un arma, y era muy extrao. +Stacy Sager: pero para Christina Sidebottom, vala la pena probar casi todo si poda detener una migraa. +Puede verse tonto o an amenazante cuando camina con esto en su cartera, pero investigadores aqu en Ohio organizando pruebas clnicas para este supresor de migraas, dicen que est fundamentado cientficamente. Que, de hecho, cuando la persona media tiene una migraa, es causada por algo similar a un impulso elctrico. +El supresor crea un campo magntico para cotrarrestar eso. +Yousef Mohammed: en otras palabras, estamos tratando la electricidad con electricidad, en lugar de tratar a electricidad con los qumicos que usamos hoy en da. +SS: Pero es seguro para usarlo todos los das? +Los expertos dicen que se ha estado investigando por ms de una dcada, y es necesario hacer ms estudios de largo plazo. Christina ahora tiene mucha confianza en esto. +CS: ha sido lo ms maravilloso para mi migraa. +SS: Los investigadores esperan presentar sus estudios a la FDA este verano. +Robert Fischell: Y se es el invento para tratar las migraas. +Ya ven, el problema es, 30 millones de estadounidenses tienen dolores de migraa, y necesitamos una forma de tratarlo, y creo que ahora la tenemos. +Y este es el primer dispositivo que hicimos, y voy a hablar de mi segundo deseo, que tiene algo que ver con esto. +Nuestras conclusiones de los estudios hasta ahora, en tres centros de investigacin, es que hay una mejora marcada en los niveles de dolor despus de usarlo slo una vez. +Los dolores de cabeza ms severos respondieron mejor despus de que lo hicimos varias veces, y el descubrimiento inesperado indica que an dolores de cabeza establecidos, no slo esos con aura, se tratan y disminuyen. +Y las auras pueden borrarse y la migraa, entonces, no pasa. +Y se es el invento para la migraa del que estamos hablando y sobre el que estamos trabajando. +El tercer y ltimo invento comenz con una idea. +La epilepsia puede ser tratada mejor con estimulacin elctrica sensible. +Ahora, por qu usamos -- agregamos, casi, un foco epilptico? +Ahora, desafortunadamente, nosotros los tcnicos, a diferencia del Sr. Bono, tenemos que meternos con todas estas palabras tcnicas. +Usamos tecnologa actual de marcapasos desfibrilador que se usa para el corazn. +Pensamos que podamos adaptarlo para el cerebro. +El dispositivo podra implantarse bajo el cuero cabelludo para que est totalmente oculto y para evitar rotura de cables, lo que pasa si lo pone en el pecho y trata de girar mucho su cuello. +Formamos una compaa para producir un neuro-marcapasos para la epilepsia, como tambin para otras enfermedades del cerebro, porque todos los males del cerebro son el resultado de alguna falla elctrica en l, lo que causa muchos, si no todos, los desrdenes cerebrales. +Formamos una compaa llamada NeuroPace y comenzamos a trabajar en neuro-estimulacin sensible, y sta es una imagen de cmo se ve el dispositivo, que se pone en el hueso craneal. +Esta imagen probablemente es mejor. +Aqu tenemos nuestro dispositivo el cual ponemos en un marco. +Se hace un corte en el cuero cabelludo, se abre, el neurocirujano tiene una plantilla, la marca, y usa una fresa de dentista para quitar una parte del hueso craneal exactamente del tamao de nuestro dispositivo. +Y esta noche, ustedes podrn ver el dispositivo en la carpa. +El el cable azul, vemos lo que se llama un electrodo cerebral profundo. +Si esa es la fuente de la epilepsia, podemos atacarla tambin. +La solucin completa: ste es el dispositivo, es de 25 a 50 cm aproximadamente y, por raro que parezca, justo el espesor de la mayora de los huesos craneanos. +Y esto muestra un electroencefalograma, y a la izquierda est la seal de un ataque espontneo en uno de los pacientes. +Luego lo estimulamos, y ven cmo esa lnea negra gruesa y luego ven la seal del electroencefalograma volviendo a normal, lo que significa que no tuvo la convulsin epilptica. +Eso concluye mi discusin sobre epilepsia y -- el tercer invento que quiero discutir aqu esta tarde. +Tengo tres deseos. Bien, no puedo hacer mucho por Africa. +Soy un tcnico, trabajo en aparatos mdicos, que mayormente son cosas de alta tecnologa como dijo el Sr. Bono. +El primer deseo es usar el neuroestimulador sensible a la epilepsia, llamado RNS, por "responsive neuroestimulator" -- esa es una sigla brillante -- para el tratamiento de otros problemas del cerebro. +Bien, si vamos a usarlo para la epilepsia, por qu diablos no probarlo con algo ms? +Luego, vieron cmo se vea ese dispositivo, que la mujer usaba para curar sus migraas? +Les digo esto: eso es algo que algunos ingenieros investigadores como yo armaramos, no lo que hara un verdadero diseador de buenos equipos. +Queremos que algunas personas, que realmente saben cmo hacerlo, hagan estudios de ingeniera ergonmica y desarrollen el diseo ptimo para el dispositivo porttil para tratar los dolores de la migraa. +Y algunos de los patrocinadores de esta reunin de TED son organizaciones as. +Entonces vamos a desafiar a los asistentes a TED para que encuentren una forma de mejorar la asistencia sanitaria en EEUU, donde tenemos problemas que Africa no tiene. +Y reduciendo los juicios por mala praxis -- los juicios por mala praxis no son un problema africano, son un problema de EEUU. +Entonces, para ir rpido a mi primer deseo -- el cerebro opera con seales elctricas. +Si las seales elctricas crean un trastorno en el cerebro, la estimulacin elctrica puede vencer ese trastorno actuando sobre las neuronas del cerebro. +In otras palabras, si arman lo con las seales elctricas, quizs, poniendo otras seales elctricas de una computadora en el cerebro, podemos contrarrestar eso. +Una seal en el cerebro que dispara una disfuncin cerebral podra sensarse como disparador para la electroestimulacin como estamos haciendo con la epilepsia. +Pero an si no hay seal, la electroestimulacin de una parte apropiada del cerebro puede apagar un trastorno cerebral. +Y consideren el tratamiento de trastornos sicticos -- y quiero que con esto se involucre el grupo TED -- como el trastorno obsesivo-compulsivo que, actualmente, no se trata bien con drogas, y afecta a cinco millones de estadounidenses. +Y el Sr. Fischer, y su grupo de NeuroPace, y yo mismo creo que podemos causar un mejora dramtica en el TOC en EEUU y el mundo. +Ese es el primer deseo. +El segundo deseo es, en este momento, las pruebas clnicas de estimuladores magnticos transcraneanos -- eso significa TMS, el aparato para tratar dolores de migraa -- parecen bastante existosas. +Bien, esta es la buena noticia. +El dispositivo porttil actual est lejos de un diseo ptimo, tanto en lo ergonmico como en apariencia. +Creo que ella dijo que pareca un arma. A muchsima gente no le gustan las armas. +Involucrar una compaa que haya tenido xito previo en ingeniera de factores humanos y diseo industrial para oprimizar el diseo del primer aparato de TMS porttil que se vender a los pacientes con dolores de cabeza de migraa. +Y ese es el segundo deseo. +Y, de los 100,000 dlares de premio, que TED fue tan generoso de darme, estoy donando 50,000 dlares a la gente de NeuroPace para avanzar con el tratamiento de TOC, trastorno obsesivo-compulsivo, y estoy ofreciendo otros 50,000 a una compaa para optimizar el diseo del aparato para migraas. +Y as voy a usar mis 100,000 dlares de premio. +Bien, el tercer y ltimo deseo es algo -- desafortunadamente, es mucho ms complicado porque implica abogados. +Bien, los juicios por mala praxis mdica en EEUU han aumentado el costo del seguro de mala praxis, as que mdicos competentes estn dejando la prctica. +Los abogados toman casos en contingencia con la esperanza de una parte grande de un monto grande otorgado por un jurado comprensivo, porque su paciente realmente termin mal. +El alto costo de la salud en EEUU es parcialmente debido a los costos de juicios y seguros. +He visto imgenes, grficos, en el USA Today de hoy mostrando cmo escalan fuera de control, y este es un factor. +Bien, cmo puede la comunidad de TED ayudar con esta situacin? +Tengo un par de ideas para comenzar. +Y como punto inicial para discutir con el grupo TED, una parte principal del problema es la naturaleza del alcance escrito del consentimiento informado que el paciente o su esposa debe leer y firmar. +Por ejemplo, le pregunt a la gente con epilepsia qu estn usando para consentimiento informado. +Me creeran, 12 pginas, a espacio simple, que el paciente tiene que leer antes de participar en nuestra prueba para curar su epilepsia? +Qu piensan que alguien logra luego de leer 12 pginas a espacio simple? +No entiende de qu diablos se trata. +Este es el sistema actual. Por qu no hacer un video? +Tenemos gente del espectculo aqu, tenemos gente que sabe cmo hacer videos, con presentacin visual de la anatoma y procedimientos mediante animacin. +Todos saben que podemos hacerlo mejor con algo visual que puede ser interactivo con el paciente, donde ven el video y se los filma y apretan, entiende esto? No, no entiendo. +Bien, entonces vamos con una explicacin ms simple. +Entonces hay una ms simple y, oh s, entiendo eso. +Bien, apriete el botn y est registrado, entendi. +Y esa es una de las ideas. +Ahora, tambin un video se hace con el paciente o esposa y un presentador mdico, con el paciente acordando que comprendi el procedimiento a hacer, incluyendo todos los modos de falla posibles. +El paciente o esposa acuerdan no hacer un juicio si ocurre una de las fallas de procedimiento. +Ahora, en EEUU, de hecho, no puede ceder su derecho de recurrir a juicio de jurados. +De todos modos, si el video est mostrando que se le explic todo, y est todo en el archivo en video, es mucho menos probable que algn abogado gordo tome este caso en contingencia, porque no ser ni cerca tan buen caso. +Si ocurre un error mdico, el paciente o esposa acuerdan en un juicio por compensacin justa por arbitraje en lugar de ir a la corte. +Esto salvara cientos de millones de dlares en costos legales en EEUU y disminuira el costo de la medicina para todos. +Estos son slo algunos puntos iniciales. +Y, as, este es el ltimo de mis deseos. +Quisiera que hubiera ms deseos pero tres es lo que tengo y aqu estn. +Soy la persona ms afortunada del mundo. +Tuve la oportunidad de ver el ltimo caso de viruela letal en el mundo. +Estuve en India el ao pasado y puede que haya visto el ltimo caso de polio en el mundo. +No hay nada que te haga sentir ms, la bendicin y el honor de trabajar en un programa como ese, que saber que algo tan horrible ya no existe. +As que, voy a decirles ---- as que, voy a ensearles algunas fotos impactantes. +Son duras de ver, pero deberan verlas con optimismo porque el horror de estas fotos ser contrastado con saber que eso ya no existe. +Pero, primero voy a contarles un poco acerca de mi viaje. +Mi formacin no es, exactamente, convencional como podran esperar. +Cuando era un interno en San Francisco, supe acerca de un grupo de Nativos Americanos que haban tomado la Isla de Alcatraz, y de una Nativa Americana que quera dar a luz all, y ningn mdico quera ir a ayudarla. +Yo fui a Alcatraz y viv en la isla durante varias semanas. +Ella dio a luz, yo la asist, me fui de la isla, volv a San Francisco y toda la prensa quera hablar conmigo porque mis tres semanas en la isla me haban convertido en un experto en asuntos indgenas. +Aparec en todos los programas de televisin. +Ustedes saben de los 60, o te subes al bus o no ests en el bus. +Yo estaba en el bus. Mi esposa y yo a los 37 aos nos subimos al bus. +Nuestro viaje en bus nos llev desde San Francisco hasta Londres. Nos cambiamos de buses en el gran charco. De ah, tomamos dos buses ms y manejamos a travs de Turqua e Irn, Afganistn, por el paso Khyber hacia Pakistn, como cualquier otro mdico joven. +Estos somos nosotros en el paso Khyber y ese es nuestro bus. +Tuvimos algunas dificultades para sobrepasar el paso Khyber, +pero terminamos en la India. +Y, entonces, como todos los de nuestra generacin, fuimos a vivir a un monasterio himalayo. +Es igual que un programa de mdico residente, para aquellos de ustedes que estudien medicina. +Y estudiamos con un hombre sabio, un gur llamado Karoli Baba, que luego me dijo que me quitara el vestido, me ponga un traje de tres piezas, vaya a unirme a las Naciones Unidas como un diplomtico y trabaje para la Organizacin Mundial de la Salud. +E hizo una prediccin escandalosa de que la viruela sera erradicada, y de que este era el regalo de Dios a la humanidad por el duro trabajo de cientficos entregados. +Y esa prediccin se hizo realidad, y esta pequea nia es Rahima Banu, y ella fue el ltimo caso de viruela asesina en el mundo. +Y este documento es el certificado que la comisin mundial firm asegurando al mundo haber erradicado la primera enfermedad de la historia. +La clave para la erradicacin de la viruela fue deteccin temprana, respuesta temprana +Les voy a pedir que lo repitan: deteccin temprana, respuesta temprana. +Pueden repetirlo? +Audiencia: Deteccin temprana, respuesta temprana. +Larry Brilliant: La viruela fue la peor enfermedad en la historia. +Mat a ms personas que todas las guerras en la historia. +En el ltimo siglo produjo 500 millones de muertes. +Ms de dos --ya ests leyendo acerca de Larry Page, +alguien lee muy rpido. En el ao en que Larry Page y Sergey Brin -- con quienes tengo un cierto afecto y una nueva afiliacin -- en el ao en que ellos nacieron, dos millones de personas murieron de viruela. +Declaramos erradicada la viruela en 1980. +Esta es la diapositiva ms importante que yo he visto en salud pblica porque te muestra que ser el ms rico o el ms fuerte, ser rey o reina, no te protega de morir de viruela. +Nunca debemos dudar de que esto nos concierne a todos. +Pero, ver la viruela desde la perspectiva de un soberano es asumir la perspectiva incorrecta. +Deberan verlo desde la perspectiva de una madre observando cmo su hijo desarrolla esta enfermedad sin ser capaz de hacer algo. +Da uno, da dos, da tres, da cuatro, da cinco, da seis. +Eres madre y observas a tu hijo, y en el da seis, ves pstulas que se endurecen. +Da siete: se ven las cicatrices clsicas de la umbilicacin de la viruela. +Da ocho. +Para el da nueve, ustedes miran est foto y estn horrorizados. Yo miro esta foto y digo, "Gracias a Dios" porque est claro que este es solamente un caso ordinario de viruela, y s que esta nio vivir. +Y para el da trece, se estn formando costras en las lesiones, sus prpados estn inflamados, pero ya se sabe que esta nio no tiene una infeccin secundaria. +Y para el da 20, a pesar de que tendr cicatrices de por vida, vivir. +Hay otros tipos de viruela que no son as. +Esta es la viruela confluente, en la cual no hay lugar alguno en el cuerpo donde puedas poner un dedo y no estar cubierto de lesiones. +Viruela plana, que mat al 100% de los que la padecieron. +Y viruela hemorrgica, la ms cruel de todas, que tena una predileccin por las mujeres embarazadas. +Yo probablemente haya tenido 50 mujeres que murieron. Todas tenan viruela hemorrgica. +Yo no he visto a nadie morir de ella sin ser una mujer embarazada. +En 1967 la OMS se embarc en lo que era un impresionante programa para erradicar una enfermedad. +En ese ao haba 34 pases afectados por la viruela. +Para 1970, habamos bajado a 18 pases. +En 1974, habamos bajado a 5 pases. +Pero en ese ao, la viruela explot a lo largo de toda la India. +Y India fue el lugar donde la viruela libr su ltima batalla. +En 1974, India tena una poblacin de 600 millones. +Existen 21 lenguas en India, que es como decir 21 pases distintos. +No solo era India la que tena deidades de la viruela, prevalecan alrededor de todo el mundo. +As, la forma como erradicamos la viruela fue --las vacunaciones masivas no funcionaran. +Podas vacunar a todos en India, pero un ao ms tarde habrn 21 millones de nuevos bebs, que en esa poca era la poblacin de Canad. +Simplemente no sera suficiente vacunar a todo el mundo. +Tenas que encontrar cada caso de viruela en el mundo al mismo tiempo y dibujar un crculo de inmunidad alrededor de l. +Y eso fue lo que hicimos. +Solamente en India, mis 150 000 mejores amigos y yo fuimos de puerta en puerta con la misma fotografa a cada casa en la India. Hicimos ms de mil millones de visitas. +Y en el proceso, aprend algo muy importante. +Cada vez que hacamos una bsqueda de casa en casa, tenamos un pico en el nmero de reportes de viruela +Cuando no buscbamos, tenamos la ilusin de que no haba enfermedad. +Cuando buscbamos, tenamos la ilusin de que haba ms enfermedad. +Un sistema de vigilancia era necesario porque lo que necesitbamos era deteccin temprana y respuesta temprana. +As, buscamos y buscamos, y encontramos cada caso de viruela en India. Ofrecimos una recompensa. +Subimos la recompensa. Volvimos a subir la recompensa. +Tenamos una hoja de puntajes que escribamos en cada casa. +Y, mientras hacamos eso, el nmero de casos reportados en el mundo baj a cero, +y en 1980 declaramos al mundo libre de viruela. +Fue la campaa ms grande en la historia de las Naciones Unidas hasta la guerra de Iraq. +150 000 personas de todo el mundo, mdicos de todas las razas, religiones, culturas y naciones, que pelearon lado a lado, hermanos y hermanas, uno con otro, no uno contra otro, en una causa comn de hacer un mundo mejor. +Pero la viruela fue la cuarta enfermedad que se pretenda erradicar. +Fallamos otras tres veces. +Fallamos en contra de la malaria, la fiebre amarilla y la frambesia . +Pero puede que pronto veamos erradicado el polio. +Pero la clave para erradicar el polio es la deteccin temprana y la respuesta temprana. +Este podra ser el ao que erradiquemos el polio -- +eso la hara la segunda enfermedad en la Historia. +Y David Heymann, quin est viendo esto en el webcast -- David, sigue avanzando. Estamos cerca. Estamos en los ltimos cuatro pases. +Me siento como Hank Aaron. Barry Bonds puede reemplazarme en cualquier momento. +Saquemos otra enfermedad de la lista de cosas terribles de las que tenemos que preocuparnos. +Hace poco estuve en India trabajando en el programa contra el polio. +El programa de vigilancia contra el polio supone cuatro millones de personas yendo de puerta en puerta. +Ese es el sistema de vigilancia. +Pero necesitamos conseguir deteccin temprana, respuesta temprana. +Lo mismo con la ceguera. La clave para descubrir la ceguera es hacer inspecciones epidemiolgicas y encontrar las causas de la ceguera para poder ofrecer un respuesta correcta. +La Fundacin Seva la iniciaron un grupo de ex alumnos del programa de erradicacin de la viruela quienes habiendo escalado la montaa ms alta, saborearon el elixir del xito de haber erradicado una enfermedad, y queran hacerlo de nuevo. +Y durante los ltimos 27 aos, los pogramas de Seva en 15 pases han devuelto la vista a ms de dos millones de personas ciegas. +Seva se inici porque queramos aplicar esas lecciones de vigilancia y epidemiologa a algo que nadie consideraba un problema de salud pblica: la ceguera, que hasta ese momento se haba considerado solamente como una enfermedad clnica. +En 1980 Steve Jobs me dio esa computadora, que es la Apple nmero 12, y todava est en Kathmandu, y todava est funcionando, y deberamos ir a conseguirla y subastarla para conseguir ms dinero para Seva. +Y realizamos el primer estudio de la salud en Nepal, y el primer estudio nacional de ceguera realizado en el mundo, y tuvimos resultados sorprendentes. +En lugar de encontrar lo que pensbamos -- que la ceguera era causada en su mayora por glaucoma y tracoma -- nos sorprendimos al encontrar que la ceguera era en realidad causada por cataratas. +No puedes curar o prevenir lo que no sabes que est ah. +En sus paquetes de TED hay un DVD, "Visin Infinita" sobre el Dr. V y el Hospital de la Vista de Aravind. +Espero que lo miren. +Aravind, que comenz como un proyecto del Seva, es ahora el mejor y ms grande hospital de la vista del mundo. +Este ao, ese hospital por s solo, le devolver la vista a ms de 300 000 personas en Tamil Nadu, India. +Gripe aviar. Yo me paro aqu como un representante de todas las cosas terribles -- esta podra ser la peor. +La clave para prevenir o mitigar una gripe aviar pandmica es la deteccin temprana y la respuesta temprana. +No tendremos una vacuna o suministros suficientes de antivirales para combatir la gripe aviar si ocurre en los prximos tres aos. +La OMS establece niveles en el desarrollo de una pandemia. +En este momento estamos en el nivel tres en la escala de alerta pandmica, con solo un poco de transmisin humano-a-humano, pero sin transmisin sostenida de humano-a-humano-a-humano. +En el momento en que la OMS diga que nos hemos movido a la categora cuatro, esto no ser como Katrina. El mundo como lo conocemos se detendr. +No habr aviones volando. +Te subiras a un avin con 250 personas que no conoces, tosiendo y estornudando, cuando sabes que algunos de ellos podran portar una enfermedad que te podra matar, para la cual no tienes drogas antivirales o vacunas? +Realic un estudio de los epidemilogos ms importantes del mundo en octubre. +Les pregunt -- todos investigadores de la gripe y especialistas en gripe -- y les hice las preguntas que a ustedes les gustara hacerles. Cul es la probabilidad de que haya una pandemia? +Si ocurre, qu tan terrible cree que sea? +El 15% dijo que pensaban que habra una pandemia dentro de los prximos tres aos. +Pero mucho peor que eso, el 90% dijo que pensaba que habra una pandemia durante la vida de sus hijos o sus nietos. +Y ellos pensaban que si haba una pandemia, mil millones de personas se enfermaran. +Y 165 millones moriran. +Y est empeorando, porque viajar est siendo cada vez mejor. +Djenme mostrarles una simulacin de cmo se ve una pandemia +para que sepamos de qu estamos hablando. +Asumamos, por ejemplo, que el primer caso ocurra en Asia del Sur. +Al inicio avanza lentamente. +Tienes dos o tres locaciones discretas. +Luego habr brotes secundarios y la enfermedad se propagar de pas a pas tan rpido que no sabrs qu te golpe. +Dentro de tres semanas estar en todo el mundo. +Y djenme ensearles por qu es eso. +Tenemos una broma. Esta es una curva de una epidemia y todos en medicina, creo, finalmente llegan a saber qu es. +Pero la broma es, a un epidemilogo le gusta llegar a una epidemia justo aqu y montar hasta la gloria en la curva de bajada. +Pero uno generalmente no consigue eso. +Uno generalmente llega ms o menos aqu. +Lo que realmente queremos es llegar aqu, para que podamos detener la pandemia. +Pero no siempre puedes hacer eso. Pero hay una organizacin +que ha podido encontrar una forma de conocer cundo ocurre un primer caso, y se llama GPHIN. Es la Red Global de Informacin de Salud Pblica. +Y esa simulacin que les mostr y que pensaron que era gripe aviar, +era SARS. Y SARS es la pandemia que no ocurri. +Y no ocurri porque GPHIN supo ver la potencial pandemia de SARS tres meses antes que la OMS lo anunciara, y por eso pudimos detener la pandemia de SARS. +Y yo creo que le debemos nuestra gratitud a GPHIN y a Ron St. John, quien espero est en la audiencia en algn lugar -- ah -- l es el fundador de GPHIN. +Hola Ron. +Y TED trajo a Ron desde Ottawa, donde GPHIN se encuentra porque GPHIN no solo encontr el SARS temprano, sino pueden haber visto la semana pasada que Irn anunci que tenan gripe aviar en Irn, pero GPHIN encontr la gripe aviar en Irn no el 14 de febrero, sino en setiembre pasado. +Necesitamos un sistema de alerta temprana que nos proteja de las cosas que constituyen la peor pesadilla de la humanidad. +As, mi deseo TED est basado en el comn denominador en estas experiencias. +Viruela -- deteccin temprana, respuesta temprana. +Cegera, polio -- deteccin temprana, respuesta temprana. +Gripe aviar pandmica -- deteccin temprana, respuesta temprana. Es una letana. +Es tan obvio que nuestra nica forma de lidiar con estas nuevas enfermedades es encontrarlas temprano y matarlas antes de que se extiendan. +As, mi deseo en TED es que ustedes ayuden a crear un sistema global, un sistema de alerta temprana, que nos proteja contra las peores pesadillas de la humanidad. +As, en lugar de tener una pandemia escondida de gripe aviar, la encontramos e inmediatamente la contendremos. +En lugar de un novel virus causado por bio-terror o bio-error, o cambio o deriva antignicos, lo encontramos y lo contenemos. +En lugar de accidentes industriales como derrames de petrleo o la catstrofe en Bhopal, los encontramos y respondemos a ellos. +En lugar de hambruna, escondida hasta que es demasiado tarde, la detectamos y respondemos. +Y en lugar de un sistema, de propiedad del gobierno y escondido en las entraas del gobierno, construyamos un sistema de deteccin temprana que est disponible libremente para cualquier persona en el mundo en su idioma. +Hagmoslo transparente, no gubernamental, que su dueo no sea ninguna sola compaa o pas, alojado en un pas neutral, con copia de seguridad redundante en un diferente huso horario y en un diferente continente, +y construymoslo sobre GPHIN. Comencemos con GPHIN. +Aumentemos la cantidad de pginas web que revisa de 20 000 a 20 millones. +Aumentemos las lenguas en los que busca de siete a 70 o ms. +Construyamos mensajes de confirmacin de salida usando mensajes de texto o SMS o mensajera instantnea para averiguar de la gente que est dentro de 100 metros a la redonda acerca del rumor que escuchas si es que es en verdad vlido. +Y agreguemos confirmacin por satlite. +Y agregaremos los sorprendentes grficos de Gapminder en la informacin final. +Chris Anderson: Una presentacin sorprendente. Antes que nada, +para que todo el mundo lo entienda, t dices que construyendo -- creando, araas web, buscando patrones en Internet, podemos detectar algo sospechoso antes que la OMS, antes que alguien ms pueda verlo? +Solo explcalo. Da un ejemplo de cmo se podra realizar. +Larry Brilliant: Antes que nada, no ests molesto por las violaciones de los derechos de autor? +CA: No. Me encanta. +LB: Bueno, ustedes saben, como Ron St. John -- y espero que vayan y lo conozcan luego en la cena y hablen con l -- +Cuando empez GPHIN en 1997, haba un brote de gripe aviar. +H5N1. Era en Hong Kong. Y un notable mdico en Hong Kong respondi inmediatamente sacrificando 1.5 millones de pollos y otras aves, y eso detuvo el avance del brote. +Deteccin inmediata, respuesta inmediata. +Luego algunos aos pasaron y haban muchos rumores acerca de la gripe aviar. +Ron y su equipo en Ottawa comenzaron a rastrear la red, rastreando solamente 20 000 pginas distintas, sobretodo peridicos, y lean y escuchaban acerca de una preocupacin sobre mucho nios que tenan altas fiebres y sntomas de gripe aviar. +Reportaron esto a la OMS. La OMS se demor un poco en reaccionar porque la OMS solo reciba reportes de un gobierno, porque son las Naciones Unidas. +Pero lograron llegar a la OMS y hacerles saber que haba un sorprendente e inexplicable cmulo de enfermedades que parecan ser la gripe aviar. +Eso termin siendo SARS. +As fue como el mundo supo de SARS. +Y por eso fuimos capaces de detener SARS. +Ahora, lo que es realmente importante es que, antes de que existiera GPHIN, el 100% de los reportes del mundo acerca de cosas malas -- an si ests hablando de hambruna o si ests hablando de gripe aviar o si ests hablando de bola -- 100% de esos reportes venan de naciones. +En el momento en que esos tipos en Ottawa, con un presupuesto de 800 000 dlares al ao, comenzaron a trabajar, el 75% de los reportes en el mundo vena de GPHIN, 25% de los reportes en el mundo venan de las otras 180 naciones. +Ahora, esto es lo realmente interesante, luego de haber estado trabajando por un par de aos, qu creen que les pas a esas naciones? +Se sintieron bastante estpidos y empezaron a mandar sus reportes ms temprano. +Ahora su porcentaje de los reportes ha bajado al 50% porque otras naciones han comenzado a reportar. +As que, puedes encontrar enfermedades temprano rastreando la red? +Claro que s. Puedes encontrarlas todava ms temprano de lo que lo hace GPHIN ahora? +Claro que se puede. Ustedes vieron que encontraron SARS +usando una araa web china seis semanas completas antes de que lo encontraran usando la araa web en ingls. +Bueno, ellos solo estn rastreando en siete lenguas. +Estos virus malvados realmente no tiene intencin alguna de aparecer primero en ingls o espaol o francs. +As que, s, yo quiero tomar GPHIN, quiero construir sobre l, +yo quiero agregar todas las lenguas del mundo posibles, +yo quiero hacer esto abierto para todos para que la autoridad de salud en Nairobi o en Patna, Bihar tenga tanto acceso a l como los tipos en Ottawa o en la CDC, +y quiero hacerlo parte de nuestra cultura que exista una comunidad de gente que est cuidndonos de las peores pesadillas de la humanidad, y que es accesible por todos. +Bueno, como Alexander Graham Bell dijo en su memorable primera llamada telefnica exitosa, "Hola, Domino's Pizza?" +Simplemente quiero darles las gracias. +Como dijo otro hombre famoso, Jerry Garca, "Qu viaje ms extrao y largo." +Y debera haber dicho, "En qu extrao, largo viaje est a punto de convertirse." +En este momento, estn viendo mi mitad superior. +Mi mitad inferior est en una conferencia diferente -- en un pas diferente. +Resulta que puedes estar en dos sitios al mismo tiempo. +Aun as, lamento no poder estar con ustedes en persona. +Se lo explicar en otra ocasin. +Y aunque soy una estrella de rock, slo quiero asegurarles que ninguno de mis deseos incluir un jacuzzi. +Pero lo que realmente me emociona de la tecnologa no es slo que podamos tener ms canciones en reproductores de mp3. +La revolucin -- esta revolucin -- es mucho ms grande que eso. +Eso espero, eso creo. +Lo que me emociona de la era digital, lo que me emocion personalmente, es que se ha eliminado la distancia entre soar y hacer. +Vern, sola ocurrir que si queras hacer un disco de una cancin, necesitabas un estudio y un productor. +Ahora, necesitas una computadora porttil. +Si queras hacer una pelcula, necesitabas un equipo muy grande y un presupuesto de Hollywood. +Ahora, necesitas una cmara que cabe en la palma de tu mano, y un par de dlares para un DVD vaco. +La imaginacin se ha librado de viejas limitaciones. +Y eso realmente, realmente me emociona. +Me emociona cuando veo ese tipo de pensamiento a gran escala. +Lo que me gustara ver es al idealismo separado de toda limitacin. +Poltica, econmica, psicolgica, de cualquier tipo. +El mundo geopoltico tiene mucho que aprender del mundo digital. +Desde la facilidad con la que se barrieron obstculos que nadie pens que podan ser ni siquiera sorteados. +Y de eso es de lo que realmente me gustara hablar hoy. +Aunque, primero, probablemente debera explicar por qu, y cmo, llegu hasta aqu. +Es un viaje que empez hace 20 aos. +Tal vez recuerden esa cancin, "We Are the World," o, "Do They Know It's Christmas?" +Band Aid, Live Aid. +Otra muy alta y canosa estrella de rock, my amigo Sir Bob Geldof, lanz el reto de "alimentar al mundo." +Fue un gran momento, y cambi mi vida por completo. +Ese verano, mi mujer, Ali, y yo fuimos a Etiopa. +Fuimos con discrecin para ver nosotros mismos lo que pasaba. +Vivimos en Etiopa un mes, trabajando en un orfanato. +Los nios me pusieron un nombre. +Me llamaban, "La nia con barba." +No me pregunten. +De cualquier modo, nos pareci que frica es un lugar mgico. +Cielos grandes, corazones grandes, un continente grande y brillante. +Gente buena, esplndida. +Quienquiera que haya dado algo a frica ha recibido mucho ms. +Etiopa no slo me asombr, sino que me abri la mente. +Bueno, nuestro ltimo da en este orfanato un hombre me dio a su hijo y dijo, "Se lo llevara con usted?" +Saba que, en Irlanda, su hijo vivira, y que en Etiopa, su hijo morira. +Fue en medio de esa horrible hambruna. +Bueno, lo rechaz. +Fue una sensacin rara y como enfermiza, pero lo rechaz. +Y es una sensacin que jams puedo olvidar. +Y en ese momento, empec este viaje. +En ese momento, me convert en lo peor de todo: me convert en una estrella de rock con una causa. Slo que esta no es la causa, no? +Seis mil personas y media mueren de SIDA cada da en frica -- una enfermedad que se puede prevenir y tratar -- por falta de medicamentos que nosotros podemos conseguir en una farmacia. +Esta no es una causa. Es una emergencia. +11 millones de hurfanos con SIDA en frica, 20 millones al final de la dcada. +Esa no es una causa. Es una emergencia. +Hoy, cada da, 9.000 africanos ms contraern VIH por el estigma y la falta de educacin. +Esa no es una causa. Es una emergencia. +As que de lo que estamos hablando aqu es de derechos humanos. +El derecho a vivir como un ser humano. +El derecho a vivir y punto. +Y a lo que nos estamos enfrentando en frica es a una amenaza a la dignidad e igualdad humanas sin precedentes. +Lo siguiente que quiero aclarar es, qu es este problema, y qu no es. +Porque no todo se trata de caridad. +Se trata de justicia. Realmente. +No se trata de caridad. Se trata de justicia. +Eso es. +Y es una pena, porque somos muy buenos con la caridad. +Los americanos, como los irlandeses, son buenos con la caridad. +Incluso los barrios ms pobres dan ms de lo que pueden permitirse. +Nos gusta dar, y damos mucho. +Miren la respuesta al tsunami, es inspirador. +Pero la justicia es un standard ms riguroso que la caridad. +frica se re de nuestra idea de la justicia. +Hace una farsa de nuestra idea de la igualdad. +Se re de nuestras piedades. Duda de nuestro inters. +Cuestiona nuestro compromiso. +Porque no hay manera de que podamos mirar lo que sucede en frica, y, siendo sinceros, concluir que se permitira alguna vez que pasara en cualquier otro lugar. +Como vieron en la pelcula, en cualquier otro lugar, menos aqu. +No aqu, no en Amrica, no en Europa. +De hecho, un jefe de estado a quien ustedes conocen lo admiti ante m. Y es realmente cierto. +No hay manera de que este tipo de hemorragia de la vida humana fuera aceptada en lugar alguno fuera de frica. +frica es un continente en llamas. +Y en el fondo, si aceptramos realmente que los africanos son iguales a nosotros, todos haramos ms para apagar las llamas. +Vamos por ah con regaderas, cuando lo que realmente necesitamos son los bomberos. +Vern, no es tran dramtico como el tsunami. +En realidad, cuando lo piensas es una locura. +Es que las cosas hoy en da tienen que parecer una pelcula de accin para existir en nuestra mente? +La lenta extincin de incontables vidas parece que no es lo bastante dramtico. +Las catstrofes que podemos evitar no son tan interesantes como las que podramos evitar. +Qu gracioso. +De todas formas, creo que esa forma de pensar es una ofensa al rigor intelectual de esta sala. +Seis mil y media personas muriendo diariamente en frica puede que sea una crisis de frica pero el hecho de que no est en las noticias de la noche, de que nosotros en Europa, o ustedes en Amrica, no lo estemos tratando como una emergencia -- Esta noche quiero proponer que esta es nuestra crisis. +Quiero proponer que aunque frica no est en primera lnea de combate en la guerra contra el terrorismo, podra estarlo pronto. +Cada semana, extremistas religiosos toman otro pueblo africano. +Tratan de poner en orden el caos. +Bueno, por que no lo estamos haciendo nosotros? +La pobreza engendra desesperacin. Eso lo sabemos. +La desesperacin engendra violencia. Eso lo sabemos. +En tiempos turbulentos, no es ms barato, y ms inteligente hacer amigos de enemigos potenciales que defenderte de ellos ms tarde? +La guerra contra el terrorismo est ligada a la guerra contra la pobreza. +Y eso no lo he dicho yo. Lo dijo Colin Powell. +Ahora, cuando el ejrcito nos dice que esto es una guerra que no puede ser ganada slo con poder militar, tal vez deberamos escuchar. +Aqu hay una oportunidad, y es real. +No es una invencin. No son falsas ilusiones. +Los problemas que enfrenta el mundo en desarrollo nos permite a nosotros en el mundo desarrollado una oportunidad para re-describirnos ante el mundo. +No slo transformaremos las vidas de otras personas, sino que tambin transformaremos cmo nos ven esas otras vidas. +Y eso puede ser inteligente en estos tiempos tensos y peligrosos. +No piensan que a nivel puramente comercial, los medicamentos antirretrovirales son gran publicidad para la ingeniosidad y la tecnologa de Occidente? +Es que la compasin no se ve bien en nosotros? +Vayamos al grano por un segundo. +En ciertos lugares del mundo, la marca Unin Europea, la marca Estados Unidos, no estn en su mejor momento. +El letrero de nen emite zumbidos y se rompe. +Alguien ha roto la ventana con un ladrillo. +Los gerentes regionales se estn poniendo nerviosos. +Occidente nunca haba sido tan escrutinado. +Nuestos valores: tenemos alguno? +Nuestra credibilidad? +Estas cosas se estn atacando en el mundo. +La marca Estados Unidos se le podra pulir. +Y eso lo digo como un fan. +Como una persona que compra los productos. +Pero piensen en eso. +Que haya ms antirretrovirales tiene sentido. +Pero eso es slo la parte fcil, o debera serlo. +Pero la igualdad para frica -- esa es una idea grande y cara. +Como pueden ver, la escala del sufrimiento nos insensibiliza hasta una cierta indiferencia. +Qu pordemos hacer todos nosotros al respecto? +Bueno, mucho ms de lo que pensamos. +No podemos solucionar cada problema, pero aquellos problemas que podemos, propongo que debemos solucionarlos. +Y porque podemos, debemos. +Esa es la verdad pura y simple. +No es una teora. +El hecho es que nuestra generacin es la primera que puede mirar a los ojos a la enfermedad y la probreza extrema, mirar a frica a travs del ocano, y decir esto, y decirlo de verdad. No tenemos que tolerar esto. +Un continente entero borrado del mapa -- no tenemos que tolerarlo. +Y djenme que diga esto sin asomo de irona -- antes de que vuelva a un grupo de ex hippies. +Olvdense de los 60. Podemos cambiar el mundo. +T no puedes, yo no puedo, individualmente, pero podemos cambiar el mundo. +A la gente en esta sala les digo, que realmente creo eso. +Miren a la Fundacin Gates. +Han hecho cosas increbles. +Pero trabajando juntos, podemos cambiar el mundo. +Podermos prevenir consecuencias inevitables, y transformar la calidad de vida de milliones de vidas que se ven y sienten como nosotros, cuando estamos cerca. +Lamento reirme ahora, pero ustedes se ven tan distintos a como se vean en Haight-Ashbury en los aos 60. +Pero quiero sealar que este es el momento para el cual ustedes fueron diseados. +Es el florecimiento de las semillas que ustedes plantaron en das anteriores y embriagadores. +Ideas que ustedes gestaron en su juventud. +Eso es lo que me emociona. +Esta sala naci para este momento, eso es lo que realmente quiero decirles esta noche. +Muchos de ustedes empezaron queriendo cambiar el mundo, o no? +Muchos de ustedes hicieron, el mundo digital. +Bueno, de hecho ahora, gracias a ustedes, es posible cambiar el mundo fsico. +Es un hecho. +Los economistas lo confirman, y ellos saben mucho ms que yo. +As que, por qu no estamos alzando nuestros puos al aire? +Probablemente porque cuando admitimos que podemos hacer algo al respecto, tenemos que hacer algo al respecto. +Es como una piedra en el zapato. +Esto de la igualdad es como una piedra en el zapato. +Pero por primera vez en la historia, tenemos la tecnologa, tenemos el conocimiento, tenemos el dinero, tenemos las medicinas que salvan vidas. +Tenemos la voluntad? +Espero que esto sea obvio, pero no soy un hippie. +Y en realidad, a mi no me va bien eso de sentirme en las nubes. +No tengo flores en mi cabello. +De hecho, vengo del punk rock. +The Clash llevaban grandes botas militares, no sandalias. +Pero reconozco la fuerza cuando la veo. +Y en todas las charlas sobre paz y amor en la costa oeste, hubo fuerza para el movimiento que empez aqu. +Saben que, el idealismo separado de la accin es slo un sueo. +Pero el idealismo aliado con el pragmatismo, con doblarse las mangas y hacer que el mundo ceda un poco, es muy emocionante. Es muy real. Tiene mucha fuerza. +Y est muy presente en una audiencia como ustedes. +El ao pasado en DATA, esta organizacin que ayud a fundar, lanzamos una campaa para convocar este espritu en la lucha contra el SIDA y la pobreza extrema. +Lo llamamos la Campaa ONE . +Se basa en nuestra creencia de que la accin de una persona puede cambiar mucho, pero las acciones de muchos que se unen pueden cambiar el mundo. +Bueno, pensamos que ahora es el momento de probar que tenemos razn. +Hay momentos en la historia en los que la civilizacin se redefine. +Creemos que ste es uno. +Creemos que ste podra ser el momento en el que el mundo finalmente decide que la prdida de vidas en frica ya no es aceptable. +ste podra ser el momento en el que finalmente nos tomamos en serio cambiar el futuro para la mayor parte de la gente que vive en el planeta Tierra. +Este momento se ha ido construyendo. +Tambalendose un poco, pero se va construyendo. +Este ao es una prueba para todos nosotros, especialmente los lderes de las naciones del G8, que son los que realmente estn al frente, con todo el mundo mirando. +Recientemente, he estado decepcionado del gobierno de Bush. +Ellos empezaron con ciertas promesas sobre frica. +Hicieron muy buenas promesas, y de hecho cumplieron muchas de ellas. +Pero algunas no. +Ellos no sienten la presin, esa es la verdad. +Pero mi decepcin tiene mucho ms perspectiva cuando hablo con gente estadounidense, y escucho sus preocupaciones sobre el dficit, y el bienestar fiscal del pas. +Eso lo entiendo. +Pero hay mucha ms presin de la que piensan, si nos organizamos. +Lo que intento comunicar, y me pueden ayudar si estn de acuerdo, es que ayudar a frica es una muy buena inversin en una poca en la que Amrica realmente lo necesita. +Poniendolo en los trminos ms claros posibles, la inversin genera grandes beneficios. +No slo en vidas salvadas, sino en la buena voluntad, la estabilidad y la seguridad que ganaremos. +As que esto es lo que espero que ustedes hagan, si yo pudiera ser tan valiente y que no me lo deduzcan de mi cantidad de deseos. +Lo que espero es que ms all de actos de misericordia individual, les digan a los polticos que hagan lo correcto por frica, por Amrica y por el mundo. +Denles permiso, si quieren, para gastar su capital poltico y su capital financiero, su monedero nacional, en salvar las vidas de millones de personas. +Eso es lo que realmente me gustara que hicieran. +Porque tambin necesitamos su capital intelectual: sus ideas, sus destrezas, su ingenio. +Y ustedes, en esta conferencia, estn en una posicin nica. +Algunas de las tecnologas de las que hemos estado hablando, las inventaron ustedes, o por lo menos revolucionaron la manera de usarlas. +Juntos han cambiado el espritu de la poca de lo anlogo a lo digital, y han expandido las fronteras. +Y nos gustara que nos dieran esa energa. +Dennos esa forma de soar, esa forma de hacer. +Como digo, aqu hay dos cosas en juego. +Est el continente africano. +Pero tambin est nuestro sentido de nosotros mismos. +La gente est empezando a entender esto. +Estn surgiendo movimientos. +Artistas, polticos, estrellas de pop, curas, jefes de empresas, ONGs, sindicatos de madres, de estudiantes. +Mucha gente se est uniendo, y est trabajando bajo este paraguas del que les habl antes, la Campaa ONE. +Creo que ellos tienen solo una idea en su mente, la cual es; el lugar en el que vives en el mundo, no debera determinar si vives en el mundo. +La historia, como Dios, est vigilando lo que hacemos. +Cuando se escriban los libros de historia creo que nuestra poca ser recordada por tres cosas. +En serio, son slo tres las cosas por las que se recordar esta poca. +La revolucin digital, s. +La guerra contra el terrorismo, s. +Y lo que hicimos o no hicimos por apagar los incendios en frica. +Algunos dicen que no podemos permitrnos hacer algo. Yo digo que no podemos permitirnos no hacerlo. +Gracias, muchsimas gracias. +Okay, mis tres deseos. +Los que TED se ha ofrecido a cumplir. +Vern, si es cierto, y yo creo que lo es, que el mundo digital que todos ustedes han creado ha liberado a la imaginacin creativa de los lmites fsicos de la materia. Esto debera ser pan comido. +Debera aadir que esto empez como una lista de deseos mucho ms larga. +La mayora imposibles, algunos poco prcticos y uno o dos ciertamente inmorales. +Esto es adictivo, ustedes saben lo que quiero decir, cuando es otro quien paga los platos rotos. +Bueno, aqu est el nmero uno. +Deseo que ustedes ayuden a construir un movimiento social de ms de un milln de activistas americanos por frica. +Ese es mi primer deseo. +Creo que es posible. +Hace unos minutos, habl de todas las campaas de ciudadanos que estn surgiendo. +Ustedes saben, hay muchas por ah. +Y con esta campaa como nuestro paraguas, mi organizacin, DATA, y otros grupos, han estado usando la energa y el entusiasmo de la calle, desde Hollywood hasta el corazn de Amrica. +Sabemos que hay energa ms que suficiente para alimentar este movimiento. +Slo necesitamos su ayuda para hacer que suceda. +Les queremos a todos aqu, la Amrica regiliosa, la Amrica corporativa, la Amrica de Microsoft, la Amrica de Apple, la Amrica de Coca Cola, la Amrica de Pepsi, la Amrica inteligente, la Amrica ruidosa. +No podemos permanecer fros y no participar en esto. +Creo que si construimos un movimiento fuerte de un milln de americanos no seremos ignorados. +El Congreso nos escuchar. +Estaremos en la primera pgina del boletn informativo de Condi Rice, y de ah al Despacho Oval. +Si hay un milln de americanos --y esto lo s de verdad-- que estn dispuestos a llamar por telfono, que estn dispuestos a estar conectados a internet. Estoy completamente seguro de que podemos cambiar el curso de la historia, literalmente, para el continente africano. +As que me gustara que nos ayudaran a firmar eso. +S que ya contamos con John Cage y Sun Microsystems, pero hay muchos de ustedes con los que nos gustara hablar. +Claro, mi segundo deseo, el nmero dos. +Me gustara que se publicara una noticia por cada persona que vive con menos de un dolar al da en el planeta. +Eso es un billn de noticias. +Podra ser en Google, en AOL. +Steve Case, Larry, Sergey -- ya han hecho mucho. +Podra ser en NBC. Podra ser en ABC. +De hecho hoy vamos a hablar con ABC sobre los Oscars. +Tenemos una pelcula, producida por Jon Kamen en Radical Media. +Pero ustedes saben, nosotros queremos, necesitamos algo de tiempo en directo para nuestras ideas. +Necesitamos que las matemticas, que las estadsticas lleguen al pueblo americano. +Sinceramente creo en la vieja frase de Truman, que si al pueblo americano le das los hechos, ellos harn lo correcto. +Y la otra cosa importante, es que esto no es Sally Struthers. +Esto tiene que describirse cono una aventura, no como una carga. +: uno a uno van avanzando, una enfermera, un profesor, un amo de casa, y se salvan vidas. +El problema es enorme. +Una persona muere cada tres segundos. +Y en otros tres segundos, una ms. +La situacin es tan desesperante en partes de frica, Asia, incluso Amrica que los grupos de ayuda, como hicieron cuando el tsunami, se estn uniendo como si fueran uno, estn actuando como si fueran uno. +Podemos derrotar a la pobreza extrema, al hambre, al SIDA. +Pero necesitamos su ayuda. +Una persona ms, una palabra ms, una voz ms, ser la diferencia entre la vida y la muerte de millones de personas. +Por favor, nanse a nosotros para trabajar juntos. +Los americanos tienen una oportunidad sin precedentes. +Podemos hacer historia. +Podemos empezar a hacer que la pobreza sea historia. +Uno a uno, uno a uno. +Por favor, visiten ONE en esta direccin. +No les pedimos dinero. Les pedimos su voz. +Bien. Espero que TED verdaderamente muestre el poder de la informacin. El poder de reescribir las reglas y transformar vidas, al conectar cada hospital, las clnicas y las escuelas en un pas africano. +Y me gustara que fuera Etiopa. +Creo que podemos conectar cada escuela en Etiopa, cada clnica, cada hospital. Podemos conectarnos a internet. +Ese es mi deseo, mi tercer deseo. +Creo que es posible. +Creo que en la sala tenemos el dinero y la inteligencia para hacer eso. +Y ese sera un deseo deslumbrante si se cumpliera. +Como dije antes, he estado en Etiopa. +De hecho, es donde todo empez para m. +La idea de que el internet, que cambi la vida de todos nosotros, pueda cambiar un pas -- y un continente que apenas ha llegado a la poca anloga, no hablemos de la digital -- me asombra. +Pero no empez as. +La primera lnea a distancia desde Boston a Nueva York se us en 1885 por telfono. +Tan solo nueve aos ms tarde Addis Ababa estaba conectada por telfono a Harara, que est a 500 kilmetros. +Desde entonces, no ha cambiado mucho. +El tiempo de espera promedio para conseguir una lnea de telfono fijo en Etiopa es alrededor de siete u ocho aos. +Pero la tecnologa inalmbrica ni se haba imaginado en aquel entonces. +Bueno, soy irlands, y como pueden ver, s qu tan importante es hablar. +La comunicacin es muy importante para Etiopa -- transformar el pas. +Las enfermeras recibiendo mejor preparacin, los farmacuticos siendo capaces de ordenar suplementos mdicos, los mdicos compartiendo su pericia en todos los campos de la medicina. +Es una idea muy, muy buena idea que estn conectados. +Y ese es mi tercer y ltimo deseo para ustedes en la conferencia TED. +Muchas gracias nuevamente. +Mi abuelo me dijo cuando era nia Si dices suficientemente una palabra, se convierte en tu esencia. +Tambin me inspir Walt Whitman quien quiso absorber su pas y estar absorto en ello. +As que estos cuatro personajes vienen de la obra a la cual me he dedicado durante muchos aos y mucho ms de no sunas dos mil personas a las cuales he entrevistado. +Hay alguien aqu que tenga edad para conocer a Studs Terkel, aquel viejo hombre de la radio? +A m me pareci la persona ideal a quien recurrir para subrayar un momento destacable en la historia norteamericana. +Saben que "naci en 1912, el ao en que se hundi el Titanic el buque ms grande que jams se construy. Se atropella con la punta de un iceberg, y pam! se hundi. Se hundi, y surg yo. Ay, qu siglo! +Les doy su respuesta acerca de un momento destacable en la historia norteamericana. +Momento destacable en la historia norteamericana, no creo que haya solo uno; No se puede decir que fue Hiroshima, pero es muy importante - - No puedo pensar en un solo momento que para m es el ms significativo. +La disminucin gradual- me parece que disminucin es la palabra que utiliza la gente de Watergate, la disminucin de la moralidad- - es un proceso paulatino, que se compone de muchas etapas. +Ven ustedes, que ahora tambin tenemos la tecnologa +la cual, segn mi modo de ver, disminuye cada vez ms el toque humano +Ah, djenme contarles una historia graciosa.. +El aeropuerto de Atlanta es moderno, y deberan dejar la puerta all. +Estos trenes que te traen a una explanada y continan hacia un destino. +Y estos trenes son cmodos, y silenciosos y eficaces. +Y escuchas una voz en el tren, una voz humana. +En los viejos tiempos, haba robots, los robots imitaban a los seres humanos. +Ahora son los seres humanos que imitan a los robots. +La voz dice: Primera Explanada: Omaha, Lincoln. +Segunda Explanada: Dallas, Fort Worth. Es la misma voz. +Y justo cuando el tren est por salir, una pareja joven se apura por entrar y el personal est por cerrar las puertas neumticas +Y esa voz dice, sin vacilar, "A causa de la entrada tarde, tenemos una demora de 30 segundos." Y en ese momento, todo el mundo se dirige a la pareja y da rienda suelta a su mirada odiosa, y la pareja hace as, saben, retroceden ante ellos . +Bueno, por casualidad, tom unos traguitos antes de embarcarme al tren - - Lo hago para armarme de valor para hacer el viaje- - as que Imito un silbido de tren, con la mano en el -- George Orwell, ha venido la hora de tu muerte, ven. +Bueno, algunos de ustedes se ren. Todo el mundo se re cuando cuento ese chiste, pero no en este tren. Silencio. +De repente todo el mundo me est mirando. +Aqu estoy con la pareja, los tres retrocedindonos al pie de caballera, al punto de morir, saben. +En ese momento veo un beb, un recin nacido, en el regazo de su madre +Yo s que el beb es hispano, porque la madre habla con su compaero en espaol. +Yo digo, Gracias a Dios por la reaccin humana. An no estamos perdidos. Pero ven que el toque humano desaparece. +Tenemos que cuestionar la verdad oficial. +Saben qu es lo que tiene de grandioso Mark Twain? saben que honramos a Mark Twain pero no leemos su obra. +Claro que leemos Huck Finn, por supuesto que leemos Huck Finn claro. +Quiero decir, que Huck, por supuesto, era tremendo. +Se acuerdan de aquella fantstica escena en la balsa? Se acuerdan de lo que hizo Huck? +Ven que tenemos a Huck, es un muchacho analfabeto, que falta de educacin pero hay algo dentro de su espritu. +Y la verdad oficial, la verdad era que, la ley era que un negro era propiedad, era una cosa, ven ustedes. +Y Huck se embarca en la balsa con una propiedad que se lllama Jim, un esclavo, +Y Huck oye que Jim va a tomar a su esposa y a sus nios y los va a robar de la mujer que es su duea, Y Huck dice Ay, Dios mo, ay, Dos mo - - esa mujer, esa mujer nunca hizo dao a nadie.. +Ay, los va a robar, los va a robar, va a hacer una cosa terrible." En ese momento dos negreros los alcanzaron, persiguiendo a esclavos, persiguiendo a Jim. +Alguien est en la balsa con usted? le preguntan a Huck. Y Huck les responde. S. Es blanco o negro? Blanco. Y los esclavistas desaparecen. +Y Huck dijo, Ay, Dios mo, Dios mo, ment, ment, ay, Hice una cosa terrible, muy terrible, por qu me siento bien? Pero es la bondad de Huck, su buen corazn ven que todo se ha reprimido. +Asi que el toque humano est desapareciendo. +Entonces me preguntan subrayar un momento destacable A m no me parece que haya solo uno en la historia norteamericana +Al contrario es una coleccin de momentos que nos traen a la actualidad, En que las banalidades se convierten en las noticias. +Y cada vez ms se disminuye la consciencia del dolor o del otro. +As es. Saben que, no s si esto les ser til o no, pero citaba a Wright Morris, un escritor de Nebraska que dice que, nos interesan cada vez ms las comunicaciones mientras que la comunicacin en s empieza a aburrirnos. Bueno, chicos, tengo que largarme de aqu, tengo cita con el cardilogo. +Y ah lo tienen, Studs Terkel. +Hablando de correr riesgos. Voy a representar a alguien que no le gusta a nadie. +Saben que a la mayora de actores nos gusta representar personajes simpticos. bueno, no siempre, pero es la idea, especialmente en una conferencia de este tipo, me gusta inspirar a la gente. +Pero ya que esta conferencia llevaba el ttulo de correr riesgos voy a representar a alguien a la cual nunca he representado antes porque es tan antiptica que de hecho, una persona fue entre bastidores y me dijo que debera sacarla del espectculo. +Sin embargo sigo representndola porque segn mi modo de ver en una conferencia de este tipo deberamos conceptualizar el riesgo como algo bueno. +Pero hay ciertas connotaciones diferentes de la palabra riesgo y lo mismo pasa con la palabra naturaleza. Qu es la naturaleza? +Maxine Greene, quien es una filsofa maravillosa quien tiene tantos aos como Studs y era la cabeza de una filosofa una gran organizacin tipo filosfico La visit un da y le pregunt cules son las dos cosas que ella no sabe, pero que todava quiere saber. +Y me dijo, Yo, personalmente, todava me siento obligada a hacer reverencias cuando veo al presidente de mi universidad. +Y todava me siento obligada a salir a comprar caf para mis colegas masculinos, aunque soy mayor que muchos de ellos. +Y me dijo,Intelectualmente, ya no tengo suficientes conocimientos de la imaginacin negativa +Y seguro que el 11 de Septiembre nos ense que se es un rea que no hemos investigado +As que este monlogo trata de la imaginacin negativa +Nos hace plantearnos preguntas acerca de lo que es la naturaleza y de lo que es la Madre Naturaleza, y de lo que quiere decir la palabra riesgo. +Escrib este monlogo en el Instituto Correccional para Mujeres de Maryland +Todo esto viene al pie de la letra de una cinta. +Y bautizo las cosas porque pienso que la gente habla en poemas orgnicos. este monlogo se llama Un Espejo en Su Boca. +La persona que habla es una presa que se llama Pauline Jenkins. +Empec a aprender cmo esconderlo, porque no quera que nadie supiera que estaba pasando en mi casa +Quiero que todo el mundo piense en nosotros como una familia normal. +Quero decir que no nos faltaba nada, pero este hecho no disminuy el dolor de mis hijos eso no remiti sus temores. +Se me acabaron las excusas para los ojos morados y los labios partidos y los moretones. Ya no tena ms excusas. +Y me golpe tambin. Pero eso no cambi el hecho de que era una pesadilla para mi familia, era una pesadilla. +Y les fall terriblemente porque yo le permita continuar. +Pero la noche en que mat a Myesha y con cada da la intensidad se aument hasta que una noche regresamos a casa despus de comprar drogas y se enfad con Myesha, y se puso a golpearla y la puso en una tina. Utilizara un cinturn. +Tena un cinturn porque tena la retorcida y pervertida idea de que Myesha tena relaciones sexuales con su hermano menor. y se acariciaban as lo explicaba l. +Estoy hablando justamente de la noche en que muri Myesha. +Entonces la puso en la tina, Y yo estaba en el cuarto con el beb. +Y cuatro meses antes de este incidente, cuatro meses antes de que muriera Myesha, Tena la idea de que poda arreglar este hombre. Entonces tuve un beb con l. --Loca--. Pensando que si le daba su propio hijo, dejara la ma en paz. +Y no funcion, no funcion. +Y acab con tres hijos, Houston, Myesha, y Dominic, quien tena cuatro meses cuando me metieron presa. +Y yo estaba en el cuarto. Como ya he dicho, l la tena en la sala de bao Y l - - l - - cada vez que la golpeaba, ella caa. +Y se golpeaba la cabeza en la tina. Ocurra continuamente, repetidamente. +Poda orlo, pero no me atrev a moverme. No me mov. +Ni siquiera para averiguar lo que estaba pasando. +Simplemente me qued sentada ah y escuchaba.. +Entonces l la puso en el vestbulo. +Le dijo, sintate ah. Entonces se qued sentada ah por cuatro o cinco horas. +Y luego l le dijo, levntate. +Y cuando se levant, dijo que no poda ver. +Su cara estaba magullada. Tena el ojo morado. +Toda su cabeza estaba hinchada; Su cabeza estaba hinchada al doble del tamao normal. +Le dije, djala dormir. La dej dormir. +A la maana siguiente haba muerto. +l entr en su cuarto para ver si estaba lista para ir a la escuela, y se puso muy agitado. +Dijo que no respiraba. Yo supe de inmediato que haba muerto. +Ni siquiera quera aceptar el hecho de su muerte, as que entr en su cuarto y le puse un espejo en la boca -- No sala nada, nada, de su boca. +l dijo, l dijo, l dijo, no podemos, no podemos, dejar que nadie descubra esto. Dice, tienes que ayudarme. Digo que s. Digo que s. +A fin de cuentas, he guardado un secreto durante tantos aos as que me pera natural seguir guardando secretos. +Entonces fuimos a un centro comercial y le dijimos a un polica que la habamos perdido que ella haba desaparecido. +Le dijimos a un guardia de seguridad que ella haba desaparecido; aunque sabamos que ese no era el caso +Y le describimos uno de sus conjuntos al guardia Y regresamos a casa y le pusimos la misma ropa que acabamos de describir la ropa que le habamos dicho al guardia que llevaba +Y despus levantamos al bebe y a mi otro hijo, y condujimos hacia I-95. +Estaba muerta de miedo, y tan paralizada, no poda ms que mirar en el espejo retrovisor. +Y l la dej en el arcn de la autopista. +Mi propia hija, dej que esto le pasara. +Ah lo tienen, una investigacin de la imaginacin negativa. +Entonces fui a ambos -- dos disturbios de este tipo, uno de ellos era el disturbio de Los ngeles. Y el monlogo que sigue se inspira de esa experiencia. +Porque este monlogo es lo que yo dira He aprendido la mayora de lo que s de las relaciones interraciales de este monlogo. +Es una especie de aria, yo dira, y est en muchas de mis cintas. +Todo el mundo sabe que ocurrieron los disturbios de Los ngeles porque cuatro polis golpearon a un negro que se llamaba Rodney King. +Lo grabaron en cinta la tecnologa -- y lo mostraron en las noticias en todos los hogares del mundo +Todos pensaban que meteran presos a los cuatro polis. +Pero no lo hicieron, y de ah los disturbios . +Y muncha gente se olvida de que haba un segundo juicio, de acuerdo con la peticin de George Bush padre +Y el resultado del juicio era que metieron a dos de los polis en prisin y los otros dos eran inocentes. Yo estaba en el juicio +Y recuerdo que todo el mundo bailaba en la calle porque tenan miedo de que habra otro disturbio +Haba una explosin de alegra a causa del veredicto. +Haba una comunidad que no comparta la alegra los coreanoestadounidenses, cuyas tiendas se haban quemado hasta los cimientos. +As que esta mujer, la seora Young Soon-Han, Supongo que fue ella la que me ense la mayora de lo que s de la raza. +Y ella tambin plantea una pregunta que tambin explora Studs: este concepto de la verdad oficial, de cuestionar la verdad oficial. +Entonces, lo que est cuestionando aqu, est corriendo un riesgo al cuestionar lo que es la justicia en la sociedad. +Y esto se llama, Tragndome la Amargura. +Sola pensar que los Estados Unidos de Amrica era el mejor pas del mundo +En Corea vea muchas pelculas norteamericanas que retraban el lujoso estilo de vida de Hollywood. +Nunca vea ningn hombre pobre, ni ningn negro. +Hasta 1992, pensaba que Norteamrica era el mejor pas del mundo, todava creo que lo es Eso no lo niego por ser vctima. +Pero a finales de 92, cuando estbamos tan confundidos, Y tenamos todos los problemas financieros y todos los problemas de salud mental, empec a darme cuenta de que en realidad los Coreanos somos totalmente excluidos de la sociedad y no somos nada. +Por qu? Por qu tienen que excluirnos? +No tenamos derecho al tratamiento mdico, ni a cupones de alimento, ni a GR, ni asistencia social, nada. Muchos norteamericanos de origen africano que nunca trabajan recibieron la subvencin minima para sobrevivir. +No recibimos nada porque tenemos coche y casa. +Y pagamos impuestos muy altos. Dnde est la justicia? +OK. OK. OK. OK. +Probablemente muchos norteamericanos de origen africano creen que han ganado con el juicio. +Me qued aqu sentada mirndolos la maana despus del veredicto Y todo el da haba fiestas, celebraban, todo South Central, todas las iglesias. Y dicen, bueno, finalmente se ha hecho la justicia en esta sociedad, Y qu pasa con los derechos de las vctimas? +Consiguieron sus derechos al destruir a inocentes comerciantes Coreanos. +Como yo, respetan mucho al Dr. Martin King. +Es el nico modelo que tiene la comunidad negra; no me importa nada Jesse Jackson. +Es el modelo de la no violencia, la no violencia -- y a todos les gustara estar en su espritu. +Pero qu pas en 1992? Destruyeron a personas inocentes. +Y me pregunto si esto es en realidad lo que significa la justicia para ellos, conseguir sus derechos de esa manera. +Me tragaba la amargura, sentada aqu, mirndolos. +Parecan divertidsimos, pero me alegraba por ellos +Me alegraba de verdad por ellos. Por lo menos haban logrado algo, OK. +Olvidmonos de las vctimas Coreanas y de las otras vctimas que fueron destruidas por ellos. +Luchan por conseguir sus derechos durante ms de dos siglos y tal vez porque sacrifiquen a otras minoras culturales, La gente hispana y asitica sufriramos ms en la cultura dominante. +Por eso comprendo, Por eso tengo sentimientos encontrados sobre el veredicto. +Pero me gustara, me gustara, me gustara compartir el placer con ellos. +Ojal pudiera convivir con los negros. +Pero tras los disturbios, la brecha entre nostros es demasiado grande. +El incendio arde todava. Cmo se dice? [Poco claro] +Encendindose, encendindose, prendiendo fuego. Prendiendo fuego. +Est todava. Podra estallar en llamas en cualquier momento. +La seora Young-Soon Han. +La otra razn por la cual nunca llevo zapatos es por si acaso tengo ganas de acurrucarme e imaginarme en los pies de otra persona, o estando de verdad en el lugar de otra persona. +Y les dije que en el ao -- saben qu? no les precis el ao, pero en el 79 pens que iba a investigar al Personaje Norteamericano y encontrar a monta-toros y granjeros de cerdos y tipos as, y me atascaron las relaciones interraciales. +Finalmente, s encontr a un torero, hace dos aos. +Y he ido con l a los rodeos, y hemos establecido vnculos afectivos. +Y l tiene el papel principal en un artculo de opinin que hice acerca del Congreso Republicano, +l es Republicano--No dir nada sobre my afiliacin a algn partido, pero de cualquier manera--- Les doy a mi querido amigo Brent Williams, y este monlogo trata de la tenacidad, por si acaso alguien necesita saber lo que significa ser tenaz en el contexto en el que trabaja. Creo que hay una leccin a aprender en este monlogo. +Y esto se llama "La Tenacidad", +Bueno, soy optimista. Quero decir fundamentalmente optimista. +Bueno, saben, bueno, es como mi esposa, Jolene. su familia siempre le dice, Jams has pensado que l naci un fracasado? +Parece que tiene tanta mala suerte, no crees> +Pero cuando ese toro pas en mi rin, sabes, No perd el rinhubiera perdido el rin, Todava tengo el rin, as que no me parece que soy un fracasado total. +Me parece que es buena suerte. +Y saben ustedes, esto pasa +Estaba en la consulta del doctor, la ltima vez que me tomaron un TAC y haba una revista Reader's Digest en la sala de espera, de octubre 2002 +Haba un artculo que se llamaba algo as con Siete maneras de salir con suerte. Y dice si quieres salir con suerte, tienes que rodearte de optimistas. +Me dijo, mira quin es. +Ni siquiera vas a poder contestarle las preguntas. Y estaba diciendo, Pensar que soy idiota porque nunca he ido a la universidad, y no hablara de manera profesional ni nada por el estilo. +Le dije, mira, esa mujer me habl durante horas. +Sabes que? Si no le hablara era como si quisiera que siguiera hablando, me explico? Ni siquiera creo que ella vendra a visitarnos. La confianza? Bueno, creo que me motiva ms la determinacin que la confianza +Segn mi modo de ver la confianza es como, has estado en la espalda del toro antes de darte cuenta de que puedes montarlo. +En cierta medida tener confianza es como ser arrogante, pero de buena manera. +Pero la determinacin, es como, "Al diablo con la forma, t agarra el cuerno" Es Tuff Hederman, en la pelcula Ocho segundos. Bueno, como siempre deca Pat OMealey cuando era chico, dice, sabes qu? Te esfuerzas ms que cualquier muchacho que he conocido. Y el esfuerzo y la determinacin son iguales. +La determinacin es como, vas a sostenerte con el toro aunque lo montes boca abajo. +La determinacin es como, vas a montar al toro hasta que te golpees la cabeza sobre la tierra. +Y la Libertad? Sin duda es el rodeo. +Y la Belleza? Yo ni s lo que es la belleza. +Bueno, supongo que tendra que ser el rodeo tambin. +Mira como somos, estamos en familia, entre colegas, estrechando las manos y luchando a mi alrededor, +Es como juntar las tarjetas de crdito para pagar las entradas y la gasolina, me explico? +Montamos juntos, comemos juntos y dormimos juntos. +Ni siquiera puedo imaginar cmo me voy a sentir la ltima vez que participe en un rodeo. Bueno, todo ir bien. +Tengo mi Rancho y todo. pero en realidad ni siquiera quiero pensar en ese da que se acerca +Bueno, supongo que se parecer mucho a -- Supongo que ser como el da en que se muri mi hermano. +La tenacidad? Bueno, estbamos en West Jordan Utah, y este toro me empuj la cara por los brotes metlicos Me rompi por completo la cara y tuve que ir al hospital +Y tuvieron que coserme y enderezarme la nariz. +Y esa noche tena planeado un rodeo, as que no quera que me dieran la anestesia, o lo que sea. As que me cosieron la cara. +Pero lo bueno era que, una vez que me empujaron estas varillas por ah Y me enderezaron la nariz, poda respirar, y no haba podido respirar desde que me romp la nariz en el rodeo de la escuela secundaria. +Gracias. +Si an no han ordenado, a m me gusta el rigatoni con la salsa de tomate con especias que va mucho mejor con las enfermedades del intestino delgado. +Lo siento, simplemente sent que deba hacer algo as por todo el arreglo del escenario. +No, lo que quiero hacer es llevarlos hacia 1854 en Londres por unos cuantos minutos y contarles la historia -- brevemente -- de esta epidemia que en muchos sentidos, segn mi opinin, cre el mundo en el que vivimos hoy, y particularmente el tipo de ciudades en las que vivimos. +Este ao, 1854, a la mitad del siglo XIX, en la historia de Londres es fascinante por diversas razones. +Pero creo que la ms importante de ellas es que Londres era una ciudad de 2.5 millones de habitantes, y era la ciudad ms grande de todo el planeta. +Pero tambin era ciudad ms grande jams construida. +Y la sociedad Victoriana trataban de hacer sus vidas y al mismo tiempo inventar una nueva manera de vivir: Esta manera de vivir que, como ustedes saben, llamamos sociedad urbana. +Y en este punto, alrededor de 1850, esta sociedad urbana era un completo desastre. +Ellos tenan un estilo de vida urbano similar al de una metrpoli industrial moderna con una infraestructura anticuada. +Para darles una idea, la gente Tena fosas sanitarias (para excrementos y orina) en sus stanos. Que llegaban a tener hasta 60 centmetros de profundidad. +Y simplemente acumulaban sus desechos en esas fosas y esperaban que algn da desapareciera, y claro que nunca desapareca. +Y toda esta suciedad se acumul hasta el punto en que no se poda transitar por la ciudad. +Era una ciudad con olores desagradables por todas partes. No solo por las fosas sanitarias sino tambin por la cantidad de ganado que viva en la ciudad. +No slo los vivan caballos, sino que haba tambin muchas vacas en los ticos para el consumo personal de leche, las llevaban all con poleas y las mantenan confinadas hasta que dejaban de dar leche y se moran, y eran literalmente arrastradas hasta las calderas que trataban huesos al final de la calle. +As bien, si caminaban por Londres en esta poca quedaran abrumados por este terrible olor. +Y lo que a fin de cuentas sucedi es que el sistema de salud de aquel entonces estaba convencido de que era el olor lo que estaba matando a todos, lo que estaba creando estas enfermedades que arrasaban la ciudad cada tres o cuatro aos. +Pero era el clera el verdadero asesino de esta poca. +Lleg a Londres en 1832, y cada cuatro o cinco aos llegaba una nueva epidemia para acabar con 10,000 o 20,000 personas en Londres y en todo el Reino Unido. +Y as las autoridades se convencieron de que el olor era el problema. +Deban deshacerse del olor. +Y as idearon algunas acciones primitivas como parte del sistema de salud de la cuidad, una de ellas fue el Acta contra el ruido y olores, que implementaron tan bien como pudieron para vaciar las fosas y tirar todos esos residuos al ro. +Porque si sacamos esos residuos de las calles, oler mucho mejor, y -- cierto, tambin tomamos agua del ro. +As que lo que termin sucediendo fue que el brote de clera se extendi porque, como ahora sabemos, el clera est en el agua. +Es una enfermedad transmitida por el agua y no por nada que est en el aire. +No es algo que se huela o inhale; es algo que se come. +As que uno de los principales movimientos de salud pblica del siglo XIX envenen el suministro de agua de Londres de mejor manera que lo que hubiera soado cualquier bio-terrorista moderno. +Las autoridades de salud ignoraron por mucho tiempo lo que ese mdico deca. +Sin embargo l present su caso en numerosos artculos y realiz varios estudios, pero nada que tuviera un verdadero impacto. +Y parte de esto --- y lo que hace ms interesante esta historia -- es que, en varios sentidos, es un gran caso de estudio acerca de cmo suceden los cambios culturales. Como es que una buena idea finalmente triunfa contra otras no tan buenas. +Snow estuvo trabajando por mucho tiempo con estos conceptos que todo el mundo ignoraba. +Hasta que un da, el 28 de agosto de 1854, una pequea de cinco meses y cuyo nombre desconocemos, slo sabemos que era la beb Lewis, sufri de clera en la Calle Broad # 40. +No podemos identificar gran cosa en este mapa, pero este es el mapa que recibe la mayor atencin en la segunda mitad de mi libro. +As, esta pequea nia de manera inadvertida termin contaminando el agua de este pozo tan popular, y entonces una de las ms terribles epidemias en la historia de Inglaterra se desencaden dos o tres das mas tarde. +Literalmente, el diez porciento del vecindario muri en siete das, y muchos ms hubieran muerto si la gente no hubiera huido despus de que empez el primer brote. +As fue que a partir de este evento +Que se presentaron escenas de familias enteras muriendo despus de 48 horas de clera, solos en sus departamentos de una sola habitacin, en sus pequeas casas. +Fue un evento terrible. +El Doctor Snow, quien viva cerca, escucho del brote, y en un increble acto de valor se dirigi al corazn de la bestia porque pensaba que un brote tan concentrado podra ayudarle a convencer a la gente de que, en realidad, la amenaza del clera estaba en el suministro de agua y no en el aire. +Sospechaba que un brote tan concentrado probablemente provena de una sola fuente. +Una sola cosa que todos los afectados hicieron porque en este caso no se diseminaba lentamente, como normalmente lo hacan esta clase de infecciones. +As que empez a entrevistar a la gente +Y eventualmente consigui la ayuda de esta otra persona asombrosa, que es casi como otro protagonista del libro. Este hombre, Henry Whitehead, que era un presbtero local, y que no era en absoluto un hombre de ciencia, pero que estaba super conectado socialmente. El conoca a todos en el vecindario, +y pudo ayudar a rastrear muchos de los casos de personas que, o haban tomado agua del pozo, o que no lo haban hecho. +Y eventualmente Snow pudo hacer un mapa del brote. +Y encontr que cada ves ms personas de las que tomaban agua se ponan enfermas +Y gente que no haba tomado del pozo no se estaba enfermando. +Y pens acerca de la manera de representarlas algo as como una tabla estadstica de personas viviendo en diferentes zonas, y gente que no se haba contagiado, pero finalmente dio con la idea de que necesitaba algo ms tangible. +Algo que diera sentido y una mejor perspectiva a toda esta actividad que haba estado pasando en el vecindario. +As que cre este mapa, y termin representando todas las muertes en las zonas aledaas como barras negras en cada domicilio. +Y como pueden ver en este mapa, el pozo est en el centro de todo y pueden ver que una casa en la misma rea tuvo hasta quince muertos. +El mapa es en realidad ms grande. +Conforme nos vamos alejando del pozo, las muertes empiezan a ser menos frecuentes. +Y pueden ver entonces que este "veneno" provena de este pozo como pueden ver. +As, con la ayuda de este mapa, y con el apoyo de una mayor difusin que Snow realiz durante los siguientes aos y en la que tambin Whitehead colabor las autoridades empezaron a darse cuenta. +Tomo mucho ms tiempo de lo que nos gusta pensar, pero en 1866, cuando el siguiente gran brote de clera lleg a Londres, las autoridades haban sido convencidas --- en parte por esta historia, y en parte por este mapa --- de que el agua era la del problema. +Y para ese entonces ya haban comenzado a construir un sistema de drenaje, e inmediatamente fueron a la zona de este brote y le dijeron a todos que empezaran a hervir el agua. +Y esa fue la ltima vez que Londres estuvo cerca de una epidemia de clera. +Parte de esta historia, bueno, es una historia aterradora, es una historia oscura y es una historia que se sigue repitiendo en muchas de las ciudades en desarrollo del mundo. +Y lo que finalmente sucedi es que permiti que la idea de una sociedad urbana a gran escala fuera posible y sostenible. +Cuando las personas vean al 10 porciento de sus vecinos muriendo en el transcurso de siete das, todos estaban de acuerdo en que esto no poda seguir as, que la gente no haba sido destinada a vivir en ciudades de 2.5 millones de habitantes. +Pero debido a lo que Snow hizo y por este mapa, es por lo que toda esta serie de reformas, que se dieron a partir de este mapa, que ahora damos por sentada la existencia de ciudades de 10 millones de habitantes. Ciudades como esta son ahora cosas sustentables. +No nos preocupa que la ciudad de Nueva York vaya a colapsar de la misma manera en la que, por ejemplo, le sucedi a Roma, y reducirse al 10 porciento de su tamao en 100 o 200 aos. +Este es, en cierto sentido, el ltimo legado de este mapa. +Es un mapa de muertes que termin creando una nueva manera de vivir, la vida que disfrutamos hoy da. Muchas gracias! +De lo que les quiero hablar es, cules son realmente los problemas ms grandes del mundo. +No les voy a hablar del "Ambientalista Escptico" probablemente tambin un buen tema. +De lo que les voy a hablar es, cules son los grandes problemas en el mundo? +Y debo decir, antes de seguir con esto, debo pedir a cada uno de ustedes que intente sacar lpiz y papel porque realmente les voy a pedir que me ayuden a examinar cmo hacemos esto. +Entonces, saquen lpiz y papel. +A fin de cuentas, hay muchsimos problemas en el mundo. +Slo voy a listar algunos de ellos. +Hay 800 millones de personas muriendo de hambre. +Hay mil millones de personas sin agua potable. +Dos mil millones de personas sin saneamiento. +varios millones de personas muriendo de SIDA y VIH. +La lista se prolonga ms y ms. +Hay dos mil millones de personas que estarn severamente afectadas por cambio climtico -- y dems. +Existen muchos, muchos problemas ah fuera +En un mundo ideal, los solucionaramos todos, pero no lo hacemos. +Realmente no solucionamos todos los problemas. +Y si no lo hacemos, la pregunta que creo nos debemos hacer es -- y es por lo que esto est en la sesin de economa -- es para decir, si no hacemos todas las cosas, debemos realmente comenzar a preguntarnos, cules deberamos solucionar primero? +Y esa es la pregunta que les quiero hacer a ustedes. +Si tuviramos, por decir, 50 mil millones de dolares para gastar en los prximos 4 aos para hacer el bien en este mundo, dnde los deberamos gastar? +Hemos identificado los 10 desafos ms grandes del mundo, y slo los leer brevemente. Cambio climtico, enfermedades contagiosas, conflictos, educacin, inestabilidad financiera, gobernabilidad y corrupcin, malnutricin y hambruna, migracin poblacional, saneamiento y agua, y subsidios y barreras comerciales. +Nosotros creemos que estos, en muchas formas abarcan los principales problemas del mundo. +La pregunta obvia sera, cules cree usted, son los puntos ms importantes? +Dnde deberamos comenzar a solucionar estos problemas? +Pero esa una pregunta equivocada. +Eso fue realmente el problema que nos planteamos en Davos en Enero. +Pero por supuesto, existe un problema al pedirle a las personas que se enfoquen en los problemas. +Porque nosotros no podemos resolver problemas. +Seguramente el mayor problema que tenemos en el mundo es que todos morimos. +Pero no tenemos una tecnologa para resolver esto, cierto? +Entonces la clave es no priorizar problemas, la clave es priorizar soluciones a los problemas. +Y eso sera -- por supuesto eso se complica un poco ms. +Para el cambio climtico sera Kyoto +Para enfermedades transmisibles, podran ser clnicas de salud, o mosquiteras. +Para los conflictos, seran las fuerzas de mantenimiento de la paz de las Naciones Unidas, y as sucesivamente. +El punto que me gustara pedirles que intentaran hacer, es en tan solo 30 segundos -- y s que es en cierto sentido una tarea imposible -- escribir lo que ustedes creen son algunas de las principales prioridades. +Y tambin -- y aqu es por supuesto, donde la Economa se torna malvada -- escribir cuales son las cosas que no deberamos hacer en primer lugar. +Que debera estar al final de la lista? +Por favor, tomen slo 30 segundos, tal vez hablen con su vecino, y slo piensen cules deberan ser las principales prioridades y las ltimas prioridades de la soluciones que ya tenemos a las cuestiones ms importantes del mundo. +La parte mas sorprendente de este proceso -- y por supuesto, me refiero, Me encantara -- Slo tengo 18 minutos, Ya les he entregado una cantidad sustancial de mi tiempo, cierto? +Me encantara profundizar, y ponerlos a pensar sobre este proceso, y eso fue realmente lo que nosotros hicimos. +Y se los recomiendo fuertemente, y estoy seguro que tambin tendremos estas discusiones luego, para pensar acerca de: cmo priorizamos realmente? +Por supuesto, uno se pregunta, por qu diablos esta lista no se haba hecho antes? +Y una razn es que priorizar es increblemente incmodo. +Nadie quiere hacer esto. +Por supuesto, a toda organizacin le encantara estar al principio de dicha lista. +Pero todas las organizaciones tambin odiaran no estar al principio de la lista. +Y debido a que hay muchas ms posiciones que no son el primer puesto de la lista que posiciones nmero uno, es perfectamente lgico no querer hacer dicha lista. +Tenemos a las Naciones Unidas desde hace casi 60 aos, sin embargo nunca hemos hecho una lista fundamental de todas las grandes cosas que podemos hacer en el mundo, y haber dicho, cules deberamos hacer primero? +Entonces no significa que no estemos priorizando -- cualquier decisin es priorizar, entonces por supuesto todava estamos priorizando slo implcitamente -- y es poco probable que sea tan bueno a hacer realmente la priorizacin, y nos sentramos a discutirlo. +Entonces lo que realmente propongo es decir que hemos tenido desde hace mucho tiempo, una situacin como cuando tenemos un men de opciones. +Existen muchas, muchas cosas que podemos hacer ah fuera, pero no tenemos los precios, ni los tamaos. +No tenemos ni idea. +Imaginen ir a un restaurante y tomar esta gran carta de mens, pero sin tener la menor idea del precio de las cosas. +Ya saben, tomarse una pizza sin saber cual es el precio. +Podra ser un dlar, podran ser mil dlares +Podra ser una pizza de tamao familiar. Podra ser una pizza de tamao individual, cierto? +Quisiramos saber estas cosas. +Y eso es lo que el Consenso de Copenhague esta realmente tratando de hacer -- tratar de poner precios en estos elementos. +Y entonces bsicamente, esto ha sido el proceso del Consenso de Copenhague. +Conseguimos 30 de los mejores economistas del mundo, tres en cada rea. +Entonces tenemos tres de los mejores economistas del mundo escribiendo acerca del cambio climtico. +Qu podemos hacer? Cul ser el coste? Y cul ser el beneficio de esto? +Esto mismo en enfermedades transmisibles. +Tres de los mejores expertos del mundo diciendo, qu podemos hacer? +Cul seria el precio? +Qu deberamos hacer acerca de esto, y cul seria el resultado? +Y as susesivamente. +Luego tenemos algunos de los mejores economistas del mundo, ocho de los mejores economistas mundiales, incluyendo tres Premios Nobel, reunidos en Copenhague en Mayo de 2004. +Los llamamos el dream team. +Los prefectos de la Universidad de Cambridge decidieron llamarlos el Real Madrid de economa. +Esto tiene sentido en Europa, pero no realmente ac en Estados Unidos. +Y lo que bsicamente hicieron fue una lista priorizada. +Entonces ustedes se preguntarn, por qu economistas? +Y por supuesto, estoy muy contento de que se hagan esa pregunta -- -- porque es una muy buena pregunta. +La cuestion es, por supuesto, si uno quiere saber acerca de la malaria, le preguntas a un experto en malaria. +Si quiere saber acerca del clima, le preguntas al climatlogo. +Pero si quiere saber cul de los dos debe abordar primero, no le puede preguntar a ninguno de ellos, porque no es lo que ellos hacen. +Eso es lo que hace un economista. +Ellos priorizan. +Ellos hacen lo que en cierto modo es la desagradable tarea de decir, cul deberamos hacer primero, y cual deberamos hacer luego? +Entonces esta es la lista, y es la que quiero compartir con ustedes. +Por supuesto, la pueden ver tambin en nuestra pgina Web, y hablaremos tambin ms de ella, estoy seguro, a medida que pasa el da. +Ellos bsicamente hicieron una lista donde dijeron hay proyectos malos -- bsicamente, proyectos donde si inviertes un dlar, se obtiene menos de un dlar. +Luego hay proyectos justos, buenos proyectos y proyectos muy buenos. +Y por supuesto, son los muy buenos proyectos los que deberamos comenzar a hacer. +Voy a comenzar al revs as terminaremos con los mejores proyectos. +Estos fueron los proyectos malos. +Como pueden ver al final de la lista est el cambio climtico. +Esto ofende a muchas personas, y es probablemente una de las cosas donde las personas dirn "no debera volver", tampoco. +Y quisiera hablar acerca de esto, porque es realmente curioso. +Por qu ser que sali esto? +Y tambin tratar de volver a esto porque es probablemente una de las cosas en las que estaremos en desacuerdo con la lista que ustedes escribieron. +La razon por la cual terminaron diciendo que Kyoto -- o hacer algo ms que Kyoto es un mal negocio es simplemente porque es muy ineficiente. +No quieren decir que el calentamiento global no est ocurriendo. +No es decir que no es un gran problema. +Sino que es decir que lo que podemos hacer acerca de esto es muy poco, a un costo muy alto. +Lo que bsicamente nos muestran, el promedio de todos lo modelos macroeconmicos, es que Kyoto, si todos estn de acuerdo, debe costar alrededor de 150 mil millones de dlares al ao. +Eso es una cantidad considerable de dinero. +Eso es dos o tres veces la ayuda al desarrollo global que entregamos al Tercer Mundo cada ao. +An as sera muy poco efectivo. +Todos los modelos muestran que esto pospondr el calentamiento en alrededor de seis aos para el 2100. +De manera que el tipo en Bangladesh que recibir una inundacin el 2100 podr esperar hasta el 2106. +Lo cual es algo beneficioso, pero no muy beneficioso. +Entonces la idea aqu es decir, bueno, tenemos que gastar mucho dinero para obtener un escaso beneficio. +Y slo para darles a ustedes una idea de referencia, las Naciones Unidas en realidad estiman que por la mitad de esa cantidad, alrededor de 75 mil millones de dlares al ao, podramos resolver todos los grandes problemas bsicos del mundo. +Podramos entregar agua potable, saneamiento, atencin bsica sanitaria y educacin para cada ser humano del planeta. +Entonces debemos preguntarnos, queremos gastar el doble de esa cantidad para realizar tan escaso beneficio? +O la mitad de esa cifra realizando una cantidad sorprendente de bien? +Y esto es realmente por lo cual se convierte en un mal proyecto. +No es decir que si tuviramos todo el dinero en el mundo, no quisiramos hacerlo. +Sino que es decir, si no lo tenemos, simplemente no es nuestra primera prioridad. +Los proyectos justos ntese que no voy a comentar todos esos pero las enfermedades transmisibles, la escala de servicios bsicos de salud justo pasaron, simplemente porque, s, escalar los servicios bsicos de salud es algo grandioso. +Hara mucho bien, pero tambin es muy, muy costoso. +De nuevo, lo que nos dice es que de repente comenzamos a pensar acerca de los dos lados de la ecuacin. +Si se fijan en los buenos proyectos, muchos de los proyectos de sanidad y agua entraron. +De nuevo, saneamiento y agua son increblemente importantes, pero tambin cuestan mucha infraestructura. +Entonces me gustara mostrarles las cuatro prioridades ms importantes que deberan ser con las que, al menos, deberamos lidiar primero cuando hablamos de cmo deberamos lidiar con los problemas en el mundo. +Los cuatro mayores problemas son enfrentarnos a la malaria. +La incidencia de malaria es de alrededor de 2 mil millones de personas infectadas cada ao. +Puede incluso costar hasta un punto porcentual de PIB cada ao para las naciones afectadas +Si invirtiramos 13 mil millones de dlares a lo largo de los prximos cuatro aos, podramos bajar esta incidencia a la mitad +Podramos evitar casi 500,000 muertes de personas, pero tal vez mas importante, podramos evitar que alrededor de mi millones de personas se infecten cada ao. +Incrementaramos significativamente su capacidad de enfrentarse con muchos otros problemas con los que deben lidiar. Por supuesto, a largo plazo, tambin lidiando con el calentamiento global. +La tercera prioridad ms importante fue el libre comercio. +Bsicamente, el modelo mostr que si pudiramos lograr el libre comercio, y especialmente reducir los subsidios en Estados Unidos y Europa, podramos bsicamente avivar la economa global en una increble cifra de alrededor de 2,400 miles de millones de dolares al ao, la mitad de la cual se acumulara en el Tercer Mundo. +De nuevo, la clave es decir que realmente podramos sacar de doscientos a trescientos millones de personas fuera de la pobreza, de manera radicalmente rpida, en unos dos a cinco aos. +Esto sera la tercera mejor cosa que hacer. +La segunda mejor cosa que hacer sera concentrarnos en la malnutricin. +No slo malnutricin en general, sino que existe una manera muy econmica de lidiar con la malnutricin, esto es, la falta de micronutrientes. +Bsicamente, a alrededor de la mitad de la poblacin mundial le est faltando hierro, zinc, yodo y vitamina A. +Si invertimos alrededor de 12 mil millones de dlares, podramos hacer una incursin severa en ese problema. +Esa sera la segunda mejor inversin que podramos hacer. +Y el primer y mejor proyecto sera concentrarnos en el VIH/SIDA. +Bsicamente si invertimos 27 mil millones de dlares durante los prximos ocho aos, podramos evitar 28 millones nuevos casos de VIH/SIDA. +De nuevo, lo que esto hace, y en lo que se enfoca es decir hay dos maneras muy diferentes de lidiar con el VIH/SIDA. +Una es tratamiento, la otra es prevencin. +Y de nuevo, en un mundo ideal, haramos las dos +Pero en un mundo donde no hacemos ninguna de las dos, o no lo hacemos muy bien, por lo menos debemos preguntarnos dnde deberamos invertir primero, +Y el tratamiento es mucho, mucho ms costoso que la prevencin. +Entonces bsicamente, en lo que esto se enfoca es en decir que podramos hacer mucho mas invirtiendo en prevencin. +Bsicamente para la cantidad de dinero que gastamos, podemos hacer X cantidad de bien con tratamientos, y 10 veces ese bien con prevencin. +Entonces de nuevo, nos concentramos en prevencin ms que en tratamiento, en primera instancia. +Lo que esto hace realmente es que pensemos en nuestras prioridades. +Me gustara que miraran su lista de prioridades y dijeran, acertaron? +O lograron algo cercano a lo que encontramos ac? +Bueno, por supuesto, una de las cosas es el cambio climtico, de nuevo. +Veo que muchas personas encuentran muy, muy poco acertado que deberamos hacer eso. +Tambin deberamos abordar el cambio climtico, entre otras razones, simplemente porque es un gran problema. +Pero por supuesto, nosotros no abordamos todos los problemas. +Hay muchos muchsimos problemas en el mundo. +Y de lo que me quiero asegurar es que, si realmente nos concentramos en algunos problemas, que nos concentremos en lo adecuados. +En los que podemos hacer mucho bien en lugar de slo un poco de bien. +Y yo pienso, en realidad Thomas Schelling, uno de los participantes del dream team, lo explico muy, muy bien. +Una de las cosas que la personas olvidan, es que en 100 aos, cuando estamos hablando de muchos de los impactos del cambio climtico que habrn, las personas sern mucho, mucho ms ricas. +Incluso en los escenarios de impacto ms pesimistas de las Naciones Unidas +estiman que la persona promedio en el mundo en vas de desarrollo para el 2100 sera tan rica como nosotros lo somos hoy. +Muy posiblemente, sern de 2 a 4 veces ms ricas de lo que somos ahora. +Y por supuesto, nosotros seremos incluso ms ricos que eso. +Pero la clave es decir, cuando hablemos de salvar personas, o de ayudar personas en Bangladesh para el 2100, es que no estamos hablando de personas pobres de Bangladesh. +En realidad estamos hablando de un holands bastante rico, +Entonces la verdadera clave, por supuesto, es decir, queremos gastar un montn de dinero ayudando poco, para dentro de 100 aos, a un holands bastante rico? +O queremos ayudar a personas verdaderamente pobres, ahora, en Bangladesh, que necesitan verdaderamente ayuda, y a quienes podemos ayudar de una forma muy, muy econmica? +Entonces pienso que esto realmente nos indica el porqu necesitamos tener nuestras prioridades claras. +Incluso si no estn de acuerdo con la forma tpica de ver este problema. +Por supuesto, esto es principalmente porque el cambio climtico tiene muy buenas fotos, +Tenemos, ya saben, El Da Despus De Maana se ve grandioso, no es cierto? +Es una buena pelcula en el sentido que yo ciertamente la quiero ver, cierto, pero no creo que Emmerich tenga a Brad Pitt es su prxima pelcula escavando letrinas en Tanzania o algo as. Simplemente no sera suficiente para hacer una pelcula. +Entonces, en diferentes sentidos, pienso en el Consenso de Copenhague y en toda la discusin sobre prioridades como una defensa de problemas aburridos. +Para estar seguros de que nos damos cuenta de que no se trata de hacernos sentir bien, +que no se trata de hacer cosas que tienen la mayor atencin en los medios, sino que se trata de hacer en lugares donde realmente podemos hacer el mayor bien. +La otras objeciones, creo yo, que son importantes de decir, es que yo de alguna forma o nosotros de alguna forma estamos proponiendo una falsa eleccin. +Por supuesto, deberamos hacer todas las cosas, en un mundo ideal Yo estara ciertamente de acuerdo. +Creo que deberamos hacer todas las cosas, pero no las hacemos. +En 1970, el mundo desarrollado decidi que bamos a gastar el doble de lo que venamos gastando, ahora mismo, que en 1970 en el mundo en vas de desarrollo. +Desde entonces nuestra ayuda se ha reducido a la mitad. +Por lo que no parece que estemos en el camino adecuado para resolver de repente todos lo grandes problemas. +As mismo, la gente est diciendo, pero qu pasa entonces con la guerra en Iraq? +Ya saben, gastamos 100 mil millones de dlares. Por qu no gastamos esto en hacerle bien al mundo? +Yo apoyo eso. +Si alguno de ustedes puede convencer a Bush para que haga eso, estara bien. +Pero la clave por supuesto, es todava decir, si consigo otros 100 mil millones de dlares, an queremos gastarlos de la mejor forma posible, no? +Entonces el verdadero problema aqu es que volvamos atrs y pensemos acerca de las prioridades adecuadas. +Slo debo mencionar brevemente, es sta realmente la lista adecuada que obtuvimos? +Ustedes saben, cuando se pregunta a los mejores economistas del mundo, inevitablemente se termina preguntando a hombres mayores, blancos, americanos. +Y ellos no tienen necesariamente, ustedes saben, grandes formas de observar el mundo entero. +Entonces lo que hicimos fue invitar a 80 jvenes de todas partes del mundo. a que vinieran a resolver el mismo problema. +Los nicos dos requisitos fueron que estuvieran estudiando en la Universidad, y que hablaran ingls. +La mayora de ellos fueron, primero, de pases en va de desarrollo. +Todos tenan el mismo material, pero podan salir ampliamente fuera del alcance de la discusin, y ciertamente lo hicieron, para realizar sus propias listas. +Y lo ms sorprendente fue que la lista fue muy similar -- con malnutricin y enfermedades en primer lugar y el cambio climtico al final. +Hemos hecho esto muchas otras veces. +Han habido muchos otros seminarios y estudiantes universitarios, y otras cosas diferentes. +Todo ellos terminan con una lista muy similar. +Y eso me da gran esperanza, realmente, al decir que yo creo que existe un camino por delante que nos permitir comenzar a pensar las prioridades. Y decir, qu es lo importante en el mundo? +Por supuesto, en un mundo ideal, nos encantara poder hacer todo. +Pero si no lo hacemos, entonces podemos comenzar a pensar por dnde deberamos comenzar? +Yo veo el Consenso de Copenhague como un proceso. +Lo hicimos en el 2004, y esperamos reunir a muchas ms personas, obteniendo mucha mejor informacin para el 2008, 2012. +Mapear la ruta correcta para el mundo. Pero tambin comenzar a pensar acerca de la seleccin en poltica. +Para comenzar a pensar, hagamos no las cosas donde hacemos muy poco a costos muy altos, no las cosas que no sabemos cmo hacer, sino que hagamos las cosas donde podemos hacer enormes cantidades de bien, a un precio muy bajo, ahora mismo. +Al final del da, pueden no estar de acuerdo con la discusin de cmo hemos priorizado esto nosotros, pero tenemos que ser honestos y francos, y decir que si hay cosas que hacemos, hay otras cosas que no hacemos. +Si nos preocupamos mucho de algunas cosas terminaremos no preocupndonos de otras cosas. +Entonces espero que esto nos ayude a priorizar mejor, y pensar cmo trabajar mejor para el mundo. +Gracias. +Djenme hacerles, para empezar, esta sencilla pregunta: quin invent la bicicleta de montaa? +Porque la teora econmica tradicional dira, que la bici de montaa fue probablemente inventada por una gran compaa, que tena un gran laboratorio en donde se pensaban los nuevos proyectos, y que sali de ah. No sali de ah. +Otra respuesta podra ser, que provino de un genio solitario trabajando en su cochera, quien, trabajando en diferentes tipos de bicicletas, lleg a esta bici de la nada. +No sali de ah. La bicicleta de montaa viene de los usuarios; vino de usuarios jvenes, particularmente de un grupo del norte de California, que estaban frustrados con las bicicletas de carreras tradicionales, que eran el tipo de bicis que Eddy Merckx montaba, o tu hermano mayor, y que eran muy glamorosas. +Pero tambin estaban frustrados con las bicis de sus paps, que tenan manubrios grandes y eran muy pesadas. +Entonces, tomaron los cuadros de estas bicicletas, los ensamblaron con los piones de la bicicletas de carrera, tomaron los frenos de las motocicletas, y mezclaron y revolvieron varios ingredientes. +Por los primeros, no s, tres a cinco aos de su vida, las bicicletas de montaa eran conocidas como "chatarreras" +Eran hechas solamente en una comunidad de ciclistas, principalmente en el norte de California. +Y luego una de estas compaas que importaba partes para las chatarreras decidieron hacer negocio, empezando a venderlas a otra gente, y gradualmente surgi otra compaa, Marin, y probablemente tom, no s, 10 o tal vez hasta 15 aos, antes de que las grandes compaas de bicicletas se dieran cuenta de que haba mercado. +30 aos despus, las ventas de bicicletas de montaa, y equipo para bicicletas de montaa, representan el 65 por ciento de las ventas de bicicletas en Estados Unidos. +Eso es 58 mil millones de dlares. +Esta es una categora completamente creada por los consumidores, que no hubiera sido creada por el mercado de bicicletas principal porque no poda ver la necesidad, la oportunidad; no tenan el incentivo para innovar. +La nica cosa con la que creo que no concuerdo sobre la presentacin de Yochai es cuando dijo que Internet genera esta capacidad distribuida para innovar. +Es cuando internet se combina con este tipo de consumidores "pro-am" -- que son conocedores, que tienen el incentivo para innovar, que tienen las herramientas, que ellos quieren -- que tienes este tipo de explosin de creatividad colaborativa. +Y de eso obtienes la necesidad del tipo de cosas de las que Jimmy hablaba, que es nuestro nuevo tipo de organizacin, o una mejor forma de decirlo: como nos organizamos nosotros mismos sin las organizaciones? +Eso ahora es posible; no necesitas una organizacin para ser organizado, para realizar tareas grandes y complejas, como innovar en nuevos programas de software. +As que este es un gran reto a la forma en que pensamos como se origina la creatividad. +Gente especial, en lugares especiales, piensan ideas especiales, entonces tienes una lnea de ensamble que toma esas ideas a los expectantes consumidores, que son pasivos. +Ellos pueden decir "si" o "no" al invento; +esa es la idea de la creatividad. +Cul es la poltica recomendada para eso si estas en el gobierno, o si diriges una compaa grande? +Ms gente especial, ms lugares especiales. +Crea conglomerados creativos en las ciudades; crea ms parques de investigacin, y as sucesivamente. +Ampla la lnea de ensamble hasta los consumidores. +Bueno esta visin, creo, es cada vez ms equivocada. +Creo que siempre ha estado equivocada, porque creo que la creatividad siempre ha sido altamente colaborativa, y probablemente de mucha interactividad. +Pero es incrementalmente equivocado, y una de las razones que est mal es que las ideas fluyen hace arriba de la lnea de ensamble. +Que las ideas vienen de los consumidores, y que frecuentemente estn adelante de los productores. +Por qu pasa eso? +Bueno, una situacin es que la innovacin radical, cuando tienes ideas que afectan a un gran nmero de tecnologas o personas, tienen incorporadas una gran cantidad de incertidumbre. +Los dividendos a la innovacin son mayores cuando la incertidumbre es ms alta. +Y cuando tienes una innovacin radical, es comnmente poco claro como se puede aplicar. +Toda la historia de la telefona es la historia de como tratar con esa incertidumbre. +Los primeros telfonos de lnea terrestre, los inventores pensaron que seran utilizados por los usuarios para escuchar eventos en vivo de los teatros del West End. +Cuando las compaas telefnicas inventaron el SMS, no tenan idea para qu era; no fue sino hasta que la tecnologa lleg a las manos de los usuarios adolescentes que inventaron el uso. +As que entre ms radical la innovacin, mayor incertidumbre; y ms necesitas la innovacin en el uso para determinar el uso de una tecnologa. +Todas nuestras patentes, todo nuestra aproximacin a las patentes y la invencin, est basada en la idea de que el inventor sabe para qu es la invencin; que podemos decir para qu es. +Cada vez ms los inventores de cosas, no podrn decir esto con antelacin. +Se determinar en el uso, en colaboracin con el usuario. +Nos gusta pensar que la invencin es un momento de creacin: que hay un momento de nacimiento cuando a alguien se le ocurre una idea. +La verdad es que la mayora de la creatividad es acumulativa y colaborativa, como la Wikipedia, se desarrolla en un largo perodo de tiempo. +La segunda razn por la que los usuarios son ms y ms importantes es que ellos son la fuente de grandes y disruptivas innovaciones. +Si quieres encontrar las nuevas grandes ideas, es difcil encontrarlas en los mercados principales, en las grandes organizaciones. +Y slo vean adentro de las grandes organizaciones y vern por qu es as. +As que estas en una gran compaa; +y obviamente quieres subir en la escalera corporativa. +Tu entraras a la mesa directiva y diras, miren, tengo una idea fantstica para un producto incipiente en un mercado marginal, con consumidores que nunca han tratado con ella, no estoy seguro de que nos va a dar grandes ganancias, pero podra ser, muy muy grande en el futuro? +No, lo que haces es que vas y dices, Tengo una idea fantstica, para innovacin incremental a un producto existente que vendemos a travs de canales existentes a usuarios existentes, y puedo garantizar que tendrn esta ganancia por los prximos tres aos. +Las grandes compaas tienen una tendencia a reforzar el xito del pasado. +Estn tan hundidos en l, que es muy difcil para ellos el encontrar nuevos mercados emergentes. Entonces los nuevos mercados emergentes, son el terreno de creacin para usuarios apasionados. +El mejor ejemplo: quin en la industria musical, hace 30 aos, hubiera dicho, "OK, vamos a inventar un estilo musical que se trata de hombres negros marginados en los ghettos expresando su frustracin con el mundo a travs de una forma de msica que al principio a muchas personas les ser difcil escuchar. +Eso parece una idea ganadora; hay que hacerla". +. +Entonces: qu sucede? Los usuarios crean el rap. +Lo hacen con sus propias cintas, con su propio equipo de grabacin; lo distribuyen ellos mismos. +30 aos despus, la msica rap es el estilo musical dominante en la cultura popular -- jams hubiera venido de las grandes compaas. +Tena que empezar -- este es el tercer punto -- con estos "pro-ams". +Esta es la frase que he usado en algunas de las cosas que he hecho en un laboratorio de ideas en Londres llamado Demos, donde hemos estado observando a estas personas que son amateur -- o sea que lo hacen por gusto -- pero lo quieren hacer con estndares muy altos. +Y a travs de un amplio rango de campos -- desde software, astronoma, ciencias naturales, amplias reas de la cultura y el entretenimiento como surfeo con cometas, y as ms -- encontrarn gente que quiere hacer cosas porque les gusta, pero las quieren hacer con estndares muy altos. +Trabajan a su placer. +Toman sus pasatiempos muy seriamente: adquieren competencias, invierten tiempo, usan la tecnologa cada vez ms barata: no slo Internet; cmaras, tecnologa para el diseo, tecnologa de entretenimiento, tablas de surf, y otras cosas. +En gran medida debido a la globalizacin, mucho de este equipo se ha abaratado. +Consumidores ms conocedores, ms educados, ms capaces de conectarse entre ellos, ms capaces de hacer cosas juntos. +El consumo, en ese sentido, es una expresin de su potencial productivo. +Encontramos el por qu las personas estaban interesadas en esto, es que no sienten que se expresan en el trabajo. +No sienten como si estuvieran haciendo algo que realmente les importa, entonces toman este tipo de actividades. +Esto tiene enormes implicaciones organizacionales para grandes reas de la vida. +Por ejemplo la astronoma, algo que Yochai ya haba mencionado. +Hace 20 aos, hace 30 aos, slo los grandes astrnomos profesionales con telescopios muy grandes podan ver lejos hacia el espacio. +Y hay un gran telescopio en el norte de Inglaterra llamado Jodrell Bank, y cuando era nio, era increble, porque las imgenes de la luna arrancaban y esta cosa se mova en rieles. +Y era enorme -- absolutamente enorme. +Ahora, seis astrnomos amateur, trabajando con Internet, con telescopios digitales dobsonianos -- que son prcticamente de cdigo abierto -- con unos sensores de luz desarrollados en los ltimos 10 aos, Internet -- pueden hacer lo que slo Jodrell Bank poda hacer hace 30 aos. +As que aqu en la astronoma, tienes esta amplia explosin de nuevos recursos productivos. +Los usuarios pueden ser productores. +Qu significa esto entonces, para nuestro paisaje organizacional? +Bueno, slo imagina un mundo, por un momento, dividido en dos campamentos. +Por un lado, tienes al viejo y tradicional modelo corporativo. Personas especiales, en lugares especiales; patntalo, empjalo por la lnea de ensamble a las expectantes masas de consumidores pasivos. +Por este lado, vamos a imaginar que tenemos Wikipedia, Linux, y ms all -- cdigo abierto. +Esto es abierto, esto es cerrado; +esto es nuevo, esto es tradicional. +Bueno la primer cosa que puedes decir, con seguridad, es lo que Yochai ya ha dicho -- es que si hay un gran conflicto entre esas dos formas organizacionales. +Esta gente de all van a hacer todo lo que puedan para frenar el xito de estos tipos de organizaciones, porque son amenazados por ellas. +Entonces los debates acerca de derechos de autor, derechos digitales y todas esas cosas -- se tratan de suprimir, en mi opinin, este tipo de organizaciones. +Lo que estamos viendo es una corrupcin total de la idea de las patentes y los derechos de autor. +Pensados para incentivar la invencin, Pensados para ser una forma de orquestar la diseminacin de conocimiento, estn siendo utilizadas, cada vez ms, por las grandes compaas para crear cercas de patentes para prevenir que se de lugar la innovacin. +Djenme darles dos ejemplos solamente. +El primero es, imagnense yendo con un inversionista y decirle: "Tengo esta idea fantstica. +Invent este brillante nuevo programa que es mucho, mucho mejor que el Outlook de Microsoft". +Qu inversionista en su sano juicio te va a dar dinero para hacer una empresa que compita con Microsoft, con el Outlook? Ninguno. +Es por eso que la competencia con Microsoft vendr -- y slo vendr -- de un proyecto del tipo de cdigo abierto. +Entonces hay un gran argumento de competencia acerca del sostener la capacidad para la innovacin impulsada por cdigo abierto y por consumidores, porque es una de las ms grandes palancas competitivas en contra del monopolio. +Habr enormes argumentos profesionales tambin. +Porque los profesionales, por este lado en las organizaciones cerradas -- pueden ser acadmicos, pueden ser programadores, pueden ser doctores, pueden ser periodistas -- mi anterior profesin -- dirn, "No, no puede confiar en estas personas de ac". +Cuando empez en el periodismo -- en el Financial Times, hace 20 aos -- era muy emocionante el ver a alguien leyendo el peridico. +Y te asomabas sobre su hombro en el metro para ver si estaban leyendo tu artculo. +Comnmente estaban leyendo los precios de las acciones, y el pedazo del peridico con tu artculo estaba en el piso, o algo as, y saben, "Cielos, qu estn haciendo? +No estn leyendo mi brillante artculo!" +Y permitimos a los usuarios, lectores, dos lugares donde podan contribuir al peridico: la pgina de cartas, a donde podan escribir una carta y condescendientemente, cortaramos a la mitad, e imprimiramos tres das despus. +O la pgina de editoriales abierta, donde si conocan al editor -- haban ido a la escuela con l, o se haban acostado con su esposa -- podan escribir un artculo para la pgina de editoriales. +Esos eran los dos lugares. +Qu horror!: ahora, los lectores quieren ser escritores y publicadores. +Ese no es su rol; se supone que deben leer lo que escribimos nosotros. +Pero no quieren ser periodistas. Los periodistas piensan que los bloguers quieren ser periodistas; no quieren ser periodistas, slo quieren tener una voz. +Quieren, como Jimmy dijo, quieren tener un dilogo, una conversacin. +Quieren ser parte de ese flujo de informacin. +Lo que est pasando ah es que todo el dominio de la creatividad se est expandiendo. +As que habr un gran conflicto. +Pero, tambin, habr un movimiento tremendo de lo abierto a lo cerrado. +Lo que vern, creo, son dos cosas que son crticas, y estas, creo, son dos retos para el movimiento abierto. +El primero es: realmente podemos sobrevivir con voluntarios? +si esto es tan crtico, no necesitamos fondearlo, organizarlo y apoyarlo en formas ms estructuradas? +Creo que la idea de crear la Cruz Roja para la informacin y conocimiento es una idea fantstica, pero realmente podemos organizar eso slo con voluntarios? +Qu tipo de cambios necesitamos en la poltica pblica y el fondeo para hacer eso posible? +Cul es el rol de la BBC, por ejemplo, en ese mundo? +Cul debe ser el rol de la poltica pblica? +Y finalmente, lo que creo que vern es que las organizaciones cerradas inteligentes, se movern cada vez ms en la direccin de la apertura. +As que no ser un concurso entre dos campamentos, pero entre ellos, se van a encontrar todo tipo de lugares interesantes que la gente ocupar. +Saldrn nuevos modelos organizacionales, mezclando lo abierto y lo cerrado en formas ingeniosas. +No ser tan claro; no ser Microsoft contra Linux -- habr todo tipo de cosas en medio. +Y esos modelos organizacionales, resulta, que son increblemente poderosos, y las personas que los comprendan sern, muy, muy exitosas. +Permtanme darles un ejemplo final de lo que significa. +Estaba en Shangai, en una cuadra de oficinas construida en lo que era un arrozal hace cinco aos -- Uno de los 2.500 rascacielos que han construido en Shangai en los ltimos 10 aos. +Y estaba cenando con un tipo llamado Timothy Chen. +Timothy Chen creo un negocio de Internet en el 2000. +No se fue a Internet, guard su dinero, decidi irse a los juegos de computadora. +Administra una compaa llamada Shanda, que es la compaa de juegos de computadora ms grande de China. +Tienen 9.000 servidores en toda China; hay 250 millones de suscriptores. +En cualquier momento, hay 4 millones de personas jugando uno de sus juegos. +Cuntas personas contrata para dar servicio a esa poblacin? +500 personas. +Bueno, como pueden dar servicio a dos y medio -- 250 millones de personas con 500 empleados? +Porque bsicamente, no les da servicio. +Les da una plataforma, les da unas reglas, les da herramientas y el hace la orquestacin de la conversacin; l dirige la accin. +Pero de hecho, mucho del contenido es creado por los mismos usuarios. +Y esto genera un tipo de pregnancia entre la comunidad y la compaa que realmente es muy poderosa. +La mejor medida de eso: cuando entras a uno de sus juegos, creas un personaje que desarrollas durante el transcurso del juego. +Si por alguna razn, tu tarjeta de crdito rebota, o hay algn otro problema, pierdes tu personaje. +Tienes dos opciones. +Una opcin: puedes crear un nuevo personaje, desde cero, pero sin la historia de tu jugador. +Eso cuesta como 100 dlares. +O puedes tomar un avin, volar a Shangai, hacer fila afuera de las oficinas de Shanda -- costara probablemente 600, 700 dlares -- y reclamar tu personaje, obtienes tu historial de regreso. +Cada maana, hay 600 personas haciendo fila fuera de sus oficinas para reclamar estos personajes. As que esto se trata de compaas creadas en comunidades, que proveen a las comunidades herramientas, recursos, plataformas en las que pueden compartir. +El no es de cdigo abierto, pero es muy muy poderoso. +As que este es uno de los retos, creo, para las personas como yo, que hacen mucho trabajo con el gobierno. +Si tu eres una compaa de juegos, y tienes un milln de jugadores en tu juego, slo necesitas un porcentaje de ellos que sean co-desarrolladores, contribuyendo ideas, y tienes una fuerza de desarrollo de 10.000 personas. +Imagnense si pudieran tomar todos los nios en la educacin de Gran Bretaa, y el uno por ciento de ellos fueran los co-desarrolladores de la educacin. +Qu hara eso a los recursos disponibles al sistema educativo? +O si el uno por ciento de los pacientes del Servicio Nacional de Salud se vuelven, en cierto sentido, co-productores de la salud. +La razn por la que -- a pesar de todos los esfuerzos para cortarla, para detenerla, para contenerla -- estos modelos abiertos seguirn emergiendo con una fuerza tremenda, es que multiplican nuestros recursos productivos. +Y una razn por la que lo hacen es que transforman a los usuarios en productores; a los consumidores en diseadores. +Muchas gracias. +Apuesto a que estn preocupados. +Yo estaba preocupada. Por eso comenc esta obra. +Estaba preocupada por las vaginas. Estaba preocupada por lo que pensamos acerca de las vaginas, y ms preocupada porque no pensamos en ellas. +Estaba preocupada por mi propia vagina. +Necesitaba un contexto, una cultura, una comunidad de otras vaginas. +Hay tanta oscuridad y secretismo a su alrededor. +Como el Tringulo de las Bermudas, nadie enva jams informes desde ah. +En primer lugar, la vagina no es tan fcil de encontrar. +Las mujeres pasan, das, semanas, meses sin verla. +Entrevist a una poderosa mujer de negocios, me dijo que no tena tiempo. +"Ver tu vagina," dijo, "es todo un da de trabajo." +"Tienes que recostarte de espaldas, frente a un espejo, de preferencia largo. Te tienes que poner en la posicin perfecta, con la luz perfecta, y despus se ensombrece por el ngulo en el que ests. +Ests girando la cabeza hacia arriba, arqueando la espalda, es agotador --" +ella estaba ocupada, no tena tiempo. +As que decid hablar con las mujeres sobre sus vaginas. +Comenzaron como entrevistas informales sobre vaginas, y se convirtieron en los "Monlogos de la vagina." +Habl con ms de 200 mujeres. Habl con mujeres mayores, mujeres jvenes, mujeres casadas, lesbianas, mujeres solteras. +Habl con profesionales corporativas, profesoras unversitarias, actrices, prostitutas, +habl con mujeres afro-americanas, asitico-americanas, nativo-americanas, caucsicas, judas. +Ok, al principio las mujeres eran un poco tmidas, un poco renuentes a hablar. +Una vez que comenzaban no haba manera de pararlas. +A las mujeres les encanta hablar de su vagina, de verdad. +Sobre todo porque nadie se lo ha pedido antes. +Empecemos con la palabra vagina -- vagina, vagina. +En el mejor de los casos suena como una infeccin, o quiz como instrumental mdico. +"Enfermera, de prisa, traiga la vagina" +Vagina, vagina, vagina, no importa cuntas veces dices la palabra, nunca suena como una palabra que quieras decir. +Es una palabra totalmente ridcula, nada sexy. +Si tratas de utilizarla durante el sexo, tratando de ser polticamente correcta, "Cario, me acariciaras la vagina?," matas el acto ah mismo. +Me preocupa lo que las llamamos y lo que no las llamamos. +En Great Neck, Nueva York, le llaman "pussy-cat ." +Una mujer me dijo que su mam sola decirle: "No te pongas ropa interior bajo la pijama, +necesitas airear tu pussy-cat ." +En Westchester le llaman "pooky," en Nueva Jersey "twat." +Hay "polvera," "derriere," "pooky," "poochy," "poopy," "poopaloo," "pooninana," "padepachetchki," "pow" y "melocotn." +Hay "sapito," "dee dee," "nishi, "dignidad," "coochie snorcher," "cooter," "labi," "gladis siegelman," "va," "wee-wee," "parte puta," "nappy dugout," "mungo," "ghoulie," "polvera," "mimi" en Miami, "split knish" -- Filadelfia -- y "schmende," en el Bronx. +Me preocupan las vaginas. +Asi es como comenzaron los "Monlogos de la vagina." +Pero en realidad no comenz ah, comenz con una conversacin con una mujer. +Estbamos hablando sobre la menopausia, y llegamos al tema de su vagina -- que es lo que se hace cuando se habla de la menopausia. +Y dijo cosas sobre su vagina que me sorprendieron, que estaba seca y acabada y muerta, y me sorprendi. +Entonces le dije a una amiga de pasada, "Qu piensas de tu vagina?" +Y esa mujer dijo algo ms sorprendente, y la siguiente mujer dijo algo ms sorprendente, y antes de saberlo, todas las mujeres me decan que tena que hablar con alguien sobre su vagina porque tena una historia asombrosa, y fui llevada por el camino de la vagina. +Y en realidad nunca me he desviado, creo que si me hubieran dicho cuando era joven que al crecer estara en tiendas de zapatos y la gente gritara "Ah esta, la seora de la vagina," +no creo que hubiera aspirado a eso en la vida. +Pero quiero hablar un poco sobre la felicidad y su relacin con este viaje de la vagina porque ha sido un viaje extraordinario que comenz hace ocho aos. +Creo que antes de hacer los "Monlogos de la vagina" en realidad no crea en la felicidad. +Para ser honesta, crea que slo los idiotas eran felices. +Y creo que lo que pas en el transcurso de los "Monlogos de la vagina" y en este viaje es que he llegado a entender un poco ms sobre la felicidad. +Hay tres cualidades de las que quiero hablar. +Una es ver lo que est frente a ti, hablar sobre eso, +y exponerlo. Creo que lo que he aprendido de hablar sobre la vagina, y hablar sobre lo que es la vagina fue lo mas obvio -- estaba en el centro de mi cuerpo y en el centro del mundo-- y sin embargo era eso de lo que nadie hablaba. +La segunda cosa que hizo el hablar de la vagina fue abrir esta puerta que me permiti ver que haba una forma de servir al mundo y mejorarlo. +Y de ah es de donde ha venido la mas profunda felicidad. +Y el tercer principio de la felicidad, del que me he dado cuenta recientemente. Hace ocho aos, este momentum y esta energa, esta "Ola-V" comenz -- y slo la puedo describir como la "Ola-V" porque, para ser honesta, no la entiendo por completo, me siento a su merced. +Y comenc esta obra, particularmente con historias y narraciones, y hablaba con una mujer y eso me llevaba a otra mujer y eso me llevaba a otra mujer, y entonces escrib esas historias y las puse frente a otras personas. +Y cada vez que haca el show en el inicio, las mujeres literalmente hacan fila despues del show porque queran contarme sus historias. +Y al principio pens: "Fantstico! Me hablarn de orgasmos maravillosos y vidas sexuales estupendas, y de cmo las mujeres adoran sus vaginas." +Pero de hecho, las mujeres no formaban para decirme eso. +Las mujeres formaban para decirme cmo haban sido violadas, cmo eran maltratadas, y cmo eran golpeadas, y cmo haban sido violadas en grupo en estacionamientos, y cmo sus tos haban cometido incesto. +Y quera dejar de hacer los "Monlogos de la vagina" porque me pareca intimidante. Me senta como una fotgrafa de guerra que fotografa sucesos terribles, pero no interviene. +As que en 1997, dije, "Juntemos a mujeres. +Qu podemos hacer con lo que sabemos sobre estas violaciones?" +Y result que, despus de pensar e investigar, descubr - y las Naciones Unidas lo dijo recientemente -- que una de cada tres mujeres en este planeta sera golpeada o violada en su vida. +Eso es bsicamente el gnero que es el principal recurso del planeta, las mujeres. +As que en 1997 juntamos a todas estas increbles mujeres y dijimos, "Cmo usar la energa de la obra para parar la violencia contra las mujeres?" +Y creamos un espectculo en Nueva York, en el teatro, y vinieron todas estas actrices famosas - desde Susan Sarandon, y Glenn Close, hasta Whoopi Goldberg -- e hicimos una representacin una noche y ese fue el catalizador de esta ola, esta energa. +Y en cinco aos, esto tan extraordinario comenz a suceder. +Una mujer tom esa energa y dijo, "Quiero llevar esta ola, esta energa, a campuses universitarios," y tom la obra y dijo, "Usemos la obra y representemos la obra una vez al ao para recaudar fondos en contra de la violencia a las mujeres en comunidades locales en todo el mundo." +Y en un ao se present en 50 universidades y depues se expandi. +Y en los ultimos seis aos se ha extendido y extendido, y extendido, y extendido alrededor del mundo. +y fui con un grupo extraordinario llamado Asociacin Revolucionaria de Mujeres de Afganistn, +y vi de primera mano cmo las mujeres habian sido despojadas de todo derecho del que se puede despojar a la mujer. Desde recibir una educacin, a tener un trabajo, a poder comer helado. +Para aquellos que no lo saben, comer helado era ilegal bajo los talibanes. +Y de hecho vi y conoc a mujeres a quienes han azotado al ser pilladas comiendo helado de vainilla. +Y me llevaron a una heladeria secreta en un pequeo pueblo, fuimos a un cuarto trasero donde habia mujeres sentadas, y se puso una cortina a nuestro alrededor, y les sirvieron helado de vainilla. +Y las mujeres levantaron sus burkas y comieron helado, +y creo que nunca entend el placer hasta ese momento, y cmo las mujeres han encontrado la forma de mantener ese placer. +Me ha llevado, este viaje, a Islamabad, donde he conocido a mujeres con los rostros derretidos. +Me ha llevado a Jurez, Mxico, donde estuve hace una semana, donde he estado literalmente en estacionamientos donde huesos de mujeres han aparecido tirados junto a botellas de Coca-Cola. +Me ha llevado a universidades de todo el pas en donde se viola y droga a chicas cuando tienen citas. +He visto una violencia terrible, terrible, terrible. +Pero tambin he reconocido, al ver esa violencia, que estar frente a estas cosas y ver lo que tenemos enfrente es el antdoto contra la depresin y contra el sentimiento de que uno es intil y no vale nada. +Porque antes de los "Monlogos de la vagina," yo dira que el 80 por ciento de mi conciencia estaba cerrada a lo que de verdad estaba pasando en esta realidad. Y ese estar cerrada cerr mi vitalidad y mi energa. +Lo que tambin ha sucedido durante estos viajes -- y ha sido algo extraordinario es que en cada lugar al que he ido en el mundo, he conocido a una especie nueva. +Me encanta saber de todas esas especies del fondo del mar. +Y estaba pensando en cmo el estar con estas personas extraordinarias en este panel concreto, que est debajo, ms alla y en medio, y la vagina como que encaja en todas esas categoras. +Pero en cada pas al que he ido y en los ltimos seis aos he estado en cerca de 45 pases y muchas aldeas diminutas, ciudades y pueblos -- he visto algo que he llegado a llamar guerreros de la vagina. +He visto a estas mujeres en todo el planeta. Y quiero contar unas cuantas historias porque creo que con historias transmitimos informacin, que entra en nuestros cuerpos. Y creo que una de las cosas +de estar en TED que ha sido muy interesante es que vivo mucho en mi cuerpo, y ya no vivo tanto en mi cabeza. +Y este es un lugar de mucha cabeza. +Y ha sido muy interesante estar en mi cabeza. Estos ltimos dos das he estado muy desorientada -- porque creo que el mundo, el mundo-V existe mucho en el cuerpo. +Es un mundo corporal, y la especie existe en el cuerpo, +y creo que hay un verdadero significado en atar nuestros cuerpos a nuestras cabezas que esa separacin ha creado una divisin que a menudo separa el propsito de la intencin. +Y la conexin entre cuerpo y mente a menudo une esas cosas. +Quiero hablar de tres personas que he conocido, guerreros de la vagina que han transformado mi entendimiento de todo este principio y de la especie, y una es una mujer llamada Marsha Lpez. +Marsha Lpez es una mujer que conoc en Guatemala. +Tena 14 anos, y estaba en un matrimonio donde su esposo la golpeaba con regularidad, +y no poda dejarlo porque era adicta a la relacin y no tena dinero. Su hermana era mas joven que ella y mand su solicitud -- para el concurso Frena la violacin que tuvimos en Nueva York hace aos -- y mand su solicitud, esperando ser finalista y poder traer a su hermana. +Se convirti en finalista y trajo a Marsha a Nueva York. Organizamos un Da-V estupendo en un Madison Square Garden lleno de testosterona, donde se agotaron todas las entradas, 18,000 personas de pie para decir s a las vaginas, lo que de hecho fue una transformacin increble. +Y vino, y fue testigo de esto, y decidi que regresara y dejara a su esposo, y que llevara el dia-V a Guatemala. +Tena 21 anos. Fui a Guatemala y ella haba vendido todos los boletos +del Teatro Nacional de Guatemala. +Y la vi subir al escenario con su vestido rojo corto y tacones altos, y se paro ah y dijo. Me llamo Marsha. +Fui golpeada por mi esposo durante cinco aos. +Casi me mata. Me fui y t puedes tambin. +Y las 2.000 personas se volvieron absolutamente locas. +Hay una mujer llamada Esther Chvez a quien conoc en Jurez, Mxico. Esther Chvez +era una contable brillante en la Ciudad de Mxico, de 72 aos, +y estaba planeando jubilarse. +Fue a Jurez a cuidar de su ta enferma, y mientras tanto empez a descubrir lo que estaba pasando con las muertas y desaparecidas de Jurez. +Renunci a su vida y se mud a Jurez, +comenz a escribir historias que documentaban a las mujeres desaparecidas. +300 mujeres han desaparecido en un pueblo fronterizo porque son morenas y pobres. +No ha habido respuesta a las desapariciones, y ni una sola persona ha sido hallada responsable. +Comenz a documentarlo, abri un centro llamado Casa Amiga, y en seis aos, ha hecho de esto, literalmente, +algo conocido mundialmente. Estuvimos all hace una semana, haba 7.000 personas en la calle +y fue un verdadero milagro, y mientras caminbamos por las calles, la gente de Jurez, que normalmente ni siquiera sale a la calle porque la calle es muy peligrosa, literalmente se paro ah y llor al ver que otras personas del mundo se haban presentado para apoyar a esta comunidad. +Hay otra mujer llamada Agnes. Y Agnes, para m, es la personificacin de +lo que es un guerrero de la vagina. +La conoc hace tres aos en Kenia. Agnes fue mutilada de pequea, fue circuncidada contra su voluntad cuando tenia 10 aos, y tom la seria decisin de que no quera que esta practica continuara en su comunidad. +As que al crecer cre esto tan increble, es una escultura anatmica del cuerpo femenino, es la mitad del cuerpo de la mujer, +Y en aquel entonces ella cre un ritual alterno en el que las chicas maduraban sin pasar por esa mutilacin. +Cuando la conocimos hace tres aos, dijimos, Qu podra hacer el Da-V por ti? +Y ella dijo, Si me dan un Jeep, me podra mover con mas rapidez. +As que le compramos un Jeep. Y en el ao que tuvo el Jeep, +salv a 4.500 nias de ser cortadas. As que entonces le dijimos, +Agnes, qu ms podemos hacer por ti?, y ella dijo, +Bueno, Eve, si me dieras un poco de dinero, podra abrir una casa y la nias podran huir y podran salvarse. +Y quiero contar esta pequea historia de mis propios comienzos porque esta muy relacionada con la felicidad, y Agnes. +Cuando era pequea y yo crec en una comunidad prspera, una comunidad blanca de clase media alta -- y tena todo el aspecto de una vida maravillosa, perfectamente buena. +Y se supona que todo el mundo era feliz en esa comunidad cuando de hecho mi vida era un infierno. Viva con un padre alcohlico que me maltrataba y abusaba de m, y estaba todo dentro de eso. +Y de nia siempre tena la fantasa de que alguien vendra a salvarme. +Y de hecho invent un personaje llamado Seor Caimn, +a quien llamaba cuando las cosas se ponan muy mal, y le deca que era hora de venir por m. +Y yo iba y empacaba una bolsita y esperaba a que llegara el Seor Caimn. +El Senor Caimn nunca termin de llegar, pero la idea de que llegara salv mi cordura y me permiti seguir adelante porque crea que +en la distancia habra alguien que vendra a rescatarme. Avancemos unos 40 aos, vamos a Kenia, y estamos caminando, llegamos a la inauguracin de esta casa -- +y Agnes no me haba dejado entrar a la casa en das -- porque estaban preparando todo este ritual. +Y quiero contarles una historia fenomenal, cuando Agnes comenz a luchar para frenar la mutilacin genital femenina en su comunidad, se convirti en paria, y la exiliaron y la difamaron, y la comunidad entera se volvi en su contra. +Pero, guerrera de la vagina que es, ella sigui. Y sigui comprometindose a transformar conciencias. +En la comunidad Masai, las cabras y las vacas son los bienes de ms valor. +Son como los Mercedes-Benz del Valle Rift. +Y ella dijo que dos das antes de que la casa abriera, dos personas diferentes llegaron para darle una cabra, y me dijo, Supe que la mutilacin genital femenina terminara algn da en frica. +Y era un da esplndido bajo el sol africano, y el polvo volaba y las nias bailaban, y haba una casa y deca, "Casa de seguridad para nias Da-V." +Y en ese momento me di cuenta que haba tomado 47 aos, pero el Sr. Caimn finalmente haba llegado. +Y se present en una forma que me llev mucho tiempo entender, que es que cuando damos al mundo lo que mas queremos, curamos lo que est roto en cada uno de nosotros. +Y siento que en estos ltimos ocho aos, que este viaje, este milagroso viaje de la vagina, me ha enseado algo muy simple, que la felicidad existe en la accin, existe en decir la verdad y en decir tu verdad, y existe en dar lo que mas deseas. +Y siento que ese conocimiento y ese viaje han sido un privilegio extraordinario, y me siento realmente feliz de haber estado aqu hoy para decrselo. +Muchas gracias. +Estoy muy, muy emocionado de estar aqu hoy, +porque les mostrare algo que est, literalmente, listo para salir del laboratorio, y estoy realmente contento que ustedes estn entre los primeros en verlo en persona, porque honestamente creo que esto cambiar -- realmente cambiar -- la manera en la que interactuamos con las mquinas de ahora en adelante. +Ahora, ste es una mesa de dibujo de proyeccin trasera. Mide aproximadamente 36 pulgadas de ancho, y est equipada con un sensor multi-tctil. Los sensores tctiles normales que pueden ver, en un kiosco o en pizarras interactivas, slo pueden registrar un punto de contacto a la vez. +Esta mesa les permite tener mltiples puntos al mismo tiempo. +Puede usar mis dos manos, puedo ejecutar acciones coordinadas, y puedo seguir aumentando y usar los 10 dedos si quisiera. +As, de este modo. +Ahora, la sensibilidad multi-tctil no es completamente nueva. +Personas como Bill Buxton han estado jugando con esto desde los 80's. +Sin embargo, el enfoque que he construido es de alta resolucin, bajo costo, y probablemente lo ms importante, muy escalable. +Entonces, la tecnologa, sabrn, no es lo ms emocionante de esto, exceptuando probablemente su renovada accesibilidad. +Lo que es realmente interesante es lo que pueden hacer con esto, y los tipos de interfaces que se pueden construir sobre ella. Entonces, veamos. +Por ejemplo, tenemos una aplicacin de lmpara de lava. Ahora, como pueden ver, puedo usar ambas manos para apretar y juntar +las manchas. Puedo inyectar calor al sistema, o separarlo con dos de mis dedos. +Es completamente intuitivo; no hay manual de instrucciones. +La interfaz prcticamente desaparece. +Esto empez como salvapantallas que uno de los estudiantes del Ph. D. +en nuestro laboratorio, Ilya Rosenberg, construy. Pero creo que su verdadera identidad aparece ac. +Ahora, lo que es genial respecto al sensor multi-tctil es que podra estar haciendo esto con todos los dedos, pero, por supuesto, multi-tctil tambin significa, inherentemente, multi-usuario. +Entonces, Chris podra estar aqu interactuando con otra parte de la lava, mientras yo juego por este lado. Pueden imaginar una nueva herramienta escultrica, donde yo estoy calentando algo, volvindolo maleable, y despus dejndolo enfriar y solidificndolo en un estado particular. +Google debera tener algo as en su lobby. . Les mostrar algo -- un ejemplo algo ms concreto, mientras esto carga. +sta es una caja de luz para fotgrafos. +De nuevo, puedo usar mis dos manos para interactuar y mover las fotos. +Pero lo que es an ms genial es que si uso dos dedos, puedo agarrar una foto y estirarla de esta manera con mucha facilidad. +Puedo moverla, acercarla y girarla sin esfuerzo. +Puedo hacer eso con ambas manos, o puedo hacerlo slo con dos dedos de cada una de mis manos. +Si tomo el lienzo, puedo hacer ms o menos lo mismo -- estirarlo. +Puedo hacerlo simultneamente, lo sostengo y agarro otro, estirndolo de esta manera. +De nuevo, la interfaz simplemente desaparece. +No hay manual. Esto es exactamente lo que esperaran, especialmente si no han interactuado con un computador antes. +Ahora, cuando existen iniciativas como el computador porttil de 100 dlares, Me estremezco con la idea de introducir a toda una nueva generacin de personas a la computacin con la interfaz estndar de ratn y ventanas. +Yo pienso que esta es la manera en la que deberamos interactuar con las mquinas +desde este momento. Ahora, por supuesto, puedo sacar un teclado. +Puedo moverlo, ponerlo all arriba. +Obviamente, esta es una especie de teclado estndar, pero por supuesto, puedo escalarlo para que funcione bien con mis manos. +Y eso es bastante importante, porque no hay ninguna razn en estos das por la que debamos estar confinados a un dispositivo fsico. +Eso lleva a cosas malas, como LER. (Lesiones por Esfuerzo Repetitivo) +Tenemos tanta tecnologa estos das que las interfaces deben empezar a adaptarse a nosotros. +Se ha invertido tan poco en mejorar la manera en la que interactuamos con las interfaces. +Lo ms probable es que este teclado sea en realidad la direccin incorrecta para continuar. +Pueden imaginar, en el futuro, a medida que desarrollamos este tipo de tecnologa, un teclado que siga su mano mientras se aleja, y anticipe inteligentemente qu tecla estn tratando de presionar. +No es esto genial? +Audiencia: Donde est tu laboratorio? +Jeff Han: Soy un investigador de la Universidad de Nueva York . +Aca hay un ejemplo de otro tipo de aplicacin. Puedo crear estas pelotitas. +La aplicacin recordar los trazos que realizo. Desde luego, puedo hacerlo con ambas manos. +Es sensible a la presin, como notarn. +Pero lo entretenido es, nuevamente, que como les mostr antes, con un gesto de dos dedos puedo +hacer zoom rpidamente. No tienen que cambiar a otra herramienta o usar una herramienta de lupa; pueden hacer cosas continuamente en mltiples escalas reales, todo al mismo tiempo. +Puedo crear cosas grandes, pero puedo volver rpidamente a donde comenc, y hacer cosas an ms pequeas. +Ahora, esto ser muy importante a medida que nos involucremos con cosas como +la visualizacin de datos. Por ejemplo, creo que todos disfrutamos la charla de Hans Rosling, y l puso mucho nfasis en algo en lo que he estado pensando por mucho tiempo: tenemos todos estos datos geniales, pero por alguna razn, simplemente estn ah. +Djenme mostrarles otra aplicacin. Esta se llama WorldWind. +Es desarrollada por NASA. Es un tipo de -- todos hemos visto Google Earth; esta es una versin de cdigo abierto de eso mismo. Hay plug-ins que permiten +cargar distintos conjuntos de datos que NASA ha recolectado durante aos. +Pero como pueden ver, puedo usar los mismos gestos con dos dedos para bajar y acercarme a la perfeccin. De nuevo, no hay una interfaz. +Realmente permite que cualquiera se acerque -- y, hace justamente lo que esperas que haga, +Nuevamente, ac no hay una interfaz. La interfaz desaparece. +Puedo cambiar a diferentes vistas de datos. Eso es lo genial de esta aplicacin. +Ah lo tienen. NASA es genial. Tienen estas imgenes hiper-espectrales que estn falsamente coloreadas para que puedan -- es muy til para determinar el uso vegetativo. Bueno, volvamos. +Ahora, lo mejor de las aplicaciones de cartografa -- no es el 2D, es el 3D. Entonces, nuevamente, con una interfaz multi-punto +pueden hacer un gesto como este -- para que puedan inclinar la cmara, No est relegada al movimiento y al paneo 2D. +Ahora, este gesto que hemos desarrollado, funciona colocando dos dedos en la superficie, definiendo un eje de inclinacin, y puedo inclinar arriba y abajo de esa forma. +Fue algo que se nos ocurri en el momento, y probablemente no sea lo correcto, pero hay tantas cosas interesantes que se pueden hacer con este tipo de interfaz. +Es muy entretenido jugar con ella tambin. Y lo ltimo que quera mostrarles -- Estoy seguro que todos podemos pensar en muchas aplicaciones de entretenimiento que se pueden hacer con esto. +Estoy algo ms interesado en el tipo de aplicaciones creativas que se pueden hacer. +Aqu hay una aplicacin muy simple -- Puedo dibujar una curva. +Y cuando la cierro, se convierte en un personaje. +Pero lo genial, es que puedo aadir puntos de control. +Y lo que puedo hacer es manipularlos con mis dos dedos al mismo tiempo. +Y se pueden dar cuenta de lo que hace. +Es como una marioneta, donde puedo usar cuantos dedos tenga para dibujar y hacer -- Ahora, hay un montn de matemticas tras esto para que controle este objeto correctamente. +Lo que quiero decir, es que esta tcnica que permite manipular este objeto, con mltiples puntos de control, es algo totalmente nuevo. +Fue publicado en Siggraph recin el ao pasado, +pero es un gran ejemplo del tipo de investigacin que me encanta. Todo este poder computacional aplicado a hacer que las cosas hagan las cosas correctas, cosas intuitivas. Hacer exactamente lo que esperas. +Bueno, la interaccion multi-tctil es un campo muy activo ahora en la IPC (Interaccin persona-computador) +No soy el nico hacindolo, hay muchas personas investigando. +Este tipo de tecnologa va a permitir que an ms gente se interese, y estoy muy ansioso de interactuar con todos ustedes en los prximos das y ver cmo esto se puede aplicar a sus respectivos campos. +Gracias. +Buenos das. Cmo estn? Ha sido increble, verdad? Estoy abrumado con todo esto. +De hecho, me estoy yendo. Ha habido tres temas, durante la conferencia, que son relevantes a lo que yo quiero decir. +Uno es la extraordinaria evidencia de la creatividad humana en todas las presentaciones que hemos tenido y en todas las personas que estn aqu. +La variedad y gama. El segundo nos ha puesto en un lugar dnde no tenemos idea de qu va a suceder en trminos del futuro. Ninguna idea +de cmo se va desarrollar esto. +Yo estoy interesado en la educacin - de hecho, +lo que encuentro es que todas las personas tienen inters en la educacin. +Ustedes no? Pienso que esto es muy interesante. +Si ests en una cena y dices que trabajas en educacin - bueno, si trabajas en educacin no vas muy seguido a cenas, +No te invitan. +Y curiosamente nunca te vuelven a invitar. Es raro. +Pero cundo te invitan, y hablas con alguien sabes, te dicen, "En qu trabajas?" +Y dices que trabajas en educacin, puedes ver que se ponen plidos. Dicen: "Oh Dios, +Por qu a mi? Mi nica noche afuera en la semana". Pero si les preguntas por su educacin, te arrinconan contra la pared. Porque es una +de esas cosas que llega a lo profundo de la gente. +Como la religin, el dinero y otras cosas. +Yo tengo un gran inters en la educacin, y creo que todos lo tenemos. +Tenemos un gran inters comprometido en ello, en parte porque es la educacin la que nos va a llevar a este futuro que no podemos comprender. +Si lo piensas, los nios que comienzan la escuela este ao se van a jubilar en el 2065. Nadie tiene una pista, a pesar de toda la experticia desplegada en los ltimos cuatro das, de cmo va a ser el mundo en 5 aos. +Y sin embargo se supone que estamos +educando a los nios para l. As que creo que +la impredictibilidad es extraordinaria. Y la tercera parte de esto es que sin embargo, todos estamos de acuerdo en las extraordinarias capacidades que tienen los nios, sus capacidades +de innovacin. Anoche, por ejemplo, Serena +fue una maravilla. Slo ver lo que ella hace. +Y ella es excepcional, pero no creo que ella sea, por decirlo, una excepcin entre todos los nios. +Es una persona extraordinariamente +dedicada que encontr un talento. Y mi argumento +es que todos los nios tienen talentos tremendos, +que desperdiciamos sin piedad. As que quiero hablar de educacin y creatividad +Mi argumento es que ahora la creatividad es tan importante en educacin como la alfabetizacin, y deberamos darle el mismo estatus. +Gracias. Por cierto, eso fue todo. +Muchsimas gracias. As que, me quedan 15 minutos. Bueno, yo nac en - no. Escuch una gran historia hace poco, me encanta contarla, sobre una nia en clase de dibujo. Ella tena 6 aos +y estaba en la parte de atrs, dibujando, y la profesora cont que esta nia casi nunca prestaba atencin, pero que en esta clase de dibujo s. +La profesora estaba fascinada y se acerc a ella +y dijo, "Qu ests dibujando?", y la nia dijo, +"Estoy dibujando a Dios". +Y la profesora dijo, "Pero nadie sabe cmo es Dios". +Y la nia dijo, "Lo van a saber en un minuto". +Cuando mi hijo tena 4 aos en Inglaterra - de hecho tena 4 en todas partes, para ser honesto. Si estamos siendo estrictos, donde quiera que fuera, tena 4 ese ao. +Estaba en la representacin de la Natividad. +Se acuerdan de la historia? No, fue grande. +Fue una gran historia. Mel Gibson la cont. +Puede que la hayan visto: "Natividad II". A James le dieron +el papel de Jos, lo que nos tena encantados. +Considerbamos que era un papel protagnico. +Llenamos el lugar de agentes en camisetas: "James Robinson ES Jos!" El no tena parlamento. Conocen la parte en que entran los tres reyes magos. Llegan trayendo regalos, +traen oro, incienso y mirra. +Esto en verdad pas. Estamos sentado ah +y creo que no siguieron el orden al entrar, porque hablamos despus con el nio y le dijimos, "Sali todo bien?" Y el dijo, "Claro! Por qu? Algo estuvo mal?" +Slo cambiaron el orden, eso fue todo. +En cualquier caso, los tres nios entraron, nios de 4 aos, con paos de cocina en las cabezas, pusieron estas cajas en el suelo, y el primer nio dijo, "Les traigo oro". +Y el segundo nio dijo, "Les traigo mirra". Y el tercero dijo, +"Frank mand esto" (rima con incienso en ingls) Lo que estas cosas tienen en comn, es que los nios se arriesgan. +Si no saben, prueban. +Verdad? No tienen miedo a equivocarse. +Ahora, no estoy diciendo que equivocarse es lo mismo que ser creativo. +Lo que si sabemos es que, si no estas abierto a equivocarte, nunca se te va a ocurrir algo original. Si no ests abierto a equivocarte. Y para cuando llegan a ser adultos, +la mayora de los nios ha perdido esa capacidad. +Tienen miedo a equivocarse. +Y por cierto, manejamos nuestras empresas as. +Estigmatizamos los errores. Y ahora estamos administrando +sistemas nacionales de educacin donde los errores son lo peor que puedes hacer. +Y el resultado es que estamos educando a la gente para que dejen sus capacidades creativas. Picasso dijo +que todos los nios nacen artistas. +El problema es seguir siendo artistas al crecer. Creo en lo siguiente +con pasin: que no nos volvemos ms creativos al crecer, ms bien nos hacemos menos creativos. O ms bien, la educacin +nos hace menos creativos. Y por qu es as? +Yo viva en Stratford-on-Avon hasta hace 5 aos. +Nos mudamos de Stratford a Los Angeles. +Se pueden imaginar lo suave que fue ese cambio. +De hecho, vivamos en un lugar llamado Snitterfield, en las afueras de Stratford, donde naci el padre de Shakespeare. Repentinamente tienen un nuevo pensamiento? Yo si. +Nunca pensaron que Shakespeare tuviera un padre, verdad? +Porque nunca pensaron en +Shakespeare de nio, verdad? +Se imagina a Shakespeare a los 7? Nunca pens en ello. O sea, +l tuvo 7 aos en algn momento. Y estaba en +la clase de Ingls de alguien, Cun molesto sera eso? "Debe esforzarse ms". Mandado a dormir por su pap, "A la cama, ahora". +"Y deja ese lpiz, +y deja de hablar as. Nos confundes a todos". +En todo caso, nos mudamos de Stratford a Los Angeles, y slo les quiero comentar algo sobre la transicin. +Mi hijo no quera venir. +Tengo 2 hijos. El tiene 21 ahora, mi hija 16. +El no quera venir a Los Angeles. Le encantaba, +pero tena una novia en Inglaterra. El amor de su vida, +Sarah. La conoca hace un mes. +Imagnense, haban tenido su 4to aniversario, porque ese es un tiempo largo cuando tienes 16. +Bueno, el estaba muy alterado en el avin. y me dijo: "Nunca voy a encontrar a otra chica como Sarah". +Y a decir verdad estabamos contentos por eso, porque ella era la razn principal para dejar el pas. +Te das cuenta de algo cuando te trasladas a los Estados Unidos y cuando viajas por el mundo: todos los sistemas educativos del mundo tienen la misma jerarqua +de materias. Todos. Sin importar donde vayas. +Uno pensara que cambia, pero no. +Arriba estn las matemticas y lenguas, luego las humanidades, y abajo estn las artes. +En todo el planeta. +Y en casi todos los sistemas adems, hay jerarquas dentro de las artes. +Arte y msica normalmente tienen un estatus ms alto en las escuelas que drama y danza. No hay ningn sistema educativo que le ensee danza a los nios todos los das de la misma manera que les enseamos matemticas. Por qu? +Por qu no? Creo que esto es importante. +Creo que las matemticas son muy importantes, pero tambin la danza. +Los nios bailan todo el tiempo cuando se les permite, todos lo hacemos. +Todos tenemos cuerpos, no? Me perd esa reunin? +Lo que en verdad ocurre es que cuando los nios crecen los comenzamos a educar progresivamente +de la cintura hacia arriba. Y despus nos concentramos en sus cabezas. +Y ligeramente en un lado de la cabeza, +Si un extraterrestre viera nuestra educacin y preguntara: "Para qu sirve la educacin pblica?" +Creo que tendras que concluir, si miras el resultado a los tienen xito en este sistema, a quienes hacen todo lo que deberan, a los que se llevan las estrellitas, a los ganadores. Tendras que concluir que el propsito de la educacin pblica en todo el mundo es producir profesores universitarios, o no? +Son las personas que salen arriba. +Y yo sola ser uno, as que ah tienen. Y me gustan los profesores universitarios, pero no deberamos considerarlos el logro ms grande de la humanidad. +Son slo una forma de vida, otra forma de vida. Y son extraos, +y digo con esto con afecto. +En mi experiencia hay algo curioso sobre los profesores, no todos, pero en general, viven en sus cabezas. +Viven ah arriba y un poco hacia un lado. +Estn fuera de su cuerpo, de manera casi literal. +Ven sus cuerpos como una forma de transporte para sus cabezas. +Es una manera de llevar sus cabezas a las reuniones. Si quieren evidencia real de experiencias extracorporales, acudan a una conferencia de altos acadmicos y vayan a la discoteca en la noche final. +Y ah lo vern, hombres y mujeres adultos +contorsionndose incontrolablemente, a destiempo, esperando a que termine +para ir a casa a escribir un artculo sobre ello. +Nuestro sistema educativo se basa en la idea +de habilidad acadmica. Y hay una razn. +Cuando todo el sistema fue inventado. en el mundo, no haban sistemas educativos antes del siglo XIX. Todos surgieron para llenar +las necesidades de la industrializacin. +As que la jerarqua se basa en dos ideas. +Nmero uno, que las materias ms tiles para el trabajo son ms importantes. +As que probablemente te alejaron gentilmente de las cosas que te gustaban cuando nio, con el argumento de que nunca ibas a encontrar un trabajo haciendo eso. Cierto? +No hagas msica, no vas a ser msico; no hagas arte, no vas a ser un artista. +Consejo benigno, y hoy profundamente equivocado. El mundo entero +est envuelto en una revolucin. +Y la segunda idea es la habilidad acadmica, que ha llegado a dominar nuestra visin de la inteligencia, porque las universidades disearon el sistema a su imagen. +Si lo piensan, todo el sistema de educacin pblica en el mundo es un extenso proceso de admisin universitaria. +Y la consecuencia es que muchas personas talentosas, brillantes y creativas piensan que no lo son, porque aquello para lo que eran buenos en la escuela no era valorado o incluso era estigmatizado. +Y pienso que no podemos darnos el lujo de seguir por este camino. +En los prximos 30 aos, segn la UNESCO, ms personas, en el mundo, se van a graduar del sistema educativo que el total desde el principio de la historia. +Ms personas. Esto es la combinacin de todas las cosas que hemos hablado, la tecnologa y su transformacin del trabajo, y la gran explosin demogrfica. +Sbitamente, los ttulos ya no valen nada. +Cuando yo era estudiante si tu tenas un ttulo tenas un trabajo. +Si no tenas uno era porque no queras. +Yo no quera un trabajo, francamente. Pero ahora los jvenes con ttulos muchas veces vuelven a sus casas para seguir jugando video juegos, porque necesitas una maestra para el trabajo que antes requera un bachillerato. Y ahora necesitas un doctorado para el otro. +Es un proceso de inflacin acadmica, +que indica que toda la estructura de la educacin se est moviendo bajo nuestros pies. Debemos cambiar radicalmente +nuestra idea de la inteligencia +Sabemos tres cosas sobre la inteligencia. +Primero, que es diversa. Pensamos sobre el mundo de todas las +maneras en que lo experimentamos. Visualmente, +en sonidos, pensamos kinestsicamente +Pensamos en trminos abstractos, en movimiento. +Segundo, la inteligencia es dinmica. +Si observas las interacciones del cerebro humano, como escuchamos ayer en varias presentaciones, la inteligencia es maravillosamente interactiva. +El cerebro no est dividido en compartimientos. +De hecho, la creatividad, que yo defino como el proceso de tener ideas originales que tengan valor, casi siempre ocurre a travs de la interaccin de cmo ven las cosas diferentes disciplinas. +El cerebro es intencionalmente - a propsito, hay un tubo de nervios que une las dos mitades del cerebro llamado el cuerpo callosos. Es ms ancho en las mujeres. +Siguiendo con lo que dijo Helen ayer, creo que probablemente por esto las mujeres son mejores haciendo varias tareas a la vez. +Porque ustedes son buenas en eso, o no? +Hay montones de investigacin, pero yo lo se por mi vida personal. +Cuando mi esposa cocina en la casa - +no muy seguido. Por suerte. Pero - no, ella si cocina bien algunas cosas - pero cuando est cocinando, est hablando al telfono, hablndole a los nios, pintando el techo, ciruga a corazn abierto por ac. +Si yo estoy cocinando, la puerta est cerrada, los nios afuera el telfono est descolgado y me irrito si ella viene. +"Terry, por favor, estoy intentando freir un huevo aqu", "Djame en paz." Conocen esa vieja pregunta filosfica, si un rbol cae en el bosque y nadie lo escucha, +realmente ocurri? Se acuerdan? Ese viejo castao. +su talento. Estoy fascinado con cmo la gente lleg +a eso. Esto me trae a una conversacin que tuve con una mujer maravillosa de la quizs no han odo hablar, se llama Gillian Lynne, +la conocen? Algunos si. +Es coregrafa y todo el mundo conoce su trabajo. +Ella hizo "Cats" y "El fantasma de la pera". +Es fantstica. Yo sola estar en el concejo del Royal Ballet, en Inglaterra, como pueden ver. +Almorc con Gillian un da y le pregunt: "Cmo llegaste a ser bailarina?" +Fue interesante, ella era incompetente en la escuela +y la escuela, en los aos 30, le escribi a sus padres diciendo "Creemos que Gillian tiene un trastorno +de aprendizaje". No se poda concentrar, +se mova nerviosamente. Creo que hoy diran +que tena TDAH (Deficit de Atencin). Pero esto era en los 30 y no se haba inventado el TDAH. +No era un trastorno disponible. La gente no saba que podan tener eso. +Ella fue a ver a un especialista. +En esta habitacin de paneles de roble con su mam y la llevaron y la sentaron en una silla en el rincn, y ella se sent sobre sus manos por 20 minutos mientras el hombre hablaba con su mam sobre los problemas que Gillian tena en la escuela. +Ella molestaba a los otros, entregaba tarde la tarea, una pequea nia de 8 - +al final el doctor se sent junto a Gillian y le dijo: "Gillian, escuch todo lo que tu mam me dijo y necesito hablar en privado con ella". +Le dijo: "Espera aqu, no nos vamos a tardar". y se fueron y la dejaron sola. +Pero al salir de la sala, l encendi la radio que estaba sobre su escritorio. +Y cuando salieron de la habitacin, l le dijo a su madre: +"Slo espere y observmosla". Y en el momento en que salieron Gillian se par y comenz a moverse al ritmo de la msica. +Y la miraron por unos minutos y el doctor se volvi a su madre y le dijo: "Sra. Lynne, Gillian no est enferma, ella es una bailarina, +llvela a la escuela de danza." +Le dije: "Y qu pas?" +Ella dijo: "Me llev y fue maravilloso. +Entramos a esta habitacin y estaba llena de gente +como yo. Gente que no se poda quedar quieta. +Gente que tena que moverse para pensar." +Practicaban ballet, tap, jazz, danza moderna y contempornea +Eventualmente entr a la escuela del Royal Ballet, se volvi solista, tuvo una carrera maravillosa +con el Royal Ballet. Eventualmente se gradu de la escuela y fund su propia compaa, la Compaa de Danza de Gillian Lynne, conoci a Andrew Lloyd Weber. Ella ha sido la responsable de algunas de las obras musicales ms exitosas de la historia, le ha dado placer a millones, y es multi-millonaria. +Otro quizs la habra medicado y le habra dicho que se calmara. +Lo que creo es que se trata de esto - Al Gore habl la otra noche sobre ecologa, y la revolucin detonada por Rachel Carson. +Yo creo que nuestra nica esperanza para el futuro es adoptar una nueva concepcin de la ecologa humana, una en que reconstituyamos nuestro concepto de la riqueza de la capacidad humana. +Nuestro sistema educativo ha explotado nuestras mentes como nosotros lo hacemos con la tierra: buscando un +recurso en particular. Y para el futuro esto no nos va a servir. +Debemos re-pensar los principios fundamentales bajo los que estamos educando a nuestros hijos. +Hay una cita maravillosa de Jonas Salk: "Si desaparecieran todos los insectos de la tierra, en 50 aos toda la vida en la Tierra desaparecera. +Si todos los seres humanos desaparecieran de la Tierra, en 50 aos todas las formas de vida floreceran". +Y l tiene razn. +Lo que TED celebra es el regalo +de la imaginacin humana. Debemos usar este regalo de manera sabia para poder evitar algunos de los escenarios sobre los que hemos hablado. +Y la nica manera es ver lo ricas que son nuestras capacidades creativas, y ver la esperanza +que nuestros hijos representan. Y nuestra tarea es educar su ser completo para que puedan enfrentar el futuro. +A propsito, puede que nosotros no veamos ese futuro pero ello s lo van a ver. Y nuestro trabajo es +ayudar a que ellos hagan algo de ese futuro. Muchas gracias. +Como otros conferenciantes han dicho, es una experiencia bastante intimidante - una experiencia particularmente intimidante - hablar enfrente de esta audiencia. +Pero a diferencia de los dems, yo no les voy a hablar acerca de los misterios del universo o de las maravillas de la evolucin, o de las maneras ingeniosas, innovadoras, en que se estn atacando las mayores desigualdades de nuestro mundo. +O incluso de los retos de las naciones en la economa global moderna. +Mi trabajo, como han odo, es hablarles de estadstica -- y, para ser ms preciso, contarles algunas cosas apasionantes acerca de ella. +Y eso es -- -- eso es bastante ms difcil que lo que han hecho todos los conferenciantes antes de m y todos los que vengan despus. +Uno de mis colegas me dijo, cuando yo era un novato en esta profesin, orgullosamente, que los estadsticos eran personas a quienes les gustaban los nmeros pero no tenan la personalidad para ser contables. +Y hay otro chiste entre estadsticos que es: Cmo distingues al estadstico introvertido del estadstico extrovertido? +Cuya respuesta es, El estadstico extrovertido es el que mira los zapatos de la otra persona. +Pero quiero decirles algo til y aqu est, as que concntrense. +Esta tarde, hay una recepcin en el Museo de Historia Natural de la Universidad. +Y es un lugar maravilloso, como espero que noten, y un gran icono de lo mejor de la tradicin victoriana. +Es muy improbable en este lugar especial, con este grupo de gente -- pero puede ser que se encuentren hablando con alguien indeseable. +As que aqu est lo que deben hacer. +Cuando les pregunten A qu se dedica? Responden: Soy estadstico. +Bueno, excepto porque ahora estn advertidos, y sabrn que se lo est inventando. +Entonces una de dos cosas pasar. +O descubrirn a un primo perdido en la otra esquina de la habitacin y corrern a hablar con l, +o de repente se sentirn sedientos y/o hambrientos a menudo ambas-- y corrern a por un trago y algo de comida. +Y a usted lo dejarn en paz para hablar con la persona con quien realmente quera. +Es uno de los retos de nuestra profesin intentar explicar lo que hacemos. +No estamos en la cima de las listas de invitados a cenar, a charlar y a cosas as. +Y es algo que nunca he encontrado cmo hacer. +Pero mi esposa entonces mi novia - lo logr mucho mejor de lo que yo jams he podido. +Hace muchos aos, cuando empezbamos a salir, ella trabajaba para la BBC en Gran Bretaa, y yo estaba, en ese momento, trabajando en Estados Unidos. +Yo estaba de vuelta visitndola. +Le dijo lo siguiente a una de sus compaeras de trabajo, quien pregunt: Bien, qu es lo que hace tu novio? +Sarah pens bastante acerca de las cosas que yo le haba explicado - y se concentr, aquellos das, en escuchar. +No le digan que dije eso. +Y estaba pensando en el trabajo que yo haca desarrollando modelos matemticos para comprender la evolucin y la gentica modernas. +As que cuando su compaera le pregunt: Qu hace? +Ella hizo una pausa y dijo: Modela cosas. +Bueno, su compaera sbitamente se interes mucho ms de lo que caba esperar y sigui preguntando: Qu es lo que modela? +Bien, Sarah pens un poco ms acerca de mi trabajo y dijo: Genes. +"Modela genes. +Este es mi primer amor, y de ello les voy a hablar un poco. +Lo que sobre todo quiero conseguir es que piensen acerca del lugar que la incertidumbre, el azar y la probabilidad ocupan en nuestro mundo, y cmo reaccionamos frente a ello, y que tan bien razonamos o no respecto a esto. +As que lo han tenido bastante fcil hasta ahora -- algunas risas y cosas por el estilo en las conferencias hasta ahora. +Tienen que pensar, y voy a hacerles algunas preguntas. +As que aqu est el escenario de la primera pregunta que tengo: +Pueden imaginarse lanzando una moneda sucesivamente? +Y por alguna razn la cual tendr que quedar sin precisar -- estamos interesados en un patrn en particular. +Aqu hay uno: cara, seguida de cruz, seguida de otra cruz. +As que supongan que lanzamos una moneda repetidamente. +Entonces la pauta cara-cruz-cruz, con la que nos hemos obsesionado, aparece. +Y pueden contar: uno, dos, tres, cuatro, cinco, seis, siete, ocho, nueve, diez -- ocurre despus del dcimo lanzamiento. +Deben de pensar que hay cosas ms interesantes que hacer, pero sganme la corriente un momento. +Imagnense que cada uno en este lado de la audiencia saca una moneda y la lanza hasta que logra el patrn cara-cruz-cruz. +La primera vez que lo hacen, tal vez pase despus del dcimo lanzamiento, como aqu. +La segunda vez, tal vez sea despus del cuarto. +Y la prxima, despus del decimoquinto. +As que lanzan la moneda muchas, muchas veces, y calculan la media de esos nmeros. +En eso es en lo que quiero que este lado piense. +El otro lado de la audiencia no quiere cara-cruz-cruz -- piensan que, por razones culturales, es aburrido -- y estn mucho ms interesados en otro patrn cara-cruz-cara. +As que en este lado, sacan sus monedas, y las lanzan y lanzan y lanzan. +Y cuentan los lanzamientos hasta que el patrn cara-cruz-cara aparece y sacan la media. De acuerdo? +As que en este lado, tienen un nmero -- lo han hecho muchas veces, as que el nmero es preciso que es el nmero promedio de volados hasta conseguir cara-cruz-cruz. +En este lado, tienen otro nmero el nmero promedio de lanzamientos hasta conseguir cara-cruz-cara. +Aqu encontramos un hecho matemtico profundo -- si tienes dos nmeros, una de tres cosas tiene que ocurrir. +O son iguales, o uno es ms grande que el otro o viceversa. +As que qu est pasando aqu? +Todos ustedes tienen que pensarlo bien, y todos deben votar -- si no, no continuaremos. +Y no quiero terminar con un silencio de dos minutos para darles tiempo para pensarlo, hasta que todos expresen una opinin. Vale. +Lo que tienen que hacer es comparar el nmero promedio de lanzamientos hasta que conseguimos cara-cruz-cara con el nmero promedio de lanzamientos hasta que conseguimos cara-cruz-cruz. +Quin cree que A es verdad -- que en promedio, tomar ms tiempo ver cara-cruz-cara que cara-cruz-cruz? +Quin cree que B es verdad que el promedio es igual? +Quin cree que C es verdad que en promedio, tomar menos tiempo ver cara-cruz-cara que cara-cruz-cruz? +Vale, quin queda por votar? Porque eso es una travesura dije que tenan que votar. +Vale. La mayora cree que B es verdad. +Y les tranquilizar saber que incluso matemticos bastante distinguidos piensan lo mismo. +Pero no lo es. A es verdad. +Tarda ms tiempo, de media. +De hecho, el nmero promedio de lanzamientos hasta cara-cruz-cara es 10, y la media hasta cara-cruz-cruz es 8. +Cmo puede ser esto? +Hay alguna diferencia entre los dos patrones? +La hay. Cara-cruz-cara se solapa. +Si buscas cara-cruz-cara, con suerte puedes conseguir dos secuencias del patrn en cinco lanzamientos. +Eso no lo puedes hacer con cara-cruz-cruz. +Y eso resulta ser importante. +Hay dos maneras de pensar acerca de esto. +Les mostrar una de ellas. +Imaginen supongamos que lo estamos haciendo. +De este lado recuerden, estn entusiasmados con cara-cruz-cruz -- y ustedes estn entusiasmados con cara-cruz-cara. +Lanzamos la moneda, y sale cara -- y estn al borde de su asiento porque algo grandioso y maravilloso, o increble, puede estar a punto de suceder. +El siguiente lanzamiento sale cruz estn realmente entusiasmados. +El champn est metido en el hielo a su lado, y tienen las copas heladas listas para celebrar. +Esperan con el corazn en la mano el ltimo lanzamiento. +Y si sale cara, es grandioso. +Lo lograron, y lo celebran. +Si sale cruz bueno, es decepcionante, guardan las copas y ponen el champn en su lugar. +Y siguen lanzando, esperando la siguiente cara, para entusiasmarse. +En este lado, la experiencia es diferente. +Es igual durante las primeras dos partes de la secuencia. +Estn un poco entusiasmados con la primera cara -- y bastante ms con la siguiente cruz. +Entonces lanzan la moneda. +Si es cruz, abren el champn. +Si es cara, estn algo decepcionados, pero ya tienen una tercera parte de su patrn. +Y esa es una manera informal de presentarlo pero esa es la diferencia. +Otra manera de verlo - si lanzamos la moneda ocho millones de veces, esperaramos un milln de cara-cruz-cara y un milln de cara-cruz-cruz pero las cara-cruz-cruz podran ocurrir en conjunto. +As que si ponen un milln de cosas entre ocho millones de posiciones y pueden permitir algo de traslape, los conjuntos estarn ms lejos entre s. +Esa es otra manera de intuirlo. +Qu es lo que quiero decir? +Es un ejemplo muy, muy simple, una pregunta sencilla de probabilidad, que absolutamente y estn en buena compaa todos responden mal. +Este es mi pequeo entretenimiento en relacin con mi pasin verdadera, que es la gentica. +Hay una relacin entre cara-cruz-cara y cara-cruz-cruz en la gentica, y es la siguiente. +Cuando lanzas una moneda, obtienes una secuencia de caras y cruces. +Cuando vemos el ADN, hay una secuencia de no solo dos cosas caras y cruces -- sino de cuatro letras A, G, C y T. +Y hay unas pequeas tijeras qumicas, llamadas enzimas de restriccin que cortan el ADN cuando ven un cierto patrn. +Y son una herramienta enormemente til en la biologa molecular moderna. +Y en vez de preguntar: Cuntos lanzamientos hasta conseguir cara-cruz-cara? -- podemos preguntar: Cmo de grandes sern los pedazos cuando uso una enzima de restriccin que corta cuando ve, por ejemplo, G-A-A-G? +Cmo de largos sern esos pedazos? +Esa es una conexin algo trivial entre la probabilidad y la gentica. +Hay una conexin mucho ms profunda, pero no tengo tiempo para explorarla y es que la gentica moderna es un rea realmente excitante de la ciencia. +Y oiremos algunas charlas ms tarde especficamente acerca de esto. +Y les voy a dar dos pequeos fragmentos dos ejemplos -- de proyectos que lleva mi grupo en Oxford, los cuales creo que son bastante apasionantes. +Ustedes han odo hablar acerca del Proyecto del Genoma Humano. +Fue un proyecto que intentaba descifrar una copia del genoma humano. +Lo que sigue naturalmente despus de lograrlo -- es este otro proyecto, el Proyecto Internacional HapMap, el cual es una colaboracin entre laboratorios de cinco o seis pases. +Piensen que en el Proyecto del Genoma Humano se trata de aprender qu tenemos en comn, y el proyecto HapMap intenta entender dnde estn las diferencias entre las distintas personas. +Por qu nos importa? +Bueno, hay muchas razones. +La ms urgente es que queremos entender cmo es que algunas diferencias hacen a algunas personas propensas a cierta enfermedad como la diabetes del tipo 2 -- y otras diferencias hacen a ciertas personas ms propensas a las enfermedades cardacas, o a las apoplejas, o al autismo, etctera. +Ese es un gran proyecto. +Hay otro gran proyecto, recientemente financiado por el Wellcome Trust en este pas, involucrando grandes estudios miles de individuos, con ocho enfermedades diferentes, enfermedades comunes como la diabetes del tipo 1 y 2, enfermedades coronarias, trastorno bipolar, y otras para intentar entender la gentica. +Para intentar entender qu diferencias genticas y por qu causan las enfermedades. +Por qu queremos hacerlo? +Porque entendemos muy poco acerca de la mayora de las enfermedades humanas. +No sabemos qu las causa. +Y si podemos llegar al fondo y entender la gentica, tendremos una ventana al modo de actuacin de la enfermedad. Y una manera completamente nueva de ver las terapias y el tratamiento preventivo y todo lo dems. +As que ese es, como dije, el pequeo entretenimiento dentro de mi verdadero amor. +De vuelta a consideraciones ms mundanas sobre nuestro razonamiento con la incertidumbre. +Aqu hay otro acertijo para ustedes -- supongan que tenemos una prueba para detectar una enfermedad. No es infalible, pero es bastante buena. +Acierta el 99% de las veces. +Y tomo a uno de ustedes o a alguien al azar en la calle, y les hago esta prueba de la enfermedad. +Supongamos que es una prueba para el VIH el virus que causa el SIDA -- y la prueba dice que la persona est enferma. +Cul es la probabilidad de que la tenga? +La prueba acierta el 99% de las veces. +As que la respuesta natural es 99%. +A quin le gusta esa respuesta? +Vamos todos tenemos que participar. +No crean que ya no pueden confiar en m. +Bien, est bien que se sientan un poco escpticos, porque esa no es la respuesta. +Es lo que podran pensar. +No es la respuesta, y no lo es porque es slo una parte de la historia. +En realidad, depende de que tan comn sea la enfermedad. +Djenme intentar mostrrselo. +Tenemos una muestra de un milln de individuos. +As que pensemos en una enfermedad que afecta -- es bastante rara, afecta a una persona de cada 10,000. +En este milln de individuos, la mayora estn sanos y algunos tendrn la enfermedad. +De hecho, si esta es la frecuencia de la enfermedad, alrededor de 100 tendrn la enfermedad y el resto no. +Ahora supongamos que le hacemos la prueba a todos. +Qu ocurre? +Bueno, entre los 100 que tienen la enfermedad, la prueba acertar el 99% de las veces, y 99 saldrn positivos. +Entre todas las personas que no tienen la enfermedad, la prueba acertar el 99% de las veces. +Solamente se equivocar un 1% de veces. +Pero hay tantos que habr un nmero enorme de falsos positivos. +Ponindolo de otra manera -- de todo aquel que resulte positivo aqu estn, los individuos involucrados -- menos de uno de cada 100 tendr realmente la enfermedad. +As que an si pensamos que la prueba es precisa, la parte importante de la historia es que hay otra informacin necesaria. +Esta es la intuicin clave. +Lo que tenemos que hacer, una vez que sabemos que la prueba es positiva es considerar la plausibilidad, o probabilidad, de dos explicaciones que compiten. +Cada una de esas explicaciones tiene una parte probable y una parte improbable. +Una explicacin es que la persona no tiene la enfermedad -- lo que es abrumadoramente probable, si tomas a alguien al azar -- pero la prueba se equivoca, lo que es improbable. +La otra explicacin es que la persona est enferma lo que es improbable -- pero la prueba es correcta, lo que es probable. +Y el nmero con el que nos encontramos -- ese nmero que es un poco menos del 1% -- tiene que ver con qu tan probable una de esas explicaciones es relativa a la otra. +Cada una en conjunto es improbable. +Aqu hay un ejemplo de ms actualidad que trata exactamente de lo mismo. +Quienes sean de Gran Bretaa sabrn acerca de un caso que se ha hecho bastante famoso de una mujer llamada Sally Clark, que tuvo dos bebs que murieron sbitamente. +Inicialmente, se pens que murieron de lo que informalmente se llama muerte en la cuna, y ms formalmente Sndrome de Muerte Sbita Infantil. +Por varias razones, se la acus de asesinato. +Y en el juicio, su juicio, un pediatra muy distinguido aport evidencia de que la probabilidad de dos muertes en la cuna, muertes inocentes, en una familia como la suya -- profesional y no fumadora era de una en 73 millones. +En resumen, fue condenada en esa ocasin. +Despus, recientemente, fue declarada inocente al apelar de hecho, en su segunda apelacin. +Y solo para ponerlo en contexto, pueden imaginar qu horrible es para alguien si es inocente, perder un hijo, y luego otro, y ser condenada por asesinarlos. +Soportar todo el estrs del juicio, de la condena por asesinarlos -- y pasar tiempo en una prisin de mujeres, donde todas las dems prisioneras creen que mataste a tus hijos es algo tremendamente horrible para una persona. +Y pas en gran parte porque el experto se equivoc terriblemente en las estadsticas, de dos maneras. +As que, de dnde sac el nmero de uno en 73 millones? +Consult algunas investigaciones que decan que la probabilidad de una muerte en cuna en una familia como la de Sally Clark es aproximadamente de una en 8500. +As que dijo Supondr que si hay una muerte en la cuna en la familia, las probabilidades de una segunda muerte no cambian. +Eso es lo que los estadsticos llamaran una suposicin de independencia. +Es como decir, Si lanzas una moneda y sale cara a la primera, no afectar a la posibilidad de sacar cara la segunda vez. +As que si lanzas una moneda dos veces, las posibilidades de sacar cara dos veces es la mitad -- eso es la posibilidad de la primera vez por la mitad la posibilidad de la segunda vez. +As que dijo, Asumamos -- Asumir que estos eventos son independientes. +Cuando multiplicas 8500 por 8500, da cerca de 73 millones. +Y nada de esto se expuso al tribunal como una suposicin o se present al jurado de esa manera. +Desafortunadamente y de verdad, lamentablemente -- primero que nada, en esta situacin tendras que verificarlo empricamente. +Y segundo, es palpablemente falso. +Hay muchas cosas que no sabemos con respecto a la muerte sbita infantil. +Puede que afecten factores ambientales que no conocemos, y es muy probable que tambin haya factores genticos que no conocemos. +As que si una familia sufre una muerte en la cuna, la pondras en un grupo de alto riesgo. +Probablemente tengan factores de riesgo ambientales y/o genticos que no conocemos. +Y argumentar, entonces, que la posibilidad de una segunda muerte es igual que si desconocieras esa informacin, es realmente estpido. +Es peor que estpido es ciencia realmente mala. +Sin embargo, as fue presentada, y en el juicio ni siquiera nadie lo discuti. +Ese es el primer problema. +El segundo problema es, qu significa el nmero de uno en 73 millones? +As que despus de que Sally Clark fuera condenada -- pueden imaginar, el efecto notable en la prensa -- uno de los periodistas de uno de los peridicos ms respetables de Gran Bretaa escribi que lo que el experto dijo fue: La probabilidad de que sea inocente es de una en 73 millones. +Ese es un error lgico. +Es exactamente el mismo error lgico que el error de pensar que despus de la prueba de la enfermedad, que es un 99% precisa, la posibilidad de tener la enfermedad es del 99%. +En el ejemplo de la enfermedad, tenamos que tener en cuenta dos cosas, una de las cuales era la posibilidad de que la prueba se equivocara. +Y otra era la posibilidad, a priori, de que la persona tuviera la enfermedad o no. +Es exactamente igual en este contexto. +Hay dos cosas involucradas dos partes de la explicacin. +Queremos saber qu tan probables, o qu tan relativamente probables, son dos explicaciones. +Una de ellas es que Sally Clark era inocente -- que es, a priori, abrumadoramente posible -- la mayora de las madres no matan a sus hijos. +Y la segunda parte de la explicacin es que le pas algo increblemente improbable. +No tan improbable como uno en 73 millones, pero muy improbable de todas formas. +La otra explicacin es que era culpable. +Probablemente pensamos a priori que es improbable. +Y as deberamos pensar en el contexto de un juicio criminal, que es improbable, debido a la presuncin de inocencia. +Y entonces si ella hubiera intentado matar a sus hijos, lo logr. +As que la probabilidad de que sea inocente no es una en 73 millones. +No sabemos cual es. +Tiene que ver con sopesar la contundencia de la evidencia en su contra y la evidencia estadstica. +Sabemos que los nios murieron. +Lo que importa es que tan probable o improbable, relativamente son las dos explicaciones. +Ambas son inverosmiles. +Esta es una situacin donde los errores en la estadstica tuvieron profundas y verdaderamente desafortunadas consecuencias. +De hecho, otras dos mujeres fueron condenadas en funcin de la evidencia de dicho pediatra, y han sido posteriormente liberadas al apelar. +Muchos casos fueron revisados. +Y es de un verdadero inters actual porque ahora mismo est bajo cargos de descrdito en el Consejo Mdico General de Gran Bretaa. +As que para concluir -- Cul es el mensaje de todo esto? +Bien, sabemos que el azar, la probabilidad y la incertidumbre son parte integral de nuestra vida diaria. +Es tambin verdad y aunque ustedes, como colectivo, son muy especiales de muchas maneras, son completamente tpicos en no acertar en los ejemplos que mencion. +Est muy bien documentado el que la gente se equivoca en estas cosas. +Cometen errores de lgica al razonar con la incertidumbre. +Podemos trabajar con las sutilezas del idioma brillantemente -- y hay preguntas sobre cmo evolucionamos hasta lograrlo muy interesantes. +No somos buenos razonando con la incertidumbre. +Ese es un problema en nuestra vida diaria. +Como han odo en muchas de las charlas, la estadstica est en la base de una gran cantidad de la investigacin cientfica en ciencias sociales, medicina, y de hecho, en buena parte de la industria. +Todo ese control de calidad, que tiene un gran impacto en el proceso industrial, est basado en la estadstica. +Es algo que hacemos mal. +Al menos, deberamos reconocerlo, pero tendemos a no hacerlo. +Volviendo al contexto legal, en el caso del juicio de Sally Clark, todos los abogados simplemente aceptaron las palabras del experto. +As que si un pediatra le hubiera dicho a un jurado, S como construir puentes. Constru uno en esa calle. +Por favor crcelo con su automvil, el jurado habra dicho: Los pediatras no saben construir puentes. +Eso les correponde a los ingenieros. +Por otra parte, lleg y efectivamente dijo, o di a entender, S como razonar con la incertidumbre. S trabajar con la estadstica. +Y todos dijeron: Est bien. Es un experto. +As que tenemos que entender dnde acaban nuestras competencias. +Exactamente este tipo de cuestiones aparecieron cuando se empezaba a secuenciar el ADN, cuando los cientficos, los abogados y a veces incluso los jueces, tergiversaron las pruebas sistemticamente . +Normalmente uno espera que inocentemente, pero tergiversaron las pruebas. +Los cientficos forenses dijeron, La posibilidad de que este tipo sea inocente es una en 3 millones. +Aun si te crees el nmero, igual que el de uno en 73 millones, no es eso lo que significa. +Y ha habido apelaciones famosas en Gran Bretaa y en otros lugares debido a eso. +Y para terminar con el contexto del sistema legal. +Est muy bien decir Hagamos lo mejor para presentar las pruebas. +Pero cada vez ms, en los casos de anlisis de ADN este es otro -- esperamos que los jurados, que son gente corriente -- y estando documentado que son muy malos en esto -- esperamos que los jurados sean capaces de trabajar con este tipo de razonamiento. +En otras esferas de la vida, si la gente argumentara bueno, con la excepcin de la poltica. Pero en otras esferas de la vida, si la gente argumentara ilgicamente, diramos que no es bueno. +Lo esperamos de los polticos y no esperamos mucho ms. +En el caso de la incertidumbre, siempre nos estamos equivocando -- y al menos, deberamos ser conscientes de ello. E idealmente, tal vez deberamos intentar hacer algo al respecto. +Muchas gracias. +Al parecer tengo 18 minutos para convencerlos de que la historia va en una direccin, como una flecha. Que en un sentido fundamental, es bueno; que la flecha apunta hacia algo positivo. +Cuando la gente de TED se me acerc por primera vez para que diera esta optimista charla... fue antes de que la caricatura de Mahoma disparara protestas globales. +Fue antes de que la gripe aviar llegara a Europa. +Fue antes de que Hamas ganara las elecciones palestinas, provocando varias contramedidas por parte de Israel. +Y seamos sinceros, de haber sabido cuando me pidieron que diera esta charla optimista que mientras daba la charla optimista, ocurrira el apocalipsis... podra haber dicho: "Importar si hablo sobre otra cosa?" +Pero OK, no lo hice. As que aqu estamos. Har lo que pueda. Har lo que pueda. +Debo advertirles: el sentido en que mi visin del mundo es optimista siempre ha sido algo sutil, incluso hasta esquiva. +Ver que puedo hacer, vale? +Ahora, de alguna forma, la afirmacin de que la historia tiene una sola direccin no es tan controvertida. +Pero si slo hablamos de estructura social, bueno, claramente se ha convertido en algo ms complejo; en poco ms de los ltimos diez mil aos ha alcanzado niveles cada vez superiores. +Y de hecho, mantiene una larga tendencia que antecede a los seres humanos, s? que la evolucin biolgica hizo por nosotros. +Porque lo que ocurri al principio, esta cosa se encierra a si misma en una celula, y luego las celulas empiezan a agruparse en sociedades. +Eventualmente se unen tanto, que forman organismos multicelulares, y luego organismos multicelulares complejos; ellos forman sociedades. +Pero en algn punto, uno de estos organismos multicelulares hace algo totalmente increble con esta cosa, y es que empieza un segundo tipo de evolucin: la evolucin cultural. +E increblemente, esa evolucin sostiene la trayectoria establecida por la evolucin biolgica para alcanzar mayor complejidad. +Por evolucin cultural entendemos la evolucin de las ideas. +Muchos de ustedes han odo del trmino "memes". Le presto mucha atencin a la evolucin de la tecnologa, asi que, bueno, una de las primeras cosas que tenemos fue una pequea hacha manual. +Las generaciones pasan y alguien dice, oye, por qu no la ponemos en un palo? +Sencillamente fascina a los pequeos. +Lo mejor despus de un videojuego. +Puede que esto no sea muy impresionante, pero lo evolucin tecnolgica es progresiva, as que pasan otros 10 o 20.000 aos y la tecnologa armamentista nos trae al ahora. +Impresionante. Y el ritmo de la evolucin tecnolgica acelera, y apenas un cuarto de siglo despus de eso, obtienes esto, no? +Y esto. +Lo siento, era un chiste fcil, pero quera encontrar la forma de volver a la idea del apocalipsis en desarrollo, y cre que con ello lo lograra. +. OK. Entonces, lo que podra suceder con este apocalipsis en desarrollo, es el colapso de la organizacin social global. +Pero antes permtanme recordales el tremendo esfuerzo que signific traernos adonde estamos, al borde de una verdadera organizacin social global. +Originalmente, las sociedades ms complejas eran los pueblos de cazadores-recolectores. +Stonehenge es lo que queda de un jefatura, que es lo que resulta de la invencin de la agricultura: un rgimen poltico de varios pueblos con un gobierno centralizado. +Con la invencin de la escritura, empiezan a aparecer ciudades. Esto es un poco borroso, lo que me gusta porque lo hace parecerse a un organismo unicelular y nos recuerda cuntos niveles la organizacin orgnica ya ha superado para llegar a este punto. Y luego, ya saben, llegamos a los imperios. +Pero bueno, quiero enfatizar que una organizacin social puede trascender lmites polticos. +Esto es la Ruta de la Seda conectando al Imperio Chino y el Imperio Romano. +Entonces haba una complejidad social que alcanzaba todo el continente, aunque ningn rgimen poltico hiciera nada similar. Hoy, hay naciones estados. +El tema es que, obviamente, hay colaboracin y organizacin que va ms all de las fronteras nacionales. +Esta es una fotografa de la tierra durante la noche, y la muestro slo porque es bonita. +De alguna forma transmite la sensacin de que esto es un sistema integrado. +Bueno, pues he explicado este desarrollo de complejidad en cuanto a algo llamado suma no nula. +Brevemente, asumiendo que no todos han consultado la bibliografa, la idea clave es la distincin entre juegos suma cero, en que las correlaciones son inversas: siempre hay un ganador y un perdedor. +Y los juegos de suma no nula en que las correlaciones pueden ser positivas. +Por ejemplo, en el tenis, usualmente es ganar-perder, siempre resulta en una suma cero-cero, pero si juegas dobles tu pareja est en mismo barco que t, por lo que juegas un juego suma no nula con ella. +Es o para mejor, o para peor, no? +Muchas formas de suma no nula en el campo de la economa y otros de la vida diaria llevan a la cooperacin. +Mi argumento es que, bueno, bsicamente los juegos de suma no nula siempre han formado parte de la vida. +Existan en las sociedades cazadoras-recolectoras, pero luego a partir de la evolucin tecnolgica, surgen nuevas formas de tecnologa que facilitan o promueven los juegos de suma no nula, involucrando cada vez a ms gente sobre territorios cada vez ms grandes. +La estructura social se acomoda a esta posibilidad y para aprovechar este potencial productivo, aparecen las ciudades, y obtienes todos los juegos de suma no nula que no pensamos que se estn jugando en todo el mundo. +Por ejemplo, alguna vez han pensado cuando compran un auto, cuntas personas en cuntos continentes distintos contribuyeron a fabricar ese auto? En la prctica, con todos ellos ests jugando un juego de suma no nula. +Es decir, claramente hay muchos de ellos. +Ahora, esto parece una visin del mundo intrnsicamente optimista, porque cuando piensas en no cero, piensas en ganar-ganar, y eso es bueno. Bueno, existen algunas razones de por qu no es instrnsicamente optimista. +En primer lugar, se acomoda: no niega la existencia de guerras de explotacin injustas. +Pero existe una razn ms fundamental de por qu no es intrnsicamente optimista, porque un juego de suma no nula lo nico que te indica con certeza es que el resultado tendr una correlacin para mejor o peor. +No predice necesariamente un resultado ganar-ganar. +Y la prueba de esto es lo que ms me asombra, lo que ms me impresiona y ms me anima, y es que la historia tiene una dimensin moral, que existe una flecha moral. Hemos visto progreso moral a travs del tiempo. +Hace 2.500 aos, los miembros de una ciudad estado griega consideraban que los miembros de otra ciudad estado griega eran subhumanos y los trataban de esa forma. Y entonces apareci esta revolucin moral y decidieron que en realidad, todos los griegos eran seres humanos. +Eran slo los persas los que no eran totalmente humanos y no merecan un trato amable. +Pero hay que darles crdito, pues esto era progreso. Y actualmente, hemos visto ms progreso. Creo... deseo, que casi todos los ac presentes afirmara que todas las personas en cualquier lugar son seres humanos, que merecen un trato decente, sin importar su raza o religin, a menos que hayan hecho algo horrible. +Y hay que leer la historia antigua para entender la importancia de esta revolucin. Pues bien, sta no era la visin prevalente hace algunos miles de aos, lo que atribuyo a esta dinmica de suma no nula. +Creo que sa es la razn por la que actualmente hay tanta tolerancia hacia las nacionalidades, etnias y religiones. Si ustedes me preguntaran, por ejemplo, por qu no estoy a favor de bombardear Japn, bueno, slo bromeo a medias cuando digo que porque los japoneses construyeron mi auto. +Existe esta relacin suma no nula entre nosotros, y creo que ello lleva a un tipo de tolerancia hasta el punto que descubrimos que el bienestar de otros est directamente relacionado con el tuyo. Hay ms posibilidades de que les demos un respiro. +Creo que es un tipo de moralidad de "primera clase". +Y al pasar a ser global, nos ha llevado a un nivel global de organizacin social, nos ha llevado hacia una verdad moral. +Eso me parece maravilloso. +Ahora, volviendo al apocalipsis en desarrollo. +Y eso es una dinmica de suma no nula. +Y dira que esta dinmica de suma no nula slo se va a intensificar ms con el tiempo por las tendencias tecnolgicas, pero ms intensa de forma negativa. +Lo que ser cada vez ms posible es una correlacin inversa de sus destinos. +Y una razn es algo que llamo la letalidad creciente del odio. +Progresivamente, el odio arraigado en el extranjero se manifestar como violencia organizada en suelo estadounidense. +Y eso es algo bastante nuevo, y creo que esta capacidad empeorar mucho debido a una tecnologa de la informacin pasajera, en tecnologas que podrn ser usadas para fines armamentistas como la biotecnologa y la nanotecnologa. +Puede que empecemos a or ms sobre este asunto ahora. +Y hay algo que me preocupa especialmente, y es que esta dinmica llevar a una especie de ciclo retroalimentador que nos meter en apuros. +Lo que pienso es: el terrorismo ocurre ac; y en respuesta sobrereaccionamos. +Que, bueno, no somos lo suficientemente precisos en nuestras represalias y eso desemboca en ms odio en el exterior, ms terrorismo. +Exageramos porque somos humanos, sentimos la necesidad de tomar represalias, y todo empeora ms y ms y ms. +A esto se le podra llamar retroalimentacin positiva ante vibraciones negativas, pero pienso en algo tan horripilante que la palabra "positiva" no debera asocirsele, ni siquiera en sentido tcnico. +Entonces llammosle la espiral mortal de negatividad. +Les aseguro que si ocurre, al final, tanto Occidente como el mundo musulmn habr sufrido. OK. +Entonces, qu hacemos? Pues en primer lugar podemos hacer mucho ms con el control de armas, la regulacin internacional de tecnologas peligrosas. +Tengo un sermn entero sobre gobierno global que ahora evitar predicarles, porque no creo que fuera suficiente, si bien es esencial. +S creo que habr un giro importante en el progreso moral del mundo. +Creo que veremos menos odio entre grupos, menos intelorencia y, bueno, grupos raciales o religiosos, u otros. +Debo admitir que me siento algo tonto dicindolo. +Suena como algo exageradamente optimista. Me siento como Rodney King, saben, dicindo, por qu no podemos todos llevarnos bien? +Pero A: realmente no veo alternativa, considerando cmo veo la situacin. +Vale, tendr que haber progreso moral. +Tendr que haber una disminucin de todo el odio en el mundo, considerando lo peligroso que se est volviendo. +A mi favor dira, que por muy ingenuo que esto suene, que en realidad est basado en el cinismo. +Esto es, gracias, gracias. Esto es, recuerden: toda mi visin sobre la moralidad se reduce al egosmo. +Sucede cuando el destino de la gente est relacionado. +Veremos una evolucin ms profunda de ese tipo de moralidad de Primera Clase. +As que, ya saben, si estas dos cosas captan la atencin de la gente, enfatizan su correlacin positiva y la gente acta en su inters propio, que es profundizar la evolucin moral, entonces podran realmente obtener un efecto constructivo. +Y sa es la razn por la que agrupo la creciente letalidad del odio con la espiral mortal de negatividad bajo el epgrafe general: razones para ser optimista. +Bueno, hago lo que puedo. +Nunca me he considerado Don Optimista. +Slo hago lo que puedo. +Ahora, iniciar una revolucin moral debe de ser difcil, no? +Es decir, qu hay que hacer? +Y creo que la respuesta es que muchas personas diferentes tendrn que hacer muchas cosas distintas. +Todos empezamos donde estamos. Hablando como estadounidense, preocupado por la seguridad de mis hijos de los prximos 10, 20, 30 aos, personalmente lo que quiero empezar a hacer es entender por qu tanta gente en el mundo nos odia. +Creo que es un valioso proyecto de investigacin. +Tambin me gusta porque intrnsicamente es un ejercicio de redencin moral, +porque para entender por qu alguien en una cultura muy distinta hace algo, alguien a quien se ve como extrao, que hace cosas que consideras extraas, en una cultura que consideras extraa, para realmente entender por qu hacen las cosas que hacen es un logro moralmente redentor porque debes relacionar su experiencia con la tuya. +Para entenderlo realmente, debes decir, "Oh, ya entiendo. +As cuando sienten resentimiento, es igual que cuando yo siento resentimiento en estos casos, y al parecer por las mismas razones". Eso es verdadero entendimiento. +Y creo que cuando consigues hacer eso, tu brjula moral se expande. +Vale, es especialmente difcil hacerlo con gente que te odia, porque realmente no quieres entender del todo porqu la gente te odia. +Es decir, quieres or la razn, pero no quieres poder identificarte con ella. +La razn por la que tratas de entender porqu nos odian, es para lograr que dejen de odiarnos, OK. La idea cuando efectas este ejercicio moral de realmente llegar a apreciar su humanidad y entenderlos mejor, es parte de un esfuerzo para lograr que ellos aprecien tu humanidad a largo plazo. +Creo que es el primer paso hacia ello. sa es la meta a largo plazo. +Hay gente que se preocupa por esto y, de hecho, yo mismo, aparentemente, fui denunciado en la TV nacional hace un par de noches por una columna de opinin que escrib. +La denuncia estaba relacionada con esto, y la afirmacin era que yo tengo, y cito, "afecto por los terroristas". +La buena noticia es que la autora de esa denuncia fue Ann Coulter. +Es decir, si tienes que tener un enemigo, que sea Ann Coulter. +Pero no es una preocupacin descabellada, porque entender el comportamiento puede conducir a una especie de empata, y eso puede dificultar que uno haga crticas constructivas, y as sucesivamente. +Pero creo que estamos mucho ms de cerca de errar por no comprender la situacin claramente, que de comprenderla tan claramente que no podamos, ya saben, sacar al ejrcito a matar terroristas. +No me preocupa demasiado.As que... tendremos que trabajar mucho en varios frentes. Pero si lo logramos, si tenemos xito, entonces nuevamente, la suma no nula y el reconocimiento de las dinmicas de suma no nula nos habrn empujado hacia un nivel moral superior. +Y un tipo de nivel moral superior que nos salvar, algo que literalmente podra salvar el mundo. +Si analizan la palabra "salvacin" en la Biblia, la acepcin cristiana que nos es familiar: el salvar almas, que las personas vayan al cielo... esa acepcin es tarda. +La acepcin original de la palabra en la Biblia se refiere a salvar el sistema social. +"Jehovah es nuestro Salvador," significa "l ha salvado a la nacin de Israel" la que en esos tiempos, era una organzacin social de nivel bastante alto. +Ahora, la organizacin social ha alcanzado nivel global, y supongo que si hay buenas noticias que pueda darles, es que toda lo que la salvacin del mundo requiere es la bsqueda inteligente de intereses propios de una forma disciplinada y cuidadosa. +Ser difcil. Les propongo que igualmente lo intentemos porque hemos avanzado demasiado como para arruinarlo todo ahora. +Gracias. +Esta es en realidad una presentacin de dos horas que doy a estudiantes de secundaria recortada a tres minutos. +Todo comenz un da en un avin, camino hacia TED siete aos atrs. +En el asiento de al lado se encontraba una estudiante de secundaria, una adolescente que vena de una familia realmente pobre. +Quera hacer algo con su vida, y me hizo una simple y pequea pregunta. +Ella dijo, "Qu lleva al xito?" +Y entonces me sent realmente mal, porque no poda darle una buena respuesta. +Entonces, me baj del avin y vine a TED. +Y pens, Dios!, estoy en una habitacin rodeado de personas exitosas. +Por qu no les pregunto qu les ayud a ser exitosos, para enserselo a los jvenes? +Entonces aqu estamos, despus de siete aos y 500 entrevistas, y voy a decirles, lo que realmente lleva al xito. y que hace actuar a los miembros de TED. +Lo primero es la Pasin +Freeman Thomas dijo, "Soy impulsado por mi pasin" +Las personas en TED lo hacen por amor, no por dinero. +Carol Colleta dijo, "Yo pagara a alguien por hacer lo que yo hago". +Lo curioso es que, Si lo haces por amor, el dinero viene de todas maneras. +Trabajo! Rupert Murdoch me dijo, "Todo es trabajo duro, +Nada viene fcilmente. Pero me he divertido bastante". +Dijo diversin? Rupert? S! +A las personas en TED les divierte el trabajo. Y trabajan muy duro. +Yo pens, ellos no son adictos al trabajo, son amantes del trabajo. +Ser bueno! Alex Garden dijo, "Para ser exitoso debes dedicarte a algo, y ser muy bueno en ello". +No hay magia, todo es practicar, practicar, practicar. +Y tambin es enfocarse. Norman Jewison me dijo, "Yo pienso que todo tiene que ver con enfocarse en una sola cosa". +Empujarte, David Gallo dijo, "Debes empujarte. +fsica y mentalmente, debes empujarte, empujarte, empujarte". +Debes empujarte a travs de la timidez, y las dudas. +Goldie Hawn dijo, "Siempre tuve dudas. +No era lo suficientemente buena, no era lo suficientemente inteligente, +no pens que lo lograra". +Ahora bien, nunca es fcil empujarte, y es por eso que inventaron a las madres. . Frank Gehry me dijo, "Mi madre me empuj". +Servir! Sherwin Nuland dijo, "Ha sido un privilegio servir como doctor". +Ahora muchos nios me dicen que quieren ser millonarios. +Y lo primero que les digo es, "Ok, pero no pueden servirse a ustedes mismos, deben servirles a otros con algo de valor. +Porque esa es la manera en que las personas se vuelven ricas". +Ideas! Bill Gates dijo, "Tuve una idea: fundar la primera compaa de programas para microcomputadoras". +Dira que fue una muy buena idea. +Y no hay magia en la creatividad en cuanto a ideas se refiere, es slo hacer cosas bastantes simples. +Y doy muchas evidencias de ello. +Persistencia. Joe Kraus dijo, "Persistencia es la razn nmero uno del xito" +Tienes que persistir a travs del fracaso, y de CRAP , +que por supuesto significa "Criticas, Rechazo, Assholes y Presin". +Entonces, la respuesta a esta pregunta es simple: paga $ 4000 y ven a TED. +Si eso falla, ten en cuenta las 8 razones, y creme, estas 8 grandes razones, son las que llevan al xito. +Muchas gracias TED, y gracias por las entrevistas! +Muchas veces me preguntan, sabes qu es lo que ms te sorprende acerca tu libro? +yo siempre respondo, que haya llegado a escribirlo. +Jams me lo hubiera imaginado, +Ni siquiera en mi sueo ms descabellado -- Ni siquiera me considero un autor. +Y me preguntan con mucha frequencia, Por qu crees que tanta gente ha leido tu libro? +Todava se venden cerca de un milln de copias al mes. +Yo creo que es porque el vaco espiritual es una enfermedad universal. +Yo creo que en algn momento de nuestras vidas, ponemos nuestra cabeza en la almohada y nos preguntamos, "La vida no puede ser solamente esto, tiene que haber mucho ms". +Nos levantamos por la maana, vamos al trabajo, regresamos a casa, miramos televisin nos acostamos, nos despertamos por la maana, vamos al trabajo, regresamos a casa, miramos televisin, dormimos, vamos a fiestas en los fines de semana. +Y mucha gente dice, "Estoy viviendo". "No, t no ests viviendo, ests simplemente existiendo". +Simplemente existiendo. +Yo realmente creo que hay un deseo interior. +Creo firmemente en lo que Cristo dijo. Tu existencia no es una casualidad. +Puede que tus padres no te hayan planeado, pero creo que Dios s. +No hay duda de que hay personas que llegan a ser padres por accidente. +Pero no creo en nios que vienen a este mundo por casualidad. +Creo que t eres muy importante. +Creo que t le importas a Dios, creo que t le importas a la historia, creo que t le importas a este universo. +Y creo que la diferencia entre lo que yo llamo una vida de sobrevivencia, una vida de xito y una vida de sentido es, el hecho de comprender, cul es la razn de mi existencia? +He conocido muchas personas muy inteligentes que dicen, "Por qu an soy tan incapaz de resolver mis problemas?" +Y tambin he conocido mucha gente exitosa que dice, "Por qu no me siento ms realizado?" +Por qu me siento como un farsante? +Por qu siento que siempre tengo que estar pretendiendo ser ms de lo que realmente soy?" +Creo que esto se resume en el asunto de llevar una vida de sentido, de trascendencia, de propsito. +Creo que todo se reduce a esta pregunta: Por qu estoy aqu? Para qu estoy aqu? Para dnde voy? +Estas no son temas religiosos -- +son temas humanos. +Quera decirle a Michael antes de que l hablara que sinceramente aprecio lo que l hace, porque facilita mi vida en gran manera. +Como pastor, es muy normal ver muchos lunticos +pero al mismo tiempo me he dado cuenta de que hay lunticos en todas las reas de la vida. +La religin no tiene un monopolio en esta area, aunque s hay un sinnmero de lunticos religiosos. +Existen los lunticos seculares, los lunticos inteligentes, los lunticos ridculos +Un da una seora se me acerc, ella llevaba una hoja de papel en blanco-- Michael, te va a gustar esto-- y me pregunta, "Qu ves en esta hoja de papel?" +Yo la oje y le respond, "Oh, no veo nada". +Y ella me dice, "Bueno, yo veo a Jess", y enseguida comenz a llorar y se march. +Yo digo, OK, tu sabes. Est bien. +Hum. Me alegro por ti. +Cuando el libro se convirti en un xito editorial en todo el mundo durante los ltimos tres aos, Yo tuve mi pequea crisis. +En ese entonces me preguntaba, Cul es el propsito de todo esto? +Ya que me comenz a entrar una cantidad enorme de dinero. +Cuando escribes un xito editorial mundial, recibes muchsimo dinero, adems de que +acaparas mucha atencin y, al decir verdad, yo no quera ninguno de las dos cosas. +Cuando establec la Iglesia en Saddleback, yo tena 25 aos de edad. +La comenc en 1980 juntamente con otra familia +en ese tiempo tom la decision de nunca aparecer en televisin porque no tena ningn deseo de convertirme en una celebridad +y tampoco quera tornarme en un, entre comillas, "evangelista o evangelista de televisin" -- No es lo mo. +Y de repente, me llega muchsimo dinero y atencin. +No creo que -- Ahora, esta es mi visin del mundo, y te digo, todos tienen una visin del mundo. +Todo el mundo est apostando su vida por algo. +Tu ests apostando tu vida por algo -- Y ms vale que sepas por qu ests apostando en lo que ests apostando. +As, pues, todo el mundo apuesta su vida por algo. +En mi caso, cuando hice mi apuesta, yo crea que Jess era aqul quien l deca ser. +Y todos apuestan -- y creo en una sociedad pluralista -- todos estn apostando por algo. +Cuando comenc la iglesia, no haba previsto que fuera a convertirse en lo que es actualmente. +y cuando escrib este libro aos ms tarde, de repente simplemente levant vuelo, y empec a preguntarme, Cul es el propsito de todo esto? +Porque al mismo tiempo comenc a decir, No creo que tu recibas tanto dinero y tanta fama para alimentar tu propio ego, jams. +Estoy convencido de que no es as. +y cuando t escribes un libro que comienza con la frase: "no se trata ti", y cuando, de repente, se convierte en el libro de mayor venta en la historia, supongo que, de hecho, no se trata de ti. +es obvio, no hay que darle tantas vueltas al asunto. +entonces, cul es la razn de todo esto? +Fue en ese momento que comenc a pensar acerca de la mayordoma de la opulencia y la mayordoma de la influencia. +Yo creo que el liderazgo es esencialmente una mayordoma. +Que si t eres un lder en cualquier area -- ya sea en los negocios, en la poltica, en los deportes, en el arte, en el campo acadmico, en cualquier area -- t no eres el dueo de ella, +t eres, ms bien, un mayordomo de ella. +Por ejemplo, yo creo en la proteccin del medio ambiente. +La tierra no me pertenece. Tampoco era ma cuando nac. +y no va a ser ma despus de que muera. Voy a estar aqu solamente por 80 aos. +Hace algunos das particip en un programa de entrevistas, en el cual uno de los asistentes a manera de desafo me pregunt, "Qu hace un pastor protegiendo el medio ambiente?" +Entonces le pregunt, "bien, t crees que los seres humanos deberan asumir la responsabilidad de hacer del mundo un lugar mejor para las prximas generaciones? +t crees que tenemos la mayordoma de tomar en serio al medio ambiente?" +a lo que l respondi, "No". +"Oh, no crees?", le pregunt, "entonces djame aclararte la pregunta". T crees que como seres humanos -- y no me estoy refieriendo a la religin -- t crees que como seres humanos, es nuestra responsabilidad de cuidar este planeta y hacer de l un mejor lugar para las generaciones futuras?" Y l respondi, "No". +no tenemos ms responsabilidad que cualquier otra especie". +Al mencionar la palabra "especies", l estaba revelando su visin del mundo. +y continu, "no tengo ms responsabilidad de cuidar del medio ambiente que un pato". +Claro, yo s que muchas veces s actuamos como patos, pero no eres un pato. +t no eres un pato. +y t s eres responsable -- esa es mi visin del mundo. +T tienes que entender cul es tu mundo, tu visin del mundo. +El problema es que la mayora de las personas nunca reflexiona acerca de este asunto cabalmente. +La mayora de las personas nunca +lo codifican o cualifican o cuantifican, de tal manera que puedan decir, "Yo creo firmemente en esto o aquello. Y creo en esto por sta o aquella razn". +Yo personalmente no tengo la fe suficiente para ser un ateista. +Pero puede que t si la tengas. +Tu visin del mundo va a determinar todo en tu vida, porque determina tus decisiones, determina tus relaciones, determina tu nivel de confianza. +Realmente determina todo en tu vida. +Lo que creemos, obviamente -- y ustedes lo saben muy bien -- determina nuestro comportamiento, y nuestro comportamiento determina lo que seremos en la vida. +As que el dinero me comenz a llegar a raudales, al igual que mucha fama, +entonces me comenc a preguntar, qu voy a hacer con todo esto? +Mi esposa y yo tomamos cinco decisiones en cuanto a qu a hacer con el dinero. +Dijimos, "primero", no lo vamos a usar para nuestro propio beneficio". +No nos compramos una casa ms grande. +o una casa de huspedes. +Todava manejo el mismo Ford viejo de hace cuatro aos. +Sencillamente dijimos, no vamos a usar este dinero para nosotros. +La segunda decision que tomamos fue, Parar de devengar el salario de la iglesia que pastoreo. +En tercer lugar, calculamos el total de todo el dinero que la iglesia me haba pagado a lo largo de los ltimos 25 aos, y lo devolvimos en su totalidad. +Lo hice porque no quera que nadie fuera a pensar que lo que hago lo hago por causa del dinero -- no es as. +De hecho, personalmente nunca he conocido a ningn sacerdote o pastor o ministro que trabaje por causa del dinero. +Yo s que es un estereotipo, pero nunca he conocido ni siquiera a uno. +Cranme, hay muchas otras maneras mucho ms fciles de ganar dinero. +Los pastores son como los doctores, deben estar a disposicin las 24 horas del da. +Hoy sal de mi casa tarde. Estaba planeando venir aqu ayer, pero no pude porque mi suegro est pasando probablemente por sus ltimas 48 horas de vida antes de que muera de cancer. +El es una persona que ha vivido una larga vida -- Ya est en sus 80 -- y ahora est muriendo en paz. La prueba de tu visin del mundo +no es cmo actas en los buenos tiempos. +La prueba de tu visin del mundo es cmo actas en tu funeral. +Despus de haber presidido cientos o inclusive miles de funerarios, me he dado cuenta de que s hace una gran diferencia. +tus creencias marcan la diferencia. +As que, nosotros devolvimos todo, y despus establecimos tres fundaciones para ayudar a resolver los mayores problemas mundiales: el analfabetismo, la pobreza, las epidemias -- particularmente HIV/AIDS -- De manera que creamos estas tres fundaciones, e invertimos el dinero en ellas. +Finalmente nos convertimos en "diezmeros inversos". +Cuando mi esposa y yo nos casamos, hace 30 aos, comenzamos a diezmar. +El diezmo es un principio bblico el cual dice que debemos separar un 10 por ciento para obras de caridad, y donarlo para ayudar a otras personas. +As que cuando comenzamos a diezmar, tambin decidimos aumentar el diezmo en 1 por ciento cada ao. +as es como en el primer ao de nuestro matrimonio logramos dar 11 por ciento, en el segundo ao, diezmamos 12 por ciento, y en el tercer ao 13 por ciento, y as sucesivamente. Ahora, por qu decid hacer sto? +Porque cada vez que doy, ms me libero del control que el materialismo ejerce en mi vida. +El materialismo consiste solamente en adquirir cosas -- adquirir todo lo que ms puedas. Consiste en amontonar riquezas y sentarse en ellas sin que nos importe nada ms. +Consiste en poseer cada vez ms. +Creemos que tener una buena vida es tener una buena apariencia. creemos que lo ms importante es lucir bien, sentirnos bien y poseer cuantiosos bienes. +Pero esa no es la buena vida. +Yo continuamente conozco a personas que tienen estas cosas, y no son necesariamente felices. +Si el dinero realmente pudiera concederte la felicidad, entonces los ms ricos en el mundo seran los ms felices. +Y yo s, personalmente, que se no es el caso. +Sencillamente no es verdad. +La buena vida no radica en tener buena apariencia, sentirse bien o en poseer muchos bienes, Se trata de ser bueno y hacer el bien. +Se trata de sacrificar tu vida. +El sentido en la vida no tiene que ver con el estatus, porque siempre vas a encontrar a alguien que tiene ms bienes que t. +Tampoco se origina en el sexo. +No proviene del salario. +Proviene de servir. +Dando nuestras vidas es como encontramos sentido, encontramos significacin. +Estamos hechos as, yo creo, por Dios. +As, pues, empezamos a donar, y ahora despus de 30 aos, mi esposa y yo somos diezmeros inversos -- es decir, donamos 90 % y vivimos con 10% +Y esto, de hecho, fue lo ms fcil. +Lo difcil es, qu hacer con toda la atencin que recib despus. +Porque me comenzaron a llegar todo tipo de invitaciones. +De hecho, acab de regresar de una gira de charlas de casi un ms en tres continentes diferentes, sobre la cual no voy a comentar ahora, pero les puedo decir que fue algo extraordinario. +As que yo me preguntaba, Qu hago con todo esto, con la notoriedad que el libro me ha traido? +Y ya que soy un pastor, lgicamente empec a leer la Biblia. +Hay un captulo en la Biblia llamado Salmo 72, el cual es una oracin hecha por Salomn para ganar ms influencia. +Cuando lees esta oracin, pareciera que fuera increiblemente egocentrica, Pareciera que l dijera, +"Dios, quiero que me conviertas en alguien famoso". +Y esa es precisamente la oracin que l hace. +El dice, "quiero que me hagas famoso. +Quiero que la fama de mi nombre sea divulgada a travs de toda la tierra, Quiero que me concedas poder, +Quiero que me hagas famoso. Quiero que me confieras influencia". +Pareciera que sta fuera la peticin ms egosta que alguien pudiera hacer al momento de orar. +Esto es, hasta cuando lees todo el salmo, el captulo entero. +Despus l dice, "Para que el rey" -- l era el rey de Israel durante el apogeo de esta nacin -- "para que el rey pueda atender a las viudas y hurfanos, dar consuelo a los desanimados, defender a los oprimidos, cuidar a los enfermos, ayudar a los pobres, abogar por los extranjeros y aquellos que estn en prisin". +Bsicamente, l se refiere a todos los marginados en la sociedad. +Y en cuanto lea este pasaje, pensaba, bien, el propsito de tener influencia es para defender a aquellos que no la tienen. +El propsito de tener influencia no es para edificar tu ego, +o aumentar tu patrimonio neto. +Y, por cierto, tu patrimonio neto no es igual a tu autoestima. +Tu valor no se basa en el valor de tus bienes, +Se basa en algo totalmente distinto. +Entonces el objetivo de la influencia es defender a aquellos que no la tienen. +Y tuve que que admitir que no me acuerdo cundo fue la ltima vez que pens en viudas y hurfanos. +Ellos no estn en mi radar. +La iglesia que yo pastoreo est en una de las reas ms acaudaladas de America-- una rea llena de condominios privados. +A mi iglesia asisten cientficos y gerentes de empresas +Y fcilmente podra pasar 5 aos sin nunca ver un indigente +Porque ellos no estn en mi camino. +Aunque estn a 21 kms de distancia en Santa Ana. +As que dije, "bien, voy a usar toda la afluencia e influencia que tengo para ayudar a aquellos que no tienen ninguna de las dos". +En la Biblia hay una historia acerca de Moiss. si ustedes creen que es verdica o no -- la verdad no importa mucho aqu. +Si vieron la pelcula "Los Dies Mandamientos", se acordarn que Moiss un da ve un arbusto ardiente por el cual Dios le habla. Dios le pregunta, "Moiss, Qu tienes en tu mano?" +Esa es una de las preguntas ms importantes que te podrn hacer. Qu hay en tu mano? +Moiss responde, "un cayado. Es un cayado para pastorear ovejas". +Y Dios le dice, "Arrjalo al suelo". +Si vieron el filme, sabrn que cuando el lo lanza al suelo el cayado se convierte en una serpiente. +Dios despus le dice, "recgela". +Y cuando Moiss la recoge, la serpiente se convierte en un cayado nuevamente. +Mientras yo lea este pasaje me preguntaba, Qu significa todo esto? +Cul es el significado de esta historia? Aqu hay dos puntos muy importantes. +Primeramente, Dios nunca hace un milagro para lucirse. +El no lo hace simplemente para que digamos, "Vaya, qu impresionante!" +Y, a propsito, mi Dios no tiene necesidad de aparecerse en un pan de queso. +Porque si El ha de aparecerse, No lo va a hacer en un pan de queso. +No lo creen? Por eso es que me encanta lo que Michael hace, porque si l va a desmitificar algo, entonces yo no tengo que hacerlo. +Pero Dios -- mi Dios -- no tiene necesidad de mostrarse en imgenes de aspersores de agua. +El tiene otras maneras mucho ms poderosas para llevar a cabo lo que l quiere realizar. +Sin embargo, l no hace milagros simplemente para presumir. +En segundo lugar, si Dios alguna vez te pregunta algo, El ya sabe la respuesta. +Evidentemente, si El es Dios, eso significa que cuando El te hace una pregunta, lo hace por tu bien y no por el de l. +Entonces, Dios le pregunta a Moiss, "Qu tienes en tu mano?" +Y qu tena Moiss en la mano? +Tena un cayado para pastorear ovejas. Ahora, quiero que me presten bien atencin. +Este cayado representaba tres cosas acerca de la vida de Moiss. +Primero, representaba su propia identidad. +El era un pastor. Era el smbolo de su ocupacin. El era un pastor. Es un smbolo de su indentidad, de su profesin, de su trabajo. +Segundo, el cayado es un smbolo no solamente de su identidad, sino tambin de sus ingresos, ya que todos sus bienes estaban ligados a sus ovejas. +En ese tiempo nadie tena cuentas bancarias, o tarjetas de crdito American Express o fondos de cobertura. +Sus bienes estaban conectados a sus rebaos. +El cayado era un smbolo de su identidad como tambin de sus ingresos. +Tercero, el cayado es un smbolo de su influencia. +Para qu es el cayado? +Bueno, en primera instancia, t lo utilizas para mobilizar a las ovejas de un lugar a otro, ya sea con un gancho o con una percha. +O las jalas o las empujas, o lo uno o lo otro. +Lo que Dios est diciendo aqu es, "Vas a despojarte de tu propia identidad". +Qu tienes en tu mano? Tu identidad, tu salario, tu influencia? +Qu hay en tu mano?" +Y Dios dice, "Si te despojas de l, voy a ser que cobre vida. +Y har cosas inimaginables". +Y si miraron la pelcula "Los Diez Mandamientos", todos esos grandes milagros que ocurrieron en Egipto fueron hechos a travs de este cayado. +El ao pasado, fui invitado a dar una charla en el juego de las estrellas de la NBA. +Cuando les estaba hablando a los jugadores, ya que la mayora de los equipos de la NBA, NFL, entre otros han practicado los "40 Das de Propsito" basados en el libro. +Entonces, les preguntaba, "Qu tienen en su mano? +Qu tienen en su mano?" Y les deca, "es un baln de baloncesto, +el baloncesto representa su identidad, lo que ustedes son. Como jugadores de la NBA, el baln tambin representa el salario que se ganan. Y ustedes ganan mucho dinero por medio de ese pequeo baln. +El baln tambin representa la influencia que poseen. +y aunque solamente estarn en la NBA por algunos aos, de todas maneras sern jugadores de la NBA todas sus vidas. +Y ese hecho les confiere una influencia enorme. +Qu piensan hacer con todo lo que han recibido?" +Y esa es la razn principal por la cual yo vine aqu hoy. Les quiero preguntar a todos ustedes, gente brillante de TED, "Qu tienen en sus manos?" +Qu tienen en sus manos que les fue dado? +Talento, trasfondo, educacin, libertad, conecciones, oportunidades, riqueza, ideas, creatividad. +Qu ests haciendo con aquello que has recibido? +Para m, esa es la pregunta ms fundamental de la vida. +y eso es lo que significa ser personas de propsito en la vida. +En el libro, hablo acerca de como nosotros estamos hechos para ciertas cosas Esta pequea cruz requiere dones espirituales, corazn, habilidad, personalidad y experiencias. +Estas cosas te moldean. +Y si anhelas saber que deberas estar haciendo en tu vida, Debes mirarte a t mismo, a tu forma. Para qu fui diseado yo? +Por qu Dios me diseara para algo sin permitir que lo realice en mi vida? +Si fuiste hecho para ser un antroplogo, sers un antroplogo. +si fuiste hecho para ser un explorador bajo la superficie del mar, entonces sers tal explorador. +Si fuiste diseado para hacer negocios, haces negocios. +Si tu llamado es la pintura, entonces pinta. +Sabas que Dios sonre cuando t eres t mismo? +Cuando mis hijos eran muy pequeos -- ya todos crecieron, y ahora hasta tengo nietos -- Sola sentarme al lado de sus camas, para contemplarlos mientras dorman. +Y miraba como sus cuerpitos suban y bajaban, suban y bajaban. +Y mientras los miraba, pensaba, esto no es un accidente. +Subir y bajar. +Me daba mucha alegra verlos durmiendo. +Algunas personas tienen la idea errnea de que Dios solamente est satisfecho cuando hacemos, entre comillas, "cosas espirituales", tales como asistir a reuniones de la iglesia o ayudar a los pobres, o confesarnos o cosas por el estilo. +En resumidas cuentas, Dios se complace en verte siendo t mismo. Por qu? +El te hizo. Y cuando t haces lo que fuiste diseado para hacer, El dice, "Ese es mi hijo. Ese es mi hija. +T ests empleando los talentos y habilidades que te di". +El consejo que les doy es, Miren lo que hay en sus manos -- identidad, influencia, salario -- y dganse, "Esto no es solo para m. +Esto es para hacer del mundo un lugar mejor". +Gracias. +Quisiera hablar sobre tendencias tecnolgicas, que es algo que muchos de Uds. siguen -- y que tambin nosotros seguimos, por razones relacionadas. +Obviamente, siendo WIRED una revista de tecnologa, las tendencias en la tecnologa son cosas acerca de lo cual escribimos y debemos saber. +Pero tambin forma parte de ser cualquier revista mensual -- uno vive en el futuro. Y tenemos un largo tiempo de entrega. +Debemos planificar los nmeros de la revista con muchos meses de anticipacin, debemos adivinar cual ser el apetito del pblico en 6 meses, o en 9 meses en adelante. De modo que estamos en el negocio de pronosticar. +Nosotros tambin, como muchas compaas, creamos un producto basado en las tendencias de la tecnologa. +En este caso, nuestro producto es sobre ideas e informacin, y, si tenemos suerte, algo de entretenimiento. Pero el concepto es casi el mismo. +De modo que tenemos que entender no slo por qu la tecnologa es importante, hacia donde se dirige, sino tambin, muy importante, el cundo -- el tiempo es todo. +Y es interesante, cuando miras las predicciones hechas durante el pico del boom de los noventa, sobre comercio electrnico o sobre el trfico de Internet, o sobre la adopcin de banda ancha, o sobre la publicidad en Internet, todas eran correctas -- slo erraron en el tiempo. +Casi todas las predicciones se cumplieron, slo que unos aos despus. +Pero la diferencia de unos pocos aos en las valoraciones del mercado de valores es obviamente extrema. Y por ese motivo, el timing lo es todo. +Probablemente han visto algo como esto antes. +Esta es la clsica Curva de las Expectativas de Gartner, que nos habla de la trayectoria de la vida de una tecnologa. +Y para divertirnos un poco, hemos colocado unas cuantas tecnologas en el grfico, para mostrar si es que estaban subiendo durante el primer pico, o si se estaban por venir abajo en el valle de la desilusin, o volver a trepar en la subida del entendimiento, o -- etcetera. +Esta es una manera de pronosticar la tecnologa, hacerse una idea de hacia donde se dirige la tecnologa, y luego anticipar el prximo rebote. +Tendemos a cubrir cada tecnologia que creemos que es suficientemente importante dos veces. Una vez, queremos ser los primeros en cubrirla. +Queremos ser los primeros, por los geeks que lo van a apreciar, tratamos de atraparla all mismo, en el despegue tecnolgico. +Por ejemplo en el 1997, pusimos a Linux en la portada de la revista. +Pero luego, regresa. Y las tecnologas suficientemente grandes, llegarn al gran pblico, y explotarn. +Y entonces, es hora de hacerlo nuevamente, en este caso, el ao pasado. +Y esa es una manera con la cual intentamos temporizar las tendencias tecnolgicas. +Me gustara conversar acerca de una manera de pensar acerca de tendencias tecnolgicas, lo que yo llamo mi gran teora unificada de predicciones del futuro, aunque es ms cercano a una pequea teora unificada de predicciones del futuro. +Se basa en la presuposicin, u observacin, de que todas las tecnologas importantes pasan por cuatro fases en su vida -- al menos una de las cuatro fases, a veces las cuatro. +Y en cada una de las fases, se la puede ver como una colisin -- una colisin con algo diferente -- por ejemplo, un precio crtico que cambia la tecnologa y tambin sus efectos en el mundo. Es un punto de inflexin. +Y estos puntos de inflexin son los que te indican cual ser el prximo captulo en la vida de esa tecnologa, y quizs te indique como se puede hacer algo al respecto. +El primero es el precio crtico. +La primera fase en el avance de una tecnologa es cuando cae por debajo de un precio crtico. +Y despus de caer de ese precio crtico, tender, si tiene xito, a crecer por encima de una cierta masa crtica, una expansin. +Muchas tecnologas, en ese punto, desplazan a otra tecnologa, y ese es otro punto importante. +Y finalmente, muchas tecnologas se tornan en "commodities" +Sobre el final de sus vidas, se vuelven prcticamente gratis. +Cada uno de esos puntos es una opotunidad de hacer algo al respecto; es una oportunidad para la tecnologa para realizar cambios. +Incluso si te perdiste, por ejemplo, el primer boom de WiFi -- ya sabis, WiFi alcanz el precio crtico, alcanz la masa crtica, pero an no ha desplazado a otras, y an no es gratuita -- an quedan oportunidades all. +Quisiera demostrar a lo que me refiero, contando la historia del DVD, que es una tecnologa que ha pasado por todas las fases. +El DVD, como saben, fue introducido al mercado a mediados de los 1990 y era bastante caro. Pero como pueden ver, para el 1998, haba bajado de los U$S 400, y U$S 400 era una barrera psicolgica. +Y all empez a despegar. Y pueden ver que las unidades comenzaron a crecer, se alcanz un punto de inflexin oculto, y empez a despegar. +El prximo punto que alcanz, un ao ms tarde, fue la masa crtica. En este caso, el 20% de los hogares es en general un buen indicador de masa crtica. +Y lo interesante aqu es que otra cosa despeg junto con los DVDs -- los home theater. +De pronto, tienes un DVD en tu casa, tienes video digital de alta calidad, tienes un motivo para tener un televisor de pantalla grande, tienes un motivo para tener sonido Dolby surround 5.1. +Y tal vez tienes motivos para comenzar a conectarlos, e incorporar tambin el resto del entretenimiento. +Tambin es interesante notar que Netflix fue fundada en 1999. +Reed Hastings est aqu. l vio claramente que ese era el momento, que era un punto de inflexin, que poda hacer algo con eso. +La siguiente fase que se alcanz fue el desplazamiento. +Como pueden ver, alrededor del 2001, las ventas finalmente sobrepasaron a las de las cintas de video. +Aqu tambin se puede ver el impacto en el mundo en general. +Netflix tena razn -- el modelo de Netflix poda basarse en el DVD de un modo que los negocios de alquiler de video no podan. +Una de las muchas ventajas de los DVDs es su pequeo tamao, lo puedes insertar en un buzn de correo, y el envo es barato. +Eso le dio una ventaja; fue una implicacin del despegue de la tecnologa que no era obvio para todo el mundo. +Y finalmente, los DVD se estn acercando a la fase gratuita. +Hay una compaa llamada Apex, una empresa china de marca blanca, que ha estado, varias veces en el ltimo ao, en el primer lugar en venta de reproductores de DVDs en EEUU. Su precio de venta en el ltimo ao ha sido de U$S 48. +Uds. conocen la estampida, tal vez apcrifa, en Walmart sobre el DVD de 30 dlares. +Pero se estn volviendo muy, muy baratos, y miren las consecuencias interesantes. A medida que se vuelven ms baratos, las marcas premium, los Sony y dems, van perdiendo cuota de mercado, y las marcas sin nombre, los Apexes, van ganando. +Se estn volviendo commodities, y eso es lo que sucede cuando los precios van hacia el cero. Es un mercado difcil. +Ahora que ya he presentado esas cuantro maneras de mirar la tecnologa, esas cuatro fases de la vida de una tecnologa +me gustara mirar otras tecnologas que hay all fuera, simplemente tecnologas en nuestro radar -- y usar estos lentes, estas cuatro, como manera de explicarles dnde est cada una de ellas en su desarrollo. +No son necesariamente las 10 tecnologas ms importantes-- slo son ejemplos de tecnologas que estn en cada uno de esos estadios. +Pero yo creo que las impliciaciones cuando van alcanzando esos puntos de corte, esas intersecciones, son interesantes de razonar. +Comencemos con el secuenciamiento de genes. +Como Uds. saben, el secuenciamiento de genes -- en gran medida, debido a que se basa en computadores -- est cayendo de precio de una manera similar a la Ley de Moore. +Ahora es posible -- ser posible, y si Craig Ventner realmente viene hoy, les podr contar algo sobre eso -- secuenciar el genoma humano por 40 millones de dlares para finales de este ao. +Eso en contraposicin con los miles de millones que costaba hace unos aos. +Ya saben, nuestra capacidad de capturar las herramientas de la creacin se acercan ms y ms. +Lo interesante es que al mismo tiempo, el nmero de genes que vamos descubriendo est creciendo muy rpidamente. +Cada uno de esos genes es un test de diagnstico potencial. +Llegar un da en que podrs hacer cientos de miles de tests realizados, a muy bajo costo, si quieres sabelro. Puedes aprender acerca de tu propio mosaico. +He aqu otra tecnologa que est acercndose a un precio crtico. +Esta es una investigacin fascinante de la OMS que muestra el efecto de medicamentos genricos en los compuestos anti-retrovirales. +En enero del 2000, el precio era de 10.000 dlares, o 27 dlares por da. +Los genricos llegaron, primero a Brasil y otros lugares y el efecto en los precios fue dramtico. +Hoy cuesta menos de 50 centavos por da. +Y la cada en el precio de los medicamentos tiene mucho que ver con eso. +Linux es otro buen ejemplo. +Ahora hemos alcanzado la masa crtica. +Estas son tecnologas que estan alcanzando la masa crtica. +Si miras aqu, aqu est Linux en rojo, y ha alcanzado el 20%. +Es interesante que ya haba alcanzado un cruce antes, pero no el cruce que importa. +El cruce que va a ser importante es con el azul. +Pero puedes mirar y ver la direccin en que van esas lneas. Puedes ver que al 20%, ahora se lo toma en serio. +Ya no es slo para los tecnfilos. +Esto es, me imagino, lo que a la gente en Redmond les despierta en la mitad de la noche. +Otra tecnologa que vemos por todos lados son los automviles hbridos. +No se si alguien tiene un Prius 2004, pero son fantsticos. +Y si miras las tendencias aqu, alrededor del 2008 -- y yo no creo que este sea un pronstico loco -- sern un 2% de los autos vendidos. +2% no es 20%, pero en el negocio de los autos, que se mueve lento, es algo enorme, es un rival. +Con un 2%, comienzas a verlos en las carreteras en todos lados. +Y lo interesante del despegue de los hbridos es que has introducido los motores elctricos en la industria automotriz. +Es el primer cambio radical en tecnologa automotriz en 100 aos. +Y una vez que tienes motores elctricos, puedes hacer cualqueir cosa: puedes cambiar la estructura del auto de cualquier modo que se te antoje. +Puedes tener frenos regenerativos, puedes tener conduccin electrnica, puedes tener carroceras reemplazables es una pequea cosa que comienza con un hbrido, pero puede conducir a una nueva era del automvil. +VoIP es algo de lo que pueden haber odo algo. +Nuevamente, viene de ningun lado, es un poco difcil de usar hoy en da. +Hay una compaa creada por los fundadores de Kazaa llamada Skype. +Miren estos nmeros. Lo lanzaron en agosto del ao pasado; ya tienen cerca de 4 millones de usuarios registrados -- eso es masa crtica. +Lo mismo pasa del lado de los carriers. +Estamos viendo como la IP sobrepasa a algunos de los estndares tradicionales de telecomunicaciones. Es un punto de quiebre -- si Malcom est aqu, perdname -- y va a cambiar la ecuacin econmica, y la velocidad, y los jugadores de la industria; +Ser un poco as. +Y por ltimo, gratis. Gratis es realmente interesante. +Gratis es algo que llega con lo digital, porque los costos de reproduccin son esencialmente cero. Viene con IP porque es un protocolo tan eficiente. Viene con la fibra ptica, porque hay tanto ancho de banda disponible. +Gratis es, como Uds. saben, el regalo de Silicon Valley al mundo. +Es una fuerza econmica. Es una fuerza tcnica. +Es una fuerza deflacionista, si no es manejada correctamente. +Es la abundancia, en oposicin a la escasez. +Gratis es probablemente la parte ms interesante. +Aqu tienes la cantidad de canciones que se pueden almacenar en un dico duro. +Ya saben, podran ser tambin pelculas pero bsicamente, todas las canciones grabadas en la historia se podrn almacenar en un disco de 400 dlares en el 2008. Dejar al elemento entero el elemento fsico, de las canciones, fuera de la mesa. +Y Uds. han visto los nmeros. +Me refiero a que la industria discogrfica esta implosionando frente a nuestros ojos, y Hollywood tambin est preocupado. +Estn enfrentndose a una fuerza a la que nunca se haban enfrentado. +Su respuesta es draconianana, y no necesariamente los va a sacar de la situacin en la que se encuentran. +Y por ltimo, un ejemplo final de gratuito -- tal vez el ms potente de todos. Ya mencion la fibra ptica: su abundancia tiende a volver gratis las cosas. +Este es el precio por minuto de una llamada a la India. +Lo interesante es que en 1990 cuando el precio era de ms de 2 dlares por minuto, +India an tena un sistema telefnico regulado, y nosotros tambin. +Era sorprendentemente no-innovador, se mova muy lento pero haba tanta fibra disponible ah fuera que no lo podas detener, y miren qu rpido baj el precio. +Baj a 7 centavos el minuto, en muchos casos. +y la consecuencia de las llamadas telefnicas baratas, de las llamadas gratis a la India, es el programador enojado, es el outsourcing. +Es probablemente uno de los movimientos ms drsticos de la globalizacin, y una de las herramientas econmicas ms poderosas que estamos viendo en el mundo hoy. +La fuerza de India, luego China, y cualquier otro pas que puede contactar a nuestros mercados y trabajar con nuestras compaas -- porque las comunicaciones son gratis -- recin se est comenzando a sentir. +Y yo creo que es probablemente una de las tendencias tecnolgicas que estamos viendo hoy. +Muchas gracias. +Me gustara empezar con una observacin, que es que si he aprendido algo en el ltimo ao, es que la irona mas grande de publicar un libro sobre la lentitud es que tienes que ir promocinndolo muy rpidamente. +Estos das parece que paso la mayor parte de mi tiempo corriendo de ciudad en ciudad, estudio en estudio, entrevista en entrevista, presentando el libro a pedacitos. +Porque todo el mundo hoy en da quiere saber cmo frenar, pero quiere saberlo de manera muy rpida. Entonces... +el otro da estuve en CNN y pas ms tiempo en maquillaje que hablando en el aire. +Y yo creo que -- eso no es tan sorprendente, no? +Porque ese es ms o menos el mundo en que -- vivimos ahora, un mundo atascado en avanzar rpidamente. +Un mundo obsesionado con la rapidez, con hacer todo ms rpido, con embutir ms y ms en menos tiempo. +Cada momento del da se siente como una carrera contrarreloj. +Tomando prestada una frase de Carrie Fisher, la cual -- est en mi biografa, as que la dir de nuevo -- "En estos das hasta una gratificacin momentnea lleva mucho tiempo." Y si piensan en cmo intentamos mejorar las cosas, qu hacemos? +Las apuramos, no? Antes marcbamos, ahora marcamos con un solo botn. +Solamos leer; ahora hacemos lectura rpida. Solamos caminar; ahora caminamos rpidamente. +Y por supuesto, solamos tener citas y ahora tenemos citas rpidas. +Incluso las cosas que son por naturaleza lentas -- tambin tratamos de acelerarlas. +Hace poco estaba en Nueva York, y pas por un gimnasio que tena un anuncio en la ventana de un curso nuevo, de tarde. +Y era de, adivinen, yoga rpido. +La solucin perfecta para profesionales con hambre de tiempo que quieren saludar al sol pero solo quieren ceder 20 minutos para ello. +Estos son ejemplos un tanto extremos, y son divertidos y buenos para rerse. +Pero hay algo serio, y creo que en esa precipitada carrera del da a da, a menudo no vemos el dao que nos hace este vivir a la carrera. +Esta cultura rpida se nos infiltra de tal manera que casi no percibimos cmo afecta a cada aspecto de nuestras vidas. Nuestra salud, nuestra dieta, nuestro trabajo, nuestras relaciones, el medio ambiente y nuestra comunidad. +Y a veces necesitamos -- una llamada de atencin, no? -- que nos advierta de que vivimos nuestras vidas con prisa en vez de vivirlas realmente; de que estamos viviendo la vida rpido, en vez de vivirla bien. +Y creo que para mucha gente, esta advertencia toma forma de enfermedad. +Por ejemplo, agotamiento, o cuando el cuerpo dice, "No puedo ms," y tira la toalla. +O quizs una relacin se esfuma porque no hemos tenido el tiempo, o la paciencia, o la tranquilidad, para estar con la otra persona, para escucharla. +Y mi llamada de atencin lleg cuando comenc a leerle cuentos a mi hijo por la noche, y me di cuenta de que al final del da, iba a su cuarto y no poda reducir la velocidad, y lea muy velozmente "El gato en el sombrero." +Me salteaba algunas lneas por aqu, prrafos por all, a veces una pgina entera, y por supuesto, mi pequeo conoca perfectamente el libro, as que pelebamos. +Y lo que deba haber sido el momento ms relajante, ms ntimo, el momento ms tierno del da, cuando un padre se sienta a leerle a su hijo, se convirti en una especie de lucha entre gladiadores; un choque entre su velocidad y mi -- o, mi velocidad y su lentitud. +Y esto continu por algn tiempo, hasta que me encontr ojeando un artculo del diario con consejos para gente rpida sobre cmo ahorrar tiempo. +Y uno de ellos haca referencia a una serie de libros llamados "El cuento de un minuto." +Ahora me estremezco diciendo esas palabras, pero entonces mi primera reaccin fue muy diferente. +Mi primera reaccin fue decir, "Aleluya -- qu genial idea! +Esto es justo lo que estoy buscando para acelerar an ms la hora de acostarse." +Pero por suerte, se me encendi la lamparita, y mi siguiente reaccin fue muy diferente, y retroced, y pens, "Para! -- realmente hemos llegado aqu? +Estoy realmente en un apuro tal que soy capaz de engaar a mi hijo con un resumen al final del da?" +Y entonces dej el diario -- y estaba por tomar un avin -- y me qued sentado all, e hice algo que no haba hecho por mucho tiempo -- y es no hacer nada. +Solo pens, y pens durante un buen rato. +Y cuando me baj del avin, haba decidido que quera hacer algo al respecto. +Quera investigar esta cultura de la carrera, y lo que me estaba haciendo a m y al resto. Y yo -- +Tena dos preguntas en mi cabeza. +La primera, cmo nos volvimos tan rpidos? +Y la segunda, es posible, o incluso deseable, frenar? +Ahora, si piensan en cmo nuestro mundo se aceler tanto, surgen los sospechosos de siempre. +Ustedes piensan en la urbanizacin, el consumismo, el lugar de trabajo, la tecnologa. +Pero creo que si miran a travs de esas fuerzas llegan a lo que podra ser la razn ms profunda, la esencia de la pregunta, y es cmo percibimos el tiempo en s. +En otras culturas el tiempo es cclico. +Lo ven como movindose en grandes crculos sin apuro. +Siempre se est renovando y refrescando. +Mientras que en Occidente, el tiempo es lineal. +Es un recurso finito, siempre se est escurriendo. +O lo usas o lo pierdes. +El tiempo es dinero, como dijo Benjamin Franklin. +Y pienso en lo que eso nos hace psicolgicamente, crea una ecuacin. +El tiempo es escaso, entonces qu hacemos? +Bueno, aceleramos, no? +Tratamos de hacer ms y ms con menos y menos tiempo. +Transformamos cada momento de cada da en una carrera hacia la meta. Una meta que, por cierto, nunca alcanzamos. pero una meta al fin y al cabo. +Y creo que la pregunta es, es posible liberarse de ese pensamiento? +Y por suerte, la respuesta es s, porque lo que descubr, cuando empec a mirar alrededor, es que hay una reaccin global contra esta cultura que nos dice que ms rpido es siempre mejor, y que ms ocupado es mejor. +Al otro lado del mundo, la gente est haciendo lo impensable: estn frenando, y descubriendo que aunque la sabidura convencional les dice que si desaceleran los aplastarn, lo contrario resulta ser cierto. Desacelerando en los momentos correctos, las personas descubren que hacen todo mejor. +Comen mejor, hacen el amor mejor, se ejercitan mejor, trabajan mejor, viven mejor. +Y en esta mezcla de momentos, lugares, y actos de desaceleracin, yace lo que muchas personas ahora llaman el Movimiento lento internacional. +Ahora, si me permiten un pequeo acto de hipocresa, les mostrar brevemente lo que -- lo que est sucediendo en el Movimiento lento. Si piensan en comida, muchos habrn escuchado del Movimiento de la comida lenta. +Comenz en Italia, pero se ha expandido por el mundo, y ahora tiene 100.000 integrantes en 50 pases. +Y es motivado por un mensaje muy simple y sensato, que es que obtenemos ms placer y ms salud de nuestra comida cuando la cultivamos, cocinamos y consumimos a un ritmo razonable. +Y piensen tambin en la explosin del movimiento del cultivo orgnico, y el renacer de las ferias de granjeros, es otro -- son otros ejemplos del hecho de que las personas estn ansiosas por liberarse de la comida, la cocina y el cultivo de su comida en forma industrial. +Quieren regresar a los ritmos ms lentos. +Y a partir del Movimiento de la comida lenta surgi algo llamado el Movimiento de las ciudades lentas, que comenz en Italia, pero se ha esparcido por y ms all de Europa. +Y en esto, las ciudades comienzan a replantearse cmo organizan su espacio, y entonces a la gente se le anima a desacelerar y oler las rosas y conectarse con los dems. +Podran detener el trnsito, o poner un banco de plaza, o algunos espacios verdes. +Y de cierto modo, estos cambios resultan ms que la suma de sus partes, porque cuando una Ciudad lenta se vuelve una Ciudad lenta oficialmente, es como una declaracin filosfica. +Le est diciendo al resto del mundo y a la gente en esa ciudad, que creemos que en el siglo 21, la lentitud tiene un rol importante. +En medicina, creo que mucha gente est muy desilusionada con la mentalidad de la cura rpida que se encuentra en la medicina convencional. +Y millones alrededor del mundo se mueven hacia formas de medicina alternativa y complementaria, que tienden a inclinarse por maneras de curar ms lentas, ms suaves e ntegras. +Ahora, obviamente este tipo de terapias complementarias estn a prueba, y yo personalmente dudo que el caf por enema sea pblicamente reconocido alguna vez. +Pero otros tratamientos como acupuntura y masajes, e incluso slo la relajacin, claramente tienen algn tipo de beneficio. +Y mdicos colegas de primera categora estn empezando a estudiar estas cosas para averiguar cmo funcionan, y qu podramos aprender de ellas. +Sexo. Hay una enorme cantidad de sexo rpido por ah, no? +Estaba corriendo -- bueno -- aqu no hay juego de palabras. +Estaba corriendo lentamente rumbo a Oxford, y pas por un kiosco, y vi una revista, una revista de hombres, y deca en la portada, "Cmo hacer que tu pareja tenga un orgasmo en 30 segundos." +Ya ven, hasta el sexo est cronometrado estos das. +Ahora, a m me gusta un rapidito tanto como a cualquiera, pero creo que hay mucho que ganar del sexo lento -- de desacelerar en el dormitorio. +Te aprovechas de esas corrientes psicolgicas, emocionales, espirituales y con el calentamiento obtienes un mejor orgasmo. +Digamos que puedes sacarle ms provecho. +Las Hermanas Pointer lo dijeron ms elocuentemente, no? cuando cantaban los elogios a un amante con la mano lenta. +Ahora, todos nos reamos de Sting hace unos aos cuando se inclin por el tantra, pero unos aos ms tarde, encontramos parejas de todas las edades acudiendo en masa a talleres, o quizs simplemente en sus propios dormitorios, buscando la forma de poner los frenos y tener mejor sexo. +Y por supuesto, en Italia, donde -- los italianos parecen saber siempre dnde encontrar el placer, han lanzado un movimiento oficial de Sexo lento. +Los lugares de trabajo, +en muchos lugares del mundo -- siendo Norteamrica una notable excepcin -- las horas de trabajo han ido disminuyendo. +Y Europa es un ejemplo de ello. Las personas descubren que su calidad de vida mejora a medida que trabajan menos, y tambin que aumenta su productividad por hora. +Ahora, est claro que la semana laboral de 35 horas en Francia tiene problemas -- demasiado, demasiado pronto, demasiado rgidamente. +Pero otros pases de Europa, notablemente los pases nrdicos, estn demostrando que es posible tener una economa brillante sin ser fantico del trabajo. +Y Noruega, Suecia, Dinamarca y Finlandia ahora estn entre las seis naciones ms competitivas de la tierra, y trabajan la cantidad de horas que hara que un americano medio llorara de envidia. +Y sin embargo en estos das no son slo los adultos quienes trabajan de ms; los nios tambin, verdad? +Tengo 37 aos, y mi niez finaliz a mediados de los 80, y veo a los nios ahora, y me asombra cmo corren con ms tarea, ms tareas con tutores y extracurriculares, de lo que nos podramos haber siquiera imaginado hace una generacin. +Y algunos de los correos ms desgarradores que recibo a travs de mi sitio web son de adolescentes a punto de llegar al agotamiento, rogndome que escriba a sus padres, para ayudarlos a desacelerar, para ayudarlos a bajarse de esta rutina a todo gas. +Pero por suerte hay una reaccin tambin de los padres, y estn descubriendo que las ciudades de los Estados Unidos se estan uniendo y prohibiendo las tareas extracurriculares en un da particular del mes, de manera que la gente pueda aflojarse y tener un poco de tiempo con la familia, y desacelerar. +La tarea es otro tema. Estn surgiendo prohibiciones contra la tarea en todo el mundo desarrollado, en escuelas donde durante aos se haba ido apilando ms y ms tarea, y ahora estn descubriendo que menos puede ser ms. +Y justo este ltimo mes llegaron los resultados, y en matemtica, ciencia, las notas subieron un 20 por ciento de media en el ltimo ao. +Pero les falta chispa, carecen de la habilidad de pensar creativamente, no saben soar. Y entonces estas universidades de la liga Ivy, y Oxford, Cambridge, etc, estan empezando a transmitir a padres y estudiantes el mensaje de que necesitan frenar un poco. +Y en Harvard, por ejemplo, enviaron una carta a los estudiantes -- de primer ao -- dicindoles que sacaran ms provecho de la vida, y de Harvard, si frenaban. Si hacan menos, pero dndole tiempo a las cosas, el tiempo que necesitan, para disfrutarlas, saborearlas. +E incluso si a veces no hacan nada en absoluto. +Y a esa carta la llamaron -- muy revelador, yo creo -- "Frenen!" -- con un signo de exclamacin al final. +Entonces, adondequiera que miren, me parece que el mensaje es el mismo. Que menos es muy a menudo ms, que ms lento es muy a menudo mejor. Pero, dicho esto, por supuesto, no es tan fcil desacelerar, verdad? +Escucharon que recib una multa por exceso de velocidad mientras estaba investigando para mi libro sobre los beneficios de la lentitud, y eso es verdad, pero eso no es todo. +Yo estaba yendo para una cena ofrecida entonces por el movimiento Comida lenta. +Y por si eso no fuera lo suficientemente vergonzoso, me multaron en Italia. +Y si alguno de ustedes alguna vez condujo en una autopista italiana, sabrn bien lo rpido que iba. +Pero, por qu es tan difcil frenar? +Creo que hay varias razones. +Una es que -- la velocidad es divertida -- es sexy. +Es una descarga de adrenalina. Es difcil dejarlo. +Creo que hay una especie de dimensin metafsica -- que la velocidad se vuelve una manera de aislarnos de las preguntas ms grandes y profundas. +Nos llenamos de distracciones, nos ocupamos, as no tenemos que preguntarnos, estoy bien?, soy feliz?, mis hijos estn creciendo bien?, +Estn los polticos tomando buenas decisiones por m? +Otra razn -- aunque creo que quizs es la razn ms poderosa -- de por qu se nos hace tan difcil frenar, es el tab cultural que hemos erigido en contra de frenar. +Lento es una palabra mala en nuestra cultura. +Es sinnimo de holgazn, vago, de ser alguien que se rinde. +"l es un poco lento" es en realidad sinnimo de ser -- de ser estpido. +Yo creo que el Movimiento Lento -- el propsito del Movimiento lento, o su principal objetivo, es derribar ese tab, y decir que -- que s, a veces lento no es -- la respuesta, que existe tal cosa como "lentitud mala." +Que -- hace poco me qued trancado en la M25, una carretera de circunvalacin en Londres, y me pas 3 horas y media ah. Y les puedo decir que eso s es lentitud mala. +Pero la nueva idea, el tipo de idea revolucionaria del Movimiento lento, es que tambin existe la lentitud buena. +Y la lentitud buena es tomarse el tiempo para comer con sus familias, con el televisor apagado. +O -- tomarse el tiempo para mirar un problema desde todos los ngulos en la oficina para poder tomar la mejor decisin en el trabajo. +O incluso simplemente tomarse el tiempo para desacelerar y saborear sus vidas. +Ahora, una de las cosas que encuentro ms motivante de todo esto que est sucediendo alrededor del libro desde que sali, es la reaccin hacia l. +Y saba que cuando mi libro sobre la lentitud saliera, iba a ser bienvenido por la brigada de la Nueva Era, pero tambin ha sido aceptado, con mucho gusto, por el mundo corporativo -- ya saben, la prensa de negocios, pero tambin, por grandes empresas y organizaciones de liderazgo. +Porque la gente en la cima, las personas como ustedes, creo, estn comenzando a darse cuenta de que hay mucha velocidad en el sistema, hay mucha ocupacin, y es momento de encontrar, o volver, a ese arte perdido de cambiar de marcha. +Porque creo que estn mirando a occidente, y estn diciendo, "Bueno, nos gusta ese aspecto de lo que tienen, pero no estamos tan seguros de eso otro." +Entonces, dicho todo eso, es posible? +Esa es hoy la principal pregunta ante nosotros. Es posible desacelerar? Y yo -- Yo estoy feliz de poder decirles que la respuesta es un s rotundo. +Y me presento como la Muestra A, una especie de adicto a la velocidad rehabilitado. +Todava amo la velocidad. Vivo en Londres, y trabajo como periodista, y disfruto del barullo y el estar ocupado, y de la adrenalina que se obtiene de ambas cosas. +Juego al squash y al hockey sobre hielo, dos deportes muy rpidos, y no los dejara por nada del mundo. +Pero tambin, durante el ltimo ao, he tomado contacto con mi tortuga interna. +Y lo que eso significa es que yo no -- yo ya no me sobrecargo injustificadamente. +Mi modo por defecto es no ser nunca ms un adicto a la velocidad. +Ya no escucho al carruaje alado del tiempo acercarse, o por lo menos no tanto como antes. +En realidad ahora puedo escucharlo, porque veo que mi tiempo pasa. +Y el resultado de todo esto es que en realidad me siento mucho ms feliz, ms sano, ms productivo que nunca. +Siento que estoy viviendo mi vida en vez de correr por ella. +Y quizs la ms importante medida del xito de esto es que siento que mis relaciones son mucho ms profundas, ms ricas, ms fuertes. +Y para m, creo, la prueba de fuego de si esto funcionara, y lo que significara, siempre iba a ser los cuentos nocturnos, porque ah fue donde el viaje comenz. Y ah las noticias son color de rosa tambin. Al final del da voy al cuarto de mi hijo. +No llevo puesto el reloj. Apago la computadora, as no escucho el correo eletrnico que llega, y freno hasta llegar a su ritmo y -- y leemos. +Y como los nios tienen su propio tempo, su reloj interno, ellos no aprovechan el tiempo porque hayas programado 10 minutos para ellos. +Necesitan que te muevas a su ritmo. +Descubr que a los 10 minutos de empezar un cuento, mi hijo de repente dir, "Sabes qu, hoy pas algo en el recreo que me molest mucho." +Y entonces cambiamos de tema y conversamos sobre eso. +Y ahora me doy cuenta de que los cuentos solan ser una especie de -- algo en mi lista de cosas que hacer, algo terrible, porque era tan lento y tena que terminarlo rpidamente. +Se ha convertido en mi recompensa al final del da, algo que realmente -- realmente aprecio. +Y tengo una especie de final de Hollywood para mi charla de esta tarde, que dice ms o menos as. Hace unos meses, me estaba preparando para iniciar otra gira de mi libro, y tena mis valijas empacadas. +Estaba abajo en la puerta de mi casa esperando un taxi, y mi hijo vino bajando por las escaleras y haba hecho una tarjeta para m. Y la traa. +Haba grapado dos tarjetas, muy parecidas a estas, y haba puesto un sticker adelante de su personaje favorito, Tintn, al frente. +Y me dijo, o me lo entreg y yo le, y deca, "Para papi, te quiero, Benjamin." +Y pens, "Aah, esto es muy dulce, +es una tarjeta de buena suerte para la gira del libro?" +Y el dijo, "No, no, no, papi -- esta tarjeta es por ser el mejor lector de cuentos del mundo." +Y pens, "S, esto de frena ... " +Muchas gracias. +Cuando comienzo charlas como sta, normalmente doy una explicacin acerca de la sustentabilidad porque muchas personas no saben qu es. +sta es una audiencia que s lo sabe, as que les dar la versin de 60 segundos. De acuerdo? +Tengan paciencia. Lo haremos bien rpido, saben? +Rellenen los espacios en blanco. +Bueno, ya saben, sustentabilidad, un planeta pequeo. +De acuerdo? Imaginen una Tierra pequea, orbitando alrededor del Sol. +Ya saben, hace como un milln de aos, un montn de monos se cayeron de los rboles, se volvieron un poco astutos, utilizaron el fuego, inventaron la imprenta, crearon el equipaje con ruedas. +Y construyeron la sociedad en la que vivimos hoy. +Desgraciadamente, a pesar de que esta sociedad es, sin lugar a dudas, la ms prspera y dinmica que el mundo jams haya creado, tiene algunas fallas muy, muy graves. +Una de ellas es que toda sociedad tiene una huella ecolgica. +Tiene un impacto en el planeta que es medible. +Cuntas cosas pasan por tu vida, cuntos residuos dejas. +Y nosotros, en este momento, en nuestra sociedad, hemos alcanzado un nivel dramticamente insustentable. +Estamos acabando con casi cinco planetas. +Si todos en el planeta vivieran como nosotros lo hacemos, necesitaramos entre cinco, seis, siete, algunos dicen que hasta 10 planetas para sobrevivir. +Est claro que no tenemos 10 planetas. +De nuevo, ya saben, mental, visual, 10 planetas, un planeta, 10 planetas, un planeta. De acuerdo? +No tenemos eso. As que se es un problema. +El segundo problema es que el planeta que tenemos se est consumiendo de forma absolutamente injusta. De acuerdo? +Los norteamericanos, como yo, ya saben, somos bsicamente como cerdos glotones, que se revuelcan, y comemos toda clase de cosas. +Y luego, vas hacia el otro extremo hacia la gente que vive en la regin de Asia-Pacfico, o incluso ms, frica. +Y la gente sencillamente no tiene lo suficiente para sobrevivir. +Esto produce todo tipo de tensiones, toda clase de dinmicas que son perturbadoras. +Y hay cada vez ms personas as. Verdad? +De modo que as es cmo lucir el planeta en 20 aos. +Ser un lugar muy poblado, con al menos ocho mil millones de personas. +Y para hacer las cosas todava ms difciles, el planeta es muy joven. +Un tercio de las personas son nios. +Y estos nios estn creciendo de una manera completamente diferente a como lo hacan sus padres, sin importar dnde vivan. +Han estado expuestos a esta idea de nuestra sociedad, de nuestra prosperidad. +Y puede que no quieran vivir exactamente como nosotros. +Puede que no quieran ser estadounidenses, o britnicos, o alemanes, o sudafricanos, sino que quieran su propia versin de una vida ms prspera, y ms dinmica, y ms, ya saben, agradable. +Y todas estas cosas se combinan para ejercer una gran presin sobre el planeta. +Y si no podemos averiguar la forma de abordar esa tensin, nos vamos a encontrar cada vez ms pronto enfrentndonos a situaciones que son simplemente impensables. +Todos en esta sala han escuchado los peores escenarios posibles. +No hace falta que hable de eso. +Pero voy a hacer esta pregunta, cul es la alternativa? +Y dir que, en este momento, la alternativa es inimaginable. +O sea, que de un lado tenemos lo impensable, y del otro lo inimaginable. +An no sabemos cmo construir una sociedad que sea medioambientalmente sustentable, que sea compartible con todos en el planeta, que promueva la estabilidad, la democracia y los derechos humanos, y que sea alcanzable en el lapso de tiempo necesario para superar los desafos a los que nos enfrentamos. +An no sabemos cmo hacerlo. +Entonces qu es Worldchanging? +Bueno, pueden pensar que Worldchanging es una agencia de noticias para el futuro inimaginable. +Es decir, lo que hacemos es buscar ejemplos de herramientas, modelos e ideas, que, si se adoptaran ampliamente, podran cambiar el juego. De acuerdo? +Muchas veces, cuando doy una charla como sta, hablo sobre cosas que estoy seguro de que todos en esta sala ya han escuchado, pero la mayora de la gente no. +As que pens hacer algo un poco distinto hoy, y hablar sobre lo que buscamos, en vez de decirles, ya saben, en vez de darles ejemplo ciertos y probados. +Hablar de las cosas que estamos vislumbrando. +Ofrecerles una pequea mirada de nuestra agenda editorial. +Y dado que tengo 13 minutos para hacerlo, ser algo rpido. +As que, no s, slo qudense conmigo. De acuerdo? +As que, primero qu estamos buscando? Ciudad verde brillante. +Una de las mayores palancas que tenemos en el mundo desarrollado para cambiar el impacto que tenemos sobre el planeta es cambiar el modo en que vivimos en las ciudades. +Ya somos un planeta urbano, y eso es especialmente cierto en el mundo desarrollado. +Y las personas que viven en las ciudades del mundo desarrollado suelen ser prsperas, y por eso consumen muchas cosas. +Si cambiamos la dinmica, primero creando ciudades que sean ms compactas y ms habitables... +Aqu, por ejemplo, est Vancouver, una ciudad que si no han visitado, deben hacerlo. Es una ciudad fabulosa. +Y estn construyendo densidad, una nueva densidad, mejor que nadie en el planeta en este momento. +Estn logrando alentar a los norteamericanos para que no usen sus autos, lo cual est genial. +As que tienes densidad. Tambin tienes gestin del crecimiento. +Dejas de lado lo natural para ser natural. +Esto es en Portland. sa es una urbanizacin real. +Esa tierra de ah continuar siendo pasto siempre. +Han rodeado la ciudad con una lnea. +Naturaleza, ciudad. Nada cambia. +Una vez que se hacen esas cosas, se pueden inciar todo tipo de inversiones. +Se puede empezar a hacer cosas como, ya saben, sistemas de trnsito que realmente funcionen para transportar personas, de formas efectivas y razonablemente cmodas. De acuerdo? +Tambin se puede empezar a cambiar lo que se construye. +ste es el Beddington Zero Energy Development en Londres, es uno de los edificios ms eficientes del mundo. Es un lugar fabuloso. +Ahora podemos construir edificios que generan su propia electricidad, que reciclan la mayor parte de su agua, que son mucho ms cmodos que los edificios tradicionales, usan luz natural, etctera, y a largo plazo cuestan menos. +Tejados ecolgicos. Bill McDonough habl de eso anoche, as que no me ocupar mucho de ello. +Pero ya que tambin hay personas que viven cerca unas de otras, una de las cosas que se puede hacer es, con el desarrollo de las tecnologas de la informacin, comenzar a tener lugares inteligentes. +Se puede comenzar a saber en qu lugar estn las cosas. +Cuando se sabe dnde estn las cosas, es ms fcil compartirlas. +Y cuando se comparten, al final se consume menos. +Un gran ejemplo son los clubes para compartir el automvil, que estn empezando a popularizarse en Estados Unidos, y tambin lo han hecho en muchos lugares de Europa, y son un gran ejemplo. +Si son de los que conducen, ya saben, una vez por semana, realmente necesitan su propio auto? +Otra cosa que la tecnologa de la informacin nos permite hacer es comenzar a descubrir cmo consumir menos sabiendo, y monitorizando, la cantidad que realmente consumimos. +Aqu tenemos un cable que cuanta ms energa se consume, ms brilla, lo cual en mi opinin es un concepto bastante bueno, aunque creo que debera de funcionar al contrario, cuanta menos energa consuma, ms brille. +Pero, saben, podra haber una perspectiva an ms sencilla. +Podramos simplemente volver a etiquetar las cosas. +Este interruptor que dice, por un lado, inundacin repentina, y por el otro, apagado. +Tambin puede cambiar la forma en que construimos las cosas. +ste es un edificio biomrfico. +Se inspira en las formas que adopta la vida. +Muchos de estos edificios son increblemente bellos, y tambin mucho ms eficientes. +ste es un ejemplo de biomimetismo, que es algo que estamos empezando a buscar mucho ms. +En este caso, tenemos un diseo de concha que se utiliz para crear un nuevo tipo de ventilador, que es mucho ms eficaz. +Estn ocurriendo muchas de estas cosas, es realmente sorpendente. +Los aliento a buscar en Worldchanging si les interesa. +Estamos empezando a informar cada vez ms sobre esto . +Tambin existe el diseo neobiolgico, en el que cada vez ms utilizamos la vida misma y los procesos de la vida como parte de nuestra industria. +sta, por ejemplo, es un alga generadora de hidrgeno. +As que tenemos un modelo en potencia, un modelo emergente sobre cmo percibir las ciudades en las que vivimos, y convertirlas en ciudades Verdes Brillantes. +Desgraciadamente, la mayor parte de las personas del planeta no vive en nuestras ciudades. +Viven en megaciudades emergentes de pases en desarrollo. +Y hay una estadstica que me gusta usar a menudo, que dice que estamos aadiendo una ciudad de Seattle cada cuatro das, una ciudad del tamao de Seattle al planeta cada cuatro das. +Estaba dando una charla hace dos meses, y esta persona, que haba trabajado para la ONU, se me acerc y bastante nervioso, dijo, mira, tu dato est mal, completamente equivocado. +Es cada siete das. +As que, estamos aadiendo una ciudad del tamao de Seattle cada siete das, y la mayora de esas ciudades parecen ms esto que la ciudad en la que vivimos. +Muchas de esas ciudades estn creciendo increblemente rpido. +No tienen una infraestructura previa, tienen un enorme nmero de personas que luchan contra la pobreza, y un enorme nmero de personas estn intentando encontrar una forma diferente de hacer las cosas. De acuerdo? +As que qu debemos hacer para que las megaciudades de los pases en desarrollo sean megaciudades Verdes Brillantes? +Bueno, lo primero que tenemos que hacer es superar fases. +Y sta es una de las cosas que buscamos en todas partes. +La idea que hay detrs de superar fases es que si eres una persona, o un pas, que est atascado en una situacin en la que no tienes las herramientas y tecnologas que necesitas, no hay razn para que inviertas en tecnologa de ltima generacin. De acuerdo? +Que te viene mucho mejor, en trminos casi universales, buscar una versin de la nueva tecnologa de bajo costo, o adaptada localmente. +Un caso con el que estamos familiarizados es con los celulares. De acuerdo? +En todos los pases en desarrollo, la gente se est pasando a los celulares, saltando la etapa de las lneas fijas. +Si hay lneas fijas en muchos pases en desarrollo, normalmente son sistemas muy malos que se averan con frecuencia, y cuestan grandes sumas de dinero. Bien? +As que prefiero esta imagen de aqu. +En particular me gusta el Ganesh del fondo, hablando por telfono celular. +Cada vez tenemos ms celulares, cuyo uso se est extendiendo en la sociedad. +Hemos escuchado todo sobre este tema aqu esta semana, as que no dir mucho ms, lo que s dir es que, lo que es vlido para los celulares es vlido para todo tipo de tecnologas. +Lo segundo son herramientas para la colaboracin, ya sean sistemas de colaboracin, o sistemas de propiedad intelectual que incentiven la colaboracin. Bien? +Cuando la gente tiene la capacidad para colaborar de forma libre e innovadora, se obtienen diferentes tipos de soluciones. +Y esas soluciones son accesibles de una forma distinta para las personas que carecen de capital. Bien? +As que, ya saben, tenemos software de cdigo abierto, tenemos Creative Commons y otros tipos de soluciones Copyleft. De acuerdo? +Y esas cosas llevan a cosas como sta. +ste es un Telecentro en Sao Paulo. +Es un programa bastante notable que utiliza software libre y de cdigo abierto, mquinas baratas y hackeadas, y fundamentalmente edificios abandonados... ha unido una serie de centros comunitarios donde la gente puede ir, obtener acceso a Internet de alta velocidad, aprender tcnicas de programacin de forma gratuita. +Hoy en da, un cuarto de milln de personas lo utiliza cada ao en Sao Paulo. +Y ese cuarto de milln de personas son los ms pobres de Sao Paulo. +Me gusta especialmente el pequeo pingino Linux al fondo. Una de las cosas que est provocando es esta especie de explosin cultural surea. +Y una de las cosas que nos interesa muchsimo en Worldchanging son las formas en las que el sur se est redefiniendo, y recategorizando a s mismo y que cada vez tienen menos que ver con la mayora de nostros en esta sala. +O sea, que Bollywood no slo est contestando a Hollywood. Bien? +La msica brasilea no slo est contestando a los grandes sellos. +Est haciendo algo nuevo. Estn ocurriendo cosas nuevas. +Hay interaccin entre ellos. Y se logran cosas sorprendentes. +Como, no s si alguno de ustedes ha visto la pelcula "Ciudad de Dos" +S, es una pelcula fabulosa si an no la han visto. +Y trata sobre esta pregunta, de una forma muy artstica e indirecta. +Tenemos otros ejemplos radicales en los que se promociona la capacidad para usar herramientas culturales. +stas son personas que han sido visitadas por el libromvil de Internet en Uganda. +Y que estn agitando sus primeros libros en el aire, me parece que es una fotografa bastante buena. +Tambin se facilita que la gente se pueda reunir y actuar en su propio beneficio de forma cvica y poltica. En formas que antes no se han dado. +Y como escuchamos anoche, como escuchamos al inicio de la semana, son absolutamente vitales para facilitar la creacin de nuevas soluciones, tenemos que elaborar nuevas realidades polticas. +Y personalmente dir que debemos crear nuevas realidades polticas, no slo en lugares como la India, Afganistan, Kenia, Paquistn, sino tambin aqu en casa. +Otro mundo es posible. +Un gran lema del movimiento antiglobalizacin. Bien? +Lo retorcemos mucho. +Hablamos sobre cmo otro mundo no es posible, el otro mundo est aqu. +Que no es slo que tengamos que imaginar que exista una posibilidad vaga y diferente, sino que tenemos que empezar a actuar un poco ms en esa posibilidad. +Tenemos que empezar a hacer cosas como Lula, el presidente de Brasil. +Cuntas personas conocan a Lula antes de hoy? +Bastante mejor que una audiencia media, se lo puedo asegurar. +As que Lula, est lleno de problemas, lleno de contradicciones, pero una de las cosas que est haciendo es, proponer una idea sobre cmo articular las relaciones internacionales que cambia por completo el equilibrio del dilogo norte-sur hasta ahora en una nueva forma de colaboracin global. +Me gustara que se fijaran en este amigo. +Otro ejemplo de esta especie de segundo superpoder es la aparicin de estos juegos que se denominan serios. +Estamos observndolo mucho. Se est extendiendo por todos sitios. +Esta captura de pantalla es de "A Force More Powerful". +"A Force More Powerful" es un videojuego en el que, mientras juegas, te ensea cmo involucrarse en una insurreccin no violenta y un cambio de rgimen. Aqu hay otra. sta es de un juego llamado "Food Force", un juego que les ensea a los nios a cmo gestionar un campo de refugiados. +Todas estas cosas estn contribuyendo de una forma muy dinmica a un enorme incremento, especialmente en los pases en desarrollo, del inters y de la pasin de la gente por la democracia. +Obtenermos tan pocas noticias de los pases en desarrollo, que algunas veces olvidamos que hay literalmente millones de personas luchando por cambiar las cosas por ser ms justos, libres, democrticos, menos corruptos. +Y, saben, no escuchamos esas historias lo suficiente. +Pero est ocurriendo en todas partes, y estas herramientas en parte lo estn posibilitando. +Ahora cuando se suman todas esas cosas, cuando se suman el hecho de superar fases y el uso de nuevas herramientas, saben, el segundo superpoder, etctera, qu se obtiene? +Bien, rpidamente, se obtiene un futuro Verde Brillante para los pases en desarrollo. +Se obtiene, por ejemplo, distribucin de energa verde por todo el mundo. +Se obtiene... ste es un edificio en Hyderabad, India. +Es el edificio ms eficiente del mundo. +Se obtienen soluciones locales, cosas que funcionan para la gente que carece de capital o tiene un acceso limitado. +Se obtienen ingenieros solares descalzos transportando paneles solares a montaas remotas. +Se obtiene acceso a la medicina a distancia. +Son enfermeras indias aprendiendo a usar PDAs para acceder a bases de datos que tienen informacin a la que no tienen acceso a distancia desde sus casas . +Se obtienen nuevas herramientas para la gente de los pases en desarrollo. +stas son luces LED que ayudan a casi mil millones de personas, para quienes el anochecer significa oscuridad, a tener nuevos medios para operar. +stos son refrigeradores que no requieren de electricidad, son un diseo de olla dentro de otra olla. +Y se obtienen soluciones para el agua. El agua es uno de los problemas ms urgentes. +Aqu tenemos un diseo para almacenar agua de lluvia que es super barato y fcil de conseguir para la gente de los pases en desarrollo. +Aqu tenemos un diseo para destilar agua usando luz solar. +Aqu un atrapa niebla, que, si vives en un rea hmeda, como la jungla, destilar agua limpia y potable del aire. +Aqu tenemos una forma de transportar agua. +Me encanta, saben... me refiero a que cargar agua es una lata, y a alguien se le ocurri la idea de, bueno, y si la enrollas. Bien? +Me refiero a que es un gran diseo. +sta es una fabulosa invencin, LifeStraw. +Bsicamente succionas el agua a travs de ella y se convierte en potable para cuando llega a los labios. +Es decir, personas que estn en situaciones desesperadas pueden tener esto. +sta es una de mis cosas Worldchanging favoritas. +Es un carrusel inventado por la compaa Roundabout, que bombea agua mientras los nios juegan. Saben? +En serio... chenle una mano, es bastante bueno. +Y lo mismo para las personas que estn en crisis absoluta. De acuerdo? +Esperamos tener un incremento de 200 millones de refugiados para el ao 2020 debido al cambio climtico y la inestabilidad poltica. +Cmo ayudamos a esas personas? +Bueno, hay todo tipo de sorprendentes diseos humanitarios que estn siendo desarrollados de formas colaborativas en todo el planeta. +Algunos de esos diseos incluyen modelos para actuar, como nuevos modelos de enseanza en medio de los campos de refugiados. +Nuevos modelos de pedagoga para desplazados. +Y tenemos nuevas herramientas. +sta es sin lugar a dudas uno de mis favoritas. +Alguien sabe qu es esto? +Audiencia: Detecta minas terrestres. +Exactamente, es una flor detectora de minas terrestres. +Si vives en uno de estos lugares donde aproximadamente medio milln de minas sin detectar se encuentra disperso, puedes arrojar estas semillas al campo. +Y al crecer, crecern alrededor de las minas, sus races detectarn los productos qumicos en ellas, y donde las flores se vuelvan rojas no pisas. +S, semillas que pueden salvar tu vida. Saben? +Tambin me encanta porque me parece que el ejemplo, las herramientas que usamos para cambiar el mundo, deben de ser bellas por s mismas. +Saben, eso no es suficiente para sobrevivir. +Tenemos que hacer algo mejor que lo que tenemos. +Y creo que lo haremos. +Slo para terminar, en las inmortales palabras de H.G. Wells, creo que cosas mejores estn en camino. +Creo que, de hecho, "todo el pasado no es ms que el principio de un principio. +Todo lo que la mente humana ha logrado no es ms que el sueo antes del despertar". +Espero que eso resulte ser verdad. +La gente en esta sala me ha dado ms confianza que nunca de que as ocurrir. +Muchas gracias. +(Video: narrador: Un hecho visto desde un punto da una impresion. +Visto desde otro punto, da una impresin muy diferente. +Solamente cuando tienes la imagen completa puedes entender todo lo que est ocurriendo.) +Sasa Vicinic: Es un gran video, cierto? +Descubr que en 29 segundos, dice ms sobre el poder y la importancia de los medios independientes que lo que yo puedo decir en una hora. +Asi que pens que sera bueno empezar con esto. +Y tambin con algunas estadsticas. +Segn ciertos investigadores, el 83% de la poblacin del planeta vive en sociedades sin prensa independiente. +Piense en eso: el 83% de la poblacin de todo el planeta no sabe realmente lo que ocurre en sus pases. +La informacin que reciben est filtrada por alguien que la distorsiona o la tergiversa, alguien que hace algo con la informacin. +As, esta gente no puede entender su realidad. +Esto es para entender la gravedad del problema. +Aquellos que tienen la suerte de vivir en esas sociedades que representan el 17%, deberan disfrutarlo mientras dure. +Imaginense la maana del domingo leyendo el diaro con un cappuccino. +Disfrtenlo mientras dure. +Porque, segn escuchamos ayer, los pases pueden perder estrellas de sus banderas. pero tambin la libertad de prensa, tema que los americanos conocen muy bien. +Pero ese es otro tema. +As que vuelvo a mi historia. +Mi historia, la que quiero compartir, comienza en 1991. +En esa poca yo diriga B92, el nico medio independiente y electrnico del pas. +Y supongo que compartamos la rutina de ser el nico medio independiente del pas, funcionando en un ambiente hostil, en el que el gobierno realmente internta hacer de tu vida una miseria. +Y hay muchas maneras de lograrlo. +Si, era lo de siempre: algunas amenazas, algunos consejos amistosos, algunas polticas econmicas, algo de control de textos. Y siempre habia alguien que nunca se iba de tu oficina. +Pero lo que hicieron, que es muy poderoso, y es lo que el gobierno haca en los 90 cuando no le gustaban los medios independientes, era amenazar a tus anunciantes. +Una vez hecho esto, las fuerzas del mercado estn destrudas y los anunciantes no quieren aparecerse -- no importa todo lo que comprendan -- no quieren aparecer ni anunciar. +y as tenes problemas para llegar a fin de mes. +En ese tiempo, a inicios de los 90, tenamos ese problema que era sobrevivir, pero lo que fue muy doloroso para mi fue en los comienzos de los 90, cuando Yugoslavia se divida, +Estabamos sentados viendo un pas derrumbarse, derrumbarse en cmara lenta, +y tenamos todo eso en video. +Tenamos la capacidad de comprender lo que ocurra. +Realmente estbamos grabando la historia. +El problema fue que una semana despus tuvimos que regrabarla porque no podamos pagar ms cintas para guardar los archivos de esa historia. +Por eso, si les doy esa imgen, no quisiera detenerme mucho en eso. +En ese contexto, un hombre se acerca a mi oficina. +Todavia era 1991. +l diriga una organizacin de sistemas de comunicacin. que an esta en actividad, al igual que el hombre. +Y qu saba yo en esa poca de sistemas de comunicacin? +Pensaba que eran organizaciones, que nos ayudaban. +Por eso prepar dos planes estratgicos para esa reunin. Uno grande y otro chico. +El chico se trataba de que l nos ayude a conseguir esas cintas, para que pudiramos guardar ese archivo por 50 aos. +El plan grande era pedirle un milln de dlares. +Porque pensaba, y an lo hago, que esas empresas serias e independientes son un gran negocio. +Y pensaba que B92 sobrevivira para ser una gran empresa una vez que Milosevic se fuera, lo que result ser cierto. +Probablemente sea ahora la empresa ms grande o una de las ms grandes del pas. +En ese tiempo pens que lo que ms necesitbamos era un milln de dlares para sobrevivir. +Para acortar la historia, el hombre viene a mi oficina, con un flamante traje y corbata. +Le doy lo que considero una brillante explicacin de la situacin poltica y le explico lo difcil que ser la guerra. +En realidad yo subestimaba las atrocidades, debo admitirlo. +En fin, despus de esta gran explicacin, la nica pregunta que tena para mi -y no es un chiste- fue: Tuvimos que pagar regalas despus de pasar msica de Michael Jackson? +Esa fue la nica pregunta que me hizo. +Se fue, y recuerdo que estaba muy enojado conmigo mismo porque pens que tena que haber una institucin en el mundo que provea ayuda a las empresas de medios de comunicacin. +Es tan obvio, tan evidente, que alguien lo tendra que haber pensado. +Alguien tendra que haber empezado algo as. +Yo pensaba que yo era el tonto que no poda encontrarlo. +Bueno, no habia Google en ese tiempo; No se poda usar Google en el 91 +Ese era mi gran problema. +Ahora vamos de aqu rpidamente a 1995. +Dej el pas, tenia una reunin con George Soros, para tratar por tercera vez de convencerlo de que su fundacin invierta en algo que funcione como un banco para los medios. +Bsicamente lo que propona era simple. +No era caridad, eso no funciona; +No eran limosnas, 20.000 dlares no ayudan a nadie. +Lo que deberan es tratar a empresas de medios como un negocio. +Todo es un negocio. +El negocio de los medios, como cualquier otro, tiene que capitalizarse. +Y lo que necesitan es acceso a capital. +Por eso tena los argumentos bien ensayados para la tecera reunin. +Al final de la reunin el dice: "Mira, no va a funcionar, nunca ms vers tu dinero "Pero mi fundacin va a poner 500.000 dlares para que pruebes la idea. +"Vas a ver que no funcionar. +Dijo, "Te doy una soga para que tu mismo te cuelgues. +Despes de esa reunin supe dos cosas. +Primero, que no quiero ahorcarme bajo ninguna circunstancia, +Y segundo, que no saba cmo hacer que funcione. +Era una gran idea +Pero una cosa es tener una idea y otra hacer que funcione. +As que no tenia ni idea de cmo hacerlo funcionar. +Tenia la idea incorrecta, pensaba que podamos ser un banco +Los bancos, no s si hay algun banquero presente, me disculpo de antemano, pero son el mejor trabajo del mundo. +Encuentran a alguien que sea respetable y tenga mucho dinero. +Le dan ms dinero y depus de un tiempo l paga. +Ustedes juntan los intereses y no hacen nada ms. +Por eso pens en ese negocio +Y tuvimos a nuestro primer cliente. Brillante. +El primer diario independiente en Eslovaquia. +El gobierno los exclua de todos los servicios de impresin en Bratislava. +Y aqu esta el diario que tiene que imprimirse a 400km de la capital. +Cuyo plazo de entrega es a las 4 p.m. +Por eso no tiene seccin deportiva, ni ltimas noticias y la circulacin se reduce. +Es una manera muy sofisticada de matar a un diario econmicamente. +Ellos vinieron a pedirnos un prstamo. +Querian, la unica manera de sobrevivir era teniendo una imprenta. +Y dijimos: bueno, reunmonos y triganos su plan de negocio. +Comenzamos la reunin. +Tuve esas dos hojas, no como stas, sino en formato A4 que es mucho ms grande. +Con muchos nmeros. Un montn +Pero los nmeros, como quiera que los pongas no tienen sentido. +Y eso es lo mejor que pudieron hacer. +ramos su mejor opcin. +Asi fue como entendimos cul es nuestro mtodo. +No es un banco. Realmente tenemos que entrar a esas empresas y ganar nuestro dinero nuevamente ayudndolos, estableciendo sistemas de administracin, otorgando todo el conocimiento, cmo manejar un negocio por un lado -- todos ellos saben cmo crear contenido. +Vayamos a los resultados +En estos 10 aos, 40 millones de dlares invertidos en financiacin asequible, la tasa de inters promedio es de 5 a 6 por ciento. +ltimamente, estamos descontrolados, cobrando a veces un 7 por ciento. +Hacemos esto en 17 pases en vas de desarrollo. +Y la cifra ms sorprendente. +la tasa de devolucin, por la que Soros estaba tan preocupado: 97% +Recibimos a tiempo el 97 por ciento de todos los pagos estipulados. +Qu financiamos? +Cualquier cosa que una empresa de medios necesite. Desde una imprenta hasta un transmisor. +Lo ms importante es que lo hacemos como prstamos, valores de renta, contratos de arrendamientos -- Lo que sea ms apropiado para apoyar a cualquiera. +Pero lo ms importante es A quin financiamos? +En los ltimos 10 aos las empresas que financiamos son las mejores empresas de medios de comunicacin del tercer mundo. +Esta es una lista de "Quin es Quin". +Y podra estar horas hablando de ellos porque son como hroes. +Pero les dar solo uno, o, dependiendo del tiempo, dos ejemplos de con quin trabajamos. +Empezamos trabajando en Europa Central y del Este, y continuamos en Rusia. +Nuestro primer prstamo en Rusia fue en Chelibinsk. +Seguro que nunca escucharon de ese lugar +En el sur de Rusia hay un hombre llamado Boris Nikolaivich que maneja un diario independiente. +La ciudad estuvo cerrada hasta los 90 porque producian vidrio para aviones. +Bien, l maneja un peridico independiente all. +Despus de dos aos con nosotros, se convierte en el peridico ms respetado del lugar. +El gobernador viene un da, y lo invita a su oficina. +El va y visita al gobernador y ste le dice: "Boris Nikolayevich, creo que est haciendo un gran trabajo "tiene el peridico ms respetado de nuestro distrito, +"y le quiero ofrecer un trato, +"Podria darme su peridico por nueve meses? "porque hay elecciones -- "las elecciones tendrn lugar en nueve meses. +"No participar pero es importante "saber quien ser mi sucesor. +"As que prsteme su peridico por nueve meses luego se lo devolver +"No me interesa ser un administrador de los medios. +"Cunto costara? +Boris Nikolayevich dice: "no est en venta." +El gobernador dice: "se lo cerraremos" +Boris Nikolayevich dice: "No, usted no puede hacer eso." +Seis meses despus el peridico estaba cerrado. +Por fortuna tuvimos tiempo de ayudar a Boris Nikolayevich a tomar todos los activos de esa empresa y llevarlos a otra, para tener todas las listas de suscripcin y contratar al equipo. +Y as el gobernador solo obtuvo un cascarn. +Eso es lo que pasa si usted est en el negocio de medios independientes, y si es un banquero para medios independientes. +Suena como una historia muy buena. +En algn lugar por ah inauguramos un centro de administracion de medios. +Comenzamos nuestro centro, suena como una historia muy buena. +Pero hay otra versin. +En la segunda version, como en el video, +si toma la cmara de arriba comienza a pensar nuevamente sobre estos nmeros, +40 millones de de dlares en 10 aos en 17 pases. +No es mucho. Cierto? +Solo es una gota en el mar. +Porque cuando pensamos en la importancia de problemas como los que hablbamos anoche -- la sesin sobre frica y sus hipotticos 50 billones de dlares destinados a frica. +Todos, no todos, la mitad de esos problemas mencionados -- la responsabilidad del gobierno, la corrupcin, y cmo combatirla, dndoles voz a los que no son escuchados, a los pobres -- es la razn de ser de los medios independientes. +Y es la causa de que se hayan inventado. +Desde ese punto de vista, lo que hicimos es slo una gota en un mar de necesidad que reconocemos. +La nuestra es slo una historia +Estoy seguro de que en este lugar hay 15 magnficas historias de organizaciones sin fines de lucro trabajando. +Aqu yace el problema, y se los explicar lo mejor que pueda. +Se llama recaudacin de fondos. +Imaginen que un tercio de este lugar est lleno de personas que representan distintas fundaciones. +Imaginen que dos tercios administran excelentes organizaciones, y realizan trabajos muy importantes. +Ahora imaginen que una de cada dos personas ac es sorda. Ahora apaguen las luces. +As de difcil es distinguir a las personas de este lado de la habitacin de aquellas del otro lado de la habitacin. +Por eso se necesita una gran idea para reformar y cambiar la recaudacin de fondos. +En lugar de personas en la oscuridad, tratando de buscar su par, alguien que est dispuesto, que tenga los mismos objetivos, +en lugar de todo eso, pensamos que algo nuevo necesita inventarse. +Y se nos ocurri la idea de emitir bonos, Bonos de libertad de prensa. +Si hay inversionistas dispuestos a financiar el dficit presupuestario de E.E.U.U Por qu no podramos encontrar inversionistas dispuestos a financiar el dficit de la libertad de prensa? +Decidimos hacerlo este otoo; los emitiremos por un valor de 1,000 dlares probablemente. +No quiero hacerles mucha publicidad, ese no es el punto +El punto es, si sobrevivimos para emitirlos y encontrar inversionitas suficientes, se podra considerar un xito. No hay nada que detenga a la prxima organizacin a emitir bonos la prxima primavera. +Y podran ser bonos ecologistas +Y luego, dos semanas despus Iqbal Quadir podra emitir su electricidad en bonos Bangladesh. +Y antes que lo sepan, cualquier causa social puede ser financiada de esta manera. +Ahora soaremos a las 11:30 -- quedan 55 segundos +Pero llevemos la idea ms all. +Ustedes lo hacen, comienzan en E.E.U.U. porque los conceptos estn ms relacionadas con las mentes americanas. +Pero tambin lo pueden llevar a Europa +o a Asia. +Pueden, una vez que tengan todos los puntos, pueden facilitrserlo a los invserionistas. +Poner todos los bonos en un lugar as ellos se sientan y hacen click +Una vez que tengan ms de 10 tendrn que desarrollar una especie de matriz. +Qu ganan los inversionistas? +Beneficios econmicos y sociales. +Y eso nos da la idea de una especie de agencia de clasificacin, del tipo Morningstar. +Que diga: el impacto social aqui es espectacular, cinco estrellas. +Econmicamente nos dan uno por ciento, slo una estrella. +Ahora llevmoslo al ltimo paso. +Una vez que tengamos todo esto, no hay razn por la cual no puedan tener un lugar de mercado para todo eso, donde no puedan liquidar todos esos bonos en forma rpida. +De esa manera se organizan las financiaciones. as no hay habitaciones oscuras, ni gente ciega dando vueltas para encontrarse unos con otros. +Gracias. +Yo trabajo con una especie llamada bonobo. +Y estoy feliz la mayor parte del tiempo, porque creo que esta es la especie ms feliz del planeta. +Es un secreto bien guardado. +Esta especie slo vive en el Congo. +Y no estn en muchos zoolgicos debido a su comportamiento sexual. +Su conducta sexual se parece demasiado a la humana, lo que deja incmodos a muchos. +Pero... en realidad, tenemos mucho que aprender de ellos porque son una sociedad muy igualitaria y emptica. +Y su comportamiento sexual no se limita a un aspecto de su vida que separan de otras reas. +Est presente en todos los aspectos de su vida. +Y se usa para la comunicacin. +Y se usa para la resolucin de conflictos. +Y creo que quizs en algn punto de nuestra historia dividimos nuestras vidas en muchas partes. +Dividimos nuestro mundo en un montn de categoras. +Y as, todo tiene una especie de lugar donde debe encajar. +Pero no creo que furamos as en un principio. +Hay muchos que piensan que el mundo animal est gobernado por reglas fijas y que el hombre tiene algo muy, muy especial. +Quizs sea su capacidad de pensar causalmente. +Tal vez sea algo especial en su cerebro que le permite tener lenguaje. +Tal vez sea algo especial en su cerebro que le permite fabricar herramientas o tener matemticas. +Bueno, no s, alrededor del 1600 se descubri una tribu en Tasmania y no tenan fuego. +No tenan herramientas de piedra. +Hasta donde sabemos, no tenan msica. +As que, si los comparamos con los bonobo, el bonobo es un poco ms peludo. +No se para tan erguido. +Pero hay muchas similitudes. +Y creo que al observar la cultura, podemos comprender cmo llegamos a donde estamos. +Y no creo que sea por nuestra biologa. Creo que lo atribuimos a nuestra biologa pero no creo que realmente sea eso. +As que ahora quiero presentarles a la especie llamada bonobo. +Este es Kanzi. +l es un bonobo. +En este momento est en un bosque en Georgia. +Su madre es originaria de un bosque en frica. +Ella vino a nosotros cuando tena unos seis o siete aos de edad, justo en su pubertad. +Aqu vemos un bonobo a su derecha y un chimpanc a su izquierda. +Evidentemente, el chimpanc tiene ms dificultad al caminar. +El bonobo, aunque ms bajo y de brazos ms largos que nosotros, est ms erguido, como nosotros. +Esto compara un bonobo con un australopitecino como Lucy. +Como pueden ver no hay mucha diferencia entre la forma de caminar de un bonobo y la forma en que un australopitecino primitivo habra caminado. +Al girar hacia nosotros vern que el rea plvica del australopitecino primitivo es un poco ms plana y no tiene que rotar tanto de un lado a otro. +Por lo tanto, le es un poco ms fcil caminar bpedamente. +Y ahora vemos a los cuatro. +Vdeo: El bonobo salvaje vive en frica central, en la selva rodeada por el ro Congo. +Frondosos rboles que llegan a los 40 metros o 130 pies cubren densamente la zona. +El primero en realizar estudios de campo serios sobre el bonobo fue un cientfico japons, hace casi tres dcadas. +Los bonobo son ligeramente ms pequeos que los chimpancs. +Delgados, los bonobo son por naturaleza criaturas pacficas. +Largos y minuciosos estudios nos han develado nuevos descubrimientos. +Un descubrimiento fue que a menudo los bonobo salvajes caminan en dos patas. +An ms, son capaces de caminar erguidos por largas distancias. +"Saludemos a Austin y, a continuacin, vayamos al cuadro A." +Susan Savage-Rumbaugh: Estos somos Kanzi y yo en el bosque. +Nada de lo que vern en este video fue aprendido por entrenamiento. +No hay ningn truco. +Todo fue capturado en video espontneamente por la NHK de Japn. +Tenemos ocho bonobos. +Vdeo: "Mira todas las cosas para nuestra fogata." +SS: Una familia entera en nuestro centro de investigacin. +Video: "Vas a ayudar a juntar palos? +Bien. +Tambin necesitamos ms palos. +Tengo un encendedor en el bolsillo si lo necesitas. +Eso es un avispero. +Puedes sacarlo. +Espero tener un encendedor. +Puedes usar el encendedor para prender el fuego." +SS: A Kanzi le interesa mucho el fuego. +An no lo prende sin un encendedor, pero creo que si viera a alguien hacerlo, podra ser capaz de hacer un fuego sin un encendedor. +Est aprendiendo cmo mantener un fuego encendido. +Est aprendiendo los usos del fuego simplemente viendo lo que hacemos nosotros con el fuego. +Esta es una sonrisa en el rostro de un bonobo. +Estas son vocalizaciones de alegra. +Video: "Ests feliz. +Lo que ests haciendo te hace muy feliz. +Debes poner un poco de agua sobre el fuego. Ves el agua? +Buen trabajo." +SS: Olvid cerrar su mochila completamente. +Pero le gusta llevar cosas de un lugar a otro. +Video: "Austin, te oigo decir Austin." +SS: Habla con otros bonobos en el laboratorio, a distancia, ms lejos de lo que podemos or. +Esta es su hermana. +Esta es la primera vez que trata de conducir un carro de golf. +Vdeo: "Adis." +SS: Entendi los pedales, pero no el volante. +Cambia de reversa a avance y se sujeta al volante, en lugar de girarlo. +Como nosotros, sabe que el individuo en el espejo es ella misma. +Vdeo: Al criar bonobos en una cultura a la vez bonobo y humana y documentar su desarrollo a travs de dos dcadas, los cientficos estudian cmo las fuerzas culturales pueden haber operado durante la evolucin humana. +Su nombre es Nyota. +Significa estrella en swahili. +Panbanisha intenta cortarle el pelo a Nyota con un par de tijeras. +En la naturaleza, los padres bonobo suelen acicalar a sus cras. +Aqu Panbanisha usa tijeras en lugar de sus manos, para acicalar a Nyota. +Muy impresionante. +Se necesitan maniobras sutiles de las manos para realizar tareas delicadas como esta. +Nyota intenta imitar a Panbanisha usando las tijeras del mismo modo. +Consciente de que Nyota podra lastimarse, Panbanisha, como cualquier madre humana, cuidadosamente intenta sacrselas. +Ya puede cortar a travs de cuero grueso. +SS: Kanzi ha aprendido a hacer herramientas de piedra. +Vdeo: Kanzi ahora fabrica sus herramientas, del mismo modo que nuestros antepasados podran haberlas hecho hace dos millones y medio de aos atrs; sujetando las piedras con ambas manos y golpendolas entre s. +Aprendi que si usa ambas manos y apunta dnde hacer estos golpes oblicuos puede hacer trozos mucho ms grandes y afilados. +Kanzi elige un trozo que cree est suficientemente afilado. +El cuero es difcil de cortar, incluso con un cuchillo. +La roca que est utilizando Kanzi es extremadamente dura e ideal para hacer herramientas de piedra, pero difcil de manejar; requiere gran habilidad. +La roca de Kanzi es de Gona, Etiopa y es idntica a las utilizadas por nuestros antepasados africanos dos millones y medio de aos atrs. +Estas son las piedras que Kanzi utiliz y estos son los trozos que fabric. +Los bordes afilados son como los filos de un cuchillo. +Comparmoslos con las herramientas de nuestros antepasados: tienen un gran parecido con las de Kanzi. +Panbanisha anhela ir a dar un paseo en el bosque. +Mira continuamente por la ventana. +SS: Esto es; quiero mostrarles algo que no creamos que pudiera hacer. +Video: Desde hace varios das Panbanisha no sale. +SS: Normalmente hablo del lenguaje. +Vdeo: Entonces Panbanisha hace algo inesperado. +SS: Pero como me aconsejaron no hacer lo que normalmente hago, no les he dicho que estos simios tienen lenguaje. +Es un lenguaje geomtrico. +Vdeo: Toma un trozo de tiza y comienza a escribir algo en el suelo. +Qu est escribiendo? +SS: Tambin lo est nombrando con su voz. +Video: Ahora se acerca a la Dra. Sue y empieza a escribir de nuevo. +SS: Estos son los smbolos de su teclado. +Le hablan cuando los oprime. +Vdeo: Panbanisha le est comunicando a la Dr. Sue dnde quiere ir. +El cuadro A representa una cabaa en el bosque. +Comparen la escritura en tiza con el lexigrama del teclado. +Panbanisha comenz a escribir lexigramas en el suelo del bosque. +"Muy bonito. Hermoso, Panbanisha." +SS: Al principio no comprendamos lo que estaba haciendo, hasta que lo miramos de ms lejos y lo rotamos. +Video: Este lexigrama tambin se refiere a un lugar en el bosque. +La lnea curva es muy similar a la del lexigrama. +El siguiente smbolo representa collar. +Indica el collar que Panbanisha debe llevar cuando sale. +SS: Es un requisito institucional. +Video: Este smbolo no es tan claro como los dems pero se nota que Panbanisha est tratando de hacer una lnea curva y varias lneas rectas. +Los investigadores comenzaron a registrar lo que Panbanisha deca, al escribir lexigramas en el suelo con tiza. +Panbanisha mir lo que hacan. +Y pronto empez a escribir igual que ellos. +Las habilidades de los bonobo han sorprendido a los cientficos de todo el mundo. +Cmo se desarrollaron? +SS: Encontramos que el factor ms importante que permite a los bonobo adquirir el lenguaje es no ensearles. +Simplemente es utilizar el lenguaje a su alrededor, porque el impulso detrs de la adquisicin del lenguaje es entender lo que estn dicindonos quienes nos importan. +Una vez que tenemos esa capacidad, la capacidad de producir lenguaje viene natural y libremente. +Por lo tanto, queremos crear un ambiente en el que los bonobos se sientan a gusto con quienes interactan. Queremos crear un entorno en el que se diviertan y un entorno en el cual los dems sean personas significativas para ellos. +Video: Este ambiente revela el potencial inesperado de Kanzi y Panbanisha. +Panbanisha goza tocando su armnica, hasta que Nyota, que ahora tiene un ao, se la roba. +Luego, mira con impaciencia la boca de su madre. +Est buscando el origen del sonido? +La Dra. Sue piensa que es importante permitir el desarrollo de tal curiosidad. +Esta vez Panbanisha toca el piano elctrico. +No se le oblig a aprender el piano; vio tocar a un investigador y se interes. +"Adelante. Adelante. Estoy escuchando. +Haz esa parte muy rpida que hiciste. S, esa parte." +Kanzi toca el xilfono con ambas manos, acompaando con entusiasmo a la Dr. Sue que canta. +Kanzi y Panbanisha son estimulados por este ambiente ldico, que promueve la aparicin de estas capacidades culturales. +"Bien, ahora los monstruos. Atrpalos. +Toma las cerezas tambin. +Ahora cuidado, aljate de ellos. +Ahora puedes perseguirlos de nuevo. Tiempo de cazarlos. +Ahora tienes que alejarte. Aljate. +Corre lejos. Corre. +Ahora podemos volver a perseguirlos. Ve por ellos. +Oh no! +Bien Kanzi. Muy bien. Muchas gracias." +Ninguno de nosotros, bonobo o humano pudo imaginarlo. +SS: As que tenemos un medio ambiente de dos especies; lo llamamos "cultura panhomo". +Estamos aprendiendo a ser como ellos. +Estamos aprendiendo a comunicarnos con ellos, en tonos realmente agudos. +Estamos aprendiendo que probablemente tienen un lenguaje en su ambiente salvaje. +Y ellos estn aprendiendo a ser como nosotros. +Porque creemos que no es la biologa, es la cultura. +Por lo tanto, compartimos las herramientas, la tecnologa y el lenguaje con otra especie. +Gracias. +Si quieren aprender a tocar la langosta tenemos algunas aqu. +Y no es una broma, realmente las tenemos. +As que vengan despus y les mostrar cmo tocar la langosta. +En realidad, comenc trabajando con lo que se llama camarn mantis hace unos aos porque producen sonido. +Esta es una grabacin que hice de un camarn mantis que se encuentra en la costa de California. +Y si bien es un sonido absolutamente fascinante realmente es un proyecto muy difcil. +Y mientras luchaba por dar con la forma de produccin de sonido del camarn mantis o los estomatpodos comenc a pensar en sus apndices. +Y los camarones mantis se llaman as en honor a las mantis religiosas que tambin tienen un veloz apndice alimentario. Comenc a pensar bien, quiz sea interesante, al escuchar sus sonidos, saber cmo es que estos animales generan movimientos tan veloces. +Y por eso hoy hablar de los golpes extremos del estomatpodo trabajo que hicimos junto a Wyatt Korff y Roy Caldwell. +Los camarones mantis vienen en dos variedades: estn los arponeadores y los trituradores. +Y este es un camarn mantis arponeador, o estomatpodo. +Vive en la arena y atrapa cosas que pasan por encima. +As un golpe rpido como ese. Y, un poco ms lento, este es el camarn mantis -- la misma especie -- grabado a 1.000 cuadros por segundo reproducido a 15 cuadros por segundo. +Puede verse una extensin de las garras realmente espectacular explotando hacia arriba para atrapar un trozo muerto de camarn que le ofrec. +El otro tipo de camarn mantis es el estomatpodo triturador y estos tipos abren caracoles como medio de vida. +As este sujeto le da al caracol un castaazo +Lo voy a pasar una vez ms. +Se contonea, da un tirn con el hocico y tritura. +Y luego de eso el caracol ya est abierto y es una buena cena. +As el apndice predatorio puede apualar con una punta al final o puede despedazar con el taln. +Y hoy hablar del golpe de despedazamiento. +Y entonces la primera pregunta que me surgi bien, cun rpido se mueve esta garra? +Porque se mueve bastante rpido en ese video. +E inmediatamente encontr un problema. +Ningn sistema de video de alta velocidad del departamento de biologa de Berkeley era suficientemente veloz para capturar este movimiento. +Simplemente no podamos capturarlo en video. +Esto me desconcert durante mucho tiempo. +Y luego vino un equipo de la BBC al departamento de biologa en busca de alguna historia en nuevas tecnologas de biologa. +Y entonces hicimos un acuerdo. +Les dije: "Bien, muchachos, si alquilan el sistema de video de alta velocidad que pueda capturar estos movimientos pueden filmarnos recolectando los datos". +Y crase o no, lo hicieron. Fue as que accedimos al sistema de video. Tecnologa de punta -- haba salido haca cerca de un ao -- que permite filmar a velocidades altsimas con poca luz. +Y poca luz es algo crtico al filmar animales porque si es muy alta quedan fritos. As, esto es un camarn mantis. Esos son los ojos hay un apndice predador y el taln. +Esa cosa va a contonearse y pegarle al caracol. +El caracol est sujeto a un palo por eso es ms fcil montar el golpe. Y -- s +Espero que no haya aqu activistas por los derechos del caracol. +Esto fue filmado a 5.000 cuadros por segundo y lo estoy reproduciendo a 15. Entonces se ralentiz 333 veces. +Y como notarn todava es bastante rpido ralentizado 333 veces. Es un movimiento increblemente potente. +Se extiende toda la garra. El cuerpo se flexiona hacia atrs un movimiento espectacular. +Lo que hicimos fue mirar estos videos y medimos la velocidad del movimiento de la garra para regresar a la pregunta original. +Y hallamos la primer sorpresa. +Lo que calculamos era que las garras se movan a la velocidad pico desde 10 metros por segundo hasta 23 metros por segundo. +Y para los que prefieren kilmetros por hora es ms de 70 km por hora en agua. Y eso es muy rpido. +De hecho, es tan rpido que podamos agregar un nuevo punto al extremo del espectro del movimiento animal. +Y el camarn mantis tiene, oficialmente, el golpe ms veloz registrado del reino animal. Nuestra primera sorpresa. +Eso fue muy cool e inesperado. +Se preguntarn, bien, cmo lo hacen? +Y en realidad este trabajo es de los '60s, de un bilogo famoso llamado Malcolm Burrows. +Y lo que muestra del camarn mantis es que usan lo que se llama mecanismo de captura, o de clic. +Y bsicamente consta de un gran msculo que se contrae en bastante tiempo y de un pestillo que inmoviliza todo. +Entonces se contrae el msculo y no pasa nada. +Y una vez que el msculo se contrae por completo, todo acumulado el pestillo va hacia arriba, y se produce el movimiento. +Eso es bsicamente lo que se llama un sistema de amplificacin de potencia. +El msculo se contrae en un tiempo largo y la garra vuela en un tiempo muy corto. +Y pens que esto era el fin de la historia. +As es como el camarn mantis da estos golpes tan rpidos. +Pero despus hice un viaje al Museo Nacional de Historia Natural. +Y si alguno tiene la oportunidad alguna vez la trastienda del Museo Nacional de Historia Natural es de las mejores colecciones mundiales de camarones mantis preservados. esto es algo serio para m. +Esto -- lo que veo en cada garra de camarn mantis sea un arponeador o un triturador es una hermosa estructura de montura justo en la superficie superior de la garra. Pueden verla aqu. +Se ve como una montura puesta en un caballo. +Es una estructura muy bella. +Est rodeada de reas membranosas. Y esas reas membranosas me sugieren que quiz sea una especie de estructura dinmicamente flexible. +Y esto me hizo pensar bastante. +E hicimos una serie de clculos, y lo que llegamos a mostrar es que estos camarones mantis tienen que tener un resorte. +Tiene que haber una especie de mecanismo de carga de resorte para generar la cantidad de fuerza que observamos y la velocidad que observamos y la salida del sistema. +Entonces pensamos, bien, esto debe ser un resorte la montura podra muy bien ser un resorte. +Y volvimos a los videos de alta velocidad de nuevo y pudimos ver la montura comprimirse y extenderse. +Lo repetir una vez ms. +Y si miran el video es bastante difcil verlo -- est resaltado en amarillo. +La montura est resaltada en amarillo. Pueden verla extenderse en el curso del golpe, hiperextendindose en realidad. +As, tenamos evidencia muy slida que mostraba que esa estructura de montura en realidad se comprime y extiende y acta, de hecho, como un resorte. +La estructura de montura se conoce tambin como superficie paraboloide hiperblica o superficie anticlstica. +Y esto es muy bien sabido por ingenieros y arquitectos porque es una superficie muy fuerte en compresin. +Tiene curvas en dos direcciones una curva hacia arriba y la otra opuesta transversal hacia abajo as toda perturbacin dispersa las fuerzas sobre la superficie de este tipo de forma. +Entonces es muy conocida por los ingenieros y no as por los bilogos. +Es conocida tambin por mucha gente que hace joyera porque requiere muy poco material para construir este tipo de superficies y es muy fuerte. +As, si uno va a construir una estructura delgada de oro es muy bueno hacerla en una forma que sea fuerte. +Ahora, es conocida tambin por arquitectos. Uno de los arquitectos ms famosos es Eduardo Catalano, quien populariz esta estructura. +Y este es un techo en forma de montura que l construy de 26 metros y medio de envergadura. +Tiene ms de 6 centmetros de ancho y se apoya en dos puntos. +Y una de las razones por las que dise techos de esta manera es debido a que encontr fascinante que se pueda construir una estructura tan fuerte con tan pocos materiales y que se pueda apoyar en tan pocos puntos. +Y todos estos principios son los mismos que se aplican al resorte de montura de los estomatpodos. +En sistemas biolgicos es importante no tener la parafernalia de material extra para construirlo. +As, hay paralelos muy interesantes entre los mundos de la biologa y la ingeniera. Y lo interesante resulta ser que la montura del estomatpodo resulta ser el primer resorte biolgico paraboloide hiperblico descripto. +Es un poco largo, pero como que es interesante. +As la siguiente y ltima pregunta fue, bien, cunta fuerza produce el camarn mantis si puede abrir caracoles? +Y as yo conect lo que se llama celdas de carga. +Una celda de carga mide fuerzas y esta es en realidad una celda de carga piezoelectrnica que tiene un pequeo cristal. +Y cuando se presiona este cristal cambian las propiedades elctricas en proporcin a la fuerza que recibe. +As, estos animales son maravillosamente agresivos y tienen hambre todo el tiempo. Entonces todo lo que tuve que hacer fue poner pasta de camarn al frente de la celda de carga y entonces ellos le pegaban. +Esto es un video normal del animal pegndole a esta celda de carga. +Y pudimos medir algunas fuerzas. +De nuevo, nos sorprendimos. +Yo compr una celda de carga de 45 kg pensando que ningn animal de ese tamao podra producir ms de 45 kg. +Y saben qu? Inmediatamente sobrepasaron la celda de carga. +Estos son en verdad datos viejos en los que encontramos los animales ms pequeos del laboratorio y pudimos medir fuerzas de bastante ms que 45 kg generadas por una animal de cerca de este tamao. +Y realmente la semana pasada consegu una celda de carga de 136 kg en funcionamiento y cronometr a estos animales generando ms de 90 kg de fuerza. +Nuevamente, pens que esto sera un rcord mundial. +Tengo que documentarme un poco ms pero pienso que esta ser la cantidad ms grande de fuerza producida por un animal por unidad de masa corporal. As, fuerzas increbles. +De nuevo, esto nos retrotrae a la importancia de ese resorte que almacena y libera tanta energa en este sistema. +Pero ese no fue el fin de la historia. +ahora, las cosas -- esto suena muy fcil, pero lleva mucho trabajo conseguirlo. +Obtuve todas estas mediciones de fuerza y luego fui a ver la salida de fuerzas del sistema. +Esto es muy simple -- el tiempo est en el eje X y la fuerza est en el eje Y. Pueden verse dos picos. +Y eso fue lo que me dej intrigada. +El primer pico, obviamente, es la garra golpeando la celda de carga. +Pero hay un segundo gran pico medio milisegundo despus y yo no saba qu era. +Entonces uno esperara un segundo pico por otras razones pero no medio milisegundo despus. +Otra vez, volviendo a esos videos de alta velocidad hay una pista bastante buena de lo que puede estar sucediendo. +Aqu hay esa misma orientacin que vimos antes. +Est el apndice predatorio -- est el taln y va a menearse e impactar la celda de carga. +Y lo que quiero que hagan en esta toma es que miren esto en la superficie de la celda de carga, mientras pasa la garra. +Y espero que lo que puedan ver sea en verdad un destello de luz. +Audiencia: Guau! +Sheila Patek: Y si tomamos ese cuadro, lo que vemos all al final de la flecha amarilla es una burbuja de vapor. +Eso es la cavitacin. +La cavitacin es un fenmeno extremadamente potente de la dinmica de fluidos que ocurre cuando uno tiene reas de agua que se mueven a velocidades muy diferentes. +Cuando esto sucede, puede provocar reas de muy baja presin que da como resutado, literalmente, la evaporacin de agua. +Y cuando estalla la burbuja de vapor emite sonido, luz y calor; es un proceso muy destructivo. +Y aqu en el estomatpodo. Nuevamente, es una situacin en que los ingenieros estn muy familiarizados con este fenmeno porque destruye las hlices de los barcos. +La gente hace aos que viene luchando tratando de disear una hlice que gire muy rpido pero no cavite porque, literalmente, desgaste el metal y hace hoyos en las hlices como muestran estas imgenes. +Entonces esta es una fuerza potente de los sistemas de fluidos y para llevarlo un poco ms lejos les voy a mostrar el camarn mantis acercarse al caracol. +Esta fue fomada a 20.000 cuadros por segundo y tengo que dar crdito al camargrafo de la BBC, Tim Green, por lograr esta toma porque yo no hubiera podido hacerlo ni en un milln de aos. Una de las ventajas de trabajar con camargrafos profesionales. +Pueden verlo llegar y un destello de luz increble y toda esta cavitacin esparcida por la superficie del caracol. +As, realmente, una imagen asombrosa ralentizada al extremo, a velocidades extremadamente bajas. +De nuevo, podemos verla de manera ligeramente diferente all formando la burbuja y explotando entre esas dos superficies. +De hecho, podran haber visto alguna cavitacin en el borde de la garra. +As, para resolver el dilema de los dos picos de fuerza: lo que pens que estaba sucediendo fue que el primer impacto es la garra golpeando la celda de carga y el segundo es la explosin de la burbuja de cavitacin. +Y estos animales pueden muy bien estar haciendo uso de no slo la fuerza y energa almacenada con ese resorte especializado sino los extremos de la dinmica de fluidos. Y pueden en realidad estar usando la dinmica de fluidos como segunda fuerza para romper el caracol. +Una suerte de latigazo doble, por as decirlo, de estos animales. +Entonces una pregunta que suelen hacerme al final de estas charlas que imagino contestarla ahora -- es, bien, qu pasa con el animal? +Porque, obviamente, si parte caracoles, la pobre garra debe desintegrarse. Y, de hecho, lo hace. +Esa es la parte del taln que impacta en ambas imgenes y queda desgastado. De hecho, los he visto desgastar su taln hasta quedar en carne viva. +Pero una ventaja de ser artrpodo es que cambian la piel. Y cada tres meses aproximadamente estos animales cambian la piel y construyen una nueva garra sin problema. +Una solucin muy, muy, prctica para ese problema particular. +Me gustara termianr con una nota extravagante. +Quiz todo esto sea extravagante para gente como Uds., no lo s. +Las monturas -- ese resorte de montura -- es bien conocido por bilogos desde hace mucho tiempo no como resorte pero s como seal visual. +Y hay un punto espectacularmente coloreado en el centro de las monturas de muchas especies de estomatpodos. +Y eso es muy interesante, encontrar orgenes evolutivos de seales visuales en lo que son, en todas las especies, sus resortes. +Y pienso que una explicacin de esto podra ser volviendo al fenmeno de cambio de piel. +Estos animales entran en un perodo de cambio de piel en que no golpean -- sus cuerpos quedan muy blandos. +Y, literalmente, no pueden golpear o se autodestruiran. +Esto es real. Y lo que hacen es, hasta que ese perodo en que no pueden golpear, se vuelven repugnantes y espantosos y le pegan a todo lo que ven sin importar quin o qu sea. +Luego entran en ese punto del tiempo en que no pueden golpear ms slo sealan. Mueven sus piernas. +Es uno de los ejemplos tpicos en comportamiento animal de fingir. +Es un hecho muy conocido de estos animales que en realidad fingen. No pueden golpear realmente, pero fingen hacerlo. +Y me tiene intrigada si esos puntos coloreados del centro de la montura llevan algn tipo de informacin sobre su habilidad para golpear o de su fuerza de golpe y algo sobre el perodo del ciclo de cambio de piel. +Es un hecho extrao e interesante encontrar una estructura visual en medio de la montura de su resorte. +Para terminar quiero agradecer a mis dos colaboradores Wyatt Korff y Roy Caldwell, que trabajaron conmigo codo a codo. +Y tambin al Instituto Miller de Investigacin Bsica en Ciencia que me financi durante tres aos para hacer ciencia todo el tiempo y por eso estoy muy agradecida. Muchas gracias. +Otra vez, este no es un truco ptico. Esto es lo que vern. En otras palabras, no es un truco de cmara. Es un truco de percepcin. +Ok. Podemos romper sus expectativas sobre la forma. +Podemos romper sus expectativas en la representacin, en lo que una imagen representa, qu ven aqu? +Cuntos de ustedes ven los delfines? Levanten la mano si ven los delfines. Bien, aquellos que levantaron la mano, despus dirjansen con el resto de la audiencia de acuerdo? En realidad, este es el mejor ejemplo de experiencia primitiva que conozco. +Si eres un nio menor de 10 que no has sido estropeado todava, vers esta imagen y vers delfines. Ahora bien, algunos de ustedes adultos se estarn diciendo: "Delfines? Cules delfines?" +Recuerdan esta clase de, mm. Esta es la broma que hice cuando estaba pasando la votacin en Florida. Cuenten los puntos para Gore, cuenten los puntos para Bush. Cuntelos otra vez. +Pueden romper sus expectativas de la experiencia. Aqu hay una fuente exterior que hicimos unos amigos mos y yo, en la que pueden parar el agua en gotas y de hecho hacer que todas las gotas leviten. Esto es algo que construimos para parques de diversiones y cosas por el estilo. +Ahora vayamos a una imagen esttica pueden ver esto? +Ven la seccin intermedia moverse hacia abajo y las secciones exteriores moverse para arriba? Estn completamente estticas. +Es una imagen esttica cuntas personas ven esta ilusin? Es completamente esttica. +Bien. Ahora cuando es interesante que cuando miramos una imagen, vemos color, profundidad, textura. Pueden ver la escena completa y analizarla. Pueden ver a la mujer ms cerca que la pared, etctera. Pero todo el conjunto es en realidad plano. Est pintado. Es lo que se llama trampantojo. +Y es tan buen ejemplo de trampantojo que la gente se irritaba cuando tratan de hablar con la mujer y que no les responda. +Ahora bien, pueden hacer errores de diseo. Como este edificio en Nueva York. De modo que si lo ven de este lado, parece que las balcones se ladean hacia arriba, y cuando caminan hacia el otro lado parece que los balcones se ladean hacia abajo. As que hay casos donde hay errores de diseo que incorporan ilusiones. +O, tomen esta fotografa en particular sin retocar. Resulta muy interesante que recibo muchos correos de gente que dice: existe alguna diferencia de percepcin entre hombres y mujeres? +Y en realidad digo: No. Quiero decir, las mujeres pueden navegar el mundo tan bien como los hombres pueden por qu no podran hacerlo? Sin embargo, esta es una ilusin en la que las mujeres consistentemente sobresalen a los hombres al aparear la cabeza porque cuentan con pistas de moda. Ven si el sombrero coordina. +Pues estas son inclusiones tempranas de ilusiones tradas por una especie de tema lgido con Embajadores de Hans Holbein. Hans Holbein trabajaba para Enrique VIII. Esto estaba colgado en una pared donde si uno bajaba de la escalera poda ver esta calavera escondida. +Muy bien. Ahora voy a mostrarles algunos diseadores que trabajaron con ilusiones que dan ese elemento de sorpresa. Uno de mis favoritos es Scott Kim. Trabaj con Scott para crear algunas ilusiones para TED y espero que las disfruten. Tenemos una aqu en TED y felicidad. +Ok ahora. Arthur [Ganson] todava no da su charla, que ser una delicia y tiene algunas de sus mquinas realmente fantsticas afuera. Entonces, nosotros con Scott creamos este maravilloso tributo a Arthur Ganson. +Bien, tenemos anlogo y digital. Pensamos que esto era apropiado. +Y la figura cambia al fondo. +Y para los msicos. +Y por supuesto, puesto que la felicidad, queremos "alegra en el mundo". +Ahora, otro gran diseador, muy conocido en Japn es Shigeo Fukuda. l sencillamente construye algunas cosas fantsticas. Esto es sencillamente asombroso. Esto es una pila de deshechos que cuando los ven desde un ngulo en particular, ven reflejando en el espejo un piano perfecto. +El pianista que se transforma en violinista. +Esto es realmente de locura. Este montaje de tenedores, cuchillos y cucharas y cubiertos, soldados entre s nos dan la sombra de una motocicleta. Lo que se aprende en el tipo de cosas que hago, es que hay mucha gente por ah con mucho tiempo en sus manos. +Ahora me voy a adelantar porque como que me estoy atrasando. Quiero mostrales rpidamente lo que he creado. Un nuevo tipo de ilusiones. He estado haciendo cosas como ilusiones del tipo Pixar. Ven a estos nios del mismo tamao aqu, corriendo por el pasillo. Las dos mesas son del mismo tamao. +Si los miden, lo vern. Como dije, estas dos figuras son idnticas en tamao y forma. +Es interesante que al hacer esta clase de formas de representaciones, cmo las ilusiones son ms fuertes. Cual sea el caso, espero que esto les haya dado un poco de alegra y felicidad. Si les interesa ver ms efectos fabulosos, estar afuera y con mucho gusto les mostrar muchas cosas ms. +Les llevar hasta Bangladesh slo durante un minuto. +Antes de contarles esa historia, deberamos hacernos una pregunta: Por qu existe la pobreza? +Quiero decir que hay mucho conocimiento y avances cientficos. +Vivimos todos en el mismo planeta, sin embargo existe an muchsima pobreza en el mundo. +Y creo... quiero plantear una perspectiva que tengo, para que as podamos evaluar este proyecto, o cualquier otro, al respecto, para ver si est contribuyendo o... a aumenta la pobreza o a aliviarla. +Durante los ltimos 60 aos los pases ricos han estado enviando ayuda a los pases ricos. +Con todo, ha sido un fracaso. +Pueden ver este libro, escrito por alguien que trabaj en el Banco Mundial durante 20 aos, y a quien el crecimiento econmico en este pas le resulta difcil de alcanzar. +Con todo, no ha funcionado. +Por lo tanto la cuestin es, por qu es as? +En mi opinin, hay algo que aprender de la historia de Europa. +Incluso aqu, ayer iba por la calle, y me indicaron que hace 500 aos tres obispos fueron ejecutados, aqu mismo, al otro lado de la calle. +As que mi idea es que ha habido grandes luchas en Europa, en donde los ciudadanos fueron empoderados por las tecnologas. +Y exigieron a las autoridades... que se bajaran de sus pedestales. +Y al final, se establece un acuerdo mejor entre las autoridades y los ciudadanos y las democracias, el capitalismo... todo floreci. +Pueden ver, el proceso real de... y esto est respaldado por un libro de 500 pginas... que las autoridades descendieron y los ciudadanos ascendieron. +Pero si observan, si tienen esa perspectiva, pueden ver lo que ha ocurrido en los ltimos 60 aos. +La ayuda en realidad ha hecho lo contrario. +Ha empoderado a las autoridades. Y como consecuencia, ha marginado a los ciudadanos. +Las autoridades no han tenido motivo para promover el crecimiento econmico para que pudieran aplicar impuestos a la gente y recaudar ms dinero de la actividad de sus empresas. +Porque lo estaban recibiendo del exterior. +Y de hecho, si ven a los pases ricos en petrleo, donde los ciudadanos no estn empoderados, ocurre lo mismo. Nigeria, Arabia Saud, todos esos pases. +Porque la ayuda y el dinero procedente del petrleo o la minera acta igual. +Empodera a las autoridades, sin activar a los ciudadanos... sus manos, piernas, sus mentes, y dems. +Y si estn de acuerdo con eso, creo que lo mejor para mejorar esos pases es reconocer que el desarrollo econmico es de la gente, por la gente, para la gente. +Y ese es el efecto de una red de verdad. +Si los ciudadanos pueden trabajar en red y organizarse y hacerse ms productivos, para que se oigan sus voces, entonces las cosas mejoraran. +A diferencia de esto, pueden ver la institucin ms importante del mundo, el Banco Mundial, es una organizacin del gobierno, por el gobierno, para los gobiernos. +Fjense qu diferencia. +Y esa es la perspectiva que tengo, y ahora puedo comenzar mi historia. +Por supuesto, cmo empoderaran ustedes a los ciudadanos? +Podran existir muchos tipos de tecnologas. Y una de ellas es los mviles. +Hace poco The Economist lo ha reconocido, pero a m se me ocurri la idea hace 12 aos, y en ella he estado trabajando. +Hace 12 aos intentaba ser un banquero especialista en inversiones en Nueva York. +Tenamos... bastantes colegas conectados a travs de ordenadores en red. +Y ramos ms productivos porque no tenamos que intercambiar floppy disks; nos podamos actualizar ms a menudo. +Pero una vez se vino abajo. +Y me record un da de 1971. +Haba una guerra in mi pas. +Y mi familia se mud de la zona urbana, donde vivamos, a una zona rural lejana que era ms segura. +Y una vez mi madre me pidi que fuera a por una medicina para un hermano pequeo. +Camin 15 kilmetros, toda la maana, para llegar all, al hombre de las medicinas. +Pero no estaba, as que tuve que caminar toda la tarde de vuelta. +As que tuve otro da improductivo. +Mientras que estaba sentado en un rascacielos de Nueva York, junt esas dos experiencias, y bsicamente llegu a la conclusin de que concectividad es productividad ya sea en una oficina moderna o en un pueblo subdesarrollado. +Naturalmente... eso supone que el telfono es un arma en contra de la pobreza. +Y si es as, entonces la cuestin es cuntos telfonos tenamos entonces? +Resulta que haba tan slo un telfono en Bangladesh para cada 500 personas. +Todos esos telfonos estaban en las pocas zonas urbanas. +En las inmensas zonas rurales, donde vivan 100 millones de personas, no haba telfonos. +As que imagnense cuantos meses o aos de trabajo se desperdician, como yo desperdici aquel da. +Si multiplican por 100 millones de personas, digamos que pierden un da al mes, por ejemplo, ven una cantidad inmensa de rescursos malgastados. +Despus de todo, los pases pobres, como los ricos, tenemos una cosa en comn, y es que sus das duran lo mismo: 24 horas. +Si pierden ese precioso recurso, algo en lo que eres igual a los pases ricos, es muchsimo gasto. +Empec a buscar alguna prueba de que, de verdad la conectividad aumenta la productividad? +Y no logr encontrar mucha, la verdad, pero encontr este grfico de ITU, que es la Unin Internacional de Telecomunicaciones, con base en Ginebra. +Demuestran algo interesante. +Ven, el eje horizontal es donde colocas tu pas. +As que Estados Unidos o el Reino Unido estaran aqu, fuera. +El impacto de un slo telfono nuevo, que est en el eje vertical, es muy pequeo. +Pero si vuelven a los pases pobres, donde le PNB per cpita es, digamos, de 500 dlares, o 300 dlares, el impacto es enorme: 6.000 dlares. O 5.000. +La cuestin era, cunto constara instalar un telfono nuevo en Bangladesh? +Pues 2.000 dlares. +Si se gastan 2.000 dlares, y digamos que el telfono dura 10 aos. Y si son 5.000 dlares cada ao... son 50.000 dlares. +Obviamente era un chisme que haba que tener. +Y por supuesto, si el costa de la instalcin de un telfono est bajando, debido a la revolucin digital, entonces seran an ms espectacular. +Yo saba poco de economa por aquel entonces... dice que Adam Smith nos ense que la especializacin conduce a la productividad. +Pero, cmo se especializaran? +Digamos que soy pescador y agricultor. +Y Chris es un pescador agricultor. Ambos somos generalistas. +Lo importante es que podramos slo depender el uno del otro, si nos conectamos. +Si somos vecinos, podra acercarme a su casa. +Pero entonces estamos limitando nuestra esfera econmica a una zona muy pequea. +Para expandirla, se necesita un ro, o una autopista, o lneas telefnicas. +En cualquier caso, es la conectividad lo que conduce a la fiabilidad. +Y esa a su vez conduce a la especializacin. +Y esa a la productividad. +La cuestin era, empec plantendome este tema, y yendo y viniendo de Bangladesh a Nueva York. +Haba muchas razones que la gente me comentaba por las que no tenemos suficientes telfonos. +Y una de ellas es que carecemos de poder adquisitivo. +La gente pobre aparentemente no tiene poder para compar. +Pero lo importante es, si es una herramienta de produccin, por qu nos preocupamos? +Quiero decir que en Estados Unidos, la gente se compra coches, y les supone muy poco dinero. +Tienen un coche, y van a trabajar. +El trabajo les reporta un salario; el salario les permite pagar el coche al cabo del tiempo. +El coche se paga solo. +As si el telfono es una herramienta de produccin, no nos tenemos que preocupar del poder adquisitivo. +Y por supuesto, y aunque as sea, qu hay del poder adquisitivo inicial? +La cuestin es, por qu no podemos tener algn tipo de acceso compartido? +En los Estados Unidos, tenemos... todo el mundo requiere de un servicio bancario, pero muy pocos de nosotros desean comprar un banco. +Un banco intenta prestar servicio a toda una comunidad. +Podramos hacer lo mismo con telfonos. +La gente me coment tambin que tenemos muchas necesidades primarias que satisfacer: comida, ropa, vivienda, etc. +Pero de nuevo, es muy paternalista. +Se debe generar ingresos y dejar a la gente decidir qu quieren hacer con su dinero. +Pero el problema real es la falta de otras infraestructuras. +Se necesita algn tipo de infraestructura para implementar algo nuevo. +Por ejemplo, Internet est teniendo un gran xito en EE.UU. +porque haba gente que tena ordenadores. +Tena modems. +Tenan lneas telefnicas, as es muy fcil aplicar una nueva idea, como Internet. +Y es eso lo que falta en un pas pobre. +Por ejemplo, no tenamos formas de acceder a cheques de crdito, pocos bancos para obtener billetes, etc. +Por eso me di cuenta de que el Banco Grameen, un banco para gente pobre, tena 1.100 sucursales, 12.000 empleador, 2.3 millones de clientes. +Tenan esas sucursales. +Pens que podra instalar torres de comunicaciones y crear una red. +Y bueno, para abreviar la historia, empec... Me acerqu a ellos y dije, "Quizs yo podra conectar todas sus sucursales y lograr que fueran ms eficientes". +Pero, despus de todo, ellos se han desarrollado en un pas sin telfonos, as que estn descentralizados. Por supuesto que podra haber otras buenas razones, pero esta era una de ellas... tenan que serlo. +No estaban tan interesados en conectar todas sus sucursales, y despus... echarlo a perder. +Empec a analizar. Qu es lo que en realidad hacen? +Pues que alguien pide prestado dinero del banco. +Normalmente se compra una vaca. La vaca da leche. +Vende la leche a la gente del pueblo y termina de pagar el prstamo. +Es un negocio para ella pero es leche para todo el mundo. +Y de repente me di cuenta de que un mvil podra ser una vaca. +Porque podra pedirle al banco 200 dlares, conseguir un telfono y tener el telfono disponible para todo el mundo. +Es un negocio para ella. +Escrib al banco y se lo pensaron un tiempo y dijeron, "Es un poco una locura, pero tiene lgical. +Si piensa que se puede hacer, venga y hgalo realidad". +As que dej mi trabajo; me volv a Bangladesh. +Cre una empresa en EE.UU. llamada Gonofone, que en bengal significa "el telfono de la gente". +Y algunos ngeles inversores de EE.UU. colocaron su dinero en ella. +Vol por todo el mundo. +Despus de alrededor de un milln... me rechazaron en muchos sitios, porque no slo intentaba ir a un pas pobre, intentaba ir a los pobres del pas pobre. +Despus de alrededor de un milln de kilmetros, y una significativa... sustancial alopecia, finalmente form un consorcio, que inclua a la compaa telefnica noruega, que aportaba el "know-how", y el Banco Grameen aportaba la infraestructura para distribuir el servicio. +Resumiendo, aqu tenemos la cobertura del pas. +Pueden ver que hay bastante cobertura. +Incluso en Bangladesh, hay algunos lugares que carecen de ella. +Pero tambin estamos invirtiendo alrededor de 300 millones ms este ao para ampliar la cobertura. +Bien, respecto al modelo vaca del que habl. +Alrededor de 115.000 personas estn vendiendo al por menor servicios telefnicos en sus barrios. +Est prestando servicio a 52.000 pueblos, que representan 80 millones de personas. +Estos telfonos estn generando alrededor de 100 millones de dlares a la compaa. +Y dos dlares de beneficio por emprendedor al da, da un total de 700 dlares al ao. +Y por supuesto, resulta beneficioso de muchas maneras. +Aumenta los ingresos, mejora el estado de bienestar, etc. +Y el resultado es que, ahora mismo, sta es la mayor compaa telefnica, con 3.5 millones de clientes. 115.000 de esos telfonos de los que he hablado, que produce alrededor de un tercio del trfico en la red. +Y en 2004, el beneficio, descontando los impuestos... muy estrictos, fue de 120 millones de dlares. +Y la compaa contribuy con alrededor de 190 millones de dlares a las arcas estatales. +Y de nuevo, nos encontramos con algunas lecciones. +"El gobierno necesita ofrecer servicios econmicamente viables". +Esto es un ejemplo en el que las empresas privadas pueden ofrecerlos. +"Los gobiernos necesitan subvencionar a empresas privadas." +Esto es lo que algunos piensan. +En realidad, las empresas privadas ayudan al gobierno a travs de los impuestos. +"La gente pobre son los receptores". +La gente pobre son un recurso. +"Los servicios resultan demasiado costosos a la gente pobre". +Su participacin reduce el coste. +"La gente pobre carece de educacin y no puede hacer mucho". +Estn deseando aprender y son supervivientes hbiles. +Me ha sorprendido mucho. +La mayora aprenden a manejar un telfono en un da. +"Los pases pobres necesitan ayuda". +Los negocios... esta compaa ha aumentado... si al menos el 5 por ciento de las cifras ideales son ciertas, esta empresa est aumentando el PNB del pas mucho ms que la ayuda que el pas recibe. +Y tal y como estoy intentando mostrarles, en lo que a m respecta, la ayuda perjudica porque elimina el gobierno de sus ciudadanos. +Y ste es un nuevo proyecto con Dean Kamen, el famoso inventor de EE.UU. +l ha fabricado algunos generadores de energa, que estamos experimentando en Bangladesh, en dos pueblos en los que el estircol de vaca est produciendo biogs, que hace funcionar estos generadores. +Y cada uno de ellos vende electricidad a 20 hogares. +Es slo un experimento. +No sabemos hasta dnde puede llegar, pero estn en marcha. +Gracias. +Se supone que los debo espantar, porque se trata de miedo correcto? +Y realmente deberan tener miedo, pero no por las razones que creen. +Realmente debieran tener miedo de... si subimos la primera lmina a esta cosa -- ah vamos -- de quedar excludos. +Porque si pasaron esta semana pensando sobre Irak y pensando sobre Bush y pensando sobre los mercados de acciones, van a perderse una de las mayores aventuras que jams hayamos tenido. +Y de esto se trata realmente esta aventura. +Esto es ADN cristalizado. +Todos los seres vivos en este planeta, cada insecto, cada bacteria, cada planta, cada animal, cada humano, cada poltico est codificado en esa cosa. +Y si quieres tomar un solo cristal de ADN, as es como se ve. +Y recin estamos comenzando a entender todo esto. +Y esta es la aventura ms excitante que jams hayamos tenido. +Es el proyecto de mapeo ms grande que jams hayamos tenido. +Si crees que el mapeo de Amrica logr hacer una diferencia, o el aterrizaje en la luna, o estas otras cosas, es el mapa de nosotros y el mapa de cada planta y cada insecto y cada bacteria lo que realmente va a lograr hacer una diferencia. +Y est comenzando a explicarnos mucho acerca de la evolucin +. Resulta que esta cosa es -- y Richard Dawkins ha escrito sobre esto -- esto es realmente el ro que sale del Edn. +Entonces, los 3,2 miles de millones de pares base dentro de cada una de sus clulas son en realidad la historia de dnde han estado por los ltimos mil millones de aos. +Y podemos comenzar a fechar cosas, y comenzar a cambiar la medicina y arqueologa. +Resulta que si tomas a la especie humana alrededor de 700 aos atrs, los Europeos blancos divergieron de los Africanos Negros de una forma muy significativa. +Los Europeos blancos sufrieron la plaga. +Y cuando sufrieron la plaga, la mayora no sobrevivi, pero los que s lo hicieron tuvieron una mutacin en el receptor CCR5. +Y les pasaron esta mutacin a sus hijos porque ellos haban sobrevivido, as que haba mucha presin para repoblar. +En frica, dado que no haban grandes ciudades, no se tuvo esa mutacin CCR5 causada por la presin poblacional. +Podemos fechar esto hace 700 aos. +Esta es una de las razones por las cuales el SIDA se est propagando en frica tan rpidamente, pero en Europa va ms lento. +Y estamos comenzando a encontrar estas pequeas cosas para la malaria, para anemia, para cnceres. +Y en la medida en que nos mapeamos a nosotros mismos, esta es la aventura ms grande en que jams estaremos. +Y este viernes, quiero que saquen una excelente botella de vino, y quiero que brinden por estas dos personas. +Porque este viernes hace 50 aos atrs, Watson y Crick descubrieron la estructura del ADN y esa es una fecha casi tan importante como el 12 de Febrero cuando por primera vez nos mapeamos pero, en todo caso, despus hablaremos de eso. +Pens que hablaramos del nuevo zoolgico. +Entonces, todos ustedes han odo sobre ADN, todas las cosas que hace el ADN, pero algunas de las que estamos descubriendo son como ingeniosas porque esto resulta ser la especie ms abundante en el planeta. +Si crees que los humanos son exitosos o las cucarachas lo son, resulta que hay diez billones de billones de Pleurococos all afuera. +Y no sabamos ni siquiera que los Pleurococos existan, lo que es una de las razones por la que este proyecto de mapeo de especies es tan importante. +Porque recin estamos comenzando a comprender de dnde venimos y lo que somos. +Y estamos encontrando amebas como esta. Esta es una Ameba dubia. +Entonces, sta cosita tiene un genoma que es 200 veces el tamao del tuyo. +Y si ests pensando acerca de mecanismos eficientes para almacenar informacin, estos pueden resultar no ser chips. +Pueden resultar ser algo que se parece un poco a esa ameba. +Y, de nuevo, estamos aprendiendo de la vida y de cmo funciona. +De esta cosita medio extraa, la gente antes pensaba que no vala la pena sacar muestras de los reactores nucleares porque era peligroso y, por supuesto, nada viva all. +Y entonces finalmente alguien tom un microscopio y mir en el agua que estaba alrededor de los ncleos. +Y ah en el agua de los ncleos estaba este pequeo Deinococo radiodurans, nadando tranquilito, teniendo sus cromosomas volados cada da, seis, siete veces, recomponindolos, viviendo en como 200 veces la radiacin que te matara. +Y ya debieran estar teniendo una idea de cun diverso e importante e interesante es este viaje hacia la vida, y cuantas formas de vida distintas hay, y cmo puede haber diferentes formas de vida viviendo en lugares muy distintos, quizs incluso fuera de este planeta. +Porque si se puede vivir en radiacin como esta, se genera una serie de preguntas interesantes. +No sabamos que exista esta pequea cosita. +Deberamos haber sabido que exista ya que es la nica bacteria que se puede ver a simple vista. +Entonces, esta cosa es 0,75 milmetros. +Vive en una fosa profunda en el mar cerca de la costa de Namibia. +Y lo que ests viendo con este namibiensis es la bacteria ms grande que hayamos visto. +Es como del tamao de un punto en una oracin. +De nuevo, hace tres aos ni sabamos que esta cosa exista. +Estamos recin empezando este viaje en el nuevo zoolgico. +Este es uno realmente extrao. Este es Ferroplasma. +La razn de por qu el Ferroplasma es interesante es porque come hierro, vive dentro del equivalente del cido de batera y excreta cido sulfrico. +Entonces, cuando piensas de formas de vida extraas, cuando piensas qu se requiere para vivir, resulta que esta forma de vida es muy eficiente, y se denomina arquea. Arquea se refiere a que es de "los antiguos". +Y la razn de por qu son tan antiguos es porque esta cosa surgi cuando el planeta estaba cubierto por cosas similares al cido sulfrico de bateras, y coma hierro cuando la tierra era parte de un ncleo lquido. +Entonces, no es slo perros y gatos y ballenas y delfines que deberan tener presente y tomar en cuenta en este viajecito. +Debieran tener miedo porque estn prestando atencin a cosas temporales. +Me refiero a que George Bush -- l se va ir, bueno? La vida no. +Si los humanos sobreviven o no, estas cosas estarn viviendo en este planeta o en otros planetas. +Y es comenzando a entender este cdigo ADN lo que es la aventura intelectual ms excitante en que jams hayamos estado. +Y puedes hacer cosas extraas con este cdigo. Este es un gar beb. +Un grupo de conservacin se rene, e intenta descubrir como cruzar un animal que est casi extinto. +No lo pueden hacer naturalmente, as que lo que hacen con esto es tomar una cuchara, sacar unas clulas de la boca de un gar adulto, codificarlas, toman las clulas generadas de eso y las insertan en un huevo de vaca fertilizado, y reprograman el huevo bovino con un cdigo diferente. +Cuando haces esto, la vaca da a luz a un gar. +Actualmente estamos experimentando con bongos, pandas, elans, tigres de sumatra, y los australianos -- ellos son fantsticos -- estn jugando con estas cosas. +Ahora, el ltimo de estos muri en septiembre de 1936. +Estos son tigres de tasmania. El ltimo conocido muri en el zoolgico de Hobart. +Pero resulta que mientras ms aprendemos del cdigo gentico y de como reprogramar especies, podemos llegar a completar los huecos genticos en ADN deteriorado. +Y cuando aprendamos como cerrar los huecos genticos, podremos unir una oracin completa de ADN. +Y si logramos eso, e insertamos esto en un huevo fertilizado de lobo, podramos dar a luz a un animal que no ha pisado la tierra desde 1936. +Y entonces puedes comenzar a ir ms atrs, y puedes empezar a pensar en los dodos, y puedes pensar en otras especies. +Y en otros lugares, como Maryland, estn tratando de descubrir cul es el antecesor inicial. +Porque cada uno de nosotros contiene el cdigo gentico completo de lo que hemos sido por los ltimos mil millones de aos, porque evolucionamos desde esa cosa, se puede tomar el rbol de la vida y recorrerlo hacia atrs, y en la medida que aprendes a reprogramar esto quizs demos luz a algo muy similar al lodo primordial. +Y todo surge de cosas que se ven as. +Estas son compaas que no existan hace cinco aos. +Plantas inmensas para secuenciar genes del tamao de canchas de ftbol. +Algunas son pblicas, algunas son privadas. +Se necesitan como 5 mil millones de dlares para secuenciar un ser humano la primera vez. +Se necesitan como 3 millones de dlares la segunda vez. +Dentro de los prximos cinco a ocho aos tendremos un genoma por mil dlares. +Eso significa que cada uno de ustedes tendr su cdigo gentico completo en un CD. +Y ser muy aburrido. Se parecer a esto +. Lo que es realmente entretenido es que esto es la vida. +Y Laurie va a hablarles un poquito de este. +Porque si llegas a encontrar este dentro de tu cuerpo, ests en grandes problemas ya que es el cdigo fuente del Ebola. +Esta es una de las enfermedades ms letales conocidas por los humanos. +Pero las plantas y los insectos funcionan de la misma manera, y esta manzana funciona de la misma manera. +Esta manzana es lo mismo que este disco. +Porque este disco se codifica en unos y ceros, y esta cosa se codifica en A, T, C y G, y est all arriba absorbiendo energa en un rbol, hasta que un da tiene suficiente energa para decir EJECUTAR y hace bong en el suelo. +No es cierto? Y cuando ha hecho esto, activa un .EXE que lo que hace es que ejecuta la primera lnea de cdigo, que se lee as, AATCAGGGACCC, y que significa: haz una raz. +Prxima lnea de cdigo: haz una rama. +Prxima lnea de cdigo, TACGGGG: haz una flor que sea blanca, que florezca en primavera, que huela as. +En la medida que tienes el cdigo y medida que lo vas leyendo -- y, a todo esto, la primera planta fue leda hace dos aos atrs; el primer humano fue ledo hace dos aos atrs; el primer insecto fue ledo hace dos aos atrs. +La primera cosa que lemos fue en 1995: una pequea bacteria llamada Hemofilus influenza. +Esto cambia todas las reglas. Esto es la vida, pero estamos reprogramndola. +As es como te ves. Este es uno de tus cromosomas. +Y lo que ahora se puede hacer es, que puedes ver exactamente qu es tu cromosoma, y cul es el cdigo de ese cromosoma, y para qu sirve el cdigo de esos genes y contra qu animales se manifiestan, y lo puedes relacionar a la literatura. +Y en la medida que puedas hacer esto, puedes ir hoy a tu casa, y subir a Internet, e ingresar a la biblioteca ms grande del mundo, que es una biblioteca de la vida. +Y puedes hacer cosas bastante extraas ya que, de la misma manera que puedes reprogramar esta manzana, si vas al laboratorio de Cliff Tabin en la escuela mdica de Harvard, l est reprogramando embriones de pollo para que nazcan con ms alas. +Por qu hara Cliff esto? Si no tiene un restaurante. +. La razn de por qu est reprogramando ese animal para que tenga ms alas es porque cuando de nio jugabas con lagartijas, y tomabas la lagartija, a veces se le caa la cola, pero le volva a crecer. +No es as en las personas: cortas un brazo, o cortas una pierna y no vuelve a crecer. +Pero ya que cada una de tus clulas contiene tu cdigo completo, cada clula puede reprogramarse (si es que no detenemos la investigacin de clulas madres y no detenemos la investigacin genmica), para expresar distintas funciones corporales. +Y es probable que t -- y tus hijos -- anden caminando dentro de un tiempo razonable con partes del cuerpo regeneradas, en algunas partes del mundo donde no detengan la investigacin. +Cmo funciona esta cosa? Si cada uno de ustedes difiere con la persona de al lado por un milsimo, y slo 3 por ciento de cdigo, lo que significa slo uno en mil por tres por ciento, diferencias muy pequeas en expresin y puntuacin pueden causar diferencias significativas. Tomemos una frase simple. +"Una mujer sin su hombre no es nada" . Correcto? +Est perfectamente claro. Entonces, los hombres leen esto, y ven esta oracin y la leen as. "Una mujer, sin su hombre, no es nada" +Okey? +Ahora, las mujeres miran esto y dicen na-a, equivocado. +Esta es la manera que se debe leer. +"Una mujer: sin ella, su hombre no es nada" . Eso es lo que estn haciendo tus genes. +Esa es tu diferencia con esta otra persona de por ac por uno en mil. +Est bien? Pero, t sabes, l es razonablemente apuesto, pero... +no voy a hacer ese chiste. +Puedes hacer estas cosas an sin cambiar la puntuacin. +Puedes ver esto, no cierto? (El Servicio Recaudador de Impuestos) +Y ellos ven el mundo un poco distinto. +Ellos miran al mismo mundo y dicen... +. Eso es como el mismo cdigo gentico -- por eso tienes 30.000 genes, los ratones tienen 30.000 genes, los maridos tienen 30.000 genes. +Ratones y maridos son lo mismo. Las esposas saben esto, pero en fin. +Puedes hacer cambios muy pequeos en el cdigo y obtener resultados muy distintos, incluso con el mismo orden de letras. +Eso es lo que tus genes hacen todos los das. +Por esto es que a veces los genes de una persona no necesitan variar mucho para que le de cncer. +Estas pequeas cositas son del tamao de una tarjeta de crdito. +Pueden chequear a cualquiera de ustedes contra 60 mil condiciones genticas. +Eso genera interrogantes con respecto a la privacidad y asegurabilidad y un montn de otras cosas, pero tambin nos permite empezar a combatir enfermedades porque si chequeas una persona que tiene leucemia contra algo como esto resulta que tres enfermedades con sndromes clnicos exactamente iguales son en realidad enfermedades completamente distintas. +Porque en la leucemia ALL, el set de genes de arriba se sobre-expresa. +En la leucemia MLL es el conjunto de genes del medio, y en leucemia AML, es el conjunto de genes de abajo. +Y si una de esas cosas se puede observar en tu cuerpo, entonces tomas Gleevec y te mejoras. +Si no se est expresando en tu cuerpo, si no tienes uno de estos tipos -- uno de estos tipos especficos -- no tomes Gleevec, +no te servir de nada. +La misma cosas pasa con Receptin si tienes cncer de mama. +Si no tienes un receptor HER-2, no tomes Receptin. +Cambia el curso de la medicina. Cambia las predicciones de la medicina. +Cambia la manera en que la medicina funciona. +Cuando la mayora de nosotros estudamos, el repositorio ms grande de informacin era esta cosa, y resulta que ya no es tan importante. +La Biblioteca del Congreso de los EE.UU., en trminos de volumen de data impresa, contiene menos datos que lo que est saliendo cada mes de una buena empresa de genmica. +Djenme decirlo de nuevo: una sola empresa de genmica genera ms datos en un mes, comparando datos totales, que lo que hay en las colecciones impresas de la Biblioteca del Congreso. +Esto es lo que est empujando la economa de los EE.UU. Es la ley de Moore. +Entonces, todos ustedes saben que el costo de los computadores baja a la mitad cada 18 meses mientras su potencia se duplica, correcto? +Excepto que cuando comparas esto con la velocidad con la cual los datos genticos estn siendo almacenados en GenBank, la ley de Moore est justo aqu: es la lnea azul. +Esta es una escala logartmica, y por lo tanto esto es lo que llamamos crecimiento superexponencial. +Esto va a empujar a los computadores a crecer ms rpido de lo que han crecido ya que hasta ahora, no han existido aplicaciones que han requerido un crecimiento ms veloz que el de la ley de Moore. Esto s lo requiere. +Y ac tenemos un mapa interesante. +Este es un mapa que fue terminado en la escuela de negocios de Harvard. +Una de las preguntas ms interesantes es; si todos estos datos son gratis, entonces quin los usa? Esta es la biblioteca pblica ms grande del mundo. +Bueno, resulta que hay alrededor de 27 billones de bits movindose dentro de los Estados Unidos; alrededor de 4,6 billones estn siendo enviados haca esos pases europeos; alrededor de 5,5 se transfieren a Japn; casi no hay comunicacin dentro de Japn y nadie ms puede leer esta cosa. +Es gratis. Nadie los est leyendo. Estn enfocados en la guerra; estn enfocados en Bush; no estn interesados en la vida. +Entonces, as es como se ve el nuevo mapa del mundo. +Este es el mundo que comprende la genmica. Y esto es un problema. +De hecho, ni siquiera es el mundo que comprende genmica. +Puedes dividirlo por estados. +Y puedes ver cmo los estados surgen o caen dependiendo de si son capaces de hablar la lengua de la vida, y puedes ver a Nueva York caerse por el barranco, y puedes ver a Nueva Jersey caerse por el barranco, y puedes ver como surgen los nuevos imperios de la inteligencia. +Y puedes dividirlo por condados ya que son condados especficos. +Y si quieres ser an ms especfico, en realidad son cdigos postales especficos +. Entonces, quieres saber dnde est aconteciendo esta nueva vida? +Bueno, en el sur de California est en el cdigo 92121. Y slo all. +Y eso es el tringulo entre las calles Sulk, Scripps, UCSD, y se llama Torrey Pines Road. +Significa que no necesitas ser un pas grande para ser exitoso; significa que no necesitas tanta gente para ser exitoso; y significa que puedes mover casi toda la riqueza de un pas en tres o cuatro 747s bien escogidos. +Lo mismo pasa en Massachusetts. Parece ms esparcido, pero -- ah, por si acaso, los que son del mismo color son contiguos. +Cal es el efecto neto de esto? +En una sociedad basada en la agricultura, la diferencia entre los ms ricos y los ms pobres, los ms productivos y los menos productivos, era de cinco a uno. Por qu? +Porque en agricultura, si tenas 10 hijos y te despertabas un poquito ms temprano y trabajabas un poquito ms duro, podas llegar a producir, en promedio como cinco veces ms riqueza que tu vecino. +En una sociedad basada en el conocimiento, esa diferencia es de 427 a 1. +Es realmente importante que puedas leer y escribir, no slo en Ingls y Francs y Alemn, sino que en Microsoft y Linux y Apple. +Y muy pronto la diferencia va a estar en la comprensin del cdigo de la vida. +Entonces, si debieras tenerle miedo a algo, es que no estas mirando en la direccin apropiada. +Porque realmente importa quin puede hablar en lenguaje de la vida. +Los pases surgen y caen por esto. +Y resulta que si volvieras a los 1870s, la nacin ms productiva en la tierra, por persona, era Australia. +Y Nueva Zelanda estara por all arriba. Y despus EE. UU. subi en los 1950s, y despus Suiza en 1973, y despus EE. UU. volvi a estar primero -- les ganamos a sus chocolates y sus relojes cuc. +Y todos ustedes saben que actualmente el pas ms productivo del mundo es, por supuesto, Luxemburgo, que produce como un tercio ms riqueza por persona cada ao que los EE.UU. +Es un estado pequeito sin mar. Sin petrleo. Sin diamantes. Sin recursos naturales. +Slo tienen gente inteligente moviendo bits. Las reglas cambian. +Estas son tasas diferenciales de productividad. +Aqu se ve cuantas personas toma producir una patente en EE.UU. +Ms o menos 3 mil Estadounidenses, 6 mil Coranos, 14 mil Britnicos, 780 mil Argentinos. Quieren saber por qu Argentina se est hundiendo? +No tiene que ver con la inflacin. +No tiene que ver con las privatizaciones. +Puedes tomar un economista educado en Harvard, y ponerlo a cargo de Argentina. An as lo hundira porque no entendera como han cambiado las reglas. +Ah, s, y toma como 5,6 millones de Indios. +Bueno, veamos que le pasa a la India. +India y China durante la revolucin industrial solan ser el 40 por ciento de la economa global, y ahora son como el 4,8 por ciento. +Dos mil millones de personas. Un tercio de la poblacin mundial produciendo el 5 por ciento de la riqueza porque no pasaron por este cambio, porque siguieron tratando a sus habitantes como siervos y no como accionistas de un proyecto compartido. +No mantuvieron a las personas con educacin. +No fomentaron los negocios. No los lanzaron a la bolsa. +En Silicon Valley s lo hicieron. Y por eso dicen que Silicon Valley funciona a base de CIs. +No son circuitos integrados; sino que Chinos e Indios +. Esto es lo que est pasando en el mundo. +Resulta que si es que hubieras ido a la ONU en 1950, cuando fue fundada, haban 50 pases en el mundo. +Resulta que ahora hay como 192. +Muchos pases se estn separando, independizando, teniendo xito, fallando. Y todo est tornndose muy fragmentado. Y no se est deteniendo. +Estos son estados soberanos que no existan antes de 1990. +Y esto no incluye fusiones o cambios de nombre o cambios de bandera. +Estamos generando 3,12 estados por ao. +La gente est tomado control de sus estados, a veces para mejor y a veces para peor. +Y lo realmente interesante es, ustedes y sus hijos tienen el poder para construir grandes imperios, y no necesitan mucho para hacerlo +. Y, dado que la msica ha terminado, iba a hablar de cmo puedes usar esto para generar mucha riqueza, y de cmo funciona el cdigo. +(Moderador: Le agrego dos minutos ms!!) +. No, voy a parar aqu y lo haremos el prximo ao porque no quiero tomar el tiempo de Laurie. +Pero muchas gracias a ustedes. +Recib una visita, hace casi exactamente un ao, hace un poquito ms de un ao, de una persona de muy alto grado del Departamento de Defensa. +Vino a verme y dijo: "mil seiscientos de los chicos que hemos mandado all han vuelto sin al menos un brazo completo. +El brazo completo. Desde la articulacin del hombro. +Y estamos haciendo lo mismo, ms o menos, que hemos hecho desde la guerra civil, que es un palo y un gancho. +Y merecen ms que eso". +Que, como entienden, tenga una respuesta eferente, aferente y hptica. +Termin su explicacin, y me qued esperando la enorme propuesta de 300 libras de papel y l dijo: "Eso es lo que quiero que haga". +Le respond: "Mire, est loco. Esa tecnologa simplemente no existe an +y no puede hacerse. +No con la forma de un brazo humano con 21 grados de libertad, desde el hombro a la punta de los dedos". +Me dijo: "Como dos docenas de estos 1.600 chicos han vuelto sin los dos brazos. +Cree que perder un brazo es malo? +Es slo un inconveniente comparado a que hayas perdido ambos". +Tengo un trabajo de da y mis noches y fines de semana ya estn ocupados con cosas del tipo de cmo proveer de agua y energa al mundo y educar a todos los nios; de lo cual, Chris, no voy a hablar ahora. No necesito otra misin. +Me quedo pensando sobre estos chicos sin brazos. +l me cuenta: "Hemos trabajado un poco en esto por todo el pas. +Tenemos unos neurlogos y otras personas bastante impresionantes". +Le dije: "Har un viaje de estudio, ir a ver lo que tienen hecho". +Durante el siguiente mes visit un montn de lugares, algunos por ac, otros por el resto del pas, y encontr lo mejor de lo mejor. +Fui a Washington, vi a estos tipos y les dije: "Hice lo que me pidieron. Vi lo que existe por ah. +Todava creo que estn locos. Pero no tan locos como pensaba". +Junt un equipo hace un poco ms de trece meses y llegamos a ser como 20 personas. +Dijimos, vamos a construir un dispositivo que haga lo que l quiere. +Incluimos 14 de los 21 grados de libertad; no necesitas los de los dos dedos ms pequeos. +Y construimos esta cosa. +Hace un par de semanas lo llevamos al hospital Walter Reed, que desafortunadamente ha salido bastante en las noticias estos das. +Se lo mostramos a un grupo de chicos. +Uno de ellos se defini como suertudo porque siendo diestro perdi su brazo izquierdo. +Estaba sentado en una mesa con siete u ocho de estos chicos. +Dijo que tena suerte porque todava tena su brazo til y despus se alej empujndose de la mesa. No tena piernas. +Estos chicos tienen una actitud simplemente increble. +Entonces ahora voy a mostrarles un corto de 30 segundos, sin la cubierta de piel, y ah termino. +Pero entiendan: estarn mirando algo que hicimos lo suficientemente pequeo para que le quede a una mujer mediana, para que se le pueda poner a cualquiera de estos chicos. +Va a ir dentro de algo que hacemos usando escaneos computarizados y resonancias magnticas del que sea su brazo bueno con lo cual haremos una versin en goma de silicona, que se cubrir y pintar en 3D para hacer una copia que sea un reflejo exacto del otro brazo. +As que no podrn ver todas las cosas geniales que estn en esta serie elstica de 14 actuadores donde cada uno de estos es capaz de detectar temperatura y presin. +Tiene tambin un rotador de hombro neumtico que lo sujeta al brazo de modo de que mientras ms se aumenta la carga, ms fuerte se sujeta. +Le sacan la carga y vuelve, nuevamente, a ser fcil de usar. +Voy a mostrarles a un tipo haciendo un par de cosas sencillas que exhibimos en Washington. Podemos verlo? +Miren como los dedos agarran. El pulgar sube. Su mueca. +Esto pesa 3,1 kilogramos. +Va a rascarse la nariz. +Tiene 14 grados de libertad activos. +Ahora va a recoger un lpiz con su pulgar y su dedo ndice. +Ahora lo va a dejar en la mesa, toma una hoja de papel, rota todos los grados de libertad de su mano y su mueca, y la lee. +Siempre me ha intrigado la expresin "estar alucinado" +Despus de pasar dos das aqu, me declaro alucinado y enormemente impresionado y siento que ustedes son una de las grandes esperanzas No nicamente para el logro norteamericano en ciencia y tecnologa, sino para el mundo entero. +En cualquier caso, vengo en representacin de mi comunidad, que son 10 elevado a la 18 potencia, o lo que es lo mismo, un trilln de insectos y otras criaturas pequeas con el propsito de apelar en su nombre. +Si eliminramos del planeta tan solo al grupo de los insectos, cosa que ya estamos intentando que ocurra, el resto de la vida, y la humanidad con ella, desaparecera de la faz de la tierra +en cuestin de pocos meses. +Ahora bien, cmo llegu a posicionarme en esta defensa tan particular? +De nio y durante mis aos de adolescente, desarroll una creciente fascinacin por la biodiversidad. +Tuve una etapa mariposa, otra serpiente, otra pjaro, otra pez, una etapa de las cavernas y finalmente y por ltimo, una etapa hormiga. +De ese estudio ms extenso, han surgido una preocupacin y una ambicin, cristalizada en un deseo que os voy a comentar. +Mi eleccin es la culminacin de una vida de compromiso que empez mientras creca en la costa del Golfo de Alabama, en la pennsula de Florida. +Hasta donde recuerdo, me senta cautivado por la belleza natural de esa regin y por la exuberancia casi tropical de las plantas y animales que all vivan. +Un da cuando tena siete aos, estaba pescando y atrap un pez aguja (llamado as por su espina dorsal) de forma un tanto apresurada y me cegu de un ojo. +Ms tarde descubr que tambin era algo sordo para las frecuencias altas, posiblemente por herencia gentica +As que cuando me planteaba ser un naturalista profesional -- nunca llegu a considerar otra opcin en toda mi vida -- me di cuenta de que era psimo para la observacin de aves y para or croar a las ranas. +As que me centr en las tan abundantes criaturas diminutas que se pueden sostener entre el pulgar y el ndice: las pequeas cosas que componen la base de nuestros ecosistemas. Como me gusta decir, las pequeas cosas que hacen que el mundo gire. +Y al hacerlo, alcanc una frontera de la biologa tan extraa y tan rica que pareca de otro planeta. +De hecho vivimos en un planeta inexplorado en su mayor parte. +La mayora de organismos de la Tierra todava son desconocidos para la ciencia. +En los ltimos 30 aos, gracias a exploraciones de lugares remotos del planeta y a los avances tecnolgicos, los bilogos han aumentado en un tercio el nmero de anfibios y ranas conocidos hasta llegar a la actual cifra de 5,400. Y siguen descubrindose muchos ms. +Se han descubierto dos nuevos tipos de ballena y dos nuevos antlopes, docenas de especies de monos y un nuevo tipo de elefante. E incluso un tipo diferente de gorila! +En el extremo opuesto de la escala, la clase de las bacterias marinas, la Procholoroccus -- esto entrar en el examen final -- aunque fue descubierta en 1988, est considerada como probablemente el organismo ms abundante sobre la tierra y adems, responsable de una gran parte de la fotosntesis que tiene lugar en los ocanos. +Esas bacterias no fueron descubiertas antes porque se encuentran entre los organismos ms pequeos de la Tierra. Son tan diminutos que no son visibles con un microscopio ptico convencional. +Y, sin embargo, la vida en el mar depende de esas pequeas criaturas. +Estos ejemplos son solo un pequeo atisbo de todo lo que ignoramos sobre la vida en nuestro planeta. +Tomemos los hongos, incluyendo las setas, las royas, tipos de moho y muchos organismos causantes de enfermedades. +Se conocen 60.000 especies pero se estima que existen ms de un milln y medio. +Fijmonos ahora en el nematodo, los ms abundante de los animales. +Cuatro de cada cinco animales en la Tierra son nematodos. Si desapareciera toda materia slida a excepcin de estos animales, an podra verse el contorno fantasmal de la mayor parte de la tierra en los nematodos. +Los cientficos han descubierto y catalogado aproximadamente 16.000 especies de nematodos, pero podra haber cientos de miles, quizs millones, de ellos todava por descubrir. +Este vasto dominio de biodiversidad oculta aumenta an ms con la materia oscura del mundo biolgico de las bacterias, del que, hace unos aos, tan slo se conoca del orden de 6.000 especies de bacterias en todo el mundo +Sin embargo, ese nmero de especies de bacteria se puede encontrar en un gramo de tierra en un puado de tierra habra 10.000 millones de bacterias. +Se estima que una sola tonelada de tierra frtil contiene aproximadamente 4 millones de bacterias, todas ellas desconocidas. +As que la pregunta es: Qu es lo que hacen? +El hecho es que no lo sabemos. +Vivimos en un planeta de muchsima actividad, en relacin a nuestro entorno, realizada nicamente mediante fe y conjeturas. +Nuestras vidas dependen de esas criaturas. +Por poner un ejemplo cercano: hay unas 500 especies de bacterias conocidas -bacterias benignas- viviendo en simbiosis en nuestra boca y nuestra garganta y que seguramente son necesarias para protegernos de bacterias patgenas. +Llegados a este punto, creo que tengo un pequeo vdeo de gran influencia hecho especialmente para la ocasin +y me gustara mostrarlo +con la ayuda de Billie Holiday. +Y esto puede ser solo el comienzo! +Los virus, esos pseudo-organismos entre los que estn las propasias - portadoras de los genes que promueven la continua evolucin de la vida bacteriana - representan para la biologa moderna una frontera prcticamente desconocida, un mundo totalmente aparte. +Lo que constituye una especie de virus es todava un misterio, aunque es obvio que son de vital importancia para nosotros. +Lo que s podemos asegurar es que la variedad de genes del planeta que hay en los virus supera o es probable que supere la variedad de genes del resto de la vida en conjunto. +En la actualidad, al tratar la biodiversidad microbiana, los cientficos son como exploradores en un barco de remos en medio del Pacfico. +Pero esto est cambiando rpidamente con la ayuda de la nueva tecnologa genmica. +Ya es posible secuenciar el cdigo gentico completo de una bacteria en menos de 4 horas +y pronto seremos capaces de avanzar cargados con secuenciadores a la caza de bacterias en las pequeas grietas de la superficie del hbitat de la misma manera que uno va a avistar pjaros con unos prismticos. +Qu nos encontraremos mientras trazamos el mapa del mundo vivo una vez emprendamos seriamente este camino? +Una vez dejemos atrs mamferos relativamente grandes, pjaros, ranas y plantas llegaremos a los escurridizos insectos y otros pequeos invertebrados y ms all a los innumerables millones de organismos del mundo vivo invisible que envuelven y viven dentro de la humanidad. +Se ha descubierto que lo que durante generaciones haba sido considerado bacteria en realidad se divide en dos grandes dominios de microorganismos: el de las bacterias y el de la arquea, un organismo unicelular ms prximo a la eucariota (el grupo al que pertenecemos los humanos) que cualquier otra bacteria. +Algunos bilogos serios, y yo entre ellos, hemos empezado a preguntarnos si, entre la enorme y todava desconocida diversidad de microorganismos, existe la posibilidad de que encontremos extraterrestres. +Verdaderos extraterrestres; organismos llegados del espacio exterior. +Han tenido miles de millones de aos para hacerlo, pero en especial durante el periodo ms temprano de la evolucin biolgica del planeta. +Sabemos que algunas especies bacterianas de origen terrqueo son capaces de soportar temperaturas extremas casi inimaginables y otros cambios bruscos en el ambiente. Incluso la radiacin intensa y por tanto tiempo como para agrietar recipientes de Pyrex entre la creciente poblacin de bacterias. +Es posible que exista la tentacin de tratar la biosfera de manera holstica y a las especies que la componen como un gran flujo de entidades a las que difcilmente se pueden distinguir. +Sin embargo, cada una de esas especies, incluso la ms diminuta de los Prochlorococcus, es una obra maestra de la evolucin. +Cada una de ellas ha perdurado desde miles, hasta millones de aos. +Cada una de ellas est perfectamente adaptada al medio en el que vive, entrelazada con otras especies para formar ecosistemas sobre los que dependen nuestras vidas de maneras que no hemos llegado siquiera a empezar a concebir. +Los humanos destruiremos estos ecosistemas y las especies que los componen an con riesgo para nuestra propia existencia. Por desgracia, ya los estamos destruyendo con ingenuidad y una energa incesante. +Mi epifana como conservacionista lleg en 1953, mientras era estudiante de posgrado en Harvard e investigaba unas extraas hormigas descubiertas en los bosques montaosos de Cuba. Unas hormigas que brillaban a la luz del sol: verde metlico, azul metlico y una especie que descubr de color oro. +Encontr mis hormigas mgicas despus de una ardua subida a las montaas donde resista el ltimo de los bosques cubanos autctonos que estaban siendo talados entonces y que continan sindolo ahora. +Entonces me di cuenta de que esas especies y gran parte de otros nicos y maravillosos animales y plantas de la isla, -- y esto no sucede solo en Cuba, sino en todo el mundo -- que tardaron millones de aos en evolucionar, estn en proceso de desaparecer. +Y esto ocurre all dnde miremos. +La fuerza devastadora del hombre erosiona continuamente la antigua biosfera terrestre con una combinacin de fuerzas que podran resumirse con el acrnimo HIPPO, de hipoptamo. +La H es de destruccin de Hbitat, que incluye el cambio climtico producido por los gases de efecto invernadero. +La I es por las especies Invasoras como las hormigas fuego, los mejillones cebra y bacterias y virus patgenos que inundan cada pas a un ritmo exponencial. Esta es la I. +La primera P de HIPPO es por la Polucin +y la segunda es por la continua expansin de la Poblacin humana. +La ltima letra es la O, por la abundante Obtencin de alimento, que lleva a especies a la extincin por nuestra excesiva prctica de la caza y la pesca. +Hemos creado una fuerza HIPPO que, de no disminuir, esta destinada (segn las mejores estimaciones de la investigacin en curso de biodiversidad) a llevar a la mitad de las especies animales y vegetales que existen actualmente en la Tierra a la extincin o a una situacin de peligro extremo antes de que acabe el siglo. +De no disminuir, el cambio climtico forzado por el hombre podra eliminar una cuarta parte de las especies vivas durante las prximas cinco dcadas +Cunto perderemos, tanto nosotros como las generaciones futuras, si una gran parte del medio ambiente est as de degradado? +Numerosas fuentes potenciales de informacin cientfica por reunir, gran parte de nuestra estabilidad medioambiental y nuevos tipos de frmacos y nuevos productos de inimaginable valor y potencia; todo ser desaprovechado. +Las prdidas acarrearn un alto precio para la riqueza, la seguridad y s, tambin la espiritualidad en tiempos venideros. Porque los cataclismos previos de este tipo -- el ltimo que hubo acab con la era de los dinosaurios -- tardan en repararse, normalmente entre 5 y 10 millones de aos. +Lamentablemente, nuestro conocimiento sobre la biodiversidad es tan incompleto que nos enfrentamos a la posibilidad de perder una gran parte antes de llegar a descubrirla. +Por ejemplo, en Estados Unidos, se conocen 200.000 especies en la actualidad pero este conocimiento es parcial; la mayor parte nos es desconocido incluso en trminos de biologa bsica +Tan solo un 15% de ellas aproximadamente han sido ampliamente estudiadas como para evaluar su situacin +De ese 15% estudiado, el 20% est clasificado como en situacin de peligro. Me refiero a peligro de extincin. +Esto ocurre en los Estados Unidos. +En resumen, volamos a ciegas hacia nuestro futuro medioambiental. +Debemos cambiar esta situacin urgentemente. +Es necesario que exploremos de forma correcta la biosfera para que podamos comprenderla y gestionarla. +Y debemos poner manos a la obra antes de que destrocemos el planeta. +Y necesitamos ese conocimiento. +Este debera ser un proyecto de gran envergadura equivalente al Proyecto del Genoma Humano. +Debera ser considerado como una nave espacial biolgica con un horario. +Y esto me lleva de nuevo a mi deseo para todos los que formamos TED y para cualquier otra persona en el mundo que oiga esta charla. +Deseo que podamos trabajar conjuntamente para que lleguemos a crear las herramientas clave necesarias para inspirar la conservacin de la biodiversidad de la Tierra. +Y la llamaremos la "Enciclopedia de la vida" +Qu es la Enciclopedia de la vida? Un concepto que ya ha tomado forma y empieza a extenderse y a tomarse en serio? +Es una enciclopedia que vive en Internet y en la que participan miles de cientficos de todo el mundo. +Los aficionados tambin pueden hacerlo. +Para cada especie hay una pagina de longitud expandible e indefinida. +Toda la informacin clave sobre la vida en la Tierra estar disponible para cualquiera, a peticin, en cualquier lugar del mundo. +Ya he escrito acerca de esta idea Y s que hay gente en esta sala que le ha dedicado un esfuerzo considerable en el pasado +Pero lo que me emociona es que, desde que propuse por primera vez esta particular idea, la ciencia ha progresado. +La tecnologa ha avanzado. +Hoy la viabilidad de confeccionar tal enciclopedia est al alcance, al margen de la magnitud de la informacin que contenga. +En efecto, durante el ltimo ao un grupo de instituciones cientficas influyentes ha empezado a movilizarse para hacer realidad este sueo. +Me gustara que les ayudasen. +Trabajando juntos, podemos hacer que sea real. +La enciclopedia pronto ser rentable en trminos de aplicaciones prcticas . +Proporcionar cualidades trascendentes a la conciencia humana y una sensacin de necesidad humana. +Transformar la ciencia de la biologa de una manera claramente beneficiosa para la humanidad. +Y ms que nada, puede inspirar a una nueva generacin de bilogos a continuar la bsqueda que, para m personalmente, empez hace 60 aos: buscar la vida, entenderla y, sobre todo, conservarla. +Este es mi deseo. Gracias. +Me gustara comenzar hablando de algunas ideas que me motivaron a convertirme en un fotgrafo documental. +Era estudiante en los '60, poca de cuestionamiento y agitacin social y, a nivel personal, de un sentido naciente de idealismo. +La Guerra de Vietnam estaba en su apogeo, el Movimiento de Derechos Civiles creca, y las fotografas tuvieron una gran influencia en m. +Nuestros lderes polticos y militares nos decan una cosa, y los fotgrafos nos decan otra. +Yo le cre a los fotgrafos, al igual que millones de estadounidenses. +Sus imgenes alimentaron la resistencia a la guerra y al racismo. +No solo registraron la historia, sino que ayudaron a cambiar su curso. +Sus fotografas se integraron a nuestra memoria colectiva y, al convertirse en un sentimiento compartido de la conciencia, el cambio no slo se hizo posible, sino inevitable. +Comprend que el flujo libre de informacin que representaba el periodismo, particularmente el periodismo grfico, puede hacer ms evidentes tanto los beneficios como los costos de las polticas. +Puede dar crdito a ciertas decisiones, ganando apoyo hasta alcanzar el xito +Frente al criterio poltico pobre o la pasividad poltica, se transforma en una intervencin, dando cuenta del dao y pidindonos que evaluemos nuevamente nuestro comportamiento. +Le da un rostro humano a problemas que de lejos pueden parecer abstractos o ideolgicos o monumentales en su impacto global. +Lo que sucede all abajo, lejos de los pasillos del poder, le sucede a ciudadanos comunes, uno por uno. +Y comprend que la fotografa documental tiene la capacidad de interpretar los eventos desde su punto de vista. +Le da una voz a aquellos que de otro modo no la tendran. +Y, como consecuencia, estimula a la opinin pblica y le da mpetu al debate pblico, evitando as que las partes interesadas controlen la agenda por completo, por mucho que lo deseen. +Llegar a la madurez en esa poca hizo real la idea de que el flujo libre de informacin es completamente vital para que una sociedad libre y dinmica funcione adecuadamente. +La prensa es sin duda un negocio, y para sobrevivir debe ser un negocio exitoso, pero se debe encontrar el balance correcto entre consideraciones de mercadeo y responsabilidad periodstica. +Los problemas de la sociedad no se pueden resolver hasta que sean identificados. +A un nivel ms alto, la prensa es una industria de servicios, y el servicio que ofrece es la conciencia. +No toda historia debe vender algo. +Tambin hay ocasiones para dar. +Esa era la tradicin que quera seguir. +Viendo que la guerra creaba tantos riesgos para aquellos involucrados y que el periodismo grfico poda ser un factor en la resolucin de conflictos, quise ser una fotgrafo para despus ser un fotgrafo de guerra. +Pero me guiaba la idea inherente de que una imagen que revelara el verdadero rostro de la guerra sera, casi por definicin, una fotografa contra la guerra. +Me gustara llevarlos en un viaje visual a travs de algunos de los eventos y conflictos en los que he estado involucrado en los ltimos 25 aos. +En 1981, viaj a Irlanda del Norte. +10 prisioneros del IRA estaban en proceso de ayunar hasta su muerte en protesta por las condiciones de las crceles. +La reaccin en las calles fue una confrontacin violenta. +Vi que el frente en las guerras contemporneas no est en lejanos campos de batalla, sino all donde la gente vive. +A comienzos de la dcada de 1980, pas mucho tiempo en Amrica Central, envuelta entonces en guerras civiles que hacan borrosa la divisin ideolgica de la Guerra Fra. +En Guatemala, el gobierno central -- controlado por una oligarqua de descendientes de europeos-- estaba emprendiendo una Campaa de Tierra Arrasada contra una rebelin indgena, y vi una imagen que reflejaba la historia de Amrica Latina: la conquista mediante una combinacin de la Biblia y la espada. +Un guerrillero anti-sandinista fue herido de muerte mientras el Comandante Cero atacaba un pueblo del sur de Nicaragua. +Un tanque destruido de la guardia nacional de Somoza fue dejado como monumento en un parque de Managua, y fue transformado por la energa y el espritu de un nio. +Al mismo tiempo, una guerra civil tena lugar en El Salvador, y, nuevamente, la poblacin civil se vio envuelta en el conflicto. +He cubierto el conflicto israel-palestino desde 1981. +Este es un momento del comienzo de la segunda intifada, en 2000, cuando todava se trataba de piedras y molotovs contra un ejrcito. +En 2001, el levantamiento se convirti en un conflicto armado, y uno de los incidentes principales fue la destruccin del campo de refugiados palestinos en el pueblo cisjordano de Jenin. +Sin un terreno poltico donde encontrar puntos de acuerdo, la friccin continua de la tctica y la contra-tctica solo genera sospecha, odio y venganza, y perpetua el ciclo de violencia. +En la dcada de 1990, luego de la disolucin de la Unin Sovitica, Yugoslavia se quebr a lo largo de fisuras tnicas, y estall la guerra civil entre Bosnia, Croacia y Serbia. +Esta es una escena de lucha casa a casa en Mostar, vecino contra vecino. +Una habitacin, el lugar donde las personas comparten la intimidad, donde la vida misma se concibe, se convirti en un campo de batalla. +Una mezquita en el norte de Bosnia fue destruida por la artillera serbia y se us como una morgue improvisada. +Los soldados serbios muertos eran recogidos despus de una batalla. y ofrecidos como trueque a cambio del regreso de prisioneros o de soldados bosnios cados en accin. +Esto fue una vez una parque. +El soldado bosnio que me guiaba me dijo que todos sus amigos ahora estaban all. +Al mismo tiempo, en Sudfrica, luego de que Nelson Mandela fuera liberado de prisin, la poblacin negra comenz la ltima etapa de liberacin del apartheid. +Una de las cosas que tuve que aprender como periodista fue qu hacer con mi ira. +Deba usarla, canalizar su energa, transformarla en algo que pudiera aclarar mi visin, en vez de opacarla. +En Transkei, presenci un rito de pasaje a la mayora de edad de la tribu Xhosa. +Nios adolescentes vivan aislados, con sus cuerpos cubiertos de arcilla blanca. +Luego de varias semanas, lavaban lo blanco y asuman las responsabilidades de los hombres. +Era un ritual muy antiguo que pareca simbolizar la lucha poltica que estaba cambiando el rostro de Sudfrica. +Nios en Soweto jugando en un trampoln. +En otras partes de frica haba hambruna. +En Somalia, el gobierno central colaps y estall una guerra entre clanes. +Los granjeros fueron expulsados de sus tierras, y se destruyeron o robaron cosechas y ganado. +La hambruna se usaba como un arma de destruccin masiva -- primitiva, pero extremadamente efectiva. +Cientos de miles de personas fueron exterminadas, lenta y dolorosamente. +La comunidad internacional respondi con ayuda humanitaria masiva, y cientos de miles de vidas ms fueron salvadas. +Las tropas estadounidenses fueron enviadas para proteger los envos de suministros, pero terminaron siendo arrastrados al conflicto, y despus de la trgica batalla de Mogadishu, fueron retirados. +En el sur de Sudn, otra guerra civil fue ocasin de un uso similar del hambre como instrumento para el genocidio. +Nuevamente, ONGs internacionales, unidas bajo el amparo de la ONU, protagonizaron una operacin de ayuda masiva y miles de vidas fueron salvadas. +Soy un testigo, y quiero que mi testimonio sea honesto y sin censura. +Tambin quiero que sea poderoso y elocuente, y quiero hacerle tanta justicia como sea posible a la experiencia de las personas que fotografo. +Este hombre estaba en un centro de alimentacin de una ONG; se le ayudaba tanto como era posible. +No tena literalmente nada. Era virtualmente un esqueleto, y sin embargo an poda reunir el coraje y la voluntad para moverse. +No se haba rendido, y si l no se rindi, Cmo podra cualquiera en el resto del mundo siquiera pensar en perder la esperanza? +En 1994, despus de tres meses de cubrir la eleccin en Sudfrica, vi la asuncin de Nelson Mandela, y fue lo ms alentador que jams haya visto. +Ejemplificaba lo mejor que poda ofrecer la humanidad. +Al da siguiente part a Ruanda, y fue como tomar el elevador expreso al infierno. +Este hombre acababa de ser liberado de un campo de muerte Hutu. +Me permiti fotografiarlo por bastante tiempo, e incluso volte su cara hacia la luz, como si quisiera que lo viera mejor. +Creo que saba lo que las cicatrices en su rostro le diran al resto del mundo. +Esta vez, tal vez confundida o desmotivada por el desastre militar en Somalia, la comunidad internacional guard silencio, y aproximadamente 800,000 personas fueron masacradas por sus propios compatriotas --a veces sus propios vecinos-- usando herramientas agrcolas como armas. +Tal vez porque se haba aprendido una leccin de la dbil respuesta a la guerra en Bosnia y el fracaso en Ruanda, cuando Serbia atac a Kosovo la accin internacional fue mucho ms enrgica. +Las fuerzas de la OTAN intercedieron, y el ejrcito Serbio se retir. +Personas de las etnias albanesas haban sido asesinadas, se haban destruido sus granjas y una enorme cantidad de personas haban sido deportadas. +Se los recibi en campos de refugiado establecidos por ONGs en Albania y Macedonia. +La huella de un hombre quemado bajo su propio techo. +La imagen me record a una pintura rupestre, y reflej lo primitivos que somos en muchos aspectos. +Entre 1995 y 1996, cubr las dos primeras guerras en Chechenia, desde el interior de Grozny. +Este es un rebelde checheno en el frente de batalla contra el ejrcito ruso. +Los rusos bombardearon Grozny sin cesar durante semanas, matando principalmente a los civiles an atrapados dentro. +Encontr a un nio del orfanato local vagando alrededor del frente de batalla. +Mi trabajo ha pasado de tratar principalmente sobre guerra a incluir tambin una mirada sobre problemas sociales crticos. +Despus de la cada de Ceausescu, viaj a Rumania y descubr una especie de gulag para nios, donde miles de hurfanos eran mantenidos en condiciones medievales. +Ceausescu haba impuesto una cuota sobre la cantidad de nios que cada familia deba producir, convirtiendo al cuerpo de la mujer en un instrumento de poltica econmica de estado. +Los nios que no podan ser mantenidos por sus familias eran criados en orfanatos gubernamentales. +Los nios con defectos congnitos eran clasificados como incurables, y se los confinaba de por vida a condiciones inhumanas. +A medida que las denuncias comenzaban a aparecer, nuevamente llegaba ayuda internacional. +Adentrndome en el legado de los regmenes de Europa Oriental, trabaj por varios meses en una historia sobre los efectos de la contaminacin industrial, donde no se haba tenido consideracin por el medio ambiente o la salud de los empleados o de la poblacin general. +Una fbrica de aluminio de Checoslovaquia estaba llena de humo y polvo cancergeno, y cuatro de cada cinco trabajadores contraan cncer. +Despus de la cada de Suharto en Indonesia, comenc a explorar las condiciones de pobreza en un pas en camino a la modernizacin. +Pas bastante tiempo con un hombre que viva con su familia en un terrapln de ferrocarril y que haba perdido un brazo y una pierna en un accidente de tren. +Cuando la historia fue publicada, llovieron donaciones espontneas. +Se estableci un fideicomiso, y hoy la familia vive en una casa a las afueras de la ciudad y todas sus necesidades bsicas estn cubiertas. +Era una historia que no intentaba vender nada. +El periodismo haba provisto de un canal al sentimiento natural de generosidad, y los lectores respondieron. +Conoc una banda de nios sin hogar que haban llegado a Jakarta del campo, y terminaron viviendo en una estacin de tren. +Para la edad de 12 o 14, se haban convertido en mendigos y drogadictos. +Los pobres rurales se haban convertido en los pobres urbanos, y en el proceso se haban vuelto invisibles. +Estos adictos a la herona en desintoxicacin en Pakistn me recordaron a las figuras de una obra de Beckett: aislados, esperando en la oscuridad, pero atrados a la luz. +El Agente Naranja fue un defoliante usado durante la Guerra de Vietnam para impedir el refugio de los ejrcitos del Vietcong y Norvietnamita. +El ingrediente activo era la dioxina, una sustancia extremadamente txica que fue esparcida en grandes cantidades, y cuyos efectos fueron transmitidos genticamente a la siguiente generacin. +En 2000, comenc a documentar problemas mundiales de salud, concentrndome primero en el SIDA en frica. +Busqu contar la historia a travs del trabajo de los cuidadores. +Cre importante enfatizar que las personas estaban siendo ayudadas, ya fuera por ONGs internacionales o por organizaciones a nivel local. +Tantos nios han quedado hurfanos por la epidemia que las abuelas han tomado el rol de padres, y muchos nios han nacido con VIH. +Un hospital en Zambia. +Comenc a documentar la estrecha conexin entre el VIH/SIDA y la tuberculosis. +Este es un hospital de MSF en Camboya. +Mis imgenes pueden apoyar el trabajo de las ONGs esclareciendo los problemas sociales crticos con los que lidian. +Fui al Congo con MSF, y contribu con un libro y una exhibicin que enfocaba la atencin en una guerra olvidada en la que millones de personas han muerto, y la exposicin a una enfermedad sin tratamiento se usa como arma. +Se mide a un nio malnutrido como parte del programa de alimento suplementario. +En otoo de 2004 viaj a Darfur. +Esta vez estaba trabajando para una revista, pero nuevamente trabaj de cerca con MSF. +La comunidad internacional an no ha hallado una manera de crear la presin necesaria para detener este genocidio. +Un hospital de MSF en un campamento para la gente desplazada. +He trabajado en un extenso proyecto sobre crimen y castigo en Estados Unidos. +Esta es una escena de Nueva Orlens. +Un prisionero en Alabama era castigado siendo esposado a un poste bajo el sol de medioda. +Esta experiencia trajo muchas preguntas, entre ellas, preguntas sobre raza e igualdad y para quines existen oportunidades y opciones en nuestro pas. +En el patio de una cadena de presidiarios en Alabama. +No vi a ninguno de los aviones estrellarse. Cuando mir por mi ventana, vi que la primera torre estaba en llamas, y pens que podra haber sido un accidente. +Cuando mir de nuevo un par de minutos despus y vi quemarse la segunda torre, supe que estbamos en guerra. +En medio de los escombros en la Zona Cero, me di cuenta de algo. +Haba estado fotografiando en el mundo islmico desde 1981 -- no solo en Medio Oriente, sino tambin en frica, Asia y Europa. +Cuando fotografiaba en estos lugares distintos, crea que estaba cubriendo historias distintas. Pero en el 11 de Septiembre la historia cristaliz, y entend que en realidad haba estado cubriendo una sola historia por ms de 20 aos, y el ataque en Nueva York era su ltima manifestacin. +El distrito comercial de Kabul, Afganistn al final de la guerra civil, poco antes de que la ciudad cayera ante los talibanes. +Vctimas de minas terrestres siendo ayudadas en el centro de rehabilitacin de la Cruz Roja dirigido por Alberto Cairo. +Un nio que perdi una pierna debido a una mina. +Fui testigo de inmensos sufrimientos en el mundo islmico a causa de la opresin poltica, la guerra civil, invasiones extranjeras, pobreza, hambruna. +Comprend que con ese sufrimiento, el mundo islmico haba estado gritando. Por qu no lo habamos escuchado? +Un combatiente talibn derribado durante una batalla mientras la Alianza del Norte entraba a la ciudad de Kunduz. +Cuando la guerra con Irak se hizo inminente, me di cuenta de que las tropas estadounidenses estaran bien cubiertas, as que decid cubrir la invasin desde el interior de Bagdad. +Un mercado impactado por un proyectil de mortero que mat a muchos miembros de una misma familia. +Un da despus de que las fuerzas estadounidenses entraran a Bagdad, una compaa de Marines comenz a arrestar a ladrones de banco y fueron vitoreados por la multitud -- un momento de esperanza que dur poco. +Por primera vez en aos, se permiti a los shitas hacer el peregrinaje a Karbala, para celebrar la Ashura, y me soprendi la enorme cantidad de personas y el fervor con el practicaban su religin. +Un grupo de hombres marchan por las calles mientras se cortan con cuchillos. +Era evidente que los shitas eran una fuerza que habra que tener en consideracin, y que haramos bien en comprenderlos y aprender a tratarlos. +El ao pasado pas varios meses documentando a nuestros soldados heridos, desde el campo de batalla en Irak hasta que llegaban a su hogar. +Este es un mdico de helicptero dando RCP a un soldado al que le haban disparado en la cabeza. +La medicina militar se ha vuelto tan eficiente que el porcentaje de soldados que sobreviven despus de ser heridos es mucho mayor en esta guerra que en cualquier otra de nuestra historia. +El arma caracterstica de la guerra es el Dispositivo Explosivo Improvisado, y la herida caracterstica es el severo dao a las piernas. +Despus de soportar dolor y trauma extremos, los heridos atraviesan una lucha fsica y psicolgica agotadora al rehabilitarse. +El espritu que mostraban era realmente extraordinario. +Trat de imaginarme en su lugar, y me humill por completo ver su coraje y determinacin al enfrentar una prdida tan catastrfica. +Buenas personas haban sido puestas en una situacin muy mala por objetivos cuestionables. +Un da, en rehabilitacin, alguien empez a hablar sobre surfear y muchos muchachos que jams haban surfeado dijeron "Oye, vamos". +Y fueron a surfear. +Los fotgrafos llegan al extremo de la experiencia humana para mostrarle a las personas lo que est sucediendo. +A veces ponen sus propias vidas en riesgo porque creen que tus opiniones y tu influencia importan. +Dirigen sus fotos a tus mejores instintos, generosidad, la nocin de lo bueno y lo malo, la habilidad y la voluntad de identificarse con los dems, la negativa a aceptar lo inaceptable. +Mi deseo TED: hay una historia vital que debe ser contada, y deseo que TED me ayude a acceder a ella y que luego me ayude a crear maneras innovadoras y emocionantes de usar la fotografa periodstica en la era digital. +Muchas gracias. +Pens al levantarme a pedir mi deseo TED que tratara de empezar poniendo en perspectiva lo que intento hacer y la forma en que encaja con lo que ellos intentan hacer. +Como todos sabemos, vivimos en un mundo interdependiente pero insuficiente en tres aspectos fundamentales. +Incluso en los pases ricos, es comn ver cmo crece la desigualdad. +En los Estados Unidos, hemos tenido cinco aos de crecimiento econmico desde el 2001, cinco aos de crecimiento de la productividad en el lugar de trabajo, pero los salarios promedio estn estancados y el porcentaje de familias trabajadoras que han cado por debajo de la lnea de pobreza ha aumentado en un cuatro por ciento. +El porcentaje de familias trabajadoras sin servicios mdicos ha aumentado un cuatro por ciento. +As que este mundo interdependiente, que ha sido tan bueno para la mayora de nosotros; razn por la cual estamos todos aqu al Norte de California haciendo lo que hacemos para ganarnos la vida y disfrutar de esta velada, es profundamente desigual. +Tambin es inestable +Inestable debido a las amenazas terroristas, las armas de destruccin masiva, la propagacin de enfermedades en todo el mundo y la sensacin de que somos vulnerables a ese fenmeno como no lo ramos hace algn tiempo. +Y quizs el aspecto ms importante es que este mundo es insostenible debido al cambio climtico, al agotamiento de los recursos naturales y a la destruccin de las especies. +Siempre es ms fcil decirlo que hacerlo. +En otras palabras, consideraron que sus diferencias eran ms importantes que el hecho de ser seres humanos. +El terrorismo es la principal plaga psicolgica de la humanidad en el siglo XXI. +En estos asuntos, la gente como nosotros que no ocupa cargos pblicos, tiene ms poder para hacer el bien que en cualquier otro momento de la historia, puesto que ms de la mitad de la poblacin mundial vive bajo gobiernos por los que votaron o que pueden quitar con sus votos. +E incluso los gobiernos antidemocrticos son ms sensibles a la opinin pblica. +Principalmente por el poder de la Internet, las personas de escasos recursos pueden agruparse y acumular grandes sumas de dinero que pueden cambiar el mundo buscando algn bien comn cuando se ponen de acuerdo. +Cuando el tsunami golpe el sur de Asia, los Estados Unidos contribuyeron con 1,200 millones de dlares. +El 30 por ciento de nuestros hogares donaron. +La mitad de ellos lo hicieron a travs de Internet. +Cada hogar don alrededor de 57 dlares en promedio. +Y en tercer lugar, a causa del aumento de organizaciones no gubernamentales. +Ellos, las empresas, otros grupos de ciudadanos, tienen el enorme poder de afectar las vidas de los seres humanos. +Cuando llegu a la presidencia en 1993 no exista ninguna organizacin de este tipo en Rusia. +Hoy en da existen unas doscientas mil. +Tampoco existan en la India y hoy hay por lo menos medio milln activas. +Tampoco haba en China y hoy existen 250,000 registradas con el gobierno, y es probable que haya el doble pero que no estn registradas por razones polticas. +Cuando comenc con mi fundacin y pens cmo es el mundo hoy en da y cmo sera el que deseo dejar a la siguiente generacin, y trat de ser realista sobre aquello que siempre me import toda mi vida, sobre lo cual todava puedo ejercer una influencia. +Ustedes vieron una referencia de ello en lo que pudimos hacer con los medicamentos contra el SIDA. +Y quiero decir que a la cabeza de ese esfuerzo y quien tambin participa de manera activa en el deseo que voy a pedir esta noche, es Ira Magaziner, quien hoy me acompaa y quiero agradecerle por todo lo que ha hecho. +Ah est el! +Cuando dej la presidencia y me pidieron trabajar, primero en el Caribe, para tratar de ayudar a hacer frente a la crisis del SIDA, los medicamentos genricos estaban disponibles por aproximadamente 500 dlares por persona al ao. +Si se adquiran en grandes cantidades al por mayor, se podan conseguir por un poco menos de 400 dlares. +El primer pas en el que trabajamos fue en Las Bahamas, en donde pagaban 3.500 dlares por estos mismos medicamentos. +El mercado estaba tan desorganizado que compraban este tipo de medicamentos a travs de dos agentes que les suban el precio en un setecientos por ciento. +As que en nuestra primera semana de trabajo, logramos bajar el precio a 500 dlares. +Y de repente, se podan salvar siete veces ms vidas por la misma cantidad de dinero. +Despus, comenzamos a trabajar con los fabricantes de medicamentos para el SIDA, uno de los cuales fue mencionado en la pelcula, y negociamos un cambio completamente diferente en la estrategia del negocio. Porque incluso a 500 dlares, estas medicinas eran vendidas sobre la base de altos mrgenes, bajos volmenes y pagos inciertos. +As que nos centramos en mejorar la productividad de las operaciones y la cadena de suministro, y lo cambiamos a un negocio de bajos mrgenes, altos volmenes y una certeza absoluta del pago. +Sola bromear diciendo que la principal contribucin que hicimos, en la batalla contra el SIDA, fue conseguir que los fabricantes cambiaran de una estrategia de joyera, a la de un supermercado. +Pero el precio cay de 500 a 140 dlares. +Y muy pronto, el precio fue de 192 dlares en promedio. +Hoy se pueden adquirir por cerca de 100 dlares. +Los medicamentos para nios costaban 600 dlares porque nadie tena la capacidad para comprarlos. +Negociamos hasta bajar el precio a 190. +Despus, de forma brillante los franceses concibieron su impuesto a las lneas areas para crear algo llamado UNITAID, y consiguieron que otros pases ayudaran. +Ahora, la medicina para nios est a 60 dlares por persona al ao. +Lo nico que todava nos impide salvar las vidas de todos aquellos que necesitan el medicamento para mantenerse vivos es la falta de los sistemas necesarios para diagnosticar, tratar y cuidar a la gente y hacerles llegar los medicamentos. +Propusimos una iniciativa para combatir la obesidad infantil en conjunto con la Asociacin Americana del Corazn. +Tratamos de hacer lo mismo logrando acuerdos con las industrias de refrescos y frituras para que redujeran tanto las caloras en sus productos como tambin algunos ingredientes peligrosos en los alimentos de nuestros hijos en las escuelas. +Nosotros simplemente reorganizamos los mercados. +Y se me ocurri que en todo este mundo no gubernamental, alguien tiene que pensar en la organizacin de los mercados de bienes pblicos. +As que toda esta discusin sobre prdidas econmicas es un misterio para m. +Considero que es una tarea fcil. +Cuando Al Gore gan merecidamente un scar por su pelcula "La verdad incmoda", me emocion mucho y le recomend que realizara otra rpidamente. +Para los que vieron "La verdad incmoda", la diapositiva ms importante de su conferencia es la ltima, en la que se muestra hacia dnde irn los gases de efecto invernadero si no hacemos nada, aqu es donde podran ir. +Y existen seis categoras diferentes en las que podemos trabajar para cambiar la trayectoria. +Necesitamos una pelcula sobre esas seis categoras. +Y todos ustedes necesitan tenerlo grabado en sus cerebros y organizarse en torno a ello. +Y eso es lo que nosotros intentamos hacer. +Organizar este tipo de mercados es algo que tratamos de hacer. +Ahora nos estamos encargando de algo ms, que tiene que ver con mi deseo. +Mi experiencia al trabajar en pases en vas de desarrollo ha sido que aunque los titulares sean pesimistas y digan que no se puede hacer esto o lo otro debido a la corrupcin, yo creo que en los pases pobres la incapacidad es un problema mucho mayor que la corrupcin y esa incapacidad alimenta la corrupcin. +Ahora tenemos dinero y, dados los precios bajos, podemos distribuir medicamentos contra el SIDA en todo el mundo a aquellas personas a las que actualmente no llegamos. +Hoy en da, estos precios bajos estn disponibles en los 25 pases donde trabajamos, y en un total de 62 pases. Y alrededor de 550.000 personas estn recibiendo estos beneficios. +Pero el dinero est ah para llegar a otros. +Los sistemas no estn ah para llegar a las personas. +Las preguntas son: Primero, servir? +desarrollar... proporcionar atencin de alta calidad? +Y segundo Se podr llevar a cabo a precios que permitirn al pas sostener un sistema de salud sin ayuda de donantes extranjeros al cabo de 5 10 aos? +Porque entre ms trabajo con estos problemas, ms convencido estoy de que debemos, ya sea en economa, salud, educacin, en lo que sea, tenemos que construir sistemas. +Y la falta de sistemas funcionales rompe la relacin que los trajo aqu a todos ustedes esta noche. +Piensen en cmo ha sido su vida, y en los obstculos que han enfrentado, en esos momentos crticos siempre supieron que haba una relacin predecible entre el esfuerzo que realizaron y el resultado que obtuvieron. +En un mundo sin sistemas, con caos, todo se convierte en una lucha de guerrillas, donde no se puede predecir nada. +Y se vuelve casi imposible salvar vidas educar nios, desarrollar economas, cualquier cosa. +An con la pobreza de Hait, en la zona donde la clnica de Farmer acta atienden un rea mucho mayor que la que los profesionales mdicos dicen que podran atender, y no han perdido, desde 1988, ni una persona por tuberculosis; ninguna. +Y han logrado una gran cantidad de otros resultados impresionantes en salud. +As que cuando decidimos trabajar en Ruanda, para incrementar los ingresos del pas y combatir el problema del SIDA, queramos establecer una red de servicios de salud, pues haba sido destruida en su totalidad durante el genocidio de 1994 y el ingreso per cpita era todava de menos de un dlar al da. +As que llam a Paul Farmer y le pregunt si poda ayudarnos. +Y nos hemos dado a la tarea de hacer eso. +Ahora bien, comenzamos a trabajar hace 18 meses. +Y estamos trabajando en un rea llamada Kayonza del Sur, que es una de las zonas ms pobres de Ruanda, con un grupo inicial de alrededor de 400,000 personas. +Los procedimientos que hacen que esto funcione han sido perfeccionados, como lo mencion, por Paul Farmer y su equipo, en su trabajo rural en Hait durante los ltimos 20 aos. +Recientemente, hicimos una evaluacin de los primeros 18 meses de nuestros esfuerzos en Ruanda. +Y los resultados fueron tan buenos que el gobierno de Ruanda ha decidido adoptar el modelo para todo el pas, y ha apoyado firmemente y puesto todos los recursos gubernamentales para apoyar el proyecto. +Voy a contarles un poco sobre nuestro equipo porque es muestra lo que hacemos. +Tenemos alrededor de 500 personas en todo el mundo trabajando en nuestro programa del SIDA, algunos sin recibir un sueldo, slo se les brinda transporte, alojamiento y comida. +Tambin tenemos otras personas que trabajan en otros programas relacionados. +Nuestro plan de negocios en Ruanda se elabor bajo la direccin de Diana Noble, quien es una mujer con dones extraordinarios, pero muchas veces comunes en la gente que esta dispuesta a hacer este tipo de trabajo. +Ella era la asociada ms joven en Schroder Ventures en Londres cuando tena poco ms de 20 aos. +Fue directora ejecutiva de una exitosa empresa de capital de riesgo; inici y estableci Reed Elsevier Ventures, y a los 45 decidi que quera hacer algo diferente con su vida. +As que ahora trabaja tiempo completo en este proyecto con un sueldo muy bajo. +Ella y su equipo de gente del mundo empresarial han creado un plan de negocio que nos permitir llevar este sistema de salud a todo el pas. +Y eso sera algo digno del tipo de trabajo con capitales privados que sola hacer cuando reciba mucho ms dinero por lo mismo. +Cuando llegamos a esta zona rural, el 45% de los nios menores de cinco aos tena retraso en su crecimiento por desnutricin. +El 23% de ellos murieron antes de cumplir cinco aos. +La mortalidad al nacer era de ms de 2.5 %. +La causa de ms del 15% de las muertes entre nios y adultos era por parsitos intestinales y diarrea provocada por consumir agua sucia y vivir en condiciones insalubres, todo esto totalmente prevenible y tratable. +Ms del 13% de las muertes era por enfermedades respiratorias, igualmente, todas prevenibles y tratables. +Y ni una sola persona era tratada en esta zona por SIDA o tuberculosis. +Durante los primeros 18 meses, ocurri lo siguiente: Pasamos de 0 a 2,000 personas en tratamiento contra del SIDA +Esto representa el 80 por ciento de las personas que necesitan el tratamiento en esta regin. +Escuchen esto: menos de cuatro dcimas partes del uno por ciento de aquellos bajo tratamiento dejaron de tomar su medicina o de acudir al tratamiento. +Esa cifra es ms baja que en los Estados Unidos. +Menos del 0.3 por ciento tuvieron que ser transferidos a drogas de la segunda lnea de tratamiento que son ms costosas. +Se llev asesora a 400,000 mujeres embarazadas, quienes darn a luz por primera vez dentro de un sistema organizado de salud. +Eso representa cerca del 43% de todos los embarazos. +Alrededor del 40 por ciento de todas las personas; dije 400,000, pero quera decir 40,000 +Alrededor del 40 por ciento de todas las personas que necesitan tratamiento contra la tuberculosis lo estn recibiendo, y eso en slo 18 meses, considerando que empezamos desde cero. +El 43 por ciento de los nios que necesitan de un programa de alimentacin para prevenir la desnutricin y la muerte prematura estn recibiendo los suplementos alimenticios que necesitan para sobrevivir y crecer. +Hemos iniciado los primeros programas para el tratamiento de la malaria que jams hayan tenido all. +Los pacientes son admitidos en un hospital que fue destruido durante el genocidio, y que hemos renovado junto con otras cuatro clnicas, con generadores de energa solar, buena tecnologa de laboratorio. +Hoy en da estamos tratando 325 personas por mes, a pesar de que casi el 100 por ciento de los pacientes con SIDA son ahora tratados en casa. +Y para aquellos de ustedes que entienden la economa de los servicios de salud saben que todos los pases ricos invierten entre 9 y 11 porciento del PIB en salud, a excepcin de los Estados Unidos, en donde gastamos 16%, pero esa es una historia para otro da. +Ahora estamos trabajando con "Partners in Health" y el Ministerio de Salud de Ruanda y con la gente de nuestra Fundacin para ampliar este sistema a otros lugares. +Tambin estamos empezando a hacerlo en Malawi y Lesoto. +Y tenemos proyectos similares en Tanzania, Mozambique, Kenia y Etiopa, con otros asociados que estn tratando de lograr lo mismo, salvar tantas vidas tan rpidamente como podamos, pero hacerlo de manera sistemtica y que se pueda implementar en el mbito nacional y luego con un modelo que pueda aplicarse en cualquier pas del mundo. +Necesitamos una inversin inicial para capacitar a mdicos, enfermeras, la administracin de la salud y trabajadores comunitarios de salud en todo el pas, para implementar tecnologas de la informacin, energa solar, el agua y el saneamiento, la infraestructura de transporte. +Pero a lo largo de un periodo de cinco a 10 aos, reduciremos la necesidad de ayuda externa y eventualmente prescindiremos de ella. +Mi deseo es que TED colabore en nuestro trabajo y nos ayude a establecer un sistema de salud rural de alta calidad en un pas pobre: Ruanda, que pueda ser un modelo para frica, y de hecho, para cualquier pas pobre en cualquier parte del mundo. +Creo que esto nos ayudar a construir un mundo ms integrado con ms socios y menos terroristas, con ms ciudadanos productivos y menos gente que odia, un lugar en el que todos quisiramos que nuestros hijos y nietos crecieran. +Estas personas han pasado por mucho y ninguno de nosotros, sobre todo yo, les ayud cuando estaban en camino de destruirse unos a otros. +Hoy lo estamos revirtiendo y ellos lo han superado y estn enfocados en el futuro. +Lo estamos haciendo de modo ambientalmente responsable. +Estoy haciendo mis mejores esfuerzos para convencerlos de no llevar la red elctrica al 35 por ciento de las personas que no tienen acceso, a menos que sea con energa limpia, que tengan proyectos de reforestacin responsables. Los ruandeses, curiosamente, han sido muy buenos, seor Wilson, en la preservacin de su manto vegetal. +Hay un par de chicos que provienen de familias sureas de agricultores, y lo primero que hice cuando fui a ese lugar fue agacharme y cavar en la tierra y ver lo que haban hecho con ella. +Tenemos aqu una oportunidad para demostrar que un pas que casi se excluye de forma sangrienta de la existencia puede reconciliarse, reorganizarse, centrarse en el maana y tener servicios de salud completos y de calidad con la mnima ayuda externa. +Estoy agradecido por este premio y lo usar para ese fin. +Vale la pena intentarlo y creo que tendra xito. +Gracias y que Dios los bendiga. +Eel 10 de Septiembre, la maana de mi sptimo cumpleaos, baj las escaleras a la cocina, donde mi madre estaba lavando los platos y mi padre estaba leyendo el peridico o algo as, hice una especie de saludo desde el umbral de la puerta, y dijeron, "Eh, feliz cumpleaos!" Y yo dije, "tengo siete aos." +Mi padre sonri y dijo, "Bueno, ya sabes lo que eso significa, no?" +Y yo dije, "S, que voy a tener una fiesta y pastel y obtendr muchos regalos?" Y mi pap dijo, "Bueno, s. +Pero algo ms importante que eso, tener siete aos significa que has llegado a la edad de la razn, y ahora puedes cometer todos y cada uno de los pecados contra Dios y la humanidad." +Ya haba escuchado esa frase, "la edad de la razn," anteriormente. +La hermana Mary Kevin haba hablado al respecto en mi clase de segundo grado. Pero cuando ella lo deca, la frase pareca estar envuelta en la emocin de los preparativos para nuestra primera comunin y nuestra primera confesin, y todo mundo saba que el chiste de todo eso era usar el vestido blanco con velo, +aunque de todas formas, no le haba prestado atencin a esa frase, "la edad de la razn." +As que dije, "S, s, la edad de la razn. Y eso que quera decir?" +Y mi pap dijo, "Bueno, nosotros los catlicos creemos que Dios sabe que los nios pequeos no notan la diferencia entre el bien y el mal, pero cuando cumples siete, ya ests grandecita para distinguirlo. +As que ya eres grande y has llegado a la edad de la razn, y ahora Dios empezar a anotar lo que hagas en tu expediente permanente." +Y yo dije, "Oh. Un momento. O sea que durante todo este tiempo, hasta hoy, me he portado tan bien y Dios no lo ha notado?" +Y mi mam dijo, "Pero yo s." +Y yo pens, "Cmo no lo supe antes? +Cmo no me entr en la cabeza cuando me estuvieron diciendo? +Tanto portarme bien y sin recibir crdito por ello. +Y lo peor, Cmo no me di cuenta de esta informacin tan importante hasta el da en que me era prcticamente intil? +As que dije, "Mam, Pap, y qu hay de Santa Cls? +Quiero decir, Santa sabe si he sido buena o mala, no? +Y mi pap dijo, "S, pero, cario, Creo que eso es tcnicamente slo entre el Da de Accin de Gracias y Navidad." +Y mi mam dijo, "Oh, Bob, basta. Vamos a decrselo. +Ya tiene siete aos. Julie, Santa Cls no existe." +En realidad, esto no me molest especialmente. +Santa vendra a nuestra casa mientras estbamos en la misa de las nueve en la maana de navidad, pero slo si no nos quejbamos. +Lo que me hizo sospechar. +Era bastante obvio que nuestros padres nos daban los regalos. +Me explico: mi pap tena una forma peculiar de envolver, y la letra de mi mam era tan parecida a la de Santa. +Adems, por qu Santa ahorrara tiempo al tener que regresar a nuestra casa despus de haber ido a la de todos los dems? +Slo hay una conclusin obvia a la que se llega con esta pila de evidencia: nuestra familia era demasiado rara incluso para que Santa Cls viniera a visitarnos, y mis pobres padres estaban tratando de protegernos de la vergenza, de la humillacin del rechazo de Santa, quien era alegre. Pero, aceptmoslo, tambin era un juzgn. +As que, descubrir que no exista Santa Cls fue una especie de alivio. +Me fui de la cocina, no tanto en estado de shock por lo de Santa, sino que ms bien no saba qu decir sobre cmo poda haberme perdido todo esto de la edad de la razn. +Ya era muy tarde para mi, pero tal vez podra ayudar a alguien ms, alguien que pudiera usar la informacin. +Deban cumplir dos criterios: ser suficientemente grandes para entender el concepto de la edad de la razn, y no tener siete aos todava. +La respuesta era simple: mi hermano Bill. l tena seis. +Bueno, finalmente encontr a Bill como a una cuadra de la casa +en el patio de la escuela. Era sbado, y estaba solo, pateando una pelota contra la pared. +Corr a l y le dije, "Bill!" +me acabo de dar cuenta de que la edad de la razon empieza cuando cumples siete aos, y entonces ya eres capaz de cometer todo tipo de pecados contra Dios y la humanidad." Y Bill dijo, "y luego?" Y le dije, +"Pues, t tienes seis. Tienes todo un ao para hacer lo que quieras +y Dios no se dar cuenta." Y l dijo, "Y qu?" Y le dije, +"Cmo que y qu? Y qu todo!" Me di la vuelta corriendo, estaba tan enojada con l. +Pero cuando llegu al ltimo escaln, me di vuelta dramticamente y dije, "Por cierto, Bill, no existe Santa Cls." +Bueno, yo no lo saba entonces, pero en realidad no cumpla siete aos el 10 de septiembre. +Para mi dcimo tercero cumpleaos, plane una fiesta de pijamas con mis amigas, pero unas semanas antes mi madre me llam y dijo, "Necesito hablar contigo, en privado. +El 10 de septiembre no es tu cumpleaos. Es el 10 de octubre." Y dije, "Qu?" +Y dijo, "Mira, la fecha lmite para entrar al Jardn de Nios era el 15 de septiembre." +"As que les dije que tu cumpleaos era el 10 de septiembre, y como no estaba segura de que no fueras a ir con el chisme por todas partes, te empec a decir que tu cumpleaos era el 10 de septiembre. +Pero Julie, ya estabas lista para ir a la escuela, cario. Estabas lista." +Ahora que lo pienso, cuando tena cuatro aos ya era la mayor de cuatro nios, y mi madre estaba embarazada de otro, as que creo que lo que quera decir, no sin razn, es que ella estaba lista, ella estaba lista. Entonces dijo, +"No te preocupes, Julie, todos los aos el 10 de octubre, cuando era tu cumpleaos pero no lo sabas, me asegur de que comieras un pedazo de pastel ese da." +Lo que era reconfortante, pero confuso. +Mi madre haba estado clebrando mi cumpleaos conmigo, sin m. +Lo que ms me molest de esta nueva informacin no era que tendra que cambiar la fecha de mi fiesta con todas mis amigas, +lo que era ms molesto es que eso significaba que no era virgo. +Tena un gran pster de virgo en mi cuarto, +y lea mi horscopo todos los das sin falta, y me describa completamente. +Y eso significaba que era libra? +Entonces, tom el autobs al centro para comprar el pster de libra. +El de virgo tena la imagen de una hermosa mujer con el cabello largo, como reposando cerca del agua, mientras que el pster de libra era una balanza gigante. +Eso ocurri cuando estaba cambiando fsicamente, y estaba cambiando mucho ms que las otras nias, y, francamente, la idea de que mi signo astrolgico fuera una bscula simplemente pareca siniestro y deprimente. +Pero consegu el nuevo pster de libra, y empec a leer mi nuevo horscopo, y qued asombrada al descubrir que tambin me describa completamente. +No fue sino hasta aos despus, al ver en retrospectiva todo esto de la-edad-de-la-razn/cambio-de-cumpleaos, que me di cuenta de que no cumpla siete cuando pens que cumpla siete. Tena todo un mes ms para hacer lo que quisiera antes de que Dios empezara a etiquetarme. +Ay!, la vida puede ser tan cruel. +Un da, dos misioneros mormones vinieron a mi puerta. +Vivo junto a una pista en Los ngeles, y mi cuadra es --bueno, es un inicio natural para la gente que va de puerta en puerta. +A veces llegan viejitas de la iglesia Adventista del sptimo da ensendome estas ilustraciones del cielo. +Y en ocasiones llegan adolescentes que prometen que no se unirn a una pandilla y que no robarn si les compro +As que normalmente ignoro el timbre, pero ese da abr la puerta. +Y haba dos chicos, como de 19 aos cada uno, con sus camisitas blancas y almidonadas de manga corta, con etiquetas con su nombre que los identificaban como representantes oficiales de la Iglesia de Jesucristo de los Santos de los ltimos Das, y me dijeron que tenan un mensaje para mi de parte de Dios. +Y dije, "Un mensaje para mi? de parte de Dios?" Y dijeron, "S." +Los sent y les di vasos con agua -- OK, lo tengo. Les di vasos con agua. +No toques mi cabello, esa es la cuestin. +No puedes poner un video mo en frente de mi y esperar que no me arregle el cabello. +OK. Entonces los sent y les di vasos con agua, y tras unas palabras amables, dijeron, "Crees que Dios te ama con todo su corazn?" +Y pens, "Bueno, por supuesto que creo en Dios, pero, no me gusta esa palabra, "corazn", porque hace muy humano a Dios, y no me gusta la palabra "suyo" [de l], porque sexualiza a Dios." +Pero no quera discutir sobre semntica con estos chicos, as que despus de una larga e incmoda pausa, dije "S, s, me siento muy amada." +Se vieron uno al otro y sonrieron, como si fuera la respuesta correcta. Y luego dijeron, "Crees que todos somos hermanos y hermanas en este planeta?" +Y yo dije, "S, lo creo." Y me sent aliviada +de que fuera una pregunta que poda contestar tan rpido. +Y luego dijeron, "bueno, entonces te contaremos una historia." +Y me contaron la historia de este tipo llamado Lehi, quien vivi en Jerusaln 600 aos A.C. +Al parecer en Jerusaln en el ao 600 A.C. +todos eran totalmente malos y perversos. Todos y cada uno de ellos: +hombres, mujeres, nios, infantes, fetos. Y Dios se acerc a Lehi y le dijo, "Pon a tu familia en una barca +y te guiar fuera de aqu." Y Dios los gui. +Los gui a Amrica. +Yo dije, "Amrica? Desde Jerusaln hasta Amrica en barca en el ao 600 A.C.?" +Y ellos dijeron, "S." +Luego de que Jess muriera en la cruz por nuestros pecados, en su camino al cielo se detuvo en Amrica y visit a los Nefitas. +Y les dijo que si todos permanecan total y completamente buenos -- todos y cada uno de ellos-- podran ganar la guerra contra los malignos Lamanitas. +Pero al parecer alguien lo ech a perder, porque los Lamanitas pudieron matar a todos los Nefitas. +A todos menos a uno, este tipo llamado Mormn, quien logr sobrevivir escondindose en el bosque. +Y se asegur de que toda esta historia se escribiera en jeroglficos egipcios reformados grabados en platos de oro, que fueron enterrados en Palmyra, Nueva York. +Bueno, yo estaba al borde de mi asiento. +Les dije, "Qu pas con los Lamanitas?" +Y me dijeron, "Bueno, ellos se volvieron nuestros nativos americanos, aqu en EE.UU." +Y dije, "Entonces, ustedes creen que los nativos americanos descienden de unas personas que eran totalmente malas?" Y dijeron, "S." +Entonces me contaron que este tipo llamado Joseph Smith encontr enterrados esos platos de oro en su patio trasero, y que tambin encontr esta piedra mgica ah mismo, que pona en su sombrero. Y entonces meta la cabeza en l y eso le permita traducir los platos de oro del egipcio reformado al ingls. +Bueno, para entonces ya quera darle a estos chicos algn consejo sobre su tirada. +Quera decirles, "OK, no empiecen con esa historia." +O sea, incluso los ciencilogos saben que hay que hacer un test de personalidad antes de empezar-- --a decirle a las personas todo sobre Xenu, el maligno seor intergalctico. +Y qu quieren decir con profetas? Es decir, los profetas pueden ser mujeres? +Y dijeron, "No." Y dije, "Por qu? Y dijeron, +"Bueno, porque Dios le dio a las mujeres un don tan espectacular, tan maravilloso, que el nico don que le quedaba para dar a los hombres era el don de la profeca." +Cul es ese maravilloso don que le dio Dios a las mujeres?, me preguntaba yo +Tal vez su mejor habilidad para adaptarse y cooperar? +Mayor esperanza de vida? El hecho de que las mujeres tienden a ser +mucho menos violentas que los hombres? Pero no, no era ninguno de esos dones. +Dijeron, "La habilidad de procrear." +Dije, "Ay, vamos. O sea, incluso si las mujeres trataran de tener un beb todos los aos desde que cumplen 15 aos hasta que tienen 45, asumiendo que no muriesen de cansancio, podra ser que algunas mujeres tuvieran tiempo de sobra para escuchar la palabra de Dios." Y dijeron, "No." +Para entonces ya no me parecan tan lindos, pero tenan ms que decir. +Dijeron, "Bueno, tambin creemos que si eres mormn y te llevas bien con la iglesia, cuando mueres vas al cielo y ests con tu familia para toda la eternidad." +Y dije, "Oh, cielos!-- +-- eso no sera un buen incentivo para mi." +Y dijeron, "Ah -- pero tambin creemos +que cuando te vas al cielo tu cuerpo es restaurado a su estado original. +Por ejemplo, si perdiste una pierna, la recuperas. +O si te quedaste ciego, puedes ver." +Dije, "Oh -- Yo no tengo tero porque tuve cncer hace unos aos. Entonces, eso significa que si me voy al cielo recuperar mi tero?" Y dijeron, "Desde luego." +Y dije, "No lo quiero de vuelta, soy feliz sin l." Cielos! +Y qu si te operaste la nariz y te gust? +Dios te obligara a recuperar tu vieja nariz? +Entonces me dieron el Libro de Mormn. y me dijeron que leyera este captulo y aqul, dijeron que volveran un da a ver cmo iba, y creo que dije algo como, "No se apuren," o tal vez slo, "Por favor, no," y se fueron. +Entonces, al principio me senta superior a estos chicos, y estaba satisfecha con mi fe ms convencional. Pero entonces, +mientras ms lo pensaba, ms honesta tena que ser conmigo misma. +Si alguien viniera a mi puerta y me pusiera a escuchar teologa y dogmas catlicos por primera vez, y me dijeran, "Creemos que Dios embaraz a una nia muy joven sin relaciones coitales, y el hecho de que ella fuera virgen es maniticamente importante para nosotros-- +-- y ella tuvo un beb, que es el hijo de Dios." Lo vera igualmente ridculo. +Slo que estoy tan acostumbrada a esa historia. +As que no pude permitirme ser condescendiente con esos chicos. +Pero lo que me preguntaron cuando llegaron realmente se qued en mi cabeza: Creo que Dios me ama con todo su corazn? +Porque no estaba segura sobre cmo me senta al respecto. +Si me hubieran preguntado, Sientes que Dios te ama con todo su corazn? +Bueno, eso habra sido muy diferente, creo que habra respondido inmediatamente, "S, s lo siento todo el tiempo. Siento el amor de Dios cuando estoy confundida y herida, me siento consolada, me refugio en el amor de Dios +cuando no entiendo por qu ocurren las tragedias, y siento el amor de dios cuando miro con gratitud toda la belleza que veo." +Pero como me preguntaron con la palabra creer en la pregunta, de alguna forma todo fue diferente, porque no estaba segura si crea lo que tan claramente senta. +Saben, cuando Chris me ofreci hablar en TED, dije que no que cre que no iba a ser capaz de entablar la conexin personal que quera. +Es una conferencia tan grande. +Pero me explic que l estaba en un aprieto, y que le estaba costando encontrar el tipo de atractivo sexual y el estrellato por el que la conferencia es reconocida - +asi que dije est bien, Ted - digo, Chris. Ir bajo dos condiciones. +Una - quiero hablar lo ms temprano posible. +y dos - quiero elegir el tema para TED 2006. +Afortunadamente acept. Y el tema, en dos aos, +ser: "Lindas Fotos de Cachorros." +Yo invent la Camara Placebo. +En realidad no toma fotos, pero es mucho ms barata, y an as sientes que estuviste ah. +"Estimado Sr, Buen da, saludos y mis mejores deseos +a ud. y su familia. S que esta carta le resultar sorpresiva, pero no deje que sea una sorpresa, ya que la naturaleza tiene una manera de llevar sin ser anunciada, y, como el refrn dice, los originales son muy dificil de encontrar, pero sus ecos suenan fuertes. As que decid ponerme en contacto con usted, +para que ud. me asegure seguridad y honestidad, si debo confiarle cualquier monto de dinero bajo su custodia. Soy Mister Michael Bangoora, el hijo del difunto Mister Tiamu Bangoora - +quien fue el Ministro de Francia en Sierra Leone - pero fue asesinado durante la guerra civil. +Sabiendo que su pas es una inversin economica favorable, y que su gente es transpatente y confiable en los negocios, bajo dicha premisa le escribo. +Antes de la muerte de my padre, l tena la suma de 23 millones de dolares estadounidenses, que mantuvo lejor de los lderes rebeldes durante el transcurso de la guerra. +Dicho fondo deba ser utilizado para la rehabilitacion de las reservas de agua del pas, antes del estallido de la guerra. Cuando la guerra estall, el lder rebelde demand que el fondo le fuera entregado, my padre insisti que no lo tena bajo su posesin, y fue asesinado por negarse a entregar ese fondo. +Mientas tanto, mi madre y yo somos los unicos que sabemos de dicho fondo porque me padre siempre confiaba en m. +Rapidamente hice un arreglo con un trabajador de la Cruz Roja, que us su camioneta oficial para transportar el dinero al Aeropuerto Lungi, en Freetown aunque no conoca el verdadero contenido de la caja. +El fondo fue depositado como respaldo familiar, en una compania de seguridad confiable en Dakar, Senegal, donde se me provey solo asilo temporal. +No tengo deseos de invertir el dinero en Senegal debido al clima econmico desfavorable, y tan cerca de mi pas. +Sinceramente, Mister Michael Bangoora." +Esto es verdaderamente embarazoso. +Me dijeron detrs del escenario que tena 18 minutos. +Solo prepar 15. +As que, si les parece bien, me gustara esperar por 3 minutos. +Lo lamento mucho. +Cul es su nombre? +Mark Serfaas. Eso es muy cool, no? Persiguiendo la felicidad. +Eres virgen? Virgen? +Quiero decir - digo, en el sentido de TED? +Lo eres? ah, si. Entonces, qu eres, +como 1000, 2000 ah? eh? oh? +No sabes de qu estoy hablando? +Ah, Mark - Serfaas. +1860 - estoy bien? +Y eso no es nada para avergonzarse. +No es nada de qu avergonzarse. +Si, estaba con algunos tipos de Google ayer a la noche. +Con mucha onda, nos estabamos emborrachando. +Y me contaban que el software de Google ha avanzado tanto que, basandose en tu interaccin con Google durante tu vida, pueden predecir qu vas a decir a contiuacin. Y yo deca, "Vayanse al demonio, eso es una locura." +Pero dijeron: "No, pero no le muestres a nadie", pero se les escap. +Y dijeron que yo poda escribir "que voy a decir a continuacin", +y mi nombre, y me dira. Y debo decirles, ahora, +esto es un software puro, es un navegador de Internet real, y este es el sitio real de Google, y lo vamos a probar hoy en vivo. +Qu iba a decir a continuacin? Y Ze Frank - ese soy yo. +Me siento afortunado? +Me siento afortunado? +Audiencia: SI. +Ze Frank: oh, increible. +En Marzo del 2001 - Me film bailando la cancin "Justify My Love" de Madonna +Un Jueves, mande un link a una pgina web que presentaba esos clips a 17 de mis amigos ms cercanos, como parte de - invitacin a mi - una invitacion a mis tr.. tr - 26 aos. +Para el Lunes, ms de 1 millon de personas +entraban al sitio. A la semana, recib un llamado de EarthLink que deca, que debido al costo de 10 centavos por megabite extra, les deba 30.000 dolares. +De ms est decir, pude dejar mi trabajo (fui despedido). Y finalmente, saben, ser independiente . +Pero algunas personas se refieren a mi - ms como un guru de Internet o - (un idiota) swami . +Yo - yo saba que tena algo. +Bascamente haba destilado una filosofa muy dificil de explicar y compleja, en la que no me adentrar aqu, porque es muy profunda para ustedes, pero - is sobre lo que hace populares a los sitios web, y, saben, es - (Bailar como un idiota y no vender nada) - es una lstima que no tenga ms tiempo. +Quizas pueda volver el ao que viene, o algo as. +Estoy obsesionado con el e-mail. Recibo mucho. +4 aos ms tarde, todava recibo 200 o 300 por da de gente que no conozco, y ha sido una oportunidad increible de conocer diferentes culturas, saben? +Es como un microscopio al resto del mundo. +Uno puede como mirar la vida de otros, +y siento que me da mucha inspiracin del usuario promedio. +Por ejemplo, alguien me escribi. eca, "Hey Ze, si alguna vez venis a Boulder, deberas 'rockearla' con nosotros", I dije, "Por qu esperar?" Y dijeron, "Hey Ze, gracias por 'rockearla', pero me refera all tipo de 'rockeada' en la que estaramos desnudos." +Y eso fue embarazoso. +Pero saben, es una colaboracin entre mis fans y yo, asi que dije, "Dale" Oigo a muchos de uds. murmurando. +Y s lo que estn diciendo. Dicen "A la mierda, +cmo es tan fluida su presentacin?" +Y debo decir, que no soy todo yo este ao. +Supongo que Chris debe llevarse algo de crdito, porque en aos anteriores Supongo que ha habido algo as como oradores de baja calidad en TED. No lo s. +Asi que, este ao, Chris nos envio un simulador de Conferencias TED. +Que realmente nos permiti, como oradores, llegara las trincheras, y practicar en casa, para estar listos para esta experiencia. +Y debo decir que, saben, es realmente genial estar ac. +Quisiera contarles un pequeo chiste. Pero no es solo lo bueno. +Puedo poner el modo "interrupciones molestas" +Voz: Hey, idiota, sal del escenario. +ZF: T sal del escenario. +Voz: Queremos a Malcom Gladwell. +En caso de que te pases de tiempo. +Yo - una sola cosa que quiero decir, yo, realmente - quiero agradecerles a todos por estar presentes. +Y modo rana. +Ah, la primera vez que le hice el amor a un camarn - Es cierto. Algunas personas me dicen, dice, Ze, estas haciendo todas estas cosas, cosas en Internet, y no estas ganando nada de dinero. +Por qu? y yo digo, "Mam, pap - lo estoy intentando." Saben, no se si se dan cuenta de esto, pero el mercado de videojuegos, los chicos estan jugando estos videojuegos, oh, que se yo pero, se supone que hay mucho dinero +Digo, creo que, como 100.000 dolares por ao aproximadamente se gastan en estas cosas. As que decid probar suerte. +Se me ocurrieron algunos juegos. +Este se llama "Ateo." +Calculo que sera popular con los nios pequeos. +Miren, me muevo, digo algunas cosas. +Entonces eso no funcion tan bien. +No entiendo por qu se rien. +Deberan hacer hecho esto antes de que intente venderlo. +"Budista" por supuesto, se ve muy parecido a "Ateo." +Pero vuelves como un pato. +Y esto es genial porque, saben, por 25 centavos, puedes jugar este juego por un largo tiempo. +Y Chris me haba dicho en un e-mail que, deberamos traer algo novedoso a TED, algo que no hayamos mostrado a nadie. +As que prepar esto para TED. Es "Cristiano" +Es el tercero de la serie. +Espero que le vaya bien este ao. +Tienen alguna preferencia? Buena eleccin. +que es - +un numero al azar entre 1 y 500 millones. +Entonces, en verdad, de qu estamos hablando? ah, disfrute tech. +El Disfrute tech, para m, significa algo, porque disfruto mucho de la tecnologa. +Y, de hecho, hacer cosas usando la tecnologa - y hablo en serio aqu, aunque est usando mi voz sarcastica - +No lo har - esperen. Hacer cosas, saben - hacer cosas me da una mucha alegra. +As, lo que he hecho fue, comenz a interesarme en crear espacios online para compartir ese sentimiento con personas que no se consideran artistas. +Estamos en una cultura de gures. Es tan dificil usar algunos softwares porque son inaccesibles, la gente siente que tiene que leer el manual. +As que yo intento - trato de crear estas actividades mnimas que permitan a la gente expresarse y, ojal - wow, estoy - en la pagina, pero no existe. +Es como - en serio - Trato de crear ambientes significativos para que la gente se exprese +Aqu, cree un concurso llamado "cuando los elementos de oficina atacan" el cual, creo, realmente reson con - +la poblacin trabajadora. +Nuevamente, gente de todo el pas haciendo - +el reloj es especialmente increible. +Herramientas para dibujar online - seguramente vieron muchas de ellas. +Creo que son maravillosas. +Me parece que es una oportunidad para que la gente pueda jugar con crayones y ese tipo de cosas. Pero me interesa el proceso, el proceso de crear, es el evento que me interesa de verdad. +Y el problema es que mucha gente apesta para dibujar. y se desaniman ante esta, saben, figura de palitos, pequea y horrible cosa que crearon. +Y eventualmente, hace que dejen de jugar con eso, o dibujar, saben, dibujan penes y cosas as. +Entonces, el Scribbler es un intento de crear una herramienta generativa. +En otras palabras, es una herramienta de ayuda. +Puedes dibujar una figura simple de palitos, y luego ella colabora contigo para crear, algo as como, un grabado alemn post-guerra. +Entonces puedes - de hecho, est ajustado para ser mejor dibujando cosas +que se ven peor. Entonces, adelante, empezamos a garabatear, y - +la idea es que puedes realmente, sabes, tomar parte en este proceso, y observar cmo algo feo puede verse hermoso. +Y estos son algunos de mis favoritos. Esta es una pequea marioneta +que me fue enviada. Ah est, muy bueno. +Divino. Es algo hermoso. +Digo, esto es increible. Esto lo dibuj una nia de 11 aos +y lo envi. Es simplemente hermoso. +Estoy hablando en serio. Realmente - esto no es un chiste. +Pero, creo, es - es algo muy divertido y maravilloso. +Esto se llama el Proyecto Ficcin. Es un espacio online, +que es - basicamente un foro restaurado que fomenta la escritura ficcional colaborativa. +Estos son haikus. +Ninguno fue escrito por la misma persona, +de hecho, niguna linea lo fue - saben, cada linea fue contribuida por una persona diferente en un momento diferente. +Creo que el "ahora atada arriba y abajo, amante cruel se me acerca, atada, arriba" +Es - es una manera increible, y les digo, Si llegan a casa y su pareja, o quien sea, les dice "hablemos" - eso los deja congelados hasta los huesos. +Pero las actividades perifericas, como estas, que permiten que la jente se reuna, hacer cosas divertidas. +Realmente llegan a conocerse, y son estas actividades perifericas, de bajo umbral las que creo son la clave para aumentar nuestro capital de lazos sociales +que nos falta. Y muy, muy rapidamente - +amo los tteres. Aqu hay un ttere. +Baila con la msica, Lotte Reiniger, +una increible presentadora de espectaculos de sombras de marionetar en los '20, que comenz a hacer cosas ms elaboradas. +Me interes en las marionetas, Y quiero mostrarles una ultima cosa. +Oh, as es como se hacen las marionetas. +Chris Anderson: Damas y Caballeros, Mr. Ze Frank. +Este soy yo, me llamo Ben Saunders. +Soy especialista en arrastrar cosas pesadas en lugares fros. +El 11 de mayo del ao pasado, me encontraba solo en el Polo Norte geogrfico. +Era el nico ser humano en un rea una vez y media ms grande que Amrica; 14.245 kilmetros cuadrados. +Ms de 2.000 personas han escalado el Everest. +12 personas han pisado la Luna. +Incluyndome a m, slo cuatro personas han esquiado en solitario al Polo Norte. +Pienso que la razn de que... -- gracias-- Pienso que la razn es que es--- es--- bueno es, como dijo Chris, es de flipaos. +Es un viaje que llega al lmite mismo de la capacidad humana. +Esqui el equivalente a 31 maratones ininterumpidos. 1.288 kilmetros en 10 semanas. +Y arrastraba toda la comida, los suministros, el equipo, saco de dormir, una muda de ropa interior -- todo lo que necesitaba para casi tres meses. +Lo que vamos a intentar hacer hoy, en los 16 minutos que me quedan, es responder a tres preguntas. La primera es por qu? +La segunda es, cmo se va al bao a menos 40 grados? +"Ben, he leido en algn sitio que a menos 40 grados, la piel expuesta se congela en menos de un minuto, asi que cmo se responde a la llamada de la naturaleza? +No quiero contestar a esto ahora. Volver sobre ello al final. +La tercera: Cmo superar eso? Qu es lo que viene despus? +Todo comenz en 2001. +Mi primera expedicin fue con Pen Hadow -- un tipo con muchsima experiencia. +Era como mi prctica en el polo. +Estabamos intentando esquiar desde este grupo de islas aqu arriba, Svernaya Zemly, al Polo Norte. +Y lo que a mi me fascina del Polo Norte, el Polo Norte geogrfico, es que est justo en el mismsimo centro del ocano. +Los mapas no llegan a ser ms precisos que esto, y para alcanzarlo tienes que esquiar literalmente sobre la corteza helada, la superficie de hielo flotante en el Ocano rtico. +Habia hablado con todos los expertos. +Haba leido un montn de libros, estudi mapas y grficos. +Pero me d cuenta en la maana del da uno que no tena ni idea de en qu me haba metido exactamente. +Tena 23 aos. Nadie de mi edad haba intentado nada parecido, y enseguida, todo lo que poda ir mal, empez a ir mal. +Fuimos atacados por un oso polar en el da dos. +Se me haba congelado el dedo gordo del pie izquierdo. +La comida comenz a escasear. Los dos tenamos bastante hambre, perdamos mucho peso. +Se dieron circunstancias climticas muy inusuales, condiciones de hielo muy difciles. +Tenamos, sin duda alguna, sistemas de comunicacin de tecnologa rudimentaria. +No pudmos permitirnos un telfono por satlite, as que tenamos una radio de onda corta. +Se pueden ver dos bastones de ski saliendo del tejado de la tienda. +Hay un cable que cuelga por ambos lados. +Es nuestra antena de onda corta. +Tuvimos menos de dos horas de comunicacin con el mundo exterior en dos meses. +Al final, se nos agot el tiempo. +Habamos esquiado 644 kilmetros. Nos quedaban un poco ms de 322 km para llegar al Polo, y se nos haba agotado el tiempo. +Se nos haba echado encima el verano, y el hielo haba comenzado a derretirse, hablamos con los pilotos de helicptero rusos por radio, y dijeron, " Vean chicos, se les ha agotado el tiempo. +Tenemos que ir a recogerlos." +Sent que haba fracasado, con todo mi empeo. +Era un fracasado. +El nico objetivo, el nico sueo que tena, que tena desde que puedo recordar -- y ni siquiera haba estado cerca. +Esquiando a lo largo de aquel viaje, haba dos videoclips imaginarios que se repetan en mi cerebro una y otra vez, para mantener mi nivel de motivacin, cuando las cosas se ponan feas. +La primera era al llegar al Polo mismo. +Poda ver de una manera muy real, supongo que estaba siendo grabado a travs de la puerta del helicptero, haba msica rock de fondo, tena un bastn de esqu con la bandera inglesa, volando al viento. +Poda verme a mi mismo clavando aquella bandera en el polo, ya sabes, ah, un momento glorioso-- la msica alcanzando el crescendo. +El segundo videoclip que me imaginaba era a la llegada al aeropuerto de Heathrow, poda ver de nuevo de una manera muy real, los flashes de las cmaras disparndose los paparazzi, los cazadores de autgrafos, los agentes literarios con contratos. +Y por supuesto, ninguna de estas dos cosas sucedieron. +No alcanzamos el Polo y no tenamos dinero para pagar a nadie para que hiciera relaciones pblicas, asi que nadie oy nada sobre esta expedicin. +Y llegu a Heathrow. Estaba mi madre, mi hermano mi abuelo estaba all-- tena una pequea bandera britnica Risas -- y eso fu todo. Volv a casa con mi madre. +Estaba exhausto fsicamente, y mentalmente hecho un verdadero desastre, me consideraba un fracasado. +Tena una deuda personal enorme a consecuencia de esta expedicin y tirado en el sof de mi madre, da s da tambin, viendo la programacin diurna en la tele. +Mi hermano me mand un mensaje de texto, un SMS, era --- era una cita de los Simpsons. Deca, "Lo intentaste con todas tus fuerzas y fracasaste miserablemente. +La leccin es: ni lo intentes." +Avanzando rpido tres aos. Eventualmente s me levant del sof y empec a planear otra expedicin. Esta vez quera hacer una travesa, en solitario esta vez, desde Rusia, arriba del mapa, hasta el Polo Norte, all en el meollo, y despus seguir hasta Canad. +Nadie haba atravesado el Ocano rtico en solitario. +Dos noruegos lo haban logrado como equipo en el 2000. Pero nadie lo haba hecho solo. +El muy famoso, muy destacado montaero italiano Reinhold Messner, lo intent en 1995, pero fue rescatado una semana despus. +Describi esta expedicin como 10 veces ms peligrosa que subir al Everest. +Por alguna razn esto era lo que me tiraba, pero saba que para tener alguna posibilidad de llegar a casa de una sola pieza, incluso llegar a Canad, tena que afrontar las cosas de una manera radical. +Esto implicaba perfeccionar todo desde el cepillo de dientes aserrado de menos de 2 gramos, hasta trabajar con uno de los lderes a nivel mundial en nutricin para desarrollar desde cero una estrategia nutricional nueva y revolucionaria: 6,000 calorias diarias. +Y la expedicin empez en febrero del ao pasado. +Un gran equipo de apoyo. Tenamos un equipo de grabacin. un par de personas de logstica con nosotros, mi novia, un fotgrafo. +Al principio fu bastante razonable. Volamos con British Airways a Mosc. +El siguiente trecho en Siberia a Krasnoyarsk, con una compaa area rusa llamada KrasAir, escrito K-R-A-S. +El siguiente tramo, contratamos un avin ruso bastante anciano que nos llev hasta un pueblo llamado Khatanga. que era como el ltimo bastin de la civilizacin. +Nuestro camargrafo, quien result ser un puro nervio a la hora de volar, en el mejor de los casos, pregunt al piloto, antes de subirnos al avin, cuanto tiempo iba a durar el vuelo, y el piloto --piloto ruso- respondi, seis horas --si sobrevivimos. +Llegamos a Khatanga. +Creo que el chiste es que Khatanga no es el fin del mundo, pero se v desde all. +Se supona que nos quedabamos una noche. Estuvimos 10 das atrapados. +Haba una especie de discusin, alimentada por el vodka, sobre el salario entre los pilotos del helicptero y los dueos del helicptero, estabamos atascados. No podamos movernos. +Finalmente, en la maana del da 11, nos dieron el permiso para salir, cargamos los helicpteros -- dos helicpteros volando en tandem-- me soltaron al borde de la capa de hielo. +Tuvimos unos, alrededor de 45 minutos, de grabacin frentica, y sesin fotogrfica, mientras el helicptero an estaba all. Hice una entrevista telfonica via satlite, entonces todo el mundo volvi a subir al helicptero, y wham, la puerta se cerr y estaba solo. +No se si las palabras llegaran a hacer justicia a aqul momento. +Lo nico en lo que poda pensar era correr hacia la puerta, golpearla y decir, "Mirar chicos, casi no lo he pensado bien." +Para empeorar las cosas, podeis ver el punto blanco en la parte superior derecha de la panatalla, la luna llena. +Por haber sido retenidos en Rusia, claro, la luna llena trae las mareas ms altas y ms bajas; cuando ests encima de la capa helada del mar, las mareas altas y bajas generalmente significan que van a suceder cosas interesante -- el hielo va a comenzar a moverse. +Yo estaba, podeis verlo ah, arrastrando dos trineos. +Un gran total de comida y combustible para 95 das, 180 kilos --casi exactamente 400 libras. +Cuando el hielo era llano o casi. poda arrastrar los dos trineos a la vez. +Cuando el hielo no era llano, no tena ni la ms remota posibilidad. +Tena que arrastrar uno, dejarlo, volver a por el otro. +Gatear literalmente por lo que se llaman crestas -- hielo que ha sido machacado por la presin de las corrientes del ocano, el viento y las mareas. +La Nasa describe las condiciones del hielo del ao pasado como las peores desde el inicio del registro. +Y siempre est a la deriva. La corteza helada siempre est a la deriva. +Esqui contra el viento durante 9 de las 10 semanas en las que estuve solo el ao pasado. y la mayor parte del tiempo la corriente me llevaba para atrs. +Mi record era menos 4.02 kilmetros. +Me levantaba por la maana, desmontaba la tienda y esquiaba hacia el norte durante siete horas y media, levantaba la tienda, y estaba 4.02 kilmetros ms atrs que donde empec. +No poda vencer a la velocidad de deriva del hielo. +Asi que es el da 22. +Estoy acostado en la tienda, preparndome para salir. +El tiempo es horroroso -- me ha llevado la corriente unos 8 kilmetros hacia atrs en la ultima -- ltima noche. +Ms tarde en la expedicin, el problema ya no era el hielo. +Era la falta de hielo -- mar abierto. +Saba que estaba ocurriendo. Saba que el rtico se estaba calentando. +Saba que haba mar abierto. Y tena un arma secreta en la manga. +Un poco de bio-imitacin. +Los osos polares se mueven por el Ocano rtico en linea recta. +Si llegan al agua, se meten y nadan hasta la otra orilla. +Eso significaba que poda esquiar sobre hielo muy fino, y si me caa dentro, no era el fin del mundo. +Tambin significaba, llegado lo peor, que poda meterme en el agua y nadar hasta la otra orilla arrastrando el trineo conmigo. +Una tecnologa bastante radical, un enfoque radical -- pero funcion perfectamente. +Otra cosa emocionante que hicimos el ao pasado fue con la tecnologa de comunicaciones. +En 1912, en la Expedicin de resistencia de Shackelton -- haba -- un miembro del equipo, un tipo llamado Thomas Orde-Lees. +Dijo: "Los exploradores del 2012, si queda algo por explorar, sin duda llevarn en sus bolsillos telfonos inalmbrico equipados con telescopios inalmbricos." +Pues, Orde-Lees se equivoc en alrededor de 8 aos. Este es mi telfono inalmbrico de bolsillo. El telfono por satlite Iridium. +El telescopio inalmbrico era una cmara digital guardada en mi bolsillo. +Y cada uno de los 72 das que estuve solo en el hielo, estaba blogeando en directo desde mi tienda de campaa, enviando un pequeo diario, enviando informacin sobre la distancia que haba cubierto -- las condiciones del hielo, la temperatura -- y una foto diaria. +Recordad 2001 tenamos menos de dos horas de comunicacin por radio con el mundo exterior. +El ao pasado, blogeando en directo desde la expedicin que ha sido descrita como 10 veces ms peligrosa que escalar el Everest. +No fu todo alta tecnologa. Aqui estoy navegando en lo que se llama "apagn blanco". +Es cuando hay mucha niebla, nubes bajas, y el viento comienza a levantar la nieve. +No se puede ver demasiado. Apenas se ve que hay un lazo amarillo atado a uno de mis bastones de esqui. +Navegaba guiado por la direccin del viento. +Era una especie de combinacin extraa de tecnologa puntera y recursos rudimentarios. +Acanc el Polo el 11 de mayo. +Me llev 68 das alcanzarlo desde Rusia. y no haba nada all. +Ni siquiera hay un poste en el Polo. No hay nada, sinceramente porque es ocano helado. V a la deriva. +Clavas all una bandera, la dejas, y pronto se alejar a la deriva, normalmente hacia Canad o Groenlandia. +Yo lo saba, pero an as esperaba algo. +Extraa mezcla de sentimientos: haca un tiempo bastante clido en esta poca, mucha mar abierto alrededor, y claro, encantado de haber llegado impulsado por mi propio gas, pero empec a darme cuenta que las posibilidades de lograr alcanzar la costa de Canad, que an distaba 644 kilmetros, eran mnimas en el mejor de los casos. +La nica prueba de que estuve all que tengo es una foto borrosa de mi GPS, el artilugio de navegacin por satlite. +Se alcanza ver -- hay un nueve y una cadena de ceros aqui. +Noventa grados norte -- eso es justo en el mismo Polo Norte. +Tom una foto. Me sent en el trineo. Grab una especie de videopieza para el diario. +Saqu unas cuantas fotos. Cog mi telfono por satlite. +Calent la bateria bajo el brazo. +Marqu trs nmeros. Llam a mi madre. +Llam a mi novia. Llam al ejecutivo jefe de mi sponsor. +Recib tres mensajes de voz. +Noventa +Es una sensacin especial. +El planeta entero est rotando bajo mis pies. +El -- el mundo entero debajo de mi. +Finalmente consegu contactar con mi madre. Estaba en la cola del supermercado. +Empez a llorar. Me pidi que la llamara de nuevo en un momento. +Segu esquiando durante una semana pasado el Polo. +Quera llegar lo ms cerca que poda de Canad antes de que las condiciones se volvieran demasiado peligrosas. +Este fu el ltimo da que estuve en el hielo. +Cuando habl con -- el equipo de produccin del proyecto, dijeron, "Mira, Ben, las situacin se est volviendo demasiado peligrosa. +Hay zonas inmensas de mar abierto justo al sur de tu posicin. +Nos gustara recogerte. +Ben, podras buscar una pista?" +Esto son las vistas fuera de mi tienda de campaa cuando tuve esta significativa llamada. +Nunca antes haba intentado construir una pista. Tony el productor de la expedicin me dijo, "Mira Ben, tienes que encontrar 500 metros de hielo llano, seguro y con suficiente espesor." +El nico cacho de hielo que pude encontrar -- me llev 36 horas esquiando intentar encontrar la pista-- meda exactamente 473 metros. Poda medirlo con mis esquis. +No se lo dije a Tony. No se lo dije a los pilotos. +Pens tendr que servir. +Oh, oh, oh, oh, oh, oh. +Casi sirvi. Un aterrizaje bastante dramtico -- el avin en realidad sobrevol unas cuatro veces, y estaba un poco preocupado de que no iba a aterrizar. +El piloto, saba, se llamaba Troy. Esperaba a alguien llamado Troy haca esto para ganarse la vida, un tipo bastante duro. +Estaba llorando a moco tendido para cuando aterriz el avin, un momento bastante emotivo. +As que pens. Tengo que recomponerme para Troy. +Se supone que soy un explorador, un tipo duro. +El avin llego a donde estaba yo. +La puerta se abri. Un tipo sali. Era como as de alto. Dijo, "Hola, mi llamo Troy." +El copiloto era una seora llamada Monica. +Estaba all sentada en un especie de jersey tejido a mano. +Eran la gente menos macho que haba conocido, pero me alegraron el da. +Troy -- Troy estaba fumandose un cigarillo en el hielo, sacamos unas cuantas fotos. El -- subi la escalerilla. Dijo, "Sube -- sube atrs." +Tir su cigarillo mientras se subi delante, yo me met detrs. +Recorrimos la pista unas cuantas veces, para allanarlo un poquito, y dijo, "Bien, voy a -- voy a intentarlo." Y -- ahora ya s que esto es una prctica habitual, pero en aquel momento me preocup. +Puso su mano en la palanca. +Como se v el control del motor est en el techo de la cabina. +Es esa pequea barra ah. Puso su mano en la palanca. +Monica suavemente puso su mano como encima de la suya. +Pens, "Dios all vamos. Vamos, vamos -- es todo o nada." +Lo lanz hacia delante. Botando por la pista. Despegamos. +Y slo desde el aire pude ver la imagen en grande. +Claro, cuando estas en el hielo, slo puedes ver un obstculo a la vez, si es una cresta o si es un parche de agua. +Esto es probablemente la razn por la que no me la cargu por el tamao de la pista. +Quiero decir, realmente se estaba comenzando a deshacer. +Porqu? No soy un explorador en el sentido traditional. +No esquio por lugares dibujados en los mapas todo el mundo sabe donde est el Polo Norte. +En el Polo Sur hay una gran base cientfica. Hay una pista de despegue. +Hay un caf y una tienda para turistas +Para m, esto se trataba de explorar los lmites humanos, explorar los lmites fisiolgicos, psicolgicos y tecnolgicos. Eso son las cosas que me entusiasman. +Y tambin se trata de potencial, a nivel personal. +Esto, para mi, es la oportunidad de explorar los lmites -- realmente tensar los lmites de mi propio potencial, ver cuanto se estiran. +Eso es lo ms cerca que llego a resumir todo esto. +La siguiente pregunta es, cmo haces tus necesidades a menos 40 grados? +La respuesta, por supuesto, es un secreto profesional -- y la ltima cuestin, qu hacer ahora? Lo ms rpido posible, si tengo un minuto al final entrar en ms detalle. +Qu sigue: Antrtida +Es el continente ms fro, ms alto, ventoso, y seco de la Tierra. +Al final de 1911, principios de 1912, hubo una carrera para ser el primero en llegar al Polo Sur: el corazn del continente antrtico. +Si se incluyen las barreras de hielo de la costa, se ve la Barrera de hielo de Ross -- es la grande de aqu abajo -- la barrera de hielo de Ross es del tamao de Francia. +La Antrtida, si se incluyen las barreras de hielo, es dos veces el tamao de Australia -- es un sitio muy grande. +Hubo una carrera por llegar al Polo entre Amundsen, el noruego -- Amundsen tena trineos tirados por perros y huskies -- y Scott, el britnico, el capitn Scott. +Scott tena una especie de ponis y algunos tractores y algunos perros, todo le fall, y Scott y su equipo de cuatro personas acabaron a pie. +Llegaron al Polo al final de enero de 1912 para encontrar all una bandera noruega. +Haba una tienda de campaa, una carta al rey de noruega. +Se dieron la vuelta y regresaron a la costa, los cinco murieron en el viaje de regreso. +Desde entonces, nadie ha esquiado -- eso fu hace 93 aos -- desde entonces nadie ha esquiado desde la costa de la Antrtida al Polo y vuelta. +En cada expedicin al Polo Sur de la que hayais podido oir se ha volado desde el Polo o se han utilizado vehculos o perros o parapentes para hacer algn tipo de cruce -- nadie ha realizado el viaje de vuelta. Asi que ese es el plan- +Vamos a ser dos +Y eso es todo. +Creo que si he aprendido algo, es esto: nadie tiene autoridad sobre tu potencial. +T eres la nica persona que decide cun lejos quieres llegar y de lo que eres capaz. +Seoras y caballeros, esa es mi historia. Muchas gracias. +Muchas gracias. +Esta reunin realmente ha tratado sobre una revolucin digital, pero quisiera argumentar que est terminada; hemos ganado. +Hemos tenido una revolucin digital, pero no necesitamos seguir tenindola. +Y me gustara mirar ms all de esto, mirar lo que viene despus de la revolucin digital. +As que djenme empezar a proyectar hacia el futuro. +Estos son algunos de los proyectos en los que estoy involucrado en el MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) viendo lo que viene despus de las computadoras. +Lo primero, Internet Cero, aqu arriba -- esto es un servidor Web que tiene el coste y la complejidad de una etiqueta RFID (Identificacin por Radiofrecuencia) alrededor de un dlar -- y que puede ir en cada bombilla y en cada pomo de una puerta, y esto est siendo comercializado muy rpidamente. +Y lo que es interesante no es el coste; es la forma en que codifica Internet. +Utiliza una especie de cdigo Morse para Internet as que puede enviarse pticamente, puedes comunicarte acsticamente al travs de una lnea elctrica, o por radiofrecuencia. +Toma el principio original de Internet, que es interconectar computadoras, y ahora permite interconectar dispositivos. +Entonces, podemos tomar la idea entera que dio origen a Internet y traerla al mundo fsico en esta Internet Cero, esta Internet de dispositivos. +As que este es el siguiente paso desde all hasta aqu, y esto se est comercializando hoy. +Un paso adelante es el proyecto de computadoras fungibles. +Los bienes econmicos fungibles pueden ser extensibles y comercializables. +As, la mitad de la cantidad de grano es la mitad de til pero medio beb o media computadora es mucho menos til que un beb completo o una computadora completa, y hemos estado tratando de hacer computadoras que trabajen de esa forma. +As, lo que ven en el fondo es un prototipo. +Esto viene de la tesis de un estudiante, Bill Butow*, ahora en Intel, quien se preguntaba por qu, en lugar de hacer chips ms y ms grandes, no hacan chips pequeos, colocados en un medio viscoso, y obtener capacidad de cmputo por kilos o centmetros cuadrados. +Y eso es lo que ven aqu. +A la izquierda ven postscript siendo procesado por una computadora convencional, a la derecha ven postscript siendo procesado por el primer prototipo que hicimos, pero no tiene memoria intermedia, ni procesador de entrada/salida, nada de esas cosas - es slo este material. +A diferencia de esta pantalla en la que los puntos estn colocados cuidadosamente, esto es materia prima. +Si agregan el doble de este material, obtienen el doble de pantalla. +Si le disparan una pistola en la mitad, nada sucede. +Si necesitas ms recursos, slo le aplicas ms computadora. +As, este es el paso siguiente - la computacin como materia prima. +An son bits convencionales, el paso siguiente es - este es un prototipo anterior en el laboratorio, este es un video de alta velocidad proyectado a cmara lenta. +Ahora, integrando qumica y computacin, dnde los bits son burbujas. +Esto nos muestra cmo se hacen bits, esto est mostrando -- de nuevo, a cmara lenta para que puedan verlo, bits interactuando para hacer lgica, y multiplexacin y de-multiplexacin. +Entonces, ahora podremos calcular que el producto final organize la materia al igual que informacin. Y, finalmente, estas son algunas diapositivas de un proyecto que hice al principio, calculando dnde los bits son almacenados al nivel de mecnica cuntica en los ncleos de los tomos, por lo que los programas reorganizan la estrucutra nuclear de las molculas. +Y todo esto est en el laboratorio avanzando ms y ms y ms, no como una metfora, sino literalmente integrando bits y tomos, y eso nos lleva al siguiente reconocimiento. +Todos sabemos que hemos tenido una revolucin digital, pero qu es eso? +Bueno, Shannon nos llev, en los aos cuarenta, desde aqu hasta aqu: de un telfono como medio para hablar que se degradaba con la distancia a Internet. Y prob el primer teorema del umbral, que muestra que si agregas informacin y se la quitas a una seal, puedes calcular perfectamente con un dispositivo imperfecto. +Y fue entonces cuando llegamos a Internet. +Von Neumann, en los cincuenta, hizo la misma cosa por la computacin; mostr como puedes tener un computador poco fiable pero recuperar su estado para hacerla perfecta. Esta fue el ltimo gran computador analgico del MIT: un analizador diferencial, y cuanto ms lo ejecutabas, peor era la respuesta que obtenas. +Despes de Von Neumann, tuvimos la Pentium, donde el transistor mil millones es tan fiable como el primero. +Pero toda nuestra fabricacin est aqu abajo en la esquina inferior izquierda. +Una fbrica de aviones de ltima generacin aplicando cera para metales a piezas fijas, o tal vez derretir algn plstico. Una fbrica de chips de 10 mil millones de dlares utiliza un proceso que el artesano de una aldea podra reconocer -- esparces el material y lo horneas. +Toda la inteligencia es externa al sistema; los materiales no tienen informacin. +Ayer escuchaban sobre biologa molecular, que fundamentalmente calcula para construir. +Es un sistema de procesamiento de informacin. +Entonces, maana escucharn de Saul Griffith. l es uno de los primeros estudiantes que terminaron este programa. +Empezamos a considerar cmo podras "calcular para fabricar". +Esto es slo la prueba de un principio que hizo con mosaicos que interactan magnticamente, en los que escribes en cdigo, muy parecido al plegamiento de las protenas, que especifica su estructura. +As, no hay retroalimentacin a una herramienta de metrologa, el material se codifica a s mismo por su estructura de la misma forma en que las protenas son fabricadas. As, puedes, por ejemplo, hacer eso. +Puedes hacer otras cosas. Esto es en 2D. Funciona en 3D. +Micromecanizado por lser: esencialmente impresoras 3D que fabrican digitalmente sistemas funcionales, hasta incluso construir edificios, no por medio de planos, sino haciendo que las partes se codifiquen a si mismas para a la estructura del edificio. +As, estos son los primeros ejemplos en el laboratorio de tecnologas emergentes para digitalizar la fabricacin. Computadoras que no controlan herramientas sino computadoras que son herramientas, en donde la salida de un programa reordena los tomos as como los bits. +Ahora, para hacer eso - con sus impuestos, muchas gracias - compr todas estas mquinas. Hemos hecho una modesta propuesta a la Fundacin Nacional para las Ciencias . Queramos ser capaces de hacer cualquier cosa en cualquier escala, todo en un lugar, porque no puedes separar la fabricacin digital por disciplinas o por una escala de longitud. +As que juntamos nano-rayos escritores enfocados y cortadores supersnicos de agua y sistemas de micro-mecanizacin de excmeros +Pero tena un problema. Una vez que tuve todas estas mquinas, perda mucho tiempo en ensear a los estudiantes cmo usarlas. +As que empec una clase, modestamente llamada, "Cmo hacer prcticamente todo". Y no pretenda ser provocativo, era solo para unos cuantos estudiantes de investigacin. +Pero el primer da de clase se vea as. +Ya saben, cientos de personas llegaron rogando, "toda mi vida esper por esta clase, har todo lo necesario para lograrlo". +Entonces preguntaban, puede ensearlo en el MIT? Parece muy til? +Y entonces la siguiente -- -- cosa sorprendente era que no estaban all para hacer investigacin. +Ellos queran la clase porque queran hacer cosas. +No tenan formacin tcnica convencional. +Y al final del semestre haban integrado sus capacidades. +Les voy a mostrar un viejo video. Kelly era una escultora, y esto es lo que hizo con su proyecto semestral. +: Kelly: Hola, soy Kelly y este es mi amigo gritn. +Te has encontrado alguna vez en una situacin en la que realmente necesitas gritar, pero no puedes porque ests en el trabajo, o en un saln de clase, o ests cuidando a tus nios, o te encuentras en una de esas situaciones en las que simplemente no est permitido? +Bueno, el amigo gritn es un espacio porttil para gritar. +Cuando un usuario grita en su amigo gritn, su grito es silenciado. +Tambin se graba para liberarlo posteriormente, donde, cuando y como el usuario elija. +Bien, a Einstein le gustara esto. +Este estudiante hizo un navegador Web para loros -- que le permite a los loros navegar la red y hablar con otros loros. +Este estudiante hizo un reloj despertador con el que luchas para demostrar que ests despierto. Este es uno que defiende -- un traje que defiende tu espacio personal. +Esto no es tecnologa para la comunicacin; es tecnologa para prevenirla. +Este es un dispositivo que te permite ver tu msica. +Este es un estudiante que hizo una mquina que hace mquinas, y la construy haciendo Lego Bricks que hacen los clculos. +Esto es ao tras ao -- y finalmente me di cuenta que los estudiantes estaban mostrando que la aplicacin definitiva de la fabricacin personal es productos para un mercado de una persona. +No necesitas esto para lo que puedes encontrar en tiendas Wal-Mart; necesitas esto para lo que te hace nico. +Ken Olsen (CEO de DEC en 1977) clebremente dijo, "nadie necesita una computadora en su casa". +Pero no se usa para inventarios o nminas DEC est ahora doblemente en bancarrota. No necesitas fabricacin personal en la casa para comprar lo que puedes comprar porque puedes comprarlo. +Lo necesitas para lo que te hace nico, como la personalizacin. +Entonces, con esto, a su vez, 20 millones de dlares hoy hacen esto, dentro de 20 aos vamos a hacer replicadores de Star Trek que hacen cualquier cosa. +Los estudiantes "secuestraron" todas las mquinas que compr para hacer fabricacin personal. +Hoy en da, cuando gasta tanto de su dinero, hay un requisito del gobierno para hacer divulgacin, que normalmente significa clases en la escuela local, un sitio web, cosas que no son tan emocionantes. +Por lo tanto, hice un trato con mi directores de programa de la NSF que en lugar de hablar de ello, le dara a la gente las herramientas. +Esto no estaba destinado a ser provocativo o importante, pero creamos estos Fab Labs (Laboratorios Fabulosos). Son aproximadamente 20.000 dlares en equipo que se aproximan tanto a lo que los 20 millones de dlares hacen como a donde se dirigen. +No estaba planificado, pero fueron de los suburbios de Boston a Pobal en la India, a Secondi-Takoradi en la costa de Ghana a Soshanguve en un poblado en Sudfrica, al extremo norte de Noruega, descubriendo, o ayudando a descubrir, por toda la atencin a la brecha digital, nos encontraramos con computadoras sin uso en todos estos lugares. +Un granjero en un pueblo rural - un nio necesita medir y modificar el mundo, no slo obtener informacin sobre l en una pantalla. +Que hay realmente una brecha de fabricacin e instrumentacin ms grande que la brecha digital +Y la manera de cerrarla no es TI (Tecnologas de la Informacin) para las masas, sino de desarrollo de TI para las masas. +De esta forma, lugar tras lugar vimos la misma progresin: que habamos abierto uno de estos Fab Labs, donde -- nosotros no -- esto es muy loco para pensar en ello. +Nosotros no planeamos todo esto, que seramos llevados a estos lugares, donde lo habamos abierto. El primer paso fue solamente darle el poder a la gente. +Puedes verlo en sus caras, simplemente esa alegra de "puedo hacerlo". +Esta es una nia de los suburbios de Boston que acababa de hace una venta de artesanas de alta tecnologa bajo demanda en el centro comunitario de la ciudad. +Va de all a la educacin tcnica prctica seria, informalmente, fuera de las escuelas. En Ghana hemos levantado uno de estos laboratorios +Diseamos un sensor de redes, y los nios aparecan y rehusaban irse del laboratorio. +Haba una nia que insisti en que nos quedsemos hasta tarde por la noche -- : Nios: Me encanta el Fab Lab. +-- en su primera noche en el laboratorio porque iba a construir el sensor. +As que insisti en fabricar el circuito impreso, aprendiendo como armarlo, aprendendiendo como programarlo. Ella no saba realmente lo que estaba haciendo o por qu lo haca, pero saba que tena que hacerlo. Haba algo de elctrico en ello. +Esto es tarde, saben?, a las 11 en punto de la noche y creo que yo era la nica persona sorprendida cuando lo que construy funcion la primera vez. +Y he mostrado esto a ingenieros en grandes compaas, y ellos dicen que no pueden hacerlo. Cualquier cosa que ella est haciendo, ellos pueden hacerla mejor, pero est distribuido entre mucha gente y muchos sitios y no pueden hacer en una tarde lo que est haciendo esta nia de una zona rural de Ghana. +: Nia: Mi nombre es Valentina Kofi, tengo ocho aos de edad. +Hice un circuito apilado. +Y, de nuevo, era slo por el placer de hacerlo. +Entonces estos laboratorios comenzaron a resolver problemas ms serios -- instrumentacin para la agricultura en la India, turbinas de vapor para la conversin de energa en Ghana, antenas de alta ganancia en computadores clientes ligeros. +Y luego, a su vez, los negocios comenzaron a crecer, como la fabricacin de estas antenas. +Y, por ltimo, el laboratorio comenz a hacer invenciones. +Estamos aprendiendo ms de ellos de lo que les estamos dando. +Estaba mostrando a mis hijos en un Fab Lab cmo usarlo. +La invencin real est ocurriendo en estos laboratorios. +Y an mantena -- de esta forma, en el ltimo ao he estado pasando tiempo con jefes de estado y generales y jefes tribales, todos los cuales lo quieren, y sigo diciendo, pero esto no es lo real. +Esperen unos 20 aos y entonces habremos terminado. +Y finalmente entend lo que est pasando. Estos son Kernigan y Ritchie inventando UNIX en un PDP (Procesador de Datos Programado). +Los PDP aparecieron entre los mainframes y las minicomputadoras. +Costaban decenas de miles de dlares, difciles de usar, pero llevaron la informtica a los grupos de trabajo, y todo lo que hacemos hoy en da sucedi all. +Estos Fab Labs tienen el coste y la complejidad del PDP. +La proyeccin de fabricacin digital no es una proyeccin para el futuro; ahora estamos en la era del PDP. +En ese entonces, hablbamos en voz baja acerca de los grandes descubrimientos. +Fue muy catico, no era, de alguna forma, claro lo que estaba pasando. +En el mismo sentido estamos ahora, hoy, en la era del minicomputador de la fabricacin digital. +El nico problema con eso es que rompe las fronteras de todo el mundo. +Estaba all porque queran encontrar animales en las montaas pero creci demasiado, as que construyeron este pueblo extraordinario para el laboratorio. +Esto no es una universidad, no es una empresa, es esencialmente un pueblo para la invencin, es un pueblo para miembros atpicos de la sociedad, y han estado creciendo en torno a estos Fab Labs en todo el mundo. +As que este programa se ha dividido en una ONG, una Fundacin Fab para apoyar la ampliacin, un micro fondo de capital riesgo. +La persona que lo lleva a cabo lo describe muy bien como mquinas que fabrican mquinas necesitan negocios que hagan negocios: es un cruce entre micro crditos y fondo de capital riesgo para hacer fan-out, y luego los grupos de investigacin all en el MIT que lo estn haciendo posible. +As que me gustara dejarles con dos pensamientos. +Ha habido un enorme cambio en la ayuda, de mega-proyectos muy jerarquizados a inversin de micro crditos en las bases por parte de grupos gente comn poco estructurados as que todos entendieron que eso es lo que funciona. +Pero todava vemos a la tecnologa como mega-proyectos muy jerarquizados. +Informtica, comunicaciones, energa para el resto del planeta son estos mega-proyectos jerarquizados. +Si esta sala llena de hroes es lo suficientemente inteligente, pueden resolver los problemas. +El mensaje que llega desde los Fab Labs es que los otros cinco mil millones de personas en el planeta no son sumideros tcnicos; ellos son fuentes. +La oportunidad real es aprovechar el poder de inventiva del mundo para disear y producir localmente soluciones a los problemas locales. +Yo crea que esa era una proyeccin de aqu a 20 aos, pero es donde estamos hoy. +Rompe todas las barreras organizacionales que podamos imaginar. +Lo ms difcil en este punto es la ingeniera social y la ingeniera organizacional, pero ya est presente hoy. +Pero lo que estamos llegando a apreciar, es que la transicin de 2D a 3D de programar bits a programar tomos, cambia el final de la grfica de la ley de Moore del error fatal a una funcin ltima. +Entonces, estamos justo al borde de esta revolucin digital en la fabricacin, donde los resultados de la computacin programen el mundo fsico. +Y la aplicacin definitiva para el resto del planeta es la instrumentacin y la brecha de la fabricacin: gente desarrollando localmente soluciones a problemas locales. Gracias. +Quiero comenzar con una historia, a la Seth Godin, de cuando yo tena 12 aos de edad. +Mi tio Ed me regal un suter azul hermoso -- al menos yo pensaba que era hermoso. +Tena unas zebras borrosas caminando a lo largo del estmago, y el Monte Kilimanjaro y el Monte Meru estaban como justo a lo largo del pecho, tambin borrosos. +Y yo me lo pona cada vez que poda, pensando que era lo ms fabuloso que posea. +Hasta un da en noveno grado, cuando estaba con algunos jugadores de ftbol. +Y mi cuerpo claramente haba cambiado, y Matt Mussolina, que era indiscutiblemente mi nmesis en bachillerato, dijo con voz atronadora que ya no tenamos que ir lejos a hacer paseos en esqu, sino que todos podamos esquiar en el Monte Novogratz. +Y yo estaba tan humillada y mortificada que inmediatamente corr a casa y rega a mi madre por haberme dejado jams usar ese horrible suter. +Conducimos al centro de caridad Goodwill y botamos el suter de manera un tanto ceremoniosa, con la idea de que nunca tendra que pensar ms en el suter ni verlo de nuevo. +Avance rpido -- 11 aos despus, soy una chica de 25 aos de edad. +Estoy trabajando en Kigali, Ruanda, trotando por las laderas empinadas, cuando veo, 3 metros frente mo, a un pequeo nio -- de 11 aos -- corriendo hacia mi, usando mi suter. +Y yo pensando, no, esto no es posible. +Pero entonces, curiosa, corro hasta el chico -- claro pegndole tremendo susto -- lo agarro por el cuello del suter, le doy la vuelta, y ah est mi nombre escrito en el cuello del suter. +Cuento esa historia, porque me ha servido y sigue sirvindome como una metfora sobre el nivel de conexin que todos tenemos en esta Tierra. +A menudo no nos percatamos de lo que nuestra accin e inaccin le hace a la gente que pensamos que jams veremos o conoceremos. +Tambin la cuento porque relata una historia contextual ms grande sobre lo que es la ayuda y lo que puede ser. +Que esto haya viajado al centro de caridad Goodwill en Virginia, y se haya movido hasta caer en la industria mayor, que en ese punto estaba dando millones de toneladas de ropa de segunda a frica y Asia. +Lo cual era muy bueno, proveyendo ropa barata. +Al mismo tiempo, ciertamente en Ruanda, eso destruy la industria local de menudeo. +No por decir que no ha debido hacerlo, sino que tenemos que mejorar en responder a las preguntas que deben ser consideradas cuando pensamos en consecuencias y respuestas. +Entonces, voy a seguir con Ruanda, alrededor de 1985, 1986, donde yo estaba haciendo dos cosas. +Haba comenzado una pastelera con 20 madres solteras. +Nos llamaban las Osas de las Malas Nuevas, y nuestra nocin era que bamos a coronar el negocio de las golosinas en Kigali, lo cual no era difcil porque no haba golosinas antes de que llegaramos nosotras. +Y porque tenamos un buen modelo de negocio, realmente lo logramos, y vi cmo esas mujeres se transformaron a nivel micro. +Pero al mismo tiempo, comenc un banco de micro-finanzas, y maana Iqbal Quadir va a hablar sobre Grameen, que es el abuelo de los bancos de micro-finanzas, lo cual es ahora un movimiento mundial -- ustedes hablan de un meme -- pero entonces era algo muy nuevo, especialmente en una economa que pasaba del trueque al comercio. +Acertamos en muchas cosas. +Nos enfocamos en un modelo de negocio, insistimos en meterle carne al juego. +Las mujeres tomaban sus propias decisiones al final del da sobre cmo iban a usar su acceso al crdito para construir sus pequeos negocios, ganar ms ingresos para poder cuidar mejor de sus familias. +Lo que no entendamos, lo que estaba pasando todo a nuestro alrededor, con la confluencia del miedo, la lucha tnica y ciertamente un juego de ayuda, si quieren, que estaba jugando en ese movimiento invisible pero ciertamente palpable dentro de Ruanda, que en ese tiempo, 30 por ciento del presupuesto era todo ayuda externa. +El genocidio ocurri en 1994, siete aos despus de que todas estas mujeres trabajaran juntas para construir este sueo. +Y la buena noticia fue que la institucin, la institucin bancaria, perdur. +De hecho, se convirti en el mayor prestamista de rehabilitacin en el pas. +La pastelera fue completamente arrasada, pero las lecciones para m fueron que la rendicin de cuentas cuenta -- que hay que construir las cosas con la gente en la tierra, usando modelos de negocios donde, como dira Steven Levitt, los incentivos importan. +Entendamos que, por muy complejos que seamos, los incentivos importan. +Es emocionante. +Y al mismo tiempo, lo que me mantiene despirerta en la noche es el temor a que veamos las victorias del G8 -- 50 billones de dlares de incremento en la ayuda a Africa, 40 billones de dlares en reduccin de deuda -- como una victoria, como ms que el captulo uno, como nuestra absolucin moral. +Y de hecho, lo que tenemos que hacer es verlo como el captulo uno, celebrarlo, cerrarlo, y reconocer que necesitamos un captulo dos que es todo sobre ejecucin -- todo sobre el cmo-hacer. +Y si hay slo una cosa que vayan a recordar sobre lo que quiero decir hoy, debe ser que la nica manera de acabar con la pobreza, de hacerla historia, es creando sistemas viables en la tierra que entreguen bienes y servicios crticos asequibles a los pobres, de formas que sean sustentables y escalables. +Si hacemos eso, realmente podremos hacer de la pobreza historia. +Y fue eso -- toda esa filosofa -- lo que me alent a comenzar mi esfuerzo actual llamado el Fondo Acumen, que est intentando crear algunos mini-planos sobre cmo hacer eso en agua, salud y vivieda en Pakistan, India, Kenya, Tanzana y Egipto. +Y quera hablar un poco sobre eso, y algunos de los ejemplos para que puedan ver qu es lo que estamos haciendo. +Pero antes -- y esta es otra de mis quejas -- Quiero hablar un poco sobre quines son los pobres. +Porque muy frecuentemente hablamos de ellos como estas duras, enormes masas de gente que ansan ser libres cuando en realidad, es una historia bastante sorprendente. +A nivel macro, cuatro billones de personas en la Tierra ganan menos de cuatro dlares diarios. +Es de ellos de quien hablamos cuando pensamos en los pobres. +Si lo suman, es la tercera economa ms grande en la Tierra, y an as la mayor parte de estas personas es invisible. +Donde trabajamos tpicamente, hay personas ganando entre uno y tres dlares diarios. +Quines son estas personas? +Son agricultores y trabajadores fabriles. +Trabajan en oficinas del gobierno. Son choferes. +Son empleadas domsticas. +Tpicamente pagan por bienes y servicios crticos como agua, como salud, como vivienda, y pagan 30 o 40 veces lo que sus contrapartes de clase media pagan -- ciertamente donde trabajamos en Karachi y Nairobi. +Los pobres tambin quieren tomar, y toman, decisiones inteligentes, si uno les da esa oportunidad. +Entonces, dos ejemplos. +Uno es en la India, donde hay 240 millones de agricultores, la mayora de los cuales gana menos de dos dlares diarios. +Donde trabajamos en Aurangabad, la tierra es extraordinariamente seca. +Uno ve a la gente ganando en promedio de 60 centavos a un dlar. +Este tipo de rosado es un emprendedor social llamado Ami Tabar. +Lo que hizo fue ver qu estaba pasando en Israel, estrategias ms amplias, y averiguar cmo funciona el riego por goteo, que es una manera de traer agua directamente hasta las plantas. +Pero antes slo haba sido creado para fincas a gran escala, as que Ami Tabar tom esto y lo modulariz para un octavo de acre. +Un par de principios -- Construir en pequeo. +Hacerlo infinitamente ampliable y asequible para los pobres. +Esta familia, Sarita y su marido, compr una unidad de 15 dlares cuando vivan en una -- literalmente una ampliacin de tres paredes con techo de hierro corrugado. +Tras una cosecha, haban aumentado su ingreso lo suficiente para comprar un segundo sistema y completar un cuarto de acre. +Un par de aos despus, me encuentro con ellos. +Ahora ganan cuatro dlares diarios, lo cual es casi clase media en la India, y me mostraron el piso de concreto que justo haban puesto para construir su casa. +Y lo juro, uno poda ver el futuro en los ojos de esa mujer. +Algo en lo que realmente creo. +No se puede hablar de pobreza hoy sin hablar de mosquiteros contra el paludismo y de nuevo le doy a Jeffrey Sachs de Harvard enormes felicitaciones por traer al mundo esta nocin de su rabia -- por cinco dlares uno puede salvar una vida. +El paludismo es una enfermedad que puede matar entre uno a tres millones de personas al ao. +300 a 500 millones de casos han sido reportados. +Se estima que frica pierde cerca de 13 billones de dlares al ao por esta enfermedad. +Cinco dlares pueden salvar una vida. +Podemos enviar gente a la Luna, podemos ver si hay vida en Marte -- por qu no podemos darle mosquiteros de cinco dlares a 500 millones de personas? +La pregunta, sin embargo, no es por qu no podemos, +la pregunta es cmo podemos ayudarle a los africanos a hacerlo por s mismos? +Muchos obstculos. +Uno: la produccin es muy baja. Dos: el precio es muy alto. +Tres: esta es una buena calle -- muy cerca de nuestra fbrica. +La distribucin es una pesadilla, pero no es imposible. +Empezamos hacindole un prstamo de 350,000 dlares al productor de mosquiteros tradicionales ms grande de frica para que pudieran transferir tecnologa de Japn y producir estos mosquiteros de cinco aos de duracin. +Ac hay solo algunas fotos de la fbrica. +Hoy, tres aos despus, la compaa emplea otras mil mujeres. +Y contribuye cerca de 600,000 dlares en salarios a la economa de Tanzana. +Es la mayor compaa de Tanzana. +La tasa de rendimiento ahora es de 1.5 millones de redes, tres millones para el final del ao. +Esperamos tener siete millones al final del ao entrante. +As que por el lado de la produccin, funciona. +Por el lado de la distribucin, sin embargo, como un mundo, tenemos mucho trabajo por hacer. +Ahora mismo, el 95% de estos mosquiteros estn siendo comprados por la ONU, y luego entregados principalmente a personas alrededor de frica. +Queremos construir sobre la base del recurso ms valioso de frica -- la gente. +Sus mujeres. +Y as, quiero que conozcan a Jacqueline, mi tocaya, de 21 aos de edad. +Si ella hubiera nacido en cualquier lugar excepto Tanzana, les digo, ella podra manejar Wall Street. +Ella maneja dos de las lneas, y ya ha ahorrado suficiente dinero para abonar un primer pago de su casa. +Gana alrededor de dos dlares al da, est creando un fondo educacional, y me dijo que no se va a casar ni va a tener hijos hasta completar todo eso. +Y as, cuando le habl de nuestra idea -- que quizs podramos llevar un modelo Tupperware de los Estados Unidos, y encontrar una manera para que las mujeres salieran y vendieran estos mosquiteros a otras mujeres -- ella rpidamente comenz a calcular cunto podra ganar y se apunt. +Tomamos una leccin de IDEO, una de nuestras compaas favoritas, y rpidamente hicimos un prototipo y llevamos a Jacqueline al rea donde ella vive. +Ella junt a 10 de las mujeres con las que interacta para ver si poda venderles los mosquiteros, a cinco dlares cada uno, an a pesar de que la gente dice que nadie los va a comprar, y aprendimos mucho sobre cmo vender estas cosas. +No entrando con nuestras propias nociones, porque ella no habl del paludismo sino hasta el final. +Primero, habl de comodidad, estatus, belleza. +Uno pone estos mosquiteros en el piso, dijo ella, y los insectos se van de la casa. +Los nios pueden dormir la noche entera, la casa se ve hermosa, uno los cuelga en la ventana. +Y hemos comenzado a hacer cortinas, y no slo es hermoso, adems la gente puede ver el estatus -- que uno cuida de sus hijos. +Slo entonces habl de salvarle la vida a los hijos. +Muchas lecciones para aprender sobre cmo venderle bienes y servicios a los pobres. +Quiero terminar diciendo que hay una enorme oportunidad de hacer de la pobreza historia. +Para hacerlo bien, tenemos que crear modelos de negocios que importen, que sean escalables y que funcionen con los africanos, indios, y gente todo alrededor del mundo en desarrollo que caben en esta categoria, para hacerlo por s mismos. +Porque al final de da, de lo que se trata es de compromiso. +Se trata de entender que la gente en realidad no quiere limosnas, que quieren tomar sus propias decisiones, quieren resolver sus propios problemas, y que al comprometernos con ellos, no slo creamos mucha ms dignidad para ellos, sino tambin para nosotros. +Gracias. +Hace unos 10 aos, emprend la tarea de ensear desarrollo global a estudiantes universitarios suecos. Fue despus de haber pasado unos 20 aos estudiando las hambrunas en frica con instituciones africanas, por lo que se esperaba que yo supiera algo sobre el mundo. +En nuestra Universidad de Medicina, el Instituto Karolinska, di origen a un curso universitario llamado Salud Global. Pero cuando uno tiene +una oportunidad as, se pone un poco nervioso. Pens: estos estudiantes +que vienen a aprender con nosotros tienen el nivel ms alto que se puede obtener en los sistemas universitarios suecos... pueden saber todo lo que ensear. Por eso prepar una evaluacin previa para cuando llegaran +Una de las preguntas de la cual aprend mucho fue esta: "Qu pas tiene el mayor ndice de mortalidad infantil de estos cinco pares?" +Agrup los pases de manera tal de que en cada par uno de los pases tuviera el doble de mortalidad infantil que el otro. Y esto implica que +la diferencia es mucho mayor que la incertidumbre de los datos. +No los evaluar ahora, pero la respuesta es Turqua, con el ndice ms alto, Polonia, Rusia, Paquistn y Sudfrica. +Y estos fueron los resultados de los estudiantes suecos. Lo hice para obtener +el intervalo de confianza, que result bastante limitado, y me sent feliz, sin duda: un 1,8 de respuestas correctas en 5 posibles. Esto significa que +haba lugar para un profesor de salud internacional... y para mi curso. Pero una noche, mientras recopilaba datos para un informe realmente tom conciencia de mi descubrimiento. He demostrado +que, estadsticamente, los estudiantes suecos de primer nivel tienen un conocimiento del mundo significativamente ms bajo que los chimpancs. +. Porque un chimpanc lograra la mitad del puntaje correcto si le diera dos bananas con Sri Lanka y Turqua. Estaran en lo correcto la mitad de las veces. +Pero los estudiantes no logran ese resultado. Para m el problema no fue la ignorancia: +sino las ideas preconcebidas. +Tambin realic un estudio no muy tico de los profesores del Instituto Karolinska . ...el mismo que entrega el Premio Nobel de Medicina... y estn al mismo nivel que los chimpancs en este tema. +. Fue ah cuando me di cuenta de que exista una necesidad real de comunicar porque los datos de lo que est sucediendo en el mundo y la salud infantil en cada pas se conocen bien. +Diseamos este software que se visualiza as: cada burbuja es un pas. +Este pas que ven aqu es China. Este es India. +El tamao de la burbuja representa la poblacin, y en este eje pongo la tasa de fertilidad. +Porque lo que respondan mis estudiantes cuando analizaban el mundo, y les pregunt: "Qu piensan realmente del mundo?" +Bueno, lo primero que descubr es que su principal libro de referencia era Tintin. +Y respondieron que el mundo sigue siendo `nosotros y `ellos. Y nosotros significa el Mundo Occidental y ellos el Tercer Mundo" +Les pregunt qu era para ellos el mundo occidental +"Bueno, larga vida y familia pequea, y el Tercer Mundo es corta vida y familia numerosa" +Eso es lo que puedo mostrar aqu. Pongo la tasa de fertilidad aqu: la cantidad de hijos por mujer, uno, dos, tres, cuatro, hasta ocho por mujer. +Tenemos buenos datos desde 1960-1962 sobre el tamao familiar en todos los pases. +El margen de error es pequeo. Aqu pongo la expectativa de vida al nacer, que va de 30 aos en algunos pases a ms de 70. +Y en 1962, realmente haba una cantidad de pases aqu. Pases industrializados que tenan familias pequeas y largas vidas. +Y estos eran los pases en desarrollo: tenan familias numerosas y vidas relativamente cortas. +Ahora, qu sucedi desde 1962? Queremos ver el cambio. +Los estudiantes estn en lo cierto? Todava existen dos tipos de pases? +O estos pases en desarrollo han optado por familias ms pequeas y viven aqu? +O tienen mayor expectativa de vida y viven hasta aqu? +Veamos. Detuvimos el mundo en este punto. Todas estas estadsticas son de la ONU. +Aqu vamos. Pueden ver all? +Es China, que se aleja de la mejor salud all, pero mejora all. +Todos los pases en verde de Amrica Latina tienden a constituir familias ms pequeas. +Los amarillos que ven aqu son los pases rabes, con familias ms grandes, pero ellos ---no, vidas ms largas, pero no familias ms grandes. +Los africanos son los verdes de aqu abajo. Siguen estando aqu. +Esta es India. Indonesia se mueve bastante rpido. +Y en la dcada del 80 est Bangladesh an entre los pases africanos. +Pero Bangladesh es un milagro de los 80: los imanes empiezan a promover la planificacin familiar. +Se desplazan hacia aquel extremo. Y en los 90, tenemos la terrible epidemia del VIH que reduce la expectativa de vida en los pases africanos. Y todo el resto se mueve hacia arriba, a la esquina, donde tenemos muchos aos de vida y familias pequeas y un mundo completamente nuevo. +. Permtanme hacer una comparacin directamente entre Estados Unidos de Amrica y Vietnam. +1964: Estados Unidos tena familias pequeas y larga expectativa de vida. Vietnam tena familias numerosas y poca expectativa de vida. Y sucedi lo siguiente: los datos durante la guerra indican que aun con todas las muertes, hubo una mejora en la expectativa de vida. Hacia finales del ao, +se inici la planificacin familiar en Vietnam y surgieron las familias ms pequeas. +Y Estados Unidos all arriba est logrando una vida ms larga, manteniendo el mismo tamao familiar. Y en los 80, +abandonaron la planificacin comunista y adoptaron la economa de mercado, y se mueve an ms rpido que la vida social. Y hoy, tenemos +en Vietnam la misma expectativa de vida y el mismo tamao de familias, aqu en Vietnam, en 2003, que en Estados Unidos, en 1974, hacia el fin de la guerra. +Creo que todos... al no observar los datos... desestimamos el tremendo cambio producido en Asia, donde ya se estaba produciendo un cambio social antes de que viramos el cambio econmico. +Vayamos a otro modo en el que podramos demostrar la distribucin de ingresos en el mundo. Esta es la distribucin mundial de ingresos de las personas. +Un dlar, 10 dlares o 100 dlares por da. +Ya no existe la brecha entre los ricos y pobres. Es un mito. +Aqu hay una pequea protuberancia. Pero hay personas en toda la extensin. +Y si vemos dnde termina el ingreso, este es 100% el ingreso anual del mundo. Y el 20% ms rico, ellos representan aproximadamente 74%. Y el 20% ms pobre, +ellos representan aproximadamente el 2%. Y esto demuestra que el concepto +de pases en desarrollo es sumamente dudoso. Concebimos a la ayuda como "esta gente de aqu brinda ayuda a esta gente de aqu". Pero en el medio, +tenemos a la mayor parte de la poblacin mundial, y ellos tienen ahora 24% del ingreso. +Lo escuchamos en otras formas. Y quines son ellos? +Cules son los pases diferentes? Les puedo mostrar frica. +Esto es frica. El 10% de la poblacin mundial, la mayora en condiciones de pobreza. +Esto es la OCDE. El pas rico. El club privado de la ONU. +Y estn aqu, de este lado. Bastante superposicin entre frica y la OCDE. +Y esto es Amrica Latina. Tiene todo lo que hay en este mundo, +desde los ms pobres a los ms ricos estn en Amrica Latina. +Y adems de eso, podemos poner a Europa del Este, Asia del Este, y Asia del Sur. Y cmo se vea, si volvemos el tiempo atrs, a aproximadamente 1970? Haba ms protuberancia. +Y tenemos que la mayora de los que vivan en pobreza extrema eran asiticos. +El problema en el mundo era la pobreza en Asia. Ahora si dejamos que el mundo avance, vern que si bien aumenta la poblacin, hay cientos de millones en Asia que estn saliendo de la pobreza y algunos otros estn entrando a la pobreza y este es el mismo patrn que tenemos hoy. +Y la mejor proyeccin del Banco Mundial es que esto seguir sucediendo, y no tendremos un mundo dividido. Tendremos a la mayor parte de las personas en el medio. +Por supuesto que esta es una escala logartmica, pero nuestro concepto de economa es crecimiento con porcentaje. La consideramos +como una posibilidad de incremento del percentil. Si cambio esto, y tomo el +PIB per cpita en vez del ingreso familiar, y transformo estos datos individuales en datos regionales del producto bruto interno, y tomo las regiones que estn aqu, el tamao de la burbuja sigue siendo la poblacin. +Y all tienen a la OCDE, a frica Subsahariana all, y sacamos los estados rabes de all, los que vienen de frica y Asia, y los separamos, y podemos ampliar el eje, y puedo darle una nueva dimensin all, al agregar valores sociales all, como la supervivencia infantil. +Ahora tengo en aquel eje el dinero y la posibilidad de supervivencia infantil. +En algunos pases, 99,7% de los nios sobreviven hasta los cinco aos; en otros, slo el 70%. Y parece que aqu se abre una brecha entre la OCDE, Amrica Latina, Europa del Este, Asia del Este, los estados rabes, Asia del Sur y frica Subsahariana. +La linealidad entre supervivencia infantil y dinero es muy slida. +Pero permtanme dividir a los pases de frica Subsahariana. +Puedo irme aqu y dividir a frica Subsahariana en sus pases. +Y cuando explota, el tamao de la burbuja de su pas es el tamao de la poblacin. +Sierra Leona all. Isla Mauricio est all arriba. Isla Mauricio fue el primer pas en deshacerse de las barreras comerciales, y pudieron vender su azcar. Pudieron vender sus textiles en los mismos trminos que en Europa y Amrica del Norte. +Hay una inmensa diferencia entre los pases de frica. Y Ghana est aqu en el medio. +En Sierra Leona, ayuda humanitaria. +Aqu en Uganda, ayuda para el desarrollo. Aqu, tiempo de invertir, aqu, +podemos ir de vacaciones. La diferencia es enorme dentro de frica y rara vez la hacemos... creemos que todo es igual. +Puedo dividir a Asia del Sur aqu. India es la gran burbuja del medio. +Pero hay una gran diferencia entre Afganistn y Sri Lanka. +Puedo separar a los estados rabes. Cmo son? Tienen el mismo clima, la misma cultura, +la misma religin. Grandes diferencias. Hasta entre pases vecinos. +Yemen, guerra civil. Los Emiratos rabes Unidos, dinero igualitariamente distribuido y bien usado. +No como dice el mito. Y esto incluye a los hijos de trabajadores extranjeros que estn en el pas. +Los datos generalmente son mejores de lo que piensan. Muchos dicen que son negativos. +Existe un margen de incertidumbre, pero podemos ver la diferencia aqu: Camboya, Singapur. Las diferencias son mucho ms grandes +que los errores de los datos. Europa del Este: economa sovitica por mucho tiempo, pero la abandonaron hace diez aos +y de maneras muy, muy diferentes. Y ah est Amrica Latina. +Hoy no tenemos que irnos a Cuba para encontrar un pas saludable dentro de Amrica Latina. +En unos pocos aos, Chile tendr una tasa de mortalidad infantil ms baja que la cubana. +Y aqu tenemos a los pases de altos ingresos de la OCDE. +Y as tenemos aqu todo el esquema del mundo, que es ms o menos este. Y si lo observamos, +vemos cmo se ve -- el mundo, en 1960, comienza a moverse. 1960. +Este es Mao Tse-tung. l llev la salud a China. Y despus muri. +Y luego lleg Deng Xiaoping, trajo dinero a China y los reorient al mundo dominante. +Y hemos visto cmo los pases se mueven en diferentes direcciones as, por lo tanto es difcil encontrar un pas que sirva de ejemplo del patrn del mundo. +Regresemos aqu, a 1960. +Me gustara comparar Corea del Sur, que es esto, con Brasil, +que es esto. Se me sali el nombre aqu. Y me gustara comparar Uganda +que est all. Y puedo avanzar, as. +Y pueden ver cmo Corea del Sur progresa muy rpidamente, mientras que Brasil es mucho ms lento. +Y para demostrar esto, podemos seguir el camino de los Emiratos rabes Unidos. +Provienen de aqu, un pas minero. Acumularon todo el petrleo, +tienen todo el dinero, pero la salud no se puede comprar en el supermercado. +Hay que invertir en salud. Hay que hacer que los nios accedan a la escolaridad. +Hay que capacitar al personal sanitario. Hay que educar a la poblacin. +Y el Sheikh Sayed lo hizo bastante bien. +Y a pesar de la cada de los precios del petrleo, llev a este pas hasta aqu. +Por lo tanto, tenemos una apariencia mucho ms dominante en el mundo, donde los pases tienden a usar su dinero mejor que en el pasado. Ahora, esto sucede, ms o menos, +si observan los datos promedio de los pases. Son as. +Ahora, esto es peligroso, usar datos promedios, porque existen muchas diferencias entre los pases. Por lo tanto si me fijo aqu, podemos ver que hoy Uganda est donde estaba Corea del Sur en 1960. Si divido a Uganda, +hay muchas diferencias dentro de Uganda. Estos son los quintiles de Uganda. +El 20% ms rico de los ugandeses estn ah. +Los ms pobres all abajo. Si divido a Sudfrica es as. Si bajo y miro lo que sucede en Nger, donde hubo una terrible hambruna, +finalmente es as. El 20% ms pobre de Nger est aqu, y el 20% ms rico de frica del Sur est all, y sin embargo tendemos a debatir sobre las soluciones posibles para frica. +En frica existe todo lo posible en este mundo. Y no se puede +debatir el acceso universal a las [medicinas] del VIH por este quintil aqu con la misma estrategia que all. Las mejoras en el mundo deben estar contextualizadas y no es relevante hacerlas +a nivel regional. Debemos ser mucho ms detallistas. +Encontramos que los estudiantes se entusiasman cuando pueden usar esto. +Y hasta los responsables de las polticas y los sectores corporativos quisieran ver cmo est cambiando el mundo. Ahora, por qu no sucede esto? +No estamos usando los datos que tenemos? Tenemos datos de las Naciones Unidas, +de las agencias nacionales de estadsticas, de las universidades y de organizaciones no gubernamentales. +Porque los datos se esconden en base de datos. +Y el pblico est all, Internet est all, pero todava no lo usamos eficientemente. +Toda esta informacin de cambio en el mundo que vimos no incluye las estadsticas financiadas por organismos pblicos. Hay algunas pginas web como esta, pero toman parte de su informacin de las bases de datos, pero cobran por acceder a ellas, hay que ingresar claves tontas y hay estadsticas aburridas. +. . Y esto no funciona. Entonces, qu hace falta? Tenemos las bases de datos. +No se necesitan nuevas bases de datos. Tenemos maravillosas herramientas de diseo, +y se agregan ms y ms. Por esto creamos +una empresa sin fines de lucro para unir datos con diseo que llamamos Gapminder, del metro de Londres, donde se advierte: "cuidado con el agujero". Por eso pensamos que Gapminder era el nombre adecuado. +Y empezamos a disear un software para vincular los datos as. +Y fue simple. A algunas personas les llev aos y ahora nosotros podemos producir animaciones. +Se pueden tomar datos fijos y ponerlos all. +Estamos liberando datos de la ONU, de algunas organizaciones de la ONU. +Algunos pases aceptan que sus bases de datos puedan salir del pas, pero lo que realmente necesitamos, sin duda, es una funcin de bsqueda. +Una funcin donde podamos copiar los datos en un formato apto para consulta y darlo a conocer al mundo. Y qu escuchamos? +He estudiado antropologa segn las principales unidades estadsticas. Todo el mundo dice: +"Es imposible. No se puede hacer as. Nuestra informacin es tan peculiar que no puede investigarse como se investigan otras reas. +No podemos proporcionar los datos a los estudiantes, a los empresarios del mundo gratis". +Pero esto es lo que quisiramos ver, verdad? +Los datos financiados por organismos pblicos estn aqu. +Y nos gustara que crecieran flores en Internet. Y lo ms importante es hacer que estos datos se puedan consultar y que todos puedan usar +las diferentes herramientas de diseo para animarlos. +Y les tengo una buena noticia: el actual Director de Estadsticas de la ONU dice que no es imposible. +Slo dice: "No podemos hacerlo". +. Es bastante inteligente, verdad? +. Podemos ver que sucedern muchas cosas con los datos en los prximos aos. +Podremos ver la distribucin de ingresos en formas totalmente nuevas. +Esta es la distribucin de ingresos de China, 1970. +La distribucin de ingresos de Estados Unidos, 1970. +Casi no se superponen en ningn punto. Y qu ha sucedido? +Ha sucedido lo siguiente: que China est creciendo, ya no es tan igualitaria, y est apareciendo aqu, sobrepasando a Estados Unidos. +Casi como un fantasma, verdad? +. Es atemorizante. Pero creo que es importante contar con toda esta informacin. +Realmente necesitamos verla. Y en vez de cerrar con esto, me gustara mostrarles la cantidad de usuarios de Internet por cada 1000. +En este software, accedemos a unas 500 variables de todos los pases fcilmente. +Lleva unos minutos cargar esto, pero en los ejes se puede obtener fcilmente cualquier variable que se quisiera considerar. +Y el objetivo es acceder gratuitamente a las bases de datos, hacerlas aptas para consulta, y con un segundo clic, transformarlas en formatos grficos, donde se puedan comprender instantneamente. +Ahora, esto no es del agrado de los estadistas porque dicen que no muestra la realidad. Hay que tener mtodos estadsticos, analticos. +Pero esto es generar hiptesis. +Ahora termino con el mundo. All, est llegando Internet. +La cantidad de usuarios de Internet est creciendo as. Este es el PIB per cpita. +Y est la nueva tecnologa que vendr, pero sorprendentemente, qu bien se adapta a la economa de los pases. Por eso ser tan importante +el ordenador de 100 dlares. Pero es una tendencia agradable. +Es como si el mundo se estuviera achatando, verdad? Estos pases +estn aumentando algo ms que la economa y ser interesante considerarlo durante un ao, y me gustara que pudieran hacerlo con todos los datos financiados por organismos pblicos. Muchas gracias. +Es fantstico estar de vuelta. +Me encantan estas reuniones. +Y deben estar preguntndose De qu se trata? +Pusieron la diapositiva equivocada? +No, no. +Vean este maravilloso animal y pregntense -- Quin lo dise? +Estamos en TED. Aqu hablamos de Tecnologa, Entretenimiento y Diseo y aqu tenemos a una vaca lechera. Es un animal fantsticamente diseado. +Estaba pensando Cmo comenzar esta charla? +Y pens, bueno, que tal los versos de Joyce Kilmer, +que dicen "Los poemas los hacen los tontos como yo, pero solo Dios puede hacer un rbol." +Y podran decir, "Bien, Dios dise a la vaca." +Sin embargo, Dios recibi mucha ayuda. +ste es el ancestro de las vacas. +Este es el rice. +Y fue diseado por seleccin natural. por el proceso de seleccin natural que llev varios millones de aos. +Y que despus fueron domesticados hace miles de aos. +Y los seres humanos se convirtieron en sus custodios, y, an sin saber qu hacan, gradualmente lo redisearon y lo redisearon y lo redisearon. +Y despus, recientemente, realmente empezaron a hacer un tipo de ingeniera inversa en este animal y averiguar cules eran sus partes y cmo funcionaban y cmo podran optimizarse; cmo hacerlas mejor. +Ahora bien, Por qu estoy hablando de las vacas? +Porque quiero decir exactamente lo mismo de las religiones. +Las religiones son un fenmeno natural. Son tan naturales como las vacas. +han evolucionado por miles de aos. +Tiene una base biolgica, tal como el rice. +Han sido domesticadas, y los seres humanos han venido rediseando sus religiones durante miles de aos. +Estamos en TED y quisiera hablarles acerca de diseo. +Porque lo que he venido haciendo durante los ltimos cuatro aos, desde la primera vez que ustedes me conocieron; algunos me vieron antes en TED cuando hablaba sobre religin, y en los ltimos cuatro aos he trabajado sin descanso en este tema. +Podramos decir que es acerca de la ingeniera inversa de las religiones. +Esta simple idea, segn creo, provoca terror en muchas personas, o enojo, o ansiedad de alguno tipo. +Y ese es el hechizo que quiero romper. +Y quiero decir, no, las religiones son un fenmeno natural importante. +Debemos estudiarlas con la misma intensidad con la que estudiamos cualquier otro fenmeno natural importante como el calentamiento global, cuya descripcin escuchamos de Al Gore anoche. +Las religiones de hoy han sido diseadas de manera brillante; brillantsima +Son instituciones sociales inmensamente poderosas y muchas de sus caractersticas actuales pueden rastrearse hasta caractersticas primitivas de las que podemos encontrar el sentido mediante la ingeniera inversa. +Y, tal como con la vaca, hay una mezcla de diseo evolutivo, diseado por seleccin natural, y "diseo inteligente"; bueno, ms o menos inteligente; rediseado por los seres humanos que tratan de redisear sus religiones. +No hacemos presentaciones de libros en TED, pero voy a poner slo una diapositiva acerca de mi libro, ya que el mensaje que contiene es lo que considero que este grupo debera escuchar. +Y sera muy interesante recibir sus comentarios al respecto. +Es la nica propuesta poltica la que menciono en el libro, en este momento en el que afirmo no conocer lo suficiente sobre religin como para saber que otras polticas proponer. +Y es una que hace eco de los comentarios que han escuchado el da de hoy. +He aqu mi propuesta. Voy a tomarme un par de minutos para explicarla; Eduquemos a nuestros nios en todas las religiones del mundo desde la primaria, en el instituto, en escuelas pblicas y privadas, en la escolarizacin en casa. +Lo que propongo es que, tal como requerimos de la lectura, escritura, aritmtica, historia de Amrica, as deberamos tener un curriculum de los hechos acerca de todas las religiones del mundo; acerca de su historia, acerca de sus creencias, acerca de sus textos, su msica, su simbolismo, sus prohibiciones, sus requerimientos. +Y que deberan presentarse los hechos, simple y llanamente sin ninguna tendencia en particular, a todos los nios del pas. +Y mientras le enseen eso a los nios, pueden ensearles cualquier otra cosa que deseen. +Esto es, en mi opinin, la mayor tolerancia para la libertad religiosa +En tanto que se informe a los nios acerca de otras religiones entonces puedes; a la edad que quieras y lo que quieras, ensearles el credo que quieres que aprendan. +Pero hazles saber tambin acerca de otras religiones. +Ahora, por qu digo esto? +Porque la democracia depende de una poblacin informada. +La aprobacin informada es el pilar de nuestro entendimiento de la democracia. +La aprobacin desinformada no tiene ningn valor. +Es como lanzar una moneda, simplemente no cuenta. +La democracia depende de una aprobacin informada. +sta es la manera en la que tratamos a las personas como adultos responsables. +Ahora bien, los nios de corta edad son un caso especial. +Voy a usar unas palabras que el Pastor Rick acaba de usar: Los padres son los custodios de sus hijos. +No son de su propiedad. +Tus hijos no son de tu propiedad. +Tienes una responsabilidad con el mundo, con el estado, con ellos, para cuidarlos correctamente. +Puedes ensearles el credo que tu pienses que es el ms importante, pero yo digo que tambin tienes una responsabilidad de mantenerles informados acerca de las otras religiones del mundo. +La razn por la que he tomado este tiempo es porque me fascina escuchar algunas de las reacciones a mi propuesta. +Un comentario de un diario Catlico la llam "totalitaria" +Pero a m me parece liberalista. +Es totalitario requerir que los nios lean, escriban y sepan aritmtica? +No lo creo. +Lo que yo pido es que se enseen hechos y slo hechos. No hablamos de valores, slo hechos acerca de todas las religiones. +Otro comentarista la llamo "cmica" +A m verdaderamente me molesta que cualquier persona piense que esto es cmico. +A mi me parece una extensin posible de los principios democrticos que ya tenemos, y me sorprende pensar que haya alguien a quien esto le parezca ridculo. +S que muchas religiones estn tan preocupadas por preservar la pureza de su fe entre sus nios, que buscan mantener a sus hijos en la ignorancia acerca de otras religiones. +No creo que haya ninguna excusa para esto, pero me gustara mucho escuchar sus comentarios y reacciones ms tarde. +De momento vamos avanzando. +De regreso a la vaca. +En esta foto, que baj de internet, la persona de la izquierda es una parte importante de la foto. +Esta persona es el custodio. +Las vacas no podran vivir sin sus custodios humanos; han sido domesticadas. +Son algo as como ecto-simbiontes. +Dependen de nosotros para sus supervivencia. +Y el Pastor Rick hablaba hace un momento de las ovejas. +Yo tambin voy a hablar de las ovejas. +Hay una maravillosa convergencia aqu. +Qu listas fueron las ovejas al buscarse pastores! +Piensen en todo aquello que esto les trajo. +Fueron capaces de pasarle todos sus problemas a otro, protegerlos de los depredadores, encontrarles comida, preocuparse de su salud. El nico costo en la mayora de las manadas es que dejarn de cruzarse libremente. +Un chollo! +Podrn pensar: Que ovejas tan listas! +Excepto claro, porque esto no tiene que ven con lo listas que son las ovejas. +Todos sabemos que las ovejas no son lo que llamaramos superinteligentes. +Nada tuvo que ver la inteligencia de las ovejas. +Ellos no tenan ni idea. +Pero fue una maniobra muy inteligente. +De quin fue esta maniobra inteligente? +Fue una maniobra inteligente de la misma seleccin natural. +Francis Crick, el co-descubridor de la estructura del DNA junto con Jim Watson, comentaba en broma sobre lo que llamaba la Segunda Regla de Orgel. +Leslie Orgel es un bilogo molecular, una persona brillante, y la Segunda Regla de Orgel es: "La Evolucin es ms lista que t". +Claro que esto no es Diseo Inteligente, no de Francis Crick. +La Evolucin es ms lista que t! +Si entienden la segunda regla de Orgel, entonces pueden ver porque el movimiento de "Diseo inteligente" es bsicamente un engao. +Los diseos descubiertos mediante el proceso de seleccin natural son brillantes, increblemente brillantes. +Una y otra vez los bilogos se quedan maravillados con grandioso de lo que es descubierto. +Pero el proceso en s no tiene ningn propsito, sin previsin, sin diseo. +Cuando estuve aqu hace cuatro aos, Les cont la historia de una hormiga que escala una hoja de pasto. +Y cul es la razn de la conducta de la hormiga? Pues es porque un parsito llamado Dicrocoelium dendriticum ha infectado su cerebro. y necesita llegar al intestino de una oveja o vaca para reproducirse. +Es como una historia de fantasmas. +Y pienso que algunas personas pudieron haberla malinterpretado. +El Dicroelium no es inteligente. +Yo dira que su inteligencia est ms o menos entre la petunia y la zanahoria. +No son muy listos y no necesitan serlo. +La leccin que podemos obtener de todo esto es que no necesitas tener un cerebro para recibir los beneficios. +El diseo esta all en la naturaleza, pero no est en la cabeza de nadie. +No necesita estarlo. +Esa es la manera en la que la funciona la evolucin. +La pregunta es: Fue bueno para las ovejas ser domesticadas? +Fue fantstico para su salud gentica. +Y aqu quiero recordarles un argumento maravilloso que hizo Paul MacCready hace tres aos en TED. +Esto es lo que el coment: Hace 10,000 aos, en el amanecer de la agricultura, la poblacin humana junto con el ganado y las mascotas era de aproximadamente un 0.1% de toda la masa de los vertebrados terrestres. +Eso sucedi hace 10,000 aos. +En trminos biolgicos es como si hubiera sido ayer. +Cul es la situacin actual? Alguien recuerda lo que Paul dijo? +Somos el 98%. +Esto es lo que hemos hecho en este planeta. +Yo estuve charlando con Paul despus de su charla. Quera verificar cmo realiz su clculo, y obtener las fuentes de informacin y otros datos. Y me entreg un artculo que escribi acerca de esto. +Hay un prrafo que no mostr aqu y considero que es tan bueno que voy a leerlo para ustedes. "Durante miles de millones de aos en una singular esfera, el azar ha pintado una delgada pelcula de vida: compleja, improbable, maravillosa y frgil. +De repente, nosotros los humanos, una especie de reciente llegada a este mundo dejamos de estar sujetos a las restricciones y equilibrios de la naturaleza, hemos crecido en poblacin, tecnologa e inteligencia hasta una posicin de gran poder. +Ahora somos nosotros los que blandimos el pincel". +Hemos odo hablar de la atmsfera como una delgada capa de barniz. +La vida en s misma es slo una capa de pintura en este planeta. +Y somos nosotros los que sostenemos el pincel. +Y cmo es que lo hacemos? +La clave para nuestra dominacin del planeta es la cultura, +y la clave de la cultura es la religin. +Supongan que cientficos marcianos vinieran a la Tierra. +Estaran intrigados por varias cosas. +Alguien sabe qu es esto? Les dir que es. +Es un milln de personas reunidas en las orillas del Ganges en el 2001, tal vez la mayor reunin de seres humanos de la historia, vista por fotografa satlite. +Esta otra es un gran tumulto. +Y otro ms en La Meca. +Los marcianos estaran maravillados por esto. +Querran saber cmo es que se origin, qu es y cmo es que se perpetua a s mismo. +Bueno, me voy a saltar esta parte. +Esta hormiga no esta sola. +Hay una gran variedad de casos similares. En este caso, un parsito se introduce en un ratn que necesita terminar en la barriga de un gato. +Y eso convierte al ratn en Super Ratn. Lo hace intrpido de manera que se expone en lugares donde puede ser comido por un gato. +Historias verdaderas. +En otras palabras, tenemos estos secuestradores, ustedes vieron esta diapositiva, hace cuatro aos, un parsito infecta el cerebro y provoca incluso conductas suicidas en pro de una causa diferente de la propia salud gentica. +Sucede esto entre los humanos? +Claro que s, y maravillosamente. +La palabra rabe "Islam" significa sometimiento +Significa rendir el propio inters a la voluntad de Al. +Pero no slo estoy hablando del Islam. +Estoy hablando tambin del Cristianismo. +Este es un pergamino con msica que encontr en una librera de Pars hace 50 aos. +Y dice as, en Latn: +"La palabra de Dios es la semilla y el Sembrador es Cristo." +La misma idea!, bueno, no exactamente. +Pero de hecho los Cristianos tambin estn orgullosos de haber rendido su voluntad a Dios. +Les voy a leer algunas citas. +"El centro de la adoracin es el sometimiento. +Las personas obedecen las palabra de Dios, an cuando parezcan irrazonables." +Estas son palabras de Rick Warren +Vienen del libro "Una Vida con Propsito". +Y quisiera dedicar un breve tiempo a hablar acerca de este libro, que ya he ledo. +Todos ustedes recibieron una copia. Ustedes acaban de escuchar al autor. +Y quiero mencionar algunas cosas acerca de este libro desde la perspectiva del diseo, porque considero que es un libro brillante. +Primero que nada, el objetivo. Y ustedes escucharon cul es el objetivo del libro. Es dar direccin a la vida de millones de personas... y ha tenido xito. +Es un noble objetivo? En si mismo, podemos estar de acuerdo, es un objetivo maravilloso. +Da exactamente en el clavo. +Hay mucha gente en el mundo que no encuentra direccin en sus vidas, y darle propsito a todas esas vidas en un objetivo maravilloso. +Yo le doy un 10 en esto. +Se cumple el objetivo? +Si. +Se han vendido 30 millones de copias de este libro. +Al Gore, para que aprendas. +Rick est haciendo lo mismo que Al Gore est tratando de hacer. +Este es un logro increble. +Y los medios. Cmo es que lo logra? +Empleando un brillante rediseo de temas religiosos, actualizndolos, quitndole algunas caractersticas obsoletas, dando nuevas interpretaciones a otras caractersticas. +Esta es la evolucin de las religiones que ha estado llevndose a cabo durante miles de aos, y este es el mas reciente ejemplo de esta prctica. +No tengo que decirles esto. Ustedes acaban de escuchar al autor. +Ideas excelentes acerca de la psicologa humana, recomendaciones prudentes en cada pgina. +Es ms, nos invita a mirar ms all de la superficie. +Y agradezco eso. +Por ejemplo, tiene un apndice donde explica su eleccin de traducciones de diferentes versculos de la Biblia. +El libro es claro, intenso, accesible, con un bello formato. +Suficiente repeticin. +Esto es muy importante. +Cada vez que lo lees o lo dices, haces otra copia en el cerebro. +Cada vez que lo lees o lo dices, haces otra copia en el cerebro. +Todos conmigo, vamos: Cada vez que lo lees o lo dices, haces otra copia que en el cerebro. +Gracias. +Y ahora vamos a otro problema. +Porque soy absolutamente sincero en mis comentarios acerca de este libro. +Pero me gustara que fuera mejor. +Tengo algunos problemas con este libro. +Y sera un hipcrita si no los mencionara. +Me gustara que el autor hiciera una revisin, algo como la versin 2.0 +"La verdad los har libres"... +eso es lo que dice en la Biblia y a mi tambin me gustara vivir de ese modo. +Mi problema es que no creo que muchas de esas partes sean verdaderas. +En algunos casos es una diferencia de opinin, +y esa no es mi queja principal. Pero vale la pena mencionarlo. +Aqu tenemos un pasaje ms o menos lo mismo que l dijo: "Si no hubiera Dios, todos seramos accidentes, seramos el resultado de azares astronmicos del Universo. +Podras dejar de leer este libro porque la vida no tendra entonces significado, direccin ni propsito. +No habra bien ni mal ni esperanza ms all de tu breve estancia en la Tierra." +Pues simplemente no lo creo. +Por cierto, la pelcula de Homer Groening presenta una alternativa hermosa para este mismo comentario. Hay significado y razn para el bien y el mal. +No necesitamos creer en Dios para ser buenos o tener significado en nuestras vidas. +Pero esa es slo una diferencia de opinin. +Y no es lo que ms me preocupa. +Que tal esto? "Dios dise el medio ambiente de este planeta para que nosotros pudiramos vivir en l." +Me temo que mucha gente puede usar ese sentimiento para hacernos creer que no tenemos que hacer las cosas que Al Gore trata desesperadamente que hagamos. +Y no me siento bien con ese sentimiento. +Y despus encontramos esto: "Toda la evidencia disponible en las ciencias biolgicas... apoya la idea de que el cosmos ha sido especialmente diseado para contener seres vivos y a los seres humanos como su propsito fundamental, un todo en el que todas las facetas de la realidad derivan su significado de este hecho central" +Esto es de Michael Denton. Un creacionista. +Y aqu pienso, "Espera un segundo." Lo vuelvo a leer. +Y lo leo tres o cuatro veces ms y pienso, "Este hombre est promoviendo el diseo inteligente? +Est apoyando al creacionismo aqu?" +Pero no se puede discernir. +As que entonces pienso, "Bien, no lo se, no se si quiero enfurecerme con esto todava." +Pero entonces sigo leyendo y me encuentro con: "Primero, No nunca haba visto llover, porque antes del diluvio Dios regaba la tierra de abajo hacia arriba." +Me gustara que ese prrafo no estuviera all porque es totalmente falso. +Y considero que pensar de esa manera acerca de la historia de nuestro planeta, despus de lo que hemos escuchado acerca de la historia del planeta a lo largo de millones de aos, aleja a la gente del entendimiento cientfico. +Ahora que Rick Warren usa trminos cientficos, medio-cientficos e informacin de una manera muy interesante. +Aqu esta una: "Dios deliberadamente te molde y form para que lo sirvieras de una manera que hace tu ministerio nico. +Cuidadosamente mezcl el coctel de DNA que te cre." +Yo creo que esto es falso. +Ahora, tal vez quisiramos tratar esto como metafrico. +Aqu est otra: "Por ejemplo, tu cerebro puede almacenar 100 billones de hechos. +Tu mente puede manejar 15,000 decisiones cada segundo." +Sera interesante encontrar la interpretacin de este prrafo que pudiera aceptar. +Debera haber alguna forma de tratarla como verdadera. +"Los antroplogos se han dado cuenta de que hay una necesidad universal de adoracin, programada por Dios en cada fibra de nuestro ser, una necesidad innata de conectarnos con Dios." +Pues bien, hasta cierto punto podra estar de acuerdo con l, excepto que creo que hay una explicacin evolutiva detrs de esto. +Y lo que verdaderamente me inquieta acerca de este libro es que argumenta que si deseas ser moral. si quieres dar significado a tu vida, tienes que ser partidario del Diseo Inteligente; tienes que negar +la Teora de la Evolucin por Seleccin Natural. Y considero que, por el contrario, para resolver los problemas de nuestro mundo es necesario que no tomemos en serio la biologa evolutiva. +Cul es la verdad que vamos a escuchar? +Tal vez esta de "Una Vida con Propsito": "La Biblia debe convertirse en la autoridad de mi vida, la brjula en la que confo y el consejo que escucho para tomar decisiones sabias y como referencia para evaluar cualquier cosa." +Y qu se derivar entonces de aqu? +Y aqu hay algo que me inquieta sobremanera. +Recuerden que hace unos momentos cit esta misma lnea: "Las personas obedecen las palabra de Dios, aun cuando parezcan irrazonables" +Y ah est el problema. +"No trates de razonar con el Demonio. +Es mucho mejor que t en eso, ya que tiene miles de aos de experiencia." +Ahora que Rick Warren no invent esta brillante estrategia. +Es una estrategia muy vieja. +Es una brillante adaptacin de las religiones. +Es un comodn para alejarse de cualquier crtica razonable. +"No te gusta mi interpretacin? +Tienes alguna objecin razonable al respecto? +No escuches, no escuches! +Es el lenguaje del Demonio." +Y esto nos aleja de cualquier acercamiento juicioso que en mi opinin deberamos tener. +Tengo un ltimo problema +y verdaderamente me gustara una respuesta de Rick si es capaz de darla. +"En una gran reunin, Jess dijo, 'Vayan con la gente de todas las naciones +y hganlos mis discpulos, bautcenlos en el nombre del Padre, del Hijo y del Espritu Santo, ensenles a ellos todo cuanto les he dicho." La Biblia dice que Jess es el nico que puede salvar al mundo. +Hemos visto maravillosos mapas del mundo durante estos das. +Aqu tenemos uno, no tan bonito como los anteriores. Muestra simplemente las religiones del mundo. +Y aqu esta otro que muestra la difusin actual aproximada de las diferentes religiones. +De verdad queremos comprometernos a absorber todas las otras religiones cuando sus libros sagrados les dicen, "No escuches a la otra parte, es Satans hablando!" +Me parece que esa es una apuesta problemtica para enfrentar el futuro. +Me encontr con este anuncio cuando viajaba hacia Maine hace poco, delante de una iglesia: "La bondad sin Dios se convierte en nada." +Simptico. +Un pequeo y brillante meme. +Simplemente no lo creo, y creo que esta idea, a pesar de su popularidad, es en si misma uno de los principales problemas a los que nos enfrentamos. +Si ustedes son como yo, conocen a muchos maravillosos y comprometidos ateos y agnsticos que son buenos sin ningn Dios. +Y tambin conocen a muchas personas religiosas que se esconden tras su santurronera en lugar de hacer el bien. +As que quisiera que nos deshiciramos de este meme. +Me gustara que este meme se extinguiera. +Muchas gracias por su atencin. +Aplausos Gracias, les debo decir que estoy entusiasmado y he sido desafiado. +Mi entusiasmo es porque tengo la oportunidad de dar algo a cambio. +Mi desafo es hacer un seminario corto, usualmente hago seminarios de 50 horas. +No estoy exagerando, hago fines de semana completos, y lo que hago hago ms que eso, obviamente, entreno a personas -- pero me interesa la inmersin, por que cmo aprendieron el idioma? +No lo aprendieron por slo aprender los principios, usted se metieron en eso y lo hicieron tan seguido que se convirti en realidad. +Y la razn por la que estoy aqu, adems de porque soy un loco, es que estoy en una posicin -- No vine aqu a motivarlos, obviamente; ustedes no necesitan eso. +Y muchas veces eso es lo que la gente cree que hago, pero es mucho ms que eso. Lo que sucede es que +la gente me dice "no necesito que me motiven". +Y yo les digo "bien, eso es interesante, pero no es lo que hago". +Yo soy el tipo del "por qu". Quiero saber por qu haces lo que haces. +Qu es lo que motiva tus acciones? +Qu es lo que te mueve en tu vida hoy? no 10 aos atrs. +O Sigues el mismo patrn? Porque yo creo +que la fuerza invisible del impulso interno, cuando se activa, es la cosa ms importante en el mundo. +Estoy aqu porque creo que la emocin es la fuerza de la vida. +Todos aqu tenemos grandes mentes. +Saben? Muchos de nosotros aqu tenemos grandes mentes, cierto? +No se de otras categoras, pero todos sabemos como pensar. +Y con nuestras mentes podemos racionalizar cualquier cosa. +Podemos hacer que cualquier cosa suceda, podemos -- Concuerdo con lo que se describa +algunos das atrs, sobre la idea de que la gente trabaja por su propio inters. +Pero todos sabemos que eso es basura algunas veces. +Uno no trabaja por su propio inters todo el tiempo, porque cuando la emocin entra en juego, todas las conexiones cambian sus funciones. +Y es hermoso para nosotros pensar de forma intelectual sobre cmo es la vida del mundo, y especialmente aquellos que somos muy inteligentes, podemos jugar este juego en nuestras cabezas. +Pero realmente quiero saber qu es lo que los mueve. +Y lo que me gustara tal vez invitarlos a hacer al final de esta conversacin, es explorar dnde ests hoy. +por dos razones. Uno: para que puedas contribuir ms y dos +que no solo podamos entender a otras personas ms, sino tal vez apreciarlas ms, y crear el tipo de conexiones que pueden detener algunos de los desafos que enfrentamos en nuestra sociedad hoy en da. +Ellos slo pueden magnificarse por la misma tecnologa que nos conecta, porque est haciendo que nos intersectemos. Y esa interseccin +no siempre crea la imagen de "ahora todos entienden a todos, y todos aprecian a todos". +Entonces, he estado obsesionado bsicamente por 30 aos, y la obsesin ha sido "Qu hace la diferencia en la calidad de la vida de las personas? +Qu hace la diferencia en su desempeo?" +Porque para eso me contrataron. Ahora tengo que producir el resultado. +Eso es lo que he hecho por 30 aos. Recibo la llamada cuando el atleta est cayendo en televisin nacional, y tenan 5 brazadas de delantera y ahora no pueden regresar a la pista. Y tengo que actuar ahora mismo para obtener el resultado +o nada ms importa. Recibo la llamada +cuando el nio va a cometer suicidio, y tengo que hacer algo ahora ya. Y en 29 aos -- +Estoy muy agradecido de poder decir que nunca he perdido uno en 29 aos. +No significa que no lo perder algn da. Pero no ha sucedido, +y la razn es el entendimiento de estas necesidades humanas de las que quiero hablar. +Entonces, cuando recibo las llamadas sobre desempeo, eso es una cosa. +Cmo haces un cambio? +Pero tambin, busco ver qu es lo que forma la habilidad de esa persona para contribuir, para hacer algo ms all de s misma. Entonces tal vez la pregunta realmente es Saben? yo veo la vida y digo que hay dos lecciones principales. +Una es: est la ciencia del logro, de que casi todo lo que se ejecuta se domina hasta cierto punto. +Es "Cmo tomas lo invisible y lo haces visible", cierto? Cmo tomas lo que estas soando y haces que suceda? +Ya sea tu negocio, tu contribucin a la sociedad, dinero -- lo que sea para ti -- tu cuerpo, tu familia. +Pero la otra leccin de la vida que raramente se domina, es el arte de la satisfaccin. +Porque la ciencia es fcil, cierto? +Conocemos las reglas. Escribes el cdigo, lo sigues -- y obtienes los resultados. Un vez que conoces el juego +tu simplemente, pues, vas subiendo el listn oh no? +Pero cuando se trata de la satisfaccin, es un arte. +Y la razn tiene que ver con la apreciacin +y con la contribucin. Una sola persona slo puede sentir hasta cierto punto. +He tenido un laboratorio interesante para intentar responder la pregunta de la verdadera pregunta, que es cul es la diferencia en la vida de alguien, si miras a esas personas +a quienes les has dado todo?, todos los recursos +que ellos dicen necesitar. No les diste un computador de 100 dlares les diste el mejor computador. Les diste amor, +Les distes alegras. tu estuviste ah para confortadlos +Y esas personas muy a menudo -- ustedes conocen alguno, seguramente -- terminan el resto de su vida con todo ese amor, educacin, dinero y trasfondo, gastando su vida entrando y saliendo de rehabilitacin. +Y entonces conoces gente que ha pasado por el peor dolor -- abusados psicolgica, sexual, espiritual y emocionalmente -- y no siempre, pero a menudo, ellos se convierten en las personas que ms contribuyen a la sociedad. +Entonces, la pregunta que debemos hacernos es, Qu es? +Qu es lo que nos mueve? Vivimos en una cultura de terapia. +Muchos de nosotros no la hacemos, pero nuestra cultura es de terapias. Y lo que quiero decir es que la mentalidad es que somos nuestro pasado. +Y todos en esta sala -- no estaran aqu si creyeran esa teora -- pero la mayora de la sociedad piensa que la biografa es el destino. +El pasado es igual al futuro. Y por supuesto que es igual si vives en el pasado. +Pero lo que la gente en esta sala sabe, +y lo que tenemos que repetirnos -- porque puedes saber algo intelectualmente, puedes saber qu hacer y luego no usarlo, no aplicarlo. +Realmente, tenemos que recordarnos que la decisin es el mximo poder. Eso es realmente lo que es. +Ahora, cuando le preguntas a alguien has fracasado en lograr algo? Cuantos han fracasado en lograr algo significativo en sus vidas?, digan "Yo" +Audiencia: Yo. +Gracias por la interaccin de alto nivel. +Pero si le preguntas a las personas Por qu has alcanzado algo? +Alguien que trabaja para t, un socio, o incluso t mismo. Cuando fracasas en el logro de un objetivo, +Cul es la razn que la gente da para su fracaso? +Qu te dicen? No tienen -- No saban lo suficiente, +no tena el -- conocimiento. No tena el -- dinero. No tena el -- tiempo. No tena la -- tecnologa. +No tena el mejor gerente. No tena el ... +Al Gore: la Corte Suprema. . +y y Qu tienen en comn todas estas cosas, incluida la corte suprema? +Ellos personifican tu falta de recursos, y puede sea certero. +Puede que no tengas el dinero, o la corte suprema, pero ese no es el factor determinante. +Y corrijanme si me equivoco. +El factor determinante nunca es el recurso, sino el ingenio. +Y lo que quiero decir, para no usar cualquier frase, es que si tienes emocin, emocin humana, algo que me hiciste experimentar hace dos das a un nivel tan profundo como nunca he experimentado, y si hubieses comunicado esa misma emocin creo que le hubieses pateado el trasero y ganado. +Pero que facil es para m decirle qu hacer. +Idiota, Robbins. Pero s que cuando vimos el debate aquella vez, hubo emociones que bloquearon la habilidad de la gente para entender el intelecto y capacidad de este hombre. +y la forma como algunos lo interpretaron ese da -- porque conozco gente que quera votar por t y no lo hizo, y me molest. Pero haba -- una emocin ah. +Cuntos de ustedes saben de lo que estoy hablando? , digan "yo" +Audiencia: Yo. +As que es la emocin. Y si conseguimos la emocin correcta, +podemos hacer cualquier cosa. Podemos superarlo. +Si eres lo suficientemente creativo, ldico, gracioso, puedes llegarle a cualquier persona?, si o no? +Audiencia: Si. Si no tienes el dinero, pero eres lo suficientemente creativo y determinado, +encuentras la manera. As que este es el recurso definitivo. +Pero esta no es la historia que nos cuentan, cierto? +La gente nos cuenta un montn de historias diferentes. +Nos dicen que no tenemos los recursos, pero en definitiva, si miramos aqu mismo -- siguiente por favor-- ellos dicen, cules son las razones por las que no han logrado eso? +Siguiente, por favor. Rompi mi patrn, ese hijo de puta. +Pero aprecio la energa, se los tengo que decir. +Qu determina tus recursos? Hemos dicho que las decisiones forman el destino, +que es mi enfoque aqu. Si las decisiones forman el destino, lo que lo determina +son tres decisiones. En qu te vas a enfocar? +Ahora mismo, ustedes deben decidir en qu se van a concentrar. +En este segundo, conscientemente o inconscientemente. El minuto en que decidan +concentrarse en algo, le tienen que dar un significado, y cualquiera que sea ese significado produce una emocin. +Es este el inicio o el final? Est Dios castigandome +o recompensandome, o es el azar? +Una emocin, entonces, crea lo que vamos hacer o la accin. +Asi que, piensen en su propia vida. Las decisiones que han formado su destino. +Y eso suena muy pesado, pero en los ltimos 5 10 aos, 15 aos, cmo han habido algunas decisiones que has tomado que si hubieses tomado otra diferente, yu vida sera completamente distinta? cuantos pueden pensarlo? +Honestamente, para mejor o para peor? digan "Yo" +Audiencia: Yo. +Entonces el fondo es que, tal vez fue dnde ir a trabajar, y ah conociste al amor de tu vida. +Tal vez fue una decisin de carrera. S que los genios de Google que v aqu -- Quiero decir, entiendo que su decisin al principio era vender su tecnologa. Que tal si hubiesen tomado esa decisin +versus la de construir su propia cultura? Cmo sera el mundo de diferente? +Cmo seran diferentes las vidas de ellos? su impacto? +La historia de nuestro mundo son estas decisiones. +Cuando una mujer se levanta y dice "No, no ir al fondo del bus", +no slo afect su vida. Esa decisin form nuestra cultura. +O alguien parndose frente a un tanque. O estando en una posicin +como Lance Armstrong, y alguien te dice, "Tienes cncer testicular". Eso es bastante duro para cualquier hombre, +especialmente si montas en bicicleta. +Lo tienes en tu cerebro, lo tienes en tus pulmones. +pero cmo fue su decisin de en qu concentrarse? +Diferente a la de la mayora. Qu significaba? +No era el final, era el inicio, qu es lo que voy hacer? +El sale y gana siete campeonatos que nunca haba ganado antes del cncer, porque tena aptitud emocional, +fuerza psicolgica . Esa es la diferencia en seres humanos que he visto de los tres millones que he estado alrededor. +Porque de eso se trata mi laboratorio. He tenido tres millones de personas de 80 pases diferentes con quienes he tenido la oportunidad de interactuar +durante los ltimos 29 aos. Y despus de un rato, los patrones se hacen obvios. +Ves que Suramrica y frica pueden estar conectadas de cierta manera, cierto?. Otros dicen +"Oh eso suena ridculo". Es simple. Entonces, qu formo a Lance? +Qu te forma? dos fuerzas invisibles, muy rpidamente. uno: el estado +Todos hemos tenido un momento. Si has tenido un momento donde hiciste algo, y despus de hacerlo pensaste "no puedo creer que dije eso", +"no puedo creer que hice eso, qu estupido" -- quin ha estado ah? Digan "Yo" Audiencia: Yo. +Alguna vez han hecho algo, y despus de hacerlo han dicho "ese fui yo!" +Verdad? No fue tu habilidad, fue tu estado. +Tu modelo del mundo es lo que te forma a largo plazo. +Tu modelo del mundo es el filtro. Eso es lo que nos forma. +Eso lo que hace que la gente tome decisiones. +cuando queremos influenciar a alguien, debemos conocer qu es lo que ya los influencia. +Y est compuesto por tres partes, creo. +Primero, Cul es tu blanco? Qu es lo que persigues? +Que, en mi opinin - no son tus deseos. +Tu puedes lograr tus deseos o metas. Cuntos alguna vez han alcanzado una meta +o un deseo y han pensado "eso es todo?"? +Cuantos de ustedes han estado en esa situacin? digan "yo" Audiencia: Yo. +Entonces, lo que tenemos son necesidades. Creo que hay seis necesidades humanas. +Segundo, una vez que sabes cul es la meta que te mueve y la descubres para la verdad-- tu no la formas, si no que la descubres-- entonces encuentras cul es tu mapa: cul es el sistema de creencias que te dice cmo llegar a esas necesidades. +Algunos piensan que el camino para llegar a esas necesidades es destruir el mundo, para otros es construir algo, crear algo, amar ha alguien. +Y luego est el combustible que eliges. Rpidamente, hay seis necesidades. +Les dir cuales son. Primera: Certeza. +Ahora, estas no son metas ni deseos, estas son universales. +Todos necesitan la certeza de que pueden evitar el dolor y por lo menos estar cmodos. Ahora, Cmo lo consigues? +Controlas a todo el mundo? Desarrollas una habilidad? te rindes? Fumas un cigarrillo? +Y si tuvieses total certeza, irnicamente, aunque todos la necesitamos -- si no ests seguro de tu salud, o tus hijos, o tu dinero, no piensas sobre muchas cosas. +Si no ests seguro de que el techo va a aguantar, no vas a escuchar a ningn conferencista. +Pero, aunque buscamos la certeza de distintas formas, y si tenemos total certeza, +Qu obtenemos? Qu sientes si ests seguro? +Sabes, qu va a pasar? Cundo va a pasar? Cmo va a pasar? qu vas a sentir? +Nos aburrimos totalmente. Por lo tanto Dios, en Su infinita sabidura, nos dio una segunda necesidad, que es la incertidumbre. +Necesitamos variedad. Necesitamos sorpresa. +A cuntos de ustedes les gusta la sorpresa? Digan "Yo" +Audiencia: Yo. +Mentira. Les gustan las sorpresas que ustedes quieren. +A las que no les gustan les llaman problemas, pero los necesitan. +As que la variedad es importante. Alguna vez han rentado un video o pelcula +que ya han visto? quin lo ha hecho? Consguete una vida. +Est bien, por qu lo haces? Sabes que es bueno +porque lo leste antes, o lo viste antes, pero esperas que haya pasado suficiente tiempo para olvidarlo, eso es variedad. +Tercera necesidad humana: significancia. Todos necesitamos sentirnos +importantes, especiales, nicos. La puedes obtener ganando ms dinero. +Lo puedes hacer siendo ms espiritual. +La puedes hacer colocndote en una situacin donde tengas ms tatuajes y aros en lugares donde la gente no quiere saber. +Lo que sea necesario. La forma ms rpida de hacerlo si no tienes historia, cultura, creencia y recursos o el ingenio, es la violencia. Si pongo una pistola en tu cabeza +vivo en el barrio, inmediatamente soy significativo. +De cero a 10 Cun alto? 10. Cun seguro estoy +que ustedes van a responder me? 10 cuanta incertidumbre? +quin sabe lo que va suceder despus? Emocionante. +Como escalar una cueva y hacer eso todo el camino hacia abajo. Variedad e incertidumbre total. +Y es significativo, no?. As que quieres arriesgar tu vida por eso. +Por eso la violencia siempre ha estado alrededor y seguir alrededor a menos que cambiemos la conciencia de la especie +Ahora, puedes obtener significancia de un milln de maneras, pero para ser significativo, tienes que ser nico y diferente. +Esto es lo que realmente necesitamos: conexin y amor -- cuarta necesidad. +Todos lo queremos. Muchos se conforman con la conexin porque el amor da mucho miedo. No quieren salir heridos. +Quin de los presentes ha sido herido en una relacin?, Digan "Yo". +Si no levantan la mano, habrn pasado por otra mierda tambin, vamos. +Y volvern a resultar heridos. +No estn felices de haber venido a esta visita positiva? +Pero esta es la verdad -- la necesitamos. Lo podemos hacer a travs de la intimidad a travs de la amistad, la oracin, las caminatas en la naturaleza. +Si nada ms funciona para t, consigue un perro. No un gato. Consigue un perro, porque si te vas por dos minutos, es como si te has ido por 6 meses cuando regresas 5 minutos despus, verdad? +Ahora, estas cuatro primeras necesidades, todos encuentran una forma de satisfacerlas. +Incluso si te mientes a t mismo, necesitas tener personalidades divididas. +Pero las dos ltimas -- las cuatro primeras se llaman necesidades de la personalidad, como yo les digo -- +las dos ltimas son necesidades del espritu. +Y aqu es donde entra la satisfaccin. No obtendrs satisfaccin +de las primeras 4. Conseguirs una manera -- fumar, beber o cualquier cosa-- +de colmar las primeras cuatro, pero las dos ltimas -- nmero cinco: +debes crecer. Todos conocemos la respuesta. +si no creces entonces qu eres? Si la relacin no esta creciendo, +si el negocio no est creciendo, si tu no ests creciendo, no importa cunto dinero tengas, cuntos amigos tengas, cuntas personas te quieran, te sientes horrible. Y la razn por la cual crecemos, creo, es para que podamos tener algo valuable para dar. +Porque la sexta necesidad es contribuir ms alla de nosotros mismos. +Porque todos sabemos, aunque suene cursi, que el secreto de la vida es dar. Todos sabemos que la vida no se trata de m, +sino de nosotros. La cultura lo sabe. Esta sala lo sabe. +Y es emocionante. Cuando ves a Nicolas aqu arriba hablando de +su computadora de 100 dlares, lo ms apasionante y excitante es, que aqu hay un genio, pero ahora tiene un llamado. +Puedes sentir la diferencia en l, y es hermosa. +Y ese llamado puede tocar otras personas. En mi propia vida, +mi vida fue tocada porque cuando tena once aos, accin de gracias: sin dinero ni comida. No vamos a morir de hambre, pero mi padre est muy mal. Mi madre le haca saber el mal que haba hecho. Y alguien lleg a la puerta +y nos entreg comida. Mi padre tom tres decisiones. +S cules fueron, brevemente. Su enfoque fue: "Esto es por caridad. +Qu significa? no valgo nada, Qu tengo que hacer? +dejar mi familia". Cosa que hizo. Este momento fue una de las experiencias +ms duras de mi vida. Mis tres decisiones me dieron un camino diferente. +Yo dije, "Enfcate en 'hay comida'" -- qu concepto, no? +Segundo -- y esto es lo que cambi mi vida, +esto fue lo que me formo como ser humano -- "el regalo de alguien ms, +e incluso no se quien es" Mi padre siempre deca, +"nadie da una mierda". Y de repente, alguien que no lo conozco, sin pedir nada a cambio, simplemente le da comida a mi familia, cuidndonos. Esto me hizo creer esto "Qu significa +que los extraos se preocupen? y eso me hizo decidir que, si los extraos se preocupan por m y mi familia, yo me preocupo por ellos. +Qu es lo que voy hacer? Voy hacer algo +que haga la diferencia. Entonces cuando tena 17, sal un da en el da de gracias. Fue mi objetivo por aos, el poder tener suficiente dinero para alimentar dos familias. +Fue lo ms entretenido que hice en mi vida, lo ms conmovedor. +El ao siguiente hice cuatro. No le cont a nadie lo que estaba haciendo. +El ao siguiente ocho. No lo haca por ganar puntos, +pero luego de ocho pens, mierda, podra usar algo de ayuda. +Asi que, por supuesto, qu hice? Involucr a mis amigos y desarroll empresas y despus tena 11 empresas y cre la fundacin. +Ahora, 18 aos despus, me enorgullece decir que el ao pasado alimentamos a 2 millones de personas en 35 pases a travs de nuestra fundacin, +todo durante las vacaciones: El da de gracias, Navidad -- -- en todos los diferentes pases de alrededor del mundo. +Gracias. +Entonces, no les digo esto para alardear, si no porque estoy orgulloso del ser humano, porque ellos se entusiasman por contribuir una vez que tienen la oportunidad de experimentarlo, no hablar de ello. +Entonces, finalmente -- Se me esta acabando el tiempo -- El objetivo que te forma-- esto es lo que hace diferente a la gente. Tenemos las mismas necesidades, +pero te obsesiona la seguridad?, Es eso lo que valoras ms o la incertidumbre? Este hombre no puede ser un obsesionado por la seguridad +si escala esas cavernas. Te impulsa la significancia +o el amor? Todos necesitamos los seis, pero cualquiera que sea tu sistema que lidere, te inclina a una direccin distinta. +Y mientras te mueves en una direccin, tienes un objetivo o destino. +La segunda pieza es el mapa. Piensa en eso como el sistema operativo +que te dice cmo llegar a eso. Y el mapa de algunas persona es, "Voy a salvar vidas incluso si muero por otras personas", y ellos son bomberos, para otros es, "Voy a matar personas para poder hacerlo" ellos tratan de alcanzar +las mismas necesidades de importancia, verdad? Ellos quieren honrar a Dios +o a sus familias, pero tienen un mapa distinto. +Y hay siete creencias distintas. No las puedo repasar +por que he terminado. La ltima pieza es la emocin. +Yo dira que una de las partes del mapa es como el tiempo. Para algunos +un perodo largo son 100 aos. Para otro son tres segundos, +que es lo que me queda. +Y el ltimo ya lo mencion, que cay sobre ustedes. +Si tienes un objetivo y tienes un mapa y digamos que -- No puedo usar Google por que yo amo los Macs y ellos an no lo han perfeccionado para Macs -- si usas MapQuest-- Cuntos han cometido el error fatal de usar MapQuest en algn momento? +. Tu usas esto y no llegas a ninguna parte. Bueno, imagina +si tus creencias te garantizan que nunca podrs llegar a donde quieres ir. +. La ltima cosa es emocin. +Ahora, Esto es lo que les voy a decir sobre la emocin. Existen 6,000 emociones para las cuales tenemos una palabra en el idioma ingls, que es slo una representacin lingstica, cierto? +Y la mitad de esas los hacen sentir como mierda. As que quedan cinco o seis +buenos sentimientos, verdad? es como que sienten "Feliz, feliz, emocionado, oh mierda, frustrado, frustrado, abrumado, deprimido". +Cuntos de ustedes conocen a alguien quien no importa qu suceda siempre consigue algo para molestarse?, cuntos conocen a alguien as? +. O, no importa qu pase, consiguen una forma de estar felices y emocionados. +Cuntos conocen a una persona como esta? Vamos. +Cuando ocurri el 11 de septiembre -- con esto termino -- estaba en Hawaii. +Estaba con 2.000 personas de 45 paises. Estbamos traduciendo cuatro idiomas simultneamente para un programa que conduje por una semana. La noche anterior se llamaba +"Maestra Emocional" Me levant, no tena nada planeado, y dije -- tenamos fuegos artificiales -- yo hago cosas divertidas y locas -- y al final me detuve -- Tena planeado decir algo +pero nunca hago lo que voy a decir. Y de repente dije, "Cundo empieza la gente a vivir realmente?, cuando enfrentan la muerte". +Y luego pas por todo esto sobre, si tu te ibas de la isla, y en nueve das ibas a morir, a quien llamaras?, qu diras?, +qu haras? Una mujer -- esa noche ocurri lo de las torres gemelas -- +una mujer haba venido al seminario y cuando llego, su novio anterior haba sido secuestrado y asesinado. +Su amigo, su nuevo novio, quera casarse con ella y ella dijo que no. +El dijo, "Si me dejas y te vas a tu cosa en Hawaii, esto se termina". +Ella le dijo "Se acab" Cuando termin esa noche, ella lo llam y le dej un mensaje -- es una historia verdadera-- en la punta del World Trade Center donde l trabajaba. Deca "Cario, te amo, slo quiero que sepas +que me quiero casar contigo. Fui muy estpida". Ella estaba dormida, +porque eran las 3 am para nosotros, cuando l llam desde el tope y dijo "Cario, no puedo decirte cunto significa esto". +l dijo, "No s como decirte esto, pero me diste el regalo ms grandioso porque voy a morir". +Y ella nos hizo escuchar la grabacin en el saln. +Ella estuvo despus en Larry King, y el dijo " Probablemente te estas preguntando cmo es posible que esto le haya pasado dos veces". Y l dijo +"lo nico que puedo decirte es, este debe ser un mensaje de dios para t, +cario. En adelante, cada da da todo lo que puedas, ama todo lo que puedas. +No dejes que nada te detenga". Ella termina, y un hombre se levanta y dice, "yo soy de Pakistan, Soy musulman. +me encantara tomar tu mano y decir que lo siento pero, sinceramente, esto es una retribucin". No les puedo contar el resto +porque se me acab el tiempo. +10 segundos +10 segundos y listo, quiero ser respetuoso. 10 segundos +Slo puedo decir que sub a este hombre al escenario con un hombre de Nueva York que trabajaba en el World Trade Center, porque tena unos 200 neoyorkinos ah. Ms de 50 +haban perdido completamente sus compaas, amigos, marcando sus Palm Pilots -- un operador financiero, esta mujer de acero, gritando -- 30 amigos que todos murieron. +y lo que les dije a las personas fue: En qu nos vamos a enfocar? +Qu significa esto y qu es lo que vamos hacer? +Y tom al grupo e hice que se enfocaran en, si no perdiste a alguien hoy, tu enfoque ser cmo servir a alguien ms. Hay personas -- +Entonces una mujer se levant y estaba furiosa y gritaba. +Luego me enter de que no era de Nueva York, no era americana, no conoca a nadie ah. Dije "siempre te pones furiosa?" +Ella dijo "si". Los culpables se pusieron culpables, los tristes se pusieron tristes. +Y tom a los dos hombres e hice lo que llamo una negociacin indirecta. +Un judo con familia en territorio ocupado, alguien en Nueva York que habra muerto su hubiera trabajado ese da, y este hombre que quera ser un terrorista y lo dej bien en claro. Y la integracin ocurrida qued grabada en video, +que estara contento de enviarles, para que puedan ver lo que realmente sucedi en vez de mi relato. Pero los dos hombres no slo se juntaron y cambiaron sus creencias y su moral sobre el mundo, sino que trabajaron para promover, desde hace casi cuatro aos, a travs de varias mezquitas y sinagogas, la idea +de cmo crear la paz. Y l escribi un libro, que se llama +"Mi Jihad, Mi manera de paz". As que la transformacin s puede pasar. +Es la nica forma por la que nuestro mundo va acambiar. Dios los bendiga. +Gracias. Espero que esto les haya servido +El ttulo es: "Ms raro de lo que podemos suponer: La extraeza de la ciencia." +"Ms raro de lo que podemos suponer" proviene de J.B.S. Haldane, el famoso bilogo, quien dijo, "Mi sospecha personal es que el universo no slo es ms raro de lo que suponemos, sino ms raro de lo que podemos suponer. +Sospecho que hay ms cosas en el cielo y la tierra de las que son, o pueden ser soadas en cualquier filosofa." +Richard Feyman compar la precisin de las teoras cunticas -- sus predicciones experimentales -- con especificar el ancho de Norteamrica con la precisin del grosor de un cabello. +Esto significa que la teora cuntica tiene que ser en cierto sentido verdadera. +Pero las presunciones que la teora cuntica necesita hacer para realizar tales predicciones son tan misteriosas que el mismo Feynman debi sealar, "Si crees que comprendes la teora cuntica, no entiendes la teora cuntica." +Es tan rara que los fsicos recurren a una u otra interpretacin paradjica de ella. +David Deutsch, quien hablar aqu, sobre El Tejido de la Realidad, adhiere a la interpretacin de "mundos mltiples" de la teora cuntica, porque lo peor que se puede decir de ella es que es ridculamente derrochadora. +Postula un vasto y rpidamente creciente nmero de universos existiendo en paralelo -- mutuamente indetectables, excepto a travs del estrecho conducto de los experimentos de mecnica cuntica. +Y ese es Richard Feynman. +El bilogo Lewis Wolpert cree que la rareza de la fsica moderna es slo un ejemplo extremo. La ciencia, al contrario que la tecnologa, hace violencia al sentido comn. +Cada vez que bebes un vaso de agua, l seala, es probable que bebas al menos una molcula que pas por la vejiga de Oliver Cromwell. Es slo teora de probabilidades elemental. +El nmero de molculas por vaso es enormemente mayor que el nmero de vasos llenos, o vejigas llenas, en el mundo -- +y, por supuesto, no hay nada especial en Cromwell o las vejigas. Acabas de inhalar un tomo de nitrgeno que pas por el pulmn derecho del tercer iguanodonte a la izquierda del rbol Cycadophyta. +"Ms raro de lo que podemos suponer." +Qu nos hace capaces de suponer algo, y qu nos dice eso sobre lo que podemos suponer? +Hay cosas en nuestro universo que estarn por siempre ms all de nuestro alcance, pero no para alguna +inteligencia superior? Hay cosas en nuestro universo que son, en principio, inalcanzables para cualquier mente, sin importar que tan superior? +La historia de la ciencia ha sido una larga serie de violentas tormentas mentales, sucesivas generaciones se enfrentaron con crecientes niveles de rareza en el universo. +Estamos tan habituados a la idea de que la Tierra gira -- en lugar de que el Sol se mueva por el cielo -- es difcil darnos cuenta de la devastadora revolucin mental que debi ser. +Despus de todo, parece obvio que la Tierra es enorme e inmvil, y el Sol pequeo y mvil. Pero vale la pena recordar +el comentario de Wittgenstein sobre el tema. "Dime," le pregunt a un amigo, "Por qu siempre se dice que era natural asumir que el sol se mova alrededor de la tierra en lugar de que la Tierra estuviera rotando?" +Su amigo replic, "Bueno, obviamente porque se ve como si el Sol se moviera alrededor de la Tierra." +Wittgenstein replic, "Bueno, y cmo se hubiera visto si se viera como si la Tierra estuviera rotando?" La ciencia nos ha enseado, contra toda intuicin, que las cosas aparentemente slidas, como cristales y rocas, estn casi enteramente compuestas de espacio vaco. +Y la imagen ilustrativa es el ncleo de un tomo como una mosca en el medio de un estadio deportivo y el siguiente tomo est en el siguiente estadio deportivo. +As que parece que la ms slida, dura y densa roca en realidad es casi todo espacio vaco, interrumpido por partculas tan separadas que no deberan contar. +Por qu, entonces, las rocas parecen slidas y duras e impenetrables? +Como bilogo evolucionista dir esto: nuestros cerebros han evolucionado para ayudarnos a sobrevivir dentro de rdenes de magnitud de tamao y velocidad en los que operan nuestros cuerpos. Nunca evolucionamos para navegar +en el mundo de los tomos. +En el otro extremo de la escala, nuestros ancestros nunca tuvieron que navegar por el cosmos a velocidades cercanas +a la de la luz. Si lo hubieran hecho, nuestros cerebros seran mucho mejores +para entender a Einstein. Quiero dar el nombre de "Mundo Medio" al ambiente de escala media en el que hemos evolucionado la habilidad para actuar -- No la "Tierra Media" Mundo Medio Hemos evolucionado como habitantes del Mundo Medio, y eso limita +lo que somos capaces de imaginar. Ser intuitivamente fcil aprehender ideas como, cuando un conejo se mueve a la velocidad promedia de los objetos del Mundo Medio, y choca con otro objeto del Mundo Medio, como una roca, se noquea. +Les presento al Mayor General Albert Stubblebine III, comandante de inteligencia militar en 1983. +l miraba su pared en Arlington, Virginia, y decidi hacerlo. +Aunque fuera una idea aterradora, ira a la oficina contigua. +Se levant, y se alej de su escritorio. +De qu consiste en su mayora el tomo? pens. Espacio. Comenz a caminar. De qu estoy hecho yo, mayormente? tomos. Aceler su paso, casi un trote ahora. +De qu est hecha la pared, mayormente? tomos. Todo lo que tengo que hacer es cruzar los espacios. +Luego, El General Stubblebine estrell su nariz contra la pared +de su oficina. Stubblebine, quien comandaba 16,000 soldados, estaba perplejo por su fracaso para atravesar de la pared. +No dudaba que esta habilidad, un da, sera una herramienta comn en el arsenal militar. Quin provocara a un ejrcito +Y eso es porque en el Mundo Medio, la friccin del aire siempre existi. +si hubiramos evolucionado en el vaco esperaramos que toquen el suelo simultneamente. Si furamos bacterias, constantemente perturbadas por el movimiento termal de las molculas, sera diferente, +pero somos muy grandes para notar el movimiento Browniano. +De la misma manera, nuestras vidas estn dominadas por la gravedad pero somos casi inconscientes a la fuerza de tensin superficial. +Un pequeo insecto revertiria estas prioridades. +Steve Grand -- es el de la izquierda, Douglas Adams est a la derecha -- Steve Grand, en su libro, +"Creacin: la Vida y Cmo Hacerla", es positivamente mordaz sobre nuestra preocupacin por la materia misma. +Tenemos esta tendencia a pensar que slo las cosas slidas, materiales son realmente cosas. Las ondas de fluctuacin electromagntica +en el vaco parecen irreales. +Los Victorianos pensaban que las ondas deban ser ondas de un medio -- el ter. Pero la materia nos parece reconfortante slo porque hemos evolucionado para sobrevivir en el Mundo Medio, donde la materia es una ficcin til. +Un remolino, para Steve Grand, es una cosa con tanta realidad como una roca. +En un desierto de Tanzania, a la sombra de un volcn Ol Donyo Lengai, hay una duna de ceniza volcnica. +Lo hermoso es que se mueve. +Es lo que tcnicamente llamamos Barchan, y toda la duna transita el desierto en direccin oeste a la velocidad de 17 metros por ao. +Mantiene su forma de luna y se mueve en direccin de sus cuernos. +Lo que sucede es que el viento sopla en la arena sobre la pendiente hasta el otro lado, y luego, cuando cada grano de arena llega a la cima de la cresta, cae en cascada al interior de la luna creciente, y as la duna con forma de cuerno se mueve. +Steve Grand seala que nosotros mismos, somos ms como una onda que una cosa permanente. +Nos invita a los lectores "piensa en una experiencia de tu niez -- algo que recuerdes claramente, algo que puedas ver, sentir, quizs incluso oler, como si estuvieras all realmente. +Despus de todo, realmente estuviste all, no? +Cmo ms lo recordaras? +Pero he aqu la sorpresa: No estuviste all. +Ni un slo tomo que est en tu cuerpo hoy estuvo all cuando eso ocurri. La materia fluye de un lugar a otro y momentneamente se rene para ser t. +Lo que sea que eres, por tanto, no eres la materia de la que ests hecho. +Si eso no te eriza el cabello de la nuca, lelo de nuevo hasta que lo haga, porque es importante." +As que "realmente" no es una palabra que debamos usar con confianza +Si un neutrino tuviera cerebro, que evoluciono en ancestros tamao neutrino, dira que las rocas realmente consisten de espacio vaco. +Tenemos cerebros que evolucionaron de ancestros tamao medio que no podan atravesar rocas. +"Realmente" para un animal, es lo que su cerebro necesita que sea para ayudar a su supervivencia, +y debido a que diferentes especies viven en diferentes mundos, habr una incmoda variedad de realidades. +Lo que vemos del mundo real no es el mundo desnudo sino un modelo del mundo, regulado por datos sensoriales, pero construdo para ser til para enfrentar el mundo real. +La naturaleza del modelo depende del tipo de animal que somos. +Un animal volador necesita un tipo de modelo diferente de uno andante, trepador o nadador. +Un cerebro de mono debe tener software capaz de simular un mundo tridimensional de ramas y troncos. +Un software de topo para construr modelos de su mundo debe adaptarse para uso subterrneo. +Un cerebro de caminador de agua no necesita software 3D, dado que vive en la superficie de una laguna en una planilandia de Edwin Abbott. +He especulado que el murcilago ve colores con sus odos. +El modelo de mundo que un murcilago necesita para navegar en tres dimensiones atrapando insectos debe ser muy similar al modelo de mundo de cualquier ave, un ave diurnal como una golondrina, necesita ejecutar el mismo tipo de tareas. +El hecho de que el murcilago use ecos en la oscuridad para ingresar los variables actuales a su modelo, mientras que la golondrina usa luz, es incidental. +No hay nada inherente en el rojo que lo haga de onda larga. +Y el punto es que la naturaleza del modelo est gobernada por cmo ser usado, ms que por la modalidad sensorial involucrada. +J.B.S. Haldane deca algo sobre los animales cuyo mundo est dominado por el olfato. +Los perros distinguen entre dos cidos grasos muy similares, muy diludos: el cido caprilico y el cido caproico. +La nica diferencia, es que uno tiene un par extra de tomos de carbono en la cadena. +Haldane intuy que un perro probablemente sera capaz de ordenar los cidos en el orden de sus pesos moleculares por sus olores, as como un hombre podra ordenar las cuerdas de un piano por el orden de sus longitudes oyendo sus notas. +Ahora, hay otro cido graso, el cido cprico, que es igual a los otros dos, excepto que tiene dos tomos de carbono ms. +Un perro que nunca conoci el cido cprico podra, tal vez, no tener ms problemas imaginando su olor del que nosotros tendramos imaginando una trompeta, por ejemplo, tocar una nota ms aguda de lo que hemos antes odo. +Tal vez los perros y rinocerontes y otros animales guiados por olfato +huelen en colores. Y el argumento sera exactamente el mismo que para los murcilagos. +El Mundo Medio -- el rango de tamaos y velocidades con el que hemos evolucionado para sentirnos intuitivamente cmodos -- es un poco como el estrecho rango del espectro electromagntico que vemos como luz de varios colores. +Somos ciegos a todas las frecuencias fuera de l, a menos que usemos instrumentos para ayudarnos. +El Mundo Medio es el estrecho rango de realidad que juzgamos como normal, al contrario de la rareza de lo muy pequeo, lo muy grande y lo muy rpido. +Podramos hacer una escala similar de improbabilidades; nada es totalmente imposible. +Los milagros son slo eventos que son extremadamente improbables. +Una estatua de mrmol puede agitar su mano saludando; sus tomos, su estructura cristalina estn vibrando de todas maneras. +Debido a que hay tantos de ellos, y debido a que no hay acuerdo entre ellos en su direccin preferida de movimiento, el mrmol, que vemos en el Mundo Medio, permanece inmvil. +Pero los tomos en la mano podran de repente moverse de la misma manera al mismo tiempo, una y otra vez. +En ese caso, la mano se movera y la veramos como si saludara en el Mundo Medio. La probabilidad esta en contra, claro, es tan improbable +que si comenzaras a escribir zeros en el momento del origen del universo, an no habras escrito suficientes ceros hoy. +La evolucin en el Mundo Medio no nos ha equipado para manejar eventos muy improbables; no vivimos lo suficiente. +En la inmensidad del espacio astronmico y el tiempo geolgico, eso que parece imposible en el Mundo Medio podra resultar ser inevitable. +Una manera de pensar esto es contando planetas. +No sabemos cuntos planetas hay en el universo, pero un buen clculo es de 10 a la 20 potencia, o 100 trillones +Y eso nos da una buena forma de expresar nuestro calculo de la improbabilidad de la vida. +Podramos marcar algunos puntos a lo largo del espectro de imposibilidades, que se vera como el espectro electromagntico que acabamos de ver. +Si la vida surgi slo en un planeta en todo el universo, ese planeta debe ser nuestro planeta, porque estamos aqu hablando de eso. +Y eso significa que si queremos sacar ventaja de ello, podemos postular eventos qumicos en el origen de la vida lo cual tiene una posibilidad tan baja como uno en 100 trillones. +No creo que tendramos que sacar ventaja de eso, porque sospecho que la vida es ms comn en el universo. +Y cuando digo comn, an podra ser tan rara que ninguna isla de vida jams encuentre otra, que es un pensamiento triste. +Cmo debemos interpretar "ms raro de lo que podemos suponer?" +Ms raro de lo que en principio podemos suponer, o slo ms raro de los que podemos suponer, dadas las limitaciones del aprendizaje evolucionario de nuestro cerebro en el Mundo Medio? +Podramos, por entrenamiento y prctica, emanciparnos del Mundo Medio y alcanzar una especie de intuicin, as como comprensin matemtica de lo muy pequeo y lo muy grande? Genuinamente no conozco la respuesta. +Me pregunto si podramos ayudarnos a comprender, digamos, +Y, similarmente, un juego de computadora relativista en el que los objetos en la pantalla manifiesten la Contraccin de Lorenz, y as, para tratar de acostumbrarnos en la manera de pensar -- de llevar a los nios a la manera de pensar en eso. +Quiero terminar aplicando la idea del Mundo Medio a nuestras percepciones de nosotros mismos. +La mayora de los cientficos hoy suscriben a la visin mecanicista de la mente: somos como somos porque nuestros cerebros son forzados a ser como son; nuestras hormonas son como son. +Seramos diferentes, nuestro carcter sera diferente, si nuestra neuro-anatoma y nuestra qumica fisiolgica fuera diferente. +Pero los cientficos somos inconsistentes. Si furamos consistentes, nuestra respuesta a un mal comportamiento, como un infanticida, debera ser algo como, esta unidad tiene un componente fallido; +necesita reparacin. Eso no es lo que decimos. +Lo que decimos -- e incluyo al ms austeramente mecanicista de nosotros, que probablemente soy yo -- lo que decimos es, "Vil monstruo, la prisin es demasiado buena para ti." +O peor, buscamos venganza, probablemente iniciando la siguiente fase en una ciclo creciente de contra-venganzas, lo cual vemos, por supuesto, por todo el mundo hoy. +Evolucionamos para adivinar el comportamiento de otros volvindonos brillantes psiclogos intuitivos. +Tratando a las personas como mquinas puede ser cientfica y filosficamente preciso, pero es una engorrosa prdida de tiempo si quieres adivinar lo que har una persona a continuacin. +La manera econmicamente til de pensar en una persona es tratarla como un agente decidido tras un objetivo con placeres y dolores, deseos e intenciones culpa y cargos. +O son nuestros cerebros tan verstiles y expandibles que podemos entrenarnos para escapar de la caja de nuestra evolucin? +O, finalmente, Hay cosas en el universo tan raras que ninguna filosofa de cosas, sin importar que tan divinas, podra soarlas? +Muchas gracias. +Bien. +Muchas gracias. +Tengo una historia que contaros. +Cuando baj del avin, despus de un largo viaje desde el oeste de Inglaterra, mi ordenador, mi querido porttil, se haba vuelto loco y haba...Ah!...Algo as! y la pantalla... ...bueno, se rompi todo. +Fu a ver a los chicos de Tecnologas de la Informacin y un caballero arregl mi ordenador y me pregunt: "Qu te ha trado aqu?" +y le dije: "Vengo a tocar el chelo y a cantar un poco" l dijo: "Yo tambin toco el chelo" +Y yo le dije: "En serio?" +Y aqu est, para pasar un buen rato porque es fantstico! Se llama Mark. +Me acompaa tambin mi cmplice, Thomas Dolby. +Esta cancin se llama "Ms lejos que el sol". +Bueno, voy a hablar acerca de un problema que tengo y es que soy filsofo. +Cuando voy a una fiesta y la gente me pregunta lo que hago y digo "catedrtico", sus ojos se ponen vidriosos. +Cuando voy a un cctel de acadmicos y todos los catedrticos estn all y me preguntan en qu campo trabajo, y digo "filosofa" sus ojos se ponen vidriosos. +Cuando voy a una fiesta de filsofos y me preguntan sobre qu trabajo y digo "la conciencia", sus ojos no se ponen vidriosos... pero sus labios hacen una mueca de disgusto. +y recibo carcjadas de burla y risitas y refunfuos porque piensan, "eso es imposible! No se puede explicar la conciencia." +Qu descaro de que alguien crea que se puede explicar la conciencia cuando es totalmente imposible! +Mi recientemente fallecido y aorado amigo Bob Nozick, un muy buen filsofo, en uno de sus libros "Explicaciones Filosficas," comenta el ethos de la filosofa, y la forma en que los filsofos hacen sus cosas. +Y dice, saben, "los filsofos aman la argumentacin racional". +Y aade, "Parece que la discusin ideal para la mayora de los filsofos es darle a su audiencia las premisas y luego darles las inferencias y la conclusin, y si no aceptan la conclusin, mueren. +Sus cabezas explotan. "La idea es tener un argumento que sea tan poderoso que noquee a tus oponentes. +Pero la verdad es que eso no cambia la opinin de la gente para nada. +Es muy difcil cambiar la opinin de la gente sobre algo como la conciencia, y finalmente comprend el porqu de este fenmeno. +La razn es que todos somos expertos sobre la conciencia +El otro da escuchamos que todo el mundo tiene una opinin fuerte sobre los videojuegos. +Todos tienen una idea para un videojuego, aunque no sean expertos. +Pero ellos no se consideran expertos en videojuegos, simplemente tienen opiniones fuertes. +Estoy seguro que la gente presente que trabaja en, digamos, el cambio climtico y el calentamiento global, o sobre el futuro de internet, se encuentra con gente que tiene opiniones muy fuertes acerca de lo que va a pasar en el futuro cercano. +Pero probablemente no creen que son opiniones expertas. +Slo expresan convicciones profundas. +Pero en relacin a la conciencia, la gente parece pensar, cada uno de nosotros parece pensar, "Yo soy un experto. +Simplemente por estar consciente, lo s todo sobre esto." +Y as, uno les cuenta su teora y ellos dicen, "No, no, la conciencia no es as! +No, ests completamente equivocado." +Y lo dicen con una seguridad increible. +As que lo que intentar hacer hoy es perturbar su confianza. Porque conozco la sensacin... La puedo sentir en m mismo +Quiero perturbar su confianza de que conocen lo ms ntimo de sus mentes... y de que pueden hablar con autoridad sobre sus propias conciencias. +Esa es la orden del da aqu. +Ahora, esta bonita imagen muestra una globo de pensamiento. Una burbuja de pensamiento. +Creo que todo el mundo entiende lo que esto significa. +Se supone que muestra el flujo de nuestra conciencia. +Esta es mi representacin favorita de la conciencia que se haya hecho jams. +Es de Saul Steinberg, por supuesto... fue portada del New Yorker. +Y este tipo aqu esta mirando el cuadro de Braque. +Eso le recuerda a la palabra barroco, barro, perro, caniche, Suzanne R. y se va a las carreras. +Aqu hay un flujo de conciencia magnfico y si lo siguen, aprenden mucho sobre este hombre. +Lo que tambin me gusta en particular de este dibujo es que Steinberg ha presentado a este hombre en un estilo algo puntillista. +Lo que nos recuerda, como Rod Brooks deca ayer, que lo que somos, lo que cada uno de nosotros es, lo que ustedes son, lo que yo soy... es aproximadamente 100 billones de robots celulares. +Eso es de lo que estamos hechos. +No hay ningn otro ingrediente. Estamos hechos slo de clulas, alrededor de 100 billones de ellas. +Ninguna de esas clulas es consciente, ninguna de esas clulas sabe quien eres t, ni le importa. +De algn modo, tenemos que explicar cmo cuando creas equipos, ejrcitos, batallones de cientos de millones de pequeas clulas robticas inconscientes... en realidad, no muy diferente de una bacteria cada uno de ellos... el resultado es ste. Mrenlo! +El contenido: hay color, hay ideas, hay recuerdos, hay historia. Y de alguna manera todo ese contenido de la conciencia se consigue con la ajetreada actividad de esas hordas de neuronas. +Cmo es posible? Mucha gente sencillamente cree, que no es posible en absoluto. +Piensan, "No, no puede haber ningn tipo de explicacin naturalista de la conciencia". +Hay un libro fantstico de un amigo mo llamado Lee Siegel que ensea religin, de hecho, en la Universidad de Hawaii, y es un mago experto, y un experto sobre la magia callejera de la India, que es el tema del libro, "Red de Magia" +Y hay un pasaje que quisiera compartir con ustedes. +Habla muy elocuentemente sobre este problema. +"Estoy escribiendo un libro sobre magia", explico, y me preguntan, Magia de verdad? Por 'magia de verdad' la gente se refiere a milagros, actos taumatrgicos y poderes sobrenaturales. +"No", contesto. "Prestidigitacin, no magia de verdad". La magia de verdad, en otras palabras, se refiere a una magia que no es real, mientras que la magia que es real, la que realmente puede hacerse, no es magia de verdad". +Ahora bien, as se sienten muchos con respecto a la conciencia. +La verdadera conciencia no es un libro de trucos. +Si vas a explicarlo como un libro de trucos, entonces no es conciencia de verdad, sea lo que sea. +Y como dijo Marvin, y como han dicho otros: "La conciencia es un libro de trucos". +Esto significa que hay muchos que quedan completamente insatisfechos. e incrdulos cuando intento explicar la conciencia. +As que este es el problema, debo intentar hacer un poco del tipo de trabajo que a muchos no les gustar, por el mismo motivo que no les gusta que les expliquen un truco de magia. +Cuntos de los aqu presentes, si alguien (un sabelotodo) les empiezara a explicar como se hace un truco en particular, querran taparse los odos y decir, "No, no, no quiero saberlo! +No le quites la gracia, prefiero que sea un misterio. +No me cuentes el secreto" +Hay muchos que se sienten as sobre la conciencia, como he comprobado. +Y pido disculpas si les estoy imponiendo algo de claridad o comprensin. +Si prefieren no saber algunos de estos trucos es mejor que se vayan ahora. +Pero no se lo explicar todo. +Har lo que hacemos los filsofos. +As explica un filsofo cmo se parte en dos a una mujer con serrucho. +Conocen ese truco? +El filsofo dice, "Yo les explicar como se hace: +Vern, el mago no serraba de verdad a la mujer en dos". +"Slo les hace creer que lo hace". +Y ustedes dicen, "Ah s?, y cmo lo hace?" +Y el responde, "oh, eso es de otro departamento, lo siento." +As que ahora intentar explicar cmo los filsofos explican la conciencia. +Pero tambin intentar mostrarles que la conciencia no es tan maravillosa, que su propia conciencia no es tan extraordinaria como pueden haber credo. +Esto es algo que, por cierto, Lee Siegel comenta en su libro. +Se maravilla de cmo despus de uno de sus espectculos la gente jura que le vieron hacer X, Y o Z. El nunca hizo nada de eso. +Ni siquiera intent hacerlo. +La memoria de las personas exagera lo que creen haber visto. +Y lo mismo ocurre con la conciencia. +Ahora veamos si esto funciona. Bien, echemos un vistazo. +Miren con atencin. +Estoy trabajando con un jven animador por ordenador y documentalista llamado Nick Dreamer, y esta es una pequea muestra que hizo para mi, parte de un proyecto mayor que puede interesarles a algunos. +Estamos buscando patrocinador... +Es un largometraje documental sobre la conciencia. +Ahora bien, todos han visto lo que cambi, cierto? +Cuntos de ustedes se han percatado de que cada uno de los cuadrados ha cambiado de color? +Todos. Se lo mostrar de nuevo. +Incluso cuando saben que todos van a cambiar de color, es muy difcil darse cuenta. Hay que concentrarse mucho para notar al menos alguno de los cambios. +Bien, este es un ejemplo, entre muchos, de un fenmeno que se est estudiando bastante. +Es uno que predije en las ltimas pginas de mi libro de 1991, "La Conciencia Explicada", donde sostena que si se hacan experimentos de este tipo, encontraramos que las gente es incapaz de percibir cambios realmente grandes. +Si hay tiempo al final, les mostrar un caso mucho ms llamativo. +Ahora, cmo puede ser que estn ocurriendo todos estos cambios, y que no seamos conscientes de ellos? +Bueno, ya escuchamos hoy a Jeff Hawkins hablarnos de cmo nuestros ojos saltan, como se mueven de un lado a otro, tres o cuatro veces por segundo. +No mencion la velocidad. Sus ojos estn en constante movimiento, movindose de un lado a otro, mirando a otros ojos, narices, codos, mirando a las cosas interesantes en el mundo. +Y ah donde no miran nuestros ojos, tenemos una visin notablemente empobrecida. +Esto se da porque la parte foveal del ojo, que es la parte de alta resolucin, es del tamao de la ua de su pulgar con el brazo estirado. +Esa es la parte de los detalles. +Pero no parece ser as, no es cierto? +No parece ser as, pero as es. +Estn recibiendo bastante menos informacin de la que creen. +Aqu pueden ver un ejemplo muy diferente. ste es un cuadro de Bellotto. +Est en el museo de Carolina del Norte. +Bellotto fue discpulo de Canaletto. +Y me encantan este tipo de cuadros. El cuadro es ms o menos del mismo tamao que el que aparece aqu. +Y me encantan los Canalettos, porque tienen un nivel de detalle fantstico. y uno puede acercrse bien y distinguir todos los detalles. +Y a mi me atrajo desde el otro lado del pasillo en Carolina del Norte porque pens que probablemente era un Canaletto, y tendra todo ese detalle. +Y me fij que en ese puente, hay mucha gente, uno apenas puede verlos cruzando el puente. +Y mientras me acercaba pensaba que podra ver al detalle a la mayora de las personas, su ropa y dems. +Y al acercarme ms y ms, de hecho grit. +Grit porque al acercarme descubr que el detalle no estaba. +Slo eran unas gotas de pintura aplicadas con gran habilidad artstica. +Y mientras caminaba hacia el cuadro esperaba un nivel de detalle inexistente. +El artista haba sugerido con gran habilidad a las personas y sus ropas y vagones y todo tipo de cosas y mi cerebro se crey la sugerencia. +Ustedes estn familiarizados con una tecnologa ms reciente, que est... ah. Pueden ver mejor las gotas. +Vean, cuando se acercan, en realidad son slo gotas de pintura. +Habrn visto cosas como estas, este es el efecto contrario. +Se lo mostrar una vez ms. +Ahora, qu hace su cerebro cuando acepta la sugerencia? +Cuando una hbil gota o dos, por un artista, sugieren a una persona... digamos un miembro de la sociedad de la mente de Marvin Minsky, se envan pequeos pintores para que completen los detalles en alguna parte de sus cerebros? +No lo creo. Imposible. Pero entonces, cmo diablos lo hacen? +Bueno, recuerdan la explicacin del filsofo sobre la mujer partida en dos? +Es lo mismo. +El cerebro simplemente les hace creer que ah est el detalle. +Creen que el detalle est, pero no lo est. +El cerebro no est realmente creando los detalles en tu cabeza. +Slo est haciendo que esperes el detalle. +Hagamos este experimento rpidamente. +La forma de la izquierda es la misma que la de la derecha, pero rotada? +S. +Cuntos de ustedes lo han hecho rotando la de la izquierda mentalmente, para ver si corresponda con la de la derecha? +Cuntos lo han hecho con la de la derecha? Vale. +Cmo saben que es eso lo que han hecho? +De hecho ha habido un debate muy interesante en las ciencias cognitivas de los ltimos 20 aos; varios experimentos creados por Roger Sheperd, que medan la velocidad angular de rotacin de las imgenes mentales. +S, se puede hacer. +Pero los detalles del proceso todava crean mucha controversia. +Y si leen lo escrito sobre el tema, una de las cosas que debemos aceptar es que incluso cuando uno es el sujeto del experimento, uno no sabe. +No sabe cmo lo hace. +Slo sabemos que tenemos ciertas creencias. +Y que vienen en un cierto orden, en cierto momento. +Y qu explica el hecho de que eso es lo que pensamos? +Bueno, ah es donde hay que ir tras las bambalinas a preguntarle al mago. +Esta es una figura que me encanta: Bradley, Petrie y Dumais. +Pueden pensar que he hecho algo de trampa, que he puesto un borde ms blanco que el blanco ah. +Cuntos de ustedes ven un borde as, con el cubo de Necker flotando delante de los crculos? +Lo ven? +Bueno, deben saber que, en efecto, el borde realmente es ah en cierto sentido. +Su cerebro de hecho procesa el borde, el borde que ira exactamente ah... +Pero ahora fjense que hay dos formas de ver el cubo, verdad? +Es un cubo de Necker. +Pueden ver todos las dos formas de verlo? Vale. +Pueden ver las cuatro formas de ver el cubo? +Porque hay otra forma de verlo. +Si lo estn viendo como un cubo flotando delante de unos crculos, unos crculos negros, hay otra forma de verlo. +Como un cubo sobre un fondo negro, como se vera a travs de un pedazo de queso suizo. +Lo ven? Cuntos no pueden verlo? Esto ayudar. +Ahora lo ven. Estos son dos fenmenos muy diferentes. +Cuando se ve el cubo de una forma, como detrs de una pantalla, los bordes desaparecen. +Pero seguimos rellenando de algn modo, como podemos ver si miramos esto. +No nos cuesta ver esto en absoluro, pero dnde cambia el color? +Tendrn sus cerebros que enviar pequeos pintores ah? +Los pintores de morado y de verde se pelean para ver quien pinta ese espacio detrs de la cortina? No. +Sus cerebros simplemente se desentienden. El cerebro no necesita rellenarlo. +Cuando empec a hablar sobre el ejemplo Bradley, Petirie, Dumais que acaban de ver... Volver a l, aqu est... Dije que no haba relleno ah atrs. +Y supuse que era una verdad slida, constante. +Pero Rob Van Lier nos ha hecho ver hace poco que no es as. +Ahora, si creen ver un amarillo plido... Lo har pasar algunas veces ms. +Miren en las reas grises y vean si ven una especie de sombras movindose por ah... S, es asombroso! No hay nada ah. No es un truco. +["Incapacidad para Detectar Cambios en Escenas"] Este es el trabajo de Ron Rensink, que de alguna forma fue inspirado por la sugerencia justo al final del libro. +Permtanme pausar esto un segundo si puedo. +Esto es ceguera al cambio. +Lo que vern es dos cuadros, uno de los cuales es levemente diferente al otro. +Pueden ver aqu el techo rojo y el techo gris, y entre ellos habr una mscara, que es simplemente una pantalla en blanco, durante aproximadamente un cuarto de segundo. +De tal modo que vern el primer cuadro, luego la mscara, a continuacin el segundo cuadro, luego la mscara. +Y esto simplemente continuar, y su labor como sujeto es apretar el botn cuando vean el cambio. +Mostramos el cuadro original durante 240 milisegundos. Pantalla en blanco. +Mostramos el siguiente durante 240 milisegundos. Pantalla en blanco. +Y as sigue hasta que el sujeto presiona el botn diciendo "Veo el cambio" +Y ahora seremos los sujetos del experimento. +Empezaremos con algo fcil. Algunos ejemplos. +No hay problema aqu. +Pueden verlo todos? Bien. +De hecho los sujetos de Resnick se demoraron slo un poco ms de un segundo en apretar el botn. +Pueden ver ese? +2,9 segundos +Cuntos siguen sin verlo? +Que hay sobre el techo de ese granero? +Es fcil. +Es un puente o un muelle? +Tengo algunos ms llamativos, y ya termino. +Quiero que vean algunos que son particularmente impactantes. +Este, por ser tan grande y sin embargo bastante dificil de ver. +Lo ven? +Publico: S +Ven las sombras moverse de un lado a otro? Bastante grande. +As que 15 segundos y medio es la media de tiempo de los sujetos en su experimento. +Me encanta ste. Terminar con l, slo porque es algo tan obvio e importante. +Cuntos siguen sin verlo? Cuntos siguen sin verlo? +Cuntos motores tiene el ala de ese Boeing? +Justo en mitad de la imagen! +Muchas gracias por su atencin. +Lo que quera mostrarles es que los cientficos, usando desde fuera, sus mtodos en tercera persona, pueden decirles cosas sobre su propia conciencia que ustedes ni hubiesen soado. Y que, de hecho, no son las autoridades que creen ser sobre sus propias conciencias. +Y estamos progresando mucho en generar una teora de la mente. +Jeff Hawkins, esta maana, describa su intento de generar teora, una buena y gran teora, en la neurociencia. +Y tiene razn. Esto es un problema. +En la Facultad de Medicina de Harvard, una vez, estaba en una charla, y el director del laboratorio dijo, "en nuestro laboratorio tenemos un dicho: +si trabajas sobre una neurona, eso es neurociencia, +si trabajas sobre dos, eso es psicologa". +Debemos crear ms teora, y bien puede ser generada en gran medida desde arriba. +Muchas gracias. +No estoy realmente segura de querer ver un redoblante a eso de las 9 de la maana. +Pero de todos modos, es increble ver un teatro tan lleno, y realmente debo agradecerle a Herbie Hancock y sus colegas por esta gran presentacin. Una de las cosas interesantes, por supuesto, es la combinacin de esa mano directa en el instrumento, la tecnologa y, por supuesto, lo que dijo acerca de escuchar a nuestros jvenes. +Por supuesto, mi trabajo se trata de escuchar, y mi objetivo, en realidad, es ensearle al mundo a escuchar. +Ese es mi nico objetivo verdadero en la vida. +Y suena bastante simple, pero en realidad es un trabajo muy, muy grande. +Porque ustedes saben, cuando se mira una pieza musical -por ejemplo, si abro mi pequeo bolso- tenemos aqu, espero, una pieza de msica que est llena de pequeos puntos negros en la pgina. +Y saben, la abrimos y leo la msica. +Por lo tanto tcnicamente yo puedo leer esto. +Voy a seguir las instrucciones: las indicaciones de tempo, las dinmicas. +Voy a hacer exactamente lo que me dice. +Y as, como el tiempo es corto, tocar literalmente las primeras dos lneas ms o menos. Es muy sencillo. +No hay nada demasiado difcil en la pieza. +Pero aqu me dice que la pieza de msica es muy rpida. +Me dice en qu parte del redoblante tocar. +Me dice qu parte de las baquetas debo usar. +Y me dice la dinmica. +Y me dice tambin que el redoblante no tiene bordona. +Con bordona, sin bordona. +Por lo tanto, si yo traduzco esta pieza de msica, tendremos esta idea. Y as sucesivamente. Mi carrera probablemente durara unos cinco aos . +Sin embargo, lo que tengo que hacer como msico es hacer todo lo que no est en la partitura. +Todo lo que no hay tiempo de aprender de un maestro, o incluso de hablar con un maestro. +Pero son justamente las cosas que uno nota cuando no est con el instrumento las que de hecho se vuelven tan interesantes que uno desea explorarlas a travs de esta pequea, pequea superficie de redoblante. +Bien: experimentamos la traduccin. Ahora experimentaremos la interpretacin. Ahora mi carrera podra durar un poco ms! +Pero en cierto modo, saben, es lo mismo si miro y veo una resplandeciente joven usando una blusa rosa. +Veo que est apretando un oso de peluche, etc, etc. +As obtengo una idea bsica de cmo puede ser, de qu cosas posiblemente le gusten, de cul sea quizs su profesin, etctera, etctera. +Sin embargo esta es slo la idea inicial que yo tendra, que todos tenemos cuando de hecho miramos. Y tratamos de interpretarla, pero en realidad es tan increblemente superficial. +De la misma manera miro la partitura, tengo una idea bsica, me pregunto qu es lo que podra resultarme tcnicamente difcil, o qu es lo que quiero hacer. +Slo la sensacin bsica. +Sin embargo, esto simplemente no es suficiente. +Y creo que lo dijo Herbie - por favor, escuchen, escuchen. +Tenemos que escucharnos a nosotros mismos, en primer lugar. +Si yo toco, por ejemplo, sosteniendo la baqueta - en caso de que, literalmente, no me suelte de ella voy a experimentar una gran cantidad de sacudidas subiendo a travs del brazo. +Y uno se siente - cranlo o no - bastante desconectada del instrumento y de la baqueta, a pesar de que en realidad estoy sujetndola muy firmemente. +Sujetndola fuerte, me siento extraamente ms separada. +Si yo simplemente libero mi mano, mi brazo, y le permito ser ms un sistema de soporte, repentinamente tengo ms dinmica con menos esfuerzo. Mucho ms. +Y me siento, por fin, que soy una con la baqueta y una con el redoblante. +Y estoy haciendo mucho, mucho menos. +Por lo tanto, de la misma manera que necesito tiempo con este instrumento, necesito tiempo con las personas para interpretarlas. +No slo traducirlas, sino interpretarlas. +Y recuerdo cuando tena 12 aos y comenc a tocar timbales y percusin, y mi profesor dijo: "Bueno, cmo vamos a hacer esto? Ya sabes, la msica es acerca de escuchar." +S, estoy de acuerdo con eso. As que, cul es el problema?" +Y l me dijo: "Bueno, cmo vas a escuchar esto? Cmo vas a escuchar aquello?" +Y yo dije, "Bueno, cmo lo escucha usted?" +l dijo: Bueno, me parece que lo escucho por aqu +Y yo dije, "Bueno, me parece que yo tambin, pero adems lo escucho a travs de mis manos, a travs de mis brazos, pmulos, mi cuero cabelludo, mi panza, mi pecho, las piernas y dems. +Y as empezbamos cada leccin afinando los tambores -en particular, los timbales - a un intervalo pequeo, algo as como +a esa diferencia. Luego gradualmente y gradualmente... +y es increble que cuando abres tu cuerpo y tu mano para permitir el paso de la vibracin, de hecho la pequea, pequesima diferencia +se puede sentir con slo la ms pequea parte de tu dedo, ah. +Y as que lo que hacamos era que yo pona mis manos en la pared de la sala de msica, y juntos "escuchbamos" los sonidos de los instrumentos, y realmente tratbamos de conectarnos con esos sonidos de manera mucho ms amplia que simplemente dependiendo del odo. +Porque por supuesto, el odo est sujeto a todo tipo de cosas. +La habitacin en la que estamos, la amplificacin, la calidad del instrumento, el tipo de baquetas, etctera, etctera. +Son todos diferentes. +Misma cantidad de peso, pero con diferentes colores de sonidos. +Y eso es bsicamente lo que somos. Somos seres humanos, pero todos tenemos nuestro propio pequeo color de sonido, por as decirlo, que conforman estas extraordinarias personalidades, caracteres, intereses y dems. +Cuando crec, audicion para ingresar a la Royal Academy of Music en Londres, y me dijeron: "Bueno, no, no te aceptaremos porque no tenemos idea, de cul puede ser el futuro de un llamado msico 'sordo'. +Y yo simplemente no poda aceptar eso. +As que les dije: "Bueno, miren, si se niegan, si me rechazan por estas razones, --en contraposicin a la capacidad de interpretar, de comprender y amar el arte de crear sonidos-- entonces tenemos que analizar muy, muy profundamente a quines s aceptan. +Y como resultado, -una vez superado este pequeo obstculo y teniendo una segunda audicin-- me aceptaron. Y no slo eso; lo que haba sucedido cambi completamente el rol de las instituciones de msica en todo el Reino Unido. +Bajo ninguna circunstancia rechazaran ninguna solicitud de ingreso basndose en que alguien no tuviera brazos, o piernas; ellos podran tal vez tocar un instrumento de viento si se colocase sobre un soporte. +Ninguna circunstancia se utilizara para rechazar ninguna solicitud de ingreso. +Y cada solicitud debera ser escuchada, experimentada y luego, sobre la base de la habilidad musical, la persona podra entrar o no. +As pues, esto a su vez signific que llegara un muy interesante grupo de estudiantes a estas diversas instituciones de msica. +Y tengo que decir, muchos de ellos estn ahora en orquestas profesionales en todo el mundo. +Lo interesante de esto tambin es, aunque - - es sencillamente que la gente no slo se vincula con el sonido --bsicamente todos nosotros-- sino que sabemos que la msica es realmente nuestra medicina diaria. +Digo msica, pero en realidad me refiero al sonido. +A m me llega el sonido de este lado. +A l le llegara a travs de los resonadores. +Si no hubiera resonadores aqu, tendramos... as que l tendra una plenitud de sonido que aquellos en las primeras filas no experimentaran; aquellos de ustedes en las filas de atrs tampoco. +Cada uno de nosotros, dependiendo de donde est sentado, experimentar este sonido de forma bastante diferente. +Y, por supuesto, siendo participante de este sonido, y esto es partiendo de la idea de qu tipo de sonido que quiero producir - por ejemplo, este sonido. +Pueden or algo? +Exactamente. Porque ni siquiera estoy tocando. +Pero, sin embargo, tenemos la sensacin de que algo pasa. +De la misma manera que cuando veo los rboles moverse, entonces me imagino al rbol haciendo un sonido susurrante. +Ven lo que quiero decir? +Cualquiera cosa que el ojo mire, entonces hay siempre un sonido. +As que siempre, siempre hay un enorme - quiero decir - un caleidoscopio de cosas de donde extraer. +As que todas mis actuaciones se basan en su totalidad en lo que yo vivencio, y no en el aprendizaje de una pieza musical, o la incorporacin de la interpretacin de alguien ms, o en la compra de todos los CDs posibles de esa pieza musical y dems. +Porque eso no me dara suficiente material tan crudo y tan bsico, con el que yo pudiera experimentar el recorrido completo. +Pero ha significado que los tcnicos en acstica hayan tenido que meditar sobre los tipos de salas que arman. Hay muy pocas salas en este mundo que tengan realmente muy buena acstica, me atrevera a decir. Me refiero a donde se pueda hacer absolutamente cualquier cosa que uno imagine. +Desde el ms pequeo, ms suave, suavsimo sonido a algo que sea tan amplio, tan grande, tan increble! Siempre hay algo - puede sonar bien hasta ah, puede no ser tan bueno all. +Pueden ser genial ah, pero terrible all.. +Tal vez terrible all, pero no demasiado malo all, etctera, etctera. +Por lo tanto encontrar una sala de hecho es increble, una en la que se pueda tocar exactamente lo que uno se imagina, sin que sea "estticamente mejorada". +Por lo tanto, los tcnicos en acstica estn en conversacines con las personas que tienen problemas auditivos y que son participantes del sonido. +Y esto es muy interesante. +No puedo darles ningn detalle en lo que respecta a lo que est sucediendo con esas salas, pero es el hecho que estn acudiendo a un grupo de personas de las que por tantos aos hemos estado diciendo: Bueno, cmo diablos pueden experimentar la msica? T sabes, son sordos. +Nosotros simplemente hacemos as y nos imaginamos que la sordera es eso. +O hacemos as y nos imaginamos que la ceguera es esto. +Si vemos a alguien en una silla de ruedas, suponemos que no puede caminar. +Es posible que pueda caminar tres, cuatro, cinco pasos. sto, para ellos, significa que pueden caminar. +En el plazo de un ao, podran ser dos pasos ms. +En otro ao, tres pasos ms. +Estos son aspectos muy importantes para reflexionar. +As que cuando nos escuchemos los unos a los otros, es increblemente importante para nosotros poner realmente a prueba nuestra capacidad de escucha. Usar realmente nuestros cuerpos como una cmara de resonancia. Detener el juzgamiento. +Para m, como msica que trata con un 99 % de msica nueva, es muy fcil decir: "Oh s, me gusta esta pieza." +"Oh, no, no me gusta esta pieza. Y as sucesivamente. +Y simplemente descubr que tengo que darles tiempo real a esas piezas de msica. +Tal vez la qumica no sea la correcta entre esa determinada pieza musical y yo. Pero eso no significa que tengo derecho a decir que es una mala pieza musical. +Y saben?, una de las grandes cosas acerca de ser un msico es que es tan increblemente fluido. +As que no hay reglas, no hay correcto, no hay incorrecto, ni de este modo, o de ese modo. +Si les pidiera que aplaudieran -tal vez pueda hacer esto. +Si les digo: "por favor aplaudan y creen el sonido de un trueno. +Estoy suponiendo que todos hemos experimentado el trueno. +Ahora bien, no me refiero tan slo al sonido, me refiero a realmente escuchar ese trueno dentro de ustedes. +Y que por favor tratende crear eso a travs de su aplauso. Intenten. Slo intntenlo, por favor. +Muy bien! Nieve. Nieve. Alguna vez han escuchado la nieve? +Audiencia: No. +Evelyn Glennie: Entonces bien, dejen de aplaudir. Intenten de nuevo. +Intntelo de nuevo. Nieve. +Ven, est despierto. +Lluvia. No est mal, no est mal. +Saben? Lo interesante aqu, sin embargo, es que le ped a un grupo de nios no hace mucho tiempo atrs exactamente lo mismo. +Ahora - gran imaginacin, muchas gracias. +Sin embargo, ninguno de ustedes sali de sus asientos para pensar, "Bien! Cmo puedo aplaudir? OK, tal vez ... tal vez pueda usar mis joyas para crear ms sonidos. +Tal vez pueda utilizar las otras partes de mi cuerpo para crear sonidos extra." +Ni uno slo de ustedes pens en aplaudir de una forma ligeramente diferente que no fuera sentado ah en sus asientos y utilizando las dos manos. +De la misma forma que cuando escuchamos msica, suponemos que todo est ingresando por aqu. +As es como vivenciamos la msica. Por supuesto que no lo es. +Vivenciamos el trueno, trueno, trueno. Piensen, piensen, piensen. +Escuchen, escuchen, escuchen. Ahora, qu podemos hacer con truenos? +Recuerdo a mi maestro. Cuando empec, mi primera leccin, yo estaba preparada con mis baquetas, lista para comenzar. +Y no me dijo: "OK, Evelyn, por favor. Pies ligeramente separados, los brazos ms o menos en ngulo de 90 grados, baquetas ms o menos en forma de "V", mantn esta cantidad de espacio aqu, etc. +Por favor, mantn tu espalda recta, etc etc etc." Yo probablemente hubiese terminado completamente rgida, congelada, y no hubiese sido capaz de golpear el redoblante, porque hubiese estado pensando en muchas otras cosas. Pero l me dijo: "Evelyn, llvate este redoblante por siete das y te ver la prxima semana." +Cielos! Qu iba a hacer? Ya no necesitaba las baquetas, no me estaba permitido tener baquetas. +Bsicamente tena que mirar este redoblante en particular, ver cmo estaba hecho, que hacan esas pequeas lengetas, que hacan las bordonas. +Darlo vuelta de arriba abajo, experimentado con el casco, experimentado con su parche. +Experimentado con mi cuerpo, experimentando con joyas, experimentando con todo tipo de cosas. +Y, por supuesto, regrese con todo tipo de moretones y cosas por el estilo pero, no obstante, fue una experiencia tan increible! porque: dnde diablos va uno a experimentar eso en una pieza de msica? +Dnde diablos va uno a experimentar eso en un libro de estudio? +Por lo tanto, nunca, nunca lidiamos con libros de estudio reales. +As por ejemplo, una de las cosas que aprendemos cuando estamos lidiando con ser un ejecutante de percusin, en contraposicin a ser un msico, es bsicamente una seguidilla de golpes simples y precisos de redoble. +Como eso. Y luego lo hacemos un poco ms rpido y un poco ms rpido y un poco ms rpido. +Y as sucesivamente. Qu es lo que requiere esta pieza? +Un redoble de golpes simples. Entonces, por qu no puedo hacerlo durante el aprendizaje de una pieza musical? +Y eso es exactamente lo que l hizo. +Y curiosamente, cuando crec, cuando me convert en una estudiante de tiempo completo en lo que se llama "una institucin de msica", todo eso fue descartado. +Tenamos que estudiar de los libros de estudio. +Y constantemente, la pregunta, bueno, por qu? Por qu? Con qu est relacionado esto? +Necesito tocar una pieza de msica. "Oh, bueno, esto ayudar tu control!" +Bueno, cmo? Por qu tengo que aprender esto? Necesito vincularlo con una pieza de msica. +Saben? Necesito decir algo. +Por qu estoy practicando paradiddles? +Es slo, literalmente, para el control, para el control de la mano y la baqueta? Por qu estoy haciendo esto? +Tengo que tener una razn, y la razn debe ser: decir algo a travs de la msica. +Y diciendo algo a travs de la msica, que bsicamente es sonido, uno puede transmitirle todo tipo de cosas a todo tipo de personas. +Pero no quiero responsabilizarme de su equipaje emocional. +Eso depende de ustedes cuando ustedes ingresan a una sala. +Porque eso determina qu y cmo escuchamos ciertas cosas. +Me puedo sentir triste, o feliz, o exaltada, o enojada cuando toco ciertas piezas de msica, pero no estoy necesariamente queriendo que ustedes sientan exactamente lo mismo. +As que por favor, la prxima vez que vayan a un concierto, slo permitan a su cuerpo abrirse, permitan a su cuerpo ser la cmara de resonancia. +Sean conscientes que ustedes no van a experimentar lo mismo que el intrprete. +El artista est en la peor posicin posible para el sonido real: est escuchando el contacto de la baqueta con el redoblante, o del mazo en el golpe a la madera, o del arco en la cuerda, etc. O la respiracin que est creando el sonido en los vientos y los metales. +Estn experimentando la crudeza ah. +Sin embargo estn experimentando algo tan increblemente puro, que es anterior al sonido que efectivamente est sucediendo. +Por favor, tomen nota de la vida del sonido despus de que golpe inicial, o que la respiracin, han sido dados. Slo experimenten el viaje completo de ese sonido del mismo modo que me hubiese gustado experimentar el recorrido completo de esta particular conferencia, en lugar de llegar justo anoche. +Espero que podamos compartir una o dos cosas en el transcurso del da. +Muchas gracias por invitarme! +En 1962, con la "Primavera Silenciosa" de Rachel Carson Pienso que para gente como yo en el mundo de hacer cosas, el canario en la mina ya no cantaba. +Y as la pregunta de que podra no haber pjaros se volvi casi fundamental para aquellos de nosotros que deambulbamos por los alrededores buscando a los "meadowlarks" que parecan haber desaparecido por completo. +Y la pregunta era, estaban cantando los pjaros? +Ahora, no soy un cientfico, eso est claro. +Pero, saben, acabamos de tener una discusin de lo que podra ser un pjaro. +Qu es un pjaro? +Bueno, en mi mundo, esto es un pato de goma. +Se presenta en California con una advertencia-- "Este producto contiene qumicos conocidos por el Estado de California de ser causantes de cncer y problemas de nacimiento u otros daos reproductivos". +Esto es un pjaro. +Qu clase de cultura producira un producto de este tipo y luego lo etiquetara y lo vendera a los nios? +Creo que tenemos un problema de diseo. +Fue bonito recibir eso. +Eso fue una frase. +Henry James estara orgulloso. +Esto es -- Lo destaqu en la parte de abajo, pero era extemporneo, obviamente. +El tema fundamental es que, para m, el diseo es el primer signo de intenciones humanas. +As que cules son nuestras intenciones, y cules van a ser nuestras intenciones -- Si nos levantamos por la maana, tenemos diseos en el mundo -- entonces, cul ser nuestra intencin como especie ahora que somos la especie dominante? +Y no es slo un debate de direccin y dominio porque realmente, el dominio est implcito en la direccin -- porque cmo puedes dirigir algo que has matado? +Y la direccin est implcita en el dominio, porque no puedes ser el director de algo si no puedes dominarlo. +Entonces la pregunta es, cul es la primera pregunta para los diseadores? +Ahora como guardianes -- hablemos del estado, por ejemplo, que se reserva el derecho de matar, el derecho de ser engaoso y as sucesivamente -- la pregunta que hacemos al guardin en este punto es estamos para, cmo estamos para, asegurar a las sociedades locales, crear la paz mundial y salvar al medio ambiente? +Pero no s si se ser el debate comn. +El comercio, por otra parte, es relativamente rpido, esencialmente creativo, altamente eficaz y eficiente, y fundamentalmente honesto, porque no podemos intercambiar valores por mucho tiempo si no confiamos los unos en los otros. +As que usamos las heramientas del comercio, principalmente para nuestro trabajo, pero la pregunta que traemos a colacin es, Cmo amamos a todos los nios de todas las especies indefinidamente? +As que empezamos nuestros diseos con esa pregunta. +Porque nos damos cuenta de que hoy en da la cultura moderna parece haber adoptado la estrategia de tragedia. +Si venimos aqu y decimos, "Bueno, no fue mi intencin causar el calentamiento global mientras tomaba mis decisiones" y decimos, "Eso no es parte de mi plan", entonces nos damos cuenta de que es parte de nuestro plan de facto. +Porque es lo que est pasando porque no tenemos ningn otro plan. +Y estuve en la Casa Blanca a peticin del Presidente Bush, reunindome con cada departamento y agencia federal, y seal que parecan no tener ningn plan. +Si el "endgame" (fin de juego) es el calentamiento global, lo estn haciendo genial. +Si el "endgame" (fin de juego) es la intoxicacin con mercurio de nuestros nios a sotavento de las plantas de carbn de fuego y han derrotado la Ley de Aire Limpio entonces veo que nuestros programas educativos deberan ser explcitamente definidos como "Muerte cerebral para todos los nios, que ninguno se quede atrs" +Entonces, la pregunta es cuntos oficiales federales estn listos para mudarse a Ohio y Pennsylvania con sus familias? +Porque si no tienen un "endgame" (fin de juego) de algo exquisito entonces slo estn moviendo las piezas de ajedrez de un lado a otro, si no saben que estn buscando al rey. +As que quiz podramos desarrollar una estrategia de cambio, que requiere humildad. Y en mi trabajo como arquitecto, es lamentable que la palabra humildad y la palabra arquitecto no hayan aparecido en el mismo prrafo desde "El Manantial" ("The Fountainhead") +As que si si alguien aqu tiene algn problema con el concepto de diseo humilde, reflexionen sobre esto -- nos tom 5000 aos poner ruedas a nuestro equipaje. +As, como seal Kevin Kelly, no hay "endgame" (fin de juego). +Hay un "infinite game" (juego infinito) y nosotros jugamos en ese "infinite game" (juego infinito). +Y le hemos llamado "de cuna a cuna", y nuestro objetivo es muy sencillo. +Esto fue lo que present a la Casa Blanca. +Nuestro objetivo es un mundo exquistamente diverso, seguro, sano y justo, con aire limpio, agua limpia, suelos y energa -- econmica, equitativa, ecolgica y elegantemente disfrutado, punto. +Qu es lo que no les gusta de esto? +Qu parte no les gusta? +As que nos dimos cuenta que queramos diversidad total, aunque pueda ser difcil de recordar lo que dijo De Gaulle cuando se le pregunt cmo era ser el Presidente de Francia. +l respondi, "Cmo crees que es tratar de gobernar un pas con 400 tipos de queso diferentes?" +Pero al mismo tiempo, nos dimos cuenta de que nuestros productos no son sanos y seguros. +As que hemos diseado productos y hemos analizado los qumicos hasta las partes por milln. +Esta es una manta para bebes de Pendleton que nutrir a sus nios en lugar de provocarle Alzheimer ms adelante. +Podemos preguntarnos a nosotros mismos, Qu es la justicia, es ciega la justicia, o es la ceguera de la justicia? +Y en qu momento este uniforme pas a ser de blanco a negro? +El agua ha sido declarada un derecho humano por las Naciones Unidas. +La calidad del aire es obviamente necesaria para cualquiera que respire. +Hay alguien aqu que no respire? +La pureza de los suelos es un problema crtico -- la nitrificacin, las zonas muertas en el Golfo de Mxico. +Un tema fundamental que no se est tomando en cuenta. +Hemos visto la primera forma de energa solar que venci la hegemona de los combustibles fsiles en forma de viento aqu en las Grandes Planicies, y as esa hegemona se est marchando. +Y si recordamos a Sheikh Yamani cuando form la OPEP le preguntaron, "Cundo veremos el fin de la era del petrleo?" +No s si recuerdan su respuesta, pero fue, "La Edad de Piedra no termin porque nos quedamos sin piedras". +Vemos que la empresas que actan ticamente en este mundo estn superando a aquellas que no lo hacen. +Vemos el flujo de materiales en una perspectiva bastante aterradora. +Esta es un monitora de un hospital de Los ngeles, enviada a China. +Esta mujer se expondr a si misma a a fsforo txico, liberar cuatro libras txicos de plomo en el medio ambiente de sus nios, que es del cobre. +Por otra parte, vemos grandes seales de esperanza. +Aqu est el Dr. Venkataswamy en India, que ha encontrado la manera de llevar la salud a una escala masiva. +Ha dado visin gratuitamente a dos millones de personas. +Vemos en el flujo de nuestros materiales que el acero de los coches no vuelve a ser acero de coches por los contaminantes de los revestimientos -- bismuto, antimonio, cobre, entre otros. +Se convierten en acero para la construccin. +Por otra parte, estamos trabajando con Berkshire Hathaway, Warren Buffett y Moquetas Shaw, la empresa ms grande de moquetas a nivel mundial. +Hemos desarrollado una moqueta que es continuamente reciclable, hasta las partes por milln. +La parte superior es Nailon 6 que puede volver a ser caprolactama, La parte inferior, un poliolefino -- termoplstico infinitamente reciclable. +Ahora si yo fuera un pjaro, el edificio de mi izquierda es un dficit. +El edificio de mi derecha, que es nuestro campus corporativo para El Gap con una antigua pradera, es un activo - su nidificacin. +Aqu es de dnde yo vengo. Crec en Hong Kong. con seis millones de personas en 40 millas cuadradas. +Durante la estacin seca, tenamos cuatro horas de agua cada cuatro das. +Y la relacin con el paisaje era una de agricultores que han estado cultivando el mismo trozo de suelo por cuarenta siglos. +No puedes cultivar el mismo trozo de suelo por cuarenta siglos sin entender el flujo de nutrientes. +Los veranos de mi infancia fueron en el Puget Sound de Washington, entre el crecimiento inicial y los rboles maduros. +Mi abuelo haba sido leador en los Juegos Olmpicos, as que tengo bastante karma de rboles que estoy resolviendo. +Fui a Yale para mi posgrado, estudi en un edificio de este estilo, de Le Corbusier, cariosamente conocido en nuestro negocio como Brutalismo. +Si observamos el mundo de la arquitectura, vemos la torre de Mies en Berln, 1928, la pregunta podra ser, "Bueno, dnde esta el sol?", +Y esto puede haber funcionado en Berln, pero la construimos en Houston, y las ventanas estn todas cerradas. Y con la mayora de los productos que parecen no haber sido diseados para ser usados en interiores, esto es ciertamente una cmara de gas vertical. +Cuando fui a Yale, tuvimos la primera crisis energtica, y yo estaba diseando la primera casa con calenfaccin solar en Irlanda, como estudiante, que luego constru -- que puede darles una idea de mi ambicin. +Y Richard Meiers, que era uno de mis profesores, continuaba pasando por mi escritorio para hacerme crticas, y me dijo, "Bill, tienes que entender -- la energa solar no tiene nada que ver con la arquitectura". +Supongo que no ley Vitruvio. +En 1984, hicimos la primera llamada "oficina verde" en Amrica para la Defensa Medioambiental. +Comenzamos preguntando a los fabricantes qu haba en sus materiales. +Nos dijeron, "Ellos tienen los derechos de propiedad, son legales, vyanse". +El nico trabajo de calidad de interiores hecho para aquel momento en este pas estaba patrocinado por la Compaa Tabacalera R.J. Reynolds, y era para comprobar que no haba ningn peligro con el humo de segunda mano en los espacios de trabajo. +As que, sbitamente, aqu estoy, gradundome de la escuela secundaria en 1969, y esto sucede, y nos damos cuenta de que "fuera" desapareci. +Recuerdan que solemos tirar las cosas "fuera", y nos sealan "fuera"? +Y sin embargo, la NOAA (Administracin Nacional Ocenica y Atmosfrica) nos ha mostrado, por ejemplo -- Ven esa pequea cosa azul sobre Hawaii? +Este es el Giro del Pacfico. +All, el plancton fue recientemente muestreado por cientficos y encontraron seis veces ms plstico que plancton. +Cuando se les pregunt, dijeron, "Es como una especie de retrete gigante que no se vaca". +Quiz eso sea "fuera" +As que estamos buscando las reglas de diseo de esto -- esta es la mayor biodiversidad de rboles en el mundo, Irian Jaya, 259 especies de rboles, y lo describimos en el libro, "De Cuna a Cuna". +El libro es s mismo es un polmero. No es un rbol. +Y as se titula el primer captulo -- "Este Libro No es un rbol". +Porque en poesa, como ha sealado Margaret Atwood, "escribimos nuestra historia sobre la piel de los peces con la sangre de los osos". +Bueno, por qu no lo derribamos y escribimos sobre l? +As que buscamos el mismo criterio que la mayora de las personas -- saben, puedo costearlo? +Funciona? Me gusta? +Estamos aadiendo el programa jeffersoniano, ya que yo vengo de Charlottesville, dnde he tenido el privilegio de vivir en una casa diseada por Thomas Jefferson. +Estamos aadiendo vida, libertad y la bsqueda de la felicidad. +Ahora si observamos la palabra competicin, Estoy seguro de que la mayora de ustedes la habrn utilizado. +Saben, la mayora de la gente no se da cuenta de que viene del Latn "competare", que significa esforzarse juntos. +Se refiere a la forma en la que los atletas olmpicos se entrenaban unos con otros. +Se ponan en forma juntos, y luego competan. +Las hermanas Williams compiten -- uno gana el Wimbledon. +As que hemos estado mirando la idea de competicin como una manera de cooperar con el fin de ponernos en forma juntos. +Y el gobierno chino tiene ahora -- Yo trabajo con el gobierno chino en este momento -- ha tomado esta idea. +Estamos buscando tambin la supervivencia del ms apto, no slo en trminos de competicin en nuestro contexto moderno de destruir al otro o golpearlo hasta que se rinda, sino realmente encajar y especializarnos y gozar del desarrollo, lo que es bueno. +Ahora la mayora de los ambientalistas no dicen que el crecimiento sea bueno, porque, en nuestro lxico, "asfalto" son dos palabras imputando culpa. ('as fault' = en falta) +Pero si vemos al asfalto como nuestro desarrollo, entonces nos damos cuenta de que lo que estamos haciendo es destruyendo el subyacente sistema operativo fundamental del planeta. +Entonces cuando vemos que E es igual a mc al cuadrado, desde una perspectiva potica, vemos energa como fsica, qumica como masa, y repentinamente, obtienen esta biologa. +Y tenemos mucha energa, as que resolveremos ese problema, pero el problema de la biologa es engaoso, porque al someter a la tierra a todos estos materiales txicos que arrojamos en ella, no seremos nunca capaces de recuperar eso. +Y como Francis Crick ha sealado, nueve aos despus de descubrir el ADN con el Sr. Watson, la vida en s misma debe tener crecimiento como condicin previa -- debe tener energa gratuita, luz solar y necesita ser un sistema qumicamente abiert de qumicos. +As que estamos buscando que el artificio humano se convierta en una cosa viva, y queremos crecimiento, queremos energa gratuita de la luz solar y queremos un metabolismo abierto para los productos qumicos. +Entonces, la pregunta cambia de 'crecimiento o no crecimiento', a qu quieren hacer crecer? +As que en lugar de hacer crecer destruccin, queremos hacer crecer cosas que podamos disfrutar, y algn da la FDA (Administracin de Drogas y Alimentos) nos permitir hacer queso francs. +Por tanto, tenemos estos dos metabolismos, y yo trabaj con un qumico alemn, Michael Braungart, y hemos identificado los dos metabolismos fundamentales. +El biolgico, que estoy seguro de que ustedes entienden, pero tambin el tcnico, dnde tomamos los materiales y los colocamos en ciclos cerrados. +Los llamamos nutricin biolgica y nutricin tcnica. +La nutricin tcnica ser diez veces mayor a la nutricin biolgica. +La nutricin biolgica puede dar aprovisionar a 500 millones de humanos, lo que significa que si todos llevramos zapatos Birkenstocks y algodn, el mundo se quedara sin corcho y se secara. +As que necesitamos materiales en ciclos cerrados, pero debemos analizarlos hasta las partes por milln en relacin al cncer, problemas de nacimiento, efectos mutagnicos, interrupcin de nuestro sistema inmunolgico, biodegradacin, persistencia, contenido de metales pesados, conocimiento de cmo se estn fabricando, su produccin y as sucesivamente. +Nuestro primer producto fue un textil en el que hemos analizado 8.000 qumicos en la industria textil. +Utilizando filtros intelectuales, hemos eliminado 7.962 Nos hemos quedado con 38 qumicos. +Hemos introducido en base de datos los 4000 qumicos ms utilzados en la fabricacin para uso humano, y publicaremos esta base de datos al pblico en seis semanas. +Para que los diseadores alrededor del mundo puedan analizar sus productos hasta las partes por milln en relacin a la salud humana y ecolgica. +Hemos desarrollado un protocolo para que las compaas puedan enviar estos mismos mensajes a travs de toda su cadena de proveedores, porque cuando preguntamos a la mayora de las empresas con las que trabajamos -- de alrededor de un trilln de dlares -- y dijimos, "De dnde vienen sus cosas?", dijeron, "Proveedores". +"Y adnde van?" +"Consumidores". +As que necesitamos un poco de ayuda aqu. +Por tanto los nutrientes biolgicos, los primeros tejidos -- el agua que sala fuera era lo suficientemente limpia como para beber. +Nutrientes tcnicos -- esto es para Moquetas Shaw, moquetas infinitamente reutilizables. +Aqu est el nylon volviendo a la caprolactama y luego a la moqueta. +Nutrientes biotcnicos -- el Modelo U de la Compaa Ford, un coche concepto - de cuna a cuna. +Zapatos Nike, dnde la parte de arriba es de poliester, infinitamente reciclable, las suelas son biodegradables. +Lleva tus zapatos viejos dentro, y tus zapatos nuevos por fuera. +No hay lnea de meta. +La idea aqu del coche es que algunos de los materiales vuelvan para siempre a la industria, algunos de los materiales vayan de nuevo al suelo -- es todo movido por energa solar. +Aqu hay un edificio en el Oberlin College que hemos diseado que produce ms energa de la que necesita para operar y purifica su propia agua. +Aqu un edificio para La Gap, dnde los antiguos pastos de San Bruno, California, estn en el techo. +Y este es nuestro proyecto para la Compaa Ford, +es la revitalizacin del ro Rouge en Dearborn. +Esto es obviamente una foto a color. +Estas son nuestras herramientas. As es como se lo vendimos a Ford. +Le hemos ahorrado a Ford 35 millones de dlares hacindolo de esta manera, da uno, que es el equivalente al Ford Taurus a un cuatro por ciento de margen de un pedido de coches de 900 millones de dlares. +Aqu est. Es el techo verde ms grande del mundo, 10 acres y medio. +Este es el techo, ahorrando dinero, y estas son las primeras especies en llegar. Estos pjaros son chorlitejos colirrojos o chorlos gritones . +Tardaron cinco das en aparecer. +Y ahora tenemos trabajadores de 350 libras de peso aprendiendo canciones de pjaros en internet. +Estamos desarrollando protocolos para ciudades -- este es el hogar de los nutrientes tcnicos. +El pas -- el hogar de la diversidad biolgica. Y luego, unificndolos. +Y as, voy a terminar mostrndoles una nueva ciudad que estamos diseando para el gobierno chino. +Estamos haciendo doce ciudades para China ahora, basndonos en el "cuna a cuna" como plantilla. +Nuestra misin es desarrollar protocolos para la vivienda de 400 millones de personas en doce aos. +Hicimos un estudio de masa y energa -- si usan un ladrillo, ellos perderan sus suelos y quemarn todo su carbn. +Tendrn ciudades sin energa ni comida. +Firmamos un Acuerdo de Entendimiento -- aqu est la Seora Deng Lan, hija de Deng Xiaoping -- para que China adoptara el "de cuna a cuna". +Porque si se intoxican a s mismos, siendo los productores de ms bajo coste, lo envan a la distribucin de ms bajo coste -- Wal-Mart -- y luego nosotros les enviamos todo nuestro dinero, lo que descubriremos es que tenemos lo que, efectivamente, cuando yo era estudiante, se llamaba, destruccin mtuamente compartida. +Ahora lo hacemos por molculas. Estas son nuestras ciudades. +Estamos construyendo una nueva ciudad, cerca de esta ciudad; observen el paisaje. +Este es el lugar. +Normalmente no hacemos campos de hierba, pero ste est a punto de ser construdo, as que nos trajeron para interceder. +Este es su plan. +Es una plantilla tipo sello que ellos han colocado justo sobre ese paisaje. +Y nos trajeron y nos dijeron, "Ustedes qu haran?" +Esto es con lo que hubieran hecho, que es otra foto a color. +As que este es el lugar actualmente, as es como se ve ahora, y esta es nuestra propuesta. +As que la manera en la que abordamos esto es que estudiamos la hidrologa muy cuidadosamente. +Estudiamos la biota, la antigua biota, la agricultura y protocolos actuales. +Estudiamos los vientos y el sol para asegurarnos de que todos en la ciudad tendran aire fresco, agua limpia y luz solar directa en cada uno de los apartamentos en algn momento del da. +Luego tomamos los parques y los diagramamos como infraestructura ecolgica. +Colocamos las reas de edificios. +Comenzamos a integrar el uso comn y comercial para que todas las personas tuvieran centros y lugares para estar. +El transporte es todo muy sencillo, todos tienen movilidad en un lapso de cinco minutos a pie. +Tenemos una calle 24-horas, para que as siempre haya un lugar vivo. +Los sistemas de desperdicios estn todos conectados. +Si tiran de la cadena de un retrete, sus heces irn a las plantas de tratamiento de aguas residuales, que son vendidas como activos y no como pasivos. +Porque, quin quiere la fbrica de fertilizantes que produce gas natural? +Las aguas son todas tomadas para la construccin de humedales para la restauracin del hbitat. +Y luego produce gas natural, que vuelve a la ciudad para proveer la energa necesaria para cocinar. +Entonces esto es -- estas son plantas para la produccin de gas. +Y luego todo el abono se lleva de nuevo a los techos de la ciudad, donde tenemos los cultivos, porque lo que hemos hecho es subir la ciudad, el paisaje, al aire para -- para recuperar el paisaje nativo en los techos de los edificios. +La energa solar de todas las fbricas y de toda la zona industrial con sus ligeros techos dan energa a la ciudad. +Y este es el concepto para toda la parte de arriba de la ciudad. +Hemos subido la tierra a los techos. +Los agricultores tienen pequeos puentes para pasar de un techo a otro. +Hemos habitado la ciudad con espacios de vida/trabajo en todas las plantas bajas. +Y as esta es la ciudad existente, y esta es la nueva ciudad. +Cuando pensamos en resistencia y tecnologa es en realidad mucho ms fcil. +Hoy, ustedes vern a otros oradores, ya lo s, que hablarn de cosas sorprendentes, y por supuesto, con la tecnologa nunca lo es. +Entonces, comparativamente hablando, es muy fcil ser resistente. +Si vemos lo que ha sucedido en Internet con una ltima media docena de aos tan increble que es difcil incluso encontrar la analoga correcta para ello. +Mucho de cmo decidimos, de cmo deberamos reaccionar frente a las cosas y de lo que se supone deberamos esperar del futuro depende de cmo agrupamos las cosas y cmo las categorizamos. +Por ello pienso que una atractiva analoga al boom y cada que recin experimentamos con Internet es la de una fiebre del oro. +Es fcil pensar en esta analoga como muy distinta de algunas otras cosas que se pueda elegir. +En primer lugar, las dos son muy reales. +En 1849, en esa Fiebre del Oro, se extrajo oro por valor de ms de US$700 millones de California. Era muy real. +Internet tambin era muy real. Esta es una forma concreta para que los humanos se comuniquen unos con otros. Es algo importante. +Un gran boom. Un gran boom. Un gran cada. Un gran cada. +Uno contina y las dos cosas tienen mucho de bombo y platillo. +No tengo que recordarles de todo el bombo y platillo relacionado con Internet, como GetRich.com. +Pero era lo mismo que con la Fiebre de Oro. "Oro. Oro. Oro." +Sesenta y ocho hombres ricos en el barco a vapor Portland. Pilas de metal amarillo. +Algunos tienen cinco mil. Muchos tienen ms. +Algunos sacan $100.000 dolares cada uno. +La gente se entusiasmaba mucho cuando lean sobre ello en estos artculos. +Fue El Dorado de los Estados Unidos de Amrica. El descubrimiento de inagotables minas de oro en California. +Los paralelos entre la Fiebre del Oro y la Fiebre de Internet continan cercanos. +Por ello, muchas personas dejaron lo que estaban haciendo. +Y lo que pasaba era -- y la Fiebre del Oro dur aos. +En 1849, cuando la gente en la Costa Este empez a recibir las noticias, pensaron, "Ah, esto no es real." +Pero seguan oyendo de personas hacindose ricas, y en 1850 an lo oyen. Y creen que no es real. +Hacia 1852, estn pensando, "Acaso soy la persona ms estupida en la Tierra por no correr hacia California?" Y empiezan a decidir que lo son. +Por cierto, estos son asuntos comunitarios. +Las comunidades locales en la Costa Este se agrupaban y equipos completos de diez o veinte personas cruzaran en caravana a travs de Estados Unidos, y formaran compaas. +Estos no eran tipicamente esfuerzos solitarios. Pero sin importar nada, si eras un abogado o un banquero, sin importar tus destrezas, la gente dejaba lo que estaba haciendo para ir a buscar oro. +Este tipo a la izquierda, el Dr. Richard Beverly Cole, viva en Filadelfia y tom la ruta de Panam. +Tomaban un barco hasta Panam, cruzando el istmo, y entonces tomaban otro barco hacia el Norte. +Este tipo, el Dr. Toland, fue en carromato hasta California. +Esto tambin tiene sus similitudes. Doctores dejando sus prcticas. +Ambos eran muy exitosos, un mdico en un caso; un cirujano en el otro. +Lo mismo ocurrio en Internet. Tenemos drkoop.com. +En la Fiebre del Oro, la gente literalmente saltaba de un barco a otro. +El puerto de San Franciso se atasc con hasta 600 barcos porque los barcos atracaban y sus tripulaciones los abandonaban para ir a buscar oro. +Entonces haba literalmente 600 capitanes y 600 barcos. +Convirtieron los barcos en hoteles, porque no podan navegar a ninguna parte. +Tenias la fiebre punto com. Y tenias fiebre de oro. +Y ustedes vieron algunos de los excesos que la fiebre punto com cre y lo mismo ocurri. +El fuerte en San Francisco en esa poca tena cerca de 1.300 soldados. +La mitad de ellos desertaron para ir a buscar oro. +Y no dejaron que la otra mitad fuera a buscar a la primera mitad porque teman que no regresaran +Y uno de los soldados escribi a casa, y puso esta frase: "La lucha entre lo correcto y $6 dlares al mes y lo incorrecto y $75 dlares al da es una lucha bastante severa." +Tenan un mal flujo de caja en la Fiebre del Oro. Uno muy malo. +Esto es de la Fiebre de Oro del Klondike. Esto es la huella White Pass. +Ellos cargaban sus mulas y sus caballos, +sin planearlo adecuadamente. +Y no saban cmo de lejos tendran que viajar, y sobrecargaban los caballos con decenas y decenas de libras de cosas. +De hecho era tan malo que la mayora de los caballos moran antes que pudieran llegar a su destino. +Fue renombrada como la "Ruta del Caballo Muerto". +Las calaveras sin ojos de animales de carga por doquier daban cuenta de un sinnmero de cuervos en el camino. +La inhumanidad que este camino ha sido testigo, la desolacin y sufrimiento que tantos han vivido es inimaginable. Ciertamente no pueden ser descritos." +Y saben, sin el hedor que acompa esa experiencia, hemos tenido algo similar con Internet: psimos clculos sobre el ritmo del flujo de caja negativo. +Les mostrar uno de estos y lo recordarn. +Este anuncio se mostr durante el Super Bowl del ao 2000. +: Novia #1: Dijste que tenas una gran oferta de invitaciones. Vendedor: Pero la tenemos. +Novia #2: Entonces por qu tiene ella mi invitacin? +Anunciante: Lo que puede ser poco para algunos ... Novia #3: Eres mo pequein. +Anunciante: Podra ser algo enorme para usted. Novio #1: Es ella tu mujer? +Novio #2: No durante los 15 minutos siguientes. Anunciante: Despus de todo, es tu da especial. +OurBeggining.com. La vida es un evento, anncialo al mundo. +Jeff Bezos: Es muy difcil entender para qu sirve el aviso. +Pero en el Super Bowl del 2000 se gastaron tres millones y medio de dlares para emitir ese anuncio. An cuando, en ese entonces, slo tenan ingresos anuales de un milln de dlares. +Ahora, aqu es dnde nuestra analoga con la Fiebre del Oro empieza a divergir, y creo que lo hace severamente. +Y ello porque, en una fiebre de oro, cuanto termina, termina. +Aqu est este tipo: "Actualmente, hay tantos hombres en Dawson que se sienten profundamente decepcionados. +Han efectuado un peligroso viaje de miles de millas, arriesgando su vida, salud y propiedades, por meses ejerciendo los trabajos ms arduos que un hombre puede ejercer y a la par con expectativas elevadas al mximo han alcanzado la deseada meta slo para descubrir el hecho de que no hay nada aqu para ellos." +Y ello era, obviamente, una historia muy comn. +Entonces existe una mejor analoga que permite ser increblemente optimista y esa analoga es la industria elctrica. +Y existen varias semejanzas entre Internet y la industria elctrica. +Con la industria elctrica, lo que de hecho existe -- una semejanza es que ambos son algo finas, horizontales, capas habilitadoras que atraviesan varias industrias distintas. +No es una cosa especfica. +Pero la electricidad tambin es sumamente amplia, entonces debes especializarla. +La electricidad, ustedes saben, puede usarse como un medio increble para transmitir energa. +Es un medio increble para coordinar, de forma precisa, flujos de informacin. +Existe un montn de cosas interesantes sobre la electricidad. +Y la parte de la revolucin elctrica en la que me quiero enfocar es una especia de edad de oro de los electrodomsticos. +La "aplicacin asesina" que prepar al mundo para los electrodomsticos fue la bombilla. +Entonces la bombilla fue lo que cable el mundo. +Y no estaban pensando en electrodomsticos cuando cablearon el mundo. +En lo que realmente estaban pensando -- no era en llevar la electricidad al hogar. Era llevar la luz al hogar. +Pero lo que tuvieron fue electricidad. Tom un largo tiempo. +Y como podran esperar, ello implic un tremendo gasto de capital. +Todas las calles tuvieron que abrirse. +Esto es el trabajo realizado en el bajo Manhattan donde construyeron algunas de las primeras estaciones de generacin elctrica. +Y estn rompiendo todas las calles. +La Compaa Elctrica Edison, que luego pasara a ser Edison General Electric, que luego pasara a ser General Electric, pag todo esta excavacin de las calles. Fue increblemente caro. +Pero ello no es -- no es la parte ms similar a la Web. +Porque, recuerden, la Web se mont sobre toda esta pesada infraestructura que haba sido instalada para las redes telefnicas de larga distancia. +Entonces todo el cableado y la pesada infraestructura -- Estoy volviendo, de alguna forma, a la explosin de la Web en 1994, cuando creca 2.300% al ao. +Cmo es posible que creciera un 2.300% en 1994 cuando nadie realmente inverta en la Web? +Bueno, es porque toda la infraestructura pesada ya haba sido instalada. +Entonces la bombilla requiri la instalacin de la infraestructura pesada, y luego aparecieron los electrodomsticos. +Y esto fue gigantesco. El primero fue el ventilador elctrico -- este es un ventilador elctrico de 1890. +Y los aparatos, la edad de oro de los electrodomsticos realmente dur -- dependiendo de cmo se mida -- entre 40 y 60 aos. Un largo tiempo. +Empez aproximadamente en 1890. El ventilador elctrico fue un xito enorme. +La plancha elctrica, tambin enorme. +A propsito, este fue el inicio del litigio por el asbesto. +Hay asbesto debajo de la manilla. +Esta es la primera aspiradora, la aspiradora Skinner de 1905 de la Compaa Hoover. Y esta pesaba 92 libras, requera dos personas para operarla y costaba un cuarto del valor de un auto. +Por lo que no fue un xito de ventas. +Era realmente un producto para innovadores la aspiradora Skinner de 1905. +Pero tres aos despus, para 1908, ya pesaba 40 libras. +Ahora, no todas estas cosas eran altamente exitosas. +Esta es una prensa para corbatas elctrica, que nunca enganch con el pblico. +Me imagino que la gente decidi no arrugar sus corbatas. +Este tampoco atrap al pblico: el calentador y secador elctrico para zapatos. Nunca fue un xito de ventas. +Vena en unos seis colores distintos. +No s por qu. Pero ya saben, pienso que a veces no es el momento justo para un invento; quizs es tiempo de darle otra oportunidad. +As que pens en que podramos crear un anuncio del Super Bowl para esto. +Necesitaramos el socio adecuado. Y realmente pens -- pens que realmente resultara, el darle otra oportunidad. +Ahora, la tostadora fue un gran xito porque antes el pan se tostaba en fogatas, y ello tomaba mucho tiempo y atencin. +Quiero resaltar algo. Esto es -- ustedes saben lo que es. +An no se inventaba el enchufe elctrico. +Entonces esto era -- recuerden que an no cableaban los hogares para electricidad. +Los cableaban para iluminacin. Entonces, tus aparatos se enchufaban. +Cada habitacin normalmente tena un portalmparas en el techo. +Y lo enchufaras en l. +De hecho, si han visto el carrusel del progreso en Disney World, lo han visto. Aqu estn los cables entrando al portalmparas. +Todos los aparatos se enchufan ah. Y tenas que sacar la bombilla si queras enchufar un aparato. +El producto siguiente que fue realmente un gran xito fue la lavadora. +Ahora, este era un objeto que provocaba mucha envidia y deseo. +Todos queran tener una de estas lavadoras elctricas. +A la izquiera, el agua con jabn, +Y este es el rotor -- el motor que gira. +Y lavara tu ropa. +Esta es el agua de enjuague. Entonces sacaras tu ropa de aqu, y la pondras ac, y luego pasaras tu ropa por esta prensa elctrica. +Y ello era un gran fennemo. +Lo dejaras en la entrada de tu casa. Era algo catico y molestoso. +Y la conectaras con un largo cable dentro de la casa enchufndola a tu portalmparas. +Y ello de hecho es un punto importante de mi presentacin, porque an no haban inventado el interruptor. +Ello vendra mucho despus, el interruptor para los aparatos, porque antes no tena sentido. +Porque no queras que esta cosa ocupando tu portalmparas. +Entonces, saben, cuando terminabas de usarlo, lo desenroscabas. +Eso hacas, no la apagabas. +Y como dije, tampoco haban inventado an el enchufe, por lo que la lavadora era un aparato especialmente peligroso. +Y hay cuando lo investigas, hay descripciones espantosas de gente que tena su pelo o ropa atascada en estos aparatos. +Y no podan tirar del cable porque estaba enroscado al portalmparas dentro de la casa. +Y no exista el interruptor, entonces no haba una buena solucin. +Y ustedes pensarn que nuestros ancestros eran realmente estpidos por conectar cosas al portalmparas de esta forma. +Pero, saben, antes de que me extralimite en condenar a nuestros ancestros, Me gustaras mostrarles: esta es mi sala de conferencias. +Si me preguntan, es un arreglo de parche completo. +En primer lugar, esto fue instalado al revs. Este portalmparas -- por lo que el cable se sale siempre, as que lo pegu con cinta adhesiva. +Esto se supone -- ni me dejen empezar. Pero no es el peor. +As es lo que se ve bajo mi escritorio. +Tom esta foto hace slo un par de das. +As que no hemos progresado mucho desde 1908. +Es realmente un desorden total. +Y, saben, creemos que esta mejorando, pero han tratado de instalar un router 802.11 personalmente? +Los reto a intentarlo. Es muy difcil. +Conozco Doctores en Ciencias Informticas -- este proceso los ha hecho llorar desconsoladamente. Y ello asumiendo que ya tienen DSL en su hogar. +Traten de conseguir la instalacin de DSL en su hogar. +Los ingenieros que trabajan diariamente en ello no pueden conseguirlo. +Tiene que -- normalmente vienen tres veces. +Y un amigo mo me contaba una historia. No slo llegaban y tenan que esperar, pero luego los ingenieros, cuando finalmente llegaban, por tercera vez, tenan que llamar a alguien. +Y estaban muy felices cuando el tipo tena un telfono con manos libres porque entonces tenan que esperar en lnea por una hora para que alguien les diera el cdigo de acceso luego de que llegaban a la casa. +Entonces no somos -- nosotros somos bastante desordenados. +A propsito, DSL es un parche. +Es decir, es un par de cobre trenzado que nunca fue diseado para el propsito con que se est utilizando. Saben, es todo el asunto. Somos muy, pero muy primitivos. Y ese sera el punto. +Porque, saben, la capacidad de recuperacin -- si lo piensan en los trminos de la Fiebre del Oro, ahora estarn deprimidos porque se habra acabado con la ltima pepita de oro ya no estara. +Pero lo bueno es que, con la innovacin, no hay una ltima pepita. +Cada nueva cosa crea dos nuevas preguntas y dos nuevas oportunidades. +Ah estamos. Nuestro pelo no se atasca en ella, pero ese es el nivel de primitivismo de dnde estamos. +Estamos en 1908. +Y si creen ello, entonces este tipo de cosas no les molesta. Esto es 1996: "Todos los negativos se suman resultando en que la experiencia online que no vale la pena" +1998: "Amazon.frita." En 1999: "Amazon.fracaso." +Mi mam odia esta foto. +Ella -- pero ya saben, si realmente creen que esto es inicio, el mismo inicio, si creen que es la lavadora Hurley de 1908, entonces son increblemente optimistas. Y yo s creo que es ah en donde estamos. +Y realmente creo que hay ms innovacin por venir que la ya ocurrida. +Y en 1917, Sears -- y quiero decirlo correctamente. +Este fue un anuncio que publicaron en 1917. +Dice: "Use su electricidad para ms que luz." +Y creo que es ah donde estamos. +Y estamos en una etapa sumamente temprana. Muchas gracias. +Los sinsontes son unos bichos muy listos. +De verdad que lo son. +Los sinsontes -- Mimus polyglottos -- son los maestros de ceremonia del reino animal. +Ellos escuchan, imitan y remezclan todo lo que les gusta. +Se montan su sinfona en mi ventana todas las maanas. +Los escucho cantando los sonidos de las alarmas de los coches como si fueran canciones de primavera. +O sea, que lo que t puedas decir, un sinsonte puede imitarlo con un graznido. +As que atentos, voy a cazar sinsontes. +Los atrapar a lo largo de todo el pas y los meter en frascos de conserva como ccteles Molotov de sinsonte. +S... Y conforme vaya circulando por algn barrio, veris, donde la gente tiene un montn, coger uno de los sinsontes que atrap en otro barrio donde no haba ninguno y lo soltar, ya sabis. +All va el pajarito, ah van sus palabras, "Juanito, Juanito, vente a comer, mi hijo!" +Oh, voy a convertirme en el Johnny Appleseed del sonido. +Cruzando calles de ciudades al azar, vacilando con un Cadillac descapotable con un gran asiento trasero, llevando como 13 bolsas de papel marrn de Walmart llenas de sinsontes cargados, y conseguir a todo el mundo. +Pillar al tonto de las noticias diciendo: "Volvemos enseguida con ms noticias sobre la crisis". +Pillar a algn imbcil en un bareto preguntando de qu marca es el hielo. +Pillar a la seora de la lavandera que parece saber siempre lo que es bueno. +Pillar a tu cartero haciendo planes para la cena. +Te pillar en la ltima mentira que dijiste. +Conseguir ese "Cario, dame la jodida gua de la tele". +Pillar una solitaria y breve frase con un autntico error: "S, supongo que podra entrar, pero solo por un minuto". +Tomar una clase de ingls en Chinatown y aprender: "Est lloviendo, est diluviando". +Pondr un sinsonte en un tren nocturno para pillar a un viejo roncando. +Copiar a tu ex-amante dicindole a otro: "Buenos das". +Grabar todos los "buenos das". +Me da igual cmo los digas. +Aloha. Konichiwa. Shalom. Ah-Salam Alaikum. +Todas dicen lo mismo. +Y quizs construya una jaula dorada. +Cubrir el fondo con las pginas de un viejo cuaderno. +Dentro meter a un sinsonte para dar breves explicaciones, padres hippies. +Qu tiene que ver un violn con la tecnologa? +Hacia dnde se dirige el mundo? +En un extremo, barras doradas -- en el otro, un planeta entero. +Estamos a 12 billones de aos luz del borde. +Es una conjetura. +El espacio es longitud y anchura que continan indefinidamente, pero no puedes comprar un billete para un viaje comercial al espacio en Amrica, porque los pases estn empezando a comer como nosotros, vivir como nosotros y morir como nosotros. +Podras querer apartar la mirada, porque es un tritn a punto de regenerar su cola, y dar la mano propaga ms grmenes que besarse. +Hay alrededor de 10 millones de bacterifagos por trabajo. +Es un mundo realmente extrao dentro de un nanotubo. +Las mujeres pueden hablar, los negros conspirar, los blancos construir edificios robustos, nosotros construimos robustos soles. +La superficie de la Tierra est completamente llena de agujeros, y aqu estamos nosotros, justo en medio. +Es la voz de la vida la que nos llama para venir y aprender. +Cuando todos los pequeos sinsontes vuelen libres, sonarn como los ltimos cuatro das. +Subir a los gurs, bajar a los profesores, artistas y comerciantes desfasados, predicadores filipinos, sopladores de hojas, barmans, cirujanos plsticos, hooligans, basureros, tus diputados locales en el punto de mira, tipos en helicpteros sobrevolando, +Todos son odos. +Todo el mundo tiene a este sincero sinsonte de testigo. +Y yo estoy en ello. +Estoy en esto hasta que todo se difunda, con salas de chat e imitaciones y puede que mams acostando a los nios cantando: "Durmete nio, no digas nada, +espera al seor del sinsonte". +S. Y luego vienen los equipos de noticias, y las entrevistas callejeras, las cartas al editor. +Todo el mundo preguntado, quin es el responsable de esta cacofona de sinsontes por toda la ciudad, por todo el pas, y alguien al final avisar al Ayuntamiento de Monterrey, California y llegar hasta m, y me ofrecern la llave de la ciudad. +Una enorme llave de la ciudad baada en oro y eso es todo lo que necesito, porque si la consigo, puedo abrir con ella el aire. +Escuchar lo que falta, y lo pondr all. +Gracias, TED. +Chris Anderson: "Guau". +Guau! +Esta cancin es una de las favoritas de Thomas, se llama "Qu haces con lo que has obtenido" +Esta cancin es sobre un lugar en Londres llamado "La colina donde vuelan los cometas", donde yo sola pasar horas preguntndome "Cundo va a regresar?, Cundo va a regresar?" +As que esta es otra cancin dedicada a ese chico... +a quin ya olvid. +Esto es "La colina donde vuelan los cometas", una hermosa cancin +que Martin Evan escribi para m. +Boo Hewerdine, Thomas Dolby Muchas gracias por invitarme. Es una bendicin cantar para ustedes. +Muchas gracias. +Soy un vicario de la Iglesia de Inglaterra. +He sido un sacerdote de la iglesia por 20 aos. +La mayor parte de ese tiempo, he estado trabajando y luchando con preguntas sobre la naturaleza de Dios. Quin es Dios? +Y soy muy consciente que cuando dices la palabra Dios, muchos dejan de prestar atencin inmediatamente. +Y la mayora, tanto dentro como fuera de la iglesia organizada, todava tienen la imagen de un controlador celestial, un hacedor de reglas, un polica en el cielo que ordena todo, y hace que todo pase. +l proteger a su propio pueblo, y responder las plegarias de los fieles. +En el culto de mi iglesia, el adjetivo ms frecuentemente usado acerca de dios es "todopoderoso". +Pero tengo un problema con eso. +Me he vuelto ms y ms incmodo con esta percepcin de Dios al pasar los aos. +Realmente creemos que Dios es tipo jefe masculino que hemos estado presentando en el culto y las liturgias todos estos aos? +Claro, han habido pensadores que sugirieron distintas maneras de ver a Dios. +Explorando lo femenino, el lado maternal de la divinidad. +Sugiriendo que el, o ella, se expresa a travs de la falta de poder, en vez del el poder. +Aceptando que Dios es desconocido e incognoscible por definicin. +Encontrando profundas resonancias con otras religiones y filosofas y en formas de ver la vida como parte de lo que es una bsqueda universal y global de sentido. +Estas ideas son populares en crculos acadmicos liberales, pero la gente del clero como yo, ha estado reacia a darles cabida, por miedo a crear tensin y divisin en las comunidades de la iglesia por miedo a ofender la fe simple de los creyentes ms tradicionales. +Yo e elegido no causar disturbios. +Luego, el 26 de diciembre del ao pasado, hace solamente dos meses, un terremoto submarino gener el tsunami. +Y dos semanas despus, el domingo en la maana del nueve de enero, me encontr parado en frente de mi congregacin -- cristianos inteligentes, bien intencionados, pensantes, la mayora -- y tena que expresar, de su parte, sus sentimientos y preguntas. +Yo tena mis propias respuestas personales, pero tambin tena un rol pblico, y algo tena que ser dicho. +Y esto es lo que dije. +Poco despus del tsunami lei en el diario un artculo escrito por el Arzobispo de Canterbury -- buen ttulo -- sobre la tragedia en el sur de Asia. +La esencia de lo que deca ahi fue esto: la mayora de los afectados por la devastacin y prdidas de vida no quieren teoras intelectuales sobre por qu Dios permiti que esto pasara. +Escribi, "Si algn genio religioso viene con una explicacin de como hacer sentido a todas estas muertes, nos sentiramos ms felices, o ms seguros, o ms confiados en Dios?" +Si el hombre de la fotografa que apareci en los diarios, sosteniendo la mano de su hijo muerto estuviera parado en frente nuestro ahora, no habra palabras que pudieramos decirle. +Una respuesta verbal no sera apropiada. +La nica respuesta apropiada sera un silencio compasivo y algn tipo de ayuda prctica. +No es tiempo para explicaciones, prdicas, o teologa; es tiempo de lgrimas. +Esto es verdad. An as aqu estamos nosotros, mi iglesia en Oxford, semi-despegados de los evento que pasaron en un lugar alejado, pero con la fe golpeada. +Y queremos una explicacin de Dios. +Demandamos una explicacin de Dios. +Algunos han concluido que slo podemos creer en un Dios que comparte nuestro Dolor. +De algn modo, Dios debe sentir nuestra angustia, nuestra pena, y el dolor fsico que sentimos. +De alguna manera el Dios eterno debe poder entrar en nuestras almas de seres humanos y experimentar el tormento interno. +Y si esto es verdad, tambin debe ser que Dios conozca la dicha y la exaltacin del espritu humano, tambin. +Queremos un Dios que pueda llorar con aquellos que lloran, y se regocije con aquellos que se regocijan. +Esto a mi me parece, en dos formas a la ves, profundamente conmovedora y una declaracin convincente de la creencia cristiana acerca de Dios. +Por cientos de aos, la ortodoxia prevaleciente, la verdad aceptada era que Dios el Padre, el Creador, es inmutable y entonces por definicin no puede sentir pena o tristeza. +Ahora el Dios inmutable se siente un poco frio e indiferente para mi gusto. +Y los eventos devastadores del siglo 20 ha hecho que la gente se cuestione el Dios fro e insensible. +La masacre de millones en las trincheras y en los campos de concentracin ha hecho que la gente se pregunte, dnde esta Dios con todo esto? +Quin es Dios en todo esto? +Y la respuesta fue, "Dios est en esto con nosotros, o Dios no merece ms nuestra lealtad" +Si Dios es un testigo, que observa pero que no se involucra, entonces Dios puede muy bien existir, pero no queremos saber sobre l. +Muchos judos y cristianos ahora se sienten as, lo s. +Estoy entre ellos. +Entonces tenemos un Dios que sufre. Un Dios que est intimamente conectado a este mundo, y a toda alma viviente. +Yo me identifico a esta idea de Dios. +Pero no es suficiente. Necesito hacer ms preguntas, y espero que sean las preguntas que tambin quisieran preguntar, algunos de ustedes. +Las semanas pasadas me llam la atencin la cantidad de veces que las palabras de nuestro culto se sintieron un poco inapropiadas, desubicadas. +Tenemos un servicio los martes a la maana para monjas y sus chicos en prescolar. +Y la semana pasada cantamos con los chicos una de sus canciones favoritas, "El hombre sabio construy su casa sobre las rocas". +Quizs algunos de ustedes la conocen. Algunas de las palabras son: "El hombre tonto construy su casa sobre la arena / y las inundaciones subieron / y la casa en la arena se destruy". +Luego en la misma semana, en un funeral, cantamos un himno familiar "aramos los campos y nos dispersamos" un himno ingls muy popular. +En el segundo verso viene una lnea "El viento y las olas le obedecen". +Lo hacen? No siento que podamos cantar esa cancin otra vez en la iglesia, luego de lo sucedido. +Entonces la primera gran pregunta es acerca del control. +Tiene Dios un plan para cada uno de nosotros? Esta Dios en control? +Dios ordena cada momento? Le obedecen el viento y las olas? +De tiempo en tiempo, uno escucha a los cristianos contar la historia de cmo Dios organiza las cosas para ellos, parar que todo termine saliendo bien. Alguna dificultad superada, alguna enfermedad curada, algn problema evitado, un lugar para estacionar encontrado en un momento crucial. +Puedo recordar a alguien diciendome esto, con sus ojos brillantes y llenos de entusiasmo ante esta grandiosa confirmacin de su fe y la bondad de Dios. +Pero si Dios puede y va a hacer estas cosas -- intervenir para cambiar el flujo de los eventos -- entonces seguramente el pudo haber detenido el tsunami. +Tenemos una versin de Dios local que puede hacer pequeas cosas como lugares para estacionar, pero no cosas grandes como olas de 500 millas por hora? +Eso no es aceptable como cristianos inteligentes y debemos reconocerlo. +O Dios es responsable por el tsunami, o Dios no est en control. +Despus de esta tragedia, las historias de supervivencia empezaron a surgir. +Probablemente hayan escuchado algunas de estas. El hombre que surfeo la ola. La chica adolescente que reconoci el peligro porque justo le haban enseado sobre maremotos en la escuela. +Luego estaba la congregacin que justo dej su iglesia habitual en la costa para tener el servicio en las colinas. +El predicador dio un sermn extra largo, as estuvieron fuera de peligro cuando la ola rompio. +Luego alguien dijo que Dios estaba cuidando de ellos. +Entonces la siguiente pregunta es sobre parcialidad. +Podemos ganarnos el favor de Dios alabandolo y creyendo en l? +Dios demanda nuestra lealtad, como un tirano medieval? +Un Dios que cuida de los suyos, as los cristianos estarn bien, mientras el resto muere? +Un "nosotros y ellos" csmico, y un Dios que es culpable de la peor clase de favoritismo? +Eso sera terrible, y ese sera el punto en el que devolvera mi membresa. +Un Dios as sera moralmente inferior a los ms altos ideales de la humanidad. +Entonces quin es Dios, si no es el gran titiritero o protector de su tribu? +Tal vez Dios permite que pasen cosas terribles, para que el herosmo y la compasin sobresalgan. +Tal vez Dios nos est probando, probando nuetra caridad, nuestra fe. +Tal vez haya un gran plan csmico que permite un horrendo sufrimiento para que todo termine bien al final. +Puede ser, pero estas ideas son todas variaciones de un Dios que controla todo. El comandante supremo jugando con las unidades desechables en una gran campaa. +Seguimos estando con el Dios que puede hacer el tsunami y permite Auschwitz. +En su gran novela, "Los Hermanos Karamazov", Dostoevsky le da estas palabras a Ivan, dirigidas a su hermano menor devoto y nave, Alyosha: "Si los sufrimientos de nios van para juntar la suma de sufrimientos que es necesiaria para comprar la verdad, entonces te digo de antemano que toda la verdad no vale tal precio. +No podemos permitirnos pagar tanto por la admisin. +No es Dios al que yo no acepto. +Yo meramente, muy respetuosamente, le devuelvo su boleto." +O tal vez Dios puso todo el universo en marcha al principio y luego releg para siempre el control, para que los procesos naturales puedan ocurrir, y la evolucin siga su curso. +Esto es ms aceptable, pero todava deja a Dios la ultima responsabilidad moral. +Es Dios un espectador frio e insensible? +O es un amante sin poder, mirando con compasin infinita las cosas que es incapaz de controlar o cambiar? +Est Dios intimamente involucrado en nuestro sufrimiento, as tal que el lo siente en su propio Ser? +Si creemos algo as, debemos dejar la idea del titiritero completamente, dejar la idea del controlador todopoderoso, abandonar los modelos tradicionales. +Debemos pensar nuevamente sobre Dios. +Tal vez Dios no hace ninguna de las cosas. +Tal vez Dios no es un agente asi como nosotros lo somos. +Los primeros religiosos concibieron a Dios como una suerte de persona superhumana, haciendo cosas en todos lados. +Golpeando a los egipcios, ahogandolos en el Mar Rojo, destruyendo ciudades, enojndose. +Esta gente conoca a Dios por sus actos grandiosos. +Pero qu pasa si Dios no acta? Qu pasa si Dios no hace nada de nada? +y qu si Dios est en las cosas? +El alma amorosa del universo. +Una presencia compasiva viviendo, apuntalando y sosteniendo todas las cosas. +qu si Dios est en las cosas? +En la red de relaciones y conexiones infinitamente compleja que forman la vida. +En el ciclo natural de vida y muerte, en la creacin y destruccin que debe suceder continuamente. +En el proceso de evolucin. +En la increble intrincacin y magnificencia del mundo natural. +En el inconsciente colectivo, el alma de la raza humana. +En ti, en m; mente, cuerpo y espritu. +En el tsunami, en las vctimas. En la profundidad de las cosas. +En la presencia y la ausencia. En la simplicidad y la complejidad. +En el cambio, el desarrollo y el crecimiento. +Cmo funciona esta internalidad, esta interioridad de Dios? +Es dificil de concebir, y pide por ms preguntas. +Es Dios slo otro nombre para el universo, sin una existencia independiente? +No lo s. +hasta qu punto podemos atribuirle una personalidad a Dios? +No lo s. +Al final, tenemos que decir "No lo s". +Si supieramos, Dios no sera Dios. +Tener fe en este Dios sera como confiar en la benevolencia esencial del universo, y menos en creer un sistema de afirmaciones doctrinarias. +No es ironico que los cristianos que afirman creer en un ser infinito e incognoscible luego atan a Dios a un sistema cerrado y rgido de doctrinas? +Cmo puede practicarse tal fe? +Buscando a Dios dentro nuestro. Cultivando nuestra interioridad. +En silencio, en meditacin, en mi espacio interior, en el yo que permanece cuando dejo de lado mis emociones, ideas y preocupaciones pasajeras. +En la conciencia de la conversacin interna. +Y cmo viviramos tal fe? cmo vivira yo tal fe? +Buscando una conexin ntima con tu interioridad. +El tipo de relaciones cuando lo profundo habla a lo profundo. +Si Dios esta en toda la gente, entonces hay un lugar de encuentro donde mi relacin contigo se vuelve un encuentro de tres. +Hay un saludo Indio, que seguramente muchos de ustedes conocern: "Namaste", acompaado de una inclinacin respetuosa, que toscamente traducido significa "Aquello que es Dios en mi saluda a aquello que es Dios en t". +Namaste. +Y cmo puede uno profundizar tal fe? +Buscando la interioridad que est en todas las cosas. +En la msica y la poesa, en el mundo natural de la belleza, y en las cosas pequeas y ordinarias de la vida, hay una profunda presencia interior que las hace extraordinarias. +Se necesita un profundo estado de atencin y una espera paciente. Una actitud contemplativa, y una generosidad y apertura a aquellos cuya experiencia es diferente de la ma. +Cuando me pare para hablar a mi gente sobre Dios y el tsunami, no tena respuestas para ofrecerles. +Ningn paquete prolijo de fe, con referencias bblicas para probarlo. +Slo dudas y cuestionamientos e incertidumbre. +Tena algunas sugerencias para hacer -- formas posibles para pensar sobre Dios. +Formas que podran permitirnos seguir adelante, en un camino nuevo inexplorado +Pero al final lo nico que pude decir con seguridad fue "No lo s" y esa pudo ser la afirmacin religiosa ms profunda de todas. +Gracias. +Esta esplndida pieza, la msica de apertura, La marcha de los elefantes de Aida, es la msica que he escogido para mi funeral. +Y pueden ver porqu. Es triunfalista. +Sentira -- No sentir nada, pero si pudiera, me sentira triunfante por el solo hecho de haber vivido, y haber vivido en este esplndido planeta, y por haber tenido la oportunidad de entender algo del porqu estaba aqu, para empezar, sin haber existido antes. +Pueden entender mi peculiar acento ingls? +Como el resto de ustedes, ayer estuve hipnotizado durante la sesin de fauna. +Robert Full, Frans Lanting y otros... la belleza de las cosas que nos mostraron. +Lo nico ligeramente irritante fue cuando Jeffrey Katzenberg habl sobre el mustang (caballo salvaje). Las criaturas ms esplendidas que Dios puso sobre la faz de la tierra. +Ahora, por supuesto, sabemos que no era exactamente lo que l quiso decir... pero en este pas en estos momentos, no se puede ser demasiado cauteloso +Soy un bilogo, y el teorema central de nuestra materia: la teora del diseo, la teora de Darwin de la evolucin por seleccin natural. +En el mbito profesional en cualquier lugar es, por supuesto, universalmente aceptada. +En mbitos no profesionales fuera de Estados Unidos, es ampliamente ignorada. +Pero en mbitos no profesionales dentro de Estados Unidos provoca tanta hostilidad - - que sera justo decir que los bilogos estadunidenses se encuentran en estado de guerra. +La guerra es tan preocupante en el presente, originando demandas en una Estado tras otro, que sent que tena que decir algo al respecto. +Si quieren saber lo que yo tengo que decir acerca del darwinismo, me temo que vais a tener que leer mis libros, que no encontrarn en la librera de afuera. +Juicios recientes... a menudo incorporan una supuesta nueva versin del creacionismo. llamada diseo inteligente o DI. +No se dejen engaar. No hay nada nuevo con respecto al DI. +Es simplemente creacionismo bajo otro nombre. Rebautizado -- eleg esta palabra deliberadamente -- por razones tcticas y polticas. +Los argumentos de los presuntos tericos del DI son los mismos viejos argumentos que han sido refutados una y otra vez, desde Darwin hasta el presente. +Hay un efectivo grupo de presin por la evolucin coordinando la lucha en nombre de la ciencia, y trato de hacer todo lo que puedo para ayudarlos, pero les molesta mucho cuando personas como yo se atreven a mencionar.. ..que da la casualidad que somos ateos a la vez que evolucionistas. +Consideran que estamos creando problemas, y pueden entender porqu. +Ya que los creacionistas carecen de todo argumento cientfico coherente para su causa ..recurren a la fobia popular en contra del atesmo, enseen evolucin a sus hijos en la clase de biologa y ellos pronto caern en la drogadiccin, hurto mayor y perversin sexual. +De hecho, por supuesto, telogos con formacin acadmica, desde el Papa hacia abajo apoyan firmemente la teora de evolucin. +Este libro: "Encontrando el Dios de Darwin", de Kenneth Miller, es uno de los ataques ms eficaces al Diseo Inteligente que conozco, y es as de efectivo.. ..porque est escrito por un cristiano devoto. +Gente como Kenneth Miller podran ser llamados "mensajeros de Dios" para el grupo de presin de la evolucin. porque exponen la mentira de que el evolucionismo es, de hecho, equivalente a atesmo. +Personas como yo, por otra parte, crean problemas. +Pero aqu, quiero decir algo bueno con respecto a los creacionistas. +No es algo que haga a menudo, as que escuchen con atencin. +Pienso que tienen razn en una cosa. +Pienso que tienen razn al pensar que la evolucin es fundamentalmente hostil hacia religin. +Ya he dicho que muchos individuos evolucionistas, como el Papa, son tambin religiosos, pero creo que se engaan a si mismos. +Creo que un verdadero entendimiento del darwinismo es profundamente corrosivo a la fe religiosa. +Ahora, podra sonar como si yo fuera a predicar atesmo, Y les quiero asegurar que no es eso lo que har. +Con una audiencia tan sofisticada como esa -como esta- sera como darle una misa al Papa. +No, a lo que quiero incitarles, en lugar de eso a lo que les quiero persuadir es al atesmo militante. +Pero eso es ponerlo muy negativamente. +Si yo quisiera, si yo fuera una persona que estuviera interesada en preservar la fe religiosa, tendra mucho miedo del poder positivo de las ciencias evolutivas, y en general de cualquier ciencia, pero en particular de la evolucin.. ..por inspirar y cautivar, precisamente porque es atea. +Ahora, el problema para cualquier teora de diseo biolgico es explicar la gran improbabilidad estadstica de los seres vivos. +Improbabilidad estadstica en el sentido de un buen diseo (complejidad es otra palabra para eso). +El argumento creacionista estndar -slo hay uno, todos se reducen a ste- parte de la improbabilidad estadstica: +Los seres vivos son demasido complejos para existir por casualidad, por tanto debieron haber tenido un diseador. +Por supuesto, este argumento se dispara a si mismo en el pie, +cualquier diseador capaz de disear algo verdaderamente complejo.. tiene que ser mucho ms complejo en si mismo, y eso es antes de que empecemos a considerar las otras cosas que se espera que l haga, como perdonar pecados, bendecir bodas, escuchar oraciones, apoyar nuestro lado en una guerra, desaprobar nuestras vidas sexuales y dems. +La complejidad es el problema que cualquier teora biologica tiene que resolver, y no se puede resolver postulando un agente que es an ms complejo, y agravando an mas el problema. +La seleccin natural darwiniana es tan pasmosamente elegante porque resuelve el problema de explicar la complejidad en trminos ni ms ni menos que de simplicidad. +En esencia, lo hace brindando una suave rampa de incremento gradual paso a paso. +Pero aqu, slo quiero dejar claro que la elegancia del darwinismo es corrosiva a la religin precisamente por ser tan elegante, tan sencilla, tan poderosa, tan econmicamente poderosa. +Tiene la vigorosa economa de un hermoso puente colgante. +La teora de Dios, no es slo una mala teora, +resulta ser, en principio, incapaz de realizar lo que se espera de ella. +Bueno, regresando a las tcticas y al grupo de presin evolucionista quiero discutir que crear problemas podra ser precisamente la accin correcta. +Mi tctica de ataque al creacionismo es diferente a la del grupo de presin evolucionista. Mi tctica al atacar al creacionismo es atacar a la religin en su totalidad +y en este punto necesito reconocer el extraordinario tab que existe en contra de criticar a la religin y lo har en las palabras del fallecido Douglas Adams un querido amigo que, si nunca fue invitado a TED, ciertamente debera haberlo sido. +(Richard Saul Wurman: Lo fue.) Richard Dawkins: Lo fue! Bueno, eso pens. +l empez su discurso, el cual fue grabado en Cambridge poco antes de morir. Empieza diciendo como la ciencia funciona mediante la verificacin de hiptesis.. las cuales son vulnerables a ser refutadas, y prosigue diciendo, +y cito: la religin no parece funcionar as. +Cuenta con ciertas ideas centrales a las cuales nos referimos como sagradas o santas, lo que significa que esta es una idea o nocin de la cual no tienes derecho a hablar mal. +Simplemente, no puedes, por qu no? Porque no! +Por qu ser que es perfectamente legtimo apoyar republicanos o demcratas, un modelo econmico en contra de otro, Macintosh en lugar de Windows...? pero tener una opinin sobre el origen del universo, acerca de quien cre el universo, no! Eso es sagrado! +As que estamos acostumbrados a no desafiar las ideas religiosas y es muy interesante cunta furia crea Richard cuando lo hace. (Se refera a m, no a l). +"Todo mundo se pone frentico con eso, porque no tienes permiso de decir esas cosas. Aunque s lo miras racionalmente, no hay razn por la que esas ideas no deberan estar abiertas a debate como cualquier otra, excepto que de alguna manera hemos acordado que no deben estarlo, y ste es el fin de la cita de Douglas. +Desde mi punto de vista, no slo la ciencia es corrosiva para la religin, sino la religin es corrosiva para la ciencia. +Ensea a las personas a estar satisfechas con triviales y supernaturales 'explicaciones' y les ciega a las maravillosas y verdaderas explicaciones que tenemos a nuestro alcance. +Les ensea a aceptar la autoridad, la revelacin y la fe, en lugar de a insistir siempre en la evidencia. +Ese es Douglas Adams, fotografa magnfica de su libro, "Maana no estarn". +Ahora, existe una tpica revista cientfica, "The Quarterly Review of Biology", +y estoy armando, como editor invitado una edicin especial sobre la pregunta, mat un asteroide a los dinosaurios? +Y el primer artculo es un artculo cientfico estndar mostrando evidencia: Capa de iridio en los lmites del Cretcico-terciario y crter en Yucatn datado con potasio-argn indican que 'un asteroide mat a los dinosaurios'. +Un artculo cientfico totalmente ordinario. +Ahora, el que sigue, "Al Presidente de la Real Sociedad le ha sido revelada una fuerte conviccin interna: que 'un asteroide mat a los dinosaurios'". +Se le ha revelado privadamente al profesor Huxdane que 'un asteroide mat a los dinosaurios'. +El profesor Hordley fue instruido en tener una creencia absoluta e incuestionable en que 'un asteroide mat a los dinosaurios'. +El profesor Hawkins ha promulgado un dogma oficial que compromete a todos los "hawkinsianos" leales de que 'un asteroide mat a los dinosaurios'. +Por supuesto, eso es inconcebible! +Pero supongan... -en 1987, un reportero le pregunto George Bush, padre, +si l reconoca la misma ciudadana y patriotismo de los estadounidenses que son ateos. +La respuesta del Sr. Bush se ha vuelto tristemente clebre: +No, no s si los ateos deberan ser considerados ciudadanos, o si deberan ser considerados patriotas. +Esta es una nacin bajo Dios. +La intolerancia de Bush no fue un error aislado, no habl de ms en el calor del momento, para luego retractarse. +l mantuvo su opinin frente a repetidas peticiones de clarificacin o de que se retractara. +Lo dijo en serio. +Es ms, l saba que esta postura no amenazaba su eleccin, todo lo contrario. +Tanto demcratas como republicanos exhiben su religiosidad si quieren ser electos. Los dos partidos evocan: una nacin bajo Dios. +Qu dira Thomas Jefferson! +Incidentalmente, no me siento orgulloso de ser britnico con frecuencia, pero no puedes evitar hacer la comparacin. +En la prctica, qu es un ateo? +Un ateo es slo alguien que siente por "Yahveh" lo mismo que cualquier cristiano decente siente sobre Thor o Baal o el Becerro de oro. +Como ya se ha dicho antes, todos somos ateos de la mayora de dioses en los que humanidad ha credo. Algunos slo vamos un dios ms all. +Y todo eso proviene de la percepcin de que los ateos son una minora extraa que est en decadencia. +Natalie Angier escribi un artculo ms bien triste en el New Yorker, describiendo lo sola se senta como atea. +Es claro que ella se siente en una minora asediada, +sin embargo, cuan adelantados estn numricamente los estadounidenses ateos? +El ltimo sondeo resulta ser una lectura sorprendentemente alentadora. +Los cristianos, por supuesto, ocupan una enorme tajada de la poblacin, con casi 160 millones. +Pero cul pensaran que es el segundo grupo ms grande, rebasando por mayora a los judos con 2.8 millones, musulmanes con 1.1 millones e hinds, budistas y otras religiones juntas? +El segundo grupo mayoritario, con casi 30 millones, es el descrito como no religioso o secular. +No puedes dejar de preguntarte por qu los polticos en busca de votos son intimidados proverbialmente por el poder, por ejemplo, del grupo de presin judo. El estado de Israel parece deber toda su existencia al voto judo-estadounidense, y al mismo tiempo consignando a los no religiosos al olvido poltico. +El voto secular no religioso, si es debidamente movilizado, es nueve veces ms grande que el electorado judo. +Por qu sta minora mucho ms importante no toma la iniciativa para ejercer su poder poltico? +Bueno, esto sobre la cantidad. Qu hay de calidad? +Existe alguna correlacin, positiva o negativa, entre la inteligencia y la tendencia a ser religioso? +La encuesta que cit, la encuesta de identificacin religiosa estadounidense, no desglos los datos con respecto al nivel socioeconmico o al educativo, coeficiente intelectual u otros. +Pero un articulo reciente de Paul G. Bell de la revista Mensa nos provee de algunas seales en el horizonte. +Mensa, como ustedes saben, es una organizacin mundial para personas con un coeficiente intelectual muy alto. +Y de un meta-anlisis de la literatura, Bell concluye que, cito: De 43 investigaciones realizadas desde 1927 sobre la relacin entre creencias religiosas e inteligencia o nivel educativo, todas menos cuatro encontraron una conexin inversa. +Esto es, cuanto ms alto el nivel de inteligencia o educativo, ms baja la probabilidad de ser religioso". +Bueno, no he visto los 42 estudios originales y no puedo comentar sobre dicho meta-anlisis pero me gustara ver ms investigaciones en este sentido. +Y s que hay, si pudiera hacer una pequea publicidad, hay personas en esta audiencia fcilmente capaces de financiar una encuesta masiva de investigacin para resolver esta incgnita, y les sugiero que as sea, ya que valdra la pena. +Pero dejen que les muestre ahora algunos datos que han sido apropiadamente publicados y analizados sobre un grupo en especial, a saber, los cientficos de primer nivel. +En 1998, Larson y Witham encuestaron a la crema de los cientficos estadounidenses, aquellos que haban sido elegidos como los mejores en la Academia Nacional de Ciencias, y dentro de este grupo la creencia en un dios personal cay drsticamente a un 7%. +Alrededor de un 20% son agnsticos, y el resto de ellos podran ser directamente denominados ateos. +Resultados similares se encontraron con respecto a la creencia en la inmortalidad personal. +Entre cientficos bilogos, las cifras son an ms bajas, slo un 5,5 por ciento cree en dios. Cientficos fsicos: 7.5 por ciento. +No he visto datos correspondientes para la lite de eruditos en otros campos, como historia o filosofa, pero estara sorprendido si los resultados fueran diferentes. +Por tanto, hemos llegado a una situacin verdaderamente notable, una discordancia grotesca entre los intelectuales estadounidenses y el electorado estadounidense. +Una opinin filosfica sobre la naturaleza del universo la cual es compartida por la gran mayora de los mejores cientficos estadounidenses y probablemente por la mayora de los intelectuales en general, es tan repugnante para el electorado estadounidense que no hay candidato en elecciones populares que se atreva a afirmar eso en pblico. +Si estoy en lo correcto, esto significa que los altos cargos en el mas poderoso pas del mundo est negada a quienes son precisamente ms calificados, los intelectuales, a menos que estn preparados para mentir sobre sus creencias. +En pocas palabras, las oportunidades polticas estadunidenses estn fuertemente en contra de aquellos que son simultneamente inteligentes y honestos. +No soy ciudadano de este pas, as que espero que no piensen que es inapropiado, si sugiero que algo tiene que hacerse al respecto. +Y ya he dado algunas pistas sobre qu es ese algo. +Por lo que he visto de TED, pienso que este puede ser el lugar ideal para iniciar esto, +De nuevo, me temo que costar dinero. +Necesitamos una concienciadora campaa para que los ateos estadounidenses salgan del armario. +Esta podra ser una campaa similar a la organizada por homosexuales hace algunos aos, aunque, dios no lo permita, que nos rebajemos a forzar a gente a manifestarse en pblico. +En la mayora de los casos, la gente que se manifieste ayudar a destruir el mito de que est mal ser ateo. +Por lo contrario, ayudarn a demostrar que los ateos son frecuentemente el tipo de personas que podran servir de modelos decentes a seguir para tus hijos. El tipo de gente que un publicista podra usar para recomendar un producto, El tipo de gente que est sentada en este auditorio. +Debera haber un efecto de bola de nieve, de retroalimentacin positiva, de forma que cuantos ms nombres tenemos, ms obtendremos. +Podra haber no linealidades, efectos de umbral. +Una vez obtenida una masa crtica, hay una aceleracin abrupta en el reclutamiento. +Y de nuevo, esto requerir dinero. +Sospecho que la palabra ateo en si contiene o permanece como un obstculo desproporcionado a su autntico significado, y es un enorme obstculo para personas que de otra manera estaran felices de darse a conocer como ateas. +Consecuentemente, qu otras palabras podran ser usadas para facilitar este camino, engrasar los engranajes, endulzar la pldora? El mismo Darwin prefera agnstico, y no slo en lealtad a su amigo Huxley quien cre el trmino. +Darwin dijo: Nunca he sido un ateo en el mismo sentido de negar la existencia de Dios, +Pienso que en general, "agnstico" sera las descripcin ms correcta de mi estado mental. +Se volvi, incluso, inusualmente irritado con Edward Aveling. +Aveling era un ateo militante quien fracas al tratar de persuadir a Darwin de aceptar la dedicatoria de su libro sobre atesmo, incidentalmente, originando el mito fascinante de que Karl Marx trat de dedicar "El capital" a Darwin, lo que no hizo. Realmente fue Edward Aveling. +Es como un mito urbano que Marx trat de dedicar El capital a Darwin. +De todas formas, fue Aveling y cuando se conocieron, Darwin reto a Aveling: +Por qu se hacen llamar 'ateos'? +"Agnstico", replic Aveling, "slo era ateo dicho respetablemente, y ateo slo era agnstico dicho agresivamente". +Darwin se quej, por qu tienes que ser tan agresivo? +Darwin pensaba que el atesmo estaba muy bien para los intelectuales pero que la gente ordinaria no estaba, cito, madura para esto. +Lo cual es claro, nuestro viejo y conocido argumento de "no crear problemas". +No est documentado si Aveling le dijo a Darwin que bajara sus humos. +Pero de todas formas, eso fue hace ms de 100 aos. +Pesaran que hemos crecido desde entonces. +Un amigo, un judo inteligente no practicante, quien incidentemente guard el sabbat por razones de solidaridad cultural, se describe a si mismo como un "agnstico del ratoncito Prez". +l no se llamara ateo, porque es, en principio, imposible de probar lo opuesto, pero agnstico por si solo podra sugerir que la existencia de dios tiene por tanto la misma probabilidad como la de su inexistencia. +As que mi amigo es estrictamente agnstico del ratoncito Prez, pero esto no es muy probable, o s?.. como Dios. +De all la frase: "agnstico del ratonito Prez", +pero Bertrand Russell seal el mismo punto usando una hipottica tetera en rbita alrededor de Marte. +Tendramos que ser estrictamente agnsticos sobre la existencia, o no, de una tetera en rbita alrededor de Marte. Pero eso no significa que se considere la probabilidad de su existencia mano a mano con la de su inexistencia. +La lista de cosas de las cuales deberamos ser estrictamente agnsticos no termina con la leyenda del ratoncito Prez y teteras. Esta es infinita, +si quieres creer una de ellas en particular: unicornios, ratones de dientes o teteras o Yahveh, la obligacin es tuya de probar por qu. +La obligacin de probar el porqu no creemos no es del resto de nosotros. +Nosotros, los que somos ateos, tambin somos a-ratonistas y a-teteristas . +Pero no nos preocupamos en decirlo, +y sta es la razn por la que mi amigo us la leyenda del ratoncito Prez dientes como una etiqueta de aquello a lo que la mayora de la gente llamara "ateo". +De cualquier forma, si queremos incitar profundamente a los ateos a que se manifiesten en pblico, vamos a tener que encontrar algo mejor que agnstico en ratones de dientes o agnstico de teteras en nuestras pancartas. +Qu tal humanistas? +Esta palabra tiene la ventaja de una red mundial, de asociaciones muy bien organizadas y revistas y dems ya en existencia. +Mi nico problema con esto es su aparente antropocentrismo. +Una de las cosas que aprendimos de Darwin es que la especie humana es slo una entre millones de primas, algunas cercanas, algunas distantes. +Estas personas podran ser pertenecientes a la turba de linchadores britnicos que el ao pasado atacaron a un pediatra que confundieron con un pedfilo. +Pienso que la mejor de las alternativas disponibles para ateo es simplemente no-teista. +Carece de la fuerte connotacin de que definitivamente no hay un dios, y podra ser fcilmente aceptada por agnsticos de tetera o leyendas de ratones de dientes. +Es completamente compatible con el Dios de los fsicos. +Cuando gente como -- cuando ateos como Stephen Hawking and Albert Einstein usan la palabra dios, la usan, por supuesto, como una metfora y un atajo para referirse a la aquella profunda y misteriosa parte de la Fsica que an no entendemos. +No-teista servira para todo esto, pero a diferencia de ateo, no provoca las mismas reacciones fbicas e histricas. +Pero pienso que, realmente, la alternativa es tomar lo spero de la misma palabra ateo, precisamente por ser una palabra tab que acarrea arrebatos de fobia histrica. +Podria ser ms difcil lograr unas masa significativa de adeptos con la palabra ateo que con la palabra no-teista, o alguna otra palabra que no sea confrontativa. +Pero si llegaramos a lograrlo con esta temible palabra, ateo, habra un impacto poltico ms grande. +Ahora, yo dira que, si yo fuera religioso, tendra con mucho temor haca la evolucin. An ms, tendra miedo de la ciencia en general si fuera comprendida de forma apropiada. +Y eso es poque el punto de vista cientifico haca el mundo es mucho ms emocionante, ms potico, ms lleno de grandes maravillas que cualquiera que salga de los pobres arsenales de la imaginacin religiosa. +Como Carl Sagan, otro hroe recientemente fallecido, lo puso, por qu ser que es tan dificil que ninguna religion dominante ha visto a la ciencia y concludo, 'esto es mejor de lo que pens!' +El universo es ms grande de lo que nuestro profeta dijo, mejor, ms sutil, ms elegante? En lugar de eso dicen, no, no, no, +mi dios es un dios pequeo y asi quiero que se quede. Una religin, vieja o nueva, que enfatize la magnificiencia del universo como es revelada por la ciencia moderna podra motivar reservas de reverencia y admiracin difcilmente documentadas por los cultos convencionales. +Ahora, esta es una audiencia elitista, as que esperara que al menos un 10% de ustedes sean religiosos. +Muchos de ustedes probablemente estn subscritos a nuestra educadas creencia cultural de que debemos respetar la religin, +pero tambin sospecho un buen nmero de ustedes secretamente detesta la religin tanto como yo lo hago. +Si eres uno de ellos, y claro que muchos de ustedes tal vez no lo sean, pero si eres uno de ellos, te estoy pidiendo que dejes de ser tan educado, manifstate y dilo, y si por casulidad eres rico, piensa un poco en las formas en las que puedes marcar la diferencia. +El grupo de poder religioso en este pas es financiado masivamente por fundaciones, y ni hablar de los beneficios en impuestos por fundaciones tales como el Templeton Fundation y el Discovery Institute. +Necesitamos un anti-Templenton que salga adelante. +Si mis libros vendieran tanto como los de Stephen Hawking, pero en lugar slo venden tanto como los de Ricahrd Dawkins, yo mismo lo hara. +La gente siempre habla sobre como el 11 de septiembre te cambi? +Aqu est el como me cambi a mi. +Dejemos de ser tan condenadamente respetuosos. +Muchas Gracias +Yo slo quiero decir, en los ultimos aos yo he tenido la oportunidad de realizar esta conferencia de cierre +Y he tenido algunos actos de calentamiento +Hace 8 aos Billy Graham fue el telonero para mi +y pense que eso era-- Y pense que no habia una manera en absoluto (en el infierno) de superar eso +pero solo quiero decir y lo digo sin alguna ironia, pienso que hablo por parte de todos en el auditorio cuando digo que deseo a dios que usted fuera el presidente de los Estados Unidos +Okey, este es el titulo de mi charla hoy +Solo quiero darles un vistazo rapido +primero que todo por favor recuerde que soy polticamente correcto y lo digo todo con gran afecto +si alguno de ustedes tiene estomago sensible o se siente mareado ahora es el momento de revisar su Blackberry. +solo para revisar, esta es mi charla TED. +vamos a hacer unas bromas, Algunos chistes, algunas parodias, y luego hablaremos acerca del punto L1 +Entonces, una de las preguntas que me hago a mi mismo si este fue el evento TED ms preocupante? +Revisemos algunos cosas que se dijeron, +Imagenes de regeneracion del higado Caras llenas con viruela: 21% de la conferencia +Menciones a osos polares ahogandose, 4 % +imagenes de la tierra desapareciendose por inundacion o gripe aviar: 64 % +Y David Pogue cantando sus msicas. +Debido a que este es el evento TED mas preocupante, He estado trabajando con Neils Gershenfeld en el morral TED del proximo ao. +Y si --Y si la conferencia est siquiera cerca de ser tan preocupante-- entonces, tendremos un morral para gritar el proximo ao. +Va a ser un morral de viruela a viruela para gritar, claro esta. +Por lo que se veran de esta manera. +Si lo traemos a este lado y lo abrimos , Aaaaaaaah! +Mientras tanto retornando a la Universidad TED, Esta mujer encantadora est enseando como to cortar patatas fritas, +Asi que Robert Wright, yo no s, sent que si existe alguien a quien Helen necesitaba dar antidepresivos sera l. +Yo quiero deliberadamente interferir con sus niveles de dopamina +l estaba hablando acerca de la moralidad. +La clase de moralidad econmica es, Queremos bombardearlo hasta que vuelva a la edad de piedra, +La clase de moralidad de negocios es, no bombardeen a Japon -- ellos hacen mi carro. +y la moralidad de primera claes es, no bombardeen Mexico, ellos limpian mi casa. +Si, es polticamente incorrecto. +bueno Ahora, quiero hacer algo para ustedes, +Bueno, ahora, yo digo (palabras inentendibles) (palabras inentendibles) mumble -- aighh! +Entonces quiero mostrarles a ustedes, Quiero hablar acerca de una revolucionaria interfaz de computadores que le permite trabajar con imagenes asi de facil como si utilizara una interfaz muy natural. +y ustedes pueden-- pueden usar movimientos muy naturales como estos. +Bueno, aqui tenemos a una profesora de Harvard, ella es de Harvard, y yo slo quiero mencionar y ella es realmente una profesora de Harvard. +Ella estaba hablando acerca de 7 universos dimensionales invertidos. +Con, ustedes saben, claro, est el cerebro de gravedad. +est el cerebro dbil, y est mi dbil cerebro, que es muy, muy absolutamente dbil para entender de que carajos estaba hablando ella? +Ahora-- Una de las cosas que es muy importante para mi es tratar de entender porque carajos estoy yo aqu. +Por esa razn sal. y recogi un Best seller de negocios. +Ustedes saben, bsicamente usa como premisa central a la mitologia griega, +y es de un hombre llamado el Pastor Rick Warren, y se llama "La vida conducida por el delfn" +Y Rick es como un dios pagano, lo que pienso que es apropiado, de una cierta manera, +Y ahora vamos a tener un tipo de ahora vamos a tener un poco ms de visualizacin acerca de Rick Warren +Ok +Muy bien, +ahora, el rojo es Rick Warren y El verde es Daniel Dennett , oK? +Estas escalas son religiosidad desde de 0%, o atesmo, a 100%, biblicamente cierto. +y estos son los libros vendidos, en escala algortmica +30 mil, 300 mil, 3 millones, 30 millones, 300 millones. +ok, ahora se mueven, ahora se mueven. +y Rick Warren comienza a tomar la delantera,comienza a tomar la delantera, +si, y su base instalada se vuelve un poco ms grande. +pero la peligrosa idea de Darwin vuelve, vuelve. +Dejenme mostrarles los senderos para que puedan ver un poco mejor +Ahora, una de las cosas que es muy importante, Nicholas Negroponte nos comento acerca de Un lap dance por... lo siento-- acerca de un porttil por nio, +ahora hablemos acerca de unas caractersticas que son importantes para este aparato revolucionario. +voy a hablarles acerca de los parametros de diseo, y luego se los mostrar en persona. +Primero que todo, necesita ser pequeo, +se necesita que sea plano, para que sea transportable +liviano. Portable. +Que use muy poca energa. +Con altsima resolucin. +que se pueda ver en la luz del dia. Que trabaje donde sea. +Y aplicable a muchas plataformas +ahora, hemos hecho alguna investigacion -- Neil Gershenfeld y los laboratorios Fab salieron al mercado. +Realizaron algo de investigacin, y trajimos, lo que pensamos puede ser un prototipo perfecto de lo que los estudiantes en el campo estn pidiendo, +Y aqu est, el computador de 100 dolares +OK, OK, OK, OK -- excellente, excellente. +Ahora, He comprado este aparato de Cliffor Stoll por cerca de 900 dlares +y l, junto con su equipo de estudiantes secundaria estamos realizando ciencia de verdad. +Asi que estamos intentando revisar y tratando de que se mueva aqu, y ver quien usa marijuana. +y ver quien usa marijuana. +Y seremos capaces de encontrar algo de marijuana, Jim Young? +Slo si abrimos los lockers suficientes, +OK, ahora la viruela es una enfermedad extremadamente preocupante. +Tenemos al Dr. Larry Brillian hablando sobre como erradicamos la viruela. +Yo quisiera mostrarles las fases de la viruela. +Comenzamos. Con el da uno. +Da dos +da tres, le aparece una gran erupcin en su hombro. +Da tres. +Da cuatro. +Da cinco. y da seis. +Ahora las buenas noticias son, porque yo soy un profesional mdico entrenado, Yo s que a pesar de que ella quedar marcada de por vida, ella va a tener una recuperacin total. +Ahora las buenas noticias acerca de Arquitectos por la Humanidad es que son uno de los grupos ms increbles. +Ellos estan patrocinando una competencia de diseo para crear unas soluciones de edificios mdicos innovadores, soluciones para clnicas, en frica, Y ellos tuvieron una competencia de diseo. +Ahora lo mas maravilloso es, Larry Brillian recientemente fue nombrado fue nombrado como el director de la Fundacin Google. Por lo que decidi que l ayudara-- El ayudara el trabajo de Cameron. +Y la forma en la que decidi ayudar ese trabajo, fue enviando cerca de 50,000 containers de bocaditos de Google. +Por lo que deseo mostrarles algunos prototipos, +Las Naciones Unidas, como saben, tardaron 20 aos para agregarle una solapa a una tienda. Pero pienso que tenemos cosas mas excitantes +Esta fue hecha en casa con Fruit-Roll ups +Y esas galletas con -- recubiertas de chocolate blanco +y lo realmente maravilloso de esto es, cuando has terminado, bueno te lo puedes comer. +Pero lo que ms me emociona es la increble casa de granola +Y la casa de granola con una galleta especial como techo para recolectar agua y reciclarla. +Y es, bueno, en este lado unos "sour patch kids" normales, Y osos de gomitas para dejar entrar la luz, +Pero en este lado, tiene gomitas de oso azucaradas Para difuminar la luz ms tenue. +y nosotros, solo quisimos mostrarles como se vera en el sitio. +Asi que, Einstein Einstein, dime-- Cul es tu cancin favorita? +no, dije Cul es tu cancin favorita? +no, dije Cul es tu cancin favorita? +"pjaro libre" +Asi que, Einstein, Cul es tu grupo musical favorito? +puedes decirlo de nuevo?, Cul es tu grupo musical favorito? +ok, una vez ms -- te voy a dar una pequea ayuda +Tu grupo musical favorito -- es Diana Ross y los Audiencia: Supremes! +Exacto +Podemos aumentar el volumen en el porttil, por favor? +"pjaro libre" me recuerda que si ustedes que si escuchan "pjaro libre" al revs esto es lo que podran escuchar. +Computador. Satan.Satan.Satan.Satan. +Satan.Satan.Satan. +ahora, slo quiero que entiendan todo el mensaje , asi que quiero ayudarles un poco ms. +Computaor: My dulce Satan. Dan Dennet adora a Satan. +Compra "la vida conducida por el propsito" o Satan tomar tu alma +Asi que, hemos hablado acerca del calentamiento global, pero, ustedes saben, como Jill dijo, suena un poco bonito, buen clima en invierno, en la ciudad de Nueva York. +Y como Jay Walker dijo, esto no asusta lo suficiente, +Asi que Al, yo creera que soy bueno en el manejo de marcas. +Asi que he tratado de pensar en un buen proceso de diseo para tener un nuevo trmino para "calentamiento global" +Asi que comence con Babel Fish. Busque calentamiento global +Y decidi cambiarlo de ingls a holands, en "Het globale Verwarmen." +de holands a chino, en "Hordahordaneecheewa." +Chino a portugs: Aquecer-se Global. +Despus portugus a latn +Aquecer-se ucked-fay. +y finalmente retornando al ingls que es, "estamos totalmente jodidos" +Ahora, no s ustedes Pero Michael Shermer habl acerca de la voluntad de los seres humanos-- evolutivamente, estn diseados para ver patrones en las cosas +por ejemplo, en sandwiches de queso +ahora pueden mirar con atencin y ver a la vrgen mara? +Quiero dejrselos un poco ms claro +es esta la vrgen mara? +o es Mena Trott? +Asi que habl con Josh Prince-Ramus acerca del centro de convenciones y las conferencias. Se estn volviendo muy grandes +se esta volviendo un poco muy grande. Esta llenndose y parece un poco ms grande +Asi que trat de hacer un programa cmo podemos reacomodar la estructura para reacomodar TED +Asi que primero que todo decidimos que necesitamos una tercera parte de librera, una tercera parte para el Google cafe 20% para registro, 80% un hotel lujoso, el 5% para los baos +y por supuesto, deseabamos tener la habitacion de emisin simultnea el lobby y el Foro Steinbeck. +Ahora quiero mostrarles como qued literalmente creado en un programa de diseo +Asi que primero uno de los problemas con Monterrey es si llegase el calentamiento global y groenlandia se derrite como ustedes dicen, el nivel del ocano aumentara 20 pies e inundar todo el centro de convenciones +asi que vamos a construir este nuevo edificio con zancos, +asi que construimos este edificio con zancos, asi que, aqui es donde pondremos el Auditorio Steinbeck +y lo maravilloso acerca de la nueva librera es es que va a ser construida en espiral organizada por un sistema decimal de Dewey +Luego construiremos un ascensor que te ayude a subir ac, +y finalmente colocaremos el Hotel Marriott, y la plaza Portola en el techo. +ahora, no s ustedes, pero algunas veces tengo estas imgenes en mi cabeza, de haber sido separado en el nacimiento, +no s ustedes, pero cuando veo a Aubrey de Grey, yo inmediatamente pienso en Gandalf el gris, +ok, ahora hemos escuchado, por supuesto, que todos somos soldados ac. +ahora lo que yo, realmente quiero que hagan ahora es, saquen una hoja de papel. todos tienen su hoja de papel en blanco? +y quiero que saquen un lpiz, y quiero que escriban una nota terrorista. +si sacamos a ELMO por un momento si sacamos a ELMO por un momento, entonces sabrn les voy a dar un modelo que pueden utilizar para trabajar, ok? +y luego quisiera que doblen la nota en un avin de papel, +y una vez est doblada en el avin de papel, quiero que tomen un poco de ntrax y quiero que lo coloquen en el avin de papel. +Y quiero que se lo envien a Jim Young. +Afortunadamente, Yo recib el premio TED de este ao. +y quera ver-- Y quiero dedicar esta pelcula a mi padre, Homer +OK +Ahora la pelcula no es lo suficientemente dura, Asi que intente hacerla ver un poco ms dura, +Asi que voy a tratar y hacer esto mientras recito Pi +3.1415, 2657, 753, 8567, 24972 -- -- 85871, 25871 3928, 5657, 2592, 5624. +podemos cortar este pedazo de msica, por favor? +Ahora, quisiera hablar un poco acerca del calentamiento global +Volviendo a 1968 podemos ver el rango de la montaa de Brokeback Mountain estaba cubierto por 151 pulgadas de una capa de nieve. +Entre parntesis, all en las laderas, y quiero mostrarles ese hombre negro esquiando. +pero pasando los aos, 10 aos despues, se erosionaron las capas de nieve y, si se dan cuenta, los arboles comienzan a volverse amarillos +el nivel del agua ha comenzado a secarse. +Unos aos ms adelante, no haba nieve que quedase. +y esos rboles se volvieron cafs, +Este ao, desafortunadamente la cama del lago se torno en un terreno absolutamente roto y seco +Y yo temo, que si no se hace nada por el planeta, en 20 aos, se ver como esto. +Sr. Vice presidente, quisiera saber cmo sacarlo a usted. +Muchas gracias. +Thomas Dolby: Por el puro placer por favor denle la bienvenida a la encantadora, la agradable, y bilinge Rachelle Garniez +Cuntos cracionistas hay aqu esta noche? +Probablemente ninguno. Creo que somos todos darwinistas. +E incluso as, muchos darwinistas estn un poco ansiosos, un poco intranquilos. Quisieran ver los lmites del alcance del darwinismo. +Est bien. +Las telaraas? Seguro que son producto de la evolucin +La Red? No estoy tan seguro. +Las presas de los castores s; la presa Hoover, no. +Qu creen que evita que los productos del ingenio humano sean ellos tambin fruto del rbol de la vida y por lo tanto, en algn sentido, obedezcan a las reglas de la evolucin? +Pese a ello, las personas son renuentes a la idea de aplicar las reglas de la evolucin al pensamiento -- a nuestro pensamiento. +As que voy a hablar un poco al respecto, teniendo presente que hay mucho en el programa. +Imaginad que estis afuera en un bosque, en algn prado y veis una hormiga trepando por una brizna de hierba. +Sube hasta arriba y se cae, y sube y se cae y sube -- tratando de quedarse en la cima de la brizna de hierba. +Qu est haciendo esta hormiga? A qu viene todo esto? +Qu metas est persiguiendo esta hormiga al subir la brizna de hierba? +Qu gana la hormiga? +Y la respuesta es: nada. La hormiga no gana nada. +Entonces, por qu lo hace? +Se ha vuelto loca? +Si, precisamente, la han vuelto loca. +Est infectada por un parsito cerebral. +Es un parsito cerebral que necesita llegar al estmago de una oveja o una vaca para continuar su ciclo vital. +Los salmones nadan contracorriente para desovar y los parsitos se apropian de una hormiga, se arrastran hasta su cerebro y la usan como un vehculo todo terreno. +La hormiga no gana nada. +El cerebro de la hormiga ha sido secuestrado por un parsito que infect su cerebro y la indujo a un comportamiento suicida. +Deja los pelos de punta. +Bueno, acaso pasa algo similar con los humanos? +Hay algo que sea ms importante que la preservacin de la especie? +Bueno, quiz ya se les haya ocurrido que la palabra "islam" significa "rendicin", "sumisin del inters propio a la voluntad de Al". +Bueno, son las ideas, no los gusanos, los parsitos que secuestran nuestra mente. +Estoy diciendo que una minora en el mundo tiene su cerebro secuestrado por ideas parsitas? +Oh, no, es peor que eso. +La mayora de las personas lo tiene. +Hay muchas ideas por las que morir. +La libertad, si eres de New Hampshire. +La justicia. La verdad. El comunismo. +Muchas personas dieron su vida por el comunismo, y muchas otras lo hicieron por el capitalismo. +Y muchas por el catolicismo. Y muchas por el islam. +Estas son unas pocas de las ideas por las cuales morir. +Son infecciosas. +Ayer Amory Lovins habl de "repetitis infecciosa". +De hecho, era un trmino despectivo. +Es una ingeniera sin pensamiento. +Bueno, la mayora de la divulgacin cultural no es precisamente pensamiento brillante y original, +sino repetitis infecciosa. Y deberamos tener una teora de lo que est pasando. As podramos entender las condiciones de la infeccin. +Nuestros anfitriones trabajan duro para esparcir estas ideas. +Yo mismo soy un filsofo, y uno de los riesgos del oficio es que la gente nos pregunta sobre el significado de la vida. +Y tienes que tener un eslogan, saben, tienes que tener una postura. +Esta es la ma. +El secreto de la felicidad es: encuentra algo ms importante que t y dedica tu vida a ello. +La mayora de nosotros -- ahora que la "dcada del Yo" ha pasado realmente -- hace esto. +Un grupo cualquiera de ideas sencillamente reemplaza nuestros imperativos biolgicos. +Este es nuestro summum bonum. +No es maximizar la cantidad de nietos que uno tiene. +Ahora, esto tiene un profundo efecto biolgico: +la subordinacin de los intereses genticos a otros intereses. +Ninguna otra especie hace nada parecido. +Bueno, qu podemos pensar sobre esto? +Por un lado, tiene un efecto biolgico, y uno muy grande. +Es innegable. +Qu teoras queremos usar para estudiar esto? +Bueno, muchas. Pero cmo las unimos? +La idea de ideas que se duplican; ideas que se duplican pasando de un cerebro a otro. +Richard Dawkins, a quien escucharn ms tarde, invent el trmino "meme" y expuso la primera visin clara y vvida en su libro "El gen egosta". +Aqu voy a hablar de su idea. +Bueno, ya ven, ahora no es suya. S -- l la empez. +Pero es una idea de todos ahora. +Y l no es responsable de lo que yo diga acerca de los memes. +Yo soy el responsable de lo que diga acerca de los memes. +De hecho, pienso que todos somos responsables no solo de los efectos previstos o intencionados de nuestras ideas, sino tambin de sus probables malos usos. +Creo que es importante, para Richard y para m, que no se abuse de estas ideas ni se usen mal. +Es muy fcil usarlas mal. Por eso son peligrosas. +Es un trabajo muy costoso el evitar que las personas a quienes asustan estas ideas las simplifiquen y que las usen para cualquier fin indebido. +Tenemos que seguir muy atentos, tratando de corregir estas malas interpretaciones, para que solo las variantes benignas y tiles de nuestras ideas sigan propagndose. +Pero esto es un problema. +No tenemos mucho tiempo, as que voy a seguir un poco con esto y a cortar porque voy a contar muchas otras cosas. +As que solo djenme sealar que los memes son como virus. +Eso es lo que dijo Richard en el 93. +Y pueden pensar, "Bueno, cmo puede ser eso? +Quiero decir, un virus es algo -- ya saben, algo material! De qu est hecho un meme?" +Ayer, Negroponte estaba hablando de la telecomunicacin viral, pero -- qu es un virus? +Un virus es una cadena de cido nucleico con personalidad. +Quiero decir, tiene algo que suele hacer que se replique mejor que la competencia. +Y eso es lo que es un meme: un paquete de informacin con personalidad. +De qu estn hechos los memes? De qu estn hechos los bits, mam? +De silicio, no. +Estn hechos de informacin, y pueden transportarse en cualquier medio fsico. +De qu estn hechas las palabras? +Algunas veces, cuando la gente dice, "Acaso existen los memes?" +Yo digo "Bueno, acaso existen las palabras? Estn en tu ontologa?" +Si estn, las palabras son memes que pueden pronunciarse. +Tambin hay muchos otros memes que no pueden pronunciarse. +Hay diferentes especies de memes. +Recuerdan a los shakers? (grupo religioso protestante) El regalo de ser simples? +Solan hacer muebles sencillos y hermosos. +Por supuesto, estn prcticamente extintos ahora. +Y una de las razones es que parte de su credo es que uno debe ser clibe. +No slo el sacerdote. Todo el mundo. +Bueno, no es tan sorprendente que se extinguieran. Pero de hecho, no es por eso por lo que se extinguieron. +Sobrevivieron tanto como lo hicieron en una poca en la que la seguridad social no exista. +Y haba un montn de hurfanos y viudas, personas as, que necesitaban un hogar de acogida. +Y as tenan un suministro constante de conversos. +Y as podan continuar. +Bsicamente podran haber seguido para siempre. Con un celibato perfecto por parte de los anfitriones. +La idea se transmita gracias al proselitismo en lugar de a travs de los genes. +Las ideas pueden sobrevivir independientemente del hecho de que no se transmitan genticamente. +Un meme puede prosperar a pesar de tener un impacto negativo en la adaptacin gentica. +Despus de todo, el meme de los shakers era un parsito esterilizador. +Hay otros parsitos que tambin hacen esto -- que dejan a su hospedador estril. +Es parte de su plan. +No necesitan tener una mente para tener un plan. +Solo voy a llamar su atencin sobre una de las muchas implicaciones de la perspectiva memtica, la cual recomiendo. +No hay tiempo para profundizar en ello. +En el genial libro de Jared Diamond "Armas, grmenes y acero", habla de cmo fueron los grmenes, ms que las armas y el acero, los que conquistaron el nuevo hemisferio -- el hemisferio occidental --, los que conquistaron el resto del mundo. +Cuando los exploradores y viajeros europeos se expandieron, trajeron con ellos los grmenes contra los que estaban inmunizados, los que haban aprendido a tolerar a lo largo de cientos de aos, de miles de aos viviendo con animales domsticos que eran la fuente de esos patgenos. +Y sencillamente los arrasaron -- estos patgenos arrasaron a los nativos, que para nada eran inmunes a ellos. +Y lo estamos haciendo otra vez. +Esta vez lo hacemos con ideas txicas. +Ayer, unas cuantas personas -- Nicholas Negroponte y otros -- hablaron de todas las cosas maravillosas que pasan cuando se esparcen las ideas, gracias a las nuevas tecnologas, alrededor del mundo. +Y estoy de acuerdo. Es en gran parte maravilloso. En su mayor parte maravilloso. +Pero entre todas esas ideas que inevitablemente circulan por todo el mundo gracias a nuestra tecnologa, hay muchas ideas txicas. +Hace un tiempo que nos hemos dado cuenta. +Sayyid Qutb es uno de los padres fundadores del fanatismo islmico, uno de los idelogos que inspiraron a Osama Bin Laden. +"Uno slo tiene que echar un vistazo a sus pelculas, sus desfiles de moda, sus concursos de belleza, sus salones de baile, sus bares y sus medios de comunicacin". Memes. +Estos memes se estn esparciendo por el mundo y estn destruyendo culturas enteras. +Estn destruyendo lenguas. +Estn destruyendo tradiciones y costumbres. +Y no es nuestra culpa, como tampoco es nuestra culpa cuando nuestros grmenes arrasan con todas aquellas personas que no han desarrollado la inmunidad. +Nosotros somos inmunes a toda la basura que est en la periferia de nuestra cultura. +Somos una sociedad libre, as que permitimos la pornografa y esas cosas -- les restamos importancia. +Son como un resfriado leve. +No son un asunto tan serio para nosotros. +Pero debemos reconocer que, para mucha gente en el mundo, son un asunto muy serio. +Y deberamos estar alertas. +Mientras esparcimos nuestra educacin y nuestra tecnologa, una de las cosas que estamos haciendo es ser los vectores de memes que son considerados como un peligro por los hospedadores de muchos otros memes, como una amenaza directa a sus memes favoritos -- los memes por los que ellos moriran. +Ahora bien, cmo podemos distinguir los memes buenos de los memes malos? +Ese no es el problema de la memtica. +La memtica es moralmente neutra. Y as debe ser. +Este no es lugar para el odio y el enojo. +Si un amigo tuyo hubiera muerto de sida, odiaras el VIH. +Pero la forma de lidiar con ello es haciendo ciencia y entendiendo cmo se esparce y por qu desde una perspectiva moralmente neutra. +Conocer los hechos. +Entender las implicaciones. +Hay todo el tiempo del mundo para la pasin moral despus de conocer los hechos y de decidir qu es lo mejor que podemos hacer. +Y como con los grmenes, el truco no es tratar de aniquilarlos. +Nunca vas a lograr aniquilarlos. +Lo que s puedes hacer es fomentar el desarrollo de la salud pblica y cosas as que van a propiciar la evolucin de la avirulencia. +Eso propiciar que se esparzan mutaciones relativamente ms benignas de las variedades ms txicas del virus. +Ese es todo el tiempo que tengo, as que muchas gracias por su atencin. +Sergey Brin: Quiero comentar un problema que s que os ha agobiado a muchos. +Hablamos aqu por ltima vez hace varios aos. +Y antes de empezar hoy, ya que muchos os lo preguntis, quera dejarlo claro desde el principio. +La respuesta es, calzoncillos. +Espero que ahora todos os sintis mejor. +Alguien sabe qu puede ser esto? Alguien sabe lo que es? +Pblico: S. +SB: Qu es? +Pblico: Es la gente que se conecta a Google en todo el mundo. +SB: Guau! Bien. La verdad, yo no supe lo que era la primera vez que lo vi. +Pero esto fue lo que me ayud a entenderlo. +Esto es lo que tenemos puesto en la oficina, en realidad es en tiempo real. +Aqu va un poco retrasado. +Pero se puede ver cmo usa Google la gente repartida por el mundo. +Cada uno de esos puntos que se levantan representa probablemente unas 20 30 bsquedas, o algo por el estilo. +Estn clasificados por colores, por idiomas. +Se ve claramente: aqu estamos en los EE.UU., y todos se muestran en rojo. +Esto es Monterrey -- espero no equivocarme. +Se puede ver que en Japn hay movimiento de noche, justo ah. +Aqu est Tokio con bsquedas en japons. +Hay mucha actividad en China. +Hay mucha actividad en India. +Un poco en Oriente Medio, pequeos cmulos. +Y Europa, donde ahora es exactamente medioda, tiene un gran trfico, con una gran cantidad de idiomas. +Tambin se puede ver, si giro esto por aqu -- espero no agitar el planeta demasiado. +Pero tambin se puede ver que hay lugares sin mucho trfico. +Australia, simplemente porque hay poca poblacin. +Y esto es algo en lo que de verdad deberamos trabajar, se trata de frica, con slo unos pequeos puntos, bsicamente en Sudfrica y unos cuantos centros urbanos. +Pero bsicamente, lo que hemos notado es que estas bsquedas, que llegan en miles por segundo, estn disponibles donde hay electricidad. +Casi siempre ocurre que, donde hay electricidad hay Internet. +Incluso en la Antrtida -- bueno, al menos esta poca del ao -- a veces se da un aumento de una bsqueda concreta. +Si se trazara correctamente, creo que en la Estacin Espacial Internacional creo que la Estacin Espacial Internacional la tendra tambin. +As que parte del reto que se nos plantea, es, como podis ver, que es difcil obtener el -- aqu est. +As es como debemos mover los bits para llevar a la gente las respuestas a sus preguntas. +Se ve que hay mucha informacin en movimiento. +Debe atravesar todo el mundo: a travs de fibra ptica, a travs de satlites, a travs de todo tipo de conexiones. +Resulta muy complicado mantener las latencias todo lo bajas que podemos. Esperamos que vuestra experiencia sea buena. +Pero, de nuevo, se puede ver -- algunos lugares estn ms conectados que otros, y se puede ver todo el ancho de banda en EE.UU., que va hasta Asia, Europa en la otra direccin, y as sucesivamente. +Ahora me gustara mostraros cmo es un segundo de actividad del sistema. +Y si podemos cambiar a diapositivas -- bien, all vamos. +Bien, esto est ralentizado. +As es un segundo del sistema. +As pasamos gran parte de nuestro tiempo, tan slo asegurndonos de que podemos asumir semejante trfico de datos. +Bien, cada una de esas bsquedas tiene una interesante vida y trayectoria propia. +Es decir, podra tratarse de la salud de alguien, podra ser la carrera profesional de alguien, algo importante. +Y podra existir la posibilidad de que sea algo tan importante como la salsa de tomate, o en este caso,el ketchup. +Pues bien, esta es una bsqueda que tuvimos -- Creo que es un grupo famoso, que fue ms conocido en unas partes del mundo que en otras. +Se puede ver que empez justo aqu. +En EE.UU. y Espaa, tuvo popularidad al mismo tiempo. +Pero no tuvo la misma acogida en EE.UU. +que en Espaa. +Y luego, de Espaa pas a Italia, despus Alemania se entusiasm, y quiz ahora el Reino Unido lo est disfrutando. +As que supongo que al final en EE.UU. empez a gustar tambin. +Quera ponerla para que la escuchemos. +Sea como sea, la podis disfrutar vosotros mismos -- seguramente esa bsqueda servir. +Como parte de -- ya sabis, parte de lo que queremos hacer para expandir la empresa es tener ms bsquedas. +Lo que eso significa es que queremos tener ms personas sanas y formadas. +Ms animales, si ellos tambin empiezan a hacer bsquedas. +Pero en parte, queremos hacer del mundo un lugar mejor, para ello, algo que estamos desarrollando es la Fundacin Google, ahora estamos ponindolo en marcha. +Tambin tenemos un programa llamado Google Grants, que actualmente ayuda a ms de 150 organizaciones benficas de todo el mundo, stas son algunas de las organizaciones bajo su auspicio. +Es algo de lo que me emociona formar parte. +De hecho, muchas de las organizaciones presentes aqu -- el Acumen Fund, creo que ApproTEC tambin, no estoy seguro del todo -- y muchas de las personas que han venido aqu se benefician de Google Grants. +Los participantes incluyen anuncios de Google, y nosotros les damos los ingresos que generan, para dar a conocer sus organizaciones. +Bueno, sabe alguien qu es esto? +Aj! +Pblico: Orkut. +SB: Si! Alguien lo ha reconocido. +ste es Orkut. Alguien de aqu usa Orkut? +Alguien? +Bueno, no hay muchas personas que lo conozcan. +Lo explicar en un instante. +Este es uno de nuestros ingenieros. +Hemos averiguado que trabajan mejor si estn sumergidos y cubiertos de hojas. +As es como sacamos nuestros productos. +Orkut tuvo la visin de crear una red social. +S que todos estis pensando, "Otra red social". +Pero esto era su sueo, y nosotros, bsicamente, cuando alguien de verdad quiere hacer algo, bueno, normalmente se lo permitimos. +As que cre esto. +Lo lanzamos en fase de pruebas el mes pasado, y ha empezado a despegar. +ste es nuestro Vicepresidente de Ingeniera. +Se ve el pelo rojo, y no se si pueden ver aqu su piercing en la narz. +Todos estos son sus amigos. +As es como -- lo acabamos de poner en marcha -- decidimos que la gente se enviara invitaciones para acceder al servicio, por tanto, al principio slo los miembros de la empresa las enviaban. +Ahora hemos llegado a tener ms de 100.000 miembros. +Se han propagado muy rpido, incluso fuera de Estados Unidos. +Se puede ver, si bien EE.UU. sigue suponiendo la mayora -- por cierto, en nmero de bsquedas slo supone el 30 por ciento de nuestro trfico. Pero ya empieza a extenderse por Japn, Reino Unido y Europa, y el resto de pases. +Es un proyecto pequeo y entretenido. +Hay gran variedad de datos demogrficos. No os aburrir con ellos. +Es justo el tipo de cosas que probamos por diversin y para ver hasta dnde llegan. +Y -- bueno, voy a mantener el suspense. +Larry, puedes explicar esto. +Larry Page: Gracias, Sergey. +Pues una de las cosas -- Sergey y yo fuimos a un colegio en Montessori, y creo que, por alguna razn, esto ha pasado a ser parte de Google. +Sergey mencion Orkut, que es algo que, como sabis, Orkut quera hacer en su horario de trabajo, as que lo llamamos -- en Google, llamamos a esto "el 20 por ciento del tiempo." La idea es que, el 20 por ciento de tu horario, si trabajas en Google, puedes hacer lo que creas que es mejor. +Y muchsimas cosas han surgido as en Google, como Orkut y tambin Google Noticias. +Y creo que muchas otras cosas en el mundo han surgido de igual modo. +Mendel, que supuestamente daba clase a estudiantes de secundaria, en realidad, como sabis, descubri las leyes de la gentica -- bsicamente como pasatiempo. +Y muchsimas cosas tiles han surgido as. +Noticias, lo que acabo de mencionar, fue iniciado por un investigador. +Y l -- despus del 11-S, se interes mucho por las noticias. +Y pens, "Por qu no puedo ver las noticias de forma ms cmoda?" +As que empez a agruparlas por categora, empez a usar el sistema, y despus sus amigos empezaron a usarlo. +Y entonces, adems de hacer que quede bien en la foto de un beb lo convertimos en un "Googlette", que bsicamente es un mini-proyecto en Google. +El caso era tener unas tres personas ms o menos, que intenten crear un producto. +No sabamos si iba a funcionar o no. +En el caso de Google News, hubo dos personas que dedicaron un tiempo a crearlo; despus cada vez ms gente empez a usarlo, y acabamos ponindolo en Internet, con lo que cada vez ms gente empez a usarlo. +Ahora es un proyecto de entidad, con ms personas dedicadas a l. +As es como mantenemos activa la innovacin. +Creo que suele ocurrir, a medida que las empresas crecen, que les cuesta tener proyectos pequeos e innovadores. +Nosotros tambin tuvimos este problema, hasta que dijimos "Definitivamente necesitamos un nuevo concepto". +Ah estn los Googlettes -- un proyecto pequeo que no sabemos si funcionar. Pero esperamos que funcione, y si generamos suficientes, algunos de ellos funcionarn de verdad, como Google News. +Pero nos encontramos con un problema, porque tenamos ms de 100 proyectos. +No s vosotros, pero a m me cuesta mantener 100 cosas en la cabeza a la vez. +Descubrimos que si las escribamos y ordenbamos -- stas de aqu son inventadas. +No les prestis atencin. +Por ejemplo, "Comprar Islandia" lo sacamos de un artculo. +Nunca haramos algo tan absurdo. Pero -- sea como sea, vimos que apuntndolos y ordenndolos, casi todo el mundo estaba de acuerdo sobre el orden correcto. +Esto supuso una sorpresa para m, pero pudimos ver que mientras se tengan esas 100 cosas en la cabeza, lo que se consigue escribindolas, se pueden tomar buenas decisiones sobre qu hacer y a qu dedicar los recursos. +As que eso es lo que hemos hecho desde que lo pusimos en prctica hace unos aos, y creo que nos ha permitido innovar y a la vez seguir estando bien organizados. +Lo otro que averiguamos es que a la gente le gusta trabajar en cosas importantes, y de modo natural, la gente fluye hacia aquello que es una gran prioridad. +Quera destacar un par de cosas que son nuevas, o que quiz no conozcis. +La de arriba es el Deskbar. +Es un nuevo -- cuntos usan la Barra de Herramientas de Google? +Levantad la mano. +Cuntos usan el Deskbar? +Bueno, os recomiendo que lo probis. +Pero si vais a nuestra web y buscis "Deskbar," os saldr esto. +La idea es que, en vez de una barra de herramientas, est presente constantemente en la parte inferior de la pantalla, y se pueden hacer bsquedas muy fcilmente. +Es como una versin mejorada de la barra de herramientas. +Gracias, Sergey. +ste es otro ejemplo de un proyecto que a alguien de Google le apasionaba, y lo -- siguieron con ello, es un producto verdaderamente bueno, est despegando. +Froogle te permite buscar informacin sobre compras, y Blogger sirve para publicar cosas. +Pero todos estos -- todos eran ideas innovadoras que pusimos en marcha que -- como sabis, probamos muchas cosas diferentes en nuestra empresa. +Tambin nos gusta innovar en nuestro espacio fsico, y nos dimos cuenta de que en las reuniones hay que esperar mucho tiempo a que los proyectores se enciendan y apaguen, y como son ruidosos, la gente los apaga. +No nos gust, as que en unas dos semanas construimos estas pequeas cajas que albergan los proyectores, as que podemos dejarlos siempre encendidos y no se escucha ningn ruido. +Gracias a esto creamos nuevo software que nos sirve para gestionar una reunin, de modo que ahora, cuando entras en una sala de juntas, se muestra un listado de todas las reuniones programadas, se pueden tomar notas muy fcilmente y se envan por e-mail automticamente a todas las personas que asistieron a la reunin. +A medida que nos convertimos en una empresa global, vemos que este tipo de cosas nos afecta -- por ejemplo, podemos trabajar ms eficientemente con personas que no estn en la sala? +Ese tipo de cosas. Las cosas sencillas como esta pueden suponer una gran diferencia. +Tambin tenemos a muchos ingenieros en estas reuniones, que no lavan la ropa con tanta frecuencia como es de esperar. +Nos dimos cuenta de que resultaba de mucha ayuda disponer de lavanderas, especialmente para los empleados ms jvenes, y ... +tambin permitimos que traigan a sus perros y dems, tenemos, creo yo, un ambiente muy divertido en nuestra empresa, lo que ayuda a que la gente trabaje y disfrute con lo que hace. +Esta es nuestra foto estilo "secta." +Quera ensearla brevemente. +La tuvimos puesta en la web un tiempo, pero nos dimos cuenta de que ya no recibamos solicitudes de empleo. +De cualquier modo, cada ao llevamos a toda la empresa a esquiar. +Gran parte del trabajo en las empresas se realiza gracias a la gente se conoce. +Creo que hemos conseguido animar a que sea as. +Hace que sea un lugar estupendo para trabajar. +Junto a nuestros logotipos, que creo que realmente personifican nuestra cultura de cambiar las cosas. +Durante los comienzos, nos aconsejaron que nunca cambiramos nuestro logotipo porque debamos dar a conocer la marca, porque, como ya sabis, uno nunca querra cambiar su logotipo. +Quieres que sea consistente. +Pensamos "Vaya, no parece muy divertido. +Y si lo cambiamos cada da?" +Una de las cosas que me apasiona de lo que estamos haciendo ahora es lo que llamamos AdSense, esto es en parte prediccin -- es de antes de que Dean se fuera. +Pero el concepto es, por ejemplo como en un peridico, mostrar anuncios relevantes. +Cuesta leerlo, pero dice "La batalla de New Hampshire: Howard Dean presidente" -- artculos sobre Howard Dean. +Estos anuncios se generan automticamente -- como en este caso, en el Washington Post -- a partir del contenido del sitio. +As que usamos nuestros ms de 150.000 anunciantes y millones de anuncios, para escoger el ms relevante de acuerdo a lo que ests leyendo, como hacemos con las bsquedas. +La idea es que podemos hacer que la publicidad sea til, no slo molesta, verdad? +Acabo de poner esto en mi sitio web y estoy ganando 10.000 dlares al mes. +As que, gracias. +Ya no tengo que dedicarme a mi otro trabajo." +Creo que es algo muy importante para nosotros, porque hace que Internet funcione mejor. +Hace que los contenidos sean mejores, que la bsqueda funcione mejor, cuando la gente puede ganarse la vida produciendo buenos contenidos. +Como esta conferencia supuestamente trata sobre el futuro, voy a hablar un poco sobre l. +El concepto tras esto es que, para conseguir que las bsquedas sean perfectas, hay que ser muy inteligente. +Porque puedes escribir cualquier bsqueda en Google, y esperas obtener una respuesta, cierto? +Pero encontrar cosas es complicado, as que en realidad hace falta inteligencia. +De hecho, el motor de bsqueda definitivo debera ser inteligente. +Sera inteligencia artificial. +As que es algo en lo que estamos trabajando, incluso tenemos personas suficientemente entusiasmadas y suficientemente locas para trabajar ahora en ello, es realmente su objetivo. +As que deseamos que Google sea inteligente, pero siempre nos sorprendemos cuando otras personas creen que lo es. +Quera mostrar un simptico ejemplo de esto. +Esto es un blog sobre Irak, no es realmente de lo que voy a hablar, pero quera mostrar un ejemplo. +Sergey, a lo mejor puedes resaltar esto. +Pues decidimos -- en realidad s quera resaltar eso. Gracias. +Bien, "bsquedas relacionadas," justo ah. No se ve muy bien, pero decidimos aadir una funcin a nuestros anuncios AdSense, llamada "bsquedas relacionadas." +As que pone, ya sabis, "Quizs quiso decir" -- a ver, en este caso pone "Saddam Hussein," porque es un blog sobre Irak -- adems de los anuncios, cremos que sera una gran idea. +Pues bien, tenemos este blog de un joven que estaba algo deprimido, y comentaba, "Estoy durmiendo muchsimo". +Escriba cosas sobre su vida. +Y nuestros algoritmos -- no una persona, por supuesto, sino nuestro algoritmos, nuestros ordenadores -- leyeron su blog y concluyeron que la bsqueda relacionada era "estoy aburrido". +Entonces l lo ley, y crey que otra persona haba decidido que l era aburrido, y muy desgraciado, as que dijo, "Oye, qu estn haciendo los, o sea, los cabrones de Google?" +Por qu no les gusta mi blog?" +As que cuando lemos su blog, que iba -- en fin, iba de mal en peor, nuestro sistema decidi que la bsqueda relacionada era "Retrasados mentales." +Con lo que se enfad an ms, y escribi -- empez a poner insultos y dems. +Y nuestro sistema indic "Eres penoso." +Y al final, acab con "Bsame el culo". +Esencialmente, pens que estaba tratando con algo inteligente, y por supuesto, como sabis, simplemente escribimos un programa y lo pusimos a prueba, no funcion del todo, y ya no ofrecemos esta funcin. +Dicho esto, querra volver al mbito mundial. +As que no tenemos que preocuparnos de que, por ejemplo, nuestros productos se vendan por menos dinero en pases pobres, y despus vuelvan a importarse de vuelta a EE.UU. -- como ocurre, por ejemplo, con las farmacuticas. +Creo que somos afortunados de tener ese tipo de modelo de negocio, porque todo el planeta tiene acceso a nuestras bsquedas, y opino que es un beneficio muy, muy grande. +Lo otro que quera mencionar brevemente es que tenemos un grandsimo poder y responsabilidad de proporcionar la informacin adecuada a la gente, y nos vemos a nosotros mismos como un peridico o revista -- en el sentido de que debemos dar informacin objetiva. +Por esto, nunca aceptamos dinero para nuestros resultados de bsqueda orgnica. +Aceptamos dinero por la publicidad, y la anunciamos como tal. +Esto no ocurre con muchos de nuestros competidores. +Pienso que las decisiones de ese tipo que tomamos tienen un enorme impacto en el mundo, y hace que est muy orgulloso de formar parte de Google. +As que gracias. +Alguno de ustedes ha estado en Aspen, Colorado? +No es una broma an, esas no son bromas. +Est esto apagado? +Fui a Aspen recientemente y encontr esta cancin. + Hombres negros van a a Aspen y rentan coloridos chalets. Sonren a las preguntas su sola presencia parece provocar. Los confunden con hombres que no se asemejan en lo mas mnimo. "Tu eres...?" +"No". + Los hombres negros esquan. Los hombres negros esquan. +La fealdad envolvente de nuestros entornos cotidianos en Estados Unidos es la entropa hecha visible. +No podemos sobrestimar la cantidad de desesperanza que estamos generando en lugares como ste. +Principalmente, quiero persuadirlos de la necesidad de hacer algo mejor si vamos a continuar el proyecto de civilizacin en Estados Unidos. +A propsito, esto no ayuda. +Nadie la est pasando mejor debido a esto. +Hay muchas formas de describir esto, +a m me gusta llamarlo "el tugurio automovilstico nacional". +Lo puedes llamar desfachatez suburbana. +Me parece ms apropiado llamarlo la mayor equivocacin en la asignacin de recursos en la historia del mundo. +Lo puedes llamar un revoltijo de las externalidades de la tecnosis. +Y es un problema tremendo para nosotros. +Para nosotros, el problema sobresaliente es que estos lugares no valen la pena. +Vamos a hablar de eso un poco ms. +Un sentido de lugar. Tu capacidad de crear lugares significativos con calidad y carcter depende totalmente de tu capacidad de definir el espacio con edificios, y emplear los vocabularios, gramticas, sintaxis, ritmos y patrones de la arquitectura que nos indiquen quines somos. +El mbito pblico en Estados Unidos tiene dos roles: Es donde vive nuestra civilizacin y nuestra vida cvica, y es la manifestacin fsica del bien comn. +Cuando degradas el mbito pblico, automticamente degradas la calidad de tu vida cvica, y el carcter de toda materializacin de vida pblica y comunitaria que all ocurre. +En Estados Unidos, el mbito pblico se manifiesta por lo general en la forma de la calle, ya que no tenemos las milenarias catedrales, plazas y mercados pblicos de culturas ms antiguas. +Y tu capacidad de definir el espacio y crear lugares que vale la pena cuidar. proviene de una corriente cultural que llamamos la cultura del diseo cvico. +Este es un cuerpo de conocimiento, mtodos, tcnicas y principios que botamos a la basura despus de la Segunda Guerra Mundial, y decidimos que ya no la necesitamos; no la vamos a usar ms. +Por consiguiente, podemos ver los resultados a nuestro alrededor. +El mbito pblico nos tiene que indicar no slo dnde estamos geogrficamente, sino que nos tiene que indicar dnde estamos en nuestra cultura. +De dnde venimos, qu clase de personas somos, y tiene que -- -- al hacer lo anterior, tiene que darnos un vistazo de nuestro rumbo para as poder vivir en un presente alentador. +Y si hay una tremenda -- si hay una gran catstrofe en los lugares que hemos construido, los entornos humanos que nos hemos creado en los ltimos 50 aos, es que nos han privado de la capacidad de vivir en un presente alentador. +Los entornos en los que vivimos, tpicamente, son como estos. +Resulta que esto es el cinturn de asteroides de la basura arquitectnica, a 3,2 kilmetros al norte de mi pueblo. +Y recuerden, para crear un lugar de carcter y calidad, tienen que ser capaces de definir el espacio. +Y eso cmo se logra aqu? +Si se paran en la salida del supermercado "Wal*Mart" ac, y tratan de mirar hacia el supermercado "Target" de all, no lo pueden ver por la curvatura de la Tierra. As es como la naturaleza nos dice que estamos definiendo mal el espacio. +Como consecuencia, estos son lugares en dnde nadie quiere estar. +Estos sern lugares que no valdr la pena cuidar. +Tenemos como, saben? como 38.000 lugares que no vale la pena cuidar en Estados Unidos. +Cuando tengamos suficientes de estos, tendremos una nacin que no vale la pena defender. +Y quiero que piensen en eso cuando piensen en esos jvenes que estn en lugares como Irak, derramando su sangre en la arena. Pregntense, Cul ser su ltimo recuerdo del hogar? +Espero que no sea el corte de andn entre el restaurante "Chuck E. Cheese" y el hipermercado "Target"! Pues eso no es lo suficientemente valioso como para justificar el derramamiento de su sangre . Necesitamos mejores lugares en este pas. +Espacio pblico. Este es un buen espacio pblico. +Es un lugar que vale la pena. Est bien definido. +es enfticamente un saln pblico al aire libre. +tiene ese algo que es terriblemente importante -- tiene lo que llamamos una membrana activa y permeable en sus bordes. +Esa es una forma elegante de decir que tiene tiendas, bares, cafs, destinos -- -- las cosas entran y salen. Es permeable. +La cerveza entra y sale; las meseras entran y salen; y eso activa el centro de este lugar, convirtindolo en un destino en el que la gente quiere pasar el tiempo. +Saben? En estos lugares en otras culturas, la gente va all voluntariamente porque les gusta. +No necesitamos una feria artesanal aqu para lograr que la gente venga. No necesitan un festival "Kwanzaa". +La gente simplemente va porque es agradable estar all. +Pero, as es como se hace en los Estados Unidos. +Probablemente el mayor fracaso en espacio pblico en Estados Unidos, diseado por destacados arquitectos del momento, Harry Cobb e I.M. Pei: La Plaza de la Alcalda de Boston. +Un espacio pblico tan deprimente que ni los borrachos perdidos quieren ir all. Y no lo podemos arreglar porque I.M. Pei an est vivo, y cada ao Harvard y M.I.T. hacen un comit conjunto para arreglarlo. +Y cada ao fracasan, pues no quieren herir las susceptibilidades de I.M. Pei. +Este es el otro lado del edificio. +Fue ganador de un premio internacional en diseo en, si mal no recuerdo, 1966, o algo as. +No fue Pei y Cobb. Otra firma dise esto. Pero no hay suficiente Prozac en el mundo para que la gente se sienta bien al caminar por esta cuadra. +Esta es la parte posterior de la Alcalda de Boston, el edificio cvico ms importante en Albany -- perdn -- en Boston. +Cul es el mensaje que emite? Cules son los vocabularios y gramticas que provienen de este edificio? Y cmo nos informa sobre quines somos? +Por cierto, este edificio estara mejor si pusiramos retratos en mosaico de Jos Stalin, Pol Pot, Saddam Hussein, y todos los dems dictadores sanguinarios del siglo 20 en este costado del edificio, pues as estaramos expresando honestamente lo que el edificio realmente nos comunica. +Saben? Ese es un edificio dspota; que quiere que nos sintamos como termitas. As se ve a menor escala. La parte trasera del centro administrativo municipal de mi pueblo, Saratoga Springs, Nueva York. +A propsito, cuando mostr esta diapositiva a un grupo de Kiwanianos en mi pueblo, todos se levantaron indignados dejando su pollo cremoso. Y me gritaron, diciendo: "Estaba lloviendo el da en que Usted tom esa foto!" +Porque se percibe meramente como un problema climctico. Este es un edificio diseado como un reproductor de DVD. Salida de audio, fuente de energa -- y miren, saben que estas cosas son importantes trabajos arquitectnicas para las firmas. Cierto? +Contratamos firmas para que diseen estas cosas. +Pueden ver exctamente lo que pas, a las tres de la maana en la reunin sobre el diseo. +Saben? Ocho horas antes del vencimiento del plazo, cuatro arquitectectos tratando de terminar este edificio a tiempo. No? +Estn sentados aqu en la mesa larga en la sala de juntas con todos los dibujos, y las propuestas, y todas las cajitas de comida china dispersas sobre la mesa, y -- Quiero decir, Qu tipo de conversacin sucedi all? Porque ustedes saben cul fue la ltima palabra, la ltima frase que se pronunci en esa reunin. +Fue: "A la mierda!". Eso -- ese es el mensaje de esta forma arquitectnica. +El mensaje es: Nos importa un carajo! Nos importa un carajo. +Entonces, volv en el da ms agradable del ao, slo para -- ya saben, hacer una prueba de realismo. De hecho, l ni siquiera entra porque -- no es lo suficientemente llamativo para sus clientes, ya saben, los ladrones, los asaltantes. +No tiene suficiente riqueza cvica para que les interese pasar por ah. +Bueno. +El modelo de la "Calle Principal EEUU" -- por cierto, este modelo para la construccin de manzanas en el centro, es bastante universal, est en todo el mundo. +No es tan complicado -- edificios de ms de un piso, construidos hasta el borde de la banqueta, para que la gente -- todo tipo de gente -- pueda ingresar al edificio. +Se pueden realizar otras actividades en los pisos superiores, ya saben, apartamentos, oficinas, y dems. +Se facilita esta actividad llamada "hacer compras" en el primer piso. +Eso no lo han aprendido en Monterey (California, EE.UU.; sede de la conferencia). +Si van a la esquina de la interseccin principal justo en frente de este centro de conferencias, vern una interseccin con cuatro paredes en blanco en cada esquina. +Es realmente increble. +Bueno, as es cmo se compone y se arma un edificio comercial en el centro, y esto fue lo que ocurri en Glen Falls, Nueva York, cuando intentamos hacerlo otra vez, donde haca falta. Cierto? +Lo primero que hacen es levantar el comercio medio nivel sobre el terreno, para que sea deportivo. +Bien. Eso destruye por completo la relacin entre el negocio y el andn, donde se encuentran los peatones tericos. Por supuesto, nunca estarn ah, siempre que estn en esa condicin. +Como la relacin con el comercio se destruy, forzamos all una rampa para discapacitados, y luego, para calmar nuestras consciencias, ponemos una curita de naturaleza en frente. +As es como lo hacemos. +Las llamo "curitas de naturaleza" porque hay una idea generalizada en Estados Unidos de que el remedio para el urbanismo mutilado es la naturaleza. +De hecho, el remedio para el urbanismo herido y mutilado es el buen urbanismo, los buenos edificios. +No solamente camas de flores, no solamente caricaturas de las montaas de Sierra Nevada. +Saben? Eso no es lo suficientemente bueno. +Tenemos que hacer buenos edificios. +Los rboles que bordean las calles realmente cumplen cuatro labores, y eso es todo. Delimitan espacialmente el mbito peatonal, protegiendo a los peatones de los vehculos en la va, filtran los rayos de sol que alcancen la acera, y suavizan la dureza de los edificios y crean un techo -- un techo abovedado -- sobre la calle. +Eso es todo. Esas son las cuatro funciones de la arborizacin callejera. +No se supone que sean caricaturas del Bosque del Norte; no se supone que sean el escenario para "El ltimo Mohicano". +Saben? Uno de los problemas con el fiasco de los suburbios es que destruyen nuestro entendimiento de la diferencia entre el campo y la villa, entre lo urbano y lo rural. +No son lo mismo. +No vamos a curar los problemas urbanos al arrastrar el campo a la ciudad, lo que muchos de nosotros intentamos hacer todo el tiempo. +As, lo que ven relativamente temprano, a mediados del siglo 19, es la idea de que hay que tener un antdoto para la ciudad industrial, que ser la vida en el campo para todo el mundo. +Y eso se comienza a dar en forma de la comunidad de ferrocarril del suburbio: la villa campestre sobre la ruta de ferrocarril, la cual le permite a la gente gozar de las ventajas de la ciudad, pero volver al campo todas las noches. +Por cierto, en ese momento no tenan ningn Wal*Mart o almacenes de cadena. De verdad era una forma de vida campestre. +Pero lo que sucedi, por supuesto, es que mut los siguientes 80 aos convirtindose en algo bastante insidioso. +Se convierte en caricatura de la casa campestre, en una caricatura del campo. +Y esa es la gran agona no-pronunciada de las afueras de las ciudades, y una de las razones por la que se presta para el ridculo, +ya que no entrega lo que ha prometido por medio siglo. +Este es el estilo de vivienda que tpicamente se encuentra aqu, saben? +Bsicamente una casa con nada al lado, pues la casa quiere declarar, enfticamente, "soy una pequea cabaa en el bosque. No hay nada a mi alrededor. +No tengo ojos a un lado de mi cabeza. No puedo ver". +Entonces, ven esta ltima fachada de la casa, ell frente, que realmente es una caricatura de la fachada de una casa. +Porque - noten aqu la terraza. +Salvo que las personas que vivan aqu sean enanitos, nadie la va a usar. +Esto es, en realidad, un programa de televisin de emisin continua llamado "Somos normales". +Somos normales, somos normales, somos normales, somos normales. +Por favor resptenos, somos normales, somos normales, somos normales. +Pero sabemos lo que est pasando en estas casas. Saben? +Sabemos que el pequeo Skippy est cargando su metralleta Uzi aqu abajo, en preparacin para el gran ataque y escape. Sabemos que Heather, su hermana Heather, de 14 aos, se prostituye aqu arriba para sostener su hbito de consumo de drogas. +Porque estos lugares, estos hbitats, estn generando cantidades inmensas de ansiedad y depresin en los nios, y ellos no tienen mucha experiencia con medicamentos. +Suelen tomar la primera sustancia que se les presente, frecuentemente. +Estos lugares no son lo suficientemente buenos para los estadounidenses. +As son los colegios a donde los mandamos: La Escuela Central "Hannibal Lecter", Las Vegas, Nevada. +Este es un colegio real! +Pero obviamente hay esta nocin que si dejan que los reclusos salgan de esta cosa, ellos raptaran a un motorista de la calle y comeran su hgado. +Entonces, se hace todo el esfuerzo para mantenerlos dentro del edificio. +Noten que la naturaleza est presente. Vamos a tener que cambiar este comportamiento, nos guste o no. +Estamos entrando a una poca de cambio en el mundo, y -- ciertamente en Estados Unidos -- ese poca ser caracterizado por el fin de la era del petrleo barato. +Eso va a cambiar absolutamente todo. +Chris me pidi que no me extendiera demasiado en este punto, y no lo har. Salvo para decir que no habr una economa de hidrgeno. +Olvdenlo. Eso no va a pasar. +En lugar de eso, vamos a tener que hacer otra cosa. +Tendremos que reducir, reorganizar y redimensionar casi todo lo que hacemos en este pas, y es imposible comenzar este proceso demasiado temprano. +Tendremos que -- -- tendremos que vivir ms cerca de nuestros lugares de trabajo. +Tendremos que vivir ms cerca los unos de los otros. +Tendremos que cultivar alimentos ms cerca de donde vivimos. +La era de la ensalada Csar cutlivada a 5,000 kilmetros est llegando a su fin. +Tendremos que... Tenemos una red ferroviara que sera una vergenza para los blgaros! +Tenemos que hacer algo mejor que eso! +Debimos haber comenzado dos das antes de ayer. +Tenemos la fortuna de que los nuevos urbanistas estuvieron, durante los ltimos 10 aos, desempolvando toda la informacin que se haba botado a la basura por la generacin de nuestros padres, despus de la Segunda Guerra Mundial. +Porque vamos a necesitarla si vamos a aprender cmo reconstruir pueblos. +Tendremos que devolver este conjunto de metodologa y principios y competencias para as volver a aprender cmo componer lugares significativos -- lugares que sean ntegros. Que permitan -- que sean organismos vivos en el sentido de contener todos los rganos de nuestra vida cvica, y nuestra vida en comunidad, desplegada de forma ntegra. +Para que las viviendas tengan un uso lgico en relacin con el comercio, la cultura y la gobernanza. +Tendremos que volver a aprender cules son los cimientos de estas cosas. La calle. La cuadra. Cmo componer espacio pblico que sea tanto grande como pequeo. El patio. La plaza. Cmo hacer uso verdadero de esta propiedad. +Podemos ver algunas de las primeras ideas para mejorar algunas de las propiedades catastrficas que tenemos en Estados Unidos. +Los centros comericales muertos. Qu vamos a hacer con ellos? +Pues, por cierto, la mayora no lo van a lograr. +No sern retro-acondicionados; van a ser las chatarreras del futuro. +Pero algunos sern arreglados, creo. +Y los vamos a arreglar imponiendoles nuevamente los sistemas de calle y manzana, volviendo al lote como el incremento normal del desarrollo. +Y si somos afortunados, el resultado se ver en pueblos y barrios con centros revitalizados en nuestros pueblos y ciudades existentes. +A propsito, nuestros pueblos y ciudades estn donde estn, y crecieron donde estn porque ocupaban todos los sitios importantes. +Y la mayora seguir estando ah, aunque su escala probablemente se disminuir. +Tenemos mucho trabajo pendiente. +No nos va a rescatar el hper-carro; no nos van a rescatar los combustibles alternos. +Ninguna cantidad o combinacin de combustibles alternos nos va a permitir seguir manejando lo que estamos manejando, en la forma en que lo estamos manejando. +Vamos a tener que hacerlo todo de una manera diferente. +Y Estados Unidos no est preparado. +Estamos caminando sonmbulos hacia el futuro. +No estamos preparados para lo que viene hacia nosotros. +Les insto que hagan todo lo que puedan. +La vida a mediados del siglo 21 se centrar en vivir localmente. +Estn preparados para ser buenos vecinos. +Estn preparados para encontrar vocaciones que los hagan tiles a sus vecinos y conciudadanos. +Una cosa final -- Esto me ha perturbado por aos, pero creo que es particularmente importante para este pblico. +Por favor, por favor, dejen de referirse a ustedes mismos como "consumidores". Vale? +Ser consumidor no es lo mismo que ser ciudadano. +Los consumidores no tienen obligaciones, responsabilidades y deberes hacia sus prjimos. +En la medida en que usen la palabra consumidor en la discusin pblica, estarn degradando la calidad de la discusin que estamos entablando. +Vamos a seguir siendo ignorantes al entrar a este difcil futuro que encaramos. +Entonces, muchas gracias. +Por favor salgan y hagan lo que puedan para que esta tierra se llene de lugares merecedores de nuestro cuidado, y una nacin que vale la pena defender. +Sucedieron muchas cosas interesantes en el mundo del diseo y en IDEO el ao pasado, y me siento complacido de poder compartir algunas de ellas con Uds. +Yo no asist a la primera versin de TED en 1984 pero he estado en muchas de ellas desde entonces. +Pens que sera interesante remontarnos a esos tiempos pasados cuando Richard empez todo. Muchas gracias, Richard, venir aqu ha sido parte placentera de mi vida, he disfrutado mucho +Y, siempre recordando, pensaba en que nosotros en Silicon Valley estbamos enfocados en productos u objetos -- ciertamente, objetos tecnolgicos. +Haba mucha diversin en esos das, y algunos de ustedes de la audiencia eran mis clientes. +Llegbamos con algn prototipo bajo una manta negra y lo colocbamos en la mesa de conferencias, y luego sacbamos la manta negra y todos exclamaban "ooh" y "ah". +Eran tiempos realmente buenos. +Y continuaremos enfocndonos en los productos, como siempre hemos hecho. +A quienes estuvieron ac el ao pasado probablemente los tumb al suelo tratando de mostrarles mi nuevo EyeModule 2 que era una cmara conectada a la Handspring +Y tom muchas fotos el ao pasado; muy pocas personas saban lo qu estaba haciendo, pero tom muchas fotos. +Este ao --quizs podramos mostrar las diapositivas-- este ao trajimos este Treo, con el que tuvimos mucho que ver y ayudamos a Handspring a disearlo. +Tambin, aunque lo diseamos hace ya algunos aos -- slo se torn omniprescente hace poco ms de un ao -- el desfibrilador Heartstream que est salvando vidas. +Quizs lo vieron en los aeropuertos? Parecen ya estar en todas partes. +Estn salvando muchas vidas. +Y estamos a punto de presentar el Zinio Reader que creo que har an ms placentera la lectura de revistas. +As, realmente seguiremos enfocndonos en productos. +que involucra disearles comportamientos y personalidades a los productos. +Pienso que Uds. estn comenzando a verlo, y est haciendo nuestro trabajo an ms gratificante. +Curiosamente, solamos construir principalmente modelos 3-D -- ustedes lo saben, han visto algunos hoy -- y desarrollos en 3-D. +Y los utilizaramos para comunicar nuestras ideas. +Pero firmas como la nuestra estn necesitando migrar hacia un punto en el que tomamos esos objetos y los ponemos en movimiento, mostrando cmo sern utilizados. +Y, para hacerlo, hemos estado formando grupos internos de produccin de video, para hacer estos prototipos de la experiencia que muestren exactamente aquello a lo que nos referimos con la relacin hombre-mquina. +Es una manera mucho mejor de verlo. +Es como si los arquitectos mostraran sus casas con gente, en lugar de mostrarlas vacas. +As que pens en mostrarles algunos videos para lucir esta nueva y ms mplia definicin del diseo de productos, servicios y entornos. +Tengo algunos de ellos -- no duran ms de un minuto o minuto y medio cada uno -- pues pens que estaran interesados en conocer algo de nuestro trabajo del ltimo ao, y cmo se ve en video. +Veamos, Tienda Prada en Nueva York. Rem Koolhaas y OMA nos pidieron que los ayudemos a concebir la tecnologa que tienen en su tienda de Nueva York. +Queran un nuevo tipo de tienda -- una nueva -- una tienda con un rol cultural, adems del rol comercial. +Y eso significaba disear tecnologa a pedido en lugar de comprar objetos existentes y utilizarlos. +Hay muchas cosas. Todo tiene etiquetas RF (radio frecuencia): las tienen los usuarios, las tarjetas, el personal con dispositivos lectores est por toda la tienda. +Tomas uno y cuando escojes un producto en el que ests interesado el personal de la tienda lo escanea y se muestra en cualquiera de las pantallas repartidas por la tienda. +Puedes ver el color, tallas, cmo se excibi en la pasarela o lo que gustes. +Entonces el objeto -- la mercanca de tu inters -- puede ser escaneado. Luego es llevado al vestidor, y en l tambin hay escneres y as sabemos exactamente qu prendas tiene usted en el vestidor. +podemos colocarlas en una pantalla sensible al tacto y usted puede jugar con ellas, obtener ms informacin acerca de la prenda que le interese o que se est probando. +Ha sido utilizado en muchos lugares, pero me gusta particularmente el empleo que hacen ac de pantallas de cristal lquido en el cambiador. +La ltima vez que fui a ver esta tienda, haba un gran alboroto de gente parada afuera preguntndose "Realmente ver a la gente cambindose de ropa ac?" +Pero, por supuesto, al presionar un botn todo el muro se oscurece. +As, uno decide si pide o no opiniones sobre lo que se est probando. +Y uno de mis aditamentos tecnolgicos favoritos es el espejo mgico, donde uno se coloca las prendas. +Hay una gran pantalla en el espejo, y uno puede girar -- pero con un retardo de tres segundos. +As, uno sabe cmo se ve por atrs o al dar la vuelta, uno puede verse. +Hace aproximadamente un ao y medio nos pidieron disear una instalacin en el museo -- es una nueva ala del Museo de Ciencias de Londres, que trata principalmente sobre asuntos digitales y biomdicos. +Y un grupo en Itch, que es parte de IDEO, dise esta pared interactiva de cerca de 4 pisos de altura. +No se si alguno la habr visto -- se ve bastante espectacular en la habitacin. +Bueno, est basada en el sistema de trenes subterrneos de Londres. +Y podrn ver que el objetivo es obtener la realimentacin dada por la gente que visita el museo, y colocarla en un muro donde cualquiera pueda verla. Para que todo el mundo la vea. +Usted ingresa su informacin. Luego, tal como en el sistema de trenes de Londres, los pequeos trenes van por ah con sus pensamientos. +Cuando su mensaje llega a una estacin, se expande para que podamos leerlo. +Tambin, cuando usted sale del teatro IMAX en el cuarto piso -- principalmente adolescentes saliendo de ah -- hay un gran espacio abierto con mesas en l, que tienen juegos interactivos muy divertidos, tambin diseados por Durrel [Bishop] y Andrew [Hirniak] de Itch. +Y los tpicos incluyen los temas sobre los que trata el museo: fertilidad masculina, eligiendo el gnero sexual de su beb, o cmo sera un automvil sin conductor. +Hay mucho espacio, la gente puede venir y entender de qu se trata antes de involucrarse. +Tambin, aunque no se muestra en el video, estas son preciosas. +Suben hasta lo alto de la pared y cuando llegan ah, despus de rebotar por todos lados, se dispersan en pedacitos y desaparecen en la atmsfera. +El siguiente video no lo hicimos nosotros. +Estuvo en CBS Sunday Morning un domingo hace algo de dos semanas. +Scott Adams se nos acerc y pregunt si podramos ayudar a disear el mejor cubculo para Dilbert, lo cual sonaba divertido y no pudimos dejarlo pasar. +l siempre estuvo interesado en la tecnologa del futuro. +(Video: Scott Adams: He notado que en algn momento yo podra ser el experto mundial en lo que est mal en los cubculos. +As que pensamos, bueno, no sera divertido juntarnos con algunos de los muchachos ms listos del mundo del diseo y tratar de descubrir si podramos mejorar el cubculo? +Narrador: A pesar de trabajar en el amplio espacio de su oficina ubicada espectacularmente bajo el puente de la Baha Oakland en San Francisco, el equipo construy sus propios pequeos cubculos a fin de sentir los problemas. +Mujer: Un espejo unidireccional. Yo miro hacia afuera, tu te ves a ti mismo. +Narrador: Tomaron fotografas. +Mujer: Te sientes tan atrapada, cuando alguien medio que se apoya y te mantiene captiva ah por un minuto. +SA: Hasta ahora es un caos, pero mucha gente est haciendo cosas, as que es bueno. +Veremos qu sucede. +Narrador: El primer grupo construye un cubculo en el cual las paredes son pantallas para la computadora y las fotos familiares. +En el escenario del segundo grupo, las paredes estn vivas e incluso le dan a Dilbert un abrazo grupal. +Detrs del humor est la idea de hacer al cubculo ms humano.) David Kelley: Y tenemos el definitivo, completo con luz anaranjada que sigue al sol a travs -- que sigue el rastro del sol -- a travs del cielo. +As lo sientes en tu cubculo. +Mi detalle favorito, que es una flor en un jarrn que se marchita en desaprobacin cuando te vas, y luego, cuando regresas, se recupera para saludarte, feliz de verte. +(SA: El almacenamiento est incrustado en la pared.) DK: Saben? Tiene detalles hogareos, como peceras en las paredes, o algo para agredirlo y relajar la tensin. +(SA: Se puede configurar para el jefe de su eleccin.) DK: Y, por supuesto, una hamaca para la siesta vespertina que se extiende de un lado al otro del cubculo. +(SA: La vida sera dulce en un cubculo como este.) DK: En el prximo proyecto, nos pidieron disear un pabelln para celebrar el reciclaje de agua, en el Domo del Milenio en Londres. +El domo tiene una increble cantidad de agua pasando por l as como agua de deshecho. +As que este edificio en realidad celebra el agua que sale de la planta de reciclaje y regresa al canal para ser filtrada por ltima vez. +El objetivo de diseo del pabelln era ser silencioso y pacfico. +En contraste con el interior del domo, donde es ms o menos salvaje y alocado y todos aprenden todo tipo de cosas, o pasean, o hacen lo que sea. +Pero la intencin fue hacerlo muy silencioso. +As, podras deambular por ah buscando informacin, de manera instintiva, sobre el proceso de reciclaje y lo que se est haciendo, y cmo van a reutilizar el agua una vez que salga de la planta. +Y luego, si los vieron, los paneles rotan. As que puedes obtener la informacin en el lado frontal, pero cuando rotan, puedes ver la planta de reciclaje atrs, con todas las mquinas mientras impulsan el proceso del agua. +Pueden verla: Ah est la planta. +Estos son videos de bajo presupuesto, como prototipos rpidos. +Y estamos anunciando ac un nuevo producto hoy y es la primera vez que es mostrado en pblico. +Se llama Spyfish (Pez Espa), y su empresa se llama H2Eye, fundada por Nigel Jagger en Londres, +Y es una compaa que trata de traer la experiencia -- muchas personas tienen botes, o disfrutan de estar en botes, pero un pequeo porcentaje tiene la posibilidad real o el inters de ir bajo el agua y realmente ver lo que est ah, y disfrutar lo que hacen los buzos. +Este producto, tiene dos cmaras. +Lo bajas por el lado del bote y bsicamente buceas sin mojarte. +Ese es el objetivo. Para nosotros, eran dos proyectos. El primero, disear la interfaz para que no se cruce en tu camino +Puedes tener esa sensacin immersiva de estar bajo el agua -- o sentir que ests debajo del agua -- viendo qu est sucediendo. +Y el otro fue disear el objeto y asegurarnos de que fuera un producto de consumo y no herramienta de investigacin. +As que pasamos mucho tiempo -- hemos estado por algo de siete u ocho aos, en este proyecto -- y estamos listos para comenzar a producirlos. +(Narrador: La Spyfish es una cmara de video subacutica revolucionaria. +Puede sumergirse 500 pies (152 metros) hasta donde no llega la luz solar, y est equipada con poderosos reflectores. +Se convierte en tus ojos y oidos mientras te aventuras en las profundidades. +Alimentado por bateras, el Spyfish enva la seal de video en vivo por un delgado cable.) DK: Este cable delgado fue un gran avance tecnolgico. que permiti que todo el aparato tuviera esas dimensiones. +(Narrador: Y esta caja central conecta todos los componentes del sistema. +Manipular el "Spyfish" es simple a travs del control remoto inalmbrico. +Puedes ver el video con grficos sobrepuestos que indican la profundidad y orientacin. +Los grficos fludos y el sonido ambiental se combinan para ayudarte a extraviarte completamente bajo el agua.) DK: Y lo ltimo sobre lo que hablar es ApproTEC, que es un proyecto sobre el que estoy muy emocionado. +ApproTEC es una compaa iniciada por el Dr. Martin Fisher, un gran amigo mo. Es PhD de Stanford. +Estuvo en Kenya con Fulbright y tuvo una visin muy interesante, en la cual se dijo: "Debe haber emprendedores en Kenya; debe haber emprendedores en todas partes." +Y not que para matrimonios y funerales all podan conseguir suficiente dinero como para armar algo. +As que decidi comenzar a fabricar productos en Kenya con fabricantes kenianos -- diseados por gente como nosotros, pero llevados all. +Y, a la fecha -- Ha estado fuera solo algunos aos -- ha comenzado 19,000 compaas. +Ha creado 30,000 nuevos puestos de trabajo. +Y solo las ventas de sus productos -- esto es sin fines de lucro -- la venta de estos productos representa el 0.6% del PBI de Kenya. +Es una persona haciendo esto. Es algo bastante espectacular. +As que estamos en el proceso de ayudarlos a disear bombas manuales de bajo costo para pozos profundos para que estas persona que tienen un cuarto de acre de tierra puedan cosechar fuera de temporada. +Lo que hacen ahora es cultivar en la temporada lluviosa pero no pueden hacerlo fuera de temporada. +Y al hacer eso, la mujer que vieron primero -- ella es una maestra de escuela -- siempre quiso enviar a sus hijos a la universidad y ahora podr hacerlo, gracias a estas cosas. +As, con exprimidores de semillas, y bombas, y empacadores de heno y muchas herramientas elementales que estamos diseando -- mis alumnos de Stanford hacen esto como proyectos en clase e IDEO ha donado el tiempo de sus empleados para hacer este tipo de trabajo -- es impresionante ver su xito, el de Martin. +Estbamos adems pensando sobre la experiencia de Richard, y, por tanto -- -- diseamos este sombrero, porque saba que sera el ltimo del da y tendra que lidiar con l. As que solo tengo algo ms que decir. +Puedes leerlo? +Bueno, siempre es un poco gracioso cuando viene y husmea. +Saben? No quieren ser descorteces con l ni sentirse culpables, as que pens que esto ayudara, conmigo ac sentado. +As que vimos hoy en esta sesin muchas cosas interesantes que estn siendo diseadas y de todos los diferentes presentadores. +Y en mi trabajo, desde productos hasta ApproTEC, es muy emocionante que estemos tomando un enfoque ms humano hacia el diseo, que les incluyamos comportamientos y personalidades a los objetos que hacemos, y pienso que es grandioso. +Los diseadores son ms confiables y estan ms integrados con las estrategias de negocio de las compaas, y tengo que decirlo, me siento muy afortunado por el progreso que el diseo ha logrado desde el primer TED. Muchas gracias. +Bsicamente, hay un evento demogrfico importantsimo llevndose a cabo. +Y puede ser que al pasar del 50 por ciento de poblacin urbana quizs lleguemos a un punto de inflexin econmico. El mundo actual es un mapa de conectividad. +Pars, Londres y Nueva York solan ser las ciudades ms grandes. +Presenciamos el fin del auge del Oeste. Eso termin. +Las cantidades totales son abrumadoras. +Qu est sucediendo? Que los pueblos del mundo se estn vaciando. +La pregunta es: Por qu? +Y esta es la verdad sin barniz: "y el aire de la ciudad te har libre" decan en la Alemania del Renacimiento. Algunas personas van a lugares como Shanghai pero casi todas van a asentamientos irregulares... donde norma la esttica. +Y estas no son exactamente personas oprimidas por la pobreza. +Son personas que intentan salir de la pobreza tan rpido como pueden. +Son los constructores y, en gran medida, los diseadores dominantes. +Tienen infraestructura hecha en casa y una vida urbana vibrante. +Un sexto del PNB de la India sale de Mumbai. +Siempre estn mejorndose y, en algunos casos, el gobierno los est ayudando. +La educacin es lo ms importante que sucede en las ciudades. +Qu sucede en las calles de Mumbai? +Al Gore lo sabe. Bsicamente de todo. (ECONOMIA INFORMAL) +No hay desempleo en los asentamientos. Todos trabajan. +Un sexto de la humanidad est ah. Pronto sern ms. +Aqu viene la primera sorpresa. Las ciudades desactivaron la bomba poblacional. +Y aqu viene la segunda sorpresa. (LAS CIUDADES CREAN RIQUEZA). +Esas son las noticias de ac abajo. Pongmoslo en perspectiva. +Las estrellas han brillado sobre la vida en la tierra por miles de millones de aos. +Ahora nosotros estamos brillndoles de vuelta. +Gracias. +Yo hago dos cosas, diseo computadora mviles y estudio cerebros. +Y la charla de hoy se trata de cerebros y, Si! En algn lugar tengo un fan de cerebros. +Voy a, si me pueden poner la primera diapositiva, y vern el titulo de mi platica y mis dos afiliaciones. +As que de lo que voy a hablar, es el porqu no tenemos una buena teora acerca del cerebro, porque es importante que desarrollemos una y qu podemos hacer al respecto. +Intentar hacer eso en 20 minutos. Tengo dos afiliaciones. +La mayora de ustedes me conocen por mis das de Palm y Handspring pero tambin administro un instituto de investigacin cientfica sin fines de lucro. llamado el Instituto Redwood de Neurociencia en Menlo Park, y estudiamos neurociencia terica, y estudiamos como funciona la neo-corteza. +Voy a hablar acerca de todo eso. +Tengo slo una diapositiva sobre mi otra vida, las computadoras, y es sta. +Estos son algunos de los productos que desarroll en los ltimos 20 aos, empezando desde la muy original laptop hasta algunas de las primeras computadoras de panel. y as sucesivamente, hasta llegar recientemente al Treo. y continuamos haciendo sto. +Y he hecho sto porque realmente creo que la computacin mvil es el futuro de la computacin personal, y estoy intentando hacer un mundo un poco mejor, trabajando sobre estas cosas. +Pero esto fue, tengo que admitir, un accidente. +Realmente no quise crear ninguno de estos productos y muy temprano en mi carrera decid que no iba a estar en la industria de la computacin. +Y antes de comentarles de todo eso, tengo que decirles que esta pequea imagen de graffiti que saqu de la red el otro da. +Estaba buscando una imagen de graffiti, un pequeo lenguaje de entrada de texto, y encontr el sitio web dedicado a maestros que quieren hacer estos, texto escrito en la parte superior de sus pizarrones, y le haban agregado graffiti, y lo lamento. +Esto no es un cerebro de verdad. Esto es una imagen de uno en arte lineal. +Pero no recuerdo exactamente como sucedi, pero tengo un recuerdo, que es bastante fuerte en mi mente. +En septiembre 1979, Scientific American public un nmero de un slo tema acerca del cerebro. Y fue bastante bueno. +Fue uno de los mejores nmeros publicados. Y escribieron sobre la neurona, el desarrollo, enfermedad, la visin y todas las cosas que quisieras saber acerca de los cerebros. Esto fue bastante impresionante. +Podemos tener la impresin de que sabemos mucho acerca del cerebro. +Pero el ltimo articulo de ese numero fue escrito por Francis Crick de la fama ADN. +Hoy es, creo, el 50vo aniversario del descubrimiento del ADN. +El escribi una nota que bsicamente deca, bueno, que esto esta todo muy bien, pero saben que, no sabemos nada del cerebro y nadie tiene idea de como funcionan estas cosas, as que no crean nada de lo que les digan. +Este es una cita de lo que deca el articulo. Dijo, "Lo que se carece evidentemente" es un educado caballero Ingles asi que, "Lo que se carece evidentemente es un extenso marco de refrencia sobre el cual interpretar los diferentes enfoques." +Yo pens que "marco de referencia" era excelente. +No dijo que no tenemos siquiera una teora. Dice, ni siquiera sabemos como empezar a pensar en ello -- ni siquiera tenemos un marco de referencia. +Estamos en los das del pre-paradigma si quieres usar a Thomas Kuhn. +As que me enamor de esto y dije mira, Tenemos todo este conocimiento acerca de cerebros. Qu tan difcil puede ser? +Y esto es algo con lo que podemos trabajar durante mi vida. Sent que poda hacer una diferencia, a si que intent salirme del negocio del computo, y entrar al del cerebro. +Primero, fu a MIT, el laboratorio de inteligencia artificial estaba ah, y dije, bueno, tambin quiero crear mquinas inteligentes. pero la manera que quiero hacerlo es estudiando cmo funciona el cerebro. +Ellos dijeron, no tienes que hacer eso. +Slo vamos a programar computadoras, es todo lo que necesitamos hacer. +Y yo dije, no, realmente deberan estudiar cerebros. ellos dijeron, sabes que, estas mal. Y le dije no, ustedes estn mal, y no me dejaron entrar. +Pero estaba un poco decepcionado -- bastante joven, pero regrese unos aos despus en California y fui a Berkeley. +Y dije, llegar por el lado biolgico. +As que entr - al doctorado en Biofsica, y pens, bien, Ya estoy estudiando cerebros, y dije, bien, quiero estudiar teora. +Y ellos dijeron, oh no, no se puede estudiar teora de cerebros. +Eso no es algo que se hace. No te dan fondos para hacer eso. +Y como graduado, no puedes hacer eso. As que dije, rayos. +Estaba muy deprimido. Dije, pero puedo hacer una diferencia en este campo. +As que lo que hice fue regresar a la industria de las computadoras y dije, bueno, tendr que trabajar aqu un tiempo, hacer algo. +Eso es cuando disee todos esos productos de computadora. +Y dije, quiero hacer esto cuatro aos, ganar dinero, estaba formando una familia y madurara un poco, y quiz el negocio de la neurociencia tambin madurara un poco. +Bueno, tom mas de cuatro aos. Van como 16 aos. +Pero ya lo estoy haciendo, y les voy a platicar al respecto. +As que Por qu debemos tener una buena teora cerebral? +Pues hay muchas razones por las que las personas hacen ciencia. +Una es -- la ms bsica -- es que nos gusta saber las cosas. +Somos curiosos, y salimos a buscar conocimiento, cierto? +Por qu estudiamos las hormigas? Pues, porque es interesante. +Quiz aprendamos algo realmente til al respecto, pero es interesante y fascinante. +Pero a veces, una ciencia tiene otros atributos que lo hacer verdaderamente interesante. +A veces la ciencia nos dice algo al respecto de nosotros mismos, nos dice quienes somos. +Rara vez, tu sabes, la evolucin hizo esto y Copernico hizo esto, donde tenemos un nuevo entendimiento de que quienes somos. +Y finalmente, somos nuestros cerebros. Mi cerebro habla a tu cerebro. +Nuestros cuerpos estn como pasajeros, pero mi cerebro habla con tu cerebro. +Y si queremos entender quienes somos y como nos sentimos y percibimos, realmente entenderemos que son los cerebros. +Entonces Por qu no tenemos una buena teora de cerebros? +Y las personas llevan 100 aos trabajando en ello. +Bueno, primero observemos como es la ciencia normal. +Esto es ciencia normal. +La ciencia normal tiene un buen balance entre la teora y la experimentacin. +As que los tericos dicen, buen, yo creo que esto es lo que est sucediendo, y los experimentales dicen, no, estas mal. +Luego va y viene, sabes? +Esto funciona en la fsica, en la geologa. Pero esto es ciencia normal, Cmo se ve la neurociencia? As es como se ve la neurociencia. +Tenemos esta montaa de datos, que son anatoma, fisiologa y comportamiento. +No puedes imaginarte cuanto detalle tenemos sobre los cerebros. +Hubieron 28,000 personas que atendieron a la conferencia de neurociencia este ao, y cada uno de ellos esta haciendo investigaciones sobre el cerebro. +Son muchos datos. Pero no hay teora. Hay este cuadro pequea y dbil encima. +Y la teora no ha jugado un rol significativo en la neurociencia. +Y esto es una lastima. Por qu a sucedido esto? +Si le preguntas a un neurocientfico, Por qu es este estado? En primera instancia lo admitirn. Pero si les preguntas, dirn, bueno, hay varias razones por las que no tenemos una buena teora del cerebro. +Algunas personas dicen, bueno, aun no tenemos suficientes datos, necesitamos obtener ms informacin, hay todas estas cosas que sabemos. +Bueno, acabo de decirte que hay datos saliendo hasta por las orejas. +Tenemos tanta informacin que no sabemos ni como empezar a organizarla. +De qu nos va a servir mas informacin? +Quiz tengamos suerte y descubramos alguna solucin mgica, pero lo dudo. +Esto es realmente un sntoma del hecho de que no tenemos una teora. +No necesitamos mas datos -- necesitamos una buena teora al respecto. +Otra es que a veces las personas dicen, es que, los cerebros son tan complejos, que tomara otros 50 aos. +Incluso creo que Chris, dijo algo as ayer. +No estoy seguro de lo que dijiste, Chris, pero fue algo como, bueno, es una de las cosas mas complicadas en el universo. Eso no es verdad. +Tu eres mas complicado que tu cerebro. Tienes un cerebro. +Tambin, aunque el cerbero se ve muy complicado, las cosas se ven complicadas hasta que las entiendes. +Ese siempre es el caso. As que todos podemos decir, bueno, mi neo-corteza, que es la parte del cerebro en la que estoy interesada tiene 30 mil millones de clulas. +Pero, Sabes qu? Es muy, muy regular. +Es ms, parece ser lo mismo repetido una y otra vez. +No es tan complejo como parece. Ese no es el tema. +Algunas personas dicen, los cerebros no pueden entender cerebros. +Se escucha muy Zen. Wow. Tu sabes -- Se escucha bien, pero Por qu? Es decir, Cul es el caso? +Son slo un montn de clulas. Entiendes tu hgado. +Tambin tiene muchas clulas, Verdad? +As que, tu sabes, no creo que tenga mucha validez eso. +Finalmente, algunas personas dicen, bueno, No me siento como un montn de clulas. Estoy conciente. +Tengo esta experiencia, estoy en el mundo. +No puedo ser slo un montn de clulas. Bueno, las personas antes crean que haba una fuerza vital para pode vivir, y sabemos que eso no es realmente cierto para nada. +Y no hay evidencia que diga, bueno, a dems de que las personas simplemente no creen que las clulas hacen lo que hacen. +As que, si las personas han cado en el pozo del dualismo metafsico, algunas personas muy inteligentes, pero podemos rechazar todo eso. +No, no te voy a decir que hay algo mas, y realmente es fundamental y esto es lo que es: hay otra razn por la que no tenemos una buena teora del cerebro, y es porque tenemos una intuitiva, y fuerte, pero incorrecta suposicin que nos ha prevenido de ver la respuesta. +Hay algo que creemos que simplemente, es obvio, pero esta mal. +Hay una historia al respecto en la ciencia y antes que te diga cual es, Te voy a contar un poco al respecto de la historia de ello en la ciencia. +Si observas otras revoluciones cientficas, y en este caso, estoy hablando del sistema solar, se es Copernico, La evolucin de Darwin, las placas tectnicas, se es Wegner. +Y todos tienen mucho en comn con la ciencia cerebral. +Antes que nada, tenan muchos datos inexplicables. Muchos. +Pero se volvi mucho ms manejable una vez que tuvieron una teora. +Las mejores mentes estaban atoradas, personas muy, muy inteligentes. +No somos mas inteligentes hoy de lo que ellos eran en ese entonces. +Simplemente resulta que es muy difcil pensar en las cosas, pero una vez que las has razonado, es fcil de entender. +Mis hijas entendieron estas tres teoras en su marco de referencia bsica para cuando estaban en el Jardn de Nios. +Y ahora no es tan difcil, aqu hay una manzana, aqu una naranja, la tierra gira, y ese tipo de cosas. +Finalmente, otra cosa es que la respuesta siempre estuvo all, pero la ignoramos por ser obvia, y ese es el punto. +Era una creencia intuitiva que estaba incorrecta. +En el caso del Sistema Solar, la idea de que la tierra esta girando y la superficie de la Tierra va como a mil kilmetros por hora, y que la Tierra va por el Sistema Solar a un milln de kilmetros por hora. +Es una locura. Todos sabemos que la Tierra no se esta moviendo. +Tu sientes que te estas moviendo a miles de kilmetros por hora? +Por supuesto que no. Hubo alguien que dijo, que estaba girando en el espacio y que es inmenso, te encerraran, y eso es lo que hacan en ese entonces. +As que fue intuitivo y obvio. Y que tal la evolucin? +La evolucin es lo mimo. Le enseamos a nuestros hijos, pues, a Biblia dice, que Dios creo a todas las especies, gatos son gatos, perros son perros, personas son personas, plantas son plantas, no cambian. +No los puso en el Arca en ese orden, blah, blah, blah. Y tu sabes, el hecho es que, si crees en la evolucin, todos tenemos un ancestro en comn, y todo tenemos tenemos como ancestro comn con la planta en la recepcin. +Esto es lo que nos dice la evolucin. Y es verdad. Es un poco increble. +Y es lo mismo con las placas tectnicas +Todas las montaas y los continentes estn como que flotando encima de la Tierra. Esto como que no tiene sentido. +As que Cul es la intuitiva pero incorrecta suposicin, que ha evitado que entendamos el cerebro? +Ahora te lo voy a decir, y va a parecer tan obvio que es correcto, y ese el el punto, No? Entonces voy a tener que hacer un argumento de porque es incorrecta la otra suposicin. +La cosa intuitiva pero obvia es que de alguna manera la inteligencia es definida por el comportamiento, que somos inteligentes por la manera en que hacemos las cosas y la manera en que actuamos con inteligencia, y te voy a decir que eso esta mal. +Lo que es inteligencia esta definido por la prediccin. +Y voy a llevarte a esto en unas pocas diapositivas, darte un ejemplo de lo que esto significa. Aqu hay un sistema. +A los ingenieros les gusta ver a los sistemas de esta manera. +Dicen, bueno, tenemos esto en una caja y tenemos sus entradas y salidas. +Los de IA dicen, bueno la caja es una computadora programable porque es el equivalente a un cerebro, le daremos entradas y haremos que haga algo, tenga un comportamiento. +Y Alan Turing defini la prueba de Turing, que esencialmente dice, sabremos que algo es inteligente si acta idntico a un humano, +Una mtrica de comportamiento de lo que es la inteligencia es, y esto se a pegado en nuestra mente por mucho tiempo. +Pero la realidad, yo le llamo inteligencia real. +La inteligencia real esta construida con algo mas. +Experimentamos el mundo por una secuencia de los patrones, y los almacenamos, y los recordamos. Cuando los recordamos, los comparamos contra la realidad, y estamos haciendo predicciones todo el tiempo. +Es una mtrica eterna. Hay una mtrica eterna cuando decimos, Entendemos el mundo? Estoy haciendo predicciones? Etc... +Todos estn siendo inteligentes en este momento y no estn haciendo nada. +Quiz te ests rascando, o escarbandote la nariz, No lo se, pero no estas haciendo nada en este momento, pero estas siendo inteligente, entiendes lo que estoy diciendo. +Porque eres inteligente y puedes hablar Espaol, sabes cul es la palabra al final de este -- enunciado. +La palabra te llego, y estas haciendo estas predicciones todo el tiempo. +Y luego, lo que esto diciendo es, que esa eterna prediccin es el resultado de la neo-corteza. +Y de alguna manera, la prediccin nos lleva a comportamiento inteligente. +y as es que sucede. Empecemos con un cerebro sin inteligencia. +Bueno yo discuto un cerebro no inteligente, obtenemos un cerebro viejo, y vamos a decir que no es de un mamfero, como un reptil, as que dir, un lagarto, tenemos un lagarto. +Y el lagarto tiene unos sentidos muy sofisticados. +Tiene buenos ojos y odos y sentido del tacto y as sucesivamente una boca y una nariz. Y tiene un comportamiento muy complejo. +Puede correr y ocultarse. Tiene temores y emociones. Te puede comer, sabes. +Puede atacar. Puede hacer muchas cosas. +Pero no consideramos al lagarto muy inteligente, no como un humano al menos. +Pero ya tiene todo este comportamiento complejo. +Ahora, en la evolucin, Qu sucedi? +Lo primero que paso en la evolucin con los mamiferos es que empezamos a desarrollar la neo-corteza. +Y voy a representar a la neo-corteza aqu, por esta caja que se encuentra encima del cerebro viejo. +Neo-corteza significa nueva capa. Es una nueva capa sobre tu cerebro. +Si no lo sabes es esa cosa arrugada en la parte superior de tu cabeza que, se arrugo porque fue retacada ah y no cabe. +No, en serio, es lo que es. Tiene el tamao de una servilleta de mesa. +Y no cabe, asi que se arruga. Ahora ve lo que he dibujado, esto aqu. +El cerebro viejo sigue ahi. An tienes ese cerebro de lagarto. +Ah esta. Es tu cerebro emocional. +Es todas esas cosas, y reacciones espontaneas que tienes. +Encima de ello, tenemos este sistema de memoria llamado la neo-corteza. +Y el sistema de memoria esta sobre la parte sensorial del cerebro. +As que conforme entra la parte sensorial y alimenta desde el viejo cerebro, Tambin sube a la neo-corteza. Y la neo-corteza es simplemente memorizacin. +Esta ah diciendo, ah, voy a memorizar todas las cosas que suceden, dnde he estado, personas que he visto, cosas que he escuchado, as sucesivamente. +Y en el futuro, cuando ve algo similar a eso de nuevo, en un ambiente similar, o el mismo ambiente, lo reproduce. Empieza a reproducirlo. +Oh, ya he estado aqu antes. Y cuando he estado aqu antes, esto sucedi despus. Te permite predecir el futuro. +Te permite; literalmente retroalimenta las seales a tu cerebro, te permiten ver qu es lo que suceder despus, te permitir escuchar la palabra enunciado aun antes que lo dijera. +Y es esta retroalimentacin al cerebro viejo que te permite tomar decisiones ms inteligentes. +sta es la mas importante diapositiva de mi platica, as que har hincapi en ella. +As que, todo el tiempo dices, oh, puedo predecir cosas. +En humanos, por cierto, esto es verdad en todos los mamferos, esto es verdad para otros mamferos, y en humanos, se puso peor. +En humanos, desarrollamos la parte frontal de la neo-corteza. llamada la parte anterior de la neocorteza. Y la naturaleza hizo un pequeo truco. +Copi la parte posterior, la de atrs, que es sensorial, y la puso en el frente +Los humanos tenemos de manera nica el mismo mecanismo al frente, pero o usamos para control motriz. +As que ahora podemos hacer planeacin motriz muy sofisticada, y cosas as. +No tengo tiempo de entrar en detalle, pero si quieres entender como funciona el cerebro, tienes que entender cmo funciona la primera parte de la neo-corteza del mamfero, cmo es que almacenamos patrones y hacemos predicciones. +As que permtem dar algunos ejemplos de predicciones. +Y estas cosas suceden todo el tiempo. Ests haciendo predicciones. +Yo tengo esta cosa llamada el experimento de la puerta alterada. +Y el experimento de la puerta alterada dice, tienes una puerta en casa, y cuando estas aqui, yo estoy cambindolo, tengo un seor en tu casa en este momento moviendo la puerta, y va a tomar la perilla y la mover dos pulgadas. +Y cuando llegues a casa esta noche vas a extender tu mano, y vas a extender tu mano hacia la perilla y vas a notar que esta en el lugar equivocado, y dirs, oye, algo paso. +Puede que te tome un segundo averiguar que fue, pero algo paso. +Ahora podira cambiar tu puerta en otras maneras. +Ahora, la manera ingenieril de aproximar esto, la manera IA de aproximarlo, es construir una base de datos de puertas. Tiene todos los atributos de puertas. +Y conforme te acercas a la puerta,recorremos lista una por una. +Puerta, puerta, puerta, tu sabes, color, tu sabes lo que digo. +No hacemos eso. Tu cerebro no hace eso. +Lo que tu cerebro esta haciendo es predicciones constantes todo el tiempo acerca de lo que va a pasar en tu ambiente. +Conforme pongo mi mano en esta mesa, espero sentir que se detenga. +Cuando camino, cada paso, si fallo por 5 milmetros, Yo sabre que algo ha cambiado. +Estas constantemente haciendo predicciones acerca de tu entorno. +Hablar brevemente acerca de la visin. Esta es la imagen de una mujer. +Y cuando ves a las personas, tus ojos estn analizando puntos de dos a 3 veces por segundo. +No estas consciente de eso, pero tus ojos siempre estn en movimiento. +As que cuando ves la cara de alguien, comnmente recorres de ojo a ojo a ojo a nariz a boca. +Ahora, cuando tus ojos se mueven de ojo a ojo, si hubiera algo diferente ah como una nariz, veras una nariz donde se supone debe haber un ojo, y diras, mierda, tu sabes -- Hay algo mal con esta persona. +Y es porque estas haciendo una prediccin. +No es como si vieras y dijeras, Qu estoy viendo? +Una nariz, esta bien. No, tienes una expectativa de lo que vas a ver. +En cada momento. Y finalmente, pensemos acerca de cmo probamos la inteligencia. +La probamos por medio de la prediccin. Cul es la siguiente palabra en este, tu sabes? +Esto es a esto como esto es a esto. Cul es el siguiente nmero en este enunciado? +Aqu hay tres vistas de un objeto. +Cul es la cuarta? As es como lo probamos. Se trata de predicciones. +As que Cul es la receta para una teora del cerebro? +Antes que nada, tenemos que tener el marco de referencia correcto. +Y el marco es un marco de memoria, no un marco de comportamiento o cmputo. Es un marco de memoria. +Cmo almacenas y recuerdas estas secuencias o patrones? Son patrones espacio-temporales. +Entonces, si en ese marco, tomas un montn de tericos. +Los bilogos por lo general no son buenos tericos. +No siempre es verdad, pero en general, no hay buena historia de teora en la biologa. +As que encontr que es mejor trabajar con fsicos, ingenieros y matemticos, que tienden a pensar de manera algortmica, +Entonces ellos tiene que aprender la anatoma y luego aprender la fisiologa. +Tienes que hacer que estas teoras sean muy realistas en trminos anatmicos. +Cualquiera que se pone de pie y te cuenta su teora de como funciona el cerebro y no te dice exactamente como funciona dentro del cerebro y como funciona el cableado dentro del cerebro, no es una teora. +Y eso es lo que estamos haciendo en el Instituto Redwood Neuroscience. +Me encantara tener mas tiempo para contarte del avance fantstico que tenemos en ello, y espero estar de regreso en este estrado, quiz esto ser en un futuro no muy lejano para que te cuente al respecto. +Estoy muy, muy emocionado. Esto no va a tomar 50 aos. +As que Cmo ser la teora cerebral? +Antes que nada, tiene que ser una teora respecto a la memoria. +No como la memoria de computadora. No es nada como la memoria de computadora. +Es muy distinta. Y es una memoria de estos patrones dimensionales, como las cosas que vienen de tus ojos. +Es tambin memoria de secuencias. +No puedes aprender o recordar algo fuera de secuencia. +Una cancin debe ser escuchada en secuencia en el tiempo, y debes reproducirla en secuencia en el tiempo. +Y estas secuencias son recordadas auto-asociadas, as que si veo algo, Escucho algo, me recuerda a ello, y se reproduce automticamente. +Es una reproduccin automtica. La prediccin del futuro gestiona el resultado deseado. +Y como dije, la teora debe ser biolgicamente acertada, debe ser comprobable, y debes poderlo reconstruir. +Si no lo construyes, no lo entiendes. As que una diapositiva mas aqu. +En qu va a resultar esto? Realmente vamos a construir maquinas inteligentes? +Por supuesto. Y va a ser diferente de como creen las personas. +No hay duda alguna en mi mente de que va a suceder. +Antes que nada, va a escalarse, vamos a construirlo de silicio. +Las mismas tcnicas que usamos para construir memorias de computadora de silicio, las podemos usar para esto. +Pero son memorias muy distintas. +Y vamos a conectar esas memorias a sensores, y a los sensores los expondremos a datos de la vida real, y estas cosas van a aprender de su entorno. +Ahora es muy poco probable que las primeras cosas que veas sean como robots. +No que los robots no sean tiles y las personas pueden construir robots. +Pero la parte robtica es la parte ms difcil. Es el cerebro antiguo. Eso es realmente difcil. +El nuevo cerebro es realmente ms fcil que el cerebro viejo. +As que lo primero que vamos a hacer son aquellas que no requieren mucha robtica. +Asi que no veras a C-3PO. +Vers cosas como autos inteligentes que realmente entienden lo que es el trfico y lo que es manejar y han aprendido que cierto tipo de auto con la direccional encendida por medio minuto probablemente no van a dar vuelta, cosas as. +Tambin podemos hacer sistemas de seguridad inteligentes. +Donde sea que estemos usando nuestro cerebro, pero no haya mucha mecnica. +stas son las cosas que van a suceder primero. +Pero en ltima instancia, el mundo es nuestro limite. +No se como vaya a salir esto. +Conozco muchas personas que inventaron el microprocesador y si hablas con ellos, saban que lo que hacan era muy significativo, pero ellos no saban realmente lo que iba a pasar. +No podan anticipar celulares y el Internet y ese tipo de cosas. +Simplemente saban que, oye, vamos a construir calculadoras y controladores de semforos. Pero va a ser grande. +De la misma manera, es como la ciencia del cerebro y estas memorias van a ser una tecnologia fundamental, y nos va a llevar a cambios increbles en los prximos 100 aos. +Y estoy muy emocionado de como vamos a usarlos en la ciencia. +As que creo que es todo mi tiempo, ya me pase, voy a terminar mi platica ah mismo. +Quisiera empezar esta noche con algo completamente diferente, pidindoles que me acompaen, alejndose de tierra firme y lanzndose al ocano por un momento. +90 por ciento del rea habitable en el planeta est en el ocano abierto, y es donde la vida--el ttulo de nuestro seminario esta noche--es donde comenz la vida. +Y es un lugar vivo y encantador, pero estamos cambiando rpidamente los ocanos con nuestro-- no slo con nuestra pesca excesiva, nuestra pesca irresponsable, aadiendo contaminantes como los fertilizantes de nuestra tierra de cultivo. Pero tambin, ms recientemente, con el cambio climtico, y Steve Schneider, estoy segura, hablar con gran detalle sobre esto. +Ahora, as como continuamos manipulando sin conocimiento los ocanos, ms y ms informes predicen que los tipos de mares que estamos creando propiciarn el crecimiento de animales de baja energa, como la medusa y la bacteria. +Y este puede ser el tipo de mares a los que nos encaminamos. +Ahora bien, las medusas son extraamente hipnticas y bellas, y podrn ver muchas medusas magnficas en el acuario el viernes, pero pican una barbaridad, y el sushi y sashimi de medusa simplemente no te llenar. +Aproximadamente 100 gramos de medusa equivalen a cuatro caloras. +As que puede ser bueno para mantener la lnea, pero probablemente no te mantendr satisfecho por mucho tiempo. +Y un mar que solamente est lleno y rebosante de medusas no es muy bueno para todas las dems criaturas que viven en los ocanos, es decir, a menos que se alimenten de medusas +Y este es, este voraz predador lanzando un ataque sorpresa a esta pobre y pequea medusa ah desprevenida, una velero. +Y ese depredador es el pez luna gigante, el Mola mola, cuya presa principal son las medusas. +Este animal est en el "Libro Guinness de Rcords Mundiales" por ser el pez seo ms pesado. +Alcanza casi las 5,000 libras--con una dieta a base de medusas, principalmente. +Y pienso que en cierto modo esta es una bonita coincidencia cosmolgica, que el Mola mola--su nombre comn en espaol es pez luna-- en ingls literal -pez sol- que su comida favorita sea la medusa luna. +As que es bonito, que el sol y la luna se unan de esta forma, aunque uno se est comiendo al otro. +Ahora, as es como normalmente puedes ver un pez luna, esto es por lo que ellos toman su nombre (en ingls). +Les gusta tomar el sol, no puedo culparlos. +Sencillamente flotan en la superficie del mar la mayora de la gente piensa que estn enfermos o son flojos, pero este es un comportamiento tpico, se recuestan y toman el sol en la superficie. +Su otro nombre, Mola mola es--suena Hawaiano, pero en realidad viene del latn que quiere decir piedra de molino, y eso es atribuible a su forma redondeada, muy rara, cortada. +Es como si, a medida que iban creciendo, se les olvid la parte de la cola. +Y eso es precisamente lo que me atrajo hacia el Mola en primer lugar, fue esa forma terriblemente rara. +Saben, uno mira a los tiburones, y son aerodinmicos, y son elegantes, y uno mira los atunes, y son como torpedos-- simplemente dan a conocer su plan. Ellos son migracin y fuerza, y luego uno mira al pez luna. +Y este es simplemente elegantemente misterioso, es simplemente-- realmente como que esconde sus cartas un poco mejor que digamos, el atn. +As que yo estaba intrigada con--ustedes saben, con cul es la historia de este animal? +Bueno, as como cualquier cosa en biologa, nada tiene sentido realmente, excepto a la luz de la evolucin. +El Mola no es la excepcin. +Ellos aparecieron un poco despus de que los dinosaurios desaparecieran, hace 65 millones de aos, en una poca en la que las ballenas todava tenan patas, y proceden de un grupo de pequeos y rebeldes peces globo- permtanme ahora contar una pequea historia de forma Kiplinesca. +Por supuesto la evolucin es de alguna manera al azar, y saben, aproximadamente hace 55 millones de aos exista este pequeo y rebelde grupo de peces globo que dijeron, oh, al diablo con los arrecifes de coral--- vamos a ir a alta mar. +Y muchas generaciones, muchos pellizcos y torsiones, y convertimos a nuestro pez globo en Mola. +Saben, si le dan suficiente tiempo a la Madre Naturaleza, esto es lo que ella producir. +Se ven---tal vez se ven un poco como prehistricos y sin terminar, tal vez reducidos, pero de hecho, de hecho son los-- compiten por la primera posicin de los peces ms evolucionado-derivados en el mar, junto con el lenguado. +Son---cada cosa de ese pez ha sido cambiada. +Y en trminos de peces--- los peces aparecieron hace 500 millones de aos, y son bastante modernos, hace solamente 50 millones de aos, as que-- as que de modo interesante, revelan su ascendencia a medida que se desarrollan. +Empiezan siendo pequeos huevos, y estn otra vez en el "Libro Guinness de Rcords Mundiales" por tener el mayor nmero de huevos de cualquier vertebrado en el planeta. +Una sola hembra de cuatro pies tuvo 300 millones de huevos, puede cargar 300 millones de huevos en sus ovarios--imaginen-- y llegan a medir 10 pies de largo. Imaginen lo que tiene uno de 10 pies. +Y de ese pequeo huevo. pasan por esta fase de pequeo y espinudo pez puercoespn, evocando a sus ancestros, y se desarrollan--esta es su etapa adolescente. +De adolescentes nadan en bancos, y de adultos se convierten en enormes solitarios. +Ese es un pequeo buceador ah en la esquina. +Estn en el "Libro Guinness de Rcords Mundiales, de nuevo por ser el campen mundial en crecimiento de los vertebrados. +Desde su tamao de incubacin en el huevo, hasta su etapa de larva hasta que alcanzan la edad adulta, incrementan 600 millones de veces su peso. +600 millones. Ahora imaginen que ustedes dan a luz a un bebito, y tuvieran que alimentar esta cosa. +Eso querra decir que su hijo, esperaran que ganara el peso de seis Titanics. +Ahora bien, no s cmo alimentaran a un nio como ese pero-- no sabemos qu tan rpido los Molas crecen en estado natural, pero los estudios sobre crecimiento en captividad en el Acuario de la Baha de Monterrey-- uno de los primeros lugares en tenerlos en captividad-- ellos tuvieron uno que gan 800 libras en 14 meses. +Yo dije, bueno , ese es un verdadero Americano. +De modo que ser un solitario es una gran cosa, especialmente en los mares de hoy porque nadar en bancos sola ser la salvacin para los peces, pero ahora es suicidio para los peces. +Pero desafortunadamente los Molas, a pesar de que no nadan en bancos, todava quedan atrapados en las redes como pesca accidental. +Si vamos a salvar al mundo de la dominacin total de las medusas, entonces tenemos que pensar lo que los predadores de medusas-- cmo viven sus vidas, como el Mola. +Y desafortunadamente, ellos forman una gran parte de la pesca accidental de California-- hasta un 26 por ciento de la red de arrastre. +Y en el Mediterrneo, en la pesca de pez espada con red, forman hasta el 90 por ciento. +De forma que debemos averigar cmo estn viviendo sus vidas. +Y cmo se hace eso? +Cmo se hace eso con un animal--muy pocos lugares en el mundo. +Este es una criatura del ocano abierto. No conoce fronteras--no va a tierra firme. +Cmo puede uno comprender? +Cmo seduce uno a una criatura del ocano como esa para que cuente sus secretos? +Bueno, hay una nueva y grandiosa tecnologa que acaba de volverse accesible, y precisamente es un beneficio para comprender a los animales del ocano. +Y se puede ver justo aqu. Esa pequea etiqueta ah arriba. +Esa pequea etiqueta puede grabar temperatura, profundidad e intensidad de la luz, lo que se correlaciona con el tiempo, y gracias a eso podemos obtener la localizacin. +As que la gran cosa del Mola es que cuando les ponemos una etiqueta--si ven aqu arriba-- va siguiendo la corriente, ah es justo donde pusimos la etiqueta. +Y justamente ocurre que ese es un parsito pegado al Mola. +Los Molas tienen la mala reputacin de cargar con toneladas de parsitos. +Ellos simplemente son hoteles de parsitos, incluso sus parsitos tienen parsitos. +Creo que Donne escribi un poema sobre eso. +Pero ellos tienen 40 especies de parsitos, y as pues supusimos que un parsito ms no sera mucho problema. +Y resulta que ellos son un muy buen vehculo para transportar equipo oceanogrfico. +Hasta ahora, no parece importarles. +As que, qu estamos intentando averigar? Nos hemos enfocado en el Pacfico. +Estamos etiquetando en la costa de California, y estamos etiquetando en Taiwan y Japn. +Y estamos interesados en cmo estos animales estn usando las corrientes, usando la temperatura, usando el ocano, para vivir sus vidas. +Nos encantara etiquetar en Monterrey. +Monterrey es uno de los pocos lugares en el mundo donde los Molas llegan en grandes nmeros. +No en esta poca del ao--es ms alrededor de Octubre. +Y nos encantara etiquetar aqu--esta es una toma area de Monterrey-- pero desafortunadamente, los Molas aqu terminan vindose as. Porque a otro de nuestros vecinos del lugar le gustan los Molas pero no en el buen sentido. +El len marino de California agarra los Molas tan pronto como ellos entran a la baha, les quita las aletas, los modela como un grandioso frisbee, estilo mola, y luego los zarandea de un lado a otro. +Y no estoy exagerando, es simplemente-- y algunas veces no se los comen, es francamente malvolo. +Y saben, los vecinos del lugar piensan que es un comportamiento terrible, es simplemente horrible ver que esto pase, da tras da, +Los pobres pequeos Molas llegando, siendo despedazados, de modo que nos dirigimos hacia el sur, a San Diego. +Aqu abajo no hay tantos leones marinos de California. +Y los Molas ah, los puedes encontrar fcilmente con un avin para localizar bancos de peces, y les gusta estar debajo de masas flotantes de algas marinas. +Y debajo de esas algas marinas--esto es por lo que los Molas vienen aqu porque es la hora del spa para los Molas aqu. +Tan pronto como ellos se colocan bajo esa masa flotante de algas marinas, los peces limpiadores exfoliantes vienen. +Y vienen y les dan a los Molas-- pueden ver que ellos se colocan en esta chistosa posicin que dice, "No estoy amenazando, pero necesito un masaje." +Y pondrn sus aletas hacia afuera y sus ojos en blanco, y los peces vienen y limpian, limpian, limpian-- porque los Molas, saben, son un restaurante de parsitos. +Y tambin es un buen lugar para ir al sur porque el agua es ms tibia, y los Molas son como ms amistosos ah abajo. +Quiero decir qu otro tipo de pez, si uno se acerca de buen modo, dira, "Ok, rscame justo aqu." +Uno verdaderamente puede nadar hacia un Mola, son tan gentiles, y si uno se acerca de buena forma, puede rascarlos y ellos lo disfrutan. +De manera que hemos etiquetado una parte del Pacfico, hemos ido a otra parte del Pacfico, y hemos etiquetado en Taiwan, y en Japn. +Y tambin en estos lugares, los Molas caen en las redes colocadas a lo largo de estos pases. +Y no son devueltos como desperdicio, se comen. +Nos sirvieron una comida de nueve platos de Mola despus de que etiquetamos. +Bueno, no el que etiquetamos! +Y todo desde el rin, hasta las conchas, hasta la espina dorsal, hasta el msculo de la aleta hasta--creo que casi todo el pez-- es comido. +As que la parte ms difcil de etiquetar, ahora, es despus de que pones la etiqueta, debes esperar, meses. +Y uno se esta preguntando, oh, espero que el pez est bien, Yo espero, yo espero que sea capaz de vivir realmente su vida durante el tiempo que la etiqueta est grabando. +Las etiquetas cuestan 3500 dlares cada una, y el tiempo de satlite son otros 500 dlares, as que ests como, oh, espero que la etiqueta est bien. +Y entonces la espera es realmente la parte ms difcil. +Les voy a ensear nuestra informacin ms reciente. +Y no ha sido publicada, as que es informacin totalmente secreta slo para TED. +Y al ensearles esto, saben, cuando vemos esta informacin, estamos pensando, oh ser que estos animales, ser que cruzan el ecuador? +Ellos van de un lado al otro del Pacfico? +Y hemos descubierto que ellos son en cierta forma hogareos. +No migran mucho. Este es su trayecto: desplegamos la etiqueta en la costa de Tokyo, y el Mola en un mes, ms o menos se meti en la corriente Kuroshio en la costa del Japn, y estuvo merodeando ah. +Y despus de cuatro meses subi, saben, por la costa al norte de Japn. +Y esa es ms o menos la extensin de su hbitat. +Ahora bien, eso es importante, sin embargo, porque si hay mucha presin pesquera, la poblacin no se renueva. +De modo que es una informacin importante. +Pero tambin lo que es importante es que no son peces perezosos. +Son muy activos. +Y este es un da en la vida de un Mola, y si nosotros-- van de arriba para abajo, y arriba y abajo, y arriba abajo, y arriba y arriba y abajo, hasta 40 veces al da. +Al salir el sol, ven en el azul, empiezan a bucear. +Abajo--y a medida que el sol brilla ms se van cada vez ms hondo, ms hondo. +Sondean las profundidades hasta 600 metros, en temperaturas hasta un grado centgrado, y esto es por lo que uno los ve en la superficie--est tan fro all abajo. +Tienen que salir a la superficie, calentarse, recibir esa energa solar, y luego sumergirse de nuevo en las profundidades, y van arriba y abajo y arriba y abajo. +Y estn tocando una capa all abajo, se llama la capa oscura en esa capa hay toda una variedad de alimento. +As que ms que solamente ser un haragn tomando el sol, son peces realmente muy activos, que bailan este baile alocado entre la superficie y el fondo y a travs de la temperatura. +Vemos el mismo patrn--ahora con estas etiquetas estamos viendo un patrn similar para los peces espada, mantarrayas, atunes, un verdadero juego tridimensional. +Esto es parte de un programa mucho ms grande llamado El Censo de la Vida Marina, donde sern etiquetados por todo el mundo y el Mola va a ser parte de eso. +Y lo que es emocionante--todos ustedes viajan, y saben lo mejor de viajar es poder encontrar a los lugareos, y encontrar los buenos lugares al obtener el conocimiento local. +Bueno, ahora con el Censo de la Vida Marina, podremos acercarnos a los locales y explorar el 90 por ciento de nuestra rea habitable, con conocimiento local. +Nunca hubo--nunca hubo un tiempo tan emocionante, o tan vital para ser una biloga. +Lo que me lleva a mi ltimo punto, y es lo que pienso es lo ms divertido. +Hice un website porque estaba recibiendo muchas preguntas sobre los Molas y peces luna. +Y entonces se me ocurri que respondera a las preguntas, y podra dar las gracias a mis patrocinadores, como National Geographic y Lindbergh. +Pero la gente escriba en la pgina toda clase de-- toda clase de historias sobre animales, y queriendo ayudarme a conseguir muestras para anlisis gentico. +Y lo que encontr ms emocionante es que todos tenan un-- un amor compartido y un inters en los ocanos. +Estaba recibiendo informes de monjas catlicas, Rabinos judos, Musulmanes, Cristianos--todos escriban, unidos por su amor a la vida. +Y para mi eso--No creo que pueda decirlo con mejores palabras que el inmortal poeta: "Un toque de la naturaleza une al mundo." +Y claro, puede que simplemente sea un pez viejo, tonto y grande, pero est ayudando. +Si est ayudando a unir al mundo, pienso que definitivamente es el pez del futuro. +Muchas gracias, Chris. Todo el mundo que ha subido aqu dijo que estaba asustado. Yo no s si estoy asustada, pero sta es la primera que me dirijo a un pblico como ste. +Y yo no tengo ningn tipo de ltima tecnologa para ofreceros. +No traigo diapositivas, as que tendris que conformaros conmigo. +Lo que me gustara hacer esta maana es compartir con vosotros un par de historias y hablar de una frica distinta. +Ya esta maana ha habido algunas alusiones hacia la frica de la que os hablar todo el tiempo: la frica del VIH/SIDA, la frica de la malaria, la frica de la pobreza, la frica del conflicto, y la frica de los desastres. +A pesar de que es cierto que esas cosas todava siguen ocurriendo, existe una frica de la que no se oye hablar demasiado. +Y a veces me sorprende, y me pregunto por qu. +sta es la frica que est cambiando, a la que Chris ha aludido. +sta es la frica de la oportunidad. +sta es la frica en donde la gente quiere tomar el mando de su propio futuro y de su propio destino. +Y sta es la frica en donde la gente est buscando socios para hacerlo. De esto es de lo que quiero hablar hoy. +Y quiero empezar contndoos una historia sobre el cambio en frica. +El 15 de septiembre de 2005, Mr. Diepreye Alamieyeseigha, el gobernador de uno de los estados ms ricos en petrleo de Nigeria, fue arrestado por la Polica Metropolitana de Londres durante una visita a Londres. +Fue arrestado porque haban transferencias de 8 millones de dlares que haban ido a parar a varias cuentas inactivas que pertenecan tanto a l como a su famlia. +Este arresto ocurri porque exista cooperacin entre la Polica Metropolitana de Londres y la Comisin de Crmenes Econmicos y Financieros de Nigeria -- dirigida por uno de nuestras personas ms capaces y valientes: Mr. Nuhu Ribadu. +Alamieyeseigha fue procesado en Londres. +Hoy, Alams -- as es como lo llamamos de forma abreviada -- est en la crcel. +sta es una historia sobre el hecho de que la gente en frica ya no est dispuesta a seguir tolerando la corrupcin por parte de sus lderes. +sta es una historia sobre el hecho de que la gente quiere que sus recursos sean administrados correctamente en su beneficio, y no extrados hacia lugares en donde slo vayan a beneficiar a unos pocos de una lite. +Y, por lo tanto, cuando oyes hablar de la corrupta frica -- corrupcin todo el tiempo -- me gustara que supierais que la gente y los gobiernos estn luchando muy duramente para combatir esto en algunos de los pases, y que algunos xitos estn ya emergiendo. +Quiere decir esto que el problema est resuelto? La respuesta es no. +Todava hay un largo camino que recorrer, pero existe voluntad para hacerlo. +Y que estamos apuntando xitos en esta lucha tan importante. +As que cuando oigas sobre corrupcin, no pienses que no se est haciendo nada en ese sentido -- que no se puede trabajar en ningn pas africano a causa de la extrema corrupcin. Pero eso no es cierto. +Hay una voluntad para luchar, y en muchos pases, esta lucha est en curso y est siendo ganada. En otros, como en el mo, donde ha existido una larga historia de dictaduras en Nigeria, la lucha est en marcha y tenemos un largo camino que recorrer. +Pero lo cierto es que est en marcha. +As lo demuestran los resultados: la supervisin independiente por el Banco Mundial y otras organizaciones muestra que en varios casos la tendencia es descendente en trminos de corrupcin, y que el gobierno est mejorando. +Un estudio llevado a cabo por la Comisin Econmica para frica mostr una clara tendencia ascendente en relacin a los gobiernos de 28 pases africanos. +Y dejadme decir slo una cosa ms antes de que deje esta rea de gobierno. +Y es que la gente habla sobre corrupcin, corrupcin. +Durante todo el tiempo que hablas de ella ests pensando inmediatamente en frica. +En este pas, si recibes bienes robados, no eres procesado? +Pues cuando hablamos de este tipo de corrupcin, pensemos tambin en lo que est pasando en la otra parte del planeta -- a dnde est yendo el dinero y en qu podemos hacer para parar eso. +Ahora estoy trabajando en una iniciativa, junto con el Banco Mundial, sobre el rescate de activos, tratando de hacer lo que podemos para recuperar el dinero que haba sido llevado al extranjero -- el dinero de pases en vas de desarrollo - para traer ese dinero enviado de vuelta. +Porque si logramos traer de vuelta esos 20 billones de dlares, podra haber mucho ms para algunos de estos pases que toda la ayuda junta que estamos recibiendo. +La segunda cuestin de la que quiero hablar es sobre la voluntad para reformar. +Los africanos, despus de todo -- estn cansados, estamos cansados de ser el sujeto de la caridad y el cuidado de todo el mundo. +Estamos agradecidos, pero sabemos que podemos tomar el mando de nuestro propio destino si tenemos la voluntad de reformar. +Y lo que est pasando en muchos pases africanos es que entienden que nadie puede hacerlo excepto nosotros. Nosotros somos lo que tenemos que hacerlo. +Podemos invitar a socios que nos puedan apoyar, pero nosotros tenemos que empezar. +Tenemos que reformar nuestros pases, cambiar nuestros lderes, hacernos ms democrticos, estar ms abiertos al cambio y a la informacin. +Y esto es lo que empezamos a hacer en uno de los pases ms grandes del continente, Nigeria. +En realidad, si no ests en Nigeria, no ests en frica. +Tena que decirlo. +Uno de cada cuatro africanos subsaharianos es nigeriano, y el pas tiene 140 millones de personas dinmicas - gente catica - pero gente muy interesante. Nunca te aburrirs. +Lo que empezamos a hacer fue darnos cuenta de que tenamos que tomar las riendas y reformarnos. +Y con el apoyo de un lder que estaba, en ese momento, dispuesto a hacer las reformas, expusimos un exhaustivo programa de reformas que desarrollamos nosotros mismos. +No el Fondo Monetario Internacional. No el Banco Mundial, en donde estuve trabajando durante 21 aos y en donde llegu a ser vicepresidenta. +Nadie puede hacerlo por ti. Lo tienes que hacer t mismo. +Iniciamos un programa que hara, uno: sacar el Estado fuera de los negocios en los que no tena nada que hacer -- no era asunto suyo estar en los negocios. +El Estado no debera estar en los negocios de produccin de bienes y servicios porque es ineficiente e incompetente. +As que decidimos privatizar varias de nuestras empresas. +Como resultado, decidimos liberalizar varios de nuestros mercados. +Podis creer que antes de nuestra reforma -- que empez a finales del 2003, cuando yo dej Washington para asumir el puesto de ministra de Finanzas -- tenamos una compaa de telecomunicaciones que slo haba sido capaz de desarrollar 4.500 lneas de tierra en sus 30 aos de historia? +Poseer un telfono en mi pas era un gran lujo. +No podas conseguirlo. Tenas que sobornar. +Tenas que hacer cualquier cosa para conseguir un telfono. +Cuando el Presidente Obasanjo apoy y lanz la liberacin del sector de telecomunicaciones, pasamos de 4.500 lneas de tierra a 32 millones de lneas GSM, y siguen sumando. +El mercado de telecomunicaciones de Nigeria es el segundo ms rpido en crecimiento del planeta, despus de China. Estamos recibiendo inversiones de aproximadamente 1 billn de dlares al ao en telecomunicaciones. Y nadie lo sabe, excepto unas pocas personas inteligentes. +La primera ms inteligente en entrar fue la compaa MTN de Sudfrica. +Y en los tres aos que fui ministra de Finanzas, tuvieron una media de 360 millones de dlares de beneficio anual. +360 millones en un mercado -- en un pas que es un pas pobre, con una media de ingresos per cpita por debajo de los 500 dlares. +As que el mercado est ah. +Ellos lo ocultaron, pero pronto otros lo llegaron a conocer. +Los mismos nigerianos empezaron a desarrollar algunas compaas de telecomunicaciones sin cable, y han emergido tres o cuatro ms. +Hay un mercado enorme ah fuera, y la gente no sabe nada de l, o no quiere saber. +As que la privatizacin es una de las cosas que hemos hecho. +La otra cosa que tambin hemos hecho es administrar mejor nuestras finanzas. +Porque nadie va a ayudarte y a apoyarte si no ests administrando bien tus propias finanzas. +Y Nigeria, con el sector petrolfero, tena la reputacin de ser corrupta y de no manejar bien sus propias finanzas pblicas. +As que, qu es lo que tratamos de hacer? Introdujimos una ley fiscal que desvinculaba nuestro presupuesto del precio del petrleo. +Antes solamos presupuestar cualquier porque el petrleo es el mayor sector, el que proporciona ms ingresos en la economa: el 70 por ciento de nuestras ganancias viene del petrleo. +Desvinculamos eso, y una vez lo hicimos empezamos a hacer presupuestos a un precio ligeramente inferior que el del precio del petrleo y a ahorrar todo lo que estuviera por encima de ese precio. +No sabamos que podamos llevarlo a cabo; fue muy controvertido. +Pero lo que inmediatamente conseguimos fue que la volatibilidad que haba estado presente en trminos de nuestro desarrollo econmico - en donde, incluso si los precios del petrleo eran elevados, podramos crecer muy rpido. +Cuando ellos se desplomaban, nosotros tambin. +Y nosotros apenas podamos pagar nada, ningn salario, en la economa. +Eso se resolvi. Fuimos capaces de ahorrar, antes de que yo me marchara, 27 millones de dlares. Mientras que -- y esto fue a nuestras reservas -- cuando yo llegu en 2003, tenamos siete billones de dlares en reservas. +Cuando me fui, habamos alcanzado casi los 30 billones de dlares. Y en estos momentos, tenemos unos 40 billones de dlares en reservas gracias a la correcta administracin de nuestras finanzas. +Y eso refuerza nuestra economa, la hace estable. +Nuestra tasa de intercambio, que sola fluctuar constantemente, es bastante estable y est siendo administrada ahora, as que los empresarios pueden predecir los precios en la economa. +Bajamos la inflacin del 28 por ciento hasta el 11 por ciento. +Hicimos crecer el PIB de una media de 2.3 por ciento la dcada anterior hasta el 6.5 por ciento ahora. +As que todos los cambios y reformas que pudimos hacer se han visto reflejados en resultados que son medibles en la economa. +Y lo que es ms importante, porque queremos alejarnos del petrleo y diversificarnos -- y hay tantas oportunidades en este gran pas, como en muchos pases de frica -- lo que fue remarcable es que gran parte de este crecimiento vino no slo del sector petrolfero, sino del no petrolfero. +La agricultura creci ms del 8 por ciento. +A medida que las telecomunicaciones crecan, tambin lo hacan la vivienda y la construccin. Y podra seguir. Esto es para mostraros que una vez tienes resuelta la macroeconoma, las oportunidades en otros varios sectores son enormes. +Disponemos de oportunidades en la agricultura, como ya dije. +Disponemos de oportunidades en minerales. Poseemos gran cantidad de minerales en los que nadie nunca ha invertido o explorado. Y nos dimos cuenta que sin la correcta legislacin para hacerlo posible, eso no pasara. As que ahora tenemos un cdigo minero que es compatible con varios de los mejores en el mundo. +Disponemos de oportunidades en la vivienda y el sector inmobiliario. +No haba nada en un pas de 140 millones de personas -- no haba centros comerciales tal como los conocis aqu. +sta fue una oportunidad de invertir para alguien que estimul la imaginacin de la gente. +Y ahora, estamos en una situacin en la cual los negocios en este centro comercial estn facturando cuatro veces ms de lo que haban proyectado. +As que, hay enormes posibilidades en la construccin, en el sector inmobiliario, en los mercados hipotecarios. Servicios financieros: poseamos 89 bancos. Demasiados sin hacer negocios reales. +Los consolidamos de 89 a 25 bancos requiriendo que aumentaran su capital -- capital compartido. +Y ste fue de unos 25 millones de dlares a 150 millones de dlares. +Los bancos -- estos bancos estn ahora consolidados, y este fortalecimiento del sistema bancario ha atrado grandes cantidades de inversiones provinentes del exterior. +El Barclays Bank del Reino Unido est trayendo 500 millones. +El Standard Chartered ha trado 140 millones. +Y poda seguir. Dlares, fluyendo, dentro del sistema. +Estamos haciendo lo mismo con el sector de las aseguradoras. +As que en servicios financiero, existen grandes oportunidades. +En turismo, en muchos pases africanos, una gran oportunidad. +Y por eso es por lo que mucha gente conoce frica oriental: por la vida salvaje, los elefantes, etctera. +Pero administrar el mercado turstico de tal forma que pueda beneficiar realmente a la gente es importante. +As que qu es lo que estoy tratando de decir? Estoy tratando de deciros que hay una nueva ola en el continente. +Una nueva ola de apertura y democratizacin en la cual, desde el 2000, ms de dos tercios de los pases africanos han tenido elecciones democrticas en las que han participado diferentes partidos polticos. +No todas ellas han sido perfectas, o lo sern, pero la tendencia es muy clara. +Estoy tratando de deciros que desde los ltimos tres aos, la tasa media de crecimiento del continente ha pasado del 2.5 por ciento hasta el 5 por ciento anual. +Esto es mejor que el rendimiento de muchos de los pases de la OCDE. +Por lo tanto, est claro que las cosas estn cambiando. +Los conflictos estn disminuyendo en el continente; de unos 12 conflictos hace una dcada, hemos bajado a unos tres o cuatro conflictos, uno de los ms terribles, est claro, es Darfur. +Y, ya sabes, existe el efecto contagio en el que si algo est pasando en una parte del continente, parece que el continente entero est afectado. +Pero deberas saber lo que este continente no es -- es un continente de muchos pases, no un pas. +Y si hemos bajado hasta tres o cuatro conflictos, eso significa que hay muchas oportunidades en las que invertir en economas estables, crecientes y apasionadas en donde existen muchas oportunidades. +Y quisiera apuntar slo una cosa sobre esta inversin. +La mejor manera de ayudar a los africanos hoy en da es ayudarlos a mantenerse por s mismos. +Y la mejor manera de hacer eso es ayudndoles a crear puestos de trabajo. +No hay ningn problema en luchar contra la malaria y poner dinero en eso y en salvar las vidas de los nios. Eso no es lo que estoy diciendo. Eso est bien. +Pero imaginad el impacto en una familia: si los padres tienen trabajo y pueden asegurarse de que sus hijos van al colegio, y que pueden comprar medicamentos para luchar contra la enfermedad por ellos mismos. +Si podemos invertir en lugares en los que podais hacer dinero a la vez que crear puestos de trabajo y ayudar a la gente a mantenerse por sus propios medios, no es sa una oportunidad maravillosa? no es se el camino a seguir? +Y quisiera decir que algunas de las mejores personas en las que invertir en el continente son las mujeres. +Tengo aqu un CD. Siento no haber dicho nada cuando todava tena tiempo. +De lo contrario, me hubiera gustado que lo hubierais visto. +Dice as, "frica: abierta al negocio." +Y en realidad ste es un video que ha ganado un premio como el mejor documental del ao. +Tengo entendido que la mujer que lo hizo va a estar en Tanzania, en donde van a hacer una sesin en junio. +Nos muestra que los africanos, y en particular las mujeres africanas, quienes en contra de todo pronstico han desarrollado negocios, algunos de talla mundial. +Una de las mujeres en este video, Adenike Ogunlesi, hace ropa para nios -- lo que empez como un hobby y creci hasta convertirse en un negocio. +Mezclando materiales africanos, tales como los que tenemos, con materiales de otros lugares. +As que, ella te har un par de pequeos petos de pana, con materiales africanos mezclados. Diseos muy creativos. Ha alcanzado un nivel en el cual incluso tuvo un pedido de Wal-Mart. +De 10.000 prendas. +Esto muestra que tenemos gente que es capaz de hacerlo. +Y las mujeres son diligentes: estn centradas; trabajan duro. +Podra seguir dando ejemplos: Beatrice Gakuba de Rwanda, que abri una floristera y est ahora exportando a la subasta holandesa en msterdam cada maana, y que est empleando a otras 200 mujeres y hombres para trabajar con ella. +Aun as, muchas de ellas necesitan capital para expandirse, porque nadie cree, fuera de nuestros pases, que podemos hacer lo que es necesario. Nadie piensa en trminos de mercado. +Nadie piensa que hay oportunidades. +Pero yo estoy aqu hoy para decir que esos que pierdan este barco ahora, lo van a perder para siempre. +As que si quieres estar en frica, piensa en invertir. +Piensa en las Beatrices, piensa en las Adenikes de este mundo, que estn haciendo cosas increbles, que las estn llevando hasta la economa global, mientras que al mismo tiempo se aseguran de que sus conciudadanos y conciudadanas tienen un empleo, y de que los nios de esos hogares reciben educacin porque sus padres estn ganando unos ingresos adecuados. +As que os invito a que exploris las oportunidades. +Cuando vayis a Tanzania, escuchad atentamente, porque estoy segura de que oiris hablar de las diferentes oportunidades que van a haber para que os involucris en algo que puede hacer un bien para el continente, para la gente y para vosotros mismos. +Muchas gracias. +Estoy realmente asustado, no creo que vayamos a lograrlo. +Probablemente la mayora de ustedes habrn visto la impresionante pltica de Al Gore +Poco despus de verla, invitamos a algunos amigos para cenar con la familia. La conversacin se torn hacia el calentamiento global, y todos concordamos, que es un problema real. +Tenemos una crisis climtica +As que en torno a la mesa, discutimos sobre lo que deberiamos hacer. +La conversacin lleg a mi hija de 15 aos, Mary, +Ella dijo, "Estoy de acuerdo con todo lo que se ha dicho". +"Estoy asustada y molesta". Entonces volte hacia m y dijo: "Pap, tu generacin cre este problema, mejor arreglenlo!". Wow. +La platica se detuvo. Todos los ojos se dirijieron hacia mi. +No supe que decir. La segunda ley de Kleiner es: "Hay un momento en que el pnico es la respuesta apropiada" +... y hemos llegado a ese momento. No podemos darnos el lujo de menospreciar este problema. Si enfrentamos consecuencias catastrficas e irreversibles, debemos actuar, y debemos actuar decisivamente. +Tengo que confesarles, para m, todo cambi esa noche. +Y de esta forma, mis socios y yo, empezamos esta misin para aprender ms, para tratar de hacer mucho ms. As que nos movilizamos y subimos a los aviones. +Fuimos a Brasil. Fuimos a China y a India. Fuimos a Bentonville, Arkansas y a Washington, D.C. y a Sacramento. +Y ahora, lo que quisiera hacer, es decirles acerca de que aprendimos en esos viajes... +...porque al aprender ms, nuestra conciencia aument. +Quiz sabrn, mis socios en Kleiner y yo, somos "networkers" compulsivos, as que cuando vemos un gran problema o una gran oportunidad como gripe aviar o medicina personalizada, solo reunimos a la gente ms inteligente que conocemos. +Para esta crisis climtica, formamos una red digital, realmente de superestrellas, desde activistas polticos hasta cientficos y emprendedores y a lderes empresariales. 50 o ms de ellos. +Y entonces, quiero hablarles de lo que aprendimos haciendo eso y las cuatro lecciones que aprend en el ltimo ao. +La primera leccin, es que las compaas son realmente poderosas, y eso importa bastante. Esta es una historia acerca de como Wal-Mart se volvi "verde", y qu significa eso. +Dos aos atrs, el presidente ejecutivo, Lee Scott, crey que "verde" era el siguiente "gran asunto", as que Wal-mart hizo del "verde" una prioridad principal. +Se comprometieron a tomar todas sus tiendas existentes, y reducir su consumo de energa un 20%, y sus tiendas nuevas un 30%, y hacer todo esto en siete aos. +Los tres grandes usos de energa en una tienda, son: calefaccin y aire acondicionado, despues iluminacin, y luego refrigeracin. +Entonces, miren lo que hicieron. +Pintaron los techos de blanco, de todas sus tiendas. +Pusieron tragaluces inteligentes a lo largo de sus tiendas para poder captar la luz del da y disminuir la demanda de iluminacin, +y tercero, pusieron los productos refrigerados trs puertas cerradas con iluminacin LED. +Digo, Porqu tratar de refrigerar una tienda completa? +Estas son realmente simples, soluciones inteligentes basadas en tecnolog existente. +Porqu importa Wal-Mart? Bueno, es masivo. +Son el ms grande generador de empleos en Amrica. +Son el consumidor ms grande de electricidad del sector privado. +Tienen la segunda flota vehicular ms extensa en carretera. +y tienen una de las cadenas de suministro ms impresionantes: 60,000 proveedores. Si Wal-Mart fuera un pas, sera el sexto socio comercial ms importante junto con China. +Y quiz ms importante, tienen un gran efecto en otras compaas. +Cuando Wal-Mart dice que ser "verde" y lucrativo, esto tiene un poderoso impacto en otras grandes instituciones. +Entonces, dejenme decir esto: Cuando Wal-Mart logra 20% de reducciones de energa, eso ser un gran negocio. Pero me temo que no es suficiente. +Necesitamos que Wal-Mart y todas las otras compaias hagan lo mismo. +La segunda cosa que aprendimos es que los individuos importan, y que importan enormemente. +Tengo otra historia de Wal-Mart para ustedes, Est bin? +Wal-Mart tiene ms de 125 millones de clientes en E.U. +Es un tercio de la poblacin de E.U. +65 millones de bombillas flourescentes se vendieron el ao pasado. +Y Wal-Mart se propuso vender otros 100 millones de bombillas el proximo ao. Pero no es facil. +A los consumidores no les gustan estas bombillas. +La luz es algo graciosa, iluminan muy poco, toma un rato para que inicien. +Pero la remuneracin es enorme. +100 millones de bombillas significan que ahorraremos 600 millones de dlares en cuentas de energa, y 20 millones de toneladas de CO2 cada ao, y as ao con ao. +No parece ralmente dificil que los cosumidores hagan lo correcto. +Es estpido que usemos dos toneladas de acero, vidrio y plstico para arrastrarnos a las tiendas departamentales. +Es estpido que pongamos agua en botellas de plastico en Fiji y traerlas en barco aqu +Es dificil cambiar el comportamiento del consumidor, porque los consumidores no saben cuanto cuestan estas cosas. Ustedes lo saben? +Saben cuanto CO2 han generado para manejar o volar hasta aqu? +Yo no lo s, y debera. +Los que nos preocupamos de todo esto, actuaramos mejor si supieramos cules son los costos reales. +Pero mientras pretendamos que el CO2 es gratis, mientras que estos usos sean casi invisibles, Cmo esperamos cambiarlo? +Estoy realmente asustado, porque pienso que el tipo de cambios que podemos esperar de los individuos, claramente no sern suficientes. +La tercera leccin que aprendimos es que la poltica cuenta. Realmente cuenta. +De hecho, la poltca es primordial. +Tengo una historia detrs de camaras para ustedes, es acerca de la red de "tecnologa verde" que les describ. +Al final de nuestra primera reunin, hablamos sobre qu tipo de acciones tomaramos, que deberamos poner en prctica. +y Bob Epstein alz la mano. Se puso de pie... +Saben, Bob es ese tipo de geek de Berkeley quien inici Sybase. +Bien, Bob dijo la cosa ms importante que podriamos hacer ahora es demostrar en Sacramento, California que necesitamos un sistema basado en el mercado de acuerdos eso limitar y reducir los gases de efecto invernadero en California +Es necesario e, igual de importante; es bueno para la economia de California. +Entonces, ocho de nosotros estuvimos en Sacramento en Agosto, nos reunimos con los siete indecisos legisladores y presionamos por AB32. +Saben qu? Seis de esos siete votaron "s" en favor de la enmienda, asi que pas, y pas por 47 contra 32 votos. +Por favor... Gracias. +Creo que es la ley mas importante de 2006. Por qu? +Porque California fu el primer estado en esta pas en establecer la reduccin de 25% de gases de efecto invernadero para el 2020 +Y el resultado de eso es, que vamos a generar 83,000 nuevos empleos, 4 billones de dlares al ao y reducir las emisiones de CO2 por 174 millones de toneladas al ao. +California emite solo el 7% de emisiones de CO2 en E.U. +Esto es solo un porcentaje y una parte de las emisiones de CO2 del pas. Es un gran inicio, pero, debo decirles -- donde inici -- Realmente tengo miedo. +de hecho, Estoy seguro que lo de California, no es suficiente. +Aqu est una historia sobre poltica nacional, de la que todos podemos aprender. +Ya saben lo que dice Tom Friedman, "Si no vas, No sabes?" +Bien, fuimos a Brasil para conocer al Dr. Jos Goldemberg. +El es el padre de la revolucin del etanol. +Nos dijo que el gobierno de Brasil establaci que cada gasolinera en el pais, contara con etanol. +y acordaron que sus nuevos vehiculos seran "flex-fuel" compatibles, bien? +Correrian con etanol o simple gasolina. +y he aqu lo que pas en Brasil. +ahora tienen 29,000 bombas de gasolina esto contra 700 en E.U. y las insignificantes dos en California y en tres aos, su nueva flota de carros se ha hecho por el 85% de flex-fuel +Comparado a E.U., 5% son flex-fuel. +y saben qu? La mayora de los consumidores que los tienen, ni siquiera lo saben. +Entonces, lo que pas en Brasil es: remplazaron 40% de la gasolina consumida por su flota de automviles con etanol. +Esos son: 59 billones de dlares desde 1975 que no trajeron en barco desde el Medio Oriente. +sto ha creado un milln de empleos dentro de ese pas, y ahorrado 32 millones de toneladas de CO2. Realmente sustancial. +Es 10% de las emisiones de CO2 a lo largo de ese pas. +Pero Brasil es solo 1.3% de las emisiones de CO2 en el mundo. +As que realmente me temo que el milagro de Brasil con el etanol, no es suficiente. +De hecho, me temo que las mejores polticas que tenemos no van a ser suficientes. +La cuarta y ltima leccin que aprendimos es acerca del potencial de la inovacin radical. +As que quiero hablarles sobre un problema trgico y el gran avance tecnolgico. +Cada ao un milln y medio de personas muere de una enfermedad completamente prevenible. Esta es la malaria. 6000 personas al da. +Todos por necesitar 2 dlares en costo por medicamentos que nosotros podemos comprar en la farmacia de la esquina. +Bien, 2 dlares, 2 dlares son mucho para frica. +As que un equipo de investigadores de Berkeley, con 15 millones de dlares de la Fundacin Gates usa ingeniera para disear una nueva forma radical para hacer el ingrediente clave, llamado artemisinin, y van a hacer esa medicina 10 veces ms barata. +y haciendo eso, salvarn un milln de vidas al menos un milln de vidas al ao. Un milln de vidas. +Su avance tecnolgico es vida sinttica. +sto acelera millones de aos de evolucin al redisear bichos, para hacer productos realmente tiles. +Ahora, lo que hacen es, se meten dentro del microbio, cambian la senda mateblica y terminan con una fbrica de vida qumica. +Ahora, ustedes pueden preguntar, John, que tiene que ver con lo "verde" y la crisis de cambio climtico +Bien, les dir: -- Mucho. +Hemos formado ahora una compaa llamada Amyris, y esta tecnologa que estn usando puede ser usada para hacer mejores biocombustibles. +No me permitan evitar eso. Mejores biocombustibles son ralmente un gran negocio. +Eso significa que podemos precisar la ingeniera de las molculas en la cadena de combustible y optimizarlas con el paso del tiempo. +as, si todo va bien, van a disear bichos en tanques trmicos donde van a comer y digerir azcares para excretar mejores biocombustibles. +Supongo que es una mejor vida a travs de los bichos. +Alan Kay es famoso por decir: "La mejor manera de predecir el futuro es inventndolo" +y claro, en Kleiner, somos del tipo que se disculpa y dice: "la segunda mejor manera es financiarlo". +Y esa es la razn por la que estamos invirtiendo 200 millones de dlares en un amplio rango de realmente radicales nuevas tecnologias para la inovacin en tecnologias "verdes". +Y estamos animando a otros para que lo hagan tambin. +Estamos hablando mucho sobre esto. +En 2005, fueron 600 millones de dlares invertidos en nuevas tecnologas del tipo que ven aqu. sto se duplic en 2006 a 1.2 billones de dlares. +Pero realmente me temo que necesitamos mucho, mucho ms. +Como referencia, hecho uno: Los ingresos de Exxon en 2005 fueron de 1 billn de dlares al da. +Saben que, ellos solo invirtieron el 0.2% de ingresos en R&D(Investigacin y Desarrollo)? +Segundo hecho: El nuevo presupuesto del Presidente para energa renovable es increiblemente, un billn de dlares en total. +Menos que un da de ingresos para Exxon +Tercer hecho: Apuesto que no saban que hay suficiente energa en rocas calientes bajo el pas, para satisfacer las necesidades de energa en Amrica por los siguientes 1000 aos. Y el presupuesto federal pide miserables 20 millones de dlares de R&D(Investigacin y Desarrollo) en energa geotrmica. +Es casi criminal que no estemos invirtiendo ms en bsquedas de energa en este pas. +Y estoy realmente preocupado porque es absolutamente insuficiente. +As, en un ao de aprendizaje, hemos encontrado un montn de sorpresas. +Quin habra pensado que un supermercado podra hacer dinero volviendose "verde"? Quien habra pensado que un empresario de bases de datos, podra transformar California con legislacin? +quin habra pensado que el milagro del ethanol biocombustible podra venir de un pas en desarrollo en Sudamerica? +Y quin habra pensado que los cientficos al intentar curar la malaria, abririan brechas para los biocombustibles? +Y quin habra pensado que todo eso, no es suficiente? +No es suficiente para estabilizar el clima. +No es suficiente para mantener el hielo en Groenlandia lejos de derrumbes en el oceano. +Los cientficos nos dijeron -- y solo estn suponiendo -- que tenemos que reducir las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero a la mitad, y debemos hacerlo los ms rpido posible. +Ahora, podramos tener la poltica que har esto en los E.U., pero debo decirles, solo tenemos una atmsfera, y de alguna forma tendremos que encontrar la voluntad poltica para hacerlo en todo el mundo. La carta clave en la baraja, es China. +Para dimensionar el problema, las emisiones de CO2 de China hoy, son 3.3 gigatoneladas, las de E. U. son 5.8.De seguir as, significa que tendremos 23 gigatoneladas de China para 2050. +Que es casi el tanto de CO2 que hay en todo el mundo. +Y si todo sigue igual, vamos a irnos a la quiebra. +Cuando estuve en Davos, El Mayor de Dalian en China fu cuestionado acerca de su estratega sobre el CO2, y dijo lo siguiente, "Saban que los americanos usan 7 veces el CO2 percapita de los Chinos" +Luego pregunt, "Por qu debera China sacrificar su crecimiento? para que el oeste pueda ser despilfarrador y estpido?" +Alguin tiene aqu una respuesta para l? Yo no. +Tenemos que hacer sto econmico, para que toda la gente y todas las naciones hagan lo conveniente, lo lucrativo y por consiguiente, el resultado esperado. +La energa es un negocio mundial de 6 trillones de dlares. +Es la madre de todos los mercados. Recuerdan al Internet??? +Bien, les dir que: Tecnologas verdes --volverse verde-- es ms grande que el Internet. +sto podra ser la oportunidad econmica del siglo 21. +Ms an, si tenemos xito, va a ser la transformacin ms importante para la vida del planeta, desde que, como dijo Bill Joy: "fuimos desde el metano al oxgeno en la atmsfera". +Ahora, aqu est la pregunta dificil, si la trayectoria de todas las compaas e individuos del mundo, las polticas y la innovacin no va a ser suficiente... Qu vamos a hacer? No lo s. +Cada uno aqu, se preocupa por el cambiar el mundo y ha hecho diferencia de una u otra forma. +As que, nuestra llamada para actuar --mi llamada para ustedes-- es para hacer del "volverse verde" la siguiente "gran cosa", su gran empresa. +Que pueden hacer? Pueden volverse neutrales en Carbono +Visiten "ClimateCrisis.org" o "CarbonCalculator.com" y compren creditos de carbon. Podran unirse a otros lderes en el mandato, defendiendo el tope establecido y negociar reducciones de gases de efecto invernadero en E. U. +Hay seis propuestas ahora en el Congreso, Vamos a conseguir una aprobada. +y la cosa ms importante que pueden hacer, creo, es usar su poder personal y su "Rolodex" para guiar sus negocios e instituciones, hasta ser "verdes" +Hagan lo que Wal-Mart, consigan ser "verdes" por sus consumidores, por sus provedores y la empresa misma. +Piensen realmente fuera de la caja. +Pueden imaginar cmo sera se Amazon o eBay o Google o Microsoft o Apple realmente fueran "verdes"? y que ustedes lo causaron? +Esto puede ser mayor que Wal-Mart +No puedo esperar a ver que hacemos los TEDsters respecto a esta crisis. +Y realmente, realmente espero que apliquemos toda nuestra energa, todo de nuestro talento y todo de nuestra influencia para resolver este problema. +Porque si lo hacemos, puedo esperar a la conversacion que tendr con mi hija en 20 aos. +Gracias. +Creo que toda esta tarde ha sido increible para mi. +Siento como si fuera el Sutra de Vimalakirti, un escrito antiguo de la India antigua, en el cual el Buda aparece al principio y todo un grupo de gente va a verlo desde la ciudad ms grande de la zona, Vaisali, llevando especies de parasoles con joyas como ofrenda. +De hecho, todos los jvenes de la ciudad +-- los viejos no van porque estn molestos con el Buda, porque cuando fue a su ciudad l acept -- el siempre aceptaba la primera invitacin que le hicieran, fuera de quien fuera, y la geisha local, una especie de estrella de cine, se les adelant a los ancianos de la ciudad en un carruaje y lo invit primero. +As que el Buda estaba con la estrella de cine y por supuesto que ellos estaban quejndose: "Se supone que l es un ser religioso y todo eso. +Qu est haciendo en casa de Amrapali con todos sus 500 monjes?" y dems. Todos se estaban quejando as que lo boicotearon. +No quisieron ir a escucharlo. +Pero todos los jvenes fueron. +Y llevaron consigo esa clase de parasoles con joyas que colocaron en el suelo. +Y claro, en la cosmologa budista hay millones y miles de millones de planetas con vida humana en ellos, y los seres iluminados pueden ver la vida en todos los otros planetas. +As que cuando ellos miran hacia arriba y ven todas esas luces que ustedes mostraron en el cielo, ellos no ven una especie de trozos de materia quemndose, o rocas, o flamas o gases explotando. +De hecho ellos ven paisajes y seres humanos y dioses, dragones, seres serpiente, diosas y cosas por el estilo. +As que l hizo este efecto especial al principio para que cada uno pensara en la interconexin y en estar interconectados, y cmo todo en la vida estaba totalmente interconectado +Y luego Lelei -- conozco su otro nombre -- nos habl de la interconexin, y de cmo todos estamos completamente interconectados aqu, y de cmo nos hemos conocido entre nosotros. Y claro, en el universo budista ya hemos hecho esto miles de millones de veces, en muchas muchas vidas pasadas. +Y no fui yo siempre quien dio la charla. Ustedes lo hicieron y nosotros los escuchamos a ustedes, as sucesivamente. +Y todos seguimos intentndolo, imagino que todos estamos tratando de convertirnos en TEDsters, si es que ello es una forma moderna de iluminacin. +Creo que s. Porque de cierto modo, si un TEDster se relaciona con toda la interconexin entre todas las computadoras y todo, ello crea una conciencia masiva, en donde cada uno puede realmente saber todo lo que est ocurriendo en cualquier parte del planeta. +Simplemente se vuelve intolerable. +Si todos nosotros sabemos de todo, estamos casi obligados por la tecnologa a convertirnos en budas o algo as; a volvernos seres iluminados. +Y por supuesto, estaremos profundamente decepcionados cuando esto suceda. +Porque creemos que debido a que estamos cansados de lo que hacemos, un poco cansados, por eso sufrimos. +Disfrutamos nuestra miseria en cierto sentido. +Nos distraemos de nuestra miseria corriendo a algn lado, pero basicamente todos sufrimos esta miseria comn, de que estamos atrapados dentro de nuestra piel y todos los dems estn all afuera. +Y ocasionalmente nos juntamos con otra persona que est atrapada en su piel, y los dos nos disfrutamos mutuamente. Y cada uno trata de salir de la propia, pero a la larga fracasa. Y claro, volvemos de nuevo a esta cosa. +Porque nuestra percepcin egocntrica -- una percepcin errnea desde el punto de vista del Buda -- es que todo lo que somos es lo que est dentro de nuestra piel. +Y est adentro y afuera; uno mismo y el otro, y lo que es el otro es todo muy diferente. +Y todos los que estn aqu desafortunadamente tienen esa percepcin habitual. Un poquito, no es cierto? +Ya saben, hay alguien sentado junto a ustedes -- eso est bien porque estn en un teatro, pero si estuvieran sentados en un parque y alguien se acercara y sentara as de cerca, ustedes se espantaran. +Qu es lo que quiere de m? Como, quin es esa persona? +As que no se sentaran as de cerca de otra persona debido a la nocin de que se trata de ustedes contra el universo -- eso es todo lo que el Buda descubri. +Porque esa idea csmica bsica de que estamos todos solos, cada uno de nosotros y todos los dems somos seres diferentes, entonces ello nos coloca en una situacin imposible, no es as? +Quin ser quien va a recibir atencin suficiente del mundo? +Quin va a obtener lo suficiente del mundo? +Quin no va a ser superado por un nmero infinito de otros seres -- si t eres diferente de todos los otros seres? +As que la compasin viene cuando t te das cuenta sorpresivamente de que puedes perderte a t mismo de una cierta manera: mediante el arte, mediante la meditacin, mediante el entendimiento, mediante el conocimiento de hecho, sabiendo que no existe tal barrera, sabiendo de tu interconexin con otros seres. +Puedes experimentarte a t mismo como a los dems seres cuando observas ms all de la ilusin de estar separado de ellos. +Cuando lo haces, te forzas a sentir lo que ellos sienten. +Afortunadamente, dicen -- yo todava no estoy seguro -- pero afortunadamente, dicen que cuando llegas a ese punto, porque algunas personas han dicho en la literatura budista: Oh! Quin quisiera ser realmente compasivo? +Qu terrible! Ya soy tan miserable por mi cuenta. La cabeza me duele. +Los huesos me duelen. Voy del nacimiento a la muerte. Nunca estoy satisfecho. +Nunca tengo suficiente, incluso siendo billonario nunca tengo suficiente. +Necesito cien mil millones, as que as soy. +Imaginen si yo tuviera que sentir siquiera el sufrimiento de otras cien personas. +Sera terrible. +Pero aparentemente, esta es una paradoja extraa de la vida. +Saben, realmente aprendimos todo en los aos 60. +Lstima que nadie jams se despert, y han tratado de suprimirlo desde entonces. +Yo, mi, mi, mo. Esa cancin es como la cancin perfecta. Una enseanza perfecta. +Pero cuando nos liberamos de aquello, entonces de cierta manera nos interesamos en todos los otros seres. +Y nos sentimos nosotros mismos de una manera distinta. Es muy extrao. +Es totalmente extrao. +Al Dalai Lama siempre le gusta decir -- l dice que cuando uno da a luz en su mente a la idea de la compasin, se debe a que comprendes que t mismo, tus dolores y tus placeres, son finalmente un teatro demasiado pequeo para tu inteligencia. +Es realmente muy aburrido sentirse as, de esa u otra manera. Ya saben -- y mientras ms te enfocas en cmo te sientes, por cierto, se siente peor. +Por ejemplo, incluso cuando te la ests pasando bien, cundo se terminan los buenos momentos? +Los buenos momentos se terminan cuando piensas, qu tan buenos son? +Y entonces nunca son lo suficientemente buenos. +Me encanta lo que Lelei dijo acerca de la forma de ayudar a quienes sufren intensamente en el plano fsico, o en otros planos; es pasndola bien, ayudar pasndola bien. +Creo que el Dalai Lama debi escuchar eso. Deseara que hubiera estado aqu para escucharlo. +l una vez me dijo -- se vea un tanto triste; se preocupa mucho de la diferencia entre ricos y pobres. +Se vea un poco triste porque deca: bueno, hace cien aos aquellos vinieron y les quitaron todo a los ricos. +Ya saben, las grandes revoluciones comunistas, en Rusia, China y dems. +Tomaron todo a travs del uso de la violencia, diciendo que se lo daran a todos, y despus quedaron mucho peor. +No ayudaron en lo absoluto. +Entonces qu podra cambiar este terrible abismo que se ha abierto hoy en el mundo? +Entonces l me mira. +As que dije : "Bueno, usted sabe, usted est en todo ello. Usted lo ensea: es la generosidad." Fue todo lo que pude pensar. Qu es la virtud? +Pero claro, creo que la clave para salvar el mundo, la clave de la compasin, es que sea mucho ms divertido. +Debe hacerse con gusto. La generosidad es ms divertida. Esa es la clave. +Todo mundo tiene la idea equivocada. Piensan que el Buda era muy aburrido, y se sorprenden cuando conocen al Dalai Lama, quien es bastante alegre. +Incluso cuando su pueblo est siendo objeto de un genocidio -- y cranme, l siente cada golpe sobre la cabeza de cada monja anciana, en cada prisin china. l lo siente. +l siente la manera en que estn cazando a los yaks en la actualidad. +No dir siquiera cmo lo hacen. Pero l lo siente. +Y sin embargo, es muy alegre. Es extremadamente alegre. +Porque cuando te abres de esa manera, entonces simplemente no puedes -- de qu sirve aadir la miseria de uno mismo a la miseria de los otros? +Tienes que encontrar alguna visin done veas lo esperanzador que es, cmo puede cambiarse. +Miren eso tan bello que Chiho nos mostr. Ella nos espant con el hombre de lava. +Nos espant con que vena el hombre de lava, luego con que vena el tsunami, pero finalmente hubo flores y rboles, y fue muy bello. +Es realmente encantador. +As, la compasin significa sentir los sentimientos de los dems, y de hecho, el ser humano es compasin. +El ser humano casi no tiene tiempo. +El ser humano es compasin porque, para qu es nuestro cerebro? +Ahora, el cerebro de Jim est memorizando el almanaque. +Pero podra memorizar todas las necesidades de todos los seres que son l, que l ser y que l fue. +Podra memorizar toda clase de cosas fantsticas para ayudar a muchos seres. +Y se divertira mucho hacindolo. +As que la primera persona que se ponga feliz, cuando uno deja de enfocarse en la situacin egosta de qu tan feliz soy yo, cuando siempre ests insatisfecho -- como Mick Jagger nos dijo, nunca obtienes satisfaccin de esa manera. +As que entonces decides; bueno, estoy harto de m mismo. +Voy a pensar en cmo hacer felices a otras personas. +Voy a levantarme por la maana y pensar, qu es lo que puedo hacer por otra persona? Incluso por un perro, mi perro, mi gato, mi mascota, mi mariposa. +Y la primera persona que se pone feliz cuando haces eso, no haces nada para nadie ms, pero t te vuelves feliz, t mismo, porque toda tu percepcin se ampla, y de repente ves todo el mundo y a toda la gente en l. +Y te das cuenta de que esto -- estar con estas personas -- es el jardn de flores que Chiho nos mostr. +Es el Nirvana. +Y mi tiempo se acab. Y conozco los mandamientos TED. +Gracias. +Pienso que estamos en la era de las "pinturas rupestres" de las interfaces computacionales. +Como si fueran muy... no llegan tan profundo, o no son tan emocionantes como pudieran serlo, y me gustara cambiar todo eso. +Continuemos. +OK. Bien, este es el status quo de las interfaces, correcto? +Es muy plano y rgido. +Y se podra hacer ms sexy y hacer algo ms agradable como Mac, pero sigue siendo la misma basura que hemos tenido los ltimos 30 aos. +Digo, pienso que aguantamos muchas tonteras de nuestras computadoras. +Es apuntar y hacer clic, son mens, conos, es todo demasiado similar. +Un espacio de donde tomo inspiracin es mi escritorio real. +Es mucho ms sutil, mucho ms visceral... ya saben, lo que es visible, lo que no. +Y me gustara traer esa experiencia al escritorio de las computadoras. +As que tengo algo as: esto es BumpTop. +Es un nuevo enfoque al escritorio de las computadoras. +Uno se topa con las cosas... ahora son fsicamente manipulables, +en vez de apuntar y hacer clic: ahora es como un tira y afloja, las cosas chocan como se esperara. Igual que en mi escritorio real, Puedo... dejen que selecciono esto... puedo apilar cosas, en vez de usar las tradicionales carpetas. +Una vez que estn apilados, puedo navegar por ellos haciendo una cuadrcula, o, los puedo hojear como en un libro, o los puedo presentar como cartas de juego. +Cuando estn as, puedo arrastrarlos a un nuevo lugar, o borrar, u organizar toda una pila, saben, inmediatamente. +Y por supuesto, todo est bellamente animado, en vez de estos cambios discordantes que vemos en las interfaces actuales. +Tambin, si quiero agregar algo a una pila, cmo lo hago? +Simplemente lo arrojo a la pila y se agrega en la cima. Es una manera decente de hacerlo. +Otras cosas que podemos hacer son por ejemplo, para estos conos individuales pensamos: cmo podemos jugar con la idea de un cono y llevarla al extremo? +Una de las cosas que puedo hacer es hacerlo ms grande para enfatizarlo y sealar su importancia. +Pero lo que es genial es que como hay una simulacin fsica que regula todo esto, este cono es, de hecho, ms pesado. As que los objetos ms livianos no lo mueven. Pero, y si lo arrojo sobre los ms livianos? +Es lindo, pero tambin es una manera sutil de brindar informacin cierto? +Este es pesado, se siente importante. As que es genial. +A pesar de que las computadoras estn en todos lados, el papel no ha desaparecido, porque tiene, lo que yo considero, propiedades muy valoradas. +Y queramos transferir algunas de esas propiedades a nuestro sistema de conos. +As una de las cosas que se le puede hacer a los conos, como al papel, es plegarlo, o doblarlo, igual que al papel. Algo para recordar despus. +O, si quiero ser destructivo, puedo simplemente estrujarlo, y arrojarlo a una esquina. +Igual que al papel, en nuestro lugar de trabajo, lo fijamos a nuestras paredes para recordarlo ms tarde. y puedo hacer eso mismo aqu, como en las notas que se ven en las oficinas. +Puedo arrancarlas cuando quiero trabajar con ellas. +Una de nuestras crticas a este sistema de organizacin es que: "OK, pero, mi escritorio es un desorden. Yo no quiero eso en mi computadora". +As que una herramienta que tenemos es la organizacin cuadricular, similar a la interfaz actual. Las cosas estn organizadas alrededor de una cuadrcula. +Ms aburrido, pero todava tienen el sistema de choque. +Y todava pueden hacer cosas divertidas, como repisas en su escritorio. +Bien, rompamos esta repisa. OK, esa repisa se rompi. +Ms all de los conos, creo que otro rea de aplicacin para este software... creo que es aplicable a ms cosas adems de los conos y el escritorio... es la navegacin de fotos. +Creo que podemos mejorar la manera en la que navegamos por nuestras fotos y crear un cajn de fotos de la familia para ver en la mesa de la cocina. +Puedo tirarlas. Son mucho ms tangibles y manipulables y puedo hacer doble-clic en una para verla. +Y puedo hacer todo lo que ya les mostr antes. +Puedo apilarlas, darles vuelta como pginas, y... OK, movamos esta foto al fondo, borremos esta otra de ac, y creo que es una manera mucho ms rica de interactuar con la informacin. +Y eso es BumTop. Gracias! +Hoy quiero hablarles de... de mundos virtuales, planetas digitales, de la web 3D, del metaverso. +Qu significa todo esto para nosotros? +Significa que la web va a volver a ser, otra vez, un lugar apasionante. +Va a ser sper emocionante a medida que se transforme en un mundo profundo y altamente interactivo, +con grficos, poder computacional y pocos secretos, este tipo de aplicaciones y posibilidades van a inyectar un flujo de contenidos ricos en sus vidas. +De este modo, la iniciativa Virtual Earth y otras similares apuntan hacia acrecentar nuestra actual metfora de bsqueda. +Si lo piensan, estamos muy limitados al buscar en la web, recordando las URLs y guardndolas en favoritos. +Cuando hacemos una bsqueda confiamos en los rankings de relevancia, en la concordancia de trminos y la indexacin, +pero tambin queremos usar el cerebro! +Queremos navegar, explorar, descubrir informacin. +Y para eso hacerlo te ponemos, como usuario, en el asiento del conductor. +Necesitamos una mayor cooperacin entre la red, la computadora y t. +Entonces, que mejor manera de colocarte en el asiento del conductor que ponerte en el mundo real, en el que interactas a diario? +Por qu no capitalizar las lecciones aprendidas durante toda una vida? +Bueno, Virtual Earth trata, ya vern, de iniciar, de crear la primera representacin digital, exhaustiva, del mundo entero. +Queremos mezclar todo tipo de datos. +Etiquetarlos, clasificarlos. Metadatos. Poner a la comunidad a agregarle profundidad local -- perspectiva global, conocimiento local. +As que, pensando en este problema es una tarea colosal: por dnde empezar? +Bien, recolectamos datos satelitales, desde aviones, y vehculos terrestres, sobre la gente. +Este proceso representa un problema de ingeniera, un problema mecnico, un problema logstico, un problema operativo. +Aqu hay un ejemplo de nuestra cmara area. +Es pancromtica. En realidad consiste de cuatro conos cromticos. +Adems, es multiespectral. +Recolectamos cuatro gigabits de datos por segundo. Pueden hacerse una idea del aluvin de datos de descarga? +Eso equivale a la capacidad de una constelacin de 12 satlites en la ms alta definicin. +Volamos estos aviones a 1500 metros de altura; +podrn observar la cmara al frente. Recolectamos desde mltiples puntos de vista, puntos panormicos, ngulos, texturas. Recolectamos todos esos datos. +Nos sentamos aqu -- ustedes saben, al nivel de cualquier vehculo terrestre, desde donde los humanos ven -- Qu es lo que una persona ve? Necesitamos capturar eso bien de cerca para establecer el tipo de experiencia de primera mano. +Apuesto que muchos de ustedes han visto los comerciales de Apple que toman el pelo a la PC, por supuesto, con brillantez y simplicidad. +Bien, hay un secreto que pocos conocen. Vieron el comercial del tipo de la cmara web? +El del pobre tipo de la PC que tiene la cmara web en la cabeza pegada con cinta adhesiva. +Bueno, pocos saben que en realidad su hermano trabaja en el equipo de Virtual Earth. +. De modo que aqu hay algo de rivalidad familiar. +Pero djenme decirles que esto no condiciona su trabajo. +Pensamos que de esta tecnologa pueden surgir muchas cosas buenas. +Esto fue despus de Katrina. Fuimos la primera flota de aeronaves comerciales en sobrevolar la zona de impacto del desastre. +Sobrevolamos el rea, tomamos imgenes, enviamos personas, tomamos fotografas de los interiores, de las reas del desastre. Ayudamos con los primeros auxilios, la bsqueda y el rescate. +A menudo Virtual Earth era la primera herramienta con la que la gente vea lo que haba sucedido en sus casas. +Lo pusimos a disposicin en la Web de forma gratuita; era obviamente nuestra oportunidad de contribuir con la causa. +Si pensamos cmo se une todo esto, todo es cuestin de software, algoritmos y matemtica. +Capturamos estas imgenes, pero para construir los modelos 3D necesitamos hacer geoposicionamiento. Tenemos que georegistrar las imgenes. +Hay que corregir las distorsiones y encontrar los puntos de contacto. +Extraer la geometra contenida en las imgenes. +Este proceso requiere mucho clculo. +De hecho, siempre se haca a mano. +En Hollywood gastaban millones de dlares para modelar un pequeo pasillo urbano en una pelcula porque tenan que hacerlo de forma manual. +Conducan por las calles con rayos lser llamados LIDAR. +Recolectaban informacin con fotos; construan manualmente cada edificio. +Nosotros hacemos todo con software, algoritmos y matemtica. Una secuencia altamente automatizada de comandos crea estas ciudades. +Esto cuesta una parte nfima del costo total de construccin de estas ciudades. es as como podremos redimensionarlo haciendo de esta realidad un sueo. +Pensamos en la interfaz de usuario. +Qu significa mirarla desde perspectivas mltiples? +una ortofoto? un nadir? Cmo compatibilizar la fidelidad de las imgenes con la fluidez del modelo? +Voy a cerrar con algo... que no haba mostrado hasta ahora, un detrs de la escena del laboratorio de Virtual Earth. +Estamos haciendo esta captura que a la gente le gusta mucho la captura a vuelo de pjaro. Son datos de alta resolucin. +Hemos descubierto que aprecian la fluidez del modelo 3D. +Un nio puede navegarlo con el control remoto de una Xbox o de un videojuego. +Aqu estamos intentando tomar la imagen y proyectarla en un modelo espacial 3D. +Pueden ver todo tipo de resolucin. Desde aqu puedo tomar lentamente vistas panormicas de la imagen. +Puedo obtener la prxima imagen, mezclar y hacer transiciones. +Y al hacerlo no pierdo el detalle original. De hecho, podra estar grabando la historia. +La frescura, la capacidad. Puedo rotar esta imagen. +Puedo verla desde mltiples ngulos y puntos de vista. +En definitiva estamos intentando crear un mundo virtual. +Esperamos poder hacer de la computacin un modelo de usuario que les resulte familiar y que contenga contribuciones de todos ustedes, provenientes de cualquier parte. +Muchas gracias por su tiempo. +Les dije tres cosas el ao pasado. +Les dije que las estadsticas del mundo no han sido propiamente liberadas. +Debido a eso, an tenemos la vieja idea de pases en desarrollo y pases industrializados, y esto es incorrecto. +Y que los grficos animados pueden crear una diferencia. +Las cosas estn cambiando. Y hoy, en la pgina Web de la divisin de estadstica de la ONU, dice que para el primero de mayo habr acceso total a las bases de datos. +Y si puedo compartir con ustedes esta imagen en pantalla, +tres cosas han ocurrido. +La ONU abri sus bases de datos estadsticas, y tenemos una nueva versin del software funcionando en gapminder.org en la red, as que ya no tienen que descargarlo. +Djenme repetir lo que vieron el ao pasado. +Las burbujas son pases. +Aqu tienen la tasa de fertilidad -- el nmero de nios por mujer -- y aqu tienen la esperanza de vida en aos. +Esto es 1950 -- estos eran los pases industrializados, esos eran los pases en desarrollo. +En esa poca haba un "nosotros" y un "ellos". +Haba una gran diferencia en el mundo. +Pero entonces cambi, y continu bastante bien. +Y esto es lo que ocurre. +Pueden ver cmo China es la gran burbuja roja; +la azul es India. +Voy a intentar ser un poco ms serio este ao al mostrarles cmo han cambiado las cosas. +Y es frica la que sobresale aqu como el problema, no es as? +Las familias todava numerosas y la epidemia de VIH bajaron a los pases de esta forma. +Esto es ms o menos lo que vimos el ao pasado, y as es como continuar en el futuro. +Y continuar diciendo, es esto posible? +Porque vean ahora, present estadsticas que no existen. +Porque aqu es donde estamos. +Ser posible que esto ocurra? +Estoy cubriendo mi tiempo de vida aqu, saben? +Espero vivir 100 aos. +Y aqu es donde estamos hoy. +Ahora, podemos cambiar a ver aqu la situacin econmica del mundo? +Quisiera mostrar eso en contraste con la supervivencia infantil. +Cambiaremos los ejes: +aqu tienen la mortalidad infantil -- esto es, supervivencia -- cuatro nios mueren aqu, 200 mueren ah. +Y este es el PIB per cpita en ste eje. +Esto fue en el 2007. +Y si retrocedemos en el tiempo, he agregado estadsticas histricas -- aqu vamos, aqu vamos, aqu vamos -- no hay muchos datos de hace 100 aos. +Algunos pases todava tienen registros. +Estamos buscando en el archivo, y cuando llegamos a 1820, solamente Austria y Suecia pueden producir nmeros. +Pero estaban aqu abajo, tenan 1,000 dlares por persona por ao. +Y perdan un quinto de sus nios antes de su primer cumpleaos. +Esto es lo que pasa en todo el mundo, si reproducimos todo el mundo, +cmo se volvieron lentamente ms ricos, y fueron agregando datos. +No es hermoso cuando se obtienen datos? +Ven la importancia de eso? +Aqu, los nios no viven ms tiempo. +El siglo pasado, 1870, fue malo para los nios en Europa, porque la mayora de estos datos son de Europa. +Fue solo a partir del nuevo siglo que ms del 90% de los nios sobrevivieron su primer ao. +Esto es India llegando, con los primeros datos de India. +Y stos son los Estados Unidos alejndose, ganando ms dinero. +Y pronto veremos a China apareciendo por la esquina del fondo. +Y sube con Mao Tse-Tsung consiguiendo salud, sin volverse rico. +Aqu muere, y Deng Xiaoping trae dinero, +y se mueve hacia ac. +Y las burbujas continan movindose ah, y as es como se ve el mundo hoy. +Echemos un vistazo a los Estados Unidos. +Tenemos una funcin aqu -- puedo decirle al mundo "qudate donde ests". +Y tomo a los Estados Unidos -- an podemos ver el fondo -- los pongo encima as, y ahora retrocedemos. +Y podemos ver que los Estados Unidos se van a la derecha de la tendencia. +Siempre estn del lado del dinero. +Y en 1915, Estados Unidos era un vecino de la India -- la India presente, contempornea. +Esto significa que los Estados Unidos eran ms ricos, pero perdan proporcionalmente ms nios que India hoy. +Y miren esto -- comparen con las Filipinas de hoy. +Filipinas tiene hoy casi la misma economa que los Estados Unidos en la Primer Guerra Mundial. +Pero tenemos que adelantar bastante a los Estados Unidos para encontrar el mismo ndice de salud que tenemos en Filipinas. +Cerca de 1957, la salud de los Estados Unidos es igual que la de Filipinas. +Y ste es el drama de este mundo, que muchos llaman globalizado, que Asia, los pases rabes, Amrica Latina, estn mucho ms avanzados en salud, educacin, y en cantidad de recursos humanos, que en economa. +Hay discrepancia sobre lo que ocurre hoy en las economas emergentes. +Ah, ahora, los beneficios sociales, el progreso social, van por delante del progreso econmico. +En 1957 -- Estados Unidos tena la misma economa que Chile tiene hoy. +Y cunto falta para que Estados Unidos tenga la misma salud que Chile tiene hoy? +Creo que tenemos que avanzar, aqu -- en 2001 o 2002 -- Estados Unidos tiene la misma salud que Chile. +Chile los est alcanzando! +Dentro de un par de aos Chile puede tener mejor supervivencia infantil que los Estados Unidos. +Esto realmente es un cambio, este intervalo de ms o menos 30 o 40 aos de diferencia en salud. +Y detrs de la salud est el nivel de educacin. +Y mucha infraestructura y recursos humanos generales que estn ah. +Ahora, podemos quitar esto -- y quisiera mostrarles la tasa de velocidad, el ritmo de cambio, cmo de rpido se mueven. +Regresemos a 1920, y quiero ver Japn. +Y quiero ver Suecia y los Estados Unidos. +Y voy a organizar una carrera aqu entre este Ford amarillento aqu este Toyota rojo ah, y el Volvo caf. +Y aqu vamos, aqu vamos. +El Toyota tuvo un muy mal comienzo, como pueden ver, y el Ford Estadounidense se sali de la pista aqu. +Al Volvo le est yendo bastante bien. +Esta es la guerra. El Toyota se despist, y ahora el Toyota viene por el lado ms saludable de Suecia -- Lo pueden ver? +Y estn sobrepasando a Suecia, y ahora son ms saludables que Suecia. +Y esta es la parte en la que vend el Volvo y compr el Toyota. +Ahora podemos ver que el ritmo de cambio fue enorme en Japn. +Realmente los alcanzaron. +Y esto cambia gradualmente. +Tenemos que ver a travs de generaciones para entenderlo. +Djenme mostrarles algo as como mi historia familiar -- hicimos estas grficas de aqu. +Y esto es lo mismo, el dinero aqu, y la salud, saben? +Y esta es mi familia. +Esto es Suecia, 1830, cuando mi tatarabuela naci. +Suecia era como Sierra Leona de hoy. +Y aqu es cuando la bisabuela naci, 1863. +Y Suecia era como Mozambique. +Y aqu es cuando mi abuela naci, 1891. +Ella me cuid de nio, as que no estoy hablando de estadstica -- ahora es la historia de mi familia. +As es cuando creo en las estadsticas, cuando son estadsticas verificadas por la abuela. +Creo que es la mejor manera de verificar datos histricos. +Suecia era como Ghana. +Es interesante ver la enorme diversidad dentro del frica subsahariana. +Les dije el ao pasado, les digo de nuevo, mi madre naci en Egipto, y yo -- Quin soy yo? +Soy el Mexicano de la familia. +Y mi hija, ella naci en Chile, y la nieta naci en Singapur, la nacin ms sana del planeta Tierra. +Sobrepas a Suecia hace dos o tres aos, con mejor supervivencia infantil. +Pero son muy pequeos, saben? +Estn tan cerca del hospital que nunca podremos ganarles en estos bosques +Pero en homenaje a Singapur. +Singapur son los mejores ahora. +Esto tambin parece ser ahora una muy buena historia. +Pero no es tan sencillo, puede que no todo sea una buena historia. +Porque tengo que mostrarles otra de las habilidades: +Podemos hacer que este color represente la variable -- Qu escojo aqu? +Emisin de Dixido de Carbono, tonelada per cpita. +En 1962, los Estados Unidos emitan 16 toneladas por persona. +China emita 0.6, y la India emita 0.32 toneladas per cpita. +Qu ocurre cuando progresamos? +Bien, ven la bonita historia de volverse ms ricos y ms sanos -- todos lo hicieron a base de la emisin de dixido de carbono. +Nadie lo ha logrado hasta ahora. +Y no tenemos los datos actualizados de aqu en delante, porque son datos muy controvertidos. +Y aqu estamos. 2001. +Y en la discusin que atend con lderes globales, muchos dicen que el problema de las economas emergentes, liberan demasiado dixido de carbono. +Y el Ministro de Medio Ambiente de India dice, "Bien, ustedes son los que causaron el problema. +Los pases de la OCDE -- los pases de altos ingresos -- ellos fueron los que causaron el cambio climtico. +Pero les perdonamos, porque no lo saban. +Pero de ahora en delante, contamos per cpita. +De ahora en delante contamos per cpita. +Y todos son responsables por las emisiones per cpita". +Esto realmente demuestra que no hemos visto un buen progreso econmico y de salud en el mundo sin destruir el clima. +Y esto es realmente lo que tiene que cambiar. +He sido criticado por mostrarles una imagen muy positiva del mundo, pero no creo que sea as. +El mundo es un lugar bastante sucio. +Esto es lo que llamamos la Calle del Dlar. +Todos viven en esta calle. +Lo que ganan -- en qu numero viven -- es cunto ganan por da. +Esta familia gana cerca de un dlar al da. +Avanzamos por la calle y encontramos una familia que gana de dos a tres dlares diarios. +Y avanzamos aqu -- encontramos el primer jardn de la calle, y ellos ganan de 10 a 50 dlares diarios. +Cmo viven? +Si vemos la cama aqu, podemos ver que duermen en un tapete en el suelo. +Esto es lo que la lnea de pobreza es -- el 80% del ingreso es exclusivamente para satisfacer necesidades energticas la comida del da. +Esto es de dos a cinco dlares, tienes una cama. +Y aqu pueden ver un cuarto mucho mejor. +Expuse esto para Ikea, y queran ver el sof inmediatamente. +Y ste es el sof, cmo va surgiendo de ah. +Y lo interesante, cuando van alrededor en esta foto panormica, es ver que la familia an est sentada en el suelo, +aunque hay un sof. Si miran hacia la cocina, pueden ver que la gran diferencia para las mujeres no viene de entre uno o 10 dlares. +Viene de ms all, cuando realmente pueden obtener buenas condiciones de trabajo en la familia. +Y si realmente quieren ver la diferencia, pueden ver el bao aqu. +Esto puede cambiar, puede cambiar. +Todas son fotografas e imgenes de frica, y puede volverse mucho mejor. +Podemos salir de la pobreza. +Mis investigaciones no han sido en informtica o algo as. +Pas 20 aos entrevistando a granjeros africanos que estaban en el borde de la hambruna. +Y este es el resultado de la investigacin de sus necesidades. +Lo bueno aqu es que no pueden ver quines son los investigadores en esta fotografa. +Es cuando la investigacin funciona para las sociedades -- realmente deben vivir con la gente. +Cuando estn en la pobreza, todo es acerca de la supervivencia. +Es acerca de tener comida. +Y estas dos jvenes granjeras, que son nias an -- porque los padres murieron de VIH y SIDA -- ellas estn discutiendo con un agrnomo entrenado. +l es uno de los mejores agrnomos de Malawi, Junatambe Kumbira, y estn discutiendo qu tipo de yuca plantarn -- la mejor convertidora de luz a alimento que el hombre ha encontrado. +Y estn muy, muy interesadas en recibir consejos, porque son para sobrevivir en la pobreza. +se es un contexto. +Salir de la pobreza. +Las mujeres nos dijeron una cosa: " Dnos tecnologa. +Odiamos este mortero, estar de pie horas y horas. +Dnos un molino para que podamos moler harina, entonces podremos pagar lo dems nosotras". +La tecnologa las sacar de la pobreza, pero se necesita un mercado para salir de ella. +Y esta mujer est muy feliz ahora, llevando sus productos al mercado. +Pero est muy agradecida por la inversin pblica en escuelas por poder contar y que no la engaen en el mercado. +Quiere que su hijo est sano, para poder ir al mercado y no tener que quedarse en casa. +Y quiere la infraestructura -- es cmodo tener un camino pavimentado. +Tambin hay cosas buenas con el crdito. +Micro-crditos le dieron la bicicleta, saben? +Y la informacin le dir cundo ir al mercado con qu producto. +Pueden hacer esto. +Mi experiencia con 20 aos en frica es que lo aparentemente imposible es posible. +frica no lo ha hecho mal. +En 50 aos han ido de una situacin pre-medieval a una muy decente igual a Europa hace 100 aos, Con naciones y estados funcionales. +Dira que el frica subsahariana ha sido la que mejor lo ha hecho en los ltimos 50 aos. +Porque no consideramos de dnde vinieron. +Es ste estpido concepto de pases en desarrollo que nos pone a nosotros, a Argentina y a Mozambique juntos hace 50 aos, y dice que Mozambique lo hizo peor. +Necesitamos saber un poco ms del mundo. +Tengo un vecino que conoce 200 tipos de vino. +Lo sabe todo. +Conoce el nombre de la uva, temperatura y todo. +Yo solo conozco dos tipos de vino, tinto y blanco. +Pero mi vecino conoce dos tipos de pases -- industrializados y en desarrollo. +Y yo conozco 200, conozco acerca de los datos pequeos. +Ustedes pueden hacer eso. +Pero tengo que actuar seriamente. Cmo actuar seriamente? +Mostrando un PowerPoint, saben? +Homenaje al paquete Office, no? +Qu es esto, qu es esto, que estoy diciendo? +Les estoy diciendo que hay muchas dimensiones de desarrollo. +Todos quieren ver sus proyectos favoritos. +En el sector corporativo, quieren a los micro-crditos. +Si ests en una organizacin no gubernamental, quieren igualdad de gnero. +O si eres un profesor, adorars la UNESCO, y as. +A nivel global, necesitamos tener ms que lo nuestro. +Necesitamos de todo. +Todas estas cosas son importantes para el desarrollo, especialmente cuando acabas de salir de la pobreza y deberas ir hacia el bienestar. +Ahora, en lo que debemos pensar es: qu es un objetivo para el desarrollo y cules son los medios de desarrollo? +Djenme evaluar cules son los medios mas importantes. +Crecimiento econmico, para m, como profesor de salud pblica, es lo ms importante para el desarrollo, porque explica el 80% de la supervivencia. +Gobierno. Tener un gobierno funcional -- es lo que sac a California de la miseria de 1850. +Fue el gobierno el que hizo que la ley funcionara finalmente. +La educacin y los recursos humanos son importantes. +La salud tambin es importante, pero no tanto como promedio. +El medio ambiente es importante. +Los derechos humanos tambin son importantes, pero solo reciben un punto. +Y que hay de los objetivos? Hacia donde vamos? +No nos interesa el dinero. +El dinero no es un objetivo. +Es el mejor medio, pero le doy cero como objetivo. +El Gobierno, es divertido votar en una eleccin, pero no es objetivo. +Ir a la escuela, no es un objetivo, es un medio. +A la salud le doy dos puntos. Digo, es agradable estar sano --especialmente a mi edad-- si puedes estar aqu, ests sano. +Y eso es bueno, recibe dos positivos. +El medio ambiente es muy, muy crucial. +No hay nada para el nieto si no lo preservas. +Pero cules son los objetivos importantes? +Por supuesto, son los derechos humanos. +Los derechos humanos son el objetivo, pero no son un medio fuerte para lograr el desarrollo. +Y cultura. La cultura es lo ms importante, dira yo, porque es lo que trae alegra a la vida. +se es el valor de vivir. +As que lo aparentemente imposible es posible. +Incluso los pases africanos lo pueden lograr. +Y les he mostrado aqu que lo aparentemente imposible es posible. +Y recuerden, por favor recuerden mi mensaje principal, que es: lo aparentemente imposible es posible. +Podemos tener un buen mundo. +Les mostr las fotos, lo prob en el PowerPoint. y creo que les convencer mediante la cultura. +Traigan mi espada! +Tragar sables viene de la India antigua. +Es una expresin cultural que por miles de aos ha inspirado a los seres humanos a pensar ms all de lo obvio. +Y les mostrar que lo aparentemente imposible es posible al tomar esta pieza de acero -- acero slido -- esta es la bayoneta de la armada Sueca, 1850, del ltimo ao en que estuvimos en guerra. +Y todo es acero slido, como pueden or. +Y voy a tomar esta espada de acero, y empujarla a travs de mi cuerpo de carne y sangre, y probarles que lo aparentemente imposible es posible. +Puedo pedir un momento de silencio absoluto? +En primer lugar me gustara llevarlos a lo que se piensa que sera el abismo natural ms profundo del mundo. +Y digo se piensa porque este proceso an continua. +En este momento se estn planeando grandes expediciones para el prximo ao y voy a hablar un poco sobre eso. +Una de las cosas que ha cambiado en los ltimos 150 aos, desde que Julio Verne tuvo grandiosas nociones de ciencia ficcin sobre cmo era el mundo subterrneo, es que la tecnologa nos ha permitido ir a estos lugares que anteriormente eran completamente desconocidos y sobre los que slo se poda especular. +Ahora podemos descender miles de metros dentro de la tierra con relativa impunidad. +En el camino hemos descubierto abismos fantsticos y cmaras tan grandes que se puede ver por cientos de metros sin interrupcin en la lnea de visin. +Cuando vas a un lugar as normalmente ests en terreno por un perodo de dos a cuatro meses, con un equipo que puede ser desde como de 20 o 30 hasta como de 150. +Y mucha gente me pregunta, ustedes saben, qu tipo de gente consigues para un proyecto as? +Y mientras que nuestro proceso de seleccin no es tan riguroso como en la NASA, es igual de completo. +Buscamos competencia, disciplina, resistencia y fuerza. +En caso de que se lo pregunten, esta es nuestra prueba de fuerza. +Pero tambin valoramos la camaradera y la habilidad para resolver conflictos interpersonales diplomticamente estando bajo gran presin en lugares remotos. +Ya hemos sobrepasado por mucho los lmites de la resistencia humana. +Vindola desde la entrada, no se parece en lo absoluto a una caverna comercial. +Estn viendo el Campo Dos en un lugar llamado J2, no K2 sino J2. +Ah ya estamos a ms o menos dos das de la entrada. +Y es como un viaje de montaismo de gran altura en reversa, excepto que ahora ests haciendo bajar cuerdas por estas cosas. +La idea es tratar de proveer cierta cantidad de comodidad fsica mientras ests ah abajo, en condiciones hmedas y fras en lugares totalmente oscuros. +Por cierto, debo mencionar que todo lo que ven aqu est iluminado artificialmente con gran esfuerzo. +De otra manera estara completamente oscuro en estos lugares. +Entra ms desciendes, ms entras en conflicto con el agua. +Bsicamente es como un rbol que recolecta agua cada. +Y eventualmente llegas a lugares donde es formidable y peligroso y desafortunadamente las fotos no le hacen justicia. +As que tengo aqu un breve video que fue tomado a finales de los 80s. +Desciendan hacia dentro de la Meseta de Huatla en Mxico. +Debo decirles que las tcnicas mostradas aqu son obsoletas y peligrosas. +No haramos esto hoy en da a menos que fuera para una pelcula. +Y siguiendo en la misma lnea debo decirles que con la avalancha de pelculas de Hollywood que salieron el ao pasado, an no hemos visto monstruos bajo tierra... al menos no del tipo que te comen. +Si existe un monstruo bajo tierra es la aplastante lejana psicolgica que comienza a impactar a cada miembro del equipo cuando ya te adentras tres das desde la entrada ms cercana. +El prximo ao estar dirigiendo a un equipo internacional al J2. +Estaremos intentando llegar a menos 2.600 metros, un poco ms de 8.600 pies de profundidad, a 30 kilmetros de la entrada. +Los equipos de avanzada estarn bajo tierra cerca de 30 das seguidos. +No creo que haya habido una misin como esta en mucho tiempo. +Eventualmente si sigues descendiendo por estas cosas, la probabilidad dice que te encontrars lugares como este. +Es un lugar donde hay un pliegue en el estrato geolgico que recolecta agua y que se llena hasta el techo. +Y cuando solas encontrar estas cosas le ponas una etiqueta al mapa que deca "sifn terminal". +Ahora, recuerdo ese trmino muy bien por dos razones. +Nmero uno, es el nombre de mi banda de rock y dos, es porque enfrentarme a estas cosas me forz a convertirme en inventor. +Y desde entonces hemos desarrollado muchas generaciones de aparatos para explorar lugares como este. +Este es un equipo de apoyo vital de ciclo cerrado +y puedes usarlo ahora para ir horizontalmente por muchos kilmetros bajo el agua y para bajar directamente a profundidades de 200 metros. +Cuando haces este tipo de cosas es como realizar una AEV, +como hacer una Actividad Extra-Vehicular en el espacio pero a mucha mayor distancia y con mucho mayor peligro fsico. +As que te hace pensar en cmo disear tu equipo para usarlo a gran distancia de un refugio seguro. +Aqu hay un clip de una pelcula de National Geographic que sali en 1999. +(Narrador de Video) "La exploracin es el proceso fsico de poner tu pie en lugares donde los humanos nunca han pisado antes. +Este es el ltimo territorio totalmente desconocido que queda en el planeta. +Experimentarlo es un privilegio." +Eso fue filmado en Wakulla Springs, Florida. +Un par de cosas que recalcar sobre esa pelcula: cada pieza de equipo que vieron ah no exista antes de 1999. +Fue desarrollado en un perodo de dos aos y usado en proyectos de exploracin reales. +Este aparato que ven aqu se llama mapeador digital de paredes y produjo el primer mapa tridimensional que alguien haya hecho de una cueva y sucedi bajo el agua en Wakulla Springs. +Este dispositivo fue el que accidentalmente abri la puerta a otro mundo inexplorado. +Esta es Europa. +Carolyn Porco mencion otra llamada Enclado el otro da. +Este es uno de los lugares donde los cientficos planetarios creen que existe una alta probabilidad de que por primera vez se detecte vida fuera de la Tierra, en el ocano que existe ah debajo. +Para aquellos que nunca han visto esta historia Jim Cameron produjo una fantstica pelcula en IMAX hace unos aos llamada "Criaturas del Abismo" +Aqu hay un breve clip: (Narrador de Video) "Una misin para explorar bajo el hielo de Europa ser el desafo robtico definitivo. +Europa est tan lejos que incluso a la velocidad de la luz enviar una orden tomara ms de una hora en llegar al vehculo. +Debe ser lo suficientemente inteligente para evitar amenazas en el terreno y encontrar un buen lugar de aterrizaje en el hielo. +Ahora debemos atravesar el hielo. +Se necesita una sonda que lo derrita. +Bsicamente es un torpedo calentado a reaccin nuclear. +El hielo puede medir desde 5 a 26 kilmetros de profundidad. +Semana tras semana, la sonda se hundir bajo su propio peso a travs del hielo antiguo, hasta que finalmente... Ahora, qu hars cuando llegues a la superficie de ese ocano? +Necesitas un VSA, un Vehculo Submarino Autnomo. +Necesita ser un chico muy inteligente, capaz de navegar y tomar decisiones propias en un ocano aliengena." +Lo que Jim no saba cuando lanz la pelcula es que seis meses antes la NASA financi un equipo que yo haba reunido para desarrollar un prototipo del VSA para Europa. +Es decir, pas por tres aos de reuniones de ingeniera, diseo e integracin de sistemas e introduje DEPTHX, Explorador Termal de Profundidades Freticas. +Y como dice la pelcula este es un chico muy inteligente. +Tiene 96 sensores, 36 computadoras de a bordo, 100 mil lneas de cdigo de conducta autnoma, llevando ms de 10 kilos de TNT abordo como equivalente elctrico. +Este es el sitio objetivo, la fuente hidrotermal ms profunda del mundo en el Cenote Zacatn al norte de Mxico. +Ha sido explorado hasta una profundidad de 292 metros pero nadie sabe que hay ms all. +Esta es parte de la misin de DEPTHX. +Hay dos objetivos principales que llevaremos a cabo aqu. +Uno es: cmo haces ciencia autnomamente bajo tierra? +Cmo tomas un robot y lo conviertes en un microbilogo de campo? +Hay ms etapas involucradas aqu que el tiempo que tengo para contarles, pero bsicamente avanzamos a travs del espacio, lo poblamos con variables medio ambientales como sulfuro, halogenuro, cosas como esas. +Calculamos los gradientes de las superficies y llevamos al robot hacia una pared donde haya gran probabilidad de vida. +Nos movemos por la pared, en lo que se llaman operaciones de proximidad, buscando cambios en el color. +Si vemos algo que se vea interesante lo ponemos bajo el microscopio. +Si pasa la prueba microscpica tomamos una muestra. +Podemos tomar una muestra lquida o podemos tomar un ncleo slido de la pared. +Sin manos al volante. +Todo es comportamiento autnomo que est siendo conducido por el robot. +El truco realmente impresionante de este vehculo es un sistema de navegacin disruptivo que hemos desarrollado, conocido como 3D SLAM, por Localizacin Y Mapeo Simultneo. +DEPTHX es un ojo que todo lo ve. +Sus haces sensores ven hacia adelante y atrs al mismo tiempo permitindole realizar nuevas exploraciones mientras an est fijando una imagen con sensores geomtricos de lo que ya ha pasado. +Lo que les voy a mostrar a continuacin es la primera exploracin robtica subterrnea totalmente autnoma que se haya hecho jams. +En mayo de este ao iremos mil metros para abajo en Zacatn y, si tenemos mucha suerte, DEPTHX traer la primera divisin de bacteria descubierta robticamente. +El siguiente paso despus de eso ser probarlo en la Antrtica y despus, si el financiamiento contina y la NASA sigue con la intencin de ir, potencialmente podramos despegar en 2016 y para el 2019 podramos tener la primera evidencia de vida fuera del planeta. +Entonces qu pasa con la exploracin tripulada al espacio? +El gobierno anunci recientemente sus planes para regresar a la luna en 2024. +La conclusin exitosa de esa misin resultar en visitas no frecuentes a la luna por una cantidad pequea de cientficos y pilotos del gobierno. +No nos llevar ms all de lo que estuvimos hace 50 aos en la expansin general de la humanidad al espacio. +Algo fundamental debe cambiar si queremos ver acceso general al espacio en nuestras vidas. +Lo que les voy a mostrar a continuacin son un par de ideas controvertidas. +Y espero que me aguanten y tengan algo de fe en que hay algo de credibilidad en lo que vamos a hablar aqu. +Requieres tres fundamentos para trabajar privadamente en el espacio. +Uno de ellos es que necesitas de transporte tierra-a-espacio econmico. +Los Burt Rutans y Richard Bransons de este mundo tienen esto como objetivo y brindo por ellos. +Vamos, vamos, vamos. +La siguiente cosa que necesitamos son lugares para permanecer en rbita. +Hoteles orbitales para empezar pero despus talleres para el resto de nosotros. +La ltima pieza faltante, el verdadero rompedor de paradigmas, es este: una estacin de combustible en rbita. +No se va a ver as. +Si existiera, cambiara todo el diseo de naves espaciales y planificacin de misiones espaciales futuras. +Ahora, para darles oportunidad de entender por qu esta afirmacin es tan poderosa, debo explicarles lo bsico de Espacio 101. +Y lo primero es que todo lo que haces en el espacio lo pagas por kilogramo. +Alguien bebi uno de estos aqu esta semana? +Pagaran 10 mil dlares por esto en rbita. +Es ms de lo que pagaran por TED si Google abandonara su patrocinio. +Lo segundo es que ms del 90% del peso de un vehculo es combustible. +Entonces, cada vez que quieras hacer algo en el espacio, literalmente ests quemando enormes sumas de dinero cada vez que pisas el acelerador. +Ni siquiera los chicos de Tesla pueden contra esa fsica. +As que, qu tal si pudieras conseguir gas a un dcimo del precio? +Hay un lugar donde puedes. +De hecho puede obtenerlo mejor, a 14 veces menos, si es que puedes encontrar combustible en la luna. +Hay una misin poco conocida que fue lanzada por el Pentgono hace 13 aos llamada "Clementine". +Y lo ms increble que se obtuvo de esa misin fue una fuerte firma de hidrgeno en el crter Shackleton en el polo sur de la luna. +La seal era tan fuerte que slo pudo haber sido producida por 10 billones de toneladas de agua enterradas en el sedimento, recolectadas por millones de millones de aos por el impacto de asteroides y material de cometas. +Si vamos a obtener eso y hacer posible esa estacin de combustible debemos encontrar formas de mover grandes volmenes de carga por el espacio. +Hoy da no podemos hacerlo. +La forma en que normalmente se construye un sistema hoy en da es construyendo una pila de tubos que se lanzan desde la tierra y resisten todo tipo de fuerzas aerodinmicas. +Tenemos que superar eso. +Podemos hacerlo porque en el espacio no hay aerodinmica. +Podemos usar sistemas inflables para casi todo. +Esta es una idea que, nuevamente, vino de Livermore en 1989 con el grupo del Dr. Lowell Wood. +Y ahora podemos extender eso a casi todo. +Bob Bigelow actualmente tiene un artculo de prueba en rbita. +Podemos ir mucho ms lejos. +Podemos construir remolcadores espaciales, plataformas para contener criognicos y agua. +Hay otra cosa. +Cuando regresas de la luna tienes que lidiar con mecnicas orbitales. +Se dice que te mueves 3 mil metros por segundo ms rpido de lo que en realidad quieres ir regresando a tu estacin de combustible. +Tienes dos opciones. +Puedes quemar combustible para llegar ah o puedes hacer algo increble. +Puedes zambullirte en la estratsfera y rebotando de forma precisa disipar esa velocidad y salir devuelta a la estacin espacial. +Nunca se ha hecho. +Es riesgoso y ser un viaje infernalmente bueno, mejor que Disney. +El enfoque tradicional a la exploracin espacial ha sido que cargues con todo el combustible que requieras para traer a todos de vuelta en caso de emergencia. +Si tratas de enviar una tripulacin a la luna haciendo eso, slo en combustible vas a quemar mil millones de dlares. +Pero si mandas primero a un equipo de mineros sin el combustible de regreso... Alguno de ustedes ha escuchado la historia de Cortez? +Esto no es as. Soy mucho ms como Scotty. +Me gustan estos equipos, saben, y en realidad los valoro as que no vamos a quemarlos. +Pero si fueras realmente atrevido podras llegar all, fabricar el combustible, y sera la demostracin ms dramtica de que puedes hacer algo que valga la pena fuera del planeta que nunca se haya hecho antes. +Hay un mito que dice que no puedes hacer nada en el espacio por menos de un billn de dlares y 20 aos. +Eso no es verdad. +En siete aos podramos llevar una misin industrial a Shackleton y demostrar que puedes proveer una realidad comercial en rbita baja. +Estamos viviendo en uno de las pocas ms excitantes de la historia. +Donde la confluencia mgica de la riqueza privada y la imaginacin nos llevan a demandar acceso al espacio. +Las estaciones orbitales de combustible que describ podran crear una industria completamente nueva y proveer la llave final para abrir el espacio a la exploracin general. +Para romper el paradigma, se requiere de una aproximacin radicalmente distinta. +Podemos hacerlo de salto comenzando con una expedicin industrial de Lewis y Clark al crter Shackleton, para minar los recursos de la luna y demostrar que estos pueden formar la base de un atractivo negocio en rbita. +Pareciera que las discusiones sobre el espacio siempre terminan colgadas en ambigedades de propsito y sincronizacin. +Me gustara terminar aqu poniendo una estaca en la arena en TED. +Declaro que pretendo liderar esa expedicin. +Puede hacerse en siete aos con el respaldo adecuado. +Los que se unan a m para hacerlo realidad sern parte de la historia y se unirn a otros individuos osados del pasado quienes, de estar hoy aqu, hubieran aprobado sinceramente. +Hubo un tiempo en el cual la gente haca cosas atrevidas para abrir las fronteras. +Nos hemos olvidado grupalmente de esa leccin. +Ahora estamos en una poca en la que se requiere audacia para avanzar. +Cien aos despus que Sir Ernest Shackleton escribiera estas palabras, declaro que pretendo plantar una bandera industrial en la luna y completar la pieza final que abrir la frontera espacial, en nuestro tiempo, para todos nosotros. +Gracias. +Hoy voy a hablarles acerca de convertir el miedo en esperanza +Cuando vamos con el especialista actualmente, cuando llegamos al consultorio y entramos, hay palabras que no queremos escuchar. +Hay palabras a las que tenemos genuino temor. +Diabetes, cancer, Parkinson, Alzheimer, falla cardiaca, falla pulmonar. Cosas que sabemos son enfermedades que debilitan, de las cuales relativamente poco puede hacerse. +Haremos todo esto en 18 minutos, lo prometo. +Quiero comenzar con esta diapositiva por que sta narra la historia de cmo la revista "Science" ilustra el concepto. +Esta es una edicin de 2002 en donde publicaron diversos artculos sobre el humano binico +Bsicamente se trat de una edicin de medicina regenerativa. +La medicina regenerativa es un concepto extraordinariamente sencillo que todos pueden entender. +Se trata simplemente de acelerar el ritmo al cual el cuerpo se cura a si mismo a una escala de tiempo clnicamente relevante. +Nosotros sabemos cmo hacer esto en varias de las maneras indicadas ah. +Sabemos que nos daamos un hueso,ste se puede reemplazar por uno artificial. +Y esta es la idea que la revista "Science" us en su portada. +Esto es totalmente opuesto a la medicina regenerativa. +Esto no es medicina regenerativa. +Medicina regenerativa es lo que public "Business Week" cuando escribieron una historia al respecto no hace mucho. +La idea es que, en lugar de imaginarse como disminuir los sntomas con dispositivos, medicinas y similares -- y retomar este tema varias veces ms -- en lugar de hacer eso, regeneraremos las funciones perdidas del cuerpo mediante la regeneracin del funcionamiento de organos y tejido daado. +Para que al final del tratamiento, usted sea el mismo de como estaba al inicio del tratamiento. +Muy pocas buenas ideas -- si estn de acuerdo que sta es una buena idea -- muy pocas ideas son de verdad novedosas. +Y esta no es la excepcin. +Si revisan la historia, Charles Lindbergh -- quien es mejor conocido por volar aeroplanos-- fue en realidad de las primeras personas, junto con Alexis Carrel, uno de los ganadores Nobel desde Rockefeller, en comenzar a pensar se pueden cultivar rganos? +Ellos publicaron este libro en 1937, donde ellos comenzaron a pensar, qu podra hacerse en bio-reactores para crecer rganos completos? +Hemos logrado mucho desde entonces. +Voy a compartir con ustedes algo del emocionante trabajo que se est realizando +Pero antes, quisiera yo compartirles mi depresin respecto al sistema de salud y la necesidad de esto con ustedes. +Varias de las charlas de ayer se refirieron a la mejora de la calidad de vida y reducir la pobreza. Y en escencia incrementar la esperanza de vida en todo el mundo. +Uno de los retos es que mientras ms ricos seamos ms viviremos. +Y mientras ms vivamos, ms caro ser cuidar de nuestras enfermedades mientras envejecemos. +Esto es simplemente el bienestar de un pas contra el porcentaje de poblacin que tiene ms de 65 aos +Y pueden ver que mientras ms rico es un pais, tendr ms personas de mayor edad en l. +Por qu es esto relevante? +Y por qu esto es un reto particularmente dramtico actualmente? +Si la edad promedio de su poblacion es de 30 aos, entonces el tipo de enfermedad promedio que se tratar probablemente sea un taln fracturado de vez en cuando, quiz un poco de asma. +Si la edad promedio de la poblacin en su pas es de 45 a 55 aos, entonces la persona promedio enfrentar diabetes, pre diabetes, falla cardiaca, enfermedad de la arteria coronaria. Enfermedades que son inherentemente ms dificiles de tratar, y mucho ms caras de tratar. +Solo observen las estadsticas en Estados Unidos. +Esto es de Estados Unidos de Amrica. +En 1930 haban 41 trabajadores por retirado. +41 personas que bsicamente no estaban enfermas en realidad, pagando por un retirado que experimentaba una enfermedad debilitante. +En 2010, dos trabajadores por retirado en EUA. +Y eso coincide en todos los pases industrializados y ricos en el mundo. +Cmo puede mantenerse el tratamiento de pacientes, cuando la realidad de envecejer se ve as? +Esto es edad contra el costo de la salud. +Y pueden ver que justo alrededor de los 45, 40 a 45 aos, hay un incremento sbito en el costo de la salud. +Es muy interesante --si se hacen los estudios correctos, pueden ver cunto gastan ustedes, como individuos, en su propia salud, representado a lo largo de su vida. +Y alrededor de siete aos antes de morir, hay un pico. +Y ustedes pueden -- --no entraremos en esto. +Hay pocas cosas, muy pocas cosas que pueden hacer para cambiar la forma en que pueden tratar este tipo de enfermedades y experimentar lo que yo llamo una vejez sana. +Yo sugiero que hay cuatro cosas. Y ninguna de estas incluye un sistema de seguros o sistema legal. +Lo que hacen esas cosas es cambiar al que paga. +Estas no cambian el costo actual del tratamiento. +Una cosa que pueden hacer es no tratarse. Pueden racionar los cuidados. +Pero no hablaremos de ello. Es muy deprimente. +Pueden prevenir. +Obviamente bastante dinero debera invertirse en la prevencin. +Pero quiz lo ms interesante, para mi, y ms importante, es la idea de diagnosticar una enfermedad ms temprano en su progresin, y entonces tratar la enfermedad para curarla en lugar de tratar un sntoma. +Piensen en esto en trminos de la diabetes, por ejemplo. +Actualmente, con la diabetes qu hacemos? +Diagnosticamos la enfermedad eventualmente, una vez que muestra sntomas, y entonces tratamos los sntomas por 10, 20, 30, 40 aos. +Y nos va bien. La Insulina es una buena terapia. +Pero eventualmente dejar de funcionar, y la diabetes nos lleva a un conjunto predecible de enfermedades debilitantes. +Por qu no inyectar el pncreas con algo para regenerar el pncreas al inicio de la enfermedad, quizs incluso antes de que muestre sntomas? +Y puede que sea un poco caro en el momento en que lo hagamos, pero si funciona, podramos entonces hacer algo diferente. +Este video, pienso, explica el concepto al que me refiero, de manera dramtica. +Este es un tritn regenerando su extremidad. +Si un tritn puede hacer esto por qu nosotros no? +Les mostrar algunas caractersticas importantes sobre la regeneracin de actividades en un momento. +Pero de lo que hablamos acerca de la medicina regenerativa es hacer esto en cada sistema de rganos del cuerpo, para los tejidos y para los rganos. +La realidad actual es que si nos enfermamos, el mensaje es que trataremos los sntomas, y usted deber ajustarse a un nuevo estilo de vida. +Les plantear que para maana -- y podemos debatir cuando ser maana-- pero se vislumbra en el futuro -- podremos hablar de rehabilitacin regenerativa. +Aqu se muestra una prtesis de extremidad similar a la que usa el soldado que regres de Iraq +hay 370 soldados que regresaron de Iraq y que perdieron extremidades. +Imaginen que en lugar de esto, ellos pudieran realizar la regeneracin de dicha extremidad. +Es un concepto radical. +Les mostrar donde nos encontramos actualmente trabajando en ese concepto. +Pero es aplicable, de nuevo, a todo el sistema de rganos. +Cmo podemos hacer eso? +La forma de hacerlo es desarrollar una conversacin con el cuerpo. +Necesitamos aprender el lenguaje del cuerpo. +Y cambiar a los procesos que conocimos cuando ramos fetos. +Un feto de mamfero, si pierde un miembro durante el primer trimestre del embarazo, regenerar ese miembro. +Entonces su ADN tiene la capacidad de hacer este tipo de mecanismos de sanacin. +Es un proceso natural, pero se pierde cuando crecemos. +En un nio, antes de que cumpla seis meses, Si pierden la punta del dedo en un accidente, les crecer de nuevo la punta del dedo. +Para cuando tienen cinco aos ya no podr hacer eso. +Para poder conversar con el cuerpo, necesitamos hablar su lenguaje. +Y existen ciertas herramientas que nos permiten hacer eso hoy en da. +Les dar un ejemplo de tres de estas herramientas para conversar con el cuerpo. +La primera es terapia celular. +Claramente, nos curamos en un proceso natural, usando clulas para hacer el trabajo. +Por lo tanto, si encontramos las clulas adecuadas e implantarlas en el cuerpo, estas podran curarnos. +Segundo, usar materiales. +Vimos ayer la importancia de nuevos materiales. +Si podemos inventar materiales, disearlos, o extraerlos de un ambiente natural, entonces podramos usar ese material para que el cuerpo se cure a s mismo. +Y finalmente, podramos usar dispositivos inteligentes que quitarn carga de trabajo al cuerpo y le permitirn curarse. +Les mostrar un ejemplo de cada uno de estos, y comenzar con materiales. +Steve Badylak --que est en la Universidad de Pittsburgh -- hace una dcada tuvo una idea admirable. +Esa idea fue que el intestino delgado de un cerdo, si se le quitan todas las clulas, hacindolo de manera que le permita permanecer biolgicamente activo, podra contener todos los factores y seales necesarios para indicarle al cuerpo que se sane a s mismo. +Y el se hizo una pregunta muy importante. +l pregunto, Si tomo ese material, que es un material natural que normalmente induce la sanacin del intestino delgado, y lo coloco en el cuerpo de otra persona, ocasionar una respuesta especfica del tejido, o desarrollar un intestino delgado si yo tratara de hacer una nueva oreja? +No les contara esta historia si no fuera necesario. +Los que les voy a mostrar es una lcera diabtica. +Aunque, es bueno reir antes de ver esto. +Esta es la realidad de la diabetes. +Pienso que muchas veces escuchamos sobre lcera diabtica, no conectamos la lcera con el tratamiento eventual, que es la amputacin, si no puede curarse. +Asi pues, mostrar la imagen. No tardar mucho. +Esto es una lcera diabtica. Es trgico. +El tratamiento para esto es la amputacin. +Esto es de una anciana. Tiene cncer en el hgado as como diabetes, y ha decidido morir con lo que quede de su cuerpo intacto. +Y esa dama decidi, despus de un ao de intentar tratar esa lcera, que deberamos probar la nueva terapia que Steve invent. +As es como la herida se vea 11 semanas despus. +El material contena solamente seales naturales. +Y este material indujo al cuerpo a cambiar a una respuesta de sanacin que no tena antes. +Voy a mostrar un par ms de diapositivas perturbadoras -- les avisar cuando puedan mirar de nuevo. +Este es un caballo. El caballo no siente dolor. +Si el caballo sufriera, no les mostrara esta imagen. +El caballo tiene otro orificio nasal debido a un accidente de cabalgata. +Unas semanas despus del tratamiento -- en este caso, se tom el material, se hizo en gel, y se cubri el rea, se repiti el tratamiento varias veces -- y el caballo san. +Si hacen un ultrasonido a esa rea, se ver muy bien. +He aqu a un delfn a quien se le puso de nuevo la aleta. +Existen 400 000 pacientes en todo el mundo que han usado ese material para curar sus heridas. +Se puede regenerar un miembro? +DARPA le di a Steve 15 millones de dlares para dirigir el proyecto con 8 instituciones para comenzar el proceso de hacer esa pregunta. +Y les mostrar la imagen de los 15 millones de dlares. +Este es un seor de 78 aos que perdi la punta del dedo. +Recuerden lo que les dije de los nios que pierden la punta del dedo +Despus del tratamiento, as es como luce. +Esto est pasando actualmente. +Esto es clinicamente relevante. +Hay materiales que hacen esto. Estn los parches de corazn. +Pero se podra ir ms all? +Podramos, por decir, en lugar de usar material, tomar unas clulas junto con el material, y eliminar la parte del tejido daado, poner un material bio-degradable? +Pueden ver aqu un pedazo de msculo cardiaco latiendo en un plato. +Esto fue hecho por Teruo Okano en el Hospital Femenino de Tokyo. +El hizo crecer tejido palpitante en un plato. +El enfra el plato, lo que cambia sus propiedades y lo extrae directamente del plato. +Es algo genial. +Ahora les mostrar la regeneracin basada en clulas +Y lo que les voy a mostrar aqu son clulas madre removidas de la cadera de un paciente. +De nuevo, si son impresionables, no querrn mirar. +Pero sta es muy buena. +Esta es una operacin de bypass, como la que tuvo Al Gore, con una diferencia. +En este caso, al final de la operacin de bypass, vern las clulas madre del paciente que fueron removidas al inicio del procedimiento siendo inyectadas directamente al corazn del paciente. +Y me levanto aqu debido a que en un punto les voy a mostrar que tan novedosa esta tecnologa es. +Aqu van las clulas madre, directo al corazn latiente del paciente. +Y si miran con cuidado, justo esta por ocurrir podrn ver un reflujo +Pueden ver las clulas regresando. +Necesitamos todo tipo de nueva tecnologa, nuevos dispositivos, para llevar las clulas al lugar correcto en el momento correcto. +Un poco de informacin. +Esta fue una prueba aleatoria. +En este momento era N de 20. Ahora es N en 100 +Bsicamente, si toman pacientes muy enfermos y les hacen un bypass, mejorarn un poco. +Si se les proporcionan clulas madre junto con el bypass, para estos pacientes en particular, se volvieron asintomticos. +Ellos llevan dos aos fuera. +Lo mejor sera si pudiera diagnosticarse pronto la enfermedad, y prevenir que la enfermedad llegue a un estado avanzado +Este es el mismo procedimiento, pero minimamente invasivo, con solo tres orificios en el cuerpo donde toman el corazn y simplemente inyectan clulas madre a travs de un procedimiento laparoscpico. +Ah van las clulas. +No tenemos tiempo de ver los detalles, pero, bsicamente, esto tambin funciona. +Se pueden tomar pacientes que no estn tan enfermos, y llevarlos a un estado casi asintomtico mediante este tipo de terapia. +Aqu hay otro ejemplo de terapia celular que an no ha sido probado clinicamente. Pero pienso que muy pronto lo ser. +Este es el trabajo de Kacey Marra de Pittsburgh, junto con varios colegas alrededor del mundo. +Ellos decidieron usar el fluido de liposuccin, el cual, en Estados Unidos, tenemos mucho. +Es una gran fuente de clulas madre. +Las clulas madre estan empaquetadas en ese fluido de liposuccin. +As que pueden ir, a que les quiten algo de grasa. +Sale el fluido de la liposuccin, y en este caso, las clulas madre son aisladas y convertidas en neuronas. +Todo esto hecho en el laboratorio. +Pienso que muy pronto vern a pacientes que son tratados con clulas madre obtenidas de su propio tejido adiposo. +Antes mencion el uso de dispositivos que cambiaran dramticamente la forma de tratar las enfermedades. +He aqu un ejemplo, antes de concluir. +Esto es muy trgico. +Tenemos una colaboracin permanente y conmovedora con nuestros colegas del Instituto para Investigacin Quirrgica de la Armada de EUA, quienes dan tratamiento a los ms de 11 000 jovenes que han regresado de Iraq. +Muchos de ellos tienen quemaduras severas. +Y si algo hemos aprendido sobre las quemaduras, es que no sabemos cmo tratarlas. +Todo lo que se ha hecho para tratar quemaduras -- bsicamente hacemos una aproximacin de transplante. +Hacemos algo por aqu, y despus lo transplantamos a la parte herida, y tratamos de que ambas se unan. +En este caso, un nuevo bio-reactor que se puede usar, se ha diseado -- y debera probarse clnicamente este ao en la ISR -- por Joerg Gerlach en Pittsburh. +Este bio-reactor ser puesto en la cama del herido. +La pistola que ven dispersar clulas. +Dispersar clulas por toda el rea. +El reactor servir para fertilizar el ambiente, proporcionando otras cosas al mismo tiempo, y por lo tanto se sembrar el terreno, opuesto a lo que hace la aproximacin de transplante. +Es una forma completamente diferente de hacerlo. +Ya casi terminan mis 18 minutos. +Permitanme terminar con unas buenas noticias, y quiz un poco de malas noticias. +Las buenas noticias son que esto est ocurriendo actualmente. +Es un trabajo muy poderoso. +Claramente las imagenes lo muestran. +Es algo muy dificil debido a que es altamente interdisciplinario. +Casi cada campo de ingeniera cientfica y prctica clnica se involucran para que esto ocurra. +Varios gobiernos y varias regiones, se han dado cuenta de que esto es una nueva forma de tratar enfermedades. +El gobierno Japons fue quiz el primero, cuando decidi invertir primero 3 mil millones, y despus otros 2 mil millones en este campo. +No es coincidencia. +Japn es el pas ms antiguo de la Tierra en trminos de edad promedio. +Ellos necesitan que esto funcione o su sistema de salud muere. +As que invierten estrategicamente en esta rea. +Lo mismo con la Unin Europea. +China, lo mismo. +China acaba de lanzar un centro nacional de ingeniera de tejidos +El presupuesto del primer ao fueron 250 millones de dlares. +En Estados Unidos tenemos una aproximacin diferente. Nosotros -- +-- oh, que Al Gore fuera presidente en la vida real. +Tenemos una aproximacin diferente. +Y sta ha sido simplemente patrocinar las cosas conforme vayan llegando. +Pero no hay una estrategia de inversin para traer todo lo necesario para enfocarse y llegar a algo de manera cuidadosa. +Voy a terminar citando, quiza de manera algo injusta, al director de NIH, quien es un hombre encantador. +Al final de una reunin bastante exasperante, lo que dijo el director de NIH es, "Su visin es mucho ms grande que nuestro apetito". +Quiero concluir diciendo que nadie va a cambiar nuestra visin, pero juntos podemos cambiar su apetito. +Gracias. +As que hoy quiero hablarles acerca del SIDA en el frica sub-Sahariano +ste es un pblico muy bien instrudo, as que imagino que todos ustedes saben algo acerca del SIDA. +Probablemente saben que cerca de 25 millones de personas en frica estn infectadas con el virus, y que el SIDA es una enfermedad de la pobreza. Y, que si logramos sacar a Africa de la pobreza, podriamos adems disminuir el SIDA tambin. +Si saben un poco ms, probablemente saben que Uganda, a la fecha, es el nico pas en el frica sub-Sahariano que ha tenido xito en el combate de la epidemia, +usando una campaa que motivaba a las personas a practicar la abstinencia, la fidelidad y a usar condones -- la campaa ABC por sus siglas en ingls. Ellos redujeron su prevalencia en los noventa de cerca de 15% a 6% en tan solo unos pocos aos. +Asi que hoy voy a hablar de algunas cosas que tal vez no sepan acerca de sta epidemia. Y despus, en realidad, voy a poner a prueba algunas de esas cosas que ustedes creen que saben. +Y para hacer esto voy a hablar de mi investigacin de la epidemia como una economista. +Y realmente no voy a hablar mucho sobre Economa. +No voy a hablar acerca de exportaciones ni precios. +Pero si voy a usar herrmanientas e ideas que son familliares a los economistas para pensar acerca un problema que es ms tradicionalmente un asunto de salud pblica y epidemiologa. +Y creo que en ste sentido, encaja bastante bien con la idea del pensamiento lateral. +Realmente voy a utilizar herramientas de una disciplina academica para pensar acerca de los problemas de la otra. +As que creemos, en primer lugar, que el SIDA es una cuestin de poltica. +Y probablemente para muchos de ustedes, as es como piensan al respecto. +Pero esta charla ser para entender los hechos de esta epidemia. +Acerca de pensar como evoluciona, y como la gente responde a ello. +Creo que podra parecer que estoy ignorando las cuestiones polticas, las cuales son las mas importantes, sin embargo espero que al final de esta charla, puedan concluir que no podemos desarrollar una poltica efectiva a menos que entendamos como funciona la epidemia. +Y la primera cosa de la que quiero hablar, la primer cosa que creo que debemos entender, es: Cmo responde la gente ante la epidemia? +As que el SIDA es una infeccin de transmisin sexual, y mata. +Esto significa que en un lugar con mucho SIDA existe un importante costo de tener sexo. +Si ustedes fueran un hombre no infectado viviendo en Botswana, dnde la tasa de VIH es 30% y tuvieran una pareja ms este ao - una pareja estable, novia, amante -- su probabilidad de muerte en 10 aos se incrementara en 3 puntos porcentuales. +Este es un efecto enorme. +Y creo que nuesto sentir es, que la gente debera tener menos relaciones sexuales. +De hecho entre la poblacin de hombres gay de los Estados Unidos s encontramos este tipo de cambio durante los aos ochentas. +Asi que si miramos este ejemplo de alto riesgo en particular, y les preguntaran: Tuviste relaciones sexuales sin proteccin con ms de una pareja en los ltimos dos meses? +Durante el periodo entre el '84 y el '88, ese porcentaje cae de un 85% a un 55%. +Es un gran cambio, en un periodo muy corto de tiempo. +No vimos nada parecido en Africa. +As que no contamos con datos muy precisos, pero como pueden ver aqu el porcentaje de hombres solteros que tienen relaciones sexuales pre-matrimonales, o el de hombres casados que tienen relaciones extra-maritales, y su cambio desde principios a finales de los noventas, y de ahi a principios de este siglo. La epidemia esta empeorando. +La gente esta aprendiendo ms cosas acerca de esto... +La gente casi no ha cambiado su comportamiento sexual. +Hay solo algunas pequeas reducciones -- dos puntos porcentuales -- no significativos. +Parece desconcertante, pero voy a decirles que no deberan sorprenderse ante sto. Y para entender sto, necesitan pensar en la salud de la forma en que un economista lo hace -- como una inversin. +Si usted es un programador de software y est tratando de pensar en si debera agregar alguna nueva funcin a su programa, es importante pensar acerca de cuanto costar sto. +Tambien es importante pensar en cual es el beneficio de sto. +Y una parte de ese beneficio es cuanto ms tiempo usted piensa que ste programa va a seguir activo. +Si la versin 10 sale la prxima semana, no hay razn para aadir funciones nuevas a la versin 9. +Pero las decisiones en salud son similares. +Cada vez que usted come una zanahoria en lugar de una galleta, cada vez que usted va al gimnasio en lugar de ir al cine, esa es una inversin costosa en su salud. +Pero el cuanto va a invertir usted depende en cuanto usted espera vivir en el futuro -- incluso si usted no realiza tales inversiones. +Con el SIDA es igual. Es costoso evitar el SIDA. +A la gente le encanta tener sexo. +Pero ustedes saben, tiene beneficios en terminos de longevidad. +Pero la esperanza de vida en frica, incluso sin el SIDA, es muy, muy baja: 40 o 50 aos en muchos lugares. +Creo que es posible, pensando con intuicin, y pensando en los hechos, que tal vez esto explica en parte tan bajo cambio en su comportamiento. +Pero realmente necesitamos probar eso. +Y una gran manera de probarlo es echar un vistazo a frica y ver: Las personas con mejores expectativas de vida cambian de mayor manera su comportamiento sexual? +Y la forma como voy a responder esto es, echar un vistazo a reas con diferentes niveles de malaria. +Ya que la malaria es una enfermedad mortal. +Es una enfermedad que mata a muchos adultos, adems de muchos nios en frica. +Y la gente que vive en reas con muchos casos de malaria van a tener una menor expectativa de vida que aquellas que viven en reas con menos malaria. +As que una manera de ver si es que podemos explicar un poco de este cambio de comportamiento por diferencias en la expectativa de vida es ver si existe mayores modificacines de comportamiento en reas donde hay menos malaria. +Y sto es lo que nos muestra sta figura. +Aqu se muestran -- en reas con poca malaria, con mediana cantidad de malaria y mucha malaria -- lo que ocurre al nmero de parejas sexuales si incrementa la prevalencia de VIH. +Si miran la lnea azul, las reas con bajos niveles de malaria, pueden ver en esas reas, realmente, el numero de parejas sexuales disminuye bastante en tanto la prevalencia de VIH sube. +reas con un nivel medio de malaria disminuye un poco -- pero no reduce mucho. Y las reas con altos niveles de malaria -- de hecho, se incrementa un poco, aunque no es significativo. +Esto no se limita slo a la malaria. +Las mujeres jvenes que viven en reas con alta mortalidad durante el parto cambian menos su comportamiento en respuesta al VIH que aquellas mujeres que viven con baja tasa de mortalidad durante el parto. +Hay otro riesgo, y ellas responden menos a este riesgo existente. +Por si mismo, creo que esto les dir mucho acerca de el comportamiento de la gente. +Nos dice algo acerca del porque vemos tan poco cambio conductual en frica. +Pero tambin nos dice algo acerca de poltica. +Incluso si a ustedes les preocupe slo el SIDA en frica, podra ser incluso una buena idea invertir en la malaria. en combatir la pobre calidad de aire en el interior de los inmuebles, mejorando la tasa de mortalidad durante el parto. +Ya que si mejoramos esas cosas, entonces la gente va a tener un incentivo para evitar el SIDA por ellos mismos. +Pero tambin nos dice algo a cerca de uno de los hechos de los que hablamos antes. +Campaas de educacin, similar a la que el presidente est centrando su financiamiento, podran no ser suficientes. Al menos no por s solas. +Si la gente no cuenta con un incentivo para evitar el SIDA -- incluso si saben todo respecto de la enfermedad -- an as podrian no cambiar su comportamiento. +Asi que la otra cosa que aprendemos aqui es que el SIDA no se va a terminar por s solo. +La gente no est cambiando lo suficiente su comportamiento para reducir el crecimiento de la epidemia. +As que necesitamos pensar en la poltica y qu tipo de polticas pueden ser efectivas. +Una gran manera de aprender a cerca de polticas es revisar lo que ha funcionado en el pasado. +La razn por la que sabemos que el programa ABC fue efectivo en Uganda es que tenemos muy buenos datos a lo largo del tiempo. +En Uganda vemos que la prevalencia disminuy. +Sabemos que tuvieron esta campaa. As es como aprendemos de algo que funciona. +No es el nico lugar en el que hemos visto intervenciones. +Otros lugares tambien lo han intentado, pero porqu no volteamos hacia ellos y vemos que le ocurri a su prevalencia? +Desafortunadamente, existe muy poca informacin acerca de la prevalencia de VIH en la poblacin de frica hasta cerca del 2003. +As que si les preguntara: Por qu no buscan por m la prevalencia en Burkina Faso en 1991? +Entran a Google, buscan -- y encuentran que, en realidad, las nicas personas examinadas en Burkina Faso en 1991 son pacientes con enfermedades venreas y mujeres embarazadas. Lo cual no es un grupo muy representativo de la poblacin. +Pero si indagan un poco ms, descubrirn un poco ms de lo que estaba pasando, encontraran que, en realidad, se fue un muy buen ao. Ya que en algunos aos, la nica poblacin examinada son adictos a drogas intravenosas. +Peor an -- algunos aos slo a drogadictos, en otros slo a mujeres embarazadas. +No tenemos forma de saber que ha pasado a travs del tiempo. +No tenemos pruebas consistentes. +Y en los ltimos aos, hemos llevado a cabo algunas buenas muestras. +En Kenia, en Zambia, y en muchos paises, se han investigado muestras al azar de la poblacin. +Pero sto nos deja con una gran brecha en nuestro conocimiento. +Puedo decirles el indice de prevalecencia en Kenia en 2003, pero no les puedo decir nada en 1993 o en 1983. +Siendo un problema de poltica, era un problema para mi investigacin. +Y comenc a pensar como podra determinar la prevalecencia de VIH en frica en el pasado. +Y pienso que la respuesta es: podemos ver el indice de mortlidad, y podemos usar el ndice de mortalidad para darnos una idea de la prevalecencia en el pasado. +Para hacer esto, tenemos que confiar en el hecho que el SIDA es una enfermedad muy especfica. +Mata a personas en la etapa ms productiva de sus vidas. +No muchas enfermedades tienen esa caracterstica. Y como pueden ver: sta es una grfica de indice de decesos por edad en Botswana y Egipto. +Botswana es un lugar con muchos casos de SIDA, Egipto es un lugar sin muchos casos de SIDA. +Y vern que tienen indices de mortalidad muy similares entre nios y ancianos. +Esto sugiere que cuentan con con niveles similares de desarrollo. +Pero en el rango de edades entre 20 y 45, el ndice de mortalidad en Botswana son mucho, mucho ms altas que en Egipto. +Pero debido a que existen muy pocas enfermedades mortales, podemos atribuir tal mortalidad al VIH. +Pero ya que la gente que muri este ao de SIDA lo contrajeron algunos aos antes, podemos utilizar estos datos de mortalidad para darnos una idea del indice de casos de VIH en el pasado. +Resulta, que si usamos esta tcnica, los estimados de prevalecencia son muy similares a los que obtenemos de las muestras aleatorias de la poblacin -- pero son muy, muy diferentes de lo que nos dice el grupo de la ONU en SIDA. +sta es una grfica de prevalencia estimada por la ONU-SIDA y la prevalecencia basada en los datos de mortalidad en los ltimos aos de la dcada de los 90 en nueve pases africanos. +Pueden ver casi sin excepcin, que las estimaciones de la ONU-SIDA son mucho ms altas que las estimadas en el ndice de mortalidad. +ONU-SIDA nos dice que el indice de VIH en Zambia es del 20%, y los estimados de mortalidad sugieren que es slo el 5%. +stas no son, saben, diferencias triviales en el ndice de mortalidad. +As que sta es otra forma de ver sto. +Pueden ver que para que la prevalecencia sea tan alta como la ONU - SIDA dice, realmente tenemos que tener 60 muertes por cada 10,000 en vez de 20 muertes por cada 10,000 en este grupo de edad. +Voy a hablar un poco ms en un momento acerca de cmo podemos utilizar esta informacin para aprender algo que nos va a ayudar a pensar acerca del mundo. +Pero sto tambin nos dice que uno de los hechos que mencion al principio no podran estar del todo correctos. +Si se ponen a pensar que 25 millones de personas estan infectadas, y que los nmeros de la ONU-SIDA son muy altos, tal vez sean unos 10 o 15 millones. +No significa que el SIDA no sea un problema. Es un problema enorme. +Pero nos sugiere que ese nmero podra ser un poco alto. +Lo que quiero hacer, es utilizar esta nueva informacin para tratar de de averiguar que es lo que hace a la epidemia de VIH crecer ms rpido o ms lento. +Y como dije al principio, sin hablar de exportaciones. +Cuando comenc a trabajar en stos proyectos, no estaba pensando realmente en datos econmicos. pero eventualmente me atrajo a stos. +As que voy a hablarles acerca de exportaciones y precios. +Y quiero hablarles acerca de la relacin en la actividad econmica, volmenes de exportacin en particular, y las infecciones por VIH. +Obviamente, como economista, estoy familiarizada con el hecho de que el desarrollo, que la apertura de los mercados es realmente bueno para paises en desarrollo. +Es bueno para mejorar la vida de las personas. +Pero con la apertura y la inter-conectividad, existe un costo cuando pensamos acerca de las enfermedades. No creo que sto sea una sorpresa. +El mircoles, aprend de Laurie Garrett que definitivamente voy a enfermarme de gripe aviar, y no debera de estar preocupada al respecto si no tuvimos ningn contacto con Asia. +Y el VIH en realidad esta muy cercanamente ligado al transito. +La epidemia fue introducida a los E.U.A. por un aero-mozo de un vuelo comercial, quien se contagi en frica y la trajo de vuelta. +Y esa fue el inicio de la toda la epidemia en los E.U.A. +En frica, los epidemilogos han notado por mucho tiempo que los camioneros y migrantes tienen mayor tendencia a infectarse que otras personas. +Que reas con mucha actividad econmica -- con muchas carreteras, muy urbanizadas -- son aquellas con mayor prevalecencia que otras. +Pero esto no significa que si impulsamos la exportacin, el comercio, resulte en un incremento del ndice de infectados. +Utilizando esta nueva informacin, usando esta informacin acerca de la prevalecencia a travs del tiempo, podemos analizar sto. Y tal parece ser -- afortunadamente, creo -- parece ser el caso que stas variables estn relacionadas positivamente. +Ms exportaciones resulta en mas SIDA. Y el efecto es realmente enorme. +La informacin que tengo sugiere que si duplicamos el volumen de exportacin, conducira a cuadruplicar los nuevos casos de infeccin por VIH. +sto tiene implicaciones importantes para las proyecciones a futuro, y para las polticas. +Pensando en proyecciones a futuro, si sabemos dnde es probable que cambie el comercio, como por ejemplo, debido al Acta Africana de Crecimiento y Oportunidades, o por otras polticas que promuevan el comercio, podemos pensar cuales reas van a ser ms fuertemente afectadas con un aumento de casos de VIH. +Y podemos ir y tratar de tomar medidas preventivas anticipadas en dichas reas. +De la misma forma, si desarrollamos polticas para promover la exportacin, si sabemos de esta exterioridad -- este factor extra que va a ocurrir si incrementamos las exportaciones -- podemos pensar en la clase correcta de polticas para esto. +Pero tambien nos dice algo acerca de esas cosas que damos por sabidas. +Durante sta charla he mencionado algunas veces el caso especial de Uganda, y el hecho de que es el nico pas en el frica sub-Sahariano con un programa de prevencin exitoso. +Ha sido muy elogiado. +Ha sido copiado en Kenia, en Tanzania, en Sudfrica y en muchos otros lugares. +Pero tambin quiero cuestionar eso. +Ya que, es verdad que hubo una reduccin en los casos en Uganda en los 90's. Es verdad que tuvieron un programa de educacin. +Pero hay algo ms que ocurri en Uganda en ste periodo. +Hubo una gran baja en los precios del caf. +El caf es el principal producto de exportacin de Uganda. +Sus exportaciones cayeron bastante a principios de los 90's -- y de hecho esta cada se correlaciona muy, muy de cerca a la reduccin de los casos nuevos de VIH. +Como pueden ver stas dos series -- la linea negra es el valor de exportacin, y la roja son las nuevas infecciones por VIH -- Pueden ver que ambas estn en aumento. +Cerca de 1987, ambas bajan bastante. +Y luego se comportan de manera similar durante el incremento despus en la dcada. +As que si combinan la intuicin y esta figura con un poco de los datos que vimos anteriormente, nos sugiere que en algn punto entre el 25% y el 50% de la reduccin de la prevalecencia en Uganda podra haber ocurrido incluso sin llevar a cabo ninguna campaa de educacin. +sto es muy importante para la poltica. +Estamos gastando mucho dinero en tratar de recrear esta campaa, +siendo que fue slo 50% efectiva de lo que creamos, porque hay muchas otras clases de cosas en las que tal vez deberiamos estar gastando nuestro dinero. +Tratando de cambiar las tasas de transmisin tratando otras enfermedades de transmisin sexual. +Tratando de cambiarlas promoviendo la circuncisin masculina. +Hay muchas otras cosas que deberamos pensar en hacer. +Y tal vez sto nos dice que deberiamos de preocuparnos un poco ms en estas cosas. +Espero que en los ltimos 16 minutos, les haya dicho algo que no saban acerca del SIDA, y espero que se hayan cuestionado un poco acerca de loas cosas que saban. +Y espero que tal vez los haya convencido que es importante entender los hechos acerca de la epidemia, para despus pensar en polticas. +Pero ms que nada, saben, soy una acadmica. +Y cuando salga de aqu, voy a regresar all a sentarme en mi pequea oficina, ante mi computadora y mis datos -- +y la cosa ms emocionante de eso es que cada vez que pienso en investigar, surgen ms preguntas. +Hay ms cosas que creo que quiero hacer. +Y lo que es realmente grandioso de estar aqu es que las preguntas que ustedes tienen son muy, muy diferentes a las que yo podra hacer. +Y no puedo esperar a escuchar cales son. +As que muchas gracias. +En realidad me considero un narrador de historias. +Pero, no las narro como usualmente se hace, en el sentido de que casi nunca cuento mis propias historias. +En lugar de eso, me interesa construir herramientas que le permitan a un gran nmero de personas contar sus historias a la gente de todo el mundo. +Hago esto porque creo que la gente tiene mucho en comn. +Pienso que la gente es muy similar, pero tambin pienso que nos cuesta trabajo verlo. +Y, cuando echo un vistazo al mundo veo muchos huecos, y creo que todos vemos muchos huecos. +Y ellos nos definen. +Hay huecos en el lenguaje, hay huecos en el origen tnico y racial, existen en la edad, en materia de gnero y de sexualidad, existen en la riqueza y en el dinero, existen en la educacin, y tambin existen en materia religiosa. +Y, tenemos todos estos huecos y creo que nos gustan estos huecos porque nos hacen sentir que nos identificamos con algo, con una pequea comunidad. +Pero creo que en realidad, a pesar de nuestros huecos, tenemos mucho en comn. +Y pienso que una cosa que tenemos en comn es una profunda necesidad de expresarnos. +Pienso que es un deseo humano muy antiguo. No es nada nuevo. +Pero el asunto de la expresin personal es que por tradicin ha existido un desequilibrio entre el deseo que tenemos para expresarnos y el nmero de amigos compasivos que estn dispuestos a estar con nosotros y escucharnos. +Esto tampoco es nada nuevo. +Desde los albores de la historia humana, hemos intentado rectificar este desequilibrio creando arte, escribiendo poemas, cantando canciones, escribiendo guiones editoriales y envindolos a algn peridico, chismeando con amigos. Esto no es nada nuevo. +Lo que es nuevo es que en los ltimos aos muchas de estas tradicionales actividades fsicas humanas, estos actos de expresin personal, han comenzado a trasladarse al Internet. +Y a medida de que sucedi, la gente ha dejado huellas, huellas que narran historias de sus momentos de expresin personal. +Y as, lo que hago es escribir programas computerizados que estudian grandes colecciones de dichas huellas, y despus intentan extraer conclusiones acerca de la gente que las dej -- lo que sienten, lo que pinsan, lo que diferencia al mundo de hoy del habitual. Este tipo de preguntas. +Un proyecto que explora estas ideas, que se hizo ms o menos hace un ao, es una pieza titulada We Feel Fine (Nos Sentimos Bien). +Es una pieza que cada dos o tres minutos escanea las ltimas entradas de blog publicadas en el mundo buscando frases que comienzan por "Siento" o "Estoy sientiendo." +Y cuando encuentra una de esas frases, captura la oracin hasta el punto, y despus automticamente deduce la edad, el gnero, y la ubicacin geogrfica de la persona que escribi dicha oracin. +Despus, al saber la ubicacin geogrfica y el tiempo, podemos deducir el tiempo climtico que haba cuando la persona escribi la oracin. +Toda esta informacin se guarda en una base de datos que recaba alrededor de 20.000 sentimientos al da. +Ha estado funcionando por cerca de un ao y medio. +Hasta ahora ha recabado cerca de 7 millones y medio de sentimientos humanos, +y les permitir echar un vistazo a cmo se visualiza esta informacin. As que esto es We Feel Fine. +Lo que ven aqu es una gran masa infestada de partculas, cada una de ellas representa un sentimiento individual humano expresado en las ltimas horas. +El color de cada partcula corresponde al tipo de sentimiento que hay dentro -- los sentimientos positivos y felices son de color brillante. +Y los sentimientos negativos y tristes son ms oscuros. +El dimetro de cada punto representa la longitud de la oracin que hay dentro, as los puntos grandes contienen oraciones largas, y los puntos pequeos oraciones pequeas. +Se puede hacer clic en cualquier punto y expandirlo. Y aqu podemos ver, "Me sentira mucho mejor si pudiera estar en sus brazos en este momento y poder sentir su afecto por m en el abrazo de su cuerpo y la ternura de sus labios." +As que algunas veces se pone bastante sensual en el mundo de las emociones humanas. +Y todas estas las expresa la gente: "Objetivamente s que en realidad no significa mucho, pero despus de pasar tantos aos como un pececito en una gran pecera, es bonito sentirse grande de nuevo." +Los puntos muestran cualidades humanas. Como si tuvieran su propia fsica, y se mueven estrepitosamente, como explorando el mundo de la vida. +Y tambin muestran curiosidad. +Ahora pueden ver algunos de ellos movindose alrededor del cursor. +Pueden ver otros en la esquina inferior izquierda de la pantalla, cerca de seis palabras. Estas seis palabras representan los seis movimientos de We Feel Fine. En este momento estamos viendo Locura. +Tambin existe Murmullo, Montaje, Multitud, Mtricas y Montculos. +Y ahora les explicar algunos de ellos. +Murmullos hace que todos los sentimientos vuelen hacia el techo. +Y despus, uno por uno, en orden cronolgico inverso, se excusan unos a los otros, ingresando a la lista de desplazamiento de la pantalla de los sentimientos. +"Ya me siento un poquito mejor." +"Me siento confundido e inseguro acerca de qu diablos quiero hacer." +"Aqu me siento excluido de algo maravilloso." +"Me siento muy libre; me siento muy bien." +"Siento que estoy en una neblina de depresin de la cual no me puedo salir." +Y puede hacer clic en cualquiera de estas oraciones para visitar el blog del cual se recabaron las oraciones. Y de esta forma, puede conectarse con los autores de dichas frases, si siente algn grado de empata. +El siguiente movimiento se titula Montaje. +Montaje hace que todos los sentimientos que contengan fotografas se extraigan y se muestren en una cuadrcula. +Despus, esta cuadrcula representa la fotografa de los sentimientos en el mundo en las ltimas horas. +Se puede hacer clic en cada uno de estos, y se pueden hacer explotar. +Podemos ver, "Simplemente siento que no me voy a divertir si no estamos los dos." Eso fue de alguien en Michigan. +"Siento como si hubiera estado todo el da frente a una computadora." +Se construyen de manera automtica utilizando los objetos encontrados: "Creo que me siento un poco lleno." +El siguiente movimiento se tituta Multitudes. +Multitudes ofrece diferentes extractos estadsticos de la poblacin de los sentimientos en el mundo en las ltimas horas. +Podemos ver que ahora "mejor" es el sentimiento ms frecuente, seguido por bueno, malo, culpable, triste, enfermo, etctera. +Tambin tenemos un desglose por gnero. +Y vemos que en las ltimas horas las mujeres son ligeramente ms prolficas cuando hablan de sus emociones. +Podemos obtener un desglose por edad, que nos da un histograma de la distribucin emocional del mundo. +Vemos que la gente de 20 a 30 aos es ms prolfica, seguida por los adolescentes, y despus por las personas entre 30 y 40, y a partir de ah desaparece rpidamente. +En el clima, los sentimientos asumen las caractersticas fsicas del clima que representan, de manera que aqullos recabados en un da soleado giran alrededor como si fueran parte del sol. +Aquellos nublados flotan a manera de brisa. +Los lluviosos caen como si fueran parte de una tormenta, y los que son como la nieve ondean hacia el piso. +Por ltimo, la ubicacin hace que los sentimientos se muevan a sus posiciones en un mapa global que muestra la distribucin geogrfica de los sentimientos. +Las mtricas ofrecen visualizaciones ms numricas. +Podemos ver que ahora el mundo se siente usado 3.3 veces ms que el nivel normal. +Se sienten cariosos 2.9 veces que el nivel normal, etc. +Tambin estn disponibles otras visualizaciones. +Aqu se ven el gnero, la edad, el clima, la ubicacin. +El movimiento final se titula Montculos. +Es un poco diferente a los dems. +Montculos visualiza toda la informacin como grandes gotas gelatinosas que se mueven un poco. +Y si dejo apretado el cursor, hacen un pequeo baile. +Podemos ver que "mejor" es el sentimiento ms frecuente, seguido por "malo." +Y si despus voy aqu, la lista comienza a bajar, y en realidad se pueden ver miles de sentimientos que han sido recabados. +Pueden ver que el pequeo cursor rosa se mueve, representando nuestra posicin. +Aqu vemos a gente que se siente "aislada," "nauseabunda," " responsable." +Tambin se puede buscar, si ests interesado en encontrar algo acerca de alguna poblacin. +Por ejemplo, podra encontrar mujeres que se sienten "adictas" en edad de veinte aos mientras est nublado en Bangladesh. +Pero eso se los voy a evitar. +Aqu les mostrar algunos de mis montajes favoritos que han sido recabados: "Siento tanto de mi padre vivo en m que ni siquiera hay espacio para m misma." +"Me siento muy sola." +"Necesito estar en algn pueblo de un sureo de clase baja para poder sentirme hermosa." +"Me siento invisible para t." +"No lo escondera si la sociedad no me hiciera sentir como si lo tuviera que hacer." +"Me siento enamorada de Carolyn." "Me siento tan atrevida." +"Siento que estos bichos raros en realidad son un bien para la vida universitaria." +"Me encanta cmo me siento hoy." +Y bueno, como pueden ver We Feel Fine utiliza una tcnica que yo llamo "observacin pasiva." +Lo que quiero decir es que observa a la gente de manera pasiva a medida que viven sus vidas. Escanea los blogs del mundo y observa lo que la gente est escribiendo, y esta gente no sabe que est siendo observada o entrevistada. +Y por esto, uno termina obteniendo respuestas muy sinceras, francas y honestas que a menudo son muy conmovedoras. +Y esta es una tcnica que por lo general prefiero en mi trabajo porque la gente no sabe que est siendo entrevistada. +Simplemente estn viviendo la vida --y terminan actuando as. +Otra tcnica est cuestionando de manera directa a la gente. +Y esta es una tcnica que exploro en un proyecto diferente, el Yahoo! Time Capsule, (la Cpsula del Tiempo de Yahoo!) la cual fue diseada para tomar huellas digitales del mundo en 2006. +Se dividi en diez temas muy simples: amor, rabia, tristeza, etc -- cada uno de ellos contena una pregunta abierta muy sencilla que se le haca al mundo: Qu ama? Qu lo hace enojar? +Qu lo entristece? En qu cree?, etc. +La cpsula del tiempo estuvo disponible en lnea durante un mes, traducida a 10 idiomas, y as es como se vea. +Es un globo que da vueltas, su superficie est compuesta en su totalidad por imgenes y palabras y dibujos de la gente que los envi a la cpsula del tiempo. +Los diez temas se muestran y orbitan la cpsula del tiempo. +Puedes filtrar esta informacin y ver lo que la gente ha enviado. +Esta es la respuesta a Qu es hermoso? "Miss Mundo." +Existen dos modalidades en la cpsula del tiempo. +Existe One World (Un Mundo), que presenta al globo dando vueltas, y Many Voices (Muchas Voces), que divide la informacin en tiras de pelcula y le permite filtrarlas una por una. +Tambin proyectamos hacia el espacio los contenidos de la cpsula del tiempo en cdigo binario con un lser de 35 vatios. +Pueden ver la lnea naranja abandonando el piso del desierto con ngulo de unos 45 grados. Fue sorprendente porque a la primera noche observ toda esta informacin y realmente comenc a ver los huecos de los que habl antes -- las diferencias en edad, gnero y riqueza, etc. +Pero, mientras ms miraba esto, y vea estas imgenes a travs de las rocas, me di cuenta de que estaba viendo los mismos arquetipos descritos una y otra y otra vez. +Ya sabe: bodas, nacimientos, funerales, el primer coche, el primer beso, el primer camello o caballo --dependiendo de la cultura. +Y fue muy conmovedor. Esta fotografa fue tomada la ltima noche desde un acantilado distante, a unas dos millas de distancia, desde donde los contenidos de la cpsula se transmitan al espacio. +Y hubo algo muy conmovedor acerca de esta expresin humana de ser proyectado al cielo de la noche. +Y comenz a hacerme pensar mucho acerca del cielo nocturno, y cmo los humanos siempre han utilizado el cielo nocturno para proyectar sus grandes historias. +De nio en Vermont, en la granja donde crec, a menudo vea el oscuro cielo y vea el cinturn de Orin, de tres estrellas, el Cazador. +Y ahora de adulto, me he vuelto ms consciente de los grande mitos griegos que se manifiestan en el cielo cada noche. +Como Orin al enfrentarse al toro enfurecido. +Perseo volando para rescatar a Andrmeda. +Zeus luchando contra Cronos por el Monte Olimpo. +Estas son las grandes historias de los griegos. +Y me hizo preguntarme acerca de nuestro mundo de hoy. +Y me hizo preguntarme especficamente, si pudiramos crear nuevas constelaciones hoy en da, cmo se veran?, qu seran? +Si pudiramos crear nuevas imgenes en el cielo, qu dibujaramos? +Cules son las grandes historias de hoy? +Y estas son las preguntas que inspiraron mi nuevo proyecto, que debuta hoy aqu en TED. +Nadie ha visto esto an, pblicamente. +Se llama Universe , y rebela nuestra mitologa moderna. +Utiliza la metfora de un cielo de noche interactivo. +As que, es un placer mostrrselo esta noche. +As que, Universe se presentar aqu. +Y vern que comienza con un campo de estrellas en movimiento, con una Aurora Boreal en el fondo, que se transforma con color. El color de la Aurora Boreal se puede controlar usando la barra de color en la parte inferior, y lo pondremos en rojo. +Y as pueden ver esta forma de estrellas en movimiento. +stas no son slo pequeos puntos de luz, pequeos pxeles. +Cada una de estas estrellas representa un evento especfico en el mundo real -- una cita dicha por alguien, una imagen, un artculo de noticias, una persona, una compaa. Ya sabe, una especie de personalidad heroica. +Y pueden notar que a medida que el cursor comienza a tocar algunas de estas estrellas, las formas comienzan a aparecer. +Aqu podemos ver un pequeo hombre caminando, o tal vez una mujer. +Y aqu vemos una fotografa con una cabeza. +Pueden ver cmo empiezan a aparecer las palabras. +Y stas son las constelaciones; stas son las constelaciones de hoy. +Puedo encender todas, y podrn verlas movindose ahora en el cielo. +Este es el universo de 2007, los ltimos dos meses. +La informacin proviene de miles de servicios de noticias de todo el mundo. +Est utilizando la IPA (Interfaz de programacin de aplicaciones) de una gran compaa con la que trabaj en Nueva York, llamada Daylife. +A este nivel es una visin del espritu de la poca de la mitologa actual del mundo durante los ltimos meses. +As que podemos ver en dnde aparece, como con el Presidente Ford, Irak, Bush. Y en realidad podemos aislar slo las palabras -- yo los llamo "secretos" -- y podemos hacer que creen una lista en orden alfabtico. Y vemos cmo Anna Nicole Smith ha jugado un papel importante recientemente. +El Presidente Ford --este es el funeral de Gerald Ford. +Podemos hacer clic en cualquier cosa en Universo y hacer que se vuelva el centro del universo, y todo lo dems ingresar en su orbita. +As que, haremos clic sobre Ford, y ahora se har el centro. +Y las cosas relacionadas con Ford ingresarn en su orbita y girarn a su alrededor. +Podemos aislar nicamente las fotografas, y ahora podemos verlas. +Podemos hacer clic en una de ellas y hacer que la fotografa sea el centro del universo. +Ahora las cosas relacionadas con ella girarn a su alrededor. +Podemos hacer clic sobre esta y vemos la imagen icnica de Betty Ford besando el atad de su esposo. +En Universo, es como si no hubiera un fin. Es infinito, y puede hacer clic en cualquier cosa. +Esta es una representacin fotogrfica titulada Fotografas. +En realidad podemos ser ms especficos al definir nuestro universo. +As que si queremos, podemos ver el aspecto del universo de Bill Clinton, +y ver qu ha hecho la semana pasada. +Y ahora, tenemos un nuevo universo, limitado slo a lo relacionado con Bill Clinton. +Podemos hacer que sus constelaciones aparezcan aqu. +Podemos extraer sus secretos, y podemos ver que tiene mucho que ver con candidatos, con Hillary, con lo presidencial y con Barack Obama. +Podemos ver las historias de las que Bill Clinton est formando parte ahora. +Y se puede acceder a cualquiera de ellas. +As vemos que Obama y los Clinton se reunieron en Alabama. +Vern que esta es una historia importante; existen muchas cosas en esta orbita. Si accedemos a ella, obtendremos diferentes perspectivas de la historia. +Pueden hacer clic en cualquiera de ellas para salir y leer el artculo en la fuente. Este es de Al Jazeera. +Tambin podemos ver a las superestrellas. stas seran la gente que son como los hroes y heronas inminentes en el universo de Bill Clinton. As que aqu est Bill Clinton, Hillary, Irak, George Bush, Barack Obama, Scooter Libby -- estas son las personas de Bill Clinton. +Tambin podemos ver un mapa mundial, y nos mostrar el alcance geogrfico de Bill Clinton en la ltima semana, ms o menos. +Vemos que ha estado concentrado en los EE.UU porque probablemente ha estado en campaa pero tambin ha estado activo en Oriente Medio. +Y tambin podemos ver una lnea de tiempo. +Y comprobamos que el sbado estuvo ms tranquilo, pero regres al trabajo el domingo en la maana, y en realidad desde enconces ha ido decayendo. +Y no est nicamente limitado a la gente o a las fechas, tambin podemos usar conceptos. +Si escribo cambio climtico durante todo 2006, podremos ver cmo se ve el universo. +Aqu tenemos nuestro campo de estrellas, aqu nuestras formas, +y aqu nuestros secretos. +Y vemos de nuevo que el cambio climtico es muy grande. Nairobi, conferencia global, ambiental. +Y tambin existen citas que pueden leer, si estn interesados en las citas relacionadas con el cambio climtico. +Y bueno, en realidad es algo infinito. +Las superestrellas en el cambio climtico del 2006: Los Estados Unidos, Gran Bretaa, China. Estos son los pases principales que definen este concepto. +As que esta es una pieza que requiere exploracin. +Estar en lnea en algunos das, probablemente el prximo martes. +Y ustedes podrn utilizarla y explorar lo que puede ser su propia mitologa personal. +Notar que en Daylife --ms bien en Universo, se sostiene tanto la nocin de una mitologa global, representada por algo tan amplio como por ejemplo el 2007, como una mitologa personal. +A medida que buscan lo que es importante para ustedes en su mundo, vern el aspecto de sus constelaciones. +As que ha sido un placer. Muchsimas gracias.Gracias +Yo estudio a las hormigas porque me gusta pensar cmo funcionan las organizaciones. +Particularmente, como las partes simples de la organizacin interactan y crean el comportamiento de toda la organizacin. +Y las colonias de hormigas son un buen ejemplo de una organizacin como esa, pero hay muchas otras. La web es una. +Existen muchos sistemas biolgicos como ese: cerbros, clulas, embriones en desarrollo. +Hay alrededor de 10.000 especies de hormigas. +Todas viven en colonias de una o unas pocas reinas, Y por eso todas las hormigas que ven caminando por ah son trabajadoras hembras estriles. +Y todas las colonias de hormigas tienen en comn que no hay un centro de control. +Nadie le dice al otro que hacer. +La reina solo pone los huevos. No hay administracin. +Ninguna hormiga dirige el comportamiento de otra hormiga. +Y trato de entender como eso funciona. +Y he estado trabajando los ltimos 20 aos en una poblacin de hormigas come-semillas en el sudeste de Arizona. +Este es mi lugar de estudio. En realidad es una foto de hormigas, y el conejo solo est ah por casualidad. +Y estas hormigas se llaman cosechadoras por que se alimentan de semillas. +Este es el nido de una colonia madura, y all est la entrada al nido. +Y juntan el forraje de alrededor de 20 metros. juntan las semillas, las cargan hasta el nido, y las almacenan. +Todos los aos voy ah y hago un mapa de mi lugar de estudio. +Este es solo un camino. No muy grande, tiene cerca de 250 metros de un lado y 400 del otro. +Y todas las colonias tienen un nombre, que es un nmero. Que est pintado en una piedra. Y voy all cada ao y busco todas las colonias que estaban vivas un ao antes, y descifro cuales han muerto, y pongo las nuevas en el mapa. +Y mediante esto determino la edad de todas ellas. +Y por lo mismo he podido estudiar cmo cambia su comportamiento a medida que la colonia crece y envejece. +Entonces quiero contarles sobre el ciclo de vida de las colonias. +Las hormigas nunca hacen ms hormigas, las colonias hacen ms colonias. +Y lo hacen todos los aos enviando a sus reproductoras --aquellas con alas-- a un vuelo de apareamiento. +Cada ao, en el mismo da -- es un misterio exactamente como esto ocurre-- cada colonia enva a sus vrgenes, reinas no apareadas con alas y a los machos, y todos vuelan a un lugar comn. Y se aparean. +Y esto muestra una reina recientemente virgen. Aqu estn sus alas. +Y ella est en proceso de aparearse con este macho, y hay otro macho arriba esperando su turno. +A menudo las reinas se aparean ms de una vez. +Y despus de esto, todos los machos mueren. Eso es todo para ellos! +Y luego las recin apareadas reinas vuelan a algn lugar, dejan sus alas, cavan un hoyo y entran a poner sus huevos. +Y van a vivir por 15 o 20 aos, poniendo huevos usando el esperma del apareamiento original. +Y la reina se interna ah abajo. +Ella pone los huevos, alimenta las larvas --una hormiga empieza como huevo, luego se convierte en larva-- +ella alimenta las larvas regurgitando sus reservas de grasa. +Luego, tan pronto como las hormigas -- el primer grupo de hormigas-- emerge, son larvas. Luego son crislidas. Luego como hormigas adultas +salen, buscan comida, y cavan su nido, y la reina nunca vuelve a salir. +Entonces esta es una colonia de un ao -- resulta ser la 536. +All est la entrada al nido, hay un lpiz de referencia. +Esta es una colonia fundada por una reina el verano pasado. +Esta es una colonia de tres aos. +All est la entrada al nido, hay un lpiz de referencia. +Montan un conchal, un montculo de residuos -- en su mayor parte son cscaras de semillas con las que se alimentan. +Esta es una colonia de cinco aos. Esta es la entrada al nido, hay un lpiz de referencia. +Este es ms o menos el tamao que alcanza, un metro de largo aproximadamente. +Y aqui vemos como el tamao de la colonia y el nmero de hormigas trabajadoras cambia -- estas son alrededor de 10.000 hormigas trabajadoras -- cambia en funcin a la edad de la colonia, en aos. +Empieza con cero hormigas, tan solo la reina fundadora, y crece a un tamao de 10 o 12 mil hormigas cuando la colonia tiene cinco aos. +Y se mantiene de este tamao hasta que la reina muere y ya no hay quien haga ms hormigas, cuando ella tiene alrededor de 15 o 20 aos. +Es cuando alcanzan este tamao estable, en nmero de hormigas, que se empiezan a reproducir. +Es decir, a enviar ms reinas con alas y machos al vuelo anual de apareamiento. +Yo s como vara el tamao de la colonia en funcin a su edad, porque he cavado colonias y contado las hormigas. Y esa claramente no es la parte ms divertida de esta investigacin, aunque es interesante. +Realmente la pregunta que me surge cuando pienso en estas hormigas es lo que llamo asignacin de tareas. +Eso no es solo como la colonia se organiza, sino tambin cmo cambia lo que est haciendo? +Cmo es que la colonia consigue ajustar el nmero de trabajadores ejecutando cada tarea, a medida que cambian las condiciones? +Entonces, le ocurren cosas a una colonia de hormigas. +Cuando llueve en el verano, el desierto se inunda. +Hay muchos daos en el nido, y una cantidad extra de hormigas es necesaria para limpiar ese desorden. +Cuando repentinamente hay ms alimento disponible -- y esto es lo que todos saben sobre picnics -- entonces una cantidad extra de hormigas son asignadas para recolectar el alimento. +Entonces, si nadie le dice a nadie que hacer, cmo es que la colonia consigue ajustar el nmero de trabajadores desempeando cada tarea? +Y ese es el proceso que llamo asignacin de tareas. +En las hormigas cosechadoras he dividido las tareas de las hormigas que veo fuera del nido en estas cuatro categoras: en busca de forraje, cuando est en la senda de bsqueda, buscando o trayendo alimento. +Las patrulleras -- se supone que eso es una lupa -- son un grupo interesante que sale temprano en la maana antes de que las forrajeras estn activas. +Ellas de alguna manera determinan la direccin que las forrajeras seguirn, y por el hecho de regresar -- solo por el hecho de volver a salvo-- transmiten a las forrajeras que es seguro salir. +Y las trabajadoras de mantenimiento del nido trabajan dentro, y quera decir que el nido se parece mucho a la casa de Bill Lishman. +Me refiero a que hay recmaras dentro, forran los muros de las recmaras con tierra hmeda que al secar se transforma en una superficie tipo adobe. +Tambin es muy similar a algunas de las cuevas usadas como vivienda de los Hopi, residentes de esta zona. +Las trabajadoras de mantenimiento hacen esto dentro del nido, y salen del nido transportando trozos de tierra seca en sus mandbulas. +Entonces ven que las trabajadoras de mantenimiento del nido salen con un poco de arena, la dejan, dan la vuelta, y vuelven a entrar. +Y finalmente, las trabajadoras de desechos, le ponen algn tipo de qumico territorial a los residuos. +Entonces lo que las trabajadoras de desechos hacen es formar montculos de residuos. +Un da, todo esta aqu, y al da siguiente todo estar en otro lugar, y luego lo movern nuevamente. +Y eso es lo que las trabajadoras de desechos hacen. +Y estos cuatro grupos son solo las hormigas de fuera del nido. +Eso es solo cerca del 25 por ciento de la colonia, y son las hormigas ms viejas. +Entonces, una hormiga empieza su vida cerca de la reina. +Y cuando excavamos los nidos, encontramos que son tan profundos como amplias son las colonias, como un metro de profundidad para los grandes nidos viejos. +Y luego hay otro tnel largo y una recmara, donde a menudo encontramos a la reina, luego de ocho horas de avanzar penosamente por la roca con piquetas. +No creo que la recmara haya evolucionado por mi culpa o la de mi pala o por mi equipo de estudiantes con piquetas, sino porque, cuando hay inundaciones, ocasionalmente toda la colonia debe descender. +Entonces vemos toda esta red de recmaras. +La reina esta ah en algn lugar, ella solo pone huevos. +Ah estn las larvas, y ellas consumen gran parte del alimento. +Y esto es cierto de muchas hormigas -- que las hormigas que vemos merodeando no se alimentan mucho. +Ellas tan solo lo acarrean y se lo dan de comer a las larvas. +Cuando las forrajeras regresan con los alimentos, lo dejan en la recamara superior, y otras hormigas suben, toman los alimentos, lo llevan abajo, descascaran las semillas, y las amontonan. +Hay trabajadoras de mantenimiento del nido trabajando en todos lados. +Y curiosamente y de modo interesante, parece que a cualquier hora la mitad de las hormigas de la colonia simplemente no hace nada. +Entonces, y a pesar de lo que dice la Biblia, sobre, ya saben, "Mira a la hormiga, t que eres perezoso... de hecho, uno puede pensar en esas hormigas como reservas. +Es decir, si algo fuera a ocurrir -- y jams he visto algo as ocurrir, pero solo he buscado durante 20 aos -- si algo ocurriese, todas podran salir si fuese necesario. +Pero de hecho, la mayora esta holgazaneando por ah. +Y creo que es una pregunta muy interesante -- Que hay sobre la forma en que la colonia se organiza que pueda dar sentido a una reserva de hormigas que no trabajan? +... ellas permanecen en una especie de reserva entre las hormigas que trabajan en la profundidad del nido y las hormigas que trabajan fuera del nido. +Y si se marcan aquellas hormigas que trabajan fuera del nido, y se excava la colonia, nunca las vern en lo profundo. +Entonces lo que ocurre es que las hormigas trabajan dentro del nido cuando son jvenes. +De alguna forma entran en esta reserva. +Y eventualmente, son reclutadas para unirse a la fuerza de trabajo exterior. +Y una vez que pertenecen a las hormigas que trabajan afuera, nunca vuelven a bajar. +Ahora, las hormigas -- gran parte de las hormigas, incluyendo estas --, no ven muy bien. +Tienen ojos, pueden distinguir entre la luz y la oscuridad, pero normalmente trabajan por medio del olfato. +Entonces, esta es una forma de saber que la reina no est dirigiendo el comportamiento de la colonia. +As que, cuando empec a trabajar en la asignacin de tareas, mi primera pregunta fue, Cul es la relacin entre las hormigas haciendo diferentes tareas? +Le importa a las forrajeras lo que las trabajadoras de mantenimiento de nido estn haciendo? +Le importa a las trabajadoras de desechos lo que las patrulleras estn haciendo? +Y yo estaba trabajando en el contexto de la perspectiva de las colonias donde cada hormiga, de alguna manera, se dedica a una tarea desde su nacimiento. y en cierto modo trabaja de forma independiente de las otras, conociendo su lugar en la lnea de ensamblaje. +Y en cambio yo queria preguntar, Cmo son los diferentes grupos de trabajo interdependientes? +Entonces hice experimentos donde cambiaba una cosa, +por ejemplo, cre ms trabajo para las trabajadoras de mantenimiento del nido dejando un montn de palillos de diente cerca de la entrada del nido temprano en la maana cuando las trabajadoras de mantenimiento empiezan su actividad +Esto es como se ve alrededor de 20 minutos despus. +Aqu est cerca de 40 minutos despus. +Y las trabajadoras de mantenimiento acarrean los palillos de diente al extremo externo del hormiguero y los dejan all. +Y lo que quera saber era... "OK, esta es una situacin donde un nmero extra de trabajadoras de mantenimiento fueron reclutadas -- Habr algn efecto sobre las trabajadoras de otras tareas?" +Luego repetimos todos esos experimentos con las hormigas marcadas. +Entonces aqu hay algunas trabajadoras de mantenimiento azules. +Y ltimamente nos hemos vuelto ms sofisticados y tenemos este sistema de tres colores. +Y podemos marcarlas individualmente, y entonces sabemos cual hormiga es cual. +Empezamos con pinturas para maquetas de aviones y luego encontramos estos pequeos y fabulosos rotuladores japoneses, que funcionan realmente bien. +Solo para resumir los resultados, bueno resulta que si, las diferentes tareas son interdependientes. +Entonces, si cambio la cantidad ejecutando una tarea, cambia el nmero ejecutando otra. +Por ejemplo, si hago un desorden que las trabajadoras de mantenimiento deben limpiar, luego observo menos hormigas forrajeras afuera. +Y esto result cierto para todos los pares de combinaciones de tareas. +El segundo resultado, que fue sorprendente para mucha gente, fue que la hormigas realmente intercambian de tarea. +La misma hormiga no hace el mismo trabajo una y otra vez durante toda su vida. +Por ejemplo, si coloco ms alimento, todas las dems -- las trabajadoras de desechos paran el trabajo con los residuos y salen a buscar el alimento, se convierten en forrajeras. +Las trabajadoras de mantenimiento se convierten en forrajeras. +Las patrulleras se convierten en forrajeras. +Pero no todas las transiciones son posibles. Y esto muestra como funciona. +Como acabo de decir, si hay ms alimentos que recolectar, las patrulleras, las trabajadoras de desechos, las trabajadoras de mantenimiento, van a cambiar a colectoras de forraje. +Si hay ms patrullaje que hacer -- entonces cre un disturbio, para que ms patrulleras fueran necesarias -- las trabajadoras de mantenimiento se cambian a patrullaje. +Pero si ms trabajo de mantenimiento es necesario -- por ejemplo, si dejo un montn de palillos de dientes -- entonces nadie vuelve a cambiarse a trabajo de mantenimiento, deben conseguir trabajadoras de mantenimiento desde adentro del nido. +Por lo tanto la recoleccin de forraje acta como un drenaje, y las hormigas dentro del nido actan como una fuente. +Y finalmente, parece que cada hormiga est decidiendo momento a momento entre estar activa o no. +Entonces, por ejemplo, cuando hay ms trabajo de mantenimiento que hacer, no es que las forrajeras se cambian. S que no hacen eso. +Pero las forrajeras de alguna manera deciden no salir. +Y aqu est el resultado ms intrigante: la asignacin de tareas. +Este proceso cambia con la edad de la colonia, y cambia de la siguiente manera. +Cuando hago experimentos con la colonias ms antiguas -- las que tienen cinco o ms aos -- son ms consistentes entre un momento y el otro. Y mucho mas homeostticas. Cuanto peor se ponen las cosas, y cuanto ms las molesto, mas actan como una colonia no perturbada. +A diferencia de las jvenes, pequeas colonias -- las colonias de dos aos de solo 2.000 hormigas -- son mucho ms variables. +Y los ms impresionante de esto es que las hormigas viven tan solo un ao. +Puede ser este ao, o el otro. +Entonces, las hormigas en las colonias antiguas, que parecen ms estables, no son mayores que las hormigas de las colonias ms jvenes. +No se debe a la experiencia de hormigas ms viejas o sabias. +En vez de eso, algo sobre la organizacin debe cambiar a medida que envejece la colonia. +Y lo obvio es que cambia su tamao. +Y que cambie a medida que crece la colonia. +Y lo que encontr es que las hormigas usan una red de contactos de antena. +Entonces cualquiera que haya observado a las hormigas, ha visto cuando se tocan con las antenas. +Ellas olfatean con sus antenas. +Cuando una toca a la otra, la est olfateando. Y puede decir, por ejemplo, si la otra hormiga es compaera de nido, pues las hormigas se cubren unas a las otras acicalndose con una capa de grasa que lleva el olor especifico de la colonia. +Y lo que estamos aprendiendo es que una hormiga usa el patrn de sus contactos de antena, el ritmo al que se encuentra con hormigas de otras tareas, para decidir qu hacer. +Y entonces el mensaje, no es cualquier mensaje el que se trasmite de una hormiga a otra, sino que es un patrn. +El patrn en si mismo es el mensaje. +Y les explicar un poco ms sobre eso. +Pero primero, deben estar preguntndose... cmo puede un hormiga saber -- por ejemplo -- soy una forrajera +espero encontrarme con otra forrajera cada cierto tiempo. +Pero si al contrario empiezo a encontrarme con un nmero mayor de trabajadoras de mantenimiento, es menos probable que recolecte forraje. +Entonces tiene que saber la diferencia entre una forrajera y una trabajadora de mantenimiento. +Y hemos aprendido que, en esta especie -- y sospecho que en otras tambin -- estos hidrocarburos, esta capa de grasa exterior de las hormigas, es diferente a medida que ejecutan diferentes tareas. +Y hemos llevado a cabo experimentos que muestran que esto ocurre porque, cuanto ms tiempo una hormiga est en el exterior, mayor es el cambio de estos simples hidrocarburos, y entonces huelen diferente por hacer diferentes tareas. +Y pueden usar el olor especfico de la tarea en los hidrocarburos cutneos -- pueden usar eso en sus breves contactos de antena para, de alguna manera, llevar la cuenta del ritmo al que se encuentran con hormigas de ciertas tareas. +Y hace poco hemos demostrado esto colocando extractos de hidrocarburos en pequeos grnulos de vidrio, y soltando los grnulos suavemente dentro de la entrada del nido al ritmo correcto. +... resulta que las hormigas responden a ese ritmo correcto de contacto, usando los grnulos de vidrio con extracto de hidrocarburos, como lo haran en contacto con verdaderas hormigas. +Ahora quiero mostrarles una breve pelcula -- Y comienza, primero que todo, mostrando la entrada al nido. +La idea es que las hormigas entran y salen por la entrada del nido. +Han estado afuera haciendo diferentes tareas, y el ritmo al que se topan, a medida que salen y entran, determina o influencia, la decisin de cada hormiga de salir o no, y que tarea ejecutar. +Esta toma es de un microscpio de fibra ptica. Est dentro del nido. +Al comienzo solo vemos a las hormigas En una especie de interaccin con el microscpio de fibra ptica. +Pero la idea es que las hormigas estn ah, y cada una experimenta una cierta cantidad de hormigas que pasan -- un flujo de contactos con otras hormigas. +Y el patrn de estas interacciones determina si la hormiga vuelve a salir del nido y que hace cuando vuelve a salir +Tambin pueden verlo aqu, en las hormigas justo fuera de la entrada del nido como estas +Cada hormiga, a medida que vuelve a entrar al nido, se contacta con otras hormigas. +Y las hormigas que esperan justo dentro del nido, cerca de la entrada, tomando la decisin de salir o no al prximo viaje, se contactan con las hormigas que entran. +Entonces lo interesante de este sistema es que es desordenado. +Es variable. Es ruidoso. Particularmente en dos formas: +la primera es que la experiencia de la hormiga -- de cada hormiga -- no es muy predecible, +porque el ritmo al que vuelven las hormigas depende de todas las pequeas cosas que le ocurren a una hormiga cuando esta hace su labor en el exterior. +Y la segunda, es que la habilidad de una hormiga de evaluar este patrn tiene que ser muy rudimentaria, ya que ninguna hormiga puede hacer un conteo sofisticado. +Entonces, hacemos mucha simulacin y modelaje, y tambin trabajo experimental para entender como estos dos tipos de ruido se combinan para, en conjunto, producir el comportamiento esperado de las colonias de hormigas. +De nuevo, no estoy diciendo que este patrn desordenado de interacciones produzca una fbrica que trabaje con la precisin y eficiencia de un reloj. +De hecho, si uno observa a las hormigas termina tratando de ayudarlas, porque nunca parecen estar haciendo algo exactamente como uno piensa que lo deben estar haciendo. +Entonces no es que de estos contactos desordenados surja la perfeccin. +Pero funciona bastante bien. +Las hormigas han existido por varios cientos de millones de aos. +Cubren toda la tierra, exceptuando la Antrtica. +Claramente algo de lo que hacen es lo suficientemente exitoso para que este patrn de contactos desordenados, en conjunto, produzca algo que permite a las hormigas hacer muchas ms hormigas. +Y una de las cosas que estamos estudiando es como la seleccin natural puede estar actuando para dar forma al uso de patrones de interaccin -- esta red de patrones de interaccin -- para tal vez aumentar la eficiencia forrajera de las colonias de hormigas. +Sin embargo, lo ms importante que quiero que recuerden es que, estos patrones de interaccin son algo que uno esperara est cercanamente relacionado al tamao de la colonia. +La idea ms simple es que cuando una hormiga est en una colonia pequea -- o en una colonia grande, puede usar la misma regla, como, "espero encontrar a otra forrajera cada tres segundos" +Pero en una colonia pequea, es ms probable que encuentre a menos forrajeras, ya que hay menos forrajeras que encontrar. +Este es el tipo de regla que, a medida que la colonia envejece y crece, producir un comportamiento diferente en una colonia antigua y en una pequea y joven. +Siempre quise ser un cyborg. +Pero no es eso de lo que quiero hablar. +Quiero hablar de juguetes, y el poder inherente que veo en ellos. +Cuando yo era nio, fui a la escuela Montessori hasta el sexto grado en Atlanta, Georgia. +Y entonces no pensaba mucho en ello. pero luego, me di cuenta de que esa fue quizs la cumbre de mi educacin. +Desde ese momento, todo lo dems fue en declive. +Y no fue hasta ms tarde, cuando empec ha hacer juegos, que -- En realidad los pienso como juguetes. +La gente me llama diseador de juegos, pero yo pienso en ellos como juguetes. +Pero comenc a interesarme en Maria Montessori y sus mtodos, y la manera en que encaraba las cosas, y cmo pensaba que era valioso para los nios descubrir cosas por su cuenta. en lugar de que se les enseara, abiertamente. +Y ella diseara estos juguetes, donde los nios jugando en realidad entenderan principios profundos de la vida y la naturaleza mediante el juego. +Y dado que descubran estas cosas, permanecan con ellos ms tiempo, y tambin experimentaran sus propios errores; haba un aspecto de aprendizaje basado en errores. Era importante. +Y as, los juegos que hago, los pienso como juguetes Montessori modernos. +Y en realidad quiero que sean presentados de una manera en que los nios puedan explorar y descubrir sus propios principios. +As, hace unos aos, comenc a interesarme mucho en el programa SETI. Y es algo as como yo trabajo, +me interesan diferentes temas, me sumerjo en ellos, los investigo, y luego trato de hacer un juguete sobre eso, para que otras personas puedan experimentar el mismo descubrimiento que yo mientras estudiaba ese tema. +Me condujo a la astrobiologa, que es el estudio de la vida posible en el universo. +Y a la ecuacin de Drake, que investiga la probabilidad de que la vida surja en los planetas, su duracin, cuntos planetas hay, cosas as. +Y comenc a ver lo interesante que era la Ecuacin de Drake, porque abarcaba tantos temas diferentes -- saben, fsica, qumica, sociologa, economa, astronoma. +Y otra cosa que realmente me impresion hace mucho, fue "Potencias de Diez," la pelcula de Charles y Ray Eames. +Y comenc a poner estas dos cosas juntas y preguntarme, si podra crear un juguete donde los nios puedan cruzarse con estos interesantes principios de la vida, como existe y como podra ser en el futuro. +Cosas donde se podra, recorrer temas como el principio Copernicano, la Paradoja de Fermi, el principio Antrpico, el origen de la vida. +Voy a mostrarles un juguete en el que estuve trabajando, del que realmente pienso ms que nada como un juguete filosfico. +Jugando con l, -- esto sugerir preguntas filosficas. +Este juego llamado "Spore." en el que he trabajado por aos. +Se acerca a estar terminado. +Transcurre en diferentes escalas, primero, desde lo muy pequeo a lo muy grande. +Voy a saltar el inicio del juego, +y pueden comenzar este juego como en una gota de agua, como una criatura unicelular muy pequea, y, bsicamente slo debes vivir, sobrevivir, reproducirte. +Aqu estamos, a escala microscpica, nadando, y ya s que las clulas no tienen ojos, pero las hace ms lindas. +Los jugadores jugarn a travs de cada generacin de estas especies, y mientras juegas, la criatura crecer poco a poco. +Mientras comenzamos a crecer, la cmara comienza a alejarse, y cosas que se ven en el fondo all comenzarn a entrar en escena lentamente, mostrando un poco aquello con lo que interactuars cuando crezcas. +Mientras comemos, la cmara se aleja y comenzamos a interactuar con organismos ms y ms grandes. +Jugamos a travs de muchas generaciones aqu, a escala celular. +Voy a adelantarme. En cierto momento crecemos y llegamos a una escala macro-evolutiva. +En este punto, dejamos el agua, y algo importante en este juego es que en cada nivel, el jugador disea su criatura, y ese es un aspecto fundamental de esto. +En el juego evolutivo aqu, en la escala de criaturas, debes comer, sobrevivir y reproducirte. Muy Darwiniano. +Una cosa que notamos con "Los Sims," un juego anterior, es que los jugadores aman crear cosas. +Cuando pueden crear cosas en el juego hay una enorme empata en la coneccin con ellas, incluso aunque no sean tan bonitas como las que haran otros -- como un artista profesional de juegos -- se apegan a ellas y se preocupan con lo que les suceda. +En este punto, dejamos el agua, y ahora esta criatura -- podemos subir el volumen -- podemos tratar de comer, +podemos espiar a este pequeo aqu -- y tratar de comerlo. +Bueno, peleamos. +Lo tenemos. Ahora a comer. +Realmente, en esta parte del juego, lo que hacemos es movernos y sobrevivir, y llegar a la siguiente generacin, porque jugaremos a travs de cada generacin de esta criatura. +Podemos aparearnos, veamos si una de estas criaturas quiere aparearse. S. +En realidad, no quisimos replicar la evolucin con humanos y todo, porque es casi ms interesante investigar posibilidades alternativas de evolucin. +La evolucin se presenta generalmente como un nico trayecto, pero en realidad representa este enorme conjunto de posibilidades. +Una vez apareados, podemos hacer clic en un huevo. +Y aqu es donde el juego comienza a ser interesante, porque una de las cosas en que nos concentramos fue darle a los jugadores herramientas potentes, para que un pequeo esfuerzo del jugador pueda crear algo muy atractivo. Implica mucha inteligencia, por parte de las herramientas. +Pero bsicamente, este es el editor, donde disearemos la siguiente generacin de criaturas. Tiene una columna, +puede moverse, puede extenderse. +Puedo hincharlo o encogerlo con la rueda del ratn, como si lo esculpiera, como arcilla. Tenemos partes que puedo insertar o quitar. +La idea es que el jugador pueda disear cualquier cosa que imagine en este editor, y darle vida. +Por ejemplo. podra poner unos miembros en el personaje. +Los har ms grandes. +Y en este caso podra decidir que voy a poner -- Pondr bocas en los miembros. +Entonces los jugadores son alentados a ser creativos en el juego. +Le dar, un ojo en el medio, lo agrandar un poco, apuntando abajo. +Le dar unas piernas. +Bsicamente, queremos que esto se sienta como un amplificador de la imaginacin del jugador, para que con pocos clics un jugador pueda crear algo que no pensaron que fuera posible antes. +Es casi como disear algo como Maya que un nio de ocho aos pueda usar. +Pero en realidad el objetivo fue, quera que en un minuto alguien pudiera replicar lo que tpicamente le lleva a un artista varias semanas en crear. +Ahora le pondr unas manos. +Bsicamente arm una pequea criatura. +Le dar una pequea arma en la cola, para que pueda pelear. +Ese es el modelo completo. Ahora podemos ir a la fase de pintura. +En esta fase, el programa tiene cierta comprensin de la topologa de esta criatura. Sabe dnde est la columna, dnde estn los miembros. +Sabe cmo deberan aplicarse las bandas, cmo debera sombrearse, +y as, generamos proceduralmente el mapa de texturas -- y esto es algo que a un artista de texturas le llevara varios das para hacer. +Y podemos probarlo, una vez terminado, y ver cmo se movera. +En este punto, la computadora anima proceduralmente esta criatura. +Examina lo que he diseado, y le da vida. +Y podemos ver cmo bailara ... +Cmo demostrara emociones, como peleara. +Est actuando con sus dos bocas all. +Puedo hacer que pose para una foto -- tomar una foto. +Luego puedo traerlo de nuevo al juego, ha nacido, y juego la siguiente generacin de mi criatura a travs de la evolucin. +De nuevo, la empata que tienen los jugadores cuando crean el contenido es tremenda. Cuando los jugadores crean contenido en el juego, ste se enva automticamente a un servidor y luego redistribuido a los otros jugadores de manera transparente. +De hecho, cuando interacto en este mundo con otras criaturas, estas criaturas llegan de manera transparente desde los otros jugadores. +As que el proceso de jugar es un proceso de construir esta enorme base de datos de contenido. Y casi todo lo que se ver en este juego, tiene un editor en el juego en donde el jugador puede crear, todo el recorrido hacia la civilizacin. Este es mi beb. +Cuando como, comienzo a crecer. Esta es la siguiente generacin. +Pero voy a adelantarme aqu. Normalmente lo que sucedera es que estas criaturas haran su camino, eventualmente volvindose inteligentes. +Comenzar a tratar con tribus, ciudades y civilizaciones de ellas con el tiempo. +Voy a adelantarme hasta la fase espacial. +Eventualmente saldrn al espacio y comenzarn a colonizar y explorar el universo. +En cierta forma, quiero que los jugadores construyan este mundo en su imaginacin, y luego extraerla de all, con la menor dificultad posible. +De eso se tratan estas herramientas, cmo hacemos que el juego, sea un amplificador de la imaginacin del jugador? +Y cmo hacemos de estas herramientas, estos editores, algo que sean tan divertidos como el juego mismo? +Este es el planeta en el que estuvimos jugando hasta ahora en el juego. +Hasta ahora todo el juego se jug en la superficie de este mundo aqu. +En este punto tratamos con un pequeo planeta de juguete, +casi, de nuevo, como la idea de una juguete Montessori. +Qu sucede si le damos a alguien un planeta de juguete y le dejamos jugar con las dinmicas en l, qu descubrira? Qu podra aprender de esto? +Este mundo fue extrado de la imaginacin del jugador. +Este es el planeta en que el jugador evolucion, +as que los edificios, vehculos, arquitectura, civilizaciones, fueron diseadas por el jugador hasta aqu. +Esta es una pequea ciudad con algunos tipos caminando por ella. +La mayora de los juegos ponen al jugador en el rol de Luke Skywalker, el protagonista participando en esta historia. +Esto es ms como poner al jugador en el rol de George Lucas, +Quiero que, despus de jugar esto, que hayan extrado todo un mundo con el que interactan +Desplegando esto, tenemos todo un conjunto de criaturas viviendo en la superficie del planeta, muchas dinmicas estn en marcha. +De hecho, puedo ver aqu, esta es una red alimentaria simplificada que funciona con estas criaturas. +Puedo abrir esto y explorar lo que existe en la superficie, y tener una idea de la diversidad de criaturas que aparecieron. +Algunas fueron creadas por el jugador, otras por otros jugadores, enviadas aqu. +Hay un tipo de clculo de lo que se requiere, cuntas plantas se necesitan para los herbvoros, cuntos herbvoros para que coman los carnvoros, etctera, que se tiene que equilibrar activamente. +Tambin, en esta fase, daremos ms poderes divinos al jugador, y se puede experimentar con este planeta, como un juguete. +Y puedo llegar y hacer cosas, y tratar al planeta como arcilla. +Tenemos, simples sistemas de clima, una geologa simple. Por ejemplo, puedo usar una herramienta y, trazar ros. +Todo esto es como una arcilla, una escultura. +Tambin puedo jugar con las dinmicas del mundo en el tiempo. +Una cosa que puedo hacer es inyectar gases CO2 en la atmsfera, y eso es lo que estoy haciendo. +Hay una lectura aqu abajo de la atmsfera planetaria, presin y temperatura. +Mientras inyecto ms atmsfera, comenzaremos a meter gases de invernadero y comenzarn a notar -- veremos el nivel de los ocanos subir. +Y nuestras ciudades estarn en peligro, muchas son ciudades costeras. +Puedes ver los niveles ocenicos elevndose e invadiendo las ciudades, Comienzo a perder ciudades. +Bsicamente, quiero que los jugadores experimenten y exploren un enorme espacio de errores -- all va una ciudad. +Con el tiempo, esto va a calentar el planeta. +Al principio veremos una elevacin global del ocano en nuestro planeta de juguete, pero con el tiempo -- puedo acelerarlo un poco -- veremos el impacto calrico tambin. +No slo se har ms caliente, se har tan caliente que los ocanos se evaporarn. +Primero subirn, y luego se evaporarn, y ese ser mi planeta. +Bsicamente, lo que tenemos es tal vez la secuela de "Una Verdad Inconveniente," en dos minutos, y eso nos lleva a un punto interesante sobre los juegos. +Aqu, ocanos enteros se evaporan de la superficie, y si se calienta ms, en algn momento el planeta se derretir. +Aqu va. +No slo simulamos las dinmicas biolgicas -- redes alimentarias y dems -- sino tambin geolgicas, en una escala muy simple. +Y lo que me interesa de los juegos, en cierta forma, es que creo que podemos tomar dinmicas de largo trmino y comprimirlas en experiencias de corto trmino. +Porque es difcil para la gente pensar en 50 o 100 aos, pero cuando les dan un juguete, y pueden experimentar estas dinmicas en unos minutos, creo que es un punto de vista completamente diferente, el que desplegamos, usando el juego para re-mapear nuestra intuicin. +Casi de la misma manera en que un telescopio o un microscopio recalibra la vista; creo que las simulaciones de computadora recalibran el instinto a lo largo de vastas escalas de espacio y tiempo. +Aqu est nuestro sistema solar, nos alejamos del planeta fundido. +Y tenemos otros planetas en este sistema solar. +Volemos a otro. +De hecho, tendremos un ilimitado nmero de mundos que pueden explorar. Cuando nos movemos hacia el futuro, y comenzamos a ir al espacio, estamos tomando cosas de la ciencia ficcin. +Y como en mis pelculas favoritas de ciencia ficcin quiero jugar con diferentes dinmicas. +Este planeta tiene algo de vida en l. +Aqu est, hay vida nativa all. +Una herramienta que puedo sacar de mi OVNI es un monolito que puedo depositar. +Pueden ver que los sujetos comienzan a acercarse e inclinarse ante l, y cuando lo tocan, se vuelven inteligentes. +As que puedo tomar especies en un planeta y hacerlas conscientes. +Ahora entramos en dinmicas tribales. +Y ahora, como soy el Elegido, puedo salir del OVNI y aparecer y deberan adorarme como un dios. +Al principio estn asustados. +Tal vez no me estn adorando. +Creo que me ir antes de que sean hostiles. +Pero bsicamente quiero una diversidad de actividades que se pueda jugar, +Bsicamente quiero poder jugar, "El Da en que Paralizaron la Tierra" "2001: Una Odisea Espacial" "Viaje a las Estrellas" "La Guerra de los Mundos" +Nos alejamos de este mundo -- no alejaremos de la estrella -- +una de las cosas que siempre me frustraba de la astronoma cuando era nio es cmo se presenta siempre bi-dimensionalmente y tan esttica. Mientras nos alejamos de la estrella, vamos hacia un viaje interestelar, y tenemos una sensacin de espacio en torno de nuestra estrella. +Lo que realmente quera hacer es presentar esto, tan maravillosamente 3D como realmente es. +Y no solo eso, sino tambin mostrar las dinmicas, y muchos objetos interesantes que pueden encontrares, como en el Hubble, a frecuencias y escalas casi realistas. +La mayora de la gente no tiene idea de la diferencia entre, una nebulosa de emisin y una nebulosa planetaria. +Pero estas son las cosas que podemos poner en esta galaxia. +Volamos aqu hasta lo que parece un agujero negro. +Quiero tener un zoolgico de objetos Hubble con los que la gente pueda interactuar y jugar como juguetes. +Aqu hay un agujero negro al que probablemente no queremos acercarnos. +Pero tambin estrellas y otras cosas. +Esto sera un milln de aos por segundo, porque hay aproximadamente una supernova cada siglo. +Chris se preguntaba en qu clase de dioses se convertiran los jugadores. +Porque si lo piensan, tendremos jvenes de 15 aos, 20 aos, lo que fuera, volando por este universo. +Y podran ser un dios fecundo. Podran impulsar la vida en los planetas, tratando de terra-formar y esparcir la civilizacin. +Podran ser un dios vengativo y salir a conquistar, porque pueden hacer eso, pueden atacar otras razas inteligentes. +Pueden ser un dios comunicativo, construyendo alianzas, lo cual tambin pueden hacer en el juego, o slo curioso, viajando y tratando de explorar tanto como puedan. +Pero bsicamente, la razn por la que hago juguetes as es porque creo que si hay una diferencia que podra hacer en el mundo, que yo escogera hacer, sera darle de alguna forma a la gente una mejor calibracin en el pensamiento a largo trmino. +Porque creo que la mayora de los problemas de nuestro mundo son resultado del pensamiento a corto plazo, y el ser tan difcil pensar en lapsos de 50, 100 o 1000 aos. +Y creo que darle a los nios juguetes como este y dejarles reproducir dinmicas dinmicas a largo plazo en un corto trmino, y sacando algn sentido de lo que hacemos ahora, cmo ser en 100 aos, es probablemente lo ms efectivo que puedo hacer. para ayudar al mundo. +Y es por eso que creo que los juguetes pueden cambiar al mundo. +Gracias. +Soy un ilustrador mdico, y vengo desde un punto de vista ligeramente distinto. +Desde que fui creciendo, he estado observado las expresiones de la verdad y la belleza en las artes y la verdad y la belleza en las ciencias. +Y mientras que stas son ambas, de propio derecho, cosas maravillosas -- ambas tienen en s mismas cosas maravillosas -- la verdad y la belleza como ideales que pueden ser observados por la ciencia y las matemticas son casi como las perfectas gemelas siamesas con las que un cientfico quera salir. +Estas son expresiones de la verdad como hechos llenos de asombro, es decir, son cosas que puedes alabar. +Son ideales poderosos, son irreducibles, +son nicos, son tiles -- a veces, largo tiempo despus del propio hecho. +Y de hecho puedes pasar alguna de las imgenes ahora, porque no quiero verme en la pantalla. +La verdad y la belleza son cosas que a veces son opacas para aquellos que no estn en la ciencia. +Son cosas que describen la belleza de una forma a veces slo accesible si entiendes el lenguaje y la sintxis de la persona que estudia la materia en que la verdad y la belleza se expresan. +Si miras a las matemticas, E=mc, si miras a la constante cosmolgica, donde hay un ideal antrpico, donde ves que esa vida tuvo que evolucionar de los nmeros que describen el Universo -- estas son cosas realmente difciles de entender. +Hoy en da, los estudiantes se encuentran sumergidos en un entorno en el que lo que aprenden son materias que poseen verdad y belleza imbudas en s mismas, pero la forma en que son enseadas se ha compartimentalizado y llevado al extremo en el que la verdad y la belleza ya no son siempre evidentes. +Es prcticamente como esa receta de caldo de pollo, donde hierves el pollo justo hasta que el sabor desaparece. +No queremos hacer eso a nuestros estudiantes. +As que tenemos una oportunidad de realmente abrir la educacin. +Y recib una llamada de telfono de Robert Lue de Harvard, del Departamento de Biologa Molecular y Celular, hace un par de aos. Me pregunt si mi equipo y yo estaramos interesados y dispuestos a realmente cambiar la forma en que la educacin mdica y cientfica se realiza en Harvard. +As que nos embarcamos en un proyecto que explorara la clula, que explorara la verdad y la belleza inherentes en la biologa molecular y celular de tal forma que los estudiantes pudiesen entender la imagen global sobre la que podran situar todos los hechos. +Tendran una imagen mental de la clula como una grande, bulliciosa, y enormemente complicada ciudad ocupada por micromquinas. +Y estas micromquinas realmente son la base del corazon de la vida. +Estas micromquinas, que son la envidia de todos los nanotecnlogos en todo el mundo, son unos aparatos autodirigidos, potentes, precisos, exactos, hechos de cadenas de aminocidos. +Y estas micromquinas controlan como se mueve una clula, +controlan como se replica una clula, controlan nuestro corazn, +controlan nuestras mentes. +As que comenzamos mirando como estas molculas se ensamblan. +Pero reciben la seal que les hace detenerse, les crea la necesidad de fabricar todos los diferentes elementos que les permitir cambiar de forma, para salir de ese capilar y averiguar qu est sucediendo. +As que estos motores moleculares -- tuvimos que trabajar con los cientficos de Harvard y con modelos de bases de datos de las molculas atmicamente precisas y entender cmo se movan, y entender lo que hacan. +Y encontrar una forma de hacer esto realista en cuanto que demostraba lo que estaba sucediendo, pero no tan excesivo que el amontonamiento tan compacto en el interior de la clula puediese impedir que se visualizase. +As que lo que voy a ensearles es una versin de tres minutos bastante resumida del aspecto inicial de esta pelcula que produjimos. Es un proyecto en marcha que an nos llevar otros 4 o 5 aos. +Y quiero que observen y vean los caminos que la clula fabrica -- estas pequeas mquinas andadoras, se llaman quinesinas -- que cogen estas enormes cargas que, relativamente, haran temblar a una hormiga. +Pase la pelcula, por favor. +Pero estas mquinas que mueven el interior de las clulas son realmente asombrosas, y realmente son la base de la vida. Porque todas estas mquinas interaccionan unas con otras. +Se pasan informacin entre ellas; +hacen que ocurran distintas cosas dentro de la clula. +Y la clula, adems, fabricar las partes que necesite al vuelo, a partir de informacin que es trada del ncleo por molculas que leen los genes. +Ninguna vida, desde la ms pequea hasta todos los aqu presentes, sera posible sin estas micromquinas. +De hecho, habra hecho que, en ausencia de estas mquinas, la asistencia aqu, Chris, fuese realmente escasa. +Este es el mensajero de FedEx de la clula: +este pequen es la quinesina, y arrastra un saco lleno the protenas recin fabricadas all donde se necesiten en la clula -- ya sea a una membrana, o a un organelo, o bien para construir o reparar algo. +Y cada uno de nosotros tenemos unas 100.000 de estas cositas corriendo por ah, ahora mismo, dentro de cada una de nuestros 100 billones de clulas. +As que no importa cuan perezosos se sientan ahora, no ests realmente, intrnsicamente, no haciendo nada. +As que lo que quiero que hagan cuando vayan a casa es pensar sobre esto, y pensar sobre cuan poderosas son nuestras clulas, +y pensar sobre algunas de las cosas que estamos aprendiendo acerca de la mecnica celular. +Y ojal seamos capaces de usar esto para descubrir ms verdad, y ms belleza. +Pero es realmente asombroso que estas clulas, estas micro-mquinas, sean suficientemente conscientes de lo que la clula necesita para cumplir sus rdenes. +Trabajan juntas; hacen que la clula haga lo que necesita hacer. +Y su trabajo conjunto permite que nuestros cuerpos -- entidades gigantescas que ellas nunca vern -- funcione adecuadamente. +Disfruten del resto del espectculo. Gracias. +Esta es una tira cmica reciente de Los Angeles Times. +El remate? +"Por otro lado, no tengo que levantarme a las 4 cada maana para ordear a mi labrador." +Esta es una portada reciente de la revista New York. +Los mejores hospitales donde los doctores iran a tratarse por cncer, nacimientos, golpes, cardopatas y reemplazos de caderas: la sala de emergencias a las 4 a.m. +Y este es un popurr musical que hice... Se han dado cuenta que las 4 de la maana se ha convertido en una especie de informacin invisible? +Significa algo como que ests despierto a la peor hora posible +Tiempo de inconvenientes, percances y ansiedades. +Tiempo de planear cmo liquidar al Jefe de Policia, como en la clsica escena de "El Padrino". +El guin de Coppola describe a estos tipos como "exhaustos en manga corta. +Son las cuatro de la maana". +Un momento para cosas aun ms lgubres, como autopsias y embalsamamientos descriptos por Isabel Allende en "La Casa de los Espritus". +Despus de que la hermosa Rosa es asesinada, los doctores la preservan con ungentos y pastas fnebres. +"Trabajaron hasta las cuatro de la maana." +Un momento para cosas aun ms lgubres que eso, como en la revista New Yorker de Abril. +Esta pequea pieza de ficcin de Martin Amis empieza as: " El 11 de Septiembre de 2001, l abri sus ojos a las 4 a.m en Portland, Maine y el ltimo da de Mohamed Atta comenz" +Para una hora que considero la ms plcida y la ms calma del da, las 4 de la maana seguro tiene muy mala prensa en diferentes medios y segn grandes autores. +Y me hizo sospechar. +Pens: seguramente las mentes ms creativas del mundo, en realidad, no se remitiran a esta simple metfora como si la hubieran inventado cierto? +Podra estar sucediendo algo ms ah? +Algo deliberado, algo secreto. Y quin comenz a rodar la injuria de las cuatro de la maana? +Yo digo que fue este tipo: Alberto Giacometti, que aparece ac con algunas de sus esculturas en un billete de 100 francos suizos. +Lo hizo con su famosa pieza del Museo de Arte Moderno de Nueva York. +Su ttulo: " El Palacio a las Cuatro de la maana", 1932. +No es slo la referencia crptica ms antigua que pude encontrar de las cuatro de la maana. +Creo que esta presunta primera escultura surrealista puede resultar una increble clave a virtualmente cada expresin artstica de las 4 de la maana que le sigui. +Lo llamo "El Cdigo Giacometti", en exclusiva para TED. +No, sintanse libres de seguirme en sus Blackberries o sus iPhones si los tienen. +Es ms o menos as: esta es una bsqueda reciente en Google sobre las cuatro de la maana. +Los resultados varan, por supuesto. Esto es bastante usual. +Los diez primeros resultados te entregan cuatro referencias a la cancin de Faron Young, "Son las 4 de la Maana", tres referencias a la pelcula de Judi Dench, "Las Cuatro de la Maana", una referencia al poema de Wislawa Szymborska, "Las cuatro de la maana". +Y pueden preguntarse: qu tienen en comn una poetisa polaca, una Dama britnica, y un cantante country del saln de la fama, aparte de este excelente ranking en Google? +Bueno, comencemos con Faron Young, quien casualmente, naci en 1932. +En 1996 se dispar en la cabeza el 9 de diciembre, que casualmente resulta ser el cumpleaos de Judi Dench. +Pero no muri el da en que Dench naci. +Languideci hasta la tarde siguiente, cuando finalmente sucumbi a un disparo presuntamente auto-inflingido a la edad de 64, que, casualmente, es la edad que Alberto Giacometti tena al momento de morir. +Dnde estaba Wislawa Szymborska durante todo esto? +Ella tena la coartada ms irrebatible de todas. +Porque el 10 de diciembre de 1996, mientras el Seor Cuatro de la Maana, Faron Young, estaba estirando la pata en Nashville, Tenessee, la Seora Cuatro de la Maana -o una de ellas de cualquier forma- Wislawa Szymborska estaba en Estocolmo, Suecia, recibiendo el Premio Nobel de Literatura. +Exactamente 100 aos despus de la muerte de Alfred Nobel. +Coincidencia? No, espeluznante. +La coincidencia, para m, tiene una magia ms simple. +Es como si yo dijera: "Sabas que el Premio Nobel fue instaurado en 1901, que casualmente, es el mismo ao en el que naci Alberto Giacometti?" +No, no todo calza tan perfectamente en este paradigma, pero eso no significa que no est sucediendo algo raro al ms alto nivel. +De hecho hay gente en este saln que quizs no quiera que muestre el video que estn a punto de ver. +Video: "Tenemos cancha de tenis, piscina, sala de cine... O sea que si quiero chuletas, an en medio de la noche, tu sirviente me las freir? +Claro, para eso se le paga. +Necesitas toallas, lavandera, sirvientes? +Espera, espera, espera. Djame ver si entend. +Es Navidad, son las 4 a.m. +Hay rugidos en mi estmago. +Homero, por favor." +Espera, espera, espera. +Djame ver si entend bien, Matt. +Cuando Homero Simpson necesita imaginarse el ms remoto momento posible, no slo del reloj, sino de todo el bendito calendario se le ocurren las 4 de la maana en el nacimiento del nio Jesus? +Y no, no s cmo encaja en el intrigante esquema de las cosas, pero obviamente reconozco un mensaje en clave cuando lo veo. +Dije que reconozco un mensaje en clave cuando lo veo. +Y amigos, pueden comprar una copia del libro de Bill Clinton "Mi Vida" aqu, en la librera de TED. +Busquen pgina tras pgina cuantas referencias ocultas quieran. +O pueden ir al sitio web de Random House donde est este extracto. +Y cunto creen ustedes que tenemos que leer para encontrar el premio? +Me creeran que slo doce prrafos? +Esta es la pgina 474 en sus libros, si es que me siguen: "A pesar de que estaba mejorando, an no estaba satisfecho con el discurso inaugural. +Mis guionistas deben haber estado histricos porque mientras trabajbamos entre las una y cuatro de la maana del Da Inaugural, yo an lo estaba modificando." +Seguro que s, porque te has preparado toda tu vida para este evento histrico que simplemente te ocurre de golpe. +Y luego, tres prrafos ms adelante, obtenemos esta belleza: "Regresamos a la Casa Blair para revisar el discurso por ltima vez. +Haba mejorado bastante desde las 4 a.m." +Y bueno, cmo pudo hacerlo? +Segn sus escritos, el hombre estaba dormido, en una reunin de oracin con Al y Tipper o aprendiendo a lanzar un misil nuclear desde una maleta. +Qu les ocurre a los presidentes americanos a las 0400 en su primer da? +Qu le ocurri a William Jefferson Clinton? +Quizs nunca lo sabremos. +Y me he dado cuenta que de hecho no esta hoy aqu para enfrentar preguntas complicadas. +Podra ser incmodo verdad? +Despus de todo, todo este asunto ocurri durante su turno. +Pero si l estuviera ac nos podra recordar, tal como lo hace al final de su autobiografa, que en este da, Bill Clinton comenz un viaje- un viaje que lo vi convertirse en el primer presidente demcrata electo por dos perodos consecutivos en dcadas. +En generaciones. +El primero desde este hombre, Franklin Delano Roosevelt, quien comenz su propio viaje sin predecentes hace mucho, en su primera eleccin; hece mucho, en un tiempo ms simple; hace mucho, en 1932- el ao en que Alberto Giacometti hizo "El Palacio de las Cuatro de la Maana". +El ao en que, recordemos, esta voz, que ya se march, vino a este enorme mundo de locos. +Mis tres minutos an no han comenzado, verdad?. +Chris Anderson: No, no puedes reiniciar los 3 minutos +Reinicia los 3 minutos, no es justo. +Allison Hunt: Ay Dios, qu estrictos son aqu. +Ya estoy nerviosa de por s! +Pero no estoy tan nerviosa como hasta hace 5 semanas. +Hace 5 semanas tuve una ciruga de reemplazo total de cadera. +Saben algo acerca de esta operacin? +Sierra elctrica, taladro, muy desagradable. Salvo que uno sea David Bolinsky, en cuyo caso todo es un camino de rosas. +Si, David, cuando no se trata de tu propia cadera, todo es un camino de rosas. +Pues bien, yo tuve una gran revelacin con este asunto, y Chris me invit aqu a contrselas. +Pero en primer lugar, deben saber dos cosas acerca de m. +Slo dos cosas. +Soy canadiense y soy la ms pequea de siete hermanos. +En Canad contamos con un gran sistema de salud. +Esto significa que nos dan caderas nuevas sin costo alguno. +Y yo, al ser la ms pequea de siete, nunca estuve en primer lugar en ninguna fila, OK? +Haca aos que me dola la cadera. +Finalmente fui al doctor; la consulta era sin costo. +y ella me remiti al cirujano ortopdico, tambin sin costo. +Finalmente pudo atenderme luego de 10 meses de espera, casi un ao. +Estos son los beneficios de un servicio gratuito. +Fui a ver al cirujano, quien me sac algunas radiografas sin costo. Las mir bien y, en realidad, hasta yo me daba cuenta de que mi cadera estaba mal. Y eso que yo me dedico al mercadeo. +Entonces me dijo: "Allison, vamos a tener que operarte. +Te voy a poner una nueva cadera, tendrs que esperar unos 18 meses. +18 meses ms. +Ya haba esperado 10 meses y deba esperar 18 meses ms. +Era una espera tan larga que prcticamente comenc a calcular el tiempo en base a la cantidad de TEDs. +No tendra mi cadera nueva para este TED, +Tendra mi nueva cadera para la sesin de TEDGlobal en frica, +No tendra mi cadera nueva para TED2008. +Todava estara soportando mi pobre cadera. Era muy desalentador. +As es que me fui de su oficina, y mientras caminaba por el hospital, en ese momento tuve mi revelacin. +La ms pequea de siete hermanos deba colocarse en el primer lugar de la fila. +Si! +Saben lo anti-canadiense que es esto? +Nosotros no pensamos as. +No hablamos de eso, ni lo consideramos. +De hecho, cuando viajamos al extranjero, as identificamos a nuestros compatriotas canadienses. +"Despus de Ud." "No, no. Despus de Ud." +Usted es Canadiense? "Ah, yo tambin! Qu tal?! +"Perfecto!" "Qu bueno!" +As es que, de pronto ya no me molestaba tener que eliminar a algn abuelo de la lista. +Algn anciano de 70 aos que quera su cadera nueva, para poder seguir jugando al golf o arreglando su jardn. +No, no. Al primer lugar de la fila. +A esta altura ya estaba yo en la recepcin y obviamente con dolor, me dola mi cadera, y como que necesitaba una seal. +Y entonces vi la seal. +En la vidriera de una pequea tienda de regalos del hospital estaba la seal y deca: "Se necesitan voluntarios". Mmmm. +Pues me contrataron inmediatamente. +No pidieron referencias, ni verificaron ninguna informacin como se hace normalmente. +Estaban desesperados por encontrar voluntarios: la edad promedio de los voluntarios que trabajaban en la tienda de regalos del hospital, era de 75 aos. +Definitivamente necesitaban sangre joven. +Y as, de un momento a otro, ya tena puesto mi uniforme azul de voluntario. Tena mi foto identificatoria y haba sido entrenada por mi jefe de 89 aos. +Trabajaba sola. +Cada viernes por la maana acuda a la tienda de regalos. +MIentras les venda pastillitas de menta al personal del sanatorio, casualmente preguntaba: "A qu se dedica usted?" +Y luego les contaba: "A mi me van a operar de la cadera...dentro de 18 meses. +Ser fantstico el da que no me duela ms. Ayyy! +Todo el personal conoci a la joven y valiente voluntaria. +Casualmente mi prxima consulta con el cirujano tena lugar justo a la salida de uno de mis turnos en la tienda. +Por lo tanto yo llevaba puesto mi uniforme y mi identificacin. +Coloqu ambas cosas despreocupadamente sobre la silla del consultorio del doctor. +Y cuando entr me di cuenta de que los vio claramente. +MInutos ms tarde, ya tena fecha para operarme algunas semanas despus, y una buena receta de Percocet. +Digamos que lo que se dijo por all fue que mi trabajo como voluntaria fue lo que me llev a adelantarme en la fila. +Y saben qu? ni siquiera mi avergenzo de eso. +Por dos razones. +La primera: no se imaginan cmo voy a cuidar a mi cadera nueva. +Pero adems, pretendo seguir trabajando como voluntaria, lo cual me lleva a la principal revelacin: +Incluso cuando burlamos el sistema, los canadienses lo hacen de manera tal que la sociedad se ve beneficiada. +Bueno, primero que todo, djenme dar gracias a Emeka - de hecho, a TED Global - por organizar esta conferencia en conjunto. +Esta conferencia ser una de las ms importantes del inicio del siglo 21. +Creen que los gobiernos africanos organizarn una conferencia como esta? +Piensan que la Unin Africana organizar una conferencia como esta? +Aun antes de hacerlo, pedirn ayuda extranjera. +Tambin quiero rendir homenaje y honor a los TED Fellows [socios] June Arunga, James Shikwati, Andrew y los otros TED Fellows. +Les llamo la Generacin Chita. +La Generacin Chita es una nueva casta de africanos quienes no tienen tolerancia para con la corrupcin. +Entienden lo que es rendicin de cuentas y lo que es democracia. +No van a esperar que el gobierno haga las cosas por ellos. +Esa es la Generacin Chita. Y la salvacin de frica descansa sobre esos Chitas. +En contraste, desde luego, est la Generacin Hipoptamo. +La Generacin Hipoptamo son las lites gobernantes. +Estn atascados en su terruo intelectual. +Quejndose del colonialismo y el imperialismo - no moveran ni un pie. +Si les pides que reformen las economas, ellos no las reformarn porque les beneficia el podrido estado actual. +Ahora, hay muchos africanos muy enojados, enojados con la condicin de frica. +Ahora, estamos hablando de un continente, que no es pobre. +Es rico, en recursos minerales, recursos minerales naturales. +Pero la riqueza mineral de frica no se est usando para sacar al pueblo de la pobreza. +Eso es lo que hace que muchos africanos estn muy enojados. +Y en cierta forma, frica es ms que una tragedia, en ms de una manera. +Hay otra tragedia duradera, y esa tragedia es que hay mucha gente, muchos gobiernos muchas organizaciones, quienes quieren ayudar a la gente de frica - +pero no lo entienden. +Vamos, no estoy diciendo, no ayuden a frica. +Ayudar a frica es noble. +Pero ayudar a frica se convertido en un teatro del absurdo. +Es como el ciego guiando al despistado. +Hay ciertas cosas que tenemos que reconocer. +El tazn mendicante de frica tiene fugas. +Saban que el 40 por ciento de la riqueza creada en frica, no se invierte en frica? +Se saca de frica. +Eso es lo que dice el Banco Mundial. +Miren el tazn mendicante de frica. +Tiene fugas horribles. +Hay gente que piensa que debemos verter ms dinero, ms ayuda en este tazn, el cual tiene fugas. +Cules son las fugas? +La corrupcin por s misma le cuesta a frica 148 mil millones de dlares al ao. +S, hagmoslo a un lado. +La fuga de capitales de frica, 80 mil millones al ao. +Hagmoslo a un lado. +Tomemos la importacin de alimentos. +Cada ao, frica gasta 20 mil millones de dlares para importar comida. +Smenlas, todas esas fugas. +Eso es mucho ms que los 50 mil millones que Tony Blair quiere conseguir para frica. +Ahora, en los aos 60, no slo frica se alimentaba sola, tambin exportaba comida. +Ya no ms. +Sabemos que algo est fundamentalmente equivocado. +Ustedes lo saben, yo lo s, pero no perdamos tiempo, nuestro tiempo, hablando de esos errores porque nos pasaremos todo el da aqu. +Sigamos adelante, demos la vuelta al siguiente captulo, y eso es de lo que se trata esta conferencia - el siguiente captulo. +El siguiente captulo comienza primero, con preguntarnos esta pregunta fundamental, A quin queremos ayudar en frica? +Est el pueblo, y luego estn los gobiernos o lderes. +Ahora, el ponente anterior, el ponente anterior a m, Idris Mohammed, indic que tenemos un liderazgo abismal en frica. +Esa caracterizacin, en mi punto de vista, es ms caritativa. +Pertenezco a un foro de discusin en Internet, un foro de discusin africano, y les pregunt, les dije, "Desde 1960, hemos tenido exactamente 204 jefes de gobierno africanos, desde 1960." +Y les ped que nombraran slo 20 buenos lderes, slo 20 buenos lderes - quiz ustedes mismos quieran tomar este desafo de liderazgo. +Les ped nombrar slo 20. +Todos mencionaron a Nelson Mandela, desde luego. +Kwame Nkrumah, Nyerere, Kenyatta - alguien mencion a Idi Amin. +Lo hice a un lado. +Mi punto es, no podan pasar de 15. +Aun si hubieran podido nombrar 20, qu les dice eso? +20 de 204 significa que la mayora, la inmensa mayora de los lderes africanos, le fallaron a su pueblo. +Y si lo miran, la camada de lderes post-coloniales - una variedad de cabezas de chorlito militares. Socialistas de banco suizo, libertadores cocodrilos, lites vampiras, revolucionarios charlatanes. +Ahora, este liderazgo est muy lejos de los lderes tradicionales que los africanos han conocido por siglos. +La segunda falsa premisa que asumimos al tratar de ayuda a frica, es que algunas veces pensamos que hay algo llamado gobierno en frica que se preocupa por su gente, sirve los intereses de la gente y representa a la gente. +Hay una cita en particular - un jefe en Lesotho una vez dijo "Aqu en Lesotho, tenemos dos problemas - las ratas y el gobierno." +Lo que ustedes y yo entendemos como gobierno no existe en muchos pases africanos. +De hecho, lo que, lo que llamamos a nuestros gobiernos es estados vampiro. +Vampiro porque chupan la vitalidad econmica de su gente. +El gobierno es el problema en frica. +Un estado vampiro es el gobierno - - que ha sido secuestrado por una falange de bandidos y rateros quienes usan los instrumentos del poder estatal para enriquecerse a s mismos, a sus compinches, a su tribu, y excluyen a todos los dems. +La gente ms rica de frica son los jefes de gobierno y ministros, y muy frecuentemente el jefe de los bandidos es el jefe de gobierno mismo. +De dnde obtienen su dinero? +Creando riqueza? +No. +Lo hacen rastrillndolo de las espaldas de su sufrido pueblo. +Eso no es creacin de riqueza - es redistribucin de la riqueza. +El tercer tema fundamental que tenemos que reconocer es que si queremos ayudar a la gente de frica, debemos saber dnde estn esos africanos. +Tomen una economa africana cualquiera. +Una economa africana puede dividirse en tres sectores. +Est el sector moderno, est el sector informal y el sector tradicional. +El sector moderno es la casa de las lites. +Es el asiento del gobierno. +En muchos pases africanos, el sector moderno est perdido. +Es disfuncional. +Es un fandango meretricio de sistemas importados, los cuales las lites mismas no entienden. +Esta es la fuente de muchos de los problemas de frica de donde las luchas por el poder poltico emanan y entonces se derraman sobre el sector informal y el sector tradicional, demandando vidas inocentes. +Ahora, el sector moderno, desde luego, es a donde mucho de la ayuda para el desarrollo y los recursos fueron a dar. +Ms del 80 por ciento del desarrollo de Costa de Marfil fue al sector moderno. +Los otros sectores, el informal y el tradicional, es donde encontrarn a la mayora de los africanos. La gente real en frica - all los encontrarn. +Vamos, obviamente es de sentido comn, que si quieres ayudar a la gente, vayas a donde est la gente. +Pero eso es lo que no hicimos. +De hecho, descuidamos los sectores informal y tradicional. +Ahora, el sector tradicional es donde frica produce su agricultura, la cual es una de las razones por las cuales frica no puede alimentarse, y debemos importar comida. +Muy bien, no puedes ayudar a desarrollar frica ignorando los sectores informal y tradicional. +Y no puedes desarrollar los sectores informal y tradicional sin entender cmo operan sos dos sectores. +Esos dos sectores, djenme describirlos, tienen sus propias instituciones autctonas. +Primero es el sistema poltico. +Tradicionalmente, los africanos odian los gobiernos - odian la tirana. +Si miras dentro de sus sistemas tradicionales, los africanos organizan sus estados en dos tipos. +El primero pertenece a esas sociedades tnicas quienes creen que el estado es necesariamente tirnico, as que no quieren tener que ver con cualquier autoridad central. +Esas sociedades son los Ibo, los somales, los kikuyus, por ejemplo - no tienen jefes. +Los otros grupos tnicos, los cuales tienen jefes, se han asegurado de rodear a los jefes con consejos y consejos de consejos y consejos de consejos de consejos para prevenir que abusen de su poder. +En la tradicin ashanti, por ejemplo, el jefe no puede tomar decisin alguna sin la venia del consejo de los ancianos. +Sin el consejo, el jefe no puede pasar ley alguna, y si el jefe no gobierna de acuerdo a la voluntad de la gente ser removido. +Si no, la gente abandona al jefe, se van a otro lado y crean un nuevo asentamiento. +Y aun si miras a los antiguos imperios africanos, estaban organizados alrededor de un principio particular - el principio de la confederacin, el cual se caracteriza por tener una gran devolucin de autoridad, descentralizacin de poder. +Veamos, esto que les he descrito, +es parte de la herencia poltica autctona africana. +Ahora, comprenlo con los sistemas modernos que han establecido las lites gobernantes en frica. +Son demasiado distantes. +En el sistema econmico del frica tradicional, los medios de produccin son de propiedad privada. +Son propiedad de familias extendidas. +Vern, en Occidente, la unidad bsica econmica y social es el individuo. +Los americanos dirn "Yo soy porque yo soy, y puedo hacer lo que me plazca, cuando quiera." +El acento est en el "yo." +En frica, los africanos dicen, "Yo soy porque nosotros somos." +El "nosotros" denota comunidad - el sistema de familia extendida. +Esas familias extendidas renen sus recursos. +Son dueos de granjas. Deciden qu hacer, qu producir. +No tienen que obedecer a los jefes - +ellos deciden qu hacer. +Y cuando cosechan su siembra, venden el excedente en los mercados. +Obtienen una ganancia, y es suya, no del jefe para que se las quite. +As, en breve, lo que tenamos en el frica tradicional era un sistema de libre mercado. +Haba mercados en frica antes que los colonialistas pusieran pie en el continente. +Timbuct era una gran ciudad mercado. +Kano, Salaga - ah estaban. +Aun si vas a frica Occidental, notars que la actividad del mercado en frica Occidental ha sido siempre dominada por mujeres. +As, es muy apropiado que esta seccin se llame un mercado. +El mercado no es ajeno a frica. +Lo que los africanos practicaron era una forma diferente de capitalismo, pero entonces, despus de la independencia, repentinamente, los mercados, el capitalismo se convirti en una institucin occidental, y los lderes dijeron que los africanos estbamos listos para el socialismo. +Sinsentido. +Y aun entonces, qu clase de socialismo practican? +El socialismo que practicaron era una forma peculiar de socialismo de banco suizo, que permita a los jefes de estados y a los ministros violar y saquear los depsitos africanos, las tesoreras para depositarlas en Suiza. +Esa no es clase de sistema que los africanos han conocido por siglos. +Qu hacemos ahora? +Regresar a las instituciones autctonas de frica, y es aqu que encargamos a los Chitas que vayan a los sectores informales, a los sectores tradicionales - +all es donde encontrarn a la gente africana. +Y quiero mostrarles este rpido y pequeo video respecto del sector informal, respecto de la construccin de botes que yo, yo mismo, trat de movilizar a los africanos en la Dispora para invertir en ello. +Puede por favor mostrarlo? +Los hombres salen a pescar en esos pequeos botes. +S, es una empresa. +De un empresario ghans local, usando su propio capital. +No obtiene asistencia de su gobierno, y est construyendo un segundo bote, ms grande. +Un bote ms grande significa que ms peces sern atrapados y trados. +Significa que puede emplear a ms ghaneses. +Tambin significa que puede generar riqueza. +Y entonces tenemos lo que los economistas llaman efectos externos en la economa local. +Y todo lo que tienes que hacer, todo lo que las lites tienen que hacer, es mover esta operacin a un algo, que est cerrado para que la operacin sea ms eficiente. +Ahora, no slo es el sector informal - +tambin est la medicina tradicional. +80 por ciento de los africanos todava dependen de la medicina tradicional. +El sector moderno de salud ha colapsado totalmente. +Vamos, esta es un rea - quiero decir, que hay un rico tesoro en el rea de la medicina tradicional. +Aqu es donde tenemos que movilizar a los africanos, en la Dispora particularmente, para invertir en ello. +Necesitamos tambin movilizar a los africanos en la Dispora, no slo de entrar en los sectores tradicionales tambin, si no entrar en la agricultura e instigar el cambio desde dentro. +Pudimos movilizar a los ghaneses en la Dispora para instigar el cambio en Ghana y traer la democracia a Ghana. +Y yo s que con los Chitas, podemos retomar frica, un poblado a la vez. +Muchas gracias. +Es muy difcil hablar, al final de una conferencia como esta. Todo el mundo ha hablado. Todo est dicho. +He pensado que lo ms til ser recordar alguna de las cosas que se han dicho aqu. As podemos extraer ideas en las que trabajar y sacar adelante. +Eso es lo que quiero intentar hacer. +Vinimos para hablar de "frica: el siguiente captulo" +Pero al hablar de "frica: el siguiente captulo": miramos al pasado y al presente. Lo vemos y decimos que no fue muy bueno. +Estas fotos que muestran sequas, muertes y enfermedades es lo que solemos ver. +Pero queremos ver "frica: el siguiente captulo". que tiene la cara de un africano sano, sonriente y guapo. +Creo que es importante recordar lo que hemos odo en la conferencia desde el primer da, donde se dieron las estadsticas del momento actual y de lo mucho que ha mejorado el continente. +Lo importante es que tenemos una plataforma sobre la que construir. +As que no perder mucho tiempo en haceros recordar que estamos aqu por el siguiente captulo, ya que es la primera vez que tenemos una plataforma sobre la que construir. +Realmente tenemos una posibilidad, el continente est creciendo a un ritmo inimaginable. +Dcadas despus, hemos pasado del 2 al 5 por ciento y se estima que pasaremos al 6 o incluso al 7 por ciento. +La inflacin ha disminuido. +La deuda externa, de la que tengo mucho que contar pues trabaj en una de las deudas ms grandes del continente, ha descendido drsticamente. +Como pueden ver aqu ha descendido de 50 billones a 12 o 13 billones. +Esto es un gran logro. +Hemos acumulado reservas. Y por qu es importante? +Porque respalda a nuestras economas y monedas y nos da la plataforma para construir y crear empresas. +Tambin vemos indicios de que todo esto est marcando la diferencia, pues la inversin privada ha aumentado. +Quisiera volver a recordarles... S que ya han visto estas estadsticas. Hemos pasado de 6 a 18 billones. +En 2005, slo en Nigeria, las transferencias como ven la subida es espectacular y contina aumentando drsticamente. +Esto tambin ocurre en muchos otros pases. +Por qu es importante? Demuestra confianza. +Ahora la geste confa y trae... Si su gente en la dispora trae el dinero, demuestra a otros que, miren, hay una confianza emergente en tu pas. +y as, el dinero en lugar de salir comienza a entrar. +Por qu es importante hacerlo tan rpido? +Construir la plataforma es importante, y escuchar al presidente Kikwete y otros lderes que dicen: "Tenemos que hacer algo diferente" +porque nos enfrentamos a un reto. +El 62 por ciento de la poblacin tiene menos de 24 aos. +Qu significa esto? +Que tenemos que centrarnos en cmo la juventud se involucrar de forma productiva en la vida. +Centrmonos en cmo crear empleo, en que no enfermen y en su educacin. +Y sobre todo, en que hagan algo provechoso en la vida y en que crean un ambiente productivo en nuestros pases, que har que las cosas cambien. +Para apoyar esta causa, una de las cosas que he hecho tras dejar el gobierno es fundar una organizacin de estudios de opinin pblica en Nigeria. +La mayora de los pases no tiene estudios de opinin. +La gente no tiene voz. +No hay forma de saber lo que quieren. +Les preguntamos qu era lo que ms les preocupaba. +Y al igual que en el resto de pases, el trabajo es la primera preocupacin. +Me detendr aqu para luego retomarlo. +Antes de ver esta diapo quiero contarles algo. +Para m, el siguiente paso tras construir la plataforma, que hoy nos permite avanzar y a la que no hay que restarle importancia. +Hace apenas 5, 6, o 7 aos, ni podamos hablar del siguiente captulo pues estbamos en el anterior. +bamos hacia ninguna parte. +Nuestras economas no crecan. +El crecimiento per capita era negativo +El marco microeconmico y los cimientos para salir adelante no existan. +No olvidemos que ha costado mucho construir esto, incluidas las cosas que intentamos hacer en Nigeria. +Implantamos un programa para solucionar problemas como la corrupcin, creamos instituciones y estabilizamos la microeconoma. +Por eso tenemos esta plataforma para construir. +Esto nos lleva al debate que se ha mantenido aqu: ayuda frente al sector privado, frente al comercio, etc. +Alguien alz la voz y dijo que era frustrante la simplicidad del debate. +Y que el debate no debera ser as. +Sera participar en el debate equivocado. +El tema aqu es cmo crear una sociedad entre donantes gubernamentales el sector privado y ciudadanos africanos, que tomen las riendas de su vida. +Cmo se combina todo esto? +para salir adelante y hacer las cosas necesarias de las que os habl antes. Los jvenes tienen que trabajar. +Tiene que fluir la salvia creativa del continente y hemos podido ver mucha de ella aqu. +As que creo que nos hemos equivocado de debate. +Es necesario que se vuelvan a preguntar qu combinacin de factores nos permitir conseguir lo que queremos? Les voy a contar una cosa. +Para m las ayudas... No creo que los africanos tengan que irse al otro extremo y sentirse mal por las ayudas. +frica ha estado dando ayudas a otros pases. +Mo Ibrahim dijo en un debate que el suea con el da que frica ofrezca ayudas. +Y yo le dije, "Mo, tienes razn... pero ya lo hemos estado haciendo! +El Reino Unido y EEUU no podran haberse construido sin la ayuda de frica." +Gracias a todos los recursos extrados de frica, tambin humanos, se han construido estos pases. +Por lo que si quieren devolver algo, no deberamos ofendernos. +No deberamos discutir eso. +La discusin es cmo utilizar aquello que nos devuelven. +Cmo lo estamos utilizando? +Se est utilizando con eficacia? +Os quiero contar una historia. +El porqu acepto la ayuda si la usamos bien. +Entre 1967 y 1970 Nigeria vivi la guerra de Bifara. +A mediados de la guerra tena 14 aos. +Pasbamos casi todo el tiempo cocinando junto a mi madre. +Para el ejrcito, mi padre era un brigadier del ejrcito de Bifra. +Estbamos del lado de Bifra. +Slo comamos una vez al da, bamos de un sitio a otro, y ayudbamos en lo que podamos. +En un momento dado, en 1969, las cosas iban muy mal. +Casi no nos quedaba nada, en relacin a la comida. +Los nios moran de Kwashiorkor. +Estoy segura de que los menos jvenes recordaris aquellas fotografas. +Pues bien, yo estaba en medio de todo eso. +Entre tanto mi madre enferm del estmago dos o tres das. +Pensamos que se iba a morir. +Mi padre no estaba all. +Estaba en el ejrcito. +Yo era la ms mayor de la casa. +Mi hermana enferm gravemente de malaria. +Ella tena 3 aos y yo 15. +Tena tanta fiebre, lo intentamos todo. +Pareca que nada le ayudara. +Hasta que supimos que a 10 kilmetros haba un mdico que poda... que ayudaba a gente y daba medicamentos. +Me puse a mi hermana en la espalda. Estaba ardiendo. Camin 10 kilmetros con ella a mi espalda. +Haca muchsimo calor. Tena mucha hambre. +Tena miedo. Saba que su vida dependa de que llegara hasta aquella mujer. +Omos que haba una mdico que trataba a la gente. +And como pude los 10 kilmetros. +Llegu y vi multitud de gente. +Haba ms de mil personas intentando tirar la puerta abajo. +Trataba a la gente en una iglesia. Cmo iba a entrar? +Gate entre las piernas de la gente con mi hermana atada a la espalda. Encontr una ventana. +Mientras la gente intentaba tirar la puerta abajo, trep por la ventana y salt dentro. +La mujer me dijo que haba llegado justo a tiempo. +Cuando saltamos dentro, ella ya casi no se mova. +Le inyect cloroquina (entonces supe lo que era la cloroquina), le dio un poco para rehidratarle, y otras medicinas y nos puso en una esquina. +El cabo de dos o tres horas empez a moverse. +La envolvieron en una toalla, pues empez a sudar, lo que era una buena seal. +Y por fin mi hermana se despert. +5 o 6 horas ms tarde nos dijo que podamos volver a casa. +Me la at a la espalda. +Camin los 10 kilmetros de vuelta y fue el paseo ms corto de mi vida. +Estaba tan feliz por ver a mi hermana con vida! +Hoy tiene 41 aos y es madre de tres nios, y es un mdico que salva vidas. +Por qu os cuento esto? Os lo cuento porque si eres t, o alguien cercano a ti, te da igual de dnde venga la ayuda. +No te importa lo que sea! Tan slo... tan slo quieres que esa persona viva! +Dejadme que os diga de forma menos sentimental que el salvar vidas, que es lo que hace parte de la ayuda en este continente, la vida de cualquiera: un granjero, un profesor, una madre... contribuye de forma productiva en la economa. +Como economista, tambin miro esa parte de la historia. +Estas personas son agentes productivos en la economa. +Por lo que si salvamos a la gente con VIH/SIDA o con malaria, pueden formar parte de la base productiva de nuestra economa. +Y de la misma manera, como dijo alguien ayer, si los dejamos y mueren, sus hijos sern una carga para nuestra economa. +As que incluso desde un punto de vista econmico apartando lo social y humanitario, debemos salvar vidas ahora. +Esta es una de las razones, desde mi experiencia, por la que digo: canalicemos los recursos que recibimos hacia algo productivo. +Sin embargo, tambin os dir que soy de las que no cree en una solucin nica. +Por eso he dicho que el debate ha de ser ms sofisticado. +Tenemos que aprovecharlo bien. +Qu ha pasado en Europa? +Sabais que Espaa, miembro de la UE, recibi 10 mil millones de dlares en ayudas de la UE? +Recursos que les fueron transferidos, se avergonzaron los espaoles? No! +En qu emplearon los 10 millones? +Habis ido hace poco al sur de Espaa? Hay carreteras por todas partes. +Infraestructura en todos lados. +Gracias a esto, todo el sur de Espaa se ha convertido en una economa de servicios. +Sabais que Irlanda recibi 3 mil millones de dolares en ayudas? +Hoy Irlanda es una de las economas de crecimiento ms rpido de la UE. +Por lo que muchas personas de todo el mundo, van all en busca de trabajo. +Qu hicieron con los 3 mil millones en ayudas? +Construyeron una sper autopista de la informacin, aumentaron infraestructura que les permiti... les permiti participar en la revolucin de la tecnologa de la informacin. Y por eso, crearon trabajo en su economa. +No dijeron que no queran la ayuda. +Hoy, la UE no para de transferir ayudas. +Hablamos del Banco Mundial, del FMI, de la responsabilidad... y de la UE. +Tambin tenemos ciudadanos con mucho dinero. Algunos estn en este auditorio, y tienen fundaciones privadas. +Y un da, esas fundaciones con tanto dinero, superarn la ayuda oficial que se est dando. +Pero tengo miedo, y les estoy muy agradecida por lo que intentan hacer en el continente, pero me preocupa. Me despierto con un mal presentimiento. Veo emprendedores con ayudas en el continente. +Y van de un pas a otro, muchas veces buscando qu hacer. +Pero no estoy segura de que su asistencia est siendo canalizada adecuadamente. +Muchos de ellos no estn familiarizados con el continente. +Lo estn descubriendo. +Y muchas veces no veo africanos trabajando con ellos. +Van por su cuenta! Muchas veces tengo la impresin de que ni les interesa escuchar a los africanos que pueden saber. +Quieren venir de visita, ver lo que pasa en el terreno y tomar una decisin. +Puede que est siendo dura. +Pero estoy preocupada pues ese dinero es muy importante. +Ante quin son responsables? +Estamos en las directivas cuando toman decisiones sobre dnde canalizar el dinero? Estamos ah? +Cometeremos otra vez el mismo error? +Alguna vez nuestros presidentes, de los que todo el mundo habla, han reunido a toda esta gente y le han dicho, "Miren, su fundacin y la suya, traen mucho dinero. Estamos muy agradecidos. +Sentmonos y les diremos adnde debera ir el dinero, adnde debera llegar esta ayuda." +Lo hemos hecho? La respuesta es no. +Cada cual hace su esfuerzo de forma individual. +En 10 aos habrn entrado miles de millones en frica, pero seguiremos con los mismos problemas. +Esto es lo que nos deja sin esperanzas. +Nuestra falta de capacidad de sentar a la gente que trae dinero y decirles: "Sintense." +Y no lo hacemos porque somos muchos. No nos coordinamos. +No hemos llamado a Bill Gates ni a Soros, ni al resto de los que estn ayudando y no hemos dicho: "Vamos a mantener una reunin con vosotros. +Como continente tenemos estas prioridades. +Esto es para lo que queremos utilizar el dinero." +No todos deberan ser emprendedores que van en busca de lo que es mejor. +No queremos detenerles. Para nada. Queremos ayudarles a que nos ayuden. +Y lo que me decepciona es que no estamos haciendo nada de esto. +Dentro de 10 aos estaremos hablando de lo mismo, repetiremos las mismas cosas que hoy. +As que el problema es cmo podemos aprovechar todas estas buenas acciones que nos estn llegando. +Cmo conseguir que el se gobierno combine adecuadamente con las fundaciones privadas, las organizaciones internacionales y con nuestro sector privado. +Creo firmemente en el sector privado. +Pero no lo pueden hacer solos. +Podemos pensar en algunas ideas que hagan que esto funcione. +Estos encuentros son para compartir y difundir ideas. +Por qu no pensamos en aprovechar parte de la ayuda? +Mejor an, por que no les decimos a los que nos ayudan: No temis a la infraestructura! +La sanidad no se mantendr si no tenemos infraestructuras. +La educacin ser mejor si tenemos electricidad y carreteras, y otras cosas. +La agricultura mejorar con carreteras por las que llevar los productos al mercado. +No la despreciis! +Invertid parte de vuestros recursos en ella. +Veremos como esto es una combinacin del dinero privado, internacional, multilateral, del sector privado y de los africanos y podemos asociarnos para que la ayuda sea ayuda. +Eso es la ayuda. +La ayuda no resolver nuestros problemas. Estoy totalmente convencida. +Pero puede ser cataltica, y si la usamos de otra manera habremos fracasado. +Una razn por la que China goza de simpata en frica una de las razones, no es por aquello de: esa gente es tonta y China viene a llevarse recursos. +Es porque podemos aprovechar mejor la ayuda de los chinos. +Si les dices: "Aqu necesitamos una carretera" ellos te ayudan a construirla. +No les asustan las infraestructuras. +De hecho, el ministro de Finanzas chino me dijo, cuando le pregunt qu hacamos mal en Nigeria. +Tan slo se necesitan dos cosas: +Infraestructura, infraestructura, infraestructura... y disciplina. +Sois indisciplinados. Y se lo repito al continente. +Es lo mismo, necesitamos infraestructura y disciplina. +Podemos hacer un catalizador que nos ayude a conseguir algo de eso. +Pero, no me refiero a que la salud y la educacin se dejen de lado, hay que procurarlas tambin. +No digo que sea una cosa u otra. +Asocimonos para las ayudas. +Esto es una idea. +Otra idea, para el sector privado. La gente tiene miedo de arriesgarse en el continente. +Porqu no utilizar ayudas para generar un mecanismo de garanta, que permita a la gente asumir riesgos. +Por ltimo, porque ambos estn... He agotado el tiempo. +Se me ha acabado el tiempo? +Vale, no quiero olvidarme de lo ms importante. +Una de las cosas en las que quiero que todos colaboren es en apoyar a la mujer, en crear empleos. Se han dicho muchas cosas sobre la mujer, no es necesario repetirlo. +Pero hay personas, mujeres, que estn creando empleos. +Y sabemos, por lo que los estudios muestran que cuando pones recursos en las manos de una mujer, sobre esto hay un estudio economtrico, un informe del Banco Mundial del ao 2000, que muestra que las transferencias a mujeres daban como resultado nios ms sanos, mejoras para la casa y para la economa. +Lo que digo es que una de las lecturas que tenemos que sacar de aqu, no digo que los hombres no sean importantes, obviamente, si quitas a los maridos, qu haran? +Al volver a casa se disgustaran, y generara dificultades que no queremos. +No queremos que los hombres peguen a sus mujeres por no tener trabajo y esas cosas. +Pero al margen, queremos, yo quiero resaltarlo pues la razn es, los hombres automticamente reciben casi siempre ms apoyo. +Quiero que se den cuenta que los recursos en manos de la mujer africana es una herramienta potente. +Hay gente creando empleo, +Beatrice Gakuba ha creado 200 puestos en su negocio de flores en Ruanda. +Tenemos a Ibukun Awosika en Nigeria, con los muebles, la empresa de sillas. +Quiere expandirse. +Necesita 20 millones ms. +Crear 100 o 200 puestos de trabajo ms. +A partir de ahora pensad cmo unificar los recursos en manos de mujeres que estn a mitad camino, que estn preparadas: son empresarios que quieren expandirse y crear ms trabajo. +Y por ltimo, qu vais a hacer para formar parte de esta asociacin de ayudas, gobierno, sector privado y los africanos como individuos? +Gracias. +Chris Anderson: William, hola. Me alegro de verte. +William Kamkwamba: Gracias. +CA: Entonces, tenemos una imagen aqu, creo? Dnde esta esto? +WK: Este es mi hogar. Ah es donde yo vivo. +CA: Dnde? Qu pas? +WK: En Malawi, Kasungu. En Kasungu. S, Mala. +CA: OK. Ahora, tienes 19 aos? +WK: S, tengo 19, ahora. +CA: Cinco aos atrs tuviste una idea, Cal era? +WK: Quera construir un molino de viento. +CA: Un molino de viento? +WK: S. +CA: Y entonces qu?, para iluminacin y cosas as? +WK: S. +CA: Entonces, qu hiciste? Cmo lo llevaste a cabo? +WK: Despus de abandonar la escuela, fui a la biblioteca, y le un libro -- "Uso de la Energa" y encontre informacin acerca de construir el molino. +Y lo intent y lo hice. +CA: Entonces tu copiaste -- tu exactamente copiaste el diseo del libro. +WK: Ah, no. Yo solo -- CA: Qu ocurri? +WK: De hecho, el diseo del molino de viento que estaba en el libro, tena 4 -- ah -- 3 aspas, y el mo tena 4. +CA: El libro tena 3 y el tuyo tena 4. +WK: S. +CA: y lo construiste a partir de qu? +WK: Hice 4 aspas, porque quera aumentar la potencia. +CA: OK. +WK: S. +CA: T probaste 3 y descubriste que 4 funcionaban mejor? +WK: SI. Hice pruebas. +CA: Y de qu hiciste el molino de viento? +Qu materiales usaste? +WK: Utilic: un cuadro de bicicleta, una polea y tubos plsticos que luego tiran -- CA: Tenemos imgenes de eso?, podemos pasar a la siguiente imagen? +WK: Si. El molino de viento. +CA: Y ese molino de viento -- funcion? +WK: Cuando el viento sopla, rota y genera. +CA: Cunta electricidad? +WK: 12 watios. +Y eso ilumina las luces de la casa?, cuntas luces? +WK: Cuatro bombillas y dos radios. +CA: Wow. +WK: S. +Y entonces, -- siguiente imagen -- y quines son ellos? +WK: Estos son mis paders, comprando una radio. +CA: Entonces qu les pareci -- que t tuvieras 14, 15 aos en ese momento -- entonces qu les pareci esto? se impresionaron? +WK: S. +CA: Entonces, cul es tu -- qu vas a hacer con esto? +WK: Um -- CA: qu es vas -- quiero decir -- quieres construir otro? +WK: S, quiero construir otro -- para bombear agua e irrigar -- para irrigar cultivos +CA: Entonces ste tendr que ser ms grande? +WK: S. +Cmo de grande? +WK: Creo que va a producir ms de 20 watios. +CA: Entonces, podr proveer de irrigacin a toda la comunidad? +WK: Si. +CA: Wow y ahora ests hablndo aqu en TED para conseguir alguien que podra ayudar de alguna manera a -- a hacer realidad este sueo? +WK: S, si ellos me pueden ayudar -- con materiales, s. +CA: Y si te proyectas con tu vida en el futuro, tienes 19 aos ahora, t te -- te ves siguiendo con este sueo, trabajando en energa? +WK: S. Todava pienso en trabajar en energa. +CA: Bueno, William, es verdaderamente un honor tenerte en la conferencia TED. +Muchsimas gracias por venir. +WK: Gracias. +Bienvenidos a frica! O ms bien debera decir, bienvenidos a casa. +Porque aqu es donde en realidad empez todo, no es as? +Examinando fsiles datados de hace varios millones de aos todo apunta a la evidencia de que la vida para la especie humana, tal como la conocemos, empez aqu mismo. +Estaremos participando de un increble viaje los prximos cuatro das. +Vais a or historias de frica: El Prximo Captulo. +Cuentos fantsticos, ancdotas de los oradores. +Pero yo quiero darle la vuelta a eso por un momento, poner las cartas sobre la mesa y aclarar las cosas, por decirlo de algn modo. +Qu es lo peor que habis odo sobre frica? +Y sta no es, en realidad, una pregunta retrica. +En realidad quiero que me respondis. +Vamos! Lo peor. +Hambre. +Corrupcin. +Ms. +Genocidio. +SIDA. +Esclavitud. +Es suficiente. +Todos nosotros hemos odo esas cosas. +Pero esto es sobre frica, sobre la historia que no hemos odo. +Las historias que queremos saber, y las historias que existen sobre relatos positivos. +Una parte de mi charla va a tratar sobre las oportunidades de inversin que existen en este continente. Para separar el retrico de la realidad, el hecho de la ficcin, +para ir hasta los datos actuales y las estadsticas que existen sobre los hechos que estn ocurriendo actualmente sobre el terreno que hacen de frica una oportunidad y una opcin de inversin real para ti. +As que sigamos porque frica est, hasta cierto punto, cambiando de direccin. +Un cambio de direccin en trminos de cmo maneja su imagen, y de cmo toma control de su propio destino. +Y los cambios de direccin son una parte integrante del tema en el que me he centrado durante la mayor parte de mi carrera profesional. +Todo empez hace casi una dcada, como un joven consultor en McKinsey & Company en su primera oficina africana en Johanesburgo. +All trabajbamos con destacados presidentes ejecutivos de cuestiones relacionadas con frica y con compaas africanas en proceso de cambio, convirtiendo las compaas no slo en lo mejor en frica sino tambin los mejores globalmente. +Pero en realidad, formalic mi atencin en estos cambios de direccin cuando estaba completando mi MBA en los Estados Unidos. +Todo empez con una fantstica llamada. +Era de Rosabeth Moss Kanter, gur de la Harvard Business School y profesora ma. +Y ella me dijo, "Quiero escribir un caso, Euvin -- un caso sobre un lder en el sector pblico que tenga lecciones que dar al mundo empresarial. +Y el lder que vino a mi mente fue Nelson Mandela +Porque Nelson Mandela, cuando tom el poder como el primer presidente electo democrticamente de Sudfrica, afront la situacin de un pas que pudo haberse deslizado hasta el abismo del caos. +Pero l empez el pas por el camino de un ciclo positivo. +Ahora el caso, "Nelson Mandela: el Lder del Cambio" se convirti en parte de la base de una investigacin para un captulo del nuevo libro de Rosabeth, titulado "Confianza" +Y "Confianza" se convirti en un bestseller del New York Times y lleg al nmero uno en la lista de bestsellers de libros de tapa dura de la Business Week. +El motivo de que os cuente esta historia es porque, ms tarde, cuando fui entrevistado en SABC frica, en un programa panafricano, me preguntaron, "Cul es la leccin clave, o aquello de lo que disfrutaste ms?" -- y es que era un gran privilegio ser parte de ese proyecto. +La leccin que obtuve de eso fue que era frica, una historia africana, la que se haba utilizado para compartir con el resto del mundo sobre la importancia de los puntos de referencia para los cambios empresariales. +frica estaba siendo usada como ejemplo de una historia exitosa! +Por eso quiero compartir con vosotros una historia personal sobre un cambio o una transformacin. +Y eso tiene que ver conmigo. Porque en 1994, empaqu algunas cosas en una mochila y me fui un ao de viaje en mitad de mi carrera universitaria. +Deberais haber visto la reaccin de mis padres! +Pero muy pronto, me encontr desde la parte sudeste de frica -- en Sudfrica - hasta el norte, en Egipto. +Busqu los lugares ms remotos. +Fui al oasis Siwa - esa fue una de mis paradas. +Y el oasis Siwa es famoso por bastantes cosas, pero lo importante es que fue el sitio donde Alejandro Magno fue cuando quiso encontrar lo que el destino tena preparado para l. +La leyenda dice que Alejandro camin por el desierto. +La mitad de su batalln fue aniquilado en una tormenta de arena. +Y el mito cuenta que tuvo una audiencia con el orculo, y que ste le predijo su destino de grandeza. +Esto ocurri en el 300 a. C. +As que frica ha sido vista, desde hace mucho tiempo, como un lugar para ir en busca de respsuestas +Bien, lo que recuerdo sobre Siwa fue la mgica vista del cielo por la noche. +Sin ningn tipo del fuente lumnica natural, Siwa es uno de esos increbles lugares en los que al mirar hacia arriba ves un tapiz perfecto. +Un rpido avance al 2002. +Estoy sentado en Cambridge, Massachussets, en la Conferencia para el Desarrollo de la Asistencia Sanitaria. +Y veo la misma imagen, pero desde el bando opuesto. +Una imagen satelital mirando hacia abajo, hacia la Tierra. +Y fue esa imagen la que cre tal impacto en m porque nunca lo olvidar. Recuerdo el momento exacto. +Quera compartir con vosotros la imagen de lo que vi en ese momento. +La primera cosa que vi fue Norteamrica de noche -- brillante, en toda su gloria. Una sensacin clida. Luz. +Y luego lo vi -- frica. Casi literalmente el "Continente Oscuro." +Y mientras frica pudiera ser oscura, aquello que me revel el mensaje fue que ste es el desafo al que nos estamos enfrentando, pero es tambin una oportunidad. +Porque mientras frica puede ser oscura -- aparte de los pocos puntos de luz que existen en el norte, en el sur y en otras reas -- Est al rojo vivo con la luz de los corazones de los millones de personas que hay all. +Emprendedores, gente dinmica, gente con esperanza. +Fue George Kimble, el gegrafo, quien dijo que, "Lo nico oscuro sobre frica es nuestra ignorancia sobre ella." +As que empecemos arrojando luz sobre este increble y eclctico continente que tiene tanto que ofrecernos. +Empecemos desempacndolo. +frica es el segundo continente ms grande, una masa de tierra, segunda despus de Asia. +Es tambin el segundo continente ms poblado, con 900 millones de personas. +En realidad -- volviendo a la masa de tierra - frica es tan grande que podras meter dentro los Estados Unidos, China y Europa entera dentro de frica, y an as tener espacio de sobra. +frica es el hogar de 1.000 lenguas -- 2.000 es otra de las estimaciones de las que se habla -- con ms de 2.000 lenguas y dialectos. +Pero podrais decir, "Invierte en frica usando ms de 1.000 lenguas, y no encontrars mucha diferencia." +Qu nos dicen los datos? +Como banquero inversor, estoy inmerso en el flujo cruzado de la informacin y de los cambios que estn teniendo lugar en los mercados capitales. +As que quiero compartir con vosotros algunos de estas seales de liderazgo, o indicios y los aires de cambio que estn soplando en este continente. +As que empecemos con eso. +Empecemos a un nivel alto, por los macro factores. +La inflacin, en general, est bajando en frica -- ese ese el primer signo -- en muchos pases que estn alcanzando cifras de dos dgitos. +As que empecemos observando algunos de ellos. +Yo lo llamo mi grupo Z.E.N. +Zambia: del 2004 al 2006, va desde el 18 por ciento de inflacin hasta el nueve por ciento. +Egipto: del 16 por ciento hasta el 8.4 por ciento. +Nigeria, una situacin semejante: del 16 por ciento hasta el ocho por ciento. Dgitos nicos. +Ms fascinante an, encontramos otros pases -- Sudfrica, Mauritania, Nambia -- todos en cifras de un slo dgito. +Pero sa es solo parte de la historia. Encontramos tendencias similares con las monedas -- monedas que estn llegando a un momento extremo de estabilidad. +Pero eso es observando la imagen general. +Por eso, el primer mito que hay que disipar es que frica no es un pas. +sino que est formada por -- Est formada por 53 pases distintos. +As que la misma definicin -- decir "invierte en frica" -- es intil. +No tiene sentido. +Cada pas tiene una propuesta de valores nica. +Puedes ganar dinero, puedes perder dinero en frica. +Pero las oportunidades, muchacho, existen. +Y esto es de lo que va hoy -- de la discusin de esas mismas oportunidades. +As que empecemos introducindonos en los pases y en el material y los datos especficos. +He sido elegido recientemente, tal como Emeka ha mencionado, como el Presidente de la Cmara de Comercio sudafricana en Amrica. +Estoy muy orgulloso y feliz de representar ese papel porque es una posicin fascinante en la que estar. +Poder escuchar este dilogo que est justo empezando a aumentar en importancia y velocidad, sobre las decisiones de mercado y las compaas que quieren venir. +As que la primera escala es: hablemos un poco sobre Sudfrica. +Pero no la Sudfrica de la que siempre hablamos -- el oro, los minerales, la infraestructura del Primer Mundo -- sino un poco sobre el otro lado de todo eso. +Por ejemplo: Sudfrica fue votada recientemente como la primera destinacin para las primeras 1.000 empresas britnicas con centrales de llamadas externas. +La misma lengua, zona horaria, etctera. Tiene sentido. +Algunos otros titulares que han llegado recientemente a Sudfrica fueron Bain Capital y KKR, los peces grandes del capital privado. +Titular en Sudfrica: "Han aterrizado." Bastante siniestro. +Pero, para qu estaban all? Para adquirir activos. +La adquisicin de Edcon por parte de Bing's Capital, un gran minorista, es un testimonio de la confianza que estn empezando a depositar en la economa. +En realidad es un juego a largo plazo. +Ser un minorista, es una apuesta en la creencia de que esta clase media que est creciendo continuar creciendo, de que este boom y esta confianza en el gasto del consumidor continuar. +De todas formas, la historia de frica, y mi centro de atencin, va ms all de Sudfrica porque muchas cosas estn ocurriendo. +Sin duda alguna, Nigeria est claramente en la zona potencial. +Desafos - y vamos a or hablar mucho de Nigeria en estos cuatro das. +Pero mirando el trabajo de Goldman Sachs - tuvimos el famoso informe BRIC. +El nuevo informe, "El Prximo Once", subraya que hacia el 2020 Nigeria va a estar entre las 10 primeras economas del planeta. +Es una oportunidad para invertir. Pensad en ello. +Hay alguien - nuestros bancos, nuestros inversores -- que est pensando seriamente en ir a Nigeria? +Si no lo has pensado, por qu no? +Qu est ocurriendo en Nigeria? Un par de cosas. +Me gustara hablar sobre ello desde la perspectiva del mercado de capitales. +Seales de liderazgo de nuevo. +El Guarantee Trust Bank ha emitido el primer Euro Bono fuera de frica, y esto excluye Sudfrica. +Pero el primer Euro Bono, el aumento del capital internacional exterior, fuera de su propio balance general, sin ningn tipo de apoyo externo -- es una indicacin de la confianza que se est dando en la economa. +Sin ningn tipo de apoyo externo una compaa nigeriana aumentando el capital externo. +Es un signo de aquello que est por venir. +Echando un vistazo a la industria del petrleo, frica provee el 18 por ciento del suministro de petrleo de los EE.UU. El Oriente Medio un 16 por ciento. +Es un compaero estratgico importante. +Pongamos Nigeria en perspectiva. +De 2.2 a 2.4 millones de barriles de petrleo por da. La misma liga que Kuwait. La misma liga que Venezuela. +Pero con frica, tenemos que tener cuidado con esto. +Y Emeka y yo hemos tenido este tipo de discusiones. +Tenemos que alejarnos de aquello llamado "la maldicin de la materia prima" +Porque no se trata del petrleo, no se trata de la materia prima. +Para que frica sea realmente sostenible, tenemos que ir ms all, hacia otras industrias. +As que analicemos esto de forma rpida, y voy a pasar a travs de esto muy, muy, muy rpido, porque puedo ver ese reloj en la cuenta atrs. +Qu ms est ocurriendo all? Egipto. +Egipto est fundando la primera gran zona industrial -- 2.8 mil milliones de inversin. +Conoc el anuncio justo hace algunas semanas. +Al lado del Mediterrneo, cerca de Alejandria -- textiles, petroqumicas. +Est siendo administrado por una compaa de inversiones ubicada en Singapur. +As que quieren emerger como una industria energtica a travs de las industrias -- alejadas del petrleo. +Echemos un vistazo a la agricultura. Veamos la silvicultura. +Qu est ocurriendo all? +La semana pasada en Tanzania, tuvimos el lanzamiento de la East African Organic Produce Standard. +De nuevo, reunidos granjeros y reunidos juntos tenedores de apuestas en frica Oriental para fijar estndares para los productos orgnicos. Mejores precios. +Eso se relaciona con granjeros a pequea escala en trminos de no pesticidas, no fertilizantes. +Otra vez, una oportunidad para afrontar los mercados y conseguir un mejor precio. +Uganda: la New Forest Company, replantando y renovando sus bosques. Por qu es esto tan importante? +A medida que las necesidades energticas se enfrentan y la electricidad se hace necesaria, vamos a necesitar postes para extender la electricidad. +Pero aqu est lo irresistible de la oferta. +Van a aprovecharlo con beneficios a base de carbn. +Volvamos a Nigeria. +El sector bancario ha sufrido una tremenda transformacin, de ms de 80 bancos hasta 25 bancos. Fortalecimiento del sistema. +Pero qu est pasando all? Slo el 10 por ciento del pas tiene depsitos en los bancos. +La poblacin ms numerosa de frica est en Nigeria. +Ms de 135 millones de personas. Pensad en ello. +Hay slo 700 cajeros automticos en el pas. Oportunidad. +Lo mismo para las telecomunicaciones a lo largo del pas. +Ahora echemos un vistazo al continente como una unidad. +La gente observa las carreteras, por ejemplo, y dicen, "Angola: el 90 por ciento de las carreteras estn sin asfaltar. Ah, problema!" +Es ms caro transportar productos. Los precios de los productos suben, la inflacin se ve afectada. +Nigeria: el 70 por ciento de las carreteras est sin asfaltar. Zambia: el 80 por ciento. +En general, ms del 50 por ciento de las carreteras est sin asfaltar. +Esto es una oportunidad! Necesidades energticas -- es una oportunidad. +As que, cules son las seales que nos indican que las cosas estn cambiando? +Veamos los mercados de valores en frica. +Si yo tuviera que preguntarte, "Cul ha sido, en el 2005, el mercado de valores o la bolsa de valores ms productiva en el mundo? Vendra Egipto a tu mente? +En el 2005, el mercado de valores egipcio -- la bolsa de valores -- devolvi ms del 145 por ciento. +Qu est ocurriendo en algunos de los dems pases? +Veamos algunas cifras del 2006. Kenya: ms del 60 por ciento. Nigeria: ms del 40 por ciento. +Sudfrica: en los 20 por ciento. Tantos por ciento elevados. +Estas son tendencias que estn teniendo lugar. +Pero en cualquier decisin de inversin, la cuestin clave es, "Cul es mi inversin alternativa?" +Porque hoy en da en frica, estamos compitiendo globalmente por el capital. +Y el capital global es agnstico -- no profesa lealtades. +Hay un sobreendeudamiento en los EE.UU, y la clave es la ganancia del rendimiento. +Lo que frica est proporcionando es un juego de diversificacin, adems de oportunidades de ganancias en el rendimiento para el inversor que es consciente de lo que l o ella est haciendo +Ahora bien, cuando miramos a frica respecto a otras cosas, y pases en frica respecto a otras cosas, las comparaciones se convierten en importantes. +Diez aos atrs, haba muy pocos pases que recibieron tasas de soberana del Standard & Poors, Moody's y Fitch's. +Hoy, diecisis pases africanos, y creciendo, tienen tasas soberanas del pas. Qu significa esto? +Tomemos Nigeria de nuevo: doble B negativa -- en la liga de Ucrania y Turqua. Inmediatamente tenemos una comparacin. +La columna vertebral de la toma de decisiones en cuanto a inversiones para los poseedores globales de capital. +Algunas otras cifras. Sudfrica: triple B positiva. Botswana: A positiva. +Burkina Faso: B negativa. Etctera. +De hecho, uno de los grandes organismos est estableciendo una oficina en frica. +Por qu estn haciendo eso? Porque esperan que las inversiones les sigan. +As que uno de los mayores signos de liderazgo, y una de los puntos finales que quiero mencionar es algo interesante que le: que la CNBC haba fundado su primer canal de televisin africano. Por qu est haciendo esto la CNBC? +Es el canal 24 horas de notcias africano. +Lo estn haciendo porque esperan que ocurran cosas. +Yo y t, las inversiones que vamos a hacer, las inversiones que el mundo va a hacer -- eso es el canal 24 horas de noticias dedicado a frica. +As que se es el cambio que est por venir. +En conclusin, me gustara volver a la imagen exacta que hizo tal impacto en m durante todos esos aos atrs. +Y esta vez voy a daros la imagen completa de lo que vi en el 2002, y pediros que cuando penseis en cul puede ser vuestro papel en frica, penseis en vuestro viaje en trminos de traer luz a este continente. +Porque hay disponibles oportunidades increbles. +Y pensad sobre el concepto de transformacin en lo profundo de vuestra mente, porque las cosas pueden dar un giro bastante rpido. +En 1899, Joseph Conrad public "El Corazn de la Oscuridad", un cuento de horror a lo largo del ro Congo. +Si uno mira atentamente, en el ro Congo hay una de esas luces brillantes. Y ese es el verdadero ro Congo generando luz -- el viejo corazn de la oscuridad -- ahora generando luz con energa hidroelctrica. +Esa es una transformacin del poder de las ideas. +As que el prximo paso, en estos prximos cuatro das, es explorar ms de estas ideas. +Y acaso, si puedes, mantn siempre esta imagen en tu mente. Porque cuando a lo mejor nos reunamos en un futuro lejano, en el 2020, esa imagen ser muy diferente. +Gracias. +Acabo de escuchar la mejor broma acerca de Bond Emeruwa. +Estaba almorzando con l tan slo hace unos minutos, y llega un periodista nigeriano -- y sto slo va a tener sentido si alguna vez han visto una pelcula de James Bond -- y un periodista nigeriano se le aproxima y le dice: "Aj, nos vemos de nuevo Sr. Bond!" +Ah, fue grandioso. +Bueno, tengo aqu una pequea hoja de papel, ms que nada porque soy nigeriano y, si me dejan solo, voy a hablar como, por dos horas. +Pero, slo quiero decir buenas tardes, buenas noches. +Han sido unos cuantos das increbles. +De aqu en adelante es de bajada. Quera agradecer a Emeka y Chris. +Pero tambin, ms importante, a toda la gente invisible aqu atrs que ven movilizndose por todo el lugar que como que han hecho este espacio para una conversacin tan diversa y robusta. +Es verdaderamente increble. +Y yo he estado en la audiencia. +Yo soy escritor y he estado observando gente hacer presentaciones a cientficos y banqueros, y he estado sintindome un poco como un rapero criminal en un bar mitzvah. +Como: Qu tengo que decir acerca de todo sto? +Y estaba viendo a Jane ayer, y pens que fue realmente increble y estaba viendo esas increbles transparencias de los chimpancs y pens: "Guau. Qu tal si ese chimpanc pudiera hablar? Qu dira? +Mi primer pensamiento fue: "Bueno, ya saben, est George Bush". +Pero entonces pens: "por qu ser grosero con los chimpancs?" +Creo que ah va mi green card. +Se ha hablado mucho sobre narrativa en frica. +Y lo que se ha vuelto cada vez ms claro para m es que estamos hablando sobre historias de noticias en frica no estamos realmente hablando acerca de narrativas africanas. +Entonces, si las noticias son algo en qu creer, EE.UU. est igual que Zimbabwe. Cierto? +Que no? realmente? o s? +Y hablando de la guerra -- mi novia tiene una excelente playera que dice: "Bombardear es a la paz lo que fornicar a la virginidad". +Es increble, o no? +La verdad es, los estadounideneses -- todo lo que sabemos acerca de EE.UU. todo lo que los estadounidenses llegan a saber acerca de s mismos, no es gracias a las noticias. +Es -- nosotros -- yo he vivido ah. +No nos vamos a casa al final del da y pensamos, "Bueno, ahora ya s quin soy realmente porque el Wall Street Journal dice que el mercado burstil cerr con estos tantos puntos". +Lo que sabemos acerca de ser quienes somos viene de historias. +Viene de novelas, pelculas y revistas de moda. +Viene de cultura popular. +Si quieren saber sobre frica lean nuestra literatura -- y no slo Things Fall Apart, porque sera como decir: "Ya le 'Lo que el Viento se Llev' entonces ya s todo sobre EE.UU." +Eso es muy importante. +Hay un poema de Jack Gilbert llamado "El Dialecto Olvidado del Corazn". +l dice: "Cuando las tabletas sumerias fueron traducidas, en un principio se pens que eran registros de negocio. +Pero qu tal si eran poemas y salmos? +Mi amor es como doce cabras etopes paradas quietas en la luz de la maana. +Cargamentos de cipreses son lo que mi cuerpo quiere decirle a tu cuerpo. +Las jirafas son este deseo en la oscuridad". +Esto es importante. +Es importante porque leerlo mal es realmente la posibilidad para complicacin y oportunidad. +La primera Biblia en igbo fue traducida del ingls a principios de 1800 por el arzobispo Crowther que era yoruba. +Y es importante saber que el igbo es un idioma de tonos, entonces ellos dicen la palabra "igwe" e "igwe" que se escriben igual pero una significa "cielo" y la otra "bicicleta" o "hierro". +Entonces: "Dios est en el cielo rodeado de Sus ngeles" fue traducido como: (Traduccin al igbo) +Y por alguna razn en Camern, cuando trataron de traducir la Biblia al dialecto cameruns, escogieron la versin en igbo. +Y no les voy a dar la traduccin del dialecto; lo voy a hacer en ingls estndar. +Bsicamente, acaba como: "Dios est en una bicicleta con sus ngeles". +Esto es bueno, porque el idioma complica las cosas. +Saben, a veces pensamos que el idioma refleja el mundo en el que vivimos y yo encuentro que eso no es verdad. +El idioma realmente construye el mundo en el que vivimos. +El idioma no es, quiero decir, las cosas no tienen un valor mutable por s solas; les atribumos un valor. +Y el idioma no puede ser entendido en su abstraccin. +Slo puede ser entendido en el contexto de la historia, y todo -- todo, todo esto -- es la historia. +Y es importante recordar eso porque, de no hacerlo, nos volvemos ahistricos. +Hemos tenido muchas -- un desfile de ideas increbles aqu. +Pero stas no son nuevas para frica. +Nigeria obtuvo su independencia en 1960. +La primera vez que se habl de la posibilidad de independencia fue en 1922 despus de las manifestaciones de las mujeres del mercado de Aba. +En 1967, en medio de la Guerra Civil Biafrano-Nigeriana. El Dr. Njoku-Obi invent la vacuna contra el clera. +Entonces, saben, lo que hay que recordar es eso, porque, de otra manera, dentro de 10 aos vamos a estar aqu de nuevo tratando de contar esta historia otra vez. +Entonces... lo que esto me dice, por lo tanto, es que no es realmente el problema no es realmente las historias que estn siendo contadas o qu historias estn siendo contadas; el problema realmente son las condiciones de humanidad que estbamos dispuestos a traer para complicar cada historia, y es eso realmente de lo que se trata. +Djenme contarles un chiste nigeriano. +Bueno, es slo una broma, de cualquier forma. +Estn Tom, Dick y Harry trabajando en la construccin. +Y Tom abre su lonchera y tiene arroz ah, y empieza a despotricar: "Durante veinte aos mi esposa me ha estado poniendo arroz de almuerzo. +Si lo hace de nuevo maana, voy a aventarme desde este edificio y me voy a matar". +Y Dick y Harry repiten esto. +Al da siguiente Tom abre su lonchera: hay arroz entonces se avienta y se mata, y Tom, Dick y Harry siguen. +Llega la investigacin judicial -- saben, la esposa de Tom y la esposa de Dick estn aflijidas. +Ellas desean no haber empacado arroz. +Pero la esposa de Harry est confundida, porque ella dice, "Saben, Harry haba estado empacando su propio almuerzo durante 20 aos". +Esta broma al parecer inocente, cuando la escuch de pequeo en Nigeria, fue dicha acerca de Igbo, Yoruba y Hausa el Hausa era Harry. +Entonces lo que parece una broma excntrica y trgica acerca de Harry se vuelve una manera de extender odio tnico. +Mi padre fue educado en Cork, en la Universidad de Cork, en los 50s. +De hecho, cada vez que yo lea en Irlanda, la gente me confunda y me decan, "Ah, este es Chris O'Barney de Cork." +Pero l tambin estuvo en Oxford en los 50s. y l -- creciendo de nio en Nigeria, my padre sola decirme: "Nunca debes comer o tomar en la casa de un yoruba porque te van a envenenar". +Tiene sentido ahora cuando pienso en eso porque si hubieran conocido a mi padre ustedes hubieran querido envenenarlo tambin. +Entonces, yo nac en 1966, al principio de la Guerra Civil Biafrano-Nigeriana; guerra que termin despus de tres aos. +Y yo estaba creciendo en la escuela y el gobierno federal no quera que se nos enseara la historia de la guerra porque pensaban que probablemente nos convertira en una nueva generacin de rebeldes. +Entonces yo tena un maestro muy ingenioso, un musulmn paquistan, que quera ensearnos sobre esto. +Entonces lo que l hizo fue ensearnos la historia del Holocausto judo. Y as, acurrucados alrededor de libros con fotografas de la gente de Auschwitz, yo aprend la hisoria melanclica de mi gente a travs de la historia melanclica de otra gente. +Quiero decir, imagnense esto -- realmente imagnenselo. +Un musulmn paquistan enseando historia del Holocausto judo a nios igbo. +La historia es poderosa. +La historia es fluda y no le pertenece a nadie. +Y no debe sorprenderles que mi primera novela a los 16 era sobre los neonazis que tomaban Nigeria para instituir el Cuarto Reich. +Tiene perfecto sentido +Y ellos iban a explotar objetivos estratgicos y tomar el pas, y sus planes fueron destrudos por un James Bond nigeriano llamado Coyote Williams y un judo -- un cazador de nazis judo. +Y eso pas en cuatro continentes. +Y cuando sali el libro, yo fui anunciado como la respuesta africana a Frederick Forsyth que, en el mejor de los casos, es un honor dudoso. +Pero tambin, el libro fue lanzado a tiempo para que yo fuera acusado de construir los planos para un intento de golpe frustrado +Entonces a los 18 fu encarcelado en Nigeria. +Crec con muchos privilegios y es importante hablar de privilegio, porque no hablamos de eso aqu. +Muchos de nosotros somos muy privilegiados +Crec rodeado de sirvientes, autos, televisores, todas esas cosas. +Mi historia creciendo en Nigeria fue muy diferente de la historia que encontr en prisin, y yo no tena lenguaje para eso. +Estaba completamente aterrorizado, completamente deshecho, y siempre intentaba encontrar un nuevo lenguaje, una nueva manera de darle sentido a todo esto. +Seis meses despus de eso, sin explicacin, me dejaron ir. +Ahora, para aquellos de ustedes que me han visto en las mesas del bufet saben cual era la razn por la que les estaba costando demasiado alimentarme. +Pero quiero decir, yo crec con este privilegio increble, y no slo yo -- millones de nigerianos crecieron con libros y bibliotecas. +De hecho, estbamos hablando anoche acerca de cmo todas las novelas apasionadas de Harold Robins haban hecho ms por la educacin sexual de los adolescentes cachondos de frica que cualquier programa de educacin sexual que haya existido. +Todos esos se han ido. +Estamos desperdiciando el recurso ms valioso que tenemos en este continente: el valioso recurso de la imaginacin. +En la pelcula "Sometimes in April" de Raoul Peck Idris Elba est listo para atacar en una escena con su machete levantado y est siendo forzado por una multitud a rebanar a su mejor amigo -- su compaero el oficial del Ejrcito de Rwanda, aunque era tutsi -- actuado por Fraser James. +Y Fraser est arrodillado, con sus brazos amarrados atrs de su espalda, y est llorando. +Est lloriqueando. +Es una escena penosa. +Y mientras la vemos nos avergonzamos. +Y queremos decirle a Idris: "Crtalo en pedacitos". +"Cllalo". +Y cuando Idris se mueve, Fraser grita: "Alto! +Por favor detente!" +Idris hace una pausa, luego se mueve de nuevo, y Fraser dice: "Por favor! +Por favor dtente!" +Y no es el horror y ni el terror en la cara de Fraser lo que detiene a Idris o a nosotros; es lo que hay en los ojos de Fraser. +Que dicen: "No hagas esto. +Y no estoy diciendo esto para salvarme, aunque sera bueno, lo estoy haciendo para salvarte a t, porque si t haces esto, estars perdido". +Tener tanto miedo que ests parado en la cara de una muerte de la que no puedes escapar y te ests ensuciando y llorando, pero para decir en ese momento, mientras Fraser le dice a Idris: "Dile a mi novia que la amo". +En ese momento Fraser dice: "Yo ya estoy perdido, pero t no... t no". +Esta es una redencin a la que todos podemos aspirar. +Las narrativas africanas proliferan en Occidente. +Realmente ya no me importa. +Estoy ms interesado en las historias que contamos sobre nosotros mismos -- cmo, como escritor, yo encuentro que los escritores africanos siempre han conservado nuestra humanidad en este continente. +La pregunta es: Cmo balanceo narrativas que son maravillosas con narrativas de heridas y auto-repugnancia? +Y esta es la dificultad que yo enfrento. +Estoy tratando de ir ms all de la retrica poltica a un lugar de cuestionamiento tico. +Estoy pidiendo que sopesemos la idea de nuestra completa vulnerabilidad con la nocin completa de transformacin o qu es posible. +Como joven activista nigeriano de clase media me lanc junto con toda una generacin al campo para detener al gobierno. +Y le ped a millones de personas, sin cuestionar mi derrecho de hacerlo, ir en contra del gobierno. +Y los v cmo eran encerrados en prisin y rociados con gas lacrimgeno. +Yo lo justifiqu, diciendo: "Este es el precio de la revolucin. +No he estado yo en prisin? +No he sido yo golpeado? +No fue sino hasta despus, cuando fu puesto en prisin de nuevo, que entend el verdadero significado de tortura y qu fcil te puede ser quitada tu humanidad for el tiempo que estuve involucrado en la guerra, guerra honesta, recta. +Perdn. +A veces puedo pararme frente al mundo -- y cuando digo sto, transformacin es un proceso difcil y lento. A veces puedo pararme frente al mundo y decir, "My nombre es Chris Abani". +He sido humano seis das, pero slo a veces". +Pero esto es algo bueno. +Nunca va a ser fcil. +No hay respuestas. +Como le estaba diciendo a Rachel de Google Earth, que yo haba retado a mis estudiantes en EE.UU. Dije: "Ustedes no saben nada de frica, todos ustedes son idiotas". +Y entonces ellos dijeron: Cunteme de frica profesor Abani". +Entonces fu a Google Earth y aprend sobre frica. +Y la verdad sea dicha, es sta, o no? +No hay africanos esenciales y la mayora de nosotros somos tan ignorantes como todos los dems acerca del continente del que venimos, y sin embargo queremos hacer declaraciones profundas sobre eso. +Y creo que si tan slo pudieramos admitir que todos estamos intentando aproximarnos a la verdad de nuestras propias comunidades lo haramos de un modo mucho ms matizado y mantendramos una conversacin mucho ms interesante. +Yo quiero creer que podemos ser agnsticos sobre esto, que podemos estar por encima de todo esto. +Cuando tena 10 aos, le "Another Country " de James Baldwin, y ese libro me quebr. +No porque estuviera encontrando amor y sexo homosexual por primera vez, sino por la manera en la que James escribi sobre eso, me fue imposible atribuirle "otredad" al tema. +"Aqu", dijo Jimmy. +"Aqu est el amor, todo el amor". +El hecho de que sucede en "Otro Pas" te toma bastante por sorpresa +Mi amigo Ronald Gottesman dice que hay tres tipos de gente en el mundo: los que pueden contar y los que no pueden. +El tambin dice que la causa de todo nuestro problema es la creencia en una identidad esencial, pura: religiosa, tnica, histrica, ideolgica. +Quiero dejarlos con un poema de Yusef Komunyakaa que habla de transformacin. +Se llama "Oda al Tambor", y voy a tratar de leerlo de la manera en la que Yusef estara orgulloso de escucharlo leer. +"Gacela, yo te mat por el toque exquisito de tu piel, por lo fcil que es clavarla a una tabla curtida como blanco papel de estraza. +Anoche escuch a mi hija rezando por la carne aqu a mis pies. +Sabes, no fue enojo lo que me hizo detener mi corazon hasta que cay el martillo. +Hace semanas, me quebraste como una mujer una vez me destroz en su cancin debajo de su peso, antes de que descendieras dentro de ese silencio pastoral. +Y ahora apretando los tirantes, dndole forma al cuero como si rodeara a un costillar formados como cinco cuerdas de arco. +Los fantasmas no pueden deslizarse de nuevo dentro del cuerpo del tambor. +Ests curtida por el viento, la penumbra y la luz del sol. +La presin puede hacer que todo sea ntegro de nuevo, +las tachuelas clavadas en el bano tu cara ha sido escuplida cinco veces. +Yo tengo que dirigir los problemas en las lomas. +Problemas en el valle. Y problemas a la vera del ro tambin. +No hay vino de palma, pescado, sal o calabash +Kadoom, Kadoom, Kadoom. +Ka-doooom. +Ahora he tocado una cancin de nuevo dentro de t, +lzate y anda como una pantera". +Gracias. +Como muchos de los que estn aqu, estoy tratando de contribuir a un renacimiento en frica. +La cuestin de la transformacin en frica es en realidad una cuestin de liderazgo. +frica slo puede ser transformada por lderes bien informados. +Y yo sostengo que la manera en que educamos a nuestros lderes es fundamental para progresar en este continente. +Me gustara contarles algunas historias que explican mi punto de vista. +Ayer, todos omos lo importante que son las historias. +Una americana amiga ma, este ao, hizo un voluntariado como enfermera en Ghana. Y en un lapso de tres meses, lleg a una conclusin sobre el estado del liderazgo en frica que a m me ha costado una dcada alcanzar. +En dos ocasiones estuvo involucrada en operaciones en las que se fue la electricidad en el hospital. +Los generadores de emergencia no encendieron, +no haba ninguna linterna, ningn farol, ninguna vela. Completamente oscuro. +El paciente abierto, dos veces. +La primera vez fue una cesrea. +Afortunadamente, el beb estaba fuera; la madre y el nio sobrevivieron. +La segunda vez fue un procedimiento que involucraba anestesia local. +El efecto de la anestesia se acaba y el paciente empieza a sentir dolor. +Llora. Grita. Reza. +Todo est completamente oscuro. No hay ni una vela, ni una linterna. +Y ese hospital poda haber comprado linternas. +Podran haber comprado esas cosas, pero no lo hicieron. +Y esto pas dos veces. +En otra ocasin, vio horrorizada como las enfermeras vean morir un paciente porque stas haban rechazado darle el oxgeno que tenan. +As que, tres meses despus, justo antes de que regresara o a los Estados Unidos, las enfermeras en Accra hicieron una huelga. +Y su recomendacin fue aprovecha para correr a todas, empiecen todo de nuevo. +Empiecen de nuevo. +Bien, Qu tiene esto que ver con el liderazgo? +Vern, los errores del Ministerio de Salud, los administradores del hospital, los doctores, las enfermeras; estn entre el 5 por ciento de la poblacin que recibi educacin ms all de la secundaria. +Ellos son la lite. Ellos son nuestros lderes. +Sus decisiones, sus acciones importan. +Y cuando ellos fallan, toda la nacin sufre. +As que cuando hablo de liderazgo, no estoy hablando slo de lderes polticos. +Todos hemos odo mucho sobre eso. +Estoy hablando de la lite. +Aquellos que han sido educados. Y cuyo trabajo es ser los guardianes de su sociedad. +Los abogados, jueces, policas, doctores, ingenieros, funcionarios; esos son los lderes. +Y necesitamos educarlos adecuadamente. +Bien, mi primera y memorable experiencia con el liderazgo en Ghana ocurri cuando tena 16 aos. +Acababa de pasar un golpe de estado militar, y la milicia estaba presente en nuestra sociedad. +Eran una presencia que invada todo. +Un da voy al aeropuerto a buscar a mi padre, y conforme subo por una pendiente de pasto desde el estacionamiento hasta el edificio terminal, me paran dos soldados que llevan rifles AK-47. +Y me piden que me una a un grupo de gente que estaba marchando arriba y abajo. +Por qu? Porque el camino que haba tomado estaba considerado zona prohibida. +No haba ninguna seal que as lo indicara. +Yo tena 16 aos, y me preocupaba mucho lo que mis compaeros de escuela pudieran pensar si me vean corriendo hacia arriba y abajo de la colina. +Me preocupaba especialmente lo que pensaran las chicas. +As que empec a discutir con esos hombres. +Yo era algo imprudente, pueden imaginarse, tena 16 aos. +Tuve suerte. +Un piloto aviador de Ghana Airways tuvo el mismo problema. +Y debido a su uniforme hablaron con l de manera diferente, y le explicaron que simplemente estaban cumpliendo rdenes. +As que el piloto saca su radio, habla con el jefe de los militares y nos libera a todos. +Qu lecciones se pueden obtener de una experiencia como esta? +Bastantes, segn mi punto de vista. +El liderazgo importa. Esos tipos estaban siguiendo las rdenes de un oficial superior. +Aprend algo sobre el valor. +Era importante no mirar esas armas. +Y tambin aprend que puede ser til pensar en chicas. +Unos aos despus de este acontecimiento, sal de Ghana con una beca para ir a la universidad al Swarthmore College. +Fue un respiro de aire fresco. +En la facultad no queran que nosotros memorizramos informacin y que la repitiramos, tal como haca en Ghana. +Queran que pensramos de forma crtica. +Queran que furamos analticos. +Queran que nos preocupramos por los problemas sociales. +En mis clases de economa obtuve buenas calificaciones por mi entendimiento de la economa bsica. +Pero aprend algo ms profundo que eso, y es que los lderes, los que manejaban la economa de Ghana, estaban tomando malas decisiones; que haban llevado nuestra economa hacia el borde del colapso. +As que all estaba esta leccin de nuevo, el liderazgo importa. +Importa muchsimo. +Pero yo no entenda del todo la transformacin que me haba ocurrido en Swarthmore. +Solo fue un asomo de lo que despus entendera. Pero no me di realmente cuenta hasta que sal al mercado laboral, y fui a trabajar a Microsoft Corporation. +Me convert en parte de un equipo; un equipo que pensaba y aprenda cuyo trabajo era disear e implementar nuevo software que tuviera valor para el mundo. +Y fue genial ser parte de ese equipo. +Fue genial. +Y entonces me di cuenta de lo que me haba pasado en Swarthmore, esta transformacin... la habilidad para enfrentar problemas, problemas complejos, y disear soluciones a esos problemas. +La habilidad de crear es la experiencia de crecimiento personal mas grande que le puede ocurrir a alguien. +Y yo era parte de eso. +Mientras estuve en Microsoft las ventas anuales de la compaa crecieron ms que el PIB de la Repblica de Ghana. +Y de hecho, continan creciendo. +La brecha se ha ampliado desde que dej la compaa. +Ya he hablado sobre una de las razones por las que esto ha ocurrido. +Y hay ms; la gente, su dedicacin al trabajo, persistente, creativa, consciente de sus capacidades. +Y tambin algunos factores externos: libre mercado, estado de derecho, infraestructura. +Estas cosas que provienen de las instituciones manejadas por aquellos a los que yo llamo lderes. +Y esos lderes no nacieron espontneamente. +Alguien los capacit para hacer el trabajo que hacen. +Mientras yo estaba en Microsoft, pas algo gracioso, +me convert en padre. +Y por primera vez frica me import ms que nunca. +Porque me di cuenta de que el estado del continente africano sera relevante para mis hijos y sus hijos. +Que el estado del mundo, el estado del mundo, depende de lo que est pasando en frica, respecto a lo que mis hijos concierne. +Y en ese momento en que yo estaba atravesando lo que yo llamo mi "crisis de la primera mitad de mi vida." frica era un caos. +Somalia se haba tornado una anarqua. +Ruanda estaba agonizando de una guerra genocida. +Y me pareca que esa era una direccin incorrecta, y deba volver y ayudar. +No poda seguir en Seattle y criar mis hijos en un barrio de clase media-alta y sentirme bien por eso. +Este no era el mundo en que quera que mis hijos crecieran. +As que decid involucrarme, y lo primero que hice fue volver a Ghana y hablar con mucha gente para tratar de entender cules eran los verdaderos problemas. +Y tres cosas se repetan para cada problema: corrupcin, instituciones dbiles y la gente que las manejaba: los lderes. +Yo estaba algo asustado porque cuando ves esos tres problemas, parecen realmente difciles de manejar. +Alguien podra decir: "Ni siquiera lo intentes." +Pero, en mi caso, me pregunt, "De dnde estn llegando esos lderes? +Que pasa con Ghana que produce lderes que son poco ticos o que no pueden resolver problemas?" +As que fui a ver qu pasaba en nuestro sistema educativo. +Y era la misma historia; aprendiendo mediante repeticin, desde la primaria hasta los posgrados. +Muy poco nfasis en la tica. Y en promedio, el tpico graduado de una universidad en Ghana tiene un sentido ms fuerte de la autoridad que de la responsabilidad. +Esto est mal. +As que decid comprometerme en este problema en particular. +Porque me parece que cada sociedad, toda sociedad, debe determinar cmo formar a sus lderes. +Y en Ghana no se estaba prestando suficiente atencin. +Y esto sucede a lo largo del frica sub-sahariana. +As que esto es lo que estoy haciendo ahora. +Estoy tratando de llevar mi experiencia de Swarthmore a frica. +Ojal hubiera universidades humanistas en cada pas africano. +Creo que eso implicara una enorme diferencia. +Y lo que la Universidad Ashesi est tratando de hacer es educar una nueva generacin de lderes ticos y emprendedores. +Estamos tratando de educar lderes de una integridad excepcional, que tengan la habilidad de enfrentar problemas complejos, hacer las preguntas correctas y llegar a soluciones factibles. +Debo admitir que hay momentos en que parece ser una "Misin imposible." Pero debemos creer que estos chicos son inteligentes. +Que si los involucramos en su educacin, si les dejamos discutir los problemas reales que enfrentan, que toda la sociedad enfrenta, y si les damos herramientas para conectarlos con el mundo real, la magia ocurrir. +A un mes de iniciar este proyecto, cuando apenas iniciamos clases. +Apenas un mes en l, llego a mi oficina, y recibo este correo de uno de nuestros alumnos. +Y deca, simplemente, "Estoy Pensando." +Y cerraba con un: "Gracias." +Es una afirmacin sencilla. +Pero estuve a punto de llorar porque entend lo que le estaba pasando a este joven. +Y es maravilloso ser parte del crecimiento de la gente de este modo. +Estoy Pensando. +Este ao lanzamos un reto a nuestros alumnos el de disear un cdigo de honor por si mismos. +Hay un gran debate en estos momento en el campus, sobre aquello que debe establecerse en un cdigo de honor, y si acaso debe, cmo habra que escribirlo. +Uno de los estudiantes hizo una pregunta que me conmovi. +Cmo creamos a la sociedad perfecta? +Su entendimiento de que un cdigo de honor diseado por ellos constituye un paso hacia la perfeccin es increble. +No podemos alcanzar la perfeccin. Pero si nos encaminamos a ella, podemos alcanzar la excelencia. +No se que terminarn haciendo. +No se si decidirn seguir este cdigo de honor. +Pero las conversaciones que tienen en estos momentos, acerca de lo que una buena sociedad debera ser, lo que su sociedad excelente debe parecer, es realmente bueno. +Se me acaba el tiempo? Bien. +Quiero dejar esta diapositiva porque es importante lo que pensemos acerca de ella. +Estoy muy entusiasmado por el hecho de que todos los alumnos de la Universidad Ashesi harn servicio comunitario antes de graduarse. +Esto ha sido una experiencia transformadora para muchos de ellos. +Estos futuros lderes empiezan a entender el verdadero sentido del liderazgo. El verdadero privilegio del liderazgo, que es, despus de todo, servir a la humanidad. +Y estoy an ms entusiasmado por el hecho de que el ao pasado nuestros alumnos eligieron a una mujer para ser la Presidenta del Gobierno Estudiantil. +Es la primera vez en la historia de Ghana que una mujer es elegida Presidenta del Gobierno Estudiantil en una universidad. +Esto dice mucho de ella. +Y dice mucho tambin de la cultura que se est formando en el campus. +Dice mucho de los compaeros que la eligieron. +Gan con el 75 por ciento de los votos. +Y eso me da mucha esperanza. +Resulta que el frica corporativo (del Oeste) tambin aprecia lo que pasa con nuestros alumnos. +Hemos graduado dos generaciones al da de hoy. +Y cada uno de ellos tiene trabajo. +Y estamos recibiendo reportes fantsticos de las empresas de Ghana y del frica del Oeste. Y lo que ms les ha impresionado ha sido la tica de trabajo. +La pasin por lo que hacen. +La persistencia, su habilidad para manejar la ambigedad, su habilidad para enfrentar problemas que nunca haban visto. +Esto es bueno, saben, durante los pasados cinco aos ha habido ocasiones en que senta que esto era "Misin Imposible." +Y es maravilloso ver estos destellos de la promesa de lo que puede pasar si educamos bien a nuestros nios. +Creo que los lderes actuales y futuros de frica tienen una oportunidad increble para conducir al continente a un mayor renacimiento. +Es una oportunidad increble. +No hay muchas oportunidades como sta en el mundo. +Creo que frica ha alcanzado un punto de inflexin con la marcha de la democracia y la libertad de mercado a lo largo del continente. +Hemos alcanzado un momento del que puede surgir una gran sociedad en solo una generacin. +Eso depender del liderazgo inspirador. +Y yo afirmo que la manera en que eduquemos a nuestros lderes har toda la diferencia. +Gracias y que Dios los bendiga. +Realmente es un honor es un honor estar aqu, y como dijo Chris, van ms de veinte aos desde que comenc a trabajar en frica. +Mi primera introduccin fue en el aeropuerto de Abiyn una calurosa maana en la Costa de Marfil. +Acababa de dejar Wall Street, cortarme el cabello para parecerme a Margaret Mead, regalado casi todas mis posesiones y llegado con todo lo esencial-- algunas poesas, un poco de ropa y, por supuesto, una guitarra-- porque iba a salvar el mundo y pensaba que slo empezara con el continente africano. +Pero literalmente dentro de das de haber llegado, se me hizo entender por un grupo de mujeres de frica Occidental, en trminos nada inciertos, que los africanos no queran a nadie que los salvara, muchas gracias, y menos que a nadie a m. +Yo era muy jven, soltera, no tena hijos, no conoca a frica realmente y, adems, mi francs era penoso. +Y por lo tanto, fue un tiempo increblemente doloroso en mi vida y sin embargo realmente me empez a dar la humildad necesaria para comenzar a escuchar. +Creo que el fracaso tambin puede ser una fuerza increble de motivacin, as que me mud a Kenya y trabaj en Uganda y conoc a un grupo de mujeres de Ruanda quienes me pidieron, en 1986, que me mudara a Kigali y les ayudara a establecer la primera institucin de microfinanzas en el pas. +Y lo hice, y terminamos llamndola Duterimbere, que significa "avanzar con entusiasmo." Y mientras hacamos eso, me d cuenta de que no haban muchos negocios que fueran viables y establecidos por mujeres, y que tal vez tambin debera intentar manejar un negocio. +As que comenc a buscar y me enter de una repostera que manejaban 20 prostitutas. +Y, un poco intrigada, fui a conocer a este grupo, y lo que encontr fue a 20 madres solteras que intentaban sobrevivir. +Y realmente fue ese el principio de mi entender el poder que tiene el lenguaje y cmo lo que llamamos gente tan a menudo nos distancia de ellos y los hace pequeos. +Tambin me enter que la repostera no era nada como un negocio, de hecho, era una obra de caridad clsica, manejada por una persona bien-intencionada que esencialmente gastaba 600 dlares al mes para mantener empleadas a estas 20 mujeres haciendo artesanas y reposteras y viviendo de 50 centavos diarios, an en pobreza. +As que hice un trato con las mujeres. Les dije, "Miren, nos deshacemos del lado caritativo y corremos esto cmo un negocio y las ayudo." +Consintieron un poco nerviosas, yo empec un poco nerviosa, y por supuesto, las cosas siempre son ms difciles de lo que uno se imagina. +Primero que todo, pens, bueno, nos hace falta un equipo de ventas y est claro que aqu no somos el Los Magnficos (Brigada A) as que -- hice todo un entrenamiento +y el eptome fue cuando literalmente march hasta la calle de Nyamirambo, que es el barrio popular de Kigali, con un cubo y les vend todas las donitas a la gente y volv y dije, "Ven?" +Y las mujeres dijeron, "Sabes, Jacqueline, quin en Nyamirambo no va a comprarle donas en un cubo color naranja a una mujer alta y americana?" Y, pues-- Es un buen punto. +As que us el mtodo totlmente americano, con competencias, en equipo e individuales. Fracaso total, pero al pasar el tiempo las mujeres aprendieron a vender a su manera. +Y comenzaron a escuchar al mercado y volvieron con la idea de hacer virutas de mandioca y guineo y pan de sorgo, y antes de darnos cuenta, tenamos acorralado al mercado de Kigali y las mujeres se estaban ganando entre tres y cuatro veces ms que el promedio nacional. +Y con esa ola de confianza pens, bueno, ya es hora de crear una repostera de verdad, as que vamos a pintarla. Y las mujeres dijeron, "Es muy buena idea." +Y yo dije,"Pues, de qu color la quieren pintar?" Y ellas dijeron, "Pues, escoge t." Y yo dije, "No, no, yo estoy aprendiendo a escuchar -- +ustedes escojan. Es su repostera, su calle, su pas, no los mos." +Pero se negaban a darme una respuesta. +As pasaron una, dos, tres semanas y por fin dije, "Pues, que tal azul?" +Y ellas dijeron, "Azul, azul, nos encanta el azul. Vamos a pintarla de azul." +As que azul, azul, todo se convirti en azul; +las paredes estaban azules, las ventanas estaban azules, la acera en frente estaba pintada de azul. +Y Aretha Franklin estaba gritando "R.E.S.P.E.T.O.," las caderas de las mujeres se movan con la msica y los niitos trataban de quitarles las brochas, pero el da era de ellas. +Y al final de todo, nos paramos al otro lado de la calle y miramos lo que habamos hecho, y dije "Es una belleza," +y las mujeres dijeron, "De veras que s." +Y yo dije, "Y me parece que es el color perfecto," y todas asintieron con la cabeza, menos Gaudence, y yo dije, "Qu?" +Y ella dijo, "Nada," y yo volv a preguntar "Qu?" +Y ella dijo, "Bueno, est muy bonita, pero sabes que nuestro color, realmente, es el verde." Y -- . Y aprend entonces que escuchar no es slo tener paciencia, sino tambin que cuando has vivido de caridad y dependiente de otros toda tu vida, es muy difcil decir lo que piensas. +Y, casi siempre es porque la gente nunca te pregunta y cuando lo hacen, no crees que realmente quieran la verdad. +Y entonces aprend que escuchar no es slo esperar, sino que tambin es aprender cmo hacer preguntas mejor. +Y entonces, viv en Kigali por alrededor de dos aos, haciendo todas estas cosas, y fue un tiempo extraordinario en mi vida. +Y me enseo tres lecciones que creo ser tan importantes para nosotros hoy, y ciertamente en mi rea de trabajo. +La primera es que la dignidad es ms importante para el espritu humano que la fortuna. +Como dijo Elene, cuando las personas aumentan su ingreso, tambin aumentan sus opciones, y eso es fundamental para la dignidad. +Pero como seres humanos tambin queremos vernos, y queremos ser escuchados por los dems, y nunca debemos olvidar eso. +La segunda es que la caridad y la ayuda tradicional nunca van a resolver los problemas de la pobreza. +Creo que Andrew cubri esto bastante bien, as que voy a cuntinuar al tercer punto que es que los mercados slos tampoco van a resolver los problemas de la pobreza. +S, manejamos esto como un negocio pero alguien tena que poner el apoyo filantrpico que llev el entrenamiento, el apoyo gerencial, el consejo estratgico y tal vez ms importante que todo lo dems, el acceso a contactos, redes y mercados nuevos. +Y as, al nivel micro, hay un papel verdadero para esta combinacin de inversin y filantropa. +Y al nivel macro, algunos de los que han hablado han inferido que hasta la salud debe de privatizarse. +Pero, habiendo tenido un padre con enfermedades del corazn, y dndome cuenta que lo que mi familia poda pagar no es lo que l debio haber recibido, y habiendo tenido un buen amigo que intercedi para ayudarnos, de veras creo que todas las personas merecen acceso a la salud a un precio que puedan pagar. +Y creo que el mercado nos puede ayudar a decifrar cmo lograr eso, pero tiene que haber tambien una parte caritativa o si no, no creo que vamos a crear el tipo de sociedad en que queremos vivir. +As que, fueron realmente esas lecciones las que me hicieron decidir crear Acumen Fund hace ms o menos seis aos. +Es un fondo de capital de riesgo sin fines de lucro para los pobres, unos cuantos oximorones dentro de una oracin. +Hemos invertido alrededor de 20 millones de dlares en 20 empresas diferentes y, al hacerlo, hemos creado casi 20,000 empleos y provedo decenas de millones de servicios a personas que de otra manera no podran pagarlos. +Quiero contarles dos historias, ambos ocurrieron en frica. +Ambos tienen que ver con invertir en empresarios que estn comprometidos a servir y que realmente conocen sus mercados. +Ambos viven en la confluencia entre la salud pblica y la empresa privada y ambos, porque son fabricantes, crean empleos directamente, e ingresos indirectamente, porque trabajan en el sector del paludismo y frica pierde alrededor de 13 billones de dlares al ao a causa del paludismo. +Y as, mientras la gente se vuelve ms saludable, tambin se vuelven ms ricos. +El primero se llama Advanced Bio-Extracts Limited. +Es una compaa creada en Kenya hace ms o menos siete aos por un empresario increble llamado Patrick Henfrey y sus tres colegas. +Son agricultores veteranos que han pasado por todos los sube-y-bajas de la agricultura en Kenya en los ltimos 30 aos. +Ahora, la planta es una artemisa, es el componente bsico de la artemisinina, que es el tratamiento mejor conocido para el paludismo. +Es indgena de la China y el Extremo Oriente, pero dado a que la prevalencia de paludismo es aqu en frica, Patrick y sus colegas dijeron, "Vamos a traerla aqu, porque es un producto de alto valor agregado." +Los agricultores se ganan entre tres y cuatro veces lo que ganaran con el maz. +Y as, utilizando el capital paciente, dinero que pudieron levantar temprano en la empresa, que en realidad devolvi por debajo del mercado general y que estuvo dispuesto a mantenerse a largo plazo y a combinarse con asistencia gerencial y estratgica, ahora han creado una compaa donde le compran a 7,500 agricultores. +As que eso son 50,000 personas afectadas. +Y creo que algunos de ustedes han visitado -- a estos agricultores los ayudan KickStart y TechnoServe a ser ms autosuficientes. +Ellos la compran, la secan y la traen a esta fbrica que se compr en parte gracias a capital paciente puesto por Novartis, que tiene un inters verdadero en conseguir el polvo para poder hacer Coartem. +Acumen ha estado trabajando con ABE por un ao, ao y medio, mirando ambos un modelo nuevo de negocio y tambin cmo se vera la expansin para la compaa, ayudando con apoyo gerencial y a hacer hojas de trmino y levantar capital. +Y yo de veras llegue a comprender lo que significa capital paciente, de una perspectiva emocional, en el ltimo mes. Porque la compaa literalmente estaba a 10 das de comprobar que el producto que ellos producan tena la calidad necesaria para hacer Coartem cuando se encontraron en la crisis de efectivo ms grande de su historia. +Y llamamos a todos los inversionistas sociales que conocamos. +Ahora, algunos de estos inversionistas sociales estn muy interesados en frica y entienden la importancia de la agricultura y hasta ayudaron a los agricultores. +Y aveces, hasta cuando explicamos que si ABE se perda todos esos 7,500 empleos se pierden tambin, a veces hay una bifurcacin entre lo empresarial y lo social. +Y realmente ya es tiempo de que empecemos a pensar de manera ms creativa sobre cmo podemos fundir ambas diciplinas. +Este es Samuel. Es un agricultor. +El viva en los tugurios de Kibera cuando su padre lo llamo y le cont sobre la artemisa y el potencial de valor agregado. +As que se mudo de vuelta a la finca y, para acortar el cuento, ahora tienen siete acres bajo cultivo. +Los hijos de Samuel estn en escuela privada y l est empezando a ayudar a otros agricultores del rea a envolverse en la produccin de artemisa -- la dignidad siendo para l ms importante que las riquezas. +El prximo ya muchos de ustedes lo conocen. +Habl de este ejemplo un poco en Oxford, hace dos aos y algunos de ustedes visitaron a A to Z Manufacturing que es una de las grandes compaas verdaderas en la frica del Este. +Es otra que vive en la confluencia entre la salud pblica y la empresa privada. +Y esta realmente es una historia de una solucin pblico-privada que ha funcionado realmente. +Comenz en Japn. Sumitomo haba desarrollado una tecnologa esencialmente para impregnar con insecticida orgnico a una fibra con base de polietileno, para poder crear una malla cubrecama, una malla cubrecama contra el paludismo que durara al menos cinco aos sin tener que ser sumergida nuevamente. +Podra alterar el vector, pero al igual que la artemisa, slo se haba producido en Asia Oriental, y como parte de su responsabilidad social Sumitomo dijo, "Por qu no experimentamos a ver si podemos producirla en frica, para los africanos?" +UNICEF se ofreci, "Nosotros compramos la majora de las mallas y luego las regalamos como parte del compromiso por parte del fondo global y las Naciones Unidas hacia las mujeres embarazadas y los nios." +Acumen entr con el capital paciente y ayudamos a identificar al empresario con quien nos asociaramos aqu en frica y Exxon provey la resina inicial. +Bueno, en la bsqueda de empresarios, no haba ninguno mejor en el mundo que Anuj Shah, en A to Z Manufacturing Company. +Es una compaa de 40 aos, y entiende la fabricacin. +Ha pasado de la Tanzana socialista a la Tanzana capitalista y contina creciendo. Tena aproximadamente 1,000 empleados cuando la descubrimos. +Y entonces, Anuj tom el riesgo empresarial aqu en frica de producir un bien que fue comprado por el establecimiento de asistencia international para trabajar contra el paludismo. +Y, para acortar una historia larga, otra vez, han sido muy exitosos. +En nuestro primer ao, la primera red se vendi en octubre de 2003. +En ese entonces pensamos que lo mximo sera distribuir 150,000 redes al ao. +Y este ao estan produciendo ocho millones de redes al ao, y emplean a 5,000 personas, 90 por ciento de las cuales son mujeres, muy probablemente sin otras destrezas. +Entraron en una empresa conjunta con Sumitomo. +Y, de la perspectiva empresarial para frica, y de la perspectiva de salud pblica, estos son logros verdaderos. +Pero es slo la mitad de la historia si queremos resolver los problemas de la pobreza porque a largo plazo, no es sostenible. +Es una compaa con un comprador enorme. +Y si cae la gripe aviaria, o por cualquier otra razn el mundo decide que el paludismo ya no es la prioridad principal, todos perdemos. +Por eso, Anuj y Acumen han estado hablando de probar las redes en el sector privado porque la asuncin que ha hecho el establecimiento de asistencia internacional es que, "mira, en un pas como Tanzana 80 por ciento de la poblacin gana menos de dos dlares al da. +Al punto de fabricacin, cuesta seis dlares producir estas redes y le cuesta al establecimiento otros seis distribuirlas, as que el precio en un mercado libre sera alrededor de 12 dlares por red. +La mayora de la gente no puede pagar esa cantidad, as que vamos a regalarlas." +Y nosotros dijimos, "Bueno, hay otra opcin. +Vamos a usar el mercado como el mejor mecanismo que tenemos para escuchar y entender a qu precio es que la gente las comprara, para darles la dignidad de poder escoger. +Podemos comenzar a desarrollar un sistema de distribucin a nivel local y, en efecto, podra costarles al pblico mucho menos." +As que entramos otra vez con una segunda ronda de capital paciente para A to Z, un prstamo y tambin una beca, para que A to Z pudiera jugar con los precios y escuchar al mercado; y encontraron varias cosas. +Una, que la gente pagara precios distintos, pero la gran mayora de la gente se interesaba en las redes cuando el precio estaba a un dlar por red, y a ese punto tomaban la decisin de comprarlas. +Y cuando los escuchas, tambin van a tener mucho que decir sobre lo que les gusta y lo que no les gusta, +y que algunos de los canales que pensamos que iban a funcionar, no funcionaron. +Pero por la experimentacn e iteracin que se pudo lograr gracias al capital paciente ahora sabemos que cuesta alrededor de un dlar en el sector privado para distribuir y un dlar para comprar la red. +Entonces, del punto de vista de poltica, cuando se empieza con el mercado tenemos una opcin. +Hay que empezar a tener conversaciones como esta y no creo que haya mejor manera de comenzar que usando el mercado, pero tambin trayendo a otra gente a la mesa alrededor de esta idea. +Siempre que voy a visitar a A to Z, pienso en mi abuela, Stella. +Ella era muy parecida a esas mujeres sentadas detrs de las mquinas de coser. +Ella creci en una finca en Austria, muy pobre, sin mucha educacin. +Se mud a los Estados Unidos donde conoci a mi abuelo, que era transportador de cemento, y tuvieron nueve hijos. Tres de ellos murieron de bebs. +Mi abuela tena tuberculosis y trabajaba en una fbrica de costura, haciendo camisas y ganando alrededor de 10 centavos por hora. +Ella, como muchas de las mujeres que veo en A to Z, trabajaba fuerte todos los das, entenda lo que era sufrir, tena una fe profunda en Dios, amaba a sus hijos y nunca hubiera aceptado una limosna. +Pero como tena la oportunidad del mercado y viva en una sociedad que le provea la seguridad de tener acceso a servicios de salud y educacin a un precio razonable, sus hijos y los hijos de ellos pudieron vivir vidas con propsito verdadero y seguir sus sueos. +Miro a mis hermanos y a mis primos -- y como dije, somos muchos -- y veo maestros y msicos, encargados de fondos de cobertura, diseadores. +Una hermana que hace realidad los sueos de otros. +No debera ser tan difcil. +Pero lo que requiere es un compromiso por parte de todos nosotros a rechazar las asunciones triviales, a salirnos de nuestras cajas ideolgicas. +Requiere invertir en esos empresarios que estn comprometidos tanto al servicio como al xito. +Requiere abrir los brazos, ambos, muy amplios y esperar muy poco amor a cambio, pero demandar responsabilidad en la rendicin de cuentas y traer esa misma responsabilidad en la rendicin de cuentas a la mesa tambin. +Y por encima de todo, por encima de todo, requiere que todos tengamos el coraje y la paciencia, ya seamos ricos o pobres, africanos o no-africanos, locales o de la diaspora, izquierdistas o derechistas, para empezar a escucharnos los unos a los otros de verdad. +Gracias. +Quisiera dedicar esta cancin a todas las mujeres sudafricanas; a esas mujeres que no cedieron durante el apartheid. +Y, por supuesto, se la dedico tambin a mi abuela que pienso realmente tuvo un papel muy importante sobre todo en mi poca de activista cuando era perseguido por la polica. +Ustedes recordarn que el 16 de junio de 1976 los estudiantes sudafricanos boicotearon el idioma africaans por considerarlo un instrumento del opresor; ya saben, tenan instrucciones de hacer todo en africaans -- biologa, matemticas. Y nuestros idiomas? +Los estudiantes queran hablar con el gobierno pero la polica les respondi con balas. +Por eso cada 16 de junio conmemoramos a todos aquellos camaradas o estudiantes que murieron. +Yo era muy pequeo, pienso que tena 11 aos, y comenc a hacer preguntas. Y as comenz mi educacin poltica +Ms tarde ingres a la organizacin juvenil que era parte del Congreso Nacional Africano. +Entonces, mientras organizbamos algo, una conmemoracin, la polica nos cercaba, ya saben, por considerarnos lderes. +Y yo sola huir de casa cuando calculaba que ya vendra la polica, cerca del 9 10 de junio o as. +Pero mi abuela, saben, una vez dijo: "No, mira, no vas a huir". +"Este es tu lugar y aqu te quedas". +Y, de hecho, vino la polica porque nos arrestaran, nos encarcelaran, para liberarnos cuando quisieran, despus del 20 ms o menos. +Fue as que el 10 de junio vinieron y rodearon la casa. Mi abuela apag todas las luces y abri la puerta de la cocina. +Y les dijo: "Vusi est aqu pero esta noche no se lo van a llevar". +"Estoy cansada de que vengan aqu a acosarnos... mientras sus hijos duermen tranquilos en sus casas". +"l est aqu y ustedes no se lo van a llevar". +Tengo agua hirviendo lista para el primero que se acerque". +Y se fueron. +Estoy muy feliz de estar entre algunos de los ms -las luces me estn molestando y se reflejan en las gafas. +Estoy muy feliz y es un honor estar entre gente muy, muy innovadora e inteligente. +He escuchado a los tres ponentes anteriores, y saben qu pas? +Cada cosa que iba a decir, la han dicho ellos, y parece que no tengo nada ms que decir. +Pero hay un dicho en mi cultura que dice que si la flor abandona el rbol sin decir nada, es que es una flor joven. +As que hablar -ya que no soy joven, soy muy viejo- An as dir algo. +Celebramos esta conferencia en un momento muy oportuno porque hay otra conferencia ahora en Berln, +la Cumbre del G8. +La Cumbre del G8 propone que la solucin a los problemas de frica debera ser un aumento masivo de ayuda, algo parecido al Plan Marshall. +Por desgracia, yo no creo en el Plan Marshall. +Porque han exagerado los beneficios del Plan Marshall. +Sus principales destinatarios fueron Alemania y Francia, y supuso solo un 2,5% de su PIB. +Un pas africano medio recibe ayuda extranjera que llega al 13,15% de su PIB, y esto es una transferencia inaudita de recursos financieros de pases ricos a pases pobres. +Pero quiero decir que necesitamos relacionar dos cosas: +la manera en que los medios muestran a frica en occidente, y las consecuencias de eso. +Al mostrar desesperanza, impotencia y desaliento, los medios dicen la verdad y nada ms que la verdad. +Sin embargo, los medios no nos dicen toda la verdad. +Porque la desesperanza, la guerra civil y el hambre, a pesar de que son una parte de nuestra realidad africana, no son la nica realidad. +Y, en segundo lugar, son la realidad ms pequea. +frica tiene 53 naciones. +Tenemos guerras civiles slo en seis pases, lo que significa que los medios cubren slo seis pases. +frica tiene inmensas oportunidades que nunca navegan por la red de la desesperanza y el desnimo que los medios occidentales mayormente presentan a su audiencia. +Pero el efecto de esa presentacin llama a la simpata, +llama a la pena, llama a algo llamado caridad. +Y, como consecuencia, la visin occidental del dilema econmico de frica est mal enmarcada. +El marco errneo es un producto del pensamiento de que frica es un lugar de desesperanza. +Qu debemos hacer respecto a eso? Debemos alimentar al hambriento, +debemos dar medicina a los enfermos, +debemos enviar tropas que mantengan la paz para servir a los que se enfrentan a una guerra civil. +Y en el proceso frica ha sido despojada de iniciativa propia. +Quiero decir que es importante reconocer que frica tiene debilidades esenciales. +Pero, de la misma manera, tiene oportunidades y mucho potencial. +Necesitamos reformular el reto que afronta frica de un reto de desesperanza, desesperanza llamada "reduccin de la pobreza", a un reto de esperanza. +Lo formulamos como un reto de esperanza: creacin de valor. +El reto que afrontan los que se interesan en frica no es el reto de reducir la pobreza. +Debera ser un reto de crear riqueza. +Una vez cambiemos esas dos cosas -si decs que los africanos son pobres y que hay que reducir la pobreza, teneis el crtel internacional de buenas intenciones entrando en el continente, con qu? +medicinas para los pobres, comida para los hambrientos, y tropas de paz para los que estn en guerra civil. +Y en el proceso, ninguna de estas cosas son productivas en realidad porque estais tratando los sntomas, no las causas de los problemas esenciales de frica. +Enviar a alguien al colegio y darles medicinas, seoras y seores, no les crea riqueza. +La riqueza viene en funcin de los ingresos, y los ingresos vienen de una oportunidad de negocio rentable y de un trabajo bien remunerado. +Bien, ahora que ya hemos hablado de crear riqueza en frica, nuestro segundo reto ser: Quines son los agentes que crean riqueza en una sociedad? +Son empresarios. Nos dicen que siempre suponen alrededor de un 4% de la poblacin, pero el 16% son imitadores. +An as, ellos tambin tienen xito como emprendedores. +As que dnde debemos poner el dinero? +Debemos poner el dinero dnde pueda crecer productivamente. +Apoyar la inversin privada en frica, tanto nacional como extranjera. +Apoyar las instituciones de investigacin, porque el conocimiento es una parte importante de la creacin de riqueza. +Pero qu sta haciendo la comunidad de ayuda internacional con frica hoy en da? +Estn arrojando grandes sumas de dinero para asistencia mdica bsica, para educacin primaria y para comida. +Todo el continente se ha convertido en un lugar de desesperanza, necesitado de caridad. +Seoras y seores, puede alguno de vosotros nombrarme a un vecino, un amigo, o un pariente que conozcan que se haya hecho rico recibiendo caridad? +Por sostener un bote y recibir limosnas? +Alguno del pblico conoce a esa persona? +Alguien conoce un pas que se desarrollara a causa de la generosidad y amabilidad de otro? +Bueno, como no veo ninguna mano, parece que lo que estoy diciendo es cierto. +Bono: S! Veo que Bono dice que conoce el pas. +Qu pas es ese? +Bono: Tiene nombre irlands. Bono: [ininteligible] Muchas gracias, pero djame decirte esto: +los actores externos solo te presentan una oportunidad. +La habilidad de utilizar esa oportunidad y de convertirla en una ventaja depende de tu capacidad interna. +frica ha recibido muchas oportunidades, +muchas de ellas no nos han beneficiado demasiado. +Por qu? Porque carecemos de un marco institucional interno y de un marco poltico que hagan posible que nos beneficiemos de nuestras relaciones externas. Les pondr un ejemplo: +Bajo el Acuerdo de Cotonou, antes conocido como la Convencin de Lom, Europa les daba a los pases africanos la oportunidad de exportar productos sin impuestos, al mercado de la Unin Europea. +Mi pas, Uganda, tiene un cupo para exportar 50.000 toneladas de azcar al mercado de la Unin Europea. +No hemos exportado todava ni un kilo. +Importamos 50.000 toneladas de azcar de Brasil y Cuba. +En segundo lugar, bajo el protocolo, relacionado con la carne vacuna, de ese acuerdo, los pases africanos que producen carne de vaca tienen cupos para exportar carne, sin impuestos, al mercado de la Unin Europea. +Ninguno de esos pases, incluida la nacin ms prspera, Botswana, ha cubierto nunca su cupo. +As que hoy quiero argumentar que la fuente esencial de la incapacidad de frica para conectar con el resto del mundo en una relacin ms productiva, se debe a un marco poltico e institucional pobre. +Y todas las formas de intervencin necesitan apoyo, la evolucin de los tipos de instituciones que crean riqueza, los tipos de instituciones que aumentan la productividad. +Cmo empezamos a hacer esto y por qu la ayuda es un mal instrumento? +La ayuda es un mal instrumento, y saben por qu? +Porque todos los gobiernos del mundo necesitan dinero para sobrevivir. +Hace falta dinero para algo tan simple como mantener la ley y el orden. +Hay que pagar al ejrcito y a la policia para mostrar ley y orden. +Y como muchos de nuestros gobiernos son bastante dictatoriales, verdaderamente necesitan que el ejrcito derrote a la oposicin. +Lo segundo que hay que hacer es pagar a tus parsitos polticos. +Por qu debera el pueblo apoyar a su gobierno? +Bien, porque les da trabajos bien remunerados, o, en muchos pases africanos, oportunidades extraoficiales para beneficiarse de la corrupcin. +El hecho es que ningn gobierno del mundo, a excepcin de unos pocos como el de Idi Amin, pueden depender por completo de la fuerza como instrumento de gobierno. +Muchos pases en el [ininteligible], necesitan legitimidad. +Para obtener legitimidad, los gobiernos necesitan proporcionar cosas como educacin primaria, sanidad bsica, carreteras, contruir hospitales y clnicas. +Si la supervivencia fiscal del gobierno depende de hacer que aumente el dinero de su propio pueblo. dicho gobierno est motivado por el inters propio de gobernar de una manera ms progresista +Se reunir con los que crean riqueza. +Les hablar de los tipos de polticas e instituciones que son necesarias para que se extiendan a escala y mbito de negocio, y as poder recaudar ms ingresos tributarios de ellos. +El problema del continente africano, y el problema con la industria de la ayuda, es que ha distorsionado la estructura de los incentivos que afrontan los gobiernos en frica. +El margen productivo en la bsqueda de rentas por parte de nuestro gobierno no se sustenta en la economa nacional, se sustenta en los donantes internacionales. +En vez de reunirse con ugandeses-- En vez de reunirse con empresarios ugandeses, hombres de negocios ghaneses, lderes emprendedores sudafricanos, nuestros gobiernos encuentran mas productivo hablar con el FMI y el Banco Mundial. +Puedo deciros, incluso si tenis diez doctorados, que nunca superaris a Bill Gates en el entendimiento de la industria informtica. +Por qu? Porque el conocimiento requerido para que entendis los incentivos necesarios para expandir un negocio, requiere que escuchis a la gente, a los actores del sector privado en esa industria. +La comunidad internacional les ha dado a los gobiernos en frica la oportunidad de evitar establecer acuerdos productivos con sus propios ciudadanos, y por tanto, ha permitido empezar negociaciones interminables con el FMI y el Banco Mundial, y entonces es el FMI y el Banco Mundial quienes dicen lo que los ciudadanos necesitan. +En el transcurso, nosotros, los africanos, hemos sido marginados del proceso de elaboracin, orientacin e implementacin de la poltica en nuestros pases. +Tenemos una aportacin limitada porque quien paga, manda. +El FMI, el Banco Internacional, y el crtel de buenas intenciones en el mundo se han apoderado de nuestros derechos como ciudadanos, y por tanto lo que nuestros gobiernos estn haciendo, porque dependen de ayudas, es escuchar a los acreedores internacionales en vez de a sus propios ciudadanos. +Pero quiero hacer una aclaracin sobre mi argumentacin, y esa aclaracin es que no es cierto que la ayuda sea siempra destructiva. +Alguna ayuda puede haber construido un hospital, alimentado a una aldea hambrienta. +Puede haber construido una carretera, y esa carretera puede haber desempeado un muy buen papel. +La ayuda aumenta los recursos disponibles para los gobiernos, y eso hace que trabajar en un gobierno sea lo ms rentable que puedas tener como africano que busca una carrera. +Al aumentar el atractivo poltico del estado, sobre todo en nuestras sociedades fragmentadas tnicamente en frica, la ayuda tiende a acentuar tensiones tnicas mientras que cada grupo tnico empieza ahora a luchar por entrar en el estado para tener acceso al pastel de la ayuda extranjera. +Seoras y seores, la gente ms emprendedora de frica no puede encontrar oportunidades para comerciar y trabajar en el sector privado porque el entorno poltico e institucional es hstil hacia los negocios. +Los gobiernos no lo estn cambiando. Por qu? +Porque no necesitan hablar a sus propios ciudadanos. +Les hablan a los donantes internacionales. +As que los africanos ms emprendedores terminan trabajando para el gobierno, y eso ha aumentado las tensiones polticas en nuestros pases precisamente porque dependemos de la ayuda. +Tambin quiero decir que es importante para nosotros observar que durante los ltimos 50 aos, frica ha estado recibiendo cada vez ms ayuda de la comunidad internacional en forma de asistencia tcnica, ayuda financiera y todas las otras formas de ayuda. +Entre 1960 y 2003 nuestro continente recibi 600 billones de dlares de ayuda, y todava nos dicen que hay mucha pobreza en frica. +A dnde ha ido toda la ayuda? +Quiero poner el ejemplo de mi propio pas, llamado Uganda, y la clase de estructura de incentivos que la ayuda ha trado all. +En el presupuesto 2006-2007, los ingresos previstos eran de 2,5 trillones de chelines. +La ayuda esperada: 1,9 trillones. +El gasto recurrente de Uganda -- A qu me refiero con recurrente? +Lo ms precario -- es de 2,6 trillones. +Por qu el gobierno de Uganda gasta el 100% de sus propios ingresos? +Es porque hay alguien ah llamado "ayuda internacional" que contribuye a ello. +Pero esto les demuestra que el gobierno de Uganda no est comprometido a gastar sus propios ingresos en invertir en inversiones productivas, sino que dedica estos ingresos a pagar la estructura de gasto pblico. +La administracin pblica, con su amplio patrocinio, se lleva 690 billones. +La militar, 380 billones. +La agricultura, que da empleo al 18% de nuestros necesitados ciudadanos, se lleva solo 18 billones. +El comercio y la industria se llevan 43 billones. +Y dejen que les ensee lo que el gasto pblico -- en vez del gasto de la administracin pblica -- constituye en Uganda. +All vamos. 70 ministros en el consejo, 114 asesores presidenciales quienes, por cierto, nunca ven al presidente, excepto en televisin. +Y cuando lo ven fsicamente, es en actos pblicos como este, e incluso ah, es l quien los asesora a ellos. +Tenemos 81 unidades de gobierno local; +cada gobierno local est organizado como el gobierno central: una burocracia, un consejo, un parlamento, y muchos trabajos para los parsitos polticos. +Haba 56, y cuando nuestro presidente quiso corregir la constitucin y eliminar los lmites de mandato, tuvo que crear 25 distritos nuevos, y ahora hay 81. +333 miembros del parlamento. +Necesitas el Wembley Stadium para acoger a nuestro parlamento. +134 comisiones y cuerpos gubernamentales semi-autnomos, todos los cuales tienen directores y coches -- y lo ltimo, esto es dirigido al seor Bono. En su trabajo quizs nos ayude con esto. +Un estudio reciente del gobierno de Uganda revel que hay 3.000 vehculos de motor de cuatro ruedas en la sede del Ministerio de Sanidad. +Uganda tiene 961 subcondados, todos tienen una enfermera, ninguna de las cuales tiene ambulancia. +As que los vehculos de cuatro ruedas en la sede llevan a los ministros, a los secretarios permanentes, a los burcratas y a los burcratas de la ayuda internacional que trabajan en proyectos de ayuda, mientras los pobres mueren sin ambulancias ni medicinas. +Finalmente, quiero decir que antes de venir a hablar aqu me dijeron que el principio de TEDGlobal es que un buen discurso debe ser como una minifalda, +debe ser sufiente corto para despertar inters, pero suficiente largo para cubrir el tema. +Espero haberlo conseguido. +Muchas gracias. +Bueno, alguno de Uds. ha buscado esta palabra alguna vez? +En un diccionario? S. Eso es lo que pens. +Y esta palabra? +Miren, les mostrar: +Lexicografa: la prctica de compilar diccionarios. +Fjense, somos muy especficos. La palabra "compilar" +El diccionario no se esculpe a partir de una pieza de granito, de un pedazo de piedra. Se compone de un montn de pedacitos. +Pedacitos discretos. Esto se deletrea as: D-I-S-C-R-E-T-O-S pedacitos. +Y esos pedacitos son palabras. +Una de las ventajas de ser lexicgrafa, adems de que me inviten a venir a TED, es que una dice palabras realmente divertidas, como lexicogrfico. +La palabra lexicogrfico tiene un patrn interesante. Se llama doble dctilo. Y con solo decir "doble dctilo", he logrado que el indicador de tragalibros se haya ido completamente a la zona roja. Pero "lexicogrfico" tiene el mismo patrn que "sin orden, ni concierto". +No? Es divertido pronunciar estas palabras, y yo tengo la oportunidad de decirlas muchas veces. +Bueno, una desventaja de ser lexicgrafa es que la gente no piensa en el diccionario como una cosa blandita, abrigada y calentita. +Verdad? Nadie abraza a los diccionarios. +Pero lo que la gente piensa a menudo que el diccionario es algo as. +Para que sepan, yo no tengo ningn silbato lexicogrfico. +Pero la gente piensa que mi trabajo es dejar que las palabras buenas hagan esa maniobra para entrar al diccionario, y dejar las palabras malas afuera. +Pero en realidad es que no quiero ser guardia de trfico. +Para empezar, no me gustan los uniformes. +Adems, decidir qu palabras buenas son buenas y cules malas no es algo fcil. +Ni tampoco divertido. Y cuando hay cosas del trabajo que no son ni fciles ni divertidas, se suelen buscar excusas para no hacerlas. +As, si tuviera que pensar en algn oficio como metfora de mi trabajo, preferira ser pescadora. +Quiero tirar mi gran red al profundo ocano azul del ingls para ver qu criaturas maravillosas puedo sacar del fondo. +Pero, por qu querran que dirigiera el trfico, gustndome mucho ms pescar? +Pues, le echo la culpa a la Reina. +Por qu culpo a la Reina? +Bueno, para empezar, culpo a la Reina porque es gracioso. +Pero en segundo lugar, la culpo porque los diccionarios no han cambiado realmente. +Nuestra idea de qu es un diccionario no ha cambiado desde su reinado. +Lo nico que no le agradara a la Reina Victoria de los diccionarios modernos es la inclusin de la palabrota ms ofensiva, cosa que sucede en los diccionarios americanos desde 1965. +Existe este tipo de la poca victoriana. +James Murray, el primer editor del diccionario de ingls de Oxford. +No tengo ese sombrero. Ojal lo tuviera. +As que l es el responsable de mucho de lo que consideramos moderno en los diccionarios hoy. +Cuando un tipo as, con un sombrero as, representa la modernidad, tenemos un problema. +Por eso, James Murray podra trabajar en cualquier diccionario hoy. +No tendra que aprender nada nuevo. +Y, claro, algunos pensamos: Las computadoras! +Computadoras! Qu hay de las computadoras? +En cuanto a las computadoras -- me encantan las computadoras. +Es decir, soy una tragalibros, me encantan las computadoras. +Hara huelga de hambre antes de permitirles que me quiten la bsqueda de Google Libros. +Pero las computadoras no hacen mucho ms que acelerar el proceso de compilar diccionarios. +No cambian el resultado final. +Porque un diccionario es, es su diseo victoriano unido con un poco de propulsin moderna. +Es fuerza de vapor. Lo que tenemos es un velocpedo elctrico. +Ya saben, tenemos un diseo victoriano con motor, nada ms! +El diseo no ha cambiado. +OK, qu hay de los diccionarios en lnea? +Los diccionarios en Internet deben ser diferentes. +Este es el Diccionario Ingls de Oxford en lnea, uno de los mejores diccionarios en lnea. +Esta es mi palabra favorita, de hecho: +"Erinaceous": que tiene que ver con el erizo u otro animal parecido; parecido al erizo. +Es una palabra muy til. Fjense. +Los diccionarios electrnicos actuales son ms hojas de papel en pantalla. +Esto es plano. Miren cuntos enlaces hay en la entrada: dos! +Verdad? Esos botoncitos, los tena todos expandidos, menos la tabla de fechas. +As que no pasa nada por aqu. +No hay mucho en qu hacer clic. +De hecho, los diccionarios electrnicos duplican casi todos los inconvenientes del impreso, exceptuando el poder de hacer bsquedas. +Y cuando mejora la capacidad de bsqueda, se pierde la nica ventaja de lo impreso, que es la serendipia. +La serendipia es cuando encuentras algo que no buscabas porque encontrar lo que buscas es terriblemente difcil. +As es, al examinar el asunto, lo que tenemos es el problema de la cola del jamn. +Alguien conoce el problema de la cola del jamn? +Una mujer prepara jamn para una cena familiar. +Empieza a quitar la cola del jamn para tirarla, y mira ese trozo de jamn, y se pregunta, "Es un trozo en muy buen estado. Por qu lo tiro?" +Y piensa, "Bueno, mi mam siempre lo haca." +Entonces llama a su mam, y le dice, "Mam, por qu siempre quitabas la cola del jamn cuando lo preparabas?" +Ella responde, "No lo s, mi mam siempre lo haca as." +Entonces llaman a la abuela, y la abuela les dice, "El jamn no caba en la cacerola!" Entonces no es que tengamos buenas y malas palabras +tenemos una cacerola demasiado pequea! +Ya saben, esa cola del jamn es muy rica! No se debe tirar. +Las malas palabras, cuando la gente piensa en un lugar y no lo encuentra en el mapa, suele pensar, "Este mapa es malo!" +Pero cuando conoce un club o un bar que no se encuentra en la gua, piensan, "qu bien, este lugar debe ser bueno! No figura en la gua." +Cuando encuentran alguna palabra que no est en el diccionario, piensan, "Debe ser una mala palabra." Por qu? Es ms probable que sea un mal diccionario. +Por qu culpamos el jamn por ser demasiado grande para la cacerola? +No se puede conseguir un jamn ms pequeo. +El idioma ingls es tan grande como es. +Entonces si se tiene un problema como el de la cola del jamn, y pensamos en el problema de la cola del jamn, la conclusin a la que nos dirige es inevitable y contraintuitiva: El papel es el enemigo de las palabras. +Cmo puede ser? Quiero decir, me encantan los libros. De verdad me encantan los libros. +Algunos de mis mejores amigos son libros. +Pero el libro no es el mejor formato para el diccionario. +Ahora van a pensar, "Dios mo. +Me van a quitar mis queridos diccionarios en papel?" +No. Seguirn siendo diccionarios en papel. +Al tener autos, cuando pasaron a ser el principal medio de transporte, no juntamos todos los caballos para fusilarlos. +Saben, todava habr diccionarios en papel, pero no ser el diccionario predominante. +El diccionario en forma de libro no ser la nica forma en la que existirn los diccionarios. Y no ser El prototipo para los prximos diccionarios. +Pinsenlo as: si se tiene una restriccin artificial, estas restricciones artificiales nos conducen a distinciones arbitrarias y una cosmovisin torcida. +Qu pasara si los bilogos slo pudieran estudiar los animales que le hicieran a la gente decir, "Guau." No? +Qu pasara si juzgramos estticamente a los animales, y slo estudisemos los que nos parecen bonitos? +Sabramos mucho sobre la megafauna carismtica, y no mucho sobre muchas otras cosas. +Y pienso que eso es un problema. +Pienso que deberamos estudiar todas las palabras, porque al pensar en palabras, se puede formar expresiones bellas partiendo de partes muy humildes. +La lexicografa es en realidad ms sobre las ciencia de los materiales. +Estudiamos la tolerancia de los materiales que usamos para construir la estructura de su expresin: lo que dicen y lo que escriben. Y muchas veces me dicen, "Cmo sabr si esta palabra es verdadera?" +Piensan, "Bueno, si pensamos que las palabras son las herramientas que usamos para construir las expresiones de los pensamientos, cmo se puede decir que los destornilladores son mejores que los martillos? +Cmo se puede decir que la almdena es mejor que el martillo de bola? +Son justo las herramientas perfectas para su trabajo." +Entonces me dicen, "Cmo se sabe si una palabra es real?" +Bien, todos los que hayan ledo un libro para nios saben que el amor hace las cosas reales. +Si te gusta una palabra, sala. El uso la hace real. +Estar en el diccionario es una distincin artificial. +No hace que una palabra sea ms real que cualquier otra manera. +Si te gusta una palabra, se hace real. +As es que si no nos preocupamos por dirigir el trfico, si hemos transcendido el papel, si nos preocupamos menos por el control y ms por la descripcin, entonces podemos pensar ms en el idioma ingls como un bello mvil. +Y siempre que una partecita del mvil cambie, se toque, siempre que se toque una palabra, se use en algn contexto nuevo, le damos una nueva connotacin, se verbaliza, hacemos que el mvil se mueva. +No la rompimos; slo est en una nueva posicin, y esa nueva posicin puede ser igual de bella. +Si ya no eres guardia de trfico, el problema con ser guardia de trfico es que en cualquier cruce puede haber muchos policas, o se confunden los autos, verdad? +Pero si la meta ya no es dirigir el trfico, sino tal vez contar los autos que pasan, entonces cuntos ms ojos mejor. +Se puede pedir ayuda! +Si se pide ayuda, se logra hacer ms. Y realmente necesitamos ayuda. +La Biblioteca del Congreso: 17 millones de libros, de los cuales la mitad estn en ingls. +Si solamente uno de cada diez de esos libros tuviera una palabra que no est en el diccionario, eso equivaldra a ms de dos diccionarios ntegros. +Y yo encuentro una palabra no adiccionariada, una palabra como "adiccionariada", por ejemplo, en casi todos los libros que leo. Y qu tal los peridicos? +El archivo de los peridicos se remonta a 1759. 58.1 millones de pginas de peridicos. Si slo una en 100 de esas pginas tuviera una palabra no adiccionariada, sera como otro Diccionario Ingls de Oxford completo. +Son 500.000 palabras ms. Eso es mucho. +Y ni hablar de las revistas, ni de los blogs. Encuentro ms nuevas palabras en BoingBoing en una semana que en las revistas Newsweek o Time. +All suceden muchas cosas. +Y ni hablar de polisemia, que es la costumbre codiciosa de algunas palabras de agenciarse ms de una definicin. +As si piensan en la palabra "set", un "set" puede ser la madriguera de un tejn, un "set" puede ser uno de los pliegues en una gorguera isabelina, y hay una definicin numerada en el DIO (Diccionario Ingls de Oxford) +El DIO tiene 33 definiciones distintas para "set". +Una palabra pequeita, 33 definiciones numeradas. +Una de ellas se titula simplemente "sentidos tcnicos miscelneos". +Saben qu me indica eso? +Me indica que era un viernes por la tarde y alguien quera irse al bar. Es una irresponsabilidad lexicogrfica decir "sentidos tcnicos miscelneos". +As es que tenemos todas estas palabras, y realmente necesitamos ayuda! +Y la cosa es que, podramos pedir ayuda, pedir ayuda no es tan difcil. +Quiero decir, la lexicografa no es ciencia espacial. +Vean, acabo de darles una cantidad de palabras y de nmeros, y sta es ms una explicacin visual. +Si pensamos en el diccionario como si fuera un mapa del idioma ingls, estos puntos claros representan lo que sabemos y las reas oscuras son lo que ignoramos. +Si ese es el mapa de todas las palabras del ingls estadounidense, no sabemos mucho. +Ni sabemos los contornos del idioma. +Si esto fuera el diccionario, si fuera el mapa del ingls estadounidense, miren, tenemos una idea algo vaga de la Florida, pero no existe California! +Nos hace falta California en el ingls estadounidense. +Es que no sabemos lo suficiente, ni siquiera sabemos que nos hace falta California. +Ni siquiera vemos que hay un hueco en el mapa. +As que, nuevamente, en la lexicografa no hace falta ser cientfico espaciale. +Pero an si lo fuera, las investigaciones espaciales las haran aficionados dedicados hoy en da, no? +No puede ser tan difcil encontrar unas cuantas palabras! +Entonces, un montn de cientficos en otras disciplinas les piden a la gente que ayuden, y les va bien. +Por ejemplo, en el eBird, donde observadores de aves aficionados pueden subir informacin sobre las aves que han visto. +Y luego los ornitlogos pueden ir y ayudar a seguir las poblaciones, migraciones, etctera. +Y est este tipo, Mike Oates. Mike Oates vive en el Reino Unido. +Es director de una empresa de galvanoplastia. +Ha encontrado ms de 140 cometas. +Ha encontrado tantos cometas que pusieron su nombre a uno. +Est por ah, pasando Marte, un poco lejos de aqu. +No creo que pueda conseguir sacarse una foto all pronto. +Pero encontr 140 cometas sin telescopio. +Descarg datos del satlite SOHO de la NASA, y as es como los encontr. +Si podemos encontrar cometas sin telescopio, no podremos encontrar palabras? +Ahora, Uds. ya saben por dnde voy con todo esto. +Porque voy a Internet, que es a donde todo el mundo va. +E Internet es maravilloso para juntar palabras, porque Internet est lleno de coleccionistas. +Y esto es un hecho tecnolgico poco conocido de Internet, pero Internet realmente est hecho con palabras y entusiasmo. +Y las palabras y el entusiasmo, de hecho, son la receta para la lexicografa. No es genial? +Hay muchos sitios muy buenos para juntar palabras hoy en da, pero el problema con algunos de ellos es que no son lo suficientemente cientficos. +Muestran una palabra, pero no muestran ningn contexto: +De dnde vino? Quin la dijo? +En qu peridico apareci? En qu libro? +Porque una palabra es como una pieza arqueolgica. +Si no sabes la procedencia de la pieza, no es ciencia, es algo bonito para mirar. +Entonces, una palabra sin races es como una flor cortada. +Es bonita para admirarla por un rato, pero luego se muere. +Se muere demasiado rpido. +Bueno, todo este tiempo estuve diciendo, "El diccionario, el diccionario, el diccionario, el diccionario." +No "un diccionario," o "diccionarios." Y eso es porque Bueno, la gente usa el diccionario para representar al idioma entero. +Lo usa sincdoquicamente, +y uno de los problemas de conocer una palabra como "sincdoquicamente" es que quieres cualquier excusa para usar "sincdoquicamente". +Esta charla ha sido pues tan solo una excusa para poder "sincdoquicamente" a todos Uds. +Lo siento mucho. Pero cuando usas una parte de algo, como el diccionario, que es parte de la lengua, o una bandera que representa EE.UU., un smbolo del pas, entonces lo usas sincdoquicamente. +Pero es que, podramos hacer del diccionario el idioma entero. +Si conseguimos una cacerola ms grande, entonces cabrn todas las palabras. +Podemos poner todos los significados. +Y no queremos todos ms significado en nuestras vidas? +Y podemos hacer que el diccionario no sea slo un smbolo del idioma; podemos hacer que sea el idioma mismo. +Vean, lo que realmente espero es que mi hijo quien cumple siete aos este mes, que apenas recuerde que sta es la forma que tenan los diccionarios. +Que esta es la apariencia que tenan los diccionarios. +Quiero que l piense en este tipo de diccionario como en una cinta de ocho pistas. +Es un formato que desaparici por no ser suficientemente til. +No era lo que la gente necesitaba realmente. +Y la cosa es, si podemos incluir todas las palabras, si podemos olvidar esa distincin artificial entre lo bueno y lo malo, podemos describir el idioma como cientficos. +Podemos dejar los juicios estticos a los escritores y a los oradores. +Si logramos hacer eso, entonces puedo pasar mi tiempo pescando. y ya no tendr que ser ms guardia de trfico. +Muchsimas gracias por su amable atencin. +Me gustara contarles acerca de un proyecto que empez hace alrededor de 16 aos, +y que trata sobre la creacin de nuevas formas de vida. +Y son creadas a partir de este tipo de tubo -- tubo elctrico, le llamamos en Holanda +-- y podemos empezar un video sobre eso y ver un poco atrs en el tiempo. +Narrador: Eventualmente estas bestias vivirn en manadas en las playas +Theo Jansen est trabajando duro en esta evolucin +Theo Jansen: Yo quiero poner estas formas de vida en las playas. +Y stas deberan sobrevivir all, por s solas, en el futuro. +Aprendiendo a vivir por s mismas, y tomar un par de aos ms para dejarlas caminar por s solas. +Narrador: Las bestias mecnicas no obtendrn su energa de la comida, sino del viento. +El viento mover plumas en su dorso, lo cual impulsar sus patas. +La bestia camina de costado sobre la arena mojada de la playa, con su trompa apuntando hacia el viento. +Tan pronto se encuentra con el oleaje o la arena seca, se detiene, y camina en la direccin opuesta +La evolucin ha generado muchas especies. +Esta es "Animaris Currens Ventosa" +Jansen: Esta es una manada, y est construida de acuerdo a cdigos genticos, +y es un tipo de raza, y cada uno de los animales es diferente, y los cdigos ganadores se multiplicarn. +Esta es la ola, yendo de izquierda a derecha, aqu se puede ver. +Y ahora va de -- s, ahora va de izquierda a derecha. +Esta es una nueva generacin, una nueva familia, que es capaz de almacenar el viento. +Las alas bombean aire hacia botellas de limonada que estn encima de eso -- +y pueden usar esta energia en caso de que no haya viento. Si la marea est subiendo, y todava queda un poco de energa pueden alcanzar las dunas y salvar sus vidas, ya que se ahogan muy fcilmente. +Podra mostrarles este animal. +Gracias. La proporcin de los tubos en este animal es muy importante para poder caminar. +Hay 11 numeros, los cuales llamo los 11 nmeros sagrados. +Estos son, las distancias de los tubos que los hacen caminar de ese modo. +De hecho, es una nueva invencin de la rueda. +Funciona igual que la rueda. +El eje de la rueda se mantiene en un mismo nivel, y esta cadera se mantiene en un mismo nivel tambien. +De hecho, sto es an mejor que la rueda, porque cuando intentas manejar con tu bicicleta por la playa, te dars cuenta de que es muy difcil hacerlo. +Y las patas simplemente pisan sobre la arena, mientras que la rueda tiene que tocar cada parte del piso. +Asi que, 5,000 aos despus de la invencin de la rueda, tenemos una nueva rueda. Y les mostrar en el siguiente video -- puede comenzarlo, por favor? -- que se pueden mover cargas muy pesadas. +Hay una persona empujando por detrs, pero tambin puede caminar muy bien con el viento. +Pesa 3.2 toneladas. +Y ste est funcionando con el viento almacenado en las botellas. +Tiene un tentculo con el que puede sentir obstculos y voltearse. +Y esa parte, ven, est yendo en la direccin opuesta. +Podran pasarme el tentculo? +Ok. Bien. +As que, tienen que sobrevivir todos los peligros de la playa, y uno de los grandes peligros es el mar. Este es el mar. +Debe sentir el agua del mar. +Este es el tentculo para percibir el agua. Lo que es muy importante es este tubo. Normalmente succiona el aire, pero cuando traga agua, siente su resistencia. +As que imaginen que el animal est caminando hacia el mar. +Tan pronto como toca el agua se debera escuchar una especie de succin de aire. +Si! As que, si no siente, se ahogar, OK? +Aqu tenemos el cerebro del animal. +De hecho, es un contador a pasos y cuenta el nmero de pasos. +Es un contador a pasos binario. +As que, tan pronto como ha estado en el mar, cambia el patrn de ceros y unos aqui, +y siempre sabe en qu lugar de la playa est. As que, es un cerebro muy simple. +Dice: bueno all est el mar, all estn las dunas, y yo estoy aqu. +As que es una especie de imaginacion de el mundo simple del animal de playa. +Gracias. +Uno de los enemigos ms grandes son las tormentas. +Esta es una parte de la trompa del "Animaris Percipiere", +y cuando su trompa esta fija, todo el animal esta fijo. +As que cuando se acerca la tormenta, ste clava un perno en el suelo. Y como la trompa queda fija, todo el animal queda fijo. +El viento puede cambiar de direccin, pero el animal siempre apuntar su trompa hacia el viento. +En un par de aos, estos animales podrn sobrevivir por s mismos. +Todava tengo que ayudarlos mucho. +Muchas gracias, seoras y seores. +Imgenes como esta del campo de concentracin en Auschwitz quedaron grabadas en nuestra consciencia durante el siglo XX y nos han dado un nuevo entendimiento de quines somos de donde venimos y de la poca en que vivimos. +Durante el siglo XX atestiguamos las atrocidades de Stalin, Hitler, Mao, Pol Pot, Rwanda y otros genocidios y a pesar de que el siglo XXI slo tiene siete aos de edad ya hemos presenciado un genocidio en curso en Darfur y los horrores cotidianos en Iraq. +Esto nos condujo a una concepcin comn de nuestra situacin que es que la modernidad nos ha trado una violencia terrible y que quizs los pueblos nativos vivan una armona de la que nos hemos apartado +Es muy evidente en Occidente empezando con Inglaterra y Holanda alrededor de la era de la Ilustracin. +Esta es una grfica que el construy mostrando el porcentaje de muertes en varones debido a la guerra en un nmero de sociedades forrajeras o cazadoras y recolectoras. +Las barras rojas corresponden a la probabilidad de que un hombre muera a manos de otro hombre, en comparacin a fallecer por causas naturales en varias sociedades forrajeras de las Tierras Altas de Nueva Guinea y del bosque tropical del Amazonas. +Pueden encontrar 4 5 pasajes en la Biblia de esta ndole. +Tambin en la Biblia uno ve que la pena de muerte era el castigo aceptado para crmenes tales como la homosexualidad adulterio, blasfemia, idolatra, responderle a sus padres y recoger lea en el Sabbath. +Bien, ajustemos los lentes de acercamiento un orden de magnitud y veamos a una escala de siglos. +Aunque no tenemos estadsticas para la guerra durante la Edad Media hasta la era moderna slo a partir de la historia convencional sabemos - la evidencia ha estado siempre bajo nuestras narices - que ha habido una reduccin en las formas de violencia socialmente aceptadas. +Por ejemplo, toda historia social revelar que la mutilacin y la tortura eran formas de castigo rutinarias. El tipo de infraccin que hoy pagaras con una multa, en aquellos das resultaba en que tu lengua o tus orejas fueran cortadas, tus ojos cegados la amputacin de una mano y as sucesivamente. +Existieron numerosas formas ingeniosas sdicas para la pena de muerte: ser quemado en la hoguera, desentraamiento, la rueda desmembramiento mediante el uso de caballos y dems. +Qu ocurra en asesinatos uno a uno? Bien, hay buenas estadsticas porque muchos municipios registraron la causa de muerte. +El criminlogo Manuel Eisner rastre en todos los registros histricos a lo largo de Europa la tasa de homicidios en cada aldea, casero, pueblo y condado que pudo encontrar y los complement con datos de cuando las naciones comenzaron a llevar estadsticas. +Pero hubo una disminucin de al menos dos rdenes de magnitud en homicidios desde la Edad Media al presente y el punto de inflexin ocurri a principios del siglo XVI. +Pasemos a la escala por dcadas. +Y como pueden ver, la tasa de mortandad desciende de 65 mil muertes por conflicto por ao en los cincuenta, a menos de 2 mil decesos por conflicto por ao en esta dcada, tan horrenda como lo es. +Incluso en la escala por aos se puede ver un descenso de la violencia. +Desde finales de la Guerra Fra han habido menos guerras civiles menos genocidios; una reduccin del 90% desde la Segunda Guerra Mundial una inversin del nmero de homicidios y crmenes violentos de los sesenta. +Esto es de las Estadsticas Uniformes de Crmenes del FBI. Pueden ver que la tasa de violencia es relativamente baja en los cincuenta y sesenta y despus remonta por varias dcadas y comienza un abrupto declive, comenzando en los noventa, hasta regresar casi al nivel que fue alcanzado por ltima vez en 1960. +Presidente Clinton, si se encuentra aqu, gracias. +La pregunta es: Por qu tantas personas estn tan equivocadas acerca de algo tan importante? Creo que hay varias razones. +Una de ellas es que hay mejores reportajes: La Associated Press es mejor cronista de las guerras sobre la faz de la Tierra que lo fueron los monjes del siglo XVI. +Hay una ilusin: Los psiclogos cognitivos sabemos que mientras ms fcil sea recordar instancias especficas acerca de algo ms alta ser la probabilidad que te adhieras a ello. +Las notas que leemos en el diario con imgenes sangrientas se graban en la memoria ms que al escuchar sobre todava ms personas muriendo en cama por su edad. Hay dinmicas en los mercados de opinin y militancia: nadie jams ha atrado observadores, militantes o donantes diciendo: "Las cosas parecen ir mejorando cada vez ms". +Hay culpabilidad por nuestro trato a los pueblos indgenas en la vida intelectual moderna y una falta de voluntad para reconocer que pudiesen haber algunas cosas buenas en la cultura occidental. +Y por supuesto nuestro cambio de estndares puede superar al cambio en comportamiento. Una razn por la que baj la violencia es que las personas se cansaron de la carnicera y crueldad de la poca. +Y ve nada menos que a un ladrn con una pistola en la mano. +Ambos estn pensando: "En realidad no quiero matarlo, pero l est a punto de matarme. +Quizs debera dispararle antes de que l lo haga especialmente dado que, an si l no quiere matarme quiz ahora est preocupndose de que yo pudiese matarlo antes de l me mate." Y as sucesivamente. +Los pueblos cazadores y recolectores piensan de esta manera y con frecuencia atacan a sus vecinos por miedo a ser atacados primero. +Ahora, una forma de lidiar con este problema es la disuasin: +no atacas primero, pero tienes anunciada pblicamente una poltica de que tomars represalias salvajemente si eres invadido. +El detalle es que esta poltica tiene la propensin a que se descubra el engao por lo que slo funciona si es creble. Para hacerla creble debes vengar todo insulto y arreglar todas las cuentas, lo que lleva a ciclos de sangrientas vendetas. +Eso apoya un poco a la teora del leviatn. +Tambin la apoya el hecho de que hoy vemos estallidos de violencia en zonas con anarqua: en estados fallidos, imperios colapsados regiones fronterizas, mafias, bandas callejeras y dems. +La segunda explicacin es que en muchas pocas y lugares hay un sentimiento generalizado de que la vida vale poco. +En la antigedad cuando el sufrimiento y la muerte temprana era comn vivirlos en carne propia, uno tena menos remordimientos al inflingirlos a otros. Y conforme la tecnologa y la eficiencia econmica hacen la vida ms larga y agradable, uno le da mayor valor a la vida en general. +Este fue un argumento del politlogo James Payne. +Wright argumenta que la tecnologa ha incrementado el nmero de juegos de suma positiva en que los humanos tienden a meterse al permitir el comercio de bienes, servicios e ideas a grandes distancias o entre grupos ms grandes de personas. +El resultado es que las otras personas se vuelven ms valiosas vivas que muertas y la violencia disminuye por razones egostas. Como Wright lo expres "Entre las muchas razones por las que creo que no debemos bombardear a los japoneses es que ellos construyeron mi minivan." +La cuarta explicacin fue capturada en el ttulo de un libro llamado The Expanding Circle, por el filsofo Peter Singer quien argumenta que la evolucin leg a los humanos un sentido de empata: la capacidad de tratar los intereses de otros comparndolos con los propios. Desafortunadamente, siempre lo aplicamos solo a un estrecho crculo de amigos y familiares. +Y existe un nmero de posibilidades. Crculos incrementales de reciprocidad en el sentido que propone Robert Wright. +Cualesquiera que sean sus causas, la disminucin de la violencia tiene profundas implicaciones. Debera preguntarnos no slo por qu hay guerra? Sino tambin, por qu hay paz?. No slo qu estamos haciendo mal? Sino, qu hemos estado haciendo bien?" +Porque hemos estado haciendo algo bien y de seguro sera bueno averiguar qu es. +Muchas gracias. +CA: Bien. Me encantara que dueos de medios de difusin escucharan esto en algn momento el ao prximo. Creo que es muy importante. Muchas gracias. +SP: Un placer. +Esta es un fotografa de Maurice Druon, secretario honorario perpetuo de L'Academie francaise, la Academia francesa. +Va esplndidamente vestido con su uniforme de 68.000 dlares, adecuado al papel de la Academia Francesa como reguladora del uso correcto del francs y conservadora de la lengua. +La Academia francesa tiene dos tareas principales: compila un diccionario de francs estndar -- +estn trabajando en su novena edicin que empezaron en 1930 y ya han alcanzado la letra P. +Tambin legislan sobre el uso correcto de la lengua, como el trmino adecuado para lo que en francs llaman "email" que debera ser "courriel". +Dicen que en francs la World Wide Web debera llamarse "la toile d'araignee mondiale"- la telaraa global -- recomendaciones que los franceses ignoran alegremente. +Bien, este es un modelo sobre cmo evoluciona el lenguaje es decir, mediante la legislacin de una academia. +Pero cualquiera que observe el lenguaje se da cuenta que es una presuncin bastante tonta, que el lenguaje, ms bien, surge de las mentes humanas cuando interactan entre ellas. +Y esto se puede observar en el cambio imparable del lenguaje -- en el hecho de que cuando la Academia termine su diccionario estar claramente desactualizado. +Lo vemos en la constante aparicin de palabras coloquiales y jergas, en el cambio histrico de las lenguas, en la variedad de dialectos y en la formacin de nuevas lenguas. +Entonces, el lenguaje no es tanto un creador o un moldeador de la naturaleza humana sino ms bien una ventana a la naturaleza humana. +En un libro en el que estoy trabajando en estos momentos espero usar el lenguaje para arrojar luz sobre ciertos aspectos de la naturaleza humana como los mecanismos cognitivos con los que los seres humanos conceptualizamos el mundo y los tipos de relaciones que gobiernan la interaccin humana. +Y hablar un poco sobre cada uno de ellos esta maana. +Permtanme comenzar con un problema tcnico del lenguaje que me preocupa desde hace un tiempo y espero que sepan perdonar mi pasin por los verbos y por cmo se usan. +La cuestin es, qu verbos van en qu construcciones? +El verbo es el esqueleto de la frase +es el marco sobre el cual se montan las otras partes. +Recordemos rpidamente algo que habrn olvidado hace mucho tiempo. +Un verbo intransitivo como "morir", por ejemplo, no puede llevar un objeto directo. +Debes decir, "Sam muri", no "Sam muri una muerte". +Un verbo transitivo debe llevar un objeto directo: "Sam devor la pizza". No puedes decir solamente "Sam devor". +Existen docenas o veintenas de verbos de este tipo y cada cual da forma a su frase. +En consecuencia, un problema al explicar cmo aprenden los nios el lenguaje, un problema al ensear lenguas a adultos para que no cometan errores gramaticales y un problema al programar computadoras para que usen el lenguaje es qu verbos van en qu construcciones. +Por ejemplo, la construccin dativa en ingls -- +es posible decir, "Dale un muffin (una magdalena) al ratn", el dativo preposicional +o "Dale al ratn un muffin", el dativo de doble objeto; +"Prmetele cualquier cosa a ella", "Promtele a ella cualquier cosa" y as sucesivamente. +Cientos de verbos pueden funcionar de las dos maneras. +Una generalizacin tentadora para un nio, para un adulto o para una computadora es que cualquier verbo que pueda aparecer en la construccin, "sujeto-verbo-cosa-destinatario" puede ser expresado tambin como "sujeto-verbo-destinatario-cosa". +Es algo muy til, porque el lenguaje es infinito, y no puedes repetir como un loro las frases que has escuchado. +Tienes que extraer generalizaciones para producir y entender nuevas frases. +Este podra ser un ejemplo de cmo hacerlo. +Desafortunadamente, parece haber excepciones particulares. +Es posible decir: "Biff condujo el auto hasta Chicago", pero no, "Biff condujo Chicago hasta el auto". +Puedes decir, "Sal le da a Jason jaqueca", pero es un poco raro decir, "Sal le da una jaqueca a Jason". +La solucin est en que estas construcciones, a pesar de su apariencia inicial, no son sinnimas. Porque cuando aumentas con el microscopio la cognicin humana, ves que hay una sutil diferencia de significado entre ellas. +Entonces, "Dar X a Y" -- esa construccin corresponde al pensamiento "Causar que X vaya hasta Y". Mientras que, "Dar a Y X" corresponde al pensamiento, "causar que Y tenga X" +As, muchos eventos pueden recibir las dos interpretaciones es un poco como las clsicas ilusiones pticas "fondo-figura" en las que puedes fijarte tanto en el objeto concreto, en cuyo caso el espacio de alrededor desaparece de la atencin, como en las caras en un espacio vaco, en cuyo caso el objeto desaparece de tu percepcin. +Cmo se reflejan estas interpretaciones en el lenguaje? +Bien, en ambos casos, aquello que se interpreta como la cosa afectada se expresa mediante el objeto directo: el sustantivo despus del verbo. +Por lo tanto, cuando piensas en un evento como causa de que el muffin vaya a algn lugar, donde le haces algo al muffin, dices, "Dale el muffin al ratn". +Cuando lo interpretas como "causar que el ratn tenga algo", le ests haciendo algo al ratn, y por ende lo expresas como "Dar al ratn el muffin". +Entonces, qu verbos van en qu construcciones, el problema inicial con el que empec, depende de si el verbo especifica un tipo de movimiento o un tipo de cambio de posesin. +Dar algo implica ambas cosas: causar que algo cambie de lugar y causar que alguien tenga algo. +Conducir el auto solamente causa que algo cambie de lugar, porque Chicago no es algo que pueda poseer cosas. +Solamente los seres humanos pueden poseer cosas. +Y dar jaqueca a alguien es causar que alguien tenga una jaqueca, pero no es como si sacases la jaqueca de tu cabeza y la hicieras ir hasta otra persona y luego planearas metersela en su cabeza. +Puedes ser chilln u odioso o causar que de alguna manera tengan jaqueca. +As que, este es un ejemplo del tipo de cosas que hago en mi trabajo diario. +Y por qu le debera importarle a alguien? +Bien, existen algunas conclusiones interesantes, creo, derivadas de este y de muchos tipos de anlisis similares de cientos de verbos en ingls. +En primer lugar, existe una estructura conceptual compleja con la que automtica e inconscientemente realizamos cmputos cada vez que producimos o pronunciamos una frase y que gobierna nuestro uso del lenguaje. +Podemos concebirla como el lenguaje del pensamiento o "mentals". +Parece estar basada en un conjunto prefijado de conceptos que regulan docenas de construcciones y miles de verbos -- no solo en ingls sino tambin en todas las dems lenguas -- conceptos fundamentales como el espacio, el tiempo, la causa o las intenciones humanas -- tales como cul es el medio y cul es el fin? +Nos recuerdan el tipo de categoras que Emmanuel Kant sostena que formaban el esquema bsico del pensamiento humano y es interesante que nuestro uso inconsciente del lenguaje parece reflejar esas categoras kantianas -- +no le interesan las cualidades de la percepcin como el color, la textura, el peso y la velocidad, que prcticamente nunca diferencian el uso de los verbos en diferentes construcciones. +Una cuestin adicional es que todas las construcciones en ingls se usan no slo literalmente sino de una forma cuasi-metafrica. +Por ejemplo, esta construccin, el dativo, se usa no slo para transferir cosas sino tambin para la transferencia metafrica de ideas, como cuando decimos, "Ella cont un cuento al grupo" o "les cont un cuento"; "Max ense espaol a los estudiantes" o " ense a los estudiantes espaol" +Es exactamente la misma construccin pero no hay muffins ni ratones. Nada se mueve de ninguna forma. +Esto recuerda al "envase metafrico" de la comunicacin, en el que concebimos las ideas como objetos, las frases como envases y la comunicacin como un tipo de envo-- +al decir que "recogemos" nuestras ideas para "ponerlas en" palabras y si nuestras palabras no estn "vacas" o "huecas" entonces quiz podremos llevarlas "hasta" un oyente que pueda "abrir" nuestras palabras para "extraer" su "contenido". +Este tipo de expresiones no son la excepcin sino la regla. +Es muy difcil encontrar algn ejemplo de lenguaje abstracto que no est basado en alguna metfora. +Por ejemplo, puedes usar el verbo "ir" y las preposiciones "a" y "de" en un sentido espacial literal: +"El mensajero fue de Pars a Estambul". +Tambin puedes decir "Biff pas de crtico a estable". +No necesit ir a ningn sitio. Pudo haber estado en la cama todo el tiempo, pero es como si su salud fuese un punto en un estado espacial que conceptualizas como un movimiento. +o, " la reunin fue de 3 a 4" donde concebimos el tiempo como algo que se despliega sobre una lnea +Asimismo, usamos la fuerza para indicar no slo la fuerza fsica como en "Rose forz la puerta", sino tambin la fuerza interpersonal como en "Rose forz a Sadie a marcharse"- no necesariamente tomndola con las manos sino amenazndola -- +o "Rose se oblig a irse", como si hubiera dos entidades en la cabeza de Rose luchando en un tira y afloja. +Para dar algunos ejemplos: "terminar un embarazo" contra "matar a un feto" "una bola de clulas" contra "un nio no-nacido" "invadir Irak" contra "liberar Irak" "redistribucin de la riqueza" contra "confiscacin de bienes". +Bien, dije que hablara sobre dos ventanas a la naturaleza humana: los mecanismos cognitivos con los que conceptualizamos el mundo, y ahora voy a hablar un poco sobre los tipos de relaciones que gobiernan la interaccin social humana de nuevo, tal y como se reflejan en el lenguaje. +Y empezar con un puzle: el puzle de los actos de habla indirectos. +Estoy seguro que la mayora de ustedes ha visto la pelcula "Fargo". +Y quiz recuerden la escena en la que un oficial de polica hace detenerse al secuestrador le pide que le ensee su licencia de conductor y ste saca su billetera con un billete de 50 dlares sobresaliendo en una esquina de la billetera. +Y dice: "Estaba pensando que tal vez podramos encargarnos de esto aqu en Fargo" -- lo que todo el mundo, incluyendo el pblico, interpreta como un soborno encubierto. +Esta clase de discurso indirecto es muy comn en la lengua. +Por ejemplo, en las peticiones educadas, si alguien dice: "Si pudieras pasarme el guacamole, sera maravilloso", sabemos exactamente lo que significa, incluso aunque sea un concepto bastante extrao cuando lo ponemos en palabras. +"Te gustara subir y ver mis grabados?" +Creo que la mayora de la gente entiende la intencin que hay detrs. +Y de la misma forma, si alguien dice: "Tienes una linda tienda. Sera una verdadera pena si algo le sucediera", entendemos esa frase como una amenaza encubierta ms que como una reflexin sobre posibilidades hipotticas. +Por lo tanto, el misterio es por qu los sobornos, las peticiones educadas, los pedidos y las amenazas son a menudo algo encubierto? +Nadie se engaa -- +ambas partes saben exactamente lo que el hablante quiere decir y el hablante sabe que el oyente sabe que el hablante sabe que el oyente sabe, etctera, etctera. +Entonces, qu es lo que pasa? +Creo que la idea principal es que el lenguaje es una manera de negociar las relaciones y las relaciones humanas entran dentro de varios tipos. +Los tipos de relaciones se pueden negociar. +Aunque hay situaciones prototpicas en las que se puede aplicar uno de estos esquemas mentales, se pueden desplegar y extender. +Por ejemplo, el comunitarismo se aplica la forma ms natural dentro de la familia o con amigos, pero se puede usar para intentar transferir la mentalidad del compartir a grupos que normalmente no estaran dispuestos a practicarlo, +por ejemplo, en las hermandades, las organizaciones fraternales, hermandades femeninas, expresiones como "la familia del Hombre", se intenta que gente que no est emparentada use el tipo de relacin que normalmente sera la apropiada entre familiares cercanos. +Pero la falta de entendimiento -- cuando una persona asume un tipo de relacin y la otra asume uno diferente -- puede resultar incmoda. +Si te pasas de la raya y te sirves un langostino del plato de tu jefe, por ejemplo, sera una situacin incmoda. +O si un invitado a cenar despus de la comida saca su billetera y pretende pagarte por la comida, eso sera bastante incmodo tambin. +En situaciones menos obvias, existe an un tipo de negociacin que ocurre a menudo.. +En el lugar de trabajo, por ejemplo, hay a menudo una tensin sobre si un empleado puede hacerse amigo del jefe o hablarle a l o de ella usando su nombre de pila. +Si dos amigos tienen una transaccin recproca, como la venta de un auto, es sabido que puede ser una fuente de tensin o incomodidad +En las citas, el paso de la amistad al sexo puede llevar, claramente, a distintas formas de incomodidad, al igual que el sexo en el lugar de trabajo, en el que podemos hablar del conflicto entre una relacin de dominacin y una sexual como "acoso sexual". +Bien, qu tiene que ver esto con el lenguaje? +El lenguaje, siendo una interaccin social, debe satisfacer dos condiciones. +Debe transportar un contenido concreto -- aqu volvemos a la metfora del envase. +Quieres expresar el soborno, la orden, la promesa, el requerimiento y dems -- pero tambin debes negociar y mantener el tipo de relacin que tienes con la otra persona. +El ejemplo ms sencillo de esto est en las peticiones educadas. +Si expresas tu peticin como una condicin: "Si abrieras la ventana, sera genial", aunque el contenido es una orden, el hecho de que no uses el imperativo implica que no ests actuando como en una relacin de dominacin en la que podras presuponer la aceptacin del otro. +Por otro lado, t quieres el maldito guacamole +Al expresar eso con una frase del tipo, "Si - entonces" transmites el mensaje sin parecer que mandoneas a la otra persona. +Y de una manera de ms sutil, creo, esto funciona en todos los actos de habla encubiertos que implican un rechazo creble: sobornos, amenazas, proposiciones requerimientos y dems. +Una forma de entender esto es imaginar cmo sera si el lenguaje solo pudiera ser usado literalmente. +Se puede expresar en trminos de una matriz de recompensas en la teora de juegos. +Ponte en la posicin del secuestrador que quiere sobornar al polica. +Hay grandes chances en ambas posibilidades: la de estar con un polica deshonesto o con uno honesto. +Si no sobornas al polica obtienes una multa de trnsito -- o, como en el caso de Fargo, algo peor -- dependiendo de si el polica honesto es honesto o deshonesto: +no arriesgas nada pero no ganas nada. +En ese caso, las consecuencias son bastante graves. +Por otro lado, si intentas sobornarlo y el polica es deshonesto, consigues la gran recompensa de irte libre. +Si el polica es honesto, consigues un gran castigo: te arrestan por soborno. +Por lo tanto es una situacin peligrosa. +Por otra parte, con el lenguaje indirecto si emites un soborno encubierto el polica deshonesto podra interpretarlo como un soborno, y entonces consigues la recompensa de irte libre. +El polica honesto no puede retenerte por soborno y por ende, obtienes la molestia de la multa de trnsito. +Por lo tanto, tienes lo mejor de los dos mundos. +Y un anlisis similar, pienso, puede aplicarse a la potencial incomodidad de un requerimiento sexual, y otros casos en los que un rechazo verosmil es ventajoso. +Pienso que esto confirma algo que los diplomticos saben desde hace tiempo-- que la vaguedad del lenguaje, lejos de ser un error o una imperfeccin podra ser, de hecho, un rasgo del lenguaje-- que podemos usar a nuestro favor en las interacciones sociales. +En resumen: el lenguaje es una creacin humana colectiva que refleja la naturaleza humana -- cmo conceptualizamos la realidad, cmo nos relacionamos -- +y al analizar las singularidades y complejidades del lenguaje, creo que tendremos una ventana a lo que nos hace ser cmo somos. +Muchas gracias +Entonces, dnde estn los robots? +Nos han dicho por 40 aos que ya vienen. +Muy pronto estarn haciendo todo por nosotros: +cocinarn, limpiarn, comprarn, construirn. Pero an no estn aqu. +Mientras tanto tenemos inmigrantes ilegales haciendo todo el trabajo, pero no tenemos robots. +Qu podemos hacer al respecto? Qu podemos decir? +Quiero compartir un poco de otra perspectiva, de cmo quizs podamos ver estas cosas de forma ligeramente distinta. +Y esta es una foto de rayos X de un escarabajo y un reloj suizo, del ao 1988. Viendo eso, lo que fue cierto entonces es cierto hoy. +Podemos hacer las piezas y hacerlas correctamente, +podemos hacer los circuitos para una capacidad de cmputo adecuada, pero en la prctica no podemos unirlos para construir algo que realmente funcione y sea tan adaptable como estos sistemas. +As que intentemos verlo desde una perspectiva diferente. +Llamemos al mejor diseador, la madre de todos los diseadores: +veamos que puede hacer por nosotros la evolucin. +Entonces mezclamos, creamos una sopa primordial con montones de piezas de robots, con barras, motores, neuronas. +Los juntamos todos, pusimos todo eso bajo cierta clase de seleccin natural, bajo mutacin, y recompensamos la capacidad de avance. +Una tarea muy simple, y es interesante ver la clase de cosas que surgen de ah. +As que si observan, pueden ver un montn de mquinas diferentes saliendo de esto. Todas se mueven, +Aqu est un robot fsico que de hecho tiene una poblacin de cerebros, compitiendo o evolucionando, en la mquina. +Es como un espectculo de rodeo: todos se pueden subir a la mquina y son recompensados por qu tan rpido o qu tan lejos pueden hacer que la mquina avance. +Y pueden ver que esos robots no estn listos an para dominar al mundo, pero aprenden gradualmente a avanzar y hacen esto de forma autnoma. +As que en esos dos ejemplos, bsicamente tenemos mquinas que aprendieron cmo caminar en una simulacin y tambin mquinas que aprendieron cmo caminar en la realidad. +Pero quiero mostrarles un enfoque distinto y es este robot de aqu, el cual tiene cuatro patas, +tiene ocho motores, cuatro en las rodillas y cuatro en las caderas. +Tiene tambin 2 sensores de inclinacin que le dicen a la mquina por cul lado se est inclinando. +Pero esta mquina no sabe cmo es ella misma. +Mirndola sabes que tiene cuatro patas pero la mquina no sabe si es una serpiente, un rbol, no tiene ni idea de cmo es pero va a tratar de descubrirlo. +Al principio, hace algunos movimientos al azar y entonces intenta descubrir cmo puede ser +Este es el ltimo ciclo y pueden ver que prcticamente ha descubierto cmo es y una vez que tiene un modelo de s misma, puede usarlo para derivar un patrn de locomocin. +As que lo que ven aqu son un par de mquinas, un patrn de locomocin. +Esperbamos que fuera a tener un tipo de andar maligno, arcnido, pero en cambio cre esta forma de avanzar bastante pattica. +Pero cuando miran eso tienen que recordar que esta mquina no hizo ningn ensayo fsico sobre cmo avanzar, ni tena un modelo de s misma. +Ms o menos descubri cmo era, y cmo poda avanzar, y entonces lo intent en realidad. +Entonces, probemos una idea diferente. +Eso fue lo que ocurri cuando tenamos un par de... fue lo que ocurri cuando tienes un par... OK, OK, OK, no se caen bien. Entonces hay un robot diferente. +Eso fue lo que ocurri cuando los robots fueron recompensados por hacer algo. +Qu ocurre si no los recompensas en lo absoluto, si slo los pones ah? +Tenemos estos cubos, como el diagrama muestra aqu. +El cubo puede girar, o ponerse de lado, y dejamos mil de esos cubos en una sopa, esto es en simulacin, y no los recompensamos por nada, slo los dejamos dar vueltas. Le insertamos energa a esto y vemos que ocurre en un par de mutaciones. +Al principio no pasa nada, slo estn dando de vueltas por ah. +Pero muy poco despus puedes ver esas cosas azules a la derecha que empiezan a prevalecer. +Empiezan a autorreplicarse. As que en ausencia de toda recompensa la recompensa intrnseca es autorreplicacin. +Y de hecho hemos construido un par de stos y esto es parte de un robot ms grande hecho con estos cubos, +es una vista acelerada donde puedes ver al robot ejecutando parte de su proceso de replicacin. +As que si ests dndole ms material, cubos en este caso, y ms energa y puede hacer otro robot. +Por supuesto, es una mquina muy rudimentaria pero estamos trabajando en una versin a microescala, esperando que algn da los cubos sean como un polvo que puedas echar. +Qu podemos aprender? Estos robots, por supuesto, no son muy tiles por s mismos pero podran ensearnos algo sobre cmo podemos construir mejores robots y quizs cmo los humanos y animales crean modelos de s mismos y aprenden. +Y una de las cosas que creo es importante es que tenemos que abandonar esta idea de disear mquinas manualmente sino ms bien dejarlas evolucionar y aprender, como nios, y quizs esa es la forma en que lo consigamos. Gracias. +Los avances que han tenido lugar en la astronoma, cosmologa y biologa, en los ltimos diez aos, son realmente extraordinarios -- hasta el punto en que sabemos ms de nuestro universo y de cmo funciona de lo que muchos de ustedes se imaginan. +Pero hay algo ms que he notado mientras esos cambios ocurran, mientras las personas se daban cuenta de hmm ... s, realmente hay un agujero negro en el centro de cada galaxia. +Los escritores de ciencia y editores -- No debera decir escritores de ciencia, debera decir personas que escriben acerca de la ciencia -- y editores que se sientan alrededor de unas cervezas despus de un duro da de trabajo y hablan de algunas de esas percepciones increbles acerca de cmo funciona el universo. +E inevitablemente terminaran en lo que yo pensaba era un lugar muy extrao, el cual es, formas en las cuales el mundo acabara repentinamente. +Y de eso quiero hablar hoy, Ah, ustedes se ren, tontos. Voz fuera de escena: Podemos terminar ms temprano hoy? S, necesitamos el tiempo! +Primero, todo me pareca un poco fantstico, pero despus de desafiar muchas de estas ideas, empec a tomar muchas de ellas seriamente. Entonces ocurri el 11 de Septiembre, y pens, oh, Dios, no puedo ir a la conferencia TED y hablar acerca de cmo se acabar el mundo. +Nadie quiere escuchar eso. No despus de esto! +Entonces buscamos soluciones para las maneras en que el mundo se podra acabar maana, y oh sorpresa, las encontramos. +Lo cual me lleva a una grabacin del presidente Bush en una conferencia de prensa hace unas semanas. +Podemos reproducirla, Andrew? +Presidente Bush: "Lo que cueste el defender nuestra seguridad, y lo que cueste el defender nuestra libertad, debemos pagarlo" +Estoy de acuerdo con el presidente. +El quiere 2 billones de dlares para protegernos de los terroristas el prximo ao, un presupuesto de 2 billones de dlares que nos llevar a un dficit fiscal muy rpido +-- pero los terroristas no son la nica amenaza que enfrentamos. +Hay muy serias calamidades mirndonos a los ojos las que negamos de la misma forma como con los terroristas y lo que pudo pasar el 11 de Septiembre. +Pero tambin espero -- porque pienso que la gente en este saln puede literalmente cambiar el mundo -- espero que se lleven algo de esto con ustedes, y cuando tengan la oportunidad de ser influyentes, traten de que se gaste mucho dinero en estas ideas. +Empecemos. Nmero 10: Perdemos la voluntad de sobrevivir. +Vivimos en una increble era de [la] medicina moderna; +estamos ms sanos que hace 20 aos. +La gente alrededor del mundo est recibiendo mejores medicinas -- pero mentalmente, nos estamos desmoronando. +La Organizacin Mundial de la Salud estima que una de cada cinco personas en el planeta est deprimida clnicamente. +Y la OMS tambin dice que la depresin es la epidemia ms grande que la humanidad ha enfrentado. +Pronto, los progresos en gentica y an mejor medicina van a hacer que pensemos que vivir 100 aos es algo normal. +Una nia nacida maana en promedio - la media - vivir 83 aos. +La longevidad de nuestra vida aumenta casi un ao por cada ao que pasa. +Ahora el problema con todo esto de envejecer es que la gente mayor de 65 [aos] tiende ms a suicidarse. +Cules son las soluciones? +No tenemos seguro de salud mental en este pas, y es -- -- es realmente un crimen. +Algo como el 98 por ciento de toda la gente con depresin -- y quiero decir depresin severa -- tengo un amigo con una pasmosa depresin severa -- la cual es una enfermedad curable, con la medicina actual y la tecnologa actual. +Pero es frecuentemente una combinacin de terapia hablada y pastillas. +Las pastillas por s solas no lo remedian, particularmente en gente clnicamente deprimida. +Deberas poder ir a un psiquiatra -- o a un psiclogo -- y asentar tu co-pago de 10 dlares, y obtener tratamiento, justo como lo haces cuando te cortas el brazo. Es ridculo. +Segundo, las farmacuticas no van a desarrollar realmente sofisticadas drogas psicoactivas. Sabemos que la mayora de las enfermedades mentales tienen un componente biolgico que puede tratarse. +Y sabemos asombrosamente ms sobre el cerebro ahora que hace diez aos. Necesitamos un jaln-empujn del gobierno federal, a travs del Instituto Nacional de Salud [NIH] y la Fundacin Nacional de Ciencia -- NSF -- y otros como ellos para empezar a ayudar a las farmacuticas a desarrollar algunas drogas psicoactivas avanzadas. +Pasando al Nmero Nueve -- no se ran -- los extraterrestres invaden la Tierra. +Hace 10 aos no podras haber encontrado un astrnomo -- bueno, muy pocos astrnomos -- en el mundo quienes dijeran que hay planetas en cualquier parte fuera del sistema solar. +En 1995 encontramos tres, y la cuenta llega ahora a 80, estamos encontrando dos o tres por mes. +Todos los que hemos encontrado, por cierto, estn en esta pequea esquina donde vivimos, en la Va Lctea. Debe haber millones de planetas en la Va Lctea, y como Carl Sagan insisti por mucho aos, y se rieron de l por ello, debe haber miles y miles de millones en el universo. +En unos aos NASA lanzar cuatro o cinco telescopios hacia Jpiter, donde hay menos polvo, y comenzar a buscar planetas como la Tierra, los cuales no podemos ver con la tecnologa actual, ni detectarlos. +Est siendo obvio que la probabilidad que la vida no exista en otras partes del universo, y probablemente cerca de nosotros, es una idea remota. +Y la probabilidad que alguna de ella sea ms inteligente que la nuestra es tambin una idea remota. +Recuerden, hemos sido una civilizacin avanzada -- una civilizacin industrial, si lo prefieren -- por 200 aos, +aun cuando cada vez que voy a Pompeya me asombra que tuvieran el equivalente de un McDonald's en cada esquina tambin. +Ahora, qu suceder? Qu tal que vengan, saben, para aspirar nuestros ocanos por su hidrgeno? +Y batirnos como moscas, en la forma en que batimos moscas cuando entramos en la selva y comenzamos a talarla. +Podemos mirar nuestra propia historia -- el fallecido fsico Gerard O'Neill dijo, "La civilizacin occidental avanzada ha tenido un efecto destructivo en todas las civilizaciones primitivas con las que ha tenido contacto, an en los casos donde se hicieron todos los intentos por proteger y conservar la civilizacin primitiva." +Si esos extraterrestres vienen a visitar, nosotros somos la civilizacin primitiva. +As que cules son las soluciones a esto? [Grfica: Hacer que el Departamento de Estado elabore un plan para negociar con civilizaciones avanzadas.] Gracias a Dios que todos podemos leer! +Puede parecer ridculo, pero tenemos una historia bastante mala de anticipar cosas como esta y estar preparados de hecho para ellas. +Cunta energa y dinero se lleva de hecho tener un plan para negociar con especies avanzadas? +Segundo, y van a orme ms respecto a esto -- debemos convertirnos en una nacin que mire hacia afuera, que surque el espacio. +Tenemos que desarrollar la idea que la Tierra no durar para siempre, nuestro sol no durar para siempre -- +si queremos que la humanidad dure para siempre tenemos que colonizar la Va Lctea. +Y eso no es algo que est ms all de la comprensin en este punto. +Tambin nos ayudar mucho si encontramos una civilizacin avanzada en el camino, si estamos tratando de ser una civilizacin avanzada. Nmero ocho -- Voz fuera de escena: Steve, eso es lo que voy a hacer despus de TED. (Risas y Aplausos) Lo tienes! El trabajo es tuyo. +Nmero ocho. El ecosistema colapsa. +El pasado julio, en "Science" [Ciencia], la revista "Science." 19 oceangrafos publicaron un muy, muy inusual artculo -- +no era realmente un reporte de investigacin, era un sermn. +Dijeron, hemos estado observando los ocanos desde hace un largo tiempo, y queremos decirles que no estn en problemas, estn cercanos al colapso. +Mucho otros ecosistemas en la Tierra estn en verdadero, verdadero peligro. +Estamos viviendo una poca de extinciones masivas que excede el registro de fsiles por un factor de 10,000. +Hemos perdido un 25 por ciento de las especies nicas de Hawi en los ltimos 20 aos, +esperamos que se pierda el 25 por ciento de las especies en California en los prximos 40 aos. +En algn lugar de la selva del Amazonas est el rbol marginal. +Cortas ese rbol, y la selva se colapsa como ecosistema. +Realmente hay un rbol as ah. Esto es verdaderamente a lo que llegamos. +Y cuando ese ecosistema colapse, puede arrastrar un ecosistema mayor con l, como nuestra atmsfera. As qu hacemos al respecto? Dnde estn las soluciones? +Hay algunos modelos de ecosistemas funcionando ahora. +El problema con los ecosistemas es que los entendemos tan pobremente, que no sabemos que estn en problemas, hasta que es casi demasiado tarde. +Necesitamos saber antes que estn en problemas y necesitamos ser capaces de inyectar posibles soluciones a los modelos. +Y con la clase de poder de cmputo que tenemos ahora -- hay, como digo, algo de esto funcionando, pero necesita dinero. +La Fundacin Nacional de Ciencia necesita decir -- ya saben, casi todo el dinero que se gasta en la ciencia en este pas viene del gobierno federal, de una manera o de otra. +Y tienen que priorizar, sabes? +Hay gente en la Fundacin Nacional de Ciencia quienes pueden decir esta es la cosa ms importante. +Esta es una de las cosas sobre las que debemos pensar. +Segundo, necesitamos crear amplias reservas de biodiversidad en el planeta, y comenzar a moverlas. +Hay un experimento en proceso durante los ltimos cuatro o cinco aos en la ribera del Georges -- o en los Grandes Bancos frente a Newfoundland. Es una zona de no pesca. +No puedes pescar ah por un radio de 200 millas. +Y una cosa sorprendente ha sucedido - casi todos los peces han regresado, y se estn reproduciendo como locos. Vamos a tener que comenzar a hacer esto alrededor del globo. Vamos a tener que tener zonas de no-tomar. +Vamos a tener que decir no ms tala en el Amazonas por 20 aos. +Djenlo recuperarse, antes de que comencemos a talar otra vez. +Nmero siete. Accidente de acelerador de partculas. +Recuerdan ustedes a Ted Kaczynski, el Unabomber? +Una de las cosas sobre las que deliraba era que un experimento en un acelerador de partculas pudiera salir mal y comenzar una reaccin en cadena que destruira el mundo. +Y muchos fsicos de mente sobria, lo crean o no, han tenido exactamente la misma idea. +Esta primavera, hay un colisionador en Brookhaven, en Long Island -- esta primavera van a hacer un experimento el cual crea agujeros negros. +Estn esperando crear pequeos agujeros negros. +Pero -- alrededor del mundo, en Japn, en Canad -- hablan al respecto -- de revivir esto en los Estados Unidos. +Cerramos uno que iba a ser grande. +Pero hay charlas de construir aceleradores muy grandes. +Qu podemos hacer al respecto? Dnde estn las soluciones? +Tenemos al zorro cuidando el gallinero aqu. +Necesitamos -- necesitamos el consejo de fsicos de partculas para hablar de fsica de partculas y lo que debe hacerse en la fsica de partculas, pero necesitamos ideas externas y vigilancia de lo que pasa con esos experimentos. +Segundo, tenemos un laboratorio natural envolviendo la Tierra. +Tenemos un campo electromagntico envolviendo la Tierra, y es constantemente bombardeado por partculas de alta energa, como protones. +Y no -- en mi opinin -- no pasamos suficiente tiempo observando ese laboratorio natural y calculando lo que es seguro hacer en la Tierra. +Nmero seis: Desastre Biotecnolgico. +Es uno de mis favoritos, porque he hecho varias historias acerca del maz BT. +El maz BT es un maz que crea su propio pesticida para matar al barrenador del maz. +Puede que hayan escuchado de l -- escuchado que le llaman Starling, especialmente cuando retiraron del mercado todas esas tortillas hace como un ao y medio. +Esta cosa se supona era nicamente alimento para animales en los EEUU, y se meti en la cadena alimenticia humana, y alguien debi haber calculado que se metera en la cadena alimenticia humana muy fcilmente. +Pero la cosa alarmante es que hace un par de meses, en Mxico, donde el maz BT y todo el maz alterado genticamente es totalmente ilegal, encontraron genes del maz BT en plantas silvestres de maz. +Ahora el maz se origin, pensamos, en Mxico. +Este es el almacn de biodiversidad gentica del maz. +Esto trae de vuelta un escepticismo que haba estado ausente recientemente, que las sper-yerbas y sper-plagas se podran difundir alrededor del mundo originadas en biotecnologa, que literalmente podran destruir la provisin de alimentos del mundo en muy poco tiempo. +As, qu hacemos al respecto? +Tratamos a la biotecnologa con el mismo escrutinio que aplicamos a las plantas nucleares. +As de simple. Este es un campo sorprendentemente libre de regulaciones. +Cuando sucedi el desastre Starling, haba una batalla entre la EPA y la FDA sobre quin realmente tena autoridad, y sobre qu partes de esto, y no pudieron arreglarlo durante meses. Eso es una locura. +Nmero cinco, uno de mis favoritos. Reversin del campo magntico de la Tierra. +Lo crean o no, esto sucede cada algunos cientos de miles de aos, y ha sucedido muchas veces en nuestra historia -- +el Polo Norte se va al Sur, el Polo Sur se va al Norte, y viceversa. +han transcurrido 780,000 aos desde que esto sucedi. +As -- debi pasar hace unos 480,000 aos. +Ah, y aqu hay otra cosa +-- los cientficos creen que nuestro campo magntico se ha disminuido un cinco por ciento. +As que quiz estamos en su agona. +Uno de los problemas de tratar de calcular qu tan saludable est la Tierra, es que tenemos -- ya saben, no tenemos buenos datos climticos de hace 60 aos, mucho menos datos en cosas como la capa de ozono. +As, hay una solucin bastante simple a esto. +Va a haber un montn de cohetera barata disponible, en unos seis o siete aos, que nos puede llevar a la atmsfera baja muy barato. +Ya saben, podemos hacer ozono en los escapes de los autos. +No es difcil -- es slo tres tomos de oxgeno. +Si trajeras la capa de ozono completa a la superficie de la Tierra, tendra el espesor de dos monedas, a 14 libras por pulgada cuadrada. +No necesitamos tanto ah arriba. +Necesitamos aprender a reparar y reponer la capa de ozono de la Tierra. +Nmero cuatro: Llamaradas solares gigantes. +Las llamaradas solares son enormes expulsiones magnticas desde el sol que bombardean la Tierra con partculas subatmicas de alta velocidad. +Hasta ahora la atmsfera ha hecho - y nuestro campo magntico ha hecho -- bastante bien protegindonos de esto. +Ocasionalmente, tenemos una llamarada desde el sol que causa estragos con las comunicaciones y as por el estilo, y la electricidad. +Pero lo alarmante es que los astrnomos recientemente han estado estudiando estrellas similares a nuestro sol, y encontraron que un nmero de ellas, cuando tienen alrededor de la edad de nuestro sol, se abrillantan por un factor de hasta 20. No dura mucho tiempo. +Y piensan que esas sper-llamaradas, millones de veces ms poderosas que cualquier llamarada que hemos tenido desde nuestro sol hasta ahora. +Obviamente no queremos una de esas. Hay un lado contrario -- estudiando estrellas similares a nuestro sol hemos encontrado que pasan por periodos de disminucin, cuando la cantidad total de energa que expelen baja quiz un uno por ciento. +Uno por ciento no suena a mucho, pero podra causar una infernal era del hielo aqu. +As, qu podemos hacer al respecto? +Comenzar a terraformar Marte. Este es uno de mis temas favoritos. +Escrib una historia al respecto en la revista "Life" en 1993. +Esto es ciencia espacial, pero no ciencia espacial difcil. +Todo lo que necesitamos para hacer una atmsfera en Marte, y hacer un planeta habitable en Marte, est probablemente ah. +Y slo tienes que, literalmente, mandar pequeas fbricas nucleares que consuman el xido de hierro en la superficie de Marte y escupan el oxgeno. +El problema es que se toma 300 aos terraformar Marte, mnimo. +Realmente ms como 500 aos para hacerlo bien. +No hay razn por la cual no empezar ahora. Nmero tres: No es esto interesante? -- Una nueva epidemia global. La gente ha estado en guerra contra los grmenes desde que hay gente, y de vez en cuando los grmenes obtienen una victoria. +En 1918, tuvimos una epidemia de gripa en los EEUU que mat a 20 millones de personas. +Eso cuando la poblacin era de unos 100 millones de personas. +La plaga bubnica en Europa, en la Edad Media, mat uno de cada cuatro Europeos. +El SIDA est regresando, el bola parece estar levantando la cabeza con demasiada frecuencia, y las viejas enfermedades como el clera se est volviendo resistentes a los antibiticos. +Hemos aprendido la clase de pnico que puede ocurrir cuando una vieja enfermedad levanta la cabeza, como el ntrax. +La peor posibilidad es que un germen muy simple, como el estafilococo, para el cual tenemos un antibitico que todava funciona, mute. +Y sabemos que el estafilococo puede hacer cosas sorprendentes. +Un clula de estafilococo junto a una clula muscular en tu cuerpo puede tomar genes de ella cuando llegan los antibiticos, y cambiar y mutar. +El peligro es que algn germen como el estafilococo ser -- mutar en algo que sea realmente virulento, muy contagioso, y se esparcir a travs de la poblacin antes que podamos hacer algo al respecto. +Ha pasado antes. Hace unos 12,000 aos, hubo una ola masiva de extinciones de mamferos en las Amricas, y se piensa que pudo ser una enfermedad virulenta. +As, qu hacemos al respecto? +Es una locura. Le damos antibiticos -- -- a cada vaca, cada oveja, cada gallina, les dan antibiticos cada da, +todo -- ya saben, va a un restaurante, comes pescado, tengo noticias para ti, es todo de granja. Ya saben, tienen que preguntar cuando van al restaurante si es pescado silvestre, porque no te lo dirn. Estamos regalando el cdigo -- +esto es como estar en guerra, y darle a alguien tu cdigo secreto. +Le estamos diciendo a los grmenes cmo luchar contra nosotros. +Tenemos que arreglar eso. Tenemos que hacerlo ilegal de inmediato. +Segundo, nuestro sistema de salud pblica, como vimos con el ntrax, es un verdadero desastre. +Tenemos un real brote importante de enfermedad en los EEUU, y no estamos preparados para enfrentarlo. +Ahora hay dinero en el presupuesto federal, el prximo ao, para reforzar el servicio de salud pblica. +Pero no pienso de ninguna manera que eso es realmente lo que se necesita. +Nmero dos -- mi favorita -- nos encontramos agujero negro salvaje. +Ya saben, hace 10 aos -- o hace 15 aos, realmente -- si entraras a una conversacin de astronoma y dijeras, "Saben, creo que probablemente hay un agujero negro en el centro de cada galaxia," y te sacaran a gritos del escenario. +Y ahora si fueras a una de esas convenciones y dijeras, "Bueno, no creo que hayan agujeros negros ah," te sacaran a gritos del escenario. +Nuestra comprensin de la manera en que el universo funciona es realmente -- se ha incrementado increblemente en los aos recientes. +Pensamos que hay unos 10 millones de estrellas muertas slo en la Va Lctea -- nuestra galaxia. +Y esas estrellas se han comprimido hasta algo como 12, 15 millas de dimetro, [19-24 km] y son agujeros negros. Y estn tragndose todo a su alrededor, incluyendo la luz, por lo cual no podemos verlos. +La mayora debe estar en rbita alrededor de algo. +Pero las galaxias son lugares muy violentos, y las cosas pueden lanzarse fuera de rbita, +tambin, el espacio es increblemente vasto. +As que aun cuando lanzaras un milln de esas cosas fuera de rbita, la probabilidad que una de ellas de hecho nos golpee es bastante remota. +Pero -- slo tiene que acercarse, unos mil millones de millas [1.6 mil millones km], una de esas cosas. +Unos mil millones de millas distante [1'600,000,000 km], aqu est lo que le pasa a la rbita de la Tierra -- se convierte en elptica en lugar de circular. +Y durante tres meses del ao, las temperaturas en la superficie suben a 150 o 180 [grados Fahrenheit; 65-80 C], +por tres meses del ao bajan a 50 [grados Fahrenheit; -45 C] bajo cero. +Eso no funciona muy bien. Qu podemos hacer al respecto? +Y esta es mi ms espantosa -- [Grfica: Apresuren la bsqueda de otro planeta como la Tierra.] No tengo una buena respuesta para esta. +Otra vez, tenemos que pensar respecto a ser una raza colonizadora. +Y finalmente, la nmero uno -- el mayor peligro para la vida como la conocemos, pienso, un asteroide realmente grande se encamina hacia la Tierra. +La cosa importante de recordar aqu -- no es cuestin de si, es cuestin de cundo, y qu tan grande. +En 1908, un -- solamente un fragmento de 200 pies de un cometa -- explot sobre Siberia y aplan bosques por quiz cien millas [165 km]. +Tuvo el efecto de unas 1,000 bombas de Hiroshima. +Los astrnomos estiman que pequeos asteroides como esos llegan cada 100 aos, +en 1989 un asteroide grande pas a 400,000 millas [643,737 km] de la Tierra. +Nada de que preocuparse, correcto? +Pas directamente a travs de la rbita terrestre. Estbamos en ese lugar seis horas ms tarde. +Un asteroide pequeo, digamos de media milla de ancho [800 metros], iniciara tormentas de fuego seguidas de un serio enfriamiento global debido a los desechos lanzados hacia arriba -- el asunto del invierno nuclear de Carl Sagan -- +un asteroide de cinco millas de ancho [8 km] causara extinciones mayores -- +pensamos que el que extingui a los dinosaurios era de unas cinco millas [8 km] de ancho. +Dnde estn? Hay algo llamado el Cinturn de Kuiper, el cual -- algunas personas piensan que Plutn no es planeta, ah es donde est Plutn, en el Cinturn de Kuiper. +Tambin hay algo un poco ms distante llamado la Nube de Oort +Hay unas 100,000 bolas de hielo y roca -- cometas, realmente -- ah afuera, que tienen 50 millas [80 km] de dimetro o ms, y con frecuencia se dan una vuelta hacia el sol y pasan razonablemente cerca de nosotros. +De mayor cuidado, pienso, son los asteroides que existen entre Marte y Jpiter. +Los tipos del Mapeo Celestial Digital Sloan nos dijeron el otoo pasado -- ellos estn haciendo un mapa del universo -- un mapa tridimensional del universo, que hay probablemente 700,000 asteroides entre Marte y Jpiter que tienen media milla o ms [de dimetro]. +As que dices s, bueno, cules son las probabilidad de que esto ocurra? +Andrew, puedes mostrar la grfica? +Esta es un cuadro que el Dr. Clark Chapman del Instituto de Investigacin del Suroeste present al Congreso hace unos aos. +Observarn que la probabilidad de que un impacto de asteroide / cometa te mate es alrededor de uno en 20,000, de acuerdo al estudio que ellos realizaron. +Ahora miren la lnea justo abajo de ella. +Choque de aeroplano de pasajeros, uno en 20,000. +Gastamos una barbaridad de dinero tratando de asegurar que no muramos en accidentes de avin, y no estamos gastando casi nada en esto. Y sin embargo, esto es completamente previsible. +Finalmente tenemos, justo desde el ao pasado, la tecnologa para detener esto en seco. +Podramos tener las soluciones? +La NASA est gastando tres millones de dlares al ao -- tres millones de verdes -- eso es moneda fraccionaria -- en la bsqueda de asteroides. +Porque de hecho podemos descubrir cada asteroide que est ah afuera, y si puede golpear la Tierra, y cuando puede golpear la Tierra. +Y estn tratando de hacer eso. +Pero se tomar diez aos, gastando tres millones de dlares al ao, y aun as dicen que habrn catalogado alrededor del 80 por ciento. +Los cometas son un asunto ms difcil. +Realmente no tenemos la tecnologa para predecir las trayectorias de los cometas, o cuando uno con nuestro nombre pueda llegar. +Pero tendramos mucho tiempo, si lo vemos venir. +Realmente necesitamos un observatorio dedicado. +Han observado que un montn de cometas son nombrados en honor de gente de la que nunca han odo hablar -- astrnomos aficionados? Esto es porque nadie los est buscando, excepto los aficionados. +Necesitamos un observatorio dedicado a buscar cometas. +La parte dos de las soluciones -- necesitamos averiguar cmo estallar un asteroide, o alterar su trayectoria. Ahora hace un ao, hicimos una cosa asombrosa. +Mandamos una sonda al cinturn de asteroides, llamada NEAR, Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous [Encuentro Cercano a la Tierra de Asteroides] +Y estos tipos orbitaron un 30 -- o no, un asteroide de unas 22 millas [35 km] de largo llamado Eris. +Y entonces desde luego, ya saben, salieron con una de esas trampas de la NASA donde necesitan bateras extra, y combustible extra y todo eso, y entonces en el ltimo minuto aterrizaron -- +cuando la misin termin de hecho aterrizaron en la cosa. +Hemos aterrizado un cohete en un asteroide. No es gran cosa. +Ahora el problema es que solamente mandar una bomba tras esta cosa, es que no puedes empujar contra algo en el espacio, porque no hay aire. +Una explosin nuclear es tan caliente, pero realmente no tenemos algo tan grande como para derretir un asteroide de 22 millas [35 km] de largo. O vaporizarlo, sera ms apropiado. +Pero podemos aprender a aterrizar en esos asteroides que tienen nuestro nombre y poner algo como un motor de propulsin inica en ellos, el cual gentil, lentamente, despus de un periodo de tiempo, lo empuje a una trayectoria diferente, la cual, si hemos calculado correctamente, le impida golpear la Tierra. +Esta es cosa solamente de encontrarlos, ir all, y hacer algo al respecto. +Se que les da vueltas la cabeza con estas cosas. +Caray! Tantas amenazas! +La cosa, creo, es recordar, el 11 de Septiembre. +No queremos que nos tomen desprevenidos otra vez. +Sabemos de estas cosas. +La ciencia tiene el poder de predecir el futuro en muchos casos ahora. +El conocimiento es poder. +Lo peor que podemos hacer es decir, vale, ya tengo bastante de qu preocuparme sin tener que preocuparme de un asteroide. Es un error que literalmente nos puede costar nuestro futuro. +Gracias. +Tengo 18 minutos para contarles que pas en los ltimos seis millones de aos. +Bien. +Todos hemos venido desde lejos, aqu en frica, y convergimos en esta regin de frica, que es un lugar en donde ocurri el 90 % de nuestro proceso de evolucin. +Digo eso no por ser africano, sino porque en frica uno encuentra las pruebas ms antiguas de antepasados humanos, huellas de caminar erguidos, hasta las primeras tecnologas en la forma de las herramientas de piedra. +As que todos somos africanos, y bienvenidos a casa. +Bien. +Soy paleoantroplogo, y mi trabajo es definir el lugar del humano en la naturaleza y explorar lo que nos hace humanos, +y hoy voy a usar a Selam, el infante ms antiguo que se ha descubierto, para contarles una historia de todos nosotros. +Selam es nuestro esqueleto ms completo de una nia de tres aos quien vivi y muri hace 3,3 millones de aos. +Pertenece a la especie conocida como Australopithecus afarensis. +No necesitan recordar eso. +Es la especie de Lucy, y fue descubierta por mi equipo de investigacin en el mes de diciembre de 2000 en una rea llamada Dikika. +Est en la parte noreste de Etiopa. +Selam significa la paz en muchos idiomas Etopes. +Usamos ese nombre para celebrar la paz en la regin y en el planeta. +Y el hecho de que fue el tema de portada de todas esas revistas famosas les da una idea ya de su importancia, creo. +Despus de ser invitado por TED, hice un poco de investigacin porque eso es lo que hacemos, para enterarme de mi anfitrin. +No te lanzas a ciegas ante una invitacin. +Y aprend que la primera tecnologa apareci en la forma de las herramientas de piedra de hace 2,6 millones de aos. +Pruebas del primer entretenimiento son flautas de hace 35 000 aos. +Y pruebas del primer diseo vienen desde 75 000 atrs, cuentas. +Pueden hacer lo mismo con sus genes y seguirlos atrs en el tiempo. +El anlisis del ADN de los humanos vivos y los chimpances nos ensea hoy que nuestros caminos se separaron hace unos siete millones de aos y que estas dos especies comparten ms que el 98 % de la misma materia gentica. +Creo que saber esto es un contexto muy til dentro del cual podemos pensar en nuestro linaje. +Sin embargo, el anlisis del DNA nos informa solamente sobre el principio y el final, sin contarnos nada sobre lo que pas en el intermedio. +As que nosotros los paleoantroplogos, debemos encontrar pruebas firmes, evidencia fsil, para cubrir esas lagunas y ver las diferentes etapas del desarrollo. +Porque solamente cuando se haya hecho esto que se puede hablar de... porque solamente cuando se haya hecho esto que se puede hablar de cmo parecamos y cmo nos comportbamos en los distintos tiempos, y cmo esos gustos, aspectos y comportamientos cambiaron con el tiempo. +Todo eso luego da un acceso a explorar los mecanismos biolgicos y fuerzas que son responsables por estos cambios graduales que nos hicieron lo que somos hoy. +Pero encontrar las pruebas firmes es un esfuerzo complicado. +Es un planteamiento sistemtico y cientfico, que te lleva a lugares lejanos, calurosos, hostiles y frecuentemente sin acceso. +Para darles un ejemplo, cuando fui a Dikika, en donde se encontr a Selam, en 1999, --cerca de 500 kilmetros desde Addis Abeba, la capital de Etiopa-- +nos tom apenas siete horas viajar los primeros 470 kilmetros de los 500, pero nos tom 4 horas completas viajar los ltimos 30 kilmetros. +Con la ayuda de la gente local y usando solamente palos y picos, hice mi camino. +De hecho, fui la primera persona en conducir un vehculo hasta el lugar. +Al llegar all, esto es lo que se ve, y la inmensidad del lugar lo hace a uno sentirse impotente y vulnerable. +Y una vez que se llega all, la gran pregunta es por dnde empezar. +No se encuentra nada por aos y aos. +Cuando voy a lugares as, que son sitios paleoantolgicos, es como ir a una reserva animal, una reserva de animales extintos. +Pero lo que encuentra no son los restos humanos, como Selam y Lucy, diariamente. +Uno encuentra elefantes, rinocerontes, monos, cerdos, etctera. +Pero podran preguntar, cmo podan estos mamferos grandes vivir en este ambiente desrtico? +Claro que no podan, pero les digo que el medio ambiente y la capacidad de sostenimiento de esta regin eran drsticamente distintos de lo que tenemos hoy en da. +Se podra aprender una leccin sobre el medio ambiente muy importante de sto. +Bueno, una vez all, es una reserva animal, como dije, de animales extintos. +Nuestros antepasados vivan en esa reserva animal pero eran solo una minora. No fueron tan exitosos ni tan extendidos como somos los Homo sapiens. +Para darles un solo ejemplo, una ancdota sobre su rareza, estaba yendo a este lugar cada ao y haca trabajo de campo aqu, y los asistentes, claro, me ayudaban a hacer los estudios topogrficos. +Encontraban un hueso y decan, "Lo que busca". +Y yo, "No, es un elefante". +Luego otro, "Es un mono," "Es un cerdo," Etc. +Entonces uno de mis asistentes, que no asisti a la escuela, me dijo, "Zeray. +O no sabe qu cosa est buscando, o est buscando en el lugar equivocado," dijo. +Y le dije, "Por qu?" "Porque haba elefantes y leones, y la gente tuvo miedo y se fue para otro lugar. +Vamos nosotros para ese otro lugar". +Estaba cansado, y el trabajo es muy pesado. +Despus de mucho trabajo duro y muchos aos frustrantes encontramos a Selam, y ven la cara aqu cubierta por arenisca. +Aqu est de hecho la columna vertebral y el torso entero recubierto de un bloque de arenisca, porque fue enterrada por un ro. +Lo que se tiene aqu no parece ser nada, pero contiene una cantidad increble de informacin cientfica que nos ayuda a explorar qu es lo que nos hace humanos. +Este es el ms antiguo y ms completo ancestro humano juvenil encontrado nunca en la historia paleoantropologica, un increble pedazo de nuestra larga, larga historia. +Haba tres personas y yo, yo estoy sacando las fotos, por eso no aparezco. +Cmo se sentira en mi lugar, con algo extraordinario en la mano, pero en medio de la nada? +Lo que sent fue una felicidad profunda y calma y emocin, obviamente acompaadas por un sentido de responsabilidad inmenso, de asegurar que todo fuera seguro. +Aqu ven una foto en primer plano del fsil despus de cinco aos de limpiar, preparar, y describir, que es mucho tiempo, y me toc liberar los huesos del bloque de arenisca como los mostr en la diapositiva anterior. +Tard cinco aos. +Fue como el segundo nacimiento de la nia despus de 3,3 millones de aos, pero fue un parto muy largo. +Aqu est a escala completa, es un hueso pequeito. +En medio est el ministerio del turismo etope, que vino a visitar al museo nacional de Etiopa mientras estaba trabajando all. +Me ven preocupado y tratando de proteger a mi hija, porque no se deja a nadie con esta clase de nia, ni siquiera a un ministro. +Despus de haber hecho eso, el prximo paso era enterarse de qu era lo que era. +Una vez hecho eso, luego era posible comparar. +Pudimos averiguar que perteneca al rbol familiar humano porque las piernas, el pie, y algunas caractersticas mostraron claramente que caminaba erguida, y caminar erguido es un sello caracterstico de la humanidad. +Pero adems, si uno compara el crneo con un chimpanc de edad comparable y el pequeo George Bush aqu, se ve que tiene la frente vertical, +y eso se ve en los humanos, por el desarrollo de la corteza pre frontal, como se llama. +No se ve eso en los chimpancs, y no se ve este diente canino tan sobresaliente. +As que pertenece a nuestro rbol familiar, pero dentro, claro, se hace un anlisis detallado y sabemos ahora que pertenece a la especie de Lucy, conocida como Australopithecus afarensis. +La prxima pregunta emocionante es nia o nio?, +y qu edad tena cuando muri. +Se puede averiguar el sexo del individuo basndose en el tamao de los dientes. +Cmo? +En los primates, hay un fenmeno que se llama dimorfismo sexual, que es que los varones son mayores que las hembras y tienen dientes ms grandes que las hembras. +Pero se necesita la dentadura permanente, que no se ve aqu porque lo que se tienen aqu son dientes de leche. +Pero usando tomografa computarizada que normalmente se usa en medicina, se puede entrar profundamente en la boca y salir con esta bella imagen mostrando tanto los dientes de leche aqu y los dientes de adulto, todava creciendo, aqu. +Al medir esos dientes, qued claro que empezaba a ser una nia con dientes caninos muy pequeos. +Y para saber la edad que tena al morir, lo que se hace es hacer una estimacin informada de cunto tiempo hubiera sido necesario para formar esta cantidad de dientes, y la respuesta fue tres aos. +Entonces esta nia muri cuando tena aproximadamente tres aos, hace 3,3 millones de aos. +As que con toda esa informacin, la gran pregunta es: Qu es lo que realmente... qu nos dice ella? +Para contestarla, podemos hacer otra +Qu es lo que realmente sabemos sobre nuestros antepasados? +Queremos saber su apareciencia, cmo se comportaban, cmo caminaban, y cmo vivan y crecan. +Dentro de las respuestas que se pueden obtener de este esqueleto se incluyen: primero, este esqueleto documenta por primera vez la apariencia de los infantes hace ms de 3 millones de aos. +Y segundo, nos dice que caminaba erguida, pero tena alguna adaptacin para escalar rboles. +Y ms interesante, aun, que su cerebro estaba todava creciendo. +A los tres aos, si se tiene un cerebro que todava est creciendo, es un comportamiento humano. +En chimpancs, a la edad de tres aos, el cerebro ya est ms del 90 % formado. +Por eso pueden con su ambiente ms fcilmente al nacer, ms rpido que nosotros, en todo caso. +En los humanos, sigue creciendo el cerebro. +Es por eso que necesitamos el cuidado de nuestros padres. +Pero el cuidado quiere decir que se aprende. +Se pasa ms tiempo con nuestros padres. +Y eso es muy caracterstico de los humanos y se llama niez, es esta dependencia extendida de los infantes humanos en su familia o en sus padres. +As que el cerebro todava creciente de este individuo nos informa que la niez, que requiere de una organizacin social increble, una organizacin social muy compleja, apareci hace ms que tres millones de aos. +Entonces por estar al cspide de nuestra historia evolucionaria, Selam nos une a todos y nos da una historia nica de qu es lo que nos hace humanos. +Pero no todo fue humano, y les dar un ejemplo muy emocionante. +Este es el hueso hioides, que est justo aqu. +Apoya la lengua desde atrs. +Es, de alguna manera, caja de vos. +Determina la clase de vos que uno produce. +No fue conocido en los datos de fsiles, y s lo tenemos en este esqueleto. +Cuando hicimos el anlisis de este hueso, qued claro que pareca muy chimpanc. +Entonces si uno estuviera all hace 3,3 millones de aos, para or cuando esta nia joven llorando por su madre, hubiera soado ms como un chimpanc que como un humano. +Tal vez se pregunten, "Esta caracterstica simia, esta humana, esta simia. +Qu nos dice eso?". +Saben, eso es muy emocionante para nosotros, porque muestra que las cosas estaban cambiando de manera lenta y progresiva y que la evolucin de estaba dando. +Para resumir el significado de este fsil, podemos decir lo siguiente. +Hasta ahora, el conocimiento sobre nuestros antepasados vino esencialmente de individuos adultos porque los fsiles, los fsiles de los bebs, hacan falta. +No se preservan bien, como bien se sabe. +Entonces el conocimiento que tuvimos sobre nuestros antepasados sobre su aspecto, su comportamiento, estaba en alguna medida parcial hacia los adultos. +Imagnense si viniera alguien de Marte y su trabajo fuera reportar sobre las personas de nuestro planeta Tierra, y se escondieran todos los bebs, los infantes, y l regresara y diera su reporte. +Se pueden imaginar lo parcial que sera su reporte? +Es parecido a lo que estbamos haciendo hasta ahora en la ausencia de los infantes fosilizados, entonces creo que este nuevo fsil arregla la situacin. +As que al final, la pregunta ms importante es, qu es lo que realmente aprendemos de muestras como stas, y de nuestro pasado en general? +Claro, adems de extraer esta cantidad inmensa de informacin cientfica acerca de qu es lo que nos hace humanos, los mltiples antepasados de los humanos que han existido en los ltimos seis millones de aos --y hay ms que 10-- no tenan el conocimiento, la tecnologa, ni las sofisticaciones que tenemos los homo sapiens hoy. +Pero si esta especie, especie antigua, viajara en el tiempo para vernos hoy, estaran muy orgullosos de su legado porque se convirtieron en los ancestros de la especie ms exitosa en el universo. +Probablemente no fueron conscientes de esta herencia, pero lo hicieron muy bien. +La pregunta ahora es, nosotros los Homo sapiens de hoy estamos en una posicin de decidir sobre el futuro de nuestra planeta, acaso ms. +Entonces la pregunta es, estamos listos para el desafo? +Y podemos realmente hacer mejor que estos antepasados primitivos y de cerebros pequeos? +Dentro de los desafos ms urgentes que nuestra especie enfrenta hoy son los problemas crnicos de frica. +No es necesario contarlos aqu, y hay gente ms capacitada en hablar de esto. +Sin embargo, en mi opinin, nos quedan dos posibilidades. +Una es seguir viendo una frica pobre, enferma, llorando, portando armas de fuego y que depende de otros por siempre, o promover una frica que est llena de confianza, pacfica, independiente, pero informada de sus grandes problemas y de sus grandes valores a la vez. +Voy por la segunda, y estoy seguro de que muchos de Uds. estn de acuerdo. +Y la clave es promover una actitud positiva haca frica. +Eso es porque nosotros los africanos nos fijamos --soy de Etiopa, por si acaso-- nos fijamos demasiado en cmo nos ven desde otro lado o desde afuera. +Creo que es importante promover de manera ms positiva cmo nos vemos. +Eso es lo que llamo la actitud africana positiva. +Para terminar, me gustara decir, ayudemos todos a que frica camine erguida y hacia adelante, as todos podremos estar orgullosos de nuestra futura herencia como especie. +Gracias. +Realmente he estado esperando al lado del telefono por una llamada de TED hace aos. +Y de hecho, en el ao 2000, estaba listo para hablar de eBay... pero no hubo llamada. +En el 2003 estaba listo para dar una charla sobre la Fundacin Skoll y el emprendimiento social. No hubo llamada. +En el 2004 fund Participant Productions y tuvimos un muy buen primer ao, y no hubo llamada. +Y finalmente recibo la llamada el ao pasado, y me toca hablar despus de J.J. Abrams. +Tienes un cruel sentido del humor, TED. +Cuando me mud a Hollywood desde Silicon Valley, tena algunas dudas. +Pero me di cuenta que haba algunas ventajas por estar en Hollywood. +Y, de hecho, algunas ventajas a ser dueo de tu propia empresa de medios. +Y tambin me di cuenta que Hollywood y Silicon Valley tienen mucho ms en comn de lo que yo hubiese soado. +Hollywood tiene sus smbolos sexuales, y el valle tiene sus simbolos sexuales. +Hollywood tiene sus rivalidades, y el Valle tiene sus rivalidades. +Hollywood se rene alrededor de mesas de poder, y el Valle se rene alrededor de mesas de poder, +De modo que result que haba mucho ms en comn, que yo --- que yo hubiese soado. +Pero estoy aqu para contar una historia. +Y parte de ella es una historia personal. Cuando Chris me invit a hablar, l dijo "la gente piensa de t como -- un poco como un enigma, y quieren saber que es lo que te motiva". +Y lo que realmente me motiva - es una visin del futuro que yo creo que todos compartimos. +Es un mundo de paz y prosperidad y sustentabilidad. +Y cuando nosotros -- cuando escuchamos muchas de las presentaciones, durante el ltimo par de das, Ed Wilson y las imgenes de James Nachtwey, creo que todos nos dimos cuenta de cuanto tenemos por hacer para llegar a esa nueva version de la humanidad que me gusta llamar "Humanidad 2.0". +y tambin es algo que vive en cada uno de nosotros, para cerrar lo que yo creo son las dos grandes calamidades en el mundo de hoy. +Una es la brecha en oportunidad -- esta brecha que el Presidente Clinton anoche llamo despareja, injusta e insostenible -- y de all surge la pobreza y el analfabetismo y la enfermedad y todos esos males que vemos alrededor nuestro. +Pero tal vez la otra brecha mayor es la que llamamos la brecha de esperanza. +Y alguien en algn momento tuvo esta muy mala idea que un individuo comn no poda hacer una diferencia en este mundo. +Y yo creo que eso es una cosa horrible. +Y as el Captulo Uno realmente comienza hoy, con todos nosotros, porque en cada uno de nosotros esta el poder para nivelar esas brechas de oportunidad y cerrar las brechas de esperanza. +Y si los hombres y mujeres de TED no pueden hacer una diferencia en este mundo, no se quin puede. +Y para mi, mucho de esto comenzo cuando era mas joven y mi family iba de camping al norte del estado de Nueva York. +Y realmente no habia mucho para hacer all en el verano excepto ser golpeado por mi hermana o leer libros. +Y as sola leer autores como James Michener y James Clavell y Ayn Rand. +Y sus historias hicieron que el mundo pareciera lugar muy pequeo e interconectado. +Y me di cuenta que si poda escribir historias que eran sobre este mundo como un lugar pequeo e interconectado, entonces tal vez pudiera conseguir que la gente se interesara en los temas que nos afectaban a todos. Y tal vez involucrarlos para que hagan una diferencia. +No creia que fuese necesariamente la mejor manera de ganarse la vida, por lo que decid tomar el camino para ser financieramente independiente, y as poder escribir esas historias lo mas rpido que pudiese. +Entonces tuve un llamado de atencin cuando tena 14 aos. +Y mi papa lleg a casa un da y anunci que tena cancer y que la cosa se vea muy mal. +Y lo que dijo fue, el no tenia tanto miedo de morir, pero de que no haba hecho las cosas que quera hacer con su vida. +Y, golpeemos sobre madera, el sigue vivo hoy, muchos aos despus. +Pero para un joven eso me caus una profunda impresin: que uno nunca sabe cuanto tiempo tiene realmente. +De modo que sal apurado. Estudi ingeniera. +Comenc un par de negocios que pens seran mi pasaje a la libertad financiera. +Uno de esos negocios era un alquiler de computadoras llamado Micros on the Move (Micros en Movimiento), que tena un muy buen nombre, porque la gente se las robaba. +Asi me d cuenta que necesitaba aprender un poco mas de negocios, y fu a la Escuela de Negocios de Stanford y estudi all. +Y mientras estaba all me hice amigo de una persona llamada Pierre Omidyar, que esta aqu hoy. Y Pierre, me disculpo por esto -- esta es una foto de la vieja poca. +Y justo despus de graduarme, Pierre vino a m y -- con esta idea de ayudar a la gente a comprar y vender cosas entre ellos, en lnea. +Con la sabidura de mi diploma de Stanford, dije, "Pierre, que idea estpida." +Y no hace falta decir que l tena razn. +Pero a poco de eso, Pierre -- en el '96, Pierre y yo dejamos nuestros trabajos para construir eBay como compaa. Y el resto es historia, ustedes saben. +La compaa cotiz en bolsa dos aos ms tarde y es hoy una de las empresas ms conocidas del mundo. +Cientos de millones de personas la usa en cientos de pases, y as sigue. +Pero para m personalmente, fue un cambio real. +Pas de vivir en una casa con cinco amigos en Palo Alto. y vivir de sus sobras, a repentinamente tener todo tipo de recursos. +Y yo quera descubrir como poda tomar la bendicin de esos recursos y compartirlos con el mundo. +Y alrededor de esa poca conoc a John Gardner. que es un hombre excepcional. +Fu el arquitecto de los programa de la Gran Sociedad bajo Lyndon Johnson en los 60s. +Y le pregunt que senta que era lo mejor que yo poda hacer, o cualquiera poda hacer, para hacer una diferencia en los temas de largo plazo que enfrenta la humanidad. +Y John dijo, "Apuesta en gente buena haciendo cosas buenas. +Apuesta en gente buena haciendo cosas buenas". +Y eso realmente tuvo eco en m. +Y comenc una fundacin para apostar por esa buena gente haciendo cosas buenas. +Estos lderes, innovadores, que no buscan ganancias personales, que utilizan habilidades de negocios de manera muy apalancada para resolver problemas sociales. +Gente que hoy llamamos emprendedores sociales. +Y para ponerle un rostro, gente como Mohammed Yunus, que fund el Grameen Bank, que ha sacado 100 millones de personas o mas de la pobreza en todo el mundo, gan el premio Nobel de la Paz. +Pero tambin hay mucha gente que ustedes no conocen. +Gente como Ann Cotton, que comenz un grupo llamado CAMFED en Africa porque senta que la educacin de las nias estaba retrasada. +Y ella lo comenz hace como 10 aos y hoy, ella educa a ms de un cuarto de milln de nias africanas. +Y alguien como la Dra. Victoria Hale, que comenz la primera empresa farmacutica del mundo, sin fines de lucro. Y cuya primera droga combatir la leishmaniasis visceral, tambin conocida como la fiebre negra. +Y para el 2010 ella espera haber eliminado la enfermedad, que es un verdadero flagelo en el mundo en vas de desarrollo. +Y as esto --- esto es un modo de apostar a que buena gente har cosas buenas. +Y mucho de esto viene junto con una filosofa de cambio que para m es realmente poderosa. +Es lo que llamamos, "Invierte, conecta y celebra". +Invierte -- si tu ves gente buena haciendo cosas buenas, invierte en ellos. Invierte en sus organizaciones. O en negocios, invierte en esta gente. +Conectndola a travs de conferencias, como TED, que trae tantas conexiones poderosas, o a travs del Foro Mundial de Emprendimiento Social que mi fundacin hace en Oxford cada ao. +Y celebremoslos, contemos sus historias, porque no solo hay buena gente haciendo buen trabajo, pero sus historias pueden ayudar a cerrar la brecha de esperanza. +Y eso fue la ltima parte de la misin, la parte de celebrar, la que realmente me puso a pensar en cuando era nio y quera contar historias para involucrar a la gente en esos temas que nos afectan a todos. +Y se encendi la lmpara, que fue primero, que no necesitaba escribir yo, poda encontrar escritores. +Y luego la siguiente lmpara fue, mejor que solo escribir, que hay de las pelculas y TV, para llegar a la gente de gran modo? +Y pens en las pelculas que me inspiraron, pelculas como "Gandhi" y "La Lista de Schindler". +Y me pregunt quin haca ese tipo de filmes hoy. +Y no haba realmente una compaa especfica que se enfocara en en inters pblico. +As que en el 2003, comenc a dar vueltas por Los Angeles para hablar de la idea de una compaa de medios pro-social y recib mucho estmulo. +Una de esas frases de aliento que escuch una y otra vez era, "Las calles de Hollywood estan llenas de cadavers de gente como tu, que cree que va a venir a esta ciudad y hacer pelculas." +Y claro, tambin estaba la otra frase, +"La manera mas segura de volverse millonario es empezar siendo billonario y entrar en el negocio del cine." +Sin inmutarme, en enero de 2004 fund Participant Productions con la visin de ser una empresa global de medios enfocada en el inters pblico. +Y nuestra misin es producir entretenimiento que crea e inspira cambio social. +Y no solo queremos que la gente vea nuestras pelculas y digan eso fue divertido, y se olviden de ello. +Queremos que se involucren en estos asuntos. +En el 2005 lanzamos nuestra, nuestra primera tirada de pelculas, "Murder Ball", "North Country", "Syriana" y "Good Night and Good Luck". +Y muy a mi sorpresa, fueron vistas. +Terminamos con 11 nominaciones para el Oscar por esos filmes. +Y termin siendo un ao bastante bueno para este seor. +Tal vez ms importante, decenas de miles de personas se unieron a programas de apoyo y programas activistas que fueron creados para rodear estas pelculas. +Y tenamos un componente online de esto, nuestra secta comunitaria llamada Participate.net +Pero con nuestros socios sociales como el ACLU y PBS y el Sierra Club y la NRDC, una vez que la gente vi la pelcula haba algo que realmente podan hacer, para hacer una diferencia. +Uno de estos filmes en particular llamado "North Country", fue realmente un especie de fracaso de taquilla. +Pero era una pelcula con Charlize Theron como estrella y era sobre los derechos de las mujeres, darle poder a las mujeres, violencia domestica, y eso. +Y lanzamos la pelcula al mismo momento que el congreso debata la renovacin de la Ley de Violencia Contra las Mujeres. +Y con proyecciones en el congreso y discusiones, y con nuestros socios del sector social, como la Organizacin Nacional de Mujeres , la pelcula recibi una amplia reputacin de haber influenciado la exitosa renovacin de la Ley. +Y eso para m, dice muchsimo, porque es la -- la pelcula que comienza sobre una historia real. Sobre una mujer que fue acosada, enjuici a su empleador, llev a un caso fundamental para la Ley de Igualdad de Oportunidades, y la Ley de Violencia Contra las Mujeres y otras. +Y despus la pelcula sobre esta persona haciendo estas cosas, luego llev a esta mayor renovacin. +Y as nuevamente, volvemos a lo de apostar por buena gente haciendo cosas buenas. +Hablando de ello, nuestro TEDster colega, Al, Vi por primera vez a Al hacer su presentacin de transparencias sobre el calentamiento global en Mayo de 2005. +Hasta ese momento pens que saba algo sobre calentamiento global. +Yo pensaba que era un problema a 30 o 50 aos. +Y despus de ver su presentacion, se me hizo claro que el problema era mucho mas urgente. +Y as apenas termin, me encontr con Al entre bambalinas y con Lawrence Bender que estaba all, y Laurie David y Davis Guggenheim, que manejaba los documentales de Participant en esa poca. +Y con la bendicin de Al, decidimos all mismo transformarla en una pelcula, porque sentimos que podamos sacar el mensaje mucho ms rpido que teniendo a Al dando la vuelta al mundo, hablando a pblicos de 100 o 200 personas por vez. +Y ustedes saben, hay otro dicho en Hollywood, que nadie sabe nada de nada. +Y yo realmente pens que esto iba a ser una iniciativa de caridad que iba directo a PBS (TV pblica). +Y asi que fue una gran sorpresa para todos nosotros cuando el filme realmente captur el inters del pblico, y hoy es una vista obligatoria en colegios de Inglaterra y Escocia, y la mayora de Escandinavia. +Hemos enviado 50.000 DVDs a maestros de escuelas secundarias en USA +y realmente ha cambiado el debate sobre el calentamiento global. +Tambin fue un ao bastante bueno para este seor. +Ahora llamamos a Al el George Clooney del calentamiento global. +Y para Participant, esto es solo el comienzo. +Todo lo que hacemos mira los asuntos ms importantes del mundo. +Y tenemos 10 pelculas en produccin ahora mismo y docenas ms en desarrollo. +Voy a hablar rpidamente de unas pocas que estn viniendo. +Una es "Charlie Wilson's War," con Tom Hanks y Julia Roberts. +Y es la historia real del congresista Charlie Wilson y como di fondos al Taliban, para pelear con los rusos en Afganistn. +Y tambin estamos haciendo una pelcula llamada "The Kite Runner", basada en el libro "The Kite Runner", tambin sobre Afghanistan. +Y creemos que una vez que la gente vea estas pelculas van a tener un entendimiento mucho mejor de esa parte del mundo y del Medio Oriente en general. +Estrenamos una pelcula llamada "The Chicago 10" en Sundance este ao. +Esta basada en los que protestaron en la Convencin Demcrata de 1968. Abby Hoffman y equipo. Y nuevamente, es una historia de un pequeo grupo de individuos que hicieron un cambio en el mundo. +Y un documental que estamos haciendo sobre Jimmy Carter y sus esfuerzos de paz en el Medio Oriente a travs de los aos. +Y en particular, hemos seguido su reciente gira por su libro que como muchos de ustedes saben, no ha generado controversias --- -- que es realmente malo para conseguir que la gente venga a ver un filme. +Para cerrar, quisiera decir que todos tienen la oportunidad de hacer un cambio a su propio modo. +Y todas las personas en esta habitacin lo han hecho a travs de su vida de negocios, o su trabajo filantrpico o sus otros intereses. +Y una cosa que he aprendido es que nunca hay un camino correcto para hacer un cambio. +Uno lo puede hacer como un tcnico o como un financista o como persona sin fines de lucro o como persona del entretenimiento, pero cada uno de nosotros es todas esas cosas y mas. +Y yo creo que si hacemos esas cosas podemos cerrar las brechas de oportunidad. Podemos cerrar las brechas de esperanza. +Y puedo imaginar que si hacemos esto, los titulares en 10 aos puede ser algo as: "Nuevos casos de SIDA en Africa caen a cero", "USA importa su ltimo barril de petroleo", -- "Israeles y palestinos celebran 10 aos de coexistencia pacfica". +Y a mi me gusta sta, "La nieve vuelve al Kilimanjaro". +Y finalmente, se ofrece en eBay una presentacin muy viajada ya obsoleta, una pieza de museo -- favor contactar a Al Gore. +Y yo creo que trabajando juntos, podemos hacer que todas estas cosas pasen. +Y quiero agradecerles a todos por tenerme hoy aqu, +Ha sido un verdadero honor. Gracias. +Oh, Gracias. +Hace tres aos recib una llamada por una pelcula que haba realizado anteriormente... y me ofrecan trabajar como periodista corresponsal en la Guardia Nacional de New Hampshire. +Lo pens, me despert en mitad de la noche. Todos hemos pasado por esos momentos. Estaba muy emocionada por la llamada, +pensaba que acababa de terminar una pelcula sobre los veteranos de la II Guerra Mundial... y me d cuenta de que logr conocer sus historias. Me di cuenta de que era una oportunidad nica en mi vida: Poder narrar la historia de un soldado en directo. +Esa noche me fu a la cama muy emocionada. +No estaba muy segura de todos los detalles, pero si muy emocionada. +No eran las cuatro de la madrugada pero s era casi medianoche... +cuando me despert de golpe, completamente lcida... +y tuve una idea: Y si pudiera integrarme en la historia de forma virtual... y al mismo tiempo crear un vnculo con los soldados? +Y si pudiera contar la historia desde adentro hacia afuera y no al contrario? +Entonces volv a llamar al Mayor Heilshorm, Oficial en Relaciones Pblicas de la Guardia Nacional de New Hampshire. +Me reconoci y entonces le dije: "Greg?" +A lo que el respondi: "S, Deborah?" +Le cont mi idea y ya saben, l es uno de los hombres ms valientes del mundo, igual que el General Blair. l fue el que me autoriz para seguir con este experimento. +En menos de 10 das estaba en Fort Dix. +Me di a elegir entre las unidades. +Yo eleg la Compaia Charlie, Tercera de la 172... de la Infantera de montaa, por dos motivos. +Primero porque eran infantera; +y segundo porque iban a estar en la base Anaconda, as que tendran acceso a Internet. +La condicin para acceder era conseguir a soldados voluntarios. +Esto era muy importante. Creo que cuando el Mayor H. me lo dijo... no comprend por completo lo que quera decir. +A lo que se refera, era que cuando llegara a Fort Dix. deba pararme frente a 180 hombres y explicarles mi visin de las cosas. +Podrn imaginar la avalancha de preguntas que recib. +La primera fu... "Qu mierda sabs t acerca de la Guardia Nacional? +Le cont las Guerras contra los Indios Pequot, en la Baha de Massachusetts en 1607... +y mi respuesta se extendi nueve minutos. As fue como empezamos. +Ahora, me gustara mostrarles una parte del documental. +Es como un trailer ya que obviamente est muy ocupados... y otros no han tenido la oportunidad de verlo. +As que vamos a ver el video, y luego voy a coger una escena para comentarla. +Podemos empezar? +Pink: Este es el Sargento Stephen Pink. +Moriarty: Especialista Michael Moriarty. +Bazzi: Realmente quiero ir? Probablemente no. +Soldado: Se supone que no debera hablar con la prensa. +P: Yo no soy de la prensa, joder! +M: Lleg el da. Mi vida no va ser la misma. +S: Esto es de verdad! Estn listos? +Venga! Listo? Iraq, all vamos! +B: De vez en cuando, todo soldado quiere combatir. +Es un instinto natural. +P: Si permites que el miedo te domine... no vas a hacer bien tu trabajo. +M: Cada vez que sales, hay ataques. +Es increble. +B: Eh, Nestor, tu culo est justo en mi cara! +S: Quinto, Estamos ardiendo? +Hombre muerto! Hombre muerto! +M: Sigue as hermano! Quers jugar? +Esposa de Moriarty: Para l es muy duro no tener a su padre. +M: Este nio est en el medio de una zona de guerra. +Novia de Pink: Al principio, l me deca "Escrbeme algo guarro!" +G. W. Bush: La nueva democracia del mundo. +M: Me estn disparando. +P: No pongas 150,000 tropas all... para decir que estn construyendo una democracia. +Soldado: Ya tenemos autoservicio en Burger King. +P: Estamos aqu para crear dinero. +M: Yo estoy de acuerdo con George Bush. No estamos all por el petrleo. +Jon Baril: Es lo peor que me ha pasado en la vida. +P: Baril, no mires amigo. +Esposa de M: l ya no es el mismo de antes. +M: Yo no voy a volver. +Kevin Shangraw: Se supone que estamos all para ayudar... y acabamos de matar uno. +Soldado: El Sargento Smith est muerto! El Sargento Smith est muerto? +All estn! Justo ah! Fuego, fuego! +Baril: Ser un mejor pas dentro de 20 aos porque estuvimos all. +Eso espero. +Deborah Scranton: Muchas gracias. +Una de las cosas sobre las que me gustara hablarles... es sobre cmo sostener una conversacin en un tema difcil de tratar. +Y me gustara contarles cierta experiencia que tuve aqu en TED. +No s cuntos de ustedes lo sabrn, pero entre nuestra audiencia se encuentra alguien que recientemente regres de Iraq. +Paul? Vamos, ponte de pie. +l es Paul Anthony. +Sirvi en la Marina, y quiero contarles una pequea historia. +Fuimos de los pocos afortunados... que pudimos entrar a la clase con cmaras Sony y el sistema operativo Vista, +Bien?, entonces comenzamos a hablar. +La gente vio mi etiqueta y ley "Cintas de Guerra", y comenzamos a hablar de la guerra. +Empezamos a conversar con otras personas de la clase, y la conversacin sigui, y sigui. +Es decir, estuvimos all una hora hablando. +Hubo un tema que realmente me marc y me gustara pedirles... que lo piensen y tal vez me ayuden un poco. Muchos nos sentimos muy inseguros al hablar acerca de la guerra... y hablando de poltica. +Eso es porque no necesariemante vayamos a estar de acuerdo. +Tal vez la situacin se vuelva incmoda. +Cmo hacemos para conversar abiertamente? +As que ya saben, Paul estaba hablando y... luego se volvi hacia Constance y dijo: "Saben? Yo no tendra esta conversacin si ella no estuviese aqu, porque s que ella me apoya". +Lo que quiero decir es que estaba nerviosa. +Como estoy acostumbrada a hacer entrevistas... +me sent identificada con lo que James deca ayer. Como estoy siempre detrs de cmaras, +puedo responder preguntas acerca de mi documental, pero estar aqu y exponer durante 18 minutos es mucho tiempo para m. +Retomando, lo que quera decir era: "Paul, me alegra mucho que estes aqu". "Porque s que me apoyas". +Este documental no era sobre Internet... pero no hubiese podido realizarse sin l. +Las cintas de los soldados tardaron, de media, dos semanas en llegar desde Iraq. +Mientras tanto, nos envibamos correos y chatebamos con los soldados. +No guard todos los registros, porque al principio no me d cuenta... que sera algo que me hubiera gustado guardar. +Fueron 3.211 emails, chats y mensajes de texto, los que logr conservar. +La razn por la que cuantifico esta informacin es porque realmente nos embarcamos en una aventura mutua... para llegar al final del mismo. +Por eso quiero mostrarles otro segmento, y luego les contar un poco de cmo logramos llevarlo a cabo. +Vamos a ver si podemos verlo. +Pink: Hoy es un deporte. +Queremos darle a estos insurgentes una oportunidad justa. +Por eso lo que hacemos es andar con las ventanillas bajadas. +Porque, como ustedes saben, obviamente jugamos con ventaja. Estoy bromeando. +Nunca vamos con las putas ventanillas bajadas. +Ni de broma, es muy inseguro. +Vaya! +Soldado: Por all. +P: Vale, vayamos para all. +Tengan en cuenta, estamos saliendo de Taji en este momento. +Creemos que la explosin fue justo afuera de la entrada de Taji, ahora estamos yendo a esa posicin. +Soldado: Es un puto coche bomba! +Soldado: Hijos de puta! +Soldado: Pnganse el chaleco! +Eh, pasa sobre el maldito... s, s. +Cualquier elemento del 1-4 vayan a la entrada! +Alguacil 1-6, o cualquiera elemento de 1-4 , los necesitamos en la entrada de Taji ahora mismo, cambio. +Hombre: Te voy guiando. +Mantnganse agachados. Dirgete a la derecha. +Coge tu mochila, coge tu mochila CLS! +P: Haba bajas en masa. +Probablemente 20 muertos y al menos 20 o 30 Iraques heridos. +P: Pareca... ya sabes, como si alguien hubiese tirado una moneda a un tipo, y fue como... No sala sangre de las heridas de bala. +Todo se haba cauterizado, era como si hubiese un vaco atravesando su cuerpo. +Esta es la escena del norte. +Acaban de quitar un cuerpo quemado de aqu, o ms bien medio cuerpo. +No creo que haya quedado algo desde su abdomen hacia abajo. +Esto es sangre. +Sabes?, caminas... y escuchas los pedazos de piel y... +eso es todo, es todo lo que queda. +Recuerdo haber inyectado tres intravenosas, haber vendando varios heridos. +Soldados sentados en la esquina de la barricada, temblando y gimiendo. +Mdicos que estaban tan asustados que no podan ejercer. +Ms tarde o que en Taji no estaba permitido dar tratamiento a heridos Iraques. +Pueden trabajar por unos centavos en los puestos de paso, pero no pueden morir all. +Tienen que morir fuera. +Si alguno de los mdicos incompetentes me hubiera ordenado dejar el tratamiento... le hubiera cortado la garganta ah mismo. +21 horas, y es slo nuestro escuadrn... repasando en nuestras mentes lo que pas hoy... queramos hacerlo o no. +Reportera: Ms violencia en Iraq. +Dos suicidas en coches bomba dejan ocho Iraques muertos y docenas de heridos, cerca a una base de la coalicin al norte de Baghdad... +P: Salimos en las noticias. +Me sent explotado y orgulloso al mismo tiempo. +Ya perd la fe en los medios, son una broma de la que prefiero burlarme en vez de formar parte de ella. +Debera agradecerle a Dios salvar mi afortunado culo. +Voy a hacer eso, y luego me voy a hacer una paja. +Porque estas pginas huelen a Lindz... y no va a haber tiempo para masturbarse maana. +Otra misin a las 06:00. +Deborah Scranton: Ahora... Gracias. +Cuando dije que iba a tratar de contar la historia desde adentro hacia afuera, en vez de desde afuera me refera a... parte que de lo que dijo Chris tan elocuentemente en su introduccin tiene que ver con esta fusin. +Es una nueva forma de intentar crear un documental. +Cuando conoc a los soldados, diez de ellos aceptaron llevar cmaras, y al final, en total, 21 terminaron filmando. +Cinco soldados filmaron a tiempo completo. +De ellos, presentamos tres en el documental. +Aprend sobre Taji gracias a un correo que me envi Steve Pink. Tambin adjunt una foto del cuerpo quemado cerca del coche. +El tono del correo era, ya sabes, obviamente haba sido un da muy duro. +Y vi en mi ventana del chat que Mike Moriarty estaba en la base. +Entonces le habl y le dije: "Mike, podras por favor ir a entrevistar a Pink?" +Porque lo que se pierde muy comunmente es... algo que los militares llaman "en caliente". +Es esa entrevista inmediata justo despus de algna mision. Y, como ya saben, +si se deja pasar un tiempo... la historia se suaviza y pierde fuerza. +Para m, eso es algo valioso. +Era necesario para poder compartir la experiencia completa con ustedes. Los montajes ms famosos... eran los de la cmara en la ametralladora... y la de el salpicadero del Humvee. +Terminamos instalando cmaras en la mayora de Humvees. +De esta forma pueden ver todo como en tiempo real. +La entrevista que vieron es la que Mike realiz... 24 horas despus de lo sucedido. +La escena donde Steve Pink est leyendo su diario... se grab cinco meses despus de que regresara a casa. +Yo saba que el escriba en su diario, pero era algo muy, muy privado. +Y bueno, uno se gana la confianza de alguien, especialmente mientras se filma un documental, a travs de la relacin que se sostiene. +No fue hasta despus de seis meses de que volviera... que decidi leerme su diario. +La parta del telediario lo inclu para tratar de mostrar... que los medios tratan de hacer lo mejor que pueden... de acuerdo a sus limitaciones. +Pero todos hemos odo varias veces a soldados Estadounidenses diciendo: "Por qu no hablan de las cosas positivas que hacemos?" +Este es un ejemplo perfecto. +Dos escuadrones pasaron el da entero fuera de la base, el escuadrn de Pink fue uno de ellos. +Ellos no tena que salir de la base. +No haba soldados heridos fuera. +Se pasaron el da entero intentando salvar vidas Iraques. Iraques que trabajan en los puestos. +Cuando oigan a soldados quejndose, eso es de lo que se estn quejando. +Y el hecho de que hayan compartido esto me parece un regalo maravilloso. Es como un vnculo. +I cuando hablo de esa polaridad, me llueven tantas preguntas... y cada uno sostiene su punto de vista. +Parece como si no quisieran or sobre el tema. O escuchar, ni si quiera intercambiar ideas. +Yo soy tan apasionada como cualquier otra persona, pero... as como varios oradores han hablado de su preocupacin por el mundo, mi preocupacin se basa en que tenemos que tener estas conversaciones. +Y tenemos que estar dispuestos a sentirnos incmodos. Porque creemos que ya lo sabemos todo, +pero tenemos que ser un poco ms abiertos para poder saber. +Nuestras opiniones estn como muy desconectadas. +Creo que deberamos tratar de llegar a un acuerdo. +Voy a compartir una historia. +A menudo me preguntan... cules fueron los momentos ms especiales de mi trabajo en este documental. +Inevitablemente durante las proyecciones. Estoy segura que todos ustedes dan alguna charla. A menudo hay personas que se acercan porque quieren hacer ms preguntas. +Y por lo general las primeras preguntas son, "Que clase de cmaras utiliz?" +Esa clase de cosas. +Pero casi siempre hay algunos que se quedan hasta el final... +y me he dado cuenta de que siempre son soldados. +Esperan hasta que todos los dems se hayan ido. +Para m, una de las historias ms profundas que compartieron conmigo... se convirti en m historia, fue... y para los que no han visto el filme, no es un adelanto, es que los accidentes civiles son muy comunes. En particular, en los que la gente se para en frente de un Humvee y son atropellados. +En el filme, hay una escena donde una mujer Iraqu es atropellada. +Un soldado vino y se par en frente de m, muy cerca. A un pie de distancia. +Era un tipo alto. +Me mir y yo sonre. Entonces sus ojos se comenzaron a llenar de lagrimas, +y no parpadeaba. +Y dijo: "Mi artillero estaba regalando dulces". +Y yo supe lo que me iba a decir. +El artillero estaba regalando dulces. +Acostumbraban a regalar dulces a los nios. +A menudo los nios se acercaban demasiado. +Y l dijo: "Yo mat a un nio". +"Soy padre, tengo hijos". +"No he sido capaz de decrselo a mi esposa". +"Tengo miedo de que piense que soy un monstruo". +Yo, por supuesto, lo abrac. Y le dije: "Todo va salir bien". +Y el dijo: "Voy a traerla a ver su documental". +"Y despus se lo voy a decir". +Cuando hablo de esa desconexin... no es slo por las personas que no conocen a un soldado, lo cual obviamente ocurre. No es como durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial; haba un frente en la guerra y otro frente en casa. Todos estaban involucrados. +Ahora uno se puede pasar das sin sentir que estamos en guerra. +Y a menudo oigo a gente decir. Gente que tal vez sabe que hice esta pelcula: "Estoy en contra de la guerra, pero apoyo a los soldados". +Entonces yo les pregunto: "Bueno, eso est muy bien. Que ests haciendo?" +"Ests de voluntario en alguna oficina de ayuda a veteranos?" +"Vas a visitar a alguien?" +"Cuando te das cuenta que tu vecino ha estado all, te quedas a charlar con l?" +"No necesariamente a preguntar, pero solo a charlar?" +"Haces donaciones a alguna organizacin de beneficencia?" +Ya saben, como el maravilloso trabajo que est haciendo Dean Kamen. Pero tambin hay organizaciones donde se pueden ayudar con ordenadores para soldados heridos. +Creo que es para m un desafo... el empezar a materializar el apoyo que profesamos, no? +Eres amigo de algn veterano? +Realmente te importa? +Quisiera decirles que tengo esperanza. Y que me gustara pedirles algo. Por favor, echen una mano. +Denles un abrazo sincero. +Muchas gracias. +Acerca de la Simplicidad. Que gran manera de comenzar. +Primero que todo, he estado observando esta tendencia en la cual tenemos libros como "Tal y tal para Dummies" +Conocen estos libros?, estos "Tal y tal para Dummies"? +Mis hijas me comentaron que yo soy muy parecido, as que esto es un pequeo problema. +Pero, estuve buscando en Internet en Amazon.com otros libros como este. +Saben que existe algo llamado la Gua del Completo Idiota? +Hay una clase de modelo de negocios alrededor de esto de ser estpido de alguna manera. +Nos gusta hacer que la tecnologa nos haga sentir mal, por alguna extraa razn. +Pero eso realmente me gusta, por lo que escrib un libro llamado "Las Leyes de la Simplicidad". +Estuve en Miln la semana pasada, para su lanzamiento en Italia. +Es como un libro de preguntas -- preguntas acerca de la simplicidad. +Muy pocas respuestas. Tambin me pregunto a mi mismo, Qu es simplicidad? +Es buena? Es mala? Es mejor la complejidad? No estoy seguro. +Luego de escribir "Las Leyes de la Simplicidad", estaba muy cansado de la simplicidad, como pueden imaginarlo. +Y entonces en mi vida, descubr que las vacaciones son la habilidad ms importante para cualquier clase de persona que se desempea por encima de lo esperado. +Porque las compaas siempre les quitarn sus vidas, pero nunca podrn quitarles sus vacaciones -- en teora +Entonces vine al Cabo el verano pasado para esconderme de la simplicidad, y fui a la tiendas Gap porque slo tengo pantalones negros. +Fui y compr unos pantalones cortos de color khaki o lo que sea, y desafortunadamente su eslogan era "Mantnlo Simple". +Abr una revista y el eslogan de Visa era, "Los Negocios Requieren Simplicidad". +Revel unas fotos y Kodak deca "Mantnlo Simple". +Por lo tanto me sent un poco extrao ya que la simplicidad pareca estar siguindome. +Entonces, enciendo la TV, yo no veo mucho la TV, pero ustedes conocen a esta persona -- esta es Paris Hilton, aparentemente +Y ella tiene este programa, "La Vida Simple". +As que lo vi. No es muy simple, es un poco confuso. +Entonces, busque un programa diferente para ver. +Y abri esta gua de TV, y en el canal E! este show "La Vida Simple" es muy popular. +Lo repetiran una y otra y otra vez. +Por lo que era traumatizante, realmente. +Por eso quera escapar de nuevo, entonces sal hacia mi automvil, +y en Cape Cod, hay caminos idlicos -- y todos nosotros aqu en la sala podemos conducir. +Y cuando conduces, estas seales son muy importantes. +Es una seal simple, dice "Va" y otra "Va acercndose ". +Y conduzco mayormente en sentido recto, bien, y luego veo esta seal. +Por lo que pens que la complejidad me estaba atacando repentinamente, y pens, "Ah, la simplicidad -- muy importante". +Pero luego pens, "Oh, la simplicidad, Cmo sera si estuviera en un playa? +Qu tal si el cielo fuera 41 por ciento gris? -- No sera el cielo perfecto?" +Quiero decir, ese cielo con simplicidad. +Pero en realidad el cielo se vea como este, era un cielo bello y complejo. +Saben, con los rosados y azules. No podemos evitar amar a la complejidad. +Somos seres humanos y amamos las cosas complejas. +Amamos las relaciones. Somos muy complejos. Por lo tanto amamos este tipo de cosas. +Estoy en este lugar llamado el Laboratorio de Medios. +Quiz alguno de ustedes, amigos, haya escuchado acerca de este lugar. +Fue diseado por I. M. Pei, uno de los ms importantes arquitectos modernistas. +Modernismo significa caja blanca y es una perfecta caja blanca. +Y algunos de ustedes, amigos, son empresarios, etctera. +El mes pasado estuve en Google, y Dios mo! Esa cafetera! +Ustedes, amigos, tienen cosas aqui en Silicon Valley como las opciones de participacin accionaria. +Vean, en la universidad obtenemos ttulos, muchos ttulos. +El ao pasado en TED, estos eran todos mis ttulos. Yo tengo muchos ttulos. +Yo tengo un ttulo asignado como padre de un grupo de hijas. +Este ao en TED, me contenta informar que tengo nuevos ttulos adicionales a mis ttulos anteriores. +Otro Director Asociado de Investigacin. +Y esto sucedi tambin, por lo que ahora tengo cinco hijas. +Es mi beb Reina. Gracias. +Y por lo tanto mi vida es mucho ms compleja gracias al beb, realmente. pero eso est bien. Seguiremos casados, creo. +Pero -- mirando hacia atrs cuando yo era un nio -- ven, yo creci en una fbrica de tofu en Seattle. +Puede que a muchos de ustedes no les guste el tofu porque no han probado un buen tofu, pero el tofu es un buen alimento. Es un tipo de alimento muy simple. +Es un trabajo muy duro hacer tofu. +Cuando nio acostumbrabamos levantarnos a la una AM y trabajar hasta las seis PM, seis das a la semana. +Mi padre era algo as como Andy Grove, paranoico por la competencia. +Por lo que con frecuencia, siete das a la semana. Negocio de familia significa nios trabajando. +Eramos un gran ejemplo. Por lo que adoraba ir a la escuela. +La escuela era magnfica, y quizs el ir a la escuela me ayud a llegar a este Laboratorio de Medios. No estoy seguro. +Gracias. +Pero el Laboratorio de Medios es un lugar interesante y es importante para mi porque como estudiante, yo era un estudiante de ciencias de la computacin, y posteriormente en mi vida descubr el diseo. +Y estuvo esta persona, Muriel Cooper. +Qun conoce a Muriel Cooper? Muriel Cooper? +No era maravillosa? Muriel Cooper. Ella era excntrica. +Y ella fue una expositora en TED, exactamente, y nos mostr -- ella mostr al mundo como hacer bonita la computadora de nuevo. +Y ella es muy importante en mi vida, por que ella es la que me sugiro dejar el MIT e ir a la escuela de arte. +Ese fue el mejor consejo que he recibido. Por lo que me fui a la escuela de arte, gracias a ella. +Ella muri en 1994, y fui contratado de nuevo por el MIT para intentar cubrir su espacio, pero es muy difcil. +Esta persona maravillosa, Muriel Cooper. +Cuando estuve en Japn -- Yo fui a una escuela de arte en Japn -- Tuve una agradable situacin, por que de alguna manera estuve conectado con Paul Rand. +Algunos de ustedes, amigos, conocen a Paul Rand, el mejor diseador grfico -- Lo siento --. +El gran diseador grfico Paul Rand: dise el logotipo de IBM, el logotipo de Westinghouse -- +el dice bsicamente, "He diseado de todo" +Y tambin Ikko Tanaka fue un mentor muy importante en mi vida -- el Paul Rand de Japn. Dise la mayora de los principales conos de Japn como la marca Issey Miyake y tambin Muji. +Cuando tienes mentores -- y ayer Kareem Abdul-Jabbar habl sobre mentores, esas personas en tu vida -- el problema con los mentores es que todos mueren. +Esto es algo triste, pero realmente es algo feliz de algn modo, porque puedes recordarlos en su forma pura. +Pienso que los mentores que conocemos nos humanizan. +Cuando te vas haciendo mayor y estas un poco enloquecido , o cualquier cosa, los mentores te calman. +Yo estoy muy agradecido con mis mentores y estoy seguro de que todos ustedes tambin. +Porque lo humano es muy difcil cuando ests en el MIT. +la T no significa "humano", significa "tecnologa". +Y por eso, siempre me he preocupado acerca de esta parte humana. +Siempre he realizado bsquedas en Google sobre la palabra "humano", para descubrir cuantos resultados obtengo. +Y en el 2001 obtuve 26 millones de resultados, pero para la palabra computadora, porque las computadoras estan un poco en contra de lo humano, Obtuve 42 millones de resultados. Permtanme hacer algo al estilo de Al Gore aqu. +Si ustedes hacen algun tipo de comparacin, como esta, vern que computadora-versus-humano -- He estado hacindole seguimiento en el ltimo ao -- computadora-versus-humano ha cambiado a lo largo del ltimo ao. +Sola ser de dos a uno. Ahora, los humanos se estn recuperando +Muy bien, nosotros los humanos: nos estamos recuperando con respecto a las computadoras. +En el reino de la simplicidad, tambin es interesante, +de manera que si comparan las complejidades con la simplicidad, tambin se esta recuperando de alguna manera. +De manera que, los humanos y la simplicidad estan entrelazados, creo. +Les tengo una confesin: Yo no soy un hombre de simplicidad. +Yo pas la primera etapa de mi carrera haciendo cosas complejas. +Muchas cosas complejas. +Escribi programas de computadoras para hacer grficos complejos como este. +Tengo clientes en Japn para hacer cosas realmente complejas como esta. +Y siempre me he sentido mal con respecto a ello en algn sentido. +De manera que me escond en la dimensin del tiempo: +Cre cosas en una dimensin tempo-grfica. +Elabor esta serie de calendarios para Shiseido. +Este es un calendario con un tema floral en 1997, y este es un calendario sobre fuegos artificiales. Donde lanzas el nmero en el espacio, porque los japoneses creen que cuando ves fuegos artificiales te sientes mas fro por alguna razn. +Por eso ellos lanzan fuegos artificiales en verano. +Una cultura muy extrema. +Por ltimo, este es un calendario basado en el otoo, porque tengo muchas hojas en mi patio. +Por lo que esto son las hojas de mi patio, esencialmente. +Y as realiz muchas cosas de este tipo. +Fui muy afortunado de haber estado alli antes de que otras personas hicieran esta clase de cosas, e hice toda esta clase de cosas que confunden a sus ojos. +Me siento un poco mal por ello. +Maana, Paola Antonelli va a dar una charla; Yo adoro a Paola. +Ella esta realizando esta exhibicin justo ahora en el MoMA donde algunos de estos primeros trabajos se estan exhibiendo en el MoMA, en las paredes. +Si estn en Nueva York, por favor, vayan a verla. +Pero he tenido un problema porque hago estas cosas voladoras. y las personas dicen: "Oh, conozco tu trabajo" +tu eres el tipo que hace caramelos para la vista". +Y cuando te dicen eso, te sientes algo extrao. +"caramelos para la vista" - algo peyorativo, no creen? +Por lo que yo digo: "No, yo hago carne para la vista" por el contrario. +Y carne para la vista es algo diferente, algo ms fibroso, algo ms poderoso, quiz. Pero Qu pudiera ser eso, carne para los ojos? +He estado interesado en los programas de computadora toda mi vida, realmente. +Los programas de computadora son esencialmente rboles, y cuando haces arte con una programa de computadora, hay un problema. +Cuando haces arte con un programa de computadora, siempre ests en el rbol y la paradoja es que para lograr un excelente trabajo artstico, tienes que estar fuera del rbol. +Este es un tipo de complicacin que he encontrado. +De manera que para salirme del rbol, comenc a utilizar mis viejas computadoras. +Llev esto a Tokio en 2001 para crear objetos computarizados. +Esta es una nueva manera de tipear, en mi vieja Classic de color. +No puedes tipear mucho con esto. +Tambin descubr que un ratn infrarojo responde a las emisiones CRT y comienza a moverse por si mismo, de manera que esta es una mquina auto-dibujante. +Y tambin un ao, la G3 bondi azul. esa cajita sera puesta a la venta, como, peligrosa, como, "whack", asi. +Pero pens, "Esto es muy interesante. Qu sucedera si hago como una prueba de choque de autos?" +Entonces hago una prueba de choque. +Y algo asi como una medicin del impacto. Cosas como esas son las que he hecho. algo asi como para entender que son estas cosas. +Poco despus de esto, sucedi el 11 de Septiembre y estaba muy deprimido. +Estaba muy interesado en el arte contemporneo que era acerca de liberarse a si mismo y cosas realmente tristes, y por lo tanto yo quise pensar acerca de algo feliz, +as que me enfoque en la comida como mi rea -- ese tipo de cosas como el pelado de una clementina. +En Japn, es algo maravilloso quitarle la cscara a un clementina en una sola pieza. Quin a hecho eso antes? Una clementina de una pieza? +Oh, amigos ustedes se lo estn perdiendo si no lo han hecho todava. +Fue muy bueno y descubri que puedo hacer esculturas con ella, realmente, en diferentes formas. +Si las secas rpido puedes hacer cosas como elefantes, novillos y otras cosas, y a mi esposa no le gustaron porque producan moho, por lo que tuve que dejar de hacerlo. +Entonces volv a la computadora y compr cinco porciones de patatas fritas, y las digitalic con el escner. Y estaba buscando algn tipo de tema relativo a la comida, y cre un software para componer automticamente imgenes de patatas fritas. +Y cuando nio, escuche una cancin, saben, "Oh bello, por amplios cielos, por ondas mbar de cereales." por lo que cre esta imagen de ondas mbar. +Es algo asi como un campo de maz del medio oeste hecho de patatas fritas. +Y tambin cuando nio, yo era el ms gordo de la clase, por lo que sola amar los Cheetos. Oh, amo los Cheetos, deliciosos. +Entonces quise jugar con Cheetos de alguna manera. +No estaba seguro de a donde quera llegar yo con esto. Invent la pintura Cheetos. +La pintura Cheetos es una manera muy sencilla de pintar con Cheetos. +Descubr que los Cheetos son un buen material expresivo. +Y con estos Cheetos comenc a pensar, "Qu puedo hacer con estos Cheetos?" +Y comenc tambin a arrugar y retorcer patatas fritas en hojuelas y tambin pretzels. +Estaba buscando algn tipo de forma, y al final realic 100 butter-fries (juego de palabras: mariposas - patatas fritas). Entienden? +Y cada butter-fry est compuesta de distintas piezas. +Las personas me preguntan como se hicieron las antenas. +Algunas veces las personas encuentran un cabello en la comida, pues ese es mi cabello. +Mi cabello est limpio, Est bien. +Yo soy profesor titular, lo que significa, bsicamente, que no tengo que trabajar ms. +Es un extrao modelo de negocio. Puedo venir al trabajo cada da y engrapar cinco hojas de papel y slo observarlas con mi caf latte. +Fin de la historia. +Pero me di cuenta de que la vida puede ser muy aburrida, por lo que he estado pensando acerca de la vida y me di cuenta de que mi cmara -- mi cmara digital versus mi auto -- una cosa muy extraa. +El auto es muy grande y la cmara es muy pequea, aunque el manual de la cmara es mucho ms grande que el manual del auto. +No tiene ningn sentido. +Estuve en el Cabo una vez y escrib la palabra "simplicidad", y descubr, en esta extraa manera a lo M. Night Shyamalan, que descubr las letras, "M-I-T", Conocen la palabra? +En las palabras "simplicidad" y "complejidad", "M-I-T" ocurran en perfecta secuencia. +Es un poco misterioso, cierto? +De manera que pens que puede ser que har esto por los prximos veinte aos o algo asi. +Y escrib este libro, "Las Leyes de la Simplicidad" -- +es un libro muy corto y sencillo. Tiene diez leyes y tres claves. +Las diez leyes y tres claves, no voy a hablar sobre ellas porque por eso escribi el libro, y tambin por eso es por lo que est en la web de manera gratuita. +Pero las leyes son como el sushi de alguna manera; hay de todo tipo. +En Japn, dicen que el sushi es desafiante. +Saben que el uni (sushi de erizo de mar) es el ms desafiante y el numero diez es desafiante -- +las personas odian el nmero diez como odian el uni, realmente. +Las tres claves son fciles de comer, entonces es anago (sushi de anguila), ya cocido y fcil de comer. +Disfruten entonces su plato de sushi luego con las Leyes de la Simplicidad. +Dado que se las quiero simplificar. +Porque de eso es de lo que se trata. Tengo que simplificar esto. +Entonces, si simplifico las Leyes de la Simplicidad, Obtengo algo que es llamado la "galleta versus la ropa lavada". +Alguien que tenga nios sabe que si le ofreces a un nio una galleta grande o una pequea, Cual galleta van a escoger? La galleta grande. +Puedes decirles que la galleta pequea tiene trozos de chocolate Godiva, pero eso no funciona. Ellos quieren la galleta grande. +Pero si le ofreces a los nios dos pilas de ropa lavada para doblar, la pila pequea o la pila grande, Cual seleccionarn? +Extraamente, no la pila grande. As que que pienso que es tan sencillo como esto. +Saben, cuando quieres ms, es porque quieres disfrutarlo, +cuando quieres menos, es porque se trata de trabajo. +Y por lo tanto, para resumirlo, la simplicidad es acerca de vivir la vida con ms disfrute y menos sufrimiento. +Pienso que esto es algo asi tan sencillo como ms-versus-menos. +Bsicamente, siempre depende. +Este libro lo escribi porque quiero descifrar la vida. +Amo a la vida. Amo estar vivo. Me gusta ver cosas. +Y dado que la vida es una gran pregunta, pienso en la simplicidad, porque ustedes estn tratando de simplificar sus vidas. +Y yo amo ver el mundo. El mundo es un lugar maravilloso. +Al estar en TED vemos muchas cosas al mismo tiempo. +Y yo no puedo evitar disfrutar al ver todo en el mundo. +Como todo lo que ves cada vez que te despiertas. +Es una gran alegra experimentar todo en el mundo. +Todo desde un extrao lobby de hotel, hasta un envoltorio plstico colocado sobre tu ventana, hasta este momento donde el camino enfrente de mi casa est pavimentado de un color negro oscuro, y esta polilla blanca estaba all muriendo en el sol. +Y as, todo esto me ha hecho pensar en lo emocionante de estar aqui, porque la vida es finita. +Esto me lo di el presidente de Shiseido. +Es un experto en envejecimiento. El eje horizontal es que tan viejo eres -- doce aos, veinticuatro aos, setenta y cuatro, noventa y seis aos -- y estos son algunos datos mdicos. As la fortaleza del cerebro se incrementa hasta los 60, y luego despus de los 60, comienza a declinar. Algo deprimente. +Tambin, si observan en su fortaleza fsica. +Saben, tengo muchos estudiantes de primer ao engreidos en el MIT, por lo que les digo: "Oh, sus cuerpos realmente se estn haciendo ms y ms fuertes, pero a finales de los veinte y mediados de los treinta, las clulas, mueren". +Bien. Esto los hace trabajar ms duro, a veces. +Y si tienes visin, la visin es interesante. +Mientras envejeces desde la infancia, tu visin se hace mejor, y puede que al final de la adolescencia, comienzo de los veinte, ests buscando una pareja, y tu visin anda tras eso. +Tu responsabilidad social es muy interesante. +Asi que mientras ms envejeces, puede que tengas nios, lo que sea. +Y luego los nios se gradan y no tienes ms responsabilidades -- eso es muy bueno tambin. +Pero si alguno de ustedes pregunta, "Qu es lo que realmente aumenta? Algo aumenta? +Cual es la parte positiva de esto, saben?" Pienso que la sabidura siempre aumenta. +Yo adoro a esos hombres y mujeres de ochenta aos, noventa aos. +Ellos tienen tantos pensamientos y tienen mucha sabidura, y creo -- saben, esto de TED, he venido aqui. +Y esta es la cuarta vez y vengo aqui por esta sabidura, creo. +Este efecto TED, eleva su sabidura, de alguna manera. +Y estoy muy alegre de estar aqui y muy agradecido de estar aqui, Chris. +Y esto es una maravillosa experiencia para mi tambin. +Como arquitecto diseas para el presente con una conciencia del pasado para un futuro que es esencialmente desconocido +La Agenda Verde es probablemente la agenda ms importante y un asunto de actualidad. +Y quisiera compartir mi experiencia sobre los ltimos cuarenta aos --celebramos nuestro aniversario 40 este ao-- y explorar y mencionar algunas observaciones sobre la naturaleza de la sostenibilidad: +Qu tanto puedes prever qu sigue desde alli, cules son las amenzas, cules las posibilidades, los desafios, las oportunidades? +Creo que --Lo he dicho en el pasado, hace muchos, muchos aos, antes de que nadie hubiera incluso inventado el concepto de Agenda Verde-- que no es un asunto de moda, sino de supervivencia +Pero lo que nunca dije, y lo que voy a decir ahora mismo es, que verdaderamente, lo verde es fantstico +Me refiero a que todos los proyectos que han sido inspirados de algn modo por esa agenda son de un estilo de vida festivo, una celebracin de lugares y espacios que determinan la calidad de vida. +Casi nunca hago citas, as que voy a tratar de encontrar un papelito... Alguien al final de ao pasado se atrevi a pensar sobre qu para ese individuo, como un importante observador, analista, escritor, llamado Thomas Friedman, quien escribi en el Herald Tribune en el 2006. +Dijo, "Creo que lo ms importante que pas en el 2006 "fue que vivir y pensar en verde lleg a Main Street. +"Hemos llegado al punto de inflexin "donde vivir, actuar, disear, invertir y producir verde "est empezando a ser entendido por una masa crtica "de ciudadadanos, empresarios y funcionarios "como la cosa ms patritica, capitalista, geo-plotica "y competitiva que pueden hacer. +"De ah mi lema: Verde es el nuevo rojo, blanco y azul" +Y yo me pregunto, en cierta manera, mirando atrs: "Cundo apareci por primera vez esa conciencia sobre el planeta y su fragilidad?" +Creo que fue el 20 de Julio de 1969 cuando, por primera vez, la humanidad pudo mirar al planeta Tierra. +Y en cierta manera, fue Buckminster Fuller quien acu esa frase. +Y antes del colapso del sistema comunista tuve el privilegio de conocer a muchos cosmonautas en la Ciudad Espacial y otros sitios de Rusia +Y es interesante, cuando hago memoria, ellos fueron los primeros ambientalistas de verdad. +Estaban llenos de una pasin pionera, hartos de los problemas del mar Aral +Y ese periodo era --en cierta manera, ciertas cosas estaban pasando +Buckminster Fuller era el tipo de gur verde de nuevo, una palabra que no haba sido acuada-- +l era un diseador cientfico, si quieren, un poeta, pero l previ todas las cosas que estn pasando ahora. +Y --este es otro tema, otra conversacin. +Pueden ver sus escrituras, es realmente extraordinario, +Era en ese tiempo, con una conciencia llena de las profecas de Bucky, sus preocupaciones como ciudadano, como ciudadano del planeta que influenci mi pensamiento y lo que estbamos haciendo en ese tiempo. +Y hay un gran nmero de proyectos. +Selecciono este porque es de 1973 y era un plan general de una de las Islas Canarias. +Y esto probablemente coincidi con la poca cuando tenan el manual del planeta Tierra y el movimiento hippy. +Y hay algunas de esas cualidades en este dibujo que parecen reunir las recomendaciones. +Y todos los componentes estan ah, los cuales estn ahora en nuestra forma de hablar, en nuestro vocabulario, ya saben, 30 aos despues: Energa elica, recicaje, biomasa, clulas solares -- +y en aquella poca, haba un grupo de diseo muy exclusivo, +gente que realmente saba de diseo, inspirados en el trabajo de Dieter Rams, y en los objetos que creara para la compaa llamada Braun. +Esto fue en los 50s, 60s. +Y a pesar de las profecas de Bucky de que todo sera miniaturizado y que la tecnologa creara un estilo increible -- acceso al confort, a los servicios-- era muy , muy dificil imaginar que todo lo que vemos en esta imagen, sera elegantemente empacado +Y esas cosas y otras estaran en la palma de tu mano. +Y creo que esa revolucin digital est llegando a un punto donde el mundo virtual, que rene a tanta gente aqui, finalmente conecta con el mundo fsico, exiiste la realidad de que se ha humanizado, para que el mundo digital sea tan amigable, tenga toda la inmediatez y orientacin del mundo anlogo. +Probablemente resumidos por el estilo o alternativas que vemos aqu, que nos han sido obsequiados en el almuerzo, el Maxin, que es una especie de desarrollo avanzado y, de nuevo, inspirado por un increble tipo de sensacin. +Un objeto muy, muy hermoso. +As que algo que en los 50 o los 60 era muy exclusivo se ha convertido, interesantemente, en inclusivo. +Y yo creo que es muy tentador seducirnos a nosotros mismos, como arquitectos, o cualquiera involucrado en el proceso de diseo, para quienes la respuesta a los problemas est en edificios. +Los edificios son importantes, pero son solo un componente de una imagen mucho ms grande. +En otras palabras, lo que intento demostrar es que si alcanzamos lo imposible, el equivalente al movimiento perpetuo, podemos disear una casa libre de carbn, por ejemplo. +Esa sera la respuesta. +Desafortunadamente, esa no es la respuesta. +Solo es el comienzo del problema. +No podemos separar los edificios de la infraestructura de las ciudades y de la movilidad del trnsito. +Por ejemplo, en una frase inspirada en Bucky, si miramos atrs y vemos al planeta Tierra, y tomamos alguna sociedad industrializada tpica, entonces la energa consumida debe separarse entre los edificios, 44%; transporte, 34%; y la industria. +Pero, de nuevo, eso slo muestra parte de la imagen. +Si miran a los edificios junto con el transporte correspondiente, en otras palabras, el transporte de la gente, que es el 26%, el 70% del consumo de energa es influenciado por la forma como nuestras ciudades e infraestructura trabajan juntas. +Asi que los problemas de sostenibilidad no pueden ser separados de la naturaleza de las ciudades, de la que los edificios hacen parte. +Por ejemplo, si hacen una comparacin entre un tipo reciente de ciudad a la que llamar, simplemente, una Ciudad Estadounidense-- y Detroit no es un mal ejemplo, es muy dependiente del vehculo. +La ciudad se expande en anillos, consumiendo ms y ms carreteras y ms y ms espacio verde, y ms y ms carreteras, y ms y ms energa en el transporte de personas entre el centro de la ciudad-- que se ve privado, el centro de la ciudad, de viviendas y se convierte en comercio, y de nuevo muere. +Si comparamos Detroit con una ciudad del norte de Europa, por ejemplo, y Munich no es un mal ejemplo de ello, con la gran dependencia de la caminata y la bicicleta, entonces, una ciudad que es doblemente densa, slo est usando una dcima parte de la energa. +En otras palabras, si ven esos dos ejemplos el salto de energa es enorme. +Si queremos generalizar, podemos demostrar que mientras crece la densidad sobre el eje inferior, la energa consumida se reduce dramticamente. +Por supuesto, no podemos separar esto de asuntos como la diversidd social, el trnsito masivo, la capacidad de caminar una distancia conveniente, la calidad del espacio pblico. +Pero de nuevo, si vemos a Detroit, de amarillo en la parte superior, consumo extraordinario, justo bajo Copenhague. +Y si bien Copenhague es una ciudad densa, no lo es tanto comparado con ciudades realmente densas. +En el ao 2000 ocurri algo muy interesante. +Por primera vez tenemos mega-ciudades, con cinco millones o ms, esto ocurri en el mundo en desarrollo. +Ahora tenemos 46 ciudades, 33 de las cuales estn en el mundo en desarrollo. +As que debemos preguntarnos por el impacto ambiental de por ejemplo China o India. +Si tomamos a China, y solamente hablando de Beijing, podemos ver su sistema de trfico, y la polucin asociada con el consumo de energa mientras los autos se expanden al precio de las bicicletas. +En otras palabras, si ponen en las carreteras, lo que est ocurriendo actualmente, 1000 carros nuevos diariamente, estadsticamente es el mercado de autos ms grande del mundo. Y los 500 millones de bicicletas que sirven a un tercio de la poblacin se estn reduciendo. +Y que la urbanizacin es extraordinaria, a pasos acelerados. +Si pensamos en la transicin en nuestra sociedad el movimiento del campo hacia las ciudades, que tom 200 aos, el mismo proceso estar ocurriendo en 20 aos. +En otras palabras, se est acelerando por un factor de 10. +Y es interesante, por un perodo de 60 aos, hemos visto doblar la expectativa de vida y en este periodo la urbanizacin se ha triplicado. +Cmo afecta el diseo de los edificios? +Y particularmente, Cmo puede conducir a la creacin de edificios que consuman menos energa, generen menos polucin y sean ms responsables socialmente? +Esa historia, en trminos de edificios, inici a finales de los 60 e inicios de los 70. +El primer ejemplo que tomo es la sede corporativa de una compaa llamada Willis and Faber, en un pequeo pueblo al norte de Inglaterra, cercano a Londres. +Y lo primero que pueden ver aqu es que en este edificio, el techo es de un tipo muy clido de manto, un tipo de jardn aislado, que tambin es una celebracin del espacio pblico. +En otras palabras, esta comunidad tiene este jardn en el cielo. +El ideal humano es muy, muy fuerte en todo este trabajo, encapsulado quiz por uno de mis esquemas aqu, donde pueden ver el verde, pueden ver la luz del sol, tienen una conexin con la naturaleza. +Y la naturaleza es parte del generador, el conductor de este edificio. +Y simblicamente, los colores del interior son verdes y amarillos. +Tiene instalaciones como piscinas, tiene "flexi-time", tiene un corazn social, un espacio donde pueden tener contacto con la naturaleza. +Ahora, esto era en 1973. +En 2001 este edificio recibi un premio. +Y el precio fue una celebracin para un edificio que haba sido usado por largo tiempo. +Y la gente que lo cre regres: los directores, los ejecutivos. +Y lo que decan era, los arquitectos, Norman siempre trabaj diseando para el futuro, y no parece que nos hubiera costado ms de la cuenta. +As que lo hicimos feliz, lo mantuvimos feliz. +La imagen superior, que, si miran en detalle la forma como se ha cableado este edificio +Este edificio fue cableado para el cambio. +En 1975, la imagen aqu es de mquinas de escribir. +Y en esta fotografa es de procesadores de palabras. +Y lo que decan entonces era que nuestros competidores debieron construir nuevos edificios para las nuevas tecnologas. +Nosotros fuimos afortunados porque nuestro edificio estaba equipado para el futuro. +Anticipaba el cambio, incluso cuando no se conocan estos cambios. +En el periodo de diseo de este edificio, hice un esquema, que sacamos del archivo hace poco. +Y yo deca, y escrib, "Pero no tenemos tiempo, y realmente no tenemos la experiencia inmediata a un nivel tcnico." +En otras palabras, no tuvimos la tecnologa para hacer lo que sera realmente interesante en este edificio. +Que sera crear una burbuja tridimensional un manto realmente interesante que pudiera ventilar naturalmente, que pudiera respirar y reducir seriamente las cargas de energa. +No obstante el hecho de que ste, un edificio verde, es un edificio pionero en gran medida. +Y si lo adelanto en el tiempo, lo que es interesante es que la tecnologa est ahora disponible. +La bilbioteca de la Free University, que abri este ao, es un ejemplo de eso. +Y, de nuevo, la transicin de uno de los miles de esquemas e imgenes de computador a la realidad. +Y una combinacin de dispositivos aqu, del tipo de concreto super-masivo de estos estantes de libros, y la forma en que est encerrado por esta piel, que permite la ventilacin del edificio, para consumir dramticamente menos energa, y donde realmente se trabaja con las fuerzas de la naturaleza. +Y lo interesante es que es muy popular entre la gente que lo utiliza. +De nuevo, regresando a eso del estilo de vida, y de alguna manera, la agenda ecolgica est apegada al espritu. +Entonces no es un sacrificio, sino todo lo contrario. +Creo que es genial. Es una celebracin. +Y podemos medir el desempeo en trminos de consumo de energa de ese edificio comparado con una biblioteca tpica. +Si muestro otro aspecto de esa tecnologa en un contexto completamente diferente -- este edificio de apartamentos en los Alpes suizos. +Prefabricado con los materiales ms tradicionales, pero ese material --porque la tecnologa, la habilidad informtica, la habilidad de prefabricar componentes de alto desempeo hechos de madera-- muy a la vanguardia. +Y para dar una visin de esa tecnologa, la capacidad de trazar puntos en el cielo y de transmitir esa informacin ahora, directamente a la fbrica. +As que si cruzamos la frontera --justo detrs de ella, una pequea fbrica en Alemania, y aqu pueden ver este hombre con su computador, y esos puntos en el espacio se comunican. +Y a la izquierda estn las mquinas cortadoras que, en la fbrica, permiten que se fabriquen piezas individuales. Y con unos pocos milmetros de ms o de menos, ser ubicadas juntas en su sitio. +Y entonces, ese edificio ser vestido con la tecnologa ms antigua, que son tejas cortadas a mano. +Un cuarto de milln de ellas colocadas a mano como acabado. +Y, de nuevo, la forma en que trabaja este edificio, para quienes disfrutan los espacios para vivir o ir de paso. +Si hacemos el salto a estas nuevas tecnologas, entonces --qu pas antes de eso? +Quiero decir, qu era la vida antes del telfono mvil, de las cosas que damos por seguras? +Bien, obviamente el edificio ya haba aparecido. +Esto es una vista del interior del Banco de Hong Kong en 1979, que abri en 1985, con la capacidad de reflejar la luz solar al fondo de ese espacio all. +Y en la ausencia de computadores, tenamos el modelo fsico. +Por ejemplo, podamos ubicar modelos bajo un cielo artificial. +Podamos ponerlos literalmente en un tnel de viendo e inyectar aire, y los muchos kilmetros de cable, y as. +Y el punto de quiebre fue probablemente cuando tuvimos el primer computador. +Y fue en el tiempo en que buscamos redisear, reinventar el aeropuerto. +Este es el Terminal Cuatro en Heathrow, un terminal tpico. Grande, de techo pesado, bloqueando la luz solar, mucha maquinaria, grandes tubos, maquinaria ruidosa. +Y Stanstead, la alternativa verde, que usa la luz natural, es un lugar amigable -- sabes dnde ests, puedes relacionarte con el exterior. +Y para una gran parte de su ciclo, no necesita luz elctrica-- luz elctrica, que a su vez crea ms calor, que genera ms carga de refrigeracin, y as. +Y ene se momento en particular este fue uno de los pocos computadores solitarios. +Y esa es una pequea imagen del rbol de Stansead. +Sin ir muy lejos en el tiempo, en 1990. Esa es nuestra oficina. +Y si miran muy de cerca, vern que la gente dibuja con lpices, y utilizan grandes reglas y tringulos. +No hace mucho tiempo, 17 aos, y aqu estamos ahora. +Una transformacin enorme. +Volviendo en el tiempo, haba una chica llamada Valerie Larkin, y en 1987 ella tena toda nuestra informacin en un disco. +Ahora, cada semana, tenemos el equivalente a 84 millones de discos, para almacenar nuestra informacin de los proyectos pasados, actuales y futuros. +Eso alcanzara 21 kilmetros en el cielo. +Esta es la vista que tendramos si mirramos hacia abajo desde all. +Mientras tanto, maravillosos protagonistas como Al Gore han notado la severa elevacin de la temperatura, puesta en ese contexto. Estos edificios son una celebracin y muy relevantes en este lugar. +Nuestro proyecto Reichstag, que tiene una agenda muy familiar, estoy seguro, como un espacio pblico donde buscamos a travs de procesos de abogaca, reinterpretar la relacin entre la sociedad y los polticos, el espacio pblico y quiz su agenda oculta, un manifiesto por la energa -- algo que pueda ser libre, completamente libre de combustible como lo conocemos. +Que ser totalmente renovable. +Y de nuevo, el esquema humano, la traduccin en espacio pblico. esta parte muy propia de la ecologa. +Aqu, sin tener que modelarlo en la realidad +Obviamente, puede hacerse con un tunel de viento, pero la posibilidad hoy con los computadores de explorar, de planear, de ver cmo podr aquello trabajar en trminos de las fuerzas de la naturaleza. La ventilacin natural, para poder modelar la cmara abajo, y observar la biomasa. +Una combinacin de biomasa, acuferos, aceite combustible vegetal -- un proceso que, de manera interesante, fue desarrollado en la Alemania del Este, en la poca de dependencia del Bloque Sovitico. +As que, traduciendo esa tecnologa y desarrollando algo que sea tan limpio, virtualmente libre de polucin. +Podemos medir de nuevo. +Podemos comparar ese edificio, en trminos de sus emisiones en toneladas de dixido de carbono por ao -- en la poca en que tomamos el proyecto, ms de 7000 toneladas. Qu pasara si se hubiese utilizado gas natural? Y finalmente, con aceite combustible vegetal, 450 tonladas. +Esto es una reduccin de 94 por ciento -- virtualmente limpio. +Podemos ver el mismo poroceso en vivo en el Banco de Comercio -- su dependencia de la ventilacin natural, la forma en que pueden modelarse esos jardines, la forma en que se enrolla. +Pero de nuevo, sobre el estilo de vida, la calidad -- algo que podra disfrutarse ms como lugar de trabajo. +Y podemos medir la reduccin en trmios de consumo de energa. +Hay una evolucin entre los proyectos, y Swiss Re de nuevo lo desarrolla un poco ms. El proyecto en la ciudad de Londres. +Y su secuencia muestra la construccin de ese modelo. +Pero lo que muestra antes, lo que creo que es muy interesante, es que se puede ver el crculo, el espacio pblico a su alrededor. +Cules son las otras formas de poner la misma cantidad de espacio en un sitio? +Si, por ejemplo, tratan de hacer un edificio que vaya a lo largo del eje del pavimento, es la misma cantidad de espacio. +Y finalmente, si perfilan esto, si lo ranuran +las ranuras hacen el papel de pulmones verdes que dan vistas, dan luz, ventilacin, hacen el edificio ms fresco. +Y ustedes encierran eso en algo que tambin se centra en su apariencia, que es una malla de estructuras triangulares -- en una conexin evocadora de algn trabajo de Buckminster Fuller, y la forma como esa triangulacin puede incrementar el desempeo y tambin dar a ese edificio su sentido de identidad. +Y aqu, si vemos un detalle de la forma en que el edificio se abre y respira en esas aurculas, la forma en que ahora, con un computador podemos modelar las fuerzas, podemos ver las presiones altas y bajas la forma en que el edificio se comporta como un ala. +As que se tiene tambin la posibilidad, todo el tiempo, sin importar la direccin del viento, para poder hacer el edificio fresco y eficiente. +Y, a diferencia de los edificios convencionales, la cima del edificio es una celebracin. +Es un lugar para mirar, sin maquinaria. +Y la base del edificio es una ganancia de espacio pblico. +Comparando con un edificio tpico, Qu ocurre cuando buscamos usar estrategias de diseo en trminos de pensamiento real a gran escala? +Y solamente voy a mostrar dos imgenes de una clase de proyecto de investigacin de la compaa. +Es bien conocido que el Mar Muerto est muriendo. +El nivel est bajando, como el Mar Aral. +Y el Mar Muerto es obviamente mucho ms bajo que los ocanos y mares a su alrededor. +Hay un proyecto para rescatar al Mar Muerto creando una tubera, un tubo, superficial en algunos tramos y en otros bajo tierra, que corregir eso alimentndose del Golfo de Aqaba en el Mar Muerto +Y nuestra traduccin de eso usando mucho del pensamiento construido en los tlimos 40 aos, es decir que Qu pasara si, en lugar de una tubera, fuese una lnea viva? +Si es el equivalente, dependiendo de dnde estemos, del Gran Canal, en trminos de turismo, hbitat, desalinizacin, agricultura? +En otras palabras, el agua es el alma. +Y si miran la imagen anterior, y ven esta rea de volatilidad y hostilidad, que una idea unificadora, como un gesto humanitario podra tener el efecto de unir todas esas facciones guerreras en una nica causa, en trminos de algo que podra ser genuinamente verde y productivo en el sentido ms amplio. +La infraestructura a gran escala tambin es inseparable de las comunicaciones. +Y dado que esa comunicacin es el mundo virtual o es el mundo fsico, entonces es absolutamente central para la sociedad. +Y cmo hacemos ms legible es este mundo creciente, especialmente en algunos lugares de los que hablo -- China, por ejemplo, que en los prximos diez aos crear 400 nuevos aeropuertos. +Qu forma tomarn? +Cmo podrn hacerlos ms amigables a esa escala? +Refiero a Hong Kong como una clase de experiencia anloga en la era digital porque siempre tendrn un punto de referencia. +Qu pasa cuando tomamos eso y lo expandimos tanto en la sociedad china? +Y lo que es interesante es que eso produce en una manera quiz el ltimo mega-edificio. +Es fsicamente el proyecto ms grande del planeta hasta el momento. +250 -- perdn, 50.000 personas trabajando 24 horas, siete dias. +17 por ciento ms grande que todos los terminales puestos juntos en Heathrow, ms el nuevo terminal cinco, no construido an. +Y el reto aqu es un edificio que ser verde, que ser compacto a pesar de su tamao y es sobre la experiencia humana de viajar, es sobre la amistad, sobre volver al punto de partida, es en gran medida sobre el estilo de vida. +Y quiz esos espacios de celebracin +Como Hubert* deca en el almuerzo, en un tipo de conversacin comprometida habl sobre esto, sobre ciudades. +Hubert dijo, correctamente, "Estas son las nuevas catedrales." +Y de alguna manera, un aspecto de esa conversacin fue disparado la vspera del ao nuevo, cuando yo hablaba sobre la agenda olmpica en China en trminos de ambiciones y aspiraciones verdes. +Y yo exprese el pensamiento de que -- apenas cruz mi mente ese da, algn tipo de punto de retorno simblico cuando pasbamos de 2006 a 2007, quiz, ya saben, el futuro fuese el ms poderoso e innovativo tipo de nacin. +La forma como alguien como Kennedy inspiradoramente podra decir, "Pusimos un hombre en la luna." +Ya saben, quien va a decir que rompimos esto de la dependencia a los combustibles fsiles, con todo lo que contena la liberacin de regmenes criminales, y as. +Y eso es una plataforma concertada. +Es ms que un aparato, es renovable. +Y yo expres el pensamiento de que quiz al final del ao, Pens que la inspiracin era ms probable que viniera de aquellos grandes pases de all -- las chinas, las indias, los tigres del pacfico asitico. +Muchas gracias. +Tengo un trabajo duro que hacer. +Cuando v el perfil de la audiencia aqu, con sus connotaciones y diseo, en todas sus formas, y con tanta y tanta gente que trabaja en colaboracin y redes... Quera decirles, quera construir un argumento en favor de la educacin primaria en un contexto muy especfico. +Con el fin de lograr eso, en 20 minutos, tengo que poner de manifiesto cuatro ideas -- son como cuatro piezas de un rompecabezas. +Y si logro hacerlo, tal vez ustedes se van a ir con la idea que podran construir sobre mi trabajo y, tal vez, ayudarme a hacerlo. +La primera pieza del rompecabezas es la lejana y la calidad de la educacin. +Ahora, con lejana quiero decir dos o tres tipos diferentes de cosas. +Por supuesto, la lejana en su sentido normal, lo que significa que a medida que nos alejamos ms y ms de un centro urbano, se llega a zonas ms remotas. +Qu sucede con la educacin? +El segundo, o un tipo diferente de lejana, es que en las grandes reas metropolitanas en todo el mundo, usted tiene los barrios de tugurios o barrios marginales, o las zonas ms pobres, que son social y econmicamente remotas del resto de la ciudad, por lo que es nosotros y ellos. +Qu sucede con la educacin en ese contexto? +Por lo tanto, mantengan presentes estas dos formas de lejana. +Hemos hecho una suposicin. Que las escuelas en zonas remotas no tienen profesores lo bastante buenos, +y si los tienen, no pueden retenerlos. +No tienen una buena infraestructura. +Y si tienen alguna infraestructura, tienen dificultades para mantenerla. +El grfico es interesante, aunque es necesario considerarlo con cuidado. +Quiero decir, esta es una muestra muy pequea, no se debe generalizar a partir de ella. +Pero era evidente, muy claro, que, por esta ruta particular que tom, entre ms alejada estaba la escuela, peores parecen ser sus resultados. +Esto parece un poco abrumador, e intent correlacionarlo con cosas como la infraestructura, o con la disponibilidad de electricidad y cosas as. +Para mi sorpresa, no se correlacionan. +No se correlacionan con el tamao de las aulas. +No se correlacionan con la calidad de la infraestructura. +No se correlacionan con los niveles de pobreza. No se correlacionan. +Me imagino que un maestro que llega o entra a clase pensando todos los das: "quisiera estar en otra escuela", probablemente tiene un profundo impacto sobre lo que ocurre con los resultados. +Por lo tanto, pareca que la motivacin de docentes y la migracin de docentes era algo fuertemente correlacionado con lo que estaba pasando en las escuelas primarias, a diferencia de si los nios tienen suficiente para comer, o si estn completamente amontonados en las aulas, y ese tipo de cosas. As parece. +Cuando usted toma la educacin y la tecnologa, encuentra en la literatura que, ustedes saben, cosas como sitios web, entornos colaborativos -- sobre las que han estado escuchando toda la maana -- siempre se ponen a prueba primero en las mejores escuelas, las mejores escuelas urbanas, y, segn mi opinin, esto sesga los resultados. +La literatura -- una parte de ella, la literatura cientfica, culpa constantemente a las tecnologas educativas de estar sobre-promocionadas y de tener un bajo rendimiento. +Los profesores siempre dicen, bueno, est bien, pero es demasiado caro para lo que hace. +Porque se est poniendo a prueba en una escuela donde los alumnos ya estn logrando, digamos, el 80 por ciento de lo que podran lograr. +Usted pone esta nueva super tecnologa, y ahora logran el 83 por ciento. +As pues, el director mira y dice: 3 por ciento, por 300.000 dlares? Olvdelo. +Si usted toma la misma tecnologa y la pone a prueba en una de aquellas escuelas remotas donde la puntuacin fue de 30 por ciento, y, digamos, la aumenta hasta el 40 por ciento, ser una cosa completamente diferente. +Por lo tanto, el cambio relativo que las TE lograran sera mucho mayor en la parte inferior de la pirmide que en la parte superior, pero parece que lo estamos haciendo al contrario. +As que llegu a esta conclusin, que la TE debera llegar a los menos privilegiados en primer lugar, no al revs. +Y finalmente vino la pregunta de, cmo hacer frente a la percepcin de los docentes? +Siempre que usted va a donde un profesor y le muestra alguna tecnologa la primera reaccin del profesor es, "Usted no puede sustituir a un profesor con una mquina. Es imposible". +No s por qu es imposible, pero, al menos por un momento, si asumimos que es imposible -- Tengo una cita de Sir Arthur C. Clarke, el escritor de ciencia-ficcin, a quien conoc en Colombo, y dijo algo que soluciona completamente este problema. +Dijo que un profesor que puede ser sustituido por una mquina debe ser sustituido. +As que, ustedes saben, esto pone al profesor en un gran aprieto, parece. +De todos modos, lo que estoy proponiendo es que una educacin primaria alternativa, sea cualquier alternativa que usted desee, es necesaria en donde no existen escuelas, en donde las escuelas no son lo bastante buenas, donde los profesores no estn disponibles o donde los profesores no son lo bastante buenos, por la razn que sea. +Si usted vive en una parte del mundo en donde nada de esto se aplica, entonces usted no necesita una educacin alternativa. +Hasta ahora no he encontrado una de esas zonas, a excepcin de un caso. No voy a nombrar la zona, pero en algn lugar del mundo la gente dijo, no tenemos este problema, porque tenemos maestros perfectos y escuelas perfectas. +Existen estas reas, pero -- de todos modos, nunca escuch eso en ningn otro lugar. +Voy a hablar sobre nios y auto-organizacin, y un conjunto de experimentos que condujeron a esta idea de cmo podra ser una educacin alternativa. +Los llamamos experimentos "el agujero en la pared". +Tendr que realmente pasar rpido por esto. Son una serie de experimentos. +El primero se realiz en Nueva Delhi en 1999. +Y lo que hicimos all fue bastante sencillo. +En esos das tena una oficina que limita un barrio pobre, un tugurio urbano, de modo que haba un muro de divisin entre nuestra oficina y el tugurio. +Y esto es lo que vimos. +As que esa era mi oficina. Aqu est el agujero en la pared. +Alrededor de ocho horas ms tarde, encontramos a este chico. +A la derecha est este nio de ocho aos de edad, que -- y a su izquierda est una nia de seis aos que no es muy alta. +Y lo que l estaba haciendo era ensearle a ella a navegar. +As que esto gener ms preguntas que respuestas. +Es esto real? Importa el idioma, porque se supone que l no sabe Ingls? +El computador durar, o lo rompern y lo robarn? Y, alguien les ense? +La ltima pregunta es lo que dice todo el mundo, pero, ustedes saben... quiero decir, deben haber asomado la cabeza por encima del muro y pedirle a la gente de su oficina Puede mostrarme cmo hacerlo? y, a continuacin, alguien le ense. +As que llev el experimento fuera de Delhi y lo repet, esta vez en una ciudad llamada Shivpuri en el centro de la India, donde estaba seguro de que nadie le haba enseado nada a nadie. +Era un da clido, y el agujero en la pared estaba en ese viejo edificio decrpito. Este es el primer nio que lleg, que result ser un nio de 13 aos que abandon su escuela. +Lleg all y empez a jugar un poco con el touchpad. +Muy rpidamente not que cuando se mueve el dedo sobre el touchpad algo se mueve en la pantalla -- y ms tarde me dijo, nunca he visto un aparato de televisin en donde se pueda hacer algo. +As que lo descubri por su cuenta. Le tom ms de dos minutos descubrir que estaba haciendo cosas a la televisin. +Y entonces, mientras haca esto, hizo clic accidentalmente pulsando el touchpad -- van a verlo hacindolo. +Lo hizo, e Internet Explorer cambi la pgina. +Ocho minutos ms tarde, vea de su mano a la pantalla, y estaba navegando: iba hacia atrs y hacia adelante. +Cuando eso sucedi, empez a llamar a todos los nios del vecindario, y los nios venan y vean qu estaba ocurriendo all. +Para la tarde de ese da, 70 nios estaban navegando. +As que ocho minutos y un computador empotrado pareca ser todo lo que necesitaban. +As que pensamos que esto es lo que estaba sucediendo: que los nios en grupos pueden instruirse a s mismos en el uso de un computador y de Internet. Pero, bajo qu circunstancias? +En este momento haba una -- la principal pregunta era acerca del idioma ingls. +La gente dice, sabes, realmente deberas tener esto en los idiomas de la India, +as que yo dije, tener qu? debo traducir Internet a algunos idiomas de la India? Eso no es posible. +Por lo que tiene que existir otra manera. +Pero veamos, cmo se enfrentan los nios al idioma ingls? +Llev el experimento al noreste de la India, a un pueblo llamado Madantusi donde, por alguna razn, no haba profesor de ingls, por lo cual los nios no han aprendido nada de ingls. +Y construimos un agujero similar en la pared. +Una gran diferencia en los pueblos, en contraposicin a los tugurios urbanos: ms nias que nios vinieron a la caseta. +En los tugurios urbanos, las nias tienden a mantenerse alejadas. +Dej el computador con un montn de CDs -- No tena Internet -- y regres tres meses despus. +As que cuando volv, encontr a estos dos nios, de ocho y doce aos de edad, que estaban jugando un juego en el computador. +Y tan pronto me vieron me dijeron: "necesitamos un procesador ms rpido y un mejor ratn". +As que realmente me sorprend. +Quiero decir, cmo saban todo esto? +Y dijeron, bueno, lo aprendimos de los CDs. +Y yo dije, pero cmo entendieron lo que est pasando all? +Y respondieron, bueno, nos dej esta mquina que habla slo en ingls, as que tuvimos que aprender ingls. +Entonces hice algunas mediciones, y estaban utilizando 200 palabras entre s -- mal pronunciadas, pero con un uso correcto -- palabras como salida, detener, archivo, guardar, ese tipo de cosas, que no tienen que ver slo con el computador, sino con sus conversaciones diarias. +Madantusi parece indicar que el idioma no es un obstculo; de hecho ellos pueden ser capaces de ensearse el idioma a s mismos si realmente quieren. +Por ltimo, obtuve algo de financiacin para probar este experimento para ver si estos resultados son reproducibles. +La India es un buen lugar para hacer un experimento de este tipo porque tenemos todas las diversidades tnicas, todos los -- ustedes saben, la diversidad gentica, toda la diversidad racial, y tambin todas las diferencias socio-econmicas. +As que pude elegir muestras para cubrir una seccin transversal que abarcara prcticamente a todo el mundo. +Hice esto durante casi cinco aos, y este experimento realmente nos llev a lo largo y ancho de la India. +Este es el Himalaya. En el norte, muy fro. +Tambin tuve que comprobar o inventar un diseo de ingeniera que pudiera sobrevivir al aire libre, y yo estaba usando PCs comunes, normales, por lo que necesitaba los diferentes climas, para lo que la India es tambin muy buena pues tenemos mucho fro, mucho calor, y as sucesivamente. +Este es el desierto al oeste, cerca de la frontera con Pakistn. +Y se puede ver aqu un pequeo clip de -- uno de estos pueblos -- lo primero que hicieron estos nios fue encontrar un sitio web para ensearse a s mismos el alfabeto ingls. +Luego al centro de la India - muy clido y hmedo, aldeas de pescadores donde la humedad es un gran asesino de los aparatos electrnicos. +As que tuvimos que resolver todos los problemas que tuvimos sin aire acondicionado y con una energa elctrica muy pobre, as que la mayora de las soluciones que funcionaron usaban pequeas rfagas de aire puestas en los lugares adecuados para mantener las mquinas en funcionamiento. +Quiero ser breve aqu. Hicimos esto una y otra vez. +Esta secuencia es tambin agradable. Este es un nio pequeo, de seis aos, diciendo a su hermana mayor lo que debe hacer. +Y esto ocurre muy a menudo con estos equipos, que los nios ms pequeos se encuentran ensendole a los mayores. +Qu encontramos? Encontramos que nios de seis a trece aos de edad pueden auto-instruirse en un entorno conectado, independientemente de todo lo que podemos medir. +As que si tienen acceso al computador, se ensearn a ellos mismos, incluida la inteligencia. +No he podido encontrar una sola correlacin con nada, pero tena que ser en grupos. +Y eso puede ser de gran inters para este grupo porque todos ustedes estn hablando de grupos. +As que aqu estaba el poder de lo que un grupo de nios puede hacer si ustedes eliminan la intervencin de adultos. +Slo una idea rpida de las mediciones. +Tomamos tcnicas estadsticas estndar, as que no voy a hablar de eso. +Pero tenemos una curva de aprendizaje limpia, casi exactamente la misma que usted obtendra en una escuela. +Voy a dejarlo en eso, porque, digo, ms o menos lo dice todo, no? +Qu pueden aprender a hacer? +Funciones bsicas de Windows, navegar, pintar, chatear y correo electrnico, juegos y material educativo, descargar msica, reproducir video. +En resumen, lo que todos nosotros hacemos. +Y ms de 300 nios se convertirn en alfabetas en computadores y sern capaces de hacer todas estas cosas en seis meses con un solo computador. +Cmo lo hacen? +Si se calcula el tiempo real de acceso, muestra que son minutos por da, de modo que esa no es la forma en la que est sucediendo. +Lo que usted tiene, efectivamente, es que hay un nio manejando el computador. +Y en torno a l usualmente hay otros tres nios que lo aconsejan sobre qu deberan hacer. +Si usa pruebas con ellos, los cuatro tendrn los mismos resultados en lo que sea que les pregunte. +En torno a estos cuatro, hay normalmente un grupo de unos 16 nios que tambin estn aconsejando, generalmente de manera errnea, sobre todo lo que pasa en el computador. +Y todos ellos tambin superarn una prueba sobre este tema. +As que aprenden tanto observando, como lo que aprenden haciendo. +Esto parece contra-intuitivo para el aprendizaje adulto, pero recuerden, los nios de ocho aos de edad viven en una sociedad donde la mayora del tiempo se les dice, no hagas esto, ustedes saben, no toques la botella de whisky. +As que, qu es lo que los nios de ocho aos hacen? +Observan con mucha atencin cmo debe ser tocada una botella de whisky. +Y si le hacen una prueba, l respondera correctamente cada pregunta sobre ese tema. +Entonces parecen ser capaces de aprender muy rpidamente. +Cul fue la conclusin despus de seis aos de trabajo? +Es que la enseanza primaria puede ocurrir por s misma, o partes de ella pueden ocurrir por s mismas. +No tiene que ser impuesta de arriba a abajo. +Tal vez pudiera ser un sistema auto-organizado, de manera que -- eso es lo segundo que quera decirles, es que los nios pueden auto-organizarse y lograr un objetivo educativo. +La tercera pieza es acerca de los valores, y de nuevo, para decirlo muy brevemente, hice una prueba con ms de 500 nios repartidos en toda la India. y les pregunt -- Les d alrededor de 68 diferentes preguntas relacionadas con valores y simplemente les ped su opinin. +Tenemos todo tipo de opiniones. S, no o no s. +Simplemente tom las preguntas en donde tengo el 50 por ciento de s y el 50 por ciento de no, y pude obtener una coleccin de 16 de tales frases. +Estas eran reas donde los nios estaban claramente confusos, porque la mitad dijo que s y la mitad dijo que no. +Un ejemplo tpico es, que a veces es necesario decir mentiras. +Ellos no tienen una manera de determinar cmo responder a esta pregunta; quiz ninguno de nosotros la tiene. +As que los dejo con esta tercera pregunta. +La tecnologa puede alterar la adquisicin de valores? +Por ltimo, los sistemas auto-organizados, sobre los que no voy a decir demasiado porque ustedes ha estado escuchando todo sobre ellos. +Los sistemas naturales son todos auto-organizados: las galaxias, las molculas, clulas, organismos, sociedades -- salvo por el debate acerca de un diseador inteligente. +Pero en este momento, hasta donde va la ciencia, es auto-organizacin. +Pero otros ejemplos son los atascos de trfico, la bolsa, la sociedad y recuperacin de desastres, el terrorismo y la insurgencia. +Y ustedes saben sobre los sistemas auto-organizados basados en Internet. +As que aqu estn mis cuatro frases. +La lejana afecta a la calidad de la educacin. +La tecnologa educativa debe introducirse primero en las zonas remotas y en otras zonas despus. +Los valores se adquieren, la doctrina y el dogma son impuestos -- los dos son mecanismos opuestos. +Y el aprendizaje es muy probablemente un sistema auto-organizado. +Si pone todos los cuatro juntos, nos da -- en mi opinin -- nos da un objetivo, una visin, para la tecnologa educativa. +Una tecnologa educativa y una pedagoga que es digital, automtica, tolerante a fallos, mnimamente invasiva, conectada, y auto-organizada. +Como educadores, nunca hemos solicitado la tecnologa. Seguimos tomndola prestada. +Se supone que PowerPoint es considerado una gran tecnologa educativa, pero no fue pensado para la educacin, sino para presentaciones en salas de juntas. +Lo tomamos prestada. Videoconferencia. El computador personal en s mismo. +Creo que es hora de que los educadores hagan sus propias especificaciones, y tengo una serie de tales especificaciones. Este es un breve vistazo a eso. +Y tal conjunto de especificaciones debera producir la tecnologa para hacer frente a la lejana, los valores y la violencia. +As que pens en darle un nombre - por qu no lo llamamos "out-doctrination"? +Y esta podra ser una meta para la tecnologa educativa en el futuro +lo que quiero dejar como reflexin para ustedes. +Gracias. +Soy bien conocido por el vuelo a propulsin humana, pero eso fue slo una de las cosas que me hicieron empezar en el tipo de cosas en las que trabajo ahora. +Cuando era joven, estaba muy interesado en el aeromodelismo, ornitpteros, autogiros, helicpteros, deslizadores, aviones autopropulsados, modelos de interior, modelos de exterior -- todo, me pareca que era muy divertido, y me preguntaba por qu la mayora de la gente no comparta mi entusiasmo por ellos. +Mientras ocurra todo esto, yo estaba en el campo de la modificacin del clima, aunque me estaba sacando un Doctorado en ingeniera aeronutica. +Pero entonces, en 1971 fund AeroVironment, sin empleados -- despus con uno o dos, tres, e intentando como poda conseguir proyectos interesantes. +Estaba AirDynanisis*, quienes, como yo, no quera trabajar para compaas aeroespaciales en algunos grandes proyectos a largo plazo, y por eso hicimos nuestros pequeos proyectos, y la compaa creci lentamente. +Lo interesante fue que, en 1976, me interes repentinamente por el avin de propulsin humana porque haba hecho un prstamo de 100.000 dlares a un amigo o avalaba el dinero al banco. +l los necesitaba -- necesitaba el dinero para crear una compaa. +As, de repente, estaba interesado en el vuelo por propulsin humana, y no -- el modo en que lo enfoqu, al principio, pensando en formas de hacer los aviones, era exactamente como lo haban estado haciendo en Inglaterra, sin xito, y me rend. Pens, bah, no hay ninguna forma simple y sencilla, +bajas a un tercio de la velocidad, un tercio de la potencia, y un buen ciclista puede proporcionar esa potencia, y funcion, y ganamos el premio un ao despus. +No... -- un montn de pruebas, un montn de experimentos, un montn de cosas que no funcionaban, y otras que s funcionaron, y el avin continu mejorando y mejorando. +Conseguimos un buen piloto, Brian Allen, para pilotarlo, y finalmente lo logramos, pero desafortunadamente, alrededor de 65.000 dlares fueron gastados en el proyecto. +Y slo quedaron cerca de 30.000 dlares para ayudar a cancelar la deuda. +Pero afortunadamente, Henry Kramer, quien haba ofrecido el premio -- se trataba de un vuelo de una milla, estableci un nuevo premio, por atravesar volando el Canal de La Mancha, 21 millas, +y pens que le llevara otros 18 aos a alguien lograrlo. +Nos dimos cuenta de que, si limpibamos nuestro "Gossamer Condor" un poco, la potencia para volar bajara un poco, y si bajas un poco la potencia necesaria para volar, el piloto puede volar durante mucho ms tiempo. +Y Brian Allen fue capaz, en un milagroso vuelo, de hacer al "Gossamer Condor" cruzar el Canal de La Mancha, y ganamos el premio de 200.000 -- 100.000 libras, 200.000 dlares gracias a eso, +y cuando todos los gastos fueron pagados, la deuda haba sido cancelada, y todo marchaba bien. +Result que darle los aviones al museo vala ms que la deuda, as que durante cinco aos, seis aos, slo tena que pagar un tercio de los impuestos sobre facturacin. +As que haba buenas razones econmicas para el proyecto, pero -- Ese no era -- bueno, el proyecto fue realizado nicamente por razones econmicas, y no hemos estado involucrados en ningn vuelo por propulsin humana desde entonces porque los premios ya se han acabado, +pero estoy seguro de que eso me hizo empezar a pensar sobre varias cosas, e inmediatamente, empezamos a fabricar un avin propulsado por energa solar porque sentimos que la energa solar iba a ser muy importante para el pas y el mundo, no queramos que la baja financiacin del gobierno bajase, que es lo que el gobierno intentaba hacer, +y pensamos que un avin propulsado por energa solar no tendra mucho sentido, pero poda hacerse, y obtendra mucha publicidad para la energa solar y quizs ayudar al desarrollo de este campo. +Y ese proyecto continu, triunf, y entonces empezamos con otros proyectos en aviacin y artefactos mecnicos y dispositivos de tierra. +Pero mientras esto ocurra, en 1982, recib un premio de la Fundacin Lindbergh -- su premio anual -- y tuve que preparar un informe al respecto, que recogi todos mis variados pensamientos, y variados intereses a lo largo de los aos. +Esta fue mi oportunidad para concentrarme en lo que, realmente, buscaba, y era importante. Y para mi sorpresa, me di cuenta de la importancia de los problemas ambientales, a los que Charles Lindbergh dedic el ltimo tercio de su vida, y preparar ese informe me hizo mucho bien. +Pens que si fuese un viajero espacial, y volviese a visitar la tierra cada 5.000 aos, +tras unos cientos de visitas, vera lo mismo cada vez, las pequeas diferencias en la Tierra. +Pero esta ltima vez, simplemente pasando por aqu, justo ahora, repentinamente, habra enormes cambios en el entorno, en la concentracin de la poblacin, y sera simplemente increble, la cantidad de -- todos los cambios sufridos. +Quiero ensearos la diapositiva -- esta diapositiva, creo, es la ms importante que veris nunca, porque muestra la naturaleza contra los humanos, y va desde 1850 al 2050, +y por ello, el ao 2000, lo veis all, +y este es el peso de todos los vertebrados areos y terrestres. +Humanos y ratas almizcleras, y jirafas, y pjaros, etc. son -- la lnea roja sube, esa es la porcin de los humanos, y ganado, y mascotas. +La lnea verde baja, esa es la porcin de la naturaleza salvaje. +Humanos, ganado y mascotas suponen, ahora, el 98% del total de la masa mundial de vertebrados en tierra y aire, +y no sabemos qu deparar el futuro pero no va a bajar el porcentaje. +Hace 10.000 aos, los humanos, ganado y mascotas no suponan ni la dcima parte de un 1% y ni siquiera habra sido visible esa curva, +ahora es el 98%, y es -- Yo creo, que muestra la dominacin de los humanos en la Tierra. +Doy una charla a algunos estudiantes de instituto brillantes cada verano, y les pregunto, despus de que ellos me hayan hecho preguntas, y les he dado una charla y esas cosas. Entonces les hago preguntas. +Cul es la poblacin de la Tierra? +Cul ser la poblacin de la tierra cuando tengis la edad de vuestros padres? +Cosa que yo nunca me habra- en realidad -- ellos nunca haban pensado en ello, en realidad pero, ahora, piensan sobre ello. +Y entonces, Qu poblacin de la Tierra mantendra un equilibrio que fuese sostenible, y mantenerse para el 2050, 2100, 2150? +Entonces forman pequeos grupos, discutiendo con los dems, y cuando me voy, dos horas despus la mayor parte de ellos hablan de dos mil millones de personas, y no tienen ni idea de cmo bajar la poblacin a dos mil millones, ni la tengo yo, pero creo que estn en lo cierto y ste es un problema serio. +Rachel Carson estaba pensando en esto, y public Silent Spring, hace ya tiempo. +El Manifiesto Solar de Hermann Scheer, de Alemania, dice que toda la energa de la Tierra puede ser obtenida, en cualquier pas, de la energa solar, e hidrulica, etc. +no necesitas excavar en busca de productos qumicos, y podemos hacer las cosas de manera ms eficiente. +Vamos a ver la siguiente diapositiva. +Esto es el resumen, "A lo largo de miles de millones de aos, sobre una esfera nica, la casualidad va pintado una fina capa de vida, compleja y posible, maravillosa y frgil. +De repente, nosotros los humanos, una especie surgida hace poco, no se adhiere ms a los controles inherentes a la naturaleza, ha crecido en poblacin, tecnologa e inteligencia hasta una posicin de terrible poder. Ahora, nosotros manejamos el pincel." +Estamos al mando. Es terrorfico. +Yo pinto un cuadro cada 20 o 25 aos. Este es el ltimo, +y muestra la Tierra en, una especie de bandera del tiempo, a la derecha trilobites, dinosaurios, etc. y por el tringulo, llegamos a la civilizacin, y televisin, atascos de trfico, etc. +No tengo ni idea de qu vendr despus, as que simplemente he usado cucarachas robticas como el futuro, como una especie de pequea advertencia, +y dos semanas despus de que este dibujo estuviese hecho, recibimos, en realidad, nuestro primer proyecto, contrato, en AeroVironment, sobre cucarachas robticas, lo que me aterroriz. +(Crujidos de papel) Bueno, esas son todas las diapositivas que vamos -- +Con el paso del tiempo, paramos nuestros programas ambientales +nos centramos, ms, en los problemas energticos realmente serios del futuro, y creamos productos para la compaa, +y desarrollamos el coche de pruebas que General Motors fabric, el EV1, de -- e hicimos que la junta de Recursos del Aire aprobase las regulaciones que estimularon los coches elctricos, pero desde entonces se han disuelto, +y hemos hecho un montn de cosas, pequeos aviones autnomos y dems. +Tengo un Helios -- Veamos el primer vdeo -- +Narrador: Con una envergadura de 247 pies, es mayor que un Boeing 747. +La atencin de sus diseadores al detalle y su construccin, le dan a la estructura de Helios la flexibilidad y fuerza para tratar las turbulencias encontradas en la atmsfera. +Esto le permite atravesar las corrientes de aire como si estuviese deslizndose sobre las olas del mar. +MacCready: Creemos que los extremos de las alas pueden tocarse en la parte superior sin quebrarse. +Narrador: Y Helios comienza ahora la maniobra para poner su lomo en direccin al sol, para maximizar la potencia suministrada por sus paneles solares. +Conforme el cielo se va oscureciendo, y la temperatura del aire exterior cae por debajo de 100 grados bajo cero Fahrenheit, el segmento ambientalmente ms hostil del viaje de Helios ha pasado sin ser advertido, excepto por haber sido registrado por los sistemas de recogida de datos especialmente diseados, y sus sensores asociados. +Aproximndose a una altura de radar mxima de 96.863 pies, a las 16:12 horas, Helios se encuentra por encima del 98% de la atmsfera terrestre. +Esto es 10.000 pies ms alto que el anterior rcord del mundo de altitud, establecido por el SR-71 Blackbird. +PM: Ese avin tiene muchos usos, pero est diseado para comunicaciones, y puede volar tan lentamente que simplemente se mantiene a 65.000 pies, +finalmente ser capaz de mantenerse en el aire todo el da, la noche, da, noche... durante seis meses sin pausa, actuando como un satlite geosttico, pero a slo diez millas sobre la Tierra. +Vamos a ver el siguiente vdeo, que muestra el otro extremo del espectro. +Narrador: Un minsculo avin, el AV Pointer, se utiliza para vigilancia, +a efectos prcticos, un par de gafas errantes, un ejemplo de alta tecnologa de a qu nos puede llevar la miniaturizacin si el operador se encuentra a distancia del vehculo. +Puede ser transportado, montado y lanzado a mano. +Alimentado por bateras, es silencioso y difcil de detectar. +Enva imgenes de vdeo de alta resolucin al operador. +Con su GPS integrado, puede guiarse autnomamente, y es lo suficientemente resistente como para aterrizar por s mismo sin daos. +PM: De acuerdo, vamos a ver el siguiente -- +Ese avin es ampliamente utilizado por los militares, actualmente, en todas sus operaciones. +Veamos el siguiente vdeo. +Alan Alda: ya lo tiene, ya lo tiene, ya lo tiene, lo tiene en su cabeza. +Vamos a terminar nuestra visita con el circo volador de Paul MacCready conociendo a su hijo, Tyler, quien, con sus dos hermanos, ayud a construir el "Gossamer Condor" hace 25 aos. +Tyler MacCready: Puedes perseguirlo, de este modo, durante horas. +AA: Cuando se aburrieron del proyecto de su padre, inventaron un extraordinario avin ellos solos. +TM: Y puedo controlarlo dndole impulso en un lado del ala, o en el otro. +AA: Lo llamaron "Walk-Along Glider". +nunca he visto nada como esto. +Qu edad tenas cuando lo inventaste? +TM: Oh, 10, 11 -- (AA: Dios mo) TM: 12, o as. (AA: Es increble.) PM: Y Tyler est aqu para mostrarles el "Walk-Along". +TM: Bien. Todos tenis un par de ellos en vuestras bolsas de regalo, y una de las primeras cosas -- la versin de produccin pareca ir un poco a la deriva, por lo que os sugiero doblar las puntas un poco hacia arriba antes de intentar hacerlo volar. +Os har una demostracin de cmo funciona, +la idea es que planee sobre el empuje de vuestro cuerpo, como una gaviota planeando sobre un acantilado. +Conforme el viento viene, tiene que pasar por encima del acantilado, as que mientras andas por el aire, va alrededor de tu cuerpo, y algo tiene que pasar sobre ti. +Por eso basta con mantener el planeador posicionado en esa corriente ascendente. +El lanzamiento es la parte difcil, tienes que mantenerlo bien alto, sobre tu cabeza, empezar a andar hacia adelante, simplemente soltarlo, y puedes controlarlo de este modo. +Y adems, como dije en el vdeo, puedes hacerlo girar a izquierda o derecha, con slo poner el empuje bajo una u otra ala, +as puedo hacerlo -- huy, eso iba a ser un giro a la derecha. +Bien, esto ser un giro a la izquierda. +As, pero... de todos modos -- +Y eso es todo, as puedes controlarlo, hacia donde quieras, da horas de diversin, y ya no se encuentran en produccin, as que tenis autnticos artculos de coleccionista. +Y bueno, simplemente queramos ensearos un -- si podemos hacer funcionar el vdeo, eso es, slo un ejemplo de vdeo -- un pequeo vdeo de vigilancia. +Esto estaba volando por la fiesta de anoche, y -- y podis ver cmo, sin ms, puede volar por aqu, y puedes espiar a quien quieras. +Y eso es todo, Iba a traer un avin, pero me preocupaba darle a alguien, as que pens que esto sera un poco ms suave. +Y esto es todo, s, unos cuantos inventos. +De acuerdo. +Voy a tratar de darles una perspectiva del mundo tal y como lo veo, los problemas y las oportunidades que enfrentamos, y luego hacer la pregunta de si debemos ser optimistas o pesimistas. +Y entonces les revelar un secreto que devela por qu soy un optimista incurable. +Djenme empezar por mostrarles un video de Al Gore que ustedes probablemente ya han visto antes. +Ahora, todos han visto "Una Verdad Incmoda". Esto es un poco ms incmodo. +: Hombre: .... preguntas extremadamente peligrosas. +Porque con nuestro conocimiento presente, no tenemos idea de lo que puede pasar. +Incluso ahora, el hombre puede estar cambiando inadvertidamente el clima mundial a travs de los productos de desecho de su civilizacin. +Cada ao, nuestras fbricas y automviles producen y liberan ms de seis billones de toneladas de dixido de carbono que ayudan al aire a absorber calor del sol -- nuestra atmsfera parece estar calentndose progresivamente. +Es malo sto? +Bueno, se ha calculado que el aumento de unos pocos grados en la temperatura de la tierra podra derretir los cascos de hielo polares. +Y si esto ocurre, el mar tierra adentro llenara una buena porcin del valle de Mississippi. +Los turistas podran observar las torres de Miami sumergidas desde barcos con fondo de cristal a travs de 46 metros de agua tropical. +Porque, cuando del clima se trata, no estamos slo enfrentndonos con fuerzas de una variedad mayor incluso que las que los fsicos atmicos enfrentan, sino con la vida misma. +Larry Brilliant: Debisemos sentirnos bien, o debisemos sentirnos mal que 50 aos de conocimiento anticipado han servido de tan poco? +Bueno, realmente depende de cuales sean tus metas. +Y cuando pienso en mis metas, siempre me remonto a la sabidura de Gandhi. +Si as fuese, es la decisin acertada. Y si no, reconsidrelo. +Para nosotros, los aqu reunidos, no se trata slo del ms pobre y vulnerable de los individuos, se trata de la comunidad, de la cultura, se trata del mundo mismo. +Y las tendencias para los que viven en la periferia de nuestra sociedad, que son los ms pobres y los ms vulnerables, estas tendencias abren un gran caso para el pesimismo. +Pero tambin abren un caso maravilloso para el optimismo. +Revisemos ambos casos. Primero que todo, las tendencias globales. +Hay previsto en el sistema un cambio climtico de dos o tres grados +Causar la elevacin de los mares. Causar depsitos salinos en los pozos y tierra adentro. +Perjudicar desproporcionadamente a los ms pobres y a los ms vulnerables, como tambin lo har el crecimiento acelerado de la poblacin. +A pesar de que hemos evadido la explosin demogrfica de Paul Ehrlich y no veremos 20 billones de habitantes en esta dcada como l pronostic, comemos como si furamos 20 billones. +Y consumimos tanto que, otra vez, un aumento de 6.5 billones a 9.5 billones durante la generacin de nuestos nietos perjudicar desproporcionadamente a los ms pobres y a los ms vulnerables. +Es por eso que ellos migran a las ciudades. +Por eso en Junio de este ao, excedimos como especie, el 51% de habitantes viviendo en ciudades, en casas improvisadas, campamentos y favelas. +Las areas rurales ya no producen tanta comida como antes. +La revolucin ecolgica nunca lleg a Africa. +Y con la desertificacin, tormentas de arena, el Desierto de Gobi, el Ogaden cada vez es ms difcil hacer que una hectrea produzca tantas caloras como produca 15 aos atrs. +As que los humanos estn inclinndose ms hacia el consumo de animales. +En Africa el ao pasado, los Africanos comieron 600 millones de animales salvajes, y consumieron dos billones de kilos de carne. +Cada kilgramo de carne contena miles de millones de nuevos virus que nunca han sido estudiados y cuyas secuencias genticas no conocemos. +No sabemos de sus potencialidades para crear pandemias, pero estamos a punto de enfrentar la aparicin de enfermedades contagiosas originadas en animales. +De manera creciente, yo dira, crecimiento explosivo de la tecnologa. +La mayora de nosotros nos beneficiamos de este crecimiento. Pero tiene un lado oscuro -- en armas biolgicas y en tecnologa que nos pone en el camino de magnificar iras, odios o el sentimiento de marginalizacin. +Y de hecho, con el aumento de la goblalizacin -- que trae consigo grandes ganadores y an ms grandes perdedores -- hoy el mundo es ms diverso e injusto de lo que, quizs, nunca ha sido en la historia. +El 1% de nosotros es dueo del 40% de todos los bienes y servicios. +Que pasara si el billn de gente que hoy vive con menos de un dolar al da se elevara a tres billones en los prximos 30 aos? +El 1% ser dueo de an ms que el 40% de todos los bienes y servicios en el mundo. No porque se hayan enriquecido, sino porque el resto del mundo se ha ido empobreciendo progresivamente. +La semana pasada, Bill Clinton en los Premios TED dijo, "Esta situacin no tiene precedentes, es desigual, injusta e inestable" +As que hay un montn de razones para el pesimismo. +Darfur es, en esencia, una guerra de recursos. +El ao pasado, hubieron 85,000 disturbios en China, 230 al da, que requirieron intervencin policaca o militar. +La mayora de ellos fueron acerca de recursos. +Estamos enfrentando una cantidad de desastres a una escala sin precedentes. +Algunos estn relacionados con el clima, con los derechos humanos, epidemias. +Y las nuevas enfermedades emergentes pueden hacer de la H5N1 y la gripe aviar un pintoresco avance de lo que est por venir. Es un mundo desestabilizado. +Y a diferencia del mundo desestabilizado en el pasado, ste ser trasmitido a ustedes en directo via You Tube, lo vern en la televisin digital y en sus telfonos mviles. +A dnde conducir esto? +Para algunos, conducir a la ira, a la violencia religiosa y sectaria y al terrorismo. +Para otros, abandono, cinismo, decepcin y materialismo. +Para nosotros a dnde nos lleva como activistas sociales y empresarios? +A medida que observamos estas tendencias, nos iremos desalentando o nos energizaremos? +Consideremos un caso especfico, el caso de Bangladesh. +Primero, an si las emisiones de dixido de carbono cesaran hoy, el calentamiento global continuara. +Y an con el calentamiento global -- si usted puede ver estas lneas azules, la linea de puntos muestra que an si las emisiones de gases efecto invernadero cesaran hoy, las prximas dcadas vern un aumento en los niveles del mar. +Un mnimo de 50 a 76 centmetros de aumento en los niveles del mar es el mejor escenario que podemos esperar, y puede ser 10 veces eso. +Cmo afectar esto a Bangladesh? Vamos a ver. +Aqu esta Bangladesh. +El 70% de Bangladesh est a menos de un metro y medio por encima del nivel del mar. +Subamos y echmosle un vistazo a Los Himalayas. +Y veremos como el calentamiento global los est derritiendo. Ms agua cae de las montaas, las areas desforestadas, aqu en Tarai, sern incapaces de absorber el efluente, porque los rboles son como pajillas que absorben el exceso de agua fuera de estacin. +Ahora estamos mirando hacia abajo, al sur, a travs de Kali Gandaki. +Pienso que muchos de ustedes, probablemente han excursionado aqu. +Y vamos a navegar hacia bajo hasta Bangladesh y veremos cual ser el impacto si hubiese doble aumento en el nivel de agua, el agua que viene del norte, y la elevacin del nivel del mar por el sur. +Fijmonos en los cinco ros ms grandes que alimentan a Bangladesh. +Y ahora miremos desde el sur, hacia arriba y veamos esto en relieve. +Un mnimo de 50 a 76 centmetros de aumento en los mares, combinado con el incremento del flujo de agua proveniente de los Himalayas. chenle un vistazo a esto. +Puede esperarse que 100 millones de refugiados de Bangladesh migren a la India y China. +Esta es la dificultad que un pas enfrenta. +Pero si miran el globo, alrededor de toda la tierra, dondequiera que haya un rea baja, reas pobladas cercanas al agua, encontrarn una subida en el nivel del mar que representar un reto a nuestra forma de vida. +Africa Sub-Sahariana, y an nuestra propia rea de la Baha de San Franscisco. +Estamos todos juntos en esto. +Esto no es algo que pasa lejos a otros que no conocemos. +El calentamiento global es algo que nos pasa a todos nosotros, todos a la vez. +Como lo son estas nuevas y emergentes enfermedades contagiosas, nombres que no haban odo en 20 aos: ebola, fiebre Ihasa, la viruela del simio. +Con la erosin del cinturn verde que separaba a los animales de los humanos, ambas especies vivimos dentro del ambiente viral de la otra. +Recuerdan, 20 aos atrs, que nadie haba odo nunca acerca del virus del Nilo Occidental? +Y entonces, fuimos testigos de como un caso apareci en la Costa Este de Estados Unidos y cmo avanzaba cada ao hacia occidente. +Recuerdan que nadie haba odo del ebola hasta que omos que cientos de personas estaban muriendo en Africa Central de lo mismo? +Este es slo el comienzo, desafortunadamente. +Han aparecido 30 nuevas enfermedades contagiosas que se originan en animales que han saltado especies en los ltimos 30 aos. +Hay razones de sobra para ser pesimistas. +Pero ahora, hablemos del argumento por el optimismo. Suficiente de malas noticias. Los seres humanos siempre hemos estado a la altura de los retos. +Slo tienen que mirar la lista de Premios Nobel para constatarlo. +Hemos visto la erradicacin de la viruela. +Podramos ver la erradicacin de la polio este ao. +El ao pasado, hubo slo 2,000 casos en el mundo. +Podramos ver la erradicacin del gusano de guinea el prximo ao -- quedan slo 35,000 casos en el mundo. +20 aos atrs haba tres millones y medio de casos. +Y hemos visto una nueva enfermedad, diferente de las 30 nuevas enfermedades contagiosas emergentes. +Esta enfermedad se llama sindrome de riqueza repentina Es un fenmeno sorprendente. +Estamos viendo por doquier en el mundo tecnolgico a gente joven contagiada con esta enfermedad del sindrome de riqueza repentina. +Pero estn usando su abundancia de una manera diferente a sus antecesores. +No estn esperando a morir para crear fundaciones. +Estn guiando activamente su dinero, sus recursos, sus corazones, sus compromisos, para hacer del mundo un lugar mejor. +Definitivamente, nada puede dar ms optimismo que eso. +Ms razones para ser optimista. En los sesenta, y yo soy una criatura de los sesenta, hubo un movimiento. +Todos sentimos que ramos parte de l, que un mundo mejor estaba a la vuelta de la esquina, que estbamos presenciando el nacimiento de un mundo libre de odio, violencia y prejuicios. +Hoy, hay otra clase de movimiento. El movimiento para salvar el planeta. +Est comenzando. +Cinco semanas atrs, un grupo de activistas de la comunidad de negocios se reuni para evitar que una empresa de servicio pblico en Texas construyera nueve plantas elctricas alimentadas con carbn que habran contribuido a la destruccin del medio ambiente. +Seis meses atrs, un grupo de activistas de negocios se reuni con el gobernador Republicano en California para pasar la AB 32, la legislacin ms radical en la historia medio ambiental. +Al Gore hizo presentaciones en la Cmara de Representantes y en el Senado en calidad de testigo experto. +Se imaginan? Estamos viendo un acuerdo cordial entre ciencia y religin que hace cinco aos yo no hubiera credo, as como la comunidad evanglica ha comprendido la situacin desesperada del calentamiento global. +Y ahora 4,000 iglesias se han sumado al movimiento de proteccin del medio ambiente. +Esto es algo por lo que se puede ser inmensamente optimista. +El plan Europeo 20-20-20 es un sorprendente adelanto, algo que debiese hacernos a todos sentir que hay esperanza en el horizonte. +Y el 14 de Abril se celebrar el Da del Paso Adelante, donde habrn mil movimientos activistas sociales autogestionados en EEUU que se alzarn en protesta contra la legislacin -- a favor de la legislacin para detener el calentamiento global. +Y el 7 de Julio, alrededor del mundo, me enter ayer mismo, se celebrarn los conciertos globales Planeta en Vivo. +Y pueden sentir en el aire esta movida llena de optimismo para salvar el planeta. +Ahora, eso no significa que la gente entienda que el calentamiento global perjudica mayormente a los pobres y a los dbiles. +Significa que la gente est dando el primer paso, que es actuar al margen de sus propios intereses individuales. +Pero desde mi punto de vista, tengo otra razn para ser un optimista incurable. +Y ustedes han odo tantas historias inspiradoras aqu y yo escuch otras tantas anoche, que se me ocurri compartir un poco de la ma. +Mis antecedentes no encajan exactamente con el entrenamiento mdico convencional. +Debiese hacerlos optimistas que la viruela ya no exista, porque fu la peor enfermedad en la historia. +En el siglo pasado -- el que termin hace siete aos -- medio billn de gente muri por causa de la viruela. Ms muertes que las causadas por todas las guerras en la historia, ms que cualquier otra enfermedad infecciosa en la historia del mundo. +En el Verano del Amor, en 1967, dos millones de personas, nios, murieron de viruela. +No es historia antigua. +Cuando leen acerca de la plaga bblica de las pstulas, eso fue la viruela. +El Faran Ramses el Quinto, cuya imagen esta aqu, muri de viruela. +Para erradicar la viruela, tuvimos que reunir el ejrcito ms grande en la historia de las Naciones Unidas. +Visitamos cada casa en India, buscando la viruela -- 120 millones de casas, una vez al mes, durante casi dos aos. +En un revs cruel, despus que habamos casi conquistado la viruela -- y esto es lo que como emprendedores sociales tienen que aprender, cun critico es el ltimo centmetro en la recta final. +Cuando casi habamos erradicado la viruela, volvi nuevamente, porque el pueblo industrial de Tatanagar contrat trabajadores, que podan ir hasta all y conseguir empleo. +Y contrajeron la viruela en el nico lugar donde todava exista y luego fueron a sus casas a morir. +Y cuando lo hicieron llevaron la viruela a otros 10 pases y se reinici la epidemia. +Tuvimos que empezar todo de nuevo. +Pero al final triunfamos y el ltimo caso de viruela: esta pequea nia, Rahima Banu -- Barisal, en Bangladesh -- cuando ella tosa o respiraba, y el ltimo virus de viruela dej sus pulmones cay a la tierra y el sol lo mat entonces termin la cadena de transmision del horror ms grande de la historia. +Cmo no puede eso hacerte optimista? +Una enfermedad que mat cientos de miles en India y ceg a la mitad de todos aquellos que se volvieron ciegos en India, se acab. +Y an ms importante para nosotros en este espacio, es que se cre un vnculo. +Doctores, trabajadores de la salud de 30 pases diferentes, de cada raza, cada religion, cada color, trabajaron juntos, lucharon unos al lado de los otros, lucharon contra un enemigo comn, no lucharon entre ellos. +Cmo no puede eso hacer que se sientan optimistas acerca del futuro? +Muchsimas gracias. +En los prximos 18 minutos los voy a llevar en un viaje. +Es un viaje en el que tanto ustedes como yo hemos estado desde hace muchos aos, y comenz hace unos 50 aos, cuando los humanos salieron de nuestro planeta por primera vez. +Y todas estas misiones robticas son parte de un viaje mayor para la humanidad: un viaje para entender, para darnos cuenta de nuestro lugar en el cosmos para entender algo de nuestros orgenes, y cmo la Tierra, nuestro planeta, y nosotros, viviendo en l, llegamos a existir. +Bien, el sistema de Saturno es un sistema planetario muy rico. +Ofrece misterio, conocimiento cientfico y, como salta a la vista, una belleza incomparable, y la investigacin de este sistema tiene un gran alcance csmico. +De hecho, slo estudiando los anillos estamos aprendiendo mucho sobre los discos de estrellas y gas que llamamos galaxias espirales. +Y aqu tenemos una preciosa imagen de la Nebulosa de Andrmeda, que es la galaxia espiral ms grande y ms cercana a la Va Lctea. +Y aqu vemos una bonita composicin de la Galaxia Remolino, tomada por el telescopio espacial Hubble. +As que realmente el regreso a Saturno es parte de -y tambin es una metfora de- un viaje humano mayor para entender la interconectividad entre todo lo que nos rodea, y tambin cmo los humanos encajamos en esa imagen. +Y me duele no poder contarles todo lo que hemos aprendido con Cassini, +No puedo mostrarles todas las preciosas imgenes que hemos tomado en los ltimos dos aos y medio, porque simplemente no tenemos suficiente tiempo. +As que voy a concentrarme en dos de las historias ms emocionantes que han surgido en esta gran expedicin de exploracin que estamos realizando alrededor de Saturno, y en la que hemos estado estos ltimos dos aos y medio. +Saturno est acompaado por una gran coleccin de lunas muy diversas. +Su tamao va desde unos pocos kilmetros de largo hasta el tamao de los Estados Unidos. +De hecho la mayora de las maravillosas imgenes que hemos tomado de Saturno muestran el planeta acompaado de algunas de sus lunas. Aqu est Saturno con Dione, y aqu est Saturno mostrando sus anillos de canto, se puede ver lo estrechos que son verticalmente, con su luna Enclado. +Dos de las 47 lunas de Saturno destacan entre el resto. +Son Titn y Enclado. Titn es la luna ms grande de Saturno, y hasta que Cassini lleg all era la mayor extensin de terreno inexplorado que quedaba en nuestro sistema solar. +Es un cuerpo celeste que ha intrigado durante mucho tiempo a los que han observado los planetas. +Tiene una atmsfera muy densa, y de hecho se crea que las caractersticas de su superficie seran ms parecidas a las que tenemos aqu en la Tierra, o al menos las que tenamos en el pasado, que a las de cualquier otro cuerpo del Sistema Solar. +Su atmsfera est compuesta en su mayora por nitrgeno molecular, como lo que estn respirando en esta habitacin, excepto porque tambin contiene compuestos orgnicos simples como metano, propano y etano. +Esas molculas en la zona superior de la atmsfera de Titn, y sus productos se unen formando partculas de aerosol. +Este aerosol es omnipresente, global, rodea Titn completamente. +Y por eso es por lo que no podemos ver a travs de la superficie con nuestros ojos, en la regin visible del espectro. +Esas partculas de aerosol, pensbamos, antes de que llegsemos con Cassini, durante miles de millones de aos descendieron suavemente a la superficie y recubrieron la superficie con una capa espesa de lodo orgnico. +Como si fuese el equivalente, el equivalente en Titn del alquitrn, o el petrleo; no sabamos qu. +Pero eso era lo que sospechbamos. Y esas molculas, especialmente el metano y el etano, pueden ser lquidas a la temperatura superficial de Titn. +As que resulta que el metano es a Titn lo que el agua es a la Tierra. +Puede condensarse en la atmsfera, y reconocer este hecho abri la puerta a todo un mundo de extraas posibilidades. Entonces, puedes tener nubes de metano, y sobre esas nubes tienes cientos de kilmetros de aerosol que evitan que la luz solar llegue a la superficie. +La temperatura en la superficie es de unos -212 C. +Pero, a pesar de todo ese fro, puedes tener lluvia sobre la superficie de Titn. +Y hace en Titn lo que la lluvia hace en la Tierra, talla barrancos, forma ros y cataratas. Puede crear caones, puede acumularse en cuencas y crteres. +Puede barrer el lodo de los picos y los valles de altas montaas hasta las zonas bajas. As que detente a pensar un minuto. +Intenta imaginar cmo es la superficie de Titn. +Est oscuro -el medioda de Titn es como un crepsculo oscuro en la Tierra. +Y para nosotros ha sido (para el equipo de la nave Cassini) ha sido como una aventura de Julio Verne hecha realidad. +Como he dicho tiene una atmsfera grande y densa. +Esta es una imagen de Titn retroiluminada por el sol, con los anillos de Saturno de fondo. +Y otra luna ms ah -ni siquiera s cul es. Es una atmsfera muy extensa. +Tenemos instrumentos en Cassini que pueden ver la superficie a travs de su atmsfera, y mi sistema de cmaras es uno de ellos. +Y hemos tomado imgenes como esta. +Lo que se v son zonas brillantes y zonas oscuras, y eso es todo lo que podamos saber. +Fue muy desconcertante, no podamos explicarnos lo que estbamos viendo en Titn. +Cuando miras esta regin ms de cerca empiezas a ver cosas como canales sinuosos, que desconocamos. Ves algunas formas redondeadas. +Esto, como descubrimos ms tarde, es de hecho un crter, pero hay muy pocos crteres en la superficie de Titn, lo que significa que su superficie es muy joven. +Y algunas caractersticas parecen de origen tectnico. +Parece que han sido separadas por algo. +Siempre que veas algo lineal en un planeta, significa que ha habido una fractura, como una falla. +As que ha sido alterado tectnicamente. +Pero no podamos encontrar ningn sentido a nuestras imgenes, hasta que seis meses despus de haber entrado en rbita ocurri un acontecimiento que muchos consideran la cspide de la investigacin de Cassini en Titn. +Y esto fue el lanzamiento de de la sonda Huygens, la sonda Europea que Cassini haba transportado durante siete aos a travs del sistema solar. La dejamos caer en la atmsfera de Titn, el descenso le llev dos horas y media, y aterriz en la superficie. +Y quiero remarcar cuan importante fue este acontecimiento. +Esto es un aparato de construccin humana, y aterriz en el sistema solar exterior por primera vez en la historia de la humanidad. +Es tan importante que en mi opinin, ste acontecimiento debi haber sido celebrado con cabalgatas y confeti en todas las ciudades de Estados Unidos y Europa, pero lamentablemente no fue el caso. +Tambin fue importante por otra razn. Esta es una misin internacional, y este acontecimiento fue celebrado en Europa, en Alemania, los discursos de celebracin fueron ledos con acentos ingleses, y acentos americanos, y alemanes, y franceses, italianos y holandeses. +Fue una demostracin viviente de lo que las palabras "Naciones Unidas" deberan significar: una verdadera unin de naciones juntas en un esfuerzo colosal por el bien. +Y en este caso, fue una enorme iniciativa para explorar un planeta y llegar a entender un sistema planetario que durante toda la historia de la humanidad ha permanecido inalcanzable y ahora los humanos lo han tocado realmente. +Aquello fue -quiero decir, se me est poniendo la piel de gallina slo de hablar de ello-, +fue un acontecimiento tremendamente emotivo, y es algo que yo personalmente nunca olvidar, y no deberan olvidarlo tampoco. +En fin, la sonda realiz medidas de la atmsfera durante su descenso, y tom tambin imgenes panormicas. +Y no soy capaz de expresar cmo fue ver las primeras imgenes de la superficie de Titn tomadas por la sonda. Y esto es lo que vimos. +Y fue muy impactante, porque tena todo lo que queramos que las otras imgenes tomadas en rbita hubiesen tenido. +Era un patrn claro, un patrn geolgico. +Es una red dendrtica que slo pudo ser formada por el fluir de lquidos. +Y puedes seguir esos canales y ver cmo todos convergen. +Convergen en este canal de aqu, que desemboca en esta regin. +Estis viendo una lnea costera. +Era una costa de fluidos? No lo sabamos. +Pero es algo parecido a una costa. +Esta imagen fue tomada a 16 kilmetros. +Esta es una imagen tomada a ocho kilmetros, ok? De nuevo, la lnea costera. +Ok, diecisis kilmetros, ocho kilmetros... Eso es ms o menos la altura de vuelo de una aerolnea. +Si realizas un viaje en avin a travs de los Estados Unidos, estaras volando a estas altitudes. +As que ste es el panorama que visible por las ventanillas de las Aerolneas de Titn al volar por su superficie. Y finalmente, la sonda se pos en la superficie, y voy a mostrar, seoras y seores, la primera imagen de la historia tomada desde la superficie de una luna en el sistema solar exterior. +Y ah est el horizonte, bien? +Probablemente eso sean guijarros de hielo, s? +Y obviamente aterriz en una de esas regiones planas y oscuras, y no se sumergi fuera de vista. Por lo que no se pos en un fluido. +Donde la sonda aterrizo es bsicamente el equivalente Titnico de una planicie lodosa. +Esto es terreno no consolidado inundado de metano lquido +Y probablemente sea el caso que este material se ha deslavado de los terrenos altos de Titn por medio de estos canales que observamos, y se ha drenado por miles de millones de aos para llenar los cuencos bajos. +Y eso es en lo que aterriz la sonda Huygens. +Pero an, no haba seal en nuestras imgenes, o en las imgenes del Huygens, de algn cuerpo de fluidos grande y abierto. +Donde estaban? Se volvi an ms desconcertante cuando encontramos dunas. +Bien, este es nuestro vdeo de la regin ecuatorial de Titn. mostrando estas dunas. Estas dunas que tienen 100 metros de altura, separadas por algunos kilmetros, y continan as por miles y miles de millas. +Hay cientas, hasta 1,000 o 1,200 millas de dunas (~1,800 km) +Este es el desierto del Sahara de Titn. +Obviamente es un lugar muy seco, o no se formaran dunas. +As que nuevamente, se volvi desconcertante que no hubiesen cuerpos grandes de fluidos hasta que finalmente vimos lagos en las regiones polares. +Y hay una escena de lagos en la regin polar sur de Titn. +Es aproximadamente del tamao del lago Ontario. +Y despus, hace tan slo semana y media, sobrevolamos el polo norte de Titn y encontramos, de nuevo, y encontramos un rasgo del tamao del mar Caspio. +As que parece que los lquidos, por alguna razn que no comprendemos, o al menos durante esta estacin, estn aparentemente en los polos de Titn. +Y ahora vamos con Enclado. Enclado es una luna pequea, tiene aproximadamente un dcimo del tamao de Titn, aqu pueden verlo junto a Inglaterra. Slo es para ensearos el tamao; esto no pretende ser una amenaza. +Y Enclado es muy blanco, es muy brillante, y su superficie est claramente quebrada, llena de fracturas, +es un cuerpo geolgicamente muy activo. +Pero la veta madre de los descubrimientos en Enclado fue encontrado en el polo sur -y estamos viendo el polo sur aqu- donde encontramos este sistema de fracturas. +Y tienen un color diferente porque tienen distinta composicin. +Estn recubiertas. Esas fracturas estn cubiertas con materiales orgnicos. +Adems, toda esta regin, la regin polar sur tiene elevadas temperaturas. Es el lugar ms caliente del planeta. +Es tan extrao como descubrir que en Antrtida en la Tierra hace ms calor que en los trpicos. +Y despus, cuando tomamos ms fotos, descubrimos que esas fracturas estn despidiendo chorros de finas partculas de hielo que se extienden cientos de kilmetros en el espacio. +Y cuando coloreamos esta imagen para hacer destacar los dbiles niveles de luz, vemos que los chorros forman un penacho, que de hecho vemos en otras imgenes, que se extiende cientos de millas en el espacio sobre Enclado. +Mi equipo y yo hemos examinado imgenes como esta, y esta otra, y hemos pensado sobre los otros resultados obtenidos con Cassini. +Y hemos llegado a la conclusin de que esos chorros podran estar saliendo de bolsas de agua lquida bajo la superficie de Enclado. +As que tenemos, posiblemente, agua lquida, materiales orgnicos y calor en exceso. +En otras palabras, posiblemente hayamos tropezado con el Santo Grial de la exploracin planetaria moderna. O en otras palabras, un entorno que es potencialmente apropiado para organismos vivos. +Y no creo que haga falta que les diga que el descubrimiento de vida en alguna parte del sistema solar, sea en Enclado o en otro lugar, tendra enormes implicaciones cientficas y culturales. +Porque si pudisemos demostrar que el Gnesis ha ocurrido no una, sino dos veces independientes en nuestro Sistema Solar, entonces eso significa, por inferencia, que ha ocurrido un asombroso nmero de veces a travs del universo y sus 13.7 mil millones de aos de historia. +Ahora mismo, la Tierra es el nico planeta que sabemos que est rebosante de vida. +Es preciosa, es nica, es, por el momento, el nico hogar que hemos conocido. +Y si alguno de ustedes estaba alerta y consciente en los aos 60 - y los perdonamos si no lo estaban, bien- recordaran esta famosa imagen tomada por los astronautas del Apolo VIII en 1968. +Fue la primera vez que la Tierra fue fotografiada desde el espacio, y tuvo un impacto enorme en la percepcin de nuestro lugar en el universo, y en el sentido de responsabilidad para la proteccin de nuestro propio planeta. +Bueno, nosotros hemos tomado una imagen equivalente con Cassini, una imagen que ningn ojo humano ha visto hasta ahora. +Es un eclipse total de Sol, visto desde el otro lado de Saturno. +En esta imposiblemente bella imagen pueden ver los anillos principales retroiluminados por el sol, se ve la imagen refractada del sol y puedes ver tambin este anillo creado, de hecho, por las exhalaciones de Enclado. +Por si no fuera lo suficientemente deslumbrante, podemos ver en esta bella imagen, a nuestro propio planeta, acunado en los brazos de saturno. +Ahora, hay algo profundamente conmovedor, el vernos a nosotros mismos desde muy lejos, y capturar la vista de nuestro pequeo y azul planeta acuoso. en los cielos de otros mundos. +Y eso, as como la perspectiva que obtenemos de nosotros mismos debido a eso, quiz, al final de cuentas, es el mejor premio que podemos ganarnos de este viaje de descubrimiento que comenz hace medio siglo. +Y muchas gracias +Chris Anderson: Bienvenido a TED. +Richard Branson: Muchas gracias. El primer TED ha sido estupendo. +CA: Has conocido a alguien interesante? +RB: Lo bueno de TED es que todo el mundo es interesante. +Estaba muy contento de ver a Goldie Hawn, porque tena que pedirle disculpas. +Cen con ella hace dos aos y -- ella llevaba un gran anillo de boda que me prob y no lo pude sacar. +Y esa noche me fu a casa con mi mujer y quera saber porque llevaba otro anillo de boda en el dedo. +Y, total, a la maana siguiente tuvimos que ir al joyero y cortarlo para sacarlo. +Bueno, bueno disculpas a Goldie. +CA: Esto es muy bueno. +Vamos a poner algunas diapositivas de algunas de tus compaas aqu. +Has empezado una o dos en tu tiempo. +Ya sabes. Virgin Atlantic, Virgin Records- Supongo que todo empez con una revista que se llamada Student. +Y entonces, si, todas estas otras tambin. Es decir, como lo haces? +RB: Le todo tipo de instrucciones de TED -- no debes hablar de tu propio negocio, y esto, y ahora me preguntas. +Bueno supongo que no vas a ser capaz de sacarme del plat. ya que hiciste t la pregunta. +CA: Depende de cual sea la respuesta. +RB: No, es decir, creo que aprend pronto eso de que si puedes dirigir una empresa, realmente puedes dirigir cualquier empresa. +Es decir, todo en las empresas es encontrar la gente adecuada, inspirar a esa gente, sabes, sacar lo mejor de la gente +y me encanta aprender y soy increblemente curioso y me encanta retar al status quo, e intentar mostrar otra perspectiva. +Por tanto veo la vida como un largo proceso de aprendizaje. +Y si veo -- si vuelo en la compaa area de otro y la experiencia resulta no placentera, que no lo era -- hace 21 aos, entonces pensara, bueno, quizs puedo crear el tipo de compaa area en la que me gustara volar. +Y bueno, coj un 747 de segunda mano de Boeing y prob. +CA: Bueno eso fue una cosa rarsima. porque tomaste esta decision que mucha gente te aconsej era una locura. +Y de hecho, de una manera, casi acab con tu imperio a un cierto punto. +Tuve una conversacin con uno de los banqueros especialista en inversiones quien, en aquel tiempo cuando bsicamente vendiste Virgin Records e invertiste mucho en Virgin Atlantic, y su visin era que estas cambiando la cuarta compaa de discos ms grande del mundo por la vigsima quinta compaa area ms grande y que te habas vuelto loco. +Porqu lo hiciste? +RB: Bueno, creo que hay una lnea muy fina que divide el xito y el fracaso. +Y creo que si empiezas un negocio sin apoyo financiero, es muy probable que vayas al lado equivocado de esa lnea. +Tuvimos -- estabamos siendo atacados por British Airways; +intentaban dejar nuestra compaa area fuera del negocio, y lanzaron lo que es conocido como la "campaa de las tcticas sucias". +Y me di cuenta que era probable que el imperio completo quebrara, a menos que pusiera algo de mi parte. +Y a fin de proteger los puestos de trabajo de la gente que trabajaba para la compaa area, y proteger los puestos de trabajo de la gente que trabajaba para la compaa de discos, Tuve que vender las joyas de la familia para proteger la aerolnea. +CA: Despus de Napster, pareces en realidad casi como genio, por eso, tambin. +RB: Si, result ser el paso adecuado. +Si, en ese momento fu triste, pero seguimos adelante. +CA: Ahora, usas mucho la marca Virgin y parece que ests obteniendo sinergia de una cosa a otra. +Qu representa la marca en tu cabeza? +RB: Bueno, me gusta pensar que representa calidad, que, si alguien se topa con una compaa Virgin -- CA: Son calidad, Richard, vamos, todo el mundo habla de calidad --el espritu? +RB: No, pero iba a dar un paso en esto. +Nos divertimos y creo que la gente que trabaja para ella lo pasa bien. +Nosotros, -- como digo, entramos y agitamos otras industrias y creo, que lo hacemos de forma diferente y creo que las industrias no son las mismas como resultado del ataque de Virgin en el mercado. +CA: Quiero decir, hubo algunos lanzamientos donde hiciste eso -- donde quizs la marca no haya funcionado tan bien. +Quiero decir Virgin Novias- que pas ah? +RB: No pudimos encontrar clientes. +CA: Tambin tena curiosidad porque -- Creo que perdiste una oportunidad con el lanzamiento de tus preservativos-lo lllamaste Mates +Quiero decir, no pudiste usar tambin la marca Virgin para esto? +No ms Virgin, o algo as. +RB: Nuevamente, podriamos haber tendido problemas en encontrar clientes. +Quiero decir, tuvimos -- normalmente cuando lanzas una compaa y recibes reclamaciones de los clientes, puedes encargarte de ellos. +Pero despus de tres meses del lanzamiento de la compaa de preservativos Recib una carta, una reclamacin, y me sent y contest a esta seora con una carta larga deshacindome en disculpas. +Pero obviamente no haba mucho que yo pudiera hacer al respecto. +Y seis meses ms tarde, o nueve meses ms tarde que el problema surgiese, Recib esta carta encantadora con una fotografa del beb preguntndome si sera el padrino, que lo fui. +Bueno al final todo sali bien. +CA: De verdad? Deberas haber traido una fotografa. Es maravilloso. +RB: Debera. +CA: Bueno entonces ayudanos con algunos nmeros. +Quiero decir, cuales son los nmeros en esto? +Quiero decir,cmo de grande es el grupo en total? +Cuanto- cuales son los ingresos totales? +RB:En total son 25 billones de dlares ms o menos. +CA: Y cuntos empleados? +RB: En torno a 55,000. +CA: Entonces has sido fotografiado de varias maneras en varias ocasiones y nunca te has preocupado por poner tu dignidad en juego o algo parecido. +Qu era eso? Era real? +RB:Si. Estbamos abriendo un gran almacn en Los Angleles, creo. +No. Quiero decir, creo -- CA: Pero ese es tu pelo? +RB: No. +CA: Que era eso? +RB: Estaba bajando a tomar el t. +CA: OK. +CA: Ah, esto fue muy divertido. Eso fue un fabuloso coche barco que -- RB: Ah, ese coche que nosotros- de hecho -- fue un evento de TED creo. +Eso es -- puedes poner pausa es esta por un minuto? +RB: Es un trabajo duro, no? +CA: Es decir -- es un trabajo duro. +Cuando vine por primera vez a Amrica sola probar tambin esto con los empleados y era una especie de -- aqu tenan diferentes reglas, es muy extrao. +RB: Lo s, tengo a los abogados dicindome no debes hacer cosas como esa, pero -- CA: Quiero decir, hablando de, cuntanos de -- RB: Pammy, nosotros lanzamos, sabes, pensamos errneamente que podramos competir con Coca-Cola, y lanzamos una botella de cola llamada "The Pammy" y tena la forma de Pamela Anderson. +Pero el problema es que la botella se volcaba, pero -- CA: Diseado quizs por Philipe Starck quizs? +RB: Por supuesto. +CA: Bueno vamos a pasar un par de fotografas ms. Virgin Novias. Muy bien. +Y, OK, Para aqu. Esto fue -- te dieron algn premio creo? +RB: Si, bueno, 25 aos atrs lanzamos los Sex Pistols' "Dios Salve a la Reina", y nunca esper que 25 aos ms tarde ella nos concediera un ttulo. +Pero debe tener una memoria olvidadiza, creo +CA: Bueno, que Dios la salvo y t tuviste tu premio. +Te gusta que te llamen Sir Richard, o cmo? +RB: Nunca nadie me llam Sir Richard. +Ocasionalmente en Amrica, oigo a la gente diciendo Sir Richard y creo que se est llevando a cabo alguna representacin de Shakespeare +Pero bueno en ningn sitio ms. +CA: OK. Entonces puedes usar tu ttulo para cualquier cosa o es slo... +RB: No. Supongo que si tienes problemas reservando una mesa en un restaurante o algo as, puede valer la pena usarlo. +CA: Sabes, no es Richard Branson, es Sir Richard Branson. +RB: Har que lo use la secretaria . +CA: OK. Bueno vamos a ver el asunto del espacio. +Creo, con nosotros, tenemos un video que muestra lo que haces Y Virgin Galactic en el aire. Bueno Esa es la nave espacial diseada por Bert Rutan? +RB: S, estar lista en -- bueno, lista en 12 meses y luego haremos 12 meses de pruebas extensas. +y entonces de aqu a 24 meses la gente podr darse un viaje al espacio. +CA: El interior est diseado por Philippe Starcke? +RB: Philippe ha hecho el- si, bastante -- los logos y est construyendo la estacin espacial en Nuevo Mexico, +y bsicamente ha cogido un ojo y la estacin espacial ser un ojo gigante, de tal modo que cuando ests en el espacio debes ver este enorme ojo mirndote. +Y cuando aterrices, podrs volverte hacia este ojo gigante. +Pero cuando se trata de diseo l es absolutamente un genio. +CA: Pero no te hizo el diseo del motor? +RB: Philippe es bastante imprevisible, por lo que pienso que no sera la mejor persona para disear el motor, no. +CA: Di aqu una charla magnfica hace dos das. +RB: S? No, es -- CA: Bueno, algunos le encontraron maravilloso, algunos le encontraron estrambtico. +Sin embargo, yo personalmente le encontr maravilloso. +RB: Es un entusiasta maravilloso por eso le quiero, Pero -- +CA: Bueno, has tenido siempre en ti este bicho explorador? +Te has arrepentido de ello alguna vez? +RB: Muchas veces. +Quiero decir, creo que con las expediciones en globo y barco que hemos hecho en el pasado -- +bueno, fui sacado del mar creo que seis veces por helicpteros, -- y cada vez no esperaba volver a casa para contarlo. +En esos momentos desde luego que te preguntas qu ests haciendo ah arriba o... CA: Qu era lo ms cerca que llegaste de -- cuando pensaste hasta aqu, puede que sea mi punto de salida? +RB: Bueno, creo que las aventuras en globo fueron -- cada una fue -- cada una, en realidad, creo que estuvimos cerca. +Y fue como intentar sujetar a mil caballos. +Y cruzamos todos los dedos, rezando para que el globo se mantuviera todo junto,que, afortunadamente, lo hizo. +Pero el final de todos esos viajes en globo fue, sabes -- pareca que siempre haba algo que iba mal. y en esa ocasin en concreto estaba conmigo el aerstata con ms experiencia, salt y me dej agarrado con todas mis fuerzas con mi vida en juego. +CA: te pidi que saltaras, o slo dijo, "Me voy de aqu" y... +RB: No, me pidi que saltara, pero una vez que su peso ya haba salido del globo, el globo se dispar hasta los 12,000 pies y ... +CA: Y creo que con ello inspiraste la novela de Ian McEwan. +RB; S. No, me puse la mscara de oxgeno y me puse de pie en la parte superior del globo, Con mi paracadas, mirando a las nubes moviendo rpidamente por debajo, intentando armarme de valor para saltar en el Mar del Norte, que -- y fueron momentos muy solitarios. +Pero, bueno, sobrevivimos. +CA: Saltaste o -- al final descendi? +RB: Bueno, saba que tena media hora de combustible ms o menos, y tambin saba que si saltaba las posibilidades eran que solo tendra de vida un par de minutos restantes. +Trep hasta volver a la cpsula y lo intent desesperadamente para asegurarme que estaba tomando la decisin correcta. +Y escrib algunas notas a mi familia. Y cuando trep hacia arriba de nuevo. mir hacia abajo a esas nubes de nuevo, trep para volver a la cpsula de nuevo. +Y al final pens, existe una manera mejor. +Tengo, este globo enorme encima de mi, es el paracadas ms grande que hay, porqu no usarlo? +Y entonces consegu que el globo volara ms bajo atravesando las nubes y cuando estaba a 50 pies, justo antes de chocar con el mar, me tir. +Y el globo se choc contra el mar. y sali disparado hacia arriba sin mi 10,000 pies. +Pero fue una sensacin maravillosa estar en el agua y- CA: Qu escribiste a tu familia? +RB: Lo que t escribiras en una situacin semejante, slo que te quiero mucho y -- ya les haba escrito una carta antes de salir a este viaje, que -- slo en caso que hubiera sucedido algo. +Pero afortunadamente no tuvieron que usarla. +CA: Estos actos heroicos han dado un valor enorme de Relaciones Pblicas a tus empresas. +Los aos -- y hasta que par de ver los sondeos, eras considerado como una especie de gran hroe en el Reino Unido y en otros lugares. +Y la gente cnica puede decir, bueno sabes, este es slo un hombre de negocios haciendo lo que es necesario para llevar al cabo su estilo particular de hacer marketing. +Cuanto de Relaciones Pblicas tena todo esto? +RB: Bueno, los expertos en Relaciones Pblicas dicen que el dueo de una aerolnea, la ltima cosa que debe hacer es marcharse en globos y barcos, y estrellarse contra el mar. +CA: Tenan razn, Richard. +RB: De hecho,nuestra aerolnea ocup la pgina completa de un anuncio en aquel tiempo para decir, ves Richard, hay maneras mejores de cruzar el Atlntico. +CA: Para hacer todo esto, debes haber sido un genio desde el principio, verdad? +RB:Bueno, no te llevare la contraria en eso. +CA: OK, esto no es el Bisbol, OK. +CA: No -- No eras una calamidad en el colegio? +RB: era dislxico, no entenda nada de los deberes. +Seguro que habra fallado los test de inteligencia . +Y fue una de las razones por las que dej el colegio cuando tena 15 aos. +Y si -- si no estoy interesado en algo, no lo capto. +Para alguien que es dislxico, tambin vives situaciones un tanto raras. +Quiero decir, por ejemplo, tuve que -- sabes, He estado dirigiendo el grupo ms grande de compaas privadas de Europa, pero no he sido capaz de saber la diferencia entre neto y bruto. +Y bueno las reuniones de la junta directiva han estado fascinante. +Y es como, buenas noticias o malas noticias? +Y la gente normalmente dira, oh, entonces son malas noticias. +CA: Slo para aclarar, los 25 billones es bruto, verdad, esto es bruto? +RB: Bueno, en realidad espero que sea neto, teniendo -- He acertado. +CA: No, confa en mi, es bruto. +RB: Cuando cumpl los 50 alguien me llev a la sala de juntas y me dijo, "Mira Richard, aqu hay un -- djame dibujarte un diagrama -- +Aqu hay una red en el mar, y el pez ha sido arrastrado del mar a la red. +Y lo que te queda en esta pequea red son los beneficios que tienes, todo lo dems ha sido comido". +Y al final lo entend. +CA: Pero, quiero decir. en el colegio, -- ademas de estar -- sabes, de manera lamentable acadmicamente hablando, sin embargo eras el capitn de los equipos de criquet y ftbol, +eras una especie de -- eras un lder natural, pero un poco -- eras un rebelde entonces, o cmo... +RB: S, creo que era un poco inconformista -- pero -- y era, si, afortunadamente era bueno en el deporte y al menos destacaba en algo, en el colegio. +CA: Y anterior a eso ocurrieron algunas cosas raras en tu vida. +Quiero decir, hay una historia de tu madre que supuestamente te tir a un campo, a la edad de cuatro aos, y te dijo "Ok, camina a casa". +Pas esto de verdad? +RB: Era, sabes, crea que tenamos que ser independientes desde pequeos. +Bueno nos hizo cosas, por las que ahora sera arrestada. tales como empujarnos fuera del coche, y mandarnos encontrar solos el camino a casa de la abuela, dejndonos ms o menos cinco millas antes de llegar. +Y nos haca ir a dar unas estupendas y largas vueltas en bici. +Y no nos dejaba ver televisin . +CA: Pero hay un riesgo en eso? +Hay mucha gente en la sala que son ricos, y tienen nios, y tenemos este dilema de como educarlos. +Miras a la generacin de nios que vienen en la actualidad y piensas estn demasiado mimados, no saben lo que tienen, vamos a criar una generacin de privilegiados... +RB: No, creo que si vas a educar nios, lo nico que quieres es colmarlos de amor y elogios y entusiasmo. +No creo que puedas mimar a tus hijos demasiado sinceramente. +CA: T no has salido demasiado malo, he de decir, +El director de tu colegio te dijo -- El crea que eras como una especie de enigma en tu colegio -- dijo, que ibas a ser un millonario o ir a la crcel, y no estoy segura de cual. +Cual de ellas ocurri primero? +RB: Bueno, he hecho ambas. Creo que estuve antes en la crcel. +Realmente fui procesado en el Reino Unido por dos leyes bastante antiguas. +Fui procesado bajo la Ley de 1889 de Enfermedades Venreas. y la Ley de 1916 de Anuncios Indecentes. +La primera vez por mencionar la palabra enfermedad venrea en publico, que -- tenamos un centro dnde ayudbamos a los jvenes que tenan problemas. +Y uno de los problemas que tienen los jvenes es la enfermedad venrea. +Y hay una ley antigua que dice no puedes mencionar la palabra enfermedad venrea o escribirlo en pblico. +Entonces la polica llam a la puerta, y nos avis que nos iba a arrestar si continubamos mencionando la palabra enfermedad venrea. +Lo cambiamos por enfermedades sociales. y la gente vena con acn y espinillas, pero no vena nadie ms con enfermedades venreas. +Entonces volvimos a poner Enfermedades Venreas y fuimos arrestados. +Y posteriormente, "No importan las estupideces , aqu estn los Sex Pistols", la polica decidi que la palabra "estupideces", era una palabra grosera y fuimos arrestados por usar la palabra "estupideces" en el lbum de los Sex Pistols. +Y el dramaturgo, John Morimer, nos defendi. +Y nos pregunt si podamos encontrar un experto en lingstica para proponer una definicin distinta de la palabra estupideces. +Y entonces llam a la Universidad de Nottingham, y ped hablar con el profesor de lingstica, +Y dijo "Mira, estupideces no es -- no tiene en absoluto nada que ver con bolas. +Realmente es un apodo que se les ha dado a los sacerdotes en el siglo XVIII". +Y prosigui, " Es ms yo mismo soy un sacerdote". +Y entonces le dije, "Le importara venir a declarar al juzgado"? +Y dijo que estara encantado. Y le dije -- y dijo, "Quiere que lleve el alzacuellos? +Y le dije, "Si, sera -- por favor..." +CA: Es genial. +RB: Entonces nuestro testigo principal fue -- defendi que realmente era "No importa el Sacerdote, Aqu estn los Sex Pistols" +Y el juez nos declar -- a su pesar nos declar no culpables, -- +CA: Es escandaloso. +Ahora en serio, hay un lado oscuro? +Mucha gente dira que es imposible que alguien pueda reunir esta increble coleccin de empresas sin acuchillar por la espalda a unos cuantos, saber, hacer algunas cosas feas, +Has sido acusado de ser despiadado. +Haba una biografa escrita sobre ti un tanto desagradable. +Es algo de esto verdad? Hay alguna parte verdad en esto? +RB: Realmente no creo que el estereotipo de un hombre de negocios sea pisotear a la gente para llegar arriba, hablando en trminos generales, funciona. +Creo que si tratas a la gente bien, la gente volver y volver en busca de ms. +Y creo que tu reputacin es lo que tienes en la vida y el mundo es muy pequeo. +Y realmente creo que la mejor manera de convertirte en un lder de los negocios con xito, es tratar a la gente bien y de forma justa, y me gusta pensar que as es como dirigimos Virgin. +CA:Y que ocurre con la gente que te quiere y que te ve gastando -- te mantienes enganchado a estos nuevos proyectos, pero casi parece que ests adicto al lanzamiento de cosas nuevas. +Te entusiasma una idea, y ala! +Quiero decir, piensas en el equilibrio en la vida? +Cmo se siente tu familia cada vez que das un paso hacia algo nuevo y grande? +RB: Tambin creo que ser padre es muy importante, desde que los nios eran muy pequeos, sabes, cuando se van de vacaciones me voy con ellos. +Y lo pasamos muy bien los tres meses ms o menos que pasamos fuera juntos. +Si, sabes, estar en contacto. Tenemos mucha suerte, tenemos esta pequea isla en el Caribe y podemos -- les puedo llevar all y podemos traer amigos, y podemos jugar juntos, pero puedo tambin estar al tanto de lo que ocurre con los negocios. +CA: Empezaste a hablar hace pocos aos del trmino filantropa capitalista. +Qu es esto? +RB: Ha sido probado que el capitalismo es un sistema que funciona. +Sabes, la alternativa, es el comunismo, que no ha funcionado. +Pero el problema con el capitalismo es que la riqueza extrema acaba en manos de una poca gente, y por lo tanto creo que, la responsabilidad extrema va con esa riqueza. +Y creo que es importante que los individuos, que estn en esa posicin afortunada, no acaben compitiendo por barcos ms y ms grandes y por coches ms y ms grandes. pero ms bien, usar el dinero para bien crear nuevos puestos de trabajo o tratar asuntos alrededor del mundo, +CA: Y cuales son los asuntos que ms te preocupan, a los que ms te dedicas, hacia los que quieres destinar tus recursos? +RB: Bueno, hay -- Existen muchos temas. +necesitamos animar a la gente a que busque una manera de extraer carbono de la atmsfera de la tierra. +Y nosotros slo -- sabes, en realidad no haba gente trabajando en eso antes, por eso queramos que la gente lo intentara -- que todos los mejores cerebros del mundo empezaran a pensar en ello, y tambin intentar extraer el metano tambin de la atmsfera de la tierra. +Y en efecto tuvimos en torno a 15,000 formularios rellenados diciendo que quieren probar. +Y slo necesitamos uno, por tanto tenemos esperanza. +CA: Y tambin trabajas en Africa en un par de proyectos? +RB: S, tenemos -- estamos montando algo llamado la habitacin de guerra, que quizs es la palabra incorrecta -- +estamos intentando --- quizs lo cambiaremos -- pero de todas formas, es la habitacin de guerra para tratar de coordinar todo el ataque que se est llevando a cabo en Africa, todos los problemas sociales diferentes que hay en Africa e intentar llevar a cabo las mejores prcticas. +Entonces, por ejemplo, hay un doctor en Africa que descubri que si a una madre que est embarazada de 24 semanas le das medicamentos antirretrovirales el beb no tendr VIH cuando nazca. +Y entonces si esa informacin se reparte al -- resto de Africa es importante. +CA: La habitacin de guerra suena, suena muy fuerte y dramtico. +Y existe el riesgo de que la especie de hroes de negocios del Oeste se entusiasmen tanto que -- Quiero decir, estn acostumbrados a tener una idea, y dejar las cosas hechas, y creen profundamente en su habilidad por marcar una diferencia en el mundo. +RB: Bueno, primero que todo en esta situacin en particular, estamos en realidad -- estamos trabajando con el gobierno en ello. +Quiero decir, Thabo Mbeki tuvo sus problemas en aceptar que VIH y SIDA estn relacionados, pero es el camino, creo, de que l aborde este problema y en lugar de que el mundo le critique es una manera de trabajar con l, con su gobierno. +Es importante que si la gente va a Africa e intenta ayudar, que no vaya y simplemente abandone pasados unos aos. +Tiene que ser consecuente. +Pero creo que los lderes de los negocios pueden traer su conocimiento empresarial y ayudar a los gobiernos a que enfoquen las cosas de manera algo distinta. +Por ejemplo, estamos montando clnicas en Africa. donde vamos a dar medicamentos antirretrovirales gratis, tratamiento gratis de tuberculosis y tratamiento gratis de malaria. +Pero tambin intentamos hacer las clnicas autosostenibles de tal modo que la gente pague por otros aspectos. +CA: Es decir, mucha gente cnica opina de alguien como t o Bill Gates en realidad es -- lo que os lleva a hacerlo es un cierto deseo, de dar buena imagen, para evitar la sensacin de culpa y no como un instinto real filantrpico. +Qu les diras? +RB: Bueno, creo que todo el mundo -- la gente hace cosas por una variedad de distintas razones y creo que, sabes, cuando est en mi lecho de muerte Querr sentir que he marcado una diferencia en la vida de otras personas. +Y puede que sea egosta pensar as, pero es la manera en la que he sido educado. +Creo que si estoy en la posicin de poder cambiar radicalmente la vida de otras personas para mejor, Debo hacerlo. +CA: Cuantos aos tienes? +RB: Tengo 56. +CA: El psiclogo Erik Erikson dice que, como yo le entiendo y soy un total aficionado, pero la gente al cumplir los treinta, los cuarenta les mueve este deseo de crecer y es cuando llegan a sentirse realizados. +los 50, 60. el modo de operar cambia a la cuestin de sabidura y la bsqueda de legado. +Es decir, parece que t ests aun un poco en la fase de crecimiento, an ests haciendo estos increbles planes nuevos. +Cuanto piensas en el legado, y que te gustara que fuera tu legado? +RB: No creo que piense mucho en el legado. +Es decir, me gusta -- sabes, mi abuela vivi hasta los 101, con un poco de suerte tengo otros 30 o 40 aos por delante. +No, slo quiero vivir la vida de forma plena. +Si puedo marcar una diferencia, espero poder marcar una diferencia. +Y en este momento una de las cosas positivas es que tienes a Sergey y Larry de Google, por ejemplo, que son buenos amigos. +Y, gracias a Dios, tienes dos personas que se preocupan genuinamente por el mundo y con este tipo de riqueza. +Si tuvieran este tipo de riqueza y no les importara el mundo, sera muy preocupante. +Y van a marcar una gran diferencia al mundo. +Y creo que es importante que la gente que est en esa posicin marque una diferencia. +CA: Bueno, Richard, cuando estaba empezando en el negocio no saba nada de esto y tambin estaba como una especie de -- Pensaba que la gente de negocios tena que ser despiadada y que era esta la nica manera en la que tendras la posibilidad de tener xito. +Y realmente t me inspiraste. Te mir, y pens, bueno, el lo ha logrado, quizs hay una manera distinta. +Por tanto me gustara darte las gracias por esa inspiracin y por venir hoy a TED. Gracias. +Muchas gracias. +Algo en lo que siempre estoy pensando es en el tema de esta sesin, la simplicidad. +Y estoy tentada a llamarlo simpln pero en el mejor sentido de la palabra. +Estoy tratando de descifrar dos cosas muy simples: cmo vivir y cmo morir, punto. +Es lo nico que trato de hacer, todo el da. +Y tambin trato de hacer las tres comidas y darme una que otra merienda y, bueno, gritarle a mis hijos y hacer todas las cosas normales que te mantienen con los pies en la tierra. +As que tuve la gran fortuna de haber nacido soadora +Mi hermana mayor estaba ocupada torturando a mis padres, y ellos estaban ocupados torturndola a ella. +As que tuve la suerte de que me ignoraran por completo-- lo cual es fabuloso, djenme decirles. +As que toda la vida tuve la oportunidad de andar soando despierta todo el tiempo. +y finalmente soe que entraba a NYU en una muy buena poca--en 1967, donde conoc un hombre que trataba de explotar el edificio de matemticas de NYU. +y yo me pasaba escribiendo horribles poesas y tejindole jerseys. +las feministas nos odiaban, y todo era horrible de principio a fin. +Pero yo segu escribiendo mala poesa, y l no hizo explotar el edificio de matemticas, pero se fue a Cuba. +Pero yo le d el dinero porque yo era de Riverdale as que tena ms dinero que l. +y era una buena forma de ayudar, ya sabes, a la causa. +Pero cuando el regres, y las cosas sucedieron, y decid que realmente odiaba lo que escriba y que era prosa terrible, terrible y recargada. +y decid que quera contar, que quera contar una historia narrativa y que an quera contar mis historias. +As que decid que iba a empezar a dibujar. Qu tan difcil poda ser? +Entonces lo que pas es que empec a convertirme en una ilustradora de editoriales, por pura, ya sabes, pura lo que sea, pura ignorancia. +Y empezamos con un estudio -- +bueno, Tibor empez un estudio, llamado M & Compaa. +Y la premisa de M & Compaa era , no sabemos nada pero no importa, lo vamos a hacer de todas maneras. +Y de hecho, lo mejor es no saber nada, porque si sabes demasiado te bloqueas. +Entonces, la premisa en nuestro estudio era, que no hay lmites, no hay miedo. +Y yo-- mi trabajo de tiempo completo, encontr el mejor trabajo del mundo, que es soar despierta e inventar ideas absurdas por suerte haba suficiente gente ah -- y era un equipo, y era colectivo, no era yo sola inventado ideas locas. +Pero el asunto es que yo estaba ah, como yo misma, como una soadora. +Y algunas de las cosas-- digo, la historia de M & Compaa es una larga historia, y evidentemente necesitbamos ganar algo de dinero, as que decidimos crear una serie de productos. +Y algunos de estos relojes, tratando de hacerlos lindos y divertidos-- tal vez no slo intentndolo, esperemos que tambien logrndolo -- +y poder hablar acerca de contenido, para romper con las expectativas, usar humor y sorpresa, elegancia y humanidad en el trabajo era realmente importante para nosotros. +Era muy importante, era una poca muy impersonal en materia de diseo y lo que queramos decir es que el contenido era lo importante, no el empaque, no el forro. +Hay que ser periodistas e inventores hay que usar la imaginacin ms que ninguna otra cosa. +Pero lo bueno es que tengo un perro y, aunque no s si creo en la suerte -- en realidad no s en que creo, es un asunto complicado -- pero si s que antes de irme, le agito su cola siete veces. +Entonces, cada vez que el v una valija en la casa, porque, saben, todo el mundo siempre est de salida, y siempre estn agitndole la cola a este maravilloso perro, y l sale corriendo a la otra habitacin. +Pero yo puedo hacer la transicin de trabajar para nios y-- y de trabajar para adultos a trabajar para nios en las dos direcciones porque, saben, puedo decir que soy immadura y de alguna manera es cierto. +En realidad-- quiero decir, podra decirles que no he entendido -- no estoy orgullosa de eso, pero no he entendido digamos que 95 por ciento de las charlas de esta conferencia. +Pero en cambio he estado tomando lindas notas en forma de dibujos y tengo una cebolla maravillosa de la charla de Murray Gell-Mann. +Y una pgina de lindos garabatos de la charla de Jonathan Woodham. +As que del no entender salen cosas buenas -- -- de la cual har un cuadro y luego terminar en mi trabajo. +Entonces, yo estoy abierta a las posibilidades de no saber nada y de descubrir cosas nuevas. +Entonces, respecto a escribir para nios, parece algo simple, y lo es. +Se tiene que condensar la historia en 32 pginas, generalmente. +y lo que realmente tienes que hacer es acortar lo que quieres decir. +y se espera que no les hables a los nios con aires de superioridad o que no les hables de tal manera que, sabes, que no pudieran soportar leerlo ms de una vez. +As que espero estar escribiendo, libros que sean buenos para nios y para adultos. +Pero las ilustraciones reflejan, Creo que yo no pienso diferente para nios que como pienso para adultos. +Trato de usar el mismo tipo de imaginacin, el mismo tipo de humor, el mismo tipo de amor por el lenguaje. +Bueno, yo tengo muchos amigos bien parecidos. +Este es Andrew Gatz, y entr por la puerta y le dije, "Tu, sintate ah", saben, yo tomo muchas fotos. +Y la silla Bertoia en el fondo es mi silla favorita. +As que logro meter todas las cosas que me gustan, +y ojal que ocurra un dilogo entre adultos y nios a muchos niveles diferentes, y espero que diferentes, diferentes tipos de humor evolucionen. +Y los libros son realmente diarios de mi vida. +Yo nunca-- A mi no me gusta las tramas. +No s lo que quieren decir las tramas. +No soporto la idea de algo que empiece por el principio, sabes, principio, medio y final, eso realmente me asusta, porque mi vida es demasiado aleatoria y confusa, y yo la disfruto as. +Pero bueno, entonces una vez yo estaba, estbamos, en Venecia. y esta es nuestra habitacion, y tuve este sueo que llevaba este fantstico vestido verde, y yo miraba por la ventana y fue algo realmente hermoso. +Y entonces logr poner eso en esta historia, que es un alfabeto, y espero continuar en algo ms. +La letra C tena otras cosas. +Tambin tuve mucha suerte al conocer al hombre que est sentado en la cama, aunque en el dibujo le puse pelo, en realidad el no lo tiene -- +bueno, tiene un poco, o bueno, sola tener pelo. +Y con el logr realizar un proyecto que fue realmente fantstico. +Yo trabajo para la revista New Yorker, y hago portadas, y sucedi el 9/11 y eso fue, saben, total y completamente el fin del mundo cuando lo supimos. +y Rick y yo bamos a una fiesta en el Bronx, y alguien dijo Bronxistan, y alguien dijo Fareeristan. y se nos ocurri esta portada para el New Yorker, lo cual logramos -- no sabamos bien lo que estbamos haciendo, +no estbamos intentando ser chistosos, no lo estbamos intentando bueno, no es cierto, en realidad si estbamos intentando ser chistosos. +Esperbamos ser chistosos, pero no sabamos que iba a ser una portada, y no sabamos que esa imagen, en el momento que so sucedi, iba a ser algo tan maravilloso para tanta gente. +Y en realidad se transform en el --no s, en uno de esos momentos en el cual la gente se empieza a reir acerca de lo que est sucediendo. +y desde, ya sabes, desde Fattushis, a Taxistan, a, los Fashtoonks, Botoxia, Pashmina, Khlintunesia, y as sucesivamente, logramos tomar la ciudad y reirnos de esto tan extrao. Quines son? Qu est pasando aqui? +Quines son stos? Quines son estas tribus? +Y David Remnick, quien fue realmente maravilloso en esto, tena un conflicto: a l no le gustaba Al Zheimer, los Al Zheimers, porque pens que iba a ser un insulto para la gente con Alzheimer. +Pero entonces pensamos "David, quien se va a dar cuenta? +Ellos no van a darse cuenta. +Entonces lo dejaron en la portada, lo cual fue algo bueno. +Saben, en el transcurso de mi vida yo nunca s lo que va a pasar y eso es lo lindo del asunto. +Una vez estabamos en Cape Cod, claramente un sitio de mucha inspiracin, y compr este libro que se titula en ingls "Los Elementos del Estilo" en una venta de garage +y yo no -- yo nunca lo us en mis estudios, porque estaba muy ocupada escribiendo poemas y perdiendo las asignaturas y no s que ms, sentada en los cafs. +Pero tom el libro y empec a leerlo y pens, este libro es asombroso. +Y pens -- la gente tiene que enterarse de que este libro existe. +Entonces decid que necesitaba unas cuantas mejoras, algunas ilustraciones. +Y bsicamente, llam a, bueno, convenc a los herederos de White, y qu interseccin, ya saben de juda polaca, con familia blanca, anglosajona y protestante y estoy dicindoles que Me gustara hacerle algo a este libro. +Y ellos dijeron que s, y me dejaron hacer lo que quisiera, lo cual fue hermoso, maravilloso. +Y entonces tom los ejemplos que ellos dan en el libro, y simplemente hice 56 ilustraciones, bsicamente eso fue lo que hice. +Bueno, este es, no s si pueden leer sto. +"Bueno Susan, ests en menudo lio" +y cuando se trata de gramtica, la cual, como saben, es increiblemente rida. E.B White escribi de una manera tan maravillosa y chistosa-- y Strunk tambin-- y cuando llegas a la normas y , ya sabes, hay tantos asuntos de gramtica --"te importa si te hago una pregunta? +Te importa el que yo haga una pregunta?" +habra, podra, debera, or habra, debera, podra' +y "habra" es el amante de Coco Chanel y "debera" es Edith Sitwell, y "podra" es un sujeto de August Sander. +y "se percat de una gran mancha en el centro de la alfombra" +As que hay un tono de eufemismo britnico, como de asesinato y misterio que en realidad me encanta. +y luego, "S claramente oscuro! Dale a tu salvajismo una forma que podamos entender." +E.B White nos escribi una serie de reglas, que te pueden paralizar o hacer que lo odies por el resto de tu vida, o las puedes pasar por alto, que es lo que yo hago, o puedes, no s, comerte un emparedado +Entonces lo que hice cuando estaba pintando es que empec a cantar, Porque en realidad me encanta cantar, y pienso que la msica es la forma mas elevada de todas las artes. +Entonces le encargu al maravilloso compositor, Nico Muhly, quien escribi nueve canciones, usando el texto, y presentamos una noche fantstica de -- el escribi la msica, tanto para aficionados como para profesionales. +en la sala de lectura principal de la biblioteca pblica de Nueva York. donde se supone que tienes que estar muy, muy callado y result un evento tremendamente maravilloso el cual esperamos repetir. +Quin sabe? El New York Times Select, los editores de opinin, me pidieron que hiciera una columna, y me dijeron que poda hacer lo que quisiera +as que una vez al mes, durante este ao He estado haciendo una columna llamada Los Principios de la Incertidumbre, la cual, bueno, yo no s quien es Heisenberg, pero puedo mencionarlo como si lo supiera, los principios de la incertidumbre, as que ya saben. +Voy a leer rpidamente -- y probablemente voy a editar un poco porque no me queda mucho tiempo-- algunas de las columnas +As que, bsicamente la situacin result muy entretenida porque yo deca, "Bueno, cunto espacio tengo?" +Y ellos decan, "Bueno, ya sabes, es la Internet" +Y yo responda, "Si, pero cunto espacio tengo?" +Y ellos decan, "Es ilimitado, es ilimitado". +As que la primera columna fue muy tmida y empezar. +"Cmo puedo decirles todo lo que hay en mi corazn?" +Imposible empezar. Suficiente. No. Empecemos con el desafortunado dodo". +Y menciono al dodo y hablo de su extincin, y despus hablo acerca de Spinoza +"Mientras que el ltimo dodo mora, Spinoza buscaba una explicacin racional para todo, llamada eudemonia. +Y entonces exhal por ltima vez rodeado de sus seres queridos despus de tomar sopa de pollo como su ltima cena." +Resulta que lo s a ciencia cierta. +Y despues muri y no hubo ms Spinoza, extinto. +Y no tenemos un Spinoza disecado, aunque el perro de Pavlov si est disecado y lo visit en el Museo de la Higiene en San Petesburgo, Rusia. +Y ah est, con esa horrible caja elctrica en su trasero en este lugar, fantstico y decrpito +"Y pienso que debe haber sido un da muy, muy oscuro cuando llegaron los bolcheviques. +A lo mejor se rieron entre ellos, pero Stalin era un paranoico, aun ms que mi padre." +No tienen ni idea. +"Y decidi que su plana mayor tena que ser extinta". +Creo que eso lo invent yo, buena cosa. +As que esta tabla de, saben, es solo una tablita, porque la tabla de toda la gente que mat sera infinita. +As como fusilados, golpeados en la cabeza, arrojados. +"La familia de Nabokov se escap de Rusia. Como puede el joven Nabokov sentarse inocente y elegantemente en una silla roja, hojeando un libro y unas mariposas, imagnense tal desarraigo, tal prdida". +Y quiero decirles que esto es un mapa. +As que, "La familia de mi bella madre tambin se escap de Rusia, +haba demasiados motines. +Dejando atrs la choza, los bosques de moras, los gansos, el rio Sluch, fueron a Palestina y luego a los Estados Unidos." +Y mi madre me dibuj este mapa de los Estados Unidos de Amrica, y ste es mi ADN aqu presente, porque esa persona con la que crec no le vi utilidad alguna a los hechos, en absoluto. +Hechos que fueron desterrados de nuestro hogar. +As que, si ven que Texas - ya saben, Texas y California estn debajo de Canad y que Carolina del Sur est arriba de Carolina del Norte este es el hogar en el que yo crec, bueno? +As que es un milagro que yo est aqu hoy. +En realidad no lo es, en realidad es una cosa maravillosa. +Pero despus ella dice Tel Aviv y Lenin, que es de donde vienen, y lo siento, el resto no se sabe, gracias. +Pero en su vocabulario,significa lo siento el resto es desconocido lo siento, el resto no se sabe, vete al infierno, porque no poda importarle menos. +La imposibilidad de febrero, es que en realidad febrero en Nueva York es un mes miserable y para mi evoca imgenes de cosas terribles, en realidad terribles +bueno, no tan terribles. +Recib una caja en el correo, envuelta en papel peridico y en el peridico haba una foto de un hombre que estaba muerto +Y me dije, "Espero que en realidad no est muerto, sino que est disfrutando la nieve, recostado, pero el pie de pgina deca que estaba muerto." +Y de hecho lo estaba, creo que est muerto, aunque yo no lo s a lo mejor no est muerto. +"Y esta mujer est agobiada, no por ese hombre, sino por todas las cosas tristes que suelen suceder en febrero". +Hay consuelo. +Este hombre esta furioso porque alguien arroj estas cebollas por la escalera, y bsicamente, como ven, creo que las cebollas son un tema comn aqu, +y l dice "Es imposible no mentir". +Es febrero y es imposible no mentir." +Y en realidad me paso mucho tiempo preguntndome qu tanta verdad decimos? +Qu es lo que en realidad - qu historia estamos contando en realidad? +Cmo sabemos cuando somos nosotros mismos? +Cmo sabemos, en realidad, que estas frases que salen de nuestras bocas son historias reales, saben, frases verdaderas? +O son frases falsas que creemos que debemos decir? +Voy a pasar por esto rpidamente. +Una cita de Bertrand Russell, "todas las tareas de todas las pocas, toda devocin, toda inspiracin, todo el resplandor de la plena madurez del genio humano estn condenados a la aniquilacin +Asi que si eso es verdad, mis amigos, y si, es verdad, entonces cul es el punto?" +Una pregunta complicada. +As que, saben, hablo con mis amigos y voy a obras de teatro en las que cantan canciones rusas -- +Oh Dios mio, saben que? +Podemos -- no, no tenemos tiempo. +Grab a mi ta, la grab cantando una cancin rusa de Saben que, podemos oirla un segundo? +La tiene? +OK. Grab a mi tia, que acostumbraba a nadar en el ceano todos los das de su vida hasta que cumpli 85. +Y as que, esa es una cancin sobre la miseria que nos es comn porque somos de Rusia, ven? +Fui a visitar a Kitty Carlisle Hart, que tiene 96 aos. y cuando le llev una copia de "Los Elementos del Estilo", me dijo que la iba a guardar como un tesoro. +Y yo dije, "Oh", y ella mencion a Moss Hart y yo dije, sabes, cuando te lo encontraste sabas que l era, +y ella dijo, saba que era l. +As que el libro me habra servido mas a m, pero fue un momento verdaderamente maravilloso. +Adems que ella sali con George Gershwin, y despus de eso no hay ms. +Gershwin muri a la edad de 38. +Est enterrado en el mismo cementerio que mi esposo. +No quiero hablar de eso ahora. +No quiero hablar - lo que le faltara a ese cementerio para ser perfecto Es el mausoleo de la familia Barricini, que est cerca. +Creo que la familia Barricini debera abrir una tienda ah en el mausoleo y vender chocolate. +Y me gustara administrrselas. +Y fui a visitar a Louis Bourgeoise, que sigue trabajando, y le d una mirada a su lavamanos, que es en realidad asombroso, y me fui. +Y despus tom una foto de un sof que estaba en la calle y luego pint un cuadro. +Y una mujer que vive en nuestra calle, Lolita. +Y despus voy y me tomo un t. +Y despus muri mi tia Frances, y antes de morir intent pagar su pan con paquetes de Sweet n' Low. +Y me pregunto cual es el punto y entonces lo s y veo que Hy Meyerowitz, el padre de Rick Meyerowitz un vendedor de artculos para lavado en seco del Bronx gan el concurso de dobles de Charlie Chaplin en 1931. +De hecho, ese es Hy. +Y veo un hermoso frutero, y veo un vestido que cos para unas amigas mas. +Y dice, Ich habe genug, que es una cantata de Bach, y antes yo crea que significaba 'He tenido suficiente, no aguanto ms, djenme en paz, pero estaba equivocada +Significa que tengo suficiente - y eso es absolutamente cierto. +Sucede que estoy viva, fin de la discusin. Gracias. +Y entonces, esta idea nos ha impulsado. +Amamos la idea de que las palabras, al ser pronunciadas -- slo son poco ms que informacin, pero evocan una accin fsica en el mundo real que nos ayuda a realizar un trabajo. +Y entonces, desde luego, con muchas computadoras programables y robots alrededor, esto es algo fcil de imaginar. +Cuntos de ustedes saben de lo que estoy hablando? +Levanten su mano derecha. Bien. Cuntos de ustedes +no saben de lo que estoy hablando? Levanten su mano izquierda. Bien. +Bueno, Eso es genial. Fue muy fcil. +Ustedes tienen computadoras muy inseguras, +Entonces, la cuestin es que este es un tipo distinto de hechizo. +Este es un programa hecho con ceros y unos. +Puede ser pronunciado en una computadora. Hace algo como esto. +Lo importante es que podemos escribir en un lenguaje de alto nivel. +Un mago de las computadoras puede escribir esto. +Que se puede compilar en esto --en ceros y unos-- y se puede pronunciar por una computadora. +Y eso es lo que hace a las computadoras poderosas: estos lenguajes de alto nivel pueden compilarse. +Cuando esta secuencia de aminocidos se pronuncia como tomos, estas pequeas letras son pegajosas entre ellas. +Se colapsa en una estructura tridimensional que los convierte en una nanomquina que realmente corta el ADN. +Y lo interesante es que si cambias la secuencia, cambias la forma tridimensional. +Y en su lugar obtienes una "engrapadora" de ADN. Estos son los tipos de +programas moleculares que queremos ser capaces de escribir, +pero el problema es, que no sabemos el lenguaje de mquina de las protenas; no tenemos un compilador para protenas. +As que me un al creciente grupo de personas que intentan hacer +hechizos moleculares usando ADN. Usamos ADN porque es ms barato. Es ms fcil de manejar. Es algo que entendemos muy bien. Lo entendemos tan bien, de hecho, que pensamos que podemos realmente escribir lenguajes de programacin para ADN y tener compiladores moleculares. +Entonces, pensamos que podemos hacerlo. Y mi primera pregunta al hacerlo +-o una de mis preguntas al hacerlo- era: Cmo puedes hacer una forma arbitraria o un patrn con ADN? Y decid usar +algo como origami de ADN, donde tomas una hebra larga de ADN y la doblas en la forma o patrn que quieras. +Aqu hay una figura. De hecho pas como un ao en mi casa, en ropa interior, codificanto, como Linus [Torvalds], en la imagen anterior. +Y este programa toma la figura, arroja 250 secuencias de ADN. +Estas como secuencias de ADN son lo que doblarn la cadena larga en la forma que queremos hacer. As que envas un e-mail +con estas secuencias a una compaa, y lo que hace -la compaa los pronuncia en un sintetizador de ADN Es una mquina como del tamao de una fotocopiadora. Y lo que ocurre es, +que toman tu e-mail y cada letra en tu e-mail la reemplazan con un grupo de 30 tomos, uno para cada letra, A, T, C y G en ADN. Los alinean en la secuencia correcta, y luego te los envan de vuelta por paquetera. +As obtienes 250 de estos por correo en pequeos tubos, +los mezclas, agregas un poco de agua con sal, y luego agregas esta cadena larga de las que les habl, que robamos de un virus. Y lo que ocurre entonces es, que calientas todo esto casi ebullendo. Lo enfras +a temperatura ambiente, y mientras lo haces, lo que ocurre es que las pequeas cadenas, hacen lo siguiente: cada una de ellas une la hebra larga en un lugar, luego tiene una segunda mitad que se une a la hebra larga en un lugar distante, y junta las dos partes de la hebra larga para que se puedan unir. +Y entonces el efecto total de las 250 de estas hebras es que doblan la hebra larga en la figura que buscabas; +Aproximando esa figura. Lo hacemos de verdad en tubos de ensayo. +En cada pequea gota de agua obtienes 50 billones de estos chicos. +Puedes verlos con un microscopio y observarlos en una superficie. +Y lo mejor es que si cambias la secuencia y cambias el hechizo, puedes cambiar la secuencia de los "ganchos" Puedes hacer una molcula que sea como esto, y, saben, +le gusta estar con sus amigos. +Y muchos de ellos son bastante buenos. +Si cambias el hechizo otra vez, cambias la secuencia otra vez. Obtienes tringulos de 130 nanmetros muy bonitos. Si lo haces nuevamente, Puedes obtener patrones arbitrarios. As en un rectngulo puedes trazar patrones de norte y sur-amrica, o las palabras "DNA." +Entonces eso es origami de ADN. Es una forma, hay muchas formas, +de lanzar hechizos moleculares usando ADN. +Lo que queremos hacer al final es aprender cmo programar auto-ensamblaje para que podamos construir cualquier cosa, correcto? +Queremos ser capaces de construir artefactos tecnolgicos que tal vez sean buenos para el mundo. Queremos aprender +cmo construir artefactos biolgicos, como personas y ballenas y rboles. +Y si es el caso de que podemos alcanzar ese nivel de complejidad, si nuestra habilidad para programar molculas se vuelve as de buena, entonces eso ser realmente magia. Muchas gracias. +Bien, como Chris les indic estudio el cerebro humano, las funciones y la estructura del cerebro humano. +Y slo deseo que piensen por un minuto lo que esto abarca. +Aqu tenemos esta masa gelatinosa, kilo y medio de masa gelatinosa que pueden sostener en la palma de su mano y que puede contemplar el inmenso espacio interestelar. +Puede contemplar el significado del infinito y puede contemplarse a s misma contemplando el significado del infinito. +Y esta peculiar cualidad recursiva que llamamos auto conciencia, que yo creo que es el Santo Grial de la neurociencia, de la neurologa, y ojal, algn da, entenderemos cmo funciona. +Bien, entonces cmo estudiamos este rgano misterioso? +Quiero decir, tiene 100 mil millones de clulas nerviosas, pequeas partculas de protoplasma interactuando entre s y de esta actividad emerge todo el espectro de habilidades que conocemos como naturaleza humana y conciencia humana. +Cmo ocurre esto? +Bien, hay muchas maneras de abordar las funciones del cerebro humano. +Un enfoque, el que usamos principalmente, es observar a los pacientes que tienen dao permanente en una pequea regin del cerebro, que en esa pequea regin hayan tenido un cambio gentico. +Lo que sucede entonces no es una reduccin generalizada en todas sus funciones mentales, as como un atontamiento de las habilidades cognitivas. +Lo que se tiene es una prdida altamente selectiva de una funcin mientras que las otras funciones permanecen intactas. Y esto nos da la confianza para afirmar que esa parte del cerebro est involucrada de alguna manera en dirigir esa funcin. +Con eso podemos mapear las funciones a la estructura y as descubrir qu est haciendo la circuitera para generar esa funcin particular. +As que eso es lo que estamos tratando de hacer. +Entonces permtanme darles unos ejemplos sorprendentes al respecto. +De hecho, en esta charla les voy a dar tres ejemplos de seis minutos cada uno. +El primer ejemplo es un sndrome extraordinario llamado Mal de Capgras. +Si ven esta primera diapositiva estos son los lbulos temporales, los lbulos frontales, parentales, bien? los lbulos que constituyen el cerebro. +Y si miran, oculto dentro de la superficie interna de los lbulos temporales, no se puede ver pero ah est, ah hay una pequea estructura llamada circunvolucin fusiforme. +Que ha sido llamada el rea de caras del cerebro porque cuando sufre daos ya no se puede reconocer a las personas por sus caras. +Todava puedes reconocerlas por sus voces y decir "ah s, ese es Joe" pero al mirar sus caras no puedes saber quin es de acuerdo? +Ni siquiera te puedes reconocer en el espejo. +Quiero decir, sabes que eres t porque hace gestos y sabes que es un espejo, pero en realidad no te reconoces a ti mismo. +Bien. Hoy se sabe bien que el mal se debe al dao en la circunvolucin fusiforme. +Pero existe otro sndrome raro, de hecho tan raro que casi ningn mdico e incluso neurlogo ha odo hablar de l. +Se llama el delirio de Capgras y este paciente que ha sufrido dao en su cabeza pero que de otro forma seria completamente normal, sale del coma y parece completamente normal pero mira a su madre y dice: "Esta se ve exactamente igual a mi mam, esta mujer es una impostora, +es otra mujer que pretende ser mi madre." +As que, por qu pasa esto? +Por qu alguien, que es una persona perfectamente lcida e inteligente en todos los dems aspectos, pero que cuando ve a su madre le surge el delirio de decir que no lo es? +Bien, la interpretacin ms comn de esto, que encuentran en cualquier libro de texto de psiquiatra, es una visin freudiana y que dice que este muchacho, y por cierto el mismo argumento se aplica a las mujeres, aunque slo hablar de muchachos. +Cuando uno es un pequeo beb, un beb beb, se tiene una fuerte atraccin sexual hacia la madre. +Este es el llamado complejo de Edipo de Freud. +No estoy diciendo que crea en esto pero esta es la visin freudiana estndar. +Y entonces cuando creces, la corteza se desarrolla e inhibe estos impulsos sexuales latentes hacia tu madre. +Gracias a Dios, de lo contrario todos ustedes se excitaran al ver a su madre. +Entonces lo que pasa es que recibes un golpe en la cabeza que daa la corteza permitiendo que estos impulsos sexuales latentes emerjan, que ardan en la superficie y de repente sin explicacin te sientes atrado sexualmente a tu madre. +Y te dices: "Pero por Dios, si es mi madre, cmo es posible que me excite? +Es otra mujer; es una impostora." +Es la nica interpretacin razonable para tu cerebro daado. +Esto nunca ha tenido sentido para m, este argumento. +Es muy ingenioso al igual que todos los argumentos freudianos Pero no es muy razonable porque he visto el mismo delirio, en pacientes que sufren del mismo delirio con su mascota. +Dicen: "Doctor, este no es Fifi, se parece a Fifi, pero es otro perro." Bien? +Intenten ahora usar la explicacin freudiana aqu. +Comenzarn a hablar de la bestialidad latente en todos los humanos o algo as, lo cual es por supuesto absurdo. +Entonces qu est pasando? +Para explicar este curioso trastorno, observamos a la estructura y a las funciones normales de visin en el cerebro. +Normalmente las seales visuales llegan a los globos oculares y van hacia las reas visuales en el cerebro. +De hecho existen 30 reas en la parte trasera del cerebro relacionadas slo con la visin y, despus de procesar todo esto, el mensaje llega a una pequea estructura llamada circunvolucin fusiforme, donde se perciben los rostros. +Aqu estn las neuronas que son sensibles a los rostros. +La podemos denominar como el rea de las caras del cerebro, de acuerdo? +Anteriormente habl de esto. +Cuando se daa esta rea, se pierde la habilidad de ver caras de acuerdo? +Pero de esta rea, el mensaje cae en cascada hacia la estructura llamada amgdala en el sistema lmbico, que es el centro emocional del cerebro, y esa estructura llamada amgdala regula el significado emocional de lo que estamos viendo. +Es una presa? Es un depredador? Es una posible pareja? +O es algo absolutamente trivial, como una pelusa, o un trozo de tiza o no quiero apuntar a eso pero, o un zapato o algo como eso?OK? +Que pueden ignorar por completo. +Entonces, y esto es importante, si se excita a la amgdala los mensajes caen en cascada al sistema nervioso autnomo. +Sus corazones empiezan a latir rpidamente, +empiezan a sudar para disipar la energa que van a emplear, generando un esfuerzo muscular. +Y eso es bueno, porque podemos colocar dos electrodos en las palmas de su mano y medir el cambio de la resistencia cutnea producida por la sudoracin. +As puedo determinar, cuando estn mirando algo, si se excitan o no de acuerdo? +A eso ir en un minuto. +Entonces mi idea fue que cuando este chico mira un objeto, cuando mira cualquier objeto en realidad, ste llega a las reas visuales y sin embargo, es procesado por la circunvolucin fusiforme y reconoce que es una planta o una mesa o su madre de acuerdo? +Entonces el mensaje cae en cascada hacia la amgdala y de ah hacia abajo al sistema nervioso autnomo. +Pero quiz en este muchacho, la conexin que va de la amgdala al sistema lmbico, al centro emocional del cerebro, se corta por accidente. +Entonces como el fusiforme est intacto, el muchacho todava puede reconocer a su madre y dice: "Ah s, se parece a mi madre." +Pero como la conexin est cortada en los centros emocionales, dice: "Pero cmo si es mi madre, no siento cario?" +o terror, segn el caso? de acuerdo? +Por tanto dice: "Cmo explico esta inexplicable falta de emocin? +Esta no es mi madre. +Es una extraa que pretende ser mi madre." +Cmo probamos esto? +Bueno, lo que se hace, si ponemos a uno de ustedes aqu enfrente de la pantalla y le medimos la respuesta cutnea galvnica y mostramos las imgenes en la pantalla, puedo medir su sudoracin cuando ven un objeto como una mesa o un paraguas en cuyo caso, por supuesto, no sudan. +Si les muestro la imagen de un len o de un tigre o de una muchacha atractiva empiezan a sudar, correcto? +Y, aunque no lo crean, si les muestro una foto de su madre En el caso de la gente normal empiezan a sudar. +Ni siquiera tienen que ser judos. +Ahora qu pasa? qu pasa si le muestro a este paciente? +Tomo al paciente, le muestro imgenes en la pantalla y mido su respuesta cutnea galvnica. +Mesas y sillas y pelusa, no pasa nada, igual que con personas normales, pero cuando le enseo la foto de su madre la respuesta cutnea galvnica es plana. +No hay una reaccin emocional hacia su madre porque la conexin que va de las reas visuales a los centros emocionales est rota. +Su visin es normal porque las reas visuales estn normales, sus emociones son normales -re, llora, etc.- pero la conexin de la visin a las emociones est rota y por lo tanto sufre del delirio que su madre es una impostora. +Este es un buen ejemplo de la clase de cosas que hacemos; tomar un sndrome psiquitrico neural, aparentemente incomprensible y bizarro y decir que la visin freudiana estndar est equivocada porque de hecho uno puede llegar a una explicacin precisa en trminos de la anatoma neural conocida del cerebro. +Por cierto, si el paciente est ah y su mam le llama de una habitacin adjunta, por telfono, levanta el telfono y dice: "Guau, mami cmo ests? dnde ests?" +El delirio no se manifiesta por telfono. +Si ella se acerca a l una hora despus, l dice: "Quin es usted? +Se parece mucho a mi madre." OK? +Esto se debe a que existen rutas separadas que van de los centros auditivos en el cerebro a los centros emocionales que no fueron cortadas por el accidente. +Esto explica por qu por telfono l reconoce a su madre sin problemas. +Y cuando la ve en persona dice que es una impostora. +Bien cmo est construida toda esta circuitera en el cerebro? +Es la naturaleza, los genes o la nutricin? +Y enfocamos este problema considerando otro sndrome curioso llamado miembro fantasma. +Todos saben lo que es un miembro fantasma. +Cuando se amputa un brazo o una pierna por gangrena, o por prdida en la guerra, por ejemplo, en la guerra de Irak -que ahora est siendo un problema serio-; uno contina sintiendo vvidamente la presencia del brazo perdido y a eso llamamos brazo fantasma o pierna fantasma. +De hecho, uno puede tener un fantasma de cualquier otra parte del cuerpo. +Aunque no lo crean, incluso de los rganos internos. +He tenido pacientes a las que les retiran el tero, por histerectoma, que tienen teros fantasmas, calambres menstruales fantasmas inclusive en el momento justo del mes. +De hecho, un estudiante me pregunt el otro da, tienen dolores premenstruales fantasmas? +Un tema que espera investigacin cientfica y que an no hemos seguido. +Bien, ahora la pregunta es: qu podemos aprender de los miembros fantasmas al hacer experimentos? +Una de las cosas que he encontrado es que cerca de la mitad de los pacientes con miembros fantasmas afirman que pueden mover los miembros fantasmas. +Su miembro puede tocar a su hermano en el hombro, contestar el telfono cuando suena y hacer el gesto de adis. +Son sensaciones muy vvidas y convincentes. +El paciente no est delirando. +Sabe que su brazo no est ah y, sin embargo, para el paciente es una experiencia sensorial convincente. +No obstante, a cerca de la mitad de los pacientes esto no les pasa. +El miembro fantasma, ellos dicen: "Doctor, el miembro est paralizado. +Est fijo en un espasmo cerrado y el dolor es insoportable. +Si tan slo lo pudiera mover quizs aliviara el dolor." +Ahora, por qu un miembro fantasma estara paralizado? +Suena ilgico. +Pero cuando revisamos los expedientes de los casos, lo que encontramos es que estas personas con los miembros fantasmas paralizados tenan el brazo original paralizado debido a la herida del nervio perifrico, +el nervio que llega al brazo haba sido cortado, digamos que en un accidente de moto. +Entonces el paciente tuvo un brazo real, que le dola, en un cabestrillo durante unos meses o un ao y entonces en un intento fallido para terminar con el dolor en el brazo el cirujano lo amput y as obtuvimos un brazo fantasma con los mismos dolores de acuerdo? +Y este es un problema clnico serio. +Los pacientes se deprimen. +Algunos de ellos son impulsados al suicido OK? +Entonces cmo tratar este mal? +Primero, por qu se tiene un miembro fantasma paralizado? +Cuando mir los expedientes encontr que tenan un brazo real, en que los nervios del brazo haban sido cortados y que el brazo real haba estado paralizado, que haba estado en un cabestrillo durante varios meses antes de la amputacin y que el dolor haba continuado en el miembro fantasma. +Por qu ocurre esto? +Cuando el brazo estuvo intacto, pero paralizado, el cerebro enviaba comandos al brazo, la parte delantera del cerebro deca: "Mover" pero la retroalimentacin visual que obtena deca: "No." +Mover. No. Mover. No. Mover. No. +Y esto se va grabando en la circuitera del cerebro, es lo que llamamos parlisis adquirida OK? +La mente aprende, debido a la red Hebbiana asociada, que el simple comando de mover el brazo crea la sensacin de un brazo paralizado +y entonces, cuando le amputan el brazo a uno, esta parlisis adquirida se traslada a la imagen mental que tiene de su cuerpo y hacia el miembro fantasma. OK? +Ahora, cmo podemos ayudar a estos pacientes? +Cmo desaprender la parlisis adquirida para poder aliviar este espasmo que aprieta insoportablemente al brazo fantasma? +Bien, decimos qu tal si uno le enva el comando al fantasma, dndole retroalimentacin visual de que se est obedeciendo su comando? +Quiz se puede aliviar el dolor fantasma, el calambre fantasma. +Cmo hacer esto? Bien, con realidad virtual. +Pero eso costara millones de dlares. +As que se me ocurri una manera de hacer esto con tres dlares pero no le vayan a contar esto a mis patrocinadores financieros. +Ok? Lo que uno hace es crear lo que llamo una caja espejo. +Se tiene una caja de cartn con un espejo a la mitad, y entonces pone uno al fantasma. Lleg mi primer paciente, Derek, +y a l le amputaron el brazo hace 10 aos. +Tuvo una avulsin del plexo braquial por la que le cortaron los nervios y su brazo qued paralizado en un cabestrillo por un ao y despus le amputaron el brazo. +Tena un brazo fantasma con un dolor insoportable y no lo poda mover. +Era un brazo fantasma paralizado. +Entonces vino aqu y le di un espejo como ste, en una caja, que llamo caja espejo bien? +El paciente pone su brazo fantasma izquierdo, que est apretado y con espasmos, en el lado izquierdo de la caja y su mano normal en el lado derecho del espejo y hace el mismo gesto, el gesto del puo apretado y mira el espejo y qu experimenta? +Ve que el fantasma est resucitando, porque est viendo el reflejo del brazo normal en el espejo y parece como si el fantasma hubiese resucitado. +Entonces le digo: "Ahora mira, menea a tu fantasma, y mueve tus dedos reales mientras miras el espejo." +Va a tener la impresin visual de que el fantasma se est moviendo, de acuerdo? +Esto es obvio, pero lo asombroso es cuando el paciente dice: "Dios mo, mi fantasma se est moviendo otra vez y ya no tengo el dolor del apretamiento." +Y recuerden, mi primer paciente que lleg Gracias. Mi primer paciente que lleg y mir en el espejo, le dije: "Mira el reflejo de tu fantasma." +Con una risita dice: "Puedo ver a mi fantasma." +No es un estpido. Sabe que no es real. +Sabe que es un reflejo del espejo, pero es una experiencia sensorial vvida. +Le dije: "Mueve tu mano normal y la fantasma." +Respondi: "Ah, no puedo mover mi fantasma; usted lo sabe, es doloroso." +Y le dije: "Mueve tu mano normal." +Y dijo: "Por Dios, mi fantasma se est moviendo de nuevo, no lo puedo creer! +El dolor ha desaparecido." Ok? +Entonces le dije: "Cierra los ojos." +Y cerr sus ojos. +"Y mueve tu mano normal." +"Ah, nada, otra vez siento apretado." +"Ok, abre los ojos." +"Oh Dios mo, oh Dios mo, se mueve otra vez!" +As que era como un nio en una dulcera. +Entonces dije, OK, esto prueba mi teora sobre la parlisis adquirida y el rol crtico de la informacin visual, pero no voy a ganar un Premio Nobel porque logr que un tipo moviera su miembro fantasma. +Si lo piensan, es una habilidad completamente intil. +Pero entonces me empec a dar cuenta que quizs otros tipos de parlisis que uno ve en neurologa como los derrames, disfasias focales quizs haya un componente adquirido en ellos que uno pueda superar con el simple uso de un espejo. +Entonces dije: "Mira, Derek" en primer lugar, el tipo simplemente no puede andar cargando un espejo para aliviar su dolor... dije: "Mira, Derek, llvatelo a casa, practica con l por un par de semanas. +Quizs, despus de un periodo de prctica, puedas dejar el espejo, desaprender la parlisis y empezar a mover tu brazo paralizado y as aliviarte del dolor. +Entonces dijo "est bien" y se lo llev a casa. +Dije: "Mira, despus de todo, son slo dos dlares, llvatelo." +Se lo llev y dos semanas despus me llama y dice: "Doctor, no me va a creer." +Dije: "Qu cosa?" +Dijo: "Se ha ido." +Dije: "Qu se ha ido?" +Pens que quiz se refera a la caja espejo. +Dijo: "No, no, no, usted sabe, este fantasma que he tenido por los ltimos 10 aos? +Se ha ido." +Qued preocupado y dije: "Dios mo", he cambiado la imagen corporal de este muchacho y qu pasa con los temas humanos, ticos y todo eso? +Dije: "Derek, esto te molesta? +Dijo: "No, en los ltimos tres das ya no he tenido un brazo fantasma con lo cual estoy sin dolor de codo fantasma, sin apretamiento, sin dolor de antebrazo fantasma, todos los dolores se han ido. +El problema es que todava tengo los dedos fantasmas colgando del hombro y su caja no alcanza hasta all." +As que podra cambiar el diseo para ponerlo en mi frente y as hacer lo mismo y eliminar los dedos fantasmas?" +Pens que yo era algn tipo de mago. +Ahora, por qu sucede esto? +Porque el cerebro se enfrenta con un conflicto sensorial tremendo. +Recibe mensajes de la visin diciendo que el fantasma est de vuelta. +Por otro lado, no hay una recepcin apropiada, las seales de los msculos dicen que no hay brazo de acuerdo? +Y el comando motor dice que hay un brazo as que, dado este conflicto, la mente dice: al diablo con esto, no hay fantasma, no hay brazo correcto? +Pasa por una especie de rechazo, niega las seales. +Cuando el brazo desaparece, la ventaja es que el dolor desaparece, porque uno no puede tener un dolor perdido flotando por ah en el espacio. +Esa es la ganancia. +Esta tcnica ha sido probada en docenas de pacientes por otros grupos en Helsinki, as que puede probar ser valiosa como tratamiento para el dolor fantasma y, de hecho, hay gente que lo ha probado para rehabilitacin de derrames. +Los derrames; normalmente pensamos que son daos a las fibras y que no podemos hacer nada al respecto. +Pero resulta que algunos componentes de la parlisis por derrame son tambin parlisis adquirida as que quizs esos componentes se pueden superar usando espejos. +Esto tambin ha pasado por pruebas clnicas, ayudando a muchsimos pacientes. +Bien, ahora permtanme pasar a la tercera parte de mi charla que trata de otro fenmeno curioso llamado sinestesia. +Fue descubierto por Francis Galton en el siglo XIX. +Era primo de Charles Darwin. +l indic que ciertas personas en la poblacin, que de otra forma seran completamente normales, tenan la siguiente peculiaridad: cada vez que vean un nmero tena un color. +Cinco es azul, siete es amarillo, ocho es verdoso, nueve es ndigo, OK? +Tengan en cuenta que estas personas son completamente normales en otros aspectos. +O un Do. A veces los tonos evocan colores. +Un Do es azul, Fa es verde, otro tono podra ser amarillo no? +Por qu pasa esto? +Esto se llama sinestesia, Galton la llam sinestesia, una combinacin de los sentidos. +Para nosotros, todos los sentidos son independientes. +En estas personas los sentidos estn revueltos. +Por qu pasa esto? +Uno de los dos aspectos de este problema resulta ser muy intrigante. +La sinestesia se da en familias, por lo que Dalton dijo que tena una base hereditaria, gentica. +En segundo lugar, la sinestesia es -y esto nos lleva a mi punto acerca del tema principal de mi charla, la creatividad- la sinestesia es ocho veces ms comn en artistas, poetas, novelistas y otras personas creativas que en la poblacin en general. +Por qu es as? +Voy a contestar esa pregunta. +Que nunca antes ha sido contestada. +OK, qu es la sinestesia? Cul es su causa? +Bien, existen muchas teoras. +Una es que simplemente estn locos. +Esa no es en realidad una teora cientfica as que podemos olvidarla. +Otra teora es que se drogan con acido y mariguana correcto? +Eso puede tener algo de verdad porque es mucho ms comn aqu en la zona de San Francisco que en San Diego. +Ok. La tercera teora es que bueno, preguntmonos: qu est ocurriendo en la sinestesia en realidad? bien? +Hemos descubierto que el rea del color y el rea de los nmeros estn justo al lado en el cerebro, en la circunvolucin fusiforme. +As que dijimos que haba algn cable accidentalmente cruzado entre los colores y los nmeros en el cerebro. +Entonces cada vez que ven un nmero ven su color correspondiente y as es como se tiene sinestesia. +Recordemos ahora, por qu pasa esto? +Por qu algunas personas tienen los cables cruzados? +Recuerdan que dije que se da en las familias? +Eso nos da una pista. +Y esa es que existe un gen anormal, una mutacin en el gen, que ocasiona este cableado cruzado anormal. +Resulta que todos nosotros nacemos con todo conectado con todo lo dems. +As que toda regin del cerebro est cableada con todas las otras regiones y stas se van podando para crear la arquitectura modular caracterstica del cerebro adulto. +Por tanto si existe un gen que origina este recorte y si ese gen muta, se tiene una poda deficiente entre reas adyacentes en el cerebro, +y si esto es entre nmero y color, entonces tenemos sinestesia de nmero-color. +Si es entre nota y color, entonces tenemos sinestesia de nota-color. +Todo bien hasta ahora. +Qu sucede si este gen se expresa en cualquier otra parte del cerebro resultando todas las conexiones cruzadas? +Bueno, pensemos qu tienen en comn artistas, novelistas y poetas, la habilidad de pensar metafricamente, de enlazar ideas que en apariencia no estn relacionadas tales como, "este es el Este y Julieta es el Sol." +Bueno, no decimos que Julieta es el Sol ya que eso significara que brilla como una bola de fuego? +Quiero decir, los esquizofrnicos piensan as, pero esa es otra historia, no? +La gente normal dice que ella es clida como el sol, radiante como el sol, acogedora como el sol. +Se encuentran instantneamente las relaciones. +Ahora, si asumimos que este enorme cruce de conexiones y conceptos se produce en distintas partes del cerebro, entonces esto hace mucho ms propenso el pensamiento metafrico y la creatividad en personas con sinestesia. +Y, por lo tanto, la incidencia de sinestesia es ocho veces ms comn para poetas, artistas y novelistas. +De acuerdo, esta es una visin muy frenolgica de la sinestesia. +La ltima demostracin me dan un minuto ms? +Bien, les voy a mostrar que todos ustedes son sinestsicos y todos niegan serlo. +Aqu tenemos lo que llamo alfabeto marciano, igual que el alfabeto normal, A es A, B es B, C es C, +distintas formas para distintos fonemas correcto? +Aqu tienen un alfabeto marciano. +Uno de ellos es Kiki y el otro es Buba. +Cul es Kiki y cul es Buba? +Cuntos de ustedes piensan que este es Kiki y ese es Buba? Levanten la mano. +Bueno, aqu hay uno o dos mutantes. +Cuntos de ustedes piensan que este es Buba y ese es Kiki? Levanten la mano. +99 por ciento de ustedes. +Ahora, ninguno de ustedes es marciano cmo lo supieron? +Es porque todos ustedes estn haciendo un modelo cruzado, una abstraccin sinestsica; es decir, estn diciendo que la palabra con inflexiones fuertes, Kiki, excita los filamentos auditivos en su corteza auditiva, y Kiki imita la inflexin visual -repentina y cortada- de la forma de las letras. +Esto es muy importante porque lo que esto les est diciendo es que el cerebro, de manera primitiva, est intentando... bueno, esto parece una tonta ilusin, pero estos fotones en los ojos estn haciendo esta forma y los filamentos auditivos en el odo estn excitando un patrn auditivo, y el cerebro es capaz de obtener el comn denominador. +Esta es una forma primitiva de abstraccin, y hoy sabemos que esto sucede en la circunvolucin fusiforme porque cuando se daa estas personas pierden la habilidad de relacionar los Buba o Kiki, pero tambin pierden la habilidad de comprender metforas. +Si le preguntan a este tipo, qu significa "No todo lo que brilla es oro"? Qu quiere decir eso? +El paciente dice: "Bueno, si es que es metlico y brillante, no significa que sea oro." +Tienen que medir el peso especfico de acuerdo? +As que pierden por completo el significado metafrico. +Est rea es ocho veces ms grande para los humanos, que en primates inferiores. +Algo muy interesante est pasando aqu en la circunvolucin angular porque es el cruce entre la audicin, la visin y el tacto y creci enormemente en los humanos, y se est generando algo muy interesante. +Y creo que es la base de muchas habilidades nicas de los humanos como la abstraccin, la metfora y la creatividad. +Todas estas preguntas que filsofos han estado estudiando por milenios y que los cientficos podemos empezar a explorar generando imgenes del cerebro y estudiando a los pacientes y hacindoles las preguntas correctas. +Gracias +Perdonen por eso. +Hay un pequeo pas enclavado en el Himalaya, lejos de estas bonitas montaas, donde la gente del Reinado de Butn ha decidido hacer algo diferente, que consiste en medir la Alegra Nacional Bruta en vez del Producto Nacional Bruto. +Y por qu no? +A fin de cuentas, la felicidad no es un privilegio de los pocos afortunados, sino un derecho humano bsico que merecen todos. +Y qu es la felicidad? +La felicidad es la libertad de eleccin. +La libertad de elegir dnde vivir, qu hacer, qu comprar, qu vender de quin, a quin dnde y cmo. +De dnde viene la eleccin? +Y quin tiene derecho a expresarlo y cmo lo expresamos? +Bueno, una manera de expresar la eleccin es a travs del mercado. +Los mercados que operan bien ofrecen opciones y al final la habilidad que uno tiene de expresar su bsqueda de la felicidad. +A la gran economista india, Amartya Sen, se le concedi el Premio Nobel porque demostr que la hambruna no se trata tanto de la disponibilidad de productos alimenticios, sino de la habilidad de adquirir o otorgarse el derecho a esa comida a travs del mercado. +En 1984, en lo que slo se puede considerar uno de los crmenes ms grandes de la humanidad casi mil millones de personas murieron de hambre en el pas donde nac, Etiopa. +No porque no hubiera suficiente comida, de hecho haba comida excedente en las regiones frtiles del sur del pas, sino porque en el norte, la gente no poda acceder a o otorgarse el derecho a esa comida. +Eso fue un un momento decisivo para mi vida. +La mayora de africanos, con mucho, son agricultores. +Y la mayora de los agricultores de frica son, en conjunto, pequeos agricultores en cuanto a la tierra que utilizan y muy pequeos agricultores en cuanto al capital que tienen a su disposicin. +Hoy da la agricultura africana est entre los sectores menos subvencionados del mundo. +Slo el siete por ciento de las tierras de cultivo de frica son irrigadas. comparado con el 40 por ciento en Asia. +Los granjeros africanos slo utilizan aproximadamente 22 kilos de fertilizantes por hectrea, comparado con los 144 de Asia. +La densidad del trfico es seis veces mayor en Asia que en el frica rural. +Hay ocho veces ms tractores en Amrica Latina, y tres veces ms tractores en Asia que en frica. +El pequeo agricultor en el frica de hoy vive con pocas opciones, y de ah con poca libertad. +Su manera de ganarse la vida est predeterminada por las condiciones de extrema pobreza. +l viene al mercado cuando los precios estn ms bajos, con los escasos frutos de su duro trabajo, justo despus de la cosecha, porque no tiene ms remedio. +Ella regresa al mercado unos meses despus, cuando los precios estn ms altos, en lo que llamamos la estacin mala, cuando la comida es escasa, porque tiene que alimentar a su familia y no le queda ms remedio. +La cuestin importante es, cmo se puede desarrollar mercados en la frica rural para aprovechar el poder de la innovacin y el espritu emprendedor que hemos conocido antes? +Otro economista distinguido, Theodore Schultz, gan el Premio Nobel en 1974 por demostrar que los agricultores son eficaces, pero pobres. +De hecho, quiso decir que los agricultores son seres racionales y que les interesan las ganancias tanto como los dems. +Bueno, ahora no nos hace falta ms Premios Nobel para saber que los agricultores quieren una oportunidad justa en el mercado, y quieren ganar dinero, como todos los dems. +Y una cosa queda clara, por lo menos ahora sabemos que frica est abierta a los negocios. +Y esa empresa es la agricultura. +Hace ms de dos dcadas, el mundo le insisti a frica que se deba liberalizar los mercados, que las economas deban someterse a programas de ajuste estructural. +Esto significaba que los gobiernos tenan que dejar de participar del proceso de comprar y vender, lo cual hicieron de manera bastante ineficaz, y permitir que el mercado privado hiciera su magia. +Bueno, qu pas a lo largo de los ltimos 25 aos? +frica se aliment? +Nuestros agricultores se hicieron actores comerciales altamente productivos? +Por qu no alcanzaron los mercados de agricultura las expectativas de los consumidores? +Las reformas del mercado que impulsaron el mundo occidental, y he pasado unos 15 aos viajando por todo el continente e investigando sobre los mercados agrcolas y he entrevistado a comerciantes de entre 10 y 15 pases del continente, cientos de comerciantes, intentando comprender qu sali mal con nuestra reforma del mercado. +Y me parece que es posible que las reformas descartaran el grano de la paja. +Como su agricultura, los mercados de frica se encuentran con financiacin muy insuficiente y funcionan de manera ineficaz. +Sabemos de nuesto trabajo en el continente el costo de las transacciones requeridas para alcanzar el mercado, y los riesgos de hacer negocios en mercados de agricultura rurales. son sumamente altos. +De hecho, slo un tercio de la produccin agrcola de frica llega a alcanzar el mercado. +Los mercados de frica son dbiles no slo porque la infraestructura es dbil en cuanto a los caminos y las telecomunicaciones, sino tambin porque las instituciones del mercado necesarias estn prcticamente ausentes como informaciones del mercado, como grados y estndares y maneras fiables de comunicar a compradores y vendedores. +A causa de esto, los compradores y vendedores normalmente hacen negocios en crculos pequeos, en redes estrechas de personas que conocen y de las cuales se fan. +Y a causa de eso, a medida que el grano cambia de dueo, y he encontado que cambia de dueo cuatro, cinco veces en su trayectoria desde el granjero hasta el consumidor, cada vez que cambia de dueo, y lo he visto en todas partes de la frica rural, tambin cambia de saco. +Y me pareci increblemente extrao. +Y de verdad me di cuenta de que era porque, como me diran los comerciantes una y otra vez, es la nica manera de saber que el producto es bueno en cuanto a la cantidad y calidad del producto. +Y eso tiene implicaciones enormes en la capacidad de los mercados de responder de manera eficaz a los indicadores de precios, y a situaciones en las cuales hay dficits, por ejemplo. +Tambin hay muchas implicaciones en cuanto al costo. +He determinado que el 26 por ciento del margen de marketing se puede deber al solo hecho de que como hay una ausencia de grados y estndares e informaciones del mercado, hay que cambiar los sacos constantemente. +Y esto conduce a muy altos costos de gestin. +Hablando del riesgo, hemos visto que la fluctuacin de los precios de las cosechas en frica es la ms alta en el mundo. +En frica, los pequeos granjeros sufren lo peor de este riesgo. +De hecho, en mi opinin, no hay una regin del mundo ni una poca histrica en que se haya esperado que los agricultores sufran el grado de riesgo en el mercado que tienen que sufrir los agricultores de frica. +Y, en mi opinin, no hay otro lugar en el mundo que haya desarrollado su agricultura en condiciones de riesgo similares a las que los agricultores de frica se enfrentan hoy da. +En Etiopa, por ejemplo, los precios del maz varan hasta el 50 por ciento de ao a ao. +Este tipo de riesgo en el mercado es alucinante y tiene implicaciones directas no slo en los incentivos que tienen los granjeros de invertir en tecnologa de ms productividad, tales como semillas y fertilizantes modernos, sino tambin implicaciones directas en la seguridad alimentaria. +Por ejemplo, entre 2001 y 2002 los agricultores del maz de Etiopa produjeron dos aos de cosecha. +Eso, a su vez, a causa del dbil sistema de marketing condujo a una disminucin del 80 por ciento de los precios del maz en el pas. +Por eso, para algunos agricultores, no era rentable cosechar grano de los campos. +Y calculamos que aproximadamente 300.000 toneladas de grano fueron dejadas en los campos para pudrirse en los primeros meses de 2002. +Menos de seis meses ms tarde, Etiopia anunci una gran crisis alimentaria, de la misma severidad de la que tuvimos en 1984, 14 milliones de personas en riesgo de desnutricin. +Lo que tambin pas aquel ao es que en las regiones donde las lluvias eran buenas, y en donde los agricultores haban producido grano excedente antes, haban decidido retirarse del mercado de fertilizantes, no utilizar fertilizantes, y de hecho haban disminuido el uso de fertilizantes el 27 por ciento. +Este es un ejemplo trgico de desarrollo atrofiado, o una revolucin verde en ciernes que no sigui adelante. +Y esto no slo se aplica a Etiopa, sino que pasa una y otra vez, en todas partes de frica. +No estoy aqu para lamentar la situacin, o para retorcerme las manos. +Estoy aqu para decirles que estamos por cambiar. +El frica de hoy no es el frica que esperaba ayuda. o prescripciones tpicas de expertos extranjeros. +frica ha aprendido, o est aprendiendo, bastante lentamente, que los mercados no se crean. +En los aos 80, estaba muy de moda hablar de encontrar el mejor precio. +Haba un libro muy influyente sobre este tema, que se trataba principalmente de retirar los gobiernos del mercado. +Ahora nos damos cuenta de que perfeccionar los mercados no slo es cuestin de incentivos, sino tambin de invertir en infrestructura rentable, y en las instituciones que son apropiadas y necesarias para crear las condiciones para desatar el poder de motivacin en el mercado. +Cuando las condiciones son buenas, sabemos y nos damos cuenta de que esa innovacin est tan lista para explotar en la frica rural, como en cualquier otro lugar. +Hace casi tres aos, decid dejar mi cmoda carrera como economista de alto rango del Banco Mundial en Washington para regresar al pas donde nac, Etiopa, despus de casi 30 aos en el extranjero. +Tom esta decisin por una sola razn. +Despus de haber pasado ms de una dcada mejorando mi comprensin, estudiando y tratando de convencer a los polticos y a los donantes de lo que sala mal en los mercados agrcolas de frica, decid que era hora de hacer algo para cambiar la situacin. +Actualmente, encabezo, en Etiopa, una nueva iniciativa apasionante, cuya misin es establecer el primer Ethiopian Community Exchange, [Intercambio de la Comunidad Etope] o ECX +El intentercambio de materias primas en s, ese concepto, no es nuevo al mundo. +De hecho, en 1848, 82 comerciantes y agricultores de grano se reunieron en un pequeo pueblo que se encuentra al cruce del Lago Illinois y el Lago Michigan para establecer una manera de comerciar mejor entre s . +Eso fuem por supuesto, el nacimiento del Chicago Board of Trade, que es el intercambio de materias primas ms famoso del mundo. +El Chicago Board of Trade fue establecido entonces por precisamente las mismas razones por las que los agricultores de hoy se beneficiaran de un intercambio de materias primas. +En la regin norcentral de los EE UU, los agricultores solan cargar grano en barcazas y mandarlo ro arriba al mercado de Chicago. +Pero una vez que llegaba, si no haba comprador, o si de repente descendan los precios, los agricultores sufran prdidas tremendas. +Y de hecho, hasta tiraban el cereal al Lago Michigan, en vez de tener que gastar ms dinero transportndolo a sus granjas. +La necesidad de evitar estos riesgos enormes y prdidas tremendas condujo al surgimiento del mercado de futuros, y el sistema subyacente de evaluar el cereal y de recibos de proporcionar recibos de depsito en almacn sobre las base de los cuales se podra comerciar. +De ah, surgi la innovacin ms grande de este mercado que consiste en que los compradores y vendedores podan hacer transacciones sin tener que inspeccionar el cereal fsica o visualmente. +Esto quera decir que se poda comerciar grano a travs de distancias enormes, y hasta a travs del tiempo, hasta 18 meses en el futuro. +La innovacin est en el seno de la transformacin de la agricultura norteamericana y el auge de Chicago en que la ciudad se hizo un mercado mundial, mercado agrcola, una superpotencia comparado con donde estaba, una pequea ciudad. +Pero eso est cambiando. +Y somos testimonios de un cambio, que funciona en gran parte a causa de la tecnologa de la informacin. Un cambio en la dominancia del mercado hacia los mercados emergentes. +Y a lo largo de la ltima dcada, ha sido obvio que el porcentaje de intercambios occidentales es decir, el porcentaje de intercambios que pertenecen a los EE UU en el mundo, ha disminudo casi al 50 por ciento en la ltima dcada. +De manera semejante, ha habido crecimiento explosive en la India, pr ejemplo donde los hombres del campo estn usando los intercambios, aumentndose a lo largo de los ltimos tres aos hasta el 270 por ciento al ao. +Esto se propulsa por tecnologa VSAT de bajo costo, que se esfuerza por llegar a los agricultores para trasladarlos al mercado. +El Intercambio de materias primas Dalian de China, hace tres aos-- en 2004-- Adelant la Junta de Comercio de Chicago para convertirse en en el segundo mayor intercambio de materias primas del mundo. +Ahora, en Etiopa, estamos diseando el primer intercambio organizado de materias primas. +No estamos tratando de cortar y pegar el modelo de Chicago o el de la India, sino que estamos creando un sistema que est hecho a la medida de de las necesidades y realidades de Etiopa, de los pequeos agricultores del pas. +Bueno, el ECX es un intercambio etope para Etiopa. +Estamos creando un sistema que sirve a todos los actores del mercado. Eso crea integridad, fidelidad, eficacia, transparencia y permite que los pequeos agricultores manejen los riesgos que he descrito. +En el diseo de nuestro intercambio de materias primas en Etiopa, hemos hecho algo bien nico, hemos decidido abordar la situacin desde una perspectiva integrada, desde lo que llamamos el Borde ECX. +Bsicamente el Borde ECX crea el ecosistema entero en el cual se desarrollar el mercado. +Y es porque una de las cosas que hemos aprendido a lo largo de una dcada de estudiar el desarrollo del mercado en frica es que una aproximacin poco sistemtica no funciona. +Hay un donante que se esfuerza por desarrollar la informacin del mercado, otro que se esfuerza por desarrollar o subvencionar grados y estndares otro ICT, y hasta otro por depsitos-- o recibo de depsitos en almacn . +En nuestra aproximacin en Etiopa, hemos optado por crear el ecosistema o medio ambiente entero, en el que tiene lugar el comercio. +Eso quiere decir que el intercambio pondr en marcha un sistema de comercio, que empezar inicialmente como una protesta abierta. Porque no creemos que el pas est listo para hacer todo el comercio electrnicamente. +Pero al mismo tiempo, vamos a hacer algo que no creo que ha hecho ningn intercambio en el mundo, operar de manera semejante a un cibercaf en los reas rurales. +Para que los pequeos agricultores y comerciantes puedan venir a un centro terminal, lo que llamamos centros terminales para computacin de acceso remoto, y en realidad, sin tener que comprar una computadora o acceder al Internet por red telefnica o cualquier de estas cosas, simplemente observan el comercio que est pasando en el parqu de Addis Abeba. +Al mismo tiempo, lo fundamental de este mercado es que, y repito, sta es una innovacin que hemos diseado para nuestro intercambio, es que el intercambio tendr efecto en los depsitos de todo el pas, en los cuales se harn la certificacin de estndares y el recibo de depsitos en almacn. +Y tambin vamos a operar un sistema de compensacin en casa, para asegurar que los pagos se hagan de manera apropiada, en la cantidad correcta y a la hora correcta, as que bsicamente creamos fidelidad e integridad en el sistema. +Obviamente, trabajamos con actores de intercambio, y a medida que desarrollamos el mercado de intercambio en s, tambin estamos desarrollando la infraestructura reguladora y el esquema legal, el esquema legal dominante para hacer funcionar este mercado. +As que de hecho nuestra proclamacin va al parlamento el prximo mes. +Lo que es muy importante es que el ECX operar un sistema de informacin del mercado para diseminar precios a tiempo real a agricultores de todo el pas, usando la tecnologa VSAT para llevar una diseminacin electrnica de precios directamente a los agricultores. +Lo que hace es transformar, de manera fundamental, la relacin que tienen los agricultores con el mercado. +Y se ponen a pensar en lo nacional, y hasta en lo global. +Empiezan a tomar no slo las decisiones de marketing comercial, sino tambin las de cultivo basndose en la informacin que les viene del mercado de futuros de precios. +Y vienen al mercado conscientes de cuales grados lograrn sus productos en trminos de una prima de precios. +As que todo esto transformar a los agricultores. +Tambin va a transformar la manera de negociar de los comerciantes. +Dejarn de hacer recompras y arbitrajes limitados y empezarn a pensar estratgicamente en cmo mover el cereal a travs de largas distancias desde los reas de dficit hasta las regiones excedentes. +Es Etiopa capaz de esto? +Parece muy ambicioso. +Pero seguro que va a crear nuevas oportunidades. +Creemos que se requiere una gran voluntad poltica para lograr esta iniciativa, y tendremos que alinear el sector financiero as como el ICT, y en realidad hasta el esquema legal subyacente. +Creemos que la sociedad est por cambiar y que podemos hacerlo. +ECX es el mercado para el nuevo milenio de Etiopa, que va a empezar dentro de unos ocho meses. +El ltimo parlamento de nuestro siglo se abri con el anuncio de nuestro presidente cuando declar al pas que sta era la iniciativa econmica ms importante para la Etiopa de hoy. +Creemos que hay mucho en juego, pero que las recompensas sern ms grandes de lo que prodemos imaginar. +Adems, el ECX podra convertirse en una plataforma de comercio para un mercado panafricano de materias primas agrcolas. +El mercado domstico de Etiopa vale aproximadamente mil milliones de dlares. +Y creemos que a lo largo de los prximos cinco aos, si Etopa puede capturar el 40 por ciento, slo el 40 por ciento del mercado domstico y aumentar el valor de ese mercado el 25 por ciento, el valor del mercado se dobla. +El mercado agrcola de Etiopa es el 30 por ciento ms grande que la produccin de cereal en Sudfrica, y de hecho, Etiopa es el segundo mayor productor de maz de frica. +Entonces el potencial est ah +La voluntad est ah. +El compromiso est ah. +Creemos que tenemos una propuesta de valor que va a funcionar, para transformar las opciones de los agricultores, para desarrollar nuestro sector, y para cambiar frica. +As que estamos en el proceso de encontrar nuestra felicidad. +Muchas gracias. +Quiero hablarles un poco sobre contenido generado por los usuarios. +Voy a contarles tres historias, para llegar a un argumento que va a decirles un poco acerca de cmo abrir ese contenido generado por los usuarios para los negocios. +Esta es la primera historia. +1906. Este hombre, John Philip Sousa, viaj a este lugar, el Capitolio de Estados Unidos, para hablar sobre esta tecnologa que l llamaba, cito, "Mquinas parlantes". +Sousa no era un partidario de las Mquinas Parlantes. +Esto es lo que tena para decir: +"Estas Mquinas Parlantes van a arruinar el desarrollo artstico de la msica en este pas. +Cuando yo era un nio, en frente de cada casa en las noches de verano era posible encontrar jvenes juntos cantando las canciones del momento, o las viejas canciones. +Hoy, se escuchan estas mquinas infernales durante todo el da y toda la noche. +No nos va a quedar una sola cuerda vocal," dijo Sousa. +"Las cuerdas vocales sern eliminadas por un proceso de evolucin as como la cola del hombre, cuando evolucion de los simios". +Ahora, esta es la imagen en la que quiero que se enfoquen. +Esta es una foto de la cultura. +Podramos describirla utilizando la moderna terminologa de computadores como una especie de cultura de lectura-escritura. +Es una cultura donde la gente participa en la creacin y la re-creacin de su cultura. En ese sentido es de lectura-escritura. +El miedo de Sousa era que perdiramos esa capacidad debido a estas, comillas, "mquinas infernales". Ellas nos la quitaran. +Y en su lugar tendramos lo opuesto a una cultura de lectura-escritura, lo que podramos llamar cultura de slo lectura. +Cultura en la que la creatividad es consumida pero el consumidor no es un creador. +Una cultura que est controlada de arriba hacia abajo, donde las cuerdas vocales de millones se han perdido. +Ahora, a medida que miramos hacia atrs al siglo 20, al menos en lo que pensamos como el, cito, "mundo desarrollado", es difcil no concluir que Sousa tena razn. +Nunca antes en la historia de la cultura humana, sta haba estado tan profesionalizada, nunca antes tan concentrada. +Nunca antes la creatividad de millones ha sido tan efectivamente desplazada, y desplazada debido a estas, entre comillas, "mquinas infernales". +El siglo 20 fue el siglo donde, al menos para aquellos lugares que mejor conocemos, la cultura pas de ser de lectura y escritura a ser de slo lectura. +Ahora, en segundo lugar. La tierra es un tipo de propiedad; es propiedad, est protegida por la ley. +Como Lord Blackstone lo describa, la tierra est protegida por la ley de invasin a la propiedad privada, durante la mayor parte de su historia, por la presuncin de que protege a la tierra tanto hacia el subsuelo como hacia arriba en una medida indefinida. +Bien, en 1945, la Corte Suprema de Justicia tuvo la oportunidad de abordar esa pregunta. +Dos agricultores, Thomas Lee y Tinie Cosby, criadores de pollos, tenan una demanda importante por causa de estas tecnologas. +La denuncia era que sus pollos seguan el patrn de los aviones y chocaban contra las paredes del granero cuando los aviones volaban sobre la tierra. +Por lo que apelaron a Lord Blackstone para decir, que estos aviones estaban invadiendo su propiedad. +Considerando que desde tiempos inmemoriales la ley ha dicho que no se puede volar sobre la tierra sin el permiso del propietario, este vuelo tiene que detenerse. +La Corte Suprema consider esta tradicin de cientos de aos y dijo, en un dictamen escrito por el juez Douglass, que los Cosbys deban perder. +La Corte Suprema dijo que la doctrina de proteccin de la tierra incluyendo el cielo, no tiene lugar en el mundo moderno, de otro modo todo vuelo transcontinental estara sujeto, sometera al operador a un sinnmero de demandas por invasin de propiedad. +Sentido comn, una idea rara en la ley, pero aqu estaba, el sentido comn. Se rebelaba ante esa idea: sentido comn. +Para terminar. Antes de Internet, el ltimo gran horror que cay sobre la industria de contenidos fue un horror creado por esta tecnologa: la radiodifusin. Una nueva forma de difusin de contenidos y, por tanto, una nueva batalla por el control de las empresas que difundiran ese contenido. +Ahora, en ese momento la entidad, el crtel legal que controlaba los derechos de reproduccin para la mayora de la msica que sera emitida usando estas tecnologas, era ASCAP. +Tenan una licencia exclusiva sobre el contenido ms popular, y la ejercan de una manera que trataba de demostrar a los radiodifusores, quin en realidad estaba a cargo. +As, entre 1931 y 1939 aumentaron las tasas alrededor de 448%, hasta que finalmente los radiodifusores se reunieron y dijeron, bien, no ms de esto. +Y en 1939 un abogado, Sidney Kaye, inici algo denominado Broadcast Music Incorporated. Lo conocemos como BMI. +BMI era mucho ms democrtico en las obras que inclua en su repertorio, incluyendo en l, por primera vez, msica Afroamericana. +Pero lo ms importante fue que BMI tom obras del dominio pblico e hizo arreglos de ellas, entregndolas gratuitamente a sus suscriptores. De modo que - en 1940 cuando ASCAP amenaz con duplicar sus tasas -- la mayora de los radiodifusores optaron por BMI. +Ahora, ASCAP dijo que no le importaba. +La gente se rebelara, predijeron, porque la mejor msica ya no estaba disponible, pues los radiodifusores haban optado por la segunda opcin, proporcionada por BMI, de dominio pblico. +Bueno, la gente no se rebel, y en 1941, ASCAP colaps. +Lo que es importante reconocer es que, a pesar de que estos radiodifusores estaban transmitiendo algo que uno podra llamar la segunda opcin, esa competencia fue suficiente para romper, en ese momento, este crtel legal de acceso a la msica. +Bien. Tres historias. Aqu est el argumento. +En mi opinin, lo ms importante que hay que reconocer sobre lo que Internet est haciendo, es la oportunidad de revivir la cultura de lectura-escritura que Sousa idealizaba. +La tecnologa digital es la oportunidad para revivir estas cuerdas vocales sobre las que habl, de forma tan apasionada, al Congreso. +Contenido generado por los usuarios, difundindose en los negocios de formas tan extraordinariamente valiosas como estas, celebrando la cultura de aficionados. +Con lo cual no quiero decir cultura de "aficionadillos" sino que me refiero a la cultura en la que las personas producen por el amor a lo que estn haciendo y no por el dinero. +Me refiero a la cultura que sus hijos estn produciendo todo el tiempo. +Pues cuando se piensa en lo que Sousa idealizaba en los jvenes juntos, cantando las canciones del momento, o las viejas canciones, usted debera reconocer lo que sus hijos estn haciendo ahora. +Tomando las canciones actuales y los temas antiguos y remezclndolas para convertirlas en algo diferente. +Es la forma en la que ellos entienden el acceso a esta cultura. +Por lo tanto, veamos algunos ejemplos para comprender de qu estoy hablando aqu. +Aqu hay algo llamado Anime Music Video, primer ejemplo, tomando animacin grabada de la televisin re-editado para seguir otras pistas musicales. +En este tengan... f. Jess sobrevive. No se preocupen. +(Cancin: "I Will Survive" de Gloria Gaynor) Y esta es la mejor. +Mi amor +Slo existes t en mi vida +Eres lo nico luminoso +Mi primer amor +T eres cada respiro que tomo +Eres cada paso que doy +Y yo +Quiero compartir todo mi amor contigo +Nadie ms lo har.. +Y tus ojos +Me dicen cunto te importa +Entonces, esto es remezclar. +Y es importante enfatizar que lo que esto no es -- no es lo que llamamos, comillas, "piratera". +No estoy hablando de, ni justificando a personas que toman todo el contenido de otras personas y lo distribuyen sin el permiso del propietario del copyright. +Estoy hablando de personas que estn tomando y re-creando cosas utilizando el contenido de otras personas, utilizando tecnologas digitales para decir las cosas de manera diferente. +Ahora, la importancia de esto no es la tcnica que acaban de ver. +Porque, por supuesto, todas las tcnicas que han visto aqu es algo que los productores de cine y televisin han podido hacer durante los ltimos 50 aos. +Lo importante es que esa tcnica se ha democratizado. +Hoy, cualquiera que tenga acceso a un computador de $1500 dlares puede tomar imgenes y sonidos de la cultura que nos rodea y usarlos para decir las cosas de manera diferente. +Estas herramientas de creatividad se han convertido en herramientas de expresin. +Se trata de conocimientos bsicos para esta generacin. As es como nuestros hijos hablan. +Es como nuestros hijos piensan; es lo que sus hijos son a medida que comprenden las tecnologas digitales y su relacin con ellos mismos. +Ahora, en respuesta a este nuevo uso de la cultura mediante las tecnologas digitales, la ley no ha usado mucho de su sentido comn para dar la bienvenida a este renacimiento de Sousa. +En cambio, la arquitectura de la ley de derecho de autor y las arquitecturas de las tecnologas digitales, a medida que interactan, han producido la presuncin de que estas actividades son ilegales. +Porque si la ley de derecho de autor, en su ncleo, regula algo llamado copias entonces, en el mundo digital, el hecho del que no podemos escapar es que cada vez que hacemos uso de la cultura, producimos una copia. +Por lo tanto, cada uso nico requiere permiso; sin permiso usted es un infractor. +Usted es un infractor de la misma manera en que estas personas fueron invasores. +El sentido comn aqu, sin embargo, an no se ha rebelado en rplica a esta respuesta que ha ofrecido la ley a estas formas de creatividad. +En cambio, lo que hemos visto es algo mucho peor que una revuelta. +Hay un creciente extremismo que proviene de ambos lados en este debate, en respuesta a este conflicto entre la ley y el uso de estas tecnologas. +Un lado construye nuevas tecnologas como una recientemente anunciada que les permitir, a ellos, retirar automticamente de sitios como YouTube cualquier material que incluya contenido protegido por derechos de autor sin que haya o no un juicio sobre el uso justo que podra aplicarse al uso de dicho contenido. +El extremismo de un lado engendra extremismo en el otro, un hecho que deberamos haber aprendido muchas, muchas veces, y los dos extremos en este debate estn, simplemente, equivocados. +Ahora, el equilibrio por el que yo trato de luchar -- Yo, como cualquier buen liberal, intento luchar inicialmente mirando al gobierno. Grave error, verdad? +Mirando primero a los tribunales y las legislaturas, para tratar de conseguir que hagan algo de modo que el sistema tenga ms sentido. +Por lo tanto, necesitamos algo diferente, necesitamos un tipo diferente de solucin, +y la solucin aqu, en mi opinin, es una solucin privada, una solucin que busque legalizar de nuevo lo que es ser joven, y hacer realidad el potencial econmico de ello, y ah es donde la historia de BMI se vuelve pertinente. +Porque como demostr BMI, la competencia aqu puede lograr algn tipo de equilibrio. Lo mismo puede suceder ahora. +No tenemos un dominio pblico al cual recurrir as que, en cambio, lo que necesitamos son dos tipos de cambios. +En primer lugar, que los artistas y creadores acojan la idea; y escojan que su trabajo est disponible de manera ms libre. +As, por ejemplo, pueden decir que su trabajo est disponible de manera libre para este tipo de uso aficionado, con fines no comerciales, pero no libremente para cualquier uso comercial. +Ahora, quisiera hablar sobre un plan en particular del cual s algo pero no quiero violar el primer mandamiento de no venta de TED, as que no voy a hablar de esto en absoluto. +En cambio, solamente voy a recordarles la leccin que BMI nos ensea. +Que la eleccin que hagan los artistas es la clave para que la nueva tecnologa tenga la oportunidad de estar abierta para los negocios, y necesitamos construir esa eleccin de los artistas aqu si estas nuevas tecnologas van a tener esa oportunidad. +Pero permtanme terminar con algo que creo que es mucho ms importante -- mucho ms importante que los negocios. +Es el punto acerca de cmo esto se conecta con nuestros hijos. +Tenemos que reconocer que son diferentes de nosotros. Estos somos nosotros, verdad? +Hicimos cintas mezcladas, ellos remezclan msica. +Vimos la televisin, ellos hacen televisin. +Es una tecnologa que los ha hecho diferentes, y cuando vemos lo que esta tecnologa puede hacer tenemos que reconocer que no se puede matar el instinto que la tecnologa produce; slo podemos criminalizarlo. +No podemos evitar que nuestros hijos la usen; +slo podemos volverla clandestina. +No podemos volver pasivos a nuestros hijos una vez ms; +slo podemos volverlos, comillas, "piratas". Y eso es bueno? +Vivimos en este extrao tiempo, una especie de edad de las prohibiciones, donde en muchas reas de nuestra vida, vivimos constantemente en contra de la ley. +Las personas comunes viven la vida en contra de la ley, y eso es lo que yo - nosotros - estamos haciendo a nuestros hijos. +Ellos viven la vida sabiendo que viven en contra de la ley. +Esa comprensin es sumamente corrosiva, extraordinariamente corruptora. +Y en una democracia debemos ser capaces de hacerlo mejor. +Hacerlo mejor, al menos para ellos, si no para una apertura a las empresas. +Muchas gracias. +Es un verdadero honor estar aqu esta noche, y me alegra haberme quedado aqu escuchando porque he sido realmente inspirado +Voy a tocar algunas canciones para ustedes esta noche que son, literalmente, primicias mundiales +He estado trabajando en mi nuevo album y nunca antes he tocado estas canciones para nadie excepto para el micrfono. +Esta es una cancin que escrib acerca del significado de la tecnologa que va perfectamente con esta reunin +Empece a pensar acerca de cuando estaba en el colegio, especialmente siendo una persona ciega, hacer una investigacin era toda una proeza +Tenia que ir a la biblioteca y tratar de que alguien te buscara los libros por ti ya sabrs, pies de pginas y todo eso +Ahora solo tienes que ir a Google y encontrarlo +hubiera deseado tener eso cuando estaba en el colegio +En fin, esta cancin es acerca -- tenemos todo esto, pero que vamos a hacer con ello? +Se llama "All the Answers" (todas las respuestas) +Vaya! es un milagro que no haya cometido errores en esta cancin. +Esta fue la primera vez que la interpret +Es como "sentir el miedo y hacerlo de todas formas" +La siguiente cancin es una cancin que inici como un sueo - un sueo de infancia +Era uno de los titulos que estaba considerando para el nombre de mi album Pero encontr un par de problemas +Primero, es impronunciable. +Y es una palabra que no existe. +Se llama "Tembererana." +Y la cancion se basa en en lo que creo que fue mi primer intento en la infancia de pensar acerca de las fuerzas invicibles +Asi que "Tembererana" fue de esos sueos en los cuales hua corriendo de los malos sentimientos - es la unica forma que puedo decirlo +Esto se llama "Tembererana." +est basada en un ritmo de Argentina llamado carnavalito +Me gustara hacer casi lo mismo que hice la primera vez, que es escoger un tema liviano. +La ltima vez habl sobre la muerte y morir. +Esta vez voy a hablar de enfermedades mentales. +La manera, entonces, de tratar estas enfermedades al principio era, de una u otra manera, exorcizar esos espritus malignos. Y esto sigue sucediendo, como saben. +Pero no era suficiente usar a los sacerdotes. +Cuando la medicina se volvi medianamente cientfica, alrededor del 450 A.C., con Hipcrates y esos chicos, buscaban hierbas, plantas, que, literalmente, remeceran a los malos espritus para sacarlos. +Entonces, encontraron ciertas plantas que podan causar convulsiones. +Y los "Herbarios", los libros de botnica de la Edad Media, del Renacimiento, estn llenas de recetas para causar convulsiones para remecer a los malos espritus hasta sacarlos. +Finalmente, alrededor del siglo 16, un mdico llamado Theophrastus Bombastus Auricularis von Hohenheim, ms conocido como Parcelso, un nombre que puede ser familiar para algunos de los que estn aqu el bueno de Paracelso... Descubri que se poda predecir el grado de convulsin usando una cantidad medida de canfor para producir la convulsin. +Se imaginan meterse al armario, sacar una bola de polillas y masticarla si se sintieran deprimido? +Es mejor que el Prozac, pero no lo recomendara. +Entonces, lo que vemos en el siglo 17, 18 es la bsqueda continua de medicamentos ms alla del canfor que hicieran el truco. +Bueno, ah aparece Benjamin Franklin, y casi se provoca convulsiones a s mismo! Con un rayo de electricidad al final de su cometa. +Y entonces la gente empez a pensar en electricidad para producir convulsiones. +Despus, avanzamos hasta alrededor de 1932, cuando tres psiquiatras italianos, que trataban ampliamente la depresin, empezaron a notar entre sus pacientes que adems eran epilpticos, que si tenan un ataque... una serie de ataques epilpticos, muchos seguidos... la depresin muy frecuentemente disminuira. +Y no slo disminuira, pero quizs no volvera ms. +Entonces se interesaron mucho en producir convulsiones, midieron tipos de convulsiones. +Y entonces pensaron: "bueno, tenemos electricidad, enchufaremos a alguien la toma de corriente". +"Eso siempre hace que el pelo se pare y que la gente convulsione". +As que, lo intentaron en algunos puercos, y ninguno se muri. +Entonces, fueron a la polica y dijeron: "Sabemos que en la estacin de trenes estn todas estas almas perdidas deambulando, hablando sinsentidos. Nos pueden traer a alguno? +Alguien que est, como dicen los italianos, "cagutis". +As que encontraron a un "cagutis", un hombre de 39 aos que era un esquizofrnico sin esperanzas, se saba, desde hace meses, que, literalmente, se defecaba solo, hablaba slo sinsentidos. Y lo llevaron al hospital. +Entonces, estos tres psiquiatras, despus de dos o tres semanas de observacin, lo acostaron en una mesa, le conectaron una cantidad muy baja de corriente en la sien. +Pensaron: "bueno, tratemos 55 volts, dos dcimas de segundo". +"No le va a hacer nada terrible". +Y lo hicieron. +Bueno, yo obtuve lo siguiente de un observador de primera mano, que me dijo esto como 35 aos atrs, cuando estaba pensando sobre estos temas para un proyecto de investigacin... +me dijo: "Este tipo -- recuerden, ni siquieran lo pusieron a dormir -- "despus de esta gran convulsin, se sent, mir a los tres tipos que estaban ah y dijo: "Qu mierda estn tratando de hacer, maricones?" Si slo pudiera decir eso en italiano. +Bueno, ellos no podan estar ms felices, porque no haba dicho ninguna frase cuerda durante las semanas de observacin. +As que lo enchufaron de nuevo y esta vez usaron 110 volts por medio segundo. +Y para su asombro, despus que se termin, empez a hablar como si estuviera perfectamente bien. +Tuvo algunas recadas, le dieron una serie de tratamientos y, escencialmente, se cur. +Pero, claro, teniendo esquizofrenia, dentro de unos meses, volvi. +Pero escribieron un paper sobre esto y todo el mundo de occidente empez a usar electricidad para convulsionar personas que tenan esquizofrenia o estaban severamente deprimidas. +No funcion muy bien con los esquizofrenicos, Pero estaba bastante claro en los 30's y la mitada de los 40's que la terapia electroconvulsica era muy, muy efectiva en el tratamiento de la depresin. +Y, por supuesto, en esos das, no existan los frmacos antidepresivos y se volvi muy, muy popular. +Se anestesiaba a la gente, se le convulsionaba, pero la verdadera dificultad era que no haba manera de paralizar los musculos. +Entonces las personas tenan realmente grandes ataques. +Los huesos se les quebraban... especialmente con la gente vieja y frgil, no podas usarlo. +Entonces, en los 1950's, al final de los 1950's, los llamados relajantes musculares fueron desarrollados por farmaclogos y lleg hasta un punto en que se poda inducir una convulsin completa, una convulsin electroencefalogrfica... se poda ver en las ondas cerebrales... sin causar ninguna convulsin en el cuerpo, excepto un poco en los dedos de los pies. +Entonces, nuevamente, se volvi muy, muy popular y muy, muy til. +Bueno, ya saben, en la mitad de los 60's salieron los primeros antidepresivos. Tofranil fue el primero. +A fines de los 70's, principios de los 80's hubo otros y eran muy efectivos. +Y los grupos defensores de los derechos del paciente parecieron preocuparse mucho sobre el tipo de cosas que iban a presenciar. +Y toda la idea de terapia electroconvulsiva, electroshock, desapareci... pero ha tenido un renacimiento en los ltimos 10 aos. +Y el motivo por el que tuvo un renacimiento probablemente, es que alrededor del 10% de esa gente, depresivos severos, no responden, independiente de lo que se les haga. +Ahora, por qu les cuento esta historia en esta conferencia? +Les cuento esta historia porque de hecho desde que Richard me llam y me pidi que hablara (al igual que le pidi a todos los expositores) que hablara de algo que fuera nuevo para esta audiencia, de lo que nunca antes habamos hablado, ni escrito, he estado planeando este momento. +la razn es en realidad porque yo soy un hombre al que hace casi 30 aos atrs le salvaron la vida con dos largas sesiones de electroshock. +Djenme contarles esta historia. +Estaba, en los 1960's, en un matrimonio... usar la palabra "malo" sera, quizs, la subestimacin del ao. +Era terrible. +Hay, estoy seguro, suficiente gente divorciada en esta sala que saben sobre la hostilidad, la ira, que saben lo que es. +Siendo yo alguien que tuvo una infancia muy difcil, una adolescencia muy difcil... tuvo que ver... no precisamente con pobreza, pero bastante cerca. +Tena que ver con haber sido crado en una familia donde nadie hablaba ingls, nadie lea ni escriba en ingls. +Tena que ver con muerte y enfermedad y muchas otras cosas... +tena alguna tendencia a la depresin... +Entonces, en la medida que las cosas empeoraron, en la medida en que realmente nos empezamos a odiar, me fui deprimiendo cada vez ms en un perodo de un par de aos, tratando de salvar este matrimonio, que inevitablemente no poda ser salvado. +Finalmente, programaba todos mis casos de ciruja importantes... los programaba para las 12 o una de la tarde porque no poda salir de la cama antes de las 11 +Y cualquiera que ha estado deprimido ac sabe lo que es eso. +Ni siquiera poda quitarme las sbanas de encima. +Bueno, uno est en el centro mdico universitario, donde todos se conoces y esto est perfectamente claro para mis colegas as que mis referencias empezaron a bajar. +En la medida en que mis referencias empezaron a bajar, claramente me fui deprimiendo ms y ms rpido, hasta que pens, Dios, no puedo trabajar ms. +Y, de hecho, no haca ninguna diferencia porque ya no tena pacientes. +As que, con el consejo de mi mdico, me intern en la unidad de Cuidado Psiquitrico Agudo de nuestro hospital universitario. +Y mis colegas, que me conocan desde la escuela de medicina en ese sitio dijeron: "no te preocupes, chap. En seis semanas" "ests de vuelta en el quirfano. Todo estar magnfico". +Bueno, saben lo que es excremento bovino? +Eso demostr ser bastante excremento bovino. +Conozco gente que se qued para siempre en ese sitio con mentiras como esa. +Asi que yo era uno de sus fracasos. +Pero no era tan simple. Porque cuando me sal de la unidad, estaba completamente disfuncional. +Apenas podas ver a cinco pies de distancia. +Me tropezaba al caminar. Andaba encorvado. +Rara vez me baaba. A veces no me afeitaba. Era terrible. +Y era claro... no para m, porque nada era claro para m en ese entonces... que iba a necesitar hospitalizacin de larga duracin en ese terrible lugar llamado manicomio. +As que me admitieron, en 1973, en la primavera de 1973, al Institute of Living, que se llamaba antes Hartford Retreat. +Se fund en el siglo 18, es el hospital psiquitrico ms grande del estado de Connecticut adems de los grandes hospitales pblicos que existan en esa poca. +Y trataron con todo lo que tenan. +Trataron la psicoterapia habitual. +Trataron todos los medicamentos disponibles en ese entonces. +Y s tenan Tofranil y otras cosas... Mellaril, quin sabe qu. +No pas nada, excepto que me dio ictericia producto de una de estas cosas. +Y finalmente, porque yo era bien conocido en Connecticut, decidieron que lo mejor era tener una reunin con la gente importante. +Toda la plana mayor se reuni y, posteriormente, yo me enter de qu haba pasado. +Juntaron sus cabezas y decidieron que no haba nada que se pudiera hacer por este cirujano que, esencialmente, se haba separado del mundo. Quien, para ese entonces estaba tan abrumado ...no slo con su depresin y sentimiento de invalidez y desadaptacin, sino que tambin con pensamiento obsesivo, pensamiento obsesivo sobre coincidencias. +Y haba nmeros particulares que cada vez que vea me ponan horriblemente angustiado, todo tipo de conductas rituales... cosas, simplemente terribles. +Se acuerdan cuando eran nios y tenan que pisar todas las lneas? +Bueno, yo era un hombre grande que tena todo este tipo de rituales. Y lleg a un punto que haba un incesante... un miedo feroz en mi cabeza. +Ustedes han visto el cuadro de Edvard Munch, "El grtio". "El Grito". Cada momento era un grito. +Era imposible. As que decidieron que no haba terapia, no haba tratamiento. Pero haba un tratamiento en la que el hospital Hartford, a comienzo de los 1940's, haba sido pionero. Y se pueden imaginar qu era. Era la lobotoma prefrontal. +As que decidieron... nuevamente, yo no saba esto, me enter despus... que lo nico que se poda hacer para este hombre de 43 aos era tener una lobotoma prefrontal. +Bueno, como en todos los hospitales, haba un residente que tena mi caso. Tena 27 aos y nos juntbamos dos o tres veces a la semana. +Por supuesto, ya llevaba ah... qu, tres o cuatro meses en ese entonces. +Y me pidi que me reuniera con la plana mayor y ellos aceptaron reunirse conmigo porque l era muy bien considerado en ese lugar. +Ellos pensaban que l tena un futuro extraordinario. +l se puso firme y dijo: "No. Conoco mejor a este hombre que cualquiera de ustedes. He estado con l una y otra vez. +Ustedes slo lo ven a veces. Han ledo reportes y esas cosas. +En realidad, honestamente, creo que el problema basico ac es depresin pura. Y todo el pensamiento obsesivo viene de ah. +Y ya saben, por supuesto, qu pasar si le hacen una lobotoma prefrontal. +"Bueno", dijo, "Por qu no probamos un tratamiento de electroshock?" +Y saben por qu estuvieron de acuerdo? Estuvieron de acuerdo para darle el gusto. +Simplemente pensaron: "bueno, le daremos una serie de 10. +Y perderemos algo de tiempo. Gran cosa. No har ninguna diferencia". +As que hicieron la serie de 10 y el primero... el tratamiento tpico, incidentalmente, era de seis a ocho y todava es de seis a ocho... +me enchufaron los cables, me hicieron dormir, me dieron los relajantes musculares. +Seis no resultaron. Siete no resultaron. +Ocho no resultaron. Al noveno, not... y es maravilloso que pudiera notar algo ...not un cambio. Al 10, not un cambio real. +El volvi a hablar con ello y acordaron hacer otros 10. +De nuevo, ninguno de ellos -creo que haba siete u ocho de ellos- crey que esto servira de algo. Pensaron que era un cambio temporal. +Pero, cielos, al 16 y 18, haba diferencias demostrables en cmo me senta. +Al 18 y 19, dorma por las noches. +Al 20 tuve la sensacin, la sensacin real de que poda superar esto, que era suficientemente fuerte como para que, por un acto de voluntad, poda hacer desaparecer el pensamiento obsesivo. +Poda sacarme la depresin de encima. +Y nunca me he olvidado... nunca me olvidar ...de estar parado en la cocina de la unidad, era una maan de domingo en enero de 1973... 4... parado en la cocina slo y pensando: "tengo fuerzas para hacer esto". +Era como si eso cables enrollados apretadamente en mi cabeza se hubieran desconectado y poda pensar con claridad. +Pero necesitaba una formula. Necesitaba algo para decirme a m mismo cuando empezara a pensar obsesivamente, con obsesiones. +Bueno, los fanticos de Gilbert & Sullivan en esta sala se acordarn de "Ruddy Gore" y se acordarn de la loca Margaret y recordarn que estaba casada con un sujeto de nombre Sir Despard Murgatroyd. +Bueno, yo vengo del Bronx, saben. No puedo decir "Basingstoke". +Pero tena algo mejor. Y era muy simple. +Era: "Aah, a la mierda!" +. Mucho mejor que Basingstoke, para m, al menos. Y funcionaba, por Dios, funcionaba. +Cada vez que empezaba a pensar obsesivamente... de nuevo, otra vez, despus de 20 tratamientos de shock... deca: "Aah, a la mierda!" +Y las cosas mejoraban y mejoraban. Y dentor de tres o cuatro meses, me dieron el alta de ese hospital y me un a un grupo de cirujanos donde poda trabajar con otras personas de la comunidad, no en New Haven, pero bastante cerca. +Me qued ah por tres aos. +Al terminar los tres aos, volv a New Haven, he permanecido ah todo este tiempo. +Traje a mi esposa conmigo, en realidad, para asegurarme de que poda llevar esto a cabo. +Mis hijos volvieron a vivir con nosotros. +Tuvimos dos hijos ms despus de eso. +Resucit la carrera, incluso mejor de lo que haba estado antes. +Volv a la universidad y empec a escribir libros. +Bueno, saben, ha sido una vida maravillosa. +Ha sido, como dije, cerca de 30 aos. +Dej de hacer ciruga hace como seis aos atrs y me convert en un escritor a tiempo completo, como muchos saben. +Pero ha sido muy interesante. Ha sido muy feliz. +Cada cierto tiempo tengo que decir: "Aah, a la mierda!" +Cada cierto tiempo me deprimo de alguna manera y me pongo un poco obsesivo. +As que no estoy libre de todo esto. Pero ha funcionado. Siempre ha funcionado. +Por qu he escogido, tras no haber hablado nunca sobre esto, hablar de esto ahora? +Bueno, para los que conocen algunos de estos libros saben que uno es sobre la muerte y morir, uno es sobre el cuerpo humano y el espritu humano, no es sobre la manera en que los pensamientos msticos estn constantemente en nuestras mentes y siempre han tenido que ver con mis propias experiencias personales. +Uno podra pensar, leyendo esos libro, (y me han llegado miles de cartas sobre ellos de gente que piensa as) que, basado en la historia de vida de mi padre, como he contado en mis libros, mi historia temprana de vida, soy alguien que se ha sobrepuesto a la adversidad. +Soy alguien que ha bebido (bebi, bebido) the los amargos trados de una infancia cuasi desastrosa y emergi no slo ileso, sino fortalecido. +Que realmente lo tengo resuelto, as que puedo darle consejo a la gente sobre la muerte y morir, que puedo hablar sobre el misticismo y el espritu humano. +Y siempre me he sentido culpable por eso. +Siempre he sentido que de alguna manera era un impostor porque mis lectore no saben lo que les acabo de contar. +Es sabido por algunas personas en New Haven, obviamente, pero no es muy conocido. +As que una de las razones por las que quera venir ac a hablar de esto hoy es para (francamente, egostamente) liberarme de la carga y que se sepa que no es una mente sin tormentos la que ha escrito todos estos libros. +Pero ms importante, pienso, es el hecho de que una proporcin muy importante de personas en esta audiencia tienen menos de 30 y hay muchos, por supuesto, que tienen mucho ms de 30. +Para la gente bajo 30, y me parece que prcticamente todos ustedes (dira todos ustedes) estn inmersos en una gran y excitante carrera o justo adentrndose a una gran y excitante carrera. Cualquier cosa les puede pasar. Las cosas cambian. +Los accidentes ocurren. Algo de la niez vuelve persiguindote. +Y te puede sacar de la pista. +Espero que no le pase a ninguno de ustedes, pero probablemente le pasar a un pequeo porcentaje. +Para aquellos que no les pase, habr adversidades. +Si yo, con el espritu debilitado, sin espritu, de hecho, como estaba en los 1970's y sin posibilidad de recuperacin hasta donde pens ese grupo de psiquiatras experimentados, si yo pude encontrar mi camino de vuelta desde eso, cranme, cualquiera puede hacerlo de cualquier adversidad que exista en su vida. +Y para aqullos que son ms viejos, que han pasado algo quizs no tan malo como esto, pero que han pasado tiempos dificiles donde, quizs, perdieron todo, como yo, y empezaron todo de nuevo, algunas de estas cosas pueden parecer familiares. +Hay recuperacin. +Hay redencin. Y hay resurreccin. +Hay temas de resurreccin en todas las sociedades que han sido objeto de estudio y es porque no slo fantaseamos con la posibilidad de la resurreccin y recuperacin, sino que realmente pasa. Y pasa bastante. +Quizas la temtica de resurreccin ms popular, ,fuera de las especficamente religiosas, es sobre el fnix, la historia antigua del fnix quien, cada 500 aos, resucita de sus propias cenizas para vivir un vida que es incluso ms bella que la que haban tenido antes. Richard, muchas gracias. +Vivo y trabajo en Tokio, Japn. +Y soy especialista en investigar sobre la conducta humana y en aplicarlo para imaginar el futuro de diferentes maneras, y en disear en funcin de ese futuro. +Para ser sinceros, llevo hacindolo desde hace 7 aos, y no tengo ni idea de cmo va a ser el futuro. +No obstante, tengo una idea muy aproximada de cmo la gente se comportar en el futuro. +ste es mi despacho. Est ah fuera. +No est en el laboratorio, y cada vez ms lo sito en lugares como India, China, Brasil, frica. +Vivimos en un planeta de 6300 millones de personas. +Al final de este ao unos 3000 millones contarn con telfono mvil. +Y se tardar unos 2 aos en conectar a los prximos 1000 millones. +Y lo menciono porque si queremos disear para ese futuro, necesitamos averiguar cmo se comportan esas personas. +Y por esa direccin se conduce mi trabajo y nuestro trabajo de equipo. +Nuestros investigadores a menudo empiezan con una cuestin muy simple. +Por ejemplo: Qu llevan encima? +Si reflexionan sobre todas las cosas de su vida, sus pertenencias cuando salen por esa puerta, qu piensan llevarse consigo? +Cundo miran alrededor, qu tienen en cuenta? +De esas cosas qu se llevan? +Y de esas cosas, cules usan en realidad? +Pues es eso lo que nos interesa porque el proceso de decisin consciente e incosciente implica que las cosas que llevan consigo, y terminan usando, tienen algn tipo de valor espiritual, emocional o funcional. +Y francamente, como saben, las personas estn dispuestas a pagar por cosas de valor. +As que he pasado 5 aos de investigacin observando lo que la gente lleva encima. +Miro los bolsos de las personas. Miro sus bolsillos y monederos. +Voy a sus casas. Y lo hago en todo el mundo, y los seguimos por la ciudad con videocmaras. +Es como acechar con permiso. +Y hacemos todo esto --y volvemos a la pregunta del principio: Qu llevan las personas? +Y resulta que las personas llevan un montn de cosas. +Vale, eso es bastante lgico. +Pero si preguntas a las personas cules son las tres cosas ms importantes, a travs de culturas, gnero y entornos, la mayora de las personas dir que las llaves, el dinero, y si tienen uno, el telfono mvil. +Y con ello, no afirmo que esto sea algo bueno, pero es as. +Es decir, yo no podra quitarles sus telfonos. +Probablemente me daran una patada. +Vale, puede parecer algo obvio preguntarle a alguien que trabaja para una empresa de telefona mvil. +Pero en realidad la pregunta es por qu? +Por qu son estas cosas tan importantes en nuestras vidas? +Y resulta, segn nuestra investigacin, que esto se reduce a supervivencia. Supervivencia para nosotros y para nuestros seres queridos. +Las llaves proporcionan acceso a refugio y calor, tambin al transporte, cada vez ms en EEUU. +El dinero es til para comprar comida, sustento, entre sus otros usos. +Y un telfono mvil, resulta ser una gran herramienta de recuperacin. +Si prefieren esta especie de jerarqua de necesidades de Maslow, estos tres objetos son muy buenos como base en los niveles inferiores en la jerarqua de necesidades de Maslow. +S, tambin hacen muchas otras cosas, pero son muy buenos en esto. +Y en especial, en la capacidad del telfono mvil de permitir a las personas sobrepasar espacio y tiempo. +Y lo que quiero decir con esto es que pueden sobrepasar el espacio simplemente haciendo una llamada. +Y pueden sobrepasar el tiempo enviando un mensaje cuando quieran, y otra persona podr verlo cuando quiera. +Y esto se aprecia bastante universalmente, por eso hay 3000 millones de personas conectadas. +Y valoran esa conectividad. +Pero en realidad, pueden hacer estas cosas con PCs. +Y pueden hacerlo en cabinas telefnicas. +Pero el telfono mvil, adems, es personal y eso adems les otorga un punto tanto de privacidad como de comodidad. +No tienen que pedir permiso a nadie, pueden simplemente hacerlo no? +Sin embargo, para que estas cosas nos ayuden a sobrevivir tienen que llevarlas encima. +Pero -y es un pero bastante grande- nos olvidamos. +Somos humanos, por eso nos olvidamos. Es una de nuestras caractersticas. +Yo creo que una buena caracterstica. +As que olvidamos, pero tambin somos adaptables, y nos adaptamos muy bien a situaciones que nos rodean. +Y tambin tenemos estrategias para recordar, y una de ellas se mencion ayer. +Es bastante simple esta reflexin. +Es en ese momento cuando sales de un lugar, te das la vuelta y, a menudo, te tocas los bolsillos. +Incluso las mujeres que guardan las cosas en sus bolsos se tocan los bolsillos. +Te das la vuelta, miras hacia atrs hacia ese lugar, y algunas personas hablan en voz alta. +Muchos lo hacen en algn momento. +Ok, lo siguiente es: la mayora de ustedes, si tienen una vida familiar estable, me refiero a que no viajan todo el tiempo y siempre estn en hoteles, pero la mayora tienen lo que llamamos un "centro de gravedad". +Y un centro de gravedad es donde se guardan esos objetos. +Y esas cosas no se quedan en el centro de gravedad, pero durante un tiempo gravitan ah. +Ah es donde esperas encontrar las cosas. +De hecho, cuando te das la vuelta y miras dentro de la casa buscando estas cosas, es ah donde miras primero verdad? +Vale cuando realizamos esta investigacin, descubrimos la manera 100% segura de nunca olvidar nada, jams. +Y esto se logra, simplemente no teniendo nada que recordar. +Vale, suena como algo que lees en una galleta china de la suerte, +pero en realidad se trata del arte de delegar. +Y desde una perspectiva del diseo, se trata de entender lo que puedes delegar en la tecnologa y lo que puedes delegar en otras personas. +y en efecto, delegar, si quieres hacerlo, puede ser la solucin para casi todo, excepto para cosas como las necesidades corporales, como ir al lavabo. +No puedes pedirle a nadie que lo haga por ti. +Y cosas como el entretenimiento, no le pediras a nadie que fuera al cine y se divirtiera por ti. O por lo menos no todava. +Quizs alguna vez en el futuro lo hagamos. +Quisiera ponerles un ejemplo de delegar llevado a la prctica. +Esto es, probablemente, lo que ms me apasiona: el estudio que hemos realizado sobre analfabetismo y cmo las personas analfabetas se comunican. +NNUU estima, segn los datos del 2004, que casi 800 millones de personas en todo el mundo no saben leer ni escribir. +Hemos estudiado mucho el tema, +y una de las cosas que observamos es que si no sabes leer ni escribir y te quieres comunicar a distancia, tienes que saber identificar a la persona con la que te quieres comunicar. +Podra ser un nmero de telfono, una direccin de correo electrnico, una direccin postal... +Es una cuestin sencilla, si no sabes leer ni escribir cmo manejas tu informacin de contacto? +Y el hecho es que millones de personas lo hacen. +Desde la perspectiva del diseo, no sabemos como lo lograron, y esto es solo un pequeo ejemplo del tipo de estudio que realizamos. +Y resulta que los analfabetos son expertos en delegar. +As que delegan parte de su proceso de tarea a otros, las cosas que ellos no pueden hacer solos. +Les pondr otro ejemplo de cmo se delega. +ste es un poco ms sofisticado, es sobre un estudio que hicimos en Uganda sobre cmo las personas utilizan los aparatos que comparten. +"Sente" es una palabra en Uganda que significa dinero. +Tiene adems otro significado, el de enviar dinero para cargar saldo. +Y funciona as: +Digamos que es junio y ests es una aldea rural. +Yo estoy en Kampala y soy el asalariado. +Quiero enviar dinero y funciona as: +En tu aldea solo hay una persona con telfono, y ste es el operador de la centralita telefnica. +Y es bastante probable que tengan un simple telfono mvil en la centralita. +As que compro una tarjeta prepago como sta. +Y en vez de usar ese dinero para cargar mi propio telfono, llamo al operador de la aldea local +y le leo el nmero y l lo usa para cargar con dinero su telfono. +As que estn cargando el valor desde Kampala, y ahora est siendo cargado en la aldea. +Te llevas un 10% o un 20% de comisin, el operador de la centralita se lleva un 10% 20% de comisin, y te pasa el resto en efectivo. +Vale, hay dos cosas que me gustan de esto, +la primera es que todo el que tiene acceso a un telfono mvil, todo el que tenga un telfono mvil, se convierte en un cajero automtico. +Lleva servicios bancarios rudimentarios a lugares donde no hay infraestructura bancaria. +E incluso si pudieran tener acceso a la infraestructura bancaria, no seran necesariamente considerados clientes viables, porque no son lo suficiente solventes como para tener cuentas bancarias. +Hay una segunda cosa que me gusta de esto. +Y es que a pesar de todos los recursos a mi disposicin, y de toda nuestra sofisticacin aparente, s que yo nunca podra haber diseado algo tan elegante y tan en sintona con las condiciones locales como esto. +Y s, hay cosas como el Banco Grameen y los microcrditos, +pero la diferencia entre esto y eso es que no hay autoridad central intentndo controlar esto. +Se trata simplemente de innovacin callejera. +Y la calle es una fuente inagotable de inspiracin para nosotros. +Y vale, si rompes una de estas cosas, la devuelves a la empresa. +Te dan una nueva. +Probablemente te darn tres nuevas. +Me refiero a compras tres y te llevas una gratis. Ese tipo de cosas. +Si vas por las calle de la India y de China ves este tipo de cosas. +Y ah es cuando cogen las cosas que se rompen y las arreglan y los vuelven a poner en circulacin. +Esto es de una mesa de trabajo en Ciudad Jilin, en China, y puedes ver a gente desmontando un telfono y armndolo de nuevo. +Hacen un manual de ingeniera inversa. +Es una especie de manual del hacker, y est escrito en chino y en ingls. +Tambin lo escriben en hindi. +Te puedes suscribir. +Hay institutos de formacin donde forman a personas para arreglar esas cosas tambin. +Pero lo que me gusta de esto es que todo se reduce a alguien en la calle que cuenta con una superficie pequea y plana, un destornillador, un cepillo de dientes para limpiar las cabezas de contacto porque a menudo hay polvo en las cabezas de contacto.. y conocimiento. +Y todo se mueve en la red social del conocimiento, flotando. +Y me gusta porque desafa nuestra manera de disear cosas, y construir cosas y potencialmente distribuir cosas. +Desafa las normas. +Para mi las calles sugieren muchas preguntas diferentes. +Esto es Viagra que compr en un sex shop clandestino en China. +Y China es un pas donde se pueden comprar muchas falsificaciones. +Y se lo que se estn preguntando, la prob? +No voy a responder a eso. +Pero miro algo as y considero las implicaciones de confianza en el proceso de compra, +y miramos esto y pensamos, bueno cmo se aplica, por ejemplo, para el diseo de... las lecciones de esto aplicadas al diseo de servicios en lnea, a futuros servicios en estos mercados? +Este es una par de calzoncillos de del Tibet. +Y miro algo as, y sinceramente, ya saben, Porque diseara alguien calzoncillos con un bolsillo? +Y veo algo as y me planteo cmo podramos aprovechar toda la funcionalidad de cosas as y redistribuirlas por todo el cuerpo en una especie de red de rea personal, cmo priorizaramos el sitio para poner las cosas? +y s, esto es muy trivial pero este conocimiento se pueden aplicar a ese tipo de redes de rea personal. +Y lo que ven aqu es un par de nmeros de telfono escritos encima de la choza en la Uganda rural. +Esta no tiene nmero de casa, tiene nmeros de telfono. +As que qu significa cuando la identidad de la gente es mvil? +Cuando la identidad de esos 3000 millones ms de personas es mvil, no est fija? +Vuestra nocin de identidad ya est anticuada para esas 3000 millones de personas adicionales. +As es cmo est cambiando. +Aqu tengo esta foto, que fue con la que empec. +Y es... es de Delhi. +Es de un estudio que hicimos sobre el analfabetismo, y aqu se ve un hombre en una tetera. +Pueden ver t sirvindose al fondo. +Y l es, como ven, un empleado muy pobre, en la escala social ms baja +Y l, de alguna manera aprecia los valores de LiveStrong. +Y no son necesariamente los mismos valores, pero una especie de valores de LiveStrong, para realmente salir, comprarlos y exponerlos. +Para mi, esto personifica este mundo conectado, donde todo est entrelazado, y los puntos estn -- todos los puntos se unen. +El ttulo de esta presentacin es "conexiones y consecuencias", y es un resumen de 5 aos intentando averiguar cmo ser cuando cada persona del planeta tenga la capacidad de trascender el espacio y el tiempo de una forma personal y prctica. +Cuando todo el mundo est conectado. +Existen 4 cosas. +La primera es la inmediatez de las ideas, la velocidad con la que las ideas se propagan. +Y s que TED trata sobre grandes ideas, pero en realidad el punto de referencia para una gran idea est cambiando. +Si pretendes una gran idea tienes que englobar a todo el mundo, eso es lo primero. +Lo segundo es la inmediatez de los objetos. +Y a lo que me refiero es que estos se vuelven ms pequeos mientras que la funcionalidad a la que puedes acceder se vuelve grande --cosas como la banca, la identidad-- estas cosas, se mueven muy rpido alrededor del mundo. +As que la velocidad de la adopcin de cosas se va a convertir en algo mucho ms rpido de una forma que no podemos concebir totalmente, cuando alcanzas los 6300 millones y el crecimiento total de la poblacin mundial. +Lo siguiente es que sin embargo diseamos estas cosas --las diseamos cuidadosamente-- la calle las coger y averiguar maneras de innovar, mientras que cumplan las necesidades bsicas. La capacidad de trascender el espacio y el tiempo por ejemplo. +Se innovar de formas que no podemos anticipar. +De maneras que, a pesar de nuestros recursos, ellos pueden hacer mejor. +Esa es mi sensacin. +Y si somos inteligentes, miraremos estos artculos que estn saliendo, y averiguaremos una manera de habilitarlos para que informen e infundan lo que diseamos y cmo lo diseamos. +Y lo ltimo es que --realmente el objetivo de la conversacin-- +con otros 3000 millones de personas conectadas, quieren ser parte de la conversacin. +Y creo que nuestra relevancia y la de TED es en realidad lograrlo y aprender a escuchar, esencialmente. +Y solo debemos aprender a escuchar. +As que muchas, muchas gracias. +Supongo que como resultado de la globalizacin es que pueden encontrar latas de Coca Cola en la cima del Everest y monjes budistas en Monterey. +Hace apenas dos das que llegu de los Himalayas gracias a su amable invitacin; +y de igual modo los invito por un instante a los Himalayas +para mostrarles el lugar donde meditadores como yo, que empec siendo bilogo molecular del Instituto Pasteur, encontr su camino hacia las montaas. +Estas son algunas imgenes que he tenido la suerte de tomar y presenciar. +Esta es la montaa de Kailash al este del Tbet, escenario maravilloso. +Esto es del mundo Marlboro. +Este es el Lago Turquesa. +Un meditador. +Este es el da ms caluroso del ao en algn lugar al este del Tbet, un primero de agosto. +La noche anterior acampamos y mis amigos tibetanos dijeron que bamos a dormir afuera, a lo que dije, "Por qu? Si hay suficiente espacio en la tienda". +Contestaron, "S, pero es verano". +Bien, hablemos ahora de la felicidad. +Como francs, debo decir que hay muchos intelectuales franceses que piensan que la felicidad no es interesante en absoluto. +Recientemente escrib un ensayo sobre la felicidad y este caus controversia; +alguien escribi un artculo diciendo: "No nos impongas la palabra sucia de felicidad". +No nos importa eso de ser felices, necesitamos vivir con pasin, +nos gustan los altibajos de la vida; +nos gusta el sufrimiento porque se siente tan bien cuando cesa por un instante. +Esto es lo que veo desde el balcn de mi ermita en los Himalayas, +que es como de dos por tres metros, y son siempre bienvenidos. +Hablemos ahora de la felicidad o el bienestar. +Primero que nada, y a pesar de lo que los intelectuales franceses dicen, al parecer nadie se despierta en la maanas pensando: Me permiten sufrir todo el da? +Lo cual, de alguna manera significa que ... conscientemente o no, directa o indirectamente, en el corto o largo plazo, que todo lo que hacemos, todo lo que esperamos, todo lo que soamos de alguna forma est relacionado con un profundo deseo de bienestar o felicidad. +Como dijo Pascal, incluso aquel que se pone la soga al cuello, de alguna manera, est buscando dejar de sufrir ... y no encuentra otra manera. +Si buscamos en la literatura en Oriente y Occidente, es posible encontrar una diversidad increble de definiciones de la felicidad. +Algunas personas slo creen en recordar el pasado, imaginar el futuro y nunca ver el presente. +Algunas personas dicen que la felicidad es el ahora; es la calidad de la frescura del momento presente. +Todo esto motiv al filsofo francs Henri Bergson a decir: "Todos los grandes pensadores de la humanidad han tratado la felicidad vagamente de modo tal, que as puedan definirla en los trminos que ellos quieran. +Bueno, eso estara muy bien si fuera tan solo una preocupacin secundaria en la vida, +pero si es algo que va a determinar la calidad de cada instante de nuestra vida, es mejor que sepamos qu es y tener una idea ms clara. +Y probablemente el hecho de no saber, es lo que tan a menudo nos hace que aunque busquemos la felicidad, pareciera que le damos la espalda. +Aunque queremos evitar el sufrimiento, parece que corremos de alguna forma hacia l. +Y esto tambin puede provenir de algunas confusiones, +una de las ms comunes es confundir felicidad y placer. +Pero, si miramos las caractersticas de ambas, el placer depende del tiempo, del objeto y del lugar; +es algo que cambia de naturaleza. +Un sabroso pastel de chocolate, la primera porcin es deliciosa, la segunda no tanto, comemos ms y nos da asco. +Esa es la naturaleza de las cosas, nos cansamos. +Yo sola ser un fan de Bach, sola tocar la guitarra, +lo poda escuchar dos, tres, cinco veces; pero ... +si tuviera que escucharlo 24 horas sin parar, terminara fastidiado. +Si tienes fro, te acercas al fuego y es algo maravilloso; +despus de un rato, te haces un poco para atrs porque comienza a quemar. +En cierta forma -- el placer -- se consume a s mismo conforme lo experimentas. +De nuevo, el placer no es algo que est afuera irradiando. +Como cuando t puedes sentir un placer intenso mientras que otros a tu alrededor pueden estar sufriendo mucho. +Pues entonces qu es la felicidad? +La felicidad, por supuesto, es una palabra tan vaga, que mejor usaremos bienestar. +As, creo que la mejor definicin, segn la visin budista, es la de que el bienestar no es meramente una sensacin de placer, +sino una sensacin de profunda serenidad y realizacin; +un estado que impregna y subyace en todos los estados emocionales y todas las alegras y penas que se atraviesan en el camino. +Para ustedes eso puede ser sorprendente, +podemos tener este tipo de bienestar en la tristeza? En cierta forma por qu no? +Porque estamos hablando a un nivel diferente. +Miren las olas que llegan a la orilla, +cuando estn en la parte baja de las olas, tocan el fondo, +pegan con la roca slida; +cuando estn arriba, sienten regocijo. +As se pasa de euforia a depresin y no hay profundidad. +Ahora, si miran el alta mar, quiz lo encuentren bello, tranquilo como un espejo; +puede que halla tormentas, pero el fondo sigue ah, sin cambios. +Cmo es esto? +Esto slo puede ser un estado del ser, no slo una emocin fugaz, una sensacin. +Incluso la alegra, que puede ser la fuente de felicidad, +tambin puede ser la alegra torcida por el regocijo de ver a otros sufrir. +Entonces cmo proceder en la bsqueda de la felicidad? A menudo buscamos afuera. +Pensamos que si pudiramos juntar esto y lo otro, todas las condiciones, como se dice, "todo para ser feliz, tener todo para ser feliz". +La frase misma revela la causa de la destruccin de la felicidad. +Tenerlo todo. Si algo nos falta, es el colapso. +Igualmente cuando las cosas van mal, intentamos arreglar el exterior, pero nuestro control del mundo exterior es limitado, temporal, y a menudo, ilusorio. +Entonces miremos las condiciones internas, acaso no son ms fuertes? +No es la mente misma la que traduce las condiciones externas en felicidad y sufrimiento? +Acaso no es ms fuerte? +Sabemos por experiencia, que podemos estar en lo que llamamos "un pequeo paraso" y an as, ser completamente infelices por dentro. +En una ocasin, el Dalai Lama estaba en Portugal y haba muchas construcciones por todos lados. +Una tarde dijo: "Miren, estn haciendo todas estas cosas, pero no sera lindo tambin, que construyeran algo hacia dentro? +Y agreg, "A pesar de esto incluso si tienen un grandioso departamento en el piso 100 de un edificio supermoderno y cmodo, si dentro de ustedes estn profundamente tristes lo nico que van a buscar es una ventana por donde saltar". +Ahora, por el contrario, conocemos mucha gente que est en circunstancias difciles, que logran mantener serenidad, fuerza interior, libertad interior y confianza. +Ahora, si las condiciones internas son ms fuertes por supuesto que las condiciones externas afectan, y es maravilloso ser longevos, estar ms sanos, tener acceso a informacin, educacin, poder viajar, tener libertad ... son cosas por dems deseables. +Sin embargo, esto no es suficiente; esos son slo un apoyo auxiliar, condiciones. +La experiencia que traduce todo est dentro de la mente. +Por lo tanto, cuando nos preguntamos cmo nutrir las condiciones de felicidad, las condiciones internas, y cules son aquellas que minan la felicidad. +Para ello, se requiere tener cierta experiencia. +Tenemos que darnos cuenta que dentro de nosotros hay ciertos estados de la mente que conducen al florecimiento de tal bienestar, lo que los griegos llamaron eudemonismo, florecimiento. +Hay algunos que son adversos a ese bienestar, +si miramos en nuestra propia experiencia: ira, odio, celos, arrogancia, deseo obsesivo, codicia extrema no nos dejan en un buen estado despus de experimentarlos. +Adems que perjudican la felicidad de otros. +Podemos considerar que entre ms nos invaden la mente, como una reaccin en cadena, ms nos sentimos miserables, atormentados. +Por el contrario, todos sabemos que en lo profundo, que un acto de generosidad desinteresado, si a la distancia, sin que nadie sepa de l, podemos salvar la vida de un nio, hace a alguien feliz. +No necesitamos reconocimiento, no necesitamos gratitud. +El mero acto de hacerlo nos llena de una sensacin de plenitud con nuestra naturaleza profunda. +Y quisiramos estar as todo el tiempo. +Es eso posible, cambiar nuestra manera de ser, transformar nuestra mente? +Y son esas emociones negativas o destructivas inherentes a la naturaleza de la mente? +Es posible cambiar nuestras emociones, nuestros rasgos, nuestros nimos? +Para eso nos tenemos que preguntar cul es la naturaleza de la mente? +Si vemos desde el punto de vista de la experiencia, existe una cualidad primaria de la consciencia, que es el simple hecho de ser conscientes, de estar conscientes. +La consciencia es como un espejo que permite ver todas las imgenes que surgen. +Pueden tener caras feas, caras hermosas en el espejo, +el espejo lo permite, pero el espejo no se mancha, no se modifica, no se altera por esas imgenes. +De la misma forma, detrs de cada pensamiento existe la conciencia desnuda, pura. +Esta es la naturaleza, no puede ser intrnsicamente manchada con odio o celos, y si estuvo siempre ah ... como la tinta que impregna el lienzo entero, se encontrara todo el tiempo, en algn lado. +Sabemos que no siempre estamos enojados, siempre celosos, siempre generosos. +Es debido a que la tela fundamental de la conciencia es esta cualidad pura de ser conscientes, que la diferencia de una piedra, es que existe la posibilidad de cambiar, porque las emociones son pasajeras. +Este es el fundamento del entrenamiento de la mente. +El entrenamiento de la mente se basa en la idea de que dos factores mentales opuestos no pueden ocurrir al mismo tiempo. +Puedes pasar del amor al odio, +pero no puedes, al mismo tiempo y hacia el mismo objeto, o la misma persona, querer herirla y hacerle un bien. +No puedes, en el mismo gesto, dar la mano y dar un golpe. +Por lo tanto existen antdotos naturales a las emociones que son destructivas a nuestro bienestar interno. +Entonces esa es la manera de proceder. Regocijo en lugar de celos. +Una especie de sensacin de libertad interior opuesta a la codicia extrema y la obsesin. +Benevolencia, afecto amoroso contra odio. +Pero por supuesto, cada emocin necesitara un antdoto particular. +Otra forma es tratar de encontrar un antdoto general a todas las emociones, y eso es mirando a la naturaleza de la emocin misma. +A menudo cuando sentimos ira, odio o molestia por alguien, u obsesin por algo, la mente va una y otra vez tras ese objeto. +Cada vez que vamos tras el objeto, se refuerza la obsesin o el enojo. +Y se vuelve un proceso de auto perpetuacin. +Por eso ahora lo que necesitamos es, en lugar de ver fuera, ver hacia dentro. +Mirar a la ira misma; +se ve muy amenazadora, como las nubes de un monzn o una tormenta de rayos, +Pensamos que podemos sentarnos en la nube... pero al acercarnos, es simplemente neblina. +De la misma forma, si se mira a la ira, se desvanecer como la escarcha bajo el sol matutino. +Si hacen esto una y otra vez, la propensin, la tendencia de que surja la ira otra vez se reducir ms cada vez que logren disolverla. +Al final, aunque puede surgir, simplemente cruzar por la mente como un pjaro que surca el cielo sin dejar huella. +As que este es el principio del entrenamiento de la mente. +Esto lleva tiempo porque as como tom tiempo que todos esos defectos se formaran en nuestra mente, de igual modo tomar tiempo desmantelarlos. +Pero esa es la nica manera de hacerlo, +la transformacin de la mente, ese es el autntico significado de la meditacin. +Esto significa familiarizarse con una nueva forma de ser, una nueva forma de percibir las cosas ms adecuada a la realidad, con interdependencia, considerando a todas las transformaciones continuas y fluyentes en las cuales se encuentra nuestro ser y nuestra consciencia. +As la interfaz con la ciencia cognoscitiva, puesto que necesitamos llegar a eso, y se supone era el tema de tendremos que tratarlo en este corto tiempo, +acerca de la plasticidad del cerebro, el cual se pensaba era ms o menos fijo. +Hasta hace 20 aos se pensaba que todas las conexiones nominales, en nmeros y cantidades, eran ms o menos fijas cuando alcanzbamos la edad adulta. +Recientemente se ha encontrado que puede cambiar mucho. +Un violinista, como se sabe, con unas 10 mil horas de prctica de violn, sufre muchos cambios en la parte del cerebro que controla el movimiento de los dedos intensificando el reforzamiento de las conexiones sinpticas. +Entonces qu podemos hacer con las cualidades humanas? +Con el afecto amoroso, la paciencia y la apertura? +Pues eso es lo que los grandes meditadores han estado haciendo. +Algunos de ellos que han ido a laboratorios en Madison, Wisconsin o Berkeley han meditado de 20 mil a 40 mil horas. +Hacen retiros como de tres aos en los que meditan 12 horas al da, +y luego, por el resto de sus vidas, lo hacen de 3 a 4 horas diarias. +Son autnticos campeones olmpicos del entrenamiento de la mente. +Este es el lugar donde meditan pueden ver que ciertamente es inspirador. +Aqu con 256 electrodos. +Qu hallaron? Por supuesto, lo mismo. +El embargo cientfico... si es que se presenta en la revista Nature, esperemos que sea aceptado; +Se estudia el estado de compasin, compasin incondicional. +Le pedimos a los meditadores que han estado meditando por aos y aos que pusieran su mente en un estado en que no hubiera ms que afecto y amor, total disponibilidad al ser sensible. +Por supuesto, durante el entrenamiento, hacemos eso con objetos, +pensamos en gente que sufre, en gente que amamos, pero en cierto punto, puede ser un estado que impregna todo. +He aqu el resultado preliminar, que puedo mostrar porque ya ha sido presentado. +La curva de campana muestra 150 controles, y lo que se ve es la diferencia entre el lbulo frontal derecho e izquierdo. +En resumen, gente que tiene ms actividad en el lado derecho de la corteza prefrontal es ms depresiva, retrada, no se caracteriza por tener afecto positivo. +Lo opuesto est en el lado izquierdo: ms tendencia al altruismo, a la felicidad, a expresarse, a la curiosidad, etc. +Existe una lnea bsica para la gente, que tambin se puede cambiar. +Si ves una pelcula cmica, vas a tu lado izquierdo. +Si ests feliz por algo, te mueves ms hacia la izquierda. +Si tienes un ataque de depresin, vas a tu lado derecho. +Aqu se muestra la desviacin estndar de -0.5 de un meditador que medita en compasin. +Es algo que est totalmente fuera de la campana. +No tengo tiempo de adentrarme en todos los diferentes resultados cientficos. +Esperamos que pronto lo estn. +Pero han encontrado que... esto es despus de 3.5 horas en la resonancia magntica funcional, es como salir de una nave espacial. +Y se ha demostrado en otros laboratorios tambin, por ejemplo, el de Paul Ekman en Berkeley, que algunos meditadores son capaces de controlar su respuesta emocional ms de lo que se pensaba. +Como los experimentos de sobresaltos, por ejemplo. +Sientan a alguien en una silla con todo tipo de aparatos que miden su fisiologa, y hacen estallar una especie de bomba, la respuesta es tan instintiva que, en 20 aos, no han visto a alguien que no brinque. +Algunos meditadores, sin tratar de evitarlo, pero simplemente siendo totalmente abiertos al pensamiento de que el estallido es slo un pequeo evento como una estrella fugaz son capaces de no moverse en lo absoluto. +La meollo de todo esto no es hacer una cosa de circo para mostrar seres excepcionales que pueden brincar o lo que gusten, +sino mostrar que entrenar la mente importa. No es un simple lujo, +ni un suplemento vitamnico del alma, +sino que es algo que va a determinar la calidad de cada instante de nuestras vidas. +Estamos dispuestos a pasar 15 aos obteniendo educacin, +nos encanta correr, hacer ejercicio; +hacemos todo tipo de cosas para mantener la belleza. +Sin embargo, es sorprendente ver el poco tiempo que dedicamos a cuidar lo que ms importa: la manera en que nuestra mente funciona; que, repito, es lo que finalmente determina la calidad de nuestra experiencia. +Ahora, nuestra compasin es supuestamente puesta en accin, +y eso es lo que tratamos de hacer en diferentes lugares. +Slo este ejemplo vale mucho trabajo. +Esta dama con tuberculosis, abandonada en una tienda, iba a morir con su nica hija. +Un ao despus, as es como est. +Hemos estado haciendo esto en distintas escuelas y clnicas en el Tbet. +Los dejo con la belleza de estas miradas ... que dicen ms sobre la felicidad de lo que yo pueda decir. +Monjes saltadores del Tbet. +Monjes voladores. +Muchsimas gracias. +Todos habris ledo un montn de artculos sobre el cambio climtico, y aqu hay uno ms del New York Times que es exactamente igual a cualquier otro que hayis visto. +Se refiere a lo mismo que todos los dems que hayis ledo. +Incluso la extensin del titular es igual a la de todos los dems que hayis ledo. +Lo que es inusual en este, posiblemente, es que es de 1953. +Y la razn por la que digo esto es que seguramente pensis que este problema es relativamente reciente. +Que la gente acaba de darse cuenta de ello y que ahora con Kyoto y el Gobernador (Al Gore) y la gente que empieza a hacer algo al respecto, podramos estar camino de encontrar una solucin. +El hecho es que, oh-oh, +resulta que hemos sido conscientes de este problema desde hace unos 50 aos, dependiendo desde cundo empecemos a contar. +Y hemos hablado de ello ampliamente durante la ltima dcada aproximadamente. +Y prcticamente no hemos logrado nada. +Este es el ritmo del incremento de la concentracin de CO2 en la atmsfera. +Lo habris visto ya de varias maneras, pero tal vez no habais visto este ejemplo en particular. +Lo que muestra es que el ritmo del incremento de nuestras emisiones se est acelerando. +Y se est acelerando incluso ms rpidamente de lo que hace unos aos pensamos que sera la peor de las situaciones posibles. +As, esa lnea roja era algo que muchos escpticos dijeron que los expertos en medioambiente incluimos en nuestras predicciones para presentarlas tan pesimistas como sea posible. Esas emisiones nunca creceran tan rpido como la lnea roja indica! +Pero, de hecho, lo estn haciendo a un ritmo an mayor. +Os muestro aqu algunos datos de hace tan slo 10 das (nota: era en 2007) que muestran el nivel mnimo del hielo en el Ocano rtico, y es con mucha diferencia el ms bajo registrado. +Y el ritmo al cual el hielo del Ocano rtico est retrocediendo es mucho mayor de lo predicho. +En serio, bsicamente, en realidad no estamos haciendo casi nada. +No quiero deprimiros demasiado. +El problema es absolutamente soluble e incluso de un modo razonablemente barato. +Y quiero decir barato del orden de los costes militares, no de los de sanidad. +Barato queriendo decir un pequeo porcentaje del PIB. +No, esto es realmente importante como para pensar en escalarlo de este modo. +As que el problema es soluble y el modo en que debemos afrontar su solucin es, digamos, actuando sobre la produccin de electricidad, que causa alrededor del 43% de las emisiones de CO2. +Y podramos hacerlo a travs de acciones tan sensatas como la proteccin del medio ambiente, optar por la energa elica, la nuclear, la captura de CO2, que son conceptos listos para su despliegue e implementacin a gran escala. +Lo nico que nos falta es una inversin econmica para poder ponerlos en marcha. +En lugar de eso, perdemos el tiempo hablando. +De todos modos, esto no es de lo que voy a hablar esta noche. +Os voy a hablar de lo que podramos provocar si no hacemos nada. +Y es esto de aqu en medio (Cambio Climtico) lo que causamos si no reducimos nuestras emisiones suficientemente rpido. +Y se necesita hacer de algn modo romper el vnculo entre las acciones del hombre que influyen en el clima y el propio cambio climtico. Esto es particularmente importante porque, por supuesto, mientras podamos adaptarnos al cambio climtico y es importante ser honesto aqu habr beneficios para el cambio climtico. +Oh, s, pienso que es algo daino. He trabajado toda mi vida tratando de frenarlo. +Pero una de las razones por lo que es polticamente complicado es que siempre hay ganadores y perdedores no todos son perdedores. +Por supuesto, est el medio natural y los osos polares. +En una ocasin estuve esquiando en el mar de hielo durante unas semanas, en el alto rtico. +Definitivamente, ellos perdern. +Y para ellos no existe adaptacin posible. +As que este problema es soluble. +Esta idea de geo-ingeniera, en su forma ms simple, es bsicamente la siguiente: +se pueden enviar partculas cargadas, digamos cido sulfrico sulfatos a la estratosfera, donde reflejaran la luz solar y esto enfriara el planeta. +Y s que funcionara. +Por supuesto habra efectos secundarios, pero s a ciencia cierta que funcionara. +Por una razn: ya se ha hecho anteriormente. +Y no lo hemos hecho nosotros, no yo mismo, sino la propia naturaleza. +Este es el monte Pinatubo, que a comienzo de los aos 90 envi un montn de azufre a la estratosfera en una nube con forma de hongo atmico. +El resultado fue bastante dramtico. +Despus de esto, y de la previa erupcin de otros volcanes, se observ un claro enfriamiento de la atmsfera. +Esta lnea inferior es la estratosfera, que se calienta tras la erupcin de estos volcanes. +Pero se observa que la lnea superior, que representa las capas bajas de la atmsfera y la superficie, se enfra porque hemos aislado un poco la atmsfera. +No hay ningn misterio en todo esto. +S que lo hay en los detalles y existen algunos efectos secundarios perjudiciales, como que se destruye parcialmente la capa de ozono y tocaremos ese tema en unos momentos. +Pero claramente se produce un enfriamiento. +Y hay otro detalle: es un proceso rpido. +Es importante decirlo. Muchas de las otras cosas que deberamos hacer, como reducir nuestras emisiones, son intrnsecamente lentas porque lleva tiempo construir los dispositivos que necesitamos para reducirlas. +Y no slo eso, cuando reduces las emisiones no reduces la concentracin. Porque la concentracione, la cantidad de CO2 en el aire, es la suma de las emisiones a lo largo del tiempo. +As que no puedes echar el freno de manera rpida. +Pero si se hace esto otro, es rpido. +Y hay momentos es que podra interesar tomar acciones rpidas. +Otra cosa que se deben estar preguntando es Esto funciona? +Se puede bloquear un poco de luz solar y as compensar por el CO2 de ms en la atmsfera y regresar a un clima similar al que tenamos originalmente? +Y la respuesta parece ser que s. +Aqu tenis los grficos que ya habis visto muchas veces anteriormente. +Esto es cmo se ve el mundo bajo el punto de vista de un modelo climtico determinado, con el doble de la cantidad de CO2 en el aire. +El grfico inferior est obtenido para el doble de CO2 y un 1.8% menos de luz solar y as se regresa al clima original. +Este grfico es de Ken Caldera. Es importante decir que se obtuvo porque Ken, en una conferencia en la que creo que tambin estaba Marty Hoffard, a mitad de los aos 90 Ken y yo estbamos de pie en la parte de atrs y dijimos "La geo-ingeniera no va a funcionar" +Y a la persona que la estaba defendiendo le dijimos "La atmsfera es mucho ms complicada." +Le dimos una cantidad de razones fsicas por las cuales no podra lograr una buena compensacin. +Posteriormente Ken ejecut sus modelos y descubri que realmente s se podra conseguir. +Esta otra cuestin tambin tiene bastante tiempo. +El informe que lleg al escritorio del presidente Johnson cuando yo tena slo dos aos de edad en 1965. +Aquel informe que, de hecho, contena toda la ciencia climtica moderna, la nica solucin que propona era la geo-ingeniera. +Ni siquiera contemplaba el reducir las emisiones, que supone un cambio increble en nuestra manera de pensar sobre este problema. +No digo que no debamos reducir nuestras emisiones. +Habra que hacerlo, pero ya veis qu recalcaba aquel informe. +As que en cierto modo no hay nada nuevo. +Lo nico novedoso es este ensayo. +Supongo que debera decir que, desde los tiempos de aquel informe del presidente Johnson, y los informes de la Academia Nacional de USA, en 1977, 1982, y 1990, la gente siempre ha estado considerando esta idea. +No como algo infalible, pero s como una idea a considerar. +Pero cuando el clima se convirti, polticamente, en un tema candente si me permits el juego de palabras en los ltimos 15 aos, esta opcin se consider tan polticamente incorrecta que no podamos hablar de ello. +Simplemente qued sepultada. No estbamos autorizados a discutirla. +Pero el ao pasado, Paul Crutzen public su ensayo afirmando ms o menos lo que ya se haba dicho anteriormente: que probablemente dada nuestra lentitud en resolver este problema y las consecuencias inciertas, deberamos considerar este tipo de opciones. +Afirm ms o menos lo que ya se haba dicho anteriormente. +Lo irnico es que result que haba ganado el Premio Nobel por su trabajo sobre la qumica del ozono. +As que la gente le tom muy seriamente cuando dijo que deberamos considerar esta opcin, incluso aunque ello supusiera ciertos impactos sobre la capa de ozono. +Y de hecho propuso varias ideas para minimizarlos. +La prensa se hizo eco de la noticia en todo el mundo, hasta el Dr. Strangelove Salva la Tierra del Economist. +Y esto me hizo pensar he trabajado en este tema de vez en cuando, pero realmente no demasiado y una noche estaba acostado en la cama, pensando. +Y pens en este juguete de ah el ttulo de mi charla y me pregunt si sera posible usar la misma fsica que hace girar las aspas de ese radimetro para hacer levitar partculas hasta la parte alta de la atmsfera y hacer que se queden all. +Uno de los problemas de usar sulfatos es que descienden rpidamente. +El otro problema es que se quedan a la altura de la capa de ozono y yo preferira que estuviesen por encima de ella. +Pues me levant a la maana siguiente y me puse a calcular esto. +Era muy complicado de calcular partiendo de nociones fundamentales. Estaba perplejo. +Pero entonces descubr que haba multitud de artculos publicados acerca de esta cuestin porque ya sucede en la atmsfera de manera natural. +As que ya hay partculas muy pequeas que levitan hasta lo que llamamos la mesosfera, a unos 100 kilmetros de altura, que producen este efecto. +Os explico rpidamente cmo funciona este efecto. +Hay un montn de complejidades muy entretenidas sobre las que me encantara conversar durante toda la noche, pero no lo har. +Digamos que la luz del sol incide sobre una partcula y esta se calienta de manera desigual. +La cara orientada hacia el sol estar ms caliente, la cara opuesta ms fra. +Las molculas gaseosas que chocan contra la cara caliente rebotarn con una velocidad mayor porque est caliente. +Y as existe una fuerza neta que se aleja del sol. +Es la fuerza fotofortica. +Hay otras versiones que yo y otros colaboradores hemos pensado en explotar. +Y por supuesto podemos estar equivocados este trabajo no ha sido revisado, an estamos desarrollndolo pero hasta ahora parece correcto. +Parece que podemos conseguir largos tiempos de estancia en la atmsfera mucho ms largos que antes porque las partculas estn levitando. +Podemos mover partculas desde la estratosfera hacia la mesosfera, en principio resolviendo el problema del ozono. +Estoy seguro de que surgirn otros problemas. +Finalmente, podramos hacer migrar las partculas hacia los polos, de modo que este diseo climtico estuviese centrado en los polos. +Esto tendra un impacto negativo mnimo en la parte central del planeta en la que vivimos y se maximizara el trabajo que podra resultar necesario que es enfriar los polos en caso de una emergencia planetaria, si os parece. +Esta es una nueva idea que ha surgido que sera, esencialmente, ms inteligente que simplemente depositar sulfatos en la atmsfera. +Sea esta la idea correcta o sea cualquier otra, creo que casi con certeza llegaremos a idear actuaciones ms inteligentes que simplemente emplear azufre. +Siempre y cuando ingenieros y cientficos se pongan a pensar en ello. Es asombroso cmo podemos afectar al planeta. +Lo ms importante de todo esto es que nos proporciona una extraordinaria capacidad de influencia. +Ahora supongamos que llegan aliengenas del espacio +tal vez aterricen en las oficinas centrales de las Naciones Unidas aqu al lado, o tal vez escojan un sitio ms inteligente pero supongamos que llegan y que os dan una caja. +Y la caja tiene dos controles. +Uno es el que controla la temperatura global. +El otro podra ser el que controla la concentracin de CO2. +Se pueden imaginar que se desataran guerras por poseer esa caja. +Porque no habra manera de ponerse de acuerdo en cmo fijar esos controles. +No tenemos un gobierno global. +Y gente distinta querra fijarlos de diferentes modos. +Bueno, no creo que esto vaya a suceder, no es muy probable. +Pero ya estamos construyendo esa caja. +Cientficos e ingenieros del mundo la estn construyendo pieza a pieza, en sus laboratorios. +Incluso cuando lo estn haciendo por otros motivos. +Incluso cuando creen que nicamente estn trabajando para proteger el medio ambiente. +No tienen ningn inters en ideas locas como aplicar conceptos de ingeniera a todo el planeta. +Desarrollan ciencia que lo hacen ms y ms fcil de lograr. +As que supongo que mi punto de vista sobre este tema no es que lo quiera llevar a cabo que no quiero sino que debemos sacarlo de las sombras y hablar de ello seriamente. +Porque tarde o temprano tendremos que confrontar decisiones al respecto y es mejor si pensamos detenidamente sobre ello, incluso si queremos pensar acerca de los motivos por los que nunca deberamos hacerlo. +Os mostrar dos modos diferentes de pensar sobre este problema, que son el comienzo de cmo pienso que se puede analizar. +Pero lo que necesitamos no son unos pocos tipos raros como yo pensando sobre ello +necesitamos un debate ms amplio. +Un debate que involucre a msicos, cientficos, filsofos, escritores, todo aquel que se interese por esta cuestin de disear el clima y piense seriamente cules son sus implicaciones. +Entonces, un modo de verlo sera que simplemente hacemos esto en lugar de recortar nuestras emisiones porque es ms barato. +Creo que lo que no he dicho de todo esto es que resulta absurdamente barato. +Es posible que, digamos, usando el mtodo de los sulfatos o este otro que yo he diseado, se pudiese provocar una edad de hielo al precio del 0.0001% del PIB. +Es muy barato. Tenemos una gran capacidad de influencia. +No es una buena idea, pero es muy importante. Os muestro cun grande es la palanca la palanca es as de grande. +Y ese clculo no se discute mucho. +Se puede argumentar sobre la sensatez del mismo, pero la influencia es real. As que debido a esto, podramos afrontar el problema simplemente dejando de reducir las emisiones y, segn aumente la concentracin de gases de efecto invernadero, podramos hacer un mayor uso de la geo-ingenieria. +No creo que nadie se tome esta idea seriamente. +Porque en ese escenario nos alejaramos ms y ms del clima actual. +Y tenemos otra serie de problemas como la acidificacin de los ocanos causada por el CO2 de la atmsfera de todos modos. +Nadie o tal vez slo uno o dos tipos raros realmente sugieren hacer esto. +Pero os expongo un caso ms difcil de rechazar. +Supongamos que no hacemos geo-ingeniera, hacemos lo que deberamos hacer, que es recortar seriamente las emisiones. +Pero no sabemos cuan rpido debemos recortarlas. +Hay una gran incertidumbre acerca de cunto cambio climtico podra ser demasiado. +As que digamos que trabajamos duramente y no apretamos levemente el freno, sino que lo pisamos a fondo y realmente reducimos las emisiones y finalmente se reducen las concentraciones de gases de efecto invernadero. +Y tal vez un da como en 2075, el 23 de octubre finalmente alcanzamos ese glorioso da en que las concentraciones alcanzan un pico y comienzan a rodar hacia abajo al otro lado. +Y tendremos celebraciones globales y habremos realmente comenzado a, bueno, ya habr pasado lo peor. +Pero tal vez ese mismo da tambin nos demos cuenta de que la capa de hielo de Groenlandia se est fundiendo de forma inaceptablemente rpida, suficientemente rpida como para incrementar unos metros el nivel del mar en los siguientes 100 aos y borrar as algunas de las grandes ciudades del mapa. +Esa es una situacin absolutamente posible. +Podramos decidir en ese instante que incluso aunque la geo-ingeniera era incierta y moralmente inquietante, era mucho mejor que la decisin de no optar por ella. +Y esta es una forma muy diferente de examinar el problema. +Es usarla como un modo de control de riesgos, no como sustituta de otras acciones. +Es, digamos, aplicar la geo-ingeniera durante un tiempo corto para eliminar lo peor del calor, no como sustituta de otro tipo de acciones. +Pero esta visin tiene un problema. +Y el problema es el siguiente: saber que la geo-ingeniera es factible hace que los impactos sobre el clima parezcan menos temibles. Y esto implica un menor compromiso hacia el recorte de las emisiones hoy en da. +Esto es lo que los economistas llaman un riesgo moral. +Y es una de las razones fundamentales por las que resulta tan complicado discutir este problema, y en general creo que es la razn subyacente por la que ha sido polticamente inaceptable hablar de ello. +Pero no se puede hacer buena poltica escondiendo cosas en un armario. +Os dejo con tres preguntas y una cita final. +Deberamos investigar seriamente este tema? +Deberamos tener un programa de investigacin nacional sobre ello? +No slo sobre cmo hacerlo mejor, sino tambin sobre qu riesgos e inconvenientes tiene. +Ahora mismo hay algunos pocos entusiastas hablando de ello, algunos viendo su lado positivo, otros oponindose, pero se encuentran en una situacin peligrosa porque este tema an no se conoce en profundidad. +Una pequea cantidad de dinero nos proporcionara algo de conocimiento. +Muchos de nosotros ahora tal vez yo mismo pensamos que se debera hacer. +Pero tengo mis reservas. +Y mis reservas son principalmente acerca del problema del riesgo moral, y no s realmente cul sera el mejor modo de evitarlo. +Creo que existe un serio problema segn vamos discutiendo este tema. La gente comienza a pensar que no necesitamos esforzarnos tanto por recortar las emisiones. +Otra cuestin es: tal vez necesitamos un tratado. +Un tratado que decida quin puede hacerlo. +Ahora mismo podramos imaginarnos a un gran pas rico como los Estados Unidos llevndolo a cabo. +Pero podra suceder que, de hecho, si China se despierta en 2030 y se da cuenta de que los impactos en el clima son inaceptables, podran no mostrarse muy interesada en nuestras discusiones morales acerca de cmo hacerlo, y decidir que prefiere tener un mundo con geo-ingeniera a sin ella. +Y no tendramos un mecanismo internacional para decidir quin puede tomar esa decisin. +Pues aqu tenis una ltima reflexin, que fue plasmada mucho, mucho mejor, hace 25 aos en el informe de la Academia Nacional de USA de como yo puedo hacerlo hoy. +Y creo que resume muy bien en qu situacin nos encontramos. +El problema del CO2, el problema climtico del que tanto hemos odo hablar, est impulsando muchas cuestiones, innovaciones tecnolgicas en el rea de la energa, que ayudarn a reducir las emisiones. Pero tambin, creo que inevitablemente, nos lleva a pensar sobre el control del clima, nos guste o no. +Y es el momento de empezar a pensar en ello, incluso si la razn por la que nos ponemos a analizarlo es para reunir argumentos sobre por qu no deberamos hacerlo. +Muchas gracias. +Qu es la bioenerga? La bioenerga no es etanol. +Vas a ser capaz de inyectarle energa a cosas, entonces la irrigacin genera una diferencia. +La irrigacin te permite empezar a plantar cosas donde t quieras, en vez de slo donde crecen los ros. Comienzas a obtener esta agricultura orgnica, empiezas a meterle maquinaria a todo esto. La maquinaria, agregndole un montn de agua, lleva a una agricultura a gran escala. +Y la irona de este sistema especfico es que el lugar donde realiz su investigacin, que fue Mxico, no adopt esta tecnologa, ignor esta tecnologa, habl de por qu se debera pensar en esta tecnologa pero no aplicarla en realidad. +Ahora, no es slo que este tipo aliment grandes cantidades de personas en el mundo. Es que este es el efecto neto en trminos de lo que la tecnologa hace, si comprendes su biologa asociada. +Bsicamente, pasas desde tomar 250 horas para producir 100 almudes, a cuarenta, a quince, a cinco. La productividad laboral para la agricultura aument siete veces, entre 1950 y 2000, mientras que para el resto de la economa aument 2,5 veces. Esto es un aumento absolutamente masivo en la cantidad producida por persona. +El efecto de esto, por supuesto, no son slo olas mbar de granos, sino montaas de esta cosa. +Y el 50 por ciento del presupuesto de la UE va a subsidios de agricultura para las montaas de cosas que la gente ha sobreproducido. +Esto sera un buen resultado para la energa. Y por supuesto, en este punto, probablemente ests dicindote a ti mismo: "Mismo, yo pens que vena a una charla sobre energa, y aqu est este tipo que habla sobre biologa". +Entonces, cmo se relacionan estas dos cosas? +Ahora, lo interesante de esa tesis -- si termina siendo cierta -- es que el petrleo, y todos los hidrocarburos, terminan siendo luz solar concentrada. Y si piensas en bionerga, la bioenerga no es etanol. La bionerga es tomar la energa solar, concentrarla en amebas, concentrarla en plantas, y quizs es por eso que obtienes estos arco iris. +Y mientras ests mirando este sistema, si los hidrocarburos son luz solar concentrada, entonces la bionerga funciona de otra manera. Y tenemos que empezar a pensar en petrleo y otros hidrocarburos como parte de estos paneles solares. +Quizs esa es una de las razones por las cuales si vuelas sobre el oeste de Texas, el tipo de pozos que comienzas a ver no son tan distintos a las fotos de Kansas y las parcelas irrigadas. +Carbn. El carbn resulta ser virtualmente la misma cosa. Es probablemente plantas, excepto que estas han sido quemadas y comprimidas bajo presin. +As que tomas algo como esto, lo quemas, lo pones bajo presin y, probablemente, obtienes esto. Aunque, nuevamente, repito: no lo sabemos. +Lo cual es curioso mientras debatimos todo esto. Pero mientras piensas en carbn, as se ven los ncleos de trigo quemados. No tan distintos al carbn. +Y, por supuesto, las minas de carbn son lugares muy peligrosos, ya que en algunas de estas minas obtienes gas. Cuando ese gas explota, la gente se muere. Entonces ests produciendo un biogs de carbn en algunas minas, pero no en otras. +En cualquier lugar en donde encuentres un diferencial, se generan preguntas interesantes. Preguntas sobre que deberas estar haciendo con esta cosa. Pero de nuevo, carbn. Quizs la misma cosa, quizs el mismo sistema, quizs bioenerga, y ests aplicndole exactamente la misma tecnologa. +Aqu est tu enfoque de fuerza bruta. Cuando lo logras a travs de fuerza bruta, entonces slo remueves cumbres de montaas completas. Y terminas con la fuente ms grande de emisiones de carbono, que son las plantas generadoras a carbn. Ese probablemente no es el mejor uso de la bionerga. +El gas es un tema similar. El gas tambin es un producto biolgico. Y mientras piensas en gas, bueno, ests familiarizado con el gas. Y esta es una manera distinta de obtener carbn. +Ya tenemos algunos indicadores de productividad para esto. Ok, si le insertas vapor a campos de carbn o campos de petrleo que llevan funcionando dcadas, puedes obtener un aumento realmente substancial, como de ocho veces, en lo obtenido. Esto es slo la etapa inicial de lo que puedes hacer. +Pinsalo de la siguiente manera. Pinsalo como comenzar a programar cosas para propsitos especficos. +Cules son los principios iniciales de esto y hacia dnde nos dirigimos? Este es uno de los gigantes gentiles del planeta. Es uno de los seres humanos ms simpticos que conocers. Su nombre es Hamilton Smith. Gan el Nbel por descubrir cmo cortar genes -- algo llamado enzimas de restriccin. +Y mientras piensas en esto y en las consecuencias de esto, vamos a comenzar no slo a convertir etanol desde maz con altos subsidios. Vamos a comenzar a pensar acerca de biologa ingresando a energa. Procesar estas cosas es muy caro, tanto econmicamente como energticamente. +Pero mientras tanto, al menos por la prxima dcada, el nombre del juego es hidrocarburos. Y sea eso petrleo, sea eso gas, sea eso carbn, esto es lo que nos concierne. Y antes que alargue esta charla demasiado, esto es lo que est sucediendo en nuestro sistema actual de energa. +86 por ciento de la energa que consumimos son hidrocarburos. Eso significa que el 86 por ciento de lo que estamos consumiendo son probablemente plantas procesadas y amebas y todo el resto de esto. Y hay un rol en esto para la conservacin. Hay un rol en esto para las soluciones alternativas, pero tambin debemos solucionar esta otra porcin. +ltimo punto, ltimo grfico. Una de las cosas que debemos hacer es estabilizar los precios del petrleo. Esto es como se ven los precios, de acuerdo? +Este es un sistema muy malo dado que lo que sucede es que la tasa de retorno se ubica muy abajo. A las personas se les ocurren ideas brillantes para paneles solares, o para viento, o para alguna otra cosa, y luego +adivina qu? El precio del petrleo se va al suelo. Esa empresa quiebra, y entonces puedes volver a subir los precios de nuevo. +Gracias por poner estas fotos de mis colegas aqu. +. Estaremos hablando de ellos. +Ahora, voy a intentar un experimento. Normalmente no hago experimentos. Soy un terico. +Pero voy a ver qu sucede si presiono este botn. +Efectivamente. Bueno. Yo sola trabajar en este campo de las partculas elementales. +Qu le pasa a la materia si la cortas muy fina? +De qu est hecha? +Y las leyes de estas partculas son vlidas a lo largo y ancho del universo, y estn sumamente conectadas con la historia del universo. +Sabemos mucho sobre cuatro fuerzas. Deben haber muchas ms, pero esas existen a distancias muy, muy pequeas, y en verdad, todava no hemos interactuado mucho con ellas. +El tema principal del que quiero hablar es ste: que tenemos esta notable experiencia, en este campo de la fsica fundamental: la belleza es un criterio muy exitoso para elegir la teora correcta. +Y, por qu diablos ser esto as? +Bueno, aqu tenemos un ejemplo de mi propia experiencia. +Que esto ocurra, de hecho, es bastante espectacular. +En 1957, tres o cuatro de nosotros propusimos una teora parcialmente completa de una de estas fuerzas, la fuerza dbil. +Y estaba en desacuerdo con siete (siete, cuntenlos), siete experimentos. +Los experimentos estaban todos mal. +Y publicamos antes de saber eso, pues pensamos que era tan bello, tiene que estar bien! +Los experimentos deban estar mal, y lo estaban. +Ahora, nuestro amigo de all, Albert Einstein, sola prestar poca atencin cuando la gente deca: "Sabe usted, hay un seor con un experimento que al parecer no est de acuerdo con la relatividad especial. +D. C. Miller. Qu piensa de eso?" Y l responda: "Eh, eso va a desaparecer". . Bien, Por qu funciona algo as? Esa es la pregunta. +Ahora, claro, qu queremos decir con bello? Esa es una cosa. +Tratar de dejar eso en claro... parcialmente claro. +Por qu debera funcionar?, y tiene algo que ver con los seres humanos? +Les dar una pista para la respuesta que ofrezco para la ltima, y es que no tiene nada que ver con los seres humanos. +En algn lugar en algn otro planeta, orbitando alguna estrella muy distante, quizs en otra galaxia, podra muy bien haber entidades al menos tan inteligentes como nosotros, y estn interesados en la ciencia. No es imposible; creo que probablemente hay muchos. +Muy probablemente ninguno est tan cerca como para interactuar con nosotros. +Pero podran estar ah afuera, muy fcilmente. +Y supongan que tienen, digamos, muy diferentes aparatos sensoriales, etc. +Tienen siete tentculos, y tienen 14 pequeos ojos compuestos de aspecto gracioso, y un cerebro en forma de pretzel. +De verdad tendran ellos leyes diferentes? +Hay muchas personas que creen que s, y yo pienso que es pura tontera. +Creo que hay leyes all afuera, y claro que, en cualquier momento dado, no las entendemos muy bien... pero lo intentamos. Y tratamos de acercarnos cada vez ms. +Y algn da quiz podamos efectivamente descifrar una teora fundamental unificada de las partculas y de las fuerzas, lo que yo llamo "la ley fundamental". +Incluso puede que no estemos demasiado lejos de ella. +Pero aunque no nos crucemos con ella en nuestras vidas an podemos pensar que hay una all afuera, y nosotros simplemente estamos tratando de acercarnos a ella ms y ms. +Creo que ese es el punto ms importante a dejar en claro. +Nosotros expresamos estas cosas matemticamente. +Y cuando la matemtica es muy simple (cuando en trminos de alguna notacin matemtica, puedes escribir la teora en un espacio muy pequeo, sin mucha complicacin) eso es esencialmente lo que queremos decir con belleza o elegancia. +Aqu lo que estaba diciendo de las leyes. Realmente estn all. +Newton ciertamente crea eso. +Y dijo aqu: "Es el trabajo de la filosofa natural el descubrir esas leyes". +La ley bsica, digamos... aqu hay una suposicin. +La suposicin es que la ley bsica realmente toma la forma de una teora unificada de todas las partculas. +Ahora, algunas personas llaman a eso la teora del todo. +Eso es incorrecto, porque la teora es mecnico-cuntica. +Y no voy a entrar en detalle sobre la mecnica cuntica y sobre cmo es, y dems. +Ustedes, de todas formas, ya han escuchado muchas cosas equivocadas sobre ella. . Incluso hay pelculas sobre ella con muchas cosas equivocadas. +Pero lo importante aqu es que predice probabilidades. +Ahora bien, algunas veces esas probabilidades son casi certezas. +Y en muchos casos familiares, por supuesto que lo son. +Pero otras veces no lo son, y slo se tienen probabilidades para diferentes resultados. +Entonces lo que esto significa es que la historia del universo no est determinada slo por la ley fundamental. +Es la ley fundamental y esta increblemente larga serie de accidentes, o resultados aleatorios, los que adicionalmente estn all. +Y la teora fundamental no incluye esos resultados del azar; ellos son adicionales. +As que no es una teora sobre todo. Y de hecho, una enorme cantidad de informacin del universo que nos rodea proviene de esos accidentes, y no slo de las leyes fundamentales. +Ahora, se suele decir que acercarse ms y ms a las leyes fundamentales examinando los fenmenos a bajas energas, y luego a energas superiores, y luego a mayores energas, o a distancias cortas, y luego distancias ms cortas, y luego an ms cortas, y as sucesivamente, es como pelar las capas de una cebolla. +Y seguimos haciendo eso, y construimos mquinas ms poderosas, aceleradores de partculas. +Miramos cada vez ms profundamente dentro de la estructura de las partculas, y de esa manera probablemente nos acercamos ms y ms a esta ley fundamental. +Ahora, lo que ocurre es que mientras hacemos eso, mientras pelamos estas capas de la cebolla y nos acercamos ms y ms a la ley subyacente, vemos que cada capa tiene algo en comn con la anterior, y con la siguiente. Las escribimos matemticamente. y vemos que usan matemticas muy similares. +Requieren matemticas muy similares. +Eso es absolutamente extraordinario, y es una caracterstica central de lo que estoy tratando de decir hoy. +Newton la llam... (ese es Newton, por cierto... se). +Este es Albert Einstein. Hola Al! Y bueno, l dijo: "la Naturaleza conforme consigo misma", personificando a la Naturaleza en femenino. +Y lo que ocurre es que el nuevo fenmeno, las nuevas capas, las interiores, las ms pequeas a las que llegamos en la cebolla, se parecen a las que son un poco ms grandes. +Y el tipo de matemticas que tenamos para la capa anterior es casi igual al que necesitamos para la siguiente. +Y es por eso que las ecuaciones se ven tan simples. +Porque usan matemticas que ya poseemos. +Un ejemplo trivial es ste: Newton encontr la ley de la gravedad, que es: uno sobre la raz cuadrada de la distancia entre los objetos que gravitan. +Coulomb, en Francia, encontr la misma ley para las cargas elctricas. +Aqu hay un ejemplo de esta semejanza. +Miras la gravedad y ves cierta ley. +Luego miras la electricidad. Efectivamente. La misma regla. +Es un ejemplo muy simple. +Hay muchos ejemplos ms sofisticados. +La simetra es muy importante en esta discusin. +Ustedes saben lo que significa. Un crculo, por ejemplo, es simtrico bajo rotaciones sobre el centro del crculo. +Uno rota alrededor del centro del crculo, y el crculo permanece inalterado. +Uno toma una esfera, en tres dimensiones, rota alrededor del centro de la esfera, y ninguna de esas rotaciones la afecta. +Son simetras de la esfera. +As que decimos, en general, que hay una simetra bajo ciertas operaciones, si esas operaciones dejan al fenmeno o a su descripcin, inalterados. +Las ecuaciones de Maxwell son, por supuesto, simtricas bajo rotaciones de todo el espacio. +No importa si le damos una vuelta a todo el espacio en cierto ngulo, no deja... no cambia el fenmeno de la electricidad o del magnetismo. +En el siglo XIX aparece una nueva notacin que expresaba esto, y si usan esa notacin, las ecuaciones se vuelven mucho ms simples. +Luego Einstein, con su teora especial de la relatividad, observ todo un conjunto de simetras de las ecuaciones de Maxwell, que son llamadas relatividad especial. +Y esas simetras, entonces, hacen las ecuaciones an ms cortas, y por lo tanto, an ms bonitas. +Veamos. No necesitan saber qu significan estas cosas, no marca ninguna diferencia. +Pero pueden tan slo mirar su forma. . Pueden mirar la forma. +Ven arriba, en la cima, una larga lista de ecuaciones con tres componentes para las tres direcciones del espacio: "x", "y", y "z". +Luego, usando anlisis vectorial, usan simetra rotacional, y obtienen el siguiente conjunto. +Luego usan la simetra de la relatividad especial y obtienen un conjunto an ms simple aqu abajo, mostrando que la simetra exhibe cada vez mejor. +Mientras se tiene ms y ms simetra, mejor se exhibe la simplicidad y la elegancia de la teora. +Las ltimas dos, la primera ecuacin dice que las cargas y corrientes elctricas dan origen a todos los campos elctricos y magnticos. +La siguiente ecuacin dice que no existe otro magnetismo salvo ese. +El nico magnetismo proviene de las cargas y corrientes elctricas. +Algn da quizs encontremos algn pequeo agujero en ese argumento. +Pero por el momento, ese es el caso. +Ahora, he aqu un desarrollo muy apasionante del cual no mucha gente ha odo. +Deberan haberlo odo, pero es un poco complicado explicarlo con sus detalles tcnicos, as que no lo har. Slo lo mencionar. . Pero Chen Ning Yang, llamado por nosotros "Frank" Yang... ... y Bob Mills plantearon, hace 50 aos, esta generalizacin de las ecuaciones de Maxwell, con una nueva simetra. +Toda una nueva simetra. +Matemticas muy similares, pero haba una simetra completamente nueva. +Ellos esperaban que esto contribuira de alguna manera a la fsica de partculas. No lo hizo; no contribuy, por s mismo, a la fsica de partculas. +Pero luego algunos de nosotros lo generalizamos an ms. Y entonces s lo hizo! +Y brind una descripcin muy bella de la fuerza fuerte y de la fuerza dbil. +As que decimos aqu, de nuevo, lo que dijimos antes: que cada capa de la cebolla muestra una similitud con las contiguas. +As que las matemticas para las capas contiguas son muy similares a las que necesitamos para la nueva. +Y por lo tanto, se ve hermoso. Porque ya sabemos cmo escribirlo de una manera bella y concisa. +As que aqu estn los temas. Creemos que hay una teora unificada tras todas las regularidades. +Avances hacia la unificacin exhiben la simplicidad. +La simetra exhibe la simplicidad. +Y luego est la autosemejanza a travs de las escalas. En otras palabras, desde una capa de la cebolla hacia otra. +Autosemejanza por proximidad. Y eso explica este fenmeno. +Eso explicar por qu la belleza es un criterio exitoso para seleccionar la teora correcta. +Aqu tenemos lo que dijo el mismo Newton: "La Naturaleza es muy consonante y conforme consigo misma". +Una cosa en la que l estaba pensando es algo que muchos de nosotros damos por sentado hoy, pero que en su tiempo no era tomado as. +All est el relato, del cual no hay absoluta certeza, pero mucha gente lo cont. +Cuatro fuentes lo contaron. Que cuando tenan la plaga en Cambridge, y l fue a la granja de su madre (porque la universidad estaba cerrada), vio una manzana caer de un rbol, o sobre su cabeza, algo as. +Y de pronto se dio cuenta de que la fuerza que hizo descender la manzana hacia la Tierra podra ser la misma fuerza que regula los movimientos de los planetas y de la Luna. +Esa era una gran unificacin para esos das, a pesar que hoy la damos por sentado. +Es la misma teora de la gravedad. +l dijo que este principio de la Naturaleza, la consonancia: "Estando este principio de la Naturaleza muy distante de las nociones de los filsofos, me abstuve de describirlo en ese libro, no fuese yo a ser tomado como un bicho raro extravagante..." De eso es de lo que tenemos que cuidarnos todos nosotros. . Especialmente en esta reunin. +" ... y as predisponer a mis lectores contra todas las cosas que eran el diseo principal del libro". +Ahora bien, quin alegara hoy en da que esa fue una mera presuncin de la mente humana, +que la fuerza que hace que la manzana caiga al suelo es la misma fuerza que causa el movimiento de los planetas y de la Luna, etctera? Todo el mundo sabe eso. Es una propiedad de la gravitacin. +No es algo de la mente humana. La mente humana puede, por supuesto, apreciarla y disfrutarla, usarla, pero no es... no es producto de la mente humana. +Es producto del carcter de la gravedad. +Y eso es cierto para todas las cosas de las que estamos hablando. +Son propiedades de la ley fundamental. +La ley fundamental es tal que las diferentes capas de la cebolla se parecen unas a otras, y por lo tanto, las matemticas para una capa permiten expresar bella y simplemente el fenmeno de la prxima capa. +Aqu digo que Newton hizo muchas cosas ese ao: la gravedad, las leyes del movimiento, el clculo, la luz blanca compuesta por todos los colores del arcoris. +Pudo haber escrito todo un ensayo sobre "Lo que hice en mis vacaciones de verano". +. As que no tenemos que adoptar estos principios como postulados metafsicos por separado. +Son una consecuencia de la teora fundamental. +Son lo que llamamos propiedades emergentes. +No se necesita no se necesita algo ms para obtener algo ms. +Eso es lo que significa el acto de emerger. +La vida puede emerger de la fsica y de la qumica, ms muchos accidentes. +La mente humana puede surgir de la neurobiologa y de muchos accidentes, la forma en que el enlace qumico surge de la fsica y de ciertos accidentes. +No le resta importancia a estas cuestiones el saber que son consecuencia de cosas ms fundamentales, ms los accidentes. +Esa es una regla general, y es de importancia crtica caer en cuenta de ello. +No se necesita algo ms para obtener algo ms. +Las personas siguen preguntndome eso cuando leen mi libro, "El Quark y el Jaguar". Y dicen: "No hay algo ms all de lo que tiene all?" +Es de suponer que quieren decir algo sobrenatural. +En todo caso, no lo hay. . No necesitas algo ms para explicar algo ms. +Muchas gracias. . +Quiero que imaginen que son estudiantes de mi laboratorio. +Quiero que creen un diseo inspirado en biologa. +Entonces este es el desafo: Quiero que me ayuden a crear un modelo de contacto totalmente 3D, dinmico y parametrizado. +Traducido sera: me ayudaran a contruir un pie? +Es que es un verdadero reto y realmente quiero que me ayuden +Claro, en el reto hay un premio. +No ser el TED Prize pero es una camiseta exclusiva de nuestro laboratorio. +As que mndenme sus ideas sobre cmo disear un pie. +Ahora, si queremos disear un pie, qu tenemos que hacer? +Primero tenemos que saber qu es un pie. +Si vamos al diccionario, dice: "Es la extremidad inferior de una pierna que est en contacto directo con el suelo cuando se est de pie o caminando" Esa es la definicin tradicional. +Pero si deseamos realmente investigar, qu tenemos que hacer? +Hay que ir a la literatura y ver qu se sabe sobre el pie. +As que vamos a la literatura. Quiz estn familiarizados con esta literatura. +El problema es que hay muchos, muchos pies. +Cmo se hace? +Hay que inspeccionar todos los pies y extraer principios de cmo funcionan. +Y quiero que me ayuden a hacer eso en el siguiente video. +Mientras ven este video busquen los principios y piensen tambin en los experimentos que podran disear para entender cmo funciona un pie. +Ven algunos temas comunes? Principios? +Qu haran? +Qu experimentos realizaran? +Guau! Nuestra investigacin de la biomecnica de la locomocin animal nos ha permitido hacer un plano del pie. +Es un diseo inspirado en la Naturaleza pero no es copia de un pie especfico que uno vio sino una sntesis de los secretos de muchos, muchos pies. +Ahora resulta que los animales pueden ir donde sea. +Pueden desplazarse en superficies que, como vieron, varan en la probabilidad de contacto, el movimiento de esa superficie y el punto de apoyo de los pies que estn presentes. +Si se quiere estudiar cmo funcionan los pies vamos a tener que simular esas superficies, o simular esas piedras. +Luego de eso hicimos un experimento: pusimos un animal y lo hicimos correr, a esta araa de pasto, en una superficie con el 99% del rea de contacto retirada. +Pero ni siquiera eso redujo su velocidad. +Aun esta corriendo al equivalente humano de 480 km por hora. +Ahora, cmo pudo hacerlo? Bien, miremos ms detenidamente. +Cuando reducimos la velocidad 50 veces vemos cmo la pata est golpeando ese escombro simulado. +La pata acta como pie. +Y, de hecho, el animal hace contacto con otras partes de su pata ms seguido que con el pie definido tradicionalmente. +El pie est distribudo en toda la pata. +Pueden hacer otro experimento donde se toma una cucaracha con un pie y se le quita el pie. +Estoy pasando algunas cucarachas en el auditorio. Miren sus pies. +Sin un pie esto es lo que hace. Ni siquiera se desacelera. +Puede correr a la misma velocidad sin siquiera esa parte. +No es problema para la cucaracha; pueden regenerarlas, si les preocupa. +Cmo lo hacen? +Miren detenidamente: 100 veces ms lento miren qu hace con el resto de sus patas. +Acta, nuevamente, como un pie distribuido. Muy eficaz. +Ahora, la pregunta que nos hicimos es cun general es un pie distribuido? +El prximo comportamiento que les mostrar de este animal nos sorprendi la primera vez que lo vimos. +Periodistas, esto es confidencial +miren qu es! +Es un pulpo bpedo disfrazado de coco rodante. +Fue descubierto por Christina Huffard y filmado por Sea Studios, aqu en Monterrey. +Tambin describimos otras especies de pulpos bpedos. +Este se disfraza de alga flotante. +Camina en dos patas y deja las otras en el aire para que no se vean. +Y miren lo que hace con su pie para reponerse de terrenos complicados. +Usa su pie distribuido para hacer como que esos obstculos no estuvieran all. Realmente extraordinario. +En 1951 Escher hizo este dibujo. Pensaba que creaba una fantasa animal. +Pero sabemos que el arte imita la vida y se vuelve naturaleza, hace tres millones de aos, evolucion el siguiente animal. +Es un animal tipo camarn llamado estomatpodo y as es como se mueve en las playas de Panam: en verdad rueda, y hasta puede hacerlo cuesta arriba. +Es el pie distribuido definitivo; todo su cuerpo en este caso hace las veces de pie. +As, si queremos agregarle a nuestro diseo la primera caracterstica importante queremos agregarle contacto de pie distribuido. +No slo con el pie tradicional sino tambin a la pata y a todo el cuerpo. +Puede esto inspirar el diseo de nuevos robots? +Nos inpir, biolgicamente, este robot llamado RHex construido por esos ingenieros extraordinarios en los ltimos aos. +El pie del RHex comenz como algo muy simple luego se fue refinando con el tiempo y finalmente termin en este semicrculo. +Por qu? Lo vern en el video. +Miren dnde hace contacto el robot con su pata para sortear este terreno difcil. +Van a ver que, de hecho, est usando esa pata semicircular como pie distribuido. +Mrenlo en movimiento. +Pueden verlo bien en estos escombros. +Extraordinario. Sin sentido, todo el control est en las patas adaptadas +Realmente simple pero hermoso. +Ahora, habrn notado algo ms en los animales cuando corran por el terreno desparejo. +Mi asistente me va a ayudar con esto. +Cuando tocaste la pata de la cucaracha. pueden ponerle el microno? +Cuando tocaste la pata de la cucaracha, qu sentiste? +Notaste algo? +Nio: espinoso. +Robert Full: Es espinoso, verdad? Es muy espinoso, cierto? Como que duele. +Tal vez podramos drsela a nuestro curador y ver si es tan valiente como para tocar la cucaracha. +Chris Anderson: La tocaste? +RF: Entonces si la miran con atencin se ve que tienen espinas y hasta hace pocas semanas nadie saba qu hacan. +Se supona que eran para proteccin, estructuras sensoriales. +Hallamos que siven para algo ms; aqu hay un fragmento de esa espina. +Estn dispuestas de manera que fcilmente caen en una direccin para alejar la pata de los escombros pero queda rgida en la otra direccin para capturar salientes en la superficie. +Los cangrejos no necesitan puntos de apoyo porque normalmente se mueven en la arena hasta que van a nuesto laboratorio. +Y tienen problemas con esta clase de malla porque no tienen espinas. +A los cangrejos les faltan espinas por eso tienen problemas en estos terrenos desparejos. +pero por supuesto que podemos resolver eso porque podemos producir espinas artificiales. +Podemos hacer espinas que se adhieran a escombros simulados y caigan ante la remocin para retirarlas fcilmente. +Lo hicimos poniendo estas espinas artificiales a cangrejos como ven aqu y luego las probamos. +Entendemos realmente ese principio de adaptacin? La respuesta es: s! +Esto est 20 veces ms lento y el cangrejo sale zumbando por los escombros simulados. +Un poquito mejor que la Naturaleza. +As, para nuestro diseo, necesitamos agregar espinas adaptadas. +Ahora, nos ayudar esto a pensar el diseo de robots escaladores ms efectivos? +Bien, este es RHex (RHex tiene problemas sobre rieles) sobre rieles lisos, como ven. +Entonces, por qu no agregar espinas? Mis colegas lo hicieron en la Universidad de Pensilvania. +Dan Koditschek le puso uas de acero (una versin muy simple) al robot y aqu tenemos al RHex yendo por esos rieles de acero... sin problemas! +Cmo lo hace? +Mirmoslo ms lentamente para ver las espinas en accin. +Miren pasar la pata y la vern adherirse justo all. +No poda hacerlo antes, se habra resbalado, atascado y cado. +Y miren de nuevo, justo all... xito. +Ahora bien, por slo tener pies y espinas distribuidos no significa que se pueda escalar superficies verticales. +Esto es realmente muy difcil. +Pero miren como lo hace este animal! +Uno de los que voy pasando est escalando esta superficie vertical que es una placa de metal lisa. +Es extraordinario lo rpido que puede hacerlo pero en cmara lenta puede verse algo muy extraordinario. +Es un secreto. El animal efectivamente escala resbalando y miren lo hace realmente mal respecto de la adhesin a la superficie +Parece, de hecho, que nada contracorriente la superficie. +Podemos modelar ese comportamiento mejor como fludo, si lo miran. +El pie distribuido, en realidad, funciona ms como un remo. +Lo mismo vale si miramos esta lagartija que corre en un lecho fluidizado. +Miren sus pies. +En realidad funcionan como remos si bien est interactuando con una superficie que normalmente pensamos como slida. +Esto no difiere de lo que mi antigua estudiante de licenciatura descubri cuando ella imaginaba cmo pueden correr las lagartijas en el agua. +Puede usarse esto para construir mejores robots? +Martin Buehler hizo (est en Boston Dynamics ahora) tom esta idea e hizo de RHex un Aqua RHex. +As tenemos un RHex con remos ahora convertido en un robot nadador increblemente verstil. +En superficies irregulares, animales con garras. +Y seguro las sienten si los tocan. +Las tocaron? +CA: Yo lo hice. +RF: Y se adhieren muy bien a las superficies con estas garras. +Mark Cutkosky de la Universidad de Stanford, colaborador mo, es un ingeniero fuera de serie que desarroll esta tcnica llamada Fabricacin por Deposicin de Forma que le permite incrustar garras en un pie artificial. +Y aqu est una versin de un pie para un nuevo robot que les mostrar en un momento. +As, para nuestro diseo, agreguemos garras. +Si miramos a los animales, para ser realmente verstil en todas las superficies, los animales usan mecanismos hbridos como son garras, espinas, pelos, almohadillas, pegamento, adhesin capilar y un montn de otras cosas. +Estas son todas de diferentes insectos. +Hay una hormiga arrastrndose por una superficie vertical. +Miremos esa hormiga. +Este es el pie de una hormiga. Ven pelos, garras y esto de aqu. +Esto es cuando su pie est en el aire. +Miren lo que sucede cuando el pie entra en un sandwich. +Ven lo que sucede? +Aparece esa almohadilla, donde est el pegamento. +Aqu est un pie de hormiga visto desde abajo y cuando las garras no se clavan aparece la almohadilla sin que la hormiga haga nada. +Simplmente sale. +Y esta toma fue muy difcil... pienso que esta es la toma de la hormiga en las supercuerdas. +Por eso es bastante difcil de hacer. +As se ve de cerca este es el pie de la hormiga y ese el pegamento. +Y descubrimos que este pegamento podra ser una mezcla interesante de 2 fases. +Desde luego que ayuda a sostener. +As, para nuestro diseo, peguemos algunas almohadillas adherentes. +Podran pensar que para superficies lisas nos inspiramos en esto. +Ahora tenemos algo mejor aqu. +La salamandra es un gran ejemplo de nanotecnologa en la Naturaleza. +Estos son sus pies. +Son... casi parece un alien. Y el secreto que le permite adherirse involucra sus dedos peludos. +Pueden recorrer una superficie a un metro por segundo 30 pasos en ese segundo... casi no se puede ver. +En cmara lenta, apoyan el pie en ocho milisegundos y lo levantan en 16 milisegundos. +Y cuando miran como lo levantan, es raro. +Lo despegan de la superficie como si despegaran una cinta adhesiva. +Muy extrao. Cmo se pegan? +Si miran sus pies, tienen estructuras con forma de hoja llamadas linalae con millones de pelos. +Y cada pelo tiene el peor caso posible de puntas rotas. +Tiene de cien a mil puntas rotas y ese es el secreto porque permite contacto ntimo. +La salamandra tiene mil millones de estas puntas rotas de 200 nanmetros. +Y no se pegan con pegamento, ni funcionan como el velcro, ni funcionan con succin. +Descubrimos que funcionan slo por fuerzas intermoleculares. +As, para nuestro diseo, partimos algunos pelos. +Esto ha inspirado el diseo del primer adhesivo seco autolimpiante patentado, nos complace decirlo. +Y aqu est la versin ms simple en la Naturaleza y aqu el intento de mi colaborador Ron Fearing en una versin artificial de este adhesivo seco hecho de poliuretano. +Y aqu el primer intento de hacerlo funcionar con algo de carga. +Hay un enorme inters en esto en muchas campos diferentes. +Pueden imaginar mil usos posibles, estoy seguro. +Mucha gente lo hace y estamos entusiasmados de ver esto como un producto. +Hemos imaginado productos, por ejemplo, ste: imaginamos un apsito bio-inspirado, donde quitamos el pegamento del apsito. +Tomamos algunos pelos de una salamandra; pusimos tres ovillos de pelos y luego hicimos este apsito adhesivo. +Esta es una estudiante voluntaria tenemos 30.000 estudiantes as que podemos elegir ese es en realidad slo un marcador rojo. +Pero es un apsito adhesivo increble. +Es aireado, se despega fcilmente, no provoca irritacin, funciona bajo el agua. +Pienso que este es un muy buen ejemplo de cmo la investigacin por curiosidad (simplemente nos preguntbamos cmo escalaban algo) puede llevar a cosas que nunca hubiramos imaginado. +Es slo un ejemplo de por qu tenemos que apoyar la investigacin por curiosidad. +Aqu lo tienen, quitando el apsito adhesivo. +As hemos redefinido lo que es un pie. +La pregunta es si, entonces, podemos usar estos secretos para inspirar el diseo de un mejor pie, mejor que el que vemos en la Naturaleza. +Este es el nuevo proyecto: estamos intentando crear el primer robot trepador de bsqueda y rescate (sin succin o imanes) que puede moverse slo en unas pocas superficies. +Llamo al nuevo robot RiSE, por Robot en Entorno Escansorial , que es un entorno empinado y tenemos un equipo extraordinario de bilogos e ingenieros creando este robot. +Y aqu est el ReEE. +Tiene seis patas y cola. Aqu est en una cerca y un rbol. +Y aqu los primeros pasos del ReEE en una pendiente. +Tienen el audio? Pueden oirlo subir. +Y aqu viene hacia ustedes, en su primeros pasos pared arriba. +Ahora est usando slo sus pies ms simples, as que esto es muy nuevo. +Pero pensamos que entendimos la dinmica del robot. +Mark Cutkosky est yendo un paso ms all. +Es la persona capaz de constuir estos pies y dedos fabricados por deposicin de forma. +El prximo paso es hacer dedos acordes e intentar agregar espinas, garras y disponerlos en adhesivos secos. +As, la idea es primero conseguir los dedos y un pie intentar que trepe y finalmente colocarlo en el robot. +Y eso es exactamente lo que l ha hecho. +Construy, de hecho, un pie-bot escalador inspirado por la Naturaleza. +Y aqu est el diseo de Cutkosky y de sus asombrosos estudiantes. +Y estos son dedos adaptados, hay seis de ellos y usan los principios de los que les habl, colectivamente para el diseo. +Entonces esto no usa succin ni pegamento y finalmente, cuando est anexado al robot, (est tan inspirado en biologa como el animal) con suerte ser capaz de escalar todo tipo de superficie. +Aqu lo ven, a continuacin, subiendo un lado del edificio en Stanford. +Est acelerado, de nuevo, es un pie escalando. +Todava no es el robot completo, estamos trabajando en eso ahora pueden ver cmo se agarra. +Estas estructuras adaptadas permiten a las espinas, las almohadillas de friccin y pelos adhesivos adherirse a superficies muy desafiantes y difciles. +Y as fueron capaces de obtener esto, esto est acelerado 20 veces, pueden imaginarlo intentando subir a rescatar a alguien en el piso superior? bien? +Pueden visualizarlo ahora, no es imposible. +Es una tarea que supone un gran reto, pero hay mucho por venir. +Para terminar: obtuvimos secretos de la Naturaleza mirando cmo estn hechos los pies. +Hemos aprendido que deberamos distribuir el control a partes inteligentes. +No poner todo en el cerebro sino poner algo de control en pies adaptados, en patas e incluso en el cuerpo. +Que la Naturaleza usa soluciones hbridas, no una solucin simple, para estos problemas; estn integrados y son bellamente robustos. +Y tercero, creemos firmemente que no deseamos imitar la Naturaleza sino inspirarnos en la biologa y usar estos principios originales con las mejores soluciones de ingeniera existentes para hacer, potencialmente, algo mejor que la Naturaleza. +De otro modo estos secretos se perdern para siempre. +Gracias. +Damas y Caballeros La historia de la msica y la televisin en la Internet en tres minutos. +un pot-pourri de TED un TEDpourri +Entenderan poco con mi tipo de Ingles. +Es bueno para ustedes, ya que pueden tomarse un descanso luego de todas estas fantasticas personas. +Debo decirles que soy asi, no estoy tan comodo, porque usualmente, en mi vida, siento que mi trabajo es absolutamente inutil +es decir, me siento intil. +Ahora, despus de Carolyn y todos los otros, me siento como una mierda. +Y definitivamente, no se porque estoy aqu, pero -- saben la pesadilla que puede ser, es como ser un impostor, uno llega a la opera, y te obligan, "Debes Cantar!" +No se, no se. Pero, Aunque no tengo nada que mostrar, nada que decir trataremos de hablar sobre otra cosa. +Podemos comenzar, si les parece bien, por entender -- solo para comenzar, no es muy interesante, pero -- como trabajo. +Cuando alguien llega y me pregunta por que soy conocido, Digo, si, exprimidor de limones, cepillo para baos, mondadientes, bellas tapas de inodoros, y porque no -- un cepillo de dientes. +Yo no trato de disear el cepillo. +Yo no digo, "Oh, esto sera un bello objeto," o algo asi. +Eso no me interesa. +Porque hay diferentes tipos de diseo. +El primero, lo podemos llamar el "diseo cnico". que se refiere a el diseo iventado por Raymond Loewy en los 50's quien dijo, lo feo no se vende, "la laideur se vend mal", que es terrible. +Significa que el diseo debe ser un arma para el marketing, para que el productor haga el producto mas sexy, asi, venden mas, es una mierda, es obsoleto, es ridiculo. +Llamo a eso el "diseo cnico". +Si hacemos un cepillo de dientes -- no pienso en el cepillo. +Pienso, "Cual sera el efecto del cepillo en la boca?" +Y para entender cual sera el efecto del cepillo en la boca, Me debo imaginar: De quien es la boca? +Cual es la vida del dueo de esta boca? En que sociedad vive este tipo? +Qu civilizacin creo esta sociedad? +Que especie animal cre esta civilizacin? +Cuando llego -- y me tomo mi tiempo, no soy tan inteligente -- Cuando llego al nivel de la especie animal, entonces se torna muy interesante. +Yo mismo no tengo el poder para cambiar nada. +Pero cuando vuelvo, puedo entender porque no debo hacerlo, porque hoy el no hacerlo, es mas positivo que hacerlo, o como debo hacerlo. +Pero al regresar, cuando estoy all en la especie animal, hay cosas que ver. +Hay cosas que ver, ese es el gran reto. +El gran reto frente a nosotros. +Porque no hay una produccin humana que exista fuera de lo que llamo "La gran imagen" +La gran imagen es nuestra historia, nuestra poesia, nuestro romanticismo. +Nuestra poesa es nuestra mutacin, nuestra vida. +Debemos recordar, y podemos ver eso en cualquier libro de mi hijo de 10 aos, que la vida apareci hace cuatro billones de aos, aproximadamente -- cuatro billones punto dos? +[No presente]: Cuatro punto cinco. +Si, punto cinco, OK, OK, OK! Soy un diseador, solo eso, de regalos de navidad. +Y antes, haba esta sopa, llamada "sopa primordial," primero esta sopa -- bloop bloop bloop -- como lodo sucio, sin vida, nada. +Entonces luego -- pshoo-shoo -- rayos -- pshoo -- llega -- pshoo-shoo -- hace vida -- bloop bloop -- y eso muere. +Algunos millones de aos despues -- pshoo-shoo, bloop-bloop -- ah, despierta! +Finalmente, depues de un tiempo es exitosa, y aparece la vida. +Eramos tan, tan estupidos. Las bacterias mas estupidas. +Todavia, creo, nos copiamos para reproducirnos, saben a lo que me refiero, y algo de -- oh no, olvidenlo. +Luego, nos convertimos en pez; luego en sapo; despus, nos convertimos en mono; luego, nos convertimos en lo que somos hoy: un super-mono, y lo divertido es, que este super-mono que somos hoy, est a la mitad de la historia. +Se pueden imaginar? Desde esa estupida bacteria hasta nosotros, con un micrfono, y un computador, un iPod -- cuatro billones de aos. +Y sabemos, especialmente Carolyn, que el sol implotara, y la tierra se quemara, explotara, no se que, y esta pronosticado para cuatro, cuatro billones de aos? +Si, dice ella, algo as. OK, eso quiere decir que estamos a la mitad de la historia. +Fantstico! Es una belleza! +Se pueden imaginar? Es muy simblico. +Porque la bacteria que eramos no tenia ni idea de lo somos hoy. +Y hoy, no tenemos ni idea de lo que seremos en cuatro billones de aos. +Y este terreno es fantstico. +Esta es nuestra poesia. Esta es nuestra bella historia. +Es nuestro romanticismo. Mu-ta-cion. Somos mutantes. +Y si no entendemos profundamente, si no integramos que somos mutantes, nos perderemos la historia por completo. +Porque toda generacin cree que son la ultima generacin. +Tenemos una forma de ver la Tierra asi, ustedes saben, "Soy el hombre. El ultimo hombre". +Saben, hemos mutado durante cuatro billones de aos, pero ahora, porque soy yo, paramos. Fin. De aqui en adelante, por la eternidad, es uno con la chaqueta roja." +Algo asi, no estoy muy seguro. Porque esa es nuestra inteligencia sobre la mutacion y cosas asi. +Hay tantas cosas que hacer, es tan renovante, +Y aqu hay algo: nadie esta obligado a ser un genio, pero todos estamos obligados a participar. +Y participar, para un mutante, hay un minimo de ejercicio, un minimo de esfuerzo. +Podemos decir que: +La primera, si quieren-- hay tantas -- pero una que es muy facil de hacer, es el "deber de la vision". +Se los puedo explicar .Voy a tratar. +Si caminan asi, vamos bien, vamos bien, se puede caminar, pero quizas, porque estas caminando con los ojos asi, no veras, oh, hay un hueco. +Y se caeran, y se moriran. Peligroso. +Esa es la razon, tal vez, por la que trataras de tener este angulo de vision. +OK, puedo ver, si encuentro algo, up, up, y continuo, up, up, up. +Levanto el angulo de vision, pero sigue siendo muy -- egoista, egoista, egoiste -- si, egoista. +Tu, tu sobrevives, esta bien. +Si levantas el nivel de tu vision un poco mas, "Te veo, oh Dios mio estas aqui, como estas, te puedo ayudar, "Puedo disear un nuevo cepillo de dientes para ti, un nuevo toilet brush," algo asi +Y vivo en sociedad, vivo en comunidad. +Esta Bien. Empiezas a estar en el territorio de la inteligencia, podemos decir. +Desde este nivel, entre mas puedas elevar el angulo de vision, vas a ser mas importante para la sociedad. +Entre mas lo eleves, mas importante seras para la civilizacion. +Entre mas eleves tu vision, para ver alto y lejos, asi, vas a ser aun mas importante para la historia de nuestra mutacion. +Significa que las personas inteligentes estan en este angulo. Esto es inteligencia. +Desde aqui hasta aqui, eso, estn los genios. +Ptolomeo, Erathostenes, Einstein, gente asi. +Nadies esta obligado a ser un genio. +Es mejor, pero nadie. +Tomense en tiempo, en este entrenamiento, de ser un buen mutante. +Aunque hay un peligro, hay una trampa. La trampa de la Vertical. +Porque en nuestra vertical, si lo ven as, "Ah! Dios mio, ahi esta Dios. Ah! Dios!" +Dios es una trampa. Dios es la respuesta cuando no sabemos la respuesta. +Es decir, cuando tu mente no es suficientemente grande, cuando no entiendes, dices, "Ah, es Dios, ahi esta Dios" Es ridiculo. +Es por eso que -- salta, asi? No, no saltes. +Vuelve. Porque, despues, hay otra trampa. +Si miras asi, miras hacia el pasado, o miras dentro si eres muy flexible, dentro de ti. +se llama esquizofrenia, y estas muerto tambien. +Es por eso que cada maana, ahora, porque eres un buen mutante, vas a levantar tu angulo de vision. +Fuera, mas cerca de la horizontal, tu eres una inteligencia. +Nunca lo olvides .. asi, asi. +Es muy, muy, muy importante. +Porque, Qu mas se puede decir sobre eso. Porque hacerlo? +Es porque nosotros -- si nos vemos desde lejos, podemos ver nuestra linea de evolucion. +Esta linea de evolucion es claramente positiva. +Desde lejos, esta linea se ve muy fluida, asi. +Pero si tomas un lente, asi, esta linea es ack, ack, ack, ack, ack. Asi, +Esta hecha de luz y oscuridad +Podemos decir que luz es civilizacion, oscuridad es barbarie, +Y es muy importante saber donde estamos en este momento. +Porque en un ciclo, hay un punto especfico en el ciclo, y tienes diferentes deberes en diferentes partes del ciclo. +Eso significa, podemos imaginar -- Y no dire que fue fantastico, pero en los '80s, no habia tanta guerra, si, era -- podemos imaginar que la civilzacion puede ser civilizada. +En este caso, la gente es mas aceptable. +Podemos decir, "Es tiempo de lujos." +Tenemos tiempo para pensar, tiempo para hacer no se que, hablar de arte y cosas asi. +Esta bien, Estamos en la Luz. +Pero algunas veces, como hoy, caemos, caemos tan rapido, tan rapido hacia la sombra, caemos muy rapido a la barbarie. +Con muchas, muchas, muchas, muchas caras de la barbarie. +porque no es, la barbarie que tenemos hoy, no es quizas la barbarie que pensamos. +Esun tipo distinto de barbarie. +Por eso es que nos debemos adaptar. +Significa, que cuando la barbarie esta de vuelta, olvidense de las sillas bellas, los bellos hoteles, olviden el diseo, incluso -- siento decirlo -- olviden el arte. +Olviden todo eso. Hay prioridades, hay urgencias. +Debemos ir de vuelta a la politica, de vuelta a la radicalizacion, Lo siento, sin no es muy buen Ingles. +Debemos volver a pelear, a la batalla. +Por eso es que hoy en dia estoy tan avergonzado de hacer este trabajo. +Por eso estoy aqui, para tratar de hacer lo mejor posible. +Pero se que incluso yo lo hago lo mejor posible -- por eso soy el mejor -- y es nada. +Es porque no es el momento correcto. +Por eso lo digo. Digo que, y lo repito, nada existe si no es por una buena razon, la razon de nuestra bello sueo de esta civilizacion. +Y porque todos debemos trabajar para terminar esta historia. +Porque el escencario de esta civilizacion -- acerca del amor, el progreso, y cosas asi -- esta Bien, Pero hay tantos otro diferentes escenarios de otras civilizaciones. +Este escenario, el de esta civilizacion, era sobre ser poderosos, inteligentes, como esta idea que hemos inventado, este concepto de Dios. +Somo Dios ahora. Lo somos. Esta casi hecho. +Solo tenemos que terminar la historia. +Esto es muy, muy importante. +Y cuando no entiendes verdaderamente que ha pasado, no puedes seguir, y pelear y trabajar y construir cosas asi. +Vas al futuro atras, atras, atras, atras, asi. +Y puedes caer, y es muy peligroso. +No, solo tienes que entender de verdad que. +Porque ya hemos casi terminado, yo repetire esta historia. +Y la belleza de esto es que quizas en 50 aos, o 60 aos podemos terminar completamente esta civilizacion, y ofrecer a nuestros hijos la posibilidad de inventar una nueva historia, una nueva poesia, un nuevo romanticismo. +Con billones de personas que han nacido, trabajado, vivido y muerto antes de nosotros, esas personas han trabajado tanto, ahora tenemos tantas cosas bellas, bellos regalos, sabemos tantas cosas. +Podemos decir a nuestros hijos, OK, listo, esta es nuestra historia. Ha pasado. +Ahora tienes un deber: inventar una nueva historia. Inventar una nueva poesia. +La unica regla es, no tenemos ninguna idea de como sera la prxima historia. +Les damos paginas en blanco. Inventen. +Les damos las mejores herramientas, las mejores, y ahora, haganlo. +Por eso sigo trabajando, incluso si es para un cepillo de baos. +Quiero empezar mi historia en Alemania, en 1877, con un matemtico llamado Georg Cantor. +Y Cantor decidi que iba a tomar una lnea y a borrar el tercio central de la lnea, y a tomar esas dos lneas resultantes y a traerlas de vuelta al mismo proceso, un proceso recursivo. +As que comienza con una lnea, luego con dos, luego cuatro, luego 16, y as sucesivamente. +Y si hace esto un nmero infinito de veces, lo cual se puede hacer en matemticas, termina con un nmero infinito de lneas, cada una de las cuales tiene un nmero infinito de puntos. +As que se dio cuenta que tena un conjunto cuyo nmero de elementos era mayor que infinito. +Y esto le sacudi la mente. Literalmente. Ingres en un psiquitrico. Y cuando sali del psiquitrico, estaba convencido que haba venido a la Tierra para fundar la teora de conjuntos transfinitos, porque el mayor conjunto de infinito sera Dios mismo. +Era un hombre muy religioso. +Era un matemtico en una misin. +Y otros matemticos hicieron cosas del mismo tipo. +El matemtico sueco, von Koch, decidi que en vez de restar lneas, las sumara. +Y as sali con esta hermosa curva. +Y no hay una razn en particular para que tengamos que empezar con esta forma semilla; podemos empezar con cualquier forma semilla. +Y voy a reorganizar esto y meter esto en algn lado -- ah abajo, OK -- y ahora iterando, esa forma semilla como que se despliega en una estructura que se ve muy diferente. +As que todas estas tienen la propiedad de la autosimilitud: la parte se ve como el todo. +Es el mismo patrn en muchas escalas diferentes. +Ahora, los matemticos pensaron que esto era algo muy extrao, porque a medida que encoges una regla, mides una distancia cada vez ms larga. +Y como pasaron por las iteraciones un nmero infinito de veces, a medida que la regla se encoge infinitamente, la longitud se extiende hacia el infinito. +Esto no tena ningn sentido, as que relegaron estas curvas al final de los libros de matemticas. +Dijeron que stas son curvas patolgicas, y que no tenemos que discutirlas. +Y eso funcion durante cien aos. +Y luego en 1977, Benoit Mandelbrot, un matemtico francs, se dio cuenta que si haces grficas por computadora y usas estas formas que llam fractales obtienes las formas de la naturaleza. +Obtienes los pulmones humanos, obtienes acacias, obtienes helechos, obtienes estas hermosas formas naturales. +Si miran su pulgar y su dedo ndice y se fijan justo donde se encuentran -- adelante, hganlo ahora -- y relajen su mano, van a ver un pliegue, y luego una arruga dentro del pliegue, y un pliegue dentro de la arruga. Verdad? +Su cuerpo est cubierto de fractales. +Los matemticos que decan que stas eran formas patolgicamente intiles. +Ellos estaban respirando esas palabras con pulmones fractales. +Es muy irnico. Y les voy a mostrar una pequea recursin natural ac. +De nuevo, tan solo tomamos estas lneas y las reemplazamos recursivamente con toda la figura. +Asi que aqu est la segunda iteracin, y la tercera, la cuarta, y as sucesivamente. +As que la naturaleza tiene esta estructura autosimilar. +La naturaleza usa sistemas auto-organizativos. +En los aos 80 me pas que not que si uno mira una fotografa area de una aldea africana, uno ve fractales. +Y pens: "Esto es fabuloso! Me pregunto: por qu?" +Y por supuesto tuve que ir a frica y preguntarle a la gente por qu. +As que obtuve una beca Fulbright para viajar alrededor de Africa por un ao preguntndole a la gente por qu estaban construyendo fractales, lo cual es un gran trabajo si pueden conseguirlo. +Pero l estuvo realmente tranquilo con eso, y me subi ah, y hablamos de fractales. +Y dijo: "Oh si, si! Nosotros sabamos de un rectngulo en un rectngulo, sabemos al respecto". +Y resulta que la insignia real tiene un rectngulo dentro de un rectngulo dentro de un rectngulo, y el camino a travs del palacio es en efecto esta espiral. +Y a medida que uno atraviesa el camino, uno tiene que ser ms y ms educado. +As que estn trazando el mapa de la escala social sobre una escala geomtrica; es un patrn consciente. No es inconsciente como el montculo fractal de las termitas. +Esto es una aldea en el sur de Zambia. +Los ba-ila construyeron esta aldea de alrededor de 400 metros de dimetro. +Hay un anillo enorme. +Los anillos que representan los recintos familiares se agrandan cada vez ms, a medida que uno va hacia atrs, y luego uno tiene el anillo del jefe ac hacia atrs y el recinto de la familia inmediata del jefe en ese anillo. +As que aqu hay un pequeo modelo fractal de l. +Ahora podrn ustedes preguntarse: cmo puede la gente caber en una diminuta aldea tan solo as de grande? +Eso es porque ellos son gente espritu. Son los ancestros. +Y, por supuesto, la gente espritu tiene una pequea aldea miniatura en su aldea, verdad? +As es que es tal como dijo Georg Cantor, la recursin contina para siempre. +Esto sucede en el macizo de Mandara, cerca de la frontera nigeriana con Camern, en Mokoulek. +Vi este diagrama dibujado por un arquitecto francs, y pens: "Guau! Qu fractal tan hermoso!" +As que trat de salir con una forma semilla, la cual, iterndola, se desplegara en esta cosa. +Llegu a esta estructura de ac. +Veamos, primera iteracin, segunda, tercera, cuarta. +Ahora, despus de que hice la simulacin, me di cuenta que toda la aldea gira en espiral, justo as, y ac est esa lnea de recurrencia -- una lnea autorrecurrente que se desdobla en un fractal. +Bueno, not que esa lnea est ms o menos donde est el nico edificio cuadrado de la aldea. +As que, cuando llegu a la aldea, dije: "Me pueden llevar al edificio cuadrado? +Creo que algo est pasando ah". +Y ellos dijeron: "Bueno, lo podemos llevar ah, pero usted no puede entrar porque ese es el altar sagrado, donde hacemos sacrificios cada ao para mantener esos ciclos anuales de fertilidad en los campos". +Y comenc a darme cuenta que los ciclos de fertilidad eran justo como los ciclos recursivos del algoritmo geomtrico que construye esto. +Y la recursin en algunas de estas aldeas contina hasta escalas diminutas. +Ac hay una aldea nankani en Mali. +Y pueden ver, uno entra al recinto familiar -- uno entra y ac hay ollas en el fogn, apiladas recursivamente. +Ac hay calabazas que Issa justo nos mostraba, y estn apiladas recursivamente. +Ahora, la ms pequea de las calabazas guarda el alma de la mujer. +Y cuando muere hacen una ceremonia en la que rompen la pila llamada la zalanga y su alma viaja a la eternidad. +De nuevo, el infinito es importante. +Ahora, ustedes pueden hacerse tres preguntas en este punto. +No son estos patrones de escala simplemente universales en toda arquitectura aborigen? +Y esa era en efecto mi hiptesis inicial. +Cuando vi por primera vez esos fractales africanos, pens: "Guau! As que cualquier grupo aborigen que no tiene sociedad estatal, esa especie de jerarqua, debe tener algn tipo de arquitectura de abajo hacia arriba." +Pero eso resulta no ser cierto. +Comenc a recolectar fotografas areas de arquitectura aborigen de EE.UU. y del Pacfico Sur; y slo las africanas eran fractales. +Y si piensan al respecto, todas estas distintas sociedades usan diferentes temas de diseos geomtricos. +As que los aborgenes de EE.UU. usan una combinacin de simetra circular y simetra cudruple. +Lo pueden ver en la cermica y la cestera. +Ac hay una fotografa area de una de las ruinas anasazi; pueden ver que es circular en la escala ms amplia, pero rectangular en la escala ms pequea, verdad? +No es el mismo patrn en dos escalas diferenrtes. +Segundo, podran preguntar: "Bueno, Dr. Eglash, no est Ud. ignorando la diversidad de culturas africanas?" +Y, tres veces, la respuesta es no. +En primer lugar, estoy de acuerdo con el maravilloso libro de Mudimbe, "La Invencin de frica". en que frica es un invento artificial, primero, del colonialismo y, luego, de los movimientos opositores. +No, porque una prctica de diseo ampliamente compartida no implica necesariamente una unidad cultural -- y definitivamente no est en el ADN. +Y finalmente, los fractales tienen autosimilitud -- as que son similares a s mismos pero no son necesariamente similares entre s -- uno ve usos muy diferentes de los fractales. +Es una tecnologa compartida en frica. +Y finalmente, bueno, no es esto tan solo intuicin? +No es realmente conocimiento matemtico. +No es posible que los africanos realmente estn usando geometra fractal, cierto? +No fue inventada sino hasta los aos 70. +Bueno, es verdad que algunos fractales africanos son, hasta donde yo s, slo pura intuicin. +As que algunas de estas cosas, yo recorrera las calles de Dakar pregutndole a la gente: "Cul es el algoritmo? Cul es la regla para hacer esto?" +y me diran, "Bueno, slo lo hacemos as porque se ve bonito, estpido". Pero algunas veces no es ese el caso. +En algunos casos hay, en efecto, algoritmos y algoritmos muy sofisticados. +As en la escultura manghetu uno vera esta geometra recursiva. +En las cruces etopes uno ve este maravilloso desdoblamiento de la forma. +En Angola la etnia chokwe dibuja lneas en la arena y es lo que el matemtico alemn Euler llam un grafo; ahora lo llamamos un camino euleriano -- nunca puedes levantar tu bolgrafo de la superficie y nunca puedes pasar sobre la misma lnea dos veces. +Pero lo hacen recursivamente, y lo hacen con un sistema de gradacin por edades, as que los nios pequeos aprenden ste, y luego los mayores aprenden ste, luego en la siguiente iniciacin por grado de edad, uno aprende ste. +Y con cada iteracin del algoritmo, uno aprende las iteraciones del mito. +Uno aprende el siguiente nivel de conocimiento. +Y finalmente, en toda frica, uno ve este juego de tablero. +Se llama owari en Ghana, donde yo lo estudi; se llama mancala ac en la costa este, bao en Kenia, sogo en otras partes. +Bueno, uno ve patrones auto-organizados que ocurren espontneamente en este juego de tablero. +Y la gente en Ghana sabe de estos patrones auto-organizados y los usan estratgicamente. +As que ste es un conocimiento muy consciente. +Ac hay un maravilloso fractal. +Donde quiera que vayan en Sahel, vern esta pantalla de viento. +Y por supuesto las cercas del mundo son cartesianas, todas estrictamente lineales. +Pero ac en frica, Uds. tienen estas cercas no lineales en escalas. +As que busqu a una de las personas que fabrican estas cosas. un tipo en Mali justo en las afueras de Bamako, y le pregunt: "Cmo es que Ud. anda haciendo cercas fractales? Porque nadie ms las hace". +Y su respuesta fue muy interesante. +Dijo: "Bueno, si viviera en la selva, slo usara las hileras largas de paja, porque son rpidas, y son muy baratas. +No lleva mucho tiempo ni consume mucha paja". +Dijo: "Pero el viento y el polvo se filtran muy fcilmente. +Ahora, las filas apretadas en lo ms alto, realmente detienen el viento y el polvo. +Pero lleva mucho tiempo, y mucha paja, porque estn realmente apretadas". +"Ahora", dijo, "sabemos por experiencia que entre ms arriba del piso vayas, ms fuerte sopla el viento". +Verdad? Es justo como en el anlisis costo-beneficio. +Y yo med las longitudes de la paja, lo puse en una matriz bi-logartmica, saqu el exponencial de escala, y casi exactamente equivale al exponencial de escala para la relacin entre altura y velocidad del viento del manual de ingeniera de vientos. +As que estos tipos dan justo en el blanco con el uso prctico de tecnologa de escala. +El ejemplo ms complejo que encontr de una aproximacin algortmica a los fractales en realidad no fue en geometra, sino en un cdigo simblico, y esto fue la adivinacin bahmani en arena. +Y el mismo sistema de adivinacin se encuentra por toda frica. +Y hacan esto muy rpidamente y yo no poda entender hacia qu iban -- ellos slo hicieron la aleatoridad cuatro veces -- Yo no poda entender de dnde sacaban los otros 12 smbolos. +Y no me lo diran. +Decan: "No, no, no te puedo hablar de esto". +Y yo deca: "Bueno, mira, te pago, puedes ser mi profesor, y yo vengo cada da y te pago". +Ellos dijeron: "No es cuestin de dinero. Este es un asunto religioso". +Y finalmente, de la desesperacin, yo dije: "Bueno, djenme explicar Georg Cantor en 1877". +Y empec a explicar por qu estaba yo en frica, y se emocionaron mucho cuando vieron el conjunto de Cantor. +Y uno de ellos dijo: "Ven ac. Creo que te puedo ayudar con esto". +Y as me llev por el proceso de iniciacin ritual de un sacerdote bahmani. +Y por supuesto, yo slo estaba interesado en la matemtica, as que todo el tiempo, l sacuda su cabeza diciendo: "Tu sabes, yo no lo aprend de esta manera". +Pero yo tena que dormir con una nuez de cola al lado de la cama, enterrada en la arena, y darle siete monedas a los siete leprosos y todo eso. +Y finalmente, l me revel la verdad del asunto. +Y resulta que es un generador de nmeros pseudo-aleatorios que usa caos determinstico. +Cuano uno tiene un smbolo de cuatro bits, uno puede juntarlo con otro de costado. +As, par ms impar da impar. +Impar ms par da impar. +Par ms par da par. Impar ms impar da par. +Es adicin mdulo 2, justo como en la prueba de paridad de bits de su computadora. +Y, luego, uno toma este smbolo y lo vuelve a meter as que es una diversidad de smbolos autogenerada. +Realmente estn usando un tipo de caos determinstico al hacer esto. +Ahora, como es un cdigo binario, uno puede en efecto implementar esto en hardware -- qu fantstica herramienta de enseanza sera esto en las escuelas africanas de ingeniera. +Y lo ms interesante que encontr al respecto fue algo histrico. +En el siglo 12, Hugo Santillana lo trajo de los msticos musulmanes a Espaa. +Y ah entr en la comunidad alquimista como geomancia: adivinacin a travs de la tierra. +Esto es una carta geomntica dibujada por el rey Ricardo II en 1390. +Leibniz, el matemtico alemn, habl de geomancia en su disertacin llamada "De Combinatoria" +Y dijo: "Bueno, en vez de usar un trazo y dos trazos, usemos un uno y un cero, y podemos contar por potencias de dos". +Correcto? Unos y ceros: el cdigo binario. +George Boole tom el cdigo binario de Leibniz y cre el lgebra booleana, y John von Neumann tom el lgebra boolena y cre la computadora digital. +As que todos estos pequeos PDAs y computadores porttiles -- todo circuito digital en el mundo -- comenz en frica. +Y s que Brian Eno dice que no hay suficiente frica en las computadoras; saben, yo no creo que haya suficiente historia africana en Brian Eno. +As que djenme terminar con unas pocas palabras sobre aplicaciones que hemos encontrado para esto. +Y pueden ir a nuestro sitio web, las aplicaciones son gratuitas; simplemente corren en el browser. +Cualquier persona en el mundo puede usarlas. +El programa de Ampliacin de la Participacin en la Computacin de la Fundacin Nacional de la Ciencia recientemente nos otorg una beca de investigacin para hacer una versin programable de estas herramientas de diseo, as que esperamos que en tres aos cualquiera pueda entrar a la Web y crear sus propias simulaciones y sus propios artefactos. +Nos hemos centrado en EE.UU., en estudiantes afro, aborigenes y latinos de EE.UU. +Hemos encontrado mejoras estadsticamente significativas en nios que usan este software en clases de matemticas en comparacin con un grupo de control que no tena el software. +As que es realmente muy exitoso ensendole a los nios que tienen una herencia que es sobre matemticas, que no es slo sobre canto y danza. +Hemos comenzado un programa piloto en Ghana, +tenemos una pequea beca semilla, slo para ver si la gente est dispuesta a trabajar con nostros en esto; estamos muy emocionados de las posibilidades futuras para eso. +Tambin hemos estado trabajando en diseo. +No puse su nombre ac -- mi colega, Kerry, en Kenia, sali con esta gran idea de usar estructuras fractales para direcciones de correo en aldeas que tienen estructura fractal porque si uno trata de imponer un sistema postal con estructura matricial en una aldea fractal, no se ajusta muy bien. +Bernard Tschumi en la Universidad de Columbia ha terminado de usar esto en un diseo para un museo de arte africano. +David Hughes en la Universidad Estatal de Ohio ha escrito un manual de arquitectura afrocntrica en el que usa algunas de estas estructuras fractales. +Y finalmente, yo slo quera apuntar que esta idea de auto-organizacin, como omos ms temprano, est en el cerebro. +Est en -- est en el motor de bsqueda de Google. +De hecho, la razn por la cual Google ha sido tan exitoso es porque fueron los primeros en tomar ventaja de las propiedades auto-organizativas de la red. +Est en la sostenibilidad ecolgica. +Est en el poder del emprendimiento para el desarrollo, en el poder tico de la democracia. +Tambin est en algunas cosas malas. +La auto-organizacin es la razn por la cual el SIDA se esparce tan rpido. +Y si Uds. no creen que el capitalismo, que es auto-organizativo, puede tener efectos destructivos, es que no han abierto suficientemente los ojos. +As que debemos pensar sobre, como fue dicho antes, los mtodos africanos tradicionales para hacer auto-organizacin. +Estos son algoritmos robustos. +Estas son maneras de hacer auto-organizacin -- de hacer emprendimiento -- que son delicadas, que son igualitarias. +As que si queremos encontrar una mejor manera de hacer ese tipo de trabajo, no necesitamos buscar ms all de frica para encontrar estos robustos algoritmos auto-organizativos. +Gracias. +Bien, buenos das damas y caballeros. +Mi nombre es Art Benjamin y soy "matemago". +Eso quiere decir que combino mi amor por las matemticas y la magia para hacer algo a lo que llamo "Matemagia". +Pero, antes de empezar, tengo una pregunta para el pblico: +Por casualidad ha trado alguien una calculadora? +Lo digo en serio, si tienen una calculadora, levanten la mano. +Levant la mano? +Trigala. Alguien ms? +Veo una all atrs. +Con usted, seor, ya van tres. +Alguien ms por este lado? +Muy bien, usted, el del pasillo. Les importara a los cuatro traer sus calculadoras y venir conmigo al escenario? +Demos un fuerte aplauso a estos voluntarios. +Muy bien. Ya que no he tenido la oportunidad de usar estas calculadoras, necesito asegurarme de que todas funcionan correctamente. +Alguno de ustedes nos da un nmero de dos dgitos para empezar? +Un nmero de dos dgitos? +Pblico: 22. +Arthur Benjamin: 22. Y otro nmero de dos dgitos, Seor? +Pblico: 47. +AB: Multipliquen 22 por 47 y asegrense de que obtienen 1.034, si no es as, las calculadoras no funcionan. Todos obtuvieron 1.034? 1.034? +Mujer: No. +AB: 594. Demos un gran aplauso a tres de ellos. +Le gustara probar con una calculadora mejor, por si acaso? +De acuerdo, muy bien. +Lo que voy a intentar hacer ahora... He notado que a alguno de ustedes le ha llevado un poco de tiempo contestar. +Esta bien. Les dar un atajo para multiplicar +ms rpido en la calculadora. +Hay algo llamado el cuadrado de un nmero, lo que muchos de ustedes ya conocen y que consiste en tomar un nmero y multiplicarlo por s mismo. +Por ejemplo, cinco elevado al cuadrado, sera? +Pblico: 25 +AB: 25. La forma en la que elevamos al cuadrado en la mayora de las calculadoras... Permtanme enserselo en esta... Es tomando un nmero, como cinco, le damos a "multiplicar" y luego a "igual", y en la mayora de las calculadoras eso les dar el resultado. +Algunas calculadoras cientficas antiguas, tienen un botn de "x al cuadrado", que les permitir hacer la operacin an ms rpido. +Lo que voy a hacer ahora es elevar al cuadrado, mentalmente, cuatro nmeros de dos dgitos, y ser ms rpido que ellos con las calculadoras, incluso si emplean el atajo. +Ahora nos vamos a la segunda fila y voy a elegir a cuatro de ustedes... uno, dos, tres, cuatro... y que cada uno grite un nmero de dos dgitos. Usted elevar al cuadrado el primer nmero, y ustedes elevarn el segundo, el tercero y el cuarto, Intentar obtener la respuesta antes que ustedes, entendido? +As que, rpido, un nmero de dos dgitos, por favor. +Pblico: 37. +AB: 37 al cuadrado, bien. +Pblico: 23. +AB: 23 al cuadrado, vale. +Pblico: 59. +AB: 59 al cuadrado, muy bien. El ltimo? +Pblico: 93. +AB: 93 al cuadrado. Nos pueden dar sus respuestas, por favor? +Mujer: 1.369. AB: 1.369. +Mujer: 529. AB: 529. +Hombre: 3.481. AB: 3.481. +Hombre: 8.649. +AB: Muchas gracias. +Permtanme llevarlo un poco ms all. +Ahora voy a intentar elevar al cuadrado algunos nmeros tres dgitos. +Ni siquiera los voy a anotar... Slo los dir en alto a medida que me los dicen. +Cualquiera al que seale, que diga un nmero de tres dgitos. +Cualquiera de nuestro equipo, comprobar la respuesta. +Slo den alguna seal que indique que es correcto. +Un nmero de tres dgitos, seor? +Pblico: 987. +AB: 987 al cuadrado es 974.169. +S? Bien. +Otro, otro nmero de tres dgitos... Otro nmero de tres dgitos, caballero? +Pblico: 457. +AB: 457 al cuadrado es 205.849. +205.849? +S? +Vale, otro nmero de tres dgitos, seor? +Pblico: 321. +AB: 321 son 103.041. 103.041. +S? Uno ms, por favor. +Pblico: 722. +AB: 722 es 500... Ah, este es ms difcil. +Puede ser 513.284? +Mujer: S. +AB: S? Ah, uno ms, un nmero de tres dgitos. +Pblico: 162. +162 al cuadrado es 26.244. +Muchas gracias. +Permtanme ir un poco ms lejos. +Ahora voy a intentar elevar al cuadrado un nmero de cuatro dgitos. +Pueden tomarse su tiempo; no lo har ms rpido que ustedes esta vez, pero intentar obtener la respuesta correcta. +Para hacerlo un poco ms aleatorio, vayamos a la cuarta fila, digamos, uno, dos, tres, cuatro. +Si cada uno de ustedes fuese tan amable de decir un nmero entre cero y nueve, ese ser el nmero de cuatro dgitos que elevar al cuadrado. +Pblico: Nueve. AB: Nueve. +Pblico: Siete. AB: Siete. +Pblico: Cinco. AB: Cinco. +Pblico: Ocho. AB: Ocho. +9.758. Esto va a tardar un poco, as que tengan paciencia. +95.218.564? +Mujer: S. +AB: Muchas gracias. +Intentara elevar al cuadrado nmero de cinco dgitos... Yo puedo... pero, desafortunadamente, la mayora de las calculadoras, no. +Slo 8 dgitos, no odian eso? +As que, ya que hemos alcanzado el lmite de nuestras calculadoras... Qu? La suya puede...? +Mujer: No lo s. +AB: La suya tiene ms capacidad? Y la suya? +Hombre: Tal vez yo lo pueda hacer. AB: Hablamos despus. +Mientras tanto, permtanme concluir la primera parte de mi espectculo con algo un poquito ms difcil. +Tomemos el nmero ms alto del tablero, 8.649. +Pueden escribirlo en sus calculadoras? +Y en lugar de elevarlo al cuadrado, quiero que lo multipliquen por cualquier nmero de tres dgitos que deseen, pero no me digan cul es; solo multiplquenlo por cualquier nmero de tres dgitos. +La respuestas debera ser un nmero de seis dgitos o un nmero de siete dgitos. +Cantos dgitos tiene, seis o siete? +Siete, y el suyo? Mujer: Siete. +AB: Siete? Siete? +Y, no est seguro. +Hombre: S. +AB: Siete. Hay alguna posibilidad de que yo sepa el nmero de siete dgitos que tienen ah? Digan "No". +Muy bien. Entonces voy a intentar lo imposible... o, al menos, lo improbable. +Quiero que cada uno de ustedes diga en alto seis dgitos cualquiera de los siete de su nmero, seis, en el orden que ustedes deseen. +Un dgito a la vez y yo intentar determinar el dgito que no dijeron. +Empecemos con su nmero de siete dgitos, dgame bien alto seis de ellos, por favor. +Mujer: Uno, vale, 1 9 7 0 4 2. +AB: Excluiste el 6? +Mujer: S. AB: Muy bien, ya tenemos uno. +Tiene un nmero de siete dgitos, dgame seis cualquiera, por favor. +Mujer: 4 4 8 7 5. +AB: Creo que slo he escuchado cinco nmeros. Espere... 4 4 8 7 5... Omiti el nmero 6? +Mujer: S. AB: Igual que ella. Bien. Usted tiene un nmero de siete dgitos... diga seis de ellos alto y claro. +Hombre: 0 7 9 0 4 4. +AB: Falta el nmero 3? +Y van tres... La probabilidad de que acierte los cuatro simplemente adivinando a ciegas sera de una entre 10.000: 10 a la cuarta potencia. +Vale, seis cualquiera. +Mzclelos muy bien, por favor. +Hombre: 2 6 3 8 7 2. +AB: No mencion el nmero 7? +Un fuerte aplauso para los cuatro. +Muchsimas gracias. +Para el siguiente nmero... mientras recargo mentalmente mis pilas, tengo una pregunta ms para el pblico. +Por casualidad, alguien sabe qu da de la semana naci? +Si creen que saben qu da nacieron, levanten la mano. +Vamos a ver... Empezaremos con un caballero. +Muy bien, seor, antes de nada, en qu ao naci? Por eso empec por un caballero. +Qu ao? +Pblico: 1953 +AB: 1953. Y el mes? +Pblico: Noviembre. AB: Qu da de noviembre? +AB: El 23... Fue un lunes? Pblico: S. +Muy bien. Alguien ms? Quin quiere... +No... No he visto la mano de ninguna dama. +Bien. Y usted? En qu ao naci? +Pblico: 1949. AB: 1949, mes? +Pblico: Octubre. AB: Qu da? +Pblico: El 5. AB: 5... Era mircoles? +S... Vamos a la parte de atrs. Usted? +Dgalo en alto, en qu ao? Pblico: 1959. +AB: 1959. Vale... el mes? +Pblico: Febrero. +AB: Qu da de febrero? Pblico: El 6. +AB: 6... Fue un viernes? Pblico. S. +Muy bien, qu hay de la persona que est detrs de usted? +Venga... En qu ao? +Pblico: 1947. AB: 1947, y qu mes? +Pblico: Mayo. AB: Qu da de mayo? +Pblico: El 7. AB: 7... pudo ser un mircoles? +Pblico: S. AB: Muchsimas gracias. +Alguno de ustedes quiere saber qu da de la semana naci? +Lo podemos hacer as. +Por supuesto, podra inventarme la respuesta y ustedes no lo sabran, as que he venido preparado para ese caso. +He trado un libro de calendarios.. +Incluye calendarios desde 1800, porque uno nunca sabe qu le espera. +No pretenda mirarlo a usted, seor... +... pero estaba ah sentado. Bueno, Chris, espero que no te importe ayudarme con esto. +Esto es un libro de calendarios y ahora pregunto: +Quin quera saber qu da naci? Usted, seor? Muy bien. +Lo primero, en qu ao naci? +Pblico: En 1966. +AB: En el 66... Ve al calendario de 1966... +En qu mes? +Pblico: En abril. AB: Qu da? +Pblico: El 17. AB: 17... Creo que fue domingo. +Lo puedes confirmar, Chris? +Chris Anderson: S. AB: Muy bien. Te dir qu vamos a hacer, Chris: con el libro delante, hazme un favor, ve a un ao que no est dentro de los 1900, puede ser de los 1800 o de 2000... Eso ser un reto mayor. +Qu ao has escogido, Chris? +CA: 1824. +AB: 1824, de acuerdo. +Qu mes? CA: Junio. +AB: Qu da de junio? CA: El 6. +AB: 6... Fue domingo? +CA: S. AB: Y estaba nublado. +Muchas gracias. +Para finalizar el espectculo me gustara retomar algo de lo que hablamos antes. +Haba un caballero que tena una calculadora de 10 dgitos. +Dnde est? Le importara ponerse en pie? Caballero de los 10 dgitos? +Muy bien, permanezca de pie un momento, as puedo ver dnde est. +Bueno... Usted tambin tiene una calculadora de 10 dgitos? +Vale. Lo que voy a intentar hacer ahora es elevar al cuadrado de cabeza un nmero de 5 dgitos, por eso necesitamos una calculadora de 10 dgitos. +Pero, para hacerlo an ms interesante, tanto para ustedes como para m, voy a hacerlo en voz alta. +Asi podrn ver qu pasa en realidad por mi cabeza mientras hago una operacin semejante. +Tengo que pedirle perdn a nuestro amigo mago Lennart Green, +porque s que, como mago, se supone que no debo revelar nuestros secretos, pero no creo que la gente empiece a hacer este nmero la semana que viene, as que... No pasa nada. +Vamos a ver, elegiremos... ... elegiremos una fila diferente y empezaremos con usted. +Tomar cinco dgitos: uno, dos, tres, cuatro... +Ah, ya hemos estado en esta fila, as que usaremos la que tiene delante. Empecemos por usted, seor: uno, dos, tres, cuatro, cinco. +Dgame un nico nmero, que formar el nmero de 5 dgitos que intentar elevar al cuadrado. Vamos. +Pblico: 5. AB: 5. +Pblico: 7. AB: 7. +Pblico: 6. AB: 6. +Pblico: 8. AB: 8. +Pblico: 3. AB: 3. +57.683 al cuadrado. Vaya. +Dejen que les explique +cmo voy a intentar resolver el problema. +Voy a dividirlo en tres partes. +El cuadrado de 57.000, ms el cuadrado de 683, ms 57.000 por 683 por 2. +Juntaremos todos esos nmeros y, con un poco de suerte, obtendremos la respuesta correcta. +Les har un resumen de la e-tapa. +Gracias. +Mientras explico otra cosa... ... s, puede usar eso. +Mientras hago esta operacin, puede que escuchen determinadas palabras, en vez de nmeros, que se cuelan entre los clculos. +Ahora les explico qu son. +Son un cdigo fontico, un mecanismo nemotcnico que uso y que me permite convertir nmeros en palabras. +Los memorizo como palabras y ms tarde los recupero como nmeros. +S que parece complicado, pero no lo es... +No quiero que piensen que estn viendo algo en plan "Rain Man". +Sin duda, mi locura sigue un mtodo... Sin duda, sin duda. Lo siento. +Si quieren podemos hablar despus de el TDAH (trastorno por dficit de atencin e hiperactividad), pero ya lo hablaremos. Muy bien... +Por cierto, la ltima instruccin para los jueces con calculadoras (ustedes saben quines son): hay al menos un 50% de posibilidades de que cometa un error. +Si lo hago, no me digan cul es; slo dganme, "ests cerca" o algo parecido, e intentar solucionarlo... lo cual ser bastante entretenido a su vez. +Si, por el contrario, acierto, sea lo que sea, no se lo callen, de acuerdo? +Asegrense de que todo el mundo sabe que la respuesta es correcta porque este es mi gran final. +As que, sin ms dilacin, all vamos. +Empezar por la mitad, multiplicando 57 por 683. +57 por 68 es 3.400, ms 476 es 3.876, eso nos da 38.760 ms 171. 38.760 ms 171 es 38.931. +38.760; el doble es 77,862. +77.862 se convierte en fisin de galletas ("cookie fission"), fisin de galletas es 77.822. +Parece que vamos bien, sigo. Fisin de galletas. Vale. +Pblico: S! +AB: Muy bien. +Muchsimas gracias. Espero que hayan disfrutado de la matemagia. Gracias. +Saben?, me sorprende que uno de los temas implcitos de TED sea la compasin. Acabamos de ver demostraciones muy emotivas: como la de anoche del Presidente Clinton, sobre el VIH en frica. +Y me gustara hacer un poco de pensamiento colateral, por as llamarlo, sobre la compasin, y llevarlo de lo global a lo personal. +Soy psiclogo, pero tranquilos, que no lo llevar al plano sexual. +Hace tiempo se realiz un estudio muy importante en el Semirario Teolgico de Princeton que nos habla de por qu cuando todos nosotros tenemos tantas oportunidades de ayudar, a veces lo hacemos y a veces no. +A un grupo de estudiantes de teologa en el Seminario de Teologa en Princeton se les dijo que iban a dar un sermn de prctica, y a cada uno se le dio un tema para el sermn. +A la mitad de esos alumnos se les dio como tema, la parbola del buen samaritano: el hombre que se par para ayudar al desconocido -- al necesitado que estaba en un lado de la carretera. +A la otra mitad se les dio temas bblicos aleatorios. +Luego, uno a uno, se les dijo que tenan que ir a otro edificio y dar el sermn. +Mientras iban desde el primer edificio hasta el segundo, todos se cruzaron con un hombre que estaba encogido, se quejaba y estaba claramente necesitado. La pregunta es: se detuvieron a ayudarlo? +La pregunta ms interesante es: Import que estuvieran pensando en la parbola del buen samaritano? Respuesta: no, en lo absoluto. +Lo que result determinar si alguien se detendra a ayudar a un desconocido necesitado fue cunta prisa crean que tenan -- pensaban que llegaban tarde, o estaban absortos pensando en lo que iban a hablar? +Y este es, segn creo, el problema de nuestras vidas: que no aprovechamos todas las oportunidades para ayudar, porque nuestro foco apunta en la direccin equivocada. +Hay una nueva disciplina en neurociencia, la neurociencia social. +Estudia los circuitos en los cerebros de dos personas que se activan cuando stas interactan. +Y la nueva manera de pensar sobre la compasin en neurociencia social es que nuestra reaccin, por defecto, es ayudar. +Es decir, si prestamos atencin a la otra persona, automticamente nos identificamos, automticamente sentimos como l. +Existen unas neuronas identificadas recientemente, neuronas espejo, que actan como una conexin inhlambrica neuronal, al activar en nuestro cerebro exactamente las reas activadas en el cerebro de otro. Nos identificamos automticamente. +Y si esa persona est necesitada, si esa persona est sufriendo, automticamente estamos listos para ayudar. Por lo menos esa es la idea. +Pero entonces la pregunta es: por qu no lo hacemos? +Y creo que esto tiene que ver con un espectro que va desde el ensimismamiento absoluto, hasta el hecho de darse cuenta y tener empata y compasin. +Y el simple hecho es que, si nos centramos en nosotros mismos, si estamos preocupados, como tantas veces lo estamos a lo largo del da, realmente no percibimos al otro del todo. +Y esta diferencia entre centrarse en uno mismo o en el otro puede ser muy sutil. +Entonces me di cuenta de que lo que yo estaba recibiendo por dar era una dosis de narcisismo -- de sentirme bien conmigo mismo. +Entonces empec a pensar en la gente en el Himalaya cuyas cataratas mejoraran, y me di cuenta de que fui de una clase de ensimismamiento narcisista a una alegra altrusta, a sentirme bien por la gente a la que estaba ayudando. Creo que eso motiva. +Pero esta distincin entre centrarnos en nosotros mismos y centrarnos en otros, es a la que los animo a prestar atencin. +Lo pueden ver de manera generalizada en el mundo de las citas amorosas. +Hace un tiempo estaba en un restaurante de sushi y escuch a dos mujeres hablar sobre el hermano de una de ellas, que estaba soltero. Y una mujer dice: "A mi hermano le est resultando difcil salir con alguien, as que est intentndolo con citas rpidas". No s si conocen las citas rpidas. +En cuanto se sienta, empieza a hablar sin parar sobre s mismo, y nunca le pregunta sobre ella". +Yo estaba estudiando la seccin "Sunday Styles" (Estilos de domingo) del New York Times, mirando la historia detrs de algunos matrimonios porque son muy interesantes -- y llegu al matrimonio de Alice Charney Epstein. Y deca que cuando ella estaba buscando pareja, tena una prueba sencilla que ella aplicaba. +La prueba era: desde el momento en el que se conocieran, cunto tiempo le llevara al hombre hacerle una pregunta con la palabra "t" en ella? +Y aparentemente Epstein lo hizo muy bien, de ah el artculo. +Ahora ste es un-- es un pequeo test que les animo a que usen en una fiesta. +En TED hay grandes oportunidades. +La Harvard Business Review tena un artculo hace poco titulado "El momento humano", sobre cmo crear contacto real con una persona en el trabajo. Y deca que lo ms importante que tienes que hacer es apagar tu Blackberry, cerrar tu computadora porttil, dejar de soar despierto y prestar toda tu atencin a la persona. +Hay una palabra acuada recientemente en el idioma ingls para describir el momento en el que la persona con la que estamos saca su Blackberry o responde a una llamada en el mvil y de repente no existimos. +La palabra es "pizzled": una combinacin entre confundido y enojado. +Me parece bastante apropiada. Es nuestra empata, nuestra capacidad para conectar lo que nos separa de la gente maquiavlica o de los socipatas. +Tengo un cuado que es experto en horror y terror- escribi "Drcula Anotado", "Frankenstein Esencial" -- fue entrenado como especialista en Chaucer, pero naci en Transilvania y creo que eso le afect un poco. +De todos modos, en cierto momento mi cuado, Leonardo, decidi escribir un libro sobre un asesino en serie. +Se trata de un hombre que hace muchos aos sembr el pnico en esta zona. Se le conoca como el estrangulador de Santa Cruz. +Y antes de que fuera arrestado, haba asesinado a sus abuelos, a su madre y a cinco chicas en la universidad de UC Santa Cruz. +As que mi cuado va a entrevistar a este asesino y se da cuenta cuando lo conoce que el hombre es absolutamente aterrador. +Por un lado, mide casi siete pies de alto. +Pero eso no es lo peor. +Lo que ms miedo da es que su coeficiente intelectual es de 160: un genio acreditado. +Pero la correlacin entre el coeficiente intelectual y la empata emocional, el sentir con la otra persona, es nula. +Estn controlados por diferentes partes del cerebro. +As que en un momento determinado, mi cuado se arma de valor y le hace una pregunta cuya respuesta realmente quiere saber. Y la pregunta es: cmo pudo hacerlo? +No sinti lstima alguna por sus vctimas? +Fueron asesinatos muy ntimos -- extrangul a sus vctimas. +Y el extrangulador le dice impasible: "Oh, no. Si me hubiera afligido, no podra haberlo hecho. +Tuve que desconectar esa parte de m. Tuve que desconectar esa parte de m". +Y creo que eso es muy preocupante. Y, en cierto sentido, he estado reflexionando sobre el hecho de desconectar esa parte de nosotros. +Cuando nos centramos en nosotros, en cualquier actividad, desconectamos esa parte de nosotros si hay otra persona. +Piensen en ir de compras y piensen en las posibilidades de un consumismo compasivo. +Ahora mismo, como seal Bill McDonough, los objetos que compramos y usamos esconden consecuencias. +Todos somos vctimas involuntarias de un taln de Aquiles colectivo. +No percibimos y no nos damos cuenta de que no percibimos las molculas txicas emitidas por una alfombra o por el tejido de los asientos. +O no sabemos si ese tejido es un nutriente tecnolgico o de manufactura; puede reutilizarse o se va directamente a un vertedero? En otras palabras, somos ajenos a las consecuencias ecolgicas, de salud pblica, sociales y de justicia econmica de las cosas que compramos y usamos. +En cierto sentido, lo tenemos a la vista, pero no lo vemos. Y nos hemos convertido en vctimas de un sistema que nos distrae. Consideren esto. +Hay un libro maravilloso llamado: "Cosas: la vida oculta de los objetos cotidianos". +Y habla de la historia detrs de una camiseta. +Y habla de dnde se cultiv el algodn, y de los fertilizantes que se usaron y de las consecuencias de ese fertilizante para la tierra. Y menciona, por ejemplo, que el algodn es muy resistente a los tintes textiles; alrededor del 60 por ciento se convierte en agua residual. +Y los epidemilogos saben bien que los nios que viven cerca de fbricas textiles son ms propensos a la leucemia. +Hay una compaa, Bennett and Company, que abastece a Polo.com, a Victoria's Secret -- ellos, gracias a su director ejecutivo, que es consciente de esto, hicieron una alianza estratgica en China, para trabajar conjuntamente sus trabajos con tintes para asegurarse que sus aguas residuales seran depuradas antes de volver a los canales subterrneos. +Ahora mismo, no tenemos la opcin de decidir entre la camiseta elaborada con consciencia social y la que no lo ha sido. Qu se requerira para tener esa opcin? +Bueno, he estado pensando. Por un lado, hay una nueva tecnologa de etiquetado electrnico que permite que cualquier tienda sepa la historia completa de cualquier objeto en los estantes de esa tienda. +Lo tienen para gente con alergia a los cacahuates. +Esa pgina podra decirte cosas sobre ese objeto. +En otras palabras, al momento de comprar, quizs podamos hacer una eleccin compasiva. +Hay un dicho en el mundo de la ciencia de la informacin: Al final, todos sabrn todo. +Y la pregunta es: har esto una diferencia? +Hace algn tiempo cuando trabajaba para el New York Times, en los aos 80, escrib un artculo sobre lo que entonces era un nuevo problema en Nueva York -- las personas sin hogar que estaban en la calle. +No nos fijamos, y, en consecuencia, no actuamos. +Un da prximo a eso -- era un viernes -- al final del da, baj -- iba al tren subterrneo. Era una hora crucial y miles de personas bajaban las escaleras como una corriente. +Y de repente al yo bajar las escaleras me fij en que haba un hombre inclinado hacia un costado, sin camisa, sin moverse, y la gente estaba pasando por encima de l -- cientos y cientos de personas. +Y como mi trance urbano se haba delibitado de alguna manera, me vi a m mismo detenindome para averiguar qu le pasaba. +En cuanto me detuve, media docena de personas ms rodearon al tipo inmediatamente. +Y averiguamos que era hispano, que no hablaba nada de ingls, que no tena dinero, que llevaba das deambulando por las calles, hambriento, y que se haba desmayado de hambre. +Inmediatamente alguien fue a conseguir un jugo de naranja, alguien le consigui un "hotdog", alguien trajo a un polica del tren. +El tipo estaba en pie inmediatamente. +Pero todo lo que hizo falta fue el simple hecho de fijarse. As que soy optimista. +Muchas gracias. +As que pens: "Hablar sobre la muerte". +Pareca la pasin de hoy en da. +Pero no es sobre la muerte. +Es inevitable, terrible, pero de lo que quiero hablar es... ...me fascina el legado que la gente deja al morir. +De eso es de lo que quiero hablar. +Art Buchwald dej su legado de humor con un vdeo que apareci poco despus de su muerte y deca: "Hola! Soy Art Buchwald y acabo de morir." +Y Mike, a quien conoc en las Galpagos, en un viaje que gan en TED, est dejando notas en el ciberespacio en las que relata su viaje a travs del cncer. +Y mi padre me dej un legado de su letra a travs de cartas y un cuaderno. +En sus ltimos dos aos de vida, cuando estaba enfermo, llen un cuaderno con sus pensamientos sobre m. +Escribi sobre mis fortalezas, mis debilidades, e incluy amables sugerencias para mi mejora, citando hechos especficos, sirviendo de espejo a mi vida. +Tras su muerte, me d cuenta de que ya nadie me escribe. +La escritura a mano es un arte que est desapareciendo. +Estoy a favor del e-mail, y de pensar al escribir en el teclado, pero por qu sustituir los viejos hbitos por los nuevos? +Por qu no escribir a mano y enviar e-mails? +Hay veces en las que me gustara cambiar todos esos aos en los que estaba demasiado ocupada para sentarme y charlar con mi padre, cambiar todos esos aos por un abrazo. +Pero demasiado tarde. +Es entonces cuando saco sus cartas y las leo, y el papel que toc su mano est en la ma, y me siento conectada a l. +As que puede que todos necesitemos dejar a nuestros hijos un legado de valores, y no uno econmico. +Valor por las cosas con un toque personal: un libro de autgrafos, una carta ntima. +Si slo una fraccin de esta poderosa audiencia de TED se sintiese movida a comprar un papel bonito -John, sera reciclado- y escribir una bonita carta a alguien a quien quieran, comenzaramos una revolucin en la que nuestros hijos asistiran a clases de escritura. +As que, qu pienso dejar a mi hijo? +Colecciono libros de autgrafos, y los autores de la audiencia saben que los persigo por ellos y tambin por los CDs, Tracy-. +Pienso publicar mi propio cuaderno de notas. +Mientras presenciaba cmo las llamas devoraban el cuerpo de mi padre, me sent junto a su pira funeraria y escrib. +No tengo ni idea de cmo voy a hacerlo, pero me he comprometido a recopilar sus pensamientos y los mos en un libro, y dejarlo publicado para mi hijo. +Me gustara terminar con algunos versos de lo que escrib en la incineracin de mi padre. +Los lingistas disculpen, por favor, la gramtica porque no los he mirado en 10 aos. +Los he sacado por primera vez para venir aqu. +"Una foto en un marco, cenizas en un bote, energa ilimitada confinada en un bote, obligndome a lidiar con la relidad, obligndome a sobrellevar el ser adulto. +Te oigo y s que querras que sea fuerte, pero ahora mismo, me engulle, me rodea y me asfixia un mar embravecido de emociones. Anso limpiar mi alma y emerger sobre suelo firme una vez ms, para seguir luchando y floreciendo tal como me enseaste. +En mi vorgine de desesperacin, tus susurros alentadores me sujetan y me empujan hacia orillas de cordura, para vivir y amar de nuevo." +Gracias. +Bienvenido a "Cinco cosas peligrosas que usted debera dejar hacer a sus hijos". +No tengo hijos. +Pido prestados los hijos de mis amigos -- as que tomen estos consejos con cautela. +Soy Gever Tulley, +Soy un consultor informtico de profesin, pero soy el fundador de algo llamado Escuela del Cacharreo (Tinkering School ) +Es un programa de verano que busca ayudar a los nios a aprender cmo construir las cosas en las que piensan. +Por lo tanto, construimos un montn de cosas, y pongo en manos de estudiantes de segundo grado herramientas de trabajo pesado. +As que si usted est pensando en enviar a su hijo a la Tinkering School, ellos vuelven con moretones, raspados y sangrientos. +Como ustedes saben, vivimos en un mundo que est sujeto a regulaciones de seguridad infantil cada vez ms severas. +No parece haber ningn lmite en cuanto a cun locas estas regulaciones pueden ser. +Ponemos advertencias de asfixia en todas las -- en cada bolsa de plstico fabricada en los Estados Unidos o a la venta con un artculo en los Estados Unidos. +Ponemos avisos en las tazas de caf que nos dicen que el contenido puede estar caliente. +Y parece que pensamos que cualquier elemento ms afilado que una pelota de golf es demasiado afilado para los nios menores de 10 aos. +As que dnde va a parar esta tendencia? +Cuando redondeamos cada esquina y eliminamos cada objeto afilado, cada pedazo punzante del mundo, entonces la primera vez que los nios entren en contacto con algo afilado o que no est hecho de plstico redondeado, van a lastimarse. +As que, a medida que los lmites de lo que definimos como la zona de seguridad se hacen cada vez ms pequeos, aislamos a nuestros nios de valiosas oportunidades para aprender a interactuar con el mundo que les rodea. +Y a pesar de todos nuestros mejores esfuerzos e intenciones, los nios siempre van a averiguar cmo hacer las cosas ms peligrosas que puedan, en cualquier entorno que puedan. +Por lo tanto, a pesar del provocativo ttulo, esta presentacin es realmente acerca de la seguridad y algunas cosas sencillas que podemos hacer para criar a nuestros nios como personas creativas, seguras de s mismas y en control del entorno que les rodea. +Lo que voy a presentarles es un extracto de un libro que estoy escribiendo. +El libro se llama "50 Cosas Peligrosas". +Estas son cinco cosas peligrosas. +Cosa nmero uno - jugar con fuego. +Aprender a controlar una de las ms elementales fuerzas de la naturaleza es un momento crucial en la historia personal de cualquier nio. +Sea que lo recordemos o no, es una - es la primera vez que realmente obtenemos control sobre una de estas cosas misteriosas. +Estos misterios son revelados solamente a los que tienen la oportunidad de jugar con l. +Entonces, jugar con fuego. +Esta es una de las grandes cosas que descubrimos, el fuego. +Jugando con l, aprenden algunos principios bsicos sobre el fuego, acerca de los combustibles, la combustin, y los gases de escape. +Estos son los tres elementos funcionales del fuego que usted necesita para tener un buen fuego bajo control. +Y se puede pensar en el fuego a cielo abierto como un laboratorio. +Usted no sabe lo que ellos van a aprender jugando con l. +Ustedes saben, djelos entretenerse por un rato con l en sus propios trminos y cranme, van a aprender cosas que no se obtienen jugando con los juguetes de Dora la Exploradora. +Nmero dos - tenga una navaja propia. +Las navajas estn empezando a desaparecer de nuestra conciencia cultural, lo cual pienso que es algo terrible. +Su primera - su primera navaja es como el primer instrumento universal que recibe. +Es una esptula, es una palanca, es un destornillador y es una cuchilla. +Y es una - es una herramienta poderosa, que nos da poder. +En una gran cantidad de culturas les dan cuchillos -- digamos, en el momento en el que empiezan a caminar, tienen cuchillos. +Estos son nios Inuit cortando grasa de ballena. +Vi esto por primera vez en una pelcula del Canadian Film Board cuando tena 10 aos, y me dej una impresin duradera, ver a los bebs jugar con cuchillos. +Y muestra que los nios pueden desarrollar un amplio sentido de s mismos a travs de una herramienta, a una edad muy temprana. +Usted establece un par de reglas muy simples -- siempre corte lejos de su cuerpo, mantenga la cuchilla afilada, y nunca la fuerce. -- estas son cosas que los nios pueden comprender y practicar. +Y s, van a cortarse. +Yo tengo algunas terribles cicatrices en mis piernas, en donde me cort. +Pero usted sabe, son jvenes. Sanan rpidamente. +Nmero tres - tirar una lanza. +Resulta que nuestros cerebros estn realmente cableados para lanzar cosas y, al igual que los msculos, si usted no usa algunas partes de su cerebro, estas tienden a atrofiarse con el tiempo. +Pero cuando los ejercita, cualquier msculo aade fuerza a todo el sistema y esto se aplica tambin a su cerebro. +De modo que ha sido demostrado que la prctica de tirar cosas estimula los lbulos frontal y parietal, que tienen que ver con la agudeza visual, la comprensin 3D, y la solucin estructural de problemas, lo que da un sentido -- ayuda a desarrollar sus habilidades de visualizacin y su capacidad predictiva. +Y lanzar es una combinacin de habilidad analtica y fsica, por lo que es muy bueno para ese tipo de entrenamiento de todo el cuerpo. +Estas prcticas basadas en blancos tambin ayudan a los nios a desarrollar habilidades de concentracin y atencin. As que estos son fabulosos. +El nmero cuatro - deconstruir los aparatos. +Hay un mundo de cosas interesantes dentro de su lavavajillas. +La prxima vez que est a punto de tirar un aparato, no lo deseche. +Desrmelo con su hijo, o envelo a mi escuela y lo desarmaremos con ellos. +Incluso si usted no sabe qu son las partes, imaginar para qu pueden servir es una prctica realmente buena para los nios para crear la sensacin de que pueden desarmar las cosas, y sin importar qu tan complejas sean, pueden entender partes de ellas, lo que significa que, con el tiempo, pueden entenderlas en su totalidad. +Es un sentido de cognoscibilidad, que algo puede ser conocido. +As pues, estas cajas negras con las que vivimos y que damos por hechas son en realidad elementos complejos hechos por otras personas y usted puede comprenderlos. +Nmero cinco -- dos-partes. +Acabar con el Digital Millenium Copyright Act. +Hay leyes ms all de las normas de seguridad que tratan de limitar la forma en que podemos interactuar con las cosas que nos pertenecen - en este caso, los medios digitales. +Es un ejercicio muy simple - compre una cancin en iTunes, cpiela en un CD, a continuacin, convierta el CD a un MP3 y reprodzcalo en el mismo computador. +Usted acaba de infringir una ley. +Tcnicamente, la RIAA puede venir y perseguirlo. +Es una leccin importante para los nios entender -- que algunas de estas leyes se infringen por accidente y que las leyes tienen que ser interpretadas. +Es algo de lo que hablamos a menudo con los nios cuando estamos jugando un poco con las cosas, abrindolas, desarmndolas y usndolas para otras cosas -- +y tambin cuando salimos y manejamos un automvil. +Conducir un automvil es una - es un acto realmente empoderador para un nio pequeo, as que esto es lo mximo. Para aquellos de ustedes que no se sienten cmodos rompiendo la ley, pueden conducir un automvil con su hijo. +Esta es - esta es una gran etapa para un nio. +Esto ocurre aproximadamente al mismo tiempo que se enganchan con cosas como dinosaurios, estas grandes cosas en el mundo exterior que estn tratando de comprender. +Un automvil es un objeto similar, y ellos pueden entrar en uno y manejarlo. +Y eso en realidad es -- les da un control en un mundo de una manera en la no podran -- a la que no suelen tener acceso. +Entonces -- y es perfectamente legal. +Busque un gran lote vaco, asegrese de que no hay nada en l y de que es propiedad privada, y permtales conducir su auto. +Es muy seguro en realidad. +Y es divertido para toda la familia. +Por lo tanto, vamos a ver. Creo que eso es todo. Es el nmero cinco y medio. Ok. +Hoy hablaremos de la parte 2 de la Verdad Incmoda +Es hora de hablar nuevamente de una Verdad Incmoda una realidad de la que todos estn preocupados, pero de la que nadie est dispuesto a hablar. +Alguien debe tomar el liderazgo, y he decidido hacerlo. +Si te asusta el calentamiento global espera a escuchar acerca del calentamiento local! +Hoy hablaremos del calentamiento local. +Un mensaje importante para tu salud: bloguear puede ser riesgoso para tu salud, especialmente si eres del sexo masculino. +Este mensaje es dado como servicio a la comunidad. +Bloguear afecta la postura. Comenzaremos con la postura. +Esta es la postura de las damas que no estn blogueando; esta es la postura de las damas que estn blogueando. +Esta es la postura natural de un hombre sentado, agachado por razones de ventilacin. +Y esta es la postura de un hombre de pie. Y yo creo que esta imgen inspir a Chris a agregarme a la sesin del pensamiento lateral. +Esta es la postura masculina de bloguea sentado, y el resultado es que para mayor confort, los hombres se sientan con las piernas ms abiertas que las mujeres cuando trabajan en una laptop. +Si embargo, tomarn una postura menos natural para balancearla en sus regazos, lo cual resulta en un aumento significativo del calor corporal en la entrepierna. Ese es el problema del calentamiento local. +Este es un peridico muy serio. Es el Times de Inglaterra -- muy serio. Este es un -- caballeros y damas, mantengan la seriedad. +Esta es una investigacin muy seria. Lean el subrayado. +Y tengan cuidado. Sus genes peligran. +Se volvern los "geeks" una especie en riesgo de extincin? +Es un hecho: el crecimiento de poblacin en pases con muchas laptops es menor Necesito que Hans Rosling me de un grfico +Diversin con el calentamiento global +Pero mantengamos las cosas en proporcin. +Como cuidarse en 5 simples pasos. Primero, es posible usar ventilacin natural. Puedes usar respiracin corporal. +Debes mantenerte fresco con la ropa adecuada. +Debes cuidar tu postura -- esto no est bien. +Pueden extraer de Chris otro minuto y medio para m? Porque tengo un video que les quiero mostrar. +Uds. son geniales. Esta es la postura correcta. +Otro beneficio de WiFi. Ayer aprendimos acerca de los beneficios de WiFi. +WiFi te permite evitar al procesador. Y hay otras medidas de proteccin que quiero compartir con Uds., y quisiera, en un minuto, agradecer a Philips por su ayuda. +Esta es una investigacin que fue realizada en el '86, pero es an vlida. +La temperatura escrotal refleja la temperatura inter-testicular y se reduce afeitando la zona +Debo admintir que mi ingls no es muy bueno No saba que significa "scrotal"; entiendo que se trata de un "scrotum" +Supongo que el plural es "scrotal", como "medium" y "media". +Scrotum digital, media digital. +Recin el ao pasado me di cuenta que soy el orgulloso poseedor de un escroto. +Esta investigacin fue acelarada por el gobierno americano, como pueden ver, el recaudador de impuestos trabaja para buenas causas. +Video: Hombre: El Philips Bodygroom tiene un moderno y ergonmico diseo para lograr un modo seguro y divertido de recortar esos desprolijos pelos axilares; los rulos desordenados alrededor de su BEEP, as como las zonas de difcil acceso en la parte baja de su BEEP, BEEP. Una vez que use su Bodygroom, el mundo se ver diferente. +Y tambin su BEEP. En estos das, con una espalda libre de pelos, hombros bien cuidados y una pulgada ms de "tamao aparente" en mi BEEP, digamos que la vida se ha vuelto mucho ms cmoda. +Yossi Vardi: Este es uno de los videos publicitarios virales ms populares del ltimo ao conocido como "la pulgada de tamao aparente" de Philips. Un aplauso para Philips. -- por este gesto hacia la humanidad. +As es como promueven el producto. Esto es -- no lo toqu, es el original. +El uso de Laptops para resolver la sobrepoblacin. Y si todo falla hay algunos usos secundarios. +Y nuestra prxima charla, en el prximo TED, si me invitan ser por qu no deberas llevar un celular en el bolsillo. +Esto es lo que dice la generacin jven. +Para mostrarles que no estoy slo pregonando sino que tambin lo practico. +4 de la maana. +No pueden utilizar esta imagen +Ahora, tengo algunos mini-premios de TED. Este es el Philips Bodygroom, uno para nuestro lder. +Alguien se siente amenazado? Alguien lo necesita realmente? +Alguna dama? Muchas gracias. +Muchsimas gracias. Qu miedo estar aqu entre los ms inteligentes de los inteligentes! +Estoy aqu para contarles algunas historias de pasin. +Hay un refrn judo que me encanta. +Qu es ms ms cierto que la verdad? Respuesta: La historia. +Yo soy una contadora de historias. Quiero contar algo que es ms cierto que la verdad sobre nuestra humanidad compartida. +Todas las historias me interesan, y algunas me obsesionan hasta que termino escribindolas. +Ciertas temticas se repiten: justicia, lealtad, violencia, muerte, asuntos polticos y sociales, libertad. +Estoy consciente del misterio que nos rodea, as que escribo sobre coincidencias, premoniciones, emociones, sueos, el poder de la naturaleza, la magia. +En los ltimos 20 aos he publicado algunos libros, pero viv en el anonimato hasta febrero del 2006, cuando llev la bandera olmpica en las Olimpiadas de Invierno en Italia. +Eso me transform en una celebridad, ahora la gente me reconoce en Macy's y mis nietos piensan que soy chvere. +Permtanme contarles sobre mis 4 minutos de fama. +Uno de los organizadores de la ceremonia olmpica, de la ceremonia inaugural, me llam para decirme que yo haba sido seleccionada para llevar la bandera. +Le respond que seguro se haba equivocado de persona porque soy todo lo contrario a una atleta. +De hecho ni siquiera estaba segura de poder darle la vuelta al estadio sin un andador. +Me dijeron que esto no era un asunto cmico. +Esta sera la primera vez que la bandera olmpica sera llevada solamente por mujeres. +5 mujeres representando 5 continentes, y 3 ganadoras de medallas de oro olmpicas. +Mi primera pregunta fue, naturalmente, qu ropa iba a usar? +Un uniforme, me dijo ella, y me pregunt por mis medidas. +Mis medidas! +Me visualic en una parka inflada vindome como el hombre Michelin. +En la mitad de febrero, me encontr en Turn, donde las multitudes entusiastas vitoreaban cuando cualquiera de los 80 equipos olmpicos pasaba por la calle. +Estos atletas haban sacrificado todo para competir en las Olimpiadas. +Todos merecan ganar, pero est el elemento suerte. +Un cristal de nieve, una pulgada de hielo, la fuerza del viento, pueden determinar el resultado de una carrera o de un partido. +Pero lo que ms importa, ms que el entrenamiento o la suerte, es el corazn. +Slo un corazn sin miedo y resuelto obtendr la medalla de oro. +Todo tiene que ver con la pasin. +Las calles de Turn estaban cubiertas de carteles rojos anunciando el lema de las Olimpiadas. +"La pasin vive aqu". No es siempre as? +El corazn nos gua y determina nuestro destino. +Esto es lo que necesito para los personajes de mis libros: un corazn apasionado. +Necesito inconformistas, disidentes, aventureros, forasteros y rebeldes, que hacen preguntas, tuercen las reglas y toman riesgos. +Gente como todos los que estn en este auditorio. +La gente simptica y con sentido comn no son personajes interesantes. +Slo sirven de buenos ex esposos. +En la sala verde del estadio conoc a las otras mujeres que llevaran la bandera: tres atletas, y las actrices Susan Sarandon y Sofia Loren. +Tambin dos mujeres de corazones apasionados. Wangari Maathai, la ganadora del Premio Nobel de Kenia que ha plantado 30 millones de rboles, y al hacerlo ha cambiado la tierra y el clima de algunos lugares de Africa, y por supuesto las condiciones econmicas de muchos pueblos, +Y Somaly Mam, una activista camboyana que lucha apasionadamente contra la prostitucin infantil, +Cuando ella tena 14 aos, su abuelo la vendi a un burdel. +Ella nos cont de nias violadas por hombres que creen que tener sexo con una virgen muy joven los va a curar del SIDA. +Y de burdeles donde las nias son forzadas a recibir de cinco, a 15 clientes por da, y si se rebelan, las torturan con electricidad. +En la sala verde recib mi uniforme. +No era el tipo de atuendo que normalmente uso, pero era muy distinto que el traje del Hombre Michelin que yo anticipaba. Realmente no estaba mal. +Yo me vea como un refrigerador. +Al igual que casi todas las personas que llevaban la bandera, excepto Sofia Loren, el smbolo universal de belleza y pasin. +Sofia tiene ms de 70 y se ve fabulosa. +Ella es sexy, flaca, alta, con un bronceado profundo. +Cmo se puede tener ese bronceado y no tener arrugas? +Yo no se. +Cuando le preguntaron en una entrevista "Cmo hace para verse tan bien?" +Ella respondi: "Postura. Mi espalda siempre est recta, y no hago los ruidos de los viejos". +As que aqu tienen consejos gratuitos de una de las mujeres ms bellas del mundo. +No gruir, no toser, no resollar, no hablar solos, nada de pedos. +Bueno, ella no dijo esto exactamente. +En algn momento cerca de la medianoche, nos convocaron a un ala del estadio, y los parlantes anunciaron la bandera olmpica, y comenz la msica, a propsito, es la misma msica que ponen aqu, la Marcha de Aida. +Sofia Loren estaba justo en frente mo, ella es 30 cm. ms alta que yo, sin contar el pelo escarmenado. +Ella camin elegantemente, como una jirafa en la sabana africana, sosteniendo la bandera sobre su hombro. Yo trotaba detrs, en puntillas, sosteniendo la bandera con mi brazo extendido. de manera tal que mi cabeza estaba debajo de la maldita bandera. +Por supuesto, todas las cmaras apuntaban hacia Sofia. +Cosa afortunada para mi porque en la mayora de las fotos de prensa aparezco tambin yo, aunque casi siempre entre las piernas de Sofia. +Lugar donde a la mayora de los hombres les gustara estar. +Los mejores 4 minutos de toda mi vida fueron aquellos en el Estadio Olmpico. +Mi esposo se ofende cuando digo esto, aunque yo le he explicado que lo que hacemos en privado en general toma menos de 4 minutos, as que no debera tomrselo personalmente. +Tengo todos los recortes de prensa de esos magnficos 4 minutos, porque no quiero olvidarlos cuando la vejez destruya mis neuronas. +Quiero llevar en mi corazn para siempre la palabra clave de las Olimpiadas: pasin. +Aqu les tengo una historia de pasin. +El ao es 1998, el lugar un campo de prisioneros para refugiados Tutsi en el Congo. +A propsito, 80% de todos los refugiados y desplazados en el mundo son mujeres y nias. +Podemos llamar este lugar en el Congo un campo de muerte, porque a los que no matan, mueren de hambre y enfermedad. +Las protagonistas de esta historia son una mujer joven, Rose Mapendo, y sus hijos. +Ella est embarazada y es una viuda. +Los soldados la han forzado a ver cmo torturan y matan a su esposo. +De alguna manera logra mantener vivos a sus 7 hijos, y unos meses despus da a luz a mellizos prematuros. +Dos pequeos nios. +Corta el cordn umbilical con un palo, y lo amarra con su propio pelo. +Les da los nombres de los comandantes del campamento para agradarlos, y los alimenta con te negro porque su leche no puede sustentarlos. +Cuando los soldados irrumpen en su celda para violar a su hija mayor, ella la agarra y rehusa soltarla, an cuando le apuntan un arma a su cabeza. +De alguna manera la familia sobrevive por 16 meses, y luego, con una suerte extraordinaria, y gracias al corazn apasionado de un joven norteamericano, Sasha Chanoff, que logra subirla a un avin de rescate de EEUU, Rose Mapendo y sus 9 hijos llegan a Phoenix, en Arizona, donde hoy viven y prosperan. +Mapendo quiere decir "gran amor" en Swahili. +Las protagonistas de mis libros son mujeres fuertes y apasionadas como Rose Mapendo. +Yo no las invento. No es necesario. +Miro a mi alrededor y las veo en todas partes. +He trabajado con mujeres y para mujeres toda mi vida. +Las conozco bien. +Yo nac en tiempos antiguos, en el fin del mundo, dentro de una familia patriarcal, catlica y conservadora. +No es ninguna sorpresa que ya a los 5 aos fuera una feminista furiosa aunque el trmino no haba llegado todava a Chile, as que nadie saba cul era mi problema. +Pronto descubrira que haba que pagar un precio alto por mi libertad y por cuestionar al patriarcado. +Pero estaba feliz de pagar el precio porque por cada golpe que recib, yo pude dar dos de vuelta. +Una vez, cuando mi hija Paula tena ms de 20 aos, me dijo que el feminismo era anticuado y que yo debera dejarlo. +Tuvimos una pelea memorable. El feminismo es anticuado? +Si, para las mujeres privilegiadas como mi hija y todas nosotras presentes hoy, pero no lo es para la mayora de nuestras hermanas en el resto del mundo que todava son obligadas a casarse prematuramente, a prostituirse, o a trabajos forzados, ellas tienen hijos que no quieren o que no pueden alimentar. +No tienen control sobre sus cuerpos o sus vidas. +No tienen ni educacin ni libertad. +Ellas son violadas, golpeadas y, a veces, asesinadas con impunidad. +Para la mayora de las mujeres jvenes occidentales de hoy ser llamada feminista es un insulto. +El feminismo nunca ha sido sexy, pero les puedo asegurar que nunca me ha impedido coquetear, y rara vez he sufrido una falta de hombres. +El feminismo no est muerto, de ninguna manera. +Ha evolucionado. Si lo que no les gusta es el trmino, por la Diosa, cmbienlo! +Llmenlo Afrodita o Venus o lo que quieran, el nombre no importa, mientras sigamos entendiendo de qu se trata, y que lo apoyemos. +Tengo otra historia de pasin, y esta es triste. +El lugar es una pequea clnica para mujeres en un pueblo en Bangladesh +El ao es 2005. +Jenny es una joven asistente dental estadounidense que est de voluntaria en la clnica durante sus tres semanas de vacaciones. +Ella est preparada para limpiar dientes, pero cuando llega all, se entera de que no hay doctores, no hay dentistas, y la clnica es slo una choza llena de moscas. +Afuera hay una fila de mujeres que han esperado varias horas para ser tratadas. +La primera paciente tiene un dolor espantoso porque tiene varias muelas podridas. +Jenny se da cuenta que la nica solucin es extraer los dientes malos. +Ella no tiene licencia para eso, nunca lo ha hecho. +Ella arriesga mucho y est aterrorizada. +Ni siquiera cuenta con los instrumentos adecuados. pero afortunadamente ella ha trado algo de anestesia. +Jenny tiene un corazn valiente y apasionado. +Murmura una plegaria y sigue adelante con la operacin. +Al final, la paciente aliviada le besa las manos. +Ese da la asistente dental extrae muchos ms dientes. +A la maana siguiente, cuando llega a la supuesta clnica, su primera paciente est esperando con el esposo. +La cara de la mujer parece un meln. +Est tan hinchada que no se le ven los ojos. +El esposo, furioso, amenaza con matar a la estadounidense. +Jenny est horrorizada con lo que hizo, pero entonces el intrprete le explica que la condicin de la paciente no tiene nada que ver con la operacin. +El da anterior, el esposo la golpe porque ella no estaba en casa a tiempo para prepararle su comida. +Millones de mujeres viven as hoy en da. +Son las ms pobres de los pobres. +Aunque las mujeres realizan dos tercios del trabajo en el mundo, son dueas de menos del 1% de los bienes del mundo. +Se les paga menos que a los hombres por el mismo trabajo si es que se les paga algo, y se mantienen vulnerables porque no tienen independencia econmica, y estn siempre amenazadas por la explotacin, la violencia y el abuso. +Es un hecho que darle educacin y trabajo a las mujeres, la habilidad de controlar sus ingresos, la posibilidad de heredar y poseer propiedad, benefician a la sociedad. +Si una mujer est empoderada, sus hijos y su familia van a estar mejor. +Si las familias prosperan, el pueblo prospera, y eventualmente todo el pas. +Wangari Maathai va a un pueblo en Kenia. +Ella habla con las mujeres, y les explica que la tierra est rida porque han cortado y vendido los rboles. +Ella logra que las mujeres planten y que rieguen rboles nuevos. gota a gota. +En un lapso de 5 o 6 aos tienen un bosque, la tierra se enriquece y el pueblo se salva. +Las sociedades ms pobres y retrgradas siempre son las que oprimen a sus mujeres. +Pero esta verdad obvia es ignorada por los gobiernos, y tambin por la filantropa. +Por cada dlar que se le da a un proyecto para mujeres, se le dan 20 dlares a proyectos para hombres. +Las mujeres son el 51 porciento de la humanidad. +Darles poder va a cambiarlo todo, ms que la tecnologa, el diseo y el entretenimiento. +Yo puedo prometerles que las mujeres trabajando juntas, vinculadas entre s, informadas y educadas, pueden traer paz y prosperidad a este planeta sin esperanzas. +En cualquier guerra hoy, la mayora de las bajas son civiles, la mayora mujeres y nios. Ellos son dao colateral. +Los hombres manejan el mundo y miren el caos que tenemos. +Qu clase de mundo queremos? +Esta es una pregunta fundamental que la mayora nos estamos preguntando. +Tiene sentido participar en la estructura mundial actual? +Queremos un mundo donde se preserve la vida. y donde la calidad de vida se enriquezca para todos, no slo para los privilegiados. +En enero vi una exhibicin de pinturas de Fernando Botero en la biblioteca de la Universidad Berkeley de California. +Ningn museo o galera en los Estados Unidos, excepto por la galera que representa a Botero en Nueva York, se ha atrevido a mostrar estas pinturas porque el tema es la prisin de Abu Ghraib. +Son pinturas enormes sobre tortura y abuso de poder, en el estilo voluminoso de Botero. +No he podido quitarme esas imgenes de la cabeza o de mi corazn. +Lo que ms temo es el poder con impunidad. +Le temo al abuso de poder y al poder de abusar. +En nuestra especie, los machos alfa definen la realidad, y fuerzan al resto de la manada a aceptar esa realidad y a seguir las reglas. +Las reglas cambian todo el tiempo, pero siempre los benefician, y en este caso, el efecto del chorreo, que no funciona en la economa, funciona perfectamente. +El abusa chorrea desde la parte ms alta de la escalera hacia abajo. +Las mujeres y los nios, especialmente los pobres, estn abajo. +Incluso el ms indigente de los hombres tiene a alguien para abusar, una mujer o un nio. +Estoy harta del poder que unos pocos ejercen sobre la mayora, a travs del gnero, los ingresos, la raza, y la clase. +Creo que lleg el momento de hacer cambios fundamentales en nuestra civilizacin. +Pero para que el cambio sea real, necesitamos energa femenina en la administracin del mundo. +Necesitamos un nmero crtico de mujeres en posiciones de poder, y necesitamos cultivar la energa femenina de los hombres. +Estoy hablando de hombres con mentes jvenes, por supuesto. +No hay esperanza con los hombres viejos, tenemos que esperar que se mueran. +Si, me encantara tener las largas piernas de Sofia Loren y sus legendarios pechos. +Pero si me dan a escoger, preferira tener el corazn guerrero de Wangari Maathai, Somaly Mam, Jenny y Rose Mapendo. +Quiero que este mundo sea bueno. +No mejor, sino que bueno. +Por qu no? Se puede. Miren en esta sala, todo este conocimiento, energa, talento y tecnologa. +Pongmonos de pie, arremangumonos y pongmonos a trabajar, apasionadamente, para crear un mundo, casi, perfecto. +Gracias. +Vamos a sumergirnos en las aguas profundas. Cualquiera que haya tenido la suerte de hacerlo sabe que, durante unas dos horas y media hacia abajo, es un mundo total, completa y absolutamente oscuro. +Por la ventana veamos los animales ms misteriosos, imposibles de describir. Unas luces intermitentes: un mundo de bioluminescencia, de lucirnagas. +La Dra. Edith Witter --de la Asociacin de Investigacin para la Conservacin-- logr idear una cmara que captara algunos de estos increbles animales, y eso es lo que ven ahora en la pantalla. +Todo eso es bioluminescencia. Como dije: igual que las lucirnagas. +Este es un pavo volador bajo un rbol. Ya s. Soy gelogo de formacin; pero eso me encanta. +Y se ve que usan un poco la bioluminescencia para evitar que se los coman, y otro poco para atraer presas. Pero toda, desde el punto de vista artstico, es realmente asombrosa. +Mucho de lo que sucede adentro -- este es un pez con los ojos encendidos, palpitantes. +Algunos colores estn diseados para hipnotizar. Esto patrones hermosos. Y este es el ltimo: uno de mis favoritos, un diseo de molinete. +Absolutamente fascinante, cada zambullida. +Es el mundo de lo desconocido. Al da de hoy, solo hemos explorado el 3 por ciento de los ocanos. +Hemos encontrado las montaas ms altas del mundo, los valles ms profundos, lagos submarinos, cascadas bajo el agua; compartimos mucho de ello con ustedes desde el escenario. +En un lugar donde creamos que no haba nada de vida, hallamos ms vida, nos parece, ms diversidad y densidad que en el bosque tropical. Quiere decir que no sabemos nada del planeta, en realidad. +Todava queda el 97 por ciento... que estar vaco o lleno de sorpresas. +Ahora quisiera pasar a aguas poco profundas, a ver unas criaturas que son, sin duda, sorprendentes. +Los cefalpodos, los cabeza-pies. De nio, los llamaba "calamari". +Este es un pulpo. +Este es el trabajo del Dr. Roger Hanlon del laboratorio de Biologa Marina. Es fascinante cmo los cefalpodos, con esos ojos increbles, detectan su entorno, observan la luz, ven patrones. +Este es un pulpo movindose por el arrecife. Encuentra un lugar donde descansar, se acomoda y desaparece contra el fondo. +Qu difcil, no? +En las prximas tomas, veremos unos calamares. +Este es un calamar. Los machos, cuando pelean, si estn muy agresivos, se ponen blancos. +Estos dos machos estn peleando. +Lo hacen golpeando sus traseros, un concepto interesante. Ac hay un macho a la izquierda +y una hembra a la derecha. El macho ha logrado dividir su coloracin, para que la hembra vea siempre su lado ms benvolo y gentil. +Y el macho -- Vamos a verlo otra vez. Vemoslo de nuevo. Observen la coloracin: blanco a la derecha, caf a la izquierda. +Retrocede; mantiene alejados a los dems machos dividiendo su cuerpo y aparece al otro lado... Bingo! Me han dicho que este +fenmeno no es exclusivo de los calamares machos, pero no s. +Las sepias, me encantan las sepias. Esta es una sepia australiana gigante. +Aqu est. Tiene los ojitos cados, ac. +Pero pueden hacer cosas asombrosas. +Aqu vemos que uno entra hacia atrs en una grieta, y -- miren los tentculos. Nada ms los guarda. Parece cualquier otra alga. +Desaparece contra el fondo. +Extraordinario. Estos son dos machos peleando. +De nuevo, estos cefalpodos son muy inteligentes; saben no hacerse dao. +Pero vean los patrones que pueden crear con su piel. Ven? +Realmente impresionante. +Este es un pulpo. A veces no quieren que los vean cuando se mueven, pues los depredadores los encontraran. +Ac, este logra parecer una roca y, observando su entorno, se desliza por el lecho y usa las olas y las sombras para pasar desapercibido. +Nada ms se desvanece; se desplaza y desvanece contra el fondo. El truco de la roca mvil. Estamos aprendiendo mucho en aguas poco profundas. +Seguimos explorando las profundidades, pero aprendemos mucho en aguas poco profundas. +Eso es porque las aguas poco profundas estn llenas de depredadores. Esta es una barracuda. Y si eres un pulpo o un cefalpodo, sabes cmo usar el entorno para ocultarte. +En la siguiente escena, vern un bello coral. +Y ven que un pulpo sobresaldra fcilmente si no pudiera usar el camuflaje, la piel, para cambiar de color y textura. +Ac hay unas algas en primer plano. Y un pulpo. No es asombroso? Ahora, Roger lo asust, +as que huy tras una nube de tinta. Al aterrizar, el pulpo piensa: "Ay, me vieron. +Lo mejor es hacerme lo ms grande que pueda." +Este caf grande dilata sus ojos. +Est fanfarroneando. Hagmoslo al revs. +Cuando me mostr esto, pens que estaba bromeando. +Pens que eran grficos. Aqu est en reversa. +Vean el color de la piel, miren la textura de la piel. +Sencillamente, un animal fascinante; cambia de color y textura para combinar con el entorno. Vanlo desvanecerse entre las algas. +Uno. Dos. Tres. +Se ha ido, y yo tambin. Muchas gracias. +Aquellos quienes creemos en el cielo tenemos algn tipo de idea de lo que el cielo sera +Y segn mi idea, el cielo es curiosidad satisfecha. +Pienso en el cielo como una nube realmente confortable, en donde simplemente puedo echarme -- sobre mi barriga, como si estuviese mirando la tele cuando era nia, y apoyada sobre mis codos. +Y bsicamente, puedo mirar dondequiera que desee -- ver cada pelcula que siempre he deseado ver. +Y en el mismo tipo de trance que a veces puedes sentir en el subterrneo, en Nueva York, cuando ests leyendo, hay algo muy relajante y tranquilo. +Bien, lo divertido es que ya tengo ese tipo de vida, de algn modo. Porque yo descubr -- +me tom tiempo entenderlo, pero cuando descubr, alrededor de los 24 aos de edad, que estaba mucho ms cmoda con los objetos que con la gente, finalmente, decid en verdad abrazar esta pasin. +Y fundamentalmente, vivo mi vida en una especie de trance. Y miro alrededor, y todo lo que veo es apenas el inicio de una larga historia. +Slo para darles un ejemplo: esta es la exposicin "Modestas Obras Maestras" presentada en el Moma en 2004. +Nosotros estbamos en Queens. Estbamos construyendo el gran, gran, gran, gran edificio en el casco central as que estbamos en las pequeas, pequeas, pequeas afueras (Long Island). +Aqul fue uno de los momentos ms divertidos de mi carrera. +Pero no solamente eso. +El tipo de letra -- el tipo es Helvtica. Este ao es su 50. aniversario. +Y entonces comienzo a pensar: Max Miedinger, y todos aquellos diseadores suizos reunidos, intentando superar Akzidenz Grotesk, y emergen con una nueva tipografa sin serifas. Y la pelcula comienza a proyectarse en mi cabeza inmediatamente. +Y por supuesto, pueden imaginar que con "Modestas Obras Maestras" fue la misma cosa multiplicada por cien. +Y espero, por cierto, que el objetivo real de la exposicin va a tener el mismo efecto en ustedes. +La exposicin pretenda ser un medio para tener a los nios pensando qu hacer -- +saben, cuando ellos hacen sus tareas en casa? +En lugar de tener una bandeja con dos guisantes, yo estaba esperando que fueran al gabinete de la cocina, o al bolso de la madre, e hicieran su coleccin de diseo con calidad musestica en una bandeja. +As, todos sugeran siempre nuevas "Modestas Obras Maestras". Y en el MoMA colocamos algunos libros -- slo para que la gente sugiriera sus propias "Modestas Obras Maestras". +Y cuando haces eso, usualmente obtienes 80 por ciento de porno y 20 por ciento de verdaderas sugerencias. Y en cambio, fueron todas -- casi -- todas buenas sugerencias. +Y aflor un montn de nacionalismo. +Por ejemplo, yo no saba que los espaoles inventaron el trapeador -- pero ellos estaban muy orgullosos. As cada espaol dijo "la fregona" y los italianos la pizza. +Y deseaba mostrarles, tambin, las sugerencias de Kentucky son bastante buenas: tenan la luz de luna, los detergentes de lavandera y Liquid Nails . +Y lo dej seguir, y acabo de conseguirlo -- -- tambin, esta sugerencia de Miln: es nuestro separador vial, al cual llamamos panettone, y est pintado -- saben, son aquellas hermosas cosas de concreto que usan por todo Miln para demarcar todos los carriles de trfico. +As que piensen en las suyas. Envenlas, si lo desean -- siempre son bien recibidas. +Pero una exposicin as me hizo comprender an ms aquello en que he estado pensando durante 13 aos, desde que llegu al MoMA. +Soy italiana. En Italia disear es normal. +Saben, en diferentes partes del mundo tienen una destreza para diferentes cosas. +Hace poco estuve en Argentina y Uruguay, y el estilo habitual para edificar casas en la regin es de un bello modernismo que no ves en otro lugar, pero el arte contemporneo era horrible. +En Italia -- particularmente, en Miln -- el arte contemporneo realmente no tiene mucho espacio. +Pero el diseo -- Oh, Dios mo!. +Lo que consigues en la tienda de la esquina, sin ir a ningn tipo de almacn lujoso, es la clase de diseo refinado que hace que todo el mundo piense que todos somos muy sofisticados. +Es slo lo que encuentras en la tienda. +Y Nueva York tiene otro tipo de destreza para el arte contemporneo. +Siempre estoy sorprendida -- a la edad de tres aos conocen quin es Richard Serra y te llevan a las galeras. +Pero el diseo, por algn motivo, an se confunde con decoracin. +Es muy interesante. Lo que mucha gente piensa cuando menciono la palabra "diseo", es lo que creen de esta clase de sobrediseada -- en este caso, sobrediseada a propsito -- pero decoracin, decoracin interior. +Piensan en alguien seleccionando tejidos. +Disear puede ser eso, claro, pero tambin puede ser esto. +Puede ser una escuela de diseo en Jerusaln que intenta una manera mejor de disear mscaras de gas para la gente. Porque, como saben, Israel distribuye una mscara por persona, incluyendo a bebs. +Entonces, lo que estos diseadores hacen es hallar una forma de reducir el escote -- as que en lugar de estar completamente estrangulado, un adolescente tambin pueda sorber una Coca-Cola. +Intentaron crear una mscara de gas para nios de tal manera que ste pueda ser sostenido por los padres -- porque la proximidad del cuerpo es tan importante -- +y luego crearon una tiendita para el beb. +Por ms cruel, por ms despiadado que piensen que sea, es un gran diseo. Y est a kilmetros de distancia del mobiliario lujoso, pero an, es parte de mi misma rea de pasin. +Yo estoy muy consciente de que el 80 por ciento de mi pblico est all para ver a Picasso y Matisse. Y luego tropiezan con mi muestra, y los retengo all. +Pero lo que he estado tratando de hacer es algo que los curadores del MoMA en mi departamento han estado haciendo desde que el museo fue fundado en 1929, lo cual es ensayar y observar qu est pasando en el mundo e intentar usar esa autoridad para mejorar las cosas. +Y entonces exista buen diseo a un precio muy bajo. +Hubo montones de programas de arquitectura y diseo que consistan en guiar a la gente en direccin a un diseo mejor para una vida mejor. +As que comenc en el 95 con esta exposicin que se llam, "Materiales Mutantes en el Diseo Contemporneo" +Fue sobre una nueva fase, en mi opinin, en el mundo del diseo en la que los materiales podran ser personalizados por los mismos diseadores. +Y me puso en contacto con diversidad de ejemplos de diseo como los aerogeles del Laboratorio Lawrence Livermore de California. En ese momento, estaban comenzando a ser introducidos en el mercado civil. +Y al mismo tiempo, el estupendo trabajo de Takeshi Ishiguro, quien cre estos hermosos envases para sal y pimienta elaborados con pasta de arroz. +As, ven, -- el rango es realmente muy diverso. +Y luego por ejemplo, esta otra exposicin que fue titulada, "Trabajsferas" en 2001, donde le ped a diferentes diseadores presentar ideas para la nueva clase de estilos de trabajo que estaban aconteciendo mundialmente en aquel entonces. +Y ven a Ideo all. +Era hermoso -- fue llamado "Cielos Personales". +La idea era que si tenas un cubculo, podras proyectar un cielo encima de tu cabeza, y tener tu propio "Cielo in Una Stanza" -- un cielo en un cuarto. Es una cancin italiana muy famosa. +Y otros ejemplos. Este era Marti Guixe, refirindose a trabajar sobre la marcha. Y Hella Jongerius, mi favorita, sobre cmo trabajar en casa. +Y esto me permiti presentar una idea muy importante sobre el diseo. Los diseadores son los sintetizadores ms grandes del mundo. +Lo que mejor hacen es elaborar una sntesis de las necesidades humanas; para las condiciones actuales en economa, en materiales, en cuestiones de sostenibilidad. Y luego, lo que ellos hacen, al final -- si son buenos -- es mucho ms que la suma de sus partes. +Y Hella Jongerius es una persona capaz de realizar una sntesis que es totalmente sorprendente, y, adems, totalmente divertida. +La idea detrs de su trabajo era que -- saben, en ese momento todos estaban diciendo: realmente, tienes que dividir tu vida. +Y al contrario, ella dijo: no, no -- trabajo y ocio pueden estar juntos. +S ese es particularmente estupendo -- es la tele cena de 2001. +Han habido muchas otras exposiciones en el nterin, pero no quiero concentrarme en mis muestras. +En cambio, quisiera conversar sobre cun grandes son algunos diseadores. +Siempre he tenido severas dificultades con la palabra "maverick" [inconforme] +Saben, llegu a Estados Unidos hace 13 aos, y hasta hoy da tengo que preguntar, saben, qu es lo que significa? +Entonces, esta maana consult en el diccionario, y deca que existi ese caballero que no marcaba su ganado. +Por lo tanto, l no estaba siguiendo las pautas de los dems -- y por lo tanto, era un "maverick" [inconforme] +As que, saben, los diseadores necesitan ser inconformes. Porque la mejor manera de disear un objeto exitoso -- y adems, un objeto que antes nos estaba faltando -- es pretender que ste nunca existi o que la gente ser capaz de tener un nuevo comportamiento con l. +As que "Seguro" es la ltima exposicin que hice en MoMA. Y termin a comienzos del ao pasado, +y fue sobre el diseo que lidia con seguridad, y lidia con proteccin. +Es un cuento largo porque comenz antes del 2001, se llamaba "Emergencia". +Y luego, cuando sucedi el 11/9, tuve un shock, y cancel la exposicin. Hasta que, lenta pero segura, volvi -- como un vaso medio lleno, en vez de medio vaco -- y era sobre la proteccin y la seguridad. +Pero abarcaba desde elementos tales como un equipo completo de remocin de minas hasta este tipo de pajillas esterilizadoras de agua. As que fue un rango muy amplio. +Tambin tuvo -- saben, Cameron y yo trabajbamos un poco juntos. Y algunas de las entradas que ven en su sitio web realmente estuvieron en la exposicin. +Pero lo interesante es que ya no necesitamos hablar sobre arte y diseo. Pero el diseo utiliza cualquier herramienta que tenga a su disposicin para lograr un propsito. +Es un sentido de economa -- y tambin un sentido de humor. +Este es un proyecto hermoso de Ralph Borland, que es sudafricano. +Es un traje para la desobediencia civil. +La idea es que cuando tengas una concentracin o una protesta y la polica venga hacia ti, ests usando esta cosa. Es como un gran corazn -- y tiene un altavoz sobre tu corazn para que tus latidos sean amplificados. Y la polica queda advertida -- es como tener una flor frente al rifle. +Y adems, pueden imaginar, un grupo completo de personas con el mismo atuendo tendrn estos crecientes latidos colectivos que asustarn a la polica. +Saben, as que los diseadores, en ocasiones, hacen cosas que no son expresamente funcionales, sino funcionales para nuestra comprensin de los temas. +Pero lo interesante de la exposicin es aqul descubrimiento que era que el ltimo refugio es tu sentido de ti mismo -- y hay muy pocos diseadores que estn trabajando en este tema. +Esta es Cindy van der Bremen, quien es una diseadora holandesa que ha hecho esta serie de velos. +Son implementos deportivos para mujeres musulmanas que les permiten esquiar, jugar tenis -- hacer cualquier cosa que deseen -- sin tener ellas que descubrirse. +Y a veces, por hacer este tipo de investigacin encuentras ideas de diseo tan bellas. +Twan Verdonck es realmente joven -- creo que tiene 27 -- y, trabajando junto a un psiclogo, hizo una serie de juguetes para la estimulacin sensorial de nios que tienen impedimentos sicolgicos. +Son absolutamente bellos. +Van desde este juguete esponjoso, que versa sobre abrazarte -- porque los nios autistas adoran estar estrechamente abrazados, as que tiene un resorte interno -- extendindose hasta esta mueca con espejo, as el nio puede verse l o ella misma en el espejo, y recuperar un sentido de s mismo. +El diseo realmente abarca el mundo entero, y lo considera en todos sus diversos mbitos. +Recientemente estuve en una conferencia sobre el lujo, organizada por el Herald Tribune, en Estambul. +Y fue muy interesante, porque fui ltima oradora, y antes que yo, haba gente que realmente estuvo charlando sobre el lujo. Y no quera ser una aguafiestas, pero al mismo tiempo senta que, en cierto modo, tena que devolver el discurso a la realidad. +Y la verdad es que existen diversos tipos de lujo. Y hay lujos que son relativos, para la gente que no tiene tanto. +Y quiero destacar este punto para mostrarles dos ejemplos de diseo provenientes de un sentido de economa -- muy, muy claros lmites. +sta es Cuba, y ste es el reciclaje de un juguete chilln como timbre de bicicleta. Y ste, en cambio, un impermeable hecho con sacos de arroz. +As que son absolutamente bellos, pero son bellos porque son tan atinados y econmicos. +Y en su lugar, aqu est el trabajo de dos hermanos de Sao Paulo Fernando y Humberto Campana, quienes se inspiraron en la pobreza y la agudeza que vieron alrededor de ellos para hacer piezas de mobiliario que ahora se estn vendiendo en una enorme suma de dinero . +Pero esto es debido a un tipo de rareza propia del mercado. +As que realmente, el diseo todo lo toma en cuenta. Y lo interesante es que, as como avanza la tecnologa, as como nos volvemos ms y ms inalmbricos e impalpables, los diseadores, en lugar de eso, desean que seamos de "manos a la obra". +Ven, esta es toda una serie de muebles que desean engranar fisicamente contigo. +E incluso esta silla, que tienes que abrir y despus sentarte, por lo que toma tu marca, hasta abarcar esta serie de objetos que son diseos atribuidos a Ana Mir de Barcelona. +Desde este tipo de bisutera con cabello humano, a estos pezones de chocolate a estos caramelos interdigitales que supuestamente tu amante chupar de los dedos de tus pies. +Es absolutamente bello, porque por alguna razn, este es un momento estupendo para el diseo. +Hace muchos aos, o a un matemtico de Viena, cuyo nombre era Marchetti, explicar cmo la innovacin en la industria militar -- por consiguiente, una innovacin secreta -- y la innovacin en la sociedad civil son dos sinusoides que, en cierto modo, estn opuestas. +Y eso tiene sentido. +En momentos de guerra, hay grandes innovaciones tecnolgicas. Al contrario, en el mundo t tienes que prescindir -- bien, durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial, tenas que prescindir del acero, tenas que prescindir del aluminio. +Y despus, al llegar la paz, todas estas tecnologas logran una repentina disponibilidad en el mercado civil. +Muchos de ustedes podran saber que la silla Potato Chip de Charles y Ray Eames proviene de exactamente ese tipo de situacin. La fibra de vidrio estuvo disponible para uso civil repentinamente. +Yo creo que es un momento extrao. +El ritmo de las sinusoides ha cambiado tremendamente, al igual que el ritmo de nuestra vida en los ltimos 25 aos. As que yo no estoy segura de qu longitud de onda sea. +Y por eso es que los diseadores, cada vez ms, estn trabajando en comportamientos ms que en objetos. +Especialmente los buenos -- no todos ellos. +Deseo mostrarles, por ejemplo, la obra de Mathieu Lehanneur, la cual es absolutamente fantstica. +l es otro joven diseador de Francia que est trabajando -- y en este punto, est trabajando adems, con compaas farmacuticas -- en nuevas maneras para inducir a los pacientes, especialmente nios, a tomar sus medicamentos, con constancia y con certeza. +Saben, por ejemplo, ese es un bello dispensador de medicamento para asma del tipo que se infla as mismo cuando es hora de tomar tu medicina. As que el nio tiene que ir -- -- para liberar y aliviar el mismo contenedor. +Y en cambio, este otro medicamento es algo con lo que puedes dibujar sobre tu piel. Por lo tanto, la dosificacin intradrmica permite involucrante con alegra en este tipo particular de aplicacin. +Similarmente, existe el trabajo de gente como Marti Guixe, que trata de involucrarte en una forma que trata realmente de hacer que todo pase por tu boca. As que aprendes de tus errores, o de tu gusto, oralmente. +La prxima muestra sobre la que voy a trabajar -- y aqu he estado machacndoles un montn sobre esto -- es acerca de la relacin entre diseo y ciencia. +Estoy tratando no de encontrar las metforas, sino ms bien los puntos en comn: las quejas comunes, los problemas comunes, las preocupaciones comunes. Y pienso que nos permitir ir un poco ms lejos en esta idea de diseo como una instruccin: como una indicacin, en lugar de una receta de forma. +Y estoy esperando que muchos de ustedes respondan a esto. +Ya he enviado un e-mail a muchos de ustedes. +Pero diseo y ciencia, y la posibilidad de visualizar diferentes escalas, y por lo tanto, trabajar realmente en la escala de lo muy pequeo para hacerlo muy grande y significativo. +Gracias. +Incluso tengo sueos que transcurren en lugares que reconozco como los lugares de pelculas hngaras, en especial las peliculas iniciales de Miklos Jancso. +Entonces cmo explico esta misteriosa afinidad? +Quizs es porque Carolina del Sur, el estado donde nac, el cual no es mucho ms pequeo que Hungra hoy en da, alguna vez imagin su futuro como un pas independiente. +Y como consecuencia de esa presuncin, el pueblo donde nac fue quemado por un ejrcito invasor, una experiencia por la cual han pasado muchas ciudades y pueblos hngaros durante su larga y turbulenta historia. +Lo que hizo fue algo muy hngaro, tal como lo confirmar cualquiera que recuerde 1956. +Y, por supuesto, cada cierto tiempo los hngaros han inventado sus propios smiles al Klan. +Bueno, me parece que esta presencia hngara en mi vida es difcil de identificar, pero la endoso finalmente a una admiracin por un pueblo con una identidad moral complicada -- con una herencia de culpa y derrotismo igualada por su bravura y actitud desafiante. +No es una actitud de vida tpica para la mayora de los americanos. Pero s lo es para virtualmente todos los hngaros. +Entonces, "Yo napot, pacak!" +Volv a Carolina del Sur luego de algunos 15 aos en el maz forneo, ya para fines de los aos 60, con la altanera irresponsable de esa era, pensando que poda salvar a mi gente. +Sin importar el hecho de que les costara entender que necesitaban salvarse. +Labor en esa via por un cuarto de siglo antes de tomar rumbo hacia un pequeo reino de los justos en el norte de Carolina del Sur, una institucin secundaria afiliada a los metodistas llamada Wofford College. +No conoca nada sobre Wofford y menos sobre el Metodismo pero me dio seguridad encontrar, el primer da que di clases all, entre los oyentes de mi clase a un hngaro de 90 aos rodeado de un grupo de seoras europeas de mediana edad que parecan funcionar como un squito de hijas del Rin. +Su nombre era Sandor Teszler. +Era un viudo de carcter vivaz, cuya esposa e hijos haban muerto y cuyos nietos vivan muy lejos. +Se pareca a Mahatma Gandhi -- sin el taparrabo y con botas ortopdicas. +Haba nacido en 1903 en las provincias del viejo imperio Austro-Hngaro, en lo que despus pasara a ser Yugoslavia. +Cuando era nio fue ignorado, no porque fuera judo -- de todos maneras sus padres no eran muy religiosos -- sino porque haba nacido con sus dos pies deformados, lo que en esos tiempos requera de institucionalizacin y de una serie de dolorosas operaciones entre las edades de 1 y 11 aos. +En su juventud fue a un colegio especializado en negocio comercial en Budapest. Y all fue tan inteligente al igual que modesto y disfrut de un xito considerable, y despus de graduarse cuando entr a ingeniera textil, su xito prosigui. +Construy una fbrica despus de otra. +Se cas y tuvo dos hijos. Tena amigos en altos cargos quienes le aseguraban que l era de gran importancia para la economa. +Una vez, el guardin nocturno de una de sus fbricas lo llam, tal como l le haba instruido, en la mitad de la noche. +El guardin nocturno haba atrapado a un empleado que estaba robando medias -- era una fbrica de medias, y simplemente haba retrocedido su camin a la plataforma de carga y estaba metindole montaas de medias. +El seor Teszler fue a la fbrica y se enfrent al ladrn y le dijo: "Pero por qu me robas a m? Si necesitabas dinero slo debas pedrmelo." +El guardin nocturno, indignado por las cosas que estaban pasando, dijo: "Bueno, vamos a llamar a la polica, correcto?" +Pero el seor Teszler le contest: "No, eso no ser necesario. +No nos robar de nuevo." +Bueno, quizs confiaba demasiado en la gente, ya que se qued donde estaba mucho despus de la anexin de Austria por los Nazis, e incluso despus de que comenzaron los arrestos y deportaciones en Budapest. +l tom la simple precaucin de tener colgantes con cpsulas de cianuro para ponerse en su cuello y en los de sus familiares. +Y entonces, un da, sucedi lo esperado: l y su familia fueron arrestados y llevados a una casa de muerte en el Danubio. +En esos das cuando recin comenzaba la Solucin Final,la brutalidad era manual -- las personas eran golpeadas hasta morir y luego sus cuerpos eran tirados al ro -- +pero ninguno de los llevados a la casa de muerte habian salido vivos. +Y en un giro que no creeran en una pelcula de Steven Spielberg, el lder de zona que supervisaba esta golpiza brutal era el mismo ladrn que haba robado los calcetines de la fbrica de medias del seor Teszler. +Fue una golpiza brutal. Y en medio de ese brutalidad, Andrew, uno de los hijos del seor Teszler lo mir y le dijo: "Pap, es hora de tomarse la cpsula?" +Y el lder de zona, que posteriormente desaparece de esta historia, se inclin y le susurr al odo del seor Teszler: "No, no se tome la cpsula. La ayuda viene en camino." +Y despus sigui con la golpiza. +Pero la ayuda -- la ayuda vena en camino, y un poco despus lleg un auto de la Embajada Suiza. +Fueron llevados a un lugar seguro. Los reclasificaron como ciudadanos yugoslavos y consiguieron mantenerse un paso ms adelante que sus perseguidores durante toda la guerra, sobreviviendo incendios y bombardeos y, al trmino de la guerra, el arresto por los Soviticos. +El seor Teszler probablemente alcanz a poner algo de dinero en cuentas bancarias suizas ya que logr llevar a su familia primero a Gran Bretaa, despus a Long Island y por ltimo al centro de la industria textil en el sur de Estados Unidos. +Lo que, gracias a la suerte del azar, fue Spartanburg en Carolina del Sur: que es la ubicacin de Wofford College. +Y all el seor Teszler comenz de cero nuevamente, y una vez ms logr tremendo xito, sobretodo despus que invent un proceso, para fabricar una nueva tela, llamado doble cosido. +Y entonces -- ya a finales de los aos 50, cuando haba terminado el caso de Brown contra la Junta de Educacin, cuando el Klan resurga por todo el sur de Estados Unidos, el seor Teszler dijo: "Yo ya he escuchado estas palabras". +Y llam a su asesor ms importante y le pregunt: "En esta regin, dnde diras t que el racismo es ms marcado?" +"Bueno, seor Teszler, no estoy muy seguro. Supongo que sera en Kings Mountain." +"Muy Bien. Compra un terreno en Kings Mountain y luego avsale a todos que vamos a construir una gran fbrica all." +El hombre sigui las instrucciones, y poco despus el seor Teszler recibi una visita del alcalde blanco de Kings Mountain. +Ahora, debo contarles que en esa poca la industria textil del sur era notoriamente segregada. +El alcalde blanco visit al seor Teszler y le dijo: "Seor Teszler, supongo que contratar a muchos obreros blancos." +Y el seor Teszler le respondi: "Trigame los mejores obreros que encuentre y si son lo suficientemente buenos los contratar". +Tambin recibi una visita del lder de la comunidad negra, un prroco, quien le dijo: "Seor Teszler, espero que contrate a obreros negros para esta nueva fbrica suya." +Recibi la misma respuesta: "Trigame los mejores obreros que encuentre y si son lo suficientemente buenos los contratar". +Y sucede que el prroco negro hizo su trabajo mejor que lo que hizo el alcalde blanco, pero eso no influye en esta historia. +El seor Teszler contrat a 16 hombres, ocho blancos y ocho negros. +Estos deban ser su grupo base, sus futuros capataces. +Ya haba instalado la maquinaria pesada para este nuevo proceso en una bodega abandonada en las afueras de Kings Mountain, y por dos meses estos 16 hombres deban vivir y trabajar juntos hacindose expertos en este nuevo proceso. +Despus de una visita inicial al lugar los junt a todos y les pregunt si tenan preguntas. +Hubo cascarreo de gargantas y movimientos incmodos hasta que uno de los obreros blancos dio un paso adelante y dijo: "Bueno, s. Hemos estado mirando este sitio -- y slo hay un lugar donde dormir, slo hay un lugar donde comer, slo hay un bao, slo hay una fuente de agua. Esta fbrica va a ser integrada, o qu? +El seor Teszler les dijo: "Ustedes estn recibiendo el doble del sueldo que el resto de los obreros textiles de la regin, y as es como vamos a trabajar. Alguna otra pregunta?" +"No, supongo que no." +Y dos meses despus, cuando la fbrica principal comenz a funcionar y cientos de nuevos obreros, blancos y negros, se abalanzaron sobre la fbrica para verla por primera vez, se encontraron con los 16 capataces, blancos y negros, parados hombro a hombro. +Visitaron el sitio y les preguntaron si tenan alguna pregunta que hacer. E inevitablemente, surgi la misma pregunta: "Esta fbrica es integrada, o qu?" +Uno de los capataces blancos dio un paso adelante y dijo: "Ustedes estn recibiendo el doble del sueldo que el resto de los obreros de esta industria en la regin y as es como trabajaremos. +Tienen alguna otra pregunta?" +Y no hubo ms preguntas. De un solo acto, el seor Teszler haba integrado la industria textil en esa parte del sur. +Fue un logro digno de Mahatma Gandhi, realizado con la perspicacia de un abogado y el idealismo de un santo. +A m me daba una inmensa seguridad que el espritu que presida esta pequea universidad Metodista en el norte de Carolina del Sur era un europeo sobreviviente del holocausto. +De seguro era sabio, pero tambin tena un maravilloso sentido del humor. +Y una vez, para una clase interdisciplinaria estaba proyectando el segmento inicial de "El Sptimo Sello" de Ingmar Bergman. +y en la primera ocasin en que visit su casa, l me dio el honor de decidir que pieza musical escucharamos. +Y le encant que yo rechazara "Cavaleria Rusticana" para poner "El castillo de Barbazul" de Bla Bartk. +Amo la msica de Bartk, as como tambin la amaba el seor Teszler, y tena virtualmente todas las grabaciones de la msica de Bartk que se hubieran producido. +Y fue en su hogar que escuch por primera vez el Tercer Concierto de Piano de Bartk y aprend del seor Teszler que haba sido compuesto en la cercana Asheville, Carolina del Norte, en el ltimo ao de vida del compositor. +l saba que estaba muriendo de leucemia y le dedic este concierto a su mujer, Dita, quien era pianista de concierto. +Y al lento segundo movimiento, llamado "adagio religioso", le incorpor los sonidos de la msica de pjaros que escuch afuera de su ventana cuando ya saba que esa sera su ltima primavera. Se estaba imaginando un futuro para ella donde l ya no sera parte de su vida. +Y claramente, claramente esta composicin es su ltima palabra para ella -- fue tocada por primera vez despus de su muerte -- y a travs de ella para todo el mundo. +E igual de claro, est diciendo: "Est bien. Fue todo tan hermoso. +Siempre que escuches esto, estar contigo." +Fue slo despus de la muerte del seor Teszler que supe que la lpida de la tumba de Bla Bartk en Hartsdale, Nueva York fue pagada por Sandor Teszler. "Yo napot, Bela!" +Un poco antes de la muerte del seor Teszler a los 97 aos l presenci una charla que di sobre la injusticia humana. +En la charla, describ la historia en su conjunto como una ola gigante de sufrimiento humano y brutalidad y al terminar el seor Teszler se acerc a m y reprochndome suavemente dijo: "Sabe qu, Doctor, los seres humanos son fundamentalmente buenos". +Y me promet a m mismo, en ese momento, que si este hombre que tena tantas razones para pensar lo contrario haba llegado a esa conclusin, no presumira pensar distinto hasta que l me descargara de mi voto. +Y ya falleci, por lo que debo seguir cumplindolo. +"Yo napot, Sandor!" +Es tambin un coleccionista de arte prodigioso, que comenz como interno en Budapest coleccionando pinturas holandesas y hngaras de los siglos 16 y 17 y que, cuando lleg a este pas, pas al arte colonial espaol, a los conos rusos y, finalmente, a las cermicas maya. +Ha escrito siete libros, seis de ellos sobre cermicas maya. +l fue el que descifr el cdex maya, permitiendo a los expertos relacionar las pictografas de las cermicas con los jeroglficos de la escritura maya. +En la primera visita que hice, recorrimos su casa y miramos cientos de trabajos de calidad de museo para luego detenernos frente a una puerta cerrada, donde el doctor Robicsek dijo, claramente orgulloso: "Y ahora para la "pice de rsistance". +Y abri la puerta, y entramos a una habitacin de 20 por 20 pies sin ventanas con repisas del piso al cielo, donde cada repisa estaba repleta de objetos de su coleccin de cermicas maya. +Ahora, no conozco absolutamente nada sobre las cermicas maya, pero quera congraciarme con l todo lo que pudiera. Entonces le dije: "Pero doctor Robicsek, esto es absolutamente indescriptible". +"S", me dijo: "Eso es lo que dijeron los del Louvre. +No me quisieron dejar tranquilo hasta que les entregu una pieza, pero no era una muy buena". Bueno, se me ocurri que deba invitar al doctor Robicsek a exponer en Wofford College sobre -- qu ms? -- Leonardo Da Vinci, +Y ms an, deba tambin invitar al miembro mayor del consejo de administracin, quien haba estudiado Historia de Francia en la Universidad de Yale unos 70 aos antes y que, a los 89, todava diriga la empresa textil de patrimonios privados ms grande del mundo con una mano de hierro. +Su nombre es Roger Milliken. Y el seor Milliken accedi, y el doctor Robicsek accedi. Y el doctor Robicsek nos visit y dict la charla, y fue un xito rotundo. +Y posteriormente nos jreunimos en la Casa del Presidente, teniendo por un lado al doctor Robicsek y por el otro al seor Miliken. +Y fue slo en ese momento, mientras nos sentbamos a la mesa, que me di cuenta de la enormidad de la situacin en que me haba puesto. Ya que juntar a estos dos titanes, estos dos dueos del universo, era como presentarle Mothra a Godzilla sobre los edificios de Tokyo. +Si no se agradaban el uno al otro, nos podan aplastar a todos. +Pero s se agradaron. +Y conversaron de todo -- hasta el final de la comida, cuando se enfrascaron en una discusin tremenda. +Y el tema de la discusin fue el siguiente: si es que la segunda pelcula de Harry Potter haba sido tan buena como la primera. El seor Miliken dijo que no lo haba sido. El doctor Robicsek estaba en desacuerdo. +Todava estaba tratando de comprender la idea de que estos titanes, estos dueos del universo, vieran las pelculas de Harry Potter en su tiempo libre cuando el seor Milliken, pensando que ganara el debate, dijo: "Piensas que es tan bueno nicamente porque no leste el libro" +Y el doctor Robicsek se inclin hacia atrs en su silla, pero reaccion velozmente, se inclin hacia adelante y dijo: "Bueno, eso es verdad, pero te apuesto que fuiste a ver la pelcula con tu nieto". "Bueno, eso es cierto", concedi el seor Milliken. +"Ah!" dijo el doctor Robicsek: "Yo fui a verla por m mismo". Y me di cuenta, en este momento de revelacin, que lo que estos dos hombres estaban exhibiendo era el secreto de su extraordinario xito, cada uno a su manera. +"Vive cada da como si fuera el ltimo" dijo Mahatma Ghandi: +"Aprende como si fueras a vivir para siempre". +Esto es lo que me apasiona. Es precisamente esto. +Es este inextinguible e interminable apetito de aprender y experimentar, sin importar cun ridcula, sin importar cun esotrica, sin importar cun sediciosa pueda parecer la situacin. +Esto define el futuro imaginado de nuestros compaeros hngaros, Robicsek y Teszler y Bartk, as como define el mo. +As como, sospecho, tambin define el de todos los presentes. +A lo que slo requiero agregar: "Ez a mi munkank; es nem is keves". +Esta es nuestra tarea. Sabemos que ser difcil. +"Ez a mi munkank; es nem is keves". Yo napot, pacak! +Es un gran honor estar aqu con ustedes. +La buena noticia es que Yo estoy muy conciente de mi responsabilidad de sacarlos de aqu, porque yo soy lo nico que esta entre ustedes y el bar. +Y la buena noticia es que no tengo un discurso preparado, pero tengo una caja de diapositivas. +Tengo algunas fotos que representan mi vida y a lo que me dedico. +He aprendido por experiencia que la gente recuerda imgenes mucho despus de olvidar las palabras. As que espero que recuerden algunas de las fotos que voy a compartir con ustedes por unos minutos. +La historia empieza en realidad conmigo como estudiante de secundaria en Pittsburg, Pensilvania, en un barrio difcil al que todos dieron por muerto. +Entonces, entr al aula y dije: Qu es eso? +Y l dijo: Cermica - y t quin eres? +Yo dije: Soy Bill Strickland. Quiero que me ensees a hacer eso. +Y l dijo: Bueno, consigue un papel firmado por tu profesor que diga que puedes venir y yo te ensear. +Y entonces, los ltimos dos aos de la secundaria, falt a todas mis clases. +Pero tuve la astucia de darles la cermica que hice a los profesores de las clases a las que falt y me aprobaron. +Y as termin la secundaria. +Y el Sr. Ross dijo: Eres demasiado listo para morir, y no quiero eso pesando en mi conciencia, as que estoy dejando esta escuela y te llevo conmigo. +Y me llev a la Universidad de Pittsburg donde llen la solicitud de ingreso y entr a prueba. +Bueno, ahora soy Miembro del Consejo de la Universidad y en la ceremonia de instalacion dije: Soy el tipo que vino del barrio quien entr en el lugar a prueba. +No se den por vencidos con los jvenes pobres porque nunca saben qu les va a pasar a esos jvenes en la vida. +Lo que les voy a mostrar por unos minutos es un complejo que constru en el peor barrio de Pittsburg con la ms alta tasa de crimen. +Uno se llama Centro de Capacitacin Bidwell, es una escuela vocacional para ex trabajadores siderrgicos y padres solteros y madres con asistencia social. +Recuerdan que solamos producir acero en Pittsburg? +Bueno, ya no producimos mas acero y la gente que sola producir el acero est pasando por un momento muy duro por esto. +Y yo los reconstruyo y les doy vida nueva. +La Asociacin de Artesanos Manchester se llama as por mi barrio. +Y fui adoptado por el Obispo de la Dicesis Episcopal durante los disturbios. Y l don una casa adosada y en esa casa fund la Asociacin de Artesanos Manchester. Y aprend rpidamente que donde hay Episcopales, hay dinero en las proximidades. +Y el Obispo me adopt como a un hijo. +Y el ao pasado habl en su ceremonia conmemorativa y le dese lo mejor en esta vida. +Sal y contrat a un estudiante de Frank Lloyd Wright, el arquitecto, y le ped que me construyera un centro de alto nivel en el peor barrio de Pittsburg. +Mi edificio es un modelo a escala del aeropuerto de Pittsburg. +Y cuando vengan a Pittsburg y estn todos invitados Van a aterrizar en la versin ampliada de mi edificio. +Ese es el edificio. +Construido en un barrio difcil donde a la gente se les habia dada por muerta. +Y mi opinin es que si uno se quiere involucrar en la vida de gente a la que se les ha dado por perdida, uno tiene que ser como la solucin y no el problema. +Como pueden ver, hay una fuente en el patio +y la razn por la cual hay una fuente en el patio es que yo quera una. Y yo tenia la chequera asi que yo compre una y la puse ahi. +Y ahora que doy charlas en conferencias como TED, me pusieron en el directorio del Museo Carnegie +y en la recepcin en su patio, not que tenan una fuente porque ellos creen que la gente que va al museo merece una fuente. +Bueno, yo creo que las madres con asistencia social y jvenes en riesgo y ex trabajadores sidelrjicos merecen una fuente en su vida. +As que lo primero que se ve en mi centro en primavera es agua que te da la bienvenida agua es vida y agua de posibilidad humana. Y establece una actitud y expectativas sobre lo que uno siente de la gente, aun antes de darles un discurso. +As que a partir de esa fuente constru este edificio. +Como pueden ver, tiene arte de alto nivel y todo esta mi a gusto porque yo consegu todo el dinero. +Le dije a mi hijo: Cuando t juntes el dinero pondremos tu gusto en la pared. +Pero tenemos edredones y arcilla y caligrafa y por donde miren, hay algo hermoso devolvindote la mirada. Eso es deliberado. +Eso es adrede. +En mi opinin, es este tipo de mundo el que puede redimir el espritu de la gente pobre. +Tambin creamos una sala de reuniones. Y contrat a un ebanista nipn de Kyoto, Japn, a quien le comision 60 muebles para nuestro edificio. +Desde entonces, le hemos dado un giro a su propio negocio. +Est haciendo mucho dinero haciendo muebles sobre pedido para gente adinerada. +Y yo consegu 60 piezas para mi escuela porque sent que madres con asistencia social y ex trabajadores siderrgicos y padres solteros merecan venir a una escuela donde hubieran muebles artesanales dndoles la bienvenida todos los das +porque promueve un tono y una actitud sobre lo que uno siente de la gente mucho antes de darles el discurso. +Hasta tenemos flores en los pasillos y no son de plstico +esas son de verdad y estn en mi edificio todos los das. +Y ahora que he dado muchos discursos, tuvimos a un grupo de directores de secundarias y vinieron a verme y dijeron: Sr. Strickland, qu gran historia y qu gran escuela. +Y nos conmovieron especialmente las flores y nosotros tenemos curiosidad de como las flores llegaron aqu. +Yo dije: Bueno, sub a mi auto y fui a un invernadero y las compr y las traje y las puse all. +No necesitas un grupo de trabajo o un grupo de estudio para comprarle flores a tus jvenes. +Lo que necesitan saber es que los nios y los adultos merecen tener flores en su vida. +El costo es fortuito pero el gesto es enorme. +Y entonces en mi edificio, el cual est lleno luz de sol y lleno de flores, creemos en la esperanza y la posibilidad humana. +Esto sucedio en Navidad. +As que lo prximo que van a ver es una cocina de un milln de dlares que fue construida por la empresa Heinz. Han oido hablar de ellos? +Les fue muy bien con el negocio del ketchup. +Y me llam a su oficina que es como ir a ver al Mago de Oz Y John Heinz tena 600 millones de dlares y yo en ese entonces tena como 60 centavos. +Y l dijo: Pero hemos oido acerca de Ud. +Hemos oido sobre su trabajo con jvenes y ex trabajadores siderrgicos, y estamos dispuestos a apoyar su aspiracin de construir un nuevo edificio. +Y usted nos podria hacer un gran servicio si pudiera incluir un programa culinario en su programa +porque en ese entonces estbamos armando un programa de oficios. +Dijo: As podremos cumplir nuestros objetivos de accin afirmativa para la compaia Heinz. +Yo dije: Senador, estoy reacio a entrar en un campo del cual no s mucho, pero le prometo que si apoya a mi escuela, yo la construir y en un par de aos volver a considerar este programa que Ud. quiere. +El senador Heinz estaba sentado en silencio y dijo: Bueno, cul sera su reaccin si yo dijera que le dar un milln de dlares? +Yo dije: Senador, parece que vamos a dedicarnos a la capacitacin gastronmica. +Y John Heinz me dio un milln de dlares. +Y lo ms importante, me prest al director de investigacin de la compaia Heinz. +Y ms o menos tomamos prestado el programa de estudio del Instituto Culinario de America, el cual es para ellos es como el Harvard de las escuelas culinarias. Y creamos un programa de chefs gourmet para madres en asistencia social en esta cocina de milln de dlares en medio de un barrio marginal. +Y nunca ms miramos atrs. +Ahora me gustara mostrarles algo de la comida que estas madres en asistencia social hacen en esta cocina de milln de dlares. +Esta es nuestra cafetera. +Ese es da del hojaldre. Por qu? +Porque los estudiantes hicieron hojaldre y eso es lo que la escuela come todos los das. +Pero el concepto era que quera quitarle el estigma a la comida. +Que la buena comida no es para jente rica la buena comida es para todos en el planeta y no hay excusas para que no podamos comerla todos. +Asi que en mi escuela, subsidiamos un programa de almuerzo gourmet para madres con asistencia social en medio de un barrio marginal porque descubrimos que es bueno para sus estmagos, pero es mejor para sus cabezas. +Porque yo quera que supieran todos los das de su vida que tienen valor en este lugar que yo llamo mi centro. +Tenemos estudiantes que se sientan juntos, negros y blancos, y lo que descubrimos es que puedes resolver un problema racial creando un entorno de alto nivel. Porque la gente tender a mostrarte un comportamiento de alto nivel si la tratas en esa forma. +Estos son muestras que las madres en asistencia socias esta haciendo despus de seis meses en el programa de capacitacin. +Sin sofisticacin y sin clase, no hay dignidad ni historia. +Lo que descubrimos es que lo nico malo con la gente pobre es que no tienen dinero, lo cual es una condicin curable. +Todo esta en como uno piensa uno de la jente lo suele determinar su comportamiento. +Esto fue hecho por una estudiante despus de siete meses en el programa, hecho por una muchacha muy brillante quien aprendi de nuestro maestro pastelero. +Yo com siete de esas canastas y son muy buenas. +No tienen caloras. +Eso es nuestro comedor. +Parece la cafetera promedio de cualquier secundaria en un pueblo promedio en Estados Unidos. +Pero esta es mi visin de cmo se debe tratar a los estudiantes, particularmente cuando han sido hechos a un lado. +Capacitamos tcnicos para la industria farmacutica. Capacitamos tcnicos para la industria mdica. Y podemos capacitar tcnicos qumicos para empresas como Bayer y Calgon Carbon y Fisher Scientific y Exxon. +Y les garantizo que si vienen a mi centro en Pittsburg y estn todos invitados vern madres con asistencia social haciendo qumica analtica con calculadoras logartmicas, 10 meses despus de comenzar el programa. +No hay absolutamente razn alguna por la cual la gente pobre no pueda aprender tecnologia de alto nivel. +Lo que descubrimos es que hay que darles flores y luz de sol y comida y expectativas y msica de Herbie y se puede siempre curar un cncer espiritual. +Capacitamos agentes para corporaciones de la industria de viajes. +Hasta podemos ensearle a la gente a leer. +El joven con la raya roja estaba en el programa hace dos aos ahora es instructor. +Y tengo jvenes de secundaria con diplomas que no pueden leer. +As que deben hacerse la pregunta - cmo es posible que en el siglo XXI graduemos de la escuela a jvenes quienes no pueden leer los diplomas que tienen en sus manos. +La razon es que el sistema es reembolsado por los jvenes que avientan por el otro lado, no por los que leen. +Yo puedo tomar a estos jvenes y en 20 semanas, aptitud demostrada, les consigo una equivalencia de secundaria. +No es gran cosa. +Esta es nuestra biblioteca con ms muebles artesanales. +Y este es el programa de arte que yo comenc en 1968. +Recuerden yo soy joven negro de los 60's quien salv su vida con cermica. +Bueno, cuando decid reproducir mi experiencia con otros jvenes en el barrio, bajo la teora de que si les das flores y les das comida y les das luz de sol y entusiasmo, les puedes devolver la vida. +Tengo 400 jvenes provenientes de la educacin pblica de Pittsburg que vienen a mi todos los das de la semana para recibir educacion artstica. +Y estos son jvenes quienes estn reprobando en la escuela pblica. +Y que el ao pasado puse 88% de esos jvenes en la universidad y he promediado arriba del 80% por los ltimos 15 aos. +Hemos hecho un descubrimiento fascinante - no hay nada mal con los jovenes que el afecto y luz de sol y la comida y el entusiasmo y msica de Herbie no pueda curar. +Por eso gan una gran placaHombre del Ao en Educacin. +Les gan a todos los doctorados porque me di cuenta que si tratas a los jvenes como seres humanos, ello aumenta la probablidad de que se comporten en esa manera. +Y por qu no podemos instituir esta poltica en toda escuela y en toda ciudad y todo pueblo es an un misterio para m. +Djenme mostrarles lo que esta gente hace. +Tenemos cermica y fotografa y computacin grfica +y estos son todos jvenes sin habilidad artstica, sin talento, sin imaginacin, y traemos a los mejores artistas del mundo Gordon Parks estuvo aqu, Chester Higgins estuvo aqu y lo que aprendimos es que los nios sern como la gente que les ensea. +De hecho, yo traje a un artista del mosaico del Vaticano, y una mujer afro-americana quien estudi las antiguas tcnicas de mosaico del Vaticano, y djenme mostrarles lo que hicieron con el trabajo. +Estos son jovenes a quienes el mundo entero habia hecho a un lado quienes estaban reprobando en la escuela pblica, y esto es de lo que son capaces de hacer con afecto y luz del sol y comida y buena msica y confianza. +Enseamos fotografa. +Y esto es un ejemplo del trabajo de los jvenes. +Este joven gan una beca de 4 aos por esta foto. +Esta es nuestra galera. +Tenemos una galera de alto nivel porque creemos que los jvenes pobres necesitan una galera de alto nivel. As yo que dise esto. +Tenemos salmn ahumando en las inauguraciones. Tenemos una invitacin formal impresa. y hasta encontr la manera de hacer que los padres vengan. +Hace 15 aos, no poda conseguir un slo padre. As que contrat a un tipo que realmente se regocijaba en Jess. +Sacaba tipos de los bares y salvaba esas vidas para el Seor. +Y dije: Bill, quiero contratarte. +Tienes que bajarle un poco el tono a lo de Jess, pero mantn el entusiasmo. +No puedo hacer que estos padres vengan a la escuela. +l dijo: Yo los har venir a la escuela. +Entonces se subi en la camioneta, fue a la casa de la Sra. Jones y dijo: Sra. Jones, s que Ud. quisiera venir a la exhibicion de arte de su hijo, pero probablemente no tenga quien la lleve. +As que la vine a buscar. +Y consigui 10 padres y luego 20 padres. +Para la ltima exhibicin que hicimos, vinieron 200 padres y no fuimos a buscar a ninguno. +Porque ahora ya no es socialmente aceptable no venir a apoyar a sus hijos en la Asociacin de Artesanos Manchester porque la gente creera que son malos padres. +Y no hay diferencia estadstica entre los padres blancos y los padres negros. +Las madres irn a donde sus hijos sean celebrados, todo el tiempo, en todo pueblo, en toda ciudad. +Quera que ustedes vieran esta galera porque es de lo mejor que hay. +Y cuando estos jvenes terminan la secundaria, tienen 4 exhibiciones en su currculum antes del ingreso a la universidad porque est todo aqui. +Hay que cambiar la manera en que la gente se ve a s misma antes de cambiar su comportamiento. +Y ha funcionado bastante bien hasta ahora. +Hasta agregu otra aula a este edificio, la cual me gustara mostrarles. +Es totalmente nueva. +Hicimos esta diapositiva justo a tiempo para la Conferencia de TED. +Present estas diapositivas en un lugar llamado Silicon Valley y me fue bien. +Y una mujer sali del pblico, ella dijo: Esa es una gran historia y me impresion mucho su presentacin. +Mi nica crtica es que sus computadoras se estn poniendo viejas. +Y yo dije: Bueno, a qu se dedica Ud.? +Ella dijo: Bueno, trabajo para una compaa llamada Hewlett Packard. +Y yo dije: Est usted en la industria informtica, es asi? +Ella dijo: S, seor. +Y yo dije: Bueno, hay una solucin simple a ese problema. +Bueno, me complace anunciarles que HP y una compaa mobiliaria llamada Steelcase nos adoptaron como modelo de demonstracin de toda su tecnologa y todo su mobiliario para los Estados Unidos. +Y esta es el aula. Eso es empezar una relacin. +Lo terminamos justo a tiempo para mostrrselos. Esto sera el debut mundial de nuestro centro de computacin grfica. +Slo tengo un par ms de diapositivas y aqu es donde la historia se pone interesante. +As que quiero que me escuchen por unos minutos ms y comprendern por qu l est ah y yo aqu. +En 1986, tuve la astucia de agregar un teatro al extremo norte del edificio mientras lo estaba contruyendo. +Y un tipo llamado Dizzy Gillespie fue a tocar ah porque conoca a este hombre, Marty Ashby. +Y me par en el escenario con Dizzy Gillespie probando el sonido un mircoles a la tarde y dije: Dizzy, por qu vendras tu a un centro manejado por negros en medio de un parque industrial con alta tasa de crimen que ni siquiera tiene una reputacin musical? +l dijo: Porque escuch que construiste el centro y no lo poda creer, y quise verlo yo mismo. +Y ahora que lo vi, quiero darte un regalo. +Yo dije: T eres el regalo. +l dijo: No, seor. T eres el regalo. +Y te voy a permitir grabar el concierto y te voy a dar la msica. Y si algn da eliges venderla, debes firmar un acuerdo que diga que el dinero volvera para apoyar la escuela. +Y yo grab a Dizzy, y falleci un ao ms tarde, pero no antes de decirle a un tipo llamado McCoy Tyner lo que estbamos haciendo. +Y l apareci y dijo: Dizzy est hablando de ti por todo el pas, hombre, y yo quiero ayudarte. +Y luego un tipo llamado Wynton Marsalis apareci. +Me complace mucho decirles, con su permiso, que he acumulado 600 grabaciones de los mejores artista del mundo, incluyendo a Joe Williams, quien falleci habiendo hecho su ltima grabacin en mi escuela. +Y Joe Williams se me acerc y puso su mano sobre mi hombro y dijo: Hombre, Dios te eligi para hacer este trabajo +y quiero que mi msica est contigo. +Y eso funcion muy bien . +Cuando la banda Basie vino, la banda se entusiasmaron tanto con la escuela que votaron para darme los derechos de la msica. +Y la grab y ganamos algo llamado Grammy. +Y como un tonto, no fui a la ceremonia porque no pens que furamos a ganar. +Bueno, s ganamos. Y tuvimos nuestro nombre literalmente en luces en Madison Square Garden. +Luego nos visit la Orquesta de Jazz de las Naciones Unidas y los grabamos y los nominaron a un segundo Grammy, uno atrs del otro. +As nos convertimos en uno de los estudios de jazz ms nuevos y populares de los Estados Unidos en medio de un barrio marginal con alta tasa de crimen. +Ese es el lugar lleno de Republicanos. +Si hubieran tirado una bomba en ese saln, hubieran eliminado todo el dinero de Pensilvania porque estaba todo sentado ah; +incluyendo a mi madre y a mi padre, que vivieron lo suficiente para ver a su hijo construir este edificio. +Y ah est Dizzy, como les dije, estuvo ah. +Y l estuvo ah, Tito Puente, +y Pat Metheny y Jim Hall estuvieron ah y grabaron con nosotros. +Este fue nuestro primer estudio de grabacin, que era el armario de la limpieza. +Y pusimos los trapeadores en el pasillo y rediseamos la cosa y ah es donde grabamos el primer Grammy. +Este es nuestro nuevo estudio, con toda la tecnologa en video. +Y esta sala fue construida a nombre de una mujer llamada Nancy Wilson, quien grab ese lbum en nuestra escuela la ltima Navidad. +Y si alguno de ustedes estaba viendo Oprah Winfrey en Navidad, l estaba ah y Nancy estaba ah, cantando partes de este lbum, cuyos derechos don a nuestra escuela. +Y ahora les puedo decir con toda certeza que aparecer en Oprah Winfrey vende 10.000 CDs. +En este momento somos el n4 en la lista de xitos de Billboard, justo detrs de Tony Bennett. +Y creo que nos va a ir bien. +Esto se incendi durante los disturbiosest al lado de mi edificio. As que mand a hacer otra caja de cartn, y camin por las calles de nuevo. +Este es el edificio y este es el modelo, y a la derecha est el invernadero de alta tecnologa y en el medio est el edificio de tecnologa mdica. +Estoy muy complacido de decirles que el edificio est terminado. +Tambin est lleno de inquilinos de base a 20 dlares el pie el triple de lo usual en medio de un barrio marginal. +Y hay una fuente. +Todo edificio tiene una fuente. +Y el Centro Mdico de la Universidad de Pittsburg es un inquilino de base y tom la mitad del edificio. Y ahora capacitamos tcnico mdicos a travs de todo su sistema. +Y el Mellon Bank es inquilino. +Y me encantan porque pagan el alquiler a tiempo. +Como resultado de la asociacin, ahora soy un director de la Mellon Financial Corporation que compr Dreyfus. +Esto est en proceso de ser construido en este preciso momento. +Multipliquen la imagen por cuatro y vern el invernadero que abrir en octubre de este ao porque vamos a cultivar esas flores en medio de un barrio marginal. +Y vamos a tener jvenes de la secundaria cultivando orqudeas phalaenopsis en medio de un barrio marginal. +Y tenemos un trato con uno de los grandes supermercados para vender nuestras orqudeas en 240 tiendas en 6 estados. +Nuestros socios son Zuma Canyon Orchids de Malibu, California, una compaa de hispanos. +As los hispanos y los negros se asociaron para cultivar orqudeas con alta tenologa en medio de un barrio marginal. +Y le dije a mi senador que haba una muy alta probablidad de que si nos consegua fondos para esto, seramos una columna en el lado izquierdo en el Wall Street Journal. A lo que el de inmediato estuvo de acuerdo. +Conseguimos los fondos y abrimos en el otoo. +Y tienen que venir a verlova a ser una gran historia. +Esto es lo que quiero hacer cuando crezca. +El edificio marrn es el que ustedes han estado viendo y les dir donde comet mi gran error. +Tuve la oportunidad de comprar todo el parque industrial el cual est a menos de 1.000 pies de la ribera por 4 millones de dlares y no lo hice. +Y constru el primer edificio y adivinen qu pas. +Revaloric el terreno ms all de lo esperado y los dueos del parque rechazaron mi oferta de 8 millones de dlares el ao pasado. Y dijeron: Sr. Strickland, debera ganarse el Premio al Lder Cvico del Ao porque Ud. revaloriz nuestras propiedades mucho ms all de nuestras expectativas. +Muchas gracias por eso. +La moraleja es que uno debe estar preparado para actuar tus sueos, por si acaso se realizan. +Y finalmente, est esta foto. +Esto es un lugar llamado San Francisco. +Y el motivo por el cual esta foto esta aqui es que yo present estas diapositivas hace un par de aos en una gran cumbre econmica y haba un tipo en el pblico que se me acerc. +l dijo: Hombre, esta es una gran historia. +Yo quiero uno de esos. +Yo dije: Bueno, me siento halagado. A qu se dedica usted? +l dice: Yo manejo la ciudad de San Francisco. +Mi nombre es Willie Brown. +As que ms o menos acept el halago y el elogio y lo olvid. +Ese fin de semana, estaba volviendo a casa y Herbie Hancock tocaba esa noche en nuestro centro la primera vez que lo conoc. +Pero entr y dijo: Qu es esto? +Y yo dije: Herbie, este es mi concepto para un centro de capacitacin para gente pobre. +Y l dijo: Como Dois es mi testigo, yo he tenido un centro as en mente por 25 aos y t lo construiste. +Y ahora de verdad quiero construir uno. +Yo dije: Bueno, dnde lo construiras? +l dijo: San Francisco. +Yo dije: De casualidad conoces a Willie Brown? +De hecho, s lo conoca a Willie Brown y Willie Brown y Herbie y yo cenamos juntos hace 4 aos, e hicimos un bosquejo del centro sobre el mantel. +Y Willie Brown dijo: Tan seguro como que soy el alcalde de San Francisco, yo voy a construir esto como un legado a la gente pobre de esta ciudad. +Y me consigui 2 hectreas sobre la Baha de San Francisco y conseguimos un arquitecto y un contratista general y pusimos a Herbie en el directorio y a nuestros amigos de HP y a nuestros aigos de Steelcase y a nuestros amigos de Cisco y a nuestros amigos de Wells Fargo y Genentech. +En el transcurso, conoc a un tipo bajito en la presentacin de Silicon Valley. +Ms tarde el me busco. Dijo: Hombre, es una historia fabulosa. +Quiero ayudarlo. +Y yo dije: Bueno, muchas gracias. +A qu se dedica? +Dijo: Bueno, arm una compaa llamada eBay. +Yo dije: Bueno, eso est muy bien. +Muchas gracias, deme su tarjeta y hablaremos en algn momento. +Yo no distingua eBay de esa jarra de agua sobre el piano. Pero tuve la astucia de volver y hablar con uno de los tcnicos de mi centro. +Dije: Ey, qu es eBay? +l dijo: Bueno, es la red de comercio electrnico. +Dije: Bueno, hoy conoc al tipo que lo arm y me dio su tarjeta. +As que lo llam y dije: Sr. Skoll, he adquirido un mayor entendimiento de quin es Ud. y me gustara ser su amigo. +Y Jeff y yo nos hicimos amigos, y l organiz un equipo de gente y vamos a construir este centro. +Y fui al barrio, llamado Bayview-Hunters Point y dije: El alcalde me envi para que trabajara con ustedes y quiero que construyamos un centro juntos, pero no voy a contruir nada si ustedes no lo quieren. +Y lo nico que tengo son unas diapositivas. +Entonces me pare frente a 200 personas muy enojadas y desilusionadas en una noche de verano y el aire acondicionado se habia roto y hacan 38C afuera y comenc a mostrar estas fotos. +Despus de 10 fotos, se calmaron, +y les cont la historia y dije: Qu piensan? +Y al fondo de la sala, una mujer se par y dijo: En 35 aos de vivir en este lugar olvidado de la mano de Dios, Ud. es la nica persona que vino aqu y nos trat con dignidad. +Yo estoy con Ud. +Y le dio vuelta a la audiencia por completo. +Le promet a esta gente que iba a construir esto y lo vamos a construir. +Creo que vamos a empezar con los cimientos este ao, como la primera reproduccin del centro de Pittsburg. +Pero en el transcurso conoc a un tipo por el nombre de Quincy Jones y le mostr las diapositivas. +Y Quincy dijo: Hombre, quiero ayudarte. +Hagamos uno en Los Angeles. +Entonces arm un grupo de gente. +Y yo me he enamorado de l, como lo he hecho con Herbie y su msica. +Y Quincy dijo: De dnde vino la idea de hacer centros como estos? +Y yo dije: Vino de tu msica,hombre +porque el Sr. Ross sola traer tus discos, cuando yo tena 16 aos en clase de cermica, cuando el mundo estaba todo oscuro, y tu msica me llev a la luz. +Y yo dije: Si puedo seguir esa msica, saldr al sol y estar bien. +Y si eso no es verdad, cmo llegu aqu? +Quiero que todos ustedes sepan que yo pienso que el mundo es un lugar donde vale la pena vivir. +Y creo en ustedes. +Yo creo en sus esperanzas y sus sueos. Yo creo en su inteligencia. Y creo en su entusiasmo. +Y estoy cansado de vivir as, yendo de ciudad en ciudad con gente parada en las esquinas con agujeros donde sus ojos solan estar, su espritus quebrados. +No sobreviviremos como pas, a no ser que cambiemos de direccin. +Y Pensilvania, cuesta 60.000 dlares mantener gente en la carcel, la mayora de los cuales se parece a m. +Son 40.000 dlares para construir la Escuela de Medicina de la Universidad de Pittsburg. +Cuesta 20.000 dlares menos construir un centro mdico que mantener gente presa. +Hagan la cuenta, nunca va a funcionar. +Estoy contando con ustedes y estoy contando con gente como Herbie y Quincy y Hackett y Richard y gente muy decente que todava cree en algo. +En mi vida, quiero hacer esto en toda ciudad y en todo pueblo. +Y no pienso que est loco. +Yo pienso que podemos lograrlo y pienso que podemos construir estos por todo el pas, por menos dinero que el que gastamos en crceles. +Y creo que podemos convertir esta historia en una de celebracin y esperanza. +Mi trabajo es muy difcil +siempre se lucha contra la corriente como un salmn, nunca hay suficiente dinero, hay demasiada necesidad. As que hay una tendencia de tener una depresin ocupacional que acompaa mi trabajo. +Y con el tiempo, encontr una solusin a la depresin hace un amigo en cada ciudad y nunca te sentirs solo. +Mi esperanza es haber hechos algunos aqu esta noche. +Y gracias por escuchar lo que tena para decir. +Soy una artista contempornea, y expongo en galeras de arte y museos. +Expongo un nmero de fotografas y pelculas, pero tambin hago programas televisivos, algo de publicidad y libros, todo con el mismo concepto: +Nuestra fijacin con los famosos y la cultura de la celebridad, y la importancia de la imgen. La Celebridad nace de la fotografa. +Por eso comenzar con cmo empec con este concepto siete aos atrs, cuando la princesa Diana muri. +En Gran Bretaa hubo una especie de punto muerto ese dia, en el momento de su muerte, y la gente decidi llorarla de forma masiva. +Yo estaba fascinada por este fenmeno. Entonces me pregunt: Podra uno borrar esa imagen de Diana, que de hecho es bastante cruda y vvida? +Entonces tom un arma y comenc a disparar a la imagen de Diana. Pero no poda borrar esto de mi memoria, y ciertamente, tampoco pudo ser borrada de la psique pblica. +Un momentum estaba siendo creado. +La prensa escribi sobre su muerte de una manera, que yo sent por momentos, pornogrfica, como: qu pedazo de artera se desprendi de qu pedazo del cuerpo, +y cmo muri en el asiento trasero del coche. Estaba intrigada por esta especie de voyerismo masivo. Entonces hice estas imgenes ms bien sangrientas. +Y luego comenc a preguntarme si era realmente capaz de reemplazar su imagen. Entonces consegu una doble de Diana, y la hice posar en los ngulos y posiciones correctas, y cre algo que ya estaba, o exista, en el imaginario colectivo. +La gente se preguntaba: Iba a casarse con Dodi? +Estaba enamorada de l? +Estaba embarazada? Quera un beb de l? +Estaba embarazada cuando muri? +Entonces cre esta imagen de Diana, Dodi y su imaginario hijo mestizo. Esta imagen sali a la luz, y caus en ese momento un enorme rechazo pblico. +Luego segu comentando las imgenes de los medios y la prensa. Fue cuando comenc a hacer referencia a las imgenes mediticas -- las hice borrosas, tomadas a travs de marcos de puertas y dems, para excitar ms al pblico o al espectador, intentando as que estuvieran ms al tanto de su propio voyerismo. +Esta es una imagen de Diana mirando a Camilla besando a su esposo. Y esto era parte de una secuencia de imgenes. +As se expone en las galeras de arte: como una secuencia, +y las imgenes del beb de Diana y Dodi son expuestas de modo similar. Esta es otra instalacin de una galera artstica. +Estoy particularmente interesada en cmo uno no puede confiar en su propia percepcin. +Por ejemplo, estas son Jane Smith y Jo Bloggs, pero uno cree que son Camilla y la Reina. Y estoy fascinada con cmo lo que uno piensa que es real, no necesariamente lo es, +y la cmara puede mentir. Y es ms fcil, muchsimo ms fcil an, decir mentiras, con el bombardeo masivo de imgenes. +Entonces segu trabajando en este proyecto sobre cmo la fotografa nos seduce, y sobre cmo es ms interesante mirar la foto que el asunto real en cuestin. +Y a la vez, cmo nos separa del mismo. Y esto acta como una especie de cosa excitante. +Entonces el fotgrafo se convierte en el provocador, e incita el deseo y el voyeurismo. Se quiere lo que no se tiene. +En la fotografa, el asunto real no existe. Por lo que te hace desear ms a esa persona. +Y creo que ese es el modo en que hoy en da funcionan las revistas sobre famosos. Cuantas ms fotos ves de esas celebridades, ms te parece que los conoces, pero no los conoces, y quieres conocerlos ms. +Claro que la Reina va seguido con su semental a ver sus caballos ... +a ver sus caballos. . +Y despus estuve creando una especie de imaginera. +En Inglaterra hay una expresin: "No puedes imaginarte a la Reina en el excusado" +Por eso estoy intentando penetrar en eso. +Bueno, aqu est la imagen. +Todas estas imgenes estaban creando mucha controversia. Y fui citada como una artista desagradable. La prensa escriba pginas enteras sobre cuan terrible era todo esto, +Todas estos peridicos, tabloides, debates estaban siendo engaados, por este trabajo. Las pelculas eran censuradas antes de que la gente pudiera siquiera verlas. Los polticos se estaban involucrando. Todo tipo de cosas, grandes encabezados. +Luego, de repente, comenz a aparecer en las primeras planas. +Me pedan y pagaban para hacer portadas. +De repente, me estaba volviendo casi aceptable, lo que encontr, ya saben, tambin fascinante. +Como en un momento fue desagradable -- los periodistas me mentan para obtener un artculo o una foto ma, diciendo que mi trabajo era maravilloso, y al minuto siguiente aparecan unos titulares horribles sobre m. +Pero luego de repente esto cambi. +Fue cuando comenc a trabajar para revistas y peridicos. +Esta fue, por ejemplo, una imagen que apareci en Tatler. +Esta fue otra imagen de peridico. +De hecho fue una broma, y hasta el da de hoy, alguna gente piensa que es real. +El otro da en la cena, estaba sentada cerca de algunas personas, y estaban diciendo: Hay una imagen genial de la Reina fuera de William Hill. +Creyeron que era real. +En ese momento, estaba explorando la hiprbole de conos, Diana y Marylin, y la importancia de los famosos en nuestras vidas. +Cmo se hicieron su camino hasta la psique colectiva sin nosotros siquiera saberlo, ni cmo sucedio. +De hecho, experiment vestirme como las celebridades yo misma. +Esa soy yo de Diana. En esta creo que me veo como la asesina de masas Myra Henley. +Y yo como la Reina. +Luego continu haciendo un trabajo entero sobre Marilyn, el mayor cono de todos. Y tratando de excitar a travs de la toma de imgenes desde los marcos de las puertas y contraventanas, etc. Y solamente mostrando ciertos ngulos, para crear una realidad que, obviamente, es completamente construida. +Esta es la doble, son muchos los elementos para la caracterizacin: +No se parece en nada a Marilyn. Pero para cuando la habamos preparado y puesto peluca y maquillaje, ya se vea exactamente igual a Marilyn, al punto de que su marido no pudo reconocerla, o reconocer a la doble, en estas fotografas, que encuentro muy interesantes. +Todo este trabajo esta siendo expuesto en galeras de arte. +Luego hice un libro. +Al mismo tiempo estaba tambin haciendo una serie televisiva para la BBC. +Fotogramas de esta serie fueron al libro. +Pero haba un problema legal porque parece real, pero cmo superas eso? +Porque obviamente esta hablando de nuestra cultura ahora mismo, que no podemos distinguir que es real de lo que no lo es. +Cmo sabemos, cuando estamos mirando algo, si es real o no? +Desde mi punto de vista, es importante publicarlo, pero al mismo tiempo, s que causa confusin -- intencional de mi parte; -- pero problemtica para cualquier punto de venta con el que est trabajando. +Por eso, a todo lo que hago se le pone un gran aviso, y he hecho una especie de narrativas sobre todas las celebridades europeas o britnicas y comentarios sobre nuestras figuras pblicas. +Saben, Qu se trae entre manos Tony Blair con su gur de la moda en privado? +Tambin ocuparse de las percepciones que circulan sobre Bin Laden, Saddam Hussein, las conexiones que circularon antes de la guerra de Irak. +Y Qu va a sucederle a la monarqua? +porque obviamente el pblico britnico, creo yo, preferira a William antes que a Charles en el trono. +Y es ese deseo, o ese anhelo, que supongo que es con el que estoy tratando en mi trabajo. +No estoy realmente interesada en los famosos por los famosos mismos. +Sino en la percepcin de la celebridad. +Y con algunos dobles, son muy buenos. No sabes si son reales o no. +Hice una campaa publicitaria para Schweppes, que es Coca-Cola, y fue muy interesante en trminos legales. +Es altamente comercial. +Pero represent una dificultad para m porque este es mi trabajo artstico. Debiera hacer publicidad, en este momento? +Me asegur de que el trabajo no se viera comprometido de ningn modo, y de que tambin su integridad permaneciera intacta. +Pero los significados cambiaron, en el sentido de que con el logo encima, uno est cerrando todas las lneas de interpretacin hacia vender un producto -- y eso es todo lo que ests haciendo. +Cuando quitas el logo, ests reabriendo las interpretaciones y dndole al trabajo un carcter inconcluso. Opuesto a concluso, cuando ests publicitando. +Esta imagen es bastante interesante, porque creo que la hicimos hace tres aos +y es Camilla en su vestido de novia, que, otra vez, casi fue reusado ahora, un poco antes de su boda. +Tony Blair and Cherie. Y otra vez, la legalidad -- tuvimos que ser muy cuidadosos. +Es obviamente una gran campaa comercial y este pequeo "Shh ... sabs que no son realmente ellos," fue puesto en uno de los lados de las imgenes. +Margaret Thatcher visitando a Jeffrey Archer en la crcel. +Luego en Selfridges me pidieron que hiciera una serie de escaparates para ellos. Entonces constru un sauna en sus vidrieras, y cre pequeas escenas -- escenas vivas con dobles dentro, y las ventanas estaban todas empaadas. +Est Tony Blair leyendo y practicando su discurso. Los tengo haciendo yoga adentro con Carole Caplin, Sven besndose con Ulrika Jonsson, con quien estaba teniendo un romance en ese momento. +Esto fue un gran xito para ellos porque las imgenes aparecieron en la prensa un da despus en todos y cada uno de los peridicos y tabloides. +Esto par la circulacion en la calle, lo que fue problemtico porque la polica continuaba tratando de descongestionar a la muchedumbre. Pero muy divertido -- fue genial para m hacer una representacin. +Tambin, la gente estaba tomando fotos, por lo que estas imgenes estaban siendo rpidamente enviadas por mensaje de texto. +Y la prensa estaba entrevistando, y yo estaba firmando mi libro. . +Ms imgenes: ahora estoy haciendo un nuevo libro con Taschen, en el que estoy trabajando para una especie de mercado global. Mi libro anterior era slo para el mercado del Reino Unido. Pero supongo que podra ser considerado humorstico. +Supongo que vengo de una procedencia no muy humorstica, saben, ni aun intentndolo. Y luego de repente mi trabajo es divertido. +Y creo que no importa realmente que mi trabajo sea considerado humorstico, de un modo -- Creo que es una manera de tratar con la importancia de las imgenes, y con cmo leemos nuestra informacin a travs de las mismas. +Es una forma extremadamente rpida de conseguir informacin. +Es extremadamente difcil si est construida correctamente, y hay tnicas de construccin de imgenes icnicas. +Por ejemplo, esta imagen es casi exacta porque resume lo que Elton podra estar haciendo en privado, y tambin lo que podra estar sucediendo con Saddam Hussein, y George Bush leyendo el Corn al revs. +Por ejemplo, la prtica de tiro al blanco de George Bush, disparando a Bin Laden y Michael Moore. +Y luego, cambias la foto a la que est disparando, y de repente se transforma en algo bastante nefasto, y tal vez menos accesible. . +Tony Blair siendo utilizado como un banco de montura. Y Rumsfeld y Bush riendose con algunas fotos de Abu Ghraib detrs, y la seriedad, o intelecto, de Bush. +Y tambin comentarios sobre el detrs de escena, bueno, como sabemos ahora, sobre lo que sucede en las prisiones. +Y de hecho George Bush y Tony Blair estn divirtindose muchsimo durante todo esto. +Y realmente haciendo comentarios, ya saben, basados en la percepcin que tenemos de los famosos. +En qu puede andar Jack Nicholson en su vida de celebridad. y el suceso en el que conduca un poco agresivamente, y atac con un palo de golf a un conductor. +Digo, es extremadamente difcil encontrar estos dobles, por eso estoy constantemente acercndome a la gente en la calle y preguntndoles si quieren venir y salir en alguna de mis fotos o pelculas. +Y a veces, le pregunto a la celebridad real, confundindola con alguien que se parece a la persona real, lo que es altamente embarazoso. . +Tambin he estado trabajando con el Guardin sobre la actualidad -- una pgina a la semana en su peridico -- lo que ha sido muy interesante; trabajar sobre la actualidad. +Jamie Oliver y las cenas escolares; Bush y Blair encontrando dificultades para llevarse bien con la cultura musulmana; todo el asunto de la caza, y la familia real rechazando parar de cazar. Y los problemas del tsunami. Y obviamente Harry. El punto de vista de Blair sobre Gordon Brown, lo que encuentro muy interesante. Condi y Bush. +He decidido mostrar esta imagen pero teniendo reservas al respecto. +La tome hace un ao -- y los significados cambian, y una cosa terrible ha sucedido. Pero el miedo ha estado merodeando en nuestras mentes desde antes de esto. +Esa es la razn de que esta imagen haya sido tomada hace un ao. Y lo que significa hoy. +Por lo que voy a dejarlos con estos clips para que los miren. Gracias a Chris Anderson. +Esta es su conferencia y pienso que tienen el derecho de saber un poco ahora mismo, en este perodo de transicin, sobre este tipo que la va a cuidar por ustedes un rato. +Entonces, voy a tomar una silla. +Hace dos aos en TED, creo, llegu a esta conclusin: creo que pude haber sufrido un espejismo extrao. +Creo que tal vez inconscientemente he credo que yo era una especie de hroe empresarial. +Pas 15 aos levantando mi empresa, que se llamaba Future, era una editorial de revistas. +Recin haba empezado a cotizar en la bolsa, y, aparentemente, segn el mercado vala dos mil millones de dlares, una cifra que yo realmente no entenda. +Una revista que recin haba lanzado llamada Business 2.0 pesaba ms que una gua telefnica, ocupada bombeando aire caliente a la burbuja. +Y yo era dueo del 40% de una punto com, que estaba a punto de cotizar en bolsa y sin duda vala miles de millones ms. +Y todo esto surgi de la nada. +15 aos antes, era un periodista cientfico del que la gente se rea cuando deca: "De verdad quisiera lanzar mi propia revista de informtica". +Y 15 aos despus, tena... 100 de ellas; 2 mil empleados... eran tiempos excitantes. +La fecha era febrero del 2000, +pensaba que la pequea grfica de mi vida empresarial se pareca en algo a la Ley de Moore, siempre haca arriba en el lado derecho y que seguira as para siempre. +Es decir, tena que ser cierto? Me vendra una enorme sorpresa. +La punto com Snowball, irnicamente llamada bola de nieve, fue la ltima compaa web de consumo que entr a la bolsa, un mes despus de que estallara el NASDAQ; entonces viv 18 meses de infierno empresarial. +Vi, mir como todo lo que haba construido se desmoronaba, pareca que todo se iba a acabar y 15 aos de trabajo hubieran sido en vano, +fue desgarrador. +La primera empresa me cost 8 aos de sangre, sudor y lgrimas para alcanzar los 350 empleados, algo de lo que estaba muy orgulloso en el negocio. +Febrero de 2001, en un slo da despedimos a 350 personas y antes de que culminara el derramamiento de sangre, mil personas haban sido despedidas de mis compaas; me senta enfermo. +Mir como mi propio patrimonio neto se caa a un milln de dlares por da, cada da, durante 18 meses. +Y mucho, mucho peor que eso, mi autoestima se estaba desintegrando. +Senta como si tuviera un rtulo grande en mi frente que deca: "PERDEDOR". +Mirando atrs, creo que lo que ms me molesta es cmo diablos permit que mi felicidad personal estuviera tan ligada al negocio? +Bueno, al final, pudimos salvar a Future y Snowball pero ya estaba en ese punto, listo para avanzar +y para no hacer el cuento largo, aqu es a donde vine a parar. +Y la razn por la que cuento esta historia es que creo, basndome en muchas conversaciones, que mucha gente en este saln ha pasado por una especie de montaa rusa parecida, una montaa rusa de emociones, durante el ltimo par de aos. +Esta ha sido una poca de transicin grande, grande y yo creo que esta conferencia puede jugar un papel importante para todos al llevarnos hacia adelante a la siguiente etapa, a lo que sea que siga. +El tema para el ao entrante es volver a nacer. +Fue en el mismo TED hace dos aos, que Richard y yo llegamos a un acuerdo sobre el futuro de TED. +Y ms o menos al mismo tiempo, creo que en parte por eso, empec a hacer algo que haba olvidado en mi enfoque empresarial: empec a leer de nuevo. +Y descubr que mientras me ocupaba de jugar a los negocios, haba habido una increble revolucin en tantas reas de inters, de cosmologa, a psicologa, a psicologa evolutiva, a antropologa, a... todas estas cosas haban cambiado. +Y la forma de mirarnos como especie y como planeta haba cambiado tanto, era increblemente emocionante. +Y lo que era realmente ms emocionante era que creo que Richard Wurman lo descubri por lo menos 20 aos antes que yo, que todo esto est conectado. +Est conectado, todo se conecta entre s. +Hablamos mucho de esto y pensaba intentar darles un ejemplo de esto, slo un ejemplo. A Madame de Gaulle, la esposa del presidente francs, una vez le hicieron la clebre pregunta: "Qu es lo que usted ms desea?" +"un pene" ["ha ppiness"] dijo. +Y si lo piensan esta respuesta es muy cierta: lo que todos ms deseamos es un pene, o happiness [felicidad] como decimos en ingls. +Y algo... buena suerte con esa al japons en la sala de traduccin. +Pero algo tan bsico como la felicidad, que hace 20 aos hubiera sido un tema que slo se trataba en la iglesia, o la mezquita o la sinagoga, hoy resulta que hay docenas de preguntas tipo TED que pueden hacer al respecto que realmente son interesantes. +Pueden preguntar sobre qu es lo que la provoca en trminos bioqumicos; la neurociencia, serotonina, todo eso. +Pueden preguntar acerca de las causas psicolgicas de ella: Se nace? Se hace? La circunstancia actual? +Resulta que las investigaciones hechas sobre esto son realmente alucinantes. +Lo pueden ver como un problema de cmputo, un problema de inteligencia artificial. Por qu se necesita incorporar algn tipo de analoga de felicidad en el cerebro de una computadora para que funcione adecuadamente? +O lo pueden ver como algo de la psicologa evolutiva, acaso nuestros genes inventaron esto como un tipo de trampa para hacer que nos comportemos de ciertas maneras? El cerebro de la hormiga, parasitado, para hacer que nos comportemos de ciertas maneras tal que nuestros genes se propaguen. +Somos vctimas de un delirio masivo? +Y as sucesivamente. +Para entender algo tan importante para nosotros como es la felicidad, se tiene que ramificar en todas estas diferentes direcciones, y no existe otro lugar, hasta donde he descubierto, que no sea TED donde pueden hacer tantas preguntas y en tantas direcciones diferentes. +Y entonces, es de lo profundo que habla Richard: para entender cualquier cosa, slo necesitan entender las pequeas partes, una pequea parte de todo lo que lo rodea. +As, gradualmente en estos tres das, empiezan como a tratar de descifrar por qu estoy escuchando todo este rollo irrelevante? +Y al final de los cuatro das, sus mentes estn zumbando y se sienten energizados, vivos y emocionados y esto es porque todas estas diferentes partes se han conjuntado. +Es la experiencia total de la mente, vamos... +es el equivalente mental a un masaje de cuerpo completo. +Cada rgano mental ha sido abordado, en verdad. +Suficiente de esta teora, Chris. Dinos qu vas a hacer en efecto, de acuerdo? +De acuerdo, est es la visin para TED. +Nmero uno: no har nada, esto no est roto, no tengo que repararlo. +Jeff Bezos amablemente me coment: "Chris, TED es en realidad una gran conferencia, +tendrs que cagarla en serio para echarla a perder". +Entonces me di el titulo de Custodio de TED por una razn y lo prometer justo aqu y ahora que los valores principales que hacen a TED especial no sern alterados. +La verdad, curiosidad, diversidad, no venta, no mierda corporativa, no oportunismo, no plataformas. +Simplemente la bsqueda de inters, donde sea que est, en todas las disciplinas representadas aqu. +Eso no se va a cambiar en absoluto. +Nmero dos: voy a reunir a un grupo increble de ponentes para el prximo ao. +La escala de tiempo en la que TED opera es sencillamente fantstica; viniendo del negocio de las revistas con fecha lmites mensuales. +Hay todo un ao para prepararlo y ya como espero mostrarles un poco despus, contamos con 25 o ms ponentes maravillosos inscritos para el ao prximo. +Adems estoy recibiendo ayuda fantstica de la comunidad, es una gran comunidad y combinada con nuestros contactos llegamos a casi todos los interesados en el pas, sino es que en el planeta. +Es verdad. +Nmero tres: Yo s quiero, si puedo, encontrar una forma de extender un poco ms la experiencia TED en todo el ao. +Y una forma clave en que vamos a hacerlo es la presentacin del club del libro. +Los libros en cierta forma me salvaron en los ltimos aos y ese es el regalo que quisiera pasarles, +entonces cuando se inscriban a TED2003, cada seis semanas recibirn un paquete con un libro o dos y una razn por la cual estn ligados a TED. +Bien pueden ser de un ponente de TED y as podemos mantener la conversacin durante el ao y regresar al siguiente con el mismo viaje emocional e intelectual, +que creo que ser grandioso. +Y cuarto, quiero mencionar a la Fundacin Sapling, el nuevo dueo de TED. +La propiedad de Sapling implica que todo la recaudacin de TED se destinar a las causas que sostiene Sapling +y ms importante, creo, las ideas que se exhiban y se implementen aqu, son ideas que la fundacin puede usar porque existe sinergia fantstica. +Estoy increblemente entusiasmado al respecto, +de hecho, no creo que en general, haya estado tan entusiasmado por algo en toda mi vida +Estoy en esto para el largo plazo y estara enormemente honrado y conmovido si me acompaan en este viaje. +Hoy quiero hablarles de dos historias. +Una se refiere a cmo necesitamos aplicar la determinacin de precios basada en el mercado para afectar la demanda y la utilizacin de tecnologas inalmbricas para reducir dramticamente las emisiones en el sector de auto transportes. +La otra es acerca de la gran oportunidad, si seleccionamos la tecnologa inalmbrica adecuada, cmo podemos generar un nuevo motor para el crecimiento de la economa y al mismo tiempo reducir dramticamente la emisin de CO2 en otros sectores. +Estoy realmente asustada. +Necesitamos reducir las emisiones de CO2 en diez a quince aos en un 80 por ciento para evitar efectos catastrficos. +Estoy impresionada de estar aqu frente a ustedes para hablar de esto. +Qu son efectos catastrficos? Un aumento de tres grados centgrados en la temperatura que resultar en la extincin del 50 por ciento de las especies. +No es una pelcula. Es la vida real. +Y estoy realmente preocupada, porque cuando la gente habla de los automviles -- tema del cual tengo algunos conocimientos -- la prensa, los polticos, y todos en este auditorio piensan, "Utilicemos automviles de consumo eficiente". +Si empezamos el da de hoy, en 10 aos, al trmino de esta ventana de oportunidad, esos vehculos de consumo eficiente habrn reducido nuestras necesidades de combustibles fsiles en 4 por ciento. +Eso no es suficiente. +Ahora hablar de cosas ms agradables. +Estas son algunas maneras en que podemos hacer cambios importantes. +ZipCar es una empresa que fund hace siete aos, es un ejemplo de lo que llamamos "autos-compartidos". +Lo que hace ZipCar es estacionar vehculos en reas urbanas de alta densidad para ser utilizados por los miembros por hora o por da, sustituyendo el uso de su propio auto. +Qu se siente ser un usuario de ZipCar? +Significa que nicamente pago por lo que necesito. +Todas esas horas que el auto est sin uso, no las pago yo. +Significa que puedo escoger un auto para cada viaje en particular. +Aqu tenemos a una mujer que reserv MiniMia, y tuvo su da. +Puedo utilizar un BMW cuando visito a mis clientes. +Puedo manejar un Toyota Element cuando voy a un viaje de surfing. +La otra cuestin fundamental es que pienso que es la mejor forma para poseer un vehculo. +No solamente tengo una flota de automviles disponible en siete ciudades del mundo que puedo tener a mi entera disposicin, pero que de ninguna manera tengo que mantener o reparar ni nada relacionado con esto. +Es como el auto que siempre quisiste tener, y que tu mam te dijo que no podas. +Tengo todo las cosas buenas y ninguna de las malas. +Entonces, cul es resultado social de esto? +El resultado social es que ZipCar cuenta con 100,000 miembros manejando 3,000 automviles estacionados en 3,000 lugares de estacionamiento. +En lugar de conducir 20,000 kilmetros por ao, que es el promedio que un habitante en la ciudad maneja, ellos conducen 800 kilmetros anuales. Ellos estn contentos? +La compaa se duplica en tamao cada ao desde que la fund, o an mas. +La gente adora la compaa y an ms, Saben? Les gusta. +Entonces, cmo es que la gente disminuy de 20,000 a 800 kilmetros por ao? +Es porque ellos pensaron, es entre 8 y 10 dlares la hora o 65 dlares por todo el da. +Si voy a ir a comprar un helado, estoy dispuesto a gastar 8 dlares para ir a comprar el helado? O puedo vivir sin l? +Probablemente hubiera comprado el helado junto con otros encargos. +La gente responde muy rpido a esto, a los precios. +El ltimo punto que quiero comentar es que ZipCar no sera posible sin tecnologa. +Era fundamental que fuera un proceso trivial, que tomara 30 segundos rentar -- reservar un automvil, ir por l, manejarlo. +Y para m, como proveedor de un servicio, No me hubiera sido posible rentar un automvil por una hora si existiera un costo en esta operacin. +Sin la tecnologa inalmbrica, este concepto no hubiera sido posible. +Tenemos otro ejemplo. Esta compaa es GoLoco. Voy a iniciar operaciones en tres semanas. Espero hacer en "viajes-compartidos" lo mismo que hice en "autos-compartidos". +Esto ser para toda la gente en los Estados Unidos. +Actualmente el 75 por ciento de los viajes en automvil son individuales. Y el 12 por ciento de los viajes al trabajo son en "carpool". +Y creo que podemos utilizar redes sociales y sistemas de pago en lnea para cambiar radicalmente el sentimiento de la gente en lo referente a viajes compartidos y hacer el viaje mucho ms eficiente. +Cuando pienso en el futuro, la gente estar pensando que compartir el viaje con alguien mas es este importante evento social del da. +Ustedes mismos, como vinieron a TED? Con otros "TEDsters." +Es fabuloso. Por qu querras viajar en tu automvil t solo? +Cmo fuiste a comprar la comida? Fuiste con tu vecino, un evento social importante. +En realidad va a cambiar nuestra percepcin acerca de los viajes. As mismo, yo pienso, que incrementar nuestra libertad de movimiento. +A dnde y con quin puedo viajar hoy? +Estas son las cosas que podrs ver y sentir. +Adems de los beneficios sociales. La proporcin de los viajes individuales es de 75 por ciento; Creo que lo podemos reducir a 50 por ciento. +La demanda por estacionamientos, por supuesto, baja, y el trfico y las emisiones de CO2. +Por ltimo, por supuesto, todo esto es posible por la tecnologa inalmbrica. +El costo de manejar es lo que est empujando a la gente a poder hacer esto. +El Norteamericano promedio gasta el 19 por ciento de sus ingresos en su automvil. Y estn presionados a reducir este costo, y no existen posibilidades hoy en da. +El ltimo ejemplo del costo del congestionamiento, es lo famosamente hecho en Londres, +al hacer un cobro a aquellos que transitan en calles congestionadas. +En Londres, cuando iniciaron con este cobro, se redujo el congestionamiento en 25 por ciento inmediatamente. Y esto ha sido consistente en los cuatro aos que tiene este cobro por congestionamiento. +Nuevamente pregunto, la gente est satisfecha con los resultados? +Ken Livingston fue reelegido. +Nuevamente vemos que el costo tiene un peso muy importante en las decisiones de la gente para reducir sus hbitos al conducir. +Hemos triplicado las millas recorridas desde 1970 y las hemos duplicado desde 1982. +Existe un gran retraso en ese sistema. Con un precio adecuado podemos modificar esto. +El cobro por congestionamiento est siendo discutido en todas las grandes ciudades del mundo y es -- nuevamente -- inalmbrico. +No se iban a instalar casetas de cobro en toda la ciudad de Londres para abrir y cerrar las puertas. +El cobro por congestionamiento es una prueba tecnolgica y psicolgica para algo llamado cobro de calle. +El cobro de calle es algo que todos tendremos que hacer. El da de hoy pagamos por el mantenimiento y el desgaste de las calles con los impuestos aplicados a la gasolina. +Conforme tengamos automviles ms eficientes en el consumo de gasolina, esto reducir los ingresos por el concepto de impuestos a los combustibles, por lo que tendremos que cobrar conforme a las millas recorridas. +Lo que suceda con la tecnologa del cobro por congestionamiento suceder con el cobro de calle. +Por qu viajamos tanto? +El viaje en automvil tiene costos reducidos y por ello un sobre consumo. +Tenemos la necesidad de mejorar este costo. +Una vez hecho esto, usted decidir cuntos kilmetros conducir, bajo que modalidad viajar, en dnde vivir y trabajar. +La tecnologa inalmbrica hace posible esto en tiempo real. +Ahora quisiera ir a la segunda parte de mi historia, que es, cundo vamos a iniciar con este cobro por congestionamiento? El cobro de calle suceder. +Cundo? Esperaremos diez o 15 aos para que esto suceda? O finalmente existir la voluntad poltica para que esto suceda en los prximos dos aos? +Yo les digo, esta ser la herramienta para cambiar el uso de una manera inmediata. +Qu tipo de tecnologa inalmbrica vamos a utilizar? +Esta es mi gran visin. +Existe la herramienta que nos podr ayudar a cruzar el obstculo digital, responder a emergencias, movilizar el trfico, proveer un nuevo motor para el crecimiento econmico y reducir dramticamente las emisiones de CO2 en todos los sectores. +Este es un fragmento de "El Graduado". Recuerdan este fragmento? +Ustedes sern el joven bien parecido, y yo ser el inteligente hombre de negocios. +"Quiero decirte una palabra, solamente una palabra" +"Si, seor?" "Me est escuchando?" "As es." +"Redes inalmbricas Ad-hoc auto configuradas, de par a par" +Estas son las denominadas redes de malla. +En una malla, cada mecanismo contribuye y expande la red, creo que ya han escuchado algo al respecto en el pasado. +Voy a proporcionarles algunos ejemplos. +Van a escuchar a Alan Kay mas tarde. +Estas laptops, cuando un nio las abre, se comunican con todos los nios del saln de clases, en esa escuela, en ese poblado. +Y cunto cuesta ese sistema de comunicacin? +Cero dlares al mes. +Este es otro ejemplo. En Nuevo Orleans, se habilitaron cmaras de video para funcionar en malla para poder monitorear criminales en el centro del Barrio Francs. +Cuando sucedi el huracn, el nico sistema de comunicaciones funcionando fue la red de malla. +Llegaron voluntarios y agregaron muchos mas equipos. Y durante los siguientes 12 meses, las redes de malla fueron la nica forma de comunicacin inalmbrica en Nuevo Orleans. +Otro ejemplo est en Portsmouth, Reino Unido. +Ellos habilitaron 300 autobuses para funcionar en malla. De esa manera se pueden comunicar a estas terminales inteligentes +puedes ver la terminal y saber precisamente en qu calle se encuentra el autobs, cundo va a llegar, y puedes comprar los boletos en tiempo real. +Nuevamente, habilitados en malla. Costo mensual de comunicacin: cero. +La belleza de las redes en malla: Puedes tener estos dispositivos de bajo costo. +Cero costos de comunicacin. Altamente escalable. Puedes continuar agregndolos, como con Katrina, puedes quitarlos; mientras existan algunos, seguiremos comunicndonos. +Son resistentes. La redundancia es parte de este fabuloso diseo descentralizado. +Cules son las increbles debilidades? +No hay nadie en Washington abogando para que esto suceda, o en los municipios, para construir las ciudades con estas redes inalmbricas, porque hay cero costo de comunicacin. +Los ejemplos que les he dado son estas islas con redes de malla, y las redes son interesantes nicamente si son grandes. +Cmo podemos crear una red grande? +Estn listos nuevamente --"El Graduado"? +Ahora van a seguir haciendo el papel del joven apuesto, pero yo ser la mujer sexy. +Estos son los siguientes dilogos en la pelcula. +"En dnde lo hiciste?" "En su automvil." +Ustedes saben, cuando dices algo as ---- en qu podra estar yo, Robin Chase, pensando imaginen que pusiramos mecanismos de red de malla en todos los automviles de Norteamrica?. +Podramos tener sistemas de comunicacin inalmbrica gratuitos de costa a costa. +Solo quiero que piensen en esto. +Y por qu va a suceder esto? Por que vamos a manejar costos de congestionamiento; vamos a construir caminos de peaje; el impuesto a la gasolina se convertir en el costo de uso de calle. +Esto va a suceder. +Qu tecnologa inalmbrica vamos a utilizar? +Quiz deberamos utilizar una adecuada. Cundo lo vamos a hacer? +Quiz no deberamos esperar diez o 15 aos para que esto suceda. +Debemos empujarlo hacia adelante. +A mi me gustara empezar el sistema de Internet de malla inalmbrico interestatal. Es necesario que esta red sea accesible a todos, con estndares abiertos. +Actualmente en el sector de transportes, estamos creando estos dispositivos inalmbricos. Me imagino que ustedes tienen en FastPass o un EasyLane, son dispositivos de uso simple dentro de estas redes cerradas. +Cul es el objeto? +Estamos transmitiendo solamente unos cuantos bits de informacin cuando estamos haciendo control de carreteras, costo por carretera. +Tenemos una increble capacidad en exceso. +Por eso podemos proveer la forma ms econmica de transmisin inalmbrica de costa a costa. Podemos tener sistemas resistentes de comunicacin nacional. Tenemos una nueva herramienta para crear eficiencias en todos los sectores. +Imaginen que pasa cuando el costo de obtener informacin desde cualquier parte es casi cero. +Lo que se puede hacer con esta herramienta. Podemos crear un motor econmico. +La informacin debe de ser gratuita, el acceso a la informacin debe de ser gratuito, y deberamos de cobrar a la gente por el carbono. +Pienso que esta es una herramienta ms poderosa que la Ley Interestatal de Carreteras, y creo que es importante y puede transformar nuestra economa tanto como la electrificacin. +Si yo pudiera escoger, tendramos una versin sin costo adicional a la estndar. +Esta versin de cdigo abierto significa que podra ser --si hacemos un trabajo brillante-- utilizada en todo el mundo muy rpidamente. +Regresando a una de mis ideas anteriores. +Imagnense si todos estos autobuses en Lagos fueran parte de la red de mallas. +Cuando fui esta maana a la pltica del premio de TEDTalk de Larry Brilliant --sus fabulosas redes-- imaginen que fueran de cdigo abierto dispositivos de comunicacin en malla que puedan ser incluidos a estas redes, para hacer esto posible. +Y podemos hacer esto, si podemos olvidar el hecho de que alguien --esta pequea rebanada va a ser gratuita, +y podemos ganar billones de dlares adicionalmente. Pero esta rebanada de las comunicaciones en particular debe de ser de cdigo abierto. +Tomemos el control de esta pesadilla. Implementemos un impuesto a la gasolina inmediatamente. Transitemos por todo el pas con casetas de cobro con esta malla inalmbrica. Obliguemos a que esta malla sea abierta a todos, con estndares abiertos. Y por supuesto utilicemos redes de malla. +Gracias. +Espero que entiendan mi ingls. +Por las maanas es terrible y por la tarde es an peor. +Durante muchos aos hice algunos discursos empezando con este dicho: "La ciudad no es un problema, sino una solucin." +Y ms y ms estoy convencido de que no slo es la solucin para un pas, sino es una solucin para el problema del cambio climtico. +Pero tenemos un enfoque muy pesimista sobre las ciudades. +Yo he trabajado en ciudades por casi 40 aos, y todos los alcaldes tratan de decirme 'oh' su ciudad es tan grande O los otros alcaldes dicen, 'Nosotros no tenemos los recursos financieros.' A mi me gustara decir, por la experiencia que tuve, que toda ciudad en este mundo puede ser mejorada en menos de tres aos. +La escala no importa, no es una cuestin de escala no es una cuestin de recursos financieros. +Cada problema en una ciudad debe tener su propia ecuacin de corresponsabilidad. Y tambin un diseo. +Entonces, para empezar, quiero presentarles a unos personajes de un libro para adolescentes que escrib. +La tortuga es el mejor ejemplo de calidad de vida, porque la tortuga es un ejemplo de vivir y trabajar juntos. +Y cuando nos damos cuenta que el caparazn de la tortuga parece una estructura urbana, entonces podemos imaginar lo triste que se va a poner si separamos el caparazn de la tortuga +Y esto es lo que estamos haciendo en nuestras ciudades! Viviendo aqu, trabajando aqu y divirtindonos por aqu. +Y la mayora de las personas estn trabajando en la ciudad, y viviendo fuera de la ciudad. +Entonces, el otro personaje es Otto, el automvil. +Cuando lo invitan a una fiesta nunca se quiere ir. +Las sillas estn sobre las mesas y el sigue bebiendo, y el bebe mucho. Y tose mucho. Es muy egosta. El slo lleva a una o dos personas. Y siempre pide ms infraestructura. +Autopistas. +Es una persona muy exigente. +Entonces -- por el otro lado, Acorden, el autobs amistoso, el lleva a 300 personas, 275 en Suecia, 300 brasileos. Hablando acerca del diseo, cada ciudad tiene su propio diseo. +Curitiba, mi ciudad, tiene tres millones en el rea metropolitana. 1,800,000 personas en la ciudad en s misma. +Curitiba, Ro: es como dos pjaros besndose. +Oaxaca, San Francisco -- es muy fcil. Market Street, Van Ness, y el frente martimo. +Y cada ciudad tiene su propio diseo. +Pero en ocasiones para que ocurra hay que proponer un escenario. Y proponer un diseo, una idea a la que todos, o la gran mayora, ayudaran a que se haga realidad. +Y esa es la estructura de la ciudad de Curitiba. +Y es un ejemplo de vida y trabajo en comn. +Y aqu es donde tenemos la mayor densidad; es donde tenemos ms transporte pblico. +Y este sistema empez en el 74. Lo empezamos con 25,000 pasajeros por da, ahora son 2,200,000 pasajeros por da. +Y tard 25 aos hasta que otra ciudad, +la cual es Bogot, y ellos hicieron muy buen trabajo. +Y ahora hay 83 ciudades alrededor de todo el mundo haciendo lo que llaman el autobs de trnsito rpido de Curitiba. +Y una cosa: es importante, no slo para tu ciudad. Todas las ciudades, aparte de sus problemas naturales, tienen un rol -- un rol muy importante -- como parte de la humanidad. +Eso significa principalmente dos asuntos, movilidad y sostenibilidad, se estn convirtiendo muy importantes para las ciudades +Y este es un autobs articulado. Doble-articulado. +Y estamos muy cerca de mi casa. +Ustedes pueden venir cuando estn en Curitiba y tomar un caf +Y esa es la evolucin del sistema. +Lo que marc la diferencia en el diseo son los tubos de embarque. El tubo de embarque da al autobs el mismo rendimiento que el metro. +Es por eso que yo intento decir, que es como metro-nizar el autobs. +Y este es el diseo del autobs. Y puedes pagar antes de entrar al autobs en el que vas a embarcar. +Y para los minusvlidos, ellos pueden usar este sistema con normalidad. +Pero lo que intento decir es que la mayor aportacin en emisiones de dixido de carbono proviene de los automviles. Mas del 50 por ciento. Entonces cuando dependemos slo de coches, es +-- es por eso que cuando hablamos de sostenibilidad, no es suficiente, edificios verdes. +No son suficientes, nuevos materiales. +No son suficientes, nuevas fuentes de energa. +Es el concepto de la ciudad. El diseo de la ciudad. Y eso es importante tambin -- y tambin, como educar a nuestro nios. +Hablar de esto ms adelante. +Nuestra idea de movilidad es intentar establecer conexiones entre todos los sistemas. +Empezamos en el 83 proponiendo para la ciudad de Ro como conectar el metro con el autobs. +El metro estaba en contra, claro. +Y 23 aos despus, nos llamaron para desarrollarlo -- estamos desarrollando esta idea. +Y ustedes pueden entender lo distinta que va a ser la imagen de Ro con el sistema -- una frecuencia de un minuto. +Y no es Shanghai, no se colorea durante el da, slo de noche se ver as. +Y antes de que digan que es un diseo de Norman Foster, nosotros lo diseamos en el 83. +Y este es el modelo de como va a trabajar. Entonces es el mismo sistema; el vehculo es diferente. Y ese es el modelo. +Lo que intento decir es, yo no estoy intentando demostrar cul sistema de transporte es mejor +intento decir que hay que combinar. Combinar todos los sistemas, y con una condicin: nunca -- si tienen un metro, si tienen un sistema de superficie, si tienen cualquier tipo de sistema -- nunca competir en el mismo espacio. +Y regresando al automvil, yo siempre sola decir que el automvil es como tu suegra. Tienes una buena relacin con ella, pero ella no puede dirigir tu vida. +Entonces cuando la nica mujer en tu vida es tu suegra, tienes un problema. Entonces todas las ideas sobre como realmente transformar a travs del diseo -- viejas canteras, y universidades abiertas, y jardn botnico -- todo ello est relacionado con el cmo educamos a los nios. +Y a los nios les enseamos durante seis meses como separar su basura. +Y despus los nios le ensean a sus padres. +Y ahora tenemos el 70 por ciento -- desde hace 20 aos es la tasa ms alta de separacin de basura del mundo. +Siete cero. +As que eduquen a los nios. +Me gustara decir, si queremos tener un mundo sostenible, tenemos que trabajar con todo lo que se ha dicho. Pero no se olviden de las ciudades y los nios. +Y yo estoy trabajando en un museo y tambin en una ciudad mutiuso, porque no puedes tener espacios vacos durante 18 horas al da. +Siempre deberais tener una estructura comn de vida y trabajo. +Intenten entender las reas de la ciudad que puedan tener diferentes usos durante las 24 horas. +Otro asunto es, la ciudad es como un retrato de familia. +Nosotros no rompemos nuestro retrato de familia, incluso cuando no nos gusta la nariz de nuestro to, porque ese retrato son ustedes. +Y esta es la referencia que tenemos en cualquier ciudad: +este es la principal calle peatonal; La hicimos en 72 horas. Si, ustedes tienen que ser rpidos. +Y estas son las referencias de nuestras aportaciones tnicas. +Este es el portal Italiano, el parque Ucraniano, el parque Polaco, +Y de repente, la unin sovitica, se separa. +Y como tenemos gente de Uzbekistn, Kazajistn, Tajikistn, [no est claro], tenemos que parar el programa. +No olviden: La creatividad empieza cuando le quitas un cero a tu presupuesto. +Si le quitas dos ceros, mucho mejor an. +Y este es el teatro Wire Opera. Lo hicimos en dos meses. +Parques -- viejas canteras que fueron transformadas en parques. +Canteras, una vez convertidas en naturaleza, a veces nosotros tomamos esto y lo transformamos. +Y todas las partes se pueden transformar -- cada rana puede transformarse en un prncipe. +As que en la ciudad, uno tiene que trabajar rpido. +El planeamiento lleva tiempo. Yo estoy proponiendo acupuntura urbana. +Eso quiere decir, con algunas ideas centrales ayudar al proceso natural de planeamiento. +Y esta es una nota de acupuntura -- o de I.M. Pei. Algunas cosas pequeas -- pueden hacer la ciudad mejor. +O el parque ms pequeo en Nueva York, el ms bello: 32 metros. +Entonces quiero terminar diciendo que ustedes siempre pueden proponer nuevos materiales, nuevos materiales sostenibles, pero tengan en mente que debemos trabajar rpido. Hasta el final, porque no tenemos todo el tiempo para planificar. +Y yo creo que la creatividad, la innovacin, es empezar. +No podemos tener todas las respuestas. +Entonces cuando empiecen -- no podemos ser tan prepotentes para tener todas las respuestas. Es importante empezar y tener la aportacin de la gente, y ellos te pueden ensear si no vas por el camino correcto. +Y para terminar, me gustara que me ayudaran a cantar la cancin sostenible. +Vale? +Por favor, permtanme tan slo dos minutos. +Saben, van a hacer la msica y el ritmo. +Es una idea sencilla sobre la naturaleza, +y quiero decir algo por la naturaleza porque no hemos hablado mucho al respecto en el ltimo par de das. +Quiero decir algo por la tierra, las abejas, las plantas y los animales. Y quiero hablarles de una herramienta, una herramienta muy sencilla que he encontrado. +Aunque en verdad es tan slo una presuncin literaria (no es una tecnologa), +creo que tiene el poder de cambiar nuestra relacin con el mundo natural y con las dems especies de las que dependemos. +Y esa herramienta es, sencillamente, como sugiri Chris, mirarnos a nosotros y al mundo desde el punto de vista de las plantas o de los animales. +No es idea ma, otros ya haban dado con ella, pero yo he intentado aplicarla en lugares nuevos. +Permtanme contarles de dnde la saqu. +Como muchas de mis ideas, y muchas de las herramientas que utilizo, la encontr en el jardn. Soy un jardinero dedicado, +y hace unos siete aos estaba yo cierto da plantando papas. Era la primera semana de mayo. Esto fue en Nueva Inglaterra, cuando los manzanos rebosan de flores, y son como nubes blancas en lo alto. +Aqu estaba yo plantando mis trozos, cortando las papas y plantndolas, y las abejas estaban trabajando en este rbol. Unos abejorros que hacan que el rbol vibrara. +Y una de las cosas que ms me gusta de la jardinera es que no requiere toda tu concentracin. No te puedes hacer dao, no es como la carpintera. Y puedes... tienes mucho "espacio mental" para pensar. +Y la pregunta que me hice esa tarde en el jardn, all trabajando junto a ese abejorro, fue: Qu tenemos en comn ese abejorro y yo? +En qu se parecen y se diferencian nuestras funciones en este jardn? +Y me d cuenta de que, en realidad, tenamos bastante en comn. Ambos estbamos diseminando los genes de una especie y no de otra. Y probablemente ambos, si consigo imaginarme el punto de vista de la abeja, pensbamos que estbamos tomando las decisiones. +Yo haba decidido qu clase de papa quera plantar. Haba elegido la "Yukon Gold" o la "Yellow Finn" o la que fuera, haba conseguido esos genes en un catlogo de semillas del otro lado del pas, las haba trado y las estaba plantando. +Y esa abeja, sin duda, asumi que haba decidido: "Voy a ir a ese manzano, voy a dirigirme a esa flor, voy a recolectar el nctar y me voy a marchar". +Nuestra gramtica sugiere que eso es lo que somos, que somos sujetos soberanos en la naturaleza, la abeja al igual que yo. +Yo planto papas, quito las malas hierbas, domestico a las especies. +Pero ese da se me ocurri: Y si esa gramtica no es ms que una presuncin interesada? +Porque, claro, la abeja cree que l est al mando, o ella est al mando, pero nosotros tenemos mejor criterio. +Sabemos que lo que pasa entre la abeja y la flor es que la flor ha manipulado ingeniosamente a la abeja. +Y cuando digo manipulado, lo digo en sentido darwinista, correcto? +Me refiero a que ha evolucionado para tener unas caractersticas muy especficas (color, aroma, sabor, diseo) que han atrado a esa abeja. +Y la abeja ha sido engaada astutamente para libar ese nctar, recoger algo de polen en sus patas y luego pasar a la siguiente flor. +La abeja no est tomando las decisiones. +Y entonces me di cuenta: yo tampoco. +A m me haba seducido esa papa y no otra para que la plantase, diseminase sus genes, y le diera un poco ms de hbitat. +Y ah fue cuando se me ocurri esa idea: Qu sera... qu pasara si nos observramos desde el punto de vista de estas otras especies que estn trabajando en nosotros? +Y de pronto la agricultura no me pareci un invento, una tecnologa humana, sino un desarrollo co-evolucionario en el que un grupo de especies muy listas, sobre todo hierbas comestibles, nos haban explotado, haban averiguado cmo hacer que nosotros, en esencia, deforestramos el mundo. +La competencia de las hierbas, no? +Y de repente, todo se vea distinto. +De repente cortar la hierba ese da fue una experiencia completamente distinta. +Siempre haba pensado y, de hecho, lo haba escrito en mi primer libro (un libro sobre jardinera), que los prados de csped eran la naturaleza bajo el yugo del cultivo, que eran paisajes totalitarios, y que cuando lo cortamos estamos reprimiendo cruelmente a la especie al no dejar que ponga sus semillas, se muera o se reproduzca. +Y eso era el csped. +Pero entonces ca en la cuenta: "No, eso es justo lo que la hierba quiere que hagamos. +Qu tonto. Soy el bobo del csped, cuya meta en la vida es ganarle a los rboles, con quienes compite por la luz del sol". +As que haciendo que lo cortemos mantenemos a raya a los rboles, que en Nueva Inglaterra se extienden con muchsima rapidez. +Entonces comenc a observar las cosas de esta manera y escrib todo un libro al respecto titulado "La botnica del deseo". +Que una clase de papa, una droga especfica, un cruce de "cannabis sativa indica" tiene algo que decir de nosotros. +Y que, no sera sta una forma interesante de ver el mundo? +Ahora, la prueba de cualquier idea (dije que era una presuncin literaria) es preguntarnos qu obtenemos con ella. +Y cuando hablamos de la naturaleza, que es mi especialidad como escritor, se ajusta a la prueba de Aldo Leopold? +Que es: nos hace mejores ciudadanos de la comunidad bitica? +Hace que hagamos cosas que conducen al sustento y perpetuacin de la biota en lugar de a su destruccin? +Y yo dira que esta idea s que lo cumple. +As que revisemos lo que ganamos cuando vemos el mundo de esta forma, adems de, ya saben, ideas entretenidas sobre los deseos humanos. +Como ejercicio intelectual, observar el mundo desde el punto de vista de otras especies nos ayuda a enfrentarnos a una extraa anomala, que es (y esto entra dentro del campo de la historia intelectual): Sufrimos una revolucin darwiniana hace 150 aos... +Ay! Mini-yo... Tenemos esta revolucin darwiniana e intelectual en la que, gracias a Darwin, nos dimos cuenta de que slo somos una especie entre muchas. La evolucin est operando en nosotros de la misma forma en que opera sobre todas las dems. Somos influenciados, y tambin influenciamos. Realmente formamos parte de las fibras del tejido de la vida. +Pero lo raro es que, 150 aos despus, todava no hemos aprendido esta leccin. Ninguno de nosotros se cree esto de verdad. +Seguimos siendo cartesianos, hijos de Descartes, que creen que la subjetividad, la consciencia, nos diferencia. Que el mundo est dividido entre sujetos y objetos. Que la naturaleza est en un lado y el cultivo en otro. +En cuanto comenzamos a ver las cosas desde la perspectiva de la planta o del animal nos damos cuenta de que la verdadera presuncin literaria es sa. Es sta: la idea de que la naturaleza se opone al cultivo. La idea de que la consciencia lo es todo. Y esa es otra de las cosas importantes que hace esto. +Observar el mundo desde la perspectiva de otra especie es la cura para la enfermedad de la presuncin humana. +De pronto te das cuenta de que la consciencia, que valoramos y consideramos, ya saben, la culminacin de... el logro consagrado de la naturaleza, la consciencia humana en realidad es slo otro conjunto de herramientas para conducirse por el mundo. +Y en cierto sentido es natural que pensemos que es la mejor herramienta, +pero saben, un cmico dijo: "Bueno, quin me dice que la consciencia es tan buena y tan importante? +Pues, la consciencia". +As que cuando observas las plantas, te das cuenta de que tienen otras herramientas, y que son igual de interesantes. +Les dar dos ejemplos, tambin del jardn. Los frijoles blancos. Saben lo que hace el frijol blanco cuando le ataca la araa roja? +Libera una sustancia voltil que se extiende por el mundo y que atrae a otra especie de caro que llega y ataca a la araa roja, defendiendo al frijol blanco. +As que donde nosotros tenemos consciencia, herramientas, lenguaje, las plantas tienen bioqumica. +Y la han perfeccionado a un nivel mucho mayor del que podemos imaginar. +Su complejidad, su sofisticacin, es algo como para maravillarnos, en serio. Creo que realmente es el escndalo para el Proyecto del Genoma Humano. +Ya saben, nos metimos en ello pensando en 40.000 50.000 mil genes humanos, y nos encontramos slo con 23.000. +Slo para darles un punto de comparacin, el arroz tiene 35.000 genes. +Entonces, cul es la especie ms sofisticada? +Bien, todas somos igualmente sofisticadas. +Llevamos evolucionando el mismo tiempo, slo que por caminos distintos. +As que, una cura para la presuncin y una forma de hacernos sentir la idea darwiniana. +Y eso es lo que realmente hago como escritor, como narrador: intento que la gente en cierto modo sienta lo que sabemos, y cuento historias que nos ayudan a pensar de manera ecolgica. +Ahora, el otro uso de esto es prctico, +y voy a hablar... Voy a llevarlos ahora mismo a una granja, porque utilic esta idea para desarrollar mi entendimiento del sistema alimentario, y lo que aprend, de hecho, es que ahora todos estamos siendo manipulados por el maz. +Y la charla que oyeron hoy ms temprano sobre el etanol para m es el triunfo final del maz sobre el sentido comn. Forma parte del... ... del plan del maz para dominar el mundo. +Vern que la cantidad de maz plantado este ao es drsticamente mayor respecto al ao pasado y que hay todo ese hbitat de ms porque hemos decidido que el etanol nos va a ayudar. +As que eso me ayud a comprender la agricultura industrial, que por supuesto es un sistema cartesiano. +Se basa en la idea de someter a otras especies a nuestra voluntad, y de que nosotros mandamos y creamos fbricas, aprovechamos aportes tecnolgicos, y obtenemos alimento de ello, o combustible, o lo que queramos. +Ahora los llevar a un tipo de granja muy distinta. +Esta es una granja en el Valle de Shenandoah de Virginia. +Sal a buscar una granja donde pusieran en prctica estas ideas de observar las cosas desde el punto de vista de las especies, y la encontr. El granjero se llama Joel Salatin, +y pas una semana en su granja como aprendiz. Y de todo aquello extraje algunas de las noticias ms esperanzadoras que me he encontrado jams en cuanto a nuestra relacin con la naturaleza, luego de 25 aos de escribir sobre la naturaleza. +Y es lo siguiente. La granja se llama Polyface, que significa... +la idea es que tiene seis especies de animales distintas, adems de plantas, que crecen en una disposicin simbitica muy elaborada. +Se llama permacultura, para aquellos que sepan algo de esto, y es que las vacas, los cerdos, las ovejas, los pavos y... +qu ms, qu ms tiene? +Las seis especies distintas... (conejos, de hecho), todas efectan un servicio ecolgico para las dems, como que el estircol de uno es la comida del otro, o que unas se encargan de las plagas de las dems. +No puedo... es una danza muy elaborada y bella, pero tan slo voy a darles un primer plano de una de sus partes, y es la relacin entre las vacas y las gallinas, gallinas ponedoras. +Y les mostrar qu obtendran si optan por este mtodo, de acuerdo? +Se trata de mucho ms que cultivar comida, como ya vern. Es una forma distinta de pensar en la naturaleza, y una forma de apartarse de la nocin de suma cero... la idea cartesiana de que o gana la naturaleza o ganamos nosotros, y si nosotros obtenemos lo que queremos, la naturaleza se ve disminuida. +As que un da, vacas, en un corral. +La nica tecnologa utilizada aqu es un cerco elctrico barato, relativamente nuevo, enchufado a la batera de un carro. Hasta yo podra cargar el cercado para un cuarto de acre, e instalarlo en 15 minutos. +Las vacas pastan un da y luego se van, de acuerdo? +Se comen toda la hierba... pastan de manera intensiva. +l espera tres das. Y luego remolcamos una cosa que se llama el "huevomvil". +El "huevomvil" es un armatoste muy destartalado. Parece una carreta hecha de tablas, pero alberga 350 gallinas. +l lleva esto a la parcela tres das despus, abre la rampa, las baja, y 350 gallinas bajan corriendo por las rampas, cacareando y cotilleando, como hacen las gallinas. Y se van directo a las bostas de las vacas. +Y lo que hacen es muy interesante. Escarban en las bostas de las vacas en busca de gusanos, las larvas de las moscas. +Y la razn por la cual l espera tres das es porque sabe que al cuarto o quinto da las larvas nacern, y tendra un enorme problema con las moscas. +Pero l espera todo ese tiempo para que se pongan tan grandes, jugosas y sabrosas como sea posible, porque son la forma de protena favorita de las gallinas. +As que las gallinas hacen su pequeo baile a lo "breakdance", y pisotean el estircol para llegar a las larvas, y en el proceso esparcen el estircol por todas partes. +Muy til. Segundo servicio al ecosistema. +Y tercero, mientras estn en este parcela estn por supuesto defecando como locas, y su estircol muy nitrogenado fertiliza esta parcela. +Luego pasan a la siguiente, y en apenas unas pocas semanas la hierba entra en un frenes de crecimiento. +Y en unas cuatro o cinco semanas lo puede hacer otra vez. +Puede poner a las vacas a pastar, puede cortar, puede traer otra especie, como los corderos, o puede hacer heno para el invierno. +Quiero que vean con mucha atencin lo que ha pasado all. +Es un sistema muy productivo, +y lo que quiero decirles es que con 100 acres obtiene 18.000 kg de carne de res, 14.000 kg de cerdo, 25.000 docenas de huevos, 20.000 pollos, 1.000 pavos, 1.000 conejos... una cantidad inmensa de comida. +Ya saben, omos: "Puede alimentarse el mundo con produccin orgnica?" +Pues miren toda la comida que se puede producir en 100 acres si se hace esto, +es decir, si se le da a cada especie lo que quiere. Dejemos que obtengan lo que desean, su peculiaridad fisiolgica. +Pongan eso en prctica. +Pero ahora vemoslo desde el punto de vista de la hierba. +Qu le pasa a la hierba cuando hacemos esto? +Cuando los rumiantes pastan, la hierba queda cortada desde esta altura a esta altura, e inmediatamente hace algo muy interesante. +Cualquiera que haga jardinera sabe que hay una cosa llamada la relacin tallo/raz. Las plantas necesitan mantener la masa de races en un equilibrio aproximado con la masa de hojas para ser felices. +As que, cuando pierden gran cantidad de hojas, desechan races. Se puede decir que las cauterizan y las races mueren, +y entonces las especies que viven en la tierra empiezan a trabajar bsicamente masticando a travs de esas races, descomponindolas (las lombrices, los hongos, las bacterias), y el resultado es tierra nueva. +As es como se crea tierra nueva. +Se crea de abajo hacia arriba. +As es como se construyeron las praderas, la relacin entre el bisonte y las hierbas. +Ms para nosotros, menos para la naturaleza. +Aqu, toda esta comida sale de esta granja, y al final de la temporada hay de hecho ms tierra, ms fertilidad y ms biodiversidad. +Es notablemente esperanzador hacer algo as. +Hay muchos granjeros haciendo esto hoy en da. +Esto va mucho ms all de la agricultura orgnica, que sigue siendo un sistema ms o menos cartesiano. +Es una forma de reanimar el mundo. Eso es lo ms emocionante de esta perspectiva. +Cuando por fin comenzamos a sentir en nuestro interior lo que comprendi Darwin, las cosas que podemos hacer sin ms que estas ideas son algo para sentirse muy esperanzado. +Muchas gracias. +Yo dibujo para entender mejor las cosas. +A veces hago un montn de dibujos y an as no entiendo qu estoy dibujando. +A aquellos de ustedes que estn a gusto con las cosas digitales e incluso presumen sobre ello, les resultar divertido saber que, el tipo conocido por su libro "Cmo funcionan las cosas", mientras preparaba una parte de un panel informativo pas dos das tratando de conectar su porttil con su nueva grabadora de CD. +Que saba yo sobre extensiones o controladores? +Ahora bien, podra hablar sobre algo por lo que soy conocido, algo muy apropiado para mucha gente con mentalidad tcnica que hay aqu, o bien podra hablar de algo que me importa. +Decid hablar de esto ltimo. +Voy a hablar de Roma. +Por qu me interesa Roma en particular? +Bueno, yo fui a la Rhode Island School of Design en la segunda mitad de los aos 60, para estudiar arquitectura +Tuve la suerte de pasar mi ltimo ao, mi quinto ao, en Roma como estudiante. Cambi mi vida. +No se debe a que pasara los primeros 4 aos viviendo en casa -- conduciendo hasta el RISD cada da, y regresando. +Me perd los aos 60. He ledo acerca de ellos. Tengo entendido que fueron bastante interesantes. Yo me los perd. Pero en cambio pas aquel extraordinario ao en Roma. Es un lugar que nunca est lejos de mi mente. +As que cuando se da la oportunidad, Yo trato de hacer all o para ella. +Tambin hago dibujos para ayudar a comprender las cosas. +Cosas que quiero hacer creer que entiendo. +Eso es lo que yo hago como ilustrador. Ese es mi trabajo. +As que me voy a mostrarles algunas imgenes de Roma. +He hecho muchos dibujos de Roma a travs de los aos. +Estos son slo dibujos de Roma. Regreso all tanto como puedo. Lo necesito. +Diferentes materiales, diferentes estilos, y diferentes pocas. Dibujos de mis cuadernos de bocetos, mostrando detalles de Roma. +Parte de la razn por la que les enseo estos es que les ayudar a ilustrar parte del camino que sigo para tratar de averiguar lo que siento acerca de Roma y por qu lo siento. +Se trata de bocetos de algunos pequeos detalles. +Roma es una ciudad llena de sorpresas. +Quiero decir que hablamos de perspectivas inusuales. Hablamos de estrechas y sinuosas calles que de repente se abren a amplias plazas, inundadas de sol -- y a pesar de ello, esas plazas tiene una escala humana. +Parte de la razn para eso es que crecieron +orgnicamente. Es sorprendente la yuxtaposicin de viejo y nuevo, los rayos de la luz que se cruzan entre los edificios creando una especie de mapa sobre tu cabeza generalmente azul, especialmente en verano, en comparacin con los mapas que uno espera ver de calles convencionales. +As que empec a pensar cmo podra plasmar esto en un libro. +Cmo podra compartir lo que siento sobre Roma, mi conocimiento de Roma? +Y voy a mostrarles un montn de callejones sin salida. +La razn principal para mostrrselos es que si no estn seguros de adonde van, no van a llegar a ningn lugar. +Aqu hay un pequeo mapa - pens en mapas al principio. Que tal vez debiera crear una especie de atlas con mis calles favoritas de Roma. +Aqu ven una lnea de texto que parte del escape de un scooter rodando por la pgina. +Es la misma lnea de texto que gira alrededor de una fuente en una ilustracin que se puede girar y leerla en ambos sentidos. +Quizs esa lnea de texto podra ser una historia para darle cierta forma humana a esto. +Pero eso me pareca un atajo muy fcil. +Porque, aunque acabo de comenzar esta presentacin, esta no es la primera cosa que intent hacer, as que estaba algo desesperado. +Me di cuenta de que no contaba con ningn contenido, as que decid dirigirme al envoltorio Quiero decir, parece que funciona con muchas cosas pequeas. +Y pens que una cajita con cuatro libritos podra ser la solucin. +Pero una de las ideas que surgi de esos bocetos fue viajar por Roma en diferentes vehculos y a diferentes velocidades mostrando as diferentes aspectos de Roma. +Como por ejemplo, el panorama de Roma desde un dirigible. +Rpidas instantneas de cosas que podran verse desde un rpido scooter, o ms lentamente. Caminando a travs de Roma, podran estudiar con ms detalle las maravillosas superficies ycosas que se encuentran. +En cualquier caso, volv a la idea del dirigible, +llegu hasta Alberto Santos-Dumont. +Y encontr uno de sus dirigibles, de dimensiones suficientes para usarlo como una especie de escala que podra yuxtaponerse a algunos edificios de Roma. +Ya fuese volando sobre ellos, pasando o parando frente a ellos, sera una especie de regla -- viajando a travs de las pginas - sin ser una regla. +No es tanto saber cun grande es ese "nmero 11", sino que ser capaces de comparar ese "nmero 11" con el Panten ese "nmero 11" con las Termas de Caracalla, y as sucesivamente. Si les interesa. +Esta es Beatriz. Tiene un perro llamado Ajax. Ha comprado un dirigible, un pequeo dirigible. Aqu est montando su estructura. Ajax est olfateando agujeros en el globo antes de despegar. +Ella lanza el globo por encima de la plaza de Espaa, y comienza una visita area de la ciudad. +Vamos ms all de la Plaza de Espaa. +Una manera de ensear este ro, esta especie de corriente que baja de la colina. +Lamentablemente, justo al otro lado de la calle, muy cerca, est la columna de Marco Aurelio. Y el dimetro del dirigible deja all una huella, como ven, al intentar leer la historia alrededor de las espirales la columna de Marco Aurelio est tan cerca que la golpea. +Lo que me da la oportunidad de mostrar la estructura de la columna de Marco Aurelio, que en realidad no es ms que un montn de monedas. Altas y gruesas monedas. Sobre la plaza de San Ignacio arruinaremos completamente la simetra, pero es un lugar espectacular para visitar. +Un marco espectacular donde se ve - generalmente - un extraordinario cielo azul. +Sobre el Panten y los 9 metros de su oculus. +Ella aparca su dirigible, lanza la soga del ancla y baja para echar una mirada a su interior. +Por desgracia para ella, la soga del ancla se enreda en los pies de unos Boy Scouts que visitan el Panten, y son inmediatamente lanzados fuera teniendo una extraordinaria y aterradora visin de algunas de las cpulas de Roma, desde su punto de vista, naturalmente, colgados boca abajo. +Salen del apuro tan pronto como llegan a lo alto de San Ivo, esa pequea estructura en espiral que ven ah. +ella contina su camino hacia la Piazza Navona. +Ve mucha actividad en el restaurante Tres Scalini, recordando que era la hora de comer, y tiene hambre. +Dirige su motor hacia el Campo de Fiori, donde llegan pronto. Pone a su perro Ajax en una cesta y lo baja, con una lista de alimentos, hasta el mercado. Que montan all hasta la una de la tarde y que luego desaparece completamente, hasta las seis o siete de la maana siguiente. +En cualquier caso, el perro vuelve al dirigible con las viandas. +Y por desgracia, cuando ella va a desenvolver el jamn, Ajax se lanza a por l. +Ella consigue salvar el jamn, pero al hacerlo pierde el mantel, que pueden ver volando lejos, arriba a la izquierda. +Siguen sin su mantel, buscando un lugar donde aterrizar para poder almorzar. +Finalmente descubren un gran muro lleno de pequeos agujeros, ideal para dejar un dirigible, porque hay sitio donde amarrarlo. +Resulta ser la pared exterior, parte de la que an queda, del Coliseo. Paran all y tienen un magnfico almuerzo con una vista espectacular. +Al final del almuerzo, sueltan el ancla, pasando a travs de las Termas de Caracalla y sobre las murallas de la ciudad sobre una abandonada Puerta de la Muralla. Y deciden echar un vistazo a la pirmide Cestia, que tiene un pararrayos en su parte superior. +Lamentablemente, eso es un problema. Pasan demasiado cerca -- y cuando ests en un dirigible hay que tener mucho cuidado con cualquier pincho. +Lo que lleva esta pequea historia a su conclusin. +Marcello, por otra parte, es un hombre ms bien perezoso, que no debe trabajar hasta el medioda. +El despertador suena a 5 minutos de las 12 o as. +l se levanta, salta sobre su scooter, y corre por la ciudad pasa la iglesia de Santa Maria della Pace, baja por callejones, a travs de las calles por donde los turistas suelen pasear. Perturbando el silencio, y la vida de Roma en cada curva. +Sugiero la rapidez con la que circula en esta pequea imagen -- que, una vez ms, se puede girar y leer en los dos sentidos, porque hay texto en la parte inferior y en la superior, uno de los cuales est al revs en esta imagen. +As que sigue corriendo, acercndose a un incauto camarero que est tratando de servir dos platos de lingini con una delicada salsa de vino blanco y almejas a unos clientes sentados en una mesa del restaurante, en la calle. +el camarero los agarra, pero es demasiado tarde. +Marcello pasa corriendo en su scooter. +Y todo lo que ve a partir de ah est afectado por el lingini. Pero l sigue adelante, porque tiene un trabajo que hacer. +Derriba algunos andamios - una de las razones por las que Roma sigue siendo el extraordinario lugar que es: debido a los andamios y a la determinacin en mantener su trazado, es una ciudad que sigue creciendo y adaptndose a las necesidades de cada momento en que se encuentre. +Sigue derecho a travs de la Piazza della Rotonda, frente al Panten, causando nuevos estragos, +y llegando finalmente a su trabajo. Marcello resulta ser el conductor del autobs 64. Y si han subido al autobs 64 ya sabrn que lo conduce con el mismo entusiasmo que Marcello demuestra con su scooter. +Y, por ltimo, Carletto - pueden ver su apartamento en la esquina superior izquierda. +Ah est mirando a su mesa. Planea declararse esta noche a su novia de 40 aos. Y quiere que sea algo perfecto. +Ha puesto velas, un centro de flores Intenta averiguar dnde colocar los platos y los vasos. +Pero no est contento - algo no funciona. +Suena el telfono - le llaman de palacio. +l camina a buen ritmo, pero, comparado con lo que hemos visto, es un paseo. +Todo el mundo conoce a Carletto, est en la industria del entretenimiento - trabaja en la televisin. +En realidad en la reparacin de televisiones, +por eso la gente lo conoce. De hecho, todos tienen su nmero. +Llega al palacio, a la gran puerta de entrada. +Entra en el patio y habla con el guardia, le dice que ha habido un desastre en el palacio. Ningn televisor funciona. Y falta muy poco para un importante partido de ftbol, y la gente est cada vez ms inquieta y nerviosa. +l va al stano, para comprobar los cables, y luego va subiendo poco a poco por el edificio, apartamento por apartamento, comprueba cada televisin, comprueba cada conexin, esperando averiguar cul es el problema. +Trabajando, sube finalmente la gran escalinata, hasta una pequea escalera, llegando a la buhardilla +Abre la ventana de la buhardilla, y, claro, all hay un mantel enredado alrededor de la antena de televisin. +La retira y el problema se resuelve, todo el mundo en el palacio es feliz. +Y claro, l tambin resuelve su propio problema. +Todo lo que tiene que hacer ahora, con una mesa perfecta, es esperar su llegada. +Ese fue mi primer intento, pero no me pareci suficiente para transmitir lo que quera transmitir sobre Roma. +As que pens, bueno, slo har plazas, y las mostrar por dentro y desde abajo, y tambin cmo crecieron hasta tener la forma que tienen ahora. +Y pens, eso es demasiado complicado. No. Tomar slo mis fragmentos y rincones favoritos, y los colocar dentro del Panten, manteniendo su escala. As vern la parte superior de San Ivo y la pirmide Cestia y el Templete de Bramante, todos juntos en ese increble espacio. +Y ahora, este es otro dibujo. Bueno, pens, quizs sea la ocasin de unir Piranesi con Escher. De hecho, vern aqu que empezaba a perder el control realmente, y tambin la esperanza. +Hay aqu una muy fina lnea azul de humo del escape ese tipo de pistas que muestran el aspecto que tendra el conjunto. +As que pens: espera un minuto, qu estoy haciendo? +Un libro no slo es una forma prolija de recoger y almacenar informacin. Es una serie de capas. +Quiero decir, levantamos una capa tras otra -- pensamos en ellas como pginas, hacindolo as. +Pero piensen en ellas como capas. Roma es un lugar de capas -- capas horizontales, capas verticales. As que pens, que pasar una pgina me permitira -- si se piensa en ello del modo correcto -- mostrarles la profundidad de las capas. +El estuco, en las paredes de la mayora de edificios de Roma, cubre cicatrices - cicatrices de siglos de cambios ya que estas estructuras fueron adaptadas en lugar de haber sido derribadas. +Si hago una pgina desplegable en el lado izquierdo, y permito desplegarla, podrn ver detrs ese tejido cicatrizado. +Podran ver que, en 1635, fue necesario hacer ventanas ms pequeas, porque los enemigos se acercaban, o algo as. +Adaptaciones enterradas bajo el estuco. +Podran desplegar la pgina de este palacio para mostrar qu pasa en su interior. +Pero lo ms importante, tambin podra mostrar como se ve la esquina de estos magnficos edificios con todos esos enormes bloques de piedra -- o los falsos bloques de piedra hechos con ladrillos y estuco, que es lo ms comn en estos casos. +As, esto se convierte en algo tridimensional. +Podra llevarlos por una de esas estrechas calles, hacia una de esas sorprendentes plazas, mediante una doble puerta. una doble pgina desplegable - que si son como yo, leyendo un libro desplegable como un nio - si meten su cabeza dentro +y despliegan las pginas alrededor de su cabeza, estarn en la plaza en ese breve perodo de tiempo. +Y realmente no he hecho nada complicado, slo crear pginas desplegables. +Pero luego pens, tal vez podra ser ms sencillo as. +Vemos el Panten y la Piazza della Rotonda frente a l. +He aqu el libro completamente abierto. +OK, si yo no abro el libro completamente, si slo lo abro 90 grados, estaramos viendo desde arriba la fachada del Panten. Y abajo, la plaza vista desde arriba. +Y si giramos el libro de otra manera, estaramos viendo la plaza con la fachada del Panten. +No hay desplegables, no hay trucos -- slo un libro que no est abierto del todo. +Eso me pareci prometedor. Pens: podra hacerlo, combinar despegables con partes del libro de apertura parcial. +As veramos el interior del Panten, y lo ampliamos, y as sucesivamente. +Y pens, tal vez estoy en el camino correcto, pero se perda cierta calidad humana. +As que volv a la nocin de historia que siempre es algo a considerar si se trata de lograr que la gente preste atencin al libro y recoja informacin a lo largo del camino. +El "Vuelo del Pichn" me pareci un ttulo pegadizo. +tratndose de una paloma mensajera, podra llamarse la "Odisea de Homero". +Pero fue el viaje de - - Si un ttulo funciona, senlo. Sera un viaje a travs de Roma y mostrara todas las cosas que me gustan de Roma. +Esta es el pichn parado en lo alto de una iglesia. +Sale durante el da, hace lo normal en las palomas, vuelve -- y todo el lugar est cubierto de andamios y de redes verdes. No hay forma de que el pichn pueda regresar a su casa, +as que es un pichn sin hogar. Y va a tener que encontrar un nuevo lugar para vivir. Eso me permite recorrer mi catlogo de cosas favoritas. Empezando con las ms altas y as sucesivamente. +Tal vez tiene que regresar y vivir con su familia -- y eso no es siempre algo bueno. Pero hace que las palomas se renan de nuevo. +Y pens que tena cierto inters, pero que debera haber una persona involucrada de algn modo. +As que pens en este viejo tipo que pasa su vida cuidando palomas enfermas. +Y va a cualquier parte para encontrarlas. Lugares peligrosos y as. Y ellas se hacen amigas de este hombre, y aprenden trucos y le entretienen durante su almuerzo. +Hay un vnculo real que se establece entre este hombre y estas palomas. +Pero, por desgracia, l se enferma. Se pone muy enfermo. +Pero l les ense a deletrear su nombre: Aldo. +Se presentan despus de tres o cuatro das sin verlo. l vive en esta pequea buhardilla. Ellas deletrean su nombre y vuelan alrededor. +Y finalmente se siente con suficientes fuerzas para subir por la escalera hasta el tejado. Y todas las palomas, como en la pelcula "El Globo Rojo", estn ah esperando por l, lo levantan y lo llevan lejos, fuera de las murallas de la ciudad. +Y l ha - olvid mencionar esto -- cada vez que mora una paloma, l la llevaba ms all de las murallas de la ciudad. +Segn la antigua costumbre romana, los muertos nunca se enterraban dentro de las murallas. +Y yo pens que era una historia realmente alegre. +. As que realmente va a hacer un largo vuelo. +De todos modos, yo segu, y una vez ms - si los envases no funcionan y si las historias van en la direccin correcta, Termino llegando a los ttulos. Y espero que un ttulo me impacte y me lleve en la direccin correcta. +Y a veces, s me causa suficiente atencin, llego a hacer incluso una pgina con el ttulo. +As pues, estas pginas son ttulos que me llevaron a una solucin, que es la historia de una joven que enva un mensaje con una paloma mensajera-- ella vive fuera de de Roma - a alguien en la ciudad. +Y la paloma vuela aqu por encima de la Via Appia. +Pueden ver las tumbas y los pinos a lo largo del camino. +Si ven la lnea roja, vern el camino de la paloma. Si no ven la lnea roja, son ustedes la paloma. +Y se hace necesario y posible en este momento tratar de transmitir la sensacin que sera, poder volar sobre la ciudad sin moverse. +Pasar sobre la Pirmide Cestia -- muy familiar para ustedes, incluso si no han ido a Roma recientemente. Pasar sobre la Puerta de la Muralla +Y esto es algo un poco inusual. +Esta paloma hace algo que la mayora de las palomas mensajeras no haran: tomar la ruta escnica. Que es un recurso que era necesario para ampliar realmente este libro ms all de cuatro pginas. +As rodeamos el Coliseo, pasando por la Iglesia de Santa Maria in Cosmedin y sobre el Templo de Hrcules, hacia el ro. +Casi chocamos con la cornisa del Palacio Farnese, diseada por Miguel ngel, construida con piedra del Coliseo. Escapamos por poco! +Estamos otra vez sobre el Campo de Fiori. +Esto es algo que hago para mostrar a mis alumnos, porque es una completa hibridacin -- una negacin de las reglas de la perspectiva. +La nica regla perspectiva que creo importante es, si parece creble, has acertado. +Pero si tratan de averiguar donde estn los puntos de fuga, Un par de ellos estn en Marte, y alguno ms -- ya saben, otro par -- en Cremona. +Excepto en la plaza delante de Santa Maria della Pace, donde invariablemente hay algn partido de ftbol, somos alcanzados por un baln de ftbol. +Esta es una terrible ilustracin ma golpeado por un baln de ftbol. +Estn todas las piezas: Santa Maria della Pace, un baln de ftbol, un poco de ala de un pjaro. No pasa nada. As que tuve que reflexionar sobre eso. +Y si quieren ver Santa Maria della Pace -- ya saben lo flexibles que son los libros, increblemente interactivos -- slo grenlo y miren desde el otro lado. +A travs de la calle, podemos ver el impacto en la lnea roja. +Y poder entrar luego dentro y alrededor, porque estamos volando, no tenemos que preocuparnos por la gravedad en este momento, y as, este dibujo se puede orientar de cualquier forma en la pgina. +Seremos algo exuberantes al pasar por el Jesu -- no es sorprendente intentar imitar la arquitectura as. +Pasaremos la maravillosa pared con yuxtaposiciones de la que he hablado: hermosas inscripciones en las paredes encima del nen "Ristorante", y as sucesivamente. +Y, finalmente, llegaremos al patio del palacio, que es nuestro destino. +Hacia arriba a travs del patio, en una pequea ventana, en el tico, hay alguien trabajando en su mesa de dibujo. +Retira el mensaje de la pata del ave. Esto es lo que dice. +Y al mirar en el tablero de dibujo, podemos ver en que est trabajando, de hecho, es un mapa del viaje de la paloma que acaba de adoptar, y la lnea roja, a travs de todos aquellos lugares. +Y si quieren la informacin, para cerrar este crculo de comprensin, todo lo que tienen que hacer es leer estos prrafos. +Muchas gracias. +Estoy aqu para reclutarlos para ayudar a reestructurar la historia de cmo los seres humanos y otras criaturas hacen cosas. +Esta es la vieja historia. Ya hemos escuchado un poco sobre ella. La Biologa es una guerra en la que slo sobreviven los ms feroces. Las empresas y las naciones triunfan slo derrotando, destruyendo y dominando a la competencia. La poltica tiene que ver con que tu lado gane a cualquier costo. +Sin embargo, creo que podemos ver el inicio de una nueva historia comienza a emerger. +Es un relato que se extiende a travs de diferentes disciplinas, en el cual la cooperacin, la accin colectiva y las interdependencias complejas desempean un papel ms importante +Y el papel central, aunque no el ms importante, de la competencia y la supervivencia del ms apto, se encoge un poco para hacer espacio. +Empec a pensar en la relacin entre la comunicacin, los medios y la accin colectiva cuando escrib "Multitudes Inteligentes", Y descubr que cuando termin el libro continuaba pensando en eso. +En realidad, si se mira hacia atrs, los medios de comunicacin humana y las formas en las que nos organizamos socialmente han co-evolucionado durante bastante tiempo. +Los seres humanos han vivido durante mucho ms tiempo que los aproximadamente 10.000 aos de civilizacin sedentaria agricultora. En pequeos grupos familiares, los cazadores nmadas aportan conejos, recoleccin de alimento. +La riqueza en esos das consista en tener suficiente comida para mantenerse vivo +Pero en algn momento se unieron en el juego de la caza mayor. +Y no sabemos exactamente cmo lo hicieron. Aunque deben haber resuelto algunos problemas de accin colectiva. Slo tiene sentido que no se pueden cazar mastodontes mientras se est peleando contra otros grupos. +Y una vez ms, no tenemos modo de saber, pero est claro que una nueva forma de riqueza debe haber surgido. +Ms protena que la que la familia del cazador poda comer antes de que se pudriera. +Entonces esto plante un problema social que creo debe haber conducido a nuevas formas sociales. +La gente que coma la carne del mastodonte le deba algo a los cazadores y a sus familias? +De ser as, cmo hacan los acuerdos? +Una vez ms, no lo podemos saber, pero podemos estar bastante seguros de que existi alguna forma de comunicacin simblica. +Por supuesto, con la agricultura vinieron las primeras grandes civilizaciones, las primeras ciudades construidas de barro y ladrillo, los primeros imperios. +Y fueron los administradores de estos imperios quienes comenzaron a contratar gente para registrar el trigo y las ovejas y el vino que se les deba. Y todos los impuestos que se les deba haciendo marcas, marcas en arcilla entonces. +No mucho despus de esto se invent el alfabeto. +Y esta potente herramienta fue reservada durante aos a la elite de administradores que llevaban los registros de las cuentas del imperio. +Y despus, otra tecnologa de la comunicacin posibilit nuevos medios. Lleg la imprenta y en dcadas millones de personas se alfabetizaron. +Y a partir de la poblacin alfabetizada nuevas formas de accin colectiva surgieron en los mbitos del conocimiento, la religin y la poltica. +Vimos que revoluciones cientficas, la Reforma Protestante, democracias constitucionales fueron posibles donde antes no lo haba sido. +No es creado por la prensa de impresin, No creadas por la imprenta, pero posibles por la accin colectiva que emerge de la alfabetizacin. +Y una vez ms, nuevas formas de riqueza emergieron. +Bien,el comercio es antiguo. Los mercados, tan viejos como los cruces de caminos. +Pero el capitalismo, tal como lo conocemos, tiene slo unos cientos de aos, posibilitado por acuerdos cooperativos y tecnologas como las sociedades annimas, seguro de responsabilidad compartida, contabilidad por partida doble. +Ahora, por supuesto, las tecnologas habilitantes estn basadas en Internet. Y en la era de de la comunicacin de "muchos hacia muchos" cada escritorio es ahora una imprenta, una estacin de radiodifusin, una comunidad o un mercado. +La evolucin se est acelerando. +Ms recientemente ese poder est desligando de los escritorios y yendo ms all de ellos Y muy, muy pronto veremos una significativa parte, o la mayora, de la raza humana sosteniendo, llevando y vistiendo supercomputadoras enlazadas en velocidades mayores que las que ahora consideramos banda ancha. +Bien, cuando comenc a investigar la accin colectiva, la mayor parte de los textos sobre el tema est basada en lo que los socilogos llaman "dilemas sociales". +Hay un par de relatos mticos sobre dilemas sociales. +Hablar sobre ellos: el dilema del prisionero y la tragedia de los comunes. +Ahora, cuando habl con Kevin Kelly sobre esto, me asegur que todos en esta audiencia conocen bien los detalles del dilema del prisionero. As que me voy a referir a eso muy, muy rpidamente. +Si tienen ms preguntas al respecto, pregunten a Kevin Kelly luego. El dilema del prisionero es, en realidad, una historia de el modelo matemtico de la teora del juego cuando se comenz a reflexionar sobre la guerra nuclear: dos jugadores que no podan confiar uno en el otro. +Permtanme decir que toda transaccin no garantizada es un buen ejemplo del dilema del prisionero. +Una persona con bienes, una persona con dinero, al no poder confiar uno en el otro, no van a intercambiar. +Ninguno quiere ser el primero, o van a obtener la paga del primo. Sin embargo, ambos pierden porque ninguno obtiene lo que quiere. +Si pudieran llegar a un acuerdo, si pudieran cambiar al dilema del prisionero a un modelo de pago diferente, denominado juego de garanta, podran avanzar. +Hace 20 aos Robert Axelrod us el dilema del prisionero para sondear el interrogante biolgico: Si estamos aqu porque nuestros antepasados fueron competidores tan feroces, cmo puede existir la cooperacin? +Comenz un torneo de computacin en el que la gente propona estrategias del problema del prisionero, y descubri, para su sorpresa, que una estrategia muy. muy simple gan. Gan el primer torneo, e incluso despus de que todos supieran que haba ganado, gan el segundo torneo. Se lo conoce como estrategia ojo por ojo. +Otro juego econmico, tal vez no tan conocido como el dilema del prisionero, es el juego del ultimtum. Y es tambin un interesante sondeo sobre nuestros supuestos sobre la forma de hacer las transacciones econmicas. +As es el juego. Hay dos jugadores. Nunca antes lo jugaron. No volvern a jugarlo. No se conocen. Estn, en realidad, en cuartos diferentes. +Al primer jugador se le ofrecen cien dlares y se le pide que proponga una divisin: 50/50, 90/10. Independientemente de lo que proponga el jugador, el segundo puede aceptar a los dos se les paga, el juego termina. o rechazar. No se le paga a ninguno y el juego termina. +Ahora, la base fundamental de la economa neoclsica nos dira que es irracional rechazar un dlar porque alguien que no conocemos, en otro cuarto, va a ganar 99. +Sin embargo, en miles de pruebas con estudiantes norteamericanos y europeos y japoneses, un porcentaje significativo rechazara cualquier oferta no cercana a 50/50. +Y aunque estaban ocultos, y no conocan el juego, y nunca antes lo haban jugado, los oferentes parecan saberlo de forma innata porque la propuesta media fue sorprendentemente cercana al 50/50. +Ahora, la parte interesante aparece ms recientemente cuando los antroplogos comenzaron a llevar este juego a otras cultura y descubrieron, para su sorpresa, que los agricultores de tala y quema del Amazonas o pastores nmades en Asia Central, o en una docena de culturas diferentes -- cada uno tena ideas radicalmente opuestas sobre lo que es justo. +Lo cual sugiere que, en lugar de existir un sentido innato de la justicia, de algn modo la base de nuestras transacciones econmicas puede estar influida por nuestras instituciones sociales -- lo sepamos o no. +El otro gran relato de dilemas sociales es la tragedia de los comunes. +Garrett Hardin la us para hablar de la sobrepoblacin al final de los 60. +Us el ejemplo de una zona comn de pastoreo en la cual cada persona, simplememte por la maximizacin de su propio rebao caus sobrepastoreo y agotamiento del recurso. +Lleg a una conclusin bastante triste: los seres humanos devastarn inevitablemente cualquier fondo comn de recursos en el cual el uso no sea restringido. +Ahora, Eleanor Ostrom, una cientfica poltica, en 1990 formul una pregunta interesante que cualquier cientfico debe hacer, es realmente verdad que los seres humanos siempre devastarn los bienes comunes? +Entonces sali a buscar cuantos datos pudo. +Estudi miles de casos en los que se comparten cuencas hidrogrficas, recursos forestales, pesqueros, y descubri que, s, caso tras caso, los seres humanos destruan las reas comunes de las cuales dependan. +Pero tambin encontr muchos casos en los cuales la gente escapaba del dilema del prisionero. En realidad, la tragedia de los comunes es el dilema del prisionero con mltiples jugadores. +Y dijo que las personas slo son prisioneros si as se consideran. +Escapaban mediante la creacin de instituciones de accin colectiva. +Y descubri, lo que me parece ms interesante, que entre aquellas intituciones que funcionaban haba cierto nmero de principios de diseo colectivo. Y aquellos principios parecen faltar en las instituciones que no funcionan. +Me muevo rpidamente en una serie de disciplinas. En biologa, las nociones de simbiosis, seleccin de grupo, psicologa evolutiva, compiten, con seguridad. +Sin embargo, ya no hay un gran debate sobre el hecho de que los acuerdos cooperativos se han movido desde la periferia a un papel central. En la biologa, del nivel celular al ecolgico +Y una vez ms, nuestras nociones de los individuos como seres econmicos se han dado vuelta. +El inters personal racional no es siempre el factor dominante +De hecho, la gente acta para castigar a los tramposos, an con un costo para ellos mismos. +Y ms recientemente, medidas neurofiosologicas han demostrado que los que castigan a los tramposos en juegos econmicos muestran actividad en los centros de recompensa de su cerebro. +Lo cual llev a un cientfico a declarar que el castigo altruista puede ser lo que aglutina a las sociedades. +Ahora, he hablado sobre nuevas formas de comunicacin y nuevos medios que en el pasado ayudaron a crear nuevas formas econmicas +El comercio es antiguo. Los mercados, muy viejos. El capitalismo es bastante reciente El socialismo surgi como una reaccin a eso. +Y sin embargo, se ve muy poco debate sobre cmo puede surgir la prxima modalidad. +Jim Surowiecki menciona brevemente el escrito de Yochai Benkler sobre cdigo abierto, que seala una nueva forma de produccin: entre iguales . +Slo quiero que tengan presente que, si en el pasado nuevas formas de cooperacin facilitadas por nuevas tecnologas, crearon nuevas formas de riqueza, podemos estar dirigindonos a an otro modelo econmico que es significativamente diferente de las anteriores. +Muy brevemente, veamos algunas empresas. IBM, como saben, HP, Sun -- algunos de los competidores ms feroces del mundo TI usan cdigo abierto en su sofware, proporcionan una cartera de patentes para bienes universales. +Eli Lilly -de nuevo, el feroz competitivo mundo farnacetico- cre un mercado de soluciones para problemas farmaceticos. +Toyota, en lugar de tratar a sus proveedores como un mercado, los trata como una red y los entrena para producir mejor, a pesar de que tambin los est entrenando para producir mejor para sus competidores. +Ahora, ninguna de estas empresas hace esto por altruismo. Lo estn haciendo porque estn aprendiendo que cierto modo de compartir hace a su propio inters. +La produccin de cdigo abierto nos ha mostrado que el sofware internacional, como Linux y Mozilla, puede ser creado sin la estructura burocrtica empresarial, sin los incentivos del mercado tal como los conocemos. +Google se enriquece enriqueciendo a miles de bloggers a travs de AdSense. +Amazon abri su Interfaz de Aplicaciones de Programacin a 60.000 desarrolladores, numerosas tiendas de Amazon. +Estn enriqueciendo a otros, no por altruismo, sino para enriquecerse a ellos mismos. +Ebay resolvi el dilema del prisionero y cre un mercado donde ninguno hubiera existido, al crear un mecanismo de retroalimentacin que convierte el juego del dilema del prisionero en un juego de garanta. +En lugar de "ninguno puede confiar en el otro, entonces tenemos que hacer movidas subptimas," se da, "usted me demuestra que es confiable y cooperar." +Wikipedia tiene miles de voluntarios para crear una enciclopedia libre con un milln y medio de artculos en 200 idiomas en slo un par de aos. +Hemos visto que ThinkCycle ha permitido a las ONG in pases en desarrollo presentar problemas para que los resolvieran estudiantes de todo el mundo includo algo que est siendo utilizado para aliviar tsunamis ahora. Es un mecanismo para rehidratar a las vctimas del clera que es tan simple de usar que analfabetos pueden ser entrenados para usarlo. +BitTorrent convierte cualquier lugar de descarga en un lugar de subida, haciendo que el sistema sea ms eficaz cuanto ms se usa. +Millones de personas han contribuido con sus computadoras cuando no las usan a vincular a travs de Internet colectivos supercomputarizados que ayudan a resolver el problema del plegamiento de protenas para investigadores mdicos. Se trata de Folding at Home en Standford. Para descifrar cdigos. Buscar vida en el espacio exterior. +No creo que an sepamos lo suficiente +No creo que ni siquiera hayamos empezado a descubrir los principios bsicos. Pero creo que podemos comenzar a pensar en ellos. +Y no tengo suficiente tiempo para hablar de todos ellos. Pero, piensen en el inters personal. +Esto es inters personal, pero no slo eso. +En El Salvador, las dos partes que se retiraron de su guerra civil se movieron con estrategias que reflejaban el dilema del prisionero. +En los EE.UU., en Filipinas, en Kenya, en todo el mundo, los ciudadanos han auto-organizado protestas polticas y campaas en contra usando dispositivos mbiles y SMS. +Es posible el Proyecto Apolo de cooperacin? +Un estudio interdisciplinario de la cooperacin? +Creo que el beneficio sera grande. +Creo que necesitamos comenzar a desarrollar mapas de este territorio para poder hablar a travs de las disciplinas. +No estoy diciendo que la comprensin de la cooperacin nos har mejores personas. Y algunas veces la gente coopera para hacer cosas malas. Pero les voy a recordar que hace unos cientos de aos las personas vieron a sus seres queridos morir por enfermedades que pensaban fueron causadas por el pecado o extranjeros o malos espritus. +Descartes dijo que necesitbamos una nueva forma de pensar. +Cuando el mtodo cientfico aport esa nueva forma y la biologa demostr que los microorganismos causan enfermedades, el sufrimiento se alivi. +Qu formas de sufrimiento podran aliviarse, qu formas de riqueza podran crearse si supiramos ms sobre la cooperacin? +No creo que este discurso interdisciplinario vaya a ocurrir automticamente. Va a requerir esfuerzo. +Por lo tanto, los recluto para que me ayuden a iniciar el proyecto de cooperacin. +Gracias. +Creo que sera un alivio para algunas personas y una desilusion para otras saber que hoy no voy a hablar sobre vaginas. +Comence los Monologos de la Vagina porque estaba preocupada por las vaginas. +Hoy, estoy muy preocupada por este concepto, esta palabra, esta imperante especie de fuerza que es la seguridad. +Veo esta palabra, escucho esta palabra, siento esta palabra en todos lados. +Verdadera seguridad, revisiones de seguridad, alerta de seguridad, permiso de seguridad. +Por que toda esta atencion sobre la seguridad me hace sentir mucho mas insegura? +Que es lo que quieren decir cuando hablan acerca de verdadera seguridad? +Y por que, especialmente como estadounidenses, nos hemos convertido en una nacion que busca la seguridad por sobre todo lo demas? +En realidad, pienso que la seguridad es esquiva, es imposible. +Todos morimos. Todos envejecemos. Todos nos enfermamos. La gente nos deja. +La gente nos cambia. Nada es seguro. +Y esas son, en realidad, las buenas noticias. +Esto es, por supuesto, a menos de que toda tu vida se trate de estar seguro. +Pienso que cuando eso es el centro de tu vida, estas son las cosas que pasan. +No puedes viajar muy lejos o aventurarte mucho fuera de determinado circulo. +No puedes permitir muchas ideas conflictivas en tu mente al mismo tiempo dado que podrian confundirte o desafiarte. +No te puedes abrir a nuevas experiencias, nuevas personas, maneras nuevas de hacer las cosas. Te podrian sacar de tu rumbo. +No puedes no saber quien eres, asi que te aferras a una identidad dura. +Te conviertes en un cristiano, un musulman, un judio. +Eres un indio, un egipcio, un italiano, un estadounidense. +Eres un heterosexual o un homosexual, o nunca tienes sexo. +O al menos, eso es lo que dices cuando te identificas a ti mismo. +Te haces parte de un "nosotros". +Para estar seguro, te defiendes en contra de "ellos". +Te aferras a tu tierra porque es tu lugar seguro. +Debes pelear contra cualquiera que la usurpa. +Te conviertes en tu nacion. Te conviertes en tu religion. +Te conviertes en cualquier cosa que te congelara, te paralizara y te protegera de la duda o el cambio. +Pero lo nico que esto realmente hace, es apagar tu mente. +En realidad, esto no te hace mas seguro. +Yo estaba en Sri Lanka, por ejemplo, tres dias despues del tsunami, estaba en las playas y era absolutamente claro que en solo cinco minutos se podia elevar una ola de 9 metros de altura y masacrar gente, una poblacion y vidas. +Toda esta busqueda por seguridad, de hecho, te ha hecho mucho mas inseguro porque ahora, tienes que estar alerta todo el tiempo. +Existe gente que no es como tu. Gente que ahora llamas enemigos, +tienes lugares a los que no puedes ir, pensamientos que no puedes tener, mundos en lo que ya no puedes habitar. +Y por lo tanto te pasas tus dias peleando contra cosas, defendiendo tu territorio, y atrincherandote cada vez mas en tu pensamiento fundamental. +Dedicas tus dias a protegerte a ti mismo. +Esto se convierte en tu mision. Es todo lo que haces. +Las ideas se acortan. Se convierten en fragmentos. +Hay hacedores del mal y santos, criminales y victimas. +Estan aquellos que, si no estan con nosotros, estan en contra nuestro. +Se hace mas facil herir a la gente porque no sientes lo que esta adentro de ellos. +Es mas facil encerrarlos, forzarlos a desnudarse, humillarlos, ocuparlos, invadirlos y matarlos porque ahora ellos solo son obstaculos a tu seguridad. +Durante seis anos he tenido el extraordinario privilegio, a traves del Dia-V, un movimiento global en contra de (la violencia contra) las mujeres, de viajar a probablemente 60 paises, y pasar una buena parte de tiempo en distintos lugares. +He conocido mujeres y hombres en todo el planeta, que a traves de distintas circunstancias, guerra, pobreza, racismo, multiples formas de violencia, nunca han conocido la seguridad, o que han visto su ilusion de seguridad devastada para siempre. +He estado en Afganistan con mujeres bajo el regimen Taliban, que fueron brutalmente abusadas y censuradas. +He estado en campos de refugiados en Bosnia. +Estuve con mujeres en Paquistan a quienes les quemaron sus caras con acido. +He estado con jovencitas a lo largo de toda America que fueron violadas en citas o violadas por sus mejores amigos cuando fueron drogadas una noche. +Una de las cosas mas fabulosas que descubri en mis viajes es que existe una especie emergente. +Me encanto cuando el hablo acerca de otro mundo al lado de este. +He descubierto a estas personas a quienes, en el mundo del Dia-V, llamamos Guerreras de la Vagina. +Estas peculiares personas, en lugar de conseguir AK-47s o armas de destruccion masiva o machetes, en el espiritu del guerrero, han llegado al centro, al corazon del dolor, de la perdida. +Lo han llorado, han muerto en el, y han permitido y alentado que el veneno se convierta en medicina. +Han usado su dolor como combustible para comenzar a redirigir esa energia hacia otra mision y otra trayectoria. +Estas guerreras ahora dedican por completo sus vidas a asegurarse de que lo que les paso a ellas no le pase a nadie mas. +Existen miles, si no millones, de estas guerreras en el planeta. +Seguramente hay muchas en este cuarto. +Tienen una valentia y una libertad que creo es la base de un nuevo paradigma. +Ellas se han liberado del marco que fija victimas y victimarios. +Su meta final no es su propia seguridad, y por esa razon, porque mas que preocuparse por la seguridad, porque la transformacion del sufrimiento es su objetivo final, realmente creo que estan creando verdadera seguridad y una idea totalmente nueva de lo que es seguridad. +Quiero hablar acerca de algunas de estas personas que he conocido. +Manana viajo al Cairo, y estoy tan emocionada porque ahi estare con mujeres que son mujeres del Dia-V, y se encuentran inaugurando la primer casa segura para mujeres golpeadas en Medio Oriente. +Esto ocurre porque las mujeres en el Cairo tomaron la decision de rebelarse y ponerse ellas mismas en la linea y hablar acerca del grado de violencia que se registra en Egipto y estuvieron dispuestas a ser atacadas y criticadas. +Y gracias a su trabajo durante los ltimos aos, no solo se esta inaugurando esta casa, sino que est siendo apoyada por numerosos sectores de la sociedad que nunca las habrian apoyando antes. +Este ano, las mujeres en Uganda que pusieron en escena los Monologos de la Vagina durante el Dia-V, provocaron la furia del gobierno. +Y esta historia me gusta tanto. +Habia una reunion del gabinete y un encuentro de presidentes para hablar si autorizarian o no que las Vaginas llegaran a Uganda. +Y ese encuentro estuvo en los medios durante semanas , dos semanas de grandes discusiones. +El gobierno finalmente tomo una decision que los Monologos de la Vagina no podrian ser interpretados en Uganda. +Pero lo sorprendente es que porque estas mujeres lucharon, y estuvieron dispuestas a arriesgar su propia seguridad, comenzo una discucion que no solo ocurrio en Uganda, sino que se extendio por toda Africa. +Como resultado, la produccion, que tenia las entradas totalmente agotadas, cada persona de esa audiencia de 800 butacas, excepto diez, tomo la decision de no devolver las entradas. +Asi recaudaron $10.000 con una obra que nunca se puso en escena. +Hay una joven llamada Kerry Ruffleson que vive en Minesota. +Es una estudiante de escuela secundaria. +Vio los Monologos de la Vagina y se sintio muy motivada, al punto de que fue a la escuela secundaria en Minnesota con un prendedor de "You amo a mi vagina". +Basicamente, fue amenazada con ser expulsada de la escuela. +Le dijeron que no podia amar a su vagina en la escuela secundaria, que no era una cuestion legal, no era un problema moral, que no era algo bueno. +Se que he hablado de Agnes aqui antes, pero quiero darles una actualizacion sobre la situacion de Agnes. +Conoci a Agnes hace tres anos en el Valle Rift. +Cuando era una jovencita, fue mutilada en contra de su voluntad. +La mutilacion de su clitoris obviamente tuvo un impacto en su vida y la cambio de una manera devastadora. +Ella tomo la decision de no tomar una rasuradora o un pedazo de vidrio, sino dedicar su vida a detener lo que estaba sucediendo a otras jovenes. +Durante ocho anos, ella camino por el Valle Rift. +Llevaba consigo esta sorprendente caja donde tena el torso del cuerpo de una mujer, la mitad del torso, y ella ensenaba a todas las personas, dondequiera que fuera, como lucia una vagina saludable y como era una vagina mutilada. +Durante los anos en que camino educo a padres, madres, +salvo a 1.500 jovenes de ser cortadas. +Cuando las del Dia-V la conocimos, le preguntamos como la podiamos ayudar y ella dijo "Bueno, si me consigues un Jeep, podria andar mucho mas rapido". Entonces, le compramos un Jeep. +Y durante el ano en que tuvo el Jeep, salvo a 4.500 jovenes de ser cortadas. +Entonces, dijimos, que mas podemos hacer? +Ella contesto "Si me ayudan a conseguir dinero, podria abrir una casa". +Hace tres anos, Agnes inauguro una casa segura en Africa para detener la mutilacion. +Cuando comenzo su mision, hace ocho anos, fue injuriada, fue detestada, completame calumniada en su comunidad. +Orgullosamente, les anuncio, que hace seis meses, fue elegida Vicealcaldesa de Narok. +Creo que lo que estoy tratando de decir, es que si tu meta final es la seguridad, y eso es todo en lo que centras tu atencion, lo que finalmente ocurre, es que no solo creas mas inseguridad entre la gente, pero te haces a ti mismo mucho mas inseguro. +La seguridad real es contemplar la muerte, no pretender que no existe. +No escapar de las perdida, pero aceptar el duelo, rendirse ante el dolor. +La seguridad real es no saber algo cuando no lo sabes. +La real seguridad es ansiar conexion en vez de poder. +No puede ser comprada, negociada o conseguida con bombas. +Es mas profunda, es un proceso, es la certeza clara de que estamos todos profundamente interconectados, y que la accion de una persona en una pequena localidad tiene consecuencias en todo el mundo. +Seguridad real no es solamente ser capaz de tolerar y buscar misterio, complexidad, ambiguedad, y solo creer en una situacion cuando estan presentes. +Algo sucedio cuando comence a viajar por Dia-V hace ocho anos. Me perdi. +Recuerdo que me encontraba en un avion de Kenia a Sudafrica, y no tenia idea de donde me encontraba +No sabia a donde iba, de donde venia, y entre en panico, tuve una ataque de ansiedad. +Hasta que me di cuenta de que no tenia absolutamente ninguna importancia hacia donde me dirigia, o de donde venia proque esencialmente, somos todos personas permanentemente fuera de lugar +Todos somos refugiados +Venimos de algun lado y viajamos esperanzados todo el tiempo, moviendonos hacia un nuevo lugar. +Libertad significa que no sere identificada con un solo grupo, sino que yo puedo visitar y encontrarme a mi misma en cada grupo. +No significa que no tengo valores o creencias, pero significa que no estoy insensibilizada por ellas. +Que no las uso como armas. +El futuro compartido, sera justo eso, compartido. +La meta final sera hacerse vulnerable, comprendiendo el lugar de nuestra conexion con otros, en vez de encontrarse seguros, en control y solos. +Muchas gracias. +Como estas? Estas exhausta? +En un dia comun, te despiertas con esperanza o tristeza? +Sabes, creo que Carl Jung dijo una vez que para sobrevivir en el siglo 20, tenemos que vivir con dos pensamientos opuestos, al mismo tiempo. +Y creo que parte de lo que estoy aprendiendo en este proceso, es que uno debe permitirse el sentir dolor. +Y creo que mientras siga sintiendo el dolor y llorando, y luego siguiendo adelante, estoy bien. +Cuando comience a fingir que lo que veo no me impacta, y no cambia mi corazon, entonces me meto en problemas, +Hablamos acerca de numerosas causas en el mundo, tu sabes: pobreza, enfermedades y otras, tu invertiste ocho anos en esta. +Por que esta en particular? +Imaginate que has sido violada y ahora estas criando a un nino. +Como impacta tu capacidad de trabajar o ver un futuro, o prosperar en vez de solo sobrevivir? Lo que creo es que si podemos lograr honrar a las mujeres y hacer que esten seguras, seria como honrar la vida misma. +Calma, ahora vuelvo en m. Cuando toco en pblico lo primero que sucede es que la gente grita: qu est haciendo? +Lo toco en espectculos de rock, ya saben, en el escenario parada totalmente inmvil, ya saben... Preguntan "qu est haciendo?, qu est haciendo?" Ya saben. +Y luego, como que hago... Vvvvoouuu! y despus como... +Estoy segura que estn tratando de imaginar cmo funciona. +Bueno, lo que hago es... Oh! con la zurda controlo el tono. +Ven, cuanto ms cerca de la antena, ms aguda es la nota. (Hace una escala) Puede hacerse muy baja. +Y con esta mano, controlo el volumen as que cuanto ms alejo la mano derecha, ms alto suena. +(Cambia el volumen) En resumen, usando ambas manos uno controla el tono y el volumen y como que se intenta crear la ilusin de tocar notas separadas cuando, en realidad, se produce un sonido continuo... +(Fanfarria ... Pitido) A veces me sobresalto: me olvido de que lo tengo encendido me inclino a levantar algo y entonces, como que... Oh! Ya saben. +Y es como un efecto sonoro gracioso que te sigue si no lo apagas. +Quiz sea mejor pasar a la prxima cancin porque perd completamente el rumbo. +Vamos a interpretar una cancin de David Mash llamada "Listen, Words Are Gone" y quiz despus de la cancin pueda retomar el hilo. +Estoy tratando de recordar alguna de las preguntas que me hacen con frecuencia. Hay muchas. +Bueno, supongo que podra contarles un poco de la historia del theremn. +Fue inventado en los aos '20s. El inventor es Lon Thrmin (tambin es msico adems de inventor). La idea del theremn se le ocurri mientras trabajaba con unas radios de onda corta +y detect ese sonido en la seal... y pens: qu tal si pudiera controlar ese sonido y transformarlo en instrumento? Porque tiene tonos. +Y de algn modo, a fuerza de trabajo, lleg a construir el theremn que conocemos hoy. +Y muchas veces los nios de hoy se refieren al theremn haciendo juu-ooh-ooh-ooh, porque en los '50s se usaba en las pelculas de ciencia ficcin de terror ese sonido... Guuu-uuuu Es un sonido medio extrao. +A veces, si tomo demasiado caf, el vibrato se me va de las manos. +Uno se vuelve muy sensible al cuerpo y sus funciones cuando est aqu atrs. +Tiene que quedarse bien inmvil si quiere tener el mximo de control. +Me recuerda el equilibrio del que hablaba antes Michael Moschen porque cuesta mucho mantener el equilibrio atender a lo que uno toca, afinar bien y, al mismo tiempo, uno no quiere centrarse demasiado en afinar todo el tiempo; quiere estar sintiendo la msica. +Adems, uno trata de quedarse muy, muy, muy quieto porque pequeos movimientos con otras partes del cuerpo condicionan la entonacin o, a veces, si uno est tocando una nota baja y respira, ya saben, suceder... (Pierde la entonacin) +Si durante la siguiente cancin me desmayo +Pero definitivamente lo considero casi como... como un instrumento de yoga porque te mantiene alerta de cada pequea cosa que hace tu cuerpo o de lo que no quieres que haga mientras tocas, ya saben, movimientos repentinos. +Si voy al club a tocar algo la gente empieza: "Tmate algo, nosotros invitamos!" +Y es como que, bueno, "Enseguida termino...", no quiero que suene as... +Adems, refleja realmente tu estado de nimo. Si ests, ya saben, si ests... +Es como ser un cantante, slo que en vez de salir de la garganta uno lo controla en el aire y no tiene en realidad un punto de referencia; uno siempre confa en el odo y hace ajustes constantemente. +Uno tiene que ajustarse siempre a lo que sucede y darse cuenta que saldrn notas improvisadas aqu y all y escucharlas, ajustarlas y seguir adelante o, si no, uno se pone muy tenso y enloquece, como yo. +Creo que ahora voy a tocar otra cancin. +Voy a tocar "Lush Life", una de mis canciones favoritas. +Me gustara hablarles de algo muy preciado para el corazn de Karen, que es, cmo se descubre qu cosa hace verdaderamente particular a un proyecto? +Cmo se descubre la singularidad de un proyecto, tan nico como una persona?, +porque me parece que encontrar esta singularidad tiene que ver con tratar con toda la fuerza de la globalizacin: que lo particular es el eje para encontrar la singularidad de lugar y la singularidad de un programa en un edificio. +Bueno, los llevar a Wichita, Kansas, donde hace unos aos me pidieron que hiciera un museo de ciencias en un sitio, en el centro de la ciudad, junto al ro. +Y pens que el secreto del lugar era hacer que el edificio fuera parte del ro mismo. +Desafortunadamente, el lugar estaba separado del ro por el boulevard McLean. De modo que suger que desviramos el McLean. As surgieron los Amigos del Boulevard McLean. +Y nos llev seis meses desviarlo. +La primera imagen que le mostr al comit de la construccin fue este observatorio astronmico de Jantar Mantar en Jaipur, porque habl sobre qu hace que un edificio sea una construccin de la ciencia. +Y me pareci que esta estructura, compleja, rica y sin embargo completamente racional, era un instrumento tena algo que ver con la ciencia, y de alguna manera construir para la ciencia debera ser diferente, nico y hablar de eso. +Y as mi primer bosquejo despus de marcharme fue decir: cortemos el canal, hagamos una isla y construyamos un edificio insular. +Me entusiasm mucho, volv y ellos me miraron medio consternados y dijeron: una isla? +Anteriormente era una isla, la Isla Ackerman, pero rellenamos el canal durante la Gran Depresin para crear empleos. +Entonces comenz el proceso y dijeron: no se puede poner todo en una isla, algo tiene que estar en el continente porque no queremos darle la espalda a la comunidad. +Y surgi un diseo, la galera formando una especie de isla, y uno poda caminar por ella o sobre el techo, +y haba toda clase de atracciones. Uno poda entrar por los edificios en tierra firme, caminar por las galeras hacia los patios haba un paisaje. +Si uno fuera tacao podra caminar por encima del puente hacia el techo, echarle una ojeada a las exposiciones y luego totalmente seducido, volver y pagar la entrada de cinco dlares. +Y el cliente estaba feliz, bueno, ms o menos feliz, porque estbamos cuatro millones de dlares por encima del presupuesto, pero esencialmente feliz. +Pero yo todava estaba preocupado, y lo estaba porque senta que esto era caprichoso. +Era complejo, pero haba algo caprichoso en su complejidad. +Era, lo que yo dira, complejidad composicional y yo pensaba que si tuviera que cumplir lo que haba hablado, un edificio para la ciencia, deba haber una especie de idea generadora una suerte de geometra generadora. +Y esto dio lugar a la idea de tener geometra generadora toroidal, con su centro una con su centro en lo profundo del corazn del edificio de tierra firme, y un toroide con su centro en el cielo para el edificio insular. +Un toroide, para los que no lo saben, es la superficie de una dona o, para algunos de nosotros, de un bagel. +Y de esta idea comenzaron a desprenderse muchas, muchas variaciones de diferentes planos y posibilidades, y luego el plano mismo evolucion en relacin a las exhibiciones, y uno ve la interseccin del plano con la geometra toroide. +Y finalmente el edificio esta es la maqueta. +Cuando haba quejas sobre el presupuesto, yo deca, bien, vale la pena hacer la isla porque se duplica el dinero -- reflexiones. +Y aqu est el edificio en su inauguracin, con un canal que da al centro de la ciudad, visto desde el centro, +y la bicisenda que va a travs del edificio, as los que van viajando por el ro veran las exhibiciones se sentiran atrados por el edificio. +La geometra toroidal posibilit un edificio muy eficiente. Cada viga de este edificio tiene el mismo radio, todas de madera laminada. +Cada pared, cada pared de concreto, est resistiendo las presiones y sosteniendo el edificio. +Cada pieza del edificio funciona. +Estas son las galeras con la luz entrando por las claraboyas, de noche, y el da de la inauguracin +Volviendo a 1976 + en 1976 me pidieron que diseara el Memorial de los Nios en el Museo del Holocausto de Yad Vashem en Jerusaln, lo que vemos aqu el campus. +Me pidieron que hiciera un edificio, y me dieron todas las prendas de vestir y los dibujos. +Me preocup mucho. +Trabaj en eso durante un mes pero no pude resolverlo porque pens que la gente vendra desde el museo histrico, completamente saturados de informacin, para ver otro museo ms con informacin, esto hara que simplemente no pudieran digerirlo. +Y entonces hice una contrapropuesta. Yo dije, ningn edificio; haba una cueva en el sitio, hacemos un tnel en la colina, descendemos por las rocas hasta la cmara subterrnea. +Hay una antesala con fotografas de los nios que perecieron, y luego llegamos a un gran espacio. +Hay una nica vela, parpadeando en el centro. Mediante un arreglo de vidrios reflectivos, la vela se refleja al infinito en todas direcciones. +Uno camina por el espacio, una voz lee los nombres, edades y lugares de nacimiento de los nios. +Esta voz no se repite en seis meses. +Y luego se desciende hacia la luz, hacia el norte, hacia la vida. +Bien, dijeron ellos, la gente no lo va a entender -- van a pensar que es una discoteca, no se puede hacer eso. +Y archivaron el proyecto. Y qued postergado durante 10 aos. Y luego un da Ed Spiegel, de Los ngeles, que haba perdido a su hijo de dos aos en Auschwitz, vino, vio la maqueta, firm el cheque, y se construy 10 aos despus. +Muchos aos despus de eso, en 1998, yo estaba en uno de mis viajes mensuales a Jerusaln, y recib un llamado del ministro de relaciones exteriores que deca, aqu estamos con el jefe de gobierno de Punjab. +l est en visita de estado. Lo llevamos a visitar Yad Vashem. Lo llevamos al memorial de los nios, qued sumamente conmovido. +Quiere conocer al arquitecto, podras venir y reunirte con l en Tel Aviv? +Fui y el jefe de gobierno Badal me dijo: nosotros los sijs hemos sufrido mucho al igual que ustedes los judos. +Me conmovi mucho lo que vi hoy. +Vamos a construir nuestro museo nacional para contar la historia de nuestra gente; nos vamos a embarcar en eso. +Queremos que venga y lo disee. +Y as, ya saben, esta era una de esas cosas que uno no toma muy en serio. +Pero dos semanas despus estaba en este pueblito, Anandpur Sahib en las afueras de Chandigarh, la capital del Punjab, y el templo, y tambin cerca de la fortaleza en la que el ltimo gur de los sijs, el Gur Gobind, muri mientras escriba la Khalsa, que es su sagrada escritura. +Y llegu a trabajar, entonces me llevaron a algn lugar por ah a nueve kilmetros del pueblo y el templo y me dijeron que era el lugar elegido. +Y les dije: esto no tiene ningn sentido. +Los peregrinos vienen aqu de a cientos y miles -- no van a subirse a camiones y autobuses para llegar hasta all. +Volvamos al pueblo y caminemos hasta el sitio. +Y les recomend hacerlo justo all, en esa colina, y esta colina y construir el puente hasta el pueblo. +Y, como las cosas son un poco ms simples en India, en una semana compraron el sitio, y empezamos a trabajar. +Mi propuesta consisti en dividir el museo en dos: las exhibiciones permanentes en una punta, el auditorio, la biblioteca, y las exhibiciones temporales en la otra punta. Inundar el valle en una serie de jardines acuticos y unirlos al fuerte y al centro de la ciudad. +Y las estructuras emergen de los acantilados de arena. Estn construidas en concreto y piedra arenisca; los techos son de acero inoxidable. Miran hacia el sur y reflejan la luz hacia el templo mismo, los peatones se entrecruzan de un lado al otro. +A medida que uno viene del norte la mampostera surge desde los acantilados de arena, y a medida que uno viene de los Himalayas, evoca la tradicin de la fortaleza. +Y luego me fui por cuatro meses, e iba a ser innovador. +Y cuando regres, he aqu!. La pequea maqueta que dej ahora era diez veces ms grande y estaba en exposicin al pblico, y el puente estaba construido!. +Los dibujos hechos realidad! +Y medio milln de personas se haban reunido para las celebraciones, se les poda ver en el sitio mismo mientras comenzaban los cimientos. +Me pusieron el nuevo nombre de Safdie Singh, y all est en construccin -- hay 1.800 trabajadores en obra, y estar terminado en dos aos. +De vuelta a Yad Vashem tres aos atrs. Despus que comenz todo este episodio, Yad Vashem decidi reconstruir completamente el museo histrico, porque ya se haba construido el Museo del Holocausto en Washington, y ese museo es mucho ms amplio en trminos de informacin. +Y el Yad Vashem necesita hacer frente a tres millones de visitantes al ao en este momento. +Dijeron: reconstruyamos el museo. +Pero, por supuesto, los sijs podran darte un empleo muy fcilmente los judos lo hacen difcil. Competencia internacional, fase uno, fase dos, fase tres. +Y otra vez, me sent un poco incmodo con la nocin de que un edificio del tamao del de Washington, 4646 metros cuadrados, reposara sobre esa frgil colina, y de que furamos por galeras, salas con puertas y una especie de salas familiares para contar la historia del Holocausto. +Y propuse que cortramos la montaa esa fue mi primera propuesta, +simplemente incrustar el museo completo en la montaa, entrar por un lado de la montaa, salir por el otro lado de la montaa. Y luego traer luz a travs de la montaa hacia las cmaras. +Y aqu vemos la maqueta, un edificio de recepcin y algunos estacionamientos subterrneos. +Uno cruza un puente, entra en esta sala triangular, 18 metros de alto, que se mete en la colina y se extiende a medida que vamos hacia el norte. +Y entonces todas, todas las galeras son subterrneas. Y se ven las aberturas para la luz. +Y por las noches, una lnea de luces atraviesa la montaa, la cual es una claraboya arriba de ese tringulo. +Y todas las galeras a medida que uno se mueve por ellas, etc. estn bajo tierra. +Y hay cmaras esculpidas en la roca paredes de concreto, piedra, la piedra natural cuando es posible con los rayos de luz. +Esta es, en realidad, una cantera espaola que inspir cmo podran ser los espacios de estas galeras. +Y luego, yendo hacia el norte, se abre: irradia hacia afuera de la montaa, nuevamente una vista de la luz y de la ciudad, y de las colinas de Jerusaln. +Quisiera terminar con un proyecto en el que estuve trabajando durante dos meses. +La sede central del Instituto de la Paz de Washington, el Instituto de la Paz de EE.UU. +El sitio elegido est cruzando el Memorial a Lincoln lo vemos ah, directamente en el Mall, es el ltimo edificio del Mall, en el acceso del Puente Roosevelt que viene desde Virginia. +Esto tambin fue una competencia, y es algo en lo que estoy comenzando a trabajar. +Pero uno reconoce la clase de singularidad del sitio. +Y esto era un tema muy candente. +El primer boceto reconoce que el edificio consta de muchos espacios espacios donde se realiza investigacin, centros de conferencia, un edificio pblico, porque ser un museo dedicado a la construccin de la paz. Y esos son los dibujos que enviamos a la competencia, los planos mostrando los espacios que irradian hacia afuera desde la entrada. +Uno ve la estructura como en la secuencia de estructuras del Mall: muy transparente, atractivo, para mirar. +Y luego, a medida que entramos otra vez, mira en todas direcciones hacia la ciudad. +Y lo que senta acerca de ese edificio es que era en verdad un edificio que tena que ver con una levedad del ser, para citar a Kundera que tena que ver con la blancura, tena que ver con cierta cualidad dinmica, y tena que ver con el optimismo. +Y esto es donde est, por as decirlo, evolucionando. +Estudios de la estructura del techo: lo cual demanda quiz nuevos materiales, cmo hacerlo blanco, cmo hacerlo traslcido, cmo hacerlo brillar, cmo hacer que no sea caprichoso. +Y aqu estudiando, en tres dimensiones, cmo dar, otra vez, una especie de orden, una estructura, no algo que sientas que podras slo cambiar porque paras el diseo de ese proceso particular. +Y as sigue. +Quisiera terminar diciendo algo +Quisiera terminar relacionando todo lo dicho con la palabra "belleza". +Y s que no es una palabra de moda hoy en da, y por cierto no en el discurso de las facultades de arquitectura. Pero me parece que todo esto, de una u otra manera, es una bsqueda de la belleza. +Belleza en el ms profundo sentido de satisfaccin. +Tengo una cita que me gusta del morfologista Teodoro Cook, 1917, que dijo: "La belleza denota humanidad. +Llamamos a un objeto natural objeto bello porque vemos que su forma expresa idoneidad, satisfaccin perfecta de la funcin". +Bien, yo hubiera dicho la satisfaccin perfecta del propsito. +Sin embargo, la belleza como clase de satisfaccin, algo que nos dice que todas las fuerzas que tienen que ver con nuestro ambiente natural han sido satisfechas y nuestro entorno humano para eso. +Hace 20 aos, estuvimos juntos en una conferencia Richard y yo. Escrib un poema que me parece todava hoy sostengo. +"Aquel que busque la verdad encontrar la belleza. Aquel que busque la belleza encontrar la vanidad. +Aquel que busque el orden encontrar gratificacin. +Aquel que busque gratificacin se decepcionar. +Aquel que se considere sirviente de sus semejantes encontrar el regocijo de la autoexpresin. Aquel que busque la autoexpresin caer en el pozo de la arrogancia. +La arrogancia es incompatible con la naturaleza. +A travs de la naturaleza, la naturaleza del universo y la naturaleza del hombre, encontraremos la verdad. Si buscamos la verdad encontraremos la belleza". +Muchas gracias. +Soy Joseph y soy un miembro del Parlamento de Kenya. +Imaginese un pueblo Masai. Y que una noche, los soldados del gobierno rodean el pueblo y le pide a cada mayor mandar un nio a la escuela. +Y fue as como yo fui a escuela un soldado del gobierno le apunt a mi padre y le dijo: "Tienes que tomar una decisin." +As que me fui a una escuela misionera dirigida por misioneros estadounidenses +y lo primero que uno de ellos me di fue una golosina. +Yo nunca hasta entonces haba probado los dulces. +Y me dije, igual que los otros cien chicos: "Aqu es donde pertenezco". Y me qued +mientras todos los demas abandonaban. +Mi familia se mudaba. Somos nmadas. +Cada vez que la escuela cerraba --era un internado y yo tena 7 aos-- tena que viajar para poder encontrarlos. +50 millas, 40 millas, no importa. +Descansaba en los arbustos pero no dejaba de caminar. +Y me qued en la escuela. No s porque, pero me qued. +y antes de que pudiera asimilarlo, ya haba pasado los examenes nacionales y estaba en una secundaria muy buena en Kenya. +Termin la secundaria. Por el camino, encontr a un hombre que me di una beca completa en los Estados Unidos. +Mi madre an vive en una choza de estircol ninguno de mis hermanos va a la escuela pero este hombre va y me dice: "Aqu tienes, sigue". +Me dieron una beca en la Universidad de St. Lawrence, al norte de Nueva York. Cuando termin, me fui a Harvard Graduate School. Y cuando termin eso, trabaj un tiempo en [Washington] DC. Escrib un libro para National Geographic y ense historia, la de los Estados Unidos. +Y cada vez que volva a casa escuchaba los problemas de la gente gente enferma, gente que no tena agua y dems. Y cada vez que volva a Estados Unidos, pensaba en ellos. +Un da uno de los ancianos me cont una historia. Esta historia deca as: Hace mucho tiempo, hubo una guerra muy importante entre las tribus. +Una de las tribus le tena mucho miedo a otra tribu llamada Luhya. +Y cada tanto, mandaban un grupo de espas para asegurarse de que nadie los atacara. +Un da, los espas volvieron corriendo y les dijeron a los del pueblo: "Esta viniendo el enemigo. Llega dentro de media hora." +As que la gente se puso isterica, agarraron sus cosas y se echaron a correr. +Pero haba dos hombres, uno era ciego, y el otro no tena piernas--haba nacido as. +El lider de los jefes les dijo: "No, no podemos llevaros, nos vais a atrasar. +Tenemos que huir con nuestras mujeres y nios, tenemos que escaparnos." +Y los dejaron atrs, esperando la muerte. +Pero los dos hombres tuvieron una idea. +El ciego dijo: "Soy fuerte, pero no puedo ver." +El que no tena piernas dijo: "Yo puedo ver hasta el horizonte, pero no me puedo defender de un gato o cualquier otro animal." +As que el ciego se arrodill, as y le dijo al que no tena piernas que se subiera en su espalda y luego se pus de pie. +El hombre de arriba ve y el ciego camina. +Partieron, siguiendo las pisadas de la gente del pueblo, hasta que los alcanzaron y los superaron. +Esto me lo contaron en un reunin de ancianos. +Yo represento al norte de Kenya, es una zona muy pobre una de las ms remotas y con ms nmadas que puedes encontrar. +Y ese hombre me dijo: "Aqu ests, +tuviste una educacin muy buena en EE.UU., tienes una muy buena vida en EE.UU., qu vas a hacer por nosotros? +Queremos que seas nuestros ojos, nosotros seremos tus piernas. +Nosotros te llevamos, t, guanos." +As que se di la oportunidad, en la cual siempre estuve pensando qu puedo hacer para ayudar a mi gente? +Siempre que vas a un sitio todava no tenemos medios sanitarios basicos despes de 43 aos de independencia. +A un hombre lo tiene que transportar en carretilla +por 20, 30 km hasta llegar a un hospital. No hay agua potable. +As que dije: "Me voy a dedicar a esto, +me voy de los EE.UU. Me voy a postular." El pasado julio,... Me mud desde EE.UU en junio, en julio me postul y gan. +Y vine aqui por ellos, esa es mi meta. +Ahora estoy implementando, desde hace nueve meses, un proyecto para que en un plazo de 5 aos, cada nmada tenga agua potable. +Estamos construyendo enfermeras en todo el distrito. +Les estoy pidiendo a mis amigos de EE.UU. que me echen una mano trayendo enfermeras o doctores para que nos ayuden. +Trato de mejorar la infraestructura. +Estoy poniendo en prctica lo que aprend en los Estados Unidos y de mi comunidad para que avancen. +Trato de desarollar soluciones adecuadas para nuestros proprios problemas. Porque sabemos, nos damos cuenta de que la gente de afuera puede venir a ayudar, pero si no nos ayudamos a nosotros mismos, no hay nada que hacer. +As que ahora, mi proyecto, mientras contino apoyando estudiantes a especializarse en distintos campos --algunos terminan siendo doctores; otros, abogados-- es crear un grupo extenso de personas, estudiantes, que pueden volver acasa y ayudarnos hacer florecer esta comunidad que est en medio de una fuerte recesin economica. +Muchas gracias. +Soy un historiador. +Steve nos habl sobre el futuro de las pequeas tecnologas. Yo les mostrar un poco sobre el pasado de las grandes tecnologas. +Este fue un proyecto para construir una nave espacial de 4,000 toneladas propulsada por bombas nucleares para ir a Saturno y a Jpiter. +Ocurri durante mi niez -- de 1957 al '65. +Fue clasificado de muy secreto. +Les monstrar algunas de las cosas que no slo han sido des-clasificadas, sino que han vuelto a ser re-clasificadas. +Si todo va bien, volver el ao que viene y tendr mucho ms para mostrarles. y si no va bien, estar en la crcel como Wen Ho Lee. +Bsicamente esta nave tena el mismo tamao que el Marriot Hotel, un poco ms alto y un poco ms grande. +Y una de las personas que trabajaron en ella, al principio, fue mi padre, Freeman -- ah en el medio. +Este soy yo y mi hermana, Esther, quien frecuenta mucho TED... +No me gustaban las naves espaciales propulsadas por bombas nucleares. +Quiero decir, pensaba que era una gran idea, y empec a construir kayaks. +Tenamos algunos kayaks. +slo para que sepan, no soy el Dr. Stangelove. +Pero todo este tiempo estuve por ah haciendo estas raras travesas por lugares extaos y hermosos de este planeta, pero en el fondo siempre pensaba en el Proyecto Orion, y sobre cmo mi padre y sus amigos iban a construir estas enormes naves. +Iban a ir en serio. Realmente iban a ir. Ted Taylor, quien dirigi el proyecto, iba a llevar a sus hijos. +Mi padre no iba a llevar a sus hijos. Esa es una de las razones por las que estuvimos en desacuerdo algunos aos. +El proyecto empez en el '57 en General Atomic, en la costa de La Jolla. +Miren el edificio central justo en el medio de esa foto. +Esa es la biblioteca con un dimetro de 130 pies. +Es exactamente el tamao de la base de la nave espacial. +Poniendo la biblioteca al pie de la nave -- muestra lo grande que iba a ser esa cosa. +Requerira dos o tres mil bombas. +Muchas de las personas que trabajaban eran de Los Alamos y haban trabajado en la bomba de hidrgeno. +Fue el primer proyecto financiado por ARPA. +Ese es el contrato, donde ARPA di el primer milln de dlares para empezar el proyecto. +"El proyecto de la nave espacial ha empezado oficialmente. El trabajo te espera. Dyson." +Era julio del '58. +Dos das despus: el manifiesto del viajero del espacio explicando el porqu -- as como omos ayer -- por qu necesitamos ir al espacio? "Viajes a los satlites de los planetas ms lejanos" -- 20 de agosto de 1958. +Esas son las estadsticas de cules seran buenos lugares para ir y parar. +Algunos de los tamaos de las naves, hasta alcanzar 8 milliones de toneladas. +Ese fue el lmite mximo. +Aqu estaba la segunda versin -- 2,000 bombas. +Estas son bombas de cinco kilotones, aproximdamente del tamao de un Volkswagen. Se necesitaran 800 para alcanzar la rbita. +Aqu vemos una nave de 10,000 toneladas -- transportar 1,300 toneladas a Saturno y de regreso. Esencialmente un viaje de cinco aos. +Posibles fechas de salida: octubre de 1960 hasta febrero de 1967. +stas son trayectorias para ir a Marte. +Todo se hizo a mano, con reglas de clculo. +La pequea nave Orion -- y lo que se requerira para hacer lo que haca Orion con qumicos, tienes una nave del tamao del edificio Empire State. +La NASA no mostr ningn inters. Intentaron cerrar el proyecto. +Fue la Fuerza Area la que apoy, lo que significaba que todo era secreto. +Por eso, cuando se des-clasifica algo, se ve as. +Versiones con armas militares que cargaban bombas de hidrgeno capaces de destruir la mitad del planeta. +Hubo otra versin que lanzaba contraataques hacia la Unin Sovitica -- +esto fue lo realmente secreto: cmo producir explosiones de energa dirigida, +Pues, ests mandando la energa de una explosin nuclear -- no como con dinamita, sino que ests dirigindola a la nave. +Y este tema sigue muy activo. +Es bastante peligroso, pero creo que es mejor tener las cosas peligrosas abiertas al pblico que pensar en que podras mantenerlas ocultas. +so es lo que pasa a 600 microsegundos. +La Fuerza Area construy modelos ms pequeos y empezaron a probarlo. +Los hombres en La Jolla dijeron, "Tenemos que empezar ahora." +Construyeron un modelo propulsado por explosivos de altas potencia. +Estos son fotogramas de pelculas que fueron conservadas por alguien quien deba destruirlas, pero no lo hizo, y las guard en su stano durante los ltimos 40 aos. +Estas son cargas de C4 de tres libras. Eso es aproximdamente 10 veces lo que tena el chico en sus zapatos. +Este es Ed Day poniendo -- cada una de estas latas de caf contiene tres libras de C4. +Estn construyendo un sistema que lo expulsa en intervalos de un cuarto de segundo. +Este es mi pap, con una americana, llevando el maletn. +Se divirtieron un montn hacindolo, pero los nios no estaban permitidos. Mi padre pudo decirme que estaba construyendo una nave espacial y que iba a ir a Saturno, pero no pudo decir nada ms que eso. +Toda mi vida he querido averiguar estas cosas, y pas los ltimos cuatro aos localizando a estos tipos. +Estos son fotogramas del video. +Jeff Bezos amablemente ayer me dijo que pondra este video en la pgina de Amazon, un fragmento. +Por eso, gracias. +Fueron bastante serios con la ingeniera de esto. +El tamao de la masa, saben, para nosotros es realmente una gran tecnologa, de una manera en la que no vamos a volver. +Si vieron la 1959 -- eso es como se sentiran en la cabina de pasajeros. Este es un perfil de aceleracin. +Y rendimientos del sistema de impulso. Estamos viendo una bomba de 20 kilotones con un efecto de 10 millones de newtons. Pues, aqu tenemos un pequeo problema: +las dosis de radiacin en la cabina -- 700 rad por explosin. +Rendimientos de fisin durante el desarrollo: esperaban producir bombas puras. Pero no lo consiguieron. +Ojos quemados -- eso es lo que les pasa a las personas en Miami que estn mirando hacia arriba. La cabina de pasajeros. Noten que no es tan malo. +Es una frecuencia muy baja. Basicamente como estos altavoces. Y ahora tenemos las evaluaciones de los daos del terreno +cuando hay una explosin en la plataforma. +Finalmente, en 1964, la NASA interviene y dice, "Bueno, apoyaremos un estudio de viabilidad para una versin pequea que podra lanzarse en partes con Saturnos V para ser montada luego." +Pues eso es que hizo la NASA, obteniendo, ya saben, una versin de 8 hombres que ira a Marte. +Les gust porque los hombres podran vivir all -- como vivir en un submarino. +Esta es la cabina de los tripulantes. Gira, para que lo que est al revs quede derecho cuando entra en el modo de gravedad artificial. +Los cientficos todava iban a ir, e iban a llevar siete astronautas y siete cientficos. +Esta es una versin con 20 hombres para ir a Jpiter. literas, refugios para tormentas, gimnasio. +Saben, iba a ser un bonito y largo viaje. +Aqu la versin de la Fuerza Area. Tenemos una versin militar. +Este es el tipo de cosas que no han sido des-clasificadas, simplemente es que la gente logr sacarlas a escondidas y, ya saben, en sus lechos de muerte, me las dieron. +Una especie de concepcin artstica -- +Estas son bsicamente presentaciones en Power Point dadas a la Fuerza Area hace 40 aos. +Miren a los hombrecitos all, fuera del vehculo. +Y una parte de la NASA se interes, pero la oficina central de la NASA, puso fin al proyecto. +Pues, al final, podemos ver al proyecto siguiendo su itinerario programado hasta 1965. Entonces todo se trunc. +Resultados? Ninguno. +Este proyecto es declarado terminado. +Ese es el final. Lo que puedo decir para terminar es, ayer omos que una de las 10 cosas malas que nos pueden pasar es que un asteroide lleve nuestro nombre. +Y una de las cosas malas que podra pasarle a la NASA es que este asteroide con nuestro nombre aparezca en nueve meses, y todo digan, "Pues, qu vamos a hacer?" +Y Orion es verdadamente unas de las nicas, sino la nica, tecnologas disponibles que podra hacer algo. +Pues les dir una buena noticia y una mala. +La buena noticia es que la NASA tiene una pequea y secreta divisin de planes de contingencia que est examinando esta cuestin. e intentando preservar conocimientos de Orion en caso de tan malaventura. +Quizs guarde unas pocas bombas de plutonio por ah. +Esa es la buena noticia. La mala noticia es que +cuando me puse en contacto con ellos para intentar recolectar algunos documentos suyos se volvieron locos, porque yo tena todas las cosas que no tenan ellos. Y la NASA me compr 1,759 pginas de estas cosas. +Pues es la situacin que tenemos. No es -- no es bastante buena. +Y luego el piloto no se dio y me puse muy triste, pero segu mantenindome admiradora tuya. +Y luego cuando pase por aquella enorme y horrible separacin con Carl que no me dejaba levantarme del sof, yo escuchaba tu cancin, "Ahora que no te tengo" una y otra vez. +Y no puedo creer que ests aqu y que te est viendo aqu en TED. +Y tambin, no puedo creer que estemos comiendo sushi frente a la pecera, lo cual personalmente creo que es realmente inapropiado. +Y poco sabia que un ao despus estaramos ... Haciendo este "show". Sobule: Yo canto. Sweeney: Yo cuento historias. Juntas: El "show" de Jill y Julia" Sobule: Oye, nos pidieron que volviramos! Sweeney: Puedes soportarlo? + Dorothy Parker mala, ebria y deprimida + Y aquel tipo, Siete Aos en Tibet, resulto ser un Nazi. + Los Padres Fundadores tenan todos esclavos + Los exploradores masacraron a los bravos Sweeney: Horriblemente. + Sobule: El Dios del Antiguo Testamento puede ser tan mezquino. Sweeney: No me hagas hablar de eso. Sobule: Paul McCarthney celoso de John, incluso ms ahora que ya muri Dylan fue tan malo con Donovan en aquella pelcula Pablo Picasso, cruel con sus mujeres Sweeney: Horrible. + Lewis Carol estoy segura de que se lo hizo con Alicia. + Platn en la cueva con esos jovencitos. Sweeney: Oooh... + Souble: Hillary apoy la guerra. Souble: Hasta Thomas Friedman apoy la guerra. Souble: Colin Powell resulto ser --Juntas-- tan debilucho. Souble: William Faulkner, ebrio y deprimido. Tennesse Williams, ebrio y deprimido. + Souble: Llvatelo, Julia. Sweeney: Okay. Oprah nunca fue una gran herona ma necesariamente. +O sea, yo veo Oprah mayormente cuando estoy en casa en Spokane visitando a mi madre. Y para mi madre, Oprah es una autoridad moral mayor que el papa, lo cual es mucho decir ya que ella es una catlica devota. +y sucede que ella hizo dos programas completos promoviendo esa pelcula "El Secreto." +Ustedes conocen esta pelcula, "El Secreto"? +Hace "What the Bleep Do We Know" parecer una disertacin doctoral en mecnica cuntica de Harvard- es as de mala. +hace que "El Cdigo DaVinci" se parezca a "Guerra y Paz." +La pelcula es tan horrible. Promueve una pseudo-ciencia tan asquerosa, +y la idea bsica es que existe esta "Ley de Atraccion" y que tus pensamientos tienen una energa vibratoria que sale al universo y entoces hace que tu atraigas cosas buenas hacia ti. +A nivel cientfico, es ms que "El Poder del Pensamiento Positivo" tiene una horrible, horrible parte oscura. Como, si te enfermas, es solamente por que has estado pensando en pensamientos negativos. +Si, la pelcula tenia cosas as. Y ella esta promoviendo eso. +Y todo lo que estoy diciendo es que yo realmente quisiera que Murray Gell-mann apareciese en Oprah y que solamente le explicara a ella que "La Ley de Atraccin" es de hecho, para nada una ley. +Asi que eso es lo que tengo que decir. + Sobule: Yo canto. Sweeney: Yo cuento historias. Juntas: El "show" de Jill y Julia. Sobule: Funciona aveces. Sweeney: Aveces no Juntas: Es Jill y Julia, Jill y Julia. El "show" de Jill y Julia. +Dan Holzman: Por favor, arroja los puffs. Aqu vamos. +Barry Friedman: Hoy hay todo tipo de asientos de alta tecnologa pero creo que esto es realmente lo mximo en trminos de ergonoma, comodidad, diseo, flexibilidad. +DH: Obviamente esto no es algo que hagamos habitualmente en nuestro espectculo. Es algo que preparamos para hoy. As que vamos a intentar. Pero, hay algo de msica para inspirarnos? +BF: Buen nmero, Daniel, buen nmero. Eres un genio. +Buen espectculo, estuvo bueno. +DH: Gracias. +BF: A veces cuando la gente hace eso, lo hacen hasta abajo. +En realidad hiciste as. Ese es el tipo de esfuerzo extra que nos puso donde estamos hoy. +DH: Correcto, mostrmosles algo especial. +BF: Sin una beca MacArthur. +Si, miren eso. Ya saben, tenemos diferentes... +TED es invencin, seamos honestos. DH: S, lo es. +BF: Anoche, Michael Moschen mostr algunos accesorios de malabarismo que ha inventado y en los que trabaja. +Ahora Dan les va a mostrar algo que invent. +DH: Un tipo de malabarismo que invent luego de ver a otro malabarista hacerlo. +BF: Cllate. DH: Esto es un pequeo extracto de una pieza ms grande. +DH: Gente, estos son malabares con tazas. No detiene el espectculo pero sin duda lo frena. +BF: S, claro, lo hace. BF: Daniel. +DH: Una ms. Perfecto. Perfecto. OK. BF: Oh! DH: Correcto. +Ahora estoy jugando con mi suerte. Salto a... seis tazas. +Para poder manejar seis tazas debo tener perfecto control de tres con la mano derecha. BF: Y tambin tres con la izquierda. +DH: Perfecto. +Y ahora con seis tazas. Debera lograrlo en el primer intento? O dejo caer una a propsito? BF: Primer intento o una a propsito? +Audiencia: Una a propsito! DH: Qu tal si primero intento y despus decido? +BF: Buena idea. Dejemos esa puerta abierta. +DH: Me est mirando. +BF: Est bien, lo hace. Correcto, oh! +DH: Es hora de la ayuda de Richard. Bueno, correcto. +BF: Ya saben, a lo largo de los aos, cada ao en la conferencia, como que se ha vuelto una tradicin en nosotros hacer algo peligroso con Richard. Y siempre hemos hecho algo con el ltigo en nuestro nmero. Es gracioso, durante aos lo hice con Daniel sosteniendo globos. +Y luego pensamos: "Qu estupidez!". +DH: Disculpen, podramos trabajar en el diseo del micrfono? +BF: Pienso que eso es de la prxima sesin. +DH: La prxima sesin? +BF: S, y hemos encontrado la manera de incorporar a Richard en esto. +En realidad l toma ms riesgo en esto. +DH: Por favor, prate Richard. DH: Ahora Richard, por favor... BF: Bien, lo siento. +DH: Por Dios, Richard, prate en frente mio. +Richard Wurman: Puedo decir algo? +DH: Seguro. +RW: En aos anteriores hemos ensayado las cosas que me han sucedido. Esta vez... no tengo idea, esa es la verdad. +DH: Bien, por favor, prate en frente +Dios, odio esto. Pon tus manos as, por favor. +BF: Mantente de pie con l. Esto es... +Dan sola sostenerlos pero ahora te usa como proteccin. +Es genial. Bien. +DH: Vaya, has estado haciendo ejercicios. +BF: No, cllate. +Disponer de un momentito del tiempo de Richard, eso es bueno, es bueno. +Bien, aqu vamos. +Has que mantega su mueca para que yo pueda... +DH: Por favor, sostn mi mueca. Sostn esto un minuto. +BF: Aqu tienes. +Bien. +OK, espera. +BF: Mmm... +DH: Primera. +BF: Todas esas llamadas telefnicas a mediados de ao regresan ahora, Richard. +DH: As que Richard, en qu lugar de la lista estbamos? en el 1020? +Qu sucedi all? +BF: Pienso que estbamos afuera. +Algunos malos recuerdos. +DH: No me aprietes tanto. +HF: Aqu vamos. Lo tengo. DH: Uno ms, uno ms. +BF: Tenemos uno ms. +RW: Puedo sostenerlos? +BF: S, no vas a querer sostenerlos, creme. +DH: Podras estirar tus piernas un poco ms? +BF: Gloria, deseas hacerlo? Es muy cool. +Un intento ms. Hombre, no quiero acercarme tanto. +Podras simplemente empujar eso? +DH: Vaya! +BF: Eso s es cool. Siempre quise hacer eso. +DH: Sin embargo, saltemos as, +Ya que arriesgamos la vida de Richard es justo que arriesguemos las nuestras. +As que para hacer eso har malabares con tres cuchillas afiladas. +Y si eso no fuera suficiente, a juzgar por sus respuestas, no lo es... +BF: Vaya! Esperan un poco ms. +DH: Verdad, Barry. +BF: Voy a correr detrs de l. +DH: Saltar por encima de mi hombro. +BF: Por arriba y sobre sus hombros +DH: Tomar las cuchillas en el aire. Aterrizar all en un charco de sangre. +Y todava haciendo malabares. Imposible, dicen? +BF: Increible, dicen? +DH: Por qu molestarse, no? +BF: Aqu vamos. +DH: Dicen: hganlo ya malabaristas. +BF: Este hombre, este hombre invent el aire. +DH: Creo que s, es as. +Incluso el lpiz. +BF: l invent el lpiz. +DH: Bueno, vamos a hacer este truco, pero recuerden, que nos llev ms de 10 aos perfeccionar... +BF: 10 aos perfeccionar lo que estn a punto de ver. +DH: No es tan difcil, es que no nos gusta tanto practicar. +BF: problemas, muchos viajes. +En realidad, vamos a tomarnos un segundo para probar... podran ser falsas... que las cuchillas estn afiladas. +DH: Podra alguien arrojar un animalito de granja... al escenario? +O una virgen para un sacrificio. +BF: Algo. +DH: Dnde est Gloria? BF: No, ella tiene... un animal de granja. +DH: Tienes una animalito de granja? +Slo trataba de tirar la moneda. Bien, aqu vamos. +BF: Sobre la parte superior. +DH: Cmo te sientes Barry?, bien? +BF: S, est todo bien. +DH: Sientes que todo est bien, la atmsfera, ... +BF: S, un poco superficial. +DH: Est todo bien aqu? +BF: S. +DH: Entonces vamos. +BF: Esta es un poco... quin hace la iluminacin? Podras... esta me apunta... podras apuntar esa un poco ms directamente... hacia mis ojos? es posible? Todava puedo ver un poquito. +DH: Y subir la intensidad... todava estamos crudos en el medio. +Fuimos demasiado lejos. BF: S, demasiado lejos. Es demasiado visual. +El diseo del cuerpo... es una cosa totalmente diferente. +DH: Listo Barry? BF: Sobre la parte de arriba. +DH: Podran poner la msica de saltar? Podran ponerla un poco ms fuerte? +BF: Son un buen equipo! +DH: Uhh!, correcto, correcto. +BF: Seguimos. +DH: Correcto, intentaremos de nuevo. +BF: Correcto? Oh, Dios mo, oh! +DH: Lo siento. +BF: Pensaba que tena la parte difcil. OK. +DH: Cuando ests listo. +BF: Ah lo tienen. +Vamos, vengan a bailar, vengan, vengan a bailar. +Que alguien baile, vamos. +OK, paremos. +Raro, nadie baila... somos dos tipos haciendo esto. Creo que esto es desagradable para todos. +DH: El juez francs... +BF: Rpidamente, una cosa ms. +DH: El juez francs le dio un 5,2. +BF: Bien, ya saben... +DH: Ah lo tienes... BF: S, viene otro +DH: Cuntales nuestra biografa. +BF: S, alguno habr ledo que hemos ganado dos campeonatos mundiales de malabares. +Y crase o no, no se ganan campeonatos de malabares por hacer cosas con ltigos o tazas. +Ahora les vamos a mostrar un extracto de una rutina que hemos utilizado para acabar con el otro equipo de la competencia de malabarismo. +DH: Eso es correcto. +BF: Bueno. +DH: S lo que estn pensando. Los otros equipos de malabares deben ser malsimos. +BF: El malabarismo tiene mala fama. +DH: Pero espera, Barry, todava hay una clava ms a mis pies. +Y mira, tiene una gemela. +Todava hay una ms en mi pie. +Qu quieres que haga? +BF: Richard, Richard, dcelo, es tu ltimo ao. DH: Es una configuracin bastante buena, Richard. +BF: S, es una buena configuracin. Es una gran configuracin. +DH: Correcto. Lo que har... voy a usar mis reflejos de pantera. +BF: Bien. +DH: Lo tengo. Para llegar abajo y agarrar esa clava con mis garras de acero. +BF: Bien. +DH: Lo toqu Barry. Eso debera ser suficiente. +BF: Es el progreso, esa es la cosa. +DH: Qu tal? Oh, hagmoslo otra vez! +Espera, est de tu lado, Barry. +Y est terriblemente ventoso all. +BF: S, lo es, es raro. Uno pensara que no afectara la mitad del escenario, pero lo hace. Es raro. +Miren esto, voy a deslizar la sptima a mi pie. +DH: Vaya, qu gran truco, Barry! +Oh, miren como se queda all! +Barry, hay algo que no puedas hacer? +Eres mi hroe. Eres mi Jim Shea Jr. +Demasiados Juegos Olmpicos. +BF: Desde mi pie intentar patear la sptima clava. +DH: Dnde Barry? Dnde? Dinos, Barry. +[Poco claro] espera con impaciencia su siguiente slaba. Cul ser? +Qu joya de conocimiento? +Qu perla de sabidura? +Quieres comprar una vocal, Barry? +Esa es tu respuesta final? +BF: Muy bien! Tienes que apagar la TV de vez en cuando. +DH: Lo hago. Lo hago. +De mi pie, pateo en la sptima. +DH: Haremos malabares con siete. +BF: De seis a siete. DH: Ese es una marca mundial... para nosotros. +BF: S. +DH: Cuando ests listo, muchacho. +Quita la lengua, Barry. +BF: Oh, jo, jo! +DH: Por favor, permanezcan sentados. Sentados. Gracias. +Porque ahora, para hacerlo ms difcil haremos malabarismo con las siete clavas nuevamente. +BF: Malabarismo con siete clavas. +DH: hacia atrs. +BF: Gracias, es todo. +BF: Gracias muchachos! +DH: Muchas gracias! +Roy Gould: En menos de un ao el mundo celebrar el Ao Internacional de la Astronoma que marcar el aniversario de los 400 aos de la primera vez que Galileo mir las estrellas a travs de un telescopio. +En unos meses, el mundo tambin celebrar el lanzamiento de un nuevo invento desarrollado por los investigadores de Microsoft Research que creo que tendr un impacto igual de significativo para la manera en que vemos el universo que lo que hizo Galileo hace cuatro siglos atrs. +Se llama WorldWide Telescope (o Telescopio Mundial) y quiero agradecer a TED y a Microsoft por permitirme mostrrselo a ustedes. +Y quiero pedirles encarecidamente que lo miren con cuidado abajo en el TED Lab cuando tengan la oportunidad. +El WorldWide Telescope toma las mejores imgenes de los telescopios ms importantes de la tierra y del espacio y las entrelaza de manera perfecta para generar una vista completa del universo. +Va a cambiar la manera en que hacemos astronoma, va a cambiar la manera en que enseamos astronoma y creo que tambin cambiar la manera en que nos vemos a nosotros mismos en el universo, lo que ser an ms importante. +Si estuviramos teniendo esta conferencia en la poca de nuestros abuelos esa no sera una afirmacin tan poderosa. +Por ejemplo, en 1920 no era permitido beber alcohol; y si eras una mujer no te era permitido votar. Y si miraban hacia las estrellas y hacia la Va Lctea en una noche de verano vean lo que se crea que era el universo entero. +De hecho, en esa poca el director del observatorio de Harvard particip en un gran debate en donde plante que la galaxia de la Va Lctea era todo el universo. +Harvard estaba equivocado, realmente muy equivocado. Por supuesto, hoy sabemos que las galaxias se extienden hasta mucho ms all que la nuestra. +Podemos mirar lejos, hasta el borde del universo observable y hasta el principio de los tiempos, casi hasta el momento del mismo Big Bang. +Podemos observar a travs de todo el espectro de luz revelando los mundos que antes eran invisibles. +Vemos estas magnficos viveros de estrellas donde la naturaleza de alguna manera ha logrado que nazcan la cantidad justa de estrellas con el tamao preciso para que surja la vida. +Vemos mundos extraos, vemos sistemas solares extraos; vamos en 300 y seguimos contando. Y no son como nuestro sistema. +Vemos hoyos negros en el corazn de nuestra galaxia, en la Va Lctea y en el resto del universo donde el mismsimo tiempo parece detenerse. +Pero hasta ahora nuestra visin del universo ha sido inconexa y fragmentada y creo que muchas historias maravillosas que la naturaleza desea contarnos se han perdido sin ser vistas. Y eso est cambiando. +Quiero mencionar brevemente tres razones de por qu mis colegas astrnomos y educadores y yo estamos tan maravillados con el WorldWide Telescope y por qu pensamos que realmente lo transformar todo. +Primero, les permitir experimentar el universo. Para m, el WorldWide Telescope es una especie de alfombra mgica que les permitir navegar por el universo, hacia donde quieran ir. +Segundo, pueden recorrer el universo teniendo astrnomos como sus guas. +Y no estoy hablando simplemente de expertos que explican lo que estn viendo sino que gente apasionada por los distintos rincones escondidos del universo, que pueden compartir su entusiasmo y hacer que el universo sea un sitio acogedor. +Y tercero, pueden crear sus propios recorridos: pueden crearlos con sus amigos o compartirlos con sus amigos. Y creo que esa es la parte que ms me emociona porque creo en el fondo todos queremos contar historias. +Y al contar historias cada uno de nosotros comprender el universo de su propia manera. +Vamos a tener un universo propio. +Creo que vamos a ver como emerge y evoluciona una comunidad de narradores. +Antes de presentar al responsable del WorldWide Telescope quiero dejarlos con esta breve idea. Cuando le pregunto a la gente: "Cmo te hace sentir el cielo de noche?" +a menudo responden: "Oh, pequeo. Me siento pequeo e insignificante". +Bueno, llenamos el universo con nuestra visin. +Y gracias a los creadores del WorldWide Telescope hoy podremos empezar a dialogar con el universo. +Creo que el WorldWide Telescope los convencer que podemos ser muy pequeos pero somos verdadera y maravillosamente significativos. +Gracias. +No puede explicarles el privilegio de presentarles a Curtis Wong de Microsoft. Curtis Wong: Gracias, Roy. +Entonces lo que ven aqu es una presentacin fantstica pero es uno de los recorridos. +Y en realidad este recorrido fue creado anteriormente. +Y todos los recorridos son totalmente interactivos as que si quiero ir a alguna parte... +puedes estar mirando y pausarlo en cualquier parte y obtener informacin de algo ms. Hay mucha informacin en la Web y en otras partes acerca de donde puedas querer ir. Puedes hacer zoom hacia dentro o hacia fuera, +estn disponibles todos los recursos que necesites. +Entonces, este proyecto -el Telescopio Mundial de Microsoft- est dedicado a Jim Gray que es nuestro colega y mucho de su trabajo es en verdad lo que ha hecho posible este proyecto. +Es un proyecto hecho con amor por nuestro pequeo equipo y realmente esperamos que inspire a los nios a explorar y aprender sobre el universo. +Bsicamente a nios de todas las edades como nosotros. +Y el WorldWide Telescope estar disponible esta primavera. +Se podr bajar sin costo. Gracias, Craig Mundie. Y estar disponible en el sitio web Worldwidetelescope.org, que tambin es algo nuevo. +As que lo que han visto ahora es menos de una fraccin del 1% de lo que esto tiene adentro y en el laboratorio TED Lab, hay un recorrido creado por un nio de seis aos llamado Benjamin que los dejar locos. As que all nos veremos. Gracias. +De da soy un inversionista de capital de riesgo. Los fines de semana amo los cohetes. +Amo la fotografa, amo los cohetes, +y hablar sobre un pasatiempo que puede escalar y les mostrar fotos que he tomado estos aos con nios como estos, quienes ojal crezcan amando la cohetera y se conviertan en otro Richard Branson o Diamandis. +Mi hijo dise un cohete estable -- +una pelota de golf cohete. Consider que fue un experimento interesante sobre los principios de la astronutica +y vuela recto como una flecha. +Bicarbonato de sodio y vinagre. +Las tomas de noche son hermosas, atravesando la Osa Mayor y la Va Lctea. Cohetes de dos etapas, que llevan videocmaras y +computadoras a bordo registrando los vuelos. Cohetes planeadores volando de regreso a tierra. +Uso RockSim para simular vuelo antes de lanzarlos y saber si rompern la barrera del sonido o no, y vuelan con computadoras a bordo para verificar su desempeo. +Para lanzar los ms grandes, hay que ir al medio de la nada-- el desierto Black Rock, donde suceden cosas peligrosas. +Y los nios crecen y los cohetes crecen. +Y usan motores utilizan aceleradores de misiles de crucero, literalmente. +Hacen retumbar la panza y dejan asombrados incluso a los fotgrafos al observar el espectculo. +Estos usan motores experimentales con xido nitroso. +Usan propulsores slidos con mayor frecuencia. +Es una extraa forma de amor. +Tenemos el sitio Rocketmavericks.com con fotos, si quieren saber ms-- participen, sean espectadores. Mavericks , tenamos que llamarlo Rocket Mavericks. +Este fue grandioso. Vol casi 30,000 metros, +pero no lo logr... Se hundi 3.6 metros en la arcilla, +y se convirti en una bomba antibnker, +perforando la arcilla... Escarvamos para sacarlo. +Los cohetes se salen de control en espiral si pones demasiado propulsor. +Esta fue una carrera de arrancones. +De noche puedes ver lo que sucedi en un segundo, de da los llamamos tiburones de tierra. +A veces explotan o caen a velocidad supersnica. +Para esta toma hice lo que hago a menudo. Irme lejos de las plataformas donde no hay espectadores. +Y si podemos ver el video, les mostrar lo que implic obtener esta toma tipo DreamWorks. +(voces en el video) "S. Bien." +Esto es raro. Aqu se dieron cuenta que la computadora fall. +Aqu se dan cuenta de que a bordo todo es un caos. +"Se ha vuelto loco. Oh diantres." +Ahora me quedar callado. +"No. +Arriba, arriba, arriba". +Ese de all soy yo tomando fotos de todo el proceso. +Las cosas ha menudo salen mal. +Hay quienes observan el evento con una fascinacin tipo NASCAR cosas se golpean, tuercen, se quema el paracadas. +Eso fue el pasado fin de semana. +Este subi, alcanz la velocidad del sonido y se parti +hubo venta de garage en el cielo, +y un trozo de metal quemndose cay de vuelta. +Estas cosas caen del cielo todo el fin de semana de lanzamiento, tras lanzamiento, tras lanzamiento. +Es una cadencia que no se pueden imaginar. +Y de muchas formas intento capturar los percances-- es el reto en fotografa cuando estas cosas suceden en una fraccin de segundo. +Por qu lo hacen? Por cosas como sta: Gene de Alabama maneja hasta all con su cohete construdo por l, con sensores de rayos X, videocmaras adornado con electrnica, y tiene xito en llegar a los 30.000 metros, dejar la atmsfera, y ver una delgada lnea azul del espacio. +Es esta imagen que quita el aliento-- el xito, por supuesto-- lo que nos motiva. Y motiva a los nios a seguir y entender la astronutica, a entender la importancia de la fsica y matemticas y de muchas maneras sentir ese asombro por la exploracin de las fronteras de lo desconocido. +Gracias. +Una gran manera de empezar, creo, para mi idea de simplicidad, es mirar a TED. Aqu estn ustedes, comprendiendo por qu estamos aqu, lo que est sucediendo, sin ninguna dificultad. +La mejor inteligencia artificial del planeta lo encontrara complejo y confuso, y mi pequeo perro Watson lo encontrara simple y comprensible, pero no comprendera la idea. +l lo pasara de maravilla. +Y por supuesto, si presentasen aqu, como Hans Rosling, un presentador encuentra esto complejo, difcil. Pero en el caso de Hans Rosling, l tena una arma secreta ayer, literalmente, al tragar las espadas. +Y debo decir que pens en varios objetos que podra tratar de tragar hoy y finalmente me rend; pero l lo hizo y fue algo maravilloso. +Y Puck no slo trat de decir que somos tontos despectivamente, sino que somos fciles de engaar. De hecho, lo que Shakespeare trataba de decir es que vamos al teatro para ser engaados, as que es algo que en realidad deseamos. +Vamos a espectculos de magia para ser engaados. +Y esto hace a muchas cosas divertidas, pero hace difcil obtener una visin del mundo donde vivimos, o de nosotros mismos. +Y nuestra amiga, Betty Edwards, la seora de Dibujando En El Lado Derecho Del Cerebro, muestra estas dos mesas a su clase de dibujo y dice: el problema que tienen al aprender a dibujar no es que no puedan mover su mano, sino que la forma en la que su cerebro percibe imgenes es defectuosa. +Est tratando de percibir imgenes como objetos en vez de ver lo que est ah. +Y para probarlo, dice ella, el tamao y la forma de estos tableros es idntica, y se los voy a probar. +Ella hace esto con cartn, pero como tengo una costosa computadora ac, slo voy a rotar a este amiguito y.... +Ahora habiendo visto esto -y lo he visto cientos de veces, porque uso este ejemplo en cada presentacin que doy- an no puedo ver que son del mismo tamao y forma, y dudo que ustedes puedan hacerlo. +Como lo hacen los artistas? Bueno, los artistas miden. +Ellos toman medidas de forma muy, muy cuidadosa. +Y si miden con mucho cuidado y con un brazo firme y un borde rgido, se darn cuenta que esas dos formas son exactamente del mismo tamao. +Y el Talmud vio esto hace mucho, diciendo, que vemos las cosas no como son, sino como somos nosotros mismos. +Me gustara mucho saber qu fue de la persona que tuvo esa reflexin entonces, si realmente la prosigui hasta su conclusin final. +As que si el mundo no es como parece y vemos las cosas como somos nosotros, entonces lo que llamamos realidad es una forma de alucinacin que sucede ac dentro. Es un sueo lcido. Y comprender que es ah donde existimos es una de las barreras epistemolgicas ms grandes de la historia humana. +Y eso que es: "simple y comprensible" puede que no sea simple o comprensible, y cosas que creemos complejas pueden hacerse simples y comprensibles. +De algn modo tenemos que auto-comprendernos para corregir nuestros defectos. +Podemos pensar de nosotros como un canal ruidoso. +La manera en la que yo lo veo es que, no podemos aprender a ver hasta que admitamos que estamos ciegos. +Una vez que comiences en este nivel tan humilde, entonces puedes encontrar formas para ver la cosas. +Y lo que ha pasado en los ltimos cuatrocientos aos especficamente es que los seres humanos han inventado "brainlets": pequeas partes adicionales para nuestro cerebro, conformadas de ideas poderosas que nos ayudan a ver el mundo de formas diferentes. +Y estas estn en la forma de aparatos sensoriales -telescopios, microscopios-, aparatos de razonamiento, variadas formas de pensar, y lo ms importante, en la habilidad de cambiar la perspectiva de las cosas. +Voy a hablar un poquito sobre eso. +Es este cambio en perspectiva, y lo que pensamos que estamos percibiendo, lo que nos ha ayudado a progresar ms en los ltimos cuatrocientos aos que durante el resto de la historia humana. +Y aun as, que yo sepa no se ensea en ningn colegio en EE. UU. +Una de las cosas que van de simple a complejo es cuando hacemos ms. Nos gusta ms. +Si hacemos ms de una forma estpida, la simplicidad se torna compleja. Y de hecho, podemos hacerlo durante mucho tiempo. +Pero Murray Gell-Mann habl ayer sobre las propiedades emergentes. Otro nombre para eso podra ser "arquitectura" como una metfora de tomar los mismos viejos materiales y pensar en maneras no-obvias y complejas de combinarlos. +De hecho, de lo que hablaba Murray ayer era de la belleza fractal de la naturaleza, de tener descripciones similares en varios niveles, todo se reduce a la idea que las partculas elementales son al mismo tiempo pegajosas y distantes, y se mueven de forma violenta. +Esas tres cosas dan vida a todos los diversos niveles que se acercan a la complejidad en nuestro mundo. +Pero qu tan simple? +Y cuando vi el Gapminder de los Roslings hace algunos aos, pens que era lo mejor que haba visto para comunicar ideas complejas de un forma simple. +Pero luego pens, oye, quizs es demasiado simple. +Y puse algo de esfuerzo en chequear y ver qu tan bien estas simples representaciones de tendencias en el tiempo cuadraban con algunas ideas e investigaciones, y encontr que calzaban muy bien. +Entonces los Roslings han sido capaces de simplificar sin retirar lo que es importante de los datos. +En cambio el filme que vimos ayer de la simulacin dentro de una clula, como un ex bilogo molecular, no me gust para nada. +No porque no fuera hermoso o algo as, sino porque le faltaba lo que la mayora de los estudiantes no comprenden sobre biologa molecular, y eso es: por qu existen probabilidades de que dos formas complejas se encuentren unas a otras de la forma precisa para combinarse y ser catalizadas? +Y lo que vimos ayer fue, que cada reaccin era fortuita. Slo se precipitaban en el aire y se unan, y algo pasaba. +Pero en realidad esas molculas estn girando a un ritmo de casi un milln de revoluciones por segundo. Recorren su distancia total para cada lado cada dos nanosegundos. Estn muy juntas entre s. Estn atascadas, y se golpean unas con otras. +Y si no comprenden eso en su modelo mental de esto, lo que sucede dentro de una clula parece completamente misterioso y fortuito. Y pienso que esa es precisamente la imagen incorrecta cuando se est tratando de ensear ciencia. +Otra cosa que hacemos es confundir la sofisticacin adulta con la comprensin real de un principio. +Un nio de 14 aos en secundaria recibe esta versin del teorema de Pitgoras, que es una prueba muy sutil e interesante, pero en realidad no es una buena forma de comenzar a aprender sobre matemtica. +Entonces, una forma ms directa, que da ms la sensacin de matemticas, es algo ms parecido a la prueba del propio Pitgoras que era algo as. Tenemos este tringulo, y si rodeamos ese cuadrado C con tres tringulos ms y lo copiamos, noten que podemos mover esos tringulos hacia abajo as, +y eso deja dos reas abiertas que son algo sospechosas, +y bingo. Y eso es todo lo que tienen que hacer. +Y este tipo de prueba es el tipo de prueba que necesitan aprenden cuando se est aprendiendo matemtica para darse una idea de lo que eso significa antes de que se fijen en, literalmente, 12 o 1500 pruebas del teorema de Pitgoras que han sido descubiertas. +Ahora miremos a los nios pequeos. +Esta es una profesora muy inusual que era una profesora de kindergarten y de primer grado, y que era naturalmente matemtica. +Ella era como ese amigo suyo que es un msico de jazz que nunca estudi msica, pero es un msico increble. Ella simplemente poda sentirlas, +y aqu estn sus alumnos de seis aos, y los tiene haciendo formas de otras formas. +Entonces ellos eligen una forma que les guste -un diamante, o un cuadrado, o un triangulo, o un trapezoide- y luego tratan de hacer la siguiente forma de esa misma forma, y la siguiente forma ms grande. +Y pueden ver aqu que los trapezoides son algo complicados. +Y lo que esta profesora hizo en cada proyecto fue hacer que los nios actuaran primero como si fuera un proyecto de arte creativo y despus algo cientfico. +Entonces crearon estos artefactos. +Y ahora ella los tenia mirndolos y haciendo este trabajo; en lo cual pens por mucho tiempo, hasta que ella me explico, era para darles tiempo para pensar. +Y cortaban las pequeas piezas de cartn ah, y las pegaban. +Pero el punto de esto es hacer que ellos mirasen esta tabla y la llenaran. +Qu aprendieron sobre lo que hicieron? +Y entonces, Lauren de seis aos noto que el primero us uno, y el segundo us tres ms, y el total era de cuatro para ese. El tercero tom cinco ms, y el total fue de nueve en ese, y luego el siguiente. +Entonces ella noto de inmediato que las piezas adicionales que haba que agregar en los bordes siempre iba a crecer por dos. Entonces ella estaba muy confiada sobre como obtuvo esos numeros de ah. +Y ella poda ver que esos eran los nmeros cuadrados hasta el seis. Donde no estaba segura de cuanto era seis por seis, y cuanto era siente por siete. Pero luego ella volvi a estar confiada. +Eso fue lo que hizo Lauren. +Entonces la profesora, Gillian Ishijima, hizo que los nios trajeran todos sus proyectos al frente del saln y los pusieran en el piso. Y todos enloquecieron. Mierda! Son iguales! +Sin importar cuales fueran las formas, la ley de crecimiento es la misma. +Y los matemticos y cientficos en el pblico reconocern estas dos progresiones como una ecuacin diferencial discreta de primer orden y una ecuacin diferencial discreta de segundo orden. Derivadas por nios de seis aos. +Bueno, eso es bastante asombroso. +Eso no es lo que usualmente tratamos de ensear a nios de seis aos. +Ahora veamos cmo podemos usar la computadora para esto. +La primera idea ac es slo para mostrarles el tipo de cosas que los nios hacen. +Estoy usando el software que estamos poniendo en el laptop de 100 dlares. +Ahora me gustara dibujar un pequeo autito ac. Lo har muy rpidamente. Y le pongo una gran rueda. +Y obtengo un pequeo objeto ac, y puedo ver dentro de este objeto. Lo llamar un auto. Y ac hay un pequeo comportamiento: el auto avanza. +Cada vez que le hago click, el auto gira. +Si quiero hacer un pequeo programa para repetir esto varias veces, slo arrastro estos y los echo a andar. +Y puedo tratar de conducir el auto... +ven al auto girar por cinco? +Qu pasa si bajo esto a cero? +Se mueve en lnea recta. Esa es una gran revelacin para un nio de nueve aos. +Hacerlo ir en la direccin contraria. +Pero obviamente eso es un poco como besar a tu hermana comparado con manejar un auto. Entonces los nios quieren hacer un manubrio. Dibujan un manubrio. +Y lo llamaremos manubrio. +Y, ven la direccin del manubrio ac? +Si giro esta rueda, pueden ver ese nmero ah yendo a negativo y positivo. +Esa es como una invitacin para tomar esos nmeros saliendo de ah y colocarlos aqu en el programa. Y ahora puedo conducir el auto con el manubrio. +Y es interesante. +Ustedes saben el problema que tienen los nios con las variables, pero aprendiendo de esta manera, en una situacin, nunca olvidan despus de la primera vez lo que es una variable y como se usan. +Y podemos reflexionar aqu como lo hizo Gillian Ishijima. +As que si miran a este pequeo programa, la velocidad siempre ser de 30. +Vamos a mover el auto, segn eso, una y otra vez. +Y estoy dejando un puntito por cada una de esas cosas. Estn espaciados uniformemente porque estn a 30 de distancia. +Y qu pasa si hago esta progresin que hicieron los nios de seis aos al decir, OK, voy a incrementar la velocidad por dos cada vez, y luego voy a incrementar la distancia por la velocidad cada vez? +Qu obtengo ah? +Obtenemos un patrn visual de lo que los nios de nueve aos llamaron aceleracin. +As que cmo hacen ciencia los nios? +Profesora: Objetos que ustedes creen que caern a la tierra al mismo tiempo... +Nio: Esto es genial. +Profesora: No pongan atencin a lo que hacen los dems. +Quin tiene la manzana? +Alan Kay: Tienen pequeos cronmetros. +Profesora: Qu obtienen? Qu obtuvieron? +AK: Los cronmetros no son lo suficientemente precisos. +Nia: 0,99 segundos. +Profesora: Pongan "pelota de esponja"; +Nia: Haba una bala y una pelota de esponja, porque son de pesos totalmente diferentes. Y si las sueltas al mismo tiempo, quizs caern a la misma velocidad. +Profesora: Sultala. +AK: Obviamente Aristteles nunca le pregunto a un nio sobre este tema especfico, ya que no se molest en hacer el experimento, y tampoco lo hizo Santo Tomas de Aquino. +Y no fue hasta que Galileo lo hizo que un adulto pens como un nio. Slo hace 400 aos. +Vemos un nio como ella por como cada clase de 30 nios que va directo al punto. +Ahora, qu pasa si queremos ver esto ms detenidamente? +Podemos tomar un vdeo de lo que est pasando, pero an si pasamos este vdeo paso a paso, es complicado ver qu esta pasando. +Y lo que podemos hacer es, podemos poner los cuadros uno al lado del otro, o apilarlos. +Entonces cuando los nios ven eso, dicen. "Ah, aceleracin," recordando cuatro meses antes cuando hicieron sus autos, y comienzan a medir para ver qu tipo de aceleracin es. +Y entonces lo que estoy haciendo es medir desde el fondo de una imagen hasta el fondo de la imagen siguiente, casi un quinto de segundo despus, as, y se ponen cada vez mas rpidas. Y si apilo estas cosas, podemos ver las diferencias, el incremento en velocidad es constante. +Y dicen, "oh, s, aceleracin constante. +Eso ya lo hicimos." +Y cmo podemos ver y verificar que lo tenemos? +No podemos ver mucho slo haciendo que la pelota caiga ah, pero si hacemos caer la pelota y corremos la pelcula al mismo tiempo, podemos ver que hemos obtenido un modelo fsico preciso. +A propsito, Galileo, hizo esto de una forma muy astuta haciendo correr una pelota hacia atrs por las cuerdas de su lad. +Yo saqu esas manzanas para acordarme de decirles que esta probablemente es una historia como la de Newton y la manzana, pero es una buensima historia. +Y pens que hara una sola cosa en este laptop de 100 dlares para probarles que esto funciona. +Una vez que tienes gravedad, aqu est; aumentar la velocidad por algo, aumentar la velocidad de la nave. +Si arranco este jueguito que los nios hicieron, chocar la nave espacial. +Pero si me opongo a la gravedad, aqu vamos -- oops! +Una ms. +S, ah estamos. S, De acuerdo? +Creo que la mejor forma de terminar esto es con dos frases. Marshall McLuhan dijo: "Los nios son los mensajes que enviamos al futuro." Pero de hecho, si lo piensan, los nios son el futuro que enviamos al futuro. +Olvdense de los mensajes. Los nios son el futuro. Y los nios en el primer y segundo mundo, y especialmente en el tercer mundo, necesitan mentores. +Y este verano vamos a construir 5 millones de estos laptops de 100 dlares y quizs 50 millones el prximo ao. +Pero aunque hicieramos lo imposible, no podramos crear mil nuevos profesores este verano. +Y eso significa que nuevamente tenemos una situacin donde podemos introducir tecnologa, pero falta la tutora que se requiere para pasar de un sistema iChat simple y nuevo de mensajera instantnea a algo con mayor profundidad. +Pienso que esto debe hacerse con un nuevo tipo de interfaz de usuario. Y este nuevo tipo de interfaz de usuario puede hacerse con un gasto de unos 100 millones de dlares. +Parece muchsimo, pero es literalmente 18 minutos de lo que estamos gastando en Irak. Estamos gastando 8 mil millones al mes. 18 minutos son 100 millones de dlares. As que esto es barato. +Y Einstein dijo: "Las cosas deben ser lo ms simple posible, pero no ms simples." +Gracias. +En esta larga, casi maratnica presentacin, tratar de desarrollar tres partes: la primera, es mostrar muchsimos ejemplos sobre cmo hacer un poco ms agradable la interaccin con una computadora y sealar las cualidades de la interfaz humana. +Y estas pueden ser simples cualidades de diseo y tambin podran ser cualidades de, si lo quieren ver as, la inteligencia de la interaccin. +La segunda parte, slo sern ejemplos de nuevas tecnologas: nuevos medios que caern dentro de este modelo. +De nuevo, explicar todo esto tan rpido como sea posible. +Y el ltimo punto sern algunos ejemplos que he podido recolectar, que creo... permtanme decir, ilustran todo esto de la mejor manera que puedo, en el mundo del entretenimiento. +La gente tiene esta creencia, y estoy de acuerdo con ello, de que estaremos usando la pantalla de TV, o su equivalente, para libros electrnicos del futuro. Pero entonces uno piensa: "Dios, qu terribles imgenes se obtienen cuando se ven fotografas por TV!" +Bueno, no tiene por qu ser tan malo. +Y eso, nuevamente, es una diapositiva tomada de un TV. Y fue pre-procesada para ser muy favorable al medio televisivo. y luce espectacularmente hermosa. +Bueno, Qu pas? Cmo fue que la gente se meti en este problema? +Cundo ustedes, de repente, sentados enfrente a sus computadoras, video texto, sistemas de teletexto, estn de alguna forma molestos por lo que ven en la pantalla? +Bueno, tienen que recordar que la TV fue diseada para ser vista a 8 veces la distancia de la diagonal. +As tienen un TV de 13, 19 o ms pulgadas. Entonces, deben multiplicar esa cantidad por 8, y esa es la distancia a la que deberan sentarse del TV. +Ahora, de pronto, ponemos a la gente a 18 pulgadas del TV y los artificios que ninguno de los primeros diseadores esperaban fueran vistos, de pronto saltan a la vista. Las mscara de sombra, las lneas de barrido, todo eso. +Y stos pueden ser tratados muy fcilmente. De hecho, existen formas de deshacerse de ellos. De hecho, existen formas de crear fotografas absolutamente hermosas. +Hablar ahora acerca de las tecnologas de pantallas. +Djenme contarles cmo introducir informacin. +Y mi ejemplo favorito son siempre los dedos. +Estoy muy interesado en pantallas sensibles al tacto. +"High-Tech, High-Touch". No es eso lo que algunos dicen? +Es, ciertamente, una muy buena forma de entrada de datos. Algunas personas piensan que los dedos son una especie de lpiz, de muy baja resolucin para introducir datos a travs de la pantalla. +De hecho, no es as. En realidad es un medio de entrada de muy alta resolucin. Slo tienes que hacerlo dos veces. Se tiene que tocar la pantalla y luego rotar ligeramente su dedo. Y puede mover un cursor con gran exactitud. +De esta forma, cuando vea en el mercado estos sistemas que slo tienen unos pocos diodos emisores de luz en un costado, y son de muy baja resolucin... es bueno que existan porque es mejor que nada. +Pero en cierto sentido no van al grano: a saber, los dedos son un medio de entrada de muy, muy alta resolucin. +Cules son las otras ventajas? +Tendran que detenerse, quiz no mucho tiempo, pero tienen que encontrar el ratn. Encuentran el ratn y ahora tendran que sacudirlo un poco para ver en dnde se encuentra el cursor en la pantalla. +Y finalmente cuando lo localizan, entonces tendran que moverlo para colocar el cursor por all, y entonces "zas", tienen que apretar un botn y hacer lo que quieran. +Son cuatro pasos diferentes versus escribir y luego tocar y digitar y hacerlo todo en un solo movimiento, o en uno y medio, dependiendo de cmo estn contando. +De nuevo, lo que trato de hacer es slo ilustrar los tipos de problemas que, creo, enfrentan los diseadores de los nuevos sistemas de computadoras, de entretenimiento y de educacin, desde la perspectiva de la calidad de esa interfaz. +Y otra ventaja de usar los dedos, desde luego, es que son diez. +Y nunca hemos sabido cmo hacer esto tcnicamente. As, esta diapositiva es falsa. +No hemos logrado usar diez dedos, pero hay ciertas cosas que se pueden hacer, obviamente, con ms de un dedo como entrada, lo que es muy fascinante. +Con lo que nos topamos fue con algo, +de nuevo, tpico de las computadoras, es cuando tienes un error del que no te puedes deshacer lo conviertes en una caracterstica. +Y quiz... ...quiz un ratn es un nuevo tipo de error. +Pero el error en nuestro caso estaba en las pantallas sensibles al tacto. Queramos poder dibujar, ya saben, frotar el dedo por la pantalla para ingresar puntos continuos. Pero se creaba demasiada friccin entre el dedo y el vidrio... si el vidrio era el sustrato, que normalmente lo es. +As descubrimos que en realidad era una caracterstica en el sentido de que se podra construir una pantalla sensible a la presin. +Y cuando uno la toca con el dedo, puede entonces ejercer fuerza sobre la superficie de esa pantalla, y eso, de hecho, tiene un gran valor. +Djenme ver si puedo cargar otro disco y mostrarles un ejemplo rpidamente. +Bien. Ahora imaginen una pantalla que no slo es sensible al tacto, es sensible a la presin. +Y es sensible a la presin de las fuerzas sobre los dos ejes del plano de la pantalla... X, Y, y Z, en al menos una direccin. No pudimos idear la forma de ir en la otra direccin. +Pero djenme deshacerme de la diapositiva. Y ver si se encuentra por aqu. +Bien, entonces aqu est la pantalla sensible a la presin en funcionamiento. +La persona slo est, como ven, presionando sobre la pantalla. +Pero aqu est la parte interesante. +Ahora, OK. Ahora, quiero parar un segundo porque la pelcula est muy mal hecha. +La pantalla, en particular, se construy hace seis aos y cuando nos mudamos de una sala a otra una persona muy grande se sent sobre ella y la destruy. +As que slo tenemos este registro. Pero imaginen esa pantalla con muchos objetos. Y la persona ha tocado un objeto, uno de tantos, como hizo aqu. Y entonces lo empuja. +Ahora, imaginen un programa donde algunos de estos objetos son fsicamente pesados y otros son livianos. Uno es un yunque sobre una mullida alfombra, y el otro es una pelota de ping-pong sobre una lmina de vidrio. +Y cuando lo tocan, tendran que empujar muy fuerte para mover el yunque por la pantalla. y sin embargo, tocan la pelota de ping-pong levemente y cruza rpidamente toda la pantalla. +Y lo que pueden hacer... Ups! No quera hacer eso... lo que pueden hacer es realimentar al usuario con la sensacin de las propiedades fsicas. +As, de nuevo, no tiene que ser el peso. Podran ser un general tratando de mover tropas, y l tendra que mover un portaaviones versus un bote pequeo. +De hecho, lo financiaron por esa misma razn. +La percepcin entonces es que, en la interfaz, existen propiedades fsicas en ese transductor... en este caso, presin y contacto... que les permite presentar cosas al usuario que no se le presentaron antes. +As que no es simplemente fijarse en la calidad, o, si quieren, el lujo de esa interfaz. Sino es de hecho observar la idea de presentar cosas que no se podan presentar antes. +Quiero pasar a otro ejemplo, de diferente tipo, donde tratamos de usar la computadora y la tecnologa del disco de vdeo para presentar un nuevo tipo de libro. +La idea es que tomarn este libro, si as lo quieren, y cobrar vida. +Insuflarn el hlito de vida en l. +Estamos muy acostumbrados a hacer monlogos. +Los directores de cine, por ejemplo, son expertos en monlogos. Crean una pelcula y sta tiene principio, medio y final. Y de cierta forma el arte de una pelcula es eso. +Y entonces dirn, "Bueno, ya sabes, existe una oportunidad para crear pelculas conversacionales". Bueno, Qu quiere decir esto? +Y de cierta forma roza el ncleo de la profesin, y todas las suposiciones de ese medio. +As, la escritura de un libro es lo mismo. +Lo que les mostrar rpidamente es un nuevo tipo de libro donde vive todo tipo de cosas, pero deben tener en cuenta unas cosas. +Una es que este libro es consciente de s mismo. +Cada cuadro de pelcula tiene informacin de s mismo. +Entonces sabe, o al menos hay informacin, que la computadora reconoce en el medio mismo. No es slo un cuadro de pelcula esttico. +Eso es una cosa. La otra es que se tiene que dar cuenta que es un medio de acceso aleatorio, y puede de hecho ramificarse, expandirse, ampliarse y contraerse. +Aqu, de nuevo, mi ejemplo favorito es el libro de cocina, el Larousse Gastronomique. +Creo que he usado el ejemplo muy seguido, pero es uno muy bueno porque existe un final clsico en ese libro de cocina tipo enciclopedia que dice cmo hacer un pingino y uno llega al final de la receta y dice: "Cocnese hasta su punto". +Ahora, eso podra ser la lnea verde de arriba, que no dice mucho. Pero podran tener que explicarme o explicar a alguien no experto: "Cocine a 190 grados durante 45 min". +Y para un verdadero principiante ir ms all y explicar ms: "Abra el horno, precaliente, espere a que la luz se apague, abra la puerta, no la deje abierta mucho tiempo, ponga el pingino adentro y cierre la puerta", lo que sea. +Y esa es una explicacin ms elaborada que la del principio. +Ese es un tipo de uso de acceso aleatorio. +Y el otro es donde quisieran explicar una misma cosa de diferentes maneras. +Si estn en un aula y alguien hace una pregunta, lo ltimo que hacen es repetir lo que acaban de decir. +Tratan de pensar una forma diferente de decir lo mismo, o, si conocen a ese estudiante en particular y su forma de aprender, podran decrselo en una forma que creen que tendr una mejor aprehensin del estudiante. +Existen todo tipo de tcnicas que podran usar... y de nuevo, este es un tipo diferente de ramificacin. +As que lo que les ensear es un libro muy aburrido, pero me temo que algunas veces tienen que hacer libros aburridos porque los patrocinadores no estn necesariamente interesados en ficcin y entretenimiento. Y este es un libro de cmo reparar una transmisin. +Ahora, ni siquiera s qu tipo de transmisin es, pero djenme mostrarles rpidamente algo de eso, y seguiremos adelante. +Ahora, este es el ndice, bien? +Slo una imagen de la transmisin, y conforme frotan el dedo por la transmisin, resalta sus diversas partes. +Narrador: Cuando encuentro un captulo que quiero ver, slo toco el texto y el sistema dar formato a las pginas para poder leerlas. +Las palabras o frases que estn marcadas en rojo son palabras de glosario, as que puedo obtener una definicin diferente con slo tocar la palabra y la definicin aparece superpuesta a la ilustracin. +Nicolas Negroponte: Esto es sobre el crter, o el filtro de aceite y todo eso. +Esto es relativamente importante porque establece el... +Narrador: Este es otro ejemplo de una pgina con palabras de glosario, marcadas en rojo. +Puedo obtener una definicin de estas palabras slo tocndolas, y la definicin aparecer en la esquina de la ilustracin. +Puedo regresar a la ilustracin, pero en este caso no es un solo cuadro. Es una pelcula de alguien entrando a cuadro y haciendo la reparacin que se describe en el texto. +La barra con dos botones es un control de velocidad que permite ver la pelcula a diferentes velocidades, hacia adelante o hacia atrs. +Y la pelcula se muestra como una pelcula de pantalla completa. +Puedo regresar al inicio, y reproducir la pelcula a velocidad mxima. +Aqu otro procedimiento paso a paso, slo que en este caso... NN: Vern, todos han odo de pelculas con sonido sincronizado. Estas son pelculas con texto sincronizado. Conforme la pelcula se reproduce, se resalta el texto, +resaltamos el texto conforme avanza la pelcula. +Video: No muy afuera, en los polos frontales, preferentemente. +No los suelten mucho. Si los sueltan mucho, tendrn un gran problema. +Sospecho que algunos de Uds ni siquiera podran entender ese lenguaje. +OK, estoy en la tercera y ltima parte, que, como dije, hara un intento de dar al menos algunos ejemplos que podran estar ms directamente relacionados con el mundo del entretenimiento. +Ensear a los nios a programar como tal es totalmente irrelevante. +Y un nio, cuyo nombre he olvidado, tena unos 7 u 8 aos, considerado absolutamente deficiente mental no poda leer, no lo logr incluso en las primeras unidades de las clases. Y casi no se encontraba en la escuela, aunque fsicamente lo estaba. +l fue y dijo: "Djenme mostrarles cmo funciona esto". Y tuvieron una descripcin absolutamente ingeniosa y maravillosa de Logo. +El nio lo explicaba muy fcilmente, ensendoles todo tipo de cosas, hasta que le preguntaron cmo hacer algo que no pudo explicar. Y entonces hoje el manual, encontr la explicacin, escribi el comando y obtuvo lo que le fue pedido. +Quedaron maravillados, y llegado el momento de ver al director, a quien haban ido a ver en principio, no la "sala de computacin". Subieron las escaleras y dijeron: "Sabe, es absolutamente notable. +Ese nio, era muy expresivo y nos lo mostr, y sabe, incluso manej cosas que no poda hacer automticamente con ese manual. Fue totalmente fantstico". +El director dijo, "Saben, ha habido un gran error, porque ese nio no puede leer. +Y obviamente han sido engaados o estn hablando de otro nio". +Y todos se levantaron y fueron abajo y el nio segua ah. Y ellos hicieron algo muy inteligente: le preguntaron al nio, "Puedes leer?" +Y el nio dijo, "No, no puedo". +Y entonces le dijeron, "Pero espera. Acabas de ver ese manual y encontraste..." Y l dijo, "Oh, pero eso no es leer". +Y le dijeron, "Bueno, entonces, Qu es leer?" +El dijo, "Bueno, leer es esa basura que me dieron en pequeos libros para leer. +No tienen nada relevante, y no obtengo nada de ello. +Pero aqu, con poco esfuerzo, obtengo mucho a cambio". +Y en verdad tena sentido para el nio. +Se descubri que el nio lea maravillosamente, y era muy competente. As que de hecho significaba algo. +Y esta historia tiene muchas otras ancdotas similares, pero "guau!", la clave para el futuro de las computadoras en la educacin est ah. Y es... cundo significa algo para un nio. +Existe un mito, y en verdad es un mito: creemos, y estoy seguro que muchos de aqu lo creen, que es ms difcil aprender a leer y escribir que aprender a hablar. +Y no es as. Pero pensamos en voz alta... Dios, los nios pequeos lo aprenden de alguna forma. Y para los 2 aos hacen un trabajo mediocre. Y a los 3 y 4 hablan razonablemente bien. +Y todava tienen que ir a la escuela a aprender cmo leer. Y tienen que sentarse en un aula y alguien les tiene que ensear, +por lo tanto debe ser difcil. Bueno, no es difcil. +La verdad es que el hablar tiene mucho valor para un nio. El nio puede obtener un buen trato hablando con ustedes. +Leer y escribir es absolutamente intil. +No hay razn para que un nio lea y escriba ms que la fe ciega, y que le servir algn da. Lo que pasa es, van a la escuela y la gente dice, "En verdad, creme, te gustar. +Y te gustar leer, y solamente leer y leer". +Por otra parte, le das a un nio, un nio de 3 aos, una computadora. Y escriben un pequeo comando, y "puf!", algo aparece. +Y de repente... puede que no llamen a eso leer y escribir, sino un poco de digitacin y lectura en pantalla tiene una gran recompensa, y es muy divertido. +Y, de hecho, es un instrumento educativo poderoso. +Bueno, en Senegal encontramos que este era un aula tradicional: 120 nios, 3 por mesa. Un maestro, un poco de tiza. +Esta estudiante fue una de nuestros primeros estudiantes, la chica de la izquierda, inclinada sobre el pizarrn. Ella vino hara unos dos das... quisiera mostrarles el programa que escribi, recuerden su peinado, s? Este es el programa que hizo. +Esto significaba algo para ella; est haciendo el patrn de su cabello y, de hecho, lo hizo en menos de dos das, una hora por da, y se encontr que, para ella, era la pieza ms significativa. +Pero, a raz de eso, muy poco saba ella cunto conocimiento estaba adquiriendo de geometra de matemticas, lgica y todo lo dems. +Y, de nuevo, podra hablar tres horas sobre este tema. +Llegu a mi ltimo ejemplo, +y mi ltimo ejemplo... algunos de mis ex-colegas a quienes veo en este saln, pueden imaginar cul ser. +S, es ese. Es nuestro trabajo, fue hace un tiempo, y sigue siendo mi proyecto favorito, de teleconferencia. +Ahora, eso fue suficientemente disparatado, que nosotros obviamente alzamos la mano, y lo hicimos. +Y el hecho de que conocamos a las personas, nos oblig a quitar una pgina de la historia de Walt Disney. Llegamos tan lejos como para construir pantallas de CRT con forma de los rostros de la gente. +As, si quera llamar por telfono a mi amigo Peter Sprague, mi secretaria tendra que tomar su cabeza y ponerla sobre mi escritorio. Y esa sera el TV a usar para la ocasin. +Y es muy raro. No podra explicarles la cantidad de contacto visual que tienen con ese rostro fsico proyectado en un CRT 3D de ese tipo. +Lo siguiente que tuvimos que hacer fue persuadirlos de que necesitaban tener una correspondencia espacial. Algo sencillo, pero, de nuevo, algo que no surgi naturalmente de un razonamiento de telecomunicacin o computacin. Era un concepto, si quieren, muy arquitectnico o espacial, +y esto era reconocer que cuando se sientan alrededor de una mesa, la posicin de la gente se vuelve importante. +Y cuando alguien se levanta, para atender el telfono o usar el bao o algo, el asiento vaco se vuelve esa persona. Y frecuentemente apuntan al asiento vaco y dicen, "l o ella estara en desacuerdo". Y la silla vaca es esa persona. Y la espacialidad es crucial. +Entonces dijimos, "Bueno, esto sera en mesas redondas y el orden alrededor de la mesa tendra que ser el mismo. Para que de mi lado yo sea, si quieren, real. Y cada persona del otro lado tendra estas cabezas de plstico. +Y las cabezas de plstico... algunas veces quisieran proyectarlos, +en diferentes esquemas, en los cuales no quisiera detenerme. Pero este fue el que usamos finalmente, donde proyectamos sobre una pantalla trasera que fue moldeada en el rostro, literalmente, en el rostro de la persona. +Les mostrar una diapositiva ms donde esto se realiza a partir de algo llamado "fotografa slida", y es la pantalla. +Ahora, rastreamos los movimientos de la cabeza de la persona. Para transmitir, con un video, la posicin de la cabeza. Y as esta cabeza se mueve en al menos dos ejes. +As si de repente volteo a ver a la persona a mi izquierda, y comienzo a hablar con esa persona, entonces la persona a mi derecha, ver estas dos cabezas de plstico hablando entre s. +Y entonces, si esa persona los interrumpe, entonces las dos cabezas voltearn. +Y en verdad se podr reconstruir, con mucha precisin, la teleconferencia. +Voy a ir directamente a las diapositivas. +Y lo que voy a intentar demostrarles con esta presentacin es que yo slo hago cosas sinceras. +Y mis ideas son -- en mi cabeza, por lo menos -- son muy lgicas y se relacionan con lo que est pasando y con la resolucin de problemas de los clientes. +Al final, o convenzo a los clientes de que soluciono sus problemas, o realmente resuelvo sus problemas porque, en general, les parece gustar. +Permtanme ir directo a la presentacin. +Podran apagar las luces? +Me gusta estar a oscuras. +No quiero que vean lo que hago aqu. +De todos modos, hice esta casa en Santa Monica y se gan mucha mala fama. +De hecho, apareci en un cmic pornogrfico, que es la diapositiva de la derecha. +Esto est en Venice. +Solo se lo muestro porque quiero que sepan que me preocupo por el contexto. +A la izquierda tena el contexto de esas casitas e intent construir un edificio que encajase en ese contexto. +Cuando la gente fotografa estos edificios fuera de contexto parecen muy raros, y mi propuesta es que tienen mucho ms sentido cuando son fotografiados o vistos en ese espacio. +Y entonces, una vez he tratado con el contexto intento crear un lugar que sea cmodo, privado y bastante sereno espero que as encuentren esa diapositiva de la derecha. +Y luego hice una universidad de derecho para Loyola en el centro de Los ngeles. +Estaba preocupado por crear un lugar para los estudios de derecho. +Y seguimos trabajando con este cliente. +El edificio a la derecha arriba est ahora en construccin. +El garage a la derecha -- la estructura gris -- ser demolido finalmente, y se colocarn varias aulas pequeas a lo largo de esta avenida que hemos creado, este campus. +Todo tena que ver con los clientes y los estudiantes desde las primeras reuniones diciendo que sentan que les era negado un lugar. +Queran una sensacin de lugar. +Y por eso la idea general era crear ese tipo de espacio en el centro, en un barrio en el que era difcil encajar. +Y mi teora era, o mi punto de vista, que uno no eclipsa el barrio -- uno hace acuerdos. +Trat de ser inclusivo, de incluir los edificios del barrio fueran o no edificios que me gustaran a m. +En los aos 60 comenc a trabajar con muebles de papel e hice muchas cosas que tuvieron mucho xito en Bloomingdale's. +Hicimos pisos, paredes y de todo, con cartn. +Y su xito me puso en una disyuntiva. +No poda aguantar el xito del mobiliario -- no estaba lo suficientemente seguro como arquitecto -- as que lo dej todo e hice muebles que a nadie gustaran. +As, a nadie le gustara esto. +Y fue en este, preliminar a estos muebles, que Ricky y yo trabajamos en muebles por la parte. +Y despues de fracasar, yo continu fracasando. +La pieza de la izquierda -- y que acab llevando a la pieza de la derecha -- sucedi cuando el chico que estaba trabajando en esto tom una de esas cuerdas largas y las dobl para meterlas en la basura. +Y yo le puse un trozo de cinta adhesiva alredededor como ven all, y nos dimos cuenta de que nos podamos sentar encima y tena mucha resistencia y fuerza y tal. +As que fue un descubrimiento accidental. +Me interes por los peces. +Quiero decir, la historia que cuento es que me enfad con el posmoderminso -- el pomo -- y dije que los peces estaban 500 millones de aos antes que el hombre y ya que vas a retroceder puedes retroceder hasta el principio. +As que comenc a hacer estas cosas graciosas. +Y comenzaron a tener vida propia y a crecer -- como el de vidrio en el Walker. +Y luego cort la cabeza y la cola y todo y trat de traducir lo que estaba aprendiendo sobre la forma del pez y del movimiento. +Y muchas de mis ideas arquitectnicas que surgieron de esto por accidente, otra vez -- fue algo intuitivo y simplemente continu con esto e hice esta propuesta para un edificio, que era slo una propuesta. +Hice este edificio en Japn. +Me invitaron a cenar despus de firmar el contrato para este pequeo restaurante. +Y a m me encanta el sake, el kobe y todo eso. +Y despues de -- estaba muy borracho -- Me pidieron que hiciese unos bosquejos en las servilletas. +Hice algunos bosquejos en las servilletas -- cajitas y cosas de tipo Morandi que yo sola hacer. +Y el cliente dijo: "Por qu no peces?" +As que hice un dibujo con un pez y me fui de Japn. +Tres semanas despus recib una serie completa de dibujos diciendo que habamos ganado la competicin. +Ahora, es difcil hacelo. Es difcil traducir una forma de pez, porque son tan hermosos -- perfectos -- a un edificio u objeto como este. +Y Oldenburg, con quien trabajo un poco de vez en cuando, me dijo que no poda hacerlo y eso lo hizo aun ms emocionante. +Pero tena razn -- no poda hacer la cola. +La cabeza me empez a salir bien, pero con la cola no poda. +Era bastante difcil. +Lo de la derecha es una forma de serpiente, un zigurat. +Y los puse juntos y se camina entre ellos. +Era un dilogo con el contexto otra vez. +Ahora, si ven una foto de esto como fue publicado en Architectural Record, ellos no mostraron el contexto, entonces pensaran: "Dios, qu tipo ms prepotente". +Pero un amigo mio pas cuatro horas vagando en busca de este restaurante. +No poda encontrarlo. +As que -- +por lo que se refiere a destreza y tecnologa y esas cosas de lo que han estado todos hablando, me qued boquiabierto. +Esto fue construido en seis meses. +La manera en que enviamos dibujos a los clientes usamos el ordenador mgico en Michigan que hace maquetas talladas, y solamos hacer maquetas de espuma que esa cosa escaneaba. +Hicimos los dibujos de peces y de escamas. +Y cuando llegu all todo estab perfecto -- salvo la cola. +As que decid cortar la cabeza y la cola. +E hice el objeto de la izquierda para mi exposicin en el Walker. +Y pienso que es una de las obras ms buenas que he hecho nunca. +Y entonces Jay Chiat, un amigo y cliente, me pidi que le hiciese su oficina central en Los ngeles. +Por razones que no queremos mencionar, se retras. +Residuos txicos, supongo, es la pista clave para est. +As que construmos un edificio provisional -- cada vez se me da mejor lo provisional -- y dentro puse una sala de conferencias que es un pez. +Y, finalmente, Jay me arrastr a mi ciudad natal, Toronto, Canad. +Y hay una historia -- es una historia real -- sobre mi abuela que compr una carpa el jueves, la trajo a casa y la puso en la baera cuando yo era nio. +Por la tarde jugu con el. +Cuando me fui a dormir, al da siguiente ya no estaba all. +Y la noche siguiente comimos pescado estofado. +Y entonces prepar este interior para las oficinas de Jay e hice un pedestal para una escultura. +Y no compr una escultura, as que hice una. +Di una vuelta por Toronto y encontr una baera como la de mi abuela y puse el pez dentro. +Era una broma. +Juego con gente graciosa como Oldenburg. +Hemos sido amigos desde hace mucho tiempo. +Y hemos comenzado a trabajar en cosas. +Hace pocos aos hicimos una obra de teatro en Venecia, Italia, llamada "Il Corso del Coltello" -- la navaja suiza. +Y la mayora de la imgenes son -- de Claes, pero esos dos niitos son mis hijos y ellos eran los asistentes de Claes en la obra. +l era la navaja suiza. +l era un vendedor de souvenirs que siempre quiso ser pintor y yo era Frankie P. Toronto. +P de Palladio. +Disfrazado por Claes como el edificio de AT&T -- con un sombrero de pez. +Lo ms destacado de la funcin fue al final. +Este objeto hermoso, la navaja suiza, por la que tengo crdito por participar en ella. +Y puedo decirles -- es totalmente un Oldenburg. +No tuve nada que ver con ello. +Lo nico que hice fue, les hice posible girar esas hojas para que pudieran navegar esta cosa en el canal porque me encanta navegar. +Lo convertimos en una embarcacin de vela. +He sido conocido por jugar con cosas como la alambrada. +Lo hago porque es algo curioso en la cultura cuando las cosas se hacen en cantidades tan grandes absorbidas en cantidades tan grandes y hay tanto rechazo sobre ellas. +La gente lo odia. +Y yo estoy fascinado con eso que, como los muebles de papel -- es uno de esos materiales. +Y siempre me siento atrado por eso. +E hice muchas cosas sucias con alambradas. por las que nadie me perdonar. +Pero Claes las tuvo en cuenta en la universidad de derecho de Loyola. +Y esa alambrada es verdaderamente cara. +Est en perspectiva y todo. +Y luego juntos hicimos un campo para nios con cncer. +Y pueden ver, comenzamos haciendo un edificio juntos. +Por supuesto, la lata de leche es suya. +Pero intentbamos colisionar nuestras ideas para poner los objetos juntos. +Como un Morandi -- como las pequeas botellas que lo componen como una naturaleza muerta. +Y esto pareca funcionar como una manera de ponernos a l y a m juntos. +Y entonces Jay Chiat me pidi que hiciese este edificio en este terreno gracioso de Venice y comenc con esta cosa de tres piezas y uno entra en el medio. +Y Jay me preguntaba que iba a hacer con la pieza del medio. +Y l insisti con esto. +Y un da tuve un -- a, bueno, de la otra forma. +Tena los prismticos de Claes y los puse all y desde entonces ya no pude deshacerme de ellos. +Oldenburg hizo prismticos increbles cuando me envi la primera maqueta de la propuesta real. +Hizo que mi edificio pareciese increible. +Y fue esta interaccin entre esa especie de, subir la apuesta que se volvi bastante interesante. +Di al edificio de la izquierda. +Y todava pienso que la foto de la revista Time ser de los prismticos, ya saben, excluyendo el -- qu demonios. +Uso mucho metal en mi trabajo y me resulta difcil conectar con el oficio. +La idea general de mi casa lo del uso de carpintera rstica y todo era la frustracin con los materiales disponibles. +Y dije: "Si no consigo el material que quiero usar el que pueda conseguir". +Y hubo muchas maquetas para eso en Rauschenberg y Jasper Johns, y muchos artistas que hicieron arte y esculturas hermosas con trastos. +Me met en el metal porque era una forma de construir un edificio que era una escultura. +Y fue todo de un material y el metal poda ir en el techo as como en las paredes. +Y los metalistas generalmente hacen conductos detrs de techos y eso. +Tuva la oportunidad de disear una exhibicin para los sindicatos de metalistas de EE.UU. y Canad, en Washington, y lo hice con la condicin que fueran mis socios en el futuro y me ayudaran con los futuros edificios de metal, etc, etc. +Y est funcionando muy bien tener esta gente, estos artesanos, interesados en esto. +Slo cuento las historias. +Es una manera de conectar, al menos, con alguna de esa gente tan importante para la realizacin de la arquitectura. +El metal continu en el edificio -- Herman Miller, en Sacramento. +Y es slo un complejo de fbricas. +Y Herman Miller tiene esta filosofa de tener un lugar un lugar para personas. +Quiero decir, es algo bastante trillado decirlo pero es verdad que queran tener un lugar central donde estuviese la cafetera, al que pudiera venir la gente y en el que la gente trabajando pueda interactuar. +Est en medio de la nada y te aproximas. +Es cobre y galvanizado. +Y us el galvanizado y el cobre en una proporcin muy leve para que se doblara. +Pas mucho tiempo deshaciendo la esttica de Richard Meier. +Todos estan intentando hacer unos paneles perfectos y yo siempre trato de tenerlos descuidados y borrosos. +Y terminan pareciendo piedra. +Esta es el rea central. +Hay una rampa. +Y esa pequea cpula ah dentro es un edificio de Stanley Tigerman. +Stanley jug un papel decisivo en conseguirme este trabajo. +Y cuando fui premiado con el contrato, al principio, le pregunt al cliente si le permitiran a Stanley hacer un cameo conmigo. +Porque estas eran ideas de las que estabamos hablando construyendo cosas uno cerca del otro, haciendo -- todo va sobre una metfora de una ciudad, quiz. +Y entonces Stanley hizo la pequea cpula. +Y lo hicimos por telfono y fax. +l me enviaba un fax y me mostraba algo. +l haba hecho un edificio con una cpula y tena una pequea torre. +Le dije: "No, no, eso es demasiado ongepotchket. +No quiero la torre". +As que volvi con un edificio ms simple pero le puso algunos detalles graciosos y lo puso ms cerca de mi edificio. +Y as que decid ponerlo en una depresin. +Le puse en un hoyo e hice una especie de hoyo en el que l se sienta. +Y entonces l le puso dos puentes -- todo esto por fax, yendo y volviento durante un par de semanas. +Y l puso estos dos puentes con barandillas rosas. +Y yo le puse esta gran cartelera detrs. +Y yp lo llamo "David y Goliat" +Y esa es mi cafetera. +En Boston tenamos ese edificio viejo de la izquierda. +Era un edificio muy destacado al lado de la autopista y le aadimos un piso, y lo limpiamos y reparamos y usamos como -- pens -- el lenguaje del barrio que tena estas cornisas, cornisas proyectadas. +El mio se volvi un poco exuberante, pero us cobre de plomo, que es un material hermoso, y se pone verde en 100 aos. +En vez de 10 15 como el cobre. +Rehicimos el lado del edificio y reproporcionamos las ventanas para que pudiera caber dentro del espacio. +Y sorprendi a Boston y a m mismo que lo aprobaran porque tienen unas pautas muy estrictas y normalmente no pensaran que yo las cumpleria.. +Los detalles se hicieron muy cuidadosamente con el cobre de plomo y haciendo paneles y encajndolo apretadamente en la estructura del edificio existente. +En Barcelona, en La Rambla para algn festival de cine. Hice el letrero de Hollywood yendo y viniendo, hice un edificio de eso y ellos lo construyeron. +Entre volando una noche y tom esta foto. +Pero ellos lo hicieron un tercio ms pequeo que mi maqueta sin avisarme. +Y luego ms metal y algo de alambrado en Santa Monica -- un pequeo centro comercial. +Y este es un laboratorio de lser en la Universidad de Iowa en el que el pez volvi como una abstraccin en el fondo. +Son los laboratorios de soporte que, por alguna coincidencia, no tenan ventanas. +Y la forma cuadr perfectamente. +Yo solo junt los puntos. +En la parte curvada est el equipo mecnico. +Y esa pared slida de atrs es un canaln de soporte, as que era una oportunidad que aprovech porque no tena que tener ni conductos sobresaliendo ni rejillas de ventilacin ni niguna cosas as. +Me dio una oportunidad de hacer una escultura con eso. +Esta es una casita en algn lugar. +La han estado construyendo tanto tiempo que ya no recuerdo dnde est. +Est en el West Valley. +Comenzamos con el riachuelo y construimos la casa a lo largo del riachuelo -- contruimos una presa para hacer un lago. +Estas son las maquetas. +La realidad, con el lago -- la mano de obra es bastante mala. +Y me record por qu juego a la defensiva en cosas como mi casa. +Cuando tienes que hacer algo muy barato es difcil conseguir esquinas perfectas y tal. +Esa cosa grande de metal es un pasillo, y dentro est -- bajas las escaleras al saln y ms abajo al dormitorio, que est a la derecha. +Es ms o menos un pueblo entero construido. +Me pidieron que hiciera un hospital para adolescentes esquizofrnicos en Yale. +Y pens que estar haciendo eso era apropiado para m. +Esta es una casa al lado de una casa de Philip Johnson en Minnesota. +Los dueos tenan un dilema -- le pidieron a Philip que la hiciese. +El estaba muy ocupado. +Por cierto, l no me recomend. +Terminamos teniendo que convertirlo en escultura porque el dilema era: cmo construir un edificio que no parece el lenguaje? +Va a parecer que est hermosa finca est subdividida? +Etctera, etctera. +Tienen la idea. +Y entonces terminamos hacindolo. +Esta gente son coleccionistas de arte. +Y finalmente lo hicimos de modo que parezca muy escultural desde la casa principal, y todas las ventanas estn en el otro lado. +Y el edificio es muy escultural como se ve cuando uno lo recorre. +Est hecho de metal y lo marrn es Fin-Ply -- es esa madera formada de Finlandia. +La utilizamos en la capilla de Loyola, y no funcion. +Sigo intentando hacer que funcione. +En este caso aprendimos cmo trabajarla. +En Cleveland, est el centro comercial Burnham, a la izquierda. +Nunca se termin. +Saliendo al lago puedes ver todos esos nuevos edificios que hicimos. +Y tuvimos la oportunidad de construir un edificio en este solar. +Hay una va del ferrocarril. +Por aqu est el ayuntamiento y el juzgado. +Y la lnea central del centro comercial va hacia afuera. +Burnham haba diseado una estacin de trenes que nunca se construy as que nosotros seguimos. +Sohio est en el eje aqu nosotros seguimos el eje y son dos como travesaos. +Y este es nuestro edificio, que es una oficina central para una compaa de seguros. +Colaboramos con Oldenburg y le pusimos el peridico encima, doblado. +El centro de salud est sujetado al garage con una mordaza en forma de C, de Cleveland. +Conduces hacia abajo. +as que es una mordaza en C como de 10 pisos. +Y todo esto de abajo es un museo y una idea para una entrada de autos muy lujosa. +Este propietario tena una mana con las malas entradas de autos. +Y esto sera un hotel. +As, la lnea central de esto -- la preservaramos. y empezara a funcionar con la escala de los nuevos edificios de Pelli y Kohn Pederson Fox, etc., que estn en proceso. +Es difcil hacer eficios de muchos pisos. +Me siento mucho ms cmodo aqu abajo. +Esta es una propiedad en Brentwood. +Y hace mucho tiempo, cerca del '82 ms o menos, despus de mi casa -- dise una casa para m que sera una aldea de varios pabellones alrededor de un patio -- y la propietaria del terreno trabajaba para m y construy el modelo actual de la izquierda. +Y regres supongo que ms adinerada o algo as -- sucedi algo -- y me pidi que le diseara una casa para ella en este sitio. +Y siguiendo la idea bsica de la aldea, lo cambiamos a medida que nos metiamos en ello. +Y ya est, contrudo. +La cpula fue un pedido del cliente. +Quera una cpula en algn lugar de la casa. +No le importaba donde. +Cuando duermes en este dormitorio, espero -- Quiero decir, no he dormindo ah aun. +He ofrecido casarme con ella para poder dormir all pero me dijo que no tena que hacer eso. +Pero cuando ests en esa habitacin te sientes como si ests en una especie de barcaza como en un lago. +Y es muy privado. +Se est contruyendo un paisaje alrededor para crear un jardn privado. +Y luego arriba hay un jardn en este lado del saln y uno en el otro lado. +Estas no estn enfocadas muy bien. +No s cmo hacerlo desde aqu. +Enfocad el de la derecha. +Est ah arriba. +Izquierda -- es mi derecha. +Como sea, entras en un jardn con una hermosa arboleda. +Esa es la sala de estar. +Habitaciones de los sirvientes. +El cuarto para invitados, que tiene esta cpula con mrmol. +Y luego se entra en la sala de estar y as siguiendo. +Esto es el dormitorio. +Bajas de este nivel por la escalera y entras al dormitorio aqu, yendo hacia el lago. +Y la casa est atrs en este espacio con ventanas que dan al lago. +Estas rocas tipo Stonehenge se disearon para dar primer plano y crear una mayor profundidad en este terreno poco profundo. +El material es cobre plomizo, como en el edificio de Boston. +As que fue un intento de convertir este pequeo terreno -- tiene 100 por 250 -- en una especie de finca separando estas reas y haciendo la sala de estar y el comedor en este pabelln con mucho espacio. +Y se dio por casualidad que puse esto justo en eje con la mesa del comedor. +Parece que consegu un cuadro de Baldessari gratis . +Pero la idea es que las ventanas estn todas ubicadas de modo que se ven partes de la casa afuera. +Finalmente esto estar ocultado -- crecern los rboles -- y ser muy privado. +Y te sientes como si estuvieras en tu propia aldea. +Esto es para Michael Eisner -- Disney. +Estamos trabajando para l. +Esto es en Anaheim, California, y es un edificio de autopista. +Pasa por debajo de este puente a cerca de 100 km por hora y hay otro puente aqu. +Y atraviesas esta sala en una fraccin de segundo y el edificio en cierto modo reflejar eso. +En la parte de atrs es mucho ms humano -- entrada, comedor, etc. +Y luego esto aqu -- espero que cuando conduzcan por all oigan el efecto de las vallas cuando el sonido las golpea. +Algo divertido de hacer. +Estoy haciendo un edificio en Suiza, Basel, que es un edificio de oficinas para una empresa de muebles. +Y luchamos con la imagen. +Estos son los primeros estudios, pero tienen que vender muebles para gente comn, as que si haca el edificio y era demasiado extravagante la gente va a pensar: "Bueno, los muebles tienen buena pinta en esta cosa" pero no, no se va a ver as en mi edificio normal". +Entonces hicimos esta especie de bloque pragmtico en la segunda fase aqu, y hemos tomado las instalaciones de conferencias y con eso hicimos un conjunto de modo que el espacio comunal sea muy escultural y separado. +Y lo ves desde las oficinas y creas una especie de interaccin entre estas piezas. +Esto es en Pars, sobre el Sena. +Palais des Sports, la Gare de Lyon por aqu. +El ministro de finanzas -- ese tipo que se mudo del Louvre -- viene aqu. +Hay una nueva biblioteca al otro lado del ro. +y de vuelta aqu, en este parque ya arbolado estamos haciendo un edificio denso llamado el Centro Estadounidense que tiene un teatro, pisos, escuela de baile, un museo de arte, restaurantes y todo tipo de -- es un programa muy denso -- libreras, etc +En una muy apretada, pequea -- esta es la planta baja. +Y los franceses tienen esta manera extraordinaria de arruinar las cosas tomando un solar hermoso y cortndole la esquina. +Lo llaman el plan coupe. +Y yo luch con esa cosa -- cmo evitar la esquina. +Estas son las maquetas. +Les mostr la otra maqueta, la que -- esta es la manera en que me organic para poder hacer el dibujo -- entonces comprend el problema. +Estaba intentando evitar este plan coupe -- cmo hacerlo? +Pisos, etc. +Y estos son los estudios que hicimos. +El de la izquierda es bastante espantoso. +Ahora ven por qu estuve a punto de suicidarme cuando se construy. +Pero de esto surgi finalmente esta resolucin, donde el ascensor funcionaba frontalmente a esto, paralelo a esta calle y tambin paralelo a esto. +Y entonces este tipo de giro, con este balcn y la falda como una bailarina quitndose la falda para dejarme entrar al vestbulo. +Los restaurantes de aqu -- los pisos y el teatro, etc. +Entonces todo sera construdo en piedra, en piedra caliza francesa salvo esta pieza de metal. +Y esto da a un parque. +Y la idea era hacer que esto exprese esta energa. +En el lado que da a la calle es mucho ms normal salvo que baj un poco algunas mansardas, para que viniendo al punto, estas unidades de vivienda hicieran un gesto a la esquina. +Y esto ser una especie de cartelera de alta tecnologa. +Si alguno de ustedes tiene ideas para ello, por favor contctenme. +No s qu hacer. +Jay Chiat es un glotn del castigo y me contrat para hacer una casa para l en los Hamptons. +Y tiene un pez. +Y sigo pensando: "Este va a ser el ltimo pez". +Es como una adiccin. +Digo que no lo voy a hacer ms -- no quiero hacerlo ms -- No voy a hacerlo. +Y entoncess lo hago. +All est. +Pero es la sala de estar. +Y esta parte de aqu es -- No s qu es. +Simplemente la aad para tener suficiente dinero en el presupuesto para as poder quitar algo. +Esto es EuroDisney y he trabajado con toda esta gente que les present ms temprano. +Nos hemos divertido mucho trabajando juntos. +Creo que soy de Marte para ellos, y ellos para m, pero de algn modo nos las arreglamos para trabajar juntos y de manera productiva, pienso. +Hasta el momento. +Esto es un centro de compras. +Uno entra en el Reino Mgico y el hotel que est haciendo all el grupo de Tony Baxter -- +Y entonces esto es un tipo de centro comercial con un rodeo y restaurantes. +Y otro restaurante. +Lo que hice -- porque el cielo de Pars es bastante aburrido Hice una rejilla de luz perpendicular a la estacin de trenes a la ruta del tren. +Parece como que ha estado all y luego impactaron todas estas formas simples en ella. +La rejilla tendr una luz que se encender de noche y dar una especie de techo de luz. +En Suiza -- en realidad en Alemania -- sobre el Rin a travs de Basel, hicimos una fbrica y un museo de muebles. +E intent -- hay un edificio de Nick Grimshaw por aqu, hay una escultura de Oldenburg por aqu -- Intent establecer una relacin urbanstica. +Y no tengo buenas disposivas para mostrar -- acaba de completarse -- pero esta parte de aqu es este edificio y estas de aqu y aqu. +Y a medida que lo recorres siempre es -- ves como todas estas piezas se acumulan y forman parte de la totalidad de un barrio. +Es yeso y slo zinc. +Y uno se pregunta si esto es un museo cmo va a ser en el interior? +Si va a estar tan ocupado y loco que uno no mostrara nada y slo esperara. +Soy tan astuto e inteligente - lo hice tranquilo y maravilloso. +Pero en el exterior te grita un poco. +Bsicamente son tres habitaciones cuadradas con un par de claraboyas y tal. +Y desde el edificio de atrs se ve como un iceberg flotando entre las colinas. +S que he pasado mi tiempo. +Vean, esa claraboya baja y se convierte en esa. +As que dentro es bastante silencioso, +Esta es la sala Disney -- la sala de conciertos. +Es un proyecto complicado. +Cuenta con una sala de cmara. +Est relacionada con un pabelln Chandler existente que fue construido con mucho amor, lgrimas y cuidado. +Y no es un gran edificio, pero me aproxim a el con optimismo, que bamos a hacer una relacin de composicin entre nosotros que nos fortalecera a ambos. +Y el plano de esto -- es una sala de conciertos. +Este es el vestbulo, que es una especie de estructura de jardn. +Hay comercios en la planta baja. +Estas son oficinas que, realmente, en la competicin no tenamos que disear. +Pero finalmente hay un hotel all. +Estos eran la clase de relaciones hechas al Chandler componiendo estas elevaciones juntas y relacionarlas a los edificios existentes -- al MOCA, etc. +El experto en acstica de la competicin nos dio unos criterios que llevaron a este esquema compartimentado, el que nos enteramos despus de la competicin que no funcionara en absoluto. +Pero a todo el mundo le gustaron estas formas y el espacio, y ese es uno de los problemas de una competicin. +Uno tiene que intentar recuperar eso de alguna manera. +Y estudiamos muchos modelos. +Este fue nuestro modelo original. +Estos eran los tres edificios que eran el ideal -- el Concertgebouw, Boston y Berlin. +A todos les gustaron los alrededores. +En realidad, este es la sala ms pequea en tamao y tiene ms asientos que cualquiera de estas porque tiene balcones dobles. +Nuestro cliente no quiere balcones, entonces -- y cuando nos reunimos con el nuevo experto en acstica nos dijo esta es la forma correcta o es la forma correcta. +E intentamos muchas formas, intentando consequir la energa del diseo original dentro de un formato acstico aceptable. +Finalmente nos decidimos por una forma que era de la proporcin del Concertgebouw con las paredes exteriores inclinadas, que el experto dijo eran cruciales para esto y luego decidi que no lo eran, pero ahora las tenemos. +Y nuestra idea era hacer el conunto de asientos muy escultural hecho de madera y como un barco grande en esta sala de yeso. +Esa es la idea. +Y las esquinas tendran claraboyas y estas columnas seran estructurales. +Y lo bueno de introducir columnas es, te dan como una sensacin de proscenio desde dondequira que te sientes y crean intimidad. +Ahora, este no es un diseo final -- estos estn slo en camino a ser -- y por eso no los tomara literalmente salvo la sensacin del espacio. +Estudiamos la acstica con lsers y se rebotan rayos sobre esto y se ve donde todo funciona. +Pero sacas la sensacin de la sala en seccin. +La mayora de las salas entran directamente en el proscenio. +En este caso la estamos volviendo a abrir y poniendo claraboyas en las cuatro esquinas. +Y por eso tendr una forma muy diferente. +El edificio original por tener forma de rana encajaba bien en el sitio y se ajustaba bien. +Cuando te metes en una caja es ms difcil hacerlo -- y aqu estamos, forcejeando con la manera de poner el hotel dentro. +Y esta es una tetera que dise para Alessi. +Simplemente la puse all. +Pero esta es la manera en que trabajo. Tomo piezas y partes y las miro lucho con ellas y las recorto. +Y, por supuesto, no va a tener ese aspecto pero es la manera loca en que tiendo a trabajar. +Y, finalmente, en L.A. me pidieron que haiciese una escultura al pie de la Torre del Banco Interestatal, el edificio ms alto de L.A. +Larry Halprin est haciendo las escaleras. +Y me pidieron que hiciese un pez, as que hice una serpiente. +Es un espacio pblico y lo hice como una especie de estructura de jardn y uno puede entrar dentro. +Es una kiva y Larry est poniendo algo de agua all y funciona mucho mejor que un pez. +En Barcelona me pidieron que hiciese un pez y estamos trabajando en eso, al pie de la torre Ritz-Carlton siendo realizada por Skidmore, Owings y Merrill. +Y la torre Ritz-Carlton est siendo diseada con acero expuesto no es a prueba de incendio, muy parecida a los viejos tanques de gas. +As que tomamos el lenguaje de este acero expuesto y lo usamos lo pervertimos en forma de pez y creamos una especie de artilugio decimonnico que parece, que se sentar -- esta es la playa y el puerto en frente, y este es ralmente un centro comercial con grandes almacenes. +Y dividimos estos puentes. +Originalemente esto era todo slido con un hoyo. +Los separamos e hicimos varios puentes y creamos una especie de primer plano para este hotel. +Le mostramos esto a la gente del hotel el otro da y estaban horrorizados, dijeron que nadie vendra al Ritz-Carlton nunca ms por culpa de este pez. +Y finalmente, simplemente tir estos en -- Lou Danziger. +No esperaba que Lou Danziger estuviera aqu pero este es un edificio que hice para l en 1964, creo. +Un estudio pequeo -- tristemente est a la venta. +El tiempo sique. +Y este es mi hijo trabajando conmigo en un local de comida rpida. +l diseo el robot como cajero, y la cabeza se mueve, y yo hice el resto. +Y la comida no era tan buena como las cosas, as que fall. +Debera haber sido al revs -- la comida debera haber sido buena primero. +No funcion. +Muchas gracias. +Fue una sorpresa increble para m encontrar una organizacin que se preocupaba por las dos partes de mi vida. +Porque, bsicamente, yo trabajo como un fsico terico. +Desarrollo y evalo modelos sobre el Big Bang utilizando datos observables. +Adems, he estado ayudando los ltimos cinco aos en un proyecto en frica. +Por esto se hacen muchos comentarios sobre m en Cambridge. +La gente se pregunta: "Cmo tienes tiempo para hacer esto?" y los comentarios siguen. +Entonces, fue sencillamente sorprendente para m encontrar una organizacin que aprecie ambos lados de mis proyectos. +As que voy a empezar a contarles un poco acerca de mi mismo y la razn por la que llevo esta vida esquizofrnica. +Bueno, yo nac en Sudfrica y mis padres fueron puestos en prisin por resistirse al rgimen racista. +Cuando ellos fueron liberados, partimos y fuimos como refugiados a Kenia y Tanzania. +En aquellos tiempos, los dos pases eran jvenes y estaban llenos de esperanzas en el futuro +Tuvimos una infancia maravillosa. No tenamos dinero, pero la mayora del tiempo la pasbamos afuera. +Tuvimos amigos fantsticos y vimos las maravillas del mundo, como el Kilimanjaro, Serengeti y el Can de Olduvai. +Despus, nos mudamos a Londres para ingresar a la escuela superior. +Y despus de eso, no hay mucho que decir al respecto. +Fue ms bien aburrido. Pero regres a frica a la edad de 17 aos, como un profesor voluntario en Lesotho, un pas pequeito rodeado, en aquel tiempo, por el apartheid de Sudfrica. +Bueno, el ochenta por ciento de hombres en Lesotho trabajaba en las minas cerca de las fronteras en condiciones brutales. +Sin embargo, yo -- estoy seguro -- en vez de ser recibido como aquel hombre blanco, joven e irritante que llegaba a su pueblo; fui recibido con una calidez y hospitalidad increbles. +Pero los nios eran la mejor parte. +Los nios eran increbles: extremadamente inquietos y muy brillantes. +Y les voy a contar slo una historia que me ocurri. +Yo sola sacar a los nios afuera tanto como fuera posible. para tratar de conectar las cosas acadmicas con el mundo real. +y ellos no estaban acostumbrados a eso. +Pero un da, los saqu afuera y les dije: "Quiero que calculen la altura de ese edificio" +Y yo esperaba que ellos pusieran un metro a lado de la pared para medir y calcular la altura del edificio. +Pero haba un nio pequeo, muy pequeo para su edad. +El era el hijo de una de las familias ms pobres del pueblo. +y el no estaba haciendo eso. El estaba anotando con una tiza en el pavimento. +Y entonces, dije --yo estaba enojado-- Dije: Qu ests haciendo? +Quiero que calcules la altura del edificio" +El dijo: "Est bien. Med la altura de un ladrillo. +Cont el nmero de ladrillos y ahora los estoy multiplicando" +Bueno -- --No haba pensando en esa. +Y muchas experiencias como stas me ocurrieron. +Una ms, en la cual conoc a un minero. El estaba en casa, con su licencia de tres meses de las minas. +Un da, sentado al lado de l, me dijo: "Hay solo una cosa que realmente me gust en la escuela" +y sabes cul fue? Shakespeare." y me recit un poco. +Estas y muchas otras experiencias similares me convencieron que hay millones de nios realmente brillantes en frica. -- nios inventores, nios intelectuales-- y privados de oportunidades. +Y si frica va a ser arreglada, es por ellos, no por nosotros. +Bueno, despus ---- esa es la verdad. +Bueno, despus de Lesotho, viaj alrededor de frica antes de regresar a Inglaterra tan gris y depresiva en comparacin. +Y fui a Cambridge. All, me interesaron las teoras fsicas. +Bueno, no voy a explicar esta ecuacin pero la fsica terica es realmente una asignatura increble. +Podemos escribir todas las leyes de la fsica que sabemos en una sola lnea +y, la verdad es que es una pequea anotacin a mano. +Y contiene 18 parmetros libres. Bueno, la cual tenemos que ajustar a los datos. +Entonces no es la historia final pero es un increble y poderoso resumen de todo lo que sabemos acerca de la naturaleza en su nivel ms bsico. +Y aparte de algunas importantes cosas pendientes, los cuales ustedes ya habrn odo aqu -- como la energa negra y la materia negra esta ecuacin describe parece describir todo acerca del universo y lo que existe en l. +Pero hay un gran rompecabezas pendiente, y esto me lo explic de manera muy clara mi maestra de matemtica de la escuela primaria en Tanzania, quien es una dama escocesa maravillosa con la que an estoy en contacto. +y quien est ahora en sus ochenta aos. +Y cuando trato de explicarle mi trabajo, ella siempre deja de lado todos los detalles y me dice: Neil, hay una sola pregunta que realmente importa +Qu explot? Todo el mundo habla acerca de la Gran Explosin. Qu fue lo que explot? +Y ella tiene razn. Es una pregunta que todos hemos estado evitando. +La explicacin habitual es que el universo, de alguna forma empez su existencia, lleno de una clase extraa de energa -- energa inflacionaria -- la cual explot. +Pero el rompecabezas del por qu el universo emergi en tan peculiar estado est completamente sin resolver. +Yo trabaj en esa teora por un tiempo, con Stephen Hawking y otras personas. +Pero luego empec a explorar otra alternativa. +La alternativa es que el Big Bang no fue el principio. +Tal vez el universo existi antes de la explosin, y la explosin fue solo un evento violento en un universo que ya pre-exista. +Bueno, esta posibilidad es en realidad sugerida por las teoras ms recientes, las teoras unificadas que tratan de explicar todos aquellos 18 parmetros libres en una sola frmula, la cual, esperamos, podra predecir todos ellos. +Y aqu solo compartir un dibujo para esta idea. +Es todo lo que puedo transmitir. De acuerdo con estas teoras, hay dimensiones extras en el espacio, no slo las tres con las que estamos familiarizados sino que en cada punto en la habitacin, hay muchas ms dimensiones +y en particular, hay una mas bien extraa, en la ms elegantes de las teoras unificadas que tenemos. +La dimensin extraa se ve as: que vivimos en un mundo tridimensional. +Vivimos en uno de estos mundos, y slo puedo mostrarlo como una hoja de papel pero es realmente tridimensional +Y a una pequesima distancia, hay otra hoja de papel tambin tridimensional, y estn separadas por un vaco. +El vaco es muy pequeo, y lo he ampliado para que puedan verlo. +Pero en realidad es una pequea fraccin del ncleo de un tomo. +No voy a entrar en detalles del por qu pensamos que el universo es as pero llegan las matemticas y tratamos de explicar la fsica que sabemos. +Bueno, me interes en esto porque me pareci que era una pregunta obvia. +La cual es Qu ourrira si estos dos mundos tridimensionales realmente se chocaran? +Y si se chocaran, podra parecerse mucho al Big Bang. +Pero es ligeramente diferente que la imagen convencional. +La foto convencional del Big Bang es un punto +Todo sale de un punto tienes una densidad infinita. Y todas las ecuaciones se quiebran. +No hay forma de describir aquello. +En esta foto, lo podrn notar. la explosin se extiende. No es un punto. +La densidad de la materia es finita, y tenemos una oportunidad de un conjunto consistente de ecuaciones que pueden describir el proceso completamente. +Entonces acortando una larga historia, hemos explorado esta alternativa. +Hemos demostrado que pueden encajar todos los datos que tenemos acerca de la formacin de las galaxias, las fluctuaciones en un fondo de microondas. +Adems, hay una forma experimental para contar esta teora, aparte de la explicacin inflacionaria que les coment antes. +sta implica ondas gravitacionales. +Y en este escenario, el Big Bang no slo no fue el principio como pueden ver en la foto, sino que puede ocurrir una y otra vez. +Puede ser que vivamos en un universo sin fin tanto en espacio como en tiempo. +Y han ocurrido explosiones en el pasado y habrn explosiones en el futuro. +Y tal vez vivamos en un universo sin fin. +Bueno, haciendo y probando los modelos del universo es, para m, la mejor forma que tengo de disfrutar y apreciar el universo. +Necesitamos hacer el mejor modelo matemtico que podemos el ms consistente. +Y luego analizarlo lgicamente y con los datos +Y tratamos de convencernos a nosotros mismos-- realmente tratamos de convencernos a nosotros mismos que ellos estn equivocados. +Eso es progreso: cuando probamos que las cosas estn equivocadas. +Y gradualmente, esperamos acercarnos ms y ms para entender el mundo. +Mientras segua mi carrera, dentro mo haba algo que siempre me preocupaba. +Qu hay acerca de frica? +Qu hay acerca de los nios que dej detrs? +En vez de desarrollo, como todos esperamos en los aos 60. las cosas han empeorado. +Africa se llen de pobreza, enfermedades y guerras. +La pgina web Worldmapper y su proyecto nos muestra muy grficamente +La idea es representar a cada pas en un mapa, midiendo el rea de acuerdo a alguna cantidad. +Aqu est el rea standard del mapa del mundo. +Por cierto, frica es muy grande. +Y el siguiente mapa nos muestra el Producto Bruto Interno en 1960. en el tiempo de la independencia de muchos Estados Africanos. +Ahora, esto es 1990 y luego 2002. Y aqu hay una proyeccin par el ao 2015. +Grandes cambios estn ocurriendo en el mundo, pero no estn ayudando a frica. +Qu hay acerca de la poblacin de frica? La poblacin no est fuera de proporcin para su rea pero frica lidera al mundo en muertes por causas que se pueden evitar: desnutricin, simples infecciones y complicaciones en el parto. +Luego, est el HIV/SIDA. Y luego hay muertes por la guerra. +Bueno, actualmente 45.000 personas mueren por mes en el Congo, como consecuencia de la guerra por cobalto, diamantes y otras cosas. +Y an est ocurriendo. +Qu hay acerca de la capacidad de frica para hacer algo por estos problemas? +Bueno, aqu est el nmero de fsicos en frica. +Aqu est el nmero de personas en educacin superior. +Y aqu, -- lo mas impresionante para mi -- el nmero de investigaciones cientficas que proceden de frica. +Simplemente no existe cientficamente. +Y esto fue muy elocuentemente debatido en TED frica: que toda la ayuda que se ha dado ha fallado completamente en levantar frica. +Bueno, la transicin a la democracia en Sudfrica en 1994 fue literalmente un sueo hecho realidad para muchos de nosotros. +Mis padres fueron los dos elegidos para el primer parlamento, junto a Nelson y Winnie Mandela. Ellos fueron la otra nica pareja. +Y en el 2001, tom una licencia en mi investigacin para visitarlos +Y mientras estaba ocupado trabajando, yo estaba trabajando en estos mundos que pueden chocar. +Y aprend que haba una apremiante escasez de habilidades, especialmente matemticas, en la industria, en el gobierno, en la educacin. +La habilidad para hacer y probar modelos se ha vuelto esencial, no slo en cada rea de la ciencia de hoy en da, sino tambin para la sociedad moderna en s misma. +Y si no tienes matemticas, no vas a poder entrar en la era moderna. +Entonces, tuve una idea. Y la idea era muy simple. +La idea fue establecer un Instituto Africano para las Ciencias Matemticas o AIMS +y reclutar estudiantes de toda frica, reunirlos con profesores de todo el mundo, y tratar de darles una educacin fantstica. +Bueno, como profesor de Cambridge, yo tena muchos contactos. +Y para mi sorpresa, todos me apoyaron un 100%. +Me dijeron: "Ve y hazlo, y nosotros iremos y daremos clases +Y yo saba que sera asombroso traer estudiantes brillantes de estos pases, donde ellos no tienen oportunidades, y reunirlos con los mejores profesores del mundo. quienes yo saba que vendran, por su inters en Africa. Y juntarlos y dejar las cosas surgir. +As que compramos un hotel abandonado cerca de Ciudad del Cabo. +Es un hotel, estilo Art Dec, de los aos 1920s, con 80 habitaciones. +La zona era un poco pobre, as que compramos un hotel de 80 habitaciones por 100.000 dlares. +Es un hermoso edificio, as que decidimos restaurarlo. y luego hacer conocer nuestra idea: vamos a empezar el mejor instituto de matemticas de frica en este hotel. +Bueno, la nueva Sudfrica es un pas muy sorprendente. +Y para todos aquellos que no hayan estado all, pues deberan ir. +Es muy, muy interesante lo que est ocurriendo all. +Y reclutamos un personal maravilloso, un staff muy motivado. +Otra cosa que ocurri, que fue muy buena para nosotros, es Internet. +Aunque Internet es muy caro en toda frica hay ciber-cafs en todos lados. +Y jvenes africanos brillantes estn desesperados por unirse a la comunidad global, para ser exitosos -- y ellos son muy ambiciosos. +Ellos quieren ser el prximo Einstein. +As que cuando se dio a conocer que el AIMS iba a abrir, el mensaje se difundi rpidamente a travs de e-mails y nuestra pgina web. +Y tuvimos muchos postulantes. +Entonces, diseamos el AIMS como un ambiente de aprendizaje de 24 horas y fue fantstico empezar una universidad desde el principio. +Tu tienes que re-pensar, para qu es la universidad? +Y eso es muy emocionante. +Entonces diseamos un aprendizaje interactivo. +No slo escribir en el pizarrn. +Nosotros pusimos nfasis en resolver problemas, en trabajar en grupos, cada estudiante descubre y maximiza su propio potencial, sin buscar calificaciones. +Todos viven juntos en este hotel, profesores y estudiantes y no es para nada sorprendente, encontrarlos en un improvisado seminario a la una de la maana. +Por lo general, hasta las 2 o 3 de la maana, los estudiantes no dejan el laboratorio de computadoras. +Y luego estn despiertos nuevamente a las ocho de la maana. +Clases, resolucin de problemas, etc. Es un lugar extraordinario. +De manera especial enfatizamos en las reas de gran relevancia para el desarrollo de frica porque en aquellas reas, los cientficos trabajando en frica van a tener una ventaja competitiva. +Van a publicar, ser invitados para conferencias. +Ellos lo harn bien, van a tener carreras exitosas. +Y el AIMS ha funcionado extremadamente bien. +Aqu hay una lista de los graduados del ao pasado, graduados en Junio, y lo que, actualmente, 48 de ellos estn haciendo. +y el lugar donde ellos estn, se indica aqu. +Y los lugares donde fueron. Todos son estudiantes de post-grados. +Y todos han ido a excelentes lugares para hacer sus maestras y doctorados. +Cinco estudiantes pueden ser educados en el AIMS por el costo de educar una sola persona en Estados Unidos o Europa. +Pero mucho ms importante que eso, es el cuerpo de estudiantes pan-Africano es una continua fuente de esfuerzo, orgullo y compromiso para frica. +Para graficar el progreso del AIMS, coloreamos los pases de frica. +Entonces, detrs de esta lista pueden ver. +Cuando un pas es amarillo, nosotros recibimos una postulacin naranja: hemos aceptado una postulacin y verde: un estudiante se ha graduado. +Aqu es donde estuvimos despus de la primera graduacin en el 2004. +Y nos pusimos como meta convertir en verde al continente. +Entonces ah est el 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008. +Estamos bien en la direccin para alcanzar nuestra meta inicial. +Nosotros filmamos algunos estudiantes en sus casas antes de que asistan al AIMS. +Y aqu les muestro uno. +Tendai Mugwagwa: Mi nombre es Tendai Mugwagwa. +Tengo una licenciatura en Ciencia con un grado en Educacin. +Estar asistiendo al AIMS. +Entiendo que el curso cubre bastante. +Desde fsica hasta medicina, en particular, epidemiologa y tambin modelos matemticos. +Neil Turok: Entonces Tendai vino al AIMS y lo hizo muy bien. +Y la dejar que retome desde ah. +TM: Mi nombre es Tendai Mugwagwa y fui una estudiante del AIMS en el 2003 y 2004. +Despus de terminar en el AIMS, fui a realizar un Master en Matemticas Aplicadas en la universidad de Ciudad del Cabo, en Sudfrica. +Despus, vine a Holanda donde estoy realizando mi Doctorado en Inmunologa Terica. +Profesor: Tendai est trabajando de manera muy independiente. +Ella se comunica muy bien con los inmunlogos del hospital +en resumen, tengo una muy buena estudiante de doctorado de Sudfrica. +As que estoy contento de que ella est aqu. +NT: Otro estudiante en el primer ao del AIMS, fue Shehu. +y aqu est con su profesor favorito del Colegio . +y luego entrando a la Universidad, en el Norte de Nigeria. +Y despus del AIMS, Shehu quera estudiar alta energa fsica y vino a Cambridge. +El est por terminar su Doctorado. y hace poco, fue filmado con alguien que todos ustedes conocen. +Shehu: y desde all vamos a poder esperamos, hacer mejores predicciones y luego compararlas con los grficos y tambin hacer algunas predicciones. +Stephen Hawking: Eso es muy bueno. +NT: Aqu estn los actuales estudiantes del AIMS. Hay 53 de 20 pases diferentes, incluyendo 20 mujeres. +Entonces ahora si voy a hablar acerca de TED. +Bueno, tuvimos una fiesta. Esto es frica -- tenemos buenas fiestas en frica. Y el mes pasado, hicieron una fiesta sorpresa para mi. +Aqu hay alguien que ya vieron. +Quiero sealar en esta foto a otras personas excepcionales. +Entonces, tuvimos una fiesta, como pueden ver, en este punto, ellos ya me eclipsan completamente. +Esta es Ezra. Ella es de Darfur. +Ella es Fsica y de alguna manera an sonre a pesar de todo lo que est ocurriendo en su hogar. +Pero ella quiere continuar en fsica y lo est haciendo extremadamente bien. +Ella es Lydia. Lydia es la primera mujer en graduarse en matemticas en la Repblica Central Africana. +Y ella est ahora en el AIMS. Entonces ahora permtanme hablar sobre mi deseo en TED. +Bueno, no es mi deseo TED, es nuestro deseo, pues todos estamos reunidos. +Y nuestro deseo tiene dos partes: uno es un sueo y el otro es un plan. +Nuestro sueo TED es que el prximo Einstein sea africano. Luchando por lo ms alto del genio creativo, queremos darles a millones de personas, la motivacin el estmulo y el coraje para obtener el alto nivel de habilidades que se necesitan para ayudar a frica. +Entre ellos, no slo habr cientficos brillantes -- Estoy seguro de eso por lo que hemos visto en el AIMS -- Ellos tambin sern los Gates, Brings y Pages africanos del futuro. +Bueno, ije que tambin tenemos un plan. Y nuestro plan es muy simple. +El AIMS es ahora un modelo probado. +Y lo que necesitamos hacer es repetirlo. +En los prximos cinco aos, queremos extender 15 centros AIMS por toda frica. +Cada uno tendr un cuerpo de estudiantes pan-Africano, pero especializado en un rea de ciencia diferente. +Queremos utilizar la ciencia para superar las barreras nacionales y culturales como se hace en el AIMS. +Y queremos aadir elementos a los curriculums. +Queremos aadir habilidades polticas y de iniciativa empresarial. +El AIMS expandido ser una coherente institucin pan-Africana, y sus graduados formarn una poderosa red, trabajando juntos por la paz y el progreso alrededor del continente. +Durante el ltimo ao, hemos estado visitando lugares en frica, mirando posibles lugares para nuevos centros AIMS. +Y aqu estn los que hemos seleccionado. +Y cada uno de estos centros tiene un fuerte equipo local, cada uno est en lugares hermosos, en lugares interesantes, los cuales, los profesores internacionales, estarn felices de visitar. +Y nuestros socios alrededor de frica estn sumamente entusiasmados con esto. +Todos quieren un centro AIMS en sus pases. +Y en noviembre pasado, la conferencia de todos los ministros africanos de ciencia y tecnologa, que se realiz en Mombasa, pidieron un plan integral para extender el AIMS. +Entonces tenemos apoyo poltico alrededor del continente. +No va a ser fcil. +En cada lugar habr grandes desafos. +Los cientficos locales deben jugar un rol de liderazgo y los gobiernos deben ser persuadidos para involucrarse. +Las condiciones son muy difciles pero no podemos permitirnos comprometer aquellos principios que hicieron que AIMS funcione. +Y los resumimos de esta forma: los institutos deben ser relevantes, innovadores rentables y de gran calidad. Por qu? +Porque queremos que frica sea rica. +Es fcil recordar las reglas bsicas que necesitamos. +Slo para terminar, djenme decir que las nicas personas que pueden ayudar a frica son los talentosos jvenes africanos. +Facilitando y cultivando su potencial creativo, podemos crear un cambio significativo en el futuro de frica. +A travs del tiempo, ellos contribuirn al desarrollo africano y de la ciencia en formas que solo podemos imaginar. +Gracias. +Muchas gracias a todo el mundo en TED, especialmente a Chris y a Amy. +No me puedo creer que est aqu. +No he dormido en semanas. +All por el ao 2000, viva en Brooklyn. Estaba intentando terminar mi primer libro. Caminaba atontado todos los das porque me dedicaba a escribir de 12 a 5 de la madrugada. +Por ello caminaba como aturdido durante el da. +No tena la agudeza mental para hablar durante el da, pero tena un horario flexible. +En el barrio de Brooklyn donde viva, Park Slope, haba muchos escritores -- un nmero enorme de escritores en comparacin con la cantidad de gente normal. +Adems, yo haba crecido rodeado de muchos profesores. +Mi madre era profesora. Mi hermana se hizo profesora y muchos de mis amigos se hicieron profesores despus de sus estudios universitarios. +As que siempre les estaba eschuchando hablar sobre sus vidas y lo mucho que inspiraban, y que realmente eran el grupo ms trabajador y constantemente inspirador que yo conoca. +Pero saba muchas de las cosas contra las que estaban, muchas de las luchas a las que tenan que enfrentarse. +Y una de ellas era que muchos de mis amigos que trabajaban en colegios urbanos tenan problemas para que sus alumnos se mantuvieran en el nivel requerido sobre todo en sus competencias lectora y escritora. +Bien, muchos de estos estudiantes venan de hogares donde no se hablaba ingls muchos de ellos con necesidades especiales diferentes y dificultades para el aprendizaje. Y por supuesto estaban trabajando en colegios que a veces y muy a menudo no tenan el presupuesto suficiente. +Y me hablaban de ello y decan "Sabes? Lo que realmente necesitamos es simplemente ms gente, ms personas, ms atencin individualizada, ms horas, ms experiencia de gente que sepan ingls y que puedan trabajar con estos alumnos de forma individualizada". +Bien, yo les deca: "Por qu no trabajan ustedes con ellos individualmente?" +Y ellos respondan: "Bueno, tenemos cinco clases de 30 a 40 estudiantes cada una. +Esto supone 150, 180, 200 estudiantes por da. +Cmo podemos dar a cada alumno ni siquiera una hora a la semana de atencin individualizada?" +Tendras que multiplicar la semana laboral y clonar a los profesores. +Y empezamos a hablar de esto. +Y al mismo tiempo, Pens en un grupo enorme de gente que yo conoca: escritores, editores, periodistas, estudiantes graduados, profesores, de todo. +Todos ellos tenan un horario flexible durante el da e inters en el ingls -- Yo creo tener inters en el ingls, pero no lo estoy hablando muy bien ahora mismo. Lo intento. Me puede el reloj. +Pero todo el mundo que conoca estaba interesado en la importancia de la palabra escrita para cultivar una democracia y una vida culta. +Y tenan, saben?, tiempo e inters, pero al mismo tiempo no haba, que yo supiera, una va de comunicacin en mi comunidad que pudiera juntar a estas dos comunidades. +As que cuando me mud de vuelta a San Francisco, alquilamos este edificio. +Y la idea era poner all McSweeneys -- McSweeney's Quarterly, la revista que publicbamos dos o tres veces al ao. y algunas otras revistas -- bamos a mudarnos a una oficina por primera vez. +La oficina sola ser mi cocina en Brooklyn. +bamos a mudarnos a una oficina, e bamos a compartir el espacio con un centro de tutoras. +La idea era que nosotros trabajaramos en lo que estuviramos trabajando, y a las 2.30 los estudiantes entraran y dejaras de hacer lo que estuvieras haciendo. o lo cambiaras o lo haras un poco ms tarde o lo que fuera. +Daras esas horas por las tardes a los estudiantes del barrio. +Bien, tenamos este sitio, lo alquilamos. el dueo estaba a favor de la idea. Tenamos este mural, es un mural de Chris Ware que bsicamente explica toda la historia de la palabra impresa, en forma de mural -- lleva un montn de tiempo para asimilarlo y tienes que pararte en medio de la calle. +As que alquilamos este espacio. +Y todo iba bien excepto cuando el dueo dijo: "Bien, este espacio es zona comercial, s que tienen que inventarse algo. +Tienen que vender algo. +No pueden tener simplemente un centro de tutoras". +Y pensamos: "Je, je. De verdad? +Y no se nos ocurri nada que vender, pero investigamos lo necesario. +El edificio haba sido una sala de pesas, as que haba suelos de goma, techos de azulejos aislantes, luces fluorescentes. +Quitamos todo y encontramos unos hermosos suelos de madera, vigas encaladas y pareca -- mientras que renovbamos este sitio alguien dijo: "Sabes?, parece el casco de un barco". +Y miramos a nuestro alrededor y alguien ms dijo: "Bueno, deberan vender suministros para bucaneros en activo." Y eso es lo que hicimos. Y a todo el mundo le caus risa, y dijimos: "Eso es lo que precisamente queremos. +Vendamos artculos para piratas". Ser una tienda para piratas. +Ven esto? Es una especie de bosquejo que hice en una servilleta. +Un carpintero construy todo esto y, ven, hicimos que se viera como un lugar para piratas. +Aqu ven tablones que se venden por metros y aqu hay artculos para combatir el escorbuto. +y aqu tenemos las patas de palo, hechas a medida para ustedes. +arriba ven la coleccin de parches con la columna negra para los parches de uso diario su parche diario, y los de colores pastel y otros tonos para salir por la noche -- ocasiones especiales, bar mitzvahs o lo que sea. +As que abrimos este sitio. Y esto es una cuba que llenamos con tesoros para que los estudiantes los revolvieran +estos son ojos de respuesto, por si pierden uno; +y estos son algunos letreros que tenemos por todas partes: "Bromas prcticas con piratas". +Mientras que lees el letrero, tiramos de una cuerda detrs del mostrador y ocho fregonas te caen en la cabeza. +Esta fue mi contribucin -- Dije que quera que le cayera algo a la gente en la cabeza. +Y fueron fregonas. Y este es el teatro para peces, que es un recipiente de agua salada con tres asientos. y justo detrs de todo esto, organizamos este espacio que era el centro para tutoras. +Ah est el centro de tutoras, y detrs las oficinas de McSweeney, donde todos nosotros trabajaramos en la revista y editando libros y cosas de esas. +Los muchachos entraran -- o pensbamos que entraran. Debera volver atrs. +Dispusimos todo, abrimos el lugar, y pasamos meses y meses renovando este lugar. +Tenamos mesas, sillas, ordenadores, todo. +Fui a una subasta de una dot-com en un Holiday Inn en Palo Alto y compr 11 G4 sin mayor problema. +Bueno, los compramos, lo instalamos todo y esperamos. +Comenc con 12 amigos mos, gente que haba conocido por aos que eran escritores del barrio. +Y nos sentamos. A las 2.30 ponamos un tabln fuera en la acera que deca: "Clases particulares para tus necesidades con el ingls y con la composicin -- Entra. Es gratis". +Y pensamos: "Van a abalanzarse, y les va a encantar". Pero no pas as. +Y esperamos, nos sentamos en las mesas, esperamos. +Y todos nos estbamos desilusionando porque habamos esperado durante semanas, y realmente no haba entrado nadie. +Y de repente alguien nos llam la atencin sobre el hecho de que a lo mejor haba una falta de confianza proque estbamos trabajando en una tienda de artculos para piratas. Nunca nos habamos dado cuenta, saben? +y que se convirtiera en nuestra directora ejecutiva. +Inmediatamente, hizo avances con los profesores y los padres y los estudiantes y con todo. y de repente tenamos lleno todos los das. +Y lo que estbamamos intentando ofrecer todos los das era atencin individualizada. +La meta era tener un proprocin uno a uno con cada uno de esos estudiantes. +Saben? Est comprobado que con 35 a 40 horas de atencin individualizada por ao los estudiantes pueden alcanzar el nivel de un curso superior. +Y as muchos de estos estudiantes, que no hablan ingls en sus hogares. +Vienen, muchas veces con sus padres -- no pueden verlo, pero justo aqu tenemos un banco de iglesia que compr en una subasta en Berkely -- los padres a veces observan mientras que sus hijos reciben la clase particular. +Esa era la base de todo, la atencin individualizada. +Y nos encontramos entonces llenos de muchachos todos los das. +Si se encuentran en la calle Valencia o cerca de ella alrededor de las 2 de la tarde, o 2.30, a menudo sern atropellados por estos muchachos y sus mochilones, o lo que sea, en su carrera hacia este espacio. Lo que es muy extrao ya que en cierto sentido es una escuela. +Pero estaba sucediendo algo psicolgico aqu, algo que era un poco diferente. +Y el otro aspecto era que no haba estigmas. +Los muchachos no iban al "Centro para chicos que necesitan ms ayuda" o lo que fuera. Era 826 Valencia. +En primer lugar, era una tienda de artculos para piratas, algo que es una locura. +Y luego haba una editorial en la parte trasera. +Y por eso, muy a mendudo, nuestros estudiantes en prcticas trabajaban en las mismas mesas, codo con codo, en ordenadores contiguos, al lado de los estudiantes. +Y as se convirti en un centro de tutoras -- un centro editorial, como lo llambamos -- y un centro de escritura. +Entran y pueden estar trabajando con un alumno de secundaria que est haciendo una novela -- porque tambin hemos tenido estudiantes de gran talento. +No hay estigmas. +Trabajan codo a codo. Es un ambiente creativo. +Estn viendo a adultos. Estn modelando su comportamiento. +Estos adultos trabajan en su campo. +Pueden dirigirse a uno de estos adultos, plantearles preguntas y todo se nutre mutuamente. +Hay mucha interpolinizacin. El nico problema, especialmente para los adultos que trabajan en McSweeney, que no haban previsto esto necesariamente cuando se apuntaron a hacerlo, fue que slo haba un cuarto de bao. Con alrededor de 60 muchachos por da, es un problema. +Pero, saben? hay algo especial en esto de que los muchachos terminen su tarea en un da determinado, teniendo toda su atencin -- se van a casa, han terminado. No se andan con rodeos, +no hacen sus tareas delante del televisor. +Se pueden ir a casa a las 5.30, disfrutar de su familia, sus pasatiempos, ir fuera, jugar. +Y eso es lo que hace una familia feliz. +Y un montn de familias felices en un barrio forma una comunidad feliz. +Un montn de comunidades felices juntas es una ciudad feliz y un mundo feliz. +As que la clave de todo son los deberes escolares! Aqu lo tienen, saben?, la atencin individualizada. +As que empezamos con unos 12 voluntarios, y ms tarde llegamos a tener alrededor de 50. Y despus varios cientos. +Y ahora tenemos unos 1400 voluntarios en nuestra lista. +Y ponemos todas las facilidades para los voluntarios. +Lo fundamental es que, aunque slo tengas unas horas al mes, esas dos horas de trabajo codo a codo, junto a un estudiante, con la atencin concentrada, con esta luz brillando sobre su trabajo, sus pensamientos y su propia forma de expresarse, van a ser totalmente transformadoras porque muchos de estos estudiantes nunca han tendido nada igual. +Entonces dijimos: "Aunque slo tengas dos horas un domingo cada seis meses, no importa. Va a ser suficiente". +En parte por esto nuestro elenco de tutores aument tan rpidamente. +Entonces dijimos: "Bien, qu vamos a hacer con todo este espacio durante el da, porque ha de usarse antes de las 2.30?" +As que empezamos a traer clases durante el da. +De esta forma, cada da, haba una excursin en la que creaban un libro; ah pueden ver cmo lo escriben. +Esta es una clase tremendamente animada sobre el proceso de escribir. +Slo tienes que poner una cmara en una clase, y siempre va a verse lo mismo. +Bien, este es un de los libros que hacen. +Noten el ttulo del libro, "El libro que nunca se tom prestado: Titanic". +Y la primera lnea del libro dice: "rase una vez un libro llamado Cindy que trataba sobre el Titanic". +Bien, mientras, hay un adulto detrs pasando esto al ordenador, tomndoselo completamente en serio, lo cual los asombra. +Bien, tenamos ms tutores a nuestra disposicin. +Aqu se muestra a algunos de los tutores durante uno de estos eventos. +Los profesores con los que trabajamos -- y todo es diferente para los profesores -- nos dicen qu hacer. +Fuimos pensando: "Somos al fin y al cabo completamente maleables. Ustedes nos tienen que decir. +Los padres nos van a decir. +Los profesores nos van a decir cmo podemos ser de mayor ayuda". +Y entonces dijeron: "Por qu no vienen a los colegios? +Porque qu pasa con los estudiantes que no van a su centro de tutoras, que no tienen padres activos que los lleven all, o que no viven lo suficientemente cerca?" Y as empezamos diciendo: "Bien, tenemos 1200 personas en nuestra lista de tutores. +Simplemente corramos la voz". Un profesor dir: "Necesito 12 tutores para los cinco prximos domingos. +Estamos trabajando en los ensayos para entrar en la universidad. Envenoslos". +Y lo haramos saber: 1400 tutores. +Quien pueda, que se apunte. Van una media hora antes de la clase. +El profesor les dice qu hacer, cmo hacerlo, qu han aprendido, cmo va el proyecto hasta el momento. +Ellos trabajan guiados por le profesor, y todo en una gran sala. +Y esto es realmente lo peor de lo que hacemos, la gente yendo directamente desde su trabajo, desde su casa, directamente a la clase y trabajando directamente con los estudiantes. +As somos capaces de trabajar con miles y miles de estudiantes ms. +Entonces otro colegio dijo: "Bien, qu tal si les damos un aula y ponen a sus tutores all todo el da?" +Bien, esta es la sala de escritores de Everett Middle School, que decoramos al estilo bucanero. +Est al lado de la biblioteca. Y atendemos a los 529 nios de esa escuela. +Este es su peridico, el "Straight-Up News". que tiene una columna regular del alcalde Gavin Newsom en dos lenguas: ingls y espaol. +Bien, un da nos escribi Isabel Allende y nos dijo: "Por qu no asignan un libro a alumnos de secundaria? +Quiero que escriban sobre cmo conseguir la paz en un mundo violento". +Y entonces fuimos a la escuela secundaria Thurgood Marshall, que es una escuela con la que habamos trabajado en otros proyectos, y les dimos la tarea a los estudiantes. +Y les dijimos: "Isabel Allende va a leer todos sus ensayos al final. +Y los va a publicar en un libro. +Va a financiar la publicacin de una edicin de bolsillo de este libro. +Va a distribuirse en las libreras de la Baha y en Amazon y todo eso". +Y entonces estos chicos trabajaron ms que nunca en sus vidas porque haba una audiencia externa, estaba Isabel Allende al otro lado. +Creo que tuvimos unos 170 tutores trabajando en este libro con ellos y sali increblemente bien. +Tuvimos una fiesta enorme al final. +Este es un libro que pueden encontrar en cualquier sitio. Y esto fue el principio. +Amy Tan esponsoriz el siguiente. "Podra llegar a cualquier lugar". +Y esto se convirti en algo normal. Ms y ms libros. +Ahora somos adictos a esto del libro. +Y una vez que alcanzan ese nivel, una vez que han escrito a ese nivel, no van a volver nunca atrs. +Es absolutamente transformador. +Y todos se venden en la tienda. Esto es al lado de los tablones. +Vendemos todos los libros de los estudiantes. +En que otro lugar los pondran, verdad? +As que los vendemos y entonces algo raro ha estado sucediendo con las tiendas. La tienda, de hecho -- si bien empezamos como una broma -- la tienda de hecho daba dinero. +Con ello pagbamos el alquiler. +Y quiz esto sea algo slo de San Francisco -- no s, no quiero juzgar. +Pero la gente entraba -- y esto era antes de las pelculas de piratas y todo eso! +Y se haca dinero. No mucho dinero. pero lo suficiente para pagar el alquiler y un empleado a tiempo completo. +Hay mapas del ocano que pueden ver a la izquierda. +Se convirti en una puerta hacia la comunidad. +La gente entraba y deca: "Qu ---? +Qu es esto? No quiero decir palabrotas en la web. Es una regla? No lo s. +Y decan: "Qu es esto?" +Y la gente entraba y averiguaba ms sobre ello. +Y justo detrs -- normalmente hay una cadena alli -- justo detrs, podan ver a los muchachos en sus clases particulares. +Esta es una excursin. Y ellos comprando. y entonces era ms fcil que compraran manteca de cerdo, o mijo para su loro o un garfio. o un protector nocturno para garfios, todas esas cosas que vendemos. +La tienda entonces iba realmente bien. +Pero atrajo a mucha gente: profesores, benefactores, voluntarios, todo el mundo. Porque estaba en el piso bajo. Estaba abierta al pblico. +No era una ONG enterrada, saben?, en el piso 30 de un edificio en el centro. Estaba justo en el barrio al que estaba sirviendo, y estaba abierta al pblico siempre. +As, sucedi esta especie de accidente raro y dichoso. +De forma que todo el mundo que conoca en Brooklyn dijeron: "Bien, por qu no tenemos un sitio as aqu?" +y muchos de ellos haban sido educadores antes o habran querido serlo, y se unieron a diseadores y escritores locales, y tomaron la idea de forma independiente e hicieron su propio proyecto. +No queran vender artculos para piratas; +pensaron que eso no iba a funcionar all. +Entonces, sabiendo de la comunidad anti-crimen de Nueva York, abrieron la Compaa de artculos para superhroes de Brooklyn. +Con un diseo maravilloso de Sam Pott. +Y lo hicieron de forma que pareciera una de esas ferreteras que tienen que tener todo aquello que han vendido en alguna ocasin, saben?, por todas partes. +As que abrieron este lugar. Dentro es como un Costco (almacn al mayor) para superhroes -- todos los artculos en su forma bsica. +Todos estn hechos a mano +Todos son productos pensados para otros fines, o lo que sea. +Todo el embalaje lo hace Sam Potts. +As aqu tienen la unidad de contencin para villanos, donde los nios ponen a sus padres. La oficina. +En esta camarita usted pone su producto, que sube mediante un ascensor elctrico y el tipo que est detrs del mostrador te dice que tienes que recitar el voto de herosmo, si quieres comprar algo. Y esto limita realmente sus ventas. +Personalmente, creo que es un problema. +Ya que lo tienen que hacer con la mano sobre el corazn y todo eso. +Aqu ven algunos productos. Todos estn hechos a mano. +Esto es un kit de identidad secreta. +Si quieres adoptar la identidad de Sharon Boone, una ejecutiva de mercadotecnia americana de Hoboken en Nueva Jersey. Es un dosier completo con todo lo que necesitaras saber sobre Sharon Boone. +Y esta es la "capera" donde se le ajusta su capa, y luego sube estos tres empinados escalones y encendemos tres ventiladores hidrulicos desde cada lado y puede ver su capa en accin. +No hay nada peor, saben?, que estar all arriba y la capa se pliegue o algo por el estilo. +Y luego, la puerta secreta -- es uno de los estantes que no se ve cuando se entra pero se abre lentamente. +Lo pueden ver en el centro, al lado de los ganchos. +Se abre y el centro de tutoras est en detrs. Pueden ver el efecto completo! +Pero todo esto es -- solo quiero enfatizarlo -- financiado y construido de forma local. +Todos los diseadores y constructores fueron de la zona, y todo se hizo de forma altruista. +Yo fui una vez y les dije: "Chicos, lo estn haciendo fabulosamente", o algo as. Y eso fue todo. Pueden ver la hora de los cinco distritos de Nueva York en la parte trasera. Este es el espacio durante las horas de tutoras. +Siempre hay mucho trajn. Los mismos principios: atencin individualizada, devocin completa al trabajo del estudiante y un optimisto ilimitado y una posibilidad para la creatividad y las ideas. +este interruptor est accionado en sus cabezas cuando caminan por los 18 pies de esta estrambtica tienda, verdad? +Es colegio pero no es colegio. +Claramente no es colegio, aunque trabajen codo con codo en las mesas, lpices, papeles, lo que sea. +Este es uno de los alumnos, Khaled Hamdan. +Pueden leer su cita. +Adcito a los vdeojuegos y la televisin. No se poda concentrar en casa. +Lleg aqu. Se le dio esta atencin concentrada. +Y no pudo escapar. +As que muy pronto, estaba escribiendo. Terminaba su tarea pronto -- se hizo adicto a terminar su tarea. +Es algo adictivo terminar la tarea que te la revisen y saber que va a alcanzar la siguiente etapa y estar preparado para el colegio al da siguiente. +As que si hizo adicto a ello y empez a hacer otras cosas. +Ya ha publicado en cinco libros. +Colabor como autor en un documental de broma sobre superhroes fracasados llamado "Super-Han-Sidos". +Escribi una serie sobre "El pingino Balboa", que es un pinguino luchador -- boxeador. +Y luego ley sus libros just hace unas semanas ante 500 personas en Symphony Space, una gala benfico para 826 New York. Y est all todos los das. +Es como el evangelio para l. Trae a sus primos. +Hay cuatro miembros de la familia que vienen todos los das. +Bien, voy rpido. +Esto es Los Angeles. El Echo Park Time Travel Mart. "Donde ests, nosotros ya hemos estado". Como un 7-11 para viajeros del tiempo. +Ven todo: es exactamente como un 7-11. +Sabandijas. Trozos de mamut. Incluso tienen su propia mquina de ? "Fuera de servicio. Regrese ayer". En fin. Voy a seguir adelante. +Estos son espacios que estn simplemente afiliados con nosostros, haciendo lo mismo: Word St. en Pittsfield, Massachusetts. Ink Spot en Cincinnati. Youth Speaks en San Francisco, California, que nos inspir a nosotros. Studio St. Louis en St. Louis. Austin Bat Cave en Austin. Fighting Words en Dubln, Irlanda, iniciativa de Roddy Doyle; este abrir en abril. +Y ahora voy con mi deseo TED - puedo? +Grandes saltos hacia delante! +Y pueden ser cosas que quiz ya estn haciendo. +S que muchas personas en esta sala estn haciendo ya cosas realmente interesantes. +Lo s a ciencia cierta. As que, cuntennos esas historias e inspiren a otros desde el sitio web. +Hemos creado un sitio web. +Voy a cambiar a "nosotros" y no "yo" espero: Esperamos que los asistentes a esta conferencia marquen el comienzo de una nueva era de participacin en nuestras escuelas pblicas. +Esperamos que tomen la delantera en esta iniciativa asociando su espritu innovador y su experiencia con el de los educadores innovadores en su comunidad. +Dejen siempre que los profesores marquen la ruta. +Ellos les dirn cmo pueden serles de ayuda. Espero que intervengan y ayuden. +Hay millones de formas. +Pueden ir a su escuela local y consultar con los profesores. Ellos siempre les dirn cmo ayudar. +As -- este es el caso del Hot Studio en San Francisco, que hicieron este trabajo tan fenomenal. +Este sitio web tiene ya una serie de historias, muchas ideas. Se llama "Haba una vez una escuela" que es un nombre estupendo, creo. +En este sitio se documentar todo proyecto que salga de esta conferencia y por todo elmundo. Aqu tienen el sitio web; ven cuntas ideas. Pueden inspirarse al leerlas; despus aadan sus propios proyectos una vez que los hayan empezado. +Hot Studio hizo un trabajo fantstico en un plazo muy ajustado de tiempo. Visiten el sitio. +Si tienen preguntas, pueden preguntar a este seor, que es nuestro director de programas nacionales. Contestar su llamada. +Si le mandan un email, contestar cualquier pregunta que tengan. +Y les dar inspiracin y ayudar a seguir adelante y les guiar por el proceso de forma que puedan ser agentes del cambio. +Y se divertirn! De esto trata esta charla -- no tiene que ser algo estril. No tiene que ser algo burocrticamente insostenible. +Pueden hacer y usar las destrezas que tengan. +Las escuelas los necesitan. Los profesores los necesitan. +Los estudiantes y sus padres los necesitan. Los necesitan a ustedes: a su persona fsica y a sus mentes abiertas y sus odos abiertos y su compasin ilimitada, sentados junto a ellos, escuchando y asintiendo y planteando preguntas por horas. +Algunos de estos chicos simplemente no saben lo buenos que son: lo inteligentes y lo mucho que tienen que decir. +Ustedes pueden decrselo. Pueden hacer brillar esa luz sobre ellos, con una interaccin humana cada vez. Esperamos que se unan a nosotros. +Muchsimas gracias +Es todo un honor. Es maravilloso estar en presencia de una organizacin que de verdad marca una diferencia en el mundo. +Estoy muy agradecida por la oportunidad de dirigirme a vosotros hoy. +Tambin estoy bastante sorprendida, porque, si echo la vista atrs, lo ltimo que yo quera era escribir sobre la religin o relacionarme de alguna forma con ella. +Tras dejar el convento, termin con la religin, la verdad. +Pensaba que aquello era todo. +Durante 13 aos me mantuve al margen. Quera ser catedrtica de Literatura inglesa. +De pronto, tampoco deseaba especialmente ser escritora. +Pero entonces sufr una serie de catstrofes profesionales, una detrs de otra, y, al final, me encontr en la televisin. Se lo comentaba a Bill Moyers y me dijo: "Es que aceptamos a cualquiera". Sala en programas religiosos bastante controvertidos. +Funcion bastante bien en Reino Unido, donde la religin es muy impopular. +As, por primera vez en la vida, por fin formaba parte de la corriente principal. +Pero me enviaron a Jerusaln a hacer una pelcula sobre el primer cristianismo. +All, por primera vez, me top con las dems tradiciones religiosas: el judasmo y el islamismo, religiones hermanas del cristianismo. +Me di cuenta de que no saba nada en absoluto sobre estas creencias, a pesar de mi intenso pasado religioso. Sola ver el judasmo como una especie de preludio del cristianismo y no saba nada de nada acerca del islamismo. +Pero en esa ciudad torturada, donde las tres creencias luchan entre s, tambin te das cuenta de la profunda conexin que existe entre ellas. +Fue el estudio de otras tradiciones religiosas lo que me devolvi el sentido de lo que puede ser la religin, y me permiti observar mi propia fe desde otro punto de vista. +Descubr cosas asombrosas durante mi estudio que nunca se me haban ocurrido. La verdad, cuando crea haber acabado con la religin, todo eso me pareca totalmente increble. +Aquellas doctrinas me parecan indemostrables, abstractas, +y, para mi sorpresa, cuando empec a estudiar otras tradiciones en serio, me empec a dar cuenta de que la creencia, que tanto nos preocupa hoy, es un entusiasmo religioso muy reciente que no apareci en occidente hasta alrededor del siglo XVII. +"Creer" originalmente sola significar amar, valorar, tener en gran estima. +En el siglo XVII se redujo su alcance por razones que estoy investigando para el libro que escribo ahora, y pas a significar un ascenso intelectual a una serie de proposiciones: un credo. +"Creo" no significaba "acepto determinados credos de fe". +Significaba: "Me entrego. Me comprometo". +De hecho, algunas tradiciones mundiales piensan muy poco en la ortodoxia religiosa. +En el Corn, la opinin religiosa, la ortodoxia religiosa, se desechaba como "zanna": conjeturas excesivas sobre asuntos de los que nadie poda estar seguro pero que hacen a la gente beligerante y estpidamente sectaria. Entonces, si la religin no se basa en creer cosas, en qu consiste? +He descubierto que, en general, la religin consiste en actuar de otra forma. +En lugar de decidir si se cree o no en Dios, primero hay que hacer algo. +Se acta de forma comprometida y luego se empiezan a comprender las verdades de la religin. +Las doctrinas religiosas pretenden ser llamamientos a la accin; slo las comprendes al ponerlas en prctica. +En fin, en esta prctica, la compasin ocupa un lugar de honor. +Segn Buda, es la compasin lo que conduce al Nirvana. +Por qu? Porque con la compasin, al sentir al prjimo, nos quitamos del centro de nuestro mundo y colocamos all a otra persona. Una vez nos hayamos librado del ego, estaremos listos para ver lo divino. +Concretamente, todas las principales tradiciones del mundo han recalcado y han colocado en el centro de su tradicin la llamada regla de oro, +pronunciada por primera vez por Confucio cinco siglos antes de Cristo: "Lo que no desees para ti mismo, no se lo hagas a otros". +Aquello era el hilo conductor que rega toda su enseanza y lo que sus discpulos deberan poner en prctica en todo momento. +Esa regla de oro les llevara al valor trascendental que denominaba "ren", bondad humana, que era una experiencia trascendente en s. +Tambin es absolutamente crucial para las religiones monotestas. +Existe una conocida historia sobre el rabino Hilel, "el viejo", coetneo de Jess. +Un pagano se ofreci a convertirse al judasmo si el rabino era capaz de recitar todas las enseanzas judas a la pata coja. +Hilel se puso a la para coja y dijo: "Lo que te sea odioso, no lo hagas a tu vecino. sta es toda la Tor. El resto es todo comentario. +Estdiatelo". Era lo que quera decir con "Estdiatelo". +Dijo: "En tu exgesis, debes dejar claro que todos los versos de la Tor son un comentario, una glosa de la regla de oro". +El rabino Meir afirm que las interpretaciones de las escrituras que condujeran al odio, desdn o desprecio de otros, de cualquier persona, son ilegtimas. +San Agustn planteaba exactamente lo mismo: +segn l, las escrituras "slo ensean caridad y no debemos dejar una interpretacin de una escritura hasta que hayamos encontrado una compasiva". +Esta bsqueda de la compasin en algunos de estos repugnantes textos es un buen ensayo general para hacerlo en la vida real. Ahora echemos un vistazo a nuestro mundo. Vivimos en un mundo en que se ha secuestrado la religin, los terroristas citan el Corn para justificar atrocidades, +donde, en lugar de tomar las palabras de Jess: "Ama a tus enemigos. +No juzgues a los dems", vemos que los Cristianos juzgan a otras personas sin cesar, y se sirven de las escrituras para discutir con otros, para dejarles mal. A lo largo de los siglos, la religin se ha usado para oprimir a los dems. Esto se debe al ego y a la avaricia del hombre. +Como especie, tenemos el don de estropear las cosas maravillosas. +El Corn dice que hemos sido formados en tribus y naciones para conocernos entre nosotros. +De nuevo, esta asistencia universal se ve relegada por el uso estridente de la religin, el abuso de la religin, por viles beneficios. +Ya he perdido la cuenta del nmero de taxistas que, cuando digo a qu me dedico, me informan de que la religin ha sido la causa de las principales guerras de la historia. Error. +La causa de nuestros males actuales es poltica. +Pero no nos equivoquemos: la religin es una discrepancia y, cuando el conflicto se arraiga en una regin, la religin se puede ver arrastrada y convertirse en parte del problema. Nuestra modernidad ha sido excesivamente violenta, +Entre 1914 y 1945, 70 millones murieron slo en Europa a causa del conflicto armado. +Muchas de nuestras instituciones, incluso el ftbol, que sola ser un agradable pasatiempo, ahora causan disturbios en los que incluso muere gente. +No sorprende que tambin la religin se haya visto afectada por este espritu violento. +Tambin opino que existe mucho analfabetismo religioso. +Parece que ahora se equipara la fe religiosa con creer en cosas. +Se llama creyentes a las personas religiosas, como si creer fuese lo nico que hacen. Muy a menudo, los objetivos secundarios pasan a un primer plano, en lugar de la compasin y la regla de oro. +Porque la regla de oro es complicada. A veces, cuando hablo a las congregaciones sobre la compasin, veo una expresin de rebelda en sus rostros porque mucha gente religiosa prefiere tener razn a tener compasin. Pero eso no es todo. +Desde el 11 de septiembre, cuando mi trabajo sobre el islam de pronto me empuj a la vida pblica como jams habra imaginado, he podido viajar alrededor del mundo y ver, en todos los sitios, un ansia de cambio. +Acabo de volver de Paquistn donde literalmente miles de personas acudieron a mis ponencias, en primer lugar, porque ansiaban or una voz occidental cordial. +Sobre todo vino gente joven y me preguntaban... Los jvenes me preguntaban: "Qu podemos hacer para cambiar las cosas?" +Y mis anfitriones en Paquistn dijeron: "No seas demasiado educada con nosotros. +Dinos en qu nos equivocamos. Hablemos sobre dnde falla la religin". +Porque me da la impresin de que nuestra situacin actual es tan grave ahora mismo, que las ideologas que no promueven un entendimiento global y una apreciacin global entre nosotros suspenden la prueba del tiempo. +Y la religin, con gran seguimiento aqu, en Estados Unidos... La gente puede ser religiosa de forma distinta, como ha demostrado un informe, pero sigue queriendo ser religiosa. Slo Europa occidental ha mantenido su secularismo, que ahora empieza a parecer algo anticuado. +Pero la gente quiere ser religiosa y la religin debera convertirse en un motor de la armona en el mundo, lo cual puede y debe ser, gracias a la regla de oro: +"Lo que no desees para ti mismo, no se lo hagas a otros", un espritu que debera aplicarse a nivel global. +No deberamos tratar a otras naciones como no nos gusta ser tratados. +Esto, sin importar nuestras malditas creencias, es un asunto religioso, espiritual. +Es un asunto moral profundo que nos atae y debera ataernos a todos. +Como deca, hay hambre de cambio ah fuera. +Aqu, en Estados Unidos, puede comprobarse en la campaa electoral el deseo de cambio. +La gente de las iglesias y mezquitas de todo el continente, despus del 11 de septiembre, se rene localmente para crear redes de entendimiento. +Las mezquitas, las sinagogas dicen: "Debemos empezar a hablar entre nosotros". +Ha llegado el momento de traspasar la idea de tolerancia y pasar a la apreciacin mutua. +Me gustara comentar una historia. +Viene de "La Ilada", pero transmite lo que debera ser esta espiritualidad. +Ya conocis la historia de "La Ilada ", la guerra de 10 aos entre Grecia y Troya. +Una noche, Pramo, rey de Troya, un anciano, entra de incgnito al campamento griego y va hacia la tienda de Aquiles a pedir el cuerpo de su hijo. +Todos se asombran cuando el anciano se quita el sombrero y se muestra. +Aquiles le mira y piensa en su padre. Comienza a llorar. +Pramo contempla al hombre que ha asesinado a muchos de sus hijos y el tambin empieza a llorar, y el sonido de su llanto invade el lugar. +Los griegos pensaban que llorar en compaa creaba vnculos entre la gente. +Aquiles entonces toma el cuerpo de Hctor y se lo entrega con ternura a su padre y los dos hombres se miran, y se ven como divinos. +Esos valores se encuentran en todas las religiones. +Se trata de superar el terror que sentimos cuando estamos amenazados por nuestros enemigos y comenzar a apreciar al prjimo. +Es muy importante que "sagrado" en hebreo, aplicado a Dios, sea "kadosh", separado, otro. +Quiz a menudo lo ajeno de nuestros enemigos es lo que puede darnos indicios de esa trascendencia totalmente misteriosa que es Dios. +Ahora, he aqu mi deseo: deseo que me ayudis en la creacin, lanzamiento y difusin de una Carta de la compasin, elaborada por un grupo de pensadores inspiradores de las tres tradiciones abrahmicas: judasmo, cristianismo e islam, basada en el principio fundamental de la regla de oro. +Necesitamos crear un movimiento entre todas las personas que conozco en mis viajes, y tal vez conozcis tambin, que quieran unirse, y, en cierto modo, recuperar su fe, que sienten, como deca, secuestrada. +Necesitamos dar la capacidad a esas personas de recordar su espritu compasivo y darles directrices. Esta Carta no sera un documento masivo. +Me gustara verlo como unas directrices sobre cmo interpretar las escrituras, estos textos de los que se abusa. Recordad lo que los rabinos y San Agustn decan sobre que las escrituras deberan regirse por el principio de la caridad. +Volvamos a ello y a la idea, tambin, de que judos, cristianos y musulmanes, tradiciones a menudo en desacuerdo, trabajen juntos para crear un documento que esperamos firmen al menos mil de los principales lderes religiosos de todas las tradiciones del mundo. +Vosotros sois esas personas. Yo slo soy una estudiosa solitaria. +Tambin trabajara con la Alianza de Civilizaciones de la ONU. +Form parte de la esa iniciativa de la ONU llamada Alianza de Civilizaciones, a la que Kofi Annan solicit diagnosticar las causas el extremismo, y otorgar directrices prcticas a los estados miembros para evitar que siguiese en aumento. +La Alianza me ha comunicado que estara dispuesta a trabajar con ella. +Buenos das. +Miremos por un instante a uno de los ms grandes conos de todos, Leonardo da Vinci. +Todos estamos familiarizados con su fantstico trabajo, sus dibujos, sus pinturas, sus inventos, sus escritos. +Pero no conocemos su rostro. +Miles de libros se han escrito acerca de l, pero sigue vigente la controversia acerca de cmo se vea. +Incluso este bien conocido retrato no es aceptado por muchos historiadores del arte. +Qu opinan? +Es esta la cara de Leonardo da Vinci o no? +Vamos a descubrirlo. +Leonardo fue un hombre que dibujaba todo a su alrededor. +Dibujaba personas, anatoma, plantas, animales, paisajes, edificios, agua, de todo. +Pero no caras? +Me cuesta trabajo creer que no. +Sus contemporneos dibujaban rostros, como los que ven aqu. De frente o de tres cuartos. +As que seguramente un dibujante apasionado como Leonardo debi haber hecho autoretratos de vez de cuando +Entonces tratemos de encontrarlos. +Pienso que si hacemos un recorrido de todo su trabajo y buscamos autoretratos, encontraremos su rostro mirndonos. +As fue que mir en todos sus dibujos, ms de 700, y busqu los retratos de hombres. +Que son cerca de 120 y los ven aqu. +Cules de estos pueden ser autoretratos? +Bueno, para ello se deben hacer justo como los vimos, de frente o de tres cuartos. +As que podemos eliminar todos los perfiles. +Tambin debe tener suficiente detalle. +As que podemos eliminar aquellos que sean vagos o muy estilizados. +Adems sabemos de sus contemporneos que Leonardo era muy bien parecido, un hombre bello. +Entonces podemos eliminar los feos o los caricaturescos. +Y veamos qu pasa, nos quedan nicamente tres candidatos que cumplen los criterios. +Y son estos. +En efecto, el hombre viejo est aqu, como el famoso dibujo a lpiz del Homo Vitruvius +y por ltimo el ltimo retrato de un hombre que pint Leonardo, "El Msico". +Antes de profundizar con estos rostros, debo explicar el porqu tengo derecho de hablar sobre ellos. +He hecho ms de 1100 retratos yo mismo para peridicos por el curso de 30030 aos, perdn, 30 aos nicamente. +Y son 1100 y muy pocos artistas han dibujado tantas caras. +As que s un poco sobre dibujar y analizar caras. +Bien, ahora veamos estos tres retratos. +Y agrrense de sus asientos, porque si nos adentramos a estos rostros, observen que tiene la misma frente amplia, cejas horizontales, la nariz larga, los labios curvos y un bien desarrollado pequeo mentn +No poda creer lo que mis ojos vean la primera vez. +No hay razn por la que estos retratos se deban parecer. +Todo lo que hicimos fue buscar retratos que tuvieran las caractersticas de un autorretrato, y miren, son muy similares. +Ahora fueron hechos en el orden correcto? +El hombre joven debe venir primero +Y como ven aqu en los aos en que fueron creados en efecto este es el caso. +Fueron realizados en el orden correcto. +Qu edad tena Leonardo en ese entonces? Concuerda? +S concuerda. Tena 33, 38 y 63 aos cuando fueron realizados. +Por tanto tenemos tres pinturas que potencialmente son de la misma persona de la misma edad que tena Leonardo en ese tiempo. +Pero cmo sabemos que es l y no alguien ms? +Bien, necesitamos una referencia +Y aqu tenemos la nica pintura de Leonardo que es ampliamente aceptada. +Es la estatua hecha por Verocchio, de David, para la que Leonardo pos cuando joven a los 15. +Y si ahora comparamos el rostro de la estatua con el del msico, vemos que otra vez tienen las mismas caractersticas. +La estatua es la referencia y conecta la identidad de Leonardo con estos tres rostros. +Damas y caballeros, esta historia todava no ha sido publicada. +Valga decir que ustedes aqu en TED son los primeros en verla y escucharla +El cono de conos finalmente tiene un rostro. +Aqu esta l: Leonardo da Vinci. +Hola. Les voy a pedir que levanten sus brazos y me saluden, justo como yo lo estoy haciendo, como un saludo real. +Pueden imitar lo que ven. +Pueden programar los cientos de msculos en su brazo. +Pronto, podrn ver dentro de sus cerebros y programar, controlar los cientos de reas en el cerebro que ven aqu. +Les voy a platicar acerca de esta tecnologa. +Siempre se ha querido ver hacia dentro del cerebro humano, desde hace miles de aos. +Bueno, justo ahora de los laboratorios surge la posibilidad de hacer eso para nuestra generacin. +La gente percibe esto como algo muy complicado. +Tenas que tomar una nave espacial, encogerla e inyectarla en el torrente sanguineo. +Era bastante peligroso. Podras ser atacado por clulas blancas en las arterias. +Pero ahora, tenemos la tecnologa para hacer esto. +Vamos a volar hacia dentro del cerebro de mi colega Peter. +Vamos a hacer esto de manera no invasiva usando IRM. +No necesitamos inyectar nada. No necesitamos radiacin. +Podremos volar dentro de la anatoma del cerebro de Peter -- de hecho volar hacia dentro de su cuerpo -- pero lo que es ms importante, podemos ver dentro de su mente. +Cuando Peter mueve su brazo, ese punto amarillo que ven ah es la interfaz hacia lo que sucede en el funcionamiento de la mente de Peter. +Han visto antes como con electrodos podemos controlar brazos robticos, y que imgenes cerebrales y escners pueden mostrar el interior de los cerebros. +Lo que es novedoso es que ese proceso que tpicamente tomaba das o meses de anlisis, +la hemos colapsado en milisegundos mediante el uso de tecnologa y eso nos permite que Peter vea su cerebro en tiempo real mientras est dentro del escner. +l puede observar estos 65 mil puntos de actividad por segundo. +Si puede ver este patrn en su propio cerebro, puede aprender a controlarlo. +Han habido tres formas para tratar de impactar en el cerebro: el silln de un terapista, las pastillas y el bistur. +Esta es una cuarta alternativa que pronto tendrn disponible. +Todos sabemos que al formar pensamientos se crean canales profundos en nuestras mentes y cerebros. +El dolor crnico es un ejemplo. Si te quemas, retiras tu mano. +Pero si todava sientes dolor en seis meses o en seis aos, es porque estos circuitos estn produciendo dolor que te sigue molestando. +Si pudiramos ver la actividad en el cerebro que produce este dolor, podramos formar modelos en 3D y observar en tiempo real al cerebro procesar la informacin, entonces podramos seleccionar las reas que producen el dolor. +Ahora coloquen sus brazos hacia arriba y flexionen su bcep. +Ahora imagnense que pronto podrn ver adentro de sus cerebros y seleccionar reas en el cerebro y hacer lo mismo. +Lo que ven aqu, hemos seleccionado los caminos en el cerebro de un paciente con dolor crnico. +Esto puede impactarlos, pero estamos cabalmente leyendo el cerebro de esta persona en tiempo real. +Estn viendo su propia actividad cerebral, y estn controlando los canales que producen su dolor. +Estn aprendiendo a flexionar este sistema que libera sus propios opiceos endgenos. +Mientras que lo hacen, en la parte superior izquierda est una pantalla que est ajustada a su propia acitividad cerebral y a su propio dolor que estn controlando. +Cuando controlan a su cerebro pueden controlar su dolor. +Esta es una tecnologa en investigacin, pero en pruebas clnicas vemos de 44 a 64% de reduccin en los pacientes con dolor crnico. +Esto no es la pelcula "The Matrix". Slo te puedes hacer esto a ti mismo. T tomas el control. +Yo he visto adentro de mi cerebro. Ustedes tambin lo harn, pronto. +Cuando lo hagan qu querrn controlar? +Podrn ver todos los aspectos que los hacen ser ustedes mismos, todas sus experiencias. +Estas son algunas de las reas en las que estamos trabajando de las que no tengo tiempo para detallar. +Pero les dejar con la gran pregunta. +Somos la primera generacin que podr entrar, usando esta tecnologa, al cerebro y la mente humana. +A dnde la llevaremos? +Estoy contento de estar aqu. +Me siento honrado por la invitacin, gracias. +Me encantara hablar acerca de las cosas que me interesan, pero me temo que lo que a m me interesa no es del inters de las dems personas. +Primero que nada, mi credencial dice que soy astrnomo. +Me encantara hablar de la astronoma, pero sospecho que el nmero de personas interesadas en transferencia radioactiva en atmsferas no-grises y la polarizacin de la luz en la atmsfera superior de Jpiter equivale al nmero de personas que caben en la marquesina de un autobs. +As que no voy a hablar de eso. +Igual de divertido es hablar de cosas que pasaron en 1986 y 1987, cuando un pirata informtico penetr los sistemas de los Laboratorios en Lawrence Berkeley. +Y agarr a los tipos, que resultaron estar trabajando para la entonces KGB sovitica, robaban informacin para venderla. +Y me encantara hablar de eso -- y es divertido -- pero 20 aos despus... +francamente la seguridad informtica es como aburrida. +Es tediosa. +Yo... La primera vez que haces algo es ciencia. +La segunda vez, es ingeniera. +La tercera vez, no eres ms que un tcnico. +Yo soy cientfico. Una vez que hago algo, entonces hago algo diferente. +As que no voy a hablar de eso. +Tampoco voy a hablar de lo que pienso son afirmaciones obvias de mi primer libro, "Silicon Snake Oil" de mi segundo libro, tampoco voy a hablar de eso, porque creo que las computadoras no pertenecen en las escuelas. +Siento que hay una idea extendida y bizarra rondando que debemos llevar ms computadoras en las escuelas. +Mi idea es: No! No! +Squenlas de las escuelas y mantngalas lejos de las escuelas. +Y me encantara hablar de esto, pero pienso que el argumento es obvio para quien haya pasado por un saln de cuarto grado, que no es necesario hablar mucho al respecto, pero adivino que puedo estar equivocado en eso y todo lo dems que voy a decir. +As que no se les ocurra leer mi tesis. +Es probable que adems encuentren mentiras. +Dicho eso, mi pltica la esboz hace cinco minutos. +Y si miran aqu, lo ms importante que escrib en mi pulgar fue el futuro. +Se supone que voy a hablar acerca del futuro correcto? +Correcto. Y mi sentir es que pedirme que hable del futuro es bizarro, porque tengo canas, y entonces es como tonto para m hablar del futuro. +De hecho, pienso que si en realidad quieren saber cmo va a ser el futuro, si realmente quieren saber sobre el futuro, no le pregunten a un tecnlogo, a un cientfico o a un fsico. +No! No le pregunten a quien escriba cdigo. +No, si quieren saber cmo va a ser la sociedad en 20 aos, pregunten a un maestro de jardn de nios. +Ellos saben. +De hecho, no pregunten a cualquier maestro de jardn de nios, pregntenle a uno con experiencia. +Ellos son quienes saben cmo ser la sociedad en otra generacin. +Yo no. Y sospecho que tampoco muchas otras personas que hablan sobre lo que el futuro traer. +Ciertamente, todos nosotros podemos imaginar estas nuevas fabulosas cosas que habr. +Pero para m, las cosas no son el futuro. +Lo que me pregunto es cmo ser la sociedad, con nios extraordinariamente buenos para mandar mensajes de texto que pasan mucho tiempo viendo la pantalla encendida y que nunca han ido a jugar boliche juntos. +El cambio est ocurriendo y el cambio que se est dando no es uno que est en el software. +Pero eso no es de lo que voy a hablar. +Me encantara hablar de esto, sera divertido, pero quiero hablar acerca de lo que estoy haciendo qu estoy haciendo? +Ah, la otra cosa que pienso de la que me gustara hablar est justo aqu. Justo aqu. +Se alcanza a ver? De lo que me gustara hablar es de cosas con un solo lado. +Me fascinara hablar de cosas que tienen un solo lado. +Porque amo las cintas de Moebius. No slo amo las cintas de Moebius sino que soy una de las pocas personas, si no es que la nica, que hace botellas Klein. +Justo aqu, espero que todos sus ojos miren aqu. +Esta es una botella Klein. +Para quienes en la audiencia lo sepan, abran sus ojos y digan, yep. Ya lo s. +Tiene un solo lado. Es una botella de adentro hacia afuera. +Tiene volumen cero y no se puede orientar. +Tiene propiedades maravillosas. +Si se toman dos cintas de Moebius y sus lados comunes se cosen juntos entonces tienen uno de estos y yo los hago de vidrio. +Y me encantara hablarles de esto, pero no tengo mucho en trminos de...cosas que decir porque... (Chris Anderson: "Tengo gripa.") Sin embargo, la "D" en "TED" por supuesto es de diseo. +Justo hace dos semanas hice... bueno, he estado haciendo botellas Klein, chicas, medianas y grandes para comerciar. +Pero la que acabo de hacer y me alegra mostrrselos, por primera vez en pblico aqu, +es esta botella Klein de vino, que, aunque tiene cuatro dimensiones no debera ser capaz de contener lquido en lo absoluto, es perfectamente capaz de hacerlo porque nuestro universo tiene slo tres dimensiones espaciales. +Y como nuestro universo slo tiene tres dimensiones espaciales, puede contener fludos. +Es sumamente... este est fabuloso. +Me tom un mes de mi vida. +Pero aunque me encantara hablarles de topologa, no lo voy a hacer. +En su lugar voy a hablar de mi mami, que falleci el verano pasado. +Ella haba guardado fotos mas como hacen todas las madres. +Puede alguien aguantar a este tipo? +Revis su lbum y guard una foto ma, parado, ms bien, sentado, en 1969, en frente de un montn de tableros. +La mir y dij, dios mo, ese era yo cuando trabajaba en un estudio de msica electrnica! +Como tcnico de reparacin y mantenimiento en el estudio de msica electrnica en SUNY, Bfalo. Y guau! +Mquina vieja. Y me dije ah, s! +Y me hizo recordar. +Poco despus, encontr otra foto que ella tena de m. +Este tipo aqu por supuesto soy yo. +Este hombre es Robert Moog, el inventor del sintetizador Moog, quin falleci en agosto pasado. +Robert Moog fue una persona buena, generosa, ingeniero extraordinariamente competente. +Un msico que dedic tiempo de su vida a ensearme, a un estudiante principiante en SUNY Bfalo. +l haba venido de Trumansburg a ensearme no slo sobre el sintetizador Moog, sino que nos sentbamos all, yo estudiaba fsica en aquel entonces. Esto era 1969, 70, 71. +Estbamos estudiando fsica, yo estudiaba fsica, y l deca: "Eso es algo bueno. +No te dejes atrapar por la msica electrnica si ests estudiando fsica". +Fue mi mentor. Se pasaba horas y horas conmigo. +Me escribi una carta de recomendacin para que entrara a la universidad. +Al fondo, mi bicicleta. +Reconoc que esta foto fue tomada en la sala de la casa de un amigo. +Bob Moog vino y trajo toda una pila de equipo para mostrarnos a Greg Flint y a m cosas con ellos. +Nos sentamos para hablar de las transformadas de Fourier. Funciones Bessel, funciones de transferencia de modulacin, cosas por el estilo. +El fallecimiento de Bob en este verano pasado ha sido una prdida para todos. +Todo aquel que sea msico ha sido profundamente influenciado por Robert Moog. +Y voy a decir justo lo que voy a hacer. Lo que voy a hacer, espero que puedan reconocer que esta es una onda senoidal distorsionada, casi una onda triangular en este osciloscopio Hewlett-Packard. +Ah, fabuloso. Puedo llegar a este lugar aqu correcto? +Nios. Nios es de lo que voy a hablar est bien? +Aqu dice nios, eso es de lo que me gustara hablar. +He decidido que, al menos para m, no tengo una cabeza muy grande. +Por lo que pienso y acto de forma locales. +Siento que la mejor manera en la que puedo ayudar en algo es muy muy local. +Tengo un doctorado y el grado aqu y bla, bla bla. +Estaba hablando acerca de esto hace un ao con algunos maestros escolares. +Y uno de ellos, varios de ellos se me acercan y me dicen: "Bueno cmo es que no das clases? +Y dije: "Bueno, doy clases a universitarios, tengo estudiantes graduados, doy clases de licenciatura". +No, dijeron, "Si tanto te interesan los nios y toda esta cosa, cmo es que no ests aqu en el frente de batalla? +Pon tus manos a la obra". +Cierto. Cierto. Doy clases de ciencia en el octavo grado cuatro veces por semana. +No slo hago acto de presencia de vez en cuando. +No, no, no, no, no. Asisto a clases. +Tomo la hora del almuerzo. Esto no es, no, no, no, no es de aplausos. +Es mi firme sugerencia que esto es bueno para que cada uno de ustedes lo haga. +No nada ms presentarse a clase de vez en cuando. +Enseen toda una semana. Ok, yo doy las tres cuartas partes del tiempo que es bastante bueno. +Una de las cosas que he hecho para mis estudiantes de ciencia es decirles: "Miren, les voy a ensear fsica a nivel universitario. +No clculo, esto lo descarto. +No necesitan saber trigonometra. +Pero s necesitan saber lgebra de octavo grado, y vamos a hacer experimentos serios. +Nada de "abran-en-el-captulo-siete-y- resuelvan-todos-los-problemas-impares". +"Vamos a hacer fsica genuina". +Y esa es una de las cosas que pens hacer justo ahora. +(Tono agudo) Ah, antes incluso de encenderlo, una de las cosas que hicimos hace tres semanas en mi clase, esto es a travs del lente, y una de las cosas para la que usamos un lente es para medir la velocidad de la luz. +Mis estudiantes en El Cerrito, con mi ayuda por supuesto, y con la ayuda de un viejo osciloscopio medimos la velocidad de la luz. +Tuvimos una desviacin del 25%, cuntos de octavo grado conocen que sepan medir la velocidad de la luz? +Adems de eso, medimos la velocidad del sonido. +Me encantara medir la velocidad de la luz aqu. +Vena todo preparado y estuve pensando "hombre", iba a abusar de las influencias que hay y medir la velocidad de la luz. +Tena todo puesto para hacerlo. Tena todo puesto para hacerlo, pero resulta que aqu te dan como 10 minutos para instalarte! +As que no alcanza el tiempo para hacerlo. +Entonces la prxima vez, quiz medir la velocidad de la luz! +Mientras tanto, midamos la velocidad del sonido! +Bueno, la forma obvia de medir la velocidad de la luz es hacer rebotar algo y ver el eco. +Pero probablemente, uno de mis estudiantes Ariel, dice: podemos medir la velocidad de la luz con una ecuacin de onda?" +Y como todos ustedes saben la ecuacin de onda es: que la frecuencia por la longitud de onda de cualquier onda... +es una constante. Cuando la frecuencia crece, la longitud de onda baja. La longitud de onda crece, la frecuencia baja. Entonces si tenemos una onda aqu -- aqu, esto es lo que es interesante -- entre ms agudo el tono, los picos se acercan, el tono baja, los picos se alejan. +Correcto? Esto es fsica simple. +Todos ustedes lo saben del octavo grado recuerdan? +Lo que no les dijeron en fsica -- en el octavo grado -- pero debieron hacerlo -- y hubiese deseado que les hubieran dicho -- es que si ustedes multiplican la frecuencia por la longitud de onda del sonido o de la luz, obtienen una constante. +Y esa constante es la velocidad del sonido. +Entonces para medir la velocidad del sonido, todo lo que necesito saber es la frecuencia. Bueno, eso es fcil. +Aqu justo tengo un contador de frecuencia. +Lo ajusto para tener una A otra A y otra A. Aqu hay una A, ms o menos. +Ahora, conozco la frecuencia. +Es 1.76 kilohertz. Mido su longitud de onda. +Todo lo que necesito ahora es lanzar otra seal, y la seal inferior soy yo hablando de acuerdo? +Entonces cuando hablo, lo ven en la pantalla. +Lo pongo por aqu y si me alejo de la fuente, notarn la espiral. +La sinusoide se mueve. Estamos pasando por diferentes nodos de la onda, saliendo por este lado. +Aquellos de ustedes que sean fsicos, oigo sus ojos parpadear, pero aguntenme. Para medir la longitud de onda, todo lo que necesito es medir la distancia desde aqu, una onda completa, hasta ac. +De aqu a ac es la longitud de onda del sonido. +Entonces voy a poner una cinta mtrica aqu, la cinta mtrica aqu, la muevo para ac. +Mov el micrfono 20 centmetros. +0.2 metros de aqu a ac, 20 centmetros. +Ok, volvamos con el Sr. Elmo. +Digamos que la frecuencia es 1.76 kilohertz 1760. +La longitud de onda fue de 0.2 metros. +Veamos cmo funciona esto. +1.76 por 0.2 son 352 metros por segundo. +Si lo consultamos en el libro, en realidad son 343. +Pero aqu con equipo defectuoso, una bebida psima, hemos podido medir la velocidad del sonido. No est mal. Bastante bien. +Lo que me lleva a lo que quera decir. +Volvamos a mi foto de hace un milln de aos. +Era 1971, estaba pasando la Guerra de Vietnam, y yo deca: "Dios mo!" +Estoy estudiando fsica: Landau, Lipschitz, Resnick y Halliday. +Me voy a casa a mitad del periodo. Haba un motn en el campus. +Un motn! Hey, ya terminamos con Elmo! +Hay una motn en el campus, y la polica me est persiguiendo bien? +Cruzo el campus. Los polis vienen me ven y dicen: "T! T eres estudiante". +Saca un arma y bang! +Lanza una granada de gas lacrimgeno del tamao de una lata de Pepsi que me pega en la cabeza Ay! +Me llega una bocanada de gas y no puedo respirar. +Este poli viene por m con su rifle. +Me quiere sonar en la cabeza! +Digo: "Tengo que salir de aqu!" +Voy corriendo por el campus tan rpido como puedo. Me escondo en el Saln Hayes. +Es uno de esos con campanario. +El poli me persigue. +Me persigue al primer piso, al segundo, al tercero. +Me persigue hasta este saln. +La entrada al campanario. +Azoto la puerta detrs de m, subo, paso por este lugar donde hay un pndulo oscilando. +Y pienso, ah s, la raz cuadrada de la longitud es proporcional a su periodo. Sigo subiendo, regreso. +Llego a un sitio en que hay una clavija suelta. +Hay un reloj, reloj, reloj, reloj. +El tiempo retrocede porque estoy dentro de l. +Estoy pensando en las contracciones de Lorenz y la relatividad de Einstein. +Subo, y est este lugar, muy atrs, que subes por una escalera de madera. +Llego a lo alto y hay una cpula. +Un domo, uno de esos domos de 3 metros. +Estoy mirando fuera y veo que los polis golpean a los estudiantes en la cabeza lanzando gas y viendo a los estudiantes lanzar ladrillos. +Me pregunto: qu estoy haciendo aqu? por qu estoy aqu? +Entonces record lo que mi maestra de ingls de la preparatoria dijo. +A saber, que cuando funden las campanas, les hacen inscripciones. +Entonces que limpio una de las campanas de feces de palomas y la miro. +Me estoy preguntado, "por qu estoy aqu?" +As, que en est ocasin, me gustara decirles las palabras que inscrib en las campanas de la torre del Saln Hayes: "Toda verdad es una, +en esta luz, que en este lugar la ciencia y la religin se esfuerzen por la constante evolucin de la humanidad, de la oscuridad a la luz, de la estrechez a la amplitud de la mente, del prejuicio a la tolerancia. +Es la voz de la vida que nos llama para que vengamos y aprendamos". +Muchsimas gracias. +Hace cincuenta aos en la Unin Sovitica un equipo de ingenieros transportaba en secreto un gran objeto a travs de un paisaje desolado. +Con l esperaban captar la atencin de la gente en todo el mundo siendo los primeros en conquistar el espacio exterior. +El cohete era inmenso. +Y en su morro albergaba una bola plateada con dos radios dentro. +El 4 de octubre de 1957 lanzaron su cohete. +Uno de los cientficos rusos escribi entonces: "Estamos a punto de crear un nuevo planeta al que llamaremos Sputnik. +Antiguamente, exploradores como Vasco de Gama y Coln tuvieron la suerte de descubrir el globo terrqueo. +Ahora tenemos la suerte de descubrir el espacio. +Y sern otros en el futuro los que envidiarn nuestra alegra." +Estn viendo fragmentos de "Sputnik", mi quinto documental que estoy a punto de finalizar. +Cuenta la historia del Sputnik y la historia de lo que pas en EEUU como resultado. +Durante varios das tras el lanzamiento el Sputnik fue una maravillosa curiosidad. +Una luna hecha por el hombre visible por ciudadanos de a pie. Caus inspiracin y orgullo que los humanos por fin lanzaran un objeto al espacio. +Pero slo tres das despus en el llamado Lunes Rojo los medios y los polticos nos dijeron y les creimos, que el Sputnik era prueba de que nuestro enemigo nos haba vencido en ciencia y tecnologa y que ahora podran atacarnos con bombas de hidrgeno usando su cohete Sputnik como un misil balstico. +El infierno se desat. +El Sputnik se convirti en uno de los tres grandes golpes para EEUU -- los historiadores lo igualan a Pearl Harbor o septiembre 11 +Provoc el abismo de los misiles. +Estall una carrera armamentstica. +Comenz la carrera espacial. +En un ao el Congreso financi incrementos enormes en armas y pasamos de 1,200 bombas atmicas a 20,000. +Las reacciones al Sputnik fueron ms all del incremento en armas. +Por ejemplo, muchos aqu se acordarn de aquel da de junio de 1958 del Simulacro Nacional de la Defensa Civil en que millones de personas de 78 ciudades se refugiaron bajo tierra. +O la encuesta Gallup mostrando que 7 de cada 10 estadounidenses crean que una guerra atmica era posible y que al menos el 50% de nuestra poblacin iba a ser aniquilada. +Pero el Sputnik tambin provoc cambios maravillosos. +Por ejemplo, algunos de los presentes fueron becados a la universidad gracias al Sputnik. +Apoyos a la ingeniera, matemticas y la ciencia -- a la educacin en general -- tuvieron su auge. +Y Vint Cerf seala que el Sputnik di lugar directamente a ARPA y a internet y por supuesto a la NASA. +Mi documental muestra como una sociedad libre puede ser espoleada por quienes saben usar los medios. +Tambin muestra como podemos convertir lo que al principio pareca una mala situacin en algo que finalmente fue muy bueno para los EEUU. +"Sputnik" se estrenar en breve. +Por ltimo, me gustara dedicar un momento para agradecer a uno de mis inversionistas: TEDster desde hace mucho, Jay Walker. +Y me gustara darles las gracias a todos. +. +Gracias, Chris. +Trabajo mucho con movimiento y animacin y tambin soy un viejo DJ y un msico. +As que los vdeos musicales son algo que siempre he encontrado interesante, pero siempre parecen tan reactivos. +As que estaba pensando, ser posible quitarnos a los creadores... ...e intentar que la msica sea la voz... ...y que la animacin la siga? +As que con dos diseadores, Cristina y Tolga, en mi oficina, tomamos una cancin -- muchos probablemente la conocis; tiene como 25 aos, y es de David Byrne y Brian Eno -- e hicimos esta pequea animacin. +Y pienso que quizs tambin es interesante que trata con dos temas problemticos, que son la subida de las aguas y la religin. +Antes que El Seor destruya a la gente del mundo, l avis a No para que construyera el arca. +y despus de que No construyera el arca, yo creo que el Seor dijo a No que avisara a la gente que tienen que apartarse del sendero del mal antes de que l llegue y los destruya. +Y cuando No hubo construido el arca, Entiendo que alguien empez a tocar una cancin +Y la cancin empez a moverse as. +Y cuando No hubo construido el arca ... +se movieron ... +As que se cansaron, ha llegado la oscuridad y la lluvia; se fatigan y se cansan +Y fueron y llamaron a la casa de una vieja. +Y la vieja corri a la puerta y dijo: "Quin es?" +Jackson Lee Mama dijo: "Podemos pasar la noche aqu?" +"Porque estamos lejos de casa, estamos muy cansados." +Y la vieja responde: "O s, entra." +Ha llegado la oscuridad y la lluvia, te fatigar y cansar. +No hay nada ms grande ni ms viejo que el universo. +Las preguntas sobre las que me gustara hablar son: Uno, de dnde venimos? +Cmo se cre el universo? +Estamos solos en el universo? +Hay vida extraterrestre? +Cul es el futuro de la raza humana? +Hasta los aos 1920. todos pensaban que el universo era esencialmente esttico e invariable en el tiempo. +Despus se descubri que el universo se expanda. +Galaxias distantes se alejaban de nosotros. +Esto significaba que debieron estar ms cercanas en el pasado. +Si extrapolamos hacia atrs descubrimos que debemos haber estado uno sobre otro alrededor de 15 mil millones de aos atrs. +Esto fue el Big Bang, el comienzo del universo. +Pero, haba algo antes del Big Bang? +Si no, qu cre el universo? +Por qu el universo emergi del Big Bang del modo en que lo hizo? +Solamos pensar que la teora del universo poda ser dividida en dos partes. +Primero estaban las leyes como las ecuaciones de Maxwell y la relatividad general que determinaban la evolucin del universo, determinando su estado en todo el espacio en un cierto momento. +Segundo, no haba dudas sobre el estado inicial del universo. +Hemos progresado mucho en la primera parte, y ahora conocemos las leyes de la evolucin en todo, excepto las condiciones ms extremas. +Pero hasta hace poco, sabamos poco sobre las condiciones iniciales del universo. +Sin embargo, esta divisin entre leyes de evolucin y condiciones iniciales depende de que el tiempo y el espacio estn separados y sean diferentes. +Bajo condiciones extremas, las teoras de relatividad general y cuntica le permiten al tiempo comportarse como otra dimensin del espacio. +Esto quita la diferencia entre tiempo y espacio y significa que las leyes de la evolucin pueden tambin determinar el estado inicial. +El universo puede crearse a s mismo de la nada de modo espontneo. +Es ms, podemos calcular una probabilidad de que el universo fue creado en diferentes estados. +Estas predicciones estn en perfecto acuerdo con las observaciones del satlite WMAP de la radiacin csmica de microondas, la cual es una impronta muy temprana del universo. +Creemos que hemos resuelto el misterio de la creacin. +Tal vez deberamos patentar el universo y cobrarles a todos regalas por su existencia. +Ahora me dirijo a la segunda gran pregunta: Estamos solos, o hay ms vida en el universo? +Creemos que la vida surgi en la Tierra de forma espontnea, entonces debe ser posible que surja vida en otros planetas apropiados, de los cuales parece haber muchos en la galaxia. +Pero no sabemos cmo apareci la vida por primera vez. +Tenemos dos evidencias observacionales sobre la probabilidad del surgimiento de la vida. +La primera es que tenemos fsiles de algas que datan de 3500 millones de aos. +La tierra se form hace 4600 millones de aos y la temperatura era probablemente demasiado alta durante los primeros 500 millones de aos. +Entonces, la vida surgi en la tierra dentro del plazo de los 500 millones de aos en el que fue posible, lo cual es corto, comparado con el perodo de existencia de 10.000 millones de aos de un planeta del tipo de la Tierra. +Esto sugiere que la probabilidad de que la vida aparezca es alta. +Si fuera baja, uno esperara que hubiese requerido la mayora de los 10.000 millones de aos disponibles. +Por otro lado, parece que no hemos sido visitados por extraterrestres. +No estoy contando los reportes sobre OVNIs +Por qu se les aparecen solamente a los chiflados y los raros? +Si hay una conspiracin gubernamental para esconder los reportes y guardar para s los conocimientos cientficos que traen los extraterrestres, parece haber sido una poltica singularmente inefectiva hasta ahora. +Adems, a pesar de la extensa bsqueda del proyecto SETI no hemos escuchado ningn programa de televisin de preguntas y respuestas de extraterrestres, +Esto indica probablemente que no hay civilizaciones extraterrestres en nuestra etapa de evolucin dentro de un radio de unos pocos cientos de aos luz. +Emitir una pliza de seguro contra la abduccin por extraterrestres es una apuesta bastante segura. +Esto me lleva a la ltima de las grandes preguntas: El futuro de la raza humana. +Si somos los nicos seres inteligentes de la galaxia, debemos asegurarnos de sobrevivir y continuar. +Pero estamos entrando en un perodo cada vez ms peligroso en nuestra historia. +Nuestra poblacin y el uso de los recursos no renovables del planeta Tierra estn creciendo exponencialmente, junto con nuestra habilidad tcnica de cambiar el ambiente para bien o para mal. +Pero nuestro cdigo gentico todava transmite instintos egostas y agresivos que fueron una ventaja para sobrevivir en el pasado. +Ser muy difcil evitar el desastre en los prximos 100 aos, sin contar los prximos 1.000 o 1.000.000. +Nuestra nica posibilidad de sobrevivir a largo plazo es no permanecer escondidos en el planeta Tierra, sino expandirnos hacia el espacio. +Las respuestas a estas grandes preguntas muestran que hemos progresado de modo notable en los ltimos cien aos. +Pero si queremos continuar ms all de los prximos cien aos, nuestro futuro est en el espacio. +Por esto estoy a favor de vuelos espaciales tripulados por el hombre, o, debera decir, por personas. +Toda mi vida he buscado comprender el universo y encontrar respuestas a esas preguntas. +He tenido mucha suerte, pues mi discapacidad no ha sido un impedimento serio; +en realidad, es probable que me haya dado ms tiempo que a la mayora de la gente para dedicarme a la bsqueda del conocimiento. +El objetivo final es una teora completa del universo. y estamos progresando mucho en ello. +Gracias por escucharme. +Chris Anderson: Profesor, si tuviera que especular sobre una u otra, cree ahora que es ms probable o no que estemos solos en la Va Lctea como una civilizacin con nuestro nivel de inteligencia o superior? +Esta respuesta le llev siete minutos, y realmente me dio una apreciacin del increble acto de generosidad que signific toda esta charla para TED. +Stephen Hawking: Creo que es bastante probable que seamos la nica civilizacin dentro de varios cientos de aos luz; en caso contrario, hubisemos escuchado ondas de radio. +La alternativa es que las civilizaciones no duran mucho, sino que se destruyen a s mismas. +CA: Profesor Hawking, gracias por su respuesta. +La tomaremos como una advertencia saludable, creo, durante el resto de nuestra conferencia esta semana. +Profesor, en verdad le agradecemos por el esfuerzo extraordinario que hizo en compartir sus preguntas con nosotros hoy. +Muchas, muchsimas gracias. +He mostrado unas 2000 veces la presentacin que di aqu hace dos aos. +Esta maana har una breve presentacin por primera vez, de modo que... no quiero ni debo subir el nivel, de hecho quiero bajarlo. +He intentado reunir datos para poder abordar el tema de esta sesin. +Y como nos record Karen Armstrong en su fantstica presentacin, la religin bien entendida no tiene que ver con la fe, sino con el comportamiento. +Lo mismo debera decirse del optimismo. +Cmo es que nos atrevemos a ser optimistas? +El optimismo se califica a veces como una creencia, una postura intelectual. +Citando las famosas palabras de Mahatma Gandhi: "T debes ser el cambio que deseas ver en el mundo". +Y el resultado sobre el cual deseamos ser optimistas no podr ser creado por la sola creencia, a menos que esa creencia genere un nuevo comportamiento. Pero la palabra "comportamiento" es muchas veces malinterpretada en este contexto. +Soy un gran defensor del cambio de las bombillas de luz, comprar hbridos; Con Tipper hemos colocado 33 paneles solares en casa, y hemos cavado pozos geotrmicos, entre otras cosas. +Pero as como es importante cambiar las bombillas de luz, mucho ms importante es cambiar las leyes. +Y cuando cambiamos nuestro comportamiento cotidiano, a veces omitimos el rol de la ciudadana y el de la democracia. Para ser optimistas en este sentido, debemos transformarnos en ciudadanos muy activos de nuestra democracia. +Para poder resolver la crisis climtica, debemos resolver la crisis democrtica. +. Y de hecho la tenemos. +Es lo que vengo tratando de explicar desde hace tiempo. +Y ella respondi: "Si usted se tiera el cabello de negro, sera idntico a Al Gore". Hace muchos aos, cuando era un joven miembro del Congreso, le dedicaba muchsimo tiempo al desafo del control de las armas nucleares, la carrera armamentista nuclear. +Y los historiadores militares me ensearon en aquella poca que los conflictos militares suelen dividirse en tres categoras: las batallas locales, las batallas regionales o escenarios de guerra y la poco comn pero importantsima guerra global, la guerra mundial. Los conflictos estratgicos. +Y cada nivel de conflicto requiere de una distinta distribucin de recursos, de un abordaje diferente, de un modelo organizativo distinto. +Y hay ms casos como estos. Pero la crisis climtica es el excepcional pero importantsimo conflicto global, o estratgico. +Todo lo afecta. Y debemos organizar nuestra accin de manera apropiada. Necesitamos una movilizacin global, a nivel mundial, para lograr energa renovable, conservacin, eficiencia y una transicin global hacia una economa de baja emisin de carbono. +Hay mucho por hacer. Y podemos movilizar recursos y la voluntad poltica. Pero la voluntad poltica debe ser movilizada para poder movilizar los recursos. +Veamos unas diapositivas. +Quise comenzar con el logo. Lo que aqu falta, obviamente, es el casquete glaciar del Polo Norte. +Groenlandia sigue all. Hace 28 aos, as se vea el casquete polar, el del Polo Norte, al final del verano en el equinoccio de otoo. +Este otoo pasado, fui al Centro de Datos sobre Hielo y Nieve en Boulder, Colorado, y habl con los investigadores del Laboratorio Naval de Posgrado aqu en Monterrey. +Esto es lo que ha sucedido en los ltimos 28 aos. +Para ponerlo en perspectiva, el informe anterior fue sobre el 2005. +Esto es lo que sucedi el otoo pasado, algo que ha alarmado a los investigadores. +El casquete glaciar del Polo Norte tiene geogrficamente las mismas dimensiones. Aunque no parezca, tiene exactamente el mismo tamao de los Estados Unidos, sin incluir un rea casi tan grande como el estado de Arizona. +El territorio que desapareci en el ao 2005 equivala a toda la regin al este del Mississippi. +Todo el territorio que desapareci el otoo pasado tena estas dimensiones. Vuelve a formarse en invierno, pero no como hielo permanente, sino como hielo delgado, vulnerable. La cantidad que queda podra desaparecer completamente en el verano en tan solo cinco aos. +Esto representa un gran problema para Groenlandia. +Alrededor del crculo polar rtico... este es un famoso pueblo de Alaska. Esta es una ciudad de Terranova. Antrtida. Los ltimos estudios de la NASA. +El derretimiento de nieve entre moderado y grave de una zona de dimensiones similares a California. +"Era el mejor de los tiempos, y tambin era el peor": la frase de apertura ms famosa en la literatura inglesa. Quiero compartir brevemente una "Historia de dos planetas". La Tierra y Venus son exactamente del mismo tamao. El dimetro de la Tierra es unos 400 km ms grande, pero bsicamente tienen el mismo tamao. +Tienen exactamente la misma cantidad de carbono. +No es porque Venus est un poco ms cerca del Sol. +Es tres veces ms caliente que Mercurio, que est al lado del Sol. Vemos ahora una imagen vieja, pero la muestro porque quiero darles brevemente las CSI: clima. +La comunidad cientfica del mundo dice que la contaminacin generada por el hombre que produce el calentamiento global, penetra en la atmsfera, engrosndola y retiene gran cantidad de los rayos ultravioletas que deben salir. +Esto lo sabemos muy bien. En el ltimo informe del IPCC, los cientficos preguntaron: "Cun seguros estn?" La respuesta deba ser "en un 99 por ciento". +Los chinos pusieron objeciones, y entonces el compromiso fue "en ms de un 90 por ciento". +Ahora bien, los escpticos dicen: "Esperen un momento, puede tratarse de variaciones en la energa que proviene del sol". Si esto fuera cierto, la estratosfera se calentara al igual que la atmsfera baja si ingresara ms energa. +Si hay energa retenida en su camino de salida, entonces se concentrara ms calor aqu y estara ms fro aqu. Esta es la atmsfera baja. +Esta es la estratosfera: ms fra. +CSI: clima. +Ahora bien, hay una buena noticia. El 68% de los estadounidenses consideran que la actividad humana es responsable del calentamiento global. El 69% piensa que la Tierra se est recalentando de manera significativa. Ha habido un progreso, pero aqu est el problema: en la lista de desafos por resolver, el calentamiento global figura entre los ltimos lugares. +Lo que falta es el sentido de la urgencia. +Si estamos de acuerdo con el anlisis de los hechos, pero no tenemos el sentido de urgencia, dnde estamos parados? +Pues bien, la Alianza para la Proteccin del Clima, que lidero junto con CurrentTV, que hizo esto de forma gratuita, organiz un concurso internacional de anuncios para comunicar esto. +Este fue el ganador. +Les mostrar todas las cadenas de televisin. Los periodistas ms importantes de la NBC hicieron 956 preguntas en el ao 2007 a los candidatos presidenciales: dos de ellas eran sobre la crisis climtica. ABC: 844 preguntas, dos sobre la crisis climtica. +Fox: 2; CNN: 2; CBS: 0. +Riamos para no llorar. Esta es una de las publicidades de tabaco ms antiguas. +Esto es lo que estamos haciendo. +Este es el consumo de gasolina en todos estos pases. Y en el nuestro. +Pero no ocurre solamente en los pases desarrollados. +Los pases en vas de desarrollo siguen nuestro ejemplo y a paso acelerado. En efecto, sus emisiones acumulativas de este ao equivalen a las nuestras del ao 1965. Nos estn alcanzando de manera preocupante. Las concentraciones totales: para el ao 2025, llegarn al nivel que tenamos en 1985. +Si los pases ricos no conocieran este panorama, la crisis seguira existiendo. +Pero hemos dado a los pases en vas de desarrollo las tecnologas y la mentalidad que estn creando esta crisis. Esto es en Bolivia. En un perodo de ms de treinta aos. +Les muestro la actividad pesquera en pocos segundos. La dcada del 60, del 70, +del 80, del 90. Debemos detener esto. Y la buena noticia +es que se puede. Tenemos las tecnologas. +Debemos tener un plan de accin unificado: la lucha contra la pobreza en el mundo y el desafo de detener las emisiones realizadas por los pases ricos tienen una nica solucin, muy simple. +Cuando me preguntan "cul es la solucin?". Aqu est, +pongmosle precio al carbono. Fijemos un impuesto al CO2, de recaudacin neutral, para sustituir los impuestos sobre el empleo, inventados por Bismark, y algunas cosas han cambiado desde el siglo XIX. +En los pases pobres, debemos integrar las soluciones a la pobreza con las soluciones a la crisis climtica. +Los proyectos para combatir la pobreza en Uganda son discutibles si no solucionamos la crisis climtica. +Pero las acciones pueden hacer que las cosas sean muy distintas en los pases pobres. Esta es una propuesta que se ha considerado firmemente en Europa. +Esto es de la revista "Nature". Vemos aqu plantas de energa solar renovable, unidas en una especie de sper malla para proveer energa elctrica a Europa, en su mayora proveniente de pases en desarrollo. Corrientes continuas de alto voltaje. +No son "castillos en el aire". Esto es posible. +Debemos hacerlo por nuestra propia economa. +Las cifras ms recientes indican que el viejo modelo no funciona. Podemos hacer grandes inversiones. Si invertimos en arenas asflticas o petrleo de esquisto bituminoso, tendremos una cartera cargada de activos de carbono de alto riesgo. +Y se basa en un modelo viejo. +Los drogadictos se buscan las venas en los dedos de los pies cuando las de sus brazos y piernas ya no les sirven. El desarrollo de arenas asflticas y petrleo de esquisto bituminoso es lo mismo. Vemos aqu algunas de las inversiones que en mi opinin valen la pena. +Tengo una participacin en stas, de modo que hago un descargo de responsabilidad. +Plantas geotrmicas, energa solar fotovoltaica de avanzada, eficiencia y conservacin. +Hemos visto ya esta diapositiva, pero hay un cambio. +Solamente dos pases no lo ratificaron, pero ahora hay solo uno. En Australia hubo una eleccin. +Hubo una campaa en Australia en la que participaron anuncios de televisin, de radio e Internet para crear el sentido de urgencia en la gente. +Capacitamos a 250 personas para dar las conferencias en todas las ciudades y pueblos de Australia. +Muchas otras cosas contribuyeron a ello, pero el flamante Primer Ministro anunci que su mxima prioridad sera cambiar la posicin de Australia respecto de Kioto. Y as fue. Ahora, han tomado conciencia en parte por la terrible sequa que padecieron. +Este es el lago Lanier. Mi amiga Heidi Cullins dijo que si bautizramos a las sequas igual que lo hacemos con los huracanes llamaramos Katrina a la que ahora afecta la parte sudeste, y diramos que va camino a Atlanta. +No podemos esperar a tener una sequa como la de Australia para cambiar nuestra cultura poltica. +Veamos otra buena noticia. Las ciudades estadounidenses que apoyan a Kioto +llegan a 780 - creo haber visto una por all, solo para localizarla. Es muy buena noticia. +Para concluir, escuchamos hace unos das hablar del valor del herosmo individual como un lugar comn, tanto que se banaliza o se hace rutina. +Tenemos una cultura de la distraccin. +Pero hay una emergencia planetaria. +Debemos encontrar la manera de crear, en las generaciones de hoy, un sentido de misin generacional. +Quisiera encontrar las palabras adecuadas para expresarlo. +Esta fue otra generacin de hroes que trajo la democracia al planeta. +Otra puso fin a la esclavitud. Y otra dio a la mujer el derecho de votar. +Podemos hacerlo. No pueden decir que no tenemos la capacidad para lograrlo. +Si tan solo dispusiramos del dinero invertido en una semana en la guerra de Irak, bien podramos acercarnos a la solucin de este problema. +Tenemos la capacidad para hacerlo. +Una ltima reflexin. Soy optimista, porque creo que tenemos la capacidad, en momentos muy difciles, de dejar de lado las distracciones y enfrentar el desafo que la historia nos presenta. +A veces la gente reacciona ante los alarmantes datos de la crisis climtica diciendo: "Esto es terrible. +Tenemos un gran problema". Les pido que reformulen esa idea Cuntas generaciones en la historia de la humanidad han tenido la oportunidad de aceptar un desafo que exija de nosotros el mximo esfuerzo, +Hagmoslo. Muchas gracias. +Chris Anderson: Mucha gente en los eventos TED siente profunda pena, al final del da por una cuestin de diseo, en un formulario de votacin ... un mal diseo hizo que su voz no fuese escuchada, en los ltimos ocho aos en una posicin desde la que poda hacer realidad estas cosas. +Eso es doloroso. +Al Gore: No se imagina. CA: Cuando ve lo que estn haciendo los principales candidatos de su propio partido, le satisfacen esos proyectos sobre el calentamiento global? +Cada debate fue auspiciado por "Clean Coal". +"Emisiones ms bajas, ya!" +La riqueza y el contenido de los dilogos en nuestra democracia no han sentado las bases para las audaces iniciativas que realmente se necesitan. +Este desafo es parte de la estructura de la civilizacin en su conjunto. +El CO2 es literalmente la exhalacin de nuestra civilizacin. +Y ahora hemos mecanizado ese proceso. Cambiar esa estructura requiere de un mbito, una escala, una velocidad de cambio que van ms all de lo hecho en el pasado. +Por eso he comenzado diciendo, sean optimistas en lo que hagan, pero sean ciudadanos activos. +Cambien las bombillas de luz, pero cambien las leyes. Cambien los tratados mundiales. +Debemos levantar la voz. Debemos resolver esta democracia. Hay esclerosis en nuestra democracia. Y eso debe cambiar. +Usen Internet. +Conctense con otras personas. Transfrmense en ciudadanos activos. +Hagan una moratoria. No debera existir ninguna planta nueva que genere emisiones de carbn que no logre captar y almacenar el CO2. Debemos construir rpidamente estos recursos renovables. +Hoy nadie habla a esta escala. Pero estoy convencido de que entre el momento actual y noviembre, es posible. +Esta Alianza para la Proteccin del Clima lanzar una campaa a nivel nacional con movilizaciones populares, avisos en televisin, en Internet, la radio y los peridicos, con la colaboracin de todos, desde las nias exploradoras hasta cazadores y pescadores. +Necesitamos ayuda. Necesitamos ayuda. +CA: En cuanto al desarrollo de su propia actividad, hay alguna otra cosa que quisiera poder hacer? +AG: He rogado por poder conocer la respuesta a esa pregunta. Qu puedo hacer? +Una vez, Buckminster Fuller escribi: "Si el futuro de toda la humanidad dependiera de m, qu hara? +Cmo sera yo?" Eso depende de todos nosotros, pero, repito, no solo con las bombillas de luz. +La mayora de los aqu presentes somos estadounidenses. Tenemos una democracia. +Podemos cambiar las cosas, pero debe ser de manera activa. +Lo que se necesita en verdad es un mayor nivel de conciencia. +Y eso es difcil de lograr, muy difcil, pero va a ocurrir. +Un viejo proverbio africano que quiz conozcan reza: "Si quieres ir deprisa, ve solo; si quieres llegar lejos, ve acompaado". Debemos ir deprisa y llegar lejos. +Tenemos que hacer un cambio de conciencia. +Un cambio de compromiso. Un nuevo sentido de la urgencia. +Darle un nuevo valor al privilegio de asumir este desafo. +CA: Al Gore, muchas gracias por colaborar en las charlas TED. +AG: Gracias a ustedes. Muchas gracias. +Como investigadores, algo que hacemos con frecuencia es usar grandes recursos para lograr ciertas funcionalidades, o para alcanzar ciertos objetivos. +Y esto es esencial para el progreso de la ciencia, o para la exploracin de lo que es posible. +Pero as se crea, de alguna manera, una situacin desafortunada en donde una pequea, pequea fraccin del mundo puede participar efectivamente de esta exploracin o beneficiarse de tal tecnologa. +Y algo que me motiva, y que en realidad me entusiasma sobre mi investigacin es cuando veo oportunidades simples de cambiar de manera drstica esa distribucin, y hacer la tecnologa accesible a un porcentaje mucho mayor de la poblacin. +Voy a mostrarles dos videos que han atrado mucha atencin recientemente y que pienso que encarnan esta filosofa. +Estos ejemplos hacen uso del control remoto del Nintendo Wii. +Para aquellos de ustedes que no estn familiarizados con este dispositivo, es un control de juego de video de 40 dlares. +Y es promocionado principalmente por sus capacidades de deteccin de movimiento, de manera que usted puede usar el control como una raqueta de tenis o un bate de beisbol. +Pero lo que me interesa mucho ms es que en la punta de cada control hay una cmara infrarroja que tiene un desempeo relativamente alto. +As que voy a hacer dos demostraciones de por qu esto es til. +Aqu tengo mi computador con un proyector y un control remoto de Wii ubicado en su parte superior. +Si, por ejemplo, usted est en una escuela que no tiene mucho dinero, como es probablemente el caso de muchas de ellas o si est en un ambiente laboral y quiere un tablero/pizarra interactivo, normalmente el costo es de dos mil a tres mil dlares. +As que lo que voy a mostrarles es cmo crear uno con un control remoto de Wii. +Esto requiere otra pieza de hardware que es este lpiz infrarrojo. +Probablemente, usted puede hacerse uno por alrededor de cinco dlares con una visita rpida a Radio Shack. +Esencialmente, tiene una batera, un botn y un LED infrarrojo, y se enciende -- ustedes no pueden verlo -- pero se enciende cada vez que oprimo este botn. +Lo que esto significa es que si ejecuto esta pieza de software la cmara detecta el punto infrarrojo, de modo que puedo mapear la ubicacin de los pixels de la cmara a los pixels del proyector. As que ahora esto es como la superficie de un tablero/pizarra. +As, por ms o menos 50 dlares de hardware, usted puede tener su propio tablero interactivo. +Esto es Adobe Photoshop. +Gracias. +El software que permite esto est publicado en mi sitio web y cualquier persona puede descargarlo de manera gratuita. +En los tres meses que este proyecto ha estado abierto al pblico ha sido descargado ms de medio milln de veces. +As que los profesores y estudiantes de todas partes del mundo ya estn usando esto. +Quiero decir rpidamente que, aunque esto funciona por 50 dlares, hay algunas limitaciones en este enfoque. +Pero usted logra el 80 por ciento de la funcionalidad por alrededor de un uno por ciento del costo. +Otra cosa buena es que la cmara puede ver mltiples puntos, as que en realidad es tambin un sistema de tablero/pizarra interactivo multi-toque. +Para la segunda demostracin, tengo este control remoto de Wii que est ubicado al lado del televisor. +Est apuntando en direccin contraria a la pantalla, en lugar de apuntar hacia ella. +Lo que resulta interesante es que, si usted se pone, digamos, un par de gafas de seguridad, que tienen dos puntos infrarrojos en ellas, lo que esos dos puntos van a hacer, esencialmente, es darle al computador una aproximacin de la ubicacin de su cabeza. +Esto es interesante porque tengo una aplicacin ejecutndose en el monitor del computador que tiene una habitacin 3D, con algunos blancos flotando en ella. +Y ustedes pueden ver que parece una habitacin 3D +como en un videojuego, parece 3D pero, en su mayor parte, la imagen luce bastante plana, y atada a la superficie de la pantalla. +Ahora, si encendemos el rastreo de la cabeza, el computador puede cambiar la imagen que est en la pantalla y hacer que responda a los movimientos de la cabeza. +As que volvamos a eso. +En realidad esto ha sido un poco alarmante para la comunidad de desarrollo de videojuegos. +Porque son apenas 10 dlares de hardware adicional si usted ya tiene un Nintendo Wii. +As que espero ver algunos juegos, y de hecho Louis Castle, que est all abajo, anunci la semana pasada que Electronic Arts, uno de los editores ms grandes de videojuegos, lanzar en Mayo un juego que tiene un "huevo de Pascua" que soporta este tipo de rastreo de la cabeza. +Bueno -- y ese es el resultado de menos de cinco meses desde un prototipo en mi laboratorio hasta un producto comercial. +Gracias. +Para mi, lo que resulta ms interesante que cualquiera de estos dos productos, es cmo las personas se enteraron acerca de ellos. +Definitivamente, YouTube ha cambiado la forma, o cambiado la velocidad, en la cual un nico individuo puede difundir una idea por el mundo. +Porque, saben, yo estoy haciendo algo de investigacin en mi laboratorio con una cmara de video y en la primera semana, un milln de personas han visto este trabajo, y literalmente en das, ingenieros, profesores y estudiantes de todas partes del mundo, estaban publicando sus propios videos de YouTube con ellos usando mi sistema o derivaciones de mi sistema. +As que espero ver ms de eso en el futuro, y espero que la distribucin de vdeo en lnea sea acogida por la comunidad de investigadores. +Muchas gracias. +La primera idea que quiero presentar es que todos amamos la msica con fervor. Significa mucho para nosotros. +Pero la msica es mucho ms poderosa si no slo la escuchas, sino que la haces t mismo. +Esa es mi primera idea. Y todos conocemos el efecto Mozart, la idea que ha estado rondando desde hace unos 5 o 10 aos que slo con escuchar msica o ponerla para tu beb in vitro aumentaremos nuestros puntos de CI 10, 20 o 30 por ciento. +Excelente idea, pero no funciona para nada! +No es suficiente con escuchar msica, tienes que hacerla de algn modo. +Y agregara que no slo es hacerla, sino que todos, cada uno de nosotros, en todo el mundo tiene el poder de crear y ser parte de la msica de una forma muy dinmica, y esa es una las areas principales de mi trabajo. +Entonces, con el Media Lab del MIT desde hace ya un buen tiempo hemos estado involucrados en lo que llamamos "msica activa". +Cuales son todas las maneras posibles que se nos ocurren para lograr que todos seamos parte de una experiencia musical? No slo escuchando, sino adems haciendo msica. +Y empezamos por fabricar instrumentos para algunos de los mejores intrpretes -- los llamamos "Hyper Instruments" -- como Yo Yo Ma, Peter Gabriel, Prince, orquestas, grupos de rock -- instrumentos con todo tipo de sensores colocados directamente en ellos, para que stos sepan cmo los estn tocando. +Y slo con cambiar la interpretacin y el carcter, puedo convertir mi cello en una voz, en toda una orquesta o en algo que nadie haya escuchado antes. +Cuando empezamos a hacerlos, empec a preguntarme por qu no podemos hacer instrumentos as de maravillosos para todos, para los que no son ni Yo Yo Ma ni Prince? +As que hicimos toda una serie de instrumentos. +Una de las colecciones ms grande se llama "Brain Opera". +Es toda una orquesta de mas o menos 100 instrumentos. Todos ellos diseados para ser tocados por cualquier persona usando su habilidad natural. +As que, puedes jugar un video-juego, navegar a travs de una pieza musical, usar tus gestos corporales para controlar enormes masas de sonido, tocar una superficie especial para hacer melodias, usar tu voz para hacer un aura. +Y cuando presentamos "Brain Opera", invitamos al pblico a probar estos instrumentos y colaborar con nosotros ayudando a crear cada interpretacin de "Brain Opera". +La llevamos de gira un buen tiempo. Ahora est permanentemente en Viena donde construmos un museo entorno a ella. +Y eso condujo a algo que probablemente conocen +Guitar Hero sali de nuestro laboratorio y mis dos hijas adolecentes y la mayora de los estudiantes del MIT Media Lab son la prueba de que si haces la interfaz correcta, la gente estar realmente interesada en ser parte de una obra musical y tocarla una, otra y otra vez. +Entonces, el modelo funciona, pero es slo la punta del iceberg, porque mi segunda idea es que no es suficiente slo con querer hacer msica con algo como Guitar Hero, +y la msica es muy divertida, pero tambin transformativa. +Esto es muy, muy importante. +La msica puede cambiar tu vida, casi ms que cualquier otra cosa, +puede cambiar tu manera de comunicarte con los dems, puede cambiar tu cuerpo, puede cambiar tu mente. Estamos tratando de llegar al siguiente paso en cmo crear basados en algo como Guitar Hero. +Hemos tenido muchos resultados muy positivos con nios de todo el mundo y gente de todas las edades usando Hyper Score. +As que nos hemos interesado ms en usar este tipo de actividades creativas en un contexto mucho ms amplio, para cualquier persona que normalmente no tendra la oportunidad de hacer msica. +As pues, Una de las mayores reas en la que estamos trabajando actualmente en el Media Lab es msica, mente y salud. +Probablemente muchos de ustedes han visto el nuevo y maravilloso libro de Oliver Sacks llamado "Musicophelia". Esta en venta en las libreras. Es un excelente libro. +Si no lo han visto, vale la pena leerlo. Sacks es pianista y en el libro detalla toda su carrera viendo y observando los efectos increblemente poderosos que la msica ha tenido en la vida de personas en situaciones inusuales. +Sabemos, por ejemplo, que la msica es siempre lo ltimo a lo que una persona con Alzheimer avanzado sigue respondiendo. +La msica es la mejor forma de devolver el habla a personas que la han perdido por infartos, el movimiento a personas con la enfermedad de Parkinson. +Es muy fuerte contra la depresin, la esquizofrenia y muchas otras cosas. +As que estamos trabajando para entender los principios subyacentes y construir actividades que nos permitan mejorar la salud de las personas a travs de la msica. +Y lo hacemos de muchas maneras. Trabajamos en diferentes hospitales. +Uno de ellos queda muy cerca a Boston, el hospital Tewksbury +Es un hospital estatal donde hace muchos aos empezamos a trabajar con Hyper Score y pacientes con discapacidades fsicas y mentales. +Esto se ha convertido en una parte central del tratamiento en este hospital, y todos quieren trabajar en actividades musicales. +Es la actividad que ms parece acelerar el tratamiento. Adems, ha hecho que todo el hospital se convierta en un especie de comunidad musical. +Quisiera mostrarles un breve video sobre este trabajo antes de continuar. +Estn manipulando estos ritmos musicales. +Esa es la verdadera experiencia, no slo aprenden a interpretar y escuchar ritmos adems entrenan la memoria musical y la interpretacin musical en grupos. +Mantenerse musicalmente activos para formase. Transformar la msica, experimentar con ella y hacer su propia msica. +Hyper Score te permite empezar desde cero rpidamente. +Cualquier persona puede experimentar la msica profundamente, slo necesitamos hacer diferentes herramientas. +La tercera idea que quiero compartir es que la msica, paradjicamente, e incluso ms que la palabras, es una de las mejores maneras que tenemos para mostrar quienes somos realmente. Me encanta dar plticas aunque, extraamente, me siento ms nervioso hablando que interpretando msica. +Si estuviera tocando cello, un sintetizador o compartiendo mi msica sera capaz de mostrarles cosas sobre mi mismo que no puedo decirles con palabras, cosas ms personalas, quizs ms profundas. +Creo que eso nos sucede a muchos, y quiero darles dos ejemplos de cmo la msica es una de las interfaces ms poderosas que tenemos para expresarnos ante el mundo exterior. +La primera es un proyecto realmente curioso que estamos diseando llamado "Death and Powers". Es una pera de grandes dimensiones, uno de proyectos opersticos ms grandes del mundo en la actualidad. +Es sobre un hombre rico, exitoso y poderoso que quiere vivir eternamente. +Descubre una manera de "descargarse" en su entorno, en una serie de libros, de hecho. +El personaje quiere vivir por siempre, se "descarga" en su ambiente. +El cantante principal desaparece al comienzo de la pera y todo el escenario se convierte en el personaje principal, su legado. +Esta pera es sobre lo que podemos compartir y transmitir a los dems. La gente a la que podemos amar y lo que no podemos. +Cada objeto en esta pera est vivo y es un instrumento musical gigante, como el candelero que cubre todo el escenario. Parece un candelero, pero en realidad es un instrumento musical robtico. +Como pueden ver en este prototipo, gigantescas cuerdas de piano, cada una controlada por un pequeo elemento robtico. Hay unos pequeos arcos que pulsan las cuerdas, propulsores que las rozan, seales acsticas que las hacen vibrar. Tambin tenemos un ejrcito de robots. +Ellos son los intermediarios entre el personaje principal, Simon Powers, y su familia. Hay toda una serie de ellos, similar a un coro griego. +Ellos observan la accin. Estos robots que diseamos y actualmente estamos probando en MIT se llaman "operabots". Ellos siguen mi msica. +Siguen a los personajes. Esperamos que sean lo suficientemente inteligentes para no estrellarse entre ellos. Andan solos. +Tambin pueden alinearse en la configuracin que quieras al chasqueas. +Aunque son cubos, tienen mucha personalidad. +La mayor pieza en escena se llama "El Sistema". Es una serie de libros. +Cada libro es robtico, todos se mueven, todos hacen sonidos, y cuando los juntas todos, se convierten en estas paredes, que tienen los gestos y personalidad de Simon Powers, quien desapareci, pero todo el ambiente fsico se convirte en l. +As es como decidi representarse a si mismo. +Los libros tambin estn llenos de LEDs en sus lomos. Todo esta exhibido. +Y este es el genial bartono James Maddalena al entrar al sistema. +Este es un pequeo adelanto. +Se estrenar en Monaco en septiembre de 2009, si no logran ir, he aqu otra idea de este proyecto, tenemos a este personaje construyendo su legado de una forma muy inusual, mediante msica y su entorno. +Pero esto tambin estar disponible en lnea y en espacios pblicos como forma para que todos usemos la msica e imgenes de nuestras vidas para crear nuestro propio legado o el de alguien a quien amamos. +As que, en vez de ser una imponente pera, esta se convertir en lo que consideramos una pera personal. +Si vas a hacer una pera personal, por qu no un instrumento personal? +Todo lo que les he mostrado hasta ahora, bien sea el "Hyper cello" de Yo Yo Ma o un juguete exprimilbe para nios, los instrumentos son los mismos y son valiosos para un cierto tipo de persona, un virtuoso o un nio. +Pero, Que tal si pudiera hacer un instrumento que se adapte a la manera en la que me comporto, a como trabajan mis manos, a lo que hago muy bien, o quizs, a lo que no hago tan bien? +Creo que ese es el futuro de las interfaces, el futuro de la msica, de los instrumentos. +Quisiera invitar a dos personas muy especiales al escenario para darles un ejemplo de cmo podra ser un instrumento personal. +Con ustedes, Adam Boulanger, estudiante de doctorado del Media Lab MIT y Dan Ellsey. Gracias a TED y a Bombardier Flexjet. Dan nos acompaa hoy, vino desde Tewksbury. Es residente del Hospital Tewksbury +y esto es lo ms lejos que ha estado de ah, les aseguro; porque est muy emocionado de conocerlos y mostrarles su propia msica. +Antes que nada Dan, quisieras saludar al pblico y presentarte? +Dan Ellsey: Hola, me llamo Dan Ellsey. Tengo 34 aos y sufro de parlisis cerebral +Siempre me ha encantado la msica y estoy emocionado de poder dirigir mi msica con este nuevo software. +Tambin es muy tmido. +Es un compositor fantstico y en los ltimos aos ha sido nuestro colaborador constante. Ha compuesto muchas, muchas obras. +Ha grabados sus propios CDs. De hecho, es bastante conocido en Boston, es tutor del hospital y de nios de la zona ensendoles cmo hacer su propia msica. +Dejar que Adam les cuente. Adam es estudiante de doctorado en MIT y experto en tecnologa musical y medicina. Adam y Dan se han vuelto cercanos colaboradores. +El trabajo de Adam durante este ltimo periodo no slo ha sido cmo lograr que Dan pueda crear fcilmente su propia msica, sino cmo lograr que pueda interpretarla usando esta clase instrumento personal. +Nos quieren contar algo sobre cmo trabajan? +As que empezamos a desarrollar una tecnologa que le permitiera interpretar con precisin, facilidad, control y a pesar de su discapacidad fsica sus propias obras musicales. +Entonces, el proceso y la tecnologa, bsicamente, primero necesitbamos una solucin de ingeniera, ya saben, tenemos una cmara que mira hacia un apuntador infrarrojo. +Decidimos usar el mismo tipo de gestos que el ya utilizaba para su controlador de habla. +Y esta fue la parte menos interesante del proceso, la parte de diseo. Necesitbamos una forma de introducir datos, monitoreo constante, y el software vera la clase de formas que el haca. +Pero, el aspecto ms interesente del trabajo vino despus de la parte de ingeniera, cuando, bsicamente, estbamos programando detrs de Dan en el hospital, buscando descifrar exhaustivamente cmo se mueve Dan? +Qu le resulta til como movimiento expresivo? +Cul es su metfora para la interpretacin? +Qu tipo de cosas le resultan importantes de controlar y manipular en una pieza de msica? +As que todo el ajuste de parmetros, y en realidad la tecnologa, estaba hecha nicamente para ajustarse a Dan. +Creo que esto es un cambio de perspectiva. Esto no sucede con nuestras tecnologas; ellas proveen acceso a la creacin de trabajo creativo. +Pero que hay de la expresin? Que hay del momento en el que el artista nos transmite su obra? Nuestras tecnologas nos permiten expresarnos? +Nos dan la estructura para ello? Esa es una relacin personal con la expresin que falta en muchas esferas tecnolgicas. Entonces, con Dan necesitbamos un nuevo proceso de diseo e ingeniera, para descubrir sus movimientos y su camino a la expresin para que pudiera interpretar +y eso es lo que haremos hoy. +TM: Entonces hagmoslo! Dan, quieres contarle a todos sobre lo que vas a tocar? +DE: Esta es "My Eagle Song" (Mi cancin del guila) +TM: Dan interpretar su obra llamada "My Eagle Song" +De hecho, esta es la partitura de la obra de Dan; compuesta en su totalidad por Dan con Hyper Score. +El utiliza su marcador infrarrojo para usar Hyper Score. +Es increblemente veloz para eso; mucho ms rpido que yo. +DE: S, lo soy. TM: Tambin es muy modesto. +El entra a Hyper Score. Empieza haciendo melodas y ritmos, +y luego puede ubicarlos exactamente donde quiere. +Cada frase queda de un color, vuelve a la ventana de composicin, dibuja las lneas y ubica todo donde el quiera. Al ver Hyper Score, ustedes tambin lo pueden ver, notarn donde est cada seccin, algo puede continuar un tiempo, cambiar, variar inesperadamente y luego terminar con un grandioso gesto al final. +As fue como compuso esta obra, y como dice Adam, nosotros luego buscamos la mejor manera de que pudiera interpretarla. +Esta cmara lo mirar y analizar sus movimientos, permitindole a Dan destacar todos los aspectos que quiera de su msica. +Tambin vern imgenes en la pantalla. +Le pedimos a uno de nuestros estudiantes que viera lo que la cmara mide. +Pero en vez de hacerlo tan literal, mostrando exactamente lo que analiza la cmara, decidimos convertirlo en una grfica que muestra el movimiento bsico y lo que est siendo analizado. +Creo que evidenca cmo estamos escogiendo entre los movimientos que Dan hace, pero creo que tambin vern en el movimiento que cuando Dan hace msica, sus movimientos son muy precisos, tiles, y disciplinados pero tambin muy bellos. +As que, al escuchar esta obra, y como mencion antes, lo ms importante es que la msica es excelente y les mostrar quin es Dan. +Estamos listos Adam? +AB: Si. +TM: OK, ahora Dan interpretar para ustedes su obra "My Eagle Song." +TM: Bravo. +Uno de los problemas al escribir, trabajar y ver al Internet es que es muy difcil separar modas pasajeras de cambios profundos. +As que para empezar a resolver esto, quiero que regresemos al ao 1835. +En 1835, James Gordon Bennett fund el primer peridico de circulacin masiva en la ciudad de Nueva York. +e iniciarlo cost alrededor de 500 dlares, lo cual es equivalente a 10,000 dlares actuales. +15 aos despus, en 1850, hacer lo mismo -- iniciar lo que es percibido como un diario de circulacin masiva -- costara dos y medio millones de dlares. +10,000, dos y medio milliones, 15 aos. +Este es el crtico cambio que ha sido invertido por la red. +Y es de eso de lo que quiero hablar hoy, y de cmo es que este se relaciona con el surgimiento de la produccin social. +Ahora, el trmino de "sociedad de la informacion", "economa de la informacin" por mucho tiempo ha sido usado como lo que viene despus de la Revolucin Industrial. Sin embargo, para propsitos de entender lo que esta sucediendo hoy, es errneo. Debido a que por 150 aos, hemos tenido una economa de la informacin. +Solamente que esta ha sido industrial. Lo que significa que quienes producan tenan que encontrar una forma de obtener dinero para pagar esos dos y medio millones de dlares, y despus, ms por el telgrafo, el radiotransmisor, la televisin, y eventualmente el mainframe o computadora central. +Y esto signific que eran basados en el mercado, o que eran propiedad del gobierno, dependiendo del tipo de sistema en el que se encontraran. Y esto caracteriz y ancl la forma en que la informacin y el conocimiento se produjeron por los siguientes 150 aos. +Ahora, permtanme contarles una historia diferente. Alrededor de junio del 2002, el mundo de las spercomputadoras tuvo un evento importante. +Todo esto ignora completamente el hecho de que durante todo este perodo, ya haba otra supercomputadora funcionando en el mundo -- SETI@Home o SETI en Casa +-- cuatro y medio millones de usuarios alrededor del mundo, contribuyendo con sus ciclos sobrantes de sus computadoras cuando no estn trabajando, cuando se ejecuta el protector de pantalla y juntos comparten sus recursos para crear una superocomputadora masiva que la NASA utiliza para analyzar los datos provenientes de radio telescopios. +Estas no son radicalmente diferentes a los ruteadores en medio de la red. +La capacidad de computabilidad, almacenamiento y comunicaciones estn en las manos de prcticamente cualquier persona conectada -- y estos son los medios capitales fsicos bsicos necesarios para producir informacin, conocimiento y cultura, en las manos de al rededor de 600 millones o mil millones de personas en el planeta. +Cualquiera de ustedes que ha tomado el trabajo de alguien ms o que haya intentado dar su trabajo a alguien ms, sin importar que tan detallado sea el manual, no puede transmitir lo que sabe, lo que podra intuir bajo ciertas circunstancias. +en eso somos nicos y cada uno de nosotros posee este insumo importante dentro de la produccin al sostener esta mquina. +Qu efecto tiene esto? La historia que la mayora de la gente conoce es la historia del software libre y de cdigo abierto. +Esta es porcin del mercado del servidor web Apache -- una de las aplicaciones crticas de las comunicaciones en la Web. +En 1995, dos grupos de personas dijeron, "Caray la web muy importante! Necesitamos un mejor servidor de web!" +Uno fu un grupo de curiosos voluntarios que solo decidieron, saben qu, verdaderamente necesitamos esto, debemos de escribir uno, y lo que vamos a hacer con eso -- bien, lo vamos a compartir! Y otras personas podrn continuar desarrollndolo. +El otro grupo fu Microsoft. +Ahora bien, si les dijera que 10 aos despus, el grupo de gente curiosa que no control lo que produjo adqurira el 20 porciento del mercado y que sera la lnea roja, sera sorprendete! Verdad? +Piensen en trminos de minivans. Un grupo de ingenerieros de automviles en sus fines de semana compitiendo con Toyota. Verdad? +El software ha hecho esto en una forma bastante visible, porque es medible. Pero lo que hay que ver es que de hecho esto sucede en toda la red +Ahora bien, si ustedes tienen una nia pequea, y ella va y escribe -- bueno, no tan pequea, mediana -- y ella trata de hacer una investigacin acerca de Barbie. +Ir a a Encarta, una de las principales enciclopedias en lnea +Otro punto es no solo cmo se produce el contenido, sino cmo se produce su relevancia. +Esto no es solamente fuera de los negocios. Cuando piensen en cul es la innovacin ms importante de Google, la innovacin consisti en delegar una de las cosas ms importantes -- la decisin de qu es lo relevante -- a la comunidad de la web en general, haciendo lo que quieren hacer. Entonces -- page rank (ranquear pginas). +La innovacin crtica aqu es que en lugar de que nuestros ingenieros o nuestra gente diga qu es lo ms relevante, vamos a ir y contar lo que ustedes, la gente en la web, por cualquier razn -- vanidad, placer -- producen ligas, y se conectan unos con otros. Vamos a contar esos, y contarlos todos. +Y de nuevo, aqu, ven a Barbie.com, pero tambin, rpidamente Adiosbarbie.com, la imagen corporal para todos los tamaos. Un objeto cultural reclamado, lo cual no lo encontrarn en Overture, que es el clsico mecanismo basado en el mercado. Quin pague ms estar mas arriba en la lista. +Entonces todo eso est en la creacin de contenido, de relevancia, expresiones humanas bsicas. +Pero recuerden, las computadoras tambin son objetos fsicos. Solamente material fsico -- nuestras PCs, las compartimos. Tambin vemos esto en la red inalmbrica. +Era comn que la comunicacin inalmbrica era propiedad de la persona que tena la licencia, ellos transmitan en una rea, y deba decidirse si se iba a otorgar una licencia o basarse en la propiedad. +Y esto no es una versin idealizada. Estos son modelos funcionales que al menos en algunos lugares en los Estados Unidos estn siendo implementados, al menos para la seguridad pblica. +Si en 1999 les hubiera dicho, construyamos un sistema de almacenamiento y recuperacin de datos. +Tiene que almacenar terabytes. Tiene que estar disponible las 24 horas del da, los siete das de la semana. Tiene que estar disponible desde cualquier lugar del mundo. +Tiene que darle servicio a mas de 100,000,000 usuarios en cualquier momento. Tiene que ser fuerte ante cualquier ataque, includo el cerrar el ndice pincipal que inyecta archivos infectados, robo armado de los principales nodos. Ustedes diran que esto tomara aos. +Tomara millones. Pero por supuesto, lo que estoy describiendo es la comparticin de archivos P2P. +Verdad? Siempre estamos pensando en esto con relacin al robo de msica, pero b{asicamente, es un sistema de almacenamiento y recuperacin de datos compartido, en donde la gente, por razones obvias, est dispuesta a compartir su ancho de banda y su almacenamiento para crear algo. +Entonces esencialmente lo que estamos viendo es el surgimiento de un cuarto modelo transaccional. Sola ser que haba dos dimensiones principales en las cuales se podan dividir las cosas. Podran estar basadas en el mercado o bien, no basadas en el mercado; podan estar decentralizadas o centralizadas. +El sistema de precios era un sistema decentralizado basado en el mercado. +Si las cosas funcionaban mejor porque contabas con alguien organizndolas, tenas empresas si queras estar en el mercado -- o tenas gobiernos o a veces grandes organizaciones sin fines de lucro no basadas en el mercado. +Era muy costoso tener un sistema descentralizado de produccin social, tener una accin decentralizada en la sociedad -- que no se refera a la sociedad en s misma. +sino a un hecho econmico. +Pero lo que ahora estamos viendo es el surgimiento de este cuarto sistema social de compartir e intercambiar. +No es que esta sea la primera vez que hacemos algo bueno para otros, o por los otros, como seres sociales. Lo hacemos todo el tiempo. +Es que es la primera vez que esto tiene un importante impacto econmico. +Lo que los caracteriza es la autoridad descentralizada. +No tienes que pedir permiso, como lo haras en un sistema basado en la propiedad. +Podra hacer esto? Est abierto a cualquiera que quiera crear, innovar y compartir, si as lo desean, por s mismos o con otros, porque la propiedad es un mecanismo de coordinacin. +Pero no es el nico. +En su lugar, lo que vemos son modelos sociales para todas las cosas importantes para las que usamos la propiedad y el contrato en el mercado. La informacin fluye para decidir cules son problemas intersantes, quin esta disponible y es bueno para algo, estructuras motivacionales -- recuerden, el dinero no siempre es el mejor motivador. +Si dejan un cheque de 50 dlares despus de cenar con unos amigos, no incrementas la probabilidad de ser invitado de nuevo. +Y si la cena no es completamente obvia, imaginen en el sexo. Esto tambin requiere de ciertos nuevos enfoques organizacionales. +Y en particular, lo que hemos visto es la organizacin de las tareas. +Tienes que contratar gente que sabe lo que est haciendo. +Tienes que contratarlas para dedicarle mucho tiempo. +Ahora, tomen el mismo problema, divdanlo en pequeos mdulos y las motivaciones se convierten en triviales. +Cinco minutos, en lugar de ver la TV? +cinco minutos que dedicar en algo intersante. Slo porque es divertido. +Slo porque me da cierto sentido de significado, o en lugares que son ms completos, como Wikipedia, me da un cierto conjunto de relaciones sociales. +As es que un nuevo fenmeno esta surgiendo. +Si est creando, y es ms visible cuando lo observamos como una nueva forma de competencia. +Redes colega-colega asaltando la industria musical; software libre y de cdigo abierto apropindose de porciones del mercado de Microsoft. Skype potencialmente amenazando las compaas tradicionales de telecomunicacin; Wikipedia compitiendo con las enciclopedias en lnea. +Pero tambin es una nueva fuente de oportunidades de negocio. +Como ven un nuevo conjunto de relaciones y comportamientos sociales esta surgiendo, surgen nuevas oportunidades. Algunas de ellas son herramientas para la creacin de otras herramientas. +En lugar de construir aparatos que se comporten bien -- cosas que, de forma previa, se sabe lo que harn -- empiezan a construirse herramientas ms abiertas. Existe un nuevo conjunto de valores, un nuevo conjunto de cosas que la gente valora. +Se construyen plataformas para la expresin personal y la colaboracin. +Como Wikipedia, como el Proyecto de Directorio Abierto, estamos empezando a construir plataformas, y eso se ver como un modelo. +Y se ven surfistas, gente que ven que esto est sucediendo, y en cierta forma lo construyen en una cadena de suministros, una muy curiosa. Verdad? +Tienen la conviccin de que las cosas surgirn de seres humanos conectados en internet. +Esto me dar algo que puedo usar, y que voy a negociar con alguien. +le entregar algo en base a lo que suceda. Es aterrorizante -- eso es lo que hace Google, esencialmente. +Eso es lo que hace IBM en sus servicios de software, y que lo han hecho razonablemente bien. +Entonces, la produccin social es un hecho, no una moda pasajera. +Es el cambio de largo plazo causado por el internet. +Las relaciones sociales y los intercambios se hacen significativamente ms importantes que nunca como un fenmeno econmico. En ciertos contextos, es incluso ms eficiente porque la calidad de la informacin, la habilidad para encontrar a la mejor persona, los bajos costos de transaccin. Es auto-financiable y crece rpidamente. +Pero -- y es aqu donde est la parte obscura -- se ve amenazada por -- y de la misma manera que este amenaza -- los actuales sistemas industriales. +As que la prxima vez que abran el peridico, y vean una decisin acerca de propiedad intelectual, una decisin sobre telecomunicaciones, no se refiere a algo pequeo y tcnico. +Se trata del futuro de la libertad de actuar como seres sociales, unos con otros, y la forma en que se producir la informacin, el conocimiento y la cultura. +Gracias. +En qu manera determinan las noticias cmo vemos el mundo? +Este es el mundo basado en su apariencia, en su topografa. +Y as es cmo las noticias determinan lo que ven los americanos. +Este mapa este mapa muestra el nmero de segundos que las cadenas televisivas americanas dedicaron a las noticias, por pas, en febrero de 2007 hace slo un ao. +En este mes, Corea del Norte acord su desarme nuclear. +Hubo una inundacin masiva en Indonesia. +En Pars, el IPCC public un informe confirmando el impacto humano sobre el calentamiento global. +EE.UU. ocup el 79% de la cobertura periodstica total. +Y cuando quitamos a EE.UU. y observamos el 21% que resta, vemos mucho sobre Irak eso grande y verde de ah y no mucho ms. +La cobertura de Rusia, China e India en conjunto, por ejemplo, slo sum un 1%. +Cuando analizamos todas las noticias y quitamos una sola, el mundo se vea as. +Cul fue la noticia? La muerte de Anna Nicole Smith. +Esta noticia eclips a todos los pases salvo Irak y recibi 10 veces ms cobertura que el informe del IPCC. +Y el ciclo contina; como todos sabemos, Britney cobr mucha importancia ltimamente. +Entonces por qu no escuchamos ms sobre el mundo? +Un motivo es que las cadenas de noticias redujeron la cantidad de corresponsales internacionales a la mitad. +Aparte de las oficinas unipersonales de ABC en Nairobi, Nueva Delhi y Bombay, no hay oficinas de cadenas informativas en toda frica, India o Sudamrica lugares donde viven ms de 2 mil millones de personas. +La realidad es que cubrir a Britney es ms barato. +Y esta falta de cobertura global es an ms alarmante cuando vemos dnde busca informacin la gente. +Los noticieros locales ganan terreno y desafortunadamente slo dedican el 12% de su cobertura a noticias internacionales. +Y qu pasa en Internet? +Las pginas de noticias ms populares no son mucho mejores. +El ao pasado, Pew y la Columbia J-School analizaron 14.000 noticias que aparecieron en la portada de Google News. +Y de hecho, cubrieron los mismos 24 eventos. +Un estudio de contenido digital mostr que muchas de las noticias internacionales de medios de EE.UU. son noticias recicladas de los servicios de cable de AP y Reuters, y no son presentadas en un contexto donde la gente pueda comprender su relacin con l. +Si lo unimos todo, esto podra explicar por qu los graduados universitarios de hoy, al igual que los americanos menos educados, saben menos sobre el mundo que sus homlogos de hace 20 aos. +Y si creen que es slo porque no estamos interesados, estaran equivocados. +En los ltimos aos, los americanos que dicen seguir normalmente las noticias internacionales aumentaron a ms del 50%. +La pregunta es: Queremos esta visin distorsionada del mundo para los americanos en un mundo cada vez ms interconectado? +S que podemos mejorar. +Y podemos permitirnos no hacerlo? Gracias. +Es interesante que en los Estados Unidos, el presupuesto ms significativo para la asistencia mdica vaya hacia el cuidado de la enfermedad cardiovascular, as sea privado o pblico. +No hay comparacin posible. +En frica -- donde es mucho ms mortal -- es totalmente ignorada. +Y esa situacin no puede ser buena. Debemos hacer algo al respecto. +El estado sanitario de una nacin va paralelo al desarrollo de esa nacin. +17 millones de personas mueren cada ao de enfermedades cardiacas. +Ocurren 32 millones de ataques al corazn y de accidentes cerebro-vasculares. +La mayora de stos en pases en vas de desarrollo, y la mayora es en frica. +El 85 por ciento de la carga de la enfermedad global para la enfermedad cardiovascular es en pases en vas de desarrollo -- no en Occidente -- y, a pesar de eso, el 90 por ciento de los recursos est en Occidente. +Quin est en riesgo? Gente como t. +No slo los africanos deberan estar preocupados respecto a eso. +Todos los simpatizantes de frica, que tengan una razn para estar en frica en algn momento de su vida, deberan estar muy preocupados por esta situacin deplorable. +Hay alguien aqu que se haya pregundado qu pasara si volvieras a tu habitacin de noche y empezaras a tener dolor en el pecho, falta de respiracin, sudoracin? +Ests teniendo un ataque al corazn. Qu vas a hacer? +Volveras a los EE.UU, Alemania, Europa? +No, te moriras. El 50 por ciento morira en 24 horas sin tratamiento. +Esto es lo que est pasando. +En una mirada al mapa de los EE.UU. -- el grfico aqu, 10 millones de personas aqu, 10 millones aqu. +Hacia el momento en que alcanzas los 50, no queda casi nadie en Nigeria -- la esperanza de vida es de 47. +No es porque alguna gente no sobreviva las enfermedades de la niez -- lo hacen -- pero no sobreviven despus del momento en que alcanzan los 45 y los 50 aos. +Y se es el momento en que son ms productivos. +se es el momento en que deberan estar contribuyendo al desarrollo de frica. Pero no estn all. +El mejor modo de caer en una espiral de ciclo de pobreza es matar a los padres. +Si no puedes asegurar los padres, no puedes garantizar la seguridad de los nios africanos. +Cules son los factores de riesgo? +Son muy conocidos. No voy a perder mucho tiempo en ellos. +Son slo por informacin: hipertensin, diabetes, obesidad, falta de ejercicio. Los sospechosos habituales. +Aqu mismo en Tanzania, el 30 por ciento de los individuos tiene hipertensin. +El 20 por ciento est siendo tratado. +Slo menos del 1 por ciento est siendo adecuadamente tratado. +Si pudieramos tratar slo la hipertensin en frica, salvaramos 250.000 vidas anuales. Eso es bastante significativo! +Fcil de tratar. Observad la situacin en la Isla Mauricio. +En escasos ocho aos -- estamos aqu hablando de VIH, malaria, lo que est bien. +No podemos cometer los errores que hemos cometido con la malaria y el VIH. +En escasos ocho aos, las enfermedades no contagiosas se convertirn en las primeras causas de muerte en frica. +Eso es algo que debemos tener en mente. No podemos tratar con situaciones as. +ste es un tpico hospital africano. No podemos depender de las lites -- que se van a EE.UU., Alemania o al Reino Unido para tratarse. Increible. +No podemos depender slo de la ayuda externa. +As est la situacin: los pases se estn volviendo hacia dentro. +Despus del 9/11, los EE.UU. ha tenido gran cantidad de problemas para afrontar sus propios asuntos internos. +As que gastan su dinero tratando de arreglar esos problemas. +No puede esperar -- no es su responsabilidad. es mi responsabilidad. Yo debo encargarme de mis propios problemas. +Si ellos ayudan, est bien! Pero sa no es mi expectativa. +Estos ndices de empeoramiento de la sanidad o de los estudios mdicos en frica requieren una nueva mirada. No podemos seguir haciendo las cosas del mismo modo que siempre las hemos hecho. +Si no ha funcionado, debemos buscar soluciones alternativas. +Estoy aqu para hablaros de soluciones. +Esto es lo que ha sido difcil para algunos de nosotros. +Hace bastantes aos, empezamos a pensar en ello. +Todo el mundo conoce el problema. Nadie conoce cules son las soluciones. +Decidimos que necesitbamos poner nuestro dinero donde estaba nuestra boca. +Todo el mundo est dispuesto a poner dinero en trminos de ayuda monetaria gratuita para los pases en vas de desarrollo. +Habla sobre una inversin sostenible! Nadie est interesado. +No se puede recaudar dinero. +He hecho negocios relacionados con la asistencia mdica en los Estados Unidos -- vivo en Nashville, Tennessee, capital de la sanidad en Amrica. +Es muy fcil recuadar dinero para empresas de asistencia mdica. +Pero empieza a decirles, ya sabes, que vamos a tratar de hacerlo en Nigeria -- todo el mundo huye. +Eso est totalmente equivocado. Aquellos de vosotros que esteis aqu en el pblico, si quieres ayudar a frica: invertid dinero en desarrollo sostenible. +Dejadme que que os gue por un da en la vida del Instituto del Corazn para que podais vislumbrar lo que hacemos, y os pueda hablar un poco ms de ello. +Lo que hemos hecho es mostrar que la asistencia mdica de calidad, comparable a la mejor de cualquier lugar del mundo, puede llevarse a cabo en el ambiente de un pas en vas de desarrollo. +Ahora mismo tenemos 25 puestos -- todos ellos cualificados, colegiados certificados en los EE.UU., Canad o Gran Gretaa. +Tenemos todas las modalidades que pueden ser llevadas a cabo en Vanderbilt, Cleveland Clinic -- en cualquier sitio de los EE.UU -- y lo hacemos por el 10 por ciento del coste del que necesitaras para hacer esas cosas en Estados Unidos. +Adicionalmente, tenemos una poltica por la cual nunca nadie es rechazado por su capacidad para pagar. +Nos hacemos cargo de todo el mundo. +As tengs un dolar, dos dlares -- no importa. +Y os voy a contar cmo podemos hacer eso. +Nos aseguramos de que seleccionamos nuestro equipamiento adecuadamente. +Nos decantamos por las unidades modulares. Las unidades que poseen funciones multi-modulares tienen componentes modulares. Fciles de reparar, y por eso, no adquirimos cosas que no sean duraderas. +Emfatizamos la formacin, y nos aseguramos de que este proceso es regenerativo. +Muy pronto vamos a estar todos muertos, pero los problemas permanecern a menos que tengamos gente continuando la tarea all donde la dejamos. +Nos aseguramos de que producir cosas por nosotros mismos. +No compramos dosis nicas de radiofrmacos. +Obtenemos los generadores de las compaas. +Las fabricamos en nuestra empresa nosotros mismos. Eso mantiene los costes bajos. +As que, por una radiofrmacos en los EE.UU. -- de la que conseguiras una dosis nica por 250 dlares -- cuando nosotros hemos acabado de fabricarla en nuestra empresa, nos situamos en un precio de unos dos dlares. +Reconocemos que la nica forma para zanjar la brecha entre los pases ricos y pobres es mediante la educacin y la tecnologa. +Todos estos problemas de los que estamos hablando -- desaparecern si traemos el desarrollo. +La tecnologa es un gran ecualizador. Cmo hacemos que funcione? +Est demostrado: el auto-cuidado es rentable. +sta extiende la oportunidad hasta los centros rurales, donde podemos utilizar la experiencia de forma muy inteligente. +sta es la forma en que nuestros centros estn montados. +Actualmente tenemos tres emplazamientos en el Caribe, y estamos planeando un cuarto. +Adems, hemos decidido ir a frica. +Vamos a crear el Instituto del Corazn de frica Occidental en Port Harcourt, Nigeria. El proyecto empezar en los prximos meses. Esperamos abrirlo en 2008-09. +Y haremos otros centros. +Este modelo puede ser adaptado a cualquier enfermedad. +Todas las unidades, todos los centros, estn vinculados mediante un hub conectado a un servidor central y todas las imgenes sern cargadas en estaciones de revisin. +Hemos diseado esta solucin telemdica. Es una nuestra marca registrada, y nos sentimos felices de compartir lo que hemos aprendido con cualquiera que est interesado en llevarlo a cabo. Todava puedes ser de utilidad. +Nos aseguramos de que la plataforma telemdica proporciona acceso a expertos especialistas mdicos de cualquier lugar en el mundo, tan slo apretando un botn. +Os lo ensear para que veis como funciona. +Esto es en el Instituto del Corazn. Doctores de cualquier lugar pueden acceder. +Puedo llamarte a Suiza y decirte, "Escucha, entra a nuestro sistema. +Mira a la Sra. Jones. chale un vistazo el estudio y dime lo que piensas." +Ellos me darn esa informacin, y atenderemos mejor al paciente. +El paciente no tiene que viajar. +No tiene que sufrir la ansiedad de no saber a causa del nmero limitado de expertos. +Tambin usamos un sistema electrnico para las historias clnicas. +Estoy contento de decir que las cosas que hemos implementado -- el 80 por ciento de las prcticas en los EE.UU. no las tienen a pesar de que la tecnologa est all. +Pero ya sabes, se pueden permitir ese lujo. +Porque si no puedes conseguirlo en Nashville, puedes viajar hasta Birminhgham, a dos horas de camino, y lo conseguirs. Si no puedes obtenerlo en Cleveland, puedes ir a Cincinnati. Nosotros no tenemos ese lujo, as que tenemos que hacer que ocurra. +Cuando lo hagamos, bajaremos el coste de la sanidad. +Y lo extenderemos hasta los centros rurales hacindolo asequible. +As todo el mundo podr tener el cuidado que se merece. +No se trata slo tecnologa, reconocemos eso. +La prevencin debe ser parte de la solucin -- enfatizamos eso. +Pero ya sabes, tienes que decirle a la gente lo que puede llegarse a hacer. +No se le puede decir a la gente que haga lo que va a ser caro, y que vayan a casa y no puedan hacerlo. +Necesitan estar vivos, necesitan ser alimentados. +Nosotros recomendamos el ejercicio como lo ms efectivo, simple y fcil. +Hemos tenido caminatas cada ao -- cada Marzo, Abril. +Formamos la gente en grupos y hacemos que asuman desafos. +Al grupo que pierde ms peso, le damos premios. +Al grupo que anota, mediante un podmetro, ms distancia recorrida caminando, le damos premios. Hacemos esto constantemente. +Los animamos a que traigan nios. +De esta forma empezamos a exponer a los nios desde muy pequeos, a este tipo de cosas. Porque una vez lo aprenden, lo mantendrn. Haciendo esto, hemos creado, al menos, 100 puestos de trabajo cualificados slo en Jamaica, y estos son mdicos con una preparacin y una habilidad especial. +Hemos atendido a ms de 1.000 pacientes indigentes que podran haber muerto, incluyendo cuatro marcapasos gratuitos en pacientes con un bloqueo cardaco total. Para aquellos que entienden de cardiologa, un bloqueo cardiaco total significa una muerte segura. +Si no logras tener ste marcapasos, estars muerto. +As que nos alegramos de eso. +Indirectamente, le hemos ahorrado 5 millones de dlares al gobierno de Jamaica de la gente que hubiera ido a Miami o a Atlanta a por asistencia mdica. +Y afortunadamente hemos salvado muchas vidas. +A finales de este ao habremos contribuido con ms de 1 milln de dlares en la asistencia a los indigentes. En los primeros cuatro meses, han sido 340.000 dlares, haciendo una media de 85.000 dlares mensuales. El gobierno no har eso, porque tiene otras responsabilidades que atender. +Necesitan emplear los recursos en otras reas. Pero nosotros todava podemos hacerlo. +Porque la gente dice, "Cmo podis hacerlo?" As es como podemos. +Al menos 4.000 jamaicanos ricos que estaban yendo a Miami por tratamiento, han confesado que no irn a Miami, gracias al Instituto del Corazn del Caribe. +Y si iban a Miami iban a gastar significativamente ms -- de ocho a diez veces ms. As que se sienten contentos de gastarlo en casa, obteniendo la misma calidad en la asistencia. +Y ese dinero -- por cada paciente que tiene el dinero para pagar -- ofrece la oportunidad de atender, al menos, a cuatro personas que no tienen los recursos para pagar. +Para que esto funcione, el progreso tiene que ser sostenible. +As que enfatizamos la formacin. La formacin es crtica. +Hemos ido incluso ms lejos: hemos creado una relacin con la Universidad Tecnolgica de Jamaica, en donde ahora tengo una cita. +Y estamos empezando un programa de ingeniera biomdica, as que formaremos a gente local que pueda reparar ese equipo. +De esa forma no vamos a tener que enfrentarnos con la obsolescencia y todas esas cuestiones. +Tambin estamos empezando unos programas de formacin tecnolgica en asistencia mdica complementaria formando gente en ecocardiogramas, ultrasonidos cardiacos, ese tipo de cosas. Ese tipo de formacin, motiva a la gente. +Porque ahora obtendrn una licenciatura en imgenes mdicas y en todo ese tipo de materia. En el proceso, me gustara que oyeras de las propias personas formadas lo que esto ha significado para ellos. +Dr. Jason Topping: Mi nombre es Jason Topping, +soy un residente snior en anestesia en cuidados intensivos en el Hospital Universitario de las ndias Occidentales. +Vine al Instituto del Corazn en 2006 como parte de mi optativa en el programa de anestesia y cuidados intensivos. +Estuve tres meses en el Instituto del Corazn. +No hay duda entre mis colegas sobre la utilidad de la formacin que recib aqu, y creo que ha habido un aumento del inters -- particularmente en ecocardiografa y su uso en nuestra posicin. +Sharon Lazarus: Soy una ecocardigrafa en el Instituto del Corazn del Caribe desde hace dos aos. Recib formacin en esta Institucin. +Creo que este aspecto de la formacin en cardiologa que el Instituto del Corazn del Caribe ha introducido en Jamaica es muy importante en trminos del diagnstico de las enfermedades cardiacas. +Ernest Madu: la leccin de todo esto es que puede ser hecho y que puede ser sostenido, y que t puedes hacerlo posible para todos. +Quienes somos nosotros para decidir que la gente pobre no puede obtener la mejor asistencia? +Cundo has sido nombrado para actuar como Dios? +sa no es mi decisin. Mi trabajo es asegurarme de que cualquier persona, no importa qu destino se le haya asignado, dispondr de la oportunidad para conseguir la mejor calidad en asistencia mdica. +La prxima parada es el Instituto del Corazn de frica Occidental, que vamos a construir en Port Harcourt, Nigeria, tal como ya dije antes. Vamos a hacer otros centros a lo largo e frica Occidental. +Vamos a extender el mismo sistema en otras reas, como en el tratamiento de dilisis. +Y todo el mundo que est interesado en hacerlo en cualquier situacin mdica, estaremos contentos de ayudaros y de contaros lo que hemos hecho nosotros y cmo lo podis llevar a cabo. Si hacemos esto, podremos cambiar la cara de la asistencia mdica en frica. +frica ha sido buena con nosotros; es el momento de que nosotros le devolvamos a frica. +Yo voy a ir. Aquellos que quieran venir, estis invitados a venir conmigo. +Gracias. +El valor de la nada: algo aparece de la nada. +Se trata de un ensayo que escrib cuando tena 11 aos de edad y obtuve una B+. De qu voy a hablar?: de algo que viene de la nada y de cmo lo creamos. +Y voy a tratar de hacerlo, dentro de los 18 minutos de tiempo que se nos permite estar aqu, y siguiendo los mandamientos de TED: esto es, en realidad, algo que lleva a una experiencia cercana a la muerte, aunque la cercana de la muerte es buena para la creatividad. +OK. +Por eso, tambin quiero explicar, porque Dave Eggers dijo que iba a interrumpirme si deca alguna mentira, o que no fuese verdad para la creatividad universal. +As que he hecho esto para la mitad de la audiencia, que es cientfica. +Cuando diga nosotros, no me refiero a ustedes, necesariamente; Me refiero a m, y a mi cerebro derecho y al izquierdo, y a lo que hay enmedio, que es el censor que me dice que lo que digo no es correcto. +Y voy a hacer eso tambin mirando a lo que creo que es parte de mi proceso creativo, que incluye una serie de cosas que me ocurren, la nada empieza incluso antes, en el momento en que estoy creando algo nuevo. +Y que incluye naturaleza, y crianza, y a lo que yo me refiero como pesadillas. +En lo natural, nos fijamos en si estamos o no innatamente dotados para algo, tal vez en nuestro cerebro, algunos cromosomas anormales que causan ese efecto similar a una musa +y algunas personas dirn que nacimos con ello en cierto sentido, +y otras, como mi madre, dirn que recib mi material de vidas pasadas. +Algunas personas dicen tambin que la creatividad puede estar en funcin de algn que otro capricho neurolgico sndrome de Van Gogh - que tiene un poco de, psicosis, o depresin. +Y alguien a quien le recientemente, dijo que Van Gogh no fue necesariamente psictico, que podra haber tenido convulsiones del lbulo temporal, y que podran haber causado su impulso de creatividad, y no s - supongo que tena algo en parte de su cerebro. +Les dir que yo realmente sufr hace aos, convulsiones del lbulo temporal, Duraron el tiempo en que escrib mi ltimo libro, y algunas personas dicen que ese libro es muy diferente. +Creo que parte de esto empieza con una crisis de identidad: ya saben, quin soy yo?, por qu soy esta persona en particular? Por qu no soy negra como los dems? +Puedes tener unas habilidades, pero puede que no sean habilidades que permiten la creatividad. +Yo sola dibujar. Pens ser una artista +Dibuj un caniche miniatura. +No estaba mal, pero no era muy creativo. +Porque lo que hice fue representarlo de una sola forma. +Y creo que probablemente estaba copiado de un libro. +As que no era muy brillante en un rea en que quera serlo, y una lo sabe, lo ve en los resultados, y eso sin ser malos, pero realmente no predecan lo que un da hara: vivir creando ingeniosas composiciones de palabras. +Adems, uno de los principios de la creatividad es tener un pequeo trauma infantil. +Y yo he tenido el tipo de trauma que creo que mucha gente ha tenido, y es que tuve muchas expectativas puestas en m. +Esa figura de ah, por cierto, es un juguete que me dieron cuando tena nueve aos, para que me ayudase a ser mdico desde una edad muy temprana. +Hubo otros que duraron ms: desde los cinco aos hasta los 15, se supona que ese sera mi futuro trabajo, y eso caus una sensacin de fracaso. +Hubo sin embargo algo muy real en mi vida que sucedi cuando tena unos 14 aos. +Y es que descubrieron que mi hermano, en 1967, y luego mi padre, seis meses despus, tenan tumores cerebrales. +Y mi madre crey que tena que haber un error, y que ella iba a encontrar el error. Y que ella iba a solucionarlo. +Mi padre era un pastor Baptista, y crea en los milagros, y que la voluntad de Dios se ocupara de ello. +Pero, por supuesto, acab muriendo, seis meses despus. +Despus de eso, mi madre crey que fue el destino, o una maldicin quiso buscar a travs del universo todas las posibles razones de lo que haba ocurrido. +Todas, excepto el azar. Ella no crea en el azar. +Haba una razn para todo. +Y una de las razones, pens, era que su madre, que haba muerto cuando ella era muy joven, estaba enfadada con ella. +Y as que tuve esta idea de la muerte a mi alrededor porque mi madre tambin crea que yo sera la prxima, y ella la siguiente +Y cuando una se enfrenta a la perspectiva de morir muy pronto, comienza a pensar mucho acerca de todo. +Una se hace muy creativa, como instinto de supervivencia. +Y esto, entonces, me llev a mis grandes preguntas. +Que son las mismas que me hago hoy. +Y son: Por qu suceden las cosas, y cmo suceden las cosas? +Y una que mi madre preguntaba: Cmo puedo hacer que las cosas sucedan? +Hay una maravillosa forma de ver estas cuestiones, cuando se escribe una historia. +Porque despus de todo, en ese espacio, entre la pgina 1 y la 300, tienes que responder a esta pregunta de porqu y cmo suceden las cosas, en qu orden suceden. Cules son las influencias? +Cmo puedo yo, como narradora, como escritora, influir en ello? +Y esto es tambin algo que creo que muchos de nuestros cientficos se preguntan. +Es una especie de cosmologa, y yo he desarrollado una cosmologa de mi propio universo, como creadora de ese universo. +Y ya ven, hay muchas idas y vueltas para conseguir que esto suceda, para intentar comprenderlo Aos y aos, muchas veces. +As que cuando miro a la creatividad, creo que es tambin este sentido o esta incapacidad para reprimir mi mirada asocindola a prcticamente cualquier cosa en mi vida. +Y tengo un montn de ellas en lo que ha pasado a lo largo de esta conferencia, en casi a todo lo que ha estado sucediendo. +As que voy a usar, como metfora, esta asociacin: la mecnica cuntica, que no acabo de entender, pero que sin embargo voy a usar como proceso para explicar cmo es la metfora. +As, en la mecnica cuntica, por supuesto, usted tiene energa oscura y materia oscura. +Y es lo mismo en el estudio de estas cuestiones y de cmo suceden. +Hay mucho que se desconoce, y a menudo no se sabe qu es, salvo por su ausencia. +Pero cuando se hacen esas asociaciones, se desea que se renan en una especie de sinerga en la historia, y aquello que se encuentra es lo que importa. El significado. +Y eso es lo que busco en mi trabajo, un significado personal. +Tambin est el principio de la incertidumbre, parte de la mecnica cuntica, tal como yo lo entiendo. Y esto ocurre constantemente en la escritura. +Existe el terrible y temido efecto observador, en el cual se est buscando algo, y ya saben, las cosas suceden simultneamente, y se ven de formas diferentes, y se intenta encontrar la relacin. o de qu va esta historia? Y si se intenta demasiado entonces slo conseguirn escribir "acerca de..." +pero no descubrirn nada +de lo que se supone que iban a encontrar, lo que esperaban encontrar, como por serendipia, ya no est all. +Ahora, no quiero olvidar la otra cara de lo que pasa en nuestro universo como muchos de nuestros cientficos hacen +Y por eso voy a lanzar la teora de las cuerdas y decir simplemente que las personas creativas son multidimensionales, y hay once niveles, pienso, de ansiedad +y todos ellos trabajan al mismo tiempo. +Tambin hay una gran pregunta sobre la ambigedad. +Y enlazara esto con algo llamado la constante cosmolgica. +No sabes lo que est funcionando, pero algo est funcionando all. +Y la ambigedad, para m, es muy incmoda en mi vida, y la tengo. Ambigedad moral. +Est constantemente all. Y slo como ejemplo, esto es algo que encontr hace poco. +Es algo que le en un editorial de una mujer que hablaba sobre la guerra en Irak. Y ella deca, "salva a un hombre de ahogarse, y sers responsable de l de por vida". +Es un famoso proverbio chino, deca +y ese es el significado de porqu fuimos a Irak, por qu debemos quedarnos all hasta solucionar las cosas. Ya saben, puede que incluso hasta 100 aos. +Hay otra frase que encontr y es "salva a los peces de ahogarse" +y eso es lo que los pescadores budistas dicen porque se supone que no pueden matar nada. +y tambin tienen que ganarse la vida, y la gente necesita alimentarse. +As que su modo de racionalizar es que salvan a los peces de ahogarse, y desafortunadamente en el proceso, los peces mueren. +Bueno, lo que resume estas dos metforas sobre ahogarse en realidad, una de ellas es la interpretacin de mi madre, de ese famoso proverbio chino que ella me cont: "salva a un hombre de ahogarse, y sers responsable de l de por vida". +Era este aviso: no te metas en los asuntos de los otros o te quedars enganchado. +Bien. Y creo que si alguien se estuviese ahogando, ella lo salvara. +Pero ambos refranes, salvar un pez de ahogarse, o salvar a un hombre de ahogarse, para m tienen que ver con intenciones. +Todos nosotros en la vida, viendo una situacin, damos una respuesta. +Y entonces tenemos unas intenciones. +Hay ambigedad sobre lo que debera ser y lo que deberamos hacer, y entonces hacemos algo. +Y los resultados de eso puede que no coincidan con nuestras intenciones. +Puede que nos equivoquemos. Y despus, cules son nuestras responsabilidades? +Qu se supone que hemos de hacer? +Pasamos por la vida, o hacemos algo ms y justificamos y decimos, bueno, mis intenciones eran buenas, y, por tanto, no puedo ser responsable de todo? +Esa es la ambigedad en mi vida que me molestaba y me llev a escribir un libro llamado "Salvando peces de ahogarse" +Veo ejemplos de eso, una vez identificada la cuestin. Est por todas partes. +Hay huellas en todas partes. +Y entonces, de algn modo, supe que siempre haban estado all. +Y al escribir, es lo que me pasa. Encuentro huellas, pistas me doy cuenta que son obvias y que, sin embargo, no lo haban sido. +Lo que necesito, en efecto, es un foco. +Y cuando tengo la pregunta, es como un foco. +Todas esas cosas que parecen deshechos flotantes en la vida, atraviesan esa pregunta, y de repente esas cosas en concreto se vuelven relevantes. +Y parece como si estuviera pasando todo el tiempo. +Piensas que hay algn tipo de coincidencia en marcha, una serendipia, en la que consigues toda esta ayuda del universo. +Y puede explicarse tambin porque ahora tienes un foco. +Y te das cuenta ms a menudo. +Pero aplicas esto. +Empiezas a mirar las cosas que se relacionan con tus tensiones. +Tu hermano, que tiene problemas, te preocupas por l? +Por qu s o por qu no? +Puede que sea algo quiz ms serio como los derechos humanos en Birmania. +Estuve pensando que no debera ir porque alguien dijo que si lo haca, mostrara que aprobaba el rgimen militar all. +Y entonces, al cabo de un rato, tuve que preguntarme, por qu aceptamos los conocimientos? por qu asumimos... lo que otras personas nos dicen? +Y era lo mismo que senta cuando estaba creciendo, y escuchaba esas normas de conducta moral a mi padre, que era un pastor baptista +As que decid que ira a Birmania por mis propias intenciones, y todava no saba que si iba all, ni qu consecuencias podra tener si escriba un libro slo tendra que enfrentarme a eso despus, llegado el momento. +Todos nos preocupamos de cosas que vemos en el mundo de las que somos conscientes. +Llegamos a ese punto y decimos, qu debo hacer como individuo? +No todos nosotros podemos ir a frica, o trabajar en hospitales, as que, qu hacer ante esa respuesta moral, ese sentimiento? +Adems, creo que una de las cosas ms grandes que observamos, y de las que hablamos hoy, es el genocidio. +Esto nos lleva a esta pregunta, +Parece obvio, pero no lo es. +Todos odiamos la ambigedad moral en cierto sentido, y, sin embargo, es absolutamente necesaria. +Escribir una historia, ese es el lugar donde yo empiezo. +A veces tengo la ayuda del universo, parece. +Mi madre dira que es el espritu de mi abuela desde mi primer libro, porque pareca que supiera cosas que se supona que no s. +En lugar de escribir que la abuela muri accidentalmente, de una sobredosis de opio mientras pasaba un buen rato, en realidad anot en la historia que la mujer se suicid, y eso es en realidad lo que ocurri. +Y mi madre decidi que esa informacin deba venir de mi abuela. +Hay tambin cosas, bastante extraas, que me proporcionan informacin, que me ayudan en la redaccin de un libro. +En una ocasin, estaba escribiendo una historia que inclua algn tipo de detalle, un periodo de la historia, cierto lugar. +Y tena que encontrar algo que histricamente coincidiera con eso. +Y aprovech este libro, y yo en la primera pgina que abr estaba exactamente la situacin y el periodo de tiempo. Y el tipo de personaje que necesitaba era la rebelin de Taiping, que tuvo lugar en la zona cercana a Qualin, fuera de ella, y un personaje que pensaba que era el hijo de Dios. +Pueden preguntarse, estas cosas suceden oportunamente por azar? +Y bien, qu es el azar? qu es la oportunidad? qu es la suerte? +Cules son las cosas que obtienes de un universo que no puedes explicar? +Y eso entra tambin en la historia. +Estas son las cosas en las que pienso constantemente da a da. +Especialmente cuando suceden cosas buenas, y en particular, cuando suceden cosas malas. +Pero pienso que hay una especie de serendipia, y quiero saber lo que son esos elementos, para poder agradecerles, y tambin para intentar encontrarlos en mi vida. +Porque de nuevo, creo que cuanto ms consciente soy de ellos, ms suceden. +Otro hallazgo oportuno ocurri cuando fui a un lugar slo estaba con unos amigos y viajamos por azar a un sitio distinto, y terminamos en este lugar no turstico, un hermoso pueblo, inexplorado. +Caminamos tres valles ms all, y en el tercer valle haba algo bastante misterioso y abominable, Me senta incmoda. Y entonces supe que tena que comenzar mi libro. +Y al escribir una de las escenas, suceda en ese tercer valle. +Por alguna razn escrib sobre los montones de piedras que un hombre levantaba. +No saba exactamente porqu lo escriba, pero era algo muy vvido. +Me qued parada y una amiga me pregunt si iba a dar un paseo con sus perros, dije, "claro". Y unos 45 minutos despus, caminando por la playa, me encontr con esto. +Era un hombre, un hombre chino, que estaba apilando estas cosas, no con cola, sin nada. +Y le pregunt: "cmo es posible hacer eso?" +Y me dijo: "bueno, supongo que, como todo en la vida, hay un punto de equilibrio. +Y ese era exactamente el significado de mi historia en ese punto. +Tengo muchos ejemplos - muchos ejemplos como este cuando escribo una historia, y no puedo explicarlos. +Es porque tengo una especie de filtro que busca fuertes coincidencias al escribir sobre estas cosas? +o es una especie de serendipia que no podemos explicar, como la constante cosmolgica? +Otra gran cuestin sobre la que pienso son los accidentes. +Como ya dije, mi madre no crea en el azar. +Cul es la naturaleza de los accidentes? +Y cmo asignaremos cual es la responsabilidad y cules son las causas, fuera de un tribunal de justicia? +Lo pude ver de primera mano, cuando fui al hermoso pueblo de Dong, en Guizhou, la provincia ms pobre de China. +Vi ese hermoso lugar. Supe que quera regresar. +Tuve la oportunidad de hacerlo cuando el National Geographic me pregunt si quera escribir algo sobre China. +Y dije que s, sobre este pueblo de Singing, de la minora Singing +Estuvieron de acuerdo y entre el momento que vi este lugar y la vez siguiente que fui, ocurri un terrible accidente. Un hombre, un anciano, se qued dormido, y su edredn cay en un brasero que lo mantena caliente. +60 hogares se destruyeron y 40 sufrieron daos. +Se atribuy la responsabilidad a la familia. +Sus hijos fueron desterrados a tres km de distancia, en un cobertizo de vacas. +Y por supuesto, como occidentales, decimos: "bueno, fue un accidente. No es justo. +Ellos eran los hijos, no el padre. +Y cuando voy a la historia, debo abandonar ese tipo de pensamientos. +Se tarda un poco, pero tengo que dejarlos y simplemente ir all, estar all. +Por eso estuve all en tres ocasiones, en diferentes pocas. +Y empec a sentir algo distinto sobre esa historia y sobre lo que haba pasado antes, y sobre la forma de vida en un pueblo tan pobre y lo que all se encuentra, como alegras, rituales, tradiciones, vnculos con otras familias. Vi como haba una especia de justicia en esa responsabilidad. +Pude conocer tambin la ceremonia que utilizaban, una ceremonia que no se haba usado en 29 aos. Consista en enviar algunos hombres - un maestro de Feng Shui envi hombres al inframundo en caballos fantasma. +Ahora ustedes, como occidentales, y yo, como occidental, diramos "bueno, eso es una supersiticin. Pero despus de pasar all un tiempo, y ver las cosas asombrosas que ocurrieron, empiezas a preguntarte de quin son las creencias que operan en el mundo, determinando como suceden las cosas. +Pasan los aos, por supuesto, y escribir no ocurre de forma instantnea, de eso intento convencerles aqu en TED. +El libro viene y se va. Cuando se termina, ya no es mi libro. +Est en manos de los lectores y ellos lo interpretan de forma distinta. +Pero vuelvo a esta pregunta de cmo creo algo de la nada? +y cmo crear en mi propia vida? +y pienso que es preguntndomelo, y dicindome que no hay verdades absolutas. +Creo en los detalles, los detalles de la historia, y en el pasado, los detalles de ese pasado, y lo que sucede en la historia en ese punto. +Tambin creo que pensando en esas cosas, mis pensamientos sobre la suerte, el destino, las coincidencias y los accidentes, la voluntad de Dios y la sincrona con las fuerzas misteriosas, llegar a la idea de qu es, de cmo crear. +Tengo que pensar en mi papel. Dnde estoy en el universo, y alguien piensa que sea as para m, o slo es algo con lo que vengo? +Tambin puedo descubrir que si imagino completamente y se cumple lo que se imagina, y est en ese mundo real, el mundo ficticio. +As es como encuentro partculas de la verdad, no la verdad absoluta, o la verdad completa. +Tienen que existir en todas las posibilidades, incluso las que nunca he considerado antes. +Por tanto no hay nunca respuestas completas. +O mejor, si hay una respuesta, es que tengo que recordarme a m misma que no hay certidumbre en nada, y que eso es bueno. Porque entonces descubrir algo nuevo. +Si hay una respuesta parcial, una respuesta ma ms completa, es simplemente imaginar. +Imaginar es colocarme en esa historia hasta que exista de forma nica - hay una transparencia entre la historia que estoy creando y yo misma. +As es como descubr que siento lo que hay en la historia - en la nica historia - entonces me acerco mucho ms, creo, a saber lo que es la compasin, sentir esa compasin. +Porque respecto a todo, en esa pregunta de cmo suceden las cosas, tiene relacin con el sentimiento. +Me convierto en la historia para comprender mucho de ella. +Hemos llegado al final de la charla, y voy a revelar lo que hay en la bolsa, es la musa, son las cosas que transforman nuestras vidas, que son maravillosas y permanecen con nosotros. +Ah est. +Muchas gracias. +En el ao 1919 un matemtico Alemn, prcticamente desconocido, llamado Theodor Kaluza sugiri una idea muy audaz, y de algn modo, muy extraa. +l propuso que nuestro universo podra realmente tener ms de las tres dimensiones de las que todos somos conscientes. +Esto es en adicin a izquierda, derecha, adelante, atrs, arriba y abajo, Kaluza propuso que podran existir dimensiones adicionales del espacio que por alguna razn an no somos capaces de ver +Ahora, cuando alguien expone una idea audaz y extraa algunas veces eso es todo: es audaz y extraa, pero no tiene nada que ver con el mundo que nos rodea. +Sin embargo, esta idea en concreto -- aunque no sabemos todava si es correcta o no, y al final dar detalles de experimentos que, en los prximos aos, podran decirnos si es o no correcta -- esta idea ha tenido, en el ltimo siglo, un gran impacto en fsica y contina generando una gran cantidad de investigacin de vanguardia. +Por lo tanto, me encantara decirles algunas cosas sobre la historia de esas dimensiones adicionales. +Entonces, por donde empezamos? +Para iniciar, debemos recordar un poco la historia. Volvamos a 1907. +Este es el ao, cuando Einstein estaba en todo su apogeo al haber descubierto la Teora Especial de la Relatividad y decide iniciar un nuevo proyecto -- el de tratar de entender totalmente, la omnipresente fuerza de gravedad. +En ese momento, hay muchas personas que pensaban que aquel proyecto ya haba sido resuelto. +Newton haba dado al mundo, a finales de 1600, una teora de la gravedad que funciona bien, describe el movimiento de los planetas, el movimiento de la luna y todo lo dems, el movimiento de supuestas manzanas que caen de los rboles golpeando en la cabeza a la gente. +Todo aquello,se poda describir usando el trabajo de Newton. +Pero Einstein se dio cuenta de que Newton se haba dejado algo, porque incluso, el mismo Newton haba escrito que aunque entenda cmo calcular el efecto de la gravedad, no haba podido descifrar cmo funciona realmente. +Cmo es posible que el Sol, estando alejado a 93 millones de millas afecte de alguna forma el movimiento de la tierra? +Cmo hace el sol para atravesar el espacio vaco e inerte y ejercer su influencia? +Y esa fue la tarea que Einstein se encomend a si mismo -- descubrir cmo trabaja la gravedad. +Y permtanme mostrarles qu es lo que encontr. +Einstein encontr que el medio que trasmite la gravedad es el mismo espacio. +La idea funciona as: imaginemos que el espacio es la base de todo lo que existe. +Einstein dijo que el espacio es plano y ntido, en ausencia de materia. +pero si hay materia en el entorno, por ejemplo el Sol, eso causa que el tejido del espacio se deforme, se curve. +Y eso nos indica la presencia de la fuerza de gravedad. +Incluso la tierra deforma el espacio a su alrededor. +Ahora miremos a la luna. +La luna, de acuerdo a estas ideas, se mantiene en rbita debido a que rueda a travs de un valle en el espacio curvado que el sol, la luna y la tierra crean en virtud de su propia presencia +Aqui tenemos una vista completa de esto. +La tierra misma se mantiene en rbita porque rueda por un valle en el espacio que est curvado debido a la presencia del sol. +Esa es la nueva idea acerca de cmo trabaja realmente la gravedad. +Bien, esta idea fue probada en 1919 por medio de observaciones astronmicas. +Realmente funciona. Describe los datos. +y sto hizo ganar a Einstein fama en todo el mundo. +y eso es lo que mantuvo a Kaluza pensando. +l, como Einstein, estuvo buscando lo que llamamos una "teora unificada" +Esa es una teora que podra describir todas las fuerzas de la naturaleza desde un solo grupo de ideas un solo grupo de principios, una sola ecuacin maestra, si lo desean. +Asi que Kaluza, se dijo a si mismo, Einstein ha sido capaz de describir la gravedad en trminos de deformacin y curvaturas en el espacio -- de hecho, espacio y tiempo, para ser mas precisos. +Tal vez, yo podra aplicar el mismo principio con otra fuerza, que en esa poca era conocida como fuerza electromagntica -- sabemos de otras ahora, pero en esa poca esa era la nica en la que pensaba la gente. +Ya saben, la fuerza responsable de la electricidad y la atraccin magntica y eso. +As que Kaluza se dijo, quizs pueda aplicar el mismo concepto y describir la fuerza electromagntica en trminos de curvaturas y deformaciones. +Eso trajo una pregunta: deformaciones y curvas dnde? +Einstein haba usado ya el espacio y el tiempo, deformaciones y curvaturas, para describir la gravedad. +No pareca existir algo ms para deformar o curvar. +As que Kaluza se dijo, bien, tal vez existen ms dimensiones en el espacio. +Se dijo, si quiero describir una fuerza ms, puede que necesite una dimensin ms. +Y cuando mir esa ecuacin. No era ni ms ni menos que la ecuacin que por mucho tiempo, los cientficos han usado para describir la fuerza electromagntica. +Increble -- simplemente apareci +Estaba tan entusiasmado por este descubrimiento que sali corriendo de su casa gritando, "Victoria!"-- pensando que haba descubierto la teora unificada. +Claramente, Kaluza, fue un hombre que se tomaba la teora muy en serio. +l, de hecho -- hay una historia de cuando l quiso aprender a nadar, ley un libro, un tratado sobre natacin -- -- Risas -- -- y se tir al mar. +ste era un hombre que arriesgaba incluso su propia vida por la teora. +Ahora, pero para todos los que somos de mente un poco ms prctica, dos preguntas nacen inmediatamente de sus observaciones. +Primera: si hay ms dimensiones en el espacio, dnde estn? +No parece que las podamos ver. +Y segundo: funciona esta teora al detalle, cuando tratas de aplicarla en el mundo que nos rodea? +Bien, la primera pregunta fue contestada en 1926 por un colega llamado Oskar Klein. +l sugiri que las dimensiones podran existir en dos variedades -- podra haber dimensiones grandes, fciles de ver, pero tambin podra haber dimensiones pequeas y onduladas, onduladas en forma tan pequea, que aunque estn alrededor nuestro, no las vemos. +Permtanme mostrarles una visualmente. +Imaginen que estn observando algo como el cable que soporta un semforo. +Estn en Manhattan, en Central Park -- es irrelevante -- el cable parece unidimensional visto de lejos, pero todos sabemos que el cable tiene espesor. +Es difcil de ver desde lejos +pero si nos acercamos y lo vemos desde la perspectiva de, por ejemplo, una pequea hormiga que pase -- las hormigas, son tan pequeas que pueden tener acceso a todas las dimensiones -- la dimensin a lo largo pero tambin esta direccin hacia y en contra las manecillas del reloj +y espero que puedan apreciar esto. +Tom mucho tiempo hacer que estas hormigas hagan esto. +Djenme mostrarles lo que parecera eso. +Si observamos, digamos, el espacio en s mismo-- Slo les puedo mostrar en la pantalla, por supuesto, dos dimensiones +Pero profundamente entrelazado en el tejido del espacio, la idea es que podra haber ms dimensiones de las que vemos. +Eso es una explicacin de cmo el universo podra tener mas dimensiones de las que podemos observar. +Pero qu hay de la segunda pregunta que hice: funciona la teora realmente al tratar de aplicarla al mundo real? +Bueno, resulta que Einstein, Kaluza y muchos otros trabajaron para tratar de refinar este esquema y aplicarlo a la fsica del universo tal y como se entenda en ese tiempo, y no funcion. +En detalle, por ejemplo, no pudieron hacer que la masa del electrn encajase correctamente en esta teora. +Muchas personas trabajaron en ella, pero ya para los aos 40, ms en los 50 esta idea tan extraa pero apasionante de cmo unificar las leyes de la fsica se haban desvanecido. +Hasta que en nuestra poca, algo maravilloso sucedi. +En nuestra era, se persigue un nuevo enfoque para unificar las leyes de la fsica por parte de fsicos como yo mismo, y muchos otros alrededor del mundo. Se llama la Teora de Supercuerdas, como estaban indicando. +Y lo ms maravilloso es que esta teora de supercuerdas a primera vista no tiene nada que ver con la idea de dimensiones adicionales, pero cuando estudiamos la teora de las supercuerdas, encontramos que la idea surge nuevamente pero en una nueva forma. +Dejen que les explique cmo se explica eso. +Teora de Supercuerdas -- qu es? +Pues bien, es una teora que trata de responder lo siguiente: Cules son los constituyentes indivisibles bsicos y fundamentales que conforman todo lo que existe en el mundo que nos rodea? +La idea es sta. +Imaginen que vemos un objeto familiar, como una vela en un recipiente, e imaginen que tratamos de descubrir, de que est hecha. +As que comenzamos un viaje muy profundo dentro del objeto para examinar su constitucin. +Tan profundo - que sabemos que si nos adentramos suficiente, encontraremos tomos. +Y todos sabemos que los tomos no son el final. +Ellos tienen electrones que se mueven alrededor de un ncleo central junto a neutrones y protones +Incluso los neutrones y protones contienen particulas mas pequeas dentro de ellos, conocidas como quarks. +All es donde las ideas convencionales se detienen. +Y aqu nace la nueva idea de la teora de cuerdas. +Profundamente dentro de estas partculas, hay algo ms. +Esto adicional es este filamento de energa bailarn. +que parece una cuerda vibrando -- y de ah es de donde viene la teora de cuerdas. +Y as como las cuerdas que vibran en el cello que acaban de ver pueden vibrar segn diferentes patrones, stas pueden tambin vibrar segn diferentes patrones. +Ellas no producen notas musicales diferentes +lo que hacen es producir las diferentes partculas que conforman el mundo a nuestro alrededor. +As que si estas ideas son correctas, esto es a lo que se asemeja el paisaje ultramicroscpico del universo. +Est conformado por un enorme nmero de estos pequeos filamentos de energia vibratoria, vibrando en frecuencias diferentes. +Las diferentes frecuencias, producen las diferentes partculas. +Y estas diferentes partculas son las responsables de toda la riqueza del mundo que nos rodea. +Y ah se ve la unificacin, ya que partculas de materia, electrones y quarks, partculas de radiacin, fotones, gravitones, todos se conforman de una sola entidad. +Asi materia y las fuerzas de la naturaleza, se ponen todas juntas bajo la rbrica de las cuerdas vibratorias. +Y eso es lo que denominamos teora unificada. +Ahora, aqu est el truco. +Cuando estudiamos las matemticas de la teora de cuerdas, nos damos cuenta que no funciona en un universo de solo tres dimensiones del espacio. +No funciona en un universo con cuatro dimensiones de espacio, ni cinco ni seis. +Finalmente, puedes estudiar las ecuaciones y demostrar que funciona solamente en un universo que tiene 10 dimensiones espaciales. y una dimension del tiempo. +esto nos lleva de vuelta a la idea de Kaluza y Klein -- de que nuestro mundo, cuando es descrito apropiadamente contiene mas dimensiones de las que somos capaces de observar +Ahora ustedes podrian pensar sobre esto y preguntarse, bien, en realidad, si hay dimensiones adicionales, y estn realmente firmemente onduladas s, es muy probable que no las podamos ver si son lo suficientemente pequeas. +Pero si hay una civilizacin diminuta de personas verdes, caminando por all abajo, y los hacemos lo ms pequeos posible, tampoco los veremos, eso es verdad. +Otra de las otras predicciones de la teora de cuerdas -- en realidad no, esa no es una de las otras predicciones de la teora de cuerdas. +-- Risas -- Pero nos lleva a preguntar: acaso estamos tratando de esconder estas dimensiones adicionales, o realmente nos explican algo acerca del mundo? +En el tiempo que queda, me gustara decirles dos caractersticas de ellas. +La primera es, muchos de nosotros creemos que estas dimensiones adicionales contienen la respuesta a lo que tal vez es la pregunta mas profunda de todas en fsica terica y ciencia terica. +Y esa pregunta es: cuando miramos alrededor del mundo, como los cientficos han hecho en los ltimos cien aos, parece que existen unos 20 nmeros que describen realmente nuestro universo. +Estos son nmeros como la masa de las partculas, como los electrones y quarks, la fuerza de la gravedad, el poder de la fuerza electromagntica -- una lista de alrededor de 20 nmeros que han sido medidos con una precisin increble, pero nadie tiene una explicacin del porqu los nmeros tienen esos valores particulares. +Ahora, nos ofrece la teora de cuerdas una respuesta? +An no. +Pero creemos que la respuesta al porqu esos nmeros tienen esos valores debe descansar en la forma de las dimensiones adicionales. +Y lo ms extraordinario es que si esos nmeros tuvieran otros valores diferentes a los conocidos, el universo, tal como lo conocemos, no existira +Esta es una pregunta muy profunda. +Porqu estos nmeros estan tan afinados que permiten a las estrellas brillar y la formacin de planetas, cuando reconocemos que modificar y jugar con estos nmeros -- si yo tuviera 20 valores aqu y les dejara venir y jugar con esos nmeros, casi cualquier cambio hara desaparecer al universo. +Asi que, es posible explicar estos 20 nmeros? +Y la teora de las cuerdas sugiere que esos 20 nmeros tienen que ver con dimensiones adicionales +Permitanme mostrarles como. +Cuando hablamos de las dimensiones adicionales en la teora de cuerdas no hablamos de una dimensin adicional como en las viejas ideas de Kaluza y Klein. +Esto es lo que la teora de cuerdas nos dice sobre las dimensiones adicionales +Tienen una geometra entrelazada muy rica. +Este es un ejemplo de algo conocido como la forma Calabi-Yau -- el nombre no es tan importante +Pero como pueden observar las dimensiones adicionales se doblan sobre s mismas y se entrelazan en una estructura y forma muy interesante. +Y la idea es que si sto es lo que parecen las dimensiones adicionales, entonces, todo el panorama microscpico de nuestro universo se parecera a esto en las escalas mas diminutas. +Cuando mueven su mano, la estaran moviendo alrededor de estas dimensiones adicionales una y otra vez pero son tan diminutas que no lo sabramos. +entonces, cual es la implicacin fsica, relevante a estos 20 nmeros? +Consideren lo siguiente. Si observan a un instrumento, una trompa noten que las vibraciones del flujo de aire estn afectadas por la forma del instrumento +Ahora, en la teora de cuerdas, todos los nmeros son reflejo de la manera en la que las cuerdas pueden vibrar. +al igual que los flujos de aire se ven afectados por los dobleces y vueltas del instrumento, las mismas cuerdas estaran afectadas por el patrn vibracional de la forma geomtrica por la cual se mueven +Permtanme traer algunas cuerdas al asunto. +Y si ustedes observan a estos pequeos vibrar por aqu -- ellos estarn all en un segundo - all noten que la forma en la que vibran esta afectada por la forma geomtrica de las dimensiones adicionales. +As que si conociramos exactamente cmo son las dimensiones adicionales -- an no lo sabemos, pero si lo supiramos seramos capces de calcular las notas permitidas, los patrones de vibracin permitidos. +Y si pudieramos calcular esos patrones vibracionales permitidos deberamos ser capaces de calcular esos 20 nmeros. +Y si la respuesta que obtenemos de nuestros clculos concuerda con los valores de esos nmeros que han sido determinados a travs de una experimentacin detallada y precisa, esto sera, de alguna manera, la primera explicacin fundamental del porqu la estructura del universo es de la forma que es +La segunda parte con la cual deseo terminar es: de qu manera podemos experimentar con estas dimensiones adicionales ms directamente? +Es esto acaso una estructura matemtica muy interesante que nos permitira explicar algunas caractersticas no explicadas de nuestro mundo, o en realidad s podemos experimentar estas dimensiones adicionales? +Y creemos -- y esto es, yo creo, muy excitante -- que en los prximos cinco aos o as, seremos capaces de experimentar la existencia de estas dimensiones adicionales. +Y as es como lo haremos. En Ginebra, Suiza, en el CERN una mquina esta siendo construda, llamada el Gran Colisionador de Partculas +es una mquina, que enviar particulas a travs de un tunel en direcciones opuestas, a una velocidad prxima a la velocidad de la luz +De vez en cuando, estas partculas sern dirigidas unas contra otras, para que se produzca una colisin frontal. +Nuestra esperanza es que si esta colisin tiene suficiente energa podra esparcir los restos de la colisin fuera de nuestras dimensiones, forzndolos a entrar en las otras dimensiones. +Y cmo lo sabremos? +Bien, mediremos la cantidad de energa despus de la colisin, la compararemos con la cantidad de energa anterior a ella, y si hay menos energa despus de la colisin que antes de ella eso nos dar la evidencia que la energa se ha escapado +Y si se escapa en un patrn que podamos calcular, ser la evidencia de que las dimensiones adicionales estn ah. +Les muestro la idea en forma visual. +Imaginemos que tenemos un cierto tipo de partcula llamada gravitn -- este es el tipo de resto que esperamos se produzca si las dimensiones adicionales son reales +Pero el experimento ser as. +Tomamos las partculas, las golpeamos todas juntas +Las golpeamos todas juntas y si estamos en lo correcto algo de la energa de esa colisin se se ir en restos que se dispersarn en esas dimensiones adicionales +Asi que este es el tipo de experimento que estamos esperando observar de aqui en los prximos cinco, siete, o diez aos o as. +Y si este experimento produce los resultados deseados si podemos observar ese tipo de partcula siendo esparcida notando que existe menos energa en nuestra dimensiones que cuando empezamos, esto demostrar que las dimensiones adicionales son reales +y para mi esta es realmente una historia formidable, y una oportunidad muy notable. Volviendo nuevamente a Newton con el espacio absoluto -- no nos dio nada ms que un campo, un escenario en el que tienen lugar los acontecimientos del universo. +Einstein llega y dice, bueno, el espacio y el tiempo se pueden deformar y curvar, eso es la gravedad. +Y ahora, la teora de las cuerdas llega y dice, si, gravedad, mecnica cuntica, electromagnetismo -- todas en un solo paquete, pero slo si el universo tiene mas dimensiones de las que podemos observar. +Y este es un experimento que puede buscarlas en nuestra era. +Una posibilidad sorprendente. +Gracias, muchas gracias +Una forma de cambiar nuestros genes es hacer nuevos, como Craig Venter mostr tan elegantemente. +Otra es cambiar nuestro estilo de vida. +Y lo que estamos aprendiendo es cun profundos y rpidos esos cambios pueden ser, que no tienes que esperar mucho para ver los beneficios. +Cuando comes ms sano, controlas el estrs, haces ejercicio y amas ms, tu cerebro de hecho recibe ms flujo sanguneo y ms oxgeno. +Pero ms que eso, tu cerebro se vuelve perceptiblemente ms grande. +Cosas que se crean imposibles apenas hace unos aos pueden de hecho ahora ser medidas. +Esto lo sac en claro Robin Williams unos aos antes que el resto de nosotros. +Hay algunas cosas que puedes hacer para que tu cerebro desarrolle nuevas neuronas. +Algunas de mis cosas favoritas, como chocolate y t, arndanos, alcohol en moderacin, control de estrs, y cannabinoides de la marihuana. +Soy slo el mensajero. +De qu estbamos hablando? +Y otras cosas que lo empeoran, que pueden causarte prdida de neuronas. +Los sospechosos de siempre, como grasa saturada y azcar, nicotina, opiceos, demasiado alcohol y estrs crnico. +Tu piel recibe ms flujo sanguneo cuando cambias tu estilo de vida, as que envejeces ms lentamente, tu piel no se arruga tanto; +tu corazn recibe ms irrigacin. +Hemos mostrado posible la reversin de enfermedades cardacas, +que esas arterias obstruidas que ven arriba a la izquierda, slo 1 ao despus estn mensurablemente menos obstruidas. +Y la tomografa cardaca TEP mostrada abajo a la izquierda, azul significa ausencia de flujo sanguneo. +Un ao despus: naranja y blanco son irrigacin mxima. +Hemos mostrado que quizs seas capaz de detener y revertir el avance de cncer de prstata temprano, y por ende, cncer de mama, simplemente haciendo estos cambios. +Hemos encontrado que el crecimiento de tumores in vitro fue inhibido 70% en el grupo que hizo estos cambios, mientras slo fue 9% en el grupo de control. +Esas diferencias fueron altamente significativas. +Incluso tus rganos sexuales obtienen ms irrigacin, as que incrementas tu potencia sexual. +Uno de los anuncios antitabaco ms efectivos fue hecho por el Departamento de Servicios Sanitarios, mostrando que la nicotina, que estrecha tus arterias, puede causar un ataque cardaco o una apopleja, pero que tambin causa impotencia. +La mitad de los que fuman son impotentes. +Qu tan sexy es eso? +Estamos a punto de publicar un estudio, mostrando que puedes cambiar la expresin gnica en hombres con cncer prosttico. +Esto es llamado un mapa de calor con diferentes colores, y del lado derecho hay diferentes genes. +Y encontramos que ms de 500 genes fueron cambiados favorablemente encendiendo en efecto a los genes buenos, los que previenen la enfermedad y apagando a los genes que la favorecen. +As que creo que esos hallazgos son realmente muy poderosos dando a mucha gente nuevas esperanzas y opciones. +Y empresas como Navigenix, DNA Direct y 23andMe, que estn brindndote perfiles genticos, le estn dando a pensar a algunas personas: "Caray, que puedo hacer al respecto?" +Bueno, nuestros genes no son nuestro destino, y si hacemos estos cambios; son una predisposicin, pero si hacemos cambios mayores que los que hubiramos hecho de otra manera, podemos de hecho cambiar cmo nuestros genes son expresados. +Gracias. +ste es el Gran Colisionador de Hadrones. +Tiene 27 kilmetros de circunferencia, +es el experimento cientfico ms grande jams intentado. +Ms de 10,000 fsicos e ingenieros de 85 pases de todo el mundo se han reunido durante varias dcadas para construir esta mquina. +Lo que hacemos es acelerar protones, esto es, ncleos de hidrgeno, a aproximadamente 99.999999% de la velocidad de la luz. +Correcto? A esa velocidad, recorren esos 27 kilmetros 11,000 veces en un segundo. +Y los hacemos chocar con otro haz de protones que vienen en la direccin opuesta. +Los hacemos chocar dentro de detectores gigantes. +Son esencialmente cmaras digitales. +Y sta es en la que yo trabajo, ATLAS. +Pueden darse una idea del tamao, viendo abajo a esa persona de tamao estndar para la Unin Europea. +Se dan una idea del tamao: 44 metros de ancho, 22 metros de dimetro, 7,000 toneladas. +Y recreamos las condiciones que estaban presentes menos de una mil millonsima de segundo despus del principio del universo, hasta 600 millones de veces por segundo, dentro de ese detector, nmeros inmensos. +Y si ven esas piezas de metal de ah, esos son enormes magnetos que doblan partculas elctricamente cargadas, para poder medir que tan rpido se mueven. +Esta es una fotografa de hace un ao. +Los magnetos estn ah dentro. +Y, nuevamente, una persona real de tamao estndar en la UE, para que tengan idea de la escala. +Y es ah dentro que esos mini-Big Bangs sern creados, en algn momento del verano de este ao. +Y de hecho, esta maana, recib un email diciendo que acabamos de terminar, hoy, de construir la ltima pieza de ATLAS. +As que al da de hoy, est terminado. Me gustara decir que plane esto para TED, pero no lo hice. As que ha sido completado al da de hoy. +S, es un logro maravilloso. +As que podran estar preguntando, "Por qu?, +Por qu crear las condiciones que estaban presentes menos de una mil millonsima de segundo despus de que el universo comenzara?" +Si los fsicos de partculas son algo, es ser ambiciosos. +Y el objetivo de la fsica de partculas es entender de qu est hecho todo, y como es que todo se mantiene junto. +Y cuando digo "todo", quiero decir por supuesto, t y yo, la Tierra, el Sol, los cientos de miles de millones de soles en nuestra galaxia y los cientos de miles de millones de galaxias del universo observable. +Absolutamente todo. +Podran decir: "Bueno, pero porqu no verlo solamente? +Si quieres saber de qu estoy hecho, obsrvame." +Bueno, descubrimos que cuando ves hacia atrs en el tiempo, el universo se va volviendo ms y ms caliente, ms y ms denso, y ms y ms simple. +Que yo sepa, no existe ninguna razn para ello, pero se parece ser el caso. +As que, muy atrs en las edades tempranas del universo, creemos que era muy simple y entendible. +Toda esta complejidad, todo el recorrido hasta estas cosas maravillosas, los cerebros humanos, son una propiedad de un viejo y fro y complicado universo. +En el principio, en la primera mil millonsima de segundo, creemos, o hemos observado, era muy simple. +Es casi como... +Imaginen a un copo de nieve en su mano, y lo observan, y es un objeto increblemente complicado y hermoso. Pero cuando lo calientan, se derrite en un charco de agua, y seras capaz de ver que en realidad estaba hecho solamente de H20, agua. +As que es en el mismo sentido que vemos atrs en el tiempo para entender de qu est hecho el universo. +Y al da de hoy, est hecho de estas cosas. +Slo 12 partculas de materia, que se mantienen juntas mediante 4 fuerzas de la naturaleza. +Los quarks, estas cosas rosas, son los componentes de los protones y los neutrones que componen los ncleos atmicos en tu cuerpo. +El electrn, la cosa que va alrededor del ncleo atmico, se mantiene en rbita, por cierto, gracias a la fuerza electromagntica, que es transportada por esta cosa, el fotn. +Los quarks se mantienen juntos gracias a otras cosas llamadas gluones. +Y estos amigos de aqu, ellos son la fuerza nuclear dbil, probablemente la menos conocida. +Pero sin ella el Sol no brillara. +Y cuando el Sol brilla, consigues copiosas cantidades de estas cosas llamadas neutrinos saliendo a raudales. +De hecho, con que observen la ua de su pulgar, alrededor de un centmetro cuadrado, hay algo como, son ms o menos 60 mil millones de neutrinos por segundo provenientes del Sol, pasando a travs de cada centmetro cuadrado de tu cuerpo. +Pero no los sientes porque la fuerza dbil tiene el nombre correcto. Un alcance muy corto y muy dbil, as que slo pasan volando a travs de ti. +Y esas partculas han sido descubiertas durante el siglo pasado, en su gran mayora. +La primera, el electrn, fue descubierta en 1897, y la ltima, esta cosa llamada el tau-neutrino, en el ao 2000. De hecho, atrs, Iba a decir, atrs a la vuela de la esquina en Chicago. S que es un pas grande, Estados Unidos verdad? +A la vuelta de la esquina. +Con respecto al universo, es a la vuelta de la esquina. +As que, esta cosa fue descubierta en el ao 2000, as que es una imagen relativamente reciente. +Una de las cosas que encuentro maravillosas es que hayamos descubierto cualquiera de ellos, cuando te das cuenta de cuan pequeos son. +Saben, son un salto en escala con respecto a todo el universo observable. +As que 100 mil millones de galaxias, a 13.7 mil millones de aos de distancia, un cambio de escala de eso a Monterey, en realidad, es casi lo mismo que de Monterey a estas cosas. +Absolutamente, exquisitamente diminutos, y sin embargo hemos descubierto prcticamente al juego completo. +As que, uno de mis ms ilustres antepasados en la Universidad de Manchester, Ernest Rutherford, descubridor de los ncleos atmicos, dijo una vez: "Toda ciencia es fsica o filatelia". +Ahora, no creo que el quisiera insultar al resto de la ciencia, aunque era de Nueva Zelanda, as que es posible. +Lo que quiso decir fue que lo que hemos hecho, ah en realidad, es filatelia. +OK, hemos descubierto las partculas, pero a menos que entiendas la razn subyacente para ese patrn, es decir, porqu est construido de la forma que lo es, en realidad lo que has hecho es filatelia, no has hecho ciencia. +Afortunadamente, tenemos probablemente a uno de los ms grandes logros cientficos del siglo XX para apuntalar ese patrn. +Son las leyes de Newton, por decirlo as, de la fsica de partculas. +Es llamado el "modelo estndar", una ecuacin matemtica hermosamente simple. +Podran ponerla en el frente de una playera, lo cual es siempre el signo de la elegancia. +Aqu est. +No he sido completamente sincero, porque la he expandido en todo su salvaje detalle. +Esta ecuacin, sin embargo, te permite calcular todo, lo que ocurre en el universo, excepto la gravedad. +As que cuando quieres saber por qu el cielo es azul, por qu los ncleos atmicos permanecen unidos, en principio, con una computadora lo suficientemente grande, por qu el DNA tiene la forma que tiene. +En principio, deberas ser capaz de calcularlo a partir de esa ecuacin. +Pero hay un problema. +Alguien puede ver cul es? +Una botella de champn para quien me lo diga. +Lo har ms fcil, de hecho, destacando una de las lneas. +Bsicamente, cada uno de esos trminos se refiere a algunas de las partculas. +As que esas Ws de ah se refieren a las Ws, y a por qu se mantienen unidas. +Esas portadoras de la fuerza dbil, las zetas, lo mismo. +Pero existe un smbolo extra en esta ecuacin: H. +Correcto, H. +H quiere decir partcula de Higgs. +Las partculas de Higgs no han sido descubiertas. +Pero son necesarias. Son necesarias para que las matemticas funcionen. +As que todos los clculos exquisitamente detallados que podemos hacer con esa maravillosa ecuacin no seran posibles sin algo extra. +As que es una prediccin, la prediccin de una partcula nueva. +Qu es lo que hace? +Bueno, hemos tenido tiempo para encontrar buenas analogas. +Y all en los 80s, cuando queramos el dinero del gobierno de GB para el LHC, Margaret Thatcher, en esa ocasin, dijo, "Si me pueden explicar, en lenguaje que un poltico pueda entender, qu diablos es lo que estn haciendo, pueden tener el dinero. +Quiero saber que es lo que hace esta partcula de Higgs." +Y salimos con esta analoga y pareci funcionar. +Lo que la Higgs hace es dar masa a partculas fundamentales. +Y el cuadro es que el universo entero, y eso no slo significa espacio, significa tambin yo y ustedes, el universo completo est lleno de algo llamado un campo de Higgs. +Partculas de Higgs, si as lo quieren. +La analoga es que esas personas en un saln son las partculas de Higgs. +Cuando una partcula se mueve a travs del universo, puede interactuar con esas partculas de Higgs. +Pero imaginen que alguien que no es muy popular pasa a travs del saln. +Entonces todos lo ignoran. Pueden pasar por el saln muy rpidamente, esencialmente a la velocidad de la luz. No tienen masa. +E imaginen a alguien increblemente importante y popular e inteligente que entra en el saln. +Son rodeados de personas, y su paso es impedido. +Es casi como si se volvieran pesados. Se vuelven masivos. +Y esa es exactamente la forma en que el mecanismo de Higgs funciona. +La idea es que los electrones y los quarks en tu cuerpo y en el universo que vemos a nuestro alrededor son pesados, en cierto sentido, y masivos, porque estn rodeados de partculas de Higgs. +Interactan con el campo de Higgs. +Si esa idea es correcta, entonces tenemos que descubrir a esas partculas de Higgs en el LHC. +Si no es cierto, porque es un mecanismo algo enrevesado, aunque es el ms simple que hemos sido capaces de concebir, entonces lo que sea que haga el trabajo de las partculas de Higgs sabemos que tiene que mostrarse en el LHC. +As que esa es una de las razones principales por las que construimos esta mquina gigante. +Me da gusto que reconozcan a Margaret Thatcher. +Pens en hacerlo ms relevante culturalmente, pero... ...como sea. +As que eso es una cosa. +sa es esencialmente una garanta de lo que el LHC encontrar. +Hay muchas otras cosas. Han escuchado de muchos de los grandes problemas en fsica de partculas. +De uno de estos han odo hablar: materia oscura, energa oscura. +Ah hay otro problema, el cual es que las fuerzas de la naturaleza, es algo muy hermoso de hecho, parece que, cuando vas regresando en el tiempo, parecieran cambiar en intensidad. +Bueno, de hecho cambian en intensidad. +As que la fuerza electromagntica, la fuerza que nos mantiene unidos, se vuelve ms fuerte conforme llegas a temperaturas ms altas. +La fuerza fuerte, la fuerza nuclear fuerte, que mantiene los ncleos unidos, se vuelve ms dbil. Y lo que ves es que el modelo estndar puedes cambiar cmo esos cambian, son las fuerzas, las tres fuerzas, aparte de la gravedad, casi parecen converger en un punto. +Es casi como si hubiera un hermoso tipo de sper fuerza, all en el principio del tiempo. +Pero fallan por poco. +Existe una teora llamada sper simetra, que duplica el nmero de partculas del modelo estndar. Lo cual, a primera vista, no suena como una simplificacin. +Pero en realidad, con esta teora, encontramos que las fuerzas de la naturaleza parecen unificarse, en el momento del Big Bang. Una profeca absolutamente hermosa. El modelo no fue construido para hacer eso, pero parece hacerlo. +Tambin, esas partculas sper simtricas son candidatos muy fuertes para la materia oscura. +As que una teora muy atractiva que es en realidad fsica convencional. +Y si yo fuera a apostarle a algo, apostara a, de forma muy poco cientfica, que esas cosas tambin saldran en el LHC. +Muchas otras cosas podra descubrir el LHC. +Pero en los ltimos minutos finales, slo quiero darles una perspectiva diferente de lo que creo que la fsica de partculas realmente significa para m. Fsica de partculas y cosmologa. +Y es que creo que nos ha dado una maravillosa narrativa, casi una historia de la creacin, si les gusta, sobre el universo, que proviene de la ciencia moderna de las ltimas dcadas. +Y dira que merece, en el espritu de la charla de Wade Davis, ser al menos puesta al lado de esas maravillosas historias de la creacin de las personas de los altos Andes y del norte congelado. +Esta es una historia de la creacin, creo, igualmente maravillosa. +La historia dice as: Sabemos que el universo comenz hace 13.7 mil millones de aos, en un estado inmensamente caliente, denso, mucho ms pequeo que un nico tomo. +Empez a expandirse alrededor de una milln-trilln-trillonsima de segundo, creo que me sali bien, despus del Big Bang. +La gravedad se separ de las otras fuerzas. +El universo entonces sufri una expansin exponencial llamada inflacin. +Alrededor de la primer mil millonsima de segundo, el campo de Higgs entr en accin, y los quarks y los gluones y los electrones que nos componen obtuvieron masa. +El universo continu expandindose y enfrindose. +Despus de unos pocos minutos, haba hidrgeno y helio en el universo. Eso era todo. +El universo era alrededor de 75 por ciento hidrgeno, 25 por ciento helio. An lo es hoy. +Continu expandindose por alrededor de 300 millones de aos. +Entonces la luz comenz a viajar por el universo. +Era lo suficientemente grande para ser transparente a la luz, y eso es lo que vemos en la radiacin csmica de fondo que George Smoot describi como ver el rostro de Dios. +Despus de 400 millones de aos, las primeras estrellas se formaron y ese hidrgeno, ese helio, empezaron a cocinarse en elementos ms pesados. +As que los elementos de la vida, carbono, y oxgeno y hierro, todos los elementos que necesitamos para formarnos, fueron cocinados en esas generaciones iniciales de estrellas, las cuales al acabrseles el combustible, explotaron, arrojando esas elementos de regreso en el universo. +Entonces re-colapsaron en otra generacin de estrellas y planetas. +Y en algunos de esos planetas, el oxgeno que haba sido creado en esa primera generacin de estrellas pudo fusionarse con hidrgeno para formar agua, agua lquida en la superficie. +En al menos uno, y quizs en solamente uno de esos planetas, la vida primitiva evolucion, la cual evolucion durante millones de aos en cosas que caminaron erguidos y dejaron huellas hace tres y medio millones de aos en las planicies de barro de Tanzania, y eventualmente dej una huella en otro mundo. +Y construy esta civilizacin, esta maravillosa fotografa, que convierte a la oscuridad en luz, y pueden ver a la civilizacin desde el espacio. +Como uno de mis grandes hroes, Carl Sagan, dijo, "esas son las cosas.." y de hecho, no slo esas, sino viendo alrededor, stas son las cosas, como los cohetes Saturno V, y Sputnik, y DNA, y literatura y ciencia, "Esas son las cosas que los tomos de hidrgeno hacen cuando les das 13.7 mil millones de aos". +Absolutamente extraordinario. +Y leyes fsicas. Correcto? +As pues, las leyes correctas de la fsica estn maravillosamente balanceadas. +Si la fuerza dbil hubiera sido un poco diferente, entonces el carbono y el oxgeno no seran estables en el centro de las estrellas, y no existira ninguno de ellos en el universo. +Y creo que eso es una... una historia maravillosa y relevante. +Hace 50 aos no podra haber contado esa historia, porque no la sabamos. +Eso me hace sentir realmente que esa civilizacin, la cual, como digo, si crees en la historia de la creacin cientfica, ha surgido puramente como resultado de las leyes de la fsica, y unos cuantos tomos de hidrgeno, entonces creo que, a m en cualquier caso, me hace sentir increblemente valioso. +se es el LHC. +Con certeza el LHC, cuando se encienda en el verano, va a escribir el prximo captulo de ese libro. +Y de seguro voy a esperar con inmensa emocin a verlo ser encendido. +Gracias. +Buenos das a todos. +Somos They Might Be Giants. +Llevo puestos los auriculares que us Al Gore en el programa de Larry King y estoy escuchando esa transmisin, no la ma. +Pero supongo que es acorde, por eso ahora tendremos que pasar al PowerPoint, damas y caballeros. +Esta es una nueva cancin. +Siguiendo el espritu de TED, presentaremos algo nunca antes visto. +John, quieres presentar la cancin? +Esta cancin trata de una criatura llamada polilla colibr que imita a otra que a su vez imita a una tercera. +Es algo muy retorcido que slo puede explicarse cantando. +Muchas gracias. +Hemos actuado ms de mil veces. +Quiz unas 1500 veces. +Es difcil de saber. +En 2007, hasta el momento hemos actuado dos veces pero la primer presentacin realmente fue la ms fra de la historia. +Haca -7C en St. Louis hace un mes y me complace informarles que el horario del espectculo de hoy es el ms temprano de la historia. +Muchas gracias. +Somos pilotos de prueba culturales, damas y caballeros. +A qu hora puede empezar un espectculo de rock? +No todo es cuestin de actuar a las 8:30 de la maana. +Sepan que actuar con -7C fue fantstico. +Muy bien. +No sabemos demasiado de la historia de los violinistas pero s sabemos que al ingresar al estado de Nueva Jersey hay un aumento en la violencia. +Esta cancin se llama "Parque Asbury". +Se basa en una experiencia de vida real. +Marty Beller en los tambores por all. +Queremos tocar tantas canciones como sea posible en esta breve presentacin as que haremos esta cancin +llamada "Yema de los dedos" . +Recibimos llamadas en vivo en el escenario aqu en TED de Monterrey. +Creo que tenemos una llamada. +Hola. +Ests en vivo. +Hola. Quin habla, por favor? +Estoy al aire? +Hola. +Est hablando con They Might Be Giants. +Habla Eleanor Roosevelt. +Hola, Eleanor, por favor... +Quiero hablar con... +Por favor, Eleanor, apaga la radio. +Quiero hablar con Randi. +Tengo una pregunta para Randi. +Cul es tu pregunta? Adelante. +Quiero hablar con el Asombroso Randi. +Tiene un distintivo laminado, Eleanor? +Quiero mi milln de dlares. +Eleanor, lo siento, tiene un distintivo laminado? +No, no tengo un distintivo. +Bueno, creo que vamos a detener esa parte del espectculo. +Esta es una cancin que creemos ser el futuro himno de TED. +En realidad es una cancin infantil pero como muchos proyectos infantiles es un caballo de Troya para el trabajo en adultos. +Esta cancin se llama "El alfabeto... +de las naciones!" +Han sido una maravillosa audiencia de las 8:30. +Que tengan una gran sesin. +Gracias a todos. +Saben, una de las cosas que me gustara decirles es que realmente estoy aqui por accidente +quiero decir, no estoy en TED por accidente sino en este momento de mi vida, en verdad las circunstancias actuales de mi vida las considerara un accidente. +Pero de lo que me gustara hablarles hoy es quiz, una manera en la que podemos usar la tecnologa para hacer que esos "accidentes" pasen con mas frecuencia. +Porque creo en verdad, cuando miro atrs y veo como llegu aqui por accidente, que la tecnologa jug un papel muy importante. +As que, lo que me gustara hacer hoy es contarles un poco sobre mi porque me gustara contextualizar lo que les estoy diciendo. +Y creo que as vern porque hoy, las dos grandes pasiones de mi vida son los nios y la educacin. +Y una vez que ponga esto en contexto, me gustara hablarles un poco acerca de la tecnologa porque creo que la tecnologa es una tremenda facilitadora; una herramienta muy poderosa que ayuda a la gente a enfrentar algunos de estos retos. +Despus les hablar sobre la iniciativa que Chris mencion, que hemos decidido lanzar en AMD y que llamamos 50x15. +Despus volver al principio para contarles un poco ms -- y con suerte los convencer -- de que creo que en el mundo de hoy, es realmente muy importante para los lderes de negocios, no solamente entender su negocio, sino apasionarse por algo que sea realmente significativo. +As que con eso en mente, permtanme contarles que soy uno de cinco hermanos, yo soy el mayor, las otras cuatro son mujeres. +As que crec en una familia de mujeres +y aprend mucho acerca de como lidiar con esa parte del mundo. +Y como se pueden imaginar, si pueden visualizarlo: Yo nac en una pequea poblacin en Mxico, desafortunadamente con alrededores muy pobres, y mis padres no tenan educacin universitaria. +Pero yo tuve la fortuna de tener educacin universitaria y tambin mis cuatro hermanas. +Eso debe darles una idea del nfasis que mis padres le daban a la educacin. +Mis padres eran fanticos del aprendizaje, les contar sobre ello mas adelante. +Una de las cosas que me dieron acceso al aprendizaje a temprana edad e inculcaron en mi tremenda curiosidad an siendo nio fue una tecnologa que pueden ver en la pantalla - una Victrola. +El me explic todo acerca de Johan Strauss, y la manera en la que l cre los waltzes que lo hizo tan famoso en el mundo. +Tambin me contaba un poco de historia, cuando tocaba la "Obertura 1812" de Tchaikovsky en su pequea Victrola me contaba sobre Rusia y todas las cosas que estaban pasando en Rusia en esos tiempos y por qu su msica de alguna manera representaba un poco de su historia. +An cuando yo era solo un nio, mi padre fue capaz de inculcarme una gran curiosidad. +Quiz este producto (La Victrola) no les parezca de ltima tecnologa, pero si pueden imaginarse la poca en la que sucedi - fue a la mitad de los aos 40 - ese aparato era desde el punto de vista de mi padre, una pieza de ltima tecnologa. +Bien, una de las cosas que quiero resaltar de esa experiencia es que la gente me pregunta y dice: bien, y Cmo te trataron tus padres cuando eras nio? +Yo siempre respondo que fueron muy duros conmigo. +Duros, no en el sentido que la mayora de la gente piensa, como cuando los padres maltratan, gritan y dems. +Digo que mis padres eran duros porque cuando crec tanto mi madre como mi padre siempre me decan: Es realmente importante que siempre recuerdes dos cosas: +Primero que nada, en la noche cuando te vayas a la cama, tienes que reflexionar sobre el da y asegurarte de que sientas que haya sido un da en el que contribuiste en algo y en el que hiciste tu mejor esfuerzo. +La segunda cosa que me decan es: Confamos en t, y no importa donde ests o a donde vayas tu siempre hars lo correcto. +Ahora bien, no se cuantos de ustedes hayan hecho algo as con sus propios hijos, pero si lo hacen, por favor cranme que esa es la mayor presin que pueden poner sobre un nio. Decirle que confas en que siempre har lo correcto es la mayor presin. +En el mundo de hoy, la tecnologa no es necesariamente til, ni costeable, ni accesible... la mayora de la tecnologa que se hace hoy en da. +As que una de nuestras pasiones en nuestra compaa, y ahora tambin una de mis pasiones personales, es ser capaz de trabajar duro para hacer que la tecnologa sea til, accesible y costeable. +Y para mi, esto es muy crtico. +Ahora la tecnologa ha cambiado mucho desde los das de la Victrola. +Saben, ahora tenemos computadoras increblemente poderosas. +Y algo tremendo como la Internet, la cual es considerada por la gente como una aplicacin de una trascendencia muy importante. +Aunque hablando francamente, no creemos que la Internet sea slamente una aplicacin innovadora. +Lo que creemos es que la Internet es una conexin de gente e ideas. +La Internet solo es el medio por el cual la gente y las ideas se conectan; +y el poder de conectar gente e ideas puede ser impresionante. +Tambin creemos que a travs de los cambios que han ocurrido, nos enfrentamos ante una tremenda oportunidad. +Considerando lo anterior, nos gustara impulsar eso. Nos gustara crear una iniciativa. +Hace un par de aos en AMD, creamos esta idea diciendo: que tal si creamos esta iniciativa y le llamamos "50 para el 2015" donde lo que deseamos lograr es conectar a Internet al 50% del mundo para el ao 2015, para que la gente y las ideas puedan estar conectados. +Sabamos que no podamos hacerlo nosotros solos, y de ninguna manera tratamos de insinuar que AMD podra hacerlo solo. +Siempre hemos sentido que esto es algo que puede hacerse a travs de colaboracin de gobiernos, industria, instituciones educativas as como una variedad de compaas e incluso competidores. +Realmente, es una iniciativa arrogante si lo quieren ver de esa manera, pero sentimos que debamos ponernos un verdadero reto para los prximos aos, un reto que fuera lo suficientemente audaz para forzarnos a pensar en maneras diferentes de hacer las cosas. +Volver a tocar el tema ms adelante, porque pienso que los resultados hasta ahora son dignos de comentar y solo puedo anticiparles que realmente me emociona lo que creo que va a pasar en los prximos 8 aos mientras nos acercamos a la iniciativa 2015. +Donde estamos situados el da de hoy? +Aqu se muestra la situacin ao con ao. Esto es de nuestros amigos de Gapminder.org +Aquellos que nunca han visitado el sitio, les recomiendo que lo hagan. Es realmente impresionante. Y pueden ver el modo en el que la penetracin del Internet ha cambiado a travs de los aos. +As que cuando vemos sta grfica donde se muestra donde estamos posicionados en relacin a nuestra meta del 2015 lo que podemos observar fcilmente son estas tres piezas. +Esta es el mundo occidental, definida en su mayora por Europa Occidental y los Estados Unidos de Amrica, sta rea ha hecho un tremendo progreso. +La conectividad en estas partes del mundo es realmente fenomenal y contina incrementndose. +Tuve la oportunidad de conversar con el Presidente Mbeki, y una de las cuestiones sobre las que hablamos fue: Qu es lo que est frenando sta meta de conectividad? +Una de las razones en Sudfrica es que una conexin de banda ancha cuesta 100 dlares americanos al mes. +Es imposible a ese costo - an en los Estados Unidos - habilitar el nivel de conectividad que intentamos alcanzar. +As que hemos hablado de maneras en las cuales un socio podra disminuir el precio de esta tecnologa. +Asi que cuando miran a este grfico en la parte de abajo vern que es una grfico logartimico en una escala horizontal. Ahora estn viendo el final, tenemos un largo camino que recorrer hasta la meta del 50% para el 2015. +Pero en nuestra compaa estamos emocionados y motivados. +Creemos realmente que forzarnos a hacer las cosas diferente es un fenomenal factor crucial. Nosotros buscamos en verdad ser capaces de trabajar con muchos socios en todo el mundo, para ser capaces de alcanzar esa meta. +Ahora bien, una de las cosas que me gustara explicar acerca del 50x15, que creo que es realmente importante, es que esta iniciativa no se trata de una caridad. +Sino que en realidad es una iniciativa de negocios. +Tomemos una pequea porcin de este mundo "desconectado" y llammosle el mercado de educacin. +Cuando ustedes ven a nios de educacin bsica o primaria, tenemos cientos y cientos de millones de nios alrededor del mundo que se pueden beneficiar tremendamente de ser capaces de conectarse a Internet. +Por lo tanto, cuando vemos esto, cuando vimos la oportunidad de tener un negocio que se dirija a las necesidades de ese segmento +y cuando comenzamos a trabajar en esta iniciativa, desde el principio lo dijimos claramente: Esto no es una iniciativa de caridad. +sta es una iniciativa de negocios, una que se dirige a un segmento del mercado muy desafiante. +Es una iniciativa que se concentra en soluciones simples, accesibles y centradas en las personas. +Lo que queremos decir con eso es que, saben, francamente, la PC se invent en 1980, hablando a grandes rasgos mas o menos y por 20 aos no ha cambiado. +Todava es en su mayora una caja negra o gris y luce igual. +Se que algunas veces ofendo a algunos de mis clientes cuando digo esto, pero as es, si pudieras quitar el nombre o la marca de la computadora, sera muy difcil determinar quien la fabric porque son bienes de consumo pero son todas diferentes. +As que no ha habido un enfoque humano para dirigirse a este segmento de mercado, y nosotros creemos que es muy importante pensar en ello. +Me record mucho la conferencia de esta maana, sobre el cuarto de mquinas que fue diseado especficamente para frica. +Nosotros hablamos sobre algo muy parecido, +y debe estar basado en un enfoque geo sensible, es decir adaptable a la localidad. +Lo que quiero decir con eso es que en algunas partes del mundo, el gobierno juega un papel clave en el desarrollo de la tecnologa. +En otras partes del mundo no ocurre as. +En otras partes del mundo se tiene una infraestructura que permite la existencia de manufactura. +E igualmente, en otras partes no pasa lo mismo. As que tenemos que ser concientes acerca de la manera en que esta tecnologa puede ser desarrollada y ponerla en accin en estas regiones. +Y la ltima pieza, que es realmente importante y que es una opinin que no hemos compartido con muchos, y parece ser que estamos solos en esto, es que creemos realmente que el mximo xito de esta iniciativa se puede lograr al adoptar ecosistemas integrados completamente. +Lo que quiero decir con eso, y permtanme usar como ejemplo a Sudfrica porque acabo de estar ah. por lo que estoy familiarizado con algunos de los retos que enfrentan. +Es un pas con 45 millones de personas. Es una economa emergente. +Est comenzando a crecer tremendamente. +Tienen como objetivo reducir el costo de la conectividad. +Tienen una compaa que fabrica computadoras en Sudfrica. +Estn desarrollando un software de entrenamiento del entorno en sus universidades. +Y es un lugar ideal para crear un ecosistema que pueda construir el hardware y el software necesario para sus escuelas. Para mi sorpresa, Aprend que en Sudfrica tienen 18 dialctos. Siempre pens que solo tenan 2 - Ingls y Afrikaans - pero resulta que tienen 18 dialectos. +Y para ser capaz de satisfacer las necesidades de su complejo sistema educativo, solo podra haberse hecho desde adentro. +No creo que este segmento del mercado pueda ser abordado por compaas que vienen desde otros lugares del mundo, solo a traer sus productos y vendindolos en otros mercados. +As que creemos que en esas regiones del mundo donde la poblacin es grande y hay una infraestructura que puede soportarlo, un sistema completamente integrado es muy importante para su xito. +sta es una foto del saln de clases que equipamos con computadoras en Mxico, mi pas de orgen. +ste saln en particular se ubica en el estado de Michoacn. +Para aquellos de ustedes que estn familiarizados con Mxico - Michoacn es un estado muy colorido, +Los nios visten ropas muy coloridas, y es increble ver el poder que una computadora tiene en las manos de los nios. Tengo que decirles que es fcil apreciar el impacto que el acceso a la tecnologa y a la conectividad puede tener en las vidas y en la educacin de estos nios. +Recientemente abrimos un laboratorio de aprendizaje en una escuela en el Cabo Oeste de Sudfrica, en una escuela llamada Nelson Mandela, y ver los rostros y las actividades de estos nios al poder tener acceso a las computadoras, es fenomenal. +Recientemente, los nios nos han escrito cartas dicindonos lo emocionados que estn por el impacto que esto ha tenido en sus vidas, en sus sueos educativos, en sus capacidades... es fenomenal. +Hemos utilizado 30 tecnlogos diferentes en 18 pases y hemos sido capaces de conectar a millones de personas en un esfuerzo continuo por aprender lo que este particular segmento de mercado necesita y demanda. +Y debo decirles que aunque la palabra "millones" no les suene como mucho en trminos de los miles de millones que necesitan ser conectados, es un comienzo. Y estamos aprendiendo mucho. +Estamos aprendiendo muchsimo de lo que creemos que este segmento necesita para ser efectivo. +Un ejemplo de esto ha sido el proyecto "Una Laptop por Nio". +A algunos de ustedes les suena familiar. +Esta es una asociacin entre el MIT y un grupo de compaas - Google est involucrada, Red Hat y AMD es una pieza clave. +Los aparatos electrnicos detrs de "Una Laptop por Nio" estn basados en tecnologa AMD - es un microprocesador. +Para darles una idea de que tan creativa es la gente del grupo, uno de los objetivos de "Una Laptop por Nio" es ser capaz de lograr una batera con 10 horas de vida. +Porque sentimos que dado que un da de escuela dura al menos 8 horas y se quiere que el nio pueda usar la laptop por lo menos un da completo sin tener que recargar la batera. +Los ingenieros han hecho una cantidad fenomenal de innovacin en esta parte y la vida de la batera de este producto es ya de 15 horas. Es solo una muestra del trabajo innovador que la gente ha hecho porque son apasionados y estn motivados de poder hacer esto. +Esperamos hacer uso de esto a finales de este ao y estamos muy emocionados de las oportunidades que va a ofrecer en el campo de la educacin. +Es un producto altamente enfocado y dirigido estrictamente al mercado de la educacin. No solo en pases en desarrollo, sino realmente en las regiones desarrolladas tambin, porque hay regiones de los Estados Unidos donde esto tambin puede tener un impacto enorme en la habilidad de hacer la educacin ms divertida y ms eficiente. +Tambin nos hemos asociado con TED en este proyecto, con Arquitectura para la Humanidad y tambin con el ganador del TED Prize, Cameron Sinclair. Estamos haciendo un concurso en una comunidad de arquitectura para encontrar el mejor diseo de una computadora de laboratorio en una regin emergente. +Y estamos muy emocionados de tener la oportunidad de ser parte de esto, no podemos esperar para ver que es lo que traer esta emocionante actividad. +Djenme regresar al principio para terminar esta presentacin. +Les dir que una de las cosas que siento que es verdaderamente importante para nosotros en la industria, en los negocios, es ser capaz de apasionarnos en resolver problemas. +No creo que sea suficiente ponerlo en una hoja de clculo, ver los nmeros y decir, si, es un buen negocio. +Realmente creo que se debe tener una pasin por ello. +Una de las cosas que tambin aprend de mis padres... les contar una pequea ancdota, especialmente de mi padre. +Me llev un tiempo entenderlo, pero cuando fui a la universidad el me dijo, eres el primero de la familia que va a la universidad. +As que es realmente importante que entiendas que para que la civilizacin progrese, cada generacin debe mejorar lo que hizo la generacin anterior +As que, esta es tu oportunidad para superar a mi generacin. +Francamente, no s si realmente entend lo que l me dijo aquella vez. +Estaba ansioso por ir a la universidad, conocer chicas y estudiar, y ms chicas, y estudiar. Al final +me gradu y decid casarme. +El da de mi boda, mi padre se acerc a mi y me dijo, sabes, te volver a recordar que cada generacin tiene que superar a la anterior. +Tu debes ser un mejor esposo de lo que yo fui, porque as es como se progresa. Y fue all cuando le entend. +En ese momento, me di un reto tremendo porque el fue un gran padre. +Pero lo importante es que el me inculc una gran pasin para levantarme cada da en la maana y querer mejorar. Para realmente levantarme y pensar que mi papel en la vida no es solo ser el CEO de una compaa Fortune 500. +Quiero mirar atrs algn da y ver que este lugar es mucho mejor a partir de una pequea contribucin que quiz cada uno de nosotros puede hacer. +Muchas Gracias +Me gustan los desafos y salvar al planeta probablemente es uno bueno. +Todos sabemos que la Tierra est en problemas. +Hemos entrado en la 6X -- la sexta extincin ms grande del planeta. +Siempre me preguntaba si hubiera una Organizacin de Organismos unidos -- tambin conocida como "Oh-Oh" -- -- donde cada organismo tuviera derecho a voto, votaran por dejarnos dentro o fuera del planeta? +Pienso que hay una votacin en este momento. +Quiero presentarle una serie de seis soluciones micolgicas, que usan hongos, soluciones basadas en el micelio. +El micelio reposa en cualquier terreno, une suelos, es extremadamente tenaz. +Este retiene hasta 30 mil veces su masa. +Son los grandes desensambladores moleculares de la Naturaleza, los magos del suelo. +Generan el humus de las masas terrestres del planeta. +Ahora hemos descubierto que hay una transferencia multidireccional de nutrientes entre plantas, atenuada por el micelio -- as el micelio es la madre que nutre desde los alisos y abedules hasta las cicutas, los cedros y abetos de Douglas. +Dusty y yo, nos gusta decirlo, aqu es a donde vamos a misa el domingo. +Amo al bosque nativo y soy un patriota estadounidense porque los tenemos. +La mayora estn familizarizados con los championes Portobello. +Francamente enfrento un gran obstculo +cuando menciono los hongos a alguien inmediatamente piensan en championes o en hongos alucingenos alzan la mirada y piensan que estoy un poco loco. +Entonces espero romper este prejuicio para siempre en este grupo. +La llamamos micofobia, el miedo irracional a lo desconocido cuando se trata de hongos. +Los hongos crecen muy rpido. +Da 21, da 23, da 25. +Los hongos producen antibiticos potentes. +De hecho, estamos ms estrechamente relacionados a los hongos que a cualquier otro reino natural. +Un grupo de 20 microbilogos eucariticos publicaron un artculo hace dos aos que eleva a los opistocontos a super-reino que une a los animales con los hongos. +Compartimos los mismos patgenos. +A los hongos no les gusta pudrirse por causa de bacterias, por eso los mejores antibiticos vienen de los hongos. +Aqu tenemos un hongo que ya pas su poca dorada. +Despus de esporular se pudren. +Les presento la idea de que la secuencia de microbios que se da en los hongos putrefactos es esencial para la salud del bosque. +Hacen crecer a los rboles, crean la hojarasca que alimenta al micelio. +Y aqu vemos un hongo esporulando. +Las esporas estn germinando, y el micelio se forma y va subterrneo. +En 16 cm3 de suelo puede haber ms de 12 km de estas clulas. +Mi pie cubre cerca de 483 km de micelios. +Esta es un fotomicrografa hecha por Nick Read y Patrick Hickey. +Observen que a medida que crece el micelio conquista territorio y entonces comienza la red. +Yo fui microscopista electrnico durante muchos aos hice miles de micrografas electrnicas y cuando empec con los micelios me di cuenta que son membranas de microfiltracin. +Exhalamos dixido de carbono, igual que el micelio. +Ellos inhalan oxgeno, igual que nosotros. +Pero esencialmente estos son estmagos y pulmones externos. +Y les presento el concepto de que estas son membranas neurolgicas extendidas. +Y en estas cavidades, estas microcavidades forman... y a medida que fusionan suelos, absorben agua. +Son pequeos pozos. +Y dentro de esos pozos comienzan a formarse comunidades microbianas. +As el suelo esponjoso no slo resiste la erosin sino que establece un universo microbiano que da lugar a una pluralidad de otros organismos. +Primero propuse, a principios de los '90, que el micelio es como la Internet natural de la Tierra. +Cuando vemos a los micelios, estn muy ramificados. +Y si una rama se rompe entonces, muy rpidamente, debido a los nodos de cruce (los ingenieros de Internet quiz los llaman "hot points") hay caminos alternativos para canalizar nutrientes e informacin. +El micelio es sensitivo. +Sabe que estamos all. +Cuando caminamos por un paisaje va tras nuestras pisadas tratando de atrapar desechos. +Por eso pienso que la invencin de la Internet computarizada es una consecuencia inevitable de un modelo previo biolgicamente exitoso. +La Tierra invent la Internet computarizada en beneficio propio y ahora somos el organismo principal del planeta tratando de asignar recursos para proteger la bisfera. +yendo ms lejos, la materia oscura se ajusta al mismo arquetipo micelial. +Creo que la materia engendra vida, la vida se torna clulas simples, las clulas simples se vuelven cuerdas, las cuerdas se transforman en cadenas, las cadenas en redes. +Y este es el paradigma que vemos en el Universo. +Muchos de ustedes quiz no saben que los hongos fueron los primeros organismos en tierra firme. +Vinieron a la tierra firme hace 1.300 millones de aos, y luego las plantas varios cientos de millones de aos despus. +Cmo es posible? +Es posible porque los micelios producen cidos oxlicos. y muchos otros cidos y enzimas marcando la roca y tomando calcio y otros minerales para formar oxalatos de calcio. +Hace que las rocas se desintegren, el primer paso en la generacin del suelo. +El cido oxlico son dos molculas de dixido de carbono unidas. +As los hongos y micelios almacenan dixido de carbono en forma de oxalato de calcio. +Y todo tipo de otros oxalatos tambin extraen dixido de carbono de los minerales que se forman y se toman de la roca madre. +Esto fue descubierto en 1859. +Esta es una fotografa de Franz Hueber. +Fue tomada en los aos '50 en Arabia Saudita. +Hace 420 millones de aos existi este organismo. +Se llam prototaxita. +Las prototaxitas, acostados, medan cerca de 90 cm de alto. +Las plantas ms altas de la Tierra en ese momento medan menos de 60 cm. +El Dr. Boyce de la Universdad de Chicago public un artculo en el Journal of Geology el ao pasado determinando que las prototaxitas eran hongos gigantes, un hongo gigante. +Estos hongos gigantes estaban salpicados por todos los paisajes del planeta. +Por toda la masa terrestre. +Y existieron durante decenas de millones de aos. +Ahora, hemos tenido varias extinciones y, a medida que avanzamos, hace 65 millones de aos, muchos de ustedes ya lo saben, tuvimos el impacto de un asteroide. +La Tierra fue impactada por un asteroide y gran cantidad de desechos fue a la atmsfera. +La luz solar desapareci y los hongos heredaron la Tierra. +Los organismos asociados a los hongos fueron recompensados, porque los hongos no necesitan luz. +Hace poco, la Universidad Einstein determin que los hongos usan la radiacin como fuente de energa tanto como las plantas usan la luz. +Entonces, la posibilidad de encontrar hongos en otros planetas, pienso, es una conclusin inevitable al menos para m. +El organismo ms grande del mundo est en Oregon del Este +No poda perdrmelo. Meda 8.900 km2. 8.900 km2, 2.000 aos de eda. +El organismo ms grande del planeta es una alfombra micelial del espesor de una pared unicelular. +Cmo puede ser tan grande este organismo y tener el espesor de una pared unicelular? Cuando nosotros tenemos 5 o 6 capas de piel que nos protegen. +El micelio, en condiciones adecuadas, produce un hongo penetra con una ferocidad tal que puede romper el asfalto. +Nosotros hicimos varios experimentos. +Voy a mostrarles seis, si puedo, seis soluciones para ayudar a salvar al mundo. +Los laboratorios Battelle y yo nos reunimos en Bellingham, Washington, +haba cuatro pilas saturadas con diesel y otros desechos del petrleo. Una era la pila de control, una pila era tratada con enzimas, una pila era tratada con bacterias, y nuestra pila fue inoculada con hongos micelios. +El micelio absorbi el petrleo. +El micelio produce enzimas peroxidasas que rompen los enlaces carbn-hidrgeno. +Estos son los mismos enlaces que unen a los hidrocarburos. +Entonces el micelio se satur de petrleo y cuando volvimos seis semanas despus se haban eliminado todos los desechos, el resto de las pilas estaban muertas, oscuras, olan mal. +Regresamos a nuestra pila y estaba cubierta por cientos de kilos de grgolas y el color cambi a una forma ligera. +Las enzimas procesaron los hidrocarburos en carbohidratos -- azcar de hongos. +Algunos de estos hongos estn muy felices. +Estn muy grandes. +Muestran cuantos nutrientes obtuvieron. +Pero sucedi algo ms, que fue una revelacin en mi vida. +Esporulaon, las esporas atrajeron insectos, los insectos pusieron huevos, los huevos fueron larvas. +Entonces vinieron los pjaros trayendo semillas, y nuestra pila se transform en un oasis de vida. +Mientras las otras pilas estaban muertas, oscuras y hedan y los HAP (hidrocarburos aromticos policclicos) pasaron de 10.000 partes por milln a 200 ppm en ocho semanas. +La ltima imagen que no tenemos -- +toda la pila era un vergel de vida. +Estas son especies de acceso. Especies de vanguardia que abren las puertas a otras comunidades biolgicas. +As invent unas bolsas de arpillera, dispuestas en bnker, y coloqu micelios, esparciendo desechos, pueden tomarse estas bolsas de arpillera y colocarlas corriente abajo desde una granja que produce E. coli, u otros desechos, o una fbrica con toxinas qumicas, y esto lleva a la restauracin del hbitat. +As establecimos un sitio en Mason County, Washington, y vimos una gran disminucin en la cantidad de coliformes. +Les voy a mostrar un grfico. +Esta es una escala logartimica, 10 a la octava potencia. +Hay ms de 100 millones de colonia por gramo 10 al cubo es 1000 +Entre 48 y 72 horas estas especies de hongos reducen la cantidad de bacterias coliformes 10.000 veces. +Piensen en las implicancias. +Este es un mtodo que ahorra espacio y usa restos derribados por tormentas y podemos garantizar que tendremos tormentas todos los aos. +Entonces este hongo, en particular, nos ha llamado la atencin en el tiempo. +Esta es mi esposa Dusty con un hongo llamado fomitopsis officinalis, agaricon. +Es un hongo exclusivo del bosque nativo, descripto por Dioscorides en el 65 d.C. +como tratamiento contra la tuberculosis. +Este hongo crece en el estado de Washinton, Oregon. En California del Norte, en Columbia Britnica, ahora extinto en Europa. +Puede no parecer tan grande acerqumonos. +Es un hongo muy raro de encontrar +Nuestro equipo --tenemos un equipo de expertos que sale-- salimos 20 veces al bosque nativo el ao pasado. +Encontramos que una muestra puede cultivarse. +La preservacin del genoma de estos hongos del bosque nativo pienso que es algo absolutamente crtico para la salud humana. +He estado participando del programa BioShield del Departamento de Defensa de EE.UU. +Presentamos ms de 300 muestras de hongos que fueron hervidos y el micelio genera estos metabolitos extracelulares. +Y hace unos pocos aos, recibimos estos resultados. +Tenemos tres variedades diferentes de hongos agaricon que fueron altamente activas contra los virus de la viruela. +El Dr. Earl Kern, especialista en viruela del Departamento de Defensa de EE.UU., plantea que cualquier compuesto que tenga un ndice de selectividad de dos o ms es activo, +10 o ms se considera mucho ms activo. +Nuestras variedades de hongos estn en el rango ms activo. +Hay un comunicado de prensa calificado que pueden leer avalado por Defensa si googlean "Stamets" y "viruela". +O pueden ir a npr.org y escuchar una entrevista en vivo. +As, animados por esto, naturalmente fuimos por la gripe. +Y por primera vez voy a mostrar esto. +Tenemos tres variedades diferentes de hongos agaricon muy activos contra los virus de la gripe. +Aqu estn los nmeros del ndice de selectividad contra la viruela vimos dieces y veintes, ahora contra la gripe comparado con los controles de Ribavirina tenemos una actividad extraordinariamente alta. +Y estamos usando un extracto natural con la misma dosis que la farmacolgica. +Lo probamos contra influenza A: H1N1, H3N2 e influenza B. +Probamos una mezcla probamos una combinacin contra el H5N1 y obtuvimos un ndice de selectividad mayor a 1.000. +Entonces pienso que podemos argumentar que deberamos salvar al bosque nativo como cuestin de defensa nacional. +Me interes en los hongos entomopatgenos hongos que matan insectos. +Nuestra casa fue detruda por hormigas carpinteras. +Entr a la pgina de la Agencia Ambiental y recomendaban estudios con especies de Metarhizium de un grupo de hongos que matan a hormigas carpinteras y termitas. +Hice algo que nadie haba hecho. +Fui detrs del micelio cuando dejaba de producir esporas. +Estas son esporas -- esto est en sus esporas. +Pude modificar el cultivo para que no esporulara. +La industria ha gastado ms de 100 millones de dlares especficamente en cebo para evitar que las termitas se coman nuestras casas. +Pero los insectos no son tontos y evitan las esporas cuando estn cerca por eso yo modifiqu el cultivo para que no esporulara. +Y tom el plato de la Barbie de mi hija lo puse justo donde un grupo de hormigas carpinteras estaban haciendo campos de desechos, todos los das, en mi casa, y las hormigas fueron atradas al micelio porque no tena esporas. +Se lo dieron a la reina. +Y una semana despus ya no tena pilas de aserrn. +Y luego -- una danza delicada entre cena y muerte -- las hormigas consumen el micelio, quedan momificadas y, sorpresa, un hongo surge de sus cabezas. +Ahora, luego de la esporulacin, las esporas repelen. +As la casa ya no es presa de invasiones. +De modo que uno tiene una solucin casi permanente para otras invasiones de termitas. +Y as mi casa cae; recib mi primera patente contra hormigas carpintero, termitas y hormigas coloradas. +Luego probamos extractos, y he aqu! podemos dirigir insectos en distintas direcciones. +Esto tiene implicancias enormes. +Entonces recib mi segunda patente -- y esta es una grande. +Ha sido llamada una patente Alexander Graham Bell +abarca ms de 200.000 especies. +Esta es la tecnologa ms revolucionaria me han dicho los ejecutivos de la industria de pesticidas que jams hayan visto. +Esto podra relanzar completamente las industrias pesticidas a nivel mundial. +Se podra albergar 100 estudiantes de posgrado bajo el paraguas de este concepto porque mi suposicin es que los hongos entomopatgenos antes de esporular atraen a los mismos insectos que de otro modo repelen por esas esporas. +Y as se me ocurri la Caja de la Vida porque necesitaba un sistema de envo. +La Caja de la Vida -- van a recibir un DVD de la conferencia TED -- le agregan tierra, agua, tienen hongos micorrizales y endofticos as como esporas, como del hongo agaricon. +Estas semillas son mimadas luego por el micelio. +Y luego ponen tres semillas aqu y entonces acaban cultivando --potencialmente-- un bosque nativo a partir de una caja de cartn. +Quiero reinventar el sistema de envos y el uso de cajas de cartn en el mundo para que se transformen en huellas ecolgicas. +Si hay un sitio tipo YouTube en el que puedan proponer puedan hacerlo interactivo, por cdigo postal donde la gente se pueda reunir y mediante sistemas de imgenes satelitales mediante Virtual Earth o Google Earth se pueda acreditar puntos de carbn que se eliminan con los rboles que crecen de las Cajas de la Vida. +Podra tomarse una caja de zapatos agregarle agua --desarroll esto para la comunidad de refugiados-- cereales, legrumbres, calabazas, cebollas. +Tom varios contenedores -- mi esposa me pregunt si poda hacerlo, si cualquiera poda -- y termin cultivando un jardn de plantas. +Luego se cosecha y gracias Eric Rasmussen por tu ayuda con esto y luego ests cosechando el jardn de plantas. +Luego se puede cosechar las semillas, y entonces se necesitan unas semillas -- +Le agregu micelio y luego inocul las mazorcas de maz. +Ahora, tres mazorcas de maz, no otros granos -- comenzaron a formarse muchos hongos. +Muchas extracciones del banco de carbono, y por eso esta poblacin se cerrar. +Pero miren lo que pasa aqu. +Los hongos son recolectados pero algo muy importante el micelio convirti la celulosa en azcares de hongos. +Y entonces pens, Cmo podemos encarar la crisis energtica de este pas? +Y se nos ocurri el econol. +Generar etanol de la celulosa usando micelio es un intermediario -- y se obtienen todos los beneficios que ya les describ. +Pero ir de la celulosa al etanol no es ecolgicamente inteligente y pienso que tenemos que ser econolgicamente inteligentes con la generacin de combustibles. +As que construimos los bancos de carbono del planeta, renovamos los suelos -- +estas son especies con las que nos tenemos que aliar. +Pienso que fomentar el micelio puede ayudar a salvar el mundo. +Muchas gracias. +Quisiera ir con todos ustedes por el desage y hasta lo ms profundo de las alcantarillas porque quiero hablarles acerca de la diarrea. +Y en particular quiero hablarles del diseo de la diarrea. +Cuando los bilogos evolucionistas hablan de diseo lo que quieren decir es "diseo por seleccin natural". +Y eso me lleva al ttulo de nuestra charla: "El uso de la Evolucin para Disear Organismos Patgenos Inteligentemente". +Y tambin al brillante subttulo. +Pero no lo puse para que se viera bien. +En verdad creo que el subttulo explica lo que alguien como yo, que soy como un Darwin amateur, cmo es que el mundo ve nuestro rol dentro de los campos de las ciencias de la salud y la medicina. +Este no es un campo amigable para los bilogos evolucionistas. +Es posible encontrar un gran potencial pero tambin encontrar a mucha gente que defiende su territorio y que puede presentar gran resistencia cuando tratas de presentar nuevas ideas. +As que la charla del da de hoy tratar de dos preguntas generales. +La primera es: Por qu hay algunos organismos ms letales que otros? +y una pregunta muy relacionada a esta, que es: Cmo podemos controlar esta situacin una vez que tenemos... la respuesta a la primera pregunta? +Cmo podemos hacer que los organismos ms letales lo sean menos? +Y como dije en un inicio, voy a platicarles acerca de los organismos que producen la diarrea, +Y la perspectiva que quiero presentar cuando hablo de los organismos que producen diarrea as como la perspectiva cuando hablo de cualquier organismo que causa enfermedades infecciosas agudas es la de pensar acerca del problema desde la perspectiva de los grmenes. Ver desde los ojos de los grmenes. +Y, en particular, pensar acerca de una idea fundamental que yo creo que da sentido a la increble variacin en la nocividad de los organismos que producen enfermedades. +Y es la idea que, desde el punto de vista de los grmenes, los organismos deben ir desde uno a otro husped y con frecuencia dependen del bienestar del husped para llevarles a otros nuevos huspedes. +Pero no siempre sucede as. +Algunas veces tenemos organismos infecciosos que no dependen de la movilidad de sus huspedes para su transmisin. +Y cuando nos enfrentamos a eso, la teora evolutiva nos dice que la seleccin natural favorecer al ms agresivo, a los organismos ms depredadores. +As que la seleccin favorecer a los organismos que puedan causar ms dao. +En cambio si el contagio exige la movilidad del husped, entonces esperaramos que los ganadores de la competencia fueran los organismos menos agresivos. +Por otro lado, si los patgenos no necesitan que el husped est sano y activo y la seleccin favorece a los patgenos que toman ventaja de sus huspedes, los ganadores de la competencia sern aquellos que aprovechen a sus huspedes para su propio xito reproductivo. +Pero si el husped necesita moverse para poder transmitir el patgeno entonces son los ms benignos los que sern los ganadores. +As que empezaremos aplicando esta idea a las enfermedades diarreicas. +Los organismos responsables de la diarrea se transmiten de tres maneras bsicas. +Pueden transmitirse por contacto de persona a persona, de persona a alimentos y de all a otra persona cuando alguien come alimentos contaminados. O pueden transmitirse a travs del agua. +Y cuando se transmiten a travs del agua, a diferencia de las primeras dos maneras de transmisin, los patgenos no dependen de huspedes sanos para transmitirse. +Una persona enferma en cama tiene la capacidad de infectar a decenas o centenas de otros individuos. +Para ilustrar eso, este diagrama hace nfasis en que si tienes una persona enferma en cama, alguien debe sacar los materiales contaminados. +Estos materiales contaminados tendrn que lavarse, y el agua entonces podra transportar estos grmenes a fuentes de agua potable. +Las personas visitarn los lugares en los que hay agua contaminada y, para cerrar el ciclo, pueden beber agua all mismo. +La idea es que una persona que no puede moverse de todas maneras puede infectar a otras personas. +De aqu que la teora nos dice que cuando los organismos de la diarrea se transmiten a travs del agua esperaramos una conducta ms agresiva, ms depredadora. +Y podramos verificar estos conceptos. +As, una manera de verificarlo es tomar todas las bacterias que producen diarrea, y ver si aquellas que tienden a transmitirse en el agua, tienden a ser ms letales. +Y la respuesta es... s, s lo son. +Esto sugiere que estamos en el camino correcto. +Pero esto, desde mi punto de vista, sugiere que en realidad necesitamos hacer algunas preguntas. +Recuerden la segunda pregunta que hice al inicio y que era: Cmo es que podemos usar este conocimiento para hacer que los organismos patgenos evolucionen para ser menos letales? +Esto sugiere que si pudiramos limitar el contagio a travs del agua podramos hacer que los organismos patgenos cambiaran del lado derecho al lado izquierdo de la grfica. +Pero esto no nos dice qu tanto tiempo requiere. +Quiero decir, si esto requiere miles de aos entonces todo esfuerzo es intil en trminos del control de estos patgenos. +Pero si pudiera suceder en tan solo unos aos entonces podra convertirse en una manera importante de controlar algunos de los problemas ms terribles que han escapado a nuestros esfuerzos. +En otras palabras, esto sugiere que podramos domesticar a estos organismos. +Podramos hacerlos evolucionar de manera que no fueran tan dainos para nosotros. +Y as, mientras pensaba en esto decid enfocarme en este organismo, el biotipo "El Tor" del organismo llamado Vibrio Cholerae. +Y es que esta especie es responsable del clera. +Y la razn por la que pens en este maravilloso organismo es por qu sabemos porque es daino. +Es daino porque produce una toxina, que es liberada cuando el organismo llega a nuestros intestinos. +Es la causa de que el agua fluya de las clulas que forman el intestino hacia el cuerpo del mismo, y que entonces este fluido siga el nico camino que puede seguir, que es hacia la salida. +Y as arrastra a miles de otros organismos competidores que haran ms difcil la vida de los vibrios. +Qu pasa entonces, si tienes un organismo que produce muchas toxinas. +Que despus de unos das de infeccin terminas teniendo -- materia fecal que en realidad no es tan asquerosa como imaginamos. +Es algo as como agua un poco sucia. +Y que si tomamos una gota de ese agua encontraremos millones de organismos productores de diarrea. +Si los organismos produjeran muchas toxinas, entonces encontraramos decenas o cientos de millones de ellos. +Si no se produjeran tantas toxinas entonces encontraramos un nmero ms pequeo. +Considerando esto, puedo imaginar algunos experimentos. +Uno podra ser, tomar diferentes cepas de este organismo -- algunas que produzcan muchas toxinas, otras que produzcan pocas -- y tomar estas cepas y sembrarlas en diferentes pases. +Algunos de estos pases podran tener sistemas de agua potable, de manera que podamos limitar la transmisin por agua, esperaramos que los organismos evolucionaran para hacerse ms benignos aqu. +En otros pases habra una mayor propagacin a travs del agua, y esperaramos que estos organismos evolucionaran hacia un nivel mayor de letalidad. Estn de acuerdo? +Hay sin embargo un pequeo problema tico con este experimento. +Esperaba escuchar por lo menos unas risas con este comentario. +Este silencio hace que me preocupe un poco. +Gracias, sus risas me hacen sentir un poco mejor. +Y este problema tico es un gran problema. +Para hacer nfasis en ello, esto es de lo que estoy hablando. +Aqu est una jovencita casi muerta. +Estuvo en una terapia de re-hidratacin y se recuper y en unos cuantos das estaba convertida en una persona totalmente diferente. +As que no deseamos realizar un experimento como el que les mencion. +Sin embargo, ese mismo escenario se dio en 1991. +En 1991 este organismo del clera se introdujo en Lima, Per, y en dos meses se haba propagado a las reas vecinas. +Y quiero aclarar que no s como sucedi tal cosa, y que no tengo nada que ver con ello, se los juro. +Y no creo que nadie sepa, pero ya que todo esto ya ha sucedido, podemos ver si la prediccin que haramos, es decir, la que acabamos de hacer, puede confirmarse. +Se hizo ms benigno el organismo en un lugar como Chile, que tiene uno de los sistemas de agua ms higinicos de Latinoamrica? +O se hizo ms letal en lugares como Ecuador, que tiene un sistema en cierto sentido deficiente? +Y Qued Per en algn punto intermedio? +Y as, con fondos de la fundacin Bozack-Kruger, obtuve diferentes especmenes de estos pases y medimos su produccin de toxinas en el laboratorio. +Y encontramos que en Chile -- a dos meses de la invasin de Per ya haba organismos invadiendo Chile. Y cuando examinamos esas cepas, en la parte izquierda de esta grfica, vemos que hay grandes variaciones en la produccin de toxinas. +Cada punto corresponde a una variante aislada de diferentes personas. Hay una gran variacin en la que la seleccin natural puede ejercer su poder. +Pero el punto interesante aqu es que, si ves los resultados de los 90s, en unos cuantos aos los organismos evolucionaron para hacerse menos agresivos. +Evolucionaron para producir menos toxinas. +Y para darles una idea de lo importante que puede ser esto, si vemos en 1995 encontramos que slo hay un caso de clera, reportado en Chile cada dos aos, en promedio. +As que se pudo controlar. +Esa es aproximadamente la misma cifra que en Estados Unidos, donde el clera se da slo en ciertas regiones. Y no consideramos que haya un problema aqu. +De la misma manera sucede en Chile --- donde se resolvi el problema. +Pero antes de que pequemos de confiados, deberamos buscar en algunos otros pases y asegurarnos que este organismo no siempre evoluciona hacia una variante benigna +Pues bien, en Per no lo hizo. +Y en Ecuador tampoco --- recuerden que este es el lugar con mayor potencial de transmisin por agua -- todo indica que se volvi ms nocivo. +En cada caso hay una gran variacin, pero un factor ambiental que influye y que yo considero como la nica explicacin posible es que el grado de transmisin-contagio a travs del agua favorece a las cepas ms nocivas en un lugar, y a las mas benignas en otra. +Este hallazgo nos da esperanza, y sugiere que hay alternativas de accin a nuestro alcance, y que si tuviramos suficiente dinero, podramos hacerlo rendir de una mejor manera. +Si pudiramos hacer que estos organismos evolucionaran para tornarse benignos, de manera que, an cuando la gente llegara a infectarse, se infectaran con cepas "benignas". +Esto no provocara enfermedades graves. +Pero hay un aspecto adicional muy interesante y es que si pudiramos controlar la evolucin de la virulencia la evolucin de la nocividad, entonces tambin podramos controlar la resistencia a los antibiticos. +Y la idea es muy sencilla. +Si tenemos a un organismo nocivo, entonces una gran proporcin de la poblacin presentar sntomas, y una gran proporcin de la gente recibir antibiticos. +Se produce gran presin evolutiva favoreciendo la resistencia a los antibiticos, de manera que la mayor virulencia provoca la evolucin de una mayor resistencia a los antibiticos. +Y una vez que tenemos una mayor resistencia a los antibiticos, los antibiticos dejan de ser capaces de enfrentar a las cepas nocivas. +Por lo que tenemos un mayor nivel de virulencia. +Y esto se convierte en un crculo vicioso. +Nuestro objetivo debera ser dar la vuelta a este ciclo. +Si pudiramos provocar una reduccin en la virulencia mediante la higiene de la red de suministro de agua, tendramos tambin una reduccin en trminos evolutivos de la resistencia a los antibiticos. +Podemos ir entonces a los mismos pases y ver el desenlace. +Evit Chile el problema de resistencia a los antibiticos? Estuvo en Ecuador el inicio del problema? +Si vemos a los inicios de los noventas vemos de nuevo una gran variacin. +Es este caso, en el eje de las Y, tenemos la escala de la sensibilidad a los antibiticos. Y no me voy a meter all. +Pero tenemos una gran variacin a la sensibilidad a los antibiticos en Chile, Per y Ecuador, y no hay ninguna tendencia a lo largo de los aos. +Pero si vemos al final de los noventas, slo media dcada despus, vemos que en Ecuador empezaron a enfrentar el problema de resistencia. +La sensibilidad al antibitico se redujo. +Y en Chile todava tenamos sensibilidad al antibitico. +Esto muestra que en Chile matamos dos pjaros de un tiro. +Se logr que el organismo evolucionara hacia la variante ms benigna, y que no se desarrollara resistencia a los antibiticos. +Estas ideas deberan aplicarse a lo largo y ancho de nuestro planeta. En cuanto podamos imaginar las razones por las que los grmenes evolucionaron para ser ms nocivos. +Y quisiera darles un ejemplo ms, porque quisiera hablarles un poco sobre la malaria. +Y el ejemplo que quiero mostrarles es, o la idea que quisiera desarrollar, el asunto es, Qu podemos hacer para lograr que los grmenes de la malaria evoluciones hacia cepas "benignas"? +La malaria es transmitida por un mosquito, y normalmente, si te infectas de malaria y te sientes enfermo, eso hace ms fcil que el mosquito te pique. +Y podemos ver, simplemente revisando la literatura al respecto, que las enfermedades transmitidas por vectores son ms nocivas que las que no son transmitidas por vectores. +Yo pienso que este es un ejemplo fascinante y lo que podramos hacer, de manera experimental, para demostrar esto. +En el caso de las enfermedades transmitidas a travs del agua, desearamos tener redes de distribucin ms higinicas, y ver si los organismos evolucionan, o no, hacia variantes benignas. +En el caso de la malaria, lo que nos gustara hacer es casas a prueba de mosquitos. +Y la lgica es un poco ms sutil en este caso. +Si tuviramos casas a prueba de mosquitos, cuando las personas que estn enfermas y en cama, o en camas de hospitales a prueba de mosquitos, de manera que los mosquitos no puedan picarles. +De este modo, si tenemos una variante nociva en una localidad donde hay casas a prueba de mosquitos, entonces tenemos a un perdedor. +Los nicos patgenos que sern transmitidos sern aquellos que infecten a las personas que estn lo suficientemente sanas para estar fuera de casa y ser picados por los mosquitos. +De manera que si furamos a hacer casas a prueba de mosquitos deberamos lograr que estos grmenes fueran menos nocivos. +Y en este caso, tambin se ha dado un experimento maravilloso, que sugiere que deberamos seguir esta alternativa e implementarla. +Ese experimento se llev a cabo en el norte de Alabama. +Para darles una mayor perspectiva al respecto, Y para darles una idea de la localidad, seal con una estrella el centro intelectual de los Estados Unidos, que est aqu, el Louisville, Kentucky. +Y este fascinante experimento se llev a cabo cerca de 320 kilmetros al sur al sur de all, en Alabama del Norte, por el Municipio del Valle de Tennessee. +Ellos hicieron una represa para el Ro Tennessee. +Y pudieron contener el agua requerida para una central hidroelctrica. +Pero cuando tenemos agua contenida o estancada, tambin tenemos mosquitos. +Alrededor de los aos treintas --- diez aos despus de la construccin de las presas --- la poblacin de Alabama del Norte comenz a infectarse con malaria. Cerca de una tercera parte de la poblacin fue contagiada. +Esta imagen muestra los puntos en los que se localizaban estas presas. +Ahora, el Municipio del Valle de Tennessee enfrentaba grandes problemas, +No exista el DDT ni tampoco haba quinina. Qu podan hacer? +Pues decidieron modificar todas las casas de Alabama del Norte para evitar la entrada de mosquitos. +Dividieron Alabama del Norte en once zonas, y al cabo de tres aos, con un costo de cien dlares por casa, hicieron sus hogares a prueba de mosquitos. +Y estos son lo datos. +Cada rengln representa una de estas once zonas. +Y los asteriscos representan el momento en el que se complet la proteccin de las casas contra el mosquito. +Y lo que podemos ver es que simplemente la proteccin de las casas contra el mosquito, y ninguna otra cosa, consigui la erradicacin de la malaria. +Estos hechos fueron publicados en 1949 en uno de los principales libros de texto sobre malaria, llamado "La malariologa de Boyd". +A pesar de ello casi ningn experto en malaria saba de su existencia. +Estos hechos son muy importantes porque nos dicen que si tenemos densidades moderadas de picaduras de mosquito podemos erradicar la malaria protegiendo nuestras casas de los mosquitos. +Ahora, lo que sugiero es que podramos hacer esto mismo en otros lugares. +Como ustedes saben, si entramos en la zona de la malaria en el frica subsahariana. +Conforme nos desplazamos hacia las zonas de alta densidad de picaduras, como Nigeria no podramos erradicar la malaria con esta simple estrategia. +Pero es en estos casos donde deberamos favorecer la evolucin hacia variedades ms "benignas". +Desde mi punto de vista, esto es un experimento a realizar y si se confirman estas predicciones entonces tendremos una herramienta muy poderosa. +Poderosa si la comparamos con las herramientas que tenemos disponibles Porque la mayor parte de lo que hacemos hoy en da se basa en estrategias como los medicamentos anti-malaria. +Y sabemos que, aunque es maravilloso que logremos que esos medicamentos estn disponible a bajo precio y en grandes cantidades, sabemos que cuando hay gran disponibilidad obtendremos resistencia a esos medicamentos. +Por lo que es entonces una solucin de corto plazo. +En cambio esta es una solucin a largo plazo. +Lo que sugiero aqu es que podramos lograr que la evolucin trabaje en la direccin que queremos que siga en lugar de tener que combatir a la evolucin como parte del problema que obstaculice nuestros esfuerzos por controlar al patgeno, por ejemplo, con medicamentos anti-malaria. +En esta tabla quisiera hacer hincapi que solo hemos hablado de dos ejemplos. +Pero, como dije antes, este tipo de lgica puede extenderse a enfermedades infecciosas, es ms, no slo puede, debera extenderse. +Porque cuando enfrentamos enfermedades infecciosas, estamos tratando a sistemas vivientes. +Estamos tratando a sistemas vivientes, estamos tratando a sistemas que evolucionan. +De manera que si le hacemos algo a esos sistemas van a evolucionar en uno u otro sentido. +Lo que digo es que necesitamos saber cmo es que evolucionan, de manera que calibremos nuestra intervencin para obtener los mejores rendimientos por cada dlar invertido, y lograr que estos organismos evolucionen en la direccin que deseamos que lo hagan. +En realidad no tengo tiempo de hablar de todas estas cosas, peor quiero traerlas a su atencin, para darles una idea de que en realidad hay soluciones para controlar la evolucin de la nocividad de algunos de los patgenos ms mortferos que enfrentamos. +Y esto esta vinculado con otras ideas de las que hemos estado hablando. +Por ejemplo, el da de hoy tenamos una discusin sobre Cmo disminuir la transmisin sexual del VIH? +De aqu que debemos enfocarnos ms bien en saber cmo podramos hacerlo funcionar. +Tal vez se reduzca si modificamos la economa de la zona? +Podra reducirse si intervenimos de manera que promovamos que la gente sea fiel a sus parejas, y otras estrategias similares. +Pero la clave aqu es saber cmo reducir su contagio, porque si conseguimos reducirlo entonces provocaremos un cambio evolutivo en el virus. +Y los datos indican que podemos hacer que el virus evolucione a variantes ms "benignas". +Y eso ser un punto a nuestro favor para nuestros esfuerzos de control +Y la otra cosa que quiero mencionar es esta, adems de que estos hechos dan una nueva dimensin al estudio del control de las enfermedades, es el tipo de intervencin que deseamos tomar, lo que indica lo que debemos hacer, y la clase de acciones que la gente desea. +Pero en general no hemos podido justificar estos costos. +Y es esto de lo que he estado hablando. +Bueno, creo que terminar aqu. Mil gracias! +Empec a hacer malabares hace mucho tiempo pero mucho antes era golfista, eso es lo que era, golfista. +Y como golfista y nio que era una de las cosas que me sala naturalmente que me acompa toda mi vida es la idea de proceso. +La idea del proceso de aprendizaje. +Mi padre era un vido golfista, y eso una gran cosa, pero era zurdo. +Tena una autntica pasin por el golf y cre tambin todo un mito sobre Ben Hogan y otras cosas +Bien, aprend un montn de cosas interesantes de las que en ese momento no saba nada y luego termin aprendiendo, +como el mito de la habilidad: +una de las cosas que me gusta hacer es explorar la habilidad. +Y dado que Richard me meti en este nuevo mundo con la msica se supona que yo iba a realizar un proyecto con Tod Machover del MIT Media Lab, que est muy vinculado a la msica. +Pero Tod no pudo venir y el proyecto qued truncado, No s si est saliendo como lo tenamos pensado o no. +Pero voy a explorar habilidad y malabarismo y esencialmente la msica visual, supongo. +Bueno, pueden poner la msica, gracias. +Gracias. Muchas gracias. El malabarismo puede ser muy divertido, jugar con la habilidad, con el espacio y con el ritmo. +Pueden encender el micro ahora, voy a hacer un par de nmeros. +Hago un gran nmero en un tringulo y estas son tres secciones del espectculo. +Parte del desafo era tratar de entender el ritmo y el espacio usando no slo las manos (el malabarismo se centra mucho de las manos) sino el ritmo corporal y el de los pies controlando las pelotas con los pies. +Gracias. La prxima seccin era un intento de explorar el espacio. +Ya ven, pienso que Richard dijo algo de la gente que est en contra de algo. +Mucha gente piensa que los malabaristas desafiamos la gravedad. +Bien, desde mi niez, el golf y todo eso es un proceso de unirse a las fuerzas. +Por eso me gusta intentar dar con la forma de unirse con el espacio a travs de la tcnica. +Malabares con gravedad... arriba, abajo. +Si uno descubre qu es realmente arriba y abajo es un complejo conjunto fsico de habilidades el poder lanzar una pelota hacia abajo y arriba, etc. luego se le agrega a los lados. +Como yo lo veo, es una forma... aprender malabares... se aprende a sentir con los ojos y ver con las manos porque uno no est mirando las manos uno est mirando dnde estn las pelotas, dnde esta la audiencia. +Lo que sigue es realmente una manera de comprender el espacio y el ritmo con referencia obvia a los pies. Pero tambin es tiempo. Dnde estaban los pies, dnde estaban las pelotas? +Gracias. Msica visual, ritmo y complejidad. +Ahora pasar a la complejidad. +Los malabares con tres pelotas son simples, normales. +Disclpenme. +Somos malabaristas, bueno. Y recuerden: se estn transformando, estn entrando en una subcultura. +Haciendo malabares con pelotas cruzadas y todo eso. +Bien, si las mantienen en su recorrido asignado, tienen lneas paralelas, distintas alturas y luego, con suerte, incluso ritmo. +Y pueden cambiar el ritmo... bueno Michael. +Pueden cambiar el ritmo si se salen de las luces. +Bien? Cambien el ritmo as es constante. +O volver atrs y cambiar la altura. Ahora, la habilidad. +Pero estn limitados si slo pueden ir arriba y abajo as. +Por eso tienen que explorar el espacio inferior. +Bien, tienen que combinarlos porque entonces tienen la paleta espacial completa ante ustedes. +Y luego se vuelven locos. +Ahora les voy a pedir que intenten algo as que tienen que prestar atencin. La complejidad. Si dedican suficiente tiempo a algo el tiempo va ms lento o sus habilidades aumentan, as la percepcin cambia. +Es aprender habilidades como estar en un accidente de autos de carrera. +Las cosas se desaceleran a medida que uno aprende, y aprende, y aprende. +Uno no controla la cosa, apenas toca las manos, se va. +Es la analoga ms cercana que se me ocurre. +Digmosle complejidad. Cuntos son malabaristas? +Bien, entonces muchos de ustedes van a tener reacciones similares. +Bien? Y para quien se rea por all... Comprendi todo, verdad? +No, parece un desorden. Parece un desorden con un tipo all que agita sus manos en el desorden, bien. +Bien, los malabares son eso, correcto? +Ser capaces de hacer algo que otra gente no puede o no comprende. +Correcto. Esa es una manera de hacerlo, con cinco pelotas para abajo. +Bien? Otra forma es hacia afuera. +Y se puede jugar con el ritmo. +Mismo patrn. +Hacerlo ms rpido y pequeo. +Hacerlo ms amplio. +Hacerlo ms angosto. +Volver al inicio. +Bien. Ya est. Gracias. +Lo que quiero probar ahora es que Uds. son todos brillantes, muy tctiles. +No tengo idea de cun buenos sean con las computadoras o las tres dimensiones pero probemos algo. +Bien, dado que no comprenden qu es el patrn de las cinco pelotas les voy a dar una pequea pista. +Suficiente con la pista? Entendieron el patrn, no? Bien. +Uds no abandonan tan fcilmente, correcto? +Ahora, hganme un favor. Sigan la pelota que yo les diga. +Verde. +Amarilla. +Rosa. +Blanca. +Bien. Pueden hacerlo? S? Bien. +Ahora aprendamos algo. +Djenme que los lleve a ese rea del aprendizaje que es muy inseguro. +Quieren hacerlo? S? Bien. +Levanten las manos. Arriba las palmas. Juntas. +Van a aprender esto. +Bien? Quiero que me escuchen y hagan esto. +ndice, medio, anular, meique. +Meique, anular, medio, ndice. Y despus abren. +Dedo, dedo, dedo, dedo, dedo, dedo, dedo, dedo. +Un poco ms rpido. +Dedo, dedo, dedo, dedo, dedo, dedo, dedo, dedo. +Dedo, dedo, dedo, dedo, dedo, dedo, dedo, dedo. +Bien. Hubo muchos y diversos procesos de aprendizaje en esto. +Uno que vi es ste... Bien. Otro proceso de aprendizaje que vi es ste... Bien. Todo el mundo aspire hondo, y espiren. Bien. +Ahora, una vez ms, y... Dedo, dedo, dedo, dedo, dedo, dedo, dedo, dedo. Abran. +Dedo, dedo, dedo, dedo, dedo, dedo, dedo, dedo. Abran. +Estrchense las manos. +Supongo que muchos de Uds. pasan mucho tiempo en la computadora. +Bien? Lo que estn haciendo es, hacen la, la, la, y obtienen esto. Bien? +Eso es exactamente lo que les voy a pedir que hagan pero de manera ligeramente diferente. Van a combinar las cosas. +Quiero que hagan dedos. +Les voy a decir qu hacer con los dedos, lo mismo. +Pero quiero que con los ojos sigan las pelota del color que les diga. +Bien? Aqu vamos. +Vamos a comenzar siguiendo la pelota blanca... y les voy a decir que color y les voy a decir que sigan con sus dedos. Bien? +As que la pelota blanca y... Dedo, dedo, dedo, dedo, dedo, dedo, dedo, dedo. Rosa. +Dedo, dedo, dedo, dedo, dedo, dedo, dedo, dedo. Verde. +Dedo, dedo, dedo, dedo. Amarillo. +Dedo, dedo, dedo, dedo, rosa o dedo. +Rosa, dedo, dedo, dedo, dedo, dedo, dedo, dedo, dedo. +Bueno. +Cmo les fue? Bien? Bueno. La razn por la que les ped esto es porque es lo que la mayora de la gente enfrenta durante el transcurso de su vida, un momento de aprendizaje, un momento de desafo. +Un momento en que uno no entiende: +Por qu diablos debera aprenderlo? +Tiene esto algo que ver mnimamente con mi vida? +Ya saben, no puedo descifrarlo... es divertido? un desafo? debera hacer trampa? +Ya saben, qu se supone que uno debe hacer? +Tienen a alguien aqu arriba que de esto ha hecho una eleccin de vida. Bien? +Que intenta descubrir esas cosas. Pero me llevar a algo? +Es slo un momento. Eso es todo, un momento. Bien? +Voy a cambiar el guin por un segundo. Permtanme hacer esto. +No necesito msica para esto. Hablar del tiempo en un momento. +Recientemente desarroll un nmero que habla de esto del momento. Como artista creativo desarrollo vocabularios o lenguajes de objetos en movimiento. +Lo que present aqu para Uds. fue una serie de trucos a los que he agregado coreografa. Pero no son tcnicas originales. +Ahora voy a comenzar a mostrarles unas tcnicas originales del trabajo que he preparado. Bien? +Entonces, un momento, cmo definiran un momento? +Bueno, como malabarista quera crear algo que fuese representativo de un momento. +Aaagggjjj! +Bien, voy a arrodillarme y hacerlo. +Entonces, un momento. +(Sonido de grava) Bien? Y entonces como malabarista me dije: Bien, Cmo puedo crear una cosa... que dependa de otra cosa, de otra dinmica? +(Sonido de grava) Entonces, un momento. +(Sonido de grava) Otro momento. +(Sonido de grava) Disclpenme. Un momento que viaja. +(Sonido de grava) Un momento... no, lo har otra vez. Se separa y se vuelve a unir. +El tiempo. Cmo observar el tiempo? +Y a qu lo dedican cuando analizan una cosa particular? +Bien, obviamente hay algo aqu dentro y todos pueden adivinar de que se trata. +Hay un misterio. Hay un misterio en el momento. +Y debe acomodarse. Y luego depende de alguna otra cosa. +Y despus descansa. Slo una cosita sobre el tiempo. +Ahora, esto se transforma en un nmero mucho ms grande donde uso rampas de distintas parbolas en las que hago rodar las pelotas mientras controlo el tiempo con esto. +Pero pens que hablara del momento. +Bien. Podemos mostrar el video del tringulo? +Estamos listos? S? +Este es el nmero del que les habl. +Es un nmero mucho ms grande donde exploro el espacio del tringulo geomtrico. +Gracias. Lo nico que dir sobre la ltima parte es: han intentando hacer malabares conduciendo un auto con las rodillas a 190 kms por hora? +La otra cosa que fue un verdadero golpe: +siempre manej motos y cuando compr mi primer auto me sorprendi constatar que costaba tres veces ms que la casa de mis padres. Interesante. +En cualquier caso, equilibrio... movimiento constante. Encontrar un enfoque de la quietud. +Hacer trampas. +Equilibrio. Inventarse las reglas para no poder infringirlas, as, uno aprende a enfocar la quietud con distintas partes del cuerpo. +Conversar con el cuerpo. Hablarle. Escucharlo. +Depende del ritmo y de mantener el centro de equilibrio cuando est cayendo de abajo. +Entonces, hay un ritmo. +El ritmo puede hacerse ms pequeo. +A medida que las habilidades crecen uno aprende a encontrar esos espacios pequeos esos movimientos menores. Gracias. +Ahora les voy a mostrar el principio de un nmero que es de equilibrio en cierto modo, y tambin... y si estn aburridos, no aqu, pero este es un uso posible. +Pueden poner la msica "bastones uno". +Gracias. Tiene cierto tipo de equilibrio. Es todo una cuestin de peso. +Aprend con un carpintero, a usar la plomada, la escuadra y el nivel. +Esos elementos influyeron este nmero y el siguiente, del que les mostrar un segmento. +"Bastones dos", pueden ponerla. Gracias. +Esto explora tambin el espacio y las lneas en el espacio. +Trabajo con el espacio y las lneas en el espacio de manera diferente. +Veamos un poco. +Volver en un segundo, pero trabajando con una sola pelota qu sucede si agrego algo? y si lo quito? +Esta es una cosita que hice yo porque me gusta la idea de las curvas y las pelotas juntas. +Y despus crear espacio y ritmo en el espacio usando la superficie de las pelotas, la superficie de los brazos. +Es slo un jueguito que me lleva a lo prximo que es... qu hay aqu? Bien. Correcto. +Realmente se viene algo lo ltimo en lo que estoy trabajando. No es esto. +Esto es la exploracin de la geometra y del ritmo de las formas. +He trabajado con la matemtica con el dimetro y la circunferencia. +A veces mis exhibiciones son matemticas en el sentido que observo una forma y digo: "Y si usara esto, esto, y esto?" +A veces lo que sucede en la vida condiciona mi eleccin de los objetos con los que trato de trabajar. +Es una combinacin de cosas: su belleza, su forma, y las historias que evoca as como el hecho que protegen los contenidos. +La segunda influencia de este nmero viene del reciclado de mirar una lata en el cubo de la basura de ver esa magnfica vacuidad de la lata. +Si quieren pueden poner la msica de los cilindros. +Hablando de geometra y esas cosas si toman el crculo y lo parten en dos... Pueden poner la msica de la "curva en S"? +Voy a hacer apenas una versin breve. +Crculos partidos al medio, rotados y la mitologa. +Este nmero tiene tambin una escultura cintica en el medio: y bailo en un pequeo escenario... Dos minutos para terminar? El ltimo nmero en que estoy trabajando me gusta no saber nunca qu es o por qu estoy trabajando en algo. +No son ideas, son instintos. +Y lo ltimo en lo que estoy trabajando... de verdad es algo... todava no s qu es. +Y eso es bueno. Me gusta ignorarlo tanto como sea posible. +As es nmero quien me dice la verdad en vez de ser yo quien la imponga. +Se trata de trabajar con el espacio sea ste positivo o negativo pero tambin con estas curvas. +Lo que conlleva... no s si mis manos estn muy curtidas o no pero har una pequea muestra. +Al principio comienzo apilando estas cosas muchas cosas y despus juego con el sentido del espacio de relleno del espacio. Y luego empieza a cambiar y se va plegando sobre s mismo. +Y despus cambian los niveles. +Porque mi intencin es hacer instrumentos visuales no slo hacer... probar otra cosa. +Trabajar en tres dimensiones con las percepciones del espacio y del tiempo. +Todava no s exactamente adnde apunta pero estoy invirtiendo esfuerzo en esto. +Y va a ir cambiando a medida que lo vaya trabajando. +Pero en verdad me gusta, siento que est bien. +Podra no ser la forma correcta. Miren esta forma y despus les muestro el primer diseo que hice slo para ver, para jugar, porque me gusta jugar con todas estas cosas distintas. +Veamos esto. +Trabajar con el positivo y el negativo de manera diferente. +Y cambiar y cambiar. +As que parto con esto en un nuevo viaje a explorar el ritmo y el espacio. +Veremos con qu me encuentro. Gracias por invitarme. +Cuntos han visto la pelcula de Alfred Hitchcock, "Los pjaros"? +Alguien se alter mucho con ella? +Quizs quieran retirarse ahora. +Esta es una mquina expendedora para cuervos. +En das anteriores, muchos me han preguntado: "Cmo te iniciaste en esto? Cmo empezaste?" +Y empez, como muchas grandes ideas, o como muchas ideas de las que no te puedes deshacer de ningun modo, en un cctel. +Hace unos 10 aos, estaba en un cctel con un amigo mo estbamos sentados y l se quejaba de los cuervos que haba visto invadiendo su patio y causando destrozos. +Y me deca que debamos intentar erradicarlos. +Tenamos que matarlos por que hacan destrozos. +Dije que eso era estpido, quizs deberamos entrenarlos para hacer algo til. +l respondi que eso era imposible. +Seguramente coincidirn conmigo en encontrar eso tremendamente irritante, cuando alguien dice que es imposible. +As que pas los siguientes 10 aos leyendo sobre cuervos en mi tiempo libre. +Y despues de 10 aos de esto, mi esposa dijo: "Mira, tienes que hacer esto de lo que has estado hablando y construir la mquina expendedora." +As que la hice. +Pero parte de la razn de encontrar esto interesante es que empec a notar que estamos muy conscientes de toda especie que se extinguen en el planeta, como resultado de la expansin del hbitat humano y nadie parece estar ponindole atencin a las especies que estn viviendo, que estn sobreviviendo. +Y hablo en particular de las especies sinantrpicas, aquellas adaptadas especficamente para ecologas humanas. Especies como las ratas, las cucarachas y los cuervos. +Conforme los estudiaba, encontraba que estaban hiperadaptadas. +Se haban vuelto autenticos expertos en vivir con nosotros. +Y a cambio, slo tratbamos de matarlos todo el tiempo. +Y al hacerlo, los cribamos para ser parsitos. +Les dbamos toda clase de razones para adaptar nuevos comportamientos. +Por ejemplo, las ratas se reproducen muy exitosamente. +Y las cucarachas, como cualquiera que haya intentado librarse de ellas sabe se han vuelto de verdad inmunes a los venenos que usamos. +As que pens, construyamos algo que sea mutuamente beneficioso, +construyamos algo as, y encontremos alguna forma de formar una nueva relacin con estas especies. +As que constru la mquina expendedora. +Pero su historia es un poco ms interesante si saben ms de cuervos. +Resulta que los cuervos no slo estn sobreviviendo con los humanos, de hecho estn prosperando. +Se les encuentra por todo el planeta excepto en el rtico y en el extremo sur de Sudamrica. +Y en toda esa rea, rara vez son encontrados criando a ms de 5 km de distancia de los seres humanos. +As que quizs no pensemos en ellos pero siempre estn cerca. +Y evidentemente, dado el crecimiento de la poblacin humana ms de la mitad de la poblacin humana vive ahora en ciudades. +Y de ella, nueve dcimos del crecimiento demogrfico ocurre en las ciudades. +Estamos viendo a un gran incremento en las poblaciones de cuervos. +El recuento de aves indica que quizs estemos viendo un crecimiento exponencial en su nmero. +As que eso no es una gran sorpresa. +Lo verdaderamente interesante fue descubrir que las aves se adaptaban de una manera muy inusual. +Les dar un ejemplo de ello. +Esta es Betty. Es un cuervo de Nueva Caledonia +Y estos cuervos, en su hbitat usan palos para extraer insectos y quien sabe que ms, de pedazos de madera. +Aqu ella intenta sacar un pedazo de carne de un tubo. +Pero los investigadores tenan un problema. +Se equivocaron y dejaron ah solo un tramo de alambre. +Y el cuervo no haba tenido la oportunidad de hacer esto antes. +Ven, no estaba funcionando. +As que se adapt. +Esto es totalmente espontneo. Nunca haba visto hacer esto antes. +Nadie le ense a doblar esto en un gancho, o que podra hacerse. +Lo hizo por s solo. +As que recuerden que nunca ha visto hacer esto. +Correcto. +Si. Correcto. +Esa es la parte en que los investigadores alucinaron. +Resulta que hemos encontrado ms y ms que los cuervos son muy, muy inteligentes. +Sus cerebros tienen la misma proporcin que los cerebros de los chimpancs. +Hay toda clase de ancdotas de los diferentes tipos de inteligencia que tienen. +Por ejemplo en Suecia los cuervos esperan a que los pescadores pongan sedales en hoyos en el hielo. +Cuando los pescadores se quitan los cuervos bajan, enrollan los sedales y se comen el pescado o el cebo. +Es muy molesto para los pescadores. +En otro rden de cosas en la Universidad de Washington, hace pocos aos estaban haciendo un experimento en el que capturaron cuervos en el campus. +Algunos estudiantes consiguieron unos cuervos las trajeron, los pesaron, los midieron y dems y los soltaron. +Y les divirti descubrir que el resto de la semana, esos cuervos a donde quiera que fueran esos estudiantes los cuervos les graznaban, perseguan y les hacan la vida imposible. +Les divirti mucho menos cuando esto continu la siguiente semana +y el siguiente mes, y despus de vacaciones de verano. +Hasta que se graduaron y se fueron del campus felices de hacerlo, seguro. Regresaron tiempo despus, y descubrieron que los cuervos los recordaban todava. +Moraleja: no enojes a los cuervos. +Ahora, estudiantes de la Universidad de Washington estudian esos cuervos usando peluca y mscara. +Es muy interesante. +Sabemos que los cuervos son muy listos pero cuanto ms investigaba, ms encontraba que tienen una adaptacin mucho ms importante. +Video: Los cuervos se han vuelto expertos en vivir en estos nuevos entornos urbanos. +En esta ciudad japonesa, han diseado una forma de comer un alimento que normalmente no pueden conseguir: dejarlo caer en el trfico. +El problema ahora es recoger los pedazos sin ser atropellado. +Espera a la luz que detiene el trfico. +Entonces, recoge tu nuez partida de forma segura. +Joshua Klein: S, si. Muy interesante. +Lo importante de esto no es que los cuervos usen autos para abrir nueces. +Eso es historia antigua para los cuervos. +Esto ocurri hace como 10 aos en un lugar llamado Sendai City, una escuela de conduccin a las afueras de Tokio. +Desde entonces todos los cuervos del vecindario adquirieron este comportamiento. +Ahora, cada cuervo 5 km a la redonda se para en la acera esperando a recoger su almuerzo. +Aprenden entre ellos y la investigacin lo corrobora. +Los padres parecen ensearlo a sus hijos. +Aprenden de sus pares, lo han aprendido de sus enemigos. +Si tengo tiempo, les contar un caso de infidelidad entre cuervos que ilustra eso muy bien. +El asunto es que han desarrollado adaptacin cultural. +Y como escuchamos ayer esa es la caja de Pandora que nos est metiendo en problemas y empezamos a verlo con ellos. +Son capaces de adaptarse muy rpida y flexiblemente a nuevos retos y recursos en su entorno lo cual es muy til si vives en una ciudad. +Entonces, sabemos que hay muchos cuervos. +Sabemos que son muy listos, y sabemos que pueden ensearse entre ellos. +Cuando esto se volvi claro para m me di cuenta que lo obvio era construir una mquina expendedora. +As que eso hicimos. +Esta es una mquina expendedora para cuervos. +Usa el entrenamiento Skinner para modificar su comportamiento en 4 etapas. +Es muy sencillo. +Bsicamente, pusimos esto en un terreno o un lugar donde hay montones de cuervos y pusimos monedas y manes alrededor de la mquina +Y ocasionalmente los cuervos llegaron y se comieron los manes y se acostumbraron a que la mquina estuviera ah. +Y eventualmente se comieron todos los manes. +Y entonces vieron los manes en el comedero y se subieron y se sirvieron. +Y cuando se fueron, la mquina sac ms monedas y manes y la vida es grandiosa si eres un cuervo. +Puedes volver cuando quieras y conseguir un man. +Entonces, cuando se acostumbran a eso, continuamos hacindolos volver. +Ahora estn acostumbrados al sonido de la mquina, y siguen regresando y sacando esos manes de entre el montn de monedas que hay ah. +Y cuando se ponen de verdad felices por esto vamos y los bloqueamos. +Avanzamos a la 3. etapa, donde slo les damos una moneda. +Ahora, como nosotros al acostumbrarnos a algo bueno esto los enoja. +As que hacen lo que en la naturaleza cuando buscan algo quitan cosas que estorben con su pico. +Y lo hacen aqu, y tiran la moneda por la ranura, y cuando eso pasa, consiguen un man. +Y as sigue por un tiempo. +Los cuervos aprenden que todo lo que tienen que hacer es llegar esperar que salga la moneda, ponerla en la ranura y que entonces consiguen su man. +Y cuando estn a gusto as avanzamos a la etapa final, en la cual ellos llegan y no pasa nada. +Y aqu es donde vemos la diferencia entre cuervos y otros animales. +Las ardillas, por ejemplo, llegaran, buscaran el man y se iran. +Regresaran, buscaran el man, se iran. +Hacen esto quizs media docena de veces antes de aburrirse y se marchan a jugar en el trfico. +Los cuervos, por otro lado, llegan e intentan y tratan de resolverlo. +Saben que la mquina ha estado confundindolos a travs de tres etapas distintas de comportamiento. +Se imaginan que tiene que haber algo en ello. +As que le escarban, le pican y dems. +Y eventualmente algunos cuervos tienen la brillante idea de que: "Oye, hay montones de monedas de la primera etapa tiradas en el piso", bajan, recogen, la echan en la ranura. +Ahora ya no hay obstculos. +Ese cuervo disfruta un monopolio temporal en manes hasta que sus amigos descubren cmo hacerlo, y aqu vamos. +Lo que es importante para m de esto no es que podamos entrenar cuervos a recoger manes. +Acurdense, se pierden 216 millones de dlares en cambio cada ao pero no estoy seguro de poder contar con los cuervos para ese ROI. +En cambio, creo que debemos pensar un poco ms a lo grande. +Creo que los cuervos pueden ser entrenados a hacer otras cosas. +Por ejemplo, por qu no entrenarlos a recoger basura despus de eventos en estadios? +O a encontrar componentes caros en aparatos electrnicos desechados? +O quizs para bsqueda y rescate? +Lo principal de todo esto para m es que podemos encontrar sistemas mutuamente benficos para estas especies. +Podemos encontrar formas de interactuar con estas otras especies que no consista en exterminarlas sino en encontrar un equilibrio con ellas que sea til. +Muchas gracias. +Escribo sobre comida. Escribo sobre cocina. +Me lo tomo bastante en serio, pero estoy aqu para hablar de algo que se ha vuelto muy importante para m durante el ltimo o los dos ltimos aos. +Es sobre la comida, pero no es sobre la cocina en s. +Voy a empezar con esta foto de una hermosa vaca. +No soy vegetariano -- esta es la vieja frase de Nixon, no? +Pero aun as pienso que esto -- -- puede ser la versin actual de esto. +Bien, eso es solamente una pequea exageracin. +Y por qu lo digo? +Porque slo una vez antes el destino de las personas y el destino de toda la humanidad han estado tan entrelazados. +Estaba la bomba, y est el ahora. +Y a dnde vayamos desde aqu va a determinar no slo la calidad y la duracin de nuestras vidas, sino, suponiendo que pudisemos ver la tierra dentro de un siglo, si la reconoceremos. +Es un holocausto diferente, y escondernos bajo la mesa no va a servir de ayuda. +Partamos de la idea de que el calentamiento global no slo es real, sino que es peligroso. +Dado que todos los cientficos del mundo lo creen, y hasta el Presidente Bush ha visto la luz, o eso aparenta, podemos darlo por sentado. +Entonces escuchad esto, por favor. +Despus de la generacin de energa, el ganado es la segunda fuente ms importante de gases que afectan a la atmsfera. +Casi una quinta parte de todos los gases de efecto invernadero tienen su origen en la produccin de ganado -- ms que el transporte. +Bueno, podis hacer todas las bromas que queris acerca de los pedos de vaca, pero el metano es 20 veces ms venenoso que el CO2, y no es slo el metano. +El ganado es adems una de las principales causas de degradacin de la tierra, la contaminacin del aire y el agua, la escasez de agua y la prdida de biodiversidad. +Hay ms. +Por ejemplo que la mitad de los antibiticos en este pas no los toman las personas, sino los animales. +Pero las listas como sta pierden un poco el significado, as que dejadme simplemente decir esto, si eres progresista, si conduces un Prius, o compras ecolgico, o buscas productos orgnicos, probablemente deberas ser semi-vegetariano. +Vamos, yo no soy ms anti-vaca de lo que soy anti-tomo, pero todo depende del modo que usemos estas cosas. +Hay otra pieza del puzzle de la que Ann Cooper habl magnficamente ayer, y que ya conocis. +No hay duda - ninguna - de que las llamadas enfermedades del estilo de vida -- diabetes, enfermedades coronarias, ataques cerebrales, algunos cnceres -- son enfermedades mucho ms frecuentes aqu que en cualquier otra parte del mundo. +Y eso es el resultado directo de consumir una dieta occidental. +Nuestra demanda de carne, productos lcteos e hidratos de carbono refinados -- en el mundo se consumen mil millones de botellas o latas de Coca-Cola al da -- nuestra demanda de estas cosas, no nuestra necesidad, nuestro deseo -- nos lleva a consumir muchas ms caloras de lo que es sano para nosotros. +Y esas caloras estn en comidas que causan, no que previenen, enfermedades. +Bien, el calentamiento global era algo imprevisto. +No sabamos que la polucin provocase algo ms que la mala visibilidad. +Tal vez alguna que otra enfermedad respiratoria, pero bueno, nada especialmente importante. +En la crisis sanitaria actual, por el contrario, ha tenido que ver algo ms el imperio del mal. +Nos dijeron, nos aseguraron, que cuanta ms carne y productos lcteos y carne de ave comisemos, ms sanos estaramos. +No. El consumo excesivo de animales, y por supuesto, de comida basura, es el problema, junto con nuestro escaso consumo de plantas. +Bien, aqu no tenemos tiempo de discutir los beneficios de comer plantas, pero la evidencia es que las plantas -- y quiero dejar esto claro -- no son los ingredientes en las plantas, son las plantas, +no es el beta-caroteno, es la zanahoria. +Las pruebas dejan patente que las plantas fomentan la salud. +La evidencia es abrumadora hoy por hoy. +Comes ms plantas, comes menos de otras cosas, vives ms tiempo. +No est mal. +Pero volvamos a los animales y la comida basura. +Qu tienen en comn? +Primero: no necesitamos ninguno de ellos para nuestra salud. +No necesitamos productos animales, y por supuesto no necesitamos pan blanco o Coca-Cola. +Segundo: los dos han sido muy promocionados, creando una demanda antinatural. +No nacemos con ganas de Whoppers o Skittles. +Tercero: su produccin ha sido apoyada por las agencias gubernamentales a costa de una dieta ms saludable y respetuosa con el medio ambiente. +Ahora vamos a imaginar una situacin semejante. +Vamos a suponer que nuestro gobierno mantuviese una economa basada en el petrleo y a la vez no estimulase formas de energa mas sostenibles, sabiendo todo el tiempo que el resultado sera polucin, guerra y gastos crecientes. +Increble verdad? +Pero eso es lo que hacen. +Y lo hacen aqu. Es la misma situacin. +Lo triste, en lo que se refiere a la dieta, es que incluso cuando los funcionarios estatales con buenas intenciones intentan hacer por nosotros lo correcto, fracasan. +O son superados en votos por las marionetas de la industria agroalimentaria, o son marionetas de la industria agroalimentaria. +As que cuando el departamento de agricultura de los EEUU finalmente reconoci que eran las plantas, en lugar de los animales, las que favorecan la salud de la gente, nos animaron, mediante su pirmide alimentaria excesivamente simplista, a comer cinco raciones de frutas y verduras al da, junto con ms hidratos. +Lo que no nos dijeron fue que algunos hidratos son mejores que otros, y que las plantas y los cereales integrales deberan reemplazar a la comida basura. +Pero los miembros de los lobbys no permitiran nunca que eso ocurra. +Y sabis que? +La mitad de la gente que cre la pirmide alimentaria tiene relaciones con la industria agroalimentaria. +As que, en lugar de sustituir los animales por las plantas, nuestros apetitos hinchados simplemente se hicieron ms grandes, y sus aspectos ms peligrosos permanecieron inalterados. +Las llamadas dietas bajas en grasa, las llamadas dietas bajas en hidratos -- no son soluciones. +Pero con montones de gente inteligente fijndose en si la comida es orgnica o local, o si estamos siendo amables con los animales, las cuestiones ms importantes simplemente no estn siendo abordadas. +Bueno, no me malinterpretis. +Me encantan los animales, y no creo que est bien industrializar su produccin y producirlos en serie como si fuesen llaves inglesas. +Pero no hay manera de tratar bien a los animales cuando ests matando 10 mil millones de ellos al ao. +Ese es nuestro nmero, 10 mil millones. +Si los pusieras uno detrs de otro -- pollos, vacas, cerdos y corderos -- en direccin a la luna, llegaran y volveran cinco veces -- llegaran y volveran. +Vamos, mis matemticas son un poco flojas, pero esto es bastante correcto, y depende de si un cerdo mide un metro veinte o un metro cincuenta, pero os hacis a la idea. +Eso es para los Estados Unidos nicamente. +Y con nuestro consumo excesivo de estos animales generando gases de efecto invernadero y enfermedades del corazn, la amabilidad puede ser una cierta distraccin. +Disminuyamos la cantidad de animales que matamos para comer, y despus nos preocuparemos de ser amables con los que queden. +Otra distraccin puede ser por ejemplo la palabra "locvoro", que acaba de ser nombrada Palabra del ao por el Nuevo Diccionario Americano de Oxford. +En serio. +Y locvoro, para aquellos de vosotros que no lo sepis, es alguien que slo consume comida criada de manera local. Lo cual est bien si vives en California, pero para el resto de nosotros es como una broma sin gracia. +Con la versin oficial -- la pirmide alimentaria -- y la visin locvora de moda, tenemos dos modelos de cmo mejorar nuestra alimentacin. +Las dos se equivocan sin embargo. +La primera, al menos es populista, y la segunda es elitista. +Cmo hemos llegado hasta aqu es la historia de la comida en los Estados Unidos. +Y voy a explicarlo, al menos los ltimos cien aos o as, muy rpidamente ahora. +Hace cien aos sabis qu? +Todo el mundo era locvoro, incluso Nueva York tena granjas de cerdos cerca y transportar la comida a todas partes era una idea ridcula. +Cada familia tena una cocinera, normalmente una mam. +Y esas mams compraban y preparaban la comida. +Era como esa visin romntica de Europa. +La margarina no exista. +De hecho, cuando se invent la margarina, varios estados aprobaron leyes obligando a teirla de rosa para que todo el mundo supiera que era una falsificacin. +No haba snacks y, hasta los aos 20, hasta que llego Clarence Birdseye, no haba comida congelada. +No haba cadenas de restaurantes. +Haba restaurantes de barrio regentados por gente de la zona, pero ninguno de ellos habra pensado en abrir otro. +La comida tnica era desconocida a menos que fueses de algn grupo tnico. +Y la comida sofisticada era toda francesa. +Un inciso, aquellos de vosotros que recordis a Dan Ayrkroyd en los aos 70 imitando a Julia Child podris entender de dnde sac la idea de acuchillarse viendo esta fantstica diapositiva. +En aquellos das, antes incluso de Julia, en aquellos das no haba ninguna filosofa de la comida. +Simplemente comas. +No pretendas que fuese nada. +No haba marketing. No haba marcas nacionales. +Las vitaminas no haban sido inventadas. +No haba afirmaciones sobre la salud, al menos no aprobadas estatalmente. +Grasas , hidratos, protenas -- no eran ni buenas ni malas, eran comida. +Comas comida. +Casi nada contena ms de un ingrediente porque era un ingrediente. +El copo de maz no haba sido inventado +El Pop-Tart, las Pringles, el Cheez Whiz, ninguna de esas cosas. +Los pececitos nadaban. +Es difcil de imaginar. La gente cultivaba comida, y coma comida. +Y de nuevo, todos coman local. +En Nueva York, una naranja era un regalo comn en Navidades, porque vena desde Florida. +A partir de los aos 30, el sistema de carreteras se ampli, camiones ocuparon el lugar de los trenes, la comida fresca comenz a viajar ms. +Las naranjas se volvieron comunes en Nueva York. +El Sur y el Oeste se convirtieron en centros agrcolas, y en otras partes del pas los suburbios ocuparon el lugar de las granjas. +Los efectos de todo esto son bien conocidos, estn en todas partes. +Y la muerte de la granja familiar es parte del puzzle, como lo es casi todo desde la desaparicin de la verdadera comunidad hasta el desafo de encontrar un buen tomate, incluso en verano. +Con el tiempo California produjo demasiada comida para transportarla fresca as que se convirti en decisivo vender comida enlatada y congelada. +As llegaron los precocidos. +Se vendan a las amas de casa protofeministas como un modo de reducir el trabajo en casa. +Bueno, s que todos los mayores de unos 45 aos -- se les est haciendo la boca agua ahora mismo +Si tuvisemos una diapositiva de un filete ruso todava ms, verdad? +Pero esto pudo reducir el trabajo en casa, pero redujo tambin la variedad de comida que consumamos. +Muchos de nosotros crecimos sin comer nunca verdura fresca excepto una zanahoria cruda ocasionalmente o tal vez una rara ensalada de lechuga. +Yo, al menos -- y no estoy bromeando -- no com espinacas o brcoli de verdad hasta que tena 19 aos. +Aunque, quin lo necesitaba? La carne estaba en todas partes. +Qu poda ser ms sencillo, llenar ms o ser ms saludable para tu familia que asar un bistec? +Pero ya entonces las reses estaban siendo criadas de manera antinatural. +En lugar de pasar sus vidas comiendo hierba, para lo que sus estmagos estaban diseados, se las obligaba a comer soja y maz. +Por supuesto tienen problemas digiriendo esos cereales, pero eso no era un problema para los criadores. +Las nuevas medicinas las mantenan sanas. +Bueno, las mantenan vivas. +Sanas era otra historia. +Gracias a las subvenciones a las granjas, la excelente colaboracin entre la industria agroalimentaria y el Congreso, la soja, el maz y las vacas se convirtieron en reyes. +Y pronto se les uni en el trono el pollo. +Fue durante esta poca cuando el ciclo de destruccin alimenticio y planetario comenz, algo de lo que slo ahora nos estamos dando cuenta. +Escuchad esto, entre 1950 y 2000, la poblacin mundial se duplic. +El consumo de carne se incremento cinco veces. +Bien, alguien tuvo que comer todo esto, as que surgi la comida rpida. +Y ella se encarg de la situacin rotundamente. +La cocina en casa sigui siendo lo normal, pero su calidad estaba por los suelos. +Haba menos comidas con panes, postres y sopas cocinadas en casa, dado que todo ello poda comprarse en cualquier tienda. +No es que fueran buenas, pero estaban all. +La mayora de las madres cocinaban como la ma -- un trozo de carne asada, una ensalada hecha rpidamente con salsa embotellada, sopa enlatada, macedonia de frutas enlatada. +Tal vez patata asada o pur de patatas, o tal vez la comida ms tonta de todos los tiempos -- arroz precocinado. +De postre, helado comprado en la tienda o galletas. +Mi madre no est aqu, as que ahora puedo decir esto. +Este tipo de cocina me llev a aprender a cocinar por m mismo +No todo era malo. +En los aos 70, gente de mente previsora empez a reconocer el valor de los ingredientes locales. +Cuidbamos jardines, nos interesbamos por la comida orgnica, conocamos a vegetarianos o lo ramos. +No ramos todos hippies tampoco. +Algunos de nosotros comamos en buenos restaurantes y aprendamos a cocinar bien. +Mientras, la produccin de comida se haba industrializado. Industrializado. +Tal vez porque estaba siendo producida de manera racional como si se tratase de plstico, la comida adquiri poderes mgicos o venenosos, o las dos cosas. +Mucha gente se volvi aversa a la grasa. +Otros adoraban al brcoli como si fuese un Dios. +Pero en su mayor parte no coman brcoli. +En su lugar estaban entusiasmados con el yogurt, porque el yogurt era tan bueno como el brcoli. +Salvo que, en realidad, el modo en el que la industria venda yogurt era convirtindolo en algo mucho ms parecido al helado. +De manera similar, examinemos la barrita de cereales. +Piensas que puede ser comida sana, pero en realidad, si miras la lista de ingredientes, se parece ms en el fondo a una barra de Snickers que a los copos de avena. +Tristemente, fue por aquel entonces cuando la cena familiar fue puesta en coma, por no decir asesinada. El principio del apogeo de la comida de valor aadido, que contena tantos productos de soja y maz como fuese posible aadir. +Pensad en el nugget de pollo congelado. +El pollo come maz, y luego su carne es molida y mezclada con ms productos del maz para aadir volumen y ligazn, y luego se fre en aceite de maz. +Lo nico que haces es calentarlo en el microondas. Qu podra ser mejor? +Y calentado horrible, patticamente. +En los 70, la cocina casera estaba en un estado tan lamentable que los altos contenidos en grasas y especias de comidas como los McNuggets o los Hot Pockets -- y la verdad es que todos tenemos nuestros favoritos -- convirtieron en ms apetecibles que las cosas inspidas que la gente serva en casa. +A la vez, montones de mujeres entraron en el mercado laboral, y cocinar sencillamente no era lo suficientemente importante para que los hombres compartieran la responsabilidad. +As que ahora tienes tus noches de pizza, tienes tus noches de microondas, tienes tus noches de picoteo, tienes tus noches de apatelas tu mismo, etctera. +Al frente -- quin est al frente? +La carne, la comida basura, el queso. Las mismas cosas que acabarn contigo. +As que ahora clamamos por la comida orgnica. +Eso es bueno. +Y como prueba de que las cosas pueden cambiar de verdad, puedes encontrar ahora comida orgnica en los supermercados, y hasta en los locales de comida rpida. +Pero la comida orgnica tampoco es la respuesta, al menos no del modo en que se define actualmente. +Dejadme que os plantee una pregunta. +Puede el salmn criado en granjas ser orgnico cuando su pienso no tiene nada que ver con su dieta natural, aunque el pienso sea supuestamente orgnico, y cuando los peces estn apelotonados en jaulas, nadando entre sus propios excrementos? +Y si ese salmn es de Chile y se le da muerte all y luego se trae en avin 8,000 kilmetros, o lo que sea, emitiendo a la atmosfera quin sabe cunto carbono? +No lo s. +Envasado, por supuesto, en poliestireno, antes de aterrizar en algn lugar de los Estados Unidos y luego transportado en un camin unos cuantos cientos de kilmetros ms. +Esto puede que sea orgnico en el nombre, pero seguro que no es orgnico en espritu. +Ahora aqu es donde todos nos encontramos. +Los locvoros, los organvoros, los vegetarianos, los veganos, los gourmets y aquellos de nosotros que simplemente estamos interesados en la buena comida. +Aunque llegamos aqu desde diferentes puntos, todos tenemos que actuar segn lo que sabemos para cambiar el modo en el que todos piensan acerca de la comida. +Necesitamos empezar a actuar. +Y esto no es slo una cuestin de justicia social -- como dijo Ann Cooper -- por supuesto tiene toda la razn -- sino tambin de supervivencia global. +Lo que me trae de vuelta al punto de partida y seala directamente a la cuestin principal, la sobre produccin y el consumo excesivo de carne y comida basura. +Como dije, el 18 por ciento de los gases de efecto invernadero son atribuibles a la produccin de ganado. +Cunto ganado necesitas para producir esto? +El 70 por ciento de la tierra dedicada a la agricultura en la tierra. El 30 por ciento de la superficie de la tierra est directa o indirectamente dedicada a criar los animales que comemos. +Y la prediccin es que esta cantidad se duplique en los prximos 40 aos ms o menos. +Y si los datos que llegan de China siguen teniendo el mismo aspecto que los actuales, no van a ser 40 aos. +No hay ninguna buena razn para comer tanta carne como comemos. +Y digo esto como un hombre que ha comido una cantidad considerable de carne en conserva a lo largo de su vida. +El argumento ms comn es que necesitamos nutrientes -- aunque comemos, en media, el doble de protena que hasta el obsesionado con la industria Departamento de Agricultura de los EEUU recomienda. +Pero escuchad -- los expertos que se toman en serio la reduccin de las enfermedades recomiendan que los adultos coman sobre medio kilo de carne a la semana. +Cuanta creis que comemos al da? Casi medio kilo. +Pero, no necesitamos la carne para ser grandes y fuertes? +No es el comer carne esencial para la salud? +No es que una dieta rica en frutas y verduras nos convertir en unos progres ateos y blandos? +Algunos de nosotros podramos pensar que eso sera algo bueno. +Pero no, aun cuando fusemos jugadores de futbol cargados de esteroides, la respuesta es no. +De hecho, no hay una dieta en la tierra que, cumpliendo nuestras necesidades nutricionales bsicas no favorezca el crecimiento, y muchas de ellas nos volveran bastante ms sanos que la nuestra. +No comemos productos animales para tener una nutricin suficiente, los comemos para tener una extraa forma de malnutricin, y nos est matando. +Sugerir que por el inters de la salud individual y humana los americanos coman un 50 por ciento menos de carne -- no es un recorte suficiente, pero es un comienzo. +Puede parecer absurdo, pero eso precisamente es lo que debera ocurrir, y lo que la gente progresista, preocupada por el futuro debera estar haciendo y defendiendo, junto con el incremento correspondiente en el consumo de plantas. +He escrito sobre comida de modo ms o menos omnvoro -- alguien podra decir de manera indiscriminada -- durante unos 30 aos. +En ese tiempo he comido y recomendado comer casi cualquier cosa. +Nunca dejar de comer animales, estoy seguro, pero creo que por el beneficio de todos, ha llegado el momento de dejar de criarlos de manera industrial y de comerlos sin pensar en ello. +Ann Cooper tiene razn. +El Departamento de Agricultura de los EEUU no es nuestro aliado en esto. +Tenemos que tomar cartas en el asunto, no slo defendiendo una dieta mejor para todos -- y esa es la parte difcil -- sino mejorando la nuestra. +Y eso resulta ser bastante sencillo. +Menos carne, menos porquera, ms plantas. +Es una frmula sencilla -- comer comida. +Comer comida de verdad. +Podemos continuar disfrutando de nuestra comida, y podemos continuar comiendo bien, y podemos comer todava mejor. +Podemos continuar buscando los ingredientes que nos gustan y podemos continuar contando historias acerca de nuestras comidas favoritas. +Reduciremos no slo las caloras, sino nuestra huella de carbono. +Podemos convertir la comida en ms importante, no menos, y salvarnos a nosotros mismos hacindolo. +Tenemos que elegir ese camino. +Gracias. +La primera pregunta es sta. +Este pas tiene dos programas de exploracin: +Uno es la NASA, con la misin de explorar la gran lejana, los cielos, a donde todos queremos ir si tenemos suerte. +Podeis ver que tenemos el Sputnik y el Saturn y otras manifestaciones de la exploracin espacial. +Tambin hay otro programa de otra agencia del gobierno, en exploracin oceanogrfica. +Es la NOOA, la Administracin Nacional Ocenica y Atmosfrica. +Y mi pregunta es sta: Por qu ignoramos a los ocanos? +La razn es, o no la razn, pero s el motivo de mi pregunta. +Si comparamos el presupuesto anual de la NASA para explorar los cielos, ese presupuesto de un ao financiara a la NOAA para explorar los ocanos durante 1600 aos. +Por qu? Por qu miramos hacia arriba? Porque es el cielo? +Y el infierno est aqu abajo? Es por una cuestin cultural? +Por qu se teme a los ocanos? +O es que asumen que el ocano es slo un lugar oscuro y deprimente sin nada que ofrecer? +Voy a llevarles en un viaje de 16 minutos por el 72% del planeta, as que abrchense los cinturones. +Lo que haremos es sumergirnos en mi mundo. +Y voy a intentar... Espero explicar lo siguiente. +De hecho lo har ahora por si me olvido, +Todo lo que les voy a ensear no estaba en mis libros de texto cuando yo iba al colegio. +Ni siquiera estaba en los libros de mi universidad. +Soy geofsico y cuando era estudiante, en mis libros de ciencia de la tierra tena que dar la respuesta equivocada para sacar un 10. +Soliamos ridiculizar el movimiento de los continentes. Nos reamos de ello. +Aprendimos el ciclo geosinclinal de Marshall Kay, que son un montn de tonteras. +En nuestro contexto actual son un montn de tonteras, pero era la ley de la geologa, los movimientos tectnicos verticales. +Todo lo que nos encontramos en nuestras exploraciones y descubrimientos de los ocenos son en su mayora descubrimientos accidentales. +Descubrimientos hechos por casualidad. +Estbamos buscando algo y encontramos otra cosa. +Y todo de lo que vamos a hablar representa la dcima parte del 1% de una ojeada, porque eso es todo lo que hemos visto. +Tengo una representacin. +Esta es la representacin de lo que veramos si pudiranos quitar el agua. +Da la falsa impresin de que es un mapa. +No es un mapa. +De hecho tengo otra copia en mi oficina y le pregunto a la gente, por qu hay montaas aqu en esta rea pero no hay ninguna aqui? Y ellos dicen, "bueno, eeh, no lo se". Es una fractura? Un punto caliente?" +No, sa es la nica zona donde ha estado un barco. +La mayor parte del hemisferio sur est inexplorado. +Tenamos mas buques de exploracin ah abajo durante la poca del capitn Cook que ahora. Es increble. +As que nos vamos a sumergir en el 72 por ciento del planeta porque es muy ingenuo pensar que el conejo de Pascua puso todos los recursos en los continentes. +Es simplemente ridculo. +Estamos constantemente jugando al juego de suma cero +Lo vamos a sacar de algn otro sitio. +Yo creo en enriquecer la economa. +Y estamos dejando tanto encima de la mesa, el 72 por ciento del planeta. +Y como mencionar ms adelante en la presentacin, el 50 por ciento de los Estados Unidos yace bajo el mar. +el 50 por cien de nuestro pas, que poseemos con total jurisdiccin, con todos los derechos para hacer lo que queramos, yace bajo el mar y tenemos mejores mapas de Marte que de se 50 por ciento. +Por qu? Bien. Yo comenc mis exploraciones de la forma difcil. +Por entonces.. en realidad en mi primera expedicin fue cuando tena 17 aos. Hace 49 aos. +Calculen, tengo 66. Y me hice a la mar en un barco sencillo y casi nos hundimos con una ola gigante e inesperada, yo era demasiado joven... Pensaba que era genial! +Yo era surfista y pens "qu ola tan increble!" +Y casi hundimos el barco, pero me qued embelesado con la preparacin de expediciones. Durante los ltimos 49 aos he hecho unas 120,121... y sigo hacindolas... +Pero al principio la nica forma de llegar al fondo era arrastrarse al interior de un submarino, uno muy pequeo y bajar hasta el fondo. +Me sumerg varios tipos de sumergibles de immersin profunda. +Alvin, Sea Cliff y Cyana, y todos los mejores sumergibles profundos que tenemos, unos ocho. +De hecho, en un da bueno puede haber cuatro o cinco personas a la profundidad media de la tierra... cuatro o cinco de los billones que somos. +Y es muy difcil llegar all si lo haces fsicamente. +Pero estaba embelesado y en mis aos de universidad era el amanecer de las placas tectnicas. Y nos dimos cuenta de que la mayor cordillera de la tierra yace bajo el mar. +La dorsal ocenica sobresale como la costura de una pelota de bisbol. +sta est en una proyeccin de Mercator. +pero si la pusiramos en una proyeccin de rea real veramos que la dorsal ocenica ocupa el 23% de la superficie total de la tierra. +Casi la cuarta parte de nuestro planeta es una nica cordillera y no entramos en ella hasta despus de que Neil Armstrong y Buzz Aldrin fueran a la Luna. +Fuimos a la luna, jugamos al golf all, antes de ir al mayor accidente de nuestro planeta +Nuestro inters en esta cordillera, como cientficos de la tierra, no era slo por su enorme tamao que domina el planeta, sino por el papel que juega en la gnesis de la corteza terrestre. +Porque es el eje de la dorsal ocenica donde las grandes placas se separan. +Y como un organismo vivo, si se rasga sangra lquido fundido, que se alza para curar esa herida desde la astenosfera, se endurece, forma nuevo tejido y se mueve lateralmente. +Pero realmente nadie haba ido al sitio mismo del borde de creacin, como la llamamos, dentro del Rift Valley, hasta que siete de nosotros nos deslizamos en nuestros submarinitos en el verano de 1973/1974 y fuimos los primeros seres humanos en entrar en el Gran valle del Rift +Bajamos dentro del valle del Rift +Es as excepto por una cosa: est totalmente oscuro. +Est totalmente oscuro porque los fotones no pueden llegar a la profundidad media del oceno que es de 4 kilmetros. En el valle del Rift es de unos 3 km. +La mayor parte del planeta no siente el calor del sol. +La mayor parte del planeta est siempre a oscuras. +Y por eso no hay fotosntesis en las profundidades. +Y sin la fotosntesis no hay vida vegetal y como consecuencia hay muy poca vida animal en el mundo submarino. +O eso creamos. Por eso en nuestras primeras exploraciones nos centramos totalmente en el borde de creacin buscando rasgos volcnicos a lo largo de esos 70.000 Km. +A lo largo de esos 70.000 km. hay decenas de miles de volcanes activos. +Decenas de miles de volcanes activos. +Hay ms volcanes activos bajo el mar que sobre la tierra por dos rdenes de magnitud. +As que es una zona increblemente activa, no slo un sitio oscuro y aburrido, es un sitio muy vivo. +Y se estaba abriendo. +Pero estbamos enfrentndonos a un asunto cientfico concreto. +No podamos entender por qu haba una montaa bajo tensin. +Por la teora de las placas tectnicas sabamos que si haba colisin de placas, tena sentido, podan chocar unas con otras, podan engrosar la corteza, sta se elevara. +Por eso hay conchas en el monte Everest. +No fue una inundacin, fueron elevadas hasta all. +Entendamos que hubiera montaas bajo compresin pero no por qu haba montaas bajo tensin. +No debera haberlas. Hasta que uno de mis colegas dijo: "Me parece una burbuja trmica, la dorsal ocenica debe ser una curva de refrigeracin". Dijimos: "Vamos a averiguarlo." +Incrustamos un puado de sondas trmicas. Todo tena sentido excepto en el eje, que faltaba calor. Faltaba calor. +Estaba caliente, pero no suficiente. +As que vinimos con mltiples hiptesis, hay hombrecillos verdes llevndosela all abajo. Hay muchas cosas diferentes sucediendo. +Pero la nica lgica era que fueran aguas termales. +As que deban de ser aguas termales submarinas. +Organizamos una expedicin para buscar el calor desaparecido. +Y fuimos a lo largo de esta cordillera en una rea en la falla de Galpagos, y encontramos el calor perdido. +Fue increble. Estas chimeneas gigantes, descomunales. +Llegamos hasta ellas con nuestro sumergible. +Queramos obtener una muestra de la temperatura, nos metimos all, la observamos... se fue de escala +El piloto hizo su gran observacin: "Est caliente". +Y luego nos dimos cuenta de que la muestra estaba hecha del mismo material. Se poda haber fundido. Pero resulta que la temperatura de salida era de 343 C, temperatura suficiente para derretir plomo +As es como se ve uno de verdad en la cresta de Juan de Fuca +Lo que estn viendo es un increble rgano de tubos de productos qumicos saliendo del ocano. +Todo lo que ven en esta imagen es, de pureza comercial, cobre, plomo, plata, zinc y oro. +As que el conejo de Pascua s puso cosas en el suelo del ocano, y hay depsitos enormes de metales pesados, y eso es lo que hicimos en esa cordillera. +Hicimos grandes descubrimientos de yacimientos de calidad comercial a lo largo de esta cordillera, pero fue pequeo comparado con lo que descubrimos. +Descubrimos una profusin de vida en un mundo en el que no debera haberla. Gusanos de tubo gigantes de 3 metros. +Recuerdo haber usado mi propio vodka para conservarlo porque no llevbamos formaldehdo. +Encontramos estos increbles almejares sobre roca estril... almejas grandes, y cuando las abrimos no parecan almejas. +Cuando las abrimos no tenan la anatoma de una almeja. +Sin boca, intestinos, aparato digestivo. +Sus cuerpos haban sido reemplazados por otro organismo, una bacteria que haba averiguado como reproducir la fotosntesis en la oscuridad mediante un proceso que ahora llamamos quimiosntesis. +No haba nada de eso en nuestros libros de texto. +No sabamos nada sobre este sistema de vida. +No lo habamos predicho. +Nos lo encontramos buscando el calor desaparecido. +As que quisimos acelerar este proceso. +Queramos salir de ese tonto viaje de arriba a abajo en un submarino. A una media de 4 km de profundidad, dos horas y media para llegar al trabajo cada maana. Dos horas y media para volver a casa. Cinco horas de viaje para trabajar. +Tres horas para llegar al fondo, distancia media recorrida: 1,6 km. +En una cordillera de 68.000 km. Gran seguridad de trabajo, pero no la manera de hacerlo. +As que empec a disear una nueva tecnologa de telepresencia usando sistemas robticos para replicarme a m mismo, de manera que no tuviera que conducir mi vehculo. +Empezamos a introducir eso en nuestras exploraciones, y continuamos haciendo grandes descubrimientos con nuestra nueva tecnologa robtica. Otra vez, buscando otra cosa, movindonos de una parte a la otra de la dorsal ocenica. +Los cientficos estbamos fuera observando y encontramos formas increbles de vida. +Encontramos criaturas nuevas nunca vistas antes. +Pero an ms importante, descubrimos edificios ah abajo que no entendamos. +No tena sentido. No estaban encima de una cmara magmtica. +No deberan estar all. La llamamos la Ciudad perdida. +Y la Ciudad perdida se caracterizaba por estas increbles formaciones calizas y pozas dadas vuelta. Miren eso. +Cmo haran eso? Es agua patas arriba. +Bajamos, tomamos muestras y descubrimos que tena el pH de la leja. +Un pH de 11, y tena una bacteria quimiosinttica viviendo en ella, en este medio tan extremo. +Las fuentes hidrotermales estaban en un medio cido. +Y en el otro extremo en un medio alcalino en un pH de 11, hay vida. +As que la vida era mucho ms creativa de lo que creamos. +Otra vez, descubierto por accidente. Hace slo dos aos trabajando en Santorini, en donde la gente tomaba el sol en la playa, sin saber que tenan una caldera cerca, encontramos sistemas chimeneas hidrotermales increbles y ms sistemas de vida. +Esto estaba a tres kilmetros de donde la gente se bronceaba, y eran ajenos a la existencia de ese sistema. +Nuevamente, paramos en la orilla del agua. +Recientemente, sumergindonos en el Golfo de Mjico, buscando pozas de agua esta vez no lo de abajo arriba, el lado correcto arriba. +Bingo. Crees que ests en la superficie hasta que pasa un pez. +Buscando pozas de agua de mar formados por diapiros de sal. +Cerca haba metano. Nunca haba visto volcanes de metano. +En vez de escupir lava escupan grandes burbujas de metano. Y estaban creando esos volcanes, y haba corrientes, no de lava, sino de lodo saliendo de la tierra impulsado por... No lo haba visto nunca. +Sigamos, no hay slo historia natural bajo el mar. Historia humana. Nuestros descubrimientos del Titanic. +El descubrimiento de que el fondo marino es el museo ms grande del mundo. +Contiene ms historia que todos los museos del mundo juntos. +Y sin embargo an ahora estamos entrando en l. +Encontrando el estado de conservacin. +encontramos en Bismarck a 4,9 km. Luego el Yorktown. +La gente siempre pregunta: "Encontrasteis el barco correcto?" +Pona Yorktown en la popa. +Ms recientemente, encontramos historia antigua. +Cuntos antiguos navegantes tuvieron un mal da? Un milln. +Los hemos estado descubriendo en las antiguas rutas comerciales donde no deberan estar. +El naufragio sucedi 100 A.C. +Este naufrag llevando un templo romano prefabricado a la Home Depot. +Y este se hundi en tiempos de Homero en el 750 A.C. +Ms recientemente, hicimos exploraciones en el Mar Negro. +Como no hay oxgeno es la reserva ms grande de cido sulfdrico de la tierra. Los naufragios se conservan perfectamente. +Todos los materiales orgnicos se conservan perfectamente. Empezamos a excavarlos. +Esperamos empezar a recoger los cuerpos en perfectas condiciones con su ADN. +Miren el estado de conservacin. An se ve la marca del carpintero. Miren el estado de estos artefactos +An se ve la cera goteando. Cuando se hundan se sellaban. +Este barco se hundi hace 1500 aos. +Afortunadamente pudimos convencer al Congreso. +Empezamos yendo a la colina y al pasillo. +Y hace poco robamos un barco de la Marina de EE.UU. +El Okeanos Explorer en esta misin. +Esta misin es la mejor que se consigue. +Esta misin es ir a dnde nadie ha ido antes de la Tierra. +Y estaba mirndolo ayer, all, en Seattle. +Empezar a funcionar este verano y empezar su viaje de exploracin. +Pero no tenemos ni idea de lo que vamos a encontrar cuando salimos all con nuestra tecnologa. +Pero seguro que va a ser un viaje a la Amrica desconocida. +Esta es la parte de los Estados Unidos que yace bajo el mar. +Poseemos todo ese azul y, sin embargo, como dije, particularmente la zona del territorio oeste. No tenemos mapas de ese territorio. No tenemos mapas. +Tenemos mapas de Venus y no del territorio oeste. +De la manera en que vamos a hacerlo no tenemos ni idea de qu vamos a descubrir. +No tenemos ni idea de qu vamos a descubrir. +Vamos a descubrir un antiguo navo, una estatua fenicia en Brasil, nuevas formaciones de roca, una nueva vida. +Vamos a hacerlo como en urgencias en un hospital. +Vamos a conectar nuestro puesto de control con un satlite de banda ancha a un edificio que estamos construyendo en la Universidad de Rhode Island llamado el Interspace Center. +Y dentro de eso vamos a dirigirlo como un submarino nuclear, un equipo blue gold, encendindolo y apagndolo, funcionando 24 horas al da. +Se hace un descubrimiento y se ve enseguida en el puesto de control centralizado un segundo despus. +Pero despus se contecta por internet tambin... la nueva carretera de Internet que hace que Internet parezca un camino sucio en la carretera de la informacin... con 10 gigabits de amplitud de banda. +Iremos a reas de las que no tenemos conocimiento. +Hay una gran sbana negra sobre nuestro planeta. Haremos un mapa en pocas horas, difundiremos mapas a las grandes universidades. +El 90 por ciento de la inteligencia oceanogrfica de este pas est en 12 universidades. Est todo en 12. +Podemos entonces crear un puesto de control centralizado. +ste es un puesto de control de la Universidad de Washington. +Ella est hablando con el piloto. Est a 8000 Km pero est al mando. +Pero lo bonito de esto tambin es que podemos difundirlo a los nios. +Podemos difundirlo. +No dejara a un adulto conducir mi robot. +No tenis suficiente experiencia en videojuegos. +Pero dejar que un nio sin licencia tome el control de mi vehculo. +Porque queremos crear... Queremos crear las aulas del maana. +Tenemos una competicin muy dura, necesitamos motivarles y ya se est haciendo. +Ganamos o perdemos a un ingeniero o cientfico en octavo. +El juego no est perdido. Se pierde en octavo... no est empezando. +Necesitamos estar orgullosos no slo de los universitarios. +Sino de los estudiantes de secundaria. +Y cuando tengamos a los mejores estudiantes del mundo tendremos a los mejores nios saliendo de ese sistema. +Porque esto es lo que queremos. Esto es lo que queremos. +Esta es una jovencita, no est viendo un partido de ftbol, ni uno de baloncesto. +Est viendo una exploracin de vida a cientos de kilmetros, y slo est naciendo en ella lo que est viendo. +Y cuando tienes una boca abierta puedes informarle. +Puedes poner tanta informacin en esa mente, est en modo recepcin completo. +Espero que ella sea una futura ingeniera o cientfica en la batalla por la verdad. +Y mi pregunta final es... Por qu no queremos movernos al mar? +Por qu tenemos programas para construir asentamientos en Marte y para colonizar la luna pero no para colonizar nuestro planeta? +Y la tecnologa est ah. +Muchas gracias. +De nio, y ms bien gateando por la casa, recuerdo estas alfombras turcas que tenan escenas de batallas, escenas de amor. +Miren este animal tratando de defenderse de la lanza de este soldado. +En verdad mam tom estas fotos de nuestras alfombras la semana pasada y es el da de hoy que las recuerdo. +Haba otro objeto, esta especie de mueble altsimo con creaturas, grgolas y desnudez algo bastante espeluznante cuando uno es pequeo. +Lo que me qued de todo esto es que los objetos cuentan historias, por eso el contar historias ha sido de gran influencia en mi trabajo. +Y luego hubo otra influencia. +Era un adolescente y, a los 15 o 16, supongo que como todo adolescente, slo desebamos hacer las cosas que ambamos y en las que creamos. +Fue as que un dos de las cosas que ms me gustaban: esquiar y hacer windsurf. +Eran dos escapes bastante buenos al clima terrible de Suiza. +As cre esta combinacin de las dos cosas: tom los esques y la tabla, le puse un mstil, unas correas para los pies, algunas aletas de metal y aqu estaba yo, yendo verdaderamente rpido por los lagos helados. +Realmente era una trampa mortal.. Quiero decir, era increble, andaba increblemente bien, pero era muy peligroso. +Y entonces me di cuenta que tena que ir a la escuela de diseo. +Miren esas fotos. +Entonces fui a la escuela de diseo y a principios de los 90s fue que termin +y v que estaba sucediendo algo extraordinario en Silicon Valley as que quera estar ah. Vi que la computadora estaba entrando a nuestras casas. Vi que tena que cambiar para estar con nosotros en nuestros hogares. +De modo que me consegu un trabajo en una consultora y entrbamos en estas reuniones, a las que venan estos jefes y decian: "Bien, lo que vamos a hacer aqu es realmente importante". +Y le pondran a los proyectos nombres en cdigo, ya saben, normalmente de Star Wars; en realidad cosas como C3PO, Yoda, Luke. +As, con impaciencia, yo sera ese diseador joven que estara al final de la sala, y levantara mi mano, y hara preguntas. +Retrospectivamente, es probable que fueran preguntas tontas, del estilo: "Para qu sirve la tecla Bloq Mays?" +o "Para qu sirve la tecla Bloq Num?". Ya saben, y esta cosa? +La gente realmente usa esto? +Lo necesita? Lo quiere en sus hogares? +Entonces me di cuenta que en verdad no queran cambiar el legado; no queran cambiar el meollo. +En realidad buscaban en nosotros, los diseadores, que creramos las coberturas para poner algo bonito afuera de la caja. +Y yo no quera ser un colorista. +No era lo que quera hacer. +No quera ser esa clase de estilista. +Y entonces vi esta cita: "La publicidad es el precio que pagan las compaas por no ser originales". +Tuve que empezar por mi cuenta. Me mud a San Francisco y comenc una pequea compaa llamada Fuseproject. +Quera trabajar en cosas importantes. +No quera trabajar slo en las coberturas sino en la experiencia humana en su totalidad. +As, los primeros proyectos fueron humildes, pero tomaron la tecnologa y la convirtieron en cosas que la gente podia usar de una manera nueva y tal vez encontrarle nuevas funciones. +Este es un reloj que hicimos para Mini Cooper, la compaa automotrz, justo para el lanzamiento, y este es el primer reloj que tiene un visor que cambia de horizontal a vertical. +Y esto me permite mirar la hora discretamente, as, sin doblar el codo. +Y otros proyectos que consistieron realmente en una transformacin, en satisfacer la necesidad humana. +Este es un pequeo mueble para un fabricante italiano. Se enva en forma completamente plana y luego de dobla y convierte en una mesita, un asiento y cosas as. +Y algo que es un poco mas experimental: esta es una lmpara creada para Swarovski, que cambia de forma. +As, pasa de un crculo a un redondel, a un cuadrado, a una figura en forma de ocho, +con slo dibujar en una pequea tableta computarizada, la lmpara se ajusta a la forma que uno desee. +Y finalmente, la lmpara hoja para Herman Miller. +Este es un proceso de mucha dedicacion, nos llev cerca de cuatro aos y medio. +Pero yo realmente estaba buscando crear una experiencia nica en luces, una nueva experiencia en luces. +As que tuvimos que disear tanto la luz como la lmpara. +Y esa es una oportunidad nica, debo decir, en materia de diseo. +Y la nueva experiencia que yo estaba buscando le est dando al usuario todas las posibilidades para ir desde una luz clida, como una especie de brillo, hasta una luz brillante, para trabajar. +La lmpara en realidad hace esto. +Le permite a la persona cambiar y mezclar estas dos coloraciones. +Y se hace de manera muy simple: uno toca la base de la luz, y por un lado se puede mezclar el brillo, y por el otro, la coloracin de la luz. +Todos estos proyectos tienen un sentido humanstico y pienso que como diseadores necesitamos pensar realmente cmo podemos crear una relacin diferente entre nuestro trabajo y el mundo, sea por negocios, o, como voy a mostrar a continuacin, por algunos proyectos particulares, +Porque pienso que todos estn de acuerdo en que como diseadores aportamos valor al negocio, valor al usuario tambin, pero pienso que es el valor que ponemos dentro de los proyectos el que en ltima instancia crea el valor ms grande. +Y el valor que aportamos puede tratarse de temas ambientales, de sustentabilidad, de menor consumo de energa. +Ustedes saben, puede tratarse de funcin y belleza; puede tratarse de la estrategia comercial. +Pero los diseadores son el pegamento que aglutina todas estas cosas. +Jawbone es un proyecto con el que estn familiarizados y tiene una tecnologa humanstica. +Siente tu cutis; se posa en tu piel, y sabe cuando es que estas hablando +Y sabiendo cuando ests hablando elimina todos los otros ruidos que conoce, del ruido ambiente. +Pero la otra cosa humanstica de Jawbone es que decidimos quitarle todo lo tecnolgico, todas las cosas muy tcnicas, e intentamos hacerlo lo ms hermoso posible. +Piensen en esto: el cuidado que nos tomamos en elegir anteojos de sol, o joyas, o accesorios, es importante por lo tanto, si no son hermosos, no deben estar en tu cara. +Y eso es lo que estamos buscando. +Pero la manera en que trabajamos en Jawbone es nica. +Quiero resaltar algo aqu a la izquierda. +Esta es la placa, esta es una de las cosas que va dentro que hace que esta tecnologa funcione. +Pero este es el proceso de diseo: hay alguien cambiando la placa, poniendo trazadores en la placa, cambiando la ubicacin de los ICs a medida que los diseadores del otro lado estn haciendo el trabajo. +entonces no se trata de cambiar las coberturas en una tecnologa. +Se trata de disear realmente de adentro hacia afuera. +Y luego en otro lado de la sala, los diseadores estn haciendo pequeos ajustes, bosquejando, dibujando a mano, ponindolo en la computadora, +y es lo que yo llamo estar orientado al diseo. +Ya saben, hay algunos tires y aflojes pero el diseo est ayudando realmente a definir toda la experiencia desde adentro hacia afuera +Y por supuesto el diseo nunca est terminado. +Y esta es la otra nueva manera nica en que trabajamos; dado que nunca est terminado, uno tiene que hacer el resto. +El envasado, y el sitio web, y se necesita seguir para tocar realmente al usuario, de muchas maneras. +Pero cmo se retiene a alguien cuando nunca se termina? +Hosain Rahman, el presidente ejecutivo de Aliph Jawbone, comprende realmente que uno necesita una estructura diferente. +En cierta forma, la estructura diferente es que somos socios, es una sociedad. Podemos continuar trabajando y dedicarnos a este proyecto y luego todos compartimos la recompensa +Y aqu hay otro proyecto, otro enfoque de tipo asociativo. +Este se llama Y Water, y es de este tipo de Los ngeles, Thomas Arndt, de orgen austraco, que vino hacia nosotros y todo lo que quera era crear una bebida saludable, o una bebida orgnica para sus hijos, para reemplazar los refrescos con alto contenido de azcar que est tratando de evitar. +Entonces trabajamos en esta botella, completamente simtrica en cada dimensin. +Esto permiti que la botella sirva como juego. +Las botellas se conectan entre s, y se puede crear diferentes formas. +Gracias. +Y luego mientras estbamos haciendo esto, la forma de la botella de arriba a abajo nos recuerda una letra Y (NT: why), pensamos: por qu (NT: why) y por qu no (NT: why not), probablemente sean las palabras ms importantes que preguntan los chicos. +Por eso la llamamos Y (NT: why) Water. Y este es otro lugar donde todo confluye en la misma sala: el diseo 3D, las ideas, la imagen de marca, todo se conecta profundamente. +La otra cosa de este proyecto es que aportamos propiedad intelectual, aportamos un enfoque de marketing, aportamos todo esto pero, pienso, al final lo que aportamos son estos valores, y estos valores crean el alma de las compaas para las que trabajamos. +Y es especialmente reconfortante cuando tu diseo se vuelve un esfuerzo cretivo, cuando otros pueden ser creativos y hacer ms con esto. +Aqu hay otro proyecto que pienso realmente emula eso. +Esta es una computadora por nio, la porttil de 100 dlares. +Esta foto es increble. +En Nigeria la gente lleva sus cosas ms preciadas en la cabeza. +Esta nia est yendo a la escuela con una porttil en su cabeza. +Digo, para m, esto significa mucho. +Pero cuando Nicholas Negroponte y l hablaba mucho sobre este proyecto, es el fundador de OLPC, vino a vernos, hace cerca de dos aos y medio, haba algunas ideas claras. +l quera llevar educacin y tecnologa, esos son pilares de su vida, pero tambin pilares de la misin Una computadora por nio. +Pero el tercer pilar del que habl fue el diseo. +Y en ese momento yo no estaba trabajando realmente en computadoras. +Realmente no quera hacerlo, a partir de la aventura previa. +Pero lo que l dijo fue muy significativo: que el diseo iba a ser la razn por la cual los nios iban a amar este producto. Cmo bamos a hacerlo de bajo costo, robusto, +y ms, l dijo que se iba a deshacer de la tecla Bloq Mays y de la Bloq Num tambin. +Entonces me convenci. La diseamos para ser un cono, para que se vea diferente: como dirigida a los nios, sin ser un juguete. +Y luego la integracin de todas estas grandes tecnologas de las que han escuchado: las antenas WiFi que pemiten a los chicos conectarse; las pantallas en las que se puede leer bajo la luz del sol; el teclado, que est hecho de goma, y protegido del medio ambiente. +Ya saben, toda esa tecnologia realmente se logr debido a la pasin y a la gente de OLPC y sus ingenieros. +Ellos lucharon con los proveedores, lucharon con los fabricantes. +Digo, pelearon como animales para que esto quede de la manera que es. +Y en cierta forma es esa voluntad la que hace en proyectos como ste que el proceso no destruya la idea original. +Y pienso que esto es algo realmente muy importante. +Entonces, ahora uno tiene estas fotos -- se levanta a la maana y ve a los chicos en Nigeria y los ve en Uruguay con sus computadoras, y en Mongolia. +Y nos alejamos, obviamente, del color beige +-- digo, es colorido; es divertido. +De hecho, cada logo es un poco diferente. +Esto se debe a que pudimos poner, durante el proceso de fabricacin, veinte colores para la X y otros tantos para la O, que es el nombre de la computadora, y mezclndolos en el piso de montaje, se obtienen veinte veces veinte: 400 opciones diferentes. +Las lecciones de ver a los chicos usndolas in el mundo en desarrollo son increbles. +Pero este es mi sobrino Anthony, en Suiza, pudo usar la computadora durante una tarde, y se la tuve que sacar. Fue difcil. +Era un prototipo. Y un mes y medio despus volv a Suiza, y ah est l jugando con su propia versin. +De papel, papel y carton. +Voy a terminar con un ltimo proyecto y este es un poco ms un juego para adultos. +Alguno de ustedes habr odo del condn de la ciudad de Nueva York. +En realidad fue lanzado recientemente, el da de San Valentn, el 14 de febrero, hace unos diez das. +El Departamento de Salud de Nueva York nos vino a ver, porque necesitaban una manera de distribuir 36 millones de condones de manera gratuita a los ciudadanos de Nueva York. +Un esfuerzo bastante grande, trabajamos en los expendedores; +estos son los expendedores. Tienen una forma simptica. +Es como disear una boca de incendio, y tiene que ser de fcil acceso uno tiene que saber dnde est y para qu sirve. +Y tambin diseamos los condones en s. +Y yo estaba en Nueva York para el lanzamiento, y fui a visitar los lugares donde estaban instalados. Este es un pequeo negocio puertorriqueno, de barrio, un bar en la calle Christopher, en un saln de billar. +Fueron instalados en clnicas de desamparados. +Por supuesto, en clubs y discos tambin. +Y este es el aviso publicitario del proyecto. +Consigue alguno. +Ac es realmente donde el diseo puede crear una conversacin. +Estuve en estos lugares, y la gente estaba, ustedes saben, involucrada. Estaban entusiasmados. +Era romper el hielo, era superar un estigma, y pienso que eso es algo que el diseo puede hacer. +As que yo iba a arrojar algunos condones en la sala y cosas as pero no s si cumple con las reglas de etiqueta del lugar. +S, bien, bueno. Tengo solamente unos pocos. +Tengo ms, pueden pedirme algunos ms luego. +Y si alguien les pregunta por qu llevan condones simplemente digan que porque les gusta el diseo. +Voy a terminar simplemente con un pensamiento: si todos trabajamos juntos para crear valor, pero teniendo realmente presente los valores del trabajo que hacemos, pienso que podemos cambiar lo que hacemos. +Podemos cambiar esos valores, podemos cambiar las compaas para las que trabajamos y, eventualmente, juntos quiz podemos cambiar el mundo. +As que gracias. +Unas palabras sobre cmo comenc y tiene mucho que ver con la felicidad, de hecho. +Cuando pequeo era un nio extremadamente introvertido me encerraba en m mismo. +Como una manera para sobrevivir me meta en mi propio espacio personal y construa cosas. +Haca cosas para las personas como una forma de dar... de mostrarles mi amor. +Me iba a estos lugares privados y pona ms ideas y mis pasiones en los objetos aprendiendo cmo hablar con mis manos. +Toda la actividad de trabajar con mis manos y de crear objetos est muy conectada no slo con el reino de las ideas sino mucho tambin con el reino de los sentimientos. +Las ideas son muy diversas. +Cuando era un nio comenc a explorar el movimiento. +Me enamor de cmo las cosas se mueven y comenc a explorar el movimiento haciendo folioscopios. +Y claro, cuando eres un nio siempre hay destruccin. +As que tiene que terminar as... con violencia gratuita. +As fue como empec a explorar la forma en que las cosas se mueven y a expresarla. +Ahora, cuando fui al colegio me encontr haciendo mquinas algo complicadas y frgiles. +Esto realmente sucedi al tener muchos intereses de distinta ndole. +Cuando estaba en preparatoria amaba programar computadoras pues me gustaba el flujo lgico de eventos. +Estaba tambin muy interesado en quizs estudiar ciruga y en convertirme en cirujano porque significaba trabajar con mis manos de manera muy enfocada e intensa. +As comenc a tomar cursos de arte y encontr la manera de hacer escultura lo cual conjunt mi amor por ser muy preciso con mis manos con el diseo de diferentes flujos lgicos de energa a travs de un sistema. +Y tambin a trabajar con alambre. Todo lo que hice era tanto una decisin visual como de ingeniera mecnica al mismo tiempo. +As que pude practicar con todo eso. +Esta mquina es mi aproximacin ms cercana a la pintura. +Est repleta de muchos puntos pequeos triviales como este pequeo pie que slo se arrastra en crculos y realmente no significa nada. +Est ah por la alegra de su propia trivialidad. +La conexin que tengo con la ingeniera es la misma que la de cualquier ingeniero que ama resolver problemas. +Me encanta desentramar las cosas pero el resultado final de lo que hago es totalmente ambiguo. +Eso es muy ambiguo. +La siguiente pieza que aparecer enseguida es un ejemplo de una mquina bastante compleja. +Yo me asign el problema. +Dado que me gusta resolverlos me di a la tarea de girar una manivela en una direccin y resolver todos los problemas mecnicos para hacer que este hombrecito caminara de ida y vuelta. +Cuando comenc no tena un plan completo para la mquina pero s tena un sentido del gesto y una sensacin de la forma y de cmo ocupara el espacio. +Y entonces fue asunto de empezar desde un punto e ir construyendo hasta aquel punto final. +Ese pequeo engrane ah cambia la direccin de atrs a adelante. +Ese es un pequeo objeto que encontr. +Muchas de las piezas que he hecho involucran objetos que he encontrado. +Y es como hacer siempre juegos de palabras visualmente. +Cuando miro objetos los imagino en movimiento +e imagino lo que puede decirse con ellos. +La siguiente es una mquina con un hueso de la suerte que surgi despus de estar jugando con ese hueso tras la cena. +Ya saben, dicen que nunca juguemos con la comida pero yo siempre juego con las cosas. +As que tena este hueso y pens: es como un vaquero que ha estado montado en su caballo mucho tiempo. +Y comenc a hacerlo caminar por la mesa y pens: "Oh, puedo hacer una pequea mquna que haga eso". +E hice este dispositivo, los conect y el hueso camina +y porque el hueso de la suerte es un hueso, es animal es un punto en el que pienso que podemos entrar. +Esa es toda la pieza. +Eso es as de alto. +Este trabajo es muy parecido a las marionetas donde el objeto encontrado es en esencia la marioneta y yo soy el titiritero; primero porque juego con un objeto, +pero despus construyo la mquina que me sustituye y es capaz de lograr la accin que yo quiero. +La siguiente pieza que mostrar es una idea mucho ms conceptual, es una pieza llamada "La silla amarilla de Cory". +Tena esta imagen en mente cuando vi la pequea silla de mi hijo y la vi explotar hacia arriba y afuera. +Y coincidiran por slo un instante para que se pudiese percibir que ah haba una silla. +Para m es como una sensacin acerca de lo efmero del momento presente y quera expresar eso. +La mquina es en este caso una aproximacin real de ello porque obviamente no se puede mover la materia fsica inifinitamente a velocidad infinita y detenerla instantneamente. +Todo esto mide como 1.2 metros de ancho y la silla en s misma slo mide unos cuantos centmetros. +Esto es una especie de cosa conceptual chistosa y ayer hablbamos del reloj de 10 mil aos de Danny Hillis +As que tenemos un motor a la izquierda y se pasa por un tren de engranes. +Hay 12 pares de reducciones de 50 a 1 lo que significa que la velocidad de ese engrane al final es tan lenta que tomara dos billones de aos girar una sola vez. +As que lo hice en concreto porque realmente no importa. +Porque podra funcionar todo el tiempo. +En otra lnea de pensamiento +siempre me imagino a m mismo en situaciones diferentes. +Me imagino a m mismo como una mquina. +Qu es lo que encantara? +Me encantara ser baado en aceite. +Esta mquina no hace nada sino baarse a s misma en aceite. +Y realmente se trataba de... para m realmente era slo lo seductor del aceite. +Y despus recib la llamada de un amiga que quera hacer una muestra de arte ertico y yo no tena ninguna pieza. +Cuando ella me sugiri presentarme al evento imagin esta pieza; +est casi relacionada pero pueden ver que es abiertamente ertica +y a esta la llamo "Mquina con grasa". +Contnuamente est eyaculando y su... esta es una mquina feliz, djenme decirles. +Es definitivamente feliz. +Desde un punto de vista de la ingeniera esta es slo una unin de cuatro barras. +Y de nuevo este es un objeto encontrado, un abanico que encontr +y pens en cmo sera el gesto de abrir el abanico y de cmo simplemente podra puntualizar algo. +En un caso como este trato de hacer algo que es claro pero tambin que no sea sugestivo de una especie particular de animal o planta. +Para m el proceso es muy importante porque estoy inventando mquinas, pero tambin estoy inventando herramientas para hacer mquinas y todo esto est de alguna manera involucrado desde el principio. +Esta es una herramienta para doblar alambre. +Tras muchos aos de doblar engranes con un par de pinzas hice esa herramienta y despus esta otra herramienta para centrar los engranes rpidamente desarrollando mi propio pequeo mundo de tecnologa. +Mi vida cambi completamente cuando encontr un soldador. +Y fue esta herramienta. +Cambi completamente lo que poda hacer. +Aqu voy a intentar hacer un trabajo muy pobre soldando plata. +Soldar plata as no es la manera como la ensean en la escuela, +yo slo pongo un pedazo. +Los verdaderos joyeros usan poca soldadura +y este es un engrane final. +Cuando me mud a Boston me un a un grupo llamado la Sociedad Mundial de Escultura de Carreras. +Y la idea, la premisa de lo que queramos era mostrar piezas de escultura en las calles sin ninguna discusin subjetiva sobre cul era la mejor. +Cualquiera que llegara primero a la lnea de meta sera la ganadora. +Pero al final lo que decid era que cada vez que terminara de escribir eso me detendra a darle una tarjeta a una persona a la orilla del camino; +as que nunca iba a ganar la carrera porque me detena frecuentemente, +pero me divert mucho. +Ahora slo me quedan dos y medio minutos...voy a jugar con esto. +Esta es una pieza que para m de varias maneras es la pieza ms completa. +Porque cuando era nio tambin tocaba mucho la guitarra. +Y cuando me lleg esta idea imaginaba qu podra hacer... tener toda una tarde de teatro con puras mquinas donde yo podra... podra tener una audiencia la cortina se abrira y mquinas en el escenario saldran a entretenernos. +As que imagin una simple danza gesticular que sera realizada entre una mquina y una simple silla... +Cuando estoy haciendo estas piezas trato de encontrar un punto donde digo algo muy claramente y que es muy simple pero tambin al mismo tiempo que es muy ambiguo. +Y creo que hay un punto entre la simplicidad y la ambigedad que permite al observador quizs tomar algo de ello. +Y eso me conduce a la idea de que todas estas piezas comienzan en mi propia mente, en mi corazn y hago lo mejor posible por encontrar cmo expresarlas con materiales y siempre se sienten muy burdas. +Siempre es una batalla pero de alguna forma logro obtener una idea y meterla en un objeto y entonces est ah. Bien. +No significa nada en absoluto, +el objeto en s no significa nada. +Una vez que es percibido y alguien lo lleva a su propia mente entonces ah hay un ciclo que se ha completado. +Y para m eso es lo ms importante porque desde que era nio he querido comunicar mi pasin y mi amor +y eso significa completar el ciclo que comienza dentro de m al exterior hacia lo fsico, a la persona percibindolo. +As que slo dejar que esta silla baje. +Gracias. +Me gradu de la escuela secundaria en Cleaveland, Ohio, en 1975. +Y al igual que hicieron mis padres cuando terminaron de estudiar en el extranjero, volvimos a casa. +Termin la educacin universitaria, me licenci en medicina en 1986. +Y para cuando era un mdico residente, apenas poda permitirme mantener el auto de trece aos de mi madre, y yo era un doctor con un sueldo. +Esto nos lleva a preguntarnos por qu muchos de los que somos profesionales estamos ahora, como dicen, en la dispora. +Vamos a hacer que sea algo permanente, donde todos nos formemos y nos marchemos, y no volvamos? +Tal vez no, ciertamente espero que no porque no es as como yo lo veo. +Bueno, por si acaso, ah es donde est Nigeria en el mapa de frica, y justo ah est la regin del Delta que estoy seguro a todos les suena. +Gente secuestrada, en el lugar de donde procede el petrleo, el petrleo que a veces pienso nos ha vuelto a todos locos en Nigeria. +Pero, pobreza crtica, esta diapositiva es de una presentacin que di no hace mucho. Gapminder.org cuenta la historia de la brecha entre frica y el resto del mundo en trminos de atencin sanitaria. +Muy interesante. +Cuntas personas creen ustedes que van en ese taxi ? +Aunque no lo crean, eso es un taxi en Nigeria. +Y la capital, bueno la que era la capital de Nigeria, Lagos, eso es un taxi y la polica va dentro. +Entonces, dganme, cuntos policas creen que estn en este taxi? Y ahora? Tres. +Entonces, cuando esta gente, y cranme, no es slo la polica los que utilizan estos taxis en Nigeria, todos los usamos, yo he estado en uno, y no tena casco tampoco. +Y eso me recuerda lo que ocurre cuando uno de nosotros en un taxi como ste se cae, tiene un accidente y necesita un hospital. +Aunque no lo crean, algunos de nosotros sobrevivimos. +Algunos de nosotros sobrevivimos a la malaria, al SIDA. +Y como le digo a mi familia, y como mi esposa me recuerda continuamente, ests arriesgando la vida, sabes, cada vez que vas a ese pas... +y tiene razn. Cada vez que vas all, sabes que si de verdad necesitas cuidados intensivos... cuidados intensivos de cualquier tipo, si tienes un accidente, de los cuales hay muchos, hay accidentes en todos lados, adnde van ? +Dnde van cuando necesitan ayuda para estas cosas? +No estoy diciendo en vez de, estoy diciendo adems de. SIDA, tuberculosis, malaria, fiebre tifoidea... y la lista sigue. +Estoy diciendo, dnde van cuando estn como yo? +Cuando vuelvo a casa... y hago todas esas cosas, enseo, formo, pero contraigo una de esas enfermedades, o soy enfermo crnico,dnde van? +Cul es el impacto econmico cuando uno de ellos muere o queda discapacitado? +Yo creo que es bastante significativo. Aqu es donde van. +No son fotos antiguas, y ni son de ningn tugurio... se trata de un hospital importante. Son de un hospital escuela importante en Nigeria. +sta es de hace menos de un ao, en una sala de operaciones. +Ese es un equipo esterilizador en Nigeria. +Recuerdan todo ese petrleo? +Si, lo siento si les afecta a algunos de ustedes, pero creo que tienen que ver esto. se es el piso, de acuerdo? +Pueden decir que parte de esto es educacin. +Pueden decir que es higiene. No estoy usando la pobreza como excusa. +Estoy diciendo que necesitamos ms que, ya saben, vacunas, malaria, SIDA, porque quiero que me traten en un hospital adecuado si me paso algo. +De hecho, cuando empiezo a correr por ah diciendo "hey, chicos y chicas, ustedes son cardilogos en los Estados Unidos, pueden venir a casa conmigo y cumplir una misin? +Quiero que piensen, "Bueno, hay alguna esperanza". +Observen esto. Es una mquina de anestesiologa. +sa es mi especialidad, s? +Anestesiologia y cuidados intensivos... miren esa bolsa. +Ha sido rodeada con cinta que ya ni siquiera utilizamos en el Reino Unido. +Cranme, son fotos actuales. +Si algo como esto, que ha pasado en el Reino Unido, ah es a donde van. Esta es la unidad de medicina intensiva en la que trabajo. +Bueno, sta es una diapositiva de una charla que di sobre unidades de cuidado intensivo en Nigeria, a la que en broma nos referimos como "Cuidado con el Intensivo". +Porque asusta y es caro, pero necesitamos tenerlo. +De modo que stos son los problemas. +No ofrecen premios por decirnos cules son los problemas, verdad? +Yo creo que todos sabemos, y varios oradores antes y oradores despus de mi van a contarnos todava ms problemas. +stos son algunos. As que, qu hice? +All vamos... vamos en una misin. +Vamos a practicar una operacin a corazn abierto,era el nico britnico, en un equipo de unos nueve cirujanos de corazn americanos, enfermera de cardiologa, enfermera de cuidados intensivos. +Salimos y llevamos a cabo una misin y llevamos tres hasta ahora. +Slo para que ustedes lo sepan,s creo en las misiones, en la ayuda y s creo en la caridad. Ellas tienen su funcin, pero dnde buscan esas cosas de las que hablamos antes? +Porque no es que todos se van a beneficiar de una misin. +La salud es riqueza, en las palabras de Hans Rosling. +Te haces ms rico ms rpido si primero tienes salud. +Entonces, aqu estamos, misin. Gran problema. +Operacin a corazn abierto en Nigeria... gran problema. +se es Mike, es de Mississippi. +Se le ve feliz? +Nos llev dos das tan slo organizar este lugar, pero vamos, saben, nos esforzamos. Se le ve feliz? +S, ese es el consejo mdico que el presidente del comit dio, "S, os lo dije, no ibais a poder, no podis hacerlo, lo s." +Miren, se es el anestesista que tuvimos. Entonces s,sigan ustedes,no? +Consegu que viniera conmigo. Anestesista, vente conmigo desde el Reino Unido. +S, hagamos que esto salga adelante. +se es uno de los problemas que tenemos en Nigeria y en frica en general. +Recibimos mucho equipo donado. +Equipo que es obsoleto, que no funciona del todo bien, o que funciona y no lo puedes arreglar. Y no hay nada malo en eso, siempre y cuando lo usemos y pasamos a otra cosa. +Pero nos dio problemas. Tuvimos serios problemas. +Tuvo que llamar por telfono. Este hombre estaba siempre en el telfono. +Entonces qu vamos a hacer ahora? +Parece que todos estos americanos estan aqu y s, un britnico, y no va a hacer nada, cree que es britnico, pero es en realidad nigeriano, Me acabo de acordar de esto. +Finalmente lo hicimos funcionar,es la verdad, pero era uno de esos. Incluso ms antiguo que el que han visto. +La razn por la que tengo esta foto aqu, esta radiografa, es simplemente para decirles en qu condiciones estbamos vindolas. +Se dan cuenta dnde? Era en una ventana. +Quiero decir, qu es un negatoscopio? Por favor. +Bueno, hoy en da todo est en PAX de todas formas. +Miras tus radiografas en una pantalla y trabajas sobre ellas, las envas por correo electrnico. Estbamos usando radiografas, pero ni siquiera tenamos un negatoscopio para verlas! +Y estbamos practicando operaciones a corazn abierto. +Esta bien, s que no es SIDA, que no es malaria, pero aun as, necesitamos estas cosas. S, eco- esto era para preparar a los nios y a los adultos. +La gente todava cree en el Vud, enfermedad cardaca, defecto ventricular, agujero en el corazn, tetralogas. +Todava se encuentra a gente que cree en eso y vinieron. +Saturacin de oxgeno al 67 por ciento, lo normal es alrededor de 97. +Su estado, que requiere operacin a corazn abierto, debera haberse tratado cuando era nia. +Tenamos que hacerlas a adultos.Tuvimos xito, y todava lo tenemos. +Hemos hecho tres. Estamos planeando otra en julio en el norte del pas. As que an realizamos operaciones a corazn abierto, pero ustedes pueden ver el contraste entre todo lo que se envi, enviamos todo, instrumentos, tuvimos explosiones porque el kit fue diseado e instalado por gente que no estaba familiarizada. +El tanque de oxgeno no funcion bien del todo. +Pero cuntos operamos la primera vez? 12. +Operamos a 12 pacientes a corazn abierto con xito. +Nuestro primer paciente, fuera de cuidados intensivos, y observen esa silla, exacto. +Esto es a lo que me refiero con tecnologa apropiada. +Eso es lo que estaba haciendo, apuntalando la cama porque la cama no funcionaba. +Han visto uno como esos antes? +No?S? No importa, funcion. +Estoy seguro que todos lo han visto o escuchado antes. Nosotros, los voluntariosos, llevamos haciendo tanto con tan poco durante tanto tiempo, estamos ya capacitados para hacer lo que sea con nada. +Gracias. Soluciones Sustentables, mi primera empresa, +mi nico propsito es ofrecer aquellas cosas que pienso estn faltando. +Entonces ponemos la mano en mi bolsillo y decimos, "Muchachos, compremos cosas". +Vamos a armar una compaa que ensee a la gente, los eduque, les d las herramientas para seguir adelante. +Y ste es un ejemplo perfecto de una de ellas. +Normalmente cuando compras un respirador en un hospital, compras uno diferente para nios, compras uno diferente para transporte. ste lo har todo, y lo har a mitad de precio y no necesita aire comprimido. +Si usted est en Amrica y no lo conoce, nosotros s, porque es nuestra obligacin encontrar tecnologa apropiada para frica, apropiada en precio, que hace el trabajo, y seguimos. Mquina de anestesia, monitor de mltiples parmetros, luces de operacin, succin. +Esta pequea unidad, recuerdan su pequeo enchufe de 12 voltios en el automvil, que carga lo que sea, Game boy, telfono? +As es exactamente cmo los enchufes estn diseados. +S, puede usar panel solar. S, un panel solar la carga. +Pero si tiene red de suministro tambin, cargar las baterias. +Y adivinen qu? Tenemos un pequeo cargador de pedal tambin, por si acaso. +Y adivinen qu, si todo falla si usted puede encontrar un automvil con una batera llena y la conecta a ella, an as trabajara. Luego, lo puede hacer a medida. +Es ciruga dental lo que usted quiere? Ciruga general? +Decida cules instrumentos, y almacnelos con los consumibles. +Y en la actualidad estamos trabajando con oxgeno. Entrega de oxgeno en el lugar. +La tecnologa de transporte de oxgeno no es nueva. +Los concentradores de oxgeno son tecnologa antigua. Lo que es nuevo, y que tendremos en unos meses, espero, es la capacidad de usar el mismo sistema de energa renovable para proveer y producir oxgeno en el lugar.El zeolite, no es nuevo, elimina el nitrgeno del aire, y el nitrgeno es el 78 por ciento del aire. +Si sacas el nitrgeno, qu queda? Oxgeno, practicamente. +Por lo tanto, eso no es nuevo. Lo que estamos haciendo es aplicando esta tecnologa. +Estas so las caractersticas bsicas de mi dispositivo,de nuestro dispositivo. +Esto es lo que lo hace tan especial. +Aparte de los premios que ha ganado, es porttil y est certificado; est registrado, la MHRA y la marca CE, para aquellos que no saben, es el equivalente para Europa de la FDA en los Estados Unidos. +Si usted lo compara con lo que hay en el mercado, en cuanto a precio, tamao, facilidad de uso, complejidad. +Esta foto se hizo el ao pasado. +stos son miembros de mi clase de graduados, 1986. +Fue en la casa de este caballero en el Potomac, para aquellos que estan familiarizados con Maryland. +La gente africana, porque lo harn con pasin, espero, +y mucho, mucho de ese pedacito ah abajo, sacrificio. +Ustedes tienen que hacerlo. Los africanos tienen que hacerlo, en conjuncin con todos los dems. +Gracias. +La evolucin cultural es un hijo peligroso para todas las especies, como para dejarlo suelto por el planeta. +Para cuando se dan cuenta de lo que est pasando, el hijo es un pequeo que gatea y ocasiona estragos, y es demasiado tarde para ponerlo en su sitio. +Nosotros los humanos somos la especie Pandora de la Tierra. +Nosotros somos quienes dejamos salir al segundo replicador de su caja, y no podemos regresarlo. +Estamos viendo las consecuencias por todos lados. +Esa, sugiero yo, es la visin que aparece cuando tomamos en serio la memtica. +Y nos da una nueva forma de pensar sobre no slo lo que est pasando en nuestro planeta, sino sobre lo podra estar ocurriendo en algn otro lugar en el cosmos. +Entonces primero quisiera hablar acerca de la memtica y la teora de los memes, y en segundo lugar, sobre cmo esto podra contestar preguntas acerca de quines estn all afuera, si en efecto hay alguien. +Entonces, memtica. La Memtica se funda en el principio universal del Darwinismo. +Darwin tena esta asombrosa idea. +De verdad, algunas personas dicen que esta es la mejor idea que alguien haya tenido. +No es un pensamiento maravilloso, que pueda existir tal cosa como la mejor idea que alguien haya tenido? +Creen que pueda existir? +Audiencia: No. +Susan Blackmore: Alguien dijo no, muy fuerte, por all. +Bueno, yo digo que s y le doy el premio a Darwin. +Por qu? +Porque la idea era muy simple, y sin embargo explica todo el diseo del universo. +Yo dira no slo el diseo biolgico, sino todo el diseo que pensamos como diseo humano. +Es justamente la misma cosa, ocurriendo. +Qu dijo Darwin? +S que ustedes conocen la idea, la de la seleccin natural, pero permtanme parafrasear "El Origen de las Especies", 1859, en unas cuantas oraciones. +Lo que Darwin dijo fue algo como esto, si se tienen criaturas que varan, y eso no se puede negar, he estado en Galpagos y he medido el tamao de los picos y el tamao de las conchas de las tortugas y etctera, etctera. +Y 100 pginas despus... +Y si existe la lucha por la vida, tal que casi todas estas criaturas mueren, y esto no se puede dudar, pues he ledo a Malthus y he calculado el tiempo que le tomara a los elefantes cubrir todo el planeta si se reprodujeran sin restriccin, etc., etc. +Y otras 100 pginas despus... +Y si los pocos que sobreviven pasan a su descendencia lo que haya sido que les ayud a sobrevivir, entonces esa descendencia debe estar mejor adaptada a las circunstancias en las que todo esto ocurri, ms que sus progenitores. +Ven la idea? +Si, si, si, entonces. +No tena el concepto de la idea de un algoritmo. Pero eso fue lo que describi en su libro, y esto es lo que nosotros conocemos como el algoritmo evolucionario. +El principio es que se necesitan slo tres cosas: variacin, seleccin y herencia. +Y como lo dijo Dan Dennett, si se tienen estos entonces se da la evolucin. +O diseo a partir del caos sin la ayuda de la mente. +Hay una palabra que me gusta de esta diapositiva. +Cul creen que es mi palabra favorita? +Audiencia: caos. +SB: Caos? No. Cul? Mente? No +Audiencia: Sin +SB: No, no sin. +Ya intentaron todas en orden, eh? +Audiencia: Debe +Debe, debe, debe. +Esto es lo que lo hace tan asombroso. +No necesitan un diseador, o un plan, o una visin o cualquier otra cosa. +Si existe algo que es copiado con variacin y seleccionado, entonces tenemos diseo que aparece de la nada. +No se puede detener. +Debe es mi palabra favorita aqu. +Ahora bien qu tiene esto que ver con memes? +Bueno, el principio aqu se aplica a todo lo que es copiado con variacin y seleccin. +Estamos tan acostumbrados a pensar en trminos de biologa, que pensamos acerca de los genes de esta manera. +Por supuesto, Darwin no saba nada acerca de los genes. +l hablaba principalmente acerca de los animales y las plantas, pero tambin acerca de los lenguajes que evolucionan y se extinguen. +Pero el principio universal del Darwinismo es que cualquier informacin que vara y es seleccionada producir un diseo. +Y esto es lo que Richard Dawkins expuso en su best seller de 1976, "El Gen Egosta". +La informacin que es copiada, es llamada el replicador. +Y se copia de manera egosta. +No es que est por all dentro de las clulas diciendo "quiero que me copien". +Ms bien, se copiar si puede hacerlo, sin importar las consecuencias. +No le importan las consecuencias, porque no le pueden importar, porque es simplemente informacin que est siendo copiada. +Y l quiso alejarse de todos quienes pensaban todo el tiempo en genes, entonces dijo: "existe otro replicador en el planeta?" +Ah, s existe. +Miren a su alrededor, aqu, en este cuarto. +A nuestro alrededor, todava dejndose llevar torpemente en su sopa primitiva de cultura, est otro replicador. +La informacin que copiamos de una persona a otra por imitacin, por el lenguaje, al hablar, al contar historias, al vestir, al hacer cosas. +Esta es informacin copiada con variacin y seleccin. +Es un proceso de diseo ocurriendo. +El quiso encontrar un nombre para el nuevo replicador. +As que tom la palabra griega mimeme, que significa aquello que es imitado. +Recuerden esto, esa la definicin bsica. Aquello que es imitado. +Que se abrevia como meme, slo porque suena bien y hace un buen meme, un meme con difusin efectiva. +Es as como naci la idea. +Es importante apegarse a la definicin. +Toda la ciencia de la memtica ha sido maldecida, muy mal entendida y muy temida. +Pero muchos de estos problemas se pueden evitar recordando la definicin. +Un meme no equivale a una idea. +No es un idea, no es equivalente a ninguna otra cosa en realidad. +Apguense a la definicin. +Es decir, aquello que es imitado. O informacin que es copiada de una persona a otra. +Entonces veamos algunos memes. +Bien, usted seor, que tiene sus lentes colgando de su cuello de esa manera particularmente llamativa. +Me pregunto si usted mismo invent esa idea, o la copi de alguien ms. +Si la copi de alguien ms, es un meme. +Y qu hay acerca de, oh, no veo memes interesantes aqu. +A ver todos quin tiene memes interesantes para m? +Ah s, sus aretes, Supongo que usted no invent la idea de los aretes. +Probablemente sali a comprarlos. +Hay cantidad de ellos en las tiendas. +Eso es algo que pasa de una persona a otra. +Todas las historias que contamos, por supuesto, TED es un gran festn de memes, masas de memes. +Sin embargo, la forma de pensar acerca de los memes es pensar en por qu se difunden. +Son informacin egosta, se copiarn si pueden hacerlo. +Algunos sern copiados porque son buenos, o verdaderos, o tiles o bellos. +Algunos de ellos sern copiados aun cuando no lo sean. +Con algunos, es bastante difcil decir el por qu. +Existe un meme en particular que disfruto. +Y me alegra decir, como lo esperaba, lo encontr cuando llegu aqu y estoy segura que todos usted lo encontraron tambin. +Llegaron a su elegante hotel internacional en algn lado, entraron a su cuarto, sacaron su ropa y cuando fueron al bao, qu vieron? +Audiencia: Jabn de bao +SB: Perdn? +Audiencia: Jabn +SB: Jabn, s. Qu ms vieron? +Audiencia: SB: Mmm mmm. +Audiencia: El lavabo, el excusado. +SB: Lavabo, excusado, s, todos estos son memes, todos son memes, y todos son tiles, y luego est este. +Este qu hace? +Se ha difundido por todo el mundo. +No es de sorprender que todos lo hayan encontrado cuando entraron a sus baos, aqu. +Tom esta foto en un bao detrs de una carpa en un eco-campo en la jungla en Assam. +Quin dobl esto as y por qu? +Algunas personas se dejan llevar. +Otras son simplemente perezosas y cometen errores. +Algunos hoteles explotan la oportunidad y le agregan ms memes con una pequea etiqueta. +De qu se trata todo esto? +Supongo que est all para decirles que alguien limpi el lugar y est todo agradable. +Y ustedes saben, en realidad todo lo que nos dice es que otra persona potencialmente ha diseminado grmenes de un lugar a otro. +As que piensen de esta manera. +Imaginen un mundo lleno de cerebros y con muchos ms memes de los que posiblemente puedan encontrar un hogar. +Los memes estn todos tratando de ser copiados, tratando, entre comillas, es decir, ese es el atajo para decir que, si logran ser copiados, lo harn. +Nos utilizan a ustedes y a m como mquinas copiadoras propagadoras, y nosotros somos las mquinas de memes. +Ahora bien por qu es esto importante? +Por qu es esto til, o qu nos dice? +Nos da una visin completamente nueva de los orgenes del hombre y lo que significa ser humano. Todas las teoras convencionales de la evolucin cultural, del origen de los humanos, y de qu nos hace tan diferentes de las otras especies. +Todas aquellas teoras que explican el cerebro grande, el lenguaje y el uso de herramientas y todas estas cosas que nos hacen nicos, se basan en los genes. +El lenguaje debi ser til para los genes. +El uso de herramientas debi mejorar nuestra sobrevivencia, el apareamiento, etc. +Siempre volva, como Richard Dawkins se quejaba hace ya tiempo, siempre volva a los genes. +El punto de la memtica es decir: "Oh, no, no es as". +Existen dos replicadores hoy en da en este planeta. +Desde el momento en que nuestros ancestros, quizs hace dos millones y medio de aos, ms o menos, empezaron a imitar, existi un nuevo proceso de copiado. +Copiado con variacin y seleccin. +Un nuevo replicador fue liberado, y no es en absoluto posible que desde el principio, los seres humanos que soltaron esta nueva criatura, slo pudieran copiar lo til, lo bello, las cosas verdaderas y que no copiaran las otras cosas. +Mientras que sus cerebros tenan una ventaja con la capacidad de copiar, encender fogatas, mantener el fuego, nuevas tcnicas de caza, este tipo de cosas, es inevitable que tambin copiaran ponerse plumas en el pelo, o vestir ropas extraas, o pintarse las caras, o lo que fuera. +As que, en esta teora, el cerebro grande es impulsado por los memes. +Es por esto que, en "La Mquina de Memes", le llamo el impulso memtico. +Conforme los memes evolucionan, como inevitablemente deben hacerlo, impulsan a crear un cerebro ms grande, que est mejor dotado para copiar los memes que generan el impulso. +Por esta razn, terminamos con cerebros tan peculiares, que nos gusta la religin, la msica y el arte. +El lenguaje es un parsito al que nos hemos adaptado, no es algo que estuviera ah originalmente en nuestros genes, segn esta visin. +Y como la mayora de los parsitos, puede empezar siendo peligroso, pero entonces co-evoluciona y se adapta y terminamos con una relacin simbitica con este nuevo parsito. +Entonces, desde nuestra perspectiva, no nos damos cuenta que as es como empez. +Esta es una visin de lo que son los humanos. +Todas las dems especies en el planeta son nicamente mquinas de genes, no imitan tan bien, de hecho difcilmente lo hacen. +Slo nosotros somos mquinas de genes al igual que mquinas de memes. +Los memes tomaron una mquina de genes y la convirtieron en una mquina de memes. +Pero eso no es todo. +Tenemos un nuevo tipo de memes hoy en da. +Hace tiempo que me he estado preguntando, desde que le he dedicado a los memes un rato, existe una diferencia entre los memes que copiamos, - las palabras con las que nos hablamos, los gestos que copiamos, las cosas humanas - y todas estas cosas tecnolgicas a nuestro alrededor? +Siempre, hasta ahora, les haba llamado a todos memes, sin embargo ahora pienso, honestamente, que necesitamos una nueva palabra para los memes tecnolgicos. +Llammosles technomemes o temes. +Porque los procesos se estn volviendo diferentes. +Hace quizs 5000 aos, empezamos con la escritura. +Almacenamos memes en tablas de barro, pero para obtener verdaderos temes y verdaderas mquinas de temes, se necesita tener la variacin, la seleccin y el copiado, todo hecho fuera de las manos del hombre. +Y estamos llegando a ese punto. +Estamos en este extraordinario punto al que ya casi llegamos, en donde hay mquinas como esta. +En efecto, en el poco rato que he estado en TED, veo que incluso estamos ms cerca de lo que antes crea. +As que, ahora los temes estn forzando nuestros cerebros a convertirse ms en mquinas de temes. +Nuestros nios estn creciendo muy rpido aprendiendo a leer, aprendiendo a usar la maquinaria. +Vamos a tener todo tipo de implantes, drogas que nos forzarn a estar despiertos todo el tiempo. +Pensaremos que estaremos escogiendo estas cosas, pero los temes lo estn haciendo por nosotros. +Entonces estamos ahora en esta cspide de tener un tercer replicador en nuestro planeta. +Ahora, qu hay sobre lo dems que est pasando all fuera en el universo? +Hay alguien ms all afuera? +La gente se ha estado haciendo esta pregunta por mucho tiempo. +La hemos hecho ya aqu en TED. +En 1961, Frank Drake hizo su famosa ecuacin, pero creo que se concentr en las cosas equivocadas. +Ha sido muy productiva, esa ecuacin. +Quiso estimar N, el nmero de civilizaciones comunicativas all afuera en nuestra galaxia. Incluy ah la tasa de formacin de estrellas, la tasa de planetas, pero crucialmente, inteligencia. +Yo creo que esa es la forma errnea de pensarlo. +La inteligencia aparece en todos lados, con todo tipo de disfraces. +La inteligencia humana es slo un tipo de una cosa. +Lo que en realidad importa son los replicadores que uno tiene y los niveles de replicadores, uno alimentndose en el predecesor. +Entonces yo sugerira que no pensramos en inteligencia, sino que pensramos en replicadores. +Con esta base, sugiero un tipo de ecuacin diferente. +Una ecuacin muy simple. +N, la misma cosa, el nmero de civilizaciones comunicativas all afuera, que podramos esperar que existan en nuestra galaxia. +Empecemos slo con el nmero de planetas que hay en nuestra galaxia. +La fraccin de aquellos que tienen un primer replicador. +La fraccin de aquellos que tienen un segundo replicador. +La fraccin de aquellos que tienen un tercer replicador. +Porque solamente el tercer replicador es el que va a salir, enviando informacin, enviando sondas, llegando all afuera, y comunicndose con cualquier otro lugar. +Bien, entonces si tomamos la ecuacin, por qu no hemos odo de alguien de all afuera? +Porque cada paso es peligroso. +Obtener un nuevo replicador es peligroso. +Se puede superar y lo hemos superado, pero es peligroso. +Tomen el primer paso, tan pronto como la vida apareci en la Tierra. +Podemos considerar la visin gaiana. +Me encant la charla de ayer de Peter Ward, no todo el tiempo es gaiana. +En realidad, las formas de vida producen cosas que se matan as mismas. +Bueno, hemos sobrevivido en este planeta. +Pero luego, mucho tiempo despus, miles de millones de aos despus, tuvimos el segundo replicador, los memes. +Eso fue peligroso, de acuerdo. +Piensen en el cerebro grande. +Cuntas madres tenemos aqu? +Ustedes lo saben todo sobre los cerebros grandes. +Son peligrosos al dar a luz. Es agonizante dar a luz. +Mi gata tuvo cuatro gatitos, que ronronean todo el tiempo +Ah, mm -- ligeramente diferente +Pero no slo es doloroso, mata a muchos bebs, mata a muchas madres, es muy costoso de producir. +Los genes son forzados a producir toda esta mielina, toda la grasa para mielina que cubre el cerebro. +Saben que sentados aqu su cerebro est usando el 20 por ciento de la energa que produce su cuerpo para el dos por ciento de su peso corporal? +De verdad es un rgano muy caro de operar. +Por qu? Porque est produciendo los memes. +Pudo habernos matado, pudo habernos matado, y quizs estuvo a punto, pero como ven, no lo sabemos. +Pero quizs estuvo a punto de hacerlo. +Ha sido intentado antes? +Qu hay de las otras especies? +Louise Leakey hablaba ayer acerca de cmo somos los nicos que quedamos en esta rama. +Qu les pas a los dems? +Podra ser que este experimento de imitacin, este experimento de un segundo replicador, es lo suficientemente peligroso como para matar gente? +Bien, lo superamos y nos adaptamos. +Pero ahora, estamos llegando, como lo he descrito, estamos alcanzado el punto del tercer replicador. +Y esto es incluso ms peligroso, bueno, es peligroso otra vez. +Por qu? Porque los temes son replicadores egostas y no les importamos nosotros, ni el planeta, ni ninguna otra cosa. +Son slo informacin por qu habra de importarles? +Nos estn utilizando para acabar con los recursos del planeta para producir ms computadores, y ms de estas cosas asombrosas que escuchamos aqu en TED. +No piensen, "Oh, creamos el Internet para nuestro beneficio". +Eso es lo que nos parece. +Piensen en temes que se difunden porque tienen que hacerlo. +Nosotros somos mquinas viejas. +Ahora, vamos a superar esto? +Qu va a pasar? +Qu significa superar esto? +Bueno, hay dos formas de superarlo. +Una que est obviamente ocurriendo a nuestro alrededor ahora, es que los temes nos convierten en mquinas de temes, con estos implantes, con las drogas, con nosotros fusionndonos con la tecnologa. +Por qu habrian de hacer eso? +Porque nosotros nos auto-replicamos. +Tenemos bebs. +Hacemos bebs nuevos, y entonces es conveniente para ellos aprovecharse de esto, porque todava no estamos en el etapa en que este planeta tenga la otra opcin viable. +Aunque est ms cerca, esta maana escuch, est ms cerca de lo que pensaba, +el momento en el que las mquinas de temes se replicarn a s mismas. +De esa forma, ya no importara si el clima del planeta se desestabilizara por completo, y no fuera ms posible para los humanos vivir aqu. +Porque estas mquinas de temes, no lo necesitaran, - no son blandas, ni hmedas ni requieren respirar oxgeno, ni son criaturas que requieran calor. +Pueden continuar sin nosotros. +As que estas son las dos posibilidades. +La segunda, no creo que estemos tan cerca. +Est llegando, pero todava no estamos ah. +La primera, tambin est llegando. +Pero el dao que ya se hizo al planeta nos est mostrando lo peligroso que es el tercer punto, ese tercer punto peligroso, alcanzando el tercer replicador. +Y vamos a pasar este tercer punto peligroso como lo hicimos con el segundo y el primero? +Quizs si, quizs no. +No tengo idea. +Chris Anderson: Esta fue una charla increble. +SB: Gracias. Yo misma me espant. +CA: Risas. +Entonces, podemos atrevernos a ser optimistas? +Bien, la tsis de "The Bottom Billion" es que mil millones de personas estn atrapadas en economas que llevan estancadas 40 aos, y por tanto alejndose del resto de la humanidad. +As que, la verdadera pregunta a plantearse no es podemos ser optimistas? +Es cmo podemos dar esperanzas crebles a esos mil millones de personas? +Eso, para m, es el reto fundamental hoy da para el desarrollo. +Lo que voy a ofreceros es una receta, una combinacin de las dos fuerzas que cambiaron el mundo para bien, que es la alianza de compasin e inters propio inteligente. +Compasin, ya que mil millones de personas estn viviendo en sociedades que no les han ofrecido una esperanza creble. +Esto es una tragedia humana. +El inters propio inteligente, debido a que si esta divergencia econmica contina durante otros 40 aos combinado con la integracin social global, se generar una pesadilla para nuestros hijos. +Necesitamos compasin para que comencemos, y un inters propio inteligente para que nos pongamos serios. +Esa es la alianza que cambia el mundo. +Entonces, qu significa ponerse serios acerca de proporcionar esperanza para "el club de la miseria"? +Qu podemos hacer en realidad? +Bien, una buena gua es pensar, "Qu hicimos la ltima vez que el mundo rico se puso serio para desarrollar otra regin del mundo?" +Esto nos da, lo que resulta, una pista bastante buena, excepto que tenemos que regresar bastante en el tiempo. +La ltima vez que el mundo rico se puso serio para desarrollar otra regin fue a finales de los aos 40. +El mundo rico rais vosotros, mrica, y la regin que necesitaba desarrollarse era mi mundo, Europa. +Era la Europa de la posguerra. +Por qu Amrica lo tom en serio? +No era slo compasin por Europa, aunque la haba. +Era que sabais que tenais que hacerlo, porque a finales de los aos 40, pas tras pas en la Europa Central estaba cayendo en el bloque sovitico, y por tanto sabais que no tenais opcin. +Europa tena que ser arrastrada al desarrollo econmico. +Entonces qu hicsteis, la ltima vez que os pussteis serios? +Bien, s, tenais un gran programa de asistencia. Muchas gracias. +Fue el Plan Marshall; necesitamos hacerlo de nuevo. La ayuda es parte de la solucin. +Pero qu ms hicsteis? +Bien, echsteis abajo vuestra poltica comercial, y le dsteis la vuelta +Antes de la guerra, Amrica fue muy proteccionista. +Tras la guerra, abrsteis vuestros mercados a Europa, arrastrsteis a Europa a la economa global de entonces, que era vuestra economa, e institucionalizsteis ese libre comercio. mediante la fundacin del Acuerdo General sobre Comercio y Aranceles +As que, un cambio total de poltica comercial. +Hicsteis algo ms? +S: un cambio total en vuestra poltica de seguridad. +Antes de la guerra, vuestra poltica de seguridad haba sido aislacionista. +Tras la guerra, le dsteis la vuelta, pussteis 100.000 soldados en Europa durante ms de 40 aos. +As que, cambio total de la poltica de seguridad. Algo ms? +S, echsteis abajo el Undcimo Mandamiento -- la soberana nacional. +Antes de la guerra, tratbais la soberana nacional como sacrosanta de manera que ni siquiera estabas dispuestos a unros a la Liga de Naciones. +Tras la guerra, fundis las Naciones Unidas, fundis la Organizacin para la Cooperacin y el Desarrollo Econmico fundis el FMI, alentsteis a Europa a crear la Comunidad Econmica Europea. Todos ellos sistemas para la ayuda mutua entre gobiernos. +Estas son an las bases de las polticas efectivas: ayuda, comercio, seguridad, gobiernos. +Por supuesto, los detalles de la poltica sern diferentes, porque el reto es diferente. +No se trata de reconstruir Europa, es revertir la divergencia del club de la miseria de manera que puedan realmente alcanzarnos. +Es esto ms fcil o ms difcil? +Tenemos que ser al menos tan serios como lo fuimos entonces. +Ahora, hoy voy a tomar slo uno de esos cuatro. +Voy a tomar el que suena como el ms dbil, el que es de Perogrullo -- gobiernos, sistemas de soporte mutuo entre gobiernos -- y voy a mostrarles una idea de cmo podramos hacer algo para fortalecer los gobiernos, y voy a mostrarles que es enrmemente importante ahora. +La oportunidad en la que vamos a fijarnos es una verdadera base para el optimismo acerca del club de la miseria, y esa es el boom de las materias primas. +El boom de las materias primas est llevando cantidades sin precedentes de dinero a muchos, aunque no todos, los pases del club de la miseria. +En parte estn llevando dinero debido a que los precios de las materias primas son altos, pero no es slo eso. Tambin hay una variedad de nuevos descubrimientos. +Uganda acaba de descubrir petrleo, en una de las ubicaciones ms desastrosas de la Tierra, Ghana ha descubierto petrleo, Guinea ha logrado una nueva explotacin enorme de mineral de hierro que sale de su suelo. +Por tanto nuevos descubrimientos masivos. +Al lado de ellos, estos nuevos flujos de ingresos dejan pequea a la ayuda. +Slo para dar un ejemplo: Slo Angola obtiene 50 mil millones de dlares al ao en ingresos por petrleo. +El flujo entero de ayuda a los 60 paises del club de la miseria el ao pasado fue de 34 mil millones. +Por lo que el flujo de recursos del boom de las materias primas al club de la miseria no tiene precedentes. +Entonces hay optimismo. +La pregunta es, cmo va a ayudar a su desarrollo? +Es una enorme oportunidad para el desarrollo transformacional. +Se llevar a cabo? +Aqu viene un poco de ciencia, y es un poco de ciencia que he hecho desde El Club de la Miseria, por tanto es nuevo. +He estudiado para ver cul es la relacin entre precios mayores de materias primas de exportacin, y el crecimiento de pases exportadores de materias primas. +Y lo he observado globalmente, he tomado todos los pases del mundo durante los ltimos 40 aos, y he investigado cul es su relacin. +Y a corto plazo -- digamos, los primeros cinco a siete aos, es bastante buena. +De hecho, es muy buena: todo sube. +Se consigue ms dinero porque los trminos de comercio mejoran, pero tambin aumenta la produccin de forma generalizada. +De manera que el PIB sube mucho -- fantstico! Esto a corto plazo. +Y a largo plazo? +Regresemos 15 aos despus. +Bien, a corto plazo es muy bueno, pero a largo plazo, es frgil. +Se sube a corto plazo, pero entonces la mayora de las sociedades historicamente han terminado peor que si no hubiera habido ningn boom. +Esto no es una previsin de cmo cambia el precio de las materias primas, es una previsin de las consecuencias, consecuencias a largo plazo, para el crecimiento de un incremento en precios. +Entonces qu ha ido mal? Por qu hay una "maldicin de los recursos", como se le suele llamar? +Y de nuevo, he investigado esto, y el resultado es que el punto crtico es el nivel de gobernabilidad, el nivel inicial de gobiernabilidad econmica, cuando el boom en recursos se acumula. +De hecho, si se tiene un gobierno suficientemente bueno, no hay un boom de recursos. +Se sube a corto plazo, y luego se sigue subiendo incluso ms a largo plazo. +Esto es Noruega, el pas ms rico de Europa. Es Australia, es Canad. +La maldicin de los recursos est reservada enteramente a los pases por debajo de un umbral de gobernabilidad. +An as suben a corto plazo. +Esto es lo que estamos viendo en el club de la miseria en estos momentos. +Las mejores tasas de crecimiento que hayan tenido nunca. +Y la pregunta es si el corto plazo persistir. +Y con un mal gobierno histricamente en los ltimos 40 aos, no lo ha hecho. +Son pases como Nigeria, que estn peor que si nunca hubieran tenido petrleo. +Entonces hay un umbral por encima del cual uno sube a largo plazo, y baja si est por debajo. +Slo para referenciar este umbral, est entorno al nivel de gobierno de Portugal a mediados de los 80. +Por tanto la pregunta es, est el club de la miseria por encima o por debajo de este umbral? +Ahora hay un gran cambio respecto al boom de las materias primas de los 70, y es la propagacin de la democracia. +Entonces pens que, bien, quizs esa es la clave que ha transformado el gobierno del club de la miseria. +Quiz podamos ser ms optimistas debido a la propagacin de la democracia. +As que investigu. La democracia tiene efectos significativos -- y desafortunadamente son adversos. +La democracias complican incluso ms estos booms de recursos que las autocracias. +En este punto ya quera abandonar la investigacin, pero -- -- resulta que la democracia es un poco ms complicada que esto. +Porque existen dos aspectos distintos de la democracia. Est la carrera electoral, que determina cmo adquieres el poder, y est el equilibrio de poder, que determina cmo usas el poder. +Resulta que la carrera electoral es el aspecto que est daando a la democracia, mientras que un fuerte equilibrio de poder beneficia al boom de recursos. +Y entonces, lo que los pases del club de la miseria necesitan es un fuerte equilibrio de poder. +No lo tienen. +Consiguieron una democracia instantnea en los aos 90: elecciones sin equilibrio de poder. +Cmo podemos ayudarles a mejorar sus gobiernos e introducir equilibrio de poderes? +En todas las sociedades del club de la miseria, hay intensas luchas para hacer esto. +La propuesta sencilla es que deberamos tener algunos estndares internacionales, que seran voluntarios, pero que explicaran con detalle los puntos clave de decisin que seran necesarios tomar para asegurar estas fuentes de ingresos. +Sabemos que estos estndares internacionales funcionan porque ya tenemos uno. +Se llama Iniciativa para la Transparencia de las Industrias Extractivas. +Que es la idea muy sencilla de que los gobiernos deberan reportar a sus ciudadanos qu ingresos tienen. +Tan pronto fue propuesta los reformistas de Nigeria la adopatron, la promocionaron y publicaron los ingresos en los peridicos. +Las tiradas de los peridicos Nigerianos se dispararon. +La gente quera saber lo que estaba obteniendo su gobierno en trminos de ingresos. +Entonces sabemos que funciona. Cul debera ser el contenido de estos estndares internacionales? +No puedo examinarlos todos, pero os dar un ejemplo. +El primero de ellos es cmo sacar los recursos de la tierra -- los procesos econmicos, al sacar los recursos de la tierra y poner los activos encima de la tierra. +Y el primer paso en esto es vender los derechos de extraccin de recursos. +Sabis cmo se venden los derechos de extraccin de recursos en estos momentos? Cmo se han vendido durante los ltimos 40 aos? +Una compaa vuela all, hace un trato con un ministro, +y es magnfico para la compaa, y bastante a menudo magnfico para el ministro -- -- y no tan magnfico para el pas. +Existe una sencilla tecnologa institucional que puede transformar esto, y se llama subastas verificadas. +El organismo pblico con la mayor experiencia en la Tierra es por supuesto el Tesoro -- esto es, el Tesoro Britnico. +Y el Tesoro Britnico decidi que vendera los derechos de la tercera generacin de telefona mvil calculando el valor de estos derechos. +Calcularon que valan dos mil millones de libras. +Justo a tiempo, un grupo de economistas lleg y dijo, "Por qu no probis una subasta? Esta revelar su valor". +Se vendieron por 20 mil millones de libras mediante subasta. +Si el Tesoro Britnico puede equivocarse en un factor de diez, imaginen por cunto lo hara el ministro de finanzas de Sierra Leona. +. Cuando expuse esto al Presidente de Sierra Leona, al da siguiente pidi al Banco Mundial que le enviara un equipo para instruirles sobre cmo realizar subastas. +Existen cinco puntos decisivos como este, cada uno de los cuales necesita un estndar internacional. +Si pudieramos hacerlos, cambiaramos el mundo. +Estaramos ayudando a los reformistas en estas sociedades que estn luchando por el cambio. +Este es nuestro modesto papel. No podemos cambiar esas sociedades, pero podemos ayudar a la gente de esas sociedades que estan luchando y generalmente fallando, porque las probabilidades estn muy en contra de ellos. +Y an as, no tenemos estas reglas. +Si lo pensis, el coste de promulgar reglas internacionales es nada de nada -- nada. +Por qu demonios no existen? +Me he dado cuenta de que la razn para no existir es que hasta que no tengamos una masa crtica de ciudadanos informados en nuestras propias sociedades, los polticos se escabullirn con gestos. +Eso a menos que tengamos una sociedad informada, lo que los polticos hacen, especialmente en relacin a frica, son gestos: cosas que tienen buena pinta, pero que no funcionan. +Y entonces me di cuenta que tenamos que afrontar la cuestin de formar una ciudadana informada. +Por eso romp todas las reglas de conducta profesional de un economista y escrib un libro de Economa que se pudiera leer en la playa. +. +Sin embargo, tengo que decir, que el proceso de comunicacin no es algo natural en mi. +Esta es la razn por la que estoy en este escenario, pero es alarmante. +Crec en una cultura de discrecin. +Mi mujer me mostr un comentario de blog sobre una de mis ltimas charlas, y el comentario del blog deca, "Collier no es carismtico -- -- pero sus argumentos son convincentes". +. . Si estis de acuerdo con esta opinin, y si estis de acuerdo con que necesitamos una masa crtica de ciudadanos informados, os daris cuenta de que os necesito. +Por favor, convertios en embajadores. +Gracias. +As que estoy en Chile, en el desierto de Atacama, sentado en el vestbulo de un hotel, porque es el nico sitio donde hay conexin Wi-Fi; tengo esta fotografa en la pantalla, y una seora se me acerca por detrs. +Y dice: "Ah, qu bonito! +Qu es? Es un Jackson Pollock?" +Y, desgraciadamente, yo puedo ser demasiado honesto. +Y digo: "No, eso es, es caca de pingino" +Y, ya saben, "Perdone!" +Y poda sentir que ella crea que le hablaba sinecdoquicamente. +As que le dije: "No, no, de verdad. Es caca de pingino." +Porque acababa de estar en las Islas Malvinas tomando fotografas de pinginos. +Este es un pingino papa.Y ella segua escptica. +Y literalmente unos minutos antes haba descargado este artculo cientfico sobre clculos en defecacin aviar. Que es realmente interesante, porque resulta que esto se configura como algo llamado "flujo de Poiseuille", y se puede aprender muchsimo sobre la fsica del recto aviar. +En realidad, tcnicamente, no es un recto. Se llama cloaca. +Y en este punto, ella me detiene, y dice: "Y quin es usted?" +"A qu se dedica?" +Y no supe qu decir, porque no s cmo describir lo que hago. +As que, de alguna manera, esta charla hoy es mi respuesta a eso. +Es una seleccin aleatoria de cosas a las que me dedico. +Y para m es bastante difcil poder explicarlo, as que no estoy seguro de que ustedes lo puedan comprender. +Es el tipo de cosas sobre las que pienso tarde en la noche, a veces, a menudo, a las 4 de la madrugada. +Y bueno, algunos tienen miedo de lo que hago. +Algunos piensan que soy como un Tony Soprano extravagante, y en respuesta a ello, he mandado hacer un protector de bolsillo antibalas. +No estoy seguro de lo que piensan ellos, porque no hablo noruego. +Pero no creo que "monsteret" sea algo bueno. +No s, y ustedes? +Bueno, una de las cosas que me encanta hacer es viajar por el mundo y buscar yacimientos arqueolgicos. +Porque la arqueologa nos brinda la oportunidad de estudiar civilizaciones pasadas y ver en lo que tuvieron xito y en lo que fracasaron. +Usar la ciencia para buscar hacia atrs y preguntarse : "En qu pensaban realmente?". +Hace poco estuve en la Isla de Pascua, que es un lugar increblemente bonito, e increblemente misterioso, porque donde vayas en la Isla de Pascua, te topars con estas estatuas, llamadas "moai". +La superficie del lugar es de unos 163 km. +Y hasta donde nosotros sabemos, construyeron 900 estatuas. +Por qu lo hicieron? Y si no han ledo el libro de Jared Diamond "Colapso", se lo recomiendo absolutamente. +Tiene un captulo increble sobre esto. +Bsicamente, esta gente cometi un suicidio ecolgico para construir ms de estos. +En algn momento alguien dijo: "Ya s! Cortemos el ltimo rbol y cometamos suicidio, porque necesitamos ms estatuas iguales." +Y... una de las cosas que no es un misterio, fue cuando crec, porque cuando era un nio haba visto estas fotografas, y pens: "Por qu esa expresin en la cara? +Por qu esa ceja?", es algo bastante poderoso. +De dnde sali la inspiracin? +Y entonces conoc a Yoyo, que es un gua rapa nui nativo, y si observan la cara de Yoyo, pueden imaginarse ms o menos de dnde sali. +Hay muchos misterios en estas estatuas. +Todo el mundo quiere saber cmo las hicieron, cmo las transportaron... +Esta mujer en primer plano es Jo Anne Van Tilberg. +Es actualmente la arqueloga jefe en la Isla de Pascua. +Ha estudiado estas estatuas durante unos 20 aos. y tiene documentos detallados de cada una de las estatuas. +La estatua que est aqu en la pgina es la misma que estn viendo all. +Un problema interesante es que la piedra no es muy dura. +Esto sola ser completamente liso. +De hecho, en muchas de las estatuas, cuando se excava en ellas, la parte de atrs est totalmente lisa, casi tan lisa como un cristal. +Pero despus de 1000 aos al exterior soportando el clima, han quedado as. +Jo Anne y yo nos hemos embarcado en un proyecto para digitalizarlas todas, y vamos a hacer una digitalizacin de alta resolucin. Primero, porque es una manera de conservarlas. +Segundo, porque tenemos algunas ideas de cmo se puede aprender despus algortmicamente de algunos de los misterios que encierran. +Cunto tiempo llevan all, en qu posiciones? +Y quizs, indirectamente, averiguar algunos de los motivos que causaron el estado en que estn. +Mientras estaba en la Isla de Pascua, se poda ver el cometa McNaught, as que aqu tienen una foto gratuita de un moai con un cometa. +Tengo tambin otro proyecto arqueolgico en marcha en Egipto. +"En marcha" es quizs demasiado. +Estamos intentando obtener todos los permisos para poder tener todo listo y ponerlo en marcha. +As que hablar de ello en un TED futuro. +Pero hay algunas oportunidades increbles en Egipto tambin. +Otra de las cosas que hago es inventar cosas. +De hecho, diseo reactores nucleares. +No es una broma. +Este es el ciclo convencional del combustible nuclear. +La lnea roja es lo que se hace en la mayora de los reactores nucleares. Se llama ciclo de combustible abierto. +Las lneas blancas es lo que se llama un ciclo avanzado de combustible, donde se vuelve a procesar. +Ahora bien, esta es la manera normal de hacerlo. +Tiene la enorme ventaja de que no contamina con carbono. +Pero tiene un montn de inconvenientes: cada uno de los pasos es extremadamente caro, potencialmente peligroso, y tiene la interesante propiedad de que no se puede hacer en el patio trasero de una casa, lo que es un problema. +As que nuestro reactor elimina estos pasos, lo cual, si realmente llegamos a hacer que funcione, sera algo fantstico. +Ahora bien, es un poco de locos trabajar en un nuevo reactor nuclear. +No se ha construido ningn reactor de diseo antiguo, mucho menos del nuevo, en los EEUU en 25 aos. +Es el tipo de cosas que hacemos, con un riesgo muy alto, pero con un resultado potencialmente muy bueno. +Cambiando a una materia totalmente diferente, trabajamos mucho en el campo de la fsica del estado slido, y en particular, en el rea de los llamados "metamateriales". +Un metamaterial es un material artificial, que manipula, en este caso, la radiacin electromagntica, en una forma nica, que no podra hacerse de otra manera. +As, este aparato de aqu es como una capa invisible. +Puede que no lo parezca, pero si usted fuera un microondas, es as como lo veran. +Rayos de luz, en este caso, luz de microondas, entran, pasan alrededor de la clula y vuelven por el otro lado. +Se podra hacer eso mismo con espejos desde un ngulo. +Lo increble es que esto lo hace desde todos los ngulos. +Los metamateriales, desafortunadamente, A, slo funcionan con microondas, y B, todava no funcionan tan bien. +Pero los metamateriales son un campo increblemente emocionante. +Es...bueno, hoy hay que decir que es un negocio de cero billones de dlares, de nmeros rojos, en realidad. +Pero algn da, algn da, quizs funcionar. +Trabajamos tambin mucho en el campo biomdico. +En este caso, estamos trabajando con una importante fundacin mdica para desarrollar formas baratas de diagnosticar enfermedades en pases en desarrollo. +Dicen que los ojos son las ventanas del alma, pero resulta que son una ventana para muchas ms cosas. +A propsito, estos son mis ojos. +Bueno, tambin estoy muy interesado en la cocina. +Cuando estaba en Microsoft, tom una licencia y fui a Francia a una escuela de chefs. +Sola trabajar, a la vez que en Microsoft, en un importante restaurante en Seattle, as que cocino bastante. +He estado en un equipo que gan la copa mundial de barbacoas. +La barbacoa es interesante, porque es una de esas comidas de culto como el chile, o la bouillabaisse. +Cada sitio tiene una comida de culto que la gente adora enormemente. Hay tradiciones tremendas, hay secretismo, +y yo trato de usar una perspectiva muy cientfica. +As que esta es mi ltima barbacoa, y si parece ms complicada que un reactor nuclear, es porque lo es. +Pero si empiezas a jugar con todos estos botones y esferas, y, naturalmente, el control se hace todo con software, se pueden hacer unas costillas riqusimas. +Esto es un centrifugador de alta velocidad. +Todo el mundo debera tener uno en su cocina al lado de la Turbochef. +Esto somete la comida a una fuerza de aproximadamente 50.000 veces la gravedad normal, y cmo aclara el caldo de pollo! +No lo podran creer! +Hago una serie de experimentos brutales con la comida. En este caso, trato de calibrar un modelo matemtico para poder predecir con exactitud los tiempos de coccin internos. +Y resulta que, A, es til, y para un loco como yo, es divertido. +La teora est sealada en rojo, el experimento en negro. +As que, o soy muy bueno falsificndolo, o, o este modelo en concreto parece funcionar. +Otra de las cosas aleatorias que hago es buscar inteligencia extraterrestre, o SETI. +Puede que les sea familiar la pelcula "Contacto", que lo populariz. +Resulta que hay gente de verdad que busca extraterrestres de forma muy cientfica. +De hecho, casi todos los personajes en la pelcula estn basados en un personaje real, en una persona real. +As, el personaje de Jodie Foster aqu es en realidad esta mujer, Jill Tarter, que ha dedicado toda su vida a esto. +Saben? Mucha gente arriesga su vida en un breve acto de herosmo, que est bien, pero lo de Jill es lo que yo llamo "herosmo lento". +Ella est arriesgando su vida profesional en algo que sus propios clculos demuestran que puede que no funcione en mil aos, o que nunca funcione. +A m me gusta apoyar a gente que arriesga su vida. +Despus de que saliera la pelcula, naturalmente, hubo un gran inters en SETI. +Mis hijos vieron la pelcula, y despus vinieron y me preguntaron: "Entonces, pap, as que -- ese personaje, es Jill, no?" +Y les contest: "S, desde luego" +"Y ese otro personaje, es alguien..." Y les dije: "S". +Y me dijeron: "Bueno, y ese ricachn antiptico en la pelcula, +eres t?" +Y les dije: "Bueno, vale, es slo una pelcula! +As que el instituto SETI, con un poco de mi ayuda y mucha de Paul Allen y de muchas otras personas, est construyendo con gran dedicacin un radio-telescopio en Hat Creek, California, para poder seguir con su trabajo SETI. +Yo viajo mucho, y cambio mucho de telfono celular, y la nica persona que siempre tiene todos mis celulares, bipers y todo lo dems actualizado es Jill, porque de verdad no quiero perderme "la llamada". +Pueden imaginrselo? E.T. llamando a casa, y no estoy? Horrible! +Tambin trabajo mucho con dinosaurios. +Entre los seguidores de TED se me conoce como el tipo que tiene sexo con dinosaurios. +Y puede que lo parezca! +Pero voy a hablar de un aspecto diferente de los dinosaurios, de cmo encontrar dinosaurios. +Para encontrar dinosaurios hay que caminar en condiciones horribles, en su bsqueda. +Suena bastante tonto, pero eso es lo que es. +Son condiciones horribles porque donde hace buen tiempo, las plantas crecen. Y no hay erosin, y no se ve ningn dinosaurio. +As que siempre se encuentran dinosaurios en desiertos o en tierras baldas, reas en las que muy pocas plantas crecen y que sufren rpidas inundaciones en la primavera. +Saben que los esquiadores rezan para que nieve? +Bueno, los paleontlogos rezan para que haya erosin. +As que caminas alrededor y (esto es tras desenterrarlos) son as. +Vas caminando, y ves also as. +Esto es algo que yo encontr, mrenlo ms de cerca. +Es arcilla bentonita, que suele hincharse y expandirse. +Y hay algo asomando, lo miras, y lo miras ms de cerca, y dices: "Vaya, esto es algo interesante, qu son todas esas piezas?" +Y si lo miras an ms de cerca, en realidad puedes reconocer por la forma, que son fragmentos craneales. +Y luego, cuando miras esto, dices: "Esto es un diente. +Es un diente grande". +Tiene el tamao de una banana. +Tiene un gran borde dentado. +As es como se ve un Tiranosaurio rex en el suelo. +As es como se encuentra un Tiranosaurio rex, y yo tuve la suerte de hacerlo hace unos aos. +Y as se ve el Tiranosaurio rex en mi saln. +En realidad, no es el mismo. Este es un molde que haba comprado. Y entonces, despus de haberlo comprado, encontr el mo, y no tengo sitio para los dos. +Ya ven. +Para m, lo que es maravilloso sobre encontrar dinosaurios es que es tanto una actividad intelectual, porque ests intentando reconstruir el entorno de hace millones de aos, +como algo que puede informar a cualquier ciencia en formas inesperadas. +El estudio de los dinosaurios llev a la comprensin del problema con el impacto de los asteroides, por ejemplo. +El estudio de los dinosaurios puede, literalmente, que un da salve el planeta. +El estudio del clima primitivo es muy importante. +De hecho, en el Mesozoico, cuando vivan los dinosaurios, haba mucho ms CO2 que hoy, haca mucho ms calor que hoy, y es uno de los puntos interesantes que prueban los efectos del CO2 en el clima. +Pero adems de ser interesante intelectual y cientficamente, es algo muy diferente de las otras cosas que hago porque hace que camine por tierras baldas. +As es como son en realidad la mayora de las investigaciones sobre dinosaurios. +Este es uno de mis artculos: "Un pigstilo de un terpodo no aviar." +No es tan apasionante como el sexo de los dinosaurios, as que no entrar en ms detalles. +Tambin me dedico bastante a la fotografa. +Viajo alrededor del mundo tomando fotografas, algunas son buenas, la mayora no. +Hoy en da los bits son baratos. Por desgracia, eso significa que hay que pasar ms tiempo buscando entre ellos. +Esta es una fotografa que tom en las Islas Malvinas de pinginos reales en una playa. +Esta la tom en Alaska hace unos aos, +Fui a fotografiar orcas, llevbamos una semana buscando y no habamos visto una condenada orca. +Y el ltimo da, sali el sol, y aparecieron las orcas, justo detrs del barco. Fue fantstico. +Y tom muchas fotografas como esta. +Luego, algo ms tarde, Empec a tomar fotografas como esta. +Ahora bien, para una audiencia humana necesito explicar que si la revista Penthouse tuviera una edicin marina, este sera el pster de la pgina central. +Es verdad! +As que comenz a haber ms y ms actividad cerca del barco, y de repente alguien grita: "Qu es eso en el agua?" +Y dije: "Bueno, creo que eso es lo que se llama un "Willy libre". +Hay una gran variedad de cosas que puedes aprender viendo a las ballenas aparearse. +Lo primero que aprendes es la importancia aplastante de las manos. +Ellas no tienen. +Creo que Paul Simon est entre el pblico, y l ha... es posible que no se haya dado cuenta, pero escribi una cancin sobre el sexo de las ballenas: "Slip-slidin' away" (Deslizndose y escabuyndose) +As es ms o menos como es. +La otra cosa interesante que aprend sobre el sexo de las ballenas es que tambin curvan los dedos de los pies. +As que, A dnde va uno a poner todos estos disparates juntos? +Saben? Hay una cantidad tremenda de sabidura en encontrar algo maravilloso, una pasin de vida, y centrar toda tu energa en ello, pero yo nunca lo he conseguido. +Y solo, bueno, porque s, porque yo centro mi pasin en algo, pero luego aparece algo ms, y luego algo ms... +Y durante mucho tiempo he tratado de luchar contra ello, y pens, "Bueno, realmente tienes que ponerte las pilas" +Y saben?, cuando estaba en Microsoft, aquello era tan absorbente, y toda la industria se estaba expandiendo tanto que sola dejar de lado casi todas las dems cosas en mi vida. +Pero al final, decid que lo que realmente tena que hacer era no luchar contra lo que soy, sino aceptarlo. +Y decir:"S, bueno, esta charla ha sido de un kilmetro de ancho y un centmetro de profundidad, pero eso es lo que realmente funciona para m". +Y no importa si se trata de reactores nucleares o metamateriales o metamateriales y sexo de ballenas, el comn -o el mnimo comn denominador- soy yo. +Eso es todo. Gracias. +Filsofos, dramaturgos, telogos han lidiado con esta pregunta durante siglos: Qu hace que la gente se equivoque? +Curiosamente, sola hacer la misma pregunta cuando era pequeo. +Cuando era pequeo, en el Bronx, un gueto urbano en Nueva York, me rodeaba el mal, como a todos los nios que crecen en un barrio urbano. +Y tena amigos que eran muy buenos chicos, que vivan en el mundo de Dr. Jekyll Mr. Hyde -- Robert Louis Stevenson. +Es decir, tomaban drogas, se metan en problemas, iban a la crcel. +A algunos los mataron, otros lo hicieron sin necesidad de droga. +As que cuando le a Robert Louis Stevenson, no me pareci ficcin. +La nica pregunta es, qu les haban dado? +Y, lo que es ms importante, esa lnea entre el bien y el mal -- que a los privilegiados les gusta pensar que es fija e impermeable, estando ellos en la parte buena, y los otros en la mala -- Yo saba que esa lnea era mvil y permeable. +A la buena gente se le poda seducir para cruzarla, y en circunstancias buenas y en algunas raras los nios malos podan recuperarse con ayuda, reforma, rehabilitacin. +Quiero empezar con esta maravillosa ilusin del artista holands M.C. Escher. +Si lo miran y se centran en lo blanco lo que ven es un mundo lleno de ngeles. +Pero miremos ms cuidadosamente, y mientras lo hacemos lo que aparecen son demonios, los diablos del mundo. +Y eso nos dice algunas cosas. +Una: es mundo est, estuvo y siempre estar lleno de bien y mal, porque el bien y el mal son el Yin y el Yang de la condicin humana. +Me dice algo ms. Si se acuerdan, el ngel favorito +de Dios era Lucifer. +Aparentemente, Lucifer significa "la luz". +Tambin significa "la estrella de la maana" en algunas escrituras. +Y parece que desobedeci a Dios, y esa es la mxima desobediencia a la autoridad. +Y cuando lo hizo, enviaron al arcngel Miguel a sacarlo del cielo junto con los dems ngeles cados. +Y Lucifer desciende al infierno, se convierte en Satn, en el diablo, y nace la fuerza del mal en el universo. +Paradjicamente, fue Dios quien cre el infierno para guardar el mal. +Pero fracaso en mantenerlo ah. +As que este arco de la transformacin csmica del ngel favorito de Dios en el Demonio, para m, establece el contexto para entender a los seres humanos que se pasan de ser gente normal y buena +a agentes del mal. As que el Efecto Lucifer, aunque se centra en lo negativo -- en lo negativo en que se puede convertir la gente, no en lo negativo que ya son -- me lleva a una definicin psicolgica: el mal es el ejercicio del poder. +Y esa es la clave: se trata de poder. +Hacer dao psicolgico a la gente a propsito, herir fsicamente a la gente, destruirla mortalmente, o a sus ideas, y cometer crmenes contra la humanidad. +Si buscas "mal" en Google, una palabra que debera haberse desvanecido, te salen 136 millones de entradas en un tercio de segundo. +Hace unos aos -- estoy seguro de que todos se impresionaron, como yo, con la revelacin de que los soldados americanos abusaron de prisioneros en un lugar extrao en una guerra controvertida: Abu Ghraib en Irak. +Y estos eran hombres y mujeres que estaban sometiendo a los prisioneros a una humillacin increble. +Me impresion, pero no me sorprend, porque haba visto los mismos paralelismos visuales cuando fui encargado de prisin en el Estudio de la Prisin de Stanford. +Inmediatamente el ejrcito de la administracin Bush dijo... qu? +Lo que todos los administradores dicen cuando hay un escndalo. No nos culpen. No es el sistema. Son unas pocas manzanas podridas, +unos pocos soldados malvados. +Mi hiptesis es que normalmente los soldados americanos son buenos. +Tal vez era la cesta la que estaba mala. +Pero cmo voy a -- cmo voy a tratar esa hiptesis? +Me convert en testigo experto para uno de los guardas, el Sargento Chip Frederick, y de ese modo tuve acceso a docenas de informes investigativos. +Tuve acceso a l. Pude estudiarlo, +llevarlo a mi casa, conocerlo, hacer anlisis psicolgicos para ver si era una manzana fresca o podrida. +En tercer lugar, tuve acceso a las 1.000 fotos tomadas por estos soldados. +Estas fotos son de naturaleza violenta o sexual, +y todas las hicieron cmaras de soldados americanos. +Como todo el mundo tiene una cmara digital o un mvil con cmara, sacaron fotos de todo. Ms de 1.000. +Y lo que he hecho es organizarlas en varias categoras. +Pero stas las tom la Polica Militar de EE.UU, los Reservistas. +No son soldados preparados para esta misin en absoluto. +Y todo sucedi en un slo lugar, Piso 1A, durante el turno de noche. +Por qu? El piso 1A era el centro de inteligencia militar, +donde sucedan los interrogatorios. La CIA estaba all. +Interrogadores de la Corporacin Titn, todos all, y como no estn consiguiendo informacin sobre la insurgencia, +van a presionar a estos soldados, a la Polica Militar, para que se pasen de la raya, darles permiso para romper la voluntad del enemigo, prepararlos para interrogatorios, ablandarlos, para quitarse los guantes. Esos son los eufemismos, +y as es como se interpret. +Bajemos a esa mazmorra. +(Obturador de cmara) (Ruido sordo) (Obturador de cmara) (Ruido sordo) Bastante horrible. +Esa es una de las ilustraciones visuales del mal. +Y no se les debera haber pasado que la razn por la que emparej al prisionero con los brazos extendidos con la Oda a la Humanidad de Leonardo da Vinci, es que el prisionero era un enfermo mental. +Se cubra de mierda todos los das, y solan hacerlo rodar sobre suciedad para que no apestara. +Pero los guardas terminaron llamndole Shit Boy (Chico Mierda). +Qu haca en esa crcel en vez de en una institucin psiquitrica? +De cualquier manera, aqu est el antiguo Ministro de Defensa Rumsfeld. +Baja y dice: "quiero saber quin es responsable, +quines son las manzanas podridas". Mala pregunta. +Hay que redefinirla y preguntar: "qu es responsable?" +Porque ese "qu" podra ser el "quin" de dos personas, pero tambin el "qu" de la situacin, y evidentemente ese no es el camino. +As que, cmo entienden los psiclogos tamaas transformaciones del carcter humano, si creen que eran buenos soldados antes de bajar a esa mazmorra? +Hay tres maneras. La principal es la llamada disposicional. +Miramos al interior de la persona, de la manzana podrida. +Esa es la base de todas las ciencias sociales, la base de la religin, de la guerra. +Los psiclogos sociales como yo dicen, "s, las personas son los actores en el escenario, pero tendrs que se consciente de cul es la situacin. +Quines son los personajes? Qu disfraz llevan? +Hay un director de escena?" +Lo que nos interesa son los factores externos que rodean al individuo, la cesta podrida. +Y los cientficos sociales se quedan ah y se pierden lo importante, lo que descubr cuando fui testigo especialista para Abu Ghraib. +El poder est en el sistema. +El sistema crea la situacin que corrompe a los individuos, y el sistema es el trasfondo legal, poltico, econmico y cultural. +Y ah reside el poder de los que hacen cestas podridas. +As que si quieres cambiar a la persona hay que cambiar la situacin. Si quieres cambiar la situacin, +tienes que saber que donde est el poder es en el sistema. +El Efecto Lucifer implica entender las transformaciones del carcter humano con estos tres factores. +Es una interaccin dinmica. +Qu aporta la gente a la situacin? +Qu saca la situacin de ellos? +Y cul es el sistema que crea y mantiene esa situacin? +Mi reciente libro, The Lucifer Effect (El efecto Lucifer) trata de cmo entendemos que la gente buena se vuelva mala. +Y tiene muchos detalles de lo que voy a hablar hoy. +As que "El efecto Lucifer" del Dr. Z, aunque se centra en el mal, es en realidad una celebracin de la infinita capacidad de la mente humana de hacernos compasivos o crueles, comprensivos o indiferentes, creativos o destructivos, y a algunos de nosotros, villanos. +Las buenas noticias que espero contarles al final es que a algunos nos hace hroes. +Esta es una tira cmica maravillosa del New Yorker, que realmente resume mi charla entera: "No soy ni el poli bueno ni el poli malo, Jerome. +Como t, soy una amalgama compleja de cualidades positivas y negativas que surgen o no, dependiendo de las circunstancias." +Hay un estudio sobre el que creen saber algo, pero muy pocas personas han odo la historia. Ustedes han visto la pelcula. +Este es Stanley Milgrom, un chavaln judo del Bronx, que pregunt: "podra suceder el holocausto aqu, ahora?" +La gente dice: "No, eso es la Alemania nazi, eso es Hitler, eso es 1939." +Dijo: "S, supongan que Hitler les preguntara: Electrocutaran a un extrao? "No, de ninguna manera, yo no, soy una buena persona." Dijo: "por qu no les ponemos en una situacin y les damos la oportunidad de ver qu haran?" +As que lo que hizo fue poner a prueba a 1.000 personas normales. +500 de New Haven, Connecticut, 500 de Bridgeport. +El anuncio deca: "Los psiclogos queremos entender la memoria, queremos mejorar la memoria, +porque la memoria es la clave del xito." De acuerdo? +Les daremos cinco dlares -- cuatro dlares por su tiempo. +Y deca: "No queremos universitarios; queremos hombres entre 20 y 50" +-- en estudios posteriores usaron mujeres -- +gente normal: barberos, oficinistas, trabajadores no manuales. +As que bajan, y uno de ustedes ser aprendiz, y otro ser maestro +El aprendiz es un tipo simptico de mediana edad. +Se le ata a un aparato de descargas en otra habitacin. +El aprendiz podra ser de mediana edad o un joven de veinte. +Y la autoridad, el tipo de la bata, le dice a uno de ustedes: "Tu trabajo como maestro es darle a este tipo material para aprender. +Lo hace bien, le recompensas. +Lo hace mal, aprietas un botn de descarga. +El primer botn es 15 voltios. Ni lo siente." +Esa es la clave. Todo mal empieza con 15 voltios. +El paso siguiente son otros 15 voltios. +El problema es que al final son 450 voltios. +Y mientras lo haces el tipo est gritando: Tengo problemas de corazn! Me voy de aqu! +T eres una buena persona. Protestas. +Seor, quin es responsable si le pasa algo? +El experimentador dice, "No se preocupe, yo ser responsable. +Contine, maestro." +Y la pregunta es: quin llegara hasta los 450 voltios? +Aqu han de darse cuenta de que cuando llega a 375 dice: "Peligro: descarga fuerte." +Cuando llega aqu, son "XXX": la pornografa del poder. +As que Milgrom le pregunta a 40 psiquiatras, Qu porcentaje de americanos llegara hasta el final? +Dijeron que slo el 1%. Porque eso es comportamiento sdico, y sabemos, la psiquiatra sabe, que slo el 1% de los americanos son sdicos. +De acuerdo. Aqu estn los datos. No podran estar ms equivocados. +Dos tercios llegan hasta 450 voltios. Eso fue slo un estudio. +Milgram hizo ms de 16. Y miren esto. +En el estudio 16, donde ven a alguien como ustedes llegar al final, 90% llegan al final. En el estudio 5, si ven que la gente se rebela, el 90% se rebela. Y las mujeres? Estudio 13: iguales a los hombres. +Milgrom cuantifica el mal como la disposicin de la gente a obedecer ciegamente a la autoridad, de llegar a los 450 voltios. +Es como una escala de control de la naturaleza humana. +Escala de control en el sentido de que casi a cualquiera se le puede volver obediente a la mayora o a nadie. +Cules son los paralelismos externos? Puesto que toda investigacin es artificial. +Cul es la validez en el mundo real? +912 americanos se suicidaron o fueron asesinados por su familia o sus amigos en la selva de Guyana en 1978, porque obedecieron ciegamente a su pastor. No su cura. Su pastor, el Reverendo Jim Jones. +Los convenci para que se suicidaran todos. +l es el Efecto Lucifer moderno. Un hombre de Dios que se convierte en el ngel de la Muerte. +El estudio de Milgram trata de la autoridad individual para controlar a la gente. +La mayor parte del tiempo estamos en instituciones, as que el Estudio de la Prisin de Stanford estudia el poder de stas para influir en el comportamiento individual. +Curiosamente, Stanley Milgram y yo estuvimos en la misma clase en el instituto James Monroe en el Bronx, en 1954. +Para este estudio, que hice con mis estudiantes de postgrado sobre todo Craig Haney, tambin empezamos con un anuncio. +No tenamos dinero, as que pusimos un anuncio baratito, pero queramos universitarios para un estudio sobre la vida carcelaria. +Hubo 75 voluntarios que hicieron tests de personalidad. +Los entrevistamos. Elegimos a dos docenas: +los ms normales, los ms sanos. +Arbitrariamente les nombramos prisioneros o carceleros. As que el primer da sabamos que tenamos manzanas frescas. +Los voy a poner en una situacin difcil. +Adems, sabemos que no hay diferencia alguna entre los chicos que sern carceleros y los que sern prisioneros. +A los que iban a ser prisioneros les dijimos: "Esperad en casa. El estudio empieza el domingo." +No les dijimos que la polica municipal iba a llevar a cabo arrestos realistas. +Hombre en el video: un coche de polica para enfrente, y un poli viene a la puerta de entrada, llama y dice que me est buscando. +As que all mismo me sacaron de casa, me pusieron las manos en el coche. +Era un coche de polica real, y tambin el polica y los vecinos que estaban en la calle, que no saban que esto era un experimento. +Y haba cmaras y vecinos por todas partes. +Me metieron en el coche, me llevaron por Palo Alto. +Me llevaron a la comisara, +al stano. Me metieron en una celda. +Fui el primero al que recogieron, as que me pusieron en una celda que era como una habitacin con una puerta con barras. +Estaba claro que no era una crcel de verdad. +Me encerraron, vestido con andrajos. +Se estaban tomando el experimento demasiado en serio. +Aqu estn los prisioneros que sern deshumanizados. Se convertirn en nmeros. +Aqu estn los carceleros con los smbolos del poder y el anonimato. +Los carceleros hacen que los prisioneros limpien las tazas del vter con las manos y otras tareas humillantes. +Los desnudan. Los vejan sexualmente. +Empiezan a llevar a cabo actividades degradantes, como hacerles simular sodoma. +Vieron felaciones simuladas en soldados en Abu Ghraib. +Mis carceleros lo hicieron en cinco das. La reaccin al estrs fue tan extrema que chicos normales elegidos porque estaban sanos tuvieron crisis nerviosas en 36 horas. +El estudio termin seis das ms tarde porque estaba fuera de control. +Cinco chicos tuvieron crisis emocionales. +Influye si los guerreros cambian o no su apariencia al luchar? +Influye si son annimos en su tratamiento de las vctimas? +Sabemos que en algunas culturas van a la guerra sin cambiar su aspecto. +En otras se pintan como "El seor de las moscas." +En algunas llevan mscaras. +En muchas, los soldados llevan uniformes annimos. +El antroplogo John Watson encontr 23 culturas que proporcionaron dos datos. +Cambian su apariencia? 15 +Matan, torturan, mutilan? 13 +Si no cambian su apariencia slo uno de ocho mata, tortura o mutila. +La clave es la zona roja. +Si cambian de apariencia 12 13 -- el 90%-- matan, torturan, mutilan. +Ese es el poder del anonimato. +As que, cules son los siete procesos sociales que engrasan la resbaladiza cuesta del mal? +Dar el primer pasito sin pensarlo mucho. +Deshumanizacin de los otros. Desindividualizacin del ser. +Difuminacin de la responsabilidad personal. Obediencia ciega a la autoridad. +Conformidad no crtica a las normas del grupo. +Tolerancia neutral al mal a travs de la pasividad o la indiferencia. +Y pasa cuando ests en una situacin nueva o no familiar. +Tus patrones de respuesta habitual no funcionan. +Tu personalidad y tu moralidad se separan. +"No hay nada ms fcil que denunciar al malo; nada ms difcil que entenderlo, nos dice Dostoievsky." +Entender no es excusar. La psicologa no es "excusologa". +La investigacin social y psicolgica revela cmo gente normal y buena puede transformase sin drogas. +No hace falta. Slo necesitas los procesos psico-sociales. +Paralelismos en el mundo real? Comparen esto y esto. +James Schlesinger -- y voy a tener que terminar con esto -- dice: "Los psiclogos han intentado entender cmo y por qu individuos y grupos que normalmente actan con humanidad a veces pueden actuar de otro modo en ciertas circunstancias." +Ese es el Efecto Lucifer. +Y sigue diciendo, "El famoso estudio de Stanford es una advertencia para toda operacin militar." +Dar poder sin supervisin a la gente es un abuso anunciado. Lo saban y dejaron que sucediera. +Otro informe, uno de investigacin hecho por el General Fay, dice que el sistema es culpable, y en este informe dice que fue el entorno lo que cre Abu Ghraib a partir de fallos de liderazgo que contribuyeron a que sucediera ese abuso, +y el hecho de que las altas esferas lo ignoraran +durante mucho tiempo. +Esos abusos duraron tres meses. Quin vigilaba? La respuesta es nadie, y creo que a propsito. +l dio permiso a los carceleros para hacer esas cosas, y ellos saban que nadie iba a bajar a esa mazmorra. +As que necesitamos un cambio de paradigma en todas esas reas. +El cambio es alejarse del modelo mdico que se centra slo en el individuo +y acercarse a un modelo de salud pblica que reconoce vectores de enfermedad situacionales y sistmicos. +La intimidacin es una enfermedad. El prejuicio y la violencia tambin. +Y desde la Inquisicin, hemos lidiado con problemas a nivel +individual. Y saben qu? No funciona. +Alexander Solzhenitsyn dice que la lnea que separa el bien del mal corta el corazn de todos los seres humanos. +Eso quiere decir que la lnea no est fuera. +Es una decisin que t has de tomar. Es personal. +Querra terminar rpidamente con algo positivo: +el herosmo como antdoto al mal, al promocionarse la imaginacin heroica especialmente en nuestros nios, en nuestro sistema educativo. +Queremos que los nios piensen: "soy un hroe que espera a que llegue el momento adecuado, y entonces actuar heroicamente. +A partir de ahora toda mi vida se enfocara en los hroes y no en el mal con que crec. +Ahora su idea del herosmo es +gente normal que realiza actos heroicos. +Es el contrapunto a "La banalidad del mal" de Hannah Arendt. +Nuestros hroes sociales tradicionales se equivocan porque ellos son la excepcin. +Organizan toda su vida en torno a su herosmo. Por eso sabemos sus nombres. +Y los hroes de nuestros hijos tambin son modelos para ellos, porque tienen talentos sobrenaturales. +Queremos que los nios vean que la mayora de los hroes son gente normal y que el acto heroico es poco frecuente. Este es Joe Darby. +l fue quien par los abusos que vieron porque cuando vio esas imgenes se las entreg a un oficial de investigacin con ms experiencia. +Era un soldado raso y lo par. Fue un hroe? No. +Tuvieron que esconderlo, porque queran matarlo, y a su madre y a su mujer. +Pasaron tres aos escondidos. +Esta es la mujer que puso fin al Estudio de la Prisin de Stanford. +Cuando dije que se nos haba ido de las manos, era el encargado de la prisin. +No saba que estaba fuera de control. Me era totalmente indiferente. +Ella baj, vio esa locura y dijo: Lo que les ests haciendo a estos chicos es terrible. +No son ni prisioneros ni carceleros, son chicos, y t eres responsable." +Termin el estudio al da siguiente. +La buena noticia es que me cas con ella el ao despus. +Obviamente, entr en razn. +As que las situaciones pueden -- +pero la cuestin es que la misma situacin que puede encender una imaginacin hostil en algunos de nosotros, que nos hace actuar mal, puede inspirar una imaginacin heroica en otros. Es la misma situacin. +Y ests en un lado o en el otro. +La mayora de la gente peca de pasividad, porque tu madre te dijo: "no te metas, t a lo tuyo." +Y tienes que decir: "mam, la humanidad es lo mo." +As que la psicologa del herosmo es --terminamos en un minuto-- cmo animar a los nios en cursos nuevos de hroes, en eso estoy trabajando con Matt Langdon --tiene un taller de hroes-- a que desarrollen esta imaginacin heroica, esta autodefinicin, Soy un hroe a la espera, y ensearles destrezas. +Para ser un hroe tienes que aprender a salirte de la norma porque siempre vas a ir contra la conformidad del grupo. +Los hroes son gente normal cuyas acciones sociales son extraordinarias, que actan. +Las claves del herosmo son: +A: Tienes que actuar cuando otros estn pasivos. +B: Tienes que actuar para la sociedad, no para ti. +Quiero terminar con una historia, que algunos de ustedes conocen, sobre Wesley Autrey, hroe del metro de Nueva York. +Trabajador de la construccin afroamericano de 50 aos. Est parado en un metro de Nueva York; +un blanco se cae a las vas. +El metro se acerca. Hay 75 personas. +Qu hacen? Se quedan inmviles. +l tiene razones para no involucrarse. +Es negro, el otro es blanco, y tiene dos nios pequeos. +Es vez de excusarse, le da los nios a un extrao, salta a las vas, coloca al otro entre las vas, se tumba sobre l, el metro pasa por encima. +Wesley y el hombre: 20 pulgadas y media de alto. +El tren pasa a 21 pulgadas de alto. +Media pulgada le habra cortado la cabeza. +Y dijo: "hice lo que cualquiera podra hacer," saltar a las vas no es para tanto. +El imperativo moral es "hice lo que todos deberan hacer." +As que un da, estarn en una nueva situacin. +Tomen el camino uno y sern agentes del mal. +Mal en el sentido de que sern Arthur Anderson. +Mentirn, permitirn abusos. +Camino dos: pecarn del mal de la pasividad. +Camino tres: sern hroes. +La cuestin es: estamos dispuestos a tomar el camino de celebrar a los hroes cotidianos que esperan a que llegue la situacin adecuada, para hacer que la imaginacin heroica acte? +Porque puede que slo pase una vez en tu vida, y cuando llegue siempre sabrs, podra haber sido un hroe y lo dej pasar. +Lo importante es pensarlo y hacerlo. +Quiero darles las gracias. Gracias. Gracias. +Opongmonos al poder de los sistemas del mal en casa y fuera, y centrmonos en lo positivo. +Aboguemos por el respeto a la dignidad personal, por la justicia y la paz, algo que tristemente nuestro gobierno no ha hecho. +Muchas gracias. +Saben? La cultura naci de la imaginacin y la imaginacin -- la imaginacin como la conocemos fue adquirida cuando nuestra especie descendi de nuestro progenitor Homo erectus y, dotada de conciencia, comenz un viaje que la llevara a cada rincn del mundo habitable. +Durante un tiempo, compartimos el escenario con nuestros primos lejanos, los Neanderthal, quienes claramente tenan una chispa de conciencia, pero bien sea por el incremento en el tamao del cerebro o el desarrollo del lenguaje o algn otro catalizador evolutivo, rpidamente dejamos a los Neanderthal luchando por sobrevivir. +Para cuando desapareci el ltimo Neanderthal en Europa hace 27,000 aos, nuestros ancestros ya haban estado, por 5,000 aos, gateando en el vientre de la tierra. Y a la parpadeante luz de velas de grasa animal, lograron crear el maravilloso arte del Paleoltico Superior. +Pas dos meses en las cuevas del Suroeste de Francia con el poeta Clayton Eshleman, quien escribi un hermoso libro titulado "Juniper Fuse" (fusin del junpero) +Y pudes ver ese arte y puedes, por supuesto, ver la compleja organizacin social de la gente que lo cre. +Pero an ms importante, not que hablaba de una necesidad ms profunda, algo mucho ms sofisticado que la cacera mgica. +Y Clayton lo expres de esta manera: +Dijo, "Saben, claramente, en algn punto, todos ramos de naturaleza animal, y en algn punto, dejamos de serlo" +Y vea el proto-chamanismo como una especie de intento original de, mediante rituales, restablecer una conexin que fue irrevocablemente perdida. +As que vea este arte no como magia para la cacera, sino como postales de nostalgia. +Y apreciado bajo esa luz, adopta una resonancia completamente distinta. +Lo ms asombroso del arte del Paleoltico Superior es que, como expresin esttica, ha durado casi 20,000 aos. +Si estas son postales de nostalgia, la nuestra es una despedida realmente larga. +Y tambin fue el comienzo de nuestro descontento, pues si quisiramos destilar toda nuestra experiencia desde el Paleoltico, se reducira a dos palabras: Cmo y Por qu. +Y sobre estos fragmentos de conciencia hemos forjado culturas. +Ahora, todos los pueblos comparten los mismos y crudos imperativos adaptativos. +Todos tenemos hijos. +Todos tenemos que lidiar con el misterio de la muerte, el mundo que espera tras la muerte, los ancianos que se deslizan hacia sus aos de vejez. +Todo esto es parte de nuestra experiencia comn, y no debera sorprendernos, porque despus de todo, los bilogos comprobaron que es cierto -- algo que los filsofos siempre soaban fuera cierto: +el hecho de que todos somos hermanos y hermanas. +Todos fuimos cortados de la misma tela gentica. +Toda la humanidad, probablemente, desciende de mil personas que dejaron frica hace apenas 70,000 aos. +Pero el corolario a eso es que si todos somos hermanos y hermanas y compartimos el mismo material gentico, toda poblacin humana tiene la misma genialidad humana en crudo, la misma agudeza intelectual. +De modo que, si invertimos esa genialidad en desarrollar maravillas tecnolgicas -- lo que ha sido el gran logro de Occidente -- o por contraste, en desenredar las complejas tramas de memoria inherentes a un mito, es una simple cuestin de eleccin y orientacin cultural. +No hay una progresin en los asuntos de la experiencia humana. +No hay una trayectoria de progreso. Ni una pirmide que convenientemente ubica a la Inglaterra Victoriana en el pice y desciende por el costado hacia los llamados "primitivos" del mundo. +Todos los pueblos son simplemente opciones culturales, diferentes visiones de la vida misma. +A que me refiero con diferentes visones de la vida que crean posibilidades de existencia completamente diferentes? +Bueno, vayamos por un momento a la mayor esfera cultural jamas creada por la imaginacin -- la de Polynesia. +10,000 kilmetros cuadrados, decenas de miles de islas dispersas como joyas en el mar del sur. +Hace poco navegu en el Hokulea, bautizado como la estrella sagrada de Hawaii, alrededor del Pacfico Sur para grabar un documental sobre los navegantes. +Estos hombres y mujeres que, incluso hoy da, pueden nombrar 250 estrellas en el cielo nocturno. +En verdad, si tomramos toda la genialidad que nos permiti poner un hombre en la luna y la aplicramos al entendimiento del ocano, obtendramos la Polinesia. +Y si nos vamos del reino marino al reino del espritu de la imaginacin llegaramos al reino del Budismo Tibetano. +Hace poco hice un filme llamado "The Buddhist Science of the Mind" (La Ciencia Budista de la Mente) +Por qu us esa palabra, "ciencia"? +Qu es la ciencia sino la bsqueda emprica de la verdad? +Qu es el Budismo, sino 2,500 aos de observacin emprica de la naturaleza de la mente? +Viaj por Nepal durante un mes con nuestro buen amigo, Matthieu Ricard, y recordarn que Matthieu sabiamente nos dijo una vez aqu en TED, "La ciencia Occidental es respuesta mayor a las necesidades pequeas." +Nosotros pasamos toda la vida intentando vivir 100 aos sin perder los dientes. +Los Budistas pasan toda su vida a intentando entender la naturaleza de la existencia. +Nuestras pancartas celebran nios desnudos en ropa interior. +Sus pancartas son manuales, oraciones por el bienestar de todas las criaturas sensibles. +Y con la bendicin de Trulshik Rinpoche, comenzamos nuestro peregrinaje a un curioso destino, acompaados de un gran doctor. +El destino era una habitacin sencilla en un convento donde una mujer haba ido de retiro vitalicio 55 aos atrs. +En el camino recibimos darshan (oracines budistas) de Rinpoche y l se sent con nosotros y nos habl de las cuatro nobles verdades, la esencia del camino Budista. +Toda vida es sufrimiento. Eso no significa que toda vida es negativa. +Significa que suceden cosas. +La causa del sufrimiento es la ignorancia. +Con esto, el Buda no se refiere a la estupidez, sino a aferrarse a la ilusin de que la vida es esttica y predecible. +La tercera noble verdad dice que la ignorancia puede ser superada. +Y la cuarta y mas importante, por supuesto, fue la delineacin de una prctica contemplativa que no slo tuviera la posibilidad de transformar el corazn humano, sino que tuviera 2,500 aos de evidencia emprica de que dicha transformacin es una certeza. +As al abrirse la puerta frente a una mujer que no sali de esa habitacin en 55 aos, no vimos una mujer loca +Vimos una mujer que era ms serena que un manantial de agua en la montaa. +Y por supuesto, esto es los monjes Tibetanos dijeron: +dijeron, sabes? hubo un punto en el no creamos que realmente llegaran a la luna, pero lo hicieron. +Puede que ustedes no crean que lograramos la iluminacin en una sola vida, pero lo hicimos. +Y si vamos del reino espiritual al reino de lo fsico, a la sagrada geografa del Per, siempre me he interesado en las relaciones de los pueblos indgenas que literalmente creen que la tierra est viva, y responde a sus aspiraciones, a todas sus necesidades. +Y por supuesto, la poblacin humana tiene sus propias obligaciones recprocas. +Pas 30 aos viviendo entre el pueblo Chincherro y haba escuchado de un evento en el que siempre quise participar. +Una vez al ao, el nio ms rpido de cada casero tiene el honor de convertirse en mujer. +Durante un da usa la ropa de su hermana y se convierte en un travesti, llamado "waylaka". Y durante ese da gua a todos los hombres sanos en una carrera, pero no es tu carrera ordinaria. +Empieza a 3,500 metros. +Corre descendiendo hasta la base de la montaa sagrada, Antkilka*. +Luego corres ascendiendo hasta 4,500 metros de altura, baja 1,000 metros, +y vuelve a subir en el curso de 24 horas. +Y por supuesto, el Waylakamaspin*, la trayectoria de la ruta, es marcada con montculos de tierra sagrados donde se ofrece coca a la tierra, sorbos de alcohol al viento, el vrtice de lo femenino es llevado a la cima de la montaa. +La metfora es clara: entras en la montaa como un individuo, pero mediante agotamiento, mediante sacrificio, emerges como una comunidad que una vez ms ha reafirmado su sentido de pertenencia en el planeta. +Y a los 48, yo era el primer forastero en participar en esto, y el nico en terminarlo. +Slo lo logr masticando ms hojas de coca en un da que cualquier persona en los 4,000 aos de historia de la planta. +Pero estos rituales especficos se vuelven pan-Andinos, y estos fantsticos festivales, como el de Qoyllur Rit'i, que ocurre cuando las estrellas Plyades reaparecen en el cielo inviernal. +Es como un tipo de Woodstock andino: 60,000 indgenas en peregrinacin al lado de un camino de tierra que conduce al valle sagrado, llamado Sinakara, que es dominado por las tres lenguas del gran glaciar. +La metfora es tan clara. Se llevan las cruces de la comunidad, en esta maravillosa fusin de ideas Cristianas y pre-Colombinas. +Se pone la cruz sobre el hielo a la sombra de Ausangate, el ms sagrado de los Apus, o montaas sagradas de los Inca. +Y luego se hacen las danzas rituales que dan poder a las cruces. +Ahora, estas ideas y estos eventos nos permiten deconstruir lugares icnicos que muchos de ustedes conocen, como Machu Picchu. +Machu Picchu nunca fue una ciudad perdida. +Todo lo contrario, estaba completamente vinculada con los 14,000 kilmetros de caminos reales que los Incas construyeron en menos de un siglo. +Pero ms importante, estaba vinculada con las nociones Andinas de geografa sagrada. +El Intiwatana, el punto de encuentro del sol, es realmente un obelisco que constantemente refleja la luz que cae sobre el sagrado Apu de Machu Picchu, que es la montaa azucarada llamada Huayna Picchu. +Si vienes del sur de Intiwatana, encontrars un altar +Al escalar Huayna Picchu, encontrarn otro altar. +Si miras en un eje norte-sur notarn para su asombro que divide en dos la piedra Intiwatana, apunta al horizonte, golpea el corazn de Salcantay, la segunda entre las montaas ms importantes del imperio Inca, +y despus de Salcantay, por supuesto, cuando la cruz del sur llega a su punto ms al sur en el cielo, directamente en esa misma direccin, la Va Lctea queda justo de frente. +Pero lo que abraza a Machu Picchu desde abajo: +el ro sagrado, Urubamba o el Vilcanota, que es en si mismo el equivalente terreste de la Va Lctea, tambin es el trayecto que Viracocha camin al principo del tiempo, cuando cre el universo. +Y a dnde apunta el ro? +Justo a las colinas de Koiariti*. +As que 500 aos despus de Coln, estos ancestrales ritmos del paisaje an son ejecutados ritualmente. +Cuando estuve en el primer TED, mostr esta fotografa -- dos hombres de los Hermanos Mayores, los descendientes, sobrevivientes de El Dorado. +Ellos, por supuesto, son los descendientes de la antigua civilizacin Tairona. +Quienes estuvieron aqu recordarn que mencion que ellos siguen siendo gobernados por una hermandad sacerdotal ritual. pero el entrenamiento para ese sacerdocio es extraordinario. +Son tomados de sus familias, confinados en un sombro mundo de oscuridad durante 18 aos -- dos periodos de nueve aos deliberadamente escogidos para evocar los nueve meses que permanecieron en la matriz de sus madres. +Durante todo ese tiempo, el mundo existe slo como una abstraccin mientras aprenden los valores de su sociedad. +Valores que mantienen el supuesto que sus oraciones, y slo sus oraciones, mantienen el balance csimo. +Ahora, la medida de una sociedad no es slo lo que hace, sino la calidad de sus aspiraciones. +Y siempre quise volver a esas montaas para ver si esto podria ser cierto, en efecto como fue reportado por el gran antroplogo, Reichel-Dolmatoff. +Hace literalmente dos semanas, regres de haber pasado seis semanas con los Hermanos Mayores en lo que fue claramente el ms extraordianrio viaje de mi vida. +Esta es gente que realmente vive y respira el reino de lo sagrado, una religiosidad barroca simplemente magnfica. +Consumen ms hojas de coca que cualquier poblacin humana, un cuarto de kilo (media libra) , por hombre, por da. +El recipiente de calabaza que ven ac es -- todo en sus vidas es simblico. +Su metfora central es un telar. +Dicen, sobre este telar, tejo mi vida. +Se refieren a los movimientos mientras explotan los nichos ecolgicos de gradientel como "trenzas". +Cuando rezan por los muertos, hacen estos gestos con sus manos, para impulsar sus pensamientos a los cielos. +Pueden ver la acumulacin de calcio en la cabeza del recipiente Poporo. +El recipiente es el aspecto femenino, la vara el masculino. +Se pone la vara en el polvo para tomar las cenizas sagradas -- bueno, no son cenizas, es piedra caliza quemada -- que estimula a que la hoja de coca cambie el pH de la boca para facilitar la absorcin de clorhidrato de cocana. +Pero si se rompe el recipiente, no se puede simplemente botarlo, porque cada golpe de la vara que ha acumulado ese calcio es la medida de la vida de un hombre, hay un pensamiento detrs de cada golpe. +Los campos son plantados de forma extraordinaria, un lado del campo es plantado as por las mujeres; +el otro lado es plantado as por los hombres, metafricamente, al voltearlo sobre un lado, se obtiene un tejido. +Y son los descendientes de la antigua civilizacin Tairona, los mejores orfebres de Sudamrica, quienes al despertar de la conquista escaparon a este aislado macizo volcnico que se eleva 6,000 metros sobre los llanos costeros del Caribe. +Hay cuatro sociedades: los Kogi, los Wiwa, los Kankuamo y los Arhuacos. +Viaj con los Arhuacos, y lo maravilloso de esta historia es que este hombre, Danilo Viathanya* -- si pudiramos retroceder un segudo... +Cuando v a Danilo por primera vez, en la embajada Colombiana en Washington, no puede evitar decirle, Saben? "eres muy parecido a un viejo amigo mo." +Bueno, resulta que l era hijo de mi amigo, Aroberto*, de 1974, quien fue asesinado por las FARC, +y le dije: "Danilo, no creo que lo recuerdes, pero cuando eras un nio, te llevaba en mi espalda de arriba a abajo en las montaas." +Y por eso, Danilo nos invit al mismo corazn del mundo, un lugar donde a ningn periodista se le haba permitido entrar. +No slo a la falda de las montaas, sino a los propios picos helados que son el destino de los peregrinos. +Y este hombre sentado de piernas cruzadas es Yuhenio*, ya adulto; un hombre a quien conozco desde 1974. +Y l es uno de esos aprendices. +No, no es cierto que los mantengan en la oscuridad durante 18 aos, pero se mantienen confinados al crculo ceremonial de los hombres durante 18 aos. +Este nio no saldr del terreno sagrado que rodea la choza de los hombres en todo ese tiempo, hasta que comience su viaje de iniciacin. +Durante todo este tiempo, el mundo existe slo como una abstraccin mientras aprende los valores de la sociedad, incluyendo la nocin de que slo sus oraciones mantienen el equilibrio csmico +Ante de comenzar nuestro viaje, tenamos que ser purificados en el portal de la tierra. +Es extraordinario ser llevado por un sacerdote -- +podrn ver que el sacerdote no lleva zapatos porque no debe haber nada entre los sagrados pies del Mamo y la tierra. +Este es el lugar donde la gran madre envi al mundo el eje que elev las montaas y cre la tierra que llaman el corazn del mundo. +Subimos hasta el Potomo, y mientras bordebamos las colinas, notamos que los hombres estaban interpretando cada salto del paisaje en trminos de su intensa religiosidad. +Y claro, cuando llegamos a nuestro destino, un lugar llamado Mananakana*, recibimos una sorpresa, las FARC nos esperaban para secuestrarnos. +As que terminamos por rodear unas cabaas, ocultarnos hasta la oscuridad. +Y luego, abandonando todo nuestro equipo, nos vimos forzados a cabalgar en medio de la noche, en una escena bastante dramtica; +como de pelcula de vaqueros de John Ford. +Al amanecer nos encontramos con una patrulla de las FARC, as que fue bastante tensionante. +Ser una pelcula interesante. Pero lo que resulta fascinante es que en el minuto en que hubo una sensacin de peligro, los Mamos hicieron un crculo de bendicin. +Y, por supuesto, esta es una fotografa literalmente tomada mientras nos escondamos, mientras ellos bendicen la ruta que nos sacara de las montaas. +Fue posible, porque habamos capacitado a la gente en cinematografa, continuar con nuestro trabajo y enviar a nuestros cineastas Wiwa y Arhuaco a los lagos sagrados finales para conseguir las ltimas tomas del filme, y seguimos al resto de los Arhuacos hasta el mar, tomando los elementos desde las colinas al mar. +Ac pueden ver cmo su paisaje sagrado ha sido cubierto de hoteles, burdeles y casinos; sin embargo, ellos siguen orando. +Y es fascinante pensar que estando tan cerca de Miami, a dos horas de Miami, hay toda una civilizacin de personas que oran da a da por nuestro bienestar. +Se llaman a si mismos los Hermanos Mayores. +A quienes arruinamos el mundo nos desprecian llamandonos los hermanos menores. Ellos no logran entender por qu le hacemos lo que le hacemos a la tierra. +Ahora, deslicmonos al otro lado del mundo. Estuve en el alto rtico para contar una historia sobre el calentamiento global, inspirado en parte por el maravilloso libro del Ex Vicepresidente (Al Gore). +Lo que me pareci extraordinario fue que al volver a estar con los Inuit -- un pueblo que no le teme al fro sino que lo aprovecha. +Un pueblo que con su imaginacin encuentra un camino para obtener vida del mismo hielo. +Un pueblo para quienes la sangre en la nieve no es una seal de muerte sino una afirmacin de vida. +Y sin embargo, al visitar esas comunidades del norte, descubrimos para nuestro desconcierto que aunque el hielo marino sola llegar en Septiembre y quedarse hasta Julio, a lugares como Kanak, al norte de Groenlandia, ahora literalmente llega en Noviembre y se queda hasta Marzo. +De modo que el ao se ha partido por la mitad. +Ahora, quiero enfatizar que ninguno de los pueblos de los que he hablado brevemente es un mundo en desaparicin. +Estos no son pueblos agonizantes. +Por el contrario, saben, si tienen el corazn para sentir y los ojos para ver, descubrirn que el mundo no es plano. +El mundo sigue siendo un rico tapiz. +Sigue siento una rica topografa del espritu. +Estas incontables voces de humanidad no son intentos fallidos de ser nuevos, ni intentos fallidos de ser modernos. +Son facetas nicas de la imaginacin humana. +Son respuestas nicas a una pregunta fundamental: Qu significa ser humano y estar vivo? +Y al preguntarse esto, responden con 6,000 voces diferentes. +Y, colectivamente, estas voces se convierten en el repertorio humano para lidiar con los cambios que enfrentaremos en el milenio que despierta. +La sociedad industrial tiene apenas 300 aos de antigedad. +Esta superficial historia no debera sugerirle a nadie que tenemos todas las respuestas a las preguntas que enfretaremos en futuros milenios. +Las incontables voces de humanidad no son intentos fallidos de ser nosotros mismos. +Son respuestas nicas a la pregunta fundamental: Que significa ser humano y estar vivo? +Y en realidad existe un incendio sobre la tierra que no arrasa slo con plantas y animales, sino con el legado de genialidad humana. +Ahora mismo, mientras estamos en este recinto, de los 6,000 idiomas que se hablaban cuando nacimos, slo la mitad estn siendo enseados a los nios. +Vivimos en una poca en la que permitimos que virtualmente la mitad del legado intelectual, social y espiritual de la humanidad est desapareciendo sutilmente. +Esto no tiene que pasar. +Estos pueblos no son intentos fallidos de ser modernos -- curiosos, coloridos y destinados a desaparecer casi por regla natural. +En todos los casos, estos son pueblos vivos y dinmicos son empujados hacia la desaparicin por fuerzas identificables. +Esa es en realidad una observacin optimista, porque sugiere que si los seres humanos somos los agentes de la destruccin cultural, tambin podemos, y tenemos que ser, facilitadores de la supervivencia cultural. +Muchas Gracias. +Cmo hacen los grupos para obtener resultados? +Cmo se organiza un grupo de individuos de modo que el resultado de su trabajo sea algo coherente y de valor duradero, en vez de algo simplemente catico? +En terminologa econmica, este problema se denomina "costos de coordincin". +El "costo de coordinacin" incluye el gasto financiero e institucional para obtener un resultado grupal. +Y hemos tenido una respuesta clsica a los costos de coordinacin. Esto es -- cuando se necesita coordinar el trabajo de un grupo, se crea una institucin, no? Se juntan recursos. +Se funda algo. Puede ser privado o pblico. +Puede ser con o sin fines de lucro, puede ser grande o pequeo. +Pero, se juntan estos recursos. +Se funda una institucin, y se se utiliza para coordinar las actividades del grupo. +De eso es lo que quiero hablarles hoy. +Voy a ilustrar esto con algunos ejemplos bastante concretos, pero apuntando siempre a contextos ms amplios. +Voy a empezar intentando responder una pregunta que s que cada uno de ustedes se ha hecho alguna vez, y para la cual Internet parece haber nacido para responder, y es esta: Dnde puedo conseguir la foto de una sirena en patines? +En la ciudad de Nueva York, el primer sbado de cada verano, en Coney Island, nuestro encantador aunque algo deteriorado parque de diversiones, alberga el Desfile de Sirenas. Es un desfile de aficionados. Desde todos los rincones de la ciudad llega gente vestida con disfraces. +Algunos llegan menos vestidos. +Jvenes y viejos, bailan en las calles. +Son personajes pintorescos, todo el mundo se divierte. +Pero, lo que quiero destacar no es el Desfile de Sirenas en s, por ms encantador que sea, sino, ms bien, estas fotos. +No las tom yo. Cmo las obtuve? +La respuesta es: Las obtuve de Flickr. +Flickr es un servicio para compartir fotos. que permite a la gente que toma fotos, 'subirlas', compartirlas va Web, etc. +Reciemtemente Flickr ha agregado una funcin llamada "etiquetado". +El etiquetado fu introducido por del.icio.us y Joshua Schachter. +"del.icio.us" es un servicio pblico de 'marcado' de pginas web. +El "etiquetado" es una respuesta cooperativa a la "clasificacin". +Si yo hubiera tenido que dar esta charla el ao pasado, no habra podido hacer lo que acado de hacer, porque no hubiese podido encontrar aquellas fotos. +Pero, en vez de decir: "necesitamos contratar a bibliotecarios profesionales para que organicen las fotos publicadas", Flickr simplemente entreg a los usuarios la herramienta para describir las fotos. +De modo que yo pude encontrar las fotos que haban sido etiquetadas "Desfile de Sirenas". Haba 3.100 fotos, tomadas por 118 fotgrafos, todas clasificadas bajo este nombre difano, y mostradas en orden cronolgico inverso. +Pude entonces extraerlas para mostrrselas a Uds. en esta presentacin. +Ahora bien, qu problema complejo se est resolviendo ac? +Desde un punto de vista estrictamente abstracto, es un problema de coordinacin.Correcto? +Existe un gran nmero de personas en Internet; una fraccin mnima de ellas posee fotos del Desfile de Sirenas. +Cmo juntamos a toda esa gente para que aporte a esa labor? +La respuesta clsica es formar una institucin, verdad? +Arrastrar a toda esa gente hacia una estructura predefinida que posea metas explcitas. +Y, por cierto, deseo llamar su atencin hacia algunos de los efectos secundarios de seguir la va institucional. +De partida, al crear una institucin, uno se enfrenta a un problema de gerencia, correcto? +No basta contratar empleados. Se debe contratar otros empleados, para que dirijan a los primeros y los obliguen a cumplir con las metas institucionales, etc. +Segundo, hay que forjar una estructura, +cierto? Tiene que haber una estructura econmica. +Debe haber una estructura legal. +Tiene que haber una estructura fsica. +Y todo eso crea costos adicionales. +Tercero, la creacin de una institucin es intrnsecamente excluyente. +Notarn que no contamos con todos los que tengan fotos. +No se puede contratar a todo el mundo en una compaa, no? +No se puede reclutar a todos en una organizacin guberamental; +hay que excluir a algunas personas. +Y, cuarto: como resultado de tal exclusin terminamos con una clase profesional. Noten el cambio. +Hemos ido de "gente con fotos" a "fotgrafos". +Hemos creado una clase profesional de fotgrafos cuya meta es salir a fotografiar el "Desfile de Sirenas", o lo que sea que hayan sido enviados a fotografiar. +Cuando la cooperacin forma parte de la estructura, y eso es lo que Flickr ha hecho, se puede dejar a la gente all donde est, y se puede llevar el problema a los individios, en vez de trasladar a los individuos al problema. +Se ha resuelto la coordinacin en el grupo, y al hacerlo se obtiene el mismo resultado, sin las dificultades institucionales. +Se pierde el imperativo institucional. +Cuando es un esfuerzo voluntario perdemos el derecho a moldear el trabajo de la gente, pero tambin nos deshacemos del costo institucional, y eso nos da mayor flexibilidad. +Lo que Flickr hace es reemplazar Planificacin, con Coordinacin. +Este es un aspecto general comn a estos sistemas cooperativos. +As es. Puede que Ud. haya pasado por esto: en el momento en que compr su primer telfono celular, usted dej de hacer planes. +Bastaba decir: "Te llamo cuando llegue" +"Llmame al salir del trabajo", verdad? +Eso es un reemplazo completo de la planificacin por coordinacin. +Podemos ahora hacer este tipo de cosas con grupos. +He aqu otro ejemplo, un tanto ms lgubre. +Estas son fotos en Flickr, etiquetadas "Irak". +Y todo aquello que era difcil en el "costo de coordinacin", en el caso del Desfile de Sirenas, es an ms complejo ac. +Hay ms fotos. Hay ms fotgrafos. +Se han tomado en un rea geogrfica ms amplia. +Las fotos corresponden a un perodo ms largo. +Y lo peor de todo: Ese nmero, ah abajo, ms o menos diez fotos por fotgrafo, es una falsedad. +Es matemticamente verdadero, pero no describe realmente nada importante porque, en estos sistemas, el promedio no es lo que realmente importa. +Lo que importa es esto: +Este es un grfico de fotografas etiquetadas "Irak" tomadas por 529 fotgrafos que aportaron 5.445 fotos. +Est ranqueado por el nmero de fotos tomadas por fotgrafo. +Pueden ver, ac, hacia el final, nuestro fotgrafo ms prolfico ha tomado alrededor de 350 fotos, y pueden ver que hay unas pocas personas que hayan tomado cientos de fotos. +Luego, hay docenas de personas que han tomados docenas de fotos. +Y para el momento que llegamos por ac, obtenemos diez o menos fotos. Y tenemos esta cola larga y plana. +Y para el momento que llegamos al medio, tenemos a cientos de personas que han contribudo solamente con una foto cada una. +Esto se denomina "Ley de distribucin de potencia" +Aparece con frecuencia en sistemas sociales irrestrictos. donde a la gente se le permite contribuir tanto o tan poco como quiera, y esto es lo que se obtiene, cierto? +La matemtica detrs de la "Ley de distribucin de potencia" dice que la posicin N representa cerca de 1/N de lo que se est midiendo, con respecto a la persona en la primera posicin. +De modo que esperaramos que el dcimo fotgrafo ms prolfico haya contribudo con cerca de una dcima parte de las fotos. Y el centcimo fotografo ms prolfico haya contribudo slo con una centcima parte de las fotos aportadas por el fotgrafo ms prolfico. +La cabeza de la curva puede ser ms aguda o ms plana, +pero la matemtica bsica explica tanto la pendiente empinada, como la cola larga y chata. +Y curiosamente, en estos casos, a medida que los sistemas crecen, estos no convergen, sino que divergen an ms. +En sistemas mayores, la cabeza se hace ms grande, y la cola se hace ms larga; es decir, aumenta el desequilibrio. +Se puede ver que la curva est obviamente cargada a la izquierda. As de cargada: Si tomamos el 10% de los fotgrafos que contribuyeron ms con el sistema, ellos representan 3/4 de las fotos tomadas -- tan slo el 10% superior de los fotgrafos ms prolficos. +Si bajamos al 5%, tenemos que an representa 60% de las fotos. +Si bajamos al 1%, y exclumos el 99% del esfuerzo grupal, tenemos an una representacin de casi 1/4 de las fotos. +Y debido a esta carga hacia la izquierda, el promedio est realmente ac, muy hacia la izquierda. +Y esto suena extrao, pero lo que ocurre es que el 80% de los contribuyentes ha aportado una cantidad que est debajo del promedio. +Eso nos suena extrao, porque esperaramos que el promedio y la mitad fueran aproximadamente iguales, pero no lo son, en absoluto. +Esta es la matemtica subyacente a la regla 80/20. +Cuando oigan a alguien hablar de la regla 80/20, esto es lo que est pasando. +20% de la mercanca representa el 80% de los ingresos, 20% de los usuarios consume el 80% de los recursos -- esta es la figura de la cual la gente habla cuando esto ocurre. +Las instituciones slo poseen dos instrumentos: zanahorias y palos. +Y el 80% es una zona libre de Zanahorias y Palos. +Los costos de administrar una institucin implican que no es posible aprovechar el trabajo de ese 80% de personas en el marco institucional. +El modelo institucional siempre empuja hacia la izquierda de esta curva, tratanado a esta gente como empleados. +La respuesta institucional es: Podemos obtener el 75% del valor, con tan slo 10% de contratacin, grandioso! Har eso! +El modelo de infraestructura cooperativa dice: Por qu querras renunciar a 1/4 del valor? +Si su sistema est diseado para renunciar a 1/4 del valor, redisee el sistema! +No incurra en el costo que le impide aprovechar las contribuciones de esta gente. +Construya un sistema donde cualquier pesona pueda aportar en cualquier medida. +Por lo tanto, bajo el enfoque colaborativo, la pregunta no es: qu tan buenos empleados son esta gente? sino, ms bien, "cun valiosa es su contribucin?" +Tenemos por este lado a Psycho Milt; un usuario Flickr, quien ha contribudo con slo una foto titulada "Irak" +Y aqu est la foto. Etiquetada: "Mal da en el trabajo". +De modo que la pregunta es: Quieres esa foto? S o No ? +La pregunta no es si Psycho Milt es un buen empleado. +Y la tensin ac es entre la Institucin, como facilitadora y la Instutucin como obstculo. +Cuando se lidia con el margen izquierdo de una de estas distribuciones; cuando se lidia con la gente que ha invertido una gran cantidad de tiempo generando gran cantidad del material que interesa... ... Ese es un mundo de instituciones en un rol facilitador! +Se puede contratar a toda esa gente como empleados, se puede coordinar su trabajo, y se puede obtener algn resultado. +Pero cuando se est ac abajo, donde los Psycho Milts del mundo, estn agregando una foto a la vez, eso es institucin como obstculo. +A las instituciones les desagrada ser calificadas de "obstculo". +Una de las primeras cosas que ocurre cuando se intitucionaliza un problema es que la meta principal de la institucin, se reenfoca, de lo que era originalmente, hacia asegurar su propia supervivencia. +Y la meta verdadera de la institucin se pierde. +De modo que cuando las intituciones son calificadas como obstculos, y existen otras formas de coordinar su valor, estas pasan por algo un tanto similar a los estadios de Kubler-Ross -- -- la reaccin al ser informado de que se posee una enfermedad fatal: negacin, rabia, ruego, resignacin. +La mayor parte de los sistemas cooperativos que he visto son demasiado nuevos para haber llegado a la fase de resignacin. +Muchas, muchas instituciones estn an en "negacin", pero hemos visto recientemente tanto rabia como ruego. +Existe un maravilloso ejemplo en marcha, actualmente. +En Francia, una compaa de buses est demandando a gente que organiza un "carpool". Porque el hecho de que se hayan organizado, para crear valor cooperativo, los est privando de ingresos. +Pueden seguir esta historia en "The Guardian", +realmente es muy interesante. +La pregunta ms importante es: Qu hacer con el valor de ac abajo? +Cmo se aprovecha eso? +Y las intituciones, como ya he dicho, son incapces de aprovechar eso. +Steve Ballmer, el actual CEO de Microsoft, criticaba Linux unos aos atrs, y deca: "Oh, este asunto de miles de programadores contribuyendo con Linux, esto es un mito". +Hemos examinado quin contibuye con Linux, y la mayor parte de los parches han sido producidos por programadores que han hecho tan slo una cosa. +Se puede "escuchar" esta ditribucin en esa queja. +Y se puede ver por qu, desde el punto de vista de Ballmer, esa es una mala idea. +Contratamos a este programador, se instal, se bebi nuestras Coca-Colas jug "Foosball" durante 3 aos, y tuvo UNA idea. +Mala contratacin. Cierto? +La pregunta "Psycho Milt" sera: fu una idea buena? +Qu tal si fu un parche de seguridad? +Qu tal si fu un parche de seguridad que impide aprovecharse de un "desbordamiento de bfer", de los cuales Windows tiene varios? +Deseas ese parche, verdad ? +EL hecho de que un programador solitario pueda -- sin tener que pasar a una relacin profesional con una intitucin -- mejorar Linux, una vez y no ser visto nunca ms, debe aterrar a Ballmer. +Porque este es el tipo de valor inalcanzable en el marco institucional clsico. Pero es parte de sistemas cooperativos de cdigo-abierto, de archivos compartidos, de Wikipedia. He usado muchos ejemplos de Flickr, pero existen historias similares por doquier. +"Meetup": un servicio creado para que los usuarios encontraran gente que comparta sus intereses e inclinaciones en zonas vecinas, y realizaran encuentros reales en un caf, un pub o lo que sea. +Cuando Scott Heifman fund Meetup, pens que iba a ser usado, ya saben, por identificadores de trenes o criadores de gatos de pedigr -- tpicos grupos de aficionados. +Los inventores no saben lo que su invencin es. +El principal grupo actual en Meetup? Mayor nmero de sedes, en mayor nmero de ciudades, con la mayor cantidad de miembros? +Madres-Amas-de-Casa. +En los Estados Unidos, sub-urbanizado, de doble ingreso familiar, las Madres-Amas-de-Casa carecen de la infraestructura social que acompaa a la familia extendida y a los vecindarios locales de pequea escala. +De modo que la estn reinventando usando estas herramientas. +La plataforma es "Meetup". Pero el valor aqu est en la infraestructura social. +Si desean saber qu tecnologa va a cambiar el mundo, no se fijen en los nios de 13 aos -- fjense en las madres jvenes, porque ellas no apoyarn de ningn modo tecnologas que no contribuyan efectivamente a mejorar sus vidas. +Esto es tanto ms importante que Xbox aunque sea mucho menos vistoso. +Creo que estamos frente a una revolucin. +Creo que este es un cambio realmente profundo en el modo de tratar los asuntos humanos. +Y uso ese trmino a conciencia. +Es una revolucin en el sentido de que es un cambio en el equilibrio. +Es una forma completamente nueva de hacer cosas, que implica nuevos problemas. +Hoy, en los Estados Unidos, una mujer llamada Judith Miller, est en prisin por no revelar a un Jurado Federal sus fuentes -- Ella es una reportera del New York Times -- ...fuentes en un caso muy abstracto y difcil de seguir. +Y los periodistas estn en la calle, protestando, para mejorar las "leyes escudo". +Las "Leyes escudo" son nuestras leyes -- realmente un mosaico de leyes estatales -- que impiden que un periodista deba revelar una fuente (de informacin). +Esto ocurre, sin embargo, con el trasfondo de un incremento de participacin en "Blogs" +Los Blogs son un ejemplo clsico de "amateurizacin". +Ha des-profesionalizado la labor de publicar. +Desea publicar globalmente cualquier pensamiento hoy? +Es tan simple como oprimir un botn, de modo gratuito. +Esto ha rebajado a la clase de editores profesionales a la categora de masas de aficionados. +Y por ms que que queramos la "Ley escudo" -- deseamos conservar una clase profesional de voceros con credibilidad -- se ha vuelto ms y ms incoherente porque la institucin se est tornando incoherente. +Hoy, hay gente en los Estados Unidos haciendo contorciones, intentando discernir si los "Bloggers" son periodistas. +Y la respuesta a esa pregunta es: No importa!, porque esa no es la pregunta adecuada. +El periodismo fue la respuesta a una pregunta an ms importante, y es esta: Cmo se informa a la sociedad? +Cmo se van a compartir ideas y opiniones? +Y si existe una respuesta a aquello, fuera del marco del periodismo profesional, tiene poco sentido tomar una metfora profesional y aplicarla a esta clase distribuida. +De modo que, por ms que nos gusten las "leyes escudo" el trasfondo -- la institucin a la que estn vinculadas se est volviendo incoherente. +He aqu otro ejemplo. +Pro-Ana. Los grupos Pro-Ana. +Estos son grupos de nias adolescentes que han adoptado Blogs, carteleras, y otro tipo de infraestructuras cooperativas, y las estn usando para crear grupos de apoyo a quienes prefieren seguir siendo anorxicas. +Publican fotos de modelos delgadas, a las que llaman "Thinspiration" (inspiraciones delgadas) +Tienen lemas, como "Salvation through Starvation" ("Salvacin va Hambruna") +Tienen, incluso, brazaletes, al estilo Lance Armstrong, braceletes rojos que significan, en este grupo reducido: "Deseo mantener mi trastorno alimentario" +Intercambian consejos, como: "si sientes deseos de comer algo... limpia el inodoro, o la caja sanitaria de tu gato. El deseo pasar." +Estamos acostumbrados a que los grupos de apoyo son beneficiosos. +Somos proclives a pensar que los grupos de apoyo son inherentemente beneficiosos. +Pero resulta que la lgica de los grupos de apoyo es valricamente neutral. +Un grupo de apoyo es, simplemente, un grupo que persigue sostener una forma de vida en el contexto de un grupo ms amplio. +Ahora, cuando el grupo ms amplio es un montn de borrachos, y el grupo pequeo desea mantenerse sobrio, pensamos: "Ese es un excelente grupo de apoyo!" +Pero cuando el grupo pequeo esta compuesto por nias adolescentes que prefieren permanecer anorxicas, nos horrorizamos. +Lo que pasa es que las metas normativas de los grupos de apoyo a los que estamos acostumbrados provienen de las instituciones que las enmarcaron, y no de su infraestructura. +Una vez que la infraestructura se pone, genricamente, a disposicin, la lgica del grupo de apoyo se revela como accesible para cualquiera, incluyendo gente que persigue este tipo de objetivos. +De modo que, existen significativas desventajas asociadas a estos cambios, as como hay ventajas. Y, por supuesto, en la situacin actual, basta hacer una somera referencia a las acciones de personajes no-estatales que intentan influir sobre asuntos globales, aprovechndose de estos cambios. +Este es el mapa social de los secuestradores y sus asociados; los que perpetraron el ataque del 11 de septiembre. +Esta imagen fu producida analizando sus patrones de comunicacin mientras usaban algunas de estas herramientas. Y, sin duda, la comunidad mundial de inteligencia est haciendo hoy la misma labor por los ataques de la semana pasada. +Ahora, esta es la parte de la charla donde yo les digo en qu va a devenir todo esto. Pero, se me ha acabado el tiempo. Y eso es bueno, porque NO LO S. +As es. Tal como ocurri con la imprenta; si realmente es una revolucin, no es algo que nos lleve desde el punto A al punto B. +Nos lleva desde el punto A... al caos! +La imprenta precipit un perodo de 200 aos de caos; cambi de un mundo en el que la Iglesia Catlica era, en cierta forma, la fuerza poltica organizadora, hasta el Tratado de Wesfalia, cuando finalmente se reconoce la unidad emergente: El Estado Nacin. +Ahora bien, no estoy prediciendo 200 aos de caos producto de esto. +50 aos en los que grupos con algn grado de coordinacin irn adquiriendo paulatinamente mayor influencia; y mientras menos se apeguen estos grupos a los imperativos tradicionales de las instituciones -- tales como decidir de antemano su curso o su razn de lucro -- mayor influencia tendrn. +Las instituciones van a verse sometidas a crecientes presiones, y mientras ms rgidamente sean administradas, y dependan ms de monopolios de informacin, mayor ser la presin sobre ellas. +Y eso va a ir ocurriendo en un mbito a la vez, en una institucin a la vez. Las fuerzas son generales, pero los resultados sern especficos. +De modo que el punto aqu no es: "esto es maravilloso" o "vamos a presenciar una transicin desde Slo Instituciones, a Slo Contextos Cooperativos." +Va a ser mucho ms complicado que eso. +Pero el punto es que ser un reajuste en gran escala. +Y puesto que podemos anticiparlo, y sabemos que viene en camino, mi argumento es, esencialmente, que ms vale que aprendamos a usarlo bien. +Muchas gracias! +Bueno, me dedico a ms cosas aparte de la fsica. +En realidad, ahora me dedico ms bien a otras. +Una de ellas son las relaciones lejanas entre las lenguas humanas. +Los lingistas histricos profesionales de Estados Unidos +y de Europa Occidental evitan, en la medida de lo posible, las relaciones lejanas, los grandes grupos, los grupos que se remontan mucho en el tiempo, ms all de las familias que son familiares. +No les gusta, les parece excntrico. A m no me parece. +Hay algunos lingistas geniales, sobre todo rusos, dedicndose a ello en el Instituto Santa Fe y en Mosc, y me encantara ver dnde nos lleva esto. +Nos lleva realmente a un antepasado nico, de hace 20 o 25.000 aos? +Y si nos remontamos ms all de ese antepasado nico, cundo es de suponer que muchas lenguas compitieran entre s? +Hasta cundo se remonta eso? Hasta cundo se remonta el lenguaje moderno? +Cuntas decenas de miles de aos? +Chris Anderson: Tiene alguna corazonada o esperanza sobre la respuesta? +Murray Gell-Mann: yo dira que el lenguaje moderno tiene que ser anterior a las pinturas, relieves y esculturas rupestres y anterior a las pisadas de baile en el barro en las cuevas de Europa Occidental durante el perodo Auriaciense, hace 35.000 aos, o antes. +Me cuesta creer que hicieran todo aquello y que no tuvieran un lenguaje moderno. +As que yo dira que el verdadero origen es as de antiguo o incluso ms. +Pero eso no implica que todas, o muchas, o la mayora de las lenguas reconocidas de hoy en da no puedan proceder de una misma, mucho ms joven an, 20.000 aos, por ejemplo, o algo as. Es lo que se llama un cuello de botella. +CA: Bueno, puede que Philip Anderson tuviera razn. +Es posible que de cualquier tema sepa usted ms que nadie. +Ha sido un honor. Gracias, Murray Gell-Mann. +El ao pasado les cont, en siete minutos, sobre el Proyecto Orion, el cual era una tecnologa improbable que tcnicamente pudo haber funcionado, pero tuvo una oportunidad poltica de un ao en que poda realizarse, +as que no sucedi. Fue un sueo que no se realiz. +Este ao les contar la historia del nacimiento de la computacin digital. +Esta fue una introduccin perfecta. +Y es una historia que s se funcion. Sucedi, y las mquinas estn en todas partes. +Y era una tecnologa inevitable. +Si la gente sobre la que voy a hablarles -- si no lo hubieran hecho, alguien ms lo habra hecho. +Fue algo as como la idea correcta en el momento justo. +Este es el universo de Barricelli. El universo en que vivimos ahora. +Es el universo en que estas mquinas hacen ahora todo esto, incluyendo cambiar la biologa. +Comenzar la historia con la primera bomba atmica en Trinity, que fue el Proyecto Manhattan. Era un poco como TED: reuni un grupo grande de gente muy inteligente. +Y tres de las personas ms inteligentes eran Stan Ulam, Richard Feynman y John von Neumann, +y fue von Neumann quien dijo, luego de la bomba, que estaba trabajando en algo ms importante que las bombas: estaba pensando en computadoras. +No slo estaba pensando en ellas; contruy una. sta es la mquina que hizo. +Construy esta mquina, e hizo una hermosa demostracin de cmo funcionaba realmente, con estas partes. Y es una idea que se origina mucho antes. +La primera persona que realmente lo explic fue Thomas Hobbes, quien en 1651, explic cmo la aritmtica y la lgica eran lo mismo, y que si quieres pensamiento artificial y lgica artificial, lo puedes hacer con aritmtica. +Dijo que se necesitaba adicin y sustraccin. +Leibniz, quien lleg un poco ms tarde -- en 1679 -- demostr que ni siquiera se necesitaba la sustraccin. +Se poda hacer todo con la adicin. +Aqu tenemos toda la lgica y aritmtica binaria que condujo a la revolucin de la computacin, +y Leibniz fue la primera persona que habl de construir tal mquina. +Habl de hacerlo con canicas, con compuertas y lo que ahora llamamos registros de cambios, donde cambiando las compuertas, las canicas caen en las pistas. +Y eso es lo que estas mquinas hacen, excepto que en lugar de usar canicas, usan electrones. +Y entonces pasamos a von Neumann, 1945, cuando l de alguna manera reinventa todo esto de nuevo. +Y en 1945, despus de la guerra, ya exista la electrnica para, de hecho, tratar de construir una mquina as. +El otro cuasi gnesis de lo que von Neumannn hizo fue la dificultad para predecir el clima. +Lewis Richardson vio que se poda hacer con una matriz celular de personas, dndole a cada una una porcin, y luego reunindolo todo. +Aqu tenemos un modelo elctrico que ilustra una mente con voluntad, pero capaz slo de dos ideas. +. Y esa es realmente la computadora ms simple. +Es bsicamente por qu se necesita el qubit, porque slo tiene dos ideas. +Y si se ponen muchas de ellas juntas, se tiene la esencia de la computadora moderna. la unidad aritmtica, el control central, la memoria, el medio de registro, la entrada y la salida. +Pero, hay un problema. Esto es el -- ya saben, lo vimos al iniciar estos programas. +Las instrucciones que gobiernan esta operacin deben darse en detalle absolutamente exhaustivo. +As que la programacin debe ser perfecta, o no funciona. +Si buscan el origen de esto, la historia clsica nos remite hasta el ENIAC. +Pero en realidad de la mquina que les hablar, la Mquina del Instituto para Grandes Estudios, que est all, en realidad debera estar all. Estoy tratando de revisar la historia, y darle a esta gente ms crdito del que tienen. +Una computadora as abrira universos que en el presente estn fuera del rango de todo instrumento, +abre un nuevo mundo, y estas personas lo vieron. +El sujeto que deba haber construido esta mquina era el del medio, Vladimir Zworykin, de RCA. +RCA, con probablemente la peor decisin de negocios de la historia, decidi no dedicarse a las computadoras. +Pero las primeras reuniones, Noviembre de 1945, fueron en oficinas de RCA. +RCA lo comenz todo y luego dijo, los televisores son el futuro, no las computadoras. +Lo esencial estaba todo all -- todas las cosas que hacen funcionar estas mquinas. +Von Neumann, y un lgico, y un matemtico del ejrcito lo reunieron. Entonces, necesitaban un lugar donde construirlo. +Cuando RCA dijo que no, decidieron hacerlo en Princeton, donde Freeman trabajaba en el Instituto. +All pas mi infancia. +Ese soy yo, mi hermana Esther, quien habl antes, as que recordamos el nacimiento de esta cosa. +Ese es Freeman, hace mucho, y ese era yo. +Y este es von Neumann y Morgenstern, quien escribi la Teora de Juegos. +Estas fuerzas se reunieron all, en Princeton. +Oppenheimer, quien construy la bomba. +La mquina fue en realidad usada mayormente para los clculos de la bomba. +Y Julian Bigelow, quien tom el lugar de [??] como el ingeniero para resolver, usando electrnica, cmo construir esto. Toda el grupo de personas que trabajaron en esto, las mujeres delante, quienes hicieron la mayora del cdigo,fueron las primeras programadoras. +Estos fueron los prototipos de geeks, los nerds. +No encajaban en el Instituto. +Esta es una carta del director, preocupado por -- "desaprobable en cuanto al azcar." +. Pueden leer el texto. +. Hackers metindose en problemas por primera vez. +. +No eran fsicos tericos. +Eran hombres con pistolas de soldadura, y realmente construyeron esto. +Y lo damos por sentado ahora que cada una de estas mquinas tiene millones de transistores, haciendo miles de millones de ciclos por segundo. +Usaban tubos de vaco, tcnicas muy poco rigurosas para conseguir comportamiento binario de estas vlvulas de radio. +De hecho usarban 6J6, la vlvula comn de radio, porque descubrieron que eran ms confiables que las vlvulas ms caras. +Y lo que hicieron en el Instituto fue publicar cada paso del camino. +Se emitieron reportes, de modo que esta mquina fue clonada en otros 15 lugares del mundo. +Y fue el microprocesador original. +Todas las computadoras de ahora son copias de esa mquina. +La memoria estaba en tubos de rayos catdicos -- un montn de puntos en el frente del tubo, muy, muy sensible a perturbaciones electromagnticas. +Haba 40 de estos tubos, como un motor V-40 haciendo de memoria. +. La entrada y la salida se hacan por teletipo al principio. +Este es una unidad de alambre, usando ruedas de bicicleta. +Este es el arquetipo del disco rgidos de sus mquinas de hoy. +Luego cambiaron a un tambor magntico. +Este es un equipo IBM modificado, que origin toda la industria de proceso de datos, luego en IBM. +Y este es el inicio de los grficos por computadora. +El "Graph'g-Beam Turn On." La siguiente imagen, es -- que yo sepa -- la primera pantalla de mapa de bits digital, 1954. +Y Von Neumann viva en una nube terica haciendo estudios abstractos sobre cmo construr mquinas confiables con componentes no confiables. +Estos sujetos bebiendo t con azcar escriban en sus bitcoras tratando de hacer funcionar esto, con estos 2.600 tubos de vaco que fallaban la mitad del tiempo. +Y esto es lo que hice estos seis meses, releer las bitcoras. +"Tiempo de funcionamiento: dos minutos. Entrada-salida: 90 minutos." +Esto incluye una gran cantidad de error humano. +Trataban siempre de descifrar, cul es error de la mquina? cul humano? +Cul de cdigo, cul de hardware? +Ese es un ingeniero vigilando el tubo nmero 36, tratando de saber por qu la memoria no est en foco. +Tena que enfocar la memoria -- pareca bien. +As que tena que enfocar cada tubo para que la memoria funcionase. adems de tener, se figurarn, problemas de software. +"No hay caso. Fui a casa." "Imposible seguir la maldita cosa, dnde hay un directorio?" +Ya entonces se quejaban de los manuales: "antes de cerrarlo con disgusto." La aritmtica general -- los registros de operacin, +trasnochando mucho. +MANIAC, que se convirti en el acrnimo de la mquina, Integrador y Calculador Matemtico y Numrico, "perdi la memoria." +"MANIAC recuper la memoria cuando se apag la corriente," "mquina o humano?" +"Aj!" Lo descubrieron: es un problema de cdigo: +"Encontr problema en cdigo, espero." +"Error de cdigo, mquina no culpable." +"Maldicin, puedo ser tan terco como esta cosa." +. "Y se hizo de da." Entonces trabajaban toda la noche. +Esta cosa funcionaba 24 horas al da, mayormente en clculos de bombas. +"Todo hasta este punto es tiempo perdido." "Qu caso tiene? Buenas noches." +"Control maestro apagado. Al demonio. Me voy." "Algo pasa con el acondicionador de aire -- olor a correas quemadas en el aire." +"Un corto -- no encender la mquina." +"Mquina de IBM volcando substancia como brea en los autos. Viene del techo." +Trabajaban en condiciones muy duras. +. Aqu. "Un ratn se subi al ventilador detrs del regulador, ventilador vibrando. Resultado: no ms ratn." +. "Aqu yace ratn. Nacido ? Muerto 4:50 AM, Mayo 1953." +. Hay un chiste que alguien escribi: "Aqu yace el ratn Marston." +Si eres matemtico, lo entendern, porque Marston era un matemtico que objetaba la presencia de la computadora. +"Atrap una lucirnaga del tambor, corriendo a dos kilociclos." +Son dos mil ciclos por segundo -- "s, soy gallina" -- entonces dos kilociclos era velocidad lenta. +La velocidad alta era 16 kilociclos. +No s si recuerdan una Mac que corriera a 16 Megahertz. Eso es lento. +"He duplicado ambos resultados. +"Cmo sabr cul es correcto, asumiendo que uno es correcto? +Este es el tercer resultado diferente. +S cuando estoy maldito." +. "Hemos duplicado errores antes." +"La mquina funciona, bien. El cdigo no." +"Slo ocurre cuando la mquina est encendida." +Y a veces las cosas marchan bien. +"Mquina una belleza, una alegra por siempre." "Ejecucin perfecta." +"Pensamiento final: cuando haya errores mejores y ms grandes, los tendremos." +Se supona que nadie supiese que estaban diseando bombas. +Estn diseando bombas de hidrgeno.Pero alguien en la bitcora, tarde una noche, finalmente dibuj una bomba. +Y ese fue el resultado. Era Mike, la primera bomba termonuclear, en 1952. +Que fue diseada en esa mquina, en los bosques detrs del instituto. +Von Neumann invit a una banda de fenmenos de todo el mundo para trabajar en estos problemas. +Barricelli, termin haciendo lo que ahora llamamos vida artificial, tratando de ver si, en este universo artificial -- l era un genetista-viral -- muy, muy adelantado a su tiempo. +An est por delante de cosas que se hacen ahora. +Tratando de iniciar un sistema gentico artificial en la computadora. +Su universo se inici el 3 de Marzo del '53. +Hace casi exactamente -- sern 50 aos este Jueves, creo. +Y ha visto todo en trminos de -- l poda leer el cdigo binario directamente de la mquina. +Tena un entendimiento maravilloso. +Otros no podan ni encender la mquina. Siempre funcionaba para l. +Incluso los errores se duplicaban. +. "El Dr. Barricelli dice la mquina est equivocada, el cdigo es correcto." +Dise este universo, y lo ejecut. +Cuando la gente de la bomba se fue, pudo quedarse all. +Pudo ejecutar esto toda la noche, ejecutar estas cosas. Si alguien recuerda a Stephen Wolfram, quien reinvent todo esto. +Y lo public. No estaba oculto y perdido. +Fue publicado en la literatura. +"Si es tan fcil crear organismos vivos, por qu no crear algunos t mismo?" +Decidi intentarlo, iniciar esta biologa artificial en las mquinas. +Y descubri estas, especie de -- Era como un naturalista que llega y observa este diminuto universo de 5000 bytes y ve estas cosas sucediendo que podemos ver en el mundo exterior, en biologa. +Estas son algunas generaciones de su universo. +Pero slo seguirn siendo nmeros; no se convertirn en organismos. +Tienen que tener algo. +Si tienes un genotipo debes tener un fenotipo. +Deben salir y hacer algo. Y l empez a hacer eso, darles a estos organismos numricos cosas con qu jugar, jugar ajedrez con otras mquinas y cosas as. +Y comenzaron a evolucionar. +Y l recorri el pas despus de eso. +Cada vez que haba una mquina nueva, ms rpida, l la usaba, y vio exactamente lo que sucede ahora: +que los programas, en lugar de apagarse -- cuando sales del programa, siguen ejecutndose y, bsicamente, el tipo de cosas que Windows hace -- ejecutndose como un organismo multicelular en muchas mquinas -- previ que eso sucedera. +Y vio que la evolucin misma era un proceso inteligente. +No era una especie de inteligencia creadora, sino que era una computacin paralela gigantesca que tendra alguna inteligencia. +Y lleg a decir que no deca que fuera un ser vivo, o un nuevo tipo de vida; +era slo otra versin de la misma cosa sucediendo. +Y realmente no hay diferencia entre lo que haca en su computadora y lo que la naturaleza hizo hace miles de millones de aos. +Podras hacerlo de nuevo ahora? +Entonces, cuando fui a los archivos buscando esto, el archivista vino un da, diciendo, "Creo que encontr otra caja que fue descartada." +Y era su universo en tarjetas perforadas. +Y all est, 50 aos ms tarde. Como en animacin suspendida. +Esas son las instrucciones para ejecutarlo -- este es el cdigo fuente para uno de esos universos, con una nota de los ingenieros diciendo que tenan algunos problemas. +"Debe haber algo en este cdigo que no has explicado an." +Y creo que esa es la verdad. An no entendemos cmo estas instrucciones simples pueden llevar a una complejidad en aumento. +Cul es la lnea que divide cundo es similar a la vida y cundo est realmente vivo? +Estas tarjetas, gracias a que aparec, sern salvadas. +Y la pregunta es, debemos ejecutarlas o no? +Podemos ejecutarlas? +Quisieran dejarlas libres en la Internet? +Estas mquinas podran pensar -- estos organismos, si volvieran a la vida ahora, que murieron y fueron al cielo, hay un universo -- +mi laptop es 10 mil millones de veces el tamao del universo en el que vivieron cuando Barricelli dej el proyecto. +Estab pensando muy hacia adelante, en cmo esto realmente crecera en una nueva forma de vida. +Y eso est sucediendo! +Cuando Juan Enriquez nos cont de estos 12 billones de bits transferidos ida y vuelta, de estos datos genomicos en los estudios de protenas, eso es lo que Barricelli imagin: que este cdigo digital en estas mquinas est comenzando a escribir cdigo -- ya est escribiendo a partir de cidos nucleicos. +Lo hemos estado haciendo desde que comenzamos PCR y sintetizamos pequeas cadenas de ADN. +Y muy pronto estaremos sintetizando las protenas, y como Steve nos demostr, eso abre un mundo completamente nuevo. +Es un mundo que von Neumann mismo previ. +Esto fue publicado despus de su muerte: sus notas inconclusas sobre mquinas auto-replicantes. Qu se necesita para hacer que las mquinas comiencen a reproducirse. +Y todas nuestras computadoras tienen dentro las copias de la arquitectura que l tuvo que disear un da, como con lpiz y papel. +Y le debemos un crdito tremendo por eso. +Y explic, de manera generosa, el espritu que trajo estas diferentes personas al Instituto de Estudios Avanzados en los 40 para este proyecto, y lo hizo disponible libremente, sin patentes, sin restricciones, sin disputas de propiedad intelectual para el resto del mundo. +Esa el la ltima entrada en la bitcora cuando la mquina fue apagada, Julio de 1958. +Y era Julian BIgelow quien la estuvo ejecutando hasta medianoche cuando la mquina fue oficialmente apagada. +Y ese es el fin. +Muchas gracias. +Mi trabajo es acerca de la comportamientos que adoptamos inconscientemente, de manera colectiva. +Me refiero con esto, a los comportamientos que negamos, y a los que operan por debajo de la superficie de nuestra conciencia diaria. +Como individuos, hacemos este tipo de cosas, todos los das. +Es como cuando eres malo con tu esposa porque ests molesto con otra persona. +O cuando bebes demasiado en una fiesta solo por ansiedad. +O cuando comes de ms solo porque han herido tus sentimientos, o lo que sea. +Y cuando hacemos este tipo de cosas, cuando 300 millones de personas tienen comportamientos inconscientes, es cuando puede llevar a consecuencias catastrficas que nadie desea, y ninguno esperaba. +Y es esto lo que analizo en mi trabajo fotogrfico. +Esta es una imagen que complet recientemente, si la miras desde lejos, parece algn tipo de vieta neo-gtica de una fbrica contaminando el aire. +Y cuando te acercas un poco, comienza a parecerse a un montn de tuberas, quizs una planta qumica, o una refinera, o tal vez un enredado cruce de autopistas +Y si te acercas completamente te das cuenta que est hecho de un montn de vasos de plstico. +De hecho, son un milln de vasos de plstico, la cantidad de vasos de plstico que son usados en vuelos comerciales cada seis horas en los EE.UU. +Utilizamos cuatro millones de vasos al da en vuelos comerciales, y virtualmente ninguno es reutilizado o reciclado; +eso sencillamente no se hace en esa industria. +Pero este nmero no es nada comparado con el nmero de vasos que usamos a diario. hablo de 40 millones de vasos al da para bebidas calientes. sobre todo todo caf. +No pude encajar 40 millones de vasos en una imagen pero logr incluir 410,000. Y as es como 410.000 vasos se ven. +Esto es 15 minutos de nuestro consumo de vasos. +Y si pudieras apilarla tantos vasos en la vida real, este sera el tamao. +Y esto equivale a una hora de consumo. +Y esto es un da. +An se pueden ver unas personitas all abajo. +Esto es tan alto como un edifcio de 42 pisos y puse la estatua de la libertad aqu como referencia de escala. +Hablando de justicia, algo ms esta ocurriendo en nuestra cultura algo que encuentro preocupante, y es que los EE.UU ahora tiene el porcentaje ms alto de personas en prisin que cualquier otro pas en La Tierra. +Uno de cada cuatro, uno de cada cuatro seres humanos en prisin son estadounidenses, encarcelados en nuestro pas. +Y quiero mostrarles el nmero. +2.3 milllones de estadounidenses fueron encarcelados en 2005. +Y las cifras han aumentado, pero no tenemos los datos an. +As que quise mostrar 2.3 millones de uniformes de prisin. y en el tamao real de esta imagen, cada uniforme tiene el tamao del borde de una moneda de 5 centavos. +Son diminutos, apenas vsibles como tela, y mostrar 2.3 millones requera un lienzo ms grande de que lo que cualquier impresora puediera imprimir +As que lo tuve que dividir en paneles mltiples de 10 pies de alto por 25 pies de ancho. +Esta es una pieza en una galera en New York; y esos son mis padres mirndola. +Cada vez que veo esta pieza, Me pregunto si mi mam le susurraba a mi padre: "Por fin dobl su ropa limpia" +Quiero mostrarle imgenes sobre adicciones. +Esta en particular es acerca de la adiccin a los cigarrillos. +Quera hacer una imagen que reflejara el el nmero real de americanos que mueren por fumar cigarrillos. +Mas de 400,000 personas muere en los EE. UU cada ao por el consumo de cigarrillos. +As que esta pieza esta hecha con montones de cajas de cigarrillos. +Y mientras te alejas despacio, ves una pintura de Van Gogh llamada "Calavera con cigarrillo" +Es extrao pensar que el 11/9 cuando la tragedia ocurri, 3000 estadounidenses murieron, +y recuerdan la reaccin? +Retumb por todo el mundo, y seguir siendo as con el tiempo. +Ser algo de lo que hablaremos en 100 aos. +An cuando ese mismo da, 1100 estadounidenses murieron por fumar. +Y el da despus, otros 1100 estadounidenses murieron por este vicio. +Y desde entonces cada da, 1100 estadounidenses han muerto, +hoy mismo, 1100 estadounidenses ms estan muriendo por fumar. +Y no estamos hablando de eso; lo ignoramos. +La presin de la industria del tabaco, es demasiado fuerte. +Sencillamente lo ignoramos. +An conociendo el destructivo poder de los cigarrillos, seguimos permitiendo que nuestros nios, nuestros hijos e hijas, se expongan a influencias que les hacen comenzar fumar. +Y de esto se trata la sieguiente pieza. +Son solo montones y montones de cigarrillos: 65000 cigarrillos, lo cual equivale al nmero de adolescentes que comenzarn a fumar este mes,y cada mes en los EE.UU. +Ms de 700,000 menores de edad o de apenas 18 aos en los EE.UU. comienzan a fumar cada ao. +Otra extraa epidemia en los EE. UU. con la que quiero que se familiarizen es el fenmeno de mal uso y abuso de drogas por prescripcion. +Esta es una imagen que cre con montones de Vicodin -- +bueno, en realidad solo tena un Vicodin que escane muchas y muchas veces. +Si te alejas, ves 213,000 pldoras de Vicodin, que es el nmero de visitas al rea de emergencia al ao en hospitales de los Estados Unidos, atribuido al abuso y mal uso de analgsicos prescritos y otros medicamentos para controlar la ansiedad. +Un tercio de todas las sobredosis en los EE. UU -- esto incluye cocana, herona, alcohol -- un tercio de estas sobredosis son con medicamentos prescritos +Un fenmeno extrao. +Esta fotografa que recin termine es acerca de otro trgico fenmeno. Este es la creciente obsesin con cirugas de aumento de senos. +El ao pasado, 384000 mujeres estadounidenses decidieron aumentar el tamao de sus senos. +Ya se est convirtiendo en el regalo de graduacin ms popular, para jovencitas que estn apunto de ir a la universidad. +As que hice esta imagen con muecas Barbie, y si te alejas ves como especie de un patrn floral, y si te alejas an ms, logras ver 32,000 muecas Barbie, lo que representa al nmero de cirugas de aumento de senos que se realizan cada mes en los EE. UU. +La gran mayora de estas son en mujeres menores de 21. +Y por si fuera poco, la nica ciruga plstica que es ms popular que el aumento de senos es la liposuccin, y mucho de estas son hechas por hombres. +Ahora, quiero insistir en que estos son solo ejemplos. +No muestro todo esto como los peores problemas. +son solo ejemplos +Y la razn por la que hago esto, es por tengo el temor de que no estamos sintiendo lo suficiente como una cultura, +Hay una especie de anestesia en EE.UU. en este momento. +Hemos perdido nuestro sentido de indignacin, nuestra rabia y nuestro dolor y lo que est pasando en nuestra cultura actualmente, lo qu pasando en nuestro pas, las atrocidades que se cometen en nuestro nombre alrededor del mundo. +Se han perdido; estos sentimientos se han perdido. +Nuestra dicha cultural, nuestra dicha nacional se ha perdido. +Y mientras tratamos de crear una perspectiva distinta, e intentamos educarnos acerca de la enormidad de nuestra cultura, la informacin con la que debemos trabajar son estos nmeros gigantescos: nmeros en millones, cientos de millones, en billones y ahora en trillones. +El nuevo presupuesto de Bush es ahora en trillones, y estos nmeros que nuestros cerebros no pueden comprender. +No podemos encontrar significados en estas estadisticas enormes. +Y eso es lo que trato de hacer con mi trabajo, tomar estos nmeros, estas estadsticas del lenguaje crudo de datos, y traducirlas en un lenguaje visual ms universal, que se pueda sentir. +Porque creo que si nosotros sentimos estos problemas, si podemos sentirlos ms profundamente, entonces nos importarn ms de lo que lo hacen hoy. +Y si podemos lograr eso, entonces cada uno encontrar dentro de s lo que es necesario para enfrentar la gran pregunta, que es: Cmo cambiar? +Esto, para mi, es lo gran pregunta que hoy enfrentamos como personas: Cmo cambiamos? Cmo cambiamos como cultura, y como hacemos para que cada uno tome rsponsabilidad por la parte de la solucin que tenemos a cargo, y este es nuestro propio comportamiento? +Pienso que no hay que volverse malo para mirar estos problemas. +No estoy apuntando mi dedo hacia EE. UU. en un modo acusatorio. +Solo estoy diciendo, esto es lo que somos hoy. +Y que si hay cosas que vemos que no nos gustan sobre nuestra cultura, entonces tenemos una opcin. +Y afectar profundamente el bienestar, la calidad de vida de billones de personas que heredarn los resultados de nuestras decisiones. +No estoy hablando abstractamente de esto, Estoy diciendo -- esto es lo que somos los que estamos aqu Ahora mismo, en este momento. +Gracias y buenas tardes, +Bienvenidos. Me pueden poner la primera diapositiva? +En contra de los clculos de algunos ingenieros, las abejas pueden volar los delfines pueden nadar y las lagartijas pueden escalar sobre las superficies ms lisas. Ahora lo que quiero hacer, en el corto tiempo que tengo, es tratar de permitir a cada uno de ustedes experimentar de alguna manera, la emocin de revelar los secretos del diseo natural. +Yo lo hago todo el tiempo, y es simplemente increble. +Quiero compartir un poco de eso con ustedes en esta presentacin. +El desafo de mirar los diseos naturales - y les dir de qu manera lo percibimos, y cmo lo hemos usado. +El desafo desde luego, es responder a esta pregunta: Qu concede este extraordinario desempeo que les permite bsicamente ir a cualquier parte? +Y si pudiramos encontrar la manera de implementar esos diseos? +Bueno, muchos bilogos le dirn a los ingenieros y a otros, que los organismos han tenido millones de aos para perfeccionarse, que son espectaculares, que pueden hacer todo maravillosamente bien. +As que la respuesta es el bio-mimetismo - copiar a la naturaleza directamente. +Sabemos al trabajar con animales que la verdad es que eso es exactamente lo que no quieres hacer. Porque la evolucin trabaja bajo el principio de apenas-bien-basta, no bajo el principio de la perfeccin. +Y las limitaciones en construir cualquier organismo, cuando lo piensas bien, son realmente severas. Las tecnologas naturales tienen increbles limitaciones, +Pinsalo. Si fueras un ingeniero y yo te dijera que tienes que construir un automvil pero que debes empezar as de pequeito y luego tiene que crecer a tamao completo y tiene que funcionar en cada etapa. +Piensa en el hecho de que construyeras el automvil y de que yo te dijera que dentro de l tienes que construirle tambin un fbrica que le permita hacer otro automvil. +Y no puedes absolutamente nunca, absolutamente nunca, a causa de la historia y del plan heredado, comenzar de ceros. +As que los organismos tienen esta importante historia. +Realmente la evolucin trabaja ms como alguien que repara experimentando y jugueteando que como un ingeniero. +Y esto es realmente importante cuando comienzas a estudiar a los animales. +Al contrario, creemos que debes inspirarse en la biologa. +Necesitas descubrir los principios generales de la naturaleza y entonces usar esas analogas cuando sean ventajosas. +Es un verdadero desafo hacer esto porque los animales, cuando comienzas a mirar dentro de ellos, cmo funcionan, parecen ser desesperantemente complejos. No hay una historia detallada de los planos de diseo, no puedes encontrarlos en parte alguna. +Tienen demasiados movimientos para sus articulaciones, demasiados msculos +an el ms simple de los animales que se nos ocurra, como un insecto, y tienen ms neuronas y conexiones de lo que pueda imaginar. +Cmo puedes entender esto? Bueno, cremos - y suponemos - que una manera en la cual los animales pueden funcionar simplemente, es si el control de sus movimientos tendiera a estar construido dentro de sus cuerpos mismos. +Hemos descubierto que los animales de dos, cuatro, seis y ocho patas producen las mismas fuerzas sobre el terreno cuando se mueven. +Todos funcionan como este canguro, rebotan. +Y pueden ser modelados por un sistema de resortes y aunque lo llamamos sistema de resortes porque somos bio-mecnicos, en realidad es un saltador que rebota. +Todos producen el patrn de un saltador. De qu forma es esto verdad? +Bueno, un ser humano, una de sus piernas, trabaja como dos piernas de un perro trotando y trabaja como las tres piernas juntas de un insecto trotando, o cuatro piernas juntas como en un cangrejo trotando. +Y entonces alternan su propulsin pero los patrones son los mismos. Casi todo organismo que hemos estudiado - lo vern la semana entrante - les dar una pista, saldr un artculo que dice que animales realmente grandes como el T. Rex probablemente no podan hacer esto, pero lo vern la semana prxima. +Ahora lo que es interesante es que los animales que dijimos que rebotan en el plano vertical de esta manera, y en nuestra colaboracin con Pixar en la pelcula "Bichos", discutimos la naturaleza bpeda de los personajes de las hormigas. +Y les dijimos que desde luego, se mueven en otro plano tambin +y nos hicieron esta pregunta. Dijeron, "Por qu modelar slo el plano sagital o plano vertical cuando nos estn diciendo que esos animales se mueven en el plano horizontal?" Esta es una buena pregunta. +Nadie en biologa los haba modelado de esta forma. +Seguimos su consejo y modelamos a los animales movindose en la plano horizontal tambin. Tomamos sus tres patas y las colapsamos a una +pusimos a algunos de los mejores matemticos del mundo de Princeton a trabajar en este problema. +Y pudimos crear un modelo donde los animales no slo rebotan de arriba a abajo, sino tambin rebotan de lado a lado al mismo tiempo. +Y muchos organismos entran en esta clase de patrn. +Ahora, por qu es importante tener este modelo? +Porque es muy interesante. Cuando tomas este modelo y lo perturbas, le das un empujn, como cuando choca con algo, se auto-estabiliza, sin cerebro, o sin reflejos, slo gracias a la estructura. +Es un modelo bello. Ahora, veamos las matemticas. +Eso es suficiente. +Los animales, cuando los ves correr, parecen estar auto-estabilizados de esta manera, usando bsicamente piernas con resortes. Esto es, las piernas pueden hacer clculos por s mismas, en cierto sentido los algoritmos de control estn integrados en la forma del animal mismo. +Por qu no hemos sido inspirados ms por la naturaleza y esta clase de descubrimientos? +Bueno, argumentara que las tecnologas humanas son realmente diferentes de las tecnologas naturales, al menos lo han sido hasta ahora. +Piensa en la tpica clase de robot que ves. +Las tecnologas humanas han tendido a ser grandes, planas con ngulos rectos, rgidas, hechas de metal. Tienen mecanismos para rodar y ejes. Tienen muy pocos motores, muy pocos sensores. +Mientras que la naturaleza tiende a ser pequea, y curva, y flexible y girable y a cambio tiene patas y apndices, y tiene muchos msculos y muchos, muchos sensores. +As que es un diseo muy diferente. Sin embargo, lo que est cambiando, lo que es realmente excitante - y les mostrar algo de ello enseguida - es que al empezar a tomar la tecnologa humana algunas de las caractersticas de la naturaleza, entonces la naturaleza puede convertirse en una maestra ms til. +He aqu un ejemplo que es verdaderamente excitante. +Esta es una colaboracin con Stanford. +Y ellos han desarrollado esta nueva tcnica llamada Manufactura de Depsito Formado. +Es una tcnica en la cual mezclan los materiales y moldean cualquier forma que gusten, y entonces ponen las propiedades del material. +Pueden integrar sensores y actuadores dentro de la forma misma. +Por ejemplo, aqu est una pata - la parte clara es rgida, la parte blanca es flexible, y no necesitas ejes o cualquier otra cosa. +Se dobla por s misma bellamente. +As que puedes poner tales propiedades dentro. Les inspir a presumir este diseo en la produccin de un pequeo robot llamado Sprawl [desgarbado]. +Nuestro trabajo ha inspirado tambin otro robot, un robot saltador inspirado en la biologa de las universidades de Michigan y McGill llamado RHex, por robot hexpodo, y este es autnomo. +Vayamos al video y djenme mostrarles a algunos de esos animales movindose. Y despus algunos de los robots simples que han sido inspirados por nuestros descubrimientos. +He aqu lo que algunos de ustedes hicieron esta maana, aunque lo hicieron afuera y no sobre una caminadora. +Esto es lo que hacemos. +Esta es una cucaracha calavera - esta es una cucaracha americana la cual ustedes piensan que no tienen en su cocina. +Este es un escorpin de ocho patas, hormiga de seis patas, y un ciempis de cuarenta y cuatro patas. +He dicho que todos esos animales funcionan como un saltador - rebotan al moverse y ustedes pueden verlo en el cangrejo fantasma de las playas de Panam y Carolina del Norte. +Puede alcanzar los cuatro metros por segundo cuando corre. +De hecho brinca en el aire y tiene fases areas cuando lo hace, como un caballo, y vern que est rebotando aqu. +Lo que descubrimos es que ya sea que mires la pierna de un ser humano, como Richard, o de una cucaracha, o de un cangrejo o de un canguro, la rigidez relativa de la pierna en el brinco es la misma para todo lo que hemos visto hasta ahora. +Ahora de qu sirven piernas con resorte? qu pueden hacer? +Bueno, queramos ver si les permitan a los animales tener mayor estabilidad y maniobrabilidad. +As que construimos un terreno que tena obstculos tres veces ms altos que la cadera de los animales que estbamos observando +y estbamos seguros que no podan hacerlo. Y esto es lo que hicieron. +El animal corre sobre los obstculos y sin siquiera disminuir su velocidad. +No disminuy su velocidad preferida para nada. +No podamos creer que pudiera hacer esto. Esto nos dijo que si construyes un robot con una piernas con resorte muy simples puedes hacerlo tan maniobrable como cualquier cosa que se haya construido antes. +Aqu est el primer ejemplo de ello, este es el robot de Stanford construido con la Manufactura de Depsito Formado llamado Sprawl. +Tiene seis patas - y son las patas sincronizadas con resorte. +Se mueve de la misma manera que un insecto y aqu est en la caminadora. Ahora, lo que es importante respecto de este robot comparado con otros robots, es que no puede ver, no puede sentir, no tiene un cerebro, sin embargo puede maniobrar sobre estos obstculos sin dificultad alguna. +Esta es la tcnica de integrar las propiedades en la forma. +Este es un estudiante de doctorado, esto es lo que l le hace a su proyecto de tesis, muy robusto si un estudiante de doctorado le hace esto a su proyecto de tesis. +Este viene de las universidades de Michigan y McGill, este es el RHex, haciendo su primer salida en una demostracin. +El mismo principio. Slo tiene seis partes mviles. Seis motores, pero tiene patas con resorte, patas sincronizadas. Se mueve con postura de un insecto +la pata central se mueve en sincrona con la frontal y la trasera del lado opuesto. Como un trpode alternante, y puede maniobrar obstculos tal como el animal. +Dios Mo! Puede moverse en diferentes superficies, aqu en la arena, aunque no hemos perfeccionado los pies todava, pero hablar de ello ms tarde. +Aqu est RHex entrando al bosque. +Otra vez, este robot no puede ver, no puede sentir cosa alguna, no tiene cerebro. Trabaja solamente con un sistema mecnico sincronizado con partes muy simples. Pero est inspirado en las dinmicas fundamentales del animal. +Ah! Lo adoro Bob. Aqu avanza sobre un pasillo. +Le present esto al Jet Propulsion Lab de la NASA y dijeron que ellos no tenan la habilidad de bajar a los crteres para buscar hielo, y finalmente vida, en Marte. Y l dijo - particularmente usando robots con patas, porque son demasiado complicados. +Nada puede hacer eso. Yo hablo despus. Les muestro este video con el simple diseo de RHex, y solo para convencerlos que debemos ir a Marte en el 2011, entint el video en color naranja para darle la impresin de estar en Marte. +Otra razn por la cual los animales tienen este extraordinario desempeo y pueden ir a donde sea, es porque tienen una interaccin efectiva con el medio. El animal que voy a mostrarles que estudiamos para ver esto es la lagartija. +Tenemos una aqu y noten su posicin. Se adhiere. +Ahora, los voy a desafiar. Les mostrar un video. +Uno de los animales est corriendo en una superficie horizontal, y el otro est escalando una pared. Cul es cul? +Estn corriendo a un metro por segundo. Cuntos de ustedes piensan que el de la izquierda est escalando una pared? +Muy bien. El punto es que es realmente difcil distinguirlos, no es as? Es increble, vimos a estudiantes hacer esto y no podan diferenciarlos. +Pueden correr sobre una pared a un metro por segundo, 15 pasos por segundo y parece que estuvieran corriendo en un plano horizontal. Cmo lo hacen? +Es fenomenal. El de la derecha est escalando la pared. +Cmo hacen esto? - tienen dedos extraos - tienen dedos que se desenrrollan como espantasuegras cuando los inflas y luego se despegan de la superficie como cinta adhesiva. +Como si tuviramos un pedazo de cinta adhesiva y lo despegramos de esta forma. +Esto es lo que hacen con sus dedos. Es estrafalario. Este despegarse inspir el iRobot con el que trabajamos, para construir Mecho-Geckos. +Esta es la versin con patas y la versin tractor, o una versin bulldozer. +Veamos algunas lagartijas moverse en el video y entonces les mostrar un corto de los robots. +Aqu est la lagartija escalando una superficie vertical, aqu va, en tiempo real, aqu va otra vez. Obviamente tenemos que lentificar esto un poco. +No puedes usar cmaras comunes. +Tienes que tomar 1,000 cuadros por segundo para ver esto. +Aqu est un video a 1,000 cuadros por segundo. +Ahora, miren la espalda del animal. +Ven cunto se dobla de esa manera? No lo entendemos - es un misterio por resolver. No sabemos cmo funciona. +Si tienen un hijo o hija que quiere venir a Berkeley, que vengan a mi laboratorio y resolveremos esto. Bueno, mndenlos a Berkeley porque es la siguiente cosa que quiero hacer. Aqu est la caminadora para lagartijas. +Es una caminadora transparente con una banda transparente para que podamos ver las patas de los animales y tomarles video a travs de la banda, para ver cmo se mueven. +Aqu est el animal que tenemos, corriendo sobre una superficie vertical, +escojan una pata y traten de ver un dedo, a ver si pueden ver lo que el animal est haciendo. +Vanlo desenrrollar y despegar esos dedos. +Lo puede hacer en 14 milisegundos. Es increble. +Aqu estn los robots que han inspirado, el Meco-Geckos de iRobot. +Primero vemos los dedos del animal despegarse - miren eso. +Y aqu est la accin de despegar del Meco-Gecko +usa un adhesivo sensible a la presin para hacerlo. +Despegar en el animal, despegar en el Meco-Gecko, que les permite escalar autnomamente, subir una superficie plana, pasar a una pared y luego al techo. +Esta es la versin bulldozer. Ahora, no usa el pegamento sensible a la presin. +El animal no usa eso. +Pero eso es a lo que estamos limitados por el momento. +Qu hace el animal? El animal tiene dedos extraos +y si miras sus dedos tienen estas pequeas hojas ah, y si las magnificas vers que hay pequeas estriaciones en esas hojas. +Y si amplas 270 veces, vers que parece una alfombra. +Y si amplas 900 veces puedes ver que tiene pelos ah, pequeos pelos, y si miras cuidadosamente esos diminutos pelos tienen estriaciones. Y si los amplas 30,000 veces puedes ver que cada pelo termina en una bifurcacin. +Y si amplas esos puedes ver que tienen pequeas estructuras en la punta. +La ms pequea rama de los pelos parece una esptula y un animal como este tiene mil millones de esas puntas bifurcadas de nano-tamao para entrar en contacto con la superficie. De hecho, aqu est el dimetro de un cabello humano una lagartija tiene dos millones de esos y cada pelo tiene entre 100 y 1,000 puntas bifurcadas. +Piense en el contacto que eso hace posible. +Tenemos la fortuna de trabajar con otro grupo en Stanford que construy un sensor nano especial que puede medir la fuerza de una pelo individual. +Aqu est un pelo individual con la punta bifurcada aqu, +cuando medimos las fuerzas eran enormes, +eran tan grandes que un pedazo de pelos de este tamao, la pata de la lagartija podra soportar el peso de un nio pequeo - unos veinte kilos fcilmente. Cmo lo hacen? +Recientemente descubrimos esto. Lo hacen por friccin? +No, la fuerza es demasiado baja. Lo hacen por electrosttica? +No, puedes cambiar la carga, y siguen adheridos. +Lo hacen por enlaces? Algo como el velcro. +No, puedes ponerlos en superficies molecularmente lisas - no lo hacen. +Qu tal succin? Tampoco, pueden sujetarse en el vaco. +Qu tal adhesin mojada? O adhesin capilar? +No tienen pegamento y se sostienen aun bajo el agua sin problemas. +Si pones sus patas bajo el agua igual se sostienen. +Cmo lo hacen entonces? Lo creas o no, se sostienen por fuerzas intermoleculares, fuerzas de Van Der Waals. +Probablemente estudiaron esto hace mucho tiempo en Qumica donde tienes estos dos tomos, muy juntos y los electrones se mueven alrededor. Esa pequea fuerza es suficiente para permitirles hacer esto porque se multiplica muchas veces con esas pequeas estructuras. +Lo que estamos haciendo es tomar la inspiracin de los pelos y con otro colega en Berkeley, los estamos fabricando. +Y recientemente tuvimos un avance extraordinario por el cual creemos que vamos a poder crear el primer adhesivo sinttico, auto-limpiante, Muchas compaas estn interesadas en esto. +Tambin se lo presentamos a Nike. +Pero las hormigas lo hacen y tenemos que entender por qu, as que finalmente tendremos que hacer esto. Imaginen, van a ser capaces de tener enjambres de estos robots de seis milmetros corriendo. +Qu pasa? Creo que ya lo pueden ver. +Claramente la Internet empieza a tener ojos y odos, tenemos cmaras web y tal. Pero ahora tambin tendr piernas y manos. +Van a poder hacer trabajo programable con esa clase de robots, de tal forma que puedan correr, volar y nadar donde sea. Lo vimos con David Kelly al principio con sus peces. +As que en conclusin, creo que el mensaje es claro. +Si necesitas un mensaje, si la naturaleza no es suficiente, si te importan las operaciones de bsqueda y rescate, desactivacin de minas o la medicina o las varias cosas en las que estamos trabajando, debemos preservar los diseos naturales, de otra manera esos secretos se perdern para siempre. +Gracias. +Sufr un incendio hace nueve das. +Mi archivo: 175 pelculas, mi negativo de 16 milmetros, todos mis libros, los libros de mi Pap, +que haba coleccionado -- Fui un gran coleccionista, en extremo -- +Se acab. +Apenas lo mir, y no saba que hacer. +Quiero decir, estas fueron -- fui yo mis cosas? +Siempre vivo en el presente -- Amo el presente. +Aprecio mucho el futuro. +Y me ensearon algunas cosas extraas cuando era pequeo, tal como, tienes que lograr algo bueno de algo malo. +Tienes que lograr algo bueno de algo malo. +Eso fue lamentable! Hombre, Yo estaba... Toso, estaba enfermo. +Ese era el objetivo de mi cmara. La primera -- con la cual hice mi pelcula Bod Dylan hace 35 aos. +Ese es mi largometraje. "King, Murray" fue la pelcula ganadora en el Festival de Cannes de 1970 -- la nica copia de negativo que tena. +Esos son mis papeles. +Eso fue en minutos -- 20 minutos. +La epifana me golpe. Algo me golpe. +"Tienes que lograr algo bueno de algo malo," Comenc a decir a mis amigos, vecinos, a mi hermana. +A propsito, esa es "Sputnik," la present el ao pasado. +"Sputnik" estuvo en el centro de la ciudad, el negativo. No fue afectado. +Estas son algunos pedazos de las cosas que utilizaba en mi largometraje Sputnik, que se presenta al pblica en Nueva York en dos semanas en el centro de la ciudad. +Llam a mi hermana. Llam a mis vecinos. Dije: "Vengan a excavar." +Ese soy yo junto a mi escritorio. +Ese era un escritorio que me tom unos 40 aos construir. +Ustedes saben -- todas esas cosas. +Esa es mi hija Jean. +Ella vino. Es una enfermera en San Francisco. +"Cava," le dije. "Pedazos. +Quiero pedazos. Pedacitos y pedazos." +Me surgi esta idea: una vida de pedacitos y pedazos, en la cual apenas estoy comenzando a trabajar -- mi prximo proyecto. +Esa es mi hermana. Ella cuid mis fotos, porque yo fui un gran coleccionista de fotografas instantneas que yo crea decan mucho. +Y aquellas son algunas de las fotos que -- algo qued bueno entre las fotos quemadas. +No saba. Lo mir -- Dije: "Vaya, es mejor que el --" Esa es mi propuesta sobre Jimmy Doolittle. Hice esa pelcula para televisin. +Es la nica copia que tena -- pedazos de ella. +Idea sobre las mujeres. +As que empec a decir, "Oye hombre, T eres demasiado!" +Tu podras llorar por esto." En realidad no lo hice. +Esa es la fotografa original de Arthur Leipzig que me fascinaba. +Fui un gran coleccionista de discos de vinilo -- los discos no lo lograron. Vaya, te digo, la pelcula quema, la pelcula quema. +Quiero decir, esta fue una pelcula de seguridad de 16 milmetros. +Los negativos se fueron. +Ese es la carta que mi padre me envi dicindome que me casara con la mujer con quien primero me cas cuando tena 20 aos. +Esa es mi hija y yo. +Ella an est all. De hecho ella est all esta maana.. +Esa es mi casa. +Mi familia est viviendo en el hotel Hilton en Scotts Valley. +Esa es mi esposa, Heidi, quien no lo tom as como yo. +Mis hijos, Davey y Henry. +Mi hijo Davey, en el hotel, hace dos noches. +As que mi mensaje para ustedes amigos, de mis tres minutos, es que agradezco la oportunidad de compartir esto con ustedes. Volver. Me encanta estar en TED. +Vine a vivirlo y lo estoy viviendo. +Esa es la vista desde mi ventana, fuera de Santa Cruz, en Bonny Doon, a solo 35 millas de aqu. +Gracias a todos. +Este es un trabajo en proceso basado en algunos comentarios que se hicieron en TED hace dos aos sobre la necesidad de almacenaje de vacunas +[ En este planeta ] [ mil seiscientos millones de personas ] [ no tienen acceso a electricidad ] [ refrigeracin ] [ o combustibles almacenados ] +[ ste es un problema ] +[ su impacto: ] [ se propagan enfermedades ] [ el almacenaje de comida y medicina ] [ y la calidad de vida ] +[ este es el plan: refrigeracin barata que no usa electricidad...] [...propano, gas, keroseno o consumibles ] +[ es momento para ver termodinmica ] +[ Y la historia del Refrigerador de Absorcin Intermitente ] +As que hace 29 aos, tuve este profesor de termodinmica que habl sobre la absorcin y refrigeracin. +Es una de esas cosas que nnca olvid. +Era muy parecido al Motor Stirling: era genial pero no sabas que hacer con l. +Y fue inventado en 1858 por este hombre Ferdinand Carre, pero no pudo contruir nada con l por las herramientas de la poca. +Este loco Canadiense llamado Powell Crosley comercializ esta cosa llamada el Icyball en 1928, y era realmente una buena idea, ya les dir porqu no funcion, pero as es cmo funciona. +Hay dos esferas y estn separadas a cierta distancia. +Una tiene un lquido operante, agua y amonaco, y el otro es un condensador. +Calientas un lado, el lado caliente. +El amonaco se evapora y se recondensa en el otro lado. +Lo dejas enfriar a temperatura ambiente, y luego, mientras el amonaco se re-evapora y se combina con el agua nuevamente de vuelta al lado caliente inicial, crea un poderoso efecto refrigerante. +As que era una idea genial pero no funcion para nada: explot. +Porque al usar amonaco obtienes enormes altas presiones si lo calientas mal. +Lleg a 400 psi. El amonaco era txico. Se esparci por todos lados. +Pero fue un pensamiento interesante. +As que lo genial sobre el 2006 es que hay una gran cantidad de trabajo computacional que puedes hacer. +As que tuvimos un departamento de termodinmica completo en Stanford. Mucha dinmica de fluido computacional. +Comprobamos que la mayora de las tablas de refrigeracin de amonaco estaban mal. +Encontramos unos refrigerantes no txicos que trabajaban a muy baja presin de vapor. +Traidos por un equipo del Reino Unido-- hay mucha gente que sabe sobre refrigeracin, y result que, en el Reino Unido-- construyeron un equipo de pruebas, y probaron que de hecho podamos hacer un refrigerador no txico y de baja presin. +As es como funciona. +Lo pones sobre una fogata o una estufa. +La mayora de las personas en el mundo tienen fogatas, sean de estircol de camello o madera. +se calienta por 30 minutos, se enfria por una hora. +lo pones en un recipiente y refrigerar por 24 horas. +Se ve as. Este es el quinto prototipo. No est listo an. +Pesa alrededor de ocho libras y as es como funciona. +Lo pones en una vasija de 15 litros, tres galones ms o menos, y lo enfrias al punto de congelamiento, tres grados sobre el punto de congelamiento, por 24 horas en un ambiente de 30 grados Celsius. Es realmente barato. +Creemos que podemos construir stos en grandes cantidades por 25 dlares, y al menudeo por 40 dlares +y pensamos que podemos hacer de la refrigeracin algo que todos podemos tener. +Gracias +Muchos de ustedes conocern probablemente la historia de los dos vendedores que viajaron a frica en los primeros aos del siglo XX. +Los mandaron para ver si era factible vender zapatos. Y desde all enviaron telegramas a Manchester. +Uno de ellos escribi: "Ninguna posibilidad. Stop. No usan zapatos". +Y el otro escribi: "Magnfica oportunidad. Todava no tienen zapatos". +En el mundo de la msica clsica la situacin es similar porque algunos piensan que la msica clsica est agonizando. +Y otros pensamos que todava no han visto nada. +Y en vez de analizar estadsticas y tendencias y hablarles de todas las orquestas que dejan de tocar y las empresas discogrficas que cierran, pens que esta noche era mejor hacer un experimento -- un experimento. +En realidad, no es un experimento porque s el resultado. +Pero es como un experimento. Ahora, antes... ... antes de comenzar debo hacer dos cosas. +Una es recordarles cmo un chico de siete aos suena cuando toca el piano. +Tal vez tengan a este chico en casa. +Suena un poco as. +Veo que algunos reconocen a este chico. +Ahora, si practica durante un ao y toma clases, tiene ocho y suena as. +Practica otro ao y toma clases; ya tiene nueve +Practica un ao ms y toma clases; ya tiene diez. +Aqu en general dejan. +Ahora, si hubieran esperado, si hubieran esperado un ao ms +habran escuchado esto: Lo que pas no fue quizs lo que pensaron, o sea, que de repente se entusiasm, se comprometi, se dedic ms, cambi de profesor, lleg a la pubertad o lo que sea. +Lo que pas en realidad, es que se redujeron los acentos. +Vern, la primera vez tocaba con un acento en cada nota. +Y la segunda con un acento nota por medio. +Pueden verlo observando mi cabeza. +El de nueve aos, el de nueve aos pone un acento cada cuatro notas. +Y el de diez aos cada ocho notas. +Y el de once aos, un acento en toda la frase. +Lo s -- No s cmo llegamos a esta posicin. +No pens: voy a mover el hombro as, mover el cuerpo. +No, la msica me empuj, por eso lo llamo tocar con un solo glteo. +Puede ser el otro glteo. +Saben, una vez un seor asisti a una presentacin que hice cuando trabajaba con un joven pianista. +Era presidente de una empresa de Ohio. +Y yo estaba trabajando con este joven pianista y dije: "El problema es que tocas con los dos glteos. +Deberas tocar con un solo glteo". +Y mov su cuerpo as mientras tocaba. +Y de pronto la msica despeg. Levant vuelo. +El pblico suspir asombrado al or la diferencia. +Y despus recib una carta de este hombre. +Deca: "Me conmovi. +Volv y transform toda mi empresa en una empresa de un solo glteo". +La otra cosa que quera hacer es hablarles de ustedes. +Habr unas 1.600 personas, creo. +Mi clculo es que probablemente 45 de ustedes sienten absoluta pasin por la msica clsica. +Adoran la msica clsica. Tienen la FM siempre en el dial clsico. +Y tienen CDs en el auto y van al concierto. Y sus hijos tocan instrumentos. +No se imaginan la vida sin msica clsica. +Ese es el primer grupo; es un grupo muy pequeo. +Despus est el otro grupo, ms grande. +Esta es la gente a la que no les molesta la msica clsica. +Ya saben, llegas a casa despus de un largo da y tomas una copa de vino y pones los pies en alto. +Un poco de Vivaldi como fondo no hace dao. +Ese es el segundo grupo. +Ahora viene el tercer grupo. La gente que nunca escucha msica clsica. +Simlpemente no forma parte de su vida. +Quizs la escuchan como fumadores pasivos en el aeropuerto, pero -- +-- y quiz una pequea parte de una marcha de Aida al entrar en la sala. Pero, fuera de eso, nunca escuchan. +Ese es probablemente el grupo ms grande. +Y despus hay un grupo muy pequeo. +Son los que creen que no tienen sentido musical. +Montones de personas creen que no tienen sentido musical. +Ciertamente, escucho mucho decir: "Mi marido no tiene odo para la msica". +Pero, a decir verdad, es se puede no tener sentido musical. Todos lo tenemos. +Si no tuviramos sentido musical, no podramos hacer los cambios en el auto, con palanca manual. +No podramos distinguir entre alguien de Texas y alguien de Roma. +Y el telfono. El telfono. Si llama su madre por el pobre telfono, llama y dice "Hola", no slo saben quin es, tambin saben de qu humor est. +Tienen un odo fantstico. Todo el mundo tiene un odo fantstico. +O sea que a nadie le falta sentido musical. +Pero les digo algo. Para m no est bien seguir con esta cosa con semejante abismo entre los que entienden, aman y sienten pasin por la msica clsica, y los que no se relacionan con ella para nada. +Los que no tienen odo, ya no estn aqu. +Pero aun entre esas tres categoras, el abismo es demasiado grande. +O sea que no me ir de aqu que el ltimo en esta sala, abajo y en Aspen, y todos los que estn mirando lleguen a amar y entender la msica clsica. +As que esto es lo que haremos. +Ahora, se dan cuenta de que no tengo la ms mnima duda de que esto funcionar si miran mi cara, cierto? +Es una de las caractersticas de un lder que no dude ni un momento de la capacidad de aquellos a quien lidera de ver cualquier cosa que l suea. +Imaginen si Martin Luther King hubiera dicho; "Yo tengo un sueo. +Por supuesto, no s si van a poder entenderlo." +Est bien. Tomar entonces una pieza de Chopin. +Es un bello preludio de Chopin. Algunos lo conocen. +Saben qu me parece que ocurri probablemente en esta sala? +Cuando empec, pensaron, "Qu lindo suena" +"No creo que debamos ir al mismo lugar de vacaciones el verano que viene". +Es gracioso, no? Es gracioso cmo esos pensamientos +nos dan vueltas en la cabeza. +Y por supuesto -- -- y por supuesto, si la pieza es larga y tuvieron un largo da, pueden llegar a desconectarse. +Entonces, su acompaante les dar un codazo en las costillas para decir: "Despierta, es cultura! Y entonces se sentirn peor. +Pero, alguna vez pensaron que la razn por la que sienten somnolencia con la msica clsica no es por ustedes, sino por nosotros? +Alguien pens, mientras yo tocaba, "Por qu usa tantos acentos?" +Si hubiera hecho esto con mi cabeza, seguro lo habran pensado. +Y por el resto de su vida, cada vez que escuchen msica clsica siempre podrn saber si escuchan esos acentos. +Entonces, veamos lo que est pasando aqu realmente. +Tenemos un SI. Esto es un SI. La siguiente nota es DO. +Y el trabajo del DO es hacer triste al SI. Y lo consigue, no? +Los compositores lo saben. Si quieren msica triste +simplemente tocan esas dos notas. +Pero bsicamente es slo un SI, con cuatro tristes. +Ahora, baja a LA. Ahora a SOL y luego a FA. +Entonces tenemos SI, LA, SOL, FA. Y si tenemos SI, LA, SOL, FA, que esperamos despus? Oh, eso pudo haber sido casual. +Probemos de nuevo. Oooh, el coro TED. +Y notan que no hay nadie sin odo musical, cierto? Nadie. +Miren, cada aldea de Bangladesh y cada aldea en China. Todos saben: da, da, da, da -- da. Todos saben quin espera ese MI. +Pero Chopin no quera llegar a ese MI ah, porque, qu habra pasado? Terminara, como Hamlet. +Recuerdan Hamlet? Acto I, Escena 3: descubre que fue su to quien mat a su padre. +Recuerdan que despus aborda a su to y casi lo mata. Y despus retrocede +y vuelve a abordarlo y casi lo mata. +Y los crticos, todos sentados en la ltima fila, deben tener una opinin, entonces dicen, "A Hamlet le falta decisin". +O decir, "Hamlet tiene un complejo de Edipo". +No, tonto, es que si no la obra terminara. +Por eso Shakespeare pone todas esas cosas en Hamlet. Ya saben, Ofelia que enloquece y la obra dentro de la obra, y la calavera de Yorick, y los sepultureros. +Es para dilatar -- recin en el Acto V puede matarlo. +Lo mismo con Chopin. Est a punto de alcanzar MI, y dice, "No, mejor volver atrs y repetirlo". +Y lo repite. +Ahora se entusiasma -- esto es entusiasmo, +no tienen que preocuparse. +Ahora llega a FA y finalmente baja a MI, pero es el acorde equivocado. Porque el acorde que busca es ste, y en cambio hace... +esto es lo que llamamos una cadencia engaosa porque nos engaa. +Siempre digo a mis alumnos, "Si hay una cadencia engaosa asegurense de alzar las cejas para que todos lo sepan". +Bien. Entonces llega al MI, pero es el acorde equivocado. +Intenta MI de nuevo. Ese acorde no funciona. +Vuelve a probar el MI. Ese acorde no resulta. +Ahora, vuelve a probar MI de nuevo y no funciona. +Y entonces, finalmente... +En la primera fila un seor dijo: "Mmm". +Es el mismo gesto que hace cuando llega a su casa despus de un largo da, apaga el motor del auto y dice, "Ah, estoy en casa". Porque todos sabemos cundo llegamos a casa. +Esta es, pues, una pieza que llega de lejos a casa. +Y voy a tocar todo el camino de nuevo +y ustedes van a seguirlo. SI, DO, SI, DO, SI, DO, SI -- hasta LA, hasta SOL, hasta FA. +Casi llega al MI, pero no porque la obra se acabara. +Sube otra vez a SI. Se entusiasma. Va al FA agudo. Va a MI. +No es el acorde justo. No es el acorde justo. No es el acorde justo. +Y finalmente va al MI, y llega a casa. +Y as vern tocar con un glteo. +Porque para poder unir al SI con el MI, Debo dejar de pensar en cada nota individual en el camino y pensar en la larga, larga lnea del SI al MI. +Miren, estbamos en Sudfrica, y no se puede ir all sin pensar en Mandela en la crcel por 27 aos. +En qu pensaba? El almuerzo? +No, pensaba en la visin para Sudfrica y para los seres humanos. Eso lo mantuvo -- +esto se refiere a esa visin; de eso se trata la larga lnea. +Como el pjaro que vuela sobre el campo sin preocuparse por los cercos abajo, verdad? +Entonces ahora van a seguir la lnea por todo el camino de SI a MI. +Y tengo un ltimo pedido antes de tocar esta pieza completa. +Podran pensar en alguien que adoran, que ya no est? +Una abuela muy querida, un amante, alguien en sus vidas a quien amen con todo el corazn, pero esa persona ya no est con ustedes. +Traigan esa persona a su mente y al mismo tiempo sigan la lnea por todo el camino de SI a MI, y oirn todo lo que Chopin tena para decir. +Ahora, se preguntarn quizs, se preguntarn quizs por qu aplaudo. +Bueno, hice esto en una escuela en Boston con unos 70 chicos de 12 aos. +Hice exactamente lo mismo que con ustedes, y les dije y les expliqu y todo lo dems. +Y al final, enloquecidos, aplaudieron. Aplaudan. +Yo aplauda. Ellos aplaudan. +Finalmente, dije, "Por qu aplaudo?" +Y uno de los chicos dijo, "Porque estbamos escuchando". +Pinsenlo. 1.600 personas, personas ocupadas, que hacen miles de cosas distintas. Escuchando, entendiendo y emocionndose con una pieza de Chopin. +Eso es un logro. +Ahora, estoy seguro de que cada persona lo sigui, lo entendi y se emocion. Por supuesto, no puedo estar seguro. +Pero les dir qu me pas a m. Estaba en Irlanda durante los Disturbios 10 aos atrs, y trabajaba con chicos catlicos y protestantes en resolucin de conflictos. Esto lo hice con ellos. Algo riesgoso de hacer porque eran chicos de la calle. +Y uno de ellos vino a la maana siguiente y me dijo, "No haba escuchado msica clsica en toda mi vida, pero cuando toc esa pieza de "shopping" +Dijo, "A mi hermano lo mataron el ao pasado y no llor por l. +Pero anoche, cuando toc esa pieza, yo pens en l. +Y sent cmo me caan las lgrimas por la cara. +Y realmente me hizo muy bien llorar por mi hermano". +Por eso decid en ese momento que la msica clsica es para todos. Todos. +Ahora, cmo caminaran -- porque miren, mi profesin, la profesin de la msica no se ve as. +Dicen el 3 porciento de la poblacin ama la msica clsica. +Si pudiramos subirlo al 4 porciento se acabaran nuestros problemas. +Yo digo, "Cmo caminaran? Cmo hablaran? Cmo seran +si pensaran que el 3 porciento de la poblacin gusta de la msica clsica? Si tan slo pudiramos llevarlo al 4 porciento. Cmo caminaran? +Cmo hablaran? Cmo seran +si pensaran que todos aman la msica clsica -- todava no lo han descubierto". +Se trata de mundos totalmente distintos. +Tuve una experiencia increble. Tena 45 aos, llevaba 20 aos dirigiendo y de golpe tuve una revelacin. +El director de una orquesta no emite sonido. +Mi foto aparece en la tapa del CD -- -- pero el director no emite un sonido. +Su poder depende de su habilidad para hacer poderosos a otros. +Y eso cambi todo para m. Fue decisivo en mi vida. +Los de mi orquesta venan y me decan, "Ben, qu pas?" Esto es lo que pas. +Descubr que mi tarea era despertar posibilidades en otros. +Y por supuesto, quera saber si lo estaba haciendo. +Y saben cmo se descubre? Mirndolos a los ojos. +Si sus ojos estn brillando, sabes que lo ests logrando . +Podras iluminar un pueblo con los ojos de ese tipo. +Cierto. Si los ojos brillan, sabes que lo ests logrando. +Si los ojos no brillan, hay que hacer una pregunta. +Y la pregunta es: Quin estoy siendo que los ojos de mis msicos no brillan? +Podemos hacerlo con nuestros hijos tambin. +Quin estoy siendo que los ojos de mis hijos no brillan? +Es un mundo totalmente distinto. +Estamos a punto de terminar esta semana mgica en la montaa, y vamos a volver al mundo. +Y digo, es apropiado que nos hagamos la pregunta: Quines estamos siendo ahora que volvemos al mundo? +Y, saben, yo tengo una definicin del xito. +Para m es muy simple. No se trata de riqueza y fama y poder. +Se trata de cuntos ojos brillantes hay a mi alrededor. +Y ahora tengo una ltima reflexin, y es que realmente marca una diferencia aquello que decimos. Las palabras que salen de nuestra boca. +Lo aprend de una mujer que sobrevivi a Auschwitz, una de las pocas sobrevivientes. +Fue a Auschwitz cuando tena 15 aos, +y el hermano tena ocho, y sus padres desaparecidos. +Y me cont esto, me dijo, "bamos en el tren rumbo a Auschwitz y mir hacia abajo y vi que a mi hermano le faltaban los zapatos. +Y le dije: "Eres tan tonto que ni siquiera puedes conservar tus cosas por el amor de Dios?" -- como cualquier hermana mayor puede hablarle a un hermano menor. +Por desgracia, fue lo ltimo que le dijo porque no volvi a verlo nunca. l no sobrevivi. +Y cuando sali de Auschwitz, hizo una promesa. +Me dijo esto. Dijo: "Sal de Auschwitz a la vida e hice una promesa. Y la promesa fue, nunca dir nada que no pueda quedar como lo ltimo que dije". +Podemos hacerlo? No. Y nos lastimaremos +y lastimaremos. Pero es una posibilidad a adoptar en la vida. Gracias. +Ojos brillantes, ojos brillantes. +Gracias, gracias. +Pero de todos modos, esta se trata acerca de los peligros de la ciencia, as que creo que es perfecta. +"Ja, soy la nica persona a la que he amado." +Eso est bien. Creo que eres mi atraccionie fatal. T eres mi Clonie. Gracias. +La mayora de las personas no saben que cuando yo fui al bachillerato en este pas Apliqu para la universidad en un momento en el que estaba convencido de que iba a ser un artista y escultor +Y vena de un muy privilegiado entorno. Era muy afortunado +Mi familia era acaudalada, y mi padre crea en una cosa, y eso era en darnos tanta educacin como quisiramos +Y yo anunci que queria ser un escultor en Paris +Y el era un hombre ingenioso. Dijo algo como, "Bueno, esta bien, pero te ha ido muy bien en tus pruebas de matemtica" +De hecho, obtuve 800, y el pensaba que lo habia hecho muy bien-y lo hice tambin- en artes. Esa era mi pasin. +Y el dijo "Si vas a MIT(Massachussets Institute of Technology)", adonde habia conseguido matricularme tempranamente, "Pagar por cada ao que estes en MIT, antes y despus de graduarte- tanto como quieras- Pagar por un numero igual de aos para que vivas en Paris." +Y pens que ese era el mejor trato posible, asi que acept inmediatamente. +Y decid que si era bueno en artes, y era bueno en matemticas, estudiara arquitectura, que era una mezcla de las dos. +Fu y le dije eso al Director en la escuela preparatoria. +Y le dije lo que estaba haciendo, que iba a estudiar arquitectura porque era unir las artes con las matemticas +El me dijo algo que reson completamente en mi cabeza. +El dijo, "Sabes, me gustan los trajes grises, y me gustan los trajes a rayas, pero no me gustan los trajes grises a rayas." +Y pens, "Que inepto es este tipo," y me fui a MIT. +Estudi arquitectura, luego hice un segundo grado en arquitectura, y entonces me di cuenta rpidamente que no era arquitectura. +Que realmente, la mezcla de arte y ciencia era las computadoras. Y que ese era realmente el lugar para reunir a las dos, y disfrutar una carrera hacindolo. +Y probablemente, si yo fuera a llenar la escala de Jim Citrin Pondra 100 por ciento en el lado de la ecuacin donde pasaras el tiempo haciendo posible que otros sean creativos. +Y despu s de hacer esto por largo tiempo, y algo as como pasar el testigo del relevo al Laboratorio de Medios, Pens, "Bueno, quizs es mi hora para hacer un proyecto, +algo que sera importante, pero adems algo que tomara ventaja de todos esos privilegios que uno tena." +Y en el caso del Laboratorio de Medios, conociendo mucha gente. Conociendo personas que eran ejecutivos o gente rica, y adems no teniendo, en mi caso, una carrera de que preocuparme nunca ms. +Mi carrera, me refiero, ya hab a hecho mi carrera. +No tena que preocuparme por ganar dinero. +No tena que preocuparme por lo que la gente pensara de mi. +Y dije, "Muchacho, realmente hagamos algo que tome ventaja de todas estas caractersticas," y pens que si pudiramos dirigir la educacin influenciando los nios y llevando al mundo el acceso a las computadoras, eso sera realmente lo que deberamos hacer. +Nunca he enseado esta foto antes, y probablemente voy a ser demandado por esto. +Fue tomada a las 3 de la maana sin permiso de la compaa. +Tiene aproximadamente 2 semanas. Aqu est amigos. +Si observan la foto, vern que estn apiladas. +Esas son cintas transportadoras que van circulando. +Esta es una de las cintas transportadoras con la cosa andando, y entonces ustedes vern las que estn ms arriba. +Lo que sucede es que ellos copian dentro de una memoria porttil el software, y luego los ponen a prueba por algunas horas. +Pero deben tener la cosa movindose en la lnea de ensamblaje ya que es constante. +As ellas siguen en este crculo, por lo cual ustedes las ven alla arriba. +As que esto fue maravilloso para nosotros ya que fue un verdadero momento de cambio. Pero retrocede. +Esta foto fue tomada en 1982, justo antes que la PC de IBM fuera siquiera anunciada. +Seymour Papert y yo estabamos trayendo computadores a las escuelas y pases en desarrollo en un momento cuando esto estaba adelantado a su poca. +Pero una cosa que aprendimos era que esos nios podan usarlas de la misma forma que nuestros nios lo hacen aqu. +Y cuando la gente me deca, "Quin va a ensearle a los maestros para que les enseen a los nios?" +Yo me deca, "De que planeta vienen Ustedes?" +Okay, no hay una persona en este saln - No me importa cuan tecnolgico sea- no hay una persona en este saln que no le d su laptop o celular a un nio para ayudarles a mejorarlo. OK? +Todos necesitamos ayuda, an aquellos de nosotros con mucha experiencia. +Esta es la foto de Seymour -hace 25 aos. Seymour hizo una muy simple observacin en 1968 y luego bsicamente la present en 1970 - Abril 11 para ser preciso - llamada "Enseando el Pensamiento de los Nios" +Lo que el observ era que los nios que escriben programas de computadoras entienden las cosas de una forma diferente, y cuando ellos mejoran los programas, llegan lo ms cercano posible a aprender acerca de aprender. +Eso fue muy importante, y de algn modo nosotros hemos perdido eso. +Los nios no programan lo suficiente y vaya, si hay algo que deseo que esto traiga de vuelta, es que los nios programen. +Es realmente importante. Usar aplicaciones est bien, pero programar es absolutamente fundamental. +Esto est siendo lanzado con tres lenguajes: Squeak, Logo, y un tercero, que nunca antes haba visto. +El punto es, esto va a ser muy, muy intensivo en el lado de la programacin. +Esta fotografa es muy importante ya que fue mucho despus. +Fue a comienzos de los 2000s. Mi hijo, Dimitri - quien est aqu, muchos de ustedes conocen a Dimitri - fue a Cambodia, prepar esta escuela que nosotros habamos construdo, justo cuando la escuela se conect a Internet. +Y estos nios tenan sus laptops. Pero esto fue realmente lo que nos inspir, adems de la influencia de Joe y otros, comenzamos Una Laptop Por Nio. +Estas son del mismo pueblo en Cambodia, hace solo unos meses. +Estos nios son verdaderos profesionales. Fueron solo 7,000 mquinas all siendo probadas por nios. Ser una sin fines de lucro es absolutamente fundamental. +Todos me advirtieron que no fuera una sin fines de lucro, pero todos estaban equivocados. +Y la razn de ser una sin fines de lucro es importante por dos motivos. +Hay muchas razones, pero las dos que ameritan el poco tiempo son: uno, la claridad de propsito est all. El propsito moral es claro. +Puedo ver cualquier jefe de Estado, cualquier ejecutivo que quiera, en cualquier momento porque No estoy vendiendo laptops. OK?, No tengo accionistas. +Lo que sea que vendamos, no hace ninguna diferencia en lo absoluto +la claridad de propsito es absolutamente crtica. Y la segunda es muy contraria a lo esperado- puedes tener la mejor gente en el mundo. +Si miran nuestros servicios profesionales, incluyendo firmas de bsqueda, incluyendo comunicaciones, incluyendo servicios legales, incluyendo a los bancos, todos ellos trabajan sin cobrar. Y esto no es para ahorrar dinero. +Tenemos dinero en el banco. Es porque se tiene a la mejor gente. +Se tiene la gente que est haciendo esto porque creen en la misin y ellos son los mejores. +Nosotros no podamos contratar un CFO (Jefe de Finanzas). Colocamos una descripcin del trabajo para un CFO (Jefe de Finanzas) sin salario, y tenamos una fila de personas. +Esto te permite hacer equipo con la gente. Las Naciones Unidas no iban a ser nuestros socios si obtuviramos ganancias. As que anunciando esto con Kofi Annan era muy importante, y Naciones Unidas nos permiti bsicamente llegar a todos los pases. Y esta era la mquina que nosotros mostrbamos antes de conocer a Yves Behar. +Y aunque esta mquina de algun modo es simple, en retrospectiva, sirvi para un propsito muy importante. +Esa manivela amarilla era recordada por todos. +Todos recuerdan la manivela amarilla. Es diferente. +Iba adquiriendo su poder en una forma diferente. Es como infantil. +An cuando esta no fue la direccin que seguimos porque la manivela- de hecho, es realmente estpido tenerla en la estructura. +A pesar de lo que alguna gente de la prensa no captaba, no entenda, no la quitamos porque no quisimos hacer- tenerla en la misma laptop no es realmente lo que quieres. +Quieres algo aparte, como un adaptador AC (Corriente Alterna). +No traje uno conmigo, pero trabajan mucho mejor fuera de la estructura. +Y entonces podra decirles mucho acerca de la laptop, pero les dir solo cuatro cosas. +Solo tengan en mente- ya que hay otras personas, incluyendo a Bill Gates, quien dijo,"Caramba, usted tiene una computadora de verdad." +Esa computadora es diferente a cualquiera que hayan tenido, y hace cosas- hay cuatro de ellas- que ustedes no usan. Y es muy importante que sea de bajo consumo de energa, Y espero que sea escogida ms por la industria. +Que la razn que ustedes quieren para que est por debajo de dos watts es que esto es cercano a lo que se puede generar con la parte superior del cuerpo. +Pantalla de modo dual- esa pantalla con luz solar es fantstica. +Estuvimos usndola en el almuerzo hoy, con luz solar, y mientras ms luz mejor. +Y eso era relamente crtico. La red de malla, se volver un sitio comun. +Y por supuesto, "slida y duradera" es evidente. +Y la razn por la cual pienso que el diseo importa no es porque quise ir a la escuela de arte. +Y por cierto, cuando me gradue del MIT, pens que la peor y ms intil cosa que poda hacer era ir a Paris por seis aos. Asi que no lo hice. Pero el diseo importa por varias razones. +La ms importante es que es la mejor forma de hacer un producto barato. +Mucha gente hace productos baratos al usar diseos baratos, mano de obra barata, componentes baratos, y haciendo una laptop barata. +Y en ingls la palabra "cheap" tiene doble significado, lo cual es realmente apropiado. Porque es "cheap" en el sentido peyorativo , as como barato. +Pero si toman un acercamiento diferente, y piensan en una integracin a larga escala, materiales muy avanzados, fabricacion muy avanzada, de manera que estn vaciando qumicos por un lado, y iPods son arrojados por el otro lado, y un diseo realmente atractivo, eso es lo que queramos hacer. +Y puedo acelerar en este punto y ahorrar cantidad de tiempo ya que Yves y yo obviamente no comparamos notas. +Estas son sus diapositivas, asi que no tengo que hablar de ellas. +Pero fue realmente, para nosotros, muy importante como estrategia. +No se trataba solo de hacerla bonita, porque alguien- saben, un buen diseo es muy importante. +Yves mostr uno de los aparatos generadores de energa. +La red de malla, la razon por la cual yo - y no voy a entrar en gran detalle- pero cuando entregamos laptops a nios en las partes mas remotas y pobres del mundo, ellos estn conectados. No son solo laptops. +As que tenemos que colocar antenas satelitales. Poner generadores. +Son muchas cosas que van detrs de esto. Ellas pueden comunicarse entre s. +Si estn en un desierto, pueden comunicarse entre s hasta casi a dos kilmetros de distancia. +Si estn en la selva es aproximadamente 500 metros. As, si un nio va a su casa en bicicleta, o camina unas pocas millas, van a estar fuera de la cuadrcula, por as decirlo. +No van a estar cerca de otra laptop, as que tienes que clavar estas a un rbol, y de alguna forma tenerla. +No se llama a Verizon o a Sprint. Se construye una red propia. +Y eso es muy importante, la interfaz del usuario. +Estamos arrancando con 18 teclados. Ingls es de lejos la minora. +Latn es relativamente raro tambin. Slo se buscan algunos idiomas. +Sospecho que algunos de ustedes ni siquiera han odo hablar de ellos antes. +Hay alguin en este saln, una persona, a menos que trabaje con OLPC (One Laptop Per Child), hay alguin en este saln que me pueda decir qu idioma es el teclado que est en la pantalla? Hay una sola mano -as que usted lo sabe. +S, es correcto. El tiene la razn. Es Amrico, Es Etope. En Etiopa nunca ha habido un teclado. +No hay un teclado estndar porque no hay mercado. +Y esta es la gran diferencia. +De nuevo, cuando uno es una sin fines de lucro, se ve a los nios como una misin, no como un mercado +Asi que fumos a Etiopa, y les ayudamos a hacer un teclado. +Y este se volver el teclado estndar de Etiopa. +As que quiero terminar con esta explicacin de lo que estamos haciendo para poner a marchar esto. +Y cambiamos la estrategia completamente. Decid al principio - lo cual fue algo muy bueno de decidir al comienzo, no es lo que estamos haciendo ahora - es ir a 6 pases. +Pases grandes, uno de ellos no tan grande, pero rico. +Aqu estn los seis. Fuimos a los seis, y en cada caso el jefe de estado dijo que el lo hara, que el hara un milln. +En el caso de Gaddafi, el hara 1.2 millones, y que ellos lo lanzaran. +Nosotros pensamos, esta es exactamente la estrategia correcta, exportarla, y luego los pequeos pases podran sumarse a los grandes. +Y entonces fu a cada uno de ellos, por lo menos seis veces, me entrevist con el jefe de estado probablemente dos o tres veces. +En cada caso, junto a los ministros, repasamos cantidad de cosas. +Este fue un periodo de mi vida donde viajaba 330 dias al ao +No es algo que ustedes envidiaran o quisieran hacer. +En el caso de Libia, fue divertido reunirme con Gaddafi en su carpa. +Los olores de los camellos eran increbles. +Y haca 45 grados centgrados. Me refiero, esto no fue lo que llamaran una experiencia "cool". Y pases anteriores - Digo anteriores, porque ninguno de ellos pasaron realmente por este verano. Hay una enorme diferencia entre reunirse con un jefe de estado para tener la oportunidad de fotografiarte, hacer una conferencia de prensa, +asi que fuimos a los pequeos. Uruguay, bendiga sus corazones. +Pas pequeo, no muy rico. El presidente dijo que el lo hara, y adivinen que? +El lo hizo. El encargado no tena nada en esto relacionado con nosotros, nada especfico acerca de la red de malla accesible con luz solar, bajo consumo de energa, pero solo una propuesta para una laptop vanilla +Y adivinen que? La ganamos sin levantar las manos. +Cuando fue anunciado que ellos llegaran a cada nio en Uruguay, las primeras 100,000, boom, fueron para la OLPC (One Laptop Per Child). +Al da siguiente - el da siguiente, ni siquiera 24 horas haban pasado- en Per, el presidente de Per anuncio, "Haremos 250." Y boom. un pequeo efecto domin. +El presidente de Rwanda se uni y dijo que el lo hara. +El presidente de Etiopa dijo que lo hara. +Y boom, boom, boom. El presidente de Mongolia. +Y entonces lo que sucede es, que estas cosas comienzan a pasar con estos pases. Todava no era suficiente. +Sumar todos estos pases, no se haba llegado todava a el objetivo, as que dijimos "Comencemos un programa en los Estados Unidos." As que a finales de Agosto, comienzos de Septiembre, decidimos hacerlo. Anunciamos esto a mediados, finales - justo cuando la iniciativa Clinton se estaba dando. +Pensamos que era una buena oportunidad para anunciarlo. +Lo lanzamos el 12 de Noviembre. +Dijimos que sera solo por un corto periodo de tiempo hasta el 26. Lo extendimos hasta el 31. +Y el programa "De Uno, Reciba Uno" es realmente importante porque haba cantidad de gente totalmente interesada. +El primer da fue salvaje. Y entonces dijimos, Bueno, consigamos gente que d m s. No solo una, y recibir una, sino tal vez que de 100, que de 1000." Y ah es donde Ustedes entran. +Y ah es donde yo creo que es muy importante. No quiero que Ustedes salgan y compren 400 dlares en laptops. Ok? Hganlo, pero eso no va a ayudar. Ok? +Si todos en esta sala salen esta noche y ordenan una de estas cosas por 400 dlares, lo que sea, 300 personas en la sala hacindolo, si, grandioso. +Quiero que hagan algo ms. +Y no es que salgan y compren 100 o 1000, en vez Los invito a hacer eso, y 10,000 sera aun mejor. +Cuntenle a la gente acerca de esto!. Tiene que volverse como un virus, OK? +Usen sus listados de correo. Las personas en esta sala tienen extraordinarios listados de correo +Hagan de que sus amigos den una y reciban una. +Y si cada uno de ustedes envan esto de 300 a 400 personas, sera fantstico. +No insistira para nada en el precio. +Solo decir que cuando tu practicas el "Da Uno, Recibe Uno," muchos en la prensa dirn, "No lo lograron, cuesta 188 dlares, no 100." +Costar 100 en dos aos. Luego estar por debajo de los 100. +Nosotros les pedimos no agregar extras, pero si bajar el precio. +Pero fueron los pases los que queran que subiera, y les dejamos que lo hicieran por varias razones. As que lo que pueden hacer - Lo acabo de decir. No solo "Den Uno, Reciban Uno." +Solo quiero terminar con esto ltimo. Esto tiene ni siquiera 24 horas, o quizs si 24 horas. +Los primeros nios tienen sus laptops. Las recibieron por barco, y estoy hablando ahora que aproximadamente 7,000, 8,000 a la vez salieron esta semana. +Fueron a Uruguay, Per, Mxico. +Y ahora se ha ido frenando, y estamos haciendo aproximadamente solo 5,000 por semana, pero esperamos, deseamos, que en algn momento el prximo ao, quizs a mitad de ao, lleguemos al millon mensual. Ahora pongamos ese nmero, y un milln no es tanto. No es un nmero grande. +Estamos vendiendo un billn de celulares en el mundo este ao. +Pero un milln mensual en el mundo de las laptops es un nmero grande. +Y la produccin mundial hoy en da, todos combinados haciendo laptops, es de 5 millones mensuales. As que estoy de pie aqu dicindoles que en algn momento del prximo ao, vamos a hacer el 20 por ciento de la produccin mundial. +Y si hacemos eso, vamos a tener muchos nios con suerte alla afuera. +Y esperamos que si ustedes tienen un EG (Entertainment Gathering) de aqu a dos aos, o cuando sea que lo tengan de nuevo, No me tragare mis palabras, y ser invitado de nuevo, y tendre, espero que para entonces, quizas 100 millones alla afuera para los nios. +Gracias. +Los que me conocen saben cun apasionado soy por abrir la frontera espacial. +As que cuando tuve la oportunidad de darle la experiencia de gravedad cero al experto mundial en gravedad fue increble. +Y quiero contarles esa historia. +Lo conoc inicialmente por el premio Archon X PRIZE de Genmica. +Es una competencia que estamos haciendo, el segundo X PRIZE, para el primer equipo que logre secuenciar 100 genomas humanos en 10 das. +Tenemos algo llamado el Genoma 100, que son 100 individuos que estamos secuenciando como parte de esto. +Craig Venter dirige este evento. +Y conoc al Profesor Hawking y me cont que su sueo era viajar al espacio. +Y le dije: "No lo puedo llevar hasta all, pero s lo puedo llevar a la ingravidez en Cero G". +Y ah mismo me dijo: "absolutamente s!" +Bueno, la nica manera de experimentar Cero G en la tierra es con un vuelo parablico, un vuelo ingrvido. +Tomas un avin, vuelas hacia arriba y no pesas nada por 25 segundos, +bajas de vuelta y pesas el doble. +Lo haces repetidamente. +Puedes obtener 8 o 10 minutos de ingravidez, as es como la NASA entrena a sus astronautas. +Nos pusimos como meta hacer esto. +Nos tom 11 aos lograr un nivel operativo. +Y anunciamos que haramos que Stephen Hawking volara. +Una agencia del gobierno y una empresa operadora de aviones nos dijeron: "Estn locos, no lo hagan, van a matarlo". +Y l quera ir. +Trabajamos duro para conseguir todos los permisos. +Y seis meses despus nos sentamos en el Centro Espacial Kennedy. +Hicimos una conferencia de prensa donde anunciamos nuestra intencin de hacer una parbola Cero G, de darle 25 segundos de Cero G. +Y si todo iba bien podramos llegar a hacer tres parbolas. +Bueno, le preguntamos por qu quera ir para all y hacer esto. +Y lo que dijo, para m, fue muy emocionante. +Dijo: "La vida en la tierra sufre un riesgo cada vez mayor de ser eliminada por un desastre... +Creo que la raza humana no tiene futuro si no va al espacio. +Por lo tanto quiero crear inters pblico en el espacio." +Lo llevamos al Centro Espacial Kennedy, subiendo en el vehculo de la NASA hasta dentro del avin Cero G. +Tenamos como 20 personas que haban donado, recaudamos 150 mil dlares en donaciones para beneficencias de nios, y que volaron con nosotros. +Unos pocos TEDsters de aqu. +Establecimos una sala de emergencias completa. +Tenamos cuatro doctores de emergencia y dos enfermeras en el avin. +Monitorebamos el PO2 de su sangre, su ritmo cardaco y su presin sangunea. +Tenamos todo dispuesto en caso de una emergencia, porque Dos sabe que no queramos lastimar a este experto mundial. +Despegamos del complejo de los transbordadores espaciales donde estos aterrizan y despegan. +Y mi socio, Byron Lichtenberg, y yo lo suspendimos cuidadosamente en cero G. +Cuando ya estaba arriba lo soltamos para que experimentara como se senta realmente la ingravidez. +Y despus de la primera parbola, saben, el doc dijo que todo estaba perfecto, l sonrea y dijimos vamos. +As que hicimos una segunda parbola. +Y una tercera. +De hecho, tambin hicimos flotar una manzana en homenaje a Sir Isaac Newton ya que el Profesor Hawking tiene la misma investidura en Cambridge que tuvo en su momento Isaac Newton. +E hicimos una cuarta, una quinta y una sexta. +Y una sptima y una octava. +Y este hombre no parece tener 65 y estar inmovilizado en silla de ruedas. +Estaba tan feliz. +Estamos viviendo en una joya preciosa y saldremos de ella durante nuestras vidas. +Por favor nanse a nosotros para esta aventura pica. +Muchas gracias. +Mi bsqueda es siempre por encontrar maneras de contar, compartir y documentar historias sobre personas, simplemente personas cotidianas. +Historias que ofrecen transformacin, que tienden hacia la trascendencia, pero que nunca son sentimentales, que nunca apartan la mirada de lo ms oscuro en nosotros. +Porque de verdad creo que nunca somos ms bellos que cuando somos ms feos. +Porque ese es verdaderamente el momento en el que sabemos realmente de qu estamos hechos. +Como dijo Chris, crec en Nigeria con toda una generacin -- en los 80s -- de estudiantes que protestaban contra la dictadura militar que finalmente ha terminado. +As que no era slo yo, ramos toda una generacin. +Pero lo que he llegado a aprender es que el mundo nunca se salva por grandes gestos mesinicos, sino en la simple acumulacin de suaves, tersos, casi invisibles actos de compasin, actos de compasin cotidianos. +En Sudfrica existe una frase llamada ubuntu. +Ubuntu viene de una filosofa que dice, el nico camino que tengo para ser humano es que tu reflejes mi humanidad hacia mi. +Pero si eres como yo, mi humanidad es ms como una ventana. +En realidad no la veo, no le presto atencin hasta que haya un, tu sabes, algo como un insecto muerto en la ventana. +Entonces de repente la veo, y usualmente, nunca es buena. +Usualmente es cuando estoy maldiciendo en el trfico a alguien que trata de manejar y tomar caf y enviar emails y tomar notas. +As que lo que ubuntu realmente dice es que no hay manera en que podamos ser humanos sin otras personas. +Es realmente muy simple, pero realmente muy complicado. +As que pens que debera comenzar con algunas historias. +Debera contarles algunas historias de personas excepcionales, as que pens que comenzara con mi madre. +Y ella tambin era oscura. +Mi mam era Inglesa. +Mis padres se conocieron en Oxford en los 50s, y mi madre se mud a Nigeria y vivi all. +Meda metro y medio, muy determinada y muy Inglesa. +As de inglesa es mi madre -- o lo era, ella acaba de morir. +Viaj hasta California, a Los Angeles, a visitarme, y fuimos a Malib, que le pareci muy decepcionante. +Y luego fuimos a un restaurante de pescado, y tuvimos a Chad el tipo surfista sirvindonos, y vino y mi madre dijo, "Tienen algn plato del da, joven?" +Y Chad dice, "Seguro, o sea, tenemos esto, tipo salmn, que viene enrollado en esta, tipo costra de wasabi. +Es totalmente rad." +Y mi madre se dio vuelta y me dijo, "Qu idioma est hablando?" +Y le dije, "Ingls, mam." +Y sacudi la cabeza y dijo, "Oh, estos Americanos, les dimos un idioma. Por qu no lo usan?" +Pero su Igbo no era muy bueno. +As que me llev para que tradujera. +Yo tena siete aos. +As que, ac estn estas mujeres que nunca discuten su perodo con sus maridos, y ac estoy yo dicindoles, "Bueno, cada cunto tiene su perodo?" +Y, nota usted alguna descarga? +Y, qu tan inflamada est su vulva? +Nunca se hubiera considerado a s misma feminista, mi madre, pero siempre sola decir, "Cualquier cosa que un hombre pueda hacer, yo puedo arreglar." +Y cuando mi padre se quej de esta situacin, en la que lleva a un nio de siete aos a ensear este control natal, ustedes saben, l sola decir, "Oh, lo ests conviertiendo en, le ests enseando a ser una mujer." +Mi madre deca, "Alguien tiene que hacerlo." +Esta mujer -- durante la guerra de Biafra, fuimos atrapados en la guerra. +Era mi madre con cinco nios pequeos. +Le toma un ao, campo de refugiados tras campo de refugiados, llegar hasta una pista aerea desde donde podemos salir del pas. +En cada campo de refugiados, tiene que encarar soldados que quieren llevarse a mi hermano mayor Mark, de nueve aos, y convertirlo en un nio soldado. +Pueden imaginarse a esta mujer de metro y medio, enfrentndose a hombres armados que quieren matarnos? +Durante el curso de ese ao, mi madre nunca llor, ni una sla vez. +Pero cuando estbamos en Lisboa, en el aeropuerto, a punto de volar hacia Inglaterra una mujer vio a mi madre usando un vestido, que haba sido lavado tantas veces que ya era bsicamente transparente con cinco nios que se vean realmente hambrientos, se acerc y pregunt qu nos haba sucedido. +Y le cont a esta mujer. +Y esta mujer vaci su maleta y le dio toda su ropa a mi madre, y a nosotros, y los juguetes de sus hijos, a quienes eso no les gust mucho, pero -- Esa fue la nica vez que llor. +Y recuerdo que aos despus, yo estaba escribiendo sobre mi madre, y le pregunt, "Por qu lloraste entonces?" +Y me dijo, "Sabes, puedes endurecer tu corazn contra cualquier problema, cualquier horror. +Pero el simple acto de amabilidad de un completo extrao te descose." +Las mujeres viejas en la aldea de mi padre, despus de esta guerra, memorizaron los nombres de cada muerto, y cantaban canciones hechas con estos nombres. +Canciones tan melanclicas que te quemaban. +Y las cantaban solo cuando plantaban el arroz, como si estuvieran sembrando los corazones de los muertos en el arroz. +Pero cuando el momento de la cosecha llegaba cantaban canciones alegres, hechas de los nombres de cada nio que haba nacido ese ao. +Y luego en la siguiente estacin de siembra, cuando cantaban sus lamentos retiraban tantos nombres de los muertos, como personas hubieran nacido. +Y as, estas mujeres producan una gran transformacin, una hermosa transformacin. +Saban ustedes que antes del genocidio en Ruanda la palabra para violacin y la palabra para matrimonio eran la misma? +Pero hoy las mujeres estn reconstruyendo Ruanda. +Saban ustedes que tras el apartheid, cuando el nuevo gobierno entr en las cmaras del parlamento, no haba baos para mujeres en el edificio? +Lo cual parecera sugerir que el apartheid fue totalmente un negocio de hombres. +Todo esto para decir que a pesar del horror, y a pesar de la muerte, nunca se cuenta realmente a las mujeres. +Su humanidad nunca parece importarnos mucho. +Cuando yo estaba creciendo en Nigeria -- y no debera decir Nigeria, porque eso es muy general, sino en Urhobo, la parte Igbo del pas de donde vengo, siempre haba ritos de paso para los hombres jvenes. +Se nos enseaba cmo ser hombres en la manera en que no somos mujeres eso es ser hombre esencialmente. +Y yo era este nio extrao, sensible, que realmente no poda hacerlo, pero tuve que hacerlo. +Y se supona que deba hacerlo solo. +Pero un amigo, llamado Emanuel, que era bastante mayor que yo, que haba sido un nio soldado en la guerra de Biafra, decidi venir conmigo. +Lo cual me hizo sentir bien, porque l haba visto muchas cosas. +Ahora, cuando yo estaba creciendo, l me contaba historias sobre cmo sola clavarle la bayoneta a la gente, y que sus intestinos se les salan, pero seguan corriendo. +As que este tipo me acompaa, +y yo no se si ustedes alguna vez han odo a una cabra, o visto una -- suenan como seres humanos, por eso decimos que las tragedias son "cancin de una cabra" +Mi amigo Brad Kessler dice que no nos convertimos en humanos sino hasta que comenzamos a criar cabras. +En todo caso, los ojos de una cabra son como los de un nio. +As que cuando intent matar a esta cabra no pude, Emanuel se agach, puso su mano en la boca de la cabra, cubri sus ojos, para que yo no tuviera que verlos, mientras yo mataba la cabra. +No pareci ser gran cosa, para este tipo que haba visto tanto, y quien -- y para quien matar una cabra deba parecer una experiencia tan cotidiana, y aun as hall en s mismo el impulso de tratar de protegerme. +Yo era debil. +Llor por muy largo rato. +Y luego, l no dijo ni una palabra, +slo se sent ah vindome llorar durante una hora. +Y luego me dijo, siempre va a ser difcil, pero si lloras as cada cada vez, vas a morir de tristeza. +Slo ten presente, que a veces basta con saber que es difcil. +Claro que, hablar de cabras me hace pensar en ovejas, y no de buenas maneras. +As que, yo nac dos das despus de la Navidad. +Al ir creciendo, ustedes saben, tena pastel y todo, pero nunca reciba regalos, porque -- naci dos das despus de Navidad. +As que, yo tena como nueve aos, y mi tio acababa de volver de Alemania, y un cura Catlico estaba de visita, mi madre lo estaba entreteniendo con te, +y de repente mi tio dice, "Dnde estn los regalos de Chris?" +Y mi madre dijo, "No hables de eso frente a extraos!" +Pero estaba desesperado por mostrar que acababa de volver, as que me llam arriba, y me dijo, "Ve al cuarto, a mi cuarto. +Toma cualquier cosa que quieras de mi maleta. +Es tu regalo de cumpleaos." +Estoy seguro que pens que yo tomara un libro o una camisa, pero yo encontr una oveja inflable. +As que la infl y corr a la sala, con mi dedo donde no deba, agitando esta oveja de lado a lado, y mi madre se vea como si se fuera a morir del shock. +Y el Padre McGetrick completamente tranquilo, slo revolva su te y miraba a mi madre y dijo, "Est bien Daphne, yo soy Escocs." +Mis ltimos das en prisin, los ltimos 18 meses, mi compaero de celda -- por el ltimo ao, el primer ao de los ltimos 18 meses -- Mi compaero de celda tena 14 aos de edad. +Su nombre era John James, y en esos das, si un miembro de la familia cometa un crimen los militares te detenan como rehn hasta que tu familia se entregara. +As que, aqu estaba este chico de 14 aos esperando la pena de muerte. +Y no todos en el corredor de la muerte eran prisioneros polticos -- +haba alguna gente realmente mala. +Y l haba contrabandeado dos comics, dos libros de historietas -- El Hombre Araa y los X-men. +Estaba obsesionado. +Y cuando se cans de leerlos, empez a ensearle a leer a los hombres del corredor de la muerte con estas historietas. +Y as, recuerdo que noche tras noche, podas oir a estos hombres, a estos criminales endurecidos, apiados en torno a John James, recitando, "Toma esto, Araita!" +Es increble. +Yo estaba relamente preocupado. +l no saba lo que significaba el corredor de la muerte. +Yo haba estado ah dos veces, y estaba terriblemente asustado de morir. +Y el siempre se rea, y deca, "Vamos hombre, lograremos salir." +Y yo deca, "Cmo lo sabes?" +Y l deca, "Oh, me lo dijo un pajarito." +Lo mataron. +Lo esposaron a una silla, y clavaron su pene a una mesa con una puntilla de seis pulgadas. Y ah lo dejaron a que sangrara hasta morir. +As termin en solitario, porque dej saber mis sentimientos. +Todo alrededor nuestro, en todas partes, hay gente as. +Los Igbo solan decir que haban creado a sus propios dioses. +Solan reunirse como comunidad, y expresaban un deseo. +Y luego su deseo era llevado ante un sacerdote que encontraba un objeto ritual, y los sacrificios apropiados seran realizados, y el santuario sera construdo para el dios. +Pero si el dios se rebelaba y comenzaba a pedir un sacrificio humano, los Igbos destruan al dios. +Tumbaban el santuario, y dejaban de decir el nombre del dios. +As fue como llegaron a reclamar su humanidad. +Cada da, todos los que estamos ac, estamos creando dioses que se han vuelto desenfrenados, y es tiempo de que comencemos a tumbarlos y a olvidar sus nombres. +No requiere gran cosa. +Todo lo que requiere es que reconozcamos, cada da, los pocos de nosotros que podemos ver, estamos rodeados de personas como las que les he contado. +Hay algunos de ustedes en esta sala, gente increble, que nos ofrecen a todos el espejo a nuestra propia humanidad. +Quiero terminar con un poema de una poeta Americana llamada Lucille Clifton. +El poema se llama "Libacin", y es para mi amigo Vusi que debe estar en el pblico en algn lado. +"Libacin," Carolina del Norte, 1999. +"Le ofrezco a esta tierra, esta ginebra. +Imagino a un viejo llorando aqui, fuera de la vista del supervisor. +Empuja su lengua a travs de hueco donde estara su diente, si l estuviera completo. +Duele en ese espacio donde estara el diente, donde estara su tierra, su casa, su esposa, su hijo, su hermosa hija. +Limpia la pena de su rostro, y pone su dedo sediento en su sedienta lengua, y prueba la sal. +Llamo un nombre que podra ser el suyo, +esto es para ti, viejo. +La ginebra, la tierra salada." +Gracias. +Gracias. +. Gracias. +. Gracias. +Le pregunt a mi madre, ya sabes, debera decir algo en favor de alguien? +Y me dijo: "Qu va! Insltalos a todos, excepto a Ralph Nader". +Algunos de ustedes ya han escuchado esta historia pero de hecho entre el pblico hay una persona que nunca antes ha escuchado esta charla, as que estoy un poco ms nervioso que de costumbre. +Fui un fotgrafo por muchos aos. +En 1978 estaba trabajando para la revista Time y me asignaron un trabajo de tres das fotografiando a nios ameriasiticos, nacidos de soldados norteamericanos y madres asiticas, por todo el sudeste asitico y despus abandonados. 40 mil nios por toda Asia. +Nunca antes haba escuchado la palabra ameriasitico. +Pas unos das fotografiando nios en distintos pases y, como muchos fotgrafos y periodistas, siempre he tenido la esperanza de que cuando se publiquen mis fotos realmente puedan cambiar la situacin y no solamente documentarla. +Me molest tanto lo que vi y me decepcion tanto el artculo que sali publicado que decid tomarme un sabtico de 6 meses. +Tena 28 aos. +Decid que encontrara seis nios en distintos pases y pasara un tiempo con ellos para intentar contar su historia un poco mejor y pasara un tiempo con ellos para intentar contar su historia un poco mejor de lo que haba hecho para Time. +Al preparar esta historia estaba buscando a nios que no hubieran sido fotografiados anteriormente y la fundacin Pearl Buck Foundation me explic que trabajan con muchos estadounidenses que donaban dinero para ayudar a estos nios. +Y el hombre que diriga esta fundacin en Corea me cont sobre una nia de 11 aos a cargo de su abuela +y que su abuela no haba dejado a ningn occidental verla. +Cada vez que iba un occidental a su pueblo, ella esconda a la nia. +Y, por supuesto, inmediatamente qued intrigado. +Vi unas fotos de ella y quise ir a verla. +Y el tipo slo me dijo:"No es posible. Su abuela ni siquiera, sabes, no hay modo que ella te permita conocer a esta nia". +Fui a su pueblo con una traductora, encontr a la abuela y nos sentamos a conversar. +Y asombrosamente, me permiti fotografiar a su nieta. +Como estaba financindome solo, le pregunt a la traductora si estara bien que me quedara ah por la semana. +Tena un saco de dormir. +La familia tena un pequeo cobertizo al lado de la casa as que pregunt: "Podra dormir en mi saco aqu en la noche?" +Y le dije a esta nia, que se llamaba Hyun Sook Lee, que si alguna vez haca algo que la avergonzara -no hablaba ingls a pesar de parecer norteamericana- ella slo tendra que levantar su mano y decir: "Para." y yo no seguira tomando fotografas. +Y despus de esto la traductora se fue. +As que ah estaba yo, que no hablaba ni una palabra de coreano, y esta fue la noche que conoc a Hyun Sook. +Su madre an estaba viva +pero no la criaba, su abuela la estaba criando. +Y lo que me impact inmediatamente fue el amor que se tenan la una a la otra. +La abuela realmente amaba profundamente a esta nia. +Dorman juntas en el piso de su hogar. +Los coreanos ponen ladrillos calientes bajo el piso para calentar sus hogares as que el calor se irradia desde el piso. +Hyun Sook tena 11 aos. +Como dije, haba fotografiado a muchos de estos nios. +De hecho, Hyun Sook era la quinta de estos nios que haba encontrado. +Y casi todos estos nios estaban muy daados psicolgicamente ya que se rean de ellos, los ridiculizaban, los molestaban y los rechazaban. +Corea era probablemente donde peor lo pasaban estos nios. Corea era probablemente donde peor lo pasaban estos nios. +Y lo que inmediatamente me impact cuando conoc a Hyun Sook era lo segura que pareca ser, lo feliz que pareca consigo misma. +Recuerden esta foto, pues les mostrar otra foto despus, Recuerden esta foto, pues les mostrar otra foto despus, pero pueden notar que se parece muchsimo a su abuela an vindose tan occidental. pero pueden notar que se parece muchsimo a su abuela an vindose tan occidental. +Fui con ella a su escuela. +Esta es la primera maana que estuve con ella. +Este es el camino a la escuela. +Esta es la asamblea matinal fuera de su escuela. +Y me di cuenta que ella estaba haciendo caretas y tonteando. +Cuando los profesores hacan preguntas ella era la primera que levantaba la mano. +De nuevo, no era ni tmida ni distante y no se pareca en nada al resto de los nios que haba fotografiado. +De nuevo, la primera en ir al pizarrn a contestar preguntas. +En problemas por susurrar en el odo de su mejor amiga en la mitad de la clase. En problemas por susurrar en el odo de su mejor amiga en la mitad de la clase. +Y tambin le haba dicho a travs de la traductora, aparte de lo de "Para", que no me prestara atencin. +As que ella slo me ignoraba casi todo el tiempo. +Me di cuenta que durante el recreo ella era la nia que elega a las otras nias que iban a estar en su equipo. +Desde el principio, era obvio que era una lder. +Esto es en el camino de vuelta. +Y ah encima del cerro est Corea del Norte. +Esto es en la zona desmilitarizada. +De hecho, cada noche cubran las ventanas para que no se viera la luz porque el gobierno de Corea del Sur por aos ha dicho que los norcoreanos pueden invadir en cualquier momento. +As que siempre es ms aterrador cuanto ms cerca ests a Corea del Norte. +Era frecuente que estuviera tomndole fotos en el colegio y que susurrara en el odo de su amiga y me mirara y dijera "Para". +Y yo me paraba como militar y todas las nias se mataban de la risa, era como un pequeo chiste. Y yo me paraba como militar y todas las nias se mataban de la risa, era como un pequeo chiste. +Termin la semana y mi traductora volvi, como le haba pedido, Termin la semana y mi traductora volvi, como le haba pedido, para poder agradecer formalmente a Hyun Sook y a su abuela. +Y mientras la abuela y la traductora conversaban, la abuela comenz a llorar. +Le pregunt a la traductora: "Qu est pasando? Por qu llora?" +Habl con la abuela un momento y a la traductora se le llenaron los ojos de lgrimas. +Entonces dije: "Bueno, qu hice?, qu dije?, +por qu estn todas llorando?" +Y la traductora me dijo: "La seora me dice que cree que se est muriendo y que quiere saber si llevaras a Hyun Sook contigo a EE.UU". +Y le contest: "Tengo 28 aos, vivo en hoteles y no estoy casado". +Quiero decir que quera mucho a esta nia pero yo... era como si emocionalmente tuviera 12 aos. +La broma sobre los fotgrafos, si saben de ellos, es que es la forma ms grandiosa de adolescencia retardada que se haya inventado. +"Lo siento, debo irme a una asignacin, pero volver". Y despus nunca vuelves. +As que le pregunt a la traductora por qu pensaba la abuela que estaba muriendo. +"Puedo llevarla al hospital?, Puedo conseguirle un doctor?" +Pero ella rechaz toda la ayuda ofrecida. +As que cuando sal de la casa le pas dinero a la traductora y le dije: "Por favor vuelve y ve si puedes hacer algo". +Y tambin le pas mi tarjeta de presentacin a la abuela. +Y le dije: "Si habla en serio intentar encontrarle una familia". +Inmediatamente les escrib a mis mejores amigos que vivan en Atlanta, Georgia y tenan un hijo de 11 aos. +Mi mejor amigo haba mencionado al pasar que deseaba tener otro hijo. Mi mejor amigo haba mencionado al pasar que deseaba tener otro hijo. +Mis amigos Gene y Gail no haban sabido de m en un ao. Y de pronto los llamo, dicindoles "Estoy en Corea y conoc a esta nia extraordinaria". +Y les expliqu: "La abuela piensa que est enferma pero creo que tambin tendramos que llevarla". +Y dije "Pagar por todo.." Ya tena toda esta idea en mi cabeza. +Pero en fin, me fui. +Mis amigos dijeron que estaban muy interesados en adoptarla. +As que les dije: "Miren, creo que si le escribo a la abuela que estn dispuestos a adoptarla, la puedo matar de susto. Quiero decrselo personalmente." +Pero yo estaba trabajando en otro lugar. +Pensaba volver en un par de semanas y hablar con la abuela. +Esa Navidad, estando en Bangkok con un grupo de fotgrafos, Esa Navidad, estando en Bangkok con un grupo de fotgrafos, recib un telegrama -era lo que se usaba en esa poca- de la revista Time diciendo que alguien haba muerto en Corea y en su testamento me haba dejado una nia. +Si yo saba algo de esto. +Estaba tan enojado con ellos por el reportaje que no les haba dicho lo que estaba haciendo. +As que volv a Corea y fui al pueblo de Hyun Sook y se haba ido. +Y la casa donde haba estado estaba vaca. +Estaba verdaderamente helada. +Nadie del pueblo me quera decir dnde estaba Hyun Sook pues la abuela siempre la haba protegido de los occidentales. +Y ninguno conoca la peticin que me haba hecho. +Y finalmente encontr a Myung Sung, su mejor amiga, con quien sola jugar todos los das. +Y bajo presin ma y de la traductora, Myung Sung nos dio una direccin en las afueras de Sel. +Y fui para all y toqu en la puerta y un hombre me abri. +No era un rea muy buena de Sel, las calles todava eran de barro. +Toqu la puerta y Hyun Sook la abri. Sus ojos estaban rojos y pareca estar en shock: +no me reconoci... no hubo ninguna clase de reconocimiento. +Un hombre vino a la puerta y como que me ladr algo en coreano. +As que le pregunt a la traductora: "Qu dijo?" +y ella dijo: "Quiere saber quin eres." +Le dije: "Bueno, dile que soy un fotgrafo". +Comenc a explicarle quin era y l me interrumpi. +Y ella me dijo: "Dice que sabe quin eres pero pregunta qu quieres." +Le dije: "Bueno, dile que la abuela de esta nia me pidi que le encontrara una familia". +Y l dijo: "Soy su to y ella est bien as que puede irse." +As que ah estaba... me estaba cerrando la puerta en la cara y haca mucho fro y yo intentaba pensar: "Qu hara el hroe de una pelcula si yo estuviera escribiendo este guin?" +As que dije: "Mire, hace mucho fro y he venido de muy lejos, le molesta si entro un minuto? Me estoy congelando." +El tipo nos permiti entrar a regaadientes y nos sentamos en el piso. +Mientras hablbamos lo vi gritar algo y Hyun Sook nos trajo un poco de comida. +Tuve esta imagen mental de algo como Cenicienta. +La imagen que tena era de esta nia feliz, alegre, increble y maravillosa y que ahora pareca retrada, y estaba siendo esclavizada por esta familia. +Estaba realmente horrorizado y no saba qu hacer. +Y mientras ms le hablaba, menos amistoso se pona. +As que finalmente le dije: "Mire" -todo esto a travs del traductor, porque yo no hablo nada de coreano- y le dije "Mire, estoy muy feliz de que Hyun Sook tenga una familia donde vivir. +Realmente estaba muy preocupado por ella. +Le promet a la abuela, su madre, que le encontrara una familia y estoy muy feliz de que ustedes la vayan a cuidar." +Le dije: "Pero sabe, tengo un pasaje de avin y estar aqu una semana. Le dije: "Pero sabe, tengo un pasaje de avin y estar aqu una semana. +Me estoy quedando en un hotel en el centro. +Le gustara almorzar conmigo maana? +Y podr practicar su ingls." (Me haba dicho que hablaba). Intentaba hacerle preguntas acerca de sus intereses. +Y entonces volv al hotel y encontr dos ameriasiticos mayores. +Una chica cuya madre haba sido prostituta, que tambin era prostituta, y un muchacho que prcticamente viva en prisin. que tambin era prostituta, y un muchacho que prcticamente viva en prisin. +Y les dije: "Miren, hay una nia que tiene una pequea oportunidad de salir de aqu e ir a EE.UU. +No s si esa sea la decisin correcta, pero les quiero pedir que vengan a almorzar maana y le expliquen a su to qu se siente caminar por la calle, lo que les dice la gente y lo que hacen para vivir. +Y slo quiero que entienda lo que va a pasar si ella se queda ac. +Y podra estar equivocado, no lo s, pero quiero que vengan maana." +As que los dos vinieron a almorzar y terminaron echndonos del restaurante. +Ellos dos le gritaban y termin siendo muy desagradable. +Salimos y l estaba enfurecido. +Me d cuenta que lo haba echado todo a perder. +As que ah estaba de nuevo, tratando de ver cmo solucionarlo. +Y comenz a gritarme, as que le pregunt a la traductora: "OK, dile que se tranquilice, qu est diciendo?" +Y ella dijo: "Bueno lo que est diciendo es quin diablos eres t para entrar a mi casa, un norteamericano con dinero y cmaras en el cuello, y acusarme de esclavizar a mi sobrina? +Ella es mi sobrina y la quiero, es la hija de mi hermana. +Quin diablos eres para acusarme de algo as?" Y yo le dije: " Mire, tiene toda la razn. +No pretendo entender lo que est sucediendo. +Todo lo que s es que he fotografiado a muchos de estos nios." +Le dije: "Quiero muchsimo a su sobrina y creo que es una nia increblemente especial." +Aad: "Mire, si quiere conocer a mis amigos los traer de EE. UU. para que vea si los acepta. +Solamente pienso que, con lo poco que conozco de la situacin, si se queda ac tiene muy pocas oportunidades de vivir la vida que probablemente usted quiera que viva." +Y despus todos me dijeron que invitar a los padres prospectivos era, nuevamente, lo ms estpido que poda haber hecho ya que: quin es lo suficientemente bueno para cuidar a un familiar? +Pero l me invit a ir a una ceremonia que haran ese da en honor a la abuela. +Y lo que hacen es tomar ropas y fotografas y las queman como parte del ritual. +Pueden ver cun distinta se ve en tan solo 3 meses. +Creo que en ese momento ya estaba comenzando febrero. +Y las fotos anteriores eran de septiembre. +Bueno, cuando estaba escribiendo la historia conoc a un prroco de la infantera de marina norteamericana que tena 75 nios viviendo en su casa. +Tena a tres mujeres que lo ayudaban a cuidar los nios. +As que le propuse al to que furamos a conocer al Padre Keene para entender cmo funcionaba el proceso de adopcin. +Porque quera que l sintiera que estbamos haciendo todo legal y correctamente. +Entonces esto es de camino al orfanato. +Este es el Padre Keene. Es un tipo maravilloso. +En su orfanato tena nios de todas partes de Corea para los cuales encontraba familias. +Esta es una trabajadora social entrevistando a Hyun Sook. +Ahora, siempre cre que a ella no le haba afectado su situacin ya que, para m, la abuela pareca ser como la anciana sabia del pueblo y todos le preguntaban... durante mi tiempo all me di cuenta que la gente sola ir a verla frecuentemente. +Y siempre tuve esta imagen mental que, incluso siendo una las familias ms pobres del pueblo, eran una de las familias ms respetadas. +Y siempre cre que la abuela haba pedido, e insistido, que los del pueblo trataran a Hyun Sook con el mismo respeto que a ella. +Hyun Sook se qued con el Padre Keene y su to permiti que se quedara hasta completar la adopcin. +De hecho, accedi a la adopcin. Y me fui a trabajar. +Volv una semana despus y el Padre Keene me dijo: "Debo hablarte de Hyun Sook." +Dije algo como "Dios mo, ahora qu?" +y me lleva a un cuarto, cierra la puerta y dice: "Tengo 75 nios aqu en el orfanato y es un caos total. +Hay ropas y hay nios y, t sabes, hay tres adultos y 75 nios, te lo puedes imaginar." +Y despus dijo: "El segundo da que estuvo ac hizo una lista de todos los nios grandes y de todos los pequeos. +Y a cada uno de los nios mayores le asign uno de los pequeos. +Y despus hizo un calendario de trabajo de quin limpiaba el orfanato en qu da." +Y agreg: "Dice que soy desordenado y que limpie mi dormitorio. +No s quien la cro pero est dirigiendo el orfanato y slo lleva aqu tres das." +Este fue el da de pelculas que organiz en que todos los nios fueron al cine. +Muchos de lo nios que ya haban sido adoptados mandaban cartas a los otros nios contndoles cmo era su nueva vida con sus nuevas familias. +As que cuando llegaban las cartas era un evento importante. +Esta es una mujer cuyo hijo haba sido adoptado y que ahora trabaja en el orfanato. +Gene y Gail empezaron a aprender coreano cuando recibieron mi primera carta. +Realmente queran poder darle la bienvenida a Hyun Sook a su familia. +Y una de las cosas que el Padre Keene me cont cuando volv de uno de mis viajes fue que Hyun Sook haba elegido el nombre Natasha que segn entiendo fue por ver los dibujos animados de Rocky y Bullwinkle en el canal de la fuerza area norteamericana. +Esto puede ser una de esas cosas tipo cazadores de mitos que aclararemos en unos minutos. +As que mi amigo Gene vol a Corea con su hijo, Tim. +Gail no pudo venir. +Y pasaban mucho tiempo mirando el diccionario. +Aqu esta Gene mostrndole al to donde quedaba Atlanta en el mapa (es donde viva). +Aqu esta el to firmando sus papeles de adopcin. +Entonces esa noche salimos a comer para celebrar. +El to volvi a su casa y Natasha, Tim, Gene y yo salimos a comer. +Gene le enseaba a Natasha como usar un tenedor y cuchillo y Natasha le explicaba a l como usar los utensilios. +Volvimos a nuestra pieza de hotel y Gene tambin le mostraba a Natasha donde quedaba Atlanta. +Esta es nuestra tercera noche en Corea. +La primera noche habamos puesto a los nios en una habitacin contigua. +Me haba estado quedando en este pequeo hotel coreano de 15 pisos los ltimos 3 meses. +Pero la segunda noche no mantuvimos la habitacin de los nios porque fuimos al orfanato y dormimos en el suelo con todos los nios. +La tercera noche volvamos de comer, como vieron en las fotos, y llegamos al hotel y el tipo de la recepcin dijo: "No hay habitaciones libres en su piso para esta noche pero hay una habitacin cinco pisos ms abajo si quieren poner a los nios all." +Y con Gene nos miramos y dijimos: "No queremos a dos nios de 11 a 5 pisos de distancia." +Su hijo dijo: "Pap, tengo un saco de dormir, puedo dormir en el suelo" +y yo dije "S, yo tambin tengo uno." +As que Tim y yo dormimos en el piso y Natasha y Gene en una cama cada uno. Los nios colapsaron pues haban sido 3 das muy excitantes. +Estbamos acostados y con Gene hablbamos de lo increbles que ramos. +Decamos: "Esto es grandioso, le salvamos la vida a esta nia." +Estbamos como, ahhh, muy complacidos con lo que habamos hecho. +Y nos quedamos dormidos. Yo ya haba estado por un par de meses en esta habitacin. +Y en Corea siempre sobre-calefaccionan muchsimo los hoteles por lo que siempre dejaba la venta abierta en el da. +Y como a medianoche apagaban la calefaccin del hotel y +cerca de la 1 a.m. el cuarto era una heladera y yo me levantaba. +Haca esto cada noche que pasaba all. +As que a la una, por supuesto, el cuarto estaba helado. Fui a cerrar la ventana y escuch a gente gritando afuera y pens: "Los bares se deben haber cerrado recin." +Y an sin entender coreano escuchaba las voces y no parecan enojadas sino aterrorizadas. +As que abr la ventana y mir para afuera y haba llamas subiendo por el costado del hotel: se estaba incendiando. +Y entonces corro donde Gene y lo despierto y le digo: "Gene, no te alteres pero creo que el hotel se est incendiando." +Y ya haban llamas y humo en nuestra ventana, estbamos en el piso 11. +Entonces los dos estbamos como "Dios mo, Dios mo". +Y tratbamos de despertar a Natasha y no le podamos hablar. +Saben cmo son los nios cuando ya han dormido por una hora, es como si se hubieran tomado 5 Valiums, andan perdidos por ah. +Y adems no podamos hablar con ella. +Recuerdo que Tim tena botas con cordones L.L. Bean y que tratbamos de amarrrselos. +As que intentamos llegar a la puerta y la abrimos y fue como entrar en un horno. +Hay gente gritando, hay vidrios quebrndose y se escuchan estos golpes extraos. +Y el cuarto se llen de humo en como 2 segundos. +Y Gene me mir y dijo: "No vamos a lograrlo." +Cerr la puerta y el cuarto ya estaba lleno de humo. +Todos nos ahogbamos, entraba humo por los ductos, por debajo de las puertas y se oan gritos. +Slo recuerdo este total e increble caos. +Recuerdo estar sentado cerca de la cama. Tena dos sensaciones abrumadoras: +una era terror absoluto, como: "Dios mo, slo quiero despertar, +esto tiene que ser una pesadilla, no puede estar pasando, +por favor, slo quiero despertar, tiene que ser una pesadilla". +Y la otra era una culpa increble. +Haba estado jugando a ser Dios con la vida de mi amigo, la de su hijo y la de Natasha y lo que haces cuando juegas a ser Dios es lastimar a la gente. +Slo recuerdo estar muy asustado y aterrado. +Y Gene, que estaba tirado en el piso, dijo: "Tenemos que mojar toallas." Dije: "Qu?" +"Tenemos que mojar toallas. Vamos a sofocarnos con el humo." +As que corrimos al bao y sacamos las toallas y las pusimos sobre nuestras caras y las de los nios. +Y despus dijo: "Tienes cinta para sellar ductos?" +Dije: "Qu?", "Tienes cinta para sellar ductos?" +"S, por ah en mi maletn." +Me dijo: "Tenemos que parar el humo. +Es todo lo que podemos hacer, hay que parar el humo." +Doy gracias a Dios por Gene. +As que pusimos los menes de servicio a la habitacin sobre las ventilas de la pared, pusimos frazadas bajo la puerta, pusimos a los nios en el ventanal para que pudieran respirar +y haba un nuevo edificio en construccin justo en frente del hotel. Y en ese edificio haba fotgrafos +justo en frente del hotel. Y en ese edificio haba fotgrafos esperando que la gente saltara. +Al final murieron once personas en ese incendio. +Cinco personas saltaron a su muerte y otros murieron sofocados por el humo. +Y despus de como 45 minutos de esto escuchamos golpes fuertes en la puerta y gente gritando en coreano. +Y recuerdo que Natasha no quera que abriramos la puerta... perdn, YO no quera abrir la puerta ya que habamos tardado tanto rato en aislar la habitacin. +No saba quin era ni saba qu queran y Natasha se daba cuenta que eran bomberos tratando de sacarnos. +Recuerdo una especie de pelea tratando de abrir la puerta. +En fin, 12 horas despus... bueno, nos pusieron en la recepcin. +Gene termin cubriendo su puo con su abrigo para romper el gabinete de tragos. +La gente estaba tirada en el piso. +Fue una de las noches ms terribles que he tenido. +Y 12 horas despus, como habamos planificado, arrendamos un auto y condujimos hasta el pueblo de Natasha. +Y nos decamos: "Se dan cuenta que 8 horas atrs estbamos muriendo en un incendio en el hotel?" +Es tan extrao como la vida simplemente contina. +Natasha quera presentarle a su padre y hermano a todos los del pueblo y el da que llegamos result ser el 60avo cumpleaos de un anciano del pueblo... +este tipo tena 60 aos. +As que termin siendo una celebracin doble porque Natasha era la primera persona del pueblo que iba a los EE.UU. +Estas son las carpas de los invernaderos. +Estos son los ancianos ensendole los bailes a Gene. +Tomamos mucho vino de arroz y estbamos tan borrachos, no lo poda creer. +Esta es la ltima foto antes que Gene y Tim volvieran a EE.UU. +Los de la adopcin nos dijeron que el proceso de adopcin iba a demorar un ao. +Era como: qu hacemos por un ao? +As que conoc a cada oficial tanto en el lado coreano como en el norteamericano y los fotografi a todos y les expliqu cun famosos iban a ser cuando terminara el libro. +Y cuatro meses despus los papeles de la adopcin ya estaban completos. +Esto es despidindose de todos en el orfanato. +Este es el Padre Keene con Natasha en la parada de buses. +Con su ta abuela en el aeropuerto. +Por muchos aos tuve un acuerdo buensimo con las aerolneas Cathay Pacific en que me dejaban viajar libremente a cambio de fotografas. +Era como el mejor beneficio del mundo. +El piloto me permitan sentarme en la cabina porque me conoca, para que comprendan cuanto tiempo atrs fue esto. +Este es un Tri-Star y dejaron que Natasha se sentara en la cabina. +De hecho, el piloto, Jeff Cowley, volvi y adopt a otro de los nios del orfanato despus de conocer a Natasha. +Esto es 28 horas despus en Atlanta, fue un vuelo muy largo. +Slo para complicarlo un poco ms, a Gail (la nueva madre de Natasha) le faltaban tres das para dar a luz a su propia hija. +Si estuvieran escribiendo esto diran: "No, el guin debe seguir de otra manera." +Esta es la primera noche, mostrndole a Natasha sus nuevos primos y tos. +Gene y Gail conocen a toda Atlanta. Son la pareja ms sociable que se puedan imaginar. +Cuando lleg Natasha no hablaba una palabra de ingls excepto por lo poco que haba aprendido del Padre Keene. +Esta es Kylie, su hermana, que ahora es doctora, a su derecha. +Este es un trato que tena con Natasha que era que cuando llegramos a Atlanta ella podra cortarme la barba. +Nunca le gust mucho. +Aprendi ingls en tres meses. +Entr al sptimo grado con la edad que le corresponda. +El juramento a la bandera por primera vez. +Esta es su profesora de cocina. +Natasha me cont que los nios pensaban que era altanera porque le hablaban y ella no les contestaba y no se daban cuenta que al principio no hablaba ingls muy bien. +Pero lo que me di cuenta, cuando la observaba, era que ella ya elega quin iba a estar en su equipo. Y se hizo popular muy, muy rpidamente. +Ahora, recuerdan la foto del principio y cunto se pareca a su abuela? +La gente siempre le dice a Natasha cunto se parece a Gail, su mam. +Este es un momento tenso en su primer partido de ftbol americano, creo. +Y Kylie, era casi como que Kylie fuera su propia hija. +La estn bautizando. +Ahora, muchos padres cuando adoptan quieren borrar la historia de sus hijos. +Pero Gail y Gene hicieron exactamente lo contrario. +Aprendieron coreano, compraron ropa coreana. +Gene incluso puso unas cermicas en la cocina que mostraban que una vez haba habido una hermosa nia que vino de los cerros de Corea a vivir feliz para siempre en Atlanta. +Odia esta foto... fue su primer trabajo. +Se compr un Kharmann Ghia rojo brillante con el dinero que gan trabajando en Burger King. +Fue capitana de las porristas. +Un concurso de belleza. +Sola mandar una tarjeta de navidad cada ao. +Gene ha estado restaurando este auto por un milln de aos. +Kodak contrat a Natasha para que tradujera en las olimpadas de Corea. +Su futuro marido, Jeff, trabajaba para las cmaras Canon y conoci a Natasha en la villa olmpica. +Esta es su primer viaje devuelta a Cora y ah est su to. +Esta es su media hermana. +Volvi a su pueblo, ah est con la mam de su mejor amiga. +Y siempre pens que este traje era muy tipo Annie Hall. +Es slo que era tan interesante de ver... esta es su madre ah en el fondo. +Este es el da del matrimonio de Natasha. +Gene se ve un poco ms viejo. +Este es Sydney, que va a cumplir tres en un par de das ms. +Y ah est Evan. +Natasha, puedes subir un segundo, slo para decirle hola a todos? +De hecho, Natasha nunca me haba escuchado contar la historia. +Quiero decir, hemos visto las fotos juntos. +Natasha: He visto las fotos millones de veces pero esta es la primera vez que realmente lo veo dar la charla completa. +Comenc a llorar. +Rick Smolan: Seguro que hay como 40 cosas que me dir: "Eso no fue lo que pas, no fue lo que dijiste." +Natasha: Voy a hacer eso despus. +RS: De todos modos, muchas gracias Mike y Richard, por permitirnos contar esta historia. +Gracias a todos ustedes. +Aplausos Esta es una cancin que nace de mi creencia de que es difcil estar en este mundo y no estar conciente de lo que ocurre y las guerras y todo lo dems +Esta cancin, en cierto modo, nace de ah +Y escrib montones de canciones felices en mi primer disco con las cuales todava me identifico pero esta tiene algo ms dentro de ella +se llama "Paz en la tierra" +No hablo ingls. +Empec a hablar ingls hace un ao ms o menos. +Hablo francs y crec con francs, as que mi ingls es "frangls". +Nac en el Congo occidental en esta zona de por aqu, y fui a la universidad en Kisangani. +Cuando termin fui a esta zona, el Bosque de Ituri. +Pero lo que he estado haciendo... cuando tena unos 14 aos, crec en casa de mi to. +Y mi padre era soldado, y mi to pescador y tambin furtivo. +Lo que hice de los 14 a los 17 fue, les ayudaba a recoger colmillos de marfil, carne y cualquier cosa que mataran, cazaran de manera furtiva o no en el bosque, llevarlo a la ciudad para tener acceso al mercado. +Pero al final, me vi involucrado. +Entre los 17 y los 20 me convert en furtivo. +Y quera hacerlo porque quera continuar con mis estudios. +Quera ir a la universidad, pero mi padre era pobre, mi to igual... +As que lo hice. +Y durante tres o cuatro aos fui a la universidad. +Tres veces postul a Ciencias Biomdicas, para ser mdico. +No lo consegu. +Tena mis inscripciones, mi ingreso en Biologa. +Y dije, de ninguna manera, no lo har. +Mi familia es pobre, mi regin no tiene un buen sistema de salud. +Quiero ser mdico para servirles. +Tres veces, lo que significa tres aos, y me estoy haciendo mayor. +Dije, no, contino. +As que estudi Ecologa Tropical y Botnica. +Cuando termin, hice mis prcticas en el Bosque de Ituri. +Es all donde realmente me apasion con lo que estoy haciendo hasta este momento en que estoy frente a ustedes, haciendo Botnica y Conservacin de la Vida Silvestre. +En ese momento el Bosque de Ituri se convirti en reserva forestal con algunos animales y plantas. +Y el centro de formacin se construy en torno a personal cientfico congoleo y tambin algunos cientficos estadounidenses. +As que la Reserva Faunstica del Okapi protege una cantidad... Creo que es la mayor cantidad de elefantes que tenemos en una zona protegida en el Congo. +Tambin cuenta con chimpancs. +Y su nombre es Reserva Faunstica del Okapi por esta hermosa criatura. +Es una jirafa de los bosques. +Creo que la conocen bastante bien. +Aqu tenemos la jirafa de la sabana, pero a travs de la evolucin tenemos esta jirafa de los bosques que vive slo en el Congo. +Tambin cuenta con algunos hermosos primates. +Trece especies, la mayor diversidad que se puede encontrar en una zona de frica. +Y el Bosque de Ituri cuenta en s mismo con.... alrededor de 1.300 especies de plantas, conocidas hasta ahora. +Me un a la Sociedad para la Conservacin de la Fauna y Flora de all en 1995, pero empec a trabajar con ellos como estudiante en 1991. +Me nombraron ayudante de ctedra en mi universidad porque aprob con matrcula de honor. +Pero no me gust la formacin que recib, fue insuficiente. +Y quera ser de un centro de formacin y de investigacin. +Con el final del rgimen dictatorial de Mobutu Sese Seko, que la mayora conoce, la vida se volvi muy, muy difcil. +Y el trabajo que habamos estado haciendo se volvi extremadamente difcil de realizar y de completar. +Cuando Kabila inici su movimiento para liberar el Congo, los soldados de Mobutu comenzaron a moverse y se retiraron, +de modo que empezaron a huir desde el este al oeste. +Y la Reserva Faunstica del Okapi est all, as que haba una carretera desde Goma, ms o menos aqu, y llegaba hasta aqu. +As que podan atravesar, pasar a travs de la Reserva Faunstica del Okapi. +El Congo cuenta con cinco de las zonas protegidas ms ricas del mundo, y la Reserva Faunstica del Okapi es una de ellas. +As que los soldados huan hacia la Reserva Faunstica del Okapi. +Saquearon todo lo que encontraron a su paso. +Tortura, guerras... oh, Dios mo, ni se lo pueden imaginar. +Todo el mundo buscaba un sitio adonde ir, no sabemos. +Y fue para nosotros los jvenes, en realidad la primera vez, que omos el lenguaje de la guerra, de las armas. +E incluso la gente que se enfrent a la rebelin de 1963, despus de nuestra independencia, no crean lo que estaba pasando. +Estaban asesinando a gente, estaban haciendo lo que queran porque tenan poder. +Quines haban estado haciendo eso? +Nios pequeos. Nios soldados. +No puedes preguntarle qu edad tiene porque lleva armas. +Pero yo era de la zona occidental, y trabajaba en la oriental, +entonces ni siquiera hablaba Swahili. +Y cuando vinieron lo saquearon todo. +No puedes hablar el lingala porque era de Mobutu, y todo el mundo que hablaba lingala era soldado. +Y yo era de aquella zona tambin. +Todos mis amigos decan, nos marchamos porque somos un objetivo. +Pero yo no voy a la zona oriental porque no s Swahili. +Me quedo. Si me voy, me matarn. +No puedo volver a mi lugar, est a ms de 1.000 kilmetros. +Me qued despus de que lo saquearon todo. +Hemos llevado a cabo una investigacin sobre botnica, y tenemos un pequeo herbario de 4.500 pliegos de plantas. +Las cortamos, las secamos y las empacamos, las fijamos en una carpeta. +El objetivo, emplearlas en agricultura, para medicina, para lo que sea, para la ciencia, para el estudio de la flora y el cambio de los bosques. +Esa es la gente que se mueve por all, incluso pigmeos. +Y se es un tipo brillante, una persona trabajadora, un pigmeo. +Llevo trabajando con l alrededor de 10 aos. +Y con los soldados, fueron al bosque a cazar elefantes furtivamente. +Al ser un pigmeo, sabe cmo seguir las huellas del elefante en el bosque. +Fue atacado por un leopardo y lo abandonaron en el bosque. +Vinieron a decirme que yo tena que salvarlo. +Y lo que hice fue darle antibiticos que utilizamos para la tuberculosis. +Y afortunadamente, le salv la vida. +Y ese era el lenguaje de la guerra. +Por todos sitios ha habido una permanente extraccin de mineral, matanza de animales, tala de rboles, etc. +Y una cosa importante, creo que todos ustedes tienen un celular. +Ese mineral ha matado a muchos... cinco millones de congoleses han fallecido a causa de esto. el colombo-tantalita, coltn lo llaman. Lo utilizan para hacer celulares y por toda esta zona, por todo el Congo, ha habido extracciones, y es un gran negocio de la guerra. +Y lo que hice para la primera guerra, despus de haber perdido todo, tena que salvar algo, yo mismo, mi vida y la vida del personal. +Enterr parte del motor de nuestro vehculo nuevo, para salvarlo. +Y parte del equipamiento se lo llevaron a la parte superior de la copa del rbol, para salvarlo. +No est recogiendo plantas, va a poner a salvo nuestro equipo en la copa. +Y con el material que queda... porque queran destruirlo, quemarlo. No lo comprendan, no haban ido a la escuela. Lo empaqu. +Ese soy yo, yendo a, corriendo hacia Uganda, para salvar esas 4.000 especies, con gente transportndola en bicicletas. +Y despus de todo lo logramos. +Proteg las 4.000 especies en el herbario de la Universidad de Makerere. +Y despus de la guerra, pude traerlo de nuevo a casa para continuar con nuestros estudios. +La segunda guerra lleg cuando menos lo esperbamos. +Con mis amigos estbamos sentados viendo un partido de ftbol, y escuchando buena msica en la Worldspace radio, cuando empez, creo. +Fue tan malo. +Eso omos, en el este otra vez empez la guerra, y fue rpido. +Esta vez creo que Kabila se hizo cargo, como hizo con Mobutu. +Y la reserva fue un objetivo para los rebeldes. +Tres movimientos diferentes y dos milicias, actuando en la misma zona y compitiendo por los recursos naturales. +Y no haba forma de trabajar. +Lo destruyeron todo. +Caza ilegal... oh, ni hablar. +Y esos son los poderosos... tuvimos que reunirnos con ellos y hablarles. +Cul es el reglamento de la reserva y cul es el reglamento de los parques +Y que no podan hacer lo que estaban haciendo. +As que fuimos a encontrarnos con ellos. +Esa es la extraccin del coltn, minera de oro. +As que empezamos a hablar con ellos, a convencerles de que estbamos en una zona protegida. +Que hay reglamentos que prohiben la tala de rboles, la minera y la caza furtiva, especficamente. +Pero nos dijeron, " Ustedes, creen que los soldados que estn muriendo son menos importantes que los animales que estn protegiendo. +Nosotros no lo creemos as. +Tenemos que hacerlo para lograr que nuestro movimiento avance. +Yo dije, "Ni hablar, no van a hacerlo aqu". +Empezamos a hablar con ellos y a negociar. +Yo intentaba proteger nuestro equipo, proteger a nuestro personal y las aldeas con alrededor de 1.500 personas. +Y continuamos. +Pero yo estaba haciendo eso, negociar con ellos. +a veces tenemos reuniones y hablaban con Jean-Pierre Bemba, con Mbusa Nyamwisi, con Kabila, y yo ah presente. +A veces hablaban mi mismo idioma, que es el lingala. +Oia la estrategia que estaban llevando a cabo, lo que estaban planeando. +A veces venan en helicptero para abastecerlos con municin y tal. +Me utilizaban para llevarla y yo la contabilizaba, qu viene de dnde y dnde y dnde. +Yo slo tena este equipo, mi celular, mi computador y un panel solar de plstico escondido en el bosque. +Y cada vez, diariamente, despus de tener la reunin, el compromiso al que habamos llegado, lo que fuera, iba, escriba un email corto, y lo enviaba. +No s cunta gente tena en mis contactos, +enviaba el mensaje sobre cmo iba la guerra y lo que estaban planeando hacer. +Empezaron a sospechar por qu lo que hacamos por la maana, ya por la tarde estaba en las noticias... BBC, RFI. +Algo tena que estar pasando. +Y un da, fuimos a una reunin. +Perdonen. +Un da tuvimos una reunin con el comandante general. +Tena el mismo celular de iridio que yo. +Y me pregunt, "Sabes cmo se utiliza esto?" +Y le dije, "No lo he visto nunca. +No lo s." +Y tena el mo en el bolsillo. +As que fue una prueba casual de que confiaban mucho en m, +y que no me estaban vigilando. +Tuve miedo. +Y cuando acabamos la reunin regres al bosque a dejarlo. +Y estuve enviando noticias, haciendo cualquier cosa, informando diariamente a la ONU, a la Unesco, a nuestra institucin en Nueva York lo que haba estado sucediendo. +Y por eso haban estado sometidos a mucha presin para dejar y liberar la zona. +Porque no haba otro modo... cualquier cosa que hacan, se saba enseguida. +Durante las dos primeras rebeliones, mataron a todos los animales del zoo. +Tenamos un zoo con 14 okapis, y una de ellos estaba preada. +Y durante la guerra, despus de una semana de guerra dura, luchando en la zona, lo conseguimos, tuvimos nuestro primer okapi. +ste es el nico pantaln y camiseta que me recuerda aquello. +No es la poblacin local, son los rebeldes. +Son felices ahora enviando la noticia de que han protegido al okapi durante la guerra, porque enviamos la noticia de que estaban matando y cazando furtivamente por todos sitios. +A la semana celebramos el cumpleaos del okapi, mataron elefantes, a 50 metros de la zona del zoo, donde el okapi naci. +Y me puse furioso. +Me opuse a que fueran a diseccionarlo hasta que realic mi informe y despus vi al comandante general. +Y lo consegu. +El elefante se haba descompuesto y slo le quitaron los colmillos. +Lo que estuvimos haciendo despus de eso, de esa situacin de guerra, tuvimos que reconstruir. +Tena algn dinero... me pagaban 150 dlares. +Dediqu la mitad a reconstruir el herbario, porque no tenamos una buena infraestructura para cultivar plantas. +La Sociedad de Conservacin de la Vida Salvaje tiene ms experiencia con plantas. +Empec con 70 dlares y comenc a recaudar dinero all donde iba. +Pude ir a todos los sitios donde se poda encontrar material para el herbario. +Y me apoyaron un poco, y constru sto. +Ahora se realiza una labor de formacin para jvenes congoleses. +Y tambin, una de las especialidades que estamos realizando, mi idea es observar el efecto del calentamiento global sobre la biodiversidad, y qu impacto est teniendo el Bosque Ituri en la absorcin de carbono. +Es uno de los estudios que estamos llevando a cabo en un terreno de 40 hectreas, donde hemos etiquetado rboles y lianas de un centmetro y las estamos observando. +Tenemos ya datos de aproximadamente 15 aos, para ver cmo ese bosque est contribuyendo a la reduccin de carbono. +Y es... creo que me resulta difcil. +Es una charla muy embarazosa, lo s... +No s por dnde empezar, dnde terminarla. +Cuando estaba pensando en venir aqu, en qu ttulo sera el mejor para poner a mi charla, no lo encontraba. +Pero ahora creo que lo habra titulado, "El Lenguaje de las Armas". +Dnde est la gente? +Ahora hablamos de reconstruccin, de reconstruir frica. +Pero,son las industrias de las armas una herramienta para reconstruir,o un juego? +Creo que vemos la guerra como un juego... como el soccer, el futbol. +Todo el mundo es feliz, pero miren lo que est haciendo, miren lo que estn ocurriendo en Darfur. +Ahora decimos, ah, Dios mo. +Miren las guerras en Rwanda. +Es debido al lenguaje de las armas. +No creo que alguien pueda echarle la culpa a Google, porque est haciendo lo correcto, incluso aunque gente como Al-Qaeda utilicen Google para conectarse entre ellos. +Pero sirve a millones para lo mejor. +Pero, qu ocurre con las industrias de armas? +Gracias. +Chris Anderson: Gracias, gracias. +Aguarden ah. +Es una historia increble. +Supongo que mucha gente aqu se hace la misma pregunta que yo. +Cmo podemos ayudarles? +Corneille Ewango: Son preguntas muy embarazosas. +Creo que estoy nervioso. +Y creo que, ayudndonos, la gente acta a veces por ignorancia. +Yo mismo lo hice. +Si yo s, cuando era joven, que al matar a un elefante, estoy destruyendo la biodiversidad, no lo habra hecho. +Muchos, muchos de ustedes han visto los talentos de los africanos, pero son pocos los que van a la escuela. +Muchos estn muriendo a causa de todas esas pandemias, El VIH, la malaria, la pobreza, no ir a la escuela. +En lo que nos pueden ayudar es en construir capacidades. +Cuntos tienen oportunidades como yo de ir a EE. UU., de hacer un Mster. +E ir... ahora estoy en los Pases Bajos haciendo un doctorado. +Pero muchos de ellos se quedan aqu porque no tienen dinero. +Y no pueden ir ni siquiera a la universidad. +Ni siquiera pueden sacar una licenciatura. +Construir capacidades para los jvenes, va a hacer una generacin mejor y un mejor futuro maana para frica. +Gracias, gracias. +Hoy voy a hablar acerca de una tecnologa que estamos desarrollando actualmente en Oxford la que pensamos va a cambiar la forma de crear los juegos de computadoras y las pelculas de Hollywood. +Dicha tecnologa esta simulando a seres humanos. +Son humanos simulados con cuerpo simulado. y un sistema nervioso simulado para controlar dicho cuerpo. +Bueno, antes de hablar ms sobre esta tecnologa dmosle una mirada rpida a cmo son los personajes humanos en los juegos de computadoras actuales. +este es un video de un juego que se llama "Grand Theft Auto 3". +Ayer vimos esto de forma breve. +Y lo que se puede ver es, de hecho, un juego muy bueno. +Es uno de los juegos ms exitosos de todos los tiempos. +pero se darn cuenta de que todas las animaciones en este juego son muy repetitivas. +Se ven igual. +He hecho que corra hacia el muro, una y otra vez. +Y ustedes pueden ver que l siempre se ve igual. +La razn de este comportamiento es que estos personajes no son reales. +Son la visualizacin grfica de un personaje. +Para crear estas animaciones un animador tiene que anticipar lo que va a pasar en realidad en el juego y luego tiene que animar dicha secuencia. +l o ella se sienta, lo anima y entonces trata de anticipar lo que va a pasar. y luego estas animaciones son reproducidas nuevamente en momentos apropiados durante el juego. +Ahora bien, el resultado de esto es que uno no puede tener una interactividad real. +Todo lo que hoy son animaciones que se repiten en momentos oportunos, ms o menos. +Esto tambin quiere decir que los juegos no van a ser tan sorpresivos como pudieran ser porque uno solo saca, por lo menos en trminos del personaje, aquello que se le pone. +Aqui no hay ningn descubrimiento. +Lo tercero, como dije, es que por esa razn la mayora de las animaciones son repetitivas. +Bueno, la nica manera de evitar esto es que se simule el cuerpo humano y simular la parte del sistema nervioso en el cerebro que controla ese cuerpo. +Y tal vez, si pudiera venir para una rpida demostracin para mostrar cul es la diferencia porque, digo, es muy pero muy efmera. +Si empujo a Chris, de esta manera por ejemplo, l va a reaccionar. +Si lo empujo desde un ngulo diferente l va a reaccionar de forma diferente, y eso se debe a que tiene un cuerpo fsico, y porque tiene habilidades motoras que controlan su cuerpo. +Es algo bastante trivial. +Esto es algo que no se ve para nada en los juegos de computadoras actuales. +Muchas gracias. Chris Anderson: Es todo? +Torsten Reil: S. +Entonces, lo que estamos tratando de simular no a Chris especficamente, dira, sino a los humanos en general. +Bien, nosotros comenzamos a trabajar en esto hace mucho tiempo en la Universidad de Oxford, y tratamos de comenzar de una manera bien simple. +Lo que hicimos fue ensearle a un dibujo a caminar. +Ese dibujo est siendo estimulado fsicamente. Pueden verlo en pantalla. +Esta sujeto a la gravedad, tiene articulaciones, etc. +Si echamos a andar la simulacin se va a caer, as. +La parte complicada es ponerle un controlador de IA que le haga moverse de verdad. +Y para esto, usamos una red neural que basamos en la parte del sistema nervioso que llevamos en nuestra espina dorsal que controla el caminar en los humanos. +Se llama el generador central de patrones. +Entonces estimulamos esa parte tambin, y luego la parte ms complicada fue ensearle a esta red a caminar. +Para esto utilizamos evolucin artificial, algortmos genticos. +Omos sobre esto ayer y creo que casi todos estn familiarizados con esto. +Pero, brevemente, el concepto es que uno cree gran cantidad de individuos diferentes, redes neuronales en este caso, todos son aleatorios al principio. +Uno los conecta, en este caso a los msculos virtuales de esta criatura de dos patas, y esperemos que haga algo interesante. +Al principio todos van a ser bastante aburridos. +La mayora ni siquiera se van a mover, pero algunos darn un pequeo paso. +Esos son seleccionados por el algoritmo, reproducidos con mutacin y recombinados para darles atributos sexuales. +Y este proceso se repite una y otra vez hasta que uno tiene algo que camina, en este caso en una lnea recta, as. +Esa era la idea detrs de esto. +Cuando comenzamos esto dej lista la simulacin una noche. +Tard unas 3 a 4 horas para echar a andar la simulacin. +Cuando me levant a la maana siguiente fui a la computadora y me fij en los resultados, y esperaba que hubiera algo que caminara en lnea recta, tal como les acabo de demostrar, Pero en cambio esto fue lo que vi. +As que volvimos a nuestro pizarrn de dibujo. +Finalmente logramos que funcionara despus de hacer unos ajustes por aqu y por all. +Y este es un ejemplo de una carrera evolutiva exitosa. +Lo que van a ver en un momento es un bpedo muy simple que est aprendiendo a caminar usando la evolucin artificial. +Al principio ni siquiera puede caminar, pero va a mejorar con el tiempo. +Entonces, este es uno que no puede caminar para nada. +Ahora bien, despus de 5 generaciones de aplicar el proceso evolutivo, y el algortmo gentico est volvindose cada vez mejor. +En la generacin 10 va a dar unos pasos ms. An nada concreto. +Pero despus de la generacin 20 camina de verdad en lnea recta sin caerse. +Este fue un gran descubrimiento para nosotros. +Fue un proyecto realmente desafiante para el intelecto, y una vez que alcanzamos esta etapa tuvimos gran confianza de que podamos intentarlo y hacer otras cosas con este sistema, de hecho, simular el cuerpo y simular la parte del sistema nervioso que lo controla. +Ahora bien, en este punto tambin se hizo claro que esto podra ser bastante emocionante para cosas como los juegos de computadora o mundos virtuales. +Lo que se aprecia aqu es el personaje que est de pie, y hay un obstculo que ponemos en su camino. +Y lo que se ve es que se va a caer con el obstculo. +Ahora bien, la parte interesante es si muevo el obstculo un poquito a la derecha, que es lo que estoy haciendo ahora, justo aqu, se va a caer de una forma completamente diferente. +Nuevamente, si uno mueve el obstculo un poquito, se va a caer de una manera diferente. +Lo que ven, por cierto, all arriba, son algunas de las activaciones neuronales que se le estn dando a los msculos virtuales. +Bien. Ese era el video. Gracias. +Esto les puede parecer trivial pero es muy importante en realidad porque no es algo que se vea hoy en los mundos virtuales o interactivos. +Y hemos decidido en esta etapa comenzar una compaa y echar esto a andar porque este bpedo bien cuadrado es bastante simple. +Lo que en verdad queramos era un cuerpo humano completo, +as que empezamos una compaa. +Contratamos a un equipo de fsicos, ingenieros de software y bilogos para que trabajaran en esto, y la primera cosa en la que tuvimos que trabajar fue bsicamente en crear un cuerpo humano. +Tiene que ser relativamente rpido para que pueda correr en una mquina normal, pero debe ser precisa para que se vea bien, bsicamente. +Le ponemos bastante conocimiento biomecnico, y lo tratamos de hacer lo ms realista posible. +Lo que se ve aqu en pantalla es una visualizacin simple de ese cuerpo. +Debera decir tambin que es muy simple aadir pelo, ropa, etc., pero lo que hicimos aqu es una animacin simple para que uno se concentre en el movimiento. +Lo que voy a hacer ahora, en un momento, es nada ms empujar a este personaje y veremos lo que pasa. +Nada muy interesante la verdad. +Se cae pero se cae como una mueca de trapo. +La razn de eso es que no hay inteligencia en ella. +Se vuelve intersante cuando uno le pone inteligencia artificial. +As que ahora este personaje tiene habilidades motoras en su parte superior. No hay nada en las piernas an en este ejemplo en particular. +Pero lo que voy a hacer, lo voy a empujar nuevamente. +Se dar cuenta autnomamente que se le est empujando. +Va a sacar sus manos. +Se dar una vuelta hacia la cada y va a tratar de agarrarla. +Y eso es lo que ven aqu. +Ahora s que se pone muy interesante si yo le agrego IA tambin a la parte baja de su cuerpo. +Entonces aqu tenemos al mismo personaje. +Lo voy a empujar un poco ms fuerte esta vez, ms fuerte de lo que empuj a Chris. +Pero ahora van a ver un empujn desde la izquierda. +Lo que ven es que da un paso hacia atrs... trata de hacer contrapeso, trata de ver el lugar en donde piensa que se va a caer. +Se los voy a mostrar otra vez. +Y finalmente toca el suelo. +Esto s que se vuelve entretenido cuando uno empuja al personaje en direcciones diferentes, tal cual lo he hecho. +Eso es algo que uno no puede hacer ahora. +Por el momento en los juegos slo tenemos grficos vacos. +Lo de ahora es una simulacin real. Esto es lo que quera mostrarles. +Entonces, aqu tenemos al mismo personaje con el mismo comportamiento que les he mostrado, pero lo voy a empujar en direcciones diferentes. +Lo primero es comenzar con un empujn a la derecha. +Esto es todo en cmara lenta, por cierto, para que podamos ver lo que sucede. +Ahora voy a cambiar el ngulo ligeramente para que puedan ver que la reaccin es diferente. +Nuevamente, un empujn, esta vez desde el frente. +Y se pude ver que cae de forma diferente. +Y ahora desde la izquierda. Y cae de forma diferente. +Para nosotros ver esto fue algo emocionante. +Esa fue la primera vez que lo logramos. +Esta es tambin la primera vez que el pblico lo ve porque hemos visto el modo sigiloso. +No le he mostrado esto a nadie an. +Ahora, algo chistoso. Qu pasa si uno pone a este personaje -- esta es una versin en madera, pero tiene la misma IA dentro y si se pone a este personaje en una superficie resbaladiza, como el hielo. +Slo lo hicimos para rernos, slo para ver que pasaba. +Y esto es lo que pasa. +No pretendamos nada con esto. +Slo usamos este personaje del que hablamos, lo pusimos en una superficie resbaladiza, y esto es lo que pasa. +Y esto es lo fascinante de este proyecto. +Ahora, cuando fuimos a los estudios de filmacin y desarrolladores de juegos y les mostramos esta tecnologa, obtuvimos una muy buena respuesta. +Y lo que nos dijeron fue, lo primero, que necesitaban un doble virtual. +Porque las proezas son obviamente peligrosas, y son muy caras, y hay muchas escenas de riesgo que no pueden hacerse porque uno no puede permitir que el doble salga afectado. +Entonces ellos queran tener una versin digital de un doble. En esto hemos estado trabajando durante meses. +Y este es el primer producto que vamos a lanzar en un par de semanas. +Y aqu unas escenas muy simples del tipo recibiendo puntapies. +Eso es lo que la gente quiere. Eso es lo que les estamos dando. +Como ven, siempre est reaccionando. +Este no es un cuerpo muerto. Es un cuerpo que, bsicamente, en este caso en particular siente la fuerza y trata de proteger su cabeza. +Slo que creo que es un gran golpe. +Uno se siente un poco mal por estas cosas pero lo hemos visto tantas veces que la verdad, ya no nos importa. +He mostrado videos peores que este, por cierto, pero... +aqu hay otro. +Lo que la gente quera como comportamiento era tener una explosin, una fuerza enorme aplicada hacia el personaje, y hacer que el personaje reaccione en el aire. +Para que no se tenga un personaje que se vea discapacitado, sino un personaje que uno puede usar en pelculas de accin inmediatamente que se vea ms o menos vivo en el aire tambin. +Este personaje ser golpeado por una fuerza, se dar cuenta de que est en el aire y va a tratar y, bueno, sacar su brazo en la direccin donde va a caer. +Ese es un ngulo, aqu tenemos otro ngulo. +Ahora pensamos que el realismo que estamos logrando con esto es suficiente para ser usado en pelculas. +Y ahora demos una mirada a una visualizacin un poco diferente. +Esto es algo que apenas me lleg anoche de un estudio de animacin de Londres que est usando nuestro programa y experimentando con l por ahora. +Este es el mismo comportamiento que vieron, pero con una versin mejorada. +Si ven al personaje con cuidado se ven varios movimientos corporales, pero ninguno se tiene que animar como en los viejos tiempos. +Los animadores tenan que imitarlos. +Esto est pasando en la simulacin de forma automtica. +Este es un ngulo diferente, y una versin en cmara lenta. +Esto es realmente rpido. Est pasando en tiempo real. +Uno puede echar a andar esta simulacin en tiempo real, en vivo, cambiarla si uno quiere, y se obtiene la animacin. +Ahora, hacer algo as a mano llevara, tal vez, un par de das. +Este es otro tipo de comportamiento que se pidi. +No s por qu, pero igual lo hicimos. +Es un comportamiento simple que muestra el poder de este enfoque. +En este caso las manos del personaje estn fijas a un punto en el espacio, y le hemos dicho al personaje que batalle. +Se ve orgnico. Se ve real. +Uno se siente un poco mal por ese tipo. +Es peor... y este es otro video que recib anoche... si uno lo hace ms realista. +Bueno, les estoy mostrando esto para que vean cun orgnico se siente, y qu tan realista puede verse. +Y todo esto es una simulacin fsica del cuerpo, usando IA para dotar a ese cuerpo de msculos virtuales. +Ahora, una cosa que hicimos para reirnos un poco fue crear una escena un poco ms compleja, y una de las piruetas ms famosas es esa que James Bond salta desde una presa en Suiza y despus queda suspendido de un bunjee. +Aqu tengo un video alusivo. +S, se puede ver aqu. +En este caso ellos estaban usando un doble real. Era una pirueta muy difcil. +En el Sunday Times, la votaron como una de las piruetas ms impresionantes. +Ahora, nos fijamos en nuestro personaje y nos preguntamos: "Podremos hacerlo tambin?" +Podemos usar la simulacin fsica del personaje, usar inteligencia artificial, poner esa inteligencia artificial en el personaje, mover los msculos virtuales, simular la forma en que salta de la presa, y despus salta, y queda pendiendo de un bunjee? +Lo hicimos. Nos llev como 2 horas, ms o menos, crear la simulacin. +Y as es como qued. +Ahora, esto necesita un poco ms de trabajo. An est en sus etapas iniciales, y slo lo hicimos para rernos un poco slo para ver lo que pasaba. +Pero lo que encontramos durante los meses pasados es que este enfoque que es estndar es bastante poderoso. +Incluso estamos sorprendidos con los resultados de las simulaciones. +Casi siempre encontramos comportamientos que no habamos predicho. +Hay tantas cosas que podemos hacer ahora. +Lo primero, como dije, es el doble virtual. +Mucho estudios estn usando este software para crear dobles de riesgo virtuales, y van a estar en la pantalla grande muy pronto, de hecho, en grandes producciones. +Lo segundo son los juegos de video. +Con esta tecnologa los juegos de video se vern y sentirn diferentes. +Por primera vez se tendrn actores realmente interactivos, con cuerpos reales y que reaccionan de verdad. +Creo que eso va a ser increble. +Probablemente, empezando con juegos deportivos, que van a ser ms interactivos. +Pero estoy particularmente entusiasmado por usar esta tecnologa en mundos virtuales, como por ejemplo, lo que Tom Melcher nos mostr. +El grado de interactividad que van a tener es completamente diferente, creo, a partir de lo que tienen ahora. +Una tercera cosa que estamos investigando y nos interesa es la simulacin. +Se nos han acercado muchas compaas de simulacin, pero un proyecto que nos tiene en vilo, que estamos empezando el mes que viene, es usar nuestra tecnologa, y en particular, la tecnologa para caminar, para ayudar a cirujanos que trabajan con nios con parlisis cerebral, a predecir el resultado de las operaciones de estos nios. +Como han se saber, es muy difcil predecir lo que va a pasar en una operacin si uno intenta corregir el modo de andar. +La cita clsica es, creo, es impredecible en el mejor de los casos, es lo que la gente piensa ahora, es el resultado. +Lo que queremos hacer con nuestro software es permitirle a los cirujanos tener una herramienta. +Vamos a simular el andar de un nio en particular y el cirujano puede trabajar en la simulacin y probar formas diferentes de mejorar su andar antes de hacer una ciruga real. +Eso es algo que nos entusiasma mucho, y va a comenzar el mes que viene. +Finalmente, esto es slo el comienzo. +Ahora podemos simular varios comportamientos. +La inteligencia artificial no es tan buena como para simular todo el cuerpo humano. +S el cuerpo, pero no todas las habilidades motoras que poseemos. +Y, creo que lo habremos logrado cuando podamos hacer bailar ballet. +Todava no lo logramos pero estoy seguro de que seremos capaces de hacerlo en algn momento. +De hecho, s tenemos un bailarn involuntario es lo ltimo que quera mostrarles. +Esto es una inteligencia artificial que produjimos y evolucion -- evolucion a medias, dira, para producir equilibrio. +Uno patea al tipo y se supone que tiene que equilibrarse. +Eso era lo que pensamos que resultara de esto. +Pero esto es lo que finalmente pas. +No tiene cabeza y no sabemos por qu. +Esto no es algo que hayamos puesto. +l comenz a crear el baile por s mismo. +Es mejor bailarn que yo, debo decir. +Y lo que ven despus de un rato... creo que llega a un clmax al final. +Creo... ah va. +As que todo eso pas automticamente sin agregarle nada. +Es la simulacin la que, bsicamente, crea esto por s misma. +Es slo... Gracias. +No es John Travolta, todava, pero estamos en eso tambin. Gracias por su tiempo. +Gracias. +Chris Anderson: Incerble. Fue realmente increble. +Tosten Reil: Gracias. +Pens en contarles algo de lo que me gusta escribir. +A m me gusta ahondar en mis temas. +Me gusta bucear en ellos y convertirme en una especie de conejillo de indias humano +y ver mi vida como una serie de experimentos. +Trabajo para la revista Esquire y hace un par de aos escrib un artculo llamado "Mi vida subcontratada" donde contrataba a un equipo de gente en Bangalore, India para que vivieran mi vida por m. +As que respondan a mis correos electrnicos, +respondan a mi telfono, +discutan con mi mujer en mi lugar y le lean cuentos a mi hijo en la cama. +Fue el mejor mes de mi vida, porque me limit a sentarme, a leer libros y a ver pelculas. +Fue una experiencia maravillosa. +Ms recientemente, escrib otro artculo para Esquire llamado sobre la honestidad radical. +Este es un movimiento iniciado por un psiclogo de Virginia, que dice que no debes mentir jams, excepto quizs durante el pker o el golf, sus nicas excepciones. +Y ms que eso, cualquier cosa que est en tu cerebro debe salir de tu boca. +Decid probar esto durante un mes +y fue el peor mes de mi vida. +No lo recomiendo en absoluto. +Para que se den una idea de la experiencia, el artculo se titul "Creo que ests gordo". +As que eso fue duro. +Es un final inesperado muy emocionante, como una novela de O. Henry, as que no lo arruinar, +pero me encant, porque era un experimento sobre cunta informacin puede absorber un cerebro humano, +aunque escuchando a Kevin Kelly no tienes que recordar nada, +slo tienes que buscarlo en Google. +As que perd algo de tiempo con eso. +Me encantan esos experimentos, pero creo que el experimento ms profundo, el que ms me ha cambiado la vida ha sido el ltimo, en el que pas un ao intentando seguir todas las normas de la Biblia: "El ao en el que viv bblicamente". +Y me embarqu en esto por dos razones, +la primera era que haba crecido sin religin. +Como digo en mi libro, soy judo de la misma manera en que el Jardn de los Olivos es italiano. +As que no muy religioso. +Pero me he ido interesando cada vez ms en la religin. +Creo que es el asunto crucial de nuestra poca, o al menos uno de los principales. +Tengo un hijo y quiero saber lo que le enseo. +Entonces decid zambullirme primero a intentar vivir segn la Biblia. +La segunda razn por la que asum esto es porque me preocupa el ascenso del fundamentalismo, del fundamentalismo religioso y de la gente que dice que se toma la Biblia en sentido literal, que es, segn algunas encuestas hasta el 45 o el 50% de los estadounidenses. +As me dije: qu pasara si siguiramos de verdad la Biblia literalmente? +Decid llevarlo a su conclusin lgica y tomar toda la Biblia en sentido literal, sin escoger ni seleccionar nada. +La primera cosa que hice fue conseguir un montn de Biblias. +Tena Biblias cristianas, +biblias judas, +un amigo mo me envi una llamada Biblia hip-hop donde el Salmo 23 se presenta como "El Seor es todo eso" en oposicin a como yo lo conoca: "El Seor es mi pastor". +Entonces me puse a leer varias versiones, y a anotar todas y cada una de las leyes que iba encontrando. +Y obtuve una lista muy larga, ms de 700 reglas; +van desde las ms conocidas, que ya haba odo los Diez Mandamientos, amars al prjimo, creced y multiplicaos +y quise obedecerlas. +Me tomo mis proyectos muy en serio porque tuve gemelos ese ao, as que definitivamente me tomo mis proyectos muy en serio. +Pero tambin quise seguir los cientos de leyes oscuras y desconocidas que estn en la Biblia. +Hay una ley en el Levtico: "No te afeitars las esquinas de la barba". +No saba dnde estaban mis esquinas, as que decid dejarla crecer toda y este era mi aspecto al final. +Como pueden imaginar, me demoraba mucho en los controles de seguridad del aeropuerto. +Mi esposa no me bes durante los ltimos dos meses. +As que fue realmente un desafo. +La Biblia dice que no debes llevar ropas con mezcla de fibras, as que pens: "Suena extrao, pero voy a probarlo". +Slo lo sabrs si lo pruebas, +me deshice de todas mis camisetas de poli-algodn. +La Biblia dice que si dos hombres se pelean, y la esposa de uno de ellos agarra los testculos del otro, su mano deber ser cortada. +As que quise seguir esa regla. +Esa regla la obedec por omisin, no metindome en una pelea con un hombre cuya esposa estuviera al lado y pareciera tener un agarre fuerte. +Entonces... oh, ah hay otra foto de mi barba. +Les dir que fue un ao asombroso porque de verdad me cambi la vida y fue un desafo increble. +Haba dos tipos de leyes que eran particularmente complicadas, +la primera era evitar los pequeos pecados que todos cometemos cada da, +poda pasarme un ao sin matar, pero un ao sin chismear, sin codiciar, sin mentir Es que, bueno, vivo en Nueva York y trabajo como periodista, as que el 75 o el 80% de mi da tengo que hacerlo. +Pero fue muy interesante, porque consegu hacer progresos ya que no poda creer hasta qu punto mi forma de actuar modific mis pensamientos. +Esa fue una de las lecciones ms grandes del ao, que al pretender ser una persona mejor me convert un poco en una persona mejor. +Siempre haba pensado: "Si cambias tu forma de pensar, cambias tu manera de ser", pero a menudo es al revs. +Al cambiar tu comportamiento, modificas tu forma de pensar. +As que ya saben, si quieren ser ms compasivos visiten a la gente en el hospital y se harn ms compasivos. +Si donan dinero para una causa, se involucran emocionalmente en ella. +As que esto era psicologa cognitiva de verdad, ya saben, disonancia cognitiva... era lo que estaba experimentando. +La Biblia habla de verdad de la psicologa cognitiva, una psicologa cognitiva muy primitiva. +En los Proverbios dice que si sonres sers ms feliz, lo cual, como sabemos, es cierto. +El segundo tipo de norma que era difcil de obedecer eran las normas que te hacan meterte un poco en problemas en los Estados Unidos del siglo XXI. +Y quiz el ejemplo ms claro era la lapidacin de adlteros. +Pero es una gran parte de la Biblia, as que supona que tena que abordarlo. +Por tanto fui capaz de lapidar a un adltero. +Sucedi estando en el parque, vestido con mis ropas bblicas, sandalias y una tnica blanca, porque, de nuevo, el exterior afecta al interior +y quera saber cmo el vestir bblicamente iba a influir en mi mente. +Y se me acerca este hombre y me dice: Por qu viste as? +Le expliqu mi proyecto y me dijo: "Bueno, soy un adltero va a lapidarme?" +Y le dije: "Eso sera fantstico". +As que saqu un puado de piedras de mi bolsillo que haba estado cargando durante semanas, esperando este tipo de interaccin. Y, bueno, eran guijarros pero me los quit de la mano. +han de saber que era un anciano de 70 y pico aos, +pero an as era un adltero y uno bastante enfadado. +Me las quit de la mano y me las tir a la cara, as que sent que poda --ojo por ojo-- tomar represalia, as que le tir una a l. +Esa fue mi experiencia con la lapidacin, que me permiti tratar de forma ms seria estos grandes asuntos. +Cmo puede ser la Biblia tan brbara en algunos pasajes, pero tan increblemente sabia en otros? +Cmo debemos ver la Biblia? +Deberamos verla como un propsito original, como una especie de versin de Scalia de la Biblia? +Cmo se escribi la Biblia? +Ya que esta es una audiencia de perfil tecnolgico, comento en el libro sobre cmo la Biblia me recuerda a la Wikipedia, porque tiene todos estos autores y editores durante cientos de aos +y, de alguna manera, ha evolucionado, +no es un libro que fue escrito y descendi desde las alturas. +As que para terminar pens en decirles un par de las grandes lecciones para llevarse a casa que aprend durante ese ao. +La primera es: "No tomars la Biblia literalmente". +Eso result muy, muy evidente desde el principio. +Porque si lo haces, acabas actuando como un loco, lapidando adlteros o -- este es otro ejemplo -- +bueno, ese es otro -- pas algn tiempo pastoreando. +Es una vocacin muy relajante, se la recomiendo. +Pero esta otra es... la Biblia dice que no puedes tocar a una mujer durante ciertos das del mes, y sobre todo no puedes sentarte en un asiento donde se ha sentado una mujer con la menstruacin. +Mi mujer pens que esto era muy ofensivo, as que se sent en todos los asientos de nuestro apartamento, as que tuve que pasar la mayor parte del ao de pie hasta que me compr mi propio asiento y me lo llevaba por ah. +Saben? Me reun con los creacionistas. +Fui al museo de los creacionistas, +que son los literalistas supremos. +Fue fascinante porque no son gente estpida en absoluto, +yo dira que su CI es exactamente el mismo que el del evolucionista medio, +es slo que su fe es tan fuerte en la interpretacin literal de la Biblia que distorsionan todos los datos para hacerlos encajar en su modelo +y tienen que hacer unas piruetas mentales increbles para lograrlo. +Les dir, sin embargo, que el museo es fantstico, +de verdad que hicieron un trabajo fantstico. +Si alguna vez van a Kentucky, tienen... pueden ver una pelcula del Diluvio, y tienen aspersores en el techo que te mojan durante las escenas del Diluvio. +As que, sin importar qu opinen del creacionismo, y yo creo que es una locura, hicieron un gran trabajo. +Otra leccin es que debes dar gracias. +Esta fue una gran leccin porque yo estaba rezando, recitando estas oraciones de accin de gracias, lo que resultaba extrao en un agnstico; +pero daba las gracias todo el rato, todos los das y empec a cambiar mi perspectiva, +me empec a dar cuenta de los cientos de cosas pequeas que van bien todos los das y que ni siquiera notaba, que daba por hechas, en vez de centrarme en las tres o cuatro que iban mal. +As que esto es en mi opinin una clave para la felicidad, algo para recordar cuando vena hacia aqu, que el coche no se haba volteado, que no me tropec al bajar las escaleras, +es algo asombroso. +Tercero, que debes sentir veneracin. +Esto fue inesperado porque empec el ao como agnstico y al final me convert en lo que un amigo mo llama un agnstico reverente, que me encanta. +Estoy intentando empezar un movimiento. +As que si alguien quiere unirse la idea bsica es que, haya o no haya Dios, hay algo importante y bello en la idea de lo sagrado, y que nuestros rituales pueden ser sagrados. +El Sabbath puede ser sagrado, +esta fue una de las grandes cosas de mi ao, observar el Sabbath, porque soy adicto al trabajo, as que tener este da en el que no puedes trabajar, de verdad, me cambi la vida. +Ah queda esta idea de lo sagrado, haya o no haya un Dios. +No seguirs los estereotipos. +Este sucedi porque pas mucho tiempo en comunidades religiosas de Estados Unidos porque quera que fuera ms que mi propio viaje, +quera que fuera sobre la religin en Estados Unidos. +As que pas un tiempo con los cristianos evanglicos, con judos ortodoxos y con los amish. +Estoy muy orgulloso porque creo que soy la nica persona en Estados Unidos que ha sido capaz de superar hablando de la Biblia a un testigo de Jehov. +Despus de tres horas y media, mir su reloj y dijo: "Tengo que irme". +Oh, muchas gracias. +Gracias. Benditos sean. Benditos sean. +Y fue interesante porque tena algunas nociones preconcebidas sobre, por ejemplo, la cristiandad evanglica y me di cuenta de que es un movimiento tan amplio y tan variado que es difcil hacer generalizaciones sobre l. +Est este grupo con el que me reun, llamado los Cristianos de la Letra Roja que se centran en las palabras rojas de la Biblia, que son las que dijo Jess, +as las impriman en las Biblias antiguas. +Su argumento es que Jess nunca habl de la homosexualidad. +Tienen un folleto que dice: "Aqu est lo que dijo Jess sobre la homosexualidad" y cuando lo abres no hay nada dentro. +Entonces dicen que Jess habl mucho de ayudar a los marginados, de ayudar a los pobres. +Esto me inspir mucho. +Les recomiendo a Jim Wallace y Tony Campolo. +son lderes muy inspiradores, aunque disiento de muchas cosas que dicen. +Otra cosa: no despreciars lo irracional. +Esta fue muy inesperada, porque, saben crec con una visin cientfica del mundo, y me impact saber todo lo que en mi vida est controlado por fuerzas irracionales. +Y el asunto es que, si no son dainas, no deben ser completamente descartadas. +Porque aprend que.. estaba pensando, estaba haciendo todos esos rituales, rituales bblicos, separando la lana del lino y le pregunt a esa gente religiosa Por qu nos dice la Biblia que hagamos esto? Por qu se ocupa Dios de esto? +Y me respondieron: "No lo sabemos, pero son rituales que nos aportan significado". +Y yo les deca: "Pero eso es una locura". +y me replicaban: "Bueno, y qu hay de los tuyos? +Soplas las velas de los pasteles de cumpleaos. +Por tanto la clave es elegir los rituales adecuados, los rituales que no son dainos, pero los rituales por s mismos no deben ser descartados. +Finalmente aprend que debes escoger y seleccionar. +Esto lo aprend porque intent seguir todas las reglas de la Biblia +y fall miserablemente, +porque no puedes. +Tienes que escoger y seleccionar y cualquiera que siga la Biblia va a tener que e scoger y seleccionar. +La clave es escoger y seleccionar las partes adecuadas. +Es lo que se conoce como "religin de cafetera", que es una frase usada por los fundamentalistas de forma denigrante, porque dicen: "Oh, eso es slo una religin de cafetera. +Simplemente ests escogiendo y seleccionando". +Pero mi argumento es: "Qu hay de malo en las cafeteras?" +He probado platillos deliciosos en las cafeteras +como he probado otros que me han revuelto el estmago. +Entonces se trata de elegir las partes de la Biblia que hablan de la compasin, de la tolerancia, de amar al prjimo, en oposicin a las partes que dicen que la homosexualidad es pecado, o la intolerancia, o la violencia, que estn tambin muy presentes en la Biblia. +As que si vamos a encontrarle algn sentido a este libro, tenemos que comprometernos de verdad, que pelear con l. +Haba pensado en terminar con un par de imgenes ms, +ah estoy leyendo la Biblia; +as es como paraba a los taxis. +En serio, funcionaba...y s, esa era en efecto una oveja alquilada, que tuve que devolver a la maana siguiente, pero me sirvi bien durante un da. +En cualquier caso, muchas gracias por dejarme hablar. +Cmo seremos recordados dentro de 200 aos? +Vivo en una pequea ciudad, Princeton, en New Jersey, que celebra cada ao el gran evento de la historia de Princeton la Batalla de Princeton; que de hecho fue una batalla muy importante. +Fue la primera batalla ganada por George Washington, de hecho, y fue en gran medida un momento clave en la guerra de la independencia. +Sucedi hace 225 aos. +En realidad, fue un terrible desastre para Princeton. +La ciudad fue incendiada; era pleno invierno, y era un invierno muy, muy severo. +Y casi un cuarto de toda la poblacin de Princeton muri aquel invierno de hambre y fro; pero nadie lo recuerda. +Lo que se recuerda es, obviamente, el gran triunfo: que los ingleses fueron vapuleados, y ganamos, y que el pas haba nacido. +Por eso creo firmemente en que el dolor del nacimiento no es recordado, +es el nio lo que es recordado. +Y eso es lo que estamos atravesando en este momento. +Quera hablar slo un minuto sobre el futuro de la biotecnologa, porque creo que s muy poco sobre eso -- no soy un bilogo -- y por eso todo lo que s sobre ello puede ser dicho en un minuto. +Esto disipar en gran medida la oposicin. +Cuando la gente tenga esta tecnologa en sus manos, habr un kit de biotecnologa "hgalo usted mismo" para hacer crecer tu propio -- hacer crecer tu perro, hacer crecer tu propio gato. +Tan slo comprando el software podrs disearlos. No lo dir ms veces, pueden continuar a partir de ah. Va a pasar, y creo que tiene que pasar antes de que la tecnologa se vuelva natural se vuelva una parte de la condicin humana, algo familiar a todo al mundo y que todo el mundo acepta. +As que dejemos eso a un lado. +Quiero hablar acerca de algo bastante diferente, que es lo que yo conozco, y eso es astronoma. +Estoy interesado en la bsqueda de vida en el universo. +Ahora tenemos la capacidad de hacerlo de una nueva manera, y eso es de lo que hablar durante 10 minutos, o el tiempo que quede. +Si miramos al sistema solar tal y como lo conocemos hoy, tiene unos pocos planetas cercanos al Sol, ah es donde vivimos. +Tiene un nmero bastante grande de asteroides entre la rbita de la tierra y la rbita de Jpiter. +Los asteroides son una parte sustancial de estos lugares, pero no muy grande. Y no son muy prometedores para la vida, dado que consisten en su mayor parte de rocas y metal, principalmente rocas. +No slo hace fro sino que son muy secos. +As que los asteroides no nos dan muchas esperanzas. +Aparecen algunos sitios interesantes un poco ms hacia fuera, las lunas de Jpiter y Saturno. +En particular, hay un sitio llamado Europa, que es -- Europa es una de las lunas de Jpiter, donde podemos ver una superficie helada muy llana que parece como si flotara sobre un ocano, +creemos que en Europa hay de hecho un profundo ocano. +Y eso lo hace un sitio extraordinariamente interesante para explorar. +Ocanos -- probablemente el lugar en el que con ms probabilidades se origin la vida, tal y como se origin sobre la tierra. As que nos encantara explorar Europa, bajar a travs del hielo descubrir quin est nadando en el ocano ya sean peces o algas o monstruos marinos -- sean lo que sean es excitante -- o cefalpodos. +Pero eso es difcil de hacer. Desafortunadamente, el hielo es grueso. +No sabemos cmo de grueso, probablemente varias millas, por eso es muy caro y muy difcil bajar all -- enviar tu submarino o lo que sea -- y explorar. +Eso es algo que todava no sabemos cmo hacer. +Hay planes para hacerlo, pero es difcil. +Si vamos un poco ms all, encontraremos que tras la rbita de Neptuno, muy alejados del Sol, all es donde realmente empieza a haber residencias. +Por eso, si la vida pudiera establecerse all, tendra todo lo esencial: qumica y luz solar todo lo que se necesita. +Por eso lo que estoy proponiendo es que es all donde deberamos estar buscando vida, ms que en Marte, aunque Marte es desde luego un lugar muy prometedor e interesante. +Pero podemos mirar hacia afuera, de una forma barata y simple. +Y esto es de lo que voy a hablar. +Existe una -- imaginemos que la vida se origino en Europa, y estaba depositada en el ocano por miles de millones de aos. +Es bastante probable que saliera del ocano hacia la superficie, de la misma forma que lo hizo en la tierra. +Permaneci en el ocano y evolucion en el ocano durante 2 mil millones de aos, para finalmente salir a la tierra. Y entonces desde luego tuvo mucha -- ms libertad, y se desarrollaron en la tierra criaturas mucho ms variadas que las que hubieran nunca sido posibles en el ocano. +El paso del ocano a la tierra no fue fcil, pero sucedi. +Ahora, si la vida se ha originado en el ocano de Europa, podra tambin haberse movido hacia la superficie. +No habra habido nada de aire all, slo hay vaco. +Fuera hay fro, pero an as podra haber llegado. +Podramos imaginar plantas creciendo como algas a travs de las grietas en el hielo, creciendo hacia la superficie. +Qu necesitaran para crecer hacia la superficie? +En primer lugar, necesitaran tener una piel gruesa para protegerse de la prdida de agua a travs de la piel. +Por lo que tendran algo similar a una piel de un reptil. +Pero an mejor -- lo que es ms importante es que tendran que concentrar la luz solar. +La luz solar en Jpiter, en los satlites de Jpiter, es 25 veces ms dbil que aqu, ya que Jpiter est cinco veces ms lejos del Sol. +Por tanto estas criaturas, que llamo girasoles, y que imagino viviendo en la superficie de Europa, tendran que tener o bien lentes o espejos para concentrar la luz solar, de forma que pudieran permanecer calientes en la superficie. +De otra forma, estaran a una temperatura de 150 bajo cero, lo que no es ciertamente favorable para el desarrollo de la vida, al menos de la clase que conocemos. +Pero si simplemente pudieran crecer como hojas, con pequeas lentes y espejos, para concentrar luz solar, entonces podran permanecer calientes en la superficie, +podran disfrutar de todos los beneficios de la luz solar y tener sus races bajando hacia el ocano -- la vida entonces podra florecer mucho ms. +As que, por qu no mirar -- claro que no es muy probable que exista vida en la superficie de Europa. +Ninguna de estas cosas es probable, pero mi, mi filosofa es buscar lo que es detectable, no lo que es probable. +Hay una larga historia en la astronoma de cosas poco probables que se vuelven reales. Y quiero decir, el mejor ejemplo de esto fue la radio astronoma en su totalidad. +Originalmente cuando la radio astronoma comenz, el Sr. Jansky, en los laboratorios Bell, detect ondas de radio que venan del cielo, +y los astrnomos normales despreciaron esto. +O sea que no tiene sentido mirar. +Y eso, claro, eso retras el progreso de la radio astronoma unos 20 aos. +Ya que no haba nada all, tampoco se debera mirar. +Pues bien, en cuanto alguien mir, lo cual ocurri despus de unos 20 aos, fue cuando la radio astronoma realmente despeg. Porque result que el universo est absolutamente repleto de toda clase de cosas maravillosas irradiando en el espectro de radio, mucho ms brillantes que el Sol. +Lo mismo puede suceder con esta clase de vida, de la que estoy hablando, que vive sobre objetos fros: que podra de hecho ser muy abundante por todo el universo, y que no ha sido detectada slo porque no nos hemos preocupado de mirar. +Por eso, lo ltimo de lo que quiero hablar es sobre cmo detectarla. +Hay algo llamado 'pit lamping' (lmpara de minero). +Esa es una frase que aprend de mi hijo George, que est all en la audiencia. +Lo habis pillado -- es una expresin canadiense: +si se te ocurre cazar animales por la noche, coges una lmpara de minero, que es una 'pit lamp'. +La colocas con una cinta en la frente, para poder ver el reflejo en los ojos de los animales. As, si sales por la noche y disparas una luz de flash, los animales brillan. +Se ve el resplandor rojo en sus ojos, que es el reflejo del flash. +Y entonces, si eres uno de esos tipos poco deportivos, disparas a los animales y te los llevas a casa. +Y claro, eso estropea el juego de los otros cazadores que cazan durante el da. Por eso en Canada es ilegal. En Nueva Zelanda es legal, porque los granjeros de Nueva Zelanda usan esto como una forma de deshacerse de los conejos, porque los conejos compiten con las ovejas en Nueva Zelanda. +As que los granjeros salen de noche con jeeps fuertemente armados, y encienden los faros, y disparan a cualquier cosa que no parezca una oveja. +He propuesto aplicar el mismo truco para buscar vida en el universo. +Si estas criaturas que viven en superficies fras -- o bien en Europa, o ms lejos, en cualquier sitio en el que vivan sobre una superficie fra -- estas criaturas deben estar provistas de espejos. +Para concentrar la luz solar, tienen que tener lentes y espejos para mantenerse calientes. +Entonces cuando se hace brillar la luz del sol hacia ellas, la luz del sol ser reflejada de la misma forma que en los ojos de un animal. +As que estas criaturas brillarn en contraste con el fro de su alrededor. +Y cuanto ms nos alejamos del Sol, ms potente ser esta reflexin. Por lo que en realidad, este mtodo de cazar vida se hace ms y ms fuerte cuanto ms lejos ests, porque los espejos pticos tienen que ser ms potentes para que la luz reflejada brille ms an en contraste con el fondo oscuro. +Por lo que cuanto ms te alejas del Sol, esto se hace ms y ms potente. +As que de hecho, se podra buscar a estas criaturas con telescopios desde la Tierra. +Por qu no lo estamos haciendo? Simplemente porque nadie lo haba pensado an. +Pero espero que miremos, y con cualquier -- probablemente no encontraremos nada, ninguna de estas especulaciones puede que tenga de hecho ninguna base -- +pero aun as, hay una buena oportunidad. Y claro que si eso sucede transformar completamente nuestra visin de la vida. +Porque significar que la forma en la que la vida puede vivir ah fuera, tiene enormes ventajas comparado con la vida en un planeta. +Es extremadamente difcil moverse de un planeta a otro. +Tenemos grandes dificultades por el momento y cualquier criatura que vive en un planeta seguro que est bien atrapada. +Especialmente si respiras aire -- Es muy difcil ir de un planeta A a un planeta B, porque no hay aire entre ellos, pero si respiras aire -- -- ests muerto -- -- en cuanto salgas del planeta, a no ser que tengas una nave espacial. +sigues estando sobre un trozo de hielo, sigues teniendo luz solar y puedes sobrevivir mientras viajas de un sitio a otro. +Llamo a estas criaturas girasoles. +Tienen la apariencia, quizs como los girasoles. +Tienen que estar todo el tiempo apuntando hacia el sol, y podrn extenderse en el espacio, porque la gravedad sobre estos objetos es dbil. +As pueden recoger la luz del sol desde una gran superficie. +Por eso sern, de hecho, bastante fcil de detectar. +Por eso, espero que en los prximos 10 aos, encontremos a estas criaturas, y despus de hecho toda nuestra visin de la vida en el universo cambiar. +Si no las encontramos, podemos crearlas nosotros mismos. +Esa es otra maravillosa oportunidad que se abre. +Podemos, en cuanto tengamos un poco ms de conocimientos de ingeniera gentica, una de las cosas que puedes hacer con tu kit de ingeniera gentica, hgalo-usted-mismo, llveselo a casa -- -- es disear una criatura que pueda vivir en un satlite fro, un lugar como Europa, de forma que podramos colonizar Europa con nuestras propias criaturas. +Sera algo divertido. +A largo plazo, claro, esto hara posible que pudiramos movernos hacia all. +pero a largo plazo, si no hay vida all, la podemos crear nosotros. +Transformaremos el universo en algo mucho ms rico y bello de lo que es hoy. +Por eso, otra vez, tenemos un gran y maravilloso futuro al que asomarnos. +Gracias. +Mis colegas Art Aron, Lucy Brown, otros y yo colocamos 37 personas locamente enamoradas dentro de una maquina de resonancia magntica cerebral funcional +17 de las cuales estn felizmente enamoradas, 15 rechazados, y estamos iniciando nuestro tercer experimento: estudiando personas quienes reportan que an estn enamoradas despus de 10 a 25 aos de matrimonio. +De manera que sta es la corta historia de esa investigacin. +En la jungla de Guatemala, en Tikal, est erigido un templo +fue construido por el ms grande Rey Sol, de la mayor ciudad-estado, de la mayor civilizacion de Amrica, los Mayas +Su nombre era Hasaw Cha'an Kawiil. +Meda ms de 1.80 metros de altura. +Vivi hasta sus 80. y fue enterrado debajo de este monumento 720 A.C. +Las inscripciones Mayas proclaman que l estaba profundamente enamorado de su esposa +De manera que construy un templo en su honor, frente al de l +Y cada primavera y otoo, exactamente en el equinoccio, el sol se levanta detrs de este templo, y baa de manera perfecta el templo de ella con la sombra del suyo. +Y cuando el sol se acuesta detrs del templo de ella en la tarde, baa perfectamente el templo de l con la sombra del de ella. +Despus de 1,300 aos estos dos amantes todava se tocan y besan desde sus tumbas. +En todo el mundo las personas aman. +Cantan por amor, bailan por amor, componen poemas e historias acerca del amor. +Cuentan mitos y leyendas acerca del amor. +Suspiran por amor, viven por amor, matan por amor y mueren por amor. +Como dijo Walt Whitman una vez el dijo, "Oh, yo apostara todo por t" +Los antroplogos han encontrado evidencia de amor romntico en 170 sociedades. +No han encontrado nunca una sociedad que no lo tenga. +Pero el amor no siempre es una experiencia feliz. +En un estudio de estudiantes universitarios, realizaron muchas preguntas acerca del amor, pero las dos que ms sobresalieron para mi fueron, "Ha sido alguna vez rechazado por alguin a quien realmente amaba?" +Y la segunda pregunta fue, "Ha rechazado usted a alguin que realmente le am? +Y casi 95 porciento de tanto hombres y mujeres respondieron s a ambas +Casi nadie sale vivo del amor. +De manera que antes de empezar a decirles sobre el cerebro, Quiero leerles lo que pienso es el poema de amor mas poderoso en la Tierra. +Existen otros poemas que son, por supuesto, igual de buenos, pero no creo que este pueda ser superado. +Fue contado por un indgena annimo Kwakutl del Sur de Alaska a un misionero en 1896, aqu va. +Nunca tuve la oportunidad de decirlo antes. +"Corre fuego a travs de mi cuerpo con el dolor de amarte, +el dolor corre a travs de mi cuerpo con el fuego de mi amor por t. +Dolor ardiendo a punto de estallar de mi amor por ti, consumido por el fuego de mi amor por ti, +Recuerdo lo que me dijiste. +Y estoy pensando en tu amor por mi, +Estoy desgarrado por tu amor para mi. +Dolor y mas dolor, A dnde vas con mi amor? +Me han dicho que te vas de aqu. +Me han dicho que me dejas aqu +Mi cuerpo est paralizado de dolor. +Recuerda lo que te dije, mi amor. +Adios, mi amor, adios". +Emily Dickinson una vez escribi, "La separacin es todo lo que se necesita para conocer el infierno". +Cuntas personas han sufrido en todos los millones de aos de la evolucin humana? +Cuntas personas alrededor del mundo bailan con euforia en este preciso momento? +El amor romntico es una de las sensaciones mas poderosas en la Tierra. +Varios aos atrs, decid buscar en el cerebro y estudiar esta locura. +Nuestro primer estudio de personas que estaban felizmente enamoradas ha sido ampliamente divulgado, por lo tanto voy a hablar muy poco sobre este. +Encontramos actividad en un pequeo elemento cerca de la base del cerebro llamada rea ventral tegmental. +Encontramos actividad en algunas clulas llamadas Clulas ApEn Clulas que de hecho producen dopanina, un estimulante natural, y la rocan a muchas regiones del cerebro +De hecho esta parte, el AVT, es parte del sistema de gratificacin del cerebro. +Est por debajo de su proceso cognitivo del pensamiento. +Est debajo de sus emociones. +Es parte de lo que llamamos el centro reptil del cerebro, asociado al deseo, la motivacin con el enfoque y las ansias. +De hecho la misma regin del cerebro donde encontramos actividad tambien se activa cuando usted siente la necesidad de cocana. +Pero el amor romntico es mucho mas que un clmax de cocana -- al menos usted baja de la cocana. +El amor romntico es una obsesin. Le posee. +Usted pierde el sentido de su ser. +Usted no deja de pensar en el otro ser humano. +Alguien est acampando en su cabeza. +Como dijo un poeta japons del siglo octavo, "Mi nostalgia no tiene tiempo cuando termina". +El amor es salvaje. +Y la obsesin puede empeorarse cuando usted ha sido rechazado. +Entonces, en este momento, Lucy Brown y yo, la neurocientfica en nuestro proyecto, estamos buscando datos de personas quienes fueron colocadas en la mquina despues de haber sido rechazadas. +fue muy difcil, colocar estas personas en la mquina, porque estaban en muy mal estado. +Entonces de cualquier manera, encontramos actividad en tres regiones del cerebro. +Encontramos actividad en la region del cerebro, en exactamente la misma region del cerebro asociada con amor romntico intenso. +Qu mal trato. +Ustedes saben, cuando les han dejado, lo nico que amara hacer es olvidarse de ste ser humano, y entonces seguir con su vida, pero no, usted le ama mas fuerte. +Como el poeta Terence, el poeta romano dijo una vez, el dijo, "Mientras menor es mi esperanza, mas candente mi amor". +Y de hecho, nosotros sabemos por qu. +2,000 aos despus, podemos explicar esto en el cerebro. +Ese sistema del cerebro, el sistema de recompensa por deseo, por motivacin, por ansias, por enfoque, se hace mas activo cuando usted no puede obtener lo que usted desea. +En este caso, el gran premio de la vida: una pareja apropiada. +Nosotros encontramos actividad en otras regiones del cerebro tambin-- en una regin del cerebro asociada con calcular ganacias y prdidas. +Ustedes saben, estn acostados, mirando una fotografa, y est en esta mquina, y trata de calcular, usted sabe, qu sucedi mal. +Como, ustedes saben, qu he perdido? +De hecho, Lucy y yo tenemos un pequeo chiste sobre esto. +Viene de una obra de David Mamet, y estn dos artistas opuestos en la obra, y la mujer est persuadiendo al hombre, y el hombre mira a la mujer y dice, "Oh, eres un a pequea mala, no voy a apostar por ti" +Y de hecho es esta parte del cerebro, el centro del ncleo accumbens, la que se activa mientras usted mide sus ganacias y prdidas. +Es tambin la regin que se activa cuando usted se va a tomar riesgos enormes para grandes ganancias o grandes prdidas. +Finalmente pero no menos, encontramos actividad en una regin del cerebro asociada con apego profundo hacia otro individuo. +Con razn la gente sufre alrededor del mundo y tenemos tantos crmenes pasionales. +Cuando a usted le rechazan en el amor, no solo usted est sumergido en sentimientos de amor romntico, sino que usted est sintiendo un profundo apego a este individuo. +Mas an, este circuito del cerebro de recompensas est trabajando, y usted est sintiendo una energa intensa, un enfoque intenso, motivacin intensa y voluntad para ariesgarlo todo para ganar ese preciado premio de la vida. +Entonces, qu es lo que he aprendido de este experimento que quisiera explicar al mundo? +Principalmente he llegado a pensar que el amor romntico es un impulso, un impulso bsico de apareamiento. +No un impulso sexual -- el impulso sexual le saca de l buscando por una gran cadena de compaeros. +El amor romntico permite que usted enfoque su energa de apareamiento en slo uno a la vez, conserva su energa de apareamiento, e inicia el proceso de apareamiento con este individuo nico. +Pienso que de toda la poesa que he ledo sobre amor romntico, lo que mejor la resume es algo que dijo Platn hace mas de 2,000 aos. +El dijo, "El buen amor vive en estado de necesidad". +Es una necesidad. Es una urgencia. +Es un desequilibrio homeosttico. +Como el hambre o la sed, es casi imposible salirse de ello". +Tambin he llegado a creer que el amor romntico es una adiccin: una perfecta y maravillosa adiccin cuando marcha bien, y una perfecta adiccin horrible cuando va pobremente. +Y de hecho, posee todas las caractersticas de la adiccin. +Usted se enfoca en la persona, le piensa obsesivamente, usted le suplica, usted distorsiona la realidad, usted tiene la voluntad para tomar riesgos enormes para ganarse a esta persona. +Y posee las tres caractersticas principales de la adiccin. Tolerancia- usted necesita verle ms, y ms, y ms --- se abstiene y finalmente, recae. +Tengo una amiga quien pas por un terrible romance, +hace alrededor de ocho meses ella comenz a sentirse mejor. +El otro da iba sola conduciendo su vehculo, de repente escuch una cancin en la radio del vehculo que le record a este hombre. +Y no slo tuvo el deseo instantneo de regresar tuvo que hacerce a un lado del camino y llorar. +Entonces, una cosa quisiera que la comunidad mdica, y la comunidad legal y an la comunidad educativa, viera si puede entender, que de hecho el amor romntico es una de las substancias mas adictivas en la tierra. +Quisiera tambin explicar al mundo que los animales aman. +No existe animal en este planeta que copule con cualquier cosa que tiene a su lado. +Muy viejo, muy joven, muy desaliado, muy estpido y ellos no lo hacen. +A menos que usted est en una jaula de laboratorio y usted sabe, si usted pasa toda su vida en esa pequea caja, usted no va a ser muy minucioso de con quin tener sexo -- pero hemos observado cientos de especies, y en todas partes los animales poseen favoritos. +Los etnlogos saben esto, como un hecho. +Hay mas de ocho palabras para lo que denominan favoritismo animal: proceptividad selectiva, opcin de apareamiento, opcin femenina, opcin sexual. +Y de hecho, existen estos tres artculos acadmicos en los cuales han observado esta atraccin, que puede durar solo un segundo, pero es una atraccin definitva, y ya sea en esta misma regin del cerebro, este sistema de recompensa, o los qumicos de ese sistema de recompensa estn involucrados. +De hecho, yo pienso que la atraccin animal puede ser instantnea -- usted puede ver un elefante ir por otro elefante instantneamente. +Y pienso que ste es realmente el origen de lo que usted y yo llamamos "amor a primera vista". +Las personas a menudo me preguntan si lo que s del amor lo ha estropeado para mi. +Y yo simplemente digo, difcilmente. +Usted puede conocer cada ingrediente en un pedazo de pastel de chocolate, y cuando usted se sienta y come ese pastel, usted puede todava sentir ese gozo. +Y ciertamente yo cometo los mismos errores que todos cometemos, pero realmente ha profundizado mi entendimiento y compasin, realmente por toda la vida humana. +De un hecho, en Nueva York me encuentro a menudo viendo los coches de nios y me siento un poco apenada por el niito, +y de hecho siento a veces un poco de pena por el pollo en el plato de mi cena, cuando pienso en qu tan intenso es el sistema del cerebro. +Nuestro experimento mas nuevo ha sido incubado por mi colega Art Aron, colocando personas que han reportado que an estn enamoradas, en una relacin a largo plazo a un aparato de Resonancia Magntica funcional +Hemos colocado cinco personas hasta ahora, y de hecho, encontramos exactamente la misma cosa. Ellos no mienten. +Las reas del cerebro asociadas con el amor romntico intenso, todava estn activas 25 aos despus. +An existen muchas preguntas por ser respondidas y preguntadas acerca del amor romntico. +La pregunta en la que estoy trabajando en este preciso minuto, voy a decirla por un segundo y luego terminar, es por qu usted se enamora de una persona en vez de otra? +Yo ni siquiera hubiera pensado en esto, pero Match.com el sitio de citas de internet, vino a mi hace tres aos y me hizo esa pregunta. +Y les dije, no lo se. +S lo que sucede en el cerebro cuando usted se enamora, pero no s por qu usted se enamora de una persona en vez de otra. +He pasado los ltimos tres aos en esto. +Y hay muchas razones por las cuales usted se enamora de una persona en vez de otra, eso pueden decirle los siclogos. +Y tendemos a enamorarnos de alguien del mismo antecedente socioeconmico, el mismo nivel general de inteligencia, el mismo nivel general de buen aspecto, los mismos valores religiosos. +Su niez ciertamente juega un rol pero nadie conoce cmo. +Y de eso se trata, es todo lo que saben. +No, nunca han encontrado la forma en que dos personalidades se ajustan para hacer una buena relacin. +De manera que se me ocurre que tal vez su biologa le empuja hacia alguna persona en vez de otra. +Y he creado un cuestionario para ver hasta qu grado usted expresa dopamina, serotonina, estrgeno o testosterona. +Pienso que hemos evolucionado cuatro tipos amplios de personalidades asociados con las proporciones de esos cuatro qumicos en el cerebro. +Y en este sitio de citas que he creado, llamado Chemistry.com. Le hago una serie de preguntas para ver qu nivel de estos qumicos expresa usted, y observo quin escoje amar a quin. +Y 3.7 millones de personas han tomado este cuestionario en EUA, +cerca de 600,000 en otros 33 pases. +Pienso que hay biologia en ello. +Pienso que terminaremos en los proximos aos entendiendo todos los tipos de mecanismos del cerebro que nos llevan hacia una persona en vez de otra. +De manera que cerrar con esto. Estos son mis mayores +Faulkner dijo una vez, " El pasado no est muerto" ni siquiera es el pasado". +De hecho llevamos mucho equipaje de nuestro ayer en el cerebro humano. +Y hay una cosa que me hace perseguir mi comprensin de la naturaleza humana, y esto me recuerda eso. +Estas son dos mujeres. +Las mujeres tienden a obtener intimidad diferente a como lo hacen los hombres. +Las mujeres obtienen intimidad hablando cara a cara +Nosotros giramos hacia cada una, hacemos lo que llamamos "una mirada anclada" y despues hablamos. +Esto es intimidad para las mujeres. +Pienso que viene de millones de aos de cargar ese bebe frente tu cara, persuadindole, reprimindole, educndole con palabras. +Los hombres tienden a obtener intimidad lado a lado, +Tan pronto un tipo voltea, el otro mirara al otro lado. +Pienso que viene de millones de aos de estar parados detrs de-- sentados debajo del arbusto, mirando directo hacia delante, tratando de golpear ese bfalo en la cabeza con una piedra. +Pienso que por millones de aos los hombres enfrentaron a sus enemigos, se sentaron uno al lado del otro con amigos. +De manera que mi declaracin final es: el amor est en nosotros. +Est profundamente dentro del cerebro. +Nuestro reto es entendernos unos a los otros. Muchas gracias +Cmo clrigo, ustedes podrn imaginarse cmo me siento fuera de lugar. +Me siento como pez fuera del agua, o tal vez como buho fuera del aire. +Estaba predicando en San Jos hace algn tiempo y mi amigo Mark Kvamme, quin me relacion con esta conferencia, trajo varios gerentes y lderes de algunas de las compaias aqu en Silicon Valley a tener un desayuno conmigo, o yo con ellos. +Y fui tan estimulado. +Y tuve un fue una experiencia que abrio mis ojos el escucharles hablar acerca de el mundo que est por venir a travs de la tecnologa y la ciencia. +S que estamos cerca del final de esta conferencia, y algunos de ustedes puede que se pregunten por qu tienen un conferencista del rea de la religin. +Richard les puede responder, porque l tom esa decisin. +Pero hace unos aos estaba en un elevador en Philadelphia, bajando. +Iba a dar un discurso en un hotel. +Y en ese elevador un hombre dijo, "Escuch que Billy Graham se est hospedando en este hotel." +Y otro hombre mir hacia m y dijo, "Si, helo aqu. Est en el elevador con nosotros." +Y ese hombre me mir de arriba hacia abajo como por 10 segundos, y dijo, "Oh, que anti-clmax!" +Espero que ustedes no sientan que estos pocos momentos conmigo no sean sea un anti-clmax despus de todas estas tremendas charlas que han escuchado, y discursos, que he tradado de escuchar a todos ellos. +Pero estaba en un avin en el Este hace unos aos, y el hombre que estaba sentado al otro lado del pasillo era el alcalde de Charlotte, Carolina del Norte. +Su nombre era John Belk. Algunos de ustedes probablemente lo conocen. +Y ah estaba un hombre borracho, y l se levant de su asiento dos o tres veces, y estaba perturbando a todo el mundo con lo que el trataba de hacer, +y l le daba palmadas a las azafatas y las pellizcaba cuando pasaban a su lado, y todo el mundo estaba disgustado con l. +Y finalmente, John Belk dijo, "Sabe quin est sentado aqui?" +Y el hombre dijo, "No, quin? +l dijo, "es Billy Graham, el predicador." +l dijo, "No me digas!" +Y se volvi a mi, y dijo, "Pngala ahi!" +l dijo, "Sus sermones ciertamente me han ayudado." +Y supongo que eso es cierto con miles de personas. +S que as como ustedes han estado echndole un vistazo al futuro, y as como hemos escuchado de algo de esto en esta noche me gustara vivir en esa poca y ver como va a ser. +Pero no lo har, porque tengo 80 aos; este es mi octogsimo ao, y se que mi tiempo es breve. +en el momento tengo flebitis en las dos piernas, y esa es la razn por la cual tuve que recibir un poco de ayuda en subir aca, porque tengo Parkinson adems de eso, y otros problemas de los que no hablar +Pero esta no es la primera vez que hemos tenido una revolucin tecnolgica. +Hemos tenido otras. +Y hay una de la que quiero hablar +en una generacin, la nacin del pueblo de Israel tuvo un cambio dramtico y tremendo que les hizo un gran poder en el Cercano Oriente +Un hombre del nombre de David lleg al trono, y el Rey David se convirti en uno de los grandes lderes de su generacin +l era un hombre de tremendo liderazgo. +Tena el favor de Dios con l. +l era un poeta talentoso, filsofo, escritor, soldado, con estrategias en batalla y conflicto que personas estudian an en la actualidad. +Pero cerca de dos siglos antes de David, los Hititas haban descubierto el secreto de fundir y procesar el hierro, y lentamente, esa habilidad se difundi. +Pero ellos no permitan a los Israelitas verla o tenerla. +Pero David cambi todo eso, y el introdujo la Edad de Hierro a Israel. +Y la Biblia dice que David hizo grandes depsitos de hierro, y que los arquelogos han encontrado, que en Palestina de hoy en da, hay evidencias de esa generacin +Ahora, en lugar de toscas herramientas hechas de palos y piedras, Israel ahora tena arados de hierro hoces y azadones, y armas militares. +Y en el curso de una generacin, Israel cambi completamente. +La introduccin del hierro, de alguna manera tuvo un impacto casi como el que el micro-chip ha tenido en nuestra generacin +y David descubri que haba problemas que la tecnologa no poda resolver +An haba muchos problemas que restaban +Y an estn dentro de nosotros y ustedes no los han resuelto, y no he escuchado a nadie hablar de aquello. +Cmo resolvemos esos tres problemas que me gustara mencionar? +El primero que David vio fue la maldad humana. +De dnde viene? +Cmo la resolvemos? +Una y otra vez en los Salmos, del que Gladstone dijo que era el mejor libro en el mundo, David describe las maldades de la raza humana. +Y an dice, "l restaura mi alma." +Alguna vez han pensado en la contradiccin que somos? +Por un lado, podemos probar los ms profundos secretos del universo y dramticamente empujar las fronteras de la tecnologa, as como esta conferencia vivamente lo demuestra. +Hemos visto bajo el mar, tres millas hacia abajo, o galaxias cientos de billones de aos hacia el futuro. +Pero de otro lado, hay algo que est mal. +Nuestros acorazados, nuestros soldados, ahora estn en una frontera casi listos para ir a la guerra con Irak. +Ahora, qu causa esto? +Porqu tenemos estas guerras en toda generacin, y en todo lugar del mundo? +Y revoluciones? +No podemos llevarnos bien con otras personas, incluso entre nuestras propias familias. +Nos encontramos entre la mano paralizadora de hbitos auto-destructivos que no podemos romper. +Racismo e injusticia y violencia barren nuestro mundo, trayendo una trgica cosecha de dolor y muerte. +Incluso el ms sofisticado entre nosotros se ve impotente de romper ste ciclo. +Me gustara ver a Oracle asumir esto. O cualquier otros genios tecnolgicos trabajar en esto. +Cmo cambiamos al hombre para que no mienta y haga trampa, y que nuestros diarios no estn llenos de historias de fraude en los negocios o en el trabajo o en deportes o en lo que sea? +La Biblia dice que el problema est dentro de nosotros, en nuestros corazones y nuestras almas. +Nuestro problema es que estamos separados de nuestro Creador, al que llamamos Dios, y necesitamos que nuestras almas sean restauradas, algo que slo Dios puede hacer. +Jess dijo, "Del corazn vienen los malos pensamientos, asesinatos, inmoralidad sexual, robos, falsos testimonios, calumnias." +El filsofo britnico Bertrand Russell no fue un hombre religioso pero l dijo, "Es en nuestros corazones donde el mal habita, y es de nuestros corazones de donde necesita ser arrancado." +Albert Einstein Estaba hablando a alguien cuando daba un discurso en Princeton, y conoc al Sr. Einstein. +l no tuvo un doctorado, porque deca que nadie estaba calificado para darle uno. +Pero l hizo esta declaracin. +l dijo, "es ms fcil desnaturalizar el plutonio que desnaturalizar el espritu malvado del hombre." +Y muchos de ustedes, estoy seguro, han pensado de eso y han tratado de resolverlo. +Ustedes han visto personas tomando avances tecnolgicos beneficiosos, como el Internet, del que hemos escuchado esta noche y lo convierten en algo que corrompe. +Han visto personas geniales componer virus de computadoras que echan abajo sistemas completos. +La bomba en la ciudad de Oklahoma fue simple tecnologa, usada de manera horrible. +El problema no es la tecnologa. +El problema es la persona que la usa. +el Rey David dijo que l conoca las profundidades de su propia alma. +l no poda liberarse de sus problemas personales y sus maldades personales que incluan asesinato y adulterio. +Sin embargo, David busc el perdn de Dios, y dijo, "Tu puedes restaurar mi alma." +Ustedes ven, la Biblia ensea que somos ms que un cuerpo y una mente. +Somos un alma. +Y hay algo dentro de nosotros que va ms all de nuestro entendimiento. +Esa es la parte de nosotros que anhela a Dios, o algo ms de lo que encontramos en la tecnologa. +Su alma es esa parte de ustedes que anhela encontrar sentido a la vida, y que busca por algo ms all de esta vida. +Es la parte de ti que verdaderamente anhela a Dios. +Encuentro que jvenes alrededor del mundo estn buscando algo. +No saben qu es. Hablo en diferentes universidades, y tengo muchas sesiones de preguntas y respuestas y ya sea en Cambridge o Harvard u Oxford He hablado en todas esas universidades. +Voy a Harvard en unos tres o cuatro no, es como en unos 2 meses, para dar una conferencia. +Y me sern preguntadas las mismas cosas que me fueron preguntadas las ltimas veces que he estado all. +Y sern estas pocas preguntas: De dnde vengo? Porqu estoy ac? Hacia dnde voy? +En qu consiste la vida? Porqu estoy aca? +An si no tienen creencias religiosas, hay tiempos donde ustedes se preguntan si hay algo ms. +Thomas Edison tambin dijo, "Cuando ven todo lo que pasa en el mundo de la ciencia, y en la manera en que el universo trabaja, no puedes negar que hay un capitn en el puente de mando." +recuerdo una vez, Me sent al lado de la Sra. Gorbachev en una cena en la Casa Banca. +Fu al Embajador Dobrynin, a quien conozco muy bien, +y estuve en Rusia muchas veces bajo los Comunistas, y me dieron maravillosa libertad que no esperaba. +Y conoca al Sr. Dobrynin muy bien, y dije, "me sentar al lado de la Sra. Gorvachev esta noche. +De qu debera hablarle?" +Y me sorprendi con su respuesta. +l dijo, "Hblele de religin y filosofa. +En eso es lo que ella realmente est interesada." +Estaba un poco sorprendido, pero esa noche de eso fue de lo que hablamos, y fu una conversacin muy interesante, +y luego ella dijo, "Sabes, soy atea, pero s que hay algo all arriba ms alto que nosotros." +El segundo problema que el Rey David se di cuenta que no poda resolver fue el problema del sufrimiento humano. +El libro mas antiguo en ser escrito fue el de Job, y l dijo, "Como las chispas se levantan para volar por el aire, as el hombre nace para la afliccin." +Si, ciertamente, la ciencia ha hecho mucho para evitar ciertos tipos de sufrimiento humano +pero soy en unos meses tendr 80 aos. +Admito que estoy muy agradecido por todos los avances mdicos que me han mantenido en una relativa buena salud todos estos aos. +Mis mdicos en la Clnica Mayo me recomendaron no tomar el viaje hacia ac para esta para estar aqu. +No he dado una charla en unos cuatro meses. +Y cuando dan charlas tanto como yo, tres o cuatro veces al da, se oxidan. +Esa es la razn por la que uso este podio y usando estas notas. +cada vez que me ven en la televisin o en algn otro lado, estoy improvisando. +No estoy leyendo. Nunca leo un discurso. +Nunca leo una charla, un discurso o una conferencia. +Yo improviso. +Pero esta noche he trado algunas notas en caso que comienze a olvidar, que a veces lo hago, tenga algo a lo que pueda recurrir. +Pero incluso aqu entre nosotros, ms en la sociedad ms avanzada en el mundo, tenemos pobreza. +Tenemos familias que se auto-destruyen, amigos que nos traicionan. +Inaguantables presiones psicolgicas estn encima de nosotros. +Nunca he conocido a alguien en el mundo que no haya tenido un problema o una preocupacin. +Porqu sufrimos? Es una pregunta antigua que no hemos respondido. +Sin embargo, David una y otra vez dijo que se volvera hacia Dios. +l dijo, "El Seor es mi pastor." +El ltimo problema que David supo que no poda resolver fue la muerte. +Muchos comentadores han dicho que la muerte es el tema prohibido de nuestra generacin. +La mayora de las personas viven como si nunca fueran a morir. +La tecnologa proyecta el mito del control sobre nuestra mortalidad. +Vemos personas en nuestras pantallas. +Marilyn Monroe es igual de hermosa en la pantalla a como lo era en persona, y nuestra muchas personas jvenes piensan que ella an vive. +No saben que est muerta. +O Clark Gable o quien quiera que sea. +Las viejas estrellas. Vuelven a la vida. +Y ellas ellas con tan grandiosas en la pantalla as como lo eran en persona. +Pero la muerte es inevitable. +Habl hace algn tiempo a una sesin conjunta del Congreso, el ao pasado. +Y estabamos reunidos en esa sala, la sala de la estatua +unos 300 de ellos estaban ahi. +Y dije, "Hay una cosa que tenemos en comn en esta sala, todos nosotros, ya seamos Republicanos o Democratas, o quien sea." +Dije, "Todos vamos a morir." +Y eso tenemos en comn con todos esos grandes hombres del pasado que nos estn viendo. +Y usualmente es dificil para los jvenes entender eso. +Es difcil para ellos entender que van a morir. +Como escribi el antiguo escritor de Eclesiasts, l dijo, hay todo tipo de actividades bajo el cielo. +Hay tiempo de nacer, y hay tiempo de morir. +He estado en el lecho de muerte de muchas personas famosas a quienes ustedes conoceran. +He hablado con ellas. +he visto en esos momentos agonizantes cuando estaban asusutados de la muerte. +Sin embargo, unos pocos aos antes, la muerte nunca se les cruz por la cabeza. +Habl con una mujer la semana pasada quien su padre fue un doctor famoso. +Ella dijo que l nunca pens en Dios, nunca habl de Dios, no crey en Dios. Era ateo. +Pero ella dijo, que cuando se acercaba su muerte, un dia se sent en un lado de su cama, y le pidi a la enfermera si poda ver al capelln. +Y dijo por primera vez en su vida pensara en lo inevitable, y en Dios. +Haba un Dios? +Hace unos pocos aos, un estudiante universitario me pregunt, "Cul es la mayor sorpresa en su vida?" +Y dije, la mayor sorpresa en mi vida es la brevedad de la vida. +Se pasa tan rpido. +Pero no tiene que ser de esa manera. +Werner von Braun, luego de la Segunda Guerra Mundial concluy: "Ciencia y religin no son antagonistas. +Por el contrario, son hermanas." +Lo puso de una manera personal. +Conoc al Dr. von Braun muy bien. +Y dijo, "Hablando por m mismo, slo puedo decir que la grandeza del cosmos sirve slo para confirmar la creencia en la certeza de un creador." +Tambin dijo, "En nuestra bsqueda de Dios, he llegado a creer que la vida de Jesucristo debera ser el enfoque de nuestros esfuerzos e inspiracin. +La realidad de su vida y su resurreccin es la esperanza de la humanidad." +He dado bastantes conferencias en Alemania y en Francia, y en diferentes partes del mundo he tenido el privilegio de hablar en 105 pases. +Y una vez fui invitado a visitar al Canciller Adenauer quin es considerado algo as como el fundador de la Alemania moderna desde la guerra. +Y una vez y l me dijo, dijo, "Joven," dijo, "Cree en la resurreccin de Jesucristo?" +Y dije, "S seor, s creo." +l dijo, "Yo tambin." +l dijo, "Cuando me retire, usar mi tiempo escribiendo un libro acerca de porqu Jesucristo resucit, y por qu es tan importante creer eso." +En una de sus obras de teatro, Alexander Solzhenitsyn representa a un hombre muriendo, quin dice a los que estan alrededor de su cama, "El momento en que es terrible sentir arrepentimiento es cuando uno est muriendo." +Cmo uno puede vivir a fin que uno no sienta arrepentimiento cuando uno est muriendo? +Blaise Pascal hizo la misma pregunta en Francia del siglo 17. +Pascal ha sido llamado el arquitecto de la civilizacin moderna. +Era un cientfico brillante en las fronteras de las matemticas, incluso cuando era adolescente. +Es visto por muchos como el fundador de la teora de la probabilidad, y el creador del primer modelo de computadora. +Y por supuesto todos ustedes son familiares con el lenguaje de computadoras que tiene su nombre. +Pascal explor en profundidad nuestos dilemas humanos de maldad, sufrimiento y muerte. +l estaba asombrado con el fenmeno que hemos estado viendo: que la gente puede alcanzar alturas extraordinarias en ciencia, artes e inventiva humana, sin embargo tambin est llena de ira, hipocresa, y tiene y odio a s misma. +Pascal nos vio como una notable combinacin de genialidad y auto-engao. +El 23 de Noviembre de 1654, Pascal tuvo una profunda experiencia religiosa. +Escribi en su diario estas palabras: "Me sujeto, absolutamente, a Jesucristo mi Redentor." +Un historiador francs dijo, dos siglos despus, "Rara vez un intelecto tan poderoso se ha sometido con tanta humildad a la autoridad de Jesucristo." +Pascal no slo lleg a creer que el amor y la gracia de Dios nos podra regresar a la armona, pero tambin crea que sus propios pecados y fallas podan ser perdonados, y que cuando el morira, ira a un lugar llamado Cielo. +l lo experiment en una manera que fue ms all que observacin cientfica y razn. +Fu l el que redact las palabras bien conocidas, "El corazn tiene sus razones las cuales la razn no conoce." +Igual de famosa es la Apuesta de Pascal. +Esencialmente l dice: "Si apuestas en Dios, y te abres a Su amor, nada pierdes incluso si ests equivocado. +Pero si en cambio apuestas que no hay Dios, luego puedes perder todo, en esta vida y en la venidera." +Para Pascal, el conocimiento scientfico palideca junto al conocimiento de Dios. +El conocimiento de Dios iba ms all que cualquier cosa que hubiera cuzado su mente. +l estaba listo para Verlo cara a cara cuando muri a la edad de 39. +El rey David vivi hasta los 70 un largo tiempo en su poca. +Sin embargo, l tambin tuvo que encarar la muerte, y escribi estas palabras: "Aunque camine por el valle de sombra de muerte, no temer a mal alguno, porque ests conmigo." +Esta fu la respuesta de David a tres dilemas de maldad, sufrimiento y muerte. +Puede ser de ustedes tambien, as como busquen al Dios viviente y le permitan llevar sus vidas y darles esperanza para el futuro, +Cuando tena 17 aos, nac y fui criado en una granja de Carolina del Norte +Ordeaba vacas todas las maanas, y tena que ordear las mismas vacas en la tarde cuando regresaba a casa de la escuela. +y haba 20 de ellas que tena de las que era responsable, y trabaj en la granja y trat de mantenerme al ritmo con mis estudios. +No tuve buenas calificaciones en la secundaria. +Tampoco en la universidad, hasta que algo sucedi en mi corazn. +Un da, fui enfrentado cara a cara con Cristo. +l dijo, "Soy el camino, la verdad y la vida." +Lo pueden imaginar? "Soy la verdad. +Soy la encarnacin de toda verdad." +l era un mentiroso. +O estaba loco. +O era quien l afirmaba ser. +Cul era l? +Tuve que tomar esa desicin. +No poda probarlo. +No poda llevarlo al laboratorio y experimentar con eso +Pero por fe dije, creo en l, y l vino a mi corazn y cambi mi vida. +Y ahora estoy listo, cuando escuche ese llamado, para ir a la presencia de Dios. +Gracias, y que Dios los bendiga a todos. +Gracias por el privilegio. Fu maravilloso. +Richard Wurman: Lo hiciste. +Gracias [poco claro] +Magia mental qu es la magia mental? +Magia mental, para m, es el rea de la magia que trata de los efectos psicolgicos y de la lectura de la mente. +A diferencia de la magia tradicional, utiliza el poder de las palabras, el engao lingstico, la comunicacin no verbal y varias otras tcnicas para crear la ilusin de un sexto sentido. +Ahora les voy a mostrar a todos lo sencillo que es manipular la mente humana una vez que sabes cmo hacerlo. +Quiero que todos los que estn abajo se unan a m y al resto. +En primer lugar quiero que todos pongan sus manos igual que yo. +Bien, aplaudan una vez. +Bien, inviertan sus manos. +Ahora sigan exactamente mis acciones. +Ahora la mitad de la audiencia tiene su mano izquierda arriba por qu es eso? +Bien, intercmbienlas, pongan la mano derecha arriba. +Bien, ahora crucen sus manos tal que la mano derecha entrecrucen sus dedos as, luego asegrense que su pulgar derecho est fuera del pulgar izquierdo, eso es muy importante. +El tuyo est al revs, as que intercmbialo, +Excelente, bien, extiendan sus dedos como lo estoy haciendo yo. +De acuerdo. De un golpecito entre ellos. +Bien, ahora, si no me dejaron engaar a sus mentes, entonces podrn hacer esto. +Ahora ven qu fcil es para m manipular la mente humana, una vez que se sabe cmo. +Recuerdo que cuando tena 15 aos le un ejemplar de la revista Life, que describa la historia de una mujer rusa ciega de 75 aos que poda sentir la letra impresa, all todava hay gente que est tratando de hacerlo, alguien que podra sentir la letra impresa, incluso los colores, con el tacto +Y estaba completamente ciega +Poda tambin leer los nmeros de serie de billetes cuando los ponan boca abajo en un superficie dura. +Yo estaba fascinado pero a la vez, escptico. +Cmo poda alguien leer con las yemas de los dedos? +Si lo piensan detenidamente. si alguien est totalmente ciego. ayer un tipo hizo una demostracin en uno de los cuartos, donde la gente cerraba sus ojos y slo podan or cosas. +Y en verdad es algo extrao tratar de descifrar +cmo alguien puede leer con las yemas de los dedos? +Como parte de un programa de TV que tendr con MTV intent dar una demostracin similar de lo que se conoce como segunda visin. +Vamos a verlo. +Hombre: aqu vamos. +Te voy a guiar hacia el auto. +Kathryn: Hombre: Vas bien, sigue adelante. +Kathryn: Cmo ests? +Keith Barry: Kathryn, soy Keith, te voy a llevar a un lugar secreto de acuerdo? +KB: Kathryn, no haba forma de que pudieras ver a travs de la venda de los ojos. +Kathryn: As es, pero no digas mi nombre de esa forma. KB: No, pero ests bien, no? +Kathryn: S. +KB: No hay forma de que puedas ver a travs de ella, cierto? Kathryn: No. +KB: Bien, ahora te lo voy a quitar, ests bien, ests bien. +Te quieres quitar la otra parte? +Adelante, qutatela, ests bien. Vamos a detenernos un segundo. +Kathryn: Tengo miedo de lo que va a pasar. +KB: No, no, ests bien, ests bien, qutatela. Ests bien, ests segura. +Has odo hablar de la segunda visin? +Kathryn: No. +KB: La segunda visin se da cuando un experto en control mental puede ver a travs de los ojos de otra persona. +Y eso es lo que voy a intentar ahora. +Kathryn: Por Dios. +KB: Lista? +Dnde est? No hay forma Kathryn: Dios mo! +KB: Shh. No digas nada. Estoy tratando de ver a travs de tus ojos, no puedo ver. +Kathryn: Hay una pared, hay una pared. +KB: Mira al camino, mira al camino. +Kathryn: De acuerdo, de acuerdo Santo Dios! +KB: Ahora, algo a la vista? Kathryn: No, no, no, no. +KB: Seguro que no hay nada? +Kathryn: No, no, slo estoy mirando al camino. +Estoy mirando al camino todo el tiempo +No quito la vista del camino. +Dios mo! +KB: Dnde estamos? Dnde estamos? +Estamos yendo cerro arriba, estamos yendo cerro arriba? +Kathryn: Mira el camino... Todava tienes la maldita venda puesta. +KB: Qu? +Kathryn: Cmo lo haces? +KB: Simplemente no rompas mi concentracin +KB: Pero estamos bien, no? Kathryn: S +Es tan raro. +Ya casi llegamos. Dios mo! +Santo Dios! +KB: Hemos parado. +Kathryn: Eso es tan raro. +Eres como un fenmeno anormal de la naturaleza. +Esto ha sido lo ms espeluznante que he hecho en mi vida. +Gracias. +Por cierto, hace dos das bamos a filmar por ah, en la pista de autos, y metimos a un tipo en el auto y al cmara atrs pero a la mitad del recorrido, me dijo que tena creo que una nueve milmetros pegada a la pierna, +as que de inmediato me detuve y ah quedo la cosa. +Entonces creen que es posible ver a travs de los ojos de otra persona? +Esa es la cuestin. +La mayora de la gente aqu automticamente dira que no. Bueno, +pero quiero que se den cuenta de algunos hechos. +No poda ver a travs de la venda, +al auto no le pusimos trucos, +a la chicanunca la haba visto antes, de acuerdo. +As que quiero que lo piensen por un momento. +Mucha gente trata de encontrar una solucin lgica a lo que pas, cierto. +Pero como sus mentes no estn entrenadas en el arte del engao las soluciones a las que llegan estn el 99 por cierto de las veces lejos de la verdad. +Esto es porque la magia trata de dirigir la atencin. +Si por un instante, no quiero que miren a mi mano derecha, bueno, entonces no la miro. +Pero si quiero que miren a mi mano derecha entonces tambin la miro, ven. +Es muy muy simple, una vez que saben cmo, pero muy complicado de otras formas. +Ahora les voy a dar algunas demostraciones en vivo aqu. +Necesito dos personas que me ayuden rpido. Puedes subir? +Y veamos, aqu abajo, aqu puedes subir rpido? +Te importa? S, en el extremo. +Bien, dmosles una ronda de aplausos conforme suben. +Tal vez quieras usar las escaleras de all. +Es muy importante que todos sepan bien que no tengo arreglos con estas personas. +No saben que va a pasar. De acuerdo? +Bien les importara pararse aqu por un momento? +Tu nombre es? Nicole: Nicole. +KB: Nicole, y? +(Telfono sonando) KB: Bien, oh, diles, de hecho la cosa es contesta, contesta, contesta. +KB:Es una chica? Hombre: Ya colgaron. +KB: Oh, colgaron, bueno. Les dir algo, cambien sus posiciones. +Se pueden parar aqu, es para hacerlo un poco ms fcil. +Bueno, qu lastima, les hubiera dicho que era el as de espadas. +Bueno, un poco ms cerca. Un poco ms cerca. +Bien, un poco ms cerca, ven se ven bastante nerviosos. Acrquense ms. +Bien crees en la brujera? +Nicole: No. +KB: Vud? Nicole: No. +KB: Cosas que chocan en la noche? Nicole: No. +KB: Adems de quiene est a tu lado, no, bien. +Quiero que te mantengas exactamente as para m, sbete las mangas, si no te importa. +Bien, ahora, quiero que percibas todas las diferentes sensaciones a tu alrededor. porque vamos a intentar un experimento vud justo ahora. +Quiero que percibas tus sensaciones pero no digas nada hasta que te pregunte y no abras los ojos hasta que te lo pida. +De aqu en adelante, cierra los ojos, no digas nada, no los abras, muy atenta a tus sensaciones. +S o no sentiste algo? +Nicole: S. +KB: Sentiste algo? Qu sentiste? +Nicole: Un roce en mi espalda. +KB: Cuntas veces lo sentiste? +Nicole: Dos veces. +KB: Dos veces. Bien, extiende tu brazo enfrente de ti. +Extiende tu brazo izquierdo, bien. +Bien, mantnlo ah. +Consciente de tus sensaciones, no digas nada, no abras los ojos. +Sentiste algo ah? +Nicole: S. KB: Qu sentiste? +Nicole: Aqu KB:Cmo un cosquilleo? Nicole: S. +KB: Nos puedes mostrar dnde? +Bien, excelente, abre tus ojos, +nunca te toqu. +Slo toqu su espalda y su brazo, +un experimento vud. +S, me paso las noches en clubes haciendo esto. +Sintate aqu por un segundo, +voy a usarte otra vez en un instante. +Y, puedes sentarte aqu, si no te importa? +Sintate aqu. Hombre: Bueno. +KB: Bien, toma asiento. Excelente, bien. +Ahora, lo que quiero que hagas es mirarme directamente, bien, respira hondo por la nariz, expira por la boca y reljate. +Permite que tus ojos se cierren a la cuenta de cinco, cuatro, tres, dos, uno +cierra los ojos ahora. +Bien, no te estoy hipnotizando, slo estoy ponindote en un estado intenso de sincrona para coordinar nuestras mentes. +Y mientras te hundes, te sueltas y entras flotando en un estado de relajacin mental, voy a tomar tu mano izquierda y la voy a poner aqu. +Quiero que la mantengas ah, por un instante y slo quiero que dejes que tu mano se hunda, se suelte y flote en la mesa a la misma velocidad en que te sueltas y flotas hacia este estado de conciencia relajado y permitas que baje hacia la mesa. +Eso es, hasta abajo, hasta abajo, hasta abajo, +y ms y ms y ms, y ms y ms y ms. +Excelente. +Quiero que dejes que tu mano se pegue firmemente a la mesa. +Bien, ahora djala ah. +Bien, ahora, en un momento, vas a sentir una cierta presin y quiero que sientas la presin, +slo que la sientas. +y quiero que dejes que tu mano suba cuando sientas que la presin cede, pero slo cuando sientas que la presin cede, +Est claro? Slo contesta s o no. Est claro? +Hombre: s +KB: Mantenla ah. +Bien, slo cuando sientas que la presin regresa, quiero que dejes que tu mano nuevamente se suelte sobre la mesa pero slo cuando sientas la presin. +Estupendamente hecho, vamos a intentarlo otra vez. +Excelente, ahora que ya agarraste la idea vamos a intentar algo an ms interesante. +Deja que se pegue firmemente en la mesa, mantn los ojos cerrados. +Puedes quedarte de pie? Bien, slo prate, ponte adelante. +Quiero que apuntes directamente a su frente, bien. +Imagina una conexin entre t y l, +slo cuando quieras que la presin se libere haz un gesto hacia arriba, como este, pero slo cuando quieras que la presin ceda. +Puedes esperar tanto como quieras, pero slo cuando quieras que la presin ceda. +Bien, intentmoslo nuevamente. +Bien, ahora imagina la conexin. +Apunta directamente a su frente, +slo cuando quieras que la presin se libere, lo vamos a intentar otra vez. +Bien, esta vez funcion, excelente. +Aguantn ah, aguantn ah, ambos, aguantn ah, +slo cuando quieras que la presin regrese, haz un gesto hacia abajo. +Puedes esperar tanto como quieras +Lo hiciste bastante rpido, pero baj, bien. +Ahora, quiero que sepas que en un momento cuando chasquee los dedos, abrirs los ojos otra vez. +Est bien recordar olvidar u olvidar recordar lo que pas. +Mucha gente se pregunta qu diablos pas aqu? +Pero est bien que aunque no te hipnotiz, olvidars todo lo que pas. +A la cuenta de cinco, cuatro, tres, dos uno abre los ojos, bien despierto. +Dnles una ronda de aplausos ahora que regresan a sus asientos. +Bien, puedes regresar. +Una vez v una pelcula, "Los dioses estn locos." +Alguien ha visto esta pelcula? Yeah, yeah, yeah, +Recuerdan cuando lanzaron la botella de Coca fuera del avin y cuando lleg al suelo no se rompi? +Eso es porque las botellas de Coca son resistentes. +Es casi imposible romper una botella de Coca. +Quieres intentarlo? +Bien hecho. +No corre riesgos. La psico kinesiologa es la influencia paranormal de la mente sobre los procesos y eventos fsicos. +Para algunos magos o mentalistas en ocasiones la cuchara se doblar o fundir, en otras no; +en ocasiones el objeto se deslizar sobre la mesa, en otras no. +Depende de cunta energa tengan ese da, y as sucesivamente. +Ahora vamos a intentar un experimento psico kinesiolgico. +Ver aqu, junto a m. Excelente. +Ahora mira la botella de Coca, +asegrate que slo tiene un agujero y es una botella normal de Coca. +La puedes golpear contra la mesa si quieres. Ten cuidado. +Aunque es slida, me alejo un poco. +Bien, quiero que la cojas con dos dedos y el pulgar. +Excelente. Aqu tengo un trozo de vidrio. +Quiero que examines el fragmento de vidrio. +Ten cuidado, porque es un fragmento, agrralo por un instante. +Mantenlo ah. +Ahora quiero que imagines una relacin rota de hace muchos aos. +Quiero que imagines toda la energa negativa de la relacin rota, del tipo, que confieras esa energa al pedazo de vidrio que lo representar, de acuerdo. +Pero quiero que tomes esto muy en serio, +mira fijamente el vidrio y olvdate del pblico. +En un momento sentirs una cierta sensacin, y cuando sientas esa sensacin quiero que sueltes el pedazo de vidrio en la botella. +Piensa en el tipo, en el hijo de en el tipo, +Trato de comportarme aqu. +Bien, cuando sientas la sensacin -- que te puede llevar un rato -- sultalo en la botella. +Bien, sultalo. +Ahora imagina toda la energa negativa ah, +imagina su nombre, imagnalo a l dentro de la botella +y quiero que liberes esa energa negativa agitando de un lado a otro. +S que haba mucha energa negativa guardada ah. +Tambin quiero que pienses en su nombre, mrame y piensa en su nombre Tienes su nombre? +Bien piensa en cuntas letras tiene su nombre, +piensa en cuntas letras tiene su nombre, tiene cinco letras. +No reaccionaste a eso, entonces tiene cuatro. +Piensa en una de las letras del nombre, piensa en una de las letras. +El nombre tiene una K, tiene una K. +Ves, lo supe porque mi nombre empieza con una K tambin, pero su nombre no empieza con K, empieza con M. +Saluda a Mike la prxima vez que lo veas. +Ese es su nombre, cierto? Nicole: Mm-hmm. +KB: Bien, denle una ronda de aplausos. +Gracias. +Tengo una cosa ms que compartir con ustedes. +De hecho, Chris, te iba a escoger a ti para esto, pero en vez de eso, puedes subir aqu y escoger una vctima para el siguiente experimento? +Lo nico es que la vctima tiene que ser varn. +Chris Anderson: Oh, bien. +KB: Te iba a usar a ti pero decid que tal vez quiera volver en otra ocasin. +CA: Bien, para premiarlo por decir "eureka" y por escoger a Michael Mercil para darnos una charla, Steve Jurvetson. +KB: Bien, Steve, ven aqu. +CA: Ya lo sabas! +KB: Bien, Steve, quiero que tomes asiento justo aqu atrs. Excelente +Steve oh puedes mirar abajo. +Adelante, no tengo asistentes ocultos ah abajo, +simplemente insistieron en que pusiera un mantel negro porque era mago. +Ya ests, bien. +Aqu tengo cuatro plintos de madera, Steve, +uno, dos, tres y cuatro. +Todos son exactamente iguales excepto ste que obviamente tiene una estaca de acero. +Quiero que lo examines y te asegures de que est firme. +Contento? +Steve Jurvetson: Mmm, s. +KB: Bien, ahora Steve me voy a parar frente a la mesa, cuando me pare frente a la mesa, quiero que pongas estos vasos sobre los plintos, as, en el orden que quieras y que los revuelvas tal que nadie sepa donde qued la estaca, bien? +SJ: Nadie en la audiencia? +KB: Nadie en la audiencia, y slo para ayudarte voy a bloquear la vista para que nadie pueda ver lo que ests haciendo, +yo tampoco miro, as que adelante y revulvelos. +Bien, me dices cuando hayas terminado. +Listo? SJ: Mmm, casi. +KB: Casi, oh. Bien, asegrate de esconderlo bien. Ahora +oh, miren lo que tenemos aqu. +De acuerdo, no importa +porque yo me reir al ltimo. +Bueno, Steve, t sabes dnde est la estaca y nadie ms cierto? +Pero tampoco quiero que t sepas, as que voy a girar la silla. +La audiencia se asegurar que no estoy haciendo nada raro. +Ahora, quieto, bien. +Mira ahora, Steve. +Ahora t no sabes dnde est, y yo tampoco. +Hay manera de ver a travs de esta venda? +SJ: Me lo pongo? +KB: No, slo comprueba si puedes ver a travs de ella. +SJ: Um-umm. KB: No? SJ: No, no puedo ver con la venda. KB: No puedes ver con la venda. Muy bien. +Ahora, me voy a poner la venda en los ojos. +No los apiles, de acuerdo. Revulvelos un poco ms. +No muevas los vasos porque no quiero que nadie vea dnde est la estaca, slo revuelve los plintos un poco ms y luego los alineas correcto? +Me voy a vendar los ojos. Revulvelos un poco, +esta vez nada de pasarse de listo. Bien, adelante, revulvelos. +Mi mano se la juega aqu es arriesgado. +Dime cuando ests listo. SJ: Listo. +KB: Bien dnde ests? Dame tu mano, tu mano derecha, es stano, bien. +Dime cuando est sobre un vaso +SJ: Est sobre un vaso. KB: Estoy sobre un vaso justo ahora? +SJ: Mm-hmm. +KB: Ahora, Steve qu piensas? S o no? +SJ: Ay! +KB: Yo les dije que me reira el ltimo. +SJ: No creo que est aqu. KB: No? Buena decisin. +Ahora, si me muevo para ac hay un vaso aqu? +SJ: Podemos hacerlo con la mano izquierda? +KB: Oh, no, no. Me pregunt si puede usar la mano izquierda. Rotundamente no. +KB: Ahora si me muevo para ac hay un vaso? +SJ: S, hay un vaso. KB: Bien, dime cundo paro. +SJ: Aqu. KB: Aqu? +SJ: S, aqu hay uno. +KB: Crees que est aqu? S o no? Es tu decisin, no ma. +SJ: Voy a decir que no. KB: Buena decisin. +Bien, dame ambas manos. +Pnlas sobre los vasos. +Crees que la estaca est debajo de tu mano izquierda o de tu mano derecha? +SJ: Eh, de ninguna. +KB: Ninguna, oh, bien, +pero si tuvieras que adivinar. +SJ: Creo que est debajo de mi mano derecha +KB: Crees que est debajo de tu mano derecha? +Recuerda que t has tomado todas las decisiones. +Psiclogos, resuelvan esto. Miren. +SJ: Ay! +Gracias. +Gracias. Si quieren ver ms prestidigistacin los ver afuera. +Gracias. +Gracias. +Gracias. +Cuando fui presidente de la Asociacin Psicolgica de EE.UU. intentaron entrenarme para enfrentar a los medios y un encuentro que tuve con CNN resume lo que voy a contarles hoy, que defino como la undcima razn para ser optimistas. +El editor de la revista Discover ya nos cont 10 de ellas, y yo les dar la undcima. +Entonces vinieron a verme de CNN y me dijeron: "Profesor Seligman, nos puede contar sobre el estado de la psicologa actual? +Nos gustara entrevistarlo acerca de esto". Y les dije: "Excelente". +Y ella dijo: "Pero esto es CNN, as que slo puede decir una cua". +Entonces le pregunt: "Bueno, cuantas palabras puedo decir?" +Y ella dijo: "Bueno, una". +Y empezaron a rodar las cmaras, y me dijo "Profesor Seligman, cul es el estado de la psicologa actual?" +"Bueno". +"Corten. Corten. Eso no va a servir. +Mejor le damos una cua ms larga." +"Bueno, y esta vez cuntas palabras tengo?" "Creo que, bueno, puede decir dos. +Doctor Seligman, cul es el estado de la psicologa actual?" +"No bueno". +"Mire, Doctor Seligman, podemos ver que no est muy cmodo en este medio. +Mejor le damos una cua de verdad. +Esta vez le vamos a dar tres palabras. +Profesor Seligman, cul es el estado de la psicologa actual?" +"No suficientemente bueno". Y de eso voy a hablarles. +Quiero contarles por qu la psicologa fue buena, por qu no fue buena y cmo, dentro de los prximos 10 aos, puede convertirse en suficientemente buena. +Y como resumen paralelo, quiero decir lo mismo sobre la tecnologa, sobre el entretenimiento y el diseo porque creo que los temas son muy similares. +Entonces por qu la psicologa fue buena? +Bueno, por ms de 60 aos, la psicologa trabaj segn el modelo de enfermedad. +Hace 10 aos, si me presentaba a mi compaero de fila cuando iba en avin y le explicaba lo que haca se alejaba de m. +Porque tenan razn de decir que la psicologa se trata de encontrar lo que no funciona en ti. Encuentre al loquito. +Y ahora cuando le digo a la gente lo que hago, se acercan a m. +Y lo que era bueno de la psicologa, de los 30 mil millones de dlares que invirti el Instituto Nacional de Salud Mental, acerca de trabajar con el modelo de enfermedad, de lo que ustedes definen como psicologa, es que hace 60 aos no se podan tratar las enfermedades, era nicamente un acto de magia. +Y ahora 14 de los desrdenes son tratables y de hecho dos de ellos son curables. +Y la otra cosa que sucedi fue que se desarroll una ciencia, una ciencia de la enfermedad mental. +Descubrimos que podamos tomar conceptos poco claros como depresin y alcoholismo y medirlos rigurosamente. +Que con eso podamos clasificar las enfermedades mentales. +Que podamos comprender la causalidad de las enfermedades mentales. +Podamos observar durante un tiempo prolongado a ciertas personas, personas que, por ejemplo, eran genticamente vulnerables a la esquizofrenia y preguntar en qu contribua la crianza, en qu la gentica, y podamos aislar otras variables realizando experimentos sobre las enfermedades mentales. +Y crucialmente fuimos capaces, durante los ltimos 50 aos, de inventar tratamientos psicolgicos y tratamientos de drogas +y luego pudimos probarlos rigurosamente -en pruebas diseadas con asignacin al azar y control con placebos- descartar lo que no funcionaba y mantener los tratamientos que efectivamente lo hacan. +Y el resultado de eso es que la psicologa y la psiquiatra, durante los ltimos 60 aos, puede afirmar que efectivamente hace a las personas infelices menos infelices. +Y creo que eso es increble. Estoy orgulloso de eso. +Pero lo que no fue bueno, las consecuencias de esto, fueron tres cosas. +La primera fue moral: los psiclogos y psiquiatras se convirtieron en victimlogos, patlogos; nuestra visin de la naturaleza humana pas a ser que si estabas en problemas ibas a terminar peor. +Y nos olvidamos que la gente elige y toma decisiones. +Nos olvidamos de la responsabilidad. Esa fue la primera consecuencia. +La segunda fue que nos olvidamos de gente como ustedes. +Nos olvidamos de mejorar las vidas normales. +Nos olvidamos de la misin de hacer ms felices, ms plenas, ms productivas a las personas relativamente sanas y las descripciones "genio" y "muy talentoso" adquirieron una connotacin sucia. +Nadie trabaja en eso. +Y el tercer problema con el modelo de enfermedad es que, en nuestro apuro por ayudar a la gente en problemas, en nuestro apuro por hacer algo para reparar los daos existentes, jams se nos ocurri desarrollar intervenciones positivas, intervenciones para hacer a las personas ms felices. +As que eso no fue bueno. +Y eso fue lo que llev a gente como Nancy Etcoff, Dan Gilbert, Mike Csikszentmihalyi y yo a trabajar en algo que llamo psicologa positiva, la cual tiene tres objetivos. +El primero es que la psicologa debe ocuparse tanto de las debilidades humanas como de sus fortalezas. +Debe estar tan ocupada en construir fortalezas como en reparar daos. +Debe estar interesada en las mejores cosas de la vida +y debe estar tan interesada en hacer plena la vida de las personas normales, fijndose en los genios y estimulando sus grandes talentos. +Entonces durante los ltimos 10 aos y como esperanza para el futuro hemos visto los inicios de una ciencia de psicologa positiva: una ciencia de lo que hace que la vida valga la pena. +Resulta que podemos medir distintas formas de felicidad. +Y cualquiera de ustedes, gratuitamente, puede ir este sitio web y tomar el espectro completo de los tests de felicidad. +Puedes consultar cmo te comparas en trminos de emocin positiva, de significacin, y de flujo contra literalmente miles de otras personas. +Creamos un manual de diagnstico opuesto al manual de enfermedades: una clasificacin de las fortalezas y virtudes que mide cmo se manifiestan en hombres y mujeres, cmo se definen, cmo diagnosticarlas, cmo se construyen y qu obstruye su desarrollo. +Encontramos que podamos descubrir la causalidad de los estados positivos, que una de las causas de felicidad es la relacin entre la actividad del hemisferio izquierdo y del hemisferio derecho. +He pasado mi vida trabajando con personas extremadamente infelices y me he preguntado: cmo difieren estas personas del resto de ustedes? +Y desde hace seis aos comenzamos a preguntarnos sobre las personas extremadamente felices: +cmo difieren estas personas del resto de ustedes? +Y resulta que existe una diferencia. +No son ms religiosos, no estn en mejor estado fsico, no tienen ms dinero, no se ven ms hermosos, no pasan por ms eventos buenos y menos eventos malos. +La nica manera en que difieren es que son extremadamente sociales. +No estn sentados en seminarios los sbados en la maana. +No pasan tiempo solos. +Cada uno de ellos est en una relacin romntica y cada uno de ellos tiene un gran repertorio de amigos. +Pero tengan cuidado aqu. Esta es data meramente correlativa, no causal, y slo voy a hablar de felicidad en el sentido de Hollywood: felicidad chispeante de risitas tontas y de pasarlo bien. +Y en un momento ms voy a sugerirles que eso no es ni cercano a lo suficiente. +Descubrimos que podamos comenzar a observar intervenciones a travs de los siglos desde el Buddha hasta Tony Robbins. +Se han propuesto alrededor de 120 intervenciones que supuestamente hacen felices a las personas. +Y encontramos que somos capaces de manualizar muchas de stas y podemos realizar estudios de eficacia y efectividad con asignacin al azar. +Es decir, cules son efectivamente las que hacen a las personas felices por ms tiempo? +En un par de minutos les contar sobre los resultados. +Pero el beneficio de esto es que la misin que quiero que tenga la psicologa, adems de su misin de curar a los enfermos mentales, y adems de su misin de hacer a la gente infeliz menos infeliz, es sta: puede la psicologa hacer ms felices a las personas? +Y para hacer esa pregunta -no uso la palabra felicidad muy a menudo- hemos tenido que dividirla en lo que yo creo que s es preguntable acerca de la felicidad. +Y creo que hay tres distintos -y son distintos porque se construyen con distintas intervenciones, porque es posible tener uno en vez de otro- tres tipos distintos de vidas felices. +La primera vida feliz es la vida placentera. +Esta es una vida en que tienes toda la emocin positiva que puedas tener y las habilidades para amplificarla. +La segunda es una vida de compromiso: una vida en que tu trabajo, la crianza de tus hijos, tu amor, tu tiempo libre; el tiempo se detiene para ti. +De eso es lo que hablaba Aristteles. +Y tercero, la vida significativa. +As que quiero hablar un poquito de cada una de esas vidas y de lo que sabemos de ellas. +La primera vida es la vida placentera y es simplemente lo mejor que podamos encontrar, es experimentar todos los placeres que puedas, toda la emocin positiva que puedas, y aprender las habilidades --conciencia y visualizacin-- que las amplifican, que las extienden en el tiempo y el espacio. +Pero la vida placentera tiene tres inconvenientes que hacen que la psicologa positiva no sea la felizologa y que no se acabe aqu. +El primer inconveniente es que resulta que la vida placentera, la experiencia de emocin positiva, es hereditaria. Alrededor de 50 por ciento hereditaria y, de hecho, eso no se puede cambiar mucho. +As que los distintos trucos que Matthieu y yo y otros conocemos que permiten aumentar la cantidad de emocin positiva en sus vidas son 15 a 20 por ciento trucos, para sacarle un poco ms. +En segundo lugar la emocin positiva se habita. Se habita realmente rpido. +Es como helado de vainilla francesa, el primer sorbo es al 100 por ciento y para el sexto sorbo ya se ha ido. +Y, como dije, realmente no es muy maleable. +Y esto nos lleva a la segunda vida. +Y les voy a contar sobre mi amigo Len para hablarles de por qu la psicologa positiva es ms que emocin positiva, ms que aumentar el placer. +En dos de las tres grandes arenas de la vida, a los 30 aos Len era fantsticamente exitoso. La primera arena era trabajo. +A los 20 aos era un corredor de opciones. +A los 25 ya era multimillonario y el gerente de una empresa de corretaje de opciones. +La segunda arena era el juego: es un campen nacional de bridge. +Pero en la tercera arena de la vida, el amor, Len es un fracaso abismal. +Y la razn para eso es que Len es un tipo fro. +Len es un introvertido. +Las mujeres norteamericanas salan con Len y le decan: no eres entretenido, no tienes emocin positiva. Pirdete. +Y Len tena el suficiente dinero para poder pagar un psicoanalista de Park Avenue que durante cinco aos intent encontrar el trauma sexual que de alguna manera haba encerrado dentro de l su emocin positiva. +Pero result que no haba trauma sexual. +Result que Len creci en Long Island y jug ftbol americano y mir ftbol americano y jug bridge. Len est en el ltimo 5 por ciento de lo que llamamos afectividad positiva. +La pregunta es es Len infeliz? Y quiero decirles que no. +Contrario a lo que dice la psicologa acerca de las personas que estn en el 50 por ciento inferior de la afectividad positiva, creo que Len es una de las personas ms felices que conozco. +No est atado al infierno de la infelicidad porque Len, como la mayora de ustedes, es inmensamente capaz de flujo. +Cuando entra en la Bolsa Americana a las 9:30 de la maana el tiempo se detiene para l. Y no comienza hasta la campana de trmino. +Desde que se juega la primera carta del torneo hasta que el torneo termina 10 das despus, el tiempo se detiene para Len. +Y de esto es lo que ha estado hablando Mike Csikszentmihalyi, de flujo, y es algo distinto al placer de un modo muy importante. +El placer es sentimiento puro; sabes que est pasando. Es pensamiento y sentimiento. +Pero como Mike les dijo ayer: cuando ests en flujo no sientes nada. +Eres uno con la msica. El tiempo se detiene. +Tienes concentracin intensa. +Y de hecho sta es la caracterstica de lo que consideramos la buena vida. +Y creemos que hay una receta para ella y se trata de conocer cuales son tus mayores fortalezas. +Y de nuevo, hay una prueba que te permite conocer tus 5 mayores fortalezas. +Y con eso puedes recomponer tu vida para usarlas tanto como sea posible. +Recomponer tu trabajo, tu amor, tu juego, tu amistad, la crianza de tus hijos. +Un ejemplo: trabaj con una persona que embolsaba las compras en la tienda Genuardi's. +Odiaba su trabajo. +Est trabajando para financiar sus estudios. +Su mayor fortaleza era la inteligencia social as que recompuso el embolsamiento para que su contacto con el cliente fuera el pice social del da de ellos. +Obviamente no lo logr. +Pero lo que hizo fue tomar su mayor fortaleza y recomponer su trabajo para aprovecharla al mximo. +Lo que obtienes de esto no es una sonrisa ms grande. +No te pareces a Debbie Reynolds. +No te dan risitas. Lo que consigues es llegar a estar ms absorto. +Entonces este es el segundo camino, el primero es la emocin positiva. +El segundo es el flujo que otorga felicidad. +Y el tercero es la significacin. +sta es, tradicionalmente, la ms venerada de las felicidades. +Y en este contexto la significacin, de la misma manera que el flujo, consiste en conocer tus fortalezas y utilizarlas para "pertenecer a" y "en servicio de" algo ms grande que ustedes. +Les mencion que para los tres tipos de vidas; la placentera, la buena y la significativa hay personas trabajando en la pregunta: Existen cosas que cambien duraderamente estas vidas? +Y la respuesta parecer ser que s. Y les dar slo unos ejemplos de esto. +Se est haciendo de manera rigurosa. +Se est haciendo de la misma manera en que probamos las drogas para ver si funcionan. +As que realizamos estudios a largo plazo de distintas intervenciones con asignacin al azar y control con placebos. +Y slo como ejemplo del tipo de intervenciones que descubrimos que tienen efecto, cuando le enseamos a las personas acerca de la vida placentera, de cmo tener ms placer en tu vida, una de las tareas es que, utilizando toda la conciencia y la visualizacin del placer, disees un da hermoso. +Reserva el prximo sbado, disea un da hermoso, y utiliza toda tu conciencia y visualizacin para hacer ms potente el placer. +Y se puede observar que de esa manera se hace ms potente la vida placentera. +Visita de gratitud. Quisiera, si es posible, que todos ustedes hagan esto conmigo. +Cierren sus ojos. +Me gustara que recordaran a alguien que hizo algo inmensamente importante que cambi la direccin de sus vidas y que nunca agradecieron adecuadamente. +Esta persona debe estar viva. Bien. +Ahora, est bien, abran sus ojos. +Espero que todos ustedes tengan una persona as. +Su tarea cuando aprenden la visita de gratitud es escribirle un testimonio de 300 palabras, llamarlos por telfono a Phoenix en Arizona, preguntar si pueden ir a verlos, sin decirles por qu, slo presntense en su puerta y lean el testimonio (todos lloran mientras esto sucede) +y lo que pasa es que cuando le hacemos pruebas a la persona una semana despus, un mes despus, tres meses despus estn a la vez ms felices y menos deprimidos. +Otro ejemplo es una cita de fortalezas en la que hacemos que las parejas identifiquen sus mayores fortalezas en una prueba y despus diseen una tarde en la que ambos utilicen estas fortalezas y encontramos que esto fortalece las relaciones. +Y diversin versus filantropa. +Me enorgullece tanto estar en un grupo como este en que tantos de ustedes han hecho de la filantropa su filosofa de vida. +Bueno, mis alumnos y la gente con la que trabajo no han descubierto esto, as que hacemos que la gente haga algo altruista y algo entretenido, y que comparen entre ambos. +Y lo que encuentras es que cuando se hace algo entretenido tiene la forma de una onda cuadrada. +Cuando se hace algo filantrpico para ayudar a otra persona la sensacin dura y dura. +As que esos son ejemplos de intervenciones positivas. +Entonces la penltima cosa que quiero decirles es que nos interesa cunta satisfaccin tenga la gente en su vida +ya que esto realmente muestra cmo eres. Y esa es nuestra variable objetivo. +Y preguntamos esto como funcin de las tres vidas distintas: Cunta satisfaccin de vida recibes? +Entonces preguntamos, y ya le hemos preguntado 15 veces a miles de personas, hasta qu punto la bsqueda del placer, la bsqueda de la emocin positiva, de la vida placentera, la bsqueda de compromiso, de que se detenga el tiempo, y la bsqueda de significacin contribuyen a tu satisfaccin de vida? +Y nuestros resultados nos sorprendieron ya que eran al revs de lo que esperbamos. +Resulta que la bsqueda de placer casi no contribuye a la satisfaccin de vida. +La bsqueda de significacin es la ms potente. +La bsqueda de compromiso tambin es muy fuerte. +El placer importa si ya tienes tanto compromiso como significacin, ah el placer es la guinda de la torta. +Lo que quiere decir que para la vida plena, si tienes las tres, la suma es ms grande que sus componentes. +Por el contrario si no tienes ninguna de las tres, la vida vaca, la suma es menos que sus componentes. +Y lo que estamos preguntando ahora es: se cumple la misma relacin para la salud fsica, para la morbidez, para cunto vives y cun productivo eres? +Es decir, en una empresa, es la productividad una funcin de la emocin positiva, del compromiso y la significacin? +Es la salud una funcin de la disposicin positiva, del compromiso y de la vida significativa? +Y hay razones para pensar que la respuesta a ambas podra bien ser que s. +Entonces Chris dijo que el ltimo expositor tendra una oportunidad de integrar todo lo que haba escuchado y esto es increble para m. Nunca he estado con un grupo de personas as. +Una de las cosas ms espectaculares es que nunca haba visto a expositores extenderse tanto fuera de sus lmites. +Pero he descubierto que los problemas de la psicologa parecen ser paralelos a los problemas de la tecnologa, el entretenimiento y el diseo de la siguiente manera: +Todos sabemos que la tecnologa, el entretenimiento y el diseo han sido y pueden ser usados para fines destructivos. +Tambin sabemos que la tecnologa, el entretenimiento y el diseo pueden ser usados para disminuir la infelicidad. +Y, por si acaso, la diferencia entre disminuir la infelicidad y construir la felicidad es realmente importante. +Cuando recin comenc como terapeuta, treinta aos atrs pensaba que si era suficientemente bueno para hacer que alguien no se deprimiera, no se pusiera ansioso, no se enfureciera, yo los hara felices. +Y descubr que nunca pasa eso. Descubr que lo mejor que puedes hacer es llegar a cero. +Pero quedaban vacos. +Y resulta que la habilidad de estar feliz, las habilidades para tener una vida placentera, las habilidades para el compromiso, para la significacin son distintas de las habilidades para disminuir la infelicidad. +Y creo que en esto tambin hay un paralelo con la tecnologa, el entretenimiento y el diseo. +Es decir, es posible que estos tres conductores de nuestro mundo aumenten la felicidad, aumenten la emocin positiva, y as se han utilizado tpicamente. +Pero cuando has dividido la felicidad a mi manera, no es slo emocin positiva (eso ni se acerca a lo suficiente), hay flujo en la vida y hay significado en la vida. +Como nos dijo Lauralee el diseo, y creo que el entretenimiento y la tecnologa, pueden ser usados para aumentar tambin el compromiso y el significado de la vida. +Entonces, como conclusin, la undcima razn para el optimismo, adems del ascensor espacial, es que creo que con tecnologa, entretenimiento y diseo podemos efectivamente aumentar el tonelaje de la felicidad humana en el planeta. +Y si la tecnologa, en las prximas dos dcadas, puede aumentar la vida placentera, la vida buena y la vida significativa entonces si ser suficientemente buena. +Si el entretenimiento puede ser tambin dirigido hacia el aumento de la emocin positiva, la significacin y el flujo entonces s ser suficientemente bueno. +Y si el diseo puede aumentar la emocin positiva, la eudemona, el flujo y la significacin, entonces lo que estamos haciendo todos en conjunto ser suficientemente bueno. Gracias. +El uso decorativo del alambre al sur de frica data de hace cientos de aos. +La modernizacin trajo consigo la comunicacin y un material totalmente nuevo en la forma de alambre telefnico. +La migracin hacia centros urbanos signific que los nuevos materiales reemplazaron a las hierbas naturales que son difciles de conseguir. +Aqu pueden ver el cambio al... empezar a usarse materiales contemporneos. +Las piezas datan de los cuarenta hasta fines de los cincuenta. +En los noventa mi inters y pasin por formas de arte transitorias me guiaron a una nueva forma que provino de un asentamiento irregular afuera de Durban. +Tuve la oportunidad de comenzar a trabajar con esta comunidad en ese momento y comenc realmente a desarrollar y a guiarles en trminos de escala y de diseo +El proyecto pronto creci de 5 a 50 tejedoras en casi un ao. +Pronto superamos lo que los parques de chatarra podan ofrecernos y obligamos a un fabricante de alambre a ayudarnos no slo a proveernos los materiales en bobinas sino a producir bajo especificaciones de color. +Al mismo tiempo me puse a pensar que hay muchas posibilidades para producir artculos contemporneos alejndonos de lo tnico y un poco ms moderno. +Desarroll una amplia gama con produccin masiva que encaj en un mercado de decoracin de ms alto nivel que puede ser exportado y dar servicio al mercado local. +Comenzamos experimentando en trminos de las formas y figuras. La escala se volvi muy importante y se convirti en nuestro proyecto favorito. Es un xito, ha funcionado 12 aos y proveemos a las tiendas Conran a Donna Karan y es algo, digamos, grandioso. +Este es nuestro equipo y grupo de tejedoras. +Vienen semanalmente a Durban. +Todas tienen cuentas en un banco. +Todas se han mudado al rea rural de donde son originarias. +Hacemos una produccin semanal. +Esta es la comunidad que al inicio les mostr en una diapositiva. +Esta tambin hoy se ha modernizado y da apoyo a 300 tejedoras +Y el resto lo dice todo. +Muchas gracias. +Quienes somos? +Esa es la gran pregunta. +Esencialmente somos monos que caminan erguidos, con grandes cerebros y muy inteligentes. +stos podramos ser nosotros. +Pertenecemos a la familia llamada "Homnidos". +Nosotros somos la especie llamada Homo sapiens sapiens, y es importante recordarlo en trminos de nuestro lugar en el mundo actual y nuestro futuro en el planeta Tierra. +Somos una especie de entre cinco mil quinientas especies de mamferos que existen hoy en el planeta Tierra. +Y sa es slo una pequea fraccin de todas las especies que alguna vez vivieron en el planeta en el pasado. +Somos una de entre aproximadamente, o al menos 16 especies de monos que caminan erguidos que han existido en los ltimos seis a ocho millones de aos. +Pero hasta donde sabemos, somos los nicos monos erguidos que existen actualmente en el planeta Tierra, a excepcin de los bonobos. +Y es importante recordarlo debido a que los bonobos son tan humanos, que comparten el 99% de sus genes con nosotros, +y compartimos los mismos orgenes con un puado de los grandes monos vivos. +Es importante recordar que nosotros evolucionamos. +S que eso ofende a algunas personas, pero evolucionamos de ancestros comunes a los gorilas, los chimpancs y tambin a los bonobos. +Tenemos un pasado en comn y tenemos un futuro en comn, +y es importante recordar que todos estos grandes monos han recorrido un camino evolutivo tan largo e interesante, como el nuestro. +Y este camino es de tanto inters para la humanidad que ha sido el centro de atencin de las pasadas tres generaciones en mi familia, ya que hemos estado en frica del Este buscando restos fsiles de nuestros ancestros para tratar de reconstruir nuestro pasado evolutivo. +Y es as como los buscamos. +Un grupo de hombres y mujeres dedicados caminan lentamente a travs de grandes reas de frica, buscando pequeos fragmentos de hueso, hueso fsil, que pudieran estar en la superficie. +Y ste es un ejemplo de lo que podemos hacer mientras caminamos a travs del paisaje en el norte de Kenya, buscando fsiles. +Dudo que muchos de ustedes en la audiencia puedan ver el fosil que est en esta imagen pero si observan con cuidado, hay una quijada -una quijada inferior - de un mono erguido de 4.1 millones de aos de antigedad que fue encontrado en el Lago Turkana del lado oeste. +Es una labor muy intensa que consume mucho tiempo, y es algo que va a involucrar muchas ms personas para comenzar a recostruir juntos nuestro pasado. +An no tenemos la imagen completa de ello. +Cuando encontramos un fsil, lo marcamos. +Con la genial tecnologa actual, tenemos GPS. +Lo marcamos con un punto GPS y tomamos fotos digitales del espcimen para poder, en esencia, ponerlo de nuevo en la superficie, exactamente como lo encontramos, +y hoy podemos reunir toda la informacin en grandes paquetes GIS (Sistemas de Informacin Geogrficas). +Cuando encontramos algo muy importante, como huesos de ancestros humanos, comenzamos a excavarlo despacio y con extremo cuidado usando palillos dentales y brochas finas. +Y todo el sedimento se pasa atravs de estas pantallas, y de nuevo lo revisamos con cuidado, buscando pequeos fragmentos de hueso, y despus se lo lava. +Estas cosas son muy emocionantes, muchas veces ha sido la nica, o la primera vez que alguien haya visto estos restos. +Y he aqu un momento especial cuando mi madre y yo estbamos excavando unos restos de ancestros humanos, +y sta es una de las cosas ms especiales que uno puede hacer con su madre. +No muchas personas pueden decir lo mismo. +Pero ahora permtanme llevarlos a frica, hace dos millones de aos. +Me gustara sealar que, si observan un mapa de frica, ste tiene la forma del crneo de un homnido +Ahora vamos a frica del Este y al Valle Rift. +Corre desde el Golgo de Aden, o corre hacia el Lago Malawi. +Y el Valle Rift es una depresin. +Es una cuenca y los rios fluyen de las tierras altas hacia esta cuenca, llevando sedimento, preservando los huesos de animales que vivieron ah. +Si quieren volverse fsiles, necesitan morir en un lugar donde sus huesos se entierren rpidamente. +Despus tengan la esperanza de que la tierra se mueva de tal manera que lleve los huesos a la superficie. +Y despus esperen a que uno de nosotros camine alrededor y encuentre pequeos pedazos de ustedes. +Bien, es absolutamente sorprendente que sepamos tanto sobre nuestros ancestros como sabemos actualmente, porque es increiblemente dificil. Primero, que los restos se preserven, y segundo, que sean llevados de nuevo a la superficie. +Slo hemos pasado 50 aos buscando estos restos y comenzado a reconstruir nuestra historia evolutiva. +Vayamos al Lago Turkana, una de esas cuencas lacustres en el extremo norte de nuesto pas, Kenya. +Y si buscan el norte ah, hay un gran ro que fluye hacia el lago que ha llevado sedimento y preservado restos de animales que vivieron ah. +Los sitios fsiles van de arriba a abajo a ambos lados de la cuenca del lago, que representa unas 20 000 millas cuadradas. +Tenemos un trabajo enorme entre manos. +Hace dos millones de aos en el Lago Turkana, el Homo erectus, uno de nuestros ancestros humanos, vivi en esta regin. +Pueden ver algunos de los sitios fsiles ms grandes en los que hemos trabajado en el norte, pero esencialmente, hace dos millones de aos, el Homo erectus, arriba en la esquina derecha, vivi junto con otras tres especies de ancestros humanos. +He aqu el crneo de un Homo erectus que acabo de sacar de esa repisa. +Pero no podemos decir que ser una nica especie en el planeta Tierra es la norma. +De hecho si vemos el pasado, es la norma que varias especies de homnidos o ancestros humanos coexistieran a la vez. +De dnde vienen estas cosas? +An estamos tratando de encontrar la respuesta y es importante darse cuenta de que hay diversidad en todas las especies diferentes, y que nuestros ancestros no son la excepcin. +Aqu hay algunos fsiles reconstruidos que fueron encontrados en Lago Turkana. +Tuve mucha suerte de haber crecido en Kenya, esencialmente acompaando a mis padres a Lago Turkana en busca de restos humanos. +Y pudimos excavar, cuando tuvimos edad suficiente, fsiles como este, un cocodrilo de hocico delgado, +y encontramos tortugas gigantes, elefantes, y cosas por el estilo. +Cuando tena 12 aos, como en esta fotografa, una emocionante expedicin se instal en el lado oeste, y encontraron el esqueleto de un Homo erectus. +Y me sent relacionada con este esqueleto de Homo erectus, por que tena la misma edad que yo cuando muri. +Me lo imagine alto y de piel oscura. +Sus hermanos ciertamente podan correr grandes distancias persiguiendo a su presa, sudando mucho mientras lo hacan. +Poda usar piedras como herramientas efectivas. +Y este individuo, ste que estoy sosteniendo aqu, tena mal la espalda, probablemente se haba lastimado de nio. +Tuvo escoliosis y por lo tanto debi ser atendido con mucho cuidado por alguna hembra, y tal vez por algunos miembros ms pequeos de su grupo familiar, para poder llegar a donde lleg a la edad de 12. +Desafortunadamente para l, cay a un pantano y no pudo salir. +Esencialmente sus huesos se enterraron rpidamente y quedaron bellamente preservados. +Y permaneci ah hasta que, 1.6 millones de aos despus este famoso cazador de fsiles, Kamoya Kimeu, camin por esta pequea ladera, encontr una pequea parte de su craneo en la superficie entre las rocas y lo reconoci como parte de un homnido. +De hecho es esta pequea pieza de aqu arriba. +Una excavacin comenz de inmediato, y ms y ms pequeos pedazos de craneo comenzaron a extraerse del sedimento. +Comenzamos a encontrar otros huesos, huesos de los dedos, los huesos de la pelvis, vrtebras, costillas, huesos del cuello, cosas que nunca antes se haban visto en un Homo erectus. +Fue muy emocionante. +l tena un cuerpo similar al nuestro, y estaba en el umbral de convertirse en humano. +Poco despus, los miembros de su especie comenzaron a emigrar hacia el norte, fuera de frica, y comienzan a verse fsiles de Homo erectus en Georgia, China y en partes de Indonesia. +El Homo erectus fue el primer ancestro humano en dejar frica y comenzar a esparcirse por todo el globo. +Hubo emocionantes descubrimientos, como mencion, desde Dmanisi en la Repblica de Georgia. +Pero tambin algunos hallazgos sorprendentes se anunciaron recientemente desde la Isla de Flores en Indonesia, donde un grupo de estos ancestros humanos estuvieron aislados, y se convirtieron en enanos; tienen apenas un metro de altura. +Pero vivieron hace 18 000 aos solamente, y es algo extraordinario de pensar. +Para ponerlo en trminos de generaciones, debido a que la gente encuentra dificil pensar en el tiempo, el Homo erectus dej frica hace 90 000 generaciones. +Hemos evolucionado esencialmente de una estirpe africana. +De nuevo, hace 200 000 aos que somos ya esta especie, +pero dejamos frica hace apenas unos 70 000 aos. +Y hasta hace 30 000 aos, al menos tres monos erguidos compartan el planeta Tierra. +La pregunta ahora es quienes somos? +Sin duda somos una especie agresiva que contamina y desperdicia, con algunas cosas buenas, quiz. +Por lo general, no somos particularmente agradables. +Tenemos un cerebro mucho mayor que el de nuestros ancestros monos. +Es esto una buena adaptacin evolutiva, o nos va a llevar a ser la especie de homnido de menor duracin en el planeta Tierra? +Y qu es lo que en realidad nos hace ser nosotros? +Pienso que es nuestra inteligencia colectiva. +Nuestra habilidad para escribir cosas, nuestro lenguaje y nuestra conciencia. +Desde unos comienzos muy primitivos, con herramientas de piedra muy rsticas, ahora tenemos un conjunto de herramientas muy avanzadas y su uso ha alcanzado niveles sin precedentes. Tenemos mquinas en Marte, hemos mapeado el genoma humano, y recientemente hemos creado vida sinttica, gracias a Craig Venter. +Y tambin hemos podido comunicarnos con personas alrededor del mundo, desde lugares extraordinarios. +Incluso desde una excavacin en el norte de Kenya podemos contarles a las personas lo que hacemos. +Como Al Gore nos record claramente, hemos alcanzado un nmero extraordinario de personas en este planeta. +Los ancestros humanos slo sobrevivieron en el planeta Tierra, si ven el registro fsil, durante un periodo promedio de un millon de aos cada vez. +Nuestra especie ha estado por aqu los ltimos 200 000 aos, y hemos llegado a ser una poblacin de ms de 6.5 mil millones de personas. +El ao pasado la poblacin creci unos 80 millones. +Es decir, stos son nmeros extraordinarios. +Aqu pueden verlo, de nuevo, tomado del libro de Al Gore. +Pero lo que ha ocurrido es que nuestra tecnologa ha quitado los controles y equilibrios en el crecimiento popular. +Tenemos que controlar nuestros nmeros y pienso que es tan importante como cualquier otra cosa que est hacindose actualmente en el mundo. +Pero tenemos que controlar nuestros nmeros porque no podremos sobrevivir como especie. +Mi padre apropiadamente sostiene que somos con certeza el nico animal que toma decisiones conscientes que son malas para nuestra supervivencia como especie. +Podemos subsistir? +Es importante recordar que todos evolucionamos en frica. +Todos tenemos un origen africano. +Tenemos un pasado comn y compartimos un futuro en comn. +Evolutivamente hablando, somos slo un destello. +Estamos al borde de un precipicio, y tenemos las herramientas y la tecnologa en nuestras manos para comunicar lo que necesita hacerse para lograr sobrevivir. +Podemos decirselo a cada ser humano all afuera si queremos. +Pero lo haremos o dejaremos que la naturaleza siga su curso? +Para terminar con una nota muy positiva, hablando evolutivamente, pienso que esto al final ser probablemente algo muy bueno. +Aqu termino, muchas gracias. +Hoy les hablar acerca de coleccionar historias en algunas formas no convencionales. +Esta es una foto mia de una etapa muy incmoda en mi vida. +Ustedes quizs disfruten el pijama extraamente apretado y corto con globos. +De todos modos, fu una etapa en que estaba interesado en coleccionar historias imaginarias. +sta es una foto mia sosteniendo una de las primeras pinturas de acuarela que alguna vez hice. +Y recientemente he estado mucho mas interesado en coleccionar historias de la realidad-- es decir, historias reales. +Y especficamente estoy interesado en coleccionar mis propias historias, historias del internet, y mas recientemente, historias de la vida, que es una nueva rea en la que estoy incursionando. +Hoy hablar de cada una de estas. +Primero mis propias historias. Estos son dos de mis cuadernos de notas. +Tengo muchos de estos cuadernos, y los he ido conservando los ltimos ocho o nueve aos. +Ellos me acompaan donde quiera que voy en mi vida, y los lleno con cosas de todo tipo, registros de mis experiencias vividas. Pinturas con acuarela, dibujos de lo que veo, flores e insectos muertos, etiquetas, monedas oxidadas, tarjetas de negocios, escritos. +Y en estos cuadernos usted puede encontrar breves fragmentos o vistazos de momentos, experiencias y personas que conozco. +y despues de mantener estos cuadernos por una cantidad de aos, me empec a interesar por coleccionar no solo mis artefactos personales, sino tambin los artefactos de otras personas. +As que he empezado a coleccionar objetos encontrados. +Esta es una fotografa que encontr tirada en un canal en Nueva York hace unos diez aos. +En la parte delantera se puede ver la foto a blanco y negro daada, con la cara de una mujer, y en la parte de atrs dice, "Para Judy, la joven con la voz de Bill Bailey, +Divirtete en lo que sea que hagas". +Y realmente me encant esta idea de ver un fragmento de la vida de alguien. +contrario a saber la historia completa, solo saber un poco de la historia y luego, dejar que tu propia mente complete el resto. +Y esa idea de ver slo un fragmento es algo que volvern a ver en muchos de los trabajos que les estar enseando mas adelante en el da de hoy. +En ese momento yo estudiaba ciencia de la computacin en la Universidad Princeton, y me percat de que era posible coleccionar estos tipos de artefactos personales, no slo de las esquinas de las calles, sino tambin del internet. +Y de repente, personas en masa estaban dejando montones y montones de huellas en internet que contaban historias de sus vidas privadas. +Publicaciones en blogs, fotografas, pensamientos, sentimientos, opiniones, todo esto estaba siendo expresado por personas en linea, e iban dejando rastros. +As que empec a escribir programas de computadora que estudian paquetes muy grandes de estas huellas digitales. +Uno de estos proyectos tiene alrededor de ao y medio. +Se llama Nos Sentimos Bien (We Feel Fine). +Este proyecto escanea las publicaciones de blogs mas recientes de todo el mundo cada dos o tres minutos, buscando frases como "Yo siento" y " Estoy sintiendo". Y cuando encuentra una de estas frases, toma toda la oracin hasta el punto y tambin trata de identificar informacin demogrfica acerca del autor. +Su gnero, edad, locacin geogrfica y cules eran las condiciones climticas cuando escribieron la oracin. +Colecciona alrededor de 20.000 oraciones al da y ha ido corriendo por un ao y medio aproximadamente, habiendo coleccionado mas de 10 millones y medio de sentimientos. +As es, entonces, como se presentan. +Estos puntos aqu representan algunos de los sentimientos de los angloparlantes de todo el mundo en las ltimas horas. Cada punto es una sola oracin, publicada por una sola persona. +Y el color de cada punto corresponde al tipo de sentimiento, as que los colores brillantes estn felices, y los oscuros estn tristes. +Y el dimetro de cada punto corresponde a la longitud de la oracin que contiene. +Por lo que, los pequeos puntos son oraciones cortas y los grandes, son oraciones mas largas. +"Me siento bien con el cuerpo que tengo, no habra excusa fcil para explicar por qu de todas maneras me siento incmoda estando cerca de mi novio", Joven de 22 aos en Japn, +"Adquir esto en un intercambio local, pero realmente no siento ganas de lidiar con alambres y todo eso", +Algunos de los sentimientos tambin contienen fotografas en los blogs, +y cuando eso pasa, se crean automticamente estas composiciones montadas que contienen la oracin y la imagen combinadas. +Cualquiera de estos puede ser abierto para revelar la oracin que tiene contiene dentro. +"Me siento bien". +"Me siento fuerte ahora, y probablemente aument 100.000 libras, pero vali la pena". +"Me encanta como fueron capaces de preservar lo mximo, en todo lo que te hace sentir cerca de la naturaleza--mariposas, bosques hechos por el hombre, cuevas de piedra caliza y, hasta un pitn inmenso". +El prximo movimiento se llama multitudes. +Esto brinda una mirada estadstica a las cosas. +Esto muestra los sentimientos ms comunes en el mundo ahora mismo, dominado por mejor, luego mal, luego bien, luego culpable y asi sucesivamente. +El clima provoca que los sentimientos asuman los rasgos fsicos del clima que representan. Los soleados giran, los nublados flotan, los lluviosos caen, y los de nieve revolotean hasta el suelo. +Tambin puedes detener una gota de lluvia y abrir el sentimiento dentro. +Finalmente, la locacin coloca los sentimientos en sus lugares en un mapa del mundo, dandote una idea de su distribucin geogrfica. +Ahora les ensear algunos de mis montajes favoritos de Nos Sentimos Bien. +Estas son las imgenes que se construyen automticamente. +"Siento que estoy diagonalmente estacionado en un universo paralelo". +"He besado muchos otros hombres y no se ha sentido bien, los besos los he sentido como incorrectos y confusos, pero besar a Lucas se siente hermoso y casi espiritual". +"Puedo sentir mi cncer crecer ". +"Me siento bonita". +"Me siento delgada, pero no lo soy" +"Tengo 23 aos y soy una drogadicta en recuperacion, y me siento absolutamente bendecida de estar viva". +"No puedo esperar verlos competir por primera vez en Daytona el prximo mes, porque siento la necesidad por la velocidad". +"Me siento descarada" +"Me siento muy atractiva en esta nueva peluca". +Como pueden ver, Nos Sentimos Bien colecciona historias personales a muy, muy pequea escala. +Algunas veces las historias tienen apenas dos o tres palabras. +As que, realmente reta a la nocin de lo que se puede considerar una historia. +Y recientemente, me he interesado en profundizar ms en una sola historia. +Y eso me ha guiado a hacer algunos trabajos con el mundo fsico, no con el internet, y usando el internet slo al final como medio de presentacin. +Estos son proyectos ms nuevos que de hecho, no han sido publicados todava. +El primero de ellos se llama "Pesca de ballena". +En mayo pasado pas nueve das viviendo en Barrow, Alaska, el lugar habitado ms septentrional de Estados Unidos, con una familia de esquimales Inupiat documentando su pesca anual de ballenas, en primavera. +Este es el campamento de pesca, estamos a unas 6 millas de la costa, acampando en una masa de hielo gruesa y congelada, de 5 pies y medio. +y esa agua que ves ah es el camino abierto y a travs de ese camino, las ballenas bowhead emigran al Norte cada primavera. +y la comunidad esquinal acampa aqu en el borde del hielo, espera que una ballena se acerque, y cuando lo hace, le lanza un arpn, y luego hala la ballena hacia arriba bajo el hielo y la corta. +Y eso proveer comida a la comunidad por mucho tiempo. +As que fui all y viv con estas personas en su campamento de pesca de ballenas, y fotografi toda la experiencia, empezando con el viaje en taxi al aeropuerto en Nueva York, y terminando con la pesca de la segunda ballena, siete das y medio despus. +Fotografi la experiencia completa en intervalos de 5 minutos. +Es decir que cada 5 minutos, yo tomaba una fotografa. +Cuando estaba despierto, con la cmara alrededor de mi cuello; +mientras dorma, con un tripode y un cronmetro. +Y en momentos de mucha adrenalina, como cuando algo emocionante estaba pasando, suba la frecuencia fotogrfica hasta a treinta y siete fotografas en cinco minutos. +As que esto cre un latido fotogrfico que aceleraba y disminua el ritmo, de acuerdo al ritmo cambiante de los latidos de mi corazn. +Ese fu el primer concepto aqu. +El segungo concepto fue usar la experiencia para pensar sobre los componentes fundamentales de cualquier historia. +Cules son las cosas que crean una historia? +Las historias tienen personajes. Tienen conceptos. +Las historias suceden en reas especficas. Tienen contextos. +Tienen colores. Cmo se ven? +Tienen tiempo. Cundo ocurrieron? Fechas, cundo ocurri? +Y en el caso de la pesca de ballenas, tambin hay un nivel de emocin. +Lo que sucede con las historias, en la mayora de los medios existentes a los que estamos acostumbrados-- como novelas, radio, fotografas, peliculas, inclusive charlas como esta-- es que estamos muy acostumbrados al narrador, o a la cmara. A un cuerpo externo omnisciente a travs del cual vemos la historia. +Estamos muy acostumbrados a eso. +Pero si vemos la vida real, no es as en lo absoluto. +En la vida real, las cosas son ms sutiles y complejas, y las historias se superponen intersectndose y tocndose entre ellas. +Cmo extraer este rden narrativo de esta historia ms larga? +Constru una interfaz web para ver "La Pesca de Ballenas", que intenta hacer eso. +Estas son las 3,214 fotos tomadas all. +Este es mi estudio en Brooklyn. Este es el Oceno rtico, y la pesca de la segunda ballena, siete das despus. +Se puede empezar a ver parte de la historia aqu, contada por color. +Esta linea roja significa el color del papel tapiz del apartamento donde me estaba quedando. +Las cosas se hacen blancas a medida que nos movemos al Oceno rtico. +El rojo aparece cuando estn cortando las ballenas. +Se puede ver una lnea de tiempo, mostrando los momentos emocionantes en la historia. +Estn organizados cronolgicamente. +La rueda proporciona una versin ms juguetona de lo mismo, y estas son todas las fotografas organizadas cronolgicamente. +y a cualquiera de stas se le puede hacer clic, y se entra a la narrativa en esa posicin. +Aqu estoy yo durmiendo en el avin, camino a Alaska. +El libro es Moby Dick. +Esta es la comida que comimos. +Esto es la sala de estar de la familia Patkotak en su casa en Barrow. El vino en caja que nos sirvieron. +El momento para fumar afuera-- Yo no fumo. +Esta es una emocionante secuencia ma durmiendo. +Esto es en el campamento de pesca de ballena, en el Oceno rtico. +Este grfico al que le estoy haciendo clic, alude a un grfico mdico del latido del corazn, que muestra los momentos de adrenalina. +Este es el hielo empezando a congelarse. El cercado de nieve que construyeron. +Ahora les ensear la habilidad para sacar sub-historias. +Este es el grupo. Son todas las personas en "La Pesca de Ballenas", y aqu abajo estn las dos ballenas que fueron matadas. +Y podramos hacer algo arbitrario como, digamos, extraer la historia de Rony*, abarcando los conceptos de sangre y ballenas y herramientas, llevndose a cabo en el Oceno rtico, en el campamento de Ahkivgaq, con el ritmo cardaco alto. +Y ahora hemos recortado la historia completa a solo 29 mgicas fotografas, y podemos entrar a la narracin en esa posicin. +Se puede ver a Rony* cortando la ballena aqu. +Estas ballenas miden unos 40 pies de largo, y pesan ms de 40 toneladas. Ellas proveen fuente de alimento a la comunidad la mayor parte del ao. +Saltando hacia adelante, este es Rony sobre el cadver de ballena. +Ellos no utilizan sierras elctricas, slo usan cuchillas, y es un proceso muy eficiente. +Estos son los muchachos abriendo el cadver con una soga. +Este es el muktuk, o la masa, alineada para ser distribuida a la comunidad. +Es la ballena. Siguiendo adelante. +Lo que les dir a continuacin es algo muy nuevo. No es un proyecto an. +Apenas ayer llegu aqu desde Singapur, y antes de eso, pas dos semanas en Butn, el pequeo reino Himalaya anidado entre el Tibet y la India. +Estaba haciendo un proyecto ah sobre la felicidad, entrevistando mucha gente local. +Butn tiene algo un poco fuera de lo normal, y es que ellos basan la mayora de las decisiones gubernamentales sobre el concepto de felicidad nacional bruta en vez de producto interno bruto, y han venido haciendolo desde los 70. +Esto genera un sistema de valores totalmente diferente. +Es una cultura increblemente no materialista donde la gente no tiene mucho, pero es increiblemente feliz. +Estuve por all y habl con la gente sobre estas ideas. +Hice varias cosas. Pregunt a la gente una cantidad de preguntas, y tom una cierta cantidad de fotografas, y los entrevist con audio, y tambin tom fotografas. +Empezaba pidindo a las personas que dieran una puntuacin a su nivel de felicidad del 1 al 10, lo cual es intrnsecamente absurdo. +Y entonces cuando respondan, les inflaba ese nmero de globos y se los daba para que los sostuvieran. +As que tenemos a alguien realmente felz sosteniendo 10 globos, y a otra alma, realmente triste sosteniendo slo un globo. +Pero an sostener un slo globo, es al menos un poquito feliz. +Y luego les haca algunas preguntas como, Cual fue el da mas felz de sus vidas, qu los hace felices. +Y finalmente, les peda pedir un deseo. +y cuando pedan su deseo, lo escriba en uno de los globos y les tomaba una foto sostenindolo. +Ahora les mostrar breves fragmentos de algunas entrevistas que hice, algunas personas con quienes habl. +Este es un estudiante de once aos de edad. +Jugaba a policas y ladrones con sus amigos, corriendo por el pueblo, y todos tenan armas de juguete. +Su deseo era convertirse en un oficial de la policia. +Estaba iniciando a temprana edad. Estas eran sus manos. +Tom fotos de las manos de todos, porque creo que a menudo se puede decir mucho de alguien por cmo se ven sus manos. Tom un retrato de todos, y les ped que hicieran una cara graciosa. +Estudiante de 17 aos de edad. Su deseo era haber nacido varn. +Ella piensa que para las mujeres las cosas son bastante duras en Butn, y es mucho ms fcil si se es varn. +Dueo de una tienda de celulares de 28 aos de edad. +Si supieran como se vea Paro, entenderan lo increble que es que haya una tienda de celulares all. +l quera ayudar a las personas pobres. +Granjera de 53 aos de edad. Le quitaba cscaras al trigo, y esa cantidad de trigo detrs de ella le haba tomado una semana prepararlo. +Ella quera seguir en la agricultura hasta morir. +Se empiezan a ver las historias contadas por estas manos. +Ella llevaba un anillo de plata con la palabra "amor" grabada, lo haba encontrado en un lugar del camino. +Minero de 16 aos. +El rompa rocas con un martillo bajo el sol caliente, pero slo quera pasar su vida como un granjero. +Monje de 21 aos. l estaba muy felz. +Quera vivir una larga vida en el monasterio. +Tena unos pelos asombrosos creciendo de un lunar en su rostro, lo que me han dicho que es buena suerte. +Era demasiado tmido para hacer un gesto gracioso. +Estudiante de 16 aos. +Quera convertirse en una mujer independiente. +Le pregunt acerca de eso y me dijo que ella se refera a que no quiere casarse, pues en su opinin, al una mujer casarse en Butn, las oportunidades de vivir una vida independiente terminan, as que ella no estaba interesada en eso. +Chofer de camin de 24 aos de edad. +All hay unos camiones hindes inmensos que transitan por carreteras de doble sentido, con precipicios de 3,000 pies a los lados, y l manejaba uno de estos camiones. +pero slo quera era vivir una vida cmoda como las dems personas. +Barrendera de 24 aos de edad. La encontr en su hora de almuerzo. +Haba hecho un pequeo fuego para mantenerse caliente al lado del camino. +Su deseo era casarse con alguien con un automvil. +Ella quera un cambio en su vida. +Vive en un pequeo campamento de trabajadores al lado del camino y quera un cambio en las cosas. +Granjero itinerante de 81 aos de edad. +V este seor en un lado de la carretera, y de hecho el no tiene hogar. +Viaja de granja en granja todos los das buscando trabajo, e intenta dormir en cualquier granja donde consigue trabajo. +Su deseo era venir conmigo, para tener un lugar donde vivir. +l tena un cuchillo increible que sac de su gho y empez a mostrarlo cuando le ped que hiciera una cara graciosa. +No lo hizo con malas intenciones. +Nio de 10 aos. +Quera ingresar a una escuela y aprender a leer. pero sus padres no tenan suficiente dinero para enviarlo a la escuela. +l estaba comiendo este dulce anaranjado donde introduca constantemente los dedos, y como habia tanta saliva en sus manos, se form esta pasta anaranjada en sus manos. +Un trabajador de la carretera de 37 aos de edad. +Uno de los temas polticos ms sensibles en Butn es el uso de mano de obra barata hind que importan de la India para construir carreteras, y los regresan a sus casas cuando las carreteras estn listas. +Estos tipos estaban en el grupo de trabajadores mezclando asfalto una maana en un lado de la carretera. +Su deseo era tener algo de dinero y abrir una tienda. +Granjera de 75 aos. Venda naranjas al lado del camino. +Le pregunt acerca de su deseo y me dijo, "Sabes que, quizs viva, o quizs me muera, pero no tengo un deseo". +Ella estaba mascando nuez de betel, lo cual hizo que con los aos sus dientes se tornaran muy rojos. +Finalmente, esta es una monja de 26 aos con la que habl. +Su deseo era hacer un peregrinaje al Tibet. +Le pregunt por cunto tiempo pensaba vivir en el convento y me dijo, "Bueno, ya sabes, por supuesto que es impermanente, pero mi plan es vivir aqu hasta que tenga 30 aos, y luego entrar en una ermita". +Y le dije, "Como una cueva?" Y ella me dijo, "Si, como una cueva". +Y yo dije, "Wow, y por cunto tiempo vivirs en la cueva?" +Y ella dijo, "Bueno, pienso que me gustara vivir toda mi vida en una cueva". +A mi me pareci impresionante. Es decir, ella se expresaba -- con un ingls increble, un gran sentido del humor y una increble risa-- que la hizo ver como alguien a quien me podra haber encontrado en las calles de Nueva York, o en Vermont, de donde soy. +Pero haba vivido en un convento por los ltimos siete aos. +Le pregunt un poco ms acerca de la cueva y qu esperaba hacer una vez que ella estuviera all. +Que pasara si viera la verdad despus de slo un ao, que hara en los siguientes 35 aos de su vida? +Y esto es lo que ella dijo. +Mujer: Creo que me quedar ahi hasta los 35 aos, quizs--quizs muera. +Jonathan Harris: Quizs te mueras? Mujer: Si. +JH: Diez aos? Mujer: Si, si. JH: Diez aos, eso es mucho tiempo. +Si, quizs no uno, sino diez aos, quizs me pueda morir dentro de un ao o algo parecido. +JH: Esperas que sea as? +Mujer: Aah, porque tu sabes, es impermanente. +JH: Si, pero--si, est bien. Quisieras-- preferiras vivir en una cueva por 40 aos, o vivir por un ao? +Mujer: Pero prefiero quizs de 40 a 50. +JH: De 40 a 50? Si. +Mujer: Si. De ah me voy al cielo. +JH: Bueno, te deseo la mejor de las suertes con eso. +Gracias. +JH: Espero que todo sea lo que esperas que sea. +As que muchas gracias de nuevo. +Mujer: Por nada. +JH: As que si entendieron eso, ella dijo que esperaba morir cuando tuviera alrededor de 40. Para ella eso era suficiente. +La ltima cosa que hicimos, muy rpidamente, fu que tom todos globos-- hubo 117 entrevistas, 117 deseos-- y los traje a un lugar llamado Dochula, que es un pasaje en la montaa en Butn a 10.300 pies, uno de los lugares ms sagrados en Butn. +Y all arriba, hay miles de banderas de oracin, que las personas han colgado a travs de los aos. +Re-inflamos todos los globos, los pusimos en una cuerda, y los colgamos all arriba con las banderas de oracin. +Y an siguen volando all arriba hoy. +Si alguno de ustedes planea ir a Butn en un futuro cercano, pueden ir a ver esto. Aqu estn algunas fotos. +Dijimos una oracin budista para que se cumplieran todos estos deseos. +Se pueden ver algunos globos familiares aqu. +"Tener algo de dinero y abrir una tienda" fue el trabajador hind. +Muchas gracias. +Ser nuevo en TED... es como ser el ltimo chico virgen de la secundaria. +Sabes que toda la gente buena onda est hacindolo. +Y t ests fuera de eso, ests en casa -- +eres como los hermanos Raspyni, donde tienes tus pelotas en agua fra. Y -- t slo juegas con tus dedos todo el da.Y luego te invitan. +Y ahora ests dentro, y es todo lo que esperaste que fuera. +es emocionante y hay msica tocando todo el da y, de repente, todo termina. Y slo llev cinco minutos +Y quieres regresar a hacerlo otra vez, +pero realmente aprecio estar aqu. Y gracias, Chris, y tambin, gracias, Deborah Patton por hacer esto posible +bueno, como sea, hoy vamos a hablar un poco de arquitecura, dentro del tema de la creacin y el optimismo +Si pones creacin y optimismo juntos, obtienes dos opciones de las que puedes hablar. +Puedes hablar de creacionismo -- el cual yo creo no ira muy bien con esta audiencia al menos no desde un punto de vista donde tu fueras el proponente de ste -- o puedes hablar de "optimisaciones", deletreado de la manera inglesa: con S en lugar de una Z. +Y creo que me gustara hablar de eso hoy. +Pero cualquier clase de conversacin sobre arquitectura -- que es, de hecho, lo que recin estaban hablando que pasaba aqu, preparando una arquitectura de pequea escala para TED... ahora no podra pasar sin una conversacin al respecto, el World Trade Center y lo que ha estado pasando ah, lo que eso significa para nosotros. +porque si la arquitectura es lo que yo creo que es: la forma urbanizada de nuestras ambiciones culturales, Qu es lo que haces cuando se presenta la oportunidad de rectificar una situacin que representa las ambiciones culturales de alguien ms relacionadas con nosotros +y nuestra propia oportunidad de hacer algo nuevo ah? +Esto ha sido una situacin muy comentada por mucho tiempo. +Yo creo que el World Trade Center, mas bien en una forma desafortunada, trajo a la arquitectura al enfoque en una forma que no creo la gente haya pensado en mucho tiempo y lo convirti en un tema de conversacin comn. +Yo no recuerdo en mis 20 aos de carrera de practicar y escribir sobre arquitectura un tiempo en el que cinco personas me sentaran en una mesa y me consultaran preguntas muy serias sobre zonificacin, salida de incendios, preocupaciones sobre seguridad y si la alfombra se quema o no. +Estas no son cosas de las que hablramos muy seguido. +Y sin embargo ahora, se comenta sobre esto todo el tiempo. +Al punto de colocar armas a tus edificios, de repente se tiene que pensar en la arquitectura de una manera muy diferente. +Y es ahora cuando vamos a pensar sobre la arquitectura en una manera muy diferente, vamos a pensarlo as. +Cuntos de ustedes vieron el peridico USA Today hoy? Ah est. Se ve as. +Ah est el sitio del World Trade Center, en la portada. +Hicieron una seleccin. +Han elegido un proyecto de Daniel Libeskind, el nio terrible de la arquitectura del momento. +Nio prodigio que toca el piano, empez con el acorden, y se cambi a algo ms serio, un instrumento ms grande, y ahora a un instrumento an ms grande, sobre el cual trabajar su particular marca del deconstructivismo mgico, como puedes ver aqu. +l fue una de las seis personas que fueron invitadas para participar en esta competencia despus de que seis firmas perdieran con cosas que fueron tan estpidas y banales que incluso la ciudad de Nueva York fue forzada a irse, oh, disclpenme, lo arruinamos. +Bien. Podemos empezar esto de nuevo desde el principio, con la condicin de usar gente con una vaga pizca de talento, en lugar de slo seis charlatanes como los que trajimos la ltima vez: inmobiliarias que generalmente planifican nuestras ciudades +Veamos algunos arquitectos reales en busca de cambios. +Y entonces tenemos esto, o tenamos una opcin de eso. Oh, dejen de aplaudir. +Es demasiado tarde. Eso ya se fue. +Esto fue un proyecto creado por un grupo llamado THINK, un grupo con sede en Nueva York, y luego estaba esa que fue el proyecto Libeskind. +Esto, esto va a ser el nuevo World Trade Center. Un enorme hoyo en el suelo con grandes edificios cayendo en l. +Ahora, no s que piensen ustedes, pero yo creo que sta es una decisin muy estpida. porque lo que hicieron es slo crear un monumento permanente a la destruccin hacindolo ver como que la destruccin va a continuar por siempre. +Pero eso es lo que vamos a hacer. +Pero quiero que piensen en estas cosas en trminos del tipo de problemas actuales que la arquitectura estadounidense representa y lo que estas dos cosas nos dicen especficamente. +Y esa es la gran divergencia en cmo escogemos a nuestros arquitectos en tratar de decidir si queremos arquitectura de la clase de solucin tecnocrtica a todo -- que hay una larga respuesta tcnica que puede resolver todo los problemas, sean sociales, sean fsicos, sean qumicos -- o algo que es mas bien una solucin romntica. +Ahora, no me refiero a romntica como, este es un lugar bonito para llevar a alguien en una cita romntica. +Me refiero a romntico en el sentido de: hay cosas ms grandes y monumentales que nosotros mismos. +O la forma en que fuimos a describir eso despus -- destino manifiesto. +Ahora, cul les gustara ser? Cuadricula o destino manifiesto? +Destino manifiesto. +Es importante. Suena grande, suena importante, suena slido, suena estadounidense. Valiente, serio, masculino. +Y esa pelea ha ido de arriba a abajo en la arquitectura todo el tiempo. +Me refiero a que, sigue en nuestras vidas privadas tambin, cada da. +Todos queremos salir y comprar un Audi TT, no? +Todos aqu tienen uno, o al menos desearon tener uno en el momento que vieron uno. +Y luego se subieron al auto, giraron la llavecita electrnica, en lugar de la llave real, volaron a casa en su nueva superautopista, y manejaron derecho al garage que parece el castillo Tudor. +Por qu? Por qu? Por qu querras hacer eso? +Por qu todos queremos hacer eso? Incluso yo tuve alguna cosa Tudor alguna vez. +Est en nuestra naturaleza rebotar de lado a lado repetidas veces entre esta solucin tecnocrtica y una imagen romntica ms grande que en la que estamos. +Entonces vamos a ir derecho a esto. +Puedo apagar las luces un momento? +Voy a hablar de dos arquitectos, de manera muy breve que representan el rompimiento actual, arquitectnicamente hablando, entre estas dos tradiciones de la solucin tecnocrtica o tecnolgica y la solucin romntica. +stas son dos de las prcticas arquitectnicas ms usadas en EE.UU. hoy en da, +una muy joven, otra ms madura. +Este es un proyecto de una firma llamada SHoP, y lo que estan viendo aqu, son sus trazos isomtricos, de lo que va a ser una cmara oscura a gran escala en un parque pblico. +Todos saben lo que es una cmara oscura? +S, es una de esos enormes lentes de cmara que toma fotos del mundo exterior -- como en una pequea pelcula, sin las partes movibles -- y los proyecta en una pgina y puedes ver el mundo exterior al mismo tiempo que caminas alrededor de ste. +Esto es apenas el boceto de eso, y pueden ver, se ve como un edificio normal, no? +De hecho es un edificio no ortogonal, no es arriba y abajo, cuadrado, rectangular, nada de eso, que veras en la forma normal de un edificio. +La revolucin computacional, la revolucin tecnocrtica, tecnolgica, nos ha permitido deshacernos de edificios de formas normales edificios con formas tradicionales, en favor de edificios no ortogonales como ste. +Lo que es interesante de esto no es la forma. +Lo que es interesante de esto es cmo est hecho. Cmo est hecho. +Una nueve forma de levantar edificios - algo llamado personalizacin masiva. No, no es una contradiccin. +Lo que hace a un edificio costoso, en el sentido tradicional, es personalizar partes individuales que no puedes hacer una y otra vez. +Es por eso que todos vivimos en casas de serie. +Ellos quieren ahorrarse dinero haciendo la misma cosa 500 veces. +es por eso que es ms barato. +La personalizacin masiva funciona para un arquitecto con una computadora, un programa que dice: fabrica estas partes. +Luego la computadora le dice a una mquina -- una mquina operada por computadora, una mquina para diseo -- que puede recibir muchsimos cambios diferentes, en un instante. Porque la computadora es slo una mquina. +No le importa. Est haciendo partes. +No ve costo excesivo, no invierte tiempo extra. +No es un trabajador -- es simplemente un torno electrnico, entonces todas las partes pueden ser cortadas al mismo tiempo. +Y entonces lo que un constructor recibira, es cada parte individual que ha sido manufacturada fuera del sitio y entregada en camin al sitio, al constructor, y un paquete de estas instrucciones manuales. +slo un simple "tornillo A al B" y seran capaces de armarlos -- +aqui est el pequeo dibujo que les dice cmo funciona eso -- y eso es lo que pasa al final. +Estn debajo de ste, viendo dentro del lente de la cmara oscura. +Piensen que todo esto es ficcin, piensen que todo esto es fantasa, o romance, se les pidi a los mismos arquitectos que hicieran algo para el patio central del PS1, que es un museo en Broklyn, Nueva York, como parte de sus series estivales de jvenes arquitectos. +Y dijeron: "Bueno, es verano, qu haces en verano?" +En el verano uno va a la playa. +Y cuando vas a la playa que hay? Dunas de arena. +Entonces vamos a hacer dunas arquitectnicas de arena y una cabaa de playa. +Entonces fueron y lo proyectaron -- un modelo por computadora -- de una duna de arena. +Tomaron fotos, metieron las fotos en el programa de la computadora, y la computadora form una duna de arena luego tomaron la duna de arena y la transformaron en -- con sus instrucciones, usando un software estndar, con pequeas modificaciones -- un juego de instrucciones para piezas de madera. +Y esas son las piezas de madera. Esas son las instrucciones. +estas son las piezas, y aqu est un poco ms desarrollado. +Lo que pueden ver es, que hay 6 colores diferentes, y cada color representa un tipo de madera a cortar, una pieza a ser cortada. +De la cual todas fueron entregadas de manera plana, en un camin, y ensambladas a mano en 48 horas por un grupo de 8 personas, de los cuales uno solo vio los planos antes. +De los cuales uno solo vio los planos antes. +Y aqu viene el paisaje "dunar", saliendo al patio, y aqu est ya construido. +Slo hay 16 piezas de madera diferentes. Slo 16 partes ensamblables. +Por fuera parece un bonito panel de sonido de un piano. +Tiene su propia piscina armable, muy, muy cool. +es un excelente lugar para fiestas -- slo estuvo 6 semanas -- +tiene un pequeo vestidor y cabaas, donde sucedieron muchas cosas interesantes, todo el verano. +Ahora, para que no pensemos que esto es por amor al arte o slo instalaciones temporales, sta es la misma firma trabajando en el WTC, remplazando el puente que pasaba a travs de West Street, esa conexin peatonal muy importante entre la ciudad de Nueva York y el nuevo desarrollo de West Side. +se les pidi que disearan, reemplazando ese puente en 6 semanas, construyndolo, incluyendo todas las partes, manufacturadas. +Y lo hicieron. Este fue su diseo, usando el mismo sistema de modelo por computadora, y slo 5 6 partes diferentes, un par de puntales, como ste, algn material de revestimiento para exteriores y un sistema muy simple de enmarcado todo fue manufacturado fuera del sitio y transportado en camin. +Fueron capaces de crear eso. +Fueron capaces de crear algo maravilloso. +Ahora estn construyendo un edificio de 16 pisos en Nueva York usando la misma tecnologa. +Aqu vamos a caminar a travs del puente en la noche, +se ilumina por s solo, no necesita luz adicional, as los vecinos no se quejan de luces reflejadas en sus caras. +Aqu va a travs, y luego al otro lado, y se tiene el mismo tipo de grandeza. +Ahora djenme ensearles rpidamente, lo opuesto, si puedo. +Bonito, eh?. Este es el otro lado de la moneda. +Este es el trabajo de David Rockwell de NY, cuyo trabajo lo pueden ver aqu hoy. +El actual rey de los romnticos que acerca su trabajo en una moda muy diferente. +"Cuando todo est dicho y hecho, tiene que verse como alga marina", dijo el dueo. +O su restaurante Pod de Filadelfia, Pensilvania. +Quiero que sepan que el cuarto que estn viendo es blanco puro. +Cada superficie en su restaurante es blanca. +La razn por la que tiene mucho color es porque cambia con el uso de la luz. +Todo se trata de sensualidad, de transformar. +Vean esto -- no estoy tocando un solo botn, damas y caballeros. +Esto sucede por s solo. +Se transforma por la magia de la luz. +Todo es sensualidad, es toque. +Rosa Mexicano, es un restaurant donde nos transporta a las costas de Acapulco, en el lado oeste, con esta pared de clavadistas-- ah est, as? +vamos a verla otra vez. +Bueno, slo para asegurarme que lo disfrutaron. +Y, finalmente, se trata de comodidad; se trata de hacerte sentir bien en lugares donde no te habas sentido bien antes. +Se trata de traer la naturaleza adentro. +En la torre Guardian de NY, convertido a una W Union Square -- perdn que me apresuro -- donde trajimos al mejor horticultor del mundo para asegurarnos que el interior de esto traiga el jardn del patio exterior de Union Square hacia adentro del edificio. +se trata de estimulacin. +Esta es una experiencia de compra de vinos simplificada por color y sabor +vinos espumantes, frescos, suaves, jugosos, cremosos, grandes y dulces, todo explicado en color y textura en la pared. +Y, finalmente, es entretenimiento; como en la sede principal del Cirque du Soleil en Orlando, Florida, donde entras al teatro griego, ves debajo de la carpa y te unes a la magia del Cirque Du Soleil. +Creo que lo dejar aqu, Muchas gracias. +El Internet, la "web" como la conocemos, la clase de red -- las cosas que estamos hablando -- tiene ahora menos de 5,000 das de edad. +Entonces todas las cosas que vemos, por ejemplo, imgenes satelitales del planeta completo, las cuales nunca nos hubiramos imaginado antes -- todo esto entrando en nuestras vidas, la abundancia de lo que esta frente a nosotros, sentados frente al computador +Esta cornucopia de cosas que vemos nos maravilla aunque no pareciera que lo estemos +Es realmente increble que todo est aca. +En sus 5,000 das, todo esto ha venido. +Y se que hace 10 aos, si les hubiera dicho que todo esto vena, hubieran dicho, es imposible. +Simplemente no existe modelo econmico que lo hiciera posible. +Y si les hubiera dicho que adems es gratis, me hubieran respondido -- estas soando. +eres un Californiano utpico. Un optimista excesivo +Y sin embargo est ac +Lo otro que sabemos es que hace 10 aos, como incluso la revista Wired estaba hablando, pensbamos que seria como la TV, pero mejor. +Era el modelo; lo que todos sugeran que vena +Y result que no fue esto. +Primero, era imposible. Segundo no es lo que era +Entonces una de las cosas que creo aprendemos -- si piensan, por ejemplo, Wikipedia, algo que era simplemente imposible. +Imposible en teora, pero posible en la prctica. +Si toman todo lo que era imposible, Creo que una de las cosas que estamos aprendiendo de esta era. de la ultima dcada, es que debemos mejorar en creer lo imposible, por que no estamos preparados para eso. +Entonces estoy curioso, que pasar los prximos 5,000 das. +Pero si ha pasado esto en los ltimos 5,000 das. Qu pasar en los prximos 5,000 das? +Si solo hay una mquina -- y nuestros dispositivos porttiles son pequeas ventanas hacia estas maquina, pero que estamos bsicamente construyendo una sola, mquina global. +Entonces comenc a pensar en eso. +Y result que esta mquina es la mquina mas fiable que hayamos fabricado. +No se ha cado, funcionando ininterrumpidamente. +Y no existe casi ninguna otra mquina que hayamos fabricado que funcione el numero de horas, das. +5,000 das sin interrupcin-- es simplemente increble. +Y por supuesto, el Internet es mas largo que solo 5,000 das -- la web tiene solo 5,000 das. +Entonces trat de sacar medidas bsicas. +Cules son las dimensiones de esta mquina? +Y comenc por calcular los miles de millones de clics alrededor del mundo en todos los computadores. +Y hay 100 mil millones de clics por da. +Y hay 55 trillones de links entre todas las pginas del mundo. +Y entonces comenc a pensar mas acerca de otro tipo de dimensiones, hice una lista rpida -- y Era Chris Jordan, el fotgrafo, quien estaba hablando de nmeros que son tan grandes que pierden el sentido? +Bueno, esto es una lista de estos. Son difciles de decir pero hay mil millones de chips de computador en Internet, si contaran todos los chips en todos los computadores del Internet. +has dos millones de correos por segundo +Entonces es un nmero muy grande. +Es simplemente una mquina enorme, y utiliza 5 por ciento del la electricidad global. +Entonces estas son las especificaciones, como si estuvieran haciendo una hoja de especificaciones tcnicas: 170 quatrillones de transistores, 55 trillones de links correos viajando a dos mega hertz, mensajes de texto a 31 kilohertz 246 hexabytes de almacenamiento, Es un gran disco. +Es mucho almacenamiento, memoria .. nueve hexabytes RAM. +Y el trafico total esta viajando a siete terabytes por segundo. +Brewster dijo que la librera del congreso es alrededor de 20 terabytes. +Entonces cada segundo, la mitad de la Librera del Congreso esta pasando por esta mquina. Es una gran mquina. +Entonces hice algo mas. Encontr que 100 mil millones de clics por da, 55 tillones de links, es casi lo mismo que la sinapsis de nuestro cerebro. +Un quatrillon de transistores es como el nmero de neuronas en el cerebro. +Entonces en una primera aproximacion, tenemos estas cosas -- veinte-petahertz disparos sinpticos. +Por supuesto la memoria es enorme. +Pero en una primera aproximacin, el tamao de la mquina es -- y su complejidad , algo como -- el cerebro. +Por que incluso, es as como funciona el cerebro --de la misma forma que la red. +Sin embargo, su cerebro no se esta duplicando cada dos aos. +Entonces si decimos que esta mquina que hemos fabricado, es como un cerebro humano, si estimamos la velocidad a la que crece, de ahora en treinta aos, habrn seis mil millones de cerebros humanos. +Para el 2040, el procesamiento total de esta mquina excedera la capacidad de procesamiento de la humanidad, por partes, Y esto es, yo creo, donde Ray Kurzwel y otros obtuvieron este pequeo cuadro diciendo que cruzaremos. +Qu tal eso? Bueno, ac hay un par de cosas. +Tengo tres clases de elementos generales Me gustara decir; tres consecuencias de esto. +Primero, que bsicamente lo que est haciendo esta mquina es tomando cuerpo -- +le estamos dando cuerpo. Y eso es lo que haremos en los prximos 5,000 das -- le daremos a esta mquina un cuerpo. +Y la segunda cosa es: reestructuraremos su arquitectura. +Tercero, seremos completamente co-dependientes de esta +Entonces permitanme ver estas tres cosas. +Primero que todo, tenemos todo esto en nuestras manos. +Pensamos que son dispositivos separados, pero, cada pantalla en el mundo est mirando hacia La Mquina. +Estos son bsicamente portales hacia La Mquina +Lo segundo es que -- algunas personas le llaman a esto la nube, y estamos tocando la nube con esto. +y de alguna forma, todo lo que se necesita es un "cloudbook". +Y el cloudbook no almacena nada +Es inalambrico. Esta siempre conectado. +Es muy simple. y simplemente lo que hacen es solo tocar La Maquina estn tocando la nube y calculando la va. +Entonces La Mquina est calculando. +En algunas forma, es algo como la vieja idea de clculos centralizados. +Pero todo, todas las cmaras, y los micrfonos, y los sensores de los autos y todo conectado a esta mquina. +Y todo pasar por la red. +Y ya estamos viendo esto con, por ejemplo, telfonos. +Justo ahora, los telfonos no van por la red, pero van a comenzar a hacerlo, y lo harn. +Y si imaginan, por ejemplo, lo que Google Labs tiene en trminos de experimentos con Google docs, Google hoja de calculo, blah, blah todo esto ser basado en la red. +Pasarn por La Mquina. +Y estoy sugiriendo que cada parte sea de la red. +Ahora no es as -- si haces hojas de clculo en el trabajo, un documento Word, no est en la Web, pero estar, har parte de esta mquina. +Hablarn el idioma de la red. +Le hablarn a La Mquina +La red, en cierto sentido, es como un agujero negro, que absorbe todo +Entonces todo ser parte de la red. +Cada elemento, cada artefacto que hagamos, incluir alguna conectividad a la red, y ser parte de La Mquina, entonces nuestro entorno -- en un sentido ubicuo computacional -- nuestro entorno se convierte en la red. Todo conectado. +Ahora, con RFID y otras cosas --cualquier tecnologa que sea no importa realmente, es punto es que todo incluir alguna colectividad con La Mquina entonces tenemos, bsicamente, un Internet de cosas. +Entonces pensamos en un zapato como un chip con suela, un auto como un chip con ruedas. Porque bsicamente gran parte del costo de manufactura de un auto es la inteligencia y los electrones al interior, y no los materiales. +Muchas personas piensan acerca de la nueva economa como algo que seria desencarnado, existencia virtual alternativa, y que tendiramos la vieja economa de los tomos. +Pero ahora, lo que la economa realmente es es la unin entre esas dos, donde la informacin interior, y la naturaleza digital de las cosas dentro del mundo material. +Es lo que estamos esperando. A donde vamos -- esta unin, esta convergencia entre lo atmico y digital. +Entonces una de las consecuencias, yo creo es que donde tengamos esta especie de espectro de medios ahora -- TV, pelculas, vdeos -- que se convierte en una plataforma de medios. +Y aunque hay muchas diferencias en algunos sentidos, compartiran mas y mas entre si +Para que las leyes del medio, como: el hecho que las copias no tienen valor. El valor de cosas incopiables. La inmediatez, autenticacin, personalizacin -- +el medio quiere ser liquido; +la razn por la cual las cosas son libres es para que se puedan manipular, no gratis, sino libres como en libertad +Y rige el efecto de red -- es decir que entre mas tienes, mas obtienes. +La primera maquina de fax -- la persona que compro el primer fax era un idiota. porque no haba a quien enviarle un fax. +Pero se convirti en una evangelista, reclutando a otros para que consiguieran mquinas fax porque valoraba su compra. +Estos son los efectos que veremos. +Atencin es la moneda. +Entonces estas leyes van a esparcirse a travs de todos los medios. +Y lo otro de este encarnamiento es que pasa lo que llamo el inverso de McLuhan. +McLuhan dijo, "Las mquinas son extensiones de los sentidos humanos." +Y estoy diciendo, "Los humanos ahora sern los sentidos de las mquinas extendidos," en cierta forma +Entonces tenemos un trilln de ojos, orejas, y tactos, por medio de todas nuestras fotos y cmaras. +Y vemos en cosas como Flickr, o Photosynth, este programa de Microsoft que permitir ensamblar un vista turstica de un lugar de los miles de fotos tursticas. +En algn sentido, la mquina ve por medio de pixeles de cmaras individuales. +Ahora, lo segundo de lo quera hablarles es la idea de re estructurar -- que lo que est haciendo la red es re estructurar +Y les debo advertir, que lo que hablaremos es -- Voy a entregarles mi explicacin de un termino que han escuchado, "red semntica " +Primero que todo, el primer paso que hemos visto del Internet sera que conectara computadores. +Y fue lo que llamamos La Red -- la Internet de redes. +Y vimos que donde tenamos todos los computadores del mundo -- +si recuerdan, era como una pantalla verde con cursores, y no haba realmente mucho que hacer, si queran conectarla, la conectaban de un computador a otro. +Y lo que deban hacer era, si queran participar en esto, deban compartir paquetes de informacin. +Entonces estaran transmitiendo, No tenan control. +No era como un sistema telefnico donde se tena control de la linea -- deban compartir paquetes. +La segunda etapa donde estamos ahora es la idea de conectar pginas. +Entonces en la antigua, si queramos entrar a la pgina de una linea area, Iba de mi computador, a un sitio FTP, luego al computador de la aerolnea. +Ahora tenemos pginas -- la unidad se ha resuelto en pginas, entonces una pgina conecta a otra. +Y si quisiramos seguir y reservar un vuelo, Ira a la pagina de la aerolnea, el sitio web de la aerolnea, y me conectaria con esa pgina. +Y lo que compartimos son conexiones, entonces debemos estar abiertos a conexiones +No lo podramos negar -- si alguien quisiera conectarnos, no lo podramos evitar; deberamos participar en esta idea de abrir su pgina para que lo conecte quienquiera. +Entonces eso estamos haciendo. +Estamos entrando al la tercera etapa, que es a lo que me refiero, y es donde conectamos los datos. +Entonces, no se como se llama esto. +Lo llamare "La Mquina". pero estamos conectando datos. +Vamos de mquina en mquina, de pgina a pgina, y ahora de datos a datos. +Entonces la diferencia es, que en vez de conectar de pgina a pgina, vamos a conectar de una idea a una pgina a otra idea, en vez de a otra pagina +Entonces todo est soportado -- o todo los elementos, o cada sustantivo, esta soportado por la red. +Est siendo resuelto al nivel de los elementos, ideas o palabras +entonces adems de fsicamente volviendo a esta idea no es solamente virtual, estn saliendo cosas. +Entonces algo resolver la informacin acerca de una persona en particular, todos tendremos identificacin nica +Cada persona, cada elemento, tendr algo que sera muy especfico, y conectar a una representacin especfica de esa idea o elemento. +Entonces ahora en esta nueva, cuando me conecto, Me conecto a mi vuelo, mi silla. +Entonces -- dando un ejemplo -- Yo vivo en Pacifica. -- justo ahora, Pacfica es solo un nombre en la red en algn lado. +La red no sabe que ese es un pueblo, y que es especficamente el pueblo donde yo vivo, pero eso es lo que estaremos hablando. +Estar conectando directamente a si mismo -- la red podr leer por si sola y saber que eso realmente es un lugar, y que cuando vea la palabra "Pacifica" sabe que es un lugar latitud, longitud, una cierta poblacin, +Entonces ac estan algunos de los trminos tcnicos, todos de tres letras que vern mucho mas. +Todo esto se trata de relacionar los datos. +Les dar un ejemplo +Hay como mil millones de sitios sociales en la red. +cada vez que entras, debes decir quien eres de nuevo, y quienes son tus amigos. +Por qu deberamos hacer esto? solo deberamos hacer eso una vez, y deberan saber quienes son tus amigos. +Entonces esto es lo que queremos, todos los amigo identificados, y solo cargar esas relaciones +todos estos datos deberan trasmitirse y solo se debera hacer una vez, y esto es todo lo que debera pasar +Y deberamos tener todas las redes de todas las relaciones entre esos pedazos de informacin +A eso es a lo que nos estamos moviendo -- donde se sabe este tipo de cosas a este nivel. +Una red semntica, Web 3.0, gigante global grafica -- estamos tratando de ver como podemos llamar a esto. +lo que esta haciendo es compartir datos. +Entonces debes estar abierto a compartir tu informacin, lo cual es un paso mucho mas grande que solo compartir su pagina web, o su computador. +Y todos estos elementos que estarn sobre esto no son solo paginas, son cosas. +Todo lo que hemos descrito, cada artefacto o lugar sern una representacin especfica, tendr un carcter especifico que se podr conectar directamente. +Entonces tenemos esta base de datos de cosas. +Entonces estamos en el medio de todo esto que esta completamente conectado, a cada objeto en la pequea astilla de conexin que tiene. +Entonce la ltima cosa que quiero decir, es esta idea: de que seremos co-dependientes +siempre estar ah y entre mas cerca mejor. +Si le permitimos a Google, nos dir nuestra historia de bsquedas +Y mirndola encontr que yo buscaba mas que todo a las 11 de la maana. +Entonces estoy abierto y transparente a eso +Y creo que la personalizacin total en este nuevo mundo requerir total transparencia +Ese sera el precio. +Si quieren total personalizacin, debern ser totalmente transparentes. +Google, No recuerdo mi numero telefnico, Le preguntare a Google. +Somos tan dependientes de eso que he llegado al punto donde no trato de recordar todo -- Lo buscare en Google, es mas fcil +Y al principio nos resistimos, diciendo " Oh, es horrible" +Pero si pensamos en la dependencia que tenemos en esta otra tecnologa, llamada alfabeto, y escritura -- somos totalmente dependientes de esta, ha transformado la cultura +No nos podemos imaginar sin el alfabeto y la escritura. +Entonce de la misma forma, no nos imaginaremos luego son estas otras mquinas estando ahi. +Y lo que ocurre es que alguna clase de Inteligencia Artificial, pero no consciente como -- siendo un experto Larry Page me dijo que eso es que lo que estaban intentando, eso es lo que estn intentando. +Pero cuando 6 mil millones de personas se estn "googleando", quien busca a quien? Es de doble va, +Entonces somos la red,lo que es esto. +Seremos una mquina. +Entonces los prximos 5,000 das -- no ser la web y mejor. +As como no fue TV pero mejor +Los prximos 5,000 das -- no sera solo la web, pero mejor, sera algo diferente +Y creo que sera mas inteligente. +Tendr una inteligencia, pero que no es consciente, +Pero anticipara lo que hacemos, en un buen sentido +ser mucho mas personalizada. +nos conocer, y eso es bueno. +Y de nuevo el precio sera la transparencia. +y por ltimo, ser mas ubicua en trminos de estar en todo el entorno, y estaremos en la mitad de esto. +todos los dispositivos sern portales hacia esto +Entonces la idea con la que les quiero dejar es que tenemos que comenzar a pensar no solo en "la web y un poco mejor" pero una nueva etapa de desarrollo. +Se ve mas global -- Si tomamos todo esto, es una gran mquina, muy confiable, mas confiable que sus partes. +Pero tambin lo podemos pensar como un gran organismo +Entonces podremos responder mas como si fuera un sistema entero mas como si no fuera un gran organismo con el que vamos a estar nteractuando, Es "Uno" +y no se como mas llamarlo que, el "Uno." +Tendremos una mejor palabra para ello. +Pero hay una unidad de alguna clase que esta comenzando a emerger. +Y de nuevo, No quiero hablar de que tiene conciencia Quiero hablar de ello como si fuera una pequea bacteria, o un Volvox, lo que es el organismo. +Entonces, hacer, accin, tomar, Entonces esto es lo que diria: solo hay una maquina, y la web es si sistema operativo. +Todas las pantallas miran al "One". ningn bit vive fuera de la web +Compartir es ganar. Deja que el "One" lo lea. +Sera legible para la mquina; +queremos hacer algo que la maquina pueda leer. +Y el "One" somos nosotros -- estamos en el "One" +Agradezco su tiempo. +Tuve mi primer ordenador siendo un adolescente que creca en Accra, y era realmente un aparato increble. +Podas jugar con l, programar en BASIC. +Y yo estaba fascinado. +As que fui a la biblioteca para entender cmo funcionaba esa cosa. +Le cmo la CPU est constantemente moviendo datos de un lado a otro entre la memoria, la RAM y la ALU, la unidad de aritmtica y lgica. +Y pens, esta CPU realmente tiene que trabajar como loca slo para mantener todos estos datos movindose por el sistema. +Pero nadie estaba realmente preocupado por esto. +Cuando se presentaron por primera vez los computadores, se dijo que eran un milln de veces ms rpidos que las neuronas. +Todos estaban realmente entusiasmados, pensaron que pronto sobrepasaran la capacidad del cerebro. +Esta es una cita, realmente, de Alan Turing: "Dentro de 30 aos, ser igual de fcil preguntarle algo a un ordenador, como a una persona." +La cita es de 1946. Ahora, en 2007, todava no es cierta. +La cuestin es, por qu no estamos realmente viendo esta capacidad en los ordenadores que s vemos en el cerebro? +Lo que nadie se da cuenta, y yo estoy empezando a descubrir ahora es que pagamos un alto precio por la velocidad, que afirmamos es una gran ventaja de estos ordenadores. +Echemos un vistazo a algunos nmeros. +ste es Blue Gene, el ordenador ms rpido del mundo. +Tiene 120.000 procesadores; pueden procesar 10 mil billones de bits de informacin por segundo. +Eso es un 10 elevado a la potencia de 16. Entre todos ellos consumen un megavatio y medio de potencia. +Sera genial si se pudiese aadir esa cantidad a la produccin elctrica de Tanzania. +Realmente dara un impulso a la economa. +Pero volviendo a los Estados Unidos, si equiparas la cantidad de potencia elctrica que ese ordenador emplea con la consumida por un hogar en Estados Unidos, obtienes 1.200 hogares, +esa es la cantidad de energa que ese ordenador consume. +Ahora, comparmoslo con el cerebro. +Esto es una fotografa del cerebro de la novia de Rory Sayre. +Rory es un estudiante de postgrado en Stanford. +El estudia el cerebro usando resonancias magnticas, y afirma que ste es el cerebro ms bello que ha escaneado. +Eso es autntico amor, aqu. +Ahora bien, cunto es capaz de procesar el cerebro? +Estimo que 10 elevado a la 16 bits por segundo lo que es equivalente a la potencia de Blue Gene. +As que esa es la interrogante. Qu tan similar son ambas potencias de procesamiento, ambas cantidades de datos la cuestin es cunta energa o electricidad consume el cerebro? +Realmente, es la misma que la que consume un ordenador porttil. Slo 10 Vatios. +As que lo que ahora hacemos con ordenadores, con la energa consumida por 1.200 casas, el cerebro lo est haciendo con la energa consumida por un porttil. +As que la cuestin es, cmo es capaz el cerebro de conseguir esa eficiencia? +Permitidme que resuma. En la lnea inferior: el cerebro procesa la informacin usando 100.000 veces menos energa que la que utiliza la tecnologa actual de computadores. +Cmo es capaz el cerebro de conseguir esto? +Echemos un vistazo a cmo funciona el cerebro para luego compararlo con cmo funcionan los ordenadores. +Esta escena es de la serie de la PBS "La vida secreta del cerebro". +Muestra esas clulas que procesan informacin. +Se llaman neuronas. +Se envan pequeos pulsos de electricidad entre ellas, y cuando se alcanzan, esos pequeos pulsos de electricidad pueden pasar de una neurona a otra. +Ese proceso se llama sinapsis. +Est esa gran red de clulas interactuando entre ellas, alrededor de 100 millones de ellas, enviando cerca de diez mil billones de esos pulsos cada segundo. +Y eso es bsicamente lo que est pasando en tu cerebro mientras ves esto. +Cmo es so respecto a la forma de trabajar de los ordenadores? +Es una red de trabajo o network en el sentido literal de las palabras. +La red hace el trabajo dentro del cerebro. +Si miris estas dos imgenes, esas palabras aparecen en vuestra mente. +Eso es en serie y es rgido: como los coches en una autopista -- todo tiene que suceder a un ritmo prefijado. Sin embargo, esto es paralelo y es fluido. +El procesado de la informacin es muy dinmico y adaptativo. +Yo no soy el primero en darse cuenta de esto. Esta es una cita de Brian Eno: "El problema con los ordenadores es que no hay suficiente frica en ellos." +Brian realmente dijo esto en 1995. +Y nadie le estaba escuchando entonces, pero ahora la gente ha empezado a escuchar porque hay un problema tecnolgico acuciante al que nos tenemos que enfrentar. +Os dar una introduccin en las prximas transparencias. +Esto es -- Hay realmente una convergencia clara entre los dispositivos que usamos para calcular en ordenadores y los dispositivos que nuestros cerebros emplean para calcular. +Los dispositivos que usan los ordenadores son llamados transistores. +Este electrodo de aqu, llamado puerta, controla el flujo de corriente desde la fuente hasta el drenaje, estos dos electrodos. +Y la corriente, la corriente elctrica, es llevada por los electrones, exactamente igual que en vuestra casa y en cualquier dispositivo. +Y lo que ocurre es que, cuando enciendes la puerta, obtienes un incremento en la cantidad de corriente, y consigues un flujo constante. +Y cuando se apaga la puerta, no hay flujo a travs del dispositivo. +Los ordenadores utilizan la presencia de corriente para representar un uno, y la ausencia para representar un cero. +Ahora bien, lo que est pasando es que los transistores se estn haciendo cada vez ms pequeos, y ya no se comportan as. +De hecho, estn empezando a comportarse como el dispositivo que utilizan las neuronas para calcular. que se llama canal de iones. +Esta es una pequea molcula de protena. +Es decir, las neuronas tienen miles de ellas. +Y se sita en la membrana de la celda y tiene un poro en ella. +Y estos son iones aislados de potasio, que fluyen a travs de ese poro. +Ahora bien, ese poro se puede abrir y cerrar. +Pero, cuando est abierto, debido a que esos iones tienen que alinearse y pasar de uno en uno, se consigue un espordico, inconstante -- un flujo de corriente espordico. +E, incluso cuando cierras el poro -- cosa que las neuronas pueden hacer, pueden abrir y cerrar esos poros para generar la actividad elctrica -- incluso cuando est cerrado, debido a que los iones son tan pequeos, pueden colarse, unos pocos pueden colarse de vez en cuando. +As que, lo que ocurre es que, cuando el poro est abierto, tienes una corriente intermitente. +Esos son los unos, pero llevan unos pocos ceros. +Y cuando est cerrado, se tiene un cero, pero con unos pocos unos, de acuerdo? +Ahora bien, esto est empezando a pasar en los transistores. +Y la razn por la que ocurre es que, ahora mismo en 2007, con la tecnologa que estamos usando, un transistor es tan grande, que varios electrones pueden fluir a travs del canal de forma simultnea, uno junto al otro. +De hecho, pueden pasar alrededor de 12 electrones. +Y eso significa que a cada transistor le corresponde, alrededor de 12 canales de iones en paralelo. +Ahora bien, en unos pocos aos, por el 2015, habremos reducido el tamao de los transistores mucho. +Eso es lo que hace Intel para seguir aadiendo ms ncleos en el chip, +o en los lpices de memoria que ya pueden almacenar hasta un gigabyte de cosas -- anteriormente fueron 256. +Los transistores tienen que ser ms pequeos para permitirlo, y la tecnologa se ha beneficiado de esto. +Pero lo que est pasando es que en el 2015, los transistores van a ser tan pequeos, que slo un electrn podr pasar por el canal en cada momento, y eso corresponde a un canal de iones individual. +Y empiezas a tener el mismo tipo de atasco de trfico que tienes en el canal de iones, +la corriente se encender y apagar aleatoriamente, incluso cuando se espera que est encendida. +Y eso significa que el computador va tener sus unos y ceros mezclados, y eso va a bloquear la mquina. +As que, estamos en un momento en el que no sabemos realmente cmo calcular con ese tipo de dispositivos. +Y la nica cosa, lo nico que sabemos que ahora mismo puede calcular con ese tipo de dispositivos, es el cerebro. +Ok, entonces un ordenador lee un dato de la memoria, lo enva al procesador o a la UAL, y luego pone el resultado en memoria. +Ese es el camino rojo marcado. +En la forma en la que trabaja el cerebro, tienes todas esas neuronas. +Y la forma en la que representan informacin consiste en romper los datos en pequeos trozos que son representados por los pulsos y las diferentes neuronas. +As que tienes todos los trozos de datos distribuidos por la red. +Y luego, la manera en la que se procesan los datos para conseguir el resultado es que se traduce ese patrn de actividad en un nuevo patrn de actividad, sencillamente hacindolo fluir por la red. +As que preparas todas esas conexiones, de manera que el patrn de entrada fluya y genere el patrn de salida. +Lo que se observa es que hay estas conexiones redundantes. +As que, si este trozo de datos o este trozo de datos se corrompen, no se transmite aqu, estos dos trozos pueden activar la parte perdida con estas conexiones redundantes. +As que, cuando analizas estos dispositivos horribles, donde a veces quieres un uno y obtienes un cero, existe esta redundancia en la red que realmente puede recuperar la informacin perdida. +Esto hace al cerebro inherentemente robusto. +Lo que tenemos aqu es un sistema que almacena los datos de forma local. +Y es frgil, porque cada uno de los pasos tiene que ser perfecto, de otra manera, se perderan los datos. Sin embargo, en el cerebro, se tiene un sistema que almacena los datos de forma distribuida, y es robusto. +Lo que quiero fundamentalmente es hablar de mi sueo, que consiste en construir un computador que trabaje como el cerebro. +Es algo en lo que hemos estado trabajando el ltimopar de aos. +Y voy a mostrarles el sistema que hemos diseado para modelar la retina, que es la parte del cerebro dentro del globo ocular. +No lo hemos hecho escribiendo cdigo, como se hara en un computador. +De hecho, el proceso que ocurre en esa pequea parte del cerebro es muy similar al tipo de procesamiento que los computadores realizan cuando envan vdeo por Internet. +Se quiere comprimir la informacin -- slo quieren enviar los cambios respecto a la imagen anterior, etc. y as es como el globo ocular es capaz de comprimir toda la informacin hacia el nervio ptico, para enviar lo que queda al cerebro. +En vez de hacer esto por software, o realizando ese tipo de algoritmos, fuimos a hablar con neurobilogos que haban realmente realizado ingeniera inversa sobre ese trozo del cerebro llamado retina. +Y haban resuelto todas las diferentes clulas, y haban resuelto la red y, sencillamente, tomamos esa red y la usamos como plano para disear un chip de silicio. +As que ahora las neuronas estn representadas por pequeos nodos o circuitos en el chip, y las conexiones entre las neuronas estn modeladas por transistores +Y esos transistores se estn comportando esencialmente como los canales de iones se comportan en el cerebro. +sto os dar el mismo tipo de arquitectura robusta que describ. +As es como se ve nuestro ojo artificial. +El chip de retina que diseamos se encuentra detrs de esta lente de aqu. +Y el chip -- Voy a mostraros un vdeo de la salida de la retina de silicio cuando estaba mirando a Kareem Zaghloul, que es el estudiante que dise el chip. +Dejadme que os explique lo que se ver, de acuerdo. Ya que est sacando distintos tipos de informacin, no es tan sencillo como una cmara. +El chip de retina extrae cuatro tipos diferentes de informacin. +Extrae regiones de contraste oscuro, que se mostrar en el vdeo como rojo. +Y extrae regiones de blancos o contraste claro, que se mostrar en el vdeo como verde. +Estos son los ojos oscuros de Kareem y esto es el fondo blanco que veis aqu. +Y luego tambin extrae movimiento. +Cuando Kareem mueve su cabeza hacia la derecha, veris esta actividad azul aqu, representa las regiones donde el contraste estn incrementndose en la imagen, que es donde vamos de oscuro a claro. +Y tambin se puede ver esta actividad amarilla de aqu, que representa las regiones donde el contraste est disminuyendo, va de claro a oscuro. +Y estos cuatro tipos de informacin -- el nervio ptico tiene alrededor de un milln de fibras, y 900.000 de esas fibras envan estos cuatro tipos de informacin. +As que realmente estamos duplicando el tipo de seales que tenemos en el nervio ptico. +Lo que se observa aqu es que estas imgenes tomadas de la salida del chip de retina son muy dispersas. +No se muestra verde por todas partes del fondo, slo en los bordes, etc... +Y esta es lo mismo que se ve cuando se comprime vdeo para enviar: se quiere hacer muy disperso, porque as el archivo es ms pequeo. Y eso es lo que hace la retina, y lo est haciendo slo con la circuitera, y como trabaja esta red de neuronas que interactan aqu, que nosotros hemos capturado en un chip. +Me gustara resaltar, lo mostrar aqu. +sta imagen aqu se muestrar como stas, pero aqu os mostrar que la imagen se puede reconstruir, as que, casi se puede reconocer a Kareem en esta parte superior. +Aqu est. +S, esta es la idea. +Cuando ests quieto, se ven los contrastes claros y oscuros. +Pero cuando se mueve adelante y atrs, la retina detecta estos cambios. +Y eso es por lo que, sabis, cuando estis sentados aqu y algo ocurre en el fondo, simplemente se mueven los ojos ah. +Estn estas celdas que detectan cambios y mueves tu atencin a ello. +Esto es muy importante para detectar a alguien que est intentando acercarse sigilosamente. +Terminar diciendo que esto es lo que ocurre cuando pones frica en un piano de acuerdo? +Esto es un tambor de acero que ha sido modificado y esto es lo que ocurre cuando pones frica en un piano. +Y lo que nos gustara hacer es poner frica en un computador y acabar con un nuevo tipo de ordenador que crear pensamiento, imaginacin, ser creativo y cosas as. +Gracias +Chris Anderson: Una pregunta, Kwabena. +Si piensas en la unin del trabajo que ests haciendo, el futuro de frica, esta conferencia -- qu conexiones pueden hacerse, si es posible, entre ellas? +Kwabena Boahen: S, como dije al principio. Tuve mi primer ordenador siendo un adolescente que creca en Accra. +Y tuve esa reaccin visceral de que esa era la manera errnea de hacerlo. +Era todo fuerza bruta, poco elegante. +No creo que hubiese tenido esa reaccin si hubiese crecido leyendo toda esa ciencia ficcin, oyendo sobre RD2D2, cmo se llame, y slo -- ya sabes, creyndome todas las noticias sobre los ordenadores. +Yo me acerqu al problema desde una perspectiva diferente, y traje mi diferente perspectiva para relacionarme con el problema. +Y creo que mucha gente en frica tiene esta diferente perspectiva, y creo que eso va a impactar en la tecnologa. +Y eso va a impactar en su evolucin. +Creo que podris ver, usar esa mezcla, para conseguir cosas nuevas, porque se viene de una perspectiva diferente. +Creo que podemos contribuir, podemos soar como todos los dems. +Chris Anderson: Gracias Kwabena, ha sido muy interesante. +Gracias. +Mi charla es "Pjaros que aletean y telescopios espaciales". +Y pueden pensar que no debe tener nada que ver una cosa con otra, pero espero que al final de estos 18 minutos puedan ver una pequea relacin. +Se vincula con el origami. As que djenme comenzar. +Qu es el origami? +La mayora cree que sabe qu es el origami. Es esto: pjaros que aletean, juguetes, saca-piojos, ese tipo de cosas. +Eso es lo que el origami sola ser. +Pero se ha convertido en algo ms. +Se ha convertido en una forma de arte, una forma de escultura. +El tema comn -- que lo vuelve origami -- es plegar, es cmo creamos la forma. +Saben, esto es muy antiguo. sta es una placa de 1797. +Muestra a estas mujeres jugando con esos juguetes. +Si miran de cerca, es esta forma llamada grulla. +Cada nio japons aprende cmo doblar esa grulla. +Entonces este arte ha rondado por cientos de aos, y pueden pensar que algo que ha rondado por tanto -- tan restrictivo, slo plegando -- todo lo que se poda hacer ya se hizo hace mucho tiempo. +Y podra haber sido el caso. +Pero en el siglo XX, apareci un origamista japons llamado Yoshizawa y cre decenas de miles de nuevos diseos. +Pero an ms importante, cre un lenguaje -- una va de comunicacin, un cdigo de puntos, lneas y flechas. +Repasando la charla de Susan Blackmore, ahora tenemos un mecanismo para transmitir informacin con herencia y seleccin, y ahora sabemos dnde nos conduce. +Y en el origami nos ha llevado a cosas como sta. +sta es una figura de origami: una hoja, sin cortes, slo pliegues, cientos de pliegues. +Esto tambin es origami, y demuestra hasta dnde hemos podido llegar en el mundo moderno. +Naturalismo. Detalle. +Se pueden lograr cuernos, astas -- incluso si miran de cerca, pezuas hendidas. +Y esto da lugar a la pregunta: qu cambi? +Y lo que cambi es algo que no esperaran en un arte, que son las matemticas. +Esto es, la gente aplic principios matemticos al arte, para descubrir las leyes subyacentes. +Y se vuelve una herramienta muy poderosa. +El secreto de la productividad en muchos campos -- y en el origami -- es dejar que los muertos hagan el trabajo por uno. +Porque lo que haces es tomar tu problema y transformarlo en un problema que alguien ms haya resuelto, y usar esas soluciones. +Y quiero contarles cmo lo hicimos en el origami. +El origami gira en torno a patrones de pliegues. +El patrn de pliegues que aqu les muestro es el plano subyacente de una figura de origami. +Y no se puede slo dibujarlos arbitrariamente. +Tienen que obedecer cuatro reglas simples. +Y son muy sencillas, fciles de entender. +La primera regla es la 2-colorabilidad. Se puede colorear cualquier patrn de pliegues con slo dos colores sin que dos regiones del mismo color se toquen. +Las direcciones de los pliegues en cualquier vrtice -- el nmero de dobleces de montaa, el nmero de dobleces de valle siempre difiere en dos. Dos ms o dos menos. +Nada ms. +Si miran los ngulos alrededor del pliegue, vern que si numeran los ngulos en un crculo, todos los ngulos de nmeros pares forman un semicrculo. todos los ngulos de nmeros impares forman un semicrculo. +Y si miran cmo se apilan las capas vern que, sin importar cmo se apilen pliegues y hojas, una hoja nunca podr penetrar un pliegue. +stas son las cuatro simples reglas. Es todo lo necesario en el origami. +Todo el origami viene de esto. +Y pensarn: "Pueden cuatro reglas simples generar tal tipo de complejidad?" +Pero, de hecho, las leyes de la mecnica cuntica pueden ser escritas en una servilleta, y, sin embargo, gobiernan toda la qumica, toda la vida, toda la historia. +Si obedecemos estas reglas, podemos hacer cosas asombrosas. +Entonces en el origami, para obedecer esas reglas, podemos tomar patrones simples -- como este patrn repetido de pliegues, llamado textura-- y por s mismo no es nada. +Pero si seguimos las leyes del origami, podemos poner estos patrones en otro pliegue que por s mismo puede ser algo muy, muy simple, pero cuando los ponemos juntos, obtendremos algo un poco diferente. +Este pez, 400 escamas -- otra vez, es slo un cuadrado sin cortar, slo plegado. +Y si no deseas plegar 400 escamas, puedes retroceder y hacer slo unas pocas cosas y aadir placas a la caparazn de una tortuga, o dedos. +O se puede llegar a 50 estrellas en una bandera con 13 barras. +Y si uno quiere volverse realmente loco, 1.000 escamas de una serpiente. +Y este tipo se exhibe en el piso de abajo, as que vayan a verlo, si tienen la oportunidad. +Las herramientas ms poderosas del origami tienen relacin con cmo creamos partes de criaturas. +Y lo pondr en esta simple ecuacin. +Tomamos una idea, combinmosla con un cuadrado, y tendremos una figura en origami. +Lo que importa es lo que entendemos por estos smbolos. +Y se deben preguntar: "Puedes ser realmente as de especfico? +Es decir, el escarabajo ciervo tiene dos puntos por mandbula, tiene antenas. Se puede ser tan especfico en el detalle?" +Y s, realmente se puede. +Entonces cmo hacemos eso? Bien, lo partimos en varios pasos ms pequeos. +Djenme ajustar esa ecuacin. +Comienzo con mi idea. La abstraigo. +Cul es la forma ms abstracta? Es la figura de palos. +Y desde esa figura de palos debo llegar de algn modo a una forma plegada que tiene un componente por cada parte del motivo. Una solapa por cada pata. +Y entonces una vez haya doblado la forma que llamamos la base, se pueden crear las patas traseras, doblarlas, transformarlas en la forma final. +Ahora el primer paso, muy fcil. +Toma una idea, dibuja una figura de palos. +El ltimo paso no es tan complejo, pero ese paso central -- ir desde la descripcin abstracta a la forma plegada -- eso es difcil. +Pero este es el lugar donde las ideas matemticas pueden sacarnos del bache. +Y voy a mostrarles a todos cmo hacerlo as pueden ir fuera y plegar algo. +Pero empezaremos de a poco. +Esta base tiene muchas solapas. +Vamos a aprender cmo hacer una solapa. +Cmo haran una nica solapa? +Tomen un cuadrado. Doblen por la mitad, doblen por la mitad, doblen otra vez, hasta que quede largo y angosto y entonces diremos al final: eso es un pliegue. +Podra usarlo para una pierna, un brazo, algo as. +Qu papel se emple en esa solapa? +Bien, si lo desdoblamos y volvemos al patrn de pliegues veremos que la esquina superior izquierda de esa figura es el papel que se emple en el pliegue. +Entonces ese es el pliegue, y el resto del papel sobra. +Puedo usarlo para algo ms. +Bien, hay otras maneras de hacer una solapa. +Hay otras dimensiones para las solapas. +Si hago las solapas ms flacas, puedo usar un poco menos de papel. +Si hago la solapa lo ms flaca posible llego al lmite de la cantidad mnima de papel necesaria. +Y pueden ver all que requiere un cuarto de crculo de papel para hacer una solapa. +Hay otras maneras de hacer solapas. +Si pongo la solapa en el borde se usa medio crculo de papel. +Y si hago la solapa desde el medio se usa el crculo completo. +As, sin importar cmo haga una solapa se necesita alguna parte de una regin circular de papel. +Entonces podemos ampliar la escala. +Qu pasa si quiero hacer algo que tenga muchas solapas? +Qu necesito? Necesito muchos crculos. +Y en los 90s los artistas del origami descubrieron estos principios y se dieron cuenta que se podra hacer figuras de cualquier complejidad con slo empacar crculos. +En este punto los muertos comienzan a ayudarnos. Porque mucha gente ha estudiado el problema de empacar crculos. +Puedo contar con la inmensa historia de matemticos y artistas que estudiaron cmo empacar discos y arreglos. +Y ahora puedo usar esos patrones para crear formas de origami. +Nos las ingeniamos para llegar a estas reglas con las que se empacan crculos se decoran los patrones de crculos con lneas de acuerdo a ms reglas. Eso nos da los pliegues. +Esos pliegues se doblan para formar una base. Se da forma a la base. +Se obtiene una forma plegada -- en este caso una cucaracha. +Y es tan simple. +Es tan simple que una computadora puede hacerlo. +Y uno dice: Bien, ya saben, Cun simple es eso? +Pero a las computadoras necesitamos poder describirles las cosas en trminos muy bsicos, y con esto s pudimos. +As que escrib un programa hace varios aos llamado TreeMaker que pueden bajar de mi sitio web. +Es gratuito. Corre en las principales plataformas, incluso en Windows. +Y uno slo dibuja una figura de palos y el programa calcula el patrn de pliegues. +Hace el empaque de crculos, calcula el patrn de pliegues, y si se usa la figura de palos que mostr recin, medio que se nota -- es un ciervo, tiene astas -- se obtiene este patrn de pliegues. +Y si se toma este patrn de pliegues y se dobla por las lneas de puntos se obtiene una base que puede formar un ciervo, con el patrn de pliegues exacto que se desea. +Y si se quiere un ciervo diferente no uno de cola blanca se cambia el empacado para obtener un alce. +O se podra hacer un alce norteamericano. +O, en verdad, cualquier otra clase de ciervo. +Estas tcnicas revolucionaron este arte. +Descubrimos que podamos hacer insectos, araas, que estn cerca -- cosas con patas, patas y alas, cosas con patas y antenas. +Y si hacer una mantis religiosa con un cuadrado simple sin cortar no fuera lo suficientemente interesante entonces se podra hacer dos mantis religiosas con un cuadrado simple sin cortar. +Ella se lo est comiendo. +Lo llamo Tentempi. +Y se pueden hacer ms que insectos. +Esto -- se pueden poner detalles: dedos y garras. Un oso pardo tiene garras. +Esta rana de rbol tiene dedos. +En realidad mucha gente del origami ahora pone dedos en sus modelos. +Los dedos se han vuelto un meme del origami. Porque todos los estn haciendo. +Pueden hacerse varios motivos. +As estos son una pareja de instrumentistas. +El guitarrista a partir de un cuadrado simple, el bajista a partir de un cuadrado simple. +Y si uno dice: Bien, pero la guitarra, el bajo eso no es tan llamativo. +Haz un instrumento un poco ms complicado. +Bien, entonces se puede hacer un rgano. +Y lo que esto ha permitido es la creacin del origami bajo demanda. +Entonces ahora la gente puede decir quiero exactamente esto, esto y esto otro y se puede ir y hacerlo. +Y, a veces, se crea arte elevado y otras uno paga las cuentas haciendo trabajo comercial. +Pero quiero mostrarles algunos ejemplos. +Todo lo que vern aqu, salvo el auto, es origami. +Slo para mostrarles esto era papel plegado. +Las computadoras hicieron mover las cosas pero todos eran objetos reales plegados por nosotros. +Y no slo se pueden usar en efectos especiales sino resultan tiles incluso en el mundo real. +Sorprendentemente el origami y las estructuras que hemos desarrollado en origami resultan tener aplicaciones mdicas, en ciencia, en el espacio, en el cuerpo, en electrodomsticos y ms. +Y deseo mostrarles algunos de estos ejemplos. +Uno de los primeros era este patrn: este patrn de plegado estudiado por Koryo Miura, un ingeniero japons. +l estudi un patrn de plegado y se dio cuenta que este podra reducirse a un paquete extremadamente compacto que tena una estructura muy simple de apertura y cierre. +Y lo utiliz para disear este panel solar. +Es una interpretacin artstica pero vol en un telescopio japons en 1995. +Ahora bien, hay en realidad un poco de origami en el telescopio espacial James Webb, pero es muy simple. +El telescopio -- en el espacio se despliega en dos lugares. +Se pliega en tercios. Es un patrn muy simple -- incluso no lo llamaramos origami. +Ciertamente no necesitaron hablar con artistas del origami. +Pero, si se desea ir a algo ms alto y ms grande, entonces s podra necesitarse algo de origami. +Los ingenieros del laboratorio nacional Lawrence Livermore tuvieron una idea para un telescopio mucho ms grande. +Lo llamaron Eyeglass. +El diseo requera una rbita geosncrona, 41900 km arriba, lentes de 100 metros de dimetro. +Entonces imaginen lentes del tamao de una cancha de ftbol. +Haba dos grupos de gente interesados en esto: los cientficos planetarios que quieren mirar hacia afuera y luego otros que queran mirar hacia adentro. +Ya sea que se mire al exterior, o al interior, cmo lo pone uno en el espacio? Se tiene que utilizar un cohete para subirlo. +Y los cohetes son pequeos. Entonces hay que hacerlo ms pequeo. +Cmo se hace una gran lmina de cristal ms pequea? +Bien, casi la nica manera es plegarla de algn modo. +Entonces hay que hacer algo como esto -- +esto fue un pequeo modelo. +Para los lentes, se dividen los paneles, se agregan articulaciones. +Pero este patrn no va a funcionar para hacer que algo de 100 metros se reduzca a unos pocos metros. +Entonces los ingenieros de Livermore deseosos de hacer uso del trabajo de los muertos o quiz de los origamistas vivos, dijeron: Veamos si alguien ms est haciendo este tipo de cosas. +Buscaron dentro de la comunidad de origamistas, nos pusimos en contacto con ellos y empec a trabajar con ellos. +Desarrollamos conjuntamente un patrn que es escalable hasta un tamao arbitrario pero permite que cualquier anillo o disco plano se pliegue en un cilindro preciso y compacto. +Y lo adoptaron para su primera generacin que no era de 100 metros sino de cinco. +Pero ste es un telescopio de cinco metros -- tiene distancia focal de cerca de 400 metros. +Y funciona perfecto en su rango de prueba y, de hecho, se pliega en un bulto pequeo y simptico. +Hay otro objeto de origami en el espacio. +La Agencia Japonesa de exploracin Aeroespacial vol un velero solar y puede verse aqu que la vela se expande y todava se ven los dobleces. +El problema que se resuelve aqu es algo que requiere ser grande y en forma de lmina en el destino pero pequeo durante el viaje. +Y esto funciona si uno va al espacio o si uno viaja dentro de un cuerpo. +Y este es el ltimo ejemplo. +Este es un stent cardaco desarrollado por Zhong You de la Universidad de Oxford. +Mantiene abierta una arteria bloqueada cuando llega a destino pero tiene que ser mucho ms pequea durante el viaje por los vasos sanguneos. +Y este stent se pliega usando un patrn de origami basado en un modelo llamado base para bomba de agua. +Los diseadores de bolsas de aire tambin tienen el problema de ubicar lminas planas en un espacio reducido. +Y desean hacer sus diseos por simulacin. +Entonces necesitan descubrir cmo, en una computadora, aplanar la bolsa de aire. +Y los algoritmos que desarrollamos para hacer insectos resultaron ser la solucin para las bolsas de aire para hacer su simulacin. +As pueden hacer una simulacin como sta. +Esos son los pliegues de origami formndose, y ahora pueden ver la bolsa de aire inflarse y descubrir: funciona? +Y eso conduce a una idea francamente interesante. +Ya saben, de dnde vienen estas cosas? +Bien, el stent cardaco provino de esa bolsita que explota que quiz aprendimos en la primaria. +Es el mismo patrn llamado la base para bomba de agua. +El algoritmo de aplanado de bolsa de aire proviene de todos los desarrollos de empaque de crculos y de la teora matemtica desarrollada realmente para crear insectos -- cosas con patas. +La cosa es que esto sucede con frecuencia en matemtica y ciencia. +Cuando uno involucra a la matemtica, los problemas que soluciona slo por valor esttico o para crear algo bello pega un giro y salta hacia una aplicacin del mundo real. +Y tan raro y sorprendente como pueda parecer el origami puede algn da incluso salvar una vida. +Gracias. +Hola a todos. +Estamos aqu para daros un ejemplo de creacin. +Voy a plegar uno de los modelos de Robert Lang. +Y esta es la pieza de papel de la que va a estar hecho, podeis ver la cantidad de pliegues que son necesarios. +Rufus improvisar un poco en su violonchelo de 5 cuerdas customizado, es muy emocionante escucharle. +Estas preparado? OK. +Vamos a hacerlo un poco mas emocionante. +Muy bien. Puedes empezar Rufus. + Muy bien. Aqui lo teneis. +Jambo, bonjour, zdraveite, trayo: estos son algunos de los lenguajes en los que he hablado un poco durante las ltimas seis semanas. Ya que estuve en 17 paises, creo que estoy al final de este loco recorrido que he estado haciendo, revisando varios aspectos del proyecto que estoy haciendo, +y que mas adelante les contar un poquito. +Y visitando algunos lugares bastante increbles. Lugares como Mongolia, Camboya, Nueva Guinea, Sudfrica, dos veces Tanzania; Estuve aqu hace un mes. +Y la oportunidad de hacer una gira alrededor del mundo como esta es completamente maravilloso, por muchas razones. +Ves cosas increbles. +Y logras hacer estas comparaciones puntuales entre personas alrededor del mundo. +Y lo que realmente te llevas de eso, lo que a primera vista te llevas de esto, no es que todos somos iguales, aunque les contar sobre eso, sino cuan diferentes somos. +Hay tanta diversidad alrededor del mundo. +6.000 lenguas diferentes, habladas por 6.500 millones de personas, todos de diferentes colores, formas, tamaos. +Al caminar por las calles de cualquier gran ciudad, viajas de tal forma, y quedas asombrado por la diversidad en la especie humana. +Cmo explicamos esa diversidad? +Bueno, de eso les hablar hoy, sobre cmo estamos usando las herramientas de la gentica, en particular de la gentica de poblaciones, para contarnos cmo generamos esta diversidad y cunto tiempo tom. +Ahora, el problema de la diversidad humana, como todas las grandes preguntas cientficas, cmo explicar algo as, se puede dividir en subpreguntas. +Y se pueden resolver esas pequeas subpreguntas +La primera es una pregunta sobre los orgenes. +Realmente compartimos todos un origen comn? +Y asumiendo que lo tenemos, todos, creo, en este cuarto, diramos --cundo fue eso? +Cundo nos originamos como especie? +Cunto tiempo hemos estado divergiendo unos de otros? +Y la segunda pregunta est relacionada, pero es ligeramente diferente. +Si surgimos de una fuente comn, cmo es que logramos ocupar todos los rincones del planeta, y en el proceso generamos toda esta diversidad? Las diferentes formas de vida, las diferentes apariencias, las diferentes lenguas alrededor del mundo. +Bueno, la pregunta de los orgenes, como tantas otras preguntas en biologa, parece haber sido contestada por Darwin hace ms de un siglo. +En "El Descendientes del Hombre", escribi: "En cada gran regin del mundo los mamferos vivientes estn cercanamente emparentados con las especies extintas de la misma regin. +Es por ello probable que frica fue antiguamente habitada por simios extintos, cercanamente relacionado al gorila y chimpanc. Y dado que estas dos especies son ahora las especies mas cercanas al hombre, es de cierta forma ms probable que nuestros primeros progenitores vivieran en el continente Africano, ms que en ninguna otra parte." +As que ya terminamos, nos podemos ir a casa, se acab la pregunta del origen. +Bueno, no del todo. Porque Darwin estaba hablando sobre nuestros ancestros distantes, nuestros ancestros comunes con los simios. +Y es bastante claro que los simios se originaron en el continente Africano. +De acuerdo a los registros fsiles, aparecieron alrededor de hace 23 millones de aos. +En ese entonces, frica estaba, de hecho, desconectada de las otras masas terrestres, debido a los caprichos de las placas tectnicas, flotando cerca del Ocano ndico. +tropez con Eurasia alrededor de hace 16 millones de aos, y entonces tuvimos el primer xodo Africano, como lo llamamos. +Los simios que salieron en ese entonces, terminaron en el Sureste Asitico, se convirtieron en los gibones y orangutanes. +Y aquellos que se quedaron en frica evolucionaron en los gorilas, chimpancs y nosotros. +Entonces s, si ests hablando sobre nuestro ancestro comn con los simios est muy claro al ver los registros fsiles, que comenzamos aqu. +Pero en realidad, esa no es la pregunta que estoy haciendo. +Estoy preguntando sobre nuestros ancestros humanos, seres que reconoceramos como "nosotros" si estuvieran sentados en este cuarto. +Si estuvieran viendo sobre tus hombros, no brincaran as. Qu hay de nuestra ascendencia humana? +Porque si retrocedemos lo suficiente, compartimos un ancestro comn con todas las criaturas vivas en la tierra. +El ADN nos une a todos, as que compartimos un ancestro con las barracudas, bacterias y hongos, si retrocedemos lo suficiente, ms de mil millones de aos. +Sin embargo, lo que estamos preguntando, es sobre el ancestro humano. +Cmo estudiamos eso? +Bueno, histricamente se ha estudiado usando la ciencia de la paleoantropologa, +excavando cosas del suelo, y basndonos principalmente en la morfologa, la manera en que las cosas toman su forma, frecuentemente la forma del crneo, diciendo, "Esto se ve un poco ms como nosotros que aquello, as que debe ser mi ancestro. +Este debe ser de quien desciendo directamente." +Argumentar que el campo de la paleoantropologa, nos da muchas posibilidades fascinantes sobre nuestros orgenes, pero no nos da las probabilidades que realmente queremos como cientficos. +Qu quiero decir con eso? +Estn viendo un gran ejemplo aqu. +Estas son tres especies extintas de homnidos, potenciales ancestros humanos. +Todos fueron excavados al oeste de aqu, en Olduvai Gorge, por la familia Leakey. +Y todos datan de mas o menos el mismo tiempo. +De izquierda a derecha tenemos Homo erectus, Homo habilis, y Australopithecus-- ahora llamado Paranthropus boisei, el australopitecino robusto. Tres especies extintas, en el mismo lugar, en el mismo tiempo. +Eso significa que los tres juntos no pueden ser mi ancestro directo. +Con cul de estos tipos estoy realmente relacionado? +La posibilidad es un mejor ancestro, pero no son las probabilidades que realmente estamos buscando +Bueno, un enfoque distinto ha sido el mirar la morfologa humana usando los nicos datos que hasta hace muy poco se tenan a mano -- otra vez, principalmente la forma del crneo. +La primera persona en hacer esto sistemticamente fue Linneo, Carl von Linne, un botnico Suizo, quien en el siglo XVIII se dio a la tarea de categorizar cada organismo viviente del planeta. +Crees que tienes un trabajo difcil? +Y l hizo un muy buen trabajo. +Categoriz alrededor de 12.000 especies en su "Systema Naturae". +De hecho l acu el trmino "Homo sapiens" - que significa "hombre sabio" en Latn. +Pero al ver la diversidad humana alrededor del mundo, dijo, bueno, ya saben, parece que venimos en discretas sub-especies, o categoras. +Y habl sobre Africanos y Americanos y Asiticos y Europeos, y una categora claramente racista que llam monstrosus, la cual inclua bsicamente a todas las personas que a l no le gustaban, inclusive tipos imaginarios como elfos. +Es fcil descartar esto como ideas, quizs bien-intencionadas, pero que no dejan de ser ingorantes, de un cientfico del siglo XVIII trabajando en la era pre-Darwiniana. +Excepto, si hubiesen tomado antropologa fsica tan recientemente como hace 20 o 30 aos, en muchos casos habran aprendido bsicamente la misma clasificacin de la humanidad. +Las razas humanas que de acuerdo con los antroplogos fsicos de hace 30 o 40 aos -Carlton Coon es el mejor ejemplo- han estado divergiendo unas de otras -- esto fue en la era post-Darwiniana-- por ms de un milln de aos desde los tiempos del Homo erectus. +Pero basados en qu datos? +Muy poco. Muy poco. Morfologa y muchas suposiciones. +Bueno, de lo que les hablar hoy, lo que les voy a decir ahora, es un nuevo enfoque a este problema. +En vez de salir y adivinar nuestra ascendencia, excavando cosas del suelo, posibles ancestros, y basndome en la morfologa, la cual an no comprendemos completamente. No sabemos las causas genticas subyacentes de esta variacin morfolgica. Lo que necesitamos hacer es cambiar completamente el enfoque del problema. +Porque, en realidad, lo que estamos preguntando es un problema genealgico. O una pregunta genealgica. +Lo que intentamos hacer es construir un rbol genealgico para todas las personas que hoy estn vivas. +Y como cualquier genealogista les dira -- cualquiera tiene un miembro de la familia, o quizs t, han intentado construir un rbol familiar, determinar el origen en el tiempo? +Comienzas en el presente, con relaciones de las que ests seguro. +T y tus hermanos, tienen padres en comn. +T y tus primos, comparten abuelos comunes. +Gradualmente rastrean ms y ms en el pasado, agregando estas relaciones cada vez ms distantes. +Pero eventualmetne, sin importar qu tan bueno seas en escarbar los registros de la iglesia, y todo eso, llegas a lo que los genealogistas llaman un muro de ladrillos. +Un punto desde el cual no puedes saber ms de tus ancestros, y entras en este oscuro y misterioso terreno que llamamos historia, a travs del cual sentimos nuestro camino con susurros, como orientacin. +Quines fueron estas personas que vinieron antes? +No tenemos registros escritos. Bueno, de hecho s los tenemos. +Escrito en nuestro ADN, en nuestro cdigo gentico. Tenemos un documento histrico que nos lleva a travs del tiempo hasta los primersimos das de nuestra especie. Y eso es lo que estudiamos. +Ahora, rpido repaso sobre el ADN. +Sospecho que no todos en la audiencia son genetistas. +Es molcula linear muy larga, una versin codificada de cmo hacer una copia tuya. Es la copia del plano para hacerte. +Est compuesto por cuatro subunidades llamadas: A, C, G, y T. +Y es la secuencia de estas subunidades lo que define ese plano. +Cuan largo es? Bueno, son miles de millones de estas subunidades de longitud. +Un genoma haploide. De hecho tenemos dos copias de todos nuestros cromosomas. Un genoma haploide tiene alrededor de 3.2 mil millones de nucletidos de longitud. +Y todo esto, si los unes, son ms de seis mil millones de nucletidos de longitud. +Si tomas todo el ADN de una clula en tu cuerpo y lo estiras de punta a punta, mide alrededor de dos metros. +Si tomas el ADN de todas las clulas de tu cuerpo y lo estiras de punta a punta, llegara hasta la Luna, te llevara y traera miles de veces, es mucha informacin. +Y entonces, cuando copias esta molcula de ADN para pasarla, es un trabajo bastante difcil. +Imaginate el libro ms grande del que puedas pensar, "La guerra y la paz". +Ahora multiplcalo por 100. +E imagina copiar todo eso a mano. +Y que lo haces hasta muy tarde en la noche, y eres muy, muy cuidadoso, y ests tomando caf y prestando atencin, pero de vez en cuando, cuando lo ests copiando a mano, cometes un pequeo error, un cambio de letra. Sustituyes una I por una E, o una C por una T. +Lo mismo ocurre con nuestro ADN mientras pasa a travs de generaciones. +No ocurre muy seguido. Tenemos un mecanismo de prueba de lectura includo. +Pero cuando ocurren y estos cambios se transmiten a las siguientes generaciones, se vuelven marcadores de descendencia. +Si compartes un marcador con alguien, significa que comparten un ancestro en algn punto del pasado. La persona que tuvo ese cambio en su ADN por primera vez. +Y es al ver el patrn de variacin gentica, el patrn de estos marcadores en las personas de todo el mundo, y evaluando la edad relativa cuando ocurrieron a travs de la historia, es que somos capaces de construir un rbol genealgico para todos los que estamos vivos hoy. +Estas son dos piezas de ADN que usamos ampliamente en nuestro trabajo. +ADN Mitocondrial, que traza la lnea materna de descendencia. +Obtuviste tu ADNmt de tu madre, y tu madre de su madre. Y as hasta la primera mujer. +El cromosoma Y, la pieza de ADN que hace que los hombres sean hombres, traza una lnea paterna de descendencia. +Todos en este cuarto, todos en el mundo, pertenecen a un linaje de algn punto de estos rboles. +Ahora, aun cuando estas sen versiones simplificadas de los rboles reales siguen siendo complicados, as que simplifiqumoslos. +Los damos vuelta, los combinamos para que parezcan un rbol con la raz abajo y las ramas creciendo hacia arriba. +Cul es el mensaje para llevar a casa? +Bueno, lo primero que uno nota es que los linajes ms profundos en nuestros rboles genealgicos estn fundados en frica, entre Africanos. +Eso significa que los Africanos han estado acumulando esta diversidad mutacional por ms tiempo. +Y lo que eso significa es que somos originarios de frica. Est escrito en nuestro ADN. +Cada pieza de ADN que vemos tiene ms diversidad dentro de frica que fuera de frica. +Y en algn punto del pasado, un sub-grupo de Africanos abandonaron el continente Africano para ir a poblar el resto del mundo. +Ahora, qu tan recientemente compartimos esos ancestros? +Fue hace millones de aos, como lo sospecharamos al observar esta increble variacin alrededor del mundo? +No, el ADN nos cuenta una historia que es muy clara. +Entre los ltimos 200.000 aos, todos nosotros compartimos un ancestro, una nica persona, La Eva Mitocondrial en Africa --seguramente habrn escuchado hablar de ella- Una mujer Africana que origin toda la diversidad mitocondrial que hoy existe en el mundo. +Pero lo que es ms sorprendente, es que si observan el lado del cromosoma Y, el lado masculino de la historia, el cromosoma Y, Adam, vivi hace apenas 60.000 aos. +Eso son slo unas 2.000 generaciones humanas. En el sentido evolutivo es solo un abrir y cerrar de ojos. +Eso nos indica que en ese entonces seguamos viviendo en frica. +Fue un hombre Africano quien dio origen a toda la diversidad del cromosoma Y alrededor del mundo. +Fue slo durante los ltimos 60.000 aos que hemos comenzado a generar esta increble diversidad que vemos alrededor del mundo. +Una historia increble. +Efectivamente, somos todos parte de una extendida familia Africana. +Ahora, eso parece muy reciente. Por qu no salimos antes? +Por qu el homo erectus no evolucion en una especie distinta, o mejor dicho sub-especies, razas humanas alrededor del mundo? +Por qu fue que que salimos de frica tan recientemente? +Bueno, esa es una gran pregunta. Estos Por qus?, particularmente en gentica y el estudio de la historia en general, son siempre las grandes preguntas. Aquellas que son difciles de responder. +Y entonces, cuando todo lo dems falla, hay que hablar del clima. +Qu pasaba con el clima mundial hace alrededor de 60.000 aos? +Bueno, estbamos atravesando la peor parte de la ltima era del hielo. +La ltima era del hielo comenz aproximadamente hace 120.000 aos. +Tuvo sus altibajos, pero realmente comenz a acelerar alrededor de hace 70.000 aos. +Hay mucha evidencia de los ncleos sedimentarios y los tipos de polen, istopos de oxgeno y ms. +Llegamos al ltimo mximo glacial alrededor de hace 16.000 aos, pero bsicamente, desde hace 70.000 aos en adelante, las cosas se estaban poniendo muy duras. Se estaba volviendo muy fro. El hemisferio norte tena enormes capas de hielo creciendo. +las ciudades de Nueva York, Chicago, Seattle, todas estaban bajo una capa de hielo. +La mayor parte de Bretaa, toda Escandinavia, cubiertas por capas muy gruesas de hielo. +Ahora, frica es el continente ms tropical del planeta, un 85% de su territorio est entre los trpicos de Cncer y Capricornio. Y no hay muchos glaciares ah, excepto en las altas montaas de aqu, en el Este Africano. +Entonces, qu estaba ocurriendo aqu? No estbamos cubiertos de hielo en frica. +Al contrario, frica se estaba secando en ese entonces. +Este es un mapa paleoclimtico de cmo se vea frica entre hace 60.000 y 70.000 aos, reconstruido de todas estas piezas de evidencia que mencion antes. +La razn de esto es que el hielo succiona la humedad de la atmsfera. +Si piensan en la Antrtica, es tcnicamente un desierto, tiene muy poca precipitacin +As que el mundo entero se estaba secando. +Los niveles del mar estaban bajando. Y frica se estaba convirtiendo en un desierto. +El Sahara era mucho ms grande de lo que es ahora. +Y el hbitat humano estaba reducido a slo unas pequeas regiones comparado con lo que tenemos hoy. +La evidencia de los datos genticos es que la poblacin humana en ese tiempo, hace ms o menos 70.000 aos, lleg a menos de 2.000 individuos. +Casi nos extinguimos. Pendamos de un hilo. +Y entonces algo ocurri. Una gran enseanza de esto. +Miren algunas herramientas de piedra. +Las de la izquierda son de frica, de hace alrededor un milln de aos. +Las de la derecha fueron hechas por los Neandertals, nuestros primos lejanos, no nuestros ancestros directos, viviendo en Europa. y datan de hace unos 50.000 o 60.000 aos. +Ahora, a riesgo de ofender a algn paleoantroplogo o antroplogo fsico de la audiencia, bsicamente no hay mucho cambios entre estos dos grupos de herramientas de piedra. +Las de la izquierda son bastante similares a las de la derecha. +Estamos en un perodo de una larga parlisis cultural que va desde hace un milln de aos hasta hace unos 60.000 a 70.000 aos. +Los estilos de herramientas no cambian tanto. +La evidencia es que el estilo de vida humano no cambi mucho durante ese perodo. +Pero luego, hace 50, 60, 70 mil aos, en algn lugar de aquella regin, Todo se convulsion: Aparece el arte. +Las herramientas de piedra se empiezan a tallar con mas precisin. +La evidencia es que los humanos comenzaron a especializarse en la caza de presas especficas, en determinadas pocas del ao. +El tamao de la poblacin comenz a expandirse. +Probablemente, de acuerdo con lo que muchos lingistas creen, alrededor de ese tiempo aparecen los lenguajes modernos completos, lenguajes sintticos sujeto, verbo, objeto, que usamos para expresar ideas complejas, tal como lo hago ahora. +Nos volvimos mucho ms sociales. Las redes sociales se expandieron. +Estos cambios en el comportamiento nos permiti sobrevivir a aquellas difciles condiciones en frica, y nos permitieron empezar a expandirnos alrededor del mundo. +Hemos estado hablando en esta conferencia sobre historias Africanas de xito. +Bueno, quieren la mayor historia Africana xitosa? +Veansen al espejo. Ustedes lo son. La razn por la que estn vivos hoy en da es por aquellos cambios en nuestros cerebros que ocurrieron en frica, probablemente en la regin donde estamos sentados ahora mismo, alrededor de hace 60.000, 70.000 aos, permitindonos, no slo sobrevivir en frica, sino expandirnos fuera de frica. +Una temprana migracin a lo largo de la costa sur de Asia, abandonando frica alrededor de hace 60.000 aos, llegando a Australia rpidamente hace 50.000 aos. +Poco despus una migracin hacia Medio Oriente. +Estos habran sido cazadores de la savana. +As que aquellos de ustedes que irn a uno de los recorridos despus de la conferencia, podrn ver cmo es una savana de verdad. +Y es bsicamente un aprovisionador de carnes. +Las personas que se habran especializado en matar animales, cazandolos en esas savanas-aprovisionadoras-de-carne, movindose al norte, siguiendo las praderas hacia el Medio Oriente hace alrededor de 45.000 aos, durante una de las extraas fases hmedas en el Sahara. +Migrando hacia el oriente, siguiendo las praderas, porque a eso se adaptaron a vivir. +Y cuando llegaron al Asia Central, llegaron a lo que era una sper carretera en la estepa. Una super carretera de praderas. +Las praderas en ese tiempo, durante la ltima era glacial, iba bsicamente desde Alemania hasta Korea, y el continente entero estaba disponible para ellos, +entraron a Europa alrededor de hace 35.000 aos. y finalmente, un pequeo grupo migr al norte a travs del peor clima imaginable, Siberia, dentro del Crculo rtico, durante la ltima era de hielo, la temperatura estaba a -56C, -62C, incluso quizs 73C bajo cero, migraron hacia las amricas, llegando finalmente a la ltima frontera. +Una historia increble, y ocurri primero en frica. +Los cambios que nos permitieron hacer eso, la evolucin de este cerebro altamente adaptable que todos llevamos con nosotros, permitindonos crear originales culturas. Permitindonos desarrollar la diversidad que vemos en un viaje alrededor del mundo como el que he estado haciendo. +Ahora, la historia que les acabo de contar es literalmente un recorrido alrededor del mundo de cmo poblamos el planeta, la gran travesa paleoltica de nuestra especie. +Y esa es la historia que relat hace un par de aos en mi libro, "El Viaje del Hombre", y en un filme que hicimos con el mismo ttulo. +Y mientras estbamos terminando ese filme -co-producido por National Geographic- Comenc a hablarle a la gente de NG sobre este trabajo. +Y se entusiasmaron mucho. Les gust el filme, y dijeron, "Sabes que vemos esto como si fuera la siguiente ola en el estudio del origen humano, de donde todos venimos. Usando las herramientas del ADN para cartografiar las migraciones alrededor del mundo. +El estudio de los orgenes humanos est en nuestro ADN. y queremos llevarlo al siguiente nivel. +Qu quieres hacer a continuacin?" +La cual es la gran pregunta que el National Geographic te puede hacer +Y les dije, bueno, saben, lo que he bocetado aqu es slo eso. +Es un simple boceto de cmo migramos alrededor del planeta. +Y est basado en unas cuantas miles de personas a las que muestreamos, un puado de poblaciones alrededor del mundo, +estudiamos unos cuantos marcadores genticos, y hay muchos vacios en este mapa. +Apenas hemos conectado los puntos. Lo que necesitamos hacer es incrementar el tamao de la muestra al menos en un orden de magnitud o ms. Cientos de miles de muestras de ADN de personas de todo el mundo. +Y ese fue el origen del proyecto Genogrfico. +El proyecto se lanz en Abril de 2005. +Tiene tres componentes principales. Obviamente la ciencia es una parte importante. +El estudio de campo que hemos hecho alrededor del mundo con personas autctonas. +Personas que han vivido en el mismo lugar por un largo perodo de tiempo. Mantienen una conexin con el lugar donde viven que gran parte del resto de nosotros hemos perdido. +Si mis ancestros vienen de todo el Norte de Europa. +Y yo vivo en la costa Este de Norte Amrica cuando no estoy viajando. +De dnde soy autctono? En realidad de ninguna parte. Mis genes estn todos revueltos +Pero hay personas que mantienen ese enlace con sus ancestros que nos permite contextualizar los resultados de ADN. +Ese es el foco del estudio de campo, de los centros que hemos establecido alrededor del mundo. 10 de ellos, con los mejores genetistas de poblaciones. +Pero adems, queremos abrir este estudio a cualquier persona alrededor del mundo. +Con que frecuencia llegas a participar en un gran proyecto cientfico? +El proyecto del Genoma Humano, o la misin Mars Rover. +En este caso, la realidad es que puedes hacerlo. +Puedes ir a nuestro sitio Web, Nationalgeographic.com/genographic/lan/es +Ordenar un equipo y testear tu propio ADN. +Y pueden enviar esos resultados a la base de datos, y contarnos un poco sobre tu pasado genealgico, teniendo los datos analizados como parte del esfuerzo cientfico. +Ahora, esta es una empresa totalmente sin fines de lucro, as que el dinero que recaudamos, despus de cubrir los costos de hacer las pruebas y los componentes del equipo, se reinvierte en el proyecto. +La mayor parte va a algo que llamamos "Legacy Fund", el Fondo del Legado. +Es una entidad caritativa, bsicamente una entidad aportadora de becas que les da dinero a los grupos indgenas alrededor del mundo para proyectos educativos y culturales propuestos por ellos. +Ellos aplican a este fondo para hacer varios proyectos, y les mostrar un par de ejemplos. +Cmo nos est yendo en el proyecto? Hemos obtenido alrededor de 25,000 muestras recolectadas de gente autctono de alrededor del mundo. +Lo ms sorprendente ha sido el inters por parte del pblico. 210.000 personas han comprado estos equipos desde que lanzamos el sitio hace dos aos, hemos recaudado 5 millones de dlares, la mayor parte de estos, al menos la mitad, va al "Legacy Fund". +Hemos entregado las primeras becas de Legado de unos 500.000 dlares. +Proyectos alrededor del mundo, documentando poesa oral en Sierra Leona, preservando los patrones de tejido tradicional en Gaza, revitalizacin del lenguaje en Tajikistn, etc, etc. +As que el proyecto va muy, muy bien, Y les pido que visiten el sitio web y vean este espacio. +Muchas gracias. +Empecemos viendo unas magnficas fotografas. +Esta foto es un smbolo de National Geographic, una refugiada Afgana, tomada por Steve McCurry. +Pero el revista Harvard Lampoon est a punto de publicar una parodia de National Geographic, y yo me estremezco al pensar qu le van a hacer a esta fotografa. +Oh, la ira de Photoshop. +Este es un reactor aterrizando en San Francisco, por Bruce Dale. +Coloc una cmara en la cola. +Una imagen potica para una historia sobre Tolstoi, por Sam Abell. +Pigmeos en la DRC, por Randy Olson. +Me encanta esta fotografa porque me recuerda a las esculturas de bronce de Degas de la pequea bailarina +Un oso polar nadando en el rtico, por Paul Nicklin. +Los osos polares necesitan hielo para poder moverse-- no son buenos nadadores. Y sabemos lo que est pasando con el hielo. +Estos son camellos caminando a travs del Gran Valle del Rift en frica, fotografiados por Chris Johns. +Con un toma desde arriba, as que lo que ven son las sombras de los camellos. +Este es un ranchero en Texas, por William Albert Allard, un gran retratista. +Y Jane Goodall, creando su propia conexin especial fotografiada por Nick Nichols. +Esta es una fiesta de espuma en una discoteca en Espaa, fotografiada por David Alan Harvey. +Y David dijo que haba muchas cosas raras que ocurran en la pista de baile. +Pero bueno, al menos es higinico. +Estos son leones marinos en Australia haciendo su propio baile, por David Doubilet. +Y este es un cometa, tomado por el Dr. Euan Mason +Y finalmente, la proa del Titanic, sin actores de cine, fotografiada por Emory Kristof. +La fotografa posee una fuerza que permanece bajo el implacable torbellino del actual mundo saturado de medios, porque las fotografas imitan la forma en la cual nuestra mente congela un momento significativo. +Les doy un ejemplo. +Hace cuatro aos estaba en la playa con mi hijo, y l estaba aprendiendo a nadar en un oleaje relativamente suave de las playas de Delaware. +Pero me di la vuelta un segundo y se lo llev la corriente y empez a arrastrarlo hacia el malecn. +Estando aqu ahora puedo verlo, mientras me lanzo al agua detrs de l, siento que voy en cmara lenta y el momento se congela. +Puedo ver que las rocas estn aqu. +Hay una ola a punto de reventarle encima. +Puedo ver sus manos estirndose hacia mi, y puedo ver su cara de terror, mirndome y diciendo, "Aydame pap." +Lo agarr y la ola nos revent encima. +Regresamos a la orilla, l estaba bien. +Estbamos un poco alterados. +Pero este "destello de memoria" como se le conoce, se da cuando todos los elementos se juntan para definir no slo el evento, sino mi conexin emocional con l. +Y esto es lo que una fotografa consigue cuando logra su propia impactante conexin con el que la ve. +Ahora les debo decir, La semana pasada le estaba contando a Kyle, que iba a contar esta historia. +Y l me dijo, "Ah s, yo tambin la recuerdo! +Recuerdo la imagen que tengo de ti en la orilla gritndome." +Y yo pens que era un hroe. +As que... esto representa--esta es una muestra variada de algunas imgenes sorprendentes tomadas por algunos de los mejores foto periodistas del mundo haciendo un trabajo excelente. Excepto una. +Esta fotografa fue tomada por el Dr. Euan Mason en Nueva Zelanda el ao pasado, y fue presentada y publicada en National Geographic. +El ao pasado aadimos una seccin a nuestra pgina web llamada "Tu foto", donde cualquier persona puede enviar fotografas que pueden ser publicadas. +Y ha sido todo un xito inesperado, vincularse a la entusiasta comunidad fotogrfica. +La calidad de estos fotgrafos aficionados a veces puede ser impresionante. +Y ver esto refuerza mi opinin de que cada uno de nosotos puede tomar al menos una o dos magnficas fotos. +Pero para ser un gran fotoperiodista, necesitas tener ms que una o dos magnficas fotos. +Debes ser capaz de tomarlas todo el tiempo. +Pero incluso lo ms importante, que necesitas saber es cmo crear una narracin visual. +Necesitas saber cmo contar una historia. +As que voy a compartir con ustedes algunos reportajes que en mi opinin demuestran el poder de la fotografa para contar historias. +El fotgrafo Nick Nichols fue a documentar una pequea y prcticamente desconocida reserva natural salvaje situada en el Chad, llamada Zakuoma. +El propsito inicial era viajar all y volver con la tpica historia sobre distintas especies, en un escenario extico. +Y eso es lo que Nick hizo hasta cierto punto. +Este es un felino serval. +En realidad se est tomando la foto l mismo, por medio de una trampa con cmara. +Hay un rayo infrarrojo que atraviesa, y l pis el rayo y la cmara dispar. +Estos son mandriles en un abrevadero. +Nick--la cmara, de nuevo, una cmara automtica-- tom miles de fotos de esto. +Y Nick termin con un montn de fotografas de traseros de los mandriles. +Un len comiendo un bocado por la noche-- observen que tiene un diente roto. +Y un cocodrilo camina por la orilla de un ro hacia su guarida. +Me encanta este chorrito de agua que gotea desde la punta de su cola. +Pero la especie ms importante de Zakouma son los elefantes. +Esta es una de las manadas intactas ms grandes en esta parte de frica. +Esta es una fotografa sacada a la luz de la luna, algo que la fotografa digital ha revolucionado. +Los elefantes fueron los que le dieron un giro a esta historia. +Nick, junto con el investigador, el Dr. Michael Fay, captaron a la matriarca de la manada. +La llamaron Annie y empezaron a seguir sus pasos. +La manada estaba segura dentro de los lmites del parque gracias a este grupo de dedicados guardas del parque. +Pero una vez que la temporada de lluvias lleg, la manada empezara a migrar hacia zonas fuera del parque para alimentarse. +Y entoces se metieron en problemas. +Porque fuera de la seguridad del parque estaban los cazadores furtivos quienes los cazaran slo por el valor del marfil de sus colmillos. +La matriarca que ellos estaban siguiendo por radio, despus de semanas de moverse adentro y fuera del parque, lleg a un alto fuera del parque. +Mataron a Annie, junto a otros 20 miembros de su manada. +Y los cazadores slo vinieron por el marfil. +Este es uno de los guardas del parque. +Ellos pudieron alcanzar a uno de los cazadores furtivos y recuperar este marfil. No podian dejarlo all, porque todava es valioso. +Pero lo que hizo Nick fue traer una historia que trascendi el mtodo de la vieja escuela de simplemente, "No es este un mundo maravilloso?" +Y en vez de eso cre una historia que lleg al corazn de nuestro pblico. +En lugar de mostrar solamente cmo era el parque, l cre con sus fotos comprensin y empata por los elefantes, los guardas y los demas temas que giran alrededor de los conflictos entre los humanos y la vida salvaje. +Ahora vmonos a la India. +A veces puedes contar una historia de amplio alcance en una forma concreta. +Estbamos investigando el mismo problema que Richard Wurman trata en su Nuevo Proyecto de la Poblacin del Mundo. +Por primera vez en la historia, ms personas viven en reas urbanas que en rurales. +Y la mayor parte de ese crecimiento no es en las ciudades, sino en las chabolas que las rodean. +Jonas Bendiksen, un fotgrafo muy decidido, vino y me dijo, "Necesitamos documentar esto, y aqu est mi propuesta: +Viajemos alrededor del mundo y fotografiemos cada zona de chabolas." +Y yo dije, "Bueno,ya sabes, que eso puede ser un poco ambicioso para nuestro presupuesto." +Lo que Jonas hizo no fue solamente ir y dar una mirada superficial a las horribles condiciones que existen en tales lugares. +l de dio cuenta de que esta esta era una parte viva y fundamental, de cmo funcionaba toda el rea urbana. +Al quedarse concentrado en un slo lugar, Jonas logr adentrarse en el alma y el infatigable nimo que sustenta esta comunidad. +Y lo hizo en una forma bellsima. +A veces, sin embargo, la nica forma de contar una historia es con una imagen arrasadora. +Nos asociamos con el fotgrafo subacutico Brian Skerry y con el fotoperiodista Randy Olson para documentar el agotamiento de la industria pesquera. +Nosotros no fuimos los nicos en abordar este tema, pero las fotografas que Brian y Randy tomaron estn entre las mejores que capturaron la devastacin tanto humana como natural por pescar en exceso. +Aqu, en una foto de Brian, un tiburn que parece crucificado est atrapado en una red a la altura de Baja. +He visto fotografas ms o menos buenas de pesca accidental, animales capturados accidentalmente mientras se quiere pescar otra especie. +Pero aqu, Brian capt una vista nica al colocarse debajo del barco cuando lanzaban los desperdicios por la borda. +Y entonces Brian tom un riesgo mayor al conseguir esta fotografa nunca antes tomada de una red de arrastre araando el fondo del ocano. +De vuelta a tierra firme, Randy Olson fotografi un improvisado mercado de pescado en frica, donde los restos del pescado fileteado eran vendidos a los lugareos, los mejores pedazos ya haban sido enviados a Europa. +Y aqu en China, Randy fotografi un mercado de medusas. +Al agotar las fuentes principales de alimento, la pesca se adentra en las profundidades de los ocanos y recolecta ms de otras fuentes de protena. +A esto se le llama pescar especies ms pequeas y menos comerciales de la cadena alimenticia. +Pero tambin hay destellos de esperanza, y yo pienso que siempre que hacemos una gran, gran historia en este tema, no queremos realmente ir y ver slo todos los problemas. +Tambin queremos buscar soluciones. +Brian fotografi una reserva marina en Nueva Zelanda donde la pesca comercial haba sido prohibida, el resultado fue que se restituyeron las especies que se pescaban en exceso y junto a ellas una posible solucin para la pesca sostenible. +La fotografa tambin puede obligarnos a enfrentar temas que son potencialmente angustiantes y controversiales +James Nachtwey, quien fue homenajeado en el TED del ao pasado, revis el recorrido del sistema mdico que se utiliza para atender a los Norteamericanos heridos que vienen de Irak. +Es como un tubo donde un soldado herido entra de un lado y sale del otro lado, de vuelta en su casa. +Jim comez en el campo de batalla. +Aqu, un tcnico en emergencia mdica atiende a un soldado herido en el viaje de vuelta en helicptero al hospital de campaa. +Aqu est en el hospital de campaa. +El soldado a la derecha tiene el nombre de su hija tatuado en su pecho como un recordatorio de su hogar. +Desde aqu, se transporta a los heridos ms graves de regreso a Alemania, donde se encuentran con sus familias por primera vez. +Y luego regresan a los Estados Unidos para recuperarse en los hospitales de veteranos como aqu en Walter Reed. +Y finalmente, frecuentemente equipados con prtesis de alta tecnologa, salen del sistema mdico e intentan recuperar las vidas que tenan antes de la guerra. +Jim tom lo que pudo haber sido una historia cientfico-mdica y le dio una dimensin humana que conect profundamente con nuestros lectores. +Ahora, estas historias son excelentes ejemplos de cmo la fotografa se puede usar para dirigir la atencin hacia algunos de nuestros temas ms importantes. +Pero tambin hay veces en que los fotgrafos simplemente se encuentran con cosas que son, cuando las vemos bien, pura diversin. +El fotgrafo Paul Nicklin viaj a la Antrtida para fotografiar un reportaje sobre leopardos marinos. +Pocas veces han sido fotografiados, en parte porque se considera que son uno de los predadores ms peligrosos del ocano. +De hecho, hace un ao, a un investigador un animal lo agarr, lo llev al fondo y lo mat. +As que pueden imaginarse lo inquieto que Paul se senta de meterse al agua. +Ahora, los leopardos marinos se dedican a comer pinginos. +Ustedes conocen "La Marcha de los Pinginos"; +esto es ms del tipo el mordisco de los pinginos. +Aqu un pingino llega a la orilla y mira que no haya peligro en la costa. +Y luego todos salen ms o menos corriendo. +Pero luego Paul se meti al agua. +l dijo que realmente nunca tuvo miedo de esto. +Bueno, esta hembra se acerc a l. +Ella probablemente -- es una pena que no lo puedan ver en la fotografa -- pero meda 12 pies de largo. +As que su tamao es significativamente grande. +Y Paul dijo que realmente nunca tuvo miedo, porque la hembra senta ms curiosidad que miedo. +Ese movimiento de la boca a la derecha fue realmente su forma de decirle, "Oye, mira qu grande soy!" +O, "Uy, qu dientes tan grandes tienes." +Despus Paul pens que simplemente sinti lstima por l. +Para ella, aqu estaba en el agua esta criatura grande y tontorrona que por alguna razn no estaba interesada en perseguir pinginos. +De modo que ella empez a llevarle los pinginos, vivos, y se los pona enfrente. +Ella los soltaba y los pinginos se iban nadando. +Ella lo miraba como diciendo "Qu ests haciendo?" +Regresa y agrralos, y trelos de vuelta y djalos frente a l. +Y ella hizo esto durante los siguientes dos das al punto en que ella se frustr tanto con l, que empez a colocarlos directamente sobre su cabeza. +Lo que result en una fotografa fantstica. +Aunque, finalmente, Paul cree que ella se dio cuenta de que l nunca podra sobrevivir. +Este es algo as como su bufido, resoplando como disgustada. +Y perdi inters en l, y volvi a lo que ella hace mejor. +Paul sali a fotografiar una criatura relativamente misteriosa y desconocida, y regres no solamente con una coleccin de fotografas, sino con una experiencia increble y una magnfica historia. +Es este tipo de historias, las que van ms all de lo inmediato o lo superficial, son las que demuestran el poder del fotoperiodismo. +Yo creo que la fotografa puede crear una verdadera conexin con las personas, y puede utilizarse como un elemento positivo para entender los retos y oportunidades que nuestro mundo enfrenta actualmente. +Gracias. +Me gustara dedicar la siguiente cancin a Carmelo. al que sacrificaron hace un par de das porque se hizo demasiado viejo. +Pero aparentemente era un perro muy simptico y siempre permita que el gato durmiera en la cama del perro. +Gracias. +Como fsica de partculas, estudio las partculas elementales y cmo interactan stas a nivel fundamental. +Durante la mayor parte de mi carrera como investigadora, he utilizado aceleradores como el acelerador de electrones de la Universidad de Stanford, aqu al lado, para estudiar las cosas a pequesima escala. +Pero, recientemente, he vuelto mi atencin hacia el universo a gran escala. +Debido a que, como os voy a explicar, las cuestiones a pequea y a gran escala estn en realidad muy conectadas. +As que os voy a hablar sobre nuestra visin actual del universo, de qu est hecho y cuales son las grandes preguntas de la fsica, o por lo menos, algunas de las grandes preguntas. +As pues recientemente nos hemos dado cuenta de que la materia ordinaria del universo, y por materia ordinaria me refiero a ti, vale?, a m, a los planetas, las estrellas, las galaxias... la materia ordinaria representa slo un pequeo porcentaje del contenido del universo. +Casi un cuarto, o aproximadamente un cuarto de la materia del universo, es materia invisible. +Con invisible quiero decir que no absorbe radiacin en el espectro electromagntico. +No emite en el espectro electromagntico. No refleja. +No interacta con el espectro electromagntico, que es lo que usamos para detectar cosas. +No interacta en absoluto, cmo sabemos entonces que est ah? +Sabemos que est ah debido a sus efectos gravitatorios. +De hecho, esta materia oscura domina los efectos gravitacionales en el universo a gran escala, y os voy a hablar sobre las pruebas que hay de ello. +Y el resto del pastel? +El resto es algo muy misterioso llamado energa oscura. +Luego hablamos ms de ella. +De momento, veamos las pruebas de la materia oscura. +En estas galaxias, especialmente en una galaxia espiral como esta casi toda la masa estelar se concentra en el centro de la galaxia. +Esta enorme masa de estrellas mantiene a las estrellas de la galaxia en orbitas circulares. +Por tanto tenemos estrellas dando vueltas en crculos as. +Como podis imaginar, incluso sin saber fsica -esto parece intuitivo- las estrellas ms cercanas a la masa central rotarn ms rpido que aquellas que se encuentran ms lejos. +As que los que uno esperara es que si mides la velocidad orbital de las estrellas, sta debera ser menor en los bordes que en el interior. +En otras palabras, si medimos la velocidad como una funcin de la distancia - esta es la nica grfica que voy a mostrar, OK? - esperaramos que decreciera segn aumenta la distancia desde el centro de la galaxia. +Pero al hacer estas mediciones, lo que encontramos es que la velocidad es bsicamente constante en funcin de la distancia. +Si es constante, eso significa que las estrellas de aqu afuera estn notando el efecto gravitatorio de materia que nosotros no vemos. +De hecho, esta y cualquier otra galaxia parece estar inmersa en una nube de materia oscura invisible. +Y esta nube de materia es mucho mas esfrica que la propia galaxia y se extiende hasta mucho ms lejos que la galaxia. +As que vemos la galaxia y nos fijamos en ella, pero en realidad es la nube de materia oscura la que domina la estructura y la dinmica de esta galaxia. +Las propias galaxias no estn repartidas aleatoriamente por el espacio, sino que tienden a acumularse. +Y este es el ejemplo de un cmulo muy conocido: El cmulo de Coma. +Y en este cmulo hay miles de galaxias. +Son estas cosas blancas, borrosas y elpticas. +Estos cmulos galcticos parecern idnticos si comparamos una foto de ahora con una de hace diez aos. +Pero en realidad esas galaxias se estn moviendo extremadamente rpido. +Se estn moviendo alrededor de este pozo gravitatorio del cmulo. +As que todas estas galaxias se mueven. +Podemos medir el movimiento de estas galaxias, sus velocidades orbitales y deducir cunta masa tiene el cmulo. +Y de nuevo, lo que encontramos es que hay mucha ms masa de la que pueden sumar todas las galaxias que vemos. +O si miramos en otras partes del espectro electromagntico, vemos que tambin hay mucho gas en este cmulo. +Pero tampoco es suficiente para justificar tanta masa. +De hecho parece haber aqu unas diez veces ms masa en forma de materia invisible, u oscura, de la que hay de materia ordinaria. +Sera bueno que pudiramos ver esta materia oscura ms directamente. +Coloco este gran crculo azul aqu, para recordaros de que est ah. +Podemos verlo de manera ms visual? S, podemos. +As que dejadme mostraros como podemos hacerlo. +Aqu hay un observador: puede ser un ojo, puede ser un telescopio. +Y supongamos que hay una galaxia por ah en el universo. +Cmo vemos esa galaxia? +Un rayo de luz parte de la galaxia y viaja por el universo quiz durante miles de millones de aos hasta que llega al telescopio o a tu ojo. +Pero, cmo deducimos donde se encuentra la galaxia? +Bien, lo deducimos por la direccin que lleva el rayo al entrar en nuestro ojo, no?. +Decimos: el rayo de luz vino de esta direccin as que la galaxia debe estar ah. +Ahora, supn que coloco en el medio un cmulo de galaxias - y no os olvidis de la materia oscura, eh? - +Si consideramos ahora otro rayo de luz distinto, uno que vaya por aqu, necesitamos entonces tomar en cuenta lo que predijo Einstein cuando desarrollo la relatividad general. +que fue que el campo gravitatorio, debido a la masa, desviar no slo la trayectoria de las partculas, sino tambin desviara a la propia luz. +As que este rayo de luz no continua en lnea recta sino que se dobla y puede acabar dirigindose a nuestro ojo. +Dnde ver este observador la galaxia? +Podis responder. Arriba, eso es. +Extrapolamos hacia atrs y decimos que la galaxia esta aqu arriba. +Hay algn otro rayo de luz que desde esta galaxia pueda llegar hasta el ojo del observador? +S, genial. Veo gente que dice que por abajo. +As que un rayo de luz podra ir hacia abajo, doblarse hacia arriba hasta el ojo del observador y el observador ve un rayo de luz aqu. +Ahora tengamos en cuenta que vivimos en un universo tridimensional, en un espacio tridimensional +Hay ms rayos de luz que puedan acabar en el ojo? +S! Los rayos acaban repartidos en un cono, eso es. +As que hay un montn de rayos de luz -formando un cono- que se desviarn por efecto del cmulo y llegarn al ojo del observador. +Si hay un cono de luz llegando a mi ojo, qu es lo que veo? +Un crculo, un anillo. Se llama anillo de Einstein. Einstein predijo esto, bien? +Eso s, slo ser un anillo perfecto si la fuente, el objeto que causa el desvo y el ojo, en este caso, estn en perfecta lnea recta. +si estn ligeramente sesgados, veremos una imagen diferente. +Esta noche podis hacer un experimento en la recepcin para adivinar a qu se parecer esa imagen. +Porque resulta que hay un tipo de lente que podemos usar que tiene la forma apropiada para producir este efecto. +Llamamos a esto efecto de lente gravitacional. +Y este es vuestro instrumento, OK? +Pero ignorad la parte superior. +Es en la base en lo que quiero que os fijis. +As que, en casa, cuando se nos rompa una copa de vino, guardamos la base, nos vamos al taller +la pulimos y ya tenemos una lente gravitacional. +Tiene la forma correcta para producir el efecto. +Lo siguiente que necesitis para vuestro experimento es una servilleta Yo he cogido un trozo de papel cuadriculado; soy fsica. Bien, una servilleta. Dibuja una pequea galaxia en el medio. +Y ahora pon la lente sobre la galaxia, y lo que resultar es que vers un anillo, un anillo de Einstein. +Mueve la base hacia un lado y el anillo se dividir en arcos. +Puedes ponerlo sobre cualquier imagen. +Sobre la cuadrcula podis ver como todas las lneas de la cuadrcula se han distorsionado. +Y esto es, un modelo bastante preciso de lo que pasa con las lentes gravitacionales. +Bien, entonces la pregunta es: vemos esto en el cielo? +Vemos arcos en el cielo cuando miramos a, digamos un cmulo de galaxias? +Y la respuesta es: S. +Y as, esta es una imagen del telescopio espacial Hubble. +Muchas de las imgenes que hemos estado viendo antes son del telescopio espacial Hubble. +En primer lugar, las galaxias con formas doradas son las del cmulo. +Son las que estn inmersas en ese mar de materia oscura que est causando que la luz se doble y genere esas ilusiones pticas, o espejismos casi, de las galaxias del fondo. +Y las lneas que veis, todas estas lneas son en realidad imgenes distorsionadas de galaxias que se encuentran mucho ms lejos. +As que lo que podemos hacer es, basndonos en cuanta distorsin vemos en esas imgenes, calcular cuanta masa debe haber en ese cmulo. +Y es una cantidad de masa enorme. +Y adems, se puede ver a ojo mirando aqu que estos arcos no estn centrados en galaxias individuales +estn centrados sobre alguna estructura ms extensa. Que es la materia oscura en la que se encuentra el cmulo. +As que esto es lo ms parecido que hay a ver al menos los efectos de la materia oscura con nuestros ojos. +Bien, un pequeo repaso para asegurarme de que me segus. +La prueba entonces de que un cuarto del universo es materia oscura -esa cosa que atrae gravitacionalmente- es que en las galaxias, la velocidad con la que orbitan las estrellas es demasiado grande; Tienen que estar inmersas en materia oscura. +La velocidad con que las galaxias orbitan en el interior de cmulos es demasiado grande; Tienen que estar inmersas en materia oscura. +Y vemos estos efectos de lente gravitacional. Estas distorsiones que nos dicen de nuevo que los cmulos estn inmersos en materia oscura. +Bien, entonces volvamos ahora sobre la energa oscura. +Para entender las evidencias sobre la energa oscura, tenemos que comentar algo a lo que ha hecho referencia Stephen Hawking en la charla anterior. +Y es el hecho de que el espacio en si mismo se est expandiendo. +Si imaginamos una seccin de nuestro universo infinito y en el que he colocado cuatro galaxias espirales, vale? E imaginad que colocis una serie de cintas de medir, de manera que cada lnea aqu se corresponde con una cinta de medir horizontal o vertical -- para medir dnde estn las cosas. +Si pudierais hacer esto, lo que encontrarais es que con cada da que pasa, cada ao que pasa, cada mil millones de aos que pasan, la distancia entre las galaxias se hace mayor. +Y no es porque las galaxias se muevan alejndose una de otra por el espacio; +no estn necesariamente movindose por el espacio. +Se estn alejando unas de otras porque el espacio en si mismo est agrandndose. ok? +Eso es lo que significa la expansin del universo, o del espacio. +Se estn alejando ms y ms. +Otra cosa que tambin mencion Stephen Hawking es que tras el Big Bang, el espacio se expandi muy rpidamente. +Pero debido a que hay materia con atraccin gravitatoria inmersa en este espacio, se tiende a frenar la expansin del espacio. +As que la expansin se frena con el tiempo. +Y as, durante el ltimo siglo, la gente ha debatido sobre si esta expansin del espacio continuar para siempre, o si se frenar, es decir, si continuar frenndose por siempre. Si se frenar y parar, si parar asintticamente, o si parar y despus en sentido contrario empezar a contraerse de nuevo. +As que, hace un poco ms de una dcada dos grupos de fsicos y astrnomos se propusieron medir la tasa a la que la expansin del universo se estaba frenando. +viendo cunto menos se expande ahora comparado con digamos, hace unos dos mil millones de aos. viendo cunto menos se expande ahora comparado con digamos, hace unos dos mil millones de aos. +La sorprendente respuesta a est pregunta, de acuerdo a estos experimentos, fue que el espacio se est expandiendo ms rpido hoy en da que hace mil millones de aos. +As que la expansin del espacio se est acelerando. +Este fue un resultado completamente inesperado.. +No hay ningn argumento terico convincente de por qu puede pasar esto. +Nadie haba predicho con anterioridad este resultado. +Fue lo contrario de lo que se esperaba. +As que necesitamos algo capaz de explicar esto. +Resulta que, en las ecuaciones matemticas, se puede aadir en forma de un trmino que representa energa. Pero es un tipo de energa totalmente distinto de cualquier cosa que hayamos visto antes. +Le llamamos energa oscura, y tiene este efecto de causar que el espacio se expanda. +Pero no tenemos una buena motivacin para ponerla ah todava. +As que est sin explicar por qu debemos aadirlo. +En este punto entonces, lo que me gustara enfatizar es que en primer lugar, la materia oscura y la energa oscura son cosas completamente diferentes. +Hay dos misterios ah afuera sobre lo que forma la mayor parte del universo y tienen dos efectos muy distintos. +La materia oscura, debido a su atraccin gravitacional, tiende a alentar el crecimiento de estructuras. +As, se tienden a formar cmulos de galaxias debido a su atraccin gravitatoria. +La energa oscura, por otra parte, est aadiendo ms y ms espacio entre galaxias. Hace que decrezca -la atraccin gravitatoria entre ellas- y por tanto impide la formacin de estructuras. +As que mirando a objetos como los cmulos de galaxias, y a su densidad, a cuantos hay como funcin del tiempo, podemos aprender sobre cmo la materia oscura y la energa oscura compiten entre si en la formacin de estructuras. +En trminos de materia oscura, dije que no tenemos argumentos convincentes para justificar la energa oscura. +Los tenemos para la materia oscura? La respuesta es: s. +Tenemos candidatos bien justificados para la materia oscura. +Qu quiero decir por bien justificados? +Quiero decir que hay teoras consistentes matemticamente que se presentaron en realidad para explicar fenmenos completamente distintos, cosas de las que ni siquiera he hablado, y que predecan cada una de ellas la existencia de una nueva partcula de interaccin dbil. +Y eso es exactamente lo que quieres en fsica: una prediccin que aparece en una teora matemticamente consistente que fue desarrollada para alguna otra cosa. +Pero no sabemos si alguno de estos son de verdad el candidato a ser materia oscura. +Uno o ambos, quin sabe? o podra ser algo totalmente distinto. +Buscamos estas partculas de materia oscura porque despus de todo, estn aqu, en esta habitacin y no llegaron entrando por la puerta. +Simplemente pasan a travs de todo. +Pueden atravesar el edificio, la tierra interactan muy poco. +As que una manera de buscarlas es construir detectores que sean extremadamente sensibles a una partcula de materia oscura y la golpeen +de manera que un cristal vibre si eso pasa. +Uno de mis colegas de aqu al lado y sus colaboradores han construido un detector as. +Y lo han colocado en las profundidades de una mina de hierro en Minnesota, enterrado profundamente en el suelo. Y de hecho, en el ltimo par de das han anunciado los resultados de mayor sensibilidad hasta la fecha. +No han detectado nada, bien, pero eso pone lmites a la masa y a la fuerza de interaccin que tiene la materia oscura. +Se va a lanzar un satlite telescopio a finales de ao que va a apuntar al centro de la galaxia para ver si podemos observar partculas de materia oscura aniquilndose y produciendo rayos gamma que puedan detectarse con l. +El gran colisionador de hadrones, un acelerador de fsica de partculas que se va a poner en marcha este ao. +Es posible que se puedan producir partculas de materia oscura en el gran colisionador de hadrones. +Como interactan tan poco en realidad escaparn del detector, as que su rastro ser una falta de energa. +Desgraciadamente hay un montn de fsica nueva cuyo rastro podra ser una prdida de energa as que ser difcil diferenciarlas. +Y por ltimo, para proyectos futuros, se estn diseando telescopios para responder especficamente las cuestiones sobre materia y energa oscuras, telescopios terrestres. Y hay tres telescopios espaciales compitiendo ahora mismo por ser lanzados para investigar la materia oscura y la energa oscura. +As que en trminos de grandes preguntas: Qu es la materia oscura? Qu es la energa oscura? +Grandes preguntas a las que se enfrenta la fsica. +Estoy segura de que tendris muchas preguntas. Que espero poder responder durante las prximas 72 horas en que estar por aqu. Gracias. +Mi tema favorito son los atajos. +La experta en atajos es, por supuesto, la naturaleza. +Y demostrar distintas formas de eliminar las dificultades y llegar al objetivo para encontrar una respuesta probablemente mucho ms rpido que Arthur, as que Primero primero rompemos el sentido comn, la lgica. Todos ustedes, si ponen su mano de esta forma, 90 grados, todos ustedes. T no +Todos ustedes de acuerdo? Palmas arriba. +Si hacen esto lo comn, lo que la lgica dice es que debemos girar la mueca. +Estn de acuerdo? +Bien. +Pero primero les ensear un un mtodo: cmo hacerlo sin mover la mueca, y despus el atajo. +Lo pueden hacer de inmediato de acuerdo? +Pongan su mano de esta forma, la palma hacia arriba. +No muevan la mueca. La mueca es no hablo muy bien, pero hago lo que puedo, como puedo. +Se dice soldado con? +Eso de hecho fue una broma Yo Ok. +Pongan la mano con la palma hacia arriba. Hagan esto, no muevan la mueca. +Sobre el corazn, no muevan la mueca. +Hacia delante, no muevan la mueca. +Arriba, no muevan la mueca. Sobre el corazn, no muevan la mueca. +Y adelante. S. +Ahora lgica, lgicamente lgicamente, se llega de esta posicin a esta sin mover la mueca. +Ahora, el atajo. +Fueron seis movimientos, ahora slo con uno. +Empezamos aqu, la palma hacia abajo, puedes seguirme. +Mrenme. +S! Un movimiento, OK. +Bueno esto fue el calentamiento. +Ahora Necesito un asistente. +Habl con una chica linda antes, Zoe +Ya se fue no! Un fuerte aplauso. +Bien. Te puedes sentar por aqu. +Un tema aqu fue el agua cierto? +Y le dar mi tributo al agua. +Creo que tengo suficiente del agua, que otros hablen del tema, salud. +Salud! La cerveza tiene alrededor de hay mucha agua en la cerveza. +Bueno, ahora, voy a demostrar las distintas formas de memorizar, controlar naipes y dems. +Y creo me voy a quitar este. +Trabajo con un mtodo especial para hacerlo, rpido. +Trabajo con precisin --oh, perdn-- control, y y un sistema muy poderoso... +...de memoria, correcto? +Bueno si He estudiado el pquer, me gusta apostar. +Oficialmente no apuesto, pero +Entonces, si somos. si somos cinco personas, hago un juego de pquer de cinco manos. +Voy a interactuar. Entonces una persona diferente todo el tiempo. No puede contestar la misma persona. +Entonces tenemos un acuerdo. +Quin tiene una buena mano de pquer? +Cul nmero? Uno, dos, tres, cuatro o cinco (Audiencia: Tres.) Lennart Green: Tres, bien. +Y aqu Tengo un tapete aqu para hacerlo un poco el momento crtico es lo siento. +Si un estafador junta las cartas, inmediatamente cuando antes de barajar las cartas. Ahora entonces pienso, el nmero tres, Los he arreglado en full house +Con reinas y todo bien. Reinas y dieces. +Eso es un reto, me gusta. +Me explicar despus. Uno, dos tres, cuatro, cinco. +Empiezo con tres reinas. +Ya ven aqu el contraste cuando juego con las cartas. +Y dos dieses. +S, gracias. +Pero tambin la otra mano es buena si todos los otros tienen a su vez buenas manos. +De hecho estos tipos tienen una mano ms fuerte: tres ases y dos reyes. +Este tipo le gana a ellos con dos cuatro de un tipo un par, un par. +No hay reaccin? Eso es con. Bien y esto. +Esto se ve en orden, probablemente yo espero s. Tres, cuatro, cinco, seis, siete y +Por supuesto, yo tengo la mano ganadora. +10, jota reina, rey y as. +Sas bien. +Entonces la mano que se ve tan en el principio, la nmero tres, al final result ser la mano ms baja. +As es la vida cierto? +Por favor, revulvelos. +Ahora, si les interesa les demostrar algunas de las tcnicas subterrneas. +S? +Trabajo con un tipo de, estimacin rastreo de baraja... Oh, bien. +Eh impresionante. Gracias. +Primero el primer trmino es estimacin. +Aqu puedo estimar exactamente cuntas cartas hay entre mi flor imperial. +Por supuesto, puedo contar las cartas, pero esto es mucho ms rpido. +Correcto? Estn de acuerdo. +Entonces aqu en realidad tengo S exactamente donde estn las cartas. +Aqu puedo hacer una apuesta, y es ms, esta es una de las formas como gano mi dinero. +Aqu: 10, jota, reina, rey, as. +Ok. +A continuacin viene un trmino Lo hago rpido. A esto le llamo robar. +Aqu, piensoyo S dnde estn las cartas. +Voy a extender las cartas y dices, alto, cuando las apunto, correcto. Apuntas y dices alto. +Zoe: Alto. +LG: Aqu ves que faltan algunas? +Y as me rob las cartas, as lo hice... +Ok. +Ahora otro trmino, llamado rastreo de baraja. +Rastreo de baraja significa mantener el rastreo de las cartas. aun cuando otra persona, otra persona las baraja. +Esto es un poco riesgoso. +Porque si miran, ahora todava puedo ver. +Estn de acuerdo? Pero si las arreglas las arreglas y barajas y despus cortas. +Entonces para seguir las cartas, tengo que mirar la baraja desde el inicio, ah, empecemos juntos... est bien, est bien. +Vamos a, no, no, no, no... +Estoy bromeando eh? +Cualquier estilo, s, bien. +Aqu tengo que calcular, pero en realidad no quiero calcular. +Trabajo directamente con el lado derecho del cerebro. +Si pasas al lado izquierdo del cerebro, tienes que cuidar la lgica y el sentido comn. +Directo en el lado derecho, eso es mejor y adems Arthur Benjamin, hizohizo.un poco un poco de lo mismo. +Y si trabajas con, en la atmsfera correcta, con humor tienes esa es la contrasea al banco csmico del conocimiento donde puedes encontrar cualquier solucin para cualquier problema. +Bueno, ahora, dejo caer las cartas, y dices alto de acuerdo? +No en la ltima carta. +Zoe: Alto. LG: S. +Cuando estoy sobrio hago esto mucho ms rpido, pero ya veremos. +Oh, no en orden, eh fue un error. +No, estoy bromeando. +No de vez en cuando me equivoco para resaltar lo difcil que es. +Correcto? +S, anoche lo olvid. Eso fue un error. +Pero ahora me da gusto que me acord. +Entonces esta baraja la compr aqu -- disculpen -- +Tengo un pequeo tapete para hacerla ms lisa. +Esta baraja la compr aqu en Estados Unidos. +Se llama Bicicleta, es muy flexible, pero no mucha gente lo sabe. Si la revisan, si presionan en los lugares correctos, pueden ver lo delgada y flexible que es esta baraja de acuerdo? +La puedes traer en tu cartera, as... +No lo ven, no hay reaccin? +As que aqu y est la cmara tomando demasiado? No +S? (Audiencia: Est tomando demasiado.) LG: Perdn. Pero entonces, cuando los tengamos de vuelta, t haces esto. +Pero no demasiado +Entonces tienes que presionar en esta direccin otra vez. +Aqu, por favor. Si presionas estas las apilas, todos ven jntalos tal que en efecto estn intercaladas, correcto? S, bien. +Perfecto. +Slo jntalos, bien. Gracias. +Y entonces voy a demostrar una cosa de un satlite ruso, "robardo"... robado, probablemente copiado de los Estados Unidos pero ya veremos. +Aqu atajos. Hablo acerca de los atajos. +Ahora, voy ms rpido por toda la baraja e intento encontrar algn patrn. +La nueva teora del caos ya es vieja cierto? +Pero saben, yo creo que ustedes estn familiarizados familiarizados con los fractales: las espirales de Mandelbrot y todas esas cosas. +Y es mucho ms fcil memorizar cartas con un patrn y no concentrarse. Si uno se concentra y calcula, entonces uno va a entonces es el lado izquierdo del cerebro. Pero si slo miras y hablas en otro lenguaje +si, grandioso. +Creo que lo tengo. +Ahora, diferentes personas, alguien mayor, toca. +Por favor nombren una carta, quien sea. +(Audiencia: Jota de espadas.) LG: Jota de espadas. +Jota de espadas. +Yo creo que la jota de espadas es la nmero 12 contando desde arriba +Uno, dos, tres, cuatro, cinco, seis, siete, ocho nueve, diez, once. Doce, s, correcto. +Entonces, oh, jota de espadas +Dijiste espadas? (Audiencia: S) LG: Ah +Mi culpa. No aplaudan, este fue de trboles. +Entonces, jota de espadas +Yo creo +23 23, disculpen, 24. +Uno, dos, tres, cuatro, cinco, seis, siete, ocho, nueve 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23 -- ah, 25, s. +Es la itma. +Ahora lo voy a hacer ms rpido y mejor. +Ok. Otra persona. Oh, olvid que no deba barajarlas pero creo en realidad, mi tcnica es espiar, todo el tiempo. +Cuando levanto la pila, espo. +Ven, si? perfecto. +Tres, cuatro, cinco, seis -- entonces calculo --, si, bien. +Otra persona, otra carta. (Audiencia: siete de diamantes) LG: Siete de diamantes. Perfecto, mi favorita, si, siete +As que lo har rpido muy rpido, pero en cmara lenta para que me puedan seguir. +Siete de (Audiencia: diamantes). LG: Diamantes, bien. Diamantes, bien. Aqu empiezo... +Bien, gracias. +Lo que hice es espiar. +S donde estaba la carta, entonces la escojo. As pues otra persona, otra carta. +Otra persona. +(Audiencia: 10 de diamantes.) LG: Disculpa? +(Audiencia: 10 de diamantes.) LG: 10 de diamantes, si. +Creo que lo har de la misma forma, me gusta as que s donde est. +10 de diamantes. +Pero ahora lo hago a la velocidad normal de acuerdo? +10 de diamantes. +Bien. +Podras cortas la baraja? La levanto. +Excelente. +Gracias. Otra persona, otra carta. +(Audiencia: cinco de trboles.) LG: Disculpa? (Audiencia: Cinco de trboles.) LG: Cinco de trboles. No es la misma persona, aunque sea el mismo sitio. +Podemos tomar algunos de all ms adelante. Entonces ahora arrojar las cartas. +Y dirs alto en cualquier momento entendido? +Cinco de trboles. +No la ltima. Si, es difcil encontrar una carta aqu. +Lo haremos otra vez. +La persona que dijo cinco de trboles diga, alto, cuando las cartas estn en el aire, de acuerdo? +(Audiencia: Alto.) LG: Muy bien. +Ok. +Ok, tuve que usar un poco de fuerza aqu. +Creo que guardamos el cinco de trboles. +Y ahora una carta para contrastar el cinco de trboles. +(Audiencia: Reina de corazones.) LG: Reina de corazones, si. +Excelente, me encanta esta carta. +Aqu, har lo ms difcil. +Por ejemplo, ests sentado en Las Vegas, y ests apostando, y dejas que las otras personas vean la carta por error. Siente es slo una carta normal. +Y entonces cuando levantas la carta, debe ser tu carta qu carta era? +(Audiencia: Reina de corazones.) LG: Reina de ? Reina de corazones. +Entonces ese es un reto difcil cierto? +Entonces aqu agarro conocen esta? Cinco de trboles +y... reina de corazones S! +Esto es difcil, porque aqu debo tomar ventaja de lo intercambi con el cinco de trboles. +As que ahora, un conteo falso. +Qu carta debo usar? Reina o cinco? +Zoe: La reina. LG: La reina, bien. +Entonces uso la reina y aqu est el cinco de trboles. +El conteo falso y el nmero uno, dos, tres, cuatro, cinco, seis, siete, ocho dices la misma carta todo el tiempo. +Ocho, nueve, 10, +Este es un tipo de reparto ptico correcto? +Cuando pongo una carta en la mesa, miren, no es una carta; es miren, es un montn de cartas que dan esta impresin. +Si. +Ahora algo difcil. +Creo que guardaremos la reina aqu, s. +Ahora, a las cosas de satlites. +Esto ah, disculpa, no mires el rayo, fue mi culpa. +Este es un lser de alta frecuencia, y basta una fraccin de segundo para destruir la retina completamente. +Bien, lo siento, mi deb mencionarlo, s. +Pero qudate tranquila porque tarda media hora en surtir efecto, as que tienes tiempo suficiente para ver mi funcin completa. +Ahora Pongo el lser aqu, y ahora cuando reparto las cartas en el lser s donde estn pero s? +Lo tom la cmara? +No? +No lo tom? +Qu pas? +(Audiencia: desaparecieron). LG: OK, tomar otro grupo. +Ahora lo ven las cmaras? +No? (Audiencia: No, todas desaparecieron). LG: Pero pueden ver la mano. +Ah, bien, bien, bien; pero ahora +ahora. Esa fue la razn correcto? +Ven las cartas? S? +Yeah, bien. +Ahora un tipo se ri. Ahora a encontrar la reina hecho de esta forma, regresamos la otra, regresamos la reina. +Si, interesante... pero un poco peligroso. +Me gust. Ahora un poco ms difcil. +Nombren, quien sea, nombre, por favor cualquier flor. +(Audiencia: Espadas.) LG: Espadas? Espadas, bien. +Entonces aqu, aqu tengo que espiar, muchas cartas. +Creo que hay muchas No s cuntas pero 10, 15 espadas en la baraja, al menos no? +Entonces cada vez que levanto la pila, miro a escondidas, bien. +Entonces las arreglo tal que puedo tenerlas rpido +perfecto, excelente. +As empiezo con el as.. s, as. Ah, si... espadas? +El mismo error anterior cierto? +Entonces -- orden las espadas -- los trboles. +Trato de hacer esto justo aqu. Primero tomo las espadas +ven, no trabajo con fineza, por eso siempre cometo errores. +No me importa. +As de vez en cuando tengo puntos extras de simpata cierto? +Uno, dos, tres, cuatro s, lo tom la cmara? Cinco, seis. siete, ocho ah. Nueve, 10, jota, jota de espadas, reina de Me gusta esa risa s! Bien, reina. +Esperen, esperen, esperen por favor toma una carta. +Agarra cualquiera, rpido, rpido, bien. +Y la intercambiamos con el rey. +As de diamantes. +Y ahora miren, el as de diamantes nos guiar +para encontrar +el rey de espadas. +All estaba el lugar y aqu est el rey de espadas correcto? +S? Bien. +Ahora, un poco ms difcil. +Quiz piensan que ya tengo las cartas en orden. as que si me ayudas a barajarlas otra vez. +Otro juego, que diga, otra flor, por favor. +(Audiencia: Armani.) LG: Disculpen? (Audiencia: Armani.) LG: Esto era despus de los ojos vendados. +Me gusta este tipo, s. +Bien. Este debera ser mi efecto final, pero est bien. +Armani quin dijo Armani? t? +Dejo caer las cartas y t qu talla? +Qu talla? Es pan comido. Me gustan los retos. +Qu talla? +(Audiencia: Extra grande.) LG: Extra grande, Ok. +Digan alto. (Audiencia: Alto) LG: S, Armani. Bien. +Esto es difcil. +Ok, una flor. Ya tuve trboles antes, espadas. +Otra flor. (Audiencia: diamantes.) LG: Diamantes, perfecto. +En este caso, voy a intentar encontrar los diamantes. Miro las cartas y bien. +Lo intentamos. S, me ayudas. +Si dejo caer la carta con la cara arriba de esta forma, t la volteas. Zoe: Bien. +LG: Bien, ahora. +Con las dos manos y rpido. S, bien, bien. +Creo que lo logramos. S bien, bien. +Entonces aqu diamantes, corazones no, diamantes. Bien, bien. +Alto puedes ver el patrn? +No? Y ahora? +S, s, bien. +Trabajo con un patrn. +Oh lo siento, se me cay +quizs es importante... s... nueve de diamantes, Ok. +Entonces ahora siempre me pregunto, por qu me meto en estos problemas? +Tengo que pensar en varias soluciones cuando hago tantas demostraciones, pero... me encanta. Ahora pues lo har --intentar encontrar-- encontrar los los diamantes, pero lo har de la forma difcil. +Es demasiado fcil hacerlo de la forma directa cierto? +Creo que lo har +con los ojos tapados. +A esta distancia funciona de inmediato. +Aargh! +Cinta para caeras. +Miro -- revuelvo -- las cartas, de modo que no +Adelante. S, bien. Me gusta la empata. +Empata. +Pero fue oyeron? +Fue voz de mujer. Oigan al tipo s, ms, ms, ms. +S, bien, s. +Puedes tapar el orificio de la nariz tambin, porque algunos tipos piensan... algunos tipos piensan que puedo espiar con la nariz, as que... ms vamos. +Bien? Correcto. +Satisfechos? +Se ve bien como Batman Noo! +No, con dignidad y elegancia cierto? +Pero me gusta, s. Fui un poco... un poco duro. +Y est bien uno ms? +El ltimo +Ok. +Todo bien. +Ahora estarn de acuerdo que debo debo apoyarme en mis otros sentidos cierto? +Trabajo con la vibracin. +Entonces cul fue la carta? +Diamantes. Ah, memoric corazones. +Entonces tengo que improvisar otra vez. +Mejor me levanto; a la mitad. +Diamantes voy a empezar con el as de diamantes. +Estoy bromeando, era para calentar. Rey de corazones. +Te doy diamantes y los vas poniendo aqu en una bonita hilera, correcto y puedes ver, no? Bien. +As de diamantes s? Zoe: S +LG: Bien, bien. Dos. Gracias. +Nunca fallo dos; esto es interesante. +Siempre encuentro dos, pero del color equivocado. Espadas, disculpen. +Y la la baraja es un regalo para ti al final, y dejamos estos aqu para que los escpticos, los examinen correcto? Me recuerdas, es un regalo. +Dos y era dos de espadas correcto? +Disculpa, dos de diamantes y lo har ahora rpido. +Tres tres de diamantes s! +Cuatro me gustan los retos, s. +S bien. +Chris Anderson: Ests espiando. +LG: Perdn? +CA: Ests espiando. Slo tienes que esta es una peticin de la dama de atrs. +Bien. +Intenta esto. +Si... Tambin para or. +Bien, ahora. +Esto es quiz un poco difcil. +Lo intentaremos. +S? Bien? +Bien. Entonces, cuntas cartas? cinco? Zoe: Cuatro. +LG: Cuatro la siguiente carta es cinco? +Sui: Cinco de diamantes, s. +LG: No est aqu? Zoe: No est aqu. +LG: Oh. +Y aqu todas las cartas estn cara abajo estn de acuerdo? (Audiencia: s.) LG: S? Lo ven en la pantalla? +Y esto est cara arriba y no est al fondo aqu. +Entonces la siguiente carta ser fue cinco? +Zoe: Cinco LG: Yeah... La voy a voltear para arriba. +S? Zoe: Yeah. +Seis seis con el pulgar. +Siete. +S, hago esto, s dnde est, porque mir antes y luego hago esto. +Correcto? +Ocho. +Si y entonces nueve correcto? +S. +Ayer anteayer estaba en Las Vegas, y de hecho us esto. +Nueve? S? Correcto? +No? S! Voy otra vez. +10 Otra vez, me encanta este movimiento al estilo John Wayne. +Yeah. Jota t [poco claro] la jota? +Jota de Diamantes, correcto? (Audiencia: No.) LG: S? +Y Reina! Reina, con direccin falsa. +Direccin falsa. Yeah? +Y entonces, rey, en exactamente cinco segundos. +Yeah. Cinco, cinco segundos +Uno, dos, tres, cuatrommm! +Revsenlo. +S? +CA: Rey de diamantes. LG: Ah! +Bien. Oh. +Tcame, siente.. ah ah ya lo saben! +CA: Damas y caballeros, Lennart Green! +Los perros tienen gustos diferentes. +Les gusta olfatearse unos a otros y perseguir ardillas. +Si no convertimos eso en recompensas durante el entrenamiento, se convertirn en distracciones. +Siempre me ha parecido sorprendente que ves a un perro en el parque y su dueo lo llama y el dueo le dice: "ven, ven". el perro piensa: "Hmm, Qu har? +Estoy olfateando el trasero de este perro y mi dueo me llama. +Es una decisin difcil. No es cierto? +Trasero, dueo... Y el trasero siempre gana. +Esto quiere decir que tu pierdes. +No se puede competir contra el ambiente si tienes el cerebro de un perro adolescente. +As que en los entrenamientos buscamos pensar desde el punto de vista del perro. +Estoy aqu en principalmente porque hay diferencias en torno al entrenamiento de perros... Por un lado hay quien piensa que puede entrenarse a un perro Uno: Diseando reglas, reglas humanas. +Que no toman en cuenta el punto de vista del perro. +As que el dueo dice: "Vas a hacer esto, a fuerza. +no importa si quieres o no, te voy a someter". +Dos: Haciendo de las reglas un misterio para el perro. +Y tres: Ahora podemos castigar al perro por romper las reglas que ni siquiera conoce. +As que te haces de un cachorro... y su nico crimen es crecer. +Cuando es un cachorro te sube las patas en tu pierna... no es genial? +Y le dices: "Muy bien!". +Te inclinas y lo acaricias... es decir: Lo recompensas por brincar. +Su error es que es un mastn gigantesco y pocos meses despus cuando anda por los 40 kilos +Cada vez que brinca recibe toda clase de maltratos. +De verdad es terrible el maltrato hacia los perros. +Lo que me recuerda este asunto de la dominancia, en que se caricaturiza un sistema social muy complejo. +Los perros toman todo esto muy en serio. +Los machos son muy serios respecto a las jerarquas porque evitan las peleas. +Claro que las hembras tienen varias enmiendas al esta jerarqua. +La primera es: "Yo lo tengo y t no". +Lo que encontramos es que una perra de muy bajo rango puede quitarle fcilmente un hueso a un perro de mayor rango. +As que metemos esta nocin de dominancia en el entrenamiento "El perro alfa"... Estoy seguro que han odo de esto. +Los perros son tan maltratados. +Perros, caballos y humanos... estas son las tres especies que son ms maltratadas. +Y la razn es parte de su naturaleza de siempre regresar y pedir perdn. +Algo as como "Lamento que me hayas pegado. Lo siento de verdad. Es mi culpa". +Es tan fcil maltratarlos. Y por eso es que reciben las golpizas. +El pobre cachorro brinca y brinca y si abres un manual de perros, qu te dice? +"Agarra sus patas delanteras y apritalas psale las patas traseras, avintale limn en la cara pgale en la cabeza con un peridico enrollado dale un rodillazo en el pecho, avintalo de espaldas". +Y todo esto porqu? Porque creci? +Slo porque hace lo que le enseaste a hacer? +Es una locura. +Yo le pregunto a los dueos: "Cmo quieres que tu perro te salude?" +Y contestan: "No se... creo que sentado". +Y les digo: "Ensemoslo a sentarse". +Y le damos una razn para sentarse. +Porque lo primero que hay que hacer es ensearle al perro a entender espaol. +Podra decirles: "Laytay-chai, paisey, paisey". +Vamos. Algo tienen que hacer! +Por qu no hacen nada? Ah, es que no hablan Swahili! +Pues tengo noticias para ustedes. +Los perros no hablan ingls, ni espaol ni francs. +As que lo primero es ensearle al perro a entender nuestro idioma a entender el espaol. +Y por es usamos alimento como recompensa y usamos alimento porque estamos tratando con dueos. +Mi esposa no necesita comida para entrenarnos... Es mucho mejor entrenadora que yo +Yo no necesito comida, pero el dueo promedio dice "Perro, sintate". +O algo como: "Sentado, sentado, sentado". +Y por alguna razn sealan hacia el recto del perro como si el perro tuviera un tercer ojo ah... +Le dicen: "Sentado, Sentado". +Nada... "Perrito, Sentado" Bravo! entendi como a la sexta o dcima vez. +Y despus vamos desaparecemos el alimento como recompensa y el perro ahora ya sabe que "sentado" significa sentarse. y es entonces cuando podemos comunicarnos con el perro con oraciones en perfecto espaol. +"Fnix, ven. Toma y ve con Jamie". +Porque le enseamos: "Fnix", "ven", "toma", "ve con" y el nombre de mi hijo, "Jamie". +Y el perro puede entonces entender todo. Y as, mi perro de bsqueda y rescate. +encontrar a Jamie donde quiera que est, ya sea aventando piedras al ro o donde sea y llevarle un pequeo mensaje que diga "La cena est lista. Ven a cenar". +En este punto el perro sabe lo que queremos que haga. +Lo va a hacer? +No necesariamente, no. +Como dije antes; si est en el parque y hay un trasero que olfatear por qu regresar con su amo? +El perro vive contigo. El perro puede verte cuando quiera. +El perro puede oler tu trasero, si lo dejas, cuando l lo quiera. +Pero ahora est en el parque y ests compitiendo contra los olores y otros perros y las ardillas. +As que la segunda parte del entrenamiento es hacer que el perro quiera hacer lo que nosotros queremos que haga. Y esto ltimo es muy sencillo. +Usamos el principio de Premack. +Bsicamente despus de una conducta de baja frecuencia, una que el perro no quiera hacer, permitimos o le damos una de alta frecuencia, a veces conocida como "problema" o "pasatiempo", algo que al perro le guste mucho hacer. +Esto se convertir en la recompensa por la conducta de baja frecuencia. +Le decimos: "sentado", en el sof. "sentado" y sobamos su panza. "sentado". y tiro una pelota de tenis, "sentado", y entonces saluda a otro perro. +Y es aqu donde ponemos la orden "huele trasero" en la cadena. +"Sentado", "huele trasero". +Ahora todas esas distracciones en contra del entrenamiento se convierten en recompensas que refuerza el entrenamiento. +En esencia lo que hacemos es ensear al perro... hacindole creer ...que el perro nos est entrenando a nosotros. +Imagnense a este perro, hablando por la reja con un Akita, "Oye! Entrenar a estos amos es super fcil. +Son como Labradores. +Solo me siento y ellos hacen todo. +Abren puertas, manejan mi auto, me dan masajes me tiran pelotas de tenis, me cocinan y me dan de comer. +Es como si al sentarme, les diera una orden. +Y de inmediato tengo a mi portero personal chofer, masajista, chef y mesero". +Y ahora el perro es realmente feliz. +Y esto es lo que un entrenamiento siempre debera ser. +Cuando realmente motivamos al perro a querer hacer las cosas de manera que la necesidad de castigo rara vez se presente. +Vamos entonces a la fase tres, donde... hay veces en que el Jefe manda. +Tengo una placa en el refrigerador que dice, "El Jefe siempre tiene la razn" +"Soy el Jefe y tu no. Sentado". As de simple, no ms explicaciones +Y ocasiones... por ejemplo en que los amigos de mi hijo dejan la puerta abierta Y los perros deben saber que no deben salir de casa. +Es cuestin de vida o muerte. +Si sales de aqu, de la santidad de tu casa te pueden atropellar en la calle. +As que hay cosas el perro debe aprender. "No debes hacer esto!". +As que debemos imponernos pero sin usar la fuerza. +Y aqu las personas se confunden acerca de lo que es un castigo. +Creen que un castigo es algo horrible. +Apuesto a que muchos de ustedes piensan as, no es cierto? +Piensan que es algo doloroso, atemorizante y horrible. +Pero no necesita serlo. +Hay varias definiciones de lo que es un castigo pero una definicin, la ms popular es: Un castigo es un estmulo que reduce la conducta de manera que sea menos probable que ocurra en el futuro. +No necesita ser un castigo desagradable, atemorizante o doloroso. +Y yo agregara que si no necesita serlo, entonces no debiera serlo. +Trabaj con un perro muy peligroso hace casi un ao +este perro mand al hospital a sus dos dueos, y tambin al cuado... y al hijo. +Y acced a trabajar con este perro con la condicin de que se quedara en casa y que nunca lo sacaran a la calle. +A estas alturas el perro ya fue sacrificado, pero yo le dediqu mucho tiempo. +Mucha de la agresin sucedi alrededor de la cocina as que mientras estuve ah...como en la cuarta visita... trabajamos el "echado" en su tapete durante 4 horas +Y estuvo as gracias a la calmada insistencia de su duea. +Cuando el perro intentaba dejar el tapete ella le deca: "Rover, al tapete, al tapete, al tapete". +El perro rompi el "echado" 22 veces en cuatro horas y media mientras ella preparaba la cena porque en el pasado hubo mucha agresin relacionada con la comida. +Despus los rompimientos del "echado" se redujeron ms y ms. +El castigo estaba funcionando. +El comportamiento problema iba desapareciendo. +Ella nunca alz la voz. +Si lo hubiera hecho, habra recibido una mordida. +No es un buen perro al que gritarle. +Muchos de mis amigos entrenan animales enormes. Osos pardos; por cierto, si alguna vez ven a un oso pardo en la tele o en pelculas, fue mi amigo el que lo entren. Ballenas asesinas... Me encanta eso porque agiliza tu mente. +Cmo vas a amonestar a un oso pardo? +"Muy mal, Muy mal!" Buuuu! +Si lo haces as, tu cabeza estara volando a unos 100 metros. +Sera una locura. +Entonces Qu hacemos? +Queremos hacerlo de una mejor manera. +Los perros merecen algo mejor. +Pero para m la razn de todo esto tiene que ver con los perros +y con cmo es que las personas entrenan a sus cachorros y ayudarles a darse cuenta de su terrible interaccin y sus horrendas relaciones. +No slo con su cachorro sino con el resto de la familia en la clase. +Mi favorita es una historia clsica relacionada con "ven". +Imaginen a alguien en el parque... voy a tapar el micrfono porque no quiero despertarlos... All est el dueo en el parque y su perro est por all y le grita: "Rover, ven". +Rover, ven. Rover, ven, Que vengas maldito!". +Y el perro piensa, "No, no quiero". +Pinsenlo Quin en su sano juicio pensara que un perro se les va a acercar cuando le gritan de esa manera? +Al contrario, el perro piensa: "Conozco ese tono, ya se de qu se trata, +cuando me he acercado, me han castigado". +Me encontraba abordando un avin cuando pens... y esto fue determinante para m, y se convirti en los cimientos de mi trabajo, con todo esto del entrenamiento para cachorros... la idea de ensear de manera amorosa a los cachorros la de hacer que ellos quieran hacer lo que nosotros queremos que hagan, sin forzarlos. +Si se fijan, yo entreno a mi hijo como a un cachorro. +He aqu el momento trascendental: Estaba tomando un avin a Dallas. y en segunda la fila iba un pap junto con un pequeo de unos cinco aos que pateaba el respaldo de la silla. +"Johnny, no hagas eso". +Una patada, otra patada, otra patada. +"Johnny, no hagas eso". Una patada, otra patada. +Y yo estaba parado con mi maleta. +Cuando el pap se agacha y lo toma de esta forma y le hace una cara horrible. +Hacer cara horrible es algo como esto: Miras directamente a los ojos al cachorro o al nio y le dices: "Qu te pasa! Detente, detente, detente!" +Y pens para m, "Dios mo! Debo hacer algo?" +El nio perdi todo... perdi a una de las dos personas en quien poda confiar y lo ha confundido para siempre +Y pens para m "Le dir a este idiota que pare?" +Entonces pens, "Ian, no te metas en lo que no te importa. Sigue caminando". +Llegu a la parte posterior del avin me sent y entonces me lleg un pensamiento. +Si hubiera agarrado as a un perro, le habra dicho unas cuantas verdades. +Si el tipo hubiera pateado a un perro le habra pegado. +Sin embargo, el hombre pate al nio, sacudi al nio as y lo dej pasar. +Y es que esto es de lo que se trata. +Estas tcnicas para relacionarse son muy sencillas. +En cambio nosotros las complicamos... somos superficiales al escoger una pareja escogemos pensando en: se viste bien, bonito cuerpo, simptica. +Como si comprramos un robot. +Y as nos metemos en una relacin. Todo es maravilloso por un ao. +Y despus un pequeo problema aparece. +Igual que un perro que ladra mucho. +El esposo no guarda su ropa, o la esposa siempre llega tarde. Siempre hay algo No? +Y entonces empieza. Entramos en este crculo y nuestros propios comentarios. Hay dos cosas que mencionar +Cuando observamos a personas interactuando con animales u otras personas vemos que hay muy poca retroalimentacin. Es muy poco frecuente. +Y cuando hay, es mala y desagradable. +Se puede ver en las familias, especialmente entre esposos, o con los nios, o con los padres. +Tambin se ve en el trabajo, del jefe al subordinado. +Como si fuera un placer ver en desgracia a otros... como si disfrutramos cuando las cosas le salen mal a la gente para poder quejarnos despus, lamentarnos y criticar a otros. +Yo dira que esta es la debilidad ms grande que tenemos. +Y en verdad lo es. +Damos por sentado todo lo bueno y nos quejamos y lamentamos por lo malo. +Pienso que estas habilidades deberan ensearse... +ya s, el clculo es maravilloso. +Cuando nio, era un genio para el clculo. +Ahora no me acuerdo de nada, pero cuando era nio era muy bueno. +La geometra es fantstica. La mecnica cuntica... todas son cosas realmente increbles. +Pero no sirven para salvar matrimonios ni para criar nios. +Mi visin el futuro es, lo que quiero hacer con esto de los perros, es ensear a la gente que es posible educar esposos. +Tal vez igual o ms fcil que a un Rottweiler +Es fcil educar a los hijos +Lo nico que hay que hacer es observarlos tomando muestras del comportamiento, digamos cada 5 minutos y preguntarse: "Es bueno o malo?" +Si es bueno hay que decir: "Eso fue fantstico, gracias". +Esta es una tcnica tan poderosa de adiestramiento +que debera ensearse en las escuelas. +Hablando de relaciones, cmo se negocia? +Cmo negociar con tu amigo que quiere tu juguete? +O Cmo prepararse para su primera relacin? +o Cmo rayos se cra a un nio? +Pensamos en cmo hacerlo... y una noche ya embarazados y despus estamos criando a lo ms importante en la vida... un beb. +No, esto debera ser enseado... la buena manera de vivir, los buenos hbitos que son tan difciles de romper como los malos hbitos. +As que este es mi deseo para el futuro. +Rayos! Quera terminar exactamente a tiempo, pero me quedan, ocho, siete, seis, cinco, cuatro, tres, dos... Muchas gracias. +El 99 por ciento de nosotros tiene el sueo de escuchar. +No siendo msicos -- sino audiencia, correcto? +Y anhelamos una cosa, aunque muchas veces no lo sabemos. +Anhelamos estar en la misma habitacin con el msico el da de la grabacin, el da de la interpretacin. +Y vamos a conciertos en vivo, a tantos como podamos. +Pero el otro 99 por ciento de nuestras cosas las escuchamos grabadas. +Y resulta que cuanto ms retrocedemos en el tiempo, ms spero se vuelve el sonido. +Y entonces decidimos que haba una solucin a este problema. +Extraigamos la interpretacin, como entidad, de la grabacin, que fue como se concibi en un principio. +Ya saben, todo el tinglado de micrfonos en el estudio durante todo el da. +Pero la interpretacin en s misma radica en los dedos del intrprete, y el instrumento utilizado. +Y esa es la pieza clave dentro de la grabacin. +Para acometer esto, se necesita una gran cantidad de hardware y software que funciona a una gran resolucin. +Yamaha cre una cosa increble llamada Disklavier Pro, que se asemeja a un piano de cola -- +y posiblemente no se hayan percatado de que realizar todas estas tareas -- pero esta repleto de solenoides, fibra ptica y computadoras y todos estos artilugios de la mejor resolucin venida de Japn. +Y esto no servira de nada sin atravesar la lnea de la alta definicin. +Y logramos atravesar esta lnea, llamada 'el valle misterioso', en trminos de inteligencia artificial. +Se basa en un proceso en el cual transferimos al ordenador y digitalizamos, y luego se activa toda una serie de anlisis. +Y observamos cada una de las notas, y todos sus atributos: la intensidad y manera con la que fueron pulsadas, y el movimiento de los dedos. +Con lo cual, tuvimos que desarrollar una nueva ciencia sobre el movimiento de los dedos. +y, como todos sabemos, es algo que un profesor de piano ensea. Pero nunca antes habamos tenido una ciencia sobre estas cosas. +Voy a comenzar con Glenn Gould. +Muri hace 25 aos y naci hace 75. +Fue un pianista consumado y alabado, quiz ms grande pianista de culto del siglo XX. +Simplemente se cans de estar frente a la audiencia, pues se empezaba a sentir como "un monito de la interpretacin", en sus propias palabras. +As que se distanci y se dedic a trabajar su arte. +Y la especialidad de Gould era Bach. +Quizs su ms famosa grabacin fue algo as como "Las Variaciones Goldberg". +Bach slo escribi temas y variaciones una vez. +Escribi algunas piezas tempranas, pero ms tarde en su vida, en su perodo de madurez, dijo: "Aqu hay un tema --- 30 variaciones". +De hecho, el tema no es slo la meloda, es la lnea base. +Y Gould hizo dos grandes grabaciones que quiz ustedes conozcan, una en mono y la otra en estreo. +Para la grabacin en mono, por cierto, utiliz el pedal. Y segn envejeca, dijo: "No, no, espera un momento". +"Voy ser muy cientfico con esto y no voy a utilizar el pedal". +Lo que me gustara que escucharan es la versin en vivo de 1955, y tocaremos el primer par de piezas de ella. +Glenn Gould, 1955. +Qu tal eso? +Ahora permtanme contarles un poco acerca de cmo esto fue posible. +Primero, permtanme llevarlos al ltimo paso. +Esto es, -- tenemos un proceso bastante complejo que implica software, msicos, etc., pero una vez hemos terminado, sabemos que el odo es el ltimo juez. +Podemos tocar el original en un odo y una nueva grabacin en el otro. +Y eso mismo es lo que voy a hacer ahora para Uds. con lo que acabamos de escuchar. +El altavoz derecho ser la grabacin original. Y el altavoz izquierdo ser la nueva grabacin, en un instrumento justo como este, y voy a reproducir las dos grabaciones simultneamente. +Este es el original. +Antes de Parque Jursico, no haba ciencia para saber cmo penda la piel fuera del msculo, cierto? +Pues bien, en el mundo del vdeo, hemos sido capaces de inventar, en nuestros tiempos, un comportamiento natural. +y este es otro ejemplo de ciencia detrs del comportamiento natural. +Y ya pudieron escuchar la versin original. +En ltima instancia, comenc con la experiencia. +Y la experiencia es "quiero estar en la misma habitacin con el msico" +Muchos de ustedes pueden permitirse comprar uno de estos. +Pero, si no, ahora hay sonido envolvente de alta definicin. +Y si no han escuchado sonido envolvente de alta definicin, vayan a su tienda de confianza, a su vendedor audifilo. +Es tan envolvente en comparacin con la calidad del estreo regular. +Pero si no lo tienen, podran escucharlo con auriculares. +Y en el mismo disco tenemos cinco grabaciones. Sony tiene cinco grabaciones. +Y podran escucharse con auriculares a travs de este dispositivo denominado "grabacin binaural". +Es bsicamente una cabeza de maniqu sentada frente al instrumento con micrfonos en las orejas. +y cuando te colocas los auriculares y lo escuchas, te encuentras en el cuerpo de Glenn Gould. +Y causa risa hasta que -- ustedes saben, los msicos, quienes son msicos, quienes tocan el piano, escuchan esto y dicen: "No puedo creerlo! Es exactamente como or tocar el piano". +Excepto que ahora ests en el cuerpo de Glenn Gould tocando el piano, y uno se siente como si sus dedos tomaran las decisiones y se movieran a travs de todo el proceso. +Es un cambio de juego. +Ahora tenemos algo que conocemos con una calidad espectacular. +odo el proceso es muy sensible a la temperatura y humedad. +Lo que escuchamos hoy no era perfecto. +Pues es una amalgama de madera y hierro fundido y fieltro, y cuerdas de acero y todo eso, Todo asombrosamente sensible a la temperatura y la humedad. +Con lo cual, cuando entras a la sesin de grabacin, se tiene que detener la grabacin despus de cada pieza y reconfigurar el piano si es necesario. +Existe toda una accin estando sentado all, por un lado; y la cabeza de maniqu y nuestros ingenieros de grabacin de pie alrededor mientras reacomodamos el piano. +Sin colocar fecha final, paso a paso, la msica se convierte en datos, como lleva ocurriendo en todas las reas en los ltimos 30 o 40 aos. +El audio se ha unido tarde a este juego. No estoy hablando de digitalizacin, bits y remasterizacin. +Estoy hablando de la conversin en los datos de los que se parti originalmente, que es cmo se interpret. +Y el audio lleg tarde porque nuestro odos son muy difcil de engaar -- Son de alta resolucin y estn conectados directamente a nuestras emociones, y no se les pueden engaar fcilmente. +Ya se sabe que los ojos son fciles de satisfacer con algo de color y movimiento. +Bien, aqu tenemos este episodio de Star Trek. +Ya lo entiendo -- todo me qued claro ayer. +Mi episodio de Star Trek fue el de James Daly interpretando a Methuselah -- Lo recuerdan? +Y en un momento se pone a bailar con su -- y no les arruinar el episodio, de 1967. +Bien, saben a dnde quiero llegar? +Y Nimoy, perdn, Spock se sienta al piano, y comienza a tocar este vals de Brahms, y todos empiezan a bailar a su son. +Y entonces Spock se da la vuelta y dice: "James, s todos los valses de Brahms, y no creo que ste pertenezca a esa categora". +A eso voy. +Quiero escuchar los valses de Brahms nunca escritos. +Quiero escuchar las piezas que Horowitz no toc. +Creo que estamos ahora en el momento en el que accedemos a los datos de los que podemos extraer estilos, plantillas y frmulas y todo ese tipo de cosas -- Una vez ms, lo que ha ocurrido en el mundo de los grficos generados por ordenador, +est llegando ahora a este mundo. +Esta ser la transicin. +Ahora pensamos que la msica son notas y la manera como se tocan. +Y creo que est cerca. +Porque lo que acaban de escuchar no fue sino un ordenador "tocando archivos" -- no Glenn Gould en la sala. +Sin embargo, es humano. +Y creo que llegaremos al siguiente paso, el verdadero sueo de la audiencia. +Cada vez que escuchemos una grabacin hoy, cada vez que saquemos nuestro iPod o lo que sea, cada vez que lo escuchemos, se trata de lo mismo -- est congelado. +No sera mejor si cada vez que lo escuchramos fuera diferente? +Esta maana estamos ms tristes, y queremos escuchar nuestra cancin, la misma cancin, tocada mas tristemente que ayer. +Queremos escucharla interpretada por diferentes msicos. +Queremos escucharla en diferentes lugares. +Hemos visto todos los episodios de Star Trek, y estn todos basados en el holodeck tambin. +Cada vez que escucho esto, se me pone la piel de gallina. +Es asombroso, es excitante. +Cada vez que escucho estas grabaciones, no puedo creer que est en la misma habitacin. No puedo creer que est ocurriendo. +Es una experiencia muy superior a cualquier otra forma en la que hayamos escuchado algo. +Y, por ltimo, recapitular con un minuto de Arte Tatum. +Aqu ya s que he superado mis expectativas. +En septiembre realizamos una nueva grabacin suya en el Auditorio Shrine. +Fue un concierto que l grab en el Auditorio Shrine en 1949. +Y tengo que decirles que tenemos un laboratorio donde construimos y medimos todo, en Raleigh, Carolina del Norte, y volamos a Los ngeles. +Y como presidente de la compaa, no me senta cmodo dnde estbamos. +Y esa es una sensacin molesta. cuando se ha instalado todo el equipo y hay toda una partida de ingenieros de Sony y el pblico va a estar all sentado. +Entonces, colocamos el piano en ese fantstico lugar del escenario en el Shrine -- que no ha cambiado desde 1949, con un aforo de 6.000 personas -- +y en ese fantstico lugar del escenario, Tatum comienza a tocar... +y cada nota, cada golpe, cada ligadura, cada acento, cada movimiento de pedal era perfecto, porque lo toc para ese lugar aquel da. +Y nosotros capturamos de nuevo todo eso. +Y quisiera que lo escucharan ahora. +Y, afortunadamente, esta justo aqu -- +Es un bis que sola tocar. +Dura un minuto +es una giga irlandesa, y quiero que perciban su humor. +Esa misma fue la reaccin de la audiencia en directo. +Muchsimas gracias, Michael, gracias por esta oportunidad. +Entonces qu tiene que ver esta imagen con esto? +Y tengo que decir, creo que Emeka est intentando enviar muchos mensajes subliminales porque voy a seguir insistiendo sobre algunos de los temas que han surgido. +Pero voy a intentar hacer algo diferente y voy a tratar de cerrar el crculo con algunas de mis historias personales, e intentar poner un rostro a muchos de los temas de los que hemos estado hablando. +As que, frica es un continente complejo lleno de contradicciones como pueden ver. +No somos los nicos. +Y saben, es asombroso. +Digo, necesitamos toda una conferencia dedicada a contar las buenas historias sobre el continente. +Solo piensen en eso, saben? +Y esto es de lo que hemos estado hablando tpicamente , el rol que juegan los medios enfocados solo en las cosas negativas. +Entonces, por qu es esto un problema? +Una historia tpica de desastre: enfermedad, corrupcin, pobreza. +Y algunos de ustedes talvez estn pensando y diciendo, bueno, Ory, t, educada en Harvard, y todos ustedes gente privilegiada vienen aqu a decirnos, olviden a la gente pobre, +vamos a enfocarnos en los negocios y los mercados, y lo que sea. Pero estn los dems, existe un 80 por ciento de africanos que realmente necesitan ayuda. +Y quiero decirles que sta es mi historia, de acuerdo? +Y sta es la historia de muchos de los africanos que estn aqu. +Empezamos con pobreza. +No crec en los barrios bajos o algo tan difcil pero s lo que es crecer sin tener dinero o ser capaz de sostener a una familia. +Euvin hablaba de seales de mejora econmica. +La seal para nuestra familia de si estbamos quebrados o no era el desayuno. +Ya saben, cuando las cosas estaban bien tenamos huevos y salchichas. +Cuando las cosas estaban mal tenamos avena. +Y como muchas familias africanas, mis padres nunca podan ahorrar porque sostenan a hermanos, primos, ya saben, sus padres, y las cosas siempre eran inciertas. +Cuando yo nac, se dieron cuenta de que tenan a una nia bastante inteligente, y ellos no queran que fuera a la escuela del barrio, la cual era gratuita. +Y tomaron una actitud bastante interesante sobre mi educacin, la cual fue que ellos me iban a llevar a una escuela que apenas podan pagar. +Entonces me llevaron a una privada, Escuela Primaria Catlica, la cual sent las bases de lo que terminara siendo mi carrera. +Y lo que pas fue que, como a veces podan pagarla y otras veces no, me expulsaban casi cada semestre. +Ya saben, alguien vena con una lista de los que no haban pagado las cuotas escolares y cuando se ponan bastante estrictos, tenas que irte hasta que tus cuotas fueran pagadas. +Y recuerdo que yo pensaba, por qu no solo me llevan a una escuela barata? +Porque ustedes saben, cuando nio te sientes avergonzado y eres sensible y todo el mundo sabe que no tienes dinero. +Pero ellos continuaron y ahora entiendo por qu hicieron lo que hicieron. +Hablan de corrupcin. +En Kenia tenemos un examen de ingreso para entrar a la escuela media superior. +Y estn las escuelas nacionales, que son como las mejores, y las escuelas de provincia. +Mi escuela de sueo en ese tiempo era la Kenya High School, una escuela nacional. +Me falt un punto para el mnimo. +Y estaba decepcionada, y yo estaba, oh por dios, saben, qu voy a hacer? +Y mi padre me dijo, escucha, +vamos a intentar hablar con la directora. +Saben, es solo un punto. Digo, quizs te deje entrar si todava hay un espacio. +As que fuimos a la escuela y debido a que no ramos nadie, y porque no ramos privilegiados y porque mi padre no tena el mejor apellido, lo trataron como basura. +Y me sent a escuchar a la directora hablarle y decirle saben, quin se cree que es? +Y, ya saben, debe usted estar bromeando si piensa que puede conseguir un lugar. +Y yo haba ido a la escuela con otras nias que eran hijas de polticos y que les haba ido mucho, mucho peor que yo y ellas tenan un lugar. +Y no hay nada peor que ver a tus padres siendo humillados enfrente de ti, saben? +Y nos fuimos y me jur a m misma, nunca jams tener que suplicar por nada en mi vida. +Me llamaron dos semanas despus, y estaban oh s, ahora puedes venir. Y les dije que se lo tragaran. +Ultima historia, y como que tengo que hablar rpido. +Enfermedad. +Mi padre, de quien he estado hablando, muri de SIDA en 1999. +Nunca le dijo a nadie que tena SIDA, as de fuerte era su miedo a ser sealado. +Y yo fui quien lo descubri porque pues yo era una cerebrita. +En ese tiempo yo estaba en los Estados Unidos, y me llamaron, l estaba muy enfermo, la primera vez que se enferm. +tenia Meningitis Criptoccica. +Y lo busqu en Google, Meningitis Criptoccica, saben. +Debido al privilegio paciente - doctor. no podan decirnos qu estaba pasando realmente. +Pero, estaban, ya saben, esto es una cosa a largo plazo. +Y cuando entr al Internet y le sobre la enfermedad pues me di cuenta de lo que estaba pasando. +La primera vez que enferm se recuper. +Pero lo que pas fue que tena que estar bajo medicamento el cual en ese tiempo, Diflucan, en los Estados Unidos era usado para infecciones de hongos, costaba 30 dlares por pldora. +Tena que tomar esa pldora por el resto de su vida. +Ya saben, el dinero se acab. +Se enferm otra vez. +Hasta ese momento, l tena un amigo que viajaba a la India y l sola traerle una versin genrica +Y eso lo mantuvo. +Pero el dinero se acab. +Se enferm otra vez. Se enferm un viernes. +En ese momento solo haba un banco con cajero automtico en Kenia y no podamos conseguir el efectivo, la familia no pudo conseguir el efectivo para que empezara el tratamiento hasta el lunes. +El hospital le puso un suero por tres das. +y al final decidimos, bueno, mejor intentamos llevarlo a un hospital pblico. +Al menos le darn el tratamiento mientras tratamos de resolver la situacin del dinero. +Y muri cuando la ambulancia vena para llevarlo al hospital. +Y, saben, imaginen si, bueno, y podra seguir y seguir, imaginen que esto es todo lo que saben acerca de m. +Cmo me miraran? +Con lstima, saben. Con tristeza. +Y as es cmo ven a frica. +Este es el dao que causa. +No ven mi otro lado. +No ven a la blogera, no ven a la abogada educada en Harvard, la persona vibrante, saben? +Y solo quiero personalizar esto. +Porque hablamos de esto en grandes trminos y se preguntan, saben, y qu con eso? +Pero est haciendo dao. +Y no soy la nica, verdad? +Imaginen si todo lo que saben sobre William fuera el hecho de que creci en un pueblo pobre. +Y no supieran acerca de su molino de viento, saben? +Y me conmovi -- +de hecho estaba llorando durante su presentacin. +l fue como, lo intento y lo hago. +y yo estaba, Nike debera contratarlo, saben, "Just do it!" (Solo hazlo) +Y otra vez ste es el punto que intento hacer. +Cuando nos enfocamos solo en los desastres - - ignoramos el potencial. +As que, qu se necesita hacer? +Primero que nada, africanos, necesitamos volvernos mejores en contar nuestras historias. +Escuchamos sobre esto ayer. +Tuvimos algo de eso esta maana. +Saben, bloguear es una forma de hacerlo +Afrigator es un concentrador de blogs africanos que fue desarrollado en Sudfrica. +Tenemos que empezar a mejorar. +Si nadie ms va a contar nuestras historias, hagmoslo. +Y regresando al punto que estaba tratando de hacer -- esta es la Wikipedia suajili. +El suajili es hablado por alrededor de 50 millones de personas en Africa del Este. +Solo tiene cinco donadores. +Cuatro de ellos son hombres blancos - sin ser su lengua nativa. +La otra persona es - Ndesanjo, si ests aqu, ponte de pie - es un tanzano - primer bloguero en suajili. +El es el nico africano que ha contribuido a esto. +Gente, por favor - no podemos quejarnos y lloriquear. el oeste est haciendo esto. +Qu estamos haciendo nosotros? +Dnde estn el resto de los que hablan suajili? +Por qu no estamos generando nuestros propios contenidos? +Saben, no es suficiente con quejarse. Necesitamos actuar. +Reuters ahora integra blogs africanos en sus coberturas de frica. +Eso es un inicio y ya hemos escuchado de todas sus otras iniciativas. +La generacin chita. +Las aproximaciones de caridad, saben, no funcionan. +Y despus de toda la conmocin de Live 8, aun no salimos en la foto por ningn lado. +(Soy africana) No, no lo eres. +Pero, bueno, el punto que intento hacer es que no es suficiente el criticar. +Y para todos ustedes en el exilio que se estn debatiendo con dnde deberan estar, Debera regresar? Debera quedarme? +Saben, solo salten. +El continente los necesita. +y no puede recalcarlo lo suficiente, saben. +Dej un trabajo con una de las mejores firmas en DC, Covington and Burling, seis cifras. +Con dos o tres pagos de salario podra resolver muchos de los problemas de mi familia. +Pero lo dej porque mi pasin estaba aqu. Y porque quera hacer cosas que me fueran satisfactorias. +y porque se me necesita aqu, saben? +Probablemente podra ganar un premio por la mayor cantidad de formas de usar un carrera de leyes de Harvard por todas las cosas que estoy haciendo. +Una es porque soy bastante agresiva y busco y encuentro oportunidades, saben. +Pero hay tanta necesidad, saben? +La mayora del tiempo soy abogada para una organizacin llamada Enablis que ayuda a empresarios en Sudfrica. +Ahora nos vamos a mover a frica del Este. +Brindamos servicios de desarrollo de negocios as como prstamos financieros y de liquidez. +Tambin he establecido un proyecto en Kenia y lo que hacemos es monitorear el desempeo de los representantes kenianos. +Mi compaero, M, quien es como un gur tecnolgico, hacke WordPress. +Y nos cuesta como 20 dlares al mes solo por hosting. +El resto es puro amor al trabajo. +Hemos metido toda la informacin manualmente. +Y pueden obtener perfiles de cada representante, preguntas que han hecho en el parlamento +Tenemos una seccin de comentarios donde la gente puede hacerle preguntas a su representante. +Hay algunos representantes que colaboran y regresan y preguntan. +Y empezamos esto porque bsicamente estbamos cansados de quejarnos de nuestros polticos. +Saben, yo creo que la respuesta surge de la demanda. +No vas a hacer responsable por la bondad de tu corazn. +Y como africanos necesitamos empezar a cuestionar a nuestros lderes. +Qu estn haciendo? +Saben, ellos no van a cambiar de la nada. +As que necesitamos nuevas polticas, necesitamos -- De dnde viene eso, saben? +Otra cosa es que estos lderes son un reflejo de nuestra sociedad. +Hablamos de los gobiernos africanos como si hubieran cado de Marte, saben? +Ellos vienen de nosotros. +Y qu es lo que pasa con nuestra sociedad que est generando lderes que no nos gustan. +Y cmo podemos cambiar eso? +As que Mzalendo fue una pequea cosa que pensamos que podamos empezar motivando a la gente para empezar a hacer responsables a sus lderes. +Adnde vamos ahora? +Yo creo en el poder de las ideas. +Creo en el poder de compartir el conocimiento. +Y les pedira a todos, que cuando salgan de aqu por favor comprtanlo y mantengan las ideas que saquen de aqu porque pueden hacer una diferencia. +La otra cosa que quiero pedirles que hagan es poner inters en lo individual. +He tenido muchas conversaciones acerca de las cosas que creo se necesita que pasen en frica. +La gente es como - bueno y si no ayudas -- pero soy liberal de corazn qu puedo hacer? +Y cuando hablo sobre mis ideas, ellos estn como pero eso no se puede hacer, saben. +Dame algo que pueda hacer con Paypal. +No es tan sencillo, saben? +Y algunas veces solo con poner inters en el individuo, en los compaeros que conoces y los empresarios que conoces, puede hacer una gran diferencia, especialmente en frica porque normalmente el individuo en frica carga a mucha gente en sus espaldas. +Literalmente, digo, cuando estaba en mi primer ao en la escuela de leyes, el negocio de mi mam quebr, as que la estaba ayudando +Mi hermana estaba teniendo problemas para terminar su bachillerato. +Yo le ayudaba a pagar sus cuotas escolares. +Mi prima no tena para las cuotas escolares y ella es brillante. +Yo pagaba sus cuotas. +Una prima ma muri de SIDA, dej una hurfana, as que dije, bueno, qu vamos a hacer con ella? +Saben, ahora es mi hermanita beb. +Y debido a las oportunidades que se me brindaron soy capaz de apoyar a toda esta gente +As que no subestimen eso. +Un ejemplo. Este hombre cambi mi vida +l es un profesor, ahora est en Vanderbilt, +es un profesor de preuniversitarios, Mitchell Seligson. +Y debido a l entr a la Escuela de Leyes de Harvard. Y porque se interes. +Yo tomaba una de sus clases y l estaba como que, sta es una estudiante entusiasta, que normalmente no tenemos en los Estados Unidos porque todos son cnicos y apticos. +Me llam a su oficina y me dijo, Qu quieres hacer cuando crezcas? +Yo dije, quiero ser abogada. +Y fue como, por qu? Ya saben, no necesitamos otro abogado en los Estados Unidos. +E intent disuadirme al respecto pero fue como, bueno, no s nada acerca de inscribirse a la escuela de leyes, soy Doctor en Ciencias Polticas. +Pero, bueno, vamos a averiguar qu necesito que t hagas, qu necesito hacer para ayudarte. +Y era como, Adnde quieres ir? +Y para m en ese momento la universidad -- Yo estaba en la Universidad de Pitts para preuniversitarios y era como el cielo, saben, porque comparado a lo que hubiera sido en Kenia. +Entonces, pues voy inscribirme a la escuela de leyes de Pitt. +Y me dijo, por qu? sabes, eres inteligente, tienes todo esto a tu favor. +Y yo estaba, pues ya estoy aqu y es barato, y ya saben, como que me gusta Pittsburgh. +Esa es la razn mas tonta que he escuchado para inscribirse a la escuela de leyes. +Y, ya saben, l me tom bajo sus alas, y me motiv. +Y me dijo, mira, t puedes entrar a Harvard, as de buena eres, de acuerdo? +Y si no te aceptan, ellos son los que estn equivocados, +l me form, saben? +y esto es solo un ejemplo. +Aqu pueden conocer a algunos individuos. +Solo necesitamos un empujn +Eso era todo lo que necesitaba un empujn para ir al siguiente nivel. +Simplemente, quiero terminar con mi visin de frica, saben? +Un caballero habl ayer acerca de la indignidad de nosotros que tenemos que dejar al continente para que podamos realizar nuestro potencial. +Saben, mi visin es que mi hija y que cualquier otro nio africano que nazca hoy puedan ser aqu quien quieran ser sin tener que irse. +Y puedan tener la posibilidad de trascender las circunstancias en las que nacieron. +Eso es algo que ustedes americanos dan por hecho, saben? +Que pueden crecer en no tan buenas circunstancias y se pueden mover -- +Solo porque nacieron en el campo de Arkansas o donde sea eso no define quien eres. +Para la mayora de los africanos hoy, donde vives o donde naciste y las circunstancias en las que naciste determinan el resto de tu vida. +Me gustara ver que eso cambie y el cambio empieza con nosotros. +Y como africanos necesitamos tomar responsabilidad de nuestro continente. +Gracias. +Hay una discusin acalorada entre la gente sobre la definicin de la vida. +Se preguntan si debera incluir la reproduccin, o el metabolismo, o la evolucin. +Y no s la respuesta a esto, as que no se los dir. +Dir que la vida implica computacin. +Esto es un programa de computadora. +Arrancado en una clula, el programa se ejecutara y podra resultar en esta persona o con un pequeo cambio, en esta persona -otro pequeo cambio- esta persona, o un cambio ms grande, este perro o este rbol, o esta ballena. +Entonces, si tomas en serio esta metfora el genoma es un programa, debes considerar que Chris Anderson es un artefacto fabricado por computadora, como lo es Jim Watson, Craig Venter, y como todos nosotros. +Y al convencerte a ti mismo de que esta metfora es cierta, hay muchas similitudes entre los programas genticos y los programas de computadora que podran ayudar a convencerte. +Pero uno que para mi es el ms convincente es la particular sensibilidad a pequeos cambios que pueden causar cambios grandes al producir desarrollo biolgico. +Una pequea mutacin puede tomar una mosca de dos alas y convertirla en una mosca de cuatro alas. +O podra tomar una mosca y ponerle patas donde deberan estar sus antenas. +O si estn familiarizados con "La Princesa Prometida," podra crear un hombre con seis dedos. +Ahora, algo distintivo de los programas de computadora es justamente este tipo de sensibilidad a pequeos cambios. +Si tu cuenta bancaria tiene un dolar y cambias un solo bit, podras terminar con mil dlares. +Estos cambios pequeos son cosas que pienso que nos indican que hay una complicada computacin en desarrollo por debajo de estos cambios grandes amplificados. +Entonces, todo esto indica que hay programas moleculares por debajo de la biologa, y esto muestra el poder de los programas moleculares, que la biologa hace. +Y lo que quiero hacer es escribir programas moleculares, para, potencialmente, desarrollar tecnologa. +Y hay mucha gente haciendo esto, muchos bilogos sintticos haciendo esto como Craig Venter +y se concentran en usar clulas. +Estn enfocados en las clulas. +Entonces, amigos, los programadors moleculares y yo, tenemos un enfoque centrado en las biomolculas. +Nos interesa usar ADN, ARN y protenas y construir nuevos lenguajes para construir cosas desde cero, usando biomolculas, potencialmente teniendo nada que ver con la biologa. +Entonces, stas son todas las mquinas en una clula. +Ah hay una cmara. +Ah los paneles solares de la clula, algunos interruptors que encienden y apagan sus genes, las vigas de la clula, motores que mueven sus msculos. +Mi pequeo grupo de programadores moleculares estn intentando rehacer todas estas partes de ADN. +No somos fanticos del ADN, pero el ADN es el material ms barato, ms fcil de comprender y fcil de programar con el que podemos hacerlo. +Y mientras otras cosas se vuelven ms fciles de usar -tal vez protenas- trabajaremos con esos. +Si tenemos xito, cmo se ver la programacin molecular? +Te sentars enfrente de tu computadora. +Disears algo como un telfono celular, y en un lenguaje de alto nivel, describirs el telfono celular. +despus necesitars tener un compilador que tomar esa descripcin y lo convertir en molculas reales que pueden enviarse a un sintetizador y ese sintetizador las empaquetar en una semilla. +Y lo que pasar si riegas y cuidas esa semilla adecuadamente, es que har "computacin del desarrollo", computacin molecular, y construir una computadora electrnica. +Y si no he revelado mis prejuicios todava, creo que la vida se ha tratado sobre computadoras moleculares construccin de computadoras electroqumicas construccin de computadoras electrnicas que junto con las computadoras electroqumicas, construirn nuevas computadoras moleculares que construirn nuevas computadoras electrnicas y as. +Y si caen en todo esto, y piensan que la vida se trata de computacin, como yo, entonces ustedes ven las grandes preguntas como un informtico terico. +Entonces, una gran pregunta es, cmo sabe un beb cundo dejar de crecer? +Y para un programador molecular, la pregunta es cmo sabe tu celular cundo dejar de crecer? +O cmo sabe un programa de computadora cundo dejar de correr? +O ms apropiado, cmo sabes si un programa alguna vez se detendr? +Hay otras preguntas como stas, tambin. +Una de ellas es la pregunta de Craig Venter. +Resulta que l piensa como un informtico terico. +Pregunt cun grande es el genoma mnimo que me dar un micro-organismo funcional? +Qu tan pocos genes puedo usar? +Esto es exactamente anlogo a la pregunta, cul es el programa ms pequeo que puedo escribir que actuar exactamente como Microsoft Word? +Y as como l est escribiendo, saben, bacterias que sern ms pequeas, est escribiendo genomas que funcionarn, podramos escribir programas ms pequeos que haran lo que hace Microsoft Word. +Pero para la programacin molecular, nuestra pregunta es, cuntas molculas necesitamos poner en esa semilla para obtener un telfono celular? +cul es el nmero ms pequeo con el que podemos conseguirlo? +Ahora, stas son grandes preguntas en la ciencia de la computacin. +Todas estas son preguntas sobre complejidad y la ciencia de la computacin nos dice que stas son preguntas muy difciles. +Casi - muchas de ellas son imposibles. +Pero para algunas tareas, podemos empezar a responderlas. +As que empezar a preguntar esas preguntas para las estructuras de ADN de las que hablar a continuacin. +Entonces, esto es ADN normal, lo que piensan como ADN normal. +Son dos hebras, es una doble hlice, tienes las A, T, C y G que se emparejan para mantener las dos hebras juntas. +Y a veces lo dibujar as, para no asustarles. +Queremos ver las hebras individuales y no pensar en la doble hlice. +Cuando lo sintetizamos, viene en una hebra, as que podemos tomar la hebra azul en un tubo y hacer una anaranjada en el otro y estn guangas cuando son de una hebra. +Las mezclas y hacen una doble hlice rgida. +Durante los ltimos 25 aos, Ned Seeman y un grupo de sus descendientes han trabajado muy duro y han hecho unas hermosas estructuras tridimensionales usando este tipo de reaccin de hebras de ADN que se juntan. +Pero muchos de sus enfoques, aunque elegantes, toman mucho tiempo. +Pueden tomar un par de aos o ser difciles de disear. +As que se me ocurri un nuevo mtodo hace un par de aos lo llamo origami de ADN es tan facil que lo pueden hacer en la cocina de sus casas y disearlo en una laptop. +Pero para hacerlo, necesitan una hebra individual de ADN, lo que es tcnicamente difcil de conseguir. +As que pueden ir a una fuente natural. +Pueden ver en este artefacto hecho por computadora y tiene un genoma de doble hebra, eso no es bueno. +Si ven en sus intestinos. Hay billones de bacterias. +Tampoco son buenas. +Doble hebra otra vez, pero dentro de ellas, estn infectadas con un virus eso es bueno, un genoma largo de una sola hebra que podemos doblar como una pieza de papel, +y as es como lo hacemos. +Esto es parte de ese genoma. +Agregamos un puado de ADN sinttico corto que llamo "ganchos". +Cada uno tiene una parte sobrante que une la cadena larga en un punto, y una mitad derecha que la une en un punto distinto y acerca la cadena larga as. +La accin neta de varios de estos ganchos en la hebra larga es que lo pliega en un tipo de rectngulo. +Ahora, no podemos hacer una pelcula de este proceso, pero Shawn Douglas en Harvard nos ha hecho una buena visualizacin que comienza con una cadena larga y que tiene algunas hebras cortas. +Y lo que ocurre es que mezclamos estas hebras. +Las calentamos, agregamos un poco de sal, las calentamos hasta casi hervir y las enfriamos, y mientras las enfriamos, las cadenas cortas unen las hebras largas y comienzan a formar una estructura +como pueden ver, algunas doble hlices se forman por ah. +Cuando ven al origami de ADN, pueden ver que lo que es en realidad, es, aunque piensen que es complicado, un grupo de doble hlices que estn paralelas entre s y que se mantienen juntas en puntos donde las cadenas cortas siguen una hlice y luego saltan a la otra. +As que hay una hebra que va as, recorre una hlice y la une... salta a otra hlice y regresa, +eso une la hebra larga as. +Ahora, para mostrarles que podemos hacer cualquier forma o patrn que queramos, intent hacer esta forma. +Quise doblar el ADN en algo que vaya encima del ojo, bajo la nariz, sobre la nariz, alrededor de la frente, baja un poco y al final en un bucle como ste. +As que, pens que si esto pudiera funcionar, cualquier cosa podra funcionar. +as que dise los ganchos cortos en el programa de computadora, +los orden, llegaron por FedEx. +Los mezcl, los calent, los enfri, y obtuve 50 billones de pequeas caritas sonrientes flotando en una gota de agua. +Y cada una de stas es slo una milsima parte del ancho de un cabello humano, bien? +Entonces, estn flotando en solucin, y para verlos, deben ponerlos en una superficie donde se peguen. +Entonces, los ponen en una superficie y comienzan a adherirse a sta, y tomamos una imagen usando un microscopio de fuerza atmica +que tiene una aguja, como la de un tocadiscos, que va de un lado al otro de la superficie, salta arriba y abajo y siente la altura de la superficie. +Siente el origami de ADN. +Ah est el microscopio de fuerza atmica trabajando y pueden ver que el aterrizaje es un poco duro. +Cuando hacen un acercamiento, tienen, saben, mandbulas dbiles que cuelgan sobre sus cabezas y algunas de sus narices quedan golpeadas, pero es bastante bueno. +Pueden acercarse ms e incluso ver un bucle extra, este pequeo nano-moco. +Ahora, lo que es genial sobre esto es que cualquiera puede hacerlo. +Entonces me lleg esto por correo un ao despus de hacer esto, sin solicitarlo. +Alguien sabe lo que es? qu es? +es China, cierto? +Entonces, lo que ocurri es que un estudiante de posgrado en China, Lulu Quian, hizo un gran trabajo. +Ella escribi su propio software para disear y construir este origami de ADN, una hermosa interpretacin de China, que incluso tiene a Taiwan, y pueden ver que es como la pennsula ms pequea del mundo, cierto? +Entonces, esto funciona realmente bien y pueden hacer patrones y formas, s? +Y pueden hacer un mapa de las Amricas y deletrear ADN con ADN. +Y lo que es realmente fantstico sobre esto... bueno, de hecho todo esto parece nano-arte, pero resulta que el nano-arte es lo que se necesita para hacer nano-circuitos. +Entonces, pueden poner componentes de circuitos en los ganchos, como un foco y un interruptor. +Dejar que se ensamble, y obtienen un tipo de circuito. +Y entonces pueden, quizs, lavar el ADN y dejar las sobras del circuito. +As que, esto es lo que algunos colegas mos en Caltech hicieron. +Tomaron el origami de ADN, organizaron algunos nano-tubos de carbono, hicieron un pequeo interruptor, lo pueden ver aqu, conectado, lo probaron y mostaron que efectivamente es un interruptor +Ahora, esto es slo un interruptor y se necesitan 500 mil millones para una computadora, as que falta un largo camino. +Pero esto es prometedor porque el origami puede organizar las partes a una dcima del tamao de los de una computadora normal. +As que es muy prometedor para hacer pequeas computadoras. +Ahora, quiero volver al compilador. +El origami de ADN es una prueba de que el compilador funciona. +As que, comienzan con algo en la computadora. +Obtienen una descripcin de alto nivel del programa computacional, una descripcin de algo nivel del origami. +Lo pueden compilar en molculas, enviarlo a un sintetizador y realmente funciona. +Y sucede que una compaa ha hecho un buen programa que es mucho mejor que mi cdigo, que estaba feo, y nos permitir hacerlo de forma visual asistida por computadora para disear. +Entonces, ahora pueden decir -est bien, por qu la historia no se acaba con origami de ADN? +Tienen su compilador molecular, pueden hacer lo que quieran. +El hecho es que no se escala. +As que si queiren construir un humano a partir de origami de ADN, el problema es que necesitan una hebra larga que es tan larga como 10 billones de billones de bases. +Eso son tres aos luz de ADN, as que no lo haremos. +Veremos otra tecnologa llamada "auto-ensamblaje algortmico de mosaicos". +Iniciado por Erik Winfree, y lo que hace, es que tiene mosaicos que son una centsima del tamao del origami de ADN. +Si haces un acercamiento, son slo cuatro hebras de ADN y tienen pequeos bits de una hebra en ellas que pueden unirse a otros mosaicos si coinciden. +Y nos gusta dibujar estos mosaicos como pequeos cuadros. +Y si ven a los extremos pegajosos, estos pequeos bits de ADN, pueden ver que forman un patrn de tablero de ajedrez. +Entonces, estos mosaicos haran un complicado tablero de ajedrez que se ensambla a s mismo. +Y el punto de esto, si no lo notaron, es que los mosaicos son como un programa molecular y pueden producir patrones. +Y una parte realmente sorprendente de esto es que cualquier programa computacional puede traducirse en uno de estos programas de mosaicos -- especficamente, contar. +Entonces, puedes terminar con un grupo de mosaicos que cuando se juntan, forman un contador binario en vez de un tablero de ajedrez. +As que pueden leer nmeros binarios, cinco, seis y siete. +Y para lograr que este tipo de conteos comiencen adecuadamente, necesitan algn tipo de aporte, como una semilla. +Pueden usar el origami de ADN para ello. +Pueden codificar el nmero 32 en el lado derecho del origami de ADN y cuando agregan esos mosaicos que cuentan, empezarn a contar, leern ese 32 y se detendrn en 32. +Entonces, lo que hemos hecho es que hemos encontrado una forma de hacer que un programa molecular sepa cundo dejar de crecer. +ste sabe cundo dejar de crecer porque puede contar. +Sabe qu tan grande es. +Entonces, eso responde a la primera pregunta de la que hablaba. +sin embargo, no nos dice cmo lo hacen los bebs. +Entonces ahora, podemos usar este conteo para intentar obtener cosas mucho ms grandes que con slo origami de ADN. +Aqu est el origami de ADN, y lo que podemos hacer es que podemos escribir 32 en ambos lados del origami de ADN y podemos usar nuestra regadera para regar mosaicos y podemos empezar a hacer crecer mosaicos a partir de eso y crear un cuadro. +El contador sirve como molde para llenar un cuadro en el centro de esta cosa. +As que, hemos tenido xito en hacer algo mucho ms grande que el origami de ADN al combinar el origami de ADN con mosaicos. +Y lo fantstico de esto es, que tambin es reprogramable. +Pueden cambiar un par de hebras de ADN en esta representacin binaria y obtendrn 96 en vez de 32. +Y si lo hacen, el origami es del mismo tamao, pero el cuadro resultante es tres veces ms grande. +Entonces, esto como que recapitula lo que les deca sobre el desarrollo. +Tienen un programa computacional muy sensible donde los pequeos cambios -- nicas, minsculas, pequeas mutaciones-- pueden tomar algo que hace un cuadro de un tamao y lo convierte en algo mucho ms grande. +Ahora, eso se logra usando el conteo para computar y construir este tipo de cosas a travs de este tipo de procesos de desarrollo es algo que tambin tiene que ver con la pregunta de Craig Venter. +Entonces, pueden preguntar, cuntas hebras de ADN se necesitan para construir un cuadro de cierto tamao? +Si quisiramos hacer un cuadro de tamao 10, 100 o 1000, si slo usramos origami de ADN, necesitaramos el nmero de hebras que sea el cuadrado del tamao de ese cuadro, entonces necesitaramos 100, 10,000 o un milln de hebras de ADN. +Eso no est al alcance. +Pero si usamos un poco de computacin -- usamos origami, ms algunos mosaicos que cuentan-- entonces podemos lograrlo usando 100, 200 o 300 hebras de ADN. +Y as podemos reducir exponencialmente el nmero de hebras de ADN que usamos si usamos el conteo, si usamos un poco de computacin. +Y entonces la computacin es una forma poderosa de reducir el nmero de molculas que se necesitan para construir algo, para reducir el tamao del genoma de lo que estn construyendo. +Y finalmente, volver a esa idea loca sobre computadoras construyendo computadoras. +Si observan al cuadro que construyeron con el origami y algunos contadores creciendo de l, el patrn que tiene es exactamente el patrn que necesitan para hacer una memoria. +Entonces si le ponen algunos cables e interruptores a esos mosaicos, en vez de las cadenas gancho, los pegan a los mosaicos, entonces ellos auto-ensamblarn los circuitos ms o menos complicados los circuitos "des-multiplexores" que necesitan para consultar esta memoria. +Entonces pueden, realmente, hacer un circuito complicado usando un poco de computacin. +Es una computadora molecular construyendo una computadora electrnica. +Ahora, me preguntan, qu tanto hemos logrado de este camino? +Experimentalmente, esto es lo que hemos hecho el ltimo ao. +Aqu est un rectngulo de origami de ADN, y aqu hay algunos mosaicos creciendo a partir de l. +Y pueden ver cmo cuentan. +uno, dos, tres, cuatro, cinco, seis, nueve, 10, 11, 12, 17. +Tiene algunos errores, pero al menos puede contar. +Resulta que tuvimos esta idea hace nueve aos, y esa es ms o menos la constante de tiempo de lo que toma hacer este tipo de cosas, as que creo que hemos hecho un gran progreso. +Tenemos ideas para corregir estos errores. +Y creo que en los prximos 10 aos, podremos hacer el tipo de cuadros que les describ y quizs incluso podamos hacer algunos de esos circuitos auto-ensamblados. +Ahora, qu quisiera que se lleven de esta charla? +Quiero que recuerden que para crear las formas tan complejas y diversas de la vida, la vida usa computacin para hacerlo. +Y las computaciones que usa, son computaciones moleculares, y para poder entenderlo y manejarlo mejor, como dijo Feynman, saben, necesitamos construir algo para entenderlo. +Y entonces usaremos molculas para redisear esta cosa, reconstruir todo desde el principio, usando ADN en formas que la naturaleza nunca pretendi, usando origami de ADN, y el origami de ADN para iniciar este auto-ensamblaje algortmico. +Saben, esto es genial, pero lo que quisiera que se lleven de la charla, ojal de algunas de esas grandes preguntas, es que esta programacin molecular no se trata slo de hacer dispositivos. +No es slo sobre -- hacer telfonos celulares y circuitos auto-ensamblados. +De lo que realmente se trata es tomar la Informtica terica y observar las grandes preguntas con una nueva luz, preguntar nuevas versiones de estas grandes preguntas e intentar de entender cmo la biologa puede hacer cosas tan maravillosas. Gracias. +Voy a tratar de explicar porqu es que quizs no entendemos tanto como creemos. +Me gustara comenzar con cuatro preguntas. +Esto no es algn tipo de cosa cultural por la poca del ao. +Eso fue una broma, por cierto. +Pero estas cuatro preguntas, en realidad, son de las que incluso las personas que saben mucho de ciencia encuentran difcil. +Y estas son preguntas que he hecho a productores de televisin de ciencia, educadores de ciencia -- profesores de ciencia -- y tambin a nios de siete aos, y encuentro que los nios de siete aos las responden mejor que las otras personas, lo cual es de algn modo sorprendente. +Entonces la primer pregunta, y querrn anotar esto, o en un pedazo de papel, fsicamente, o en un trozo de papel virtual en sus mentes y, para los que estn mirando desde sus casas, pueden intentar esto tambin. +Una pequea semilla pesa casi nada, y un rbol pesa mucho, correcto? +Creo que estamos de acuerdo en eso. De dnde es que el rbol obtiene lo que necesita para formar esta silla? De dnde viene todo esto? +Y su siguiente pregunta es, pueden encender una pequea lamparita de linterna con una pila, una lamparita y un trozo de alambre? +Y seran capaces de dibujar un -- no tienen que hacer el diagrama, pero seran capaces de dibujar el diagrama si tuvieran que hacerlo, o diran que, eso no es posible? +La tercer pregunta es por qu hace ms calor en verano que en invierno? +Creo que probablemente podemos estar de acuerdo en que hace ms calor en verano que en invierno, pero por qu? Y finalmente, seran capaces de -- y pueden garabatearlo si desean -- garabatear un diagrama del sistema solar, mostrando la forma de las rbitas de los planetas? +Seran capaces de hacer eso? +Y si pueden, slo garabateen un patrn. +Bien. Ahora, los nios obtienen sus ideas de -- no de sus maestros, como los maestros a menudo creen, sino en realidad del sentido comn, de la experiencia del mundo que los rodea, de todas las cosas que suceden entre ellos y sus semejantes, y sus cuidadores, y sus padres, y todo eso, experiencia. +Y uno de los ms grandes expertos en esta rea, por supuesto era, bendganlo, el cardenal Wolsey. Tengan cuidado con lo que meten en la mente de los dems porque es prcticamente imposible cambiarlo luego, cierto? +No estoy completamente seguro cmo muri l, en realidad. +Fue decapitado al final o colgado? +Ahora, esas preguntas, que ustedes por supuesto tuvieron correctas, y no han consultado a nadie, +y yo -- normalmente, elijo personas y las humillo, pero quizs en esta instancia no. +Una pequea semilla pesa mucho y, bsicamente, todo ese material, 99 por ciento de ese material vino del aire. +Ahora, les aseguro que aproximadamente el 85 por ciento de ustedes, o quizs es menor en TED, hubieran dicho que vena del suelo, y algunas personas, probablemente dos de ustedes, vendrn a discutir conmigo despus, y a decir que en realidad viene del suelo. +Ahora, si eso fuera verdad, tendramos camiones recorriendo el pas, llenando los jardines de las personas con tierra, sera un negocio fantstico. +Pero, en realidad no hacemos eso. +La mayor parte de eso sale del aire. +Ahora, yo aprob todos los exmenes de biologa, en Gran Bretaa. +Los aprob muy bien, pero igual sal de la universidad pensando que todo ese material provena del suelo. +La segunda, pueden encender una pequea lamparita de linterna con una pila, una lamparita y un trozo de alambre? +S, pueden, y les mostrar en un segundo cmo hacerlo. +Elegimos el MIT porque, obviamente, es bastante lejos de aqu, y a ustedes no les importara mucho, pero result ser de la misma manera en Gran Bretaa que en la costa oeste de Estados Unidos, +y les hicimos estas preguntas, y les hicimos aquellas preguntas de los graduados de ciencia, y ellos no pudieron responder. +Y entonces, hay muchsima gente diciendo, "Estara muy sorprendido si me dijeras que esto viene del aire. +Para m eso es muy sorprendente". Y esos son graduados de ciencia. +Y terminamos -- para rematarla -- con, "Somos la primer universidad de la ciencia en el mundo", porque a los britnicos les gusta ser arrogantes. +Y cuando le dimos esa pregunta a los ingenieros graduados, dijeron que no poda ser. +Y cuando les dimos una pila y un trozo de alambre, y una lamparita, y dijimos, "Pueden hacerlo?" No pudieron hacerlo. Cierto? +Y eso no fue diferente del Colegio Imperial, en Londres, por cierto, no es una especie de cosa antiestadounidense. +Entonces, la razn por la que esto importa ahora es que pagamos muchsimo dinero para ensear a las personas; podramos tambin hacerlo bien. +Eso es lo que las plantas en realidad hacen para vivir. +Y, para algn finlands en la audiencia, eso es un juego de palabras finlands, estamos, literalmente y metafricamente, patinando en hielo fino si no entendemos ese tipo de cosas. +Ahora, as es como hacen lo de la pila y la lamparita. +Es tan fcil, no? Por supuesto, todos lo saban. +Pero si ustedes no han jugado con una pila y una lamparita, si slo han visto un diagrama de un circuito, podran no ser capaces de hacerlo, y ese es uno de los problemas. +Entonces, por qu es ms caluroso en verano que en invierno? +Aprendemos, de nios, que nos acercamos a algo que est caliente, y te quema. Es una enseanza muy poderosa. y sucede bastante temprano. +Por extensin, pensamos para nosotros, que la razn por la que es ms caluroso en verano que en invierno debe ser que estamos ms cerca del sol. +Les aseguro que la mayora de ustedes hubieran dicho eso. +Ah, estn todos sacudiendo sus cabezas, pero slo unos pocos de ustedes estn sacudiendo sus cabezas con seguridad, +los otros estn, como haciendo as. Cierto. +Hace ms calor en verano que en invierno porque los rayos del sol, se dispersan ms derechos, por la inclinacin de la Tierra. +Y si piensan que la inclinacin nos acerca, no, no es as. +El Sol est a 150 millones de kilmetros de distancia, y nos inclinamos as, cierto? +No hace ninguna diferencia, de hecho, en el hemisferio norte estamos ms lejos del Sol en verano, como sucede, pero eso no hace la diferencia. +Bien, ahora, el garabato del diagrama del sistema solar. +Si ustedes creen, como la mayora de ustedes deben creer, que hace ms calor en verano que en invierno porque estamos ms cerca del Sol, habrn dibujado una elipse. +Correcto? Eso lo explicara, no? +Excepto que, en sus -- estn asintiendo -- ahora, en sus elipses, hubieran pensado, "Bueno, qu sucede durante la noche?" +Entonces, aqu hay un plano del punto de vista copernicano sobre cmo se vea el sistema solar, +eso es bastante parecido a lo que ustedes deben tener en su trozo de papel. Cierto? +Y esto es una vista de la NASA. Son sensacionalmente parecidos. +Espero que hayan notado la coincidencia aqu. +Qu hubieran hecho si supieran que las personas tienen esa equivocacin, en sus mentes, de rbitas elpticas ocasionadas por nuestras experiencias de nios? +Qu clase de diagrama les mostraran del sistema solar, para mostrarles que realmente no es as? +Les mostraran algo as, no? +Es un plano, mirndolo de arriba hacia abajo. +Pero no, miren lo que encontr en los libros de texto, +eso es lo que le muestran a las personas, correcto? Estos son de los libros de texto, de los sitios web, de los sitios web educativos, y prcticamente todo lo que encuentran es as. +Y la razn por la que es as es porque es muy aburrido tener una enorme cantidad de crculos concntricos mientras que eso es mucho ms apasionante, mirar a algo con ese ngulo, Cierto? Y hacindolo con ese ngulo, si tienen esa equivocacin en sus mentes, entonces la representacin en dos dimensiones de algo tridimensional ser una elipse. +Entonces -- es horrible, no? +Entonces, con estos modelos mentales, buscamos evidencia que reafirme nuestros modelos. +Entonces, estando en Estados Unidos, voy a escarbar en los europeos. +Estos son ejemplos de lo que yo llamara malas prcticas de la ciencia, de los centros de estudio. Estas imgenes son del parque de La Villete en Francia, y el ala de bienvenida del Museo de Ciencias de Londres. +Y s que si los graduados del MIT y en el Colegio Imperial de Londres hubieran tenido la pila y el alambre, y los pedazos de cosas, hubieran podido hacerlo, hubieran aprendido cmo funciona realmente, en vez de pensar que siguiendo diagramas de circuitos no pueden hacerlo. +Entonces, la buena interpretacin es ms sobre cosas que se pueden enredar y rellenar, y de nuestro mundo, Cierto? +Y cosas que -- donde no existe una barrera extra de un trozo de vidrio, o titanio, se ven fabulosas, OK? +Y el exploratorio hace eso muy pero muy bien, +y es amateur, pero en el mejor sentido, en otras palabras, siendo la raz de la palabra el amor y la pasin. +Entonces, los nios no son recipientes vacos, cierto? +Entonces, como dira Monty Python, esto es bastante evidente para decirlo, pero los nios no son recipientes vacos. +Ellos tienen sus propias ideas y sus propias teoras, y a menos que trabajen con ellas, no podrn cambiarlas, cierto? Y yo probablemente no haya cambiado sus ideas de cmo opera el mundo y el universo, tampoco. +Pero esto aplica, de igual modo, a asuntos sobre cmo vender la nueva tecnologa. +Por ejemplo, estamos -- en Gran Bretaa, estamos intentando hacer un cambio digital de toda la poblacin hacia la tecnologa digital para la televisin. +Y una de las cosas difciles, es que cuando las personas tienen una idea preconcebida de como funciona todo, es bastante difcil de cambiarla. +Entonces, no somos recipientes vacos, los modelos mentales que tenemos como nios perduran hacia la edad adulta. +La mala enseanza en realidad hace ms dao que bien. +En este pas, y en Gran Bretaa, el magnetismo es entendido mejor por los nios antes de que hayan estado en la escuela que despus, correcto? +Lo mismo con la gravedad, dos conceptos, entonces es bastante humillante, para los maestros, si miran antes y despus, es bastante preocupante. Les va peor en los exmenes despus de la enseanza. +Y nos confabulamos, diseamos exmenes, o por lo menos en Gran Bretaa, para que las personas los aprueben, Correcto? +Y los gobiernos lo hacen muy bien. Ellos se palmean las espaldas. +Entonces lo ms importante de todo esto es hacer que las personas articulen sus modelos. +Su tarea es -- a ver, Cmo hace el ala de una aeronave para elevarla? +Una pregunta obvia, y tendrn una respuesta ahora en sus mentes, +y la segunda pregunta a eso entonces es, asegrense de haber explicado cmo es que los aviones pueden volar al revs. +Aj, correcto. La segunda pregunta es, por qu el mar es azul? Correcto? +Y todos ustedes tienen una idea de la respuesta en sus mentes. +Entonces, Por qu es azul los das nublados? Ah, entienden. +Siempre he querido decir eso en este pas. +Por ltimo, mi splica hacia ustedes es que se permitan, y permitan a sus nios, y a cualquiera que conozcan, jugar con las cosas, porque es a travs del juego con las cosas que ustedes complementan el otro aprendizaje. No es un reemplazo, es una parte del aprendizaje que es importante. +Muchas gracias. +Ahora, oh, oh si, continen entonces, continen. +Stephanie White: Dejar que se presente ella misma. +Nos puedes decir tu nombre? +Einstein: Einstein. +SW: Esta es Einstein nos puedes decir hola a todos? +E: Hola. +SW: Qu lindo, sabes ser corts? +E: Hola, cario. +SW: Mucho mejor. Bien, Einstein se siente muy honrada de estar aqu en TED 2006, entre todos los Einstein modernos. De hecho, est muy emocionada +E: Woo. +SW: Yeah. +Desde que llegamos, ha habido constantes rumores de todos los fascinantes ponentes aqu en la conferencia. +Esta maana omos muchos rumores acerca de la sesin de cierre de Tom O'Reilly el sbado. Einstein los oste? +E: SW: Yeah. +Einstein tiene especial inters en la charla de Penlope. +Mucha de su investigacin es en cuevas, que puede ser bastante polvosos. +E: Ach! +SW: Que la hacen estornudar, pero ms importante es que su investigacin servira para hallar una cura a la constante ronquera de Einstein. +Einstein: SW: Yeah. +Bien, Bob Russell nos cont de su trabajo en nanotubos en su investigacin a nivel microscpico. +Bueno eso es genial, pero lo que Einstein en realidad espera es que l pueda crear genticamente un cacahuate de ms de 2 kilos. +E: Dios mo! Dios mo! +SW: Yeah. En verdad se emociona muchsimo. +Ese es un cacahuate grande. Dado que Einstein es un ave le interesa las cosas que vuelan, +cree que Burt Rutan es muy impresionante. +E: Ooh. +SW: Yeah. En especial le gusta su logro ms reciente, SpaceShipOne. +Einstein, te gustara pasear en la nave de Burt? +E: (Sonido de nave espacial) SW: Aunque no tenga un lser? +E: (Sonido de lser) SW: S, eso estuvo muy chistoso, Einstein. +Ahora, Einstein tambin piensa que trabajar en cuevas y viajar a travs del espacio son trabajos muy peligrosos. +Sera muy peligroso si te cayeras. +E: Guiiiiiiiiiiii! Plaf! SW: Yeah. +Un porrazo al final. Einstein te doli? +E: Ay, ay, ay +SW: Yeah. Todo esto es trabajo arduo... +E: SW: Puede hacer que un ave como Einstein se frustre. +E: SW: Sin duda. Pero cuando Einstein necesita relajarse del trabajo de educar al pblico, le encanta abrazar las artes. +Si los nios de Uganda necesitan de una compaera de baile, Einstein les queda justo porque le encanta bailar. +Te puedes menear? +E: (Meneando la cabeza) Menate para todos, vamos. +Va a hacer que lo haga tambin. Uuh, uuh. +E: Uuh, uuh. Uuh, uuh. +SW: Menea la cabeza. +Uuh, uuh, uuh, uuh. +SW: O quiz a Serena Wang le gustara aprender algunas arias con el violn y Einstein pueda acompaarla con alguna pera? +E: (Graznido operstico) SW: Muy bien. +O quiz Stu justo necesita otra cantante del coro? +Einstein, puedes cantar? +S que comerte primero la semilla puedes cantar? +E: La, la. +SW: Ya ves. Y por supuesto, si todo lo dems fallara, simplemente se puede escapar y disfrutar de la fiesta alegre. +E: SW: Muy bien. Bueno, en un principio a Einstein le daba pena admitir algo, pero tras bambalinas me cont que tena un problema. +E: Qu pasa? +SW: Yo no tengo problemas, t tienes un problema recuerdas? +Me dijiste que estabas apenadsima, porque estabas enamorada de un pirata. +E: Yar. +SW: Ya ves, y a los piratas que les gusta tomar? +E: Cerveza. +SW: Cierto pero a ti no te gusta beber cerveza, Einstein? +A ti te gusta beber agua. +E: (Sonido de agua) SW: Muy bien. Ahora s que est muy nerviosa, +porque una de sus personas favoritas del pueblo est aqu y tiene nervios por conocerlo. +Piensa que Al Gore es sin duda un hombre guapo. +Qu le dices a un hombre guapo? +E: Hola, nene. +SW: Al igual que a toda la gente all en casa en Tennessee. +E: Yeehah. +SW: Y como es una gran admiradora sabe que su cumpleaos es ya a finales de marzo. +No creemos que est por aqu para entonces, as que Einstein quisiera hacerle algo especial. +Veamos si Einstein puede cantar "Feliz Cumpleaos" a Al Gore. +Puedes cantarle "Feliz Cumpleaos"? +E: Feliz cumpleaos a ti. +SW: Otra vez. +E: Feliz cumpleaos a ti. +SW: Otra vez. +E: Feliz cumpleaos a ti. +SW: Gran final. +E: Feliz cumpleaos a ti. +SW: Bien hecho! +Bueno, antes de cerrar, le gustara dar un fuerte saludo a todos nuestros amigos en el Zoolgico Knoxville. +Einstein quieres saludar a todos los bhos? +E: Uuh. uuh. uuh. +SW: A los otros pjaros? +E: Po, po, po. +SW: Al pingino? +E: Cuac, cuac, cuac. +SW: Ah vamos. +Vamos por ms qu hay del chimpanc? +E: Ooh, ooh, ooh. Aah, aah, aah. +SW: Muy bien. +Qu hay del lobo? +E: Auuuuuuu. +SW: y el cochino? +E: Huik, huik, huik. +SW: Y el gallo? +E: Kikirikik! +SW: Y qu hay de los gatos? +E: Miau. +SW: En el zoolgico tenemos gatos grandes de la jungla. +Einstein: Grrrrr. +SW: Y qu me dices del zorrillo? +E: Apestoso. +SW: Es una comediante. Supongo que crees que eres famosa eres famosa? +E: Superestrella. +SW: Yeah. Eres una superestrella. +Bueno, nos gustara animar a todos Uds. que hagan su parte en ayudar a proteger a los animales amigos de Einstein y ayuden a proteger los lugares que habitan. +Ahora, Einstein dice que mejor le pregunten, +por qu querramos proteger tu hogar? +E: Soy especial. +SW: Eres muy especial. Qu te gustara decirle a toda esta linda gente? +E: Los amo. +SW: Bien, les mandas un beso? +E: (Sonido de beso) SW: Y qu dices cuando es hora de partir? +E: Adis +SW: Bien hecho. Gracias a todos. +Mi objetivo en la vida desde nio ha sido, y sigue siendo, llevaros a todos vosotros al espacio. +Durante nuestras vidas vamos a conseguir que la Tierra, que la gente de la Tierra realice una transicin permanente. Es una idea excitante. +De hecho, creo que es un imperativo moral que abramos las fronteras del espacio. +Fijaos, es la primera vez que vamos a tener la ocasin de lograr la redundancia planetaria. La ocasin, por as decirlo, de tener una copia de seguridad de la biosfera. +Y si pensamos en el espacio, todo lo que consideramos valioso en nuestro planeta -- metales, minerales, terreno y energa -- existe en cantidades ilimitadas en el espacio. +De hecho, la Tierra es una migaja en un supermercado repleto de recursos. +Para m, la analoga perfecta es Alaska. Ya sabis que compramos Alaska. +Los estadounidenses compramos Alaska hacia 1850. Se conoce como la Locura de Seward. +La valoramos en funcin del nmero de pieles de foca que podamos conseguir. +Y despus descubrimos todo lo dems -- oro, petrleo, pesca, madera -- y como ya sabis, se convirti en una economa de un billn de dlares y ahora nos vamos all de luna de miel. Lo mismo ocurrir con el espacio. +Estamos a las puertas de la mayor exploracin que la raza humana haya conocido. +Exploramos por tres razones, la menos importante de las cuales es la curiosidad. +An as ha asegurado el presupuesto de la NASA hasta la fecha. +Algunas imgenes de Marte tomadas en 1997. +De hecho creo que en la prxima dcada, sin duda alguna, descubriremos que hay vida en Marte y que est literalmente omnipresente bajo el suelo y en diferentes zonas del planeta. +La motivacin ms fuerte, mucho ms fuerte, es el miedo. +Y por supuesto, la tercera motivacin, que aprecio como empresario que soy, es la riqueza. +De hecho, la ms inmensa riqueza. Si pensamos en los dems asteroides, existe una clase que contiene nquel y hierro que solamente en los mercados de los metales del grupo del platino tendra un valor de unos 20 billones de dlares, si uno es capaz de salir al espacio a por una de estas rocas. +Mi plan es ofrecer opciones de venta en el mercado de metales preciosos, y a continuacin declarar pblicamente que voy a capturar un asteroide. +Esto financiar la misin encargada de obtenerlo. +Pero son el miedo, la curiosidad y la codicia lo que nos ha impulsado. +En mi caso -- soy el nio de poca estatura a la derecha -- +esto fue -- mi motivacin lleg realmente durante la misin Apollo. +Apollo fue una de las mayores motivaciones de la historia. +Si uno piensa en lo que ocurri al inicio de -- a principio de los 60, el 25 de mayo, John F. Kennedy dijo: "Vamos a ir a la Luna. +Y la gente dej sus trabajos, y se traslad a sitios poco conocidos para poder participar en tan asombrosa misin. +El caso es que no sabamos nada sobre viajar al espacio. +Pasamos literalmente de poner a Alan Shepard en un vuelo suborbital a viajar a la Luna en un plazo de ocho aos, y la edad media de las personas que lo hicieron posible era de 26 aos. +Desconocan lo que no poda hacerse. +Tuvieron que inventarlo todo -- +y eso, amigos mos, es una increble motivacin. +Este es un -- este es Gene Cernan, un buen amigo mo, diciendo "Si yo puedo ir a la Luna--" es el ltimo ser humano que ha estado en la Luna hasta la fecha -- "nada es imposible, nada. Por supuesto siempre hemos pensado en el gobierno como el encargado de llevarnos al espacio. +Ahora bien, yo planteo lo siguiente: el gobierno no nos va a llevar all. +El gobierno es incapaz de asumir los riesgos necesarios para abrir esta valiosa frontera. +Con el transbordador espacial cada lanzamiento cuesta mil millones de dlares. +Es una cifra lamentable. No es razonable. +No deberamos estar contentos y conformes con ello. +Una de las cosas que hicimos con el Ansari X PRIZE fue plantear el reto de que asumir riesgos est bien. +Al prepararnos para cruzar una nueva frontera, se nos debera permitir arriesgarnos. +De hecho, hay que ignorar a cualquiera que afirme que no deberamos arriesgarnos, porque, a medida que avanzamos, los mayores descubrimientos que lograremos siempre estarn un poco ms all. +Los emprendedores del negocio del espacio son los mamferos peludos, y evidentemente el complejo industrial militar -- con Boeing, Lockheed y la NASA -- son los dinosaurios. +La capacidad de acceder a estos recursos para conseguir la redundancia planetaria -- ahora podemos reunir toda la informacin, los cdigos genticos, ya sabis, todo lo que contienen nuestras bases de datos, y guardar una copia fuera de nuestro planeta, por si se diera una situacin catastrfica. +La dificultad estriba en llegar, y la clave est en el coste de ponerse en rbita. +Una vez que ests en rbita, has recorrido dos tercios del camino, en trminos energticos, a cualquier lugar -- la Luna, Marte. Y hoy en da, slo existen tres vehculos -- el transbordador estadounidense, el Soyuz ruso y el vehculo chino -- que puedan llegar a la rbita. +Son 100 millones de dlares por cada persona que viaja en el transbordador espacial. +Una de las empresas que puse en marcha, Space Adventures, te puede vender un billete. +Ya hemos hecho dos viajes a la estacin espacial por 20 millones de dlares, y anunciaremos otros dos en el Soyuz. +Pero resulta caro y para apreciar el potencial -- es caro. Pero hay gente dispuesta a pagarlo! +El caso es que vivimos en una poca nica. +Por primera vez tenemos suficiente riqueza concentrada en manos de unos pocos individuos y la tecnologa que nos permitir impulsar la exploracin espacial resulta accesible. +Pero, hasta qu punto puede abaratarse? Quiero mostrar el resultado final. +Sabemos que hoy da, con 20 millones de dlares se puede comprar un billete, pero cunto se podra abaratar? +Debemos repasar la fsica de secundaria. +Si calculamos la energa potencial, mgh, que supone elevarnos junto con el traje espacial unos trescientos kilmetros, y despus nos aceleramos hasta 28.000 kilmetros por hora. Recordad, un medio de M por V al cuadrado -- as se calcula. +Son unos 5,7 Gigajulios de energa. +Si se gastara esa energa en una hora, seran 1,6 Megavatios. +Teniendo uno de esos microgeneradores de Vijay con un coste de siete centavos el kilovatio hora -- alguien sabe calcular con rapidez? +Cunto me costara viajar al espacio con mi traje espacial? +100 dlares. Hasta ese punto llega la mejora en el precio -- harn falta algunos avances increbles en fsica, eso lo admito. +Pero, amigos mos, si la historia nos ha enseado algo, es que si uno puede imaginarlo, acabar por conseguirlo. +No dudo que la fsica, la ingeniera necesaria para hacer posible que todos nos podamos permitir el viaje espacial, est muy cerca de ser realidad. +La dificultad es que hace falta un mercado real que impulse la inversin. +Actualmente, Boeing y Lockheed y empresas parecidas no invierten ni un dlar de su propio dinero en I+D. +Son todo fondos de investigacin gubernamentales, y bien escasos. +De hecho, las grandes corporaciones, los gobiernos, no pueden arriesgarse. +As que hace falta lo que yo llamo una reaccin econmica exotrmica en el espacio. +Cmo son los mercados comerciales mundiales hoy, el mercado mundial de lanzamientos espaciales? +Entre 12 y 15 lanzamientos al ao. +El nmero de empresas comerciales que hay? Entre 12 y 15. +Uno por empresa. No es lo que buscamos. Slo hay un mercado, al que yo llamo "cargas tiles orgnicas autocargadoras". +Incorporan su propio dinero. Son fciles de fabricar. +Son las personas. El PREMIO X de Ansari fue la solucin que se me ocurri, mientras lea sobre Lindbergh, para crear los vehculos que nos llevarn all. +Ofrecimos 10 millones de dlares en efectivo a la primera nave reutilizable que llevara a tres personas a 100 kilmetros de altitud, regresara con ellas y en un plazo de dos semanas volviera a hacer el viaje. +Entraron en la competicin 26 equipos de siete pases, cada uno de los cuales invirti entre 1 y 25 millones de dlares. +Y por supuesto, apareci el imponente SpaceShipOne, que hizo esos dos vuelos y gan la competicin. +Me gustara transportaros all, a aquella maana, con un pequeo vdeo. +Vdeo: Piloto: Encendido del cohete +Hombre: Buena suerte. +Hombre: Hemos registrado una altitud de 112 kilmetros. +Hombre: Por tanto, con mi autoridad como juez principal de la competicin Ansari X PRIZE, declaro a Mojave Aerospace Ventures la ganadora indiscutible del Ansari X PRIZE. +Peter Diamandis: Probablemente lo ms difcil que hice fue reunir los fondos para este proyecto. Era literalmente imposible. +Fuimos -- Vi a 100 200 directores generales y directores de marketing. +Nadie crea que se hubiera logrado. Todos decan: "Ah, qu piensa la NASA? +O sea, algunas personas morirn, cmo es posible que consigas llevar esto a cabo?" +Encontr a una familia de visionarios, la familia Ansari, y a Champ Car, y consegu parte del dinero, pero no los 10 millones necesarios. +Y lo que al final hice fue acudir a la industria aseguradora y compr un seguro de tipo "hoyo en uno". +Las compaas de seguros se contactaron con Boeing y Lockheed y preguntaron: "Vais a competir?" No. +Vais a competir? No. Nadie va a ganar el premio. +As que apostaron que nadie ganara antes de enero de 2005, y yo apost que alguien ganara. +Lo mejor de todo es que pudimos cobrar su cheque. +Hemos logrado mucho y ha sido un grandsimo xito. +Una de las cosas que ms feliz me hacen es que el SpaceShipOne va a exhibirse en el Museo del Aire y el Espacio, junto el Espritu de St. Louis y el avin de los Wright. +A que es genial? Bien, hablemos sobre el futuro, los pasos hacia el espacio, lo que est disponible hoy. +Actualmente se pueden experimentar vuelos sin gravedad. +En 2008, vuelos suborbitales; el precio, con Virgin, como sabis, ser de unos 200.000. +Hay tres o cuatro iniciativas serias que reducirn los precios muy rpidamente, creo que hasta unos 25.000 dlares para un vuelo suborbital. +Vuelos orbitales -- podemos llevaros a la estacin espacial. +Y realmente creo que, una vez que haya un grupo en rbita alrededor de la Tierra, s que si no lo hace alguien lo har yo, vamos a almacenar combustible, iremos directos a la Luna y nos haremos con algunos terrenos. +Un instante para los diseadores entre el pblico. +Tardamos 11 aos en conseguir el permiso de la Administracin Federal de Aviacin para los vuelos de gravedad cero. +Aqu hay algunas imgenes graciosas. Estos son Burt Rutan y mi buen amigo Greg Meronek en un vuelo en gravedad cero. La gente cree que hay una cmara de ingravidez, con un interruptor para desconectar la gravedad, pero en realidad se consigue con un vuelo parablico en un avin. +Y resulta que 7-Up ha hecho un pequeo anuncio que se emite este mes. +Podemos subir el sonido? +Vdeo: Mujer: Puedes ganar el primer billete gratis al espacio; busca en los envases especiales de Diet 7-Up. +Cuando te apetece un sabor ligero, slo se puede ir hacia arriba. +PD: Esto se rod en nuestro avin, hoy en da se puede hacer esto. +Nuestra sede est en Florida. +Permitidme hablar sobre otra cosa que me entusiasma. +El futuro de los premios. Los premios son una idea muy vieja. +Tuve el placer de tomar prestada la idea del Premio Longitude y el Premio Orteig que impuls a Lindbergh. +Y en la X PRIZE Foundation hemos tomado la decisin de llevar ese concepto ms all, hacia otras reas de la tecnologa y acabamos de preparar una nueva declaracin de intenciones: posibilitar avances radicales en la tecnologa espacial y otras tecnologas para el beneficio de la humanidad. +Esto es algo que nos entusiasma enormemente. +Le ense esta diapositiva a Larry Page, que acaba de incorporarse a nuestro consejo. +Cuando se financia una organizacin sin nimo de lucro, se tendra un apalancamiento de 50 centavos por dlar. +Si tienes una subvencin equivalente, suele ser de dos o tres a uno. +Si creas un premio, se puede tener literalmente un apalancamiento de 50 a uno sobre tu aportacin. +Eso es mucho. Y entonces se gir y me dijo, bueno, si respaldas a un instituto de premios que lleve un premio de 10, tendras 500 a uno. +Le dije que era estupendo. +As que hemos -- queremos convertir al X PRIZE en una institucin de premios de nivel mundial. +Esto es lo que ocurre cuando creas un premio, cuando lo anuncias y los equipos participantes empiezan a hacer pruebas. +Se obtiene un aumento de la publicidad, y cuando alguien lo gana, la publicidad se dispara -- si est gestionada de forma correcta -- lo que es parte de los beneficios para un patrocinador. +Entonces, una vez que alguien gana el premio, se obtienen beneficios sociales; esto es, nueva tecnologa, nuevos conocimientos. +Y los beneficios para los patrocinadores son la suma de los beneficios publicitarios y sociales a largo plazo. +Ese es valor que creemos que encierra un premio. +Si uno se dispusiera a crear el SpaceShipOne o cualquier tipo de nueva tecnologa, habra que financiarla desde el principio y mantener dicha financiacin sin un final cierto. +Podra ocurrir o no. Pero si se crea un premio, lo mejor es que sus costes de mantenimiento son muy pequeos y se paga cuando alguien tiene xito. +Orteig no pag un centavo a los nueve equipos que atravesaron -- que intentaron atravesar el Atlntico, y nosotros no pagamos un centavo hasta que alguien gan el Ansari X PRIZE. +As que los premios funcionan muy bien. +Vosotros que sois innovadores, empresarios, sabis que cuando se fija un objetivo lo primero que hay que hacer es creer que uno puede lograrlo. +Despus hay que afrontar el posible ridculo pblico del tipo: es una idea absurda, nunca funcionar. +Bueno, debe de ser una buena idea. +Alguien ofrece 10 millones de dlares para que se haga algo. +Observamos que el Ansari X PRIZE ayud a sortear los obstculos que dificultaban la innovacin. +Por tanto, como organizacin, hemos creado un proceso de descubrimiento de premios para saber cmo idear premios y redactar las normas, y estamos investigando cmo crear premios en varias categoras diferentes. +Queremos atacar los campos de la energa, medio ambiente, nanotecnologa -- hablar mas sobre ellos en seguida. +El modo en que lo hacemos es creando equipos para premios dentro del X PRIZE. Tenemos un equipo de premios sobre el espacio. +Queremos crear un premio para alcanzar la rbita. +Estamos analizando varios premios sobre la energa. +Craig Venter acaba de entrar en nuestra junta directiva y junto a l estamos creando un premio para la secuenciacin rpida del genoma. Lo anunciaremos este otoo, imaginaos poder secuenciar el ADN de cualquier persona por menos de 1.000 dlares, revolucionar la medicina. +Y agua potable, educacin, medicina e incluso iniciativas sociales. +Esta ltima diapositiva dice: la principal herramienta para resolver los grandes retos de la humanidad no es la tecnologa. No es el dinero. Es slo una cosa -- es la mente humana, cuando est comprometida y apasionada. +Bien, buenos das +La computacin y la TV cumplieron hace poco 60 aos, y hoy me gustara hablarles sobre su relacin. +A pesar de su madurez, si han seguido los temas de esta conferencia o de la industria del entretenimiento, queda bastante claro que una de ellas ha estado abusando de a la otra. +Asi que es hora de que hablemos sobre cmo la computacin embosc a la TV. O, por qu la invencin de la bomba atmica desat fuerzas que condujeron a la huelga de escritores. +Y no se trata slo de qu se hacen unos a otros, sino de qu es lo que el pblico piensa que realmente condiciona este asunto. +Para tener una nocin ms clara, y este ha sido un tema del que hemos hablado toda la semana, Recientemente habl con un grupo de veinteaeros. +En unas tarjetas escrib: tv, radio, MySpace, PC conectado a Internet. +Y les dije: ordenad estas, de la ms importante a la menos importante para vosotros y despus decidme por qu. +Escuchemos lo que ocurre cuando llegan a la parte del debate sobre la televisin: +Vdeo: Bueno, creo que es importante pero, en fin, no necesaria, porque puedes hacer muchas ms cosas con tu tiempo libre que ver programas. +Qu es ms entretenido? Internet o la TV? +Internet. +Creo que nosotros, las razones, una de las razones por la que preferimos la computadora a la TV es porque hoy en da, ya sabes, tenemos programas de TV en la computadora. +As es. Y despus puedes bajarlos a tu iPod. +Te gustara ser presidente de una cadena de TV? +No me gustara. +Sera muy estresante. +No. +Porqu? +Porque al final van a perder todo su dinero. +Como la bolsa de valores: sube y baja... +Creo que ahora las computadoras van a llevar la delantera y todo va a ir como disminuyendo. +Peter Hirshberg: no ha sido fcil la relacin entre el negocio de la TV y el de la tecnologa, en realidad desde que ambos cumplieron los 30. +Atravesamos perodos de embelesamiento seguidos por reacciones en los directorios de la comunidad finaciera que podramos definir como,cul es el trmino financiero?, "Ick pooey". +Djenme ponerles un ejemplo de esto: corre el ao 1976, y Warner compra Atari porque los juegos de video estn en auge. +Al ao siguiente avanzan juntos y lanzan Qube, el primer sistema de TV por Cable interactivo, y el New York Times lo proclama mientras las telecomunicaciones llegan a los hogares, convergencia, grandes cosas estn ocurriendo. +Todos en la costa Este se retratan, Citicorp, Penney, RCA: todos comparten esta gran visin. +A todo esto: aqu es cuando yo entro en cuadro. +Voy a hacer una pasanta de verano en Time Warner. +Ese verano me siento realizado - estoy en Warner ese verano- Estoy totalmente fascinado por trabajar en convergencia, y luego el suelo se hunde. +No sale todo bien para ellos, pierden dinero. +Y tuve un roce felz con la convergencia hasta que, de alguna manera, Warner prcticamente tiene que liquidar todo el asunto. +Ah es cuando termino mi especializacin y no puedo trabajar en New York en nada relacionado con entretenimiento y tecnologa, porque debo exiliarme en California, donde an quedan algunos empleos, cerca del mar, para ir a trabajar en Apple Computer. +Warner por supuesto pierde ms de 400 millones de dlares. +400 millones de dlares, lo que era mucho dinero en los '70. +Pero siguieron en la bsqueda y aprendieron. +All por el ao 2000 el proceso fue perfeccionado. Se fusionaron con AOL, y en slo 4 aos lograron ganar unos 200 mil millones de dlares en capitalizacin de mercado, demostrando que realmente haban dominado el arte de aplicar la ley de Moore de la miniaturizacin progresiva a su balance. +Bien, creo que una razn por la que las comunidades de medios y entretenimiento ,o comunidad meditica. se vuelve tan loca a causa de la comunidad tecnolgica es que la gente de tecnologa habla otro idioma. +Ya sabes, llevamos 50 aos hablando sobre que hay que cambiar el mundo, sobre una transformacin total. +50 aos hablando sobre esperanzas y miedos y... ...promesas de un mundo mejor y de repente pens: "quin ms habla as?" +Y la respuesta est muy clara: la gente de las religiones y de la poltica. +Y as me di cuenta que el mundo tecnolgico se comprende mejor al no verlo como ciclo de negocios, sino como movimiento mesinico. +Prometemos algo grandioso, lo evangelizamos, "vamos a cambiar el mundo", no queda muy bien del todo y as volvemos de nuevo al origen y partimos de nuevo desde cero, mientras la gente en New York y L.A. nos observa con asombro morboso. +Pero es esta visin irracional de las cosas la que nos lleva a la siguiente tarea. +As que lo que me gustara preguntarles es: si la computadora se est convirtiendo en una herramienta primordial de los medios y el entretenimiento cmo llegamos hasta aqu? +Quiero decir: cmo una mquina que fue hecha para la contabilidad y la artillera se convirti en un medio? +Asi que mirad lo que ocurre cuando el ms importante de los periodistas de la incipiente TV se encuentra con uno de los ms importantes pioneros de la informtica, y la computadora comienza a expresarse por s misma. +Video: Es una computadora electrnica Whirlwind. +Considerablemente ansiosa nos disponemos a entrevistar a esta nueva mquina. +Hola Nueva York, aqu Cambridge. +Y este es el osciloscopio de la computadora electrnica Whirlwind. +--Le gustara que usramos la mquina? +--Si, por supuesto. Pero tengo una idea, Seor Forrester: +Como esta computadora fue creada en colaboracin con la Oficina de Investigacn Naval, por qu no contactamos al Pentgono en Washington y que el jefe de investigacin naval, Almirante Bolster, le de las tareas a Whirlwind? +Bueno, Ed, este asunto concierne al cohete Viking de la marina. +Este cohete sube 217 kms hacia el cielo. +Ahora, a un nivel normal de consumo de combustible, me gustara ver a la computadora calcular el trayecto de vuelo de este cohete y ver cmo puede determinar, en cualquier momento, digamos a los 40 segundos, la cantidad de combustible que le queda, y la velocidad en ese preciso instante. +En la escala a la izquierda vern decrecer el consumo de combustible cuando el cohete despega. +Y al lado derecho hay una escala que muestra la velocidad del cohete. +La posicin del cohete se ve en la trayectoria que estamos viendo ahora. +Y cuando alcanza el pico de su trayectoria la velocidad, podrn verlo, se reduce al mnimo. +Luego cuando el cohete cae, la velocidad aumenta nuevamente hacia su mximo y el cohete impacta la superficie. +Qu tal? +Qu opina usted, Almirante? +A m me parece muy bien. +Y antes de despedirnos queremos mostrarles otro tipo de problema matemtico que algunos de los chicos resolvieron en su tiempo libre con nimo menos serio para un domingo por la tarde. Muchas gracias, Seor Forrester, y al laboratorio del MIT. +PH: Ya ven lo que se hizo. La primera interaccin en tiempo real, la pantalla de video...apuntando a un arma. Esto llevara al micro-ordenador, pero desafortunadamente era demasiado caro para la Marina. Y todo esto se habra perdido si no fuera por una feliz coincidencia: +La bomba atmica. +Estamos amenazados por el arma ms mortfera jams inventada y, sabiendo reconocer algo bueno al verlo, la Fuerza Area decide que necesita la computadora ms poderosa para protegernos. +Convierten a Whirlwind en un gigante sistema de defensa anti-area, lo despliegan a lo largo de todo el glido norte y gastan casi tres veces ms en esta computadora que lo gastado en el Proyecto Manhattan, cuando se construy la primera Bomba Atmica. +Hablando de estmulos para la industria de la computacin. +Y podrn imaginarse que la Fuerza Area se convirti en buen vendedor. +Aqu est su video de promocin. +Video: En un ataque masivo, bombarderos de alta velocidad podran estar sobre nosotros antes de que pudiramos determinar sus trayectorias. +Y entonces ya sera demasiado tarde para reaccionar. +No podemos permitirnos ese riesgo. +Para enfrentar esa amenaza la Fuerza Area ha estado desarrollando SAGE, el Sistema Semi-automtico del Sedio Terrestre, para fortalecer nuestras defensas anti-areas. +Esta nueva computadora, construida para convertirse en el nodo central de la red de defensa, puede resolver todos los complejos problemas matemticos relacionados con la respuesta a un ataque masivo enemigo. +Tiene su propia central de energa conteniendo grandes generadores alimentados por disel, sistema de aire acondicionado y torres de refrigeracin necesarias para enfriar los miles de vlvulas de vaco de la computadora. +PH: Ya sabis, aquella computadora era enorme. +Podemos sacar una interesante leccin de marketing de sto, y es bsicamente que cuando promocionas un producto puedes decir "esto va a ser maravilloso, te va a hacer sentir mejor y ms vital", +o hay otra proposicin de marketing: "si no usas nuestro producto, morirs". +Este es un buen ejemplo de lo segundo. +Esto tuvo el primer dispositivo de sealizacin. Fue distribuido, as que funcion, las computadoras y los mdems se distribuyeron, asi que todas estas cosas podan hablar unas con otras. +Alrededor del 20% de todos los programadores de la nacin se vieron metidos en esto, y llev a un horrible montn de cosas que tenemos hoy. Tambin se usaban vlvulas de vaco. +Ya vieron cuan enorme era, y para darles una idea de esto, porque hemos hablado mucho sobre la ley de Moore y el hacer las cosas pequeas en esta conferencia, asi que hablemos de hacer las cosas grandes. +Si tomamos una Whirlwind y la ponemos en un lugar que todos conocen, digamos, Century City, encajara de maravilla. +Digamos que tendran que quitar Century City, pero encajara ah. +Pero bueno, imaginemos que tomamos el ltimo procesador Pentium, el ltimo Core 2 Extreme, que tiene 4 procesadores centrales en el que Intel est trabajando, ser nuestro laptop de maana. +Para construir eso, lo que haramos con la tecnologa de Whirlwind es, deberamos subir aprximadamente desde la 10 hasta Mulholland, y desde la 405 hasta La Cienega, slo con esos Whirlwinds. +Y luego las 92 plantas nucleares que se necesitara para proveerle energa llenaran el resto de Los Angeles. +Eso es aprximadamente un tercio ms de la energa nuclear que crea toda Francia. +Asi que, la prxima vez que ellos te digan que estn en algo, claramente no lo estn. +Entonces, y an no hemos resuelto las necesidades de refrigeracin. +Pero esto te da el tipo de poder que la gente tiene, que el pblico tiene, y las razones por las que estas transformacines estn sucediendo. +Todas estas cosas comienzan a entrar en la industria. +DEC de alguna forma reduce todo esto y hace la primera mini-computadora. +Aparece en lugares como el MIT, y luego sucede una mutacin. +Se hace Spacewar, el primer juego de computadora, y de repente, la interactividad, la implicacin y la pasin estn funcionando. +En realidad, muchos estudiantes del MIT se quedaban las noches enteras trabajando en esto, y fueron desarrollados muchos de los principios de los juegos de hoy. +DEC saba algo bueno sobre la prdida de tiempo. +Envi cada una de sus computadoras con ese juego. +Mientras tanto, cuando todo esto est sucediendo a mediados de los 50 el modelo de negocio tradicional de la televisin y el cine se haba fundido completamente. +Una nueva tecnologa haba dejado perplejos a los hombres de la radio y a los empresarios del cine y estaban bastante seguros de que la televisin iba a terminar con ellos. +De hecho, la desesperacin estaba en el aire. +Y una cita que suena en gran parte nostlgica de todo lo que he estado leyendo toda la semana-- +En RCA David Sarnoff, quien bsicamente comercializaba radio, decir esto, No digo que la cadena de radio deba morir, +se ha hecho cada esfuerzo y se continuar haciendo para encontrar un nuevo modelo, nuevos acuerdos de venta y nuevos tipos de programas que puedan detener el declive de los ingresos. +An puede ser posible extender la pobre existencia de la radio, pero no se cmo. +Y por supuesto, a medida que la industria de la computacin se desarroll interactivamente, los productores del emergente negocio de la TV en realidad dieron con la misma idea. +Y la copiaron. +Video: Nios y nias, creo que todos ustedes saben como llegar a sus ventanas mgicas arriba, en el televisor, simplemente la sacan. +Primero, saca tus cosas de Winky Dink +Saca tu ventana mgica y tu guante de borrar y frota de esta manera. +Esa es la forma en que hacemos magia de esto, nios y nias. +Luego tmala y ponla arriba a la derecha contra la pantalla de tu aparato de TV y frtala desde el centro hacia las esquinas, de esta forma. +Asegrate de tener a mano tus lpices de colores mgicos, tus lpices Winky Dink y tu guante para borrar, porque los estars usando durante el show, para dibujar as. +listos? Ok, vamos directos a la primera historia sobre Dusty Man. +Entremos en el laboratorio secreto. +PH: fue el amanecer de la TV interactiva, y quizs han notado ellos querian venderles las cosas de Winky Dink. +Esos son los lpices de colores Winky Dink. Se lo que estn diciendo, +"Pete, Yo podra usar cualquier lapiz de color comn de cdigo abierto, Por qu debo comprar los suyos?" +Les aseguro que ese no es el caso. +Resulta que ellos nos decan directamente que esos eran los nicos lpices de colores que siempre debes usar con tu ventana mgica Winky Dink, otros lpices podran descolorar o daar la ventana. +Este principio propietario de la venta asegurada se perfeccionara con gran xito como uno de los principios perdurables de los sistemas de ventanas, en todos lados. +Acab en juicios. investigaciones federales, y muchas repercusiones, y ese es un escndalo que no discutiremos ahora. +Pero hablaremos de este escndalo, porque este hombre, Jack Berry, el presentador de Winky Dink, se convirti en el presentador de "21", uno de los programas de preguntas y respuestas mas importantes. +Y fue amaado, y todo se destap cuando este hombre, Charles van Doren, fue eliminado tras una increble racha ganadora, terminando con la carrera de Berry. +Y en realidad, terminando la carrera de muchas personas en la CBS. +Result que haba mucho que aprender sobre cmo funcionaba este nuevo medio. +Y hace 50 aos, si hubieran estado en una reunin como esta tratando de entender los medios, hubo un profeta, y solamente uno que les hubiese gustado escuchar, el profesor Marshall McLuhan. +El entendi realmente algo sobre un tema del que hemos estado hablando toda la semana. Es el rol del pblico en una era de comunicaciones electrnicas dominantes. +Aqu l est hablando desde los aos 60. +Video: Si el pblico puede involucrarse en el proceso mismo de hacer el anuncio, entonces es feliz. Es como los viejos programas de preguntas-- +fueron sensacionales porque le daban al pblico un rol, algo para hacer. +Y se horrorizaron cuando descubrieron que en verdad eran dejados de lado todo el tiempo porque los programas estaban trucados. +Entonces, esto fue un terrible error de la TV por parte de los programadores. +PH: Ya saben, McLuhan hablaba sobre la Aldea Global. +Si ustedes reemplazan hoy, la palabra blogsfera de Internet, es muy cierto que su comprensin es probablemente ahora muy instructiva. Escuchmosle. +Video: La aldea global es un mundo en el cual no tienes armona necesariamente, +tienes extrema preocupacin por los asuntos de los dems y mucho compromiso con la vida de los otros. +Es una especie de columna de Anne Landers pero a escala mayor +Y eso no significa necesariamente armona, paz y tranquilidad, pero s significa un enorme involucramiento en los asuntos de los dems. +Y por tanto la aldea global es tan grande como un planeta y tan pequea como una oficina de correo de un pueblo. +PH: Luego hablaremos un poco mas de l. +Ya estamos en los aos 60. +Para la computacin es la era de los grandes negocios y centros de datos. +Pero todo eso estaba a punto de cambiar. +Ustedes saben que la expresin "tecnologa" refleja la gente y el tiempo de la cultura en que fue construida. +Y cuando digo que ese cdigo expresa nuestras esperanzas y aspiraciones, no es simplemente un chiste sobre mesianismo, es realmente lo que hacemos. +Pero para esta parte de la historia, en realidad me gustara dejarla al corresponsal lder en tecnologa de los EEUU, John Markoff. +Video: Quieren saber lo que la contra-cultura de la droga, sexo, rock'n'roll y los movimientos anti belicistas tienen que ver con la computacin? Todo. +Todo sucedi a unos 8 kms de donde estoy de pie ahora, en la Universidad de Stanford, entre los aos 1960 y 1975. +En medio de la revolucin de las calles y los conciertos de rock and roll en los parques, un grupo de investigadores liderado por gente como John McCarthy, un experto en informtica del Laboratorio de Inteligencia Artificial de Stanford, y Doug Engelbart, un experto en informtica del SRI, cambiaron el mundo. +Engelbart sali de una cultura de ingeniera bastante seca, pero mientras estaba comenzando a hacer su trabajo, todas estas cosas estaban burbujeando en el centro de la Pennsula. +Haba LSD filtrndose de los experimentos del Hospital de Veteranos de Keasey, y otras reas alrededor del campus, y literalmente haba msica en las calles. +Se escuchaba al grupo Grateful Dead en las pizzeras. +La gente se marchaba para volver a la naturaleza. +Estaba la guerra de Vietnam, la liberacin de los negros, +la liberacin de las mujeres. +Este fue un lugar extraordinario en un tiempo extraordinario. +Y dentro de esta fermento apareci el microprocesador. +Creo que fue esa interaccin la que llev a la computadora personal. +Ellos vieron estas herramientas que estaban controladas por la clase dirigente como algo que en realidad poda ser liberado y puesto a disposicin de estas comunidades que estaban tratando de construir. +Y lo que es ms importante, tenan este espritu de compartir la informacin. +Creo que estas ideas son difciles de entender, porque cuando ests atrapado en un paradigma, el prximo paradigma siempre es como un universo de ciencia ficcin, no tiene sentido. +Las historias eran tan impactantes que decid escribir un libro sobre ellos. +El ttulo del libro es, "What the Dormouse Said: How the '60s Counterculture Shaped the Personal Computer Industry." +El ttulo fue tomado de la letra de una cancin de la banda Jefferson Airplane. La letra dice, "Recuerda lo que dijo el lirn, +alimenta tu cabeza, alimenta tu cabeza, alimenta tu cabeza." PH: Por aquel entonces la computacin haba saltado al territorio de los medios y pronto, mucho de lo que estamos haciendo hoy se imagin en Cambridge y en Silicon Valley. +Aqu est el Grupo de Arquitectura de Mquina predecesor del Media Lab en 1981. +Mientras tanto, en California, estbamos tratando de comercializar muchas de estas cosas. +HyperCard fue el primer programa en introducir al pblico a los hiperenlaces, donde podas al azar engancharte a cualquier tipo de imagen, o parte de texto o datos a travs del sistema de archivos, y no tenamso forma de explicarlo. +No haba metfora. Era una base de datos? +Una herramienta prototpica, un lenguage de programacin? +Diablos, era todo eso! As que terminamos haciendo un folleto de marketing. +Hicimos una pregunta sobre cmo trabaja la mente, y dejamos a nuestros clientes hacer el papel de escribir a ciegas todo lo que se les ocurra. +Unos pocos aos despes, luego dimos con la idea de explicar a la gente el secreto de cmo obtener el contenido que quieres, de la forma que quieres y por el camino mas fcil. +Aqu tienen el video promocional de Apple. +Video: Estars contento de saber, estoy seguro, que hay varios caminos para crear un video interactivo con HyperCard. +El mtodo ms complicado es seguir adelante y producir tu propio videodisco de la misma forma que armar tu propia pila de HyperCard +De lejos, el mtodo ms simple es comprar videos y pilas de HiperCard prefabricadas de un proveedor comercial. +El mtodo que ilustramos en este video usa un videodisco prefabricado pero crea pilas de Hypercard a medida. +Este mtodo te permite usar material de videos existentes de maneras que puedas satisfacer tus necesidades e intereses especficos. +PH: Espero que comprendan lo subversivo que es. +Es como un discurso de Dick Cheney. +Tu crees que es un buen tipo con poco pelo, pero l declar la guerra en el negocio de los contenidos. Encuentra las cosas de la publicidad, mzclalo y cuenta la historia a tu manera. +Ahora, mientras limitamos esto al mercado educativo, y a una cuestin personal entre la computadora y el sistema de archivos, todo va bien, pero como pueden ver, esto estaba a punto de saltar y preocupar a Jack Valenti y a muchas otras personas. +Por cierto, hablando del sistema de archivos, nunca se nos ocurri que estos hiperlinks podran ir mas all de la red de rea local. +Unos pocos aos despes, Tim Berners-Lee solucion eso. +Se convirti en una aplicacin revolucionaria que hoy, por supuesto, llamamos la World Wide Web. +Bien, yo no slo fu decisivo en ayudar a Apple a echar de menos Internet, sino que un par de aos despes ayud a Bill Gates a hacer lo mismo. +Estamos en 1993. Y l estaba trabajando en un libro y yo en un video para ayudarlo a explicar a dnde nos estbamos dirigiendo y cmo popularizar todo esto. +ramos muy conscientes de que estbamos en dificultades con respecto a los medios, y a primera vista pareca que habamos pronsticado muchas de las cosas correctamente, pero tambn se nos pasaron por alto muchas otras. Echemos un vistazo. +Video: Las pirmides, el Coliseo, el sistema de metro de Nueva York y las cenas con TV, antiguas y modernas maravillas del mundo hechas por el hombre. +Sin embargo, cada una palidece hasta la insignificancia con la finalizacin del magnfico logro de la tecnologa del siglo XXI, la Superautopista Digital. +Alguna vez fue slo un sueo de la industria tecnolgica y de unos pocos polticos ya olvidados. +La Autopista Digital lleg a los hogares de EEUU al finalizar el siglo XX. +Recordemos a los pioneros que hicieron posible esta maravilla tcnica. +La Autopista Digital seguira las senda primero marcada por Alexander Graham Bell. +Aunque algunos fueron incrdulos --La compaa telefnica! +Conmocionados por la posibilidad de comunicaciones masivas y haciendo gran cantidad de dinero en publicidad, David Sarnoff comercializa la radio. +Nunca antes los cientficos haban sido puesto ante tal presin y demanda. +El medio introdujo a EE.UU. a nuevos productos. +Es decir, Mam, Windows para la Radio significa ms placer y mayor facilidad de uso para toda la familia. +Asegrate de disfrutar Windows para la Radio en casa y en el trabajo. +En 1939 la Radio Corporation of America introdujo la televisin. +Nunca antes los cientficos haban sido puesto ante tal presin y demanda. +Finalmente la carrera hacia el futuro toma impulso con la quiebra de la compaa de telfonos. +Y mayores estmulos llegaron con la desregulacin de la industria de la televisin por cable, y la re-regulacin de la industria de la televisin por cable, +Hicimos el trabajo para construir esto, esta industria del cable, ahora las televisiones quieren algo de nuestro dinero. Quiero decir, es ridculo. +Las computadoras, que fueron una vez aquellas herramientas poco manejables de contables y otros enganchados. salieron del patio interior para entrar en la lucha de los medios. +El mundo y toda su cultura reducida a bits, la lengua franca de todos los medios. +Y las fuerzas de la convergencia explotaron. +Finalmente cuatro grandes sectores industriales se combinaron. +Telecomunicaciones, entretenimiento, computacin y todo lo dems. +Veremos canales para el gourmet y veremos canales para los amantes de mascotas. +A continuacin en el canal para gourmets y mascotas, decoracin de tartas de cumpleaos para tu schnauzer. +Toda la industria estaba en juego, mientras los inversores acudan para hacer sus apuestas. +Estaba en juego, la batalla por ti, el consumidor, y el derecho de gastar miles de millones para enviar mucha informacin a los hogares de EE.UU. PH: Pasamos mucho por alto. Ya saben, ustedes perdieron, se nos pas por alto Internet, la larga cola, el papel del pblico, los sistemas abiertos, las redes sociales. +Esto es slo para mostrarles lo dificil que es dar con el uso correcto de los medios. +Thomas Edison tuvo el mismo problema. +l escribi una lista de las cosas para las que podra ser bueno el fongrafo cuando lo invent, y por algn motivo slo una de sus ideas result haber sido la idea correcta en los inicios. +Bien, ustedes saben a dnde vamos desde aqu. +Entramos en la era de las "punto com", la world wide web, y no necesito hablarles sobre eso porque todos atravesamos juntos esa burbuja. +Pero cuando salimos de sta, y lo que llamamos Web 2.0, las cosas son en realidad bastante diferentes, +y creo que es la razn por la cual la TV es tan desafiante. +Internet 1 se basaba en pginas, ahora se basa en personas. +Es un cliente, un pblico, una persona la que est participando. +Es ese el factor formidable que est ahora cambiando el entretenimiento. +Video: Es porque le da a la audiencia un rol, algo que hacer. +PH: En mi propia compaa, Technorati, vemos que entran algo as como 67.000 entradas de blog por hora. +Eso es alrededor de 2.700 nuevos links que se conectan a travs de unos 112 millones de blogs que existen ah fuera. +Por no hablar de que mientras nos dirigimos hacia la huega de guionistas suceden cosas extraas. +Me recuerda aquella vieja mxima de Hollywood de que un productor es cualquiera que conoce a un guionista. +Ahora creo que un jefe de red es cualquiera que tiene un cable modem. +Pero no es una broma. Es un titular real, +"Sitios web atraen a los guionistas en huelga." "Operadores de sitios como Mimalditocanal.com podran beneficiarse de las disputas laborales." +Mientras tanto, ah tienen a los bloggeros de TV ponindose en huelga en apoyo de los guionistas en huelga. +Y luego tienen a TV Guide, propiedad de la Fox, que est a punto de patrocinar los premios de video online, pero lo cancelan para apoyar a la televisin tradicional, sin parecer que se regordean. +Para mostrarles cun esquizofrnico es todo esto, aqu estn las declaraciones de MySpace, o Fox Interactive, una compaia de News Corp, al ser consultadas sobre la huelga de guionistas, No va esto a daar a News Corp y ayudarles a ustedes online? +Video: Pero yo, s, creo que hay una oportunidad mientras la huelga contina, hay una oportunidad para que ms personas experimenten los videos en lugares como MySpace TV. +PH: oh, pero luego l recuerda que trabaja para Rupert Murdoch. +Video: S, bueno, antes que nada, ya saben, que yo soy parte de News Corporation como parte de Fox Entertainment Group, +obviamente esperamos que la huelga sea, que la cuestin se resuelva tan pronto como sea posible. +PH: una de las grandes cosas que est pasando aqu es que la globalizacin del contenido realmente est sucediendo. +Aqu hay un fragmento de un video, de una animacin que fue escrita por un guionista en Hollywood, ideado en Israel, desarrollado por Croacia e India, y ahora es una serie internacional. +Video: Lo siguiente sucede entre los minutos 2:15 y 2:18 de la tarde. en los meses que preceden a las primarias presidenciales. +Ustedes debern quedarse aqu, en la casa protegida hasta que nos aseguremos de que la amenaza terrorista ha terminado. +Quieren decir que tendremos que vivir todos aqu, juntos? +con ella? +Bien, ah va el vecindario. +PH: La compaa que hizo esto, Aniboom, es un ejemplo interesante de a dnde se dirige esto. En la TV tradicional, la animacin cuesta, digamos, entre 80.000 y 10.000 dlares el minuto. +Ellos estn produciendo por 1.500 y 800 dlares el minuto. +Y les estn ofreciendo a sus creadores un 30% de la venta final de una manera mucho ms emprendedora. As que es un modelo diferente. +Con lo que el negocio del entretenimiento est luchando, es lo que el mundo de las marcas est entendiendo. +Por ejemplo, Nike ahora entiende que Nike Plus no es slo un dispositivo en su calzado, es una red para enganchar a todos sus clientes juntos. +Y el jefe de marketing de Nike dice: la gente est viniendo a nuestra web un promedio de tres veces a la semana. No tenemos que ir a por ellos, +lo que significa que los anuncios en televisin han bajado un 57% para Nike. +O, como el jefe de marketing de Nike dice, "No estamos en el negocio de mantener con vida a las compaas de medios. +Estamos en el negocio de conectarnos con los consumidores." +Y las compaas de medios tambin comprenden que el pblico es importante. +Aqu tenemos a un hombre anunciando el nuevo Market Watch de Dow Jones, potenciado 100% por la experiencia de los usuarios en su pgina de inicio, el contenido generado por los usuarios se une al contenido tradicional. +Resulta que tienes un mayor pblico y ms inters si te conectas con ellos. +O, como una vez me dijo Geoffrey Moore, es la curiosidad intelectual, ese es el comercio que las marcas necesitan en la era de la blogosfera. +Y creo que esto est comenzando a suceder en el negocio del entretenimiento. +Uno de mis heroes, es la compositora, Allee Willis, quien escribi "El color prpura" y ha sido una compositora de R y rhythm and blues, y esto es lo que dijo sobre a dnde se dirige la composicin. +Allee Willis: Somos millones de colaboradores los que queremos la cancin, porque verlos estrictamente como spam es equivocarse sobre lo que va este medio. +PH: Y bueno, para terminar, me encantara volver a Marshall McLuhan, quien hace 40 aos estaba lidiando con esas audiencias que iban a pasar por tantos cambios, y creo que hoy, el Hollywood tradicional, y los guionistas estn modelando esto quizs en un modo que ya fue modelado antes. +Pero no necesito decirles esto, volvamos a l. +Video: Estamos en medio de un choque tremendo entre lo viejo y lo nuevo. +El medio afecta a la gente y la gente es siempre totalmente inconsciente de ello. +Realmente no se dan cuenta del nuevo medio que los est envolviendo. +Ellos piensan en el medio viejo porque el viejo medio es siempre el contenido del medio nuevo, como las pelculas tienden a ser el contenido de la TV, y como los libros solan ser el contenido, las novelas solan ser el contenido de las pelculas. +Y entonces, cada vez que llega un nuevo medio, el viejo medio es el contenido, y esto es altamente observable, altamente perceptible, pero en verdad, el trabajo dificil es hecho por el nuevo medio, y es, es ignorado. +PH: Creo que esta es una poca fascinante. +Se ha lanzado ah fuera ms ADN bruto de los medios y las comunicaciones. El contenido est cambiando del espectculo hacia particulas que van de un lado a otro, y parte de las comunicaciones sociales, y creo que esta va a ser una poca de gran renacimiento y oportunidades. +Y mientras la televisin puede haber sido golpeada lo que realmente se est construyendo es una apasionante nueva forma de comunicacin y de alguna forma tendremos la fusin de dos industrias y un nuevo modo de pensar para verla. +Muchas gracias. +Buenas tardes, buenas noches, lo que sea. +Podemos seguir, jambo, guten abend, bonsoir, pero tambin podemos hacer -- ooh, ooh, ooh, ooh, ooh, ooh, ooh, ooh, ooh. +sa es la llamada que los chimpancs realizan antes de irse a dormir al anochecer. +Se oye sonar de un lado al otro del valle desde un grupo de nidos al siguiente. +Y quiero retomar mi charla esta noche desde donde Zeray dej ayer. +l estaba hablando acerca de este asombroso Australopitecino infantil de tres aos, Selam. +Y tambin hemos estado escuchando acerca de la historia, del rbol genealgico, de la humanidad a travs de los perfiles genticos de ADN. +Y fue un palentologo, el difunto Louis Leakey, quin en realidad me puso en camino para estudiar de chimpancs. +Y so fue bastante extraordinaria para ese entonces. +Ahora es bastante comn, pero su argumento era, porque l haba estado buscando por los restos fosilizados de los primeros humanos en frica -- +y puedes averiguar mucho acerca de cmo se vean esos seres desde los fsiles, por la forma de las adhesiones musculares. Algunas cosas acerca de cmo vivan desde los artefactos encontrados con ellos. +Pero cmo se comportaban? so era lo que l quera saber. +Y, por supuesto, el comportamiento no fosiliza. +l sostena -- y ahora es una teora comn -- que si fueramos a encontrar patrones similares o iguales de conducta entre nuestros parientes ms cercanos, los grandes simios, y los humanos de hoy en da, entonces, tal vez, esos comportamientos estaban presentes en el ancestro simio - humano hace algunos siete millones de aos. +Y entonces, quizs nosotros habamos trado esas caractersticas desde aquel pasado muy, muy antiguo. +Bueno, si ven los libros de texto hoy que tratan sobre la evolucin humana, muchas veces encontrarn a personas especulando sobre cmo los primeros humanos podran haberse comportado, basado en la conducta de los chimpancs. +Ellos se parecen ms a nosotros que a cualquier otro ser viviente, y hemos escuchado acerca de sto durante esta Conferencia de TED. +Entonces me queda para m comentar sobre las maneras en las cuales los chimpancs son tan parecidos a nosotros en ciertos aspectos de su conducta. +Cada chimpanc tiene su propia personalidad. +Por supuesto, yo les he dado nombres. Pueden vivir hasta 60 aos o ms, aunque pensamos que la mayora probablemente no llega a los 60 aos en libertad. +Sr Wurzel. La hembra tiene su primer beb a los 11 o 12 aos. +Despus slo tiene un beb cada cinco o seis aos, con una larga dependencia de los infantes mientras son amamantados, mientras duermen con la madre a la noche, y cabalgan en su espalda. +Y creemos que esta larga infancia es importante para los chimpancs, igual que para nosotros, en relacin con el aprendizaje. +A medida que el cerebro se vuelve ms complejo durante la evolucin en diferentes tipos de animales, entonces descubrimos en el aprendizaje un papel an ms importante en la historia de vida de un individuo. +Y los jvenes chimpancs pasan mucho tiempo observando lo que hacen sus mayores. +Sabemos ahora que son capaces de imitar los comportamientos que ven. +Los chimpancs no tienen ningn lenguaje hablado. Hemos hablado de ello. +Ellos s tienen un abundante repertorio de posturas y gestos, muchos de los cuales son similares, o incluso idnticos, a los nuestros y se forman en los mismos contextos. Los chimpancs al saludar se abrazan. +Tambin se besan, se toman de las manos, se dan palmadas en la espalda. +Y ellos se pavonean y tiran rocas. +En la sociedad de los chimpancs encontramos muchos, muchos ejemplos de la compasin, precursores del amor y del altruismo verdadero. +Desafortunadamente ellos, como nosotros, tienen un lado oscuro en su naturaleza. +Son capaces de una brutalidad extrema, incluso de una especia de guerra primitiva. +Y estos comportamientos verdaderamente agresivos, la mayora de las veces, estn dirigidos hacan individuos de los grupos vecinos. +Son muy agresivos acerca del territorio. +Los chimpancs, yo creo, ms que ninguna otra criatura, nos han ayudado a entender que, despus de todo, no hay un lnea marcada entre los humanos y el resto del reino animal. +Es una lnea borrosa, y se vuelve ms borrosa todo el tiempo, a medida que hacemos ms observaciones. +El estudio que yo comenc en 1960 todava sigue hasta hoy. +Y estos chimpancs, viviendo sus complejas vidas sociales en libertad, nos han ayudado--ms que ninguna otra cosa-- a darnos cuenta de que somos parte, y que no estamos separados, de los asombrosos animales con quienes compartimos el planeta. +Por so, es bastante triste encontrar que los chimpancs, como muchas otras criaturas alrededor del mundo, estn perdiendo sus hbitates. +sta es una sla fotografa desde el aire, y les muestra las colinas boscosas del Gombe. +"Cmo siquiera podemos intentar salvar estos famosos chimpancs cuando las personas que viven cerca del Parque Nacional estn luchando para sobrevivir?" +Hay ms personas viviendo all de las que el lugar puede mantener. +Los nmeros aumentaron por los refugiados que van llegando de Burundi y a travs del lago desde el Congo. +Y son personas muy, muy pobres -- ellos no podan costearse comprar comida de otro lado. +sto llev a un programa, que nosotros llamamos Take Care ("Hacerse cargo") +Es una manera muy holstica de mejorar las vidas de las personas viviendo en las aldeas alrededor del parque. +Empez humildemente en 12 aldeas. Ahora son 24. +No hay tiempo para contar todo, pero incluye cosas como tres viveros de rboles, mtodos de agricultura ms adecuadas para el suelo actualmente muy degradado, casi desrtico en estas montaas. +Maneras de controlar, prevenir la erosin del suelo. +Maneras de recuperar las granjas sobreexplotadas de manera que luego de dos aos puedan ser nuevamente productivas. +Trabajando para ayudar a los aldeanos a obtener agua limpia de los pozos. +Quizs tambin construir algunas alas. +Lo ms importante de todo, creo yo, es trabajar con pequeos grupos de mujeres, proporcionndolas con oportunidades de sacar prstamos micro crditos. +Y nos han devuelto, como sucede alrededor del mundo, aproximadamente el 95 por ciento de todos los prstamos. +Dndoles el poder a las mujeres quienes trabajan con la educacin, proveyndoles becas a las nias de manera que puedan terminar el secundario, en el claro entendimiento de que en todo el mundo a medida que la educacin de la mujeres aumenta, baja la natalidad. +Proveemos informacin acerca de la planificacin familiar y acerca de VIH/SIDA. +Y, como resultado de este programa, algo ha pasado para la conservacin. +era un equipo tanzano el que hablaba con los aldeanos, preguntndoles qu era lo que les interesaba. +Estaban interesados en la conservacin? Absolutamente no. +Estaban interesados en la salud, estaban interesados en la educacin. +Y a medida que el tiempo pas, y que su situacin comenz a mejorar, empezaron a entender ms y ms sobre la necesidad de la conservacin. +Empezaron a entender que a medida que las partes ms altas de las colinas quedaban sin rboles, pasan estas terribles erosines del suelo y coladas de barro. +Hoy, estamos desarrollando lo que llamamos el Gran Ecosistema del Gombre. +sta es un rea alejada del Parque Nacional. que se extiende dentro de todas estas tierras degradadas. +Entonces Take Care es un xito. +Lo estamos duplicando en otras partes de frica, alrededor de otras reas silvestres que estn enfrentando una presin poblacional extrema. +Los problemas en frica, sin embargo, tal como hemos estado discutiendo en este primer par de das de TED, son problemas mayores. +Hay una extrema pobreza. +Y hay otros problemas, no slo en frica, pero en el resto del mundo en desarrollo y de hecho, en todas partes. Qu le estamos haciendo a nuestro planeta? +Saben, el cientfico famoso E. O. Wilson dijo que si cada persona en este planeta tuviera el nivel de vida del europeo o norteamericano promedio, necesitaramos tres nuevos planetas. +Hoy da dicen cuatro. Pero no los tenemos, tenemos uno. +Y qu ha pasado? Quiero decir, la cuestin que est aqu, es que aqu estamos nosotros, probablemente el ser ms inteligente que jams haya caminado sobre el planeta Tierra, con este cerebro extraordinario, capaz del tipo de tecnologa que est tan bien ilustrada en estas conferencias TED. Y an as estamos destruyendo el nico hogar que tenemos. +Los indgenas alrededor del mundo, antes de tomar una decisin importante, se sentaban y se preguntaban, "Cmo afectar esta decisin a nuestra gente dentro de siete generaciones?" +Hoy en da, las grandes decisiones -- y no estoy hablando particularmente de frica en este caso, sino del mundo desarrollado -- grandes decisiones que involucran millones de dlares, y millones de personas, suelen basarse en, Cmo sta afectar la prxima reunin de accionistas? +Y estas decisiones afectan a frica. +A medida que empec a viajar dentro de frica, hablando sobre los problemas que enfrentaban los chimpancs y sus bosques, me d cuenta cada vez ms como muchos de los problemas de frica podan ser ubicados en la puerta de la explotacin colonial previa. +Entonces empec a viajar fuera de frica, hablando en Europa, hablando en los Estados Unidos, yendo a Asia. +Y en todos lados estaban estos terribles problemas, +Y ustedes saben de qu tipo de problemas estoy hablando. Estoy hablando de la contaminacin. +El aire que respiramos a menudo nos enferma. +La tierra est envenenando nuestros alimentos. +El agua -- el agua es tal vez uno de los temas ms importantes que vamos a tener que enfrentar en este siglo. Y en todos lados, el agua est siendo contaminada por qumicos agrcolos, industriales y domsticos que todava se distribuyen alrededor del mundo, aparentemente con la incapacidad de beneficiarse del aprendizaje de las experiencias pasadas. +Los manglares estn siendo cortados, los efectos de algunas cosas, como los maremotos, se vuelven peores. +Hemos hablado acerca de la erosin del suelo. +Tenemos la quema irresponsable de los combustibles fsiles junto con otros gases de invernadero, as llamados, dirigindonos haca el cambio climtico. +Finalmente, alrededor del mundo las personas empiezan a creer que est pasando algo muy malo con nuestro clima. +En todo el mundo, los climas estn confundidos. +Y son las personas ms pobres las ms afectadas. +Es frica la que ya est afectada. +En muchas partes de frica subsahariana las sequas son mucho peores. +Y cuando finalmente llueve, frecuentemente produce inundaciones y agrava los problemas, y el ciclo de pobreza y de hambre y enfermedad. +Y el tamao de la poblacin que vive en un rea que el suelo no puede soportar, gente demasiado pobre para comprar comida, que no puede mudarse porque toda la tierra est degradada. +Y resulta la desertificacin -- cada vez ms y ms -- mientras que los ltimos rboles son cortados. +Y estas clases de cosas no pasan slo en frica. Es en todo el mundo. +Por so no me sorprendi que mientras estaba viajando alrededor del mundo conoc a tantos jovenes que parecan haber perdido la esperanza. +Parece que hemos perdido la sabidura, la sabidura de los pueblos indgenas. +Yo pregunt -- "Por qu?" +Bueno, creen uds. que puede haber algo desconectado entre este cerebro extraordinariamente inteligente, la clase de cerebro que las tecnologas de TED ejemplifican, y el corazn humano? Hablando de llo en la forma no cientfica. En trminos del amor y de la compasin, hay algo desconectado? +Y estos jvenes, cuando les hablo, bsicamente estaban o deprimidos o apticos, o amargados y enojados. Y ellos dijeron ms o menos lo mismo, "Nos sentimos de esta manera porque sentimos que ustedes han comprometido nuestro futuro y no hay nada que podamos hacer al respecto." +Hemos comprometido su futuro. +Yo tengo tres nietos pequeos, y cada vez que los veo y pienso en cmo hemos daado este hermoso planeta desde que yo tena su edad, siento esta desesperacin. +Y so llev al programa que llamamos Roots and Shoots (Races y Brotes), que empez aqu mismo en Tanzania y que ahora se ha difundido en 97 pases alrededor del mundo. +Es simblico. Las Races hacen una base slida. +Los brotes que parecen pequeos, para alcanzar el sol pueden romper una pared de ladrillos -- +vese esa pared de ladrillo como los problemas que hemos causado al planeta, medio ambientales y sociales. Es un mensaje de esperanza. +Cientos y miles de jvenes alrededor del mundo pueden salir adelante y pueden hacer este un mejor mundo para todos los seres vivos. +El mensaje ms importante de Roots and Shoots -- todos y cada uno de nosotros hace una diferencia, todos los das. +Tenemos una opcin. Cada uno de nosotros en esta ala, tenemos la opcin de qu clase de diferencia queremos hacer. +Los muy pobres no tienen opcin. Depende de nosotros cambiar las cosas para que los pobres tambin tengan una opcin. +Los grupos de Roots and Shoots todos eligen tres proyectos. +Depende de qu edad tengan, en qu pas, si estn en la ciudad o en el campo, en cuanto a que clases de proyectos hacen. +Pero bsicamente, tenemos programas ahora desde el preescolar hasta la universidad, con ms y ms adultos que estn empezando sus propios grupos Roots and Shoots. +Y en cada grupo se elige entre ellos tres clases diferentes de proyectos para hacer de este un mundo mejor, reconociendo que todos estos diferentes problemas estn relacionados y se afectan entre ellos. +Entonces uno de sus proyectos ser ayudar a su propia comunidad humana. +Y luego, si pueden, tal vez junten dinero para ayudar a comunidades en otras partes del mundo. +Uno de sus proyectos ser ayudar a los animales -- no slo a la vida salvaje, sino a los animales domsticos tambin. +Y uno de sus proyectos ser ayudar al medio ambiente que todos compartimos. +Y tejido entre todo esto hay un mensaje de aprender a vivir en paz y armona con nosotros mismos, en nuestras familias, en nuestras comunidades, entre naciones, entre culturas, entre religiones y entre nosotros mismos y el mundo natural. +Necesitamos del mundo natural. No podemos seguir destruyndolo as a este paso. +No tenemos ms que este nico planeta. +Slo eligiendo uno o dos de los proyectos de aqu mismo en frica que los grupos Roots and Shoots estn realizando, slo uno o dos proyectos -- en Tanzania, en Uganda, Kenia Sudfrica, Congo, Brazzaville, Sierra Leone, Camern y otros grupos. Y como digo, ahora estn en 97 pases alrededor del mundo. +Por supuesto, estn plantando rboles, cultivando vegetales orgnicos. +Estn trabajando en campos de refugiados, con gallinas y vendiendo los huevos por una pequea suma, o slo usndolos para alimentar a sus familias, y sintindose un sentido de orgullo y empoderamiento porque ya no son incapaces y dependientes de otros con sus vegetales y sus gallinas. +Est siendo usado en Uganda para darle alguna ayuda psicolgica a nios ex soldados. +Hacer proyectos como stos les devuelve la confianza. +Una vez ms, son miembros productivos de la sociedad. +Tenemos este programa tambin en prisiones. +Entonces no hay tiempo para ms Roots and Shoots ahora. +Pero -- oh, ellos tambin trabajan con VIH/SIDA. +Es un componente muy importante de Roots and Shoots, con los nios ms grandes hablandoles a los ms pequeos. +Y sobre embarazos no deseados y cosas as, sobre cuales los jvenes escuchan mejor a otros jvenes, en vez de a los adultos. +La esperanza. sa es la pregunta que suelen hacerme mientras ando alrededor del mundo, "Jane, t has visto tantas cosas terribles, has visto a tus chimpancs disminuir en nmero desde casi un milln al comienzo del siglo a no ms de 150 mil ahora. Y lo mismo con tantos otros animales. +Bosques desapareciendo, desiertos donde haban bosques. +Realmente tienes esperanza?" Bueno, s. +No pueden venir a una conferencia como TED y no tener esperanza pueden ustedes? +Por supuesto, hay esperanza. Por una hay este increble cerebro humano. +Y, quiero decir, piensen en las tecnologas. +Y yo he estado tan entusiasmada, finalmente, a encontrar a las personas hablando sobre letrinas aboneras. +Es uno de mis pasatiempos principales. +Nosotros tiramos toda esta agua por el sanitario, es terrible. +Y luego hablando acerca de la energa renovable, desesperadamente importante. +Nos importa el estado del planeta por nuestros nios? +Cuntos de nosotros tenemos hijos o nietos, sobrinas, sobrinos? +Nos preocupamos por su futuro? +Y si nos preocupamos por su futuro, nosotros como la lite del mundo, podemos hacer algo sobre ello. Podemos tomar decisiones acerca de cmo vivir cada da. +Qu comprar. Qu vestir. +Y elegir tomar estas decisiones considerando, cmo sto afectar al ambiente alrededor de m? +Cmo afectar la vida de mi hijo/a cuando l o ella crezca? +O mi nieto/a, o lo que sea. +De manera de que el cerebro humano, unido con el corazn humano -- y con las manos unidas alrededor del mundo. +Y so es en lo que TED est ayudando tan bien, y Google quien nos ayuda, y ESRI estn ayudndonos a mapear en el Parque Nacional del Gombe. +Todas esas tecnologas podemos usar. +Ahora vamos a vincularlas, y sto est empezando a pasar no es as? +Lo han odo esta tarde. Est empezando a pasar. +Este cambio, este cambio, para ver el cambio que nosotros debemos tener si nos preocupamos por el futuro. +Y la siguiente razn para tener esperanza -- la naturaleza es sorprendentemente resistente. +Pueden tomar un rea que est absolutamente destruida -- con tiempo y quizs algo de ayuda puede regenerarse. +Y un ejemplo es el programa Take Care. +Les cont donde hubo un tocn aparentemente muerto -- si dejas de cortarlo para madera, la que no necesitas porque hay lotes de madera, entonces en cinco aos puedes tener un rbol de 9 metros. +Y los animales, casi al borde de la extincin, pueden tener una segunda oportunidad. se es mi siguiente libro. +Y pensar en slo una o dos personas de frica que son realmente inspiradoras. +Podramos hacer una lista muy larga, pero obviamente Nelson Mandela saliendo de 17 aos de trabajos forzados, 23 aos de prisin, con esta asombrosa capacidad de perdonar de manera de poder liderar su nacin fuera del cruel regimen del apartheid sin ningn masacre. +Ken Saro-Wiwa, en Nigeria, quien se enfrent a las gigantes companas petroleras. Y, a pesar de que las personas alrededor del mundo se esforzaron, fue ejecutado. +Personas como stas son tan inspiradoras. +Personas como stas son los modelos de conducta que necesitamos para los jvenes africanos. +Y necesitamos algunos modelos de conducta medio ambientalistas tambin, y he escuchado a algunos de ellos hoy. +Por so, estoy realmente agradecida por esta oportunidad para compartir este mensaje, otra vez, con todos en TED. +Y espero que algunos de nosotros nos podamos reunir y hablar acerca de algunas de estas cosas, especialmente el programa Roots and Shoots. +Y slo una ltima palabra sobre so -- la mujer que est dirigiendo todo este centro de conferencias, la conoc hoy. +Ella se me acerc emocionada, con su certificado. Ella estaba en Roots and Shoots. +Ella estaba en el liderazgo en Dar Es Salaam. +Dijo que le haba ayudado a realizar lo que est haciendo. +Y fue muy, muy emocionante para m conocerla a ella y ver slo un ejemplo de cmo estos jvenes, cuando se les da el poder, la oportunidad de tomar accin, de hacer el mundo un lugar mejor, realmente son nuestra esperanza para el futuro. +Gracias. +Supongan que dos amigos Americanos estan viajando juntos por Italia. +Van a ver el "David" de Miguel Angel, y cuando estan cara-a-cara con la estatua, ambos quedan paralizados. +El primer individuo -- llamemoslo Adam -- esta paralizado por la belleza de la perfecta forma humana. +El segundo individuo -- llamemoslo Bill -- esta paralizado por la verguenza al observar esa cosa ah en el centro. +Esta es mi pregunta: cual de estos dos individuos tiene ms posibilidades de haber votado por George Bush, cual por Al Gore? +No necesito que muestren manos porque todos tenemos los mismos estereotipos polticos. +Todos sabemos que es Bill. +Y en este caso, el estereotipo corresponde a la realidad. +Es realmente un hecho que los liberales tienen un sentido mas elevado que los conservadores en un rasgo importante de la personalidad, llamado apertura a la experiencia. +Las personas con sentido elevado de apertura a la experiencia tienen ansias de novedad, variedad, diversidad, ideas nuevas, viajes. +Las personas bajas en ello gustan de cosas familiares, que son seguras y confiables. +Si conocen esta caracterstica, pueden entender muchos enigmas sobre el comportamiento humano. +Pueden entender por qu los artistas son tan diferentes a los contadores. +Pueden, de hecho, predecir que tipo de libros les gusta leer, a que tipo de lugares les gusta viajar, y que tipo de comidas les gusta comer. +Una vez que entendemos esta caracterstica, podemos entender por qu cualquiera puede comer en Applebee's, pero nadie que tu conozcas. +Esta caracterstica tambin nos dice mucho sobre la poltica. +El investigador principal de esta caracterstica, Robert McCrae dice que, "Individuos de mente abierta tienen afinidad con ideas polticas de izquierda, liberales y progresivas." -- les gusta una sociedad abierta y cambiante -- "mientras que individuos de mente cerrada prefieren ideas polticas de derecha, tradicionales, conservadoras. +Esta caracterstica tambin nos dice mucho sobre los tipos de grupos a los que las personas se unen. +Aqui tienen la descripcin de un grupo que encontr en la Web. +Qu tipo de personas se uniran a una comunidad global acogiendo gente de todas las disciplinas y culturas, que buscan una comprensin ms profunda del mundo, y que esperan convertir ese entendimiento en un mejor futuro para todos? +Esto es de un individuo llamado TED. +Bueno, veamos, si la apertura predice quien se convierte en liberal, y si la apertura predice quien se convierte en TEDster, entonces podramos predecir que la mayora de los TEDsters son liberales? +Vamos a averiguar. +Voy a pedirles que levanten la mano, si usted es liberal, izquierda del centro-- hablando, principalmente, sobre asuntos sociales, o conservador, y les dar una tercera opcin, porque s que hay un nmero de libertarios en la audiencia. +Asi que, ahora mismo, por favor levanten la mano -- en los cuartos de retransmisin tambin, dejemos saber a todo el mundo quin esta aqui. Por favor levanten la mano aquellos que se consideran liberales o a la izquierda del centro. +Por favor levanten la mano alto, ahora. OK. +Por favor levanten la mano si se consideran libertarios. +OK, unas -- dos docenas. +Y por favor levanten la mano los que se consideran conservadores o a la derecha del centro. +Uno, dos, tres, cuatro, cinco -- unos ocho o 10. +Ok. Esto es un problema. +Porque si nuestro objetivo es entender al mundo, la bsqueda de un entendimiento ms profundo del mundo, nuestra falta general de diversidad moral aqui, lo va a hacer ms dificil. +Porque cuando la gente comparte valores, cuando la gente comparte la moral, se convierten en equipo, y una vez que se entabla la sicologa de equipo, se cierra el pensamiento de mente abierta. +Cuando el equipo liberal pierde, como lo hizo en el 2004, y como casi lo hizo en el 2000, nos consolamos. +Tratamos de explicar por qu la mitad de Amrica vot por el otro equipo. +Pensamos que deben estar cegados por la religin, o por simple estupidez. +Por lo tanto, si piensan que la mitad de Amrica vota Republicano porque estn cegados de esta manera, entonces mi mensaje para ustedes es que estn atrapados en una matrix moral, en una matrix moral en particular, +Y al decir matrix, me refiero literalmente a la matrix como en la pelicula " Matrix." +Pero me encuentro aqu hoy para ofrecerles una opcin. +Pueden tomar la pldora azul y aferrarse a sus engaos reconfortantes, o pueden tomar la pildora roja, aprender algo de sicologa moral y dar un paso fuera de la matrix moral. +Ahora, porque yo s -- Ok, supongo que eso contesta mi pregunta. +Yo iba a preguntarles cual escogieron, pero no hay necesidad. +Estan todos elevados en apertura a la experiencia, y a parte, parece que inclusive sabe bien, y todos ustedes son sibaritas. +Asi que, de todos modos, tomemos la pldora roja. +Estudiemos un poco de sicologa moral a ver a donde nos lleva. +Empecemos por el principio. +Qu es moralidad y de dnde viene? +La peor idea en toda la sicologa es la idea de que la mente est en blanco al nacer. +La sicologa del Desarrollo ha demostrado que los nios entran al mundo ya sabiendo tanto acerca del mundo fsico y social, y programados para que les sea fcil aprender ciertas cosas y difcil aprender otras. +La mejor definicin del estado innato que yo he visto -- esto clarifica tantas cosas para mi -- es la del cientfico cerebral Gary Marcus. +El dice, "La organizacin inicial del cerebro no depende tanto de la experiencia. +La naturaleza provee el primer borrador, el cual es revisado luego por la experiencia. +Inherente no significa que no sea maleable; significa organizado anteriormente a la experiencia." +OK, entonces, qu hay en el primer borrador de la mente moral? +Para averiguarlo, mi colega Craig Joseph y yo lemos, a travs de la literatura, sobre antropologa, sobre las variaciones de moralidad en las culturas y tambin sobre sicologa evolucionaria, buscando compatibilidades. +De qu tipo de cosa hablan las personas a travs de las disciplinas +que uno encuentra a travs de las culturas e inclusive las especies? +Encontramos cinco -- los cinco ms compatibles, los cuales llamamos los cinco pilares de la moralidad. +El primero es dao-cuidado. +Somos todos mamferos, tenemos mucha programacin neuronal y hormonal que nos hace vincularnos verdaderamente con los otros, preocuparnos por otros, sentir compasin por otros, sobre todo los dbiles y vulnerables. +Nos produce sentimientos intensos por aquellos que causan dao. +Este pilar moral es la base de alrededor del 70 por ciento de las declaraciones morales que he escuchado aqui en TED. +El segundo pilar es igualdad-reciprocidad. +De hecho, hay evidencia ambigua de si se puede encontrar reciprocidad en otros animales, pero la evidencia del ser humano no puede ser ms clara. +Esta pintura de Norman Rockwell se titula "La Regla de Oro", y hemos escuchado al respecto a travs de Karen Armstrong, por supuesto, como es el fundamento de tantas religiones. +Ese segundo pilar es la base del otro 30 por ciento de las declaraciones morales que he escuchado aqui en TED. +El tercer pilar es la lealtad de grupo. +Uno encuentra grupos en el reino animal -- uno encuentra grupos cooperativos -- pero estos grupos son siempre o bien pequeos o son todos parientes. +Solamente entre los humanos encontramos grupos grandes de personas que son capaces de cooperar, unirse en grupos -- pero en este caso, grupos unidos para luchar contra otros grupos. +Esto probablemente proviene de nuestra larga historia de convivencia tribal, de sicologa tribal. +Y esta sicologa tribal es tan profundamente placentera que inclusive cuando no tenemos tribus, las formamos porque es divertido. +Los deportes son a la guerra lo que la pornografa es al sexo. +Podemos ejercitar algunos instintos muy, muy antiguos. +El cuarto pilar es autoridad-respeto. +Aqui observamos gestos de sumisin de dos miembros de especies muy extrechamente relacionadas -- +pero la autoridad en los humanos no est tan estrechamente basada en el poder y la brutalidad, como lo es en otros primates. +Esta basado en un respeto ms voluntario, e inclusive, a veces, en elementos de amor. +El quinto pilar es pureza-santidad. +Esta pintura se titula "La Alegoria de la Castidad," pero pureza no es solamente la supresin de la sexualidad femenina. +Es sobre cualquier tipo de ideologa, cualquier tipo de idea que nos diga que podemos obtener virtud controlando lo que hacemos con nuestro cuerpo, controlando lo que introducimos en nuestro sistema. +Y mientras la derecha poltica puede moralizar el sexo mucho ms, la izquierda poltica lo esta haciendo realmente bastante con la comida. +El alimento se esta convirtiendo en algo extremadamente moralizado hoy en da, y mucho de ello son ideas sobre pureza, sobre lo que estamos dispuestos a tocar o introducir en nuestro cuerpo. +Yo creo que estos son los cinco mejores candidatos para lo que est escrito en el primer borrador de la mente moral. +Yo creo que esto es al menos con lo que contamos, una preparacin para aprender todas estas cosas. +Pero mientras mi hijo Max crece en un pueblo universitario liberal, cmo va a ser revisado este primer borrador? +Y cmo va a terminar siendo diferente del joven nacido a 60 millas al sur de nosotros en Lynchburg, Virginia? +Para pensar sobre variacin cultural, probemos una metfora distinta. +Si hay en realidad cinco sistemas trabajando en la mente -- cinco fuentes de intuiciones y emociones -- entonces podemos pensar que la mente moral es como si fuese un ecualizador de audio con cinco canales, que puede ser programado en una posicin diferente en cada canal. +Mis colegas, Brian Nosek y Jesse Graham y yo, hicimos un cuestionario, que colocamos en la Web en www.YourMorals.org. +Y hasta ahora, 30,000 personas han contestado el cuestionario, y ustedes tambin pueden hacerlo. +Aqu estn los resultados. +Aqu estn los resultados de alrededor de 23,000 ciudadanos Americanos. +A la izquierda he representado los resultados liberales, a la derecha aquellos conservadores, en el centro los moderados. +La lnea azul muestra las respuestas de ustedes en promedio a todas las preguntas de dao. +Asi que, como pueden ver, la gente se preocupa por temas de dao y cuidado. +Le dan alta aprobacin a estos tipos de declaraciones por igual en toda la pizarra, pero como tambin pueden ver, los liberales se preocupan un poco ms que los conservadores, la lnea desciende. +La misma historia para la justicia. +Pero observen las otras tres lneas, +para los liberales los resultados son muy bajos. +Los liberales estn basicamente diciendo, "No, esto no es moralidad. +autoridad, unidad de grupo, pureza -- eso no tiene nada que ver con moralidad. Lo rechazo." +Pero segn la gente se hace ms conservadora, los valores aumentan. +Podemos decir que los liberales tienen -- dos canales, o una moralidad de pilar doble. +Los conservadores tienen un pilar quintuple, o una moralidad de cinco canales. +Encontramos esto en cada pas que observamos. +Estas son las estadsticas de 1,100 Canadienses. +Voy a mostrar algunas otras diapositivas. +El Reino Unido, Australia, Nueva Zelandia, Europa Occidental, Europa Oriental, America Latina, el Medio Oriente, Asia y Asia del Sur. +Noten tambin que en todos estos grficos, el declive es mayor en unidad de grupo, autoridad, pureza. +Lo cual demuestra que dentro de cualquier pas, el desacuerdo no es sobre dao y justicia. +Todo el mundo -- Quiero decir, debatimos acerca de lo que es justo -- pero todos estamos de acuerdo en que dao y justicia son importantes. +Los argumentos morales entre culturas son especialmente sobre asuntos de unidad de grupo, autoridad, pureza. +Este efecto es tan robusto que lo encontramos no importa como presentemos la pregunta. +En un estudio reciente, preguntamos a la gente, supongan que estn a punto de adquirir un perro. +Escogen una raza en particular, aprenden informacin nueva sobre la raza. +Supongan que aprenden que esta raza en particular es de mente independiente, y se relaciona con su amo como amigo e igual. +Bien, si eres liberal dices, "Hey, eso es genial!" +porque a los liberales les gusta decir "Traelo, por favor." +Pero si eres conservador, no es tan atractivo. +Si eres conservador, y aprendes que un perro es extremadamente leal a su hogar y familia, y que no se da rapidamente con extraos, para los conservadores -- bien, la lealtad es buena -- los perros deben ser leales. +Pero para un liberal, suena como que este perro esta corriendo para la nominacin Republicana. +Por lo tanto, pueden decir, OK, existen estas diferencias entre liberales y conservadores, pero qu hace a esos tres otros pilares ser morales? +No son esos precisamente los fundamentos de la xenofobia el autoritarismo y Puritanismo? +Qu los hace morales? +La respuesta, creo, est contenida en este trptico increble de Hieronymus Bosch, "El Jardn de las Delicias Terrenales." +En el primer panel vemos el momento de la creacin. +Todo esta en orden, todo es bello, toda la gente y los animales estan haciendo lo que se supone deben hacer, estan donde se supone deben estar. +Pero entonces, dado el modo del mundo, las cosas cambian. +Tenemos a cada persona haciendo lo que quiere, con cada orificio de cada otra persona y cada otro animal. +Algunos de ustedes puede que reconozcan esto como los aos 60. +Pero los 60 inevitablemente dan paso a los 70, donde los cortes de los orificios duelen un poco ms. +Por supuesto, Bosch llamo a esto El Infierno. +Por lo tanto este trptico, estos tres paneles, describen la eterna verdad que el orden tiende a deteriorar. +La verdad de la entropa social. +un juego en el cual le das dinero a la gente, y entonces en cada ronda del juego, ellos pueden colocar dinero en un contenedor comn, y entonces el experimentador dobla lo que hay, y es dividido entre los jugadores. +Por lo tanto es una buena analoga para todo tipo de problemas medioambientales donde le estamos pidiendo a la gente que hagan un sacrificio. y ellos en si no se benefician verdaderamente de su propio sacrificio. +Pero quieren que todos los dems se sacrifiquen, pero todo el mundo tiene la tentacin de un paseo gratis. +y lo que ocurre es que al principio, la gente comienza cooperando razonablemente -- y todo esto es jugado anonimamente -- +en la primera ronda, la gente da al rededor de la mitad del dinero que pueden dar. +Pero enseguida ven, "Sabes que, otros no estan dando tanto. +No quiero ser un bobo. No voy a cooperar." +Y por consiguiente la cooperacin pronto declina de razonablemente buena a casi cero. +Pero entonces -- y aqu est el truco -- Fehr y Gachter dicen -- en la sptima ronda le dijeron a la gente, "Saben qu? Regla nueva. +Si quieren dar algo de su propio dinero para castigar a los que no estn contribuyendo, pueden hacerlo." +Y tan pronto como la gente supo sobre la situacin de castigo, la cooperacin creci con rapidez. +Se dispara y contina creciendo. +Hay gran cantidad de investigacin que muestra que realmente ayuda para resolver problemas de cooperacin. +No es suficiente slo apelar a los buenos motivos de la gente, +verdaderamente ayuda tener algn tipo de castigo. +Inclusive cuando sea slo verguenza, bochorno o chisme, necesitamos algn tipo de castigo para lograr que la gente, cuando estn en grupos grandes, cooperen. +Inclusive hay investigaciones recientes que sugieren que la religin -- primando a Dios, hacer que la gente piense en Dios -- a menudo, en algunos casos conlleva a ms cooperacin, mayor comportamiento pro-social. +Algunas personas piensan que la religin es una adaptacin desarrollada de una evolucin cultural y biolgica para lograr que los grupos se cohesionen, en parte con el propsito de confiar los unos en los otros, y por lo tanto ser ms efectivos en la competencia con otros grupos. +Yo pienso que esto es probablemente correcto, a pesar de que es un tema controversial. +Pero estoy particularmente interesado en la religin, y el origen de la religin, en lo que hace con nosotros y por nosotros. +Porque pienso que la maravilla ms grande de este mundo no es el Gran Can. +El Gran Can es realmente simple. +Es sencillamente mucha roca, y luego mucha agua y viento, y mucho tiempo, y obtenemos el Gran Can. +No es tan complicado. +Esto es lo que es verdaderamente complicado, que haba gente viviendo en sitios como el Gran Can, cooperando unos con otros, o en las sabanas de Africa, o en las costas frias de Alaska, y entonces algunas de estas aldeas se convirtieron en las poderosas ciudades de Babilonia, y Roma y Tenochtitlan. +Cmo ocurri esto? +Es un milagro absoluto, mucho ms difcil de explicar que el Gran Can. +La respuesta, creo, es que utilizaron todas las herramientas al alcance. +Hizo falta toda nuestra sicologa moral para crear estos grupos cooperativos. +Si, es necesario preocuparse acerca del dao, es necesaria una sicologa de justicia. +Pero verdaderamente ayuda a organizar un grupo si se pueden tener sub-grupos, y si esos sub-grupos tienen alguna estructura interna, y si se tiene alguna ideologa que le dice a la gente que supriman su carnalidad, para perseguir fines ms elevados y nobles. +Y ahora llegamos al ncleo del desacuerdo entre liberales y conservadores. +Porque los liberales rechazan tres de estos pilares. +Ellos dicen "No, celebremos la diversidad, no membresias comunes de grupo." +Ellos dicen, "Cuestionemos la autoridad." +Y dicen, "Mantn tus leyes lejos de mi cuerpo." +Los liberales tienen motivos muy nobles para hacer esto. +La autoridad tradicional, la moralidad tradicional, pueden ser bastante represivas, y restrictivas para aquellos en el fondo, para las mujeres, para la gente que no encaja. +Por lo tanto los liberales hablan por los oprimidos y los dbiles. +Quieren cambio y justicia, inclusive a riesgo de caos. +La camiseta de este tipo dice, "Para de quejarte, empieza una revolucin." +Si estas elevado en apertura a la experiencia, la revolucin es buena, es cambio, es divertido. +Los conservadores, por otra parte, defienden las instituciones y tradiciones. +Quieren orden, inclusive al costo de aquellos en el fondo. +La gran revelacin conservadora es que el orden es realmente difcil de lograr. +es verdaderamente preciado, y es realmente fcil de perder. +Por lo tanto como dijo Edmund Burke, "Las restricciones del hombre tanto como sus libertades, deben ser consideradas entre sus derechos." +Esto fue despus del caos de la Revolucion Francesa. +Una vez que ven esto -- una vez que ven que tanto liberales como conservadores tienen algo que contribuir, que forman un balance en cuanto a cambio versus estabilidad -- entonces pienso que el paso queda abierto para salir de la matrix moral. +Esta es la gran revelacin que todas las religiones de Asia han obtenido. +Piensen en el Yin y Yang. +Yin y Yang no son enemigos. Yin y Yang no se odian. +Yin y Yang son ambos necesarios, como el da y la noche, para el funcionamiento del mundo. +Encontrarn lo mismo en el Hinduismo. +Hay muchos dioses altos en el Hinduismo. +Dos de ellos son Vishnu el conservador, y Shiva la destructora. +Esta imagen es ,de hecho, ambos dioses compartiendo el mismo cuerpo. +Tienen las caractersticas de Vishnu a la izquierda, por lo tanto podemos pensar en Vishnu como el dios conservador. +Tienen las caractersticas de Shiva a la derecha, Shiva es la diosa liberal -- y trabajan en conjunto. +Encuentran lo mismo en el Buddhismo. +Estas dos estrofas contienen, creo, las ms profundas revelaciones que hayan sido obtenidas en la sicologa moral. +Del maestro Zen Seng-ts'an: "Si quieres que la verdad se pose claramente frente a ti, nunca estes a favor o en contra, +la lucha entre estar a favor o en contra es la peor enfermedad de la mente." +Ahora desafortunadamente, es una enfermedad que ha sido contrada por muchos lderes mundiales. +Pero antes de que se sientan superiores a George Bush, antes de tirar la primera piedra, pregntense: Aceptas esto? +Aceptas retirarte de la batalla entre el bien y el mal? +Puedes no estar a favor o en contra de nada? +Entonces, cul es el punto? Qu debo hacer? +Bien, si tomamos las ms grandes revelaciones de las antiguas religiones y filosofas Asiticas, y las combinamos con las ms recientes investigaciones en sicologa moral, creo que llegarn a estas conclusiones: Que nuestras mentes rectas fueron diseadas por la evolucin para unirnos en equipos, para dividirnos en contra de otros equipos y entonces cegarnos a la verdad. +Entonces, qu debes hacer? Te estoy diciendo que no te esfuerzes? +Te estoy diciendo que acojas a Seng-ts'ab y ceses, ceses la lucha entre estar a favor o en contra? +No, absolutamente no. No estoy diciendo eso. +Este es un grupo asombroso de personas que estan haciendo tanto, utilizando tanto talento, genialidad, energia, dinero, para hacer de este un mundo mejor, para luchar -- batallar el mal, resolver problemas. +Pero como aprendimos de Samantha Power en su historia sobre Sergio Vieira de Mello, uno no puede embestir diciendo, "Tu estas equivocado, y yo tengo la razn." +Porque, como hemos escuchado, todo el mundo piensa que ellos tienen la razn. +Muchos de los problemas que tenemos que resolver son problemas que requieren que cambiemos a otros. +Y si tu quieres cambiar a otros, una manera mucho mejor de hacerlo es primero entender quienes somos -- entender nuestra sicologa moral. entender que todos pensamos que tenemos la razn -- y entonces apartate -- inclusive si es slo por un momento, aprtate -- chequea con Seng-ts'am. +Sal fuera de la matrix moral. trata de verlo solamente como una lucha activa donde todos piensan que tienen razn, y todos, por lo menos, tienen algunas razones -- inclusive si estas en desacuerdo con ellos -- todo el mundo tiene alguna razn para lo que estn haciendo. +Sal fuera. +Y si lo logras, es la movida esencial para cultivar humildad moral, para sacarte de esa santurronera, que es la condicin humana normal. +Piensa en el Dalai Lama. +Piensa en la inmensa autoridad moral del Dalai Lama -- y proviene de su humildad moral. +Asi que pienso que el punto -- el punto de mi charla, y pienso que el punto -- el punto de TED, es que este es un grupo que esta involucrado apasionadamente con la bsqueda de cambiar el mundo para bien. +Las personas aqu estn involucradas con pasin tratando de hacer de este un mundo mejor. +Pero tambin hay un compromiso apasionado con la verdad. +Y pienso que la respuesta es utilizar ese compromiso apasionado hacia la verdad y tratar de convertirlo en un mejor futuro para todos nosotros. +Gracias. +David Gallo: l es Bill Lange, yo soy Dave Gallo +y les vamos a contar algunas historias sobre el mar usando videos. +Tenemos algunos de los videos ms impresionantes del Titanic que jams hayan visto y no se los vamos a mostrar. +La verdad es que el Titanic, no obstante que est rompiendo todos los rcords de taquilla, no es la historia ms fascinante sobre el mar; +yo creo que el problema es que damos por hecho la existencia de los ocanos. +Si lo pensamos un poco, los ocanos son el 75% del planeta, +gran parte del planeta es ocano +y la profundidad promedio es de 3.2 Km +Creo que parte del problema es que nos paramos en la playa o vemos imgenes como sta del ocano, y admiramos esta gran extensin azul que brilla que se mueve y estn las olas, las estelas y las mareas, pero no tenemos idea de lo que hay ah dentro. +En los ocanos estn las cordilleras montaosas ms largas del planeta, +la mayora de los animales estn en los ocanos, +la mayora de los terremotos y volcanes estn en el mar, en el fondo del mar. +La biodiversidad y la biodensidad en el ocano es mayor en algunas zonas que la de las selvas tropicales, +la mayora sin explorar y sin embargo, existen bellsimas escenas como sta que nos cautivan y nos hacen sentirnos familiarizados con el ocano. +Pero cuando se paren en una playa, quiero que piensen que estn parados en la orilla de un mundo muy desconocido. +Necesitamos de tecnologa muy especial para entrar a este mundo desconocido. +Nosotros usamos el submarino Alvin y usamos cmaras, y las cmaras son algo que Bill Lange ha desarrollado con la ayuda de Sony. +Marcel Proust dijo: "El verdadero viaje del descubrimiento no es tanto buscar nuevos paisajes, sino tener nuevos ojos." +Las personas que se han asociado con nosotros nos han dado nuevos ojos, no slo para ver lo que existe, como los nuevos paisajes descubiertos en el fondo del mar, sino tambin para cambiar la manera en la que pensamos sobre la vida misma en nuestro planeta. +Aqu tenemos una medusa, +es una de mis favoritas, porque tiene todo tipo de partes en movimiento; +resulta ser la creatura ms larga del ocano, +pues llega a medir hasta ms de 45.72m de largo. +Pero, ven todas esas partes en movimiento? +Me encantan ese tipo de cosas, +tiene anzuelos en la parte de abajo que se mueven hacia arriba y hacia abajo, +tiene tentculos colgando y movindose por ah. +Es una colonia de animales, +todos esos son animales individuales agrupndose para formar esta creatura. +Y tiene estos propulsores en la parte de adelante que va a usar en un momento, y tambin tiene luz propia. +Si toman todos los peces grandes, las escuelas de peces y todo eso y los ponen en un lado de una balanza, ponen todas las aguamalas en el otro lado de la balanza, las aguamalas ganan por mucho, +la mayora de la biomasa en el ocano est conformada por creaturas como sta. +Aqu esta la medusa ala-x de la muerte. +La bioluminisencia, estos peces usan las luces para atraer a sus parejas, atraer a sus presas y comunicarse. +No podramos terminar de ensearles nuestros archivos de videos de medusas, +vienen de todos tamaos y formas. +Bill Lange: Olvidamos el hecho de que los ocanos tienen kilmetros de profundidad en promedio y que nosotros estamos familiarizados con los animales que viven en los primeros 60 a 90 m, mas no estamos familiarizados con lo que existe de ah hasta el fondo. +Y estos son los tipos de animales que viven en este espacio tridimensional, ese ambiente con micro-gravedad que no hemos realmente explorado. +Escuchan sobre calamares gigantes y cosas parecidas, pero algunos de estos animales que llegan a medir aproximadamente de 42 a 49 m, +has sido poco estudiados. +DG: ste es uno de ellos, otro de mis favoritos, porque es un pequeo pulpo, +de hecho, pueden ver a travs de su cabeza. +Y aqu est aleteando con sus orejas y ascendiendo de una manera muy elegante. +Vemos estos organismos en todas las profundidades, incluso en los niveles ms profundos, +que pueden medir desde unos cuantos centmetros hasta varios metros. +Se acercan al submarino, ponen sus ojos cerca de la ventana y se asoman al submarino; +este es realmente un mundo dentro de un mundo y ahora les vamos a ensear los dos. +En este caso, estamos pasando a travs del ocano medio y vemos creaturas como sta, +este es como un gallo acutico, +este pequeo, de alguna manera logra verse muy formal. +Y despus uno de mis favoritos qu cara! +Bsicamente, esto que ven son datos cientficos, +es material que hemos recolectado con propsitos cientficos +y esa es una de las cosas que Bill ha estado haciendo, darle a los cientficos un primer vistazo a animales como estos en el mundo en el que viven; +no se atrapan con una red, +estn vindolos ah en ese mundo. +Vamos a tomar una palanca de control, a sentarnos en frente de nuestra computadora sobre la Tierra y mover la palanca de control hacia adelante para volar alrededor del planeta. +Vamos a ver la cordillera en medio del ocano, una cordillera de 64,400 Km de largo. +La profundidad promedio en la parte de arriba es alrededor de 2.4 Km +Y aqu estamos sobre el Atlntico -- esa de ah es la cordillera -- pero vamos a ir a travs del Caribe, Centroamrica y terminar en el Pacfico, nueve grados al norte. +Hacemos mapas de estas cordilleras con sonido, con sonar, y sta es una de esas cordilleras. +Estamos llegando a un precipicio aqu a la derecha, +la altura de estas montaas en cada lado del valle es mayor que las de los Alpes en la mayora de los casos. +y hay miles de montaas ah afuera que an no han sido ubicadas en un mapa. +sta es una cordillera volcnica, +vamos reduciendo cada vez ms la escala +y, al final, vamos a llegar a algo parecido a esto. +Este es un icono de nuestro robot al que llamamos Jason +y se pueden sentar en un cuarto como ste, con una palanca de control, un auricular y manejar un robot as alrededor del fondo del ocano en tiempo real. +Una de las cosas que estamos tratando de hacer en Woods Hole con nuestros socios es llevar este mundo virtual, este mundo, esta regin sin explorar, de regreso al laboratorio. +Porque ahora lo vemos en partes, +podemos verlo tanto como sonido o como video, o lo vemos como fotografas, o lo vemos como sensores qumicos pero todava no hemos podido ponerlos juntos en un solo cuadro interesante. +Aqu es donde las cmaras de Bill realmente sobresalen, +esto es lo que se conoce como un respiradero hidrotermal +y lo que estn viendo aqu es una nube densamente empacada de agua rica en sulfuro de hidrgeno que esta saliendo de un eje volcnico en el suelo martimo, +y alcanza temperaturas entre el rango 316 a 371C +As que todo eso es agua bajo el mar... a unos dos y medio, tres, cinco kilmetros de profundidad. +Y sabamos que era volcnica por los aos sesentas y setentas, +tenamos cierta idea de que cosas como estas existan, alrededor de todo el eje, porque si tienes actividad volcnica, el agua va a entrar por los orificios del suelo martimo, entrar en contacto con magma y salir disparada a altas temperaturas; +pero lo que no sabamos es que el agua estara tan rica en sulfuro de hidrgeno, +no tenamos ninguna idea que existan estas cosas que hoy llamamos chimeneas. +ste es uno de esos respiraderos hidrotermales, +agua a 316C saliendo de la Tierra. +A nuestros costados hay cordilleras con montaas ms altas que las de los Alpes, as que el escenario aqu es muy dramtico. +BL: El material blanco es un tipo de bacteria que prospera a 180C +DG: Yo creo que esa es una de las mejores historias que actualmente estamos viendo en el fondo del mar, que lo primero que vemos que sale del suelo martimo despus de una erupcin volcnica, son bacterias. +Y empezamos a preguntarnos hace mucho tiempo, cmo lleg todo eso all abajo? +Lo que descubrimos ahora es que probablemente viene del interior de la Tierra, +no slo est saliendo de la Tierra, biognesis hecha de actividad volcnica, sino que las bacterias aguantan este tipo de colonias para vivir. +La presin aqu es de 272.2 atm +A un kilmetro y medio, tres y cinco kilmetros de la superficie, nada de sol ha llegado hasta ac abajo. +Toda la energa necesaria para sostener estas formas de vida viene del interior de la Tierra, as que se trata de quimiosntesis +y pueden ver lo densa que es la poblacin. +Estas se conocen como lombrices tubo. +BL: Estas lombrices no tienen sistema digestivo, no tienen boca, +pero tienen dos tipos de branquias: +una sirve para extraer oxgeno del agua marina a estas profundidades y la otra hospeda a un tipo de bacteria quimiosinttica, que toma el fluido hidrotrmico, esa agua caliente que vieron salir del suelo y la convierte en azcares simples que la lombriz tubo puede digerir. +DG: Pueden ver que ah hay un cangrejo que vive all abajo, +ha logrado agarrar la punta de una de estas lombrices. +Normalmente, ellas se retraen tan pronto como un cangrejo las toca. +Oh! Bien hecho! +As que, tan pronto como un cangrejo las toca se retraen a sus conchas, igual que sus uas. +Hay toda una historia que se est desarrollando all abajo de la que apenas empezamos a tener somera idea gracias a esta nueva tecnologa de cmaras. +BL: Estas lombrices viven a una temperatura muy extrema, +su pata est aproximadamente a 200C y cuando su cabeza est afuera se encuentra a 3C, as que es como tener tu mano en agua hirviendo y tu pie en agua helada, +as es como les gusta vivir. +DG: Esta es una hembra de este tipo de lombrices +y aqu est el macho. +Vean. En poco tiempo estos dos individuos -- ste y el otro que aparecer por all -- empezarn a pelear. +Todo lo que ven sucede en el obscuridad absoluta del ocano profundo, +nunca hay luces, excepto las que nosotros traemos. +Y ah van. +En una inmersin de la ltima serie, contamos 200 especies en estas reas. 198 eran nuevas, nuevas especies. +BL: Uno de los mayores problemas para los bilogos que trabajan en estos sitios, es que es muy difcil recolectar estos animales, +pues se desintegran en el camino a la superficie, as que estas imgenes son crticas para la ciencia. +DG: Dos pulpos que se encuentran a alrededor de 3 Km de profundidad. +Esto de la presin me sorprende de verdad, que estos animales puedan existir a estas profundidades con suficiente presin como para aplastar al Titanic como si fuera una lata vaca de Pepsi. +Lo que vimos hasta ahora se encontraba en el Pacfico, +esto es del Atlntico, a una profundidad an mayor. +Aqu pueden ver a este camarn hostigando a este otro pobre individuo y lo va a golpear con su tenaza tmala! +Y lo mismo est pasando por ac. +Lo que quieren est en la espalda de este cangrejo, la comida aqu es un tipo extrao de bacteria que vive en las espaldas de todos estos animales. +Y lo que estos camarones estn tratando de hacer es cosechar todas las bacterias que se encuentran en las espaldas de estos animales +y a los cangrejos no les gusta para nada. +Esos filamentos largos que pueden ver en la espalda del cangrejo son en realidad creados por los productos de esas bacterias, +as que la bacteria hace que le crezca cabello al cangrejo. +En la parte de atrs se puede ver esto otra vez, +el punto rojo es la luz lser del submarino Alvin para darnos una idea de que tan lejos estamos de los respiraderos +Todos esos son camarones. +Pueden ver agua caliente saliendo por ah, ah y ah, +Se estn sujetando a la superficie de una roca y, de hecho, la estn raspando para quitar todas las bacterias de esa roca. +Aqu hay un pequeo orificio que sale de un lado de ese pilar. +Esos pilares pueden medir varios pisos de alto. +As que aqu tienen este valle con un increble paisaje aliengena de pilares y aguas termales y erupciones volcnicas y terremotos, habitada por estos animales tan extraos que viven nicamente de la energa qumica que sale del piso. +No necesitan el sol para nada. +BL: Ven esa marca blanca en forma de V en la parte trasera de este camarn? +En realidad se trata de un rgano sensible a la luz. +Es lo que usan para encontrar los orificios hidrotrmicos. +Los orificios estn emitiendo un cuerpo negro de radiacin -- una caracterstica distintiva infrarroja -- y por eso pueden encontrar estos orificios aunque estn a distancias considerables. +DG: Todo esto est pasando a lo largo de esa cordillera de 64,374 Km de longitud que llamamos el listn de vida, porque incluso hoy, mientras hablamos, se est generando vida ah gracias a la actividad volcnica. +sta es la primera vez que hemos intentado esto. +Les vamos a tratar de ensear una imagen en alta definicin desde el Pacfico. +Estamos escalando uno de estos pilares. +ste mide siete pisos de altura. +En l, vern que es un hbitat para muchos tipos distintos de animales. +Hay como un tipo curioso de plato caliente con agua del orificio saliendo de l. +Todas estas son casas individuales para lombrices, +ahora aqu tenemos una vista ms cercana de esa comunidad. +Aqu hay cangrejos, lombrices ac, +hay animales ms pequeos arrastrndose por ah. +Aqu hay estructuras con forma de pagoda. +Creo que esta cosa es el aspecto ms genial. +Simplemente no dejo de impresionarme por esto... que existan estas pequeas chimeneas aqu nada ms humeando, +lo que arrojan es muy txico, por cierto. +Nunca podran obtener un permiso para desechar esto al ocano y est saliendo de ah mismo. +Es increble. Bsicamente se trata de cido sulfrico, y est saliendo a velocidades impresionantes. +Los animales estn prosperando -- y nosotros probablemente venimos de aqu. +Probablemente evolucionamos de aqu. +BL: Estas bacterias de las que hemos estado hablando, resultan ser la forma de vida ms simple que se haya descubierto. +Hay un nmero de grupos que proponen que la vida evolucion en estos orificios. +Aunque estos orificios no viven por mucho tiempo, un sitio individual puede durar nada ms alrededor de 10 aos, como ecosistema han sido estables por millones -- bueno, miles de millones -- de aos. +DG: Funciona demasiado bien. Pueden ver algunos peces aqu tambin. +Ah hay un pez sentado. +Aqu hay un cangrejo con su tenaza derecha en la punta de esa lombriz tubo esperando que la lombriz saque su cabeza. +BL: Los bilogos no pueden explicar por qu estos animales son tan activos. +Las lombrices estn creciendo centmetros por semana! +DG: Ya dije que este sitio, desde la perspectiva humana, es tan txico como el veneno. +No slo eso, pero sobre todo -- el sustento -- ese sistema de drenaje, se apaga cada ao. +Su sistema de drenaje se apaga, as que los sitios se tienen que mover. +Y tambin hay terremotos, y luego erupciones volcnicas ms o menos cada cinco aos que eliminan completamente el rea. +A pesar de eso, los animales vuelven a crecer en aproximadamente un ao. +Estamos hablando de biodensidades y biodiversidades mayores que las de una selva tropical, que simplemente rebotan nuevamente a la vida. +Que si es sensible? S. +Que si es frgil? No, la verdad no es tan frgil. +Voy a terminar diciendo una ltima cosa. +Hay una historia en el mar, en las aguas del mar, en los sedimentos y en las rocas del suelo marino. +Es una historia increble. +Lo que vemos cuando miramos hacia atrs en el tiempo en esos sedimentos y rocas, es un registro de la historia de la Tierra. +Todo lo que hay en este planeta -- todo -- funciona a base de ciclos y ritmos. +Los continentes se separan, luego se vuelven a unir. +Los ocanos van y vienen, las montaas van y vienen, los glaciares van y vienen; +el Nio va y viene. No es un desastre, es rtmico. +Lo que estamos aprendiendo ahora, es casi como una sinfona. +Es justamente como la msica -- en realidad es como la msica. +Y lo que estamos aprendiendo ahora es que no puedes escuchar una sinfona de 5 mil millones de aos, llegar al da de hoy y decir: Alto! Queremos que la nota de maana sea la misma que la de hoy. +Es absurdo. Sencillamente absurdo. +As que lo que tenemos que aprender ahora es a dnde se dirige este planeta en todos los diferentes mbitos y trabajar con ello. +Aprender a gestionarlo. +El concepto de preservacin es ftil. +La conservacin es ms difcil, pero probablemente podremos llegar ah. +Muchas gracias. +Gracias. +Bien, pues una gran pregunta a la que nos enfrentamos ahora y que ha estado ah durante bastantes aos: Hay riesgo de un ataque nuclear? +Una pregunta mejor que es, probablemente, ms importante que esa, es la nocin de eliminar permanentemente esa posibilidad de ataque nuclear, eliminando la amenaza totalmente. +Me gustara exponerles que, desde que desarrollamos el primer armamento nuclear hasta este mismo momento, hemos vivido en un mundo peligrosamente nuclear que se caracteriza por dos fases, las cuales voy a tratar ahora mismo con ustedes. +La era nuclear empez en 1945. +Los EEUU haban desarrollado un par de armas nucleares a travs del Proyecto Manhattan, y la idea era muy clara: "Usaremos el poder nuclear para acabar con las atrocidades y el horror de esta interminable II Guerra Mundial en la que hemos estado involucrados en Europa y el Pacfico". +Y en 1945, ramos la nica potencia nuclear. +Tenamos unas cuantas armas nucleares, dos de las cuales arrojamos en Japn, en Hiroshima; unos das despus, en agosto de 1945, en Nagasaki, matando a unas 250.000 personas entre ambas. +Y, durante unos pocos aos, ramos la nica potencia nuclear de la Tierra. +Pero en 1949, la Unin Sovitica decidi que era inaceptable que nosotros furamos la nica potencia nuclear, y empezaron a igualarse a lo que Estados Unidos haba desarrollado. +Y, de 1949 a 1985, hubo un periodo extraordinario de construccin de arsenal nuclear que nadie podra siquiera haber imaginado all por 1940. +As, hasta 1985, cada una de estas bombas rojas de aqu arriba es equivalente a miles de cabezas nucleares. El mundo tena 65.000 cabezas nucleares, y siete miembros de algo que vino a llamarse "El Club Nuclear". +Fue un gran periodo, y voy a hablar sobre la mentalidad que nosotros... que los americanos y el resto del mundo estaba experimentando. +Pero quiero subrayarles que el 95% de las armas nucleares de cualquier ao desde 1985... en adelante, claro, eran parte de los arsenales de los EEUU y la Unin Sovitica. +Despus de 1985, y antes de la ruptura de la Unin Sovitica, empezamos a desarmarnos desde un punto de vista nuclear. +Empezamos a contrarrestar eso y bajamos el nmero mundial de cabezas nucleares hasta aproximadamente un total de 21.000. +Es una cifra muy difcil con la que lidiar, pues lo que hicimos fue "decomisionar" algunas de las cabezas nucleares. +Probablemente, an pueden utilizarse. Podran ser "recomisionadas", pero de la manera en la que ellos cuentan las cosas, que es muy complicada, creemos que tenemos ms o menos un tercio de las armas nucleares que tenamos antes. +Pero tambin, en ese periodo de tiempo, agregamos dos miembros ms al Club Nuclear: Pakistn y Korea del Norte. +As que hoy todava tenemos un arsenal nuclear enteramente armado en muchos pases alrededor del mundo, pero en circunstancias muy diferentes. +As que voy a hablar de una historia de amenaza nuclear de dos captulos. +El captulo uno va de 1949 a 1991, cuando la Unin Sovitica se fragment y con l lo que habamos estado lidiando a travs de esos aos era una carrera de superpotencias nucleares. +Se caracterizaba por una nacin contra otra nacin, un empate muy frgil. +Y, bsicamente, todos esos aos hemos vivido, y alguien puede decir que todava lo hacemos, en una situacin de literalmente, estar a punto de una calamidad planetaria apocalptica. +Es increble que hayamos tenido que vivir con eso. +Durante esos aos, fuimos totalmente dependientes de ese asombroso acrnimo, que es MAD; +es sinnimo de Destruccin Mutuamente Asegurada +Eso significaba que si t... si t nos atacabas, nosotros te atacbamos, prcticamente a la vez, y el resultado final sera la destruccin de tu pas y del mo. +Es decir, la amenaza de mi propia destruccin evitaba que te lanzase un ataque nuclear. As es como vivamos. +Y el peligro de eso, claro est, es que un error en la lectura de un radar podra causar una cuenta atrs, aunque el primer pas no hubiese lanzado nada. +Durante este primer captulo, haba una gran conciencia pblica sobre una potencial catstrofe nuclear, y una imagen indeleble se haba implantado en nuestras mentes colectivas: que el hecho de una holocausto nuclear sera globalmente destructiva, y podra, de alguna forma, significar el fin de la civilizacin como la conocemos. +Este ha sido el captulo uno. +Lo raro es que, aunque sabamos que habra ese tipo de destruccin de la civilizacin, en Amrica nos comprometamos a un ciclo de... y de hecho, en la Unin Sovitica... a un ciclo de planificacin de respuestas. +Era absolutamente increble. +La primera premisa era que bamos a destruir el mundo, y la segunda, por qu no nos preparamos para ello? +As que... lo que ofrecimos fue una recopilacin de cosas. Voy a decir algunas por encima, slo para... para refrescarles la memoria. +Si han nacido despus de 1950, esto es slo... considrenlo entretenimiento; si no, es un paseo por la memoria. +Esta era la Tortuga Bert. Bsicamente, era un intento de ensear a nuestros nios que, si nos comprometamos a una confrontacin nuclear y a una guerra atmica, queramos que nuestros nios se preocuparan ms que nada de agacharse y protegerse. +Eso era el principio. Habra una confrontacin nuclear a punto de estallarnos y, si te escondas debajo del pupitre, todo saldra bien. +Yo no lo hice tan bien en la Facultad de Medicina, en Psiquiatra, pero me interesaba, y creo que esto era bastante ilusorio. +Segundo, decamos a la gente que bajara a sus stanos y construyera un refugio antinuclear. +Podra ser un despacho cuando no hubiera una guerra nuclear, o una sala de televisin o, como muchos adolescentes descubrieron, un sitio muy, muy seguro para tener un poco de intimidad con tu novia. +Bueno, que hay muchos usos para un refugio. +O tambin comprar un refugio antibombas prefabricado, o excavar en la tierra. +Vale, los refugios antibombas... Digamos que compran uno prefabricado. Unos cuantos cientos de dlares, quiz 500 si se compran uno chulo. +Qu porcentaje de americanos creen que han tenido alguna vez un refugio antibombas en casa? +Qu porcentaje viva en casa con refugio antibombas? +Menos del dos por ciento. Aproximadamente, un 1,4 por ciento de la poblacin, por lo que se sabe, hizo algo... bien algo en su stano, bien construir un refugio antibombas. +Muchos edificios... edificios pblicos en el pas... Esto es Nueva York... tenan esos pequeos signos de defensa civiles, y la idea era que ustedes corrieran dentro de uno de esos refugios y estuvieran a salvo del armamento nuclear. +Y uno de los engaos gubernamentales ms grandes de todos los tiempos fue algo que pas en los primeros tiempos de la FEMA (Proteccin Civil), y ya sabemos cmo se comportan gracias al Katrina. +Aqu est su primer anuncio pblico. +Proponan... y, en realidad, haba como seis tomos escritos... un plan de recolocacin de emergencia que dependa de que los EEUU tuvieran 3 4 das de advertencia de que los Soviticos nos iban a atacar. +As que la meta era evacuar las ciudades objetivo. +Nos llevaramos a la gente de las ciudades objetivo al campo. +Y les digo que yo ya testifiqu ante el Senado sobre la absolutamente ridcula idea de que de verdad podramos evacuar, y de que realmente bamos a tener 3 4 das de advertencia. +Es completamente surrealista. +Resulta que tuvieron otra idea aparte, aunque esta... Decan a la gente que era para salvarnos. +La idea era que obligaramos a los Soviticos a re-dirigir sus armas nucleares... algo muy caro... y a doblar potencialmente su arsenal no slo para eliminar el sitio original, sino tambin para eliminar los sitios a los que la gente iba. +Eso era lo que, parece ser, estaba detrs de todo eso. +Era muy, muy escalofriante. +Lo principal aqu es que estamos tratando con una desconexin completa de la realidad. +Los programas de defensa civil estaban desconectados de la realidad que habamos visto en todo esto de la guerra nuclear. +As, organizaciones como "Mdicos para la Responsabilidad Social", all por 1979, empezaron a decir esto pblicamente. +A bombardearnos con esto. Iban a nuestra ciudad y decan: "Aqu hay un mapa de la ciudad. +Esto es lo que va a pasar si tenemos un golpe nuclear". +As que no haba posibilidad de una respuesta mdica o una preparacin razobable para una guerra nuclear global. +Tenamos que prevenir la guerra nuclear si esperbamos sobrevivir. +En realidad, esta desconexin nunca se resolvi. +Y lo que pas fue... Nos adentramos en el Captulo Dos de la era de la amenaza nuclear, que empez en 1945. +El Captulo Dos empieza en 1991. +Cuando la Unin Sovitica se rompi, efectivamente, perdimos a ese adversario como un atacante potencial de los Estados Unidos, mayormente. +Pero no se haba ido completamente. Volver a eso. +Pero, desde 1991 hasta ahora, recalcado por los ataques de 2001, la idea de una guerra nuclear global ha disminuido, y en su lugar, tenemos la idea de un evento aislado de terrorismo nuclear. +Aunque el escenario ha cambiado considerablemente, el hecho es que nosotros no hemos cambiado nuestra imagen mental de lo que significa una guerra nuclear. +Por lo que voy a contarles las repercusiones de eso en un segundo. +Qu es una amenaza de terror nuclear? +Hay cuatro ingredientes clave para describir eso. +Lo primero es que las armas nucleares globales... en las reservas que les he enseado en esos mapas originales... resulta que no son uniformemente seguras. +Y, particularmente, no son seguras en la Unin Sovitica, ahora en Rusia. +Hay muchos, muchos sitios donde se almacenan cabezas nucleares y, de hecho, muchos sitios donde hay materiales fisionables, como uranio y plutonio altamente enriquecidos, son completamente inseguros. +Se pueden comprar, robar, lo que sea. +Son adquiribles, djenme decirlo as. +De 1993 a 2006, la Agencia Internacional de Energa Nuclear document 175 casos de robo nuclear, 18 de los cuales involucraban uranio o plutonio altamente enriquecidos, los ingredientes principales para hacer un arma nuclear. +Las reservas globales de uranio altamente enriquecido van de unas 1.300, por lo bajo, a unas 2.100 toneladas. +Ms de 100 megatones de todo esto estn almacenados en lugares de Rusia realmente inseguros. +Cunto de eso creen ustedes que hara falta para construir una bomba de 10 kilotones? +Bien, pues necesitaran unos 34 kilos. +Lo que quiero ensearles es qu hara falta para guardar 34 kilos de uranio altamente enriquecido. +Esto no es slo guardar un producto... de hecho, si fuera Coca-Cola, me dara igual, pero... pero... pero bsicamente, esto es. +Esto es lo que necesitaran para robar o comprar esas reservas de 100 toneladas, relativamente inseguras para crear el tipo de bomba que se us en Hiroshima. +Ahora, quiz quieran mirar el plutonio como otro material fisionable que podran usar en una bomba. +Necesitaran de 4,5 a 6 kilos de plutonio. +Ahora, el plutonio... de 4,5 a 6 kilos... ya est. Este plutonio es suficiente para crear una bomba atmica del tamao de la de Nagasaki. +Ahora, la situacin ya... saben, no me gusta pensar en eso aunque, no s cmo, tengo un trabajo donde tengo que pensar en eso, as que... El caso es que estamos muy, muy inseguros en trminos de desarrollo de este material. +La segunda cosa es, Qu se necesita para hacerlo? +Y hay mucha controversia sobre si las organizaciones terroristas tienen conocimientos para hacer un arma nuclear. +Bueno, hay mucho conocimiento ah fuera. +Hay una increble cantidad de conocimiento ah fuera. +Hay informacin detallada sobre cmo montar por piezas un arma nuclear. +Hay libros sobre cmo construir una bomba nuclear. +Hay planos sobre cmo crear una granja del terror donde se pueda manufacturar y desarrollar todos los componentes y despus montarlos. +Toda esta informacin est relativamente disponible. +Si se han licenciado en fsica, le sugerira... bueno, no, as que igual ni es verdad... pero algo parecido a eso le permitira, con la informacin disponible, construir un arma nuclear. +El tercer elemento de una amenaza de terror nuclear es, quin iba a hacer algo as realmente? +Bien, lo que vemos ahora es un nivel de terrorismo que involucra personas altamente organizadas. +Estn muy dedicadas y muy comprometidas. +Son aptridas. +Alguien dijo una vez que al Qaeda no tena direccin conocida, por lo que, si nos atacaban con un arma nuclear, cul sera la respuesta, y a quin? +Estn a salvo de represalias. +Ya que no hay ningn castigo real posible, dara igual, pues hay gente dispuesta a dar sus vidas para hacernos mucho dao. Parece evidente que toda esa nocin de la Destruccin Mutua Asegurada no funcionara. +Este es Sulaiman Abu Ghaith, y Sulaiman era un teniente clave de Osama Bin Laden. +Escribi muchas, muchas frases como esta: "Tenemos el derecho a matar a cuatro millones de Americanos, dos millones de los cuales deben ser nios". +Y no tenemos que cruzar el ocano para encontrar gente dispuesta a herir, cualesquiera sean sus razones. +McVeigh y Nichols y el ataque a Oklahoma City en 1990 es un buen ejemplo de terroristas locales. +Qu habra pasado si hubieran tenido un arma nuclear? +El cuarto elemento es el alto valor de los objetivos americanos era accesible, fciles y abundante. +Esto sera para otra charla, pero el nivel de preparacin que los EEUU ha conseguido desde el 11S es increblemente inadecuado. +Lo que vieron despus del Katrina es un buen indicador de lo poco preparado que est EEUU para un ataque masivo. +Siete millones de contenedores de barco entran en los EEUU cada ao. +Slo se inspeccionan del 5 al 7%... del 5 al 7%. +Este es Alexander Lebed, un general que trabaj con Yeltsin, que habl y present en el Congreso su idea de que los rusos haban desarrollado bombas maletn. Estaban poco cargadas: de 0,1 a 1 kilotn... Hiroshima tena unos 13 kilotones... pero suficiente para hacer una cantidad de dao tremenda. +Y Lebed vino a los EEUU y nos dijo que muchas... ms del 80% de las bombas maletn, no respondan ante nadie. +Eran as. Era algo bastante simple. +Ponas tus cosas en un maletn. +Y se haca porttil. +El maletn poda dejarse convenientemente en el maletero del coche. +Podas llevarlo donde quisieras y detonarlo. +No quiere fabricar una bomba maletn, y resulta que obtiene una de esas inseguras cabezas nucleares que existen... +este es el tamao de "Little Boy", la bomba que se arroj sobre Hiroshima. +Meda unos 3 metros, pesaba 4.000 kilos. Bajen a un sitio de alquiler de camiones, y por unos 50 pavos, pueden alquilar un camin que tenga capacidad para llevar su bomba, la ponen en su camin y ya estn listos para irse. +Podra pasar, pero, qu significara y quin sobrevivira? +No se puede obtener una probabilidad exacta, pero lo que intento decir es que tenemos todos los elementos para que eso pase. +Cualquiera que desestime el pensamiento de que los terroristas pueden usar armas nucleares, se est engaando. +Hay mucho que puede hacerse para mantenernos ms seguros. +En este preciso momento, podramos acabar viendo una detonacin nuclear en una de nuestras ciudades. +No creo que veamos una guerra nuclear total muy pronto, aunque no est del todo fuera de lugar. +Todava hay suficientes armas nucleares en los arsenales de las superpotencias para destruir la tierra muchsimas veces. +Hay puntos lgidos en India y Pakistn, en el Medio Oriente, en Korea del Norte, otros sitios en los que el uso de armas nucleares, si bien eran inicialmente locales, podran rpidamente convertirse en una situacin de enfrentamiento de una guerra nuclear total. +Muy inquietante. +Bien. Vamos all. +Estoy en mi camin conduciendo por el puente de Brooklyn. +Bajamos y dejamos ese camin que acaban de ver en algn sitio del distrito financiero. +Es una bomba de 10 kilotones, ligeramente ms pequea que la de Hiroshima. Y quiero concluir dndoles un poco de informacin. Creo que... es algo as como "informacin til". +Primero, sera ms terrible de lo que nadie sera capaz de imaginar. +Es el final. +Si estn a medio kilmetro de donde esta bomba estall, tienen un 90% de probabilidades de no contarlo. +Si estn justo donde la bomba estall, se evaporarn. Y esto... Ya les digo, no es bueno. +Ya lo suponen. +A 3 kilmetros, tienen un 50 por ciento de posibilidades de que les mate, y a unos 12 kilmetros de distancia... estoy hablando de morir en el acto... tienen entre un 10 y un 20 por ciento de posibilidades de morir. +El caso es que la experiencia en detonacin nuclear es... Primero de todo, 10 millones de grados Fahrenheit aqu, en el ncleo, donde todo explota, y una cantidad extraordinaria de energa en forma de calor, de radiacin grave y efectos devastadores. +Un viento parecido al de un huracn y una destruccin de edificios casi total en este crculo amarillo de aqu. +Y en lo que me voy a centrar, a modo de conclusin aqu, es en qu es lo que les pasa si estn aqu. +Bien, si hablamos de los viejos tiempos de un ataque nuclear total, ustedes, aqu arriba, estn tan muertos como la gente de aqu. Un punto irrelevante. +Lo que digo es que hay mucho que podemos hacer por los que estn aqu, si han sobrevivido a la explosin inicial. +Lo han hecho, una vez la explosin ha pasado... Y, por cierto, si alguna vez les pasa, no la miren. +Si la miran, se quedarn ciegos, temporal o permanentemente. +As que si hay alguna forma de que lo eviten, como apartar los ojos, estara bien. +Si resulta que estn vivos, pero se encuentran en las inmediaciones de un arma nuclear, tienen... si ya ha pasado... tienen de 10 a 20 minutos, dependiendo del tamao y de dnde estall exactamente, para irse de ah, antes de que una cantidad letal de radiacin salga de esa nube de hongo que sube. +En esos 10 o 15 minutos, lo que tienen que hacer... y lo digo en serio... es irse a un kilmetro y medio de la explosin. +Y lo que pasa es... Voy a ensearles algunas columnas radioactivas. En 20 minutos, baja directamente; en 24 horas, la radiacin letal se va con el viento predominante, la mayora de las veces en esta direccin: nordeste. +Si estn aqu cerca, tienen que marcharse. +Si sienten el viento, y el viento es tremendo ahora, as que lo van a sentir, tienen que ir perpendicular al viento o en su direccin, +si son capaces de ver que la explosin estaba frente a ustedes. +Tienen que salir de ah. +Si no salen de ah, van a estar expuestos a una radiacin letal en muy poco tiempo. +Si no pueden salir, tienen que ir a un refugio y quedarse ah. +Pero bsicamente, tienen que huir de la ciudad rpidamente. +Y si hacen eso, pueden sobrevivir a una explosin nuclear. +De unos das a una semana, habr una nube de radiacin... otra vez, vayan con el viento y qudense a unos 25 o 33 kilmetros... Long Island, en este caso. +Y si estn justo en la zona de explosin, aqu, de verdad, tienen que refugiarse o marcharse, y no hay ms. Pero si estn refugiados, pueden sobrevivir. +La diferencia entre conocer la informacin y lo que van a hacer, y no saberlo, puede salvarles la vida. Esa podra ser la diferencia entre 150.000 o 200.000 muertes algo as, y de medio milln a 700.000. +As que una planificacin de respuesta en el siglo 21 es posible y esencial. +Pero en el 2008, no hay una sola ciudad americana que haya hecho planes eficaces para lidiar con un desastre nuclear. +Parte del problema es que los planificadores de emergencia, personalmente, estn psicolgicamente desbordados por el pensamiento de una catstrofe nuclear. +Se paralizan. +Les dices "nuclear" y ya piensan: "Dios mo, estamos muertos. Qu ms da? Es intil". +Intentamos decirles que no es intil: +podemos cambiar las tasas de supervivencia haciendo algunas cosas sensatas. +La meta aqu es minimizar las vctimas. +Y quiero dejarles con algunos puntos que creo les pueden interesar. +La clave para sobrevivir a un ataque nuclear es marcharse, y no meterse en el foco del problema. +Esto es de lo que vamos a hablar aqu. +Y, cuanto ms lejos estn, ms tiempo habr desde la explosin inicial, y cuanta ms separacin haya entre usted y la atmsfera exterior, mejor. +As que la separacin... de cemento o suciedad... o estar en un refugio... La distancia y el tiempo es lo que les salvar. +Esto es lo que tienen que hacer. Primero, como dije, no miren a la luz, si pueden. No s si podran resistir eso. +Pero supongamos que, tericamente, quieren hacerlo. +Quieren tener la boca abierta para que sus tmpanos no se rompan por la presin. +Si estn muy cerca, lo que tienen que hacer es agacharse y cubrirse, como les dijo Bert... Bert la Tortuga. +Y deben meterse debajo de algo para que los objetos no les hieran ni les maten, si es posible. +Tienen que irse de la nube radioactiva inicial, en pocos minutos, +y refugiarse. Tienen que moverse en la direccin del viento o paralelos a l durante 2 kilmetros. +Ya saben, si estn ah fuera y ven edificios destruidos, y en esa direccin estn menos destruidos, pues ya saben que la explosin fue ah, y tienen que ir por aqu, siempre y cuando vayan paralelos al viento. +Una vez que han evacuado, tienen que taparse toda la piel que puedan, cubrirse la nariz y la boca, siempre que eso no les impida moverse y marcharse de ah. +Finalmente, tienen que descontaminarse lo ms pronto posible. +Si llevan ropa, tienen que quitrsela, ducharse en algn sitio y eliminar la radiacin que haya podido... el material radioactivo que pueda haber en ustedes. +Y luego deben quedarse en el refugio de 48 a 72 horas mnimo, pero van a aguardar esperanzados... Tienen una radio pequea que no necesita pilas, y esperarn hasta que la gente les diga que es seguro estar fuera. Eso es lo que necesitan hacer. +Para concluir, una guerra nuclear es menos probable que antes, pero no impensable, y no se puede sobrevivir a ella. +El terrorismo nuclear es posible, pero es probable que se sobreviva a l. +Y este es Jack Geiger, uno de los hroes del Sistema de Salud Pblico americano. +Y Jack dice que la nica manera de lidiar con cualquier cosa nuclear, tanto guerra como terrorismo, es la abolicin de las armas nucleares. +Claro, hay que trabajar en algo despus de haber arreglado el calentamiento global. Les invito a pensar en el hecho de que tenemos algo que hacer al respecto de esta inaceptable e inhumana realidad de las armas nucleares del mundo. +Esta es mi diapositiva favorita de Defensa Civil... No quiero ser indiscreto, pero... bueno... ya no est al cargo. No nos importa, vale. +Alguien me mand esto, alguien aficionado a los procedimientos en defensa civil, pero el quid de la cuestin es que Amrica ha pasado por un momento muy duro. +No nos hemos centrado, no hemos hecho lo que tenamos que hacer, y ahora nos enfrentamos a un potencial infierno en la Tierra. +Gracias. +Este es posiblemente el diseo final de los animales. +Pero la razn por la cual propongo este tema aqu es porque cuando estuve en frica el ao pasado, mi esposa y yo estuvimos conduciendo, tuvimos este gua maravilloso que nos mostr algo maravilloso que nos asombr a los dos, y que fue muy revelador en trminos de fascinacin, que tiene que ver con el diseo de los animales. +Resulta que alrededor de 1880 los misioneros vinieron a frica para difundir el cristianismo, para ensear ingls a los nativos. +Y ellos trajeron pizarras y tizas. +Y me gustara que se imaginaran que esto es una pizarra, y que he usado tiza sobre ella. +Y trajeron un montn de este material. +Pero pasados los aos las pizarras estaban bien, pero hubo escasez de tizas. +Y esta fue una verdadera crisis para ellos. +Y es as como la hiena entra a esta historia. +La hiena es probablemente el animal mejor diseado para buscar comida en el mundo. +La hiena despieza cadveres, y tiene unos dientes impresionantes porque eso le permite comer huesos. +Ahora, el producto final de esta accin est aqu en esta pizarra. +Y lo que los misioneros hicieron fue, darse una vuelta y recoger la caca de la hiena. +Y lo increble sobre la caca de la hiena es: hace una excelente tiza. +Ahora, de esto no es de lo que voy hablar aqu, pero es un aspecto fascinante del diseo de los animales. +De lo que les voy a hablar es del camello. +Cuando empec hablar con Richard de lo que iba hablar, recin haba llegado de Jordania, donde tuve una extraordinaria experiencia con un camello. +Estuvimos en el desierto... +Richard Wurman: este es el final de esta conferencia! Keith Bellows: S, s. +Estuvimos en el desierto, en Wadi Rum, en un pequeo jeep. +Estbamos cuatro, dos chferes beduinos, +y, se pueden imaginar, esta extensin es un ocano de arena: 40 grados, una botella de agua. +Y estuvimos conduciendo en lo que nos dijeron +era su mejor jeep. No me pareci as. +Y cuando empezamos a cruzar el desierto el jeep se estrope. Los muchachos salieron, levantaron la capota +y comenzaron a trabajar bajo la capota, lo pusieron en marcha de nuevo y, a unos 160 km, se volvi a estropear. +Esto sucedi ms o menos unas seis o siete veces, +y nos estbamos alarmando ms y ms, y estbamos cada vez ms adentro en el desierto. +Y de repente, sucedi la peor pesadilla: rompieron el motor. +Y dijeron: Ah, no hay problema! Slo hay que salir del auto y caminar! +Y dijimos: "Salir y caminar?" +Una botella de agua, recuerden chicos, cuatro personas. +Y dijeron: "S, s, caminaremos. Encontraremos algunos camellos". +As que salimos y caminamos y, en efecto, cuando estbamos a 800 m en lo ms alto de la colina, haba una gran reunin de beduinos con sus camellos. +El chico fue a la cima y comenz a regatear, y 10 dlares despus, tenamos 4 camellos. +Ellos bajaron como ascensores, nosotros nos subimos. Ellos se levantaron, +y los beduinos --cada beduino, cuatro de ellos -- se pusieron detrs de cada camello con un pequeo ltigo. +Y empezaron a dar latigazos en la parte trasera de los camellos. y empezaron a galopar. +Y si alguna vez han estado sobre un camello, esta es una muy, pero muy incmoda carrera. +Hay tambin otro aspecto acerca de estos camellos. +Daban 10 pasos y luego se reclinaban y trataban de sacar un pedazo de tu pierna. +As continuamos, y este camello continu tratando de sacar un pedazo de mi pierna. +y finalmente, 5 km despus, llegamos a nuestro destino. donde se supona estara un jeep esperndonos. +Y los camellos bajaron nuevamente como ascensores, y nosotros bajamos de manera torpe, y ellos, obviamente, tratando de darle otro mordiscn a mi pierna. +Haba entablado una maravillosa relacin con esta criatura hasta ese momento, y me di cuenta que este era un hijo de puta. +Era an peor que el beduino que me salud y trat de venderme una de sus 26 hijas, para llevarla a EE.UU. +As que hablando, Richard y yo, le dije: "Sabes, igual traigo un camello. +Yo creo que el camello es el animal mejor diseado del mundo". +Y l dijo: "No. No creo que queramos traer un camello". +Deberan estar realmente contentos de que no decidiramos traer el camello. +Entonces tom la segunda mejor opcin. +Fui al Zoo de Washington. Richard dijo: +"Quiero que te acerques lo ms posible a este camello. +Quiero que inspecciones su boca, mira cmo son sus dientes. +Mira abajo. Ve arriba. Mira alrededor de ella. +Tira su cola hacia arriba, dale una mirada ah. +Quiero que conozcas lo que ms puedas del camello". +As que consegu al equipo de filmacin de la National Geographic. Y fuimos para all, +y di una mirada a este camello. +Es una criatura de una tonelada que est en celo. +Ahora, si alguna vez han visto a un camello de una tonelada en celo, es una escena que da miedo. +Y si Richard pens que yo iba a entrar al ring con el camello, alguien estaba fumando la mejor droga beduina. +As que nos acercamos lo ms que pudimos y voy a compartir esto -Chris, si quieres rodar esta pelcula- +y entonces voy a mostrarles un poquito ms del diseo de los camellos. +Quieres rodar esta pelcula? +. Hola. Soy Keith Bellows con la Unidad de Investigacin de la National Geographic. +Estoy aqu para conocer al ltimo modelo de mquina del desierto. +Y notarn que empec a masticar chicle porque estaba alrededor del camello todo el da. +Cuidador de animales: eso es. No! Mira, l se est poniendo un poco nervioso. +Entonces debemos tener mucho cuidado cuando estamos cerca de l. No dejes que te atrape. +Ahora, pueden ver la copiosa cantidad de saliva ah. +Me autodenomino "chico inestable del establo". +Su nariz... pueden ver que su nariz est irritada ahora mismo. +Cuando estn en celo son similares a las focas en que tienen que abrir su nariz para respirar. +Son similares. Tienen que abrir de manera consciente sus narices. +Orejas? Sus orejas son pequeas. Pero tienen un odo excelente. +Pero no excepcional; por ejemplo, las cebras tienen orejas enormes que son muy mviles, lo que les permite girarlas. +Y las usan de la misma manera que nosotros usamos nuestra visin binocular. +Las usan para identificar los sonidos. +El desierto es extremadamente ventoso de la misma manera que puede ser tambin muy frio. +Es por eso que no slo tienen pestaas muy largas, sino tambin pestaas secundarias. Supongo que podran llamarlo [no claro] o cualquier cosa. +Eso es el pelo que est sobre los ojos, y por debajo de esto es ms largo. +La mayora piensa que las jorobas almacenan agua. +No es as. Almacenan grasa. +Ahora bien, yo no soy qumico, pero bsicamente lo que sucede es que la grasa es oxidada por la respiracin +y eso la convierte en agua para usar. +Como muchos depredadores, ellos caminan sobre la punta de los pies. +Pero tienen como una gran almohadilla de grasa que aplastan. +Son como zapatos de sol. Pero, saben, con arena. +Cascos? No tienen los tradicionales cascos, pero si tienen algo como una gran ua. +No se puede ver esto claramente. El pelo ha crecido alrededor. +Pero usan bastante sus colas. Especialmente en el celo. +l orina y gira su cola para esparcir su orina alrededor y hacerse ms atractivo. +No entiendo por qu es as, pero eso les funciona bien. +Entonces, qu diablos. +En fin, tambin defecan en ciertos lugares... +por lo general cagan donde quieren, pero durante el celo defecan en el permetro de sus zonas. +No s si alguna vez han ledo u odo acerca de los sonidos subsnicos de los elefantes... Entienden lo que digo, como, "Brr-r-r!" +Esos fuertes sonidos vibrantes. l hace lo mismo. +Pueden verlo ahora mismo, l vibrar. +Pesamos a nuestros animales. +Por desgracia, l es un animal muy agresivo. Ha destruido algunas de las bsculas. +Tenamos estas grandes bsculas que pesan al bisonte, por ejemplo. +Asumo que l... que l pesa al menos 700 kg. +Probablemente cerca de una tonelada. +Es prcticamente una trituradora caminante. +Somos como amigos, pero soy macho igual que l --KB: [no claro]. SH: S, exactamente. +Y eso lo hace muy peligroso en esta poca del ao. +Ni siquiera pienso en esto. Ni siquiera lo pienso! +Pero ahora vamos a conocer... Fuera! Fuera! +Fuera! +No. +Fuera! +Lo que no les mostr fue... entendieron esa cosa que giraba? +Bueno, y estarn contentos que no les mostr esto. +Una de las otras cosas del bellsimo diseo del camello es que su pene apunta hacia atrs. +As el camello puede sumergir su cola en la corriente, y simplemente esparcir toda el rea alrededor suyo. +Y es as como realmente marca su territorio. +Ahora, lo otro que tampoco vieron fue... y se habrn podido dar cuenta que en el establo al costado de l... a propsito, el nombre del camello es Suki. +En el establo de al lado est Jasmine. +Jasmine ha sido su hembra por algn tiempo. +Pero en sta ocasin particular, fue muy, pero muy claro, mientras ms caliente estaba Suki, Jasmine totalmente al contrario. +Y entonces empezamos a pensar. +Bueno, si el pobre viejo de Suki est en la bsqueda de su pareja, qu podra hacer Suki para encontrar su pareja perfecta? +Entonces voy a mostrarles otra pelcula. +Pero antes que lo haga, quiero decirles que este animal es como un todoterreno de la arena; el barco del desierto. Es vital para los habitantes de las reas en las que el camello se encuentra, mayormente en Mongolia y el Sahara, que hay 160 palabras en rabe para describir al camello. +Y si sta fuese una criatura diseada por un comit no es del tipo de comit en el que yo haya participado. +Entonces aqu est lo que Suki podra hacer en la bsqueda de una pareja. +Puedes iniciar la pelcula, por favor? +[Camello buscando camello] [una bestia vigorosa desea a una atractiva y sincera compaera] +[Peso alrededor de 1000 kg tengo pelo y ojos marrones, piernas largas...] [Y estoy muy bien... dotado.] +[Soy el Camello de TED] +[La mquina perfecta del desierto] +[Estoy diseado de manera inteligente] +[Las pestaas evitan la arena y la tercera pestaa funciona como un] [limpiabrisas] +[Una nariz distinguida...] [...con fosas nasales alineadas para poder filtrar la arena y el polvo...] [...y un abertura que coge la humedad.] +[Labios asombrosamente gruesos...] [...Que me permiten comer prcticamente todo lo que crece.] +[Los callos de mis rodillas me permiten arrodillarme cmodamente] +[Almohadillas de cuero en el pecho que me protegen del calor] +[Pelo corto que me permite tener la piel fresca.] +[Patas largas que me permiten escapas del calor.] +[Y mi joroba?] +[Ogden Nash escribio una vez:] [El camello tiene una sla joroba; el dromedario dos,] [O al revs. Nunca estoy seguro. Y t?] +[Aqui hay una pista] [Bactriano] +[Dromedario] +[Mi joroba contiene hasta 35 kg de grasa... pero no almacena H2O.] +[Estoy hecho para durar] +[Soy el animal que contina caminando an cuando el oasis est seco.] +[Usualmente no sudo hasta que mi cuerpo alcanza 40C.] [Lo suficiente para freir un huevo.] +[Puedo perder hasta el 40%] [de mi peso sin morir.] +[La mayora de los animales podran si pierden la mitad] [Puedo beber 25 litros de agua cada da.] +[Sin comprar nada ms por un mes.] +[Soy poderoso] +[de peso.] +[Puedo adelantar a un caballo...] [y hacer 40 km en un buen da] +[Camelot] +[Jackie O. dijo alguna vez que viajar en un camello] [haca que montar a elefante pareciera como tomar un aeroplano.] +[Mis suaves y grandes patas me permiten viajar en la arena.] +[Ser por eso que los beduinos aseguran que puedo bailar?] [Soy un buen proveedor, tambin.] +[Los beduinos llaman a los camellos el regalo de Dios] +[No es una sorpresa.] +[De mi pelo se hacen carpas y alfombras.] +[Mis huesos secos estn valorados como un tipo de marfil.] +[Mi excremento es quemado como combustible. Mi leche se usa para hacer queso.] +["Los camellos son como ngeles", dijo un beduino.] +Gracias. Slo quiero dejarlos con una ltima idea, que es probablemente el mensaje ms importante para llevarse. +Los humanos, el animal, somos criaturas con mucha suerte, por lo general, no tenemos que adaptarnos a nuestro medio ambiente; adaptamos nuestro medio ambiente a nosotros. +Y hemos visto eso repetidamente a travs de esta conferencia no slo este ao, sino en aos pasados. +Pero esta criatura que acaban de ver finalmente se ha adaptado y se mantiene adaptndose y adaptndose. +Y creo que cuando uno mira al reino animal, esta es una de las cosas ms notables. +Es que no tiene un medio ambiente que adaptar; l tiene que adaptarse al medio ambiente. +Ricky, gracias por permitirme estar aqu +RW: Es excelente. Gracias. +Realmente necesitamos ofrecer a los nios lo mejor que tengamos. +Si no lo hacemos, tendremos la generacin que nos merecemos. +Ellos aprendern de cualquier cosa que tengan a su alrededor. +Y nosotros, siendo ahora la lite, padres, bibliotecarios, profesionales, desde cualquiera de las posibles actividades que ocupemos, podemos tratar de ofrecer lo mejor a aquellos que nos rodean, o a tantos como podamos. +Voy a empezar y a terminar esta charla con un par de cosas que estn grabadas en piedra. +Una es lo que tiene grabado la Biblioteca Pblica de Boston. +Grabado sobre sus puertas dice "Abierta para todos". +Es una declaracin inspiradora, sobre la que regresar al final. +Soy bibliotecario y lo que trato de hacer es llevar el conocimiento a tantas personas como lo quieran leer. +Y la idea de usar tecnologa es perfecta para nosotros. +Creo que tenemos la oportunidad de hacerlo mejor que los griegos. +No es fcil aventajar a los griegos. Pero con la industriosidad de los egipcios, fueron capaces de construir la Biblioteca de Alejandra con la idea de copiar cada libro de todos los pueblos del mundo. +El problema es que uno tiene que ir hasta Alejandra para entrar a su biblioteca. +Por otro lado, si uno lo haca, encontraba grandes cosas. +Creo que podemos aventajar a los griegos y lograr grandes cosas. +Hoy voy a tratar de demostar slo una cosa: que el aceso universal a todo el conocimiento est a nuestro alcance. +Si tengo xito, ustedes saldrn pensando: claro! Realmente podemos lograr la gran visin de que todo lo que ha sido publicado, todo lo que se haya querido distribuir, est disponible para cualquier persona que en cualquier momento quiera tener acceso a ello. +S. Hay asuntos crticos sobre cmo administrar el dinero y todava se sigue planteando el asunto. +Pero yo digo que hay mucho dinero y mucha demanda de manera que lo podemos lograr. +Pero me quiero referir a lo tecnolgico, lo social y definir dnde estamos como totalidad tratando de alcanzar esta particular visin. +Y la forma como voy a tratar de hacer esto es como en el sitio de Amazon.com: los libros, la msica, los videos, y as, paso a paso, tipo de medio por tipo de medio, simplemente voy a decir cmo lo vamos a hacer? +Entonces, si empezamos con los libros, vagamente dnde estamos? +Pues bien, primero uno tiene, como ingeniero, que dimensionar el problema. Qu tan grande es? +Si lo que se quiere es poner en lnea todas obras las que han sido publicadas de manera que cualquiera pueda tener acceso a ellas, bueno... qu tan grande es este problema? +Bueno... pues no lo sabemos. Pero la biblioteca de impresos ms grande del mundo es la Biblioteca del Congreso con sus 26 millones de volumenes, 26 millones de volumenes. +Es, por mucho, la biblioteca de impresos ms grande del mundo. +Y un libro, si usted tiene un libro, ocupa como un megabyte digo, si lo tiene en Microsoft Word. +As que un megabyte, 26 millones de megabytes, son 26 terabytes, es mega, giga, tera, 26 terabytes. +26 terabytes caben en un sistema computacional como de este tamao, en discos duros giratorios Linux, y cuesta unos 60.000 dlares. +As que por el costo de una casa, bueno es esta zona, de un garaje, usted puede poner a girar todas las palabras de la Biblioteca del Congreso. +Es as de exacto. +As que la cuestin es: qu se consigue con eso? +Es decir: valdra la pena hacerlo? +En verdad queremos tener esto en lnea? +Algunas de las primeras cosas que las personas hacen es marcadores de libros eso te permite buscar dentro de los libros, lo que es divertido +Y estas cosas se pueden descargar y examinarlas de maneras nuevas y diferentes. +Adems se les puede consultar remotamente si se cuenta con un laptop. +Ya empieza a haber algunas de estas interfaces para pasar la pginas que lucen como un libro en ciertos aspectos y se puede buscar en ellos, hacer pequeas marcas, todo muy encantador -y an muy parecido a un libro- en su laptop. +Pero... no s.. leer cosas en una laptop... siempre que tomo mi laptop me siento trabajando. +Creo que esa es una de las razones por las cuales Kindle es tan atractivo. +No tengo la sensacin de estar trabajando cuando leo en un Kindle; +comienza a ser algo ms especfico. +Pero debo decir que hay tecnologias viejas que an me gustan. +Me gustan los libros fsicos. +Creo que podemos usar nuestra tecnologa para digitalizar cosas -- ponerlas en la red para despus descargarlas, imprimirlas y encuadernarlas, y terminar as de nuevo con un libro +y entonces diremos, bien... qu tan difcil puede ser eso? +Y resulta que no es tan difcil. +De hecho, hicimos un "librombil". +Un librombil del tamao de una Van o panel, con antena satelital, una imprenta, una encuadernadora, una guillotina y nios que hacen sus propios libros. +Cuesta unos tres dlares descargar, imprimir y encuadernar un libro comn. +Y tienen en verdad una linda apariencia. +Realmente se pueden lograr bellos libros algo as como un centavo por pgina es lo que nos cuesta hacerlo. +La idea es que esta tecnologa nos permita nuevamente volver a poner libros a disposicin de las personas +Hay varios librombiles en distintas partes. +Este es Eric Eldred haciendo libros en Walden Pond, con las obras de Thoreau. +Esto es poco antes de que fuera expulsado por la vigilancia del parque por competir con la librera del lugar. +En India tenemos un par de librombiles recorriendo lugares. +Y este es el da de inaguracin en la Bilbioteca de Alejandra la nueva Biblioteca de Alejandra, en Egipto. +Asisti mucha gente. +Y nios que ya empezaban a hacer sus propios libros y un nio feliz con el primer libro que ha tenido en su vida. +La idea de usar esta tecnologa para terminar con libros de papel que se puedan tener en la mano, suena un poco retro. pero creo que todava hay lugar para ellos. +Y tener una suerte de Silicon Valley, un tipo de Utopa y, un tipo de mundo. creemos que si podemos hacer funcionar este tipo de tecnologa en Uganda Eso ser importante. +Por ello logramos fondos del Banco Mundial para tratar de hacerlo +Y nos dimos cuenta que en 30 das podamos tomar un par de personas de Silicon Valley volar con ellos a Uganda, comprar un carro e instalar la primera conexin de Internet en la Biblioteca Nacional de Uganda, establecer qu queran ellos y poner a andar en el sector rural de Uganda un programa para hacer libros. +y en realidad, tecnolgicamente, funciona. +Lo que descubrimos con esto es que no tenamos los libros adecuados. +Los libros estaban en la bilbioteca. Podramos ponerlos a disposicin de las personas si se digitalizaban, pero no sabamos cmo digitalizarlos. +Todo el mundo pens que la solucin era enviarlos a India o China +De modo que eso intentamos; ms tarde les contar. +Hay algunas nuevas tecnologas para lograr lo que se logr, que son tambin bastante emocionantes. +Una es una mquina de impresin bajo demanda que se parece a una mquina de Rube Goldberg. +Tenemos una de esas cosas ahora. Es fascinante. +Funciona con varias correas y puede hacer un libro. +Se llama "La mquina expresso de libros" toma unos 10 minutos para hacer un libro desde que se oprime el botn. +Otra cosa que me tiene muy emocionado en este terreno en particular adems de esta suerte de kioskos donde se consiguen libros bajo demanda son esas nuevas pantallas pequeas que estn saliendo. +Una de mis favoritos es el laptop de 100 dlares. +Y no me estoy refiriendo aqu a decubrir el fuego pero hemos logrado usar una de estas cosas como un lector de libros electrnicos. +Aqu tenemos una unidad beta, con la que se puede... en verdad termina siendo un lector de libros electrnicos realmente bello. +Tenemos una rpida mirada de lo que hicimos tratando de poner uno de nuestros libros en ella, y result que 200 puntos por pulgada quiere decir que se puede poner en ella libros escaneados que tienen muy buena apariencia. +200 puntos por pulgada equivalen a unos 300 puntos en una impresora lser. +Tenemos as un buen resultado. +Se puede realmente leer libros escaneados fcilmente. +De esta manera, la idea de libros electrnicos est empezando a tomar forma. +Pero cmo se hacen todos estos escners? +Pensamos... bien... tratemos de enviar estos libros a India +Y tuvimos un proyecto, con fondos de la Nactional Science Foundation. que envi un paquete de escners, y las American libraries deberan de haber enviado libros. +Bueno, pues no lo hicieron; no quisieron enviar sus libros. +Entonces compramos 100.000 libros y los enviamos a India. +Y entonces comprendimos por qu no se quiere enviar libros a India +La leccin que aprendimos es, escanea tus propios libros. +Si realmente te interesan los libros, vas a escanearlos mejor, sobre todo, si son libros valiosos. +Si son libros nuevos y se puede, ya saben, despedazarlos porque se puede comprar otro pues no es gran cosa hacer escners de alta calidad. +Pero hay que hacer cosas que se ama. +Los indios han estado escaneando muchos de sus propio llibros... llevan ya unos 300.000, y lo han hecho bien. +Los chinos escanearon ms de un milln, y los egipcios unos 30.000. +Pero pensamos: ok; si necesitamos hacer esto, hagmoslo en la biblioteca. +Cmo lo vamos a hacer y como comenzaremos? de manera que podamos cubrir los costos? +Entonces decidimos sealar un precio objetivo de 10 centavos por pgina. +Si ese puede ser el precio de fotocopiar para digitalizar, hacer el OCR, consolidarlo de manera que se pueda descargar, imprimir y encuadernar, todo el proceso, entonces habramos logrado algo. +Entonces empezamos a preguntarnos cmo hacerlo con 10 centavos? +Ensayamos con esos robots, que trabajaron bastante bien... eran como cosas que pasaban las pginas automticamente. +Si podemos tener exploradores en Marte, se puede creer que tenemos pasadores de pginas. +Pero en realidad result muy complicado pasar las pginas, sin pensar an en el volumen. +As que terminamos haciendo nuestro propio escaneador de libros. Con dos cmaras digitales profesionales de alto desempeo, y luces de museo controladas, de manera que an en un libro en blanco y negro se pudiera lograr el tono adecuado. +De esta manera logramos un trabajo bello y decoroso. +Esto no es un fax, es... la idea era hacer un bello trabajo a medida que nos adentrabamos en las bibliotecas. +Y hubieramos sido capaces de lograr los 10 centavos por pgina si hubieramos logrado manejar los volumenes. +As es como se ve en la Universidad de Toronto. +Y en realidad resulta que se puede pagar un salario bsico. +La gente parece amar esto. +S... es un poco aburrido, pero algunas personas logran entender lo que hay de Zen en ello. +En especial si se trata de la clase de libros interesantes de los que te gustara hacerte cargo en idiomas que puedes leer +Realmente hemos podido hacer un buen trabajo tratando de lograr los 10 centavos por pgina. +As que son 10 centavos por pgina, 300 pginas en un libro promedio, 30 dlares por libro. +La Biblioteca del Congreso, si quieres considerar la tarea total... son 26 millones de libros... es decir unos 750 millones de dlares, verdad? +Pero un milln de libros... creo que sera un buen inicio costara 30 millones de dlares. Eso no es demasiado dinero. +Lo que hemos podido hacer es entrar a las bibliotecas. +Ahora tenemos ocho de estos centros de escaneo en tres pases, y las bibliotecas tendrn pronto sus libros escaneados. +Aqu el Getty est trasladando sus libros a la UCLA que es donde tenemos uno de estos centros de escaneo para escanear sus propios libros libres de derechos, lo que es fabuloso. +As estamos empezando a lograr responabilidad institucional. +Lo que estamos perdiendo son los diez centavos. +Si logramos conseguir los 10 centavos, todo lo dems fluir. +Ya hemos escaneado alrededor de 200.000 libros. +Estamos escaneando unos 15.000 libros mensuales, lo cual est empezando a potenciar otro de dos factores. +As, con todo esto, las cosas van muy bien. +Y estamos empezando a pasarnos de un mundo de lo libre de derechos de copia, al mundo de fuera de producin. +As pues, creo que vamos desde las obras libres de derecho de las libreras, y Amazon.com viene desde el mundo de las obras activas +y creo que nos encontraremos en algn lugar en el medio y tendremos la situacin clsica conocida es decir, un sistema de publicaciones y uno de bibliotecas trabajando en paralelo. +Estamos empezando entonces un programa de hacer trabajos con obras fuera de produccin, pero tomndolos prestados. +No estoy muy seguro de lo que signifique prestado. +Pero de cualquier manera, prestar trabajos fuera de produccin de la Biblioteca Pblica de Boston del Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute y de otras bibliotecas que estn empezando a participar en el programa, es extender este modelo a partir del punto donde las bibliotecas se detienen. y desde donde las libreras arrancan. +De esta manera es posible hacer esto en gran escala. +Tambin estamos regresando al microfilm para ponerlo en lnea. +Entonces podemos lograr los 10 centavos por pgina, tendremos 15.000 libros por mes y tendremos unos 250.000 en lnea, contando los dems proyectos que estn empezando a sumarse. +Lo que quiero demostrar es que tenemos libros al alcance. +La idea de tomar este enredo no es tan grave +S. Cuesta decenas de millones, reduce centenas de millones, pero de un solo tiro tenemos en lnea la historia de la literatura. +Hay adems algunos asuntos sobre el modelo de negocio y sobre cmo tratar de mercadearlo efectivamente y ponerlo al alcance de la gente. +Pero est al alcance de nuestra tecnologa y es legalmente sabio, por lo menos para las obras fuera de produccin y libres de derechos sugerimos, ser capaces de poner todo el material en lnea. +Ahora pasemos al audio, de lo que les voy a hablar. +De qu tanto se trata? +Pues bien, hasta donde sabemos hay unos dos o tres millones de discos publicados --entre los de 78 revoluciones, los larga duracin y los CD-- o por lo menos ese es el archivo mas grande de materiales publicados que hemos sido capaces de determinar. +Cuesta unos 10 dlares por pieza coger un disco y ponerlo en lnea, si se trabaja con volmenes. +Pero hemos encontrado que los asuntos de derechos son realmente espinosos. +Esa es un rea difcil de los litigios legales, de manera que terminamos por identificar nichos en la msica del mundo que no estn siendo muy bien atendidos por el sistema comercial clsico de publicaciones. +Y hemos empezado a hacerlo disponible ofreciendo espacio de publicacin en la red. +En los Estados Unidos no cuesta nada donar algo. Verdad? +Si usted entrega algo a la caridad o al dominio pblico, consigues una felicitacin y una exencin de impuestos, excepto en la red, donde usted puede quebrar. +Si usted coloca un video de su banda de rock aficionada y logra grandes cantidades de acceso, puede quedarse hasta sin las guitarras o sin casa. +Eso no tiene ningn sentido. +Por ello ofrecimos almacenamiento ilimitado, ancho de banda ilimitado, por siempre y gratis, a cualquiera que tenga algo que compartir en una biblioteca. +Y estamos consiguiendo muchos participantes. Unos son los rockeros. +Los rockeros tienen una tradicin de compartir, mientras que nadie haga dinero. Grabaciones de conciertos, no grabaciones comerciales, sino grabaciones de conciertos, empezando por los Grateful Dead. +Tenemos unas dos o tres bandas por da inscribindose. +Ellos dan su permiso y nosotros conseguimos de 40 a 50 conciertos diarios. +Tenemos ya en red unos 40.000 conciertos, todos los que alguna vez pudo dar Grateful Dead. estn en la red, para que la gente pueda ver y escuchar este material +Asi que el audio se puede subir, pero los asuntos de derecho son espinosos. +Tenemos ya muchas colecciones un par de cientos de miles de tems, y aumentando. +Pelculas: si se piensa en las publicaciones dramticas, no hay muchas. +Por mucho, existen unas 150.000 a 200.000 pelculas en total que realmente hayan sido puestas en distribucin a gran escala. No son tantas +Pero la mitad de stas son de la India. +En cualquier caso, es probable, pero hemos encontrado slo alrededor de mil de estas que estn libres de derechos. +Las hemos digitalizado y puesto a disposicin. +Sin embargo hemos encontrado que hay muchos otros tipos de pelculas que no han visto an la luz del da --archivos flmicos. +Hemos encontrado tambin muchas pelculas polticas, pelculas aficionadas, todo tipo de pelculas que simplemente necesitan un hogar, un hogar permanente. +Hemos empezado a ponerlas disponibles lo cual crece en popularidad. +An no somos YouTube; +nosotros miramos las cosas a largo plazo y tambin pesamos en que la gente pueda reusarlas y hacer sus propias pelculas, lo que resulta muy atractivo. +La televisin es algo bastante ms grande. +Comenzamos por grabar 20 canales de televisin 24 horas diarias. +Eso es la ms grande caja de TiVo jams vista. +Es algo as como un petabyte, ms o menos, de la televisin mundial --Rusia, China, Japn, Irak, Al Jazeera, BBC, CNN, CBS, NBC 24 horas al da. +Hemos subido --slamente hemos subido una semana, fundamentalmente por razones presupuestales, que fue la del 9/11, por una semana, la del 9/11/2001 qu vi el mundo? +CNN deca que los palestinos bailaban en las calles +Lo hacan? Veamos la televisin palestina y averigumoslo. +Cmo se puede tener un pensamiento crtico si no se es capaz de citar y sin ser capaz de comparar con lo que sucedi en el pasado? +Pero la televisin, lamentablemente, permanece sin grabar y sin investigar, excepto por Jon Steward, quien ha hecho un trabajo magnfico. +As que la televisin es, me parece, fuera de nuestro alcance. +A 15 dlares por hora de video y entre 100 y 150 dlares por hora de celuloide, estamos en capacidad de conseguir materales en lnea de manera muy econmica y ponerlos en la red. +Y ya tenemos, ahora, mucho de ese material. +Ya tenemos alrededor de 100.000 piezas colgadas. +As que de libros, msica, video, software, hay solo 50.000 titulos +La mayor parte de los problemas son problemas legales y de violacin de las leyes de proteccin. +Pero hemos trabajado en alguno de ellos, y sin embargo tenemos an verdaderos problemas en Washington. +Pues bien, somos ms conocidos como la World Wide Web. +Hemos estado archivando la www desde 1996. +Hacemos una instantnea de cada pantalla de cada sitio web cada dos meses. +En realidad el pionero de esto ha sido Alexa Internet. que don esta coleccin de archivos de internet. +Y ha continuado creciendo durante los ltimos 11 aos y es un recurso fantstico. +Adems hemos hecho la "Way Back Machine" (Mquina del Regreso) que permite volver a ver viejos sitios internet como eran. +Si usted busca algo, esto es Google.com, las diferentes versiones de ello que tenemos, as es como se vea en su primera versin y as es como se vea en Stanford +En fin... se logra una idea bsica sobre de dnde vienen las cosas. +La mayor parte de la gente quiere ver sus cosas viejas. +Si hay algo que debamos aprender de la primera versin de la Biblioteca de Alejandra, que probablemente sea ms conocida por haber sido... quemada, es: no tengas slo una copia. +Por eso empezamos a --Hicimos otra copia de todo esto y la regresamos a la Biblioteca de Alejandra. +Esta es una imagen del archivo de internet de la Biblioteca de Alejandra. +Y tenemos ahora otra copia en construccin en Amsterdam. +As que debemos ponerlo sobre la falla de San Andrs en San Francisco, en la zona de inundaciones de Amsterdam y en el Medio Oriente. Bien, as que.. +estamos protegiendo nuestras inversiones aqu. +Si lo ponemos en un par de sitios adicionales, creo que estaremos en mejores condiciones. +Hay un asunto poltico y social en esto. +Todo esto, a medida que se vuelve digital, ser pblico o privado? +Hay algunas grandes compaas que tienen esta visin, y han realizado digitalizaciones a gran escala, pero ha bloquado el dominio pblico. +La pregunta es: es ste el mundo en el que queremos vivir? +Cul es el rol de lo pblico contra lo privado a medida que la cosas avancen? +Cmo podemos llegar a tener un mundo donde tengamos tanto bibliotecas y publicaciones en el futuro, de la misma manera como nos beneficiamos a medida que crecimos? +Acceso universal a todo el conocimento Creo que ste puede ser uno de los ms grandes logros de la humanidad, como el hombre en la luna o la biblia de Gutenberg o la Biblioteca de Alejandra. +Puede un logro el que se nos recuerde por milenios. +Y como dije antes, voy a terminar con algo que est grabado sobre la puerta de la Biblioteca Carnegie +Carnegie --uno de los grandes capitalistas de este pas-- tall sobre su legado "Abierta para el pueblo." +Muchas gracias. +Cuando supe que vendra a hablar con ustedes, pens, "Tengo que llamar a mi madre." +Tengo una pequea madre cubana -- as de grande. +Metro veinte -- nada mayor que la suma de partes. +An siguen conmigo? La llam, +"Hola, cmo ests, nena?" +"Oye, 'Am, necesito hablar contigo." +"Ya ests hablando conmigo. Qu sucede?" +Le dije, "Tengo que hablar con unas personas lindas." +"Siempre ests hablando con gente linda, exepto cuando fuiste a la Casa Blanca --" +" 'Am, no empieces!" +Entonces le dije que vendra a TED, y me dijo, "Cul es el problema?" +Y le dije, "Pues, no estoy segura." +Le dije, "Tengo que hablarles de historias. +Es Tecnologa, Entretenimiento y Diseo." Y ella dijo, "Pues, diseas una historia cunado la inventas, es entretenimiento cuando la cuentas, y vas a usar un micrfono." +Le dije, "Eres un amor, Am. Est Ap?" +"Qu sucede? Las perlas de sabidura que brotan de mis labios como lemmings no te basta?" +Entonces mi ap contest. +Mi ap -- es una de las viejas almas, saben ustedes -- un cubano viejo de Camagey. +Camagey es una provincia de Cuba. +Es de Florida. +Naci ah en 1924. +Se cri en un bohio con pisos de tierra, y la estructura era de las que usaban los tainos, nuestros antiguos antepasados arahuacos. +Mi padre es a la vez agudo, terriblemente gracioso, y con una profundidad precisa que te deja sin aliento. +"Papi, aydame." +"Ya o lo que dijo tu madre. Creo que tiene razn." +"Despus de lo que les acabo de contar?" +Toda mi vida, mi padre ha estado para apoyarme. +As que hablamos unos minutos, y me dijo, "Por qu no les hablas de tus creencias?" +Me encantara hacer eso, pero no tenemos tiempo. +Contar buenas historias es crear un cuento que alguien quiere escuchar. +Una gran historia es el arte de dejarse llevar. +As que les voy a contar una pequea historia. +Recuerden, sta es una tradicin que nos llega, no desde la bruma de Avaln en el pasado, sino de mas atrs, antes estbamos rayando estas historias en papiros, o estbamos haciendo pictogramas en las paredes de las hmedas cavernas. +En ese entonces, tenamos un impulso, una necesidad, de contar una historia. +Cuando Lexus quiere venderles un carro, les estn contando una historia. +Han visto los comerciales? +Porque cada uno de nosotros tiene el deseo, de por una vez -- solo una vez -- contar nuestra historia y que sea escuchada. +Hay historias que se cuentan desde un escenario. +Hay historias que quiz se puedan contar en un grupo pequeo con una buena copa de vino. +Y luego hay historias que se cuentan a la media noche a un amigo, quiz una vez en la vida. +Y luego estn las historias que susurramos en una oscuridad estigia. +No les voy a contar esa historia. +Les contar sta. +Se llama, "Me vas a extraar." +Se trata de lazos humanos. +Mi madre cubana, a quien les acabo de presentar brevemente en ese corto bosquejo de personaje, lleg a los Estados Unidos hace 1.000 aos. +Yo nac en mil novecientos -- se me olvida, y vine a este pais con ellos en las secuelas de la revolucin cubana. +Nos mudamos de la Habana, Cuba, a Detcatur, Georgia. +Y Decatur, Georgia es un pequeo pueblo sureo. +Y en este pequeo pueblo sureo, me cri, y crec escuchando estas historias. +Pero esta historia sucedi hace solo unos aos. +Llam a mi mam. +Era un sbado por la maana. +Y la llam para la receta de ajiaco. Es un platillo cubano. +Es delicioso. Es sabroso. +Hace que la saliva brote de los rincones de tu boca. Te deja jugosas las axilas, me entienden? +Ese tipo de comida, s. +Esta es la parte sensorial de programa, amigos. +Llam a mi madre y me dijo, "Carmen, necesito que vengas, por favor. +Necesito ir al centro comercial, y t conoces a tu padre, se toma su siesta en la tarde, y yo necesito ir. +Tengo un pendiente." +Djame hacer un parntesis aqu y decirles -- Esther, mi madre, dej de manejar hace varios aos, un alivio para toda la ciudad de Atlanta. +Cualquier salida en automvil con esa mujer desde que era nia -- amigos, naturalmente inclua luces azules que parpadeaban. +Pero se haba vuelto muy capaz de esquivar a los chicos de azul, y cuando se los topaba, oh, tenia un excelente -- bueno, trato. +"Seora, sabe que acaba de pasar la luz roja?" +"No habla ingls?" +"No." +Pero a todos nos llega el da, y termin en la corte de trnsito, donde regate con el juez para que le diera descuento. +Hay un registro histrico. +Pero ahora que era septuagenaria, haba dejado de manejar. +Eso significaba que todos en la familia tuvieron que anotarse para llevarla a teir su cabello, saben ustedes, ese azul peculiar que va con su traje de polister, saben ustedes el mismo color que el Buick. +Nadie? Qu bien. +Pequeos puntos en las piernas donde hace su medio-punto y deja pequeos arillos +"Mesepuertos" -- son para esto. +Por eso les llaman as. +Esto es su conforma. +Y sta es la mujer que quiere que yo venga el sbado por la maana. cuando tengo mucho que hacer, pero no toma mucho porque la culpa cubana es de gran peso. +No me voy a ver poltica con ustedes pero -- as que voy a casa de mi madre. +Llego. Est en el estacionamiento. +Por supuesto que tienen estacionamiento. +El tipo que tiene techo ondulado, saben ustedes. +El Buick est estacionado afuera, y esta tintineando unas llaves. +"Tengo una sorpresa para ti, nena!" +"Tomamos tu carro?" +"No nosotros, yo." +Y mete su mano al bolsillo y saca una catstrofe. +Alguien est contando una historia; es arte interactivo. Pueden hablar conmigo. +Oh, una licencia de conducir -- una licencia perfectamente vlida. +Emitida, evidentemente, por el Departamento de Transporte en su propio condado de Gwinnett. +Completos idiotas de mierda. +Dije, "Esa cosa es real?" +"Creo que s." +"Siquiera puedes ver?" +"Supongo que debo." +"Ay, Jess." +Ella sube al auto, est sentada en dos directorios telefnicos. +Ni siquiera puedo inventar esta parte porque es tan pequea. +Ella adapt un paraguas para que -- bam! -- pueda azotar la puerta. +Su hija, yo, -- la tonta del pueblo con el cono de helado en medio de su frente -- sigue ah parada con la boca abierta. +"Vienes?No vienes?" +"Ay, Dios mo," dije. "OK, est bien. Pap sabe que manejas?" +"Ests bromeando?" +"Cmo lo haces?" +"Tiene que dormir en algn momento." +As que dejamos a mi padre dormido, porque yo saba que me matara si la dej ir sola, y subimos al auto. +Lo mete en reversa. 55 saliendo de la cochera, en reversa. +Estoy abrochndome el cinturn de seguridad de enfrente, +Estoy jalando los de atrs, haciendo nudos dobles. +En serio, tengo la boca tan seca como el desierto del Kalahari. +Tengo los nudillos blancos del apretn a la puerta. Saben a lo que me refiero? +Y ella va silbando, y finalmente hago el tipo de respiracin de parto --saben, se? +Solo un par de mujeres estn asintiendo aj, aj, aj. Verdad. +Y digo, "Am, puedes bajar la velocidad?" +Porque ya va en la carretera 285, el permetro de Atlanta, que comprende ahora -- un total de siete carriles -- y ella est en todos, chicos. +Y dije, "Am, escoge un carril!" +"Te dan siete carriles, esperan que los uses." +Y ahi va, pa' delante. +No creo ni por un minuto que ha estado en las calles y an no la han detenido. +As que pienso, podramos hablar. Ser una diversin. +Me ayudar a respirar. Ayudar para mi pulso, quiz." +"Mami, yo s que te han detenido." +"No, no, de qu hablas?" +"Tienes una licencia. Cunto llevas manejando?" +"Cuatro o cinco das." +"S. Y no te han detenido?" +"No me infraccionaron." +Y dije, "S, s, s, pero en serio, dime, cuntame." +"OK, me par en un semforo y est un tipo, t sabes, detrs de mi." +"Este seor no llevaba un uniforme azul y una mirada aterrorizada en su cara?" +"No estuviste ah, no comiences." +"Anda. Te multaron?" +"No." Ella explic-- "El hombre" -- Tengo que decirles como lo dijo ella porque se pierde algo si no, saben ustedes -- "Llega a la ventana, y hace algo as -- que me indica que es algo viejo, saben ustedes. +As que lo veo y pienso, quiz va a pensar que, que soy guapa." +"Am sigues haciendo eso?" +"Si funciona, funciona, nena." +As que, digo, "Nunca adivinaras, haba estado en Honduras con el Cuerpo de Paz." +As que est platicando con ella, y en algn momento dice, "Entonces, t sabes, eso fue todo. Eso fue todo. Se acab." +"S? Que? +Te infraccion? No te infraccion? Qu?" +"No, volteo, y el semforo, cambia." +Deberas estar aterrorizado. +Ahora, no s si est jugando conmigo, casi como un gato jugando con un ratn, jugando con un ratn -- garra izquierda, garra derecha, garra izquierda, garra derecha. Pero ahora ya llegamos al centro comercial. +Ahora, todos han estado en un centro comercial durante das festivos, si? +Cuntenme. S. S. Pueden decir que s. +Auditorio: S. +Est bien, entonces saben que han ingresado al purgatorio de estacionamiento. rezando al santo de disponibilidad perpetua que cuando te integras a la cola serpentina de autos arrastrndose lentamente, alguien va a prender sus luces de reversa justo cuando ests detrs de l. +Pero eso no pasa la mayor parte del tiempo, verdad? +As que, primero digo, "Am, por qu estamos aqu?" +"Quieres decir, como, en el coche? +"No, no -- por qu estamos aqu hoy? +Es sbado. Es da festivo." +"Porque tengo que cambiarle los calzoncillos a tu padre." +Ahora, ven, este es, un tipo de pensamiento maquiavlico, que realmente tienen que -- sabes, en mi mente est llena como madriguera de conejo, la mente de esta mujer. +Quiero entrar, porque al menos que tenga el hilo de Ariadna que me ancle -- suficientes metforas para ustedes? -- en algn punto, me puedo perder. +Pero saben ustedes -- +"Por qu tenemos que llevar los calzones de Ap ahora? +Y por qu? Qu tienen de malo sus calzones?" +"Te va a molestar." +" No me va a molestar. Por qu? Qu? Tiene algo mal?" +"No, no, no. Lo nico que tiene es que es idiota. +Lo envi a la tienda -- que fue mi primer error -- entonces fue a comprar la ropa interior, y compro truza y debe de comprar boxer." +"Por qu?" +"Lo le en el Internet. No puedes tener hijos." +"Ay, dios mo!" +Olivia?Huh? Huh? +Ahora ya hemos avanzado otro metro y medio, y mi madre finalmente me dice, "Lo saba, lo saba. +Soy una inmigrante. Hacemos espacio. Qu te dije? Ah." +Y apunta por la ventana del pasajero y volteo, y a tres -- tres -- filas de distancia -- "Mira, el Chevy." +Te quieres rer, pero no sabes -- eres ai de polticamente correcto, eso --has notado? +Corrige ahora en la otra direccin, est bien. +"Mira, el Chevy -- viene para ac." +"Mam, mam, mam, espera, espera, espera. El Chevy est a tres filas." +Me ve como si fuera, saben ustedes, su hija tarada -- el cretino, al que le tiene que hablar muy despacio y claro. +"Ya lo s, mi amor. Bjate del carro y ve a pararte en el lugar hasta que llegue." +Bien, quiero voto. Anda, anda. No, no. +Cuntos de ustedes alguna vez en su -- eran nios, eran adultos -- se pararon en un lugar de estacionamiento para guardrselo a alguien? +Ven, somos un club secreto con un saludo secreto, +Y despus de aos de terapia , estamos de maravilla. +Estamos de maravilla. Estamos bien. +Bueno, me le resist. +Es decir -- saben ustedes, pensaran que a estas alturas -- y -- sigo esperando? +Le dije, "De ninguna manera, Am, me has avergonzado toda mi vida." +Por supuesto que su respuesta fue, "Cundo te he avergonzado?" +Tiene una velocidad terrestre asombrosa para una mujer de su edad tambin. +En menos de lo esperado, ha recorrido el estacionamiento y entre los carros, personas atrs de mi con esa habitual caridad religiosa que nos traen los das festivos, wah-wah wah-wah. +" Ya voy". Seguido por una sea italiana con la mano +Me recorro. Cierro la puerta. Dejo los directorios telefnicos. +Esto es nuevo y rpido, solo para que -- siguen con nosotros? +Esperemos a los lentos. Bien. +Empiezo -- y esto es cuando una nia me dice -- y la historia no funciona si no les cuento de ella primero. Porque sta es mi hija lacnica. +Una brevedad, brevedad de todo con esta criatura. +Saben, come porciones pequeas. +El lenguaje es algo que se prorratea en pequeos fonemas, saben -- solo un pequeo hmm, hmm-hmm-hmm-hmm. +Lleva un gran cuaderno de espiral y una pluma. +Blande gran poder. +Escucha, porque eso es lo que las personas que cuentan historias hacen primero. +Pero pausa ocasionalmente y dice, "Cmo se deletrea eso? Qu ao? Bien." +Y cuando escriba la exposicin en unos 20 aos, no crean una sola palabra. +Pero sta es mi hija Lauren, mi extraordinaria hija, mi hija que tiene sntomas leves de Asperger. +Bendito seas, Dr. Watson. +Dice, "Am,tienes que mirar!" +Ahora, cuando esta nia dice que tengo que mirar, saben +Pero no es como si nunca he visto esta escena del crimen antes. +Crec con esta mujer. +Y dije, "Lauren, sabes qu, nrramelo paso a paso. No puedo -- " +"No, Mam, tienes que mirar." +Tengo que mirar. Pues tienes que mirar. +No quieres mirar? +Ah esta. +Volteo impresionada y desconcertada -- est parada, esos Rockports ligeramente separados, pero aterrizados. +Est sosteniendo al frente el bolsillo barato de Kmart, y lo blande. +Est deteniendo toneladas de acero con pura fuerza de su pequea personalidad, con esa voz brujesca, diciendo cosas como, "chalo para atrs! No, est reservado!" +Listos? Agrrense. Ah viene. +"No, mi hija, ella viene en el Buick. +Nena, levntate para que te vean." +Ay Jess. Ay, Jess. +Finalmente llego, ahora es el Sur. +No s en qu partes del pas viven ustedes. +Creo que a todos secretamente nos gustan los cuentos. +Todos secretamente queremos nuestra cobijita y nuestro osito de peluche. +Queremos acurrucarnos y decir. "Cuntamelo, cuntamelo. +Anda, cario, cuntamelo." +Pero en el sur, nos encanta una buena historia. +La gente se ha detenido, Digo, han quitado de la fila, han abierto su maletero y sacado las sillas de jardn y sus bebidas refrescantes. +Se asientan las apuestas. +"Yo estoy con la pequea seora. Maldicin!" +Y me est dirigiendo con ligeros movimientos de salsa. +Es -- al fin de cuentas -- cubana. +Estoy pensando, "Acelero o freno. Acelero o freno." +Como si nunca hubieses pensado eso en tu vida? Verdad? Por supuesto. +Me estaciono, pongo el carro en aparcar. +El motor sigue encendido - el mo, no el del carro. +Salto del carro junto a ella diciendo "No te muevas!" +"No voy a ningn lado." +Tiene el asiento frontal en una tragedia griega. +Salgo, y ah est Esther. +Est abrazando el bolso. +"What?" lo cual significa, "Qu?" -- y mucho ms. +"Am, no tienes vergenza?" +Todos nos estn mirando, verdad. +Ahora, algunos -- tienen que inventarlos, amigos. +Secreto de la industria. +Saben qu? Algunas de estas historias estn esculpidas por aqu y por all. +Algunas, simplemente estn bien ah, ah. Ponlas ah mismo. +Me dice. +Despus de que le digo -- djenme recordarles -- "No tienes vergenza?" +"No. La descart junto con las pantimedias -- las dos te atan demasiado." +S, pueden aplaudir pero estn como a 30 segundos del final. +Voy a reventar como volcn, cuando alguien me toca el hombro. +Alma intrpida. +Estoy pensando. "sta es mi hija. Cmo se atreve? +Salt del auto." +Est bien, porque mi madre me grita a m, yo le grito a ella. +Es una bella jerarqua y funciona. +Me doy la vuelta, pero no es una criatura. Es una seorita. Un poquito ms alta que yo. Ojos sorprendidos verde plido. +Con ella est un joven -- esposo, hermano, amante -- no es mi trabajo. +Y ella dice, "Perdneme, seora" -- as es como hablamos ah -- "es su madre?" +Le dije, "No, me gusta seguir a viejitas en los estacionamientos para ver si se detienen. S, es mi madre!" +El joven, ahora l dice. "Pues, lo que quiso decir mi hermana" -- se ven a los ojos -- una mirada de entendimiento -- "Dios, est loca!" +Yo dije, , y los jvenes dicen, "No, no, cario, solo queremos saber una cosa ms." +Les dije, "Mira, por favor, dejen me encargo de ella, OK, porque la conozco, y cranme, es como una pequea arma atmica, saben, la quieres manejar con mucho cuidado." +Y la seorita dice, "Lo s pero, digo, se lo juro a Dios." nos recuerda a nuestra madre." +Casi se me pasa. +Da la vuelta sobre el tacn. +Es casi un susurro, "Dios, la extrao." +Se dan la vuelta hombro a hombro y se retiran perdidos en su propio ensueo. +Memorias de una enloquecida mujer que gan la lotera de su ADN. +Y volteo con Esther, que est balancendose en esos 'ports y dice, "Sabes qu, caria?" +"Qu, Am?" +"Te voy a volver loca probablemente 14 o 15 aos ms, si tienes suerte, pero despus de eso, caria, me vas a extraar" +Mi inters con los almuerzos escolares es un asunto de justicia social. +Soy la Directora de Servicios Nutricionales del Distrito Escolar Unificado de Berkeley. Tengo 90 empleados y 17 localidades, y a 9.600 chicos. +Preparo 7.100 comidas al da y llevo hacindolo 2 aos, tratando de cambiar la manera en que alimentamos a nuestros chicos en EE.UU +Y de eso les quiero hablar un poco hoy. +Estos son algunos de mis chicos en la barra de ensaladas. +Instalo barras de ensaladas en todas nuestras escuelas. +Todos decan que esto no era posible -- +que los pequeos no iban a comer ensaladas de la barra, que los chicos grandes escupiran en ellas -- nada de eso pas. +Cuando tom el mando trat de pensar, cul sera mi visin: +cmo cambiar la relacin que tienen los nios con la comida? +Y les dir por qu necesitamos cambiarla, pero tenemos que cambiarla absolutamente. +Y lo que logr entender es esto, necesitbamos ensear a los nios la relacin simbitica entre un planeta saludable, comida saludable y chicos saludables. +Y que en caso de no hacerlo, la anttesis, aunque hemos escuchado lo contrario, es que realmente nos dirigiremos a la extincin, porque estamos alimentando a nuestros nios a la muerte. +Esa es mi premisa. +Estamos viendo a chicos enfermos enfermndose ms y ms. +Y como tcitamente, todos enviamos a nuestros hijos, o nietos, o sobrinas, o sobrinos a la escuela y les decimos que aprendan, saben, aprender lo que les ensean en esas escuelas. +Y cuando alimentas a esos chicos con mala comida eso es lo que aprenden. As que de eso trata todo esto. +Llegamos a este punto por nuestro gran comercio agricultural. +Ahora vivimos en un pas en donde la mayora de nosotros no decide lo que comemos. Vemos a grandes comercios, Monsanto y DuPont -- quienes comercializaron el Agente Naranja y las alfombras resistentes a las manchas -- +ellos controlan el 90 por ciento de todas las semillas comerciales producidas en nuestro pas. +Son 10 compaas -- que controlan la mayor parte de lo que encontramos en nuestros supermercados, mucho de lo que la gente come-- y eso es un problema. +As que cuando comenc a recapacitar sobre estos problemas y la manera en que yo iba a cambiar lo que los chicos coman, realmente me enfoqu en lo que les ensearamos. +Y la primera cosa fue sobre la comida regional -- tratar de consumir alimentos cultivados localmente. +Claramente, con todo lo que est ocurriendo con el consumo de combustibles fsiles, o cuando-- mientras estos combustibles se acaban, mientras el petrleo toca fondo -- saben, es ah cuando realmente tenemos que comenzar a pensar sobre si debemos, o podemos, trasladar alimentos 2.400 kilmetros antes de consumirlos. +Entonces hablamos con los chicos sobre esto, y comenzamos a alimentarlos con comida local. +Y despus discutimos sobre la comida orgnica. +La mayora de los distritos escolares no pueden costearse alimentos orgnicos, pero nosotros, como nacin, tenemos que comenzar a pensar sobre consumir, cultivar y alimentar a nuestros nios con alimentos que no estn repletos de productos qumicos. +No podemos seguir alimentando a nuestros chicos con pesticidas y herbicidas y antibiticos y hormonas. +No podemos serguir haciendo eso. +Saben, eso no funciona. +Y los resultados son que los chicos estn enfermando. +Actualmente soy muy quisquillosa con los antibiticos. +El 70 por ciento de todos los antibiticos consumidos en EE.UU los consumen animales de granja. +Estamos alimentando a nuestros chicos con antibiticos en la carne y otras protenas animales todos los das. +70 por ciento -- es increble. +Y el resultado es que tenemos enfermedades. +Tenemos cosas como el E.coli que no podemos resolver, que no podemos hacer que nuestros chicos se sientan mejor cuando se enferman. +Y, saben, los antibiticos se estn recetando en exceso, pero es un problema de la distribucin alimentaria. +Uno de mis datos favoritos es: la agricultura de los EE.UU usa 545 millones de kilos de pesticidas al ao. +El USDA permite estos antibiticos, hormonas y pesticidas en nuestros alimentos, y el USDA pag por este anuncio en la revista Time. +Est bien, podramos hablar sobre Rachel Carson y el DDT, pero nosotros sabemos que no es beneficioso ni para ti ni para m. +Y eso es lo que permite el USDA en nuestros alimentos. +Eso tiene que cambiar. +El USDA no puede ser visto como el que tiene la ltima palabra en cmo alimentamos a nuestros chicos y sobre lo que est permitido. +No podemos creer que ellos saben lo que nos conviene. +La anttesis de todo este asunto son los alimentos sostenibles. +Eso es lo que quiero que la gente entienda. +Realmente intento ensear eso a los chicos -- Creo que es lo ms importante. +Se trata de consumir comida de una manera que nos permita tener un planeta en el que los chicos crezcan saludables, y que realmente trate de mitigar todos los efectos negativos que estamos viendo. +En realidad slo es una idea nueva. +Quiero decir, la gente habla de sostenibilidad, pero tenemos que comprender qu es la sostenibilidad. +En menos de 200 aos, saben, dentro de unas generaciones, hemos ido desde 200-- 100 por ciento, al 95 por ciento de granjeros hasta menos del 2 por ciento de granjeros. +Ahora vivimos en un pas que tiene ms presos que granjeros-- 2,1 milliones de presos, 1,9 milliones de granjeros. +Y gastamos un promedio de 35.000 dlares al ao asegurndonos de que estos presos se queden en la crcel y los distritos escolares gastan 500 dlares al ao en alimentar a cada nio. +No es de extraar, saben, que tengamos delincuentes. +Y lo que pasa es que estamos enfermando -- +estamos enfermando y nuestros chicos estn enfermando. +Se trata de cmo los alimentamos. +Lo que va adentro es lo que somos. +Es verdad que somos lo que comemos. +Y si continuamos por este camino, si continuamos alimentando a los chicos con mala comida, si seguimos sin ensearles lo que es la buena comida, qu va a pasar? Saben qu va a pasar? +Qu va a pasar en todo el sistema mdico? +Lo que va a pasar es que vamos a tener a chicos cuya vida es ms corta que la nuestra. +El CDC-- el Centro para el Control de Enfermedades-- ha dicho, de los nios que nacieron en el ao 2000 -- los que tienen siete u ocho aos hoy da-- uno de cada tres caucsicos, uno de cada dos afro-americanos e hispanos, van a tener diabetes en su vida. +Y si eso no es suficiente, tambin han dicho que la mayora la padecer antes de graduarse de la escuela secundaria. +Esto quiere decir que entre el 40 y el 45 por ciento de los nios en edad escolar podran ser insulinodependientes dentro de una dcada-- dentro de una dcada. +Qu va a pasar? +Bueno, el CDC adems ha dicho que aquellos nios que nacieron en el ao 2000 podran ser la primera generacin en la historia de nuestro pas en morir ms jvenes que sus padres. +Y es a causa de cmo los alimentamos. +Porque los nios de ocho aos no deciden por s mismos, y si lo deciden, deberas estar en terapia. +Saben que, somos responsables de lo que comen los nios. +Pero uy, tal vez ellos sean los responables de lo que comen los nios. +Las grandes compaas gastan 20 mil millones de dlares al ao en comercializar alimentos no nutritivos a los chicos. +20 mil millones de dlares al ao. 10.000 anuncios que ven la mayora de los nios. +Gastan 500 dlares por cada dlar-- 500 dlares en la comercializacin de alimentos que los chicos no deberan comer-- por cada dlar que gastan en la comercializacin de comida saludable y nutritiva. +El resultado de esto es que los chicos piensan que van a morir si no comen nuggets de pollo. +Saben que, el hecho de que todo el mundo piensa que han de comer ms y ms y ms. +Este es el tamao de porcin que recomienda el USDA, esa miniatura. +Y aquella de all, la que es ms grande que mi cabeza es lo que McDonalds y Burger King y esas grandes compaas piensan que debemos comer. +Y por qu pueden servir tanto? +Por qu podemos tener refrescos de 29 centavos y hamburguesas dobles de 99 centavos? +Es a causa de la manera en que el gobierno mercantiliza la comida, y del maz barato y la soja barata que se introducen en nuestro suministro de comida que hace que estas comidas no nutritivas sean muy, muy baratas. +Es esta la razn por la cual yo digo que es un asunto de justicia social. +Ahora dije que estoy haciendo esto en Berkeley, y ustedes podran pensar, "Ah, Berkeley. Por supuesto que puedes hacerlo en Berkeley." +Bueno, sta es la comida que encontr hace 24 meses. +Ni siquiera es comida. +Esta es lo que les damos a nuestros chicos para comer-- Extremo Burritos, perritos calientes con maz, pizza, sandwiches de queso. +Todo vena en plstico, en cartn. +La nica herramienta de cocina que tena mi personal era un cter. +El nico material que funcionaba en mi cocina era un abrelatas, porque si algo no vena en una lata, vena congelado en una caja. +El USDA permite esto. +El USDA permite todo esto. +En caso de que no lo sepan, es como, un bollo rosa y una especie de magdalenas. +Nuggets de pollo, Tater Tots, leche chocolatada alta en fructosa macedonia de frutas enlatada -- una comida reembolsable. +El gobierno dice que est bien alimentar a nuestros chicos con estas cosas. +No est bien. Saben qu? No est bien. +Y nosotros, todos nosotros, tenemos que comprender que se trata de nosotros-- que podemos cambiar las cosas. +No s si alguno de ustedes invent los nuggets de pollo, pero estoy segura de que si es as, usted es rico. +Pero, quin decidi que un pollo deba parecerse a un corazn, una jirafa, una estrella? +Bueno, Tyson lo decidi, porque no hay pollo en el pollo. +Y el hecho de que se dieran cuenta de que podamos vender estas cosas a los nios. +Saben, qu pasa por ensear a los nios que el pollo parece pollo? +Pero esto es lo que sirven la mayora de las escuelas. +De hecho, puede que sea lo que sirven muchos padres -- a diferencia de esto -- es lo que intentamos servir. +De verdad necesitamos cambiar todo el paradigma de los nios y la comida. +De verdad necesitamos ensear a los nios que el pollo no es una jirafa. +Saben, que las verduras estn llenas de color -- que tienen sabor, que las zanahorias crecen en la tierra, que las fresas crecen en la tierra. +No existe el rbol de fresas o el arbusto de zanahorias. +Saben, tenemos que cambiar la manera en que enseamos a los chicos sobre estas cosas. +Hay muchas cosas que podemos hacer. Hay muchas escuelas que hacen programas de intercambio con granjas. Hay muchas escuelas que logran servir comida fresca en las escuelas. +Ahora en Berkeley, nos hemos hecho totalmente frescos. +No tenemos jarabe de maz alto en fructosa, no tenemos grasas trans, ni alimentos procesados. +Preparamos la comida a partir de ingredientes frescos cada da. +Tenemos el 25 por ciento de nuestro gracias -- el 25 por ciento de nuestra comida es orgnica y local. Cocinamos. +Esas son mis manos. Me levanto a las cuatro de la maana +todos los das para ir a cocinar la comida para los chicos, porque esto es lo que necesitamos hacer. +No podemos seguir alimentando a los chicos con esta mierda procesada, llena de productos qumicos, y esperar que se conviertan en ciudadanos saludables. +No vas a conseguir que la prxima generacin o la generacin siguiente pueda pensar de esta manera si no estn bien alimentados. +Si comen productos qumicos todo el tiempo, no van a poder pensar. +No van a ser inteligentes. +Saben qu? Slo van a ser enfermos. +Una de las cosas que -- lo que pas cuando fui a Berkeley es que me di cuenta de que, saben, todo esto le pareca bastante increble a la gente -- muy, muy distinto -- y yo necesitaba comercializarlo. +Invent estos calendarios que mand a casa de cada padre. +Y estos calendarios sirvieron para disear mi programa. +Ahora estoy a cargo de todas las clases de cocina y todas las clases de horticultura en nuestro distrito escolar. +Bueno, ste es un men tpico -- +es lo que servimos esta semana en las escuelas. +Y ven estas recetas al lado? +Esas son las recetas que aprenden los chicos en mis clases de cocina. +Prueban estos ingredientes en las clases de horticultura. +Puede que tambin los cultiven. Y los servimos en los comedores. +Si vamos a cambiar la relacin que tienen los nios con la comida, es comida deliciosa y nutritiva en los comedores. Pasamos a la prctica -- ests observando clases de cocina y horticultura-- y asignaturas acadmicas para juntarlo todo. +Ya se habrn dado cuenta de que no me encanta el USDA y no tengo ni idea de qu hacer con su pirmide -- esta pirmide boca abajo con un arco iris en la parte superior. No s. +Saben, correr hacia el final del arco iris, no s qu se debe hacer con ello. As que invent mi propia solucin. +Esto est disponible en mi sitio web en ingls y espaol, y es una manera visual de hablarles a los chicos de la comida. +La hamburguesa pequeita, las verduras grandsimas. +Tenemos que empezar a cambiar esto. +Tenemos que hacer comprender a los chicos que las selecciones de comida que hacen marcan grandes diferencias. +Tenemos clases de cocina -- tenemos aulas de cocina en nuestras escuelas +Qu estn aprendiendo los nios? Dnde est el tiempo en familia? +Dnde est la socializacin? Dnde est la discusin? +Dnde se aprende a hablar? +Saben que, tenemos que cambiarlo. +Trabajo mucho con nios. Estos son chicos con quienes trabajo en Harlem. +EATWISE-- Enlightened and Aware Teens Who Imspire Smart Eating [Adolescentes Ilustrados y Conscientes Que Inspiran a Comer Inteligentemente] +Tenemos que ensear a los chicos que Coca Cola y Pop Tarts no son un desayuno. +Tenemos que ensear a los chicos que si siguen una dieta de azcar refinado, suben y bajan, como si siguieran una dieta de crack. +Y tenemos que repararlo todo. Tenemos compostaje en todas nuestras escuelas. +Tenemos reciclaje en todas nuestras escuelas. +Saben que, las cosas que tal vez hagamos en casa y que pensamos que son tan importantes, tenemos que enserselas a los chicos en la escuela. +Tiene que ser una parte integral de ellos que realmente entiendan. +Porque saben qu, muchos de nosotros estamos al final de nuestra vida profesional y tenemos que darles a estos chicos -- a estos jvenes, la prxima generacin -- las herramientas para salvarse a s mismos y salvar el planeta. +Una de las cosas que hago mucho son asociaciones pblico-privadas. +Trabajo con compaas privadas que estn dispuestas a hacer I+D [Investigacin y Desarrollo] conmigo, que estn dispuestas a hacer distribucin para m, que estn muy dispuestas a trabajar en las escuelas. +Las escuelas estn infradotadas. +La mayora de escuelas en EE UU gasta menos de 7.500 dlares al ao en educar a cada nio. +Eso equivale a menos de cinco dlares por hora. +La mayora de ustedes gasta 10, 15 dlares por hora en nieras, cuando las tienen. +As que gastamos menos de cinco dlares por hora en el sistema educativo. +Y si vamos a cambiarlo y cambiar la manera en que alimentamos a los chicos, realmente tenemos que replantearnos eso. +Bueno, asociaciones pblicas y privadas, grupos de apoyo, trabajar con fundaciones. +En nuestro distrito escolar, la manera en que pagamos esto es que el distrito destina el ,03 por ciento del fondo general a los servicios de nutricin. Y creo que si cada distrito escolar destinara entre el 0,5 y el 1 por ciento, podramos empezar a reparar el programa. +Realmente necesitamos cambiarlo. +Nos va a costar ms dinero. +Por supuesto que no se trata solamente de la comida -- tambin es importante que los chicos hagan ejercicio. +Y una de las cosas sencillas que podemos hacer es poner el recreo antes del almuerzo. +Es una de estas cosas obvias. +Saben que, si los nios van a almorzar y todo lo que van a hacer cuando terminen de almorzar es ir al recreo, van a tirar su almuerzo para poder ir a correr fuera. +Y despus, a la una de la tarde, estn totalmente cansados. +Estos son sus hijos y nietos los que estn desfallecidos cuando los recogen porque no han almorzado. +As que si lo nico que tuvieran que hacer despus de almorzar fuera ir a clase, cranme, se van a sentar y van a comer su almuerzo. +Necesitamos -- necesitamos educar. +Necesitamos educar a los chicos. +Necesitamos educar al personal. +Yo tena 90 empleados. +Dos de ellos supuestamente eran cocineros -- ninguno saba cocinar. +Y, saben, ahora no me va mucho mejor. +Pero realmente necesitamos educar. +Tenemos que hacer que las instituciones acadmicas piensen sobre cmo ensear a la gente a cocinar de nuevo, porque, por supuesto, no lo hacen -- porque hemos tenido comida procesada en las escuelas y en las instituciones durante mucho tiempo. +Necesitamos almuerzos de 40 minutos -- la mayora de las escuelas tiene almuerzos de 20 minutos -- y almuerzos a una hora apropiada. +Acaban de hacer un gran estudio, y muchas escuelas empiezan el almuerzo a las nueve o a las diez de la maana -- +no es hora de almorzar. +Saben que, es una locura, es una locura lo que estamos haciendo. +Y recuerden, por lo menos tcitamente, es lo que les estamos enseando a los nios como lo que deberan hacer. +Pienso que si vamos a reparar esto, una de las cosas que necesitamos hacer es cambiar nuestro descuido del National School Lunch Program [Programa Nacional de Almuerzos Escolares]. +En vez de estar bajo el USDA, creo que el Programa Nacional de Almuerzos Escolares debera estar bajo CDC. +Si nos pusiramos a pensar en la comida y en cmo alimentamos a nuestros hijos como una iniciativa de salud y empezamos a pensar en la comida como salud, creo que no tomaramos perritos calientes con maz en el almuerzo. +Bueno, nociones bsicas de finanzas sobre esto y esto-- Estoy concluyendo con asuntos financieros, porque creo que esto es algo que todos tenemos que comprender. +El Programa Nacional de Almuerzos Escolares gasta 8 mil millones de dlares en alimentar a 30 milliones de nios al ao. +Ese nmero probablemente se tenga que duplicar. +La gente dice, "Ay, Dios mo, dnde vamos a encontrar 8 mil millones? +En este pas estamos gastando 110 mil millones de dlares al ao en comida rpida. +Gastamos 100 mil millones de dlares al ao dietas. +Gastamos 50 mil millones de dlares en verduras, razn por la cual necesitamos las dietas. +Gastamos 200 mil millones de dlares al ao en enfermedades relacionadas con las dietas, y el nueve por ciento de nuestros hijos sufre de diabetes tipo II -- +200 mil millones. +Saben que, cuando hablamos de necesitar 8 mil millones ms, no es mucho. +Esos 8 mil millones equivalen a dos dlares y cuarenta y nueve centavos -- es la cantidad que el gobierno destina al almuerzo. +La mayora de los distritos escolares gasta dos tercios de esa cantidad en nminas y gastos indirectos. +Eso quiere decir que gastamos menos de un dlar al da en comida para nuestros chicos en las escuelas -- la mayora de las escuelas entre 80 y 90 centavos. En Los ngeles 56 centavos. +As que estamos gastando menos de un dlar en el almuerzo. +No s ustedes, pero yo voy a Starbucks y Pete's y lugares as, y un Venti latte en San Francisco cuesta cinco dlares. +Un caf gourmet, uno, cuesta ms -- gastamos ms en eso de lo que gastamos en alimentar a los chicos durante una semana entera en nuestras escuelas. +Saben qu? Deberamos estar avergonzados. +Nosotros, como pas, deberamos avergonzarnos de eso -- +el pas ms rico. +En nuestro pas, son los nios, los que ms lo necesitan, los que reciben esta comida malsima. +Son los chicos que tienen padres y abuelos y tos y tas que ni siquiera pueden pagar el almuerzo escolar los que reciben esta comida. +Y esos son los mismos chicos que van a enfermar. +Esos son los mismos chicos que deberamos cuidar. +Todos podemos marcar la diferencia -- +que cada uno de nosotros, no importa si tenemos hijos, si nos importan los nios, si tenemos sobrinas o sobrinos o cualquier cosa -- que podemos marcar la diferencia. +Si te sientas a comer con tus hijos, si llevas a tus hijos o a tus nietos, o a tus sobrinas o a tus sobrinos a hacer compras a un mercado agrcola -- para probar la comida con ellos. +Sintate y cudalos. +Y a nivel macro, estamos en medio de lo que parece ser una campaa presidencial de 19 meses, y de todas las cosas que estamos pidiendo a todos estos lderes potenciales. por qu no pedirles que hagan algo por la salud de nuestros hijos? +Gracias. +Hola. Estoy aqu para hablar de la importancia de elogiar, mostrar admiracin y decir gracias hacindolo de manera especfica y autntica. +Lo que me interes en este tema fue algo que not en m desde que era una nia hasta hace unos aos que senta ganas de agradecer a alguna persona ganas de elogiarla. Quera aceptar sus elogios hacia mi pero no las dejaba hacerlo. +Y me preguntaba, por qu? +Me senta cohibida, avergonzada. +Despus mi pregunta cambi a ser la nica que hace esto? +Y decid investigar. +Tengo la suerte de trabajar en rehabilitacin con personas que se baten entre la vida y la muerte por su adiccin. +A veces se debe a algo tan simple como que el dolor ms grande es que el padre muri sin decirles lo orgulloso que se senta de ellas. +Y despus escuchan por toda la familia y amigos que su padre les dijo lo orgulloso que se senta de su hijo pero nunca se lo dijo a l. +La razn es que l no saba que su hijo necesitaba oirlo. +Me pregunto por qu no pedimos las cosas que necesitamos? +Conozco a un hombre con 25 aos de casado que desea escuchar a su mujer decir: "Gracias por ganarte el pan para permitirme estar en casa con los nios" pero no se atreve a pedirlo. +Conozco a una mujer que es buena en esto. +Una vez a la semana se reune con su marido y le dice: "Me gustara que me agradecieras por las cosas que hice en la casa y por los nios". +Y l dice: "Oh, esto es grandioso, es grandioso". +Y el elogio tiene que ser realmente autntico y ella se hace reponsable de eso. +April, una amiga ma desde el kindergarten da las gracias a sus hijos por ayudar con las tareas de la casa. +Y dijo: "Por qu no agradecerles an cuando sean sus obligaciones?" +Y la pregunta es, por qu lo bloqueaba? +Por qu otras personas lo bloquean? +Por qu puedo decir: "Quiero mi bistec medio cocido necesito zapatos talla 38", pero no me atrevo a decir: "Podras elogiarme de esta manera?" +Y se debe a que estoy entregando informacin crtica acerca de mi. +Te estoy diciendo dnde soy insegura. +Te estoy diciendo dnde necesito tu ayuda. +Y te estoy tratando a ti, de mi crculo ntimo como a un enemigo. +Porque, qu podras hacer con esos datos? +Podras ignorarme. +Sacar provecho. +O efectivamente podras satisfacer mi necesidad. +Un da llev mi bicicleta a la tienda de bicicletas donde ofrecen un servicio de rectificacin de ruedas. +El tipo dijo: "Cuando rectifica las ruedas hace que su bicicleta ande mucho mejor". +Me devuelven mi misma bicicleta y le han quitado todas las ondulaciones de esas mismas ruedas que he usado dos aos y medio, y se siente como nueva. +Voy a plantearles un desafo. +Quiero que "rectifiquen" sus ruedas: sean honestos con los elogios que necesitan escuchar. +Qu necesitan escuchar? Vayan con su esposa y pregunten, qu es lo que ella necesita? +Vayan con su marido y pregunten, qu necesitas? +Vayan a casa, pregunten y luego ayuden a quienes les rodean. +Y es simple. +Y por qu nos debera importar esto? +Se habla de alcanzar la paz mundial. +Cmo alcanzar la paz mundial con tantas culturas, tantos idiomas? +Creo que comienza hogar por hogar, bajo el mismo techo. +Hagmoslo en nuestros patios traseros. +Y agredezco a todos ustedes en el auditorio por ser grandiosos maridos, grandiosas madres, amigos, hijas e hijos. +Y tal vez nunca alguien les haya dicho esto pero lo han hecho realmente muy bien. +Gracias por estar aqu, por haber venido y por cambiar al mundo con sus ideas. +Gracias. +Soy, o he sido, una especie de diseador de juguetes. +Antes de ser diseador de jueguetes, oh, era un mimo, un mimo callejero. +Supongo que por aquel entonces era un entretenedor. +Y antes de eso, era un vendedor de plata, y antes de eso -- Antes de eso, con 15 aos y medio, ya viva fuera de casa, y nunca me preocup por ir a la universidad. +Sinceramente no -- Yo no le vea sentido en aquella poca. +Ahora si que le veo sentido, despus de aprender toda la cuntica. +Es muy interesante. +Bueno, yo quera ensearles un poquito el mundo del diseo de juguetes. por lo menos desde mi experiencia y punto de vista. +Este es un vdeo que hice cuando empec a hacer diseo de juguetes. +Estoy en mi garaje, haciendo cosas raras. +Y entonces vas a una de esas compaas de juguetes y hay un tipo al otro lado de la mesa diciendo: "siguiente, siguiente, siguiente." +Piensas que es muy divertido, pero ellos -- de todos modos, hice una pequea cinta de vdeo que siempre enseaba dentro. +ste es el nombre de mi empresa, Giving Toys. +Tambin trabaj en Mattel. +Y despus de que me fuera de Mattel, empec a hacer estas cocinas de hamburguesas. Y entonces consegu el permiso para fabricarlas, +as que esto es un cocina-hamburguesas que -- cojes crema de cacahuete, y lo pones dentro, y hace -- y esto es un cocina-patatas fritas, pequea comidita que puedes comer. +Romp el utensilio de la pasta para hacer esto. +Y esto, creo que es una freidora de McNuggets. +Esto, esto es la freidora de McNuggets. y esto -- esta es mi hija mayor, haciendo un pastel McApple. +Y veamos, podemos hace el pastel con canela y azcar, y te lo comes y te lo comes y te lo comes, y -- ahora ella pesa unos 130 kilos. +No, es broma, ella es preciosa. +As es como eran cuando salieron al mercado. +Y eran -- como una tirada de 15 millones de dlares. +Y encima yo no tena royalties de esto. +Lo siguiente es una compilacin de cosas. +Eso era un lanzador de cohetes de espuma que no lleg a venderse. +Esto es una cabeza de goma esponjosa, sin mucho ms que aadir. +Estos son algunos efectos que hice para "Wig, Rattle and Roll." +Eso era un robot de ojos saltones que se controlaba desde atrs. +Pag las facturas de todo un mes. +Esto, es una Barbie andante -- Yo dije, oh, sto es lo que hace falta! +Y ellos dijeron, "bueno, es un muy buen diseo as que lo sacaremos." +Seguimos con unos robots luchadores. Pensaba que todo el mundo querra tener uno. +Luchan, se levantan... No sera genial? +Entonces lo hicieron un juguete, y cay como una piedra pesada. +Son geniales. +Esto es -- estabamos haciendo pruebas de lucha con mi pequeo Pug, viendo si realmente poda agarrar cosas. +Lo hace muy bien. +Estoy utilizando pequeos conectores de telfono para que puedan girar +Es como si tuvieran lo de los tocadiscos, los nios no saben lo que son. +Este es un juguete de plastilina. +Dije -- Fu a Play-Doh y dije, miren, puedo animar esto. +Y me dijeron: "no nos hables de Play-Doh." +Y aqu, hice el Lego animado. +Pens: "Esto sera genial!" +Pero ya conocis a Lego -- no le lleves Legos a Lego. +Esa es la respuesta. Ellos ya lo saben todo sobre los Lego. +Empec, entonces, a hacer animatronics. +Me encantaban los dinosaurios. +Estaba metido en el mundo del cine, ms o menos, y Nicholas Negroponte vi esto cuando yo tena unos 12 aos, y me dijeron: "No, tienes que hacer dos, y hacer que luchen." +Ya saben por -- porqu un nio querra un dinosaurio? +Este soy yo utilizando Sol*-- nuestro estudio de 3D en los aos 80. +Este es David Letterman. +Pueden ver lo viejas que son estas cosas. +Este es mi primo ms joven. +Era una seccin del programa que se llamaba: "Juguetes peligrosos que no vers en Navidades". +Enseamos mi primer lanzador de sierras mecninas y tambin la silla con lanzallamas. +Mi carrera profesional alcanz un pico por esos momentos. +Y detrs se ven dibujos en cartn de la gente que no pudo venir al programa. +Este es MEK con un motor de limpiacristales. +Esto es -- Antes era un actor, ms o menos. +Pero no era muy bueno hacindolo. +Pero -- Este to se llamaba Dr. Yutz, y se dedicaba a desmontar juguetes y ensear la mecnica. +Y pueden ver las Nintendos montados en granja haciendo clculos. +Y en la izquierda una view master sobre el CD-ROM. +Y un tipo llamado Stan Reznikov hizo esto como episodio piloto. +Esto es -- pueden ver una ventanita ah. +Y se puede ver la cmara con una burbuja abajo. +El teclado est atado a mi mueca. +Era muy adelantado para la poca. +(Me estoy mareando... Me encantan los juguetes!) +Eso es todo lo que quera decir ah: "Me encantan los juguetes." +OK, esto ha sido como el primer -- el primer grupo de productos. +La mayora no salieron a la venta. +Se suelen sacar 1 de 20, 1 de 30 productos. +Y de vez en cuando haca algo como, un cepillo automtico, que hace trenzas y peina, y -- y ganbamos algo de dinero con eso. Y as bamos tirando. +Pero poco ms tarde, nos fuimos de LA, y nos mudamos a Idaho, donde haba en realidad mucha paz y tranquilidad. +Y empec a trabajar en este proyecto -- oh, les tengo que contar esta cosilla rpido. +En todo esto de hacer juguetes, creo que hay una relacin directa con la innovacin, las artes y las ciencias. +Hay algn tipo de mezcla entre esto que permite -- que te permite poder innovar. +E intent resumir esto que digo en una especie de logotipo que significa algo -- al menos para m. +Y es como si el arte y la ciencia tuvieran una especie de balance dinmico, donde creo que es donde la innovacin ocurre. +Y en realidad, as es personalmente, como se me ocurren las grandes ideas. +Pero no es simplemente as como consigues el xito empresarial. +En realidad, tienes que poner un crculo exterior, y llamarlo mercado. +Y esas 3 cosas juntas, en mi opinin, te llevan al xito empresarial. +Pero siguiendo con lo de antes. +Esta es una pequea historia que voy a contar. Es el cuento de Furby. +Como han dicho, fui co-inventor del Furby. +Hice la criatura y su cuerpo -- bueno, ya lo veran +Al ensearles esto, podrn ms o menos hacerse una idea de para que sirve intentar crear formas de vida robtica, o tecnolgica que contenga una conexin emocional con el usuario. +Esta es mi familia. +Esta es mi esposa, Christi, y Abby y Melissa y mi nia de 17 aos, Emily, que es un saco de problemas. +Bien, aqu esta el robot de nuevo. +Me fui del mundo del cine, como ya he dicho, y dije: "Voy a hacer robots animatronics." +"Voy a hacerlo." +Siempre he tenido un gran inters en esto. +ste mismo modelo no fue vendido, aunque puse muchsimo trabajo en l. +ste es uno ms pequeo, y se ve un pequeo torso moviendose por ah. +Un pequeo hombrecillo andando, amplificadores electrnicos, un montn de trabajo con servomotores, un montn de cosas mecnicas. +Aqu hay otro. +ste en realidad tiene piernas de Skeletor, creo que las lleva puestas. +Oh, un pequeo pony, muy tierno. +El motivo por el cual enseo esto es que siempre he estado interesado en pequeas formas de vida artificiales. +As que el reto era, trabaj para Microsoft una temporada, en el Microsoft Barney. +Y es -- ya saben, un dinosaurio morado muy grande. +Y tenan montones de cosas dentro, que en mi opinin no necesitabas. +Para Microsoft era poder llenar un gran almacn lleno de estos muecos y ver si podan venderlos. +Es un modelo de negocio muy raro comparado con el de una empresa de juguetes. +De todos modos, un amigo mo, Dave Hampton, y yo decidimos probar a ver si podamos hacer como un organismo unicelular. +Hacer un pequeo robot utilizando las menos piezas posibles. +Y aqu tenemos nuestro pequeo motor Mabuchi de 30 centavos. +Tambin tengo todos estos apuntes del diseo de los productos que seguramente tienen ustedes tambin. +Y en todos los libros -- esta es la primera pgina de Furby, Tengo lo de arte y ciencia. +Tengo el porqu por all, y el cmo por all. +Intento filosofar mucho, pensar mucho sobre los proyectos. +Porque stos no son ideas de un instante; tienes que pensar y darle muchas vueltas a estas cosas. +Bien, aqu vemos un poco de pseudo-cdigo, y plasmando ideas de diferentes motores y cosas as. +Y originariamente, el Furby slo tena dos ojos y pilas abajo. +Y dijimos, bueno, habr que alimentarlo, y necesitar hablar, y la cosa se volva ms complicada. +Y entonces tuve que ingenirmelas para ver como iba a utilizar ese motor para poder mover los ojos, mover las orejas, mover el cuerpo, y mover la boca. +Y claro, tambin hacerlo parpadear y todo esto al mismo tiempo. +Bueno, se me ocurri esta especie de expresin linear con levas. Y funcion bastante bien. +Entonces me puse un poco ms realista y empec a dibujar todo. +Y ah tenemos una nota arriba: "Mucha ingeniera." +Y result ser ms que cierto. +Aqu esta mi primer dibujo detallado con todas las pequeas piezas y un pequeo motor de gusano. +Y entonces, empec a construirlo, y la realidad es que +me levant, empec a cortarme el dedo, empec a pegar cosas... +Y aqu esta mi pequeo taller. +Este es primer engranaje que hizo funcionar a Furby. +Y ste es Furbi por la mitad. +Puedes ver, el sensor de inclinamiento. +Bsicamente, todo esto est hecho a partir de plstico. +Esto es la parte trasera de la cabeza con mil millones de orificios. +Y aqu estoy. Esta terminado. Este es mi pequeo Furby. +Creo que es un pequeo robot puesto de herona o algo as. +Estan viendo que me encantan los pequeos robots. +Mi esposa dijo: "Bueno, puede que te guste a t, pero a nadie le gustar eso." +As que vino a ayudarme. +sta es mi esposa Christi, es mi musa y mi compaera para la eternidad. +Ella dibuja. +Ella es una artista. +Y empez a hacer todos esos dibujos con sus patrones de colores y manual de color. +Y me gusta el del cigarrillo de abajo del todo. +No tuvo mucha aceptacin en el test, pero me gusta. +Y ella empez a dibujar stas otras imgenes. +Por aqul entonces, Beanie Babies era un gran xito, y pensamos hacer un montn de Furbys diferentes. +Aqu esta el de color rosa, con un moito en la cabeza. +Y este -- este tampoco tuvo aceptacin en los test, no s por que. +ste es mi favorito, el Furby Demonio. +Fue uno de los mejores. +Finalmente nos centramos en este tipo de imgen, un pequeo cuerpo peludo, un pequeo personaje imaginario. +Y aqu lo tenemos, un pequeo Bushbaby -- con las luces de la cabeza ah. +Fu a Toys 'R' Us, cog un gato peludo de juguete, lo cort para utilizar el pelo e hice esto. +Y desde entonces, cada vez que vengo del Toys 'R' Us con muecas o algo, desaparecen de mi escritorio y las esconden por la casa. +Tengo tres hijas y ellas -- es como un comando del rescate de los juguetes. +La pequea cuerdecita que sobresale, es simplemente un control de la boca y los ojos del Furby. +Es un pequeo control e hice un pequeo vdeo as: "Hola, me llamo Furby, y soy bueno" y entonces acercaba la mano. +Podas hacerle cosquillas, cuando ponas la mano, "ha, ha, ha, ha" y as fue como lo vendimos. +Hasbro dijo, bueno, Tiger Electronics por aqul entonces, dijo: "S, queremos hacer esto. +Tenemos como 13 semanas o as para la feria del jueguete, y los vamos a contratar para que hagan esto." +Y as Dave y yo nos pusimos manos a la obra. +En mayor parte yo, porque llegados a este punto, era todo mecnica. +Y tena que enfrentarme a todo tipo de cosas que no saba cmo hacer. +Y empec a trabajar con Solid Works y otro grupo para llevarlo a cabo. +Y empezamos -- esto fue mucho antes de que estuviera implantado lo del SLA, nada de hacer prototipos rpidamente. +No tenamos el dinero para hacerlo. +Ellos slo me pagaban una miseria para hacer esto, as que tuve que llamar a un amigo de un amigo que estaba al mando de la planta de prototipos de GM, y tenan estudios de SLA. +Y dijo, "Bueno, s, lo haremos." +As que nos hicieron las carcasas, un muy buen favor. +Y los engranajes y levas los hice en Hewlett Packard. +Nos colamos el fin de semana. +Y solo tenamos el disco con los archivos. +Pero ellos tenan un sistema cerrado, para que no pudieras hacer nada con la mquina +As que lo imprimimos en transparencias y lo pegamos con cinta adhesiva a los monitores. +Y ese fin de semana hicimos esas partes. +Ms o menos as es el producto final. +Parecen como pequeos Garfields. +Y ocho meses despus -- quizs recuerden esto, fue un caos total, total, total. +Por un tiempo estaban haciendo 2 millones de Furbys al mes. +Y acabaron vendiendo unos 40 millones en total. +Es increible cmo -- no se cmo pudo suceder. +Y Hasbro hizo algo as como 1500 millones de dlares. +Y yo simplemente slo un pice de cada uno. +Bueno, por qu hago esto? +Por qu intentas hacer todas estas cosas? +Y es, por supuesto, por tus hijos. +Aqu est mi hija pequea con sus Furbys. +En realidad todava los conserva. +Entonces empec otra empresa. +Y dijeron que invertiran su tiempo. +Por lo que dije, "OK, vamos a intentar hacer el proyecto del dinosaurio." +La idea alocada era que bamos a clonar un dinosaurio hasta el punto que nos deje la tecnologa actual. +Lo hicimos lo mejor que pudimos. +E intentamos con mucho esfuerzo que saliera adelante, e intencionadamente hacer que pareciese realmente vivo. +No como un robot que parece muy artificial, sino como algo de verdad. +Escog un Camarasaurio, porque fue el dinosaurio ms abundante de los saurpodos en Norteamrica. +Y se puede encontrar fsiles enteros de este dinosaurio. +ste es uno jven. +As que nos pusimos a ello. +Hay un libro llamado Walking on Eggshells, donde encontraron piel de saurpodo en la Patagonia. +Y la foto del libro, cuando le -- Cuando le dije al escultor si poda copiar el patrn de piel, me dijo que poda usarla. +Muy, muy manitico. +Hay un esqueleto de Camarasaurio partido, pero su geometra es correcta. +Entonces fu a medir toda la geometra porque me imagin, biomtrica, +si lo hago ms o menos bien, se mover como en la realidad. +Aqu est el motor. +Y por este punto, otra gente empez a ayudar con el proyecto. +ste es un ejemplo de lo que hicimos con la calavera. +Aqu esta la calavera, este es mi dibujo. +Esta el la versin de la piel que recubre. +ste, el mecanismo que iba dentro -- como un motor de Geneva. +Aqu tenemos algunas versiones slidas. +Algunas de las partes hechas gracias a SLA. +stas son unas piezas de bocetos. Son para comprobar cosas. +sta es la calavera, con la misma forma que la del Camarasaurio. +Hay una foto de ojo real detrs de una lente. +Y sta es la primera visin desarrollada donde se puede ver el interior. +sta es la primera versin sacada de SLA, y ya empieza a coger forma final, ya empieza a verse lo bonito que es. +Y el asunto de mezclar ciencia y arte en este trabajo multidisciplinario, es que puedes hacer un robot, y vuelves atrs y haces la forma, y vas retrocediendo y avanzando. +Los motores en las patas delanteras tuvieron que ser con forma de msculos. +Para que cupieran en la piel del Pleo. +Hubo una cantidad de trabajo enorme para que todo fuera a la perfeccin. +Todo el cuello y la cola son cables, as que se mueven fluida y naturalmente. +Pero an no acaba ah la cosa. +Tienes que darle el aspecto deseado a la piel. +Es una cosa completamente diferente, probablemente la parte ms difcil. +Contratas los artistas, e intentas captar la imagen y textura del personaje. +Esto no va con los diseadores de personajes, verdad? +Y todava estamos intentando que se parezca al personaje original. +Ahora cubres todo el montaje con arcilla. +Y empiezas a moldear y esculpir. +Tuvimos la suerte de contar con un chico -- que es un fantico de los dinosaurios que nos hiciera todo el moldeado, hasta la forma de los dientes y todo. +Y ms moldeado, y ms moldeado, y ms moldeado, y ms moldeado. +Y luego, cuatro aos y 10 millones de dlares despus, tenemos un -- un pequeo Pleo. +John, te importara subirlo aqu? +John Sosoka es nuestro CTO, y es el hombre que ha hecho ms trabajo con nosotrs de una empresa de 40 personas. +Me gustara agradecrselo. Reconocer su trabajo. ste es John Sosoka. +Gracias John, muchas gracias, ahora ponte a trabajar +Muy bien -- -- no, es muy triste, cmo -- -- stos son Pleos, aqu los tenis. +stos -- a propsito -- pasan por diferentes etapas de la vida. +Cuando los compras, son bebs. +Y mientras ms los tratas, ms mayores se hacen, aprenden desde su experiencia y comportamiento. +ste, en realidad esta dormido, un segundo -- +Pleo, despierta, Pleo, vamos. +ste chico est escuchando mi voz. +Tiene 40 sensores por todo el cuerpo. +Tiene 7 procesadores, 14 motores, tienen -- pero no les importa, verdad? +Simplemente son muy lindos cierto? Esa es la idea, esa es la idea. +Pueden ver, hey, vamos, hey, has sentido eso? +Hay algo grande y ruidoso por ah. +Hey. +Eso es, despierta, despierta, despierta. +S, son como nios, ya saben. +T, s, s. OK, tiene hambre. +Les ensear qu ha estado haciendo durante 4 aos. +Aqu, aqu, aqu. Toma dinero, Pleo. +All va. +Esto es lo que los inversores piensan, que es slo -- -- bien, bien. Son tos muy dulces. +Y esperamos eso. Nuestra creencia es que los humanos necesitan sentir empata hacia las cosas para ser ms humanos. +Y pensamos que podemos ayudar a eso teniendo pequeas criaturas a las que quieras. +stos no son simples robots, son robots para tenerles cario. +Cambian con el tiempo. +Pero principalmente evocan un sentimiento de cuidar. +Y tenemos -- tengo una cosita por aqu. +Querra decir eso, UGOBE todava no est. +Acabamos de abrir las puertas, y estn abiertas para todo el que quiera entrar. +Hemos includo algunas cosas que son muy tiles. +Un momento, Pleo. +Tienen -- tiene USB y tambin ranura para tarjetas SD, es todo una arquitectura opensource. +Para que todos puedan enchufar, gracias. +ste es John. +Cualquiera puede cambiar por completo la personalidad de Pleo. +Puede hacerlo bipolar, como alguien dijo por ah -- Puedes cambiar su forma de caminar, o lo que quieras hacer con l. +Los nios tambin, pueden poner nuevos sonidos. +Es difcil mantener a la gente alejada de esto. +Tenemos un animador que lo ha cogido y ha metido el sonido del anuncio de Budweiser, y va por ah diciendo "Whassup" +S -- s, le gusta esto. +Son un puado. Espero que os hagis con uno. +No s si se me olvida algo por decir, pero una ltima cosa que querra decir es que, si continuamos por este camino, estamos diseando los mejores amigos de nuestros hijos. +Y hay un montn de responsabilidad social en ello. +Esto es por lo que Pleo es tan agradable y encantador. +Y slo espero que soemos bien. +Gracias. +Si le preguntan a la gente qu parte de la psicologa creen que es ms difcil, y dices, bueno, "qu hay del pensamiento y las emociones?" +La mayora de la gente dir, "las emociones son muy complicadas. +Son increblemente complejas, no pueden... No tengo ni idea de cmo funcionan. +Pero el pensamiento es muy directo: es simplemente una especie de razonamiento lgico o algo as. +Pero eso no es lo difcil. +As que aqu hay una lista de problemas que surgen. +Un problema fino es: qu haremos con respecto a la salud? +El otro da estaba leyendo algo y la persona deca que probablemente dar la mano en occidente es el principal causante de enfermedades. +Y hubo un pequeo estudio sobre la gente que no da la mano, que los comparaba con los que s la dan, +y no tengo ni remota idea de dnde se encuentran los que no dan la mano, porque deben de estar escondidos. +Y la gente que evita eso tiene un 30% menos de posibilidades de contraer enfermedades contagiosas. +O quizs fuera un 31% y un cuarto. +As que si realmente queremos solucionar el problema de las epidemias y dems, empecemos con eso. Y desde que se me ocurri esa idea, he dado la mano cientos de veces. +Creo que la nica manera de evitarlo es tener algn tipo de enfermedad visiblemente horrorosa y as no tienes que explicar nada. +Educacin: cmo mejorar la educacin? +Bueno, la mejor manera es hacer que entiendan que lo que se les cuenta son tonteras. +Claro, entonces, tienes que hacer algo para moderar eso y que as de alguna manera te escuchen a ti. +Polucin, carencia de energa, diversidad ambiental, pobreza... +Cmo crear sociedades estables? Longevidad. +Hay muchos problemas de los que preocuparse. +En cualquier caso, la pregunta que creo que la gente debe hacerse - y es completamente tab- es, cuntas personas debera haber? +Creo que debera haber sobre 100 millones, o quiz 500. +Y entonces nos damos cuenta de que muchos de estos problemas desaparecen. +Si tienes 100 millones de personas bien esparcidas, si hay algo de basura la tiras, preferentemente donde no se pueda ver, y se pudrir. +O la tiras al ocano y algunos peces se beneficiarn. +El problema es, cunta gente debera haber? +Es una decisin que tenemos que tomar. +La mayora de la gente mide 60 pulgadas o ms, y hay esta prdida al cubo si los haces as de grandes - usando nanotecnologa, supongo- entonces podran tener mil veces ms. +Eso solucionara el problema, pero no veo a nadie investigando cmo hacer a la gente ms pequea. +Claro que est bien reducir la poblacin, pero mucha gente quiere tener hijos. +Hay una solucin que probablemente slo est desfasada unos aos. +no sera eso suficiente? De ese modo los nios tendran suficiente apoyo, amor y modelos y la poblacin mundial se reducira rpidamente y todos seran totalmente felices. +El tiempo compartido est ms alejado en el futuro. +Hay una gran novela que Arthur Clark escribi dos veces, llamada "Tras la cada de la noche" y "La ciudad y las estrellas". +Las dos son maravillosas y bsicamente la misma, slo que las computadoras surgieron entre ambas, +y Arthur estaba mirando la novela ms vieja, y dijo, "bueno, eso fue un error. +El futuro ha de tener ordenadores". +As que en la segunda versin hay 100 millardos, o 1.000 millardos de gente en la tierra, guardados en discos duros o disquetes, o lo que sea que tengan en el futuro. +As que dejas salir a unos cuantos millones cada vez. +Sale una persona, vive mil aos haciendo lo que sea, y entonces, cuando hay que retroceder un millardo de aos -o un milln, lo olvido, las cifras no importan- en realidad no hay mucha gente en la tierra a la vez. +Puedes pensar en ti mismo y tus recuerdos, y antes de volver a estar en suspensin editas tus recuerdos y cambias tu personalidad, y as sucesivamente. +La trama del libro es que no hay suficiente diversidad, as que la gente que dise la ciudad se asegura de que cada cierto tiempo se cree una persona nueva. +En la novela, se crea una persona llamada Alvin, que dice: "tal vez esta no es la mejor manera", y estropea todo el sistema. +No creo que las soluciones que propuse sean lo suficientemente buenas o inteligentes. +Creo que el gran problema es que no somos lo suficientemente listos para entender cules de los problemas ante nosotros son lo suficientemente relevantes. +As que tenemos que construir mquinas sumamente inteligentes como HAL. +Como recordarn, en un momento del libro para 2001, HAL se da cuenta de que el universo es demasiado grande, maravilloso y lleno de significado para unos astronautas tan estpidos. Si comparan el comportamiento de HAL con la trivialidad de la gente en la nave, vern lo que est escrito entre lneas. +Y sobre eso, qu vamos a hacer? Podramos ser ms listos. +Creo que somos bastante listos, comparados con los chimpancs. pero no lo bastante para lidiar con los colosales problemas ante nosotros, sea en matemticas abstractas, en economa, o en equilibrar el mundo. +Algo que podemos hacer es vivir ms. +Y nadie sabe lo difcil que es eso, pero probablemente lo sabremos en unos aos. +La carretera se bifurca. Sabemos que la gente vive casi el doble que los chimpancs, y que nadie vive ms de 120 aos, por razones que no entendemos bien. +Pero mucha gente vive 90 100 aos, a menos que den demasiado la mano o algo as. +As que tal vez si viviramos 200 aos, acumularamos suficientes destrezas y conocimientos para solucionar algunos problemas. +Esa es una forma de actuar. +Creo que los contadores de genes an no saben lo que estn haciendo. +Y hagan lo que hagan, no lean nada sobre gentica que se publique mientras vivan. +Esas ideas tienen una esperanza de vida corta, al igual que las ciencias del cerebro. +As que tal vez si arreglamos cuatro o cinco genes, podremos vivir 200 aos. +O tal vez slo 30 40, dudo que varios centenares. +Esto es algo que la gente discutir y muchos ticos -un tico es alguien que encuentra algo malo en todo lo que piensas. +Es difcil encontrar un experto en tica que considere cualquier cambio digno de hacerse, porque dice, "y las consecuencias?" +Y claro, no somos responsables de las consecuencias de lo que estamos haciendo ahora, no? Como esta protesta sobre los clones. +Y sin embargo dos personas al azar se aparearn y tendrn un hijo, y aunque ambos tienen genes bastante podridos, es probable que el nio salga normal. +Lo cual, para estndares chimpancs, est pero que muy bien. +Si ganamos en longevidad, tendremos que afrontar de todos modos el problema del crecimiento problacional porque si la gente vive 200 1.000 aos, no podemos dejar que tengan ms de un hijo cada 200 1.000 aos. +As no habr poblacin activa. +Una de las cosas que Laurie Garrett, y otros, han sealado es que una sociedad sin poblacin activa es un problema grave. Y las cosas van a empeorar, porque no hay nadie para educar a los nios o alimentar a los ancianos. +Y cuando hablo de vidas largas, claro, no quiero que alguien con 200 aos tenga la imagen que tenemos de alguien con 200 aos, es decir, muerto. +Hay cerca de 400 partes diferentes en el cerebro que parecen tener funciones diferentes. +Nadie sabe los detalles de cmo funcionan muchas, pero sabemos que ah hay muchas cosas diferentes, +y no siempre trabajan juntas. Me gusta la teora de Freud de que la mayora se anulan. +Si piensas en ti mismo como en una ciudad con cien recursos, entonces, cuando tienes miedo, por ejemplo, tal vez descartes objetivos a largo plazo, pero puede que pienses en serio y te centres exactamente en cmo conseguir un objetivo concreto. +Dejas todo lo dems de lado, te conviertes en un mononanaco - lo nico que te preocupa es no salirte de esa plataforma. +Y cuando tienes hambre, la comida se hace ms apetecible y as sucesivamente. +Veo las emociones como subgrupos muy evolucionados de la capacidad de ustedes. +La emocin no es algo que se aade al pensamiento. Un estado emocional es lo que te queda cuando quitas 100 200 de tus recursos disponibles habitualmente. +Pensar en las emociones como algo opuesto, como algo menos que el pensamiento es muy productivo, y espero, en los prximos aos, que esto nos lleve a mquinas inteligentes. +Supongo que lo mejor es que me salte el resto, son detalles sobre cmo hacer esas mquinas inteligentes - - la idea principal es que de hecho el corazn de una mquina inteligente es una mquina que reconoce cundo te ests enfrentando a algn problema: +Este es un problema de tal o cual tipo. Consecuentemente, hay ciertas maneras de pensar que son buenas para ese problema. +Creo que el problema ms importante para la psicologa futura es clasificar tipos de problemas, de situaciones, de obstculos y tambin clasificar maneras de pensar disponibles y emparejarlos. +No nos preguntaremos: cales son las situaciones?, sino: cales son los tipos de problemas? Cales son los tipos de estrategias? Cmo se aprenden? Cmo se conectan? Cmo inventa una persona muy creativa una forma nueva de pensar a partir de los recursos disponibles? Y as sucesivamente. +los algoritmos genticos son estupendos para ciertas cosas; sospecho saber para qu son malos y no se lo dir. +Gracias. +Buenos das. Me llamo David Rose. +Soy un empresario en serie convertido en inversor en serie. +Usando presentaciones en PowerPoint a inversores de capital de riesgo , personalmente he conseguido decenas de millones de dlares de esos ICR con presentaciones en PowerPoint. +Y despus, desde el otro lado de la ecuacin, he supervisado personalmente la inversin de decenas de millones de dlares en compaas que han intentado convencerme con presentaciones de PowerPoint. +As que creo que se puede decir que s algo sobre el proceso de persuadir. +La primera pregunta que tienen que hacerse es: Qu es la cosa ms importante que busca un ICR cuando alguien va a presentarle su nueva idea empresarial? +Y obviamente hay muchas cosas: modelos de negocio, datos financieros y mercados y esas cosas. +En general, de todas las cosas que hay que hacer, cul es la ms importante en la que un ICR va a invertir? +Alguien sabe? Qu? +Pblico: Las personas. +David S. Rose: Las personas? Ustedes! Eso es, ustedes son las personas. +Y por tanto el propsito de toda la presentacin a los ICR es convencerlos de que ustedes son los empresarios en los que van a invertir su dinero y que, a cambio, ganarn mucho dinero. +Y eso cmo se hace? +No se puede ir y decir sencillamente: "Hola, soy un gran tipo o una gran chica y deben invertir en m". Verdad? +Durante la presentacin a un ICR tienen pocos minutos, y la mayora de presentaciones a ICR --15 minutos a ngeles inversores, debe ser de menos de media hora a los ICR-- la atencin de la gente empieza a disminuir a los 18 minutos, +segn los estudios. +As que en esos 18 minutos o 10 minutos o 5, hay que transmitir un montn de caractersticas distintas. Se deben transmitir unas 10 caractersticas diferentes mientras estn ah de pie. +Qu es lo ms importante que deben comunicar? Qu? +Pblico: Integridad +DSR: Vaya, vaya! Respuesta correcta all. +Y ni siquiera se la tuve que decir. +Es cierto, integridad. Porque es el punto clave. +Yo prefiero invertir en alguien que en alguien que haga dudar acerca de por quin se preocupa y qu es lo que pasa. +Lo ms importante es la integridad. +Lo segundo ms importante tras la integridad? +A ver si la aciertan. +Pblico: La confianza. +DSR: Casi! La pasin. +Bien, aqu est, los empresarios, por definicin, son gente que deja atrs otra cosa, que empieza un nuevo mundo, creando y dejndose la sangre en ello. +Tienen que transmitir pasin. +Si no los apasiona su empresa, por qu debera hacerlo a otra persona? Por qu deberan poner ms dinero si no los apasiona? +Integridad y pasin son lo ms importante. +Y luego hay un amplio abanico de otras cosas que tienen que incluir en este paquete que van a presentar a un ICR. +Experiencia. Tienen que ser capaces de decir: "Ya he hecho esto antes". +Y "esto" es crear una empresa y generar capital y llevar algo de principio a fin. +Por eso los ICR adoran invertir en empresarios en serie. Porque aunque no lo hayan hecho bien a la primera, aprendieron lecciones de gran utilidad la siguiente vez. +Junto a la experiencia de crear una empresa o llevar algo, puede no ser un negocio, puede ser una organizacin en la escuela o algo sin nimo de lucro. +Pero experiencia creando una organizacin. +Lo siguiente es el conocimiento. +Si alguien me dice que ser el gran desarrollador del mapa del genoma humano, mejor que sepa lo que es un genoma humano. Es decir, quiero que sea experto en el campo. +No quiero a alguien que diga: "Tengo una gran idea en un negocio que desconozco. +No s quin lo hace. +No conozco el mercado". Tienen que conocerlo. Y su campo. +Tienen que tener las habilidades necesarias para que funcione. +Y esas habilidades incluyen de todo desde destreza tcnica, en un negocio tecnolgico, a marketing y ventas y administracin y todo lo dems. +Pero no todo el mundo posee todas esas habilidades. +Hay poca gente con todas las destrezas que faltan para llevar una empresa. +Qu ms hace falta? Bueno, liderazgo. +Tienen que ser capaces de convencernos de que han reunido un equipo con todos esos factores, o que pueden hacerlo. +Y que tienen el carisma y el estilo directivo y la capacidad de conseguir que otros los sigan, de inspirarlos, de motivarlos para ser parte de su equipo. +Bien, y despus de todo eso, qu ms quiero saber como ICR? +Quiero saber que estn comprometidos. +Que van a estar aqu hasta el final. +Quiero que digan o que transmitan que morirn si es necesario y con su ltimo aliento, con uas y dientes mientras dure, +mantendrn mi dinero vivo y obtendrn ms dinero de l. +No quiero al que se vaya a la primera oportunidad. +Habr problemas. +No hay empresa con inversionistas ngeles o de riesgo que no haya tenido problemas. +Quiero saber que hay compromiso hasta el final. +Necesitan tener visin. Necesitan saber a dnde van. +No quiero otro producto "yo tambin". +Quiero alguien que sepa, que pueda cambiar el mundo. +Pero sobre todo, tambin necesito realismo. Necesito saber que saben que, aunque el cambio en el mundo es genial, no siempre se da. +Y antes de lograr cambiar el mundo, algo va a ir mal. Necesitan ser capaces de lidiar con ello. +Y necesitan proyecciones racionales. +Y, finalmente, piden mi dinero, no solo por mi dinero, sino porque soy yo, +Necesitan ser dirigibles. +Necesito saber que tienen capacidad de escuchar. +Tenemos mucha experiencia. +Los ICR o ngeles que invierten en ustedes han tenido experiencia y les gustara saber que quieren or esa experiencia. +Cmo transmitir esas 10 cosas en 10 minutos sin decir nada ms? +No pueden decir: "Tengo una gran integridad, inviertan en m!". +Tienen que hacer una presentacin que transmita esto sin decirlo. +Piensen su presentacin como una lnea de tiempo. +Empieza al entrar por la puerta. +No saben nada de ustedes. +Y pueden darles emocin... todas las presentaciones, las propuestas de ventas son algo emocionales. Pueden subir, bajar, verdad? +Y va de principio a fin. +Entran. La primera cosa que hay que hacer --el arco general de su presentacin-- +es empezar como un cohete. Tienen tal vez 10 segundos --entre 10 y 30 segundos, segn lo que dure la presentacin-- para llamar su atencin. +En mi caso: "He invertido. He obtenido decenas de millones de dlares +de presentaciones en PowerPoint. +He invertido millones de dlares". Directo al punto. +Puede ser un factor, que todos digan que no es intuitivo +Una historia, una experiencia. +Tiene que captar su atencin emocional, centrarla en ustedes, en esos primeros pocos segundos. +Y desde ah tienen que llevarlos por un slido y firme camino ascendente. De principio a fin. +Y todo debe reforzar eso. +Y ha de mejorar, mejorar, mejorar y mejorar. Y debe llevar todo al mismsimo final y al final, tiene que --bum!-- atraerlos, marcarles un gol. +Quieren ser capaces de darles un subidn emocional tal que estn listos para darles un cheque, dinero, justo antes irse. +Cmo se hace eso? +Antes de nada, una progresin lgica. +Cada vez que retroceden, cada vez que dan un paso atrs, imaginen que suben por una escalera a la que le faltan peldaos, o con escalones de distintas alturas. +Hay que pararse a analizarlo. Quieren una progresin lgica. +Empiecen con el mercado. Por qu van a hacer X, Y o Z. +Y despus tienen que decirles cmo van a hacerlo, y qu van a hacer Cmo lo llevarn a cabo. +El conjunto tiene que fluir de principio a fin. +Tambin tienen que hacerme saber que hay referentes. Relacionarlo con el resto del mundo exterior. +Por ejemplo, si se refieren a compaas de las que odo hablar, o a elementos bsicos de su negocio, quiero saber de ellos. +Cosas con las que establecer una relacin: una validacin, algo que me diga que alguien ms aprueba esto o que hay aprobacin externa. +Pueden ser ventas, puede ser que tengan un premio por algo, puede ser que alguien lo haya hecho antes, puede ser que las pruebas iniciales van muy bien. +Lo que sea. Quiero validacin, que me digan que no solo lo dicen ustedes, sino que alguien ms --o alguien ah fuera-- dice que tiene sentido. +Como busco la parte buena, necesito que esa sea creble. +Y eso son dos partes. Ha de ser bueno y ha de ser creble. +Bueno quiere decir que si dicen que estarn 5 aos ganando un milln al ao... mmm, eso no es bueno de verdad. +Que van a ganar mil millones al ao... eso no es creble. +Debe cumplir ambas partes. +Muchas cosas llevan cuesta abajo, bajan el nivel emocional, +y tienen que recuperarse de ellas. +Por ejemplo, decir cosas que sepa que no son ciertas. +"No habr competencia. Nadie ha hecho un aparato como ste". +De pronto s de alguien que lo ha hecho. Y en ese momento: bum! Descuento la mitad de lo que me digan desde entonces. +Cualquier cosa que me haga pensar. Lo que no entienda, lo que me pida deducir algo, en mi cabeza, va a parar el fluir de la presentacin. +Me tienen que llevar de la mano como a un nio --bla, bla, bla-- pero sin ser condescendientes. +Y eso es muy difcil de hacer. +Pero si pueden hacerlo funciona muy, muy bien. +Cualquier cosa que no sea coherente con su concepto. Si me dicen ventas de X, Y o Z 10 millones de dlares, y en la siguiente diapositiva o despus, 5 millones. +Podra ser ganancias brutas, y ganancias netas, pero quiero saber que todas las cifras tienen sentido. +Y en ltimo lugar cualquier fallo, un error tipogrfico o una equivocacin tonta o una lnea que no est en su lugar me muestra que si no pueden hacer una presentacin, cmo van a llevar una empresa? +Todo esto funciona en conjunto. +Lo mejor es mirar a los mejores, a los que lo han hecho antes. +As que echemos un ojo al ejecutivo de tecnologa ms exitoso del mercado y veamos cmo va una presentacin. +La presentacin en PowerPoint de Bill Gates. +Gates en un acto sobre Windows. +Es as como se hace una presentacin? Qu creen? +No. En quin creis que deberamos fijarnos como modelo? +Qu divertido! Es otro de los grandes. +Si? Steve Jobs. +Quieren el absoluto, es el Zen de las presentaciones, no? +Ah est. Un hombrecillo, tejanos negros y tal, un escenario completamente vaco. +En qu nos centramos? +En l! Es Steve Jobs. +Ya ven, genial, esos maravillosos "bullets", una gran lista de cosas... bien! +No, no. Los "bullets" largos son malos. +Qu es bueno? "Bullets" bien cortos. +Pero saben qu? Mejor que cortos es no usarlos. +Solo un encabezado. +Y saben qu? +Cuantos "bullets" o encabezados usa Steve Jobs? +Bsicamente ninguno. +Qu hacer? +Lo mejor: imgenes. Una imagen simple. +Miro la imagen... vale ms que mil palabras. +Miran la imagen, lo ven y lo captan todo. +Y entonces vuelven a m. Se centran en m, en por qu soy tan buen tipo por qu quieren invertir en m. En por qu todo esto tiene sentido. +Dicho esto, tenemos muy poco tiempo, veamos las cosas que debe incluir su presentacin. +Lo primero de todo, el principio. Nada de diapositivas con largos ttulos con bla, bla, bla, y presento esto y lo otro. +S que da es, quin soy, que presentan. Eso no hace falta. +Usen el logotipo de la empresa. +Ver el logotipo y quedar en mi cerebro. +Y volver a ustedes y me centrar en ustedes. +Hagan eso, empiecen con una rpida introduccin de 15-30 segundos, capten mi atencin. +Y despus tendrn que darme una visin general del negocio. +No una presentacin de cinco minutos, sino dos frases. +"Hacemos aparatos para el mercado X, Y o Z". +O "Vendemos servicios para ayudar a la gente a hacer X". Lo que sea. +Es como la foto en la caja de un rompecabezas. +Me informa el contexto. +Me da el armazn de todo lo que me van a explicar. Y me permite relacionar todo lo dems con algo que ya me han dicho. +Hganlo, guenme, mustrenme su equipo gestor. Ayuda que tengan experiencia, +Y quiero conocer el mercado, su tamao. Por qu vale la pena este mercado? +Quiero conocer el producto. +No me lo presenten, no es una venta. +No quiero todos los detalles cmo funciona y esas cosas. Solo quiero saber qu demonios es. +Si es una web, muestren una captura de la Web. +No hagan una demostracin en vivo. Nunca una demostracin en vivo. +Hagan una demo algo que diga por qu comprarn lo que sea que es. +Entonces querr saber --ahora que ya s qu venden-- cmo obtener dinero con ello. +Por cada X vendido obtienen Y, hacen servicio Z. +Quiero saber el modelo empresarial por unidad o por producto real que venden. +Quiero saber a quin venden, en clientes. que les ayudarn. Si tienen una relacin de distribucin, si tienen un socio productor. +O, ya saben, de nuevo, validacin. +Eso ayuda a decir que son parte de algo ms grande. +Pero todo el mundo tiene competencia. +Nunca ha existido la empresa sin competencia. An si es la manera antigua de hacer algo. +Quiero saber exactamente quin es su competencia para poder juzgar cmo encaja en todo el contexto. +Saber qu los hace especiales. +S lo que hace su competencia, cmo impedirn que se coman su pastel? +Eso enlaza con la visin general de las cuentas. +Imprescindible. No pueden ir con ICR sin mostrar las cuentas. +Quiero informacin de uno o dos aos atrs. O desde que existan. +Y quiero una proyeccin de cuatro o cinco aos. +Cinco quiz mucho; cuatro es razonable. +Quiero saber cmo el modelo de negocio que ensearon con base en un producto, se traduce en un modelo. Cuntos aparatos van a vender. +Ganan X dinero por aparato. Quiero saber los mrgenes. +Tendremos 1000 clientes este ao y 10 000 el ao que viene. Nuestras ganancias subirn a tanto. +Eso me da una imagen de los siguientes aos en que invertir. +Saber cmo el dinero que obtendrn de m los ayudar a llegar all. +Si van a abrir una planta en China, si se van a gastar todo en promocin y ventas, si van a ir a Tahit, o lo que sea. +Pero luego viene la pregunta. Aqu me dicen cunto quieren conseguir. +Buscan 5 millones, con qu valoracin de capital? +2 millones a 100 000. +Cunto dinero han conseguido ya? De quin? +Espero que inviertan personalmente. Porque yo voy detrs. Si no invierten en su proyecto, por qu hacerlo yo? +Quiero saber si tienen familia y amigos, inversores ngel u otros ICRs antes. +Cul es la estructura de capital hoy? +Y, ltimo, despus de todo, ya que me lo han explicado todo, tienen que volver a la conclusin. +Es el cohete que sube. +Con suerte todo habr sido positivo, positivo, positivo +y ms positivo. Y todo lo que me dicen encaja, todo tiene sentido. +Y pienso: "Esto es realmente genial". +Vuelven a mostrar el logotipo. Solo el logotipo en pantalla. +Y miro al logotipo. Vale, bien. +Vuelvo a mirarlos. Nada ms que ver, no? +Entonces tienen que atar todos los cabos. Tienen que darme el final, ya saben, bum! La propuesta que me pondr en rbita. +Durante todo el proceso, cmo recordarn la secuencia y lo que hacer? +Habrn notado que no miro a la pantalla. +La pantalla, en esta sala, est delante de m. No podra verla ni aunque quisiera. +Y cmo veo lo que sucede en ella? +Tengo un porttil delante, pero me estn mirando, +y ven esto. +Qu creen que veo yo? +Creen que es lo mismo? +No, de hecho veo una versin especial de PowerPoint aqu que me muestra las diapositivas anteriores, las que siguen, mis notas... as que veo cmo va todo. +Esto est en todas las copias de PowerPoint que venden. +Si usan Keynote, de Apple, tiene una versin incluso mejor. +Y hay un programa que se llama Ovation de Adobe desde el verano pasado, que te ayuda a manejar todos los tiempos, y permite orientarse en el conjunto. +Aqu est el final que los pondr en rbita, bueno? +David da listas de 10, no hay tiempo para 10. Los 5 consejos de David son: +Uno: Usen siempre la vista de presentador, Ovation o Presenter Tools +porque permite ver hacia dnde se dirigen, a controlar el ritmo, tiene un cronmetro +para poder acabar a tiempo. Cuatro: Usen siempre un mando a distancia. +Me han visto tocar el computador? +No, porque estoy usando este mando a distancia. senlo siempre. +Tres: No entreguen la presentacin. +Si siguen mis consejos, tendrn una presentacin parca, muy zen. Que es genial para transmitir quienes son y para involucrar a la gente. Pero no como material de apoyo. +Quieren dar un documento con mucha ms informacin, porque debe servir sin ustedes. +Tres: No lean su charla. +Se imaginan? "Inviertan en mi empresa porque es muy buena". No funciona, verdad? No lo lean. +Y el consejo nmero uno para presentar: Nunca, jams, miren a la pantalla. +Estn conectando con el pblico ante ustedes, y quieren siempre conectar cara a cara. +La pantalla debe estar atrs de ustedes, y apoyar lo que dicen, no sustituirlos. +As es como se presenta ante un ICR. +Hace un ao les habl de un libro que estaba a punto de terminar. Ya se ha publicado y hoy les hablar de algunas de las controversias que ha suscitado. +Se llama "La tabla rasa" y se basa en la popular idea de que la mente es una tabla rasa y que toda su estructura proviene de la socializacin, la cultura, la crianza y la experiencia. +La "tabla rasa" tuvo influencia en el siglo XX +como indican estas citas: "El hombre no tiene naturaleza", del historiador Jos Ortega y Gasset. "El hombre no tiene instintos", del antroplogo Ashley Montagu. "El cerebro es capaz de gran cantidad de conductas y no est predispuesto a ninguna", del cientfico Stephen Jay Gould. +Hay varias razones para dudar que la mente humana sea una tabla rasa y algunas son simple sentido comn. +Como muchos me ha dicho durante aos cualquiera que haya tenido varios hijos sabe que los nios vienen al mundo con determinados temperamentos y talentos; no todo viene de fuera. +Y cualquiera que tenga un hijo y una mascota seguramente ha notado que el nio, expuesto al habla, adquiere una lengua humana pero la mascota no, presuntamente por una diferencia innata. +Y quien haya tenido una relacin heterosexual sabe que las mentes de los hombres y mujeres no son idnticas. +Tambin hay cada vez ms resultados que indican que los humanos no nacemos como tablas rasas. +Uno de ellos, antropolgico, es el estudio de los universales humanos. +Si han estudiado antropologa, sabrn que es un placer ocupacional para los antroplogos el mostrar el exotismo de otras culturas y que hay sitios all afuera, aparentemente, donde todo es lo opuesto a como es aqu. +Pero, si en cambio, miramos lo comn a las culturas del mundo veremos que existe un enorme conjunto de conductas, emociones y formas de entender el mundo que pueden encontrarse en las 6.000 culturas del mundo. +El antroplogo Donald Brown ha intentado enumerarlas y van desde la esttica, el afecto y los estatus por edad hasta el destete, las armas, el tiempo, el ejercicio del control, el color blanco y la visin del mundo. +La gentica y la neurociencia muestran cada vez ms que el cerebro es intrincado. +En un estudio reciente, el neurobilogo Paul Thompson y sus colegas, usando IRM (resonancia magntica) midieron la distribucin de la materia gris -la capa exterior de la corteza- en una amplia muestra de pares de personas. +Codificaron las correlaciones de grosor de la materia gris en partes del cerebro usando un esquema de colores falsos, donde el violeta indica que no hay diferencia y cualquier otro color indica que hay una correlacin estadsticamente significativa. +Esto sucede cuando se empareja personas al azar. +Por definicin, dos personas al azar no pueden tener correlaciones en la distribucin de materia gris en la corteza. +Esto ocurre en personas que comparten la mitad de su ADN: hermanos gemelos . +Como pueden ver, grandes areas del cerebro no son violeta, lo que indica que si uno tiene la corteza ms gruesa en esa regin, tambin lo tendr su gemelo. +Y esto es lo que ocurre con personas que comparten todo el ADN: los clones o gemelos idnticos . +Podrn ver enormes reas de corteza en las que hay gran correlaciones en la distribucin de materia gris. +No slo son diferencias anatmicas, como la forma de las orejas, sino que hay efectos en el pensamiento y la conducta que ilustra claramente esta caricatura de Charles Addams "Los gemelos Mallifert, separados al nacer, se encuentran accidentalmente." +Como ven, son dos inventores con artilugios idnticos en la falda y se encuentran en la sala de un abogado de patentes. +La caricatura no es tan exagerada, pues estudios de gemelos idnticos separados al nacer y evaluados de adultos muestran que tienen asombrosas similitudes. +Esto ocurre en cada par de gemelos idnticos separados al nacer que se hayan estudiados pero mucho menos con los bivitelinos separados al nacer. +Mi ejemplo favorito es una par de gemelos: uno de ellos se cri como catlico en una familia nazi en Alemania y el otro con una familia juda en Trinidad. +Ahora... la historia parecera demasiado bueno para ser verdad pero cuando administras bateras de test psicolgicos los resultados no varan: los gemelos idnticos separados al nacer tienen similitudes asombrosas. +Dado que el sentido comn y los datos cientficos cuestionan la tabla rasa por qu habr sido algo tan atractivo? +Hay unos varios motivos polticos por lo que fue aceptada. +La principal es que si somos tablas rasas entonces, por definicin, somos iguales porque cero es igual a cero es igual a cero... +Pero si hubiera algo escrito en la tabla, unos tendran ms que otros y de acuerdo a esta lnea de pensamiento, justificara la discriminacin y la desigualdad. +Otro miedo poltico a la naturaleza humana es que si somos tablas rasas podemos perfeccionar la humanidad, ese antiguo sueo de perfectibilidad de nuestra especie mediante la ingeniera social. +Mientras que si nacemos con ciertos instintos, quizs algunos de ellos puedan condenarnos al egosmo, los prejuicios y la violencia. +En el libro yo sostengo que son non sequiturs. +Para resumir: en primer lugar, el concepto de equidad no es lo mismo que el concepto de uniformidad. +Cuando Thomas Jefferson dice en la Declaracin de Independencia: "Es verdad manifiesta que los hombres fueron creados iguales" no quiso decir: "Es verdad manifiesta que todos los hombres son clones." +Sino que todos son iguales con respecto a sus derechos, y que cada persona debera ser tratada como un individuo y no prejuzgar por las estadsticas de los grupos de pertenencia. +Adems, aunque naciramos con motivos innobles, no tendran que provocar conductas innobles. +Porque la mente es compleja y tiene muchas partes Porque la mente es compleja y tiene muchas partes y algunas pueden inhibir a otras. +Hay excelentes razones para creer que casi todos nacemos con sentido moral y tenemos aptitudes que nos permiten aprender de la historia. +Aunque tuviramos impulsos hacia el egosmo o la codicia y otros temas candentes, zonas calientes, Chernbiles, asuntos espinosos... y otros temas candentes, zonas calientes, Chernbiles, asuntos espinosos... +como: arte, clonacin, crimen libre albedro, educacin, evolucin los sexos, Dios, homosexualidad infanticidio, desigualdad, marxismo, moralidad nazismo, crianza, poltica raza, religin, escasez de recursos ingeniera social, riesgo tecnolgico y guerra. +Huelga decir que fue algo arriesgado abordar estos temas. Huelga decir que fue algo arriesgado abordar estos temas. +Envi el primer borrador a colegas para que lo comentasen Envi el primer borrador a colegas para que lo comentasen y estas son algunas de las reacciones que obtuve: y estas son algunas de las reacciones que obtuve: "Ponte una cmara de seguridad." +"No esperes premios, trabajo ni puestos en asociaciones acadmicas." "No esperes premios, trabajo ni puestos en asociaciones acadmicas." +"Dile a tu editor que no incluya tu ciudad en tu biografa." "Dile a tu editor que no incluya tu ciudad en tu biografa." +"Eres titular?" +El libro sali en octubre y no ha ocurrido nada horrible. El libro sali en octubre y no ha ocurrido nada horrible. +De hecho haba razones para estar nervioso De hecho haba razones para estar nervioso y en ocasiones lo estuve conociendo lo que ha ocurrido a gente conociendo lo que ha ocurrido a gente que ha adoptado posturas polmicas o hecho hallazgos inquietantes en las ciencias del comportamiento. o hecho hallazgos inquietantes en las ciencias del comportamiento. +Hay muchos casos, algunos estn en el libro de gente que ha sido difamada, llamada nazi agredida, amenazada con juicios por dar con hallazgos polmicos +Y nunca sabes cundo caers en una de esas trampas. Y nunca sabes cundo caers en una de esas trampas. +Mi ejemplo favorito es el de dos psiclogos que investigaron a zurdos: Mi ejemplo favorito es el de dos psiclogos que investigaron a zurdos: sus datos indicaban que en general son ms propensos a enfermedades, accidentes y viven menos. son ms propensos a enfermedades, accidentes y viven menos. +Por cierto, ahora no est claro si era una generalizacin precisa pero los datos de entonces parecan probarlo. +Enseguida los acribillaron con cartas enfurecidas Enseguida los acribillaron con cartas enfurecidas amenazas de muerte, veto del tema en revistas cientficas provenientes de airados zurdos y sus defensores y les daba miedo abrir el correo por el veneno y el vituperio que haban inspirado sin querer. +La noche es joven, pero el libro lleva en la calle seis meses y no ha ocurrido nada horrible. +No ha tenido nefastas consecuencias profesionales. No ha tenido nefastas consecuencias profesionales. No me han desterrado de la ciudad de Cambridge. No me han desterrado de la ciudad de Cambridge. +Pero quera hablarles de dos de estos puntos candentes que han suscitado la respuesta ms fuerte en las casi 80 reseas que ha recibido La tabla rasa. +Pondr la lista unos segundos a ver si adivinan cules dos -calculo que dos de estos temas probablemente inspiraron el 90% de las reacciones en las reseas y entrevistas radiofnicas. de las reacciones en las reseas y entrevistas radiofnicas. +Ni la violencia, la guerra, la raza, los sexos Ni la violencia, la guerra, la raza, los sexos ni el marxismo ni el nazismo. +Son: las artes y la crianza. +Les explicar qu suscit respuestas tan airadas Les explicar qu suscit respuestas tan airadas y ustedes decidirn si las afirmaciones son tan escandalosas. y ustedes decidirn si las afirmaciones son tan escandalosas. +Empecemos con las artes. +En la lista de universales que present en diapositivas anteriores estn las artes. que present en diapositivas anteriores estn las artes. +No hay sociedad descubierta en el lugar ms remoto que no tuviera algo que consideraramos arte. +Las artes plsticas parecen un universal humano. Las artes plsticas parecen un universal humano. +Por otra parte, en la segunda mitad del siglo XX se ha dicho con frecuencia que las artes estaban en declive. +Y tengo una coleccin de unos 10 o 15 titulares de revistas para intelecturales que lamentan el declive de las artes en nuestra poca. +Citar un par de ejemplos representativos: "Podemos afirmar con confianza que nuestro perodo es un perodo de declive, que el nivel cultural es inferior que hace 50 aos y que las pruebas de este declive son visibles en todas las secciones de la actividad humana." +Es una cita de T.S. Elliot, de hace ms de 50 aos. +Y otra ms reciente: "La posibilidad de preservar la alta cultura en esta poca se est volviendo cada vez ms problemtica. +Libreras serias estn perdiendo su concesin, teatros sin nimo de lucro sobreviven principalmente de comercializar su repertorio, las orquestas sinfnicas adulteran sus programas, la televisin pblica aumenta su dependencia de las reposiciones de series cmicas britnicas, las emisoras de radio clsicas estn disminuyendo, los museos recurren a exposiciones comerciales, la danza est muriendo." +Esta es de Robert Brustein, el famoso director y crtico teatral, en The New Republic hace unos cinco aos. +En realidad, las artes no estn en declive. +No creo que esto sorprenda a nadie en esta sala pero se mire como se mire nunca han florecido ms que ahora. +Claro que hay formas de arte totalmente nuevas y nuevos medios, muchos de los cuales se han presentado estos das. +Desde el punto de vista econmico la demanda de cualquier tipo de arte se est disparando como se deduce del precio de las entradas de pera, el nmero de libros vendidos, la cantidad de libros publicados, la cantidad de musicales estrenados, la cantidad de lbumes nuevos, etc. +La nica pizca de verdad de esta queja sobre el declive de las artes viene de tres esferas. +Una es el arte de lite desde los aos 30 -los tipos de obras interpretados por las principales orquestas sinfnicas- cuyo repertorio en su mayora es anterior a 1930 o las obras expuestas en las principales galeras y museos prestigiosos. +En la crtica y el anlisis literario hace unos 40 o 50 aos los crticos eran una especie de hroes culturales; ahora son una especie de broma nacional. +Y los programas de humanidades y arte en las universidades que, en muchos aspectos, s estn en declive. +Los estudiantes son cuatro gatos, las universidades desinvierten en las artes y las humanidades. +Aqu hay un diagnstico. +No me lo pidieron, pero ellos mismos admitan que necesitan toda la ayuda que puedan obtener. +Y me gustara sugerir que no es coincidencia que este supuesto declive de las artes de lite y la crtica se produjese en el mismo momento en el que haba un rechazo generalizado a la naturaleza humana. +Puede encontrarse una cita famosa en internet, puede encontrarse en muchsimos programas de cursos de ingls: "Alrededor de diciembre de 1910 la naturaleza humana cambi." +Una parfrasis de una cita de Virginia Wolff y ha habido debate sobre qu quiso decir con eso en realidad. +Pero, mirando los programas, es evidente que ahora se utiliza como manera de decir que todas las formas de apreciacin del arte empleadas durante siglos o milenios se desecharon en el siglo XX. +La belleza y el placer en el arte, probablemente un universal humano, comenzaron a considerarse almibarados, kitsch o comerciales. +Barnett Newman tena una famosa cita de que el impulso del arte moderno es el deseo de destruir la belleza, por considerarla burguesa u hortera. +Y aqu tenemos un ejemplo. +Este quizs sea un ejemplo caracterstico de la representacin visual de la forma femenina en el siglo XV. Y este es un ejemplo caracterstico de la representacin de la forma femenina en el siglo XX. +Como pueden ver, algo ha cambiado en la forma en que las artes de lite apelan a los sentidos. +De hecho, en el modernismo y el posmodernismo haba arte plstico sin belleza, literatura sin narracin ni trama, poesa sin mtrica ni rima, arquitectura y urbanismo sin ornamento, escala humana, espacios verdes ni luz natural, msica sin meloda ni ritmo, y crtica sin claridad, atencin a la esttica ni comprensin de la condicin humana. +Dejen que les d un ejemplo que respalda la ltima afirmacin. +Una de las ms famosas estudiosas de la literatura inglesa de nuestro tiempo es la catedrtica de Berkeley Judith Butler. +Ya se hacen una idea. +Por cierto, es una sla oracin; pueden analizarla sintcticamente. +Bueno, el argumento de La tabla rasa era que la crtica y el arte de lite en el siglo XX, aunque no las artes en general, han desdeado la belleza, el placer la claridad, la comprensin y el estilo. +Y la gente se mantiene alejada de la crtica y el arte de lite. +Qu misterio! Me pregunto por qu. +Pues esta result ser probablemente la afirmacin ms polmica del libro. +Alguien me pregunt si la inclu para desviar la ira de las discusiones sobre sexos, nazismo, raza y dems. No voy a comentarlo. +Pero sin duda inspir una reaccin enrgica de muchos catedrticos universitarios. +El otro punto candente es la crianza. +Y el punto de partida de ese debate fue el hecho de que todos hemos estado sometidos al asesoramiento del complejo industrial de la crianza. +Esta es una cita tpica de una madre abrumada: "Estoy abrumada con los consejos sobre crianza. +Se supone que debo hacer mucha actividad fsica con mis hijos para inculcarles el hbito del mantenimiento de la forma fsica para que crezcan y sean adultos sanos. +Y se supone que debo practicar todo tipo de juegos intelectuales para que sean listos. +Y hay todo tipo de juegos: la plastilina para la destreza digital los juegos de palabras para que lean bien, juegos para motricidad gruesa o fina. Creo que podra dedicar mi vida a averiguar a qu jugar con mis hijos." +Creo que cualquiera que haya sido padre hace poco comprender a esta madre. +Estos son algunos hechos sobre la crianza que dan que pensar. +La mayor parte de los estudios en los que se basan esos consejos no sirven de nada porque no tienen en cuenta la herencia. Miden alguna correlacin entre lo que hacen los padres, cmo resultan los hijos y asumen una relacin causal: que la crianza form al hijo. +Los padres que hablan mucho con sus hijos tienen hijos que se expresan bien de mayores, los que pegan a sus hijos tienen hijos que de mayores sern violentos y tal. +Y muy pocos tienen en cuenta la posibilidad de que los padres transmitan los genes que aumentan las probabilidades de que un hijo se exprese bien, sea violento y dems. +Hasta que se repitan los estudios con padres adoptivos, que proporcionan un entorno pero no genes a sus hijos, no tenemos forma de saber si esas conclusiones son vlidas. +Los estudios controlados genticamente proporcionan resultados que dan que pensar. +Volvamos a los gemelos Mallifert: separados al nacer, se encuentran en la oficina de patentes -sorprendemente parecidos. +Qu habra pasado si hubieran crecido juntos? +Es posible que piensen que se pareceran todava ms porque no slo compartiran los genes sino tambin el entorno. +Eso los hara superparecidos, no? +No. Los gemelos idnticos u otros hermanos separados al nacer no son menos parecidos que si hubieran crecido juntos. +Todo lo que te ocurre en un hogar durante todos esos aos no dejara una huella permanente en tu personalidad ni tu intelecto. +Un hallazgo complementario, de una metodologa totalmente diferente es que los hermanos adoptados criados juntos -el reflejo de los gemelos idnticos separados: comparten a sus padres, su hogar, su barrio, pero no los genes- terminan no siendo similares. +Dos investigaciones diferentes con una conclusin parecida. +As que djenme terminar con una observacin para volver al tema de las elecciones. +Creo que las ciencias de la naturaleza humana - la neurociencia, la ciencia cognitiva- en los aos venideros van a desbaratar cada vez ms varios dogmas, carreras y sistemas de creencias polticas asentados. +Y eso nos plantea una eleccin. +La de si determinados hechos sobre los humanos o temas deben considerarse tabs, conocimientos prohibidos en los que no deberamos adentrarnos porque no puede salir nada bueno de ello, o si deberamos explorarlos con honradez. +Yo tengo mi respuesta a la pregunta que viene de un gran artista del siglo XIX Anton Chejov, que dijo: "El hombre ser mejor cuando le muestres cmo es." +Y creo que el argumento no puede expresarse ms elocuentemente. +Muchas gracias. +De lo que quiero hablarles hoy es de cmo veo a los robots invadiendo nuestras vidas en mltiples niveles y lneas de tiempo. +Y cuando miro hacia el futuro, no puedo imaginarme un mundo, 500 aos a partir de ahora, en el cual no tengamos robots por todas partes, +suponiendo que -- a pesar de todas las espantosas predicciones que mucha gente hace sobre nuestro futuro -- suponiendo que todava estemos por aqu, no puedo imaginar el mundo no estando poblado por robots. +Y luego la pregunta es, bueno, si ellos van a estar por aqu en 500 aos, estarn por todas partes antes de ese tiempo? +Estarn por aqu dentro de 50 aos? +S, pienso que es muy probable -- habr muchos robots por todas partes. +Y, de hecho, pienso que eso ocurrir mucho antes. +Pienso que estamos a punto de que los robots se vuelvan cosa comn y pienso que estamos como en 1978 1980 en aos de las computadoras personales cuando los primeros robots estn comenzando a aparecer. +Las computadoras comenzaron a llegar a travs de juegos de video y de juguetes. +Y, saben, la primera computadora que muchas personas tuvieron en sus casas puede haber sido una para jugar Pong, con un pequeo microprocesador integrado, y luego algunos otros juegos de video que vinieron despus de ese. +Y estamos comenzado a ver el mismo tipo de cosas con los robots: LEGO Mindstorms, Furbies -- los cuales -- alguien aqu tuvo un Furby? +Claro, hay 38 millones vendidos a nivel mundial. +Son muy comunes, y son un pequeo robot, un robot simple con algunos sensores. Es un poco de procesamiento causal. +A la derecha vemos otra mueca robot, la que podan obtener hace un par de aos. +Y tal como en los primeros das, cuando haba mucha interaccin de aficionados a las computadoras, pueden obtener ahora muchos juegos para armar robots, y libros de cmo armar robots. +Y a la izquierda hay una plataforma de Evolution Robotics, a la cual conectas una PC, y programas esto con una Interfaz Grfica para moverse por tu casa y hacer diversas cosas. +Y luego hay un punto de ms alto precio, una especie de robots de juguete -- el Aibo de Sony. Y a la derecha ah, hay uno desarrollado por NEC, el PaPeRo, el cual no creo que vayan a lanzar. +Pero, sin embargo, ese tipo de cosas estn ah afuera. +Y hemos visto, durante los ltimos dos o tres aos, robots para cortar el csped, Husqvarna en la parte de abajo, Friendly Robotics aqu arriba, una empresa israrel. +Y, luego, en los ltimos 12 meses, aproximadamente, hemos comenzado a ver aparecer muchos robots para limpiar la casa. +Arriba y a la derecha hay un robot muy bueno para limpiar la casa de una empresa llamada Dyson, de Reino Unido. Excepto que era tan caro -- US$3,500 dlares -- que no lo lanzaron al mercado. +Pero abajo a la izquierda ven el Electrolux, que s est de venta. +Otro de Karcher. +Y abajo a la derecha est uno que yo constru en mi laboratorio hace unos 10 aos, y que finalmente convertimos en un producto. +Y permtanme mostrarles eso. +Vamos a regalar ste, creo que Chris dijo, al final de la charla. +Este es un robot que puedes salir y comprar, y que limpiar tu piso. +Y arranca movindose en crculos cada vez ms amplios. +Si golpea con algo -- vieron eso? +Ahora est comenzando a seguir la pared, est siguiendo el contorno de mis pies para limpiar alrededor de m. Veamos, vamos a -- oh, quin se llev mis Rice Krispies? Se robaron mis Rice Krispies! +No se preocupen, reljense, no, reljense, es un robot , es inteligente! +Ven, los nios de tres aos no se preocupan por l. +Son los adultos los que de verdad se sienten incmodos. +Vamos a poner algo de basura aqu. +Bien. +No s si lo pueden ver -- bueno, puse un poco de Rice Krispies all, puse algunas monedas, movmos el robot hacia all, a ver si lo limpia. +S, bien. As que -- dejaremos esto para luego. +De hecho, parte del truco fue construir un mejor mecanismo de limpieza; la inteligencia a bordo era bastante simple. +Y eso es igual con muchos robots. +Nos hemos convertido todos, pienso, en una especie de chauvinistas computacionales, y piensan que la computacin lo es todo, pero, la mecnica todava es importante. +Aqu hay otro robot, el PackBot, que hemos estado construyendo durante algunos aos. +Es un robot militar de vigilancia, para ir delante de las tropas, y examinar cavernas, por ejemplo. +Pero, tuvimos que hacerlo muy robusto, mucho ms robusto que los robots que construimos en nuestros laboratorios. +A bordo de ese robot hay una PC que corre Linux. +Esto puede soportar un golpe de 400G. El robot tienen inteligencia local: puede voltearse boca arriba l solo, y puede ubicarse dentro del rango de alcance de comunicaciones, puede subir escaleras por s solo, etctera. +Bien, aqu est haciendo navegacin local. +Un soldado le da un comando de subir las escaleras y lo hace. +Ese no fue un descenso controlado! +Ahora se va. +Y la gran prueba para estos robots, realmente, fue el 11 de Septiembre. +Llevamos los robots hasta el World Trade Center tarde esa noche. +No pudieron hacer mucho en la montaa de escombros, todo estaba muy -- no haba nada que hacer. +Pero, s penetramos en todos lo edificios circundantes que haban sido evacuados, y buscamos posibles sobrevivientes en esos edificios en los cuales era peligroso entrar. +Veamos este video. +Reportera: ... unos compaeros del campo de batalla estn ayudando a reducir los riesgos del combate. +Nick Robertson tiene esa historia. +Rodney Brooks: Podemos tener otro de estos? +OK, bien. +Bien, este es un soldado que ha visto un robot hace dos semanas. +Est enviando robots dentro de cuevas, viendo lo que ocurre. +El robot es totalmente autnomo. +Lo peor que ha ocurrido dentro de la cueva, hasta ahora, es que uno de los robots cay diez metros. +As que, hace un ao, el ejrcito de los Estados Unidos no tena estos robots. +Ahora estn en servicio activo en Afganistn todos los das. +Y esa es una de las razones por las que dicen que se est dando una invasin de robots. +Hay un gran cambio ahora en cmo -- hacia dnde la tecnologa est caminando. +Gracias +Y en los prximos meses, vamos a estar enviando robots que estn en produccin a perforar pozos de petrleo para sacar de la tierra esos pocos aos de petrleo que quedan. +Son ambientes muy hostiles, 150 grados centgrados, 10,000 PSI. +Robots autnomos descendiendo y haciendo este tipo de trabajo. +Pero, robots como stos, son un poco difciles de programar. +Cmo, en el futuro, vamos a programar nuestros robots y a hacerlos ms fciles de usar? +Y, de hecho, quiero usar un robot en este momento -- un robot llamado Chris -- ponte de pie. S. Bien! +Ven aqu. Ahora fjense, l cree que los robots tienen que ser un poco tiesos. +l hace un poco eso. Pero voy a -- Chris Anderson: Es slo que soy ingls. RB: Oh. +Voy a ensearle a este robot una tarea. Es una tarea muy compleja. +Ahora, fjense, l asinti con la cabeza, dndome una indicacin de que estaba comprendiendo el flujo de comunicacin. +Y, si hubiese dicho algo totalmente extrao l me habra mirado de lado, con dudas, y habra regulado la conversacin. +Bueno, ahora traje esto frente a l. +Mir sus ojos y v que sus ojos miraron la tapa de la botella. +Y estoy realizando esta tarea aqu, y l est observando. +Sus ojos van y vienen hacia mi para ver qu estoy mirando, as que tenemos atencin compartida. +Y entonces, realizo esta tarea, y l observa, y me mira para ver qu ocurrir luego. Y ahora le pasar la botella, y veremos si puede realizar la tarea. Puedes hacer eso? +Bien. Lo hace muy bien. S. Bien, bien, bien. +No te ense a hacer eso. +Ahora veamos si lo puedes armar todo de nuevo. +Y piensa que un robot tiene que ser muy lento. +Buen robot, bien hecho! +Bien, aqu vimos unas cuantas cosas. +Vimos que cuando interactuamos, tratamos de ensearle a alguien cmo hacer algo, dirigimos su atencin visual. +Lo otro que nos comunica es su estado interno, si nos est comprendiendo o no, regula nuestra interaccin social. +Hubo atencin compartida al mirar el mismo tipo de cosas, y reconocimiento del refuerzo social al final. +Y hemos estado tratando de incluir eso en los robots de nuestro laboratorio porque pensamos que es as como ustedes querrn interactuar con los robots en el futuro. +Slo quiero mostrarles un diagrama tcnico aqu. +Lo ms importante para construir un robot con el cual se pueda interactuar socialmente es su sistema de atencin visual. +Porque a lo que le presta atencin es a lo que est viendo y con lo que est interactuando, y es as que comprendes lo que est haciendo. +As que, en los videos que voy a mostrarles, van a ver un sistema de atencin visual de un robot el cual tiene -- busca tonos de piel en el espacio HSV, as que trabaja a travs de todos los, bueno, los colores humanos. +Busca colores muy saturados, en los juguetes. +Y busca cosas que se mueven. +Y compara todo eso en una ventana de atencin, y busca el lugar de mayor puntuacin -- aquello en donde lo ms interesante est ocurriendo. Y es a eso a lo que sus ojos siguen. +Y mira directo hacia eso. +Al mismo tiempo, toma decisiones comunes: : puede decidir que se siente solo y buscar tono de piel, o podra decidir que est aburrido y buscar un juguete para jugar. +As que estos pesos cambian. +Y aqu arriba, a la derecha, esto es lo que llamamos el mdulo en memoria de Steven Spielberg. +Vieron la pelcula IA? Audiencia: S. RB: S, era bastante mala, pero -- recuerdan, especialmente cuando Haley Joel Osment, el pequeo robot, mir al hada azul por 2,000 aos sin quitar sus ojos de ella? +Bien, esto elimina ese asunto, porque esto es una habituacin Gaussiana que se vuelve negativa, y ms y ms intensa cuando mira algo. +Y se aburre, as que entonces mira hacia otro lado. +As que, una vez que tienes eso -- y aqu est un robot, aqu est Kismet, mirando alrededor buscando un juguete. Puedes darte cuenta de lo que est mirando. +Puedes estimar la direccin de su mirada por esos globos oculares que cubren la cmara, y puedes darte cuenta de cundo est viendo directamente al juguete. +Y tiene algo de respuesta emocional aqu. +Pero, an as va a poner atencin si algo ms significativo penetra en su campo visual -- como, por ejemplo Cynthia Breazeal, quien construy este robot -- desde la derecha. +La mira, le presta atencin a ella. +Kismet tiene, subyacente, un espacio emocional tridimensional, un espacio vectorial, de dnde se encuentra emocionalmente. +Y en diferentes lugares de ese espacio l expresa -- podemos tener volumen aqu? +Pueden escuchar eso ahora, ah? Audiencia: S. Kismet: Realmente piensas eso? Realmente piensas eso? +Realmente lo piensas? +RB: As que est expresando su emocin mediante su cara y la prosodia en su voz. +Y, cuando yo estaba trabajando con mi robot aqu, Chris, el robot, estaba midiendo la prosodia en mi voz, as que hicimos que el robot midiera la prosodia a partir de cuatro mensajes bsicos que las madres dan a sus hijos de forma pre-lingstica. +Aqu tenemos sujetos ingenuos elogiando al robot, Voz: Lindo robot. +Eres un robot tan lindo. +Y el robot est reaccionando adecuadamente. +Voz: ... muy bien, Kismet. +Voz: Mira mi sonrisa. +RB: Se sonre. Imita la sonrisa. Esto pasa muchas veces. +Esos son sujetos ingenuos. +Aqu les pedimos que captaran la atencin del robot y que indicaran cundo tenan la atencin del robot. +Voz: Hey, Kismet, ah, ah est. +RB: As que se da cuenta de que tiene la atencin del robot. +Voz: Kismet, te gusta el juguete? Oh. +RB: Ahora aqu les pedimos que prohibieran algo al robot, y la primera mujer realmente empuja al robot hacia un rincn emocional. +Voz: No. No. No debes hacer eso. No! +Voz: No es apropiado. No. No. +RB: Lo voy a dejar ah. +Integramos todo eso. Luego agregamos el tomar turnos. +Cuando conversamos con alguien, hablamos. +Luego levantamos nuestras cejas, movemos nuestros ojos, para darle a la otra persona la idea de que es su turno de hablar. +Y luego ellos hablan, y nos pasamos la batuta el uno al otro. +As que ponemos esto en el robot. +Buscamos un grupo de sujetos ingenuos, no les dijimos nada acerca del robot, los sentamos frente al robot y les dijimos "habla con el robot". +Ahora, lo que no saban era que, el robot no comprenda ni una palabra de lo que ellos le decan, y que el robot no estaba hablando Ingls. +Slo pronunciaba fonemas de Ingls que eran aleatorios. +Y quiero que vean con atencin, al inicio de esto, cuando esta persona, Ritchie, quien habl con el robot por 25 minutos -- -- dice "Quiero mostrarte algo. +Quiero mostrarte mi reloj." +Y coloca el centro del reloj dentro del campo visual del robot, lo seala, le da una pista emocional, y el robot mira al reloj exitosamente. +No sabemos si l entendi o no que el robot -- Fjense en la toma de turnos. +Ritchie: Bien, quiero mostrarte algo. Bueno, esto es un reloj que mi novia me regal. +Robot: Oh, bien. +Ritchie: S, mira, tiene incluso una pequea luz azul aqu. casi lo pierdo esta semana. +RB: As que hace contacto visual con l, siguiendo sus ojos. +Ritchie: Puedes hacer lo mismo? Robot: S, claro. +RB: Y ellos tienen este tipo de comunicacin con xito. +Y aqu hay otro aspecto del tipo de cosas que Chris y yo estuvimos haciendo. +Este es otro robot, Cog. +Ellos primero hicieron contacto visual, y luego, cuando Christie mira hacia este juguete, el robot estima la direccin de la mirada de ella y mira el mismo objeto que ella est mirando. +Vamos a ver ms y ms de este tipo de robots en los prximos aos en los laboratorios. +Pero, entonces las grandes preguntas, dos grandes preguntas que la gente me hace son: si hacemos a estos robots cada vez ms parecidos a los humanos, los aceptaremos? -- tendrn derechos eventualmente? +Y la otra pregunta que la gente me hace es, querrn ellos tomar el control? +En cuanto a la primera -- saben, esto ha sido mucho un tema de Hollywood en muchas pelculas. Probablemente reconozcan a estos personajes aqu -- en cada uno de estos casos, los robots queran ms respeto. +Bueno pero, realmente necesitamos respetar a los robots? +Son slo mquinas, despus de todo. +Pero creo que, bueno, tenemos que aceptar que nosotros somos slo mquinas. +Despus de todo, eso es en verdad lo que la biologa molecular moderna dice sobre nosotros. +T no ves una descripcin de cmo, bueno, la Molcula A, bueno, llega y se une a esta otra molecula. +Y entonces se mueve hacia adelante, bueno, impulsada por varias cargas, y luego el alma entra y pellizca esas moleculas para que se conecten. +Es todo mecnico, somos mecanismos. +Si somos mquinas, entonces en principio al menos, deberamos ser capaces de contruir mquinas con otros materiales, que estn tan vivas como estamos nosotros. +Pero creo que para que podamos admitir esto, debemos renunciar a ser especiales, de alguna manera. +Y hemos tenido una retirada de esto de ser especiales bajo la descarga de artillera de la ciencia y de la tecnologa muchas veces en los ltimos cientos de aos, al menos. +Hace 500 aos tuvimos que abandonar la idea de que ramos el centro del universo cuando la Tierra comenz a girar alrededor del Sol; hace 150 aos, con Darwin, tuvimos que abandonar la idea de que ramos diferentes de los animales. +Y que, bueno, imaginar -- saben, siempre es difcil para nosotros. +No nos gusta abandonar nuestra especialidad, as que, saben, la idea de que los robots puedan en verdad tener emociones, o que los robots puedan ser criaturas vivientes -- creo que eso va a ser difcil de aceptar para nosotros. +Pero, lo aceptaremos de aqu a los prximos 50 aos, ms o menos. +Y la segunda pregunta es, querrn las mquinas tomar el control? +Y aqu el escenario es que nosotros creamos estas cosas, ellas crecen, las alimentamos, ellas aprenden mucho de nosotros, y ellas comienzar a pensar que nosotros somos muy aburridos, lentos. +Ellas quieren controlarnos. +Y para aquellos de ustedes que tienen adolescentes, saben lo que se siente. +Pero, Hollywood lo extiende hasta los robots. +Y la pregunta es, bueno, construir alguien, accidentalmente, un robot que quiera tomar el control? +Y es un poco este tipo solitario, en el patio trasero de su casa, y, bueno, "accidentalmente constru un 747." +No creo que eso vaya a pasar. +Y no creo que -- -- no creo que vamos deliberadamente a construir robots con los cuales nos sintamos incmodos. +Bueno, pues, no van a construir un robot sper malvado. +Antes que eso tendr que haber, bueno, un robot medianamente malvado, y antes que ese uno que casi no sea malvado. +Y no vamos a dejar que eso ocurra. +As que lo voy a dejar ah: los robots ya vienen, no tenemos mucho de qu preocuparnos, ser muy divertido, y espero que todos ustedes disfruten el viaje de los prximos 50 aos. +Estuve aqui hace dos aos hablando acerca de la relacin entre diseo y felicidad. +Al final, mostr una lista bajo ese ttulo. +Aprend muy pocas cosas adems de eso desde entonces -- pero he hecho muchos proyectos desde entonces +Estos son monos inflables en cada ciudad de Escocia "Todos siempre piensan que estan en lo correcto" +Estaban mezclados con los medios. +"Las drogas te divierten al empezar pero te arrastran al final" +Haciamos medios cambiantes +Esta es una proyeccin que detecta al observador mientras el observador pasa +No puedes evitar desgarrar esta telaraa +Todos estos son piezas de diseo grafico +Las hacemos para nuestros clientes +Son trabajos encargados +Nunca tendra el dinero para pagar por esta instalacin de arte o para pagar estos anuncios o la produccin de estos, as que siempre hay un cliente adherido a ellos +Estos son 65,000 ganchos de ropa en la calle a un lado de tiendas de ropa +"Preocuparse no resuelve nada" +"El dinero no me hace feliz" aparecieron primero como anuncios de doble pagina en una revista +El impresor perdio el archivo y no nos dijo +Cuando la revista - de hecho, cuando recibi mi suscripcin eran 12 hojas seguidas +deca, "El dinero s s me hace feliz" +un amigo en Austria estaba tan, se sintio tan triste por mi que convenci al dueo del Casino ms grande en Linz para que envolvieramos su edificio +Esta es la zona de peatones ms grande en Linz, +y solo dice "dinero", y si en la calle a un lado, dice "no me hace feliz." +Tuvimos un show en Nueva York, se acaba de terminar esta semana +Empaamos las ventanas permanentemente con vapor Cada hora venia un diseador diferente y escriba las lecciones que han aprendido en el vapor de la ventana +Todos participaron -- Milton Glaser Massimo Vignelli +Singapur estaba en la discucin. +Filmamos un pequeo spot all que se mostrar en las pantallas Jumbo en Singapur, +y claro, uno al que quiero mucho, debido a todos estos sentimientos algunos banales, otros ms profundos, todos originalmente salieron de mi diario. +Y s, frecuentemente voy a mi diario y reviso si quiero cambiar algo de la situacin +Si es... lo veo por un periodo largo de tiempo, y realmente hago algo al respecto. +Y el ltimo es un anuncio. +Este es nuestro techo en Nueva York, el techo del estudio. +Este es papel periodico y estnciles sobre el periodico. +Lo dejamos al sol. +Como saben, el papel periodico se pone amarillo con el sol. +Despus de una semana, quitamos los estnciles y las hojas, enviamos el papel periodico a Lisboa a un lugar soleado, as que un da el anuncio deca, "Quejarse es ridculo. Acta u olvida" +Tres das despues, se estaba desvaneciendo, una semana despues, ninguna queja en ningun lado +Muchisimas gracias +Esto es lo que quiero decir. La poltica , enfocndonos en el sistema poltico aqu interrogado, el cual es el sistema democratico. +La democracia, como un tipo de poltica, es una tecnologa para lograr el control y el empleo del poder. +Se puede desplegar el poder de multiples maneras. +Consideremos ahora la religin - en este caso el Islam, la cual es la religin que, en un sentido directo, se puede decir que se est precipitando en lo que vamos a mencionar. +Permtanme decir, entre parentesis, el por qu yo creo que este sea el caso ya que creo que es una declaracin potencialmente contoversial. +Lo expresara en la siguiente ecuacin: sin el ataque a las torres gemelas del 9/11, no habra guerra. +Al comienzo de la administracin Bush cuando el actual presidente Bush era candidato a la presidencia dijo con toda claridad que no estaba interesado en intervenir ampliamente en el mundo. +De hecho, la tendencia era la de desconectarse del resto del mundo. +Por esta razn omos sobre la falta de inters en el protocolo de Kyoto, por ejemplo. +Despus del 9/11 las cosas cambiaron. +Y el presidente decidi con sus asesores, emprender algn tipo de intervencin activa en el mundo que nos rodea. +Comenz con Afghanistan, y cuando Afghanistan ya andaba sobre ruedas y rpidamente, se tom una decisin por medio de la tecnologa de la democracia, nuevamente, observen, no una tecnologa perfecta, sino a travs de la tecnologa de la democracia que esta administracin iba a empujar en la direccin de otra guerra. Esta vez, guerra en Irak. +Y aadira que bin Laden y sus seguidores estn concientemente dedicados a la meta de crear un conflicto entre la democracia, o al menos la democracia capitalista, por un lado, y el mundo del Islam por el otro lado, tal como lo ven y definen. +Ahora, como es el Islam una tecnologa dentro de este aparato conceptual? +Bien, es una tecnologa, en primer lugar, para la salvacin en su sentido mas bsico. +Dentro de la esfera de personas que comparten esta visin y es un gran nmero de personas en el mundo musulmn que estn en desacuerdo con bin Laden en su accionar. pero que estn de acuerdo que el Islam es la respuesta. +El Islam representa una manera de comprometer al mundo por medio del cual uno puede lograr ciertas metas deseables. +Y las metas desde el punto de vista de los Musulmanes son, por principio, la paz, la justicia y la igualdad, pero en trminos que corresponden a las enseanzas tradicionales musulmanas. +Ahora, no quiero dejar una impresin errnea al identificarme con cualquiera de estas proposiciones- mas bien, con cualquiera de estos fenmenos, la democracia o el Islam, como tecnologas. +No quiero sugerir que sean una cosa simple a la que uno pueda sealar. +Y creo que tengo un buen modo de probar esto simplemente demostrandoles cul fue mi proceso de pensamiento cuando decid lo que iba a poner en la pared detrs de mi mientras hablara. +E inmediatamente me encontr con un problema conceptual- pues no se puede mostrar un retrato de la democracia. +se puede mostrar un lema, un smbolo, o un signo que represente a la democracia. +Se puede mostrar el Capitolio - y yo tuve el mismo problema cuando estaba diseando la cubierta de mi prximo libro, de hecho- que pondran Uds. en la cubierta para mostrar la democracia grficamente? +Y el mismo problema surge con respecto al Islam. +Se puede mostrar una mezquita, o mostrar a los devotos musulmanes, pero no hay una manera directa de mostrar grficamente al Islam. +Y la razn es que estos son un tipo de conceptos que no son susceptibles de uan representacin fcil. +Ahora, se desprende de lo anterior, que son profundamente debatibles. +Se deduce de eso que todas las personas del mundo que se consideran musulmanes pueden, en principio, estar de acuerdo con una amplia gama de interpretaciones diferentes sobre lo que el Islam es realmente, y lo mismo se puede aplicar a la democracia. +En otras palabras, a diferencia de la palabra esperanza, que podra buscarse en un diccionario y determinar su origen, y, quizs, llegar a algn tipo de analisis consensuado de su uso estos son esencialmente conceptos debatidos. +Son ideas sobre las cuales la gente entra en desacuerdo en el sentido mas profundo posible. +Y como consecuencia de este desacuerdo es difcil pero muy difcil para cualquiera decir, "Yo tengo la versin verdadera del Islam" +Uds. saben, que luego del 9/11, fuimos invitados al increible fenmeno de George W. Bush diciendo que "El Islam significa paz". +En fin, eso dice George W. Bush. +Otras personas diran que significa otra cosa +Algunas personas diran que el Islam significa sumisin +Otros diran que significa reconocimiento o aceptacin de la soberana de Dios. +Hay una amplia gama de difrentes cosas que puede significar el Islam. +Y ostensiblemente, lo mismo se aplica a la democracia. +Algunas personas dicen que la democracia consiste bsicamente en elecciones. +Otras personas dicen que eso no es suficiente, pues deben existir los derechos liberales bsicos: libre expresin, prensa libre, igualdad para los ciudadanos. +Estos son puntos debatibles, y es imposible responderlos simplemente diciendo, "Aj, mir en el sitio correcto, y encontr el significado de esos conceptos" +Ahora, si el Islam y la democracia estn en la actualidad en un momento de gran confrontacin, qu significa esto? +Bien, podramos colocarla diversos marcos de referencia interpretativos +Podriamos comenzar con aquel que yo us hace un par de das, que fue el miedo. +Y creo que es, de hecho, probablemente la primera respuesta apropiada. +Lo que les quiero sugerir a Uds., sin embargo, en los prximos minutos es que tambin hay una respuesta esperanzadora para esto. +La cual se deriva del reconocimiento de que el Islam y la democracia son tecnologas. +Y que por esta virtud de ser tecnologas, son manipulables. +Y son manipulables de maneras que pueden producir algunos resultados extremadamente positivos. +En que estoy pensando? +Y estos Musulmanes-- y son la gran mayora de Musulmanes, estn en profundo desacuerdo con el enfoque de bin Laden, profundamente en desacuerdo. +Y muchos de estos Musulmanes adems dicen que su desacuerdo con los EE.UU. es que tanto en el pasdo y todava en el presente, se haya alineado con los gobernantes autocrticos del mundo Musulmn para promover los intereses cortoplacistas de los americanos. +Ahora, durante la guerra Fra, que puede haber sido una posicin defendible a tomar por los EE.UU. +Esa es una pregunta acadmica. +Y quizs pueda haber sido de que haba una gran guerra entre el Este y el Oeste y que fue necesaria en el eje de la democracia contra el comunismo. +Y que fue necesaria de alguna manera para que los contendientes se contradijeran, y que como consecuencia uno debe hacer amigos donde pueda conseguirlos. +Pero ahora que ya se acab la Guerra Fra, hay casi un consenso universal en el mundo Musulmn- y estamos bastante cerca de uno aqu en los EE.UU., si Uds. hablan con la gente y les preguntan, que en principio, no hay ninguna razn para que la democracia y el Islam no puedan coexistir. +Ahora, Uds. pueden decir, que lo que hemos visto en la TV sobre el Islam Saudita nos convence que no pueden ser compatibles con lo que se considera el nucleo de la democracia, a saber, la eleccin poltica libre, la libertad bsica y la igualdad bsica. +Pero estoy aqu para decirles que las tecnologas son ms maleables que eso. +Y hay Musulmanes, muchos, que estn diciendo precisamente esto. +Y estn debatiendo con este argumento en cualquier parte en donde les permitan hacerlo. +Pero sus gobiernos, innecesario decirlo, se sienten amenazados por esto. +y generalmente intentan evitar que expongan dicho argumento. +As, por ejemplo, un grupo de jvenes activistas en Egipto intentan formar un partido conocido como el Partido Centrista, el cual defiende la compatibilidad entre el Islam y la democracia. +A ellos ni siquiera se les permiti fundar un partido. +De hecho fueron bloqueados para que formaran un partido bajo la reglamentacin poltica existente all. Por qu? +Porque les hubiera ido extraordinariamente bien. +En las elecciones mas recientes del mundo Musulmn- o sea las de Pakistn, Marruecos y las de Turqua- en cada caso, las personas que se presentaron al electorado como demcratas islmicos fueron, por mucho, los que consiguieron mas votos en cada localidad en donde se les permiti postularse libremente. +As que en Marruecos, por ejemplo, terminaron en tercer lugar en la carrera poltica pero solo les permitieron competir por la mitad de los lugares disponibles. +Si hubieran competido por un nmero mayor de curules, habran logrado mejores resultados. +Ahora lo que yo quiero sugerirles es que la razn para tener esperanzas en este caso es la de que estamos en el borde de una trasnformacin real en el mundo Musulmn. +Y que esa transformacin en la cual muchos creyentes Musulmanes - a quienes les importan muy, pero muy profundamente sus tradiciones, y quienes no desean comprometer estos valores-- creen, por medio de la maleabilidad de la tecnologa de la democracia y la maleabilidad y la capacidad sinttica de la tecnologa del Islam, que estas dos ideas pueden funcionar juntas. +Cmo se vera esto? +Qu significa decir que hay una democracia Islmica? +Bien, en primer lugar,no va a ser idntica a la democracia como la conocemos en EE.UU. +Eso puede ser positivo, a la luz de las crticas que escuchamos hoy, por ejemplo, en el contexto regulatorio de lo que produce la democracia. +Adems no se vera de la misma manera a cmo la gente en esta sala, o los Musulmanes all en el resto del mundo-- No quiero implicar que no haya Musulmanes aqu, probablemente los haya- conceptualizan el Islam. +Ser tambin transformador del Islam +Y como resultado de esta convergencia, de este intento sinttico para que estas dos ideas tengan sentido, hay una posibilidad real que, en vez del choque de la civilizacin Islmica- si existe tal cosa-- y la civilizacin democrtica- si existe tal cosa haya de hecho una compatibilidad cercana. +Ahora, comenc con la guerra porque es el elefante en el cuarto, y no podemos pretender que no vaya a haber guerra, si hablamos sobre estos temas. +Esta guerra tiene tremendos riesgos para el modelo que estoy describiendo porque es muy posible que como consecuencia de la guerra, muchos Musulmanes concluirn que los EE.UU. no son el tipo de lugar que quisieran emular con respecto a sus formas de gobierno poltico. +Por otro lado, hay una posibilidad adicional de que muchos Americanos, imbudos en la fiebre de la guerra, digan, sientan y piensen que el Islam es, de alguna manera, el enemigo - que el Islam debera ser interpretado como el enemigo. +Y si bien, por razones tcticas polticas, el presidente ha estado muy bien, pero muy bien al decir que el Islam no es el enemigo, sin embargo, hay un impulso natural cuando uno entra en la guerra para pensar que el otro lado es el enemigo. +Y uno adems tiene el impulso de generalizar, tanto como sea posible, al definir quien es el enemigo. +As los riesgos son enormes. +Por otro lado, las capacidades para lograr resultados positivos como consecuencia de una guerra no deberan tampoco subestimarse, an por, y yo dira especialmente por las personas que son profundamente escpticas en realcin a si se debera entrar a la guerra en primer lugar. +Aquellos que se oponen a la guerra deberan darse cuenta de que si sta ocurre, no puede ser la estrategia correcta, ya sea pragmticamente, o espiritualmente, o moralmente, decir despus de la guerra, "Bien, esperemos que se acabe, cuando eventualmente se tenga que acabar, ya que desde el principio estuvimos opuestos a la guerra". +Esa no es la manera como las circunstancias humanas operan. +Uno enfrenta las circunstancias que tienen al frente y va hacia adelante +Y es crucial, y lo es de manera prctica, activa, para las personas que se ocupan de estos temas para asegurarse que dentro de la tecnologa de la democracia, en este sistema, ellos ejercen sus preferencias, sus selecciones y sus voces para animar ese resultado. +Ese es un mensaje esperanzador que solo lo es si Uds. lo comprenden incurriendo en una seria obligacin para todos nosotros. +Y yo creo que somos capaces de asumir esa obligacin, pero solamente si ponemos nuestro mayor esfuerzo. +Y si lo hacemos, entonces yo no creo que la esperanza no estar desperdiciada. +Gracias. +Adems de proteger de la lluvia y de generar mas espacio til, la arquitectura no es nada ms que un generador de efectos especiales que deleita y perturba a los sentidos. +Nuestra obra es "transmedia". Viene en toda forma y tamao. +Es pequea y extensa. Esto es un cenicero, esto un vaso. +De la planificacin urbana y maestra hasta la de teatros y todo tipo de cosas. +Lo que toda obra tiene en comn es que desafa lo supuesto sobre el espacio de convenciones. +Y stas son convenciones cotidianas, convenciones tan obvias que nos ciega su familiaridad. +Y he armado un muestrario de obras que comparten cierto nihilismo productivo usado en el servicio para crear un determinado efecto especial. +Y eso puede ser algo como la nada, o algo prximo a la nada. +Est realizada mediante una forma de sustraccin, obstruccin o interferencia en un mundo en donde por naturaleza se camina sonmbulo. +sta es una imagen con la que ganamos un concurso para un pabelln de exposiciones en Expo Suiza 2002 sobre el lago Neuchatel, cerca de Ginebra. +Y desebamos usar el agua no slo como contexto sino como material primordial para la construccin. +Desebamos crear una arquitectura de atmsfera. +Por lo tanto, nada de paredes, nada de techo, sin ningun propsito -- apenas una masa de agua atomizada, una gran nube. +Y esta propuesta fue una reaccin a la sobresaturacin de tecnologas emergentes en recientes exposiciones nacionales y mundiales, que alimenta o ha ido alimentando, nuestro apetito insaciable por la estimulacin visual con un creciente virtuosismo digital. +La alta definicin, en nuestra opinin, se ha convertido en la nueva ortodoxia. +Y nos preguntamos podemos usar tecnologa, alta tecnologa, en -- para crear un pabelln que fuera indudablemente de baja definicin, y que tambin desafiara las convenciones de espacio y piel, y replanteara nuestra dependencia de la visin? +Entonces, es as como buscamos lograrlo. +Se bombea agua del lago, y se filtra y se expele como una fina bruma a travs de un conjunto de pulverizadores de alta presin, unos 35.000. Y hay una estacin meteorolgica sobre la estructura. +Lee las condiciones cambiantes de la temperatura, la humedad, la direccin y velocidad del viento, el punto de condensacin, y procesa estos datos en una computadora central que calibra el grado de la presin y la distribucin del agua en todas partes. +Y es un sistema receptivo que ha sido capacitado en un ambiente real. +Bien, est en construccin, y hay una estructura tensegrtica. +Tiene unos 300 pies de ancho, del tamao de una cancha de ftbol americano, y se asienta en slo cuatro columnas muy finas. +stas son las boquillas para bruma, la interfaz, bsicamente, el sistema va leyendo el clima, y generando como un clima semiartificial y real. +Asi que nos interesa mucho la creacin de climas atmosfricos. No s por qu. +Ahora, aqu vamos, a un lado, al exterior y despues, desde el interior del espacio pueden observar lo que fue la calidad del espacio. +A diferencia de entrar en cualquier espacio comn, entrar al Blur es como entrar en un medio habitable. +Carece de forma, funcin, profundidad, escala, masa, de propsito y dimensin. +Se eliminan todas las referencias, dejando nicamente un blanqueo ptico y ruido-blanco de boquillas pulsadoras. +As, ste es un pabelln de exposiciones donde no hay absolutamente nada que ver ni que hacer. +Y nos enorgullecemos -- es un antiespectculo espectacular en el que todas las convenciones de espectculo se voltean de cabeza. +Bien, el pblico se dispersa, se concentra y la tensin dramtica y el clmax se reemplazan con una especie de atencin atenuada que se mantiene gracias a una sensacin de aprensin causada por la bruma. +Y esto se parece mucho a la manera de como la novela victoriana uso la bruma. +As aqu el mundo se desenfoca, mientras se enfoca nuestra dependencia visual. +El pblico, saben, una vez desorientado puede, en efecto, subir hasta la cubierta del ngel y luego descender bajo aquellos bordes dentro de la barra de agua. +Bien, todas las aguas del mundo se sirven all, as que pensamos que, saben, despus de estar en el agua y moverse a travs del agua y respirar el agua, tambin podran beberse este edificio. +Y por lo tanto, es una clase de tema, pero va un poco ms all de eso, claro. +En verdad, deseabamos resaltar nuestra dependencia absoluta en este sentido maestro, y quizs compartir nuestra sensibilidad con nuestros dems sentidos. +Saben, cuando hicimos este proyecto era difcil venderlo, ya que los suizos decan "Bien por qu gastar, saben, 10 millones de dlares en generar un efecto que tenemos en natural abundancia y el cual detestamos?" +Y, saben, pensbamos -- bueno, intentamos convencerlos. +Y al final, saben, lo adaptaron como un cono nacional eso vino a representar la duda suiza, que nosotros -- saben, era en cierto modo como una mquina de interpretaciones en donde todo el mundo daba su propia interpretacin. +Como sea, es una estructura temporal que finalmente se desmantel, y por lo tanto, ahora es recuerdo de una aparicin, efectivamente, pero que contina viviendo de manera comestible. +Y ste es el honor ms grande que se le otorga a un arquitecto en Suiza -- poseer una barra de chocolate. +De cualquier modo, prosiguiendo. +Para los ochentas y noventas, fuimos principalmente conocidos por obras independientes, como por instalaciones, artistas, arquitectura, proyectos comisionados por museos y organizaciones sin fines de lucro. +Y realizamos muchos trabajos con medios, tambin muchos proyectos para teatro experimental. +En 2003, el Whitney mont una retrospectiva de nuestra obra que destacaba mucho obras de los ochentas y noventas. +Sin embargo, la propia obra se resista a la verdadera esencia de una retrospectiva, y esto apenas es algo de lo que se puso en muestra. +Esto fue un poco de turismo en los Estados Unidos. +sta es "Venta Persuasiva" para la calle 42, +esto fue algo realizado en la Fundacin Cartier. +"Amo/Esclavo" en MoMA, la serie del proyecto, una pieza llamada "Parsito". +As, haba mucho, mucho de este tipo de proyectos. +De cualquier modo, nos dieron todo el cuarto piso, y, saben, el problema de la retrospectiva era algo con lo que estbamos muy -- estbamos muy incmodos. +Es una clase de inventiva de los museos que supone brindar una clase de comprensin integral al pblico de un equipo de obra. +Y nuestro trabajo, en realidad, no encuadra para nada en solo un equipo. +Y uno de los temas recurrentes en l, por cierto, era una cierta hostilidad hacia el propio museo. A propsito de las convenciones del museo, como la pared, la pared blanca. +Entonces, lo que pueden ver aqu es bsicamente, un plano de las muchas instalaciones que pusimoa all. +Donde tuvimos que instalar, a propsito, paredes blancas para separar estas piezas, que no pertenecian juntas. +Pero dichas paredes blancas se volvieron una clase del 'blanco y el arma' simultneamente. +Usamos la pared para delimitar las 13 instalaciones del proyecto y producir una especie de barrera acstica y visual. +Y lo que ven es -- en efecto, la lnea roja punteada que muestra la trayectoria de este elemento teatral, que era una nueva pieza creada -- que creamos para la -- que era un taladro robtico, bsicamente, que recorra todo el camino, cruzaba el museo, iba alrededor de las paredes y produca muchos daos. +Entonces, el taladro estaba montado en este brazo robtico. +Trabajamos, por cierto, con Honeybee Robotics. ste es el cerebro. +Honeybee Robotics dise el Mars Driller, y fue realmente muy divertido trabajar con ellos. +No hacan su principal funcin, que era para el gobierno, sin embargo, nos estaban ayudando con esto. +En cualquier caso, la forma como opera es que un navegador inteligente, bsicamente, rastrea toda superficie de las paredes. +Bien, al desplegarlos, son unos 300 pies lineares. +Y genera puntos al azar con una matriz tridimensional. +Elige un punto, gua el taladro a ese punto, y perfora la pared, dejando un agujero de media pulgada antes de ir al prximo lugar. +Inicialmente, estos agujeros eran por si solos defectos, y como la exposicin continuaba las paredes se perforaban cada vez ms. +As que eventualmente los agujeros de ambos lados del muro se alineaban, abriendo vistas de una galera a otra. +Grupos de hoyos al azar abrieron secciones de la pared. +Y por lo tanto, esta fue una obra que se llevo a cabo en tres meses en la que la pared se volvi en una especie de elemento muy inestable. +Y adems, la separacin acstica se destruy. +Tambin la separacin visual. +Y tambin haba un constante chirrido de fondo, que era muy irritante. +Y ste es uno de los espacios a oscuras donde haba una obra en video que se volvi completamente intil. +As que, ms que asegurar un fondo neutro para las obras expuestas, ahora la pared gritaba por atencin. +Y esta molestia acstica y visual, bsicamente, expuso la inconformidad de la obra hacia este carcter que rodeaba la retrospectiva. +Fue grandioso cuando comenz a destrozarse todo el texto a comisin. +Yendo a un proyecto que culminamos hace como un ao. +Tenemos el ICA -- Institute of Contemporary Art -- en Boston, que est en los muelles. +Y no hay suficiente tiempo para realmente explicar el edificio, no obstante, simplemente dir que el edificio discurre entre este carcter exteriormente enfocado del lugar -- saben, existe una grandiosa zona riberea en Boston -- y este otro deseo antagnico de obtener un museo enfocado interiormente. +Entonces, lo caracterstico del edificio es que parece mirar -- queriendo decir que se es su objetivo primordial. Tanto en programa como en concepto arquitectnico. +l -- la edificacin incorpora al sitio, pero lo ofrece en muy pequeas dosis a medida que el museo es parte de la coreografa. +As que entras y, bsicamente, quedas estrujado por el teatro, por la barriga del teatro, dentro de este espacio muy comprimido donde la vista se bloquea. +Luego subes en este ascensor panormico cercano a la fachada de vidrio. +ste es -- este ascensor es como del tamao de un apartamento estudio de Nueva York. +Y luego, sta es una vista al subir, y luego puedes entrar al teatro, el cual, en realidad, puede negar la vista o abrirla y transformarla en teln de fondo. +Y muchos msicos eligen dejar las paredes de vidrio del teatro completamente abiertas. +Se niega la vista en las galeras donde nicamente recibimos luz natural, y luego se muestra nuevamente en la galera norte como una panormica. +La intencin original para este espacio, que, lamentablemente, jams se realiz, era utilizar vidrio lenticular que nicamente permitiera un tipo de vista perpendicular al exterior. +En este espacio muy estrecho que conecta a las galeras este y oeste la intencin, en realidad, no era alcanzar un clmax, sino procurar que la vista te acechara, as que ella se abrira a medida que caminabas de un punto a otro. +Esto se elimin porque la vista era demasiado buena, y el alcalde dijo, "No, slo lo deseamos abierto". +Aqu perdi el arquitecto. +Pero culminando -- y es donde esto engancha con el tema de mi breve charla, est la Mediateca, que se suspendi de la porcin en voladizo del edificio. +As que ste es un voladizo de 80 pies -- absolutamente esencial. +Bien, sobresale lo suficiente en el espacio, y de eso est sto, esta pequea rea llamada Mediateca. +La Mediateca tiene unas 16 estaciones donde el pblico puede entrar al servidor y apreciar obras digitalizadas o tambin, obras fuera de la web. +Y aqu es donde verdaderamente sentimos que hubo una gran convergencia de lo tecnolgico y lo natural en el proyecto. +Pero no existe informacin, es apenas -- es slo hipnosis. +Cambiando al Lincoln Center. +stos son los tipos que hicieron el proyecto inicial, hace 50 aos. +Ahora, estamos retomndolo, efectuando un trabajo que vara en escala desde pequeas reparaciones hasta importantes renovaciones y ampliaciones de las instalaciones. +Pero lo estamos haciendo con mucho menos testosterona. +sta es la magnitud del trabajo a culminar para 2010. +Y para los fines de esta charla, deseaba aislar slo una parte de un proyecto que es, a la vez, parte de un proyecto que toca en algo este tema de efectos especiales arquitectnicos, y que pasa a ser nuestra obsesin actual, y que juega un poco con eliminar o aadir distraccin. +Es el saln Alice Tully, que est metida debajo el Edificio Juilliard y desciende varios niveles bajo la calle. +Bien, sta es la entrada a la Sala Tully tal como sola ser, antes de la renovacin, que apenas iniciamos. +Y nos preguntamos por qu no podra ser ms exhibicionista, como la Met, u otros edificios del Lincoln Center? +Y una de las cosas que nos pidieron hacer era darle una identidad desde la calle, ampliar los vestbulos y hacerla visualmente accesible. +Y a esta edificacin que, precisamente, era hermtica por naturaleza, la desnudamos. +Bsicamente, le hicimos un striptease, un striptease arquitectnico, donde estamos enmarcando con esta especie de marquesina, el rea por debajo de los tres niveles de la ampliacin al Juilliard, cerca de 45.000 pies cuadrados, cortndolo con el ngulo de Broadway, y luego mostrando, usando esta marquesina para enmarcar la Sala Tully. +Vista del antes y el despus. Esperen un minuto, ahora est en este estado, tenemos un largo camino que recorrer. +Pero lo que deseaba hacer era tomar un par de segundos que he dejado para slo conversar sobre la propia sala, que, en cierto modo, es donde realmente hacemos un enorme volumen de trabajo. +Bueno, la sala es un saln de usos mltiples. +Los clientes nos han pedido generar una gran sala para msica de cmara. +Ahora, eso es muy difcil de hacer en una sala de 1.100 asientos. +La cmara y la nocin de cmara tienen que ver con salones e interpretaciones a pequea escala. Nos solicitaron brindar intimidad. +Cmo ofrece la intimidad en un auditorio? +Para nosotros, la intimidad significa muchas cosas diferentes. +Significa intimidad acstica e intimidad visual. +Un aspecto es que el metro circula y resuens justo bajo la sala. +Otro aspecto que podra ser corregido es la forma de la sala. +Es como una urna, bsicamente, dirige todo el sonido, un efecto similar a "canaleta de boliche", bajo las naves laterales. +Las paredes estn hechas con una superficie absorbente, mitad absorbente, mitad reflectante, lo que no es muy bueno para conciertos. +sta es la Sala Avery Fisher, pero la nocin de trastos, de basura visual era muy, muy importante para nosotros, a fin de deshacernos del ruido visual. +Debido a que no podamos eliminar ningn asiento, la arquitectura estaba restringida a 18 pulgadas. +As que es una arquitectura muy, muy delgada. +Primero hicimos una suerte de caja parcial y una separacin a sta, para eliminar la distraccin por ruido del metro. +Luego forramos toda la sala -- casi como este control de mandos Olivetti -- con un material, un material de madera que bsicamente cubre todas las superficies: pared, techo, piso, escenario, escaleras, todo, cajas. +Pero est diseado acsticamente para concentrar el sonido en la cmara y detrs del escenario. Y aqu est una placa acstica. +Alzando la mirada hacia sala. Apenas una seccin de la escena. +Est revestido como todo, incorpora -- cada una de las cosas que pudieran imaginar se oculta bajo esta piel de alto desempeo. +Pero se aadi otra caracterstica ms. +As que ahora que hemos desvestido a la sala de toda distraccin visual, de todo lo que preserva esta intimidad que se presume conecta a la cmara, a la audiencia, con los interpretes, aadimos un pequeo detalle, una pieza de exceso arquitectnico, un efecto especial: iluminacin. +Creemos firmemente en que la teatralidad de una sala de conciertos est tanto en el espacio del entreacto y de llegada como cuando se inicia el concierto. +Por lo tanto, lo que desebamos hacer era producir estos -- este efecto, este efecto lumnico, que nos oblig a aplicar bioingeniera en las paredes de madera. +Y sta es una maqueta que se encuentra en Salt Lake City, que les da una idea de como va a lucir a gran escala. +Y ste es un individuo de Salt Lake City, as es como lucen por all. +Y sta es la Tully, ahora en construccin. +No tengo un final que mencionar, excepto que me exced en un par de minutos. +Muchsimas gracias. +Yo era un estudiante en los aos 60, una poca de agitacin social y cuestionamiento, y a nivel personal, del despertar de un sentido de idealismo. +La guerra en Vietnam ruga y el movimiento por los Derechos Civiles estaba en marcha y las imgenes tuvieron un fuerte impacto en m. +Nuestros lderes polticos y militares nos decan una cosa y los fotgrafos nos decan otra. +Yo le cre a los fotgrafos y tambin as lo hicieron millones de otros estadounidenses. +Sus imgenes alimentaron el rechazo a la guerra y al racismo. +Ellos no slo captaron la historia, sino que ayudaron a cambiar el curso de la historia. +Sus imgenes se volvieron parte de nuestra consciencia colectiva y, al evolucionar esta consciencia en un sentido comn de conciencia, el cambio se volvi no slo posible, sino inevitable. +[la fotografa] Le pone un rostro humano a los problemas que de lejos pueden parecer abstractos o ideolgicos o monumentales en su impacto global. +Lo que sucede en el campo, lejos de las esferas de poder, le sucede a ciudadanos comunes, uno por uno. +Y entend que la fotografa documental tiene la capacidad de interpretar los hechos desde su punto de vista. +Le da una voz a aquellos que de otra manera no tienen voz. +Mi deseo TED. Hay una historia de vital importancia que necesita ser contada y deseo que TED me ayude a obtener acceso a ella y que despus me ayude a idear formas innovadoras e interesantes para utilizar la fotografa periodstica en la era digital. +Muchas gracias. +Creci en Irlanda del norte, justo bien, bien en la punta, donde el clima es absolutamente fro. +Ese soy yo corriendo en el jardin trasero en pleno verano. +No poda elegir una carrera. +En Irlanda la eleccin obvia es el milicia, pero para ser honestos, la verdad es que apesta. +mi madre queria que fuera dentista +pero el problema era que la gente segua haciendo explotar todo +as que, en realidad fui a la escuela en Belfast, que era donde ocurra toda la accin +Y esta era una imagen comn +La escuela a la que fu era bastante aburrida +Nos obligaban a aprender cosas como latn. +Los maestros no se divertian mucho, los deportes eran muy sucios o muy dolorosos, +asi que inteligentemente eleg remo, en el cual me volv muy bueno +y de hecho remaba hasta mi colegio aqui hasta que un da por el destino, me volti justo en frente de toda la escuela. +Ese era el poste de llegada, justo ah. +Eso fue extremadamente vergonzoso +Pero nuestra escuela en ese momento obtuvo una concesin del gobierno consiguieron una computadora increible, la mquina de investigacin 3DZ. y dejaron los manuales de programacin tirados por ah +entonces estudiantes como yo sin nada que hacer aprenderamos como programarla. +Tambien por aquel momento, en los hogares, esta era la computadora que la gente compraba +se llamaba Sinclair ZX80, una computadora de 1K y uno compraba los programas en cassette. +Ahora voy a parar por un segundo porque escuch que hay un prerequisito para hablar aqu en TED hay que mostrar una foto propia de los viejos tiempos con mucho pelo +as que traje una foto con mucho pelo +quera sacarme eso de encima +As que despus de la ZX80, vino la muy ingeniosamente llamada... Sinclair ZX81 +Y... ven la foto ah abajo? +Hay una foto de un tipo haciendo la tarea con su hijo. +Creyeron que la haban construido para eso. +La realidad es que tomamos el manual de programacin y comenzamos a hacer juegos para ella +Programbamos en BASIC, el cual es un lenguage bastante horrible para juegos, asi que terminamos aprendiendo Assembler asi podamos tomar realmente el control del hardware. +ste es el tipo que lo invent, Sir Clive Sinclair, y esta mostrando su mquina. +Tuvieron el mismo aparato en Estados Unidos, fue llamado el Timex Sinclair1000. +Para jugar en aquellos dias, tenias que tener imaginacin para creer que en realidad estabas jugando "La guerra de las galaxias" +los grficos eran simplemente desastrosos. +Tenias que tener aun mas imaginacin para jugar este juego "Jinete de la Muerte". +Pero, claro los cientficos no pudieron consigo mismos. +Comenzaron a crear sus propios video juegos. +Aqu est uno de mis favoritos, donde hay que criar conejos, asi que los machos eligen a la afortunada conejita +Alrededor de este momento pasamos de 1K a 16K lo cual fue un gran salto +y si se estan preguntando cuanto es 16K este logo de EBAY pesa 16K +y en esa cantidad de memoria, alguien program un simulador de vuelo completo +y as se vea. +Pas aos jugando a este simulador de vuelo y honestamente creia que podia volar aviones cuando lo termin. +Aqu esta Clive Sinclair ahora en el lanzamiento de su computadora a color +Es reconocido como el padre de los videojuegos en Europa +Es multimillonario, y creo que es por eso que est sonriendo en esta foto. +Asi que pas los siguentes 20 aos o por ah haciendo un monton de juegos distintos. +Algunos de los destacados fueron "The Terminator" "Aladdin", "Teenage Mutant Hero Turtles". +Como yo era del Reino Unido pensaron que la palabra ninja era demasiado agresiva para nios as que decidieron cambiarlo a hroe en la versin en ingles. +Personalmente prefiero la version en espaol que era las "Tortugas Ninja". +Era mucho mejor. +Entonces el ltimo juego que hice buscaba hacer ingresar la industria del video juego a Hollywood para hacer que realmente funcione en confunto. en lugar de otorgarse licencias mutuamente, realmente trabajar. +Chris me pidi que me trajera algunas estadsticas as que eso hice. +La industria del video juego en 2005 se volvi un negocio de 29 billones de dolares. +Crece cada ao. +El ltimo ao fue el mas grande. +Para el 2008, vamos a patear el trasero de la industria musical. +Para 2010, vamos a llegar a los 42 billones de dolares. +43% de los jugadores son mujeres. +Hay muchas ms jugadores de lo que la gente supone +La edad promedio de los jugadores? +Bueno, obviamente es para chicos, no? +bueno, parece ser que no, porque es de 30 aos +y notablemente, la gente que ms compra tiene 37 aos. +As que 37 aos es nuestra audiencia target. +Todos los videos juegos son violentos +claro que a los peridicos adoran recalcar esto +pero el 83% de los juegos no tienen ningun contenido adulto, asi que simplemente no es cierto. +Estadsticas de juego online. +Traje algo de "World of Warcraft", hay 5,5 millones de jugadores +genera cerca de 80 millones por mes en suscripciones +sale 50 dlares tan slo instalarlo en tu computadora dndole al editor otros 275 millones. +Hacer el juego cuesta unos 80 millones as que basicamente se paga a si mismo en alrededor de un mes +Un jugador en el juego llamado "Project Entropia" compro su propia isla por 26.500 dolares +deben recordar que no es una isla real +realmente no compro nada, solo algunos datos +pero bajo muy buenas condiciones. +La compra incluyo derechos de caza y minado posesin de toda la tierra en la isla y un castillo sin muebles incluidos +El mercado actualmente se estima sobre los 800 millones de dolares anuales +y lo que es interesante acerca de ello es que el mercado fue creado por los mismos jugadores +encontraron formas ingeniosas de intercambiar objetos y vender las cuentas entre ellos y as pueden hacer dinero mientras juegan. +Entr en eBay hace unos das solo para ver que pasaba, escrib World of Warcraft, obtuve 6.000 resultados +ste es el que mas me gust un Brujo nivel 60 con montones de picos por 174.000 dolares. +Parece que el tipo obviamente le cost un poco hacerlo. +Acerca de la popularidad de los juegos, qu creen que esta haciendo esa gente? +Resulta que estn en Hollywood Bowl en Los Angeles escuchando a la filarmnica de Los Angeles tocar msica de video juegos. +As se ve el show. +Uno esperara que fuera mediocre, pero no lo es. +Es un concierto muy, muy epico y muy hermoso +y la gente que lo prensencio lo ador completamente. +Qu piensan que est haciendo esta gente? +Llevan sus computadoras asi pueden jugar unos contra otros +y esto pasa en cada ciudad del mundo. +Tambin pasa en sus ciudades probablemente slo no se dan cuenta. +Cris me dijo que aqu vieron un video de la evolucin hace unos aos de cmo los grficos de los video juegos fueron mejorando. +Quise actualizar ese video y darles una nueva visin del mismo +pero lo que quiero que hagan es que intenten entenderlo. +Estamos en sta curva y los grficos estan mejorando tanto que es absurdo +y les voy a mostrar hasta quiza el 2007 +pero quiero que intenten pensar como los juegos se podrian llegar a ver de aqu a 10 aos. +As que va a comenzar ese video. +Video: A lo largo de la historia humana, la gente tuvo juegos +la inteligencia e intelecto de un hombre ha evolucionado al igual que los juegos que juega. +David Perry: Lo que quiero, otra vez, es que piensen, no miren estos grficos y piensen que as es como son las cosas. +Piensen que ah es donde estamos ahora y la curva en la que estamos significa que va a continuar mejorndose. +ste es un ejemplo del tipo de grficos que tenes que ser capaz de dibujar si hoy quieres un trabajo en la industria del video juego +tienes que ser un artista increble +y una vez que obtengamos los suficiente de esos tipos, querremos.. ms artistas de fantasas que puedan crear lugares en lo que nunca hemos estado, o personajes que simplemente nunca hayamos visto +As que el tema obvio del que les hablara hoy es grficos y audio +pero si fueras a una conferencia de desarrolladores de juegos de lo unico que hablaran es de emociones, propsito significancia, entedimiento y sentimiento. +Escucharan charlas del tipo, puede un video juego hacerte llorar? +Estos son los temas que realmente nos interesan. +Me cruc con un estudiante que es excelente expresndose, y ste estudiante estuvo de acuerdo que no mostrara su video a nadie hasta que lo hayan visto aqu en TED. +As que me gustara reproducir este video. +As que esta es la opinin de un estudiante sobre cul es su experiencia con los juegos. +Video: Yo, como muchos de ustedes, vivo en algun punto entre la realidad y los video juegos. +Alguna parte de m, una persona real que vive y respira, se volvi programada, electronica y virtual. +El lmite de mi cerebro que divide la realidad de la fantasa finalmente comenz a desmoronarse. +Soy un adicto a los videos juegos y esta es mi historia. +En el ao en que nac tambien se desarrollaba el Nintendo Entertainment System. +Jugaba en el patio trasero, aprendi a leer, y hasta coma algunos vegetales. +La mayora de mi niez la pase jugando con Legos. +Como era el caso para la mayora de mi generacin pasaba mucho tiempo en frente de la TV +Mr Rogers, Walt Disney, Nick Junior, y aproximadamente medio millon de comerciales undudablemente dejaron su marca en m. +Cuando mis padres compraron el primer Nintendo a mi hermana y a m, cualquiera sea el ingrediente adictivo que este entretenimiento electronico interactivo posea, rapidamente tom control de mi +En algun punto algo cambi. +Con la combinacin de historias simples, interactivas y la calidez de la TV, mi Nintendo de 16-bit se volvi algo ms que slo un escape. +Se volvi una existencia alterna. Mi realidad virtual. +Soy un adicto a los video juegos, y no es por una cierta cantidad de horas que haya jugado o noches que pas sin dormir para pasar de nivel. +Es porque he tenido experiencias que me marcaron en el espacio virtual, y los video juegos habn comenzado a erosionar mi propio entendimiento de qu es real y qu no. +Soy adicto, porque aunque s que estoy perdiendo mi contacto con la realidad aun anso mas. +Desde edad temprana aprend a invertir emocionalmente en lo que la pantalla me revelaba. +Hoy, luego de 20 aos de ver TV pensada para volverme sentimental, incluso un comercial decente de seguros puede sacar lagrmas de mis ojos. +Soy slo uno de una generacin que esta creciendo. +Una generacin que puede experimenter mucho mas significado a travs de un video juego que de lo que lo harn a travs del mundo real. +Los videos juegos se estan acercando a un salto evolucionario, un punto donde los mundos en los juegos se veran y sentirn igual de real que las pelculas que vemos en los cines, o las noticias que vemos en la TV. +Mientras mi sentido de libre albedro en estos mundos virtuales pueda ser limitado, lo que aprendo es aplicable a mi vida real. +Juega los suficientes video juegos y eventualmente creers que puedes andar en snowboard, pilotear un avin, manejar un dragster, o matar a un hombre. +Yo s que puedo. +A diferencia de cualquier cultura pop anterior, los videos juegos reamente nos permiten ser parte de la mquina. +Nos permiten sublimar en la cultura de lo interactivo, descargada, transmitida, realidad en HD. +Estamos interactuando con nuestro entretenimiento. +Llegu al punto de esperar este nivel de interaccin. +Sin ella, los problemas a los que se enfrenta en el mundo real, pobreza, guerra, enfermedad y genocidio, carecen del peso que merecen. +Su importancia se disuelve en el drama sensacionalizado. de la TV en hora estelar. +Pero la belleza de los videos juegos hoy no depende de los graficos realistas los controladores que vibran, o el sonido surround virtual. +Depende en que estos juegos estn empezando a volverme emocional. +Luch en guerras, tem por mi propia superviviencia, v morir a mis camaradas en playas y bosques que se vean mas reales que cualquier libro o cualquier noticia. +La gente que crea estos juegos es inteligente, +saben que me hace sentir asustado, excitado, con pnico, orgulloso o triste +y usan estas emociones para dimensionar los mundos que crean. +Un video juego bien diseado entrelazar indistinguiblemente al usuario en la fbrica de la experiencia virtual. +A medida que uno gana experiencia la conciencia del control fsico se va desvaneciendo. +Se lo que quiero y lo que hago. +No hay botones ni gatillos que presionar, solo el juego y yo. +Mi destino y el destino del mundo alrededor descansa en mis manos. +Se lo que los juegos violentos hacen preocupar a mi madre +Lo que me conflicta a m no es que la violencia en los juegos se este volviendo ms y ms como la violencia real, sino que la violencia de la vida real se este volviendo ms y ms como a un video juego +Estos son todos problemas fuera de m. +Yo, sin embargo, tengo un problema muy cercano a mi hogar. +Algo le pas a mi cerebro. +Quizs haya una sola parte de nuestro cerebro que guarda todos nuestros instintos viscerales, las cosas que sabemos hacer incluso antes de pensarlas. +Mientras que alguno de estos instintos puedan ser innatos, la mayoria se aprenden, y todos ellos estan cableados en nuestros cerebros. +Estos instintos son esenciales para sobrevivir en el mundo real y el virtual. +Recin en aos recientes la tecnologa detras de los juegos permiti una verdadera superposicin al estimulo. +Como jugadores, ahora estamos viviendo bajo las mismas leyes fsicas en las mismas ciudades y haciendo las mismas cosas que alguna vez hicimos en la vida real, solo que ahora virtualmente. +Consideren esto... mi auto en la vida real lo us cerca de 25.000 millas. +En todos mis juegos de autos, he manejado un total de 31.459 millas +En algn punto, he aprendido a manejar de los juegos. +Las guias sensoriales son muy similares +es una sensacin extraa cuando pasaste ms tiempo haciendo algo en la TV que en la vida real. +Cuando voy manejando por una ruta al atardecer todo lo que pienso es, esto es casi tan hermoso como mis juegos +porque mis mundos virtuales son perfectos. +Ms hermosos y ricos que el mundo que nos rodea. +No estoy seguro de las implicancias de mi experiencia, pero el potencial de usar estimulos realistas en juegos repetidamente en un vasto numero de leales participantes me aterra. +Hoy pienso que el Gran Hermano trendra mucho mas xito lavando el cerebro a las masas con video juegos que tan solo con TVs. +Los videos juegos son divertidos, atractivos y dejan tu cerebro completamente vulnerable a ser reprogramado. +Quiz el lavado de cerebro no sea siempre malo. +Imaginen un juego que nos ensee a respetarnos mutuamente o que nos ayude a entender los problemas que todos enfrentamos en el mundo real. +Hay un potencial a hacer el bien, tambin. +Es crtico que mientras estos mundos virtuales continuen reflejando el mundo en que vivimos, los desarrolladores de juegos se den cuenta que tienen responsabilidades enormes ante ellos. +No estoy seguro que hay en el futuro de los video juegos para nuestra civilizacin. +Pero mientras las experiencias reales y virtuales cada vez se superpongan ms hay un potencial cada vez ms grande que otras personas se sientan de la misma manera que yo. +Lo que me d cuenta hace poco es que mas all de los grficos, sonidos, jugabilidad y emocin es el poder de analizar la realidad que es tan fascinante y adictiva a mi entender. +Se que estoy perdiendo mi cordura. +Parte de m est esperando para dejarse llevar +aunque se que sin importar cuan fascinante puedan ser los video juegos o cuan chato el mundo real nos parezca s que debemos estar alertas de que nos estan enseando y que sensaciones nos dejan cuando finalmente nos desenchufamos +Dave Perry: Wow +DP: Encuentro ese video muy, muy provocativo y es por eso que quise traerlo para que lo vean +y lo que es interesante acerca de l es la eleccin obvia de que hablara acerca de grficos y audio. +Pero como escucharon, Michael habl sobre aquellos otros elementos tambien. +Los videos juegos dan un montn de otras cosas tambin y es por eso que la gente se vuelve tan adicta. +Lo ms importante es la diversin. +El nombre de la cancin es "La magia que vendra". +De quin vendr? +Vendra de los mejores directores de mundo. Pensamos que sera probable que pase? +No lo creo. +Creo que vendr de los chicos que ahora estn creciendo que no estan estancados con todas las cosas que recordamos del pasado. +Lo harn a su manera, usando las herramientas que hemos creado +Los mismos estudiantes o gente altamente creativa, escritores y gente as. +En lo que concierne a las universidades, hay 350 alrededor del mundo dando clases de video juegos. +Eso quiere decir que hay literalmente miles de ideas nuevas. +Algunas de las ideas son realmente malas y algunas son geniales. +No hay nada peor que tener que escuchar a alguien tratando de colocarte una idea realmente mala para un juego +Chris Anderson: Te vas, te vas, eso es todo. +Se le acabo el tiempo +DP: tengo un poquitito ms si me perdonan. +CA: Adelante, pero me voy a quedar aqu. +Esta es una buena toma, porque son estudiantes volviendo a la escuela despues de clase. +La escuela esta cerrada, volveran a la medianoche porque quieren promocionar sus ideas para video juegos +yo me siento enfrente de la clase y ellos realmente estan contando sus ideas +Es dificil hacer que los estudiantes vuelvan a clase pero es posible +Esta es mi hija, su nombre es Emma, tiene 17 meses +y he estado preguntandome, qu es lo que Emma experimentar en el mundo del video juego? +y como he demostrado tenemos la audiencia +ella nunca conocer un mundo donde no puedes tener a millones de personas para jugar con presionar un botn +Ya saben, tenemos la tecnologa. +Ella nunca conocera un mundo donde los grficos no sean fascinantes e inmersivos +y como demostr el video del estudiante, podemos impactar y conmover. +Ella nunca conocer un mundo donde los videos juegos no sean increiblemente emocionales y que probablemente la hagan llorar. +Solo espero que le gusten los video juegos. +Un pensamiento para cerrar. +Los juegos en la superficie parecen simple entretenimiento pero para aquellos que gustan de mirar mas profundamente el nuevo paradigma de los video juegos puede abrir nuevas fronteras a las mentes creativas que gustan de pensar en grande +Qu lugar mejor que TED para desafiar esas mentes? +Gracias. +Chris Anderson: David Perry. Eso fue impresionante +Quiero llevarlos en el tiempo a mi ciudad natal y a una foto de mi ciudad natal en la semana en que sali "Emergence". +Y es una foto que hemos visto varias veces. +Bsicamente, "Emergence" se public el 11-S. +Vivo ah en el West Village, as que afortunadamente el humo iba hacia el oeste, lejos de nosotros. +Tenamos un beb de dos das y medio en la casa que era nuestra -- no se la habamos quitado a nadie. +Porque gran parte de ese libro era una celebracin del poder y el potencial creativo de la densidad, de la gran densidad urbana, de conectar gente y reunirla en un solo lugar, y de ponerlos juntos, lado a lado, y hacer que compartan ideas y que compartan un espacio fsico. +Y me pareci al mirar lo que pas -- esa torre en llamas y luego cayendo -- aquellas torres en llamas y cayendo -- que de hecho, una de las lecciones aqu era que la densidad mata. +Y que de todas las tecnologas explotadas para producir esa carnicera, probablemente el grupo de tecnologas que se cobr ms vidas fue el que permiti que 50.000 personas viviesen en dos edificios de 110 pisos de altura. +De no haber estado atestadas -- comparen la prdida de vidas del Pentgono con las de las Torres Gemelas, y vern eso de manera muy contundente. +Y entonces empec a pensar, bien, ya saben, densidad, densidad no estoy seguro de si fue la convocatoria correcta. +Y estuve rumiando esto durante un par de das. +Y entonces ms o menos dos das despus el viento comenz a cambiar un poquito, Y se poda sentir que el aire no era saludable. +Y aunque ya no quedaban autos en el West Village donde vivamos, mi esposa me mand a comprar un, saben, gran filtro de aire en Bed Bath and Beyond, que estaba a unas 20 cuadras al norte. +Y entonces sal de casa. +Y, obviamente, soy una persona fsicamente muy fuerte, como pueden ver, de manera que no me preocupaba acarrear esa cosa 20 cuadras. +Y me fui caminando, y algo realmente milagroso me sucedi mientras caminaba hacia el norte a comprar el filtro de aire, que era que las calles estaban completamente vivas, con gente. +Era un increble -- era, saben, un da maravilloso, como lo fue durante la semana siguiente, y el West Village nunca pareci tan animado. +Anduve por la calle Hudson, por donde Jane Jacobs haba vivido y escrito su gran libro que tanto influenci lo que yo estaba escribiendo en "Emergence", pas por la taberna White Horse, ese estupendo bar antiguo donde Dylan Thomas bebi hasta morir, y el lugar de juegos de Bleeker Street estaba lleno de nios. +Y toda la gente que viva en el barrio, que tena restaurantes y bares all, estaban todos all afuera todo estaba abierto. +La gente estaba en la calle. +No haba autos por lo que, en cierta forma, pareca an mejor. +Fue un da urbano maravilloso, y lo increble de esto era que la ciudad estaba funcionando. +La ciudad estaba ah. +Todo lo que hace exitosa a una gran ciudad y todo lo que hace estimulante a una gran ciudad -- estaba a la vista all en esas calles. +Y pens, bien, esta es el poder de una ciudad. +Quiero decir, el poder de la ciudad -- hablamos de ciudades como centralizaciones en el espacio, pero lo que las hace tan fuertes la mayora de las veces es que estn funcionalmente descentralizadas. +No tienen una rama ejecutiva central que uno pueda quitar y causar una falla en el conjunto. +Y si la tuviesen probablemente estara ah mismo, en el Ground Zero. +Quiero decir, el bunker de emergencia estaba justo ah, fue destruido por los ataques, y obviamente caus daos al edificio y a las vidas. +Pero no obstante, a slo 20 cuadras al norte, dos das despus, la ciudad nunca haba estado tan viva. +De haber podido entrar en las mentes de la gente, bien, habramos visto mucho trauma, habramos visto mucha congoja, habramos visto muchas cosas de las que llevara mucho tiempo recuperarse. +Pero el sistema mismo de la ciudad estaba rebosante de salud. +Al ver esto me conmov. +Entonces quera hablarles un poco de las razones por la que eso funciona tan bien y cmo alguna de estas razones medio que mapean la direccin en la que se dirige la Web en este momento. +La pregunta que me encontr haciendole a la gente cuando hablaba sobre el libro ms tarde era, despus de hablar del comportamiento emergente, despus de hablar de inteligencia colectiva, la mejor manera de hacer que la gente piense en eso es preguntar: quin contruye un barrio? +Quin decide que el Soho tenga esta personalidad y el Barrio Latino tenga esta otra? +Bien, existen algunas decisiones ejecutivas, pero bsicamente la respuesta es: todos y nadie. +Todos contribuyen un poquito. +Ninguna persona es, en verdad, el actor definitivo detrs de la personalidad de un barrio. +Y lo mismo para la pregunta: Quin mantuvo vivas las calles despus del 11-S en mi barrio? +Bueno, fue la ciudad en su conjunto. +Todo el sistema trabajando en eso, y cada uno contribuyendo con una pequea parte. +Y esto es cada vez ms lo que estamos comenzando a ver en la Web de muchas e interesantes maneras. Muchas de las cuales no figuraban, ms que de manera experimental, en el momento en que yo estaba escribiendo "Emergence" y despus en su lanzamiento. +De modo que ha sido un tiempo muy optimista, pienso, y quiero hablar de algunas de esas cosas. +Pienso que efectivamente hay una nueva clase de modelo de interactividad que est comenzando a emerger online en este momento. +Y el modelo antiguo se vea as -- +este no es, aunque lo parezca, el futuro Rey de Inglaterra. +Es un tipo, es la home de GeoCities de un tipo que encontr online y que est interesado en, si miramos ms abajo: ftbol y Jess en Garth Brooks y Clint Beckham, mi ciudad natal -- esos son sus links. +Pero no dice nada este modelo de interactividad que era tan excitante y captura lo real, el tipo de web Zeitgeist de 1995 -- que "Haga clic aqu para ver una foto de mi perro". +Eso es -- saben, no hay frase que evoque mejor ese perodo que eso, pienso, que es tener de repente el poder de poner una imagen de tu perro y hacer un vnculo a ella y que alguien lea la pgina y tenga el poder de hacer clic o no en ese link. +Pero todava es una clase de relacin uno a uno. +Hay una persona que pone un link y hay otra persona del otro lado que intenta decidir si hace clic o no. +El nuevo modelo es mucho ms de este tipo, y ya hemos visto un par de referencias a esto. +Esto es lo que pasa cuando uno busca "Steven Johnson" en Google. +Hace unos dos meses tuve un gran avance, uno de mis ms grandes, saben, logros brillantes, que es que mi sitio finalmente est en el top de los resultados de bsqueda para "Steven Johnson". +Hay un fsico terico en el MIT llamado Steven Johnson que baj dos lugares, me alegra decirlo. +Y, saben, quiero decir: voy a mirar a un par de cosas por el estilo, pero Google es obviamente la tecnologa ms grande jams inventada para mirarse al ombligo. +Lo que pasa es que hay tanta otra gente en tu ombligo cuando miras. +Entonces, lo que sucede es una toma una decisin colectiva. +Esta pgina es, en efecto, de la autora colectiva de la web, y Google simplemente nos ayuda a poner la autora en una especie de lugar coherente. +Ahora, ellos son ms innovadores -- bien, Google es bastante innovador -- pero hay algunos nuevos giros en el rea. +Est este sitio nuevo, increblemente interesante -- Technorati -- lleno de widgets, elementos que expanden funcionalidad. +Y estos estn mirando el mundo de los blogs y la blogsfera. +Bsicamente analiz todos los weblogs que monitorea. +Y hace un seguimiento de la cantidad de otros weblogs vinculados a los primeros, y de este modo obtiene una especie de autoridad -- un weblog apuntado por muchos links est ms autorizado que un blog que tiene menos link apuntando a l. +Y as, en cualquier momento, en cualquier pgina de la Web, ciertamente, uno pude preguntarse qu piensa la comunidad de la blogsfera de esta pgina? +Y uno puede obtener una lista. +Esto es lo que ellos opinan de mi sitio est ranqueada por autoridad de blog. +Tambin se puede ranquear por los ltimos posts. +Entonces cuando yo hablaba en "Emergence" hablaba de las limitaciones de la arquitectura unidireccional de los vnculos en la que bsicamente uno puede hacer vnculo hacia cualquier lugar pero los destinatarios no necesariamente sabrn que uno los est apuntando. +Y esa era una de las razones por las cuales la web no era tan emegente como podra ser porque uno necesitaba vnculos bidireccionales, esa clase de mecanismo de feedback para poder hacer cosas interesantes. +Bien, algo como Technorati provee eso. +Ahora lo que es interesante aqu es que sta es una cita de Dave Weinberger, donde l habla de que todo tiene un propsito en la Web -- no hay nada artificial. +l tiene una frase que dice, saben, si uno pone un link all, si uno ve un link, alguien decidi ponerlo ah. +Y l dice: el link a una pgina no creci en otra pgina como "un hongo". +Y, de hecho, pienso que esto ya no es del todo verdad. +Podra poner un feed de todos esos links generados por Technorati a la derecha de mi pgina, y ellos cambiaran a medida que cambie el conjunto de la ecologa de la web. +Esa pequea lista cambiara. +Yo no tendra el control directo de la lista. +De modo que eso es, en cierta forma, un hongo de datos que, en cierto sentido, envuelto en esa pgina, en vez de ser un link que coloqu all deliberadamente. +Ahora, lo que tenemos aqu es basicamente un cerebro global con el se que pueden hacer muchas clases de experimentos para ver qu est pensando. +Y estn todas estas herramientas interesantes. +Google tiene Google Zeitgeist que mira los pedidos de bsqueda para ver qu est sucendiendo, qu es lo que le interesa a la gente, y entonces publica con un montn de divertidos grficos. +Y estoy diciendo muchas cosas buenas de Google, as que puedo decir algo un poquito crtico tambin. +Hay un problema con Google Zeitgeist y es que a menudo devuelve noticias que mucha gente est buscando por ejemplo fotos de Britney Spears, que no necesariamente son noticia. +El Columbia explota y de repente hay montones de bsquedas sobre el Columbia. +Bien, saben, deberamos esperar ver eso. +Eso no necesariamente es algo que ya no conociramos. +Entonces, el factor clave en trminos de estas nuevas herramientas que estn explorando las profundidades del cerebro global, que estn enviando colorante de contraste por todo el flujo sanguneo, la pregunta es: aportan algo nuevo? +Una de las cosas con las que he experimentado es Google Share que consiste, bsicamente, en que uno toma un trmino abstracto y busca en Google ese trmino, y luego uno mira los resultados que devuelve la bsqueda del nombre de alguien. +Entonces, en definitiva, la cantidad de pginas que mencionan este trmino, y que adems mencionan esta pgina, el porcentaje de esas pginas es el Google Share de esa persona para ese trmino. +De este modo uno puede hacer competencias interesantes. +Por ejemplo: este es el Google Share de la TED Conference. +As, Richard Saul Wurman tiene cerca del 15 por ciento del Google Share de la TED Conference. +Nuestro buen amigo Chris tiene cerca del seis porciento pero con una bala, podra agregar. +Pero lo interesante es que uno pude ampliar la bsqueda un poquito. +Y resulta que, en realidad, el 42 por ciento pertenece al pez luna. +No tena ni idea. +No, eso no es verdad. +Eso es algo que invent porque quera poner una diapositiva del pez luna. +Y tambin hice -- y no quiero con esto generar inconvenientes en el prximo panel pero hice un anlisis Google Share de la evolucin y la seleccin natural. +Entonces aqu, ahora esta es una categora grande por eso hay porcentajes ms chicos, este el 0.7 por ciento -- Dan Dennett, que dentro de poco estar hablando. +Justo debajo de l, con el 0.5 porciento, Steven Pinker. +De modo que Dennett est liderando un poquito all. +Pero lo interesante es que uno puede ampliar la bsqueda y en realidad ver cosas interesantes y hacerse una idea de que otra cosa hay all. +As, Gary Bauer no est muy atrs -- tiene teoras levemente diferentes sobre la evolucin y la seleccin natural. +Y justo detrs de l viene L. Ron Hubbard. Entonces pueden ver que nosotros estamos en un empate, lo que siempre es algo bueno. +Y a propsito, Chris, ese hubiera sido un muy buen panel. Pienso, justo all. +Hubbard aparentemente est empezando a acercarse, pero aparte de eso, pienso que ser bueno el prximo ao. +Otra cosa rpida: esto es sobre otra cosa levemente distinta, muchos de ustedes han visto este anlisis. +Acaba de salir. Son palabras que irrumpen, mirando los registros histricos de los Discursos del Estado de la Unin. +Son palabras que de repente comenzaron a aparecer de la nada, entonces son una especie de memes que comenzaron a cobrar vida, que no tenan mucho precedente histrico. +As, la primera es estas son las palabras que irrumpieron all por el 1860 esclavos, emancipacin, esclavitud, rebelin, Kansas. +Esa es Britney Spears. Quiero decir, saben, OK, interesante. +Estn hablando de esclavitud en 1860. +1935 -- alivio, depresin, bancos recuperados. +Y OK, no aprendimos nada nuevo con eso eso es bastante obvio. +1985, en medio del mandato Reagan: eso es, somos, hay, tenemos, es. +Ahora, hay una manera de interpretar esto: decir que "emancipacin" y "depresin" y "recuperacin" todas tienen muchas slabas. +Entonces, se puede descargar es difcil recordarlas. +Pero en serio, realmente lo que se puede ver aqu, de una manera que sera muy difcil de detectar de otra manera, es a Reagan reinventar el lenguaje poltico del pas y desplazndose hacia un estilo mucho ms ntimo, mucho ms campechano, mucho ms televisivo -- contrayendo todos esos verbos. +Saben, 20 aos antes todava estaba aquello de "No pregunte lo que usted puede hacer" pero con Reagan es "Ah es, donde estbamos Nancy y yo", ese tipo de lenguaje. +Y entonces algo que sabamos ms o menos, pero que no habamos percibido sintcticamente qu estaba haciendo. +Voy a apurarme. +La pregunta ahora y esta es la pregunta que realmente interesa -- es, qu clase de forma de alto nivel est emergiendo ahora en el ecosistema web general y particularmente en el ecosistema de los blogs porque en ellos est verdaderamente la vanguardia. +Y pienso que lo que sucede all suceder tambin en el sistema ms amplio. +Ahora, haba un artculo muy interesante de Clay Shirky que tuvo mucha atencin hace cerca de un mes atrs y es bsicamente la distribucin de links en la web hacia todos estos blogs diferentes. +Obedece a una ley de poder, por lo que hay unos pocos blogs populares, muy bien vinculados, y una cola larga de blogs con muy pocos links. +As, el 20 por ciento de los blogs reciben el 80 por ciento de los links. +Ahora, esta es una cosa muy interesante. +Caus una gran controversia porque la gente pens que esto era la evolucin del hombre, la democracia del mdem, en la que cualquiera poda salir y hacer or su voz. +Entonces la pregunta es: "Por qu sucede esto?" +No es algo impuesto por mandato divino. +Es una propiedad emergente de la blogsfera en este momento. +Ahora, lo genial de esto es que la gente comenz a trabajar -- segundos despus que Clay publicara ese artculo, la gente comenz a modificar las reglas subyacentes del sistema para que surgiera una forma diferente. +Y, bsicamente, la forma aparece en gran medida debido a una especie de ventaja en ser el primero. +Si eres el primer sitio, entonces todos hacen referencia a t. +Si tienes el segundo sitio, la mayora de la gente te referenciar. +Y entonces muy rpidamente uno puede acumular un grupo de links, y esto har ms probable que los recin llegados apunten a nuestro sitio en el futuro, y entonces uno obtiene este tipo de forma. +Entonces lo que Dave Sifry en Technorati comenz a trabajar, literalmente cuando Shirky comenz -- luego de que publicara su artculo fue algo que bsicamente le dio un nuevo tipo de prioridad a los recin llegados. +Y comenz a mirar a los recin llegados interesantes que no tenan muchos links, y que de repente consiguieron un montn en 24 horas. +Son, en cierto sentido, weblogs emergentes de nuevas voces. +Entonces l est trabajando en una herramienta que pueda cambiar al sistema todo. +Y eso crea un tipo de emergencia planificada. +Uno no tiene el control absoluto, pero est cambiar las reglas subyacentes de maneras interesantes porque tiene un resultado final que es, quizs, una distribucin ms democrtica de voces. +Entonces lo ms asombroso de esto -- y con este comentario termino es que la mayora de los sistemas emergentes, de los sistemas auto-organizados, no estn compuestos por partes capaces de mirar el patrn global y cambiar su comportamiento basadas en si les gusta o no dicho patrn. +Pienso que lo ms maravilloso de todo este debate sobre las leyes de poder y el software que puede modificarlas es el hecho de estar teniendo la conversacin. +Espero que contine aqu. +Muchas gracias. +En efecto, he dedicado mi vida a investigar las vidas de los presidentes que ya no estn vivos. +Despertndome con Abraham Lincoln por la maana, pensando en Franklin Roosevelt cuando me iba a dormir por la noche. +Pero cuando intento pensar en lo que he aprendido sobre el sentido de la vida, mi mente sigue volviendo a un seminario en el que tom parte cuando era una estudiante de postgrado en Harvard con el gran psiclogo Erik Erikson. +Nos ense que las vidas ms ricas y plenas intentan conseguir un equilibrio interior de tres factores: el trabajo, el amor y la diversin. +Y que concentrarse en uno de los factores descuidando los otros es abrirse a una tristeza absoluta en el futuro. +Mientras que intentar conseguir los tres con igual dedicacin es hacer posible una vida llena, no slo de grandes logros, sino tambin de serenidad. +Ya que cuento historias, permtanme mirar hacia atrs a la vida de dos de los presidentes que he estudiado para ilustrar este punto -- Abraham Lincoln y Lyndon Johnson. +Sobre la primera esfera, el trabajo, pienso que la vida de Abraham Lincoln sugiere que una intensa ambicin es algo bueno. +l tena una gran ambicin +pero no era simplemente por ser elegido o por el poder o por la celebridad o por la fama -- la razn de su ambicin era conseguir algo suficientemente valioso en la vida para que pudiera hacer del mundo un lugar mejor por el hecho de haber vivido en l. +Incluso de nio, aparentemente, Lincoln tuvo sueos heroicos. +Tuvo que encontrar una manera de escapar de esa granja empobrecida donde naci. +No tuvo posibilidad de ir al colegio, excepto algunas semanas aqu y all. +Pero lea libros en todo rato libre que poda encontrar. +Se deca que cuando consigui una copia de la biblia del Rey Jaime o de las "Fbulas de Esopo", la excitacin le impeda dormir. +No poda comer. +La gran poetisa Emily Dickinson dijo una vez, "No hay fragata mejor que un libro para llevarnos a tierras lejanas." +Qu apropiado para Lincoln. +Aunque nunca viaj a Europa, fue con los reyes de Shakespeare a la alegre Inglaterra, y viaj con la poesa de Lord Byron a Espaa y Portugal. +La literatura le permiti trascender sus alrededores. +Pero sufri tantas prdidas tan temprano en su vida que se senta perseguido por la muerte. +Su madre muri cuando l tena slo nueve aos. Su nica hermana, Sarah, muri de parto unos aos despus. Y su primer amor, Ann Rutledge, a los 22 aos. +Adems, cuando su madre yaca moribunda no le dio esperanzas de volver a encontrarse en el otro mundo. +Simplemente le dijo: "Abraham, ahora me voy a ir lejos de ti, y nunca volver." +Como resultado acab obsesionado con la idea de que cuando morimos nuestra vida desaparece, polvo al polvo. +Pero slo cuando fue creciendo desarroll una cierta consolacin originada por una antigua idea griega -- pero seguida tambin en otras culturas -- basada en que, si consigues algo importante en tu vida, puedes vivir en la memoria de otros. +Tu honor y tu reputacin sobrevivirn tu existencia terrenal. +Y esa ambicin valiosa se convirti en su estrella polar. +Le permiti salvarse de la importante depresin que sufri cuando tena poco ms de 30 aos. +Tres cosas se haban combinado para hundirle. +Haba roto su compromiso con Mary Todd, inseguro sobre si estaba listo para casarse con ella, pero sabiendo cmo de devastador sera su accin para ella. +Su nico amigo ntimo, Joshua Speed, iba a marcharse de Illinois para volver a Kentucky porque el padre de Speed haba muerto. +Y su carrera poltica en el congreso del estado iba cuesta abajo. +Estaba tan deprimido que sus amigos teman que intentara suicidarse. +Se llevaron todos los cuchillos, cuchillas y tijeras de su habitacin. +Y su gran amigo Speed se acerc a l y le dijo: "Lincoln, tienes que recuperarte o moriras." +l dijo: "Morira ahora mismo, pero todava no he hecho nada para hacer que algn ser humano recuerde que yo he vivido." +As qu, impulsado por esa ambicin, volvi al congreso del estado. +Eventualmente gan un puesto en el Congreso. +Se present dos veces a elecciones para el Senado, perdiendo en ambas ocasiones. +"Todo el mundo es roto por la vida", dijo una vez Ernest Hemingway, "pero algunas personas son ms fuertes en las partes rotas." +Y as sorprendi a toda la nacin con una victoria inesperada en las elecciones presidenciales sobre tres rivales con mucho ms experiencia, mejor educacin y ms fama. +Y una vez que gan ganado las elecciones, todava sorprendi ms a la nacin dando altos puestos en su gobierno a cada uno de estos tres rivales. +Fue un acto sin precedentes en la poca porque todo el mundo pens: "Lincoln parecer una figura decorativa comparado con estas personas." +Le preguntaron: "Por qu ests haciendo esto, Lincoln?" +Y l respondi: "Mirad, stos son los hombres ms fuertes y ms capaces del pas. +Este pas est en peligro. Los necesito a mi lado." +Pero tal vez mi viejo amigo, Lyndon Johnson lo habra expresado de una manera menos noble: "Mejor tener a tus enemigos dentro de la tienda meando hacia afuera que fuera de la tienda meando hacia dentro." +Pero pronto se apreci claramente que Abraham Lincoln iba a emerger como el capitn indiscutible de este indisciplinado equipo. +Y cada uno de ellos pronto comprendi que Lincoln posea un conjunto sin igual de fortalezas emocionales y habilidades polticas que se demostraron ms importantes que la escasez de su currculo. +Por una parte, posea una extraa habilidad para ponerse en la situacin de otras personas e intentar comprender sus puntos de vista. +Arregl sentimientos daados que podran haber escalado a hostilidad permanente. +Comparti alegremente el crdito de sus acciones, asumi la responsabilidad por los fallos de sus subordinados, reconoci constantemente sus errores y aprendi de los mismos. +stas son las cualidades que deberamos estar buscando en nuestros candidatos para 2008. +Se neg a ser provocado por quejas insignificantes. +Nunca se dej caer en la envidia o se obsesion con desaires percibidos. +Y expres sus inalterables convicciones en un lenguaje cotidiano, con metforas, en historias. +Y con un lenguaje tan bello que casi pareca que Shakespeare y la poesa que tanto haba amado de nio se haban conseguido colar en su propia alma. +En 1863, cuando se firm la proclamacin de emancipacin, trajo de nuevo a su viejo amigo, Joshua Speed, a la Casa Blanca. Y record aquella conversacin dcadas atrs, cuando se encontraba tan triste. +Y entonces, sealando a la proclamacin, dijo: "Creo que con esta medida mis ms deseadas esperanzas se cumplirn." +Pero cuando estaba a punto de poner su firma en la proclamacin su mano estaba entumecida y temblorosa puesto que haba estrechado mil manos esa misma maana en la ceremonia de recimiento de ao nuevo. +As que dej la pluma en la mesa. +Y dijo: "Si alguna vez mi alma estuvo en una ley, es en esta ley. +Pero si la firmo con una malo temblorosa, la posteridad dir: 'Dud.'" As que esper hasta que pudo coger la pluma y la firm con una mano valiente y firme. +Pero ni en sus ms atrevidos sueos, Lincoln nunca haba imaginado cuan lejos alcanzara su reputacin. +Me result muy emocionante encontrar una entrevista con el gran escritor ruso, Leo Tolstoy, en un peridico de Nueva York del principio del siglo XX. +Y en ella, Tolstoy hablaba de un viaje que acababa de hacer a un rea muy remota del Caucaso, donde slo habitaban unos brbaros salvajes, que nunca haban salido de esa parte de Rusia. +Sabiendo que Tolstoy se encontraba entre ellos, le pidieron que les contara relatos sobre grandes hombres de la historia. +As que dijo: "Les habl de Napolen y de Alejandro Magno y de Federico II el Grande y de Julio Csar, y les encant. +Pero antes de que hubiera terminado, el jefe de los brbaros se levant y dijo: "Pero espera, no nos has hablado del ms grande de entre los gobernantes. +Queremos que nos hables del hombre que hablaba con voz de trueno, cuya risa era como la salida del sol, que vino de ese lugar llamado Amrica, tan lejos de aqu que si un un joven viajara hasta all sera un anciano a su llegada. +Hblanos de ese hombre. Hblanos de Abraham Lincoln." Se qued atnito. +Les cont todo lo que saba sobre Lincoln. +Y despus en la entrevista dijo: "Qu hizo a Lincoln tan grande? +No fue un gran general como Napolen, no fue un gran hombre de estado como Federico II el Grande." +Sino que su grandeza consista, y los historiadores estn plenamente de acuerdo, en la integridad de su carcter y en la fibra moral de su ser. +As que, al final, esa poderosa ambicin que le ayud a superar su lbrega niez por fin se cumpli. +Esa ambicin que le permiti educarse a s mismo a base de esfuerzo, sobreponerse a una sucesin de desastres polticos y a los das ms oscuros de la guerra. +Su historia ser contada. +En cuanto a la segunda esfera, no la del trabajo, sino la del amor -- incluyendo a familia, amigos y compaeros de trabajo -- tambin requiere trabajo y dedicacin. +Mi relacin con l comenz en un nivel bastante curioso. +Fui elegida como una White House Fellow cuando tena 24 aos. +Hubo este gran baile en la Casa Blanca. +Y el presidente Johnson bail conmigo esa noche. +No fue tan extrao -- slo haba tres mujeres entre los 16 White House Fellows. +Pero me murmur al odo que quera que trabajara directamente para l en la Casa Blanca. +Pero no iba a ser tan sencillo. +En los meses anteriores a mi seleccin, como mucha gente joven, haba sido activa en el movimiento contra la guerra de Vietnam, y haba escrito un artculo contra Lyndon Johnson, que desafortunadamente se public en The New Republic dos das despus del baile en la Casa Blanca. +Y el tema del artculo era cmo quitar del poder a Lyndon Johnson. +As que estaba segura de que me echara del programa. +Pero en lugar de eso, sorprendentemente, dijo: "Oh, traedla aqu durante un ao, y si yo no puedo convencerla, nadie puede." +As que acab trabajando con l en la Casa Blanca. +En cierto punto le acompa a su rancho para ayudarle con sus memorias, sin terminar por entender por qu me haba elegido a m para pasar tantas horas juntos. +Me gusta creer que fue porque yo saba escuchar. +l era un gran narrador. +Historias fabulosas, coloridas y llenas de ancdotas. +Haba un problema con estas historias, sin embargo, que descubr ms tarde, la mitad de ellas no eran ciertas. +Pero eran grandes historias de todos modos. +As que creo que parte de su atraccin por m era que me encantaba escuchar sus cuentos chinos. +Pero tambin me preocupaba que parte de ella fuera que yo era una mujer joven. +Y l haba tenido una ligera reputacin de mujeriego. +As que yo le hablaba constantemente de mis novios, incluso cuando no tena ninguno. +Todo estaba yendo perfectamente, hasta que un da dijo que quera discutir nuestra relacin. +Pareci un mal presagio cuando me llev cerca del lago, convenientemente llamado Lyndon Baines Johnson. +Y haba vino y queso y un mantel de cuadros rojos -- todos los smbolos romnticos. +Y entonces empez: "Doris, ms que cualquier otra mujer que he conocido nunca ... Se me cay el alma a los pies. +Y entonces dijo: "Me recuerdas a mi madre." +Fue muy embarazoso, teniendo en cuenta lo que estaba pasando por mi cabeza. +Pero tengo que decir que, conforme han ido pasando los aos, me he dado cuenta del increble privilegio que fue haber pasado tantos aos con el gran len envejecido que este hombre era. +Victorioso en mil disputas, tres grandes leyes de derechos civiles, Medicare, ayuda a la educacin. +Y sin embargo, completamente derrotado al final por la guerra de Vietnam. +Y precisamente porque estaba tan triste y se senta tan vulnerable, se abri a m de maneras que nunca se habra abierto si lo hubiera conocido en la plenitud de su poder -- compartiendo sus miedos, sus penas y sus preocupaciones. +Y me gustara pensar que ese privilegio comenz dentro de m el impulso para comprender la persona interior detrs de la figura pblica, que he intentado reflejar en cada uno de mis libros desde entonces. +Pero tambin me hizo entender perfectamente las lecciones que Erik Erikson haba intentado inculcarnos a todos nosotros sobre la importancia de encontrar equilibrio en la vida. +Tena sirvientes para responder a cualquiera de sus caprichos y tena una familia que lo profundamente. +Y sin embargo, aos de concentracin exclusiva en el xito a nivel profesional e individual hicieron que en su jubilacin no pudiera encontrar consuelo en la familia, las actividades de recreo, los deportes o los hobbies. +Era como si el agujero en su corazn fuera tan grande que incluso el amor de una familia, sin su trabajo, no pudiera llenarlo. +Conforme su nimo se hunda, su cuerpo se deterioraba hasta que, yo creo, l lentamente trajo su propia muerte. +En estos ltimos aos, l deca que le entristeca mucho ver al pueblo americano buscar un nuevo presidente y olvidarse de l. +Hablaba con inmensa tristeza en su voz, diciendo que tal vez debera haber dedicado ms tiempo a sus hijos y tambin a los hijos de ellos. +Pero era demasiado tarde. +A pesar de todo ese poder, de toda esa riqueza, estaba solo cuando finalmente muri -- su mayor temor se haba convertido en realidad. +Tan profundo era, por ejemplo, el amor de Abraham Lincoln por Shakespeare que consigui buscar tiempo para ir ms de cien noches al teatro incluso durante los oscuros das de la guerra. +Deca que, cuando las luces se apagaban y la obra de Shakespeare comenzaba, durante unas preciosas horas poda imaginarse a s mismo en la poca del prncipe Hal. +Pero una manera de relajarse incluso ms importante para l, que Lyndon Johnson nunca pudo disfrutar, era su amor a, de algn modo, el humor. Y percibir lo que las partes divertidas de la vida pueden producir como una contraposicin a la tristeza. +Una vez dijo que rea para no llorar. Que, para l, una buena historia era mejor que un trago de whisky. +Su gran habilidad como narrador haba sido reconocida por primera vez cuando estaba en el circuito judicial de Illinois. +Los abogados y los jueces tenan que viajar del juzgado de un condado a otro y cuando alguien saba que Lincoln estaba en la ciudad la gente que estaba en algunos kilmetros a la redonda iban para escuchar sus historias. +Se colocaba con su espalda contra el fuego y entretena a la muchedumbre durante horas con sus sinuosos relatos. +Todas estas historias se aadieron a su memoria de tal manera que poda usarlas cuando fuera necesario. +Y no eran exactamente lo que esperarais de nuestro monumento de marmol. +Una de sus historias favoritas, por ejemplo, tena que ver con el hroe de guerra revolucionario Ethan Allen. +Y segn Lincoln contaba la historia, Allen fue a Gran Bretaa despus de la guerra. +Y el pueblo britnico todava estaba disgustado por haber perdido la revolucin, as que decidieron hacerle pasar un poco de vergenza colocando un gran retrato del general Washington en la nica letrina, donde tendra que verlo obligatoriamente. +Imaginaban que se sentira ofendido por la indignidad de ver a George Washington en una letrina. +Pero sali de la letrina sin sentirse ofendido en absoluto. +Y entonces le preguntaron: "Bueno, has visto a George Washington ah dentro?" +"Oh, s," dijo, "es un lugar completamente apropiado para l." +"Qu quieres decir?", preguntaron. +"Bueno," dijo, "no hay nada que haga que un ingls se cague ms rpido que la vista del general George Washington." +As que podis imaginaros, si estis a mitad de una tensa reunin del gabinete de gobierno -- y l tuviera cientos de estas historias -- tendrais que relajaros. +As que, entre sus visitas nocturnas al teatro, sus historias, su extraordinario sentido del humor y su amor por citar a Shakespeare y poetas, encontr la forma de diversin que le ayud a sobrellevar el da a da. +En mi propia vida, siempre estar agradecida por haber encontrado una forma de diversin con mi irracional amor por el bisbol. +Que me permite desde el comienzo de los entrenamientos de primavera hasta el final del otoo tener algo para ocupar mi mente y mi corazn aparte de mi trabajo. +Todo empez cuando slo tena seis aos y mi padre me ense ese misterioso arte de memorizar el marcador mientras escuchaba partidos de bisbol. As que cuando l iba a trabajar a Nueva York durante el da yo poda grabar para l la historia del partido de los Brooklyn Dodgers de esa tarde. +Cuando tienes slo seis aos y tu padre vuelve a casa cada noche y te escucha -- como yo ahora me doy cuenta, con doloroso detalle le contaba todas y cada una de las jugadas de cada entrada del partido que haba tenido lugar esa tarde. +Pero l me haca sentir como si estuviera contndole una historia fabulosa. +Te hace pensar que hay algo mgico sobre la historia para mantener la atencin de tu padre. +De hecho, estoy convencida de que aprend el arte narrativo de estas sesiones nocturnas con mi padre. +Porque, al principio, yo estaba tan excitada que simplemente soltaba "Los Dodgers han ganado!" o "Los Dodgers han perdido!" +Lo cual le quitaba bastante emocin a la historia de dos horas. +As que finalmente aprend a contar una historia desde el principio hasta el medio hasta el final. +Tengo que admitir que, tan ferviente era mi amor por los viejos Brooklyn Dodgers en esta poca, que tuve que confesar en mi primera confesin dos pecados relacionados con el bisbol. +El primero ocurrio porque el catcher de los Dodgers, Roy Campanella, vino a mi ciudad, Rockville Centre, en Long Island, justo cuando yo estaba preparndome para recibir la primera comunin. +Y yo estaba tan emocionada -- era el primer jugador que iba a ver fuera de Ebbets Field. +Pero resulta que l iba a hablar en una iglesia protestante +Y cuando has sido criado como un catlico, piensas que si alguna vez pisas una iglesia protestante, caras muerto en el umbral. +As que fui a ver a mi padre llorando: "Qu vamos a hacer?" +l dijo: "No te preocupes. Va a hablar en un saln parroquial. +Nos sentaremos en sillas plegables. Va a hablar de espritu deportivo. +No es un pecado." +Pero cuando me fui aquella noche, tena la certeza de que, de alguna manera, haba vendido la vida eterna de mi alma por esa noche con Roy Campanella. +Y no haba indulgencias que yo poda comprar. +As que tena este pecado en mi alma cuando fui a hacer mi primera confesin. +Se lo cont al cura inmediatamente. +l dijo: "No hay problema. No era un servicio religioso." +Pero entonces, desafortunadamente, pregunt: "Y qu mas, hija?" +Entonces vino mi segundo pecado. +Intent ocultarlo dicindolo entre otros: hablar demasiado en la iglesia, desear el mal a otros y portarme mal con mis hermanas. +Pero l pregunto: "A quin le deseas el mal?" +Y tuve que decir que deseaba que varios jugadores de los New York Yankees se rompieran sus brazos, piernas y tobillos -- -- para que los Brooklyn Dodgers pudieran ganar sus primeras World Series. +l dijo: "Cmo de a menudo pides estos horribles deseos?" +Y tuve que decir que cada noche con mis oraciones. +As que l dijo: "Mira, te voy a decir algo. +Yo amo a los Brooklyn Dodgers, igual que t, pero te prometo que algn da ganarn de manera justa y clara. +No necesitas desearle el mal a otros para que ocurra." +"Oh, s," dije. +Por suerte, mi primera confesin fue ... con un cura amante del bisbol! +Bueno, aunque mi padre muri de un ataque al corazn repentino cuando yo tena veinte y algo aos, antes de casarme y de tener mis tres hijos, he transmitido su memoria -- as como su amor por el bisbol -- a mis nios. +Aunque cuando los Dodgers nos abandonaron para venir a Los Angeles, perd la fe en el bisbol hasta que me mud a Boston y me convert en un fan irracional de los Red Socks. +Tengo que decir que hay magia en estos momentos. +Y sta es la razn por la que, al final, siempre estar agradecida por este curioso amor por la historia, que me permite dedicar una vida mirando atrs al pasado. +Permitindome aprender de todas estas grandes figuras sobre la lucha por conocer el sentido de la vida. +Permitindome creer que las personas particulares que hemos amado y perdido en nuestras familias y las figuras pblicas que hemos respetado en nuestra historia, exactamente como Abraham Lincoln quera creer, pueden realmente seguir vivas, siempre que nos comprometamos a contar y recontar las historias de sus vidas. +Gracias por dejarme ser esa narradora de historias hoy. +Gracias. +Vamos a empezar aqu. +Bien, solo un momento. +Est bien. +Oh, lo siento. +Gracias. +Pero tambin hubo numerosos lugares en el mundo donde las sociedades han seguido desarrollndose durante miles de aos sin ningn sntoma de serio colapso, como Japn, Java, Tonga y Tikopia. Por tanto es evidente que las sociedades en algunas reas son ms frgiles que en otras reas. +Y qu hay de nosotros? +Qu podemos aprender del pasado que nos ayude a impedir que acabemos decayendo o colapsando de la manera en que lo han hecho muchas sociedades del pasado? +Evidentemente la respuesta a esta pregunta no se reduce a un nico factor. Si alguien les dice que hay un factor nico que explica el colapso de las sociedades, ustedes saben inmediatamente que es un idiota. Es un asunto complicado. +Pero cmo podemos darle sentido a las complejidades de este tema? +Al analizar el colapso de las sociedades, he llegado a un esquema de cinco puntos: una lista de verificacin de cosas que reviso al intentar entender esos colapsos. Intentar ilustrar este esquema a partir de la extincin de la sociedad escandinava de Groenlandia. +Se trata de una sociedad europea con registros escritos, as que sabemos bastante sobre sus gentes y sus motivaciones. +En el 984 DC los vikingos llegaron a Groenlandia, la colonizaron y alrededor del ao 1450 se extinguieron -la sociedad colaps, y todos ellos acabaron muertos. +As que acabaron como una sociedad europea de la Edad de Hierro incapaz de fabricar su propio hierro. El segundo punto de la lista es el cambio climtico. El clima puede volverse ms clido, o ms fro o ms seco, o ms hmedo. +El cuarto elemento de mi lista son las relaciones son las sociedades hostiles. +Y qu ocurre con una sociedad actual? +Durante los ltimos cinco aos, he estado llevando a mi mujer y a mis hijos al suroeste de Montana, donde trabaj cuando era un adolecente en la cosecha del heno. Montana a primera vista parece el entorno ms puro de Estados Unidos. +Pero si se escarba la superficie, Montana tiene serios problemas. +Siguiendo la misma lista: impactos humanos en el medio ambiente. +S, son agudos en Montana. Los problemas de toxicidad por desechos mineros han causado miles de millones de dlares en daos. +La arraigada devocin a la industria maderera, a la minera, a la agricultura y a la ausencia de regulacin gubernamental. Valores que han funcionado bien en el pasado, pero que no parecen estar funcionando bien hoy. +As que estoy estudiando estos indicadores de colapso en muchas sociedades del pasado y del presente. +Emergen algunas conclusiones generales? +O tambin el colapso de la Unin Sovitica, que tuvo lugar en un par de dcadas, puede que incluso en una dcada, del periodo en el que la Unin Sovitica estaba en la cima de su poder. +Una analoga sera el crecimiento de las bacterias en una placa petri. +Estos colapsos rpidos son especialmente probables cuando hay un desequilibrio entre los recursos de los que se dispone y los recursos que se consumen, o un desequilibrio entre los resultados econmicos y el potencial econmico. +As que este es un rasgo frecuente que las sociedades se derrumben poco despus de alcanzar la cima de su poder. +Pascua, de entre todas las islas del Pacfico, recibe el menor aporte de este polvo asitico, que restaura la fertilidad de los suelos. Pero ese es un factor que ni siquiera tenamos en cuenta hasta 1999. +As que algunas sociedades, por factores ambientales sutiles, son ms frgiles que otras. Y, finalmente, otra generalizacin. Porque ahora imparto un curso de grado en UCLA, sobre estos colapsos sociales. Lo que ms incomoda a mis estudiantes de grado en UCLA es: Cmo es posible que estas sociedades no se dieran cuenta de lo que estaban haciendo? +Cmo pudieron los habitantes de la Isla de Pascua deforestar su entorno? +Qu dijeron mientras cortaban la ltima palmera? +No vieron lo que hacan? Cmo es posible que las sociedades no percibieran sus impactos en el medio y se detuvieran a tiempo? +Y yo esperara que si nuestra civilizacin humana contina, entonces quiz en el siglo que viene la gente se preguntar: Por qu demonios estas gentes del 2003 no vieron las cosas tan evidentes que estaban haciendo y las corrigieron? +Slo mencionar dos generalizaciones en esta rea. +As que esa es una conclusin general sobre por qu las sociedades toman decisiones errneas: los conflictos de inters. +Una de las cosas que permiti a Australia sobrevivir en esta remota avanzadilla de la civilizacin europea durante 250 aos fue su identidad britnica. +Pero hoy en da, su compromiso con la identidad britnica les sirve de poco a los australianos para adaptarse a su situacin en Asia. As que es particularmente difcil cambiar de rumbo cuando las cosas que te meten en problemas son tambin las que estn en el origen de tu fortaleza. +Cul va a ser el resultado hoy? +Y mi respuesta es, la cosa ms importante que necesitamos hacer es olvidarnos de que haya una sola cosa ms importante que necesitamos hacer. +En vez de eso hay una docena de cosas, cualquiera de las cuales podra eliminarnos. +Y tenemos que acertar con todas, porque si solucionamos 11, si fracasamos el solucionar la 12, tenemos un problema. Por ejemplo, si solucionamos nuestros problemas de agua, de suelo y de poblacin, pero no solucionamos nuestros problemas de sustancias txicas, entonces estamos en problemas. +El hecho es que nuestro rumbo actual es un rumbo insostenible, lo que significa que por definicin no puede mantenerse. +Y el resultado se ver en tan slo unas dcadas. +Eso significa que aquellos de nosotros que estamos en esta habitacin menores de 50 60 aos veremos como se resuelven estas paradojas, y los que somos mayores de 60 puede que no veamos la resolucin, pero nuestros hijos y nietos sin duda lo harn. +Los grandes problemas del mundo actual no escapan en absoluto a nuestro control. Nuestra mayor amenaza no es un asteroide a punto de colisionar con nosotros, que es algo que no podemos evitar. +Al contrario, todas las amenazas importantes a las que nos enfrentamos hoy en da son problemas creados completamente por nosotros. Y ya que hemos creado los problemas, tambin podemos resolverlos. Lo que significa que somos capaces de lidiar con estos problemas. +Crec en Europa, y la 2da Guerra mundial me atrap cuando esta entre los 7 y 10 aos de edad +dandome cuenta cuantos de los pocos de los adultos que conoca era hbiles para mantener las tragedias vividas por la guerra -- cmo pocos de ellos podran incluso asemejarse a una normal, alegre, satisfecha vida feliz por lo menos en sus trabajos, en sus hogares, siendo su seguridad destruida por la guerra. +Entonces fu que me comenc a interesar en el entendimiento de aquello que contribua a hace la vida digna de ser vivida. +Y prob, tanto de nio como de adolescente, a leer filosofa y a estar involucrado en arte y religin y otras muchas vas en donde pudiera encontrar una posible respuesta a esta pregunta. +Finalmente encontr la Psicologa de casualidad +Y pens, bueno, dado que no puedo ir al cine, por lo menos ir gratis a escuchar sobre platillos voladores. +Y el presentador de aquella charla esa tarde result bastante interesante +Y en realidad, en vez de hablar de pequeos hombrecitos verdes, el habl sobre como la psiquis de los Europeos que fueron traumatizados por la guerra los hace proyectar platillos voladores en el cielo, +El habl tambin acerca de como los mandalas de la antigua religin Hind son un tipo de proyeccin en el cielo como un intento de recuperar cierto sentido del caos despus de la guerra. +Y todo esto me pareci muy interesante. +Empec a leer sus libros despus de esta charla. +Y esta persona era Carl Jung, aquel de cuyo nombre o trabajo no tena ni idea. +Entonces vine a este pais a estudiar psicologa y empec tratando de entender sobre las raices de la felicidad +Esto es un resultado tpico que muchas personas han presentado, y hay por ello muchas variaciones al respecto. +Pero eso, por el ejemplo, presenta que solo el 30 por ciento de la gente entrevistada en los Estados Unidos desde 1956 dicen que su vida es muy feliz. +Y esto no ha cambiado nada. +Mientras que los ingresos personales, sobre una escala que se ha mantenido constante en relacin a la inflacin, se han duplicado, casi triplicado, en este periodo. +Sin embargo encontrars esencialmente los mismos resultados, a saber, que despus de cierto punto el cual corresponde mas o menos a unos pocos miles de dlares sobre el nivel mnimo de pobreza, el incremento en el bienestar material parece no tener efecto en cuan felices son las personas. +Y, de hecho, encontrars que la carencia de recursos bsicos, de recursos materiales, contribuye a la infelicidad, pero su incremento no incrementa la felicidad. +Por lo tanto, mi investigacin ha estado focalizada mas sobre -- despus de encontrar estas cosas que realmente corresponden con mi propia experiencia, trat de entender donde en la vida diaria, en nuestra experiencial normal, nos sentimos realmente felices. +Este fue uno de los compositores de msica Norteamericana lderes de los 70s. +Esta entrevista fue de 40 pginas. +Pero este pequeo extracto es un muy buen resumen de lo que l estuvo contndonos durante su entrevista. +Y describe como el siente cuando el componer est yendo bien. +Y lo dice describiendo esto como un estado exttico +Extasis en Griego significa simplemente estar de pie al lado de algo. +Y entonces esto convirti esencialmente una analoga de un estado mental donde sientes que no estas haciendo tus rutinas ordinarias de la vida cotidiana. +Entonces, el extasis es esencialmente un entrar en una realidad alternativa. +Y esto es interesante, si piensas en ello, cmo, cuando pensamos acerca de las civilizaciones que miramos como las cimas en el desarrollo humano -- ya sea China, Grecia, la civilizacin Hind, o los Mayas, o Egipcios -- lo que sabemos acerca de ellos es realmente acerca de sus xtasis, no acerca de su vida diaria. +Conocemos los templos que construyeron -- donde la gente podra venir a experimentar una realidad diferente. +Conocemos acerca de los circos las arenas, los teatros -- +estos son restos de las civilizaciones y estos son los lugares donde la gente fue a vivir la vida en una forma mas concentrada, mas ordenada . +Ahora, este hombre no necesita ir a un lugar como este, el cual es tambin -- este lugar, esta arena, la cual es construida como el anfiteatro Griego, es tambin un lugar para el xtasis. +Estamos participando en una realidad la cual es diferente a la vida cotidiana a la que estamos acostumbrados. +Pero este hombre no necesita ir all. +El necesita solo un pedazo de papel donde pueda realizar algunas pequeas marcas y mientras hace esto, l puede imaginar sonidos que no han existido antes en esa combinacin particular. +Entonces una vez que l encuentra ese punto de empezar a crear -- como Jennifer lo hizo en su improvisacin -- una nueva realidad, este es un momento de xtasis. El entra esa realidad diferente. +Ahora el dice tambin que esto es tan intenso como experiencia que siente casi como si l no existiera. +Y esto suena como un tipo de exageracin romntica. +Sin embargo realmente, nuestro sistema nervioso es incapaz de procesar mas de 110 bits de informacin por segundo aproximadamente. +Y para escucharme y entender lo que estoy diciendo Necesitas procesar alrededor de 60 bits por segundo +Por esta razn no puedes oir mas de dos personas a la vez. +No puedes entender mas de dos personas hablndote al mismo tiempo. +Bueno, cuando ests realmente involucrado en este proceso completamente capturador de crear algo nuevo, como este hombre hace, el no tiene suficiente atencin para monitorear como su cuerpo siente, o sus problemas de casa. +El no puede sentir si quiera si est hambriento o cansado. +Su cuerpo desaparece, su identidad desaparece de su conciencia porque l no tiene suficiente atencin, como ninguno de nosotros tiene, para realmente hacer bien algo que requiere mucha concentracin. y al mismo tiempo sentir que existe. +De tal manera, la existencia es suspendida temporalmente. +Y dice que su mano parece moverse por si sola. +Y esto se ha convertido en un tipo de verdad obvia o trivial en el estudio de la creatividad que uno no puede crear algo sin menos de 10 aos inmersin en un conocimiento tcnico en un campo particular. +Sea matemtica o msica -- toma tanto tiempo para ser capaz de empezar a cambiar algo a una manera mejor a lo que era antes. +Ahora, cuando esto ocurre, el dice la msica simplemente fluye. +Y debido a toda esta gente que empec entrevistando -- esta es una entrevista de hace treinta aos -- tantas de las personas describen esto como un fluir espontneo que llam a este tipo de experiencia como "la experiencia del fluir" +Y esto ocurre en diferentes mbitos. +Por ejemplo, un poeta lo describe de esta manera. +Esto es por un estudiante mo que entrevist algunos de los escritores y poetas mas sobresalientes en los Estados Unidos. +Y describe el mismo sentimiento espontaneo y de poco esfuerzo, que logras cuando entras en este estado de xtasis. +Este poeta lo describe como abriendo una puerta que flota en el cielo -- descripcin muy parecida a la que di Albert Einstein de cmo imagin las fuerzas de la relatividad cuando estaba luchando tratando de entender como estas funcionaban. +Pero esto ocurre en otras actividades. +Por ejemplo, esta es de otra estudiante ma, Susan Jackson de Australia, quien trabaj con algunos de los atletas ms exitosos del mundo. +Y pueden ver aqu en esta descripcin de un patinador Olmpico, la misma descripcin esencial de la fenomenologa del estado interno de la persona. +No piensas que ocurre automticamente si te involucras con la msica, etcetera. +Esto ocurre tambin, realmente, en el libro ms reciente que escrib, llamado "Buen Negocio", donde entrevist algunos de los gerentes generales quienes fueron nominados por sus pares por ser muy existosos y muy ticos, socialmente responsables. +Puedes ver que estas personas definen xito como algo que ayuda a otros y al mismo tiempo te hace feliz mientras trabajas en ello. +Y como todos estos exitosos y responsables gerentes generales dicen: no puedes tener solo una de estas cosas para ser exitoso. Si quieres un trabajo con sentido y exitoso -- +Anita Roddick es otro de los gerentes generales que entrevist. +Ella es fundadora de Body Shop, la marca cosmtica, los reyes de la cosmtica natural. +Es una pasin que aparece desde lo que haces lo mejor y teniendo fluidez mientras lo trabajas. +Esta es una interesante mencin de Masaru Ibuka, quien era en ese entonces, fundador de Sony sin dinero, sin un producto --ellos no tena ningn producto, ellos no tenan nada, solo tenan una idea. +Y la idea que tuvo fue establecer un trabajo donde los ingenieros puedan sentir el disfrute de la innovacin tecnolgica, siendo conscientes de su misin con la sociedad y donde trabajaran con el corazn contento. +No podra mejorar este ejemplo de como la fluidez entra en el ambiente de trabajo. +Ahora, cuando hacemos los estudios, tenemos, con otros colegas alrededor del mundo habiendo realizado mas de 8,000 entrevistas a gente -- desde monjes Dominicos, a monjas ciegas, a escaladores Himalayas, a pastores Navajo -- quienes disfrutan de su trabajo. +Y mas all de la cultura, mas all de la educacin o de lo que sea, hay estas siete condiciones que aparecen cuando una persona est en fluidez. +All est el foco que una vez que aparece intenso, es seguido por una sensacin de xtasis, una sensacin de claridad, tu sabes exactamente que es lo que quieres hacer en cada momento, tienes retroalimentacin inmediata. +Sabes lo que necesitas hacer es posible hacerlo, a pesar de las dificultades, y el sentido del tiempo desaparece, te olvidas de ti mismo, te sientes parte de algo grande. +Y cuando estas condiciones estn presentes, lo que estas haciendo se convierte en valioso en si mismo. +En nuestros estudios, representamos la vida diaria de gente en este simple esquema. +Y podemos medirlo esto de manera muy precisa, realmente, porque les dimos a esta gente seguidores electrnicos que sonabas 10 veces al da y cuando sonaban, las personas deban decir que estaban haciendo, como se sentan donde estaban, que estaban pensando. +Y dos cosas que medimos ac fu la cantidad de desafo que estas personas experimentaban en ese momento y la cantidad de habilidades que ellos experiementaban en ese momento. +De esta manera, pudimos establecer un promedio de cada persona lo cual esta en el centro del diagrama. +Este sera tu nivel de desafo y habilidad, lo cual ser diferente en cada persona. +Pero tu tendrs un tipo punto desde donde comienzas a estabilizarte el cual sera en medio. +Si sabemos cual es ese punto donde comienzas a estabilizarte, podemos predecir casi finamente que estars en el estado de fluidez, y este ocurrir cuando tus desafos son mas altos que el promedio y tus habilidades son mas altas que el promedio. +Y estars realizando cosas de manera muy diferente que otras personas, pero para cada uno que fluye en su canal, en su rea, ocurrir cuando estn haciendo lo que realmente quieren hacer -- tocar piano, probablemente, estar con su mejor amigo, quizs trabajar, si el trabajo es lo que les da fluidez para ti. +Y entonces las otras reas se convierten poco a poco en positivas. +La motivacin es an buena porque tu estas sobre-desafado all. +Tus habilidades no estn tranquilas como deberan estar, pero te puedes mover facilmente de manera fluida solo desarrollando un poco mas de habilidad. +De esta manera, la motivacin es el rea donde muchas personas aprenden, porque esto es donde ellos estn presionados mas all de su zona de seguridad y esto para entrar --- regresando a la fluidez -- entonces ellos desarrollan mas sus habilidades +Control es tambin un buen lugar para estar, porque te sientes seguro, pero no excitado. +Esto no es muy desafiante. +Y si tu quieres entrar a la fluidez desde el control, tienes que incrementar los desafos. +De manera que estas dos son reas ideales y complementarias desde las cuales la fluidez es fcil de alcanzar. +Las otras combinaciones de desafo y habilidad se convierten progresivamente menos optimas. +Relajacin est bien -- ests an sintiendote OK. +El poco inters empieza a ser muy aversivo y la apata se convierte en muy negativa -- no te sientes que ests haciendo algo, no estas usando tus habilidades, no hay desafo. +Desafortunadamente, muchas de las experiencias de las personas estn en la apata. +El mas grande contribuidor para esta experiencia es mirar televisin, la otra es estar sentado en el bao. +Y entonces, aunque algunas veces mirar televisin alrededor del siete a ocho porciento del tiempo es en fluidez, pero eso solo ocurre cuando escoges un programa que realmente quieres ver y recibes informacin de l. +Entonces, la pregunta que estamos tratando de colocar es -- y me estoy pasando del tiempo -- es como pongo mas y mas de mi vida diaria en el canal de la fluidez. +Y esto es el tipo de desafo que estamos tratando de entender. +Y algunos de Ustedes obviamente saben como hacer esto espontneamente sin ningn consejo, pero desafortunadamente muchas personas no saben como hacerlo. +Y este es nuestra misin que est en va de serlo. OK. +Gracias. +Guau, miren esas ecuaciones asesinas. Que dulce. En realidad, durante los siguientes 18 minutos voy a hacer lo mejor posible para describir la belleza de la fsica de partculas sin usar ecuaciones. +Resulta que podemos aprender mucho del coral +El coral es un animal muy hermoso e inusual. +Cada cabeza de un coral consiste en miles de plipos individuales. +Estos plipos estn continuamente brotando y ramificndose en vecinos genticamente idnticos. +Si imaginamos que ste es un coral hiper-inteligente, podemos separar un individuo y hacerle una pregunta razonable. +Podemos preguntarle cmo fue exactamente que lleg a esta ubicacin particular comparada con sus vecinos - - si fue slo suerte, el destino, o qu? +Ahora, luego de amonestarnos por subir la temperatura demasiado, el nos dir que nuestra pregunta fue completamente estpida. +Sepan que estos corales pueden ser bastante malvados, y tengo alguna cicatrices de surfeo que lo prueban. +Pero este plipo seguir dicindonos que sus vecinos son claramente copias idnticas de s mismo. +Que l tambin estuvo en todas esas ubicaciones, pero experimentndolas como individuos separados. +Para un coral, ramificarse en diferentes copias es la cosa ms natural del mundo. +A diferencia de nosotros, un coral hiper-inteligente estara perfectamente preparado para entender la mecnica cuntica. +Las matemticas de la mecnica cuntica describen de forma muy precisa cmo funciona nuestro universo. +Y nos dicen que nuestra realidad est continuamente derivndose en diferentes posibilidades, igual que un coral. +Es algo complicado para que nuestra mente humana comprenda, ya que solo tenemos la oportunidad de experimentar una posibilidad. +La rareza cuntica fue descritpta por primera vez por Erwin Schrdinger y su gato. +Al gato le gusta ms esta versin. +En esta versin, Schrdinger se encuentra en una caja con una muestra radioactiva que, por leyes de mecnica cuntica, se ramifica en un estado en el cual irradia y otro estado en el que no. +En la rama en el cual la muestra irradia, dispara un detonador que libera un veneno y mata a Schrdinger. +Pero en la otra rama de la realidad, l sigue vivo. +Estas realidades son experimentadas separadamente, por cada individuo. +En lo que respecta a cada uno, el otro no existe. +Esto nos parece raro, porque cada uno de nosotros solo experimenta una existencia individual, y no podemos ver otras ramas. +Es como si cada uno de nosotros, al igual que Schrdinger, furamos un tipo de coral ramificndonos en diferentes posibilidades. +Las matemticas de la mecnica cuntica nos dicen que as es como funciona el mundo a pequeas escalas. +Se puede resumir en la siguiente oracin: Todo lo que puede suceder, sucede. +Eso es la mecnica cuntica. +Pero esto no significa que todo sucede. +El resto de la fsica intenta describir qu puede ocurrir y qu no. +La fsica nos dice que todo se reduce a la geometra y a las interacciones de partculas elementales. +Y las cosas pueden ocurrir slo si estas interacciones estn perfectamente equilibradas. +Ahora continuar describiendo cmo sabemos acerca de estas partculas, qu son, y cmo funciona este equilibrio. +En esta mquina, un rayo de protones y anti-protones es acelerado a velocidades muy cercanas a la de la luz y acercados hasta colisionarlos, produciendo un rayo de energa pura. +La energa se convierte inmediatamente en una rfaga de partculas semi-atmicas, con detectores y computadoras usadas para descubrir sus propiedades. +Esta mquina enorme, el Gran Colisionador de Hadrones ubicado en el CERN, en Ginebra tiene una circunferencia de 17 millas (27 km) y, cuando est en funcionamiento, consume cinco veces la misma potencia que consume la ciudad de Monterrey. +No podemos predecir especficamente qu particulas se producirn en cada colisin individual. +La mecnica cuntica nos dice que todas las posibilidades suceden. +Pero la fsica s nos dice qu partculas se pueden producir. +Estas partculas deben tener la misma masa y energa como la que es llevada por el protn y anti-protn. +Cualquier partcula con ms masa que este lmite de energa no es producida, y por lo tanto no la podemos ver. +Es por esto que el nuevo acelerador de partculas es tan emocionante. +Va a impulsar este lmite de energa siete veces ms de lo que jams se haya hecho antes, por lo que esperamos ver nuevas partculas, muy pronto. +Pero antes de hablar sobre lo que esperamos ver permtanme describir las partculas que ya conocemos. +Hay un zoolgico entero de partculas subatmicas. +La mayora de nosotros est familiarizado con los electrones. +Un montn de gente en esta sala se gana la vida jugando con ellos. +Pero el electrn tambin tiene un compaero neutro llamado neutrino, carente de carga elctrica, y con una diminuta masa. +En contraste, los quarks arriba-y-abajo tienen masas muy grandes, y se combinan en tros para hacer los protones y neutrones dentro de los tomos. +Todas estas partculas de masa vienen en variantes zurdas y diestras, y tienen compaeras anti-partculas con cargas opuestas. +Esta partculas conocidas tambin tienen, menos conocidas, segundas y terceras generaciones, con las mismas cargas pero masas mucho mayores. +Todas estas partculas de masa interactan con las partculas de fuerza. +La fuera electromagntica interacta con materia cargada elctricamente a travs de partculas llamadas fotones. +Tambin existe una fuerza dbil llamada, no muy originalmente, la fuerza dbil que interacta slo con materia zurda. +La fuerza fuerte acta entre quarks que transportan un diferente tipo de carga, llamada carga de color, y vienen en tres diferentes tipos: rojo, verde y azul. +Pueden culpar Murray Gell-Mann por estos nombres - son su culpa. +Finalmente, existe la fuerza de la gravedad, que interacta entre materia a travs de su masa y spin. +Lo ms importante para entender aqu es que existe un tipo diferente de carga asociada a cada una de estas fuerzas. +Estas cuatro fuerzas diferentes interactan con materia de acuerdo a las cargas correspondientes de cada partcula. +Una partcula que an no ha sido vista, pero que estamos casi seguros que existe es la partcula de Higgs que le da masa a todas estas otras partculas. +El objetivo principal del Gran Colisionador de Hadrones es poder observar esta partcula de Higgs, y estamos casi seguros que lo conseguir. +Pero el mayor misterio es qu ms podramos ver. +Y les voy a mostrar una bella posibilidad hacia el final de esta charla. +Ahora, si contamos todas estas diferentes partculas usando sus diferente spins y cargas, existen 226. +Son un montn de partculas para seguirles el rastro. +Y resulta extrao que la naturaleza tuviera tantas partculas elementales. +Pero si las graficamos de acuerdo a sus cargas, algunos bellos patrones emergen. +La carga ms conocida es la carga elctrica. +Los electrones tienen una carga elctrica, negativa, y los quarks tienen cargas elctricas en tercios. +As que cuando dos quarks arriba y un quark abajo son combinados para hacer un protn, tiene una carga elctrica total de ms uno. +Las partculas tambin tienen anti-partculas con cargas opuestas. +Ahora, resulta que las cargas elctricas en realidad tienen una combinacin de otras dos cargas: hiper-carga y carga dbil. +Si separamos la hiper-carga y la carga dbil y graficamos las cargas de las partculas en este espacio bi-dimensional de cargas, la carga elctrica es donde las partculas se apoyan a lo largo de la direccin vertical. +Las fuerzas electromagntica y dbil interactan con la materia de acuerdo a su hiper-carga y carga dbil, lo cual genera este patrn. +Esto es llamado el Modelo Electro-dbil Unificado, y fue confeccionado en 1967. +La razn por la cual la mayora de nosotros slo conocemos la carga elctrica y no stas dos, es debido a la partcula de Higgs. +La partcula de Higgs, aqu a la izquierda, tiene una gran masa y rompe la simetra del patrn electro-dbil. +Hace a la fuerza dbil, muy dbil dndole a las partculas dbiles una gran masa. +Como esta partcula Higgs masiva se apoya sobre la direccin horizontal en este diagrama, los protones del electromagnetismo se mantienen sin masa e interactan con la carga elctrica sobre la direccin vertical en este espacio de cargas. +As que la fuerzas electromagnticas y dbil son descriptas por este patrn de carga de partculas en un espacio bi-dimensional. +Podemos incluir la fuerza fuerte separando las dos direcciones de carga y graficando las cargas de las partculas de fuerza en quarks sobre estas direcciones. +Las cargas de todas las partculas conocidas puede ser graficadas en un espacio cuatri-dimensional de cargas, y proyectado hacia abajo sobre dos dimensiones como stas para que podamos verlas. +Cuando las partculas interactan, la naturaleza mantiene las cosas en perfecto balance a travs de estas cuatro direcciones de carga. +Si una partcula y anti-partcula colisiona, crea un rfaga de energa y una carga total de cero en las cuatro direcciones de carga. +En este punto, cualquier cosa puede ser creada mientras tenga la misma energa y mantenga una carga total de cero. +Por ejemplo, esta partcula de fuerza dbil y su anti-partcula pueden ser creadas en una colisin. +En sucesivas interacciones, las cargas deben mantenerse balanceadas. +Una de las partculas dbiles puede decaer en un electrn y un anti-neutrino, y estas tres an mantienen una carga total de cero. +La naturaleza siempre mantiene un equilibrio perfecto. +Por lo tanto, estos patrones de carga no son slo lindos. +Nos dicen qu interacciones son vlidas y pueden ocurrir. +Y podemos rotar este espacio de cargas en cuatro dimensiones para tener una mejor visin de la interaccin fuerte, que tiene esta linda simetra hexagonal. +En una interaccin fuerte, una partcula fuerte, como sta, interacta con un quark de color, como este verde, para dar un quark de diferente color - este rojo. +Y las interacciones fuertes estn ocurriendo millones de veces cada segundo, en cada tomo de nuestro cuerpos, manteniendo junto el ncleo del tomo. +Pero estas cuatro cargas, correspondientes a tres fuerzas no son el fin de la historia. +Podemos incluir tambin dos cargas ms correspondientes a la fuerza gravitatoria. +Cuando incluimos stas, cada partcula de masa tiene dos spin diferentes, spin-arriba y spin-abajo. +Asi que todos se separan, y dan un lindo patrn en un espacio de cargas de seis dimensiones. +Podemos rotar este patrn en seis dimensiones, y ver que es bastante lindo. +Actualmente, este patrn coincide con nuestro mejor conocimiento sobre cmo est construida la naturaleza a escalas pequeas a partir de estas partculas elementales. +Esto es lo que sabemos con certeza. +Algunas de estas partculas estn bien al lmite de lo que hemos podido alcanzar con experimentos. +A parti de este patrn, ya sabemos la fsica de las partculas de estas pequeas escalas. La forma en que funciona el universo a estas escalas es muy bello. +Pero ahora voy a discutir algunas nuevas y viejas ideas sobre cosas que an no conocemos. +Queremos expandir este patrn usando nicamente matemticas, y ver si podemos vislumbrar el panorama completo. +Queremos encontrar todas las partculas y fuerzas que componen la imagen del universo. +Y queremos usar esta imagen para predecir nuevas partculas que veremos cuando los experimentos alcancen energas an mayores. +Entonces, existe una vieja idea en la fsica de partculas de que este patrn de cargas conocido, que no es muy simtrico, podra emerger a partir de un patrn ms perfecto que se rompe, as como la partcula de Higgs desarma el patrn electro-dbil para dar origen al electromagnetismo. +Para lograr esto, debemos introducir nuevas fuerzas con nuevas direcciones de carga. +Cuando introducimos una nueva direccin, debemos advinar qu cargas tienen las partculas a lo largo de esta direccin, y luego podemos rotarla junto con las otras. +Si adivinamos sabiamente, podemos construir las cargas estndar en seis dimensiones de carga como una simetra parcial de este patrn ms perfecto en siete dimensiones de carga. +Esta eleccin particular corresponde a una gran teora unificada presentada por Pati y Salam en 1973. +Cuando vemos este nuevo patrn unificado, podemos ver algunos agujeros donde parecen faltar partculas. +As funcionan las teoras unificadas. +Un fsico busca patrones ms grande y simtricos que incluyan el patrn ya establecido como subconjunto. +El patrn mayor nos permite predecir la existencia de particular que nunca han sido vistas. +Este modelo de unificacin predice la existencia de estas dos nueva partculas de fuerza, quede deberan actuar muy similar a la fuerza dbil, solo que ms dbiles. +Ahora podemos rotar este conjunto de cargas en siete dimensiones y considerar un curioso hecho sobre las partculas de masa: las segunda y tercera generacin de materia tienen exactamente las mismas cargas en el espacio hexa-dimensional de cargas que la primera generacin. +Estas partculas no son identificadas nicamente por sus seis cargas. +Se apoyan cada una arriba da la otra en el espacio de carga estndar. +Sin embargo, si trabajamos en un espacio de carga octa-dimensional, entonces podemos asignar cargas nicas a cada partcula. +Luego podemos girar stas en ocho dimensiones, y ver cmo luce el patrn completo. +Aqu podemos ver la segunda y tercera generacin de materia, que ahora se relaciona con la primera generacin a travs de una simetra llamada "trialidad". +Este patrn particular de cargas en ocho dimensiones en realidad forma parte de la estructura geomtrica ms bella de las matemticas. +Es un patrn del grupo Lie excepcional ms grande: E8. +Este grupo Lie es una figura suave, curvada con 248 dimensiones. +Cada punto de este patrn corresponde a una simetra sobre esta forma bella y compleja. +One pequea parte de esta figura E8 puede ser usada para describir el espacio curvo de la teora general de la relatividad de Einstein que explica la gravedad. +Junto con la fsica cuntica, la geometra de esta figura podra describir todo sobre el funcionamiento del universo a sus ms pequeas escalas. +Y el patrn de esta figura viviendo en un espacio de carga octa-dimensional es exquisitamente bello, y resume miles de posibles interacciones entre estas partculas elementales, cada una de las cuales es simplemente una faceta de esta complicada figura. +A medida que lo giramos, podemos ver varios de los otros patrones intrincados contenidos en ste. +Y con una rotacin particular, podemos observar a travs de este patrn en ocho dimensiones a lo largo del eje de simetra y ver todas las particular de una. +Es un objeto muy hermoso, y como en cualquier unificacin, podemos ver algunos huecos donde nuevas partculas son necesarias para completar este patrn. +Hay 20 huecos donde las nuevas partculas deberan estar, dos de los cuales han sido llenados por las de Pati y Salam. +Por su ubicacin en este patrn, sabemos que estas nuevas partculas deberan ser campos escalares como la partcula de Higgs, pero tener carga de color e interactuar con la fuerza fuerte. +Agregar estas nuevas partculas completa este patrn, dndonos el completo E8. +Este patrn E8 tiene races matemticas muy profundas. +Para muchos, es considerado la estructura ms hermosa de las matemticas. +Es una perspectiva fantstica que este objeto de gran belleza matemtica pudiese describir la verdad sobre la interaccin de partculas a las menores escalas imaginables. +Y esta idea de que la naturaleza es descripta por matemticas no es para nada nueva. +En 1623, Galileo escribi esto: "El gran libro de la naturaleza, continamente abierto a nuestra contemplacin, est escrito en el lenguaje de las matemticas +Sus personajes son tringulos, crculos y otras figuras geomtricas, sin las cuales es humanamente imposible entender una sola palabra del mismo; sin stas, uno vaga en crculos sobre un oscuro laberinto" +Creo firmemente que esto es cierto, y he intentado seguir la gua de Galileo describiendo las matemticas de la fsica de partculas usando slo tringulos, crculos y otra figuras geomtricas. +Obviamente, cuando otro fsicos y yo realmente trabajamos en esto, las matemticas involucradas pueden asemejarse a un oscuro laberinto. +Pero es tranquilizador pensar que el corazn de estas matemticas es pura y hermosa geometra. +Junto con la mecnica cuntica, esta matemtica describe nuestro universo como un coral E8 en crecimiento, con partculas interactuando en todas las ubicaciones, de todas las formas posibles de acuerdo a un hermoso patrn. +Y a medida que ms partes del patrn salen a la vistas con nuevas mquinas como el Gran Colisionador de Hadrones, posiblemente seamos capaces de ver si la naturaleza usa este patrn E8 o uno diferente. +Este proceso de descubrimiento es una aventura maravillosa en la que estar involucrado. +Si el GCH encuentra partculas que encajen en este patrn E8 eso va a estar muy, muy bueno. +Si el GHC encuentra nuevas partculas, pero stas no encajan en este patrn - bueno, eso va a estar muy interesante, pero ser malo para esta teora E8. +Y, por supuesto, malo para mi personalmente. +Ahora, qu tan malo podra ser eso? +Bueno, muy malo. +Pero predecir cmo funciona la naturaleza es un juego muy riesgoso. +Esta teora y otras similares son a largo plazo. +Uno realiza un montn de trabajo duro sabiendo que muchas de estas ideas probablemente terminen no reflejando la verdad de la naturaleza. +As es el trabajo trabajo en fsica terica: hay un montn de extinciones. +En este sentido, las nuevas teoras fsicas son muy similares a las empresas start-up +Como cualquier gran inversin, puede ser difcil emocionalmente tener que abandonar una lnea de investigacin cuando no est funcionando. +Pero en la ciencia, si algo no funciona, tiene que tirarlo y probar algo diferente. +Ahora, la nica forma de mantener la cordura y obtener la felicidad en el medio de esta incertidumbre es mantener un balance y perspectiva en la vida. +Ahora, yo he intentado lo mejor posible vivir una vida equilibrada. +Yo intento balancear mi vida equitativamente entre la fsica, el amor y el surf, mis propias tres direcciones de carga. +De esta forma, incluso si la fsica en la que trabajo termina en nada, an se que he vivido una buen vida. +E intento vivir en lugares hermosos. +La mayor parte de los ltimos diez aos he vivido en la isla de Maui, un lugar muy hermoso. +Ahora, uno de los grandes misterios del universo para mis padres es como he conseguido sobrevivir todo ese tiempo sin involucrarme en nada relacionado con empleo tiempo completo. +Les voy a compartir mi secreto. +Esta era una vista de mi oficina casera en Maui. +Y sta, y sta. +Y pueden haber notado que estas hermosas vistas son similares, pero en ubicaciones ligeramente diferentes. +Eso es porque este sola ser mi casa y oficina en Maui. +He escogido una vida muy inusual. +Pero el no preocuparme de la renta me ha permitido gastar mi tiempo haciendo lo que amo. +Vivir una vida nmade ha sido duro por momentos, pero me ha permitido vivir en lugares hermosos y mantener un balance en mi vida que me ha hecho feliz. +Me permite pasar un montn de tiempo con coral hiper-inteligente. +Pero tambin disfruto mucho de la compaa de personas hiper-inteligentes. +Por lo que estoy muy feliz de haber sido invitado hoy aqu. +Muchas gracias. +Chirs Anderson: Probablemente entend dos por-ciento de eso, pero an as me encant. As que voy a sonar un poco tonto. +Tu Teora del Todo -- Garret Lisi: Estoy acostumbrado al coral. +CA: Correcto, la razn por la cual atrajo la atencin de alguna gente es porque, si ests en lo cierto, permitir unificar la gravedad y la teora cuntica. +Entonces dices que deberamos pensar en el universo en su corazn, que las cosas ms pequeas que existen son de alguna forma un objeto E8 de posibildades? +Quiero decir, existe alguna escala sobre eso, en la ms pequea escala, en tu mente, o ...? +GL: Bueno, justo ahora el patrn que acabo de mostrar corresponde a lo que conocemos sobre fsica de partculas elementales, que ya de por s corresponden a una muy hermosa figura. +Y esa es la que que dije que conocemos con certeza. +Y esa figura tiene notables similaridades, y la forma en que encaja en este patrn E8 podra ser el resto de la imagen. +Y este patrn de puntos que les he mostrado en realidad representa simetras de este objeto de altas dimensiones que estara deformndose, moviendo y baliando sobre el espacio tiempo que nosotros percibimos. +Y eso sera lo que explicara todas estas partculas elementales que vemos. +CA: Pero un terico de cuerdas, como yo lo entiendo, explica a los electrones en trminos de cuerdas mucho ms pequeas vibrando -- Se que no te gusta la teora de cuerdas -- vibrando dentro de l. +Cmo deberamos pensar en un electrn en relacin con el E8? +GL: No, sera una de las simetras de esta figura E8. +Entonces lo que sucede es que, mientras la figura se mueve sobre el espacio tiempo se est enroscando. Y la direccin que se enrosca a medida que se mueve es la partcula que vemos. Entonces, sera -- CA: El tamao de la figura E8, cmo se relaciona con el del electrn? +Siento que preciso ese dato para hacerme la imagen. +Es mayor o menor? +GL: Bueno, hasta donde sabemos, los electrones son partculas puntuales as que esto ira hasta la escala ms chica posible. +Entonces la forma en que estas cosas son explicadas en la teora cuntica es, todas las posibilidades se estn expandiendo y desarrollando a la vez. +Y por eso es que uso la analoga con el coral. +Y de esta forma, la forma en que entra en juego el E8 sera como una figura que est atada en cada punto en el espacio tiempo. +Y, como dije, la forma en que se enrosca la figura, la direccin a lo largo de la cual se enrosca a medida que se mueve sobre su superficie curva, es lo son las partculas elementales, en si mismas. +Entonces a travs de la teora cuntica, se manifiestan como puntos e interactan de esa forma. +No se si ser capaz de explicar esto ms claramente. +CA: En realidad no importa. +Est evocando un especie de sentido de asombro, y definitivamente quiero entender ms sobre esto. +Pero muchas gracias por venir. Eso fue absolutamente fascinante. +Me interesa el diseo; soy curadora de arquitectura y diseo. Casualmente, soy del Museo de Arte Moderno, +pero lo que importa -- aquello de lo que vamos a conversar hoy -- es realmente diseo. Los diseadores muy buenos son como esponjas. Son muy curiosos y absorben todo tipo de informacin que sirva a sus propsitos, y la transforman para que pueda ser usada por gente como nosotros. +Y eso me brinda una oportunidad, porque cada muestra de diseo que organizo, en cierto modo, explora un mundo diferente. Y eso es fabuloso, porque parece como si cambiara de trabajo a cada rato. +Y lo que voy a hacer hoy es darles un anticipo de la prxima exposicin sobre la que estoy trabajando, llamada, "El Diseo y la Mente Elstica". +El mundo que he decidido enfocar, en este momento, es el mundo de la ciencia y la tecnologa. +La tecnologa siempre entra en juego cuando el diseo est involucrado, pero la ciencia lo hace un poco menos. +Pero los diseadores son fenomenales tomando a las grandes revoluciones que se producen y transformndolas para que podamos usarlas. +Y esto es lo que esta exposicin explora. +Si piensas en tu vida hoy, cada da pasas por escalas muy diversas, cambios muy diversos de ritmo y pauta. +Trabajas en diversas zonas horarias, hablas con gente muy diversa, t "multioperas". Todos lo sabemos, y lo hacemos ms o menos automticamente. +Algunas de las mentes de esta audiencia son superelsticas, otras un poco ms lentas, otras tienen un poquito de estras, pero sin embargo sta es una audiencia completamente excepcional desde ese punto de vista. +Otra gente no es tan elstica. +No puedo poner a mi padre en Italia a trabajar en Internet. +l no desea colocar Internet de alta velocidad en casa. +Y eso se debe a que hay un poco de temor, un poco de resistencia o simples mecanismos de obstruccin. +As que los diseadores trabajan en este malestar particular que tenemos, este tipo de incomodidades que tenemos, e intentan hacernos la vida ms fcil. +Elasticidad mental es algo que realmente necesitamos, saben, realmente necesitamos, realmente apreciamos y realmente nos ocupa. +Y esta exposicin trata sobre el trabajo de diseadores que nos ayudan a ser ms elsticos, y tambin, de diseadores que realmente trabajan en esta elasticidad como una oportunidad. Y una ltima cosa es que no son nicamente diseadores sino tambin cientficos. +Y antes de que me lance a la proyeccin de algunas diapositivas y al preestreno, quisiera puntualizar este bello detalle sobre los cientficos y el diseo. +Puedes decir que la relacin entre ciencia y diseo remonta siglos. Seguro que puedes hablar acerca de Leonardo da Vinci, de muchos otros hombres y mujeres renacentistas, y hay una gigantesca historia detrs de ello. +Pero segn un gran historiador de la ciencia que podran conocer Peter Galison -- l ensea en Harvard -- lo que la nanotecnologa en particular y la fsica cuntica han brindado a los diseadores es este renovado inters, esta verdadera pasin por el diseo. +As que bsicamente, la idea de poder construir cosas de abajo a arriba, tomo por tomo, ha hecho de todos ellos zurcidores. +Y sbitamente los cientficos estn buscando diseadores, igual que los diseadores estn buscando cientficos. +Es una flamante aventura amorosa que estamos intentando cultivar en el MoMA, junto a Adam Bly, quien es fundador de la revista Seed -- ahora compaa multimedia, pudieran conocerla -- fundamos hace como un ao un saln mensual en el nterin para diseadores y cientficos, y es muy hermoso. +Y Keith ha venido, y tambin Jonathan ha venido y muchos otros. +Y fue grandioso, porque al comienzo era esta fiesta de disculpas, saben, los cientficos les diran a los diseadores, saben, no s qu estilo es, no soy muy elegante. +Y a los diseadores gustara, oh, no s cmo hacer una ecuacin, no entiendo lo que estn diciendo. Y luego, de repente los unos realmente comenzaron a hablar el idioma de los otros, y ahora ya estamos en el punto en que ellos colaboran. +Saben, Paul Steihardt, un fsico de Nueva York, y Aranda/Lasch, arquitectos, colaboraron en una instalacin en la Serpentine de Londres. +Y es muy interesante ver cmo sucede esto. +La exposicin hablar sobre el trabajo de ambos, diseadores y cientficos, y muestra cmo ellos nos estn presentando las posibilidades del futuro. +Y saben, estoy ensendoles diferentes secciones de la muestra ahorita, slo para darles de probar, +pero la nanofsica y la nanotecnologa, por ejemplo, realmente han abierto la mente de los diseadores. +En este caso, estoy mostrando ms el trabajo de los diseadores, porque ellos son los que realmente han estado estimulados. +Un montn de objetos en la muestra son conceptos, no objetos reales que ya existan. Pero lo que estn viendo aqu es el trabajo de algunos cientficos de UCLA. +Esta suerte de sopa de letras es una nueva manera de marcar protenas, no slo por color sino por, literalmente, letras del alfabeto. +Nuevos elementos sensores sobre el cuerpo. Puedes hacer crecer cabellos en tus uas, y consecuentemente atrapar algunas partculas de otra personas. +Parecen muy, muy obsesionados con averiguar ms sobre el compaero ideal. +As que estn trabajando para mejorar todo -- tacto, olfato, todo lo que puedan, para hallar la pareja perfecta. +Muy interesante. Y por su parte, ste es un diseador tipogrfico israel que ha diseado -- los llama "tiposperma". +l est pensando -- claro que es todo un concepto -- en inyectar letras en el esperma, y dentro del espermatozoa -- no s cmo decirlo en ingls -- espermatozoide, para hacerlos transformar -- para casi tener una cancin o todo un poema escrito con cada eyaculacin. . Se los dije, los diseadores son absolutamente fantsticos, saben. +As que, diseo de "T-shirt" [camiseta]. +Tambin en este caso, tienen una mezcla de cientficos y diseadores. +Esto aqu es parte del mismo laboratorio del Royal College of Arts. +El RCA es una escuela totalmente sorprendente desde ese punto de vista. +Una de las asignaciones de un ao fue trabajar con carne "in vitro". +Saben que ya pueden producir carne "in vitro". +En Australia lo hicieron -- esta compaa de investigaciones, llamada SymbioticA. +Pero el problema est en que es una tartaleta muy fea. +Y por lo tanto, la asignacin para los estudiantes fue, cmo debera ser el filete del maana? +Cuando no tienes que matar vacas y puede tener cualquier forma, como qu debera ser? +Por lo que este estudiante en particular, James King, recorri toda la hermosa campia inglesa, seleccion la mejor, mejor vaca que pudo ver, y luego la coloc en el equipo de IRM. +Y luego tom los escneres de los mejores rganos e hizo la carne. Claro, sta se elabor con una resina japonesa para simuladores de comida, pero saben, en el futuro podra hacerse mejor. Pero lo que representa es la mejor imagen de IRM de la vaca que pudo hallar. +Y a la vez, este elemento aqu es mucho ms banal. +Algo que saben que ya puede hacerse es cultivar tejido seo para que puedas elaborar un anillo de bodas del tejido seo de tu ser amado -- literalmente. +As que, ste en verdad est hecho con tejido seo humano. +sta es SymbioticA y saben, han estado trabajando, fueron unos de los primeros en hacer esta carne "in vitro", y ahora tambin han hecho una cobertura "in vitro", una cobertura de cuero. +Es minscula, pero es una verdadera capa. Est formada como una. +As que, podremos, en verdad, no tener ninguna excusa para llevar todo en cuero en un futuro. +Uno de los tpicos ms importantes de la muestra, saben, como cualquier cosa en nuestra vida hoy, podemos observarla desde muchos, muchos puntos de vista, y a diferentes niveles. +Uno de los ms interesantes e importantes conceptos es la idea de escala. Cambiamos de escala muy a menudo, cambiamos la resolucin de las pantallas, y no nos -- no estamos verdaderamente afectados por ello, lo hacemos muy cmodamente. +As que vas, an en la exposicin, desde la idea de la nanotecnologa y la nanoescala hasta la manipulacin de cantidades de data realmente grandes; el mapeado y etiquetado del universo y del mundo. +Y en este caso particular, una seccin estar dedicada al diseo de informacin. +Y aqu ven el trabajo de Ben Fry. Esto es humanos contra chimpancs, los pocos cromosomas que nos distinguen de los chimpancs. +Era una hermosa visualizacin que hizo para la revista Seed. +Y aqu est visualizado el cdigo completo del Pac-Man con todos los "avanza", "regresa", hecho tambin una hermosa coreografa. +Y luego tambin las grficas de los cientficos, este bello diagrama de homologa de protenas. +Los cientficos estn comenzando a considerar la esttica tambin. +Estuvimos discutiendo con Keith Shrubb esta maana el hecho de que muchos cientficos tienden a no utilizar nada bello en sus presentaciones, de lo contrario tienen el temor de ser considerados rubias tontas. +Por lo que seleccionan el peor fondo de cualquier tipo de presentacin PowerPoint, la peor letra. +Es apenas ahora que este tipo de matrimonio entre diseo y ciencia est produciendo algunas de las primeras "bonitas" -- si podemos decirlo -- presentaciones cientficas. +Otro aspecto del diseo contemporneo que creo est abriendo mentes, prometiendo y en verdad ser el futuro del diseo, es la idea de diseo colectivo. +Saben, todo el porttil XO, de Un Porttil por Nio, se basa en la idea de colaboracin y combinacin de datos y redes. +As que cuanto ms mejor. +A ms computadoras, ms fuerte es la seal, y los nios trabajan en la interfaz as que todo se basa en hacer las cosas juntos, tareas juntos. +As que la idea de diseo colectivo es algo que ser an mayor en el futuro, y ste es el ejemplo elegido. +Relacionado con la idea de diseo colectivo y con el nuevo balance entre el individuo y la [difusa] actividad colectiva, es la idea de la mxima existencia. +Que es un trmino que acu hace pocos aos mientras estaba pensando en cun apretujados estamos, y al mismo tiempo, cmo estos pequeos objetos, como el Walkman, primero y luego el iPod, crean burbujas de espacio alrededor nuestro que nos permiten poseer un espacio metafsico mucho mayor que nuestro espacio fsico. +Puedes estar en el metro y estar completamente aislado y tener tu propio cuarto en tu iPod. +Y ste es el trabajo de varios diseadores que realmente mejoran la idea de soledad y expansin por medio de varias tcnicas. +Y lo mismo aqu, Tele-presencia Social. +De hecho ya es un poco utilizada por militares, slo es la idea de poder estar en otro lugar con tus sentidos mientras eres retirado de ah fsicamente. +Y ste es llamado Cita a Ciegas. Es una [confuso] as que si eres demasiado tmido para estar realmente en la cita, entonces permaneces a distancia con tus flores y alguien ms recrea la cita por ti. +La manufactura rpida es otra gran idea en la que tecnologa y diseo estn, pienso, pienso, enlazados para cambiar el mundo. Ustedes lo han odo mucho antes. +La manufactura rpida es un archivo de computadora enviado directamente de la computadora a la mquina fabricadora. +Suele ser llamada prototipado rpido, modelado rpido. +Arranc en los 80, pero al comienzo se trat de mquinas que tallaban a partir de un bloque de espuma un modelo que era muy, muy frgil, y que no poda tener una utilidad real. +Lento pero seguro, los materiales mejoraron -- mejores resinas. +Las tcnicas mejoraron -- no slo la talla sino tambin la estereolitografa y el lser, solidificando todo tipo de resinas, sea en polvo o en forma lquida. Y los tanques se hicieron ms grandes, al punto de que ahora podemos obtener verdaderas sillas hechas por manufactura rpida. +Hoy, toma siete das fabricar una silla, pero saben qu? Un da, tomar siete horas. +Y entonces el sueo es que podrs, desde casa, personalizar tu silla. Saben, empresas y diseadores estarn diseando la matriz o los mrgenes que respeten tanto solidez y marca, como identidad de diseo. +Y luego puedes enviarla a la tienda Kinko de la esquina e ir a buscar tu silla. Ahora, las implicaciones de esto son enormes, no slo en cuanto a la participacin del comprador final en el proceso de diseo, sino tambin porque no hay seguimiento, ni almacenamiento, ni materiales de desecho. +Y adems, puedo imaginar que muchos fabricantes de diseo, en cierto modo, tendrn que actualizar sus propios planes de negocio y quizs invertir en esta tienda Kinko. Pero en verdad es un gran cambio. +Y aqu estoy mostrando una foto que sali en la revista WIRED, saben, los Artefactos del Futuro, la seccin que tanto adoro, que muestra que puedes tener tu impresora 3D de escritorio e imprimir tu propia pelota de baloncesto. +Pero aqu, en cambio, estn otros ejemplos, ya puedes imprimir textiles 3D, lo cual es muy interesante. +Esto es apenas un toque muy agradable -- llamado prototipado lento. +Es de un diseador que puso a trabajar 10.000 abejas y construyeron este vaso. +Tenan una forma especial para permanecer all. +Mapeado y etiquetado. +Como la capacidad de las computadoras se vuelve muy, muy grande, y la capacidad de nuestra mente no mucho mayor, encontramos necesario etiquetar tanto como podamos lo que hacemos para que luego volvamos sobre nuestro trayecto. +Adems, lo hacemos para compartir con otras personas. +Nuevamente, este sentido comunitario de la experiencia que hoy parece ser tan importante. +As, varias formas de mapear y etiquetar son, tambin, el trabajo de muchos diseadores hoy en da. +Los sentidos. Diseadores y cientficos trabajan con la intencin de expandir nuestras capacidades sensoriales para que podamos lograr ms. +Y tambin, los sentidos de los animales de algn modo. +Y as este estudiante de la RCA dise este bello objeto de vidrio soplado donde las abejas se mueven de una cmara a otra si detectan ese olor particular que significa, en este caso, preez. +Otra forma se elabor para el cncer. +Diseo por Debate es un nuevo esfuerzo muy interesante que los diseadores han conformado por s mismos. +Algunos diseadores no disean objetos, productos, cosas que realmente vamos a usar, sino ms bien, disean escenarios que estn basados en objetos. +An as, son muy tiles. +Ayudan a las compaas y a otros diseadores a pensar mejor sobre el futuro. +Y usualmente, estn acompaados por videos. +ste es absolutamente bello. Es Dunne y Raby, "Todos los Robots" +Esos son una serie de robots que estn diseados para ser atendidos. +Siempre pensamos que los robots cuidarn de nosotros, y, en cambio, ellos disearon estos robots que estn muy, muy necesitados. +Necesitas tomar uno en tus brazos y mirarle a los ojos por casi cinco minutos antes de que haga algo. +El otro se pone muy, muy nervioso si lo metes en el cuarto, y comienza a sacudirse, as que tienes que calmarlo. +Por lo tanto, en realidad es una manera de hacernos pensar ms sobre lo que los robots significan para nosotros. +Noam Toran y "Accesorios para Hombres Solitarios". La idea es que cuando pierdes a tu ser querido o atraviesas una mala separacin, lo que ms extraas son aquellas cosas fastidiosas que solas odiar cuando estabas con la otra persona. +As que dise toda esta serie de accesorios. +Como ste que es algo que te quita las sbanas durante la noche. +Luego, hay otro que respira sobre tu nuca. +Hay otro que lanza los platos y los rompe. +As, es justo esta idea de lo que en realidad extraamos en la vida. +Elio Caccavale -- en cambio, tom la idea de esos muecos que explican la leucemia. +l est trabajando con muecos que explican el transplante de seno, y tambin el gen de la araa introducido en la cabra, hace pocos aos. +Est trabajando para la exposicin en una serie completa de muecos que explican a los nios de dnde vienen los bebs hoy. +Porque ya no es Mami, Papi, las flores y las abejas y despus aparece el beb. No, pueden ser dos mams, tres paps, "in vitro" -- hay toda una idea de cmo pueden hacerse los bebs hoy en da que ha cambiado. +As que es una serie de muecos en los que est trabajando ahora mismo. +Una de las cosas ms bellas es que los diseadores realmente no trabajan con la vida, aunque tomen en cuenta a la tecnologa. +Y muchos diseadores recientemente han estado trabajando con la idea de la muerte y el luto, y lo que hoy podemos hacer sobre ello, con nuevas tecnologas. +O cmo deberamos comportarnos ante ello con nuevas tecnologas. +Estos tres objetos all encima son discos duros encendidos con una conexin Bluetooth. Pero en realidad son muy, muy bellos artefactos esculpidos que contienen todo el escritorio y la memoria de la computadora de alguien que falleci. +As que, en vez de tener slo las fotos, podrs colocar este objeto cerca de la computadora y tener de inmediato, sabes, Toda la vida de Gertrude, y todos sus archivos y su libreta de direcciones cobran vida. +Y ste es an mejor. ste es Auger-Loizeau, "AfterLife". +Sobre la idea de que alguna gente no cree en un despus de la vida. +As que para darles algo tangible que muestre que hay algo ms all de la muerte, toman los jugos gstricos de gente que falleci y los concentran, y los colocan en una batera que de hecho puede usarse para alimentar linternas. Tambin sirven con -- saben, juguetes sexuales, lo que sea. +Es bastante sorprendente cmo estas cosas pueden hacerte sonrer, pueden hacerte rer, pueden hacerte llorar a veces. +Pero estoy esperando que esta exposicin en particular sea capaz de trazar un nuevo retrato de adnde va el diseo, lo cual siempre es, con suerte, un retrato con pocos aos de ventaja de adnde se dirige el mundo. +Muchas gracias. +Todos ustedes conocen esta historia. +En el verano de 1950, Enrico Fermi, fsico italo-americano y constructor de pilas atmicas, fue a almorzar a Los Alamos National Laboratory junto a algunos colegas, y les hizo esta pregunta: "dnde est todo el mundo?" +Esto desconcert a sus colegas, obviamente, pues estaban sentados all junto a l. +Entonces tuvo que aclarar que no estaba hablando de ellos. +Estaba hablando de aliengenas del espacio. +Vern, esto fue pocos aos despus del supuesto accidente del plato volador en Roswell, New Mexico. +Y a pesar de que result no ser nada, nada en absoluto -- simplemente un globo meteorolgico derribado pilotado por hombrecitos calvos con ranuras en vez de bocas. +An as, Los Estados Unidos se volvieron locos por los platos, incluso famosos cientficos que tomaban el almuerzo. +El razonamiento de Fermi, si puedo parafrasear mal, es que el universo es tan vasto que no hay razn para que no haya vida inteligente en algn otro lugar. +Y el universo es tan antiguo que a menos a menos que fusemos la primera civilizacin en evolucionar, deberamos tener ya alguna evidencia de su existencia. +Y sin embargo, por lo que mejor sabemos, estamos solos. +"Dnde est todo el mundo?" se preguntaba Fermi, y sus colegas no tenan respuestas. +Fermi siguio con esta misma lgica contundente refutando hadas, Pies grandes, Dios, la posibilidad de amar -- de ah en adelante, como sabrn, Enrico Fermi comera solo. +Ahora, no soy cientfico. +Nunca he construido una pila atmica. +Aunque, podra arguir que, tcnicamente, toda pila es atmica. +Sin embargo, respetuosamente, podra indicar 2 posibilidades que tal vez Enrico Fermi no consider. +Una es que los aliengenas podran estar muy lejos. +Hasta, me atrevera a decir, incluso en otros planetas. +La otra posibilidad -- es, tal vez, que el mismo Enrico Fermi fuera un aliengena. +Pinselo. +No es, al menos, conveniente que en medio de la Guerra Mundial, de la nada, de repente un cientfico italiano sale con una asombrosa nueva tecnologa que podra transformar todo en el mundo y oscurecer nuestra historia humana para siempre? +Y no es un poco extrao que no pidiera ningn pago a cambio? +Que pidiera solo una cosa: dos cachalotes sanos como regalo? +Eso -- eso no es cierto. +Pero es extrao. +Y si Enrico Fermi fuese de hecho un aliengena, no sera el primero en tratar de convencer a sus colegas cientficos de que los aliengenas no estn aqu an? +Es difcil descartar esta teora, creo que estarn de acuerdo. +Incluso en mi propia vida, tengo recuerdos difciles de explicar -- ocurrencias tan peculiares e inexplicablemente raras, que es difcil imaginar que no fueron resultado del prolongado y frecuente contacto con alingenas a lo largo de mi vida. +Sino, cmo podran explicar los asombrosos y absolutamente ciertos encuentros cercanos que tuve y que paso a decribirles ahora? +Primer encuentro: Ocen City, New Jersey, 1980. +Era el verano en que se estren la edicin especial de "Close Encounters of the Third Kind". +Fui de vacaciones con mis padres a la costa de Jersey. +En solo 12 horas, el sol me quem horriblemente, igualito que Richard Dreyfuss en la pelcula. +Y pas la mayor parte del resto de las vacaciones sentado por las noches afuera de nuestra casita alquilada, la vereda an tibia por el sol, buscando OVNIs en los cielos. +Qu vi? Estrellas, satlites, aviones parpadentes -- tpica basura del cielo. +Ocasionalmente, algunos nios venan y se me unan en la bsqueda, pero pronto el cuello les dola, y se iban por el malecn a jugar vdeo juegos y mezclarse con humanos. +Yo era bueno con los vdeo juegos. No era tan bueno con lo otro, as que me quedaba a solas con el cosmos. +Y entonces pas. +Una pareja mayor vena caminando por la calle. +dira que tenan ms de setenta, y dira que estaban en una cita, porque l llevaba un traje muy bien cuidado de corbata amarilla, traje marrn. +Y ella vesta un crdigan, pues ya era de noche, y el fro soplaba desde el mar. +Recuerdo, por alguna razn, que eran exactamente de la misma estatura. +Entonces se detuvieron, y el hombre me mir y dijo: "qu buscas, platos voladores?" +Admtanlo, es demasiado trabajo detectivesco para un anciano en una cita. +Pero lo ms extrao fue -- hasta yo me di cuenta entonces, siendo un nio de nueve aos -- fue que se detuvieran. +Que este anciano interrumpiera el paseo nocturno con su enamorada con el preciso objeto de burlarse de un nio. +"Oh!", dijo, "Hombrecitos verdes!". +Y su novia tambin secund. +"No existen los hombres del espacio", dijo. +"No existen!". +Y ambos se rieron. "Ja, ja, ja". +Mire alrededor. +La calles estaba completamente vaca. +Haba dejado de or el sonido del ocano. +Fue como si el tiempo se hubiera detenido. +No saba porqu se burlaban de m. +MIr sus rostros extraamente agestados, y recuerdo haber pensado: llevan mscaras de goma? +Y qu habr detrs de esas mscaras, si las llevaban? +Ojos gigantes en forma de almendra que no parpadean? +Ranuras en vez de bocas? +El anciano enrosc los dedos como si empuara un arma, y luego hizo sonidos de lser. +quiu, quiu, quiu -- "Cuidado!". +Se volvieron al mismo tiempo y se fueron. +El anciano alarg su huesuda garra hacia la mano de ella, la encontr, y me dejaron solo. +Ahora. Podran describir esto como un simple malentendido -- un extrao encuentro entre humanos. +Tal vez fue un "gas de pantano", pero -- Estoy seguro de lo que vi. +Segundo encuentro cercano: Brookline, Massachusetts, 1984. +Fui a ver la pelcula "Dune". y una chica me habl. Ahora. "En su cara" -- es imposible un "en su cara", soy consciente -- pero es absolutamente cierto. +Era la noche del estreno, naturalmente. +Fui con mi amigo Tim McGonigal, que se sent a mi izquierda. +A mi derecha estaba la chica en cuestin. +Tena el cabello negro largo y ondulado, una chaqueta vaquera. +Recuerdo que tena algn tipo de herida en la rodilla, un vendaje y tena muletas. +Era muy alta, tendra que decir. +Yo recin empezaba la secundaria. Dira que ella estaba en 2 ao, pero nunca la haba visto antes. No iba a mi escuela. +Yo no saba su nombre, y nunca lo sabr. +Estaba sentada con alguien que presumo era su madre, y estaban hablando sobre la novela "Dune". +Ambas eran grandes aficionadas, madre e hija -- muy inusual. +Comentaban que sus personajes favoritos eran los enormes gusanos de arena. +De pronto se puso ms extrao. +Fue cuando se volte hacia m y dijo: "Esperabas la pelcula?" +En primer lugar, estaba avergonzado ya que no haba ledo todava la novela "Dune". +Era entonces un mero conocedor de pelculas de planetas desiertos, y lo sigo siendo. +Pero tambin fue el tono con el que pregunt: a razn de nada, como si ni siquiera le importara la respuesta, como si solo quisiera conversar. +Yo no saba que decir. DIje: "s", +sin siquiera mover la cabeza. +Empez la pelcula. +No necesito recordarles que era la versin de "Dune" de David Lynch, donde todos los personajes son sexis y deformes a la vez. +Haba un personaje llamado the Third-Stage Guild Navigator, que era una especie de feto flotante gigante que viva en un tanque gigante con este halo naranja de especias psicodlicas arremolinndose a su alrededor, que le permitan manejar el espacio y el tiempo. +No poda salir del tanque ni interactuar con el mundo exterior. +Se haba puesto, en su aislamiento, tan deforme y tan sexi, que para hablar con el mundo exterior necesitaba una especie de radio antigua, y nunca poda tocarlos. +Quiero decir, me gustaba mucho ms que los gusanos. +Los gusanos estaban bien, pero tu personaje favorito? +Por favor! +Cuando acab la pelcula, todo el mundo pareca feliz de levantarse y salir de la sala tan rpido como fuera posible. +A excepcin de la chica. +Mientras yo sala, su andar era lento. +Tal vez eran las muletas, pero pareca -- pareca como si quisiera hablarme de nuevo. +Cuando lo digo en voz alta, suena ridculo, pero solo puedo concluir que era lo que en la comunidad de abducidos por aliengenas llaman "memoria pantalla". Un falso y ridculo recuerdo diseado por sus cerebros para cubrir el trauma -- digamos, de ser raptados y llevados a una pirmide sexual. +Por lo tanto, estoy seguro que hice bien en no detenerme para hablarle. +Estoy seguro que hice bien en no verla de nuevo. +Tercer encuentro cercano: Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 1989. +A mediados -- casi finales de los ochenta, el novelista Whitley Striber escribi un libro titulado "Communion", en el que describe sus propias experiencias al ser abducido por aliengenas. +Tambin describe el fenmeno conocido por esta comunidad como "tiempo perdido", donde Whitley Strieber de repente se da cuenta que no poda recordar los ltimos diez minutos, o las ltimas diez horas, o los ltimos diez das. +Y llegar a la conclusin que fue entonces que los aliengenas lo tomaron y le hicieron un examen rectal. +Este libro se convirti, naturalmente, en un enorme xito de ventas. +Esta imagen hecha por Ted Joseph es de ese libro, y fue como su "boceto policaco" de cmo se vea la criatura que Whitley Strieber le describi. +Y fue tan exitoso que fue llevado al cine. +Y en 1989, de la manera en que lo recuerdo, Estaba yo en Philadelphia con -- visitando a mi novia, y decidimos, sin ninguna razn, ir a ver esta pelcula. +Y de la manera en que lo recuerdo, la pelcula contena estos detalles. +Uno: Whitley Strieber fue interpretado por Christopher Walken. +Dos: El aliengena fue interpretado por un mueco de goma. +Tres: Haba una secuencia sorprendentemente larga en la pelclua donde el mueco de goma le hace a Christopher Walken un examen rectal. +Cuatro: Fue exhibida en una sala de cine normal en el centro de Philadelphia. +Cinco: Todo esto para decir, que hicieron una pelcula del libro "Communion", protagonizada por Christopher Walken. +No ven algo extrao en todo esto? +Algo inslito? Algo fuera de lugar? Algo mal en esta imagen? +Pinsenlo. S. La respuesta es: Tena novia. Qu!? +Cmo pas? Cundo pas? +Recuerdo salir del cine y percatarme de pronto de este hecho, mientras caminbamos de la mano, reflexionando sobres estas mismas cuestiones. +Y hasta el da de hoy, no tengo una respuesta. +Cuarto Encuentro Cercano: El Algarve, Portugal, 1991. +Algunas aos despus, esta mujer y yo -- llammosla "Catherine Fletcher" -- fuimos de viaje juntos por el sur de Portugal. +Visitamos viejas ciudades amuralladas derrumbadas, hospedndonos en pequeos hotelillos, trepndonos a los techos para beber Vinho Verde y ver la puesta del sol y jugar damas. +Qu? Eso hicimos? En serio? Alguien hace eso? +Fuimos a playas nudistas. +Por favor? No, nunca en la vida. +Por lo que vale, fuimos a Sagres, que era considerado, en algn momento, el fin del mundo. +Y all estaba yo perseguido por una jaura de perros en el muelles, y el perro cabecilla me mordi el trasero, necesit ir a una extraa clnica portugesa y recibir una inyeccin en el trasero. +Hagan con ello lo que quieran. +Nuestro ltimo da en Portugal, estbamos en Faro, la capital de la regin, y Catherine decidi que quera ir a la playa por ltima vez. +Ahora, Faro es una pequea y bulliciosa ciudad, y para llegar a la playa, explicaba ella, tendramos que tomar un bus y luego un bote, +y pregunt: "quieres ir?" +Pero estaba exhausto y mordido por un perro, entonces dije: "no". +Recuerdo como se vea antes de irse. +Sus pecas haban crecido y multiplicado en su rostro y hombros, agrupndose en una especie de bronceado. +Bronceado, ambos estbamos bronceados. Es cierto? +Sus ojos estaban muy brillosos y muy azules, como consecuencia. +Estaba sonriendo. +Era una mujer soltera a punto de ir sola a un pas, sin ni siquiera hablar el idioma, a punto de viajar sola en bus y bote para ir a una playa que no conoca, ni haba visto nunca. +La am, y luego se fue hacia esa extraa y extica tierra. +Me tom tiempo caer en la cuenta. +Tuve mi propia experiencia de "tiempo perdido", en la que me despert y de pronto me di cuenta que era ya tarde, casi la hora de la cena, y no haba vuelto. +Nervioso, sal a la calle a buscarla. +Ahora. No hablaba portugus. +No saba dnde estaba la playa. +No poda llamarla al celular pues era 1991, y los aliengenas an no nos haban dado esa tecnologa. +Me di cuenta que el da slo tendra dos posibles finales: o Catherine volva al hotel o no volva nunca al hotel. +Entonces me sent a esperar. +No mire los cielos, sino el final de la calle donde los buses y carros y peatones y pequeas motocicletas circulaban. +Y vi esas constelaciones cambiar, esperando que se dividieran y pudiera ver su rostro. +Fue en ese momento, en ese pueblito de 30 mil personas ms o menos, que verdaderamente valor la vastedad del universo y la bsqueda que podramos hacer en l. +Y fue entonces que llegaron los liberianos. +5 jvenes -- todos ellos riendo, felices, de viaje juntos, de regreso al hotel en que se hospedaban. +Uno se llamaba Joseph, y me pregunt que estaba haciendo, y le expliqu. +Y dijo: "no te preocupes". Estaba seguro que Catherine estara bien. +Pero no se vea demasiado seguro, porque sent a esperar conmigo. +Y por las siguientes 2 horas, todos ellos esperaron conmigo: por turnos, yendo a sus habitaciones, regresando, haciendo bromas, distrayndome. +2 horas. Me dieron un mensaje: +no estamos solos. +Entonces, en medio de una frase, cuando naca el ocaso, volte y mir hacia la calle. +Las estrellas se alinearon, y ella estaba de regreso. +Estaba sonriendo. No entenda porqu yo estaba tan preocupado. +Tampoco los liberianos, aunque haba mucho de alivio en sus risas mientras nos palmeaban el hombro, y regresaban a sus habitaciones y nos dejaban solos en la calle, tomados de la mano. +Un acontecimiento como este deja cicatrices en la memoria, como una pieza de tecnologa aliengena que ha sido introducido en tus posaderas por un "doctor portugus". +Incluso ahora, dcada y media despus, incluso ahora que estamos casados, la busc cada vez que no est en la misma habitacin. +Y aunque creo que estarn de acuerdo, es posible que durante el tiempo que se fue, fuera raptada y reemplazada por un clon aliengena, la amo y todava la espero. +Gracias por su amable atencin. +Tal vez se pregunten por qu llevo lentes de sol, y es porque voy a hablar sobre el glamur. +Todos creemos saber qu es el glamur. Aqu lo tenemos. +Estrellas de cine glamurosas, como Marlene Dietrich. +Tambin tiene su versin masculina. Muy glamuroso. +No solo sabe disparar, conducir... sino que bebe vino, de hecho tiene un poco de vino ah... y por supuesto, siempre viste de esmoquin. +Pero pienso que el glamur tiene un significado mucho ms amplio y es el de las estrellas de cine y los personajes de ficcin aunque tambin surge en otras formas. +Una revista? +Desde luego no en sta. +Es la revista menos glamurosa del kiosco, es toda sobre consejos de sexo. +Los consejos de sexo no son glamurosos. +Y Drew Barrymore, aun con su maravilloso encanto, tampoco es glamurosa. +Tambin hay un glamur industrial. +Esta es una foto de Margaret Bourke -White... una de las tantas que hizo. +Fotografas fantsticas y glamurosas de fbricas de acero, de papel y de todo tipo de zonas industriales glamurosas. +Y est el glamur mtico, el del empresario de garaje. +El garaje de Hewlett-Packard. +Sabemos que cualquiera que empieza un negocio en un garaje termina fundando Hewlett-Packard. +Hay glamur en la fsica. +Qu podra ser ms glamuroso que entender el universo entero, la gran unificacin... por cierto, que si eres Brian Greene, mejor. Posee otro tipo de glamur. +Y tenemos, por supuesto, este glamur. +Es muy, muy glamuroso... el glamur del espacio exterior. No el glamur estilo extraterrestre sino la versin bonita y ntida de principio de los aos 60. +Entonces, qu queremos decir con glamur? +Bueno, si quieren saber el significado de glamur, lo que pueden hacer es buscarlo en el diccionario. +Y es incluso mejor si buscan en un diccionario muy antiguo, como en este caso, un diccionario de 1913. +A lo largo de los siglos, la palabra "glamur" ha tenido significados y usos distintos a los que tiene hoy en da. +Tenas un glamour. +No era glamur como cualidad... irradiabas glamur. +El glamur era literalmente un hechizo mgico. +No metafricamente hablando, como hacemos hoy, sino literalmente un hechizo asociado con brujas y gitanos y hasta cierto punto, la magia celta. +Y a travs de los aos, alrededor de finales del siglo XX, comenz a transformarse en esta otra forma de engao... cualquier falso inters en, o en asociacin con, un objeto mediante el cual parece engaosamente magnificado o glorificado. +Sin embargo, el glamur es una ilusin. +El glamur es un hechizo mgico. +Hay algo peligroso en el glamur. A lo largo de la historia, cuando las brujas hechizaban a alguien no era en favor de su inters personal, sino para que actuara en su contra. +Bueno por supuesto, en el siglo XX, el glamur alcanz este significado diferente asociado con Hollywood. +Hedy Lamarr. +Hedy Lamarr dijo: "Cualquiera puede parecer glamuroso, lo nico que hay que hacer es sentarse y parecer estpido". De hecho, con todo el debido respeto a Hedy... sobre la que hablaremos ms adelante, es mucho ms que eso. +Se han realizado una gran cantidad de avances tcnicos promovidos por este glamur hollywoodiense. +Haba profesionales en maquillaje, en retoque, en iluminacin. +Pueden ir al museo de historia de Hollywood, en Hollywood y ver los salones especiales de Max Factor que pint de diferentes colores, segn el cutis de la estrella que fuese a maquillar. +Para tener este retrato sumamente estilizado de algo que no era completamente de este mundo... el retrato de una estrella. +Y de hecho, vemos fotos de estrellas de aspecto glamuroso continuamente, las llaman falso color. +El glamur es una forma de falsificacin, pero una falsificacin con una finalidad concreta. +Puede ser para iluminar a la estrella, para vender una pelcula. +Y requiere mucha tcnica +No es... el glamur no es algo... no te despiertas por la maana glamuroso, da igual quin seas. +Incluso Nicole Kidman no se levanta por la maana glamurosa. +Hay un proceso de idealizacin, glorificacin y dramatizacin, y no solamente en el caso de las personas. +El glamur no tiene que ser necesariamente personas. +La fotografa arquitectnica... Julius Schulman, que ha hablado acerca de la transfiguracin, hizo esta fabulosa y famosa fotografa de la casa Kauffman. +La fotografa arquitectnica es extraordinariamente glamurosa. +Te coloca en ese mundo tan, tan especial. +El arte de las tiras cmicas de Alex Ross, que parece ser extraordinariamente realista, puesto que parte de su estilo es ofrecer una especie de realismo. +Salvo que la luz no es as en el mundo real. +Si un grupo de personas se coloca en fila, los que estn atrs parecen ms pequeos que los que estn delante. Pero no en el mundo del glamur. +De lo que trata el glamour... tom esto de una sinpsis en el ndice de la revista New York, que nos deca que el glamur ha regresado... el glamur tiene que ver con trascender el da a da. +Y creo que eso se acerca a lo que es la esencia que integra todas las clases de glamur. +Un retrato de santa Apolonia hecho en 1543 por Filippino Lippi. +No tengo idea de quin es ella, pero es la equivalente a la supermodelo del siglo XV. +Es un retrato muy glamuroso. +Por qu es glamuroso? +Es glamuroso, primero, porque ella es bella, pero eso no te hace ser glamurosa, eso slo te hace ser bella. +Es refinada, es misteriosa e inspiradora, y esas son las cualidades principales del glamur. +No se le ven los ojos, miran hacia abajo. +No esquivan la mirada exactamente, sino que hay que imaginarse su mundo. +Invita a observar este mundo privilegiado al que pertenece, en el puede estar completamente en paz, mientras sostiene la herramienta que la tortura hasta la muerte. +"La pasin de Cristo" de Mel Gibson... no es glamurosa. +Esto es glamur. Es la "Piet" de Miguel ngel, en la que Mara tiene la misma edad de Jess y ambos se encuentran en un estado feliz y placentero. +El glamur nos invita a vivir en otro mundo. +Tiene que ser misterioso y un poco distante a la vez. Por eso frecuentemenente en estas tomas glamurosas, la persona no mira al pblico. Por eso los lentes de sol son glamurosos, pero no parecen tan fuera de nuestro alcance que nos impidan identificarnos. +De alguna manera, tiene que ser parecido a nosotros. +Como yo digo, en el arte religioso Dios no es glamuroso. +Dios no puede ser glamuroso porque Dios es omnipotente, omnisciente... est fuera de nuestro alcance. +Aun as, se ve en el arte religioso que los santos o la virgen Mara a menudo se retratan, no siempre, en formas glamurosas. +Como dije antes, el glamur no tiene que ver con personas sino que tiene que tener esa cualidad inspiradora. +Qu pasa con Superman? +Aparte del estilo de Alex Ross, que tiene mucho glamur, un aspecto de Superman es que te hace creer que un hombre puede volar. +Y el glamur es todo aquello que te eleva ms all de este mundo hasta un lugar idealizado, perfecto. +Esta es una de las razones por las que los medios de transporte se prestan tanto al glamur. +Cuanta menos experiencia se tenga de ellos, mas glamurosos resultan ser . +Pueden hacer que una foto de un automvil parezca glamurosa, pero no pueden hacer del trfico una imagen glamurosa. +Pueden hacer de una avin una imagen glamurosa, pero no del interior. +El concepto es que le va a llevar a algn lugar, y la historia no es acerca del individuo sentado delante de usted en el avin, que tiene ese pequeo mocoso o que tose mucho. +La historia es acerca del lugar al que usted va, o pensar acerca del lugar al que usted va. +Esa sensacin de ser llevado a algn lugar es una de las razones por las que tenemos el estilismo glamuroso. +Esta forma de racionalizar el estilismo no es glamuroso porque lo asociamos con las pelculas de esa poca, sino porque, en su raciocinio, nos saca de la cotidianidad. +Igualmente... los arcos son muy glamurosos. +Los arcos con vitrales... son an ms glamurosos. +Las escaleras cuyo giro se aleja de campo son muy glamurosas. +Encuentro muy glamurosa la foto de esta escalera en particular porque desde mi punto de vista captura la esencia de la vida acadmica y contemplativa, bueno, tal vez porque estudi en Princeton. +Las lneas del horizonte son muy glamurosas, las calles de las ciudades... no son muy glamurosas. +Cuando de verdad llegas a esa ciudad tiene su realidad. +El horizonte, el camino abierto, es muy, muy glamuroso. +Hay pocas cosas ms glamorusas que el horizonte excepto posiblemente, algo como, muchos horizontes +y por supuesto, aqu no se siente el fro o el calor... solo se ven las posibilidades. +Para lograr tener glamur hace falta esa cualidad del Renacimiento llamada sprezzatura, trmino acuado por Castiglione en su libro "The Book Of the Courtier". +Despus de unos siglos, existe una versin no muy glamurosa de lo que significa hoy en da. +La sprezzatura es el arte que disimula el arte. +Hace que las cosas se vean fciles. +No piensas que Nicole Kidman tiene dificultades con ese vestido, ella se ve completamente natural. +Recuerdo haber ledo, al acabar la pelculas de Lara Croft, cmo Angelina se iba a casa cubierta de moretones. +Por supuesto lo cubran con maquillaje, porque Lara Croft hizo las mismas escenas peligrosas pero no le salen moretones porque tiene sprezatura. +Disimular todo arte, aparentar que todo se hace o se dice sin el mayor esfuerzo. Es uno de los aspectos ms crticos del glamour... +el glamur tiene que ver con corregir. +Cmo creas esa sensacin de trascendencia, esa sensacin de evocar un mundo perfecto? +La sensacin de que la vida podra ser mejor, podra unirme a ella... Podra ser perfecta, podria unirme a este mundo perfecto. +No les contamos los detalles desagradables. +Jeff Bezoz me la prest muy amablemente el ao pasado, +Debajo del escritorio de Jeff. +Esta es la realidad de los PC, las lmparas, y los aparatos electrnicos de cualquier clase son as. +Pero si miran un catlogo... especialmente un catlogo de cosas modernas y bellas para su hogar... se ven as. +No hay cables. +La prxima vez que reciban estos catlogos en el correo... imagnense dnde ocultan los cables. +Pero siempre existe la ilusin de que si compra esta lmpara, vivir en un mundo sin cables. Y lo mismo ocurre si compras este porttil, o este PC... e incluso en la era sin cables, no se puede vivir en un mundo sin cables. +Hay que tener misterio y hay que tener gracia. +Y aqui est ella... Grace. +Pienso que sta es la foto ms glamurosa de todas, +y en parte es porque en "La ventana indiscreta" la pregunta es, es demasiado glamurosa para vivir en este mundo? +La repuesta es, no, por supuesto es tan solo una pelcula. +Hedy Lamarr de nuevo. +Como ven, esa forma de cubrir la cabeza resulta muy glamurosa porque, igual que los lentes de sol, oculta y revela al mismo tiempo. +Lo translcido es glamuroso... por eso todas estas personas llevan perlas. +por eso la cristalera es glamurosa... el glamour es translcido, no es transparente, no es opaco. +Nos invita a su mundo, no nos ofrece una imagen clara de lo que es. +Crep que Grace Kelly es la persona ms glamurosa, puede que una escalera en espiral con una vidriera sea la toma interior ms glamurosa porque un escalera en espiral es increblemente glamurosa. +Da ese sentimiento de ascensin y alejamiento, y aun as, nunca piensas en que podra tropezar, sobre todo cuando ests bajando. +Por supuesto los bloques de vidrio dan esa sensacin de translcido. +Bueno, esta seccin se suponia era de puro placer, pero el glamur en parte tiene que ver con el significado. +Todos los individuos y todas las culturas tienen ideales que no se pueden llevar a cabo en la realidad. +Existen contradicciones, defienden principios que no se pueden comparar el uno con el otro, y sin embargo estos ideales le dan sentido y prposito a nuestras vidas como culturas y como individuos. +La forma en que nos enfretamos a ello es desplazndolas... colocndolas en un mundo dorado, un mundo imaginado, una poca de hroes, el mundo que ha de venir. +Y en la vida de un individuo , a menudo la asociamos con un objeto. +La casa con la cerca blanca, la casa perfecta. +La cocina perfecta... no hay facturas encima de la mesa de la cocina perfecta. +Si compras los electrodomsticos en Viking Range, es as como lucir tu cocina. +El amor perfecto simbolizado en la collar perfecto, el anillo de diamantes perfecto. +La salida perfecta en tu automvil perfecto. +Esta es una compaia de diseo interior que se llama Utopa. +La oficina perfecta. De nuevo, sin cables, +veradaderamente mi oficina no es como esta. +Me explico, no hay papeles en el escritorio. +Deseamos este mundo dorado. +Algunas personas se hacen lo suficientemente ricas, y si tienen ideas en plan sentido domstico, pueden alcanzar su mundo perfecto. +Dean Koontz construy esta maravilla de teatro en casa... y no creo que sea casualidad... en estilo Art Deco. +Simboliza el sentimiento de estar en casa y a salvo. +No siempre es algo bueno, porque cul es su mundo perfecto? +Cul es su ideal, y tambin, qu ha corregido? +Es algo importante? +Es decir, "Matrix" es una pelcula que va de glamur. +Podria hacer una charla completa acerca de "Matrix" y el glamur +pero fue criticada por presentar la violencia como glamurosa. Observen esos lentes de sol y esas largas chaquetas, y por supuesto, pueden caminar por las paredes y hacer todo tipo de cosas, son cosas imposibles en el mundo real. +Otra foto de Margaret Bourke-White. +Es de la Unin Sovitica. Atractiva. +Me explico, ven lo felices y lo atractivas que son las personas. +Nos encaminamos hacia una Utopa. +No soy fan de PETA, pero pienso que es un anuncio grandioso. +Porque lo que hacen es lo que dicen, tu abrigo no es tan glamuroso, lo que has corregido es importante. +En realidad, lo que es incluso ms importante que recordar lo que has corregido, es pensar: son buenos los ideales? +Porque el glamur puede llegar a ser totalitario y engaoso. +No se trata de hacer de limpiar la casa algo glamuroso. +Esto es de "El triunfo de la voluntad" una edicin brillante para cortar cosas. +Un toma glamurosa. +El Nazismo tiene mucho que ver con el glamur. +Fue una ideologa muy esttica. +Tuvo mucho que ver con limpiar Alemania, Occidente y el mundo, y deshacerse de todo lo que no fuera glamuroso. +As que el glamur puede ser peligroso, +Considero que el glamur tiene su encanto y valor genuino. +No estoy en contra del glamur. +Pero me sorprenden un poco esas cosas que se corrigen en los cables de la vida. +Y existe tanto una forma de evitar el peligro del glamur como otra para ampliar tu apreciacin del mismo. +Y es aceptar el consejo de Isaac Mizrahi y hacer frente a la manipulacin de todo, y casi admitir que la manipulacin es algo que disfrutamos, pero tambin disfrutamos cmo sucede. +Hedy Lamarr. +A pesar de tener muchsimo glamur, invent la tecnologa del espectro ensanchado. +O sea, que tiene incluso ms glamur si sabes no era nada estpida, aun cuando pensara que podra parecerlo. +David Hockney habla acerca de cmo la apreciacin de esta, considero, pintura muy glamurosa, se ensalza si piensan, en el hecho de que tard dos semanas en pintar esa mancha, que ocurri en tan solo una fraccin de segundo. +Hay un libro en la librera... se llama " Symphony in steel", es acerca de las cosas que no se ven del Centro Disney. +Tiene su fascinacin. +No necesariamente es glamuroso, pero descubrir el glamur tiene su atractivo. +Existe un libro fabuloso llamado "Crowns" fotos glamurosas de mujeres negras con sus sombreros de iglesia. +Y hay una cita de una de estas mujeres y habla de: "Cuando era pequea, admiraba las mujeres con sombreros hermosos. +Parecan muecas preciosas, como si hubieran salido de una revista. +Pero tambin saba cunto haban trabajado toda la semana. +A veces debajo de esos sombreros haba mucha alegra y mucha tristeza". +Y, la verdad, llegas a apreciar ms el glamur cuando te das cuenta de lo que hizo falta para crearlo. +Gracias. +Esta sesin trata sobre maravillas naturales. y la conferencia central trata sobre la bsqueda de la felicidad. +Mi intencin es combinar todo esto, ya que para m, sanar es en realidad la mxima maravilla natural. +Nuestro cuerpo tiene una capacidad sorprendente de sanarse a s mismo y de forma mucho ms rpido de lo que antes se pensaba, si simplemente dejamos de causar lo que origina el problema. +As es que en realidad, mucho de lo que hacemos en la medicina y en la vida, en general, se centra en limpiar el derrame sin reparar la fuga. +La felicidad no es algo que se obtiene, en general, la salud no es algo que se obtiene. +Si no que en realidad todas las distintas prcticas, los antiguos swamis, los rabes, sacerdotes, monjes y monjas, no desarrollaron estas tcnicas tan slo para lidiar con el estrs o disminuir nuestra presin sangunea, o destapar nuestras arterias, an cuando esto tambin sea posible. +Son herramientas de transformacin muy poderosas, para aquietar nuestra mente y nuestro cuerpo y permitirnos experimentar la felicidad, la paz y la dicha y darnos cuenta de que no es algo que se busca y se obtiene, sino que es algo que ya poseemos hasta que lo alteramos. +Estudi yoga durante muchos aos con un maestro llamado Swami Satchidananda y la gente le preguntaba "qu eres? Hind?" y l responda: "No. yo era Hind". +Y en realidad se trata de identificar por qu alteramos nuestra salud y felicidad innatas, para darle lugar entonces a la cura natural. +Para m, esa es la verdadera maravilla natural. +As que, en ese contexto, en ese contexto ms amplio, podemos hablar de dietas, del manejo del estrs, que son en realidad estas prcticas espirituales, ejercicio moderado, dejar de fumar, grupos de apoyo y la comunidad, sobre lo cul hablar ms, y sobre algunas vitaminas y suplementos. +Y no es una dieta. +Muchas veces cuando las personas piensan en la dieta que recomiendo, creen que se trata de una dieta muy estricta. +Si queremos revertir una enfermedad, s sera necesario esto, pero si lo que queremos es estar sanos, tenemos una gama de opciones. +Y en la medida en que podamos hacer todo lo posible para estar sanos, viviremos ms aos, nos sentiremos mejor, perderemos peso y as sucesivamente. +A travs de nuestros estudios hemos logrado utilizar procedimientos muy costosos y tecnolgicamente muy avanzados para probar lo poderosas, simples, poco tecnolgicas y poco costosas que pueden ser estas tcnicas antiguas. +Comenzamos estudiando las enfermedades cardiacas, y cuando empec a dedicarme a esto hace 26 27 aos, se pensaba que cuando nos enfermbamos del corazn, solamente era posible empeorar. +Y descubrimos que en lugar de estar cada vez peor, en muchos casos se poda estar cada vez mejor, y mucho ms rpido de lo que se crea. +Este paciente representativo a la edad de 73 aos necesitaba un bypass, y en cambio decidi esto: +la arteriografa cuantitativa muestra la reduccin +Esta es una de las arterias que alimentan el corazn y aqu se aprecia la reduccin. +Un ao ms tarde, la obstruccin se redujo -generalmente pasa lo contrario. +Estos cambios mnimos en las obstrucciones produjeron una mejora del 300% en el flujo sanguneo, y usando la tomografa cardiaca de emisin de positrones "PET", azul y negro muestran la ausencia de flujo sanguneo, naranja y blanco indican el mximo. +Se pueden lograr grandes cambios sin medicamentos, sin cirugas. +Clnicamente, l no podra cruzar la calle sin sufrir dolor severo en el pecho; en un mes, como muchos, no senta dolor; y en un ao suba ms de 100 pisos con la escaladora. +Esto no es raro, y es lo que habilita a las personas a mantener esta clase de cambios, debido a la gran diferencia que provoca en su calidad de vida. +En general, si observbamos las arterias de todos los pacientes, empeoraban en un lapso de uno a cinco aos, dentro del grupo comparativo. +Es la historia natural de las enfermedades cardiacas, No es tan natural pues encontramos que poda mejorar, y mucho ms rpido de lo que la gente haba creido. +Tambin vimos que entre mayor el cambio, mayor la mejora. +No era cuestin de edad o de gravedad, sino de lo mucho que haban cambiado, y los ancianos mejoraban tanto como los jvenes. +Esto fue una tarjeta de Navidad hace algunos aos de parte de dos pacientes de uno de nuestros programas. +El menor tiene 86 aos, su hermano, 95; queran mostrarme su flexibilidad, +El ao siguiente recib esta, me pareci graciosa. +Uno nunca sabe. +Encontramos que el 99% de los pacientes revirtieron el avance de su enfermedad cardiaca. +He pensado que de ejercer una buena ciencia, cambiara la prctica mdica, pero es ingenuo. +Es importante, mas no suficiente. +Pues los doctores hacemos por lo que nos pagan, y nos entrenan para hacer por lo que nos pagan, si cambia el seguro, cambiar la prctica y educacin mdicas +El seguro cubrir el bypass y la angioplastia. Y hasta hace poco cubre dieta y estilo de vida. +Comenzamos, a travs de nuestro instituto sin fines de lucro, capacitando hospitales en todo el pas, y encontramos que la mayora de las personas poda ahorrarse la ciruga, y que no slo se trataba de eficiencia a nivel mdico, sino tambin a nivel econmico. +Y las compaas de seguros encontraron que se ahorraban casi 30,000 dlares por paciente, y Medicare ahora realiza un proyecto demostrativo y paga para que 1,800 personas entren al programa en los lugares donde capacitamos. +La adivina dice, "A los fumadores les hago un descuento porque no hay mucho qu decir." Me gusta esta ilustracin, porque nos dice lo que motiva a la gente a cambiar, y lo que no. +Y lo que no funciona es el temor a morir, y es lo que se usa normalmente. +Todo fumador sabe que no es bueno para su salud, y aun as el 30% de los Estadounidenses fuma; el 80% en algunas partes del mundo. Por qu lo hacen? +Porque los ayuda a sobrellevar el da. +Hablar ms de esto, pero la verdadera epidemia no es la enfermedad cardiaca, la obesidad o el cigarrillo; es la soledad y la depresin. +Cierta mujer dijo, "Tengo 20 amigos en este paquete de cigarrillos, estn siempre ah para mi y nadie ms lo est. +Me quitars a mis 20 amigos, qu vas a darme?" +O comen cuando se deprimen, o mitigan el dolor con alcohol, trabajan demasiado, o ven demasiada televisin. +Existen muchas maneras de evitar, mitigar y desviar el dolor, pero el punto de todo esto es lidiar con la causa del problema +y el dolor no es el problema, es el sntoma. +Y decirle a la gente que va a morir asusta tan slo de pensarlo, o que les dar enfisema o un infarto, es atemorizante, entonces no quieren pensar en ello, y no lo hacen. +La publicidad anti-tabaco ms efectiva fue esta. +Notarn el cigarrillo que cuelga de su boca, la palabra "impotencia" es el encabezado, no enfisema. +Cul fue el frmaco ms vendido durante cuando apareci hace algunos aos? +Viagra, por qu? Porque muchos hombres lo necesitan. +No es muy comn escuchar: "Oye Joe, tengo disfuncin erctil, y t?" +Y sin embargo, vean la cantidad de recetas que se prescriben. +No se trata de algo psicolgico, sino vascular, y la nicotina contrae las arterias. +Igual la cocana, una dieta alta en grasas y el estrs emocional. +As que las conductas consideradas atrayentes en nuestra cultura son las mismas que producen fatiga, letargo, depresin e impotencia, eso no es divertido. +Cambiando estos, el cerebro recibe ms sangre, piensa con ms claridad, tiene ms energa, el corazn recibe ms sangre como les he mostrado. +Su funcin sexual mejora. +Y esto ocurre en horas. En este estudio -una comida rica en grasas, pasadas una o dos horas el flujo sanguneo disminuye notoriamente y esto lo hemos experimentado todos en el festejo de Accin de Gracias. +Despus de una comida rica en grasas, cmo se siente? +Le empieza a dar sueo. +Al comer pocas grasas el flujo sanguneo no disminuye, se incrementa. +Muchos tienen hijos y saben que es un gran cambio en su vida, y no temen hacer grandes cambios si estos valen la pena. +La paradoja es que con grandes cambios, se obtienen grandes beneficios, y uno se siente tanto mejor en tan poco tiempo. +Para muchos, son opciones que vale la pena tomar, no para vivir ms, sino para vivir mejor. +Quiero hablar sobre la epidemia de laobesidad, pues es un verdadero problema. +Dos tercios de la poblacin adulta tiene sobrepeso u obesidad, la diabetes en nios y personas cercanas a los 30 aos se ha incrementado 70% en los ltimos 10 aos. Esto es real. +Les mostrar esto del Centro de Control de Enfermedades. +No es el resultado de las elecciones, es el porcentaje de personas con sobrepeso. +Y al ver desde el 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91 hay una nueva categora, 15 a 20 por ciento, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97 una nueva categora, 98, 99, 2000 y 2001. +Mississippi, ms del 25 por ciento de la gente tiene sobrepeso. +Por qu pasa esto? Bueno, as se pierde peso +que funciona muy bien, pero no dura mucho, ese es el problema. +Ahora, cmo perder peso no es un misterio. Quemar ms caloras con ejercicio o ingerir menos caloras. +Un modo de ingerir menos caloras es comer menos. Perdemos peso con cualquier dieta al comer menos, o restringir categoras enteras de alimentos. +Pero el problema es que nos da hambre, y es difcil resistirse. +La otra manera es cambiar el tipo de alimentos. +La grasa contiene 9 caloras por gramo, mientras que protenas y carbohidratos, tan slo cuatro. +Al comer menos grasas, son menos caloras sin tener que comer menos. +Se puede comer la misma cantidad y obtener menos caloras pues la comida es menos densa en caloras. +Y ms que el tipo de comida, es el volumen lo que da la saciedad. +En realidad, prefiero no hablar de la dieta Atkins, pero me preguntan a diario, y pens en dedicarle unos minutos. +Y el mito que hemos escuchado es, que los Estadounidenses deben comer menos grasas, que el porcentaje de caloras aportadas por las grasas ha bajado, los Estadounidenses estn ms gordos que nunca, por lo tanto la grasa no engorda. +Es una semi-verdad. En realidad, en E.U. se consume ms grasa que nunca, y an ms carbohidratos. Y el porcentaje es ms bajo, la cantidad real es ms alta, y la meta es reducir ambas. +El pncreas produce insulina a fin de reducirlo, lo que es bueno. +Pero la insulina acelera la conversin de caloras en grasa. +As que la meta no es dedicarse al puerco, el tocino y las salchichas estos no son alimentos sanos, sino pasar de "carbohidratos malos" a los llamados "carbohidratos buenos". +Y estos son alimentos integrales, o carbohidratos sin refinar: frutas, vegetales, harina de trigo entero, arroz integral, que en su forma natural son ricos en fibras. +Y la fibra produce saciedad sin aportarnos demasiadas caloras, y enlentece la absorcin, lo que evita el aumento de azcar en sangre. +Y obtenemos substancias que nos protegen contra las enfermedades, +No es slo lo que excluimos de la dieta, sino lo que incluimos, lo que nos protege. +No todos los carbohidratos, ni todas las grasas son malos. +Hay grasas buenas, comnmente llamadas Acidos Grasos Omega-3 +Estn, por ejemplo, en el aceite de pescado. +Las malas son los cidos de grasas-trans, alimentos procesados y grasas saturadas, como los que contiene la carne roja. +De no recordar nada ms de esto, tres gramos diarios de aceite de pescado reducirn el riesgo de un infarto y muerte sbita en un 50 a 80% +Tres cpsulas de un gramo al da; ms que eso slo aporta grasas innecesarias. +Tambin ayuda a reducir el riesgo del cncer ms comn como el de seno, prstata y colon. +El problema con la dieta de Atkins, es que todos conocemos personas que han perdido peso con ella, pero tambin se puede adelgazar con anfetaminas y anorxicos. +O sea que hay muchas maneras de perder peso que no son saludables. +El objetivo es perder peso y mejorar la salud en vez de daarla. +Y el problema es que se basa en esta semi-verdad, de que en los E.EU.U. se consumen demasiados carbohidratos simples, y que por lo tanto al consumir menos de ellos, perderemos peso. +Perder ms peso si consume alimentos integrales y menos grasas, y mejorar su salud en vez de perjudicarla. +l dice, "Le tengo buenas noticias. +Mientras que su nivel de colesterol es el mismo, los descubrimientos han cambiado." +Y, qu le sucede a su corazn durante la dieta de Atkins? +El rojo indica un buen comienzo, y un ao ms tarde - esto es el resultado de un estudio publicado en la revista Angiologa, hay ms rojo tras un ao de hacer una dieta como la que yo recomiendo, hay menos rojo, menos flujo sanguneo luego de un ao de hacer la dieta Atkins, +Entonces s, se puede perder peso, pero su corazn lo resentir. +Y bien, uno de los estudios fundados por el Centro Atkins hall que el 70% de la gente se constipaba, 65% tena mal aliento, 54% sufra jaquecas - esta alimentacin no es sana. +Tal vez pierda peso y se torne ms atractivo para los dems, pero cuando se le acerquen demasiado tendr un problema. +Y ms en serio, hay reportes de jovencitas de 16 aos que murieron semanas despus de adoptar la dieta de Atkins por enfermedad sea, padecimientos renales y otros. +Y as es como el cuerpo se libera de lo que no le sirve, por el aliento, los intestinos y el sudor. +Al someternos a estas dietas, estos comienzan a oler mal. +Entonces una dieta ideal es baja en grasas, baja en carbohidratos malos, alta en carbohidratos buenos, suficientes grasas buenas. +Y entonces, una vez ms, es un espectro: si va en esta direccin, perder peso, se sentir mejor y tendr ms salud. +Ahora, tambin hay razones ecolgicas para comer menos en la cadena alimenticia, ya sea la deforestacin del Amazonas, o tener ms protenas disponibles, para los 4 mil millones de personas que viven con menos de 1 dlar al da, sin mencionar cualquier criterio tico de algunos. +Hay muchas razones para comer as, que van ms all de su salud. +Estamos por publicar el primer estudio observando los efectos de este programa sobre el cncer de prstata, y en colaboracin con Sloane-Kettering y con UCSF, +estudiamos a 90 hombres con cncer de prstata diagnosticado por biopsia quienes haban elegido, por diferentes razones, no someterse a ciruga. +Los dividimos entonces al azar en dos grupos, y pudimos tener un grupo que constituyera un grupo de no intervencin para permitirnos comparar, cosa que no se puede hacer, por ejemplo, con el cncer de mama pues todas las personas se tratan. +Encontramos que un ao despus, ninguno de los pacientes del grupo experimental que hicieron estos cambios, necesit tratamiento, mientras que 6 de los pacientes en control necesit ciruga o radiacin. +Al observar sus niveles PSA, el marcador para cncer de prstata, este empeor en el grupo de control, pero en el grupo experimental mejor realmente, y estas fueron diferencias muy significativas. +Y me pregunto, hubo alguna relacin entre el cambio en la dieta y estilo de vida, sin importar el grupo, y los cambios en el PSA. +Y encontramos una relacin dosis-respuesta, igual que en los bloqueos arteriales de los estudios cardiacos. +Y a fin de bajar el PSA, tenan que hacer grandes cambios. +Y luego pens que quiz estuviese cambiando solamente su nivel de PSA Pero esto no afecta realmente el crecimiento del tumor. +As es que tomamos muestras del suero sanguneo, lo enviamos a UCLA, lo agregaron a clulas prostticas con cncer en cultivo de tejido y eso detuvo su crecimiento 7 veces ms en el grupo experimental que en el de control: 70% contra 9%. +Finalmente, me pregunt si habra relacion entre los cambios en las personas y el crecimiento de sus tumores, sin importar el grupo. +Esto me entusiasm porque una vez ms, encontramos el mismo patrn: entre ms cambian las personas, ms se ve afectado el crecimiento de sus tumores. +Finalmente, realizamos tomografas de resonancia magntica en algunos pacientes y la actividad tumoral est en rojo en este paciente, claramente vemos la mejora un ao despus, al tiempo que baja el PSA. +Y si funciona para el cncer de prstata, seguro funcionar para el de mama. +Y sometindose o no al tratamiento convencional, si adems, hacemos estos cambios, bajar el riesgo de reaparicin. +Pero tambin mediante mecanismos que no entendemos del todo, las personas solitarias y deprimidas tienen ms posibilidades, entre tres a cinco a diez veces, segn algunos estudios, de enfermarse y morir jvenes. +La depresin es tratable. Es necesario hacer algo al respecto. +Por otro lado, lo que fomenta la intimidad es curativo. +Puede ser intimidad sexual - Yo pienso que la energa ertica y la curativa son slo distintas formas de lo mismo. +Amistad, altruismo, compasin, servicio; las verdades eternas que mencionamos y que integran todas las religiones y culturas, cuando dejamos de enfocarnos en las diferencias, por nuestro propio bien, porque nos liberan del sufrimiento y la enfermedad. +Y en cierto sentido es lo ms egosta que podemos hacer. +Observemos un estudio realizado por David Spiegel en Stanford. +Estudi a mujeres con metstasis de cncer de mama, las dividi al azar en dos grupos. +Uno se reuna una vez a la semana 90 min. con un grupo de apoyo. +Era un entorno amoroso y alentador, en el que se les animaba a bajar sus defensas emocionales y a hablar de su enfermedad con quienes comprendan por estar pasando por lo mismo. +Slo se reunieron una vez por semana durante un ao. +Cinco aos despus, las mujeres vivieron el doble... y esa era la nica diferencia entre los grupos. +Fue un estudio al azar publicado en The Lancet. +Otros estudios tambin lo muestran. +Por lo tanto, estas pequeas cosas que promueven la intimidad son muy curativas, incluso la palabra "curar" viene de "completar". +La palabra "yoga" viene del Snscrito, que significa "unin, juntar, reunir." +Por ltimo quiero mostrarles una ilustracin de el swami con quien estudi hace tiempo y combin visitas mdicas de oncologa y cardiologa en la Universidad de Virginia hace un par de aos. +Al final, alguien coment, Swami, dinos la diferencia entre salud y enfermedad +as que se acerc a la pizarra y escribi la palabra "enfermedad" en ingls hizo un crculo alrededor de la primera letra y luego escribi "salud" en ingls e hizo un crculo en las dos primeras letras, que en ingls conformaban las palabras "yo" y "nosotros". +y para m, ese es el resumen de esta charla: que todo lo que cree un sentido de conexin comunin y amor, es curativo. +Y as podremos disfrutar de la vida ms plenamente sin enfermarnos en el camino. +Gracias. +Esta es la era del medio ambiente, o la biologia, o la tecnologa de la informacin-- +bueno, es la era de muchas cosas distintas esta en la que estamos ahora mismo. Pero una cosa es segura: es la era del cambio. Estn sucediendo ms cambios ahora que los que han ocurrido antes en la historia de la vida del hombre en la tierra. +Y todos ustedes de alguna manera lo saben, pero es difcil ponerlo de forma que realmente lo comprendan. +Y he intentado armar algo que es un buen comienzo para esto. +esto no tiene precedentes y es grande. +Hacia adonde va en el futuro est cuestionado. Entonces esa es la parte humana. +Ahora el hombre relacionado con los animales: miren la parte izquierda de eso. +Lo que yo llamo la porcin humana -- el hombre y su ganado y mascotas -- versus la porcin natural -- todos los otros animales salvajes y semejantes -- estos son los vertebrados y todos los pjaros, etc. en la tierra y el aire, no en el agua. Cmo se equilibra? +Bueno, ciertamente 10.000 aos atrs, el comienzo de la civilizacin, la porcin humana era menor a un dcimo del uno porciento. Mirmoslo ahora. +Y el problema ms grande vino en los ltimos 25 aos: fue del 25 por ciento hasta ese 97 por ciento. +Y esto es realmente una imagen alarmante para darnos cuenta de que nosotros, humanos, estamos a cargo de la vida en la tierra, somos como los veleidosos Dioses de los viejos mitos griegos, de alguna manera jugando con la vida y sin inyectarle gran aporte de sabidura. +Ahora, la tercer curva es tecnologa de la informacin. +Este es el tamao de la tierra atravesando ese mismo -- -- marco. Y para hacerlo realmente claro, he puesto los cuatro en un mismo grfico -- +no hace falta ver la letra pequea. +La primera es los humanos versus la naturaleza. Hemos ganado, no hay ms ganancia. Poblacin humana. +Asi que si estn buscando industrias en crecimiento en las cuales insertarse, esa no es una buena -- proteger criaturas naturales. La poblacin humana est aumentando; va a seguir por un buen rato. +Buenos negocios de obstetras, agentes funerarios, y agricultura, construccin, etc - son todas cosas con cuerpos humanos que requiren ser alimentados, transportados, albergados y dems. Y la tecnologa de la informacin, que se conecta a nuestros cerebros no tiene lmite -- ahora, ese es un maravilloso campo en el que estar. Ests buscando oportunidad de crecimiento -- +est atravesando el techo. +Y luego el tamao de la Tierra. De alguna forma hacer todo esto compatible con la Tierra parece ser una mala industria en la cual involucrarse. +As que, ese es el estado de todo esto. Encuentro, por razones que no comprendo, que realmente tengo un objetivo. +Y el objetivo es que el mundo sea deseable y sustentable cuando mis hijos alcancen mi edad. Y creo que eso es -- en otras palabras, la prxima generacin. Creo que ese es un objetivo que probablemente compartimos todos. +Creo que es un objetivo sin esperanza. Tecnolgicamente es alcanzable, econmicamente es alcanzable, polticamente es -- significa algo as como los hbitos, instituciones de personas, es imposible. +Las instituciones del pasado con toda su inercia son simplemente irrelevantes para el futuro, pero estn ah y tenemos que lidiar con ellas. Paso alrededor del 15 por ciento de mi tiempo tratando de salvar el mundo, el otro 85 por ciento el usual ... y cualquier otra cosa a la que nos dedicamos. +Nuestros sistemas escolares tienen muchas faltas y no te premian por las cosas que son importantes en la vida o por la supervivencia de la civilizacin. Te premian por mucho aprendizaje y memorizar cosas. +No podemos entrar en eso hoy porque no hay tiempo -- es un tema amplio. Una cosa es segura, en el futuro hay un acontecimiento esencial -- aspecto necesario pero no suficiente -- que es hacer ms con menos. Tenemos que estar haciendo cosas con ms eficiencia usando menos energa, menos material. +Sus tatara tatara abuelos usaban energa muscular, y an as todos pensamos que hay esta enorme energa que es esencial para nuestro estilo de vida. Y con toda la maravillos tecnologa que tenemos podemos hacer cosas que son mucho ms eficientes: conservar, reciclar, etc. +Dejenme simplemente citar rpidamente las cosas que hemos hecho. +Gossamer Condor -- avin de energa humana -- de alguna manera me encamin en esta direccin en 1976 y 77, ganando el premio Kremer en la historia de la aviacin, seguido del Albatross. Y comenzamos a hacer varios aviones raros y criaturas. +Ac est una gigante rplica voladora de un Pterosaurio que no tiene cola. +Como, intentar hacerlo volar recto es como intentar lanzar una flecha con la punta de plumas mirando hacia adelante. Fue un trabajo duro, y me hizo tener mucho respeto por la naturaleza. +Este era el tamao completo de la criatura original. +Hemos hecho cosas en la tierra, en el aire, en el agua. Vehculos de todos los diferentes tipos, usualmente con alguna electrnica o con sistemas de energa elctrica. Yo encuentro que son todos iguales. No me importa que -- ya sea tierra, aire o agua. +Me estar centrando en el aire aqu. Este es un avin de energa solar -- 165 millas cargando a una persona desde Francia hasta Inglaterra como smbolo de que la energa solar va a ser una parte importante de nuestro futuro. Luego hicimos el auto solar para General Motors -- el Sunracer que gan la carrera en Australia. +Con ese prembulo, mostremos el primer video de dos minutos que muestra un pequeo avin para vigilancia y moviendonos hacia un avin gigante. +Un minsculo avin, el AV Pointer sirve para vigilancia: de hecho un par de anteojos recorredores. Un ejemplo avanzado de adnde la miniaturizacin puede conducir si el operador est alejado del vehculo. Es conveniente de cargar, armar y lanzar manualmente. Cargado con batera, es silencioso y raramente notado. +Manda imgenes de video de alta resolucin hacia el operador. +Con GPS a bordo, puede navegar de manera autnoma, y es suficientemente fuerte como para aterrizar por s mismo sin daarse. +El moderno Sailplane es magnficamente eficiente. +Algunos pueden planear tan plano como 60 pies por cada pie de descenso. +Estn cargados solamente por la energa que pueden extraer de la atmsfera -- una atmsfera que la naturaleza agita con energa solar. +Humanos y pjaros voladores han encontrado que la naturaleza es generosa proveyndoles energa renovable. Los Sailplanes han volado ms de 1.000 millas y el record en altitud es mayor a 50.000 pies. +El Solar Challenger fue hecho para servir como smbolo de que las clulas fotovoltticas pueden producir energa real y sern parte de la energa futura del mundo. +en 1981, vol 163 millas desde Pars hasta Inglaterra nicamente con la energa de los rayos solares, y estableci una base para el Pathfinder. +El mensaje de todos estos vehculos es que ideas y tecnologa pueden ser aprovechadas para producir ganancias notables en hacer ms con menos; ganancias que pueden ayudarnos a alcanzar un balance deseado entre tecnologa y naturaleza. Las ganancias son grandes a medida en que aceleramos hacia un futuro desafiante. +Buckminster Fuller lo dijo claro: no hay pasajeros en la nave Tierra, slo tripulacin. Nosotros, los tripulantes, podemos y debemos hacer ms con menos, mucho menos. +Es increble, slo con la suave energa del sol -- teniendo un avin super ligero, es posible subirlo hasta ah. +Es parte del programa a largo plazo sponsoreado por la NASA. +Y hemos trabajado muy de cerca con la cosa entera, haciendo un esfuerzo de equipo, y con resultados maravillosos como ese vuelo. +Y estamos trabajando en un avin mas grande -- envergadura de 220 pies -- y uno de tamano intermedio con una clula de combustible regenerativa que puede almacenar la energa excedente durante el da, alimentarlo de noche, y quedarse arriba a 65.000 pies durante meses. +La voz de Ray Morgan va a aparecer ac. +Ah l es el gerente del proyecto. Cualquier cosa que hagan es ciertamente un esfuerzo de equipo. El hizo este programa. Aqu hay un... +algunas cosas que mostr como celebracin en el final mismo. +Habamos recin terminado un despliegue en Hawaii de siete meses. +Para aquellos que viven en el continente, fue duro estar lejos de casa. +El apoyo amistoso, la confianza silenciosa, sociable hospitalidad demostrada por nuestros hawaiianos y militares anfitriones -- esto est comenzando -- hicieron la experiencia disfrutable e inolvidable. +No podamos traer uno aqu para hacerlo volar y enserselos. +Pero ahora echemos un vistazo al otro extremo. Ok, les he mostrado -- +As que Matt Keenan, cuando sea que ests -- bien-- listo para dejarlo ir. Pero primero, vamos a asegurarnos que est apareciendo en la pantalla, as ven lo que el ve, +Uno puede imaginarse a s mismo siendo un ratn, o mosca dentro de l cuidando su cmara. +Est encendido. +Pero ahora estamos intentando conseguir el video. Ah vamos. +Pueden subir las luces de la sala? +S, las luces de la sala y los veremos a todos mejor y seremos capaces de volar mejor el avin. +Bien, vamos a intentar hacer algunas vueltas y traerlo de nuevo. +Aqu vamos. +El video funcion bien para las primeras veces y no s por qu -- ah va. +Oh, eso fue slo un minuto, pero creo que estaran a salvo de tener as de cerca el final del vuelo, tal vez. +Nos toca hacer el clsico. +Bien. +Si esto les pega, no les va a doler. +Ok, +Muchas gracias. Gracias. +Pero ahora, como dicen en los comerciales, tenemos algo mucho mejor para ustedes, en lo que estamos trabajando: aviones que son de slo seis pulgadas -- 15 centmetros -- de tamao. +Y el avin de Matt estuvo en la tapa de Ciencia Popular el ltimo mes, mostrando a lo que esto puede llevar. Y en un tiempo algo de este tamao tendr GPS y cmara de video. Hemos hecho volar uno de estos nueve millas a travs del aire a 35 millas por hora con tan slo una pequea batera. +Pero hay mucha tecnologa. +Estos son slo hitos a lo largo del camino de algunas cosas destacables. +Este no tiene el video dentro, pero les da una pequea idea de lo que puede hacer. +OK, aqu vamos. +Perdn. +OK. +Si pueden pasarlo cuando hayan terminado. S, creo que -- Perd un poco la orientacin; mir arriba hacia esta luz, pero +se choc con el edificio. Y el edificio estuvo mal situado, de hecho. +Pero empiezan a ver lo que se puede hacer. +Estamos trabajando en proyectos ahora, incluso cosas que aletean del tamao de las polillas, con contratos DARPA, trabajando con Caltech, UCLA. +Adnde lleva todo esto, no lo s. Es prctico? No lo s. +Pero como cualquier investigacin bsica, cuando ests realmente forzado a hacer las cosas que estn mucho ms all de la tecnologa existente, se puede llegar ah con micro-tecnologa, nanotecnologa. +nunca se equivoca. Porque si uno se equivoca, no deja ninguna descendencia. +No deberiamos tener ms que historias de xito de la naturaleza, para ustedes o para los pjaros, y estamos aprendiendo mucho de su materia fascinante. +Para concluir, quiero volver al cuadro grande y tengo slo dos diapositivas finales para tratar de ponerlo en perspectiva. +La primera simplemente la leer. Por fin puse tres oraciones y hice que dijeran lo que quera. +y eso es serio. No somos muy brillantes. Somos cortos en sabidura; elevados en tecnologa. Hacia adnde va a llevar? +Bueno, inspirado por las frases, he decidido manejar el pincel. +Cada 25 aos hago una imagen. Aqu est la misma -- intenta mostrar que el mundo no se est agrandando. +Una especie de lnea del tiempo, de escala muy no lineal, ndices naturales y trilobites y dinosaurios, y eventualmente hemos visto humanos con cuevas... Pjaros volaban por encima tras pterosaurios. +Y cuando llegamos a la civilizacin por encima de la pequea televisin con un arma. Luego embotellamientos, y sistemas de energia, y algunos puntos para digital -- adnde va a llevar, no tengo idea. +Y entonces slo pongo cucarachas robticas y naturales aqu afuera, pero pueden llenar lo que quieran. Esto no es un pronstico. +Esto es una advertencia, y tenemos que pensar seriamente acerca de ella. +Y el momento en el que esto va a pasar no es en 100 aos o 500 aos. +Las cosas estn ocurriendo en esta dcada, la prxima dcada. Es un tiempo muy corto en el que hay que decidir qu vamos a hacer. +Personalmente creo que la forma de vida inteligente que perdure en la tierra no va a estar basada en carbn; va a estar basada en silicona. +Entonces adnde va todo, no lo s. +La pequea ltima porcion de chispa que pondremos en el mismo final aqu es un vehculo para volar completamente poco prctico, que es un pequeo ornitptero, aparato que aletea que -- propulsado por una goma elstica -- Les mostraremos. +32 gramos. Perdn, un gramo. +No ms. Anoche le dimos un par de vueltas de ms e intent volar el techo tambin. Es de alrededor de un gramo. +El tubo aqu es hueco, cercano al grosor del papel. +Y si esto aterriza encima suyo, les aseguro que no les doler. +Pero si se estiran para agarrarlo o tenerlo, lo destruirn. +As que, sean dulces, slo acten como indios de madera o algo. +Y cuando caiga -- y vamos a ver cmo va eso. +Consideramos que esto es ms o menos el espritu de TED +(Aplausos Y ustedes se preguntan, Es prctico? Y resulta que si no hubiera estado -- Desafortunadamente, tenemos algunos cambios de bombilla. +Muchas de estas cosas -- parecidas -- habran pasado en algn momento, probablemente una dcada ms tarde. No me d cuenta en el momento de que estaba haciendo cosas basadas en preguntas, poniendo las manos en cosas en equipo como estn intentando poner en los sistemas de educacin. +As que pienso que eso como un smbolo es importante. +Gracias. +Cuando llegu a Zimbabwe por primera vez, me result muy difcil llegar a entender que el 35 por ciento de la poblacin es seropositiva. +Aunque, realmente, no fue hasta que me invitaron a los hogares de la gente cuando empec a ser consciente del costo humano de la epidemia. +Por ejemplo, ste es Herbert con su abuela. +Cuando lo conoc por primera vez estaba sentado en el regazo de su abuela. +Se haba quedado hurfano porque sus padres haban muerto de SIDA y su abuela lo cuid hasta que tambin l muri de SIDA. +A l le gustaba sentarse en su regazo porque deca que era demasiado doloroso estar en cama. +Cuando la abuela se levant para preparar t, me lo puso en el regazo. Nunca haba visto a un nio que estuvera tan esculido. +Antes de marcharme, le pregunt si quera que le trajera algo. +Pens que me pedira un juguete o un dulce, pero l me pidi unas zapatillas porque me dijo que tena los pies fros. +sta es Joyce, que en la foto tiene 21 aos. +Madre soltera, seropositiva. +Le hice fotos antes y despus del nacimiento de su preciosa hija, Issa. +La semana pasada estaba caminando por Lafayette Street, en Manhattan, y recib una llamada de una mujer a la que no conoca. Pero me llamaba para decirme que Joyce haba fallecido a la edad de 23 aos. +La madre de Joyce se ha hecho cargo de su nieta que, como muchos otros nios de Zimbabwe, se han quedado hurfanos por culpa de esta epidemia. +stas son slo algunas de las historias. +En cada fotografa hay personas que tienen vidas plenas y hay historias que merecen ser contadas. +Todas estas fotografas son de Zimbabwe. +Chris Anderson: Kristen, podras contarnos en un minuto la historia de cmo llegaste al frica? +Kristen Ashburn: Mmm, caray! +CA: Slo ... KA: Por aquel entonces yo trabajaba, estaba encargada de la produccin para un fotgrafo del mundo de la moda. +Y lea constantemente el New York Times y me quedaba atnita con las estadsticas y las cifras. +Era algo alarmante. +As que dej mi trabajo y decid que se era el tema que quera abordar. +Primero fui a Botswana, donde estuve un mes, esto fue en diciembre del ao 2000. -- Luego pas un mes y medio en Zimbabwe a donde regres este marzo de 2002 y me qued all durante otro mes y medio. +CA: Es una historia increble, muchas gracias. +KB: Gracias por permitirme compartirla con ustedes. +Esto significa que estoy sonriendo. +Ese tambin. +Esto significa ratn. +Gato. +Aqu tenemos una historia. +La historia comienza donde esto significa un tipo y eso es la cola de caballo en una transente. +Aqu es donde esto sucede. +Estos son el cundo. +Este es un cassette que la chica pone en su tocacintas. +Lo usa todos los das. +No se considera un clsico... a ells simplemente le gusta que cierta msica suene de cierta manera. +Mira su postura, es llamativa. +Eso es porque ella baila. +Ahora l, el tipo, observa todo esto, meditando "Honestamente, caray. Qu oportunidad tengo?" +y el podra decir, "Oh, Dios mo!" +o "Mi corazn es tuyo!" +Me estoy riendo a carcajadas. +Quiero darte un abrazo. +Pero el sale con esto, ya saben. +El le dice, "quiero pintar a mano tu retrato en un tarro de caf". +Poner un cangrejo adentro. +Agregar un poco de agua. +Siete sales diferentes. +l tiene la repentina nocin de estar parado en tierra firme, pero slo manoteando al ocano. +El dice: "pareces una sirena, pero caminas como un vals". +Y la joven dice, "Quee?" +Y el tipo responde, "S, lo s, lo s. +Creo que mis latidos son el cdigo Morse para inapropiado. +Al menos, eso es lo que parece. +A veces soy como un porrista del equipo universitario... por maldecir, los silencios incmodos y las combinaciones de rimas muy simples. +Ahora mismo, hablando contigo, ni siquiera soy realmente un chico. +Soy un mono mandando besos a una mariposa. +Pero an as insisto en que t y yo deberamos reunirnos. +Primero, pronto. Luego, mucho. +Estoy pensando en la esquina sudoeste de la 5ta. con 42va. al medioda maana. pero te esperar hasta que te presentes, con cola de caballo o sin ella. +Demonios, solamente la cola de caballo. +No s qu ms decirte. +Tengo un lpiz que puedo prestarte. +Puedes ponerlo en tu telfono." +Pero la joven no se deja convencer. No sonre. No frunce el ceo. +Ella slo dice: "No, gracias". +tu sabes? +Zach Kaplan: Keith y yo dirigimos un equipo de investigacin. +Investigamos sobre materiales y tecnologas, que poseen propiedades inesperadas. Durante los ltimos tres aos, hemos encontrado ms de 200, as que hemos buscado, en nuestra coleccin, y hemos seleccionado para TED los seis que pensamos son los ms sorprendentes. +De estos seis, del primero del que vamos a hablar est en el sobre negro que tienen en sus manos. +Viene de una compaa japonesa llamada GelTech. Ahora, adelante, branlo! +Keith Schacht: Asegrense de que las dos piezas estn separadas. +Lo inseperado de esto es que es blando, pero tambin es un poderoso imn. +A Zach y a m siempre nos ha sorprendido observar cosas inesperadas como sta. +Pasamos mucho tiempo pensado por qu y no es sino hasta hace poco que hallamos la respuesta: cuando vemos algo inesperado, ste cambia nuestra comprensin sobre el modo en que las cosas funcionan. +Como ustedes estn viendo este gel magntico por vez primera, si han asumido que todos los imanes tienen que ser rgidos, entonces ver ste les sorprende y cambia su comprensin sobre el modo en que los imanes podran funcionar. +ZK: Ahora bien, es importante entender cules son las propiedades inesperadas. +Al pensar realmente en las implicaciones y posibilidades que esto abre, encontramos que es til pensar cmo se podra utilizar en la vida diaria. +As, la primera idea es usarlo en las puertas de los armarios. +Si se cubren los laterales de los armarios usando el gel, si se cierran de golpe no harn ruido, y, adems, los imanes mantendrn los armarios cerrados. +Imaginen usar el mismo material, pero colocndolo en la suela de unas zapatillas. +Saben! De este modo podran ir a la ferretera y comprar una de esas hojas de metal, colgarlas en la parte trasera de la puerta de su armario y podran pegar, literalmente, sus zapatos, en lugar de usar un estante. +A m me encanta esta idea. +Si vinieran a mi apartamento y vieran mi armario, estoy seguro de que sabran por qu. Es un desastre. +KS: Ver las propiedades inesperadas y ver un par de aplicaciones ayuda a entender por qu es importante, cul es el su potencial. +Pero hemos descubierto que el modo en que presentamos nuestras ideas, tiene mucha importancia. +ZK: Hace algo as como seis meses que Keith y yo estbamos en LA, tomando caf en Starbucks con Roman Coppola. +l trabaja sobre todo en videos musicales y comerciales que hace su compaa, The Directors Bureau. +Mientras hablbamos, Roman nos dijo que l era una especie de inventor indenpendiente. +Todo esto le emociona realmente. Y nosostros miramos todas esas ideas y pensamos algo como, vaya!, este hombre es sorprendente . +Porque, bueno, el modo en que presentaba las ideas, su visin era totalmente diferente a la nuestra. Te lo venda como si estuviera ya a la venta. +Cuando volvamos en el coche al aeropuerto, pensbamos, bueno, por qu era tan poderoso? +: Necesita experimentar la velocidad? +"Aventras Acuticas Inventables" le desafa a lanzarse sobre una embarcacon de levitacin magntica corriente abajo tan rpido, tan alto, que cuando llega al final tiene que parar con frenos. +El Aqua Rocket. A le venta este verano. +KS: Bien, mostramos esta idea a algunas personas antes de venir aqu, y nos preguntaron cundo sala a la venta. +As que slo quiero informarles de que no est verdaderamente a la venta, slo es una idea. +ZK: Ahora bien, cuando soamos con alguno de estos diseos, es importante para nosotros estar seguros de que funcionan desde un punto de vista tcnico. +As que voy a explicar rpidamente como funcionara este. +sta es la tabla de levitacin magntica que mencionan en el anuncio. +El gel que tienen ustedes podra cubrir la parte inferior de la tabla. +Esto es importante por dos razones. +Una, la blandura del imn que hace no lstime en la cabeza al que va sobre la tabla. +Adems, como pueden ver en el diagrama de la derecha, la parte inferior del tobogn podra ser un electroimn. +Entonces, esto en realidad podra repeler al corredor un poco ms, segn vaya bajando. +La fuerza del agua que cae ms esa fuerza de repulsin, hara que este tobogn fuera ms rpido que nign otro del mercado. +Por eso se necesita el sistema de frenado magntico. +Cuando se llega al final del tobogn, el corredor pasa a travs de un tubo de aluminio. +Y le doy la palabra a Keith, para que explique por qu es importante desde un punto de vista tcnico. +KS: Estoy seguro de que todos los ingenieros saben que, aunque el aluminio es un metal, no es un material magntico. Pero algo inesperado ocurre cuando dejamos caer un imn a travs de un tubo de aluminio. +Hemos preparado un experimento rpido para mostrrselos. +Bien, ven como el imn cae verdaderamente despacio. +Bueno, no voy a entrar en las razones fsicas de ello, todo lo que necesitan saber es que, cuanto ms rpido cae el imn, mayor es la fuerza de frenado. +ZK: Bien, nuestra prxima innovacin tecnolgica es un palo de 3 metros, y lo tengo justo aqu, en mi bolsillo. +Existen diferentes versiones. +KS: Algunos se desenrollan automticamente, como ste. +Pueden hacerse para que se enrollen automticamente o pueden hacerse estables, como el de Zach, para tener cualquier longitud. +En nuestras tormentas de ideas, se nos ocurri la idea de que podra usarse como portera de ftbol, de modo que al final del juego, simplemente se enrolla y se pone en la bolsa de deportes. +KS: Bueno, lo interesante de esto es que no hace falta ser ingeniero para apreciar por qu un palo de 3 metros que cabe en un bolsillo es tan interesante. +As que decidimos salir por las calles de Chicago y preguntar a algunas personas qu pensaban que se podra hacer con esto. +: Limpio los ventiladores del techo y quito las telaraas de mi casa, lo hara con esto. +Hara mi propio bastn. +Creara una escalera para subir a lo alto del rbol. +Un palillo para las aceitunas. +Una especie de palo telescpico, como el que usan los pintores. +Hara una especie de arpn para cuando se bucea. Se podra cazar al pez rpidamente y entonces enrollarlo para traerlo y se podra nadar fcilmente, s. +ZK: Bueno, para nuestra prxima innovacin vamos a hacer una pequea demostracin, de modo que necesitamos un voluntario del pblico. +Usted, seor. Suba. +Suba. Dgale a todo el mundo su nombre. +Steve Jurveston: Steve. +ZK: Es Steve. De acuerdo, Steve, ahora sgame. +Necesitamos que permanezca de pie, justo frente a las letras de TED. +Justo ah. Muy bien. +Y sujete esto. Buena suerte. +KS: No, todava no. +ZK: Me gustara informales a todos de que esta presentacin es posible gracias a Target. +KS: Un poco ms -- eso es, perfecto. +Bueno, Zach, vamos a mostrar una pelea de pistolas de agua del futuro. +Aqu, venga hacia delante. De acuerdo, as que ahora mire aqu -- no, no, es perfecto. +Describa al pblico la temperatura de su camisa. Adelante. +SJ: Est fra. +KS: Bueno, la razn de que est fra es que no hay en verdad agua en estas pistolas de chorro. Es un lquido seco desarrollado por 3M. +Es completamente transparente, es inodoro, es incoloro. +Es tan seguro que se podra beber. +Y la razn por la que siente fro es porque se evapora 25 veces ms rpido que el agua. +De acuerdo, gracias por participar. +ZK: Espere, espere, Steven --antes de que se vaya, hemos rellenado sta con el lquido seco, as que en la pausa puede disparar a sus amigos. +SJ: Excelente, gracias. +KS: Gracias por participar. Dmosle un fuerte aplauso. +As que, cul es la importancia de este lquido seco? +Versiones primitivas del fluido se usaron en realidad en el Supercomputador Cray. +Bueno, lo inesperado de esto es que Zach podra estar en el escenario y empapar a un miembro del pblico completamente inocente sin preocuparse de daar los aparatos elctricos, por mojarlos, por deteriorar libros u ordenadores. Funciona porque no es conductor. +De modo que, como pueden ver, se puede sumergir un circuito impreso en esto y no se ocasionara ningn dao. +Puede hacerse circular para eliminar el calor. +Pero hoy se usa ms en edificios de oficinas -- como fluido del sistema de extincin de incendios. +Una vez ms, es totalmente seguro para la gente. Apaga el fuego y no daa nada. +Pero nuestra idea favorita para esto era usarlo en un partido de baloncesto. De modo que en el descanso, pudiera llover sobre los jugadores, refrescar a todo el mundo, y, en cuestin de minutos, se secara. No daara el parqu. +ZK: Nuestra prxima innovacin nos llega de una compaa de Japn, llamada Sekisui Chemical. Uno de los ingenieros de I+D estaba trabajando en un modo de hacer el plstico ms rgido. +Mientras lo haca, se dio cuenta de algo inesperado. +Tenemos un vdeo para enserselos. +KS: Aqu lo ven, no recupera su forma. Bueno, era una consecuencia inesperada de algunos experimentos que hacan. +Tcnicamente se llama "propiedad de retencin de forma". +Bueno, pensemos en las relaciones con una hoja de aluminio. +Retener la forma es comn en el metal. Doblamos una hoja de aluminio, y mantiene esa forma. Por el contrario, por ejemplo, un cubo de basura, se le pueden presionar los lados y siempre recupera su forma. +ZK: Por ejemplo, podra hacerse un reloj que envolviera la mueca sin usar una hebilla. +Yendo ms lejos, si se tejen estas tiras juntas, al modo de una pequa cesta, podra fabricarse una hoja con retencin de forma, y entonces podra ponerse en una tela y hacer un mantel de picnic que envuelva la mesa, de modo que en un da ventoso no salga volando. +Para nuestra prxima innovacin, es difcil observar las propiedades inesperadas por s mismas porque es una tinta. +As que hemos preparado un vdeo para mostrarla aplicada al papel. +KS: Segn se dobla el papel, la resistencia de la tinta cambia. +As que con un circuito simple, se puede detectar cunto se est doblando una pgina. +Bueno, para pensar en el potencial de esto, piensen en todas las cosas en que hay tinta. En las tarjetas, en las cajas de cereales, en los juegos de mesa. En cualquier lugar en que se use tinta, podra cambiarse la forma en que se interacta con ella. +ZK: As que mi idea favorita es aplicar la tinta a un libro. +Esto podra cambiar radicalmente la manera en que nos relacionamos con el papel. +Pueden ver una lnea negra en el lado y arriba. Cuando se pasan las pginas del libro, el libro puede detectar en realidad la pgina en la que se est segn la curvatura de las pginas. +Adems, si se hace un doblez en una de las esquinas, podra programarse el libro para enviar un correo electrnico con el texto de la pgina para notas. +KS: Para nuestra ltima innovacin, trabajamos de nuevo con Roman y su equipo del Directors Bureau, para desarrollar un anuncio del futuro que explique cmo funciona. +: Hum! S! Huele bien! +Quin eres? +Soy Leche Nueva. +Yo ola como t. +"Vigilafresco" de Productos Lcteos Inventables. +Envases que cambian de color cuando la leche se estropea. +No deje que la leche estropee su maana. +ZK: Bueno, esta tecnologa fue desarrollada por estos dos hombres -- el profesor Ken Suslick y Neil Rakow de la Universidad de Illinois. +KS: Ahora cmo funciona: hay una matriz de tintes coloreados. +Y estos tintes cambian de color en respuesta a los olores. +As, el olor de la vainilla, que puede cambiar los cuatro de la izquierda a marrn y uno de la derecha a amarillo, as esta matriz puede producir miles de combinaciones de colores diferentes para representar miles de olores diferentes. +Pero como en el anuncio de leche, si se sabe qu olor se quiere detectar, pueden formular un tinte especfico para detectar ese olor. +ZK: As es. Eso fue lo que dio lugar a una conversacin entre el Profesor Suslick y yo. l me explicaba las cosas que hacen esto posible. El siginificado va ms all de detectar comida estropeada. +Su empresa en realidad hizo una encuesra a los bomberos por todo el pas para tratar de saber cmo muestrean el aire, cuando estn en la escena de una emergencia. +Y l me explicaba con irona, que una y otra vez, lo que los bomberos decan es que corran a la escena del crimen. Miraba alrededor. Y si no haba policas muertos, es que se poda proceder. +Quiero decir, se trata de una historia real. Usaban a los policas como cobayas. +Pero, hablando en serio, concluyeron que se podra desarrollar un dispositivo que pueda oler mejor que los humanos, y decir si es seguro para los bomberos. +Adems, est impulsando una compaa desde la Universidad que se llama ChemSensing donde trabajan con equipamiento mdico. +De modo que un paciente en realidad sopla en un aparato. +Al detectar el olor de determinadas bacterias o virus, o incluso cncer de pulmn. los puntos cambiarn y pueden usar un software para analizar los resultados. +Esto puede mejorar radicalmente el modo en que los mdicos diagnostican a los pacientes +Actualmente, usan el mtodo de ensayo y error, pero esto podra decir con precisin qu enfermedad se tiene. +KS: stos han sido los seis que tenamos para ustedes hoy, pero espero que comiencen a ver por qu nosotros encontramos estas cosas tan fascinantes. +ZK: Es algo que a Keith y a m nos gusta hacer. +Y, saben!, su hijo estaba hipnotizado, porque poda sumergirla en el agua, poda sacarla y estaba totalmente seca. Unas semanas ms tarde, dijo, su hijo estaba jugando con un mechn del pelo de su madre, y se dio cuenta de que haban algunas gotas de agua en el pelo. +Cogi el mechn, mir a Steve y dijo, "Mira, cuerda hidrofbica." +Quiero decir, tras escuchar esta historia, que eso, en realidad, lo resume todo para m. +Muchas gracias. +KS: Gracias. +Esto es muy raro para m, ya que no suelo hacerlo, normalmente permanezco del otro lado de la luz, y ahora siento la presin a la que expongo a otras personas, y es difcil. +El ponente anterior ha sido, creo, realmente ha plasmado muy bien el trasfondo sobre lo que realmente -- el impulso detrs de mi trabajo y lo que me motiva, y mi sensacin de prdida, y tratar de encontrar la respuesta a las grandes preguntas. +Pero esto, para m, digo, venir aqu a esto, se siente como, se siente como -- existe este escultor que me gusta mucho, Giacometti, quien despus de muchos aos de vivir en Francia, y aprender, saben, estudiar y trabajar, regres a casa y se le pregunt, qu produjiste? +Qu has hecho durante tantos aos alejado? +y l como que, l mostr un montn de figurillas. +y obviamente fue como, "en esto te tardaste aos?" +Y esperbamos, saben, obras maestras enormes, ya saben ..." +Pero lo que me impact fue comprender que en esas pequeas piezas estaba la culminacin de la bsqueda de la vida de un hombre, su pensamiento y todo. Slo que en una versin reducida, pequea. +De cierta manera, yo me siento as. +Siento como si regresara a casa para hablar sobre lo que he estado haciendo ya durante 20 aos. +Y comenzar con una pequea prueba de en qu he estado ocupado. Un puado de pelculas, no mucho -- dos pelculas importantes y un puado de cortos. +As que comenzaremos con la primera pieza +Video: Destruy vidas, eso dijo mam. +La amo, tu sabes. +Ni siquiera es mi verdadera mam. +Mi mam y pap verdaderos me abandonaron y se largaron de vuelta a Nigeria. +El demonio est en m, Court. +Duerme. +Alguna vez has estado? +Dnde? +Nigeria. +Nunca. +Mi mam quera, no le alcanzaba. +Deseara poder. +Tengo la sensacin de que sera feliz all. +Por qu todos se deshacen de m? +Yo no me quiero deshacer de ti. +T no me necesitas. +Slo que eres demasiado ciego para verlo ahora. +Qu haces en todo el da? +Leer. +No te aburres? +Y cmo es que no tienes trabajo, de todos modos? +Estoy jubilado. +Y? +Y he hecho mi parte por la Reina y el pas, ahora trabajo para m. +No, ahora te la pasas sentado por ah como un vago todo el da. +Es porque hago lo que me gusta? +Mira hombre, leer no alimenta a nadie. +Y particularmente no alimenta tu hbito por la marihuana. +Alimenta mi mente y mi alma. +Discutir contigo es una prdida de tiempo, Marcus. +Eres un rapero? Estoy en lo correcto? +S. +Un poeta de la modernidad. +S, se podra decir. +Y sobre qu hablas? +Qu se supone que significa eso? +Simple. Sobre qu rapeas? +De la realidad, hombre. +La realidad de quin? +Mi maldita realidad. +Cuntame de tu realidad. +Racismo, depresin, personas como yo sin descanso en la vida. +Y qu soluciones ofreces? Quiero decir, el trabajo de un poeta no es slo ... Hombre, combatir el poder. Simple. Eliminar a los bastardos del cielo. +Con una AK-47? +Hombre, si tuviera una, demonios claro que s. +Y cuntos soldados has reclutado para que combatan esta guerra contigo? +Oh, Marcus, sabes a lo que me refiero. +Cuando un hombre recurre a las obscenidades, es una seal indudable de su incapacidad para expresarse. +Mira hombre, ya me ests haciendo enfurecer. +Las Panteras. +Panteras? +Tipos patea traseros que se hartaron de toda esa porquera de supremaca blanca y los poderosos, y slo llegaron y patearon el trasero de todos. +Excelente, hombre. V la pelcula. Mala! Qu? +Vi su ltima pelcula. +Epuise, cierto? +S. +No fue un mal trabajo, pero fue epuise. +Epuise -- Desganado, agotado, harto. +No te puedes callar? +Ahora, hblenme francamente, Qu hay de malo en mis pelculas? +Vamos. +Apestan. +Apestan? Qu hay de las tuyas? +Qu, qu, qu, qu tienen, qu? +Qu opinas de tu pelcula? +Mis pelculas, son aceptables, buenas. +Son mejores que hacer documentales que nadie ver. +De qu mierda hablas? +Alguna vez sali tu trasero de Hollywood para filmar algo real? +Haces que la gente se adormezca. +Que sueen con tonteras. +Newton Aduaka: Gracias. Slo tengo -- el primer clip en serio, de estos clips, de verdad trata totalmente de capturar lo que significa el cine para m, y de dnde vengo en trminos de cine. +La primera pieza fue, realmente, hay una joven hablando de Nigeria, de que tiene una sensacin de que sera feliz all. +Estos son los sentimientos de alguien que ha estado alejado de casa, +y que fue algo por lo que pas, saben, y que an lo estoy pasando. +No he estado en casa durante un buen tiempo, hace cerca de cinco aos. +He estado ausente 20 aos en total. +Y es realmente -- es realmente que tan de pronto, saben, esto fue realizado en 1997, que fue el tiempo de Abacha, la dictadura militar, la peor parte de la historia nigeriana, esta historia post-colonial. +As que, el que esta joven tenga esos sueos, es slo nuestra forma de preservar la sensacin de qu es un hogar. +Como -- y es como, tal vez romntico, pero creo que hermoso, porque slo se necesita algo a que aferrarse, especialmente en una sociedad donde te sientes fuera de lugar. +Lo que nos lleva a la siguiente pieza, donde el joven habla sobre la falta de oportunidades, al vivir siendo negro en Europa. El techo de cristal del que todos sabemos, del que todos hablamos, saben. Y entonces -- saben, y su realidad. +De nuevo, esta era mi -- este era yo hablando sobre -- este era, otra vez, el tiempo del multiculturalismo en el Reino Unido, y ah estaba esta palabra de moda y era realmente, para m, tratar de decir: Qu significa exactamente este multiculturalismo en la vida real de las personas? +Y que sera para un nio, que piensa un nio como Jaime, el joven, es decir, con toda esa ira acumulada dentro de l, +y qu... pasa con eso? +Pero yo viv en Inglaterra 18 aos. +He vivido en Francia alrededor de cuatro, y me siento realmente proyectado al pasado 20 aos, viviendo en Francia. +Y despus la tercera pieza. La tercera pieza para m es la pregunta: Qu es el cine para ti, qu haces con el cine? +Hay un joven -- el director, de Hollywood, con sus amigos, colegas cineastas, hablando sobre el significado del cine. +Supongo que eso me lleva a mi ltima pieza, que significa el cine para m. +Mi vida comenz como un -- comenc mi vida en 1966, pocos meses antes de la guerra de Biafra, que dur tres aos, fueron tres aos de guerra. +As que todo eso, toda esa infancia resuena y me lleva a la siguiente pieza. +Video: Onicha, a la escuela con tu hermano. +Si, mam. +Soldados, van a pelear una batalla, as que deben estar listos y dispuestos a morir. +Deben estar? +Listos y dispuestos a morir. +xito, el cambio slo se obtendr mediante el can de la pistola, +El can de la pistola. +Esta es la pistola. +Esta es la pistola. +Este es un rifle AK-47. Esta es su vida. +Esta es su vida. Esta es ... esta es ... esta es su vida. +Ellos nos dan las drogas especiales. Las llamamos burbujas. +Anfetaminas. +Viene la lluvia, viene el sol, los soldados se van. +Digo viene la lluvia, viene el sol, los soldados se van. +Fuimos de una aldea a otra -- tres aldeas. +No recuerdo como llegamos. +Caminamos y caminamos durante dos das. +No comimos. +No haba comida, slo un poco de arroz. +Sin comida enferm. +La inyeccin nos quit la conciencia. +Dios nos perdonar. +El sabe que no sabamos. No sabamos! +Recuerdas el 6 de enero de 1999? +No lo recuerdo. +Vas a morir! Vas a morir! Ezra! Onicha! Onicha! No necesitamos ms problemas No ms problemas Mataron a mi madre. +Los mende, hijos de bastardos. +Quin es ella? +Yo. +Por qu me das esto? +Para que dejes de verme. +Mi historia es un poco complicada. +Me interesa. +Mariam esta embarazada. +Sabes qu eres? Un cocodrilo. +Una gran boca. Piernas cortas. +Frente a Rufus te vuelves Ezra el cobarde. +l no est cuidando a sus tropas. +Tropa, presente su ltimo honor. Saluden. +Abre los ojos, Ezra. +Hasta un ciego puede ver que los diamantes terminan en su bolsa. +No necesitamos ms problemas Deshazte de ese idiota! +Asumo que preparas un ataque mayor? +Esta debe ser la mina. +Tu chica est aqu. +Bien hecho, bien hecho. +Para eso ests aqu, o no? +Ests planeando pelear de nuevo, verdad? + No necesitamos ms problemas No ms problemas No necesitamos ms problemas No ms problemas Despierten! Todos despierten. El camino est bloqueado! + No necesitamos ms ... Esperamos que, con tu ayuda y la de otros, que esta comisin avance mucho hacia el entendimiento de las causas de esta guerra de rebeldes. +Es ms, que comience el proceso para sanar y finalmente que -- como el cierre de un perodo terrible en la historia de este pas. +El principio de la esperanza. +Sr. Ezra Gelehun, por favor levntese. +Diga su nombre y edad a la comisin. +Mi nombre es Ezra Gelehun. +Tengo 15 16. No lo recuerdo. +Pregunte a mi hermana, ella es la bruja, lo sabe todo. +16. Sr. Gelehun, Quisiera recordarle que no est siendo juzgado por ninguno de los crmenes que cometi. +Pelebamos por nuestra libertad. +Si matar en una guerra es un crimen, entonces debe acusar a todos los soldados del mundo. +La guerra es un crimen, s, pero yo no la inici. +Usted tambin es un general retirado, cierto? +As es, correcto. +Entonces tambin debe ser juzgado. +Nuestro gobierno era corrupto. +La falta de educacin era su forma de mantener el poder. +Si me permite preguntar, En su pas se paga por la escuela? +No, no lo hacemos. +Son ms ricos que nosotros. +Pero nosotros pagamos por la escuela. +Su pas habla de democracia, pero apoyan a gobiernos corruptos como el mo. +Por qu? Porque quieren nuestros diamantes. +Pregunte si alguien en este saln ha visto alguna vez un diamante real. +No. +Sr. Gelehun, le recuerdo, no est siendo juzgado hoy. +No est en un juicio. +Entonces djeme ir. +No puedo hacer eso, hijo. +As que es un mentiroso. +NA: Gracias. Muy rpidamente quiero decir cual es mi idea, es que mientras realizamos estos grandes avances, lo que estamos haciendo, lo cual para m, saben, creo que deberamos-- frica debera avanzar, pero deberamos recordar, para no regresar a lo mismo. +Gracias. +Emeka Okafor: Gracias, Newton. +Uno de los temas que resalta en la pieza que acabamos de ver es la sensacin de trauma psicolgico de los jvenes que deben realizar este rol de nios -- siendo nios soldados. +Y considerando de dnde vienes, y cuando consideramos hasta qu grado no se ha tomado seriamente como debera: Qu tienes que decir al respecto? +NA: Durante mi investigacin, fui -- En realidad pas un tiempo en Sierra Leona investigando esto. +Y conoc -- recuerdo que conoc a muchos nios soldados, ex-combatientes, como les gusta ser llamados. +Conoc trabajadores psicosociales que trabajaban con ellos. +Conoc psiquiatras que pasaban tiempo con ellos, trabajadores de asistencia, ONGs, y muchos otros. +Pero recuerdo que durante el vuelo de regreso de mi ltimo viaje, recuerdo que romp en llanto y pens, si estos nios, si cualquier nio de Occidente, en el mundo occidental, tuviera un da como los que cualquiera de esos nios han tenido, estaran en terapia por el resto de sus vidas naturales. +As que para m, el pensar que tenemos todos estos nios, es una generacin, tenemos toda una generacin de nios que han sido expuestos a demasiado trauma o dao psicolgico y frica tiene que vivir con ello. +Pero slo lo digo para resaltarlo, resaltarlo entre todos estos avances, todo este pronunciamiento de grandes logros. +Eso es lo que pienso realmente. +EO: Bueno, te agradecemos de nuevo por venir al escenario de TED. +Esa fue una pieza conmovedora. +NA: Gracias. +EO: Gracias a ti. +Creo que el futuro del planeta depende de los humanos, no de la tecnologa, y ya tenemos el conocimiento. Estamos al tope en cuanto al conocimiento, +pero no estamos nada cerca del tope cuando se trata de nuestra percepcin. +An tenemos un pie en la era del oscurantismo +Y cuando escuchas algunas de las presentaciones aqu y sobre la enorme capacidad del humano, de nuestro entendimiento, y entonces lo comparas con el hecho de que aun llamamos "Tierra" a este planeta. Es algo extraordinario. Tenemos un pie en la era del oscurantismo. +Por ejemplo, rpidamente: Aristteles, lo suyo era: "no es plana, idiota, es redonda". +Galileo tena la Inquisicin as que tuvo que ser ms amable. Deca: "sabes?, no est en el centro". +Y Hawkes: "No es tierra, idiota, es ocano". +Este es un planeta ocenico. +T. S. Elliott realmente lo dijo por m, y esto realmente debe darles escalofros: "No hemos de cesar de explorar y el fin de nuestra exploracin ser regresar a donde empezamos y conocer el lugar por primera vez." +Y las lneas que le siguen son: "El puente desconocido que recordamos en el que se descubri la ltima parte de la tierra: se es el comienzo." +As que tengo un mensaje. +Me parece que vamos en direccin equivocada. +A los astronautas en la audiencia: Amo lo que hacen, admiro sus agallas, admiro su valor, pero sus cohetes estn dirigidos en una maldita direccin equivocada. +Y todo es cuestin de perspectiva. +Djenme intentar y decirles. No quiero insultarlos pero, miren si yo -y es algo que en realidad no har porque sera un insulto as que voy a fingir para que el golpe no sea tan duro. Les voy a decir lo que estn pensando. +Si yo sostuviera un cuadro de un pie cuadrado, con el color de la tierra y otro que fuera su cuadrado, as que es 1.5 veces ms grande, y del color de los ocanos y entonces yo preguntara cul es el valor relativo de ambos? +Bueno, es la importancia relativa. +y ustedes diran "s, s, s, ya sabemos todo esto". En el planeta encontramos que el agua cubre el doble de espacio que la tierra seca +Pero es cuestin de percepcin Y si es lo que ustedes piensan me refiero a si es lo que piensan cuando digo que este es un planeta ocano llamado tierra estpidamente si piensan que sa es la importancia relativa, dos a uno, estn equivocados en un factor de diez +Ahora, ustedes no son tan gruesos como un par de tablones pero suenan igual cuando dicen "tierra" por esa demostracin, si yo me diera la vuelta as el plano de la tierra sera tan delgado como el papel +Es una existencia bidimensional en una delgada pelcula +Y la representacin del ocano tendra cierta profundidad +Y si medimos ambas podramos encontrar que su escala relativa es de 20 a 1 +Resulta que un poco ms del 94 por ciento de la vida en la tierra es acutica +Esto significa que nosotros, los terrestres, somos una minora. +El problema que tenemos para creer esto es que tendramos que renunciar a la nocin de que la tierra fue creada para nosotros. +Es un problema que tenemos. +Si este es un planeta ocenico y nosotros slo somos una minora mucho de lo que pensamos se ve afectado. +Bien. Vamos a criticar esto. +No estoy hablando de James Cameron, podra, pero no. +Deben ver su ltima pelcula Criaturas del abismo. Es increble. +Se trata de dos viajeros, y los puedo criticar porque esas dulces cosas son mas +Creo que representa a uno de los submarinos clsicos ms hermosos que se han construido. +Si observan el submarino, van a ver una esfera +Es una esfera acrlica. +Genera toda la flotabilidad toda la carga de la nave y las bateras estn aqu, colgando debajo como un globo +Esta es la cubierta y sta la gndola, la carga total. +Y tambin, estas luces masivas que sern criticadas despus. +Esta, de hecho, tiene dos grandes manipuladores +De hecho es un submarino que trabaja muy bien porque para esto fue diseado +El problema con esto, y la razn por la que no volver a construir uno igual, es que es un producto de pensamiento bidimensional +Es lo que hacemos los humanos cuando nos adentramos al ocano como ingenieros Tomamos nuestros traumas terrenales, todas nuestras limitaciones, y muy importante, estas limitaciones bidimensionales que son tan reducidas que ni siquiera las entendemos y las llevamos debajo del agua +Pueden ver que Jim Cameron se est en un asiento +Un asiento funciona en un mundo bidimensional en que la gravedad lo mantiene en el piso, OK? +Y en un mundo bidimensional, conocemos sobre la tercera dimensin pero no la usamos porque subir requiere una gran cantidad de energa en contra de la gravedad +Despus nuestras madres nos diran: "cuidado de no caerte porque te caers" +Ahora, vamos a la verdadera atmsfera del planeta. +El planeta tiene una atmsfera interna de agua. Es su atmsfera interna. Tiene dos atmsferas. Una atmsfera externa gaseosa menor, ms ligera +La mayor parte de la vida en la tierra est en esa atmsfera interna +Y esa vida disfruta de una existencia tridimensional que es ajena a nosotros +Los peces no usan asientos +No los usan. Sus madres no les dicen: "cuidado de no caerte" +No se caen. No se caen. +Viven en un mundo tridimensional donde no hay diferencia en la energa entre ir all, all, all o all. +Es verdaderamente un espacio tridimensional +Y apenas comenzamos a comprenderlo. +No se si haya algn otro submarino u objeto que aproveche el hecho de que ste es un espacio tridimensional. +Esta es la manera en que deberamos adentrarnos al ocano. +sta es una mquina tridimensional. +Lo que necesitamos es ir al ocano con la libertad de los animales y movernos en este espacio tridimensional. +OK, esto es bueno +Este es el primer intento del hombre de volar bajo el agua. +En este momento, estoy llegando hasta esta enorme y magnfica mantarraya +Su envergadura es del doble de la ma. +Aqu voy, y entonces me ve. +Y vean como se dobla y gira No se sienta tratando de llenar un tanque de aire y subir y bajar, slo se dobla. +Y la nave en la que... esto no lo hemos mostrado antes. +Chris nos pidi mostrar algo que no hubiramos mostrado antes. +Quera que vieran que ella realmente se volte para regresar. +Aqu estoy, la veo regresar pasando por debajo de mi. +Doy marcha atrs e intento ligeramente ir hacia abajo +Trato de hacer todo suavemente. +Hemos estado cerca de tres horas y ella comienza a tener confianza en m. +Y este ballet lo controla esta dama de aqu. +Se acerca hasta este punto y entonces se aleja. +As que ahora trato de ir tras ella, pero estoy practicando el vuelo. +Esta es la primera mquina voladora. Este fue el primer prototipo. +Este funciona elctricamente. Tiene alas. +No hay tontos tanques de flote. Es permanente, completamente flotante. +Y al moverse en el agua tiene la capacidad de asumir ese control. +Ahora, miren esto. Miren es...ella me dej impresionado. +solo se dobl desde abajo, +y realmente esta es la nica inmersin real que he hecho con esta mquina +Tom 10 aos construirla +Pero esta dama me ense, ay, me ense mucho. +Aprendimos muchas cosas en esas tres horas dentro del agua +Tanto que tuve que construir otra mquina. +Pero miren. En lugar de llenar tanques de aire y subir lentamente sin pensarlo hay un poco de presin trasera, y ese submarino sale del agua +Esta es una cmara interna Sony. Gracias, Sony. +No me veo tan mal, pero la cmara est tan cerca que est distorsionado. +Y aqu viene de nuevo, pasa sobre m. +Esta es una cmara de ngulo amplio. +Est a unas cuantas pulgadas de mi cabeza +"Aah, ha, oh, acaba de pasar sobre mi cabeza, oh, no s, muy cerca." +Y subo, no por aire. +"Esto es un magnfico encuentro con una raya. Estoy sin palabras. +Hemos estado a unos cuantos metros de distancia. Voy a volver a bajar ahora." +bueno, podemos cortar aqu?. Encendamos las luces por favor +Intentar volar y seguir a ese animal El problema no fue no poder maniobrar +sino que ella iba muy lento. +Ese aparato lo dise para moverse ms rpido en el agua porque pens que era lo que necesitbamos: movernos rpido y tener ms alcance. +Pero despus de este encuentro, en realidad quise volver con ese animal y bailar +Ella quera bailar +Entonces lo que necesitbamos hacer era incrementar el rea del ala para que pudiramos tener una mayor empuadura, desarrollar ms fuerza. +As que ste es el submarino que sali el ao pasado. +Pueden ver que el rea del ala es mayor aqu. +Y tambin fue algo muy poderoso. quisimos intentar y traer ms gente y encontramos cmo hacerlo. +As que inauguramos la primera escuela de vuelo. +Y entonces yo me bajara los lentes a la barbilla y dijera No necesito una maldita licencia. +Escribo la maldita licencia, lo hago. +As que Bob Gelfons* que anda por aqu-- Alguien aqu en la audiencia tiene la licencia nmero 20 +Son uno de los primeros aviadores submarinos. +As que hemos tenido dos escuelas de vuelo +A dnde demonios va todo eso, no s, pero es muy divertido. +Qu va a pasar en 30 segundos? No puedo decirlo. +Pero Karen y yo buscbamos la patente del vuelo submarino Algunos de nuestros socios queran que lo patentramos Pero nosotros no estabamos tan seguros de ello +y decidimos no hacerlo +Es que me parece incorrecto tratar de patentar... ...la libertad del vuelo submarino +As que quien quiera copiarnos y unirse a nosotros, adelante. +Otra cosa es que nuestros gastos son mucho menores. +Desarrollamos otra tecnologa llamada "spider optics" - visin de araa - y Craig Ventner me pidi esta maana que hiciera el anuncio aqu Vamos a construir una hermosa versin pequea de este bote que no necesite tripulacin y que llegue a gran profundidad para que pueda obtener el ADN de algunas cosas que encontramos en los abismos. +Gracias +Esta era una rea llamada Wellawataa, una zona residencial de clase alta en Colombo. +Nos situamos en las vas del ferrocarril que iban de la casa de mi amigo a la playa. +Las vas estn elevadas 2 metros y medio del nivel normal de agua, pero en ese punto el agua haba descendido a un nivel de 90 cm o 1,20 cm por debajo de lo normal. +Nunca antes haba visto aqu arrecife. +Haba peces atrapados en las piscinas de rocas que dej el descenso del agua. +Algunos nios se tiraban y corrian a las piscinas con bolsas. +Tratando de atrapar a los peces. +Ninguno se dio cuenta de que sta no era una buena idea. +Las personas en las vas seguian observndolos. +Me di la vuelta para mirar la casa de mi amigo +Entonces alguien en las vas grit. +Antes de que pudiera darme vuelta, todos en las vas estaban corriendo y gritando. +El agua estaba volviendo. El arrecife se llenaba de espumas. +Los nios trataban de regresar corriendo a las vas. +Nadie se perdi. Pero el agua continuaba subiendo. +En unos dos minutos, haba alcanzado el nivel de las vas del tren y las estaba cubriendo. Para entonces habamos corrido 100 metros. +Yo segu subiendo. +V a un hombre de pie frente a su puerta, con el agua hasta las rodillas, negndose a irse. +Dij que haba vivido toda su vida al lado de la playa, y que prefera morir ah antes que huir. +Un nio se escap de su madre y corri de vuelta a su casa para buscar a su perro que aparentemente tena miedo. +Una mujer mayor lloraba mientras su hijo la sacaba de su casa. +Las casas pobres construidas en la reserva del tren entre el mar y las vas haban desaparecido completamente. +Como era un lugar de alto riesgo la polcia haba prevenido a los residentes, y no haba nadie cuando el agua empez a subir. +Pero no tuvieron tiempo de sacar sus pertenencias. +Horas despus el mar segua trayendo pedazos de madera todos eran restos de las casas pobres. +Cuando el agua se calm, pareca que nunca habian existido. +Puede parecer dficil de creer, al menos que hayan ledo muchos informes de noticias pero en muchos lugares, despus del tsunami, los residentes seguan aterrorizados. +Cuando un mar tranquilo se traga sin piedad y sin preaviso a la gente, a los hogares y a las embarcaciones, y nadie poda decirte con certeza si se repetira, no estoy seguro de que uno quisiera calmarse tampoco. +Una de las cosas ms peligrosas de un tsunami que he visto mencionado es la total falta de informacin. +Esto puede parecer menor, pero es terrorfico escuchar rumor tras rumor y tras rumor que una ola gigantesca, mayor que la anterior vendr exctamente a la 1 p.m., o tal vez esta noche, o quizs ... +ni siquiera sabes si es seguro volver al agua y tomar un barco para ir al hospital. +Nosotros pensamos que el hospital de Phi Phi fue destruido. +Pensamos que este barco estaba yendo al hospital de Phuket, pero era muy peligroso estacionarse en el muelle, y luego quizs ira a Krabi que estaba ms protegido. +No sabemos si otra ola est viniendo. +En el Phi Phi Hill Resort, yo estaba en un rincon alejado de la television pero trataba de escuchar la informacion. +Informaron que hubo un terremoto de 8,5 de magnitud en Sumatra, que deton el tsunami masivo. +Saber esto fue esperanzador de algn modo para entender lo que nos haba pasado. +Aunque el informe se concentraba en lo que haba sucedido y no ofrecan informacin acerca de que esperar ahora. +En general, todos era simplemente rumores, y ninguna persona de las que habl durante 36 horas saba algo con seguridad. +Estos fueron dos relatos del tsunami de Asia en dos blogs de Internet que bsicamente aparecieron tras lo ocurrido. +Ahora voy a mostrarles dos segmentos de videos del tsunami que tambin se mostraron en blogs. +Les aviso que son bastante fuertes. +Uno de Tailandia y el segundo tambien de Phuket. +Voz 1: Est viniendo. Est viniendo otra vez. +Voz 2: Viene de nuevo? +Voz 1: S. Viene de nuevo. +Voz 2: [confuso] +Voz 1: Viene otra vez. Una nueva ola. +Viene otra vez. +[confuso] Me llaman aqu afuera. +James Surowiecki: Phew. Estos estaban en este sitio web: Waveofdestruction.org. +Dijeron, cosas como que los blogeros nos abandonaron. +Lo que se hizo evidente fue que a los pocos das la cantidad de informacin era enorme, y tuvimos una completa y poderosa imagen de lo que haba pasado de un modo del que nunca antes lo habamos tenido. +Y lo que se tena era basicamente un grupo desorganizado y desconectado de escritores, video bloggers, etc, que fueron los que vinieron con una imagen colectiva de un desastre que nos di un entendimiento mejor de lo que realmente era estar ah, ms que lo que los grandes medios nos transmitan. +Y de alguna manera, el tsunami puede ser visto como un momento fecundo, un punto donde la blogsfera logr un crecimiento. +Ahora, voy a pasar de este tipo de -- lo sublime en el sentido tradicional de la palabra -- es decir lo que nos asombra, inspira, aterroriza -- a algo ms mundano. +Porque cuando pensamos en blogs, creo que para la mayora de nosotros que estamos interesados en el tema, estamos principalmente concentrados en la poltica, la tecnologa, etc. +Y quiero hacer tres preguntas en esta charla, acerca de la blogsfera, en los 10 minutos que quedan. +La primera es, que nos dice sobre nuestras ideas, sobre lo que motiva a la gente a hacer cosas? +La segunda es, pueden los blogs tener la genuina posibilidad de acceder a una especie de inteligencia colectiva que anteriormente ha permanecido, en su mayor partes, sin aprovechar? +Y la tercera parte es, cuales son los posibles problemas, o el lado oscuro de los blogs como los conocemos? +Ok, la primera pregunta: Que nos dicen acerca del porque la gente hace las cosas? +No reciben dinero por eso en ninguna forma mas que la atencion y, en cierta medida, el capital de ganar una reputacin por hacer un buen trabajo. +Y esto es, al menos para un economista tradicional, algo sorprendente, porque una persona parte de la economia tradicional dira que, bsicamente, uno hace cosas por una recompenza concreta, fundamentalmente financiera. +Pero en lugar de eso, lo que encontramos en Internet. y una de las grandes genialidades de eso, es que la gente ha encontrado una manera de trabajar juntas sin que el dinero est involucrado en absoluto. +Han alcanzado, de alguna forma, una especie de mtodo diferente de organizar la actividad. +El profesor de leyes en Yale, Yochai Benkler, en un ensayo llamado "Coase's Penguin", habla acerca de sta especie de modelo de cdigo abierto, que conocemos de Linux como algo potencialmente aplicable a una extensa serie de situaciones. +Y si piensan acerca de esto con el tsunami, lo que tienes es esencialmente una especie de ejercito de reporteros locales, que estn produciendo enormes cantidades de material por la nica razon de contar historias. +Esa es una idea muy poderosa, y una realidad muy poderosa. +Y que ofrece posibilidades realmente interesantes para organizar una serie de actividades a lo largo del camino. +Existen pocos blogers, alrededor de 20, ahora, quienes en efecto, ganan algo de dinero, y algunos pocos que estn actualmente tratando de vivir completamente de ellos, pero la gran mayoria lo hace porque les gusta o les encanta ser el centro de atencion, o lo que sea. +Por eso, Howard Rheingold ha escrito mucho sobre esto, y creo que esta escribiendo aun mas sobre esto, esta nocin de cooperacion voluntaria es muy poderosa y vale la pena considerar. +La segunda pregunta es, qu hace en realidad la blogsfera por nosotros, en trminos de acceso a una inteligencia colectiva? +Como Chris mencion, escrib un libro titulado "La Sabidura de la Multitud". +Y la premisa de este libro es que, bajo las condiciones correctas, los grupos pueden ser sumamente inteligentes. +Y a menudo, pueden en realidad ser mas inteligentes que la persona mas inteligente dentro de ellos. +El ejemplo mas simple de esto es que si le preguntas a un grupo de personas que hagan algo, por ejemplo: adivinar cuantos caramelos hay en un frasco. +Es decir, si yo tuviera un frasco lleno de caramelos, y les preguntara cuantos caramelos hay en el frasco, el promedio de sus respuestas seria bastante bueno. +Estara probablemente dentro del tres y cinco por ciento del nmero de caramelos en el frasco, y seria mejor que el 90 o 95 por ciento de las respuestas individuales de ustedes. +Podria haber en el grupo, una o dos personas que sean brillantes adivinadores, pero para la mayoria, la respuesta promedio del grupo seria mejor que la de todos ustedes individuales. +Y lo que es fascinante es que pueden ver este fenomeno en el trabajo en situaciones mucho mas complicadas. +Por eso, por ejemplo, si ustedes miran las posibilidades de los caballos en una carrera, predicen casi a la perfeccin las posibilidades de que un caballo gane. +En cierto sentido, el grupo de ventajas en la carrera esta pronosticando el futuro, en trminos de probabilidades. +Y creo que eso es una de las promesas reales de la blogsfera. +Dan Gilmor, en su libro "Nosotros El Medio" que esta incluido en el paquete de regalo, ha hablado de esto, diciendo que como escritor, ha reconocido que sus lectores saben ms de lo que l sabe. +Y sta es una idea muy desafiante. Muy desafiante para los medios tradicionales. Es una idea desafiante para cualquiera que ha invertido una enorme cantidad de tiempo y conocimiento y que tiene mucha energia invertida en la nocin de que l o ella saben mas que cualquier otra persona. +Pero lo que la blogsfera ofrece es la posibilidad de llegar a esa especie de inteligenica colectiva, distribuida, que esta ah afuera y que sabemos esta disponible para nosotros si slo podemos encontrar una manera de acceder a ella. +Cada post en un blog, cada comentario en un blog puede no ser exactamente lo que estamos buscando, pero colectivamente, el juicio de esas personas comentando, haciendo enlaces, en la mayoria de los casos va a ofrecer una imagen muy interesante y valiosa de lo que est ocurriendo. +Entonces, ese es el aspecto positivo. +Es el lado positivo de lo que algunas veces se llama periodismo de participacion o periodismo ciudadano, etc. que, en efecto le estamos dando a la gente que nunca antes podia hablar, una especie de voz y tenemos la capacidad de acceder a informacin que siempre ha estado all pero esencialmente sin ser aprovechada. +Pero esto tiene un lado oscuro, y en eso quiero ocupar la ltima parte de mi charla. +Una de las cosas que ocurren si pasas mcho tiempo en Internet y ocupas mucho tiempo pensando acerca de Internet es que es muy fcil enamorarse de Internet. +Es muy fcil enamorarse de la estructura de "base" y descentralizada de Internet. +Es muy fcil pensar que las redes son necesariamente cosas buenas, que ser enlazado de un lugar a otro, que tener fuertes vinculos en un grupo, es algo bueno. +Y la mayor parte del tiempo lo es. +Pero tambin existen desventajas-- de hecho, una especie de lado oscuro-- y es que cuanto ms estrecho se convierte el vinculo entre cada uno, es ms difcil para cada uno mantenerse independiente. +Una de las caracteristicas fundamentales de una red es que una vez que ests vinculado en una red, la red comienza a moldear tus puntos de vista y comienza a darle forma a tus interacciones con los otros. +Esa es una de las cosas que define lo que es una red. +Una red no es solo el producto de sus partes componentes. +Es algo ms que eso. +Es, como lo dijo Steven Johnson, un fenomeno emergente. +Ahora, esto tiene todos estos beneficios: es muy ventajoso en terminos de la eficiencia de comunicar informacion; te da acceso a numerosas personas; permite a la gente coordinar sus actividades de una manera muy buena. +Pero el problema es que los grupo slo son inteligentes cuando la gente dentro de ellos es tan independiente como sea posible. +Esto es una especie de paradoja, en la sabiduria de los grupos, o la paradoja de la inteligencia colectiva, que lo que requiere en realidad es una forma de pensamiento independiente. +Y las redes dificultan que la gente haga esto, porque dirigen la atencion hacia las cosas que la red valora. +Por eso, uno de los fenomenos que es muy claro en la blogsfera es que una vez que una idea, comienza a crecer, es muy fcil para la gente el poder sumarse, porque alguien tiene, digamos, un link. +otro lo enlaza, y otro a su turno lo enlaza de nuevo, etc, etc. +Y ese fenmeno, ese fenmeno, de vincular los links ya existentes es una caracterstica de la blogsfera. particularmente de la blogsfera poltica, y es una caracterstica que esencialmente nubla esta especie de hermosa inteligencia basica descentralizada de que los blogs se pueden manifestar en las condiciones correctas. +La metfora que quisiera usar es la metfora de la marcha circular. +Mucha gente habla sobre las hormigas. +Ustedes saben, esta es una conferencia inspirada por la naturaleza. +Cuando hablamos de fenomenos "de base", descentralizados la colonia de hormigas es la metafora clsica, porque, las hormigas, individualmente, no saben lo que estan haciendo, pero colectivamente son capaces de alcanzar decisiones increiblemente inteligentes. +Y son capaces de guiar su trafico con una velocidad extraordinaria. +Por eso, la colonia de hormigas es un gran modelo tienes todas esas pequeas partes que colectivamente suman algo grande. +Pero sabemos que algunas veces, las hormigas se extravan y lo que ocurre es que si los ejercitos de hormigas deambulan y se extravan comienzan a seguir una regla muy simple -- simplemente haz lo que hormiga delante tuyo hace. +Y lo que ocurre es que eventualmente, las hormigas terminan en un crculo. +Y existe este famoso ejemplo de uno que tena 366 metros de largo y duro dos dias, mientras las hormigas seguian marchando y marchando en un circulo hasta que moran. +Y creo que eso es algo de lo que tenemos que tener cuidado. +Eso es lo que tenemos que temer, que simplemente sigamos marchando en crculos hasta morir. +Ahora, quiero conectar esto de vuelta con el tsunami, porque una de las grandes cosas acerca del tsunami en trminos de cobertura de la blogsfera, no en trminos del tsunami en si mismo-- es que realmente represent un genuino fenmeno originado en las bases. +Se vieron sitios que nunca existieron antes, con gran cantidad de trfico. +La gente fue capaz de ofrecer sus diferentes puntos de vista de una manera que no era posible anteriormente. +Y all realmente se vi la inteligencia de la Web manifestandose a si misma. +Y esa es la ventaja. La marcha en circulo es la desventaja. +Y creo que lo primero es lo por lo que realmente necesitamos luchar. +Muchas gracias. +Gracias por estar aqu. +Y digo gracias por estar aqu, porque estuve en silencio durante 17 aos. +Y las primeras palabras que dije fueron en Washington D.C., en el 20 aniversario del Da de la Tierra. +Y mi familia y mis amigos se haban reunido all para orme hablar. +"Y yo dije, ""Gracias por estar aqu""." +Mi madre, en la audiencia, salt, "Aleluya, Johnny est hablando!" +Imagnese si usted estuviera callado durante 17 aos y su madre estuviera en la audiencia, digamos. +Mi pap me dijo, "Eso es uno" -- Voy a explicar esto. +Pero me d la vuelta porque no reconoc de donde provena mi voz. +Yo no haba odo mi voz en 17 aos, as que d la vuelta, mir y dije: Dios, quin est diciendo lo que estoy pensando? +Y entonces me di cuenta de que era yo, saben, y me re. +Y pude ver a mi padre - "S, realmente est loco". +Bueno, quiero llevarlos en este viaje. +Y el viaje, en mi opinin, es una metfora para todos nuestros viajes. +Y as, aunque este es un poco inusual, quiero que piensen en su propio viaje. +Mi viaje comenz en 1971 cuando fui testigo de dos buques petroleros chocando debajo del Golden Gate, y medio milln de galones de petrleo derramado en la baha. +Esto me molest tanto, que decid que iba a renunciar a manejar y andar en vehculos motorizados. +Eso es algo importante en California. +Y fue algo importante en mi pequea comunidad de Point Reyes Station en Inverness, California, ya que slo haba alrededor de 350 personas all en el invierno -- esto era en 1971. +Y as cuando llegu y empec a caminar por all, la gente -- ellos saban lo que estaba pasando. +Y la gente manejaba hasta quedar a mi lado y decan: "John, qu ests haciendo?" +Y yo deca: "Bueno, estoy caminando en favor del medio ambiente". +Y ellos contestaban: "No, ests caminando para hacernos ver mal a nosotros, verdad?" +"Ests caminando para hacernos sentir mal". +Y tal vez haba algo de verdad en eso, porque pens que si empezaba a caminar todo el mundo, ustedes saben, lo hara. +Debido al petrleo, todo el mundo hablaba de la polucin. +As que discut con la gente sobre eso, y discut y discut. +Llam a mis padres. +Dije, "He dejado de manejar y de andar en automviles". +Mi pap dijo, "Por qu no lo hiciste cuando tenas 16?" +No saba sobre el medio ambiente en esa poca. +Ellos estn en Filadelfia. +Y le dije a mi madre, "soy feliz, sin embargo, soy realmente feliz". +Ella dijo, "Si fueras feliz, hijo, no tendras que decirlo". +Las madres son as. +Y as, en mi cumpleaos nmero 27 decid, porque discuta mucho y hablaba tanta..., ven, que iba a dejar de hablar por un solo da - un da - para darle un descanso. +Y as lo hice. +Me levant por la maana y no dije ni una palabra. +Y tengo que decirles, fue una experiencia muy conmovedora, porque por primera vez, comenc a escuchar - en un largo tiempo. +Y lo que escuch, me perturb un poco. +Porque lo que yo sola hacer, cuando pens que estaba escuchando, era escuchar lo suficiente para oir lo que la gente tena para decir y pensar que yo poda - Yo saba lo que iban a decir, y as dejaba de escuchar. +Y en mi mente, me adelantaba rpidamente y pensaba en lo que yo iba a responder, mientras la otra persona an estaba terminando. +Y entonces lanzaba mi ataque. +Bueno, eso acababa con la comunicacin. +As que en este primer da en realidad escuch. +Y fue muy triste para m, porque me di cuenta de que durante todos esos aos yo no haba estado aprendiendo. +Tena 27 aos. Pens que lo saba todo. +No era as. +Y por eso decid que era mejor hacer esto durante otro da, y otro da, y otro da hasta que finalmente, me promet a m mismo que durante un ao permanecera en silencio porque haba comenzado a aprender ms y ms, y necesitaba aprender ms. +As que durante un ao dije que estara en silencio, y luego el da de mi cumpleaos hara un balance de lo que haba aprendido y tal vez hablara de nuevo. +Bueno, eso dur 17 aos. +Ahora, durante ese tiempo - esos 17 aos - camin y toqu el banjo y pint y escrib mi diario y trat de estudiar el medio ambiente mediante la lectura de libros. +Y decid que iba a ir a la universidad. As que lo hice. +Camin hasta Ashland, Oregon, donde estaban ofreciendo un programa de estudios ambientales. +Est a slo 500 millas. +Y fui a la oficina de Registro y ... Qu, qu, qu? +Yo tena un recorte de peridico. +Oh, as que quieres estudiar aqu? +No? +Tenemos un programa especial para ti. Lo hicieron. +Y en esos dos aos, me gradu con mi primer grado - un ttulo de pregrado. +Y mi padre vino, estaba tan orgulloso. +Y dijo, "Oye, estamos realmente orgullosos de ti, hijo, pero qu vas a hacer con un ttulo de pregrado? +No viajas en autos, no hablas, vas a tener que hacer esas cosas". +Yo me encog de hombros, recog mi mochila de nuevo y empec a caminar. +Camin hasta Port Townsend, Washington, donde constru un bote de madera, en el que fui a travs de Puget Sound. Idaho - camin a travs de Washington, Idaho y hasta Missoula, Montana. +Yo le haba escrito a la Universidad de Montana, dos aos antes dicindoles que me gustara estudiar all. +Y dije que llegara en ms o menos dos aos. +Y all estuve. Aparec luego de dos aos y ellos -- Yo les cuento esta historia porque realmente me ayud. +Hay dos historias en Montana. +La primera historia es que yo no tena dinero -- esa es una seal que usaba mucho. +Y dijeron: "No te preocupes por eso." +El director del programa dijo: "Regresa maana". +Me dio 150 dlares, y dijo, "Inscrbete para un crdito. +Vas a ir a Amrica del Sur, no? " +Y yo hice -- "Ros y lagos, los sistemas hidrolgicos, Amrica del Sur". +As que lo hice. +l regres, me dijo, dijo, "Ok, John, ahora que te ests registrado para ese crdito, puedes tener una llave para una oficina, puedes matricularte -- ests matriculado por lo que puedes utilizar la biblioteca. +Y lo que vamos a hacer es que vamos a hacer que todos los profesores le permitan ir a clase, +van a guardar tus notas y cuando se nos ocurra cmo conseguir el resto del dinero, entonces puedes inscribirte en esa clase y ellos te darn la nota". +Wow, esto no lo hacen en escuelas de posgrado, no creo. +Pero yo uso esa historia porque ellos realmente queran ayudarme. +Ellos vieron que yo estaba realmente interesado en el medio ambiente, y realmente queran ayudarme en este camino. +Y durante ese tiempo, de hecho ense clases sin hablar. +Tena 13 estudiantes cuando entr por primera vez a clase, +y expliqu con la ayuda de un amigo, que poda interpretar mi lenguaje de seas, que yo era John Francis, que estaba caminando por todo el mundo, que yo no hablaba y que esta era la ltima vez que esta persona iba a estar como intrprete. +Todos los estudiantes se sentaron e hicieron ... +Pude ver que estaban buscando el cronograma para ver cundo podan salir. +Tuvieron que tomar esa clase conmigo. +Dos semanas ms tarde, todo el mundo estaba tratando de entrar en nuestra clase. +Y aprend en esa clase -- porque yo haca cosas como esta ... +y los estudiantes se reunan y, empezaban a, qu es lo que est tratando de decir? +No s, creo que habla sobre tala indiscriminada. S, tala indiscriminada. +No, no, no, eso no es tala indiscriminada, eso es -- que usa un serrucho. +Bueno, no puedes talar con un... +S, claro que puedes cortar ... +No, creo que habla sobre silvicultura selectiva. +Ahora, se trataba de un debate de clase y estbamos teniendo una discusin. +Yo simplemente retroceda, usteden saben, y solamente trataba de evitar que empezaran a pelear. +Pero lo que aprend fue que a veces yo haca una seal y ellos decan cosas que yo no haba querido decir en absoluto, pero que debera hacer dicho. +Y as lo que vino a m es que, si eres un profesor y ests enseando, si no ests aprendiendo, probablemente no ests enseando muy bien. +Y as segu. +Mi padre vino a verme para mi grado y, ustedes saben, yo hice lo mo, y mi padre dijo, "Estamos realmente orgullosos de ti, hijo, pero ..." Ya saben qu pas, dijo, "Tienes que empezar a manejar y viajar en autos, y empezar a hablar. +Qu vas a hacer con un ttulo de maestra? " +Me encog de hombros, tom mi mochila y me fui a la Universidad de Wisconsin. +Pas dos aos all escribiendo sobre los derrames de petrleo. +Nadie estaba interesado en derrames de petrleo. +Pero algo pas -- Exxon Valdez. +Y yo era el nico en los Estados Unidos escribiendo sobre derrames de petrleo. +Mi padre vino de nuevo. +Y dijo, "No s cmo haces esto, hijo, quiero decir, no viajar en autos, no hablas. +Mi hermana dice que tal vez debera dejarte en paz, ya que parece que te va mucho mejor cuando no ests diciendo nada". +Bueno, tom mi mochila de nuevo. +Puse mi banjo y camin hasta la Costa Este, puse mi pie en el Ocano Atlntico -- me tom siete aos y un da caminar a travs de los Estados Unidos. +Y en el Da de la Tierra, de 1990, en el 20 aniversario del Da de la Tierra, fue cuando empec a hablar. +Y por eso dije, "Gracias por estar aqu". +Porque es como esa historia del rbol que cae en el bosque, y si no hay nadie all para escuchar -- en realidad hace ruido? +Y les estoy agradeciendo a ustedes, y estoy agradeciendo a mi familia, porque vinieron a escucharme hablar. +Y eso es comunicacin. +Y ellos tambin me ensearon sobre escuchar -- que ellos me escucharan. +Y es una de esas cosas que surgen del silencio, escuchar a los dems. +Realmente, muy importante -- tenemos que escuchar a los dems. +Bueno, mi viaje continu. +Mi pap dijo: "Eso es uno.." y yo todava no lo dej ir. +He trabajado para la Guardia Costera, me convert en Embajador de Buena Voluntad de las Naciones Unidas. +Escrib regulaciones para los Estados Unidos -- quiero decir, escrib regulaciones para el derrame de petrleo. +Quiero decir, si hace 20 aos alguien me hubiera dicho, "John, realmente deseas marcar diferencia?" +S, quiero marcar diferencia. +Y l dijera, "Tan slo empieza a caminar hacia el Este, sal de tu auto y slo empieza a caminar hacia el Este". +Y mientras me alejaba, me hubiera dicho, "S, y adems cllate!". +"Vas a marcar diferencia, amigo". +Cmo puede ser eso? cmo puede ser? +Cmo podra algo tan simple como caminar y no hablar marcar diferencia? +Bueno, mi tiempo en la Guardia Costera fue realmente un buen tiempo. +Y despus de eso -- slo trabaj un ao -- Dije: "Es suficiente, un ao haciendo esto es suficiente para m". +Me sub en un velero y navegu hacia el Caribe, y camin a travs de todas las islas y hasta Venezuela. +Y ustedes saben, se me olvid lo ms importante, que es la razn por la que empec a hablar, y se las tengo que decir . +Empec a hablar porque haba estudiado el medio ambiente, +Estudi el medio ambiente en este nivel, este nivel formal, pero tambin estaba este nivel informal. +Y en el nivel informal -- Aprend acerca de la gente, y lo que hacemos y cmo somos. +Y el medio ambiente pas de ser slo acerca de los rboles y las aves y especies en peligro, a ser acerca de cmo tratamos a los dems. +Porque si nosotros somos el medio ambiente, entonces todos lo que tenemos que hacer es mirar a nuestro alrededor y ver cmo nos tratamos a nosotros mismos y cmo tratamos a los dems. +Y ese es el mensaje que tena. +As que dije, "Bueno, voy a tener que difundir este mensaje". +Y sub a mi velero, navegu por todo el Caribe -- no era realmente mi velero, en realidad yo trabajaba en ese barco, ms o menos -- llegu a Venezuela y empec a caminar. +Esta es la ltima parte de esta historia, porque es cmo llegu aqu, porque todava no viajaba en vehculos motorizados. +Yo estaba caminando a travs de El Dorado - se trata de una pueblo prisin, famosa prisin, o infame prisin - en Venezuela, y no s lo que me posey, porque yo no era as. +Estoy all, caminar ms all de la puerta de guardia, y el guardia se detiene y dice: "Pasaporte, pasaporte", con un M16 apuntando hacia m. +Y lo mir y le dije, "Pasaporte, bah, +no necesito mostrarle mi pasaporte, est en la parte trasera de mi mochila. +Soy el Dr. Francis, soy embajador de la ONU y estoy caminando por todo el mundo". +Y empec a alejarme. +Qu me posey para decir tal cosa? +El camino se convirti en la selva. +Y no me dispararon. +Y pude -- Empec a decir, por fin libre, gracias a Dios Todopoderoso, soy libre por fin. +Qu fue eso?, me deca, qu fue eso? +Me llev 100 millas darme cuenta que en mi corazn, en m, me haba convertido en un prisionero. +Yo era un preso y necesitaba escapar. +La crcel en la que yo estaba era el hecho de que no manejaba o utilizaba vehculos motorizados. +Ahora, cmo puede ser eso? +Porque cuando empec, me pareca muy apropiado no utilizar vehculos motorizados. +Pero lo que era diferente era que en cada cumpleaos, me preguntaba sobre el silencio, pero nunca me pregunt a m mismo acerca de mi decisin de usar slo mis pies. +No tena idea de que iba a convertirme en embajador de la ONU. +No tena idea de que tendra un doctorado. +Y as me di cuenta de que tena una responsabilidad hacia algo ms que slo yo, y que iba a tener que cambiar. +Ustedes saben, podemos hacerlo. +Iba a tener que cambiar. +Y tena miedo de cambiar, porque estaba tan acostumbrado a ser el tipo que solamente caminaba. +Estaba tan acostumbrado a esa persona que no quera parar. +No saba quin sera si cambiaba. +Pero s que necesitaba hacerlo. +S que necesitaba cambiar, porque sera la nica manera en la que podra estar hoy aqu. +Y s que muchas veces nos encontramos en este maravilloso lugar a donde hemos llegado, pero hay otro lugar para que vayamos. +Y tenemos que dejar atrs la seguridad de quien hemos llegado a ser, e ir al lugar de quien podemos ser. +Y as, quiero animarlos a que vayan a ese siguiente lugar, que se permitan salir de cualquier crcel en la que se puedan encontrar, por ms cmoda que sea, porque tenemos que hacer algo ahora. +Tenemos que cambiar ahora. +Como nuestro ex Vicepresidente dijo: tenemos que ser activistas. +Por lo tanto, si mi voz puede tocarlos, si mis acciones pueden tocarlos, si mi presencia aqu puede tocarlos, por favor permtanlo. +Y s que todos ustedes me han tocado mientras he estado aqu. +Entonces, vamos a salir al mundo y a tomar este cuidado, este amor, este respeto que nos hemos demostrado aqu en TED, y vamos a llevarlo al mundo. +Porque somos el medio ambiente, y la forma en que tratamos a los dems es realmente la forma en la que vamos a tratar al medio ambiente. +As que quiero darle las gracias por estar aqu y quiero poner fin a esto, con cinco segundos de silencio. +Gracias. +Veris, este hombre es un tipo llamado Bob McKim. +Investig sobre la creatividad en los aos 60 y 70, y dirigi tambin el programa de diseo de Stanford. +Por cierto, mi amigo y fundador de IDEO, David Kelley, que est por ah, en alguna parte, fue alumno suyo en Stanford. +A l le gustaba hacer un ejercicio con sus alumnos en el que les haca coger un papel y dibujar a la persona sentada a su lado, al compaero, rpidamente, tan rpido como pudiesen hacerlo. +De hecho, vamos a hacer ese mismo ejercicio ahora. +Todos tienen un cartn y un trozo de papel. +Uno con un montn de crculos. +Quiero que le den la vuelta a ese papel, y vern que la otra cara est en blanco, no? +Y debera haber un lpiz. +Quiero que elijan a alguien sentado junto a ustedes, y cuando d la seal, tendrn 30 segundos para dibujarlo, de acuerdo? +Venga, preparados? Pues adelante! +Tienen 30 segundos, as que dnse prisa. +Vamos a ver, esas obras maestras! +Ya? Paramos! Muy bien! ya! +. S, es muy gracioso. S, exactamente. +Es muy gracioso, pero algo embarazoso tambin. +Se oyen algunos "lo siento"? Creo que oigo algunos "lo siento". +Vaya, creo que yo tambin lo siento. +Y esto es exactamente lo que sucede cada vez, cada vez que se hace esto con adultos. +McKim se encontr esto cada vez que lo hizo con sus alumnos. +Exactamente lo mismo: montones y montones de lo siento. +Y tambien seal que esto es una prueba de que tememos el juicio de nuestros compaeros, nos da vergenza, ms o menos, mostrar nuestras ideas a quienes consideramos compaeros, a los que nos rodean. +Y es este temor el que nos hace ser conservadores en nuestra forma de pensar. +As que se nos podra ocurrir una idea maravillosa, pero nos asusta compartirla con alguien. +Bueno, pero si prueban este mismo ejercicio con nios, no les da vergenza en absoluto. +Simplemente ensean felices sus obras maestras a quien quiera verlas. +Pero a medida que aprenden a ser adultos, se vuelven mucho ms sensibles a las opiniones de los dems, pierden la libertad y empiezan a sentir vergenza. +En los estudios sobre el juego en los nios, se ha demostrado una y otra vez, que los nios que se sienten seguros, que estn en una especie de entorno de confianza, son los que se sienten ms libres para jugar. +Y si usted est creando, digamos, una empresa de diseo, seguramente tambin querr crear un lugar donde la gente sienta la misma seguridad, +donde sientan el mismo tipo de seguridad para asumir riesgos. +Y quizs sentirse igual de seguros para jugar. +Antes de fundar IDEO, David dijo que lo que quera hacer era crear una empresa donde todos los empleados fueran grandes amigos suyos. +Ahora bien, no era por capricho. +Sino porque saba que la amistad es un atajo hacia el juego. +Y saba que nos da sensacin de confianza, y nos permite asumir todos aquellos riesgos de tipo creativo que encontraremos como diseadores. +Y su decisin de trabajar con amigos -- ahora cuenta ya con 550 - fue la que puso en marcha IDEO. +Y nuestros estudios, como muchos lugares de trabajo creativo hoy, estn diseados para ayudar a que la gente se sienta relajada, familiarizada con su entorno, cmoda con la gente con la que trabaja. +Para ello hace falta ms que decoracin, aunque todos hemos visto que las empresas creativas suelen tener smbolos en los lugares de trabajo que recuerdan a la gente que tengan espritu de juego y que se encuentran en un entorno permisivo. +No s porqu hay flamencos rosados, pero de todos modos, all estn, en el jardn. +O incluso como la oficina suiza de Google, donde quizs tienen las ideas ms locas de todas. +Mi teora es que con ello los suizos pretenden demostrar a sus colegas de California que no son aburridos. +As que tienen un tobogn, e incluso una barra de bomberos. +No s lo que hacen con ella, pero tienen una. +As que, en todos esos lugares, bueno, tienen estos smbolos. +Nuestro gran smbolo en IDEO no es tanto el lugar, sino una cosa. +De hecho es algo que inventamos hace unos aos, o creamos hace algunos aos. +Es un juguete. Se llama "finger blaster" (lanzador de dedo). +Y me olvid de traer uno conmigo. +As que, si alguien puede mirar debajo de esa butaca... encontrar algo pegado con cinta bajo ella. +Genial. Me lo puedes traer? Gracias, David, se lo agradezco. +Esto es un "finger blaster", y se darn cuenta de que cada uno de ustedes tiene uno pegado con cinta bajo su silla. +Y voy a realizar un pequeo experimento. Otro pequeo experimento. +Pero antes de empezar, debo ponerme esto. +Gracias. Muy bien. +Ahora, lo que voy a hacer es que voy a ver cmo -- No puedo con esta cosa puesta... vale. +A ver cuntos de ustedes en la parte trasera de la sala pueden lanzarlos hasta el escenario. +La forma en que funcionan es as, ya saben, pongan el dedo en el "finger blaster", tiren de l hacia atrs, y lo sueltan. +Eso s, no miren hacia atrs. Esa es mi nica recomendacin. +Quiero ver cuntos de ustedes pueden llegar al escenario. +As que, vamos! S, lo han pillado. Gracias. Gracias. Oh. +Tengo otra idea. Yo quera... vaya! +Aqu vienen! +Gracias, gracias, gracias. +No est mal, no est mal. No hay lesiones graves por el momento. +Bueno, todava estn llegando desde el fondo; todava llegan hasta aqu. +Algunos de ustedes no han disparado todava. +No saben cmo hacerlo, o qu? +No es tan difcil. La mayora de sus hijos lo descubren en los primeros 10 segundos, en cuanto lo cogen. +Perfecto. Muy bien, muy bien. +Bien, bien, Djenme... Creo que ser mejor ... +mejor quitarlos de en medio porque si no, voy a tropezar con ellos. +Bien. El resto se los pueden guardar para cuando diga algo especialmente aburrido, y entonces me pueden disparar. +Muy bien. Creo que me voy a quitar esto ya, que no veo nada con... muy bien, vale. +Pues, ah, ha sido divertido. +Muy bien, bien. +Y bueno, entonces por qu? +Nosotros tenemos "finger blasters", otros tienen dinosaurios, ya saben. +Por qu los tenemos? Bueno, como ya les haba dicho, los tenemos porque pensamos que tal vez el juego es importante. +Pero, por qu es importante? +Lo usamos de una forma muy pragmtica, para ser sinceros. +Creemos que el juego nos ayuda a llegar a soluciones ms creativas. +Nos ayuda a hacer mejor nuestro trabajo y nos ayuda a sentirnos mejor cuando lo hacemos. +Ahora, un adulto que se enfrenta una nueva situacin... cuando nos encontramos con una nueva situacin tenemos la tendencia a querer categorizarla lo ms rpido posible, verdad? +Y hay una razn: queremos resolverla con una respuesta. +La vida es complicada. Queremos saber qu est pasando a nuestro alrededor rpidamente. +Sospecho, en verdad, que los bilogos evolucionistas probablemente sepan muchas razones por las que queramos categorizar las cosas nuevas de manera muy, muy rpida. +Una de ellas podra ser, por ejemplo, que cuando vemos esta cosita con rayas, nos preguntamos.. es eso un tigre a punto de saltar y matarnos? +o slo unas extraas sombras en el rbol? +Necesitamos comprenderlo de manera muy rpida. +Bueno, al menos lo hicimos una vez. +La mayora de nosotros no necesita hacerlo ms, supongo. +Esto es un rollo de papel aluminio, verdad? Se usa en la cocina. +Es lo que es, verdad? Claro que s, por supuesto que s. +Pues no necesariamente. +Los nios estn ms dispuestos a dejar las posibilidades abiertas. +Claro que ellos, sin duda... cuando se encuentran con algo nuevo, sin duda se preguntan, qu es? +Claro que lo hacen, pero tambin preguntan, qu puedo hacer con esto? +Y saben ustedes, los ms creativos podran llegar a ser un ejemplo realmente interesante. +Esta apertura es el comienzo del juego exploratorio. +Hay padres de nios pequeos en el pblico? Debe de haber algunos. +S, eso pensaba. Todos lo hemos visto, verdad? +Todos hemos contado historias de cmo el da de Navidad, bueno, nuestros hijos han terminado jugando con las cajas mucho ms que con los juguetes que venan dentro. +Y saben? Desde una perpectiva exploratoria, es algo completamente lgico +porque se puede hacer mucho ms con cajas que con un juguete. +Incluso uno como, digamos, Elmo Cosquillas, que, a pesar de su ingenio, realmente slo hace una cosa, mientras que las cajas ofrecen un nmero infinito de opciones. +As que, de nuevo, sta es otra de esas actividades ldicas que, cuando envejecemos, tendemos a olvidar y hay que reaprender. +Bien, otro de los ejercicios favoritos de Bob McKim se llama el test de los 30 crculos. +De nuevo, manos a la obra. Les toca trabajar de nuevo. +Ahora volteen el papel donde hicieron el dibujo, por la otra cara encontraran 30 crculos impresos en el papel. +Debera parecerse a esto. Deberan ver algo as. +Entonces, lo que voy a hacer es darles un minuto para que transformen tantos crculos como puedan en objetos de cualquier tipo. +As, por ejemplo, podran convertir uno en un baln de ftbol, y otro en un sol. Lo nico que me interesa es la cantidad. +Quiero que hagan tantos como puedan en el minuto que les voy a dar. +Entonces, todos listos? s? adelante, pues. +Vale, soltad los lapices, como se suele decir. +A ver, quien ha rellenado ms de cinco crculos? +Espero que todos. Ms de 10? +Levanten la mano si lo lograron. 10. +15? 20? alguien consigui los 30? +No? Oh! Alguien lo logr. Fantstico. +Alguien us una variacin de un tema? Como una carita sonriente? +Cara feliz? Cara triste? Cara de sueo? Alguien hizo eso? +Alguien us mis ejemplos? El sol y la pelota de ftbol? +Perfecto. Muy bien. Slo me interesaba la cantidad. +Realmente no me interesa que los circulos sean todos diferentes. +Solo quera que llenasen tantos crculos como fuese posible. +Y una cosa que solemos hacer los adultos, otra vez, es editar las cosas. +Nos paramos a nosotros mismos cuando hacemos algo; +nos auto-editamos mientras nos vienen ideas. +Algunas veces nuestro deseo de ser originales es una forma de edicin. +Y desde luego, eso no es realmente nada juguetn. +As que ese tipo de habilidad para lanzarse y explorar muchas cosas, aunque no parezca ser muy diferente de unos a otros, es algo que realmente los nios hacen bien, y es una forma de juego. +Bien, ahora, Bob McKim hizo otra -- otra versin de este test en un famoso experimento realizado en los 60. +Alguien sabe que es esto? Es un cactus peyote. +Es la planta con la que puedes hacer mescalina, una droga psicodlica. +Probablemente los que eran jvenes en los aos 60 la conocen bien. +McKim public un estudio en 1966 describiendo un experimento que l y sus colegas realizaron, para probar los efectos de las drogas psicodlicas en la creatividad. +Selecciono a 27 profesionales. Haba... bueno, ingenieros, fsicos, matemticos, arquitectos, diseadores de muebles, incluso, artistas. Y les invit a que se reunieran una noche y que trajesen un problema en el cual estuviesen trabajando. +McKim les dio a cada uno de ellos un poco de mescalina, y les hizo escuchar msica relajante por un rato. +Y luego les hizo lo que se llama el Test Purdue de Creatividad, +tambin conocido como, "cuntos usos puede encontrar a un clip?" +Bsicamente, es lo mismo que el ejercicio de los 30 crculos que hicimos antes. +Pues bien, les hizo el test antes de darles la droga, y despus, para ver cmo -- qu diferencias se observaban en la facilidad y rapidez con las que se les ocurran ideas. +Y luego les pidi que se fuesen y trabajasen en los problemas que haban trado. +Se les ocurrieron un montn de soluciones interesantes y, de hecho, soluciones vlidas para los asuntos en los que estaban trabajando. +Esta claro que fue una noche de mucho xito. +De hecho, tal vez este experimento fue la razn por la que Silicon Valley comenzara tan bien su carrera en la innovacin. +No lo sabemos, pero puede ser. +Deberamos preguntar a algunos de los CEOs si tomaron parte en este experimento con la mescalina. +Pero realmente, lo de la droga no es lo importante aqu sino la idea de que lo que la droga hizo fue ayudar a que la gente saliera de su forma normal de pensar. Y de alguna forma, olvidase los comportamientos adultos que se estaban interponiendo entre sus ideas. +Pero es difcil romper nuestros hbitos, hbitos de adultos. +En IDEO escribimos en las paredes reglas para las tormentas de ideas. +Frases como "Aplaza el juicio de valor" o "Vale ms la cantidad". +Y en cierto modo, esto no parece correcto. +Quiero decir, se pueden tener reglas sobre la creatividad? +Bien, parece que necesitamos reglas para que nos ayuden a romper las viejas reglas y normas que de otro modo llevaramos con nosotros al proceso creativo. +Y realmente, con el tiempo hemos aprendido que se hace una mejor sesin de tormenta de ideas, y hay resultados ms creativos si todo el mundo juega siguiendo las reglas. +Bueno, por supuesto, muchos diseadores, diseadores individuales, llegan a esto con un mtodo ms orgnico. +Creo que los Eames son un ejemplo fantstico de experimentacin. +Experimentaron con el contrachapado durante aos sin proponerse una meta clara. +Exploraban segn lo que resultaba interesante para ellos, +y se pusieron a disear frulas para soldados heridos de la Segunda Guerra Mundial y de la Guerra de Corea, creo, y de estos experiementos pasaron a las sillas +y por medio de una experimentacin constante con los materiales desarrollaron una amplia gama de soluciones emblemticas conocidas hoy da por todos y que con el tiempo result, por supuesto, en aquel legendario silln. +Bien, si los Eames se hubiesen quedado en ese primer gran resultado entonces hoy no seramos los beneficiarios de tantos diseos maravillosos. +Y claro, usaron esa experimentacin en todos sus trabajos, desde pelculas a edificios, de juegos a diseos grficos. +As que creo que son un gran ejemplo de exploracin y experimentacin en el diseo. +Bien, mientras los Eames exploraban estas posibilidades, exploraban tambin los objetos fsicos +y lo hacan construyendo prototipos. +La construccin es el siguiente comportamiento del que quiero hablar. +El alumno medio de primer grado pasa el 50% de su tiempo de juego jugando a los "juegos de construccin". +Los juegos de construccin son obviamente algo ldico, pero tambin una manera efectiva de aprender. +Cuando el juego consiste en construir una torre con bloques, el nio empieza a aprender un montn sobre las torres. +Y cada vez que las derriba y vuelve a empezar, el aprendizaje aparece como un subproducto del juego. +Es el clsico "aprender haciendo". +Bien, David Kelley llama a esta conducta, en el caso de los diseadores, "pensar con las manos" +Y por lo general conlleva realizar muchos prototipos de baja calidad muy rpidamente. Ya saben, a menudo significa juntar muchos elementos para conseguir una solucin. +En uno de sus primeros proyectos, el equipo se bloque y salieron adelante con un mecanismo al juntar el prototipo hecho y un desodorante en roll-on. +Y eso se convirti en el primer ratn de ordenador comercial para el Apple Lisa y el Macintosh. +As que digamos encontraron esa solucin construyendo prototipos. +Otro ejemplo es un grupo de diseadores que trabajaban en un instrumento quirrquico con un grupo de cirujanos. +Estaban reunidos con ellos, hablando con los cirujanos sobre lo que necesitaban de ese instrumental. +Uno de los diseadores sali de la sala cogi un rotulador, un bote para pelculas -que ahora es un recurso muy apreciado en prototipos- y una pinza de ropa. Los peg con una cinta, volvi a la habitacin y dijo quieren decir ustedes algo as? +Y el cirujano lo cogi con la mano y dijo "quiero poder cogerlo as o de esta otra manera"; +y de pronto tuvo lugar una conversacin productiva sobre el diseo, a partir de un objeto tangible +que al final se convirti en el instrumento real. +Por tanto, este comportamiento consiste en llevar rpidamente algo al mundo real y lograr as que tu pensamiento avance. +En IDEO hay a veces en el ambiente la sensacin de que hemos vuelto a preescolar. +Carros para prototipos llenos de papeles de colores y plastilina, pegamento en barra y todo eso. Es decir, se siente uno all en un ambiente como de guardera. +Pero la idea ms importante es que todo est a mano, todo est cerca. +As que cuando los diseadores trabajan con ideas pueden empezar a construir, digamos, lo que quieran. +No tienen que ir necesariamente a un tipo de taller formal para hacerlo. +Y creemos que eso es bastante importante. +Lo triste es que, pese a que los preescolares saben hacer esto, a medida que los nios pasan por el sistema escolar se lo arrebatan todo. +Pierden aquello que, de alguna forma, facilita este tipo de pensamiento ldico basado en la construccin. +Y claro, cuando llegamos al lugar de trabajo corriente quiz la mejor herramienta de construccin que tengamos sean las notas adhesivas. Eso es bastante estril. +Pero dando a los equipos de proyectos y a sus clientes permiso para pensar con las manos, pueden dar vida a ideas muy complejas y llegar a su realizacin mucho ms fcilmente. +Aqu vemos una enfermera con un prototipo de plastilina, muy simple, para explicar lo que quiere de un sistema porttil de informacin a un equipo de tecnlogos y diseadores que estn trabajando con ella en un hospital. +Y slo usando este prototipo tan simple le permite hablar de lo que quiere de forma mucho ms clara. +Y por supuesto, construyendo rpidos prototipos, ya saben, podemos mostrar nuestras ideas y probarlas con los consumidores y usuarios mucho ms rpidamente que si intentamos describirlas con palabras. +Pero qu pasa con el diseo de algo que no es fsico, +como un servicio o una experiencia, +algo que consiste en una serie de interacciones a lo largo del tiempo? +En vez del juego de construccin, se puede abordar con el juego de roles. +Si ests diseando una interaccin entre dos personas como, no s, pedir comida en un puesto de comida rpida, o algo as, tienes que poder imaginarte cmo vivir esa experiencia por un periodo de tiempo. +Y creo que la mejor manera de lograrlo y llegar a notar los defectos de tu diseo es representarlo. +Trabajamos mucho en IDEO tratando de convencer a nuestros clientes de eso. +Pueden ser algo escpticos, ya hablar de ello ms tarde, +pero los lugares donde creo que el esfuerzo merece la pena son aqullos donde la gente se enfrenta a problemas muy serios, como la educacin, la seguridad, las finanzas o la salud. +Y ste es otro ejemplo en el entorno sanitario donde algunos mdicos, enfermeras y diseadores representan una situacin sobre la atencin a los pacientes. +Pero, ya saben, muchos adultos son bastante reticentes a participar en juegos de rol. +En parte es por vergenza, y en parte es porque no cren que lo que vaya a salir sea necesariamente vlido. +Rechazan una interaccin interesante diciendo que eso slo sucede as porque lo estamos representando. +La investigacin actual sobre el comportamiento de los nios sugiere que merece la pena tomarse el juego de rol en serio. +Porque cuando los nios representan un papel siguen muy de cerca guiones sociales que aprenden de nosotros los adultos. +Si uno juega a las tiendas y otro a las casitas, todo el juego se viene abajo. +As que se acostumbran muy pronto a comprender las reglas de las interacciones sociales, y son muy rpidos en avisar cuando se rompen. +As que cuando de mayores representamos un papel, tenemos ya una enorme cantidad de guiones internalizados. +Hemos pasado por muchas situaciones en la vida, y ellas nos dan una gran intuicin sobre si una interaccin va a funcionar o no. +Por eso se nos da muy bien, cuando representamos una solucin, detectar si algo carece de autenticidad. +De hecho creo que el juego de rol es muy valioso para pensar en experiencias. +Otra manera de explorar como diseadores los juegos de rol es ponernos nosotros en la situacin que diseamos, y proyectarnos a nosotros mismos en la situacin. +H aqu a algunos diseadores que tratan de entender cmo se sentiran durmiendo en un lugar limitado en un avin. +Para ello agarraron algunos elementos muy simples, como ven, e hicieron este tipo de juego de rol, muy realista para imaginar qu sensacin tendran los pasajeros si estuvieran quietos en sitios muy pequeos en los aviones. +ste es uno de nuestros diseadores, Kristian Simsarian, y se est poniendo en la situacin de ser un paciente de urgencias. +ste es un hospital de verdad, en una sala de urgencias de verdad. +Uno de los motivos por los que cogi esta cmara de video, ms bien grande, fue porque no quera que los mdicos y enfermeras pensaran que estaba enfermo de verdad y fueran a inyectarle algo que luego lamentara. +Bueno, pues, fue con la videocmara y es bastante interesante ver lo que trajo +porque cuando miramos el vdeo, a su vuelta. Vimos 20 minutos de esto... +Y lo increble de este video es que tan pronto como lo ves, te metes en esa situacin. +Y sabes lo que se siente, toda esa incertidumbre, cuando te dejan en el pasillo mientras los mdicos atienden otro caso ms urgente en una de las salas de urgencias, preguntndote qu diablos pasa. +As que esta forma de usar el juego de rol, o en este caso de pasar por esa situacin, es una forma de crear empata, especialmente cuando se usa el vdeo, muy poderosa. +Otro diseador nuestro, Altay Sendil, est aqu depilndose el pecho con cera, no por presumido, aunque de hecho lo sea. No, es broma. Sino para sentir empata con el dolor que los pacientes crnicos sufren cuando les cambian los vendajes. +A veces estas experiencias similares, este tipo de juego de rol anlogo, son muy valiosos. +As, cuando un nio se viste de bombero, ya saben, est probando esa identidad. +Quiere saber cmo se siente uno siendo bombero. +Como diseadores hacemos lo mismo: +probamos esas situaciones. +Y por tanto la idea del juego de rol es tanto un medio de empata como un medio para hacer prototipos de situaciones. +Y la verdad es que admiramos a los que hacen esto en IDEO, +no slo porque proporcionan ms informacin sobre la experiencia, sino por su deseo de explorar y su capacidad para, digamos, rendirse a la experiencia. +En resumen: admiramos sus ganas de jugar. +La exploracin ldica, la construccin ldica y el juego de roles son algunas de las formas en que los diseadores usan el juego en su trabajo. +Y hasta ahora, debo admitir que esto puede parecer que digo que hay que ponerse por ah a jugar como nios +y hasta cierto punto puede ser as, pero quiero resaltar un par de cosas. +Lo primero es recordar que el juego no es anarqua. +El juego tiene reglas, especialmente el juego en grupo. +Cuando los nios juegan a las casitas, o a policas y ladrones siguen un gun que han acordado +y esta negociacin de un cdigo les lleva a un juego productivo. +Recuerdan la actividad de dibujo del principio, +esa cara, ese retrato que hicieron? +Bien, imaginen que hacen eso mismo con sus amigos, mientras toman algo en un bar, +y todos se ponen de acuerdo en jugar a un juego: el que dibuje peor paga la siguiente ronda. +Ese marco de reglas y normas puede transformar una situacin difcil y humillante en un juego divertido. +Y en consecuencia, nos sentiremos perfectamente seguros y lo pasaremos bien, pero porque todos hemos comprendido las reglas y las hemos acordado en grupo. +Sin embargo, no son slo reglas sobre cmo jugar, existen normas acerca de cundo jugar. +Los nios no juegan todo el tiempo, obviamente. +Ellos entran y salen del juego. Y los maestros, ya saben, los buenos profesores pasan mucho tiempo pensando en cmo hacer que los nios vivan estas experiencias. +Y como diseadores, tenemos que ser capaces de entrar y salir del juego tambin. +Y si estamos haciendo estudios de diseo tenemos que ser capaces de averiguar cmo podemos llevar a los diseadores a travs de estas diferentes experiencias. +Creo que esto es especialmente cierto si pensamos acerca de... si pensamos que lo que es diferente en el diseo es que pasamos por dos modos de funcionamiento distintos: +a travs de una especie de modo generativo, donde exploramos muchas ideas. Y otro, en el que, en una especie de vuelta atrs, regresamos buscando un tipo de solucin, y desarrollamos esa solucin. +Creo que son dos modos muy diferentes, Divergencia y convergencia. +Y creo que es en el modo divergente donde probablemente necesitamos ms juego. +Tal vez en el convergente debamos ser ms serios. +As que ser capaz de moverse entre los modos es realmente muy importante. Por eso hay un tipo, una versin ms matizada del juego, que creo que se requiere. +Porque es muy fcil caer en la trampa de que estos estados son absolutos. +Puedes jugar o puedes estar serio, pero no las dos cosas a la vez. +Pero eso no es verdad. Usted puede ser un adulto serio y profesional, y, a veces, ser juguetn. +No es un "o esto o lo otro", es un "y". +Se puede estar serio y jugar. +As que, a modo de resumen, necesitamos confianza para jugar, y necesitamos confianza para ser creativos, esa es la conexin. +Y hay una serie de comportamientos que hemos aprendido desde nios, que nos resultan muy tiles como diseadores. +Entre ellos se incluyen la exploracin, que es buscar la cantidad. La construccin y el pensamiento con las manos. Y la simulacin, donde actuar nos ayuda doblemente a tener ms empata con las situaciones para las que diseamos, y a crear servicios y experiencias sin fisuras, autnticos. +Muchas gracias. +Jams podrn volver a oler la fragrancia que estn a punto de oler. +Es una fragancia llamada Ms all del paraso, y la pueden encontrar en cualquier tienda del pas. +Solo que aqu fue disociada por Este Lauder y por la perfumista que la cre, Calice Becker, y les agradezco enormemente por eso. +Se la ha separado en partes sucesivas y en un acorde. +As que lo que huelen ahora es la nota superior. +Y luego vendr lo que llaman el corazn, la exuberante nota central. +Se los mostrar. +La nota superior, Edn, recibe su nombre del Proyecto Edn del Reino Unido. +La exuberante nota central, la nota de corteza de melaleuca --que no contiene esta corteza, porque est totalmente prohibida--. +Y luego, la fragancia completa. +Lo que huelen ahora es una combinacin de-- pregunt cuntas molculas haba ah, y nadie me poda decir. +As que us un CG, un cromatgrafo de gases de mi oficina, y son aproximadamente 400. +As que lo que huelen son varios cientos de molculas flotando en el aire, chocando contra sus narices. +Y no piensen que esto es muy subjetivo. +Todos estn oliendo ms o menos lo mismo, de acuerdo? +Los olores tienen la reputacin de ser un poco diferentes para cada persona. +En realidad no es as. +Y una perfumera les muestra que no puede ser cierto, porque si fuera as no sera un arte, de acuerdo? +Bien, mientras el olor llega a ustedes, djenme contarles la historia de una idea. +Todo lo que huelen aqu est compuesto por tomos que vienen de lo que llamo el barrio exclusivo de la tabla peridica --un lugar bonito y seguro. +Realmente no quieres irte de all si buscas una carrera en perfumera. +En la dcada de 1920, algunas personas intentaron agregar cosas de las zonas malas, y no funcion. +Aqu estn los cinco tomos que componen casi todo lo que van a oler en la vida real, desde el caf hasta los perfumes. +La nota superior que olieron al comienzo, el verde del csped cortado, as lo llamamos en perfumera --son nombres raros-- y a esta la llamaramos una nota verde, porque huele a algo verde, como csped recin cortado. +Esto es cis-3-hexanol. Tuve que aprender qumica sobre la marcha durante los ltimos tres aos. Una educacin propia de una escuela costosa. +Esto tiene seis tomos de carbono, por eso "hexa": hexanol. +Tiene un enlace doble, tiene un alcohol en el extremo, entonces es "ol", y por eso lo llamamos cis-3-hexanol. +Una vez que entiendes eso, causas una gran impresin en las fiestas. +Esto huele a csped cortado. Ahora bien, esto es el esqueleto de la molcula. +Si lo vistes con tomos, tomos de hidrgeno, as se ve cuando lo tienes en tu computadora, pero en realidad es ms bien as, en el sentido de que los tomos tienen cierta esfera que no se puede penetrar --repelen. +Ahora bien. Por qu huele a csped cortado? +Por qu no huele a papas, o a violetas? Bueno, hay dos teoras. +La primera teora es que debe ser la forma. +Y esa es una teora perfecta en el sentido de que casi todo el resto de la biologa funciona en base a la forma. +Las enzimas que comen cosas, los anticuerpos, ya saben, la correspondencia entre una protena y lo que toma, en este caso un olor. +Tratar de explicarles cul es el problema de esta idea. +La otra teora dice que olemos vibraciones moleculares. +Esta es una idea completamente alocada, +y cuando la conoc a comienzos de los '90, cre que mis predecesores, Malcolm Dyson y Bob Wright, se haban vuelto locos, e intentar explicarles por qu fue as. +Sin embargo, empec a darme cuenta de que poda tener razn -- y tengo que convencer a todos mis colegas de que esto es as, pero estoy en eso. +Aqu aparece cmo funciona la forma en los receptores comunes. +Llega una molcula, entra a la protena, que en este caso es un esquema, y hace que esto cambie, gire, se mueva de algn modo unindose a ciertas partes. +La atraccin, las fuerzas, entre la molcula y la protena causan el movimiento. Esta es una idea basada en la forma. +Pues bien, el problema de la forma est resumido en esta diapositiva. +La manera --espero que todos memoricen estos compuestos. +Esta es una pgina del cuaderno de un qumico, bien? +Trabaja para una empresa de fragancias. +Hace 45 molculas, y est buscando sndalo, algo que huela a sndalo. +Porque hay mucho dinero en los sndalos. +De estas 45 molculas, solo la 4629 huele a sndalo. +Y pone un signo de admiracin, bien? Esto es muchsimo trabajo. +En realidad esto significa, en aos de trabajo, aproximadamente 200 000 dlares, si hablamos de salarios bajos sin beneficios. +Entonces esto es un proceso profundamente ineficiente. +Y mi definicin de una teora es que no solo es algo que le enseas a la gente; ahorra trabajo. +Una teora es algo que te permite trabajar menos. +Me encanta la idea de trabajar menos. Djenme explicarles por qu --algo muy simple que les dice por qu esta teora de la forma no funciona muy bien. +Esto es cis-3-hexanol. Huele a pasto cortado. +Esto es cis-3-hexanetiol, y huele a huevos podridos, bien? +Habrn notado que el vodka nunca huele a huevos podridos. +Si lo hace, dejan el vaso y van a otro bar. +Esto es --en otras palabras, nunca pensamos que el O-H -- nunca lo confundimos con un S-H, de acuerdo? +Es decir, en ninguna concentracin, incluso puro, si huelen etanol puro, no oler a huevos podridos. +Recprocamente, no hay concentracin en la cual el compuesto sulfrico huela a vodka. +Es muy difcil explicar esto usando el reconocimiento molecular. +Le mostr esto a un amigo fsico que tiene un profundo desprecio por la biologa, y dijo: "Eso es fcil! Las cosas tienen un color distinto!" +Tenemos que ir un poco ms all. Djenme explicarles por qu la teora de vibraciones resulta interesante. Estas molculas, como vieron al comienzo, estos bloques tienen resortes que los conectan entre s. +De hecho, las molculas pueden vibrar a diferentes frecuencias que son muy especficas para cada molcula y para los enlaces que las conectan. +Este es el sonido de cmo el O-H se estira, traducido a un rango audible. +S-H --una frecuencia muy distinta. +Esto es bastante interesante, porque les dice que deberan estar buscando un hecho en particular, que es este: nada en el mundo huele a huevos podridos excepto S-H, bien? +Hecho B: Nada en el mundo tiene esa frecuencia excepto S-H. +Al mirar esto, imaginen un teclado. +La seccin S-H est en la parte media del teclado, que ha sido, por as decirlo, daada, y no hay notas vecinas, nada est cerca. +Tienen un olor nico, una vibracin nica. +Entonces empec a investigar cuando entr a este juego para convencerme de que hubiera un mnimo de verosimilitud en esta loca historia. +Busqu un tipo de molcula, cualquier molcula, que tuviera esa vibracin y que --la prediccin obvia era que tuviera sin lugar a dudas el olor del azufre. +Si no lo tena, la idea estaba arruinada, y mejor me dedicaba a otra cosa. +Despus de buscar por todas partes durante varios meses, descubr que haba un tipo de molcula llamada borano que tiene exactamente la misma vibracin. +La buena noticia es que los boranos son fciles de conseguir. +La mala noticia es que son combustibles para cohetes. +La mayora de ellos explotan en contacto con el aire, y cuando llamas a las compaas te ofrecen diez toneladas como mnimo, bien? +Entonces esto no era lo que se llama un experimento a escala de laboratorio, y no les habra gustado en mi universidad. +Sin embargo, finalmente logr conseguir un borano, y aqu est la bestia. +Realmente tiene las mismas --si hacen el clculo, si miden las frecuencias vibratorias, son las mismas que en el S-H. +Huele a azufre? Bueno, si uno revisa la literatura hubo alguien que saba ms sobre los boranos que cualquier otro de entonces o desde entonces, Alfred Stock; los sintetiz todos. +Y en un enorme informe de 40 pginas en alemn dice, en cierto punto -- mi esposa es alemana y me lo tradujo-- en un punto dice "ganz widerlich Geruch", un "olor absolutamente repulsivo", lo cual es bueno. Recuerda al sulfuro de hidrgeno. +As que se ha sabido que los boranos huelen a azufre desde 1910, y se ha olvidado completamente hasta 1997, 1998. +Pero hay una pequea mosca en la sopa: si podemos oler vibraciones moleculares, tenemos un espectmetro en nuestras narices. +Esto es un espectmetro, en la mesa de mi laboratorio. +Podemos decir que si miras por la nariz de alguien no vas a ver nada que se parezca a esto. +Y esta es la mayor objecin a la teora. +Bien, genial, olemos vibraciones. Cmo? De acuerdo? +Cuando la gente me hace este tipo de pregunta, olvidan algo, que es que los fsicos, a diferencia de los bilogos, son muy astutos. +Es una broma. Soy un bilogo, bien? +Me burlo de m mismo. +Bob Jacklovich y John Lamb de Ford Motor Company, en la poca en que Ford gastaba enormes cantidades de dinero en investigacin de base, descubrieron un modo de construir un espectmetro que era intrnsecamente a nanoescala. +Es decir, nada de espejos, nada de lsers ni prismas, ni tonteras as, solo un pequeo dispositivo que construy. Este dispositivo usaba el efecto tnel. +Podra hacer la danza de los electrones, pero en vez de eso hice un video , que es mucho ms interesante. Funciona as. +Los electrones son criaturas agitadas, y pueden saltar sobre brechas, pero solo a energa equivalente. Si es distinta, no pueden saltar. +A diferencia de nosotros, no caern por el acantilado. +Pero si algo absorbe la energa, el electrn puede viajar. +Aqu tenemos un sistema, tenemos algo-- y hay mucho de esto en biologa-- una sustancia que da un electrn, y el electrn trata de saltar, y solo cuando una molcula que tiene la vibracin correcta se acerca ocurre la reaccin, bien? +Esta es la base del dispositivo que construyeron los dos hombres de Ford. +Y todas las partes del mecanismo aparecen en la biologa. +En otras palabras, tom componentes comunes, e hice un espectmetro. +Lo bueno de esta idea, si tienen inclinaciones filosficas, es que nos dice que el olfato, el odo y la vista son sentidos vibratorios. +Por supuesto, no importa, porque podra ser que no lo fueran. +Pero tiene algo -- -- tiene algo que lo hace atractivo para aquellos que leyeron demasiada literatura alemana del siglo XIX. +Y luego ocurri algo magnfico: dej la academia y me un al mundo real de los negocios, y se fund una empresa en base a mis ideas para crear nuevas molculas usando mi mtodo, y con la idea de respaldar mis palabras con el dinero de otro. +Una de las primeras cosas que ocurrieron fue que empezamos a visitar empresas de fragancias preguntndoles qu deseaban, porque, por supuesto, si puedes calcular el olor, no necesitas qumicos. +Necesitas una computadora, una Mac es suficiente, si sabes programarlo bien, As que puedes probar mil molculas, puedes probar diez mil molculas en un fin de semana, y slo entonces le dices a los qumicos que hagan la correcta. +Ese es un camino directo a crear nuevos aromas. +Y una de las primeras cosas que ocurrieron fue que visitamos a algunos perfumistas en Francia -- aqu es cuando hago mi imitacin de Charles Fleischer-- y uno de ellos dice: "No puedes hacer una cumarina", +me dice. "Te apuesto que no puedes hacer una cumarina". +La cumarina es algo muy comn, un material, en la fragancia obtenida de un grano que viene de Amrica del Sur. +Es el qumico sinttico clsico de los aromas. +Es la molcula que ha hecho que las fragancias masculinas huelan del modo en que huelen desde 1881, para ser exactos. +El problema es que... es cancergeno. +A nadie le gusta mucho --ya saben, usar locin de afeitar con cancergenos. +Hay algunas personas imprudentes, pero no vale la pena. +Nos pidieron hacer una nueva cumarina. Y empezamos a hacer clculos. +Lo primero que haces es calcular el espectro de vibraciones de la cumarina, y lo suavizas, as tienes una buena idea de cmo es este acorde de cumarina, por as decirlo. +Luego haces que la computadora busque otras molculas, relacionadas o no, que tengan las mismas vibraciones. +Y de hecho, en este caso, lamento decirlo, sucedi --fue por casualidad. +Y dije, antes que nada, djame hacer el cculo de ese compuesto, de abajo a la derecha, relacionado a la cumarina, pero con un pentgono extra dentro de la molcula. +Calcular las vibraciones, el espectro prpura es el nuevo personaje, el blanco es el viejo. +Y la prediccin nos dice que debera oler a cumarina. +Lo hicieron... y ola exactamente a cumarina. +Y este es nuestro nuevo beb, llamado Tonkene. +Ya ven, cuando eres un cientfico, vendes ideas constantemente. +Las personas se resisten a las nuevas ideas, y con razn: +por qu deberan ser aceptadas? +Pero cuando pones un vial de 10 gramos en una mesa frente a perfumistas y huele a cumarina, y no es cumarina, y lo has hallado en tres semanas, esto enfoca las mentes de todos maravillosamente. +La gente a menudo me pregunta: aceptan tu teora? +Y yo respondo, bueno, quines? Quiero decir, la mayora --hay tres actitudes: Tienes razn y no s por qu, qu sera la ms racional en este momento. +Tienes razn, y no me importa cmo lo hiciste, en cierto sentido; treme las molculas. +Y finalmente: ests completamente equivocado, y estoy seguro de ello. +Hemos estado trabajando con personas que solo quieren resultados, y este es el mundo comercial. +Nos dicen que incluso si lo hacemos usando astrologa, sern felices. +Pero no lo hacemos con astrologa. +Durante los ltimos tres aos, he tenido lo que creo que es el mejor trabajo del universo, que es usar mi pasatiempo -- la fragrancia y todas las cosas maravillosas-- ms un poco de biofsica, una pizca de qumica autodidacta al servicio de algo que simplemente funciona. +Muchas gracias. +Hace unos tres aos yo estaba en Londres y alguien llamado Howard Burton me busc y me dijo: "Represento a un grupo de personas y deseamos crear un instituto de fsica terica +Tenemos unos 120 millones de dlares y queremos hacerlo bien. +Queremos tener presencia en los cuatro campos de vanguardia, y queremos hacerlo de manera diferente. +Deseamos dejar atrs eso de que los jvenes tengan todas las ideas pero los viejos todo el poder y decidan qu tipo de ciencia se lleva a cabo. +Tard unos 25 segundos en decidir que era una buena idea. +Tres aos despus inauguramos el Instituto Perimeter de Fsica Terica en Waterloo, Ontario. Es el trabajo ms emocionante que he tenido. +Y es la primera vez que he temido ausentarme de un trabajo y perderme todo lo que suceder durante mi semana aqu. +En todo caso, aprovechar el poco tiempo que tengo para hacer un breve recorrido por algunas de las cosas sobre las que hablamos y pensamos. +Pensamos mucho en lo que hace que la ciencia realmente funcione. +Lo primero que dice cualquiera que conozca la ciencia y haya estado involucrado en ella es que lo que nos ensean en la escuela como mtodo cientfico es incorrecto. No hay un mtodo. +Por otro lado, de alguna forma logramos razonar juntos, como comunidad, a partir de pruebas incompletas, hasta alcanzar conclusiones en las que todos compartimos. +Y esto es algo que una sociedad democrtica tambin debe hacer. +As que cmo funciona? +Mi opinin es que funciona porque los cientficos forman una comunidad vinculada por una tica. +Y estos son algunos de sus principios ticos. +No los voy a leer todos porque hoy no vengo como profesor, +hoy vengo a entretenerles y asombrarles. +Uno de los principios es que todos los miembros de la comunidad argumentan y debaten tanto como pueden a favor de lo que creen. +Y a todos nos une la disciplina de saber que las nicas personas que van a decidir si uno est en lo correcto, o si lo est alguien ms, son las personas de nuestra comunidad en la siguiente generacin, dentro de 30 o 50 aos. +Es esta combinacin de respeto por la tradicin y la comunidad a las que pertenecemos, y la rebelin que la comunidad requiere para avanzar, lo que hace que la ciencia funcione. +Y creo que participar en el proceso de una comunidad que a partir de evidencias compartidas razona hasta alcanzar conclusiones, nos da una leccin acerca de la democracia. +No solo hay una relacin entre la tica de la ciencia y la tica de ser un ciudadano en una democracia, sino que histricamente ha habido una relacin entre cmo piensan las personas el espacio y el tiempo y qu es el cosmos, y cmo piensan las personas acerca de la sociedad en la que viven. +Quiero hablar acerca de tres etapas en esa evolucin. +La primera ciencia de la cosmologa que ya pareca ciencia, fue la ciencia aristotlica, y era jerrquica. +La Tierra est en el centro, luego hay unas esferas cristalinas donde estn el Sol, la Luna, los planetas, y finalmente la esfera celeste, donde estn las estrellas. Todo en este universo tiene su lugar. +Y la ley del movimiento de Aristteles afirmaba que todo se dirige a su lugar natural, lo cual era, por supuesto, la norma en la sociedad en que viva Aristteles y, ms importante, en la sociedad medieval que a travs del Cristianismo adopt el aristotelismo y le dio su bendicin. +La idea es que ya todo est definido. +El lugar de cada cosa se define al respecto de esta ltima esfera, la esfera celeste fuera de la cual est el reino eterno y perfecto donde vive Dios, que es el juez ltimo de todo. +As que a la vez eso es la cosmologa aristotlica y, en cierto sentido, la sociedad medieval. +Luego, en el siglo XVII hubo una revolucin en la manera de pensar el espacio, el tiempo y el movimiento, con Newton. +Al mismo tiempo John Locke y sus colaboradores emprendieron una revolucin en el pensamiento social. +Y estuvieron muy ntimamente relacionadas. +De hecho, Newton y Locke fueron amigos. +Su manera de pensar el espacio y el tiempo y el movimiento, por un lado, y la sociedad por otro lado, estaban ntimamente relacionadas. +Permtanme mostrarles. +En un universo newtoniano no hay centro -- gracias. +Hay partculas que se mueven de un lado a otro con respecto a un marco fijo, absoluto, de espacio y tiempo. +Tiene sentido decir de manera absoluta dnde est algo en el espacio, pues eso es definir, no con respecto al lugar dnde estn otras cosas, sino con respecto a esta nocin absoluta del espacio que para Newton era Dios. +De la misma manera, en la sociedad de Locke hay individuos que tienen ciertos derechos, propiedades en un sentido formal, y se les define con respecto a unas nociones absolutas, y abstractas de derechos, justicia y otras, que son independientes de todo lo dems que ocurre en la sociedad, +de quien ms forme parte de ella, de la historia y otras cosas. +Tambin hay un observador omnisciente que lo sabe todo: Dios. Y que en cierto sentido est fuera del universo, porque no desempea ningn papel en lo que sucede, aunque en cierto sentido est en todas partes, porque el espacio es la manera de que Dios sepa dnde est todo, segn Newton no es cierto? +Estos son los fundamentos de lo que tradicionalmente se ha denominado teora poltica liberal y fsica newtoniana. +Luego, en el siglo XX vivimos una revolucin que comenz a principios de siglo XX y que todava estamos experimentando. +Comenz con la invencin de la teora de la relatividad y de la teora cuntica. +Y su culminacin es unificarlas para crear la teora cuntica definitiva del espacio, el tiempo y la gravedad, lo que est ocurriendo ahora mismo. +Y en este universo no hay nada fijo ni absoluto. Nada de nada. +Este universo se describe como una red de relaciones. +El espacio es solo un aspecto, por lo que es absurdo decir, en sentido absoluto, dnde hay algo. +Su lugar solo existe de manera relativa a todo lo existente. +Y esta red de relaciones siempre est evolucionando. +Por eso lo llamamos un universo relacional. +Todas las propiedades de las cosas tienen que ver con estos tipos de relaciones. +Adems, si estamos embebidos en una red de relaciones como esa, nuestra visin del mundo depender de la informacin que nos llegue a travs de la red de relaciones. +Aqu no hay lugar para un observador omnisciente ni una inteligencia exterior que lo conozca todo y lo haga todo. +Esto es relatividad general, esto es teora cuntica. +Y tambin, si les preguntan a expertos en leyes, son las bases de nuevas ideas en teora del derecho. +Estn pensando acerca de las mismas cosas. +Es ms, frecuentemente hacen analogas con la teora de la relatividad y la cosmologa. +Ah est dndose una discusin interesante. +Esta ltima concepcin de la cosmologa es la denominada relacional. +Su lema principal es que no hay nada fuera del universo, lo que significa que no hay lugar para poner la explicacin de algo afuera. +Y en un universo relacional como este, si uno se topa con algo ordenado y estructurado, como este dispositivo, o aquel otro, o algo hermoso, como todos los seres vivos, o todos los chicos aqu presentes -- por cierto, en fsica "chicos" es un trmino genrico: hombres y mujeres. +Entonces uno quiere conocer, uno es una persona y quiere saber cmo est hecho todo. +En un universo relacional, la nica explicacin posible es: de algn modo se hizo a s mismo. +Debe haber mecanismos de autoorganizacin dentro del universo encargados de hacer las cosas. +Porque no hay lugar para poner un creador afuera, como s lo haba en el universo aristotlico y en el newtoniano. +Un universo relacional debe tener procesos de autoorganizacin. +Darwin nos ense que existen procesos de autoorganizacin suficientes para explicarnos a nosotros mismos y todo lo que vemos. +Es decir, funciona. Y ms an, si uno piensa en cmo funciona la seleccin natural, resulta que la seleccin natural solo tendra sentido en un universo relacional. +Es decir, la seleccin natural opera sobre propiedades como la adaptabilidad, que tienen que ver con las relaciones entre unas especies y otras. +Darwin no tendra sentido en un universo aristotlico, y en realidad tampoco tendra sentido en un universo newtoniano. +Una teora de la biologa basada en la seleccin natural requiere una nocin relacional de cules son las propiedades de los sistemas biolgicos. +Y si lo llevamos a sus ltimas consecuencias, realmente donde ms sentido tiene es en un universo relacional en el que todas las propiedades son relacionales. +Es ms, Einstein nos ense que la gravedad es el resultado de que el mundo sea relacional. +De no ser por la gravedad no habra vida, la gravedad hace que las estrellas se formen y vivan por mucho tiempo, manteniendo partes del mundo, como la superficie de la Tierra, lejos del equilibrio trmico por miles de millones de aos para que pueda evolucionar la vida. +En el siglo XX, experimentamos el desarrollo independiente de dos grandes temas en ciencia. +En las ciencias biolgicas se han explorado las implicaciones de la nocin de que el orden, la complejidad y la estructura emergen de manera autoorganizada. +Ese fue el triunfo del neodarwinismo. +Y la idea se est filtrando lentamente a las ciencias cognitivas, las ciencias humanas, la economa, etc. +Al mismo tiempo, nosotros los fsicos hemos estado ocupados tratando de comprender y ampliar e integrar los descubrimientos de la teora cuntica y la relatividad. +Y lo que realmente hemos estado elaborando son las implicaciones de la idea de que el universo est compuesto por relaciones. +La ciencia del siglo XXI estar orientada por la integracin de estas dos ideas: por un lado, el triunfo de las maneras relacionales de pensar el mundo; y la autoorganizacin, o las maneras darwinianas de pensar el mundo, por otro lado. +Adems, a lo largo del siglo XXI nuestro pensamiento acerca del espacio, el tiempo, la cosmologa y tambin acerca de la sociedad, continuarn evolucionando. +Y lo hacen hacia la unin de estas dos grandes ideas: el darwinismo y el relacionalismo. +Entonces, si piensan la democracia desde esta perspectiva, una nueva nocin pluralista de la democracia reconocera que existen muchos intereses diferentes, muchas agendas diferentes, muchos individuos diferentes, muchos puntos de vista diferentes. +Y cada uno es incompleto, porque estamos embebidos en una red de relaciones. +Cada participante en una democracia est embebido en una red de relaciones. +Y cada uno entiende algunas cosas mejor que otras, y por eso constantemente nos damos empujones y estiramos y aflojamos. Eso es la poltica. +Y la poltica, en el sentido ideal, es la manera en que continuamente nos ocupamos de nuestra red de relaciones con el fin de alcanzar una vida mejor y una sociedad mejor. +Y tambin pienso que la ciencia nunca dejar de existir -- terminar con esto. +Ya termin. La ciencia nunca dejar de existir. +Pas la mejor parte de una dcada contemplando las respuestas estadounidenses a las atrocidades en masa y genocidio. +Y me gustara empezar compartiendo con ustedes un momento que para m resume lo que hay que saber sobre las respuestas estadounidenses y democrticas hacia las atrocidades en masa. +Ese momento ocurri el 21 de abril de 1994. +Osea hace casi 14 aos, en pleno genocidio de Ruanda, en el cual 800.000 personas seran sistemticamente exterminadas por el Gobierno ruands y algunas milicias extremistas. +El 21 de abril, en el New York Times, el peridico anunci que entre 200 y 300.000 personas ya haban sido asesinadas en el genocidio. +Estaba en el peridico -- no en la pgina principal. +Fue muy similar a la cobertura del Holocausto, fue enterrada en el peridico. +Ruanda misma no fue vista como digna de ser noticia, e increblemente, el genocidio mismo tampoco fue visto como digno de ser noticia. +Pero el 21 de abril, un momento maravillosamente honesto ocurri, +Y fue que una congresista estadounidense llamada Patricia Schroeder de Colorado se reuni con un grupo de periodistas +Y unos de los pediodistas le pregunt Qu pasa? +Qu est pasando en el Gobierno estadounidense? +De 200 a 300.000 personas ya han sido exterminadas en el ltimo par de semanas en Ruanda. +Haban pasado dos semanas desde el inicio del genocidio, pero por supuesto que en ese momento no se saba cuanto ms durara. +Y el periodista pregunto, por qu hay tan poca respuesta de Washington? +Por qu no hay audiencias, denuncias, ni gente arrestada frente a la Embajada de Ruanda o enfrente de la Casa Blanca? De qu se trata? +Y ella respondi, con suma honestidad, diciendo: "Es una gran pregunta. +Lo nico que puedo decir es que tanto en mi oficina de Congreso en Colorado como en mi oficina en Washington estn recibiendo cientos y cientos de llamadas por la poblacin de gorilas y otros simios en peligro de extincin en Ruanda, pero nadie est llamando por la gente. +Los telfonos simplemente no estn sonando por la gente." +La razn por la cual comparto este momento es porque hay una profunda verdad en l. +Y la verdad es, o fue, en el siglo XX, que mientras estamos empezando a crear movimientos para especies en peligro de extincin, no tenamos un movimiento para gentes en peligro de extincin. +Tuvimos educacin sobre el Holocausto en las escuelas. +La mayora de nosotros fuimos preparados no slo con imagenes sobre catstrofe nuclear, sino tambin con imagenes y conocimiento del Holocausto. +Hay un museo, por supuesto, en el National Mall en Washington, justo junto a Lincoln y Jefferson +Me refiero a que nos hemos apoderado de la cultura del "Nunca Ms", interesantemente, nos hemos apoderado de sta. +Y, sin embargo, la politizacin del Nunca Ms, la implementacin del Nunca Ms, nunca ocurri en el siglo XX. +Y eso es lo que creo que ese momento con Patricia Schoreder muestra, que si estamos cerca de terminar con las peores atrocidades del mundo, as debemos de actuar. +Tiene que existir un rol -- tiene que haber la creacin de ruido poltico y coste poltico en respuesta a los crmenes en masa contra la humanidad y as sucesivamente. +Entonces as fue el siglo XX. +Hoy en da, aqu y esto les ser de alivio a estas horas de la tarde tenemos buenas noticias, noticias increbles, en el siglo XXI. Y stas son que, casi de la nada, ha nacido un movimiento anti-genocidio, una circunscripcin electoral anti-genocidio, una que parece destinada, de hecho, a ser permanente. +Creci como respuesta a las atrocidades en Darfur. +Es constituida por estudiantes. Hay unas 300 representaciones anti-genocidio en universidades de todo el pas. +Es ms grande que el movimiento anti-apartheid. +Hay aproximadamente 500 representaciones en escuelas de bachillerato dedicadas a terminar con el genocidio en Darfur. +Evanglicos se han unido, judos se han unido. +quines ven Hotel Rwanda se han integrado. Es un movimiento antisonante +para llamarlo movimiento, como todos los movimientos, quiz, es un poco engaoso. +Es diverso, tiene muchos puntos de vista. +Tiene todos los altibajos de un movimiento, +pero ha tenido mucho xito en una cosa, en que se ha convertido, se ha consolidado en el movimiento de las personas en peligro de extincin que hizo falta en el siglo XX. +Se ve a s mismo como lo que es, como aquello que crear la impresin de que habr un coste poltico. de que habr un precio poltico a pagarse, por permitir el genocidio, por no tener una imaginacin heroica, por no ser actores, y por ser, de hecho, espectadores. +Ahora porque es conducido por estudiantes, se han hecho algunas cosas magnficas. +Se ha establecido una campaa de desinversin que ya ha convencido, pienso, unas 55 universidades en 22 estados de retirar sus acciones en la bolsa con relacin con compaias que hacen negocios en Sudan. +Tienen un nmero 1GENOCIDE. Esto sonar muy ostentoso, pero aquellos que puedan no ser, o ms bien, puedan ser apolticos, pero interesados en hacer algo con respecto al genocidio, pueden marcar 1GENOCIDE y marcar el cdigo postal, y ni siquiera necesitan saber que congresista les pertenece. +Los transferir directamente al congresista o al senador de los Estados Unidos que les corresponde; o al gobernador donde la legislacin de desinversin est pendiente. +Ellos han bajado el coste para frenar el genocidio. +Creo que lo ms innovador que han presentado recientemente es el uso de calificaciones de genocidio. +Y son los estudiantes los que presentan estas calificaciones. +As que lo que ahora tienen cuando un congreso est en sesin es que los miembros del congreso estn llamando a estos estudiantes de 19 a 24 aos de edad para decirles que han recibido una D menos en genocidio y preguntando, cmo puedo recibir una C? Slo quiero una C, ayudenme. +Y los estudiantes y otros que forman parte de esta base increblemente llena de energa estn all para responder, y siempre hay algo que hacer. +Ahora, lo que este movimiento ha hecho es que ha extrado de la administracin de Bush de los Estados Unidos, en tiempos de gran carencia militar, financiera, diplomtica una serie de compromisos con Darfur que ningn otro pas en el mundo est haciendo. +Por ejemplo, la referencia de crmenes en Darfur a la Corte Penal Internacional, lo cual no es de agrado para la administracin de Bush. +El gasto de 3 mil millones de dolares en campos de refugiados para tratar de mantener, bsicamente, las personas que han sido desplasadas de sus hogares por el Gobierno sudans, por el as llamado janjaweed, la milicia, para mantener a estas personas vivas hasta que algo ms duradero pudiera ser alcanzado. +Y recientemente, o no tan reciente ahora, hace aproximadamente seis meses, la autorizacin de 26,000 soldados para el mantenimiento de la paz. +Todo esto, bajo el liderazgo de la administracin de Bush y todo esto es por la presin desde abajo hacia arriba, y el hecho de que los telfonos no han dejado de sonar desde el principio de la crisis. +Las malas noticias, sin embargo, sobre la pregunta de si el mal triunfar, es que el mal sigue. +La gente en esos campos est rodeada por todos lados por los tan llamados Janjaweed, estos hombres montados a caballo con lanzas y armas Kalashnikovs. +Las mujeres que van a recoger madera para el fuego para calentar los vveres para poder alimentar a sus familias ayuda humanitaria el sucio secreto de esto es que ha sido calentada, de verdad, para que sea comestible... Son sujetas a violaciones sexuales, acto usado como herramienta de genocidio. +Y los pacificadores ya mencionados la fuerza a sido autorizada, pero practicamente no hay pas sobre la tierra que haya hecho algo desde la autorizacin para de verdad poner las tropas o polica en contra de estos atentados, +De manera que hemos logrados mucho en relacin al siglo XX, pero muy poco en relacin a la gravedad del crimen que se est desencadenando mientras estamos aqu sentados, mientras hablamos. +Por qu las limitaciones de este movimiento? +Qu es lo que se ha logrado, o bien, lo qu ha hecho este movimiento que ha sido necesario pero insuficiente para el crimen? +Pienso que hay un par hay muchas razones pero un par de razones para enfocarnos rpidamente. +La primera es que un movimiento, tal y como ste, cesa en las fronteras estadounidenses, no es un movimiento global. +No tiene suficientes compatriotas en el extranjero que estn reclamando a sus gobiernos hacer ms para acabar con el genocidio. +Y la cultura del holocausto que tenemos en este pas hace que los estadounidenses, ms o menos, estn ms predispuestos, pienso, a querer traer el Nunca Ms a la vida. +La culpa que la administracin de Clinton expres, que Bill Clinton expres sobre Ruanda, cre un espacio en nuestra sociedad para el consenso de que lo ocurri en Ruanda fue un catstrofe inaceptable. Y que deseamos haber hecho ms y que es algo de lo que el movimiento ha tomado ventaja. +Los gobiernos europeos, en su mayora, no han reconocido responsabilidad, y no hay de qu serlo, ms o menos es un tira y afloje. +As que este movimiento, si es que va ser duradero y global, tendr que cruzar fronteras y tendr que ver a otros ciudadanos en democracias, no simplemente descansando sobre sus asunciones de que el gobierno de ellos har algo para enfrentar el genocidio, sino haciendolo as. +Los gobiernos nunca ejercern fuerzas contra crmenes de esta magnitud de forma natural y comprometida. +Como hemos visto, ni siquiera han tratado de proteger nuestros puertos o tomar control de armas nucleares sin supervisin. +Por qu esperaramos que a una burocracia le interese el sufrimiento ajeno? +Pues una razn es que an no se haya globalizado +La segunda razn, por supuesto, es que en este momento, especialmente en la historia de los EEUU, tenemos un problema de credibilidad, un problema de legitimidad en las instituciones internacionales. +Es estructuralmente muy, pero muy, difcil de hacer, tal y como la administracin de Bush lo hace, lo cul es denunciar el genocidio un lunes para luego defender la tortuna del submarino como obligatoria un martes y regresar un miercoles para revisar el compromiso de las tropas. +Hoy en da, otros pases tienen sus propias razones para no intervenir. +Permitanme ser clara. +De alguna forma, ellos estn usando la administracin de Bush como una cuartada. +Sin embargo, es esencial para nosotros, que seamos lideres en esta esfera, por supuesto, para restablecer nuestro lugar y liderazgo en el mundo. +La recuperacin tomar un tiempo. +Tenemos que preguntarnos, y ahora qu? Qu haremos para avanzar como pas y como ciudadanos en relacin con los peores lugares del mundo, el peor sufrimiento, asesinos y tipos de asesinos que podran pasar por nuestros hogares en un futuro. +Para tratar de resolver este problema me volqu hacia un hombre del que muchos de ustedes tal vez no hayan escuchado, un brasileo llamado Sergio Vieira de Mello el cual, como dijo Chris, fue volado en Irak el el 2003. +l fue la victima de la primera bomba-suicida en Irak. +Es difcil recordar, pero hubo un momento, en el verano de 2003, incluso despus de la invasin de EEUU, en el que sin contar los saqueos, los civiles estaban relativamente seguros en Irak. +Ahora, quin fue Sergio? Sergio Vieira de Mello era su nombre. +Aparte de ser brasileo, me hablaron de l antes de que lo conocier en 1994 como alguien que era una mezcla de James Bond por un lado y Bobby Kennedy por el otro. +Y en la ONU no se encuentran muchas personas con estas cualidades. +Era como James Bond en el sentido que era ingenioso. +Le atraa el fuego, lo asechaba, de manera irresistible le gustaba. Un adicto a la adrenalina. +Tena xito con las mujeres. +Era como Bobby Kennedy porque de alguna forma uno nunca poda saber si era un realista enmascarado de idealista o un idealista enmascarado de realista, tal cual la gente siempre se pregunt sobre Bobby Kennedy y John Kennedy. +Lo que s fue es un decatleta en la construccin de naciones, en la resolucin de problemas en los peores lugares del mundo y en los lugares ms corrompidos de este mundo. +En Estados decadentes, Estados genocidas, Estados mal gobernados; precisamente aquellos lugares que amenazan la existencia de este pas en el horizonte, y precisamente aquellos lugares donde la mayor parte del sufrimiento humano tiende a estar concentrado. +Estos son los lugares que a l le atraan. +Se mova con los titulares de peridicos. +Estuvo en la ONU por 34 aos e ingres a los 21 aos de edad. +Empez por causa de las guerras de los aos '70 fueron guerras de independencia y descolonizacin. +Estuvo all en Banglads lidiando con la emigracin de millones de refugiados, la ms grande ola migratoria en la historia hasta ese momento. +Estuvo en Sudn cuando ah estall la guerra civil. +Estuvo en Chipre justo despus de la invasin turca. +Estuvo en Mozambique durante la guerra de independencia. +Estuvo en Lbano, increblemente, estuvo en Lbano, la base de la ONU fue usada, los palestinos prepararon ataques desde atrs de la base de la ONU. +Entonces Israel invadi y arras con la base de la ONU. +Srgio estaba en Beirut cuando la Embajada estadounidense fue atacada por el primer ataque suicida contra los Estados Unidos en la historia. +La gente data el inicio de esta nueva era a partir de 11/9, pero seguramente 1983, con el ataque a la Embajada estadounidense y los cuarteles de la Marina de los cuales Srgio fue testigo son de hecho, de alguna manera, el amanecer de la era en la cual hoy nos encontramos. +Srgio fue desde el Lbano hasta Bosnia en los '90. +Los problemas eran, por supuesto, violencia sectaria tnica. +l fue la primera persona en negociar con el Khmer Rouge. +Hablando del predominio del mal. Es decir, aqu l estuvo en la misma habitacin con la encarnacin viva del mal en Camboya. +Negoci con los serbios. +En realidad, fue tan lejos en el campo de la negociacin con el mal y tratando de convencer al mal que no necesitaba prevalecer. Se gan el sobrenombre de Serbio en lugar de Sergio mientras viva en los Balcanes y diriga este tipo de negociaciones. +Despus de esto se fue a Ruanda y al Congo tras el genocidio, fue l quien tena que decidir: Ah! El genocidio ha acabado. 800.000 personas han sido asesinadas y los responsables estn escapando a pases vecinos, al Congo, Tanzania. +Soy Sergio, soy humanitario y quiero alimentar a aqullos no a los asesinos pero quiero alimentar a dos millones de personas que estn con ellos, as que iremos, Haremos campamentos y proporcionaremos ayuda humanitaria. +Pero los asesinos estn dentro de los campamentos. +Bueno, me gustara separar a las ovejas de los lobos. +permitanme ir de puerta en puerta en la comunidad internacional y ver si la alguien me da apoyo policaco o tropas para la separacin. +Su respuesta, por supuesto, no fue ms que la que desebamos para frenar el genocidio y poner nuestras tropas en peligro, tampoco queremos interponernos en el camino y arrancer a los genocidas de los campos. +As que se tiene que tomar una decisin. +Retiras la ayuda, el grifo internacional que mantiene la vida y arriesgas a dos millones de vidas civiles? +O sigues alimentando a los civiles, sabiendo que los genocidas estn en los campamentos, literalmente afilando sus cuchillos para la prxima batalla? +Qu haran? +Es el terreno del mal menor en estos lugares corrompidos. +Al final de la dcada de los 90, la construccin de la nacin fue la causa del da. +l fue el hombre asignado al cargo. l es el Paul Bremer o el Jerry Bremer de Kosovo primero y luego de Timor Oriental. l gobierna estos lugares. +l es el virrey, tiene que decidir sobre las tasas de impuestos, divisas, patrullas fronterizas, vigilancia. Tiene que hacer todos estos juicios. +Es un brasileo en estos lugares, habla siete idiomas. +Ha estado as en 14 zonas de guerra, as que tal vez, est mejor preparado para tomas mejores decisiones que la gente que nunca ha hecho ese trabajo. +Pero de cualquier forma, l es un avanzado de nuestra experimentacin, haciendo el bien con muy pocos recursos de apoyo, de nuevo, en los peores lugares del mundo. +Y despus de Timor, sucede lo del 11/9. En la ONU, fue nombrado Alto Comisionado de Derechos Humanos. Tiene que equilibrar libertad y seguridad y arreglrselas, qu haces cuando la nacin ms poderosa de la ONU no respeta la Convenio de Ginebra ni las leyes internacionales? Lo denuncias? +Bueno, si lo denuncias, probablemente no regreses a esa sala. +Tal vez te quedes reticente, tal vez trates de usar tu encanto con George Bush. Y eso fue lo que el hizo, fue as como se gan su desafortunada asignacin y trgico final en Irak, resultando en su muerte. +Una observacin con respecto a su muerte, la cual es devastadora, es que a pesar de predicar la guerra en Irak, en base a la conexin entre Saddam Hussein y el terrorismo del 11/9, aunque no lo crean, la administracin de Bush o de los invasores no elabor ningn tipo de plan para responder al terrorismo. +As que Sergio, este receptculo de conocimiento de como lidiar con el mal y como lidiar con corrupcin, estuvo bajo los escombros por tres horas y media sin rescate. +Sin Estado, el hombre que trat de ayudar a las personas sin Estado durante toda su carrera. +Como un refugiado, porque representaba a la ONU. +Si representas a todos, de alguna forma, no representas a nadie. +No tienes afiliacin. +Y lo que los estadounidenses el ejrcito ms poderoso en la historia de la humanidad fueron capaces de hacer por su rescate, aunque no lo crean, fueron literalmente, dos heroicos soldados estadounidenses que entraron por un hueco mientras la construccin temblaba. +Uno de ellos haba estado en el ataque del 11/9 y haba perdido a sus amigos, sin embargo, entr y arriesg su vida por salvar a Sergio. +Y esto fue el sistema de poleas, fue esto lo que logramos hacer por Sergio. +La buena noticia, dentro de lo que cabe, es que despus del asesinato de Sergio y otras 21 personas, en ese ataque a la ONU, el ejrcito cre una unidad de bsqueda y rescate la cual cuenta con equipo de tecnologa de punta: maderas para encofrados, gras, el equipo que habran necesitado para el rescate. +Pero fue muy tarde para Sergio. +Quiero terminar, pero quiero cerrar con lo que yo considero como las cuatro lecciones de la vida de Sergio sobre la pregunta, cmo hacer para prevenir que el mal prevalesca? As es como formulara la pregunta. +Aqu tenemos a este joven con una mente de 34 aos pensando sobre las preguntas que como pas estamos asechando. Que nosotros, como ciudadanos, estamos asechando ahora. Qu aprendemos? +Primero, pienso, es su relacin con el mal, siendo esto algo de lo que de verdad se aprende. +l en el transcurso de su carrera, cambi mucho. +Tena muchos defectos, pero se adaptaba fcilmente. +Pienso que esa era su mayor cualidad. +Empez como alguien que denunciaba a quien hiciera dao, sealaba a la gente que violaba las leyes internacionales, y dira, ests violando la ley, esta es la Carta de las Naciones Unidas. +No te das cuenta que es inanceptable lo que ests haciendo? +Y se rean de l porque no tena el poder del Estado. el poder del ejrcito o la polica. +l slo tena la reglas, tena las normas y trat de usarlas. +Y en el Lbano, en el Sur de Lbano en 1982, se dijo a s mismo y a todos los dems, no usar la palabra inaceptable de nuevo. +Nunca la usar de nuevo. Har lo posible para que as sea, pero no usar esa palabra de nuevo. +Sin embargo, se embarc en la direccin opuesta. +Empez, tal como dije, por entrar en la habitacin con el mal, por no denunciar, y se volvi casi corts, cuando se gan el sobrenombre de Serbio, por ejemplo, e incluso cuando negoci con el Khmer Rouge habra ocultado lo que ocurri antes de que entrar a la sala. +Pero al final de su vida creo que alcanz un equilibrio del cual nosotros como pas podemos aprender. +Presntate en la sala, no tengas miedo de hablar con tus adversarios, pero no quites importancia a lo que pas antes de entrar a la reunin. +No ocultes la historia, no dejes tus principios en la entrada. +Y pienso que eso es algo que nosotros debemos de ser en la sala. Sea que fuera Nixon quien va a China, o Khrushchev y Kennedy o Reagan y Gorbachev. +Todo el gran progreso de este pas en relacin con nuestros adversarios ha ocurrido por ir a la sala. +Y no tiene que ser un acto de debilidad. +Se puede hacer mucho ms para formar una coalicin internacional contra un agresor o quien haga el mal, estando en esa sala, y mostrando al resto del mundo que esa persona, ese rgimen, es el problema y que t, lo Estados Unidos, no eres el problema. +La segunda enseanza de la vida de Sergio, rpidamente, +lo que me ha quedado, y que es de alguna manera la ms importante. l expuso y exhibi una reverencia por la dignidad que era realmente muy inusual. +A un micronivel, los individuos alrededor de l eran visibles. +l los miraba. +En un macronivel, pens, sabes qu, hablamos de la promocin de la democracia, pero lo hacemos de tal forma que es una ofensa para la dignidad de las personas. +Ponemos gente en ayuda humanitaria y presumimos de esto porque gastamos tres mil millones. +Es realmente importante, esas personas no estaran vivas si los Estados Unidos, por ejemplo, no hubiera gastado ese dinero en Darfur, pero esa no es vida. +Si pensamos en la dignidad de nuestra conducta como ciudadanos y como individuos en relacin con la gente a nuestro alrededor, y como pas, si an podemos inyectar el respeto por la dignidad en nuestras negociaciones con otros pases, sera como una revolucin. +Tercer punto, muy rpido, l hablo mucho sobre la liberacin del miedo. +Y reconozco que hay muchas cosas a las que temer. +Hay muchas amenazas reales en el mundo. +Pero a lo que Srgio se refera es, ajustemos nuestra relacin con la amenaza. +No exageremos la amenaza, vemosla claramente. +Tenemos razn de temer por los pantanos de hielo que se derriten. +Tenemos razn en tener miedo por no haber protegido el material nuclear de la antigua Unin Sovitica. +Enfoqumosnos en los retos y amenazas legtimas, pero no lleguemos a malas deciciones debido al pnico, al miedo. +En tiempos de miedo, por ejemplo, una de las cosas que Sergio sola decir es que el miedo es un mal consejero. +Nos vamos a los extremos cuando no estamos operando o intentndolo, de nuevo, calibrar nuestra relacin con el mundo a nuestro alrededor. +Cuarto, y ltimo, punto. l de alguna forma, porque estaba trabajando en los peores lugares del mundo y en lo del "mal menor", tena humildad, por supuesto, y conciencia de la complejidad del mundo a su alrededor. +Quiero decir, una conciencia clara de lo duro que era. +Una tarea tan difcil como la de Ssifo, y, sin embargo, conciente de esa complejidad, le produjo humildad, no fue paralizado por esta. +Y nosotros como ciudadanos, mientras vayamos viviendo esta experiencia, especie de crisis de confidencialidad, de competencia, de legitimidad, pienso que hay una tentacin por retirarnos del mundo y decir, Ah, Katrina, Irak! No sabemos lo que estamos haciendo. +No podemos darnos el lujo de alejarnos del mundo. +la cuestin es cmo estar en el mundo. +y la leccin, creo, del movimiento anti-genocidio que he mencionado, que es un xito parcial, pero que de ninguna forma ha alcazado lo que se propuso alcanzar, probablemente, pasaran muchas dcadas antes de que eso ocurra. Pero si queremos ver el cambio, nosotros tenemos que trasformarnos en ese cambio. +No podemos confiar en que nuestras instituciones hagan el trabajo de necesariamente hablar con adversarios por cuenta propia sin que nosotros construyamos el espacio para que eso ocurra, por tener respeto a la dignidad y por traer esa combinacin de humildad y una especie de sentido audaz de la responsabilidad a la negociacin con el resto del mundo. +Entonces, triunfar el mal? Es esa la pregunta? +Pienso que la respuesta corta es: no, no al menos que lo permitamos. +Gracias. +A m me pasa algo raro con el sueo. +Yo no duermo mucho, y decid que este asunto de no dormir bien es en realidad una gran virtud, despus de muchos aos de luchar contra eso como si fuera algo terrible, o algo por el estilo. +Sabes, ahora como que me gusta eso de quedarme levantado. +Pero desde hace aos que me levanto y pienso que mi creatividad se motiva muchsimo con este tipo de insomnio. +Me quedo acostado despierto. Pienso. Camino y camino. +A veces suelo caminar ms de noche. +Ahora camino durante el da y persigo a la gente que me parece interesante. +y a veces- de hacho, esto aparecio en la pgina seis de The Post, que estaba siguiendo a este chico como si igual en realidad slo lo estaba siguiendo porque llevaba unos zapatos maravillosos. +Entonces, yo estaba siguiendo a este chico. +y le tom una foto a sus zapatos, y nos dimos las gracias y cada quien sigui su camino. +Pero yo hago eso todo el tiempo. +De hecho, creo que muchos de mis diseos vienen de errores y trucos pticos. +Porque pienso que hay tantas imgenes que nos rodean sabes? hay tanta ropa a nuestro alrededor. +Y las nicas que me parecen interesantes son, por supuesto, las que parecen tener algo mal, o algo realmente sorpresivo. +y muchas veces, yo voy en un taxi y veo un agujero en una camisa, o algo as que parece interesante, o lindo, o prctico de alguna manera que no haba visto antes. +Y le pido al taxista que pare, y me bajo del coche y camino, y me doy cuenta de que en realidad no era un agujero, sino un engao visual, era una sombra sabes? +O si era efectivamente un agujero pienso maldita sea! ya se le ocurri la idea a otra persona. +Ya alguien cometi ese error, entonces ya no lo puedo hacer yo. +No s de dnde viene la inspiracin. +En mi caso, no viene de la investigacin. +La investigacin no me inspira necesariamente. +De hecho, una de las cosas ms divertidas que jams he hecho en mi vida entera, fue en estas navidades en el Guggenheim de Nueva York. +Le Pedro y el Lobo junto con esta hermosa banda de Juillard. +Yo era el narrador, yo le el texto. +Y vi a esta crtico sper inteligente a la que amo. +esta mujer, Joan Acocella, quien es mi amiga y ella vino al camerino y me dijo, oh, sabes, Isaac, sabas que, hablaba de Stalinismo, y hablaba de los aos 30 en Rusia, +y yo dije, qu voy a saber yo de Stalinismo? +Yo se que habla de un lobo y un pjaro, y l se comi el pjaro, y al final, t sabes, se oye se oye el pjaro chillando, o algo as, sabes? +As que en realidad yo no s. realmente no-- en realidad yo hago mi propia investigacin. +Si me encargan hacer el vestuario para una pera del siglo 18, o algo as, si investigo mucho, porque es interesante, pero no porque se supone que eso es lo que tengo que hacer. +A m me inspiran mucho las pelculas. +Los colores en las pelculas y la manera en que la luz crea los colores, la luz detrs de la proyeccin, o la luz de la proyeccin, que crea unos colores increbles. +en fin, muestra el video, ya les muestro. +en las noches me levanto y veo pelculas y me fijo mucho en las mujeres de las pelculas. +y pienso en sus papeles, y en como ustedes tienen que ver lo que sus hijas estn viendo. +Porque yo veo la manera en la que representan a las mujeres todo el tiempo +ya sea que las glorifiquen as, o ya sea que las glorifiquen de una manera irnica. o ya sea que de alguna manera las deshonren, o que las deshonren irnicamente. +siempre regreso al tema del color. +El color es algo que me motiva mucho +pero raramente es un color que encuentre en la naturaleza aunque, en contraste con el color artificial el color natural es tan bello. +As que eso es lo que hago. Estudio mucho el color. +Pero la mayor parte del tiempo pienso en cmo podra yo hacer algo que sea tan bello como una imagen de Natalie Wood? +Cmo podra hacer algo que fuera tan bello como Greta Garbo? +Pero, saben, eso simplemente no es posible. +Me imagino que eso es lo que no me deja dormir. +Quiero mostrarles -- Tambin soy un gran yo voy bien a menudo con los astrlogos a leerme las cartas, y eso es otra cosa que me motiva mucho. +La gente me dice, oh, haz esto, pero un astrlogo me dice que haga algo ms. +Y lo hago. +Cuando yo tena como 21 aos, un astrlogo me dijo que iba a conocer al hombre de mis sueos, y que se llamara Eric, no? +entonces, durante aos cuando iba a los bares si me encontraba a alguien que se llamara Eric me lo tiraba de inmediato, o algo as. +Y en algunas ocasiones yo estaba tan desesperado que a cualquier sitio que entraba yo gritaba, Eric +y con cualquiera que volteaba, yo me lanzaba. +y hace tiempo ya me hicieron una lectura de tarot bien interesante. +La ltima carta que sac, que representaba mi destino era un hombre con un sombrero de paja y un bastn y ya saben, con botines y esas cosas, un juglar, no? +Quiero mostrarles este video porque yo hago esta locura de actuar en un cabaret. +as que echen un ojo. +qu verguenza! +Gracias. Hacemos lo que ustedes pidan. +el nombre del show esta basado en esta historia que tengo que contarles acerca de mi madre. +Es como un fragmento de una de sus citas. +yo estaba saliendo con un chico, s? +y esto est relacionado con ser feliz, lo juro. +Yo haba estado saliendo con este chico por un ao, bien. +y la cosa se estaba poniendo seria, entonces decidimos invitarlos a cenar, a nuestros padres. +y bueno, los presentamos a todos. +Mi madre estaba ya susceptible con respecto a su madre quien estaba medio escptica con respecto al estilo de vida alternativo. +ya saben, la homosexualidad, si? +Pues mi madre estaba un poco ofendida. Se dirigi a ella y le dijo, Acaso bromeas? Ellos la estn pasando buensimo. +Ellos salen a comer, ellos van a shows" +Ellos salen a comer, ellos van a shows. +Ese es el nombre del show, ellos salen, ellos-- Eso es lo que dir mi lpida cuando muera. +"El sala a comer, l iba a shows", no? +Pero al editar estos videos, yo no tuve la audacia de usar un video de mi cantando en el Bar de Joe +as que tendrn que ir a verme en persona o algo as +Porque me abochorna, pero tambin me hace sentir... +no s cmo decirlo. +Siento que sentirse incmodo es bueno, sabes? +o por lo menos en mi caso es as. porque si hago solo una cosa todo el tiempo, no s, me aburro mucho. Yo me aburro fcilmente. +y no es que yo haga todo bien, solo estoy diciendo que hago muchas cosas, esos es todo. +y trato de no mirar atrs. +Excepto que, me imagino que de eso se trata lo de no dormir. +como cuando te pones a recordar y piensas en el ridculo que hiciste. +pero me imagino que esto est bien, no? +Porque si haces muchas cosas te sientes fatal acerca de todo, y no solo acerca de una cosa, ves? +no te vuelves experto en sentirte fatal acerca de una sola cosa. +Si, exactamente. +Ahora les voy a mostrar esto, hablando de vestuario para operas. +Yo trabajo con varios coregrafos. +Trabajo mucho con Twyla Tharp, tambin trabajo mucho con Mark Morris, quien es uno de mis mejores amigos. +y ya he diseado tres peras con l. Y la ms reciente es El Rey Arturo +He estado sumergido en el mundo de la danza desde que era un adolescente. +Fui a la escuela secundaria de artes dramticos, donde fui un actor. +y muchos de mis amigos eran bailarines de ballet. +De nuevo, no s de dnde viene la inspiracin. +No s de dnde viene. +Empec a hacer marionetas cuando era un nio. +Tal vez ah fue donde empez todo esto de la inspiracin, creo que s. +y luego la escuela secundaria de artes dramticos. +Estaba yo ah en la escuela secundaria conociendo a bailarines y actuando. +y de alguna manera, de ah, fue que me interes en el diseo. +Fui a la Escuela de Diseo Parsons y luego empec mi profesin como diseador. +En realidad, yo no me veo a mi mismo como un diseador, En realidad yo no me veo a mi mismo como un diseador de modas. +y para ser sincero, ni siquiera s cmo me defino a m mismo. +Yo pienso en mi mismo como un...Yo no s cmo me veo a mi mismo. +As es. +Pero tengo que decir, que todo este asunto de sentirse aburrido todo el tiempo es lo que-- pienso que es eso es muy importante para un diseador de modas. +Siempre tienes que sentirte un poco aburrido con todo. +y si no ests aburrido, tienes que aparentar que estas aburrido con todo. +Pero en realidad me siento un poco aburrido con todo. +Siempre le digo a mi socia, Marissa Gardini, quien organiza todo-- ella organiza todo y hace que todo suceda en realidad. +Ella es la que hace los tratos. +y yo le digo que me doy cuenta de que paso mucho tiempo jugando cartas en la computadora. +demasiado tiempo jugando cartas en la computadora, lo cual, como se imaginan bueno...de alguna manera, hace como diez aos pens que el sitio menos aburrido del mundo sera un estudio de TV, digamos un programa de entrevistas. +Porque tiene todo lo que me encanta todo en un sitio. +Y si te llegas a aburrir simplemente miras otra cosa. y haces algo ms y hablas de ello, no? +Y entonces yo tena este programa de TV. +Y eso form una gran parte de mi proceso. +De hecho, puedes mostrar el video, por favor? +Este es uno de mis videos favoritos de Rosie. +Isaac Mizrahi: estamos de vuelta en el estudio. +Hola. +Rosie ODonnel: Hola Ben. +IM: Miren que linda se ve con el pelo alisado hacia atrs. +Hombre: Su madre dice "delicioso!" +IM: Ah, delicioso. Muy bien. Entonces dnde me coloco? +Prefiero mantenerme al margen. +No quiero parecer---est bien. Aqu va. +Te pones nervioso, Ashleigh? +Ashleigh: con qu? +Cortando cabello. +A: Cortando cabello? Jams, jams. +Creo que no ha habido un da en el que haya estado nervioso cortando cabello. +Por cierto, te ves linda. +Te gusta? qu bien. +Te molesta verte linda? quieres verte linda? +ROD: pero claro que quiero verme linda. +IM: slo confirmaba, porque algunas personas quieren verse, sabes, agresivamente feas. +ROD: No, no yo. +IM: T lees acerca de esta gente que tiene mucho dinero y tiene hijos, y sus hijos siempre terminan de alguna manera, como, un desastre, sabes a qu me refiero? +Y tiene que haber alguna manera de hacerlo, Rosie. +Porque el hecho de que seas fabulosamente rica, y fabulosamente famoso, acaso significa que no deberas tener hijos, porque sabes que van a terminar hechos un desastre? +ROD: No, pero significa que tu prioridad tiene que ser su bienestar ante todo, creo yo. +Pero tienes que tomar esa decisin por ti mismo. +Mis hijos tienen siete, quin demonios sabe. +Tal vez van a terminar en rehabilitacin cuando tengan 14. +Y van a pasar este video: "Soy tan buena madre" +Dios mo, nunca lo haba tenido tan corto. +IM: se ve bien, s? +A: te iba a preguntar, tu cabello-- ROD: No! est bien-- vulvete loco. +IM: Creo que tiene que estar ms corto por aqu abajo. +A: Oh no, estamos en la primera etapa. ROD: Estamos jugando. +IM: Ests nerviosa? Te ves lindsima. +ROD: Me encanta. Es mi nuevo yo. +IM: Oh, est fabuloso! +ROD: Bandada de Rosie. Woooo! +Por cierto.de todas las cosas aburridas del mundo no? +es decir, hacer que alguien que es lindo se vea as de horrible. +Para nada aburrido. Ni un pelo de aburrido. +La verdad, el otro da le esta cita, que iba as " Estilo te hace sentir maravilloso porque te evita pensar en que algn da morirs" +Cierto, no? Y entonces me di cuenta de que estaba en mi pgina web, y ah me atribuan la cita y pens, oh, Yo dije algo, sabes, en una entrevista. +Y se me olvid que dije eso. Pero es cierto. +Quiero mostrarles este ltimo video porque es para decir adis. +Les digo que yo cocino mucho, me encanta cocinar. +Y muchas veces miro a las cosas como si fueran comida. +Como ya dije, serviras un pollo que est podrido? +de la misma manera, serviras un vestido que est destruido? +Cmo haras eso? +Siempre relaciono todo con la cocina. +Y por eso pienso que todo se reduce a eso. +Todo se reduce a eso. +As que, +Esto es lo que he estado haciendo porque me parece que es lo ms divertido del mundo. +Me encanta este sitio web. +Contiene muchas cosas diferentes. +Es un sitio web poli matemtico. +En realidad grabamos segmentos como si fuera un show de TV. +y digamos que es lo que ms me gusta en el mundo. +Acaba de empezar como en febrero. As que quin sabe. +Y bueno, no estoy diciendo que es buena, solo estoy diciendo que no es aburrida, no? +y este es el ltimo pedacito. +Video: IM: djame decirte, yo hago panquecas o waffles con leche batida todo el tiempo. +Chef: en serio? +S, pero nunca consigo la leche batida , nunca. +Chef: Oh. +IM: si no consigues leche batida en Citarella, no la conseguirs en ninguna otra parte. +Chef: no? +IM: siempre ves leche batida baja en grasa. +Chef: Pero eso es lo que es. +IM: eso es? +Chef: entonces, no sabes? Djame explicarte. +Djame explicarte algo interesante. +IM: paren de rerse. No es cmico. +Slo porque no s que-- no existe la leche batida entera. +Disculpa, qu decas? +Chef: bueno, la cosa es as. Djame explicarte. +En el pasado, cuando la gente haca mantequilla, sabes cmo se hace la mantequilla? +mantequeras? +Chef: para la crema? +IM: si, exactamente. +Chef: entonces agarras la leche alta en grasa, que es crema y la bates hasta que se separa en cuajada y agua. +El lquido es en realidad un lquido transparente. +Si bates la crema ms de la cuenta, en realidad es leche batida . +Y as se haca en aquella poca. +Y eso es lo que gente usaba para hornear y para muchas otras cosas. +Ahora, la leche batida que consigues, es en realidad leche desgrasada. +IM: disclpenme, no saba, est bien? +Chef: pensaste eso porque la leche batida es tan gruesa y deliciosa. +IM: s que lo es. +Entonces, cmo te vas a imaginar que es baja en grasa? +Bueno, eso es todo. Muchas gracias. +Feliz TED. Es maravilloso. Me encanta. Me encanta. Me encanta. +Gracias. Adis. +Creo que comenzar hablndoles sobre las personas que iniciarion [el Laboratorio de Propulsin a Chorro]. +Cuando eran apenas un grupo de nios, eran muy imaginativos y aventureros, mientras probaban mezclas qumicas en Caltech para ver cual haca ms explosiones. +Bueno, no les recomiendo que traten de hacer eso ahora. +Naturalmente, ellos volaron una cabaa, y Caltech, bueno, entonces, hey, vayan a Arroyo y hagan sus pruebas ah. +As es como llambamos a nuestros primeros 5 empleados durante la hora del t, ya saben, aqu. +Como dije, eran personas aventureras. +De hecho, uno de ellos, era algo as como parte de un culto no muy lejos de aqu en Orange Grove, y desafortunadamente se hiri durante una explosin por que segua haciendo mezclas qumicas y tratando de descubrir cuales eran los mejores qumicos. +Esto les da alguna idea del tipo de personas que tenemos ah. +Tratamos de evitar volarnos a nosotros mismos. +Esto creo que se los mostrar. +Adivinen quien es un empleado de JPL en el centro de esta multitud. +Quise venir como l esta maana, pero al salir hizo demasiado frio, y me dije, mejor me pongo de nuevo la camisa. +Pero la razn por la que quise mostrarles esta foto: vean hacia dnde miran los dems, y vean hacia dnde observa l. +Siempre que alguien mire hacia otro lado, y vaya a hacer cosas diferentes, saben, haciendo eso. +Ese es el tpo de espritu de lo que venimos haciendo. +Quisiera decirles una cita de Ralph Emerson que uno de mis colegas coloc en una pared de mi oficina, y dice, "No vayas a dnde el camino lleva. +Ve hacia donde no hay camino y deja tu huella". +Esa es mi recomendacin para todos ustedes: observen lo que todos hacen, lo que estn haciendo; y vayan a hacer algo completamente diferente. +No traten de mejorar ni un poco lo que alguien ms est haciendo, por que eso no los llevar muy lejos. +En nuestra juventud solamos trabajar mucho con cohetes, pero tambin solamos tener muchas fiestas. +Como pueden ver, una de nuestras fiestas, hace unos aos. +Pero entonces una gran diferencia ocurri hace 50 aos, despus de que se lanzara el Sputnik. Nosotros enviamos el primer satlite americano, y ese el que ustedes pueden ver a la izquierda aqu. +y aqu hicimos un cambio de 180 grados: Cambiamos de una casa de cohetes a una casa de exploracin. +Y eso ocurri durante un periodo de un par de aos, y ahora somos la empresa lider, saben, explorando el espacio en su nombre. +Pero incluso mientras lo hacamos, teniamos que recordarnos, a veces hay reveses. +Pueden ver abajo, el cohete se supone que debera ir hacia arriba; de alguna manera termin movindose a los lados. +A eso llamamos un misil mal dirigido. +Pero entonces tambin, para celebrar, creamos un evento en el JPL para "Miss Misil Mal Dirigido". +Lo celebrbamos cada ao y elegamos -- sola ser una competencia, haba desfiles y dems. +No es apropiado hacerlo ahora. Algunas personas me dicen que lo hagamos; Pero yo creo que actualmente no es apropiado. +Ahora hacemos algo un poco ms serio. +Y es lo que ven en el ltimo Tazn de las Rosas, cuando entramos con una de las flotas. +Esto es del lado divertido. Y del lado derecho, est el Rover justo antes de que terminaramos de probarlo para llevarlo a Cabo para su lanzamiento. +Estos son los Rovers que se encuentran en Marte ahora. +Asi que esto les narra las cosas divertidas, y las cosas serias que tratamos de hacer. +Pero dije que voy a mostrarles un pequeo video de uno de nuestros empleados para que se den una idea del tipo de talento que tenemos. +Video: Morgan Hendry:Cuidado la seguridad es una banda de rock instrumental. +Esto extiende ms hacia el lado experimental. +Est la improvisacin del jazz. +Est el sonido de golpe pesado del rock. +Poder tratar el sonido como un instrumento, y poder ir hacia sonidos ms abstractos y cosas para tocar en vivo, mezclando electrnica y acstica. +La mitad musical ma, pero la otra mitad -- obtuve el mejor trabajo del mundo. +Trabajo para el JPL. Estoy construyendo el prximo Rover marciano. +Algunos de los ms brillantes ingenieros que conozco son los que tienen cierta cualidad artstica en ellos. +Tienes que hacer lo que quieres hacer. +Y no escuches a quien te diga lo contrario. +Quiz tienen razn, aunque lo dudo. +Diles por dnde meterlo, y haz lo que quieres hacer. +Yo soy Morgan Hendry. Yo soy NASA. +Charles Elachi: Ahora, regresemos de la diversin a lo serio, siempre la gente pregunta por qu exploramos? +Por qu hacemos estas misiones y por qu exploramos? +Bueno, creo que eso es bastante simple. +De alguna manera, hace 13 mil millones de aos ocurri el Big Bang y han escuchado un poco sobre el origen del universo. +Pero de alguna manera lo que emociona a la imaginacin de todos -- o de muchas personas -- de alguna manera de aquel Big Bang original tenemos este hermoso mundo en el que vivimos hoy. +Observen afuera: tienen toda esa belleza que pueden ver, toda esa vida alrededor de ustedes, y aqu tenemos personas inteligentes como ustedes y yo quienes tenemos una conversacin inteligente aqu. +Todo eso comenz con el Big Bang. Entonces la pregunta es: Cmo ocurri eso? Cmo evolucion? Cmo se form el universo? +Cmo se formaron las galaxias? Cmo se formaron los planetas? +Por qu existe un planeta en el que evolucion la vida? +Es eso comn? +Existe vida en cada planeta que orbita las estrellas que vemos? +Por lo que literalmente estamos hechos de polvo de estrellas. +Venimos de esas estrellas; estamos hechos de polvo de estrellas. +La prxima vez que se depriman, mrense a un espejo y podrn decir, hola, estoy viendo a una estrella aqu. +Pueden omitir mencionar lo del polvo. +Pero literalmente, estamos hechos de polvo de estrellas. +Por lo que tratamos de hacer en nuestra exploracin es efectivamente escribir el libro de cmo las cosas llegaron a ser lo que son actualmente. +Y uno de los primeros, o sencillos, lugares que podemos visitar y explorar es dirigirnos hacia Marte. +Y la razn en que Marte tiene una particular atencin: no est muy lejos de nosotros. +Slo nos tardamos seis meses en llegar. +De seis a nueve meses en la mejor poca del ao. +Es un planeta parecido a la Tierra. Un poco ms pequeo pero la porcin de tierra en Marte es casi la misma a la de la masa terrestre de la Tierra, si no se toman en cuenta los ocanos. +tiene capas polares. Tiene una atmsfera aunque menos densa que la nuestra, tiene clima. Por lo que es muy parecido en algunas cosas, y pueden verse algunas caractersticas en l, como el Gran Can en Marte, o lo que nosotros llamamos el Gran Caon en Marte. +es como el Gran Can de la Tierra, excepto que es mucho ms grande. +Tiene el tamao de los Estados Unidos de Amrica. +Tiene volcanes. Ese es Monte Olimpo en Marte, que es como un enorme escudo volcnico en ese planeta. +Y si observan qu tan alto es y lo comparan con el Monte Everest, vern, les dar una idea de que tan grande es el Monte Olimpo en relacin con el Monte Everest. +Es un enano en comparacin el Monte Everest aqu en la Tierra. +Eso les da una idea de los eventos tectnicos o eventos volcnicos que han ocurrido en ese planeta. +Recientemente de nuestros satlites, esto muestra que es parecido a la Tierra -- captamos un movimiento de tierra ocurriendo en el momento. +Por lo que es un planeta dinmico, y la actividad est ocurriendo mientras hablamos. +Y estos Rovers, la gente se pregunta cmo, qu estn haciendo ahora, as que pens en mostrarles un poco de lo que estn haciendo. +Este es un crter muy grande. Los gelogos aman los crteres, por que los crteres son como un gran hoyo excavado en el suelo sin tener que trabajar en ello, y pueden observar debajo de la superficie. +A esto llamamos el Crter Victoria, que tiene el tamao de un campo de futbol. +Y si observan arriba a la izquierda, podrn ver un pequeo punto oscuro. +Es una imagen tomada por un satlite en rbita. +Si nos acercamos, podrn ver: es el Rover en la superficie. +Eso fue tomado desde rbita; hicimos un acercamiento en la superficie, y pudimos ver al Rover en la superficie. +Combinamos imgenes de satlite y el Rover realiz el trabajo, por que pudimos observar grandes reas y entonces se pueden mover esos Rovers y basicamente ir a ciertas ubicaciones. +Lo que estamos haciendo especficamente es que el Rover descienda dentro del crter. +Como les dije, los gelogos aman los crateres. +Y la razn es, muchos de ustedes han ido al Gran Can, y si observan las paredes de ste, vern estas capas. +Y estas capas indican cmo era la superficie hace un milln de aos, diez millones de aos, hace cien millones de aos, y se ven depsitos encima de stos. +Si saben cmo leer las cpas, es como leer un libro, y pueden aprender la historia de lo que ocurri en el pasado en ese lugar. +Lo que ustedes ven aqu son las capas en la pared del crter, y el Rover est descendiendo, midiendo las propiedades y analizando las rocas y est descendiendo en ese can. +Esto es todo un reto descender una pendiente como sta. +Si ustedes estuvieran ah, no se atreveran. +Pero nosotros nos aseguramos de probar estos Rovers antes de descender --o ese Rover -- y asegurarse de que todo trabaja bien. +Ahora, cuando vine la ltima vez, poco despus del aterrizaje -- Pienso que fue como unos cien das despus del aterrizaje -- Les dije que fu sorprendido por esos Rovers que haban durado casi cien das. +Bueno, he aqu cuatro aos despus, y an funcionan. +Bueno, yo siempre dije que es importante que uno sea inteligente, pero de vez en cuando tambin es bueno tener suerte. +Y eso es lo que encontramos. Result que de vez en cuando los demonios de polvo que ocurren en Marte, como pueden ver aqu, cuando estos se acercan al Rover, lo limpian. +Es como un auto nuevo que tienen ah, y es por eso que los Rovers han durado tanto. +Y ahora los diseamos razonablemente bien, pero es exactamente esto lo que ha hecho que duren tanto, y sigan proporcionando informacin cientfica. +Ahora, ambos Rovers, cada uno est envejeciendo. +Ustedes saben que uno de ellos tiene una rueda atascada, no funciona, una de las ruedas frontales, entonces lo que hacemos, es conducir de reversa. +Y el otro tiene artritis en una de las articulaciones del hombro, saben, no funciona bien por lo que camina as y podemos mover el brazo, de esta manera. +Pero an as estan recabando mucha informacin cientfica +Ahora, durante mucho tiempo varias personas se emocionaron, fuera de la comunidad cientfica, acerca de estos Rovers, por esto pens en mostrarles un video para que hagan una reflexin sobre cmo las personas ven a estos Rovers ms all de la comunidad cientfica. +Permtanme mostrarles este video corto. +Por cierto, ese video es bastante fiel, ocurri, hace cuatro aos. +Video: Muy bien, hemos alineado el paracadas. +Muy bien, abierto. +Cmara. Tenemos imgen ahora. +S! +Se trata de lo que ocurri en el centro de operaciones de Houston. Fue exactamente as. +Ahora, si hay vida los holandeses la encontrarn +Qu est haciendo? +Qu es eso? +Nada mal. +CE: De cualquier manera permitanme seguir mostrndoles un poco ms sobre la belleza de ese planeta. +Como les coment al principio, se parece mucho a la Tierra. pueden ver arena y dunas. +pareciera que les pude haber dicho a ustedes que estas fotos fueron tomadas en el Desierto del Sahara u otro lugar, y ustedes me hubieran creido pero estas son imgenes tomadas en Marte. +Pero hay un lugar que nos llama en particular la atencin es la regin norte de Marte, cerca del Polo Norte por que vimos capas de hielo y ahora vemos que las capas se encogen y se expanden, es muy parecido a lo que tenemos en el norte de Canad. +Y queremos descubrir -- y vemos todo tipo de caractersticas glaciares en sta. +Entonces, queremos saber, de qu est hecho el hielo, y qu puede contener algn material orgnico quiz, +Entonces tenemos una sonda que se dirige hacia Marte, llamada Phoenix y esa sonda aterrizar dentro de 17 das, siete horas y 20 segundos, as que pueden ajustar sus relojes. +Entonces el 25 de mayo, poco antes de las cinco en punto en la Costa Oeste, actualmente estaremos aterrizando en otro planeta. +Como pueden ver, esta es una imagen de la sonda que pusimos en Marte, pero pens que, slo en caso de que puedan perderse el espectculo, en 17 das, les mostrar algo de lo que va a suceder. +Video: A esto le llamamos los siete minutos de terror. +El plan es escabar el suelo y tomar muestras que pondremos en un horno y las calentaremos para ver qu gases son los que salen de ellas. +ste fue lanzado hace nueve meses. +Estaremos entrando a 12 000 millas por hora, y en siete minutos deberemos detenernos y tocar suavemente la superficie para no estrellarnos. +Ben Cichy: Phoenix es la primera. +La primera misin que va a tratar de aterrizar cerca del Polo Norte de Marte, y es la primera misin que realmente va a tratar de alcanzar y tocar agua en la superficie de otro planeta. +Lynn Craig: Donde tiende a haber agua, al menos en la Tierra, tiende a haber vida, as que es un posible lugar donde la vida pudo haber existido en el pasado del planeta. +Erik Bailey: El principal propsito de EDL es tomar una nave que est viajando a 12 500 millas por hora y llevarla a un alto sbito de manera suave en un corto periodo de tiempo. +BC: Entramos a la atmsfera marciana. +Estamos a 70 millas por encima de la superficie. +Y nuestra sonda est asegurada dentro de lo que llamamos un aero-shuttle. +EB: Parece como un cono de helado, ms o menos. +BC: Y al frente est el escudo trmico, sto que parece platilllo volador, tiene media pulgada de prcticamente corcho al frente, que es nuestro escudo trmico. +Bueno, este es un corcho muy especial, y este corcho es lo que nos proteger de la violenta entrada atmosfrica que estamos por experimentar. +Rob Grover: La friccin comienza a envolver la nave, y usamos la friccin cuando vuela atravs de la atmsfera para ayudarnos a detenernos. +BC: Desde este punto, vamos a desacelerar de 12 500 millas por hora hasta 900 millas por hora. +EB: El exterior puede calentarse tanto como la superficie del Sol. +RG: La temperatura del escudo trmico puede alcanzar 2 600 grados Fahrenheit. +EB: Por dentro no se calienta mucho. +Probablemente llegue a la temperatura de este cuarto. +Richard Kornfeld: Esta es la ventana de oportunidad en la que podemos desplegar el paracaidas. +EB: si lo desplegamos antes, el paracaidas podra fallar. +La tela y las costuras podran separarse. +Y eso sera malo. +BC: En los primeros 15 segundos despus de desplegar el paracaidas, desaceleramos de 900 millas por hora hasta unas 250 millas por hora. +Ya no necesitamos el escudo trmico para protegernos de la fuerza de la entrada atmosfrica, por lo que expulsamos el escudo, mostrando por primera vez la sonda a la atmsfera marciana. +LC: Despus de expulsar el escudo y que las piernas se desplieguen, el siguiente paso es preparar al sistema de radar para detectar qu tan lejos est Phoenix del suelo. +BC: Hemos perdido el 99% de la velocidad de entrada. +Entonces llevamos el 99% del camino a donde queremos llegar. +Pero ese ltimo uno por ciento siempre parece ser la parte difcil. +EB: Ahora la misma nave tiene que decidir cundo deshacerse del paracaidas. +BC: La separamos de la sonda yendo a 125 millas por hora apenas un kilmetro por encima de la superficie de Marte: 3 200 pies. +Es como tomar dos edificios "Empire State" y colocarlos uno encima del otro. +EB: Eso es cuando nos separamos del escudo posterior, y ahora estamos en caida libre. +Es un momento de temor: muchas cosas tienen que suceder en un periodo corto de tiempo. +LC:Entonces estamos en caida libre, pero tambin trata de usar todos sus accionadores para asegurarse de que est en buena posicin para aterrizar. +EB: Y entonces tiene que encender sus motores, por si mismo, y entonces detenerse poco a poco para tocar tierra de manera segura. +BC: La Tierra y Marte estn tan lejos que le toma a la seal casi 10 minutos en llegar a la Tierra. +El EDL terminar en siete minutos. +Para el momento en que escuchemos a la sonda decir que el EDL ha comenzado ya habr terminado. +EB: Tenemos que implementar mucha autonoma en la nave para que pueda aterrizar con seguridad. +BC: EDL es inmenso, tcnicamente todo un reto. +Es enviar una nave a gran velocidad a travs del espacio y tenga que ingeniarselas por si sola para imaginarse cmo llegar a la superficie de Marte a cero millas por hora. +Es un reto tremendamente emocionante. +Con suerte todo ocurrir de la manera que lo vieron aqu. +Ser un momento de mucha tensin, el observar cmo la sonda aterriza en otro planeta. +Dejenme decirles sobre las siguientes cosas que haremos. +Estamos en el proceso, mientras hablamos, de disear el prximo Rover que enviaremos a Marte. +Asi que les comentar un poco sobre los pasos por los que hemos seguido. +Es muy similar a lo que hacen cuando disean un producto. +Como vieron al principio, cuando haciamos el Phoenix uno, tuvimos que tomar en cuenta el calor que ste iba a enfrentar. +Por lo que tuvimos que estudiar todo tipo de materiales diferentes, para dar forma a lo que queriamos. +En general no tratamos de satisfacer al cliente aqu. +Lo que queremos hacer es asegurarnos de que tenemos una mquina eficiente y efectiva. +Comenzamos por lo que queremos en nuestros empleados que sean tan imaginativos como puedan. +Y nos encanta estar tan cerca del centro artstico, por que tenemos, de hecho, un alumno del centro de arte, Eric Nyquist, ha puesto una serie de exposiciones, exposiciones inusuales, en lo que llamamos nuestro cuarto de diseo de misin o diseo de nave, slo para hacer que la gente piense de manera abierta sobre las cosas. +Tenemos muchos bloques de construccin. Y como he dicho, este es un jardin de juegos para adultos, as que sentmonos y juguemos con las diferentes formas y diferentes diseos. +A la derecha, tambin debemos tomar en cuenta el ambiente del planeta a donde vamos. +si se va a ir a Jpiter, se tendr radiacin muy alta, en el ambiente. Es casi la misma radiacin ambiental cerca de Jpiter que dentro de un reactor nuclear. +Imagnese: llevar su PC y arrojarla dentro de un reactor nuclear y que siga funcionando. +Estos son los pequeos retos que, ustedes saben, tenemos que enfrentar. +Si hacemos una entrada tenemos que probar los paracaidas. +Ustedes vieron en video la rotura de un paracaidas. Eso sera un mal da, si eso ocurriera, por lo que tenemos que probar, por que estamos desplegando este paracaidas a velocidad supersnica. +Entramos a velocidades extremadamente altas y los desplegamos para detenernos. Por lo que tenemos que hacer muchas pruebas. +Para darles una idea del tamao del paracaidas en relacin con las personas que estn aqu. +El siguiente paso, vamos y construimos algunos modelos de prueba y los probamos en el laboratorio del JPL, en lo que llamamos nuestro Patio Marciano. +Los pateamos, los golpeamos, los dejamos caer, slo para aseguranos que entendemos cmo y dnde se rompern. +Y de ah nos regresamos. +Y posteriormente construimos el edificio y el vuelo. +Y este prximo Rover que vamos a enviar es del tamao de un auto. +El gran escudo que ven afuera, es el escudo trmico que lo proteger. +Y esto se construir durante el prximo ao, y ser enviado en Junio dentro de un ao. +Ahora, en ese caso, debido a que es un Rover muy grande, no podemos usar bolsas de aire. +Y ahora muchos de ustedes, bueno la ltima vez despus, bueno, es genial tener esas bolsas de aire. +Desafortunadamente, este Rover es diez veces ms grande que el anterior Rover, tiene tres veces su masa. +Por lo que no podemos usar bolsas de aire. Debemos pensar en otra ingeniosa idea sobre cmo aterrizarlo. +Y no queramos llevarlo con propulsin todo el camino a la superficie por que no queremos contaminar la superficie; queremos que el Rover aterrize inmediatamente sobre sus piernas. +As que se nos ocurri esta ingeniosa idea, la que se usa en la Tierra para los helicpteros. +En realidad la nave descender unos 100 pies y sobrevolar por encima unos 100 pies, y despus tendremos una gra en el cielo que llevar al Rover a aterrizar en la superficie. +Tenemos la esperanza de que funcione de esa manera. +Y ese rober ser como un qumico. +Lo que haremos con ese Rover mientras se mueve, es que analizaremos la composicin qumica de las rocas. +Por lo que deber tener un brazo con el cual tomar muestras, colocarlas en un horno, deshacerlas y analizarlas. +Pero tambien, si hay algo que no podamos alcanzar debido a que est muy alto en un precipicio tenemos un pequeo sistema lser que podra pulverizar la roca, evaporar una parte de sta, y as analizar qu es lo que sale de esta roca. +Es algo parcido a "Star Wars" pero esto es real. +Es algo real. +Y tambin par ayudarlos, ayudar a la comunidad para que puedan hacer propaganda de este Rover, vamos a entrenarlo para que adems de esto, pueda servir cocteles, tambin en Marte. +Esto les dar una idea de las cosas divertidas que haremos en Marte. +Creo que ahora ir al "Seor de los Anillos" y les mostrar una de las cosas que tenemos ah. +Ahora, el "Seor de los Anillos" tiene dos cosas interesantes. +Uno, es un planeta muy atractivo -- tiene la belleza de los anillos y dems. +Pero para los cientficos, los anillos tienen un significado especial, por que pensamos que representan, a pequea escala, cmo se form el Sistema Solar. +Algunos cientficos creen que el Sistema Solar se form, cuando el Sol colaps y ste se cre, y del polvo alrededor de l se crearon anillos y despus las partculas en los anillos se acumularon, y formaron rocas ms grandes, y as fue como los planetas, se formaron. +Entonces la idea de observar a Saturno es que podamos observar nuestro Sistema Solar en tiempo real, formandose a pequea escala, es un sitio de pruebas para sto. +Permitanme mostrarles un poco cmo luce este sistema saturnino. +Primero, sobrevolaremos por los anillos. +Por cierto, todo esto es real. +Esto no es una animacin o algo similar. +Esto fue tomado por un satlite que est en rbita alrededor de Saturno, "Cassini". +Vern una gran cantidad de detalles en esos anillos, que son las partculas. +Algunas de ellas se estn acumulando formando partculas ms grandes. +Por eso es que se tienen estas brechas, debido a pequeos satlites, que se estn formando en ese lugar. +Ahora piensen que esos anillos son objetos muy grandes +Si, son muy grandes en una dimensin; en la otra dimensin son tan delgados como papel. Muy muy delgados. +Lo que ven aqu es la sombra del anillo sobre Saturno. +Y ese es uno de los satlites que fue formado ah. +As que piensen que es delgado como el papel, un rea enorme de cientos de miles de millas, que d vueltas. +Y tenemos una gran variedad de satlites que se formarn, cada uno luce muy diferente y extrao, y eso mantendr a los cientficos ocupados por decenas de aos tratando de explicarlo, y diciendole a la NASA que necesitamos ms dinero para poder explicar qu son estas cosas y por qu se formaron de esa manera. +Bueno, hay dos satlites que son de particular inters. +Uno de ellos se llama Encelado. +Es un satlite que est formado por hielo, y que medimos en rbita. Hecho de hielo. +Pero hay algo extrao en l. +Si observan estas franjas, las llamamos rayas de tigre, cuando volamos por encima de ellas, de pronto vimos un incremento de temperatura, que nos dice que esas franjas son ms tibias que el resto del planeta. +Mientras volamos lejos de ah, miramos hacia atrs, Y adivinen? +Vimos geisers saliendo. +Esta es un "yellow stone", saben, en Saturno. +Estamos viendo geisers de hielo que salen de ese planeta, lo que nos indica que existe un oceano por debajo de la superficie. +Y de alguna manera, mediante algn efecto dinmico, tenemos estos geisers que estn siendo emitidos. +Y es la razn por la que les mostr esta pequea flecha, Pienso que debera decir 30 millas, decidimos hace unos meses volar la nave a travs de la pluma de ese geiser para que pudieramos medir el material del que est hecho. +Eso fue hace 40 millas -- por que estbamos preocupados por el riesgo, pero funcion bastante bien. +Volamos por encima de ste y encontramos que hay una buena cantidad de material orgnico que est siendo emitido en combinacin con el hielo. +Y en los prximos aos, mientras sigamos orbitando a Saturno, planeamos acercarnos ms a la superficie para tomar mediciones ms precisas. +Ahora, otro satlite que ha atraido nuestra atencin, es Titn. La razn de que Titn sea particularmente interesante, es que es ms grande que nuestra Luna y que tiene atmsfera. +Su atmsfera es mucho ms densa que nuestra atmsfera. +Si estuvieran en Titn, sentiran la misma presin que aqu, excepto que es mucho ms frio, y esa atmsfera est hecha de metano. +Ahora, el metano emociona a las personas, por que es un material orgnico, por lo que la gente piensa de inmediato, que la vida ha evolucionado en ese lugar, cuando tienes mucho material orgnico. +La gente ahora cree que Titn es muy parecido a lo que llamamos un planeta pre bitico, debido a que es tan frio que la materia orgnica no alcanza el estado para convertirse en material biolgico, y por lo tanto la vida podra evolucionar en ste. +Pudiera ser como la Tierra, congelada hace tres mil millones de aos antes de que la vida comenzara en ella. +sto esta atrayendo mucho inters y les mostrar un ejemplo de lo que hicimos ah, de hecho mandamos una sonda, que fue desarrollada por nuestros colegas en Europa, dejamos caer esta sonda mientras orbitbamos Saturno. +La dejamos caer en la atmsfera de Titn. +Y esta es una imagen de un rea conforme descendamos. +A mi me parece como la costa de California. +Ven los ros que bajan por la costa, y vern el rea blanca que parece como la Isla Catalina, y eso parece un gran oceano. +Y con el instrumento que llevamos a bordo, el instrumento radar, encontramos que hay lagos, como el Gran Lago aqu, que se ve muy parecido al de la Tierra. +Pareciera que tiene ros, tiene oceanos o lagos, Sabemos que hay nubes. Pensamos que tambin llueve. +Se parece mucho al ciclo en la Tierra excepto que debido al fro no puede haber agua, por que el agua se congelara. +Result que todo lo que vemos est en estado lquido, y compuesto por hidrocarburo, etano y metano, similar a lo que pone en su auto. +Tenemos un ciclo en un planeta que se parece a la Tierra, pero que est hecho de etano, metano y materiales orgnicos. +Por lo que si estuvieran en Marte, perdn, en Titn, no tendran que preocuparse de la gasolina a 4 dlares. +Conduciran cerca del lago, meteran una manguera en l y podran llenar su tanque. +Por otro lado, si encendieran un cerillo todo el planeta explotara. +Para concluir, quisiera mostrar un par de imgenes. +Para que nos den cierta perspectiva, esta es una imagen de Saturno tomada con una nave por detrs de Saturno, mirando hacia el Sol +El Sol est detrs de Saturno, vemos lo que llamamos "dispersin hacia adelante" de manera que resalta todos los anillos. Voy a acercarme. +Hay un --no se si pueden verlo bien, pero arriba a la izquierda, a las 10 en punto, hay un pequeo punto, esa es la Tierra. +Apenas podemos vernos. Por lo que hice un acercamiento. +Mientras nos acercamos, pueden ver la Tierra justo en medio aqu. Nos acercamos lo ms posible en el centro de arte. +Muchas gracias. +Mi nombre es Ursus Wehrli y hoy me gustara hablarles de mi proyecto, "Ordenando el Arte" (o Tidying Up Art). Primero, alguien tiene alguna pregunta? +de mi proyecto, "Ordenando el Arte" (o Tidying Up Art). Primero, alguien tiene alguna pregunta? +Primero tengo que contarles que no soy de por aqu. +Soy de un rea cultural completamente distinta, quizs se dieron cuenta? +Es decir, miren, estoy usando corbata. Y segundo, estoy un poquito nervioso porque estoy hablando en una lengua extranjera y quiero disculparme de antemano por cualquier error que cometa. +Soy de Suiza, y espero que no piensen que lo que estoy hablando aqu es alemn de Suiza. As es como suena cuando los suizos tratamos de hablar el norteamericano. es alemn de Suiza. As es como suena cuando los suizos tratamos de hablar ingls de EE.UU. +Pero no se preocupen, no tengo problemas con el ingls como tal. +Quiero decir que no es mi problema, despus de todo es su lengua. +Yo estoy bien. Despus de est charla en TED simplemente puedo regresar a Suiza pero ustedes tienen que seguir hablando as para siempre. +Entonces los organizadores me pidieron que leyera de mi libro. +Se llama "Ordenando el Arte" y es, como pueden ver, ms o menos un libro de imgenes. +As que si lo leyera terminara muy rpido. +Pero como estoy aqu en TED decid dar la charla de una manera ms moderna, tomando el espritu de TED, e hice unas lminas para ustedes. +Me gustara mostrarlas para compartirlas con ustedes... En realidad logr hacer unas fotos ms grandes que son an mejores. En realidad logr hacer unas fotos ms grandes que son an mejores. +Entonces Ordenando el Arte, debo contarles que es un trmino relativamente nuevo. +No lo deben conocer an. +S, como que me daba pena l. +Y me pareca que se deba sentir terrible mirando da tras da esos cuadrados rojos y desorganizados. Y me pareca que se deba sentir terrible mirando da tras da esos cuadrados rojos y desorganizados. +As que decid ayudarle un poquito y orden algo las cosas poniendo los bloques cuidadosamente uno encima del otro. +S. Y creo que ahora se ve menos triste. +Y fue grandioso. Despus de esta experiencia, comenc a mirar ms detalladamente el arte moderno. Y me di cuenta que el mundo del arte moderno realmente est todo patas para arriba. el arte moderno. Y me di cuenta que el mundo del arte moderno realmente est todo patas para arriba. Y les puedo mostrar un ejemplo muy bueno. +En realidad es uno muy simple pero es muy til para comenzar. +Es una pintura de Paul Klee. +Y como claramente podemos ver aqu es una confusin de colores. +S. El artista realmente no parece saber donde poner los distintos colores. +Las distintas formas de los diversos elementos de la pintura... est todo sin estructura. Las distintas formas de los diversos elementos de la pintura... est todo sin estructura. +No sabemos si quizs el Seor Klee estaba apurado, quiero decir... Quizs se le estaba yendo el avin o algo as. +Podemos ver que empez con naranjo y luego se le acab el naranjo y aqu podemos ver que decidi tomarse un cuadrado de descanso. +Y me gustara mostrarles mi versin ordenada de esta pintura. +As podemos ver lo que apenas se notaba en el original: 17 cuadrados rojos y naranjas yuxtapuestos con slo dos cuadrados verdes. +S, as est mucho mejor. +As que as es ordenar para principiantes. +Les quera mostrar una pintura que tiene un poco ms de complejidad. +Qu se puede decir? Que desastre. Qu se puede decir? Que desastre. +Quiero decir, parece que todo hubiera sido tirado al azar por la pintura. +Si mi pieza se hubiera parecido a esto mi madre me hubiera castigado sin salir por 3 das. Si mi pieza se hubiera parecido a esto mi madre me hubiera castigado sin salir por 3 das. +As que me gustara... me gustara reintroducirle algo de estructura a esa pintura. +Y eso s es ordenar de modo ms avanzado. +S, tienen razn. A veces la gente aplaude pero en realidad eso pasa ms en Suiza. +Nosotros los suizos somos famosos por nuestros chocolates y quesos. Nuestros trenes funcionan a la hora. +Slo somos felices cuando las cosas estn ordenadas. +Pero para seguir les mostrar un buen ejemplo de esto. +Esta es una pintura de Joan Mir. +Y s, podemos ver que el artista dibujo unas lneas y formas y las tir al azar en un fondo amarillo. +Y s, es el tipo de cosas que dibujas mientras hablas por telfono. +Y esta es m... Pueden ver que toda esta cosa ocupa mucho menos espacio. +Es ms econmica y tambin ms eficiente. +Con este mtodo Mir podra haber ahorrado suficiente tela para otra pintura. +Pero puedo ver en sus caras que an estn un poco escpticos. +Para que puedan darse cuenta de cun en serio me tomo esto traje todas las patentes, las especificaciones para algunas de estas obras, ya que he patentado mis mtodos de trabajo en el Eidgenssische Amt fr Geistiges Eigentum de Berna, Suiza. +Voy a citar la especificacin: +"Laut den Kunstprfer Dr. Albrecht..." No he terminado an. +"Laut den Kunstprfer Dr. Albrecht Gtz von Ohlenhusen wird die Verfahrensweise rechtlich geschtzt welche die Kuns durch spezifisch aufgerumte Regelmssigkeiten des allgemeinen Formenschatzes neue Wirkungen zu erzielen mglich wird." +S, bueno, poda haber traducido eso pero an as no hubieran entendido nada. +Ni yo estoy seguro que significa pero igual suena bien. +Simplemente me di cuenta que es muy importante el modo como uno le presenta nuevas ideas a la gente y por eso es que a veces se necesitan patentes. +Me gustara hacerles una pequea prueba. +Estn todos sentados ordenadamente aqu esta maana. +As que les voy a pedir que levanten su mano derecha. S. +La mano derecha es con la que escribimos, excepto los zurdos. +Y ahora, contar hasta tres. Todava se ven muy ordenados. +Ahora contar hasta 3 y a la cuenta de 3 quiero que todos le den la mano a la persona sentada detrs. Bien? Ahora contar hasta 3 y a la cuenta de 3 quiero que todos le den la mano a la persona sentada detrs. Bien? +Uno, dos, tres. +Pueden ver que ese es un buen ejemplo: incluso un comportamiento ordenado y sistemtico puede llevar a veces al caos absoluto. +Y tambin podemos ver eso en la prxima pintura. +Es una pintura de la artista Niki de Saint Phalle. +Y en el original no queda claro, en mi opinin, que se supone que representa esta mezcla de colores y formas. +Pero en la versin ordenada queda clarsimo que es una mujer bronceada jugando voleibol. +S, es una... esta de ac est mucho mejor. +Es una pintura de Keith Haring. +Creo que no importa. +Entonces esta pintura ni siquiera tiene un nombre apropiado. +Se llama "Sin Nombre" y creo que eso le va. +Y en la versin ordenada tenemos como una tienda de piezas de repuesto de Keith Haring. +Aqu estamos viendo a Keith Haring de manera estadstica. +Se puede ver claramente, ustedes pueden ver que hay 25 elementos verde claro Se puede ver claramente, ustedes pueden ver que hay 25 elementos verde claro de los cuales uno es circular. +O, por ejemplo, aqu tenemos 27 cuadrados rosados y slo una curva rosada. +Para m eso es interesante. Uno podra extender este tipo de anlisis estadstico a toda la obra de Haring para as establecer el perodo en que el artista prefera los crculos verde claros o los cuadrados rosados. +Hasta el mismo artista se beneficiaria de este tipo de procedimiento para estimar cuantos tarros de pintura pueda necesitar en el futuro. +Obviamente uno tambin puede generar combinaciones. +Por ejemplo, entre los crculos de Keith Haring y los puntos de Kandinsky. +Pueden agregarle los cuadrados de Paul Klee. +Al final, terminan con una lista que pueden organizar. +Y despus lo categorizan, lo archivan en un archivador, lo guardan en la oficina y pueden vivir de ello. +S, hablo por experiencia propia. En realidad, nosotros los artistas somos un poco ms estructurados. No somos tan malos. +Este es Jasper Johns. Aqu podemos ver que estaba practicando con su regla. +Pero creo que an as le servira un poco ms de disciplina. +Y creo que toda esta cosa queda mejor si la haces as. +Y aqu, este es uno de mis favoritos. +Ordenar a Rene Magritte, eso es realmente entretenido. +Quiero decir, hay un... Me han preguntado qu me inspir a embarcarme en esto. +Se remonta a una poca en que viva siempre en hoteles. +Y una vez tuve la oportunidad de quedarme en un hotel de lujo de 5 estrellas. +Y ah tenan este pequeo cartel... todos los das pona esta ficha afuera de la puerta que lea: Y ah tenan este pequeo cartel... todos los das pona esta ficha afuera de la puerta que lea: "Por favor ordenar la pieza". No s si los tendrn por ac. +Y entonces, no slo ordenaban mi pieza una vez al da, sino que la ordenaban 3 veces al da. +As que despus de unos das decid entretenerme un poco y en la maana antes de salir tiraba unas cosas por ah en la pieza. +Como libros, ropa, cepillo de dientes, etc... Me encantaba. +Para cuando volva todo se haba devuelto ordenadamente a su lugar. +Pero una maana colgu la misma ficha en una pintura de Vincent Van Gogh. +Y debo decir que la pieza no haba sido ordenada desde 1888. +Cuando volv la pieza se vea as. +S, por lo menos ahora se puede pasar la aspiradora. +S, por lo menos ahora se puede pasar la aspiradora. OK, veo que siempre hay personas que reaccionan ante una u otra pintura cuando an no ha sido correctamente ordenada. Entonces les puedo hacer una pequea prueba. +Esta es una pintura de Ren Magritte y me gustara que internamente (es decir, en su cabeza) la ordenaran. Entonces posiblemente algunos de ustedes terminen con algo como esto. +S? En realidad yo lo prefiero de esta manera. +Algunos lo dejaran como pastel de manzanas. +Pero es un muy buen ejemplo de que todo el esfuerzo es ms un trabajo manual que involucra el largo proceso de cortar los varios trozos y pegarlos devuelta en otro orden. +Y no se hace en una computadora, como mucha gente piensa, sino quedara algo como esto. +As que he podido ordenar las pinturas que haba querido ordenar desde hace mucho tiempo atrs. +Este es un muy buen ejemplo: Tomemos a Jackson Pollock. +Es oh, no! esa es un tarea muy difcil. +Pero despus de un tiempo, decid ordenarlo completamente y devolver la pintura a las latas. +O puedes empezar a ver el arte tridimensional. +Aqu vemos la Copa de Cuero de Meret Oppenheim. +Y aqu la traje devuelta a su estado original. +Pero s, es grandioso, e incluso se puede ir ms all... O para ustedes que saben de arte tenemos el movimiento puntillista, +O para ustedes que saben de arte tenemos el movimiento puntillista, donde las pinturas se descomponen en puntos y pixeles +y despus... este tipo de cosas son ideales para ordenar. +Una vez me dediqu a ordenar la obra de Georges Seurat, inventor del puntillismo, y junt todos los puntos. +Y ahora estn todos aqu. +Si quieren pueden contarlos despus. Si quieren pueden contarlos despus. +Saben, eso es lo fantstico de la idea de ordenar el arte: es nueva. No hay una tradicin existente. +No hay textos o por lo menos no los hay an. +Quiero decir, es el "futuro que crearemos". +Pero para terminar me gustara mostrarles una ltima pintura. +Esta es la plaza del pueblo de Pieter Bruegel. +As se ve cuando envas a todo el mundo de vuelta a casa. +S, quizs se pregunten: Dnde se fue toda la gente del viejo Bruegel? +Por supuesto, an no se van. Estn todos aqu. +Simplemente los apil. +Simplemente los apil. Y de hecho, como que ya he terminado. +Para los que quieran ver ms mi libro esta en la librera abajo. +Les puedo firmar con el nombre del artista que quieran. +Pero antes de partir les quera mostrar lo que estoy haciendo ahora; es un campo relacionado a mi mtodo de ordenar el arte. Estoy trabajando en algo similar. +Y he comenzado a llevar el orden a las banderas. +Est es mi nueva propuesta para la bandera de Gran Bretaa. +Y quizs antes que me vaya... +S, creo que despus que vean esto de todas maneras tendr que irme. +S, esa fue complicada. No encontraba una manera para ordenarla correctamente as que simplemente decid simplificarla un poco. +Muchas gracias. +Bienvenidos a los 3000 metros. +Permtanme explicarles por qu estamos aqu y por qu algunos de ustedes tienen un pino cerca. +rase una vez un libro que escrib llamado "Cmo aprenden los edificios". +Al evento de hoy podran llamarlo "Cmo ensean las montaas". +Un poco de historia: durante 10 aos he tratado de comprender cmo modificar la civilizacin para lograr pensamiento de largo plazo que sea automtico y comn en vez de algo difcil y raro o, en algunos casos, inexistente. +Sera til que la Humanidad adquiriese el hbito de pensar en el ahora no slo como la prxima semana o trimestre sino en 10 mil aos para adelante y atrs bsicamente la historia de nuestra civilizacin. +Tenemos la Fundacin Long Now en San Francisco. +Es la incubadora de una docena de proyectos todos relacionados con la continuidad a largo plazo. +Nuestro proyecto principal es ms bien una locura ambiciosa. una empresa mtica: construir un reloj de 10 mil aos que funcione con precisin durante un perodo tan largo. +Los problemas de diseo de un proyecto as son simplemente deliciosos. +Vamos al reloj. Lo que ven aqu es algo que muchos vieron aqu hace tres aos. +Es el primer prototipo del reloj. +Tiene cerca de tres metros. +Diseado por Danny Hillis y Alexander Rose, se encuentra en Londres funcionando pausadamente en el museo de ciencias. +Entonces el problema de diseo de hoy va a ser cmo alojar un reloj descomunal como este para que funcione y preserve el tiempo durante cien siglos? +Bien, esta fue la primera solucin. +Alexander Rose vino con esta idea de una torre en espiral con rampas de pendiente continua. +Y pareca un camino a seguir hasta que pensamos cmo se corroe un edificio en tanto tiempo? +Bien, mucho tiempo produce esto en un edificio. +Este es el partenn. Tiene slo 2450 aos y miren lo que le pas. +Este es un proyecto hermoso. Ellos saban que durara para siempre porque lo contruyeron enteramente en piedra. +Y es ahora una triste ruina que nadie sabe para qu se usaba. +Eso es lo que le pasa a los edificios. Son vulnerables. +Incluso los edificios ms duraderos e intactos como las pirmides de Giza estn en mal estado si miramos de cerca. +Han sido saqueadas por dentro y por fuera. +Fueron contruidas para protejer cosas pero no lo hacen. +Entonces pensamos que si no se puede poner a salvo en un edificio dnde poner las cosas a salvo? Pensamos, bien, bajo tierra. +Qu tal bajo tierra con una vista? +Bajo tierra en un lugar muy slido. +La respuesta obvia fue que necesitamos una montaa. +Pero no cualquier montaa. +Se necesita la montaa apropiada si vamos a tener un reloj durante 10 mil aos. +Aqu tenemos una imagen de la vista donde buscar. +Y por varias razones pensamos que deba ser en una montaa del desierto por eso buscamos en las zonas ridas del sudoeste. +Buscamos en las mesas de Nuevo Mxico. +Estuvimos buscando en los volcanes de Arizona. +Luego Roger Kennedy, entonces director del Servicio de Parques Nacionales nos llev a Nevada del Este al ms reciente y antiguo parque nacional de EE.UU. llamado Parque Nacional de la Gran Cuenca. +Est justo en el lmite oriental de Nevada. +Es la sierra ms alta del estado, ms de 3900 metros. +Y notarn que a la izquierda, al oeste, es muy empinada y a la derecha es suave. +Este lugar es remoto. Est a ms de 300 km de cualquier ciudad importante. +No hay autopistas ni ferrocarril cerca. +La nica cosa que pasa cerca es la autopista ms solitaria de EE.UU., la US 50. +Dentro de la lnea amarilla, a la derecha, es todo parque nacional. +Dentro de la lnea verde es bosque nacional. +A la izquierda hay terrenos de la Oficina de Gestin de Tierras y algunos privados. +Da la casualidad que la franja central de 3 km vertical en la foto, estaba disponible porque era privada. +Y gracias a Jay Walker y Mitch Kapor que estaban aqu Long Now pudo conseguir esa franja de 3 km de tierra. +Y ahora veamos que tenemos all. +Estamos en el can Pole, mirando al oeste hacia la escarpa occidental del Monte Washington, de 3500 m de altura. +Esos precipicios blancos son de piedra caliza cmbrica. +Es una formacin de 600 m de espesor y podra ser un lugar hermoso para ocultar un reloj. +Habra que peregrinar para llegar all, hacer una gran caminata para llegar al reloj. +El pasado junio, la junta de Long Now, parte del equipo, donantes y consejeros, hicieron una expedicin de 2 semanas a la montaa para explorarla e investigar, 1) si es la montaa apropiada y 2) si lo es, cmo se adapta a nuestros planes. +Danny Hillis formul el problema. +Tiene una teora del funcionamiento global de la experiencia del reloj. +Es lo que l llama las siete etapas de una aventura mtica. +Comienza con la imagen. La imagen es una foto que uno tiene en mente del objetivo al final del viaje. +En este caso podra ser una imagen del reloj. +Luego viene el punto de embarque, punto de transicin de una vida comn a la de un peregrino en una aventura. +Esta es una linda imagen del laberinto. +El laberinto es un concepto, es como una zona de ocaso un lugar donde es difcil, donde uno se desorienta, quiz uno se asusta pero tiene que pasar por eso si quiere ir a fondo. +Siempre debera tenerse en vista un objetivo una especie de faro que nos guie por el laberinto para poder atravesarlo. +Brian Eno, quien tambin ha estado involucrado en el Long Now estuvo dos aos haciendo un CD llamado Enero de 7003 que es "Estudios de Campana para el reloj del Long Now". +Se basa en -- parte de esto se basa en un algoritmo de Danny Hillis donde el repique de 10 campanas tintinea distinto cada da durante 10 mil aos. +El algoritmo de Hillis, factorial de 10, da ese nmero. +Y, de hecho, muy pronto oiremos el sonido. +Enero de 7003. All est. +Bien, volviendo a la lista de Danny. +El nmero cinco de siete es la recompensa. El climax. +El objetivo, la cosa principal que se intenta conseguir. +Danny sostiene que un gran viaje tendr una recompensa secreta. +Algo inesperado que supera lo que esperbamos. +Luego viene el retorno. +Debe haber un retorno gradual al mundo normal para tener tiempo de asimilar lo aprendido. +Y despus, qu tal un recuerdo? El nmero siete. +Al final hay algo fsico una especie de recompensa que nos llevamos. +Podra ser una roca de la montaa. +Algo que es propiedad de uno. +Cmo se estudia una montaa para el tipo de cosas que estamos hablando? +No es un proyecto normal de contruccin. +Qu buscamos? +Cules son los elementos que ms afectarn nuestras ideas y decisiones? +Primero los lmites. Si observamos el flanco izquierdo del precipicio, es un parque nacional, sacrosanto; no se toca. A la derecha est el bosque nacional. +Hay posibilidades. Los lmites son importantes. +Otros elementos son las minas, el clima, los accesos y la elevacin. +Especialmente los rboles. Miren esas cosas en la cima. +Resulta que el Monte Washington est cubierto de pinos erizo. +Son los organismos vivientes ms antiguos. +La gente piensa que son del tamao de los arbustos, pero no es verdad. +Hay rboles en la montaa que tienen 5 mil aos y todava viven. +La madera es slida como roca y es muy duradera. +Entonces al estudiar los anillos de los troncos de la montaa, algunos son de 10 mil aos. +La piedra en s es muy hermosa, esculpida por milenios de crudos inviernos. +Tenamos analistas de anillos de la Universidad de Arizona en la expedicin. +Si tienen una pia a mano, es un buen momento para que la tomen y sientan especialmente su punta. +Es interesante. +Van a descubir por qu se llama pino erizo. Una experiencia sensorial. +Este es Danny Hillis en medio de un bosque de conferas en tierra del Long Now. Tengo que decir que la era del pino erizo se descubri por una teora. +Edmund Schulman en los '50 haba estado estudiando rboles bajo gran estrs en la adversidad y se dio cuenta que l present un artculo en la revista Science llamado "Longevidad de las conferas en la adversidad". +Luego, basado en ese principio, comenz a mirar los distintos rboles en terreno adverso y se dio cuenta que los pinos erizo -- encontr algunos de ms de 4 mil aos en las Montaas Blancas. +La longevidad en la adversidad es un principio de diseo interesante por s mismo. +Bueno, a las minas. Al principio nos pidieron por la propiedad mil millones de dlares en 1998 por 70 hectreas y un par de minas. +El vendedor deca: "Hay mil millones de dlares en berilio en esa montaa". +Le dijimos: "Guau, es genial! Mrelo al revs: qu tal si no hay nada?" +Somos una organizacin sin fines de lucro, nos da la propiedad y obtiene una deduccin impositiva descomunal. +"Slo tiene que demostrarle al gobierno que eso vale mil millones". +Bien, pasaron unos aos y algunas idas y vueltas, y pronto, gracias a Mitch y Jay, pudimos comprar toda la propiedad en 140 mil dlares. +Esta es una de las minas. No tiene berilio. +Se llama Acceso Pole y tiene tungsteno, un poco de tungsteno qued; era ese tipo de mina. +Tiene 2,5 km en lnea recta, derecho al este hacia la sierra, territorio muy interesante, salvo que como vern cuando entremos en un minuto, esperbamos caliza pero haba esquisto. +El esquisto no es una roca del todo apropiada. +La roca buena se auto-sostiene sin soporte adicional. +El esquisto necesita apoyo por eso tiene partes hundidas. +Ese es Ben Roberts, el especialista en murcilagos del parque nacional. +Hay muchas maravillas all dentro, como este hongo raro en alguna de sus vigas derrumbadas. +Bueno, aqu otra mina de la propiedad y se remonta a 1870. +As es como se construy la propiedad como un grupo de reclamos mineros. Era una mina de plata muy productiva. +De hecho, fue la mina ms activa de Nevada, y funcionaba todo el ao. +Imaginen lo que era en invierno a 3000 metros. +Pueden reconocer un par de mineros all. +Est Jeff Bezos a la derecha y Paul Saville a la izquierda, buscando galena, algo de plomo y plata. No encontraron nada. +Ambos conservaron sus jornales. Esta es la ltima mina. +Se llama Acceso Bonanza. Est abajo en un can. +Alexander Rose, a la izquierda, trabaj con un grupo de gente del parque nacional explorando la mina completa. Tiene 1,6 km de profundidad. +All encontraron 4 especies de murcilago. +Casi todas esas minas, por cierto, se conectan bajo la montaa. +En realidad no, pero es algo para pensar. +No se conectan. +Vamos al clima. Las montaas tienen climas muy especiales, +Mucho ms interesantes que el de Monterrey hoy en da. +Y entonces un martes por la maana del pasado junio estbamos all. +Despertamos en la maana y la montaa estaba cubierta de nieve. +Era un da ideal para subir a ver nuestra estacin meteorolgica que, otra vez, gracias a Mitch Kapor estbamos contruyendo all arriba. +Es una escena bastante interesante. +A la izquierda, la dama alegre es Pat Irwin jefa regional del Servicio de Bosques Nacionales y nos dio el permiso temporario para estar all. +Queramos un permiso temporario para el reloj, un permiso temporario de 10 mil aos. +La estacin meteorolgica es bastante interesante. +Kurt Bollacker y Alexander Rose disearon una estacin inalmbrica. +Es solar y enva seales por antena y rebota los rastros de micrometeoritos en la atmsfera a un lugar en Bozeman, Montana, donde se bajan los datos y por telefona fija se envan a San Francisco donde subimos los datos en tiempo real a nuestro sitio. +Ah ven una semana de clima a 2800 mts en Monte Washington. +Vayamos a los accesos. +El caso es que no hay caminos en el Monte Washington, slo unas pocas calles mineras como esta as que uno tiene que abrirse camino. +Pero no hay osos ni robles venenosos ni gente porque el lugar ha estado vaco mucho tiempo. +Se puede caminar das sin encontrar a nadie. +Bien, este es una acceso potencial. +Hay que llegar al Can Lincoln. +Es un mundo maravilloso en s, rodeado de precipicios, es una caminata fcil para pasear por el fondo del can hasta que se llega a esta barrera y surge el problema. +Entonces se puede acceder al Can Lincoln por aproximacin. +Otro acceso posible es el frente occidental de la montaa. +Pueden ver por qu la llamamos Montaa Grande. +Desde donde estn parados a 1800 mts en el valle, es una caminata fcil hasta el pin maduro y el bosque de enebros hasta esa colina en el frente a 2300 mts. +Y se puede seguir hasta los prados y los bosques curvos hasta la base alta del precipicio a 3200 mts. donde hay problemas. +Jeff Bezos nos aconsej, al partir, al fin de la exposicin: "Hagan el reloj inaccesible". +"Cuanto ms difcil sea llegar ms gente lo valorar". +Y vean, esas son paredes verticales de 180 mts. +As, Alexander Rose, quera explorar esta ruta y comenz por aqu, a la izquierda, en su camioneta a 2700 mts. y parti a la montaa. +Cuanto mayor es la elevacin menor es el CI pero crece la parte emotiva algo estupendo para una experiencia mtica quirase o no. +De hecho, Danny Hillis puede estimar la altitud en funcin de la matemtica que no puede pensar. +Yo justo estaba con Alexander en la radio cuando lleg a este punto en la base del precipicio y dijo: "Hay un punto oculto. Creo que puedo llegar". +l es escalador pero, ya saben, es nuestro director ejecutivo. +No lo quiero muerto. S que le van a gustar los precipicios. +Yo le deca: "Ten cuidado, ten cuidado, ten cuidado". +Luego comenz a ascender y lo siguiente que escuch fue: "Estoy a medio camino. Es como subir escaleras. Estoy ascendiendo a 60 grados". +"Es un pasadizo secreto, como de Tolkien". +Y yo segua: "Cuidado, cuidado. Por favor, ten cuidado". +Y luego, lo prximo que escuch fue: "Llegu a la cima. Puede verse toda la creacin desde aqu". +Y se abalanz a la cima de la montaa. +De hecho, all est. Ese es Alexander Rose. +Primer ascenso del flanco occidental del Monte Washington en ascenso solitario. +Este descubrimiento cambi todo lo que sabamos de estos precipicios y de qu hacer con ellos. +Nos dimos cuenta que tenamos que poner nombre al descubrimiento de Alexander. +Qu tal Grieta de Zander? No. +Finalmente decidimos llamarlo Siq de Alexander. +Siq de Zander en honor a... algunos lo habrn visto en Petra hay un can estrecho que conduce a Petra llamado Siq, de ah el nombre. +Y est realmente escondido. No puedo encontrarlo en esta imagen y no estoy seguro que Uds. puedan. +Slo con nieve fresca puede verse el borde all, la nieve lo expone. +Y la gente que trabaja arduamente en la montaa podra verla esta gente pequea de all, a medio camino del precipicio. +Cmo llegaron all? Tengo que hacerlo? +Y as, eso quiz forma parte del dibujo y del laberinto. +Otro ngulo del porch de Danny desde el sur, mirando al norte, a toda la formacin. +Y tienen que saber que el reloj de Danny ser preciso gracias a un rayo de sol que justo al medioda con su pulso de calor configura un disparador solar que blanquea el reloj para hacerlo totalmente preciso. +As, incluso con la desaceleracin de la rotacin terrestre, etc. el reloj continuar funcionando perfectamente. +Aqu estamos mirando desde el sur, hacia el norte. +Esta son tierras del Servicio Forestal. Si suben a la cima del precipicio hay algo de tierras del Long Now en esos rboles. +Y si suben y miran hacia atrs se darn una idea de cmo es la vista desde la cima de la montaa. +Esa es la vista grande. Hay 130 km al horizonte. +En esa zona no crecen rboles, slo pinos erizo y arbustos. +Ese es un lugar diferente. A 3400 mts., un lugar exquisito. +Si vamos para la derecha de la imagen a ver el borde del precipicio tiene 180 mts, cerca de un metro a la izquierda del pie de Kurt Bollacker hay una cada de 180 mts. l se pasea por el Siq de Zander. +Esta es la vista mirando hacia abajo. +Deberamos poner una baranda o algo. +Como pueden ver, del lado oriental es suave. +Y eso no es nieve, as se ve la caliza blanca. +Tambin se ve un musmn. +La manada fue reintroducida desde Wyoming. +Y les est yendo bastante bien, pero tuvieron problemas. +Este es Danny Hillis resolviendo un problema de diseo. +Trata de determinar si la posicin donde est en el Long Now aparecera desde el valle como la cima real de la montaa +porque la cima real est oculta. +Esto es lo que en la infantera solamos llamar blasn militar. +Y resulta que la respuesta es s, que desde el valle parece ser la cima. y podra ser importante. +poco a poco nos dimos cuenta que tenamos tres dominios importantes de diseo. +Uno es la experiencia de la montaa. +Otro es la experiencia en la montaa. +Y el tercero es la experiencia desde la montaa, que est dominada por la vista del valle detrs de Danny y si observan a la derecha 24 km de lado hasta la sierra Schell Creek. +Al frente hay 10 ranchos en la base de la montaa que usan el agua de las montaas. +De hecho, hay pozos de los que brota agua al aire. +Uno de los ranchos se llama Kirkeby y los llevar all un minuto. +Es muy lindo. +Alfalfa y ganado, administrado por Paul y Ronnie Brenham es bastante idlico. Tambin es mucho trabajo. +La mayora de estos ranchos tiene problemas. +Esta es la vista al oeste de la sierra Schell Creek. +Y si vamos a esa lnea de rboles a lo lejos, veremos como sola ser el valle. +Estos enebros de las Rocallosas han estado all miles de aos. +Bueno, miremos nuevamente la montaa. +La experiencia del reloj debera ser profunda pero desde afuera debera ser invisible. +En la base del precipicio hay una gruta +de unos 4 metros pero y si fuera ahuecada desde adentro? +Excabando desde algn lado, desde adentro. +Se podra tener una entrada muy tosca y angosta al principio, gradualmente ms refinada y luego muy exquisita. +Esta piedra puede ser pulida perfectamente. +Podra haber varios pasadizos y cmaras all que finalmente conduzcan al reloj de los 10.000 aos. +No es una mina. Esto sera una evocacin matizada de la estructura bsica de la montaa, y se apreciara tanto desde adentro como desde afuera. +Esta arquitectura no se hace construyendo se hace con lo que cuidadosamente se quita. +Eso es lo que nos ense la montaa. +Mucho de lo asombroso del reloj se lo debe a lo asombroso de la montaa. +Debemos resaltar lo que tiene de espectacular y complementarlo. +No es un reloj en la montaa sino un reloj montaa. +Los aborgenes tewa del sudoeste tienen un dicho sobre qu hacer cuando hay que pensar en el largo plazo. +Dicen: "pin peya obe", bienvenido a la montaa. +Gracias. +Les tengo una historia, una historia que quisiera compartir con ustedes +Es una historia africana. +Es una historia de esperanza, perseverancia y glamour. +Primero fue Hollywood. +Luego vino Bollywood. +Hoy tenemos Nollywood, la tercera industria cinematogrfica del mundo en tamao. +Slo en el 2006, se hicieron casi 2000 pelculas en Nigeria. +Ahora, traten de imaginarse 40 50 pelculas empacadas y distribuidas cada semana en las calles de Lagos, Nigeria, y frica occidental. +Segn algunos estimados el valor de esta industria es de 250 millones de dlares. +Ha creado miles, tal vez decenas de miles, de empleos. +Y sigue creciendo. +Pero tengan en cuenta que este movimiento ha sido desde abajo. +Esto es algo que ocurri sin inversin extranjera, sin ayuda estatal; e incluso, ocurri a pesar de todo tipo de obstculos, en uno de los momentos ms difciles para la economa nigeriana. +La industria tiene 15 aos. +Y, a lo mejor se pregunten ahora, Por qu? Cmo es que un cineasta italiano radicado en Boston se interesa tanto en esta historia? +Entonces, creo que tengo que contarles algunas cosas sobre mi vida personal porque creo que hay una conexin. +Mi abuelo vivi la mayor parte de su vida en Zambia y all est enterrado. +Mi padre tambin vivi la mayor parte de su vida adulta en frica oriental. +Y yo nac en Zambia. +Aunque me fui cuando apenas tena tres aos, senta realmente que frica era una parte importante de mi vida. +Y era realmente el lugar donde aprend a caminar. +Creo que pronunci mis primeras palabras, y mi familia compr su primera casa. +Entonces, cuando volvimos a Italia, y una de las cosas que ms recuerdo, es lo difcil que fue para mi familia poder compartir sus historias. +Pareca como si para nuestros vecinos y amigos, frica era o un lugar extico, una tierra imaginaria que seguramente exista slo en su imaginacin, o el lugar de horror, hambruna. +Entonces, siempre estbamos atrapados en este estereotipo. +Y yo recuerdo este deseo de hablar de frica como un lugar donde vivamos y donde hay gente que vive y hace su vida, y tiene sueos como todos nosotros. +Entonces, cuando le en un peridico en la pgina de negocios la historia de Nollywood, sent de verdad que esta era una oportunidad increble para contar esta historia que contrarrestaba todas estas nociones preconcebidas. +Aqu puedo contar una historia de africanos que hacen pelculas, como yo, y sent de verdad que esta era una inspiracin para m. +Tengo la fortuna de ser un cineasta con residencia en el Centro de Artes de Procesamiento de Imgenes Digitales de la Universidad de Boston. +Y nosotros observamos cmo la tecnologa digital est cambiando, y cmo los cineastas jvenes, independientes pueden hacer pelculas a bajo costo. +Entonces, cuando propuse esta historia, de verdad contaba con todo el apoyo para hacer esta pelcula. +Y no slo tuve el apoyo, sino que contaba con dos maravillosos compaeros de lucha en esta aventura. +Aimee Corrigan, una fotgrafa joven y muy talentosa y Robert Caputo, un amigo y mentor, quien es veterano de la National Geographic, y me dijo: "Sabes, Franco, en los 25 aos que llevo cubriendo historias en frica, dudo que haya encontrado una historia tan llena de esperanza y tan divertida". +Entonces, fuimos a Lagos en octubre de 2005. +Y fuimos a Lagos a reunirnos con Bond Emeruwa, un maravilloso, talentoso director de cine que nos acompaa esta noche. +El objetivo era traerles un retrato de Nollywood, de esta increble industria cinematogrfica, siguiendo a Bond en su misin de hacer una pelcula de accin que trata temas de corrupcin, llamada "Checkpoint". +Corrupcin policial. +Y tuvo noventa das para hacerla. +Pensamos que esta era una buena historia. +Mientras tanto, tuvimos que recorrer Nollywood, y hablamos con muchos cineastas. +Pero, yo no quiero crear demasiadas expectativas. +Quisiera mostrarles seis minutos. +Aqu van seis minutos que ellos realmente prepararon para el pblico de TED. +Hay temas varios en el documental, pero son re-editados y hechos pensando en ustedes, vale? +Entonces, supongo que es un estreno mundial. +Accin. +Puedes grabar una pelcula buena con tan slo 10.000 dlares aqu en Nigeria. +Y haces el rodaje en siete das. +Estamos haciendo cine para las masas. +No estamos haciendo cine para la lite y las personas en sus casas de cristal. +Ellos se pueden dar el lujo de ver "Robocop" o lo que sea. +Pienso que la cinematografa nigeriana, para quienes trabajan en el tema, es una especie de cinematografa de subsistencia -- lo que hacen para poder vivir. +No es la cinematografa de lujo, en la que dices que quieres poner todo el bombo de Hollywood y cuentas con mucho presupuesto. +Aqu haces estas pelculas, se vende, pronto ests de nuevo en la escena para hacer otra pelcula, pues si no haces la prxima pelcula, no vas a comer. +Mientras ofrecemos entretenimiento, debemos ser capaces de educar. +Creo en el poder de los audiovisuales. +Es decir, el 90 por ciento de la poblacin ver cine de Nollywood. +Pienso que es el vehculo ms valioso por el momento para transmitir informacin a travs de un cable dedicado. +Entonces, si ests haciendo una pelcula, sin importar el tema, incluye un mensaje ah. +De todas formas tienes que reportar el incidente. +l necesita atencin mdica adecuada. +Sigo tratando de explicarle a la gente, el tema no es de calidad por ahora -- la calidad viene. +Es decir, existen aquellas pelculas que la gente hace por calidad, pero lo primero que hay que tener en cuenta en esta sociedad es que frica an tiene gente que vive con un dlar diario, y son stas las personas que realmente ven estas pelculas. +Nollywood es una industria maravillosa que acaba de nacer en esta parte del mundo. +Pues nadie crea que Nollywood poda salir de frica. +Pero nuestras pelculas son historias con las que nuestra gente se puede identificar. +Son historias de nuestra gente, para nuestra gente. +Por regla general, estn concentrados en la pantalla siempre que ven la historia. +Suspenso, diversin e intriga. +Es la comedia ms taquillera. +Te reirs a carcajadas. +Hemos tenido tanta fascinacin con pelculas extranjeras. +Las pelculas extranjeras lo son todo. +Pero nosotros podemos hacer algo tambin. +Podemos hacer algo, algo que cuando el mundo lo vea, diga: Guau! Esto es Nigeria. +Slo vaya preso, sargento +No se humille. +Venga. No se escape. Regrese. Regrese. +Ahora puedes caminar por la calle y ver un dolo. +No se trata slo de lo que ves en la pelcula. +Tambin ves la persona en vivo. +Ves como habla. Ves como vive. +l ejerce una muy buena influencia sobre ti, sabes. +No se trata slo de lo que ves en la pelcula. +No es lo que se oye de la prensa occidental. +Nos vemos. Adis. +Accin. +Estaba tan fascinado con esas pelculas de vaqueros. +Pero luego, cuando descubr la situacin de mi pas, en aquel momento haba tanta corrupcin. +Para que un joven de verdad lo logre ac, tiene que pensar en algunas cosas negativas y dems, o algn tipo de vicio. +Y, pues, yo no quera eso. +Y descubr que yo poda ser exitoso en mi vida como actor, sin delinquir, sin engaar a nadie, sin mentir. +Slo yo y el don divino. +Vmonos. +Listo, lleg la hora de la verdad. +Cubra esto. Es suyo. +Vamos. +En pases grandes, cuando ellos hacen cine, tienen todo en su lugar. +Pero ac, improvisamos ciertos elementos, como los disparos. +Como van, aqu, ya, ves el arma all, pero no vers ningn disparo, usamos "knock-out". +Lo que temo es simplemente que [poco claro] estar en mi cara. +Por eso uso suficiente cinta adhesiva. +La cinta adhesiva lo sostendr. +Espera, espera. Slo tenme aqu. +Slo le estoy diciendo que se asegure de ponerlo bien. para que no me afecte la cara -- la explosin. +Pero ella es una profesional. Sabe lo que hace. +Estoy tratando de proteger mi cara tambin. +Esta no ser mi ltima pelcula. +Mira, esto es Nollywood, donde la magia vive. +Ahora ests a punto de ver cmo hacemos nuestras propias pelculas aqu, con o sin ayuda de nadie. +Accin. +Corte. +Franco Sacchi: Tanto por decir, tan poco tiempo. +Tantos temas en esta historia. +No alcanzo a contarles -- hay una cosa que quiero contarles. +Pas varias semanas con todos estos actores, productores, y los obstculos que tienen que afrontar son inimaginables para alguien en Occidente, un cineasta que trabaja en Estados Unidos o en Europa. +Pero siempre con una sonrisa, siempre con un entusiasmo, que es increble. +Werner Herzog, el cineasta alemn dijo: "Necesito hacer pelculas como se necesita el oxgeno". +Y creo que ellos estn respirando. +Los cineastas nigerianos realmente estn haciendo lo que les gusta. +Y, por tanto, es una cosa muy, muy importante para ellos, y para su pblico. +Una mujer me dijo: "Cuando veo una pelcula de Nollywood, puedo descansar, de verdad -- puedo respirar mejor". +Tambin hay otra cosa muy importante que espero encuentre resonancia entre este pblico. +Es la tecnologa, cosa que de verdad me interesa y realmente pienso que la edicin digital no-lineal ha reducido drsticamente el costo el costo ahora es una fraccin de lo que era. +Cmaras increbles cuestan menos de 5.000 dlares. +Y esto ha desatado una energa tremenda. +Y saben qu? +No tuvimos que decrselo a los cineastas nigerianos. +Ellos entendieron y adoptaron la tecnologa la aprovecharon y son exitosos. +Espero que el fenmeno de Nollywood vaya en doble va. +Espero que sirva de inspiracin para que otras naciones africanas adopten la tecnologa, miren el modelo nigeriano, hagan su cine, generen empleo, produzcan una narrativa para la poblacin, algo que identificar, algo positivo, algo que de verdad sea un alivio psicolgico y sea parte de la cultura. +Pero, de verdad, creo que este es un fenmeno que nos puede inspirar. +Realmente creo que va en ambos sentidos. +Cineastas, amigos mos, ven Nollywood y dicen: "Guau! Ellos estn haciendo lo que nosotros realmente queremos hacer, hacer plata y vivir de este trabajo". +Entonces, realmente creo que esto es una leccin que nosotros estamos aprendiendo de ellos. +Y hay una cosa, un pequeo reto que tengo para ustedes, y debe hacernos meditar sobre la importancia de contar historias. +Y creo que esto es realmente el tema de esta sesin. +Traten de imaginarse un mundo en el cual el nico objetivo es comida y techo, pero sin historias. +Sin cuentos alrededor de una fogata. +Sin leyendas, sin cuentos de hadas. +Nada. +Sin novelas. +Difcil, cierto? No tendra sentido. +Entonces, esto es lo que realmente pienso. +Creo que la clave para una sociedad sana es una comunidad fuerte de "cuenta cuentos", y pienso que los cineastas nigerianos de verdad lo han demostrado. +Yo quisiera que ustedes oyeran sus voces. +Slo unos pocos momentos. +No es una secuencia sumada, slo algunas voces de Nollywood. +Video: Nollywood es lo mejor que les puede pasar. +Si hay una industria que pone una sonrisa en las caras de la gente, esa es Nollywood. +Creo que muy pronto tendremos no solamente mejores pelculas, tendremos la pelcula nigeriana original. +An son los temas bsicos. +Amor, accin. +Pero los estamos relatando a nuestra propia manera, nuestra propia manera nigeriana, una manera africana. +Tenemos diversas culturas, diversas culturas, hay tantas, que en nuestras vidas, no veo cmo podramos agotar las historias que tenemos. +FS: Mi trabajo termina aqu, y los cineastas de Nollywood ahora tienen que ponerse a trabajar de verdad. +Y de verdad espero que haya muchas, muchas colaboraciones, en las que nos enseemos cosas mutuamente. +Y realmente espero que esto suceda. +Muchas gracias. +Chris Anderson: Espera. Tengo dos preguntas. +Franco, t la describes como la tercera industria cinematogrfica del mundo en tamao. +A qu traduce esto en cuanto al nmero real de pelculas? +FS: Ah, s. Creo que lo mencion brevemente -- llega a casi 2000 pelculas. +Hay datos cientficos al respecto. +CA: 2000 pelculas por ao? +2000 pelculas por ao. 2005 6. La junta de censura ha censurado ya 1600 pelculas +y sabemos que hay ms. +Por lo tanto, es seguro decir que hay 2000 pelculas. +Imagnate 45 pelculas a la semana. +Hay retos. Hay retos. +Hay exceso de pelculas, hay que mejorar la calidad; tienen que subir al siguiente nivel, pero soy optimista. +CA: Y estas pelculas no se exhiben principalmente en cines? +FS: Ah s, por supuesto. Esto es muy importante. +De pronto para que puedas imaginarlo, estas pelculas son distribuidas directamente en mercados. +Son compradas en tiendas de video. +Pueden ser alquiladas por muy poco dinero. +CA: En qu formato? +FS: Ah, el formato -- gracias por la pregunta. S, son VCDs. +Es un CD; es un poco ms comprimida la imagen. +Ellos comenzaron con VHS. +Ciertamente no esperaron la tecnologa de punta. +Comenzaron en el '92, '94. +Hay 57 millones de videograbadoras en Nigeria, que reproducen VHS y estos VCDs. +Es bsicamente un CD. Es un disco compacto. +CA: En las calles, se consiguen pelculas? +FS: Puedes estar en un atasco en Lagos y puedes comprar una pelcula o algunos bananos o agua. S. +Y tengo que decir, que esto realmente demuestra que contar historias, es materia prima; es un producto principal. +No hay vida sin historias. +CA: Franco, muchas gracias. +Pens que considerara cambiar su perspectiva sobre el mundo un poquito, y les mostrara algunos de los diseos que tenemos en la naturaleza. +As que, tengo mi primera diapositiva para hablar acerca del nacimiento del universo y lo que denomino la investigacin de la escena csmica , eso es, mirando las reliquias de la creacin e infiriendo lo que ocurri en el principio, y luego hacerle seguimiento e intentar entenderlo. +Y as, una de las preguntas que les hago es, cuando miran a su alrededor, qu es lo que ven? +Bueno, ustedes ven este espacio que ha sido creado por diseadores y por el trabajo de las personas, pero lo que realmente ven es mucho material que ya estaba aqu, siendo transformado de cierta manera. +Entonces la pregunta es: Cmo es que este material lleg aqu? +Cmo lleg a la forma que tena antes de ser transformado, etc.? +Es una pregunta sobre la continuidad. +As que una de las cosas que yo miro es, cmo se inici y form el universo? +Cul fue el proceso entero en la creacin y evolucin del universo para llegar al punto donde tenemos esta clase de materiales? +As que esa es ms o menos la parte, y djenme continuar y mostrarles el Campo Ultra Profundo de Hubble. +Si ustedes miran esta foto, lo que vern es mucha oscuridad con algunos objetos claros. +Cuatro de estos objetos son estrellas, y los pueden ver ah, pequeos cruces. +Esta es una estrella, esta es una estrella, todo lo dems es una galaxia, bien? +As que hay unas cuantas miles de galaxias que ustedes pueden ver con sus ojos aqu. +Pero hay muchas galaxias ms, y algunas estn cerca, y son ms o menos del color del Sol, y algunas estn ms lejos y son un poco mas azules, y as sucesivamente. +Pero una de las preguntas es, y debera serla para ustedes, Cmo es que hay tantas galaxias? +Porque esto representa una fraccin muy diminuta del cielo. +Esto es slo 1,000 galaxias. +Pensamos que hay en el orden de (visible al Telescopio Espacial Hubble, si se tuviese el tiempo para escanear), alrededor de 100 millardos de galaxias. Cierto? +Es un nmero muy grande de galaxias. +Y eso es ms o menos la cantidad de estrellas en nuestra galaxia. +Pero cuando miran algunas de estas regiones como esta, vern ms galaxias que estrellas, lo que es una interrogante. +As que la pregunta que debe venirles en mente es, qu clase de diseo, si, qu clase de proceso creativo y qu clase de diseo produjo el mundo as? +Y luego les voy a decir que de hecho es mucho ms complicado. +Vamos a intentar hacerle seguimiento. +Tenemos una herramienta que de hecho nos ayuda en este estudio, y es el hecho que el universo es tan increblemente grande que es una mquina del tiempo, en cierto sentido. +Dibujamos este conjunto de esferas anidadas cortadas como lo ven. +Ponemos la Tierra en el centro de las esferas anidadas, solo porque ah es donde estamos haciendo las observaciones. +Y la luna esta est a solo dos segundos, as que si toman una foto de la luna Utilizando la luz normal, esa es la luna hace dos segundos, y que importa. +Dos segundos es como el presente. +El Sol esta a hace ocho minutos. Eso no es gran cosa, cierto, a menos que vengan erupciones solares hacia ti, entonces te querrs quitar. +A uno le gustara tener un pequeo aviso de precaucin anticipado. +Pero te vas a Jpiter y est a 40 minutos. Eso es un problema. +Uno escucha acerca de Marte, es un problema comunicarse a Marte Porque le toma a la luz demasiado tiempo para ir all. +Pero si miras al grupo ms cercano de estrellas, a las 40 o 50 estrellas ms cercanas, son como 10 aos. +As que si tomas una foto de lo que est ocurriendo, eso ocurri hace 10 aos. +Pero si vas y miras al centro de la galaxia, eso ocurri hace miles de aos. +Si miras hacia Andrmeda, que es la galaxia ms cercana, eso es hace dos millones de aos. +Si un tomar una foto de la tierra hace dos millones de aos, no habra ninguna evidencia de los humanos, porque pensamos que aun no haban humanos. +Es decir, esto tan solo te da una idea de la escala. +Con el telescopio Hubble estamos mirando Cientos de millones de aos a mil millones de aos. +Y esa es ms o menos el tipo de secuencia, y entonces tengo una impresin mas artstica de esto. +Ah est la galaxia en el medio, la cual es la Va Lctea, y alrededor estn, t sabes, las galaxias cercanas al Hubble, y hay una esfera que marca los diferentes tiempos. +Y detrs estn algunas galaxias ms cercanas. +Ven la imagen completa? +El principio del tiempo es algo curioso, est en la parte de afuera cierto? +Y hay una parte del universo que no podemos ver Porque es tan densa y tan caliente, que la luz no puede escapar. +Es como el centro del Sol que no se puede ver, Tienes que utilizar otras tcnicas para saber que est ocurriendo dentro del Sol. +Pero si puede ver el borde del Sol, Y el universo se vuelve as, y ustedes lo pueden ver. +Y luego tienes este cierto tipo de rea modelo alrededor de la parte exterior, y esa es la radiacin que procede del Big bang, la cual es increblemente uniforme. +El universo es una esfera casi perfecta, Pero hay estas variaciones muy diminutas, que mostramos aqu con gran exageracin. +Y a partir de ellas en la secuencia del tiempo vamos a ir desde estas pequeas variaciones a estas galaxias irregulares y la primeras estrellas a estas galaxias ms avanzadas, y eventualmente al sistema solar, y as sucesivamente. +As que es un gran trabajo de diseo, pero vamos a dar una ojeada a cmo es que las cosas estn pasando. +Entonces la manera que estas mediciones se realizaron, ha habido un conjunto de satlites, y esto es lo que ustedes pueden ver. +Entonces estaba el satlite COBE, el cual fue lanzado en 1989, y descubrimos estas variaciones. +Y luego en el 2000, el satlite MAP fue lanzado, el WMAP, y tom fotos un poco mejores +Y ms tarde este ao, esta es la chvere versin moderna, el que de hecho tiene algunas hermosas caractersticas de diseo, y ustedes deben ver, el satlite Planck ser lanzado, y va a hacer mapas de muy alta resolucin. +Y esa ser la secuencia de entender el mismo inicio del universo. +Y lo que vimos fue, vimos estas variaciones, y luego nos dijeron los secretos, de ambos la estructura del espacio-tiempo, y del contenido del universo, y sobre como el universo inicio en sus movimientos originales. +As que tenemos esta foto, la cual es una foto realmente espectacular, y regresare al inicio, donde vamos a tener algn proceso misterioso que arranca el universo en el inicio. +Y vamos a travs de un periodo de expansin acelerada, y el universo se expande y se enfra hasta el punto donde se vuelve transparente, luego a las Eras Oscuras, y luego las primeras estrellas se prenden, y evolucionan en galaxias, y luego llegan a las galaxias ms extensas. +Y alrededor de este periodo es cuando nuestro sistema solar empieza a formarse. +Y est madurando hasta el tiempo presente. +Y hay algunas cosas espectaculares. +Y esta parte como de una papelera, eso es para representar lo que la estructura misma del espacio-tiempo est haciendo durante este periodo +Y es un modelo bastante extrao, cierto? +Qu clase de evidencia tenemos para eso? +Entonces djenme mostrarles algunos de los patrones de la naturaleza que son resultado de esto. +Siempre pienso que el espacio-tiempo es la verdadera substancia del espacio, y las galaxias y las estrellas son tan solo como la espuma en el ocano. +Es un marcador de donde las olas interesantes estn y lo que sea que ocurri. +As que aqu est el estudio Sloan Digital Sky mostrando la ubicacin de un milln de galaxias. +Entonces hay un punto por cada galaxia. +Ellos salen y apuntan el telescopio al cielo, toman una foto, Identifican que son estrellas y las botan, miran a las galaxias, Calculan que tan lejos estn, y las diagraman. +y simplemente puesto radialmente van hacia all en esa direccin. +Y ustedes ven estas estructuras, a esto lo llamamos el Gran Muro, pero hay vacios y como esas cosas, y ms o menos se desvanecen porque el telescopio no es lo suficientemente sensible para hacerlo. +Ahora les voy a mostrar esto en 3D. +Lo que ocurre es, que tomas fotos mientras que la tierra rota, obtienes un abanico a lo largo del cielo. +Hay algunos lugares donde no puedes mirar por culpa nuestra propia galaxia, o porque no hay telescopios disponibles para hacerlo. +Entonces la siguiente foto les muestra la versin tridimensional de esto rotando. +Si ven los barridos en forma de abanico hechos a lo largo del cielo? +Recuerden que en cada punto hay una galaxia, y ustedes ven las galaxias, Cierto, ms o menos en nuestro barrio, y ms o menos se ve la estructura. +Y ven esta cosa que llamamos el Gran Muro, y ven la estructura complicada, y ven los vacios. +Hay lugares donde no hay galaxias y hay lugares donde hay miles de galaxias amontonadas, cierto. +As que hay un patrn interesante, pero no tenemos informacin suficiente para ver el patrn. +Solo tenemos un milln de galaxias, cierto? +As que estamos manteniendo, cierto, un milln de pelotas en el aire pero, que est pasando? +Hay otro estudio muy similar a esto, llamado Estudio de Galaxia Redshift, Campo de Vista de Dos Grados (Two-degree Field of View galaxy RedShift Survey). +Ahora vamos a volar a travs de el a una velocidad de un milln de WARP. +Y cada vez que hay una galaxia, en su ubicacin hay una galaxia, y si sabemos algo de la galaxia, que de hecho si sabemos, porque hay una medicin de redshift y todo, se pone el tipo de galaxia y el color, as que esta es la representacin real. +Y cuando se est en medio de las galaxias Es difcil ver el patrn; es como estar en medio de la vida. +Es difcil ver el patrn en medio del pblico, es difcil ver el patrn de esto. +Entonces vamos a salir, girar y ver esto nuevamente. +Y ustedes vern primero, la estructura del estudio, y luego empezaran a ver la estructura de las galaxias que vemos all afuera. +Entonces nuevamente, se puede ver la extensin de este Gran Muro de galaxias que aparece aqu. +Pero se pueden ver estos vacios, pueden ver la complicada estructura, y ustedes dicen, bueno, como es que esto ocurri? +Supongan que son el diseador csmico. +Como van a poner las galaxias all afuera en un patrn as? +No solo tirndolas aleatoriamente. +Hay un proceso ms complicado que est ocurriendo aqu. +Como vas a terminar haciendo eso? +Y entonces ahora vamos a ponernos serios. +Es decir, seriamente tenemos que jugar a ser Dios, no slo cambiar la vida de las personas, sino tambin hacer el universo, cierto. +Entonces si esa es su responsabilidad, cmo va usted a hacer eso? +Cul es la clase de tcnica? +Qu clase de cosa va usted a hacer? +Entonces les voy a mostrar los resultados de una simulacin de muy grande escala de cmo pensamos que pudiera ser el universo, utilizando esencialmente, algunos de los principios de juego y algunos de los principios de diseo que, tu sabes, los humanos han trabajado tan fuerte para obtener, pero que aparentemente la naturaleza sabia hacer en el principio. +Y esto consiste en, iniciar con unos ingredientes muy sencillos y unas reglas simples, pero se tienen que tener suficientes ingredientes para complicarlo. +Y luego le aades algo de aleatoriedad, algunas fluctuaciones y algo de aleatoriedad, y notas una cantidad de diferentes presentaciones. +Entonces lo que voy a hacer es mostrarles la distribucin de materia como una funcin de escalas. +Vamos a acercarnos, pero esto es un grafico de lo que es. +Y tuvimos que hacer una cosa ms para que el universo saliera bien. +Se llama materia oscura. +Esta materia no interactua con la luz de la manera normal que la materia ordinaria lo hace, de la manera como la luz brilla en mi o en la tarima. +Es transparente a la luz, pero para que puedan verla, vamos a hacerla blanca, bueno? +Entonces la cosa que est en esta imagen que es blanca, esa es la materia oscura. +Se debera llamar materia invisible, pero la materia oscura la hemos hecho visible. +Y la cosa que est en color amarillo, esa es la materia convencional que se ha convertido en estrellas y galaxias. +Entonces les mostrare la prxima pelcula. +Entonces esto, vamos a acercarnos. +Noten este patrn y presten atencin a este patrn. +Vamos a acercarnos ms y acercarnos ms. +Y van a ver que hay todos estos filamentes y estructuras y vacios. +Y cuando un nmero de filamentos se unen en un nudo, eso forma un super grupo de galaxias. +Esta a la cual nos estamos acercando tiene ms o menos entre 100,000 y un milln de galaxias en esa regin pequea. +Entonces nosotros vivimos en la mitad de la nada. +No vivimos en el centro del sistema solar, no vivimos en el centro de la galaxia y nuestra galaxia no est en el centro de un grupo de galaxias. +Entonces nos acercamos, +Esta es una regin que probablemente tiene ms de 100,000, en el orden de un milln de galaxias en esta regin. +Vamos a seguir acercndonos, bueno. +Y se me olvido decirles la escala. +Un Parsec es 3.26 aos luz +Entonces un gigaparsec son tres mil millones de aos luz, esa es la escala. +Entonces le toma a la luz tres mil millones de aos viajar esa distancia. +Ahora tenemos una distancia de manera que de aqu a aqu +Es la distancia entre nosotros y Andrmeda, bueno. +Estas pequeas manchas que estn viendo aqu son galaxias. +Ahora vamos a alejarnos, Y pueden ver esta estructura, que, Cuando nos alejamos mucho, se ve muy regular, Pero se compone de muchas variaciones irregulares. +Entonces, son bloques sencillos de construccin. +Hay un fluido sencillo para iniciar. +Tiene materia oscura y materia ordinaria, tiene fotones y tiene neutrinos, los cuales no tienen mucho rol en la parte posterior del universo. +Y es un fluido simple y luego, a travs del tiempo se desarrolla en esta estructura complicada. +Y entonces cuando vieron esta imagen la primera vez, no significaba mucho para ustedes. +Aqu estn mirando a travs de un uno por ciento del volumen del universo visible y estn viendo miles de millones de galaxias, cierto, y nodos, pero se dan cuenta que ni siquiera son la estructura principal. +Hay un marco de trabajo, el cual es la materia oscura, la materia invisible, eso est all afuera, de hecho eso es lo que lo mantiene todo unido. +Entonces volemos a travs de ello, y pueden ver lo mucho ms complicado que es cuando estas en el medio de algo de descifrarlo. +Entonces aqu est el resultado final. +Ven un filamento, se ve que la luz es la materia invisible, y lo amarillo son las estrellas o galaxias que aparecen. +Y vamos a volar alrededor, y alrededor, y ocasionalmente vern que unos cuantos filamentos se interceptan, y se obtiene un nmero grande de galaxias. +Y luego vamos a volar a donde hay un grupo de galaxias muy grande, y pueden ver como es. +Y entonces desde adentro, no se ve muy complicado cierto? +Solo es cuando lo miras a una escala muy grande, y lo exploras y as sucesivamente, cuando te das cuenta que es, una clase de diseo muy intrincado y complicado, cierto? +Y ha crecido de cierta manera. +Entonces la pregunta es, que tan difcil seria armar esto, cierto? +Que tan grande tendra que ser el equipo de contratistas para armar este universo, si? +Esa es la cuestin, cierto? +Entonces aqu estamos. +Ven como el filamento, ven como varios filamentos se unen, por lo tanto creando este sper grupo de galaxias. +Y hay que entender, que esta no es la manera como realmente se vera si uno, primero que todo pudiera viajar as de rpido, todo estara distorcionado, pero esto es utilizando cosas de artes grficas de presentacin sencillas. +Esto es la manera cmo, si usted se tomara miles de millones de aos para darle la vuelta, se pudiera ver para usted. Bueno? +Y tambin si pudiera ver la materia invisible. +Entonces la idea es, cierto, como uno armara el universo en una manera muy sencilla? +Vamos a empezar a darnos cuenta que todo el universo visible, todo lo que podemos ver en toda direccin con el telescopio espacial Hubble adems de otros instrumentos, estaba antes en una regin que era ms pequea que un tomo. +Empez con pequesimas fluctuaciones cunticas, pero expandindose a una taza tremenda. +Y esas fluctuaciones se estiraron a tamaos astronmicos, y esas fluctuaciones eventualmente son las cosas que vemos en el fondo de microondas csmico. +Y luego necesitbamos alguna manera de convertir esas fluctuaciones en galaxias y grupos de galaxias y hacer que este tipo de estructuras continen- +Entonces voy a mostrarles una simulacin ms pequeas. +Esta simulacin se corri en 1,000 procesadores por un mes tan solo para hacer esta pequea visible. +Entonces les voy a mostrar una que se puede correr en un computador de escritorio en dos das, en la siguiente imagen. +Entonces empieza con fluctuaciones chiquitas cuando el universo estaba en este punto, ahora cuatro veces ms pequeo, y as sucesivamente. +Y se empiezan a ver estas redes, a formarse esta red csmica de estructura. +Y esta es una sencilla, porque no tiene materia ordinaria, slo tiene materia oscura en ella. +Y pueden ver como la materia oscura se agruma, y la materia ordinaria solo la sigue. +Entonces ah est. +En el principio es muy uniforme. +Las fluctuaciones son una parte en 100,000. +Hay algunos picos que son una parte en 10,000, y luego por miles de millones de aos, la gravedad simplemente tira hacia dentro. +Esto es luz sobre densidad, tira el material alrededor hacia dentro. +Eso jala ms y ms material . +Pero las distancias en el universo son tan grandes Y las escalas de tiempo son tan grandes que toma un gran tiempo para que esto se forme. +Y se sigue formando hasta que el universo es ms o menos la mitad del tamao que tiene ahora, en trminos de su expansin. +Y en ese punto, el universo misteriosamente empieza a acelerar su expansin y detiene la formacin de la estructura de escala ms grande. +Entonces slo estamos viendo la estructura de mayor escala que podemos ver, y luego solo las cosas que ya se han empezado a formar van a formase, y entonces desde ah va continuar ocurriendo. +Entonces somos capaces de hacer la simulacin, pero esto es dos das en un pc de escritorio. +Necesitamos, sabes, 30 dias en 1,000 procesadores para hacer la clase de simulacin que les mostr anteriormente. +Entonces tenemos un modelo, y podemos calcularlo, y lo podemos usar para hacer estos diseos de cmo pensamos que es el universo. +Y ese diseo est ms o menos mucho ms all de lo que originalmente imaginamos que era. +Entonces esto es con lo que iniciamos hace 15 aos, con el Explorador del Fondo Cosmico, hizo el mapa en la superior derecha, el cual bsicamente nos mostr que haban fluctuaciones de gran escala, y de hecho fluctuaciones en varias escalas. Pueden ms o menos verlo. +Desde entonces hemos tenido el WMAP, el cual nos da una resolucin angular mayor. +Vemos la misma estructura de gran escala, pero vemos estructura adicional de pequea escala. +Y en la parte inferior derecha est, si el satlite se hubiera volteado y mapeado la tierra, la clase de mapa que hubisemos obtenido de la Tierra. +Pueden ver, bueno, pueden, sealar todos los continentes, pero eso es todo. +Peo lo que esperamos cuando lleguemos al Planck, tendremos la resolucin aproximadamente a la resolucin que ven aqu de la Tierra, donde realmente pueden ver el patrn complicado que existe en la Tierra. +Y tambin pueden notar, por los bordes agudos y la manera que las cosas encajan juntas, hay algunos procesos no lineales. +La geologa tiene estos efectos, que es mover las placas, etc. +Pueden ver eso tan solo con el mapa. +En nuestros mapas queremos llegar al punto del universo temprano podemos ver si hay algn efectos no lineales que estn empezando a mover, modificar y nos estn dando una pista de sobre como el espacio-tiempo fue creado en los momentos inciales. +Entonces ah es donde estamos hoy, y eso es lo que les quera dar a probar. +Darles una perspectiva diferente de como el diseo y todo lo dems se ve. +Gracias. +Que tecnologa realmente podemos aplicar para reducir la pobreza mundial? +Y lo que aprend era bastante sorprendente. +Hemos empezado a estudiar cosas como las tasas de mortalidad en el siglo 20. y como mejoraron, y aparecieron unos resultados simples. +Diras que probablemente los antibiticos impactaron ms que la agua potable, pero realmente es lo contrario. +Entonces las cosas realmente simples -- productos tecnolgicos listos-para-usar que fcilmente encontraramos en la red informtico de antes-- claramente hara una gran diferencia a ese problema. +Pero igualmente, despus de considerar tecnologas ms poderosos como nanotecnologa, la ingeniera gentica, y otros tipos de tecnologas digitales emergentes, me preocup la posibilidad de sus abusos. +Si lo piensas bien, en la historia, hace mucho, mucho tiempo ya dimos con el problema de un individuo abusar de otro. +Entonces, hemos desarrollado una solucin -- Los Diez Mandamientos: No matars. +Este tipo de solucin es de uno a uno. +Hemos organizado en ciudades. ramos mucha gente. +Y para prevenir la masa de tiranizar a uno, hemos desarrollado conceptos como la libertad del individuo. +Y luego, para tratar con grupos grandes, digamos a nivel nacional-estatal para prevenir la agresin mutualmente, o unos series de conflictos, finalmente hemos llegado a un acuerdo internacional improvisado para ms o menos guardar la paz. +Pero ahora tenemos una situacin nueva, lo que la gente clasifica como una situacin asimtrica, donde la tecnologa es tan poderoso que se extiende ms all que el estado-nacin. +No son los estados-naciones que tienen el posible acceso a la destruccin masiva, si no los individuos. +Y esto se debe a que estas tecnologas nuevas suelan ser digitales. +Hemos visto las secuencias genticas. +Uno puede bajar las secuencias genticas de agentes patgenos del Internet si uno quiere, y alguien recientemente -- lo vi en una revista de ciencias -- pues digo que la gripe de 1918 era demasiada peligrosa para enviar por mensajera. +Si la gente lo quiere usar en sus laboratorios para la investigacin, solo lo tienes que reconstruir tu mismo, porque puede ser que no funcione por mensajera. +Entonces, no se puede negar que esto es posible. +Los individuos en grupos pequeos que pueden acceder estos tipos de tecnologas auto-duplicantes, tanto biolgicos como otros, claramente son un peligro en nuestro mundo. +Y el peligro est en que pueden causar una pandemia. +Y realmente no tenemos experiencia con pandemias, y tampoco somos muy buenos en actuar como una sociedad con las cosas en que no tenemos experiencia directa o instintiva. +Entonces, no es nuestra naturaleza anticiparse. +Y en este caso, amontonar aun ms tecnologa no resuelve el problema, porque solo otorga ms poder a la gente. +Entonces la solucin tiene que ser, tal como lo imaginaron personas como Russell y Einstein y otros a principios del siglo 20, yo creo, que la solucin tena que estar no solo en la cabeza pero tambin en el corazn. +Ya sabes, la poltica pblica y el progreso tico. +El trato que nos trae la civilizacin es un trato de no usar el poder. +Nosotros obtenemos nuestros derechos de la sociedad que nos protege de otros no por todas las vas posibles pero mayormente haciendo solo lo que es legal. +Y entonces, para limitar el peligro de estas cosas nuevas, tenemos que limitar la capacidad de los individuos acceder al poder epidmico. +Tambin necesitamos tener una defensa sensible, porque ninguna limitacin va prevenir a un loco de hacer algo. +Y lo preocupante es que es mucho ms fcil hacer algo malo que defender contra todas las cosas malas posibles, entonces la ofensiva realmente tiene una ventaja asimtrica. +Este es el tipo de pensamiento que se me ocurri en el 1999 y el 2000, y mis amigos me dijeron que me estaba deprimiendo, y que estaban preocupados por mi. +Luego me contrataron para escribir un libro sobre ms ideas pesimistas como estos y me mud a un hotel en Nueva York con una habitacin llena de libros sobre la plaga, y bombas nucleares explotando en Nueva York donde yo estara en el medio y lo dems. +Yo estuve all el 11 de septiembre, y estuve en las calles con todo el mundo, +y fue todo una experiencia estar all. +Me levant la maana siguiente para salir de la ciudad, y todos los camiones sanitarios estaban estacionados en la calle Houston listos para bajar y llevarse los escombros. +Camin por el medio, hasta la estacin de tren, y todo al sur de la calle 14 estaba cerrado. +Era una experiencia interesante, pero supongo que no fue realmente una sorpresa para alguien que tena su habitacin lleno de estos libros. +Siempre fue una sorpresa que eso paso all y en aquel momento, pero no fue sorprendente que sucediera. +Despus todo el mundo comenz a escribir sobre esto. +Miles de personas comenzaron a escribir sobre esto. +Finalmente abandon el libro y luego me llam Chris para hablar en la conferencia. Realmente ya no hablo sobre esto porque ya hay suficientes cosas frustrantes y deprimentes que estn pasando. +Pero yo acept a venir y contar unas cosas sobre esto. +Y yo dira que no podemos abandonar nuestra base de leyes para luchar contra esta amenaza asimtrica, que es lo que esta sucediendo debido a la gente que esta en el poder, porque eso sera rechazar a lo que nos hace ser una civilizacin. +No podemos luchar contra la amenaza en la manera tonta que estamos haciendo, porque un acto de coste millonario causa dao de miles de millones y en consecuencia causa una respuesta billonaria que en gran parte resultara ineficaz y casi seguro que hara el problema peor an. +Entonces, no podemos luchar contra esto a un ratio de coste a beneficio de un milln a uno. +Despus de dejar el libro tuve el gran honor de poder unirme con Kleiner Perkins hace un ao para destinar capital de riesgo a la innovacin y intentar encontrar unas innovacines que hara frente a lo que yo consider como algunos problemas grandes. +El tipo de cosa donde un factor de diez hara una diferencia en el resultado con un factor de mil. +Me asombr en el ltimo ao con la alta calidad y entusiasmo de las innovaciones que han pasado por mi despacho. +Es abrumador a veces. Estoy muy agradecido a Google y a Wikipedia por ayudarme a entender por lo menos un poco de lo que habla la gente que entra por la puerta. +Quisiera compartir con ustedes tres reas que concretamente me entusiasman y que se pueden relacionar a los problemas de que mencionaba el articulo de 'Wired.' +La primera se trata del tema de la educacin, y que tiene que ver con lo que hablaba Nicholas sobre el ordenador de cien dlares. +Y es decir que queda mucho margen restante en la ley de Moore. +Los transistores ms avanzados de hoy estn a 65 nanmetros, y yo he tenido el gusto de invertir en empresas que me otorgan la confianza de que ampliaremos la ley de Moore hasta la escala de unos diez nanmetros ms o menos. +Ahora imaginemos lo que hara ese ordenador de cien dlares en al ao 2020 como una herramienta para la educacin. +Yo creo que el reto para nosotros -- y estoy seguro de que eso ocurrir --, el reto es desarrollaremos el tipo de herramienta educacional y cosas con la red que nos permitira aprovecharnos de esa herramienta? +Yo argumentara que hoy tenemos ordenadores increblemente poderosos pero que no tenemos aplicaciones buenas para ellos. +y solo en retrospectiva, despus de que tengamos mejores aplicaciones y lo llevas a operar en una maquina de diez aos, diras Caramba, la maquina era tan rpida? +Me acuerdo cuando cogieron el interfaz del Apple Mac y lo pusieron en el Apple II. +El Apple II era perfectamente capaz de operar ese tipo de interfaz, solo que no sabamos como hacerlo en aquel tiempo. +Dado lo que sabemos y que debemos pensar -- gracias a que la ley de Moore ha sido un constante, quiero decir que ha sido un progreso muy previsible en los ltimos 40 aos o ms. +Podemos saber como los ordenadores sern en el ao 2020. +Es maravilloso tener iniciativas que digan vamos a crear una educacin y a educar a la gente en el mundo, porque eso es una gran fuerza por la paz. +Y podemos dar a todos en el mundo un ordenador de cien dlares o de 10 dlares en los prximos 15 aos. +El segundo tema en que me enfoco es el problema ambiental porque eso va claramente poner mucha presin en este mundo. +Vamos escuchar mucho ms sobre esto de Al Gore prximamente. +Lo que nosotros vemos que sigue la tendencia de la ley de Moore para impulsar una mejora en nuestra habilidad para afrontar el problema ambiental son los nuevos recursos. +Tenemos un reto porque la poblacin urbana est aumentando de dos a seis mil millones en este sigo durante un periodo corto. La gente esta trasladndose para las ciudades. +Todos ellos necesitan agua potable, necesitan energa, necesitan trasportacin, y queremos que desarrollen de una manera renovable. +Somos razonablemente eficientes en la industria +Hemos mejorado en energa y la eficiencia de recursos, pero el sector de los consumidores, especialmente en Amrica, es muy ineficiente. +Estos nuevos materiales nos traen innovaciones tan increbles que hay una esperanza fuerte de que estas cosas sean rentables para poder traerlos al mercado. +Y quiero darles un ejemplo especfico de un material nuevo que fue descubierto hace 15 aos. +Si miramos a los nanotubos de carbono, lijima los descubri en el ao 1991, tienen unas propiedades increbles. +Y esto es el tipo de cosa que vamos a descubrir cuando empecemos a desarrollar a la escala nano. +Su fortaleza: es casi el material mas fuerte y el mas tenso que conocemos. +Es muy, muy rgido. Se estira muy, muy poco. +En dos dimensiones, si por ejemplo haces una tela de el, sera 30 veces ms resistente que el Kevlar. +Y si haces una estructura tres dimensional, como la buckyesfera, tiene todo tipo de propiedades increbles. +Si disparas una partcula y le haces un agujero, se reparan ellos mismos; hacen 'zip' y reparan el agujero en femtosegundos, lo que es ... pues, muy rpido. +Si le brillas una luz producen electricidad. +Por cierto, si los alumbras con una camera prenden fuego. +Si les pones electricidad, emiten luz. +Si pasas corriente a travs de ellos puedes transmitir 1.000 veces ms corriente que a travs de un trozo de metal. +Puedes producir semiconductores de ambos tipos 'p' y 'n', lo que quiere decir que puedes hacer transistores de ellos. +Conducen calor a travs su longitud pero no a travs -- bueno, no tienen anchura, pero no en la otra direccin si los amontonas; eso es otra propiedad de la fibra de carbn tambin. +Si pones partculas en ellos y se disparan por la punta son como aceleradores lineales o emisora de electrones en miniatura. +El interior de los nanotubos es tan pequeo -- los ms pequeos son de 0.7 nanmetros -- que es bsicamente un mundo quantum. +El interior de un nanotubo es un sitio extrao. +Empezamos a ver planes de negocios, y ya hemos visto algunos, que contienen el tipo de cosas de que Lisa Randall habla. +He visto un plan de negocio en que yo estuve intentando aprender ms sobre la cadenas csmicas de Witten para intentar comprender el fenmeno de que se trataba con este nano-material propuesto. +Dentro de un nanotubo, estamos realmente al limite aqu. +Lo que vemos con estos materiales nuevos y otros es que podemos hacer cosas con propiedades diferentes -- ms ligeros, ms resistentes -- y aplicar estos materiales nuevos a los problemas ambientales. +Materiales nuevos que puedan producir agua, materiales nuevos que puedan mejorar la funcin de las clulas de combustible, materiales nuevos que catalizan reacciones qumicas, para reducir la contaminacin por ejemplo. +Etanol -- maneras nuevas de producir etanol. +Maneras nuevas de producir transporte elctrico. +El sueo verde por completo -- porque puede ser rentable. +Hemos dedicado -- acabamos de generar un fondo nuevo para dedicar 100 millones de dlares a este tipo de inversin. +Creemos que el Genentech, el Compaq, el Lotus, el Sun, el Netscape, el Amazon, el Google de estos campos estn aun por encontrar porque la revolucin de estos materiales van impulsar estas cosas adelante. +El tercer tema en que trabajamos lo hemos anunciado la semana pasada -- cuando estbamos todos en Nueva York. +Hemos recaudado 200 millones de dlares en un fondo especializado para trabajar en la biodefensa de una pandemia. +Y para darles una idea del ltimo fondo recaudado por Kleiner .. era un fondo de 400 millones de dlares... entonces esto es un fondo considerable para nosotros +Lo que hemos hecho en los ltimos meses -- bueno, hace unos meses, es que Ray Kurzweil y yo hemos escrito una editorial en el 'New York Times' sobre el alto peligro que supone publicar la gentica del gripe del 1918. +John Doerr y Brooks y otros se preocuparon [--?--] y empezamos a ver lo que el mundo estaba haciendo para estar preparados contra una pandemia. Y vimos muchos huecos. +Entonces nos preguntamos, podemos encontrar cosas innovadoras para cubrir estos huecos? Y Brooks me ha dicho que encontr tantas cosas que no puede dormir, porque existe un gran numero de tecnologas que estamos bsicamente hundido en ellos. Y los necesitamos. +Tenemos una droga antiviral que la gente habla de almacenar y que aun funciona ms o menos. Es el Tamiflu. +Pero Tamiflu -- el virus es resistente. Es resistente al Tamiflu. +Hemos descubierto que para el SIDA necesitamos unos ccteles que funcionen bien para afronta la resistencia viral -- necesitamos varios antivirales. +Necesitamos mejor vigilancia. +Necesitamos redes que puedan encontrar lo que ocurre. +Necesitamos diagnsticos rpidos para poder saber si alguien tiene una cepa de la gripe que solo hemos identificado recientemente. +Tenemos que poder hacer diagnsticos rpidos. +Necesitamos antivirales y ccteles nuevos. Necesitamos nuevas vacunas. +Vacunas que sean de amplio espectro. +Vacunas que podemos producir rpidamente. +Ccteles y ms vacunas polivalentes. +Normalmente consigues una vacuna trivalente en contra de tres posibles cepas virales. +No sabemos hacia que direccin se mueven estas cosas. +Creemos que si podemos cubrir estos 10 huecos, tenemos una oportunidad de realmente reducir el riesgo de una pandemia. +Y la diferencia entre una gripe normal y una pandemia sera un factor de aproximadamente 1.000 en muertes y un impacto econmico enorme. +Estamos muy entusiasmados porque creemos que podemos financiar o avanzar 10 proyectos y verlos salir a mercado en los prximos aos para afrontar estos asuntos. +Si podemos usar la tecnologa, afrontarnos a la educacin, ayudar afrontar al medioambiente, ayudar afrontar a la pandemia, realmente solucionara eso al problema mayor de que yo he hablado en el artculo de 'Wired'? Me temo que la respuesta es no, porque no podemos resolver a un problema de gestin de tecnologa con ms tecnologa. +Si dejamos libre a una cantidad ilimitada de poder, entonces una poca gente tendr la capacidad para abusar de ello. +No podemos luchar con un desventaja de un milln a uno. +Entonces lo que necesitamos son mejores normas. +Por ejemplo, algunas cosas que podemos hacer, que seran soluciones polticos de que no se habla mucho pero que quizs se hara con el cambio de gobierno, sera usar los mercados. +Los mercados tienen una gran fuerza. +Por ejemplo, en vez de intentar pasar regulacin contra los problemas, algo que probablemente no funcionara, si pudiramos aadirle un precio al coste del negocio, o sea el coste de una catstrofe, para que la gente que hagan cosas con costes de catstrofe ms altos tengan que quitar un seguro para ese riesgo. +Entonces, si quisieras llevar un medicamento al mercado, puedes hacerlo. +Pero no tendra que ser aprobado por los reguladores; tendras que convencer a un actuario de que sera seguro. +Si aplicas el concepto de seguro ms ampliamente puedes usar una fuerza ms poderosa, la fuerza de mercado, para ofrecer observaciones. +Como puedes mantener la ley? +Yo creo que sera un cosa buena mantener la ley. +Bueno, tendras que mantener a la gente responsable. +La ley requiere responsabilidad. +En el da de hoy, los cientficos, los tecnlogos, los empresarios, los ingenieros no tienen ninguna responsabilidad personal para las consecuencias de sus acciones. +Entonces, hay que incorporar eso en la ley. +Finalmente, pienso que tenemos que -- es casi inaceptable decirlo -- pero tenemos que empezar a disear el futuro. +No podemos escoger el futuro pero podemos dirigirlo. +Nuestra inversin para intentar prevenir una gripe epidmica esta afectando la distribucin de posibles resultados. +No podremos pararlo pero la probabilidad de que se nos pase por alto es menos si nos enfocamos en ese problema. +Entonces podemos disear el futuro si escogemos la clase de cosas que queremos que suceda y lo que no suceda, y dirigirnos haca un sitio menos peligroso. +El vice presidente Gore les va hablar sobre como dirigir la trayectoria climtica haca una probabilidad menor de riesgo catastrfico. +Pero sobre todo, lo que tenemos que hacer es ayudar a la gente buena, la gente en el lado defensivo, que tengan una ventaja sobre la gente que quieren abusar de las cosas. +Y para eso lo que tenemos que hacer es limitar el acceso a cierta informacin. +Crindose de la manera que lo hacemos, altamente valorando la libertad de expresin, esto es una cosa difcil para nosotros aceptar -- para todos nosotros aceptar. +Aceptarlo es especialmente duro para los cientficos quien an se recuerdan a Galileo encerrado y quienes estn aun luchando esta batalla contra la iglesia. +Pero es el precio de tener una civilizacin. +El precio por retener la base de leyes es limitar el acceso al gran poder desenfrenado. +Gracias. +Fui a Espaa hace unos meses y prob el mejor foie gras de mi vida. +La mejor experiencia culinaria de mi vida. +Porque lo que vi, estoy convencido, es el futuro de la cocina. +Ridculo, no? +Foie gras y el futuro de la cocina. +No existe un alimento hoy que sea ms criticado que el foie gras, no? +Quiero decir, lo crucifican. +Se declar ilegal en Chicago durante un tiempo. +Est pendiente aqu en California, y hace muy poco en Nueva York. +Es como si eres cocinero y lo pones en tu men, corres el riesgo de ser atacado. +De verdad, le ocurri aqu en San Francisco a un famoso cocinero. +Yo no digo que no haya una base lgica para oponerse al foie gras. +Las razones normalmente se reducen al "gavage", que es la alimentacin a la fuerza. +Bsicamente coges un ganso o un pato y lo fuerzas a que se trague una tonelada de grano. +Ms grano en un par de semanas del que se comera en toda su vida. +Su hgado se ensancha ocho veces. +Baste con decir que es como... no es la imagen ms bonita de crianza sostenible. +El problema para nosotros los cocineros es que est tan bueno. +Quiero decir, me encanta. +Es graso, es dulce, es sedoso, es untuoso. +Le da un sabor a todo lo que acompaa increble. +Podemos hacer un men que sea delicioso sin foie gras? +S, claro. +Tambin puedes hacer el Tour de France sin esteroides, no? +No lo est haciendo mucha gente. +Y por una buena razn. +Hace unos meses, un amigo mo me envi este vnculo a este tipo, Eduardo Sousa. +Eduardo est haciendo lo que l llama foie gras natural. +Foie gras natural. +Qu es natural en el foie gras? +Para aprovechar la bajada de temperaturas en otoo, los gansos y los patos se atiborran de comida para prepararse para las duras condiciones del invierno. +Y el resto del ao son libres de deambular por la propiedad de Eduardo y comer lo que quieran. +As que nada de "gavage", nada de alimentacin forzada, nada de condiciones similares a una fbrica, nada de crueldad. +Y sorprendentemente no es una idea nueva. +Su tatarabuelo comenz, Patera de Sousa, en 1812. +Y lo llevan haciendo discretamente desde entonces. +Esto es hasta el ao pasado, cuando Eduardo gan la "Coup de Coeur", el codiciado premio gastronmico francs. +Es como las Olimpiadas de los productos alimenticios. +Se coloc primero gracias a su foie gras. +Gran, gran problema. +Como l me coment, eso a los franceses les revent. +Lo dijo en plan alegre. +Estaba en todos los periodicos. +Le el caso. Apareci en Le Monde. +"Cocinero espaol acusado...", y los franceses le acusaron. +"Cocinero espaol acusado de engao". +Le acusaron de sobornar a los jueces. +Hasta implicaron al gobierno espaol, increble. +Asombroso. +Un enorme escndalo que dur semanas. +No pudieron encontrar ni la ms mnima prueba. +Vale, fjense en el tipo. +No tiene pinta de alguien que est sobornando a jueces franceses por su foie gras. +As que eso acab extinguindose, y poco despus, una nueva controversia. +No poda ganar porque no es foie gras. +No es foie gras porque no es "gavage", +No hay alimentacin forzada. +As que por definicin, est mintiendo y debera ser descalificado. +Por curioso que suene, articulndolo ahora y leyendo sobre ello... si hubiramos hablado de esto antes de esta controversia, habra dicho, no es cierto. +Ya saben, foie gras por definicin, alimentacin forzada, es "gavage". y eso es lo que haces cuando quieres foie gras. +Eso es hasta que fui a la granja de Eduardo en Extremadura, A 75 kilmetros al norte de Sevilla, al lado de la frontera con Portugal. +Vi de primera mano un sistema que es extraordinariamente complejo y al mismo tiempo, como todo lo que es hermoso en la naturaleza, es extremadamente simple. +Y me dijo, desde el primer momento, mi trabajo en la vida es dar a estos gansos lo que quieran. +Lo repiti alrededor de 50 veces en los dos das que estuve con l. +Estoy aqu slo para dar a estos gansos lo que quieran. +Cuando llegu estaba tumbado con los gansos y con su mvil hacindoles fotos como sus hijos en la hierba. +Increble. +Est enamorado...es... es el hombre que susurra a los gansos. +Y cuando estaba hablando con l, saben, pens, como les estoy hablando ahora a ustedes, pero como que en mitad de mis preguntas, de mis preguntas emocionadas, porque cuanto ms lo conoca a l y a su hermana, ms emocionante se haca toda la idea. +l no dejaba de hacerme esto. +Y pens, vale, judo emocionado de Nueva York, no? +Estoy hablando tal vez de una forma demasiado agresiva, as que bueno, fui ms despacio. +Y finalmente, al final del da, yo estaba como, Eduardo, ya saben as? +Pero l continuaba hacindome as. +Me lo imagin. +Estaba hablando demasiado alto. +As que baj la voz. +Era como que yo haca las preguntas y charlaba con l a travs de un traductor en una especie de susurro. +Y dej de hacer esto. +Increblemente, los gansos que estaban al otro lado del corral cuando me acercaba... "Aljate de este chico!" Cuando baj mi voz, todos se nos acercaron. +Hasta nosotros, hasta aqu. +Por toda la cerca. +La cerca misma era asombrosa. +La cerca... como esta concepcin de cerca que nosotros tenemos para l es totalmente atrasada. +La electricidad en esta valla de fibra de vidrio est slo en el exterior. +Renov la instalacin. La invent. +Nunca lo he visto. Y ustedes? +Se colocan los animales dentro de la cerca. Se electrifica el interior. +Pues l no. +l electrifica slo el exterior. +Por qu? +Porque me dijo que se senta como los gansos... y demostr esto, no una presuncin, demostr esto... los gansos se sentan manipulados cuando eran encerrados en sus pequeos corrales. +Incluso aunque fueran encerrados en el Jardn del Edn con higos y todo lo dems. +Senta que se sentan manipulados. +As que se deshizo de la electricidad, se deshizo de la corriente en el interior y la mantuvo en el exterior, para que los protegiera frente a los coyotes y otros depredadores. +Bueno, qu ocurri? +Comieron, y me mostr en un grfico, cmo ingeran alrededor de 20 por ciento ms de comida para alimentar sus hgados. +El paisaje es increble. +Quiero decir, su granja es increble. +De verdad es el Jardn del Edn. +Hay higos y todo lo dems para tomar. +Y la irona de las ironas es porque Extremadura, la zona... qu significa Extremadura? +Extremadura significa tierra dura, no? +Extra difcil. Extra dura. +Pero durante cuatro generaciones, l y su familia han transformado literalmente esta tierra extra dura en un men sabroso. +Mejora la vida de estos gansos. +Y se les permite tomar todo lo que quieran. +Otra irona, la irona doble es que con los higos y las aceitunas, Eduardo puede ganar ms dinero vendindolos que con el foie gras. +No le importa. +Les deja que tomen lo que quieran y dice, "Normalmente, es alrededor del 50 por ciento. Son bastante justos". +El otro 50 por ciento, lo recoge y lo vende y gana dinero con l. +Parte de los ingresos de su granja. +Una gran parte de los ingresos de su granja. +Pero nunca los controla. +Cogen lo que quieren, me dejan el resto y yo lo vendo. +Su mayor obstculo, en realidad, era el mercado, que exige en estos momentos foie gras amarillo brillante. +Eso es lo que me han enseado. +Quieres mirar y ver qu foie gras es, tiene que ser amarillo brillante. +Es el indicio de que es el mejor foie gras. +Bien, como l no sobrealimenta a la fuerza, como no obliga a ingerir toneladas de maiz, sus hgados eran bastante grises. +O lo eran. +Pero encontr esta planta salvaje llamada altramuz. +El altramuz, est por toda Extremadura. +Lo dej granar, cogi las semillas, las plant en sus 12 hectreas, por todos sitios. +Y a los gansos les encanta el altramuz. +No el arbusto, sino las semillas. +Y cuando se comen las semillas, su foie gras se pone amarillo. +Amarillo radioactivo. +Amarillo brillante. +Un amarillo foie gras de una calidad tan superior que jams he visto. +As que estoy escuchando todo esto, ya saben, y estoy como, Este tipo va en serio? Se est inventando esto? +Es como, ya saben... porque pareca tener respuesta para todo, y siempre era la naturaleza. +Nunca era l. +Y yo estaba como, ya saben, siempre me, en fin, me extraa la gente que lo desva todo de ellos mismos. +Porque, en realidad, quieren que los mires a ellos, no? +Pero l lo desviaba todo de su ingenuidad al trabajo con su paisaje. +As que es como, aqu estoy, en ascuas con este tipo, pero cada vez ms, comindome cada palabra. +Y aqu estamos sentados, oigo [aplausos] desde la distancia, as que vuelvo la vista. +Nos agarra del brazo a mi y al traductor, nos agacha bajo un arbusto y dice, "Mirad esto". +"Shhh", me vuelve a decir por ensima vez. +"Shhh, mirad esto". +Y este escuadrn de gansos que se acerca. +[Aplausos] Y cada vez hacen ms y ms y ms ruido, mucho ruido, se acercan a nosotros. +Y como la torre de control de un aeropuerto, al comenzar a pasar delante de nosotros les reclaman, y les reclaman una y otra vez. +Y se ponen en crculo. +Y sus gansos empiezan a llamar ahora a los gansos salvajes. +[Aplausos] Y los gansos salvajes les responden. +[Aplausos] Y cada vez hacen ms y ms ruido y forman crculos y ms crculos y aterrizan. +Y yo digo, "No puede ser". +No puede ser. +Y miro a Eduardo, que casi se le saltan las lgrimas al ver esto, y digo, "Me ests diciendo que tus gansos estn llamando a los gansos salvajes para decirles venid a hacernos una visita?" +Y dice, "No,no,no. +Han venido para quedarse". +Que han venido para quedarse? +Se supone que est en el ADN de un ganso volar al sur en invierno, no? +Eso dije. Dije "No es para eso para lo que estn en esta Tierra? +Volar al sur en invierno y al norte cuando hace calor?" +Dijo, "No,no,no. +En su ADN est encontrar las condiciones que propicien la vida. +La felicidad. +La encuentran aqu. +No necesitan nada ms". +Hacen una parada. Se aparean con sus gansos domesticados, y su manada contina. +Piensen en esto un minuto. +Es brillante, verdad? +Imagnense... no s, imagnense una granja de cerdos en, digamos, Carolina del Norte, y un cerdo salvaje llega a una granja industrial y decide quedarse. +A qu sabra? +Finalmente llegu a probarlo antes de marcharme. +Me llev al restaurante de su barrio y me sirvi su foie gras, confit de foie gras. +Estaba increble. +Y el problema al decir eso, por supuesto, es que ya saben, en este punto se corre el riesgo de la hiprbole fcilmente. +Y me gustara hacer una metfora, pero la verdad es que no tengo ninguna. +Me estaba tragando todo lo que me deca este tipo, me podra haber servido plumas de ganso y habra sido como, este tipo es un genio, saben? +De verdad que estoy enamorado de l en ese momento. +Pero sin duda fue el mejor foie gras de mi vida. +Tanto es as que no creo haber tomado de verdad foie gras hasta entonces. +Haba tomado algo que se llamaba foie gras. +Pero aquello era transformador. Realmente transformador. +Y les digo, podra no mantenerlo, pero no creo que jams vuelva a servir foie gras en mi men a causa de esa experiencia gustativa con Eduardo. +Era dulce, era untuoso. +Tena todas las cualidades del foie gras, pero su grasa contena mucha integridad y mucha honestidad. +Y se podan saborear hierbas, se podan saborear especias. +Y segu... y dije, ya saben, juro por Dios que sabore ans estrellado. +Estoy seguro. +Y yo no soy ningn super degustador, saben? +Pero puedo saborear cosas. +Haba puro ans estrellado all. +Y dice, "No". +Y acab centrndome en las especias, y al final, fue como, vale, sal y pimimienta, pensando que ha salpimentado su hgado. +Pero no. +Coge el hgado cuando saca el foie gras, los mete en este tarro y lo confita. +Nada de sal, ni de pimienta, ni de aceite, ni de especias. +Cmo? +Salimos de nuevo para la ruta final de la granja, y me mostr las plantas de pimientas silvestres y las plantas que l se haba asegurado que hubieran en la granja para la sal. +No necesita ni sal ni pimienta. +Y no necesita especias, porque tiene ese popurr de hierbas y sabores con los que a sus gansos les encanta forrarse. +Me volv hacia l al final de la comida, y es una pregunta que le haba hecho varias veces, y como que l no me haba respondido directamente, pero dije, "Mira, ests en Espaa, algunos de los cocineros ms grandes del mundo son... Ferrn Adri, el cocinero supremo del mundo hoy, no est tan lejos de ti. +Cmo es que no le ofreces esto? +Cmo es que nadie ha escuchado hablar de ti?" +Y puede ser por el vino, o puede ser por mi emocin, me respondi directamente y dijo,"Porque los cocineros no se merecen mi foie gras". +Y tena razn. +Tena razn. +Los cocineros cogen el foie gras y lo hacen suyo. +Crean un plato donde todos los vectores no sealan a nosotros. +Lo de Eduardo es la expresin de la naturaleza. +Y como l dijo, creo que de forma adecuada, es un regalo de Dios, y Dios diciendo, has hecho un buen trabajo. +Simple. +Volv a casa, estoy en el vuelo con mi libreta negro pequeita y tom, ya saben, pginas y pginas de notas sobre esto. +Estaba conmovido de verdad. +Y en la esquina de una de ellas... una de mis notas, dice, cuando se le pregunta, qu piensas sobre el foie gras convencional? +Qu piensas del foie gras que el 99,9999 por ciento del mundo come? +Dijo, "Me parece que es un insulto a la historia". +Y escrib, insulto a la historia. +Estoy en el avin y me estoy tirando de los pelos. +Como si, por qu no segu por ah? +Qu puetas quiere decir eso? +Insulto a la historia. +As que investigu algo cuando volv, y esto es lo que encontr. +La historia del foie gras. +Los judos inventaron el foie gras. +Una historia verdadera. +Una historia verdadera. +Por accidente. +Buscaban una alternativa a la grasa de pollo. +Estaban hartos de la grasa de pollo. +Buscaban una alternativa. +Y en otoo vieron que exista esta grasa, natural, preciosa, dulce, deliciosa procedente de los gansos. +Y los mataron, utilizaron la grasa durante el invierno para cocinar. +El Faran se enter de esto... Es cierto, directo desde Internet. +El Faran se... Lo juro por Dios. +El Faran se enter y quiso probarlo. +Lo prob y se enamor de l. +Empez a exigirlo. +Y no lo quera slo en otoo, lo quera durante todo el ao. +Y exigi que los judos abastecieran a todo el mundo. +Y los judos, temiendo por su vida, tuvieron que ingenirselas, o al menos intentar satisfacer los deseos del Faran, por supuesto. +E inventaron, qu? El "gavage". +Inventaron el "gavage" en un momento de mucho temor por sus vidas, y le ofrecieron al Faran el hgado alimentado a travs del "gavage", y el bueno se lo quedaron ellos. +Se supone. Yo me lo creo. +sta es la historia del foie gras. +y si piensas en ello, es la historia de la agricultura industrial. +La historia de lo que comemos hoy. +De la mayor parte de lo que comemos hoy. +Mega granjas, engorde a corral, compuestos qumicos, transporte a largas distancias, procesamiento de alimentos. +Todo eso es nuestro sistema de alimentos. +Eso tambin es un insulto a la historia. +Es un insulto a las leyes bsicas de la naturaleza y de la biologa. +Ya estemos hablando de ganado vacuno o estemos hablando de pollos, o estemos hablando de brcoli o coles de bruselas, o en el caso del New York Times de esta maana, el bagre... que las ventas al por mayor estn quebrando. +Sea lo que sea, es una mentalidad que recuerda a General Motors. +Est arraigada en la extraccin. +Toma ms, vende ms, gasta ms. +Y para el futuro no nos servir. +Jonas Salk tiene una gran cita. +Deca, "Si todos los insectos desaparecieran, la vida en la Tierra tal y como la conocemos desaparecera en menos de 50 aos. +Si los seres humanos desaparecieran, la vida en la Tierra tal y como la conocemos florecera". +Y tiene razn. +Ahora necesitamos adoptar una nueva concepcin de la agricultura. +Completamente nueva. +Una en la que dejemos de tratar el planeta como si fuera una especie de negocio en liquidacin. +Y dejar de degradar los recursos bajo el disfraz de comida barata. +Podemos empezar fijndonos en granjeros como Eduardo. +Granjeros que confan en la naturaleza cuando buscan soluciones, respuestas, en lugar de imponer soluciones a la naturaleza. +Escuchar cmo Janine Benyus, una de mis escritoras e intelectuales favoritas en este tema dice, "Escuchar las instrucciones de funcionamiento de la naturaleza". +Eso es lo que hace Eduardo, y lo hace de forma tan brillante. +Y lo que l me mostr y lo que puede mostrarnos a todos, creo, es que lo ms extraordinario para los cocineros, la gran bendicin para ellos, y para la gente que se preocupa de la alimentacin y la cocina, es que la eleccin ms ecolgica de alimentacin es tambin la eleccin ms tica de alimentacin. +Ya estemos hablando de coles de bruselas o de foie gras. +Y tambin casi siempre, y no he encontrado un ejemplo que indique lo contrario, pero casi siempre, la eleccin ms deliciosa. +Eso es serendipia. +Gracias. +Grandiosa creatividad. Durante tiempos de escasez, necesitamos de una grandiosa creatividad. +Discutir. La grandiosa creatividad es sorprendentemente, absurdamente, racionalmente e irracionalmente poderosa. +La grandiosa creatividad puede esparcir tolerancia, enaltecer la libertad y hacer que la educacin parezca una buena idea +. La grandiosa creatividad puede iluminar a la escasez con una luz poderosa, o demostrar que esta escasez no es necesariamente como parece. +La grandiosa creatividad puede hacer que votes por un poltico, o que no puedas votar por partidos. +Puede hacer que la guerra parezca tragedia o farsa. +La creatividad forma los memes que van como slogans puestos en nuestras camisetas y como frases puestas en nuestros labios. +Es la gua que nos muestra un camino simple a travs de un laberinto moral impenetrable. +La ciencia es inteligente, pero la creatividad grandiosa es algo menos reconocible, ms mgico. Y ahora necesitamos esa magia. +Son tiempos de necesidad. +Nuestro clima est cambiando rpidamente, demasiado rpido. +Y la grandiosa creatividad se necesita para hacer lo que logra hacer tan bien: provocarnos a pensar distinto a travs de comunicados dramticamente creativos. +Tentarnos a actuar distinto a travs de migajas maravillosamente creativas. +Aqu est una de estas migajas, de una iniciativa a la cual pertenezco, que utiliza la creatividad para inspirar a la gente a ser ms verdes. +Voz de Hombre en Video: Sabes, en vez de manejar hoy, voy a caminar. +Narrador en Video: Y entonces camin, y mientras caminaba vio cosas. +Cosas extraas y maravillosas que de otra manera no hubiese visto. +Un ciervo que le picaba la pierna. Una motocicleta voladora. +Un padre y su hija separados de una bicicleta por una misteriosa pared. +Y entonces se detuvo. Caminando en frente de l estaba ella. +La mujer que cuando pequea haba corrido con l por los campos y quebrado su corazn. +Claro, haba envejecido un poco. +De hecho, haba envejecido mucho. +Pero sinti que volva toda su antigua pasin por ella. +"Ford", La llam suavemente. Ya que ese era el nombre de ella. +"No digas otra palabra, Gusty", dijo ella, ya que ese era el nombre de l. +"Conozco una carpa al lado de una casa remolque, exactamente a 300 yardas de aqu. +Vayamos all y hagamos el amor. En la carpa." +Ford se quit la ropa. Extendi una pierna, y despus la otra. +Gusty entr osadamente en ella y le hizo el amor rtmicamente mientras ella lo filmaba, ya que era una dedicada porngrafa amateur. +La tierra se movi para ambos. +Y vivieron juntos felices para siempre. +Y todo esto sucedi porque ese da decidi caminar. +Ya tenemos los avances cientficos y ya tuvimos el debate. +El imperativo moral est sobre la mesa. +Se requiere de grandiosa creatividad para tomarlo todo y hacerlo simple y al punto. +Para que conecte. Para que haga a las personas querer actuar. +As que este es un llamado, una peticin, para la increblemente talentosa comunidad TED. +Pongmonos creativos en contra del cambio climtico. +Y hagmoslo pronto. Gracias. +Si no hacemos nada para evitarlo, en los prximos 40 aos tendremos una epidemia de enfermedades neurolgicas a escala global. +Un pronstico muy alentador. +En este mapa, cada pas pintado de azul, tiene ms del 20% de su poblacin mayor de 65 aos. +Este es el mundo en el que vivimos, +y este es el mundo en el que vivirn nuestros hijos. +Durante 12,000 aos, la distribucin de la edad en poblacin humana ha sido como una pirmide, con los ancianos arriba. +Pero ahora esta pirmide est decreciendo. +para el 2050, ser como una columna y comenzar a invertirse. +Y he aqu la razn por la que est ocurriendo. +La esperanza de vida media es mayor del doble que en 1840, y se est incrementando actualmente a un ritmo de cinco horas por da. +Y esta es la razn por la cual no es precisamente una buena noticia: a partir de los 65 aos de edad, el riesgo de padecer Alzheimer o Parkinson se incrementa exponencialmente. +Para el 2050, en EEUU habrn ms de 32 millones de personas mayores de 80 aos, y al menos que hagamos algo al respecto, la mitad de ellos tendr la enfermedad de Alzheimer y tres millones ms tendrn la enfermedad de Parkinson. +En este momento, estas y otras enfermedades neurolgicas - para las cuales no tenemos ni cura ni prevencin- cuestan alrededor de un tercio de billn de dlares al ao. +Para el 2050, ser mucho ms del billn. +La enfermedad de Alzheimer comienza cuando una protena que debera plegarse adecuadamente queda mal plegada formando una especie de origami loco. +Por lo tanto, una aproximacin que estamos tomando es tratar de disear medicinas que funcionen como una cinta adhesiva molecular, para poder mantener la protena en su forma correcta. +Esto evitara la formacin de las maraas que parecen matar grandes secciones del cerebro cuando as sucede. +Es interesante notar que otras enfermedades neurolgicas que afectan partes del cerebro muy distintas presentan tambin enredos de protenas mal plegadas, lo cual sugiriere que el enfoque podra ser genrico, y podra ser usado para curar muchas enfermedades neurolgicas; y no slo la enfermedad de Alzheimer. +Adems nos encontramos con una conexin fascinante con el cncer, ya que la gente con enfermedades neurolgicas tienen una incidencia muy baja para casi todos los tipos de cncer. +Y esta es una conexin que la mayora no est investigando en este momento, pero de la cual estamos fascinados. +La mayora del trabajo importante y creativo en esta rea est siendo realizado con donaciones de filntropos particulares. +Y an hay una gran necesidad de financiacin por parte del sector privado, pues me temo que el gobierno ha dejado de lado este asunto. +Mientras tanto, mientras esperamos que todo esto ocurra, esto es lo que puedes hacer: +Si quieres reducir tu riesgo de contraer la enfermedad de Parkinson, la cafena protege en cierta medida; nadie sabe el por qu. +Los accidentes en la cabeza son malos, llevan al Parkinson. +La gripe aviar tampoco es buena. +Para protegerte de la enfermedad de Alzheimer, el aceite de pescado ha resultado tener el efecto de reducir el riesgo de contraer la enfermedad de Alzheimer. +Tambin es importante mantener tu presin sanguinea baja, ya que tener la presin alta es el factor de mayor riesgo para la enfermedad de Alzheimer, +tambin es el mayor factor de riesgo para el glaucoma, que no es ms que el Alzheimer del ojo. +Y claro, cuando hablamos de efectos cognitivos, la ley del uso y del desuso es aplicable, as que es mejor mantenerse mentalmente estimulado. +Pero bueno, ya me estn escuchando, +as que no tienen que preocuparse por esa parte. +Y una ltima cosa, deseen suerte a gente como yo, s? +Porque el reloj no se detiene para nadie. +Gracias. +La costa norte de California tiene selvas, selvas templadas, en las que puede llover ms de 2,5 metros al ao. +Este es el reino de la secuoya roja de California +y su nombre de especie es Sequoia sempervirens. +La sequoia sempervirenses es el organismo vivo que crece ms alto sobre la Tierra, +llegando hasta los 115 metros de alto. +Esos son 38 pisos de altura; +hay rboles que sobresaldran en medio de Manhattan. +Nadie sabe la edad de las secuoyas vivas ms antiguas porque nadie nunca ha perforado una de ellas para contar sus anillos de crecimiento anuales; y, de todos modos, los centros de los rboles ms antiguos parecen estar huecos. +Sin embargo se cree que las secuoyas ms viejas tienen quiz 2.500 aos -ms o menos la edad del Partenn- aunque tambin se sospecha que algunos rboles pueden ser an ms antiguos. +Pueden ver donde an existen secuoyas, aqu en rojo. +Los especmenes ms grandes de esta especie, los acorazados de su tipo, viven slo en la costa norte de California donde la lluvia es verdaderamente intensa. +En pocas recientes, cerca del 96 por ciento del bosque de secuoyas de California fue cortado, en especial en una serie de arranques de intensa explotacin forestal, una erradicacin que empez en los 70s y se extendi hasta inicios de los 90s. +An as, cerca del 4% del bosque original de secuoya permanece intacto, salvaje y ahora protegido -totalmente protegido- en una cadena de pequeos parques que son como perlas en un collar a lo largo de la costa norte de California, que incluyen el parque nacional Redwood (de la Secuoya). +Curiosamente hasta el da de hoy los bosques de secuoya, o los fragmentos que nos quedan, siguen estando sub-explorados. +Es increblemente difcil moverse a travs de un bosque de secuoyas e incluso hoy se estn descubriendo especmenes que no se conocan anteriormente; incluyendo a Hyperion, el rbol ms alto del mundo, en el verano del 2006. +Voy a hacer un pequeo experimento mental, +les pedir que imaginen a la secuoya como lo que realmente es; un organismo vivo. +Chris, me podras ayudar aqu? Tengo una cinta mtrica +que amablemente me prestaron de TED. +Chris, si pudieras tomar el extremo de la cinta +les vamos a mostrar el dimetro, a la altura del pecho, de una secuoya grande. +Desafortunadamente, esta cinta no alcanza pues slo tiene poco ms de 7 metros. +Chris podras extender tu brazo hacia fuera? Ah vamos, bien. +Y ms o menos esto, cerca de 9 metros, es el dimetro de una secuoya grande. +Ahora, dejen que su imaginacin viaje hacia el espacio +y piensen en este rbol creciendo hacia el espacio de la secuoya, a 100 metros, 32 pisos, un organismo vivo que desarrolla su forma verticalmente durante perodos muy largos de tiempo. +La especie de la secuoya parece existir en otra dimensin de tiempo: no en tiempo humano sino en lo que podramos llamar tiempo de la secuoya, +el cual se mueve a un paso ms majestuoso que el tiempo humano. +Para nosotros, cuando vemos una secuoya, parece estar quieta y sin embargo las secuoyas estn constantemente movindose, movindose hacia el espacio, ramificndose y llenando el espacio de secuoya en tiempo de secuoya, a travs de miles de aos. +Planten esta pequea semilla, esperen 2 mil aos y esto es lo que obtienen: el Monarca Perdido, +el cual habita en el Bosque de los Titanes de la Costa Norte descubierto en 1998. +Y sin embargo, cuando miran la base de una secuoya no estn viendo al organismo. +Eres como un pequeo ratn que mira el pie de un elefante y la mayor parte del organismo est arriba, escondida. +Me interes muchsimo en esto y escrib acerca de una pareja, +Steve Sillett y Marie Antoine, los principales exploradores del techo del bosque de secuoyas; son atletas de clase mundial y tambin son cientficos ecolgicos de clase mundial. +Cuando Steve Sillett era un estudiante universitario de 19 aos en la universidad Reed College escuch que el techo del bosque de secuoya se consideraba un "desierto de secuoya". +Es decir, en aquella poca se crea que no haba nada all arriba excepto ramas de secuoyas. +Entonces, con un amigo suyo, se atrevi a escalar una secuoya sin cuerdas ni equipo para ver qu haba all arriba. +Escal un rbol pequeo al lado de esta secuoya gigante y luego salt hacia el espacio para agarrar una rama con sus manos y termin colgando como si estuviera atrapando la barra de un trapecio. +Desde ah, escal directamente por el tronco hasta que lleg a la cima del rbol. +Su amigo, un tipo de nombre Marwood Harris, lo segua detrs +y ninguno de los dos not que haba un nido de avispas del tamao de una bola de boliche que colgaba de la rama a la que Steve haba saltado. +Y cuando Marwood salt lo cubrieron las avispas que le picaron la cara y los ojos. Estuvo a punto de soltarse, +de caer a su muerte a 20 metros sobre el suelo. +Pero lograron llegar a la cima y lo que encontraron no fue un desierto de secuoya sino un mundo perdido, una especie de laberinto tridimensional en el aire lleno de vida desconocida. +Ahora bien, yo haba estado trabajando en otros temas como la aparicin de enfermedades infecciosas que provienen de los ecosistemas naturales de la Tierra, dan un salto desde otra especie y llegan a los humanos +y despus de tres libros al respecto ya estaba un poco agotado. +Mi esposa y yo adoramos a nuestros hijos +y comenc a escalar rboles con mis hijos slo para hacer algo junto a ellos, usando la llamada tcnica de escalamiento del arborista con cuerdas; usas cuerdas para subir a la cima del rbol. +Los nios son increblemente hbiles para escalar rboles: +ese es mi hijo, Oliver; +no parecen sufrir el mismo miedo a las alturas que los humanos. +Si la ontogenia recapitula la filogenia, entonces los nios son de cierta manera ms cercanos a nuestros orgenes de primates en el bosque arbreo. +Los humanos parecen ser los nicos primates que yo conozca que le tienen miedo a las alturas; +los otros primates, cuando tienen miedo suben corriendo a un rbol que es donde se sienten seguros. +Acampamos durmiendo en hamacas en los rboles. +Esta es mi hija Laura, que ah tena 15, mirando desde una hamaca; +por cierto, est atada con un cuerda para que no se caiga. +Mirando desde la hamaca en la maana y escuchando el canto de los pjaros viniendo de todas las direcciones. +En las noches nos visitaban ardillas voladoras que no parecan reconocer que ramos humanos porque nunca antes los haban visto en el techo de los rboles. +Practicamos tcnicas avanzadas como caminatas areas, en las que te puedes mover de un rbol a otro por el espacio ms o menos como el Hombre Araa. +Se convirti en un proyecto de escritura. +Cuando Steve Sillet se sube a una secuoya grande, tira una flecha amarrada a un hilo de pescar que pasa por una rama del rbol y luego sube una cuerda que ha sido arrastrada al rbol por el hilo. +Se suben 30 pisos. +Hay dos personas escalando este rbol, Gaia, que se cree es una de las secuoyas ms viejas. All estn. +Slo han subido la sptima parte del rbol. +Se siente la pequeez. +Hay una pequea persona aqu abajo en el piso. +Se siente que se est escalando una pared de madera. +Pero cuando entras al techo de la secuoya es como salir de una capa de nubes +y as de repente, pierdes vista del suelo y tambin pierdes vista del cielo, ests en un laberinto tridimensional en el aire lleno de jardines colgantes de helechos que crecen de la tierra habitada por todo tipo de pequeos organismos; +hay epifitas, plantas que crecen en los rboles, +hay arbustos de arndano americano, +muchas especies de musgos y todo tipo de lquenes que cubren el rbol. +Cuando ests cerca de la cima del rbol, sientes como que no te puedes caer de hecho es difcil moverse. +Te arrastras para avanzar entre la multitud de ramas con plantas y animales que no se dan a nivel del piso; +es como bucear en un arrecife de coral excepto que en lugar de bajar ests subiendo +y los rboles tienden a extenderse como en plataformas en la cima. +Mara est sentada en uno de ellos, +estas ramas bien pueden tener de quinientos a seiscientos aos. +Las secuoyas crecen muy lentamente en sus cimas. +Tienen adems un rasgo particular: matorrales de arndanos americanos que crecen en la cimas de las secuoyas que son tcnicamente conocidas como afros de arndanos y te puedes sentar ah y comer los arndanos mientras descansas. +Las secuoyas tienen una enorme superficie que se extiende hacia el espacio porque son propensos a hacer algo que se llama reiteracin. +Una secuoya es un fractal y sus miembros al crecer se desatan en pequeos rboles, en copias de la secuoya. +Ahora, aqu vemos una reiteracin en Cronos, una de las secuoyas ms antiguas. +En este caso, la reiteracin es un enorme contrafuerte areo que sale del rbol mismo; +este contrafuerte est a menos de la mitad de la altura del rbol +y luego este mismo se convierte en un bosque de secuoyas. +En particular, este tronco extra es de un metro en su base y se extiende hacia arriba unos 45 metros. +Es tan grande como cualquiera de los mayores rboles al este del ro Mississippi y sin embargo es slo un rasgo menor en Cronos. +Este mapa tridimensional de la estructura de la corona de la secuoya llamada Iluvatar, hecha por Steve Sillet, Marie Antoine y sus colegas, nos da una idea. +Lo que estn viendo aqu es un desarrollo esquemtico jerrquico de los troncos de este rbol como si por largo tiempo se auto-fabricara en seis capas de fractales, de troncos que surgen de troncos que surgen de troncos. +Le ped a Steve que pusiera una persona para tener un sentido de la escala +y aqu est la persona, justo aqu, saludndonos. +He querido preguntarle a Craig Venter si sera posible insertar un cromosoma sinttico en un ser humano tal que nos pudiramos reiterar si quisiramos. +Si pudiramos hacerlo; los dedos de nuestra mano seran personas como nosotros y ellos tendran personas en sus manos y as sucesivamente. +Y si tuviramos una biologa como la de las secuoyas tendramos seis capas de personas en nuestras manos +y sera adorable poder saludar a alguien y que todas nuestras reiteraciones saludaran a la vez. +Para ilustrar mejor el punto acerqumonos a Iluvatar. +Estamos viendo este cuadro amarillo +y estos dibujos alucinantes les muestran... todo lo que ven en el dibujo es Iluvatar. +Estas estructuras son milenarias, se cree que hay partes del rbol que tienen ms de mil aos. +En esta toma hay cuatro personas, una, dos, tres, cuatro +y tambin hay algo que quiero ensearles: +este es un contrafuerte areo. +Las secuoyas crecen devuelta sobre s mismas cuando se expanden al espacio y este contrafuerte areo es una rama que sale de un tronco pequeo, que vuelve al tronco principal y se fusiona con l. +Los contrafuertes areos, como en las catedrales, ayudan a reforzar la corona del rbol y ayudan a que el rbol viva por un tiempo ms extenso. +Los cientficos estn haciendo todo tipo de experimentos en estos rboles, +los conectan como si fueran pacientes en una unidad de cuidados intensivos. +Han encontrado que las secuoyas pueden extraer humedad del aire, meterla en sus troncos y posiblemente llevarla hasta sus sistemas de races. +Tambin tienen la habilidad de echar races en cualquier lugar del rbol; +si una parte de una secuoya se est pudriendo esta secuoya echa races en s misma y extrae los nutrientes que hay en esa parte podrida mientras se desintegra. +Si tuviramos una biologa similar a la de la secuoya y nos diera gangrena en un brazo podramos simplemente extraer los nutrientes y la humedad del brazo hasta que se desprendiera. +La tierra en los techos de rbol puede tener altura de un metro, estar a cientos de metros arriba del suelo y tener organismos que a la fecha no tienen nombres. +Esta es una especie sin nombre de coppodo, que es un crustceo; +estos coppodos son una pieza vital de los ocanos y son parte importante de la dieta de ballenas barbadas. +Qu estn haciendo en la tierra del techo del rbol del bosque de la secuoya, cientos de metros arriba del ocano, o cmo llegaron hasta ah se desconoce completamente. +Existen algunas teoras interesantes que, si tuviera tiempo, les contara. +Pero si observan ms de cerca un rbol lo que ven es complejidad creciente. +Estamos viendo la verdadera cima de Gaia, que se cree es la secuoya ms antigua. +Gaia debe tener entre 3 mil y 5 mil aos de edad, nadie realmente sabe, pero alguna vez su cima se rompi y desde entonces se est descomponiendo. +Esta pequea creacin como de jardn japons probablemente tom 700 aos para formar la complejidad que vemos ahora. +Mientras miran un rbol, se requiere de una lupa para ver un rbol gigante. +Desafortunadamente tengo que mostrarles algo muy triste para concluir mi charla. +Los abetos del este a menudo han sido descritos como la secuoya del este +as que nos estamos dando vuelta completamente. +En los 50s, un pequeo organismo apareci en Richmond, Virginia, llamado adlgido lanudo del abeto. +Hizo un salto trans-especie desde algn otro organismo en Asia donde viva en abetos asiticos. +Cuando se mud a su nuevo anfitrin; el abeto del este, escap de sus depredadores y este nuevo rbol no tena resistencia contra l. +El bosque de abetos del este se considera en cierta forma parte de los ltimos fragmentos de la selva primitiva del este del ro Mississippi. +Ni siquiera saba que haba selva en el este, pero en el parque nacional Great Smoky Mountains puede llover sobre 2,5 metros al ao. +En los ltimos dos o tres veranos estos organismos invasivos, esta especie de bola de los rboles, ha arrasado con el bosque primitivo de abetos del este y lo ha eliminado totalmente. El pasado verano escal all. +Este es el parque nacional Great Smoky Mountains y se pueden ver los abetos muertos hasta donde alcance la vista. +ver esto es absolutamente desgarrador. +Una de las cosas que casi es -casi no puedo comprenderlo- es la nocin de que los noticieros nacionales no hayan difundido en absoluto esta noticia y se trata de la devastacin de uno de los ecosistemas ms importantes en Norteamrica. +Qu nos pueden decir las secuoyas sobre nosotros? +Bueno, creo que nos pueden decir algo sobre el tiempo humano, +de la calidad transitoria y oscilante del tiempo humano y de la brevedad de la vida humana, de nuestra necesidad de amar. +Somos diferentes a los rboles pero por las diferencias que tenemos tambin nos pueden ensear algo acerca de nosotros; +somos humanos y tenemos la capacidad de amar, tenemos la capacidad de asombro, tenemos una especie de curiosidad infinita e inquieta que nos sienta bien como primates, creo. +Al menos para m, personalmente, los rboles me han enseado una forma completamente nueva de amar a mis hijos. +Explorar con ellos el techo del bosque ha sido una de las cosas ms hermosas de mi existencia en la Tierra +y creo que una de las ms felices en el sentido de que he podido presentarles a mis hijos el pequeisimo crculo de humanos que tenemos la gran suerte o quiz la gran estupidez de escalar rboles. +Muchsimas gracias. +Chris Anderson: Creo que en un TED anterior, creo que fue Nathan Myhrvold quien me dijo que se pensaba que dado que estos rboles tienen 2 mil aos o ms muchos de ellos son ecosistemas con especies que no se encuentran en ningn otro lugar en la Tierra excepto por ese rbol especfico es eso cierto? +Richard Preston: S, es correcto. Mencion Hyperion, el rbol ms alto. +Era miembro del equipo que lo escal por primera vez en 2006 +y mientras escalbamos Hyperion, Marie Antoine vio una especie desconocida de hormiga caf-oro como a la mitad de la altura del tronco. +Curiosamente no se saba que hubiera hormigas en las secuoyas y nos preguntamos si esta hormiga, esta especie de hormiga, era endmica slo a este nico rbol o posiblemente a esa arboleda +pero en los siguientes ascensos no pudieron encontrar esa hormiga de nuevo, as que nunca se han podido recolectar especmenes. +No sabemos qu es, slo sabemos que est ah. +CA: Entonces te debes preguntar cuando, bueno, si alguna otra especie fuera de la nuestra estuviera registrando las historias que importan acerca de la Tierra, nuestras historias acerca de Irak, la guerra, la poltica, los chismes de las celebridades +Nos acabas de contar una historia diferente, sobre esta trgica carrera de armas que est ocurriendo y quiz de ecosistemas completos que desaparecern para siempre. +Con esto he tenido una profunda reflexin y un nocin de cun frgil es todo esto. +RP: Es frgil, y sabes, pienso en las enfermedades humanas que estn surgiendo, en parsitos que pasan a la especie humana. +Pero eso es slo una pequea faceta de los problemas mucho mayores de invasiones de especies en todo el mundo, en todos los ecosistemas, en la Tierra misma CA: En parte ocasionado sin darnos cuenta por nosotros mismos. +RP: Ocasionado por los humanos, por el movimiento de los humanos. +Puedes imaginar la bisfera de la Tierra como un palacio y los continentes como habitaciones del palacio y las islas como habitaciones ms pequeas. +Pero hace poco, las puertas del palacio se abrieron de golpe y las paredes se estn cayendo. +CA: Richard Preston, muchsimas gracias, creo. +RP: Gracias. +Saben, vamos a hacer las cosas un poco diferente diferente. +No voy a hacer una presentacin. Voy a conversar con ustedes. +Y al mismo tiempo, vamos a ver imgenes de una serie de fotografas que se asemejan bastante a la vida real, de cosas que --- fotografas de Second Life. Espero que sea fascinante. +Me va a costar captar su atencin con las extraas imgenes que ven en pantalla, que vienen de all. +He pensado que voy a hablar un poco de algunos conceptos generales, y luego le pedir a John que venga, para mantener una charla interactiva un rato ms y pensar y hacer preguntas. +Supongo que la primera pregunta sera, Por qu construir un mundo virtual? +Y creo que la respuesta siempre tendr su origen, al menos en cierta medida, en las personas que en un principio estuvieron lo bastante locas como para iniciar el proyecto. +As que puedo hablarles primero un poco de m, y lo que me motiv incluso cuando era solo un adolescente, y luego ya de adulto, a intentar y construir algo as. +Yo era un nio muy creativo que lea mucho; primero me interes la electrnica, y luego la programacin de computadores, cuando era muy pequeo. +Siempre estaba tratando de hacer cosas. +Estaba obsesionado con desbaratar cosas y construir cosas, con todo aquello que pudiera hacer con mis manos, con madera con aparatos electrnicos, metales o cualquier otra cosa. +Por ejemplo,y esto es algo genial de Second Life, yo tena un dormitorio. +Ya saben, todo chico de adolescente tiene un dormitorio donde se refugia, pero yo quera que mi puerta, pens que sera estupendo si mi puerta fuera hacia arriba en vez de abrirse, como en Star Trek. +Pens que sera genial conseguirlo. As que sub al techo y para delicia de mis padres, cort las vigas del techo y coloqu la puerta, ya saben, que se elevara hacia el techo. +Constru, puse un mecanismo de apertura de puertas de garaje en el tico para que empujase la puerta hacia arriba. +Imaginense lo que tard en hacerle esto a la casa y lo poco que les gust a mis padres. +Eso era lo que me atraa tanto. +Yo solo quera un lugar donde se pudieran construir cosas. +Creo que eso lo pueden ver en el comienzo de lo que ha pasado con Second Life y creo que es importante. +Tambin creo que, de manera ms general, el uso del Internet y la tecnologa como un tipo de espacio entre nosotros para la creatividad y el diseo, es una tendencia generalizada. +Es una especie de gran avance de la humanidad. +En general estamos utilizando la tecnologa para crear de una forma tan compartida y social como sea posible. +Y creo que Second Life y los mundos virtuales de manera ms general son lo mximo que podemos hacer ahora mismo para conseguirlo. +Otra forma de verlo, relacionada con el tema y pensando en el espacio, sera conectar una especie de mundos virtuales al espacio. +Pens que podra ser divertido hablar de esto unos segundos. +Pensar en viajar al espacio es algo fascinante. +Hay tantas pelculas, tantos nios, todos en cierto modo soamos con viajar al espacio. Y por qu? +Paren un momento y pregntense por qu tanta vanidad? +Por qu, siendo personas, queremos hacerlo? +Creo que es por un par de cosas. Es lo que vemos en las pelculas, el sueo que todos compartimos. +Una es que si furamos al espacio, podramos comenzar de nuevo. +En cierto modo, uno se convertira en otra persona durante ese viaje, porque no habra, dejaramos atrs la sociedad y la vida como la conocemos, +de manera que, inevitablemente, sufriramos una transformacin, de forma irreversible, lo ms probable, al empezar el viaje. +Y la segunda cosa es que existe esa sensacin real de que si viajas lo bastante lejos, puedes encontrar all fuera -- ya, bueno -- uno no tiene ni idea de lo que va a encontrar una vez que llegue all, al espacio. +Ser diferente que ac. +Y de hecho, ser tan distinto de lo que vemos aqu en la Tierra que cualquier cosa ser posible. +As que ms o menos esa es la idea, a nosotros como humanos nos encanta la idea de conseguir una nueva identidad e ir a un lugar donde todo sea posible. +Y creo que si de verdad se sientan a pensar en ello, los mundos virtuales y el lugar al que nos dirigimos con ms y ms tecnologa computacional, en esencia representan una versin de viaje espacial que es probable y metodolgicamente posible. +La idea de los mundos virtuales nos atrae porque, como el espacio, nos permiten reinventarnos a nosotros mismos y lo contienen todo, y probablemente cualquier cosa podra pasar en ellos. +A ver, para que se hagan una idea del tamao a escala, si comparamos el espacio con Second Life, la mayora de la gente no se da cuenta de que, ms o menos, es como Internet a principios de los aos 90. +De hecho, los mundos virtuales de Second Life hoy en da son muy parecidos al Internet de principios de los aos 90: todo el mundo est muy entusiasmado, se le da mucho bombo a una idea y a otra, en ciertos momentos y luego aparece la desesperanza y todos creen que no va a funcionar. +Todo lo que est pasando con Second Life y de forma ms general con los mundos virtuales, en cierto modo ya sucedi a principios de los aos 90. +En la oficina siempre jugamos a elegir cualquier artculo y encontrar uno igual donde solo haya que sustituir las palabras "Second Life" con "Web" y "realidad virtual" con "Internet". +Puedes encontrar exactamente los mismos artculos escritos sobre todo lo que la gente ve. +Para que se hagan una idea de la escala, ahora mismo Second Life se compone de casi 20 mil CPUs. +En estos momentos, hay alrededor de 20 mil computadores conectados en tres instalaciones en los Estados Unidos, simulando este espacio virtual. Y en el mundo virtual en si, hay alrededor de 250 mil personas al da deambulando por all, as que la poblacin activa es como la de una ciudad pequeita. +El espacio en s es casi 10 veces mayor que el tamao de San Francisco y la densidad de edificios es casi igual. +Esto les da una idea del tamao. Eso s, se est expandiendo muy rpidamente, como un 5% al mes ms o menos, en lo que se refiere a nuevos servidores que se van aadiendo. +As que desde luego, de forma totalmente contraria al mundo real, pero parecida a Internet, todo est creciendo muy, muy rpidamente -- e histricamente -- en forma exponencial. +As que la idea de los viajes espaciales coincide con esto en la cantidad de contenido que hay y creo que esa cantidad es vital. +Era vital en el mundo virtual que hubiera ese espacio de autnticas posibilidades infinitas. +Como humanos, esto es muy importante para nosotros. +Porque lo sabes cuando lo ves. Uno sabe cuando puede hacer cualquier cosa en un espacio y cuando no es posible. +Second Life es hoy en da estas 20 mil mquinas y unos 100 millones de objetos creados por los usuarios, donde un objeto sera algo as, posiblemente interactivo. +decenas de millones de ellos estn pensando todo el tiempo, tienen un cdigo asignado. +As que ya es un mundo muy grande, en cuanto a la cantidad de cosas que tiene y eso es muy importante. +Si alguien juega, por ejemplo, al World of Warcraft, World of Warcraft viene como en cuatro DVDs. +En comparacin, Second Life contiene unos 100 terabytes de informacin creada por los usuarios, lo que lo hace 25 mil veces ms grande. +Y as, de nuevo, como Internet comparado con AOL, y las salas de chat y el contenido de AOL en ese momento, lo que sucede aqu es algo muy distinto porque la magnitud de lo que la gente puede llegar a hacer cuando se les permite hacer lo que desean, es sorprendente. +La ltima gran idea que es cierta casi con total seguridad es que no importa en lo que Second Life se convierta va a ser ms grande en su uso en total que la misma Web. +Y permitanme que lo justifique con dos afirmaciones. +Genricamente, para lo que usamos la Web es para organizar, intercambiar, crear y consumir informacin. +Es algo as como cuando Irene habla de que Google est controlado por datos. +Yo dira que pienso en el mundo como si fuera informacin. +Todo aquello con lo que podemos interactuar, todas las experiencias por las que pasamos, es como si fluyramos en un mar de informacin e interacturamos con l de formas distintas. +La Web coloca informacin en forma de texto e imgenes +La topologa, la geografa de la Web se basa en su mayora en enlaces de texto a texto. +Esa es una forma de organizar informacin, pero existen dos cosas acerca de la manera en que se accede a la informacin en un mundo virtual que creo que son importantes, muy distintas y mucho mejores que lo que hemos podido hacer hasta la fecha con la Web. +La primera es que, como he dicho, la... bueno, la primera diferencia que tienen los mundos virtuales es que te presentan la informacin en un mundo virtual utilizando los smbolos icnicos ms poderosos que se pueden utilizar con los seres humanos. +Por ejemplo, S-I-L-L-A es la palabra en espaol para eso pero una imagen de ella es un smbolo universal. +Todos saben lo que significa. No hay necesidad de traducirla. +Adems es ms fcil de recordar si les muestro la imagen y S-I-L-L-A en un papel. +Existen pruebas que demuestran que te acuerdas mucho mejor dentro de un par de das de que estuve hablando de una silla. +Asi que cuando se organiza la informacin utilizando los smbolos de nuestra memoria, utilizando los smbolos ms comunes que han estado inmersos en nuestra vida, se consigue despertar y estimular, y eres capaz de recordar, transferir y manipular datos al mximo. +Y los mundos virtuales son la mejor forma que tenemos de organizar y experimentar la informacin. +Creo que la gente lleva como 20 aos hablando de esto, ya saben, de que lo tridimensional, los ambientes casi reales son muy importantes para nosotros en su aspecto mgico. +Pero la segunda cosa, y creo que esta es menos obvia, es que la experiencia de crear, consumir, explorar esa informacin es implcita e inherentemente social en el mundo virtual. +Siempre ests con otras personas. +Y nosotros como humanos somos seres sociales y debemos, o nos ayuda o disfrutamos ms el consumo de informacin en presencia de otros. +Forma parte de nuestra esencia. No se puede evitar. +Si entras a Amazon.com y ests buscando cmaras digitales o lo que sea, ests en lnea en ese momento en la pgina, junto con otras 5000 personas, pero no puedes charlar con ellos. +No puedes dirigirte a la gente que est buscando cmaras digitales en la misma pgina que t y preguntarles "Oye, has visto alguna de stas? Porque estoy pensando en comprarla". +Esa experiencia de comprar juntos, un simple ejemplo, es un ejemplo de que nosotros como seres sociales queremos vivir la informacin de esa manera. +Por lo tanto, ese segundo punto, el hecho de que ya en s experimentamos juntos la informacin, o deseamos experimentarla juntos, es fundamental para esta tendencia de utilizar la tecnologa para estar conectados. +Y creo que es probable que en la prxima dcada o algo asi estos mundos virtuales sean la manera ms comn de hacerlo, como seres humanos que utilizamos la electrnica de internet para estar juntos, para consumir informacin. +Por ejemplo, para trazar un mapa de India, este es un buen ejemplo. +Tal vez la solucin conlleve hablar con otras personal en tiempo real. +Pedir consejo, en vez de hacerlo de cualquier otro modo en que se pueda organizar un mapa de forma esttica. +Por lo tanto este me parece otro punto importante. +Es una gran idea. Pero creo que es sumamente defendible. +As que permitanme parar y traer a John, y tal vez podamos tener una conversacin ms larga. +Gracias. John. Es fantstico. +John Hockenberry: Por qu no es la creacin, el impulso de crear Second Life, un impulso utpico? +Como por ejemplo, en el siglo XIX, cualquier obra literaria que imaginase mundos alternativos era claramente utpica. +Philip Rosedale: Me parece fenomenal. Es una pregunta importante. Si. +Es probable que un mundo virtual sea una utopia?, as lo preguntara yo. +La respuesta es no y creo que la razn es que la misma Web, buen ejemplo, es en una estrategia excelente, primero el cdigo. +Esa idea de la posibilidad infinita, esa magia de que cualquier cosa puede pasar solo sucede en un ambiente donde sabes que realmente existe una libertad fundamental a nivel de actor individual, a nivel de los bloques de Lego, que compone el mundo virtual. +Tienes que tener ese nivel de libertad. A menudo me preguntan si hay algo de utopa si Second Life tiende a ser utpica y cosas as por el hecho de crear un mundo con un gran esquema determinado. +Esos esquemas que van primero nos alteran a casi todos, incluso si los construyes con la mejor intencin. +JH: El Kremlin era bastante grande. +PR: El Kremlin, s. Es cierto. Todo el complejo. +PR: Estoy seguro de que se me pueden ocurrir muchos ejemplos de las dos cosas. +Uno de mis favoritos. Desarroll una caracterstica en Second Life y de verdad me encantaba. +Era la capacidad de aproximarse a alguien y mantener una conversacin ms privada, pero no era por mensaje instantneo porque tenas que pedirle amistad a alguien. +Era solo esta idea de que pudieras tener una conversacin privada. +Recuerdo que era uno de esos ejemplos de diseos de programacin dirigida por datos. +Desde mi perspectiva pens que sera una buena idea, y absolutamente nadie la utiliz y al final creo que la borramos, si mal no recuerdo. +Finalmente nos rendimos y la quitamos del cdigo. +Pero de manera ms general, se me ocurre otro ejemplo, muy relacionado con la idea de la utopa. +Originalmente, Second Life tena 16 simuladores. Ahora tiene 20000. +Cuando tena solamente 16, solo era, ms o menos, como el tamao de este campus universitario. +Y lo dividimos: pusimos un club nocturno, pusimos una discoteca donde podas bailar, y luego tenamos un lugar donde podas combatir con armas si queras, y tenamos otro lugar que era como un paseo martimo parecido a Coney Island. +y diseamos la distribuicin de la zona, pero claro, la gente poda construir all si quera. +Y recuerdo que fue muy revelador, el no saber exactamente lo que iba a pasar. +Cuando piensas en cosas que la gente ha construido y que son populares. JH: Los CBGBs tendrn que cerrar en algn momento, ya sabes. As funciona. +PR: Exactamente. Pero prcticamente cerr el primer da en tiempo de Internet. +Un ejemplo, el embarazo. +Puedes tener un hijo en Second Life. +Se hace por completo con las herramientas que hay en Second Life, tambin el concepto en s de quedarse embarazada y tener el beb, desde luego, Second Life, al nivel plataforma, al nivel de la compaa en Linden Lab, Second Life no tiene en absoluto propiedades en el juego para ello. +No existe ningn intento de estructurar la experiencia, para convertirla en utpica en ese sentido del que hablamos. +Desde luego, nunca habramos establecido un mecanismo para tener nios o para coger dos avatares y mezclarlos, o cualquier otra cosa +Pero la gente cre la capacidad de tener bebs y cuidarlos como una experiencia pagable que puedes tener en Second Life y eso, quiero decir, es un ejemplo fascinante de lo que sucede en la economa global. +Y por supuesto, la existencia de una economa es otra idea. +No he hablado de ello, pero es una caracterstica fundamental. +Cuando a la gente se le da la oportunidad de crear en el mundo, existen dos cosas que realmente quieren. +Una es la propiedad de las cosas que crean. +Y la segunda es - si quieren, y no quieren en todos los casos, pero en muchos s - quieren poder vender su creacin como manera de ganarse la vida. +Cosa que ocurre en la Web y tambin en Second Life. +As que la existencia de una economa es fundamental. +JH: Preguntas para Philip Rosedale? Aqu. +(Pblico: Bueno, primero una observacin, que es eso de que pareces un personaje) JH: La observacin es que han acusado a Philip de parecerse a un personaje, a un avatar, de Second Life. +Responde y luego escucharemos el resto de la pregunta. +PR: Pero yo no me parezco a mi avatar. +Cuntas personas aqu saben cmo es mi avatar? +No muchos, probablemente. +JH: Te ests copiando del avatar de alguien? PR: No, no. Uno de los chicos del trabajo tena un avatar fantstico, un avatar femenino, que sola ser yo de vez en cuando. +Pero mi avatar es un tipo que va con "chaps". +Pelo puntiagudo, ms que ste. El cabello algo anaranjado. +Bigote en forma de U. Una especie de avatar tipo Village People. +Es genial. +JH: Y tu pregunta? +(Pblico:[No se entiende]) JH: La pregunta es: parece que falta un toque cultural en Second Life. +No parece que tenga su propia cultura, ni tampoco las diferencias que existen en el mundo real han sido trasladadas al mapa de Second Life. +PR: Bien, antes que nada, estamos en una etapa temprana, solo llevamos unos pocos aos. +Y parte de lo que apreciamos es la misma evolucin que tiene el comportamiento humano en sociedades emergentes. +As que una crtica justa del Second Life actual es que es ms como el Lejano Oeste que como Roma, desde un punto de vista cultural. +Por lo tanto, el carcter multicultural y el tipo de mezcla de culturas que tenemos en Second Life es muy - creo yo - muy notable en relacin con lo que en trminos de gente real en el mundo real hemos podido alcanzar. +As que creo que la cultura ir mejorando, surgir, pero an tenemos que esperar algunos aos mientras ocurre, como es normal. +JH: Otras preguntas? Aqu. +(Publico: Cules son tus datos demogrficos?) JH: Cules son tus datos demogrficos? +PR: Bien, me preguntas sobre la demografa. +As que, edad promedio: 32. Ya lo he dicho. El 65% de los usuarios est fuera de los Estados Unidos. +La distribucin entre los pases es extremadamente amplia. +Ahora mismo en Second Life hay usuarios de casi todos los pases del mundo. +Los dominantes son, si juntas el Reino Unido y Europa conforman el 55% de usuarios de Second Life. +En trminos psicogrficos, oh, hombres y mujeres: hay casi los mismos hombres y mujeres en Second Life, casi el 45% de las personas que hay ahora mismo online en Second Life son mujeres. +Aunque las mujeres utilizan Second Life, alrededor de un 30% a un 40% ms, en cuanto a horas, que los hombres. lo que significa que se meten ms hombres que mujeres pero ms mujeres se quedan y lo utilizan que hombres. +Ese es otro hecho demogrfico. +En trminos psicogrficos, las personas en Second Life son muy distintas de lo que te puedas imaginar, cuando entras y hablas con ellas y las conoces, yo te animo a que lo hagas y lo descubras t. +Pero no son un montn de programadores. +No es fcil describir la demografa. +Si tuviera que explicarlo a grandes rasgos, preguntara si se acuerdan de la gente que estaba muy metida en eBay en los primeros aos. +Gente un poco as: es decir, los primeros usuarios. +Suelen ser creativos. Suelen ser emprendedores. +Muchos de ellos, como unos 55000 hasta ahora, tienen ingresos: ganan dinero, quiero decir, dinero del mundo real, con lo que hacen en Second Life, de forma que sigue tratndose de algo creativo, de construir cosas, crear tu propio negocio, de este estilo. Eso es todo. +JH: Te describes a ti mismo, Philip, como una persona muy creativa cuando eras joven y que le gustaba hacer cosas. +Es decir, es raro escuchar que alguien se describe como muy creativo. +Sospecho que se trata de un eufemismo para denominar a un estudiante C que se pasaba todo el rato en su cuarto, es as? +PR: Yo era, haba veces en las que era un estudiante C. Es gracioso, +Cuando entr en la universidad, estudi Fsica, me volv muy, era gracioso, porque era sin duda un chico ms antisocial. Me pasaba el da leyendo. +Era tmido. Ahora no lo parezco, pero era timidsimo. +Me mud mucho, tambin tuve esas experiencias. +De manera que creo que viva en mi propio mundo, y eso evidentemente contribuye a que te llegues a interesar de verdad en algo. +JH: As que ahora mismo ests en tu quinta vida? +PR: S, si cuentas ciudades. As que no fui tan bueno en el colegio como poda haber sido. Creo que tienes razn. +Nunca fui un obsesionado, ya sabes, un chico de los de sobresaliente. +JH: ltima pregunta. Aqu. +(Pblico: En el panfleto dice...) JH: Quieres comentarlo? +PR: Vale, deja que lo explique. +De manera que dices que en el panfleto dice que puede que nos llegue a gustar ms nuestro yo digital que nuestro yo real, nuestras identidades digitales, ms maleables o manejables, que nuestras identidades reales, y que de hecho, gran parte de las experiencias humanas y de la vida humana se cambiarn al mundo digital. +Y por supuesto es una idea como aterrorizadora. +Un cambio, un choque que asusta. +Supongo que me preguntas qu pienso de ello. JH: Qu le diras a la gente que dijese que es aterrorizador? +(Pblico: Si alguien te lo dijese, me parece inquietante, qu responderas?) PR: Bueno, pues dira un par de cosas. +Una, que es tan inquietante como lo fue Internet o la electricidad +Es decir, es un cambio enorme, pero inevitable. +Ni que echemos para atrs, ni que lo intentemos ni que se intente a nivel poltico va a evitar que estos cambios tecnolgicos nos conecten unos a otros, porque el motivo principal que tiene la gente, para ser creativa y emprendedora va a dar energa a estos mundos virtuales del mismo modo que pas con la Web. +As que este cambio, estoy convencido de que es un cambio muy grande. +No creo que podamos librarnos de esos cambios. +Nos impone desafos que superar. Tenemos que ser mejores que nosotros mismos, en muchos aspectos. +Tenemos que aprender cosas y ser ms tolerantes, y ser ms inteligentes y aprender ms rpido y ser ms creativos, quizs, de lo que normalmente somos en nuestras vidas reales. +Y creo que si ocurre as de verdad en los mundos virtuales, entonces estos cambios, aunque asusten - y lo digo, sean inevitables - al final son para mejor, y por lo tanto algo que deberamos afrontar. +Pero tengo que decir, como muchos de los otros autores y ponentes que han hablado de esto han dicho, ya sabes, abrocha el cinturn de seguridad porque el cambio se aproxima. Van a producirse grandes cambios. +JH: Philip Rosedale, muchas gracias. +La gente ama los coches. +Los coches nos permiten ir a donde queramos cuando queramos. +Son una forma de entretenimiento, una forma de arte, un orgullo de pertenencia. +Hay canciones escritas sobre los coches. +Prince escribi una gran cancin: El Pequeo Corvette Rojo. +No escribi El Pequeo Porttil Rojo o La Pequea Aspiradora Roja. +Escribi sobre un coche. +Y uno de mis favoritos siempre ha sido, Hazle el amor a tu hombre en una furgoneta Chevy, porque ese era mi vehculo cuando yo estaba en la universidad. +El hecho es que, cuando hacemos un estudio de mercado alrededor del mundo, vemos que hay una aspiracin casi universal por parte de la gente a poseer un automvil. +Y 750 millones de personas en el mundo tienen un coche a da de hoy. +Y uno piensa: vaya, eso es mucho! +Pero sabis que? +Eso es solo el 12% de la poblacin. +Realmente tenemos que preguntarnos: Puede el mundo soportar tal nmero de automviles? +Y si nos fijamos en las estimaciones para los prximos 10, 15 o 20 aos, parece que el total mundial de coches podra alcanzar los 1.100 millones de vehculos. +Ahora, si los aparcramos uno detrs de otro envolviendo la Tierra, daran 125 vueltas alrededor de la Tierra. +Hemos hecho grandes progresos con la tecnologa de automocin en los ltimos 100 aos. +Los coches son muchsimo ms limpios, muchsimo ms seguros, ms eficientes. y muchsimo ms econmicos que hace 100 aos. +Pero se mantiene el hecho de que el ADN fundamental del automvil se ha mantenido ms o menos igual. +Si fusemos a reinventar el automvil hoy, en lugar de hace 100 aos, sabiendo lo que sabemos sobre los problemas asociados a nuestro producto y sobre las tecnologas que existen hoy en da, que haramos? +Querramos algo que fuese realmente barato. +Las clula de combustible tienen buena pinta: diez veces menos partes mviles y un sistema de propulsin por clulas de combustible como motor de combustin interna y que slo emite agua. +Y querramos aprovecharnos de la Ley de Moore mediante controles electrnicos y software, y por supuesto, querramos usarlo en nuestro coche. +As que nos embarcamos en la reinvencin en torno a un motor electroqumico, la clula de combustible, con hidrgeno como conductor de energa. +Y primero lleg el AUTOnomy. +El Autonomy realmente fij la visin para el camino a seguir. +Incorporamos todos los componentes clave de un sistema de propulsin por clulas de combustible. +Y creamos un AUTOnomy conducible con el Hy-Wire, y presentamos el Hy-Wire aqu, en esta conferencia el ao pasado. +El Hy-Wire es el primer coche con clula de combustible conducible del mundo y hemos seguido as hasta ahora, con el Sequel. +Y el Sequel es realmente un coche de verdad. +As que, si ponemos el video... Pero la verdadera pregunta clave que seguramente est en cabeza de todos: de donde sacamos el hidrgeno? +Y en segundo lugar, cuando estarn disponibles este tipo de coches? +As que permitnme hablar primero sobre el hidrgeno. +La belleza del hidrogeno es que se puede obtener desde muchas fuentes diferentes: puede venir de combustibles fsiles, puede venir de cualquier via que puede crear la electricidad, incluyendo los renovables. +y puede venir de los biocombustibles. +y eso es muy excitante. +La visin aqui es que cada comunidad local desempee su fuerza natural en la creacin de Hidrogeno. +Una gran cantidad de Hidrogeno es producida hoy en el mundo. +Se produce para eliminar el azufre de la gasolina, lo que creo que es algo irnico... +Se produce en la industria de fertilizantes; Se produce en la industria de creacin de productos qumicos. +Ese hidrgeno se est creando porque hay una buena razn comercial para su uso. +Sin embargo nos dice que sabemos como crearlo, sabemos como crearlo con un coste eficiente, sabemos como manipularlo de forma segura. +Hicimos un anlisis donde tendramos una estacin en cada ciudad con cada una de las 100 ciudades ms grandes de los Estados Unidos, y situando las estaciones de modo que no hubiera una distancia de ms de 3.2 km entre cada estacin en todo momento. +Si pusieramos una cada 40 km en las autopistas, eso hara un total de unas 12.000 estaciones. +Y a un milln de dlares cada una, eso seran aproximadamente 12.000 millones de dlares. +Eso es MUCHO dinero. +Pero si construysemos el Oleoducto de Alaska hoy, eso es la mitad de lo que costara el Oleoducto de Alaska. +Pero la visin mas excitante que hemos visto es realmente el repostaje en casa, del modo en que recargas tu porttil o recargas tu mvil. +As que estamos muy emocionados con el futuro del hidrgeno. +Creemos que la pregunta no es "si o no", sino "cuando". +As que eso es lo nos esta conduciendo para el 2010. +An no hemos visto nada en nuestro trabajo de desarrollo que diga que no es posible. +De hecho, pensamos que el futuro ser conducido por eventos. +As que, como no podemos predecir el futuro, queremos invertir gran parte de nuestro tiempo intentando crear ese futuro. +Estoy muy, muy intrigado por el hecho que nuestros vehculos estn parados el 90% del tiempo: estn estacionados, estn estacionados a nuestro alrededor. +Estn normalmente estacionados a menos de los 30 metros de sus dueos. +Ahora, si tomamos la capacidad de generar energa de un automvil y lo comparamos con la red de electricidad de los Estados Unidos, resulta que el 4% de los automviles, la energa de 4% de los automviles, iguala la de la red elctrica de los EEUU. +Eso es una capacidad enorme de generacin de energa, una capacidad de generacin de energa mvil. +Y el hidrgeno y las clulas de combustible nos dan esa oportunidad de usar nuestros vehculos cuando estn estacionados para generar electricidad para la red. +Y ya hablamos sobre redes de enjambre antes. +Y hablamos sobre el enjambre definitivo, de tener todos los procesadores y todos los coches cuando estn estacionados formando parte de una red global con posibles aplicaciones informticas. +Encontramos esa premisa bastante emocionante. +El automvil pasara por tanto a ser un aparato, no en un sentido de uso domstico, sino en un aparato de energa mvil, una plataforma mvil para la informacin y computacin y la comunicacin, asi como una forma de transporte. +Y la clave de todo esto es hacerlo asequible, hacerlo emocionante, llevarlo por un camino donde haya alguna forma de ganar dinero hacindolo. +Y de nuevo, esto es un gran camino por andar. +Y mucha gente dice: como puedes dormir por la noche cuando te enfrentas a un problema de esa magnitud? +Y yo les digo que duermo como un bebe, y me levanto llorando cada dos horas. +De hecho, el tema de esta conferencia, creo que ha dado en el blanco con una de las claves principales para conseguirlo; las relaciones y el trabajo de equipo. +Muchas Gracias. +Chris Anderson: Larry, Larry, espera, espera, espera, espera... Larry, espera, espera un segundo. +Solo -- tengo tantas preguntas que hacerte... +Slo quiero hacerte una. +Sabes?, puede que me equivoque, pero tengo la impresin de que est en la mente del pblico, hoy, que GM no parece seriamente preocupada sobre algunas de estas ideas medioambientales como algunos de sus competidores japoneses, quizs incluso como Ford. +Hablas en serio?, y no solo, tu sabes, cuando lo quieran los consumidores, cuando los de arriba nos obliguen, las llevaremos a cabo? +Vias a intentar realmente ser pioneros en este aspecto? +Larry Burns: S, vamos totalmente en serio. +Ya hemos invertido ms de 1.000 milllones de dolares, as que, espero que las gente crea que vamos en serio cuando nos estamos gastando tanto dinero. +Y en segundo lugar, es en una propuesta de negocio fundamental. +Ser sincero contigo: nos hemos metido en esto por las oportunidades de crecimiento de negocio. +No podemos hacer crecer nuestro negocio si no resolvemos estos problemas. +El crecimiento de la industria automovilstica se ver limitado por cuestiones de sostenibilidad si no resolvemos estos problemas. +Y hay un principio de estrategia muy simple que dice: Hztelo a ti mismo antes de que te lo hagan otros. +Si nostros podemos ver este posible futuro, otros tambin pueden. +Y queremos ser los primeros en crearlo, Chris. +En 1952, Buckminster Fuller present una propuesta particularmente audaz para el Geoscope. +Era una esfera geodesica de 200 pies de dimetro que estara suspendida sobre el Ro Este en la ciudad de Nueva York, a la vista de las Naciones Unidas. +Era una gran idea, por supuesto, y era una que l senta que verdaderamente poda informar y profundamente afectar la toma de decisiones de este organismo a travs de animaciones de informacin global, tendencias y otro tipo de informacin relacionada con el mundo, en esta esfera. +Y hoy, 45 aos despus, est claro que no necesitamos ms este tipo de claridad ni de pespectiva, pero lo que s tenemos es una tecnologa que se ha perfeccionado. +Hoy en da, no necesitamos un milln de focos para crear una pantalla esfrica. +Podemos utilizar LEDs. +Los LEDs son ms pequeos, baratos, durables y eficientes. +Y lo ms importante para esto, son ms rpidos. +Y esta velocidad, combinada con los micro controladores de alto rendimiento de hoy en da nos permiten simular, en esta pieza, ms de 17,000 LEDs --utilizando slo 64. +Y la manera en que esto sucede es a travs del fenmeno de la persistencia de la visin. +Pero este anillo rota aproximadamente a 1,700 rpm --es decir, 28 veces por segundo. +La velocidad del ecuador es de alrededor de 60 millas por hora. +Existen cuatro micro controladores internos que, cada vez que este anillo lo rota, mientras pasa por la parte trasera del visualizador, detecta una seal de ubicacin +y de ah, los micro controladores internos pueden extrapolar la posicin del anillo en todos los puntos de la revolucin y mostrar arbitrariamente imgenes y animaciones. +Pero en realidad esto es slo el comienzo. +Adems de versiones de mayor resolucin de visualizacin, mi padre y yo estamos trabajando en un nuevo diseo con patente pendiente para una pantalla completamente volumtrica usando el mismo fenmeno. +sto lo logra al hacer rotar los LEDs alrededor de dos ejes. +As que, como puede ver aqu, este es un tablero de circuito de 11 pulgadas de dimetro. +Estos bloques representan los LEDs. +Y as puede ver que, mientras este disco rota alrededor de este eje, crear un disco de luz que podemos controlar. +Eso no es nada nuevo, eso es un reloj de hlice. Esos son los rines que puede comprar para su coche. +Pero lo que s es nuevo, es que al rotar este disco alrededor de este eje, ahora el disco de luz en realidad se convierte en una esfera de luz. +Y por lo tanto, podemos controlar esto con los micro controladores y crear una pantalla tridimensional completamente volumtrica con slo 256 LEDs. +Actualmente esta pieza est en proceso -- saldr en Mayo, pero lo que hemos hecho es crear una pequea demostracin, slo para mostrar la traduccin geomtrica de puntos en una esfera. +Tengo para mostrarles un video corto, pero tengan en cuenta que esto es sin control electrnico, y que adems funciona con slo cuatro LEDs. +Esto es en realidad slo el 1.5% de lo que ser la pantalla terminada en Mayo. +As que, echen un vistazo. +Y aqu puede ver que solamente est rotando alrededor del eje vertical, creando crculos. +Y despus, mientras los otros ejes se integran aqullos se disipan en un volumen. +Y la velocidad del disparador de la cmara en realidad lo hace ligeramente menos efectivo en este caso. +Pero esta pieza saldr en Mayo. +Se mostrar en el Interactive Telecommunications Spring Show en Greenwich Village en Nueva York --estar abierto al pblico, por supuesto los invito a todos a asistir --es un espectculo fantstico. +Hay cientos de estudiantes innovadores con proyectos fantsticos. +Esta pieza, en realidad, se mostrar abajo en el Sierra Simulcast Lounge en los descansos que haya desde ahora y hasta el fin del espectculo. +As que me encantara hablar con todos ustedes, e invitarlos a que vengan y vean el proyecto ms de cerca. +Es un honor estar aqu, muchas gracias. +Esta es ta Zip de Sodom, Carolina del Norte. +Tena 105 aos cuando le tom esta foto. +Siempre deca cosas que me hacan detener a pensar: "El tiempo puede ser un gran curandero, pero no es un especialista en belleza". +Deca: "Prtate bien con tus amigos +porque sin ellos seras un completo extrao". +Esta es una de sus canciones. +Veamos si podemos conectar y hacerlo juntos. +Y Michael Manring me acompaar tocando el bajo. +Dmosle una calurosa bienvenida. +Uno, dos, tres, cuatro. + Mi verdadero amor es una margarita de ojos negros; si no la veo, me vuelvo loco. + Mi verdadero amor vive ro arriba; unos cuantos saltos ms y estar con ella. + Hey, hey, Susie de los ojos negros! Hey, hey, Susie de los ojos negros! + Hey, hey, Susie de los ojos negros! Hey. +Ahora imaginaros a la ta Zip a sus 105 aos en Sodom, Carolina del Norte. +Yo iba y aprenda de ella estas antiguas canciones. +Ella ya no poda cantar mucho, ni tocar. +Yo la sacaba al porche delantero. +Abajo, estaba su nieto cultivando el campo de tabaco con una mula. +Una letrina doble por aqu, a un lado. +Y cantbamos esta vieja cancin. Ella no tena demasiada energa, as que yo cantaba "Hey, hey" y ella simplemente contestaba "Susie de los ojos negros". + Hey, hey, Susie de los ojos negros! Hey, hey, Susie de los ojos negros! + Hey, hey, Susie de los ojos negros! Hey. + Ella y yo fuimos a recoger moras. + Ella se enfad, y a m me cay una buena paliza. + Patos en el estanque, gansos en el ocano, esta preciosidad es el diablo cuando se le antoja. + Hey, hey, Susie de los ojos negros! Hey, hey, Susie de los ojos negros! + Hey, hey, Susie de los ojos negros! hey, +Que suene el banjo! + Venga!, Casmonos l prximo da de Accin de Gracias! + Yo no har nada, ella se buscar la vida. + Ella cocinar blackjacks, yo har salsa de carne; algn da tendremos pollo, quiz. + Hey, hey, hey,hey. Hey, hey, Susie de los ojos negros!, hey! +Una vez ms. + Oh, hey, hey, Susie de los ojos negros!, Hey, hey, Susie de los ojos negros! + Hey, hey, Susie de los ojos negros!, hey. +Gracias, Michael. +Este es Ralph Stanley. +Cuando estudiaba en la Universidad de California en Santa Brbara, en el Instituto de Estudios Creativos especializndome en arte y biologa, l vino al campus. +Fue en 1968, o eso creo, +y toc al estilo bluegrass, pero casi al final del concierto toc el banjo al estilo antiguo el que vino de frica, junto con el banjo. +Este estilo se llama claw-hammer , y l lo haba aprendido de su madre y su abuela. +Me enamor de ese estilo enseguida. +Fui hacia l y le pregunt cmo poda aprenderlo +Y me contest: "Puedes ir a Clinch Mountain, de donde provengo, o a Ashveville o a Mount Airy, Carolina del Norte, algn lugar con mucha tradicin musical. +Porque muchos ancianos an viven y tocan esos estilos del pasado". +As que fui ese mismo verano. +Me encantaron la cultura y la gente. +Y bueno, volv a mis estudios, los termin y les dije a mis padres que quera dedicarme a tocar el banjo. +Pueden imaginarse lo contentos que quedaron. +Y bueno, me gustara mostrarles hoy algunas de las fotografas que tom de mis mentores. +Slo algunos de ellos, pero as quiz puedan hacerse una pequea idea de esta gente. +Y tambin tocar un poco el banjo. Hagamos un poco una mezcla. +Esas ltimas fotografas eran de Ray Hicks, que acaba de fallecer el ao pasado. +Fue uno de los grandes trovadores del folk estadounidense. +Las historias del Viejo Jack que haba aprendido -- hablaba as, y apenas se le poda entender. Pero era realmente magnfico. +Y viva en esa casa, que su bisabuelo haba construido. +Sin agua corriente ni electricidad. Maravilloso, un tipo maravilloso. +Y pueden ver ms fotografas +Tengo una pgina web con un montn de fotografas que he tomado de alguna de esta gente que no he podido mostrarles hoy. +Este instrumento apareci en esas fotografas. Se llama arco de boca. +Es con seguridad el primer instrumento de cuerda del mundo, y todava se toca en las montaas sureas. +Claro, que en aquella poca no se utilizaba una cuerda moderna de guitarra ni nada parecido, +simplemente se tomaba un palo y un intestino de gato y se ataba. +Era difcil para los gatos, pero daba un instrumento pequeo y genial. +Suena algo as. + Han odo las historias que contaban con alegra jvenes y viejos sobre las peripecias de los chicos Johnson? + Para t Kate, para m Sam; los dos tendremos un chico Johnson. + Para t Kate, para m Sam; los dos tendremos un chico Johnson. + Eran exploradores del ejrcito rebelde, eran conocidos por doquier. + Cuando los yanquis los vieron venir tiraron las armas y se escondieron. + Para t Kate, para m Sam; los dos tendremos un chico Johnson. + Para t Kate, para m Sam; los dos tendremos un chico Johnson. +Suena bien, eh? +Creo que fue en 1954, ms o menos. +bamos en el coche por las afueras de Gatesville, Texas, donde pas mi edad ms temprana. +Volvamos del supermercado por las afueras de Gatesville. +Mi madre iba conduciendo; y mi hermano y yo en el asiento de atrs. +Estbamos muy enfadados con mi madre. Mirbamos por la ventana. +Estbamos rodeados por cientos de hectreas de campos de algodn. +Lo que ocurra era que habamos estado en la tienda y mi madre no haba querido comprarnos un tarro de Ovomaltina que tena un cupn para el anillo decodificador del Capitn Medianoche. +Y, to, eso nos cabre. +Y mi madre no estaba muy dispuesta a aguantar demasiado tampoco, iba conduciendo y nos dijo: "Pero bueno! Os creis que podis tener todo lo que queris. +No tenis ni idea de lo duro que es ganar dinero. Vuestro padre trabaja mucho. +Os creis que el dinero crece en los rboles. No habis trabajado ni un da en vuestra vida. +Me ponis enferma. Vais a trabajar este verano". +Par el coche y nos dijo: "Salid!" +Mi hermano y yo nos bajamos. +Parados al borde de cientos de hectreas de algodn. +Haba cerca de cien negros en la zafra. +Mi madre nos cogi por los hombros, y nos condujo a travs del campo. +Busc al capataz y le dijo: "Tengo estos dos niitos que no han trabajado ni un solo da en su vida". +Lgicamente, slo tenamos 8 y 10 aos. +Le dijo: "Los pondra usted a trabajar?" +Seguro que al capataz le debi parecer una idea divertida: poner a trabajar a esos dos niitos blancos de clase media en un campo de algodn... En agosto en Texas... hace calor. +As que nos dio una bolsa a cada uno, de unos 3 metros de largo, as de ancho, y empezamos a recoger algodn. +Ahora, el algodn es suave, pero la planta est llena de espinas. +Y si no sabes muy bien lo que ests haciendo las manos empezarn a sangrarte al momento. +Y mi hermano y yo empezamos a recoger algodn y las manos nos empezaron a sangrar, y entonces... "Mamaa!" +Y mam estaba sentada al lado del coche as. +Ella no se iba a rendir. +Y creo que el capataz vio que tena las de ganar. +Miraba disimuladamente desde atrs y cantaba en voz baja. + "Hay una cuerda larga y ancha en el cielo, lo s. + No quiero que se vaya sin m. + Hay una cuerda larga y ancha en el cielo, lo s. + No quiero que se vaya sin m". +Y toda la gente de alrededor empez a cantar respondiendo, y l cantaba: "Buenas noticias, buenas noticias: viene el carro. + Buenas noticias: viene el carro. + Buenas noticias: viene el carro. + Y no quiero que se vaya sin m". +Mi hermano y yo no habamos escuchado nada igual en nuestra vida. Era tan bonito! +All nos quedamos recolectando algodn, sin quejarnos, sin llorar, mientras cantaban cosas como: "Oh, Mary, no llores" y "Chapoteando en el agua" y "Ya termin" , "Esta pequea luz ma". +Al final, cuando acab el da, habamos recogido cada uno ms o menos un cuarto del saco de algodn. +Pero el capataz fue muy amable y nos dio a cada uno un cheque por un dlar, aunque mi madre nunca nos dej cobrarlo. +Tengo 57 aos y an tengo el cheque. +Mi madre esperaba que aprendiramos el valor del trabajo pesado. +Pero si tienen hijos sabrn que a veces no funciona as. +No, aprendimos algo ms. +Lo primero que aprend aquel da fue que no quera trabajar tan arduamente nunca ms en mi vida. +Y prcticamente nunca lo hice. +Pero tambin aprend que hay gente en este mundo que tiene ese trabajo pesado todos los das, y eso me abri los ojos. +Tambin aprend que una gran cancin puede hacer ms fcil el trabajo arduo. +Y puede integrar a un grupo mejor que cualquier otra cosa. +Aquel da yo tan solo era un nio de 8 aos cuando mi madre me sac del coche en el aquel caluroso campo de algodn en Texas. +Ni siquiera saba que exista la msica... ni que exista. +Pero aquel da trabajando en el campo de algodn, cuando aquella gente empez a cantar, me di cuenta de que me encontraba en el corazn mismo de la msica de verdad, y all es donde siempre he querido estar desde entonces. +Canten esta vieja cancin conmigo. Yo canto: "Hay una cuerda larga y ancha en el cielo, lo s". +Ustedes: "No quiero que se vaya sin m". + "Hay una cuerda larga y ancha en el cielo, lo s". + "No quiero que se vaya sin m". + "Buenas noticias, buenas noticias: viene el carro. + Buenas noticias: viene el carro. + Buenas noticias: viene el carro. + Y no quiero que se vaya sin m". Hace bastante tiempo que ustedes no han recogido algodn, no? +Intentmoslo una vez ms. + Hay una corona de estrellas en el cielo, lo s. + No quiero que se vaya sin m. + Hay una corona de estrellas en el cielo, lo s. + No quiero que se vaya sin m". + Buenas noticias: viene el carro. + Buenas noticias: viene el carro. + Buenas noticias: viene el carro. + Y no quiero que se vaya sin m". +De esto hace ya mucho tiempo, pero record la historia, y la cont en un concierto. +Mi madre estaba entre el pblico. +Lgicamente, estaba contenta de escuchar una historia sobre ella misma, pero despus del concierto vino y me dijo: "David, tengo que decirte algo. +Todo estaba planeado. +Arregl todo con el capataz. Lo arregl con el propietario. +Slo quera que vosotros dos aprendirais el valor del trabajo. +Pero no saba que eso iba a hacerte enamorar de la msica. +Vamos! Buenas noticias: viene el carro. + Buenas noticias: viene el carro. + Buenas noticias: viene el carro. + Y no quiero que se vaya sin m. +Bien, esta es al guitarra de acero. Es un instrumento hecho en EE.UU. +Fue originalmente fabricada por los hermanos Dopyera, que ms tarde fabricaron el dobro, que es un instrumento de cuerpo de madera con un cono de metal que es por donde sale el sonido. +Normalmente se toca sentado sobre las piernas. +Se hizo para tocar msica hawaiana en los aos 20, antes de que existieran las guitarras elctricas, tratando de sacar ms sonido a la guitarra. +Y luego los amigos afroestadounidenses descubrieron que podan utilizar un cuello roto de botella, como este -- un buen Merlot funciona muy bien. +El vino que tomamos ayer poda haber funcionado perfectamente. +Romperlo, ponerlo en el dedo, y deslizarlo sobre las notas. +Este instrumento prcticamente me ha salvado la vida. +Hace 15 aos, no, 14, creo, este ao, mi mujer y yo perdimos a nuestra hija, Sarah Jane, en un accidente de coche, y fue lo ms... casi, casi me llev de este mundo. +Y creo que aprend algo sobre qu es la felicidad al tener que pasar por un dolor tan increble, estando al borde del abismo y queriendo simplemente saltar. +Tena que hacer listas de razones por las que mantenerme con vida. +Tena que sentarme y hacer listas, porque estaba preparado para irme; estaba listo para salir de este mundo. +Y claro, al principio de la lista obviamente estaban Jenny, y mi hijo Zeb, mis padres -no quera hacerles dao. +Pero luego, cuando pensaba ms all de eso, eran las cosas simples. +No me importaba...Tena un programa de radio, Tengo un programa en la radio pblica, "Riverwalk", No me importaba para nada. Ni los premios, ni el dinero, nada. +Nada. Nada. +En la lista haba cosas como ver los narcisos en flor en primavera, el aroma del heno recin segado atrapar una ola y barrenarla, tocar la mano de un beb, el sonido de Doc Watson tocando la guitarra, escuchar los antiguos discos de Muddy Waters y Uncle Dave Macon. +Y para m, el sonido de la guitarra de acero, porque uno de los vecinos de padres me acababa de dar una. +Y me sentaba con ella, y no saba cmo tocarla, pero tocaba las cosas ms tristes que poda tocar. +Y de todos los instrumentos con los que he tocado ha sido el nico con el que realmente he podido tener esa conexin. +Este es un tema que sali de aquello. + He odo que tienes problemas. + Seor, odio escuchar esas noticias. + Pero si quieres hablar de ello, ya sabes que te escuchar. + Las palabras ya no sirven; djame contarte lo que siempre hago. + Slo rompo otro cuello de botella y toco este blues de guitarra de acero. + La gente dice: "Vamos, levnta ese nimo!" + S, ya, es ms fcil decirlo que hacerlo. + Cuando apenas puedes moverte, ellos corren locos de alegra. + A veces pienso que es mejor hundirse en la melancola hasta poder salir a canturrear estos blues de guitarra de acero. + Puedes intentar guardrtelo todo adentro con alcohol, drogas y cigarrillos, pero sabes que eso no te va a llevar a donde quieres llegar. + Pero tengo una medicina aqu que puede que te haga despertar un poco. + Llmame por la maana luego de estos blues de guitarra de acero. + brete ahora. +Ah, creo que tengo tiempo para contaros esto. Mi padre era inventor. +Nos mudamos a California cuando lanzaron el Sputnik, en 1957. +Y l estaba trabajando en giroscopios; tena una serie de patentes por cosas de ese tipo. +Y nos mudamos enfrente de Michael y John Whitney. +Tenan mi edad ms o menos. +Ms tarde terminaron por convertirse en dos de los inventores de la animacin computada. +El padre de Michael estaba trabajando en algo llamado la computadora. +Y yo pens, caramba, pues como sern los pantalones de grandes! +As que esa Navidad -a ver si tengo tiempo para esto- esa Navidad me regalaron el equipo de qumica 'Seor Mago Divert-i-Rama'. +Bueno, es que yo quera ser un inventor como mi padre; y Michael tambin. +Su bisabuelo haba sido Eli Whitney, el inventor de la desmotadora de algodn. +As que miramos aquello - era un equipo de qumica comercial. +Tena tres elementos que nos sorprendieron mucho: azufre, nitrato de potasio y carbn. +Hombre, tenamos slo 10 aos, pero sabamos que con aquello se poda hacer plvora. +Hicimos un poco y lo pusimos en el camino de la entrada y tiramos una cerilla y fi!, sali ardiendo. Ah, fue genial! +Y bueno, obviamente lo siguiente que haba que construir era un can. +No ramos tontos: pusimos delante un panel de madera contrachapada de metro y medio. +Nos apartamos, encendimos aquello, Y salieron volando y atravesaron el panel como si fuera de papel. +A travs del garage. +Dos de ellas aterrizaron en una de las puertas de su nuevo Citron. +Lo desmontamos todo y lo enterramos en su jardn de atrs. +Aquello era Pacific Palisades; y probablemente siga all todava, all detrs. +Bueno, mi hermano se enter de que habamos hecho plvora. +l y sus amigos, que eran mayores, y muy antipticos, +Nos dijeron que nos daran una paliza si no hacamos plvora para ellos. +Nosotros les preguntamos: "Qu vais a hacer con ella?" +Y ellos dijeron: "La derretiremos y haremos combustible para cohetes". +Ya, vale. Entonces os haremos bastante. +As que se la hicimos, y estaba en mi... Ah, bueno, es que nos acabbamos de mudar all. Acabbamos de mudarnos a California. +Mam haba remodelado la cocina; ese da ella no estaba. Tenamos un molde de torta. +Al final, fue Chris Berquist el encargado de derretirla. +Michael y yo estbamos de pie a un lado de la cocina. +El dijo: "S, mira, se est derritiendo. S, el azufre se est derritiendo. +S, no hay problema". +Y sali ardiendo y se volvi, y se qued as, +sin pelo, sin pestaas, sin nada. +Haba restos por todo el armario de la cocina; el aire se llen de humo negro. +Ella volvi a casa, se llev el juego de qumica, y ya nunca lo volvimos a ver. +Pero pensbamos a menudo en eso porque cada vez que ella cocinaba sorpresa de atn saba ligeramente a plvora. +As que tambin me gusta inventar cosas, y creo que terminar mi charla con algo que invent hace tiempo. +Cuando salieron las bateras electrnicas, yo empec a pensar por qu no tomar la forma de msica ms antigua, los ritmos "hambone", y combinarla con las nuevas tecnologas? +Lo llam "traje tronador" . +En ese momento los tambores digitales eran nuevos. +Los puse juntos, cos 12, en un traje. +Ayer les ense alguno de los ritmos hambone; Voy a hacer algunos iguales. +Tengo un pulsador aqu, otro aqu, aqu, aqu. Justo aqu. +Me va a doler bastante si no me quito esto. Vale. +Ahora, los pulsadores suben por esta cola de aqu, van a la batera electrnica, y pueden hacer varios sonidos, como las bateras. +A ver si puedo demostrarlos todos juntos. Tambin puedo cambiar los sonidos pisando este pedal de aqu, y djenme que cierre esta intervencin haciendo un pequeo solo de hambone o algo as. +Gracias, amigos. +Entiendo que esta conferencia fue planeada, y que el tema es: "Del Fue al Todava". +y yo ilustro el "Todava". +Con lo cul, por supuesto, no estoy de acuerdo porque, aunque tengo 94, no estoy "todava" trabajando. +y a cualquiera que me pregunta, "Todava estas haciendo esto o aquello?" +No le respondo porque no estoy "todava" haciendo cosas, estoy haciendo como siempre hice. +Yo todava tengo -- o Use la palabra "todava"?, no fue a propsito. +Tengo una carpeta llamada "Por hacer". Tengo mis planes. +Tengo mis clientes, estoy haciendo mi trabajo como siempre lo hice. +As que esto se hace cargo de mi edad. +Quiero mostrarles mi trabajo para que puedan saber lo que hago y porque estoy aqu. +Esto fue hecho alrededor de 1925. +Todas estas cosas fueron hechas durante los ltimos 75 aos. +Pero, por supuesto, trabajo desde los 25, haciendo ms o menos lo que ven aqu. Esto es una vajilla para la compaa Castleton. +Esto fue una exhibicin en el Museo de Arte Moderno. +Esto esta a la venta en el Museo Metropolitano. +Esto esta todava el Museo Metropolitano, ahora a la venta. +Este es un retrato de mi hija y yo. +Estas son algunas de las cosas que he hecho. +He hecho cientos de ellas por los ltmos 75 aos. +Me llamo a mi misma una hacedora de cosas. +No me llamo diseadora industrial porque soy otras cosas. +Los diseadores industriales quieren hacer cosas nuevas. +La novedad es un concepto comercial, no un concepto esttico. +Tengo entendido que la revista de diseo industrial se llama "Inovacin" +La inovacin no es parte del objetivo de mi trabajo. +Bueno, los hacedores de cosas: ellos hacen las cosas ms bellas, ms elegantes, ms cmodas que los artesanos. +Tengo tanto que decir. Tengo que pensar lo que voy a decir. +Bueno, para describir nuestra profesion de otra manera, a nosotros lo que nos preocupa es la bsqueda ldica de la belleza. +Lo que significa es que la bsqueda ldica de la belleza fue llamada la primera actividad humana. +Sarah Smith, quien fuera profesora de matemticas en MIT, escribi, "La bsqueda ldica de la belleza fue la primera actividad humana -- que todas las caractersticas tiles y todas las caractersticas materiales fueron desarrolladas a partir de la bsqueda ldica de la belleza". +Estos son azulejos. La palabra "ldico" es un aspecto necesario de nuestro trabajo porque, de hecho, uno de nuestros problemas es que tenemos que hacer, producir cosas encantadoras a travs de nuestra vida, y para mi esto son ya 75 aos. +Entonces, cmo puedes, sin secarte, hacer cosas con el mismo placer, como un regalo para otros, por tanto tiempo? +El juego es por lo tanto, una parte importante de nuestra caracterstica como diseadores. +Djenme decirles algo sobre mi vida. +Como dije, empec a hacer todas estas cosas hace 75 aos. +Mi primera exhibicin en los Estados Unidos de Amrica fue en la centsima quincuagsima exhibicin en 1926 -- a la que el gobierno hngaro envi una de mis piezas pintadas a mano como parte de la exhibicin. +Mi trabajo de hecho me llev a travs de muchos paises. y me mostr una gran parte del mundo. +No es que me llevara -- el trabajo no me llev -- Hice las cosas especficamente porque quera usarlas para ver el mundo. +Era increiblemente curiosa de ver el mundo, e hice todas estas cosas, las cuales finalmente me llevaron a ver muchos pases y muchas culturas. +Empec como aprendiz de un artesano hngaro, y esto me ense el sistema de gremios de la Edad Media. +El sistema de gremios: eso significa que cuando era aprendiz, tenia que ensearme a mi misma con el fin de convertirme en una maestra alfarera. +En mi taller donde estudi, o aprend, haba una jerarqua tradicional de maestro, oficial y trabajador especializado, y aprendiz, y yo trabajaba como aprendiz. +El trabajo de aprendiz era muy primitivo. +Eso significaba que de hecho tena que aprender cada aspecto de hacer cermica a mano. +Nosotros molamos la arcilla con nuestros pies cuando llegaba de las colinas. +Despus de eso, tena que ser amasada. Entonces tena que ir a travs de una especie de rodillo. +Y entonces estaba lista finalmente para el torno. +Y ah realmente trabaj como aprendiz. +Mi maestro me llev a preparar hornos porque esto era parte del proceso de horneado, el preparar los hornos, en aquel tiempo. +Y finalmente, recib un documento de que haba terminado mi aprendizaje exitosamente, de que me haba comportado moralmente, y este documento me fue otorgado por el Gremio de Cubridores de Tejados, Excavadores de Vas, Ajustadores de Hornos, Limpiadores de Chimeneas y Alfareros. +Tambin obtuve al mismo tiempo un libro de trabajo que explicaba mis derechos y mis condiciones de trabajo, y todava tengo ese libro. +Primero establec mi taller en mi jardn, e hice cermica que vend en el mercado de Budapest. +Y ahi estaba sentada, cuando mi novio de ese tiempo -- No me refiero a que era un novio como significa ahora -- pero mi novio y yo nos sentamos en el mercado y vendimos las piezas. +Mi madre pens que esto no era muy decoroso, entonces se sent con nosotros para agregarle decoro a esta actividad. +Sin embargo, despus de un tiempo se construy una nueva fbrica en Budapest, una fbrica de cermica, grande. +Y la visit con varias damas, e hice toda clase de preguntas al director. +Y entonces el director me pregunt, Por qu hace todas estas preguntas? +Le dije, yo tambin hago cermica. +Entonces me pregunt, si podria por favor visitarme, y entonces, cuando finalmente lo hizo, y me explic que lo que haca en mi tienda era anacrnico, y que la revolucin industrial haba explotado, y que mejor me uniera a la fbrica. +Ah el hizo un departamento de arte para mi donde trabaj por varios meses. +Sin embargo, todos en la fbrica pasaban su tiempo en el departamento de arte. +El director dijo que haba varias mujeres vaciando y produciendo mis diseos en moldes, y que esto era vendido tambin en Amrica. +Recuerdo que tena bastante xito. +Entonces esto me di posibilidades porque ahora era una oficial, y una oficial tambin puede tomar su mochila e irse a ver el mundo. +Por lo tanto, como oficial, puse un anuncio en el peridico que deca que haba estudiado, que era una oficial con los pis en la tierra y que estaba buscando un trabajo como oficial. +Y recib varias respuestas, y acept una la que quedaba ms lejos de casa, y prcticamente, pens, a medio camino de Amrica. +Y eso fue en Hamburgo. +Entonces le d una mirada a este trabajo en Hamburgo, una alfarera artstica donde todo era hecho en el torno, y entonces, trabaje en un taller donde haba otros alfareros. +Y el primer da, iba tomar mi sitio en el torno -- haba otros tres o cuatro tornos -- y uno de ellos, atrs de donde estaba sentada. haba un hombre jorobado, un sordomudo jorobado, que ola muy mal. +Entonces lo baaba en colonia diariamente, lo que l pensaba que era muy amable, y entonces, l traa pan y mantequilla diariamente, que yo tena que comer como cortesia. +El primer da que vine a trabajar en esta tienda haba una sorpresa en el torno para mi. +Mis colegas haban muy consideradamente puesto en el torno donde se supona que debera trabajar una pieza bien trabajada y natural de los rganos del hombre. +Despues de que lo tir del torno con un movimiento de la mano, ellos estuvieron muy -- Finalmente estaba aceptada, y trabaj ahi por aproximadamente seis meses. +Este fue mi primer trabajo. +Si sigo de esta forma, vamos a estar aqu hasta la media noche. +Asi que me voy a apresurar un poco Moderador: Eva, tenemos aproximadamente cinco minutos. +Eva Zeisel: Esta seguro? +Moderador: Si, estoy seguro. +EZ: Bueno, si esta seguro, Tengo que decirles que en cinco minutos voy a hablar muy rpido. +Y de hecho, mi trabajo me llev a muchos pases porque us mi trabajo para llenar mi curiosidad. +Y entre otras cosas, otros paises en los que trabaj, estuvo la Unin Sovitica, donde trabaj del '32 al '37-- de hecho, al '36. +Y finalmente ah, aunque no tena nada que hacer -- era una experta extranjera. +Me convert en la directora de arte de la industria de vidrio y porcelana, y finalmente bajo las purgas de Stalin -- al inicio de las purgas de Stalin, No saba que cientos de miles de personas inocentes estaban siendo arrestadas. +As que fui arrestada tempranamente en las purgas de Stalin y pas 16 meses en una prisin rusa. +La acusacin fue que haba preparado exitosamente un atentado a la vida de Stalin +Esta fue una acusacin muy peligrosa. +Y si este es el final de mis cinco minutos, quiero decirles que Sobreviv, lo cual fue una sorpresa. +Pero puesto que sobreviv y estoy aqu, y puesto que este es el final de los cinco minutos, Yo -- Moderador: Digame cuando fue su ltimo viaje a Rusia. +No estuvo ahi recientemente? +EZ: Oh, de hecho, este verano, la fbrica Lomonosov fue comprada por una compaia americana, y me invitaron. +Se dieron cuenta de que haba trabajado ah en el 33, y vinieron a mi estudio en Rockland County, y trajeron a 15 de sus artistas a visitarme ahi. +Y me invitaron a ir a la fbrica rusa el verano pasado, en julio, a preparar algunas piezas, disear algunas piezas. +Y puesto que no me gusta viajar sola, tambin invitaron a mi hija, yerno y nieta, as que tuvimos un encantador viaje para ver la Rusia de hoy, lo cual no es una vista muy agradable ni feliz. +Aqui estoy ahora, es este el final? Gracias. +Lo que me gustara que hicieran es, rpidamente, algo como saludar asintiendo con la cabeza a la persona a su derecha y luego asentir con la cabeza a la persona a su izquierda. +Ahora, lo ms probable es que durante el ltimo invierno, si hubiesen sido una colmena, ya sea ustedes o una de las dos personas a las que saludaron habran muerto. +Ahora, eso es una horrorosa cantidad de abejas. +y este es el segundo ao seguido que hemos perdido ms del 30 por ciento de las colonias o aproximamos que hemos perdido 30 por ciento de las colonias durante el invierno. +Eso son muchas, muchas abejas, y esto es muy importante. +Y la mayora de esas prdidas son por cosas que sabemos. +Sabemos que existen estos caros varroa que han introducido y causado muchas prdidas y tambin tenemos este nuevo fenmeno del que habl el ao pasado, Problema de Colapso de Colonias. +Y aqu vemos una foto arriba de un cerro en Central Valley en Diciembre pasado +y abajo pueden ver todos esos jardines o jardines temporales, donde se llevan las colonias hasta Febrero y luego son transportadas a los almendros. +Y un escritor de documentales que estuvo aqu y vio esto dos meses despus de que estuve all, lo describi no como colmenas, sino como un cementerio, con estas cajas blancas vacas sin abejas restantes en ellas. +Ahora, voy a resumir un ao de trabajo en dos frases para decir que hemos estado intentando descubrir cul es la causa de esto. +Y lo que sabemos, es que es como si las abejas se hubiesen resfriado. +Y este resfro ha arrasado la poblacin de abejas. +En algunos casos, y de hecho, en la mayora de los casos en un ao este resfro fue causado por un virus nuevo para nosotros, o identificado recientemente por nosotros, llamado el virus de la Parlisis Aguda Israel. +Se le llam as porque un tipo en Israel fue el primero en descubrirlo y ahora se arrepiente profundamente de haberla llamado as, porque por supuesto, est lo que implica, +pero creemos que este virus es bastante ubicuo. +Y an no tenemos la respuesta a esto y pasamos mucho tiempo tratando de resolverlo. +Pensamos que tal vez es una mezcla de factores. +Sabemos, por el trabajo de un grupo bien grande y dinmico de personas, saben, estamos encontrando muchos pesticidas diferentes en la colmena y sorprendentemente algunas veces las colmenas mas saludables tienen la mayor cantidad de pesticidas. Y as descubrimos todas estas cosas extraas que ni comenzamos a entender. +Y as, esto abre la idea de observar la salud de las colmenas. +Ahora, por supuesto, si pierdes muchas colonias, los apicultores pueden reemplazarlas muy rpido. +Y es por eso que nos hemos podido recuperar de tantas prdidas. +Si perdemos una de cada tres vacas en el invierno, saben, la Guardia Nacional estara en las calles. +Pero lo que los apicultores pueden hacer, si tienen una colonia sobreviviente, pueden dividir esa colonia en dos. +y luego a la mitad que no tiene reina, le pueden comprar una. +Llega por correo, puede venir de Australia o Hawai o Florida y pueden introducir a esa reina. +Y de hecho, America fue el primer pas en hacer entregas de reina por correo y es, de hecho, parte del cdigo postal que se tiene que enviar a las reinas por correo para poder asegurarse de que tendremos suficientes abejas en este pas. +Si no slo quieren una reina, pueden comprar un paquete de tres libras de abejas que llega por correo y, por supuesto, la Oficina de Correos se preocupa mucho cada vez que llegan, su paquete de tres libras de abejas, saben, +Y pueden instalarlo en su colmena y reemplazar la muerta. +Lo que significa que los apicultores son muy buenos para reemplazar a las muertas y por lo mismo han sido capaces de cubrir esas prdidas. +Asi que aunque hemos perdido el 30 por ciento de las colonias cada ao, el mismo nmero de colonias ha existido en el pas, casi 2.4 millones de colonias. +Ahora, esas prdidas son trgicas en muchos frentes y uno de esos frentes es el apicultor. +y es realmente importante hablar de los apicultores primero, porque los apicultores estn entre las personas ms fascinantes que pueden conocer. +Si este fuese un grupo de apicultores, tendramos de todo desde el miembro portador de tarjeta de la NRA (asociacin nacional de rifles) quien es, ya saben, vive libre o muere, al, ya saben, granjero estrafalario auto expresivo de cerdos de patio trasero de San Francisco +Y tienes a toda esta gente en la misma sala y estn todos comprometidos y llevndose bien, y estn todos all por la pasin a las abejas. +Ahora, existe la otra parte de esa comunidad que son los apicultores comerciales, esos que hacen su vida solo de la apicultura. +Y ellos tienden a ser de las personas ms independientes, tenaces, intuitivas, saben?, personas inventivas que puedan llegar a conocer. +Son simplemente fascinantes y son as en todo el mundo. +Tuve el privilegio de trabajar en Hait, slo por dos semanas al principio de este ao +y Hait, si alguna vez han estado all, es una tragedia. +Digo, pueden haber 100 explicaciones de por que Hait es la nacin empobrecida que es, pero no existe excusa alguna para presenciar esa clase de miseria. +Pero conoces a este apicultor, y conoc a este apicultor aqu, y es uno de los apicultores ms entendidos que he conocido. +Sin educacin formal, pero muy entendido. +Necesitbamos cera de abejas para un proyecto en el que trabajbamos; era tan hbil, que fue capaz de derretir el mejor bloque de cera de abejas que he visto con estiercol, latas y su velo que us como tamz, aqui en este prado y esa ingenuidad es inspiradora. +Tambin tenemos a Dave Hackenberg, que es el nio smbolo del PCC. +el fu el primero en identificar esta enfermedad y en dar la alarma. +Y l tiene una historia con estos camiones, y ha movido estas abejas por toda la costa. +Mucha gente habla sobre camiones y la mudanza de abejas, y cmo es algo malo, pero lo hemos hecho durante miles de aos. +Los antiguos Egipcios solan mover abejas por el Nilo en balsas, asi que la idea de una fuerza de abejas movible no es nueva en lo absoluto, +y una de nuestras preocupaciones reales con el Problema de Colapso de Colonias, es el hecho de que cuesta demasiado dinero reemplazar las colonias muertas. +Y puedes hacerlo un ao de corrido, puedes ser capz de hacerlo dos aos de corrido, +pero si ests perdiendo de un 50 a un 80 por ciento de tus colonias, no puedes sobrevivir tres aos de corrido y estamos verdaderamente preocupados de perder este segmento de nuestra industria. +Y esto es importante en muchos frentes, y uno de ellos es a razn de la cultura dentro de la agricultura. +Y estos apicultores migratorios son los ltimos nmadas de Amrica. +Saben?, recogen sus colmenas; mueven a sus familias una o dos veces al ao. +Y si miran Florida, en Dade City, Florida, all es donde van todos los apicultores de Pennsylvania. +Y luego 20 millas ms abajo por la carretera esta Groveland, y es all donde van todos los apicultores de Winsconsin. +Y si alguna vez estn en Central Valley en Febrero, vayan a este caf, Kathy and Kate's, a las 10 de la maana +y alli es donde llegan todos los apicultores despus de una noche de trasladar abejas a los bosquecillos de almendros. +Todos toman su desayuno y se quejan de todos all mismo y es una gran experiencia, y de verdad los animo a ir a esta cafetera a esa hora, porque es una experiencia Americana bien esencial. +Y vemos a estas familias, estas familias nmadas, saben, de padre a hijo, de padre a hijo, y estos tipos llevan un dolor. +Y no son gente a la que le guste pedir ayuda, aunque son la gente ms dispuesta a ayudar de todos los tiempos. +Si hay un tipo que pierde todas sus abejas por el ajuste de un camin, todos le aportan 20 colmenas para ayudarlo a reemplazar a las colonias perdidas. +As que creo que es una comunidad muy dinmica, histrica y emocionante con la que estar involucrado. +Por supuesto, la importancia real de las abejas no es la miel. +Y aunque los animo mucho a todos a que usen miel, +me refiero a que es el endulzante ms tico, y ya saben, es un endulzante dinmico y divertido. +Pero estimamos que uno de cada tres trozos de la comida que comemos, es directa o indirectamente polinizada por las abejas. +Asi que si no tuviesemos abejas, no es que nos murisemos de hambre, pero claramente nuestra dieta se veria disminuida. +Se dice que para las abejas, la flor es la fuente de la vida, y para las flores, las abejas son las mensajeras del amor. +Y ese es realmente un dicho sensacional, porque en verdad, las abejas son las trabajadoras sexuales de las flores. Saben, les pagan por sus servicios. +Les pagan con el polen y el nctar, para mover la esperma masculina, el polen, de flor en flor. +Y hay flores que son auto infrtiles. Eso significa que no pueden -- que el polen de su flor no puede fertilizarlas. +Asi, en un huerto de manzanas por ejemplo, hay filas de 10 manzanas de una variedad y luego otro rbol de manzana, esa es una clase distinta de polen. +Y las abejas son muy fieles. +Cuando andan polinizando o recogiendo el polen de una flor, se quedan exclusivamente con ese cultivo para ayudar a generar. +Y por supuesto, estn "hechas" para cargar este polen. +Acumulan electricidad esttica y el polen salta a ellas y ayuda a diseminar ese polen de flor en flor. +De todas formas, las abejas son una minora. +Las abejas no son nativas de Amrica; fueron introducidas con los colonos. +Y hay, de hecho, ms especies de abejas que mamferos y pjaros juntos. +Slo en Pennsylvania hemos hecho sondeos de abejas durante 150 aos, y bastante intensamente durante los ltimos tres aos. +Hemos identificado ms de 400 especies de abejas en Pennsylvania. +32 especies no han sido identificadas ni encontradas en los Estados Unidos desde 1950. +Ahora, eso podra ser porque no hemos hecho un buen muestreo, pero creo que s sugiere que algo anda mal con la fuerza polinizadora. Y estas abejas son fascinantes. +Tenemos a los abejorros en la cima. +y los abejorros son lo que llamamos eusociales: no son verdaderamente sociales, porque slo la reina lo es, durante el invierno. +Tambin tenemos a las abejas del sudor, que son pequeas gemas que vuelan. +Son como pequeas moscas y vuelan por todos lados. +Y luego tenemos otro tipo de abejas, a las que llamamos cleptoparsitas, que es una forma muy elaborada de decir: de mala mentalidad, asesina -- cul es la palabra que estoy buscando? ... Asesina Audiencia: abeja? +Dennis vanEngelsdorp: Abeja, bien, gracias. +Lo que las abejas hacen, es quedarse all. Estas abejas solitarias hacen un hoyo en la tierra o hacen un hoyo en una rama y recolectan polen y hacen una bola con l, y luego ponen un huevo en ella. +Bueno, estas abejas asesinas se quedan fuera del hoyo y esperan a que esa madre salga volando, entran, se comen el huevo y ponen su propio huevo all para no hacer ningn trabajo. +Y, de hecho, si sabes que tienes estas abejas cleptoparsitas, sabes que tu medio ambiente es saludable, porque estas abejas estn en la cima de la cadena alimenticia. +Y, de hecho, existe hoy una lista roja de polinizadores que nos preocupa que hayan desaparecido, y al principio de esa lista hay varias de estas cleptoparsitas, pero tambien abejorros. +Y, de hecho, si ustedes viven en la Costa Oeste vallan a este sitio web, realmente estn buscando a gente que busque a algunos de estos abejorros, porque creemos que algunos se han extinguido. O que la poblacion a declinado. +Y por lo tanto, no son slo las abejas las que estan en problemas, pero no entendemos a estos polinizadores nativos o a todas esas otras partes de nuestra comunidad. +Y, por supuesto, las abejas no son el nico factor importante aqu. +Existen otros animales que polinizan, como los murcilagos, y los murcilagos tambin estn en problemas. +Y me alegro de ser un hombre abeja y no un hombre murcilago, porque no hay dinero para investigar los problemas de los murcilagos. +Y los murcilagos estn muriendo a una tasa extraordinaria. +El sndrome de nariz blanca ha arrasado la poblacion de murcilagos. +Hay una cueva en Nueva York que tena 15.000 murcilagos y quedan 1.000, es como si San Francisco se convirtiese en tres aos en la mitad de la poblacion de este condado, +y eso es increble y no hay dinero para hacerlo. +Pero me alegra decir que pienso que sabemos cul es la causa de todas estas enfermedades y esa causa es PDN: Problema del Dficit de Naturaleza. +y pienso que lo que tenemos en nuestra sociedad es que nos olvidamos de nuestra conexin con la naturaleza. +Y pienso que si nos volvemos a conectar con la naturaleza, seremos capaces de tener los recursos y el inters para resolver estos problemas. +Y pienso que existe una cura fcil para el PDN +y esa es el hacer prados y no cspedes. +Pienso que hemos perdido nuestra conexin y esta es una forma maravillosa de reconectar con nuestro medio ambiente. +He tenido el privilegio de vivir junto a un prado recientemente y es demasiado comprometedor. +y si miramos a la historia de los cspedes, es de hecho bastante trgica. +El cesped sola ser, doscientos, trescientos aos atrs un smbolo de prestigio, y as, eran slo los ricos los que podian mantener estos, de hecho, desiertos verdes: son totalmente estriles. +Los americanos en el 2001 gastaron -- el 11 por ciento de todo el uso de pesticidas fue utilizado en cspedes. +Cinco por ciento de los gases de efecto invernadero son producidos por nuestras cortadoras de pasto. +Y as se hace increble la cantidad de recursos que hemos gastado manteniendo nuestros cspedes, que son estos biosistemas intiles. +por lo que necesitamos reconsiderar esta idea. +De hecho, saben, la Casa Blanca sola tener ovejas al frente para ayudar a financiar la Primera Guerra Mundial, lo que probablemente no es una mala idea; no sera una mala idea. +Quiero decir esto, no porque me oponga completamente a cortar nuestros cspedes, +creo que tal vez existe una ventaja en mantener cspedes en una escala limitada y creo que estamos siendo animados a hacerlo. +Pero tambin quiero reforzar algunas de las ideas que hemos escuchado aqui, porque el tener un prado o vivir cerca de uno es transformador. +Lo maravilloso de esa coneccin que podemos tener con lo que esta ah. +Y ste es un compaero, y sta es una relacin que jams se seca. +Tambin, nunca se te acaba la compaa mientras bebes de este vino. +y los animo a mirar eso. +Ahora, no todos nosotros tenemos un prado, o cspedes que podamos adaptar, por lo que siempre podemos, por supuesto, hacer un prado en un macetero. +Las abejas, aparentemente pueden ser la puerta, saben, para otras cosas. +No estoy diciendo que deban plantar un campo de hierba de la buena, sino un buen campo herbal. +Pero tambin podemos tener esta gran comunidad de cuidad o apicultores de azotea, estos apicultores que viven -- Esto es en Paris, donde viven estos apicultores, +y todos debiesen tener una colmena, porque es la cosa mas increble y maravillosa. +Y si queremos curarnos de PDN, o Problema del Deficit de Naturaleza, creo que esta es una manera increble de hacerlo. +Ten una colmena y planta un prado, y mira esa vida volver a tu vida. +Y con eso, creo que lo que podemos hacer, si hacemos esto, es poder asegurarnos que nuestro futuro -- nuestro futuro mas perfecto -- incluya apicultores, incluya abejas e incluya esos prados. +Y ese viaje, ese viaje de transformacin que ocurre, mientras crece tu prado y mientras mantienes a tus abejas o ves a esas abejas nativas -- es extremadamente emocionante. +Y espero que lo vivan y espero que me lo cuenten un da. +Asi que muchas gracias por estar aqui. Muchas muchas gracias. +Estas rocas han estado golpeando a la Tierra por cerca de tres billones de aos, y son responsables de mucho de lo que ha sucedido en nuestro planeta. +Este es un ejemplo de un meteorito real, y pueden ver todo el hierro derretido debido a la velocidad y al calor cuando un meteorito golpea la tierra, y cuanto de el sobrevive y se derrite. +De un meteorito del espacio, pasamos ac a un Sputnik original. +Este es uno de los siete Sputniks sobrevivientes que no fueron lanzados al espacio. +Esta no es una copia. +La era espacial comenz hace 50 aos en Octubre, y es exactamente as como se vea el Sputnik. +Y no sera divertido hablar de la era espacial sin ver un bandera que fue llevada a la luna y de regreso, en el Apolo 11. +Cada astronauta pudo llevar cerca de diez banderas en sus kits personales. +Ellos las traeran de regreso y las enmarcaran. +Esto realmente ha sido llevado de la luna y de regreso. +Eso es para la diversin. +La aparicin de los libros es, por supuesto, importante. +Y no seria muy interesante hablar sobre la aparicin de los libros sin tener una copia de una Biblia Guttenberg. +Ustedes pueden ver lo porttil y manejable que era tener su propia Guttenberg en 1455. +Pero lo interesante sobre la Biblia Guttenberg y el inicio de esta tecnologa, no es el libro. +Vern, el xito del libro no fue gracias a la lectura. +En 1455, nadie saba leer. +Entonces por que la imprenta tuvo xito? +Esta es una pagina original de una Biblia Guttenberg. +Aqu estn viendo uno de los primeros libros impresos usando tipos mviles en la historia del hombre, hace 550 aos. +Estamos viviendo en la era al final de la vida de los libros donde el papel electrnico indudablemente lo reemplazar. +Pero por que es esto tan interesante? Aqu esta la historia resumida. +Resulta que cerca del ao 1450, la Iglesia Catlica necesitaba dinero, as que imprimieron perdones -- ellos escribieron a mano estas cosas llamadas indulgencias, que eran perdones en pedazos de papel. +Que llevaron a travs de toda Europa y vendieron por los cientos o por los miles. +Te sacaban del purgatoria ms rapido. +Y cuando se invent la imprenta se dieron cuenta de que podan imprimir indulgencias, que era el equivalente a imprimir dinero. +As que toda la Europa Occidental comenz a comprar prensas de impresin en 1455 para imprimir miles y luego cientos de miles, y finalmente millones de pequeos pedazos de papel que te sacaban del infierno intermedio y te llevaban al cielo. +Esa es la razn del xito de la imprenta, y es por eso que Martn Lutero, clav sus 90 tesis en la puerta: porque se quejaba del accionar enloquecido de la Iglesia Catlica al imprimir indulgencias y venderlas en cada pueblo y villa y ciudad en toda la Europa Occidental. +As que la imprenta, damas y caballeros, surgi completamente por la impresin de perdones y no tenia nada que ver con la lectura. +Ms sobre esto maana. Tambin tengo fotos de la biblioteca para los que han pedido fotografas. +Tendremos algunas maana. +En vez de mostrarles un objeto del escenario Har algo especial por primera vez. +Les mostrare como es que se ve la biblioteca, de acuerdo? +Bueno, estoy casado con la mujer ms maravillosa del mundo. +Sabrn porque en un minuto, porque cuando fui a ver a Eileen, esto es lo que le dije que quera construir. +Esta es la biblioteca de la imaginacin humana. +El cuarto en si tiene tres pisos de alto. +En los paneles de vidrio hay 5000 aos de imaginacin humana que estn controlados por computador. +El cuarto es un teatro. Cambia de color. +Y a travs de toda la biblioteca hay objetos diferentes, espacios diferentes. +Esta diseada como una impresin de Escher. +Aqu ven el nivel inferior de la biblioteca donde la exhibicin cambia constantemente. +Pueden caminar. Pueden tocar. +Pueden ver exactamente cuantos de este tipo de objetos caben en una sala. +Ah esta mi propio Saturn V. +Todos deberan tener uno. Pueden ver en el nivel inferior los libros y los objetos. +En todos los paneles, esta la historia de la imaginacin. +Hay un puente de vidrio que pueden crusar que esta suspendido en el espacio. +Es un salto de imaginacin. +Como es que creamos? +Espero mostrarles maana uno o dos objetos mas del escenario, pero por hoy solo quera decir gracias por todas las personas que vinieron y nos hablaron sobre esto. +Y Eileen y yo estamos encantados de abrir nuestro hogar y compartirlo con la comunidad TED. +TED es sobre los patrones en las nubes. +Es sobre las conexiones. +Es sobre ver cosas que todos ya han visto antes pero pensar sobre ellas en formas que nadie ha pensado anteriormente. +Y eso es lo que es el descubrimiento y la imaginacin. +Por ejemplo, podemos mirar un modelo de una molcula de ADN aqu. +Ninguno de nosotros realmente ha visto una, pero sabemos que existe porque se nos ha enseado a comprender esta molcula. +Pero tambin podemos ver una maquina Enigma de los Nazis en la Segunda Guerra Mundial era una maquina codificadora y decodificadora. +Ahora, ustedes podran decir, Que tiene esto que ver? +Bueno, esto es el cdigo de la vida, y este es un cdigo de la muerte. +Estas dos molculas codifican y decodifican. +Pero aun as, mirndolas, ustedes veran una maquina y una molcula. +Pero una vez que las ven de una manera distinta, se dan cuenta que ambas cosas estn conectadas. +Y estn conectadas principalmente por esto. +Vern, este es un modelo del cerebro humano, de acuerdo? +Y es raro, porque nunca vemos el cerebro. +Vemos el crneo. Pero ah esta. +Toda la imaginacin, todo lo que pensamos, sentimos, viene a travs del cerebro humano. +Y una vez que creamos nuevos patrones en este cerebro, una vez que formamos el cerebro de un nuevo modo, nunca vuelve a su forma original. +Y les dar un rpido ejemplo. +Pensamos acerca de la Internet. Pensamos acerca de la informacin que viaja a travs de la Internet. +Y nunca pensamos sobre la conexin oculta. +Pero traje conmigo un trozo de carbn -- aqu esta, un trozo de carbn. +Y que tiene que ver un trozo de carbn con la Internet? +Vern, toma la energa de un trozo de carbn mover un megabyte de informacin a travs de la red. +As que cada vez que descarguen un archivo, cada megabyte es un trozo de carbn. +Lo que eso significa es, un archivo de 200 megabytes se ve as, damas y caballeros. de acuerdo? +As que las prxima vez que descarguen un gigabyte, o dos gigabytes, no es gratis, de acuerdo? +La conexin es la energa que toma hacer funcionar la red y hacer todo lo que pensamos posible, posible. +Gracias, Chris. +Os voy a poner un vdeo de corta duracin. +50.000 libras. El 5 de diciembre de 1985, una botella de Lafitte que databa de 1787 fue vendida... ...por 105.000 libras, un rcord mundial nueve veces mayor al anterior. +Sr. Forbes. Kip Forbes fue su comprador,... ...hijo de uno de los millonarios ms extravagantes del siglo XX. +El propietario original de la botella result ser... ...uno de los enfilos ms entusiastas del siglo XVIII. +El Chteau Lafitte es uno de los vinos ms laureados del mundo. El prncipe de toda bodega de vinos. +Benjamin Wallace: esto esto todo lo que queda de la cinta de video de un evento ...que di a lugar el enigma ms longevo del actual mundo vincola. +Y ese enigma existi debido a un seor llamado Hardy Rodenstock. +En 1985 anunci a sus amigos del mundo vincola... ...que l haba logrado este increble descubrimiento. +En Pars, unos obreros haban derribado una pared de ladrillos... ...y dieron con esta bodeguilla de vinos ocultos... aparentemente de propiedad de Thomas Jefferson. 1878, 1784. +Hardy no revelara el nmero exacto de botellas... ...tampoco el sitio exacto en el que se encontraba la edificacin... ...ni quin era el dueo de la misma. +El enigma sigui latente durante unos 20 aos. +Y empez a ser resuelto en 2005 gracias a este hombre. +Bill Koch es un millonario de Florida que posee cuatro de las botellas de Jefferson... ...y comenz a sospechar.. +Y termin gastando mas de un milln de dlares y contratando a ex-agentes del FBI... ...y de Scotland Yard para que llegaran al fondo del asunto. +Actualmente hay pruebas slidas que certifican que Hardy Rodenstock es un estafador... ...y que las botellas de Jefferson erasn falsas +Pero durante esos 20 aos... ...un increble nmero de personalidades expertas y eminentes... ...del mundo del vino estuvieron volcadas en la bsqueda de estas botellas. +Creo que ellos queran creer que la botella de vino ms caro... ...del mundo debe ser la mejor botella de vino del mundo... ...as como la ms difcil de encontrar. +En m fue creciendo el inters por saber, casi de manera voyeurista, sobre... ...el porqu la gente gasta semejantes cantidades de dinero... ...no slo en vinos sino en innumerables cosas. y.... Viven una vida mejor que la ma? +Por ello, decid embarcarme en una aventura. +Con el generoso patrocinio de una publicacin en la que escribo a veces... ...decid probar los mejores productos, o los ms caros o los ms codiciados.. ...entre una docena de categoras... ...lo que fue una aventura extenuante, como se podrn imaginar +Este fue el primero de ellos. +mucha de la carne Kobe que ven es los EEUU, no es la verdadera cosa +puede provenir de ganado Wagyu.. ...pero no viene de la Prefectura Appalachian Hyogo de Japn. +Existen muy pocos lugares en EE.UU. donde puedes probar verdadera carne de Kobe... ...y uno de ellos es el restaurante de Wolfgang Puck, llamado CUT, en Los ngeles. +Fui all y ped un entrecot de 200 gramos de peso que costaba 160 dlares. +Y me lleg, y era diminuto. +Me sent indignado. +Es decir, 160 dlares por esto? +Entonces, prob un bocado... ...y dese que fuera an ms pequeo, porque la carne de Kobe es muy suntuosa. +Ni siquiera era como un filete, sino como foie gras. +Caso no pude terminrmelo. +Me sent muy feliz cuando lo hice. +Entonces, el fotgrafo que hizo las fotos para este proyecto... ...por alguna razn incluy a su perro en muchas de estas fotos... ...y es por eso que veran a este recurrente personaje. +Y con l quiero comunicaros... ...que no pienso que ese entrecot mereciera la pena su precio. +Trufas blancas. +Una de las exquisiteces culinarias ms caras por su peso del mundo. +Para probarlas acud a un restaurante de Mario Batali... ...en Manhattan. Del Posto se llamaba. +El camarero me dispuso un pedazo de trufa blanca... ...y un pelador, y, una vez pelada, la mezcl con mi plato de pasta y dijo... ..."Le gusta al seor las trufas?" +El encanto de las trufas blancas reside en su aroma. +De verdad, no reside en su sabor. Ni tampoco en su textura. +Reside en su olor. +Aquellos blancos y resplandecientes copos se mezclaron con los tallarines... Diez segundos despus, se haba desvanecido +Y todo lo que me quedaron fueron pequeos copos mal aspectados en mi plato de pasta que... ...habian cumplido su propsito.. ...tengo miedo de decir, que esto tambin me decepcion. +Huvo varios --- Muchos de estos elementos fueron decepciones. +S. +No poda conseguir que me pagaran para ir all. +Aunque me consiguieron una visita guiada. +Esta habitacin de hotel mide 1.300 metros cuadrados. +Tiene vistas en 360 grados. +Cuatro terrazas. +Fue diseada por el arquitecto I.M. Pei. +Su reserva trae incluida un Rolls Royce y chfer. +Tambin una bodega de vinos de la que puedes coger lo que quieras. +Incluso haba vinos Opus One cuando realic la visita, algo que me alegr ver. +30.000 dlares por una noche de hotel. +Esto es un jabn hecho a partir de nanopartculas de plata... ...las cuales tienen propiedades antibacterianas. +Me lav la cara con l esta maana para prepararme para esta conferencia. +Y su tacto era suave y ola bien... ...pero tengo que decir que nadie aqu... ...me ha hecho cumplido alguno sobre lo limpia que est mi cara hoy. +Y, adems, nadie me ha hecho ninguna referencia a los vaqueros que llevo puestos. +Estos, los cuales llevo puestos, han sido un obsequio de GQ, pero les dir ...no solamente NO obtuve un cumplido de parte de Uds.. ...y no he tenido un cumplido de nadie... ...durante los meses que los he tenido y llevado puesto. +No creo que el hecho de recibir un cumplido... ...sea la manera apropiada para certificar el valor de algo... ...pero pienso que en el caso de un artculo de moda, de una prenda de vestir... ..es una mtrica razonable. +Dicho eso, hay mucho trabajo invertido en stos... +Estn hechos de algodn orgnico de Zimbawe recogido a mano... ...que fue cosido con delicadeza... ...y luego teido a mano con color ail natural veinticuatro veces. +Y ni un slo cumplido. +Gracias. +Armando Manni es un cineasta retirado que produce este aceite... ...a partir de un olivo que slo crece en una ladera de Toscana, Italia. +Y se esfuerza mucho para proteger el aceite de oliva del oxgeno y la luz +Usa botellas minsculas, con el cristal tintado... ...y cierra las boettala con gas inerte +Una vez que pone en venta un lote de botellas... ...lleva regularmente a cabo anlisis moleculares y publica los resultados en lnea... ...de manera que puedas conectarte a Internet y mirar tu botella a partir de su cdigo... ...ver cmo sus propiedades fenlicas van desarrollndose... ...y evaluar su frescura. +Hice una cata a ciegas con veinte personas de este aceite de oliva y otros cinco ms. +Su sabor era bueno, interesante. +Era como muy verde, muy de pimienta. +Pero en una cata a ciegas, fue el ltimo lugar. +Y el aceite de oliva que prob en primer lugar fue, en realidad, una botella de... ...aceite de oliva Whole Foods 365 que haba estado oxidndose en mi cocina... ...durante seis meses. +Un tema recurrente es, que muchas de estas cosas son de Japn Ya os iris dando cuenta. +No juego al golf, por lo que no pude probar ninguno de estos... ...pero hice una entrevista a alguien que los posea. +Incluso aquellos que comercializan estos palos diran que... ...estos poseen cuatro ejes centrales que minimizan la prdida de velocidad de los mismos... ...y, por lo tanto, golpean la bola ms fuertemente. Pero tambin diran que... ...no tienen una mejora de rendimiento equivalente a los 57000 dlares que cuestan. +Pagis por diamantes... ...incrustados en oro y platino. +Asegur el dueo de estos palos en la entrevista... ...que los palos le han hecho muy feliz, as que... +Ah s?! Sabis qu es esto? +Es un caf elaborado a partir de un proceso poco corriente. +El luwak es una civeta de palmera asitica. +Es un gato que vive en rboles... ...y por la noche baja de estos y merodea por las plantaciones de caf. +Parece ser que es un devorador muy delicado y... ...devora nicamente las cerezas de caf ms maduras. +Entonces, una enzima en su tracto digestivo hurga en las alubias... ...y gente con el para nada envidiable trabajo de recoger los excrementos de estos gatos... ...se adentran en el bosque para recoger los "resultados"... ...y convertirlos en caf. Aunque tambin se puede comprar... ...antes de ser convertidos. +Pues s. +sin relacin ...en Japn se est desatando la lcura de los retretes. +Existe un retrete que incorpora un reproductor MP3. +Hay otro que despide fragancias. +Otro que analiza el contenido de la taza... ...y transmite los resultados a tu mdico a travs del correo electrnico. +Es como un centro de salud casero... ...y es el rumbo que ha tomado la tecnologa japonesa para retretes. +Este no incorpora tanto cachivaches... ...pero en cuanto a funcionalidad es claramente el mejor: el Neorest 600. +No pude conseguir que nadie me dejase uno para probarlo... ...pero fui a Manhattan al saln de exposicin del fabricante, Toto... ...y en los lavabos, fuera del saln de exposicin, tenan uno que se poda usar. Y as hice. +Es completamente automtico; te acercas a l, y la tapa se levanta. +El asiento est precalentado. +Hay un chorro de agua que te limpia. +Y otro de aire que te seca. +Te levantas, y la cisterna funciona por s misma. +La tapa se cierra, y se limpia automticamente. +No se trata slo de un avance tecnolgico... ...sino que creo que es tambin un avance cultural. +Es decir, no hay que usar las manos ni papel higinico. +Quiero hacerme con uno. +Tampoco consegu que nadie me dejara esto. +Se dice que Tom Cruise tiene una cama as. +Tiene una pequea placa al final en la que... ...se graba el nombre de aquel que la compre. +Para probarla el creador nos permiti a mi mujer y a m... ...pasar la noche en el saln de exposicin en Manhattan. +Sentamos la envidia proveniente del exterior... ...y tuvimos que contratar un guardia de seguridad y todo eso. +Aun as, dormimos como marmotas. +Pasas un tercio de tu vida en la cama. +No me parece mala compra. +Este fue divertido. +Es el coche ms rpido para conducir por la ciudad que entre dentro del marco de la legalidad del mundo... ...y el ms caro en fabricacin. +Llegu a conducirlo con uno de la empresa de copiloto... un piloto automovilstico profesional... ...y condujimos por los caones en las afueras de Los ngeles... ...y tomamos rumbo hacia el sur por la Pacific Coast Highway. +Nos detuvimos frente a un semforo... ...y los de los otros coches nos asentan con respeto. +Fue increble. +Fue un paseo agradable. +La mayora de los coches que conduzco, cuando me pongo a 130 comienzan a vibrar. +Me cambiaba de carriles en la autopista y mi acompaante, el piloto, deca... "Slo vas a 180 kilmetros/hora". +No tena ni idea de que yo era una de estas personas detestables... ...que a veces ves haciendo zig-zag por las carreteras... ...y lo hice porque el coche iba como la seda. +Si fuera multimillonario me comprara uno. +Este vdeo que os voy a poner a continuacin es completamente gratuito... ...y trata sobre los riesgos de la tecnologa de punta +Este que veis es Tom cruise llegando al estreno de "Mission: Impossible III". +Cuando intenta abrir la puerta... ...parece que da comienzo "Missin: Impossible IV". +Hubo un objeto al que no pude poner mis zarpas... ...y fue un Cheval Blanc de 1947. +El Cheval Blanc del 47 es, con toda probabilidad, el vino ms mitificado del siglo XX. +Y es un vino poco comn para ser un Burdeos... ...al estar compuesto por un porcentaje significativo de uva Cabernet Franc. +La cosecha de 1947 fue legendaria... ...especialmente en la zona oriental de Burdeos. +Y tanto la cosecha como la finca influyeron en que se crease alrededor de l un halo mgico... ...que finalmente termin atribuyndole esta fama. +Pero tiene sesenta aos. +No queda mucho de l. +Y lo que queda de l se desconoce si es real... ...pues es considerado el vino ms falsificado del mundo. +No mucha gente tiene pensado descorchar... ...su nica botella a un periodista. +Por lo que estuve apunto de desistir en el intento de poder probarlo. +Lo intent con minoristas, subastadores... ...y me vine con las manos vacas. +Entonces recib un correo de un chico llamado Bipin Desai. +Bipin Desai es un fsico terico de la Universidad de California... ...que tambin resulta ser el principal organizador de catas de vinos raros... y dijo: "Dentro de poco tendr lugar una cata... ...en la que vamos a servir Cheval Blanc del 47". +Se tratara de una cata con todas las de la ley... ...con 30 reservas de Cheval Blanc... ...y otras 30 de Yquem. +Era una invitacin que no se debe rechazar. +Y fui. +Dur tres das, cuatro comidas. +Y el sbado, durante un almuerzo, abrimos la reserva del 47. +Ola un poco de aceite de linaza. +Y entonces lo prob, y... ...en mi paladar not su textura empalagosa, digna de un Oporto... ...el cual es caracterstico de dicho vino... ...que guarda, al mismo tiempo, muchas semejanzas con un Oporto. +Mucha gente de mi mesa pensaba que eran fantstico. +Not como otros no estaban tan impresionados. +Y yo directamente no estaba impresionado. +No considero ignorante a mi paladar... ...as que no necesariamente tiene que ver con que no estuviera impresionado... ...pero no fui el nico que tuvo dicha reaccin. +Y no ocurri slo con ese vino. +Cualquiera de los vinos de esta cata... ...si yo hubiera estado en una fiesta, habran sido... ...la experiencia vincola de mi vida; totalmente inolvidable. +Pero beber sesenta grandes vinos a lo largo de tres das... ...al final terminan sabiendo todos igual... ...y casi se convierte en una experiencia cansina. +Y me gustara concluir comentando un estudio muy interesante... ...que fue publicado a principios de este ao por unos investigadores de Stanford y Caltech. +En l, Expusieron muestras del mismo vino... ...etiquetados con precios diferentes... +Y mucha gente... ...asegur que les gust ms el vino ms caro... ...siendo todos el mismo vino, pero crean que se trataba de un vino diferente... ...que era ms caro. +Pero lo ms inesperado que hicieron estos investigadores... ...fue una imagen por resonancia magntica del cerebro de aquellos que beban el vino... ...y no slo dijeron que haban disfrutado ms del vino con el precio ms alto... ...sino que tambin sus cerebros experimentaban ms placer... ...con aquellos vinos con el precio ms alto. +Gracias. +Todos tomamos decisiones constantemente; queremos saber qu es lo que debemos hacer - en entornos que van desde lo financiero a lo gastronmico, a lo profesional, a lo romntico. +Y seguramente, si alguien pudiera decirnos cmo hacer exactamente lo correcto en todas las ocasiones posibles, sera un tremendo regalo. +Resulta que, de hecho, este regalo fue concedido al mundo en 1738 por un polifactico holands llamado Daniel Bernoulli. +Y hoy quiero hablarles acerca de lo que ese regalo significa y tambin explicarles por qu es que no ha hecho la ms mnima diferencia. +Ahora bien, ste es el regalo de Bernoulli. Es una cita literal. +Y si les parece griego, bueno, es porque es griego [dicho en ingls equivale a decir en espaol que algo "est en chino"] +En cierto sentido, lo que Bernoulli deca es que si podemos estimar y multiplicar estas dos cosas, siempre sabremos con exactitud cmo debemos comportarnos. +Ahora bien, esta sencilla ecuacin, incluso para los que no les gustan las ecuaciones, es algo a lo que estn acostumbrados. +Esto en estadstica se llama tcnicamente "una muy buena apuesta". +Ahora bien, la idea es sencilla cuando se aplica a lanzar una moneda, pero a decir verdad, no es tan sencilla cuando se aplica a la vida diaria. +La gente es terrible estimando estas dos cosas, y de esto es de lo que les quiero hablar hoy. +Hay dos tipos de errores que la gente comete al tratar de decidir qu es lo correcto, y estos son errores en la estimacin de las probabilidades que ellos van a superar, y errores estimando el valor de su propio xito. +Ahora bien, empecemos hablando del primero. +Calcular probabilidades parecera algo suficientemente sencillo: un dado tiene 6 caras, una moneda 2 lados, hay 52 cartas en una baraja. +Todos saben cul es la probabilidad de sacar un as de espadas o de obtener cara en la moneda. +Pero resulta que esta idea no es tan fcil de aplicar en la vida cotidiana. Por eso los estadounidenses gastan ms - o debera decir, pierden ms - apostando que en todas las otras formas de entretenimiento juntas. +La razn es, que esta no es la manera en que las personas calculan las probabilidades. +La forma en que la gente calcula probabilidades requiere que primero hablemos un poco sobre cerdos. +Ahora bien, la pregunta que les voy a hacer es si creen que hay ms perros o ms cerdos con correas observados un da cualquiera en Oxford. +Y por supuesto, todos saben que la respuesta es perros. +Y la manera en que saben que la respuesta es perros es, que han revisado rpidamente las veces que recuerdan haber visto perros y cerdos con correa. +Fue muy fcil recordar haber visto perros, no tan fcil recordar cerdos. Y han asumido que si los perros con correa les vinieron ms rpido a la mente, entonces los perros con correa son ms probables. +Esta no es una mala "regla de cajn", excepto cuando s lo es. +As que, por ejemplo, aqu les va un juego sobre palabras. +Acaso hay ms palabras de cuatro letras en ingls con R en la tercera posicin o R en la primera? +Bien, comprueban su memoria, repasan rpidamente, y es muy fcil decirse "Ring", "Rang", "Rung", y muy difcil decirse "Pare", "Park": vienen ms lentamente. +Pero de hecho, hay muchas ms palabras en ingls con una R en la tercera posicin que en la primera. +La razn por la que las palabras con R en la tercera posicin viene ms lentas a tu cabeza no son porque sean improbables, raras o infrecuentes. +Sino porque el cerebro recuerda las palabras por su primera letra. +Piensas en la letra S y la palabra viene. +Es como un diccionario; es difcil buscar por la tercera letra. +As que, ste es un ejemplo de cmo la idea de que la velocidad con la que las cosas vienen a la mente puede darnos un sentido de su probabilidad -- de cmo esta idea puede confundirnos. Y no slo en juegos. +Por ejemplo, cuando a los estadounidenses se les pide estimar las probabilidades de morir en una variedad de maneras interesantes -- estas son las estimaciones de nmero de muertes por ao por cada 200 millones de ciudadanos estadounidenses. +Y son personas comunes como ustedes a las que se les pide adivinar cunta gente muere por tornados, fuegos artificiales, asma, ahogos, etc. +Comprenlos con los nmeros reales. +Ahora bien, se puede ver un patrn muy interesante aqu, en primer lugar, dos cosas son enormemente sobrestimadas: tornados y fuegos artificiales; +y segundo, dos cosas son enormemente subestimadas: morir ahogado y morir de asma. Por qu? +Cundo fue la ltima vez que vieron en un peridico el titular "Nio muere de asma"? +No es interesante porque es muy comn. +Es muy fcil para nosotros recordar ocasiones de noticieros donde hemos visto tornados devastando ciudades, o un pobre diablo que se vol la mano con un fuego artificial celebrando el Cuatro de Julio. +Las muertes por ahogo y asma no reciben mucha atencin meditica. +No nos vienen rpidamente a la mente y, por eso, las subestimamos enormemente. +De hecho, es como el juego de Plaza Ssamo de "Qu cosa no pertenece?" Y es correcto que respondan que la piscina no pertenece, porque la piscina es lo nico de la imagen que es realmente muy peligroso. +La probabilidad de morir ahogado es mayor que la combinacin de las probabilidades de morir por estas tres otras cosas. +La lotera es un ejemplo excelente, por supuesto - una excelente muestra de la habilidad de la gente para calcular probabilidades. +Por qu alguien jugara alguna vez la lotera? +Bueno, hay muchas respuestas, pero seguramente una es que vemos muchos ganadores, cierto? Cuando esta pareja gana la lotera, o cuando Ed McMahon aparece en tu puerta con este cheque gigante -- cmo diablos cobras algo as de grande, no lo s. +Vemos esto en la televisin; lo leemos en el peridico. +Cundo fue la ltima vez que vieron entrevistas extensas con todos los que perdieron? +Ciertamente, si exigiramos a los canales de televisin que mostraran entrevistas de 30 segundos con cada uno de los perdedores cada vez que entrevistaran a un ganador, los 100 millones de perdedores del ltimo sorteo necesitaran nueve aos y medio de su atencin continua slo para verlos decir "Yo? Yo perd". "Yo? Yo perd". +Ahora, si ven nueve aos y medio de televisin -- sin dormir ni ir al bao -- y vieran prdida tras prdida tras prdida, y luego al final 30 segundos de "Y yo gan", la probabilidad de que jugaran lotera sera muy pequea. +Miren, puedo probrselos: aqu hay una pequea lotera. +Hay diez billetes en esta lotera. +Nueve de ellos han sido vendidos a estos individuos. +Cada billete cuesta 1 dlar y, si ganas, recibes 20 dlares. Es una buena apuesta? +Bueno, Bernoulli nos dice que s: +el valor esperado de esta lotera es de dos dlares; as que es una lotera en la que deberas invertir tu dinero. +Y la mayora de la gente dice "Est bien, jugar". +Ahora, una versin ligeramente diferente de esta lotera: imagina que los nueve billetes los compr un tipo gordo llamado Leroy. +Leroy tiene nueve billetes, queda uno. +Lo quieres? La mayora de la gente no va a jugar esta lotera. +Ahora bien, pueden ver que las probablidades de ganar no han cambiado, pero ahora es fantsticamente fcil imaginar quin va a ganar. +Es fcil ver a Leroy ganando el cheque, cierto? +No puedes decirte "Tengo tantas probabilidades de ganar como cualquiera" porque no tienes tantas como Leroy. +El hecho de que todos esos billetes hayan sido comprados por una sola persona cambia tu decisin de jugar, a pesar de que no afecta para nada las probabilidades del juego mismo. +Ahora bien, calcular probabilidades, por difcil que parezca, es pan comido comparado con tratar de calcular valor: tratar de decir cunto vale algo, cunto vamos a disfrutarlo, cunto placer va a darnos. +Quiero hablar ahora de los errores en la valoracin. +Cunto vale esta Big Mac? Vale 25 dlares? +La mayora de ustedes intuye que no -- no pagaran tanto por ella. +Pero, en realidad, decidir si una Big Mac vale 25 dlares requiere que se pregunten una, y slo una pregunta, la cual es: Qu otra cosa puedo hacer con 25 dlares? +Ni siquiera puedo quemarlos, se llevaron mi encendedor! +De pronto, 25 dlares por una Big Mac puede ser una buena oferta. +Por otro lado, si estn visitando un pas subdesarrollado, y con 25 dlares compras una comida gourmet, es exorbitante para una Big Mac. +Por qu estaban tan seguros que la respuesta era no, antes de mencionarles el contexto? +Porque la mayora de ustedes compararon el precio de esta Big Mac con el precio que estn acostumbrados a pagar. En vez de preguntarse, "Qu ms puedo hacer con mi dinero", comparando esta inversin con otras inversiones posibles, la compararon con el pasado. +Y este es un error sistemtico que la gente comete. +Lo que saban era que pagaron tres dlares en el pasado; 25 sera una locura. +Esto es un error, y puedo probarlo mostrndoles los tipos de irracionalidades a las que conduce. +Por ejemplo, esto es, por supuesto uno de los trucos ms deliciosos en mercadotecnia, es decir que algo sola ser ms caro, y de repente parece ser una muy buena promocin. +Cuando se le pregunta a la gente acerca de estos dos trabajos: uno en el que ganas 60,000, luego 50,000, luego 40,000, un trabajo donde te reducen el salario cada ao, y otro donde el salario va en aumento, la gente prefiere el segundo al primero, aunque se les dice que ganan mucho menos dinero. Por qu? +Porque tienen la sensacin que salarios en reduccin son peores que salarios en aumento, aunque el salario total sea mayor incluso en el periodo de reduccin. He aqu otro buen ejemplo. +He aqu un paquete de vacaciones en Hawaii que cuesta 2,000 dlares; ahora est en oferta por 1,600. +Asumiendo que queras ir a Hawaii, compraras este paquete? +La mayoria de la gente dice que s. He aqu una historia diferente: El paquete de 2,000 dlares a Hawaii, ahora est en oferta por 700 dlares, as que decides pensarlo por una semana. +Para cuando llegas a la agencia, las mejores ofertas ya se vendieron - el paquete ahora cuesta 1,500. Lo compraras? La mayora de la gente dice, no. +Por qu? Porque antes costaba 700, de ninguna manera pagar 1,500 por algo que hace una semana costaba 700. +Esa tendencia de comparar con el pasado hace que la gente pierda la mejor oferta. En otras palabras, una buena oferta que sola ser una estupenda oferta, no es tan buena como una mala oferta que sola ser una horrible oferta. +He aqu otro ejemplo de cmo al comparar con el pasado podemos alterar nuestras decisiones. +Imaginen que van de camino al teatro. +Van de camino al teatro. +En la cartera tienen un boleto de entrada por el que pagaron 20 dlares. +Tambin tienen un billete de 20 dlares. +Cuando llegan al teatro descubren que en algn punto del camino perdieron el boleto. +Gastaran el dinero restante en reemplazar el boleto? +La mayora de la gente responde que no lo hara. +Ahora, cambiemos solamente una cosa en este escenario. +Van de camino al teatro y en la cartera tienen dos billetes de 20 dlares. +Al llegar al teatro descubren que perdieron un billete. +Gastaran sus 20 dlares restantes en un boleto? +Bueno, por supuesto: fui al teatro para ver la obra. +Qu tiene que ver la prdida de los 20 dlares en el camino? +Ahora bien, en caso de que no estn entendiendo, aqu va una representacin esquemtica de lo que pas, de acuerdo? +En el camino, perdieron algo. +En ambos casos, se trat de un pedazo de papel. +En un caso, un presidente norteamericano estaba en el papel; en el otro caso no era as. +Cul es la maldita diferencia? +La diferencia es que al perder el boleto se dijeron a s mismos, No pagar dos veces por la misma cosa +Comparan ahora el costo de la obra -- 40 dlares -- con el costo que tena antes -- 20 dlares -- y se dicen que es un mal trato. +Comparar con el pasado causa muchos de los problemas que los economistas del comportamiento y los psiclogos identifican en los intentos de la gente para asignar valor. +Pero incluso cuando comparamos con lo posible, en vez del pasado, an cometemos cierto tipo de errores. +Y voy a mostrarles uno o dos de ellos. +Una de las cosas que sabemos sobre las comparaciones: es que cuando comparamos una cosa con otra, cambia su valor. +As que en 1992, este tipo, George Bush -para aquellos de nosotros que estbamos un poco en el lado liberal del espectro poltico- no nos pareca un gran tipo. +De repente, casi estamos aorando que regrese. +La comparacin cambia la forma en que lo evaluamos. +Ahora bien, las tiendas supieron esto mucho antes que cualquiera, por supuesto, y usan esta sabidura para ayudarte a evitar la excesiva carga de tener dinero. +Por lo que un vendedor, si fueran a visitar una tienda de vinos y tuvieran que comprar una botella de vino, y vieran las botellas por 8, 27 y 33 dlares, qu haran? +La mayora de la gente no quiere el vino ms caro, pero tampoco el menos caro. +As que optaran por el artculo de rango medio. +Si eres un vendedor inteligente, entonces pondrs un artculo muy caro que nadie nunca comprara en el mostrador, porque de repente el vino de 33 dlares ya no parece tan caro en comparacin. +As que les estoy diciendo algo que ya saban: esto es, que la comparacin cambia el valor de las cosas. +Y he aqu porqu eso es un problema: el problema es que cuando se llevan esa botella de 33 dlares a casa, ya no va a importar junto a qu estaba puesta en el mostrador. +Las comparaciones que hacemos cuando estamos determinando el valor de algo, donde estamos tratando de estimar qu tanto nos gustarn las cosas, no son las mismas comparaciones que estaremos haciendo cuando las consumimos. +Este problema de comparaciones cambiantes puede desconcertar nuestros intentos de tomar decisiones racionales. +Voy a darles un ejemplo. +Tengo que mostrarles algo de mi propio laboratorio, as que mencionar esto casualmente. +Estos son individuos que vienen a un experimento para que se les haga la ms simple de las preguntas: Qu tanto disfrutars comer papas fritas dentro de un minuto? +Estn sentados en un cuarto con papas fritas en frente de ellos. +Para algunos individuos, sentados en la esquina lejana del cuarto hay una caja de chocolates Godiva, y para otros hay una lata de carne procesada. +De hecho, estos artculos puestos en el cuarto modifican qu tanto los individuos piensan que van a disfrutar las papas fritas. +En particular, aquellos que estn viendo la carne procesada piensan que las papas fritas van a ser muy sabrosas; aquellos que estn viendo el chocolate Godiva piensan que no sern tan sabrosas. +Por supuesto, qu pasa cuando comen las papas fritas? +Bueno, miren, ustedes no necesitaron un psiclogo para decirles que cuando tienen un bocado de un tentempi grasoso, salado, crujiente y delicioso lo que est puesto en la esquina del cuarto no hace la ms mnima diferencia para su experiencia gustativa. +Sin embargo, las predicciones de estos individuos fueron pervertidas por una comparacin que luego no se culmina y cambia su experiencia. +Todos ustedes han experimentado esto, incluso si nunca han venido a nuestro laboratorio a comer papas fritas, por lo que aqu hay otra pregunta: Quieres comprar un estreo para tu automvil. +El vendedor cercano a tu casa vende un estreo en particular por 200 dlares. pero si cruzas la ciudad, puedes conseguirlo por 100 dlares. +As que, manejaran para conseguir el 50% de descuento, ahorrando 100 dlares? +La mayora de la gente dice que s lo haran. +No pueden imaginar comprarlo por el doble del precio cuando, a tan slo un viaje a travs de la ciudad, lo pueden conseguir por la mitad del precio. +Ahora, imaginemos que quieren comprar un auto que ya tiene estreo, y el comerciante ms cercano lo vende por 31,000. +Pero si cruzan la ciudad, lo pueden conseguir por 30,900 +Cruzaran la ciudad para conseguirlo? En este caso, los 100 dlares son un ahorro del 0.003% +La mayora de la gente dira: No, me arrastrara cruzando la ciudad para ahorrar 100 dlares en la compra de un auto? +Este tipo de pensamiento vuelve locos a los economistas, y con razn. +Porque esos 100 dlares que ahorran, -hola!- no saben de dnde vinieron. +No se sabe en qu los ahorraron. +Cuando van a comprar comida con esos dlares, no te dicen "Soy el dinero que ahorraste en el estreo", o "Soy el tonto dinero ahorrado en el auto". Es slo dinero. +Y si una cruzada de la ciudad en auto vale 100 dlares, vale 100 dlares solamente sin importar en qu los ests ahorrando. Pero la gente no lo piensa as. +Es por eso que no saben si su administrador de fondos de inversin recibe el 0.1% o el 0.15% de su inversin, pero recortan cupones para ahorrar un dlar en el precio de una pasta dental. +Ahora bien, pueden ver que ste es el problema de las comparaciones cambiantes, porque lo que hacen es comparar los 100 dlares con la compra que estn haciendo, pero cuando van a gastar ese dinero, no harn la comparacin. +Todos han tenido esta experiencia. +Si eres estadounidense, por ejemplo, probablemente has viajado a Francia. +Y en algn punto habras conocido a una pareja de tu ciudad de origen, y pensaste, "Dios mo, estas personas son tan clidas. Son tan amables conmigo. +Quiero decir que, comparadas con todas estas personas que me odian cuando trato de hablar su lengua y me odian an ms cuando no lo hago, estas personas son maravillosas." Por tanto, te vas de tour con ellos por Francia, y regresas a casa y los invitas a cenar, y qu es lo que encuentras? +Comparados con tus amigos de siempre, son aburridos y fros, no? Porque en este nuevo contexto, la comparacin es muy, muy diferente. De hecho, encuentras que te desagradan lo suficiente como para que califiques a obtener la ciudadana francesa. +Entonces, tienen exactamente el mismo problema que cuando compran un estreo. +Van a la tienda de estreos, ven dos juegos de altavoces -- estos grandes y cuadrados monolitos, y estos pequeos y sutiles altavoces, los prueban y se dicen, saben, si escucho una diferencia: los grandes suenan un poco mejor. +As que los compran, los llevan a casa, y rompen totalmente con la decoracin de su casa. +El problema es, por supuesto, que esta comparacin que hicieron en la tienda es una comparacin que nunca volvern a hacer. +Cul es la probabilidad de que aos despus prendan el estreo y digan: "Suenan mucho mejor que esos altavoces pequeitos," que ni siquiera se acordarn de haber escuchado. +El problema de las comparaciones cambiantes es an ms difcil cuando estas elecciones se organizan a travs del tiempo. +La gente tiene muchos problemas tomando decisiones sobre cosas que pasarn en diferentes momentos en el tiempo. +Y lo que los psiclogos y economistas del comportamiento han descubierto es que por lo general la gente usa dos simples reglas. +As que permtanme darles un problema muy sencillo, un segundo problema tambin muy sencillo, y un tercero y difcil problema. +Aqu va el primer problema sencillo: Pueden tener 60 dlares ahora o tener 50 dlares ahora, Qu prefieren? +A esto lo llamamos un test de Coeficiente Intelectual de una sola pregunta, s? +Todos, espero, preferimos ms dinero y la razn es que creemos que ms es mejor que menos. +Aqu va el segundo problema: Pueden tener 60 dlares hoy o 60 dlares en un mes. Qu prefieren? +De nuevo, esto es una decisin fcil, porque todos sabemos que ahora es mejor que despus. +Lo que se dificulta en nuestra toma de decisin es cuando estas dos reglas entran en conflicto. +Por ejemplo, cuando se les ofrece 50 dlares ahora o 60 dlares en un mes. +Esto tipifica muchas situaciones de la vida en las cuales ganaran al esperar, pero tienen que ser pacientes. +Qu sabemos? Qu hace la gente en este tipo de situaciones? +Pues bien, generalmente la gente es enormemente impaciente. +Esto quiere decir, que requieren tasas de inters en el rango de los cientos o miles porcentuales para postergar la gratificacin y esperar hasta el siguiente mes para los 10 dlares extra. +Quiz esto no es tan asombroso, pero s lo es lo fcil que se vuelve hacer que esta impaciencia se vaya simplemente al cambiar el tiempo de entrega de estas unidades monetarias. +Imaginen que pueden recibir 50 dlares en un ao -- eso son 12 meses -- o 60 dlares en 13 meses. +Qu encontramos ahora? +La gente est felizmente dispuesta a esperar: ya que van a esperar 12, podran esperar mejor 13 meses. +Qu causa esta inconsistencia dinmica? +La comparacin La inquietante comparacin. Permtanme mostrarles. +Ahora bien, porqu diablos habra de obtenerse este patrn de resultados? +Estos individuos pueden explicarlo. +Lo que vemos aqu son dos tipos, uno de ellos ms grande que el otro: el bombero y el violinista. +Van a retroceder hacia el punto de fuga en el horizonte, y quiero que se den cuenta de dos cosas. +En ningn punto el bombero se ver ms alto que el violinista. En ninguno. +Sin embargo, la diferencia entre ellos parece ir disminuyendo. +Al principio, es una pulgada desde su punto de vista, luego un cuarto de pulgada, luego media pulgada y finalmente desaparecen del borde de la tierra. +Aqu estn los resultados de lo que les acabo de mostrar. +Esta es la altura subjetiva -- la altura de estos tipos que vieron en diferentes puntos. +Y quiero que vean que dos cosas son ciertas. +La primera es que, entre ms lejos estn, ms pequeos se ven; y la segunda es que, el bombero siempre es ms grande que el violinista. +Pero miren lo que sucede cuando hacemos que alguno de ellos desaparezca. Exacto. +A una distancia muy cercana, el violinista se ve ms alto que el bombero. Pero a una distancia lejana sus proporciones normales, verdaderas, se guardan. +Como dijo Platn, lo que el espacio es al tamao, el tiempo lo es al valor. +Estos son los resultados del problema difcil que les di: 60 ahora o 50 en un mes? +Y estos son los valores subjetivos, y lo que pueden ver es que nuestras dos reglas permanecen. +La gente siempre piensa que ms es mejor que menos: 60 siempre es mejor que 50; y siempre piensan que ahora es mejor que despus: las barras de este lado son mayores que las de este lado. +Vean qu sucede cuando quitamos algunas. +De repente, tenemos la inconsistencia dinmica que nos dej perplejos. +Tenemos la tendencia de que la gente preferir 50 dlares ahora en vez de esperar un mes, pero no si la decisin se toma para el futuro lejano. +Dnse cuenta que esto implica algo interesante -- en particular, que cuando la gente se acerca al futuro, cambia su opinin. +Esto es, que cuando el mes 12 se acerca, se dirn Qu estaba pensando? Esperar un mes ms por 60 dlares? +Tomar los 50 dlares ahora. +En fin, la pregunta con la que quiero terminar esto es: Si somos tan estpidos, cmo es que llegamos a la Luna? +Porque podra seguir hablando dos horas con evidencia de la incapacidad de la gente para estimar probabilidades y valor. +La respuesta a esta pregunta, creo, es una respuesta que ya han escuchado en algunas de las plticas, y me atrevo a decir que la escucharn de nuevo: en particular, que nuestros cerebros evolucionaron para un mundo muy diferente que ste en el que vivimos. +Evolucionaron para un mundo en el que la gente vivira en grupos muy pequeos, dificilmente conoceran a alguien sumamente diferente de ellos, tendran vidas particularmente cortas en las que habran muy pocas opciones y la prioridad ms importante sera comer y procrear hoy. +El regalo de Bernoulli, la formulita de Bernoulli, nos permite, nos dice cmo deberamos de pensar en un mundo para el cual la naturaleza nunca nos dise. +Eso explica por qu somos tan malos al usarlo, pero tambin por qu es tan enormemente importante que nos volvamos buenos, rpidamente. +Somos la nica especie en el planeta que ha tenido su destino en sus propias manos. +No tenemos depredadores significativos, somos los amos de nuestro entorno fsico; las cosas que normalmente causan que las especies se extingan ya no son una amenaza para nosotros. +La nica cosa -- la nica cosa -- que puede destruirnos y condenarnos son nuestras propias decisiones +Si no estamos aqu en 10,000 aos ser porque no pudimos tomar ventaja del regalo que nos fue dado por un joven dans en 1738, porque subestimamos las probabilidades de nuestros dolores futuros y sobreestimamos el valor de nuestros placeres actuales. +Gracias. +Chris Anderson: Eso fue notable. +Tenemos algo de tiempo para preguntas a Dan Gilbert. Uno y dos. +Bill Lyell: Dira que este mecanismo en parte es cmo el terrorismo de hecho funciona para asustarnos, y hay alguna manera en la que pudiramos contrarrestar eso? +Dan Gilbert: De hecho, estuve en consultas recientes con el Departamento de Seguridad Interna, que por lo general cree que los dlares destinados a la seguridad estadounidense deberan gastarse en hacer las fronteras ms seguras. +Ciertamente, son el tipo de juegos a los que ceden por lo menos los medios estadounidenses -- y perdnenme, pero en nmeros brutos se trata de accidentes muy pequeos. +Ya sabemos, por ejemplo, en los Estados Unidos, qu ms gente ha muerto como resultado de no subirse en aviones -- porque estaban asustados -- y manejando en carreteras que los muertos el 11 de septiembre, s? +Si les dijera que haba una plaga que matara 15,000 estadounidenses el prximo ao, se alarmaran si no supieran que se trata de la gripe. +Son accidentes en pequea escala, y deberamos preguntarnos si debieran recibir el tipo de juego, el tipo de cobertura, que reciben. +Por supuesto, esto causa que la gente sobreestime la probabilidad de que saldrn lastimados en estas numerosas formas, y empodera a la mismsima gente que nos quiere asustar. +CA: Dan, quisiera escuchar ms sobre esto. As que, ests diciendo que nuestra respuesta al terror es, quiero decir, una forma de error mental? +Hblanos ms de esto. +DG: Est fuera de proporcin. Quiero decir, mira. +Si Australia desapareciera maana, el terror es probablemente la respuesta correcta. +Es un grupo terriblemente grande de gente muy agradable. Por otro lado, cuando un autobs explota y 30 personas mueren, mucha ms gente muri por no usar sus cinturones de seguridad en el mismo pas. +Es el terror la respuesta correcta? +CA: Qu causa el error? Es acaso el drama del evento -- lo que es tan espectacular? +Es el hecho de que es un ataque internacional por parte de, digamos, extraos? +Qu es? +DG: S. Son varias cosas, y mencionaste algunas. +Primero, es un agente humano tratando de matarnos -- no es un rbol cayndonos encima por accidente. +Segundo, son enemigos que pudieran querer golpear y lastimarnos de nuevo. +Gente est muriendo sin razn en vez de morir por una buena razn -- como si hubiera una buena razn, pero a veces la gente piensa que la hay. +As que hay varias cosas que juntas hacen que este evento parezca fantstico, pero no minimicemos el hecho de que los diarios venden ms cuando la gente ve ah algo que quieran leer. As que hay un papel muy grande desempeado por los medios, que quieren que estas cosas sean tan espectaculares como puedan ser. +CA: Quiero decir, Qu se necesitara para persuadir a nuestra cultura de minimizarlos? +Y como la madre israelita dijo, "Nunca los dejamos ganar cancelando bodas." +Quiero decir, sta es una sociedad que ha aprendido -- y hay otras tambin -- que ha aprendido a vivir con una cierta cantidad de terrorismo y a no estar tan molesta por ello, dira yo, como aquellos de nosotros que no han tenido muchos ataques terroristas. +CA: Pero existe un miedo racional a que de hecho, la razn por la que esto nos asusta es que pensamos que el "Gran Ataque" seguir despus? +DG: S, por supuesto. As que, si supiramos que este es el peor ataque que habra jams, entonces habra ms y ms autobuses de 30 personas -- probablemente no estaramos tan asustados. +No quiero decir --por favor, me van a citar en algn lugar diciendo "el terrorismo est bien y no deberamos estar tan preocupados". +Ese no es mi punto en absoluto. +Lo que estoy diciendo es que, seguramente, racionalmente, nuestra preocupacin por las cosas que suceden, por las amenazas, debera ser aproximadamente proporcional al tamao de esas amenazas y de las amenazas por venir. +Creo que en el caso del terrorismo, no es as. +Y muchas de las cosas que hemos escuchado de nuestros oradores hoy -- cuntas personas que conoces se levantaron y dijeron, "La pobreza!, no puedo creer lo que la pobreza nos est haciendo" +La gente se levanta en la maana; no les importa la pobreza. +No est llegando a las primeras planas; no es noticia, no es vistosa. +No hay pistolas siendo disparadas. +Quiero decir, que si tuvieras que resolver uno de estos problemas, Chris, Cul resolveras? el terrorismo o la pobreza? +Es una pregunta difcil. +CA: Sin duda. +La pobreza, por orden de magnitud, un gran orden de magnitud, a menos que alguien demostrara que hay, sabes, una posibilidad real de que vengan terroristas con una bomba nuclear. +Lo ms reciente que he ledo, visto, pensado es que es increblemente difcil para ellos lograrlo. +Si eso resulta ser falso, nos veremos muy mal, pero con la pobreza es un poco -- DG: Incluso si eso fuera cierto, an ms gente muere por pobreza. +CA: Hemos evolucionado para emocionarnos con estos ataques dramticos. Ser porque en el pasado, en el paso antiguo, simplemente no entendamos cosas como la enfermedad y los sistemas que causan la pobreza y as sucesivamente, por lo que no tena sentido para nosotros como especies poner energa alguna en preocuparnos por estas cosas? +Gente muri; que as sea. +Pero si fuiste atacado, entonces pudiste hacer algo al respecto. +as que desarrollamos estas respuestas. +Es eso lo que pas? +DG: Bueno, sabes, la gente ms escptica de saltar hacia explicaciones evolutivas para todo son los mismos psiclogos evolutivos. +Mi conjetura es que no hay nada tan especfico en nuestro pasado evolutivo. En cambio, si ests buscando una explicacin evolutiva, podras decir que la mayora de los organismos son neofbicos -- esto es, que tienen un poco de miedo de cosas nuevas y diferentes. +Y hay buenos argumentos para ser as, Porque las cosas conocidas no te comieron, cierto? +Es menos probable que cualquier animal que hayas visto anteriormente sea un depredador, que uno que nunca hubieras visto antes. +As que, ya sabes, cuando un autobs explota y nunca antes hemos visto esto, nuestra tendencia general es orientarnos hacia aquello que es nuevo y novedoso se activa. +No creo que sea un mecanismo tan especfico como el que aludes, pero pudiera ser uno subyaciente y ms fundamental. +Jay Walker: Sabes, a los economistas les encanta hablar sobre la estupidez de las personas que compran billetes de lotera. Pero sospecho que cometes exactamente el mismo error del que acusas a esas personas, que es el error de la valoracin. +Lo s, porque he entrevistado cerca de 1,000 compradores de billetes de lotera a travs de los aos. +Resulta que el valor de comprar un billete de lotera no es ganar. +Eso es lo que t piensas que es. De acuerdo? +El comprador promedio de lotera compra como 150 billetes al ao, as que el comprador sabe bastante bien que l o ella va a perder, y an as compra 150 billetes al ao. Por qu? +No es porque sea estpida o estpido. +Es porque la anticipacin de posiblemente ganar libera serotonina en el cerebo, y de hecho genera un sentimiento de bienestar hasta que los resultados indican que has perdido. +O, para ponerlo de otra forma, por la inversin de ese dinero, puedes tener un sentimiento mucho mejor que al tirarlo por el escusado, algo que no te genera un sentimiento agradable. +Ahora bien, los economistas tienden a -- -- los economistas tienden a ver el mundo a travs de sus propios lentes, el cual es: "Esto es slo un montn de gente estpida." +Y como resultado, mucha gente ve a los economistas como gente estpida. +Por lo que, fundamentalmente, la razn por la que llegamos a la luna es que no escuchamos a los economistas. Muchas gracias. +DG: Bueno, no, es un gran punto. Queda por verse si la alegra de la anticipacin es exactamente equivalente a la cantidad de decepcin despus de la lotera. Porque, recuerda, la gente que no compr billetes no se siente terrible al siguiente da, incluso cuando no se sienten magnficamente durante el sorteo. +No estara de acuerdo con que la gente sepa que no va a ganar. +Creo que piensan que es improbable, pero que podra suceder, por lo que prefieren eso a tirar el dinero en el escusado. +Pero ciertamente veo tu punto: que puede haber alguna utilidad en comprar un billete de lotera adems de ganar. +Ahora bien, creo que hay muchas buenas razones para no escuchar a los economistas. +sa no es una de ellas, para m, pero hay muchas otras. +CA: ltima pregunta. +Aubrey de Grey: Me llamo Aubrey de Grey, soy de Cambridge, +trabajo en algo que mata ms gente que cualquier otra cosa -- Trabajo en el envejecimiento -- y me interesa hacer algo al respecto, como todos podremos escuchar maana. +Comparto mucho lo que dices, porque para m el problema de que la gente se interese en hacer algo sobre el envejecimiento es que para cuando el envejecimiento te va a matar, se parece al cncer o las enfermedades cardiacas, o lo que sea. Tienes algn consejo? +DG: Para ti o para ellos? +AdG: Para convencerlos. +DG: Ah, para que los convenzas. +Bueno, es particularmente difcil lograr que la gente tenga visin de futuro. +Pero algo que los psiclogos han intentado y que parece funcionar es que la gente se imagine el futuro ms vvidamente. +Uno de los problemas que tiene decidir sobre el futuro lejano y sobre el futuro cercano es que imaginamos al futuro cercano mucho ms vvidamente que el futuro lejano. +En la medida en que puedas equiparar la cantidad de detalle que la gente pone en sus representaciones mentales sobre el futuro cercano y el lejano, la gente empieza a tomar decisiones sobre ambos futuros en la misma manera. +Por lo que, te gustara tener 100,000 dlares extra cuando tengas 65 aos? es una pregunta muy diferente de, 'Imagina quin sers cuando tengas 65 aos: estars vivo? cmo lucirs? cunto pelo tendrs? con quin estars viviendo?'. +Una vez que tenemos todos los detalles de esa situacin imaginaria, de repente sentimos que podra ser importante ahorrar para que ese tipo del futuro tenga un poco de dinero para su retiro. +Pero estos son trucos complementarios. +Creo que en general ests combatiendo una tendencia humana muy fundamental, que es el decir, "Hoy estoy aqu, as que ahora es ms importante que despus." +CA: Dan, muchas gracias. Miembros de la audiencia, sta fue una sesin fantstica. Muchas gracias. +La carrera que inici tempranamente en mi vida fue la bsqueda de vida extica en lugares exticos, y en ese tiempo trabajaba en la Antrtida y en el Artico, y en desiertos altos y bajos. +Hasta hace unos doce aos, cuando me cautivaron las cavernas, y realmente re-enfoqu la mayora de mis investigaciones en esa direccin. +As que tengo un trabajo fantstico - me toca hacer cosas realmente increbles. +Trabajo en algunos de los ambientes cavernarios ms extremos del planeta. +Muchos de ellos intentan matarnos desde el momento en que entramos en ellos, y sin embargo, son absolutamente cautivantes, y contienen maravillas biolgicas increbles que son muy, muy distintas a las que tenemos en la superficie. +Adems del valor intrnseco de la biologa, mineraloga y geo-microbiologa que practicamos en ellas, tambin las usamos como matrices para determinar cmo buscar vida en otros planetas. +En especial Marte, pero tambin Europa, la pequea, congelada luna de Jupiter. +Y quizs, algun da, mucho ms all del sistema solar. +Estoy apasionadamente interesada en el futuro de la humanidad, especialmente en la Luna y en Marte, y en otras partes del sistema solar. +Me parece que es tiempo de que pasemos a ser una civilizacin y especie que sale al sistema solar. +Y entonces, como resultado de todo esto, me pregunto si podremos, y si siquiera debiramos, pensar en transportar vida terrestre a otros planetas. +Y en especial y como primer ejemplo, a Marte. +Algo de lo que nunca hablo en reuniones cientficas es concretamente cmo llegu a este estado y por qu hago lo que hago. +Por qu no tengo un trabajo normal, sensato? +Y luego, claro, culpo a la Unin Sovitica. +Porque a mediados de la dcada del '50 cuando era una pequea nia, tuvieron la osada de lanzar un satlite pequeo y bastante primitivo llamado Sputnik, lo que lanz al mundo occidental a un torbellino histrico. +Y una enorme cantidad de dinero se us para financiar las habilidades cientficas y matemticas para nios. +Y soy un producto de esa generacin, como tantos otros de mis colegas. +Realmente nos agarr, y se expandi y sera fantstico que pudieramos reproducir eso ahora. +Adems claro, el rehusarse a crecer - a pesar de que personifico a un adulto en mi vida diaria, y lo hago bastante bien- el retener esa cualidad infantil de no importarte lo que piensen los otros sobre lo que te interesa, es realmente esencial. +El elemento siguiente es el hecho de que he aplicado un juicio de valor y mi juicio de valor es que la presencia de vida es mejor a que no haya vida. +Por lo tanto, la vida es ms valiosa que la ausencia de vida. +Y pienso que ello es lo que aglutina una gran cantidad del trabajo cercano a la gente de esta audiencia. +Estoy, por supuesto, muy interesada en Marte y ello es el producto de haber sido una estudiante muy joven cuando los Viking Landers aterrizaron en Marte. +Y ello tom lo que haba sido un minsculo objeto astronmico en el cielo, que ustedes veran como un punto, y lo convirti ntegramente en un paisaje, a medida que aquella primitiva primera imagen fue entramada en la pantalla. +Y cuando se convirti en un paisaje, tambin se convirti en un destino, y realmente alter el curso de mi vida. +En mi aos de estudios de graduada trabaj con mi colega, mentor y amigo, Steve Schneider, en el Centro Nacional de Investigacin Atmosfrica, investigando temas de cambio global. +Hemos escrito varias cosas sobre el rol de la hipotsis de Gaia - si podemos o no considerar a la Tierra como una sola entidad en cualquier forma que tenga significado cientfico, y luego, a partir de ello, trabaj en las consecuencias ambientales de la guerra nuclear. +Entonces, cosas maravillosas y sombras. +Pero me ense a mirar a la Tierra como un planeta con una perspectiva externa, no slo como nuestro hogar. +Y ello es un alejamiento de perspectiva maravilloso, el tratar de pensar en la forma como se comporta nuestro planeta, como planeta, y con la vida que hay en l. +Y me parece que todo ello es un punto saliente en la historia. +Nos estamos preparando para iniciar el proceso de dejar nuestro planeta de origen y salir al ms amplio sistema solar y ms all. +Volvamos a Marte. +Qu tan difcil ser encontrar vida en Marte? +Bueno, a veces es realmente difcil para nosotros encontrarnos unos a otros, incluso en este planeta. +Por lo tanto, encontrar vida en otro planeta es una vocacin no trivial y gastamos mucho tiempo tratando de pensar en ello. +Si piensan o no que podramos tener xito, de alguna forma depende en qu es lo que piensan sobre la posibilidad de que haya vida en el universo. +Personalmente, yo creo que la vida es una consecuencia natural de la progresiva complejizacin de la materia con el paso del tiempo. +Empiezas con el Big Bang y obtienes hidrgeno, y luego helio, y luego la materia ms compleja, y luego se forman los planetas y en mi opinin, la vida es un fenmeno planetario comn. +Ciertamente, en los ltimos 15 aos, hemos visto un nmero creciente de planetas cuya existencia fuera del sistema solar est confirmada, y recin el mes pasado, hace un par de semanas, un planeta en la clase-tamao de la Tierra fue descubierto. +Lo que es una noticia muy excitante. +Por lo tanto, mi primera osada prediccin es que, en el universo, habr vida en todas partes. +Estar donde sea que busquemos -- donde haya sistemas planetarios que puedan soportar vida. +Y esos sistemas planetarios sern muy comunes. +Entonces, qu hay con la vida en Marte? +Bueno, si alguien me hubiera preguntado hace doce aos sobre las posibilidades de que haya vida en Marte, Probablemente hubiera dicho, un 2% +Incluso eso era considerado en la poca como desmedido. +Una vez fui despectivamente presentada por un ex oficial de la NASA, como la nica persona en el planeta que an crea que haba vida en Marte. +Claro, ese oficial ahora est muerto, y yo no, as que hay algo de gloria en sobrevivir a tus adversarios. +Pero las cosas han cambiado enormemente en los ltimos doce aos. +Y la razn por la que han cambiado es porque ahora tenemos nueva informacin. +La sorprendente misin Pathfinder que viaj en el '97, y las misiones MER Rover que estn en Marte mientras hablamos y el Mars Express de la Agencia Espacial Europea, nos han enseado una cantidad de cosas sorprendentes. +Existe hielo bajo la superficie del planeta. +Por lo que, donde hay agua, hay una alta probabilidad de que exista nuestro tipo de vida. +Hay rocas sedimentarias por todos lados - uno de los landers est situado en el centro de una antiguo fondo marino, y existen estas estructuras increbles llamadas arndanos, que son estas pequeas concreciones rocosas que ahora estamos desarrollando biolgicamente en mi laboratorio. +Entonces, con todas estas cosas reunidas, creo que las posibilidades de que haya vida son mucho ms grandes de los que jams hubiera pensado. +Creo que la posibilidad de que haya surgido vida en Marte, en su pasado, es probablemente una en cuatro o quizs hasta 50% +Esta es una afirmacin muy osada. +Creo que est ah, y creo que necesitamos salir a buscarla, y creo que est bajo tierra. +As que el juego comienza, y este es el juego que jugamos en astro-biologa. +Cmo intentamos tener una idea sobre vida extraterrestre? +Cmo planeamos para buscarla? +Cmo saber cundo la hemos encontrado? +Porque si es grande y obvia, ya la habramos encontrado - ya nos habra mordido el pi, y ello no ha sucedido. +Entonces, sabemos que es algo bastante crptico. +Y crticamente hablando, cmo la protegemos, si la encontramos, para no contaminarla? +Y adems, y quizs ms importante, porque este es el nico planeta hogar que tenemos, cmo nos protegemos nosotros de ella, mientras la estudiamos? +Entonces por qu es tan difcil de encontrar? +Bueno, es probablemente microscpica, y nunca es fcil estudiar cosas microscpicas, aunque las maravillosas herramientas que ahora tenemos nos permiten estudiar cosas con mucho mayor detalle, en escalas mucho menores que antes. +Pero probablemente est escondida, porque si sales a recoger recursos de tu ambiente, eso te hace apetecible, y otras cosas podran querer comerte, o consumirte. +Y por lo tanto, hay un juego de depredador - presa que ser real y esencialmente, universal, en cualquier sistema biolgico. +Tambin puede tener caractersticas fundamentales muy distintas - su composicin qumica, o su tamao. +Decimos que sera pequea, pero qu significa eso? +Del tamao de un virus? An ms pequea que eso? +Es mayor que las bacterias ms grandes? No lo sabemos. +Y la velocidad de su actividad, que es algo que enfrentamos en nuestro trabajo con organismos subterrneos. porque crecen de forma muy, muy lenta. +Si tomara una muestra de tus dientes y lo pusiera en un plato de petri, en unos cuatro o cinco horas, ya vera crecimiento. +Pero los organismos con los que trabajamos, en la subsuperficie de la Tierra, muchas veces pasan meses -y en algunos casos aos- hasta que podemos ver algn tipo de crecimiento. +Por lo que son, intrinsecamente, una forma de vida ms lenta. +Pero el problema de fondo es que estamos guiados por nuestra experiencia limitada, y mientras no podamos trascender nuestro crneo y lo que conocemos, no podremos reconocer lo que estamos buscando, o como planear para encontrarlo. +As que, la perspectiva lo es todo y, debido a la historia que les relat someramente, he aprendido a pensar en la Tierra como un planeta extraterrestre. +Y ello ha sido inestimable en la forma en que intentamos estudiar estas cosas. +Este es mi juego favorito cuando viajo en avin: cuando ests en un avin y miras por la ventanilla, ves el horizonte. +Siempre inclino mi cabeza en su costado, y ese sencillo cambio me permite partir viendo este planeta como mi hogar, a poder verlo como un planeta. +Es un truco sencillo, nunca me olvido de hacerlo cuando me siento en asiento de ventanilla. +Bueno, eso es lo que aplicamos a nuestro trabajo. +Esto muestra una de la cavernas ms extremas en las que trabajamos. +Se llama Cueva de Villa Luz, en Tabasco, Mxico, y esta cueva est saturada de cido sulfrico. +Hay grandes cantidades de sulfuro de hidrgeno que penetran esta cueva desde fuentes volcnicas. y por la descomposicin de evaporita - minerales bajo los carbonatos en los que se form esta caverna - se crea un ambiente muy hostil para nosotros. +Es necesario entrar con trajes protectores y equipo de respiracin, porque 30 partes por milln de sulfuro de hidrgeno te matar. +Normalmente es de varios cientos por milln. +As que es un ambiente muy peligroso, tanto con monxido de carbono como con otros gases. +Estos parmetros fsicos y qumicos extremos hacen de la biologa que se desarrolla en estos lugares algo muy especial. +Porque, contrariamente a lo que puedan pensar, no est desprovista de vida. +Esta es una de las cavernas ms ricas que hemos encontrado en el planeta, en cualquier parte. +Est llena de vida. +Los extremos en la Tierra son interesantes en s mismos, pero una de las razones por las cuales nos interesan es porque realmente ellos representan las condiciones promedio que podramos esperar encontrar en otros planetas. +Por lo tanto, esta es parte de una capacidad que tenemos para intentar ampliar nuestra imaginacin, respecto de lo que podemos encontrar en el futuro. +Hay tanta vida en esta cueva y ni siquiera puedo empezar a rasgar su superficie con ustedes. +Pero uno de los objetos ms famosos que hemos sacado de ella son lo que llamamos Snottites, por razones obvias. +Esta cosa se asemeja a lo que sale la nariz de tu nio de 2 aos cuando est resfriado. +Y esto es producido por bacterias que de hecho estn haciendo ms cido sulfrico, y viviendo en PH cercano a cero. +Por lo que esto es como cido de batera. +Y sin embargo, todo en esta caverna se ha adaptado a ella. +De hecho, hay tanta energa disponible para biologa en esta cueva, que hay una gran cantidad de Peces de Caverna. +Y los Zoque, los indios lugareos, la cosechan dos veces al ao, como parte de sus celebraciones de Pascua y Semana Santa. +Para las cavernas, esto es muy inusual. +En algunas de las otras increbles cavernas en las que trabajamos esta es la caverna Lechuguilla, en Nuevo Mxico, cerca de Carlsbad, y esta es una de las cavernas ms famosas del mundo. +115 millas de pasajes registrados en un mapa, est intocada, no tiene una entrada natural y es laboratorio biolgico, geo-microbiolgico gigantesco. +En esta caverna, grandes areas estn cubiertas por este material rojizo que pueden ver, as como estos cristales gigantescos de selenita que cuelgan hacia abajo. +Esta sustancia es producida biolgicamente. +Es el resultado de la descomposicin de la piedra, que los organismos ocupadamente consumen. +Toman el hierro y el manganeso en la capa de roca y los oxidan. +Y cada vez que lo hacen, obtienen un pequeo paquete de energa. +Y luego, ese pequeo paquete de enera lo usan para impulsar sus procesos de vida. +Interesantemente, tambin hacen lo mismo con uranio, cromo y varios otros metales txicos. +Por lo tanto, el canal obvio para la bio-remediacin viene de organismos como estos. +Actualmente traemos estos organismos al laboratorio, y pueden ver algunos de ellos creciendo en platos de petri, y logramos hacer que reproduzcan los mismos bominerales que encontramos en las paredes de estas cuevas. +Entonces, estas son las huellas que dejan en el registro rocoso. +Bueno, incluso en las superficies de basalto de cavernas de tubos volcnicos que son un subproducto de la actividad volcnica, encontramos estas paredes, en muchos casos, totalmente cubiertas, por estas bellas y brillantes paredes plateadas, o rosadas, rojizas o doradas, todas brillantes. +Y estos son los depsitos de minerales que tambin estn hechos por bacterias. +Y como pueden ver en estas imgenes al centro Al escanearlas con un microscopio electrnico de barrido, vemos que son jardnes de estas bacterias. +Una de las cosas interesantes de estos tipos es que estn en los gneros de bacterias Actinomyces y Streptomyces que son la matriz de la cual obtenemos la mayora de nuestros antibiticos. +La subsuperficie de la Tierra contiene una vasta biodiversidad. +Y estos organismos, debido a que son muy distintos de aquellos en la superficie, crean una gran variedad de compuestos novedosos. +Por lo tanto, su potencial para aprovecharlos para usos farmacuticos y qumico-industriales est totalmente sin aprovechar, pero probablemente excede a la mayora del resto de la biodiversidad del planeta. +Volviendo a las cavernas de tubos volcnicos-- Recin les cont sobre los organismos que viven en este planeta. +Sabemos que en Marte y la Luna existe un gran nmero de estas estructuras. +Las podemos ver. +A la izquierda pueden ver un tubo volcnico formndose en una erupcin reciente - El Monte Etna, en Sicilia - y as es como se forman estos tubos. +Y cuando se vacan, entonces se convierten en habitats para organismos. +Estos estn por todas partes en Marte, y actualmente los estamos catalogando. +Por lo tanto, existe una interesante extensin de cavernas en Marte, por lo menos de ese tipo. +Para tener acceso a estos ambientes subterrneos que nos interesan, estamos muy interesados en desarrollar las herramientas para lograrlo. +Saben, no es fcil entrar a estas cuevas. +Se requiere arrastrarse, escalar, trabajo tcnico con cuerdas, y muchos otros movimientos humanos complejos para entrar en ellas. +Nos enfrentamos al problema de cmo hacerlo robticamente? +Por qu querramos hacerlo robticamente? +Bueno, porque enviaremos misiones robticas a Marte mucho antes que misiones humanas. +Y luego, en segundo lugar y volviendo a mi punto anterior sobre el carcter invaluable de cualquier vida que podamos encontrar en Marte, no queremos contaminarla. +Y una de las mejores formas de estudiar algo sin contaminarlo es a travs de un intermediario. +Y en este caso, pensamos en aparatos robticos intermediarios que puedan efectivamente hacer algo de ese trabajo anticipado por nosotros para proteger toda potencial vida que encontremos. +Ahora no entrar en el detalle de estos proyectos, pero estamos trabajando en media docena de proyectos de desarrollo robtico, en colaboracin con varios grupos distintos. +Quiero referirme especficamente al sistema que ven ms arriba. +Estos son enjambres de microbots saltantes. +Estoy trabajando en ellos con el Laboratorio Field and Space Robotics y con mi amigo Steve Dubowsky en el MIT, y hemos ideado tener estos robots pequeos, nodulares y saltantes impulsados por un msculo artificial una de las especialidades del laboratorio de Dubowsky - los EPAMS, o musculos artificiales. +Y estos les permiten brincar. +Tienen un comportamiento de enjambre, en que se relacionan unos con otros, pues se modelan a partir del comportamiento de enjambres de insectos, y pueden fabricarse en grandes nmeros. +Y por tanto, si podemos enviar unos mil de ellos, como pueden ver en la imagen superior izquierda, Mil podran caber en el compartimento de carga que fue usado para uno de los actuales MER Rovers. +Y podramos perder muchos de estos pequeitos. +S envas unos mil, probablemente podras perder el 90% de ellos y an as tener una misin. +En consecuencia, ello te permite la flexibilidad para ir a terrenos muy desafiantes y de hecho poder llegar adonde quieres ir. +Ahora, para terminar, quiero referirme brevemente a las cavernas y la expansin humana fuera de la Tierra como la consecuencia natural del trabajo que hacemos en las cavernas. +Hace algunos aos notamos que las cavernas tienen muchas cualidades que en el pasado las personas y otros organismos han usado como habitat. +Y quizs es momento de empezar a explorarlas, en el contexto de una futura misin de exploracin a Marte y la Luna. +As, recientemente terminamos un estudio Fase II del NASA Institute for Advanced Concepts buscando un conjunto irreducible de tecnologas necesarias para concretamente permitir que las personas habiten tubos volcnicos en la Luna o Marte. +Result ser una lista sencilla y corta, y hemos ido en la direccin de tecnologas relativamente primitivas. +Estamos hablando de cosas como revestimientos inflables que se pueden ajustar a las formas topolgicas complejas del interior de una cueva, esclusas de aire instaladas con espuma para lidiar con esta topologa compleja, varias formas de obtener gases respirables hechos de los materiales intrnsecos de estos cuerpos. +Y el futuro est ah para que podamos usar estos tubos volcnicos en Marte. +Y ahora mismo, estamos haciendo ciencia y recreacin en estas cavernas, pero creo que en el futuro las usaremos para vivir y experimentar en estos otros cuerpos. +Ahora, mi opinin respecto de la posibilidad actual de que pudiera haber vida en Marte que probablemente ha estado en el planeta, es de un 50%. +La pregunta de si la vida en Marte se relaciona con la vida en la Tierra ha sido enredada, porque ahora sabemos, de meteoritos marcianos que han alcanzando la Tierra, que existe material que puede intercambiarse entre ambos planetas. +Y por supuesto, una de las preguntas candentes es que si vamos a Marte y encontrarmos vida en su subsuperficie, como yo espero firmemente que as sea, es esa la segunda genesis de la vida? +La vida, empez ac y fue transportada all? +Empez all y fue transportada ac? +Este ser un rompecabezas fascinante al entrar en el prximo medio siglo, y en el cual yo espero que tendremos muchas y muchas ms misiones a Marte para responder a estas interrogantes. +Gracias. +Estaba pensando cmo la sincrona est conectada a la felicidad, y se me ocurri que, por alguna razn, encontramos placer al sincronizarnos. +Nos gusta bailar juntos, nos gusta cantar juntos. +As que, si estn dispuestos, quisiera pedir su ayuda con un primer experimento el da de hoy. El experimento es -- y not, dicho sea de paso, que cuando aplaudieron, lo hicieron del un modo tpicamente norteamericano, es decir, fueron estridentes e incoherentes. +No estuvieron organizados. Ni siquiera se les ocurri aplaudir al unsono. +Creen que podran hacerlo? Me gustara ver si este pblico puede -- no, no han practicado, hasta donde s -- pueden lograr aplaudir en sincrona? +Eso es lo que llamamos comportamiento emergente. +No esperaba eso, pero -- quiero decir, esperaba que pudieran sincronizarse. +Pero no imagin que incrementaran su frecuencia. +Resulta interesante. +Qu conclumos de eso? Primero que nada, sabemos que todos ustedes son brillantes. +Este es un sitio lleno de gente inteligente, muy sensible. +Con algunos msicos entrenados. +Es eso lo que les permiti sincronizarse? +Planteado la pregunta un poco ms seriamente, preguntmonos cules son los requerimientos mnimos para lograr lo que acaban de hacer, para la sincronizacin espontnea. +Se requiere, por ejemplo, ser tan inteligente como ustedes? +Se necesita siquiera un cerebro, slo para sincronizarse? +Es necesario estar vivo? Quiero decir, ese es un pensamiento inquietante, no es as? +Objetos inanimados que podran sincronizarse a s mismos espontneamente. +Es real. De hecho, tratar de explicar cmo la sincronizacin es tal vez uno de los ms, si no es que el fenmeno ms dominante en la naturaleza. +Se extiende desde el nivel subatmico hasta los rincones ms lejanos del cosmos. +Es una profunda tendencia hacia el orden en la naturaleza, que se opone a lo que nos han enzeado acerca de la entropa. +Quiero decir, no estoy diciendo que la ley de entropa sea inocorrecta -- no lo es. +Pero existe una fuerza complementaria en el universo -- la tendencia hacia el orden espontneo. As que, ese es nuestro tema. +Ahora, permtanme comenzar con lo que pudo habrseles ocurrido inmediatamente despus de escuchar que estamos hablando acerca de la sincrona en la naturaleza, que es el magnfico ejemplo de los pjaros en bandada, o de los peces nadando en cardmenes. +Porque stas no son creaturas particularmente inteligentes, y aun as, como veremos, exhiben coreografas hermosas. +Esto es de un programa de la BBC llamado Depredadores, y lo que vemos aqu son ejemplos de sincrona que tienen que ver con defensa. +Cuando eres pequeo y vulnerable, como estos estorninos, o como los peces, ayuda agruparse: para evadir a los depredadores, para confundirlos. +Permtanme permanecer en silencio por un momento porque esto es tan hermoso. +Por mucho tiempo los bilogos estuvieron desconcertados por este comportamiento, preguntndose cmo poda ser posible. +Estamos tan acostumbrados a que la coreografa d paso a la sincrona. +Estas creaturas no siguen una coreografa. +Se estn coreografeando a s mismas. +Solo hasta ahora la ciencia empieza a comprender cmo es que funciona. +Les mostrar un modelo por computadora hecho por Iain Couzin, un investigador en Oxford, que muestra cmo funcionan estos agrupamientos. +Hay nicamente tres simples reglas. +Primero, todos los individuos nicamente estn conscientes de sus vecinos ms cercanos. +Segundo, todos los individuos tienen una tendencia a alinearse. +Y tercero, todos se atraen uno al otro, pero tratan de mantener una pequea distancia entre ellos. +Y cuando implementas esas tres reglas, automticamente empiezas a ver agrupamientos, que se asemejan mucho a cardmenes o bandadas. +Ahora bien, a los peces les gusta permanecer muy juntos, a alrededor de un cuerpo de distancia. +Los pjaros tratan de permanecer a tres o cuatro cuerpos de distancia. +Excepto por esa diferencia, las reglas son las mismas para ambos. +Ahora bien, todo esto cambia cuando un depredador entra en escena. +Existe una cuarta regla: cuando viene un depredador, aprtate del camino. +Aqu, en el modelo se puede ver al depredador atacando. +La presa se esparce en cualquier direccin, y despus la regla de atraccin los acerca de nuevo, as que hay una constante separacin y reformacin. +Y eso se ve en la naturaleza. +Tengan en mente que, aunque parece que cada individuo acta para cooperar, lo que en readlidad est sucediendo es una especie de comportamiento darwiniano egosta. +Cada uno se est dispersando al azar tratando de salvar sus escamas o sus plumas. +Eso es, por el deseo de salvarse a s misma, cada creatura est siguiendo estas reglas, y eso da pie a algo que es seguro para todas. +Aun y cuando pareciera que estn pensando como un grupo, no lo estn. +Se preguntarn cal es exactamente la ventaja de estar en un grupo, por lo que se puede pensar en varias. +Como digo, si ests dentro de un grupo, la probabilidad de ser el desafortunado se reducen en comparacin a un grupo pequeo. +Hay muchos ojos para detectar peligro. +Y vern en el ejemplo de los estorninos, con los pjaros, cuando el halcn peregrino va a atacarlos, que olas de pnico pueden propaganse, mandando mensajes a largas distancias. +Ya vern -- aparece casi al final -- o tal vez no. +Se puede transmitir informacin a ms de medio kilmetro de distancia en un tiempo muy corto a travs de este mecanismo. +S, aqu est sucediendo. +Fjense si pueden ver esas olas propagarse a lo largo del grupo. +Es hermoso. Entendemos, o eso cremos, lo que est sucediendo gracias al modelo. +Son solamente esas tres simples reglas, ms la de cuidarse de los depredadores. +Parece ser que no hay nada mstico en esto. +Sin embargo, realmente no lo entendemos a un nivel matemtico. +Soy un matemtico. Nos gustara entenderlo mejor. +Quiero decir, les mostr un modelo, pero una computadora no est comprendiendo. +La computadora es, en cierto modo, solamente un experimento ms. +Realemte quisieramos tener un entendimiento ms profundo acerca de cmo funciona esto y de entender exactamente de dnde proviene esta organizacin. +Cmo es que las reglas dan origen a patrones? +Hay un caso que hemos comenzado a entender mejor, y es el caso de las lucirnagas. +Si observan a las lucirnagas en Norteamrica, como muchas cosas norteamericanas, suelen ser operadores independientes. Se ignoran unas a otras. +Cada quien est en lo suyo, encendindose y apagndose, sin prestar atencin a sus vecinos. +Pero en el Sudeste Asitico -- en lugares como Tailandia, Malasia o Borneo -- hay un hermoso comportamiento cooperativo que ocurre entre las lucirnagas macho. +Se puede ver cada noche a lo largo de los bancos de los ros. +Los rboles, mangles, estn llenos de lucirnagas comunicndose con luces. +Especficamente, son lucirnagas macho que se iluminan perfectamente al mismo tiempo, en perfecta sincrona, para enviar un mensaje a las hembras. +Y el mensaje, como podrn imaginarse, es "Ven aqu. Aparate conmigo." +En un momento les mostrar a una sola lucirnaga en cmara lenta para que puedan darse una idea. Este es un solo cuadro. +Se enciende, se apaga -- en una fraccin de segundo. +Ahora observen el banco de este ro y vean qu precisa es la sincrona. +Encendidas, se encienden ms y se apagan. +La luz combinada de estos insectos -- estos son en realidad pequeos insectos -- es tan brillante que los pescadores en alta mar pueden usarla como faro de navegacin para encontrar el camino de regreso a sus ros de origen. Es impresionante. +Durante mucho tiempo no fue credo cuando los primeros viajeros occidentales, como Sir Francis Drake, viajaron a Tailandia y regresaron con relatos de este increible espectculo. +Nadie les crey. +No vemos nada como sto en Europa o el oeste. +Y durante mucho tiempo, an y cuando estaba documentado, se crea que era una especie de ilusin ptica. +Publicaciones cientficas decan que era un parpadeo involuntario lo que lo explicaba, o que, ustedes saben, era la tendencia del ser humano a ver patrones donde no existen. +Pero espero que se hayan convencido ahora, con este video nocturno, de que estaban en realidad muy bien sincronizadas. +Muy bien, el punto es, tenemos que estar vivos para ver esta clase de rden espontneo?, y ya he dado una pista de que la respuesta es no. +Bueno, no tienes que ser una creatura completa. +Puedes incluso ser una sola clula. +Como, por ejemplo, las clulas que marcan el paso de su corazn en este momento. +Los mantienen vivos. +Cada latido de su corazn depende de esta regin crucial, el nodo sinusal, que tiene alrededor de diez mil clulas independientes que emiten un pulso, tienen un ritmo elctrico -- un voltaje de subida y bajada -- para mandar la seal a los ventrculos de bombear. +Ahora, su marcapasos no es una nica clula. +Es una democracia de diez mil clulas que tienen todas que pulsar al unsono para que el marcapasos funcione correctamente. +No quiero darles la idea de que la sincrona es siempre una buena idea. +Si se tiene epilepsia, hay un instante donde por lo menos millones de clulas cerebrales, se descargan en un concierto patolgico. +As que esta tendencia hacia el orden no es siempre algo bueno. +No tienes que estar vivo. No tienes ni siquiera que ser una sola clula. +Si se fijan por ejemplo, en como funcionan los lseres, ese sera el caso de sincrona a nivel atmico. +Lo que hace la luz de un lser tan diferente de la luz que est sobre mi cabeza es que esta luz es incoherente -- muchos colores y frecuencias diferentes, ms o menos como cuando aplaudieron al principio -- pero si fueran un lser hubiese sido un aplauso rtmico. +Seran todos los tomos pulsando al unsono, emitiendo luz de un color, una frecuencia. +Ahora viene la parte arriesgada de mi pltica, que es demostrar que los objetos inanimados puesden sincronizarse. +Aguanten su respiracin por m. +Lo que tengo aqu son dos botellas de agua vacas. +Este no es Keith Barry haciendo un truco de magia. +Este es ms bien alguien un poco torpe jugando con algunas botellas de agua. +Tengo algunos metrnomos aqu. +Pueden or eso? +Est bien, entonces, tengo un metrnomo, y es el metrnomo ms pequeo del mundo, el -- bueno, no debera hacerle publicidad. +De cualquier modo, este es el metrnomo ms pequeo del mundo. +Lo he fijado a la velocidad ms alta, y ahora tomar otro fijado a la misma velocidad. +Vamos a intentar esto primero. Si en un principio slo los pongo en la mesa juntos, no hay razn para que se sincronicen y probablemente no lo harn. +Tal vez sea mejor si los escuchan. Me parar aqu. +Lo que estoy esperando es que cada uno de ellos tome su propio camino, porque sus frecuencias no son perfectamente iguales. +Verdad? Lo hicieron. +Estuvieron en sincrona por un tiempo, pero despus la perdieron. +La razn de esto es que no pudieron comunicarse. +Ahora, pueden creer que esa es una idea bizarra. +Cmo se pueden comunicar dos metrnomos? +Bueno, se pueden comunicar a travs de fuerzas mecnicas. +As que les dar la oportunidad de hacer eso. +Tambin quiero darle cuerda a ste un poco. Cmo pueden comunicarse? +Los voy a poner en una plataforma mvil, que es "La Gua para Estudios de Posgrado en Cornell." Ok? Ah est. +Vamos a ver si podemos hacer que esto funcione. +Mi esposa me seal que funcionar mejor si coloc a ambos al mismo tiempo porque de lo contrario todo se volcar. +Est bien. Ah vamos. Veamos. Ok, no estoy tratando de hacer trampa -- permtanme iniciarlos fuera de sincrona. No, difcil de hacer siquiera eso. +Est bien. As que, antes de que cualquiera salga de sincrona, los colcar justo aqu. +Esto puede parecer un poco impredecible, pero la aparicin constante de esta tendencia hacia el rden espontneo en ocasiones tiene consecuencias inesperadas. +Un claro ejemplo de eso, fue algo que ocurri en Londres en el ao 2000. +El Puente del Milenio debera de haber sido el orgullo de Londres -- un hermoso puente peatonal cruzando el ro Tmesis, primer cruce del ro en Londres en ms de 100 aos. +Juntos presentaron un diseo basado en la visin de Lord Foster, que era: l recordaba de nio haber ledo historietas de Flash Gordon, y dijo que cuando Flash Gordon llegaba frente a un abismo, disparara lo que hoy se conoce como una especie de sable de luz. +Disparara su sable de luz a travs del abismo, haciendo un rayo de luz, y despus atravesar rpidamente sobre este rayo de luz. +Dijo, "Esa es la visin que le quiero dar a Londres. +Quiero un rayo de luz a travs del Tmesis." +As que construyeron el rayo de luz, y es un listn de acero muy delgado, probablemente el puente suspendido ms plano y delgado que hay en el mundo, con cables saliendo de los lados. +Estn acostumbrados a puentes suspendidos con grandes cables colgantes en la punta. +Estos cables estaban a los lados del puente, como si tomaran una liga y la tensaran atravesando el Tmesis -- eso es lo que est sosteniendo al puente. +Todos estaban emocionados de probarlo. +El da de la inaguracin, miles de londinenses se presentaron, y algo sucedi. +Y en dos das el puente estaba cerrado al pblico. +As que, deseo primero mostrarles algunas entrevistas con gente que estaba en el puente el da de la inaguracin, que describen lo que sucedi. +Hombre: En verdad comenz a moverse a los lados y ligeramente de arriba a abajo, como al estar en un barco. +Mujer: Si, se senta inestable, y haba mucho viento, y recuerdo que tena muchas banderas a lo largo de los lados, as que uno poda definitivamente -- haba algo sucediendo a los lados, se senta, tal vez. +Reportero: Haca arriba y haca abajo? Nio: No. +Reportero: Y hacia adelante y hacia atrs? Nio: No. +Reportero: Solo a los lados. Como cunto crees que se mova? +Nio: Era como -- Reportero: Quiero decir, tanto as? tanto as? +Nio: Como la segunda. +Reportero: Tanto as? Nio: S. +Hombre: Era al menos, seis, de seis a ocho pulgadas, quiero pensar. +Reportero: Correcto, entonces, un tanto as? Hombre: S, as es. +Mujer: Recuerdo haber deseado bajarme. +Reportero: Oh, en verdad? Mujer: S. Se senta extrao. +Reportero: Era suficiente para sentirse espantado? Mujer: S, pero pens que slo yo lo senta. +Reportero: Ah! Ahora, dme por qu tuviste que hacer as? +Nio: Tuvimos que hacerlo, para mantener el balance porque si no mantenas el balance, entonces te inclinabas, a la izquierda o la derecha, alrededor de 45 grados. +Reportero: Entonces mustrame cmo caminas normalmente. Bien. +Y ahora mustrame cmo fue cuando el puente comenz a moverse. Bien. +As que deliberaddamente tuviste que empujar tus pies a los lados y -- oh, y pasos cortos? +Hombre: As es. Me pareci obvio que era probablemente el nmero de personas en l. +Reportero: Estaban deliberadamente caminando con una cadencia, o algo as? +Hombre: No, simplemente tuvieron que adaptarse al movimiento del puente. +Steven Strogatz: Est bien, eso realmente les da una idea de lo que sucedi. +Piensen en el puente como esta plataforma. +Piensen en la gente como los metrnomos. +Ahora, puede que no estn acostumbrados a pensar en ustedes como un metrnomo, pero despus de todo, caminamos como -- quiero decir, oscilamos de atrs a adelante al caminar. +Y especialmente si empezamos a caminar como esas personas hicieron, no es as? +Todos mostraron este raro caminar como patinando que adoptaron una vez que el puente comenz a moverse. +Y bien permtanme mostrarles ahora el video del puente. +Despus de que vean el puente en el da de la inaguracin, vern un video interesante del trabajo hecho por un ingeniero en Cambridge llamado Allan McRobie, quien dedujo lo que sucedi en el puente, y quien construy un simulador del puente para explicar exactamente cul fue el problema. +Fue una especie de bucle de retroalimentacin positiva no intencional entre la manera en que la gente camin y la manera en que el puente comenz a moverse, del cual los ingenieros no saban nada. +En realidad, creo que la persona que vern es el jven ingeniero que estuvo a cargo del proyecto del puente. Ok. +Reportero: Result alguien herido? Ingeniero: No. +Reportero: Muy bien. Entonces era realmente poco -- Ingeniero: S. Reportero: -- pero real? +Ingeniero: Definitivamente. Reportero: Usted pens, "Oh, caramba." +Ingeniero: Sent que estaba decepcionado por ello. +Pasamos mucho tiempo diseando este puente, y lo habamos analizado, lo habamos revisado conforme a los cdigos -- a cargas ms pesadas que los cdigos -- y aqu apareca algo sobre lo que no tenamos conocimiento. +Reportero: No lo esperaban. Ingeniero: Exactamente. +Narrador: La secuencia ms dramtica e impactante muestra secciones completas de la multitud -- cientos de personas -- aparentemente mecindose de lado a lado al unsono, no slo unos con otros, si no tambin con el puente. +El movimiento sincronizado pareca estar impulsando al puente. +Pero, cmo es que la multitud se sincroniz? +Haba algo en particular sobre el Puente del Milenio que causara este efecto? +Esto fue el centro de la investigacin. +Reportero: Bien, al fin el simulador del puente est terminado, y podemos hacerlo bambolearse. +Ahora, Allan, todo esto es tu culpa, no es as? Allan McRobie: S. +Reportero: T diseaste esto, s?, este simulador del puente, y esto, crees t reproduce las acciones del verdadero puente? +AM: Reproduce mucha de la fsica, s. +Reportero: Bien. Si nos subimos en el, deberamos poder hacerlo bambolear, es as? +Allan McRobie es un ingeniero de puentes de Cambridge que me escribi, sugirindome que un simulador del puente debera bambolearse de la misma manera que el puente real -- suponiendo que lo colgramos en pndulos de la longitud correcta. +AM: Este es de slo un par de toneladas, as que es relativamente fcil de mover. +Tan slo con caminar. Reportero: Bien, realmente se est moviendo. +AM: No tiene que ser una verdadero bamboleo. Simplemente camina. Se empieza a mover. +Reportero: En realidad es un poco difcil caminar. +Tienes que tener cuidado donde pisas,no es as? porque si lo haces mal, simplemente pierdes el balance. +AM: S, definitivamente afecta la manera en que caminas. No se puede caminar normalmente en l. +Reportero: No. Si tratas de poner un pie delante del otro, mueve tus pies por debajo de t. AM: S. +Reportero: As que tienes que desplazar tus pies hacia los lados. +As que, el simulador me est haciendo caminar exactamente del mismo modo que nuestros testigos en el verdadero puente. +AM: ... como caminar como patinando en hielo. No hay esta especie de caminar serpentenado. +Reportero: Para un experimento ms convincente, deseaba mi propia multitud de da inagural, el equipo de prueba de sonido. +Sus instrucciones: caminen con normalidad. +Es realmente intrigante porque ninguna de estas personas estn tratando de moverlo. +Todos estn teniendo alguna dificultad para caminar. +Y la nica manera en la que puedes caminar cmodamente es al entrar en sincrona. +Pero entonces, por supuesto, todos estn moviendo el puente. +No hay cmo evitarlo. Te ves forzado por el movimiento del puente a entrar en sincrona, y en consecuencia, forzarlo a moverse ms. +SS: Muy bien, con eso cortesa del Ministerio de Andares Bobos, ser mejor que termine. Veo que me he excedido. +Pero espero que vayan afuera y vean el mundo de una nueva manera, viendo toda la increble sincrona que nos rodea. Gracias. +Es curioso, cuando conoces a un jefe de estado y preguntas, "Cul es su recurso natural ms valioso?" -- los nios no es lo primero que mencionan. +Y cuando mencionas a los nios, inmediatamente estn de acuerdo contigo. +: Estamos viajando hoy con el Ministro de Defensa de Colombia, que es cabeza del ejrcito y de la polica, y estamos entregando hoy 650 laptops a nios que no tienen televisin, ni telfono y han estado en una comunidad aislada del resto del mundo durante los ltimos 40 aos. +La importancia de entregar laptops en esta regin es la de conectar nios que han estado desconectados debido a las FARC, la guerrilla que se inici hace 40 aos como un movimiento poltico y que se convirti al trfico de droga. +Hay mil millones de nios en el mundo, y 50 por ciento de ellos no tienen electricidad en la casa o en la escuela. +Y en algunos pases -- digamos Afganistn -- 75 por ciento de las nias no van a la escuela. +Y no quiero decir que abandonan la escuela en tercer o cuarto grado -- simplemente nunca van. +As es que en los tres aos desde que habl en TED y mostr el prototipo, esto ha ido desde ser una idea hasta convertirse en una laptop de verdad. +Tenemos medio milln de laptops hoy en da en poder de los nios. +Tenemos aproximadamente un cuarto de milln en trnsito hacia stos y otros nios, y hay otro cuarto de milln ms que est siendo ordenado en este momento. +Tenemos entonces, aproximadamente, un milln de laptops. +Esto es menos de lo que predije -- predije de tres a diez millones -- pero sigue siendo una cantidad muy importante. +En Colombia tenemos cerca de 3,000 laptops. +Es el Ministerio de Defensa con quien estamos tranbajando, no el Ministerio de Educacin, porque esto es visto como un tema de defensa estratgico desde el punto de vista de liberar estas zonas que han estado completamente aisladas, en donde vive la gente donde han provocado, por as decirlo, 40 aos de bombardeos y secuestros y asesinatos. +Y de repente, los nios tienen laptops interconectadas. +Estos nios han progresado. +El cambio es absolutamente monumental, porque no solamente es volver a abrir la regin, sino es abrirla al resto del mundo. +Por supuesto, estn construyendo carreteras, por supuesto estn poniendo telfonos, y por supuesto, llegar la televisin. +Pero estos nios de seis a 12 aos estn navegando en Internet en espaol y en su lengua local, de modo que crecen con acceso a informacin, con una ventana al resto del mundo. +Antes, estaban aislados. +Curiosamente, en otros pases, es el Ministro de Economa quien lo ve como un motor de crecimiento econmico. +Y est motor dar resultados en 20 aos. +No va a pasar, claro, en un ao, pero es un importante y profundo cambio econmico y cultural que sucede a travs de los nios. +31 pases en total estn participando, y en el caso de Uruguay, la mitad de los nios ya tienen laptops, y para la mitad de 2009, cada nio en Uruguay tendr una -- una pequea laptop verde. +Bueno, cules son algunos de los resultados? +Algunos de los resultados que son comunes a todos los pases incluyen maestros expresando que nunca haban disfrutado tanto el ensear y la comprensin de lectura medida por terceros -- no por nosotros -- se dispara. +Probablemente lo ms importante que observamos es nios ensendoles a sus padres. +Ellos son dueos de las laptop. Se las llevan a casa. +Es as que cuando conoc a tres nios de estas escuelas, que haban viajado todo el da para llegar a Bogot, uno de ellos trajo a su madre. +Y el motivo por el que la trajo es que ese nio de seis aos estaba enseandole a su madre a leer y escribir. +Su madre no haba terminado la primaria. +Y esto representa una inversin de roles importante, y es un excelente ejemplo de los nios como agentes de cambio. +Entonces, para finalizar, la gente dice, Por qu laptops? +Las laptops son un lujo, es como darles iPods. No. +La razn por la que queremos laptos es que la clave es la educacin, no la laptop. +Este es un projecto educativo. No un proyecto de laptops. +Ellos tienen que aprender a aprender. Y entonces, imagnense -- pueden tener, digamos, 100 libros. +En un pueblo tendremos 100 laptops, cada uno con un juego diferente de 100 libros, entonces el pueblo tiene repentinamente 10,000 libros. +Nosotros nunca tuvimos 10,000 libros cuando fuimos a la primaria. +Algunas veces la escuela est bajo un rbol, o en muchos casos, el maestro tiene solamente quinto de primaria, por lo tanto necesitamos un modo colaborativo de aprendizaje, no solamente construir ms escuelas y entrenar ms maestros, lo cual se tiene que hacer de todas maneras. +Estamos promoviendo nuevamente "Give One, Get One". +El ao pasado promovimos un programa "Give One, Get One", y ste gener ms de 100,000 laptops que pudimos entregar gratis. +Y al ser una laptop sin costo, podemos ir a pases que no pueden pagarla de ninguna manera. +Y eso es exactamente lo que hicimos. Fuimos a Hait, fuimos a Ruanda, Afganistn, Etiopa, Mongolia. +Lugares que no son mercados, sembrndolos con los principios de saturacin, conectividad, bajas edades, etc. +Y de esta manera podemos alcanzar grandes volmenes. +As que pensemos de esta manera: pensemos como si estuviramos vacunando nios contra la ignorancia. +Y pensemos que la laptop es la vacuna. +Nunca se vacunan algunos nios. +Se vacunan a todos los nios de un rea. +Hay ms restaurantes chinos en este pas que McDonald's, Burger King, Kentucky Fried Chichen, y Wendy's, combinados: 40.000, en realidad. +Los restaurantes chinos, de hecho, han jugado un papel importante en la historia estadounidense. +La crisis de los misiles de Cuba se resolvi en un restaurante chino llamado Yenching Palace en Washington, D.C., que desafortunadamente est cerrado ahora, y a punto de convertirse en [una tienda] Walgreen's. Y la casa +donde John Wilkes Booth plane el asesinato de Abraham Lincoln es ahora tambin un restaurante chino llamado Wok 'n Roll, en la calle H en Washington. +Y no es del todo infundado, porque wok y roll [rollo]... comida china y japonesa, de modo que parece funcionar. +Y a los estadounidenses les encantaba tanto su comida china que de hecho la llevaron al espacio. +La NASA, por ejemplo, sirve cerdo agridulce termo-estabilizado en el men del transbordador para sus astronautas. +As que, permtanme presentarles la pregunta: Si nuestra referencia para la condicin de estadounidenses es el pastel de manzana, deberan preguntarse ustedes mismos: qu tan seguido comen pastel de manzana, frente a qu tan seguido comen comida china? Cierto? +Y si piensan en ello, mucha de la comida que ustedes piensan, o que nosotros pensamos, o que los estadounidenses piensan es comida china es apenas reconocible para los chinos, +por ejemplo: carne con brcoli, rollos de huevo, el pollo del General Tso, galletas de la fortuna, chop suey, las cajas para llevar. +Por ejemplo, llev algunas galletas de la fortuna de vuelta a China, se las di a los chinos para ver cmo reaccionaban. +Qu es esto? Debera probarlo? Prubelo! Cmo se llama? Galleta de la fortuna. Hay un papel adentro! Qu es esto? Ganaste un premio! Qu es esto? Es una frase de la fortuna! Delicioso! As que, de dnde son? +La respuesta corta es, de hecho, son de Japn. +Y en Kyoto, en las afueras, an hay pequeas panaderas familiares que hacen galletas de la fortuna, tal como las hacan hace ms de 100 aos, 30 aos antes de que trajeran las galletas de la fortuna a los Estados Unidos. +Y si las vemos lado a lado, unas son amarillas y otras marrn. +Las de ellos estn de hecho saboreadas con pasta de miso y ajonjol, as que no son tan dulces como nuestra versin. +Entonces, cmo llegaron a los Estados Unidos? +Bueno, la respuesta corta es, los inmigrantes japoneses vinieron, y unos cuantos panaderos las trajeron, incluyendo al menos uno en Los ngeles, y uno aqu en San Francisco llamado Benkyo-do, que est en la esquina de Sutter y Buchaman. +En esos tiempos, de hecho, ellos hacan galletas de la fortuna usando planchas muy similares a las que vimos en Kyoto. +Entonces, la pregunta interesante es: cmo las galletas de la fortuna, siendo algo japons, pasaron a ser algo chino? +Bueno, la respuesta corta es, encerramos a todos los japoneses durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial, incluidos aquellos que hacan galletas de la fortuna, as que +ese fue el momento cuando los chinos entraron: como que vieron una oportunidad de mercado y la tomaron. +Entonces, galletas de la fortuna: inventadas por los japoneses, popularizadas por los chinos, pero finalmente consumidas por estadounidenses. +Son ms estadounidenses que cualquier otra cosa. +Otro de mis platos favoritos: Pollo del General Tso, el cual, por cierto, en la Academia Naval de los EEUU es llamado Pollo del Almirante Tso. +Me encanta este plato. +El nombre original en mi libro era realmente llamado La Larga Marcha del General Tso, +y l ha marchado verdaderamente muy lejos, porque es dulce, es frito, y es pollo... todas las cosas que aman los estadounidenses. +Ha marchado tan lejos que incluso el chef que originalmente invent el plato no lo reconoce; est como horrorizado. +l est en Taiwn ahora mismo. +Est retirado, sordo, y juega bastante "Mahjong". +Despus de mostrarle [el plato], l se levant, y dice: "Mominchimiao", que significa: "Esto es un disparate", y va de vuelta a jugar su Mahjong durante la tarde. +Otro plato. Uno de mis favoritos. Carne con brcoli. +El brcoli no es un vegetal chino; de hecho, es originalmente un vegetal italiano. +Fue introducido en los Estados Unidos en el siglo 19, pero se hizo popular en las dcadas de 1920 y 1930. +De hecho, los chinos tenan su propia versin de brcoli, que se llama brcoli chino, pero ahora mismo... ellos ahora han descubierto el brcoli americano, y lo estn importando como una especie de manjar extico. +Les garantizo, el General Tso nunca vio un tallo de brcoli en su vida... +y en efecto, esa era de hecho una foto del General Tso. +Fui a su pueblo natal. +Este es un anuncio que dice: "Bienvenido al lugar de nacimiento del General Tso." +Y fui en busca de pollo. +Finalmente encontr una vaca, y s encontr pollo. +Cranlo o no, estos chicos estaban en realidad cruzando la calle. Y... +... De hecho encontr una buena cantidad de familiares del General Tso quienes viven todava en el pueblo. +Este tipo representa cinco generaciones desde el General; este nio cerca de siete. +Les mostr todas las fotos del Pollo del General Tso que les mostr a ustedes, y ellos, como diciendo: nosotros no conocemos este plato. Como diciendo: esto es comida china? +Porque no se ve como comida china para ellos. +Pero ellos no estaban tan sorprendidos de que yo viajara alrededor del mundo para visitarlos, porque a sus ojos l es, despus de todo, un famoso hroe militar de la dinasta Qing. +El jug un papel importante en la Rebelin Taiping, una guerra iniciada por un tipo que se crea hijo de Dios y el hermano menor de Jesucristo. +Y caus una guerra que mat a 20 millones de personas, todava la guerra civil mas mortfera en el mundo hasta el da de hoy. +As que, saben, cuando estaba all me di cuenta, que el General Tso es muy parecido al Coronel Sanders en Amrica, en que l es conocido por su pollo y no por la guerra. +Pero en China, este tipo en realidad es conocido por la guerra y no por el pollo. +Pero el abuelo de todos los platos chino-estadounidenses del que probablemente deberamos hablar es el chop suey, el cual fue introducido alrededor de principios del siglo 20. +Y de acuerdo al [peridico] New York Times, en 1904 hubo un brote de restaurantes chinos por toda la ciudad, y "la ciudad enloqueci con el chop suey". +As pasaron como 30 aos antes de que los estadounidenses se dieran cuenta que, ah, el chop suey realmente no es conocido en China. Y como seala este artculo: "El nativo promedio de cualquier ciudad en China no sabe nada del chop suey." +Saben, en aquel entonces era una forma de mostrar que eras sofisticado y cosmopolita: si eras un chico y queras impresionar una chica, podas llevarla a una cita de chop suey. +Me gusta decir que el chop suey es la broma culinaria ms grande que una cultura le ha jugado alguna vez a otra, porque el chop suey, si traducen al chino, significa "tsap sui", lo cual, si lo traducimos de nuevo, significa "chucheras y sobras". +As que, esta gente va por toda China preguntando por chop suey, lo cual es parecido a un chico japons que venga ac y diga: "Entiendo que ustedes tienen un plato muy popular en su pas llamado 'sobras', y es particularmente..." ... Cierto? +Y no solo eso: "este plato es particularmente popular despus de esas fiestas que ustedes llaman Accin de Gracias." As que, por qu... por qu y de dnde... proviene el chop suey? +Regresemos a mediados del siglo 19, cuando los primeros chinos llegaron a los EEUU. +En ese tiempo, los estadounidenses no estaban clamando por comer comida china. +De hecho, ellos vean a esta gente que lleg a sus costas como extraos. +Estas personas no estaban comiendo perros... estaban comiendo gatos... +y no estaban comiendo gatos... estaban comiendo ratas. +De hecho, el [peridico] New York Times, mi estimado empleador, en 1883 public un artculo que preguntaba: "Los Chinos comen ratas?" +Y no es la pregunta ms apropiada de hacer hoy, pero si miras las imgenes populares de ese tiempo, no eran tan extravagantes. +Este es un anuncio real de veneno para ratas de finales del siglo 19, +y si miran, bajo la palabra "Clears", muy pequeo, dice: "Se deben ir", lo cual no se refiere nicamente a las ratas, sino tambin a los chinos entre ellas, porque la forma en que la comida era percibida era que esta gente que coma comidas de manera diferente a nosotros debe ser diferente de nosotros. +Y otra forma en que medio se nota esta clase de... esta antipata hacia los chinos, es a travs de documentos como ste. +De hecho, esto est en la Librera del Congreso; +es un panfleto publicado por Samuel Gompers, hroe de nuestro movimiento obrero estadounidense, +y est titulado: "Algunas Razones para la Exclusin de los chinos: La Carne contra el Arroz: La Hombra Estadounidense contra el Culi Asitico: Cul sobrevivir?" +Y bsicamente argumentaba que los hombres chinos que coman arroz necesariamente rebajaran el nivel de vida para los hombres estadounidenses que coman carne. +Y de hecho, entonces, esta es una de las razones por las que debemos excluirlos de este pas. +As que, con sentimientos como estos, el Acta de Exclusin de Chinos fue ms o menos aprobada entre 1882 y 1902, el nico periodo en la historia estadounidense en el cual un grupo fue especficamente excluido por su origen nacional o su etnia. +As que, en cierto modo, debido a que los chinos fueron atacados, el chop suey fue creado como un mecanismo de defensa. +Ahora, quin tuvo la idea del chop suey? +Hay muchos misterios, muchas leyendas distintas, pero de las que encontr, la que pens era la ms interesante es este artculo de 1904. +Un chino llamado Lem Sen se apareci en Chinatown, Nueva York, y dice: "Quiero que todos ustedes dejen de hacer chop suey, porque yo soy el creador original y nico propietario del plato conocido como chop suey". +Y la manera en que lo cuenta, haba un tipo, un famoso diplomtico chino que se apareci, y se le dijo que hiciera un plato que luciera muy popular y que pudiera, comillas, "pasar" por chino. +Y como l dijo... (nunca publicaran esto hoy da) ... pero bsicamente: "el hombre estadounidense se ha hecho muy rico". +Lem Sen, quien es este tipo: "Yo tambin habra hecho esta fortuna, pero he pasado todo este tiempo buscando al estadounidense que rob mi receta. +Ahora he venido y lo he encontrado, y quiero que me regresen mi receta, y que todos dejen de preparar chop suey, o que me paguen por el derecho de prepararlo." +As que fue un ejercicio temprano de derechos de propiedad intelectual. +As que la cosa es, esta clase de idea de la comida chino-estadounidense no existe slo en los EEUU. +De hecho, si lo piensas, la comida china es una de las ms generalizadas en el planeta, servida en los siete continentes, incluso en la Antrtida, porque la noche del lunes es noche de comida china en la estacin McMurdo, que es la principal estacin cientfica en la Antrtida. +As, ustedes ven diferentes variedades de comida china. +Por ejemplo, est la comida franco-china, donde sirven ancas de rana con sal y pimienta. +Est la comida italiano-china, donde no tienen galletas de la fortuna, as que sirven helado frito. +Alessandra, mi vecina del piso de abajo, estaba totalmente sorprendida cuando le dije: "Amiga, el helado frito no es chino." +Y ella dice: "No lo es? Pero lo sirven en todos los restaurantes chinos en Italia." +Y aun los britnicos tienen su propia versin. +Este es un plato llamado tiras crujientes de carne de res, el cual tiene un montn de crujiente, un montn de tiras, y no mucha carne de res. +Hay comida china de las Indias Occidentales, hay comida Jamaicano-China, hay comida china del Oriente Medio, hay comida Mauritano-China. +Este es un plato que descubr llamado el Tazn Mgico. +Hay comida Indo-China, comida Coreano-China, comida Japonesa-China, donde toman el "bao", los pequeos panecillos, y los hacen como una versin de pizza, +y toman... y ellos, como que totalmente al azar, toman platos de fideos chinos, y simplemente los hacen como Ramen. +Esto es como... esto es algo que, en la versin china, no tiene sopa. +As, hay comida Peruana-China, que no debe mezclarse con la comida Mexicana-China, donde bsicamente toman cosas y las hacen parecer fajitas. +Y entonces... una cosa: tienen algo como chop suey de risotto [arroz]. +Mi favorito personal entre todos los restaurantes que he encontrado alrededor del mundo fue ste en Brasil, llamado "Kung Food". +Bien, demos un paso atrs, y medio entendamos lo que es ser apreciado en los EEUU. +McDonald's, en cierto modo, ha cosechado mucha atencin, mucho respeto, el men, la decoracin y la experiencia de comer en los EEUU post-Segunda Guerra Mundial. +Pero, saben qu? +En verdad lo hicieron a travs de una oficina central desde Illinois, cierto? +Los restaurantes chinos han hecho la misma cosa, sostendra yo, con el men y la decoracin, incluso con el nombre del restaurante, pero sin oficinas centrales. +Esto me qued muy claro cuando el sorteo del Powerball del 30 de marzo de 2005, donde, ya saben, ellos esperaban, basados en el nmero de boletos que haban vendido, esperaban tener tres o cuatro ganadores del segundo premio... esa es la gente que acierta cinco o seis de los nmeros del sorteo. +En vez de eso, tuvieron 110, y estaban completamente escandalizados. +Miraron por todo el pas y descubrieron que no podra ser necesariamente un fraude, porque ocurri, ya saben, en diferentes estados, a travs de diferentes sistemas de cmputo. +As que, lo que fuera, haba causado que la gente como que se comportara de una manera sincronizada masiva. +As que, bien, quiz tena que ver con los patrones en los boletos, ya saben, como, era un diamante, o, ya saben, diagonal. +No era eso. No era eso, as que como que, Bueno, veamos la televisin, +as que vieron un episodio de [la serie] Lost. +As que vieron [la serie] Los Jvenes y Los Inquietos, y tampoco fue eso. +As que no fue sino hasta que el primer tipo se presenta al da siguiente, y le preguntan: "De dnde obtuvo usted su nmero?" +Y l dice: "Ah, lo tom de una galleta de la fortuna." +Este es, de hecho, el papelito que tena uno de los ganadores, porque los oficiales de seguridad de la Lotera de Tennessee estaban como que, ah, no... como que: "esto no puede ser verdad". +Pero era verdad, +y bsicamente, de esas 110 personas, 104 de ellas, o algo as, haban obtenido su nmero de la galleta de la fortuna. +S. As, fui y comenc a buscar. +Fui por todo el pas, buscando estos restaurantes de donde estas personas haban obtenido sus galletas de la fortuna. +Ya saben, haba un montn de ellos, incluyendo Lee's China en Omaha (atendido en verdad por Coreanos, pero ese es otro punto), y un montn de ellos llamados China Buffet. +Bien, lo interesante es que sus historias eran similares, pero eran diferentes. +Fue almuerzo, fue comida para llevar, fue comida en el restaurante, fue un buf, fue hace tres semanas, fue hace tres meses. +Pero en algn punto, toda esa gente tuvo una experiencia muy similar que converga en una galleta de la fortuna y en un restaurante chino, +y todos estos restaurantes chinos estaban sirviendo galletas de la fortuna, las cuales, por supuesto sabemos, para empezar ni siquiera son chinas. +As que es como parte del fenmeno que llam auto-organizacin espontnea, cierto?, donde, como colonias de hormigas, donde las pequeas decisiones hechas por... en el nivel micro de hecho tienen un gran impacto en el nivel macro. +As, un buen tipo de contraste son los Chicken McNuggets. +McDonald's de hecho emple 10 aos lanzando un producto que fuese como de pollo. +Hicieron pastel de pollo, hicieron pollo frito, y finalmente lanzaron los Chicken McNuggets. +Y la gran innovacin de los Chicken McNuggets no fue hacerlos como pepitas [nuggets], porque eso era como un concepto fcil, +Por el contrario, tenemos el Pollo del General Tso, el cual comenz de hecho en la ciudad de Nueva York a principios de los aos 70, justo cuando yo estaba comenzando la universidad en la ciudad de Nueva York a principios de los 70... +Y este logotipo! +As que yo, el Pollo del General Tso y este logotipo estamos csmicamente relacionados. +Pero ese plato tambin tom alrededor de 10 aos en extenderse a travs de los EEUU desde un restaurante al azar en la ciudad de Nueva York. +Alguien piensa: "Oh, Dios!... es dulce, est frito, es pollo: A los estadounidenses les encantar esto." +As, lo que me gusta decir, saben, siendo sta como el rea de la Baha, el Valle del Silicn... es que pensamos en McDonald's como una especie de Microsoft de las experiencias culinarias. +Podemos pensar en los restaurantes chinos quiz como en Linux: como una cosa de cdigo abierto, cierto?, donde las ideas de una persona pueden ser copiadas y propagadas a travs del sistema entero; puede haber versiones especializadas de comida china, ya saben, dependiendo de la regin. +Por ejemplo, ya saben, en Nueva Orleans tenemos comida china [estilo] Cajn, en donde sirven lagarto Sichuan y cangrejo de ro agridulce, cierto? +Y en Filadelfia, tienes el rollo Filadelfia de bistec con queso, el cual parece un rollo de huevo por fuera, pero es un bistec con queso por dentro. +Realmente me sorprendi descubrir eso, no slo en Filadelfia, sino tambin en Atlanta, +porque lo que haba sucedido era que una familia china se haba mudado de Atlanta a... perdn, de Filadelfia a Atlanta, y trajo aquello consigo. +As que la cosa es, nuestra tradicin popular histrica, debido a la manera en que nos gustan los relatos, est llena de personajes inmensos tales como, ya saben, Howard Schultz de Starbucks y Ray Kroc con McDonald's y Asa Chandler con Coca-Cola. +Pero, saben, es muy fcil pasar por alto a los personajes ms pequeos... ay... +por ejemplo, como Lem Sen, quien introdujo el chop suey, Chef Peng, quien introdujo el Pollo del General Tso, y todos los panaderos japoneses que introdujeron las galletas de la fortuna. +As, que el punto de mi presentacin es hacerlos pensar dos veces, que aquellos cuyos nombres estn olvidados en la historia pueden con frecuencia haber tenido tanto, si es que no ms impacto, en lo que comemos hoy. +As. Muchas gracias. +Empezar hablando sobre el siglo 17. +Espero que nadie lo encuentre ofensivo. +Yo -- ustedes saben, cuando yo -- despus de haber inventado la PCR, Como que necesitaba un cambio. +Y me traslad a La Jolla y aprend a surfear. +Y empez a vivir all en la playa por un largo tiempo. +Y cuando los surfistas esperan por las olas, ustedes probablemente se preguntan, si nunca han estado ah, qu hacen? +Ustedes saben, a veces hay un intervalo de 10-, 15 minutos mientras esperas que llegue una ola. +A menudo hablan sobre el siglo 17. +Ustedes saben, a veces son malinterpretados por el mundo. +La gente cree que son algo ignorantes. +Un da, alguien sugiri que leyera este libro. +Se llamaba -- se llamaba " La Bomba de Aire" o algo as como "El Leviatn y la Bomba de Aire". +Era un libro verdaderamente extrao acerca del siglo 17. +Y me d cuenta, las races de la manera que yo como que crea que era la nica manera natural de pensar sobre las cosas. +Que -- ustedes saben, yo nac pensando sobre las cosas de esa manera, y yo siempre haba sido como un pequeo cientfico. +Y cuando sala a encontrar algo, Usaba mtodos cientficos. Realmente no estaba sorprendido, ustedes saben, cuando me dijeron por primera vez cmo -- cmo se supone que t hagas ciencia, porque yo ya lo haba estado haciendo por diversin, o lo que sea. +Pero no -- nunca se me ocurri que deba ser inventado y que haba sido inventado haca solamente 350 aos. +Ustedes saben, fue -- como sucedi en Inglaterra, y Alemania, e Italia como en todos al mismo tiempo. +Y la historia de eso, Pens, era realmente fascinante. +As es que hablar un poco sobre eso, y qu es exactamente lo que se supone que hacen los cientficos. +Y es, es una especie de -- Ustedes saben, Carlos I fue decapitado comenzando el siglo 17. +Y los ingleses instauraron a Cromwell y a un montn de Republicanos o algo, y no la clase de Republicanos que tenemos. +Cambiaron el gobierno, y no funcion. +Y Carlos II, el hijo, finalmente fue reinstalado en el trono de Inglaterra. +No tenan pantallas de televisin, y no haba juegos de futbol para mirar. +Y se realmente se enojaban, y de repente la gente se sala a la calle a pelear sobre asuntos como que si o no estaba bien que Robert Boyle fabricara un aparato llamado la bomba de vaco. +Ahora bien, Boyle era amigo de Carlos II, +El era un tipo Cristiano los fines de semana, pero durante la semana era un cientfico. +Pero lo que estaba intentando hacer era sacar todo el aire de ah, y ver que ocurrira en el interior. +Quiero decir, el primer -- creo que uno de los primeros experimentos que realiz fue colocar un pjaro ah. +Y la gente en el siglo 17, realmente no entenda de la misma manera que nosotros sobre ustedes saben, esta cosa es un montn de diferentes clases de molculas, y lo respiramos con un propsito y todo eso. +Quiero decir, los peces no saben mucho acerca del agua, y la gente no saba mucho acerca del aire. +Pero ambos empezaron a explorarlo. +Una cosa, coloc un pjaro ah, y sac todo el aire, y el pjaro muri. As es que dijo, hmm ... +Dijo -- llam a lo que haba hecho como hacer -- no lo llamaron una bomba de vaco entonces. +Ahora lo llamamos una bomba de vaco; l lo llam un vaco. +De acuerdo? E inmediatamente, entr en problemas con el clero local que dijo, usted no puede hacer un vaco. +Ah, uh -- Aristteles dijo que la naturaleza lo abomina. +Creo que fue una mala traduccin, probablemente, pero la gente confiaba en autoridades como esa. +Y ustedes saben, Boyle dice, bueno, mierda. +Yo las hago todo el tiempo. +Quiero decir, lo que sea que mata el pjaro -- y lo estoy llamando un vaco. +Y la gente religiosa dijo que si Dios quisiera que Ud. hiciera -- Quiero decir, Dios est en todas partes, esa era una de sus reglas, si Dios est en todas partes. +Y un vaco -- no hay nada en un vaco, as es que Ud. -- Dios no podra estar ah. +As es que la iglesia dijo que no se puede hacer un vaco, ustedes saben. +Y Boyle dijo, mierda. +Quiero decir, ustedes quiere llamarlo carente de Dios, ustedes saben, si lo llaman carente de Dios. +Pero eso no es mi tema. No estoy en eso. +Hago eso los fines de semana. Y como -- lo que estoy tratando de hacer es imaginar qu ocurre cuando Ud. saca todo desde un compartimento. +Y l hizo todos estos bellos y pequeos experimentos. +Como el que hizo con -- tena una pequea rueda, como un ventilador, que estaba flojamente conectado, de modo que poda girar solo. +Tena otro ventilador opuesto a ese que tena como un -- Quiero decir, la forma que yo lo hubiera hecho sera, como, un elstico, y, ustedes saben, como un ventilador de juguete. +S exactamente cmo lo hizo, he visto los dibujos. +Son dos ventiladores, uno de los cuales poda hacer girar desde afuera despus de haber hecho el vaco. y descubri que si sacaba todo el aire, un ventilador no podra ya mover al otro, correcto? +Algo faltaba, ustedes saben. Quiero decir, estos son -- es como extrao pensar que alguien debiera hacer un experimento para demostrar esto pero esto es lo que suceda entonces. +Y as, haba grandes discusiones sobre eso en el -- ustedes saben, las casas de ginebra y las cafeteras y otras. +Y a Carlos empez a no gustarle esto. +Y as, Carlos dijo, voy a disponer el dinero voy a darles un edificio, vengan aqu y se pueden reunir en el edificio, pero solamente no hablen de religin ah. +Y eso dejo contento a Boyle. +Dijo, muy bien, vamos a comenzar estas reuniones +Y cualquiera que desee hacer ciencia es -- esta era la poca que Isaac Newton comenzaba a lanzar un montn de cosas realmente interesantes. +Y haba toda clase de gente que venan a la Royal Society, como la llamaban. Se tena que vestir muy bien. +No era como una conferencia TED. +Era el nico criterio, que Ud. fuera -- que Ud. se viera como un caballero, y permitan que cualquiera viniera. +No necesitaba ser miembro entonces. +Y as, venan y Ud. hara -- Cualquiera que fuera a mostrar un experimento, que era algo como nuevo entonces, demostrar algn principio, deban hacerlo en el escenario, donde todos pudieran verlo. +As que eran -- la parte realmente importante de esto era, se supona que Ud. no hablara sobre causas finales, por ejemplo. +Y Dios esta totalmente fuera. +La naturaleza de la realidad no estaba en discusin. +Se supone que Ud. no debe hablar sobre la naturaleza absoluta de nada. +Se supona que Ud. no debe hablar sobre nada que Ud. no pudiera demostrar. +As es que si alguien lo poda ver, podra decirse, as es como funciona la mquina, esto es lo que hacemos, y luego esto sucede. +Y viendo lo que sucede, estaba bien generalizar, y decir, estoy seguro que esto ocurrir en cualquier momento en que hagamos una de estas cosas. +Y as podemos empezar a establecer algunas reglas. +Ud. dice, cuando quiera que tenga un vaco, Ud. descubrir que una rueda no mover a otra, si la nica conexin entre ellas es lo que fuera que haba all antes del vaco. Ese tipo de cosa. +Las velas no pueden arder en un vaco, luego, probablemente tampoco lo hara los chisperos. +No est claro; de hecho, los chisperos lo harn, pero eso ellos no lo saban; +no tenan chisperos. Pero, ellos -- --Ud. puede establecer reglas, pero deben relacionarse solo con las cosas que Ud. ha podido demostrar. +Y la mayora de las demostraciones tenan que ver con elementos visuales. +Tal como si Ud. hace un experimento en el escenario, y nadie puede verlo, solo pueden escucharlo, probablemente pensaran que Ud. era extrao. +Es decir, la realidad es lo que Ud. puede ver. +Esa no era una regla explcita en la reunin, pero estoy seguro que era parte de aquello, ustedes saben. Si la gente escucha voces, y no pueden ver y asociarlo con alguien, esa persona probablemente no est ah. +Pero la idea general que Ud. solamente -- Ud. solo poda hablar realmente sobre cosas en ese lugar que tenan algun tipo de base experimental. +No importaba lo que Thomas Hobbes, quien era un filsofo local, dijera al respecto, ustedes saben, porque Ud. no iba a hablar sobre causas finales. +Lo que est sucediendo aqu, a mitad del siglo 17, era que lo que sera mi campo -- la ciencia, ciencia experimental -- se estaba alejando, y era de una manera fsica, porque lo haremos en esta sala aqu, pero era tambin lo que -- fue una cosa asombrosa que sucedi. +La ciencia haba sido entrelazada completamente con la teologa y la filosofa, y -- y -- y las matemticas, la que realmente no es ciencia. +Pero la ciencia experimental haba estado amarrada con esas cosas. +Y la parte matemtica y la parte de ciencia experimental se estaban alejando de la filosofa. +y -- cosas -- nunca miramos atrs. +Ha sido tan tranquilo desde entonces +Es decir, solamente -- solamente -- destrab algo que realmente impeda que se desarrollara la tecnologa. +y, quiero decir, todos en esta sala -- ahora, esto fue hace escasos 350 aos. +Recuerden, es un lapso corto. +Fue hace 300,000, probablemente, aos atrs que la mayora de nosotros, los ancestros de la mayora de nosotros aqui salieron de Africa y giraron a la izquierda. +ustedes saben, los que giraron a la derecha, hay algunos de esos en la traduccin japonesa. +Pero eso sucedi hace mucho -- mucho tiempo atrs comparado con escasos 350 aos atrs. +Pero en esos 350 aos, el lugar ha sufrido un montn de cambios +Kay Mullis: Lo hubieran hecho por el osito, s. +Pero -- todos poseemos cosas. +Quiero decir, los individuos poseen cosas que los reyes definitivamente hubieran ido a la guerra para conseguirlas. +Y esto hace solo 350 aos. +No muchas personas hacen esto. +Ustedes saben, gente importante -- ustedes casi pueden leer sobre sus vidas, acerca de las personas verdaderamente importantes que hicieron adelantos, ustedes saben. +Tu tienes - Tu tienes, como -- Yo solo tuve un sentimiento natural para la ciencia y hacer experimentos. Yo pensaba que esa era la forma que todos siempre haban pensado. +Yo pensaba que cualquiera con algo de cerebro lo hara de esa manera. +No es verdad. Quiero decir, hay un montn de personas -- Ustedes saben, yo era uno de esos cientficos que -- se meti en problemas la otra noche en una cena debido a esa cosa del post-modernismo. +Y no quise decir, Ud. sabe -- dnde est esa dama? +Audiencia: Aqu. +KM: Quiero decir, no pens que eso fuera una disputa si acaso una discusin animada. +No lo tom como algo personal, pero -- Yo solo -- haba -- haba pensado ingenuamente, hasta que esta experiencia de surfeo me introdujo en el siglo 17, Yo pensaba que es exactamente como la gente piensa, y todos lo hacan, y reconocan la realidad por lo que podan ver o tocar o escuchar. +De todas formas, cuando yo era un nio -- yo, como -- por ejemplo, yo tena este -- Recib este pequeo libro desde Fort Sill, Oklahoma -- Esto es alrededor de la poca que el pap de George Dyson estaba empezando a explotar ncleos -- pensando en elevar cohetes nucleares y cosas. +Yo pensaba en fabricar mis propios pequeos cohetes. +Y yo saba que las ranas -- las pequeas ranas -- tenan aspiraciones de viajes espaciales, igual que las personas. Y yo -- Yo estaba buscando un -- un sistema de propulsin que, hiciera a un cohete, como, quizas de cuatro pies de altura elevarse un par de millas. +Y, estoy diciendo, ese era mi tipo de propsito. +Quera que desapareciera de vista y luego quera que este pequeo paracadas regresara con la rana en l. +Y -- yo -- yo -- yo recib este libro desde Fort Sill, Oklahoma, donde haba una base de misiles. +Lo enviaban a coheteros aficionados, y deca ah jams caliente una mezcla de perclorato de potasio con azucar. +Ustedes saben, eso es lo que se llama un impulso. +Ud. como que -- dice, bien, veamos si puedo conseguir algo de clorato de potasio y azucar, perclorato y azucar, y calentarlo, sera interesante ver qu es lo que no quieren que yo haga, y lo que va a -- y cmo va a funcionar. +Y no tenamos -- tal como, mi madre presida sobre el patio trasero desde una ventana del piso de arriba donde estara planchando o algo parecido. +Y normalmente como que estaba echando una mirada, y si haba bocanadas de humo ah afuera, ella se inclinaba y nos amonestaba a todos que no nos sacramos los ojos. Esa era ella -- ustedes saben, eso era el peor tipo de cosa que nos poda suceder. +Por eso yo pensaba, mientras no me saque los ojos ... +no me preocupar por el hecho que est prohibido calentar esta solucin. +Lo har cuidadosamente, pero la har. +Es como cualquier cosa que esta prohibida: la hacen detrs del garage. +As, fui a la farmacia e intent comprar perclorato de potasio y era razonable entonces que un nio fuera a la farmacia y comprara productos qumicos. +Hoy da, es no seora, ubquese. Y as -- Pero entonces no -- no haba, pero el tipo tena -- Dije, qu clase de sales de potasio tiene? Ustedes saben. +Y tena nitrato de potasio. +Y yo dije, eso puede funcionar igual, lo que quiera que sea. +Estoy seguro que tiene que ver con cohetes o no estara en ese manual. +As es que yo -- Realiz algunos experimentos. +ustedes saben, empez con cantidades pequeitas de nitrato de potasio y azucar, de la que haba bastante, y los mezcl en diferentes proporciones, y trat de encenderlos. +Slo para saber que ocurrira, si los mezclaba. +Y sucedi -- se quemaron. +Se quem un poco lentamente, pero produjo un bonito olor, comparado con otros combustibles de cohetes que yo haba ensayado, ya que todos contenan azufre. +Y, ola como caramelo quemado. +Y luego prob con el asunto de derretir, y lo derret. +Y luego se derriti y form una especie de lquido como jarabe, caf. +Y luego se enfri y se convirti en un material duro, que cuando Ud. lo encenda, sala volando como un murcilago. +Quiero decir, el pequeo recipiente con esa substancia que se haba enfriado -- Ud. la encenda y empezaba a bailar alrededor del patio. +Y yo dije, aqu hay una forma de colocar una rana arriba adonde quiere ir. +As es que empez a desarrollar -- ustedes saben, el pap de George tena bastante ayuda. Yo slo tena a mi hermano. +pero yo -- me tom como -- me tom como, yo dira, seis meses para finalmente entender todos los detalles. +Hay un montn de detalles involucrados en la fabricacin de un cohete que realmente funcione, aun despus de tener el combustible. +Pero lo hace, mediante -- lo que acababa -- ustedes saben, hacen experimentos, y a veces escribe cosas, hace observaciones, ustedes saben. +Y luego lentamente construye una teora sobre cmo funciona esta cosa. +Y fue -- yo segua todas las reglas. +Yo no saba cules eran las reglas, soy un cientfico innato, creo, o una especie de reversin al siglo 17, lo que sea. +Pero, en fin, finalmente pudimos tener un aparato que podra reproduciblemente colocar una rana fuera de vista y traerla de vuelta viva. +Y nosotros no -- quiero decir, no estbamos atemorizados por eso. +Deberamos haberlo estado, porque produjo bastante humo e hizo bastante ruido, y era poderoso, ustedes saben. +Y de vez en cuando, explotaban. +Pero yo no me preocupaba, sobre, ustedes saben, que la explosin causara la destruccin del planeta. +Yo no haba escuchado acerca de las 10 maneras que debamos preocuparnos de -- Por lo dems, yo podra haber pensado, Mejor no hago esto porque decan no lo haga, ustedes saben. +Y mejor consigo permiso del gobierno. +Si yo hubiera esperado eso, yo nunca -- la rana hubiera muerto, ustedes saben. +De todas formas, lo presento aqu por que es una buena historia, y l dijo, cuente cosas personales, ustedes saben, y eso es personal -- Yo les iba a contar sobre la primera noche que conoc a mi esposa, pero eso sera demasiado personal, no es cierto? +As pues, tengo algo ms que no es personal. +Pero ese ... proceso es lo que denomino ciencia, veamos, dnde empieza con alguna idea, y entonces, en lugar de, como, buscar, cada autoridad que haya alguna vez odo hablar de -- yo -- a veces se hace eso, si va a escribir un artculo ms tarde, querr saber quin ms ha trabajado en eso. +ustedes saben, si yo me hubiera devuelto a buscar alguien con autoridad quien me pudiera decir si eso funcionara o no, l hubiera dicho, no, probablemente no. +Porque los resultados de eso eran tan espectaculares que si funcionaba, cambiara la maldita manera de hacer biologa molecular. +Nadie quera que llegara un qumico a entrometerse as en sus cosas y cambiarlas. +Pero si Ud. va a la autoridad, y siempre no -- no siempre consigue la respuesta correcta, ve. +ustedes saben, as es como se hace ciencia. +Y luego dice, bien, qu lo har funcionar mejor? +Y luego imagina mejores y mejores formas de hacerlo. +Pero siempre trabaja desde, desde como, hechos que ha hecho disponibles para Ud. al hacer experimentos: cosas que hara en un escenario. +Y ninguna cochina trampa detrs de la cosa. Es decir, es todo -- usted debe ser muy honesto con lo que est haciendo si es que realmente va a funcionar. +Quiero decir, no puede fabricar resultados, y luego hacer otro experimento basado en ese. +As es que debe ser honesto. +Y yo soy bsicamente honesto. +Tengo una memoria relativamente mala, y la deshonestidad me pondra en problemas, si yo, como -- as es que yo como que he sido naturalmente honesto y naturalmente inquisitivo, y eso como que conduce a ese tipo de ciencia. +Ahora, veamos ... +Tengo cinco minutos ms, correcto? +Muy bien. No todos los cientficos son as. +Ustedes saben -- y hay un montn -- Hay un montn -- un montn ha estado sucediendo desde que Isaac Newton y todo eso sucedi. +Una de las cosas que sucedi justo alrededor de la 2a. Guerra Mundial en ese mismo perodo antes, y con toda seguridad despus, el gobierno -- se di cuenta que los cientficos no son bichos extraos que, ustedes saben, se esconden en torres de marfil y hacen cosas ridculas con tubos de ensayo. +Los cientficos, ustedes saben, hicieron que la 2a. Guerra como la conocemos, fuera posible. +Hicieron cosas ms rpidas. +Hicieron armas ms grandes para derribarlos. +Ustedes saben, hicieron drogas para dar a los pilotos si se quebraban en el proceso, +Hicieron toda clase de -- y finalmente una bomba gigantesca para finalizar toda la cosa, de acuerdo? +Y todos retrocedieron un poco y dijeron, ustedes saben, debemos invertir en esta porquera, porque quienquiera que tenga a la mayora de estas personas trabajando en los lugares va a tener una posicin dominante, al menos en lo militar, y probablemente en toda clase de materias econmicas. +Y se comprometieron en esto, y el "establishment" cientfico e industrial naci, Y de eso sali un montn de cientficos que estaban ah por el dinero, ustedes saben, porque sbitamente estaba disponible. +Y no eran los pequeos nios curiosos a quienes gustaba elevar ranas en el aire. +Usted quiere ser rico, sea un hombre de negocios. +Pero un montn de personas entraron por el dinero y el poder y los viajes. +Eso era cuando viajar era facil. +Y esas personas no piensan -- Ellos no -- ellos no siempre le dicen a Ud. la verdad, ustedes saben. +No hay nada en sus contratos, de hecho, que convierta eso en su ventaja siempre, el decirle a Ud. la verdad. +Y las personas de las cuales estoy hablando son personas que como -- dicen que son miembros del comit llamado, digamos, el Panel Intergubernamental sobre el Cambio Climtico. +y ellos -- y tienen estas grandes reuniones donde tratan de imaginar como vamos a -- cmo vamos a probar continuamente que el planeta se est calentando, cuando eso es realmente contrario a las sensaciones de la gente. +Quiero decir, si Ud. realmente mide la temperatura durante un perodo -- Quiero decir, la temperatura ha sido medida ahora bastante cuidadosamente durante 50, 60 aos -- ms que eso ha sido medida, pero en formas realmente bonitas, precisas, y se tiene registros para 50 60 aos, y de hecho, la temperatura realmente no ha aumentado. +Es como, la temperatura promedio ha aumentado un poquito, porque las temperaturas nocturnas de las estaciones metereolgicas han aumentado un poquito. +Pero hay una buena explicacin para eso. +Y es que esas estaciones estn todas construidas fuera de la ciudad, donde estaba el aeropuerto, y ahora la ciudad se traslad ah, hay cemento en todas partes y lo llaman el efecto edificacin. +Y la mayora de las personas responsables que miden temperaturas se dan cuenta que debe aislar su instrumento de medicin. +Y aun entonces, ustedes saben, porque los edificios se calientan en el da, y estn un poquito ms calientes en la noche. +As es que la temperatura, como que, ha ido aumentando. +Debera haberlo hecho. Pero no mucho. No como, ustedes saben -- El primer tipo -- el primer tipo que tuvo la idea que nos bamos a frer aqu, en realidad, no pens esto de esa manera. +Su nombre era Sven Arrhenius. Era sueco, y dijo, si se duplica el nivel de CO2 en la atmsfera, lo que el pens podra suceder -- esto es en el ao 1900 -- la temperatura debera subir alrededor de 5,5 grados, calcul l. +El estaba pensando en la tierra como, una especie de, ustedes saben, como una cosa completamente aislada con nada dentro, realmente, solamente energa entrando, energa saliendo. +Pero nadie realmente lo demostr, de acuerdo? +As es que si la promedia con la temperatura diurna, parece como que aument alrededor de 0,7 grados en este siglo. +Pero de hecho, solamente vena subiendo -- era la nocturna; la diurna no subi. +As -- y la teora de Arrhenius -- y todos los calentadores globales piensan -- diran, ya, debera subir en el da, tambin, si es el efecto invernadero. +Es un artculo que apareci en Febrero, y la mayora de ustedes probablemente no han oido hablar de l. +"Evidencia para Gran Variabilidad Decadal en el Presupuesto de la Energa Radiante Tropical Promedio." +Disculpen. Esos artculos fueron publicados por la NASA, y algunos cientficos de Columbia, y Viliki y un montn de personas, Princeton. +Dicen, si Ud. mide la temperatura de la atmsfera, ella no est aumentando -- no est definitivamente aumentando. Lo hemos estado haciendo muy cuidadosamente durante 20 aos, desde satlites, y no est aumentando. +Cuando se calienta ella genera -- hace energa ms roja -- quiero decir, como infrarroja, como algo que est caliente emite infrarrojo. +As es que Ud. todava recibe calor, pero no disipa nada. +Bien, estos tipos midieron todas estas cosas. +Como, la cantidad del desequilibrio -- que significa, calor que est llegando y no est saliendo que Ud. obtendra al haber duplicado el CO2, el cual, no estamos ni cerca de eso, incidentalmente. +Pero si lo estuviramos, en el 2025 o algo as, tendramos el doble del CO2 que tenamos en 1900, ellos dicen que incrementara el presupuesto de energa en cerca de -- en otras palabras, un watt por centmetro cuadrado ms estara llegando que lo que estara saliendo. +As es que el planeta debera calentarse. +Bien, encontraron en este estudio -- estos dos estudios por dos diferentes grupos -- que cinco y medio watts por metro cuadrado haba estado llegando en 1998, 1999, y el lugar no se puso ms caliente. +As es que la teora est kaput -- no es nada. +Estos artculos deberan haberse llamado, "El Fin al Fiasco del Calentamiento Global," ustedes saben. +Estn preocupados, y ustedes pueden ver que tienen conclusiones muy cautelosas en estos artculos, porque estn hablando sobre laboratorios grandes que se financian con montones de dinero y por personas asustadas +Ustedes saben, si dicen, saben qu? +No hay ms problemas con el calentamiento global, as es que podemos -- ustedes saben, estn financiando. +Y si comienza una solicitud de financiamiento con algo como eso, y dice, el calentamiento global obviamente no ha sucedido ... +si ellos -- si ellos -- si ellos realmente -- si ellos realmente dijeran eso, Estoy saliendo. +Me pondr de pie, tambin, y -- Ellos deberan de decir eso. +Ellos tenan que ser muy cautelosos, +No es por uno pequeo. Ellos solamente -- ellos solamente malinterpretaron el hecho que la tierra -- obviamente posee hay algunos mecanismos que nadie conoca, porque el calor est entrando y no se estaba calentando. +As es que el planeta es una cosa bien asombrosa, ustedes saben, es grande y horrible -- y grande y maravillosa, y hace toda clase de cosas de las cuales no conocemos nada. +As, quiero decir, el motivo que pongo todas esas cosas juntas, Bien, esta es la forma que se supone que se hace ciencia -- alguna ciencia se realiza por otras razones, y solo curiosidad. +Y hay un montn de cosas como el calentamiento global, y el agujero de ozono y ustedes saben, un montn de asuntos cientficos pblicos, que si a ustedes le interesan entonces deben entrar en los detalles, y leer los artculos llamados, "Gran Variabilidad Decadal en el ..." +Tienen que entender lo que significan todas esas palabras. +Y si ustedes solamente escuchan a los tipos que estn inflando esos asuntos, y ganando un montn de dinero con ello, estarn mal informados. Y ustedes se estarn preocupando por las cosas errneas. +Recuerden las 10 cosas que lo van a agarrar. La -- una de ellas -- Y los asteroides es la con que yo verdaderamente estoy de acuerdo ah. +Quiero decir, cuidense de los asteroides. Bien, gracias por tenerme aqu. +En realidad, estoy un poco cansado de hablar sobre la simplicidad as que pens que podra hacer mi vida mucho ms complicada, a manera de un juego ms serio. +As que les quiero mostrar unas diapositivas de cuando yo era ms joven y a travs de ellas darles una idea de como llegu aqu. +Bsicamente todo comenz con la idea de una computadora. +Quin tiene una computadora? Si. +Ok, entonces todos tienen una computadora. +Inclusive un telfono celular es una computadora. +Y, alguien de ustedes recuerda este libro de trabajo, "Actividades Instantneas Para Tu Apple" Traa un pster gratis en cada libro Recuerdan? +Pues as fue como comenz la informtica. +No se olviden que slo apareci la computadora, sta no tena programas. +Tu comprabas esa cosa, la llevabas a casa, la conectabas, y haca absolutamente nada. +As que tenas que programarla, y existan grandes programadores, como tutoriales, igual a ste. +Quiero decir, sto era increble. +Es como, Herbi la Apple II. +Es una gran manera de -- lo que quiero decir, es que deberan de hacer libros para Java como ste y no tendramos problema alguno para aprender un programa. +Pero esta era una gran poca de la computadora, cuando solamente era algo mucho menos refinado. +Y pueden ver que esta era coincidi con mi infancia. +Yo crec en una fbrica de tofu en Seattle. +Aquel que creci en un negocio familiar, sufri la tortura, No es as? +Pero la tortura era buena. Acaso no lo era? +Fue un cambio de vida, saben. Y en mi vida, como ya sabrn, estaba en el tofu; era un negocio familiar. +Mi mam era un poco como una diseadora tambin. +Ella hizo una pared, con fotos de recetas de tofu, y eso confunda a los clientes, porque todos pensaban que era un restaurante. +Algo as como un error de mercadeo, o algo similar. +Pero bueno, es ah donde crec, en esta pequea fbrica de tofu en Seattle, y era un poco as: un cuarto pequeo donde ms o menos crec. Ya estaba grande en esa foto. +Ese es mi pap. Mi pap era un poco como MacGyver, de verdad: inventaba formas de hacer las cosas ms pesadas. +Como por ejemplo, aqu est una especia de tecnologa con un bloque de concreto, y el necesitaba bloques de concreto para prensar el tofu, porque el tofu, de hecho, es una cosa un poco lquida as que necesitas cosas pesadas para prensar y drenar el lquido para que se endurezca. +El tofu sale en pedazos muy grandes y mi pap tena que cortarlos a mano. +Ya saben, la historia de un negocio familiar; ustedes entenderan esto. Mi pap era posiblemente el hombre ms honesto. +Un da lluvioso entr a un supermercado, se resbal, se rompi el brazo y sali corriendo: y todo porque no quiso molestar al supermercado. +As que mi pap estaba con su brazo roto y as estuvo por dos semanas por lo tanto esas dos semanas ramos mi hermano y yo tenamos que hacer todo. +Y eso fue una tortura, realmente una tortura. +Porque siempre habamos visto a mi pap tomar el gran bloque de tofu y cortarlo, como con un cuchillo, zap, zap, zap. I pensbamos Guau! +As que la primera vez que lo hicimos, dije: Guau! +Bloques malos. Pero de todos modos, el tofu para mi fue bsicametne el origen. +Y como trabajar en un tienda es duro, ir a la escuela era el paraiso, porque me gustaba mucho. +Y era realmente bueno en la escuela. +As que, cuando llegue al MIT, ya sabrn, como muchos de ustedes que son creativos, sus padres les dijeron que no lo fueran, Tengo razn? +A mi me pas lo mismo, saben, Era muy bueno en arte y en matemticas, y mi pap deca: John es muy bueno en matemticas! +Fui al MIT, hice mis matemticas, pero tuve una oportunidad increble, porque las computadoras se haban vuelto algo visual. +La Apple Macintosh haba salido al mercado; Y yo tena una Mac a mano cuando fui al MIT. +Era un momento donde un joven poda estar de los dos lados - fue una gran etapa. +Y recuerdo que mi primer sistema importante fue una copia directa de "Aldus PageMaker". +Hice un sistema de publicacin, hace tiempo, y creo que ese fue mi primer paso al descubrir que mezclar estos dos lados, ra muy divertido. +Y el problema cuando eres joven -- esto es para todos los estudiantes all afuera -- es que tu mente se vuela muy fcilmente. +Y cuando haca conos, yo era el "Maestro" de los conos y yo me deca, "soy muy bueno haciendo esto". +Y despus, afortunadamente, tuve la oportunidad de ir a un lugar llamado "biblioteca", y en la biblioteca, me encontr con un libro +y descubr este libro, llamado "Pensamientos sobre Diseo" de Paul Rand. +Es un volumen pequeo; no estoy seguro si lo han visto. +Es un libro pequeo, muy bien hecho, acerca de Paul Rand, uno de los ms grandes diseadores grficos, y un gran escritor tambin. +Y cuando vi el trabajo de este hombre me di cuenta de lo malo que era yo diseando o como sea que lo llamara en esa poca, y, de repente, tuve una meta profesional una especie de persecucin. +As que algo cambi en m. Fui al MIT y termin. +Obtuve mi maestra y luego fui a la escuela de arte. +Y empec simplemente a disear cosas, cosas como envolturas para palillos chinos, servilletas, mens - o lo que fuere cualquier cosa que me hiciera subir dentro del mundo del diseo. +Y acaso no es un momento extrao cundo publicas tu diseo? +Recuerdan ese momento? Publicar sus diseos. +Recuerdan ese momento? Se sinti tan bien Acaso no? +As que finalmente me publicaron. Guau! Mi diseo est en un libro! +Despus de eso las cosas se pusieron raras y me puse a pensar en la computadora porque la computadora siempre me ha inquietado. +Todava no la entenda del todo. Y Paul Rand era un diseador consumado, ya saben, un muy buen diseador, algo as como un buen pan francs. +Escribi en uno de sus libros: "Un estudiante de Yale dijo una vez: 'Vine aqu para aprender diseo, no para aprender a usar una computadora'. Las escuelas de diseo pusieron atencin". +Esto fue en los aos 80 en el enfrentamiento de la gente pro y anti computadora. +Un tiempo muy difcil, de hecho. +Y esto para m fue un mensaje muy importante de Rand. +As que me puse a experimentar con la computadora. +Esta fue la primera vez que me puse a jugar, un juego serio. +Constru una versin para trabajar parecida a Adobe Illustaror +Se parece al Illustrator; se puede dibujar. +De hecho, fue muy difcil hacerlo. +Me llev un mes hacer esta parte. +Y luego pens: por qu no le agrego esta caracterstica... donde yo pueda decir que este punto vuele como un pjaro? Una especia de "eres libre". +De manera que yo pudiera cambiar la estabilidad con un poco de control en el medidor y pueda verlo moverse por donde sea. +Esto esto es en 1993. +Y cuando mis profesores vieron esto se enojaron conmigo. +Me decan: Por qu se mueve? +Me decin: "Haz que se detenga". +Y, pues, yo les deca que esa era justamente la idea, que se moviera. +Y l me deca: Bueno, pero Cundo deja de moverse? +Y yo le dije: "Nunca". +Y me dijo que esto estaba peor, que lo parara. +As que comenz a estudiar esta idea, Qu es esta computadora? Es un medio extrao. +No es impresin. No es video. +Dura para siempre. Es un medio extrao. +As que part de este punto y comenc a buscar ms cosas. +As que, en Japn, comenc a experimentar con gente. +Lo cual no fue nada bueno: experimentos con humanos. +Haca cosas como convertir a los estudiantes en bolgrafos: aqu est un bolgrafo azul, rojo, verde y negro. +Y alguien se sentaba y dibujaba algo. +Se estn riendo porque l dijo: "dibuja del centro derecho hacia el centro medio", y lo hizo mal. +Lo ven? Los humanos no son buenos siguiendo rdenes; la computadora s es muy buena en eso. +Y este hombre descubri cmo hacer que la computadora dibujara con dos bolgrafos a la vez: ya saben, t bolgrafo A haz esto; y t bolgrafo B haz aquello. +Y as tuve varios bolgrafos en una hoja -- otra vez, algo muy difcil de hacer con nuestras manos. +Y luego alguien tuvo un momento brillante donde descubri que podas usar sistemas coordinados. +Y nosotros pensamos: Ah, ahora s! +Al final dibuj una casa. Fue la cosa ms aburrida. +Se volvi computacional; empezamos a pensar computacionalmente el sistema X, Y -- y eso fue como una revelacin. +Despus de esto quise construir una computadora con humanos, llamada computadora que funciona con humanos. +Esto pas en 1993. +Le bajan al sonido, por favor. +Es una computadora donde los humanos son las partes. +Detrs de esta pared hay un lector de disco, una CPU, una tarjeta de grficos, un sistema de memoria. +Estn cargando un disco floppy gigante hecho de cartn. +Se coloca dentro de la computadora. +Y ese pequeo programa est en el disco de cartn. +As que ella se pone el disco, lee los datos de los sectores del disco, y la computadora se enciende; es como si despertara realmente. +Y es como una computadora trabajando. Y cuando constru esta computadora, tuve un momento -- Cmo se dice? una epifana donde me d cuenta que la computadora es muy rpida. +Esta computadora parecer ser rpida -- ella est trabajando bastante duro, y la gente est corriendo de un lado a otro pensando: Guau, esto est pasando rpido! +Y esta computadora est programada para hacer solo una cosa, que es si tu mueves el ratn, este cambia en la pantalla. +En la computadora, cuando tu mueves tu ratn, la flecha se mueve alrededor. +En esta computadora, si tu mueves tu ratn, le toma media hora para que el cursor cambie. +Slo para darles un sentido de la velocidad, la escala de sta: la computadora es increblemente veloz Correcto? +Y despus de esto comenc a experimentar con diferentes compaas. +Esto fue algo que hice para Sony en 1996. +Eran tres dispositivos Sony H. que respondan al sonido. +Si tu hablabas en el micrfono, podas escuchar msica en tus audfonos; si hablabas por el telfono entonces veas el video. +As que comenc a experimentar con la industria de diferentes maneras con esta mezcla de habilidades. +Hice este anuncio. No creo en este tipo de alcohol pero bebo a veces. +Y Chanel. Tuve la oportunidad de realizar diferentes proyectos. +Y otra cosa que entend es que me gusta hacer cosas. +Nos gusta hacer cosas. Es divertido hacerlas. +Y nunca desarroll la habilidad de tener un equipo. +No tengo un equipo; todo est hecho a mano -- estas manos gastadas. +Y estas manos estuvieron influenciadas por este hombre, el Sr. Inami Neomi. +l fue como mi mentor. +Fue el primer productor de medios digitales en Tokio. +l fue el hombre que me descubri y me llev al camino de los medios digitales. +l era una persona que inspiraba. +Recuerdo que estbamos en su estudio y eran como las 2 de la madrugada y entonces l apareca luego de una reunin con algn cliente. +Llegaba y deca: "si yo estoy aqu todo est bien". +Y realmente te sentas mucho mejor. +Y nunca voy a olvidar que tuvo una situacin muy repentina -- tuvo un aneurisma. +Y entr en coma. +Y, entonces, durante tres aos estuvo fuera y slo poda parpadear. y pens en ese momento, Guau! que frgil es esto que traemos puesto este cuerpo y esta mente que traemos puestos. Y pens: Cmo ir por ms? +Cmo tomas el tiempo que te queda y vas tras l? +Neomi para mi fue un pivote. +As que comenc a pensar con ms cuidado acerca de la computadora. +Este era el momento donde pensaba: tienes un programa de computadora, responde a un movimiento -- X y Y y me d cuenta de que cada programa tiene todas estas imgenes dentro del programa. +Si pueden ver aqu, ese programa que estn viendo en la esquina, si lo extienden, es todas estas cosas al mismo tiempo. +Es realmetne simultneo. No es nada a lo que estemos acostumbrados a trabajar. +Estamos acostumbrados a trabajar en un vector. +Todo esto es al mismo tiempo. +La computadora vive en varias dimensiones. +Y tambin, al mismo tiempo, estaba frustrado, porque iba a todas estas escuelas de arte y diseo y tenan un laboratorio de computacin, esto era a finales de los aos 90, esto es en Basel, una de la mejores escuelas de diseo. +Y ah est este sucio, descuidado y oscuro saln de computacin. +Y comenc a pensar: Este es el objetivo? +Es esto lo que queremos? Me entienden. +Y tambin, me empec a fascinar con las mquinas -- como la fotocopiadoras -- esto es en Basel. +Me di cuenta de como invertimos mucho tiempo en hacerlo interactivo -- esto es como una touch screen y me d cuenta que slo podas tocar en cinco lugares y entonces: por qu estamos desperdiciando tanta interactividad? +Esta se volvi una de mis preguntas, y tambin el sonido: descubr que poda hacer de ThinkPad un telfono. +Entienden, no? OK. +Tambin descubr el aeropuerto de Logan, esto realmente me estaba llamando. +Escuchan eso? Son como vacas. Esto es en Logan a las 4 de la madrugada. +Entonces estuve pensando: Qu es esta cosa que tengo enfrente, esta suerte de computadora? +No tena sentido. +As que comenc a hace cosas otra vez. Esta es otra serie de objetos hechos con computadoras viejas de mi stano. +Tom mis viejas Macintosh e hice diferentes objetos con ellos en Tokio. +Y empec a perder el inters por las computadoras en s, as que comenc a hacer pinturas con PalmPilots. +Hice esta serie de trabajos. +Eran pinturas que haca y les pona una PalmPilot en el centro como si fuera un visor que est pensando. Yo soy arte abstracto. Qu soy? Soy abstracto. +As que sigue pensando en voz alta sobre su propia abstraccin. +Comenc a fascinarme con el plstico y me pas cuatro meses haciendo ocho bloques de plstico perfectamente transparentes como terapia para relajarme. +Gracias a eso me interes en la cinta azul as que en San Franscisco, en CC, tuve toda una exhibicin de cinta azul. +Hice toda una instalacin de cinta azul -- cinta azul para enmascarillar. +En este punto mi esposa se empez a preocupar por mi as que deje de hacer cosas con cinta azul y me puse a pensar: Qu ms hay en la vida? +As que las computadoras, estas grandes computadoras, ahora eran pequeas. +Son pequeas computadoras, las computadoras de un solo chip. As que comenc a programar computadoras de un solo chip e hice objetos con las tarjetas de PC, LEDs. +Hice esculturas con LED que vivan dentro de pequeas cajas de aglomerado. +Esta es una serie de cajas livianas que hice para un show en Italia. +Unas cajas muy sencillas: slo presionabas un botn y ocurria una interaccin. +Esta es una seria de lmparas que hice. Esta en un lmpara caja Bento: es como una lpmara de arroz plstico; es muy amigable. +Hice un show en Londres el ao pasado de iPods -- Use los iPods como material. +Tom 16 iPod Nano e hice una especie de pez Nano, bsicamente. +Lo ms reciente es esto para Reebok. +He hecho zapatos para Reebok tambin, como una especie de pasatiempo. +Bueno, hay muchas cosas que puedes hacer, pero lo que ms me gusta es experimentar, probar el mundo. +El mundo es bastante rico. +Pensamos en ir al museo; ah es donde estn todo los sabores. +Y no, realmente estn all afuera. +As que esto es frente a la Torre Eiffel, realmente es cerca del rea del Louvre. +Esto me lo encontr, la naturaleza haba hecho una imagen para m. +Esto es un gulo recto, perfecto, hecho por la naturaleza. +Es un momento extrao donde, simplemente, estas cosas aparecen. +Todos somos personas creativas, +tenemos este defecto gentico en nuestra mente. +No podemos hacer otra cosa ms que detenernos, no? Esta sensacin es una cosa increble. +Es como estar siempre en el museo. +Esto es en el Cabo, el ao pasado. +Descubr que tengo que encontrar la ecuacin de arte y diseo lo que conocemos como crculo-trangulo-cuadrado. +Descubr que est por todos lados en la playa. +Comenc a recolectar cada ejemplo de cculo-trangulo-cuadrado. +Devolv todo, por cierto. +Tambin descubr como +algunas rocas son gemelas separadas al nacer. +Esto tambin est all afuera, lo saben. +Todo el tiempo digo: Cmo pasa esto? +Los volv a juntar otra vez. +As que hace tres aos descubr las letras M-I-T en las palabras simplicidad y complejidad. +Mi alma mater: el MIT; y tuve un momento -- un momento tipo M. Night Shayamalan -- donde pens: Guau, tengo que hacer esto! +Y fui tras eso con pasin. +Sin embargo, recientemente me lleg una oportunidad para el RISD -- para ir a RISD -- y no pude conciliar esto fcilmente porque las letras me haban dicho MIT para siempre. +Pero descubr la palabra francesa raison d'tre. +y me diee: aj, a ver un segundo. +Y ah apareci la palabra RISD. +Y me d cuenta que estaba bien ir. +As que voy a ir al RISD. +Hay algn alumno del RISD aqu? +Alguien? S, del RISD. Aqu vamos, RISD, Guau RISD. +Lo siento, lo siento -- Art Center tambin es buena. +El RISD es mi nueva pasin y les dir algo sobre eso. +As que el RISD es -- Estaba afuera del RISD y un estudiante escribi esto en un bloque, y pens: Guau, el RISD quiere saber qu es l mismo. +Y, de hecho, no tena idea de qu debera ser el RISD. o qu es lo que quiere ser, pero s les puedo decir una cosa y es que a pesar de que soy tecnolgico, no me gusta mucho la tecnologa. +es como el coeficiente intelectual, o algo as. +La gente dice: Vas a llevar al RISD al futuro? +Y les contesto: ms bien voy a regresar el futuro al RISD. +Esa es mi perspectiva. Porque, en realidad, el problema no es cmo hacer el mundo ms tecnolgico. +Es cmo hacerlo ms humano otra vez. +Y, en todo caso, pienso que el RISD tiene un ADN extrao. +Es una exuberancia extraa sobre los materiales, sobre el mundo: una fascinacin que pienso que el mundo necesita bastante ahora. +As que muchas gracias a todos. +Hace 65 millones de aos, un evento muy importante y catastrfico cambi el rumbo de la vida en la tierra. +Y a pesar que sabemos que los animales terrestres de los que voy a hablar son slo la escoria en la tierra, los pequeos trozos de tierra flotando, pero son importantes para nosotros porque estn ligeramente en nuestra escala de experiencia de milmetros a metros. +Y resulta ser que de hecho corresponde muy bien con la historia Geolgica. +As que tenemos un periodo Mesozoico, una era de fragmentacin, y un periodo Cenozoico, una era de reconexin: Amrica del Sur con Amrica del Norte, India con Asia. +As que mi trabajo es, realmente, tratar de comprender la naturaleza de esa propagacin Mesozoica comparada con la propagacin Cenozoica para ver qu misterios podemos comprender de los dinosaurios y otros animales en relacin a a qu es lo que la vida en continentes a la deriva puede decirnos realmente acerca de la evolucin. +El trabajo de inmediato suplica la pregunta: Por qu no se dirigieron hacia el agua? +Quiero decir; ciertos mamferos lo hicieron. Este es un ejemplo. +Puedes salir; ver muchos otros ejemplos. +Dentro de los 5, 10 millones de aos despus del impacto del meteoro. tuvimos una gran variedad de animales dirigiendose hacia el agua. Por qu no hicieron eso ellos? +Por qu no se colgaron de rboles de buen tamao?, y Por qu no se enterraron? +Por que no hicieron todas estas cosas?, y si no las hicieron, Qu tipo de animales haba en esos espacios? +Y si no haba animales en esos espacios, qu es lo que eso nos dice acerca de, tu sabes, Cmo fu la evolucin en tierra? +Preguntas realmente interesantes. Yo pienso que mucho de esto tiene relacin con el tamao corporal. +De hecho, yo pienso que la mayora de ello tiene que ver con el tamao corporal, el tamao que tienes cuando heredas un espacio para vivir desocupado por algn desastre natural. +Observando la evolucin de los dinosaurios y estudiandola, desenterrandola por muchos aos, termino observando la propagacin de los mamferos y parece como si todo fuera a paso velz, tal como la tecnologa, avanzando por un orden de magnitud. +La evolucin de los dinosaurios fu a un ritmo majestuoso, un orden de magnitud ms lento en cualquier forma que quieras medirlo. +Quieres medirlo por diversidad? +Quieres medirlo por el tiempo que le tom alcanzar el mximo tamao corporal? +S, ellos tienen un gran tamao corporal, pero la mayora de ellos son ms pequeos pero estamos interesados en el tiempo que les llev el lograrlo. +50 millones de aos para lograr este mximo tamao corporal. +Y eso es 10 veces ms de lo que les tom a los mamferos lograr el mximo tamao corporal e invadir todos esos hbitats. +Asi que hay lecciones por aprender, y hay lecciones para aprender de la exepcin, la excepcin que conocemos muy bien actualmente debido a los descubrimientos que hemos hecho y muchos otros eruditos han hecho alrededor del mundo. +Esta diapositiva fu mostrada antes. Esta es la famosa ave Jurasica Archaeopteryx. +Nosotros ahora sabemos que esta transicin es el momento en que los dinosaurios disminuyeron ese tamao corporal -- (vamos a ver donde comenzaron en breve) y esta es la ocasin en la que ellos rpidamente invadieron todos los habitats que los dinosaurios no habitaban, segn les coment. +Se convirtieron en marinos. Nosotros ahora los conocemos debido a las capas de hielo. +Hay aves que anidan en hoyos. +Ellas habitan los rboles de todos tamaos y, por supuesto, habitan en la tierra. +As que nosotros fuimos los primeros en de hecho nombrar lo que despus explot en las pginas de Science y Nature. +De hecho, esta es la ms grande transicin que hemos tenido en tierra de un hbitat a otro la mejor, para comprender como un animal huesudo pesado, de un kilogramo o dos pudo hacer tal transicin. +Esta es nuestra ms grande, una de nuestras ms grandes secuencias evolutivas. +Ahora, mi trabajo comienza al inicio. +Pienso que si voy a comprender la evolucin de los dinosaurios tengo que regresar a esas capas donde han recolectado fragmentos, regresar a un tiempo y lugar donde los primeros dinosaurios existieron. +Quiero solicitar este pequeo vdeo clip para darte una idea de lo que enfrentamos. Normalmente se nos hacen muchas preguntas: "Bueno: Cmo encuentras fsiles en reas como esta?" +Si pudiramos mostrar ese primer vdeo clip +Este es un buen paseo en helicptero. a travs de esas capas antiguas y estn ubicadas en el noreste de Argentina. +y estamos saliendo de un acantilado y en la cima de ese acantilado los dinosaurios prcticamente haban tomado el control. +En la base del acantilado encontramos que son muy escasos. +Ah es donde se encuentra el origen de los dinosaurios: en en fondo del acantilado. +Vas a un rea como esta, tienes un mapa geolgico, tienes un mapa topogrfico y lo mejor; el equipo ms inspirado que puedas traer al rea. +Y el resto depende de t. Tienes que encontrar fsiles. +De hace 228 millones de aos encontramos lo que realmente es el dinosaurio ms primitivo: El Ur-dinosaurio. +Un animal de un metro hermoso crneo, depredador, carnvoro de dos patas. +Asi que, todos los otros dinosaurios que conoces, o que tus hijos conocen, al menos, de cuatro patas. +Esta es una mirada del crneo, y es una cosa absolutamente fantstica de 12 a 15 centimetros de largo. +Se parece ms a un ave porque lo es. +Es como un ave y anida en huecos. +Un depredador. De unas 25 libras o 10 kilogramos. +Ah es donde los dinosaurios comenzaron. Ah es donde la propagacin comenz. +Eso es 10 veces ms que la propagacin de los mamferos, que fue una propagacin de cuatro patas. +Somos extraordinariamente parecidos a los dinosaurios, e inusuales en nuestro enfoque de dos patas a la vida. +Ahora, si quieres comprender lo que ocurri entonces cuando los continentes se separaron y los dinosaurios se hallaron, siendo terrestres, a la deriva. Hay algunas piezas del rompecabezas faltantes. +La mayora de esas piezas de rompecabeza faltantes son de los continentes del sur porque son esos continentes los que estn menos explorados +Si quieres agregar a esta imagen y trazarla globalmente, realmente tienes que forzarte a ir hacia abajo a las cuatro esquinas de la tierra frica, India, Antrtica y Australia -- y comenzar a poner juntas algunas de estas piezas. +He ido a algunos de esos continentes, pero frica fue, en palabras de Steven Pinker, fue una tabla resa en su mayora. +Pero uno con una inmensa pizarra en medio. con montones de pequeas reas de roca de dinosaurio si pudieras sobrevivir una expedicin. +No hay caminos en el Sahara. Es un lugar enorme. +Para ser capaz de excavar las 80 toneladas de dinosaurios que tenemos en el Sahara y sacarlas, tu realmente tienes que juntar un equipo de expedicin que pueda manejar las condiciones. +Algunas de ellas son polticas. Muchas de ellas son fsicas. +Algunas de ellas, las ms importantes, son mentales. +Y t realmente tienes que ser capaz de soportar las condiciones; tienes que manejar dentro del desierto, vers paisajes en muchos casos -- lo puedes ver por lo que hemos descubierto -- que nadie ms ha visto jams. +Y el tipo de equipos que ellos traen? +Bueno; estn compuestos de gente que comprende la ciencia como un aventura con un propsito. +Son usualmente estudiantes que nunca han visto un desierto. +Algunos de ellos son ms experimentados. +Tu trabajo como lder --este es definitivamente un deporte de equipo-- tu trabajo como lder es tratar de inspirarlos a hacer ms trabajo del que han hecho durante toda su vida bajo circunstancias que no pueden ni imaginar. +As 52 grados celcius es normal. +La superficie de la tierra a 64 grados celcius; comn. +Entonces, no puedes dejar tus herramientas metlicas fuera porque algunas veces te vas a dar una quemadura de primer grado si las agarras. +Entonces; te encuentras a ti mismo tambin en un entorno cultural sorprendente. +Te ests codeando con las ltimas personas nmadas del mundo. +Son los nmadas Tuareg, y viven sus vidas como las han vivido por siglos. +tu trabajo es desenterrar cosas como esta en el primer plano y hacer que entren en las pginas de la historia. +Para lograrlo, tienes que transportarlas miles de kilometros fuera del desierto. +Estamos hablando de Etiopa, pero hablemos de Nigeria o Niger en nuestro idioma Ingls; el Norte de Nigeria, ah es donde se tomo esta fotografa. +Bsicamente ests hablando de un pas que, cuando comenzamos a trabajar all, no tenas transporte de carga. +T transportabas los huesos por ti mismo a la costa de frica, a un bote, si es que quieres sacarlos del medio del Sahara. +Ese es un viaje de 3,200 kilometros. +As que enormes excavaciones y mucho trabajo, y adems de esencialmente una manada parcial de dinosaurios que viste enterrada ah (20 toneladas de material) erigimos a Jobaria, un dinosaurio sauropodo como ninguno que hayamos visto en otros continentes. +Est realmente un poquito fuera de lugar temporalmente. +No se parece a nada de lo que hemos encontrado si excavramos en sitios contemporneos en Norteamrica. +Aqu est el animal que estaba causando problemas. +Y, ya sabes, sigue y sigue... un completo zoolgico. Cuando sacas algo como esto, y se tiene la oportunidad de tocarlo, este es un pedazo de historia. Ests tocando algo que es de 110 millones de aos. +Esta es la garra del pulgar. Ah estaba, momentos despus de que fu descubierta. +es una increble mirada de la vida, y realmente comenz cuando empezamos a comprender la profundidad de tiempo. +Cuando tomas una pieza de historia como esa, pienso que puede transformar a nios que posiblemente estn interesados en la ciencia. +Este es el animal de donde vino la garra del pulgar: Suchamimus. +Aqu hay algunos otros. +Esto es algo que encontramos en Marruecos, un animal inmenso. +Hicimos un prototipo del cerebro de este animal con un CAT-scanning. +Resulto tener una parte cerebral frontal un quinceavo del tamao de los humanos. +Esta fu la portada de Science, porque ellos pensaron que los humanos eran ms inteligentes que esos animales, pero podemos ver por algunos en nuestro gobierno que a pesar de la enorme ventaja en volumen cerebral algunas de las actitudes siguen siendos las mismas. De cualquier forma, Raptores ms pequeos. +Toda la onda del Parque Jursico que conoces... y esos pequeos animales, todos ellos vinieron de continentes del norte. +Este es el primer esqueleto de un continente del Sur, y adivina qu? Comienza a prepararte. +No tiene una gran garra en la parte trasera de su pie. No es como un Velociraptor. +Es realmente una propagacin totalmente separada. +As que lo que estamos tratando de armar aqu es una historia, +Incluye reptiles voladores como el Pterosaurio que reconstruimos de frica. +Cocodrilos; por supuesto, y ese es uno desagradable al que no le hemos dado nombre todava. +Y cosas enormes -- quiero decir, esta es una mandbula inferior, simplemente descansando all en el desierto de este enorme cocodrilo. +El cocodrilo es llamado tcnicamente Sarcosuchus. +Ese es un cocodrilo adulto del Orinoco en sus mandbulas. +Tenamos que tratar y reconstruirlo. +Tuvimos que ver de hecho a los cocodrilos actuales para comprender como es la escala de los cocodrilos. +Podran poner el segundo vdeo clip? +Ahora, este campo es, por supuesto, la ciencia en general;, es solamente aventura. +Tenemos que encontrar y medir los cocodrilos ms grandes vivientes de hoy. +(Inicia voz de narrador del video clip) "tanto como su bote..." +"Mira esa hilera de dientes! S, es uno grande". +"Si tan slo pudieran llevarlo a tierra" "este cocodrilo proveer datos tiles" "que le ayudarn a Paul a entender al sarcosuchus". +"OK; dme ms aqu". "OK" +"Le toca a Paul cubrir sus ojos". +"Cuidado!; CUIDADO! NO. NO. NO. NO. Te vas a tener que poner en la patas traseras". +"Tengo las patas traseras". +"Tienes las patas traseras? No, tienes las patas delanteras mi amigo". +"Lo tengo. Tengo las patas traseras". +"Alguien agarre las patas delanteras". +"Vamos a medirlo con esta cinta. Ponla justo ah". +WOW! +65. WOW +Es un gran crneo. +"Grande; pero menos de la mitad del tamao del crneo del supercocodrilo". +"Enorme... Tienes un cocodrilo de ms de 4 metros". +"Saba que era grande". +"NO TE QUITES. No te quites, pero no te preocupes por m. +"Paul tiene sus datos; as que deciden"... ..."liberar al animal de regreso al ro". +"No te quites. No te quites. No te quites". +"Paul nunca vi que un fsil hiciera eso". +"OK; cuando diga 3, nos movemos". +1, 2, ... 3! +UUUppppss!!! +(Paul vuelve a hablar en vivo) Entonces... (TEDsters aplaudiendo) Bueno, t sabes, el... el registro fsil es realmente sorprendente porque realmente te forza a ver los animales vivos de una forma nueva. +Hemos provado con estas medidas que los cocodrilos crecen isomtricamente. +Sin embargo depende de la forma de su crneo as que tuvimos que obtener esas medidas realmente para estar seguros que habamos reconstruido y podamos probar al mundo cientfico que ese supercocodrilo es de hecho un cocodrilo de 12 metros, probablemente macho. +De cualquier forma, encuentras otras cosas tambin. +Voy a dirigir una expedicin al Sahara para excavar el sitio Neolitico ms grande de frica. +Lo encontramos el ao pasado. +200 esqueletos, herramientas, joyas. +Este es un disco ceremonial. +Un registro sorprendente de la colonizacin del Sahara hace 5,000 aos ha estado esperando ah esperando que regresemos. As que es realmente excitante. +Y el trabajo nos llevar despus al Tbet. +Ahora, normalmente pensamos en el Tbet como un lugar de altura. +es realmente un continente isleo. +Fu un precursor de India, un mensajero de Gondwana un paraso perdido de dinosaurios aislados por millones de aos. +Nadie los ha encontrado. Nosotros sabemos dnde estn, y vamos a ir y los obtendremos el prximo ao. +Estn nicamente entre los 3,900 y 4,200 metros, pero si vas en la parte clida del ao, esta bien. +Ahora, he tratado de enlazar la historia evolutiva de un dinosaurio para que podamos tratar de comprender algunos patrones bsicos de evolucin. +he hablado acerca de algunos de ellos. Necesitamos realmente llevarlo ms all. +Necesitamos adentrarnos en esta masa de anatoma que hemos estado compilando para comprender donde estn ocurriendo los cambios y lo que esto significa. +No podemos predecir, necesariamente, qu ocurrir en la evolucin, pero podemos aprender algunas de las reglas del juego, y eso es realmente lo que estamos tratando de hacer. +En relacin al asunto Biogeogrfico la Tierra se esta dividiendo. +Estos son todos animales terrestres. Hay un par de elecciones. +Se te divide, y la divisin de un continente corresponde a una ramificacin en el rbol evolutivo, o eres astuto y te las arreglas para escapar de un continente a otro y borras esa divisin, o vives pacficamente en cada lado, y en un lado simplemente te extingues, y sobrevives en el otro lado y creas una diferencia. +Y la cuarta cosa es que tu haces una o la otra de estas 3 cosas, pero el paleontlogo nunca te encuentra. +Y tomas estos 4 casos y te das cuenta que tienes un problema complejo. +Entonces, en adicin a excavar, pienso que tenemos algunas respuestas del registro de dinosaurios. Pienso que esos dinosaurios migraron, lo llamamos dispersin, alrededor del mundo por el ms angosto puente terrestre. +Lo hicieron a 2 o 3 grados del polo, para mantener similitud entre continentes. +Pero cuando se dividieron, de hecho se dividieron, y vemos a estos continentes grabando diferencias entre dinosaurios. +Pero hay una cosa que es an ms importante, y yo creo que es la extincin. +Hemos minimizado este factor. +Traza la historia de la vida, y nos da las diferencias que vemos en el mundo de los dinosaurios hacia el final, justo antes del impacto del meteoro. +La mejor manera de poner esto a prueba es crear un modelo. +As que si nos movemos hacia atrs, este es un rbol de la vida tpico de dos dimensiones. +Quiero darte 3 dimensiones. +Para que veas el rbol de la vida, pero he aadido la dimensin de rea. +El rbol de la vida normalmente es divergencia sobre el tiempo. +Ahora tenemos divergencia en relacin al tiempo, pero hemos creado la tercera dimensin de rea. +Este es un programa computarizado que tiene 3 botones. +Podemos controlar esas cosas que nos preocupan: extincin, muestreo y dispersin yendo de un rea a otra. +Y finalmente podemos controlar la divisin para simular lo que pensamos que eran los continentes, y ejecutarlo mil veces, para que podamos estimar los parmetros para responder la pregunta de si estamos o no en lo cierto, al menos conocer las barreras de los problemas. As que eso es un poquito acerca de la ciencia. +Yo fu uno de esos. Fu fallado por mi escuela; mi escuela me fall. +Quin seala a quin? +Varios maestros casi me matan. +Yo estaba en Arte. +Fu un fracaso total en la escuela, no realmente dirigido a graduarme como pre-universitario. +Y continu, esa es mi primera pintura en lienzo. +Le un diccionario. Entr al colegio. +Me convert en artista. OK, y comenc a dibujar. +Se volvi abstracto. +Hize un portafolio y me dirig a New York. +Algunas veces vea huesos cuando haba un cuerpo ah. +Tras bambalinas, algo estaba pasando. Me dirig a New York a un estudio. +Tom un viaje alterno al museo americano y nunca me recuper. +Pero realmente es la misma disciplina -- son disciplinas relacionadas. +Quiero decir, Hay algo... ...que no est visualizando lo que no puede ser visto... en trminos de descubrir este hueso de dinosaurio a partir de una pequea parte de l... ...que anda por ah; o viendo la distorsin... ...que tratamos de ver... como distorsin evolutiva en un animal u otro? +Esto es muy extraordinariamente visual. +Te presento una cara humana porque ustedes son expertos en eso. +Nos tom aos comprender como hacer eso con los dinosaurios. +Son realmente disciplinas relacionadas. +Pero lo que estamos tratando de crear en Chicago es una forma de obtener, de colectar juntos, esos estudiantes que estn menos representados en nuestras esferas de ciencia y tecnologa. +Todos sabemos y se han hecho varias alusiones al respecto, que estamos fallando en nuestra habilidad de producir suficientes cientficos, ingenieros y tcnicos. +Hemos sabido eso por mucho tiempo. Hemos pasado por la fase del Sputnik, y ahora, segn ves, el incremento en el ritmo de lo que estamos haciendo, se vuelve algo an ms prominente. De dnde van a venir todas estas personas? +Y una pregunta ms general para nuestra sociedad es, Qu es lo que va a pasar al resto que son dejados atrs? +Qu hay acerca de todos los nios como yo que estaban en la escuela, nios como algunos de ustedes, que estaban en la escuela y no tuvieron una oportunidad y nunca la tendrn, de participar en ciencia y tecnologa? +Esas son las preguntas que yo hago. Y hablamos acerca de Etiopa y es muy importante. +Nigeria es igualmente importante y estoy tratando desesperadamente de hacer algo en Nigeria. +Ellos tienen un problema de SIDA. Le pregunt... el departamento de estado de USA le pregunt al gobierno recientemente, Qu quieres hacer? Y ellos les dieron dos problemas. +Dinosaurios fu uno de ellos. +Dennos un museo de dinosaurios, y atraeremos turistas, que es nuestra segunda mayor industria. +Y le pido a Dios que el gobierno de USA, yo, o TED, o alguien nos ayude a hacer eso, porque eso sera una cosa increble para su pas. +Pero cuando miramos atrs a nuestro propio pas, estamos viendo hacia nuestras ciudades las cuidades de donde la mayora de ustedes vienen, ciertamente la ciudad de donde yo vengo, hay montones de nios por ah como estos. +Y la pregunta es: (y comenzamos a hacer esta pregunta hace siglos) Cmo involucrar a estos nios con la ciencia? +Hemos comenzado en Chicago. una organizacin, una sin fines de lucro, llamada "Proyecto Exploracin". +Esos son dos nios del proyecto exploracin. +Los conocimos en sus etapas iniciales en el bachillerato. Eran entre estudiantes fracasados o pobres. y ahora estn, uno en la Universidad de Chicago, otro en Illinois. +Tenemos estudiantes en Harvard. Tenemos 6 aos. +Y hemos creado un registro de campo de lo realizado. +Porque cuando sales como estudiante, e intentas encontrar estudios longitudinales, registros de campo como esos, hay esencialmente muy pocos o ninguno. +Entonces, creamos un increble registro de campo del 100% de graduados, 90% yendo al colegio, muchos de primera generacin, 90% de ellos escogiendo ciencia como carrera. +Es un registro de campo impresionante; y miramos atrs y decimos, bueno, no planeamos eso exactamente en teora desde el inicio, pero cuando miramos atrs, hay movimientos teorcos en educacin en ciencias. +Es ir a travs de la ciencia como investigacin, lo cul es un gran avance, y de regreso a Chicago en Dewey aprendes por medio de la prctica. +A... tu aprendes por medio de verte a ti mismo como un cientfico y luego aprendes a mirarte como cientfico. +El siguiente paso es aprender la capacidad de hacerte a t mismo un cientfico. +Tienes que pasar por esos pasos. Si tienes... Es fcil hacer que estos nios se interesen en la ciencia. +Es difcil hacer que se visualicen como cientficos, lo cual tiene que ver con pararse en frente de personas como lo estamos haciendo en este simposio y presentar algo como una persona conocedora, y entonces verte a ti mismo en el rol de cientfico y darte a t mismo las herramientas para lograrlo. +Y, eso es lo que vamos a hacer. Estamos planeando un hogar permanente en Chicago. +Tenemos muchas ideas, pero te garantizo esto; y he hablado con algunas personas aqu en TED, no va a ser como algo que hayas visto antes. +Ser parte escuela, parte museo, parte conservatorio, parte zoolgico, y parte una respuesta al problemas de cmo interesas a los nios en la ciencia. +Muchas gracias. +Muchos de ustedes podran preguntar, bueno, Porqu un automvil volador, o ms bien, una aeronave de rotores, es posible en este momento? +Hace algunos aos, Henry Ford predijo que automviles voladores de algn tipo estaran disponibles. +Y ahora, 60 aos despus, estoy aqu para decirte porqu es esto posible +Cuando tena alrededor de cinco aos, alrededor de un ao despus que el Seor Ford hiciera sus predicciones. yo viva en una rea rural del Canad bastante aislada al lado de una montaa. +Para un nio de baja estatura, ir a la escuela en medio del invierno canadiense no era muy agradable +para un nio, experimentar esto. era algo difcil y terrible. +Y al final de mi primer ao en la escuela, en verano vi un par de colibrs atrapados en un cobertizo cerca de mi casa. +Se haban agotado de cansancio golpendose contra la ventana, y, pues, eran fciles de atrapar. +Los llev afuera para soltarlos y en ese segundo, aunque estaban muy cansados, ese segundo que los solte, se cernieron por un segundo y se alejaron zumbando en la distancia. +Y pens, "que forma tan genial de ir a la escuela". +A esa edad me pareci una velocidad infinita, desapareciendo, y me inspir mucho. +Y as las siguientes... durante las siguientes seis dcadas, aunque no lo crean, he elaborado varias aeronaves con el objetivo de crear algo que pudiera hacer para ti, o para m lo que el colibr hace y darnos esa flexibilidad. +He llamado a este vehculo, un helicptero: Un "volantor" del latn, "volant", que significa volar de manera ligera y hbil. +Helicptero tipo volantor, quizs. +La Administracin Federal de Aviacin la llama, "aeronave de ascenso impulsado". +Y de hecho ya han emitido una licencia de piloto, una licencia de piloto para este tipo de aeronave de ascenso impulsado. +Esta ms cerca de lo que imaginas y es admirable por el hecho de que no existe ningn vehculo de ascenso impulsado en operacin. +Al menos esta vez, el gobierno se adelanta al futuro. +La prensa llama a mi "volantor" un "Skycar". +Esta es una versin un tanto anterior, por eso le dimos la designacin X, pero es una aeronave para cuatro pasajeros que podra despegar verticalmente, como helicptero por lo que no necesita un campo de aterrizaje. +Por tierra es impulsado por electricidad. +Est clasificada como una motocicleta por lo de las tres ruedas, lo cual es una ventaja porque te permite, en teora, usarla en las autopistas en la mayora de estados y en todas las ciudades. +Y esto es una ventaja pues si tienes que lidiar con las regulaciones de proteccin de los automviles, olvdate, nunca lo volars! +Podramos decir que los helicpteros hacen, prcticamente, lo que los colibrs hacen, y que se mueven en forma similar, y es verdad, pero los helicpteros son muy complejos +y caros... tan caros que pocas personas pueden tener o usar uno. +Frecuentemente se le describe por su fragilidad y complejidad como una serie de partes, un gran nmero de partes volando en fila. como una serie de partes, un gran nmero de partes volando en fila. +Otra diferencia, y tengo que describir esto, porque es muy personal, Otra gran diferencia entre el helicptero y el "volantor", en mi caso el volantor "Skycar", es la experiencia que he tenido volando ambos vehculos. +En un helicptero sientes (y es una sensacin muy especial) sientes como si estuvieras siendo remolcado desde arriba por una gra vibrante. +Pero en el Skycar, y puedo decrtelo pues solo otra persona ms lo ha volado y tuvo la misma sensacin, realmente sientes que estas siendo levantado por una alfombra mgica, sin vibracin alguna. La sensacin es increble. +Y esto me ha motivado tremendamente. +Slo logro volarlo muy ocasionalmente, y slo cuando logro persuadir a mis inversionistas que me dejen hacerlo, pero an es una de esas experiencias maravillosas que te recompensa por todo el tiempo invertido. +Lo que realmente necesitamos es algo que substituya al automvil para esos viajes de 80 km o ms. +Pocos se dan cuenta que los viajes de 80 km o ms forman el 85% de los viajes en los Estados Unidos. +Si podemos deshacernos de ellos, las autopistas podrn ser usadas de nuevo, en contraste con lo que sucede en muchas partes del mundo hoy. +En la siguiente diapositiva, esta interesante historia de lo que realmente hemos visto en infraestructura, porque si te doy un Skycar perfecto, el perfecto vehculo para usarlo, te va a ser de poco valor si no existe el sistema para usarlo. +Estoy seguro que algunos de ustedes se han dicho, s, hay buenas cosas all arriba, pero que voy a hacer all arriba? +Ya de por si est mal aqu en la autopista, cmo va a ser en el aire? +Este mundo del que vas a estar hablando en el futuro va a estar completamente integrado. Ya no sers un piloto, vas a ser un pasajero. +Y es la infraestructuera la que realmente determina si este proceso continua. +Te puedo decir que tcnicamente podemos construir el Skycar, Por Dios Santo, fuimos a la luna! +La tecnologa que usaron entonces fue mucho ms difcil de lo que hablamos aqu. +Pero tenemos que tener estos cambios, tenemos que tener la infraestructura para llevar esto a cabo. +Histricamente ves que nos movilizbamos por canales hace 200 aos atrs, y ese sistema fue reemplazado por lneas ferroviarias. +Siendo substituidas luego por las autopistas. +Pero si miras a la esquina superior, el sistema de autopistas, ves donde estamos hoy. Ya no se estn construyendo ms autopistas, y eso es un hecho. No vers autopistas adicionales durante los 10 aos prximos. +Pero durante los siguientes 10 aos, si son como los anteriores, veremos 30% ms de trfico. +Y eso a dnde te llevar? +El asunto entonces es, como me han preguntado frecuentemente, Cundo va a pasar? +Cundo podremos tener estos vehculos? +Y por supuesto si me preguntas, te dar una estimacin verdaderamente optimista. +Despus de todo, he pasado 60 aos creyendo que va a pasar maana. +As que no me citar a m mismo en esto, +prefiero citar a alguien ms, quien testific conmigo frente al Congreso, y que en su puesto como cabeza de la NASA propuso esta visin particular del futuro de este tipo de aeronave. +Y argumento, que si miras el hecho de que hoy en las autopistas solo promedias 48 km por hora, en promedio de acuerdo al Departamento de Transporte, el Skycar viaja a 480 km por hora, y hasta 7800 metros de altura. +As, en efecto, podras ver un incremento de diez veces en nuestra habilidad para desplazarnos al menos en lo que a velocidad respecta. +Desconocido por muchos de ustedes la autopista en el cielo de la que estoy hablando aqu ha estado en construccin por 10 aos. +Usa el GPS, estars familiarizado con el GPS de tu automvil, pero con lo que no has de estar familiarizado es el hecho de que hay un GPS estadounidense hay GPS ruso, y hay un GPS nuevo en Europa que se llama Galileo. +Con esos tres sistemas, tienes algo que siempre es necesario: un buen nivel de redundancia que dice, si un sistema falla siempre tendrs alguna forma de asegurarte de que ests siendo controlado. +Porque si ests en este mundo, donde las computadoras controlan lo que haces, va a ser sumamente crtico que nada te falle. +Cmo funcionara un viaje por Skycar? +Bueno, en este momento no puedes despegar de casa pues es muy ruidoso. +Es decir, para que puedas despegar tendras que ser muy silencioso. +Pero an as, es bastante silencioso. +Te desplazaras elctricamente a un "vertipuerto", que estara a algunas calles o incluso kilmetros de tu casa. +Esto es, como dije al inicio, una aeronave de rotores, y no vas a pasar mucho tiempo en la carretera. +Despus de todo, si puedes volar as, porqu habras de manejar por all en una autopista? +Ve al vertipuerto ms cercano, indica tu destino, y sers llevado casi como un pasajero. +Puedes entonces disfrutar juegos de computadora, dormir, leer. +Este es el mundo: no estars t como piloto. Y aunque a los pilotos no les guste, y lo s pues he recibido mucha retroalimentacin negativa de parte de la gente que quiere andar volando y experimentando eso. +Y por supuesto, supongo que como entretenimiento, an podrs hacerlo. +Pero el vehculo en si mismo sera un ambiente muy, muy controlado. +O no ser de utilidad para ti como persona que usa tal sistema. +Volamos el primer vehculo para la prensa internacional en 1965, cuando yo empezaba. +Yo era profesor del sistema universitario UC en Davis, y me llen de entusiasmo por esto, logrando obtener fondos para el inicio del programa en aquel entonces. +Y luego a travs de los aos inventamos varios vehculos. +De hecho, el momento crtico fue en 1989, cuando demostramos la estabilidad de este vehculo, de cuan estable es en toda circunstancia, lo cual es, por supuesto, muy importante. +An no es un vehculo prctico despues de todo esto pero nos movemos en la direccin correcta, creemos. +Finalmente, a principios de, o mas bien, a mediados del 2002, volamos el 400, M400, que es el vehculo de cuatro pasajeros. +En este caso aqui, lo estamos volando remotamente, como hicimos al principio. +Y tenamos motores muy pequeos en ese tiempo. +Ahora instalamos motores ms grandes, las cuales me permitirn regresar a bordo. +Una nave de despegue vertical no es el vehculo ms seguro durante la fase de pruebas. +Hay un viejo dicho que se ha aplicado en la industria durante los 1950s y los 1970s, cuando todas las compaas aeronuticas trabajaban en aeronaves de despegue vertical: +Una aeronave de despegue vertical necesita un sistema artificial de estabilizacin, Y esto es imprescindible. +Por lo menos durante el cernido (vuelo estacionario) y el vuelo a baja velocidad. +Si ese sistema de estabilidad ese cerebro que vuela el vehculo, falla, o si el motor falla, el vehculo se estrella. No existe esa opcin. +Y el dicho al que me refiero aplicable a esa situacin era que nada cae ms rpido que una aeronave de despegue y aterrizaje vertical de cabeza. +Es un comentario macabro porque hemos perdido varios pilotos. +De hecho, las compaias de aeronaves abandonaron las aeronaves de despegue vertical ms o menos por varios aos. +Y en realidad solo hay una nave operacional en el mundo hoy. es decir una nave de despegue vertical aparte de los helicpteros y ese es el Hawker Harrier jet. +Una aeronave de despegue vertical, al igual que un colibr, tiene un metabolismo muy alto, lo que implica que requiere mucha energa. +Obtener esa energa es muy, muy difcil. Y se resume en el motor, a cmo obtener una gran cantidad de energa de un paquete pequeo. +Afortunadamente el Dr Felix Wankel invent el motor rotativo. +Un muy singular motor: es redondo, es pequeo y libre de vibracin. +Cabe exactamente donde lo necesitamos, justo en el centro de los enlaces de los conductos del sistema, muy crtico. De hecho el motor, para aquellos a quienes les gustan los automviles, saben que recientemente se ha usado en los RX8 de la Mazda. +Y ese automvil deportivo gan el premio al Automvil Deportivo del Ao. +Motor maravilloso. +En esa aplicacin genera un caballo de fuerza por libra, lo cual es el doble del de tu motor actual, pero solo la mitad de lo que necesitamos. +Mi compaa ha gastado 35 aos y muchos millones de dlares tomando ese motor rotativo, que fue inventado en los 50s, arreglndolo para que pueda obtener ms de dos caballos de fuerza por libra, confiablemente. +En realidad obtenemos 175 caballos de fuerza en un pie cbico. +Tenemos ocho motores en este vehculo. +Tenemos cuatro computadoras, dos paracadas. +La redundancia es el punto importante aqu. +Si quieres mantenerte a salvo necesitas sistemas de seguridad de refuerzo. +De hecho. hemos volado este vehculo y perdido un motor y hemos continuado cernindonos . +Las computadoras se respaldan unas a otras. Y existe un sistema de votacin donde si una computadora no concuerda con las otras tres, se la saca del sistema. +Y entonces tienes tres, an tienes triple redundancia. +Si uno de esos falla, tu an tienes una segunda oportunidad. +Pero si continas, entonces, buena suerte. +Ya no habr una tercera oportunidad. +Los paracadas estan all, esperemos ms por razones sicolgicas que reales, pero sern un ltimo recurso si se llega a eso. +Me gustara mostrarles una animacin en esta diapositiva, la cual es un elemento del uso del Skycar, pero es una que demuestra como podra ser usado. +Puedes pensar de l en tus propios trminos de cmo podras usarlo. +Skycar enviado, vehculo de rescate para San Francisco. +Yo creo que el transporte personal en algo como un Skycar, probablemente de tipo "volantor" tambin, ser una parte significante de nuestras vidas, como el Dr. Goldin dice, dentro de los siguientes 10 aos. +Y va a cambiar la distribucin demogrfica muy significativamente. +Si puedes vivir a 120 km de San Francisco y llegar all en 15 minutos, vas a vender tu apartamento de 700,000 dlares, te comprars una casa de lujo en la montaa, y te comprars un Skycar, el cual pienso que te costar por ese entonces, tal vez, unos 100,000 dlares y pondrs la diferencia en el banco... +ese es un incentivo muy importante, poner la diferencia en el banco. +Pero mejor si sales pronto de tu ciudad, el valor de las casas se ir al diablo. +Desarrollar el Skycar ha sido un gran reto. +Obviamente, dependo de que muchos otros crean en lo que estoy haciendo, tanto con ayuda tcnica como monetaria. +Y eso ha, te metes en situaciones donde tienes esta gran aceptacin por lo que haces pero tambin mucho rechazo. +He caracterizado esta tecnologa emergente en un aforismo, como es descrito, el cual realmente expone lo que he vivido, y que estoy seguro, otras personas en tecnologas emergentes han vivido. +Hay una encuesta interesante que sali hace poco, bajo NAS, creo que es MSNBC, en la cual ellos preguntaron Andas buscando comprar un volantor? +El 23 por ciento dijo, "S, tan pronto como sea posible". +El 47 por ciento -- s, tan pronto como puedan -- que el precio baje. +Otro 23 por ciento dijo, "Tan pronto como sea seguro". +Slo el 7 por ciento dijo que no consideraran comprar un Skycar. +Me anima eso. Por lo menos me hace sentir como, que hasta cierto punto se ha vuelto ya evidente, +que necesitamos una alternativa al automvil, por lo menos para esos viajes de 80 km o ms, para que las autopistas vuelvan a ser usables en nuestro mundo actual. +Gracias. +Hoy pensaba que hablara de la transicin de un modo de pensar en la Naturaleza a otro logrado por la arquitectura. +Lo interesante de los arquitectos es que siempre hemos intentado justificar la belleza mirando a la Naturaleza y podra decirse que la arquitectura hermosa siempre la ha tomado como modelo. +As, durante 300 aos el debate candente de la arquitectura fue si el nmero cinco o el nmero siete era una mejor proporcin para pensarla porque la nariz era 1/5 de la cabeza o porque la cabeza era 1/7 del cuerpo. +El punto decimal se invent en el siglo XV; los arquitectos dejaron de usar fracciones y tuvieron un nuevo modelo de naturaleza. +De esta forma, lo que sucede hoy es que existe un modelo de forma natural basado en el clculo que usa herramientas digitales y que tiene muchas implicaciones en la manera de pensar la belleza y la forma y en la manera de pensar la Naturaleza. +El mejor ejemplo de esto sera el Gtico, y el Gtico se invent despus del clculo, aunque los arquitectos gticos no calculaban para definir sus formas. +Pero lo importante era que el Gtico fue la primera vez que fuerza y movimiento se pensaron en trminos de forma. +En ejemplos como Kings Cross de Christopher Wren se puede ver que las fuerzas estructurales de la bveda se articulan como lneas, y lo que en realidad se ve es la expresin de la fuerza estructural y la forma. +Mucho despus, los puentes de Robert Maillart, que optimizan la forma estructural con una curvatura casi parablica. +El modelo de cadenas colgantes de Antoni Gaud, el arquitecto cataln. +Finales del siglo XIX, principios del siglo XX, el modelo de cadenas colgantes se traduce en arcos y bvedas. +En todos estos ejemplos la estructura es la fuerza dominante. +Frei Otto empezaba a usar diagramas y modelos de burbujas de espuma en su sala de Mannheim. +Es interesante que en los ltimos 10 aos Norman Foster usara un modelo de transferencia trmica similar en el techo de la Galera Nacional junto con el ingeniero estructural Chris Williams. +En todos estos ejemplos hay una forma ideal porque se pensaron en trminos de estructura. +Y, como arquitecto, siempre encontr estos sistemas muy limitantes, no me interesan las formas ideales y no me interesa optimizarlos para lograr momentos perfectos. +Por eso lo que quise sacar a relucir es otro componente a tener en cuenta si uno piensa en la Naturaleza y es, en resumen, la invencin de la forma genrica de la evolucin gentica. +Mi dolo no es Darwin, es un tipo llamado William Bateson, padre de Greg Bateson, que estuvo aqu en Monterrey. +Era como un teratologista: examinaba monstruosidades y mutaciones buscando reglas y leyes, ms que normas. +Entonces, en vez de buscar el tipo ideal o el promedio ideal, siempre buscaba la excepcin. En este ejemplo de la Regla de Bateson hay dos tipos de mutaciones de un pulgar humano. +Cuando vi esta imagen por primera vez, hace 10 aos, me pareci muy extraa y bella al mismo tiempo. +Bella porque es simtrica. +Vio que en todos los casos de mutaciones de pulgares, en vez de tener un pulgar, tena otro pulgar opuesto o cuatro dedos. +As, las mutaciones vuelven a la simetra. +Y Bateson invent el concepto de ruptura simtrica, que dice que siempre que un sistema pierde informacin se vuelve a la simetra. +As, la simetra no era ya seal de orden y organizacin, que era lo que siempre cre como arquitecto, la simetra era la ausencia de informacin. +Cuando se pierde informacin se va hacia la simetra; cuando se agrega informacin en un sistema, se rompe la simetra. +Entonces, la idea de forma natural pas en ese momento de buscar la forma ideal a buscar una combinacin de informacin y forma genrica. +Literalmente despus de ver esa imagen y descubrir el trabajo de Bateson empezamos a usar estas reglas para romper y ramificar la simetra, para empezar a pensar la forma arquitectnica. +Voy a hablar un minuto de los medios digitales que usamos y de cmo integran el clculo. El hecho de que estn basados en el clculo quiere decir que no tenemos que pensar en la dimensin en trminos de unidades ideales o elementos discretos. +As, en arquitectura trabajamos con grandes ensambles de componentes pudiendo llegar a, digamos, 50.000 piezas de material, en esta sala donde estn sentados ahora, piezas que hay que organizar. +Bien, uno pensara que son todas iguales: como las sillas, todas con las mismas dimensiones. +No lo he verificado, pero por norma cada silla tendra una dimensin levemente diferente porque uno querra espaciarlas para respetar la lnea visual de todos. +Los elementos que forman la parrilla y las luces estn perdiendo su calidad modular, movindose cada vez ms hacia lo infinitesimal. +Por eso usamos herramientas de clculo en la fabricacin y el diseo. +El clculo es tambin matemtica de curvas. +Incluso una lnea recta, definida por el clculo, es una curva. +Es solo una curva sin inflexin. +Un nuevo vocabulario de formas invade todos los mbitos del diseo, ya sea automviles, arquitectura, productos, etc. Est siendo afectado por este medio digital de la curvatura. +Las complejidades de escala que surgen de eso... ya saben, en el ejemplo de la nariz y el rostro est la idea de parte fraccionaria del todo. +En el clculo esta idea de subdivisin es ms compleja porque el todo y las partes son una serie continua. +Es muy temprano para una leccin de clculo, as que traje unas imgenes para describir cmo funciona. +Esta es una iglesia coreana que hicimos en Queens. +y en este ejemplo puede verse que se repiten los componentes de la escalera pero se repiten sin ser modulares. +Cada uno de los elementos de esta estructura tiene una distancia y una dimensin nica y cada conexin tiene ngulos nicos. +La nica forma de disear algo as o incluso de construirlo es con una definicin basada en el clculo de la forma. +Adems, es mucho ms dinmico y as uno ve que la misma forma se abre y se cierra de manera muy dinmica a medida que uno avanza, porque tiene esta cualidad de los vectores en movimiento intrnsecamente. +As, el mismo espacio que parece un volumen cerrado, visto del otro lado se transforma en una vista abierta. +Y uno siente tambin un movimiento visual en el espacio porque cada uno de los elementos cambia siguiendo un patrn, de modo que ese patrn gua la vista hacia el altar. +Creo que ese es uno de los principales cambios adems, en arquitectura, que estamos empezando a no buscar la forma ideal como una cruz latina en una iglesia, sino todos los rasgos de una iglesia: la luz que viene de atrs, de una fuente invisible, la direccionalidad que gua hacia el altar. +No es algo tan complicado disear un espacio sagrado. +Solo hay que incorporar una serie de rasgos de manera muy genrica. +Hay distintas perspectivas de ese interior que tiene muchas y complejas orientaciones, todas de forma simple. +En trminos de construccin y manufactura este es un complejo habitacional de un km construido en los 70 en msterdam. +Y aqu hemos separado los 500 apartamentos en pequeos vecindarios, diferenciando esos vecindarios. +No voy a entrar en detalles de estos proyectos, pero lo que uno ve es que tanto las escaleras mecnicas como los ascensores que transportan personas por la fachada del edificio estn sostenidos por 122 vigas estructurales. +Porque usamos escaleras mecnicas para transportar personas, estas vigas estn soportando cargas diagonales. +Cada una tiene una forma ligeramente diferente a medida que uno se desplaza por el edificio. +as que es un clculo simple, para cada componente del edificio, que estamos agregando. +Son 10 millones de clculos solo para disear una conexin entre una pieza de acero estructural y otra pieza de acero estructural. +Esto nos da una relacin armnica y sinttica de todos los componentes, de unos con otros. +Esta idea me ha llevado a hacer algunos productos de diseo, dado que hay firmas de diseo que tienen contactos con arquitectos. Yo trabajo para Vitra, una compaa de muebles, y Alessi, de artculos para el hogar. +Ellos venden esto como la solucin a un problema: esta capacidad para diferenciar componentes pero mantenerlos simples. +As, no es por hablar de BMW, ni para publicitarlos, pero tomemos el ejemplo de BMW. +Ellos tienen, en 2005, una identidad diferente para cada modelo de coche. +As, la serie 300, o el que sea su nuevo modelo, la serie 100 que est saliendo tiene que verse como la serie 700 en el otro extremo de la lnea de produccin, por eso necesitan una identidad distinta y coherente, que es BMW. +Al mismo tiempo, alguien paga 30.000 dlares por un coche de la serie 300 y otro paga 70.000 dlares por uno de la serie 700, y esa persona que paga ms del doble no quiere que su coche se parezca mucho al coche de menor gama. +As que tienen que discriminar estos productos. +A medida que el fabricante empieza a contar con ms opciones de diseo, este problema se agrava en el todo y en las partes. +Como arquitecto, la relacin de las partes con el todo es todo lo que pienso, pero en trminos de diseo de productos es un tema cada vez ms importante para las empresas. +El primer producto de prueba que hicimos fue con Alessi para un juego de caf y t. +Uno extremadamente caro. As que fuimos a ver a gente conocida al sur de San Diego y usamos un mtodo de explotacin de titanio usado en la industria aeroespacial. +Bsicamente consiste en tallar un molde de grafito, ponerlo en el horno, calentarlo a 1.000 inflar suavemente el titanio maleable y luego explotarlo al final en esta forma. +Pero lo genial de esto es que las formas cuestan solo unos cientos de dlares. +El titanio vale miles de dlares pero las formas son muy baratas. +Aqu diseamos un sistema de ocho curvas intercambiables, muy similar al proyecto habitacional que les mostr. Podemos recombinar todo esto para lograr siempre formas ergonmicas que tengan volumen constante y puedan producirse siempre de la misma manera. +As, una de estas herramientas por las que pagaramos algunos cientos de dlares y conseguir variaciones increbles en los componentes. +Este es uno de esos ejemplos de juegos. +Volviendo a la arquitectura, lo orgnico de la arquitectura como disciplina, a diferencia del diseo de productos, es que toda esta cuestin del holismo y la monumentalidad es nuestro reino. +Diseamos cosas que sean coherentes como objetos simples, pero adems reducirlas al mnimo y tener una identidad tanto a gran escala como a pequea escala. +Mis dolos de esto en el mundo natural son las ranas tropicales. +Me interesan las ranas porque son el ejemplo ms extremo de superficie en la que la textura y la... llammosla decoracin... Para la rana no es decoracin, pero as es. Estn estrechamente relacionadas. +As que un cambio en la forma indica un cambio en el patrn de color. +El patrn y la forma no son lo mismo pero en realidad trabajan juntos y se fusionan de alguna manera. +As, mientras haca un centro para un parque nacional de Costa Rica tratbamos de usar la idea de color gradiente y un cambio de textura a medida que la estructura se mueve por la superficie del edificio. +Usamos adems una continuidad del cambio de una sala de exposiciones a un museo de historia natural, todo es parte de un cambio continuo en el conjunto, pero dentro del conjunto hay varias clases de espacios y formas. +En un proyecto habitacional en Valencia, Espaa, hacemos distintas torres fusionadas unas con otras en curvas compartidas y as obtener una masa nica, como una especie de monolito, pero se descompone en elementos individuales. +Y se puede ver que ese cambio en la masa le da a los 48 apartamentos forma y tamao nicos, pero siempre dentro de un lmite controlado, una envolvente de cambio. +Trabajo con un grupo de arquitectos. +Tenemos una compaa llamada United Architects. +Fuimos finalistas del diseo del sitio del World Trade Center. +Y creo que esto solo muestra cmo abordamos el problema de construcciones de muy gran escala. +Queramos hacer una especie de catedral gtica alrededor de las huellas del World Trade Center. +Y para eso intentamos conectar las cinco torres en un sistema nico. +Examinamos lo hecho desde los aos 50 en adelante, haba muchos ejemplos de otros arquitectos que intentaron hacer lo mismo. +Nosotros lo enfocamos a nivel de la tipologa del edificio; podramos construir estas cinco torres separadas pero se uniran en el piso 60 formando una especie de masa monoltica. +Con United Architects tambin hicimos una propuesta para la sede del Banco Central Europeo empleando el mismo sistema, pero en una masa mucho ms monoltica, como una esfera. +De nuevo, uno puede ver esta especie de fusin orgnica de mltiples elementos de edificio que constituyen un todo pero se descomponen en partes ms pequeas, de manera increblemente orgnica. +Por ltimo, me gustara mostrarles algunos efectos del uso de la fabricacin digital. +Hace seis aos compr una de estas fresadoras para reemplazarla porque los jvenes se cortaban los dedos al armar maquetas. +Y compr un cortador lser y empec a fabricar en mi propio taller elementos de construccin de gran escala y maquetas, y podamos ir directamente a la instrumentacin. +Descubr que las herramientas, si uno interviene en el software, producen efectos decorativos. +Para interiores como este negocio de Estocolmo, Suecia, o esta pared de instalacin en Holanda, en el Instituto Holands de Arquitectura, pudimos usar la textura que la herramienta dejaba para producir muchos efectos espaciales, y pudimos integrar la textura de la pared con la forma de la pared y los materiales: +formas de plstico hueco, fibra de vidrio, e incluso a nivel de acero estructural, que uno piensa que es algo lineal y modular. +La industria del acero est tan adelantada a la del diseo que si uno aprovecha eso puede empezar a pensar en vigas y columnas amalgamadas en un mismo sistema altamente eficiente pero que tambin produce efectos decorativos y efectos formales muy hermosos y orgnicos. +Muchas gracias. +Estaba incluido en la biografa en lnea que deca que yo era un misionero del diseo. +Es demasiado elevado; en realidad soy ms como un caminante callejero. +Paso mucho tiempo en reas urbanas buscando diseos, y estudiando el diseo en el sector pblico. +Saco unas 5000 fotografas al ao, y pens que editara stas, e intentara encontrar algunas imgenes que pudieran ser apropiadas e interesantes para ustedes. +Usar estas aceras de Ro como ejemplo. +Un diseo pblico muy comn en los aos 50. +Tiene un bello tipo de forma orgnica y fluida, muy concordante con la cultura brasilea. Creo que el buen diseo se suma a la cultura. +Completamente contradictorio con San Francisco o Nueva York. +Pero creo que estas son mis tipos de autopistas de la informacin: Vivo en un mundo mucho ms analgico, donde el trfico de peatones, la interaccin, el intercambio de diversidad, y donde creo que las cosas sencillas bajo nuestro pies tiene un gran sentido para nosotros. +Cmo empec en este negocio? +Fui diseador de cermica durante unos diez aos, y simplemente me encantaba la forma utilitaria - las cosas sencillas que usamos cada da, las pequeas composiciones de color y superficie en una forma. +Esto me llev a empezar una empresa llamada "Design Within Reach", una compaa que trata con las formas sencillas, haciendo que buenos diseadores estn disponibles para todos nosotros, y vendiendo tambin las personalidades y caracteres de los diseadores tambin, y parece haber funcionado. +Un par de aos dentro del proceso, pas mucho tiempo viajando por Europa, buscando diseos. +Y tuve una especie de despertar en msterdam: Estaba all entrando en las tiendas de diseo, y mezclndome con nuestro grupo de diseadores, y me di cuenta de que muchas cosas parecan prcticamente lo mismo, y el efecto de la globalizacin haba producido eso en nuestra comunidad tambin. +Sabemos mucho acerca de lo que pasa con el diseo alrededor del mundo, y cada vez es ms difcil encontrar diseos que reflejen una cultura nica. +Y escribo un boletn informativo que sale cada semana, y escrib un artculo sobre esto, y tuvo una respuesta tan enorme que me di cuenta de que el diseo, ese diseo comn, que hay en la zona pblica significa mucho para la gente, y establece una especie de trabajo de base y dilogo. +No miraran esto y le llamaran una bici de diseo: una bici de diseo est hecha de titanio o molibdeno. +Pero empec a mirar el diseo en un lugar como msterdam y me di cuenta de que, ya saben, la primera tarea de disear es servir a un propsito social. +Y as vi esta bici no como una bici de diseo, sino como un muy buen ejemplo de diseo. +Y desde aquel tiempo en msterdam, pas cada vez ms tiempo en las ciudades, mirando el diseo buscando pruebas comunes de diseo que realmente no estn tanto bajo la firma de un diseador. +Estuve en Buenos Aires muy recientemente, y fui a ver este puente de Santiago Calatrava. +Es un arquitecto y diseador espaol. +Y los folletos tursticos me sealaban en la direccin de este puente - me encantan los puentes, metafrica, simblica y estructuralmente - y fue una pequea decepcin, porque el fango del ro estaba incrustado en l; en realidad no estaba en uso. +Y me di cuenta de que a menudo el diseo, cuando te dispones a ver diseo, puede ser una desilusin. +Pero haba muchas otras cosas sucediendo en esa zona: era una especie de zona en obras; se estaban levantando muchos edificios. +Y, al acercarte a un edificio de lejos, no ves demasiado; te acercas ms, y llegas a una pequea y bella composicin que podra recordarte a un Mondrian, un Diebenkorn o algo as. +Pero para m era un ejemplo de materiales industriales con un poco de color y animacin y una pequea y bella naturaleza muerta- un tipo de diseo no intencionado. +Y acercndote algo ms, tienes una perspectiva diferente. +Encuentro que estas pequeas vietas, estas piezas de diseo accidentales, son refrescantes. +Me dan, no s, un sentido de correccin en el mundo y algo de deleite visual en el conocimiento de que el edificio probablemente nunca se ver tan bien como este sencillo andamio industrial que est ah para servir. +Calle abajo, haba otro edificio, una bella estructura visual: elementos horizontales, verticales, pequeas lneas decorativas yendo a travs, estos garabatos magenta, los trabajadores son reducidos a elementos decorativos; slo una bonita especie de ruptura del lugar urbano. +Y ya saben, ya no existe. +La has capturado por un momento, y encontrar esta pequea naturaleza muerta es como escuchar pequeas canciones o algo as: me produce mucho placer. +Antoine Predock dise un maravilloso estadio de bisbol en San Diego llamado Petco Park. +Un estupendo uso de materiales locales, pero dentro podras encontrar algunas composiciones interiores. +Algunas personas van a los estadios de bisbol a ver los partidos; yo voy a ver relaciones de diseo. +Slo una maravillosa especie de ruptura de la arquitectura, y el modo en que los rboles forman elementos verticales. +El rojo es un color del paisaje que est con frecuencia en las seales de stop. +Llama la atencin; tiene una gran cantidad de emocin; te vuelve a mirar fijamente de la manera que podra hacer una figura. +Slo un trozo de cinta de barrera de construccin en Italia. +Zona de obras en Nueva York: el rojo con esta especie de energa emocional que es casi equivalente al modo en que- a la ricura de los cachorros y cosas as. +Calle lateral en Italia. +El rojo me condujo a esta pequea composicin, optimista para m en el sentido de que quizs el buzn de servicio pblico, la puerta de servicio, las caeras: +parece como si todos estos diferentes servicios pblicos trabajaran juntos para crear pequeas y bellas composiciones. +En Italia, ya saben, casi todo, es como si, se viera bien. +Secillos mens puestos en una tabla, alacanzando una especie de equilibrio. +Pero estoy convencido de que es porque ests caminando por la calles y viendo cosas. +El rojo puede ser cmico: puede llamar la atencin a la pobre y pequea personalidad de la pequea boca de incendios sufriendo la mala planificacin urbana en La Habana. +el color puede animar los bloques simples los materiales simples: caminado en Nueva York me parar. +No siempre s por qu saco fotografas de cosas. +Una bonita composicin visual de simetra. +Curvas contra cosas puntiagudas. +Es un comentario sobre el modo en que tratamos el asiento pblico en la ciudad de Nueva York. +Me he encontrado con algn otro tipo de relaciones curiosas de bolardos en la calle que tienen diferentes interpretaciones, pero- estas cosas me divierten. +A veces una papelera- esta est justo en la calle en San Francisco - una papelera que se ha dejado ah durante 18 meses crea un bello ngulo de 45 grados contra estas otras relaciones, y convierte un aparcamiento comn en una bella y pequea escultura. +As que, hay una especie de mano silenciosa de diseo trabajando que veo en los lugares a los que voy. +La Habana es un rea maravillosa. +Est totalmente libre del desorden comercial no ves nuestros logotipos, marcas y nombres, y entonces ests alerta de las cosas fsicamente. +Y esta es una gran proteccin de una zona peatonal, y el replanteamiento de algunos caones coloniales para hacerlo. +Y Cuba necesita ser ms ingeniosa a causa del bloqueo econmico y esas cosas, pero un patio realmente maravilloso. +A menudo me he preguntado por qu Italia es lder en diseo moderno. +En nuestra rea, en mobiliario, estn de camino a la cima. +Los holandeses tambin son buenos, pero los italianos son buenos. +Y me encontr esta callecita en Venecia, donde la oficina central comunista comparta muro con este santuario catlico. +Un cambio podra ser una tpica esquina de calle en San Francisco. +Y uso este - esta especie de, lo que considero "spam" urbano +Me doy cuenta de las cosas porque ando mucho, pero aqu, la industria privada est como haciendo un desastre del sector pblico. +Y como yo lo veo, yo digo que, ya saben, las publicaciones que informan de los problemas en la zona urbana tambin contribuyen a ello, y esta es slo mi llamada para decir a todos nosotros, que la poltica pblica no cambiar esto en absoluto; la industria privada tiene que trabajar para tomarse cosas as en serio. +El extremo podra ser en Italia, de nuevo, hay una especie de control sobre lo que est sucediendo en el medio ambiente es muy evidente, incluso en la manera en la que venden y distribuyen peridicos. +Camino al trabajo cada da o monto en mi scooter, y bajo a aparcar a este pequeo lugar. +Y baj un da, y todas las motos eran rojas. +Ahora, esto no os va a impresionar a los que hacis cosas con el Photoshop, pero este fue un momento real cuando me baj de la moto, y mir y pens, es como si todos mis hermanos moteros se hubieran juntado y conspirado para hacer una pequea declaracin. +Y me record que - para mantener en el presente, para buscar este tipo de cosas. +me daba posibilidades de maravillarme - si quizs es un agradable da en San Francisco, y todos podramos estar de acuerdo, y crear algunas instalaciones. +Pero tambin me record el poder del patrn y la repeticin para crear un efecto en nuestra mente. +Y no s si hay un tipo ms fuerte de efecto que el patrn y el modo en que une elementos dispares. +Estuve en la muestra de arte de Miami en diciembre, y pas un par de horas mirando buen arte, y sorprendido del precio del arte y lo caro que es, pero pasndolo muy bien mirndolo. +Y sal afuera, y los aparcacoches para este servicio de coches haban creado, ya saben, un pequeo collage bastante bonito de estas llaves de coche, y mi equivalente ms cercano fue un grupo de etiquetas de oracin que haba visto en Tokio. +Y pens que si el patrn puede unir estos elementos dispares, puede hacerlo con casi todo. +No tengo muchas fotos de gente, por es como si se interpusieran en el modo de estudiar la forma pura. +En un periodo de tiempo muy corto, cambi el ambiente por completo y el carcter con voces altas, cuerpos grandes y cosas as, y tuvimos que levantarnos e irnos: Estaba simplemente as de incmodo. +y en ese momento, el sol sali, y a travs de esta pantalla perforada un patrn fue arrojado sobre estos cuerpos y es como si se desvanecieran en la parte de atrs, y nos fuimos del restaurante como sintindonos bien por las cosas. +Las ltimas diapositivas que tengo tratan de volver a este tema de las aceras, y quera decir algo aqu sobre - soy, como, optimista, ya saben. +La posguerra de la Segunda Guerra Mundial la influencia del automvil ha sido realmente devastadora en muchas de nuestras ciudades. +Muchas reas urbanas se han convertido en aparcamientos con una especie de uso indiscriminado. +Muchos departamentos de planificacin se subordinaron al departamento de transporte. Es tan fcil bromear sobre los coches como sobre Wal-Mart; no voy a hacer eso. +Pero son ejemplos reales de urbanizacin y el cambio que ha ocurrido en los ltimos aos, y el aumento de la sensibilidad a la importancia de nuestros medios urbanos como centros culturales. +Creo que son, que las declaraciones que hacemos en este sector pbico son nuestras contribuciones a un todo ms grande. +Las ciudades son el lugar donde es ms probable encontar diversidad y mezclarse con otras personas. +Vamos all para estimularnos con el arte y todas esas otras cosas. +Pero creo que la gente ha reconocido la santidad de nuestras zonas urbanas. +Un lugar como Chicago ha alcanzado realmente una especie de nivel de renombre internacional. +Se esperara que una ciudad como esta tuviera jardineras mejoradas en la Avenida Michigan donde la gente rica compra. pero si realmente vas por la calle te encuentras que las jardineras cambian de calle en calle: hay diversidad real en las plantas. +Y la idea de que un grupo de ciudad pueda mantener diferentes tipos de follaje es realmente bastante excepcional. +Hay elementos comunes a esto que vers por todo Chicago, y luego estn las grandes declaraciones sobre el diseo: el Pabelln Pritzker hecho por Frank Gehry. +Mi medida de esto como una obra importante del diseo no es tanto de la manera que se ve, sino del hecho de que representa una funcin social muy importante. +Hay muchos conciertos gratis, por ejemplo, que se hacen en esta zona; tiene un sistema acstico excepcional. +Pero el compromiso que la ciudad ha hecho a la zona pblica es significativo y casi un modelo internacional. +Trabajo en el Ayuntamiento de San Francisco, el Consejo Internacional de Diseo para Alcaldes y Chicago se considera el pinculo, y realmente me gustara saludar al alcalde Daley y la gente de ah. +Pens que debera incluir al menos una diapositiva de tecnologa para vosotros. +Esto est, tambin, en el Parque Millenium en Chicago, donde el artista y diseador espaol Plensa ha creado una especie de lector digital en este parque que refleja de nuevo los caracteres y personalidades de la gente de esta rea. +Y es un rea de bienvenida, creo, inclusiva con la diversidad, refleja la diversidad, y creo que este matrimonio de tecnologa y arte en el sector pblico es un rea donde los EE.UU. +puede tener un papel de liderazgo, y Chicago es un ejemplo. +Muchas gracias. +De los cinco sentidos, la visin es el que ms aprecio, y es el que menos puedo ignorar. +Creo que esto se debe en parte a mi padre, quien era ciego.## +Este era un hecho al cual no le daba mucha importancia, generalmente.## +Una vez, en Nueva Escocia, cuando fuimos a ver un eclipse total de sol -- s, igual que en la cancin de Carly Simon, que podra o no hacer referencia a James Taylor, Warren Beatty o Mick Jagger, no estamos muy seguros. +Entregaron esos oscuros visores de plstico que nos permitan mirar directamente al sol## sin daar nuestros ojos. +Pero mi pap se asust mucho:## no quizo que hiciramos eso.## +quera que ussemos esos visores baratos de cartn ## para evitar cualquier opcin de que nuestros ojos se daasen.## +Yo pens entonces que aquello era un poco extrao. +Lo que yo no saba en aquel momento era que mi padre naci con una visin perfecta. +Cuando su hermana Martha y l eran muy pequeos, su mam los llev a ver un eclipse total --## o de hecho, un eclipse solar -- y no mucho despus de aquello, los dos comenzaron a perder la vista. +Dcadas ms tarde, result que el origen de su ceguera fue probablemente algn tipo de infeccin bacteriana. +As que podemos decir, que no tuvo nada que ver con aquel eclipse solar, pero para entonces mi abuela reposaba en su tumba pensando que fue culpa suya. +As, mi pap se gradu en Harvard en 1946, ## se cas con mi madre, y compr una casa en Lexington, Massachusetts, donde se hicieron los primeros disparos contra los britnicos en 1775, aunque en realidad ninguno de ellos les lleg hasta Concord. +Consigui un trabajo en Raytheon, diseando sistemas de orientacin, formando parte de la Ruta 128, eje de alta tecnologa en aquellos das -- un equivalente al Silicon Valley de los aos 70. +Mi pap no era un tipo muy militar; ## aunque se senta mal por no haber luchado en la Segunda Guerra Mundial por culpa de su discapacidad, aunque ellos le permitieron pasar ## por el examen fsico de muchas horas de duracin ## antes de llegar a la ltima prueba, que fue la de la vista. +As que mi pap comenz con todas esas patentes ## y gan una reputacin de genio ciego, cientfico de cohetes, inventor.## +Pero para nosotros era slo pap, y nuestra vida diaria eran bastante normal.## +Como cualquier nio, yo vi mucha televisin y tena un montn de aficiones de empolln como la mineraloga, la microbiologa y el programa espacial y algo de poltica. +Yo jugaba mucho al ajedrez.## +Pero a los 14 aos, un amigo mo me interes en los libros de comics, y decid lo que quera hacer para vivir. +As que ah estaba mi pap: ## l es un cientfico, l es un ingeniero y l es un contratista militar.## +Que tena cuatro hijos, saben? +Uno creci para convertirse en cientfico en computadoras ## otro creci para entrar a la Marina,## otro, creci para convertirse en ingeniero, ## y luego estaba yo: el dibujante de cmics. +Que, por cierto, me hace lo contrario a Dean Kamen, porque yo soy un dibujante de cmics, hijo de un inventor, y l es un inventor, hijo de un dibujante de cmics. +De verdad, es cierto. +Lo gracioso es que mi pap tena mucha fe en m.## +Tena fe en mi habilidad como dibujante, aunque no tena pruebas directas de que lo que yo dibujaba estuviese bien: todo lo que poda ver era muy borroso. +Y esto le da un verdadero significado al trmino "fe ciega", que no tiene para m la misma connotacin negativa que para otra gente. +Eso s, la fe en lo que no puede ser visto, que no puede ser demostrado, no es el tipo de fe con el que me haya relacionado mucho. ## +Me gusta la ciencia, donde lo que vemos y se puede comprobar, es el fundamento de lo que sabemos. +Pero hay un trmino medio, tambin. +Un camino intermedio para gente como el viejo y pobre Charles Babbage, y sus computadoras a vapor que nunca fueron construidas. +Nadie entiende de verdad qu era lo que l tena en mente,## a excepcin de Ada Lovelace, y se fue a la tumba tratando de conseguir ese sueo. +Vannevar Bush con su Memex -- esta idea de la totalidad de los conocimientos humanos a su alcance -- tena esa visin. +Y creo que mucha gente en su da probablemente pensaba que era algo excntrico. +Y, s, podemos mirar hacia atrs con perspectiva y decir, S, ja-ja, sabe - todo cabe en un microfilm. Pero ese -- ese no es el punto. l entendi la forma del futuro.## +Como J.C.R. Liklider y sus nociones para la interaccin hombre - ordenador. +Lo mismo: entendi la forma del futuro, ## a pesar de que era algo que sera ## slo implementado mucho ms tarde. ## +O Paul Barron, y su visin del intercambio de paquetes. +Casi nadie lo escuch en su da. +As pues, hay tres tipos de visin, lo saben? +La visin basada en lo que uno no puede ver: la visin de lo invisible y lo desconocido. +La visin de lo que ha sido demostrado o puede averiguarse. +Y ese tercer tipo de visin, de algo que puede ser, que puede estar, ## basada en el conocimiento, pero an no demostrada. +Hemos visto muchos ejemplos de personas con este tipo de visin en la ciencia, pero creo que tambin en las artes, como en la poltica, e incluso en los esfuerzos personales. +Lo que lleva, en verdad, a cuatro principios bsicos: ## aprender de todos, no seguir a nadie, observar los patrones, y matarse trabajando. ## +Creo que estos son los cuatro principios que conducen a esto.## +Es en el tercero, sobre todo, donde las visiones del futuro comienzan a manifestarse. +Lo interesante es que esta particular forma de ver el mundo, es, en mi opinin, slo una de las cuatro maneras diferentes que se manifiestan en diferentes reas de esfuerzo. ## +En los comics, yo s que que existe una especie de actitud formalista para tratar de entender cmo funciona. +Luego hay otra, ms clsica, la actitud que abarca la belleza y la artesana. +Otra que cree en la pura transparencia del contenido. +Y luego otra que hace hincapi en la autenticidad de la experiencia humana -- y la honestidad y crudeza. +Estas son cuatro maneras muy diferentes de ver el mundo. Incluso les di nombres. +La clsica, la animista, la formalista y la iconoclasta. +Curiosamente, parece que corresponden, ms o menos a las cuatro subdivisiones del pensamiento humano de Jung. +Y que reflejan una dicotoma entre arte y deleite entre izquierda y la derecha; la tradicin y la revolucin en la parte superior e inferior. +Y si van en la diagonal, obtendrn el contenido y la forma -- y luego la belleza y la verdad. ## +As que -- as que esta era mi naturaleza. Y as fue, vi el camino que deba seguir para descubrir el enfoque de mi trabajo y quin era yo, Lo vi como un camino hacia el descubrimiento. +En realidad, estaba slo adoptando mi naturaleza, ## lo que significa que no he caido tan lejos del rbol, despus de todo. +Entonces, qu puede una "mente cientfica" hacer en las artes? +Bueno, yo comenc dibujando comics, pero tambin comenc a entender, casi de inmediato. +Y es una de las cosas ms importantes sobre comics que he descubierto, es que los cmics son un medio visual, ## pero que intenta incluir todos los sentidos en l. +As, los diferentes elementos de los comics, como imgenes y palabras, y los diferentes smbolos y todo aquello que el cmic nos presenta todos son canalizados a travs del conducto nico de la visin. +Entonces tienen cosas como la semejanza, ## cuando algo que se asemeja al mundo fsico puede ser abstrado ## en dos diferentes direcciones: abstrado por semejanza, pero aun conservando todo su sentido,## o abstrado por medio de la semejanza y del sentido a travs de un plano visual. ## +Pongan estas tres cosas juntas, y tendrn un pequeo mapa ## de todo el mbito de iconografa visual que los comics pueden abrazar. +Y si se mueven a la derecha tambin tendrn el lenguaje, porque eso es abstraer mucho ms desde la semejanza,## pero manteniendo el significado. +La visin puede representar el sonido y comprender las propiedades comunes de los dos y su patrimonio comn, tambin. +Adems, puede representar la textura de sonido; y captar su carcter esencial visualmente. +Y hay tambin un equilibrio entre lo visible y lo invisible en los comics. +En el cmic es una especie de pregunta y respuesta ## en el que el artista muestra algo que ver en sus vietas, y luego deja algo que imaginar entre ellas. +Adems, hay otro sentido que en la visin de los comics se presenta, y ese es el tiempo. +La secuenciacin es un aspecto muy importante de los comics. +Los comics presentan una especie de mapa temporal. +Y es este mapa temporal el que da energa a los comics modernos, pero me pregunt si quiz tambin daba energa a otro tipo de formas, y encontr algunas en la historia. +Donde se puede ver este mismo principio de funcionamiento en estas antiguas versiones de la misma idea. +Lo interesante es que, cuando aparece la imprenta -- esto es, a partir de 1450, a propsito --## todos los recursos modernos del cmic comienzan a presentarse: vietas rectilneas alineadas, dibujos de lneas simples, sin tonos y lectura secuencial de izquierda a derecha. +Y al cabo de 100 aos, empiezan a verse los globos de texto y leyendas, y no deja de ser un salto, un salto desde aqu hasta aqu. +As que escrib un libro sobre este tema en 93, pero cuando estaba terminando el libro, Tuve que hacer algo de composicin tipogrfica, y estaba cansado de ir a la fotocopiadora local para hacerlo, as que me compr un ordenador. +Y no era gran cosa - no era bueno para mucho, salvo para escribir texto -- aunque mi padre me haba hablado acerca de la Ley de Moore, sobre la Ley de Moore en los aos 70, y yo saba lo que iba a suceder. +Y as, mantuve mis ojos atentos para ver si el tipo de cambios que sucedieron cuando fuimos de pre-imprimir comics a imprimir comics ocurrira cuando fuimos ms all, a la post-impresin de comics.## +As que, una de las primeras cosas que se propusieron fue poder mezclar las imgenes de cmic con el sonido, el movimiento y la interactividad de los CD-ROM que se estaban realizando en aquellos das. +Esto fue antes incluso de la Web. +Y una de las primeras cosas que se hicieron fue, trataron de coger una pgina de cmic tal cual y trasplantarla a los monitores, lo que es un error clsico a lo McLuhan apropiarse de una forma tecnolgica anterior como contenido de una nueva tecnologa. +Y as, lo que haran es, ## tener esas pginas de historietas que se asemejan a las pginas de historietas impresas, ## a les aadiran todo el sonido y movimiento. ## +El problema era, que si sigues esa idea -- ## la idea bsica de que el espacio es igual al tiempo en los comics -- lo que pasa es que cuando se introduce el sonido y movimiento, que son fenmenos temporales que slo pueden ser representados a travs del tiempo, entonces se rompe la continuidad de la presentacin. +La interactividad es otra cosa. +Hay comics con hipertexto. +Pero lo ciero acerca de hipertexto es que todo en el hipertexo es aqu, en otro sitio o conectado a aqu; ## y es algo profundamente no-espacial. +La distancia entre Abraham Lincoln y un centavo de Lincoln, entre Penny Marshall y el Plan Marshall entre el "Plan 9" y nueve vidas: es todo lo mismo. +S - pero en los cmics, en los cmics, todos los aspectos de la obra, cada elemento de la obra tiene una relacin espacial con cada elemento en todo momento. +As que la pregunta era: haba alguna manera de preservar la relacin espacial ## mientras aprovechamos todas las cosas que lo digital puede ofrecernos? +Y encontr mi respuesta personal a esto en estos antiguos cmics que les muestro. +Cada uno de ellos tiene una sola lnea de lectura ininterrumpida, igual va en zigzag a travs de las paredes como subiendo en espiral por una columna o va simplemente recta de izquierda a derecha, o incluso hacia atrs en un zig-zag a travs de 88 pginas plegadas en acorden. +Est ocurriendo lo mismo, y esa es la idea bsica que cuando usted se mueve por el espacio se va moviendo a travs del tiempo se est llevando a cabo sin ningn tipo de compromiso, pero cuando hay compromisos de impresin afectados. +Los espacios adyacentes ya no son momentos adyacentes, por lo que la idea bsica de los cmics se rompa una y otra vez y una y otra vez. +Y yo pens, OK, bueno, si eso es cierto, hay alguna manera, yendo ms all de la impresin de hoy en da, que nos permita regresar? +Pues bien, el monitor parece tan limitada tcnicamente como la pgina, verdad? +Tiene una forma diferente, pero aparte de eso ## la misma limitacin bsica. +Pero eso es slo si se mira el monitor como una pgina, pero no si se ve el monitor como una ventana. +Y eso es lo que yo propongo: que tal vez podran crearse estas historietas en un lienzo infinito: a lo largo del eje X y el eje Y, y escalonadamente. +Podramos hacer circular narrativas que fueran literalmente circulares. +Podramos hacer un giro en una historia que fuese literalmente un giro. +Relatos paralelos podran ser literalmente paralelos. +X, Y y tambin Z. +As que tena todas estas nociones. Esto fue a finales de los aos 90, y algunas personas en mi empresa pensaron que yo estaba muy loco, pero mucha gente luego fueron y en realidad lo hicieron. ## +Les voy a mostrar un par de ellas ahora. +Esta fue una de las primeras historietas collage de un compaero llamado Jason Lex. +Y noten lo que est ocurriendo aqu. ## +Lo que yo estoy buscando es una mutacin duradera -- eso es lo que todos estamos buscando. +Como medios de comunicacin en esta nueva era, estamos buscando mutaciones que sean duraderas, que tengan algn tipo de permanencia. +Ahora, estamos tomando esta idea bsica de la presentacin de los cmics en un medio visual, y lo llevamos a travs de todo el camino de principio al fin. +Eso es toda la historieta que acaban de ver en la pantalla ahora. +Pero a pesar de que estamos experimentando, es slo una pieza a la vez, est hecha con la tecnologa de ahora. +Como la tecnologa evoluciona, como obtendremos pantallas ms inmersivas, por qu no, este tipo de cosas slo avanzarn.## +Se adaptarn. Lo harn. ## Se adaptarn a su entorno: son una mutacin duradera. ## +Aqu hay otro que quiero mostrarles. Es de Drew Weing; esto se llama, "Pop contempla la Caliente Muerte del Universo." +Vean lo que est pasando aqu como dibujamos estas historias en un lienzo infinito es crear una expresin ms pura en este medio de lo que se trata. +Voy un poco ms rpidamente - ustedes capten la idea. +Slo quiero llegar a la ltima vieta. +All vamos. +Slo una ms. +Habla acerca de su lienzo infinito. +Es por un tipo llamado Daniel Merlin Goodbrey en Gran Bretaa. +Y por qu es esto importante? +Creo que es importante porque los medios de comunicacin, todos los medios de comunicacin, nos proporcionan una ventana a nuestro mundo. +Ahora, eso puede ser que las pelculas -- ## o, incluso, la realidad virtual, o algo parecido a eso -- algn tipo de visualizacin inmersiva, que va a proporcionarnos el ms eficiente escape del mundo en que vivimos +Es por lo que mucha gente busca las historias, para escapar. +Pero los medios de comunicacin nos ofrecen una ventana de vuelta al mundo en que vivimos +Y cuando los medios de comunicacin evolucionan de modo que la identidad de los medios se vuelve cada vez ms nica.## +Porque lo que ests contemplando es, ests contemplando comics novatos: ## ests contemplando comics que son mucho ms comics que nunca. ## +Cuando eso suceda, le darn a las personas mltiples formas de volver a entrar en el mundo a travs de diferentes ventanas, y cuando hagan eso, les permitir triangular el mundo en que viven y ver su forma. +Y por eso creo que esto es importante. +Hay muchas razones, pero me tengo que ir ahora. +Gracias por escucharme. +Este es un pan integral, totalmente integral y est hecho con una nueva tcnica con la que he estado experimentando, desarrollando y escribiendo, al que a falta de mejor nombre llamamos mtodo epxico. +Lo llamo mtodo epxico porque entiendo que no suene apetitoso, pero... pero... si piensan en el epoxi qu es el epoxi? +Son dos tipos de resinas que, por separado, ninguna puede hacer un pegamento, pero cuando juntas las dos, algo pasa, se crea un enlace y obtienes este fuerte y poderoso adhesivo. +Y encarmoslo, todo mundo est intentando cambiar a lo integral; +finalmente, despus de 40 aos de saber que lo integral era una opcin ms saludable, finalmente llegamos al punto en el que de verdad nos estamos volcando a ellos con la intencin de comerlos. +Sin embargo, el reto para el panadero integral es, han de saber, cmo hacer que sepa bien? +Porque el grano entero... es fcil con la harina blanca hacer un pan de buen sabor, porque la harina blanca es dulce; +es principalmente almidn y cuando se rompe el almidn... qu es el almidn? Es, gracias, azcar, s. +Entonces un panadero, un buen panadero sabe cmo sacar obtener el azcar inherente contenido en el almidn. +Con el pan integral existen otros obstculos, +tiene el salvado que es quiz para nosotros la parte ms saludable del pan o la fibra porque simplemente est cargado de fibra puesto que el salvado es fibra; +tiene el germen, estas son las cosas buenas, pero no son las partes ms sabrosas del trigo. +A final de cuentas, el reto del panadero, el reto de cualquier estudiante de cocina, de cada chef, es dar sabor. +El sabor es rey, el sabor manda, +le llamo la ley del sabor, el sabor manda. +Y... y... puedes hacer que alguien coma algo que es bueno una vez, pero no lo volvern a comer si no les gusta cierto? +As que este es el reto para este pan. +Lo vamos a probar en la comida y explicar un poco ms sobre l: est hecho no slo de dos tipos de pre masas, este intento, como deca, de obtener el sabor es hacer una pieza de masa un da antes que no est fermentado, +es slo masa hmeda. +Es una masa hidratada que llamamos "la remojadora"... que ayuda a iniciar la actividad enzimtica. +Y las enzimas son en cierta forma el ingrediente secreto de la masa para sacar el sabor. +Empieza a liberar los azcares contenidos en el almidn, +eso es lo que hacen las enzimas. +Entonces, si podemos liberar algunos de ellos se vuelven accesibles a nuestro paladar. +Se vuelven accesibles a la levadura como alimento, +se vuelven accesibles al horno para la caramelizacin para darnos una hermosa corteza. +La otra pre masa que hacemos est fermentada, es nuestro pre fermento. +Est hecha... es como una masa fermentada inicial que llamamos "biga" o cualquier tipo de masa pre fermentada que tiene un poco de levadura y que tambin empieza a desarrollar el sabor. +Al da siguiente, unimos las dos piezas y ese es el epoxi, +que esperamos sea como la pieza de masa enzimtica que se convierte en el combustible que sube la masa y cuando los unimos y agregamos los ingredientes finales podamos crear un pan que en efecto extraiga el potencial completo del sabor contenido en el grano. +Ese es el reto. Bien, ahora lo que nosotros... en el trayecto del trigo, regresemos y observemos estas 12 etapas. +Voy a recorrerlas rpidamente y las iremos discutiendo. +Bien, comencemos con la primera etapa +que es donde cada estudiante tiene que empezar. +Cualquiera que trabaje en el mundo culinario sabe que la primera etapa en la cocina es "mise en place" que es slo una forma de decir en francs "organzate". +Todo en su lugar, primera etapa. +En panadera le decimos pasar la bscula, pesar todos los ingredientes. +Segunda etapa: mezclado; tomamos los ingredientes y los mezclamos. +Tenemos que desarrollar el gluten; +la harina no tiene gluten, slo el potencial para hacer gluten. +Aqu tenemos otro tipo de antecesor de epoxi porque tenemos glutenina y gliadina, ninguno de las cuales tiene la fuerza suficiente para hacer un buen pan. +Pero cuando se hidratan y se enlazan entre s, crean una molcula ms fuerte, una protena ms fuerte que es el gluten. +Entonces, en el proceso de mezclado, tenemos que desarrollar el gluten activando el fermentador o la levadura y tenemos que distribuir bsicamente todos los ingredientes por igual. +Entonces pasamos a la fermentacin, la tercera etapa, que es donde en realidad se desarrolla el sabor. +La levadura se activa y empieza a comer azcares creando dixido de carbono y alcohol, en esencia eructo y sudor que hacen al pan, +es el eructo y el sudor de la levadura. +Y de alguna forma, esto se transforma... el eructo y el sudor de la levadura se transforman... y esto en efecto es el meollo de lo que hace al pan tan especial, es alimento en transformacin y vamos a explorar esto en un minuto. +Entonces, vamos rpido con las siguientes etapas, +despus de fermentar y amasar, empezamos a desarrollar el sabor y el carcter, y dividimos la masa en pequeas unidades. +Luego tomamos estas unidades y las moldeamos, les damos una forma inicial a menudo redonda o a veces en forma de torpedo, +a esto le llamamos "redondear." +Viene entonces un breve reposo, que puede ser de unos segundos, +o puede ser de 20 30 minutos, esto es el reposo. +Ahora le damos la forma final, "el moldeado", esto es colocar la hogaza formada en un molde; +esto toma un segundo, pero es una etapa distintiva, +puede ser en canasta, puede ser en hogaza, pero nosotros lo hacemos en molde. +Y luego, la novena etapa. +La fermentacin que comenz en la tercera etapa contina durante todas estas etapas y en cada una, desarrollando ms sabor. +La fermentacin final ocurre en la novena etapa, +que llamamos "de prueba." +De prueba porque se prueba que la masa est viva; +en la novena etapa es cuando le damos forma final a la masa y entra al horno, la dcima etapa. +En el horno ocurren tres transformaciones: +los azcares de la masa se caramelizan para hacer la corteza +dndole esa hermosa corteza caf; +slo la corteza puede caramelizarse porque es el nico lugar con calor suficiente. +Dentro, las protenas, es decir el gluten, se coagulan. +Cuando se alcanzan cerca de los 160 grados, todas las protenas se alinean y crean una estructura, la estructura del gluten, lo que a fin de cuentas llamamos la migaja del pan. +Los almidones se solidifican cuando alcanzan los casi 180 grados. Y esta solidificacin es una transformacin ms dentro del horno. +Coagulacin, caramelizacin y solidificacin, cuando el almidn es grueso y absorbe toda la humedad de su alrededor, como que se hincha y luego revienta, +y cuando revienta, esparce sus entraas en el pan. +As que bsicamente estamos comiendo sudor de levadura, sudores, eructos y entraas de almidn. +En el horno, en la dcima etapa, una transformacin ms porque lo que entr al hormo como masa en la onceava etapa sale como pan. +Y a esta onceava etapa la llamamos enfriamiento, porque en realidad nunca comemos el pan en seguida, +tiene una breve coccin posterior. +Las protenas se tienen que asentar, fortalecer y endurecer; +luego tenemos la doceava etapa, que los libros de texto llaman "empaque" pero que mis estudiantes llaman "comer." +As hoy recorreremos el trayecto del trigo al alimento y en unos cuantos minutos vamos a intentar esto, para ver si hemos triunfado en cumplir con la misin del panadero de obtener el sabor. +y por ltimo, el nivel mstico o en ocasiones llamado "anaggico". +Resulta difcil llegar a estos niveles a menos que atravesemos el literal. +De hecho, Dante dijo que no se pueden comprender los tres niveles ms profundos, a menos que primero se entienda el nivel literal, por eso hemos hablando del pan de forma literal. +Ahora demos una nueva mirada a estas etapas desde el punto de vista de las conexiones para ojal llegar a un nivel ms profundo, todo en pro de mi bsqueda por contestar la pregunta: qu es lo que hace al pan tan especial? +Y cumplir con esta misin de evocar el potencial total del sabor. +Porque lo que sucede es que el pan comienza como trigo o cualquier otro grano. +Pero qu es el trigo? El trigo es una hierba, que crece en el campo; +y como todas las hierbas, en cierto punto saca sus semillas +y cosechamos estas semillas que son la pepita del trigo. +Ahora, con objeto de cosecharlas, me pregunto qu es cosechar? +Es justamente un eufemismo de matar cierto? +Me explico, eso es cosechar... decimos que criamos puercos cierto? +S, los sacrificamos, s, as es la vida. +Cosechamos el trigo y al cosecharlo, lo matamos. +Pero el trigo est vivo, conforme lo cosechamos, nos da su semilla +y al menos con las semillas tenemos el potencial de vida futura. +Las podemos plantar en la tierra +y guardamos algunas para la siguiente generacin, +pero la gran mayora de esas semillas se muelen y se convierten en harina; +en este punto, el trigo ha sufrido la peor indignacin: +no slo ha sido asesinada, sino que se le ha negado cualquier posibilidad de crear vida futura, +la hemos convertido en harina. +Como mencion, creo que el pan es alimento en transformacin, +la primera transformacin y, por cierto, la definicin de transformacin para m es un cambio radical de una cosa por otra, +de acuerdo? Radical, no sutil. +No como de agua caliente a fra o de agua fra a caliente, sino de agua hervida que se convierte en vapor; +esa es una transformacin, dos cosas diferentes. +Bien, en este caso, la primera transformacin es de vivo a muerto, +a eso llamara radical. +Ahora bien, tenemos esta harina, +qu hacemos con ella? Le agregamos agua. +En la primera etapa, la pesamos; +en la segunda, le incorporamos agua, sal y los mezclamos y creamos lo que llamamos "barro", +porque es como el barro. +Luego infundimos este barro con un ingrediente que llamamos fermentador +En este caso, la levadura, que es un fermentador qu significa fermentar? +Fermentar proviene de la palabra raz que significa avivar, vivificar, traer a la vida. +Por cierto cul es la palabra hebrea para barro? Adn. +Como ven, el panadero en este momento se ha convertido en cierto sentido, en una especie de dios de la masa, bueno, su masa ciertamente no es una forma de vida inteligente, pero est viva. +Sabemos que est viva, porque en la tercera etapa crece y crecer es prueba de vida. +Y mientras crece, todas estas transformaciones literales se llevan a cabo. +Enzimas que se descomponen en azcares, +levadura que come azcar y lo convierte en dixido de carbono y alcohol. +Hay bacterias ah que comen los mismos azcares que los convierten en cidos. +En otras palabras, en esta masa se desarrollan personalidad y carcter bajo la atenta mirada del panadero. +Y las elecciones del panadero a lo largo del camino determinan el resultado del producto. +Un cambio sutil de temperatura, un cambio sutil de tiempo, todo es acerca de un acto de equilibrio entre el tiempo, la temperatura y los ingredientes, el arte de hacer pan. +El panadero determina todas estas cosas, el pan atraviesa algunas etapas y desarrolla carcter. +Entonces lo dividimos y esta enorme pieza de masa se divide en pequeas unidades, cada una de las cuales son moldeadas por el panadero; +conforme se moldean, vuelven a subir para probar que estn vivos desarrollando carcter. +En la dcima etapa, lo llevamos al horno, +todava siendo masa; nadie come masa, una que otra persona, creo, pero no muchas. +He conocido algunos comelones de masa, pero esto no es alimento bsico correcto? El pan es alimento bsico. +Aunque la masa es con lo que trabajamos, la llevamos al horno, la metemos al horno y tan pronto la temperatura interior de la masa cruza el umbral de los 140 grados, se rebasa lo que llamamos el "punto mortal trmico". +Los estudiantes adoran el PMT, creen que es el nombre de un juego de video, +pero es en el punto mortal trmico cuando toda forma de vida deja de existir. +La levadura -- cuya misin ha sido hasta ahora de subir la masa, de avivarla, de vivificarla para cumplir con su misin, que tambin es convertir la masa en pan -- debe perder su vida. +Ven el simbolismo en movimiento? Empieza a tomar un poco de sentido... +empieza a tener sentido para m: lo que entra es masa, lo que sale es pan; lo que entra est vivo, lo que sale est muerto. +Tercera transformacin. Primera transformacin, de vivo a muerto; +segunda transformacin, el muerto vuelve a la vida; +tercera transformacin, el vivo muere, de masa a pan. +Otra analoga sera un capullo que se convierte en mariposa. +Y esto es lo que sale del horno, esto es lo que llamamos el alimento bsico. +Este es el producto que todos en el mundo comemos y nos cuesta trabajo renunciar. +Est tan profundamente arraigado en nuestra psique que el pan se usa como smbolo de la vida. +Se usa como un smbolo de transformacin, +por eso, cuando alcanzamos la doceava etapa y lo comemos... una vez ms completamos el ciclo de la vida, porque tenemos la oportunidad en esencia de ingerirlo, nos nutre, nos permite seguir adelante y tenemos oportunidades para seguir ponderando cosas como estas. +Esto es lo que he aprendido del pan, +esto es lo que el pan me ha enseado en mi trayecto. +Y lo que vamos a intentar hacer con este pan aqu, una vez ms aunado a todo lo que hemos hablado... a este pan lo vamos a llamar "pan de grano sobrante", porque, han de saber, que elaborar pan es muy similar a elaborar cerveza. +La cerveza es en principio pan lquido, o bien el pan es cerveza slida. +Y... fueron inventados alrededor de la misma poca, aunque creo que la cerveza fue primero. +Un egipcio que sola hacer cerveza se qued dormido bajo el caluroso sol egipcio y entonces la cerveza se hizo pan. +Tenemos este pan y lo que intent hacer, una vez ms, fue extraer ms sabor de este grano, le agregamos grano sobrante obtenido de la elaboracin de cerveza. +Si haces este pan, puedes usar cualquier tipo de grano sobrante de cualquier tipo de cerveza; +a m me gusta el grano sobrante oscuro, hoy estamos usando un grano sobrante ligero que proviene de cierto tipo de lager, de cierto tipo de lager ligero o un ale, esto es trigo y cebada tostados. +En otras palabras, el cervecero tambin sabe cmo extraer sabor de los granos al germinarlo, maltearlo y tostarlo. +Vamos a tomar algo de eso y lo vamos a meter al pan. +Entonces ahora tenemos no slo un pan con mucha fibra, sino fibra encima de fibra. +Entonces esto es, esperemos, no slo un pan saludable, sino uno que disfrutarn. +As pues, como que partimos este pan, quiz podamos compartirlo ahora, un poco aqu, +un pequeo pedazo por ac, y voy a tomar un pedazo yo, creo que mejor lo pruebo antes que ustedes en la comida. +Los dejo con lo que llamamos la bendicin del panadero: +"Que tu corteza sea crujiente y que tu pan siempre suba". +Gracias. +Voy a hablar sobre un cambio fundamental que est ocurriendo en la estructura misma de la economa moderna +y para hablar de eso, voy a volver al comienzo porque en el comienzo haba materia prima +Materias primas son cosas que cultivas en el suelo, crecen en el suelo o se extraen del suelo: bsicamente, animales, minerales y vegetales. +Y cuando los extraes del suelo, y los vendes en en el mercado abierto. +Las materias primas fueron las bases de la economa agraria que dur por milenios. +Pero despus vino la revolucin industrial, y luego los bienes se convirtieron en la oferta econmica predominante, donde utilizbamos materias primas como una materia prima para poder hacer o producir bienes. +As, pasamos de una economa agraria a una economa industrial. +Bueno, lo que luego ocurri en los ltimos 50 o 60 aos, es que los bienes han sido mercantilizados. +Mercantilizados: donde son tratados como una mercanca, donde las personas no se preocupan quin los hace. +slo se preocupan por tres cosas y tres cosas nada ms: precio, precio y precio. +Ahora, hay un antdoto para la mercantilizacin, y esto es la personalizacin. +As, pasamos de una economa industrial a esa persona en particular. +Pero en los ltimos 10 o 20 aos, lo que ocurri es que los servicios estn siendo mercantilizados tambin. +Los servicios de telefona de larga distancia son vendidos en precio, precio, precio; los restaurantes de comida rpida con todo su sistema de precios; e incluso Internet est mercantilizando no slo bienes, sino que servicios tambin. +Lo que eso significa, que es tiempo de moverse a un nuevo nivel de valor econmico. +Tiempo de ir ms all de los bienes y servicios, y del uso, en esa misma heurstica, Qu ocurre cando personalizas un servicio? +Qu pasa cando tu diseas un servicio que es tan apropiado para una persona en particular -- eso es lo que exactamente necesitan en ese momento? +Entonces no puedes evitar que ellos hagan "wow"; no puedes evitar convertirlo en un evento memorable -- no puedes evitar convertirlo en una experiencia. +Entonces nos estamos moviendo hacia una "econmica de experiencias", donde las experiencias se estn convirtiendo en la oferta econmica predominante. +Ahora en la mayora de los lugares en los que hablo, cuando hablo de la experiencia, hablo acerca de Disney -- el ms reconocido creador de experiencias. +hablo acerca de restaurantes temicos, y de venta al detalle experiencial, y de hoteles boutique, y Las Vegas -- la capital de la experiencia del mundo. +Pero aqu, cuando tu piensas en experiencias, piensa en Thomas Dolby y su grupo, tocando msica. +Piensa en lugares significativos. +Piensa en beber vino, en un viaje al "Reloj del Long Now". +Todas esas son experiencias. Piensen en el mismo TED. +La capital de la experiencia en el mundo de las conferencias. +Todas aquellas siendo experiencias. +Ahora, en los ltimos aos pas mucho tiempo en Europa, y particularmente en Holanda, y cuando sea que hablo acerca de la econmica de experiencias all, Siempre se me despide al final con una pregunta en particular, casi invariable. +y la pregunta no es realmente una pregunta es ms una acusacin. +y los Holandeses, cuando ellos usualmente la hacen, siempre comienza con las 2 mismas palabras. +saben las palabras a que me refiero? +Ustedes Norteamericanos. +Ellos dicen, ustedes Norteamericanos. +a ustedes les gustan sus entornos de fantasa, sus falsas experiencias de Disneyland. +Ellos dicen, a nosotros los Holandeses, nos gusta lo real, lo natural, las experiencias autnticas. +Entonces mucho ha ocurrido desde que he desarrollado una respuesta ms o menos experta, la cual es: destaco que primero que todo, tienen que entender que no existe tal cosa como una experiencia inautntica. +Por qu? porque la experiencia ocurre dentro de nosotros. +Es nuestra reaccin a los eventos que se nos muestran. +Entonces, mientras seamos en cualquier sentido seres humanos autnticos, entonces cada experiencia que tenemos es autntica. +Ahora, puede que hayan ms o menos estimulos naturales o artificiales para la experiencia, pero eso incluso es un problema de grado, no de tipo. +y no hay tal cosa como una experiencia 100 por ciento natural. +incluso si tu vas a pasear en los bosques proverbiales, hay una compaa que manufactur el auto que lo llev al borde el bosque; hay una compaa que cre los zapatos que tienes para protegerte del suelo del bosque. +Hay una compaa que prove el servicio de telefona celular que tienes por si te pierdes en el bosque. +Verdad? Todas esas cosas son hechas por el hombre, tradas artificialmente por ti al bosque, y por la naturaleza de estar all. +Y entonces siempre termino hablando acerca de -- la cosa que me impresiona ms acerca de esta pregunta, particularmente viniendo de los Holandeses, es que Holanda es tan creado como Disneyland. +y los Holandeses, siempre dicen... +y ellos se dan cuenta, que tengo razn! +No hay un metro cuadrado del suelo en el pas entero que no haya sido recuperado del mar, o de otra manera movido, modificado y hecho la manicure para que parezca como si esto siempre haba estado all. +Este es el nico lugar al cual tu vas a pasear al bosque y todos los rboles estn alineados. +jajaja Pero sin embargo, no slo los Holandeses, sino que todo el mundo tiene este deseo por lo autntico. +y la autenticidad por lo tanto se est convirtiendo en la nueva sensibilidad del consumidor -- el criterio de compra por el cual los consumidores estn eligiendo a quin le van a comprar, y qu van a comprar. +Convirtindose en la base de la economa. +En realidad, podemos ver como cada una de estas economas se desarroll, que cada una tiene su propio negocio imperativo, unido con una sensibilidad del consumidor. +Somos la economa agraria, y estamos proveyendo materias primas. +Esto se trata de provisiones y disponibilidad. +Llevando los productos al mercado. +Con la economa industrial, se trata de controlar los costos -- bajndolos tanto como sea posible para as ofrecrselos a las masas. +Con la economa de servicio, se trata de mejorar la calidad. +Esto ha -- el completo movimiento de la calidad ha aumentado con la economa de servicio en los ltimos 20 o 30 aos. +Y ahora, con la economa de experiencia, se trata de suministrar autencididad. +sumnistrar autencidad -- y la palabra clave es "suministrar". +Verdad? Suministrar, porque tienes que llegar a tus consumidores -- como gente de negocios -- que perciban tus ofertas como autnticas. +Porque hay una paradoja bsica: Nadie puede tener una experiencia inautntica, y ningn negocio puede dar una. +Porque todos los negocios son objetos hechos por el hombre; todos los negocios tienen que ver con dinero; todo negocio es una cuestin de utilizar maquinarias, y todas esas cosas hacen algo inautntico. +Entonces, cmo suministras autnticidad, es la pregunta. +Ests renderizando autnticidad? +Cuando piensas en eso, djenme volver a lo que Lionel Trilling, en su libro seminal de la autnticidad, "Sinceridad y Autnticidad" -- sali en 1960 -- apunta a que como el punto seminal en el cual autnticidad entr en el lexico, si me lo permiten. +y esto no es sopresa, en Shakespeare, y en su obra, Hamlet. +y hay una parte en su obra, Hamlet, donde el ms falso de todos los personajes en Hamlet, Polonius, dice algo profundamente real. +y al final de una lista detallada de consejos que le esta dando a su hijo, Laertes, l dice esto: por sobre todo esto: ser honesto contigo mismo +y como el da sigue a la noche, que t no puedas ser falso con ningn hombre. +y esos tres versos son el corazn de la autenticidad. +Hay dos dimensiones para la autencticidad: una, ser verdadero consigo mismo, lo cual est dirigido a uno mismo. +dos, est dirigido a otros: ser lo que t dices que eres a otros. +y yo no s de ti, pero cuando sea que encuentro 2 dimensiones Inmediatamente digo, ahh 2 por 2! +Verdad? Alguien ms as, no? +Bueno, si t piensas en eso, de hecho, obtienes un 2 por 2. +Donde, en una dimensin es una cuestin de ser verdadero contigo mismo. +Como negocios, son las ofertas econmicas que estas proveyendo -- son verdaderas consigo mismas? +y la otra dimensin es: son lo que dicen que son a otros? +si no, t tienes, "no es verdadero consigo mismo" y "no es lo que dice que es" dando como resultado una matriz de 2 por 2 +y por supuesto, si t eres verdadero contigo mismo, y eres lo que dices que eres, entonces t eres real! +jajaja Lo opuesto, por supuesto es -- falso falso. +Entonces, ahora, est el valor por lo falso. +Siempre habrn compaias para proveer lo falso, porque siempre habr deseo por lo falso. +un hecho es, hay una regla general: si no te gusta, es falso: y si te gusta mucho, es falso. +Ahora, los otros dos lados de la moneda son: ser muy falso -- y lo que dice es, pero no es verdadero consigo mismo, o ser un falso real: verdadero consigo mismo, pero no es lo que dice que es. +T puedes pensar acerca de aquellos dos -- saben estos dos mejor que ser falso falso -- no es tan bueno como ser real real. +Los puedes contrastar pensando en Universal City Walk versus Disney World o Disneyland. +Universal City Walk es un falso real -- de hecho, tenemos este trmino del libro de Ada Louise Huxtable, "The Unreal America" (La Amrica Irreal) +un libro maravilloso, donde ella habla de Universal City Walk como -- ella desprecia lo falso, pero ella dice, al menos que es un falso real, porque se puede ver detrs de la fachada, verdad? +es lo que dice que es: Universal Studio; est en la cuidad de Los Angeles; vas a caminar mucho. +Cierto? no tiendes a caminar mucho en Los Angeles, bueno, aqu hay un lugar donde vas a caminar mucho, afuera en esta cuidad. +Pero es realmente verdadero consigo mismo? +Verdad? est realmente en la ciudad? +Est -- t puedes ver detrs de todo, y ver lo que est pasando en las fachadas de este. +Entonces ella lo llama un falso real. +Disney World, por otra parte, es un real falso, o una realidad falsa. +Verdad? no es lo que dice ser. No es en realidad el reino mgico. +Pero es -- oh, lo siento, no quise -- -- perdn +no hablaremos de Santa Claus entonces. +Pero Disney World es maravillosamente verdadero consigo mismo. +Verdad? maravillosamente verdadero consigo mismo. +Cuando t ests all inmerso en este ambiente maravilloso. +Entonces, es un real falso. +Ahora la manera ms fcil de caer en esto, y no ser real real, la manera ms fcil de no ser verdadero contigo mismo es no entender tu herencia, y as repudiar esa herencia. +la clave de ser verdadero contigo mismo es saber quin eres t como negocio. +Saber donde est tu herencia: lo que has hecho en el pasado. +y lo que has hecho en el pasado limita lo que puedes hacer, con lo que te puedes escapar, escencialmente, en el futuro. +Entonces, tienes que entender ese pasado. +Piensa en Disney de nuevo. +Disney, 10 o 15 aos atras, verdad. Disney -- la compaa que probablemente es la ms conocida por los valores familiares, Disney compr la cadena ABC. +La cadena ABC, cariosamente conocida en los negocios como la cadena T y A, verdad -- no es mucha jerga, verdad? +la cadena T y A, luego compr Miramax, conocida por su tarifa NC-17, y repentinamente, las familias en todos lados no podan realmente confiar lo que estaban obteniendo de Disney. +Ya no era cercano a su herencia; no era cercano a Walt Disney. +Esa es una de las razones porque estn teniendo tantos problemas hoy en da, y porque Roy Disney est buscando a Michael Eisner. +porque ya no es verdadero consigo mismo. +Entonces, entiendan que -- su pasado limita lo que puedan hacer en el futuro. +y cuando se trata de ser lo que t eres, el error que las compaas cometen es que ellas publicitan cosas que no son. +y eso es cuando te perciben como falsa, como una compaa falsa -- publicitando cosas que no son. +Piensa en cualquier hotel, aerolnea, cualquier hospital. +verdad, si tu pudieras revisar los comerciales, tendras una gran experiencia. +Pero desafortunadamente, t tienes la experiencia con el hotel real, la aerolnea y el hospital, y entonces t tienes esa desconexin. +entonces, tienen esa percepcin que es falso. +Entonces, la primera cosa que hay que hacer cuando se trata de decir lo que eres, es proveer lugares para que la gente experimente quin eres. +Para que las personas experimenten quin eres. +Verdad, no es la publicidad lo que lo hace. +es por eso que tenemos compaas como Starbucks, verdad, eso no publicita para nada. +Ellos dicen, t quieres saber quienes somos, tienes que venir y vivir la experiencia. +y piensa en el valor econmico que le han dado con esa experiencia. +Verdad? Caf, est en el centro, es qu? +Verdad? son granos; son granos de caf. +Ustedes saben cuanto vale el caf, cundo se trata como un bien, como un grano? +dos o tres centavos por taza -- eso es lo el caf vale. +Pero molerlo, tostarlo, empaquetarlo, ponerlo en el estante del almacn y ahora costar cinco, 10, 15 centavos, y cuando lo tratas como un bien. +Toma ese mismo bien, y hacer el servicio de realmente prepararlo para un cliente, en el restaurant de la esquina, en una bodega, en un quiosco en alguna parte, y t obtienes 50 centavos, quizs un dlar por taza de caf. +Pero junto con la preparacin de ese caf con el ambiente de un Starbucks, con el autntico cedrn que va adentro, y ahora, debido a esa experiencia autntica, puedes cobrar dos, tres, cuatro, cinco dlares por una taza de caf +Entonces, la autenticidad se est convirtiendo en la nueva sensibilidad del consumidor. +Resummos, para la gente de negocios en la audiencia, con tres reglas, tres reglas bsicas. +Uno, no digas que eres autntico a menos que seas autntico. +Dos, es ms fcil ser autntico si t no dices que eres autntico. +y tres, si dices que eres autntico, es mejor que seas autntico. +y entonces para los consumidores, todas las dems personas en la audiencia, djenme resumirlo ms fcilmente, diciendo, que nosotros -- lo que nos har felices, es gastar nuestro tiempo y dinero satisfaciendo el deseo por la autenticidad. +Gracias. +Mi trabajo es jugar. +Y juego cuando diseo. +Lo busqu en el diccionario, para estar segura de que realmente hago eso, y la definicin de jugar, nmero uno es comprometerse en actividades de tipo infantil y la nmero dos es apostar, arriesgarse +y entonces me di cuenta que yo hago ambas cosas cuando diseo. +Soy una nia y a la misma vez apuesto todo el tiempo. +Y pienso que si tu no, probablemente hay algo mal con la estructura o situacin en la que ests, si eres un diseador. +Pero la parte seria es la que me confundi, y no podia realmente entenderla hasta que me record de un ensayo. +Un ensayo que lei hace 30 aos, +escrito por Russell Baker, quien escriba una columna "Observador" en el New York Times. +El es un humorista maravilloso, y les voy a leer este ensayo, o un extracto de este, pues realmente acierta en el blanco: +Aqu yace un consejo cordial, +S serio, nos dice, +Y lo que quiere decir es, se solemne. +El ser solemne es fcil. +El ser serio, no. +Los nios casi siempre empiezan siendo serios, lo cual los hace tan divertidos cuando se les compara con los adultos. +Los adultos en su mayora son solemnes. +En la poltica, ese candidato poco comn que es serio, como Adlai Stevenson, es fcilmente derrotado por alguien solemne como Esienhower. +Esto es porque a la mayoria de personas les es difcil reconocer la seriedad, pues es escasa, pero les es ms fcil reconocer y apoyar la solemnidad la cual es comn. +Salir a correr, lo cual es comn y aceptado como sano para ti, es solemne +El poker por el contrario, es serio. +Washington, D.C. es solemne. +New York es serio +Ir a conferencias educacionales que te hablen acerca del futuro es solemne. +Dar una larga caminata durante la cual hasta elaboras un plan para robar las mejores tiendas de tu ciudad, es serio. +Pero cuando aplico la definicin de Russell Baker de solemnidad o seriedad al diseo no hace, necesariamente, algn sealamiento sobre calidad. +El diseo solemne es, frecuentemente, importante y muy efectivo +El diseo solemne es correcto socialmente hablando, y aceptado por las audiencias correctas. +Es lo que los diseadores de pensamiento correcto y todos los clientes luchan por lograr. +El diseo serio, el juego serio es algo diferente. +Por un lado, suele suceder espontnea e intuitivamente accidental o incidentalmente. +Se puede lograr como producto de arrogancia o inocencia, o producto de egosmo e inlcuso descuido. +Pero primordialmente, se logra por medio de esas reas de la conducta humana un tanto disparatadas que realmente no tienen mucho sentido. +El diseo serio es imperfecto. +Esta lleno del tipo de reglas artesanas que se dan por tratarse de algo nuevo +Frecuentemente, el diseo serio es tambin poco exitoso desde el punto de vista solemne. +Y eso es porque el arte de jugar en serio se trata de invencin, cambio, rebelin -no perfeccin. +La perfeccin se alcanza durante el juego solemne. +Ahora, yo siempre vi a la carrera de diseo como escalones surrealistas +Si miras a los escalones vers que en tus veintes la contrahuella (plano vertical del escaln) es muy alta y el escaln (plano horizontal) es muy corto y logras tremendos descubrimientos +Tu, como que das grandes saltos en tu juventud- +Y eso es porque no sabes nada y tienes tanto que aprender que entonces, todo lo que haces es un nuevo aprendizaje y no haces otra cosa mas que saltar hasta alli. +Y mientras pasan los aos, las contrahuellas se acortan y los escalones se amplian y empiezas a moverte a un paso mas lento porque estas haciendo menos descubrimientos. +Y en tanto te vuelves ms viejo y ms decrepito, tu como que te mueves lento en esta un tanto deprimente larga escalera que te conduce al olvido. +Creo que en realidad se esta volviendo ms difcil el ser serio +Me contratan para ser solemne, pero descubro ms y ms que soy solemne cuando no tengo que. +Y en mis 35 aos de experiencia laboral considero que cuatro veces fui realmente seria +Y se las enseare ahorita porque provienen de condiciones muy especficas. +Es fantstico ser un nio +Cuando estaba en mis 20s trabaje en la industria discogrfica diseando las cubiertas para CBS Records. pero no tenia ni idea del trabajo tan estupendo que tenia. +Pensaba que todo mundo tenia un trabajo asi. +Y. que la manera en que consideraba al diseo y al mundo era lo que sucedia alrededor mio. y que las cosas que sucedieron cuando entr al mundo del diseo eran el enemigo. +Yo, real, realmente odiaba el tipo de letra Helvtica +Pensaba que el tipo de letra Helvtica era la ms limpia, ms aburrida, ms fascista, y realmente deprimente tipo de letra, y odiaba todo lo que era diseado con ella. +Y cuando estaba en mis dias de universidad este era el tipo de diseo que era popular y de moda. +Este es, de hecho, una preciosa cubierta de libro de Rudi de Harra*, pero a mi no me gustaba simplemente por estar diseada con Helvtica. e hice parodias de ella. +Yo pensaba que era, tu sabes, aburrida. +Asi que... mi meta en la vida se volvio hacer cosas que no tuvieran Helvtica. +Y hacer cosas que no tuvieran Helvtica era difcil pues tenias que encontrarla tu mismo. +Y no habian muchos libros acerca de la historia del diseo a principios de los 70s. No habia... no habia una abundancia de publicaciones de diseo. +De hecho, tenias que ir a tiendas de antiguedades o ir a Europa. +Tenias que ir a varios lugares para poder encontrar tus cosas +Y a lo que yo reaccionaba era, tu sabes, Art Nouveau o deco, o tipografa victoriana, o cosas que simplemente no eran Helvetica +Y asi me ensee a disear yo misma y estos fueron de cierta manera mis aos de principiante, y usaba estas cosas en formas realmente tontas en cubiertas de discos y en mi diseo +No me ensearon. mas bien organic yo misma estas cosas. +Mezclaba diseos victorianos con pop, y mezclaba tambin Arte Nouveau con algo ms. +E hice estas exhuberantes y muy elaboradas cubiertas de discos no porque estuviera siendo posmodernista o una historicista pues no sabia lo que esas cosas eran. +Yo simplemente, odiaba la Helvtica +Y ese tipo de pasin me llevo a un tipo de juego muy serio, a un tipo de juego que, ahora, no podra hacer pues ya estoy muy preparada. +As que hay algo maravilloso en esa forma de juventud en que puedes permitirte crecer y jugar y ser realmente malcriado y entonces alcanzar muchos logros. +Para finales de los 70s en verdad, estas cosas se dieron a conocer. +Es decir, las cubiertas de discos aparecieron por todo el mundo y empezaron a ganar premios y la gente las conocan. +Y entonces de repente, me converti en una posmodernista, y empece una carrera como... bueno, en mi propio negocio. +Al principio fui elogiada por esto y despus criticada pero la realidad era que me haba vuelto solemne. +Y no creo haber hecho trabajo serio de nuevo sino hasta 14 aos despus.. +Gaste la mayor parte de los 80's siendo sumamente solemne llevando a cabo estos tipos de trabajo que se esperaban de mi por ser quien yo era y estaba viviendo este crculo de ir de seriedad a solemnidad de trillado a muerto para redescubrirme de nuevo +As que, aqu esta la segunda condicin por la cual creo que logre algo de juego serio +Hay una pelcula de Paul Newman que amo llamada "El Veredicto" +No se cuantos la habrn visto pero es una belleza +Y en la pelcula l interpreta a un abogado ya de caida quien se convierte en esos abogados que azuzan a victimas de accidente +Y lo contratan... mas bien, le dan un caso de negligencia que es de esos fciles de mediar, y en el proceso de negociar el arreglo el empieza a conectarse e identificarse con su cliente, recuperando en el proceso su moral y propsito llegando a ganar el caso. +Y a mitad de la pelcula, en total desconsuelo, y cuando parece que ya no puede lograrlo l necesita el caso necesita ganarlo tanto +hay una toma de Paul Newman solo en su oficina diciendo "Este es el caso, no hay otros casos, +este es el caso, no hay otros casos" +Y en ese momento de deseo y enfoque, el puede ganar. +Y esa es una posicin excelente en la cual estar para crear algo de juego serio. +Yo tuve uno de esos momento en 1994 cuando conoci a un director de teatro llamado George Wolf, quien iba a contratarme para disear la identidad para el New York Shakespeare Festival as conocido en esos das que despus llego a ser el Teatro Pblico +Y empece a involucrarme en este proyecto de una forma como nunca antes. +Esto es como lucia la publicidad del teatro por aquellos das +Esto era lo que se encontraba en peridicos y el New York Times. +Esto es como un comentario en el tiempo +Y el Teatro Pblico tenia realmente mejor publicidad que esto. +No tenan logo ni identidad pero contaban con estos posters tan icnicos pintados por Paul Davis. +George Wolf haba tomado cargo de otro director y quera cambiar el teatro quera hacerlo urbano y llamativo y un lugar incluyente. +As que haciendo uso de mi amor por la tipografa, me involucr en este proyecto +Y lo que era diferente acerca de l era su totalidad y que yo realmente me volv la voz, la voz visual, de un lugar como nunca lo haba hecho antes, donde cada aspecto, desde el ms pequeo anuncio, o el ticket, lo que fuera era diseado por mi +No exista formato +ni haba divisin interna a quien venderle la idea. +Por tres aos, literalmente, hice todo, cada pedazo de papel y toda la presencia en lnea que este teatro hizo +que fuera el nico trabajo, aunque hacia otros trabajos. +Viv y respir en una forma que no he hecho desde entonces. +Realmente me permiti expresarme y crecer +Y pienso que puedes saber cuando te van a dar este tipo de posicin, y es poco comn, pero cuando la obtienes y te dan esa oportunidad es el tiempo de jugar en serio. +Hice estas cosas y an las hago. +An trabajo para el Teatro pblico. +Estoy en la junta directiva y an involucrada en l. +El clmax de el Teatro Pblico creo que fue 1996 dos aos despus de disearlo, que fue la campaa "Bring in 'da Noise, Bring in 'da Funk" la cual estuvo por todo New York +Pero algo le paso, y lo que le paso fue que se hizo popular. +Y ese es el adis para algo serio porque lo hace solemne. +Y lo que sucedio fue identidad que New York City en buena medida se comi mi identidad pues la gente empezo a copiarlo. +Aqui ven un anuncio en el New York Times que alguien hizo para una obra llamada "Mind Games". +Luego vino Chicago, uso algunas otras grficas, y se comieron la identidad del Teatro Pblico, se la llevaron lo que implico que tenia que cambiar +as que lo cambie para que cada temporada fuera distinta y continu haciendo estos posters, pero ellos nunca tuvieron la seriedad de la primera identidad porque era demasiado individuales y no tenan ese peso de que todo es una misma cosa. +Ahora, y creo que desde el Teatro Pblico, debo haber hecho ms de una docena de identidades culturales para organizaciones grandes pero no creo haber, alguna vez, atrapado esa seriedad de nuevo. Lo hago para importante y grandes instituciones en la ciudad de New York. +Las instituciones son solemnes y por lo tanto, lo es su diseo. +Mejor elaboradas que las del Teatro Pblico y gastando ms dinero en ellas, pero creo que ese momento viene y se va. +La mejor forma para lograr diseo serio, el cual creo todos tenemos la oportunidad de hacer, es ser y estar totalmente descalificado para hacerlo. +Eso no pasa tan frecuentemente, pero me paso a mi en el 2000 cuando por alguna razn un gran nmero de arquitectos empezaron a pedirme que diseara con ellos los interiores de teatros en que tomando grficas ambientales las tornara en edificios +Nunca haba hecho esto antes. +As que fue duro, muy duro pero en el proceso me enamor del hecho de integrar grficas a la arquitectura porque no sabia lo que hacia +Me deca, porqu los letreros no estan en el piso? +Los neoyorquinos miran a sus pies. +Y luego descubr que los actores y actrces de hecho toman sus indicaciones del piso as que resulto que este tipo de sistema de seales empez a tener sentido. +Y se integraban de maneras muy peculiares con el edificio +Alrededor de las esquinas Hacia arriba en los lados de los edificios integrndose con la arquitectura misma. +Esta es Symphony Space en la 90 y Broadway, y el tipo se entrelaza con la escalera de acero inoxidable con luz de fondo de fibra ptica +Y el arquitecto, Jim Polshek, me dio, bsicamente, un lienzo para aplicarle la tipografa +Y era juego serio. +Este es el museo de los nios en Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, hecho completamente de materiales baratos +Tipografa extrudida alumbrada con nen +Cosas que nunca antes haba hecho, o construido antes +Se me ocurri que seria divertido +Las paredes de los donantes hechas de resina acrlica Lucite +Y luego, letreros baratos +Creo que mi favorito fue este pequeo trabajo en Newark, New Jersey. +Es una escuela de artes escenogrficas +Este es el edificio que... ellos no tena dinero y tuvieron que reformarlo y me dijeron si te damos 100.000 dlares, qu puedes hacer con ellos? +Entonces hice un pequeo trabajo de Photoshop con el y dije, "bueno, pienso que podemos pintarlo" +Y lo hicimos. Y era juego. +Y all esta el edificio. Se pinto todo, con tipografa por todo el maldito lugar incluyendo las pipas de aire acondicionado +Contrate a chicos que pintan los lados de garajes para pintar los edificios y les encant, +Le entraron al asunto de una manera... tomndolo realmente en serio +Se suban a los edificios y me llamaban que haban tenido que corregir mi tipografa o que el espaciado esta mal y tenian que corregirlo E hicieron cosas maravillosas con este trabajo. +Ellos tambin eran, muy serios. Fue maravilloso, +Y ya para el tiempo que hice el trabajo de Bloomberg mi trabajo haba empezado a ser aceptado. +La gente ya lo queria en lugares grandes y caros +Y eso lo empez a convertir en solemne. +Bloomberg era nmeros e hicimos nmeros grandes en todo el espacio y los nmeros fueron proyectados en espectaculares LEDs que mi compaera Lisa Strausfeld programaba +Pero se convirti en el final de la seriedad de este trabajo, volvindose de nuevo, solemne +Este es un proyecto actual en Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, donde pude ser chistosa +Me invitaron a disear un logotipo para el vecindario North Side y aunque pensaba que era tonto que un vecindario tuviera su logotipo +Pens que era un tanto extrao. Porqu habra un vecindario de tener un logotipo? +Un vecindario tiene cosas no un logo. Tiene monumentos, tiene algn lugar Tiene algn restaurante. No un logotipo! Es decir, Cmo seria eso? +Tena que dar una presentacin al consejo de la municipalidad y a los miembros del vecindario as que fui a Pittsburgh y les dije Saben, lo que tienen de especial aqui son todos esos pasos a desnivel que separan a la ciudad del vecindario +Porqu no los celebran y los convierten en monumentos? +Empece entonces esta loca presentacin de estas instalaciones instalaciones potenciales, en estos puentes de los pasos a desnivel y estando parada alli frente al consejo municipal un poco asustada tengo que admitirlo, +Pero estaba tan poco calificada para este proyecto y tan, tan ridculo ignore los requisitos tan desesperadamente que pienso que ellos lo acogieron con todo su corazn totalmente por haber sido tan chistosa. +Y este es el puente que ellos estan de hecho pintando en este momento. +Cambiar cada seis meses y se convertira en una instalacin de arte. en el North Side de Pittsburgh. conviertindose, probablemente, en un monumento del rea. +John Hockenberry les conto acerca mi esfuerzo con Citibank, relacin ya de 10 aos y que an continua +Los disfruto y me agradan y esa creo es una muy grande , grande, grande corporacin que mantiene sus grficas muy bonitas. +dibuje el logotipo para Citibank en una servilleta en nuestra primera reunin +Esa fue la parte juguetona del trabajo +Y luego pase un ao llendo a largas, tediosas y aburridas reuniones tratando de venderles la idea a esta corporacin tan grande hasta el extremo de sufrimiento +Pens que me volveria loca para el fin de ao +Realizamos presentaciones idiotas, mostrndoles como este logotipo si tenia sentido y de como realmente se deriva de una sombrilla, haciendo animaciones para esto bamos y venamos, bamos y venamos, bamos y venamos +pero vali la pena pues lo aceptaron implementndose en tan grande escala y tan internacionalmente reconocido pero para mi fue un ao muy, muy deprimente +De hecho, ellos no aceptaron realmente este logotipo hasta que la agencia publicitaria Fallon lo puso en su muy buena campaa "Live Richly" entonces todo el mundo lo acepto +Asi que durante esta poca necesite algo de contrabalance para esta existencia tan loca de ir a estas reuniones idiotas y tardadas- +Me tomaban 6 meses hasta que empece a hacerlos ms rpido +Aqu esta el de los Estados Unidos, +Cada una de las ciudades estadounidenses esta aqu. +Exhibindose por cerca de ocho meses en el museo de diseo Cooper-Hewitt la gente se acercaba a ellos y apuntaban a algn lugar del mapa diciendo "Oh, yo ya he estado aqui" +lo cual, por supuesto, no poda ser pues esta en el lugar equivocado +Pero lo que me gusto de esto fue que estaba controlando mi propia informacin equivocada creando mi propia "paleta" de informacin total y completamente jugando. +Uno de mis favoritos fue esta pintura de Florida despus de la eleccin del 2000 que tiene los resultados electorales regados por el agua. +La guardo como evidencia. +Alguien estuvo en mi casa y vio las pinturas y las recomend a una galera y tuve mi primera exhibicin hace dos aos y medio y mostre las pinturas que estoy ensendoles +Y entonces algo chistoso paso, se vendieron +y se vendieron rpido volvindose bastante populares +Empezamos entonce a hacer impresiones de ellas +Este es Manhattan, una de la serie. +Esta es una impresin de los Estados Unidos que hice en azul, rojo y blanco +Empezamos haciendo estos grandes grabados de serigrafa y tambin se vendieron. +Y entonces algo gracioso ocurri. +Descubr que ya no estaba jugando. +Estaba ya en el territorio solemne de llenar una expectativa para la exhibicin que no es como empec estas cosas. +As que aunque se volvieron un xito, se cmo hacerlas, es decir, ya no soy una neofita ya no son serias, se volvieron solemnes. +Porque al final, as es como creces, y eso es lo nico que importa. +Asi que, haciendo anuncios aqui. Y solo voy a tener que explotar la escalera en mil pedazos. +Muchas Gracias. +Ped diapositivas, con bastante firmeza, aguantando hasta, ms o menos, los ltimos das pero me denegaron el acceso a un proyector de diapositivas. +De hecho las encuentro mucho ms emotivas... ...y personales, y lo bueno de un proyector de diapositivas es que puedes centrarte en el trabajo no como con PowerPoint y otros programas. +A ver, estoy de acuerdo en que tienes que... s, hay algunos privilegios y, ya sabis, si utilizis un proyector de diapositivas, no puedes usar uno que no funcione bien que salga la diapositiva desde atrs o de lado, arriba o abajo, pero quiz es una compensacin aceptable sacrificar eso por la concentracin +Es un pensamiento. Slo un pensamiento. +Y hay algo bueno en las diapositivas cuando se encallan. +Realmente lo que esperas es que en algn momento se incendien, algo que no veremos esta noche. +Sabiendo eso, vamos a ver la primera diapositiva. +Esto, como muchos habrn adivinado es una lata de cerveza recin vaciada, en Portugal. +Esto... acababa de llegar a Barcelona por primera vez, y pens... ya sabis, volando toda la noche, mir arriba y pens: qu pulcro! +Llegas a este aeropuerto importante, y han puesto slo una B. +Digo, qu bueno, no? +Todo se ha vuelto ms simple en el diseo, este pedazo de aeropuerto, y Dios, tom la foto. +Y pens, Dios, es la cosa ms impresionante que he visto en un aeropuerto. +Hasta un par de meses despus, volv al mismo aeropuerto... el mismo avin, creo, y mir arriba, y deca C. +Y entonces me di cuenta que era slo la puerta de embarque. +Soy un gran partidario de la emocin en el diseo, y en el mensaje que se enva antes de que alguien empiece a leer, antes de que obtenga el resto de la informacin; la respuesta emocional al producto, del relato, de la pintura... de lo que sea. +Ese rea del diseo es el que ms me interesa, y creo que esto es, para m, una clara y muy simplificada versin de lo que estoy hablando. +Estas son un par de puertas de taller pintadas idnticamente, situadas una al lado de la otra. +Aqu est la primera puerta. Ya lo veis, el mensaje llega. +Ya sabis, est bastante claro. +Echadle un vistazo a la segunda puerta y mirad si os llega un mensaje distinto. +Bien, delante de qu puerta aparcarais? +Mismo color, mismo mensaje, mismas palabras. +Lo nico distinto es la expresin que el propietario le puso a la pieza... y, otra vez, quin es el asesino psicpata aqu? +Todo y sin decir eso; no necesita decirlo. +Probablemente yo aparcara delante de la otra. +Estoy seguro de que muchos sois conscientes que el diseo grfico se ha simplificado mucho en los ltimos cinco aos ms o menos. +Se ha vuelto tan simple que est empezando a reconvertirse al otro lado otra vez y volverse un poco ms expresivo. +Pero estuve en Miln y vi esta seal y estuve contento de ver que, aparentemente, este minimalismo fue traducido por el grafitero. +Y este artista grafitero vino, mejor un poco esta seal y sigui adelante. +No lo sobrecarg como tienen la tendencia de hacer. +Esto es para un libro de Metropolis +Hice unas fotos, y esto es una valla publicitaria en Florida, y... o no haban pagado el alquiler, o no queran pagarlo de nuevo, y la gente del cartel era demasiado tacaa para quitar todo, as que sencillamente le arrancaron trozos. +Y yo dira que posiblemente sea ms efectivo que el anuncio original, si hablamos de captar tu atencin, haciendo que tengas que mirar en esa direccin. +Y con un poco de suerte no te parars a comprar esas nueces horribles... de Stuckey. +Esto es de mi segundo libro. +El primero se llam, "El fin de la imprenta" y se hizo junto con una pelcula, trabajando con William Burroughs. +Y "El fin de la imprenta" ya va por su quinta edicin. +La primera vez que contact a William Burrows para ser parte de ello, dijo no; dijo que no crea que fuera el fin de la impresin. +Y yo dije, bueno, est bien; Me encantara tener tu contribucin en la pelcula y el libro, y al final acept. +Al final de la pelcula dice, con su voz sensacional, que no puedo imitar, puedo intentarlo, en verdad no, dice: "Recuerdo una exhibicin a la que asist llamada, 'Fotografa: El fin de la pintura'". Y luego dice, "Y, por supuesto, para nada lo era". +As que, por lo visto, cuando la fotografa era perfecta, haba gente por ah diciendo, ya est: acabas de arruinar la pintura. +Ahora la gente slo sacar fotos. +Y por supuesto, no era el caso. +As pues, esto es de "Segunda vista", un libro que hice desde la intuicin. +Creo que no es el nico ingrediente en el diseo, pero posiblemente sea el ms importante. +Es algo que todos tenemos. +No es algo que se ensee; de hecho, muchas de las escuelas tienden a ignorar la intuicin como ingrediente del proceso de trabajo puesto que no la pueden cuantificar: es muy difcil ensear los cuatro pasos hacia un diseo intuitivo, pero podemos ensear los cuatro pasos de una buena tarjeta personal o un boletn informativo. +As que se suele ignorar esa parte. +Esta es una cita de Albert Einstein, quien dijo, "El intelecto pinta poco en el camino hacia el descubrimiento. +Ah viene un brinco en la consciencia... llamadlo intuicin o lo que queris... y la solucin viene, y no sabes de dnde ni por qu". +Es como cuando alguien dice: de quin es esa cancin? +Y cuanto ms intentas pensarlo, ms se aleja la respuesta de ti, y en el momento en que dejas de pensar en ello, tu intuicin te da esa respuesta, en un sentido. +Me gusta esto por un par de motivos. +Si alguna vez has estado en cursos de diseo, te ensearan que no puedes leer esto. +Creo que finalmente podis y, ms importante, creo que es cierto. +"No confundir legibilidad con transmitir un mensaje". +Que algo sea legible no significa que comunica. +Ms an, no significa que comunica lo deseado. +Entonces, cul es el mensaje transmitido antes de que alguien efectivamente lo vuelque en el material? +Y creo que a veces se pasa por alto ese rea. +Este es el trabajo con Marshall McLuhan. +Trabaj con su mujer y su hijo, Eric, y reunimos cerca de 600 citas de Marshall que son sencillamente esplndidas, por lo avanzado, prediciendo mucho de lo que ha pasado en publicidad, en televisin, en los medios. +Este libro se llama "Probes" . Es un sinnimo de "citas". +Y son, muchos de ellos, son inditos... y, en resumen, he interpretado las diferentes citas. +Este era el ndice original. +Cuando termin eran 540 pginas, y la editorial, Gingko Press, acab reducindolo considerablemente a menos de 400 pginas. +Pero me gustaba este ndice... Me gustaba su aspecto y lo dej as. +Ahora no tiene ninguna importancia para el libro, pero es una buena doble pgina, creo. +Un par de pginas dobles del libro, aqu McLuhan dice: "Los nuevos medios no son puentes entre el Hombre y la Naturaleza; son la Naturaleza". +"La imprenta elimin el anonimato, promoviendo ideas de fama literaria y el hbito de considerar los esfuerzos intelectuales como propiedad privada", algo que no se haba hecho nunca antes de la imprenta. +"Cuando las nuevas tecnologas se autoimponen en sociedades sumergidas en tecnologas ms antiguas afloran todo tipo de temores". +"Cuando la gente est empeada en crear un mundo totalmente diferente, siempre forma imgenes vivas del mundo precedente". +Cmo odio esto. Cuesta leerlo. +"La gente de la era electrnica no tiene otro entorno que el mundo, y ninguna otra ocupacin que no sea recoger informacin". +Eso era. Esas fueron las opciones que vio. Y no estuvo muy lejos. +Este es un proyecto para "Clavos de Nueve Pulgadas" +y os lo enseo slo porque, de repente, pareca ser algo muy relevante y se hizo justo despus del 11-S. +Haba descubierto recientemente un refugio antibombas en el patio trasero de la casa que haba comprado en Los ngeles que el de la inmobiliaria no haba mencionado. +Construan refugios, al parecer en la crisis de los misiles cubanos de los aos 60. +Le pregunt al de la inmobiliaria qu era eso y dijo: "Tiene que ver con las aguas residuales". +Y yo: "vale, est bien". +Por fin baj y haba una especie de cosa redonda enmohecida. y dos camas, todo muy ttrico y raro. +Tambin, sorprendentemente, estaba hecho de metal barato totalmente enmohecido, con agua y araas por todos lados. +Y pens, ya sabis, en qu estaban pensando? +Podras pensar quizs en usar cemento o algo. +De todas modos, lo us para la portada del DVD "Clavos de Nueve Pulgadas", y luego tambin arregl el refugio con cinta adhesiva, y ya est listo. Creo que estoy listo. +Este es un experimento para un cliente, Quicksilver, en el que tombamos una secuencia de seis fotos intentando usar la prensa como medio para atraer gente a la Web. +As pues, esta es la secuencia de seis fotos. +Saqu una foto; la recort en diferentes formas. +Y el texto pequeo dice: Si quieres ver la secuencia completa... de la surfeada... ve a la pgina web. +Supongo que muchos chavales surfistas fueron a la pgina web para ver la secuencia entera. +No tengo manera de comprobarlo... as que podra estar totalmente equivocado. +No tengo la pgina web. Slo la pieza. +Este es un grupo de Nueva York llamado "Coalicin para un Ambiente Sin Humo"; me pidieron hacer estos carteles. +Se colgaron por toda Nueva York. +No podis... bueno, no lo podis ver en absoluto... pero la segunda lnea es la que realmente vale la pena, +Dice, "si las compaas tabacaleras pueden mentir, nosotros tambin". Pero... ...pero lo hice. +Se colgaron, literalmente, por toda Nueva York en una noche y atrajo unas cuantas miradas ya sabis, la gente fumando y... "Oh!" +Y fue creado adrede con una imagen bastante seria. +No era lo tpico, ya sabis, en plan desmelenado raro o algo; parecan reales. Pero bueno, da igual. +Cartel para el Centro de Artes Atlntico, una escuela de Florida. +ste me impresiona. Es un producto que descubr. +Estaba en el Caribe en Navidad me sorprende que hoy en da todava vendan... no que lo vendan... sino que exista la necesidad de palidecer el color de la piel. +Era o un producto antiguo con un nuevo envase o un nuevo producto, y pens: Dios! Cmo puede pasar esto todava? +De hecho, hago muchos talleres en todo el mundo y esta tarea en particular consista en inventar nueva sealtica para las puertas de los baos. +Me dio que stas iban a ser las soluciones ms exitosas. +Los estudiantes, de hecho, las cortaron y las pusieron en bares y restaurantes aquella noche, y siempre pienso en alguna pareja de ancianos yendo a usar el bao... +Hice algn trabajo para Microsoft hace unos aos. +Era una campaa a nivel mundial. +Y me interesaba... me form en sociologa; no en diseo y a veces dicen, bueno, eso explica todo... pero fue un experimento muy interesante porque no haba producto que vender; sencillamente intentaban mejorar la imagen de Microsoft. +Pensaron que no les gustaba a algunas personas. +Descubr que es muy cierto, al trabajar en esta campaa mundial. +Y nuestro objetivo era humanizarlos un poco. Lo que hice fue aadir tipografa y gente al anuncio, cosas que no se haban hecho en la anterior campaa, y nadie los haba recordado o referenciado. +E intentbamos decir eso, algunos personas que trabajan all son gente correcta; algunos, de hecho, tienen amigos y familia y no son mala gente. +Y el concepto general de la campaa fue "Gracias a Dios que es lunes". +As que, intentamos tomar eso que es percibido como negativo su exagerada competitividad, sus... ya sabis, extensas horas de trabajo... y convertir todo eso en algo positivo de lo que no huir. +Ya sabis: Gracias a Dios que es lunes... debo ir a ese pequeo cubculo, esas grises paredes de mentira, oir las conversaciones de todos los dems durante 10 horas y volver a casa. +De todos modos, este anuncio fue uno de los que ms me gustaron. porque estuvo todo elaborado artsticamente y en ste, en concreto, me daba la sensacin que realmente la chica miraba al ordenador +Y dice, "Cuestinate". Y entonces hay un trozo del software. +Y as es como el anuncio viaj por el mundo. +En Alemania, hicieron un pequeo cambio sin consultarme... no es que tuvieran que hacerlo, ya que se hace mediante agencias... pero veamos si podis ver la diferencia. +Este es el que dio la vuelta al mundo; Alemania hizo un ligero cambio en el anuncio... +Ahora, hay dos temas aqu. +Si vas a poner a un chico en el anuncio, elige uno que parezca vivo. +Me da la sensacin de que el chaval lleva aqu una semana, ya sabis. +Est esperando ansioso que se encienda ya y, ya sabis... +Y entonces tal como la agencia me lo explic, dijeron, "Mira, no tenemos personitas verdes en nuestro pas; para qu bamos a poner personitas verdes en nuestro anuncio?" +Bueno, entiendo su lgica. No la comparto para nada. Opino que es un enfoque mentalmente muy pobre, el mundo es, de hecho, mucho ms global y creo que la gente de Alemania podra haber puesto una jovencita negra delante del ordenador, pero bueno, nunca lo sabremos. +Esto es un trabajo de Ray Gun. +Y el objetivo de esta revista fue el de leer los artculos, escuchar la msica, e intentar interpretarlo. +No hay unas gua ni sistema, no hay nada montado a priori. +Esta es una portada para Brian Eno, y, sencillamente, se trata de mi interpretacin personal de la msica. +Esto son estrellas de rock hablando sobre profesores por los que haban suspirado en la escuela. +Hay escritos muy buenos de Ray Gun. +Y tuve la suerte de encontrar una fotografa de una profesora sentada en unos libros. +Un artculo de Brian Ferry, muy aburrido, as que lo adorn entero con dibujitos tipo dingbat. +Podrais... se podra subrayar; se podra hacerlo en helvetica o algo: es el artculo tal cual. +supongo que al final podrais decodificarlo pero la verdad es que no est muy bien escrito; no valdra la pena. +Al haber hecho muchas revistas, tengo curiosidad por saber cmo tratan las grandes revistas las grandes historias, senta curiosidad por ver el tratamiento del 11-S en "Time" y "Newsweek". +Y me decepcion bastante al ver que haban escogido una foto que ya habamos visto un milln de veces, que era bsicamente el momento del impacto. +Y la revista "People", pens, obtuvo la mejor foto. +Es un poco fea, pero la textura... el segundo avin todava sin llegar a impactar: tena algo ms tentador, si se puede decir... bueno, no es la palabra correcta, pero, ms en esta portada que la de Time o la de Newsweek. +Pero cuando estuve en esta revista, haba algo perturbador, y fue duradero. +A la izquierda vemos gente muriendo; gente corriendo por sus vidas. +Y a la derecha aprendemos que hay una nueva forma de sujetar tus pechos. +La codiciada pgina de la derecha no estaba entregada a la temtica. +Fijaros en la imagen de esta seora... quin sabe por lo que est pasando? -- y el texto dice: "Ella sabe como ponerme la piel de gallina". +S, salta de los edificios. Es... por desgracia, este funciona ms o menos para difusin. +Y este persisti a lo largo de la revista. +Y sigui as. +Esta dice: "Lo limpio cabe en todos lados". +Muchos se convirtieron en hurfanos ese da Y eso es un cadver que estn sacando. +Creo que incluso una pgina en blanco hubiera sido mucho ms apropiada. +Y este, creo, que se lleva la palma: dos chicas, las dos mirando hacia el mismo lado, las dos con tejanos. +Una... quin sabe por lo que est pasando? La otra est preocupada por cosas de modelos y leche. +Esto es lo que encontraron en su coche. +[gracias por ponerte tan cerca, la prxima deja un abrelatas as puedo sacar el coche, imbciles como t deberian tomar el bus] Pocas veces encontrar algo as te alegrara, pero esto pareca indicar que estbamos volviendo. +Este es mi escritorio. +Alguien me ha dicho hoy que haba una cosa llamada carpetas, pero yo no s lo que son. +Estas son mis anotaciones para la charla... podra haber una correlacin en esto. +Lo estamos logrando. +Vi esto mientras volaba en un avin, para nuevos productos. +No tengo claro si es una mejora, o una buena idea porque, si no pasas suficiente tiempo en frente de tu ordenador, ahora puedes tener un plato en el teclado, as ya no hay que fingirlo ms... el que no te sientes en tu escritorio todo el da y comas en el trabajo; +pero bueno tenemos un plato y sera muy, muy conveniente, comer una porcin de pizza, luego escribir un poco, luego... +no s si es una mejora. +Si alguna vez dudis del poder del diseo grfico, este es un cartel muy genrico que literalmente dice "Vota por Hitler". No dice nada ms. +Para m esto es un caso extremo del poder de la emocin, del diseo grfico, incluso, de hecho, fue un cartel muy genrico en su tiempo. +Ahora qu viene? Las personas. +Cuanto ms nos rodeamos de tecnologa, la gente se vuelve ms importante que nunca. +Debes usar el quin eres t en tu trabajo. +Nadie ms puede hacerlo: nadie ms te puede sacar de tu origen. de tus padres, de tu educacin, de toda tu experiencia. +Dejar que eso pase, es la nica manera de hacer un trabajo nico, y con ello disfrutars mucho ms de tu trabajo tambin. +Me gusta el "arte encontrado"; vuelven las cosas escritas a mano, me pareci que este era un buen ejemplo de las dos cosas. +Este anuncio de una seora que ha perdido su pit bull. +Es amigable (ha subrayado amistoso) probablemente por eso lo llama Hrcules o Hercles. No sabe como se escribe. +Pero todava mejor, va a darte 20 dlares para que vayas a encontrar a su pit bull perdido. +Y me pongo a pensar, s, claro... ir a buscar un pit bull perdido por 20 dlares. +Me viene a la mente gente por las calles llamando a Hercles, y te ves envuelto en ello y te sumas a la causa, oh, por favor que sea Hercles; por favor que sea el amigable. +Estoy seguro que nunca lo encontr, porque me llev el anuncio. +Pero me pidieron dar una charla en una conferencia en Sacramento hace unos aos. +El tema era el coraje, y me pidieron de hablar sobre cun valiente es ser un diseador grfico. +Y recuerdo ver esta fotografa de mi padre, que era piloto de prototipos, y me dijo que cuando firmabas para ser piloto, te decan que haba entre un 40 y un 50 % de probabilidades de morir en el trabajo. +Es bastante alto para la mayora de trabajos. +Pero ya sabis, el gobierno construye un avin; y dicen, te importara probar si ste vuela? +Algunos lo hacan; otros no. +Y empec a pensar sobre algunas de estas decisiones que tengo que tomar entre, por ejemplo, serif y san-serif +En su mayor parte no amenazan mi vida. +Por qu no experimentar? Por qu no disfrutar un poco? +Por qu no poner algo tuyo en el trabajo? +Y cuando daba clases, sola preguntar a los alumnos, Cul es la definicin de un buen trabajo? +Y como profesores, siempre consigues todas las respuestas, quieres darles la respuesta correcta. +Y la mejor que he odo (estoy seguro que algunos ya la habis odo) la definicin de un buen trabajo es: Si te lo pudieras permitir, si el dinero no fuera un problema, estaras haciendo ese mismo trabajo? +Y si fuera as, tienes un buen trabajo. +Si no fuera as, qu diablos ests haciendo? +Seguirs estando muerto durante mucho tiempo. +Muchsimas gracias. +Lo que est sucediendo con la genmica y cmo esta revolucin est por cambiar todo lo que conocemos acerca del mundo, la vida, nosotros mismos y lo que pensamos sobre esto. +Si vieron "2001: odisea del espacio", y escucharon el "bum, bum, bum, bum" y vieran el monolito, sabren, era una representacin por Arthur C. Clarke de que estbamos en el momento seminal en la evolucin de nuestra especie. +En este caso, era levantar huesos, crear una herramienta y usarla como tal, lo que significaba que los simios, en cierto modo, slo corriendo por todos lados, comiendo y apareandose, comprendieron que podan hacer cosas si usaban herramientas. +Esto nos hizo pasar al siguiente nivel. +Y en los ltimos 30 aos en particular, hemos visto una aceleracin en el conocimiento y la tecnologa, sta ha generado ms conocimiento y nos ha brindado herramientas. +Y hemos visto varios momentos seminales. +Vimos la creacin de pequeas computadoras en los aos 70 y principios de los 80 y quin hubiera pensado en ese entonces que cada persona no slo tendra una computadora, sino 20 probablemente en su casa y no slo la PC, sino en cada aparato: en su lavadora, su celular. +Estn paseando y su carro tiene 12 microprocesadores. +Entonces procedemos y creamos el Internet y conectamos al mundo, eliminando las fronteras. +Hemos visto tantos cambios y, ahora, nos hemos abastecido de herramientas, de gran potencia, que nos permiten centrar la atencin en la esencia comn a todos nosotros, esto es el genoma. +Cmo est su genoma hoy en da?Han pensado en el ltimamente? +Al menos, han escuchado de l? Probablemente han odo hablar de los genomas hoy en da. +Pens en tomarme un momento y decirles lo que es el genoma. +Es ms o menos como cuando le preguntas a alguien qu es un megabyte o megabit? y qu es banda ancha? +La gente nunca quiere decir que no entienden del todo. +Entonces les dir de inmediato. +Han escuchado sobre el ADN, probablemente lo estudiaron un poco en biologa. +Un genoma es en realidad una descripcin de todo el ADN dentro de un organismo. +Y lo que tiene en comn toda forma de vida es el ADN. +No importa si es levadura, un ratn, o una mosca, todos tenemos ADN. +El ADN se organiza en palabras, llamadas genes y cromosomas. +Cuando en los aos 50, Watson y Crick decodificaron por primera vez la hermosa doble hlice que conocemos como la molcula del ADN, una molcula muy larga y compleja, comenzamos as el recorrido para entender que dentro del ADN hay un idioma que determina las caractersticas, nuestros rasgos, lo que heredamos, qu enfermedades podemos contraer. +Tambin, en el trayecto descubrimos que es una molcula muy antigua, que el ADN en su cuerpo ha estado siempre, desde nuestro inicio como creaturas. +Hay un archivo histrico. +Viviendo dentro del genoma est la historia de nuestra especie y de uno como individuo, de dnde se proviene, remontndonos a miles y miles de aos atrs y esto comienza a ser entendido; +pero el genoma tambin es un manual instructivo. +Es el programa, el cdigo de la vida. +Es lo que los hace funcionar, lo que hace funcionar a cada organismo. +El ADN es una molcula muy elegante, +es larga y es complicada. +Todo lo que tienen que saber de ella es que tiene cuatro letras: A, T, C, G, que representan el nombre de un qumico. +Con estas cuatro letras puede crearse un idioma, que puede describir cualquier cosa, hasta las muy complejas. +Ya saben, generalmente se ponen en pares, creando una palabra o lo que llamamos par de bases. +Y, ya saben, cuando piensan acerca de esto, cuatro letras, o la representacin de cuatro cosas, nos hacen funcionar. +Y puede que no suene muy intuitivo, pero permitanme ponerselo de una forma que entiendan, las computadoras. +Vean a la pantalla de aqu, saben, ven imgenes y ven letras, pero en realidad todo lo que hay son unos y ceros. +El lenguaje de la tecnologa es binario, seguramente en algn punto han escuchado eso. +Todo lo que sucede digitalmente se convierte en, o es una depresentacin de, un uno y un cero. +As que, cuando estn escuchando iTunes y su msica favorita, en realidad esto es un montn de unos y ceros leyendose muy rpido. +Cuando ven estas imgenes, son todas unos y ceros; cuando hablan por telfono, en su celular, y su voz atraviesa la red transformndose en unos y ceros, transmitindose de un lado a otro como si fuera magia. +Y vean todas las cosas complejas y maravillosas que hemos podido crear con slo un cero y un uno. +Bueno, si ahora aumentan esto a cuatro, tienen mucha complejidad, muchas formas de describir mecanismos. +As que hablemos de lo que esto significa. +Entonces, si ven al genoma humano, consiste de 3,200 millones de pares de bases, esto es mucho. +Y se combinan de todas formas distintas, esto los convierte en ser humano. +Si convierten esto en sistema binario, slo para medir, somos de hecho ms pequeos que el programa Microsoft Office. +En realidad no es tanta informacin. +Les dir que por lo menos tenemos la misma cantidad de defectos. +Esto que vemos aqu es un defecto en mi genoma con el que he luchado por mucho, mucho tiempo. +Cuando se enferman, es un defecto en su genoma. +En realidad, muchas de las tantas enfermedades con las que hemos luchado por un largo tiempo, como el cncer, no hemos sido capaces de curarlas porque no entendemos cmo funcionan a nivel genmico. +Empezamos a entender esto. +As que hasta este punto, hemos tratado de arreglarlo usando lo que me gusta llamar farmacologa de mierda, lo que significa: "bueno, pues lancmosle qumicos y talvez funcione". +Pero si se entiende por qu una clula pasa de normal a cncer, +cul es su cdigo, +cules son las instrucciones exactas que causan esto, +entonces, se puede pretender lograr el proceso para arreglarlo y descifrarlo. +As que, para su prxima cena con una magnfica botella de vino, aqu tienen algunos datos curiosos. +En realidad tenemos alrededor de 24 mil genes que hacen cosas. +Tenemos otros 100 120 mil aproximadamente que parecen no funcionar a diario, pero que representan el archivo histrico de cmo solamos funcionar como especie remontndonos decenas de miles de aos atrs. +Tambin podran estar interesados en saber que un ratn tiene la misma cantidad de genes. +Recientemente secuenciaron el genoma del Pinot Noir y tambin tiene alrededor de 30 mil genes, as que el nmero de genes que se tiene no representa necesariamente la complejidad o el orden evolutivo de ninguna especie en particular. +Ahora, vean a su alrededor, slo hacia un lado a su vecino, hacia enfrente, hacia atrs, todos nos vemos bastante diferente. +Hay mucha gente guapa y bonita aqu, delgados, llenitos, de distintas razas, culturas. Todos somos 99.9% genticamente iguales. +Es el 0.01% del material gentico que nos diferencia entre nostros. +Esto es una diminuta cantidad de material, pero la forma en la que finalmente se expresa es lo hace cambios en los humanos y otras especies. +Entonces, ahora somos capaces de leer los genomas. +El primer genoma humano tom diez aos y $3,000 millones de dlares, +realizado por el Dr. Craig Venter. +Y luego, el genoma de James Watson, uno de los cofundadores del ADN, se secuenci con $2 millones de dlares y en slo dos meses. +Lo que significa que ir con su genoma personal en una tarjeta inteligente. Estar aqu. +Y cuando compren medicina, no estarn comprando un farmaco que se use en todos. +Le darn su genoma al farmacutico y su farmaco estar diseado para usted y funcionar mucho mejor que los que estaban disponibles. No tendrn efectos secundarios. +Todos esos efectos secundarios que conocen: residuos grasosos y, ya saben, lo que sea que digan en los comerciales; olvdenlo. +Harn que todo eso desaparezca. +Cmo se ve un genoma? +Bueno, aqu lo tenemos. Es una serie muy, muy larga de pares de bases. +Si vieran el genoma del ratn o del humano, no se veran distintos a esto, pero lo que los cientficos hacen ahora es que estn entendiendo lo que estos hacen y lo que significan. +Porque la Naturaleza todo el tiempo est haciendo doble clic. +En otras palabras, las primeras oraciones aqu, suponiendo que es una vid, hacen una raz, hacen una rama, crean un retoo. +En un humano, aqu abajo podra ser: haz sangre, inicia cncer; +para m podra ser: cada calora que consumas la conservas, porque vengo de un clima fro; +para mi esposa: come el triple y no ganes nada de peso. +Todo est oculto en este cdigo y comienza a ser entendido a un paso acelerado. +Entonces, qu podemos hacer con los genomas ahora que podemos leerlos?, ahora que comenzamos con el libro de la vida. +Bueno, hay muchas cosas, algunas son muy emocionantes. +Algunos le tendrn miedo. Les dir un par de cosas que probablemente harn que quieran vomitarme encima, pero est bien. +Pues saben, ahora podemos aprender la historia de los organismos. +Pueden hacer un anlisis muy sencillo, slo raspe el interior de su mejilla y enve la muestra. +Pueden descubrir de dnde provienen sus parientes, pueden remontarse genealgicamente miles de aos atrs. +Podemos entender la funcionalidad. Esto es muy importante. +Por ejemplo, podemos entender por qu creamos placa en las arterias, qu crea el almidonamiento dentro de un grano, porqu la levadura metaboliza el azcar y produce bixido de carbono. +Tambin, en mucho mayor escala, podemos ver lo que crea problemas, lo que crea enfermedades y cmo podremos solucionarlo. +Porque podemos entender esto, podemos solucionarlo, hacer mejores organismos. +Lo ms importante es que estamos aprendiendo que la Naturaleza nos proporcion una caja de herramientas espectacular, +que realmente existe. +Un arquitecto mucho mejor y ms inteligente que nosotros nos ha dado esta caja de herramientas, y ahora tenemos la habilidad de utilizarla. +Actualmente no slo secuenciamos genomas, tambin los fabricamos. +La compaa, Synthetic Genomics, con la que estoy trabajando cre el primer genoma completo para un pequeo bicho, una creatura muy primitiva llamada Mycoplasma genitalium. +Si se tiene una infeccin en vas urinarias, o alguna vez se ha tenido, probablemente han estado en contacto con este pequeo bicho. +Muy simple, slo tiene 246 genes, pero fuimos capaces de sintetizar completamente ese genoma. +Ahora, tienen el genoma y se preguntan: Entonces, si inserto este genoma sinttico, si retiro el viejo y lo inserto, inicia y vive? +Bueno, adivinen qu, lo hace. +No slo hace esto, si toman el genoma, el genoma sinttico, y lo insertan en un bicho diferente, como la levadura, ahora han convertido la levadura en Mycoplasma. +Es, ms o menos, como iniciar una PC con software de Mac OS. +Bueno, en realidad, podran hacerlo al revs. +Entonces, ya saben, al ser capaces de fabricar un genoma e insertarlo en un organismo, el software, por decir, cambia el hardware. +Y esto es muy profundo. +Entonces, el ao pasado los franceses e italianos anunciaron su alianza y prosiguieron a secuenciar del genoma del Pinot Noir. +La secuencia del genoma para el organismo completo del Pinot Noir ahora existe, e identificaron, una vez ms, alrededor de 29,000 genes. +Han descubierto vas que crean sabores, aunque es muy importante entender que esos compuestos que se estn creando tienen que coincidir un receptor dentro nuestro genoma, en la lengua, para que entendamos e interpretemos esos sabores. +Tambin, han descubierto que hay muchsima actividad para producir aromas por igual. +Han identificado reas de vulnerabilidad ante enfermedades. +La investigacin prosigue y ahora entienden exactamente cmo funciona esta planta y tenemos la capacidad para saber, para leer el cdigo entero y entender cmo funciona. +Entonces, ahora que hacen? +Saber que podemos leerlo, que podemos escribirlo, cambiarlo, talvez escribir su genoma desde cero. Entonces, qu hacer? +Bueno, algo que pueden hacer es lo que alguna gente podra llamar Franken-Noir. +Podemos fabricar una mejor vid. +Por cierto, slo para que sepan: se estresan por los organismos genticamente modificados, no hay ni un solo vino en este valle o en ningn lado que no est genticamente modificado. +No crecen de semillas, son injertados en un rizoma. No podran exisistir en la naturaleza por si mismos. +As que no se preocupe, no se estrese acerca de eso. Lo hemos hecho siempre. +Entonces, podramos, ya saben, enfocarnos en la resistencia podemos tener mayor rendimiento sin necesariamente tener tcnicas drsticas de agricultura, ni costes. +Podemos posiblemente extender el rango climtico: podramos hacer que el Pinot Noir se diera en Long Island, Dios no lo quiera. +Podemos producir mejores sabores y aromas. +Quieren un poco ms de frambuesa, un poco ms de chocolate por aqu o por all? +Todas estas cosas posiblemente pueden hacerse, y les apuesto que, seguramente, se harn. +Pero aqu hay un ecosistema. +En otras palabras, no somos, en cierto modo, pequeos organismos nicos andando por ah, somos parte de un gran ecosistema. +De hecho, lamento informarles, que dentro del tracto digestivo tenemos cerca de 5 kilos de microbios que circulan considerablemente por del cuerpo. +Nuestro ocano se coordina con los microbios; de hecho, cuando Craig Venter fue y secuenci el genoma de los microbios en el ocano, en los primeros tres meses triplific la cantidad de especies conocidas en el planeta al descubrir microbios totalmente nuevos en los primeros seis metros de agua. +Ahora entendemos que estos microbios tienen ms impacto sobre nuestro clima y regulacin de CO2 y oxgeno que las plantas, las cuales siempre cremos que oxigeneban la atmsfera. +Encontramos vida microbiana en cada parte del planeta: en el hielo, en el carbn, en las rocas, en respiraderos de volcanes; es algo asombroso. +Pero tambin hemos descubierto, cuando se trata de plantas, que en stas, por lo que entendemos y empezamos a entender de su genoma, es el ecosistema que las rodea, son los microbios que viven en su sistema de raz, los que tienen tanto impacto en el carcter de esas plantas como las rutas metablicas de las plantas mismas. +Si examinan de cerca el sistema de raz, descubrirn que hay muchas, muchas, muchas colonias microbianas diversas. +Estas no son grandes noticias para los viticultores, ellos se han, ya saben, ocupado con el agua y la fertilizacin +y, una vez ms, esto es, en cierto modo, mi nocin de farmacologa de mierda: saben que ciertos fertilizantes hacen a la planta ms saludable, as que le agregan ms. +Con la granularidad, no necesariamente se sabe con exactitud qu organismos proporcionan qu sabores y qu caractersticas. +Ahora podemos empezar a descifrarlo. +Todos hablamos del terroir, adoramos el terroir; decimos: "Ah, mi terroir es grandioso! Es tan especial. +Tengo este pedazo de tierra y crea un terroir que ni te imaginas". +Bueno, ya saben, realmente discutimos y debatimos acerca de esto; decimos que es el clima, que es el suelo, que es esto. Bueno, adivinen qu? +Podemos averiguar lo que es el terroir. +Est ah, esperando a que su genoma sea secuenciado. +Hay miles de microbios ah cuyo +genoma es fcil de secuenciar. A diferencia de un humano, ellos, ya saben, tienen mil, dos mil genes; podemos averiguar qu son. +Todo lo que tenemos que hacer es ir por ah tomando muestras, cavar en la tierra, encontrar esos bichos, secuenciar su genoma, correlacionarlo con los tipos de caractersticas que nos gustan y las que no (eso es slo una gran base de datos) y luego fertilizar. +Y as entendemos qu es el terroir. +Entonces, algunos dirn: "Dios mo! Estamos jugando a ser Dios?" +Ahora, si manipulamos organismos, estamos jugando a ser Dios? +Y, ya saben, la gente siempre le preguntaba a James Watson (no siempre es el tipo ms polticamente correcto) +y le decan: "Ests jugando a ser Dios?" +Y el tuvo la mejor respuesta que he escuchado para esta pregunta: "Bueno, alguien tiene que hacerlo". +Me considero una persona muy espiritual, ya saben, sin la parte organizada de la religin y les dir algo, no creo que haya nada antinatural. +No creo que los qumicos sean antinaturales. +Les dije que har que algunos de ustedes vomiten. +Es muy sencillo, no inventamos molculas, compuestos. +Ellos estn aqu, estn en este universo. +Nosotros reorganizamos las cosas, las cambiamos, pero no hacemos nada antinatural. +Ahora, podemos crear impactos dainos, podemos envenenarnos, envenenar la Tierra, pero es un resultado natural de un error que cometimos. +As que lo que pasa en la actualidad es que la Naturaleza nos obsequia una caja de herramientas y descubrimos que es muy extensa. +Hay microbios ah afuera que en realidad hacen gasolina, lo crean o no. +Hay microbios, saben; retomando la levadura. +Estos son fbricas qumicas, las ms sofisticadas proporcionadas por la Naturaleza y ahora podemos usarlas. +Tambin hay un conjunto de reglas. +La Naturaleza no les permitir... podemos manipular una vid, pero adivinen qu, +no podemos hacer que una vid produzca bebs. +La Naturaleza ha puesto un conjunto de reglas. +Podemos trabajar dentro de estas reglas, no podemos romperlas, slo estamos aprendiendo cules son las reglas. +Entonces, el bixido de carbono, la cosa de la que nos queremos deshacer, no el azcar, no cualquier cosa. +Bixido de carbono, un poco de luz solar, terminan con un lpido que es altamente refinado. +Podramos solucionar los problemas energticos, reducir el CO2, podramos limpiar los ocanos, podramos hacer mejor vino. +Si pudieramos, lo haramos? +Bueno, saben, creo que la respuesta en muy sencilla. Trabajar con la Naturaleza, con este conjunto de herramientas que ahora entendemos, es el siguiente paso en la evolucin de la humanidad +y todo lo que puedo decires es mantenganse sanos por 20 aos. +Si pueden mantenerse sanos por 20 aos, vivirn 150 o talvez 300. +Gracias. +El futuro que llegaremos a crear puede ser uno del que estemos orgullosos. +Pienso en esto todos los das, literalmente ese es mi trabajo. +Soy cofundador y columnista de Worldchanging.com +Alex Steffen y yo fundamos Worldchanging.com a finales del 2003 y desde entonces, junto con nuestro creciente equipo mundial de colaboradores hemos documentado la variedad de soluciones, continuamente en expansin, que ya existen y que estn a punto de existir. +En poco ms de dos aos hemos escrito acerca de 4.000 artculos --modelos replicables, herramientas tecnolgicas, ideas emergentes-- que sealan una ruta hacia un futuro ms sostenible, ms equitativo y ms deseable. +Nuestro nfasis en las soluciones es realmente deliberado. +Hay miles de sitios que consultar, en lnea o no, cuando lo que queremos encontrar son las ltimas noticias sobre la rapidez con la que nos estamos acercando al desastre. +Nosotros queremos darles a las personas una idea de qu pueden hacer al respecto. +Nos enfocamos primordialmente en el medio ambiente del planeta, pero tambin enfrentamos problemas de desarrollo a nivel global, conflictos internacionales, el uso responsable de las nuevas tecnologas, incluso el auge de la llamada Segunda Superpotencia [opinin pblica mundial] y mucho, mucho ms. +El mbito de las soluciones que discutimos es realmente amplio, pero eso tambin refleja la gama de desafos que debemos enfrentar y los tipos de innovaciones que nos permitirn hacerlo. +Tambin algunos de los temas de los que hemos hablado esta semana en TED son cosas que en el pasado hemos trabajado en Worldchanging: el diseo "de la cuna a la cuna", el programa Fab Labs de MIT, las consecuencias de la longevidad extrema, el proyecto "Una laptop por nio", incluso Gapminder. +Como alguien nacido a mediados de los sesenta, parte de la Generacin X y acercndome demasiado rpido a mi cuadragsimo cumpleaos, estoy inclinado naturalmente hacia el pesimismo. Pero trabajar en Worldchanging me ha convencido, para mi sorpresa, de que hallar respuestas exitosas a los problemas del mundo es posible, a pesar de todo. +Es ms, me he dado cuenta de que concentrarse slo en los resultados negativos puede realmente cegarnos a las diversas posibilidades de xito. +Como ha sealado la cientfica social noruega Evelin Lindner, "El pesimismo es un lujo de los buenos tiempos... +En tiempos difciles, el pesimismo es una sentencia de muerte autoinducida." +La verdad es que podemos construir un mundo mejor, y que podemos hacerlo ahora mismo. +Tenemos las herramientas, vimos una muestra hace un momento, y estamos ideando nuevas constantemente. +Tenemos el conocimiento, y nuestra comprensin del planeta mejora da con da. +Pero lo ms importante es que tenemos el motivo: vivimos en un mundo que debemos reparar, y nadie va hacerlo por nosotros. +Muchas de las soluciones que mis colegas y yo buscamos y redactamos a diario, tienen algunos aspectos importantes en comn: transparencia, colaboracin, el deseo de experimentar, y aprecio por la ciencia o, mejor dicho, la ciencia! +La mayora de los modelos, las herramientas y las ideas en Worldchanging incluyen combinaciones de estas caractersticas, as que quiero darles algunos ejemplos concretos de cmo estos principios se combinan en formas capaces de cambiar el mundo. +Podemos observar estos valores de cambio en la aparicin de herramientas para hacer visible lo invisible; es decir, para hacer palpables condiciones del mundo que nos rodea que de otra forma seran en gran parte imperceptibles. +Sabemos que las personas a menudo cambian su comportamiento cuando pueden ver y entender el impacto de sus acciones. +Un pequeo ejemplo: muchos de nosotros hemos experimentado el cambio en los hbitos de manejo derivado de contar con informacin en tiempo real del kilometraje, que muestre con exactitud cmo los hbitos de manejo afectan la eficiencia del vehculo. +En los ltimos aos hemos visto un crecimiento en innovaciones para medir y mostrar aspectos del mundo que pueden ser muy grandes, o muy intangibles, o demasiado complejos para captarlos fcilmente. +Tecnologas simples, como aparatos montados en pared que indican cunta energa est consumiendo el hogar, y cul ser el resultado de apagar algunas luces -- pueden de hecho tener un impacto positivo directo en tu huella de energa. +Las herramientas comunitarias tales como los mensajes de texto, que pueden decirnos cundo est alto el ndice de polen, o si los niveles de esmog estan aumentando o si est ocurriendo un desastre natural, pueden darnos la informacin necesaria para actuar de manera oportuna. +Las imgenes ricas en datos, tales como mapas de contribuciones a las campaas o mapas de la desaparicin de los casquetes glaciares, nos permiten entender mejor el contexto y el flujo de los procesos que nos afectan a todos. +Podemos ver valores de cambio mundial en proyectos de investigacin que buscan soluciones a los problemas mdicos mundiales a travs del libre acceso a la informacin y la accin colaborativa. +Algunas personas acentan los riesgos de los "peligros posibilitados por el conocimiento", pero estoy convencido de que los beneficios que traen las "soluciones posibilitadas por el conocimiento" son mucho mas importantes. +Por ejemplo, las publicaciones de acceso libre, como la "Public Library of Science", ponen las investigaciones cientficas de vanguardia gratuitamente a disposicin de todas las personas del mundo. +De hecho, un nmero creciente de editores cientficos est adoptando este modelo. +El ao pasado cientos de investigadores voluntarios en biologa y qumica de todo el mundo trabajaron juntos para secuenciar el genoma del parsito responsable de algunas de las peores enfermedades del mundo en desarrollo: la enfermedad del sueo africana, la leishmaniasis y la enfermedad de Chagas +Actualmente la informacin del genoma se puede encontrar en bancos de datos genticos de acceso libre alrededor del mundo. Esto es una ventaja enorme para los investigadores que estn tratando de desarrollar tratamientos. +Pero mi ejemplo favorito es la respuesta global a la epidemia de SARS en 2003-2004, que se bas en el acceso mundial a la secuencia completa del gen del virus del SARS. +El Consejo de Investigacin Nacional de los Estados Unidos en su informe de seguimiento del brote, cit especficamente esta disponibilidad de la secuencia como una razn clave de que el tratamiento para el SARS se pudiera desarrollar tan rpidamente. +Tambin podemos hallar valores capaces de cambiar el mundo en algo tan modesto como un telfono celular. +Probablemente podra contar con los dedos el nmero de personas presentes que no usan telfono mvil. Dnde est Aubrey? Yo s que l no los usa. +Para muchos de nosotros, los celulares se han convertido prcticamente en una extensin de nosotros mismos, y estamos apenas comenzando a presenciar los cambios sociales que los telfonos mviles pueden provocar. +Quiz ya conocen algunos de los aspectos principales: durante el ao pasado se vendieron a nivel global ms celulares con cmara que cualquier otro tipo de cmara, y un nmero cada vez mayor de personas vive su vida mediada por los lentes, y en la red -- y a veces hasta terminan en los libros de historia. +En los pases en desarrollo, los telfonos mviles se han convertido en motores econmicos. +Un estudio del ao pasado mostr una correlacin directa entre el crecimiento en el uso de telfonos mviles y aumentos en el PIB en toda frica. +En Kenia, los minutos de telefona mvil incluso se han convertido en una moneda alternativa. +Tampoco podemos pasar por alto los aspectos polticos de los telfonos mviles, de los enjambres de mensajes de texto que ayudaron a derribar al gobierno en Corea, al proyecto "Blairwatch" en el Reino Unido, y vigilar a los polticos que intentan evadir a la prensa. +Y las cosas van a alocarse todava ms. +Las redes ubicuas y siempre conectadas, el audio y el video de alta calidad, incluso dispositivos diseados para vestirse en lugar de ser llevados en los bolsillos, transformarn nuestras formas de vida en dimensiones que realmente pocos visualizan. +No es una exageracin decir que los telfonos mviles podran estar entre las tecnologas ms importantes del mundo. +Y en este contexto de rpida evolucin, es posible imaginar un mundo en el cual los telfonos mviles se convertiran en mucho ms que un medio para la interaccin social. +Siempre he admirado el proyecto Witness [Testigo], Peter Gabriel nos cont algunos detalles adicionales el mircoles, en una presentacin sumamente conmovedora. +Ahora estoy increblemente feliz al enterarme de la noticia de que Witness abrir un sitio web que le permitir a los usuarios de cmaras digitales y telefnicas enviar sus grabaciones a travs de internet, en vez de tener que llevar personalmente la videocinta. +Esto no solo aade una va nueva y potencialmente mas segura para documentar los abusos, sino que abre el programa a la creciente generacin digital global. +Ahora, imaginen un modelo similar para redes ambientalistas: +un portal web que recopile grabaciones y evidencias de lo que est pasando en el planeta: y que ponga las noticias y los datos al alcance de gente de todo tipo, desde activistas e investigadores hasta empresarios y figuras polticas. +Esto resaltara los cambios que se estn dando, pero lo ms importante es que les dara una voz a las personas dispuestas a trabajar para crear un mundo nuevo, un mundo mejor. +Les dara a los ciudadanos comunes la oportunidad de desempear un papel en la proteccin del planeta. +En esencia, el proyecto sera un "Testigo del Planeta". +Quiero dejar claro que aqu estoy usando el nombre "Testigo del Planeta" como parte del escenario, simplemente como una abreviacin de lo que este proyecto imaginario podra aspirar a ser, y no para apropiarme del maravilloso trabajo de la organizacion "Witness" [Testigo]. +Tambin podramos llamarlo "Proyecto de Transparencia Ambiental", "Multitudes Inteligentes al servicio de la Seguridad Natural" -- pero es mucho ms fcil decir "Testigo del Planeta". +Y muchas de las personas que participaran en Testigo del Planeta se concentraran en problemas ecolgicos, provocados o no por los seres humanos, especialmente crmenes ambientales y fuentes considerables de emisiones y gases de efecto invernadero. +Esto es comprensible e importante. +Necesitamos un mejor registro de lo que est pasando en el planeta si es que queremos llegar a tener la oportunidad de reparar el dao. +Pero el proyecto Testigo del Planeta no tiene por qu limitarse a los problemas. +Siguiendo la mejor tradicin de Worldchanging, tambin podra servir de vitrina para buenas ideas y proyectos y esfuerzos exitosos y que marcan diferencias y merecen mucha ms visibilidad. +Testigo del Planeta nos mostrara dos mundos: el mundo que estamos dejando atrs, y el mundo que estamos construyendo para las generaciones futuras. +Para m, lo que hace que este escenario sea especialmente llamativo, es que podramos hacerlo hoy mismo. +Los componentes clave ya estn ampliamente disponibles. +Los telfonos con cmara seran fundamentales para el proyecto. +Y para muchos de nosotros son lo que ms se acerca a herramientas de informacin siempre encendidas y ampliamente disponibles. +Podemos olvidar traer con nosotros nuestras cmaras digitales dondequiera que vayamos, pero muy pocos olvidamos nuestros telfonos. +Podramos incluso imaginar una versin de este escenario en la cual la gente construyera sus propios telfonos. +A lo largo del ao pasado, los entusiastas del hardware de cdigo abierto idearon muchos modelos utilizables de telfonos mviles basados en Linux, y el Telfono Tierra podra derivarse de este proyecto. +Al otro lado de la red, habra un servidor al que la gente enviara fotos y mensajes, accesibles a travs de la red, combinando as un servicio para compartir fotografias, plataformas de redes sociales y un sistema de filtrado colaborativo. +Los fanticos de la web 2.0 entre ustedes saben de lo que estoy hablando, pero para quienes les pareci que la lltima oracin la dije en un idioma luntico, lo que quiero decir es simplemente esto: La parte en lnea del proyecto Testigo del Planeta sera creada por los usuarios, trabajando juntos y abiertamente. +Eso es suficiente para empezar a formular la crnica urgente de lo que le est pasando a nuestro planeta; pero podramos hacer ms. +El sitio Testigo del Planeta tambin podra servir como centro de recopilacin de todo tipo de informacin acerca de las condiciones de todo el planeta recolectada por sensores ambientales incorporados en los telfonos celulares. +No es tan difcil imaginar hacer lo mismo con los telfonos que portan las personas. +La idea de conectar un sensor a los telfonos no es nueva: los fabricantes de telfonos ya ofrecen telfonos que detectan si tienes mal aliento, o te avisan de una posible sobreexposicin al sol. +En un mbito ms serio, la firma sueca Uppsala Biomedical fabrica un accesorio para celulares capaz de procesar exmenes de drogas en sitio, subir la informacin y mostrar los resultados. +Incluso el Laboratorio Nacional Lawrence Livermore se ha involucrado en el asunto, al disear un prototipo de telfono que incluye sensores de radiacin para buscar bombas sucias. +Existe una gran variedad de dispositivos pequeos y baratos en el mercado, y es fcil imaginar que alguien ensamblar un telfono capaz de medir la temperatura, los niveles de CO2 o metano, la presencia de algunas biotoxinas -- y potencialmente, en algunos aos, incluso el virus de la gripe aviar, H5N1. +Pueden ver cmo algn sistema de este tipo de hecho podra encajar muy bien con el proyecto de Larry Brilliant, InSTEED. +Adems, todos estos datos podran ser etiquetados con informacin geogrfica y mezclarse con mapas en lnea para facilitar la visualizacin y el anlisis. +Vale la pena destacar esto en particular. +El impacto de los mapas en lnea de acceso libre, en el ltimo par de aos, ha sido simplemente fenomenal. +Desarrolladores de todo del mundo han ideado una increble variedad de formas para colocar capas de informacin til en los mapas, desde rutas de autobuses y estadsticas criminales hasta el avance mundial de la gripe aviar. +Testigo del Planeta llevara esto ms all, ligando lo que ustedes ven con lo que otras miles o millones de personas ven alrededor del mundo. +Es muy emocionante pensar en lo que podramos lograr si algo como esto llegase a existir. +Tendramos un conocimiento muchsimo mejor de lo que est ocurriendo ambientalmente en nuestro planeta de lo que es posible recopilar nicamente con satlites y un puado de redes de sensores estatales. +Sera un enfoque colaborativo y ascendente de la concientizacin acerca del ambiente y de su proteccin, capaz de responder a las nuevas preocupaciones como una multitud inteligente; y si necesitramos mayor densidad de sensores, solo requeriramos que ms personas participaran. +Y lo ms importante: no podemos pasar por alto lo importantes que son los telfonos mviles para la juventud mundial. +Este es un sistema que podra poner a la siguiente generacin a la vanguardia de la recopilacin de informacin ambiental. +Y mientras trabajamos para encontrar las maneras de mitigar los peores efectos de nuestra interferencia en el clima, toda la informacin cuenta, por ms pequea que sea. +Un sistema como Testigo del Planeta sera una herramienta para que todos nosotros participramos en el mejoramiento de nuestros conocimientos y, adems, en el mejoramiento de nuestro planeta. +Como suger al principio, hay miles y miles de buenas ideas dando vueltas por ah, as que, por qu invert la mayor parte de mi tiempo contndoles acerca de algo que no existe? +Porque as es como podra lucir el maana: una colaboracin global de abajo arriba, facilitada por la tecnologa, para manejar la mayor crisis que ha debido enfrentar nuestra civilizacin. +Podemos salvar el planeta, pero no cada uno por su cuenta, nos necesitamos unos a otros. +Nadie va a arreglar el mundo por nosotros, pero si trabajamos juntos, usando tanto las innovaciones tecnolgicas como las comunidades humanas, posiblemente seramos capaces de arreglarlo nosotros mismos. +Tenemos al alcance de la mano una gran abundancia de modelos convincentes, herramientas poderosas e ideas innovadoras capaces de marcar una importante diferencia en el futuro de nuestro planeta. +No tenemos que esperar por una solucin mgica que pueda salvarnos; ya contamos con un arsenal de soluciones que esperan ser usadas. +Existe una asombrosa variedad de maravillas, en disciplinas muy diversas, y todas nos dicen lo mismo: el xito puede ser nuestro si estamos dispuestos a intentarlo. +Como decimos en Worldchanging: Otro mundo no solo es posible, sino que ya est aqu. +Solo hace falta que abramos los ojos. Muchas gracias. +Me gustara empezar con esta pelcula bella de cuando era nio. +Me encantan las pelculas de ciencia ficcin. +Aqu est: "Regreso a la Tierra". +Confa en Hollywood para que salga bien. +Dos aos y medio de produccin. +Me refiero a que, incluso los creacionistas nos conceden seis mil aos, pero Hollywood va ms all. +Y en esta pelcula, vemos lo que creemos que est en el espacio exterior: platillos voladores y extraterrestres. +Cada mundo tiene un extraterrestre y cada mundo extraterrestre tiene un platillo volador, y se mueven a gran velocidad. Extraterrestres. +En el 2000 escribimos "Rare Earth". En el 2003, preguntamos no pensemos dnde estn las Tierras en el espacio, sino cunto tiempo la Tierra ha sido Tierra? +Si regresan a dos mil millones de aos atrs, ya no estn en un planeta semejante a la Tierra. +Lo que llamamos un planeta semejante a la Tierra es en realidad un perodo de tiempo muy corto. +Bueno, "Rare Earth" me ense muchsimo sobre conocer al pblico. +Justo despus, me invitaron a una convencin sobre ciencia ficcin, y con gran seriedad entr. +David Brin me iba a contradecir en esto, y, al entrar, una multitud comenz a abuchearme ostensiblemente. +Una nia vino y me dijo: "Mi pap dice que eres el demonio". +No puedes quitarle a la gente sus extraterrestres y pretender ser amigo de todo el mundo. +Bien, la segunda parte de eso, poco despus... y estaba hablando con Paul Allen; lo vi en la audiencia, y le di una copia de "Rare Earth". +Y Jill Tarter estaba all, se volvi hacia m, y me mir como esa chica en "El Exorcista". +Era, "me quema, me quema!" +porque SETI no quiere or esto. +SETI quiere que haya algo all fuera. +Realmente aplaudo los esfuerzos de SETI, pero an no hemos escuchado nada. +Realmente pienso que tenemos que empezar a pensar sobre qu es un buen planeta y qu no lo es. +Bien, aado esta diapositiva porque me indica que, incluso si SETI escucha algo, podemos averiguar qu es lo que han dicho? +Porque pas esta diapositiva por las dos inteligencias mayores de la Tierra, de Mac a PC, y ni siquiera puede poner las letras correctamente... ... entonces cmo vamos a hablarle a los extraterrestres? +Si ellos estn a 50 aos luz, y si los llamamos, y t bla, bla, bla, bla, y 50 aos despus regresa y dicen, pueden repetir? +Me refiero a que, aqu lo tenemos. +El nuestro es un buen planeta porque puede albergar agua. +Marte es un mal planeta, pero es suficientemente bueno como para ir all y vivir en su superficie si estamos protegidos. +Pero Venus en muy malo, el peor planeta. +A pesar de ser semejante a la Tierra, e incluso al principio de su historia pudo haber albergado vida semejante a la de la Tierra, pronto sucumbi a un efecto invernadero galopante... una superficie de 800 grados centgrados... a causa del aumento del dixido de carbono. +Bien, sabemos por la Astrobiologa que podemos predecir qu es lo va a pasar a nuestro planeta en concreto. +Ahora estamos en el mejor momento de la existencia, de al menos la vida en el planeta Tierra, tras la primera horrible era microbiana. +En la explosin cmbrica, la vida emergi de los pantanos, surgi la complejidad, y por lo que podemos decir, estamos a mitad de camino. +Tenemos tanto tiempo para que los animales existan en este planeta como tiempo llevan aqu, hasta que alcancemos la segunda era microbiana. +Y eso pasar, paradjicamente... todo lo que escuchan acerca del calentamiento global... cuando lleguemos a CO2 a 10 partes por milln, ya no vamos a tener plantas que puedan realizar alguna fotosntesis y detrs van los animales. +Despus tenemos probablemente siete mil millones de aos. +El Sol incrementa su intensidad, su luminosidad, y finalmente, en torno a 12 mil millones de aos despus de su origen, la Tierra es consumida por un gran Sol, y esto es lo que queda. +Un planeta como el nuestro tiene una vida y una edad y la Tierra est en su mejor momento. +Pero hay dos destinos para todo, cierto? +Muchos de ustedes van a morir de vejez, pero algunos de ustedes, de una manera horrible, van a morir en un accidente. +Y ese es el destino de un planeta, tambin. +La Tierra... si tenemos suerte... la impacta el cometa Hale-Bopp o es devastada por una supernova cercana en los prximos siete mil millones de aos... estaremos bien. +Pero, qu me dicen de una muerte accidental? +Bien, los paleontlogos en los ltimos 200 aos han estado haciendo un seguimiento a la muerte. Es extrao... ni siquiera se pensaba en la extincin como concepto hasta que el barn Cuvier en Francia encontr este primer mastodonte. +No pudo compararlo con ningn hueso en el planeta, y dijo, Aj! Est extinguido. +Y poco despus, el registro de fsiles comenz a ofrecer una muy buena idea sobre cuntas plantas y animales haba habido desde que la vida compleja realmente comenz a dejar un registro fsil muy interesante. +En ese complejo registro de fsiles ha habido tiempos en los que muchas de las cosas parecan morir muy rpido y los gelogos pioneros las llamaron "extinciones en masa". +Cunto tiempo se tard en ir de un sistema al siguiente? +Lo que encontraron fue algo inesperado. +Encontraron en esta brecha, en medio, una capa de arcilla muy fina, y esa capa de arcilla, esta capa roja muy fina de aqu, est llena de iridio. +Y no solo iridio: est llena de esfrulas vidriosas, y est llena de granos de cuarzo que han sido sometidos a enormes presiones: cuarzo de choque. +Bien, en esta diapositiva lo blanco es tiza y esta tiza ha sido depositada en un ocano tibio. +La tiza misma esta compuesta de plancton que ha cado de la superficie del mar al fondo martimo, As que el 90% del sedimento aqu es el esqueleto de seres vivos, y entonces tienes esa capa roja de un milmetro de ancho, y luego roca negra. +Y la roca negra es el sedimento en el fondo del mar a falta de plancton. +Esto es lo que ocurre en una catstrofe de asteroides, porque eso es lo que fue esto, por supuesto. Esto es el famoso K-T. +Un cuerpo de 10 kilmetros impact en el planeta. +El impacto deposit esta fina capa por todo el planeta, y los dinosaurios murieron sbitamente, murieron estas hermosas amonitas, Leconteiceras aqu, y Celaeceras por ac y mucho ms. +Quiero decir, debe ser cierto, porque hemos tenido dos pelculas taquilleras de Hollywood desde entonces, y este paradigma, desde 1980 hasta aproximadamente el 2000, cambi totalmente la opinin de los gelogos sobre las catstrofes. +Antes de eso, predominaba el paradigma del uniformismo: para cada cosa ocurrida en el planeta, en el pasado, hay procesos hoy en da que lo explicarn. +Pero no hemos sido testigos de un gran impacto de asteroides, por lo tanto esto es un tipo de nuevo catastrofismo, y llev cerca de 20 aos que el mundo cientfico finalmente hiciera frente a este hecho: s, fuimos impactados; y s, los efectos de ese impacto causaron una enorme extincin en masa. +Bien, hay cinco extinciones en masa enormes en los ltimos 500 millones de aos, llamadas las Cinco Grandes. +Se extienden desde hace 450 millones de aos hasta la ltima, la K-T, nmero cuatro, pero la ms grande de todas fue la P, o la extincin prmica, a veces llamada la madre de todas las extinciones en masa. +Y cada una de stas ha sido considerada posteriormente como impacto de cuerpos mayores. +Pero es esto cierto? +La ms reciente, la prmica, se consider un impacto a causa de esta bella estructura en la derecha. +Este es un buckminsterfulereno, una molcula de carbono 60, +porque parece uno de esos detestables domos geodsicos de mis amados finales de los sesenta. Son llamadas "buckyesferas". +Con esta evidencia se sugiri que al final del Prmico, hace 250 millones de aos, nos impact un cometa. +Y al impactar el cometa, la presin produce las buckyesferas, y captura pedacitos del cometa. +Helio-3: muy raro en la superficie de la Tierra, muy comn en el espacio. +Pero es cierto? +En 1990, tras trabajar en la extincin K-T durante diez aos, me fui a Sudfrica para empezar a trabajar dos veces al ao en el gran desierto Karoo. +Tuve la suerte de ver el cambio de esa Sudfrica a la nueva Sudfrica mientras iba ao tras ao. +Y trabaj en esta extincin prmica, acampando cerca de este cementerio Boer durante meses. +Los fsiles son extraordinarios. +Saben, ests viendo a tus ancestros ms antiguos. +Estos son reptiles semejantes a los mamferos. +Son culturalmente invisibles. No hacemos pelculas de ellos. +ste es un gorgonopsido, o un gorgonops. +ste en un crneo de 18 centmetros de largo de un animal que meda probablemente 2 o 2 metros y medio, extendido como un lagarto, probablemente tena una cabeza como la de un len. +ste es el carnvoro mayor, el T-Rex de su tiempo. +Pero hay muchas cosas. +ste es mi pobre hijo, Patrick. +Esto se llama abuso infantil paleontolgico. +Qudate quieto, t eres la escala. +Haba cosas grandes entonces. +Cincuenta y cinco especies de reptiles semejante a los mamferos. +Definitivamente, haba comenzado la era de los mamferos 250 millones de aos atrs... +...y luego ocurri una catstrofe. +Lo que viene despus es la era de los dinosaurios. +Todo fue un error; no debi haber pasado, pero pas. +Ahora, afortunadamente, este thrinaxodon, del tamao de un huevo de zorzal de aqu esto es un crneo que he descubierto justo antes de hacer esta foto... un boli como escala, es bastante chiquito... esto es en el Trisico Inferior, despus del fin de la extincin en masa +Pueden ver las rbitas y los dientecitos en la parte frontal. +De no haber sobrevivido, yo no estara dando esta charla. +Si no hubieran sobrevivido, no estaramos aqu; no hay mamferos. As de pequea es la diferencia: una especie sobrevive. +Bien, podemos decir algo acerca del patrn de quin sobrevive y quin no? +Es una especie de final a esos 10 aos de trabajo. +Lo que marca la diferencia... la lnea roja es la extincin en masa. +Pero tenemos sobrevivientes y cosas que consiguen salir adelante y resulta que salen adelante sobre todo los de sangre fra. +Los animales de sangre caliente reciben un gran golpe en este momento. +Los sobrevivientes que s salen adelante dan lugar a este mundo de criaturas semejantes a los cocodrilos. +Todava no hay dinosaurios; solo este lugar lento, saurio, escamoso, desagradable, pantanoso con un par de mamferos chiquitos que se esconden en la periferia. +Y all se esconderan durante 160 millones de aos, hasta que fueron liberados por ese asteroide K-T. +Si no fue un impacto, entonces qu fue? +Para el qu, pienso, hay que regresar una y otra vez, al mundo Precmbrico, esa primera era microbiana, y los microbios continan all. +Nos odian por ser animales. +En realidad quieren que vuelva de nuevo su mundo. +Lo han intentado una y otra vez. +Esto me sugiere que la vida que causa estas extinciones en masa, porque lo hizo, es inherentemente anti-Gaia. +Esta idea de Gaia, que la vida mejora el mundo... alguien que haya estado en una autopista un viernes por la tarde en Los ngeles cree en la Teora de Gaia? No. +Entonces, supongo que hay una alternativa, y que la vida en realidad trata de producir su propio fin... no conscientemente, pero lo hace. +Esta es el arma, parece, es la que lo hizo en los ltimos 500 millones de aos. +Hay microbios que, a travs de su metabolismo, producen sulfuro de hidrgeno en grandes cantidades. +El sulfuro de hidrgeno es mortal para nosotros los humanos. +Una pequea cantidad de 200 partes por milln es letal. +Slo hay que ir al Mar Negro y a algunos otros lugares... algunos lagos... acercarse y encontrarn que el agua se torna prpura. +Se vuelve prpura por la presencia de numerosos microbios que necesitan luz solar y sulfuro de hidrgeno, podemos detectar su presencia hoy... los podemos ver... pero tambin podemos detectar su presencia en el pasado. +Los ltimos tres aos han visto un enorme avance en un nuevo campo. +Yo estoy casi extinguido... soy un paleontlogo que colecciona fsiles. +Pero la nueva ola de paleontlogos... mis estudiantes de postgrado, coleccionan biomarcadores. +Recogen el sedimento, extraen el petrleo del sedimento y de eso pueden producir compuestos que resultan ser muy especficos respecto a grupos microbianos concretos. +Los lpidos son muy resistentes, por eso pueden preservarse en sedimento y duran los cientos de millones de aos necesarios, hasta ser extrados y decirnos quin estuvo all. +Y sabemos quin estuvo all. Al final del Prmico, en muchos de estos lmites de extinciones en masa, encontramos esto: isoremieratenos. Es muy especfico. +Solo ocurre si la superficie del ocano no tiene oxgeno, y est totalmente saturada con sulfuro de hidrgeno... suficiente, por ejemplo, para separarse de la solucin. +Esto llev a Lee Kump, y otros de Penn State y mi grupo, a proponer lo que llamo la hiptesis de Kump: muchas de las extinciones en masa fueron causadas por la reduccin de oxgeno, aumento del CO2. Y el peor efecto del calentamiento global resulta ser el sulfuro de hidrgeno producido en los ocanos. +Bueno, cul es la fuente de esto? +En este caso, la fuente una y otra vez ha sido los basaltos de inundacin. +Esta es una vista de la Tierra ahora, si extraemos mucho de ella. +Parecen bombas de hidrgeno; en realidad, los efectos son an peores. +Esto es cuando el material del fondo de la Tierra sube a la superficie, se extiende por toda la superficie del planeta. +Bien, no es la lava lo que aniquila todo, es el dixido de carbono que la acompaa. +No son Volvos; son volcanes. +Pero el dixido de carbono es el dixido de carbono. +Hay dos cosas aqu que me resultan muy evidentes, estas extinciones tienen lugar cuando el CO2 est aumentando. +pero lo segundo que aparece aqu: la Tierra nunca ha estado cubierta de hielo cuando hemos tenidos mil partes por milln de CO2. +Estamos a 380 y subiendo. +Deberemos llegar a mil en tres siglos a lo sumo, pero mi amigo David Battisti en Seattle dice que ser en cien aos. +Por lo tanto, adis a los casquetes de hielo, y hola a la subida de 70 metros del nivel del mar. +Yo vivo en una casa con vistas al mar ahora; voy a tener una casa a la orilla del mar pronto. +Bien, cul es la consecuencia? Los ocanos probablemente se volvern prpura. +Y pensamos que sta es la razn de que la complejidad tardara tanto en ocurrir en el planeta Tierra. +Tuvimos estos ocanos de sulfuro de hidrgeno durante muchsimo tiempo. +Evitaron la existencia de vida compleja. +Sabemos que el sulfuro de hidrgeno est erupcionando actualmente en algunos lugares del planeta. +Aado esta diapositiva... ste soy yo, hace dos meses... e inserto esta diapositiva porque aparece mi animal favorito, el nautilus emperador. +Est en el planeta desde el surgimiento de los animales, hace 500 millones de aos. +Este es un experimento de rastreo y, si algn submarinista quiere implicarse, este es uno de los proyectos ms interesantes que ha habido, esto es fuera de la Gran Barrera de Coral. +Y mientras hablamos ahora, estos nautilus nos estn mostrando su comportamiento. +Pero la verdad es que de vez en cuando los submarinistas podemos tener dificultades, as que voy a hacer un pequeo experimento mental. +ste es un gran tiburn blanco que se comi alguna de mis trampas. +Tiramos de l, aqu est. Luego, est all conmigo por la noche, +as que estoy nadando y se lleva mi pierna. +Estoy a 80 millas de la orilla, qu me va a pasar? +Pues me muero. +Cinco aos atrs, esto es lo que espero que me pase: me llevan de nuevo al bote, me dan una mscara de gas. 80 partes por milln de hidrgeno de sulfuro. +Luego me sumergen en un estanque fro. Me enfran 15 grados y me llevan a cuidados intensivos. +Y pude hacerlo porque los mamferos hemos pasado por una serie de episodios relacionados con el sulfuro de hidrgeno y nuestros cuerpos se han adaptado. +Y ahora podemos usar esto como lo que creo ser un gran avance mdico. +l es Mark Roth. Ha sido financiado por DARPA. +Intent encontrar una forma de salvar a los soldados estadounidenses heridos en la guerra. +Desangra unos cerdos. +Pone en 80 partes por milln sulfuro de hidrgeno... lo mismo que sobrevivi a esas extinciones en masa anteriores... y transforma un mamfero en un reptil. +"Pienso que estamos viendo en esta respuesta el resultado de mamferos y reptiles que han sido sometidos una serie de exposiciones al H2S". +Recib este correo electrnico suyo hace dos aos. Deca "Creo que tengo una respuesta para alguna de tus preguntas". +Ha hecho un experimento con ratones durante cuatro horas, a veces seis, y estos son los nuevos datos que me envi de camino hacia aqu. +En la parte superior, el registro de la temperatura de un ratn que se ha sometido al test las lneas de puntos, las temperaturas. +Entonces, la temperatura comienza a 25 centgrados, y sigue bajando, sigue bajando. +Seis horas despus, la temperatura sube. +Ahora, al mismo ratn se le han dado 80 partes por milln de sulfuro de hidrgeno en este grfico de lnea continua, y observen lo que le pasa a su temperatura. +Su temperatura baja. +Baja a 15 grados centgrados desde 35, y sale de esto perfectamente bien. +sta es una manera en la que podemos llevar a la gente a cuidados intensivos. +Es como llevar un paciente a temperaturas bien bajas hasta llegar a cuidados intensivos. +Bien, todos ustedes estn pensando, vale, y el tejido cerebral? +Y este es uno de los ms grandes desafos que veremos. +Tienes un accidente. hay dos opciones: morir o tomar el sulfuro de hidrgeno y, digamos, el 75% de ti se salva, mentalmente. +Qu haras? +Tenemos todos un botoncito que dice, "Dejadme morir"? +Este es el futuro, y pienso que va a ser una revolucin. +Vamos a salvar vidas, pero va a haber un costo para hacerlo. +La nueva perspectiva sobre las extinciones en masa es, s, fuimos impactados, y, s, tenemos que pensar a largo plazo, porque vamos a ser impactados nuevamente. +Pero hay un peligro mucho peor delante de nosotros. +Podemos regresar fcilmente al mundo de sulfuro de hidrgeno. +Dennos unos cuantos milenios... y los humanos deberamos durar esos pocos milenios... pasar nuevamente? Si continuamos, pasar de nuevo. +Cuntos de nosotros volamos hasta aqu? +Cuntos de nosotros ha agotado su cuota de Kyoto simplemente con volar este ao? +Cuntos de nosotros la hemos excedido? S, yo sin duda la he excedido. +Tenemos un gran problema que afrontar como especie. +Tenemos que derrotarlo. +Quiero poder regresar a este arrecife. Gracias. +Chris Anderson: Solo tengo una pregunta para ti, Peter. +Si te estoy entendiendo bien, lo que ests diciendo aqu es que tenemos en nuestros propios cuerpos una respuesta bioqumica al sulfuro de hidrgeno que en tu opinin prueba que han habido extinciones en masa anteriores debido al cambio climtico? +Peter Ward: S, cada una de nuestras clulas puede producir minsculas cantidades de sulfuro de hidrgeno en crisis importantes. +Esto es lo que Roth ha descubierto. +Por lo tanto, lo que estamos viendo ahora: deja una seal? +Deja una seal en el hueso o en las plantas? +Volvemos al registro fsil y podramos tratar de detectar cuntas han ocurrido en el pasado. +CA: Es al mismo tiempo una tcnica mdica increble, pero tambin aterradora... +PW: Bendicin y maldicin. +Ustedes saben, soy tan malo con la tecnologa que mi hija -- que tiene 41 aos ahora -- cuando tena 5, la escuch decirle a una amiga de ella, que si no sangra cuando lo cortas, mi papito no lo entiende. +Entonces, la tarea que se me ha dado puede ser un obstculo insuperable para m, pero ciertamente voy a tratar. +Qu he escuchado durante estos ltimos cuatro das? +Esta es mi tercera visita a TED. +Una fue a TEDMED, y una, como han escuchado fue una a TED normal hace dos aos. +Una de las cosas ms impresionantes sobre lo que, tal vez 10, de los presentadores han estado hablando es darnos cuenta, escuchndolos atentamente, de que no dicen: Bueno, esto es lo que deberamos hacer; esto es lo que quisiera que ustedes hagan. +Es: esto es lo que he hecho porque estoy entusiasmado por ello, porque es algo maravilloso, y ha hecho algo por m y, por supuesto, ha logrado mucho. +Es el antiguo concepto, el concepto Griego verdadero, de la filantropa en su sentido original: philos-antropos: amor por la humanidad. +Y la nica explicacin que puedo encontrar por lo que hemos estado escuchando en estos ltimos cuatro das es que surge, de hecho, de una forma de amor. +Y esto me da una esperanza enorme. +Y la esperanza, por supuesto, es el tema sobre cual debera estar hablando, del cual se me olvid completamente hasta mi llegada. +Y cuando lo hice, pens, bueno, mejor busco esta palabra en el diccionario. +Entonces, Sarah y yo -- mi esposa -- caminamos hasta la biblioteca pblica, que est a cuatro cuadras, en Pacific Street, y conseguimos el OED (Oxford English Dictionary), all buscamos, y all encontramos 14 definiciones de la esperanza, ninguna de las cuales se destaca por ser la apropiada. +Y, por supuesto, esto tiene sentido, porque la esperanza es un fenmeno abstracto; es una idea abstracta, no es una palabra concreta. +Bueno, me recuerda un poco a la ciruga. +Si hay una operacin para una enfermedad, sabes que funciona. +Si hay 15 operaciones, t sabes que ninguna de ellas funciona. +Y as es con la definicin de palabras. +Si tienes apendicitis, te extirpan el apndice, y ests curado. +Si tienes reflujo de esofagitis, hay 15 procedimientos, Y Joe Schmo lo hace de una manera y Will Blow lo hace de otra manera, y ninguna de ellas funciona, y lo mismo ocurre con esta palabra, esperanza. +Todas apuntan a la idea de expectativa de que algo bueno ocurrir. +Y saben que encontr? +La raz Indo-Europea de la palabra esperanza es: K-E-U -- lo deletreariamos K-E-U; se pronuncia koy -- y es la misma raz de la que proviene la palabra curva. +Pero lo que significa en el original Indo-Europeo es un cambio de direccin, ir por un camino diferente. +Y encuentro eso muy interesante y provocativo, porque lo que han estado escuchando en los ltimos das es este sentido de ir por direcciones diferentes: direcciones que son especficas y nicas para los problemas. +Hay diferentes paradigmas. +Ustedes han escuchado esta palabra varias veces en estos cuatro das, y todos estamos familiarizados con los paradigmas de Kuhn. +Entonces, cuando pensamos en la esperanza ahora, debemos pensar en mirar en otras direcciones de las que hemos estado mirando. +No puedo decirles lo tranquilo que me sent por esta ltima oracin en esa gloriosa presentacin de Dean Kamen hace unos das. +No estaba seguro de haberla odo correctamente, entonces lo encontr en uno de los intervalos. +El estaba hablando con un hombre muy grande, pero no me preocup. +Lo interrump, y le dije, "Dijiste esto?" +El dijo, "Eso creo." +As que, esto es: Lo repetir. +"El mundo no se salvar por el Internet." +Es maravilloso. Saben ustedes que salvar al mundo?" +Yo se los dir. Ser salvado por el espritu humano. +Y por espritu humano, no quiero decir nada divino, no quiero decir nada sobrenatural -- ciertamente no viniendo de este escptico que soy. +Lo que quiero decir es esta habilidad que cada uno de nosotros posee de ser algo ms grande que uno mismo, de surgir de nuestro ser ordinario y lograr algo que al principio pensamos que tal vez no seramos capaces de hacer. +En un nivel elemental, todos hemos sentido esa espiritualidad al momento del nacimiento. +Algunos lo han sentido en laboratorios; algunos lo han sentido en el banco de trabajo. +Lo sentimos en conciertos. +Lo he sentido en la sala de operaciones, al lado de una cama. +Es una elevacin ms all de nosotros. +Y creo que esos sern, con el tiempo, los elementos del espritu humano de los que hemos estado oyendo poco a poco a poco de tantos presentadores en los ltimos das. +Y si algo ha impregnado este lugar, es precisamente eso. +Estoy intrigado por un concepto trado a la luz en la primera parte del siglo 19 -- realmente, en la segunda dcada del siglo 19 -- por un poeta de 27 aos cuyo nombre era Percy Shelley. +Ahora, todos pensamos que Shelley es obviamente el gran poeta romntico que fue; muchos de nosotros tendemos a olvidar que escribi algunos perfectamente maravillosos ensayos, tambin, y el ensayo ms recordado es uno llamado "En Defensa de la Poesa," +Ahora bien, tiene cinco, seis, siete, ocho pginas, y se transforma en algo profundo y dificil luego de la tercera pgina, pero en algn lugar en la segunda pgina el comienza a hablar sobre la nocin de lo que l llama la "imaginacin moral." +Y esto es lo que dice, mas o menos traducido: Un hombre -- hombre genrico -- un hombre, para ser realmente bueno, debe imaginar claramente. +Debe verse a s mismo y al mundo a travs de los ojos de otro, y de muchos otros. +Verse a s mismo y al mundo -- no slo al mundo, pero verse a s mismo. +Qu es lo que se espera de nosotros d parte d que viven en lo que Laurie Garrett el otro da llam tan apropiadamente la desesperacin y la disparidad? +Qu es lo que tienen todo el derecho a pedirnos? +Qu es lo que tenemos nosotros todo el derecho a pedirnos de nosotros mismos, por nuestra humanidad compartida y nuestro espritu humano? +Bien, ustedes saben precisamente lo que es. +Hay una gran polmica acerca de si, como la gran nacin que somos, deberamos ser la polica del mundo, la fuerza policial mundial, pero no debera haber virtualmente ninguna polmica sobre si nosotros deberamos ser los sanadores del mundo. +No ha habido, ciertamente, ninguna polmica sobre esto en esta sala en los cuatro das pasados. +Entonces, si vamos a ser los sanadores del mundo, cada persona en desventaja en este mundo -- incluyendo a los Estados Unidos -- se convierte en nuestro paciente. +Cada nacin en desventaja, y tal vez nuestra propia nacin, se convierte en nuestro paciente. +Entonces, es interesante pensar en la etimologa de la palabra "paciente." +Proviene inicialmente del Latn patior, soportar, sufrir. +Entonces, volvemos a la antigua raz Indo-Europea nuevamente, y lo que encontramos -- la raz Indo-Europea se pronuncia payen -- la escribiramos P-A-E-N -- y quien iba a decirlo, maravilloso de decir, es la misma raz de la que proviene la palabra compasin, P-A-E-N. +Entonces, la leccin es muy clara. La leccin es que nuestro paciente -- el mundo, y los que estn en desventaja en el mundo -- ese paciente merece nuestra compasin. +Pero ms all de nuestra compasin, y ms grande que nuestra compasin, es nuestra imaginacin moral y nuestra identificacin con cada individuo que vive en este mundo, no que pensemos en ellos como un gran bosque, sino como rboles individuales. +Por supuesto, en este da y era, la clave es no dejar que cada rbol se oscurezca por cada Bush (bush: arbusto. Ex-presidente) en Washington que pueda ponerse -- que pueda ponerse en el camino. +Entonces, aqu estamos. +Nosotros estamos, deberamos estar, moralmente comprometidos a ser los sanadores del mundo. +Ahora, si estamos hablando sobre la medicina, y hablamos sobre curar, quisiera mencionar a alguien que no ha sido citado. +Parece que todo el mundo ha sido citado aqu: Pogo ha sido citado; Shakespeare ha sido citado hacia atrs, hacia adelante, de adentro hacia afuera. +Yo quisiera citar a uno de mis dioses domsticos. +Sospecho que l nunca dijo esto realmente, porque no sabemos que dijo realmente Hipcrates, pero s sabemos con certeza que algn gran mdico griego dijo lo siguiente, y ha sido registrado en uno de los libros atribuidos a Hipcrates, y el libro se llama "Preceptos." +Y se los leer. +Recuerden, que he estado hablando, esencialmente de filantropa: el amor a la humanidad, la humanidad individual y la humanidad individual que puede traer ese tipo de amor traducido en accin, traducido, en algunos casos, en inters personal. +Y aqu est, hace dos mil cuatrocientos aos: "Donde hay amor por la humanidad, hay amor por la sanacin." +Hemos visto eso aqu hoy con este sentido, con la sensibilidad -- y en estos ltimos tres dias, y con el poder del indomable espritu humano. +Muchas gracias. +Me convert en inventor por casualidad. +Dej la Fuerza Area en 1956. No, no, eso no es cierto: Entr en 1956, lo dej en 1959, estaba trabajando en la Universidad de Washington, y se me ocurri una idea, leyendo un artculo en una revista, para un nuevo tipo de brazo de tocadiscos. +Esto fue antes de las cintas de cassette, CDs, DVDs -- todas esas cosas chulas que tenemos ahora. +Y era un brazo que, en lugar de girar y pivotar a travs del disco, iba recto: un brazo radial de seguimiento lineal. +Y fue el invento ms difcil que jams haya hecho, pero me puso en marcha, y tuve bastante suerte desde entonces. +Y sin tener que daros mucho el sermn, quiero hablaros sobre un invento que he trado hoy: mi 44 invento. No, eso tampoco es verdad. +Caray, me estoy despistando. +Mi 44 patente; sobre mi 15 invento. +Yo lo llamo sonido hipersnico. +Os lo voy a mostrar en un par de minutos, pero quiero hacer una analoga antes con esto. +Siempre que enseo este sonido hipersnico la gente dice, Eso mola, pero para qu sirve? +Y les digo, para qu sirve la bombilla? +Sonido, luz: voy a sealar la analoga. +Cuando Edison invent la bombilla era bastante parecida a esta. +No ha cambiado mucho. +La luz sala en todas las direcciones. +Antes de que inventaran la bombilla, la gente haba descubierto cmo poner un reflector detrs, concentrarla un poco; colocar lentes enfrente, concentrarla un poco mejor. +En ltima instancia descubrimos cmo hacer cosas como el lser que la concentra totalmente. +Ahora, pensar cmo sera el mundo hoy en da si tuviramos la bombilla, pero no pudiramos concentrar la luz; si cuando encendieras una, la luz fuera donde quisiera. +As es como son los altavoces. +Enciendes el altavoz, y casi 80 aos despus de tener estos aparatos, el sonido, ms o menos, va donde quiere. +Incluso cuando ests enfrente de un megfono, es en casi todas las direcciones. +Con un pequeo diferencial, pero no mucho. +Si la bombilla fuera como es el altavoz, y no pudieramos dirigirla, ajustarla o definirla, no tendramos esto, o pelculas en general, u ordenadores, o televisores. o CDs, o DVDs -- y as sigue la lista de lo importante que es ser capaz de dirigir la luz. +Ahora, casi 80 aos despus de tener sonido, Pens que ya era hora de descubrir cmo situar el sonido donde queramos. +Tengo un par de unidades. +Este de aqu lo utilic para una demostracin que hice ayer a primera hora para un gran fabricante de coches de Detroit que quera ponerlos en un coche -- versin reducida, sobre tu cabeza -- as tendrs un sonido binaural real en el coche. +Y si pudiera apuntar con el sonido tal como hago con la luz? +Tengo este sonido de cascada grabado en mi jardn. +No van a oir nada hasta que les apunte. +Quizs si apunto a la pared puede resonar en toda la sala. +El sonido se crea justo al lado de sus odos A que mola? +Como tengo un tiempo limitado, lo apagar un segundo, y os hablar de cmo funciona y para qu es bueno. +Como la luz, es capaz de poner sonido para destacar un armario, o copos de maz, o la pasta de dientes, o una placa en el pasillo de un cine. +Sony tuvo una idea -- Sony es nuestro cliente ms grande ahora mismo. +Lo intentaron en los 60' pero era demasiado complejo, as que se rindieron. +Pero queran usarlo -- seriamente. +Existe una mezcla que un inventor tiene que tener. +Tienes que ser inteligente, aunque que no me graduase en la universidad no quiere decir que sea estpido, porque no puedes ser estpido y hacer mucho en el mundo hoy en da. +Demasiada gente inteligente ah afuera. As que... +Simplemente fui educado de una manera diferente. +No estoy en absoluto en contra de la educacin. +Creo que es maravilloso; Creo que a veces la gente, cuando les educan, lo pierden: llegan a ser tan inteligente que no quieren mirar a las cosas que saben ms. +Vivimos en una gran poca ahora mismo, porque casi todo esta siendo explorado de nuevo. +Tengo un lema que uso mucho, que es: casi nada -- y lo digo seriamente -- se ha inventado an. +Estamos casi empezando. +Casi empezando realmente a descubrir las leyes de la naturaleza, de la ciencia y la fsica. +Y esto es, espero, una pequea parte de ello. +Sony ech la vista atrs -- para devolverme a la pista -- cuando ests en la caja del supermercado, vas a ver un nuevo canal de televisin. +Ellos saben que cuando ves la televisin en casa, porque hay muchas opciones puedes cambiar el canal, quitar los anuncios. +151 millones de personas cada da pasan por la caja de algn supermercado. +Ahora, lo intentaron hace un par de aos y fracas, porque el cajero se cansaba de escuchar el mismo mensaje cada 20 minutos, y alargaba la mano y quitaba el sonido. +Y sabis, si no hay sonido, la venta normalmente no se produce. +Por ejemplo, como, cuando estis en un avin, te ponen una pelcula, consigues verla gratis; si quieres escuchar el sonido, pagas. +Y ABC y Sony inventaron algo nuevo para que cuando ests en la caja del supermercado -- inicialmente ser Safeways; actualmente es Safeways: lo estn probando en tres partes del pas ahora mismo - estars viendo la televisin. +Espero que sean sensibles y no te ofendan con un solo producto ms. +Pero lo que es increble, sacados de los exmenes que hemos hecho, es que si no quieres escucharlo, das un paso a un lado y no lo escuchas. +As que, creamos tanto silencio como sonido. +Los cajeros automticos que hablan, nadie les escucha. +Sentado en la cama, a las dos de la maana, ves la televisin; tu pareja, o alguien, a tu lado, durmiendo; no la oye, no se despierta. +Tambin estamos trabajando en eliminar ruido, como los ronquidos, o los coches. +He tenido mucha suerte con esta tecnologa: tan pronto como est listo, el mundo estar listo para aceptarlo. +Literalente estn ansiosos de que llegue. +Lo hemos estado vendiendo desde finales de septiembre, octubre, y ha sido tremendamente gratificante. +Si estis interesado en lo que cuesta -- no me dedico a venderlo hoy -- pero esta unidad, con el sistema electrnico y todo, si compras una, cuesta al rededor de mil dlares +Esperamos que por estas fechas el ao que viene sean cientos, unos cientos de dlares, para comprarlo. +No es ms caro que los productos electrnicos normales. +Ahora, cuando os lo puse no escuchasteis el ensordecedor bajo. +Esta unidad que puse, funciona desde 200 hercios hasta por encima del rango auditivo. +De hecho est emitiendo ultrasonido -- ultrasonido de bajo nivel -- eso son unas 100,000 vibraciones por segundo. +Y el sonido que estis escuchando, a diferencia de un altavoz normal por el cual todo el sonido est sobre la pared est hecho fuera, en frente de ella, en el aire. +El aire no es lineal, como siempre nos haban enseado. +Podis subir el volumen un poquito -- me refiero un poco por encima de 80 decibeles -- y de repente el aire empieza a corromper seales que propagis. +El por qu: la velocidad del sonido no es constante. Es bastante lento. +Cambia con la temperatura y con la presin baromtrica. +Ahora, imaginad, si lo hicirais, sin llegar a ser demasiado tcnico, Estoy haciendo una pequea onda senoidal aqu en el aire. +Bueno, si subo la amplitud demasiado, estoy provocando un efecto en la presin, lo que significa que durante el tiempo que se hace la onda senoidal, la velocidad a la cual se propaga est cambiando. +Todo el audio como lo conocemos es un intento de ser ms y ms perfectamente lineal. +La linealidad significa una calidad de sonido ms alta. +El snido hipersnico es exactamente lo contrario: est basado un 100% en la no-linealidad. +Un efecto se crea en el aire, es un efecto que corrompe el sonido -- el ultrasonido en este caso -- ese est emitido, pero es tan predecible que puedes producir audio muy preciso sin ese efecto. +Ahora, la pregunta es, dnde se ha hecho el sonido? +En vez de haber sido hecho en la pared del cono, ha sido hecho de literalmente miles de millones de puntos a lo largo de esta estrecha columna de aire, as que cuando apunto hacia vosotros, lo que escuchis est hecho justo al lado de vuestros odos. +Deca que podamos acortar la columna, podemos expandirla para cubrirla. +Puedo ponerla de manera que un odo escuche un altavoz y el otro odo escuche el otro altavoz. Eso es verdadero sonido binaural. +Cuando escuchis el estreo en vuestro home system, ambos odos escuchan a los dos altavoces. +Sube el altavoz de la izquierda alguna vez y notars que lo escuchas tambin en el odo derecho. +As que, el escenario est ms restringido -- el campo auditivo que se supone que va a expandirse en frente de vosotros. +Porque el sonido est hecho en el aire a travs de esta columna, no sigue la Ley de la inversa del cuadrado, que dice que la intensidad disminuye unos dos tercios cada vez que doblas las distancia: 6 decibeles cada vez que te vas de un metro, por ejemplo, a dos metros. +Lo que significa que si vas a un concierto de rock o de sinfona, y el to de la fila de enfrente consigue el mismo nivel que el de la fila de atrs, al mismo tiempo. +No es increble? +As que, hemos tenido, como digo, mucho xito, mucha suerte, en tener compaas que cojan la visin de esto desde coches -- productores de coche que quieren poner un sistema estreo enfrente para los nios, y un sistema separado atrs -- ah, no, que los nios no conducen hoy en da. +Estaba comprobando que estabais escuchando. +De hecho, yo an no he desayunado. +Un sistema estreo enfrente de mam y pap, y quizs un pequeo reproductor de DVD atrs para los nios, si los padres no quieren que les moleste eso, o su msica rap o lo que sea. +Por lo que, de nuevo, la idea de ser capaz de poner sonido all donde quieras est realmente empezando a cuajar. +Tambin funciona para transmitir y comunicar informacin. +Como tambin funciona cinco veces mejor bajo el agua. +Tenemos a los militares -- que han desplegado algunos de ellos en Iraq, donde puedes simular poner falsos movimientos de tropas a unos cuatrocientos metros de distancia sobre una ladera. +O puedes susurrar en el odo de un supuesto terrorista algn verso Bblico. +En serio. Y ellos tienen esos dispositivos de infrarrojos que pueden mirar a sus rostros, y mirar la variacin de una fraccin de un grado kelvin desde 90 metros de distancia cuando reproducen esta cosa. +Y tambin, otra manera de determinar quin es amigo y quin no. +Hicimos una nueva versin con esto que llegaba a 155 decibeles +El niivel del dolor son 120. +As que permite llegar a kilmetro y medio de distancia y comunicarte con la gente, y eso puede ser una playa pblica al otro lado, y ellos nisiquiera saben que est encendido +Vendemos estos a los militares ahora mismo por unos 70.000 dlares, y lo estn comprando tan rpido como los hacemos. +Lo ponemos sobre una torre con una cmara, de manera que cuando te disparan ests por all, pero ella est all. +Tengo un montn de otros inventos. +Invent una antena de plasma, para cambiar engranajes. +Estaba mirando hacia el techo de mi oficina un da -- estaba trabajando en un proyecto de un radar que penetra la tierra -- y mi oficial superior de fsica vino y me dijo, "Tenemos un buen problema. +Estamos usando una longitud de onda muy corta. +Tenemos un problema con el timbre de la antena. +Cuando usas longitudes de onda muy cortas, como un tenedor que afina, la antena resuena, y hay ms energa saliendo de la antena. que la que produce retrodispersin de la tierra lo cual estamos tratando de analizar, tomando demasiado procesamiento" +Dije, "Por qu no hacemos una antena que slo exista cuando quieres? +Encindelo; apgalo. +Ese es un tubo flurescente refinado" +Solo lo vend por un milln y medio de dolares, en efectivo. +Lo devolv al Pentgono luego de ser informacin confidencial, cuando la patente se public, y se lo coment a la gente, se rean, y retom una demostracin y la compraron. +Alguno de vosotros alguna vez ha llevado unos auriculares Jabber -- los pequeos auriculares? +Esa es invencin ma. La vend por siete millones de dlares +Gran error: fue vendido por 80 millones de dlares hace dos aos +En realidad prepar eso en un horrible ordenador Mac en mi tico en mi casa, y uno de los muchos diseos que tienen ahora sigue siendo el mismo diseo que hice yo en su da. +As que, he tenido bastante suerte como inventor. +Soy la persona ms feliz que jams conceris. +Mi padre muri sin saber que cualquiera de la familia podra, tal vez, llegar a ser alguien. +Habis sido un gran pblico. S que he saltado por todas partes. +Normalmente me doy cuenta de qu va mi charla cuando me levanto en frente de un grupo. +Permitidme mostraros, en el ltimo minuto, una rpida demostracin de esto, para aquellos que no lo hayan oido. +Nunca puedo saber si est encendido. +Si an no lo han oido, levanten la mano +Llegando por all? +Llega al cmara. +S, all vais. +Tengo una cola que puedo abrir en vuestra cabeza eso mola mucho. +Gracias nuevamente. +Se lo agradezco mucho. +Cheryl: Aimme y yo, pensamos... Hola Aimee. Aimee Mullins: Hola +Cheryl: Aimee y yo, pensamos que vamos a conversar un poco, y yo quisiera que ella les contara a todos ustedes qu es lo que la hace una deportista distinguida. +AM: Bueno, para todos aquellos que hayan visto la fotografa en la breve biografa, puede que ya lo hayan comprendido. Yo tengo amputadas ambas extremidades inferiores, nac sin perons en ambas piernas. +Me fueron amputadas cuando tena un ao de edad. y he estado corriendo como "endemoniada" desde entonces, por todos lados. +Cheryl: Bien, por qu no le explicas a la audiencia, cmo es que lograste ingresar en la universidad de Georgetown. +Por qu no empezamos ah? +AM: Estoy cursando mi ltimo ao en el programa de Servicio Exterior en Georgetown. +Yo obtuve una beca acadmica completa cuando termin mis estudios de preparatoria. +Se seleccionan tres estudiantes del pas cada ao para involucrase en asuntos internacionales. y de esta manera me gan el acceso a Geortown. y he estado ah por cuatro aos. Me encanta. +Cheryl: Cuando Aimee lleg ah ella decidi que, le despertaba curiosad el atletismo, en pista y campo, as que decidi llamar y empezar a preguntar al respecto. +Pero, por qu mejor no cuentas t la historia? +AM: S. Bueno, creo que siempre he estado involucrada en los deportes. +Jugu softball desde los cinco aos de edad. +Particip en competencias de esqu durante la preparatoria, y estuve un poco inquieta durante la universidad porque no haba practicado ningn deporte formalmente durante uno o dos aos. +Y nunca haba participado en competencias de discapacitados. Yo siempre haba competido contra ateletas "normales". +Esto era todo lo que yo haba conocido. +De hecho, yo no conoc a otro amputado hasta que tena 17 aos. +Y o decir que ellos organizaban competencias con corredores discapacitados, y pens, Ah, yo no s nada sobre esto, pero antes de opinar, voy a ver de qu se trata. +As, en 1995, cuando tena 19 aos de edad, vol a Boston, y definitivamente yo era la competidora desconocda de la carrera. Nunca haba hecho esto antes. +Me entren en una pista de grava unas semanas antes de la competencia para ver qu tanto poda correr, y a los cincuenta metros ya haba tenido suficiente, estaba exhausta y sin aliento. +Y adems yo usaba unas piernas fabricadas de algo as como, un compuesto de madera y plstico, sujetadas a mi piernas con unas cintas de Velcro. adems usaba unos enormes y gruesos calcetines deportivos de gruesa lana... ya se imaginarn, no eran de lo ms cmodas, pero eran todo lo que yo conoca. +Y as estoy en Boston contra otras competidoras usando piernas fabricadas de grafito de carbn, y todas estas cosas, con amortiguadores para el impacto y dems, y todas ellas me vean como diciendo, est bien, ya sabemos quien no va a ganar esta competencia. +Dan OBrien salt 5 pies y 11 pulgadas en las Olimpiadas de Altanta. Quiero decir, si esto les da una idea comparativa de... estos son, verdaderos atletas de primer nivel sin hacer distinciones sobre la palabra "atleta". +Y de esta forma yo me decid a probar, saben ustedes, con el corazn palpitando muy rpido, yo corr mi primera carrera, y romp el record nacional por tres centsimas de segundo y me convert en el nuevo record nacional en mi primer intento. +Y ya sabes, la gente deca, "Aimee, t eres veloz, tienes cualidades naturales para ser una velocista, pero no tienes la tcnica necesaria +Te veas fuera de coordinacin. +Vimos como te esforzaste en toda la competencia". +Y entonces decid llamarle al entrenador de atletismo de Geortown. +Y gracias a Dios que yo no saba qu tan grande es este hombre en el medio de las competencias de pista y campo. +l entren a cinco participantes de Juegos Olmpicos, y se pueden imaginar, su oficina est cubierta desde el piso hasta el techo con reconocimientos de los mejores atletas de Estados Unidos, y l entren a todas estas personas, +l es una persona que inspira respeto. +Y yo le llam y le dije, "Mira, yo compet en una carrera y obtuve el primer lugar, y ... +Yo quiero ver si puedo, t sabes - necesito ver si puedo atender a tus entrenamientos, observar qu ejercicios practican y todo lo dems." +Esto es todo lo que quera - solo atender dos entrenamientos. +Puedo ir a ver qu es lo que haces? +Y l dijo, "Bien, debemos reunirnos primero, antes de decidir cualquier cosa". +Ustedes saben,l estaba pensando, "En qu me estoy involuncrando? +As que me reun con este hombre, entr a su oficina, y observ posters y portadas de revistas de personas que l haba entrenado. +Nos sentamos y empezamos a conversar, y esto se convirti en una gran colaboracin porque l nunca haba entrenado a una atleta con discapacidades, as que no tena ningn conocimiento sobre este tema, ni saba de qu era o no era capaz, y por mi parte yo nunca haba sido entrenada por nadie, +as fue como nos embarcamos en esta aventura, +l empez a entrenarme cuatro das a la semana, durante su hora de comida, en su tiempo libre, as pude ir a la pista y entrenar con l. +De esta manera conoc a Frank. +Pero esto fue en el otoo de 1995, y para entonces, el invierno ya haba comenzado, l me deca, "Sabes, eres suficientemente buena. +Puedes participar en nuestro equipo de pista y campo para mujeres". +Y yo le contest, "No, en serio". +Y l dijo, "No, de verdad. T puedes. +T puedes correr en nuestro equipo femenil de atletismo." +As, en la primavera de 1996, con la meta de formar parte del equipo Paraolmpico de los Estados Unidos en el mes de mayo acercndose con toda velocidad, yo me un al equipo de atletismo femenil. +Y hasta entonces ninguna persona discapacitada haba hecho esto, participar en competencias colegiales. +Y, no lo s, empez a convertirse en una mezcla interesante. +Cheryl: Bien, por qu no les cuentas -- cmo fue tu preparacin para las Olimpiadas-- pero hubo un par de eventos memorables que ocurrieron en Georgetown. +Por qu no les cuentas? +Y, ya saben, yo estaba ah con mi uniforme de Geortown en todo esto y sabiendo, ya saben, que para mejorar -- y yo era ya la mejor del pas -- ya saben, tienes que entrenar con personas que son indiscutiblemente mejores que t. +Y as logr y me dirig al Este el cual era algo as como una carrera de campeonato al final de la temporada, +y realmente haca mucho calor. +Y a unos 15 metros de los ltimos 100 metros, y en toda mi gloria, mi pierna artificial se desperendi. +As, yo me desplom, en frente de unas 5,000 personas. +Y de verdad, yo estaba muy mortificada, y --- porque me haba ingresado en la carrera de los 200 metros, que iba a empezar en media hora. +Me encamin hacia mi entrenador, y le dije..."Por favor,no me haga hacerlo" +No puedo hacer esto enfrente de toda esta gente. Mis piernas se zafarn. +Y si se desprendieron a los 85 metros, no hay forma que pueda completar los 200 metros. +Y l estaba as sentado, como yo ahora +Y, ya saben, mis splicas cayeron en odos sordos -- gracias a Dios -- +porque l es un hombre grande -- ya saben, l es de Brooklyn -- este hombre corpulento dice. "Aimee, y qu tiene que tu pierna se haya zafado? +T la vas a recoger, y te la vas a volver a colocar esa cosa, y terminars la maldita carrera! +Y eso fue lo que hice. Eso, saben ustedes, me ayud a mantenerme centrada. +l me mantuvo en el camino correcto. +Cheryl: Y, entonces Aimee logra calificar para los Juegos Paraolmpicos de 1996, y ella est muy emocionada. Su familia ha venido a verla -- es todo un acontecimiento. +Ella lleva ahora, dos aos participando en competencias de carreras? +AM: No, un ao. +Cheryl: Un ao. Y por qu no les platicas de lo que sucedi justo antes de que participaras en la carrera? +AM: Est bien, estamos en Atlanta. +Las Olimpiadas Paraolmpicas, para aclarar un poco sobre el tema, son las Olimpiadas para las personas con discapacidades -- personas con amputaciones, parlisis cerebral y atletas en sillas de ruedas -- son lo opuesto a las Olimpiadas Especiales en la cual participan personas con discapacidades mentales. +As, aqu estamos, como, una semana despus de las Olimpiadas en Atlanta, y yo me sorprend por el hecho, saben ustedes de que solo un ao antes yo abandon la pista y no pude correr cincuenta metros. +Y, aqu estoy ahora -- sin haber perdido una competencia. +Yo establec nuevos records en las competencias nacionales de Estados Unidos -- en la preparacin para las Olimpiadas -- en el mes de mayo, Y yo estaba muy confiada que iba a regresar a casa con la medalla de oro. +Y yo era tambin la nica, lo que llaman, BK bilateral - amputacin en ambas piernas debajo de la rodilla. +Yo era la nica competidora que poda participar en el salto largo.. +Yo haba terminado de competir en el salto largo, y un competidor al que le faltaban ambas piernas vino hacia m y me dijo, "Cmo haces eso? Sabes, se supone que nosotos debemos tener pie plano, de manera que no podamos impulsarnos en los resortes." +Yo le dije, "Bueno, ya lo hice. Nadie me lo dijo." +Y es gracioso - estaba a tres pulgadas del record munidal -- y me mantuve en esa posicin, y qued registrada en el salto largo -- me registr? +no, Yo lo logr en el salto largo y la carrera de 100 metros. +Y estoy segura de esto. +Yo aparec en la portada del peridico de mi ciudad, el mismo diario que yo repart en las casas durante seis aos. +Esto era, como mi momento para brillar. +Y yo estaba haciendo calentamientos en el estadio de prcticas, estiramientos para las competencias en las que iba a participar, este lugar estaba a unas cuadras del estadio Olmpico. +Y las piernas que estaba usando -- las cuales les voy a mostrar ahora. Yo era la primera persona en el mundo para usar este tipo de piernas -- +Yo era como el conejillo de Indias -- y, djenme decirles, esto era como una especie de atraccin turstica. +Todos estaban sacando fotografa y diciendo, "Qu es esto con lo que va correr esta chica?" +Y yo siempre estaba viendo alrrededor, como buscando, dnde estarn mis rivales? +Esta era mi primera competencia internacional. +Yo trataba de sobresalir de cualquier que poda, saben, quin, o qu tipo de personas son las que voy a competir? +"Oh, Aimee, tendremos que regresar contigo a esto". +Yo quera saber los tiempos. +"No te preocupes, tu lo ests haciendo muy bien." +Esto suceda 20 minutos antes de mi carrera en el estadio Olmpico, y colocaron la informacin con los tiempos de las competidoras de mi prueba. Y fui a verlas. +Mi tiempo record, que era un record mundial, era de 15.77 segundos. +Entonces observ a mi competidora de al lado, en el carril dos, su tiempo era de 12.8 segundos. +En el carril tres su tiempo era de 12.5. En el cuatro, el tiempo era de 12.2 segundos. Y yo dije, Qu pasa aqu?". +Y nos llevaron a las competidoras en un autobs al estadio, y todas las mujeres participantes tenan una mano amputada. +Y, yo estba como --- Y todas me observaban como diciendo, cul de todas las participantes no es como las otras, saben ustedes? +Yo estoy sentada, pensando, "Ay, Dios mo. Oh, Dios mo." +Saben que yo nunca haba perdido ninguna competencia. ya sea que fuera por una beca, o cualquier otra cosa, Yo haba ganado cinco medallas de oro cuando esquiaba. Y en todo, yo siempre lograba el primer lugar. +Y Georgetown, tu sabes, era formidable. +Yo estaba perdiendo, pero esto era el mejor entrenamiento, porque era en Atlanta. +Aqu estabamos, lo mejor de lo mejor. y no haba duda de esto, que yo iba a perder en grande. +Y, saben, yo solo pensaba, "Dios mo, toda mi familia, saben, haba viajado en camioneta conduciendo desde Pennsylvania." +Y yo era la nica velocista femenina representando a los Estados Unidos. +Y ya saben, avisaron que nos preparramos. "Damas, en un minuto empiezan." +Y cuando estaba colocndome en los arrancaderos me senta horrorizada porque solo haba un murmullo que se oa de los asistentes, de aquellos que me alcanzaban a ver desde las gradas. +Y yo estaba pensando, "Yo s! Mira! lo sabes. Esto no est bien." +Y pensaba, sta es la ltima carta que tengo para jugar, es, al menos, ya saben, si no voy a vencerlas, yo voy a confundirlas un poco, est bien, saben? +Quiero decir, esto era definitivamente como si yo fuera Rocky IV contra Alemania, y, ya saben, todos los dems - Estonia y Polonia - estaban en esta competencia. +Y cuando el disparo de salido son, todo lo que recuerdo era, que termin en ltimo lugar. reprimiendo las lgrimas de frustracin y el increble, increble sentimiento de solo estar abrumada. +Y yo tena que pensar acerca de por qu hice esto, ya saben, +si ya haba ganado todo, y esto era, como, qu sentido tena? +Todo lo que entren y cambi mi vida. +Yo me convert en una atleta colegial, ya saben. Me convert en atleta olmpica. +Y me hizo realmente pensar sobre cmo el logro era haber llegado a este punto. +Quiero decir, el hecho de que me propuse esto solo un ao y tres meses antes de convertirme en una atleta olmpica y diciendo, aqu va mi vida llendo en esta direccin, y yo quiero tomarla de este punto por un momento, y solo quedarme viendo qu tan lejos pude llegar. +Y el hecho de que yo ped ayuda - cuntas personas me apoyaron? +Cuntas personas dieron su tiempo su experiencia, y su paciencia para lidiar conmigo? +Y esto era, como, un reconocimiento colectivo -- haba unas 50 personas detrs de m que se haban unido a esta increble experiencia de ir a Atlanta. +Y, de verdad, ahora yo aplico este tipo de filosofa a todo lo que hago, me detengo y me doy cuenta de todo el progreso alcanzado, como, qu tan lejos has llegado en tu meta al da de hoy, +Es importante concentrarse en la meta, yo creo, pero tambin reconocer todo el progreso que se ha alcanzado y cmo has crecido como persona. +Este es el logro, creo yo. Este es logro verdadero. +Cheryl: Por qu no les muestras tus piernas? +AM: Claro. +Cheryl: T sabes, mustranos ms de un pa de piernas. +AM: Bien, stas son mi piernas bonitas. +No, en realidad, stas son mis piernas cosmticas, y ellas son absolutamente hermosas. +Ustedes tienen que verlas de cerca. +Tienen poros con vello en ellas, y puedo pintar las uas. +Y de verdad, puedo usar tacones altos. +Ustedes, los hombres no entienden cmo es esto poder entrar en una tienda de zapatos y comprar cualquier par que yo quiera. +Cheryl: Pudiste escoger tu altura? +AM: Exacto, yo pude escoger mi altura. +Patrick Ewing (basquetbolista profesional), jug en los aos ochenta en Georgetown, y regresa a la universidad todos los veranos. +Y yo siempre me divierta burlndome de l en el cuarto de entrenamiento porque l siempre tena los pies lastimados. +Yo le digo, "No te preocupes por esto. Slo qutatelos." +T puedes medir ocho pies de alto. Solo qutatelos.." +De cualquier forma, l no vea mi comentario tan divertido como yo. +Est bien, ahora, stas son mis piernas para correr, estn fabricadas de grafito de carbono, como les dije, tengo que asegurarme de usar la fosa apropiada. +No, yo tengo tantas pienas aqu. +Estas son, puedes sostenerme esto por un momento? +Estas son otras piernas que yo tengo para practicar tenis y softball. +Tienen un amortiguador integrado, as que hace un ruido como "Shhhh" cuando brincas en ellas. Est bien. +Y esto es la parte de silicn que me enrollo, la funda de silicn que me enrollo para mantenerla sujeta, cuando yo sudo, ya lo saben, yo estoy fuera de lugar. +Cheryl: Tienes diferente altura? +AM: En stas? +Cheryl: En esas. +AM: No lo s. No lo creo. No lo creo. +Puede que sea un poco ms alta. De hecho, yo creo que me puedo poner ambas. +Cheryl: Ella realmente no puede mantenerse de pie sobre estas piernas. Ella tiene que moverse, asi que... +AM: As es. Definitivamente tengo que mantenerme en movimiento. y para balancearse, se requiere un poco de pericia para usarlas. +Pero sin el soporte de silicn, voy a probar el ponrmelas. +Y as, yo corro con ellas, y asombr a la mitad del mundo usndolas. +Estas supuestamente stimulan la forma en la que un atleta de velocidad corre. +Si han visto un corredor de velocidad, habrn notado que la parte delantera del pie es la nica que toca la pista, +as que cuando yo me paro en estas piernas, mis pantorrillas y glteos tienen que estar contrados como si yo estuviera parada de puntas sobre mis pies. +(Audiencia: Quin los fabric?) AM: Una compaa de San Diego que se llama Flex-Foot. +Y yo fui el conejillo de Indias, y espeo seguir siendo uno en todas las nuevas prtesis que se desarrollan +Pero de hecho, como ya mencion, stas son el verdadero prototipo. +Yo necesito unas nuevas, porque en mi ltima competencia ya saben, es como un gran.. Se hicieron un crculo completo. +Moderador: Aimee y el diseador estarn en el TED Med 2, y hablaremos sobre el diseo. +AM: S, eso haremos. +Cheryl: S, ah vas. +AM: Y, stas son las piernas para velocidad, y yo puedo ponerme la otra... +Cheryl: Puedes decirnos quin dise las otras piernas? +AM: S. Estas las obtuve en un lugar que se llama Bournemouth, Inglaterra. a unas dos horas al sur de Londres, y yo soy la nica persona en los Estados Unidos que las tiene, lo cual es un crimen, porque son realmente hermosas. +Y no lo digo por que si, sino por que tiene dedos y todo lo dems -- +son para m, as como soy una atleta muy dedicada en la pista, tambin quiero ser femenina, y creo que esto es tan importante, no estar limitada en ningn aspecto, ya sea en tu movilidad o an tambin en la moda. +O sea, yo adoro el hecho que puedo ir a cualquier parte y escoger los zapatos que yo quiero, las faltas que yo deseo, y espero poder traerlas aqu y ponerlas accesibles para muchas personas. +Estas tambin son de silicn. +Esta es realmente muy bsica, una extremidad de la prtesis aqui abajo. +Es como el pie de una Barbie cuando los usas. +As es. Quiero decir, solo se puede colocar en esta posicin. as que yo tengo que usar tacones de dos pulgadas. +De verdad, es realmente -- djenme quitarmelo para que puedan ver. +No s realmente qu tan bien puedan observar, pero, es como realmente es. +Estn las venas de los pies, en mis talones est rosado, lo ven, y mi tendn de Aquiles -- se mueve un poco. +Y es realmente sorprendente. Las tengo desde hace un ao y dos semanas. +Y esta es solo una pieza de piel de silicn. +Sabes, ellos hacen orejas para vctimas de quemaduras. +Ellos hacen cosas fabulosas con el silicn. +Cheryl. Hace dos semanas, Aimee asisti a la entrega del reconocimiento Arthur Ashe en la premiacin de los ESPY +Al llegar a la ciudad ella se apresur y dijo, "Tengo que comprarme zapatos nuevos!" +Nos queda una hora para el inicio de los ESPYs. y ella pensaba que tena unos tacones de dos pulgadas pereo en realidad haba comprado tacones de tres pulgadas. +AM: Y esto representa un problema para m porque significa que voy a caminar as toda la noche +Cheryl: Por 45 minutos, nosotras te... por suerte el hotel era maravilloso. +Ellos mandaron a una persona que cortara la altura de los zapatos. +AM: Yo le dije a la recepccionista, de verdad, yo acabo de llegar, y Cheryl estaba a mi lado. Le dije, "Mire, tienen a alguien que me pueda ayudar +porque yo tengo este problema? Ya saben, al principio ellos iban a echarme a un lado, as como, mira: si no te gustan tus zapatos, qu lstma. Ya es muy tarde. +"No, no, no, no. Yo tengo estos pies especiales, estn bien, pero nececisto unos tacones de dos pulgadas. Tengo tres pulgadas. +Yo necesito que les corten un poco." +Bien. Ellos no queran meterse en esto. +Ellos ni siquiera queran tocarlas. Ellos simplemente lo hicieron. +No, estas piernas son maravillosas. +De hecho, lo estoy haciedo, voy a regresar en un par de semanas para hacerles algunas mejoras. +Yo quiero tener piernas como estas fabricadas con pie planos para poder usar tenis, porque no puedo usarlas con estas. +Y... Moderador: Esto es todo. +Cheryl: Es: Aimee Mullins. +Cmo podemos hacer, cmo podemos investigar la flora de virus que nos rodean, y ayudar a la ciencia mdica? +Cmo podemos convertir nuestro conocimiento acumulado sobre la virologa en un ensayo qumico para el diagnstico sencillo, nico y manejable? +Quiero convertir todo lo que sabemos ahora mismo sobre la deteccin de virus y el espectro de virus que estn ah fuera en, pongamos, un pequeo chip. +Cuando comenzamos a pensar en este proyecto -- cmo podramos hacer un nico ensayo qumico de diagnstico para buscar de forma simultnea todos los patgenos -- bueno, result que haba algunos problemas con la idea... +Para empezar, los virus son bastante complejos. Pero adems, estan evolucionando con mucha rapidez. +Este es un picornavirus. +Los picornavirus - estos son los virus que incluyen cosas como el resfriado comn y la polio, entre otras. +Esto que vemos aqu es el cpside del virus, y el color amarillo aqu indica aquellas partes del virus que evolucionan con mucha, mucha rapidez. y las partes azules en cambio no evolucionan tan rpidamente. +Cuando la gente piensa en hacer reactivos de deteccin pan-virales habitualmente el problema est en las partes que evolucionan rpidamente. Porque...cmo podemos detectar cosas si estn cambiando continuamente? +Pero la evolucin es un equilibrio donde tienes cambios muy rpidos, tambin tienes ultra conservacin -- cosas que casi nunca cambian. +As que decidimos mirar en esto un poco ms cuidadosamente y os voy a mostrar ahora unos datos... +Esto son simplemente cosas que se pueden hacer con un ordenador de escritorio +Cog un puado de estos pequeos picornavirus como el resfriado comn, la polio, etc., y los part en pequeos segmentos +as que cog este primer ejemplo, que se llama Coxsackievirus, lo parto en pequeas ventanas +y coloreo estas pequeas ventanas en azul si algn otro virus comparte una secuencia gentica idntica al primer virus. +Estas secuencias aqu arriba -- que, por cierto, ni siquiera codifican protenas -- son casi completamente idnticas en todos estos de forma que poda usar esta secuencia como marcador para detectar un amplio conjunto de virus sin tener que hacer algo individual. +Aqu en cambio hay mucha diversidad, aqu es donde las cosas evolucionan con rapidez. +Ms abajo aqu podis ver una evolucin ms lenta : menos diversidad. +As que podemos encapsular estas regiones de ultra-conservacin a travs de la evolucin - cmo estos virus evolucionaron - seleccionando bien elementos de ADN o ARN en estas regiones para representar sobre nuestro chip como si fuesen reactivos detectores +As que eso es lo que hicimos, pero cmo conseguirlo? +Bueno, durante mucho tiempo, desde la facultad siempre he estado jugando con chips de ADN. es decir, imprimiendo ADN sobre vidrio.. +y esto es precisamente lo que veis aqu... Estas pequeas motas de sal son fragmentos de ADN incrustados en vidrio. de forma que puedo poner miles de estas motas en nuestro chip de vidrio y usarlas como reactivo de deteccin. +Llevamos nuestro chip a Hewlett-Packard y usamos su microscopio atmico sobre una de estas motas y esto es lo que se puede ver: se pueden realmente apreciar los filamentos de ADN sobre el vidrio. +As que lo que estamos haciendo es simplemente imprimir ADN sobre vidrio - pequeas cosas planas - y estas cosas van a ser nuestros marcadores para detectar patgenos +Ok, Yo suelo hacer pequeos robots de laboratorio para fabricar estos chips. y realmente quiero diseminar la tecnologa. +Si tenis suficiente dinero para comprar un Camry, podis construir uno de estos. As que publicamos en la Web una gua exhaustiva, totalmente gratuita, mediante la cual bsicamente con piezas estndar +podis construir una mquina de chips ADN en vuestro garaje. +Esta es la seccin sobre el importantsimo botn de parada de emergencia. +Toda mquina importante debe tener un gran botn rojo. +No, en serio, es bastante robusta. +Realmente podrais estar fabricando chips de ADN en vuestro garaje. y decodificando algunos programas genticos con bastante rapidez. Es muy divertido. +Y esto es precisamente lo que hicimos - y es un proyecto muy interesante - comenzamos simplemente haciendo un chip para los virus respiratorios. +Por ejemplo, habl de la situacin en la que uno va a la clnica y no se le diagnostica. +Bueno, nosotros bsicamente pusimos todos los virus respiratorios humanos en un nico chip, y aadimos el herpes como "extra". Y por qu no? +Lo primero que uno hace como cientfico es asegurarse de que la cosa funciona. +As que cogimos tejidos cultivados y los infectamos con diferentes virus y cogemos y etiquetamos de forma fluorescente el cido nuclico, el material gentico que procede de estas clulas cultivadas - principalmente viral - y lo pegamos sobre el chip para ver dnde se queda encajado. +Ahora bien, si las secuencias de ADN cuadran, se quedarn pegadas juntas y as podemos mirar en determinados sitios. +Si estos sitios brillan, sabemos que hay un determinado tipo de virus all. +Este es el aspecto que uno de estos chips tiene realmente. y todas estas zonas rojas son realmente seales provenientes del virus. +Y cada zona representa una familia diferente de virus o especie de virus. +Pero esto es una forma difcil de analizar las cosas, de forma que simplemente voy a codificar las cosas en forma de un pequeo cdigo de barras agrupados por familia, de forma que se puedan ver los resultados de una forma muy intuitiva. +Lo que hicimos es, coger clulas cultivadas, infectarlas con adenovirus y podis ver este pequeo cdigo de barras amarillo cerca de adenovirus. +De la misma forma, las infectamos con parainfluenza-3 - esto es un paramyxovirus - y podis ver el cdigo de barras aqu. +Y tambin lo hicimos con el virus sincicial respiratorio +Que es la peste de los centros materno-infantiles en todas partes. Es como una epidemia de mocos, realmente +Se puede ver - podis ver que este cdigo de barras est en la misma familia. pero es distinto de la parainfluenza-3 que te causa un resfriado muy fuerte +As que estamos obteniendo diferentes firmas - una "huella dactilar" de cada virus +Polio y Rhino - estn en la misma familia, muy prximos el uno al otro +El Rhinovirus es la causa del resfriado comn, y todos sabis lo que es la polio y podis ver que las firmas son diferentes. +Y el virus del sarcoma de Kaposi da una bonita firma aqu abajo +De forma que no es una nica banda o algo lo que dice que tengo un virus de un tipo particular; es el cdigo de barras en completo el que representa al virus en su totalidad. +Bien, puedo ver un rhinovirus y aqu est el pequeo cdigo de barras del rhinovirus expandido... pero, qu pasa con los diferentes rhinovirus? +Cmo s qu tipo de rhinovirus tengo? +Hay 102 variantes conocidas del resfriado comn, y slo hay 102 porque la gente se aburri de recolectarlas: hay simplemente nuevas todos los aos +As que, aqu tenemos cuatro rhinovirus diferentes y como podis ver, incluso simplemente mirando, sin ninguna clase de software de reconocimiento de patrones o algoritmos complejos que los cdigos de barras se diferencian entre s. +Bueno, esto es probablemente algo fcil de decir porque yo s cul es la secuencia gentica de todos estos rhinovirus, y de hecho yo dise el chip especficamente para ser capaz de diferenciarlos, pero qu pasa con los rhinovirus que nunca han visto un secuenciador gentico? +No sabemos cul es la secuencia: simplemente los recogemos del ambiente. +As que - aqu hay cuatro rhinovirus de los cuales nunca hemos sabido nada anteriormente - de hecho nunca nadie los haba secuenciado previamente; podis ver que se obtienen patrones nicos y diferenciados para cada uno de ellos. +Os podis imaginar construyendo una especie de librera - real o virtual de "huellas dactilares" de todos los virus +Pero, de todas formas, eso es pan comido ... +tenemos clulas cultivadas, hay una multitud de virus. +Qu pasa con las personas reales? +No se puede controlar a las personas reales, como probablemente sepis +No tenis ni idea de lo que alguien puede echar al estornudar en una taza y probablemente sea bastante complejo, verdad? +Podra tener muchas bacterias, podra tener ms de un virus y ciertamente tiene un montn de material gentico de la propia persona +as que .. cmo nos las apaamos con esto? +Y cmo ejercemos algn tipo de control positivo aqu? +Bueno, es bastante sencillo +Este soy yo, sufriendo una lavativa nasal. +La idea es - vamos a inocular a la gente experimentalmente con algunos virus +as que - esto todo est aprobado, por cierto, todos ellos cobraron por esto - +as que bsicamente inoculamos experimentalmente a gente con el virus del resfriado comn +o incluso mejor, cojamos gente directamente de las urgencias con infecciones indefinidas del tracto respiratorio. +No tenemos ni idea de lo que entra por la puerta. +De forma que comencemos primero con un control positivo - donde conocemos que la persona estaba sana +Inoculamos a la persona a travs de la nariz con el virus y veamos qu pasa. +En el da cero : nada especial +Estn sanos, estn limpios - es increble. +nosotros realmente pensbamos que el tracto nasal estara lleno de virus incluso cuando uno est sano. +Pero est bastante limpio: Si ests sano, ests realmente sano. +Da dos : obtenemos un patrn muy fuerte tpico de un rhinovirus y muy similar a lo que obtuvimos en el laboratorio durante nuestro experimento con las clulas cultivadas. +As que eso est genial, pero fue fcil. +Metimos una tonelada de virus por la nariz de este chico, as que - quiero decir, queramos que funcionara.. El realmente tuvo un buen resfriado. +Pero, qu pasa con la gente que viene directamente de la calle? +Aqu tenemos a dos individuos representados por sus cdigos de identificacin annimos +Ambos tienen rhinovirus; nunca hemos visto este patrn en el laboratorio. +Hemos secuenciado parte de su virus; son rhinovirus nuevos que nunca nadie ha visto anteriormente. +Recordemos que nuestras secuencias estables evolutivamente son las que estamos utilizando en este chip para detectar incluso virus nuevos o no caracterizados porque nos fijamos en aquello que se conserva a travs de su evolucin. +Aqu tenemos a otra persona. Vosotros mismos podis jugar al juego del diagnstico. +Cada uno de estos bloques diferentes representan diferentes virus de la familia de los paramyxovirus de forma que podemos ir a lo largo de la lista y ver dnde est la seal. +Bien, no tiene moquillo canino, lo cual probablemente sea bueno +para cuando hayamos llegado al bloque nuevo veremos que tiene un virus sincicial respiratorio +A lo mejor tienen hijos. Y podemos ver tambin el miembro de la familia que est relacionado. El RSVB (Virus Sincicial Respiratorio B) aparece aqu tambin... +Esto est muy bien. +Aqu tenemos a otra persona, con muestras tomadas en dos das diferentes en visitas diferentes a la clnica +Esta persona tiene virus paragripal 1 y podis ver que hay una pequea banda aqu para el virus Sendai - este es el virus Sendai - el virus paragripal de los ratones +sus relaciones genticas son muy prximas. Esto es verdaderamente divertido. +As que, construimos el chip. +Construimos un chip que tiene sobre l todos los virus que han sido descubiertos. +Por qu no? Cada virus de planta, cada virus de insecto, cada virus marino. +Todo lo que pudimos extraer de GenBank - es decir, el almacn nacional de secuencias. +Y ahora estamos utilizando este chip. Para qu lo utilizamos? +Bueno, en primer lugar, cuando tenemos un chip tan grande como este necesitamos un poco ms de informtica, as que diseamos al sistema para hacer diagnsticos automticos. +Y este es el aspecto que tiene. +Por ejemplo, si hemos utilizado un cultivo de clulas con una infeccin crnica de papiloma se obtiene una pequea lectura computerizada y nuestro algoritmo indica que probablemente se trate de papiloma del tipo 18. +Y, de hecho, esto es precisamente el tipo de papiloma con el cual este cultivo en particular estaba crnicamente infectado. +As que vamos a hacer algo un poco ms difcil. +Vamos a colocar nuestro sistema en la clnica. +De forma que cuando alguien aparece y el hospital no sabe lo que hacer porque no pueden diagnosticarlo, nos pueden llamar. +Esa es la idea, y estamos implantndola en el rea de la Baha de San Francisco. +Por ejemplo, este caso ocurri hace tres semanas. +Tenemos una mujer de 28 aos, sana, sin historial de viajes no fuma, no bebe +una historia de fiebres durante 10 das, sudores nocturnos, expectoracin con sangre est literalmente tosiendo sangre - dolores musculares. +Fue a la clnica y le dieron antibiticos. Bien, y la mandaron a casa. +Volvi diez das ms tarde, todava con fiebre y adems hipxica - no tiene mucho oxgeno en sus pulmones. +Le hicieron una tomografa +Un pulmn normal es generalmente negro y oscuro +y todas estas cosas blancas - no son buena seal. +Este tipo de formacin semejante a un rbol indica que hay inflamacin que es probablemente una infeccin. +OK, as que al paciente se le administra entonces un antibitico de tercera generacin basado en la cefalosporina, y doxiciclina pero no ayud. Al tercer da, la paciente lleg al fallo respiratorio agudo. +Tuvo que ser intubada, as que le pusieron un tubo en la garganta y comenzaron a ventilarla mecnicamente. +Ya no era capaz de respirar por s misma. +Qu hacer a continuacin? Ni idea. +Cambiar de antibiticos, as que le administraron otro antibitico, as como Tamiflu, aunque +no est claro por qu pensaban que ella tena la gripe, pero el caso es que cambiaron a Tamiflu. +Y al sexto da, bsicamente tiraron la toalla. +Se hace una biopsia a pulmn abierto cuando ya no quedan ms opciones. +Hay un ndice de mortandad del 8% simplemente por hacer este procedimiento. as que bsicamente - qu obtuvieron de la biopsia? +Aqu podis ver el resultado de su biopsia. +Yo no soy ningn patlogo, pero no se puede decir mucho a partir de este resultado. +Lo nico que se puede decir, es que hay mucha inflamacin - bronquiolitis +Resultado indeterminado, este fue el informe del patlogo. +As que, qu tests le hicieron? +Ellos tenan sus propias pruebas, por supuesto as que probaron ms de 70 ensayos diferentes para cada tipo de bacteria, hongo o virus para el que se pudiera comprar un ensayo SARS, metapneumovirus, VIH, RSV - todos estos +Todo sali negativo. Ms de 100.000 dlares de pruebas. +Quiero decir, ellos realmente lo intentaron todo con esta mujer. +Y al octavo da, nos llamaron. +Nos dieron un aspirado endotraqueal esto es, el pequeo fluido del interior de la garganta a partir de este tubo aqu abajo, y nos lo dieron +Lo colocamos sobre el chip y que vemos? - El virus paragripal 4 +Qu diablos es el virus paragripal 4? +Nadie nunca hace pruebas para el virus paragripal 4. A nadie le importa. +De hecho, ni siquiera est muy secuenciado genticamente +Hay solo una pequea parte de l secuenciada. +Apenas hay estudios epidemiolgicos sobre l. +Nadie nunca lo hubiese considerado, porque nadie saba que poda causar un fallo respiratorio agudo. +Y por qu? Simplemente folklore. No hay datos - no hay ningn tipo de datos para decir si causa enfermedades agudas o suaves. +Claramente, tenemos un caso de una persona sana que se est yendo. +Bien, este es un ejemplo. +Os voy a decir una ltima cosa en estos dos ltimos minutos, algo que todava no est publicado - aparecer maana y es un caso interesante sobre cmo se puede utilizar este chip para encontrar algo nuevo y abrir una nueva puerta. +Cncer de prstata. No necesito daros muchas estadsticas sobre el cncer de prstata. Muchos de vosotros ya las conocis: es la tercera causa de muerte por cncer en los EEUU +Muchos factores de riesgo, pero hay una predisposicin gentica al cncer de prstata. +Para aproximadamente 10% de los casos de cncer de prstata hay personas que estn predispuestas a l. +Y el primer gen que fue mapeado en los estudios para este cncer de prstata de aparicin temprana, fue un gen llamado RNASEL. +Qu es esto? Es una enzima defensiva antiviral. +De forma que, estamos sentados aqu pensando : Por qu hombres que tienen esta mutacin, un defecto en una enzima antiviral, desarrollan cncer de prstata? +No tiene mucho sentido - salvo que, posiblemente, haya un virus. +As que pusimos tumores - ahora tenemos ms de 100 tumores - en nuestro chip +Y podemos saber quin tiene defectos en el gen RNASEL y quin no. +Y aqu os muestro el seal del chip y aqu tenemos el bloque de los oligos retrovirales +Y lo que quiero deciros aqu a partir de esta seal es, que los hombres que tienen una mutacin en su enzima defensiva y que adems tienen un tumor, habitualmente tienen - en el 40% de los casos - una seal que revela un nuevo tipo de retrovirus. +OK, esto es muy prometedor. Qu podemos hacer? +Clonamos el virus completo. +En primer lugar, quiero deciros que una prediccin automatizada nos adelant que es muy similar a un virus de los ratones. +Pero eso no nos dice realmente mucho, as que clonamos todo el virus +y este es el genoma viral que os muestro aqu. +Es un genoma clsico de un retrovirus, pero es completamente nuevo: nunca nadie lo ha visto antes. +Su pariente ms cercano, de hecho, procede de los ratones as que este sera un virus xenotrpico porque est infectando a especies distintas de los ratones. +Y este es su pequeo rbol filogentico, donde podemos ver cmo est relacionado con otros viruses. +Y lo hemos hecho para muchos pacientes y podemos decir que son infecciones independientes. +Todos tienen el mismo virus, pero son suficientemente diferentes, de forma que hay base para pensar que han sido adquiridos de forma independiente. +Est realmente en los tejidos? Y finalizar con esto. S. +Tomamos porciones de estas biopsias de tejido tumoral y utilizamos mtodos para localizar realmente el virus, y encontramos clulas aqu con partculas virales en ellas. +Estos chicos realmente tienen el virus. +Causa este virus cncer de prstata? +No lo s. Nada de lo que estoy diciendo aqu implica causalidad. +Es un sntoma de oncognesis? No lo s. +O puede ser que simplemente esta gente es ms susceptible al virus? +Puede ser. Y puede ser que no tenga nada que ver con el cncer. +Pero es una puerta. +Tenemos una asociacin fuerte entre la presencia de este virus y una mutacin gentica vinculada al cncer. +As que aqu es donde estamos. +Me temo que eso nos da ms preguntas que respuestas. pero esto es precisamente aquello en lo que la ciencia es realmente buena. +Todo esto se ha hecho por los chicos del laboratorio; yo realmente no puedo atribuirme la mayor parte. +Esta es una colaboracin entre Don y yo +Este es el chico que comenz el proyecto en mi laboratorio y este es el que realizaba las investigaciones sobre la prstata. +Muchas gracias +Voy a empezar simplemente con un poco de msica. Gracias! Me quit los zapatos para bailar, pero tal vez vuelva a eso luego. +En fin, yo... por dnde empezar? +El idioma tradicional es el galico, pero mucha de la msica proviene del galico, y el baile, el canto y todo y mi sangre es escocesa de cabo a rabo, pero mi madre y mi padre son dos personas muy, muy musicales. +Mi madre me ense a bailar cuando tena cinco aos, y mi padre me ense a tocar el violn cuando tena nueve. +Mi to es un violinista muy conocido en el Cabo Bretn. +Se llama Buddy MacMaster, y es un hombre maravilloso. Tenemos una gran tradicin en casa que se llama Square dance, en la cual organizbamos grandes fiestas en nuestra casa y en la de los vecinos, y se hablaba de cilidhs en la cocina. +He grabado muchos CDs. +As que le pregunt a Natalie, qu debo hacer? +y ella me dijo: "simplemente habla de ti mismo". +Es algo aburrido, pero solo les contar un poco de mi familia. Soy uno de 11 hermanos y hermanas, soy de Lakefield, Ontario, a una hora y media al noreste de Toronto, y crecimos en una granja. +Mam y pap criaban ganado vacuno, y yo soy el mayor de los hombres. +Tengo cuatro hermanas un poco mayores que yo. +Crecimos sin televisin. +A la gente le parece extrao, pero creo que fue una gran bendicin para nosotros. +Tuvimos un televisor por algunos aos, pero claro, perdamos mucho tiempo y no hacamos el trabajo, as que, fuera la televisin. +Crecimos tocando... Mi madre es de Cabo Bretn, casualmente. +Mi madre y la madre de Natalie se conocan Crecimos tocando, y bailbamos juntos, as es, s. +Crecimos tocando una serie de... tocbamos de odo y creo que eso es importante para nosotros porque en realidad no tuvimos mucho contacto con otros estilos de msica. +As es como nos conocimos. Cuntaselo t. NM: Quieres o no? Supongo que ahora tengo que hacerlo. +Tampoco hubiera imaginado que 12 aos, digo, 20 aos despus sus hijos terminaran casados. Pero en fin, luego recib una llamada, no s, como siete aos despus. Yo tena 19 aos, estaba en primer o segundo ao de carrera. Era Donnell, y me dijo: "Hola, probablemente no me conozcas pero me llamo Donnell Leahy". +Y le dije: "Te conozco. +Tengo una cinta tuya en casa". +Y l dijo: "Bueno, estoy en Truro", que es donde yo estaba, y me invit a cenar. +Eso es todo. Luego Sigo? Luego estuvimos saliendo dos aos, rompimos, y 10 aos despus volvimos y nos casamos. DL: En fin, se nos acaba el tiempo, as que ir al grano. +Voy a tocarles una pieza. +En realidad he elegido una pieza escocesa. +Empieza con un aire lento. +Los aires se tocaban en Europa en los entierros, mientras transportaban el cuerpo del velorio al cementerio. La procesin era dirigida por un gaitero o un violinista. +Voy a tocar brevemente una parte del aire, y despus voy a meterme en una meloda un tanto loca que es muy difcil de tocar cuando no has calentado, as que si lo estropeo, finjan que les gusta de todas formas. Se llama The Banks. +NM: Bueno, ahora vamos a tocar una juntos. Nos remos porque nuestros estilos son totalmente diferentes, como pueden comprobar. +Y entonces ya saben, Donnell y yo estamos en realidad en el proceso de componer nuevas piezas juntos que podemos tocar, pero no tenemos ninguna lista. +Apenas empezamos ayer. De todos modos vamos a tocar algo juntos. +DL: En un minuto. +NM: En un minuto. +(Reaccin del pblico) DL: T empiezas. NM: No, t empiezas, porque tienes que hacer tu parte. +No estoy afinada. Espera. +NM: Creo que estoy en la postura del pato o del pjaro. (El pblico acompaa con las palmas) Presentador: Buenas noticias, se retrasan abajo. +Tenemos otros 10 minutos. +NM: Ok. Claro. +De acuerdo, est bien. +Sigamos. DL: Qu quieres tocar? +NM: Bueno, mmm... +NM: Ah, claro. +DL: A qu ritmo? +NM: No demasiado rpido. +(El pblico acompaa con las palmas) (El pblico acompaa con las palmas) DL: Vamos a tocar una meloda y Natalie me va a acompaar con el piano. +La forma de tocar el piano del Cabo Bretn es asombrosa. Es muy rtmico y lo van a ver. +Era el nico piano en la regin, y mam dijo que poda tocar tan pronto como llegara, porque haba aprendido todos estos ritmos. En fin, encontramos el piano el ao pasado y pudimos traerlo de vuelta a casa. Lo compramos. +Haba pasado como por cinco o seis familias, y fue una gran cosa para nosotros, y de hecho encontramos una vieja foto de alguien y su familia hace aos. +En fin, estoy cotorreando. +NM: No, quiero que les cuentes lo de Leahy. +DL: El qu de Leahy? NM: Solo diles lo que... DL: Quiere que les hable de eso Tenamos un grupo llamado Leahy. +Somos 11 hermanos. Nosotros, umm... Qu les cuento? Abrimos... NM: Sin ciruga. +DL: Sin ciruga, oh s. +Tuvimos una gran oportunidad. +Abrimos para Shania Twain durante dos aos en su tour internacional. +Fue algo grande para nosotros, y ahora todas mis hermanas estn teniendo bebs y los chicos se estn casando, as que nos quedamos cerca de casa, creo, por otro par de semanas. +Qu puedo decir? No s qu decir, Natalie. Nosotros, eh... NM: En esto consiste el matrimonio? +Tocamos una meloda? +NM: Funcion. DL: Funcion. +Lo siento, no quiero seguir... +Este es nuestro ltimo nmero y Nat interpretar el piano. +Ok, toca en... qu tal en La? +Fue cuando tena 15 aos que me interes por primera vez la energa solar. +Mi familia se haba mudado de Fort Lee, New Jersey a California, y nos mudamos de la nieve a mucho calor, y tuberas de gas. +Hubo racionamiento de gas en 1973. +La crisis energtica estaba en pleno apogeo. +Comenc a leer la revista Popular Science, y me motiv mucho el potencial de la energa solar para intentar resolver la crisis. +Acababa de cursar trigonometra en la secundaria, Aprend acerca de la parbola y cmo ella puede concentrar rayos de luz en un solo foco. +Eso me emocion mucho. +Y de verdad sent que habra potencial para construir alguna cosa que pudiera concentrar luz. +Entonces, inici la compaa llamada Solar Devices. +Era una compaa donde construa parbolas, llev curso de taller mecnico, y recuerdo empezar taller mecnico construyendo parbolas y motores Stirling. +Y estaba construyendo un motor Stirling en el torno, y todos los ciclista-- motociclistas -- se acercaron y dijeron "Ests construyendo un BONG, verdad?" +Y dije "No, es un motor Stirling. Eso es." +Pero no me creyeron. +Vend los planos de este motor y de este plato en el reverso de la revista Popular Science, por cuatro dlares cada uno. +Y gan suficiente dinero para pagar mi primer ao en Caltech. +Fue una gran emocin para m entrar a Caltech. +Y en mi primer ao en Caltech, continu con el negocio. +Pero despus, en el segundo ao de Caltech, empezaron a asignar calificaciones. +Todo el primer ao fue aprobado/reprobado, pero el segundo ao fue con calificaciones. +No pude seguir con el negocio, y termin con un desvo de 25 aos. +Mi sueo haba sido el de convertir energa solar a un costo muy prctico, pero entonces tuve este gran desvo. +Primero, la carga acadmica en Caltech. +Despus, cuando me gradu de Caltech, sali la PC de IBM, y me volv adicto a la IBM PC en 1981. +Y despus en 1983, sali Lotus 1-2-3, y Lotus 1-2-3 me dej sin palabras. +Empec a operar mi negocio con 1-2-3, empec a escribir add-ins para 1-2-3, escrib una interface de lenguaje natural para 1-2-3. +Empec una compaa de software educacional despus de unirme a Lotus. Y despus empec Idealab, para tener un lugar donde pudiera establecer mltiples compaas una tras otra. Mucho despus -- en 2000, recientemente, la nueva crisis energtica de California - o lo que aparentaba ser una gran crisis energtica -- estaba por venir. +Y yo trataba de encontrar una manera en que pudieramos construir algo que pudiera sacar provecho de ello y tratar de hacer que la gente respaldara energa, en caso de que la crisis en verdad sucediera. +Y empec a ver cmo podamos construir sistemas de respaldo por batera que le proporcionaran a la gente cinco horas, diez horas, quizs hasta un da entero, o tres das de energa de respaldo. +Me alegra que hayan escuchado ms temprano, las bateras son una energa increible -- adolecen de densidad comparadas con la gasolina. +As que mucha ms energa se puede almacenar con gasolina que con bateras. +Tendras que llenar todo el espacio de una cochera slo para tener cuatro horas de respaldo de energa. +Y conlu, luego de investigar todas las dems tecnologas que se podan encontrar para guardar energa -- volantes de inercia, diferentes conceptualizaciones de bateras -- simplemente no era prctico almacenar energa. +Y si hacemos energa? +Tal vez podramos hacer energa. +Intent descifrarlo -- tal vez la energa solar se ha hecho atractiva. +Han transcurrido 25 aos desde que haca esto, regresar y ver qu ha estado pasando con las celdas solares. +Y el precio haba bajado de 10 dlares por watt a unos cuatro o cinco dlares por watt, pero se estabiliz. +Y de verdad deba bajar ms que eso para que fuera rentable. +Estudi todo lo nuevo que haba sucedido con las celdas solares y trataba de ver cmo se poda innovar y hacer celdas solares econmicamente. +Hay muchas cosas que estn sucediendo para hacer eso, pero fundamentalmente el proceso requiere una tremenda cantidad de energa. +Alguna gente dice que se requiere ms energa para fabricar una celda solar que la que dar en toda su vida. +Con suerte, si podemos reducir la cantidad de energa necesaria para fabricar las celdas, eso ser ms prctico. +Pero, por ahora, se tiene que tomar silicio, meterlo en un horno a 1600 grados Fahrenheit por 17 horas, para fabricar las celdas. +Mucha gente est trabajando en tratar de reducirlo, pero yo no tena nada para contribuir en esa rea. +As que intent descifrar qu podamos intentar para hacer rentable la electricidad solar. +Esto pareca prctico, ya que muchas tecnologas nuevas haban aparecido en los 25 aos desde la ltima vez que lo vi. +Primero, haban muchas nuevas tcnicas de manufactura, sin mencionar, motores miniatura muy econmicos -- motores elctricos sin escobillas, servomotores, motores de pasos, que son utilizados en impresores, escneres y cosas por el estilo. +Eso es un gran adelanto. +Desde luego, microprocesadores econmicos y luego un avance muy importante -- los algoritmos genticos. +Ser muy breve con los algoritmos genticos. +Es una manera muy poderosa de resolver problemas intratables utilizando seleccin natural. +Tomas un problema que no puedes resolver con una respuesta puramente matemtica, construyes un sistema evolutivo para tratar mltiples conjeturas, agregas sexo -- donde tomas la mitad de una solucin, la mitad de otra y despus haces nuevas mutaciones -- y utilizas seleccin natural para descartar soluciones no tan buenas. +Usualmente, con un algoritmo gentico en una computadora ahora, con un procesador de tres gigahertz puedes resolver muchos problemas que antes eran intratables en cuestin de minutos. +Intentamos encontrar una manera de usar algoritmos genticos para craer un nuevo tipo de concentrador. +Y les ensear lo que se nos ocurri. +Tradicionalmente, los concentradores se ven algo as. +Esas formas son parbolas. +Toman todos los rayos paralelos entrantes y los enfocan en un solo punto. +Deben seguir al sol, porque deben estar apuntando directamente al sol. +Usualmente tienen un ngulo de aceptacin de un grado, lo que quiere decir que una vez que estn a ms de un grado de desalineamiento, ninguno de los rayos del sol alcanzarn el foco. +As que tratamos de encontrar una manera de hacer un colector no rastreador, un colector que recolectara mucho ms que un grado de luz, sin partes mviles +Y esta es la forma que se desarroll. +As que para luz directa, toma slo un rebote, para luz desalineada del eje puede tomar dos, y cuando est demasiado desalineada, puede tomar tres. +La eficiencia disminuye con los rebotes adicionales, pues se pierde cerca del 10 por ciento con cada rebote. Pero esto nos permiti recolectar luz desde un ngulo de mas o menos 25 grados. +Entonces, alrededor de dos horas y media del da podamos recolectar con un componente estacionario. +Sin embargo, las celdas solares captan luz durante cuatro horas y media. +En un da promedio, una celda solar -- debido al movimiento del sol a travs del cielo, la celda solar decae con una funcin sinusoidal de rendimiento en los ngulos fuera de eje. +Capta cerca de cuatro horas y media de luz solar durante el da. +Por tanto, aunque era maravilloso sin partes que se movieran -- podamos lograr altas temperaturas -- no era suficiente. +Necesitbamos derrotar a las celdas solares. +Entonces, pensamos en otra idea. +Vimos cmo separar una parbola en ptalos individuales que rastrearamos. +As que lo que ven aqu son 12 ptalos separados, que cada uno podra ser controlado con microprocesadores individuales que costaran solamente un dlar. +Ahora se puede comprar un microprocesador de 2 MHz por US$1. +Y por US$1 tambin se pueden comprar motores paso a paso que casi no se desgastan porque no tienen escobillas. +Podemos controlar los doce ptalos por menos de US$50 y lo que esto nos permitira hacer es no tener que mover el foco nunca ms si no, mover solamente los ptalos. +El sistema completo tendra un perfil mucho menor pero tambin podramos recibir luz solar por 6,5 a 7 horas por da. +Ahora que hemos concentrado la luz solar, qu vamos a poner en el centro para convertir la luz solar en electricidad? +Tratamos de observar los distintos motores trmicos que han sidos utilizados histricamente para tratar y convertir luz solar en electricidad, o calor en electricidad. +Y uno de los grandes de todos los tiempos, la mquina a vapor de 1788 James Watt fue una gran innovacin. +En realidad, James Watt no invent el motor a vapor, l slo lo mejor. +Pero, sus mejoras fueron increbles. +Watt agreg nuevas guas longitudinales a los pistones, agreg un condensador para enfriar el vapor fuera del cilindro, hizo el motor de doble efecto, con lo cual tena el doble de poder. +Esas eran grandes innovaciones. +Quiero decir, por todas las mejoras que l hizo -- es justificable que nuestra medida de energa, el watt, hoy se llame as en honor a l. +Entonces, observamos este motor, y tena algo de potencial. +Los motores a vapor son peligrosos, y han tenido un tremendo impacto en el mundo, como Uds. saben -- revolucin industrial y barcos y locomotoras. +Son usualmente buenos al ser motores grandes, Pero no lo son para la generacin de energa distribuda. +Trabajan a muy alta presin, por lo que son peligrosos +Otro tipo de motor es el motor de aire caliente. +El motor de aire caliente tampoco fue inventado por Robert Stirling, Robert Stirling apareci en 1816 y lo mejor radicalmente. +Este motor -- era muy interesante, trabajaba con slo aire, no con vapor, ha llevado a cientos de diseos creativos a lo largo de los aos que usan el principio del motor Stirling. +Pero despus del motor Stirling, lleg Otto, y l tampoco invent en motor de combustin interna, slo lo refin. +Lo present en Paris en el ao 1867, y fue un logro grandioso porque aument sustancialmente la potencia especfica del motor. +Ahora se poda ahora obetner mucha ms potencia en un espacio mucho menor y eso permiti que el motor fuera utilizado en aplicaciones mviles. +Una vez que se obtuvo movilidad, se comenzaron a fabricar ms motores, en contraste con los pocos que se fabricaban para barcos a vapor o grandes industrias, entonces este fue el motor que termin entregando beneficios de la produccin en masa donde los dems motores no lo hicieron. +Dado que el motor Otto se comenz a producir en masa, los costos se redujeron, cien aos de perfeccionamiento, las emisiones se redujeron, tremendo valor de produccin. +Se han fabricado cientos de millones de motores de combustin interna, comparados con los miles de motores Stirling producidos. +Y muchos menos pequeos motores a vapor, slo los grandes para grandes operaciones +Por lo tanto, despus de mirar estos tres motores, y otros 47, conclumos que el motor Stirliing sera el mejor a utilizar. +Quiero darles una breve explicacin de cmo lo analizamos y de cmo funciona. +Observamos el motor Stirling de una manera nueva, porque era prctico -- el peso ya no importaba para nuestra aplicacin El motor de combustin interna fue descartado porque el peso era relevante porque tenamos que moverlo. +Pero si ests intentando generar energa solar en un lugar esttico el peso no importa mucho. +La otra cosa que descubrimos es que la eficiencia no importaba demasiado si la fuente de energa es gratis. +Normalmente, la eficiencia es crucial porque el costo del combustible del motor sobre su vida til reduce el costo del motor. +Pero si la fuente de la energa es gratis, entonces la nica cosa que importa es el costo del la inversin en el motor. +Por tanto no quieres optimizar por eficiencia, quieres optimizar por potencia por dlar. +Entonces, utilizando este nueva perspectiva, con el nuevo criterio, pensamos que podamos volver a considerar el motor Stirling, y adems incorporar algortmos genticos. +Bsicamente, Robert Stirling no tuvo a Gordon Moore antes de l para darle procesadores de tres gigahertz. +Y se es el proceso que seguimos -- djenme mostrarles cmo funciona el motor. +El ms simple motor de calor, o motor de aire caliente, de todos los tiempos sera as -- tomen una caja, un contenedor de acero y un pistn. +Coloquen una llama por debajo, el pistn se mueve hacia arriba. +Saquen la llama y agreguen agua, o djenlo enfriar, entonces el pistn se mueve hacia abajo. +Eso es un motor de calor. +Es el motor de calor ms elemental que se podra tener. +El problema es que la eficiencia es de 0.01% pues se est calentando todo el metal de la cmara y luego enfrindolo, en cada ciclo. +Y si se est obteniendo potencia solamente del aire que se calienta al mismo tiempo, se est desperdiciando toda esa energa al calentar y enfriar el metal. +Entonces apareci alguien con una idea muy ingeniosa, para -- en vez de calentar y enfriar todo el cilindro, qu pasa si colocamos un desplazador en el interior -- un pequeo elemento que mueva el aire hacia adelante y atrs. +Esto se mueve de arriba a abajo con un poco de energa pero ahora solamente estamos moviendo el aire hacia abajo a la parte caliente, y hacia arriba a la parte fra, hacia abajo a la parte caliente, y hacia arriba a la parte fra. +Entonces, ahora no estamos calentando y enfriando alternadamente el metal, solo estamos calentando y enfriando alternadamente el aire. +Eso permite subir la eficiencia, desde 0,01% a alrededor de 2%. +Y luego Robert Stirling apareci con esta genial idea, la cual era, bueno, sigo sin calentar el metal, con este tipo de motor, pero sigo recalentando todo el aire. +An seguimos calentando el aire y enfrindolo cada vez. +Qu pasara si pusiramos una esponja trmica en el medio, en la ruta por donde pasa el aire para ir de caliente a fro? +As que hizo finos alambres, y vidrio rajado, y otros materiales, Stirling confeccion una espoja que pudiera calentarse. +Entonces, cuando el aire subiera para ir desde el extremo clido al extremo fro la esponja retendra algo de calor. +Y cuando el aire regresara despus de haber sido enfriado recogera es calor nuevamente. +Entonces, emprendimos un camino para intentar hacerlo con el menor costo posible. +Desarrollamos un inmenso modelo matemtico de cmo funciona el motor Stirling. +Aplicamos el algoritmo gentico. +Obtuvimos de ah el resultado para el motor ptimo. +Construmos motores -- construmos unos cien motores distintos durante los ltimos dos aos. +Medimos cada uno, reajustamos el modelo a partir de lo que habamos medido, y luego lo llevamos al prototipo actual. +Llegamos a un motor muy compacto y econmico. Y as es como luce este motor. +Djenme mostrarles cmo se ve en la vida real. +Este es el motor. +Es slo un pequeo cilindro aqu abajo que sostiene el generador en su interior y todas las conexiones. y es la tapa caliente -- el cilindro caliente en el extremo superior -- esta parte se calienta, esta parte es fra, y sale la electricidad. +Lo contrario tambin es verdad. +Si agregamos electricidad, esto se calienta y esto se enfra, As, obtenemos refrigeracin. +Por tanto, es un ciclo completamente reversible. un ciclo muy eficiente, una cosa muy simple de fabricar. +Ahora ponemos las dos cosas juntas. +Y tenemos un motor, ahora qu pasa si combinamos los ptalos y el motor en el centro. +Los ptalos siguen el sol y el motor obtiene la luz solar concentrada, toma ese calor y lo convierte en electricidad. +As es como se vea el primer prototipo de nuestro sistema con los ptalos y el motor en el centro. +Esto est trabajando en el sol, y ahora quiero ahora mostrarles como se ve el diseo actual. +Gracias. +Esta es una unidad con los 12 ptalos. Cada ptalo cuesta alrededor de US$1 -- livianos, de plstico inyectado, aluminizados. +El mecanismo para controlar cada ptalo est ah abajo con un microprocesador en cada uno. +Hay termocuplas en el motor -- pequeos sensores que detectan el calor cuando los golpea la luz solar. +Cada ptalo se ajusta por s solo para mantener la ms alta temperatura en l. +No tienes que decirle en qu latitud o longitud te encuentras, no tienes que decirle cul es la inclinacin del techo, no tienes que decirle cul es la orientacin. +Realmente no importa. +Lo que hace es que buscar el lugar en que la luz entrega ms calor, busca de nuevo luego de media hora, busca de nuevo al da siguiente, busca de nuevo al mes siguiente. +Bsicamente, determina en qu lugar del planeta estas, observando la direccin en que se mueve el sol por lo tanto no tenemos que ingresarle dato alguno acerca de eso. +La manera en que la unidad trabaja es, cuando sale el sol el motor se encender y as obtendremos energa por ac. +Tenemos corriente alterna y corriente continua, tenemos 12 volts DC, que pueden ser utilizados para ciertas aplicaciones. +Tenemos un inversor ah, podemos obtener 117 volts AC +y adems podemos obtener agua caliente. +El agua caliente es opcional. +No tenemos que utilizar el agua caliente, se enfriar por s sola. +Pero podemos utilizarlo opcionalmente para calentar agua y eso aumentara la eficiencia an ms porque algo de ese calor que normalmente estaramos descartando, ahora puede ser usado como energa til, ya sea para una piscina o agua caliente. +Permtanme mostrarles una breve pelcula de cmo se ve funcionando. +Esta es la primera prueba que realizamos al aire libre y cada ptalo estaba buscando individualmente. +Y lo que hacen es moverse a pasos, muy toscamente al principio, y posteriormente de manera muy suave. +Una vez que obtienen la lectura de la termocupla indicando que encontraron el sol, sus movimientos se suavizan y realizan una bsqueda ms fina, luego todos los ptalos se movern a su posicin y entonces el motor se encender. +Hemos estado trabajando en esto durante los dos ltimos aos. +Estamos muy emocionados con el progreso, an cuando tenemos un largo camino por seguir y djenme contarles un poco ms acerca de ello. +As es como visualizamos que sera en una instalacin residencial probablemente tendras ms de una unidad en tu techo. +Podra ser en tu techo, en tu patio trasero, o en algn otro lugar. +No necesitas tener tantas unidades como para alimentar de energa toda la casa, solamente ahorras dinero con cada unidad adicional que agregas. +Bueno, an estaramos utilizando la red electrica normal, an con este tipo de aplicacin, para que sea un suministro de respaldo -- por supuesto, no se las puede utilizar en la noche, ni tampoco en das nublados. +Pero al reducir tu consumo de energa, sobretodo en pocas pico -- usualmente cuando se utiliza aire acondicionado, u otras pocas como esa -- esto genera el pico de energa en el momento del pico de utilizacin, por lo tanto es bastante complementario en ese sentido. +As es como visualizamos una aplicacin residencial. +Tambin pensamos que hay un gran potencial para granjas de energa especialmente en tierras lejanas donde resulta habiendo mucho sol. +Es una muy buena combinacin de estos dos factores. +Resulta que hay bastante sol poderoso alrededor del mundo, obviamente, pero en lugares especiales donde resulta relativamente econmico instalar este sistema y tambin en muchos otros lugares donde hay fuerte energa elica. +Un ejemplo de esto es, aqu est el mapa de Estados Unidos, +casi todos los lugares que no estn en verde o azul son lugares ideales, pero incluso las reas verdes o azules son buenas, solamente no tan buenas como los lugares que estn en rojo, naranjo o amarillo. +Pero el rea de alta temperatura cercana a Las Vegas o el Death Valley y esa rea es muy, muy buena. +Y lo que esto hace es afectar el tiempo de recuperacin de la inversin, no significa que no pudieras utilizar energa solar, puedes utilizar energa solar en cualquier parte de la Tierra. +Slo afecta el periodo de recuperacin de la inversin si lo comparamos con el abastecimiento de energa elctrica tradicional. +Pero si no tienes abastecimiento de energa elctrica tradicional, entonces la cuestin sobre el periodo de recuperacin de la inversin cambia totalmente. +Es cuntos watts obtenemos por cada dlar, y cmo podras beneficiarte al utilizar esa energa para cambiar tu vida de alguna manera. +Este es el mapa de los Estados Unidos. +Este es el mapa de toda la Tierra y nuevamente, podemos ver una enorme franja en el medio donde principalmente est gran parte de la poblacin, que presenta tremendas oportunidades para la energa solar. +Y por supuesto, miren frica. +Es casi increble el potencial para aprovechar la energa solar all, y estoy realmente emocionado de hablar ms acerca de encontrar formas en las que podemos ayudar con eso. +Como conclusin, dira que mi recorrido me ha mostrado que se pueden volver a consultar viejas ideas con una nueva perspectiva, y algunas veces ideas que han sido descartadas en el pasado pueden ser prcticas ahora si aplicamos algunas nuevas tecnologas o nuevos giros. +Cremos que nos estamos acercando a algo prctico y econmico. +Nuestra meta de corto plazo es costar la mitad del precio de las celdas solares y nuestra meta de largo plazo es tener un periodo de recuperacin de la inversin menor a cinco aos. +Y a menos de cinco aos de recuperacin del capital invertido, sbitamente esto resulta muy econmico. Entonces, no necesitas slamente desear sentirte bien con respecto a la energa para querer tener uno de estos. +Simplemente hace sentido econmico. +Ahora mismo, los periodos de recuperacin de capital invertido en energa solar son de entre 30 y 50 aos. +Si los reducimos debajo de los cinco aos entonces resulta perfectamente obvio por el inters en tener uno -- alguien te lo financiar y Ud. puede ganar dinero, bsicamente desde el primer da. +Esta es nuestra verdadera y poderosa meta a la cual estamos apuntando en la compaa. +Otras dos cosas que aprend que fueron muy sorprendentes para m -- una fue qu tan cotidianos somos acerca de la energa. +Yo estaba viniendo desde el ascensor hasta aqu, y an mirando hacia el escenario en este momento -- hay probablemente 20.500 watts en luces en este mismo instante. +Hay 10.000 watts de luz derramndose en el escenario, un caballo de vapor is 756 watts, a pleno poder. +As que hay bsicamente 15 caballos corriendo a toda velocidad para mantener el escenario iluminado. +Sin mencionar los 200 caballos que estn probablemente corriendo ahora mismo para hacer funcionar el aire acondicionado. +Y es asombroso, entras al ascensor y hay luces encendidas en el ascensor. +Por supuesto ahora, soy muy sensible en casa cuando dejamos luces encendidas por error. +Pero, alrededor nuestro tenemos un uso insaciable de energa porque es muy barata. +Y es barata porque hemos sido subsidiados por energa que ha sido concentrada por el sol. +Bsicamente, el petrleo es energa solar concentrada. +Ha sido acuado por mucha energa durante mil millones de aos para lograr que tenga toda esa energa contenida en el. +Y no tenemos el derecho inalienable para gastarla tan rpido como podamos, creo yo. +Y sera grandioso si pudiramos encontrar la manera hacer renovable nuestro uso de energa, en donde mientras la vamos utilizando la vamos creando al mismo tiempo, y realmente espero que podamos lograrlo. +Muchas gracias, han sido una maravillosa audiencia. +La semana pasada escrib una carta sobre el trabajo de la fundacin contando algunos de los problemas. +Y Warren Buffet me lo haba recomendado antes, ser honesto acerca de lo que va bien y lo que no, y hacerlo anualmente. +Me puse como objetivo involucrar a ms gente en esos problemas, porque pienso que hay muchos problemas importantes que no se resuelven por s solos. +El mercado no hace que los cientficos, los comunicadores, los pensadores, los gobiernos hagan las cosas correctas. +Y slo prestando atencin a estas cosas y poniendo a gente brillante que se preocupa e involucra a otros es que podemos progresar como necesitamos. +As esta maana, voy a compartir dos de estos problemas y comentarles su estado. +Pero antes de profundizar en eso debo admitir que soy un optimista. +Pienso que cualquier problema difcil puede resolverse. +Y parte de la razn que me hace sentir as es mirar el pasado. +En el siglo pasado la expectativa de vida media fue ms que duplicada +Otra estadstica, quiz mi favorita, es la de mortalidad infantil. +En 1960 nacieron 110 millones de nios de los cuales murieron 20 millones antes de los 5 aos. +Hace cinco aos nacieron 135 millones de nios, muchos ms que antes, de los cuales murieron 10 millones antes de los 5 aos. +Es una reduccin a la mitad de la tasa de mortalidad infantil. +Es algo fenomenal. +Cada una de esas vidas importa mucho. +Y la razn fundamental de esto es, no slo el alza de ingresos, sino algunos adelantos clave: El uso ms difundido de las vacunas. +Por ejemplo, el sarampin provocaba 4 millones de muertes en 1990 y ahora est debajo de 400.000. +Entonces realmente podemos hacer cambios. +El prximo avance es reducir esos 10 millones a la mitad otra vez. +Y pienso que eso es realizable en menos de 20 aos. +Por qu? Hay slo unas pocas enfermedades que provocan la mayora de esas muertes y son: la diarrea, la neumona y la malaria. +Esto nos lleva al primer problema planteado esta maana, y es Cmo podemos detener una enfermedad mortal transmitida por los mosquitos? +Cul es la historia de esta enfermedad? +Ha sido una enfermedad grave durante miles de aos. +De hecho, si miramos el cdigo gentico, es la nica enfermedad que podemos ver que la gente que viva en frica realmente tuvo cambios evolutivos para evitar las muertes por malaria. +Las muertes llegaron a un mximo alrededor de los 5 millones en los aos 30. +Fue algo absolutamente gigantesco. +Y la enfermedad estaba esparcida por el mundo. +Una enfermedad espantosa. Estaba en Estados Unidos, en Europa. +La gente no saba qu la causaba hasta principios de 1900, cuando un militar britnico se dio cuenta que eran los mosquitos. +Estaba en todos lados. +Y dos herramientas ayudaron a disminuir la tasa de mortalidad. +Una fue matar los mosquitos con DDT. +La otra fue tratar a los pacientes con quinina o sus derivados. +As fue como la tasa de mortalidad descendi. +La irona fue que lo que sucedi es que fue eliminada de las zonas templadas, es decir, donde se encuentran los pases ricos. +Entonces veamos: en 1900 est en todos lados. +En 1945 est an en muchos lugares. +En 1970 Estados Unidos y la mayora de Europa la haban erradicado. +En 1990 la vemos en la mayora de las reas del norte. +Y ms recientemente, pueden verlo, est alrededor del Ecuador. +Y esto nos lleva a la paradoja que dado que la enfermedad est en los pases pobres, no recibe mucha inversin. +Un ejemplo, se dedica ms dinero a remedios contra la calvicie que contra la malaria. +La calvicie es algo terrible. +Los ricos son afectados. +Y eso explica la asignacin de prioridades. +Pero la malaria incluso el milln de muertes que provoca la malaria subestima su impacto. +Ms de 200 millones de personas sufre en algn momento de este mal. +Eso significa que las economas de estas reas no progresan porque esta enfermedad obstaculiza mucho las cosas. +La malaria se transmite por mosquitos. +Traje algunos aqu para que puedan experimentarlo. +Vamos a dejarlos vagar un poco por el auditorio. +No hay motivo para que slo la gente pobre deba pasar por esta experiencia. +Esos mosquitos no estn infectados. +Contamos con nuevas herramientas. Tenemos camas con mosquiteros. +Las camas con mosquiteros son una excelente herramienta. +Esto hace que la madre y los nios permanezcan bajo el mosquitero por la noche, de modo que los mosquitos que pican en la noche no puedan hacerlo. +Y al usar pulverizadores de interiores con DDT y esos mosquiteros las muertes se reducen en ms del 50 por ciento. +Y eso ya ha pasado en varios pases. +Es fantstico verlo. +Pero tenemos que tener cautela porque la malaria; el parsito evoluciona y el mosquito evoluciona. +As, todas las herramientas del pasado se han vuelto eventualmente ineficaces. +Y entonces terminamos con dos alternativas. +En un pas con las herramientas apropiadas y el procedimiento correcto, implementndolos drsticamente, se puede lograr una erradicacin local. +Ah es donde vimos reducirse el mapa de la malaria. +O por el contrario, si se hace en forma poco entusiasta, durante un perodo de tiempo se reduce la carga de la enfermedad pero finalmente esas herramientas resultan ineficaces, y la tasa de mortalidad alcanza cotas elevadas nuevamente. +Y el mundo ha pasado por esto primero prestando atencin y luego no. +Ahora estamos en alza. +La financiacin de camas con mosquiteros crece. +Se estn descubriendo nuevos medicamentos. +Nuestra fundacin patrocin una vacuna que estar en fase de prueba tres en un par de meses. +Y que podra salvar dos tercios de las vidas si es que es efectiva. +As que vamos a tener estas nuevas herramientas. +Pero esto por s solo no es el plan completo. +Porque eliminar esta enfermedad implica muchas cosas. +Requiere comunicadores que mantengan los patrocinios, y la visibilidad altas, que cuenten las historias de xito. +Requiere cientficos sociales, para saber cmo hacer que no slo el 70 por ciento de la gente use camas con mosquiteros sino el 90 por ciento. +Necesitamos matemticos que simulen esto, que hagan simulaciones de Monte Carlo para comprender y combinar estas herramientas. +Por supuesto que necesitamos farmacuticas que aporten la experiencia. +Y as conforme se conjuntan estos elementos, me siento optimista respecto de la erradicacin de la malaria. +Ahora permtanme avanzar a una segunda pregunta, una pregunta bastante diferente pero igualmente importante. +La pregunta es Cmo se forma un gran maestro? +Parece ser el tipo de pregunta que la gente debera hacerse con frecuencia, y que entenderamos muy bien. +La respuesta es que, en realidad no es as. +Examinemos por qu es importante. +Apuesto que todos los presentes hemos tenido grandes maestros. +Todos tuvimos una educacin maravillosa. +En parte es la razn por la que estamos hoy aqu, parte de la razn de nuestro xito. +Digo eso a pesar que no termin la universidad. +Tuve estupendos profesores. +De hecho, el sistema educativo de EE.UU. ha funcionado bastante bien. +Hay maestros bastante eficaces en algunos lugares especficos. +De modo que el 20 por ciento de los estudiantes ha tenido buena educacin. +Y ese 20 por ciento ha sido el mejor del mundo, si se lo compara con el otro 20 por ciento +Y han crecido para crear las revoluciones en software y biotecnologa que han manteniendo a EE.UU. a la vanguardia. +La fortaleza de ese 20 por ciento comienza a desvanecerse en trminos relativos, pero an ms preocupante es la educacin que recibe el resto de la gente. +No slo que ha sido dbil sino que se hace cada vez ms dbil. +Y si vemos la economa de hoy slo da oportunidades a la gente con mejor educacin. +Y tenemos que cambiar esto. +Tenemos que cambiarlo para que la gente tenga igualdad de oportunidades. +Tenemos que cambiar esto para que el pas se fortalezca y siga a la vanguardia de las cosas determinadas por la educacin avanzada, como la ciencia y las matemticas. +Cuando vi las estadsticas por primera vez me asombr lo mal que estaban las cosas. +Ms del 30 por ciento de los menores nunca terminan la preparatoria. +Y esto ha sido encubierto durante mucho tiempo porque siempre toman la tasa de desercin escolar como la cantidad que comienza el ltimo ao respecto de la que lo termina. +Porque no analizan dnde estuvieron los menores antes de eso. +Pero la mayora de las deserciones se produjo antes del ltimo ao. +Tendran que aumentar la tasa de desercin oficial tan pronto como se hiciera este anlisis a ms del 30 por ciento. +Para los grupos minoritarios es ms del 50 por ciento. +Y an si te gradas de la preparatoria y eres de bajos ingresos tienes menos de un 25 por ciento de posibilidades de terminar una carrera universitaria. +Si eres de bajos ingresos en EE.UU. tienes ms posibilidades de ir a la crcel que de terminar una carrera de cuatro aos. +Eso no parece del todo justo. +Entonces, Cmo se mejora la educacin? +Nuestra fundacin ha invertido en esto durante los ltimos nueve aos. +Hay mucha gente trabajando en esto. +Hemos trabajado en pequeas escuelas, hemos dado becas, hemos hecho obras en bibliotecas. +Muchas de estas cosas tuvieron buenos resultados. +Pero cuanto ms lo analizamos ms nos damos cuenta que tener buenos maestros es la clave. +Y contactamos a gente que estudia la gran variacin existente entre maestros, entre, digamos, el primer cuartil; el mejor, y el cuarto cuartil. +Cunta variacin hay dentro de las escuelas o entre escuelas? +Y la respuesta es que esas variaciones son absolutamente increbles. +Un profesor del primer cuartil aumentar el rendimiento de su clase, basado en los resultados de los exmenes, en ms de 10 por ciento en un ao. +Cmo se traduce eso? +Eso significa que si todo EE.UU., durante dos aos, tuviese maestros del primer cuartil se esfumara toda la diferencia entre nosotros y Asia. +En cuatro aos podramos superar a cualquiera en el mundo. +Es simple. Todo lo que se necesita son esos maestros del primer cuartil. +Y entonces diramos: Guau! Deberamos recompensar a esa gente. +Deberamos retener a esa gente. +Deberamos averiguar qu hacen y transferir esas habilidades a otros. +Pero puedo decirles que eso no est sucediendo hoy en da. +Cules son las caractersticas del primer cuartil? +Cmo son? +Podran pensar que estos deben ser maestros muy experimentados. +Y la respuesta es que no. +Cuando alguien ya ha enseado durante tres aos su calidad educativa no cambia a partir de entonces. +La variacin es muy, muy pequea. +Podran pensar que esta gente tiene maestras. +Que han vuelto a estudiar y obtenido sus maestras en educacin. +Este grfico toma cuatro factores diferentes y dice en que medida explican la calidad educativa. +Eso de abajo, que dice que no tiene efecto alguno, son las maestras. +Ahora, el funcionamiento del sistema de pagos recompensa dos cosas. +Una es la experiencia. +Porque tu salario aumenta y te garantiza una buena pensin. +La segunda es pagarle ms a la gente que obtiene una maestra. +Pero esto no est relacionado en modo alguno con ser buen maestro. +El programa "Teach for America": un pequeo efecto. +Para los profesores de matemtica especializados en matemtica hay un efecto medible. +Pero, de manera abrumadora, es el rendimiento previo. +Hay mucha gente que es muy buena en esto. +Y no hemos hecho casi nada para estudiar qu es entenderlo y replicarlo para elevar la capacidad media -- o para animar a la gente apta a que se quede en el sistema. +Uno podra decir: Se quedarn los buenos profesores y se van los malos? +La respuesta es que, en promedio, los maestros ligeramente mejores abandonan el sistema. +Y es un sistema con muy alta rotacin. +Ahora, hay pocos lugares, muy pocos, donde se estn formando los grandes maestros. +Un buen ejemplo de un lugar as es un conjunto de escuelas llamadas KIPP. +KIPP significa Conocimiento es Poder. +Es algo increble. +Tienen 66 escuelas, la mayora de educacin media, algunas preparatorias, y sucede que proveen gran educacin. +Toman los nios ms pobres, y ms del 96% de sus graduados siguen carreras universitarias de 4 aos. +El espritu y la actitud en estas escuelas es muy diferente al de las escuelas pblicas normales. +Ensean en equipo. Constantemente mejoran a sus profesores. +Obtienen datos, calificaciones, y le dicen a los maestros: Obtuviste esta mejora en este grupo." +Estn comprometidos a mejorar el proceso de enseanza. +Cuando uno va y se sienta en una de estas aulas, al principio es muy raro. +Me sent y pens: Qu est pasando? +El maestro corra por el saln y el nivel de energa era alto. +Pens: Estoy en un rally o qu? +Qu est pasando? +Y el maestro estaba viendo constantemente qu nios no prestaban atencin, cules estaban aburridos, y los llamaba rpidamente, poniendo cosas en la pizarra. +Era un entorno muy dinmico, porque particularmente en esos aos de educacin media, del 5to a 8vo grado, mantener el entusiasmo de los nios y encontrar el tono que todos necesitan para prestar atencin, a nadie se permite burlarse del proceso y nadie toma la actitud de que "no quiero estar aqu". +Todos necesitan estar involucrados. +Y KIPP lo est haciendo. +Cmo comparar eso con una escuela normal? +Bueno, en una escuela normal nadie les dice a los maestros lo buenos que son. +No se obtiene esa informacin. +En el contrato del maestro se limita la cantidad de veces que el director puede venir al aula, en ocasiones a slo una vez por ao. +Y se requiere notificacin por adelantado para hacerlo. +Imaginen una fbrica en funcionamiento con estos trabajadores muchos de ellos produciendo basura y se le dice al gerente: Slo puede venir una vez al ao" "pero debe avisarnos porque podramos engaarlo" "y tratar de hacer un buen trabajo en ese breve momento. +Incluso un maestro que quiere mejorar no tiene las herramientas para hacerlo. +No usan las calificaciones, y hay todo un tema al tratar de bloquear los datos. +Por ejemplo, Nueva York dict una ley que dice que los datos de mejoras de los maestros no pueden estar disponibles y usarse en las decisiones de contrato de los maestros. +Y eso parece que funciona en la direccin opuesta. +Pero soy optimista sobre esto, pienso que hay algunas cosas claras que podemos hacer. +Primero, hay muchas pruebas en curso y eso nos da una idea de dnde estamos. +Y eso nos permite comprender quin lo est haciendo bien, y llamarlos para averiguar cules son sus tcnicas. +Por supuesto que el video digital ahora es econmico. +Poner unas pocas cmaras en las aulas y hacindoles saber que se registra la actividad diaria es algo muy prctico para todas las escuelas pblicas. +Y as cada pocas semanas los maestros podran sentarse y decir: Bien, aqu hay un pequeo clip de algo que pienso hice bien. +Aqu hay un pequeo clip de algo que pienso hice mal. +Aconsjenme: Cuando este nio me lo hizo difcil, Cmo debera haberlo resuelto? +Y todos podran trabajar juntos en esos problemas. +Podra tomarse a los mejores maestros y tomar nota, Registrarlo para que todos vean quien es el mejor enseando. +Se pueden tomar esos mejores cursos y publicarlos para que pueda ir un nio y ver una clase de fsica, aprender de eso. +Si hay algn nio que est retrasado, uno sabra que podra asignarle ese video para que vea y revise el concepto. +Y estos cursos gratuitos podran no slo estar disponibles en internet, sino que podran manejarse en DVDs de modo que cualquiera que tenga un reproductor de DVD pueda acceder a los mejores maestros. +Y as, pensndolo como un sistema personalizado podemos hacerlo mejor. +Hay un libro sobre KIPP, el lugar donde esto esta pasando, que Jay Matthews, un periodista, escribi, lo llam : S amable y trabaja duro. +Y pens que era tan fantstico. +Les da una idea de lo que hace un buen maestro. +Le voy a enviar a todos los presentes una copia gratis de este libro. +Ponemos mucho dinero en la educacin y pienso que la educacin es lo ms importante para que el pas tenga un futuro tan slido como el que debera tener. +De hecho, tenemos en la ley de estmulo, es interesante, la versin del Congreso asignaba dinero para estos sistemas de datos y fue suprimido en el Senado porque hay gente que se siente amenazada por estas cosas. +Pero soy optimista. +Pienso que la gente est comenzando a reconocer lo importante que es y realmente puede marcar la diferencia para millones de vidas si lo hacemos bien. +Slo tuve tiempo para formular esos dos problemas. +Hay muchos ms problemas como estos, SIDA, neumona; se que ustedes se entusiasman tan slo con nombrar estas cosas. +Y las habilidades requeridas para abordar estos temas son muy amplias. +Ya saben, el sistema no hace que esto suceda naturalmente. +Los gobiernos no toman naturalmente estas cosas en la forma correcta. +El sector privado no pone recursos naturalmente en estas cosas. +Se necesita de gente brillante como ustedes para estudiar estas cosas, involucrar a ms gente, y ustedes estn ayudando a dar con soluciones. +Y con eso pienso que van a surgir cosas estupendas. +Muchas gracias. +Tema y variaciones es una de esas formas que requiere un cierto tipo de actividad intelectual. porque continuamente comparas la variacin con el tema que tienes en mente. +Se podra decir que el tema es la naturaleza y todo lo que sigue es una variacin sobre el tema. +...se me pidi, creo que hace unos seis aos, hacer una serie de pinturas que de alguna manera celebrasen el nacimiento de Piero della Francesca. +Y para m fue muy difcil imaginar cmo pintar cuadros basados en Piero hasta que me di cuenta de que poda mirar a Piero como la naturaleza. Que tendra la misma actitud al mirar a Piero della Francesca que si estuviera mirando a un rbol por una ventana. +Y eso fue enormemente liberador para m, +y tal vez no sea una observacin muy perspicaz, pero realmente me marc un camino para poder hacer una especie de tema y variacin. basada en una obra de Piero, en este caso la notable pintura en los Uffizi, "El Duque de Montefeltro," que est frente a su esposa Battista. +Una vez me di cuenta de que me poda tomar algunas libertades con el tema, hice la siguiente serie de dibujos. +Ese es el verdadero Piero della Francesca. Uno de los ms grandes retratos de la historia de la humanidad. +Y estos, voy a mostrarlos sin comentarios. +Son una serie de variaciones sobre la cabeza del duque de Montefeltro, que es una gran, gran figura del Renacimiento, y, probablemente, la base para "El Prncipe" de Maquiavelo. +Al parecer perdi un ojo en combate, por lo que siempre se muestra de perfil. +Y esta es Battista. +Y entonces decid que poda moverlos un poco. As que, por primera vez en la historia, estn mirando en la misma direccin. +Epa! Intercambiados. +Y luego, un visitante de otra pintura de Piero, esto es de "La Resurreccin de Cristo" -- como si los actores hubieran salido del escenario para charlar. +Y ahora, cuatro grandes paneles. Esta es el superior izquierdo. Superior derecho. Inferior izquierdo. Inferior derecho. +Por cierto, nunca he entendido el conflicto entre la abstraccin y el naturalismo, +ya que para empezar todas las pinturas son inherentemente abstractas no parece que haya motivo de discusin. +Cambiando de tema, Un da estaba conduciendo por el campo con mi esposa, y vi a esta seal, y dije, "Eso es una fabulosa pieza de diseo". +Y ella dijo: "De qu ests hablando?" +Le dije: "Bueno, es tan persuasiva, porque el propsito de esta seal es conseguir que entres en el taller, y dado que la mayora de la gente es tan desconfiada con los talleres, y saben que van a ser estafados, usan la palabra confiable. Pero todo el mundo dice que son confiables. +Sin embargo, el Neerlands confiable -- fantstico! +Porque en cuanto oyes la palabra Neerlands -- que es una palabra arcaica, nadie llama ya neerlandeses a los holandeses -- pero en cuanto oyes neerlands, te imaginas al nio con su dedo en el dique, evitando que se derrumbe y se inunde Holanda y dems. +Y todo el asunto se descontamina por el uso de Neerlands. +Ahora, si creen que estoy exagerando, todo lo que tienen que hacer es sustituirlo por algo como Indonesio. +O incluso Francs. +Suizo funciona, pero sabes que va a costar mucho dinero. +Voy a llevarlos rpidamente a travs del proceso real de hacer un cartel. +Hago mucho trabajo para la Escuela de Artes Visuales, donde doy clases, y el director de esta escuela -- un hombre destacable llamado Silas Rhodes-- a menudo te da un texto y dice: "Haz algo con esto." +Y as lo hizo. +Y este fue el texto - "En las palabras como en la moda la misma norma se mantendr/ Igual de fantstico tanto si demasiado nuevo o viejo / No seas el primero que prueba lo nuevo/ Ni tampoco el ltimo en dejar a un lado lo viejo ". +Yo no poda sacar nada de ah. +Y realmente luch con esto. +Y lo primero que hice, a falta de otra idea, fu hacer algo como escribirlo y agrandar algunas palabras, y usar algn tipo de diseo en el fondo, y esperaba - como suele ocurrir - encontrarme con algo. +As que hice otro intento, hay que seguir movindolo. Fotocopi algunas palabras en trozos de papel de color y los pegu en un feo tablero +Pens que de ah saldra algo, como "Las palabras controlan al fantstico nuevo viejo primer ltimo Papa" porque es de Alexander Pope (NdelT: Pope=Papa), pero lo medio desorden todo, y pens que lo deba repetir de algn modo que fuera legible. +Esto no iba a ninguna parte. +A veces, en medio de un problema que se resiste, escribo cosas que s al respecto +Pero se puede ver el comienzo de una idea ah, porque se puede ver la palabra nuevo saliendo de viejo. +Eso es lo que ocurre. +Hay una relacin entre lo viejo y lo nuevo, lo nuevo surge del contexto de lo viejo. +Y luego hice algunas variaciones. Pero todava no estaban en absoluto fusionados grficamente. +Tena esta otra versin con algo interesante en trminos de ser capaz de combinar pistas en tu mente. +La W era claramente una W, la N era claramente una N, a pesar de que estaban muy fragmentadas, y no haba mucha informacin. +Entonces llegu a las palabras nuevo y viejo retrocediendo a un punto donde no pareca haber retorno. +En este punto yo estaba realmente desesperado. +As que hice algo que, de verdad, me avergenza, que es que tom dos dibujos que haba hecho para otra cosa los puse juntos +y dice "sueos" en la parte superior. +Y yo iba a hacer algo como: "Bueno, cambiemos el texto. +Dejemos que diga algo sobre los sueos, y llegar a la SVA (Escuela de Artes Visuales) y tus sueos de algn modo se cumplirn" +Pero, a mi favor, Me sent tan avergonzado de hacer esto que nunca envi este boceto. +Y, finalmente, llegu a la siguiente solucin. +No parece terriblemente interesante, pero tiene algo que lo distingue de muchos otros carteles. +Por un lado, se transgrede la idea de lo que se supone que es un cartel, que ha de ser entendido y visto de inmediato, y no explicado. +Recuerdo haber escuchado, como todos ustedes, en artes grficas -- "Si tienes que explicarlo, no est funcionando". +Y un da me despert y dije: "Bueno, y si suponemos que no es verdad?" +Aqu est lo que dice en mi explicacin en la parte inferior izquierda +Dice, "Pensamientos: Este poema es imposible. +Silas, por lo general tiene mejor criterio con su eleccin de las citas. +Esta no genera imgenes en absoluto" +Ahora estoy exponindome a mi pblico. +Que es algo que nunca quieres hacer profesionalmente. +"Tal vez las palabras por s solas pueden crear la imagen. +Cul es el corazn de este poema? +No ests a la moda si quieres tener rigor. +Hacer el cartel as es estar a la moda? +Supongo que se podra reducir an ms la idea sugiriendo que lo nuevo emerge detrs y a travs de lo viejo, como esto:" +Y, a continuacin les muestro un pequeo dibujo -- ven, recuerdan aquel viejo que descart? +Bien, encontr una manera de usarlo. +As que tenemos una pequea alternativa por ah, y yo digo "No est mal" - criticndome a m mismo -- "pero es ms didctico que visual. +Tal vez lo que quiere decir es que lo viejo y lo nuevo estn unidos en un abrazo dialctico, una especie de baile, donde cada uno define al otro ". +Y entonces me hago ms preguntas - "Estoy siendo ingenuo? +Es este el tipo de sencillez que parece obvia, o el tipo que parece profunda? +Hay una diferencia significativa. +Esto podra ser embarazoso. +En realidad, me doy cuenta de que el miedo a la vergenza me impulsa tanto como cualquier ambicin. +Creen ustedes que este tipo de cosas realmente podra atraer a un estudiante a la escuela? +Bueno, creo que hay dos cosas nuevas aqu - dos cosas nuevas. +Una es del tipo de - la voluntad de exponerme a un pblico crtico, y no para sugerir que estoy seguro de lo que estoy haciendo. +Y como saben, uno tiene que tener una fachada. +Quiero decir - tienes que tener confianza. Si t no crees en tu trabajo, quin va a creer en l? +As que eso es una cosa, algo como introducir la idea de la duda en la grfica. +Que puede ser una gran contribucin. +La otra cosa es que realmente te da dos soluciones al precio de una. Tienes el grande y si no te gusta, qu tal el pequeo? +Y que tambin es una idea relativamente nueva. +Y aqu tenemos una serie de experimentos donde hago la pregunta - Un cartel tiene que ser cuadrado? +Ahora bien, esto es una pequea ilusin. +Ese cartel no est doblado. +No est doblado, es una fotografa y est cortada por la diagonal. +El mismo truco sencillo en la esquina superior izquierda. +Y aqu, un cartel muy peculiar, ya que, simplemente por usar perspectiva isomtrica en el ordenador, no se queda quieto en el espacio. +A veces, parece ser ms ancho en la parte posterior que en la parte frontal, y luego cambia. +Y si te sientas aqu el tiempo suficiente, flotar saliendo de la pgina hacia el pblico. +Pero, no tenemos tiempo. +Y ahora un experimento -- un poco sobre la naturaleza de la perspectiva, donde la forma exterior est determinada por las peculiaridades de la perspectiva pero la forma de la botella - que es idntica a la forma exterior -- est vista de frente. +Y otra pieza para el club de los directores de arte es Anna Rees con sombras largas. +Esto no es un cartel de la Escuela de Artes Visuales. +Haba 10 artistas invitados a participar, y fue una de esas cosas extremadamente competitivas y yo no quera pasar vergenza, as que trabaj muy duro en esto. +La idea era - y fue una idea brillante -- era tener 10 carteles distribuidos en todo el metro de la ciudad as que cada vez que fueras al metro te encontraras un cartel diferente, todos los cuales tena una idea diferente de lo que es arte. +Pero yo estaba totalmente atascado en la idea de "el arte es" y tratando de determinar lo que el arte era. +Hasta que me di por vencido y dije: "Bueno, el arte es lo que sea." +Y en cuanto lo dije, Descubr que la palabra sombrero estaba oculta en la palabra lo que sea, y que me llev a la conclusin inevitable. +Pero, de nuevo, est en mi lista de carteles didcticos. +Mi intencin es que haya un acompaamiento literario que explica el cartel, en caso de que no lo entiendas. +Esta dice: "Nota para el espectador -- Pens que podra usar un clich visual de nuestro tiempo, El hombre corriente de Magritte, para expresar la idea de que el arte es misterio, continuidad e historia. +Tambin estoy convencido de que en una poca de la manipulacin digital, El surrealismo se ha convertido en banal, un sombra de lo que fue. +La frase "Arte es lo que sea' expresa la inclusividad que rodea hoy la actividad artstica una especie de nocin 'No es lo que haces, es la manera que lo haces'. +Lo que sea. +De acuerdo. +Y el que no present, que todava me gusta. Quera usar la misma frase -- +hay algunos experimentos maravillosos de Bruno Munari sobre las formas de las letras de hace algunos aos -- ver hasta dnde poda ir y todava ser capaz de leerlas. +Y esa idea se qued en mi cabeza. +Pero entonces cog los trozos que haba quitado y los puse en la parte inferior. +Y, por supuesto son los restos y estn tan marcados. +Pero lo que realmente pasa es que lo lees como -- "Arte es lo que queda". +Gracias +En su discurso inaugural, Barack Obama pidi a cada uno de nosotros que diramos nuestro mejor esfuerzo mientras logramos salir de la actual crisis econmica. +Pero qu nos pidi realmente? +l, felizmente, no sigui los pasos de su predecesor y nos dijo que bastaba con ir de compras. +Tampoco nos dijo: "Confen en nosotros. Confen en su pas". +"Inviertan. Inviertan. Inviertan". +Lo que nos pidi fue hacer a un lado las cosas infantiles. +Apel a la virtud. +Virtud es una palabra anticuada. +Todo esto parece algo fuera de lugar en un ambiente de alta tecnologa como ste. +Adems, algunos de Uds. se podrn preguntar: qu rayos significa todo esto? +Permtanme empezar con un ejemplo. +Esta es la descripcin de trabajo de un empleado de limpieza de hospital est apareciendo en la pantalla. +Y todas esas caractersticas son comunes. +Son las cosas que uno esperara: trapear los pisos, barrerlos, sacar la basura, rellenar los gabinetes. +Puede ser sorprendente cuntas cosas son, pero no es sorprendente lo que son. +Pero lo que quiero que noten de ellas es esto: incluso en una lista tan larga, no hay una sola cosa que involucre a otros seres humanos. +Ni una. +El trabajo de limpieza se puede hacer de igual manera en una funeraria que en un hospital. +Sin embargo, cuando algunos psiclogos entrevistaron a los empleados de limpieza del hospital para entender lo que pensaban acerca de su trabajo, se encontraron con Mike, que les dijo como dej de trapear el piso porque el Sr. Jones estaba fuera de su cama haciendo un poco de ejercicio, intentando recuperar su fuerza, caminando lentamente por el pasillo. +Charlene les cont como ignor a su supervisor y no aspir el rea de visitas porque algunos de los familiares estaban todo el da ah, todos los das, quienes, por el momento, estaban durmiendo una siesta. +Tambin estaba Luke, quien lav el piso del cuarto de un hombre en coma dos veces porque el pap, quien haba estado en vela durante seis meses, no vio a Luke hacerlo la primera vez, y el pap del hombre se enoj. +Este tipo de comportamiento de los empleados de limpieza, los tcnicos, las enfermeras, y, con un poco de suerte, de los doctores, no slo hace que la gente se sienta mejor, tambin mejora la atencin al paciente y le permite a los hospitales funcionar bien. +Claro, no todos los empleados de limpieza son as. +Pero los que s lo son piensan que este tipo de interacciones humanas que requieren caridad, atencin y empata son una parte esencial del trabajo. +Sin embargo la descripcin del trabajo no dice nada al respecto de otros seres humanos. +Estos empleados de limpieza tienen la voluntad moral de hacer el bien a otras personas. +Ms all de esto, tienen la habilidad moral de deducir qu significa "hacer el bien". +"La sabidura prctica", nos dijo Aristteles, "es la combinacin de voluntad moral y habilidad moral". +Una persona sabia reconoce cundo y cmo hacer la excepcin a cada regla, as como los empleados de limpieza que ignoraban los objetivos de su trabajo al servicio de otros objetivos. +Una persona sabia improvisa de manera apropiada, como Luke cuando volvi a lavar el piso. +Los problemas del mundo real son, generalmente, ambiguos y estn mal definidos y su contexto est cambiando siempre. +Una persona sabia es como un msico de jazz... que usa las notas de la pgina pero bailando con ellas, inventando combinaciones apropiadas a la situacin y las personas alrededor. +Una persona sabia reconoce cmo usar estas habilidades morales al servicio de los propsitos correctos. +Para servir a otras personas, no para manipularlas. +Finalmente, y quiz ms importante, una persona sabia se hace, no nace. +La sabidura depende de la experiencia, y no cualquier tipo de experiencia. +Se necesita tiempo para conocer a las personas que se atiende. +Uno necesita permiso para poder improvisar, intentar cosas nuevas, para fallar ocasionalmente y aprender de sus errores. +Se necesitan maestros sabios. +Cuando le preguntan a empleados de limpieza que se comportan como los que describ qu tan difcil es aprender a hacer su trabajo? les contestarn que se necesita mucha experiencia. +No se refieren a que se requiere mucha experiencia para trapear pisos o sacar la basura. +Se necesita mucha experiencia para aprender a interesarse en las personas. +En TED, la genialidad es desenfrenada. +Es espeluznante. +La buena noticia es que no se necesita genialidad para ser sabio. +La mala noticia es que sin sabidura, la genialidad no es suficiente. +Esto probablemente los meta en problemas, como cualquier otra cosa. +Espero que todos sepamos esto. +Hasta cierto punto es obvio, y, sin embargo, dejen que les cuente una pequea historia. +Es una historia de limonada. +Un padre y su hijo de siete aos estn viendo un partido de los Tigres de Detroit en el estadio. +Su hijo le pidi una limonada y su pap fue a comprarla. +Lo nico que tenan era Limonada Mike Hard que contena 5% de alcohol. +El pap, un acadmico, no tena idea de que contena alcohol. +As que la compr. +El nio la estaba tomando y un guardia de seguridad lo vio, y llam a la polica, que llam a una ambulancia que llev de inmediato al nio a un hospital. +Los de emergencias aseguraron que el nio no tena alcohol en su sangre. +Y estaban listos para dar de alta al nio. +Pero... no tan rpido. +La Agencia de Proteccin Infantil del Condado de Wayne dijo que no. +Y enviaron al nio a una casa husped por tres das. +En este punto, puede el nio ir a su casa? +Bueno, un juez dijo que s, pero slo si el padre se iba de la casa y se quedaba en un motel. +Despus de dos semanas, felizmente les informo, que la familia se reencontr. +Pero los asistentes sociales, los paramdicos y el juez dijeron todos lo mismo: "Odiamos tener que hacerlo, pero tenemos que seguir el procedimiento". +Cmo es que pasan cosas como estas? +Scott Simon, que cont esta historia en la radio, dijo: "Las reglas y procedimientos pueden ser tontos, pero nos salvan de pensar". +Siendo justos, las reglas generalmente son impuestas porque oficiales anteriores han sido laxos y permitieron que un nio regresara a un ambiente abusivo. +Muy bien. +Cuando las cosas salen mal, y claro que lo hacen, nos valemos de dos herramientas para arreglarlas. +Una herramienta son las reglas. +Mejores y ms de ellas. +La segunda herramienta son los incentivos. +Mejores y ms de ellos. +Qu hay adems de esto? +Podemos ver esto ciertamente en las respuestas ante la actual crisis financiera. +Reglamentar, reglamentar, reglamentar. +Arreglar los incentivos, arreglar los incentivos, arreglar los incentivos. +La verdad es que ni las reglas ni los incentivos son suficientes para realizar el trabajo. +Cmo puede uno siquiera escribir una regla para que los empleados de limpieza hagan lo que hicieron? +Les pagaran un bono por ser empticos? +Es ridculo. +Lo que sucede es que nos apoyamos cada vez ms en las reglas. Las reglas y los incentivos pueden mejorar las cosas a corto plazo pero crean una espiral descendente que los hace peores a la larga. +La dependencia de las reglas corroe lentamente la habilidad moral que nos priva de la oportunidad de improvisar y aprender de nuestras improvisaciones. +Mientras que la voluntad moral es socavada por la predileccin hacia los incentivos que destruye nuestro deseo de hacer lo correcto. +Y sin quererlo, al apegarnos a las reglas y los incentivos, estamos en guerra contra la sabidura. +Djenme mostrarles unos ejemplos, primero de las reglas y la guerra contra la habilidad moral. +La historia de la limonada es una. +La segunda, sin duda ms conocida por ustedes, es la naturaleza del modelo educativo estadounidense actual: un plan de estudios con pasos y guiones. +Un ejemplo de un jardn de nios de Chicago. +Leyendo y disfrutando la literatura y palabras que empiezan con la 'B'. El bao: juntar a los estudiantes en una alfombra y advertirles de los peligros del agua caliente. +Mencionar 75 puntos de este guion para ensear un libro ilustrado de 25 pginas. +En todas las clases de jardn de nios de Chicago, cada maestro dice las mismas palabras el mismo da. +Sabemos por qu existen estos guiones. +No confiamos en que los maestros tengan el juicio suficiente para dejarlos actuar por su cuenta. +Los guiones como stos son plizas de seguros contra desastres. +Y previenen desastres. +Pero lo que aseguran es la mediocridad. +No me malentiendan. Necesitamos reglas! +Los msicos de jazz necesitan algunas notas... la mayora necesita notas en las pginas. +Necesitamos ms reglas para los banqueros, sabe Dios. +Pero demasiadas reglas impiden que los msicos de jazz ms reconocidos improvisen. +Y el resultado es que perderan sus dones o peor an, dejaran de tocar. +Ahora, y los incentivos? +Parecen ser ms astutos. +Si tienen un motivo para hacer algo y yo les doy otro motivo para hacer lo mismo parece lgico que dos razones son mejor que una y es ms probable que lo hagan. +Cierto? +No siempre. +Algunas veces dos razones para hacer lo mismo compiten una contra la otra en vez de complementarse y es menos probable que las personas lo hagan. +Les dar solo un ejemplo porque se nos acaba el tiempo. +En Suiza hace cerca de 15 aos estaban intentando decidir dnde depositar los desechos nucleares. +Iba a haber un referendo nacional. +Algunos psiclogos encuestaron a ciudadanos que estaban muy bien informados. +Y preguntaron: "Estara usted dispuesto a tener un depsito nuclear en su comunidad?" +Sorprendentemente, el 50% de los ciudadanos contest que s. +Saban que era peligroso. +Pensaron que iba a reducir el valor de sus propiedades. +Pero tenan que depositarlos en algn lado y tenan la responsabilidad como ciudadanos. +Los psiclogos preguntaron de manera distinta a otras personas. +Preguntaron: "Si les pagamos seis semanas de salario al ao, estaran dispuestos a tener un depsito nuclear en su comunidad?" +Dos motivos. Es mi responsabilidad y me estn pagando. +En vez de que el 50% dijera que s, el 25% dijo s. +Lo que sucede es que en el momento en el que se introduce el incentivo se deja de preguntar: "Cul es mi responsabilidad?" +y lo que nos preguntamos es: "Qu me conviene?" +Cuando los incentivos no funcionan, cuando los ejecutivos ignoran la salud a largo plazo de sus compaas en busca de ganancias a corto plazo que generarn bonos masivos la respuesta es siempre la misma. +Dar incentivos ms creativos. +La verdad es que no hay incentivos que puedan pensar que sean lo suficientemente creativos. +Cualquier sistema de incentivos puede ser arruinado por falta de voluntad. +Necesitamos incentivos. Las personas tienen que ganarse la vida. +Pero la dependencia excesiva de los incentivos desmoraliza la actividad profesional en dos sentidos de ese concepto. +Las personas que hacen dicha actividad pierden moral y esto causa, a su vez, que la actividad pierda moral. +Barack Obama dijo, antes de su discurso de inauguracin, "No debemos slo preguntarnos 'Es lucrativo?' sino 'Es lo correcto?'" Cuando las profesiones se desmoralizan todos nos convertimos en dependientes de, adictos a, los incentivos y dejamos de preguntar: "Es lo correcto?" +Vemos esto en el campo de la medicina. +("No es nada serio, pero estemos pendientes para que no se convierta en una demanda".) Y ciertamente lo vemos en el mundo de los negocios. +("Para ser competitivo en el mercado de hoy, me temo que te reemplazar con un imbcil".) ("Vend mi alma por una dcima parte de lo que esas cosas cuestan hoy".) Es obvio que esta no es la manera en la que las personas quieren hacer su trabajo. +As que qu podemos hacer? +Unas cuantas fuentes de esperanza: debemos re-moralizar el trabajo. +Una manera de no hacerlo: ms clases de tica. +No hay mejor manera de mostrarle a las personas que no estn siendo serios que atando todo lo que se tiene para decir de la tica en un pequeo empaque con moo y llamarlo curso de tica. +Entonces qu s hacer? +Primero: Celebrar ejemplos morales. +Reconocer, cuando uno va a la facultad de derecho, esa voz que le susurra al odo acerca de Atticus Finch. +Ningn nio de diez aos va a la facultad de derecho a hacer fusiones y adquisiciones. +Los hroes morales inspiran a las personas. +Pero aprendemos que, con la sofisticacin viene un entendimiento de que uno no puede reconocer que tiene hroes morales. +Bueno, reconzcanlos. +Enorgullzcanse de tenerlos. +Celbrenlos. +Demanden a quienes les enseen que los reconozcan y celebren tambin. +Eso es algo que podemos hacer. +No s cuntos de ustedes recuerden esto: otro hroe moral, quince aos atrs, Aaron Feuerstein, quien estaba a cargo de Malden Mills en Massachussetts, hacan Polartec, la fbrica se incendi. +3.000 empleados. l mantuvo a cada uno en la nmina. +Por qu? Porque habra sido un desastre para ellos y para la comunidad si los dejaba ir. +"Tal vez nuestra compaa valga menos en Wall Street, pero yo te puedo decir que vale ms. Nos va bien". +Durante este TED hemos escuchado charlas de varios hroes morales. +Dos fueron realmente inspiradoras para m. +Una fue de Ray Anderson, quien... ...quien convirti, como saben, una parte de un imperio maligno en un negocio casi sin consecuencias ecolgicas. +Por qu? Porque era lo correcto. +Un extra que est descubriendo es que, de hecho, va a hacer ms dinero. +Sus empleados estn inspirados por el esfuerzo. +Por qu? Porque estn felices de hacer algo correcto. +Ayer escuchamos a Willie Smiths hablar sobre la reforestacin de Indonesia. +De muchas maneras es el ejemplo perfecto. +Porque requiri la voluntad de hacer lo correcto. +Slo Dios sabe la habilidad tcnica demand. +Estoy sorprendido por lo que l y sus socios tenan que saber para poder planear esto. +Pero lo ms importante para que funcionara, y l enfatiz esto, es que se requiri conocer a las personas de las comunidades. +Si uno no tiene el respaldo de las personas con las que trabaja va a fallar. +Y no hay frmula alguna que diga cmo hacer que las personas nos respalden porque personas distintas en distintas comunidades organizan sus vidas de diferentes maneras. +As que hay mucho en TED, y en otros lugares, que celebrar. +No hay que ser un sper hroe. +Hay hroes comunes. +Hroes comunes como los empleados de limpieza que merecen ser celebrados. +Como practicantes cada uno de nosotros debe procurar ser un hroe extraordinario, o al menos uno comn. +Como lderes de organizaciones, debemos procurar la creacin de ambientes que nutran y motiven tanto la voluntad como la habilidad moral. +Incluso las personas ms sabias y con las mejores intenciones se rendirn si tienen que nadar contracorriente en las organizaciones en las que trabajan. +Si uno administra una organizacin debera asegurarse de que ninguno de los trabajos, ninguno, tenga descripciones de trabajo como las de los empleados de limpieza. +Porque la verdad es que cualquier trabajo que uno realice que involucre la interaccin con otras personas es un trabajo moral. +Y todo trabajo moral depende de la sabidura prctica. +Y, ms importante an, como maestros, debemos procurar ser hroes comunes, ejemplos morales para las personas que guiamos. +Hay algunas cosas que debemos recordar como maestros. +Una es que siempre estamos enseando. +Siempre alguien est viendo. +La cmara siempre est encendida. +Bill Gates habl de la importancia de la educacin y, en particular, del modelo que ofrece KIPP "Conocimiento es Poder". +Y habl de las cosas maravillosas que est logrando KIPP al tomar nios de barrios bajos y encaminarlos a entrar a la universidad. +Quiero puntualizar una cosa que est haciendo KIPP que Bill no mencion. +Ellos se han dado cuenta que la cosa ms importante que los nios necesitan aprender es carcter. +Necesitan aprender a respetarse ellos mismos. +Necesitan aprender a respetar a sus compaeros. +Necesitan aprender a respetar a sus maestros. +Y ms importante an, necesitan aprender a respetar el aprendizaje. +Ese es el objetivo principal. +Si hacen eso, el resto es simplemente un viaje cuesta abajo. +Y los maestros: la manera en la que enseen esto a los nios es que los maestros y el personal lo incorporen durante cada minuto de cada da. +Obama apelaba a la virtud. +Creo que estaba en lo correcto. +Creo que la virtud que ms necesitamos es la sabidura prctica, porque es lo que permite que otras virtudes (honestidad, coraje, empata, etc.) se demuestren de manera apropiada cuando sea apropiado. +Tambin llam a la esperanza. +Correcto de nuevo. +Creo que hay razn para la esperanza. +Creo que las personas quieren permiso para ser virtuosos. +De muchas maneras, de eso se trata TED. +Querer hacer lo correcto en la manera correcta por las razones correctas. +Este tipo de conocimiento est al alcance de cada uno de nosotros si tan solo empezamos a prestar atencin. +Prestar atencin a lo que hacemos, al cmo lo hacemos, y, quiz ms importante que todo, a estructurar las organizaciones donde trabajamos, para asegurarnos de que permitan el desarrollo de la sabidura en vez de suprimirla. +Muchas gracias. +Muchas gracias. +Chris Anderson: Tienes que salir ah por un segundo. +Barry Schwartz: Muchas, muchas gracias. +Existe un gran elefante en este saln llamado la economa. +As que empecemos hablando acerca de eso. +Quera darles una imagen actual de la economa +y eso es lo que tengo detras de m. +[La Economa...] Pero claro que lo que tenemos que recordar es esto. [La clave para administrar crisis...] +[Es tener un ojo en el largo plazo ... mientras bailan en las llamas.] Y en lo que tienen que pensar es, cuando ests bailando en las llamas, Qu es lo que sigue? +Y tratar de darles un sentido de cmo se ve el ltimo reinicio. +Esas tres tendencias son: la habilidad de manipular clulas, la habilidad de manipular tejidos y los robots. +Y de alguna manera todo tendr sentido. +Como sea, comencemos con la economa. +Existen un par de problemas realmente grandes que todava estn latentes ah. +Uno es el endeudamiento +y el problema con el endeudamiento es que hace ver al sistema financiero de los Estados Unidos as. +Asi que, un banco comercial normal tiene un endeudamiento de nueve a 10 veces. +Eso quiere decir que por cada dlar que depositan presta entre nueve o 10. +Un banco de inversiones normal no es un banco de depsito, es un banco de inversiones; tiene de 15 a 20 veces ms. +Resulta que Bank of America en septiembre tena 32 veces +y su amigable Citibank tena 47 veces. +Uuy. +Eso significa que cada prstamo malo se multiplica 47 veces +y que, por supuesto, es la razn por la cual todos ustedes estn haciendo esas donaciones tan generosas y maravillosas a esta gente. +Y mientras piensan en eso, deben de preguntarse: qu tienen los bancos ahora para nosotros? +[Ms bueno de nada] No pinta agradable. +El gobierno, mientras tanto, ha estado actuando como Santa Clos. +Todos amamos a Santa Clos, cierto? +Pero el problema con Santa Clos es, si ven los gastos obligatorios de lo que esta gente ha estado haciendo, y prometiendo a la gente, resulta que en 1967, 38% eran gastos obligatorios de lo que llamamos "derechos" +y luego en 2007 era el 68%. +Y se supona que no ibamos a llegar al 100% hasta cerca del 2030, +excepto que hemos estado ocupados dando un billn aqu, un billn all, que hemos movido esa fecha hacia adelante a cerca del 2017. +Y pensamos que bamos a poder dejarles estas deudas a nuestros nios, pero, adivinen qu? +Nosotros vamos a empezar a pagarlas. +Y el problema con estas cosas es, ahora que la cuenta est vencida, resulta que Santa no es tan lindo en el verano. +Cierto? +Aqui tenemos un consejo de uno de los ms grandes inversionistas en los Estados Unidos, +este hombre comanda la Corporacin de Inversiones China y +es el principal comprador de los bonos de la Tesorera de Estados Unidos. +Di una entrevista en diciembre, +aqu est su primer consejo, ["S amable con los paises que te prestan dinero."] +aqu est su segundo consejo, ["Nos gustara respaldarlos, si es sostenible."] +Y, por cierto, el Primer Mimistro Chino reiter esto en Davos el domingo pasado. +Eso se est poniendo seriamente grave que si no comenzamos a poner atencin en el dficit, vamos a terminar perdiendo al dlar. +Y despus todas las apuestas son vlidas. +Djenme mostrarles cmo se ve. +Pienso que puedo decir con seguridad que soy el nico billonario en este saln. +Este es un billete real +y vale 10 billones de dlares. +El nico problema con este billete es que en realidad no vale mucho, +la semana pasada vala ocho dlares, esta semana vale cuatro, la semana entrante, un dlar. +Y eso es lo que les pasa a las monedas cuando no estn respaldadas. +As que la prxima vez que alquien tan lindo como ste se aparezca en su puerta, y a veces esta criatura se llama Chrysler y a veces Ford y a veces ... quien ustedes quieran... slo tienen que decir no. +Y tienes que comenzar a desaparecer la palabra que se llama "derecho". +Y la razn por la cual tenemos que hacer eso en el corto plazo es porque se nos acaba de terminar el efectivo. +Si ven el presupuesto federal, as es como se ve, +la parte naranja es lo que llaman discrecional, +todo lo dems es obligatorio. +No hace ninguna diferencia si cortamos los puentes a Alaska en el esquema general de las cosas, +entonces lo que tenemos que comenzar a pensar en hacer es limitar nuestros gastos mdicos, porque ese es un monstruo que simplemente se va a comer todo el presupuesto. +Tenemos que comenzar a pensar acerca de pedirle a la gente que se retire un poco ms tarde. +Si tienes de 60 a 65 aos te retiras a tiempo, +tu cuenta de retiro con 401 mil acaba de ser recortada. +Si tienes de 50 a 60 aos queremos que trabajes dos aos ms. +Si tienes menos de 50 aos queremos que trabajes cuatro aos ms. +La razn por lo cual esto es razonable es porque cuando tus abuelos recibieron Seguridad Social, la obtuvieron a los 65 y se esperaba que vivieran hasta los 68; +hoy, 68 aos es ser joven. +Tambin tenemos que recortar lo militar cerca de 3% al ao. +Tenemos que limitar otros gastos obligatorios, +tenemos que dejar de pedir prestado tanto, porque de otra manera los intereses se van a comer todo el pastel. +Y tenemos que terminar con un gobierno ms pequeo. +Y si no comenzamos a cambiar esta tendencia, vamos a perder al dlar y a empezar a parecernos a Islandia. +S lo que estn pensando. +Esto va a suceder cuando el infierno se congele, +pero djenme recordarles que en diciembre pasado nev en Las Vegas. +Aqu est lo que pasa si esto no se atiende, +Japn tuvo una crisis fiscal de bienes raices al final de los ochentas +y sus 225 compaas ms grandes hoy valen una cuarta parte de lo que valan hace 18 aos. +Si no arreglamos esto ahora, cmo les gustara ver un Dow en 3,500 en 2026? +Porque esa es la consecuencia de no atender esto. +Y a menos que quieran que esta persona "Alex Hundido" no slo se convierta en el Gerente Financiero de Florida, sino de Estados Unidos, ms vale que atendamos esto. +Eso es a corto plazo, esa es la parte de la llama, +esta es la crisis financiera. +Ahora, justo detrs de la crisis financiera hay una segunda ola ms grande de la que necesitamos hablar. +Esa ola es ms grande, mucho ms poderosa, y esa es la ola de la tecnologa. +Y lo que es realmente importante de estas cosas es, que mientras cortamos, tambin tenemos que crecer. +Entre otras cosas, porque las compaas nacientes son una inversin del 0.02% del PIB de los Estados Unidos y ellas son el 17.8% del rendimiento. +Son grupos como estos en este saln los que generan el futuro de la economa de los Estados Unidos +y eso es lo que tenemos que mantener creciendo. +No tenemos que seguir haciendo estos puentes que llevan a ningn lado. +Entonces traigamos a un novelista romntico a esta conversacin. +[Llegar el momento en que creas que todo ha terminado... se ser el comienzo... Louis L'Amour] Y es ah donde estas tres tendencias se juntan. +Ah es donde la habilidad de operar microbios, la habilidad de operar tejidos, y la habilidad de operar robots empiezan a conducirnos a un reinicio. +Y djenme resumir algo de lo que han visto, +Craig Venter vino el ao pasado y les mostr la primer clula totalmente programable que acta como hardware donde pueden insertar ADN y hacer que empiece como una especie diferente. +En paralelo, la gente en MIT ha estado construyendo un registro estndar de partes biolgicas. +Imagnenlo como una tienda Radio Shack de biologa, +a la que pueden acudir y obtener sus proteinas, su ARN, su ADN, lo que sea +y comenzar a construir cosas. +En 2006 reunieron a estudiantes de preparatoria y universitarios que comenzaron a construir estas pequeas criaturas raras; +excepto que estaban vivas en lugar de ser tarjetas electrnicas. +Aqui est una de las primeras cosas que construyeron [Perfume de bacteria] +As que, las clulas tienen este ciclo. +Primero no crecen, +despus crecen exponencialmente, +despus dejan de crecer. +Los estudiantes de posgrado queran distinguir en que etapa se encontraban la clulas. +As que manipularon estas clulas para que cuando estuvieran creciendo en la fase exponencial, olieran como a gaulteria +y cuando dejaran de crecer olieran a pltano; +as podan distinguir muy fcilmente cuando el experimento estaba funcionando y cuando no y cuando estaba en la fase. +Dos aos despus esto se complic un poco ms cuando +21 pases se juntaron, docenas de equipos +comenzaron a competir. +El equipo de la Universidad de Rice comenz a manipular la sustancia en el vino tinto que hace que el vino tinto sea buena para ti dentro de la cerveza. +As que tomas resveratrol y lo pones en la cerveza. +Claro que, uno de los jueces pasa por ah, y dice, "Guau! Cerveza que combate el cncer! Dios existe." +El equipo de Taiwan fue un poco ms ambicioso, +trataron de manipular bacterias de tal forma que pudieran actuar como tus riones. +Hace cuatro aos, mostr esta foto. +Y la gente se sorprendi, porque Cliff Tabin haba podido crecer una ala extra en un pollo +y eso fue muy interesante entonces. +Pero ahora yendo de la manipulacin de bacterias a la manipulacin de tejidos, djenme ensearles que ha pasado en ese perodo de tiempo. +Hace dos aos, vieron a esta creatura, +un animal casi extinto de Xochimilco, Mxico llamado ajolote que puede regenerar sus extremidades. +Pueden congelar la mitad de su corazn, lo regenera; +pueden congelar la mitad de su cerebro, lo regenera; +es casi como un Congreso viviente. +Pero ahora, no necesitan tener al animal para regenerarlo, porque pueden construir muelas de ratn clonadas en platos de laboratorio. +Y, claro que si pueden construir muelas de ratn en platos de laboratorio, pueden crecer muelas humanas en platos de laboratorio. +Esto no debera de sorprenderlos, cierto? +Quiero decir, nacen sin dientes, +dan todos sus dientes al hada de los dientes; +les crece un nuevo conjunto de dientes. +Pero despus si pierden uno de esos dientes del segundo conjunto, estos no vuelven a crecer, a menos que sean abogados. +Pero, claro, para la mayora de nosotros, sabemos cmo hacer crecer dientes y por lo tanto podemos tomar dientes madre de adulto, los ponemos en un molde biodegradable, crecemos un diente, y simplemente lo implantamos. +Y lo podemos hacer con otras cosas. +Asi, a una mujer espaola que estaba muriendo de tuberculosis le fue donada una trquea, le quitaron todas las clulas a la trquea, le rociaron sus clulas madre en el cartlago, +que regeneraron su propia trquea, y 72 horas despus le fue implantada. +Ella est ahora corriendo con sus nios. +Esto est sucediendo en el laboratorio de Tony Atala en la Universidad Wake Forest donde est creciendo orejas de soldados heridos, y tambin est creciendo vejigas. +As hay nueve mujeres caminando alrededor de Boston con vejigas regeneradas, que es mucho ms placentero que caminar con bolsas de plstico por el resto de tu vida. +Esto se est poniendo aburrido, cierto? +Quiero decir, entienden a dnde lleva esta historia +y esto se pone ms interesante. +El ao pasado, este grupo fue capaz de remover todas las clulas de un corazn, dejando slo el cartlago. +Despus, rociaron clulas madre en el corazn, de un ratn; +esas clulas madre se organizaron solas y el corazn comenz a latir. +La vida sucede. +Este debe de ser uno de los ltimos artculos; +esto fue realizado en Japn y en los Estados Unidos, publicados al mismo tiempo, y transformaron clulas de la piel en clulas madre, el ao pasado. +Eso quiere decir que puedes tomar esto de aqu, y convertirlo en casi cualquier cosa en tu cuerpo. +Y se est volviendo comn, se est moviendo muy rpido, se est moviendo en toda una serie de lugares. +Tercer tendencia: los robots. +Aquellos de nosotros de cierta edad crecimos esperando que para hoy en da tendramos a la robot Rosie de "Los Supersnicos" en nuestra casa +y todo lo que obtuvimos es una aspiradora Roomba. +Tambin pensamos que tendramos este robot para advertirnos del peligro, +no sucedi. +Y estos eran robots diseados para un mundo plano, cierto? +Entonces Rosie se mova en patines y el otro se mova usando orugas planas. +Si no tienes un mundo plano, eso no es bueno, razn por la cual los robots que hoy estamos diseando son un poco diferentes. +Este es el "Perro Grande" de la compaa Boston Dynamics +y esto es lo ms cercado a una prueba Turing fsica. +OK, djenme recordarles, una prueba Turing es cuando tienen una pared, le estn hablando a alguien al otro lado de la pared, y cuando no saben si esa cosa es humana o animal, ah es cuando las computadoras han alcanzado inteligencia humana. +Esta no es una prueba Turing de inteligencia, pero es lo ms cercano a una prueba Turing fsica. +Y estas cosas se estn moviendo muy rpido, por cierto, esa cosa puede cargar cerca de 159 kilos de peso. +Estos no son los nicos robots interesantes, +tambin tenemos moscas, robots del tamao de las moscas, que estn siendo fabricadas por Robert Wood en Harvard. +Tenemos Stickybots (robots pegajosos) que se estn fabricando en Stanford. +Y cuando pones estas cosas juntas, cuando juntas a las clulas, la manipulacin de tejido biolgico y la mecnica, empiezan a surgir algunas preguntas realmente extraas. +En las ltimas Olimpiadas, este caballero, el cual posee varios rcords mundiales en las Olimpiadas Especiales, trat de correr en las Olimpiadas normales. +El nico problema con Oscar Pistorius es que naci sin huesos en la parte inferior de sus piernas; +estuvo a un segundo de calificar. +Tuvo que levantar una demanda legal para que se le permitiera correr y gan la demanda, pero no calific por tiempo. +En las prximas Olimipadas, pueden apostar a que Oscar o uno de los sucesores de Oscar, va a hacer el tiempo. +Y en dos o tres Olimpiadas despus, van a ser invencibles. +Y cuando juntamos estas tendencias y pensamos en lo que significa el tomar a gente con sordera profunda, que puede empezar a oir... Me explico, recuerdan la evolucin de los dispositivos de asistencia auditiva, cierto? +Sus abuelos tenan estos enormes conos, y despus sus padres tenan estas cajas extraas que chillaban en momentos extraos durante la cena, y ahora tenemos estos pequeos auriculares que nadie ve. +Y ahora tenemos implantes cocleares que van en las cabezas de la gente y permite a los sordos comenzar a or. +Ahora bien, no pueden or tan bien como t o yo podemos, +pero, en 10 o 15 generaciones de mquina, podrn, y estas son generaciones de mquina, no generaciones humanas; +en alrededor de dos o tres aos despus podrn or tan bien como t o yo podemos, sern capaces de or tal vez cmo cantan los murcilagos o cmo hablan las ballenas, o cmo hablan los perros y otros tipos de escalas tonales. +Sern capaces de enfocar su audicin, sern capaces de incrementar o disminuir la sensibilidad, hacer una serie de cosas que nosotros no podemos hacer. +Y lo mismo est ocurriendo con los ojos. +Este es un grupo en Alemania que est comenzando a disear ojos para que la gente que es ciega pueda comenzar a ver la luz y la oscuridad, +muy primitivo, +despus podrn ver formas +y despus podrn ver color y despus podrn ver en definicin, y un da, ellos vern tan bien como t y yo podemos. +Y un par de aos despus, ellos podrn ver en ultravioleta, podrn ver en infrarojo, podrn enfocar sus ojos, podrn microenfocar, +harn cosas que t y yo no podemos hacer. +Todas estas cosas vienen juntas y es una cosa particularmente importante de entender, mientras nos preocupamos de las flamas del presente, mantener un ojo en el futuro. +Y, por supuesto, el futuro est viendo 200 aos hacia atrs, porque la semana prxima es el 200 aniversario del nacimiento de Darwin +y es el 150 aniversario de la publicacin del "Orgen de las Especies". +Darwin, por supuesto, argument que la evolucin es un estado natural, +es un estado natural en todo lo que est vivo, incluyendo a los homnidos. +En efecto han existido 22 especies de homnidos que han estado por aqu, han evolucionado, han vagado por diferentes lugares y se han extinguido. +Es comn que los homnidos evolucionen +y esa es la razn por la cual, cuando vemos el registro fsil de los homnidos, erectos y heildelbergensis y floresiensis y neandertales, y Homo sapiens, todos se traslapan. +La situacin comn es tener versiones traslapadas de homnidos, no una. +Y mientras pensamos en las implicaciones de esto, aqu est una historia breve del universo. +El universo fue creado hace 13.7 mil millones de aos, y despus fueron creadas todas las estrellas y todos los planetas, y todas las galaxias y todas las Vas Lcteas. +Y despus fue creada la Tierra hace cerca de 4.5 mil millones de aos, y despus tuvimos vida hace 4 mil millones de aos, y despus tenemos homnidos hace cerca de 6 millones de aos, y despus tenemos nuestra versin de homnido cerca de 0.0015 millones de aos. +Ta-taaaa! +Tal vez, la razn para la creacin del universo, y todas las galaxias, y todos los planetas, y toda la energa, y toda la energa oscura, y todo el resto de las cosas es para crear lo que hay en este saln, +tal vez no; +eso sera un punto de vista ligeramente arrogante. +As que, si ese no es el propsito del universo, entonces que sigue? +Yo pienso que lo que vamos a ver es que vamos a ver un especie diferente de homnido. +Pienso que vamos a movernos de Homo sapiens a Homo evolutis. +Y pienso que no va a ser en 1,000 aos. +Pienso que la mayora de nosotros vamos a darle un vistazo, y nuestros nietos van a comenzar a vivirlo. +Y un Homo evolutis junta estas tres tendencias en un homnido que toma control directo y deliberado sobre la evolucin de su especie y otras especies. +Y eso, por supuesto, sera el ltimo reinicio. +Muchas gracias. +Chris Anderson: Ahora vamos a ver esta extraordinaria presentacin que grabamos hace un par de semanas. +Yo desde nio desde mi ms tierna infancia quise ser msico y gracias a Dios, logr serlo. +Tuve de mis maestros, de mi familia, de mi comunidad todo el respaldo necesario para convertirme en un msico. +y so toda mi vida en que los dems nios, los dems jvenes todos los jvenes y venezolanos tuviesen la misma oportunidad +y de all la idea que siempre estuvo sembrada en mi corazn de convertir la msica en una realidad profunda y global de mi pas. +Yo vi desde el primer ensayo la trayectoria futura de esto +porque esa trayectoria me lo dio la magnitud del reto que me plante a mi ese ensayo. +Yo haba conseguido 50 atriles una donacin muy generosa para que en ese ensayo pudiramos ensayar 100 muchachos +cuando llegue al ensayo haba 11 y yo dije: "o cierro el programa ahora o multiplico esto por miles", +y resolv afrontar el reto, y esa misma noche a esos mismos 11 muchachos, yo les promet convertir esa orquesta en una de las primeras orquestas del mundo. +Y record hace dos meses esas palabras mas cuando en el London Times un distinguido crtico ingls public un artculo diciendo a quien le corresponde la copa mundial de las orquestas +y dijo a cinco orquestas y nombra cuatro grandes orquestas mundiales y la quinta es la Sinfnica Juvenil de Venezuela. +Y hoy podemos decir que el arte ha dejado de ser ya un monopolio de lites en Amrica Latina y se ha transformado en un derecho social un derecho del pueblo y de todo el pueblo +Nia: y que aqu adentro no hay distincin ni de clase ni de que si eres negro, que si eres blanco, que si tienes, o no tienes dinero. +simplemente si se tiene un talento si se tiene una vocacin y si se tienen las ganas de estar pues, simplemente entras compartes y haces msica de cualquier manera. +eso supona no solamente un triunfo artstico, sino una sintona profunda emocional entre los pblicos de las naciones mas avanzadas del mundo y la juventud musical latinoamericana expresada en Venezuela trayendo a esos pueblos un mensaje de msica, de vitalidad, de energa de entusiasmo y de fuerza +En su esencia misma, la orquesta y el coro son mucho ms que estructuras artsticas +modelos, y escuelas de vida social. porque cantar y tocar juntos significa convivir de manera entraable en nimo de perfeccin y afn de excelencia, en una rigurosa disciplina de articulacin y de concertacin para buscar la armnica interdependencia entre voces e instrumentos +As, se forma un espritu entre ellos solidario y fraterno se desarrolla su auto estima y se cultivan los valores ticos y estticos que estan vinculados al quehacer musical. +De ah su inmensa utilidad en todo en cuanto se refiere al despertar de la sensibilidad, a la forja de valores al entrenamiento de los jvenes en la enseanza de otro jvenes y de otros nios. +Despus de tanto tiempo aqu, es la vida. +Nada ms. +Es la palabra, msica es vida, para nosotros +Cada Joven y cada nio del Sistema poseen su propia historia, y para mi todas son igualmente importantes y transcendentales +Puedo citar por ejemplo, el caso de Edicson Ruiz. +que era un nio en una parroquia de Caracas que voluntaria y apasionadamente asista a sus clases de contrabajo en la Orquesta Juvenil de San Agustn del Sur +y a partir de su esfuerzo con el apoyo ejemplar de su madre, de su familia y de su pueblo ha llegado a ser miembro principal de la fila de contrabajos de la Filarmnica de Berlin +el otro, que es de todos conocido, Gustavo Dudamel. +Gustavo comenz como un nio miembro de la sinfnica infantil de su ciudad natal, Barquisimeto. +y desde all comenz a crecer como violinista y como director. +Lleg a ser el director nacional de las orquestas juveniles de Venezuela, y hoy esta dirigiendo las grandes orquestas del mundo. +Es ya director musical designado de la Filarmnica de Los ngeles contina siendo el mximo lder de la Orquesta Juvenil de Venezuela +Ha sido director de la Orquesta Sinfnica de Gothenburg, y es un ejemplo insuperable para la juventud de Amrica Latina y del mundo. +La estructura del Sistema esta basada en un estilo gerencial nuevo, flexible, novedoso, adaptado a las caractersticas de cada comunidad y de cada regin Y que hoy abarca 300.000 nios y jvenes de medianos y bajos recursos en toda Venezuela. +Es decir, es un programa de rescate social de transformacin cultural profunda para toda la sociedad venezolana sin distingos de ninguna naturaleza pero con especial nfasis en los sectores vulnerables o en situacin de riesgo. +Ah, tres esferas fundamentales en las que el impacto del Sistema se expresa la esfera personal social, la esfera familiar y la esfera comunitaria. +En la esfera personal social, se destaca el desarrollo intelectual y afectivo de los nios que hasta involucran en los coros y en las orquestas. La msica se constituye en fuente de desarrollo de las dimensiones del ser humano que eleva su condicin espiritual y lo conduce a un desarrollo integral de su personalidad +de tal manera pues, se dan inmensas ganancias intelectuales y afectivas entre otras la adquisicin de principios de liderazgo, de enseanza de capacitacin, el sentido de compromiso, de responsabilidad de generosidad, de entrega a los dems de aporte individual para el logro de inmensos fines colectivos +y esto conduce a un desarrollo del auto concepto, de la autoestima de la seguridad y confianza en si mismo. +La madre Teresa de Calcuta, figura mundial insisti en un concepto que me ha impresionado mucho a m, lo ms miserable, lo ms trgico de la pobreza no es la falta de pan y de techo, Es el sentirse nadie el no ser nadie, el carecer de identificacin el carecer de estima pblica +y es por eso que el desarrollo del nio en la orquesta y el coro lo proyecta con una identidad noble lo convierte en un modelo para su familia y para su comunidad +lo convierte en un mejor estudiante en sus estudios regulares porque le infunde un sentido de la disciplina de la constancia, de la puntualidad que lo ayuda enormemente en sus estudios regulares. +En la esfera familiar se destaca el apoyo incondicional de los padres y de la familia. +El nio se constituye en un modelo para su madre, para su padre y esto es importantsimo en un nio pobre. +El nio al descubrirse importante para su familia comienza a buscar nuevos caminos de superacin aspira a un mejor, individual y colectiva +aspira tambin a que su familia conquiste mejoras sociales y econmicas +y todo ello forma una dinmica social constructiva y ascendente +la mayora inmensa de nuestros jvenes y nios pertenecen como lo he dicho a los estratos ms vulnerables de la poblacin venezolana +y ello les permite plantearse nuevos sueos, nuevas metas, y enriquecerse a base de las oportunidades mltiples que brinda el campo musical. +Finalmente en la esfera comunitaria las orquestas se revelan como espacios creadores de cultura fuente de intercambio de nuevos significados. +Y esa naturalidad que adquiere la vivencia de la msica y que la excluye como artculo de lujo y la convierte en patrimonio comn de la sociedad +hace que un nio pueda tocar el violn en su casa, mientras el padre trabaja en su carpintera. +que una nia pueda tocar el clarinete en su hogar, frente a su madre que realiza labores domsticas. +y que indudablemente toda la familia participe con jubilo con orgullo en las actividades de las orquestas y los coros a los que pertenecen sus nios. +La inmensa riqueza espiritual que engendra la msica en s misma, y que viene por la msica y en la msica, termina por vencer la pobreza material +desde que el nio asume un instrumento con un maestro, ya no es un nio pobre. +es un nio en ascenso hacia un nivel profesional de accin que lo convierte en un ciudadano pleno. +y claro esta, esto ejerce una funcin preventiva numero uno. contra la prostitucin, contra la violencia, contra las malas compaas contra todo lo que involuciona o degrada la vida de los nios +Hace unos aos, el gran historiador Arnold Toynbee seal que el mundo estaba frente a una gigantesca crisis de espiritualidad. +No era un reto econmico, no era un reto social, era un reto espiritual +y yo digo hoy, verdad, que frente a esa crisis de espiritualidad, slo el arte y la religin, pueden dar una respuesta adecuada al sentir colectivo de los pueblos, a la aspiracin profunda del hombre, y a las exigencias histricas del momento. +y especialmente la educacin, verdad, como sntesis del saber y del conocimiento que es la va para lograr cada vez ms una sociedad ms perfecta, ms consciente ms noble, ms justa. +saludamos profundamente con nimo y con fervor solidario a TED por su extraordinaria proyeccin humanstica, la altura y dignidad de su ideal, y la promocin abierta y generosa de los jvenes valores. +Y aspiramos que TED contribuya de una manera sustancialsima primordial a la construccin de esa nueva era de la educacin musical en la cual el propsito social, comunitario, espiritual y reivindicatorio del nio y del joven se convierta en signo y norte de una bastisima misin social +Msica Aplausos CA: Ahora vamos en vivo a Caracas. +vamos en vivo a Caracas A escuchar el deseo del premio TED del maestro Abreu +JA: Aqu esta mi deseo del premio TED Deseo que ustedes ayuden a crear y documentar un programa especial de entrenamiento para 50 talentosos jvenes msicos apasionados por el arte y la justicia social y dedicados a traer el Sistema a los Estados Unidos y a otros pases. +Muchisimas gracias. +Chris Anderson: Y ahora vamos en vivo a Caracas para ver a uno de los grandes discpulos del Maestro Abreu. +l es el nuevo director musical de la Orquesta Filarmnica de Los ngeles. +El mejor joven director de orquesta del mundo. +Gustavo Dudamel! +Gustavo Dudamel: Hola a todo el mundo all en Los ngeles +Hola, Quincy. Hola, Maestro Zander. Hola, Mark. +Estamos felices de tener la posibilidad de estar con ustedes al otro lado del mundo. +Slo podemos hablar con msica. +Estamos muy felices porque tenemos la oportunidad de tener a este ngel en el mundo. no solamente en nuestro pas, Venezuela. En nuestro mundo. +l nos ha dado la posibilidad de tener sueos y hacerlos realidad. +Y aqu estn los resultados de este proyecto maravilloso que es El Sistema de Venezuela. +Esperamos tener, nuestro Maestro, tener orquestas en todos los pases de todas las Amricas. +Y queremos tocar una pequea pieza para ustedes compuesta por uno de los ms importantes compositores de Amrica +Un compositor mexicano: Arturo Mrquez +Danzn No. 2. +Hace cincuenta aos, cuando comenc a explorar el ocano, nadie - ni Jacques Perrin, ni Jacques Cousteau o Rachel Carson se imagin que podramos hacer algo para daar al ocano por lo que ponamos en l o por lo que sacbamos de l. +Pareca, en aquel tiempo, que era el mar del Edn. Pero ahora lo sabemos, y ahora enfrentamos la prdida del paraso. +Tambin tiene que ver con ustedes. +Me asusta la idea de lo que Ray Anderson llama "el nio del maana", preguntando por qu no hicimos nada cuando fue nuestro turno, para salvar a los tiburones y al atn de aleta azul, a los calamares, los bancos de coral y el ocano viviente, cuando todava tenamos tiempo. +Bueno, ahora es ese momento. +Espero que me ayuden a explorar y proteger al ocano silvestre de maneras que puedan restaurar su salud y, al hacerlo, asegurar la esperanza para la humanidad. +Salud para el ocano significa salud para nosotros. +Y espero que el deseo de Jill Tarter de involucrar a los terrestres incluya a los delfines, ballenas y otras criaturas del mar en esta cruzada de encontrar vida inteligente en otros lados del universo. +Y espero, Jill, que algn da encontremos evidencia de que hay vida inteligente entre los humanos de este planeta. +Yo dije eso? Creo que lo hice. +Para m, como cientfico, todo comenz en el ao 1953 cuando prob por primera vez el buceo. +Fue cuando conoc a los peces, por primera vez, nadando en algo diferente a tajadas de limn y mantequilla. +En verdad amo bucear de noche, pueden ver gran cantidad de peces que no se ven durante el da. +Bucear de da y de noche fue muy fcil para m en 1970, cuando dirig un equipo de submarinistas, viviendo bajo el agua por semanas al mismo tiempo que los astronautas estaban dejando sus huellas en la Luna. +En 1979 tuve la oportunidad de dejar mis huellas en el fondo del mar mientras usaba este sumergible personal llamado Jim. +Estaba a seis millas de la costa y a 1.250 pies (380 m.) de profundidad. +Es uno de mis trajes de bao favoritos. +Desde entonces, he usado cerca de 30 tipos de submarinos, y he iniciado tres compaas y una fundacin sin nimo de lucro llamada Deep Search para disear y construir sistemas para llegar al mar profundo. +Conduje una expedicin de cinco aos para National Geographic, las Expediciones Sustainable Seas, usando estos pequeos submarinos, +que son tan simples de conducir que hasta un cientfico lo puede hacer. +Soy prueba viviente de ello. +Astronautas y submarinistas, por igual, saben apreciar realmente la importancia que tienen el aire, la comida, el agua, la temperatura, todas las cosas que se necesitan para mantenerse vivo en el espacio o debajo del agua. +Escuch al astronauta Joe Allen explicar cmo tuvo que aprender todo lo que pudo sobre su sistema de soporte de vida y luego hizo todo lo que pudo para cuidar su sistema de soporte de vida, y luego apunt a esto y dijo: "Sistema de soporte de vida", +necesitamos aprender todo lo que podamos acerca de l y hacer todo lo que podamos para cuidarlo. +El poeta Auden dijo: "Muchos han vivido sin amor. Ninguno sin agua". +El 97 por ciento del agua de la Tierra es ocano; +si no hay azul, no hay verde. +Si ustedes creen que el ocano no es importante, imagnense a la Tierra sin l. +Marte viene a la mente... +Si no hay ocano, no hay sistema de soporte de vida. +No hace mucho tiempo di una charla para el Banco Mundial y mostr esta maravillosa imagen de la Tierra, y dije, Aqu est! El Banco Mundial! +All es donde estn todos los bienes! +y los hemos estado pescando mucho ms rpido de lo que sus sistemas naturales los pueden reponer. +Tim Worth dice que la economa es una subsidiaria que le pertenece completamente al ambiente. +Con cada gota de agua que beben, cada respiro que toman, estn conectados con el mar, +no importa en dnde vivan en la Tierra. +La mayoria del oxgeno producido en la atmsfera se genera en el mar. +Con el tiempo, la mayora del carbono orgnico del planeta ha sido absorbido y guardado all, principalmente por microbios. +El ocano dirige el clima y la temperatura, estabiliza la temperatura, le da forma a la qumica de la Tierra. +El agua del mar forma las nubes que regresan a la tierra y al mar como lluvia, granizo y nieve, y provee de hogar a cerca del 97 por ciento de la vida en el mundo. Quizs, en el universo, +si no hay agua, no hay vida. Si no hay azul, no hay verde. +Sin embargo, nosotros los humanos tenemos esta idea, de que la Tierra - toda ella: los ocanos, los cielos - son tan vastos y tan fuertes que no importa lo que les hagamos. +Eso pudo haber sido verdad hace 10.000 aos atrs, y quizs hace 1.000 aos atrs pero en los ltimos 100 aos, especialmente en los ltimos 50 hemos sacados los bienes, el aire, el agua, la vida salvaje que hacen nuestras vidas posibles. +Las nuevas tecnologas nos ayudan a entender la naturaleza de la naturaleza, la naturaleza de lo que est pasando, mostrndonos nuestro impacto en la Tierra. +Quiero decir, primero tienes que reconocer que tienes un problema. +Y afortunadamente, en nuestros tiempos, hemos aprendido ms acerca de nuestros problemas que en toda la historia. +y con el saber viene el inters, +y con el inters, viene la esperanza de que podemos encontrar un lugar permanente para nosotros, dentro de un sistema natural que nos soporte a nosotros. +Pero primero, tenemos que saber. +Hace tres aos, conoc a John Hanke, quien es el lder de Google Earth, Y le cont lo mucho que amaba tener el mundo en la palma de mi mano y explorarlo de manera directa. +Pero le pregunt: "Cundo vas a terminarlo? +Hiciste un gran trabajo con el suelo +Y qu pasa con el agua?" +Desde entonces, he tenido el gran placer de trabajar con Google con DOER Marine, con National Geographic, con docenas de las mejores instituciones y cientficos del mundo, a quienes podramos poner en una lista, para poner el oceano en Google Earth. +Y justo en esta semana, el lunes pasado, Google Earth est ahora completo. +Para ver --- esperen un momento, podemos zambullirnos aqu mismo, ja -- bajo el mar, ver lo que las ballenas ven. +Podemos explorar el otro lado de las Islas Hawaianas. +Realmente podemos ir y nadar por el mundo con Google Earth y visitar a las ballenas jorobadas. +Estos son los gigantes amables que he tenido el placer de conocer cara a cara muchas veces debajo del agua. +No hay nada como ser inspeccionado personalmente por una ballena. +Podemos seleccionar y volar a los lugares ms profundos: 7 millas de profundidad, la Fosa de las Marianas donde slo han podido llegar dos personas. +Imagnense eso! Son slo 7 millas, pero apenas dos personas han estado all, hace 49 aos. +Los viajes de slo ida son fciles, +necesitamos nuevos submarinos para sumergirse en lo profundo. +Qu tal algunos X-Prizes para la exploracin ocenica? +Necesitamos ver fosas profundas, las montaas submarinas, y entender la vida en el mar profundo. +Ahora podemos ir al rtico. +Apenas 10 aos atrs, me par en el hielo del Polo Norte. +Un mar rtico sin hielo podra ser posible en este siglo. +Es una mala noticia para los osos polares. +Tambin es una mala noticia para nosotros. +El exceso de dixido de carbono no slo est causando el calentamiento global. Tambin est cambiando la qumica de los ocanos, haciendo el mar mas cido. +Eso es una mala noticia para los bancos de coral y para el plancton productor de oxigeno. +Tambin es una mala noticia para nosotros. +Estamos lanzando al mar cientos de millones de toneladas de plstico y otros desperdicios. +Millones de toneladas de redes de pesca descartadas... Equipo que continua matando. +estamos atascando el ocano, envenenando el sistema circulatorio del planeta. Y estamos tomando cientos de millones de toneladas de vida silvestre todas ellas, unidades basadas en el carbono. +De manera brutal, estamos matando tiburones slo para hacer sopa de aleta de tiburn, debilitando la cadena alimenticia que le da forma a la qumica del planeta y que impulsa los ciclos del carbono, del nitrgeno del oxgeno y del agua... nuestro sistema de soporte de vida. +Increblemente, todava estamos matando el atn de aleta azul, que se encuentra en peligro de extincin, y que es mucho ms valioso vivo que muerto. +Todas estas partes son parte de nuestro sistema de soporte de vida. +Matamos usando hilos largos, con ganchos con carnadas separados por unos pocos pies de distancia y que se pueden extender por 50 millas o ms. +Los pesqueros de arrastre industrial estn raspando el mar como mquinas excavadoras, tomando todo lo que encuentran en su camino. +Utilizando Google Earth, pueden ver a los pesqueros de arrastre. En China, el Mar del Norte, el Golfo de Mxico, sacudiendo las bases de nuestro sistema de soporte de vida, dejando residuos de muerte a su paso. +La prxima vez que cenen sushi, o sashimi, o filete de pez espada, o cctel de camarn, cualquier vida marina que le guste disfrutar, piensen en el costo real. +Por cada libra que va al mercado, diez libras ms, hasta 100 libras son botadas como desperdicio. +Esta es la consecuencia de no saber que hay lmites a lo que podemos tomar del mar. +Este cuadro nos muestra el declive de la vida marina, desde 1900 hasta el 2000. +Las grandes concentraciones se encuentran en rojo. +En mi tiempo de vida, imaginen, el 90 por ciento de los grandes peces han sido matados. +La mayora de las tortugas, atunes y ballenas han bajado muchsimo en cantidad. +Pero, hay buenas noticias. +Todava quedan 10 por ciento de los grandes peces +Todava hay algunas ballenas azules. +Todava hay algo de Krill en el Antrtico. +Todava quedan algunas ostras en la Bahia Chesapeake. +La mitad de los bancos de coral todava estn en buena forma. Un cinturn de joyas alrededor del mundo. +Todava hay tiempo, pero no mucho, para darle vuelta a las cosas. +Pero si el negocio sigue como siempre, significa que en 50 aos, podra no haber ms bancos de corales, y por lo tanto no habra pesca comercial, porque simplemente los peces se habrn ido. +Imaginen el ocano sin peces. +Imaginen lo que eso significa para nuestro sistema de soporte de vida. +Los sistemas naturales en tierra tambin estan en problemas, pero los problemas son ms obvios, y se estn tomando algunas acciones para proteger a los rboles, las reservas de agua y la vida salvaje. +Y en 1872, con el Parque Nacional Yellowstone en los Estados Unidos, se comenz a establecer un sistema de parques que, algunos piensan, fue la mejor idea que Estados Unidos ha tenido. +Cerca del 12 por ciento de la tierra en el mundo est ahora protegida, salvaguardando la biodiversidad, proveyendo un sifn para el carbono, generando oxgeno, protegiendo las reservas naturales. +Y, en 1972, esta nacin comenz a establecer su contra parte en el mar. Los Santuarios Marinos Nacionales. +Esa es otra gran idea. +La buena noticia es que hay ahora ms de 4.000 lugares en el mar, alrededor del mundo, que tienen ese tipo de proteccin. +Y los pueden encontrar en Gooogle Earth. +Las malas noticias son que tienen que buscarlos con mucho trabajo porque no son fciles de encontrar. +En los ultimos tres aos, por ejemplo, los Estados Unidos han protegido 340.000 millas cuadradas de ocano como monumentos nacionales. +Pero eso slo increment, de 0.6 del uno por ciento, al 0.8 del uno por ciento del ocano protegido globalmente. +Las areas protegidas se regeneran, pero toma un largo tiempo para regenerar peces roca de 50 aos de edad o peces monje, tiburones o corvinas, o un pargo naranja de 200 aos. +No consumimos vacas ni pollos de 200 aos de edad. +Las reas protegidas nos dan esperanza que las criaturas del sueo de Ed Wilson de una enciclopedia de vida, o un censo de vida marina, no vivan slo en una lista, una fotografa, o en un prrafo. +Con la ayuda de cientficos del mundo, he estado mirando al 99 por ciento del ocano que est abierto a la pesca, minera, perforacin, botado de desperdicios y lo que se les ocurra, para buscar reas de esperanza, y tratar de encontrar maneras de darles a ellos y a nosotros un futuro seguro. +reas tales como el rtico -- tenemos la oportunidad, ahora mismo, de hacerlo bien. +O en el Antrtico, donde el continente est protegido, pero el ocano circundante est siendo despojado de su krill, ballenas y peces. +El mar de los Sargazos, sus tres millones de millas cuadradas de bosque flotantes estn siendo recogidos para alimentar a las vacas. +El 97 por ciento de la tierra de las islas Galpagos est protegido, pero su mar adyacente est siendo acabado por la pesca. +Tambin es verdad que en Argentina, la plataforma continental de la Patagonia, est ahora en serios problemas. +La alta mar, a donde las ballenas, el atn y los delfines van, es el ms grande, menos protegido ecosistema de la Tierra. Lleno de criaturas luminosas, que viven en aguas oscuras de dos millas de profundidad. +Ellas brillan, con su propia luz vital. +Todava hay lugares en el mar tan prstinos como cuando yo era una nia. +Los prximos 10 aos, pueden ser los ms importantes, y los prximos 10.000 aos, la mejor oportunidad que nuestra especie tendr para proteger lo que queda de los sistemas naturales que nos dan vida. +Para lidiar con el cambio climtico, necesitamos nuevos medios de generar energa, +necesitamos nuevos modos, mejores modos de manejar la pobreza, guerras y enfermedades. +Necesitamos muchas cosas para mantener el mundo como el mejor lugar. +Pero, nada ms importar si fallamos en proteger el ocano. +Nuestra suerte y la del ocano son una. +Necesitamos hacer por el ocano lo que Al Gore hizo por los cielos. +Un plan de accin global con un sindicato de conservacin mundial, el IUCN, est tratando de proteger la biodiversdad, para mitigar y recuperarse de los impactos del cambio climtico, en la alta mar y en las reas costeras. Donde sea que podamos identificar los lugares crticos, +nuevas tecnologas son necesarias para mapear, fotografiar y explorar el 95 por ciento del ocano que todava tenemos por ver. +La meta es proteger la biodiversidad, para proveer estabilidad y fuerza. +Necesitamos submarinos que bajen a grandes profundidades, nuevas tecnologas para explorar el ocano. +Necesitamos, quizs, una expedicin - Un TED en el mar - que pueda ayudar a descubrir los siguientes pasos. +Y as, supongo que quieren or cul es mi deseo. +Yo deseo que usen todos los medios a su disposicin - pelculas, expediciones, la web, nuevos submarinos - una campaa que encienda el apoyo pblico para lograr una red de reas marinas protegidas, reas de esperanza lo suficientemente grandes para salvar y restaurar el ocano, el corazn azul del planeta. +Cunto? +Algunos dicen 10 por ciento, otros dicen 30 por ciento. +Ustedes deciden cunto de su corazn quieren proteger. +Lo que sea, una fraccin de un uno por ciento no es suficiente. +Mi deseo es un gran deseo, pero si lo podemos hacer realidad, puede cambiar el mundo de verdad, para ayudar a asegurar la sobrevivencia de la que realmente resulta ser mi especie favorita, que seramos nosotros. +Por los nios de hoy, para los de maana, como nunca, de nuevo, ahora es el momento. +Gracias. +Entonces, mi pregunta es Estamos solos? +La historia de la humanidad es la historia de las ideas -- ideas cientficas que iluminan los rincones oscuros, ideas que abrazamos de manera racional e irracional, ideas por las cuales vivimos y morimos, hemos y nos han asesinado, ideas que se han desvanecido en la historia, e ideas que se han convertido en dogmas. +Es una historia de naciones, de ideologas, de territorios, y de conflictos entre ellos, +Pero, cada momento de la historia humana, desde la edad de piedra hasta la era de la informacin, desde los Sumerios y Babilonia hasta el iPod y los chismes de celebridades todas han sido realizadas - cada libro que han ledo, cada poema, cada risa, cada lgrima, todos han ocurrido aqu. +Aqu. +Aqu. +Aqu. +La perspectiva es una cosa poderosa. +La perspectiva puede cambiar. +La perspectiva puede ser alterada. +desde mi perspectiva, vivimos en una frgil isla de vida, en un universo de posibilidades. +Por muchos milenios, los humanos han realizado una travesa para encontrar respuestas, respuestas a preguntas sobre el naturalismo y la transcendencia acerca de quines somos y por qu estamos aqu, y por supuesto, quin ms podra estar all afuera +En verdad somos slo nosotros? +Estamos solos en este vasto Universo de energa y materia, qumica y fsica? +Bueno, de ser as, sera un terrible desperdicio de espacio. +Pero, Y si no estamos slos? +Qu si, all afuera, otros se estn preguntando y respondiendo las mismas preguntas? +Qu si ellos miran al cielo de noche, a las mismas estrellas, pero desde el lado contrario? +El descubrimiento de una civilizacin cultural mas vieja all afuera nos inspirara a buscar maneras de sobrevivir nuestra creciente incierta adolescencia tecnolgica? +Podra el descubrimiento de una civilizacin lejana y nuestros orgenes csmicos comunes lo que traiga finalmente a nuestro hogar el mensaje de unin entre los humanos? +An cuando hayamos nacido en San Francisco, o en Sudan, o muy cerca del corazn de la de la galaxia de la Va Lctea, somos el producto de un linaje de miles de millones de aos de errante de polvo de estrellas. +Nosotros, todos nosotros, somos un resultado de una mezcla primordial de hidrgeno y helio que evolucion durante tanto tiempo que comienz a preguntarse sobre sus orgenes. +Hace cincuenta aos, La travesa para encontrar respuestas tom un camino diferente y SETI, la Bsqueda de Inteligencia Extraterrestre, comenz. +Entonces,Qu es exactamente SETI? +Bueno, SETI usa las herramientas de la astronoma para tratar de encontrar evidencia de tecnologa de alguien ms, all afuera. +Nuestras propias tecnologas son visibles a travs de distancias interestelares, y las de ellos tambin lo podran ser. +Podra ser que alguna red masiva de comunicaciones, o algn escudo contra impactos de asteroides, o algn gran proyecto de astro ingeniera que ni siquiera hayamos comenzado a concebir, podra enviar seales a frecuencias pticas o de radio que un programa determinado de bsqueda podra detectar. +Por milenios, acudimos a los sacerdotes y a los filsofos para gua e instruccin en esta cuestin de si hay vida inteligente all afuera. +Ahora, podemos usar las herramientas del siglo 21 y tratar de observar lo que es antes que preguntar lo que deberamos creer. +SETI no presume la existencia de inteligencia extraterrestre, slo denota la posibilidad, o probabilidad en este vasto Universo, el cual parece bastante uniforme. +Los nmeros sugieren un universo de posibilidades. +Nuestro Sol es una de entre 400 mil millones de estrellas en nuestra galaxia, y sabemos que muchas de estas estrellas tienen sistemas planetarios, +hemos descubierto ms de 350 en los ltimos 14 aos, incluyendo el pequeo planeta, anunciado la semana pasada, el cual tiene un radio que es justo dos veces el tamao de la Tierra. +Y, si todos los sistemas planetarios de nuestra galaxia no tuviera vida, todava hay 100 mil millones de otras galaxias all afuera. en total 10 elevado a 22 estrellas. +Ahora, voy a tratar de realizar un truco, y recrear un experimento de esta maana. +Recuerdan, mil millones? +Pero, esta vez no son mil millones de dlares, son mil millones de estrellas. +muy bien, mil millones de estrellas. +Ahora, arriba a 20 pies por encima del escenario, esos son 10 billones. +Bien, y que del 10 elevado a la 22? +Dnde esta la lnea que marca eso? +esa lnea tendra que tener 3.8 millones de millas por encima del escenario. +16 veces ms lejos que la Luna, o 4 por ciento de la distancia al Sol. +Asi, que hay muchas posibilidades. +Estos extremfilos nos indican que la vida puede existir en muchos otros ambientes. +pero esos ambientes van a estar separados ampliamente en este Universo. +An, nuestra estrella ms cercana, el Sol, sus emisiones sufren de la tirana de la velocidad de la luz. +Toma unos 8 minutos completos para que nos llegue su radiacin. +Y la estrella ms cercana est a 4.2 aos luz. lo que significa que a su luz tarda 4.2 aos en llegar aqu. +y el extremo de la galaxia est a 75 000 aos luz. Y la galaxia ms cercana est a 2.5 millones de aos luz. +lo que quiere decir que cualquier seal que detectemos habr comenzado su viaje mucho tiempo atrs. +y una seal nos brindara un destello de su pasado, no de su presente. +es por eso que Phil Morrison llama a SETI, "la arqueologa del futuro". +Nos cuenta acerca de su pasado, pero la deteccin de una seal nos dice que es posible que tengamos un largo futuro. +Creo que sto era lo que queria decir David Deutsch en el 2005, cuando termin su charla TED en Oxford al decir que tena dos principios que le gustara compartir, y que le gustara tallarlas en tablas de piedra +El primero es que los problemas son inevitables. +El segundo es que los problemas pueden ser resueltos +as, que lo que en definitiva va a determinar el xito o fracaso de SETI es la longevidad de las tecnologas, y la distancia media entre las tecnologas en el cosmos -- la distancia en espacio y distancia en tiempo. +Si las tecnologas no duran y persisten, no tendremos xito. +y somos una tecnologa muy joven en una galaxia vieja, y no sabemos an si ser posible que las tecnologas persistan. +Entonces, hasta ahora les he estado hablando de grandes cantidades +djenme hablarle ahora de cantidades relativamente pequeas +Y esa es la cantidad de tiempo que la Tierra estuvo sin vida. +Si vemos las zirconias que son extradas de las minas de Jack Hills en el occidente de Australia, Las zirconias de Jack Hills en el occidente de Australia Nos indican que en unos pocos cientos de millones de aos del origen de nuestro planeta haba abundante agua y quizs vida tambin. +as, que nuestro planeta ha pasado la gran mayora de sus 4 mil 560 millones de aos de historia desarrollando vida, sin anticipar su aparicin. +La vida ocurri muy rpido, y eso predice muy bien el potencial de vida en algn lugar del cosmos +y otra cosa que se debe destacar es el breve rango de tiempo en que los humanos pueden proclamarse como la inteligencia dominante en el planeta +Es solamente en los ltimos pocos cientos de aos que los humanos modernos han estando desarrollando la tecnologa y la civilizacin +entonces, necesitamos apreciar profundamente la diversidad e increble escala de la vida en este planeta como primer paso en prepararse a hacer contacto con vida en otros lugares del cosmos +No somos el pinculo de la evolucin . +No somos el producto determinado de miles de millones de aos de planeacin +Somos el resultado de un continuo proceso de adaptacin +Somos residentes de un pequeo planeta en una esquina de la galaxia de la Va Lctea +El Homo sapiens es una pequea hoja en un muy extenso rbol de la Vida, que est densamente poblado por organismos que han sobrevivido durante millones de aos. +Usamos de manera errnea el lenguaje, al referirnos al "ascenso del hombre". +Comprendemos la base cientfica de la interrelacin de la vida pero nuestro ego an no lo comprende. +Entonces el ascenso del hombre, el pinculo de la evolucin, tiene que desaparecer. +Es un sentido de privilegio que el universo natural no comparte. +Loren Eiseley ha dicho, que "Uno no se conoce a s mismo hasta que ve el propio reflejo en un ojo distinto del humano". +Un da ese ojo podra ser el de un extraterrestre inteligente, y mientras ms pronto ampliemos nuestra idea de la evolucin ms pronto podremos explorar verdaderamente los orgenes y destinos ltimos. +Somos slo un fragmento en la historia de la evolucin csmica, y seremos responsables por nuestra contnua participacin en esa historia, y quizs SETI pueda ayudar. +Ocasionalmente, a traves de la historia, el concepto de esta gran perspectiva csmica sale a la superficie, y como resultado podemos ver descubrimientos profundos y transformadores. +En 1543, Nicols Coprnico public "Las revoluciones de las esferas celestes", sacando a la Tierra del centro, y poniendo al Sol en el centro del Sistema Solar, l abri nuestros ojos a un universo mucho ms grande, de cual somos una pequea parte. +Y la revolucin copernicana contina hasta la fecha para influenciar la ciencia y filosofa y tecnologa y teologa. +Entonces en 1959, Giuseppe Coccone y Philip Morrison publicaron el primer artculo SETI en una publicacin arbitrada, y trajeron a SETI dentro de la corriente cientfica. +Y en 1960, Frank Drake realiz la primera observacin SETI al observar dos estrellas, Tau Ceti y Epsilo Eridani, durante 150 horas. +Ahora Drake no encontr inteligencia extraterrestre, pero aprendi una leccin muy valiosa por el paso de una aeronave, y es que la tecnologa terrestre puede interferir con la bsqueda de tecnologa extraterrestre. +Hemos estado buscando desde entonces, pero es imposible exagerar la magnitud de la bsqueda que falta. +Todos los esfuerzos relacionados con SETI, durante los ltimos 40 aos, son equivalentes a revisar un solo vaso de agua de los ocanos. +Y nadie podra decidir que el ocano no tiene peces con base en un slo vaso de agua. +El siglo 21 nos permite construir vasos ms grandes, vasos mucho ms grandes. +En el norte de California, hemos comenzado a hacer observaciones con los primeros 42 telescopios del Conjunto de Telescopios Allen -- y tomar un momento para agradecer pblicamente a Paul Allen y Nathan Myhrvold y todos los miembros del Equipo SETI en la comunidad TED que generosamente han apoyado esta investigacin +El ATA es el primer telescopio construido con un gran nmero de pequeos platos, enlazados mediante computadoras. +Esto hace al silicio tan importante como el aluminio, y lo haremos crecer agregando ms antenas hasta que sean 350 incrementando la sensibilidad y elevando la Ley de Moore para mayor capacidad de procesamiento. +Actualmente, nuestros algoritmos de deteccin de seales pueden facilmente encontrar artefactos y ruido +Si observan con atencin podrn ver la seal de la sonda Voyager 1, el objeto humano ms distante en el Universo, 106 veces ms lejos de nosotros que el Sol. +Y a tan largas distancias, su seal es muy dbil cuando llega a nosotros. +Puedes ser dificil para sus ojos verla, pero es fcil de encontrar con nuestros eficientes algoritmos. +Pero esta es una seal sencilla, y maana desearemos encontrar seales ms complejas. +Este es un ao muy bueno. +El prximo mes, la sonda Kepler ser lanzada y comenzar a decirnos qu tan frecuentes son lo planetas parecidos a la Tierra, los objetivos para bsquedas SETI. +En 2009, la O.N.U ha declarado que ste sea el Ao Internacional de la Astronoma, un festejo mundial que nos ayudar a los residentes de la Tierra a re-descubrir nuestros orgenes csmicos y nuestro lugar en el Universo. +Y en 2009, el cambio ha llegado a Washington, con la promesa de poner la ciencia en el lugar que le corresponde. +Entonces Qu lo cambiara todo? +Bueno, esta es la pregunta que la fundacin Edge hizo este ao, y cuatro de los que respondieron dijeron, "SETI". +Por qu? +Bueno, cito: "El descubrimiento de vida inteligente ms all de la Tierra erradicara la soledad y el solipsismo que ha plagado nuestra especie desde el comienzo. +Y no solamente lo cambiara todo, lo cambiara todo al msmo tiempo". +Entonces, de ser correcto Por qu solo capturamos cuatro de esas 151 mentes? +Pienso que el problema es de trmino y entrega, por que la letra pequea dice, "Qu ideas transformadoras y desarrollos cientficos usted esperara vivir para ver?" +Entonces, tenemos un problema de cumplimiento +Necesitamos vasos ms grandes y ms manos en el agua, y entonces, trabajando juntos, quizs podamos todos vivir para ver la deteccin de la primera seal extraterrestre. +Lo que me lleva a mi deseo. +Deseo que ustedes puedan empoderar a los terrcolas en todo lugar para que se vuelvan participantes activos en la bsqueda final de compaa csmica. +El primer paso sera explotar el impulso cerebral global, para construir un ambiente donde los datos sin procesar puedan almacenarse y donde puedan ser accesados y manipulados, donde nuevos algoritmos puedan desarrollarse y los viejos algoritmos se hagan ms eficientes. +Y este es un reto tcnicamente creativo, y podra cambiar la perspectiva de las personas que trabajen en ello. +Y entonces, nos gustara aumentar la bsqueda automatizada con entendimiento humano. +Nos gustara usar la capacidad de reconocimiento de patrones que tiene el ojo humano para encontrar seales dbiles y complejas, que escapan a nuestros actuales algoritmos. +Y por supuesto, queremos inspirar a la siguiente generacin. +Nos gustara tomar el material que hemos desarrollado para la educacin, y proporcionarlas a estudiantes de todas partes, estudiantes que no pueden venir a visitarnos en el ATA. +Nos gustara narrar mejor nuestra historia, y captar a los jovenes, y por lo tanto, cambiar sus perspectivas. +Lo lamento Seth Godin, pero durante milenios hemos visto a dnde nos lleva ser tribales. +Hemos visto lo que ocurre cuando dividimos un pequeo planeta en islas ms pequeas. +Y, finalmente, todos pertenecemos a una sola tribu, los terrcolas. +Y SETI es un espejo, un espejo que puede mostrarles a ustedes mismos desde una perspectiva extraordinaria, y puede ayudar a trivializar las diferencias entre nosotros. +si SETI no hiciera nada ms que cambiar la perspectiva de los humanos en este planeta, entonces ser una de las empresas ms profundas en la historia. +As pues en los primeros das de 2009, un presidente visionario puso pi en el Capitolio de los E.U.A. y dijo "No podemos evitar creer que los viejos odios algn da se olvidarn, que las fronteras entre tribus pronto desaparecern, esto, conforme se empequeece el mundo, revelar nuestra humanidad comn". +As que espero con emocin trabajar con la comuidad TED para escuchar sus ideas sobre cmo realizar este deseo, y en la colaboracin con ustedes, se acercar el da en que el visionario enunciado podr ser una realidad. +Gracias +Estoy aqu representando a un equipo de artistas, tecnlogos y [los que se dedican al cine] que trabajaron en un proyecto flmico impresionante durante los pasados cuatro aos. +Y que en el camino crearon un avance en visualizacin computarizada. +Les quiero mostrar un clip de vdeo. +Con suerte no se trabar. +Y si hicimos bien nuestro trabajo, no sabrn que estuvimos involucrados. +Vdeo: No se como es posible... +pero parece que tienes ms cabello. +Benjamin Button: Si te dijera que no estoy envejeciendo... +si no que me estoy haciendo ms joven que todos? +Nac con una enfermedad. +Voz: Qu tipo de enfermedad? +BB: Nac viejo. +Hombre: Cuanto lo siento. +BB: No hay necesidad. No hay nada de malo con ser viejo. +Nia: Ests enfermo? +BB: Esuch a mam y Tizzy [susurrar] y dijeron que yo iba a morir pronto. +Pero... tal vez no. +Nia: Eres diferente a todos lo que he conocido antes. +BB: Hubieron muchos cambios... +algunos los podas ver, otros no. +Empez a salir bello en una variedad de lugares, adems de otras cosas. +Me senta bastante bien, considerando las circunstancias. +Ed Ulbrich: Ese fue un clip de "The Curious Case of Benjamin Button." +Muchos de ustedes, algunos ya la vieron otros han escuchado la historia, pero lo que ustedes no saben es que durante, prcticamente, la primera hora de la pelcula el personaje principal, Benjamin Button, que Brad Pitt represent, es generado por computadora del cuello para arriba. +No se us maquillaje o fotografas de Brad sobrepuestas al cuerpo de otro actor. +Nosotros creamos una cabeza humana completamente digital. +Aspi que me gustara empezar con un poco de la historia del proyecto. +La pelcula esta basada en una historia de F. Scott Fitzgerald. +Se trata de un hombre que nace siendo anciano y vive su vida en sentido contrario. +Esta pelcula ha circulado Hollywood por alrededor de media centuria y por fin nos involucramos en el proyecto al principio de los 90's con Ron Howard como director. +Tuvimos muchas juntas y lo consideramos muy seriamente. +Pero tuvimos que tirar la toalla en ese entonces. +Se consider imposible. +Estaba ms all de las posibilidades de la tecnologa de ese entonces el mostrar a un hombre que rejuveneca. +La forma humana, especialmente la cabeza, ha sido considerada el Cliz Sagrado de nuestra industria. +El proyecto regreso a nosotros una dcada despus, ahora con el director David Fincher. +Fincher es un hombre interesante. +David es audaz cuando se trata de tecnologa, y es absolutamente tenaz. +David no aceptar un "No" como respuesta. +y David crea, como nosotros en la industria de los efectos visuales, que cualquier cosa es possible siempre y cuando tengas suficiente tiempo, recursos y, por supuesto, dinero. +Y por eso David tena un acercamiento interesante para la pelcula, y nos hizo un reto. +l quera que el personaje principal fuera actuado de la cuna a la tumba por un solo actor. +Result ser este hombre. +A travesamos un proceso de eliminacin y un proceso de descubrimiento con David, y descartamos, por supuesto, usar diferentes actores. +Esa era una idea: que usramos diferentes actores, y que cambiramos de actor a actor. +Incluso descartamos la idea de usar maquillaje, +Nos dimos cuenta de que el maquillaje simplemente no iba a bastar, particularmente en los acercamientos. +Y el maquillaje es un proceso aditivo. Tienes que hacer el rostro desde cero. +Como David quera grabar muy de cerca el rostro de Brad para demostrar el envejecimiento de su personaje. +Necesitaba ser un personaje muy comprensivo. +As que decidimos audicionar a una serie de gente pequea que representaran los diferentes cuerpos de Benjamin en las diferentes etapas de su vida y que de hecho construyramos un versin generada por computadora de la cabeza de Brad envejecida para parecerse a Benjamin, y despus pegar esa cabeza al cuerpo del actor real. +Sonaba genial. +Claro que, este era el Cliz Sagrado de nuestra industria, y el hecho de que este hombre fuera un icono mundial no ayudaba para nada, por que seguramente si han estado en la fila del supermercado, ya saben, vemos su rostro constantemente. +As que no hay un margen de error que sea tolerable. +Dos estudios estaban involucrados. Waner Brothers y Paramount. +Ambos crean que esta iba a ser una pelcula increble, por supuesto, pero era una propuesta de alto riesgo. +Mucho dinero y muchas reputaciones estaban en juego. +Y creamos que nuestra metodologa era muy slida que podra funcionar... +Pero a pesar de nuestras convicciones, ellos queran una demostracin. +En el 2004, nos pidieron una demostracin de Benjamin. +Y lo logramos en alrededor de cinco semanas. +Pero usamos muchos trucos y atajos +Lo que logramos fue para pasar la prueba. +En un momento ms les mostrar el vdeo. Esta fue la primera prueba de Benjamin Button. +Y aqu, pueden ver una cabeza generada por computadora. Es bastante buena. Pegada al cuerpo de un actor. +Y funciono. Lo que tranquiliz enormemente al estudio. +Despus de muchos aos de empezar y cesar el proyecto, y despus de tomar la difcil decisin, por fin se decidieron por darnos la luz verde para empezar la pelcula. +Recuerdo que cuando recib la llamada para felicitarnos, diciendo que podamos comenzar con la pelcula, yo, de hecho, vomit. +Saben, esto fue bastante difcil. +As que comenzamos teniendo juntas, y cuando todos estbamos reunidos, al principio pareca ser una terapia grupal, convencindonos y confirmndonos unos a otros de que podamos lograrlo. +Tenamos que lograr una hora de la pelcula con un personaje. +Despus de todo no es una pelcula de efectos especiales, tena que ser acerca de un hombre. +Nos sentamos como si estuviramos en una especie de programa de 12 pasos. +Y por supuesto, el primer paso es: admitir que tienes un problema. Y nosotros tenamos un gran problema. No sabamos como bamos a lograrlo. +Pero s sabamos una cosa. +Proviniendo de la industria de efectos visuales, nosotros, junto con David, creamos que tenamos tiempo suficiente, suficientes recursos y, Dios, esperbamos tener suficiente dinero. +Tenamos la pasin suficiente para desarrollar el procedimiento y la tecnologa. +As que cuando uno se enfrenta ante una situacin similar, por supuesto que lo tienes que analizar. +Tomas el gran problema y lo separas en partes ms pequeas y atacas a estas. +As que nos tenamos que concentrar en tres reas principales. +Necesitbamos envejecer a Brad. Necesitbamos envejecerlo alrededor de 45 aos. +Tambin nos tenamos que asegurar de incorporar las idiosincrasias de Brad, sus pequeos tics, sus sutilezas que lo hacen ser quien es y traducir todo eso a travs de nuestro proceso para que sea visible en Benjamin en la pantalla. +Tambin necesitbamos crear un personaje que fuera funcional bajo cualquier condicin de trabajo. +Necesitaba poder caminar en pleno da, durante la noche, con la luz de una vela, tena que ser creble en acercamientos extremos, el tena que ser capaz de dialogar, tena que correr, tena que sudar, tena que poder baarse, llorar, incluso tena que poder vomitar. +No al mismo tiempo. Pero tena que ser capaz de hacer todo eso. +Y tena que ser creble durante casi toda la primera hora de la pelcula. +Hicimos cerca de 325 tomas. +As que necesitbamos un sistema que permitiera a Benjamin hacer lo que todo ser humano es capaz de hacer. +Y nos dimos cuenta del gran abismo que exista entre el estado actual de la tecnologa de punta del 2004 y donde necesitbamos que estuviera. +As que nos enfocamos en la captura de movimeinto. +Estoy seguro que muchos de ustedes han visto la captura de movimiento. +La tecnologa de punta de ese entonces era llamada captura de movimiento basada en marcadores. +Les pondr un ejemplo. +La idea bsicamente es, usas un leotardo, y te ponen marcadores reflectantes en t cuerpo, y en vez de usar cmaras, hay sensores infrarrojos alrededor de un cierto volumen, y dichos sensores siguen y registran la posicin tridimensional de esos marcadores en tiempo real. +Despus los animadores toman la informacin registrada de los marcadores y la aplican a un personaje generado por computadora. +Pueden ver que los personajes computarizados en la derecha estn realizando el mismo movimiento que los bailarines. +Pero tambin observamos a los nmeros de otras pelculas que en ese entonces usaban marcadores faciales, y esa es la idea de poner marcadores en el rostro humano y hacer el mismo proceso. +Como pueden ver, el resultado es bastante pattico. +Esto no es muy convincente que digamos. +Y d elo que nos dimos cuenta fue que lo que necesitbamos era la informacin de lo que estaba pasando entre los marcadores. +Necesitbamos la sutileza de la piel. +Necesitbamos ver como se mova la piel sobre msculo sobre hueso. +Necesitbamos ceos fruncidos, hoyuelos, arrugas y todas esas cosas. +Nuestra primera revelacin fue abortar por completo y alejarnos de la tecnologa de ese da, el estatus quo, la tecnologa de punta. +As que abandonamos la captura de movimiento. +Y nos encontrbamos muy en las afueras de nuestra zona de confort, en territorio inexplorado. +As que acabamos con esta idea que finalmente llamamos "estofado tecnolgico". +Empezamos a buscar afuera, en otros campos +y la idea era que tenamos que encontar pedazos o gemas de tecnologa que provinieran de otras industrias como imagenologa mdica, los vdeo juegos, y re-adecuarlos. +Tenamos que crear algn tipo de salsa. +Y esa salsa era el cdigo del software que habamos escrito para que este variedad de piezas tecnolgicas se fusionaran y trabajaran como una sola. +Inicialmente, encontramos una investigacin impresionante creada por un caballero llamado Dr. Paul Ekman al inicio de los 70's. +El crea que, de hecho catalog el rostro humano. +E ide este concepto de FACS, Sistema de Codificacin de Acciones Faciales. +El crea que existan 70 gestos bsicos o formas del rostro humano y que dichos gestos o formas del rostro, podan crear una infinidad de combinaciones posibles de cualquier cosa que el rostro humano sea capaz de hacer. +Por supuesto, estos trascendan la edad, raza, cultura y gnero. +Esto se convirti en la base de nuestra investigacin y continuamos hacia delante. +Fue despus cuando nos encontramos esta increble tecnologa llamada Contour. +Aqu se puede ver maquillaje fosforescente siendo aplicado a un sujeto en su rostro. +Lo que en verdad estamos viendo es la creacin de una superficie de captura en oposicin a un marcador de captura. +El sujeto se posiciona en frente de un arreglo computarizado de cmaras, y esas cmaras pueden, cuadro por cuadro, reconstruir la geometra de manera precisa de lo que el sujeto est haciendo en el momento. +As que, efectivamente, se obtiene informacin 3D en tiempo real del sujeto. +Y si observan una comparacin, en la izquierda, vemos lo que la informacin volumtrica nos da y en la derecha ven lo que los marcadores nos otorgan. +As que, claramente, nos encontrbamos en una situacin substancialmente mejor para esto. +Pero estos eran los primeros das de esa tecnologa, y no haba sido realmente puesta a prueba. +Pero medimos la complejidad y la fidelidad de los datos en trminos de la cantidad de polgonos. +As, en la izquierda, vemos 100,000 polgonos. +Podamos escalar a los millones de polgonos. +Parecera ser infinito. +Fue ah cuando tuvimos nuestro "a ha!". +Ese fue nuestro descubrimiento. +Fue en ese momento que todos decamos, "OK, vamos a estar bien, esto va a funcionar." +El "a ha!" fue, qu pasara si tomsemos a Brad Pitt, y pusiramos a Brad en este aparato, y usramos el procesos Contour, y le ponemos este maquillaje fosforescente y lo ponemos bajo luz negra, y pudiramos, de hecho, escanear su rostro en tiempo real haciendo los poses del FACS de Eckman? +Cierto? As que, prcticamente, terminamos con una base de datos tri-dimensional de todo lo que el rostro de Brad Pitt is capaz de hacer. +De aqu, seccionamos esos gestos en pedazos y componentes ms pequeos de su rosotro. +Fue as que terminamos con, literalmente, miles de formas del rostro. Una base de datos entera con las posibles combinaciones que su rostro es capaz de hacer. +Ahora, esto es genial, excepto que lo tenemos a una edad de 44 aos. +Necesitamos agregarlos otros 40 aos. +Trajimos a Rick Baker, y Rick es uno de los grandes gurus del maquillaje y los efectos especiales de nuestra industria. +Tambin trajimos a un caballero llamado Kazu Tsuji, Kazu Tsuji es uno de los mas grandes escultores fotorealistas de nuestos tiempos. +Y le pedimos que nos hiciera una maqueta, o un busto, de Benjamin. +Y, en el espritu de "El Gran Descubrimiento" -- tena que hacer esto -- tena que descubrir algo. +ste es Ben a los 80. +Creamos tres de estas: All est Ben a los 80, all est Ben a los 70 y all est Ben a los 60. +Esto se convirti en nuestro molde para seguir adelante. +Ahora, esta es una impresin de Brad. +As que, de hecho, es anatmicamente correcto. +Los ojos, la quijada, los dientes... todo esta perfectamente alineado con el hombre real. +Tenemos estas maquetas escaneadas en la computadora a una resolucin muy alta. Una enorme cantidad de polgonos. +Ahora tenemos tres incrementos de edad de Benjamin en la computadora. +Pero necesitbamos una base de datos de el haciendo ms que eso. +Pasamos por un proceso llamado [re-trazado]. +Este es Brad haciendo una pose del FACS de Eckman. +Y esta es la informacin obtenida de la captura, el modelo que se obtiene de eso. +Y el [re-trazado] es el proceso por el cual se transporta esa informacin a otro modelo. +Y como el modelo, el busto -- la maqueta -- de Benjamin se hizo de Brad, podamos transportar esa informacin de Brad a los 44 a Brad a los 87. +Ahora, tenamos nuestra base de datos 3D de todo lo que el rostro de Brad Pitt puede hacer a la edad de 87, en sus 70's y en sus 60's. +Ahora tenamos que empezar el proceso de filmacin. +Mientras todo esto sucedia, nos encontrbamos en Nueva Orleans y otras locaciones alrededor del mundo. +Filmamos a nuestros actores, los filmamos usando capuchas azules. +As que este es el caballero actuando como Benjamin. +La capucha azul nos ayud de dos maneras: una, nos permita borrar sus cabezas de manera sencilla; y tambin pusimos marcadores de seguimiento sobre sus cabezas para recrear el movimiento de la cmara y el lente ptico desde set. +Pero ahora necesitamos la interpretacin de Brad para controlar nuestro Benjamin virtual. +Despus editamos la grabacin que se hizo en la locacin con el resto de los actores y unos seis meses despus trajimos a Brad a nuestro estudio de grabacin en Los ngeles y el vio en la pantalla +y su trabajo era convertirse en Benjamin. +Entonces repetamos las escenas. +l las vea una y otra vez. +Lo motivamos a improvisar. +Y llev a Benjamin a lugares interesantes e inusuales que nunca consideramos que fuera a ir. +Lo grabamos con cuatro cmaras de alta definicin para obtener diferentes ngulos de l y despus David elegira la toma de Brad siendo Benjamin he el consideraba se acomodaba mejor a lo ya filmado con el resto del equipo. +De ah proseguimos con un proceso llamado anlisis de imgenes. +Ah, como se pueden ver, la toma seleccionada. +Ahora vemos, la informacin transportada al Ben de 87 aos. +Lo que es interesante de todo esto es que usamos algo llamado anlisis de imgenes, que es la toma de tiempos de los diferentes componentes del rostro de Benjamin. +As podamos escoger, digamos, su ceja izquierda. +El software nos dira que, pues, en el cuadro 14 su ceja izquierda se movi de aqu a ac, y concluy su movimiento en el cuadro 32. +As podamos escoger numerosas posiciones del rostro para obtener informacin de ellas. +Entonces, la salsa del estofado tecnolgico del que les hablaba, esa salsa secreta era, efectivamente, el software que nos haba permitido empalmar la actuacin de Brad en vivo con nuestra base de datos del envejecido Benjamin, los gestos FACS que ya tenamos. +De cuadro en cuadro, pudimos reconstruir una cabeza 3D que empalmar perfectamente la actuacin de Brad. +As se vea la toma final en la pelcula. +Aqu pueden ver al actor. +Esto es lo que llambamos la "cabeza muerta", sin hacer referencia a Jerry Garcia. +Esta es la actuacin reconstruida y ahora sincronizados- +De nuevo, la escena final. +Fue un proceso muy largo. +Para la siguiente seccin, avanzar muy rpido, por que podramos hacer toda una TEDTalk de las siguientes diapositivas. +Tenamos que crear un sistema de iluminacin. +En realidad, una gran parte de nuestros procedimientos fue la creacin de un sistema de iluminacin para cada lugar en el que Benjamin tena que aparecer para que pudiramos poner la cabeza de Ben en cualquier escena e igualara la iluminacin que usaron los dems actores en el mundo real. +Creamos, tambin, un sistema ocular. +Encontramos que el viejo adagio, "Los ojos son la ventana al alma", era absolutamente verdad. +As que la clave era mantener a todos concentrados en los ojos de Ben. +Y si podan sentir el calor, sentir la humanidad, y sentir sus intenciones a travs de sus ojos, entonces tendramos xito. +Para esto una persona estuvo enfocada en el sistema ocular por casi dos aos. +Tuvimos que crear una boca. +Trabajamos a partir de los moldes dentales de Brad. +Tenamos que envejecer sus dientes. +Tenamos que crear una lengua articulada que le permitiera pronunciar palabras. +Se escribi todo un sistema en software para articular la lengua. +Una persona estuvo dedicada a la lengua por alrededor de nueve meses. +El era muy popular. +El movimiento de la piel: otro gran problema. +La piel tena que ser, absolutamente, precisa, +y l se encuentra en una casa para ancianos, una asilo, rodeado de otros ancianos, as que tena que actuar exactamente igual que la de los dems. +As que, mucho trabajo sobre la piel, pueden ver como en algunos de estos casos funciona, pero en otros casos se ve mal, +esto fue una prueba muy, muy, muy temprana de nuestro proceso. +Hasta que, efectivamente creamos una marioneta digital que Brad Pitt poda manipular con su propio rostro. +No hubo animadores involucrados para interpretar el comportamiento o mejorar la actuacin. +Sin embargo, si nos topamos con algo, que terminamos por llamar "el efecto Botox digital". +Mientras todos estaba en proceso, Fincher siempre deca "Limaba los contornos de la actuacin". +Y una cosa que nuestro proceso y tecnologa no poda hacer era entender la intencin, la intencin del actor. +As que interpreta una sonrisa como una sonrisa. +No reconoce una risa irnica o una sonrisa feliz, o una sonrisa frustrada. +As que si se requirieron humanos para darle ese toque. +Pero llamamos a todo ese proceso y a toda la tecnologa "captura emocional", en contraste de solo la captura del movimiento. +Tengan otro vistazo. +BB: Esuch a mam y Tizzy [susurrar], y dijeron que yo iba a morir pronto. Pero... tal vez no. +Ed Ulbrich: As es como se crea una cabeza digital en 18 minutos. +Unos cuantos datos rpidos. Tom en realidad 155 personas y dos aos, y ni siquiera hablamos de los 60 cortes de cabello digitales. +Pero, ese es Benjamin. Gracias. +Hablemos de pura basura +Saben, se nos tuvo que ensear a abandonar esa poderosa tica de conservacin que desarrollamos durante la Gran Depresin y la Segunda Guerra Mundial. +Despus de la guerra, necesitbamos enfocar nuestra enorme capacidad de produccin a la creacin de productos para los tiempos de paz. +La revista Life ayud en este proyecto al introducir al mercado los desechables que liberaran a las esposas del tedio de lavar los platos. +Nota mental para los liberadores: los desechables ocupan mucho espacio y no son biodegradables. +Slo los humanos producimos desperdicios que la naturaleza no puede digerir. +Los plsticos son difciles de reciclar. +Un maestro me enseo como expresar el menos de 5% de plsticos que se recuperan en nuestro flujo de desperdicios. +Es diminutamente minsculo. +Ese es el porcentaje que reciclamos. +Ahora, el punto de fusin tiene mucho que ver. +El plstico no se purifica tras derretirlo, como sucede con el vidrio o los metales. +Se empieza a derretir por debajo del punto de ebullicin del agua y eso no aleja a los contaminantes leos para los cuales actua como una esponja. +La mitad de los 100 mil millones de libras de perdigones plsticos se convertirn en basura rpidamente. +Una gran e inslita cantidad de nuestra basura fluir a travs de los ros hasta el mar. +Aqu se aprecia la acumulacin en el Arroyo Biona, a un costado del aeropuerto. +Y aqu los desechos arrojados al mar cerca de la Universidad de California en Long Beach y la planta de desalinizacin que visitamos el da de ayer. +A pesar de las multas, mucha de la basura que llega al mar ser envases plsticos de bebidas. +Usamos dos millones de estas botellas cada cinco minutos en los Estados Unidos, y lo apreciamos en esta imagen del presentador de TED Chris Jordan que documenta artsticamente el consumo masivo y amplia la imagen para mayor detalle. +Aqu vemos una isla remota, que funciona como depsito para las botellas, por la costa de Baja California. +La Isla San Roque es una deshabitada colonia de pjaros en la escasamente poblada costa central de Baja California. +Noten que la botellas tienen el tapn puesto. +Las botellas hechas de polietileno tereftalato, PET, se hundirn en agua salada y no llegarn tan lejos de la civilizacin. +Adems, los tapones son producidos en fbricas diferentes de un plstico diferente, polipropileno. +Estas flotan en agua salada, pero desafortunadamente no son recicladas. +Tracemos el viaje de los millones de tapones que llegan al mar sin la botella. +Despus de un ao los tapones de Japn se dirigen justo a travs del pacfico, mientras que las nuestras son arrastradas por la corriente de California y en primer instancia se dirigen hacia abajo por la latitud de Cabo San Lucas. +Despus de diez aos, muchos de los tapones Japoneses se encuentran en lo que llamamos la Parche de Basura del Este mientras que los nuestros contaminan a las Filipinas. +Despus de 20 aos, vemos como emerge la zona de acumulacin de desechos en el Giro Norte del Pacfico. +Sucede tambin que millones de albatros que anidan en en las islas Kure y Midway en el Monumento Nacional Islas de Sotavento forrajean y escarban lo que sea que puedan encontrar para despus regurgitar a sus polluelos. +Un polluelo albatros de Laysan de cuatro meses de edad muri con esto en su estmago. +Cientos de miles de polluelos estan muriendo con sus estmagos llenos de tapones y otros desechos como encendedores... +pero, principalmente tapones. +Tristemente, sus padres confunden los tapones con comida esparcidos por la superficie del ocano. +Los anillos plsticos de los tapones tambin causan problemas para los animales acuticos. +Esta es Mae West, todava viva en la casa del cuidador del zoolgico de Nuevo Orleans. +Quera ver como m pueblo natal de Long Beach contribua para solucionar el problema, as que en el Da de Limpieza Costal del 2005 fu a la pennsula de Long Beach en el lado este de nuestra larga playa. +Limpiamos las franjas de playa que aqu se muestran. +Ofrec cinco centavos por cada tapn que recogieran. +Muchos aceptaron. +Aqu estn los 1,100 tapones que recolectaron. +Pens que iba a gastar unos 20 dlares. +Pero ese da termine gastando alrededor de 60. +Las separe por color y las exhib el Da de la Tierra siguiente en el Acuario Marino de Cabrillo en San Pedro. +El Gobernador Schwarzenegger y su esposa Mara nos visitaron para discutir la exhibicin. +A pesar de mi sombrero afeminado, tejido con bolsas de plstico, me saludaron de mano. Le mostr a l y a Mara una red de arrastre de zooplancton proveniente del giro norte de Hawaii que contena ms plstico que plancton. +As se vea nuestra muestra de la sopa de plstico en la que se ha convertido nuestro oceano. +Arrastrar durante una milla una red para atrapar plancton produce una muestra como esta. +Y esta. +Ahora, cuando el desperdicio es arrastrado por la corriente a las playas de Hawaii se ve as. +Esta playa en particular es Playa Kailua, la playa donde nuestro presidente y su familia vacacionaron antes de mudarse a Washington. +Ahora, cmo analizamos muestras como esta que contienen ms plstico que plancton? +Separamos los fragmentos de plstico segn su tamao desde cinco milmetros hasta un tercio de milmetro. +Pequeos fragmentos de plstico llegan a concentrar poderosos contaminantes orgnicos llegando incluso a ser un milln de veces su nivel normal en el agua marina. +Queramos comprobar si el pez ms comn del ocano, en la base de la cadena alimenticia, estaba ingiriendo estos venenos. +Realizamos cientos de necropsias, y un tercio tuvo en sus estmagos estos fragmentos plsticos txicos. +El record lo tuvo un pez de tan solo dos y media pulgadas de largo, tuvo 84 fragmentos en su diminuto estmago. +Ahora s pueden comprar productos orgnicos que estn certificados. +Pero ningn pescador en la Tierra puede venderte un pescado salvaje que este certificado de ser orgnico. +Este es el legado que le estamos dejando a las generaciones futuras. +La sociedad de lo desechable no puede ser contenida, se ha convertido en algo global. +Simplemente no somos capaces de almacenar o reciclar toda nuestra basura. +La tenemos que tirar. +El mercado puede hacer mucho por nosotros, pero no puede arreglar el sistema natural del ocano que hemos desequilibrado. +Todos los caballos y todos los hombres del rey... +no podrn juntar todo el plstico y reparar el ocano. +Vdeo: Los niveles estn en aumento, la cantidad y variedad de empaques est en aumento, el concepto de la vida desechable prolifera, y se ve reflejada en el ocano. +Conductor: El no ofrece ninguna esperanza de limpiarlo. +Filtrar el plstico de los ocanos est muy por encima de los presupuestos de cualquier pas y probablemente matara una cantidad de la vida marina, sin precedentes, en el proceso. +La solucin, de acuerdo a Moore, detener el plstico desde su fuente: detenerlo en tierra firme antes de que sea acarreado al ocano. +Y en un mundo envuelto y empacado en plstico, el no alberga mucha esperanza. +Este es Brian Rooney para Nightline, en Long Beach, California. +Charles Moore: Muchas gracias. +Esta es la primera de dos extraordinarias fotografas que les voy a mostrar hoy. +Fue tomada hace 18 aos; +en esa poca tena 19 aos. +Acababa de regresar de uno de mis buceos ms profundos hasta ese momento, de un poco ms de 60 metros. Y haba atrapado este pequeo pez que ven aqu, +y resulta que ese pez fue el primero de su especie en ser atrapado vivo. +No soy slo un ictilogo, soy realmente un loco por los peces. +Y para los locos por los peces esto es muy excitante. +Y ms excitante an era el hecho que quien sac la foto fue un tipo llamado Jack Randall, el ictilogo vivo ms importante del mundo, el Gran Dos de los locos por los peces, puede decirse. +Para m fue muy excitante vivir ese momento y marc el curso del resto de mi vida. +Pero realmente lo ms significativo, lo ms potente, de esta foto es que fue tomada dos das antes de quedar totalmente paralizado desde el cuello hacia abajo. +Comet un error realmente muy estpido, que la mayora de los varones de 19 cometen por creerse inmortales, y sufr una descompresin muy fuerte y termin paralizado, por lo que tuvieron que llevarme volando a tratarme. +Aprend dos cosas importantes ese da. +Lo primero que aprend (y es muy importante) es que bueno, soy mortal. +Y lo segundo que aprend fue que supe, con completa seguridad, que esto era exactamente lo que iba a hacer por el resto de mi vida. +Tena que enfocar todas mis energas en encontrar nuevas especies de cosas en las profundidades de los arrecifes. +Cuando piensas en un arrecife de coral, sta es la imagen mental que tienen casi todos, todos estos corales grandes, duros, detallados y muchos peces coloridos y vivaces. +Pero en verdad esta es slo la punta del iceberg. +Si miras esta especie de diagrama de un arrecife, sabemos mucho de la parte de ms arriba y sabemos tanto sobre eso porque los buzos scuba pueden bajar y llegar fcilmente. +Eso s, hay un problema con el scuba y es que limita cunto puedes bajar y resulta ser alrededor de 60 metros. +Les explicar la razn en un minuto. +Pero el punto es que los buzos scuba generalmente se mantienen sobre los 30 metros y muy rara vez descienden ms, por lo menos los cuerdos. +Entonces, para ir ms profundo, la mayora de los bilogos estn usando sumergibles. +Ahora, los sumergibles son increblemente maravillosos, pero si vas a gastarte 30 mil dlares diarios para usar uno y puede descender hasta 600 metros, de seguro no vas a tontear por ac arriba en los primeros 60 metros, vas a bajar muy, muy, muy profundo. +En conclusin, casi toda la investigacin usando sumergibles se ha hecho bastante por debajo de 150 metros. +Entonces ya es obvio que hay una zona aqu en el medio y esa es la zona que concentra mi bsqueda personal de la felicidad. +Quiero saber qu hay en esta zona. +Casi no sabemos nada sobre ella. +Los buzos scuba no pueden llegar all y los submarinos la pasan de largo. +Tard un ao en aprender a caminar de nuevo despus de mi accidente en Palau y durante ese ao pas mucho tiempo aprendiendo acerca de la fsica y la fisiologa del buceo y analizando cmo superar estas limitaciones. +Entonces slo les mostrar una idea bsica. +Todos estamos respirando aire, que es una mezcla de oxgeno y nitrgeno, y hay como 20% oxgeno y 80% nitrgeno en nuestros pulmones. +Y existe un fenmeno llamado Ley de Henry que dice que los gases se transforman en fluidos en proporcin a las presiones parciales a las que sean expuestos. +As que bsicamente el gas se disuelve en nuestros cuerpos. +El oxgeno es metabolizado y usado como energa. +El nitrgeno simplemente flota por nuestra sangre y tejidos y no molesta, ya que as fuimos diseados. +El problema comienza cuando te sumerges bajo el agua. +La presin es mayor cuanto ms profundo te sumerjas. +Si desciendes a unos 40 metros -el lmite recomendado para los buzos scuba normales- obtienes este efecto de compresin. +Y el efecto de esa presin es que aumenta la densidad de molculas de gas con cada inhalacin. +Y despus de un rato, las molculas de gas se disuelven en tu sangre y tejidos y comienzan a llenarte. +Ahora, si te sumerges a 90 metros tus pulmones no tienen 5 veces ms molculas de gas sino que tienen 10 veces ms molculas de gas. +Y ten por seguro que tambin se disuelven en tu sangre y tejidos. +Y, por supuesto, si bajas hasta donde hay 15 veces la presin... A mayor profundidad, ms se exacerba el problema. +Y el problema, la limitacin de bucear con aire son todos estos puntos en tu cuerpo: todo el nitrgeno y oxgeno. +Hay tres limitaciones bsicas del buceo scuba. +La primera limitacin es el oxgeno, la toxicidad del oxgeno. +Ahora, todos conocemos la cancin: "El amor es como el oxgeno, Tienes demasiado y te enloqueces demasiado. No tienes suficiente y vas a morirte". +Bueno, en el contexto del buceo, si tienes demasiado tambin te mueres. +Mueres porque la toxicidad del oxgeno puede producir convulsiones y no es bueno que convulsiones bajo el agua. +Esto sucede por que hay una concentracin demasiado alta de oxgeno en tu cuerpo. +El nitrgeno tiene dos problemas. +Uno de ellos es lo que Jacques Cousteau llam "el xtasis de lo profundo". +Es la narcosis de nitrgeno. +Te hace hacer tonteras. +Cuanto ms profundo vas, ms te emborracha. +No quieres manejar ebrio y no quieres bucear ebrio, as que es un gran problema. +Y, por supuesto, el tercer problema es el que aprend de la manera difcil en Palau, que es el sndrome de descompresin. +Ahora, lo nico que me olvid de contarles es que para evitar el problema de la narcosis de nitrgeno -de todos esos puntos azules en el cuerpo- quitas el nitrgeno y lo reemplazas con helio. +El helio es un gas y hay varias razones por las cuales el helio es bueno: es una molcula pequea, es inerte, y no te da narcosis. +As que esa es la idea bsica que usamos. +En teora es relativamente fcil, pero +la parte compleja es la implementacin. +As es como empec hace como 15 aos +y admito que quizs no fue el inicio ms inteligente pero de alguna manera tena que empezar. +Y en esa poca, yo no era el nico que no saba lo que estaba haciendo, sino que no haba casi nadie que supiera. +Y de hecho este equipo se us para bajar a 90 metros. +Pero con el tiempo fuimos mejorando y logramos armar este equipo sofisticado con cuatro tanques scuba y cinco reguladores, con todas las mezclas correctas y dems. +Y fue muy bueno y nos permiti bajar y encontrar especies nuevas. +Esta foto fue sacada a 90 metros, atrapando una especie nueva. +Pero no nos daba mucho tiempo; +a pesar de su tamao nos daba 15 minutos como mximo a esas profundidades. +Necesitbamos ms tiempo. +Tena que haber un modo mejor. +Y efectivamente hay un modo mejor. +En 1994 tuve la suerte de tener acceso a estos prototipos de recicladores de aire de circuito cerrado. +Bien, los recicladores de circuito cerrado... Qu los hace distintos al equipo de scuba? Y por qu son mejores? +Bueno, los recicladores tienen tres ventajes principales. +Uno: son silenciosos, no hacen mucho ruido. +Dos: te permiten permanecer ms tiempo bajo el agua. +Tres: te permiten bajar a mayor profundidad. +Y cmo es que hacen esto? +Bueno, para entender realmente cmo lo hacen tienes que levantarle el cap, mirar adentro y ver qu est pasando. +Hay tres sistemas bsicos en un reciclador de circuito cerrado. +El sistema fundamental se conoce como el ciclo de respiracin. +Es un ciclo de respiracin porque gracias a esto puedes respirar y es un ciclo cerrado y respiras el mismo gas reciclado una y otra y otra vez. +Hay una boquilla que te metes a la boca y tambin hay un contrapulmn o, en este caso, dos contrapulmones. +Y los contrapulmones no son de alta tecnologa; son simples bolsas flexibles. +Te permiten respirar mecnicamente o ventilar mecnicamente. +Cuando exhalas, tu exhalacin va al contrapulmn de exhalacin y cuando inhalas, viene del contrapulmn de inhalacin. +Es pura mecnica que te permite mover el aire a travs de este ciclo de respiracin. +Y el otro componente de un ciclo de respiracin es el recipiente que absorbe el dixido de carbono. +Bien, cuando respiramos producimos dixido de carbono y es necesario limpiar ese CO2 del sistema. +Entonces hay un filtro qumico ah dentro que retira todo el dixido de carbono del gas que se respira para que, cuando volvamos a respirarlo, la inhalacin sea segura. +Entonces eso es, en esencia, el ciclo de respiracin. +Ahora, el segundo componente principal de un reciclador es el sistema de gases. +El propsito principal de este sistema es proveer oxgeno, reponer el oxgeno que tu cuerpo consume. +As que el elemento crtico, el tanque principal es este cilindro de aqu que te suministra oxgeno. +Pero si slo tuviramos un cilindro que nos suministrara oxgeno no podramos bajar demasiado ya que nos intoxicaramos con oxgeno muy, muy rpidamente. +As que necesitamos otro gas, algo para diluir el oxgeno +y eso, apropiadamente, se conoce como el suministro de gas diluyente. +Ahora, en nuestro caso, generalmente ponemos aire en este suministro porque es una fuente muy simple y barata de nitrgeno. +Entonces de ah obtenemos nuestro nitrgeno. +Pero si queremos bajar a mayor profundidad claramente necesitamos otro tipo de gas. +Necesitamos helio, que nos permite descender muy profundo. +Y normalmente tambin tenemos un cilindro un poco ms grande montado fuera del reciclador, como se ve aqu. +Y ese lo usamos para inyectar cuando comenzamos un buceo profundo. +Tenemos tambin otro cilindro de oxgeno que se usa slo de reserva para poder seguir respirando en caso de que haya algn problema con el suministro principal. +Y controlas todos estos gases distintos y todos sus flujos mediante este bloque de gases sofisticado y de alta tecnologa que est ac adelante donde es fcil de alcanzar. +Tiene todas las vlvulas y perillas y cosas que necesitas para inyectar los gases correctos en el momento preciso. +Ahora, normalmente no necesitas hacerlo t porque todo se hace automticamente con la electrnica, que es el tercer sistema del reciclador. +La parte ms crtica del reciclador son los sensores de oxgeno. +Necesitas tres de ellos, porque si uno se estropea, sabes cul de los tres es. +Necesitas lgica de votacin. +Tambin tienes tres microprocesadores, +cualquiera de los cuales puede manejar el sistema completo si pierdes dos de ellos. Tambin hay fuentes de energa de reserva. +Y hay varios indicadores que muestran la informacin que requiere el buzo. +Estos aparatos de alta tecnologa nos permiten hacer lo que hacemos en este tipo de buceos profundos. +Y puedo hablar sobre esto todo el da, slo pregntenle a mi esposa. Pero ahora quiero hablarles de algo que es bastante ms interesante. +Los voy a llevar en un buceo profundo. +Les voy a mostrar cmo es hacer uno de los buceos que hacemos. +Comenzamos ac arriba en el bote e incluso con todo este equipo avanzado esta an es la mejor manera de entrar al agua, slo pffft!, tirarse por el lado del bote. +As que, como les mostr antes con el diagrama, estos arrecifes comienzan cerca de la superficie y se extienden casi verticalmente hasta el fondo. +Entonces nos tiramos al agua y pasamos encima del borde de este acantilado y de ah comenzamos a bajar y bajamos y bajamos. +La gente me pregunta: "Lleva mucho tiempo llegar hasta all?" +No, slo lleva un par de minutos sumergirse hasta los 90 o 120 metros, que es hasta donde deseamos bajar. +Es como tirarse de un avin pero en cmara lenta. +Es realmente muy interesante, alguna vez vieron "El abismo" cuando Ed Harris se hunda por el muro de un foso submarino? +Eso es ms o menos como se siente. Es realmente increble. +Adems, cuando llegas all, te das cuenta que el agua es muy, muy clara. +Es extremadamente clara porque casi no hay plankton. +Pero cuando enciendes tu luz y miras por las cavernas te encuentras repentinamente con una diversidad tremenda, mucho mayor a lo que alguien hubiera pensado. +Ahora no todo, no todas son especies nuevas, as como ese pez que se ve con la raya blanca que es una especie conocida. +Pero si miras con cuidado en los recovecos y hoyos vers pequeas cosas movindose por todas partes. +Hay una diversidad increble. +Y no slo de peces. +Estos son crinoides, esponjas, corales negros... por ah hay ms peces. +Y esos peces que estn viendo ahora son nuevas especies. +Todava son nuevas porque en este buceo tena mi cmara en vez de mi red as que an estn esperando que alguien baje y los encuentre. +Pero as es como se ve y este tipo de hbitat sigue y sigue por kilmetros. +Esto es Papua, Nueva Guinea. +Y pequeos peces e invertebrados no son las nicas cosas que vemos all abajo. +Tambin vemos tiburones con mucha mayor frecuencia de lo que me esperaba. +Y no estamos seguros por qu es eso. +Pero lo que quiero que hagan ahora es imaginarse a s mismos 120 metros abajo, con todo este equipo de alta tecnologa sobre sus espaldas, en un arrecife remoto de Papua, Nueva Guinea, a miles de kilmetros de la cmara de recompresin ms cercana y estando completamente rodeados por tiburones. +Video: "Miren esos... +Oh-oh... Oh-oh! +Creo que captamos su atencin." Cuando comienzas a hablar como el Pato Donald no hay situacin alguna que pueda parecer tensa. +Entonces estamos all abajo, y esto es a 120 metros, y, por si acaso, as se ve mirar para arriba, para que se den cuenta cun lejos est la superficie. +Y si eres un bilogo y sabes de tiburones y quieres evaluar realmente cunto peligro corres ac hay una pregunta que salta inmediatamente a tu cabeza, la cual es... Video: "Qu tipo de tiburones? +Mmm, tiburones de punta plateada. +Oh." +Tiburones punta plateada, de hecho hay tres especies de tiburones ac. +Los de punta plateada son los de bordes blancos en la aleta y tambin hay grises y unos de cabeza de martillo por all lejos. +Y s, te da un poco de nervio. +Video: "Huuu! +Ese chico est un poco juguetn!" Ahora, han visto muchos videos como este en la TV y es intimidante y creo que da una impresin equivocada acerca de los tiburones. +De hecho, los tiburones no son animales muy peligrosos y por eso no estbamos muy preocupados, por eso estbamos bromeando. +Los cerdos matan ms gente, los rayos elctricos matan ms gente, ms gente muere en partidos de ftbol en Inglaterra. +Hay muchas otras maneras en que puedes morir. +Y no estoy inventando nada de esto. +Cocos! Es ms probable que te mate un coco que un tiburn. +As que los tiburones no son tan peligrosos como la gente cree. +No s si alguno de ustedes recibe el U.S. News and World Report; yo recib la ltima edicin. +La portada es una historia sobre los grandes exploradores de nuestro tiempo. +El artculo final se titula "No Hay Nuevas Fronteras". +Se cuestiona si es que quedan nuevas fronteras all afuera, si es que existe alguna frontera real, efectiva y slida por descubrir. +Y esta es mi lnea favorita del artculo. +Y tengo que rerme porque saben que por algo nos llaman locos por los peces, porque los locos por los peces realmente nos excitamos cuando encontramos un guppy (o pez milln) con una nueva espina dorsal. +Pero es mucho ms que eso. +Y quiero mostrarles unos pocos guppys que hemos ido encontrando con el tiempo. +Este, bueno, se puede ver lo feo que es. +Incluso si ignoran su valor cientfico, vean el valor monetario que puede tener. +Un par de estos terminaron siendo vendidos a Japn a travs del mercado de acuarios por 15 mil dlares cada uno. +Equivale como a un milln de dlares el kilo. +Aqu tenemos otro pez ngel que descubrimos. +De hecho habamos descubierto este en los tiempos del aire, los malos y viejos tiempos del aire, as recordamos cuando hacamos este tipo de buceo con aire +y estbamos a 110 metros. +Y recuerdo subir de uno de estos buceos profundos y tener esta neblina y la narcosis, entienden, demora un rato en disiparse. +Es como volver a estar sobrio. +Y recordaba vagamente haber visto unos peces amarillos con un punto negro y pens: "Maldicin, deb haber agarrado uno. +Creo que eran una nueva especie". +Y eventualmente me puse a mirar en mi balde. +Por supuesto, tena uno... slo que lo haba olvidado completamente. As que decidimos nombrarlo Centropyge narcosis. +Y ese es su nombre cientfico oficial dado que habita en lo profundo. +Y este es otro genial. +Cuando lo vimos por primera vez no sabamos a qu familia perteneca as que slo lo llamamos pez Dr. Seuss porque pareca salido de uno de sus libros. +Ahora, este es interesante. +Si vas a Papua, Nueva Guinea y bajas 90 metros vas a ver estos grandes montculos. +Y puede ser difcil de ver, pero tienen como, mmm, como un par de metros de dimetro. +Si los miras detenidamente vers un pequeo pez blanco, un pequeo pez gris y blanco que anda cerca de ellos. +Bueno, resulta que estos pequeos peces construyen estos montculos, piedrecilla por piedrecilla. +Es verdaderamente extraordinario descubrir algo como esto. +No es slo nuevas especies, es nuevo comportamiento, es nueva ecologa, es todo tipo de cosas. +Entonces lo que les voy a mostrar muy, muy rpidamente es slo una muestra de algunas de las especies que hemos descubierto. +Lo que es extraordinario no es slo la cantidad de especies que estamos encontrando, que como pueden ver, es de por s increble, -es slo la mitad de lo que hemos encontrado- es an ms extraordinario cun rpido las estamos encontrando. +Estamos hallando 7 especies nuevas por hora que pasamos a esa profundidad. +Si vas a la selva del Amazonas y revisas un rbol podrs encontrar muchos bichos pero para peces, no hay lugar en el mundo donde puedas encontrar 7 especies nuevas por hora. +As que hicimos unos clculos aproximados y estimamos que probablemente haya de 2.000 a 2.500 nuevas especies solamente en el Indo-Pacfico. +En este momento hay slo entre 5 a 6 mil especies conocidas. +As que desconocemos un gran porcentaje de lo que hay all afuera. +Creamos que ya dominbamos la diversidad de los peces de arrecifes, pero no es cierto. +Y voy a terminar con un tema muy sombro. +Al principio de la charla les dije que les iba a mostrar dos fotos extraordinarias. +Esta es la segunda fotografa que les voy a mostrar. +Fue tomada en el momento exacto en que estaba all abajo filmando a los tiburones, +desde 90 metros encima de mi cabeza. +Y la razn de que esta foto sea extraordinaria es que captura un momento del minuto final de la vida de un hombre. +Menos de 60 segundos despus que esta foto fuera tomada, este tipo haba muerto. +Cuando recobramos su cuerpo nos dimos cuenta de qu haba fallado. +l haba cometido un error muy simple. +Haba abierto la vlvula incorrecta al llenar su cilindro y tena 80% de oxgeno en su tanque en vez de 40%. +Convulsion por la toxicidad del oxgeno y se ahog. +La razn por la que les muestre esto -no es para bajarles el nimo- pero slo quiero usarlo para ilustrar mi filosofa de vida en general, que es que todos tenemos dos objetivos. +El primero lo compartimos con todos los seres vivos del planeta y es la supervivencia, lo que yo llamo perpetuacin. La supervivencia de la especie y de nosotros mismos porque en ambos casos se trata de perpetuar los genes. +Y el segundo objetivo, para los que ya hemos dominado el primero, -t sabes, lo puedes llamar plenitud espiritual o xito financiero o cualquiera de muchos otros nombres, +yo lo llamo la bsqueda de la plenitud- es la bsqueda de la felicidad. +Creo que lo que quiero decir con esto es que este tipo vivi su vida al mximo, con absoluta plenitud. +Tienes que equilibrar tus dos objetivos. +Si vives toda tu vida con miedo, quiero decir, la vida es una enfermedad de transmisin sexual con 100% de mortandad. +As que no puedes vivir tu vida asustado. +Crea que ese chiste era viejo. +Pero al mismo tiempo no quieres enfocarte tanto en la segunda regla o en el segundo objetivo que te olvidas del primero. +Porque cuando ests muerto, ya no puedes disfrutar nada ms. +Les deseo mucha suerte manteniendo este equilibrio en sus emprendimientos futuros. +Gracias. +Me cri en Sel, Corea, y me mud a Nueva York en 1999 para ir a la Universidad. +Estaba estudiando medicina y quera ser cirujana, porque me interesaba la anatoma y me llamaba la atencin disecar animales. +A la vez, me enamor de Nueva York. +Comenc a darme cuenta de que poda ver a la ciudad como a un organismo viviente. +Quera disecarla y estudiar sus capas ocultas. +La manera de hacerlo, para m, fue a travs de medios artsticos. +As, decid hacer una maestra en bellas artes en vez de en medicina +y durante el postgrado me interes por las criaturas que moran en los rincones de la ciudad. +En Nueva York, las ratas son parte del viaje diario al trabajo. +La mayora de la gente las ignora o les tiene miedo. +Pero a m me empezaron a gustar porque habitan en los lmites de la sociedad. +Y si bien se las usa en laboratorios para promover la vida humana, tambin se las considera una peste. +Las empec a buscar por la ciudad y a intentar fotografiarlas. +Un da, en el metro, estaba tomando fotos de los rieles esperando ver alguna rata y un hombre se acerc y me dijo: No puedes tomar fotografas aqu. +Los del metro confiscarn tu cmara. +Me sorprendi bastante y pens: Bueno, entonces, +seguir a las ratas. +Luego, comenc a adentrarme en los tneles y descubr que haba una dimensin completamente nueva de la ciudad que nunca haba visto antes y la mayora de la gente no ve. +Por aquel tiempo, conoc individuos como yo, que se autodenominan exploradores urbanos, aventureros, espelelogos, historiadores de guerrilla, etc. +Fui recibida por esta red suelta, basada en Internet, de gente que regularmente explora ruinas urbanas como estaciones de metro abandonadas, tneles, alcantarillas, acueductos, fbricas, hospitales, astilleros y otros. +Al tomar fotografas en estos lugares, sent que haca falta algo ms en las imgenes. +Slo documentar estas estructuras que estaban por ser demolidas no me era suficiente. +Entonces, quise crear un personaje ficticio o un animal que habitara estos espacios subterrneos y la manera ms simple de hacerlo, en ese momento, fue posar yo misma. +Decid no usar ropa porque quera que la figura no tuviera implicaciones culturales ni referencias temporales. +Quera una manera simple de representar un cuerpo viviente habitando esos espacios deteriorados, ruinosos. +Esta fue tomada en la fbrica de azcar Riviera en Red Hook, Brooklyn. +Es un lote vaco de 2,4 hectreas esperando un centro comercial frente al nuevo Ikea. +Este espacio me es muy preciado porque es el primer complejo industrial masivo que encontr por mi cuenta que estuviera abandonado. +Tuve miedo, la primera vez que entr, porque escuch perros ladrando y pens que eran perros guardianes. +Pero eran perros callejeros que vivan all y quedaba al lado del agua, as que haban cisnes y patos nadando alrededor y rboles creciendo por doquier y abejas anidando en barriles de azcar. +La naturaleza haba recobrado el complejo por completo. +Y, de alguna manera, quise que la figura humana de la foto fuera parte de la naturaleza. +Cuando me sent cmoda en el espacio, fue como estar en un parque de diversiones. +Me trep a tanques y salt de una viga expuesta a otra como si hubiera retrocedido en el tiempo y vuelto a ser una nia. +Esta fue tomada en el viejo acueducto Croton, el cual provey a Nueva York de agua potable por primera vez. +La construccin comenz en 1837. +Dur unos cinco aos. +Fue abandonado con la inauguracin de los nuevos acueductos Croton en 1890. +Al entrar en un espacio como este, se accede directamente al pasado porque se mantienen intactos por dcadas. +Me encanta sentir el aura de un lugar con tanta historia. +En vez de ver reproducciones en casa, sientes de verdad los ladrillos colocados a mano y te cuelas por entre las grietas angostas y te mojas y te embarras y caminas por un tnel oscuro con una linterna. +Este es un tnel debajo del parque Riverside. +Fue construido en los 30s por Robert Moses. +Los murales fueron hechos por un artista de graffiti para conmemorar los cientos de personas indigentes que fueron trasladados del tnel en 1991 cuando fue reabierto para los trenes. +Da mucha paz caminar por este tnel. +No hay nadie alrededor y se escuchan nios jugando en el parque de arriba, ajenos por completo a lo que hay debajo. +Cuando estaba yendo seguido a estos lugares, senta mucha ansiedad y aislamiento porque estaba en una etapa solitaria de mi vida y decid titular mi serie Rencor en la Ciudad Desnuda, aludiendo a Charles Baudelaire. +La Ciudad Desnuda es un apodo de Nueva York, y el Rencor materializa la melancola e inercia que resultan del sentirme alienada en un contexto urbano. +Este es el mismo tnel. +Se ven los rayos de sol que vienen de la ventilacin y los trenes acercndose. +Este es un tnel abandonado en Hells Kitchen. +Yo estaba sola, preparndome, y un hombre indigente se me acerc. +Yo estaba bsicamente invadiendo su vivienda. +Tuve miedo al principio, pero le expliqu con calma que estaba realizando un proyecto artstico y no pareci molestarle. Entonces, activ el disparador automtico de mi cmara y corr ida y vuelta. +Y cuando termin, me ofreci su camisa para limpiarme los pies y amablemente me acompa hasta la salida. +Debe haber sido un da muy inusual para l. +Lo que me llam la atencin, despus de esto, fue que un espacio as contiene tantos recuerdos eliminados de la ciudad. +Para m, ese hombre represent en verdad un elemento del inconsciente de la ciudad. +Me dijo fue abusado en la superficie y que sola estar en Rikers Island, y finalmente encontr paz y tranquilidad en este espacio. +El tnel fue construido para la prosperidad de la ciudad, pero es ahora un santuario para marginales, completamente olvidados en la vida diaria del habitante urbano promedio. +Esto es debajo de mi alma mater, Universidad de Columbia. +Los tneles son famosos por haber sido usados durante el desarrollo del Proyecto Manhattan. +Este tnel en particular es interesante porque muestra los cimientos originales del Asilo Mental Bloomingdale, el cual fue demolido en 1890 cuando Columbia se mud aqu. +Esta es la Colonia Granja de Nueva York, la cual fue un hogar para pobres en Staten Island entre las dcadas de 1890 y 1930. +La mayora de mis fotos son de lugares que han estado abandonados por dcadas pero esta es una excepcin. +Este hospital de nios cerr en 1997; est ubicado en Newark. +Cuando estuve ah hace tres aos, las ventanas estaban rotas y las paredes descascarndose, pero todo fue dejado en su lugar tal como estaba, +Se ven la mesa de autopsia, bandejas de la morgue, mquinas de rayos X y hasta instrumentos usados, los cuales se ven sobre la mesa de autopsia. +Tras explorar edificios abandonados recientemente, sent que todo puede caer en ruinas rpidamente: tu hogar, tu oficina, un centro comercial, una iglesia cualquier estructura hecha por el hombre a tu alrededor. +Record cun frgil es nuestro sentido de la seguridad y cuan vulnerable realmente es la gente. +Me encanta viajar, y Berln se ha convertido en una de mis ciudades favoritas. +Est llena de historia y llena de bnkeres subterrneos y ruinas de la guerra. +Esta fue tomada debajo de un hogar para indigentes construido en 1885 para albergar 1100 personas. +Vi la estructura desde el tren y me baj en la prxima estacin y conoc gente ah que me dio acceso a su stano estilo catacumba, el cual fue usado para almacenar municiones durante la guerra y tambin, en su momento, para esconder refugiados judos. +Esto es en las catacumbas de Pars. +Las explor ampliamente por las zonas restringidas y me enamor inmediatamente. +Hay ms de 300 km de tneles y ms o menos slo 1,6 km est abierta al pblico como museo. +Los primeros tneles datan del 60 a.C. +Fueron consistentemente excavados como canteras de piedra caliza y para el siglo XVIII, los derrumbes en algunas de las canteras implicaban riesgos de seguridad entonces el gobierno orden reforzar las canteras existentes y cav nuevos tneles de observacin para monitorear y hacer mapas de todo el lugar. +Como pueden ver, el sistema es muy complejo y amplio. +Es muy peligroso perderse all. +Y al mismo tiempo, haba un problema en la ciudad de sobrepoblacin de cementerios. +Entonces, los huesos fueron mudados de los cementerios a las canteras, convirtindolos en catacumbas. +Los restos de ms de seis millones de personas se encuentran all, algunos de ms de 1300 aos. +Esta fue tomada debajo del cementerio de Montparnasse Donde la mayora de los osarios se encuentran. +Tambin hay cables de telfono de los 50s y muchos bnkeres de la Segunda Guerra Mundial. +Este es un bnker alemn. +Cerca hay un bnker francs y el sistema de tneles completo es tan complejo que las dos partes nunca se encontraron. +Los tneles son famosos por haber sido usados por la Resistencia, sobre la cual escribi Victor Hugo en Los Miserables. +Y vi muchos graffitis del 1800, como ste. +Tras explorar el mundo subterrneo de Pars, decid salir a la superficie y trep a un monumento gtico que se encuentra en medio de Pars. +Esta es la Torre de Santiago. +Fue construida a principios del siglo XIV. +No recomiendo sentarse sobre una grgola en pleno enero, desnudo. +No fue muy cmodo. Y todo este tiempo, nunca vi ni una rata en ninguno de estos lugares, hasta recientemente, cuando estuve en las alcantarillas de Londres. +Este fue probablemente el lugar ms difcil de explorar. +Tuve que usar una mscara de gas debido a los gases txicos, supongo que salvo por esta foto. +Y cuando llegan las mareas de desperdicios suena como si una tormenta se aproximara. +Esta es un fotograma de un filme en el cual trabaj recientemente, Puerta Ciega. +Me he interesado ms en capturar movimiento y textura. +Y la pelcula de 16mm en blanco y negro le da una atmsfera diferente. +Y este es el primer proyecto teatral en el que trabaj. +Adapt y produje El Sueo de August Strindberg +y fue presentado el septiembre pasado una sola vez en el tnel de Atlantic Avenue en Brooklyn, considerado el tnel ferroviario bajo tierra ms antiguo del mundo, construido en 1844. +He estado tendiendo hacia proyectos ms colaborativos como este, ltimamente. +Pero cuando puedo an trabajo en mis series. +El ltimo lugar que visit fueron las ruinas mayas de Copn, Honduras. +Esta fue tomada dentro de un tnel arqueolgico en el templo principal. +Me gusta hacer ms que simplemente explorar estos espacios. +Siento una obligacin de animar y humanizar los espacios continuamente para preservar sus recuerdos de manera creativa antes de que se pierdan para siempre. +Gracias. +Hace cuatro aos, en el escenario de TED, present una compaa en la que estaba trabajando llamada Odeo +Y gracias a ese anuncio, el New York Times public un artculo extenso sobre nosotros, que gener ms prensa, que provoc ms atencin, y a decidirme a ser CEO de dicha compaa -- en aquel entonces yo era slo asesor -- y recaudar capital de riesgo y apresurar la contratacin de personal +Una de las personas que contrat era un ingeniero llamado Jack Dorsey, y un ao ms tarde estbamos decidiendo el rumbo de Odeo, y Jack present una idea con la que haba estado jugando por unos cuantos aos que se basaba en enviar simples actualizaciones de estado a tus amigos. +en ese entonces en Odeo tambin estbamos haciendo pruebas con SMS, as que juntamos cabos y a inicios de 2006 lanzamos Twitter como un proyecto paralelo de Odeo +As que aprend a seguir corazonadas aunque no necesariamente se puedan justificar o se sepa a dnde llevan. +Y eso es lo que pas con Twitter, una y otra vez. +As, que para aquellos que no lo sepan, Twitter est basado en un concepto, simple, aparentemente trivial. +Comunicas lo que ests haciendo en 140 caracteres o menos, y la gente que est interesada en ti recibe dichas actualizaciones. +Si estn verdaderamente interesados, reciben las actualizaciones como un mensaje de texto en su mvil. +Entonces, por ejemplo, yo podra twitear ahora mismo que estoy dando una charla en TED +Pero en mi caso, cuando aprieto enviar alrededor de 60.000 personas recibirn el mensaje en cuestin de segundos +Ahora, la idea fundamental es que Twitter permite a las personas compartir momentos de su vida cuando quieran, sean ocasiones importantes o mundanas. +Es el compartir esos momentos al instante lo que permite a la gente sentirse ms conectada y al alcance a pesar de la distancia, y en tiempo real. +Ese el uso primario que le veamos a Twitter desde sus comienzos, y el que nos entusiasm. +Pero lo que no anticipamos es los muchsimo otros usos que surgiran de un sistema tan simple. +Algo de lo que nos dimos cuenta fue lo importante que Twitter iba a ser durante eventos en vivo. +Cuando ocurrieron los incendios en San Diego, en Octubre de 2007. el pblico us Twitter para informar lo que estaba pasando y para obtener informacin de sus vecinos sobre lo que estaba pasando alrededor de ellos. +Pero no fueron solo individuos +Tambin el L.A. Times us Twitter para proporcionar informacin, y puso un Twitter feed en la pgina principal, y el Departamento de Bomberos de L.A. y la Cruz Roja tambin lo usaron para publicar noticias y actualizaciones +En este evento, docenas de personas estn twiteando y miles de personas lo estn siguiendo porque quieren saber que se siente el estar aqu y qu es lo que est pasando. +Entre las varias aplicaciones interesantes que han surgido hay varias para los negocios, para marketing y comunicaciones, desde lo predecible hasta un camin coreano de tacos increblemente popular que recorre L.A. twiteando su ubicacin provocando una cola alrededor de la manzana. +Los politicos recientemente empezaron a twitear +De hecho hay 47 miembros del congreso que actualmente tienen usuarios en Twitter. +Y estn twiteando, en algunos casos, desde reuniones a puertas cerradas con el presidente. +En este caso, a este tipo no le gusta lo que est escuchando. +El mismo presidente es nuestro usuario de Twitter ms popular, aunque sus tweets han disminuido recientemente, mientras que los del senador McCain han aumentado. +Como tambin los de este tipo. +Twitter fue originalmente diseado como un medio de comunicacin Envas un mensaje y este se distribuye a todo el mundo, y recibes los mensajes en los que tu estas interesado. +Una de las muchas maneras en que los usuarios han transformado Twitter fue al inventar una forma de contestar a una persona en particular o un mensaje especfico. +As que, la sintaxis @usuario, que Shaquille ONeal usa aqu para contestar a uno de sus seguidores, fue completamente inventada por los usuarios y no la incluimos en el sistema hasta que sta se populariz y entonces la hicimos ms fcil de usar. +Esta es una de las tantas maneras en que los usuarios han dado forma al sistema. +Otra forma es a travs de la API. +Creamos una interfaz de programacin de aplicaciones, lo que significa que un programador puede escribir software que interacte con Twitter. +Actualmente conocemos alrededor de 2.000 programas que pueden enviar actualizaciones de Twitter, interfaces para Mac, Windows, iPhone, BlackBerry as como un aparato que permite a un feto twitear cuando patea o a una planta twitear cuando necesita agua. +Probablemente el desarrollo de un tercero ms importante haya sido el de una pequea compaa en Virginia llamada Summize. +Summize construy un buscador de Twitter. +Y se basaron en el hecho de que si existen un milln de personas alrededor del mundo hablando sobre lo que estn haciendo y lo que pasa en sus alrededores, tienes una increble fuente de informacin sobre cualquier tpico o evento en el mismo momento en que este ocurre. +Esto verdaderamente cambi como percibamos Twitter. +Por ejemplo, aqu se puede ver lo que la gente est diciendo sobre TED. +Esta es otra forma en la que nuestra idea cambi, y Twitter ya no es lo que pensbamos que era. +Nos gust tanto la idea que compramos la compaa y ahora incluimos la aplicacin dentro de nuestro producto. +Esto no solo permite ver Twitter de diferentes maneras tambin introduce nuevos casos de uso. +Uno de mis favoritos es lo que pas unos meses atrs cuando hubo falta de combustible en Atlanta. +Algunos usuarios decidieron twitear cuando encontrasen combustible, diciendo en dnde encontrarlo y su precio, y luego agregaron la palabra clave #atlgas de forma que otras personas pudiesen buscarla y encontrar combustible. +Y esta tendencia de personas usando esta red de comunicacin para ayudar unos a otros, va ms all de la idea original de slo estar en contacto con familiares y amigos. +Ha ocurrido ms y ms recientemente, ya sea para recaudar dinero para gente sin hogar o para excavar pozos de agua en frica o para familias en crisis. +Se han recaudado decenas de miles de dlares en Twitter, en varias ocasiones en cuestin de das. +Pareciera que cuando se permite compartir informacin con mayor facilidad, ms cosas buenas suceden. +No tengo ni idea de que ser lo prximo que suceda con Twitter. +Pero he aprendido a seguir mis corazonadas, y nunca asumir a dnde irn. +Gracias +Chris Anderson: Todava no hemos terminado. +Veamos si podemos tener esto en la pantalla +Esto es lo ms aterrador que un presentador puede hacer despus de participar de un evento. +Es totalmente intimidante. +Esta es la pantalla de bsqueda de Twitter. +Escribamos un par de palabras al azar en Twitter. +Por ejemplo: Evan Williams + da ms informacin al pblico y sigue tu corazonada @#TED + escuchando a Evan Williams Oh. +Evan Williams se est matando aqu en el escenario de TED. +La peor presentacin de la historia! Evan Williams: Muy lindo. Gracias. +CA: Estaba bromeando. +Pero, literalmente en los ocho minutes en los que l estuvo hablando hubieron alrededor de cincuenta tweets sobre la charla. +As que veamos las reacciones sobre el hecho de que Barack Obama es el mayor twitero y que haya sido dicho en TED +No creo que haya otra forma de obtener comentarios de forma instantnea. +Has construido algo muy fascinante, Y pareciera que sus mejores momentos todava estn por venir. +Muchsimas gracias Evan. +Ha sido muy interesante. +En 1992 empec a trabajar para una empresa llamada Interval Research, que acababa de ser creada por David Lidell y Paul Allen como una empresa de investigacin con fines de lucro en Silicon Valley. +Me reun con David para hablar de lo que podra hacer en su empresa. +Acababa de salir de un fracaso en un negocio de realidad virtual y me autofinanciaba dando conferencias y escribiendo libros tras 20 aos ms o menos en la industria del videojuego teniendo ideas que la gente consideraba que no podra vender. +Y David y yo descubrimos que tenamos una misma inquietud que realmente necesitaba una respuesta, y era, "Por qu nadie ha creado nunca videojuegos para nias?" +Por qu ser? +No puede tratarse simplemente de una gigantesca conspiracin sexista. +Estas personas no son tan inteligentes. +Hay 6000 millones de dlares sobre la mesa. +Iran en su busca si supieran cmo. +Entonces, por qu no lo hacen? +Y al pensar en nuestros objetivos -- Debo decir que Interval es realmente una institucin humanista en el sentido clsico del humanismo en su mejor poca, ya que intenta encontrar la manera de combinar investigacin emprica lcida con un conjunto de valores fundamentales que, bsicamente, estima y respeta a las personas. +La idea bsica del humanismo es mejorar la calidad de vida, que podemos hacer cosas buenas, que hay cosas que vale la pena hacer porque hay cosas buenas por hacer y el empirismo inteligente nos puede ayudar a averiguar cmo llevarlas a cabo. +As pues, contrariamente a la creencia popular, no hay un conflicto de intereses entre el empirismo y los valores. +E Interval Research es el vivo ejemplo de cmo esto puede ser verdad. +As que David y yo decidimos averiguar, mediante la mejor investigacin que pudimos lograr, lo que se necesitaba para lograr que una nia ponga las manos en una computadora. para alcanzar con la tecnologa el nivel de agrado y la facilidad que los nios tienen para jugar con videojuegos. +Pasamos dos aos y medio investigando; y un ao y medio ms en el desarrollo previo. +Entonces creamos una empresa spin-off. +Y durante la fase de investigacin del proyecto en Interval nos asociamos con una empresa llamada Cheskin Research, y estas personas, Davis Masten y Christopher Ireland, cambiaron toda mi opinin acerca de la investigacin de mercado, y lo que podra ser. +Me ensearon a mirar y ver, y no hacer eso tan increblemente estpido cmo decir a un nio, "De todas estas cosas que hemos hecho, cul te gusta ms?" lo que no te da ninguna pista sobre la usabilidad. +Por lo tanto, lo que hicimos durante los primeros dos aos y medio fueron cuatro cosas: Hicimos una revisin extensa de la literatura en campos relacionados como la psicologa cognitiva, la cognicin espacial, estudios de gnero, la teora del juego, la sociologa, la primatologa -- +gracias a ti, Frans de Waal, dondequiera que ests, te adoro y dara cualquier cosa por conocerte. +Y tambin nos centramos en personas que trabajan con los nios todos los das, como los supervisores del patio durante el recreo, hablamos con ellos, quienes confirmaron algunas hiptesis, identificando algunas cuestiones importantes acerca de la diferencia de gnero y el juego. +Entonces hicimos lo que considero que es el corazn de la obra -- entrevistamos a 1.100 nios y nias, de edades comprendidas entre los 7 y 12 en todo los EEUU, a excepcin de Silicon Valley, Boston y Austin, porque sabamos que en sus familias contaran con un montn de computadoras y no sera una muestra representativa. +E invertimos ese tiempo diseando prototipos de software interactivo y probndolo con las nias. +En 1996, en noviembre, creamos la empresa Purple Moon que fue una empresa spin-off de Interval Research, y nuestros inversores principales fueron Interval Research y Vulcan Northwest, Institutional Venture Partners y Allen and Company. +Pusimos en marcha un sitio web el 2 de septiembre, que ya cuenta con 25 millones de visitas, y tiene 42.000 chicas registradas +que visitan la web un promedio de 1,5 veces al da, permanecen un promedio de 35 minutos por visita, y buscan una visita en 50 pginas. +As que creemos que hemos formado una comunidad exitosa en lnea con las chicas. +"Cmo ser estar en el instituto o en la escuela secundaria?" +"Quines son mis amigos?" para ejercitar la estima en el entorno del complejo social y la inteligencia narrativa que incide en el comportamiento de la mayora de sus juegos, y que se incorpora en los valores acerca de las muchas opciones que tenemos en nuestras vidas y la manera en que nos comportamos. +El otro ttulo que hemos puesto en marcha se llama "Secret Paths in the Forest" que aborda la fantasa ms orientada hacia la vida interior de las nias. +Estos dos ttulos se colocaron entre los primeros 50 ttulos de entretenimiento en PC Data -- los ttulos de entretenimiento en el PC Data, en diciembre, a esta altura se coloc "John Madden Football", que me emociona hasta decir basta. +Por lo tanto, somos reales, y hemos emocionado a varios cientos de miles de nias. +Ahora bien, hemos logrado 500 millones de opiniones mediante el marketing y relaciones pblicas de la marca Purple Moon. +Aproximadamente el 96 % de ellas han sido positivas, 4 % de ellas han sido negativas. +Quiero hablar sobre las negativas, porque la poltica de esta empresa, de alguna manera, ha sido la parte ms fascinante para m. +Realmente hay dos tipos de crticas negativas que hemos recibido. +Una clase de crticas vienen de un jugador masculino que cree saber qu juegos deberan existir y que no mostrara el producto a las nias. +La otra clase de crticas provienen de un sector con cierto aire feminista que cree saber cmo deben ser las nias. +Y lo que es gracioso para m que esta interesante y extraa pareja tienen una cosa en comn. No escuchan a las nias. +No han mirado a los nios o las nias y no estn demostrando de verdad amor por ellos. +Me gustara reproducir algunas voces de las nias recogidas en los dos aos y medio de investigacin-- de hecho algunas de las voces son ms recientes. +Y estas voces irn acompaadas de las fotografas de sus vidas y que se tomaron para nosotros, de las cosas que ellas valoran y por las que se preocupan. +stas son fotos que las nias nos dieron pero que nunca vieron ste es el material que los encuestados no conocen ni tampoco han escuchado y ste es el tipo de investigacin que les recomiendo, si es que quieren hacer trabajo humanista. +Video: Chica 1: S, mi personaje es normalmente una chica poco femenina +Ella est ms con los nios. +Chica 2: Uy, s. +Chica 1: Tenemos que - al comienzo mismo del juego siempre hacemos esto Cada uno tiene un trozo de papel, escribimos nuestro nombre, nuestra edad, somos ricos, muy ricos y no ricos, pobres, medianos, ricos, tenemos novios, perros, mascotas - qu ms? hermanas, hermanos... +Chica 2: Divorciado - padres divorciados, tal vez. +Chica 3: Este es mi pretendiente. +Chica 4: Montamos un peridico escolar en la computadora. +Chica 5: El videojuego de una nia por lo general tambin tendr un paisaje muy bonito con nubes y flores. +Como si fueras una nia aventurera y masculina realmente grande podras pensar que los juegos de las nias son un poco cursis. +Chica 6: Practico atletismo, he jugado al ftbol, juego baloncesto, y me encanta hacer un montn de cosas. +Y a veces siento que no puedo realmente disfrutar si no estoy como de vacaciones, como si llegara el lunes y todos los das fueran de descanso. +Chica 7: Bueno, a veces hay un montn de cosas que estoy haciendo porque tengo clases de msica y estoy en el equipo de natacin y tengo que hacer todas estas cosas diferentes, y, a veces es demasiado. +Mi amiga Justine se junt con mi amiga Kelly, y ahora estn siendo malas conmigo. +Chica 8: Bueno, a veces es molesto cuando tus hermanos y hermanas, o un hermano o una hermana te copian la idea que t habas tenido primero y te roban la idea y la hacen propia. +Chica 9: Porque mi hermana mayor lo consigue todo y, cuando le pido a mi madre algo, me dice: "No" todo el tiempo. +Pero ella le da todo a mi hermana. +Brenda Laurel: Quiero mostrarles, muy rpidamente, apenas un minuto de "Tricky Rockett de la Decisin", que fue el juego de oro hace dos das. +Esperemos que sea realmente estable. +ste es el segundo da en la vida de Rockett, +y la razn para mostrarlo es porque espero que la escena que les voy a mostrar les resulte familiar y suene familiar, ahora que han escuchado las voces de algunas de las nias. +Y vern cmo hemos tratado de incorporar los temas que les importan en el juego que hemos creado. +Video: Miko: Hey Rockett! Ven aqu. +Rockett: Hola Miko! Que pasa? +Miko: Te has enterado de la fiesta de Halloween de Nakilia de este fin de semana? +Ella me pregunt para asegurarse de que lo sabas. +Nakilia invit a Rubn tambin, pero Rockett: Pero qu? No viene? +Miko: No, no creo. +Bueno, me he enterado de que su banda tocar en otra fiesta esa misma noche. +Rockett: En serio? En qu fiesta? +Chica: La fiesta de Max va a estar super entretenida, Whitney. +Ha invitado a los mejores. +BL: Voy a avanzar rpidamente al punto clave de decisin porque s que no tengo mucho tiempo. +Despus de que sucede esto tan terrible, Rocket decide cmo se siente al respecto. +Video: Rockett: De todas maneras quin querra ir a esa fiesta? +Podra lograr que me invitaran a la fiesta si quisiera. +Vaya, dudo que est en la lista de los mejores de Max. +BL: Bueno, vamos a navegar emocionalmente, +si estuvieramos jugando a este juego qu haramos. +Si, en cualquier momento durante el juego quieren saber ms de los personajes podemos ir en este pasillo oculto, y en un momento les muestro la interfaz. +Podemos, por ejemplo, ir a buscar en la taquilla de Miko y conseguir ms informacin sobre ella. +Uy, volv por el camino equivocado. +Pero tienen la idea general del producto. +Quera mostrar las maneras, inocentes como parecen, donde estamos incorporando lo que hemos aprendido acerca de las nias -- de sus deseos de experimentar una mayor flexibilidad emocional, y jugar con la complejidad social de sus vidas +Quiero dejar claro que lo que estamos dando a las nias, creo que, a travs de este esfuerzo, es un tipo de validacin, una forma de estar presente. +Y una conciencia de las opciones que estn disponibles en sus vidas. +Nos encantan. +Las vemos. +No estamos tratando de decirles lo que deberan ser. +Pero, estamos realmente muy contentos con lo que son. +Es que son realmente fantsticas. +Quiero terminar mostrando una cinta de vdeo que es una versin de un futuro juego de la serie Rockett que nuestros artistas grficos y los de diseo hicieron, y que creemos que encantar a ese 4 % de los encuestados. +"Rockett 28" +Video: Rockett: Es como si me estuviera despertando, ya sabes +BL: Gracias. +Un da iba caminando en el mercado con mi esposa, y alguien me atraves una jaula enfrente. +Y entre esas rendijas estaban los ojos ms tristes que he visto. +Era una muy enferma beb orangutn, primer encuentro. +Esa noche regres al mercado en la oscuridad y escuch "uh, uh", y claro, encontr a la beb orangutn moribunda sobre una pila de basura. +Por supuesto, se haban llevado la jaula. +Recog a la pequea, la masaje, la obligu a beber, hasta que empez a respirar con normalidad. +Esta es Uce. +Ahora vive en la jungla de Sungai Wain, y este es Matahari, su segundo hijo, el cual, por cierto, tambin es hijo del 2 orangutn que rescat, Dodoy. +Eso cambi muy dramaticamente mi vida, y al da de hoy, tengo casi a 1.000 bebs en mis dos centros. +[Aplausos] No. No. No. Est mal. +Es horrible. Es una prueba de nuestro fracaso en salvarlos en libertad. +No es bueno. +Es slo la prueba del fracaso de todos en hacer lo correcto. +Tengo ms orangutanes que todos los zoolgicos del mundo juntos, y en este momento por cada beb seis han desaparecido de la selva. +La deforestacin, en especial por la palma de aceite, para proveer biocombustible a los pases occidentales es lo que est causando estos problemas. +Esos son los bosques de pantano, sobre 20 metros de turba, la acumulacin de materia orgnica ms grande del mundo. +Cuando abres esto para cultivar palmeras de aceite ests creando volcanes de CO2 que estn emitiendo tanto CO2, que mi pas es ahora el tercer mayor emisor de gases de invernadero en el mundo despus de China y Estados Unidos. +Y no tenemos ninguna industria. Slo por esta deforestacin. +Y estas son imgenes horribles. +No voy a hablar mucho de ello, pero ah hay tantos familiares de Uce que no son tan afortunados como para vivir en aquel bosque que an tiene que pasar por ese proceso. +Y ya no s donde ponerlos. +As que decid que tena que hallar una solucin para ella pero tambin una solucin que beneficiara a las personas que intentan explotar esos bosques, que quieren conseguir la ltima madera y que estn causando as la prdida del hbitat y todas esas vctimas. +As que cre Samboja Lestari, y la idea fue: Si puedo hacerlo en el peor lugar que se me pueda ocurrir, en donde de verdad ya no quede nada, nadie tendr excusa para decir, "Si, pero..." +No. Todos deberan poder aceptarlo. +As que estamos en Borneo Oriental. Este es el lugar donde inici. +Como pueden ver solo hay un terreno amarillo, +no queda nada ms, solo un poco de pasto ah. +En 2002 tenamos ah alrededor de un 50% de desempleo. +Haba una enorme criminalidad. +Las personas gastaban mucho de su dinero en salud y agua potable. +No haba productividad agrcola. +Era el distrito ms pobre de toda la provincia y una extincin total de la vida salvaje. +Biolgicamente era un desierto. +Cuando me par ah en la hierba, calor, ni siquiera haba sonido de insectos, solo la hierba mecindose. +Cuatro aos despus hemos creado empleos para unas 3,000 personas. +El clima ha cambiado. Se los mostrar, no ms inundaciones, no ms incendios. +Ya no es el distrito ms pobre, y hay un enorme desarrollo de biodiversidad. +Obtuvimos ms de 1.000 especies, 137 especies de aves al da de hoy. +Tenemos 30 especies de reptiles. +Qu ocurri aqu? Creamos un enorme fracaso econmico en este bosque. +Bsicamente el proceso entero de destruccin ha ido ms lento que lo que ahora ocurre con la extraccin de aceite. +Pero vimos lo mismo, +tenamos agricultura de roza y quema; a las personas no les alcanzaba para fertilizante, as que quemaban rboles y la mitad de los minerales disponibles. Los incendios se hicieron frecuentes y despus de un tiempo te quedas con un terreno en el que no queda ninguna fertilidad. +Donde no quedan rboles. +Pero en este lugar, en este prado donde pueden ver nuestra primera oficina sobre esa colina, cuatro aos despus, existe esta gran extensin verde sobre la tierra... +[Aplausos] Y hay todos esos animales, y todas esas personas felices, y existe este valor econmico. +Cmo es esto posible? +Fue muy sencillo si ven los pasos: Compramos la tierra, controlamos los incendios, y slo entonces, empezamos a reforestar combinando agricultura con silvicultura. +Slo entonces pusimos la infraestructura, la administracin y lo monetario. +Pero nos aseguramos que en cada etapa las personas locales estuvieran completamente involucradas para que ninguna fuerza externa pudiera interferir. +Para que las personas se volvieran los defensores de ese bosque. +As que creamos los principios "personas, ganancia, planeta", pero adicionalmente creamos un estatus legal seguro, porque si el bosque es del estado, la gente dice es mo, es de todos. +Y luego aplicamos todos estos otros principios como transparencia, administracin profesional, resultados medibles, escalabilidad, reproducibilidad, etctera. +Lo que hicimos fue formular recetas cmo ir de un punto en que no tienes nada a una situacin objetivo. +Formulas una receta basada en los factores que puedes controlar. Sean habilidades, fertilizante, o seleccin de la planta. +Luego ves los resultados y empiezas a medir cmo va saliendo. +En esta receta tienes tambin al costo. +Tambin sabes cunto trabajo se necesita. +As se ve en la prctica. Tenemos este pasto del que queremos librarnos . +Exuda compuestos por sus races +pero las acacias son de valor muy bajo pero las necesitamos para restaurar el microclima, para proteger la tierra y librarnos de las hierbas. +Y en ocho aos podran de hecho proveer algo de madera, esto es, si puedes preservarla correctamente, lo que podemos hacer con brotes de bamb. +Es una antigua tcnica de construccin de templos de Japn pero el bamb es muy susceptible al fuego. +As que si lo plantramos desde el principio tendramos un riesgo muy alto de perder todo otra vez. +As que los plantamos despus, junto a los canales para filtrar el agua, y tener la materia prima justo a tiempo para cuando la madera est disponible. +Entonces la idea es: como integrar esos flujos en espacio, a lo largo del tiempo, con los medios limitados que posees. +Qu hermoso. Qu teora. +Pero en verdad es as de fcil? +Pues no, si vieron lo que ocurri en 1998, el incendio comenz. +Estas son alrededor de 50 millones de hectreas. +Enero. +Febrero. +Marzo. +Abril. +Mayo. +Perdimos 5.5 millones de hectreas en unos cuantos meses. +Debido a que hay 10.000 de esos fuegos subterrneos como tambin tienen en Pensilvania aqu en EE.UU. +Una vez la tierra se seca, ests en temporada seca, hay grietas, entra el oxgeno, las flamas salen y todo empieza otra vez. +Cmo romper ese ciclo? +El fuego es el problema ms grande. +As se vio durante tres meses. +Por 3 meses, las luces automticas no se apagaron porque estaba as de oscuro. +Perdimos todas las cosechas, ningn nio subi de peso durante un ao. Perdieron 12 puntos de CI, un desastre para orangutanes y personas. +En verdad los incendios son lo primero a resolver. +Por eso los marqu como un punto ah. +Necesitas a los locales porque una vez que esos prados se encienden, pasa como un vendaval y pierdes de nuevo las cenizas y los nutrientes arrastrados al mar por la primer lluvia matando ah a los arrecifes de coral. +As que tienes que hacerlo con los locales. +Eso a corto plazo, pero tambin necesitas una solucin a largo plazo. +Lo que hicimos fue crear un anillo de palmas de azcar alrededor. +Esas palmas resultan ser resistentes al fuego y tambin a las inundaciones. Y brindan muchos ingresos a los locales. +As es como se ve: las tienen que sangrar dos veces al da, con un corte de un milmetro y lo nico que recoges es agua de azcar, dixido de carbono, agua de lluvia y un poco de sol. +Bsicamente conviertes esos rboles en celdas fotovoltaicas biolgicas. +Y puedes crear tanta energa as porque producen 3 veces ms energa por hectrea cada ao, dado que puedes sangrarlos a diario. +No necesitas cosechar rganos o ninguno de los otros cultivos. +Esta es la combinacin donde tenemos todo este potencial gentico del trpico, todava sin explotar, y hacindolo en combinacin con tecnologa. +Pero necesitas tambin estar muy en orden por el lado legal. +As que compramos esa tierra y aqu empezamos nuestro proyecto, en mitad de la nada. +Y con un acercamiento pueden ver que toda esta rea est dividida en franjas que van sobre diferentes tipos de suelos y de hecho estamos midiendo monetariamente cada rbol de esas 2.000 hectreas, 5.000 acres. +Y este bosque es muy diferente. +En realidad solo segu a la naturaleza, y ella no sabe de monocultivos, un bosque natural tiene mltiples capas. +Tanto al nivel de suelo como arriba hace mejor uso de la luz disponible, puede almacenar ms carbono, ofrecer ms funciones, +pero es ms complicado, y tienes que trabajar con las personas. +Conviertindose en bombas de nutrientes, +y necesitas bacterias para fijar nitrgeno, y sin esos microorganismos no tendrs ningn rendimiento. +Y empezamos a plantar, slo 1.000 rboles por da. +Pudimos plantar ms, muchos ms, pero no quisimos hacerlo porque queramos mantener estable el nmero de empleos. +No queramos perder las personas que iban a trabajar en ese planto. +Trabajamos mucho aqu. +Usamos plantas indicadoras para ver tipos de tierra, qu vegetales o qu rboles creceran. +Y hemos monitoreado cada uno de los rboles desde el espacio. +As es como se ve en la realidad, tienen este anillo irregular alrededor, franjas de 100 m de ancho con palmas de azcar que proveen ingresos a 648 familias. +Solo es una parte pequea del rea. +El vivero, aqu, es muy diferente. +Si consideran el nmero de especies de rboles en Europa, por ejemplo, desde los Urales a Inglaterra, saben cuntas hay? +165. +En este vivero vamos a cultivar 10 veces ms ese nmero de especies. +Pueden imaginarlo? +Necesitan saber con qu trabajan, pero es esa diversidad lo que hace que funcione. +Que pueden salir de estar sin nada, plantando vegetales y rboles, o rboles directamente, ah en los lmites de la hierba, creando la zona de proteccin, produciendo composta, y asegurando que a cada etapa del crecimiento del bosque hay cultivos que pueden usarse. +Al inicio, quizs pias, frijoles y maz; en la 2. etapa, habr pltanos y papayas; despus, habr chocolate y chiles. +Y lentamente, los rboles empiezan a prevalecer, trayendo productos provenientes de la fruta, madera, lea. +Y al final, el bosque de palmas de azcar toma el control y da a las personas un ingreso permanente. +Arriba a la izquierda, bajo esas franjas verdes, ven unos puntos blancos, son en realidad plantas de pia que pueden ver desde el espacio. +Y en esa rea empezamos a plantar algunas acacias, las que antes vieron. +Esto es despus de un ao. +Esto es despus de dos aos. +Y en esa pantalla, si miran desde la torre, esto es cuando empezamos a atacar la hierba. +Pusimos las plntulas mezcladas con los pltanos, las papayas, los cultivos de las personas locales, pero los rboles tambin estn creciendo rpido en medio. +Y 3 aos despus, 137 especies de aves +[Aplausos] Bajamos la temperatura del aire de 3 a 5 grados Celsius. +La humedad del aire subi 10%. +La cubierta de nubes, voy a mostrarles, ha aumentado. +La precipitacin ha aumentado. +Y todas estas especies generan ingresos. +Este eco refugio que constru aqu, era hace tres aos un vaco campo amarillo. +Operamos este transpondedor con la Agencia Espacial Europea que nos da el beneficio de que cada satlite que pasa a auto calibrarse toma una fotografa. +Usamos esas fotos para analizar el carbono, cmo se desarrolla el bosque, y podemos monitorear cada rbol con esas imgenes con nuestra empresa. +Pero ahora podemos usar esos datos para brindar a otras regiones las recetas y las mismas tecnologas. +De hecho lo tenemos ya con Google Earth. +Si usaran un poco de tecnologa para poner dispositivos rastreadores en camiones y lo combinaran con Google Earth, podran decir directamente cul palma aceitera se ha producido sustentablemente, qu compaa est robando madera, y podran reducir mucho ms las emisiones de carbono que con cualquier medida de ahorro de energa aqu. +Esta es el rea de Samboja Lestari, +puedes medir como los rboles crecen de nuevo, pero tambin puedes medir cmo vuelve la biodiversidad. +Y la biodiversidad es indicadora de cunto se puede mantener el balance hdrico, cuntas medicinas pueden guardarse aqu. +Y finalmente la convert en una mquina de lluvia porque este bosque est creando ahora su propia lluvia. +La ciudad vecina de Balikpapan tiene grandes problemas con el agua, est rodeada en un 80% por agua salada, y ahora tenemos ah mucha intrusin. +Ahora vemos las nubes sobre este bosque, vemos al rea en reforestacin, el rea semiabierta y el rea abierta. +Y miren estas imgenes. +Las muestro muy rpidamente. +En el trpico, las gotas de lluvia no se forman a partir de cristales de hielo, como en las zonas templadas, necesitas rboles con [ininteligible], qumicos de las hojas de los rboles para iniciar las gotas de lluvia. +As que creas un lugar fresco donde se puedan acumular nubes, y tienes rboles para iniciar la lluvia. +Y vean, ahora hay 11,2% ms de nubes que antes, despus de 3 aos. +Si ven la precipitacin, haba subido ya un 20% en esa poca. +Veamos el ao siguiente, y pueden ver que la tendencia contina. +Donde al principio tenamos un pequeo lmite superior de precipitacin, ahora ese lmite est aumentando y volvindose ms alto. +Y si vemos el patrn de precipitacin sobre Samboja Lestari, sola ser el lugar ms seco, pero ahora ven que consistentemente, un mximo de lluvias est formndose ah. +As que en verdad puedes cambiar el clima. +Por supuesto que cuando hay vientos alisios el efecto desaparece, pero despus, en cuanto el viento se estabiliza, ves de nuevo que los aumentos en precipitacin vuelven sobre esta rea. +As que decir que no hay esperanza no es lo correcto, porque realmente podemos hacer la diferencia si integramos las distintas tecnologas. +Es bueno tener ciencia, pero sigue dependiendo mayormente de las personas, en tu educacin. +Tenemos nuestras escuelas agrcolas. +Pero el verdadero xito es nuestra banda, por supuesto, porque si nace un beb, tocamos, as que todos son nuestra familia y no buscas problemas con tu familia. +As es como se ve. +Tenemos este camino alrededor del rea, que le trae electricidad y agua a las personas desde nuestra propia rea. +Tenemos la zona con las palmas de azcar, y tenemos esta cerca con palmas muy espinosas para mantener a los orangutanes -a quienes damos un lugar para vivir en medio-, y a las personas separadas. +Y en el interior, tenemos esta rea para reforestacin como un banco gentico para resguardar todo ese material vivo, porque en los ltimos 12 aos ni una sola plntula de los rboles tropicales de madera dura ha crecido porque los disparadores climticos han desaparecido. +Todas las semillas son comidas. +As que ahora monitoreamos en el interior desde torres, satlites, aviones ultraligeros. +Cada familia que ha vendido su tierra obtiene ahora un terreno a cambio. +Y ste tiene dos bonitas vallas de rboles tropicales de madera dura, tienes plantados los rboles de sombra el primer ao, entonces plantas abajo las palmas de azcar, y plantas esta cerca espinosa. +Despus de unos aos, puedes quitar algunos de esos rboles de sombra. +Las personas obtienen esa madera de acacia preservada con los brotes de bamb, y pueden construir una casa, tienen algo de lea para cocinar. +Y pueden empezar a producir de los rboles tanto como quieran. +Tienen ingreso suficiente para 3 familias. +Pero cualquier accin en ese programa, tiene que ser totalmente apoyada por las personas, esto significa que tienes que ajustarlo a los valores culturales, locales. +No existe una receta sencilla para un lugar. +Tienes que asegurarte de que sea difcil de corromper, que sea transparente. +Como aqu, en Samboja Lestari, dividimos ese anillo en grupos de 20 familias. +Si un miembro viola el acuerdo, y tala rboles, los otros 19 miembros tienen que decidir que van a hacer con l. +Si el grupo no toma medidas, los otros 33 grupos tienen que decidir qu hacer con el grupo que no cumple con esos acuerdos estupendos que les estamos ofreciendo. +En norte [ininteligible] est la cooperativa, tienen ah una cultura democrtica as que puedes recurrir al sistema de justicia local para proteger tu sistema. +En resumen, si observan, el primer ao las personas pueden vender su tierra para tener ingreso, pero a cambio tienen trabajos en la construccin y reforestacin, trabajando con los orangutanes, usando los sobrantes de madera para hacer artesanas. +Tambin obtienen tierra gratuita entre los rboles, donde pueden cultivar sus cosechas. +Ahora pueden vender parte de esa fruta al proyecto de orangutanes. +Obtienen material de construccin para casas, un contrato para vender el azcar as que podemos producir enormes cantidades de etanol y energa localmente. +Ellos obtienen todos los otros beneficios ambientales, dinero, educacin, es un estupendo acuerdo. +Y todo est basado en una cosa, asegurarnos que ese bosque permanece ah. +As que si queremos ayudar a los orangutanes, lo que es en realidad lo que me he propuesto, debemos asegurarnos de que las personas locales sean las beneficiadas. +Creo que la verdadera clave para hacerlo, para dar una respuesta sencilla, es la integracin. +Espero que, si quieren saber ms, puedan leer ms. +Los rboles son maravillosas zonas de descubrimiento a causa de su alta estatura, su estructura compleja, la biodiversidad que fomentan y su belleza sutil. +Sola subir a los rboles para divertirme todo el tiempo y ahora, como adulto, he dedicado mi vida profesional al estudio de los rboles y de los bosques, por medio de la ciencia. +El aspecto ms misterioso de los bosques es el dosel forestal superior de los rboles. +Y el doctor Terry Erwin, en 1983, bautiz al dosel forestal como la ltima frontera bitica." +Me gustara hacer un viaje con ustedes hacia el dosel forestal del bosque, y hablarles de algunas de las preguntas que se estn haciendo los investigadores del dosel forestal y tambin de cmo se comunican con otras personas fuera del mundo cientfico. +Empecemos nuestro viaje en el piso forestal de uno de mis sitios de estudio en Costa Rica. +A causa de las ramas y hojas colgantes del rbol, notarn que el sotobosque est muy oscuro, y muy quieto. +Y lo que me gustara hacer es llevarlos hasta el dosel forestal, no por ponerles cuerdas y arreos, sino por mostrarles un fragmento cortito de una pelcula de National Geographic que se llama Hroes de la frontera alta. +La pelcula se film en Monteverde, Costa Rica y creo que nos da la mejor idea de cmo es la experiencia de subir un rbol de higo estrangulador gigante. +Entonces lo que ven aqu es que es muy parecido a la atmsfera de un campo abierto, y que hay numerosos especies de plantas y de animales que se han adaptado para sobrevivir en el dosel forestal. +Los grupos comunes, como el perezoso que ven aqu, tienen maneras claras de adaptarse para los doseles forestales, agarrando con sus garras muy fuertes. +Pero me gustara describirles una diversidad ms sutil y contarles de las hormigas. +Hay 10.000 especies de hormigas que los taxonomistas-- expertos que describen y dan nombres a los animales-- han nombrado. +4.000 de stas viven exclusivamente en el dosel forestal. +Una de las razones por las cuales les hablo de hormigas es a causa de mi esposo, quien es de hecho un taxonomista de hormigas y cuando nos casamos, l me prometi que bautizara a una hormiga con mi nombre, lo cual hizo-- Procryptocerus nalini, una hormiga de los doseles forestales. +Tenemos dos hijos, August Andrew y Erika y en efecto, l puso sus nombres a dos especies de hormigas tambin. +Puede que seamos la nica familia en que cada uno de los miembros tiene una hormiga con su nombre. +Pero mi pasin, adems de Jack y mis hijos, es estudiar las plantas, las llamadas epfitas, aquellas que crecen en los rboles, +no tienen races que van hacia los troncos ni hacia el piso forestal. +En cambio, son sus hojas que se adaptan para interceptar los nutrientes disueltos que les vienen en forma de niebla. +Estas plantas ocurren en condiciones de gran diversidad, hay ms de 28.000 especies de ellas a travs del mundo.. +Crecen en selvas tropicales como sta y tambin en selvas tropicales templadas, las cuales encontramos en el estado de Washington. +Estos epfitos se dominan mayoritariamente por los musgos. +Algo que quiero sealar es que debajo de estos epfitos vivos, a medida que mueren y se pudren, en efecto construyen una tierra arborcola, tanto en la zona templada como en el trpico. +Y estos musgos, que se generan principalmente en la decomposicin de musgos son como musgo de pantano en tu jardn, +tienen una gran habilidad de guardar nutrientes y agua. +Una de las cosas sorprendentes que descubr es que si tiran conmigo de estos conjuntos de epfitos lo que encontrarn debajo de ellas son conexiones, cadenas de lo que llamamos races de doseles forestales. +stas no son races de epfitos sino que son las que surgen de los troncos y ramas de los mismos rboles huspedes. +As que estos epfitos le pagan un poco de alquiler al casero a cambio del apoyo en la parte arriba del piso forestal. +Me interesaba, y mis colegas que investigan el dosel forestal se han interesado por la dinmica de las plantas del dosel vegetal que viven en el bosque. +Hemos hecho experimentos de quitar plantas, en los cuales hemos quitado conjuntos de epfitos y estudiado las tasas de recolonizacin. +Habamos predicho que volveran a crecer muy rpidamente y que creceran invadiendo lateralmente. +Lo que encontramos, en cambio, fue que tardaron muchsimo tiempo, ms que 20 aos, en regenerar, empezando al fondo y creciendo hacia arriba. +Y hasta hoy, 25 aos ms tarde, no estn all, no est completo el proceso de recolonizacin. +Y utilizo esta imagencita para decir esto es lo que pasa con los musgos. +Si se ha ido, se ha ido, y si tienes mucha suerte puede que algo vuelva a crecer desde el fondo. +As que el proceso de recolonizacin es bien lento. +Estas comunidades en los doseles forestales son frgiles. +Bueno, cuando miramos, ustedes y yo, sobre aquel dosel forestal del bosque primario intacto lo que vemos es una enorme alfombra de carbono. +Uno de los desafos con los cuales los investigadores del dosel forestal se enfrentan hoy da es el tratar de comprender la cantidad de carbono que se est aislando. +Sabemos que es mucho, pero ya no sabemos exactamente cunto ni mediante cules procesos se est quitando el carbono de la atmsfera, guardado en su biomasa y viajando por el ecosistema. +Entonces espero haberles mostrado que los moradores del dosel forestal no son simplemente insignificantes pedazos verdes en la parte arriba del dosel forestal por los cuales se interesaban Tarzn y Jane sino que fomentan la biodiversidad, contribuyen al ciclo de nutrientes del ecosistema, y tambin que contribuyen a la estabilidad climtica al nivel mundial. +En el dosel forestal, si se sentaran a mi lado, si se dieron la vuelta de aquellos ecosistemas primarios del bosque, tambin veran escenas como sta. +Escenas de la destruccin de los bosques, de la recoleccin de los bosques y de la fragmentacin de los bosques, lo cual hace que el espacio variegado del dosel forestal no sea capaz de funcionar de la manera maravillosa de antes sin interferencia de seres humanos. +Tambin he investigado en reas urbanas como sta y pensado en la gente que est desvinculada de los rboles en su alrededor. +Las personas que crecieron en un lugar como ste no tenan oportunidades para subir los rboles y establecer relaciones con los rboles y los bosques, como yo haca cuando era joven. +Esto me preocupa. +Hoy en el ao 2009, saben, no es fcil ser una ecloga forestal, plantendonos esta clase de preguntas y tratando de encontrar posibles respuestas. +Y sobre todo yo, como pequea mujer morena en una pequea universidad en la regin noroeste superior de nuestro pas, lejos de las regiones de poder y dinero, de verdad me veo obligada a preguntarme, qu puedo hacer? +Cmo puedo hacer que la gente vuelva a relacionarse con los rboles?" +Bueno, creo que puedo hacer algo. +Yo s que como cientfica, tengo informaciones y que como ser humano, puedo comunicar con cualquiera, fuera o dentro de la academia. +As que eso es cmo me he mantenido ocupada, y entonces me gustara desvelar el International Canopy Network (la Sede Internacional del Dosel Forestal) aqu. +Cosultamos a los profesionales de los medios de comunicacin sobre los asuntos del dosel forestal, tenemos un boletn informativo del dosel forestal, tenemos un servidor de listas de correo electrnico, +as que tratamos de diseminar informaciones sobre la importancia del dosel forestal, la belleza del dosel forestal, la necesidad de tener doseles forestales intactos, a la gente fuera de la academia. +Tambin nos damos cuenta de que muchos de nuestros productos, esos videos, etctera, saben que, no alcanzan a todo el mundo, as que hemos fomentado proyectos que alcanzan a gente fuera de la academia, y fuera del coro al cual predican la mayora de los eclogos. +Treetop Barbie es un maravilloso ejemplo de esto. +Lo que hacemos, mis estudiantes y yo, en mi laboratorio, es que compramos Barbies de Goodwill y de Value Village, la vestimos en ropa que est hecha por costureras, y la mandamos al mundo con un manual del dosel forestal. +Y siento que-- Gracias. +-- que hemos tomado este icono de la cultura popular y la hemos hecho un pequeo ajuste para que se convierta en una embajadora que puede comunicar el mensaje que ser una cientfica femenina que estudia las copas de los rboles es una cosa maravillosa. +Tambin hemos hecho colaboraciones con artistas, con gente que comprende y puede comunicar la belleza esttica de rboles y doseles forestales en el bosque. +Y me gustara hablarles de uno de nuestros proyectos, la generacin de Canopy Confluences (Confluencias en el Dosel Forestal). +Lo que hago es unir a cientficos y artistas de todos tipos, pasamos una semana en el bosque en estas pequeas plataformas, y miramos la naturaleza, miramos los rboles, miramos el dosel forestal, y nos comunicamos, e intercambiamos, y expresamos lo que vemos juntos. +Los resultados han sido fantsticos. +Les dar unos ejemplos. +sta es una fantstica instalacin de Bruce Chao quien es director del Departamento de Escultura y del Soplado de Vidrio en la Rhode Island School of Design (la Escuela de Diseo en Rhode Island). +l vio nidos en el dosel forestal en una de nuestras Canopy Confluences en el noroeste del Pacfico, y cre esta bonita escultura. +Tenamos bailarines all en el dosel forestal. +Jodi Lomask, y su maravillosa compaa Capacitor, se reunieron conmigo en el dosel forestal en mi sitio de la selva tropical en Costa Rica. +Crearon un baile fabuloso que se llama "Bioma." +Bailaron en el bosque, y estamos tomando este baile, mis comunicaciones de alcance cientficas, y tambin estamos estableciendo conexiones con unos grupos ambientales para ir a diferentes ciudades y actuar la ciencia, el baile, y el alcance ambiental con los cuales esperamos cambiar las cosas. +Trajimos msicos al dosel forestal, y hicieron su msica, y es fantstica. +Tenamos flautistas que tocaban flautas de madera, tenamos oboes, tenamos cantantes de pera, tenamos guitarristas, y tenamos cantantes de rap. +Y traje un pequeo segmento del "Canopy Rap" de Duke Brady para ustedes. +Les doy Duke. +La experiencia de colaborar con Duke tambin me incit a iniciar un programa que se llama Sound Science (Ciencia del sonido). +Vi el gran impacto que tuvo la cancin de Duke con la juventud urbana, una audiencia que yo, como profesora de mediana edad no puedo alcanzar cuando se trata de convencerlos de la importancia de los terrenos agrestes. +Entonces contrat a Caution, un cantante de rap, junto con un grupo de jvenes de los barrios pobres de Tacoma. +Fuimos al bosque, yo coga una rama, Caution haca un rap sobre ella, y de repente esa rama se convirti en algo muy en la onda. +Y despus los estudiantes entraban en nuestros estudios de sonido, hacan sus propias canciones rap con sus propios ritmos. +Terminaron por hacer un CD lo cual llevaron a casa para que sus familiares y amigos pudieran escucharlo,. y de este modo expresaron sus propias experiencias con la naturaleza en su propio medio. +El ltimo proyecto del cual hablar es uno que tengo muy presente en mi corazn, y tiene un valor econmico y social que se asocia con las plantas epifticas. +En el noroeste del Pacfico hay una industria de cosecha musgos de bosques de vegetacin antigua. +Estos musgos se toman del bosque se utilizan en el cultivo de flores, los utilizan los floristas, para hacer arreglos florales y cestos colgantes para plantas. +Es una industria que vale 265 milliones de dlares y est creciendo rpidamente. +Si se acuerdan del calvo, se darn cuenta de que lo que se ha arrancado de los troncos en el bosque de vegetacin antigua del noroeste del Pacfico tardar muchas dcadas en volver a crecer. +As que toda la industria es insostenible. +Y qu puedo yo, como ecloga, hacer sobre eso? +Bueno, pens en aprender a cultivar musgos y de esa manera no sera necesaria quitarlos de la naturaleza salvaje. +Y pens que si tuviera a unas colegas que podran ayudarme con este proyecto sera fantstico. +Pens que tal vez los hombres y mujeres encarcelados, quienes no pueden acceder a la naturaleza, quienes muchas veces tienen mucho tiempo libre, y mucho espacio, y no son necesarias las herramientas agudas para trabajar con musgos, seran colegas maravillosos. +Y se han convertido en excelentes colegas. +Los mejores que puedo imaginar. +Estaban muy entusiasmados. +Estaban increblemente entusiasmados sobre el proyecto, +aprendieron cmo distinguir entre los diferentes especies de musgos, lo cual, para decir la verdad, es ms que pueden hacer mis estudiantes de licenciatura en el Evergreen College. +Y abrazaron la idea de que podan ayudar a desarrollar un plan de investigacin para poder cultivar estos musgos. +Hemos tenido xito como colegas en calcular cules son las especies que crecen ms rpidamente, y me ha abrumado el xito del proyecto. +Como los alcaides tambin se entusiasmaban mucho por el proyecto empec un seminario sobre la ciencia y el estilo de vida sostenible en las crceles, +traje a mis colegas del mundo cientfico y profesionales de cosas sostenibles a la crcel, +dimos charlas mensualmente, las cuales terminaron por implementar unos increbles proyectos sostenibles en las crceles-- jardines orgnicos, cultivo de gusanos, reciclaje, captacin de agua y apicultura. Nuestro ltimo esfuerzo, con una beca con una beca del Departamento de Correcciones en el estado de Washington, nos han pedido expandir este proyecto a tres crceles ms. +Y nuestro nuevo proyecto hace que nosotros, junto con los presos, aprendan cmo criar la Rana Picapinos de Oregn, la cual es una anfibia muy en peligro de extincin en los estados de Washington y Oregn. +As que las criarn, en cautividad por supuesto, desde huevos hasta renacuajos y luego a ranas. +Y tendrn el placer, muchos de ellos, de poder ver las ranas que han criado desde huevos y que han ayudado a desarrollar y a cuidar, mover hacia terrenos salvajes protegidos para aumentar el nmero de animales de los especies en peligro de extincin en la naturaleza salvaje. +As que creo, por muchas razones-- ecolgicas, sociales, econmicas y tal vez hasta espirituales-- ste ha sido un proyecto tremendo y estoy emocionada no slo por poder hacerlo con mis estudiantes, sino tambin por poder promoverlo y ensear a otros cientficos cmo hacerlo. +Como ya saben muchos de ustedes, el mundo de la academia es bastante encerrado en s mismo. +Estoy tratando de ayudar a los investigadores a mirar hacia fuera para crear sus propias colaboraciones con gente fuera de la comunidad acadmica, +as que espero que mi esposo Jack, el taxonomista de hormigas, pueda tal vez trabajar con Mattel para hacer un Ken Taxonomista. +Quiz Ben Zander pueda reunirse con Bill Gates para escribir una pera sobre la SIDA. +O quiz Al Gore pueda reunirse con Naturally 7 para escribir una cancin sobre el cambio climtico que hara que todo el mundo diera palmadas al comps de la msica. +Bueno, aunque tiene un toque de fantasa, creo que es tambin una realidad. +Dado la coaccin medio ambiental que hemos experimentado por esa poca ya es hora que los cientficos miren hacia fuera, y tambin es hora que los que estn fuera del mundo cientfico miren hacia la academia. +Al principio de mi carrera trat de comprender los misterios de los bosques con las herramientas de la ciencia. +Con estas colaboraciones que les he descrito me he convertido en una persona ms generosa de pocos perjuicios para llegar a una mayor comprensin, para poder descubrir cosas nuevas sobre la naturaleza y sobre m misma. +Cuando busco en mi corazn, veo rboles-- sta es una imagen de un verdadero corazn-- hay rboles en nuestro corazn, hay rboles en sus corazones. +Cuando llegamos a comprender la naturaleza, estamos tocando las partes ms profundas e importantes de nuestro ser. +En estas colaboraciones, tambin he aprendido que la gente tiene tendencia de separarse en compartamentos de personas de informtica, y estrellas de pelculas, y cientficos, pero cuando compartimos la naturaleza, cuando compartimos nuestras perspectivas sobre la naturaleza, encontramos un denominador comn. +Finalmente, como cientfica y como persona y ahora como parte de la comunidad de TED, creo que tengo mejores herramientas para explorar los rboles, para explorar los bosques, para explorar la naturaleza, para descubrir cosas nuevas sobre la naturaleza, y sobre el lugar que ocupan los seres humanos dentro de ella dondequiera que estn y quienquera que sean. +Muchas gracias. +El equipo de Trabajo Sucio y yo fuimos llamados a un pequeo pueblo en Colorado, llamado Craig. +Tiene slo un rea de un par de kilmetros cuadrados y est en las Rocallosas. +El trabajo en cuestin era ser ganadero de ovejas. +Mi rol en el programa, para quienes no lo han visto, es muy sencillo: +soy un aprendiz y trabajo con la gente que hace realmente el trabajo en cuestin. +Y mis responsabilidades son simplemente tratar y mantener el ritmo y contar honestamente que se siente ser estas personas, por un da en su vidas. +El trabajo en cuestin: arrear ovejas. Estupendo. +Vamos a Craig y nos registramos en un hotel y me doy cuenta al da siguiente que la castracin va a ser una parte esencial de este trabajo. +As que, normalmente, nunca hago investigacin alguna. +Pero, este es un tema delicado y trabajo para el Discovery Channel y queremos representar con precisin lo que sea que es lo que hacemos, y ciertamente queremos hacerlo con mucho respeto a los animales. +As que llam a la Sociedad Humanitaria y dije "Miren, voy a estar castrando unos corderos, me pueden hablar acerca del asunto?" +Y ellos contestaron, "Si, es bastante sencillo". +Usan una banda, bsicamente una banda elstica, como esta, slo que un poco ms pequea. +sta sujetaba los naipes que obtuve ayer, pero tena una cierta familiaridad con ella. +Y dije, "Bueno, Exactamente cul es el proceso? +Y ellos dijeron, "La banda es aplicada a la cola, fuertemente. +Y entonces otra banda es aplicada al escroto, fuertemente. +Se reduce lentamente el flujo de sangre, una semana despus las partes en cuestin se caen." +"Estupendo! Ya entend". +OK, llam a SPCA (Sociedad para la Prevencin de la Crueldad a los Animales) para confirmar esto y lo confirmaron. +Tambin llam a PETA (Personas por el Tratamiento tico de los Animales), y a ellos no les gusta, pero lo confirmaron. +OK, bsicamente as es como lo haces. +As que el da siguiente sal. +Y me dan un caballo y vamos a traer los corderos y los llevamos a un corral que construimos, y vamos haciendo el trabajo de crar animales de granja. +Melanie es la esposa de Albert, +Albert es el pastor en cuestin. +Melanie levanta el cordero -- a dos manos -- una mano en las patas de la derecha, y lo mismo en la izquierda. +El cordero va al poste, ella lo abre. +Todo listo. Estupendo. +Albert prosigue, yo sigo a Albert, el equipo est alrededor. +Siempre miro cmo se hace el proceso la primera vez antes de intentarlo. +Siendo un aprendiz, bueno, eso haces. +Albert mete la mano en la bolsa del pantaln para sacar, ya saben, esta banda elstica negra, pero lo que sale en su lugar es una navaja. +Y yo pienso eso no es elstico en absoluto, saben. +Y l como que la abri sacudindola de manera que reflej el sol que estaba saliendo sobre las Rocallosas, fue muy... fue, fue impresionante. +En un instante de cerca de dos segundos, Albert tena la navaja entre el cartlago de la cola, justo junto al trasero del cordero, y muy rpido la cola se haba ido y estaba dentro de la cubeta que yo estaba sosteniendo. +Un segundo despus con un gran pulgar y un muy calloso dedo ndice, l tena el escroto, firmemente agarrado, +y lo jal hacia l, as, y tom la navaja y la puso en la punta. +Ahora piensas que sabes qu viene Michael, no sabes, OK. +Lo corta, arroja la punta sobre su hombro, y luego toma el escroto y lo empuja hacia arriba, y luego su cabeza se agacha, tapando mi vista, pero lo que oigo es el sonido de un sorbido, y un ruido que suena como velcro siendo arrancado de una pared pegajosa y ni siquiera estoy bromeando. +Podemos pasar el video? +No, estoy bromeando -- nosotros no -- Pens que era mejor hablar en imgenes. +Ahora hago algo que no he hecho nunca en una toma de Trabajo Sucio, nunca. +Digo: "Tiempo fuera, alto." +Ustedes conocen el programa, usamos la toma uno, no hacemos la toma dos. +No hay escritos, no hay guin, no hay tonteras. +No hacemos payasadas, no ensayamos, grabamos lo que obtenemos! +Dije: "Alto. Esto es de locos, +quiero decir, ustedes saben... +esto es una locura. +No podemos hacer esto". +Y Albert dice, "Qu? +Y yo: "No s que es lo que acaba de pasar, pero hay testculos en esta cubeta y as no es como lo hacemos nosotros." +Y el dijo: "Bien, as es como lo hacemos nosotros". +Y yo dije, "Por qu lo haras de esta manera?" +Y antes de que siquiera lo dejara explicar, le dije: "Yo lo quiero hacer de la manera correcta, con las bandas elsticas". +Y el dice: "Como la Sociedad Humana?" +Y yo dije: "S, como la Sociedad Humana, +hagamos algo que no haga que el cordero grite y sangre, nos estn viendo en cinco continentes, amigo. +Estamos dos veces al da en el Discovery Channel, no podemos hacer esto". +El dice: "OK". +Va a su caja y saca una bolsa con estas pequeas bandas elsticas. +Melanie levanta otro cordero, lo pone en el poste, la banda va en la cola, la banda va en el escroto. +El cordero va al suelo, el cordero da dos pasos, se cae, se levanta, tiembla un poco, da otro par de pasos, se cae, +Yo pienso, esto no es bueno para el cordero, para nada. +Se levanta, camina a la esquina, est temblando, y se recuesta y est obviamente sufriendo. +Y yo estoy viendo al cordero y digo, "Albert, Cunto tiempo? +Hasta cundo se levanta? +El dice: "En un da". +Yo digo: "Un da! Cunto tiempo tarda en que se le caigan? +"Una semana". +Mientras tanto, el cordero al que le acaba de hacer su pequeo procedimiento est, saben, est brincando alrededor, el sangrado par. +Est, saben, comiendo un poco de pasto, retozando. +Y yo estaba tan asombrado de lo equivocado que estaba, en ese segundo. +Me hicieron ver lo absolutamente equivocado que estoy, las ms de las veces. +Albert me da la navaja. +Yo prosigo, la cola se va. +Yo prosigo, agarro el escroto, la punta se va. +Albert me da instrucciones: "Empjalo hasta arriba". +Lo hago. +"Empjalo ms arriba". +Lo hago. +Los testculos emergen, se ven como pulgares, apuntando hacia t. Y el dice: "Murdelos, +slo murdelos". +Y lo o, o cada palabra. +Como... Cmo.. cmo es que llegu aqu? +Cmo es que -- ya saben, quiero decir -- cmo es que llegu aqu? +Es slo... es uno de esos momentos cuando el cerebro se desconecta por s solo y de repente, yo estoy de pie ah, en las Rocallosas, y todo lo que puedo pensar es en la definicin aristotlica de una tragedia. +Ya saben, Aristteles dijo que una tragedia es ese momento cuando el hroe se enfrenta cara a cara con su verdadera identidad. +Y yo pienso: "Qu significa esta jodida metfora? +No me gusta lo que estoy pensando ahora mismo". +Y no puedo quitarme este pensamiento de mi cabeza, y no puedo quitarme esa visin de mi vista, as que hice lo que tena que hacer. +Entr y los tom. +Los tom as, y tir mi cara hacia atrs. +Y estoy ah parado con dos testculos en mi barbilla. +Y ahora no puedo... no puedo quitarme la metfora. +OK, sigo con la poesa, con Aristteles, y estoy pensando... de la nada, se aparecen dos trminos en mi cabeza que no he odo desde que mi profesor de griego en la universidad los taladr ah. +Y estos son anagnrisis y peripecia. +Anagnrisis y peripecia. +Anagnrisis es la palabra griega para descubrimiento. +Literalmente, la transicin de ignorancia a sabidura es anagnrisis, +lo que nuestro canal de televisin hace, es lo que Trabajo Sucio es. +Y yo estoy hasta el cuello de anagnrisis todos los das. +Estupendo. +La otra palabra, peripecia, ese es el momento en las grandes tragedias, ya saben -- Euripides y Sfocles -- el instante donde Edipo tiene su momento, donde l de repente se da cuenta que esa chica sensual con la que ha estado acostndose y teniendo bebs es su madre. OK. +Eso es "peripeta" o peripecia. +Y con esta metfora en mi cabeza... tengo anagnrisis y peripecia en mi barbilla. +Les tengo que decir, es un gran dispositivo. +Cuando comienzas a buscar a peripecia la encuentras en todos lados. +Quiero decir, Bruce Willis en "El Sexto Sentido", cierto? +Se pasa toda la pelcula tratando de ayudar al pequeo nio que ve gente muerta, y luego, pum -- ay, estoy muerto -- peripecia. +Ya saben? +Es aplastante cuando la audiencia lo ve de la manera correcta. +Neo en la pelcula "La Matriz" +Ay, estoy viviendo en un programa de computadora... esto es extrao. +Estos descubrimientos que llevan a darnos cuenta de repente. Y yo los he estado teniendo, ms de 200 trabajos sucios, los tengo todo el tiempo, pero ese... ese me clav algo muy dentro de una manera en la que yo no estaba preparado. +Y, mientras yo estaba de pie ah, viendo al cordero feliz al cual acababa de desflorar, pero que se vea bien. +Viendo a ese otro pobre que haba tratado de la manera correcta, y estaba apabullado porque si estoy equivocado acerca de eso y si estoy equivocado tan a menudo, de una manera literal, de qu otros conceptos equivocados podra comentar? +Porque, miren, no soy un antroplogo social pero tengo un amigo que lo es. +Y yo hablo con l. +Y el dice: "Oye Mike. +Mira, no s si tu cerebro est interesado en esta clase de cosas, pero te das cuenta de que has filmado en cada estado? +Has trabajado en minas, has trabajado en la pesca, has trabajado en el acero, has trabajado en cada industria importante. +Has trabajado hombro con hombro con estos hombres con quienes nuestros polticos estn desesperados por relacionarse con ellos cada cuatro aos, cierto? +Puedo ver a Hillary tomndose los tragos de whisky, escurrindosele por su mentn, con los trabajadores del acero. +Lo que quiero decir, estas son las personas con las que trabajo diariamente. +Y si tienes algo qu decir acerca de sus pensamientos, colectivamente, puede ser el momento para pensar acerca de ello. +Porque, amigo, sabes, son cuatro aos. +Saben, eso est en mi cabeza, los testculos estn en mi barbilla, los pensamientos brincan alrededor. +Y, despus de la filmacin, Trabajo Sucio realmente no cambi, en trminos de lo que es el programa, pero cambi para m, personalmente. +Y ahora, cuando hablo acerca del programa, Ya no slo hablo de la historia que ustedes escucharon y de 190 ms como esa. +Lo hago, pero tambin comienzo a hablar acerca de otras cosas en las que me equivoqu, algunas de las otras ideas del trabajo que he estado suponiendo como sacrosantas, y no lo son. +Las personas con trabajos sucios son ms felices de lo que piensan. +Como grupo, ellos son las personas ms felices que conozco. +Y no quiero comenzar a silbar "Busca la Etiqueta del Sindicato", y toda esa mierda acerca del trabajador feliz. +Slo les estoy diciendo que estos son personas balanceadas que hacen trabajos impensables. +Los recogedores de animales muertos en las carreteras silban mientras trabajan, lo juro por Dios, lo hice con ellos. +Tienen esta increible simetra hacia su vida +y lo veo una y otra y otra vez. +As que comenc a preguntarme que sucedera si retaramos algunas de estas vacas sagradas. +Sigue tu pasin... hemos estado hablando acerca de ello aqu las ltimas 36 horas. +Sigue tu pasin... Qu hay de malo en eso? +Probablemente el peor consejo que he recibido. +Saben, sigue tus sueos y quiebra, cierto? +Me explico, eso es todo lo que oa cuando estaba creciendo. +No saba qu hacer con mi vida, pero me dijeron que si segua mi pasin, iba a funcionar. +Les puedo dar 30 ejemplos, ahora mismo, Bob Combs, el granjero de puercos en Las Vegas, quien recoge los restos de comida de los casinos y se los da a sus puercos. +Por qu? Porque hay tanta protena en lo que no nos comemos que sus puercos crecen al doble de su velocidad normal, y l es un granjero de puercos rico, y l es bueno para el medio ambiente, y l pasa sus das haciendo este servicio increible, y l huele a rayos, pero Dios lo bendiga. +Vive muy bien. +Pregntale: "Seguiste tu pasin?" +y el se reira de t. +El hombre vale... le acaban de ofrecer como 60 millones de dlares por su granja y los rechaz, fuera de Las Vegas. +l no sigu su pasin. +l di un paso atras y vi a donde se dirigian todos y l se fue en la otra direccin. +Y oigo esa historia una y otra vez. +Matt Froind, un granjero lechero en New Canaan, Connecticut, el cual despert un da y se di cuenta que la mierda de sus vacas vala ms que su leche, si pudiera usarla para hacer estas macetas biodegradables. +Ahora, las est vendiendo en Walmart. +Sigui su pasin? El tipo... por favor. +As que comenc a examinar la pasin, comenc a examinar eficiencia versus efectividad, as como Tim habl con anterioridad, hay una gran diferencia. +Comenc a examinar el trabajo en equipo y la determinacin, y bsicamente todas esos lugares comunes a los que llaman "xito-accesorios" que cuelgan con ese arte cursi en las salas de consejo alrededor del mundo. +Esas cosas... han sido repentinamente volteadas de cabeza. +Seguridad, primero la seguridad? +Volviendo a la Administracin de Seguridad y Salud Ocupacional y PETA y la Sociedad Humana. Y si OSHA est equivocada? +Lo que quiero decir, esto es hereja, lo que estoy a punto de decir, pero qu tal si en realidad la seguridad es lo tercero? +Cierto? +No, lo digo en realidad. +Lo que quiero decir es que valoro mi seguridad en estos trabajos locos tanto como las personas con las cuales estoy trabajando, pero los que en realidad lo hacen, no estn all afuera hablando que la seguridad es primero. +Ellos saben que otras cosas vienen primero, el negocio de hacer las cosas viene primero, el negocio de hacerlo. +Y nunca olvidar, all en el Mar de Bering, estaba en un bote cangrejero con los tipos del programa "Pesca Mortal", con quienes tambin trabaj en la primera temporada. +Estamos a ms de 150 kilmetros de la costa de Rusia, olas grandes de 15 metros, agua verde pasando por arriba de la cabina, no? +El ambiente ms peligroso que jams haya visto, y yo estaba con un tipo, atando las trampas. +As que estoy 12 metros por arriba de la cubierta, que es como si estuvieras viendo la punta de tu zapato, saben, y se hace as en el ocano. +Inexplicablemente peligroso. +Corro hacia abajo y me meto a la cabina y digo, con cierto nivel de incredulidad, "Capitn, OSHA." +Y l dice, "OSHA? Ocano". +Y apunta all afuera. +Pero en ese momento, lo que dijo a continuacin no puede ser repetidos en los 48 estados continentales. +No puede ser repetido en ninguna fbrica o construccin. +Pero me vi, y dijo, "Hijo, es de mi edad por cierto, pero me llama hijo, me encanta esto... dice: "Hijo, yo soy el capitn de un bote cangrejero, +mi responsabilidad no es el llevarte a casa vivo. +mi responsabilidad es llevarte a casa rico". +Quieres llegar vivo a casa, eso te toca a t. +Y por el resto del da, la seguridad fue lo primero. +Yo estaba como... la idea de que creamos este falso, este sentido de complacencia cuando todo lo que hacemos es hablar acerca de la responsabilidad de otro como si fuera la nuestra, y viceversa. +Como sea, muchas otras cosas lo son. +Podra hablar extensamente acerca de todas las pequeas distinciones que hacemos y de la interminable lista de maneras en las que estaba equivocado. +Pero a lo que nos lleva todo esto, es +que form una teora y la voy a compartir ahora en los dos minutos y 30 segundos que me quedan. +Va as -- le hemos declarado la guerra al trabajo, como sociedad, todos nosotros. +Es una guerra civil. +Es una guerra fra, realmente. +No nos la propusimos y no nos torcimos nuestro bigote de una manera maquiavlica, pero la hemos hecho. +Y hemos llevado a cabo esta guerra en por lo menos cuatro frentes, por supuesto en Hollywood. +La manera en que retratamos a la gente trabajadora en la televisin, es risible. +Si tienes un plomero, pesa 136 kilos y tiene una gigantesca raja en el culo, admtanlo. +Ustedes lo ven todo el tiempo. +As es como se ven los plomeros, cierto? +Los convertimos en hroes o los convertimos en fracasados. +Eso es lo que hace la televisin. +En Trabajo Sucio trabajamos muy duro para no hacer eso, por esa razn yo hago el trabajo y no hago trampa. +Pero, hemos llevado a cabo esta guerra en Madison Avenue. +Quiero decir, muchos de los anuncios que salen de ah, a manera de mensaje, qu dicen en realidad? +Tu vida sera mejor si pudieras trabajar un poco menos, si no tuvieras que trabajar tan duro, si pudieras llegar a casa un poco ms temprano, si pudieras retirarte un poco ms rpido, si pudieras salir del trabajo un poquito antes, ah est todo, una y otra, y otra vez. +Washington, ni siquiera puedo comenzar a hablar acerca de los pactos y polticas existentes que afectan la realidad de los trabajos disponibles porque realmente no lo s. +Slo s que ese es un frente en esta guerra. +Y justo aqu amigos, en Sillicon Valley, quiero decir, cunta gente tiene un iPhone ahora mismo? +Cunta gente tiene su Blackberry? +Estamos enchufados, estamos conectados. +Nunca sugerira ni por un segundo que algo malo ha salido de la revolucin tecnolgica. +Por favor, no a esta multitud. +Pero sugerira que la innovacin sin imitacin es una prdida completa de tiempo. +Y nadie celebra la imitacin de la manera que la gente de Trabajo Sucio sabe que se tiene que hacer. +Tu iPhone sin esta gente haciendo la misma interfaz, los mismos circuitos, las mismas tarjetas, una y otra vez. +Todo eso, eso es lo que lo hace igualmente posible que el genio que va dentro de l. +As que, tenemos esta caja de herramientas nueva, saben. +Nuestras herramientas de hoy no se ven como palas y picos. +Se ven como las cosas con las que caminamos. +Y as el efecto colectivo de todo eso ha sido la marginalizacin de muchos y muchos trabajos. +Y yo me d cuenta, probablemente muy tarde en este juego, espero que no, porque no s si pueda hacer otras 200 de estas cosas, pero vamos a hacer tantas como podamos. +Y para m lo ms importante y de verdad encontrarme cara a cara con ello, es el hecho de que estaba equivocado acerca de muchas cosas, no slo de los testculos en mi barbilla. +Estaba equivocado en muchas cosas. +Asi que, estamos pensando -- por nosotros, quiero decir yo -- que lo que hay que hacer es hablar de una campaa de relaciones pblicas por el trabajo, el trabajo manual, el trabajo especializado. +Alguien necesita estar all afuera hablando acerca de los beneficios olvidados, +estoy hablando acerca de las cosas de los abuelos. Las cosas con las cuales probablemente muchos de nosotros crecimos pero que hemos, ya saben, hemos perdido un poco. +Barack quiere crear dos y medio millones de trabajos. +La infrestructura es un asunto enorme. +Esta guerra con el trabajo, que yo supongo existe, tiene bajas como cualquier otra guerra. +La infraestrcutura es la primera, el declive de inscripciones a los institutos profesionales es la segunda. +Cada ao, hay menos electricistas, menos carpinteros, menos plomeros, menos soldadores, menos tuberos, menos vaporeros. +Los trabajos de infraestructura de los cuales todo mundo est hablando acerca de crear son estos tipos. Los que van en declive, una y otra vez. +Mientras, tenemos dos billones de dlares, como mnimo, de acuerdo con la Sociedad Americana de Ingenieros Civiles, los cuales necesitamos gastar para tan slo mejorar un poco la infraestructura la cual tiene actualmente una calificacin de D menos. +As que, si buscara un puesto poltico, y yo no lo busco, yo simplemente dira que los trabajos que esperamos hacer y los trabajos que esperamos crear no van a perdurar si no son los trabajos que la gente quiere. +Y yo s que el propsito de esta conferencia es para celebrar las cosas que son ms cercanas a nosotros, pero tambin s que limpio y sucio no son opuestos. +Son dos lados de una misma moneda, justo como innovacin e imitacin, como riesgo y responsabilidad, como peripecia y anagnrisis, como ese pobre corderito, el cual espero ya no est temblando, y como mi tiempo ya se me termin, +ha sido estupendo hablarles y regresen a trabajar, de acuerdo? +El nuevo "yo" es bello. +Es cierto. Ya saben, la gente sola decir: Norman tiene razn. Pero si siguiramos todo lo que dice, todo podra ser usado pero sera feo. +Bueno, no tena eso en mente as que... +sto est bonito. +Gracias por arreglar mi presentacin. +Digo, la verdad es que esto es maravilloso. +Y no tengo la menor idea de qu hace o para qu sirve. Solo s que lo quiero +y as es mi nueva vida. +Mi nueva vida consiste en tratar de entender lo bello, lo bonito y las emociones. +Al nuevo "yo" le enloquecen las cosas lindas y divertidas. +Por eso voy a mostrarles el exprimidor de jugos Philippe Starck, producido por Alessi. +Es tan divertido tenerlo en casa aunque lo tengo decorando la entrada. No lo uso para hacer jugo. +De hecho, compr la edicin especial dorada que viene con una pequea nota que dice: "No use ste exprimidor de jugos para hacer jugos. +El cido arruinar la lmina de oro." +As que tom un cartn de jugo de naranja y serv un vaso para tomar la foto. +Debajo de l hay un cuchillo maravilloso. +Es un cuchillo Global hecho en Japn. +Primero que nada miren su forma, es maravilloso slo verlo. +Segundo, tiene un balance perfecto y al tomarlo se siente bien. +Por ltimo, el cuchillo es filoso, por lo tanto, corta. +Es una delicia usarlo. +As que lo tiene todo, no es as? +Es bello y es funcional. +Les puedo contar muchas historias sobre l, lo cual lo hace reflexivo, y, vern, tengo una teora sobre las emociones. +Esos son los tres componentes. +Hiroshi Ishii y su grupo en el MIT Media Lab tomaron una mesa de ping-pong y colocaron un proyector sobre ella y proyectaron una imagen sobre la mesa de ping-pong que simula agua con peces nadando en ella. +Mientras juegas ping-pong, el agua produce ondas y los peces se dispersan cada vez que la pelota pega en la mesa. +Pero claro, cuando la pelota llega a pegar en el otro lado de la mesa las olas golpean a los pobres peces. Nunca tienen un momento de paz y tranquilidad. +La pregunta es: Es una buena manera de jugar ping-pong? +No. Pero, acaso es divertido? +S! S. +Ahora miremos el caso de Google. +Si tecleas, digamos, "diseo y emocin" obtienes 10 pginas de resultados. +As que Google tom su logotipo y lo alarg. +No dicen: "Tienes 73,000 resultados. +Aqu ves del uno al veinte. Siguiente." El nmero de o's en su logotipo es equivalente al nmero de pginas con resultados. +Es bastante simple y sutil. +Apuesto que muchos de ustedes lo han visto y ni siquiera lo haban notado. +Eso es el subconsciente actuando. Nota algo y lo reconoce como algo agradable pero ustedes no saben por qu. +Es sumamente inteligente. +Claro, lo que es particularmente bueno, es que si teclean "diseo y emocin" el primer resultado en esas 10 pginas es mi propia pgina. +Lo raro es que Google miente por que si yo tecleo "diseo y emocin" Google te dice: "No necesitas el 'y'. Nosotros lo hacemos por ti" +Asi que, OK. +Pero si yo tecleo "diseo emocin" mi pgina no es la primera, +sino la tercera. +Pero esa es otra historia. +El otro da apareci una resea maravillosa en el New York Times sobre el MINI Cooper. +Deca: "Ya saben, es un modelo con muchas fallas. +De todas formas, cmprenlo. +Es tan divertido manejarlo." +Y si miramos el interior del carro - digo, la verdad quera verlo as que lo rent y ste soy yo tomando una foto mientras mi hijo lo maneja - todo el interior del carro es divertido. +Es redondo y divertido. +Los controles funcionan maravillosamente. +Esta es mi nueva vida. Me encanta lo divertido. +Verdaderamente siento que las cosas placenteras funcionan mejor y esa idea nunca tuvo sentido para mi hasta que por fin lo descifr. Miren. +Voy a poner un tabln en la tierra. +Imaginen que tengo un tabln de aproximadamente 2 pies de ancho y 30 pies de largo y voy a caminar sobre l. Pueden ver que camino sobre l sin ver y puedo ir de ida y de regreso; inclusive puedo brincar sobre l. +No hay problema. +Ahora voy a poner el tabln a 300 pies de alto y... No, gracias. Ni si quiera voy a acercarme a l. +El miedo te paraliza. +El miedo afecta la manera en la que funciona el cerebro. +Antes de sta pltica, Paul Saffo dijo no haber estado listo hasta hace unos das u horas antes de la pltica, que la ansiedad fue lo que realmente le ayud a enfocarse. +Eso es lo que hacen el miedo y la ansiedad. Causa lo que se llama bsqueda en profundidad, que nos concentremos sin ser distraidos. +Yo no podra forzarme a caminar por el tabln. +Pero hay gente que lo puede hacer -- en el circo, en la construccin. +En realidad cambia tu manera de pensar. +Una psicloga llamada Alice Isen hizo un experimento maravilloso. +Trajo un grupo de estudiantes a resolver problemas, +y los meti en un cuarto donde haba un hilo colgando aqu y otro aqu. +El cuarto estaba vaco con excepcin de una mesa con varias cosas, como papel y tijeras y cosas as. +Trajo a los estudiantes y les dijo: "ste es un examen de coeficiente intelectual y determina tu desempeo en la vida. +Podras amarrar estos dos hilos?" +Cada estudiante tamaba un hilo y lo jalaba hacia ac sin poder alcanzar el segundo hilo. +Siguieron sin poder alcanzarlo. +Bsicamente ninguno fue capaz de resolver el problema. +Trajo a un segundo grupo de gente y dijo: "Bueno, antes de empezar tengo esta caja de dulces y yo en realidad no como dulces. +Los quieren?" +Result que les gust y fueron felices; no muy felices, pero definitivamente un poco ms felices. +Adivinen qu? Pudieron resolver el problema. +Cuando estamos ansiosos liberamos neurotransmisores en el cerebro que te obligan a enfocarte, te hace racional. +Cuando estamos felices - lo que llamamos el lado positivo - liberamos dopamina en los lbulos frontales, lo que hace que resolvamos problemas en base a impulsos. Somos ms susceptibles a interrupciones; pensamos ms abiertamente. +En eso consiste la lluvia de ideas, no es as? +Gracias a esta lluvia de ideas los hacemos felices, jugamos juegos y decimos, "Sin crticas." A cambio, ustedes reciben ideas fascinantes. +La realidad es que si hiciramos todo de esa manera ustedes nunca terminaran nada porque estaran trabajando y a la mitad diran: "Mira! Tengo una nueva manera de hacer las cosas." +Entonces nos ponemos fechas lmites para terminar las labores. +Necesitamos la presin y sentirnos ansiosos +para que el cerebro funcione diferente. Si ests feliz las cosas funcionan mejor por que somos ms creativos. +Encontramos problemas pequeos y decimos: "Ah, eventualmente lo resolver." +No hay problema. +Hay algo que yo llamo el nivel visceral de procesamiento. +Biologa... Nos hemos co-adaptado biolgicamente a que los colores llamativos nos llamen la atencin. +Es particularmente bueno que los primates y otros mamferos se sientan atrados a frutas y plantas llamativas, ya que las comemos y luego esparcimos sus semillas. +Hay una cantidad impresionante de cosas que han sido impuestas en el cerebro. +Nos desagradan sabores amargos y los sonidos estridentes. Nos desagradan las temperaturas muy altas, al igual que las muy bajas. +Nos desagran los regaos y los ceos fruncidos. Nos gustan las caras simtricas, etctera, etctera. +so es el nivel visceral. +En diseo podemos expresar lo visceral de varias maneras, como al escoger una fuente de letra o el rojo para representar calor o excitante +o el Jaguar 1963. En realidad es un carro bastante malo que falla todo el tiempo. Sin embargo, aquellos que lo tienen lo adoran. +Es bello. Est en el Museo de Arte Moderno de Nueva York. +Una botella con agua. La compramos por la botella, no por el agua. +Y hay quienes no la tiran a la basura cuando terminan de tomarla. +La guardan para decorar, ya saben, como las botellas viejas de vino o para llenarlas con agua otra vez, lo que comprueba que no tiene nada que ver con el agua. +Es por la experiencia visceral. +El nivel intermedio de procesamiento es el nivel de comportamiento instintivo y es cuando la mayora de las cosas suceden. +Lo visceral es subconsciente, pasa sin que te des cuenta. +El comportamiento instintivo tambin es subconsciente. +Casi todo lo que hacemos es subconsciente. +Estoy caminando alrededor de la tarima sin prestar atencin al control de mis piernas. +Estoy haciendo varias cosas. La mayora de mi pltica es subconsciente; la he practicado y la he pensado. +La mayora de lo que hacemos es subconsciente. +Comportamiento automtico, comportamiento que requiere cierta habilidad es inconsciente controlado por el lado instintivo. +El diseo basado en comportamiento trata sobre sentir que ests en control, lo que incluye utilidad, entendimiento, as como la sensacin y la influencia. +Es por eso que los cuchillos Global son tan buenos. +Tienen un balance muy bueno, y son tn filosos que genuinamente sientes estar en control cuando cortas. +O al manejar un carro deportivo de alto rendimiento por una curva muy estrecha. Otra vez est ese sentimiento de estar en control absoluto de la situacin. +O en el caso de lo sensual. +Esta es una regadera Kohler en forma de cascada con varios accesorios que sirven como salidas de agua. +Te arroja chorros de agua por todos lados y puedes estar en la regadera por horas. Y por cierto, sin gastar agua. recicla la misma agua sucia. +O esta - esta es una bonita tetera que encontr en el Hotel Four Seasons en Chicago. +Es una tetera inclinada Ronnefeldt. +Ms o menos as es la tetera pero la usas reclinndola completamente, metes el t, y luego la llenas de agua, +pues el agua se chorrea sobre el t. +mientras que el t se mantiene en sta parte a la derecha. El t est a la derecha de sta linea. +Hay un pequeo soporte aqu que mantiene el t y el agua la llena as. +Cuando el t esta listo, o casi listo, la inclinas. +Eso quiere decir que el t est parcialmente cubierto mientras termina de hacerse. +Cuando est listo slo tienes que poner la tetera en vertical y el t est, recuerden, sobre sta linea y el agua slo llega hasta aqu. Mantiene el t fuera. +Adems, tiene capacidad de comunicar, que es lo que hacen las emociones. +Las emociones tienen que ver con actuacin, en serio. +Es sentirse seguros en el mundo. +La cognicin es nuestro entendimiento del mundo, mientras que la emocin es la intepretacin de l dicendo: bueno, malo, seguro, peligroso, y preparndonos para actuar, por eso los msculos se tensan o se relajan. +Por eso podemos determinar las emociones ajenas, porque sus msculos actan inconscientemente, adems los msculos faciales han evolucionado para expresar an ms emociones. +Bueno, en ese caso podemos decir que sto tiene emociones porque le seala al mesero: "Oye! estoy listo. Ves? Estoy en posicin vertical." +El mesero puede entonces venir y decir: "Quisiera ms agua?" +Es bastante ingenioso. Que diseo tn maravilloso. +El tercer nivel es el reflexivo que es, si quieren, el superego. Es una pequea parte del cerebro que no controla lo que hacemos, no tiene control sobre - no ve los sentidos, no controla los msculos. +Solamente ve lo que est pasando. +Es esa pequea voz dentro de tu cabeza observando todo y diciendo: "Eso est bien. Eso est mal." +o "Por qu ests haciendo eso? No entiendo." +Es esa pequea voz en tu cabeza que llamamos consciencia. +Aqu tenemos un gran producto reflexivo. +Los dueos de la Hummer dicen: "He tenido muchos carros en mi vida, todo tipo de carros exticos pero nunca he tenido un carro que llame tanto la atencin." +Es nada ms por la imagen, no por el carro. +Pasa lo mismo an cuando quieres un modelo ms positivo como el carro de la GM. +La razn por la cual compraras un modelo as es por que te importa el medio ambiente +y lo compraras para protegerlo, an cuando los primeros modelos sean muy caros y no hayan sido perfeccionados. +Pero ste es el diseo reflexivo tambin. +O en el caso de un reloj de mano muy caro. La gente te dice: "Wow, mira. No saba que tu tenas ese reloj." +Es el caso opuesto de ste otro que funciona a nivel instintivo, y que probablemente marca mejor el tiempo que el reloj de $13,000 dlares que les mostr. +Pero es feo. +Este es un reloj Don Norman. +Es divertido ver como a veces ponemos una emocin en contra de otra, el miedo visceral de caer contral el estado reflexivo que dice: "Est bien. Todo est seguro." +Si el parque temtico estuviera oxidado y cayndose a pedazos, nadie se subira en los juegos mecnicos. +Estamos juntando dos emociones. +La otra cosa interesante +Bueno, Jake Cress, el creador de muebles, hace unos juegos de muebles increbles. +Esta es su silla con garra y la pobre silla perdi su pelota y esta tratando de recuperarla antes de que alguien se d cuenta. +Es interesante ver como aceptamos la historia automticamente +y eso es lo lindo de las emociones. +As que este es el nuevo "yo". +De ahora en adelante slo mencionar las cosas positivas. +He estado intrigada por esta pregunta de si se podra evolucionar o desarrollar un sexto sentido. Un sentido que nos dara un acceso fluido y fcil a meta-informacin o informacin que pueda existir en algn lugar y que pueda ser relevante para ayudarnos a tomar la decisin correcta sobre lo que sea que nos encontremos. +Y algunos de ustedes pueden argumentar, acaso los telfonos celulares actuales no hacen eso ya? +Pero yo dira que no. +Cuando conoces a alguien aqu en TED -- y este es el lugar ms importante del ao para el networking, por supuesto -- no le das un apretn de manos y luego le dices: "Puede esperar un momento mientras tomo mi telfono y lo busco en Google? " +O cuando va al supermercado y est all en ese enorme pasillo con diferentes tipos de papel higinico, no toma su telfono celular, abre un navegador, y va a un sitio web para tratar de decidir cul de estos diferentes tipos de papel higinico es la compra ms ecolgicamente responsable que puede hacer. +As que en realidad no tenemos fcil acceso a toda esta informacin relevante, que puede ayudarnos a optimizar las decisiones acerca de qu hacer a continuacin y qu medidas tomar. +Y as, mi grupo de investigacin en el Media Lab ha venido desarrollando una serie de inventos para darnos acceso a esta informacin de una manera, digamos, sencilla, sin exigir que el usuario cambie su comportamiento. +Estoy aqu para develar nuestro ltimo esfuerzo, el ms exitoso hasta la fecha que todava es un trabajo en curso. +Estoy usando el dispositivo en este momento y lo hemos ensamblado ms o menos con componentes listos para ser usados -- y que cuestan, por cierto, slo 350 dlares en este momento. +Estoy usando una cmara, una cmara web simple, un sistema de proyeccin porttil alimentado por bateras, con un pequeo espejo. +Estos componentes se comunican a mi celular en el bolsillo que acta como dispositivo de comunicacin y computacin. +Y en este video vemos a mi estudiante Pranav Mistry, quien es realmente el genio que ha estado implementando y diseando todo este sistema. +Y vemos cmo este sistema le permite dirigirse a cualquier superficie y comenzar a utilizar sus manos para interactuar con la informacin que se proyecta delante de l. +El sistema realiza un seguimiento de los cuatro dedos ms significativos. +En este caso, l est usando unas pequeas tapas de marcadores que ustedes pueden reconocer. +Pero si quieren una versin ms elegante tambin pueden pintar sus uas con colores diferentes. +Y la cmara, bsicamente, sigue estos cuatro dedos y reconoce cualquier gesto que l hace as que puede ir, por ejemplo, a un mapa de Long Beach, acercarlo y alejarlo, etc. +El sistema tambin reconoce gestos icnicos como el gesto de tomar una foto, y toma una foto de lo que est frente a ti. +Y luego, cuando camina de vuelta al Media Lab, l puede acercarse a cualquier pared y proyectar todas las imgenes que ha tomado, navegar por ellas y organizarlas, cambiar su tamao, etc., usando, de nuevo, slo gestos naturales. +Algunos de ustedes muy probablemente estaban aqu hace dos aos y vieron la demostracin de Jeff Han o algunos pueden pensar "Bueno, esto no es parecido a lo que hace la mesa de Microsoft Surface?" +Y s, tambin interactan mediante gestos naturales, ambas manos, etc. +Pero la diferencia aqu es que se puede utilizar cualquier superficie, se puede caminar hacia cualquier superficie, incluida su mano si no hay nada ms disponible e interactuar con los datos proyectados. +El dispositivo es totalmente porttil, y puede ser ... As que una diferencia importante es que es totalmente mvil. +Otra diferencia an ms importante es que en la produccin en masa esto no costara maana ms de lo que cuestan hoy los telfonos celulares y en realidad no requerira un embalaje ms grande -- podra verse mucho ms elegante que esta versin que estoy usando en mi cuello. +As que vemos aqu a Pranav entrar en el supermercado, para comprar algunas toallas de papel. +Cuando l toma un producto el sistema puede reconocer el producto que est sosteniendo usando ya sea reconocimiento de imgenes o tecnologa de marcado, y darle una luz verde o una luz naranja. +Se puede solicitar informacin adicional. +As que aqu esta eleccin es una opcin especialmente buena, dados sus criterios personales. +Algunos de ustedes podran querer que sus toallas de papel tengan ms blanqueador en lugar de la opcin ms responsable desde el punto de vista ecolgico. +Si toma un libro en la librera, puede obtener la calificacin de Amazon. Se proyecta directamente en la portada del libro. +El libro es de Juan, nuestro orador anterior, que tiene una gran calificacin, por cierto, en Amazon. +Y as, Pranav pasa la pgina del libro y puede ver informacin adicional sobre l -- comentarios de los lectores, tal vez alguna informacin de su crtico favorito, etc. +Si va a una pgina especfica encuentra una anotacin por un experto o por un amigo nuestro que le da un poco de informacin adicional acerca de lo que sea que haya en esa pgina en particular. +Leer el peridico -- nunca tendra que ser obsoleto. +Usted puede conseguir las anotaciones de video del evento sobre el que est leyendo. +Puede obtener los ltimos resultados deportivos, etc. +Este es uno un poco ms controversial. +Mientras interacta con alguien en TED, tal vez podra ver una nube de palabras de las etiquetas, las palabras que estn asociadas con esa persona en su blog y pginas web personales. +En este caso, el estudiante est interesado en cmaras, etc. +En el camino al aeropuerto, si usted toma su tarjeta de embarque, puede decirle que su vuelo se retrasa, que ha cambiado la puerta, etc. +Y, si lo que necesita saber es cul es la hora actual es tan simple como dibujar un reloj -- en su brazo. +De modo que es donde nos encontramos de momento en el desarrollo de este sexto sentido, que nos dara un acceso fluido a toda esta informacin pertinente acerca de las cosas con las que nos podemos encontrar. +Mi estudiante Pranav, quien es realmente, como he dicho, el genio detrs de esto. +El merece un montn de aplausos porque no creo que haya dormido mucho en los ltimos tres meses, en realidad. +Y su novia, probablemente, tampoco est muy feliz con l. +No es perfecto todava, es en gran medida un trabajo en progreso +Y quin sabe, tal vez en 10 aos vamos a estar aqu con el mximo implante cerebral de sexto sentido. +Gracias. +Estaba hablando con un grupo de unos 300 nios, de seis a ocho aos de edad, en un museo para nios, y traje conmigo una bolsa llena de piernas, similares a las que ven aqu, y las puse sobre una mesa, para los nios. +Y, en mi experiencia, ya saben, los nios son curiosos por naturaleza sobre las cosas que no saben, o no entienden, o aquello que les es extrao. +Slo aprenden a temer a esas diferencias cuando un adulto influye en ellos para comportarse de ese modo, y tal vez censure esa curiosidad natural, o, ya saben, aplacar esos cuestionamientos con la intencin de que sean nios bien educados. +Yo me imaginaba a la maestra de primer grado en el pasillo con estos nios revoltosos, diciendo, "Ahora, no importa lo que hagan, pero no se queden mirando sus piernas". +Pero, por supuesto, esa era mi intencin. +Para eso estaba yo ah, quera invitarlos a mirar y explorar. +De modo que hice un acuerdo con los adultos que los nios podan entrar, sin adultos, por dos minutos, ellos solos. +Las puertas se abren, y los nios se abalanzan sobre la mesa con piernas, y estn hurgando y manoseando, y estn moviendo los dedos de los pies, y estn tratando de poner todo su peso sobre la pierna para correr para ver que pasa con ella. +E inmediatamente una voz grit, "Canguro!" +"No, no, no! Debera ser un sapo!" +"No. Debera ser el Inspector Gadget!" +"No, no, no! Debera ser Los Increbles." +Y otras cosas que no -- que no conozco. +Y entonces, uno de ocho aos dijo, "Hey, porque no querras volar tambin?" +Y todos, incluyndome, estbamos como, "Siiii". +Y as de sencillo, pas de ser una mujer a la que estos nios hubieran sido entrenados a ver como "discapacitada" a ser alguien con un potencial que sus cuerpos an no tenan. +Alguien que inclusive podra ser super-capacitada. +Interesante. +Algunos de ustedes me vieron en TED, hace 11 aos, +y se ha dicho mucho sobre cunto te cambia la vida esta conferencia para presentadores y asistentes, y yo no soy la excepcin. +TED fue el lanzamiento de la siguiente dcada de la exploracin de mi vida. +En ese momento, las piernas que mostr eran un cambio radical en prosttica. +Tena piernas de carrera hechas de fibra de carbono trenzada. modeladas a las patas traseras de un chita , que pueden haber visto en el escenario ayer. +y tambin estas piernas casi-reales, de silicona pintada cuidadosamente. +En ese entonces, tuve la oportunidad de hacer un llamado a innovadores externos a la comunidad tradicional de la medicina prosttica para que trajesen su talento a la ciencia y al arte de hacer piernas. +De manera de evitar compartimentalizar forma, funcin y esttica, y asignarles distintos valores. +Bueno, para mi suerte, mucha gente contesto ese llamado. +Y el viaje comenz, sorprendentemente, con un asistente a TED -- Chee Pearlman, que espero est entre el pblico hoy. +Ella era por entonces la editora de una revista llamada ID, y ella me dio una nota de portada. +Esto inici un viaje increble. +Unos encuentros curiosos me pasaban por entonces; haba aceptado numerosas invitaciones a hablar sobre el diseo de las piernas de chita por todo el mundo. +La gente se me acercaba despus de la conferencia, despus de mi charla, hombres y mujeres. +Y la conversacin iba ms o menos as, "Sabes Aimee, eres muy atractiva. +No pareces discapacitada". +Yo pensaba, "Bueno, eso es asombroso, porque no me siento discapacitada". +Y realmente me abri los ojos a esta conversacin que puede ser explorada, sobre la belleza +Cmo tiene que verse una mujer atractiva? +Qu es un cuerpo sexy? +E interesantemente, desde el punto de vista de la identidad, Qu quiere decir tener una discapacidad? +Es decir, gente -- Pamela Anderson tiene ms prtesis en su cuerpo que yo. +Nadie le dice discapacitada a ella. +Entonces esta revista, a travs del diseador grfico Peter Saville, fue al diseador de modas Alexander McQueen, y al fotgrafo Nick Knight, que tambin estaban interesados en explorar esa conversacin. +As, tres meses despus de TED me encontr en un avin a Londres, haciendo mi primera sesin de fotos de moda, que result en esta portada -- Tres meses despus, hice mi primer desfile de modas para Alexander McQueen. en un par de piernas talladas a mano en madera slida de fresno +Nadie se dio cuenta --- todos pensaron que eran botas de madera. +De hecho, las tengo aqu en el escenario: Vides, magnolias, realmente asombrosas. +La poesa importa. +La poesa es lo que eleva el objeto banal y olvidado al reino del arte. +Puede transformar la cosa que podra haber asustado a la gente en algo que los invita a mirar, y mirar un poco ms, y tal vez hasta entender. +Yo entend esto de primera mano en mi siguiente aventura. +El artista Matthew Barney, en su obra flmica llamada "The Cremaster Cylce". +Aqu es donde realmente me di cuenta -- que mis piernas podran ser esculturas usables. +Y en este punto, comenc a alejarme de la necesidad de replicar lo humano como el nico ideal esttico. +As que hicimos lo que la gente cariosamente llama las piernas de cristal aunque son en realidad poliuretano translcido, tambin llamado material de bola de boliche. +Pesado! +Y luego hicimos estas piernas con tierra con un sistema de races de papa en ellas y remolachas saliendo por arriba, y con un hermoso dedo de bronce. +All tienen una buena imagen de esa. +Despus otro personaje era mitad-mujer, mitad-chita -- un pequeo homenaje a mi vida como atleta. +14 horas de maquillaje prosttico para ser una criatura con piernas articuladas, garras y una cola que se mova lado a lado como una lagartija. +Y luego otro par de piernas en que colaboramos fueron estas... parecen piernas de medusa. Tambin de poliuretano. +Y el nico propsito que estas piernas pueden servir, fuera del contexto de la pelcula, es provocar los sentidos y encender la imaginacin. +Lo antojadizo importa. +Hoy, tengo ms de una docena de piernas prostticas que distintas personas han hecho para m, y con ella tengo distintas negociaciones con el terreno bajo mis pies. Y puedo cambiar mi altura -- tengo una variacin de cinco alturas distintas. +Hoy, mido 1,85 m. +Y estas piernas las mand hacer hace poco ms de un ao en Dorset Orthopaedic en Inglaterra y cuando las traje a casa en Manhattan, la primera noche que sal, fui a una fiesta muy elegante. +Y una mujer estaba all que me conoce hace aos a mi altura normal de 1,73 m. +Qued boquiabierta cuando me vio, y me dijo, "Pero ests tan alta!" +Y dije, "Lo s. No es divertido?" +Quiero decir, es un poco como usar zancos sobre tacos, pero tengo una relacin totalmente nueva con los marcos de las puertas que nunca imagin que tendra. +Y me estaba divirtiendo con eso. +Y ella me mira, y me dice, "Pero, Aimee, eso no es justo". +Y lo increble es que ella realmente lo senta. +No es justo que puedas cambiar tu altura, como se te antoje. +Y entonces lo supe -- entonces supe que la conversacin con la sociedad ha cambiado profundamente en esta ltima dcada. +No es ms una conversacin sobre superar deficiencias. +Es una conversacin sobre aumento. +Es una conversacin sobre potencial. +Un miembro prosttico ya no representa la necesidad de reemplazar una prdida. +Puede ser un smbolo que el usuario tiene el poder de crear cualquier cosa que quiera crear en ese espacio. +De modo que gente que la sociedad antes consideraba discapacitada pueden ahora ser los arquitectos de sus propias identidades e inclusive continuar cambiando esas identidades al disear sus cuerpos desde una posicin de poder. +Y lo que me entusiasma tanto ahora mismo es que al combinar la tecnologa de avanzada -- robtica, binica -- con la antigua poesa, nos acercamos a la comprensin de nuestra humanidad colectiva. +Creo que si queremos descubrir el potencial completo en nuestra humanidad, debemos celebrar esas fortalezas conmovedoras y esas gloriosas discapacidades que todos tenemos. +Pienso en Shylock de Shakespeare: "Si nos pinchan, no sangramos? y si nos hacen cosquillas, no remos?" +Es nuestra humanidad, y todo el potencial dentro de ella, lo que nos hace hermosos. +Muchas Gracias. +Aqu vamos: una vista de juego. +Debe ser serio si el New York Times lo pone en la portada de su revista del domingo 17 de febrero. +Debajo dice: "es ms profundo que el gnero. +Serio, pero peligrosamente divertido. +Y un semillero de nuevas ideas acerca de la evolucin. " +No est mal, pero si nos fijamos, algo falta. +Ven ustedes algn adulto? +Bien, volvamos al siglo XV. +Esta es una plaza en Europa, y una mezcla de 124 distintas clases de juego. +Todas las edades, juego individual, juego corporal, partidos, desafos. +Y ah est. Creo que es una tpica imagen de cmo era una plaza en ese entonces. +Creo que hemos perdido algo en nuestra cultura. +As que voy a mostrarles una secuencia muy interesante. +Norte de Churchill, Manitoba, en octubre y noviembre, no hay hielo en la Baha de Hudson. +Y este oso polar macho de 1200 libras, es salvaje y est bastante hambriento. +Y Norbert Rosing, un fotgrafo alemn, est fotografiando una serie sobre estos huskies atados. +Y desde la izquierda aparece este oso polar salvaje con una mirada depredadora. +Quien haya estado en frica o haya sido perseguido un perro guardin, conoce esa mirada depredadora que te dice que ests en problemas. +Pero al final de esa mirada depredadora hay una hembra husky juguetona, meneando su cola. +Y ocurre algo muy inusual. +La conducta fija, establecida y estereotpica que acaba en una comida, cambia. +Y el oso polar se yergue frente a la husky. No saca sus garras ni asoma los colmillos. +Y comienzan una danza increble. +Una danza ldica. +Est en la naturaleza: anula el instinto carnvoro y lo que hubiera sido una breve lucha a muerte. +Si observan a la husky ofreciendo su garganta al oso polar detenidamente vern que estn en un estado alterado. +Estn en un estado de juego. +Y es ese estado lo que permite que estas dos criaturas exploren lo posible. +Estn empezando a hacer algo que no hubieran hecho sin seales de juego. +Y es un maravilloso ejemplo de cmo una disparidad de poder puede ser anulada por un proceso natural presente en todos. +Ahora Cmo me involucr en esto? +John mencion que he hecho algn trabajo con asesinos, y as es. +El asesino de La Torre de Texas abri mis ojos, -en retrospectiva, cuando estudiamos su trgico asesinato en masa- a la importancia del juego, pues luego de un profundo estudio, hallamos que esta persona haba tenido una severa privacin de juego. +Charles Whitman era su nombre. +Y nuestra comisin, formada por un montn de cientficos, concluy al final de ese estudio que la ausencia de juego y una progresiva supresin del juego evolutivo normal le llev a ser ms vulnerable para producir esa tragedia . +Y este hallazgo ha superado la prueba del tiempo, por desgracia, an en el caso reciente de Virginia Tech. +Y otros estudios de poblaciones en riesgo me sensibilizaron a la importancia del juego, pero realmente no comprenda qu era. +Investigu muchos aos los historiales de juego de las personas antes de darme cuenta que no lo comprenda plenamente. +Creo que ninguno de nosotros lo comprende totalmente. +Sin embargo, hay formas de verlo que creo nos dar a todos una taxonoma, una forma de pensarlo. +Y esta imagen es, para los seres humanos, el punto inicial del juego. +Cuando la madre y el nio traban la mirada, y el beb tiene la edad suficiente para tener una sonrisa social, lo que pasa, espontneamente, es la erupcin de alegra de la madre. +Ella comienza a murmurarle, a arrullarlo y a sonreir, y tambin lo hace el beb. +Si los conectramos a un electroencefalgrafo veramos la sintona entre el hemisferio cerebral derecho de ambos. La feliz aparicin de este precoz escenario de juego y su fisiologa es algo que recin estamos comprendiendo. +Y me gustara que pensaran que cada juego ms complejo se construye sobre esta base en los seres humanos. +Ahora voy a mostrarles de una especie de forma de ver el juego, pero nunca es slo una cosa singular. +Vamos a ver el juego corporal, que es un deseo espontneo de librarnos de la gravedad. +Esta es una cabra montesa. +Si tiene un mal da, intente esto: salte arriba y abajo, menese; va a sentirse mejor. +Pueden sentirse como este personaje, que tambin lo hace porque s. +No tiene un propsito en particular, y eso es lo grandioso del juego. +Si su objetivo es ms importante que el acto de hacerlo, probablemente no sea juego. +Hay una clase distinta de juego: el juego con objetos. +Este macaco japons hizo una bola de nieve, y la va a hacer rodar por una colina. +No se las arrojan, pero esto es una parte fundamental de ser juguetn. +La mano humana, en la manipulacin de objetos, es la mano en busca de un cerebro. El cerebro est en busca de una mano, y el juego es el medio por el cual los dos estn mejor conectados. +Omos acerca de JPL (Laboratorio de Propulsin de Jets) esta maana; JPL es un lugar increble. +Encontraron a dos consultores, Frank Wilson y Nate Johnson. Frank Wilson es un neurlogo, Nate Johnson es un mecnico. +Ense mecnica en una escuela secundaria en Long Beach, y vio que sus alumnos ya no podan resolver problemas. +Trato de averiguar por qu. Y lleg a la conclusin, bastante por su cuenta, que los estudiantes que ya no poda resolver problemas, como arreglar autos, no haban trabajado con sus manos. +Frank Wilson haba escrito un libro llamado "La Mano". +Se reunieron - JPL los contrat. +Ahora JPL, la NASA y Boeing, antes de contratar un solucionador de problemas de investigacin y desarrollo -- aunque hayan sido summa cum laude de Harvard o de Cal Tech -- si no han arreglado autos, si no han hecho cosas con sus manos siendo jvenes, no pueden resolver problemas tan bien. +As que jugar es prctico y es muy importante. +Ahora una de las cosas del juego es que nace de la curiosidad y la exploracin. Pero tiene que ser una exploracin segura. +Esto est bien: es un nio con inquietudes anatmicas y esa es su mam. En otra situacin no estara tan bien. +Pero la curiosidad, la exploracin, son parte del escenario del juego. +Si uno quiere pertenecer, necesita juego social. +Y el juego social es parte de lo que tratamos hoy aqu, y es un subproducto de la escena del juego. +Juego brusco. +Estas leonas, vistas de lejos, parecan estar peleando. +Pero si se mira de cerca, son como el oso polar y la husky: sin garras, pelos lisos, mirada suave, bocas abiertas sin colmillos, movimientos de ballet, movimientos curvilneos. Todo especfico del juego. +Y el juego brusco es un gran medio de aprendizaje para todos nosotros. +Debera permitrsele a los nios preescolares zambullirse, golpear, silbar, gritar, ser caticos, y desarrollar a travs de esto gran parte de la regulacin emocional y muchos de los otros subproductos sociales - cognitivo, emocional y fsico -- que vienen como parte del juego brusco. +Todos estamos involucrados en el juego de espectador, el juego ritual. +Aquellos que son de Boston saben que ste fue el momento (poco frecuente) en que los Medias Rojas ganaron la Serie Mundial. +Pero miren la cara y el lenguaje corporal de todos en esta imagen borrosa, y pueden tener la sensacin que estn todos jugando. +Juego imaginativo. +Me encanta esta foto porque es mi hija, que ahora tiene casi 40 aos, pero me recuerda a sus cuentos y su imaginacin; su habilidad para hacer entretejer historias en esta edad - preescolar. +Una parte muy importante de ser un jugador es el juego imaginativo individual. +Y me gusta sta, porque tambin se refiere a nosotros. +Todos tenemos una narracin interna, nuestra propia historia interior. +La unidad de comprensin de la mayora de nuestros cerebros es la historia. +Hoy les estoy contando un cuento sobre el juego. +Este aborigen australiano, creo, est contando cun grande era el pez que se le escap, pero es una parte fundamental del escenario de juego. +Qu produce el juego en el cerebro? +Bueno, mucho. +No sabemos demasiado sobre lo que hace en el cerebro humano, porque la financiacin para la investigacin sobre el juego no ha sido grande. +Ped una subvencin a la Fundacin Carnegie. +Me haban dado una gran subvencin cuando era acadmico para el estudio de los conductores ebrios, y pens que tena un buen historial. Cuando llevaba media hora hablando de juego, era obvio que no crean que el juego fuera serio. +Creo que esa visin antigua del tema ya pas, y la onda del juego est creciendo, porque hay evidencia cientfica. +Nada estimula el cerebro como jugar. +El juego tridimensional activa el cerebelo, enva gran cantidad de impulsos al lbulo frontal -el area de ejecucin - ayuda a desarrollar la memoria contextual, y ... y, y, y. +Para m ha sido una aventura acadmica muy enriquecedora ver la neurociencia asociada con el juego, y unir a la gente que en sus disciplinas, no lo haba pensado de esa manera. +Y eso es parte de lo que se trata el Instituto Nacional de Juego. +Y sta es una de las maneras se puede estudiar el juego: realizar un electroencefalograma de 256 lneas. +Lamento no tener un sujeto de aspecto ldico, pero permite la movilidad lo que ha limitado el estudio del juego. +Y tenemos en marcha un escenario de juego de madre-hijo que estamos esperando completar pronto. +Otra razn por la que expongo esto aqu es hacer un inventario de mis pensamientos acerca de objetivar lo que produce el juego. +El mundo animal lo ha objetivado. +En el mundo animal, si se toman las ratas que tienen programado jugar en un determinado perodo de su juventud y se reprime el juego - chillar, luchar, sujetarse, que es parte de su juego. +Si se reprime ese comportamiento en un grupo en estudio, y se permite en otro grupo en estudio, y luego se les presenta a las ratas un collar saturado de olor a gato, estn programadas instintivamente para huir y esconderse. +Bastante inteligente: no quieren que un gato las mate. +Entonces, qu pasa? +Ambos grupos se ocultan. +Las no-jugadoras no salen nunca -- y mueren. +Las jugadoras poco a poco exploran el medio ambiente, y comienzan de nuevo a probar las cosas. +Eso me dice, al menos en ratas, que creo tienen los mismos neurotransmisores que nosotros y una arquitectura cortical similar, que el juego puede ser muy importante para nuestra supervivencia. +Y, y, y - hay muchos ms estudios en animales que podra citar. +sta es una consecuencia de la privacin de juego. sto llev mucho tiempo: llevar a Homero y hacerle una resonancia funcional, una tomografa y varios EEG, pero por ser un teleadicto sedentario, su cerebro se ha encogido. +Y sabemos que en los animales domsticos y otros, cuando estn privados del juego, las ratas tambin, no desarrollan un cerebro normal. +El programa dice que lo opuesto al juego no es el trabajo, es la depresin. +Y creo que si uno piensa en una vida sin juego: sin humor, sin coquetera, sin pelculas, sin partidos, sin fantasa y dems... +Imaginen una cultura o una vida, de adultos o no, sin juego. +Lo que es tan particular de nuestra especie es que estamos diseados para jugar durante toda la vida. +Y todos tenemos la capacidad de demostrar el juego. +Nadie malinterpreta al perro de la foto que tom en la playa de Carmel hace poco. +Lo que seguir este comportamiento es jugar. +Y usted puede estar seguro. +La base de la confianza se establece a travs de las seales de juego. +Y empezamos a perder esas seales, culturales y de otra ndole, como los adultos. +Es una pena. +Creo que tenemos mucho que aprender. +Jane Goodall tiene aqu una cara de juego, igual que uno de sus chimpancs favoritos. +Por lo tanto, parte de la sealizacin del sistema de juego tiene que ver con lo vocal, lo facial, lo corporal, lo gestual. +Uno se da cuenta y creo que cuando estamos entrando en un juego colectivo, es realmente importante para los grupos lograr una sensacin de seguridad al compartir las seales de juego. +Pueden no conocer esta palabra, pero debera ser su nombre y apellido biolgicos. +pues neotenia significa la conservacin de las cualidades inmaduras en la adultez. +Y segn muchos estudios de los antroplogos fsicos, somos las criaturas ms neotnicas, las ms joviales, las ms flexibles y las ms plsticas. +Y por lo tanto, las ms ldicas. +Y esto nos da una ventaja en la adaptabilidad. +Ahora, hay una forma de ver el juego que tambin quiero destacar aqu, que es el historial de juego. +Su propio historial de juego es nico, y, a menudo, no es algo en lo que pensamos. +Este es un libro escrito por un consumado jugador llamado Kevin Carroll. +Kevin Carroll provino de circunstancias de extrema carencia: madre alcohlica, padre ausente, del centro de Filadelfia, afro-americano, tuvo que cuidar de un hermano menor. +Se dio cuenta que cuando miraba un patio de recreo por la ventana de donde estaba confinado, senta algo diferente. +Y persigu esa sensacin. +Y transform su vida - su vida de privaciones y de lo que se poda esperar de ella --posiblemente la crcel o la muerte -- y se convirti en lingista, entrenador de los 76ers y orador motivacional. +l considera el juego como la fuerza de transformacin de su vida entera. +Hay otro historial de juego que creo que es un trabajo en progreso. +Aquellos de ustedes que recuerden a Al Gore, durante su primer mandato y, luego, durante su exitosa campaa aunque no fue elegido presidente, pueden recordarlo como alguien rgido y probablemente influenciable. Al menos en pblico. +Y mirando a su historia, que est en la prensa, me parece que, al menos vindolo con la mirada de un psiquiatra, gran parte de su vida fue programada. +Los veranos eran difciles, el trabajo duro en el calor estival de Tennessee. +Tena las expectativas de su padre senador y de Washington, DC +Y aunque creo que seguramente tena la capacidad para jugar -- porque yo s algo al respecto -- creo que no era tan emponderado como lo es ahora, prestndole atencin a su pasin y su propio impulso interno, que creo se basa en nuestro historial de juego. +Por lo tanto, yo los alentara a que hagan a nivel individual, una exploracin tan hacia atrs como puedan hasta la imagen ms clara, alegre y juguetona que tengan. Ya sea con un juguete, en un cumpleaos o unas vacaciones. +Comiencen a construir a partir de esa emocin la forma en que se conecta con su vida actual. +Y encontrarn que pueden cambiar de trabajo, lo que ha sucedido a varias personas cuando les hice hacer esto con el fin de ser ms empoderada a travs de su juego. +O sern capaces de enriquecer su vida priorizndola y prestndole atencin. +La mayora de nosotros trabajamos con grupos, y muestro esto porque la d.school, la escuela de diseo de Stanford, gracias a David Kelley y muchos otros que han sido visionarios al crearla, han permitido que un grupo de nosotros nos juntemos y creemos un curso denominado "Del juego a la innovacin". +Este es nuestro viaje inaugural. +Comenzamos hace dos meses y medio, tres, y ha sido realmente divertido. +Nuestro alumno estrella, este labrador, que nos ense a muchos lo que es un estado de juego, y un profesor a cargo muy viejo y decrpito. +Y Brendan Boyle, Rich Crandall - y en el extremo derecho hay una persona que creo estar asociado con George Smoot por un Premio Nobel - Stuart Thompson, en neurociencias. +As que hemos estado, Brendan, que es de IDEO, y el resto de nosotros a un costado, viendo a estos estudiantes poner en prctica los principios de juego en el aula. +Y uno de sus proyectos era ver qu hace que las reuniones sean aburridas, e intentar hacer algo al respecto. +Lo que sigue es una pelcula hecha por un estudiante sobre eso. +Narrador: " El fluir es el estado mental de la aparicin en el que la persona est completamente inmersa en lo que est haciendo. +Se caracteriza por una sensacin de enfoque activo, plena compenetracin y el xito en el proceso de la actividad. +Una clave importante que hemos aprendido acerca de las reuniones es que a la gente se las abarrota una tras otra, pues le interrumpen el da. +Los asistentes a las reuniones no saben cundo volvern a la tarea que dejaron en su escritorio. +Pero no tiene por qu ser as. +Algunos jugadores de rol en este lugar llamado el d.school disearon una reunin, literalmente, que uno se saca de encima cuando acaba. +Squese la reunin de encima y tenga la tranquilidad de poder retomarla. +Porque cuando la necesite de nuevo, la reunin estar, literalmente, colganda en su armario. +La Reunin Ponible. +Porque cuando uno se la pone, inmediatamente tiene todo lo que necesita para tener una reunin divertida, productiva y til. +Pero cuando se la quita ... ah es cuando empieza la accin real. +Stuart Brown: As que les propongo a todos a participar no en la diferenciacin trabajo-juego, en la que uno dedica tiempo a jugar, sino infundir su vida minuto a minuto, hora a hora, con juegos corporales, de objetos, sociales , de fantasa y transformadores. +Y creo que tendrn una vida mejor y ms empoderada. +Gracias. +Su trabajo parece indicar que es totalmente incorrecta. +SB: S, no creo que sea exacta, y creo que probablemente sea por la enseanza de los animales. +Si evita que un gato juegue, cosa que se puede hacer, y hemos visto cmo todo gato manotea cosas, seran tan buenos depredadores como aquellos que jugaron. +Y si uno se imagina un nio fingiendo ser King Kong, un corredor de autos, o un bombero, no todos se convierten en corredores de autos o bomberos. +Por lo que hay una desconexin entre la preparacin para el futuro, que es cmo la mayora se siente cmodo al pensar en el juego, y concebirlo como una entidad biolgica diferente. +Y aqu es donde mi seguimiento de animales durante cuatro, cinco aos realmente cambi mi perspectiva de mdico a lo que soy ahora, y es que el juego tiene un lugar biolgico, al igual que lo tiene el sueo y los sueos. +Y si uno mira el sueo y los sueos biolgicamente, los animales duermen y suean, ensayan y hacen algunas otras cosas que ayudan a la memoria y que son una parte muy importante de dormir y soar. +El siguiente paso en la evolucin de los mamferos y criaturas con "neuronas divinamente superfluas" ser el jugar. +Y el hecho de que el oso polar y la husky, o una urraca y un oso o usted y yo y nuestros perros podamos experimentarlo establece el juego como algo separado. +Y tiene enorme importancia en el aprendizaje y el desarrollo del cerebro. +As que no es slo algo que haces en tu tiempo libre. +JH: Cmo se mantiene - y s que usted es parte de la comunidad de investigacin cientfica, y debe justificar las subvenciones y las propuestas como todos los dems -- Cmo evita -- y parte de los datos que ha producido, la slida evidencia que ha producido, es un tema lgido. +Cmo evita la interpretacin de su trabajo por parte de los medios o de la comunidad cientfica de lo que implica su trabajo? algo as como la metfora de Mozart, como: "Oh, las resonancias magnticas muestran que jugar aumenta tu inteligencia. +Bueno, encerremos a estos nios en corrales y hagmoslos jugar durante meses. Sern todos unos genios e irn a Harvard. " +Cmo evita que la gente tome ese tipo de acciones con los datos que usted est desarrollando? +SB: Bueno, creo que la nica manera en que s cmo hacerlo es acumulando a los asesores que tengo: que van desde profesionales que pueden establecer a travs de la improvisacin o payasear o lo que sea un estado de juego. +As que la gente sabe que est all. +Luego se consigue un especialista en resonancia funcional, a Frank Wilson, y consigues otros cientficos duros, incluyendo neuroendocrinologos. +y los renes en un grupo enfocado en el juego, y es muy difcil no tomarlo en serio. +Por desgracia, no se ha hecho lo suficiente como para que la Fundacin Nacional de Ciencias, el Instituto Nacional de Salud Mental o cualquier otra lo vea realmente de esta manera: en serio. +Me refiero a que no hay nada como el cncer o las enfermedades del corazn asociados con el juego. +Y, sin embargo, yo lo veo como algo igual de bsico para la supervivencia, a largo plazo, como aprender algunas de las cosas bsicas acerca de la salud pblica. +JH: Stuart Brown, muchas gracias. +El tiempo vuela. +Fue hace casi 20 aos cuando quise reformular la forma en que usamos la informacin la forma en la que trabajamos juntos -- invent la World Wide Web +Hoy, 20 aos despus, aqu en TED, quiero pedirles ayuda para una nueva reformulacin. +Entonces, volviendo a 1989, escrib un memo sugiriendo el sistema global de hipertexto. +Nadie hizo algo con l, realmente. +Pero 18 meses despus -- as es como ocurren las innovaciones -- 18 meses despus, mi jefe me dijo que poda hacerlo como un extra, como una especie de proyecto ldico, probar una nueva computadora que tenamos. +Y me dio el tiempo para escribir el cdigo. +As que bsicamente deline lo que debera ser el HTML, el protocolo de hipertexto -- HTTP -- la idea de los URLs -- estos nombres de cosas que comienzan con HTTP. +Escrib el cdigo y lo dej por ah. +Por qu lo hice? +Bueno, bsicamente por frustracin. +Estaba frustrado -- trabajaba como ingeniero de software en este laboratorio enorme y apasionante, lleno de personas de todo el mundo. +Traan todo tipo de computadoras con ellos. +Tenan todo tipo de formatos diferentes de datos. Todo tipo de sistemas de documentacin. +Pero eran todos incompatibles. +Era muy frustrante. +La frustracin por todo este potencial desaprovechado. +De hecho, en todos esos discos haba documentos. +As que si uno los imaginaba a todos como parte de algo ms grande, de un sistema de documentacin virtual en el cielo, por ejemplo en Internet, entonces la vida sera mucho ms fcil. +Bien, cuando tienes una idea de esas, se te mete en la piel y an nadie leyera tu memo en realidad l s lo ley, su copia fue encontrada despus de su muerte. +Haba escrito: Impreciso pero apasionante, a lpiz y en el margen. +Pero en general era difcil, realmente muy difcil, explicar cmo era la web. +Hoy es difcil explicarle a la gente que era difcil en ese entonces. +Pero entonces, bueno, cuando empez TED, la web no exista as que cosas como "clic" no tenan el mismo significado. +Puedo mostrarle a alguien un hipertexto, una pgina con enlaces, hacemos clic en el enlace y ah est, habr otra pgina hipertextual. +No nos impresiona. +Ya saben, ya lo vimos, tenemos cosas con hipertexto en CD-ROMs. +Lo difcil era hacer que lo imaginaran. Entonces, piensen que ese enlace pueda apuntar prcticamente a cualquier documento que imaginen. +Bueno, ese es el salto que fue tan difcil para ellos. +Bien, algunos lo hicieron. +Aunque s, era difcil de explicar, pero haba un movimiento de bases. +Y eso lo hizo ms divertido. +Fue lo ms emocionante de todo, no la tecnologa ni las cosas que la gente hizo con ella sino la comunidad y el espritu de todas esas personas juntas enviando correos electrnicos. +As era en ese tiempo. +Saben qu? Es gracioso, pero el momento actual es casi igual. +Le ped a todo el mundo, ms o menos, que pusiera sus documentos. Les dije: Pueden poner sus documentos en esta web? +y ustedes lo hicieron. +Gracias. +Fue un estallido, no es cierto? +Quiero decir, fue muy interesante porque nos dimos cuenta de que las cosas que pasaban con la web realmente nos sacudan. +Mucho ms de lo que imaginamos al principio cuando elaboramos el primer sitio web con el que empezamos. +Ahora, quiero que pongan datos en la web. +Resulta que todava hay un gran potencial por delante. +Todava hay una gran frustracin en la gente porque no tenemos datos en la web como tales. +Qu quiero decir con datos? Cul es la diferencia entre documentos y datos? +Ustedes leen documentos, verdad? +Ms o menos, los leen, pueden seguir enlaces desde ellos, y eso es todo. +Datos -- se puede hacer cualquier cosa con una computadora. +Quin pudo ver la presentacin de Hans Rosling? +Una de las mejores. Mucha gente la ha visto una de las mejores TED Talks. +Hans hizo esta presentacin en la que mostr, para diferentes pases y en varios colores, mostr los niveles de ingresos en un eje y la mortalidad infantil, en una animacin a lo largo del tiempo. +Tom estos datos e hizo una presentacin que destruy muchos mitos que la gente tena sobre la economa de los pases en desarrollo. +Present una diapositiva como sta. +Subyacentemente tena todos los datos. S, los datos son oscuros, cuadrados y aburridos. Eso pensamos de los datos, no? +Porque los datos en s no se pueden usar en forma natural. Pero, de hecho, los datos gobiernan gran parte de nuestras vidas y eso pasa porque alguien toma esos datos y hace algo con ellos. +En este caso, Hans junt un montn de datos los tom de todo tipo de sitios web de Naciones Unidas o parecidos. +Los junt a todos, los combin en algo ms interesante que las partes originales y luego los puso dentro de este software, desarrollado originalmente, creo, por su hijo y produjo esta presentacin maravillosa. +Hans dijo algo importante: Miren, es realmente importante tener muchos datos. +Y me hizo feliz ver eso en la fiesta de anoche donde l segua diciendo, a viva voz, Es realmente importante tener muchos datos. +Quiero que pensemos ahora acerca de no slo dos dimensiones de datos en conexin, o seis como hizo l, sino en un mundo donde todos pongan datos en la web y donde casi todo lo que puedan imaginarse est en la web y entonces los llamaremos datos enlazados. +Es la tecnologa de datos enlazados; algo extremadamente simple. +Si uno quiere poner algo en la web por tres aos lo primero son esos nombres HTTP esas cosas que empiezan con http: las estamos usando no slo para documentos, las estamos usando para cosas a las que se refieren los documentos. +Las estamos usando para personas, para lugares, las estamos usando para sus productos, para eventos. +Todo tipo de conceptos, ahora tienen nombres que empiezan con HTTP. +Quin participa en el evento? Cualquier cosa sobre esa persona, lugar de nacimiento, cosas como esas. +Entonces la segunda regla es que obtengo informacin importante. +La tercera regla es que cuando obtengo esa informacin no es slo la altura, el peso y la fecha de nacimiento sino las relaciones. +Los datos son relaciones. +Interesante. Los datos son relaciones. +Esta persona naci en Berln, Berln est en Alemania. +Y cuando tiene una relacin, cada vez que exprese una relacin la otra cosa que est relacionada recibe un nombre que empieza con HTTP. +Entonces, puedo ir hacia adelante y mirarla. +Si busco a una persona, puedo mirar la ciudad en la que naci puedo ver la regin en la que est, qu pueblos estn all, y la poblacin de la ciudad, etc. +Puedo explorar estas cosas. +As es, realmente. +Esto son datos enlazados. +Escrib un artculo titulado Datos enlazados hace un par de aos y poco despus empezaron a suceder cosas. +La idea de los datos enlazados es que tengamos muchas de estas cajas que Hans tena, y surgen muchas, muchas cosas. +No slo es un montn de otras plantas. +Entonces, datos enlazados. +El meme surgi de ah. +Y en poco tiempo Chris Spitzer, de la Freie Universitat de Berln, fue una de las primeras personas en proponer cosas interesantes, se dio cuenta que Wikipedia, conocen Wikipedia, la enciclopedia online que tiene muchos documentos interesantes. +Bueno, en esos documentos hay pequeos cuadros, pequeas cajas. +Y en la mayora de las cajas de informacin hay datos. +Entonces escribi un programa para tomar esos datos, extraerlos de Wikipedia, y ponerlos dentro de un grupo de datos enlazados en la web al que llam Dbpedia. +Dbpedia est representada por la mancha azul en medio de la diapositiva y si uno va y busca Berln, ver que all hay otras manchas de datos que tienen cosas sobre Berln y estn enlazadas. +Entonces si uno extrae los datos de Berln desde Dbpedia, terminar extrayendo estas otras cosas tambin. +Y lo ms interesante es que esto est empezando a crecer. +Esto es slo el principio, otra vez, s? +Pensemos un poco sobre los datos. +Los datos llegan, de hecho, de formas muy diferentes. +Piensen en la diversidad de la web, es algo muy importante que la web permita poner todo tipo de datos all. +Es igual con los datos. Puedo hablar sobre todo tipo de datos. +Podemos hablar de datos de gobierno, los de empresas son importantes, hay datos cientficos, datos personales, datos del clima, acerca de eventos, sobre charlas, hay noticias y todo tipo de cosas. +Slo voy a mencionar unos pocos de ellos para que tengan una idea de la diversidad, as podrn ver el gran potencial. +Empecemos con los datos de gobierno. +Barack Obama dijo en un discurso que los datos del gobierno estadounidense deberan estar disponibles en Internet en formatos accesibles. +Y espero que los pongan como datos enlazados. +Eso es importante. Por qu es importante? +No slo por transparencia- s, la transparencia de un gobierno es importante, sino porque esos datos -- son datos de todos los organismos de gobierno. Piensen cunta de esa informacin es sobre cmo se vive en EE.UU. +Es realmente til, tiene valor. +Puedo usarla en mi compaa. +Puedo usarla si soy un chico para hacer mi tarea. +Entonces hablamos de hacer que el mundo funcione mejor haciendo que los datos estn disponible. +De hecho, si uno es responsable -- si uno conoce algunos datos de un organismo de gobierno, usualmente encuentra que esta gente, est muy tentada a guardarla. Hans llama a esto abrazar la base de datos. +Uno abraza la base de datos, no la soltamos hasta que creamos un hermoso sitio web. +Bueno, me gustara sugerir que s, hagamos un hermoso sitio web, quin soy yo para decirte que no crees un lindo sitio web? +Hganlo, pero primero dennos los datos sin modificar, queremos los datos. +Queremos los datos sin modificar. +Ahora pediremos los datos en crudo. +Y quiero pedirles que practiquen eso, est bien? +Digan "crudos". +Audiencia: Crudos. +Tim Bernes-Lee: Pueden decir "Datos"? +Audiencia: Datos. +TBL: Pueden decir "Ahora"? +Audiencia: Ahora! +TBL: Bien, datos crudos ahora! +Audiencia: Datos crudos ahora! +Practiquen eso. Es importante porque no tienen idea del nmero de excusas que la gente puede esgrimir para aferrarse a sus datos y no drselos, an cuando paguen por ellos a travs de sus impuestos. +Y no es slo EE.UU., es as en todo el mundo. +Y no son slo los gobiernos, por supuesto, las empresas tambin. +Slo voy a mencionar unas ideas ms sobre los datos. +Aqu estamos en TED, y todo el tiempo somos conscientes de los enormes desafos que la sociedad enfrenta en este momento: curar el cncer, entender el cerebro de quienes tienen Alzheimer, entender la economa para hacerla un poco ms estable, entender cmo funciona el mundo. +La gente que va a solucionar esto, los cientficos, tienen ideas pre-elaboradas en sus cabezas, tratan de comunicarlas a travs de la web. +Pero mucho del estado del conocimiento humano en este momento est en bases de datos, casi siempre en sus computadoras, y actualmente no es compartido. +Entonces, estn uniendo unos con otros, datos enlazados, y ahora pueden hacer el tipo de pregunta, que probablemente ustedes no pudieran hacer, yo no podra preguntar pero ellos s. +Qu protenas estn implicadas en la transduccin de seales y tambin relacionadas con las neuronas piramidales? +Bueno, ustedes tomaran ese trabalenguas y lo buscaran en Google. +Por supuesto, no hay pgina que tenga esa respuesta porque nadie ha hecho esa pregunta antes. +Obtienes 223.000 entradas, pero ningn resultado til. +Consultas los datos enlazados, que ahora estn juntos, hay 32 coincidencias, cada una es una protena que tiene esas propiedades y uno las puede ver. +El potencial de poder hacer esas preguntas, como cientfico preguntas que relacionan diversas disciplinas, realmente es un cambio radical. +Es muy importante. +Los cientficos estn completamente desconcertados en este momento, el poder de los datos que otros cientficos han conseguido no est disponible y necesitamos liberarlo para resolver esos enormes problemas. +Ahora, ustedes pensarn que todos los datos vienen de grandes instituciones y que no tienen nada que ver con ustedes. +Pero eso no es cierto. +De hecho, son datos sobre nuestras vidas. +Cuando ingresan en el sitio de su red social, su red favorita, dicen, "Este es mi amigo". +Listo! Relaciones. Informacin. +Dices: "Esta fotografa es sobre muestra a esta persona". Listo! Eso es informacin. Datos, datos, datos. +Cada vez que haces algo en el sitio de la red social, esa red est tomando los datos y usndolos, resignificndolos, y usndolos para hacer ms interesante la vida de otras personas en el sitio. +Pero, cuando vas a otro sitio de datos enlazados, digamos que es un sitio de viajes, y dices: "Quiero enviar esta foto a todas las personas de este grupo", no puedes pasar por encima de sus muros. +The Economist public un artculo sobre esto, y muchas personas lo researon en sus blogs, tremenda frustracin. +La forma de derribar estos silos es tener interoperabilidad entre las distintas redes sociales. +Necesitamos hacer eso con datos enlazados. +Un ltimo tipo de dato que voy a mencionar, quiz el ms apasionante. +Antes de venir aqu lo busqu en OpenStreetMap. OpenStreetMap es un mapa, pero tambin es una Wiki. +Te acercas con el zoom y el cuadrado es un teatro, donde estamos ahora, el teatro The Terrace. No tiene un nombre. +Puedo ir al modo edicin, seleccionar el teatro, agregar el nombre al final, y guardarlo nuevamente. +Y si ahora vamos nuevamente a OpenStreetMap.org, y encontramos este lugar, veremos que el teatro The Terrace ya tiene nombre. +Yo lo hice. Yo! +Yo hice ese mapa. Acabo de hacerlo! +Puse eso ah y saben algo? +Ese mapa de calles implica que cada uno hace su pequeo aporte y crea un recurso increble porque cada uno hace lo suyo. +Y eso es lo que significan los datos enlazados. +Es gente haciendo su pequeo aporte para producir algo, todo conectado. +As es como funcionan los datos enlazados. +Haces tu parte. Todo el mundo hace su parte. +No tendrs mucha informacin para poner ah pero sabes cmo solicitarla. +Y hemos practicado eso. +Entonces, los datos enlazados, es algo enorme. +Slo les cont muy pocas cosas. Hay informacin en cada aspecto de nuestras vidas, cada aspecto del trabajo y del placer, y no es slo la cantidad de fuentes de datos, sino que estn todas conectadas. +Y cuando conectas datos, tienes poder en una forma que no ocurre con la web, con los documentos. +Obtienes este enorme poder. +Entonces, estamos en el momento en que tenemos que hacer esto, la gente que piensa que es una gran idea. +Bien, entonces los llamamos datos enlazados. +Quiero que lo hagan. +Quiero que lo exijan. +Y creo que es una idea que merece ser difundida. +Gracias. +Viajo por el mundo dando charlas sobre Darwin, y generalmente de lo que hablo es de la extraa inversin de razonamiento de Darwin. +Ese ttulo, esa frase, proviene de un crtico, uno de los primeros, y este es un pasaje que adoro, y me gustara leerlo para ustedes. +"En la teora que nos presentan, La Ignorancia Absoluta es el artfice; de modo que debemos enunciar como principio fundamental del sistema, que, con el fin de crear un mquina perfecta y hermosa, no es un requisito saber cmo hacerla. +Se encontrar, bajo cuidadoso examen, que esta proposicin expresa en forma condensada, el propsito esencial de La Teora, y para expresar en pocas palabras el mensaje del Sr. Darwin; quien, por una extraa inversin de razonamiento, parece creer que la Ignorancia Absoluta est plenamente calificada para reemplazar a la Sabidura Absoluta en los logros de la facultad creadora" +Exactamente. Exactamente. Y es una extraa inversin. +Un panfleto creacionista presenta esta maravillosa pgina: "Prueba Dos: Conoces algn edificio que no tuviera un constructor? S - No. +Conoces alguna pintura que no tuviera un pintor? S - No. +Conoces algn automvil que no tuviese fabricante? S - No. +Si respondiste "SI" a alguna de las anteriores, provee detalles." +Aj! Es realmente una extraa inversin de razonamiento. +Uno creera que es razonable pensar que un diseo requiere un diseador inteligente. +Pero Darwin muestra que esto es falso. +Hoy, sin embargo, voy a hablar de otra extraa inversin de Darwin, que es igual de confuso al inicio, pero de algn modo igual de importante +Es razonable pensar que amamos el chocolate porque es dulce. +Los chicos persiguen chicas porque son sexys. +Adoramos los bebs porque son lindos. +Y, por supuesto, nos divierten los chistes porque son graciosos. +Todo esto est al revs. Y Darwin nos muestra porqu. +Comencemos con lo dulce. Bsicamente desarrollamos un detector de azcar, porque el azcar contiene energa, y fuimos forzados a preferirla, para decirlo crudamente, y es por eso que nos gusta el azcar. +La miel es dulce porque nos gusta, no "nos gusta la miel porque es dulce." +No hay nada intrnsecamente dulce en la miel. +Si miran molculas de glucosa hasta quedar ciegos, no podrn ver porqu saben dulce. +Tienen que mirar en nuestro cerebro para entender porqu son dulces. +As que, si piensan que primero existi la dulzura, y luego evolucionamos para tener gusto por ella, lo estn viendo al revs; estn equivocados. Es lo contrario. +Lo dulce naci al evolucionar las conexiones cerebrales. +Y no hay nada intrnsecamente sexy en estas jvenes. +Y es algo bueno que no lo haya, porque si lo hubiese, la Madre Naturaleza tendra un problema; Cmo hacer que los chimpancs encuentren pareja? +Podran pensar, ah, una solucin: alucinaciones. +Sera un modo de lograrlo, pero hay un modo ms rpido. +Forzar a los chimpancs a que amen esa apariencia, y aparentemente lo hacen. +Eso es todo lo que se necesita. +Por seis millones de aos, nosotros y los chimpancs evolucionamos separados. +Nos volvimos lampios. Extraamente; por una razn u otra, ellos no lo hicieron. +Si no lo hubisemos hecho, esto podra ser la cumbre del erotismo. +Nuestra glotonera es una preferencia evolutiva e instintiva por la comida energtica, +No fue diseada para el pastel de chocolate. +El pastel de chocolate es un estmulo supranormal. +El trmino se lo debemos a Niko Tinbergen, quien hizo su famoso experimento con gaviotas, donde encontr que el punto naranja en el pico -- si haca un punto ms grande, ms naranja los pollitos de gaviota lo picaran con ms ganas. +Era un hiper-estmulo para ellos, y lo adoraban. +Lo que vemos con, digamos, el pastel es que es un estmulo supranormal para nuestras preferencias forzadas. +Y hay muchos estmulos supranormales; el pastel es uno. +Hay estmulos supranormales para el erotismo. +Incluso estmulo supranormal para lo lindo. He aqu un buen ejemplo. +Es importante que amemos los bebs, a pesar de, digamos, los paales sucios. +De modo que los bebs obtengan nuestro afecto y nutricin, y lo hacen. +Y, a propsito, un estudio reciente muestra que las madres prefieren el olor de los paales sucios de su propio beb. +As que la naturaleza trabaja en muchos niveles aqu. +Pero, si los bebs no se vieran como se ven, si los bebs se vieran as, eso es lo que nos parecera adorable, eso es lo que encontraramos -- pensaramos, oh precioso, cmo quiero abrazarlo. +Esta es una inversin extraa. +Finalmente, acerca de lo gracioso. Mi respuesta es, es la misma historia. +Esta es la difcil, la que no es obvia. Es por eso que la dej para el final. +Y no podr decir mucho sobre ella. +Pero tienen que pensar evolutivamente, deben pensar, qu difcil trabajo, es trabajo sucio, alguien tiene que hacerlo, es tan importante que obtenemos una poderosa recompensa innata por l. +Creo que tengo la respuesta. Yo y algunos de mis colegas. +Es un sistema neuronal diseado para recompensar al cerebro por hacer un trabajo sucio. +Nuestro lema para este enfoque es "Es el placer de la depuracin de errores." +No tendr tiempo de detallarlo todo, pero dir que algunas clases de depuracin obtienen recompensa. +Y lo que estamos haciendo es usar el humor como una sonda neurocientfica encendiendo y apagando el humor, girando el interruptor en un chiste, ahora no es gracioso... ahora es ms gracioso... +ahora lo encendemos un poco ms... ahora no es gracioso... de esta manera, podemos aprender algo. sobre la arquitectura del cerebro, la arquitectura funcional del cerebro +Matthew Hurley es el principal autor de esto. Lo llamamos el Modelo Hurley. +l es un cientfico computacional, Reginal Adams es psiclogo, y estoy yo. y lo estamos juntando todo esto en un libro. +Muchas gracias. +Hoy quiero hablarles un poco sobre la irracionalidad predecible. +Mi inters en el comportamiento irracional comenz hace varios aos en el hospital. +Sufr quemaduras muy graves. +Y cuando uno pasa tanto tiempo en el hospital uno ve todo tipo de irracionalidades. +Una que en particular me molestaba en el departamento de quemaduras era el proceso por el cual las enfermeras me quitaban las vendas. +Seguramente alguna vez en la vida se han quitado una curita, y se habrn preguntado cul es la forma correcta de hacerlo. +Quitarla rpido -- corta duracin pero alta intensidad -- o quitarla lentamente, toma ms tiempo, pero cada segundo es menos doloroso, cul de las dos es la forma correcta? +Las enfermeras en mi departamento pensaban que la forma correcta era quitarlas rpido, as que agarraban y retiraban de un jaln, y agarraban y jalaban. +Como tena el 70 por ciento de mi cuerpo quemado, esto tomaba cerca de una hora. +Como pueden imaginar, odiaba el momento del retiro de vendas con increble intensidad. +Y trataba de razonar con ellas y les deca, "Por qu no intentamos algo diferente? +Por qu no intentamos tomarnos ms tiempo, quiz dos horas en lugar de una y reducir la intensidad?" +Las enfermeras me decan dos cosas. +Me decan que ellas tenan el modelo correcto para el paciente, que saban qu era lo mejor para minimizar el dolor y tambin me decan que la palabra paciente significa no hacer sugerencias o interferir o... +no slo en hebreo, por cierto. +Esto es en todos los idiomas hasta donde lo he experimentado. +Y saben qu? No hay... no haba mucho que pudiera hacer, y siguieron haciendo lo mismo. +Tres aos despus, cuando dej el hospital, empec a estudiar en la universidad. +Y una de las lecciones ms interesantes que aprend fue que exista un mtodo experimental que si tienes una pregunta puedes crear una rplica a esa pregunta en una forma abstracta y puedes intentar examinar esta pregunta, y quizs aprender algo del mundo. +Eso fue lo que hice. +Todava me interesaba la pregunta de cmo retirar las vendas en pacientes con quemaduras. +En un inicio, no tena mucho dinero, as que fui a la ferretera y compr una prensa de carpintera. +Llevaba gente al laboratorio y pona su dedo dentro de la pinza y se los aplastaba un poquito. +Y lo aplastaba por periodos largos y cortos y el dolor suba y bajaba, con pausas y sin pausas, todo tipo de versiones de dolor. +Y cuando terminaba de lastimar un poquito a la gente, les preguntaba, qu tan doloroso fue? cmo te doli? +O si tenan que elegir entre los dos ltimos, cul escogeran? +Y segu haciendo esto por un buen rato. +Y entonces, como todos los buenos proyectos acadmicos, obtuve ms fondos. +Entonces pas a choques elctricos, sonido, incluso tuve un traje de dolor con el que poda provocar mucho dolor en la gente. +Y al final del proceso, lo que aprend fue que las enfermeras estaban equivocadas. +Aqu tenemos gente linda con buenas intenciones y mucha experiencia, que sin embargo, predeciblemente hacen mal las cosas todo el tiempo. +Resulta que como no valoramos la duracin en la forma en que valoramos la intensidad, yo hubiera tenido menos dolor si la duracin hubiese sido ms larga y la intensidad ms baja. +Resulta que si hubieran empezado mejor por mi cara, donde era ms doloroso y luego seguan hacia mis piernas, dndome una sensacin de mejora al paso del tiempo, yo habra tenido menos dolor. +Adems resulta que hubiese sido bueno darme descansos en el proceso como para irme recuperando del dolor. +Hacer todas estas cosas hubiera sido maravilloso, y mis enfermeras no tenan ni idea. +Y desde este punto empec a pensar, acaso las enfermeras son las nicas personas en el mundo que se equivocan en esta decisin en particular o es algo ms generalizado? +Y resulta que es ms generalizado, cometemos muchos errores. +Quiero darles un ejemplo de una de estas irracionalidades, y voy a hablar sobre hacer trampa. +La razn por la escog hacer trampa es porque resulta interesante. adems tambin nos dice algo, creo, acerca de la situacin de la bolsa de valores en la que estamos. +Mi inters en hacer trampa empez cuando Enron entr a escena, de repente todo explot, y me puse a pensar sobre lo que lo que estaba ocurriendo aqu. +Era un caso en el que haba cierto tipo de manzanas malas capaces de hacer estas cosas, o estamos hablando de una situacin endmica, en la que mucha gente es capaz en efecto de comportarse as? +Entonces, como solemos hacer, decid hacer un simple experimento. +Y transcurri de la siguiente manera. +Si estuvieran en el experimento, yo les pasaba una hoja de papel con 20 problemas sencillos de matemticas que cualquiera podra resolver, pero no les dara tiempo suficiente. +Pasados 5 minutos, les dira, "Denme sus hojas y les voy a pagar un dlar por cada respuesta." +La gente lo haca y les pagaba cuatro dlares por el trabajo, en promedio la gente resolva cuatro problemas. +A otras personas las tentaba a hacer trampa. +Les pasara una hoja de papel. +Pasados los cinco minutos, les dira, "Por favor rompan sus hojas y pongan +los pedazos en su bolsillo o en su mochila, y dganme cuntas preguntas contestaron correctamente." +En promedio la gente resolva siete preguntas. +Ahora bien, no eran unas pocas manzanas malas, unas cuantas personas haciendo mucha trampa. +Ms bien, lo que vimos es mucha gente haciendo un poco de trampa. +En la teora econmica, hacer trampa es un simple anlisis de costo-beneficio. +Dices cul es la probabilidad de ser atrapado? +Cunto puedo ganar haciendo trampa? +Y cunto salgo penalizado si me atrapan? +Y entonces ponderas estas opciones, y haces un simple anlisis de costo-beneficio, y decides si vale la pena cometer el crimen o no. +Entonces intentamos probar esto. +Para algunas personas, variamos el monto de dinero que podan hurtar, cunto dinero podan robar. +Les pagamos 10 centavos por respuesta correcta, 50 centavos, un dlar, cinco dlares, 10 dlares por respuesta correcta. +Ustedes esperaran que conforme haba ms dinero en la mesa, la gente robara ms, pero de hecho no fue el caso. +Tuvimos mucha gente haciendo trampa que robaba un poco. +Qu hay de la probabilidad de ser atrapado? +Algunas personas rompan la mitad del papel, as que dejaban cierta evidencia. +Algunas personas rompan la hoja de papel por completo. +Algunas personas rompan todo, salan del cuarto, y se pagan a s mismas del jarrn de dinero que tena ms de 100 dlares. +Se esperara que conforme la probabilidad de ser atrapado se reduce, la gente roba ms, pero otra vez, no fue el caso. +Una vez ms, mucha gente rob slo un poco, y fueron insensibles a estos incentivos econmicos. +Nos dijimos: "Si la gente no es sensible a las explicaciones tericas racionales econmicas, a estas fuerzas, entonces qu podra estar pasando?" +Pensamos que quiz lo que ocurre es que existen dos fuerzas. +Por un lado, todos queremos poder mirarnos en el espejo y sentirnos bien con nosotros mismos, por eso no queremos hacer trampa. +Por otro lado, podemos hacer un poco de trampa, y sentirnos bien con nosotros mismos. +Entonces quiz lo que ocurre es que existe un nivel de estafa que no podemos pasar, pero s nos podemos beneficiar de hacer un poco de trampa, siempre que no cambie la impresin que tenemos de nosotros mismos. +A eso lo llamamos el factor de elusin personal. +Ahora bien cmo probaras un factor de elusin personal? +En un inicio nos dijimos qu podemos hacer para reducir el factor de elusin? +Entonces llevamos gente al laboratorio y les dijimos, "Hoy tenemos dos tareas para ustedes." +Primero, pedimos a la mitad de la gente que recordara o bien 10 libros que hubiera ledo en la preparatoria o que recordara los Diez Mandamientos, y luego los tentamos a que hicieran trampa. +Result que la gente que trat de recordar Los Diez Mandamientos y en nuestra muestra, nadie pudo recordar todos Los Diez Mandamientos, pero aquellos que intentaron hacerlo que tuvieron la oportunidad de hacer trampa, no lo hicieron. +No fue que la gente ms religiosa -- -- la gente que record ms los Mandamientos -- hiciera menos trampa, y los menos religiossos -- -- la gente que no pudo recordar casi ningn Mandamiento -- hiciera ms trampa. +En el momento en que la gente pens intentar recordar Los Diez Mandamientos, dej de hacer trampa. +De hecho, incluso cuando le dimos a ateos declarados la tarea de jurar en la Biblia y les dimos la oportunidad de hacer trampa, no lo hicieron en absoluto. +Ahora bien, los Diez Mandamientos es algo difcil de introducir en el sistema educativo, entonces dijimos, "Por qu no hacemos que la gente firme un cdigo de honor?" +As que hicimos que la gente lo firmara, "Acepto que esta breve encuesta se rige bajo el Cdigo de Honor del MIT." +Luego lo rompamos. Nada de hacer trampa. +Esto es particularmente interesante, porque el MIT no tiene un cdigo de honor. +As que todo esto fue para disminuir el factor de elusin. +Qu hay sobre aumentar el factor de elusin? +En el primer experimento, camin alrededor del MIT y distribu paquetes de seis de Cocas en los refrigeradores, eran refrigeradores comunes para los universitarios. +Y luego regres para medir lo que tcnicamente llamamos la vida promedio de una Coca cunto dura en el refrigerador? +Como es de esperarse no es muy larga. La gente se las lleva. +En contraste, puse un plato con seis billetes de un dlar, y dej esos platos en los mismos refrigeradores. +Ni un billete desapareci. +Ahora, este no es un buen experimento de ciencias sociales, as que para mejorarlo hice el mismo experimento como se los describ anteriormente. +Un tercio de la gente a la que le pasamos una hoja, nos la regres. +Un tercio de la gente a la que le pasamos la hoja, la rompi, volvan con nosotros y decan: "Sr. Experimentador, resolv X problemas, dme X dlares." +A una tercera parte de la gente, cuando terminaban de romper la hoja, volvan con nosotros y decan: "Sr. Experimentador, resolv X problemas, dme X vales." +No les pagamos con dlares, les pagamos con otra cosa. +Y tomaban esta otra cosa, caminaban 3 metros hacia un lado y la intercambiaban por dlares. +Piensen acerca de la siguiente intuicin. +Qu tan mal te parecera llevar un lpiz del trabajo a casa, comparado con qu tan mal te parecera tomar 10 centavos de la caja de monedas? +Estas cosas se sienten diferentes. +Acaso estar separado del dinero por unos segundos al pagar con un vale hara diferencia? +Nuestros sujetos hicieron trampa al doble. +Les dir lo que pienso acerca de esto y la bolsa de valores en un minuto. +Sin embargo esto no resolvi el gran problema que todava tena con Enron, porque en Enron, haba tambin un elemento social. +La gente observa el comportamiento de los otros. +De hecho, todos los das cuando vemos las noticias vemos ejemplos de gente haciendo trampa. +Qu nos ocasiona esto? +As que hicimos otro experimento. +Conseguimos un grupo grande de estudiantes, y les pagamos por adelantado. +As que todos tenan un sobre con todo el dinero para el experimento, y les dijimos que al final, les pediramos que devolvieran el dinero que no haban ganado de acuerdo? +Ocurri lo mismo. +Cuando le damos a la gente la oportunidad de hacer trampa, hacen trampa. +Robaban slo un poco, pero todos robaban. +En este experimento contratamos a un estudiante de actuacin. +El actor se levantaba a los 30 segundos y deca, "Lo resolv todo qu hago ahora?" +El experimentador deca: "Si ya terminaste, te puedes ir." +Eso es todo. La tarea est completa. +Entonces ahora tenamos un estudiante -- un actor -- que era parte del grupo. +Nadie saba que era un actor. +E hicieron trampa de manera muy, muy seria. +Qu le pasaba a la otra gente del grupo? +Hacan ms o menos trampa? +Esto es lo que pasa. +Resulta que depende del tipo de sudadera que estn vistiendo. +Esta es la cosa. +Hicimos el experimento en el Carnegie Mellon y Pittsburgh. +En Pittsburgh hay dos grandes universidades. Carnegie Mellon y la Universidad de Pittsburgh. +Todos los sujetos que participaron en el experimento eran estudiantes del Carnegie Mellon. +Cuando el actor que se levantaba era un estudiante del Carnegie Mellon -- y el estudiante actor era en efecto del Carnegie Mellon -- pero era parte del grupo, hacan ms trampa. +Pero cuando el actor vesta una camiseta de la Universidad de Pittsburg, hacan menos trampa. +Ahora, es importante recordar, que en el momento cuando el estudiante se levantaba, quedaba en claro que podan salirse con la suya haciendo trampa porque el experimentador deca, "Ya terminaste. Te puedes ir," y se iban con el dinero. +As que no se trataba tanto de la probabilidad de ser atrapado otra vez, +sino de las normas para hacer trampa. +Si alguien de nuestro grupo hace trampa y lo vemos hacerlo, sentimos que es ms apropiado, como grupo, comportarnos de esa manera. +Entonces qu hemos aprendido de esto sobre hacer trampa? +Hemos aprendido que mucha gente puede hacer trampa. +Que slo hacen un poco de trampa. +Cuando le recordamos a la gente sobre su moralidad, hacen menos trampa. +Cuando la distancia de hacer trampa al objeto del dinero es larga, por ejemplo, la gente hace ms trampa. +Y cuando vemos que a nuestro alrededor hacen trampa, en particular si es gente parte de nuestro grupo, hacemos ms trampa. +Ahora, si pensamos esto en trminos de la bolsa de valores, piensen en lo que pasa. +Qu ocurre en una situacin en donde creas algo que le paga mucho dinero a la gente para que vea la realidad de manera ligeramente distorsionada? +Podran no verlo de esta manera? +Por supuesto que lo veran. +Qu pasa cuando haces otras cosas, como retirar cosas del dinero? +Llmenle acciones, opciones de accin, derivados, prstamos garantizados. +Podra ser que estas cosas ms distantes, no es un vale por un segundo, es algo que est varios pasos alejados del dinero por un largo tiempo, podra ser que la gente haga ms trampa todava? +Qu pasa en el ambiente social cuando la gente ve el comportamiento de la gente a su alrededor? +Yo pienso que todas estas fuerzas funcionan de una forma negativa en la bolsa de valores. +Ms en general, quiero decirles algo sobre la economa conductista. +Tenemos muchas intuiciones en nuestra vida, y el punto es que muchas de estas intuiciones estn equivocadas. +La pregunta es vamos a probar estas intuiciones? +Podemos pensar en cmo vamos a probar esta intuicin en nuestra vida privada, en nuestra vida de negocios y ms particularmente cuando se trata de polticas. cuando pensamos sobre cosas como Ningn Nio Abandonado, cuando creamos nuevas bolsas de valores, cuando creamos otras polticas fiscales, de salud y as sucesivamente. +La dificultad de poner a prueba nuestra intuicin fue la gran leccin que aprend cuando regres con las enfermeras a hablar con ellas. +As que volv para hablar con ellas y contarles lo que haba encontrado sobre quitar vendas. +Y aprend dos cosas interesantes. +Una que mi enfermera favorita, Ettie, me dijo que no tom en cuenta su dolor. +Me dijo: "Por supuesto que saba que era doloroso para ti, +pero piensa en m como enfermera, agarrar, quitar las vendas de alguien que me gustaba, y tena que hacerlo repetidas veces por una larga temporada; +provocar tanta tortura no era tampoco bueno para m." +Y dijo que quiz esa era parte de la razn por la que era difcil para ella. +Aunque la realidad fue ms interesante que eso, porque me dijo, "No cre que tu intuicin fuera correcta, +sent que mi intuicin era la correcta." +Entonces si pensamos sobre todas nuestras intuiciones, es muy difcil creer que nuestra intuicin est equivocada. +Y agreg, ya que yo pensaba que mi intuicin era la correcta -- ella pensaba que su intuicin era la correcta -- era muy difcil que aceptara hacer un experimento difcil para comprobar si estaba equivocada. +Pero de hecho, esta es la situacin en la que estamos todo el tiempo. +Tenemos fuertes intuiciones sobre todo tipo de cosas, sobre nuestra propia habilidad, cmo funciona la economa, cmo debemos pagar a los maestros de escuela. +Pero a menos que empecemos a probar estas intuiciones. no vamos a mejorar. +Slo piensen cun mejor habra sido my vida si estas enfermeras hubiesen estado dispuestas a comprobar su intuicin, y cmo todo habra sido mejor si slo empezamos a hacer una experimentacin ms sistematizada de nuestras intuiciones. +Muchas gracias. +Como hace cuatro aos atrs, el New Yorker public un artculo acerca de un yacimiento de huesos de dodo que fue encontrado en un foso en la isla de Mauricio. +Bien, la isla de Mauricio es una pequea isla al este de Madagascar en el Ocano Indico y es donde se descubri y extingui el dodo, todo como en 150 aos. +Todos estaban muy entusiasmados con este descubrimiento arqueolgico, porque significaba que finalmente podran ser capaces de armar un esqueleto completo de dodo. +Vern, mientras museos de todo el mundo tienen esqueletos de dodo en sus colecciones, ninguno (ni siquiera el Museo de Historia Natural de la isla de Mauricio) tiene un esqueleto compuesto por los huesos de un solo dodo. +Bueno, esto no es exactamente la verdad. +La verdad es que el Museo Britnico tena un espcimen completo de dodo en su coleccin hasta el siglo 18 -- estaba realmente momificado, con piel y todo -- pero en un ataque de ansiedad por conservar espacio decidieron cortarle la cabeza y los pies y quemaron el resto en una hoguera. +Si vas a su sitio web hoy, ellos incluso listan estos especmenes, mencionando que el resto se perdi en un incendio. +No es exactamente la verdadera historia. De todos modos. +El punto focal de este artculo era esta foto, y soy una de las personas que piensa que Tina Brown fue grandiosa ya que trajo fotos al New Yorker, porque esta foto completamente conmocion mi mundo. +Me obsesion con el objeto -- no slo con la hermosa fotografa por si misma, sino que con su color, la corta profundidad del enfoque, el detalle visible, el alambre que se puede ver all en el pico que el conservador us para armar el esqueleto; hay una historia entera aqu. +Y pens para mi mismo, no sera genial si tuviera mi propio esqueleto de dodo? +Y entonces, quisiera sealar aqu y ahora que he pasado mi vida obsesionado por objetos y las historias que cuentan, y este ha sido el ms reciente. +As que comenc a buscar -- para ver si alguien venda un kit, algn tipo de modelo que yo pudiera obtener, y encontr montones de material de referencia, muchas imgenes bonitas, +sin suerte: no haba esqueleto de dodo para mi. Pero el dao ya estaba hecho. +Ya haba guardado unos cientos de fotos de esqueletos de dodos en mi carpeta de "Proyectos Creativos" -- es un repositorio para mi cerebro, para cualquier cosa que pudiera estar interesado. +Cada vez que tengo una conexin de Internet hay un montn de cosas entrando a este repositorio, desde hermosos anillos hasta fotos de cabinas de aviones. +La llave que el Marqus de Lafayette envi a George Washington para celebrar la Toma de la Bastilla. +Llaves de lanzamiento nucleares rusas. La que ven arriba es la imagen que encontr en eBay; la que ven debajo es la que me constru porque no poda pagar la de eBay. +Disfraces de tropas de asalto. Mapas de la Tierra Media -- ese lo dibuj a mano yo mismo. Ah esta la carpeta del esqueleto de dodo. +Esta carpeta tiene 17.000 fotos -- ms de 20 gigas de informacin y crece constantemente. +Y un da un par de semanas ms tarde, incluso podra ser un un ao despus, estaba en la tienda con mis hijos comprando algunas herramientas para arcilla -- bamos a tener un da de manualidades. +Compr algo de Super Sculpeys, algo de alambre, materiales varios. +Y mir al Sculpey y pens que quizs, si, quizs podra hacer mi propio crneo de dodo. +Debo sealar en este momento -- No soy un escultor; soy un diseador de modelos duros. +Denme un dibujo, denme utilera de pelcula para replicar, denme una gra, andamios, partes de "La Guerra de las Galaxias" -- sobretodo partes de "La Guerra de las Galaxias" -- puedo hacer estas cosas todo el da. +As es exactamente como me gan la vida por 15 aos. +Pero si me dan algo como esto, mi amigo Mike Murnane esculpi esto; es una maqueta para La Guerra de las Galaxias, Episodio Dos -- esto no es lo que yo hago, esto es algo que otras personas hacen: dragones, cosas suaves. +Sin embargo, senta que haba visto suficientes fotos de crneos de dodos para ser efectivamente capaz de entender la topologa y quizs replicarla. Quiero decir, no poda ser tan difcil. +Entonces comenc a ver las mejores fotos que pude encontrar. +Tom todas las referencias y encontr esta encantadora pieza. +Alguien estaba vendindola en eBay; era de una mujer -- claramente la mano de una mujer, esperaba que fuera la mano de una mujer. +Asumiendo que era como del tamao de la mano de mi esposa hice algunas medidas de su pulgar, y las escal para obtener el tamao del crneo. +Agrand la foto a tamao real y comenc a utilizarla, junto con todas las otras referencias que tena, comparativamente como referencia de tamao para determinar exactamente que tan grande debera ser el pico, exactamente que tan largo, etctera, etctera... +Y despus de unas horas, eventualmente logr hacer un crneo de dodo bastante razonable. Y no pretenda continuar, yo -- es como, t sabes, slo puedes limpiar un cuarto sper desordenado recogiendo una cosa a la vez; no puedes pensar en la totalidad. +No estaba pensando en el esqueleto del dodo; slo not que mientras terminaba el crneo el alambre que estaba usando para sujetarlo sobresala de la parte posterior justo donde ira la columna vertebral. +Y, a lo largo de los aos, otro de mis intereses y obsesiones ha sido columnas vertebrales y esqueletos y ya tengo una coleccin de unos cientos de ellos. +De hecho entenda suficiente de la mecnica de las vrtebras para comenzar a imitarlas. +As, poco a poco, vrtebra por vrtebra, lo fui construyendo. +Y de hecho, para el final del da tena un crneo razonable, unas vrtebras moderadamente buenas y la mitad de una pelvis. +Y de nuevo, segu buscando ms referencias, cada pequea referencia que poda encontrar -- dibujos, hermosas fotos. +Este tipo -- Lo amo! Puso un hueso de la pierna de un dodo en un escner con una regla. +Este es el tipo de precisin que quera y simplemente, cada uno, repliqu cada hueso y lo acomod en el dodo. +Y despus de, dira cerca de seis meses, termin, pint y mont mi propio esqueleto de dodo. +Pueden ver que incluso hice un panel para museo que incluye una breve historia del dodo. +Y TAP Plastics me hizo -- aunque no lo fotografi -- una vitrina de museo. +No tengo el espacio para esto en mi casa pero tena que terminar lo que haba comenzado. +Y de hecho esto represent un cambio radical para m. +De nuevo, como dije, mi vida ha sido sobre estar fascinado por objetos y las historias que cuentan y tambin sobre hacerlos para mi mismo, obtenerlos, apreciarlos y sumergirme en ellos. +Y en esta carpeta, "Proyectos Creativos", hay toneladas de proyectos en los cuales estoy trabajando, proyectos en los que ya trabaj, cosas en que quizs quiera trabajar algn da y cosas que quizs me gustara slo encontrar y comprar y tener y mirar y tocar. +Pero ahora estaba esta potencial nueva categora de cosas que podra esculpir, que era diferente, que yo, saben, yo tengo mi propio R2D2, pero eso es para mi, honestamente, comparado a esculpir es fcil. +Y entonces fui y repas mi carpeta de "Proyectos Creativos", y me cruc con el Halcn Malts. +Ahora, para mi es gracioso enamorarme de un objeto de una novela de Hammett, porque si es cierto que el mundo esta dividido en dos tipos de personas; personas Chandler y personas Hammett, yo soy una persona totalmente Chandler. +Pero en este caso, no es sobre el autor, es acerca del libro o la pelcula o la historia, es sobre el objeto en y por si mismo. +Y en este caso, este objeto existe en una serie de niveles. +Primero de todo, est el objeto del mundo real. +Este es el "Halcn Kniphausen." +Es una vasija ceremonial hecha alrededor de 1700 para un conde suizo, y es muy probablemente el objeto del cual Hammett se inspir para el Halcn Malts. +Despus est el pjaro ficticio, el que Hammett cre en el libro. +Construido con palabras, es el motor que dirige la trama de su libro y tambin de la pelcula, en la cual se crea otro objeto: un objeto de utilera que debe representar lo que Hammett cre con palabras, inspirado por el Halcn Kniphauser y que representa el halcn en la pelcula. +Y entonces esta el cuarto nivel que es un nuevo objeto en el mundo: el de utilera hecho para la pelcula que representa el objeto que de su propia manera se convierte en otra cosa, en un nuevo objeto de deseo. +As que era el momento de investigar un poco. +De hecho ya haba averiguado un poco unos aos antes -- es la razn de que la carpeta ya existiera. +Haba comprado una rplica, una realmente mala, del Halcn Malts en eBay y haba bajado suficientes imgenes para tener una referencia razonable. +Pero haba descubierto, investigando ms profundamente, realmente deseando referencias precisas, que el pjaro haba sido -- uno de los pjaros originales de plomo haba sido vendido en Christie's en 1994 y entonces contact un vendedor de libros antiguos que tena el catlogo original de Christie's, y encontr en l esta magnifica imagen que incluye una referencia del tamao. +Pude escanear la imagen, agrandndola exactamente a tamao real. +Encontr otras referencias. Avi Chekmayan, un editor de Nueva Jersey, de hecho encontr este Halcn Malts de resina en un mercado de pulgas en 1991, aunque le tom cinco aos autentificar este pjaro a los estndares de un subastador porque le rodeaba mucha controversia. +Estaba hecho de resina, lo cual no era un material comn para utilera de pelcula cuando se film esta. +Me parece curioso que haya tomado tanto tiempo autentificarlo porque puedo verlo comparado con esta otra cosa y puede decirte que es real, es el objeto real, est hecho exactamente con el mismo molde que este. +Para este, debido a que la subasta fue tan controversial, Profiles in History, la casa de subastas que lo vendi, creo que en 1995, por cerca de cien mil dlares, adems incluy, y se puede ver ah abajo, no slo la imagen con elevacin frontal sino que tambin elevacin de lado, de atrs y del otro lado. +As que ahora tena toda la topologa que necesitaba pare replicar el Halcn Malts. +Qu se hace?, Cmo comienzas con algo como eso? Realmente no lo s. +As que lo que hice fue, como con el crneo del dodo, escalar nuevamente todas mis referencias a tamao real y entonces comenc a cortar los negativos y usar esas plantillas como referencia de formas. +As que tom Sculpey, y constru un gran bloque de esto y estuve esculpindolo hasta que, sabes, obtuve los perfiles correctos. +Y entonces lentamente, pluma por pluma, detalle por detalle, estuve trabajndolo y logr -- trabajando frente del televisor, con Super Sculpey -- aqu estoy sentado junto a mi esposa, es la nica foto que tom de todo el proceso. +Mientras avanzaba, logr hacer un facsmil bastante razonable del Halcn Malts. +Pero de nuevo, no soy un escultor, y por lo tanto no conozco un montn de trucos como, saben, no s como mi amigo Mike obtiene superficies hermosas y brillantes con su Sculpey; porque ciertamente yo no pude lograrlo. +As que baj a mi taller e hice un molde y lo llen con resina, porque con la resina realmente poda obtener el acabado suave y cristalino. +Ahora, hay muchas formas de completarlo y obtener un acabado suave. +Mi preferida es cerca de 70 capas de esto, pintura base para auto negra mate. +La roco por como tres o cuatros das, gotea por todos lados, pero me permite tener una superficie para pulir muy, muy agradable y puedo dejarlo suave como vidrio. +Ah, y lo termino con lana de acero triple cero. +Ahora, lo genial de haber llegado a este punto fue que en la pelcula, cuando finalmente muestran el pjaro al final y lo colocan en la mesa, lo giran. +As que fui capaz de hacer captura de pantalla y congelar la imagen para estar seguro. +Y estoy siguiendo todos los reflejos luminosos de esta cosa asegurndome de apuntar la luz en la misma posicin, obteniendo el mismo tipo de reflejo que en esto, este es el nivel de detalle que busco con esto. +Termin con esto: mi Halcn Malts. +Aqu es donde se torna extrao. +Fred Sexton era amigo de este tipo, George Hodel. +Un tipo aterrador, el cal muchos creen que fue el asesino de la Dalia Negra. +Ahora, James Ellroy cree que Fred Sexton, el escultor del Halcn Malts, asesin a la madre de James Ellroy. +John's Grill, que de hecho se puede ver brevemente en "El Halcn Malts" y que an es un restaurante existente en San Francisco, contaba entre sus clientes regulares a Elisha Cook que interpret a Wilmer Cook en la pelcula, y l les dio uno de sus originales de yeso del Halcn Malts. +Y lo exhibieron en su vitrina por 15 aos, hasta que fue robado en enero del 2007. +Pareciera como si el objeto de deseo slo alcanza su potencial desapareciendo repetidamente. +As que aqu tena este Halcn y era hermoso. Luca realmente grandioso, la luz se reflejaba muy bien, y era mejor de lo que yo pudiese lograr hacer o comprar en el mundo real. +Pero haba un problema. Y el problema era que quera el objeto completo, lo quera con el peso del objeto real. +Este objeto estaba hecho de resina y era muy liviano. +Hay un grupo que frecuento en lnea. +Es un grupo de fanticos de utilera iguales que yo y se llama foro de rplicas de utilera y sus miembros intercambian, crean y mueven informacin sobre utilera de pelculas. +Y result que uno de los tipos de ah, un amigo mo que de hecho nunca haba conocido pero que conoca a travs de intercambios de utilera, diriga una fundicin local. +El tom mi maestro del Halcn y hizo una copia en bronce para m a travs de un moldeo a la cera perdida, y sta es la copia que obtuve. +Y este es, despus de una pasada de aguafuerte, el resultado. +Y este objeto es profundamente, profundamente satisfactorio para m. +Aqu, voy a ponerlo aqu, y ms tarde esta noche ustedes podrn... Quiero que lo tomen y manipulen. +Ustedes quieren saber que tan obsesionado estoy. Este proyecto es solamente para m y aun as fui lo suficientemente lejos como para comprar en eBay un peridico de 1941 en chino procedente de San Francisco, para que el pjaro fuera envuelto apropiadamente... +como est envuelto en la pelcula. +S, Lo s! +(Risas y Aplausos) Ah lo pueden ver, pesa doce kilos y medio. +Esa es la mitad del peso de mi perro, Huxley. +Pero hay un problema. +Ahora, aqu ven la progresin ms reciente de Halcones. +A la izquierda est el pedazo de porquera -- la rplica que compr en eBay. +Ah est mi Halcn esculpido en Sculpey, un poco gastado porque lo tuve que sacar del molde. All esta mi primer halcn en resina, aqu esta mi patrn maestro y aqu el de bronce. +Hay algo que sucede cuando moldeas y fundes cosas, que es que cada vez que lo viertes en silicona y viertes resina sobre el molde, pierdes un poco de volumen y un poco del tamao. +Y cuando compar el de bronce contra el de Sculpey, era ms pequeo por dos centmetros. +S, no, realmente, fue como aah... Por qu no record esto? +Por qu no lo hice ms grande al comienzo? +Entonces que debo hacer? Tengo dos opciones. +Uno, puedo dispararle un grandioso lser, lo que ya he hecho, para escanearlo en 3D... ahora hay un escaneo en 3D de este Halcn. +Les dar uno si lo desean. +Y entonces, quizs, lograr alcanzar el fin de este ejercicio. +Pero en serio, si vamos a ser honestos con nosotros mismos debo admitir que, para comenzar, terminar el ejercicio nunca fue el objetivo de este. No es cierto? +Gracias. +No s qu demonios pinto aqu. +Nac en un gueto presbiteriano escocs de Canad y no acab la secundaria. No tengo telfono mvil y pinto gouache sobre papel, que es una tcnica que no ha cambiado en 600 aos. +Pero har unos tres aos hice una exposicin en Nueva York Y la titul "Disparates serios". +As que creo que soy el primero en eso; doy ejemplo. +Los llam disparates serios porque por el lado serio uso una tcnica minuciosamente realista de ilustracin editorial de cuando era nio. La copi y no la he olvidado, es el nico estilo que conozco. Y resulta bastante sobria y formal. +Al mismo tiempo, como podis ver, recurro al disparate. +Esto es un castillo escocs en el que la gente juega al golf bajo techo, y la dificultad consista en que la pelota rebotase en una armadura --que no aparece en la imagen. +Perteneca a una serie titulada "Tardes locas", que se convirti en un libro. +Este es un coche casero propulsado por cohetes. Es un Henry J de 1953 --soy un manitico de la autenticidad-- en un tranquilo vecindario de Toledo. +Esta es mi propuesta para el Museo del Cine de Los ngeles. +Seguro que se nota que Frank Gehry y yo somos del mismo pueblo. +Mi obra es tan personal y tan extraa que tengo que inventar mi propio vocabulario para definirla. +Y trabajo mucho en lo que yo llamo retrofuturismo, que consiste en mirar atrs para ver cmo en el pasado vean el futuro. +Y nunca acertaban, siempre fallaban de formas divertidsimas en su optimismo. +El apogeo de aquello fueron los aos 30, porque la Gran Depresin fue tan deprimente que todo vala para huir del presente hacia el futuro, +y la tecnologa nos iba a llevar consigo. +El retrofuturismo automotriz es una de mis especialidades. +Era ilustrador de automviles y escriba anuncios de coches, as que tengo mucho de lo que vengarme en ese tema. +Detroit siempre ha estado a medio camino del futuro --la mitad publicitaria-- +Este es el Bulgemobile del 58: tan nuevo que hace que el maana parezca ayer. +Eso es un grupo de gente que admira el coche. +Esto es de un catlogo completo --de unas dieciocho pginas-- que se public en National Lampoon, donde hice mis primeros pinitos. +La tecnoarqueologa consiste en excavar el pasado buscando milagros que no existieron. --normalmente por buenas razones. +El zepeln --esto es de un folleto sobre el zepeln basado, obviamente, en el Hindenburg. +Pero el zepeln fue la cosa mvil ms grande hecha por el hombre. +Y transportaba a 56 personas a la velocidad de un Buick a una altura a la que se poda oir ladrar a un perro y un viaje costaba el doble que una cabina de primera en el Normandie. +As que el Hindenburg no era... ya sabis, era inevitable que no durase. +Esto es una justa de autogiros en Malib en los aos 30. +El autogiro no esper a la invencin del helicptero, pero debera haberlo hecho --no fue un gran xito. +Es la nica innovacin espaola, tecnolgicamente, del siglo 20, por cierto. +Necesitbais saberlo. +El coche volador que nunca despeg --era un sueo de posguerra. +Mi viejo sola decirme que tendramos un coche volador. +Esto estaba dirigido al futuro de 1946, pensando en el da en que todas las familias estadounidenses los tuviesen. +"Ah est Mosc, Shirley. Esperemos que hablen esperanto". +La falsa nostalgia, por la que soy --no exactamente famoso, aunque trabajo mucho en ella-- +es la aoranza dolorosamente sentimental de tiempos que nunca fueron. +Alguien dijo una vez que la nostalgia es la nica emocin humana completamente intil --as que creo que es un caso para Serious Play. +Esto es polo de tanques en South Hamptons. Esto es +--es ms divertido rerse de los ricos descerebrados que de cualquiera. Me dedico mucho a eso. +Y la autenticidad es una parte importante en mis disparates serios. +Creo que les aporta muchsimo. +Esos de ah, por ejemplo, son tanques britnicos Mark IV de 1916. +Tenan dos metralletas y un can y motores Ricardo de 90 caballos. +Iban a ocho kilmetros por hora y dentro estaban a 45 grados en la ms absoluta oscuridad. +Y llevaban un canario en el interior para asegurarse de que los alemanes no usasen gas. +Una historia interesante, verdad? +Estas son las Motor Ritz Towers de Manhattan en los aos 30, donde uno poda subir conduciendo hasta su portal, si se atreva. +Todo el mundo que era alguien tena un apartamento all. +Me las arregl para colar un zepeln y un transatlntico por puro entusiasmo. +Y me encantan los puros --hay una valla publicitaria de puros ah abajo. +Y la falsa nostalgia funciona tambin con los temas serios, como la guerra. +Esto es de aquellos maravillosos das de la Batalla de Inglaterra en 1940, cuando un Messerschmitt ME109 irrumpi en la Cmara de los Comunes y dio unas cuantas vueltas, slo para cabrear a Churchill, que estaba por ah abajo. +Grandes recuerdos de tiempos pasados. +La exageracin hiperblica es un modo de llevar la exageracin al lmite ms absoluto y extremo, slo por diversin. Esta es una ilustracin --otro folleto-- del RMS Tyrannic, la cosa ms grande del mundo entero. +El texto, que no se ve porque se extiende a lo largo de varias pginas, dice que los pasajeros de tercera no llegan a sus literas antes del final del viaje, y que es tan fiable que no est asegurado. +Es evidente que est basado en el Titanic. +Pero no es una protesta por la arrogancia del hombre frente a los elementos +--es slo una broma tonta de mal gusto. +Desvergonzadamente obvio es algo que creo que os despertar. +No significa nada, slo... De Soto descubri el Misisipi y ese es un Desoto descubriendo el Misisipi. +Lo hice como contraportada rpida --tena unas cuatro horas para hacer una contraportada para un nmero de National Lampoon, y pint eso y pens: "Bueno, estoy avergonzado. Espero que nadie se de cuenta". +La gente escribi para que se reeditase aquello. +Absurdismo urbano --es lo que New Yorker realmente pide. +En esas portadas intento hacer que la vida en Nueva York parezca an ms extraa. +He hecho unas 40 y dira que 30 estn basadas en ese concepto, +Iba en coche por la Sptima Avenida una noche a las 3 de la madrugada, vi el vapor que sala de la calle y pens: "Qu lo origina?" Y eso... Quin sabe? +El Templo de Dendur, en el Metropolitan de Nueva York --es un lugar bastante lgubre. +Pens que podra animarlo un poco, divertirme un poco con ello. +Esta es una portada muy polticamente incorrecta. Fuera de Nueva York. +No pude evitarlo y recib un email muy desagradable de un grupo ecologista que deca: "Eso es demasiado serio y solemne para bromear. Debera darle vergenza, por favor, disclpese en nuestra web". +An no les he hecho caso --pero tal vez lo haga. +Esta es la parte de mi cerebro que se ocupa de las palabras. +Me encanta la palabra "eurotrash" . +Esa es toda la eurobasura pasando por la aduana en el JFK. +Este es el mensajero ciclista de Nueva York encontrndose con el Tour de Francia. +Si uno vive en Nueva York sabe como se desplazan los mensajeros. +Pero ste lleva un tubo para planos y esas cosas --todos los llevan-- y mucha gente crey que eso quera decir que era un terrorista que iba a disparar cohetes contra el Tour de Francia --supongo que es un indicio de los tiempos que corren. +Esta es la nica portada de moda que he hecho. +Es la ancianita que viva en un zapato, de ah esta imagen --se titulaba "El vecindario va a peor". +Esta es una pequea broma --E-ZR pass (pase rpido areo). Una letra es una idea. +Este es un gran chiste. +Es la audicin para King Kong. +La gente siempre me pregunta: "De dnde sacas las ideas? de dnde te vienen?". +La verdad es que durante una horrible resaca de vino tinto, en medio de la noche, me vino como una imagen difana --slo tuve que escribirla. +Estaba perfectamente claro. No tuve que pensar en ello. +Y, cuando se public, una mujer encantadora, una anciana llamada Mrs. Edgar Rosenberg --os suena el nombre?-- llam y me dijo que le haba encantado. Fue todo un detalle. +Antes se llamaba Fay Wray, as que aquello fue... No tuve la agilidad mental para decirle: "Qudese el original". +En ltimo lugar, esta es una portada en tres pginas, algo que nunca se haba hecho y que no creo que se vuelva a hacer --pginas sucesivas al principio de la revista. +Es el ascenso del hombre usando una escalera mecnica, en tres partes. +Por desgracia, no pueden verse juntas, pero si uno se fija lo suficiente puede ver como de algn modo empiezan a moverse. +Muy elegante. Nada como una cada como colofn de un chiste. Eso completa mi obra. +Slo quiero aadir un anuncio descarado: En otoo saldr a la venta un libro infantil mo titulado "Marvel Sandwiches" (Bocadillos de maravilla). un compendio de todo el juego serio que jams existi y estar disponible en libreras buenas, en libreras malas, en mesas en las calles, en octubre. +Muchsimas gracias. +Hace unos 17 aos me volv alrgico al aire de Delhi. +Los doctores me dijeron que mi capacidad pulmonar haba decrecido a un 70 por ciento y que esto me estaba matando. +Con la ayuda de Instituto de Tecnologa de India, del Instituto de Energa y Recursos y de los conocimientos de la NASA, descubrimos que existen tres plantas verdes bsicas, plantas comunes, con las que podemos generar todo el aire puro en interiores que necesitemos para mantenernos saludables. +Tambin descubrimos que se pueden reducir los requerimientos de aire puro dentro de un edificio, manteniendo los estndares de calidad de este aire de interior. +Estas tres plantas son: palmera de Areca, lengua de suegra y potos (o planta del dinero en ingls). +Los nombres botnicos estn frente a ustedes. +La palmera de Areca es una planta que elimina el CO2 convirtindolo en oxgeno. +Necesitamos cuatro plantas por persona, que lleguen a la altura de los hombros, y en cuanto a sus cuidados es necesario limpiar sus hojas todos los das en Delhi, aunque quizs slo una vez a la semana en ciudades con aire ms limpio. +Tuvimos que cultivarlas con abono estril, o con hidropona, y sacarlas al aire libre cada tres o cuatro meses. +La segunda planta es la lengua de suegra que tambin es una planta comn, y la denominamos planta de dormitorio porque convierte CO2 a oxgeno durante la noche. +Y necesitamos de seis a ocho plantas por persona, que lleguen a la altura de la cintura. +La tercera es potos (planta del dinero en ingls) y nuevamente sta es una planta muy comn; se cultiva preferentemente mediante hidropona. +Y esta planta en particular elimina el formaldehdo y otras sustancias qumicas voltiles. +Con estas tres plantas, puedes generar todo el aire puro que necesites. +De hecho, podran estar dentro de una botella con la tapa puesta y no se moriran y no necesitaran de aire fresco. +Hemos probado estas plantas en nuestro propio edificio en Delhi, el cual tiene 4.645 metros cuadrados y 20 aos de antigedad. +Y tiene cerca de 1.200 de estas plantas para 300 ocupantes. +Nuestros estudios han encontrado que existe una probabilidad de 42 por ciento de que el oxgeno de la sangre de uno aumente en un uno por ciento si se queda dentro de este edificio durante 10 horas. +El gobierno de la India ha descubierto o publicado un estudio que muestra que este es el edificio ms sano en Nueva Delhi. +Y el estudio muestra que, comparado con otros edificios, se redujo la incidencia de: irritaciones de ojos en un 52 por ciento, problemas respiratorios en un 34 por ciento, dolores de cabeza en un 24 por ciento, deterioro de pulmones en un 12 por ciento y asma en un 9 por ciento. +Y este estudio fue publicado el 8 de septiembre del 2008, y est disponible en el sitio web del gobierno Indio. +Nuestra experiencia apunta hacia un aumento increble en la productividad humana de ms de un 20 por ciento por el uso de estas plantas. +Y tambin a una reduccin en los requerimientos de energa de estos edificios en un extraordinario 15 por ciento, al necesitar menos aire puro. +Ahora estamos repitiendo esto en un edificio de 163 mil metros cuadrados que tendr unas 60 mil plantas de interior. +Por qu es importante esto? +Es tambin importante para el medio ambiente, porque se espera que los requerimientos de energa del mundo crezcan en un 30 por ciento en la prxima dcada. +Actualmente el 40 por ciento de la energa del mundo es consumida por los edificios y para los prximos 15 aos el 60 por ciento de la poblacin mundial estar viviendo dentro de edificios en ciudades con una poblacin de ms de un milln de personas. +Y existe una tendencia creciente a vivir y trabajar en lugares con aire acondicionado. +"S el cambio que quieres ver en el mundo" dijo Mahatma Gandhi. +Y gracias a ustedes por escucharme. +Si se parecen en algo a m esto es lo que hacen en un fin de semana soleado de verano en San Francisco: Construyen hidroalas experimentales impulsadas por cometas capaces de alcanzar ms de 30 nudos. +Y se dan cuenta de que existe un poder increble en el viento y de que puede hacer cosas asombrosas, +y un da una embarcacin similar a esta quizs romper el record mundial de velocidad. +Pero los cometas (o volantines) no son slo juguetes como ste. +Cometas. Voy a contarles una historia abreviada y hablarles sobre el magnfico futuro del juguete favorito de cada nio. +Los cometas tienen ms de mil aos y los chinos los utilizaban en aplicaciones militares e incluso para levantar a hombres. +As que ya en esa poca saban que podan levantar grandes pesos. +No estoy seguro de por qu del hoyo en este hombre en particular. +En 1827, alguien llamado George Pocock fue pionero en usar cochecitos arrastrados por cometas en carreras contra carruajes con caballos por los campos ingleses. +Y claro, en los principios de la aviacin, todos los grandes inventores de la poca, como Hargrave, Langley, incluso Alejandro Graham Bell, inventor del telfono, que estaba volando este cometa, lo hacan con la intencin de poder volar. +Y entonces llegaron estos dos y volaban cometas para desarrollar los sistemas de control que finalmente posibilitaran los vuelos a propulsin. +Estos son por supuesto Orville y Wilbur Wright y su avin el Wright Flyer. +Sus experimentos con cometas llevaron a esta ocasin trascendental en que encendieron e hicieron despegar ese primer vuelo humano de 12 segundos. +Y eso fue fantstico para el futuro de la aviacin comercial +pero desafortunadamente releg de nuevo a los cometas a su estatus de juguetes infantiles. +Y as sigui hasta los 70s cuando tuvimos la ltima crisis energtica. +Y un fabuloso hombre llamado Miles Loyd, que vive a las afueras de San Francisco, escribi un artculo brillante en el 'Journal of Energy', el cual fue ignorado completamente, sobre cmo bsicamente utilizar un avin atado a una cuerda para generar enormes cantidades de electricidad. +La observacin de verdad clave que hizo es que un ala de vuelo libre puede cubrir ms cielo y generar ms poder por unidad de tiempo que una turbina de alas fijas. +As que las turbinas crecieron y actualmente alcanzan los 90 metros a la altura del eje, pero no pueden crecer mucho ms. Y a mayor altitud es donde hay ms viento y ms energa, hasta el doble de la energa. +As que llegamos al da de hoy. Seguimos teniendo una crisis energtica y ahora tambin tenemos una crisis climtica. Los humanos generan alrededor de 12 billones de watts o 12 terawatts consumiendo combustibles fsiles. +Y Al Gore ha hablado de por qu debemos alcanzar algunos de estos objetivos y en realidad lo que significa es que, para los prximos 30 a 40 aos, debemos conseguir 10 billones de watts ms de energa limpia y nueva. +El viento es el 2 recurso natural renovable ms grande despus de la luz solar: 3.600 terawatts, ms que 200 veces lo que se necesita para satisfacer a la humanidad. +La mayora est a grandes alturas, sobre los 100 metros, donde an no tenemos la tecnologa para llegar. +Este es el amanecer de la nueva era de cometas. +Este es nuestro sitio de pruebas en Maui, volando a travs del cielo. +Y ahora les mostrar la primera generacin automtica de energa usando el juguete favorito de todo nio. +Como pueden imaginarse, necesitas ser un robot para volar esto por miles de horas. +Te da un poco de nuseas. +Y aqu generamos como 10 kilowatts, ms o menos suficiente energa para cinco hogares norteamericanos, con un cometa no mucho ms grande que este piano. +Y lo realmente importante aqu es que estamos desarrollando los sistemas de control, como hicieron los hermanos Wright, que permitirn mantener vuelos sostenidos de larga duracin. +Y hacerlo en un lugar como este tampoco nos molesta. +Este es el equivalente para un volador de cometas de orinar en la nieve. Es trazar tu nombre en el cielo. +Y aqu es a donde nos dirigimos. +As que hemos pasado el vuelo de 12 segundos +y trabajamos para generar mquinas a escala de megawatts que vuelen a 600 metros y generen montones de electricidad limpia. +Si preguntan: Qu tan grandes son estas mquinas? +Con este avin de papel, sera tal vez up! +Eso sera suficiente para cargar tu celular. +Un Cessna significara 230 kilowatts. +Si me prestaran un Gulfstream, le arrancara las alas para generarles un megawatt. +Si me dan un 747 les consigo 6 megawatts, lo que es ms que la turbina de viento ms grande de hoy. +Y un Spruce Goose sera un ala de 15 megawatts. +Si piensan que esto es audaz, estoy de acuerdo. +Pero audacia es lo que ha ocurrido muchas veces antes en la historia. +Esta es una fbrica de refrigeradores produciendo aviones durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial. +Antes de la Segunda Guerra Mundial hacan mil aviones al ao, +para 1945 fabricaban cien mil aviones. +Con esta fbrica y cien mil aviones al ao podramos obtener toda la energa para Estados Unidos en alrededor de 10 aos. +As que esta es de verdad una historia sobre los audaces planes de gente joven con estos sueos. Hay muchos de nosotros +y tengo suerte de trabajar con 30 de ellos. +Y creo que debemos apoyar todos los sueos de los chicos que estn haciendo estas cosas locas. +Gracias. +He estado trabajando en el tema de la pobreza por ms de 20 aos, y es irnico que el problema y la duda que ms me asalta es cmo definir realmente la pobreza. Qu significa? +Muchas veces, la vemos en trminos monetarios -- la gente que gana menos de uno, dos o tres dlares al da. +Y no obstante, la complejidad de la pobreza, realmente tiene que ver con los ingresos slo como una variable. +Porque realmente, es un problema de eleccin, y de falta de libertad. +Y tuve una experiencia que en verdad me hizo profundizar y dilucidar el entendimiento que tengo. +Ocurri en Kenia, y la quiero compartir con ustedes. +Estaba con mi amiga Susan Meiselas, la fotgrafa, en los barrios marginales del Valle Mathare. +Ahora, Mathare Valley es uno de los barrios marginales ms antiguos de frica. +Est a unas tres millas de Nairobi, y tiene una milla de largo por unas dos dcimas de milla de ancho, donde ms de medio milln de personas viven hacinadas en estas pequeas casuchas de lata, generacin tras generacin, arrendndolas, muchas veces 8 10 personas por habitacin, +Y es conocido por prostitucin, violencia, drogas. Un lugar difcil para crecer. +Y mientras caminbamos por los callejones angostos, era literalmente imposible no pisar sobre las aguas negras sin tratar y la basura a todo lo largo de estas casitas. +Pero al mismo tiempo era tambin imposible no notar la vitalidad humana, las aspiraciones y ambiciones de la gente que vive ah. Mujeres baando a sus bebs, lavando sus ropas, sacndolas a secar. +Conoc a esta mujer, Mama Rose, quien ha estado arrendando ese pequeo rancho de hojas de zinc durante 32 aos, donde vive con sus siete hijos. +Cuatro duermen en una de las dos camas, y tres duermen en el suelo de barro y linleo. +Y ella los mantiene a todos en la escuela vendiendo agua desde ese quiosco, y vendiendo jabn y pan desde la tiendita adentro. +Era el da siguiente a la toma de posesin, y me recordaron que Mathare permanece conectada al resto del mundo. +Vea a los nios en las esquinas, y decan "Obama, es nuestro hermano!" +Y yo les deca "Bueno, Obama es mi hermano, entonces tu tambin eres mi hermano." +Me vean confundidos, y luego decan algo como "choca esos cinco!" +Y fue ah donde conoc a Jane. +Me sorprendi la amabilidad y gentileza de su rostro, y le ped que me contara su historia. +Comenz contndome su sueo. Me dijo "Tena dos. +Mi primer sueo era ser doctora, y el segundo era casarme con un buen hombre que permaneciera conmigo y con mi familia. Dado que mi madre fue madre soltera, y no poda pagar los costos escolares. +tuve que renunciar al primer sueo, y centrarme en el segundo." +Se cas a los 18, y tuvo un beb enseguida. +Y cuando cumpli 20, estaba embarazada del segundo, su madre muri y su marido la dej -- se cas con otra mujer. +As que estaba de nuevo en Mathare, sin ingresos, ni habilidades, ni dinero. +y entonces, en ltima instancia se dedic a la prostitucin. +No estaba organizado en la forma como muchas veces pensamos. +Ella iba a la ciudad en las noches con unas 20 muchachas, buscaba trabajo, y a veces regresaba con unos pocos chelines, o a veces sin nada. +Me dijo, "Sabes, lo peor no es la pobreza, sino la humillacin y la vergenza de todo ello". +En 2001, su vida cambi. +Tena una amiga que haba escuchado sobre esta organizacin, Jamii Bora, que prestaba dinero a las personas sin importar qu tan pobres fueran, siempre que aportaran una cantidad acorde a su capacidad, en ahorros. +Y as tard un ao en ahorrar 50 dlares, y comenz a pedir prestado, y con el tiempo logr comprar una mquina de coser. +Empez confeccionando. +y eso se convirti en lo que hace ahora, es decir, ir a mercados de ropa usada, y por unos 3 dlares y 25 centavos, compra un viejo vestido de gala. +Algunos de ellos podran haber sido donados por ustedes. +Y los reacondiciona con vuelos y cintas, y crea estas confecciones con vuelos, que vende a las mujeres para fiestas de 16 aos de las nias, o Primeras Comuniones -- esas fechas memorables en la vida que la gente desea celebrar en todo el espectro econmico. +Y le resulta un muy buen negocio. De hecho, la vi pregonando por las calles, y cuando me d cuenta, estaba rodeada de mujeres, comprndole los vestidos. +Y reflexion, mientras la vea vender los vestidos, y artculos de fantasa que elabora, que ahora Jane gana ms de 4 dlares por da. +Y acorde a muchas definiciones, ya no es pobre. +Pero sigue viviendo en Marathe Valley. +Y no se puede mudar. +Vive con toda esa inseguridad, y de hecho, en enero, durante las revueltas tnicas, la corrieron de su hogar y tuvo que encontrar un nuevo sitio donde vivir. +Jamii Bora entiende eso. Y entiende que cuando hablamos de pobreza, tenemos que ver a la gente de todo el espectro econmico. +As que con capital de medio y largo plazo de Acumen y otras organizaciones, prstamos e inversiones a largo plazo, construyeron urbanizaciones de bajo costo, como a una hora de Nairobi central. +Y lo disearon desde la perspectiva de clientes como Jane, insistiendo en la responsabilidad y obligaciones. +As que Ella tiene que dar el 10% del crdito hipotecario -- del valor total, unos 400 dlares en ahorros. +Y entonces ellos igualan su crdito con lo que pagaba por su pequeo rancho. +Y en las prximas semanas, ella estar entre las primeras 200 familias que se mudan a esta urbanizacin. +Cuando le pregunt si tena algn temor, o si extraara algo de Mathare, ella me dijo, "A qu habra de temerle que no haya afrontado ya? +Soy VIH positivo. Lo he enfrentado todo". +Y dijo, "Qu extraara? +Crees que extraar la violencia o las drogas?, la falta de privacidad? +Crees que extraar no saber si mis hijos van a volver a casa al final del da?". Me dijo "Si me dieras 10 minutos ya tendra mis maletas empacadas". +Le dije, "Y qu hay de tus sueos?" +y ella dijo, "Bueno, tu sabes, mis sueos no se ven como los pensaba cuando era una pequea nia. +Pero si pienso en ello, pensaba que quera un esposo, pero lo que en realidad quera era una familia que fuera cariosa. Y yo amo intensamente a mis hijos, y ellos me aman". +Me dijo "Pens que quera ser doctora, pero lo que en realidad quera era ser alguien que sirviera, sanara y curara. +Y me siento tan bendecida por todo lo que tengo, que dos das a la semana voy a aconsejar a pacientes con el VIH. +Y les digo 'Mrame. Tu no ests muerta. +Sigues viva. Si sigues viva tienes que servir'". Y me dijo "No soy una doctora que receta pastillas. +Pero tal vez, doy algo mejor porque les doy esperanza". +Y en el medio de esta crisis econmica, donde muchos de nosotros estamos propensos a llegar con temor, creo que estamos bien equipados para seguir el ejemplo de Jane y extender la mano, reconociendo que ser pobre no significa ser cualquier persona. +Porque cuando los sistemas se daan, como los que vemos alrededor del mundo, es una oportunidad para inventar e innovar. +Es una oportunidad para construir realmente un mundo donde podamos extender servicios y productos a todos los seres humanos, para que ellos puedan tomar decisiones y hacer elecciones por s mismos. +Creo realmente que ah es donde comienza la dignidad. +Se lo debemos a todas las Jane del mundo. +E igual de importante, nos lo debemos a nosotros mismos. +Gracias. +Soy el crtico semanal de tecnologa para el New York Times. +Escribo sobre dispositivos y otras cosas. +Y lo que los buenos padres deberan estar haciendo en esta poca del ao es acurrucarse junto a sus hijos y decorar el rbol de navidad. +Lo que yo generalmente he tenido que hacer este ao es ir a la TV por cable y responder la misma pregunta: "Cules son las tendencias tecnolgicas para el prximo ao?" +Y yo pienso, "No pasamos por esto mismo el ao pasado? +Pero voy a escoger la tendencia que ms me interesa y esa es la fusin total entre el telfono celular e internet. +Saben, encontr ese volcn en las imgenes de Google sin darme cuenta cuanto lo hace parecer a la portada de Diantica. +De todos modos, todo esto empez unos aos atrs cuando se empez a transportar la voz sobre internet en vez de sobre una lnea telefnica y desde entonces ha cambiado muchsimo. +Eso, por si mismo, fue interesante. Eso es empresas como Vonage. +Bsicamente toman un telfono normal y lo conectan a una pequea caja que les entregan y conectan la caja a su cable mdem. +Y funciona tal como un telfono normal: +levantan el telfono y escuchan el tono de llamado pero es slo el sonido. Es un archivo WAV de un tono de marcado, que nicamente est para asegurarles que el mundo no se ha acabado. +Podra ser cualquier cosa. Podra ser salsa o una rutina cmica; no importa. +La pequea caja tiene su nmero de telfono. +Entonces eso est muy bueno: se lo pueden llevar a Londres o a Siberia y su vecino de al lado les puede llamar al telfono de su casa y sonar porque tiene todo en la caja. +Adentro le han metido todas las funciones conocidas ya que agregar otra funcionalidad slo involucra software. +Como resultado de Voz sobre IP -odio esa frase- Voz sobre Internet... el servicio de lneas fijas se ha reducido un 30% en los ltimos tres aos. +Es decir, ningn universitario que se respete an tiene servicio de lnea fija. +Esto es lo que los universitarios probablemente tienen. Es el servicio ms popular de VOIP en el mundo: es Skype. +Es un programa gratuito que se instala en un Mac o PC y puede llamar gratis a cualquier parte del mundo. Lo malo es que tienen que ponerse audfonos y verse como un tonto. +No es su telfono; es su computadora. +Pero an as, si eres universitario y no tienes dinero, cranme, esto es mejor que tratar de usar el celular. +Es muy tierno ver a la gente de edad mediana, como yo, probar Skype por primera vez. Lo que normalmente sucede cuando su hijo estudia un semestre en el extranjero. +No quieren pagar tarifas internacionales as que estn como: "Timmy! Ese eres tu?" +Es muy lindo. +Pero yo -al menos as fue cuando lo hice- creo que donde VOIP se pondr de veras interesante es cuando lo empiecen a poner en celulares. +Imagnense que tienen un celular normal y que cuando estn en un lugar con recepcin inalmbrica puedan hacer llamadas gratis a cualquier parte del mundo sin pagar un solo centavo a la compaa telefnica. +Seria muy, muy interesante y por cierto; aunque la tecnologa para esto ha estado disponible por cinco aos, increblemente el nmero de celulares regulares ofrecidos por las telefnicas de EE.UU. con VOIP gratis es cero! +No me puedo imaginar por qu! +En realidad, necesito actualizar eso. Hay uno ahora. +Y es tan interesante que pens contarles acerca de l: +Viene de T-Mobile. +T-Mobile no me paga nada. +No le hago propaganda a T-Mobile. +El New York Times tiene polticas muy estrictas con respecto a eso. +Desde que el idiota de Jayson Blair nos lo arruin a todos nosotros. +Bsicamente, la razn por la que no han escuchado de este programa es porque fue presentado el da 29 de junio del ao pasado. +Alguien recuerda que otra cosa pas el 29 de junio del ao pasado? +Fue el iPhone. El iPhone sali ese da. +Quiero decir; Se pueden imaginar a la encargada de relaciones pblicas de T-Mobile? +"Hola, tenemos un anuncio que... GUAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA!!!" +Pero de hecho esto es muy, muy interesante. Pueden elegir un telfono y no estoy hablando de telfonos inteligentes... telfonos regulares, incluyendo un Blackberry, que tengan Wi-Fi. +Se trata de que cuando estn en un lugar con recepcin inalmbrica todas sus llamadas son gratuitas. +Y cuando estn fuera de ese lugar tienen acceso a la red celular normal. +Estn pensando: "Bueno, qu tan a menudo estoy en uno de estos lugares? +Y la respuesta es, "Siempre!" +Porque les entregan un ruteador inalmbrico que funciona con el telfono para su casa. +Lo cual es muy ingenioso porque todos sabemos cuan pattica es T-Mobile como compaa celular. +Su cobertura es como del tamao de la ua de mi dedo. +Pero vale cien millones de dlares poner una de esas torres, cierto? +No tienen esa cantidad de dinero. En vez de eso nos dan a cada uno una caja de $7,95. Son como un programa secreto de instalacin de torres. +Estamos ponindolas en nuestras casas para ellos! +Como sea, en Europa tienen telfono con Wi-Fi. +Pero la cosa que T-Mobile hizo y que nadie haba hecho antes es que cuando estn en una llamada y se mueven de la Wi-Fi al celular la llamada se transfiere sin notarlo en medio de una palabra a la red celular. Les mostrar la tecnologa avanzada que usamos en el New York Times para probar estos equipos. +Este soy yo con una videocmara en el telfono movindome as. +Cuando salgo de la casa con la recepcin inalmbrica a la red celular durante una llamada con mi esposa; miren arriba a la izquierda. Esa es la seal Wi-Fi. +Jennifer Pogue: Hola? +David Pogue: Hola nena, soy yo. +JP: Oh, hola cielo, cmo ests? +DP: Estas en Wi-Fi. Cmo se escucha? +JP: Oh, se escucha bastante bien. +DP: Ahora estoy saliendo de la casa. Voy a ir de paseo, te importa? +JP: No, para nada. Estoy pasndolo estupendo con los nios. +DP: Que estn haciendo? +Ah lo tienen! +Acaba de cambiarse a la torre celular durante la llamada. +No s por qu mi esposa dice que nunca la escucho. No lo entiendo. +El resultado es que las barreras, dado lo del internet con el celular, estn desapareciendo. +Lo entretenido de los telfonos T-Mobile es que aunque la tecnologa para cambiar de red est muy avanzada, la tecnologa para facturar no le ha seguido el paso. +Lo que quiero decir es que pueden empezar una llamada en su casa, en un lugar con Wi-Fi, pueden subirse a su automvil y hablar hasta que se acabe la batera -lo que termina siendo como 10 minutos- y la llamada continuar siendo gratuita. +Porque ellos no, no han... bueno, no, esperen! No tan rpido +ya que tambin funciona en sentido contrario. +Si empiezan una llamada en una red celular y llegan a casa, se les sigue facturando. +Por lo que la mayora de la gente con este servicio adquiere el hbito de decir: "Oye, acabo de llegar a la casa. Te puedo llamar devuelta? +Ahora entendieron por qu. +Tambin es cierto que si usan uno de estos telfonos en el extranjero este no sabr de donde es la seal de internet. +En internet nadie sabe si eres un perro. Verdad? Nadie sabe que ests en Pakistn. +Puedes hacer infinitas llamadas gratuitas a tu casa en EE.UU. con estos telfonos. Muy, muy interesante. +Este es otro de mis favoritos. +Alguien tiene aqu un celular que funcione? Que est prendido, con cobertura y que me pueda llamar ahora sin mucho problema? +OK. Me puedes llamar ahora mismo? Despus no me llamen todos a las 3 a.m. pidindome que les arregle la impresora. +Tengo dos celulares as que si esto funciona va a ser muy extrao. +Debera saber que no debo hacer demostraciones tecnolgicas en frente del pblico. Es totalmente absurdo. +Este est sonando... oh, tengo el timbre apagado, Pffft! Bien. +Bueno, este tambin suena. As que ambos estn sonando al mismo tiempo. +Disclpenme un segundo. +Hola? +Oh, de dnde llama? +No, no, slo bromeo. Ah esta l. Muchas gracias por ayudarme. +Ni siquiera saba que eras t. Estaba mirando a este tipo. +Oh bien! S. S, pueden parar de llamarme ahora! +Muy bien! Hemos probado que funciona. +Est bien. Apagado. Todos quieren participar en esto. +Esto es Grand Central funcionando; es un... Oh, por Dios! +Ahora tengo sus nmeros! +Me las pagarn. +Grand Central es esta idea verdaderamente brillante donde te entregan un nuevo nmero de telfono y de ah en adelante ese nmero llama a todos tus telfonos al mismo tiempo. +El de la casa, trabajo, celular, el del yate. Este es el grupo EG. +Lo hermoso de esto es que nunca pierden una llamada. +S que muchos de ustedes piensan algo como: "Ooh, no quiero que me encuentren a toda hora." +Pero la belleza es que todo viaja a travs de internet, por lo cual obtienen todas estas cualidades buensimas... por ejemplo podran decir quiero que estas personas me pueden llamar solo en este horario +y quiero que estas personas escuchen este saludo: "Hola jefe, ando afuera ganando dinero para ambos. Djeme un mensaje" +y cuando llama la esposa: "Hola amor, djame un mensaje". +Muy personalizable. +Google lo compr y ellos han estado trabajando en l por un ao. +Se supone que lo mostrarn al pblico muy pronto. +Por cierto, esto es algo que realmente me irrita. +No s si se han dado cuenta. Cuando llaman al 411 en su celular les cobran dos dlares. +Lo saban? Es una estafa. +De hecho aqu mismo tengo una foto del empleado de Verizon. +Les voy a contar como evitarlo. +Lo que voy a usar es Google Cellular. +Es totalmente gratuito; ni siquiera tiene anuncios. +Si saben cmo enviar un mensaje de texto +pueden obtener la misma informacin gratis. Estoy a punto de cambiar sus vidas. +Aqu estoy hacindolo yo mismo. Envan un mensaje de texto con la palabra "Google" que resulta ser 46645. +Olvdense de la ultima "e". +Bueno, digamos que necesitan una farmacia cerca de Chicago. +Digitan "farmacia Chicago" o el cdigo postal. +Presionan enviar y en cinco segundos les responden con las dos farmacias mas cercanas junto con su nombre, direccin y nmero de telfono. +Aqu viene y ya est escrito +as que, por ejemplo, si estn manejando no tienen que hacer ninguna de estas cosas, "Bravo, bravo". +Tambin funciona para obtener el clima. +Pueden decir "Weather" y la ciudad a la que van a viajar +y en cinco segundos les responden con el pronstico completo del tiempo para esa ciudad. +En un momento les dir por qu estuve en Miln. +Aqu lo tienen. Y eso es slo el principio. +Estas son todas las distintas cosas que pueden textear a Google y que ellos les... S! Estn tratando de anotar todo esto. +Que tierno. S, tengo una direccin de correo electrnico. Simplemente pueden preguntrmelo. +Es absolutamente fenomenal. El nico inconveniente es que requiere que sepan mandar texto, mandar un mensaje de texto. Nadie sobre 40 sabe cmo hacerlo. +As que les voy a ensear algo an mejor. +Se llama Google Info. +Acaban de lanzar una versin activada por voz que hace lo mismo. +Es reconocimiento de voz como nunca antes lo han visto. +Digamos que estoy en Monterey y quiero; qu? +Quiero encontrar, qu? Rosquillas, OK. +Google: Diga el giro, la ciudad y estado. +DP: Rosquillas, Monterey, California. +Me dieron la lnea en chino. +Google: Rosquillas, Monterey, California. +Ocho mejores resultados: Nmero uno, Negocio de rosquillas en la calle El Dorado. +Para seleccionar nmero uno, puede presionar 1 o decir "nmero uno". +Nmero dos: Negocio de rosquillas en comisariado del ejrcito. +Nmero dos. Nmero dos. Dos. +Por qu le escucho al pblico? +Bueno; Oh! Aqu vamos! +Google: ...comisariado est en McClellan Avenue, Monterey. +Lo conectar, o diga "detalles" o "regresar." +DP: Me est conectando con ellos! +Ni siquiera me dice el nmero de telfono. Me acaba de conectar directamente. Es como tener un valet personal. +Google: Espere. +DP: Hola, podra darme 400 con relleno? +No no no no... slo bromeaba, no no no. +De todos modos, ni siquiera se enteran del nmero. +Es increble. +Y tambin tiene una increble, increble exactitud. +Esto es an ms increble. Pngalo en su marcado veloz. +En este ustedes pueden hacer la pregunta que quieran por voz. +Quin gan la serie mundial de 1958? +Cul es la receta para un cctel especfico? +Es absolutamente increble y ellos responden con la respuesta en texto. +Prob esto esta maana slo para asegurarme que todava funciona. +Qu actores han interpretado el papel de James Bond? +Me contestaron con el siguiente texto: Sean Connery, George Lazenby, Roger Moore, Timothy Dalton, Pierce Brosnan, Daniel Craig. +Correcto! Y entonces, pretend que era una de esas chicas vacas +y dije: "Cul es la palabra que significa, sabes, cmo, cuando el sol, la luna y la tierra estn, como, alineados?" +Solo para ver como funcionaba el reconocimiento. +Y me escribieron: "Se llama conjuncin planetaria (o 'syzgy' en ingls)". +Lo que sabia, porque fue la palabra con la que gan la competencia de deletrear en Ohio en 1976. +Saben, hay mucha gente preguntndose: "Cmo diablos van a ganar dinero con esto? Y la respuesta es: miren la ltima lnea. +Le ponen este anuncio pequeito, de como 10 caracteres de largo. +Y mucha gente tambin quiere saber: "Cmo funciona? +Cmo puede ser tan bueno? Es como si estuviera un ser humano del otro lado de la lnea". +Y resulta que hay uno! +Tienen 10 mil personas a las que les pagan 20 centavos por respuesta. +Como podrn imaginar, son universitarios y gente mayor. +As es como se lo pueden permitir. +Pero hay un ser humano en la lnea. Y me ha sacado de muchas situaciones difciles; tal como: "Cul es el ltimo vuelo que sale de Chicago?" +Saben. Es absolutamente increble. +Otra que cosa que realmente me molesta de los celulares de hoy... esta es probablemente la piedra ms grande en el zapato de la tecnologa. +Cuando llamo para dejar un mensaje, recibo 15 segundos de instrucciones de una maestra de tercer grado que tom Ambien! +"Para contactar por beeper a esta persona..." Beeper? Qu es esto, 1975? +Nadie tiene beepers hoy en da. +"Puede empezar a hablar cuando escuche la seal. +Cuando termine de grabar puede colgar." No?! +Y despus se pone peor: cuando llamo para escuchar mis mensajes; primero que nada: "Usted tiene 87 mensajes. +Para escuchar sus mensajes..." Para qu otra cosa llamara? +Por supuesto que quiero escuchar los mensajes! +Oh! Todos ustedes tambin tienen celular. +El ao pasado fui a Miln, Italia y me toc hablar ante un pblico de ejecutivos de celulares de 200 pases de todo el mundo +y dije en broma; slo como broma les dije: "Hice los clculos. Verizon tiene 70 millones de clientes. +Si revisan su correo de voz dos veces al da son como 100 millones de dlares al ao. +Les apuesto que ustedes estn haciendo esto solo aumentar nuestro consumo, no es cierto?" +Ni ruido. Estaban as... Dnde quedo la indignacin gente? Qujense! +Lo siento, no estoy amargado. +As que ahora les contar como no caer en eso. +Existen estos servicios que transcriben su correo de voz a texto +y lo envan a su correo electrnico o como mensaje de texto a su telfono. +Les cambia la vida. +Y por cierto, no siempre le aciertan a las palabras porque es por telfono y esas cosas. +As que adjuntan el archivo de audio en el correo electrnico para que lo puedan escuchar si quieren. +Estos servicios se llaman as como Spinvox, Phonetag -el que yo uso- o Callwave. Mucha gente dice, "Cmo lo estn haciendo? +Realmente no quiero que personas escuchen mis llamadas". +Los ejecutivos de estas empresas me dijeron: "Bueno, usamos una solucin propietaria empresa-a-empresa, lo mejor...", ustedes saben. +Creo que bsicamente hay gente en India con audfonos, escuchando. +La razn por lo que creo esto es que el primer da que prob estos servicios recib dos correos de voz. Uno de un tipo llamado Michael Stevenson, el cual no debera ser difcil de transcribir, que estaba mal escrito. +El otro fue de mi productor de video en el Times cuyo nombre es Vijaiy Singh con la 'h' muda. Le acertaron a ese. +Jzguenlo ustedes mismos. +Pero en fin, este servicio, Callwave, promete que todo es software; que nadie est escuchando los mensajes. +Y tambin prometen que slo van a transcribir lo esencial de sus mensajes. +Pens que probara que tal funciona. +Ah estoy yo probndolo. +: Hola, este es Michael. +Espero que ests bien. Yo lo estoy. Todo est bien. +Hola, estaba caminando por la calle y el cielo era azul. +Y tu hija se quebr la pierna en su prctica de ftbol. +Voy a comerme un sndwich de almuerzo. +Ella est en la habitacin... la habitacin de emergencia 53W. +OK, te hablo despus... adis. +Amo mi trabajo. +Un par de minutos despus recib este correo. +Es una buena transcripcin. Pero un par de minutos despus recib la versin en mensaje de texto. Ahora recuerden que un mensaje de texto solo puede tener 160 caracteres de largo. +Tena que ser la esencia de la esencia. Correcto? +No les estoy mintiendo. El mensaje deca: "Estaba caminando por la calle" y "cielo era azul" y "emergencia!" +Qu diabl...? +Supongo que esa fue la esencia. +Finalmente, slo debo contarles de este. +Es mi favorito de todos los tiempos. Se llama Popularitydialer.com. +Bsicamente, van a ir a una cita romntica dudosa, o una reunin que puede estar mala. +Entonces van e ingresan su nmero de telfono y el minuto exacto en que quieren que los llamen. En ese momento sonar su telfono +y ustedes harn como: "Lo siento, tengo que contestar esta." +Lo verdaderamente hermoso es que, cuando alguien est sentado a su lado, como que algunas veces escuchan un poquito a la persona que llama. +Entonces el servicio les da una opcin de lo que quieren escuchar del otro lado. +Esta es la amiga. +Telfono: Hola, qu est pasando? +DP: En este momento estoy dando una charla. +Telfono: Que bueno eso. +DP: Qu estas haciendo? +Telfono: Quera saber cules son tus planes. +DP: De verdad no puedo hablar en este momento. +Este es el -me encanta este- el llamado del jefe. +Telfono: Hola, este es el Sr. Johnson llamando de la oficina. +DP: Oh, hola jefe. +Telfono: Terminaste esa cosa que ped hace un mes? La capacitacin de la copiadora? +DP: Oh, lo siento, se me olvid. +Telfono: S, bueno, entonces cuando fue la ultima vez que usaste la copiadora? +DP: Fue como hace tres semanas. +Telfono: Bueno, no s si escuchaste. Puede que Lenny te haya dicho, pero... Creo que el cambio ms importante de la unin de internet con el telfono fue el iPhone. +No fue mi mejor momento periodstico en el New York Times. +Fue en el otoo del 2006. Expliqu por qu Apple nunca hara un telfono celular. +Qued como un idiota. Sin embargo, mi lgica era buena. Porque no s si se han dado cuenta pero hasta que aparecio el iPhone, las telefnicas (Verizon, AT&T y Cingular) tenan el poder de veto sobre cada aspecto de cada diseo de cada telfono. +Conozco la gente que trabaj en el Treo. +Fueron donde estas telefnicas y les dijeron: "Miren estas buensimas caractersticas." Y Verizon dijo: "Hmmm, no. +No lo creo." +No estaban abiertos a la innovacin. +Lo que no anticip fue que Steve Jobs fue y les dijo, "Te dir que: Te dar la exclusividad por 5 aos si me dejas disear este telfono en paz y ni siquiera lo vers hasta que est terminado." +De hecho, an as fue rechazado por Verizon y otros +hasta que Cingular finalmente dijo que s. +Voy a hablar del efecto del iPhone. +Por favor no me arrinconen en la fiesta de esta noche y digan, "Qu eres? Un fantico de Apple?" +Saben que no lo soy. +Pueden ver lo que dije de l. Es una obra maestra con defectos. +Tiene cosas buenas y malas. Reconozcmoslo todos aqu mismo. +Pero s cambi algunas cosas. La primera cosa que cambi fue que todas las telefnicas vieron que vendieron 10 millones de estas cosas en un ao. +Y dijeron, "Oh Dios Mo, quizs hemos estado hacindolo mal. +Tal vez deberamos dejar a los diseadores de telfono disear los telfonos." +Otra cosa fue que le permiti a 10 millones de personas, por primera vez, la experiencia de estar conectados todo el tiempo. +Sin usar esas tarjetas celulares de 60 dlares al mes para sus porttiles. +No entiendo por qu an no estamos all. +Cuando sea viejo les voy a decir a mis nietos: "Cuando tena su edad, si quera leer mi correo sola manejar por la ciudad buscando un caf con internet. De vers que s!" +"Tenamos estaciones inalmbricas que podan transmitir, s, como a 45 metros alrededor." +Es absurdo. Tenemos enchufes elctricos en cada habitacin de cada edificio. Tenemos agua potable. +Cul es el problema? +En fin; este le muestra a la gente como puede ser. +Tienen que ir a YouTube y buscar "iPhone Shuffle." +Este tipo hizo una parodia de uno que es de una pulgada cuadrada, como el iPod Shuffle verdadero. +Dice, "Slo tiene un botn. +Lo presionas y marca un numero aleatorio." +"Quin diablos es?" +Pero la otra cosa que hizo fue generar esta idea de una tienda de aplicaciones +en que se descarga directamente al telfono. +Y pueden usar el sensor de inclinacin para manejar el automvil en este juego. +Estos programas pueden usar todos los componentes del iPhone; la pantalla de tacto. +Este es el de la Pizarra Mgica (o Etch-A-Sketch): el tema de EG 2008. +Saben como borrarlo? +Por supuesto. Lo sacuden. +Por supuesto. Lo sacuden para borrar, as. +Tienen 10 mil de estos programas. +Este es el programa de traduccin. Tienen todos los idiomas del mundo. +Le ingresan lo que quieren y entrega la traduccin. +Es increble. Este es Midomi. +Si tienen una cancin dando vuelta por la cabeza... se la cantan dentro del micrfono: du du du du du, da da da da da da da... +Y le pulsan "Listo" y buscar que cancin es y la tocar. +Lo s. Es una locura, verdad? +Este es Pandora. Radio gratuita por internet. No es slo eso; le ingresan el nombre de una banda o de una cancin +y tocar la cancin o la banda inmediatamente. +Pueden marcar la cancin como "Bien" o "Mal" +para indicar si les gust o no la cancin. +Si les gust, les toca otra cancin de una banda distinta pero con la misma instrumentacin, voces, tema y tiempo. +Si les gusta esa la aprueban o si no la rechazan. Mientras pasa el tiempo adecua las canciones tal que ya no toca canciones malas. +Eventualmente, slo toca las canciones que les gustan. +Este es Urbanspoon. Llegan a una ciudad. Sabe donde estn por el GPS. +Quieren encontrar un lugar donde comer. Lo sacuden. +Sugiere un restaurante. +Les da el precio, la ubicacin y su evaluacin. +: No voy a ir hasta Flushing. +Como sea; slo cosas increbles, increbles. +Por supuesto, no slo es acerca del iPhone. +El iPhone rompi el dique, la pared. +Pero ahora todos los dems le siguen. Google ha creado su propio sistema operativo Android que estar pronto en aparatos; en telfonos de 34 empresas. +Pantalla tctil; muy, muy bien. +Y con su propia tienda de aplicaciones, donde pueden bajar programas. +Esto es increble. Como resultado de esto Verizon -la telefnica ms calcificada, corporativa y conservadora de todas- dijo: "Pueden usar cualquier telfono que quieran en nuestra red." +Me encant el encabezado de Wired: "Los Cerdos Vuelan, El Infierno se Congela y Verizon Abre su Red; De verdad. En Serio". +As que todo esta cambiando. Hemos ingresado en un nuevo mundo de innovacin donde el celular se convierte en el laptop con las caractersticas que ustedes deseen. +Cada celular es nico. Hay software que le pueden agregar. +Puedo tocar una cancin de un minuto? Gracias. +Para cerrar la charla; este el nuevo Apple Power Musica Stand. +Pesa slo kilo y medio o 6 si instalan Microsoft Office. +Lo siento, eso fue cruel. +Esta es una cancin que hice para el sitio web del New York Times como video de msica. +Damas y caballeros; por siete dichosas horas fue el video numero uno en YouTube. + Y ahora tengo muy cerca el fin. +Estoy cansadsimo de este viejo celular. +El sonido es malo, la seal es dbil, el software es terrible. +Un telfono fabricado en el infierno. +O que hay algo nuevo: un milln de veces ms impresionante, ms tremendo que mi telfono. +Yo tambin me unir al culto. +Quiero un iPhone. +Preocupaciones; tengo unas pocas. Tiene algunos defectos; hay que reconocerlo. +Sin teclas, sin tarjeta de memoria, la pila est sellada; no se puede reemplazar. +Pero Dios, esta cosa es un encanto. +Un telfono Wi-Fi, multi-tctil y como iPod. +Fui tuyo desde el "Hola." +Quiero un iPhone. +Quiero tocar su preciosa pantalla. +Quiero limpiarle las manchas. +Quiero que mis amigos miren y babeen. +Quiero poder decir: "Miren; ahora estoy en la onda". Me form en la fila y tendr el mo. +Quiero un iPhone. +Qu es un hombre? +Qu tiene? Si no tiene un iPhone, entonces no tiene nada. +Es todo lo que un telfono debe ser. +A quin le importa si es AT&T? +Tom una decisin, pagu 500! +Tengo un iPhone! +Gracias. Muchas gracias. +Acu mi propia definicin de xito en 1934, cuando enseaba en una escuela secundaria de South Bend, Indiana. Estando un poco decepcionado, y tal vez desilusionado por la forma en que los padres de los jvenes de mi clase de ingls esperaban que sus hijos +obtuvieran una A o una B. Ellos pensaban que una C estaba bien para los hijos de los vecinos, porque los hijos de los vecinos son todos nios promedio. +Pero no estaban satisfechos cuando sus propios nios -- hacan que el profesor sintiera que haba fracasado, o que el joven haba fracasado. +Y eso no est bien. El buen Dios en su sabidura infinita no nos cre a todos iguales en lo que se refiere a la inteligencia, ms de lo iguales que somos en tamao, apariencia. +No todos podan obtener una A o una B, y no me gustaba esa forma de juzgar. Y yo saba cmo los alumnos de varias escuelas en los aos 30 juzgaban a sus entrenadores o equipos deportivos. +Si les ganabas a todos ellos, eras considerado razonablemente exitoso. No completamente. Porque descubr -- que tuvimos un nmero de aos en la UCLA, donde no perdimos un juego. +Pero pareca que no ganamos cada juego individual por el margen que algunos de nuestros alumnos haban predicho. Y muy frecuentemente yo -- -- frecuentemente senta que ellos haban apoyado sus predicciones de una forma ms materialista. +Pero eso era as en los aos 30, por lo que lo entenda. +Pero no me gustaba. Y no estaba de acuerdo con ello. +Y quera salir con algo que esperaba me hiciera un mejor profesor, y drselos a los jvenes bajo mi supervisin -- ya fuera en la clase de deportes o en la de ingls -- algo a lo que ellos aspiraran, algo ms que slo una calificacin alta en el saln de clases, o ms puntos en una competencia deportiva. +Pens en eso durante un buen tiempo, y quera encontrar mi propia definicin. Pens que eso poda ayudar. +Y saba cmo el Sr. Webster lo defina: como la acumulacin de posesiones materiales o la obtencin de una posicin de poder o prestigio, o algo por el estilo. Logros dignos tal vez, pero en mi opinin no necesariamente indicativos de xito. +As que yo quera encontrar algo mio. +Recuerdo que me cri en una pequea granja al sur de Indiana. Y pap trat de ensearme a m y a mis hermanos que nunca se debe tratar de ser mejor que otra persona. +Estoy seguro que cuando el hizo esto, yo no -- no -- bueno, en algn lugar, supongo que en los rincones ocultos de mi mente, apareci aos ms tarde. +Nunca tratar se ser mejor que otra persona, siempre aprende de los dems. Nunca te rindas. +tratar de ser el mejor que puedas ser -- eso esta bajo tu control. +Si ests demasiado absorto e involucrado y preocupado en relacin a las cosas de las que no tienes control, afectar adversamente las cosas sobre las que tienes control. +Luego me cruc con este simple verso que dice, "En el estrado de Dios para confesar, se arrodill una pobre alma, y bajando la cabeza, +grit "He fallado!" +El Maestro dijo: 'Habis hecho lo mejor, eso es el xito." De esas cosas, y otras tal vez, Acu mi propia definicin de xito. Que es: paz interior alcanzada slo a travs de la auto-satisfaccin de saber que hiciste el esfuerzo de hacer lo mejor +de lo que eres capaz. +Y creo que el carcter es mucho ms importante de lo que se percibe que eres. +Esperaras que ambos fueran buenos. Pero no necesariamente sern el mismo. +Bueno, esa era mi idea y quera tratar de hacerla llegar a los jvenes. +Me encontr con otras cosas. Me encanta ensear, +y fue mencionado por el orador anterior que me gusta la poesa, y juego con ella un poco, y me encanta. +Hay algunas cosas que me han ayudado, creo, a ser mejor de lo que hubiera sido. S que no soy lo que debo ser, ni lo que debera ser. Pero creo que soy mejor de lo que hubiera sido si no me hubiera cruzado con ciertas cosas. +Una de ellas era slo un pequeo verso que deca "Ninguna palabra escrita, ni peticin dicha, puede ensear a nuestros jovenes lo que deberan ser Ni todos los libros en todos los estantes -- suman lo que los maestros son en s mismos". +Esto caus una impresin en mi en la dcada de 1930. +Y trate de usarla ms o menos en mi enseanza, ya fuera en los deportes, o en el saln de Ingls. +Amo la poesa y siempre he tenido un inters en ella de una u otra forma. +Tal vez sea porque pap sola leernos en la noche. Lmpara de aceite de carbn - no tenamos electricidad en nuestra casa de la granja. +Y pap nos lea poesa. As que siempre me gust. +Y en la misma poca en que me cruc con este verso, Me cruc con otro. Alguien pregunt +a una maestra por qu enseaba. Y ella -- despus de un tiempo, dijo que quera pensarlo. +Luego se levanto y dijo, "Me preguntan que por qu enseo y yo respondo, 'Dnde puedo encontrar tan esplndida compaa?' Ah estaba un hombre de estado, fuerte, imparcial, sabio. Otro Daniel Webster, de gran elocuencia. +Un doctor se sienta junto a l, cuya rpida y firme mano poda reparar un hueso, o contener el flujo vital de sangre. +Y ah un constructor. Levantando el arco de una iglesia que el construye, donde ese sacerdote podr hablar la palabra de Dios y guiar un alma que ha tropezado, a tocar a Cristo. +Y todo acerca de una reunin de profesores, agricultores, comerciantes, trabajadores. Aquellos que trabajan y votan y construyen y planean y oran para un gran maana. +Y puedo decir, no podr ver la iglesia, o escuchar la palabra o comer la comida que sus manos cultiven. Pero tal vez podr. Y despus podr decir, Lo conoc una vez, y el era dbil, o fuerte, o audaz u orgulloso o jovial. +Lo conoc una vez, pero entonces l era un nio. +Ellos me preguntan que por qu enseo y yo respondo 'Dnde puedo encontrar tan esplendida compaa?' Y creo que la profesin de docente -- es verdad, tienes a tantos jvenes. Y tengo que pensar en mis jvenes de UCLA -- 30 y tantos abogados, 11 dentistas y doctores, muchos, muchos profesores y otras profesiones. +Y eso te da un gran placer, verlos continuar. +Siempre intent hacer sentir a los jvenes que estaban ah primero que nada para obtener una educacin, el bsquetbol era secundario, porque les costeaba sus gastos, y ellos necesitan un poco de tiempo para sus actividades sociales pero si permites que las actividades sociales tengan mayor prioridad sobre los otros dos no vas a tener ninguno por mucho tiempo. +As que esas eran las ideas que intentaba hacerles llegar a los jvenes bajo mi supervisin. +Yo tena tres reglas, ms o menos, a las que me apegaba prcticamente todo el tiempo. +Las haba aprendido antes de llegar a UCLA, y decid que eran muy importantes. +Una era -- nunca llegar tarde. Nunca llegar tarde. +Ms tarde dije ciertas cosas -- Yo tena -- jugadores, si nos ibamos a algn lugar, tenan que estar arreglados y limpios +Hubo un tiempo en que los haca vestir sacos y camisas y corbatas. +Luego vi a nuestro rector venir a la escuela en mezclilla y cuellos de tortuga, y pens, no es correcto para mi seguir con esto otro. Por lo que los deje -- slo tenan que estar arreglados y limpios. +Uno de los grandes jugadores que tuve, de quien probablemente han escuchado, +Bill Walton, vino a tomar el autobs nos estbamos yendo a algn lugar a jugar. +Y no estaba arreglado ni limpio, por lo que no lo deje ir. +No pudo subirse al autobs. Tuvo que ir a casa y arreglarse para ir al aeropuerto. +Asi que yo era muy quisquilloso con eso. Yo crea en eso. +Creo que el tiempo es muy importante. +Creo que se debe ser puntual. Pero senta que lo practicaba, por ejemplo, empezamos puntualmente, terminamos puntualmente +Los jvenes no tenan que sentir que los ibas a tener por mucho tiempo. +Al dar plticas en clnicas de entrenadores, generalmente les digo a los entrenadores jvenes -- y en las clnicas de entrenadores, ms o menos, van a estar los entrenadores jvenes que estn entrando en la profesin. +La mayora de ellos son jvenes, ustedes saben, y probablemente recin casados. +Y les digo, "No alarguen sus prcticas. Porque se irn a casa de mal humor. Y eso no es bueno, para un hombre recin casado irse a casa de mal humor." +Cuando sean mayores, eso no har ninguna diferencia. Pero -- As que yo creo en la puntualidad, creo en empezar a tiempo, +y creo en terminar a tiempo. +Y otra regla que tena era, ni una sola mala palabra. +Una mala palabra, y t estas fuera por el da. +Si yo lo veo en un juego, sales y te quedas sentado en la banca. +La tercera era, nunca criticar a un compaero de equipo. +Yo no quera eso. Sola decirles que a mi me pagaban para hacerlo. +Ese era mi trabajo. Me pagaban para hacerlo. Lastimosamente poco, pero me pagaban para hacerlo. +No como a los entrenadores de hoy, por dios, no. +Es algo diferente de lo que era en mis das. +Esas fueron las tres cosas a las que me apegu todo el tiempo +Y eso en realidad provino de mi padre. +Eso fue lo que intent ensearnos a m y a mis hermanos una vez. +Finalmente se me ocurri una pirmide, no tengo tiempo para entrar en eso. +Pero me ayudo, yo creo, a convertirme en un mejor profesor. +Es algo as: Tena bloques en la pirmide. Y los bloques de la base eran la diligencia y el entusiasmo, trabajar arduamente y disfrutar lo que ests haciendo. Subiendo hasta la cspide. De acuerdo a mi definicin de xito. +Y justo en la cima -- fe y paciencia. +Y les digo a ustedes, en cualquier cosa que estn haciendo, deben de ser pacientes. Deben de tener paciencia -- +Deseamos que las cosas pasen. Hablamos de que la juventud es muy impaciente. +Y lo son. Quieren cambiarlo todo. +Creen que todo cambio es progreso. +Y vamos envejeciendo - y vamos dejando ir las cosas. +Y olvidamos que no hay progreso sin cambio. +As que se debe tener paciencia. Y creo que debemos tener fe. +Creo que debemos creer, +verdaderamente creer. No solamente decirlo; creer que las cosas resultarn como deberan, siempre que hagamos lo que deberamos hacer, +Creo que nuestra tendencia es esperar que las cosas salgan como queremos, muchas de las veces. Pero no hacemos las cosas que son necesarias para hacer que esas cosas se vuelvan una realidad. +He trabajado en esto durante unos 14 aos, y creo que me ha ayudado a llegar a ser un mejor profesor. +Pero todo giraba en torno a esa definicin original de xito. +Saben hace algunos aos, haba un rbitro de las Ligas Mayores de Bisbol llamado George Moriarty. +El escriba Moriarty con slo una "i". +Nunca haba visto eso antes, pero el lo hacia. +Los jugadores de las ligas mayores de bisbol -- son muy perspicaces acerca de esas cosas, y se dieron cuenta de que haba slo una "i" en su nombre. +Se sorprenderan de cuntos tambin le dijeron que esa era una ms de la que tena en la cabeza en varias ocasiones. +Pero l escribi algo que creo que hizo mientras yo lo intentaba hacer en esta pirmide. Lo llam "El Camino por Recorrer, +o El Camino Recorrido." +"A veces pienso que las Moiras deben sonrer mientras las condenamos e insistir que la nica razn por la que no podemos ganar, es que las Moiras mismas fallan. +Sin embargo, las vidas de nuestros ancestros claman: ganamos o perdemos dentro de nosotros mismos. Los trofeos brillantes en nuestras repisas +nunca podrn ganar el juego de maana +Usted y yo sabemos en el fondo, siempre hay una oportunidad de ganar la corona. +Pero cuando fallamos en dar lo mejor, simplemente no hemos pasado la prueba, de darlo todo y no quedarnos con nada hasta ganar el juego. De mostrar lo que se entiende por agallas. De seguir jugando cuando otros se dan por vencidos. De seguir jugando, sin ceder. +Es la determinacin lo que gana la copa. De soar que hay una meta por delante. +De tener esperanza cuando nuestros sueos mueran. De rezar cuando nuestras esperanzas han huido. An perdiendo, no temer a la cada, si valientemente hemos dado todo. Pues quin puede pedir ms de un hombre +que dar todo lo que est a su alcance. +Darlo todo, me parece, no esta lejos de la victoria. +Y as, las Moiras rara vez se equivocan, no importa cmo se retuerzan y serpenteen. +Somos usted y yo quienes creamos nuestro destino -- nosotros abrimos o cerramos las puertas del camino por recorrer o del camino recorrido." +Esto me recuerda otra tercia de consejos que mi padre quiso transmitirnos. No lloriquees, No te quejes. No inventes excusas. +Solo da un paso afuera, y lo que sea que hagas, hazlo a lo mejor de tus habilidades. +Y nadie puede hacer ms que eso. +Intent transmitirles esto, tambin -- mis rivales no les van a decir -- nunca me han escuchado decir ganar. +Nunca mencione ganar. Mi idea es +que se puede perder cuando superas en puntuacin a alguien en un juego. Y se puede ganar cuando eres superado en la puntuacin. +Yo me he sentido as en algunas ocasiones, en varios momentos. +Y slo quera que fueran capaces de mantener su cabeza erguida despus del juego. +Yo sola decir que cuando termina un juego, y ves a alguien que no conoce el resultado, esperaba que no pudieran adivinarlo por tus acciones si le habas ganado a tu oponente o el oponente te haba ganado. +Eso es lo que verdaderamente importa: si haces el esfuerzo de hacer lo mejor que puedas regularmente, los resultados sern lo que deben ser. +No necesariamente lo que quieres que sean, pero sern lo que deberan ser, y slo tu sabrs si puedes hacerlo. +Y eso es lo que quera de ellos ms que cualquier otra cosa. +Y conforme pas el tiempo y aprend ms de otras cosas, Creo que funcion un poco mejor, en cuanto a resultados. Pero deseaba que la puntuacin del juego fuera el derivado de estas otras cosas, y no la finalidad en s. +Me parece que fue -- un gran filsofo dijo -- no, no. Cervantes. Cervantes dijo, +"El viaje es mejor que el destino." +Y eso me gusta. Creo que est -- +llegando a eso. A veces cuando llegas, hay casi una decepcin. +Pero es llegar ah lo que es divertido. +Me gustaba -- como entrenador de bsquetbol en la UCLA me gustaba que las prcticas fueran el trayecto, y el juego fuera la finalidad. El resultado final. +Me gustaba subir y sentarme en los estrados y verlos jugar, y ver si haba realizado una labor digna durante la semana. +Una vez ms, es lograr que los jugadores se sientan satisfechos consigo mismos, en saber que haban hecho el esfuerzo de lograr lo mejor de lo que eran capaces. +A veces me preguntan quin fue el mejor jugador que tuve, o los mejores equipos. +Jams podr responder eso, +mientras tenga que ver con los jugadores. Una vez me preguntaron sobre eso, y dijeron, "Suponga que de algn modo pudiera -- pudiera +hacer al jugador perfecto. Qu es lo que querra?" +Yo respond, "Bien, querra uno que supiera por qu estaba en la UCLA: para obtener una educacin, que fuese un buen estudiante, que supiera por qu estaba ah en primer lugar. +Pero querra uno que pudiera jugar, tambin. +Querra uno que se diera cuenta de que la defensa suele ganar campeonatos, y que trabajara duro en la defensa. +Pero querra uno que jugara a la ofensiva tambin. +Querra que no fuese egosta, y que buscara el pase primero y no tirara todo el tiempo. +Y querra uno que pudiese dar pases y que hiciese pases. +He tenido algunos que podan y no lo hacan, y he tenido otros que lo hacan y no podan. +Quera que fuesen capaces de tirar desde fuera. +Quera que fuesen buenos por dentro tambin. +He querido que sean capaces de rebotar bien en ambos extremos, tambin. +Y por qu no tener a alguien como Keith Wilkes y dejarlo as. +l tena las aptitudes. No era el nico, +pero era alguien que yo utilizaba en esa categora en particular, porque pienso que hizo su mejor esfuerzo en llegar a ser el mejor. +Menciono en mi libro, "Me llaman Entrenador", a dos jugadores que me dieron gran satisfaccin; que se acercaron ms que cualquier otro a alcanzar su potencial total: uno fue Conrad Burke. Y uno fue Doug McIntosh. +Cuando los conoc en primer ao, en nuestro equipo de primer ao -- no tenamos -- los de primer ao no podan representar al equipo. +Y pens, "Cielos, si estos dos jugadores, cualquiera de ellos" -- fue en distintos aos, pero pens en cada uno al momento en que estaba ah -- "Vaya, si logra representar al equipo, si l es bueno como para lograrlo, nuestra representacin debe ser muy deplorable." +Y ustedes conocen a uno de ellos fue un jugador titular por una temporada y media. +El otro era -- en su siguiente ao jug 32 minutos en un juego del campeonato nacional, +fue algo magnifico para nosotros. Y el ao siguiente, fue un jugador titular en el equipo del campeonato nacional. Y entonces pens que no jugara ni un minuto, y lo hizo -- y son las cosas que te dan gran alegra, y gran satisfaccin al verlas. +Ninguno de esos jvenes poda tirar muy bien. +Pero tenan porcentajes de tiro sobresalientes, porque no lo forzaban. +Y ninguno poda saltar muy bien, pero tuvieron -- mantuvieron una buena posicin, y por tanto hicieron buen rebote. Recordaron que +cada tiro que es tomado, se asume que ser perdido. +He tenido demasiados que se paran a esperar a ver si lo pierden, entonces van y es demasiado tarde. Alguien ms se les adelant. +Y no eran muy rpidos, pero jugaron en buena posicin, mantuvieron un buen equilibrio. +As que jugaron buena defensiva a nuestro favor. +As que tenan cualidades que -se acercaron a ellas- tanto como a alcanzar posiblemente su potencial total como ningn otro jugador que haya tenido. +Por lo que los considero tan exitosos como Lewis Alcindor o Bill Walton, o muchos de los otros que tenamos -- haban algunos sobresalientes -- algunos jugadores sobresalientes. +Ya divagu bastante ? +Me comentaron que cuando l apareciera, supuestamente yo deba callarme. +Cuando la mayora pensamos en los inicios del SIDA, recordaremos los aos 80. +Y en efecto, fue la dcada del descubrimiento del SIDA, y del virus que lo origina, el VIH. +Pero de hecho este virus salt hacia el humano varias dcadas antes, desde el chimpanc, donde el virus se origin, hacia los humanos que los cazan. +Esta foto fue tomada antes de la Gran Depresin en Brazzaville, Congo. +Entonces, haban miles de individuos, creemos, ya infectados con el VIH. +Deseo hacerles dos preguntas muy importantes. +Si este virus estaba en miles de individuos en este punto, por qu fue el caso que nos tom hasta 1984 el ser capaces de descubrirlo? +Bien, y ms importante an, de haber estado ah en los aos 40, 50 y 60, habramos visto esta enfermedad, habramos entendido lo que suceda con ella, cmo habra cambiado y totalmente transformado la naturaleza de cmo se desarrollaba esta pandemia? +De hecho, no es slo para el VIH. La gran mayora de los virus provienen de los animales. +Se puede pensar en esto como una pirmide de virus emergentes de animales a poblaciones humanas. +Pero slo en la cima de la pirmide se vuelven asuntos humanos. +Sin embargo, dedicamos el mayor tiempo de nuestra energa a enfocarnos en este nivel, intentando enfrentar lo que ya se ha adaptado por completo a los seres humanos, y que ser muy difcil de encarar, como hemos visto con el VIH. +Y durante los ltimos 15 aos, he estado trabajando en estudiar la temprana interaccin aqu, la he calificado como "parloteo viral", trmino creado por mi mentor Don Burke. +Esta es la idea que podemos estudiar cmo se disparan estos virus en poblaciones humanas, el movimiento de estos agentes hacia humanos, y al capturar este momento, podramos ser capaces de estar en la situacion de captarlos anticipadamente +Bien, esta fotografa, les mostrar algunas fotos tomadas en el campo. +Esta es de un cazador de frica central. +En realidad es bastante comn. +Algo que deseo que noten aqu es la sangre, vean la gran cantidad de contacto con sangre. +Esto nos pareci clave. Es una forma de conexin muy ntima +As que para estudiar el parloteo viral, es necesario llegar a las poblaciones quienes mantienen mucho contacto con animales salvajes. +Y hemos estado estudiando a la gente como a esta persona. +Reunimos muestras de su sangre y otros especmenes. +Observamos las enfermedades que estn en animales y en humanos. +Y ser ideal que esto nos permita una captacin temprana, de cmo se desplazan hacia las poblaciones humanas. +Y el objetivo bsico de este trabajo es no slo salir una vez y ver a estas personas, sino implementar miles de personas en estas poblaciones a las que pudisemos monitorear continuamente y de forma regular. +Al enfermarse, tombamos sus especmenes. +de hecho los enrolbamos '- lo cual ya hicimos - para juntar especmenes de animales. +Les damos estos trozos de papel filtro. +Cuando toman muestras de animales, juntan la sangre en el papel filtro lo que nos permite identificar virus an desconocidos, de los animales precisos, aquellos que estn siendo cazados +Narrador: Dentro de una regin de Camern, dos cazadores acechan a su presa. +Sus nombres son Patrice y Patee. +Estn buscando animales salvajes animales del bosque con qu alimentar a sus familias. +Patrice y Patee regularmente van de cacera en el bosque cerca de sus hogares. +Colocan una serie de trampas y lazos para atrapar jabales, serpientes, monos, roedores, todo lo que puedan, en realidad. +Patrice y Patee han estado fuera durante horas pero no encontraron nada. +Los animales simplemente se han ido. +Nos detuvimos para beber un poco de agua. +Entonces se escucha un crujido en los arbustos. +Se acerca un grupo de cazadores. Traen una carga tremenda. +Hay por lo menos tres virus conocidos, que se encuentran en este mono. +Nathan Wolfe: Esta especie, s. Y muchos ms patgenos presentes en estos animales. +Estas personas estn en riesgo especfico, en particular si hay contacto con sangre, hay riesgo de transmisin y posiblemente de infeccin con nuevos virus. +Narrador: En cuanto los cazadores muestran sus presas, algo ocurre. +Nos muestran el papel filtro que han usado para juntar la sangre de los animales. +La sangre se analizar buscando virus zoonticos, parte de un programa que el Dr. Wolfe pas aos implementando. +Nathan Wolfe: Esto proviene de este animal de aqu, Mono de Nariz Blanca. +Quienes manejan este papel filtro, tienen al menos conocimientos bsicos de educacin en la salud acerca de los riesgos asociados a estas actividades, los cuales suponemos en nuestra perspectiva, les dan la habilidad de disminuir su propio riesgo, y obviamente el riesgo hacia sus familias, la villa, el pas, y el mundo. +Nathan Wolfe: Bien, antes de continuar, creo importante tomar un momento para hablar de la carne silvestre. La carne silvestre es la caza de animales salvajes +De acuerdo? Pueden considerar toda clase de carne silvestre +Les hablar de esto. +Cuando de hecho no es la nica pregunta que harn de esto. +Tambin preguntarn acerca de que cuando supimos que el VIH entr por este medio en la poblacin humana, y que otras enfermedades podran entrar igual, por qu permitimos que estas conductas continuaran? +Por qu no encontramos otra solucin a esto? +Dirn que, en regiones de profunda inestabilidad en todo el mundo, en lugares de intensa pobreza, donde las poblaciones crecen y no se tienen recursos sostenibles como estos, esto conllevar a la inseguridad alimenticia. +Pero quiz tambin le harn una pregunta distinta. +Es una que me parece que todos necesitamos preguntarnos, que es, por qu pensamos que la responsabilidad yaca en esta persona aqu? +Este es quien, puede ver justo sobre su hombro derecho, l es quien caz al mono de la ltima foto que les mostr. +Bien, observen su camisa. +Ahora observen su rostro. +La carne silvestre es una de las emergencias centrales que suceden en nuestra poblacin actualmente, en la humanidad, en este planeta. +Pero la culpa no puede tenerla alguien as. +Bien? y solucionarlo no puede ser slo su responsabilidad. +No hay soluciones fciles, lo que les digo es que ignoramos el problema a nuestro propio riesgo. +As que en 1998, junto con mis mentores Don Burke y el Coronel Mpoudi-Ngole, bamos a comenzar a hacer este trabajo en frica Central, con cazadores en esta regin del mundo. +Y mi labor, en ese entonces yo era un colaborador postdoctoral, y estaba encargado de implementarlo. +Y pens, "Vaya, muy bien, juntaremos toda clase de especmenes, iremos a diferentes lugares. Ser maravilloso." +Ya saben, mir el mapa y eleg 17 sitios, pens, no hay problema. +No es necesario decirlo, estaba drsticamente equivocado +Es un trabajo desafiante. +Por fortuna, tena y an tengo un maravilloso equipo de colegas y colaboradores en mi propio equipo, y era la nica forma de realizar este trabajo. +Nos enfrentamos a una gran variedad de retos en este trabajo. +Uno de ellos es ganar la confianza de las personas con quienes trabajamos en el campo. +El hombre que ven al lado derecho es Paul DeLong-Minutu. +Es uno de los mejores comunicadores con quienes he tratado. +A mi llegada no hablaba nada de francs, y an as me pareca comprender lo qu l deca. +Paul trabaj por aos en la radio y televisin nacionales de Camern, y hablaba de temas de salud. Era un corresponsal en la salud. +Por lo que imaginamos contratarlo, pues al llegar l sera un gran comunicador. +Aunque al llegar a las villas rurales, encontramos que nadie tena televisin, y no reconocan su rostro. +Pero cuando comenz a hablar Y este era alguien con un increble potencial +Y este era alguien con un increble potencial para difundir aspectos de nuestro mensaje, ya fuese acerca de la conservacin de la fauna o de la prevencin en la salud. +Y encontramos muchos obstculos. Aqu volvamos de uno de los sitios rurales, con 200 especmenes que deban arribar al laboratorio en 48 horas. +Me agrada mostrar esta toma, se trata de Ubald Tamoufe, quien es investigador lder del sitio en Camern. +Ubald se re de m cuando muestro esta foto porque por supuesto no se ve su rostro. +Pero la razn por la que la muestro es que est por resolver el problema. +Y lo resolvi. Lo hizo. +Algunas fotos de antes y despus. +Este era nuestro laboratorio antes. +As es como luce ahora. +Antes, para enviar los especmenes, debamos tener hielo seco. bamos a las cerveceras; a rogar, pedir o robar para obtenerlo. +Ahora tenemos nuestro propio nitrgeno lquido. +Me gusta referirme a nuestro laboratorio como el sitio ms fro de frica Central; podra serlo. +Y en esta fotografa estoy yo, este soy yo antes. +Sin comentarios. +Qu sucedi? Durante los 10 aos de realizar este trabajo, nos hemos sorprendido mucho. +Hicimos ciertos descubrimientos. +Y encontramos que mirando en el lugar correcto, se puede en verdad monitorear el flujo de estos virus hacia poblaciones humanas. +Esto nos di muchsima esperanza. +Encontramos una amplia gama de nuevos virus en estas personas, incluyendo virus nuevos en el mismo grupo que el VIH, as, retrovirus totalmente nuevos. +Aceptemos que, cualquier nuevo retrovirus en la poblacin humana, debe captar nuestra atencin. +Es algo que debemos vigilar. No es algo que nos debera sorprender. +No es necesario decir que en el pasado de haber entrado estos virus a comunidades rurales podran haberse extinto por completo. +Ya no es as. Se tiene acceso a zonas urbanas a traves de caminos de tala +Lo crtico es que lo que sucede en frica Central no permanece en frica Central. +Y una vez que descubrimos que s era posible que pudisemos hacer el monitoreo, decidimos dirigir la investigacin a iniciar la fase del esfuerzo de un monitoreo global. +A travs del gran apoyo y patrocinio cientficamente con Google.org y la Fundacin Skoll, es que nos fue posible emprender la Iniciativa para el Pronstico Viral Global y comenzar a trabajar en cuatro sitios en frica y Asia. +No hace falta decir, que las personas en todo el mundo tienen distintas clases de contacto. +As que no es slo cazadores en frica Central +tambin es trabajar en mercados de animales vivos mercados de alimentos, que es precisamente el lugar de donde emergi el SARS en Asia. +Pero en realidad, este es el principio desde nuestra perspectiva. +Hubo una ocasin hace no mucho cuando el encontrar organismos desconocidos fue algo que nos produjo una gran admiracin. +Tuvo el potencial para cambiar en verdad la forma en que nos veamos, y pensbamos de nosotros mismos. +Mucha gente en el planeta ahora mismo, est desesperada, y piensan que hemos llegado al punto en que casi todo est descubierto. +Les dir algo: por favor no se desesperen. +Si un extraterrestre inteligente se encargara de escribir la enciclopedia de la vida en nuestro planeta, 27 de los 30 volmenes estaran dedicados a bacterias y virus, dejando slo unos pocos libros para plantas, hongos y animales, los humanos seran una nota al pie, interesante, pero al fin y al cabo una nota al pie. +Este es honestamente el perodo ms emocionante para el estudio de formas de vida desconocidas en nuestro planeta. +Las cosas que prevalecen aqu y que ignoramos casi del todo. +Y que finalmente tenemos las herramientas que nos permiten explorar tal mundo y entender tales cosas. +Muchas gracias. +Pens que podra leer poemas relacionados con el tema de la juventud y la vejez. +Qued impresionado al descubrir cuntos tena. +El primero est dedicado a Spencer y a su abuela, a quien le horrorizaba su obra. +Mi poema se llama "Mugre". +Mi abuela lava mi boca con jabn, ha pasado un largo medio siglo y an se acerca a m con esa gruesa y cruel barra amarilla. +Todo por una palabra que dije que ni siquiera fue dicha, slo repetida. +Pero, "Abre", me dice, "brela!", +su mano araando mi cabeza. +Ahora s que su vida fue difcil, perdi tres hijas siendo bebs, luego muri su esposo, dejando hijos jvenes y nada de dinero. +Me sostena en el lavabo para orinar, porque nunca haba espacio en el inodoro. +Pero, oh, el jabn! +Pudo su ardiente amargura haberme transformado en poeta? +La calle donde viva no estaba pavimentada, Su apartamento, dos estrechos cuartos y una ftida cocina donde me segua y atrapaba. +Me atrevera a admitir que despus de que lo hiciera jams volv a quererla? +Ella vivi hasta los cien, incluso entonces. Siempre la tristeza, la miseria, pero yo nunca, hasta ahora, volv a quererla. +Cuando esto se public en una revista recib una furiosa carta de mi to. +"Has difamado a una gran mujer". +Hizo falta un poco de diplomacia. +Este se llama "El vestido". +Es un poema ms largo. +Slo despus vera a estos vestidos tambin como una proclamacin: que en tu oscura cocina, tu lavandero, tu lbrego jardn de cemento, lo que revelabas de ti misma era una fbula; tu verdadera naturaleza sensual, velada en esos vestidos asexuados, era tu dominio absoluto. +Qu liberacin, el abrazo: aunque ramos cautelosos (pareca muy audaz) cunta alegra silente haba en esa afirmacin de igualdad y comunin, no importa cuntos malentendidos y dolor haban pasado entre nosotros... +En esos das todava el campo estaba cerca de la ciudad, granjas, maizales, vacas; incluso cerca de nuestro edificio con sus borrosos ladrillos y su largo pasillo sombro podas encontrar caminos con colinas y rboles e imaginar que haba montaas y bosques. +O hasta podas salir t solo a una larga parcela vaca, entre los arbustos: como una criatura de hojas merodeabas, en cuclillas, arrastrndote, simplificado, salvaje, solo; ya sentas el deseo de ser ms simple, deseabas, cuando te llamaban, nunca regresar. +Este es otro poema largo, sobre la vejez y la juventud. +Pas justo cuando nos conocimos. +Parte del poema transcurre en el espacio y en el tiempo que compartimos. +Se llama "La vecina". +Sus cinco pequeos perros, horribles y deformes que ladran incesantemente en la terraza bajo mi ventana. +Sus gatos, Dios sabe cuntos, que deben mearse en sus alfombras, su rellano un tufo enfermizo. +Su sombra una vez, hurgando en la cadena de su puerta, despus, un portazo temeroso, slo los ladridos y la msica... jazz... filtrndose, da y noche, al pasillo. +Esa vez era Chris Connor cantando "Lush Life"... cmo me record a mi amor universitario, mi primer gran amor, quien... hasta que la dej... pona el mismo disco. +Su cabeza en mi hombro, su mano en mi muslo, cantaba dulcemente, sobre lamentos y agotamientos para los que era muy joven, como muy joven era yo, despus, para creer en su dolor. +Me asustaba, luego aburra, luego me repela. +Comenc a imaginar que ella acabara en un atolladero, en el pueblo, que sera mi vecina. +Imaginaba que nos encontraramos, nos reconoceramos, nos haramos amigos, que cumplira una penitencia. +Imaginaba verla, no era ella, en el buzn. +Cabello amarillo grisceo, pantalones militares bajo un camisn, dndome la espalda, escondiendo su rostro deshecho en sus manos, murmurando un inapropiado "Hola". +A veces, suceden cosas aterradoras en la escalera. +Un hombre gritando "Cllate!". Los perros gruendo frenticos, sus garras escarbando, despus su... su voz ronca, spera, apagada, casi slo un tono, incoherente, una nota, un graznido, hueso sobre metal, metal derretido, llamndoles, "Regresen, amados, regresen, queridos. +Mis dulces ngeles, regresen". +Ella era Medea cuando volv a verla. +Hechicera, en trance, extasiada, paralizada en la acera un harapiento abrigo colgando boquiabierto, los peatones flotando a su alrededor, su boca, repentinamente abierta como en un grito, aunque silencioso, cual si slo en su cerebro o en su pecho, hubiera estallado. +Un llanto tan puro, experto, distante, que no necesitaba una voz, o ya nunca podra soportarla. +Estos vnculos invisibles que encandilan, estas transfiguraciones, su angustia, que nos sostienen. +La joven, mi antiguo amor, la ltima vez que la vi cuando vino a buscarme en una fiesta, sus embriagados tropiezos, cayendo, tumbada, la falda subida, rojas las venas de sus ojos, henchidos de lgrimas, su vergenza, su deshonor. +Mi ignorante, arrogante grosera, mi orgullo secreto, mi huda. +Naturaleza muerta en una azotea, rboles muertos en barriles, un banco roto, perros, excremento, el cielo. +Qu senderos a travs del dolor, qu coyunturas de vulnerabilidad, qu cruces y qu antagonismos? +Ya hay demasiadas vidas en nuestras vidas, demasiadas oportunidades para la pena, demasiados pasados perdidos. +"Contmplame", el dios del frentico, inagotable amor, dice, erigindose en esplendor sangriento, "Contmplame". +Ella sigue su camino por las sucias escaleras del vestbulo, un agonizante paso a la vez. +Yo sujetando la puerta. +Ella cruzando las fragmentadas baldosas, vacilando en el escaln hacia la calle, canturreando, sin mirarme, "Puedes ayudarme?" +Tomndome del hombro, apoyndose suavemente en m. +Su titubeante paso en el mundo. +Su susurro, "Gracias, amor". Suave, suavemente en m. +Creo que voy a animar esto un poco. +Otro poema algo diferente sobre juventud y vejez. +Se llama "Gas". +Qu agradable sera, pienso, cuando la seora del pelo azul en la sala de espera del mdico se incline sobre la mesa de las revistas y se tire un pedo, uno pequeo, y se ruborice violentamente. +Qu bueno sera si el gas intestinal viniera transformado en nubes visibles, para que ella pudiera ver que su inofensivo "pop" casi me ha rozado la cara antes de alejarse lentamente. +Adems, el que esto ocurriera ahora es una agradable coincidencia. Porque no hace ni una hora, cuando estbamos paseando, mi perro se asust con un petardo y salt como un caballo encabritado. +Y eso me record el establo donde trabaj los fines de semana cuando tena 12 aos, y un esplndido semental moteado, que, no importa quin lo montase, coceaba justo as, aunque ms fuerte, claro, inmenso, reluciente, resplandeciente. +Y la mujer, su abochornada cara ahora enterrada en su "Elle", me recordaba... Haba olvidado que lo que ms me impresionaba era el hecho de que, con cada salto el caballo se tiraba un poderoso pedo. +Fuap! Fuap! Fuap! +Algo que nunca se menciona en las docenas de libros sobre caballos y sus jinetes que yo devoraba en esos das. +Toda esa grandeza salvaje, los frreos y destellantes cascos, las erupciones que surgan de las poderosas tripas de la criatura, sin respirar, corazn quieto, fosas nasales abiertas en furia, yo no saba si quera domarlo, o ser l. +Este se llama "Sed". +Muchos... casi todos mis poemas son poemas urbanos. Estoy leyendo unos que no lo son. +"Sed". +Esta fue mi relacin con la mujer que vivi todo el otoo e invierno pasados, da y noche, en un banco en la estacin de metro de la calle 103, hasta que, un da, desapareci. +Nos mirbamos, nos escrutamos el uno al otro. +Yo, tmida, oblicuamente, tratando de no parecer sospechoso. +Ella, descaradamente, sin pestaear, hasta beligerante, iracunda incluso, cuando su botella se vaciaba. +Me daba miedo. Me senta como un nio. +Tena miedo de que alguna parte ma reprimida perdiera el control, y me quedara atrapado para siempre en la terrible furia de su hedor. +No solamente de excremento, no slo superficie y orificio desaseado, vahos de ron, haba una voluntad en ello, e intencin, poder y propsito. Una ira social, tica, y rebelin. Aunque tambin desesperacin, dolor, prdida. +A veces pensaba que deba llevarla a casa, baarla, consolarla, vestirla. +Ella no lo hubiera querido, pensaba. +En vez de eso, yo suba a mi tren. +Qu suntuoso, pensaba, es el lxico de nuestra auto-absolucin. +Qu duradera nuestra anodina y mortal conviccin de que la reflexin es la rectitud consumada. +La danza de nuestras miradas, el choque, halndonos por nuestras perforaciones perceptuales, luego el holocausto, holocausto. Anfitriones de presencias enfermas, heridas, perdidos, consumidos. +S que su vigilia contina en algn lugar. +Su ocupacin, su absoluta y fiel asistencia. +La danza de nuestras miradas, desafo, abdicacin, lo obliterado, el perfume de nuestra consternacin. +Este es un poema ms reciente, un poema nuevo. +Se llama "Esto ocurri". +Se deja caer. +Un impulso casual, un capricho, en el que nunca haba pensado, a duras penas lo piensa ahora... +El mundo era un peso sobre m, +Pesaba este ser que agraciaba el mundo pero nunca fue totalmente s mismo. +El ser pesado que pesaba sobre m, cuya liberacin es lo que deseo y lo que logro. +Y la joven recuerda, en ese instante infinito, ya muchas veces dividido, la tristeza que una vez sinti, apenas sabiendo que la senta, simplemente al habitarse a s misma. +S, la joven cae, es absurdo caer, incluso la tierra, con su obligacin de tomar para s todo lo que cae debe saber que caer es absurdo, pero la joven que cae no soy yo, ni yo soy ella, sino un ser que tom por voluntad propia como mo. +Por siempre. Con gracia. +Esto ocurri. +Slo leer otro ms. No suelo decir eso. +Me gusta slo terminar. +Pero temo que Ricky vendr aqu y agitar el puo frente a m. +Este se llama "Viejo", bastante apropiado. +Especial. Tetas grandes. Dice el anuncio de una revista ertica del kiosco de nuestro barrio. +Pero olvida sus pechos. +Una exuberante rubia, de frescos labios, su piel dorada, se abre all, resplandeciente. +Casi 60, y sin embargo estas casi intangibles, apenas mejores que prostitutas, an me excitan. +Puede que el paso a la adultez en la sensual oscuridad estadounidense, sin haber visto nunca un pezn terso, una vagina sin censura, me haya dejado infectado para siempre de una lujuria ocular inextinguible. +Siempre, ese murmullo ertico, no me reconozco si no estoy en un estado de incipiente deseo. +An as, Dios sabe que hay peores destinos para nuestras obsesiones. +El ao pasado en Israel, un joven Rabino ultra ortodoxo que guiaba unas adolescentes por la Sinagoga de Shoah les prohibi mirar en una habitacin. +Porque haba imgenes que deca eran licenciosas. +Lo que haba era una foto. Hombres y mujeres desnudos, algunos tratando de cubrir sus genitales, otros demasiado asustados para preocuparse, alineados en la nieve esperando ser disparados y tirados en un hoyo. +Las chicas, para mi horror, apartaron la mirada. +Qu clase de desconfianza carnal les haba enseado su maestro. +Y ms an, otra confesin. Una vez, en un libro de la Polonia de pre-guerra, un retrato de estudio, un ngel absoluto, con ojos atormentados, atormentadores. +Siempre volva a su pgina. +Haber muerto en los campos la haca... Ni siquiera me atreva a preguntarme por qu... ms presente, ms preciada. +Muri en los campos, eso tambin solan... o los Judos... lo ocultaban de sus hijos, en esos tiempos. +Pero era como el sexo, no tenan que decrtelo. +Sexo y muerte, cun cercanos pueden parecer. +Ahora, siempre consciente de la cercana de la muerte, a veces creo que los confundo. +La belleza de mi esposa casi me consume. +Mi pasin por ella trasciende los lmites razonables. +Cuando hacemos el amor, ella abrazndome, en todas partes a mi alrededor, estoy all y no estoy. +Mi mente rebosa, un caos de rostros, voces, impresiones, revivo mi vida, como si me estuviera ahogando. +Luego me ahogo, en desesperacin al tener que dejarle, esto, todas las cosas, todo, insoportable, horroroso. +Ser capaz de morir sin especial arrepentimiento, sin que me hayan matado, o esclavizado. +Y sin haber conocido la prxima regresin, o furia, de la historia, puede ser un alivio. +No. Otra vez, no. +No quise decir eso ni por un momento. +Lo que quiero decir es que el mundo me cie tan fuertemente... lo bueno y lo malo... mis propias locuras y debilidades que incluso esta falsa Venus con su fingido celo y su seno, probablemente engordado con gel, me conmueve tanto que mi respiracin se detiene. +Vampiresa. Sirena. Seductora. +Revela mucho ms de lo que ella sabe en su brillante mirada de tinta. +Cmo encarna nuestra desesperada necesidad humana de consideracin, nuestra pasin por vivir en la belleza, por ser la belleza, sentir miradas de adoracin, al menos, algo como el amor, o el amor. +Gracias. +Los peridicos estn muriendo por varias razones. +Los lectores no quieren pagar por las noticias de ayer, y los anunciantes los siguen. +Tu iPhone, tu porttil, son mucho ms tiles que el New York Times del domingo. +Y deberamos salvar rboles al final. +Eso es suficiente para enterrar una industria. +Entonces, tal vez deberamos preguntar, "puede algo salvar a los peridicos?" +Hay varios escenarios para el futuro de los peridicos. +Alguna gente dice; debera ser gratis, debera ser tabloide, o an ms pequeo: A4, debera ser local, manejado por comunidades, o de nicho, para grupos menores como los negocios... pero entonces no es gratis; es muy caro. +Debera ser impulsado por la opinin; menos noticias, ms visiones. +Y preferiramos leerlo durante el desayuno. porque luego escuchamos la radio en el auto, revisamos el correo en el trabajo y en la tarde miras TV. +Suena bien, pero sto slo puede comprar tiempo. +Porque a la larga, creo que no hay razn, no hay razn prctica para que los peridicos sobrevivan. +Entonces qu podemos hacer? +Djenme contarles una historia. +Hace 20 aos, Bonnier, editor sueco, comenz a fundar peridicos en el ex-bloque sovitico. +Luego de unos aos, tenan varios peridicos en Europa Central y del Este. +Eran manejados por personal inexperto, sin cultura visual, sin presupuesto para artes visuales. En muchos lugares ni siquiera haba directores de arte. +Yo decid ser... trabajar para ellos como director de arte. +Antes, era arquitecto, y mi abuela me pregunt una vez, "Qu haces para ganarte la vida?" +Le dije, "Estoy diseando peridicos". +"Qu? Ah no hay nada que disear. Son slo letras aburridas". Y tena razn. Estaba muy frustrado, hasta cierto da. +Vine a Londres, y v un espectculo del Cirque du Soleil. +Y tuve una revelacin. Yo pens, "stos tipos tomaron un espeluznante, decadente entretenimiento, y lo pusieron en el mayor nivel posible de las artes escnicas". +Pens "Oh mi Dios, tal vez yo pueda hacer algo similar con estos aburridos peridicos". +Y lo hice. Comenzamos a redisearlos, uno a uno. +La primera plana se convirti en nuestra firma. +Era mi canal personal e ntimo para hablar con los lectores. +No les voy a contar historias de trabajo en equipo o cooperacin. +Mi aproximacin fue muy egosta. +Quera mi declaracin artstica, mi interpretacin de la realidad. +Quera hacer afiches, no peridicos. +Ni siquiera revistas: afiches. +Estbamos experimentando con tipografa, con ilustraciones, con fotos. Y nos divertamos. +Pronto comenz a dar resultados. +En Polonia, nuestras pginas fueron nombradas "Portadas del ao" tres aos consecutivos. +Otros ejemplos que pueden ver aqu son de Letonia, Lituania, Estonia... los pases de Europa Central. +Pero no es slo la portada. +El secreto es que tratbamos a todo el peridico como una pieza, como una composicin... como msica. +Y la msica tiene un ritmo, tiene altos y bajos. +Y el diseo es responsable de esta experiencia. +Pasar las pginas es la experiencia del lector, y yo soy responsable por esta experiencia. +Tratbamos dos pginas, ambas caras, como una pgina, porque as es como los lectores la perciben. +Pueden ver algunas pginas rusas que ganaron muchos premios en la ms grande competencia de infografas en Espaa. +Pero el verdadero premio vino de la Sociedad para el Diseo de Peridicos. +Slo un ao despus de redisear este peridico en Polonia, lo nombraron el Peridico Mejor Diseado del Mundo. +Y dos aos despus, el mismo premio lleg a Estonia. +No es increble? +Lo que lo hace realmente increble: la circulacin de estos peridicos tambin estaba creciendo. +Slo algunos ejemplos: en Rusia, 11% ms luego de un ao, 29% ms luego de tres aos del rediseo. +Lo mismo en Polonia: 13% ms, hasta un 35% de incremento de circulacin luego de tres aos. +Pueden ver en una grfica, luego de aos de estancamiento, el peridico comenz a crecer, justo luego del rediseo. +Pero el verdadero xito fue en Bulgaria. +Y eso es realmente asombroso. +El diseo hizo sto? +El diseo fue slo parte del proceso. +Y el proceso que hicimos no era sobre cambiar la apariencia, era sobre mejorar el producto completamente. +Tom una regla arquitectnica sobre funcin y forma y la traduje al contenido y diseo del peridico. +Y puse una estrategia sobre eso. +As que primero te haces una gran pregunta: porqu lo hacemos? cul es el objetivo? +Luego ajustamos el contenido acorde a eso. +Y luego, usualmente a los dos meses, comenzamos a disear. +Mis jefes, al principio, estaban muy sorprendidos. +Porqu estoy preguntndole todas estas preguntas de negocios, en lugar de simplemente mostrarle pginas? +Pero pronto se dieron cuenta que ste es el nuevo rol del diseador: estar en el proceso desde el principio hasta el final. +Entonces, cul es la leccin? +La primera leccin es que el diseo puede cambiar ms que tu producto. +Puede cambiar tu flujo de trabajo... en realidad puede cambiar todo en tu empresa; puede volver tu empresa cabeza abajo. +Incluso puede cambiarte a t. +Y quin es responsable? Los diseadores. +Dnle poder a los diseadores. +Pero la segunda es an ms importante. +Puedes vivir en un pas pequeo y pobre, como yo. +Puedes trabajar para una empresa pequea, en una rama aburrida. +Puedes no tener presupuesto, ni personal... pero an puedes poner tu trabajo al ms alto nivel. +Y todos pueden hacerlo. +Slo necesitas inspiracin, visin y determinacin. +Y recordar que ser bueno no es suficiente. +Gracias. +Empec con el parapente. +El parapente es cuando despegas de una montaa con un parapente, con la posibilidad de volar campo a travs, de recorrer distancia, slo usando las corrientes de aire para elevarte. +Tambin puedes efectuar distintas acrobacias con un parapente. +De ah pas al paracaidismo. +En esta foto pueden ver un salto de 4 personas hay cuatro personas volando juntas, y a la izquierda est el paracaidista cmara con la cmara colocada en el caso para poder grabar todo el salto, por la grabacin misma y para que juzguen. +Del paracaidismo normal pas al vuelo libre. +El vuelo libre es un tipo de paracaidismo ms tridimensional. +Pueden ver al saltador del traje rojo est de pie. +Y al que lleva el traje amarillo y verde, volando boca abajo. +Y el del fondo soy yo, dando vueltas alrededor de la formacin tambin en caida libre, con el casco-cmara para rodar el salto. +De vuelo libre pas al skysurf. +El skysurf es como el vuelo libre con una tabla en los pies. +Ya se imaginarn que con la superficie que supone una tabla de skysurf, se ejerce mucha fuerza, mucha potencia. +Por supuesto se puede usar esa fuerza, por ejemplo, para hacer rotaciones... lo llamamos el helicptero. +Y de ah pas al traje areo. +El traje areo es un traje con el que puedo volar usando slo el cuerpo. +Si pongo el cuerpo en tensin, si estiro el traje, puedo volar. Y como pueden ver, el ndice de cada es mucho ms lento porque la superficie es mayor. +Colocando el cuerpo de forma adecuada puedo avanzar y ganar bastante distancia. +ste es un salto que hice en Ro de Janeiro. +Observen la playa de Copacabana a la izquierda. +De ah, con la tcnica y lo que haba aprendido con el parapente y las distintas disciplinas del paracaidismo, pas al salto base. +El salto base es el paracaidismo desde objetos fijos, como edificios, antenas, puentes o la tierra... o sea, montaas, acantilados... +Y sin duda, para m, es la sensacin definitiva de estar en cada libre, con todas las referencias visuales. +As que pronto mi meta fue descubrir lugares nuevos de los que nadie haba saltado antes. +En el verano de 2000 fui el primero en hacer un salto base desde la cara norte del Eiger, en Suiza. +Dos aos despus, fui el primero en saltar desde el Matterhorn, una montaa muy famosa que probablemente todo el mundo conoce aqu. +En 2005 salt del Eiger, del Monk y del Jungfrau, tres famosas montaas de Suiza. +Lo especial de estos tres saltos fue que los escal y los salt todos en un solo da. +Y en 2008 salt de la Torre Eiffel en Pars. +Con todo ese conocimiento, tambin quis meterme en acrobacias. +As que, con unos amigos, empezamos a hacer cositas; como por ejemplo este salto de aqu, que fue desde un parapente. +O aqu, que todo el mundo se estaba congelando menos yo, porque haca mucho fro en Austria, donde grabamos esto. +Todos sentados en la cesta, y yo encima del globo, listo para deslizarme con mi tabla de skysurf. +O este salto desde un camin en movimiento en la autopista. +Slo es posible practicar deportes extremos de alto nivel como ste si se hace poco a poco, si trabajas mucho en tus capacidades y en tus conocimientos. +Est claro que tienes que estar en unas condiciones fsicas excelentes, y por eso entreno mucho. +Tienes que tener el mejor equipo posible. +Y puede que lo ms importante sea que tienes que trabajar en tu capacidad mental, prepararte mentalmente. +Y todo esto para acercarte lo ms posible al sueo del hombre de poder volar. +As que para 2009, me estoy entrenando mucho para dos proyectos nuevos. +El primero es que quiero establecer el rcord mundial de vuelo desde un acantilado con el traje areo. +Y quiero establecer el rcord de la distancia ms larga jams volada. +Para el segundo proyecto he tenido una idea sensacional, un salto que nadie ha hecho antes. +As que ahora, en el siguiente vdeo, van a ver que se me da mucho mejor volar con traje areo que hablar ingls. +Disfruten, y muchsimas gracias. +June Cohen: tengo unas preguntas. +Creo que todos tenemos algunas preguntas. +La primera es: de verdad se siente lo mismo que el sueo de poder volar? +Porque parece que s es as. +Ueli Gegenschatz: Bsicamente. Creo que probablemente es lo ms cerca que se puede estar del sueo de poder volar. +JC: Ya s la respuesta a esto pero, cmo aterriza? +UG: Con paracaidas. Hay que abrir un paracaidas unos segundos antes de... digamos, impactar. +No es posible aterrizar con un traje areo... todava. +JC: Todava. Pero hay gente intentndolo. Est entre los que...? No se va a comprometer... est entre los que intentan hacerlo? +UG: Es un sueo. Es un sueo. S. +Seguimos trabajando en ello y estamos desarrollando trajes areos para obtener un mejor rendimiento, y aprender ms. +Y creo que ser pronto. +JC: Muy bien. Estaremos atentos a ese campo. Pero tengo dos preguntas ms. +Cul es...? Sala humo de la parte de atrs del traje areo. Estaba usando un traje areo propulsado? +UG: No. Slo es humo. +JC: Saliendo de usted? +UG: Afortunadamente no. +JC: Parece peligroso. +UG: No, el humo est por dos razones; se puede apreciar la velocidad y ver el trazado por el que volaba. +sa es la primera razn. La segunda razn es que es mucho ms fcil para el cmara grabarme si utilizo humo. +JC: Ah, vale. Entonces el traje areo est preparado para soltar humo y que as le puedan seguir. Una pregunta ms. +Como se protege la cara? +Porque no dejo de pensar que al ir tan deprisa tiene que tener la cara aplastada hacia atrs. +Utiliza casco? Lleva gafas especiales? +UG: La sensacin sera mejor y ms pura usando solo gafas. +JC: Y, es as como vuela normalmente? +UG: Normalmente llevo un casco. En las montaas siempre llevo casco por los aterrizajes, porque suelen ser difciles, no es como el paracaidismo normal, donde los aterrizajes son en campo abierto. +As que hay que estar preparado. +JC: Ya. Y, hay algo que no haga nunca? +Ha venido alguien con un proyecto y ha dicho, "Queremos que haga esto!" +y ha dicho usted, "No, no, no lo har"? +UG: Ah, claro, sin duda. Alguna gente tiene unas ideas locas y... JC: Un aplauso... +UG: Muchsimas gracias. +Me pidi Wilsonart International, una compaa de plstico laminado la mayor empresa de laminados del mundo, me pidi disear una cabina para demostracin comercial para exhibirla en la Feria Internacional de Muebles Contemporneos en Nueva York, en el ao 2000. +As que al observar sus tres mercados principales para el producto que eran bsicamente el diseo del transporte, los interiores y el mobiliario, se nos ocurri solucionarlo tomando un viejo remolque Airstream y desmantelarlo, y tratar de que representara el laminado, y un remolque, una clase de imagen fresca y de vanguardia. +Cuando este remolque lleg a mi taller en Berkeley, yo nunca me haba metido en un remolque Airstream, o en ningn otro remolque. +As que soy alguien que mira todo esto desde una perspectiva totalmente nueva y ver si puedo optimizarlo en su forma ms idealista. +Decid que deba indagar un poco y determinar qu haba ido mal con el Airstream en algn momento de su historia. +Lo que descubr en estos interiores fue que no haba conexin entre la coraza exterior y la arquitectura interior de las piezas. +Mientas que la coraza fue concebida originalmente como un capullo ligero, moderno, futurista y de alta tecnologa para lanzarse por la autopista. Los interiores estaban por completo fuera de sincrona con eso. +De hecho pareca que hacan alusin a una casa de montaa. +Esto me pareci un verdadero conflicto, que no hayan sido capaces de desarrollar un vocabulario acerca de huda y viaje y modernidad, en este remolque, que compaginara con la coraza. +Necesitamos estudiar la arqueologa del remolque en s, para comprender lo que es autntico en el remolque Airstream, y lo que se siente que tiene verdadero propsito y utilidad. +Arrancamos todo el vinil, y la pintura que cubra por completo a este fantstico caparazn de aluminio. +Retiramos todos los equipos visibles y guarniciones, fue como trabajar en la cabaa de campo. +Literalmente dibuj en las paredes del remolque, hice el bosquejo en cartn, cortbamos, determinbamos lo que estaba mal, lo quitbamos, lo volvamos a poner. +La meta principal era suavizar el interior, y comenzar a hablar de movimiento, de mobilidad e independencia. +La mayor dificultad en uno de estos remolques es que al disear, en realidad no existe un punto con lgica dnde terminar y comenzar los materiales, debido a la forma continua del remolque. +No existe tal cosa como dos paredes y un techo que se juntan, donde se puedan cambiar materiales y formas. +As que ese fue el reto. +complicado adems porque el material elegido, el laminado, que intentaba resaltar, slo se pliega en dos dimensiones. +Es un complejo interior curvo. +Lo que tuve que idear fue un modo de engaar al ojo para creer que todos estos paneles estn curveados con la coraza. +Lo que invent fue una serie de segundas pieles, que bsicamente flotan sobre la cubierta de aluminio. +Y lo que intentaba hacer ah era dirigir el ojo hacia el espacio, para que se percibiera la geometra de un modo distinto, y que la estructura no rompiera el espacio. +Tambin nos dieron un modo de instalar corriente elctrica y colocar el cableado sin arrancar la cubierta, y que funcionen como un flujo elctrico. +Este es el remolque, casi terminado. +Ese remolque nos llev a una nueva encomienda, a participar en el llamado Bloque de Diseadores de Tokio. +Es una semana de eventos de diseo de muebles en Tokio, en Octubre. +Teruo Kurosaki, dueo de la compaa de muebles Idee, me pidi enviarle dos remolques a Tokio. +Dijo que deseaba un remolque real, en funcionamiento, y ese lo venderamos. +El segundo remolque sera materia en blanco, para hacerle cualquier cosa. +Se nos ocurri una escena de fantasa de un DJ viajando por el pas, que juntara discos y fuera por giras. +Este remolque albergaba dos tornamesas, mezclador, barra, nevera, sistema de sonido integrado. +Tiene un sof enorme, en el que caben varias personas, y bsicamente nos divertimos con este. +Y en este remolque me dediqu a pensar en los viajes, y en huir, en un sentido idiosincrtico. +Muchas de estas ideas emigraron hacia la produccin de remolques para Airstream. +Esto nos lleva al momento en que comenc a dar asesora para Airstream. +Se acercaron a m diciendo, "Bien, qu podemos hacer para modernizar esto?" +Y, "crees que los chicos, ya sabes, patinadores, surfistas, escaladores, los usaran?" +Y les dije, "Bueno, no con ese interior." +Y bien, estuve en Airstream unas seis veces durante el proceso de construccin de este prototipo, que se llama el prototipo Bambi. +Pens, "Finalmente, grandioso, gran compaa, trabajar con alguien con dinero para construir y moldear." +Y camin por las instalaciones de prototipos y son como mi taller, pero ms grande, mismas herramientas, mismas cosas. +Y el problema fue, y me pusieron en el dilema, que tienes que disear el interior usando slo nuestra tecnologa existente, y no hay dinero para equipos o moldeo. +Los remolques en s son construidos a mano. +Todo el terminado es trazado a mano, es nico, de manera que no puedes cortar 100 partes para 100 remolques, debes cortarlos grandes, y cada uno es adaptado a mano. +No deseaban crear un sistema compuesto en serie. +Y aqu lo tienen, este es el Bambi 16. +Pensaba comenzar con una escena de guerra. +Haba poco que advertir sobre el peligro inminente. +El insurgente iraqu haba colocado el IED, un artefacto explosivo improvisado, cuidadosamente al borde de la carretera. +En 2006 hubo ms de 2,500 ataques de este tipo cada mes, y fueron la principal causa de vctimas entre soldados estadounidenses y civiles iraques. +El equipo que estaba a la caza de este IED se llama EOD -Eliminacin de Artefactos Explosivos- y son la punta de lanza en el esfuerzo estadounidense para suprimir estas bombas artesanales. +Cada equipo EOD interviene unas 600 veces al ao desactivando alrededor de dos bombas al da. +Quizs la mejor indicacin de su valor al esfuerzo de guerra, es que los insurgentes iraques ofrecan una recompensa de 50,000 dlares por la cabeza de cada soldado EOD. +Por desgracia, esa llamada en particular no terminara bien. +Cuando el soldado avanz suficientemente cerca para ver los cables reveladores de la bomba, sta explot en una ola de fuego. +Ahora, dependiendo de lo cerca que uno est y la cantidad de explosivo que haya sido colocado en la bomba, puede causar la muerte o lesiones. Hay que estar a una distancia aproximada de 50 metros para estar a salvo. +La explosin es tan fuerte que puede incluso romper un miembro, aunque el golpe no sea directo. +Ese soldado estaba encima de la bomba. +Luego se disculp por no poder llevarlo de vuelta a casa. +Pero tambin habl de la leccin positiva que aprendi de esa prdida. +"Al menos", escribi, "cuando un robot muere, no hay necesidad de escribir una carta a su madre". +Suena a ciencia ficcin pero ya es una realidad en el campo de batalla. +En ese caso el soldado era un robot de 21 kilos llamado PackBot. +La carta del comandante no se diriga a una granja en Iowa como se ve en las viejas pelculas de guerra, sino a la iRobot Company, que toma el nombre de la novela de Asimov y de la no tan buena pelcula con Will Smith, y... uh... ... +si Uds. recuerdan, en ese mundo ficticio los robots comenzaron realizando tareas ordinarias, y luego comenzaron a tomar decisiones de vida o muerte. +Es una realidad que hoy conocemos. +Lo que vamos a hacer es simplemente mostrarles una serie de fotos que muestran la realidad de los robots utilizados en la guerra en este momento o ya en fase de prototipo. +Es solo para darles una idea. +En otras palabras, no van a ver nada que funcione con la tecnologa Vulcano o con las hormonas de algn geniecillo adolescente o cosas por el estilo. +Todo esto es real. As que sigamos adelante y comencemos a ver las imgenes. +Algo importante est sucediendo en la guerra, y quizs tambin en la historia de la humanidad. El ejrcito de Estados Unidos fue a Irak con unos cuantos aviones no tripulados. +Ahora tenemos 5300. +Fuimos sin sistemas terrestres no tripulados. Ahora tenemos 12000. +Y el trmino tcnico "aplicacin asesina" adquiere un nuevo significado en este contexto. +Y no olvidemos que estamos hablando de los Ford Modelo T, los aviones de los hermanos Wright, en comparacin con lo que vendr pronto. +Aqu es donde estamos ahora. +Esto significa que ese tipo de cosas de las cuales se hablaba solo en las convenciones de ciencia ficcin como la Comic-Con tendrn que ser discutidas en los centros de poder y en lugares como el Pentgono. +Se acerca una revolucin de los robots. +Ahora, y en esto debo ser claro, +no estoy hablando de una revolucin en la que hay que preocuparse porque el gobernador de California se aparezca en su puerta a la Terminator. Cuando los historiadores miren este periodo, van a concluir que estamos viviendo un tipo de revolucin diferente: una revolucin en la guerra, como la invencin de la bomba atmica. +Pero podra ser an ms importante porque nuestros sistemas no tripulados no solo afectan el "cmo" de la guerra, sino tambin el "quin" de la guerra en su nivel ms fundamental. +Es decir, cada revolucin anterior en la guerra, ya sea la ametralladora o la bomba atmica, se basaba en un sistema que disparaba ms rpido, o ms lejos, o ms fuerte. +Ese es ciertamente el caso de la robtica, pero tambin cambia la experiencia del guerrero e incluso su propia identidad. +El primero es que el futuro de la guerra, incluyendo la robtica, no va a ser exclusivamente americano. +Actualmente los Estados Unidos llevan la delantera en cuanto a robtica militar, pero sabemos que en la tecnologa no hay avance o ventaja permanente. +Una encuesta rpida: Cuntas personas aqu siguen utilizando computadoras Wang? Lo mismo ocurre en la guerra. Los britnicos y los franceses inventaron el tanque. +Los alemanes descubrieron cmo usarlo mejor, as que lo que hay que pensar para los Estados Unidos, es que estamos por delante en este momento, pero hay otros 43 pases por ah trabajando en robtica militar, incluyendo pases interesantes como Rusia, China, Pakistn, Irn. +Esto me plantea una gran preocupacin: +Cmo podemos avanzar en esta revolucin, dado nuestro nivel de produccin, el estado de nuestra ciencia y la formacin matemtica en las escuelas? +Tambin se puede pensar de este modo: Qu significa enviar cada vez ms soldados a la guerra con equipos cuyo hardware es hecho en China y el software programado en India? +Pero as como el software se ha vuelto de cdigo abierto, tambin lo ha hecho la guerra. +A diferencia de un portaaviones o una bomba atmica, no es necesario un sistema de fabricacin masiva para construir robots. Muchos ya estn a la venta. Incluso muchos son "hgalo usted mismo". +Una de las cosas que acaban de ver pasar en frente es un Raven no tripulado, que se lanza con la mano. Con unos mil dlares se pueden construir uno equivalente a los que usan los soldados en Irak. +Esto plantea otro problema cuando se trata de guerras y conflictos. Los buenos podran jugar y trabajar en ellos como kits de pasatiempo, pero tambin podran hacerlo los malos. +Este cruce entre robtica y cosas como el terrorismo resultar fascinante y hasta perturbador, y ya lo hemos visto comenzar. +Durante la guerra entre Israel, un estado y Hezbol, un actor no estatal, el actor no estatal lanz cuatro aviones no tripulados contra Israel. +Ya existe un sitio web yihadista en el que se puede entrar y detonar a distancia un IED en Irak sentado desde su computadora. +Y entonces creo que vamos a ver surgir dos tendencias. +La primera es que va a reforzar el poder de los individuos contra los gobiernos, pero la segunda es que vamos a ver una expansin en el mbito del terrorismo. +El futuro de esto prodra ser una mezcla entre Al Qaeda 2.0 y la prxima generacin de Unabomber. +Y otra forma de verlo es el hecho que, recuerden, no hay que convencer a un robot que recibir 72 vrgenes despus de su muerte para hacerlo inmolar. +La gente es ms propensa a apoyar el uso de la fuerza si ve que no cuesta nada". +Para m, los robots siguen ciertas tendencias que ya estn jugando un papel importante en nuestra vida poltica y tal vez los llevan a su conclusin lgica. +No tenemos ningn proyecto. Ya no hacemos declaraciones de guerra +ni compramos bonos de guerra. +Y ahora hay que considerar que cada vez ms estamos reemplazando nuestros soldados americanos que mandaramos al peligro por mquinas, y as poder superar los obstculos que quedan en la guerra y hacerlos caer al suelo. +Pero el futuro de la guerra tambin va a ser una guerra en YouTube. +Es decir, nuestras nuevas tecnologas no se limitan a alejar la gente del riesgo. +Tambin registran todo lo que ven. +No solo desvinculan el pblico: redefinen su relacin con la guerra. +Ya hay miles de video clips de escenas de combates en Irak en este momento en Youtube, la mayora filmados por aviones no tripulados. +Ahora, esto podra ser una cosa positiva. +Podra crear conexiones entre el frente interno y el frente de guerra como nunca antes. +Pero recuerden, todo esto sucede en nuestro extrao y bizarro mundo, y as, inevitablemente, la posibilidad de descargar estos video clips en el iPod o Zune nos da la capacidad para convertirlos en entretenimiento. +Los soldados tienen un nombre para estos videos. +Los llaman pornografa blica. +Un ejemplo tpico fue uno que me enviaron por email con un archivo adjunto de un video del ataque de un Predator a una base enemiga. Golpes de misiles, cuerpos volando por el aire por la explosin. +Fue hecho con msica. +Era con la cancin "I Just Want To Fly" de Sugar Ray. +Esta capacidad de ver ms pero sufrir menos crea un desequilibrio en la relacin del pblico con la guerra. +Hago una comparacin con el deporte. +Es como la diferencia entre ver un partido de la NBA, un partido de baloncesto profesional en televisin, donde los jugadores son pequeas figuras en la pantalla, y estar en el mismo partido en persona y darse cuenta cmo es realmente alguien de 2,10 metros. +Pero hay que recordar que estos son solo videos. +Es solo la versin del partido de ESPN. Pierden el contexto. +Pierden la estrategia. +Pierden la humanidad. La guerra se convierte solo en mates y bombas inteligentes. +La cosa irnica en todo esto es que mientras el futuro de la guerra puede involucrar cada vez ms mquinas, es nuestra psique humana la que impulsa todo esto, son nuestros errores humanos los que estn llevando a estas guerras. +Un ejemplo de esto que tiene gran resonancia en la esfera poltica es cmo se manifiesta en nuestra verdadera guerra de ideas que estamos librando contra los grupos radicales. +Qu mensaje creemos que estamos enviando con estas mquinas, frente al mensaje que se est recibiendo del otro lado. +Una de las personas que conoc era un alto funcionario del gobierno Bush, que dijo lo siguiente acerca de la deshumanizacin de la guerra: "Contribuye a nuestra fuerza. Lo que asusta a la gente es nuestra tecnologa". +Pero cuando conoces a la gente del Lbano, por ejemplo, es una historia muy diferente. All conoc a un editor de noticias. Mientras hablbamos, un avin no tripulado volaba sobre nosotros, y dijo esto al respecto: +"Esto es otra muestra ms de la insensibilidad de los israeles y los americanos, que son cobardes porque envan mquinas para luchar contra nosotros. +No quieren luchar contra nosotros como hombres de verdad, pero tienen miedo de luchar, as que es suficiente matar a algunos de sus soldados para derrotarlos". +El futuro de la guerra trae consigo un nuevo tipo de guerrero que en realidad est redefiniendo la experiencia de ir a la guerra. +Se les puede llamar guerreros de cubculo. +Fue as que un piloto de avin no tripulado Predator describi su experiencia de lucha en la guerra de Irak sin salir de Nevada: +"Vas a la guerra durante 12 horas, disparas a los blancos, matas directamente a los enemigos, luego tomas el coche, conduces hasta tu casa y en 20 minutos ests sentado en la mesa hablando con tus hijos de sus tareas". +Pues bien, el equilibrio psicolgico de estas experiencias es increblemente difcil, y de hecho los pilotos de aviones no tripulados tienen mayores ndices de trastorno por estrs postraumtico que muchas de las unidades fsicas en Irak. +Pero algunos temen que esta desconexin conducir a otra cosa, que har que sea ms fcil aceptar los crmines de guerra cuando se tiene esta distancia. "Es como un videojuego", me dijo un joven piloto hablando del ataque de las tropas enemigas desde la distancia. +Cualquiera que haya jugado Grand Theft Auto, sabe que en el mundo virtual hacemos cosas que nunca haramos en la vida real. +Gran parte de lo que estoy diciendo es que hay otro aspecto de las revoluciones tecnolgicas que est dando forma a nuestro presente, y quizs dar forma a nuestro futuro en la guerra. +La Ley de Moore se aplica, al igual que la Ley de Murphy. +La niebla de la guerra no se levanta. +El enemigo tiene un voto. +Estamos ganando increbles nuevas capacidades, pero tambin estamos viendo y experimentando nuevos dilemas humanos. A veces no son ms que momentos "oops!", que es lo que el jefe de una compaa de robtica describi como "patinazos". Bien, Cules son los patinazos de los robots en la guerra? +Bueno, a veces son graciosos. A veces son como esa escena de la pelcula con Eddie Murphy "La mejor defensa, el ataque!", por ejemplo, cuando pusieron a prueba un robot que estaba armado, y durante la demostracin, ste comenz a girar en un crculo apuntando con sus ametralladoras hacia la tribuna de las personalidades. +Afortunadamente el arma no estaba cargada y nadie result herido, pero otras veces los patinazos son trgicos, como el ao pasado en Sudfrica, donde un can antiareo tuvo un "problema de software", y en realidad se activ y dispar, matando a nueve soldados. +Existen nuevos escollos en las leyes de guerra y la rendicin de cuentas. Qu hacemos en situaciones como la masacre no tripulada? +Qu es masacre no tripulada? +Ya hemos tenido tres casos de ataques con aviones no tripulados Predator donde pensbamos que tenan a Bin Laden, y result no ser as. +Y ah es donde estamos ahora. +Ni siquiera estamos hablando de sistemas autnomos armados con plena autoridad para usar la fuerza. +Y no creo que esto no vaya a suceder. +Durante mi investigacin me top con cuatro diferentes proyectos del Pentgono sobre diversos aspectos del problema. +Y entonces surge la pregunta: cmo plantear cuestiones relacionadas con crmenes de guerra? Los robots no tienen emociones, as que no se enojan si un compaero es asesinado. +No cometen crmenes de rabia y venganza. +Pero los robots no sienten emociones. +Ven a una abuela de 80 aos en silla de ruedas del mismo modo que ven un tanque T-80: ambos son solo una serie de ceros y unos. +Debemos hallar entonces una respuesta a esta pregunta: Cmo podemos adaptar nuestras leyes de guerra del siglo XX, tan viejas que podran jubilarse, a estas tecnologas del siglo XXI? +Por ltimo, he hablado de lo que parece ser el futuro de la guerra, pero tengan en cuenta que solo he usado ejemplos del mundo real y que solo han visto fotos y videos reales. +Y esto representa un gran desafo del cual todos debemos preocuparnos, antes de tener que preocuparnos de que una aspiradora nos succione la vida. +Vamos a dejar que esto que est sucediendo en la guerra, solo porque suena a ciencia ficcin nos mantenga en la negacin? +Vamos a enfrentar la realidad de la guerra del siglo XXI? +Nuestra generacin va a repetir el error que cometi una generacin pasada con las armas atmicas, y no va a lidiar con las cuestiones que lo rodean sino hasta que la caja de Pandora est abierta? +Ahora, yo podra estar equivocado, como afirm un cientfico de robots del Pentgono diciendo: "No hay verdaderos problemas sociales, ticos y morales cuando se trata de robots. +Es decir", aadi, "a menos que la mquina mate repetidamente a las personas equivocadas. +Entonces es simplemente una cuestin de retiro del producto". +Y el punto de esto es que podemos recurrir a Hollywood. +Hace unos aos, Hollywood reuni a los personajes ms famosos y cre una lista de los 100 mejores hroes y los 100 mejores villanos de toda la historia de Hollywood, los personajes que representan lo mejor y lo peor de la humanidad. +Solo un personaje aparece en ambas listas: Terminator, una mquina asesina. +Y esto indica que nuestras mquinas pueden ser usadas ya sea para bien o para mal, pero para m indica que hay una dualidad en el ser humano. +Esta semana celebramos nuestra creatividad. Nuestra creatividad ha llevado nuestra especie a las estrellas. +Nuestra creatividad ha creado obras de arte y la literatura para expresar nuestro amor. +Ahora estamos usando nuestra creatividad en una cierta direccin, para construir mquinas fantsticas con increbles capacidades, y quizs, algn da, incluso una nueva especie. +Pero una de las principales razones por las que hacemos esto se debe a nuestro instinto de destruirnos unos a otros. Por lo tanto, deberamos preguntarnos: son nuestras mquinas, o estamos auto diseados para la guerra? +Gracias. +Una cosa que me gustara decir sobre la realizacin de pelculas es -- sobre esta pelcula -- al considerar algunas de las maravillosas conversaciones que hemos odo aqu, Michael Moschen, y algunas de sus conversaciones sobre la msica, esta idea de que existe una lnea narrativa y que la msica existe en el tiempo. +una pelcula tambin existe en el tiempo, es una experiencia que se deberas recorrer emocionalmente. +Y al hacer esta pelcula, senta que tantos de los documentales que haba visto se trataban, todos, sobre aprender algo, ya fuera conocimiento, o conducido por cabezas que hablan, y dirigido por ideas. +Y yo quera que esta pelcula fuera conducida por emociones, y realmente seguir mi viaje. +As que en lugar de hacer la cosa de las cabezas parlantes, ms bien est compuesto por escenas, y nos encontramos con gente a lo largo del camino. +Solo los encontramos una sola vez. +Ellos no regresan varias veces, as que en realidad relata un viaje. +Es un poco como la vida, que cuando ests en ella no puedes salir. +Hay dos fragmentos que les quiero mostrar, el primero es un tipo de mescolanza, son solo tres pequeos momentos, cuatro pequeos momentos con tres de las personas que estuvieron aqu esta noche. +No es como ocurre en la pelcula, porque son parte de escenas mucho ms largas. +Pero se enfrentan en una manera maravillosa. +Y termina con un pequeo fragmento de mi padre, de Lou, hablando sobre algo que fue muy querido para l, que son los accidentes de la vida. +Pienso que l senta que las mejores cosas de la vida eran accidentales, y tal vez, no planeadas. +Y esos tres fragmentos sern seguidos por una escena de lo que tal vez, para m, es su mejor edificio que es el edificio en Dhaka, Bangladesh. +l construy la capital all. +Y pienso que a ustedes les gustar este edificio, nunca ha sido visto, ha sido fotografiado, pero nunca filmado por un equipo cinematogrfico. +Fuimos el primer equipo cinematogrfico ah dentro. +Ustedes vern imgenes de este notable edificio. +Un par de cosas que deben saber cundo lo vean, todo fue construido a mano, Creo que consiguieron una gra el ltimo ao. +Todo fue construido en andamiajes de bamb, las personas llevando cestas de concreto en sus cabezas, vacindolas en los moldes. +Es la capital del pas, Y tom 23 aos construirlo, lo cual es algo que los enorgullece mucho por all. +Tom tanto tiempo como el Taj Mahal. +Desafortunadamente, tom tanto tiempo que Lou nunca lo vio terminado. +l muri en 1974. +El edificio fue finalizado en 1983. +As que continu en construccin por muchos aos hasta despus de su muerte. +Piensen en esto cuando vean el edificio, que a veces las cosas por las cuales nos esforzamos tanto en la vida, nunca las podemos ver acabadas. +As que, esos son los dos fragmentos que les voy a mostrar. +Corran la cinta. +Richard Saul Wurman: Recuerdo haberlo escuchado hablar en Penn. +Y al regresar a mi casa le dije a mi padre y madre, "Acabo de conocer a un hombre, no tiene mucho trabajo, es un poco feo, tiene una voz chistosa, y es un profesor en la escuela. +S que nunca han escuchado de l, pero recuerden este da que algn da escucharn de l, porque es realmente un hombre asombroso." +Frank Gehry: Escuch que tuvo algn tipo de aventura con Ingrid Bergman. Es eso cierto? +Nathaniel Kahn: Si fue as, fue un tipo muy afortunado. +NK: Enserio escuch eso? +FG: Si, cuando estuvo en Roma. +Moshe Safdie: l era un verdadero nmada. +Y sabe, cuando lo conoc cuando estaba en su oficina, llegaba de un viaje, se estaba en la oficina por dos o tres das intensos, y volva a empacar e irse. +Sabes, l estaba en la oficina hasta las tres de la maana trabajando con nosotros y haba un sentido de nmada en l. +Aunque fue tan trgica su muerte en una estacin de trenes, fue muy consistente con su vida, sabes? +A menudo pienso que voy a morir en un avin, o que voy a morir en un aeropuerto, o morir trotando sin que tenga una identificacin sobre mi. +No s porque llevo eso conmigo por esa memoria de la forma en que muri. +Pero en el fondo l fue un tipo de nmada. +Louis Kahn: Realmente son tan accidentales nuestras existencias y tan influenciadas por las circunstancias. +Hombre: Somos los trabajadores matutinos que venimos, todo el tiempo, aqu y disfrutamos una caminata, la belleza y la atmosfera de la cuidad y este es el lugar ms bello de Bangladesh. +Estamos orgullosos. +NK: Estn orgullosos? +Hombre: S, es la imagen nacional de Bangladesh. +NK: Saben algo sobre el arquitecto? +Hombre: Arquitecto? Escuch algo sobre l, es un [poco claro] arquitecto. +NK: Bueno en realidad yo estoy ac porque soy el hijo del arquitecto, l era mi padre. +Hombre: Oh! Su padre es Louis Farrakhan? +NK: S. No, no era Louis Farrakhan, Louis Kahn. +Hombre: Louis Kahn, s! +Hombre: Su padre, sigue vivo? +NK: No, l ha estado muerto por 25 aos. +Hombre: Encantado en darle la bienvenida nuevamente. +NK: Gracias. +NK: l nunca lo vio terminado, Pop. +No, l nunca vio esto. +Shamsul Wares: Era casi imposible, construir para un pas como el nuestro. +hace 50 aos, no era nada, solo campos de arroz, y desde que lo invitamos aqu, l sinti que tena una responsabilidad. +l quera ser un Moiss aqu, l nos dio democracia. +No fue un hombre poltico, pero de este modo nos ha dado la institucin para la democracia, de donde podemos surgir. +En ese sentido es tan relevante. +A l no le importaba cuanta plata tuviera este pas, o si algn da se pudiera acabar este edificio. pero de alguna forma l fue capaz de hacerlo, construirlo, aqu +Y este es su proyecto ms grande, aqu, en el pas ms pobre del mundo. +NK: Le cost su vida. +SW: S, l pag. l pag con su vida por esto, y por eso l es grande y lo recordaremos. +Pero tambin era humano, +su fracaso para satisfacer su vida familiar, es una inevitable asociacin de grandes personajes. +Pero pienso que su hijo entender esto, y no tendr ningn resentimiento, ni sentido de abandono, Creo. +A l le importaba de una manera muy diferente, pero toma mucho tiempo comprender eso. +En el aspecto social de su vida l era como un nio, no era para nada maduro. +No le poda decir no a nada, y es por eso, porque l no le poda decirle no a las cosas, que tenemos hoy este edificio. +Ves, solo de esa manera, puedes realmente comprenderlo. +No hay otro atajo, no hay otra forma de realmente comprenderlo. +Pero pienso, l nos ha dado este edificio y siempre sentimos por l, por eso, l nos ha dado amor. +Probablemente no pudo darte a ti el tipo adecuado de amor, pero a nosotros, l le ha dado a la gente el tipo adecuado de amor, eso es importante. +Debes entender eso. +l tena una enorme cantidad de amor, l amaba a todo el mundo. +Al amar a todo el mundo, a veces no vea los ms cercanos a l, y eso es inevitable en hombres de su talla. +Lo que voy a intentar hacer es explicarles rpidamente, es cmo predecir, e ilustrar con algunas predicciones lo que Irn va a hacer en los siguientes dos aos. +Para predecir de manera adecuada, tenemos que usar la ciencia. +Y la razn por la cual tenemos que usar la ciencia es porque entonces podemos reproducir lo que estamos haciendo, no es cuestin de sabiduria o adivinacin. +Y si podemos predecir, entonces podemos cambiar el futuro. +Entonces, si ests interesado en cambiar polticas energticas, o si ests interesado en cambiar polticas de seguridad nacional, o polticas de salud, o de educacin, la ciencia, una rama particular de la ciencia es una manera de hacerlo, no de la manera en la cual lo hemos estado haciendo, la cual es pura especulacin. +Ahora, antes de que les explique cmo hacerlo djenme decirles una pequea verdad de publicidad, porque no estoy dentro del negocio de la magia, +hay muchas cosas que el modelo que hago pueden predecir, y hay algunas que no pueden. +Pueden predecir negociaciones complejas o situaciones que involucran coaccin, eso es en escencia todo lo que tiene que ver con poltica, mucho de lo que tiene que ver con los negocios, pero perdn, si buscas especular en la bolsa, yo no predigo las bolsa de valores -- OK, y no va a pasar pronto. +Pero no me interesa hacer eso. +No me interesa predecir generadores de numeros aleatorios, +De hecho recibo llamadas de personas que quieren saber qu numeros van a ganar en la lotera. +No tengo idea. +Estoy interesado en el uso de teora de juegos, teora de juegos es una rama de las matemticas y eso significa, lo siento, que incluso en el estudio de la poltica, las matemticas se han vuelto una parte importante. +No podemos pretender solamente especular sobre la poltica, tenemos que verla de un modo riguroso. +Entonces, de qu se trata la teora de juegos? +sta asume que las personas estn buscando lo que es bueno para ellas. +Esto no parece tan desconcertante -- aunque es controversial para muchas personas -- que nos interesamos en nosotros mismos. +Para buscar lo que es mejor para ellos o lo que piensan es mejor para ellos, las personas tienen valores -- ellas identifican lo que quieren y lo que no quieren. +Y ellos creen saber lo que las otras personas quieren, y lo que las otras personas no quieren, cunto poder tienen otras personas, cunto esas personas se podran entrometer en lo que sea que es lo que quieres. +Y ellos enfrentan limitaciones, restricciones, ellos podran ser dbiles, ellos podran estar en el lugar equivocado del mundo, ellos podran ser Einstein, estancados en una granja en algun lugar en un pueblo rural en India sin ser reconocidos, como fue el caso de Ramanujan por un largo tiempo, un gran matemtico del que nadie saba nada. +Ahora, quin es racional? +Muchas personas estan preocupadas por qu significa la racionalidad. +Las personas son racionales. +La madre Teresa era racional. +Los terroristas son racionales. +Casi todos son racionales. +Creo que slo hay dos expeciones que yo sepa -- los nios de dos aos no son racionales, tienen preferencias muy inestables, cambian lo que piensan todo el tiempo, y los esquizofrnicos no son racionales problablemente, pero casi todos los dems son racionales. +Esto es, ellos slo tratan de hacer lo que piensan que es en su beneficio. +Ahora, para comprender lo que la gente va a hacer para perseguir sus intereses, necesitamos pensar en quin tiene influencia en el mundo. +Si vas a tratar de influenciar corporaciones para que cambien su comportamiento, con respecto a producir contaminantes, un acercamiento, el acercamiento comn, es exhortarlos para que sean mejores, explicarles el dao que le estan haciendo al mundo. +Y muchos de ustedes habran notado que no tiene un efecto importate, como quizs quisieran que lo tuviera, +pero si les muestras que es de su propio inters, entonces reaccionan. +As que, tenemos que comprender quin influencia los problemas. +Esa persona se rodea de asesores. +Si estamos hablando de problemas de seguridad nacional, posiblemente sea el Secretario de Estado, quizs sea el Secretario de Defensa, el director de Inteligencia Nacional, quizs el embajador de las Naciones Unidas, o alguien ms quien quiera que ellos crean que va a saber ms acerca de un problema en particular. +Pero enfrentmoslo, el Secretario de Estado no sabe mucho acerca de Irn. +El Secretario de Defensa no sabe mucho acerca de Irn. +Cada una de esas personas a su vez tiene asesores que los asesoran, para que puedan asesorar al presidente. +Hay muchas personas formando decisiones, de manera que si queremos predecir correctamente tenemos que poner atencin a todos los que estn tratando de dar forma al resultado no slo a las personas en la punta de la pirmide de toma de decisiones. +Desgraciadamente, muchas veces no hacemos eso. +Hay una buena razn por lo que no lo hacemos, y hay una buena razn por la que usar la teora de juegos y computadoras podemos superar esa limitacin de slo ver unas cuantas personas. +Imaginen un problema con slo cinco personas que tomen decisiones. +Imaginen por ejemplo que Sally por aqu, quiere saber lo que Harry y Jane y George y Frank estan pensando, y enva mensajes a esas personas. +Sally est dando su opinin a ellos, y ellos estn dando su opinion a Sally. +Pero Sally tambin quiere saber lo que Harry le est diciendo a esos tres, y lo que le estn diciendo a Harry. +Y Harry quiere saber lo que esas personas se estn diciendo entre ellas, y as sucesivamente, y Sally quisiera saber lo que Harry piensa de lo que esas personas estn diciendo. +Eso es un problema complicado, es mucha informacin. +Con cinco personas que toman decisiones hay muchos vnculos -- 120 de hecho si recuerdan los factoriales. +El factorial de 5 es 120. +Ahora quizs se sorprendan al saber que la gente inteligente puede mantener 120 cosas directamente en sus cabezas. +Supongamos que doblamos el numero de influencias de 5 a 10. +Eso significa que hemos doblado el nmero de piezas de informacin que tenemos que saber, de 120 a 240? +No. Qu tal 10 veces? +A 1,200? No. +Las hemos incrementado a 3.6 millones. +Nadie puede mantener eso directamente en su cabeza. +Pero las computadoras, ellas pueden. Ellas no necesitan descansos, no necesitan vacaciones, no necesitan ir a dormir en la noche, tampoco piden aumentos. +Ellas pueden mantener esa informacin directamente y eso significa que podemos procesar la informacin. +Entonces yo les voy a hablar acerca de como procesarla, y les voy a dar algunos ejemplos de Irn, y ustedes deben de estar pensando, "Por qu debemos escuchar a este tipo?" +Por qu debemos creer en lo que l est diciendo? +As que les voy a mostrar un dato. +Esta es una evaluacin por al Agencia Central de Inteligencia del porcentaje de tiempo que el modelo del que estoy hablando es acertado en predecir cosas en las que su resultado aun no se conoce, cuando los expertos que dieron la informacin la obtuvieron mal. +Eso no lo sostengo yo, lo sostiene la CIA, lo pueden leer, fue desclasificado hace poco. Lo pueden leer en un volumen editado por H. Bradford Westerfield, Yale University Press. +Entonces, qu es lo que tenemos que saber para predecir? +Se sorprendern al descubrir que no necesitamos saber mucho. +Necesitamos saber quin tiene inters en tratar de formar el resultado de una decisin. +Necesitamos saber lo que dicen que quieren, no lo que quieren en realidad, no lo que piensan que pueden obtener, slo lo que dicen querer, porque es una posicin estratgicamente escogida, y podemos trabajar inversamente desde eso para obtener conclusiones sobre las caractersticas importantes de lo que decidirn. +Necesitamos saber qu tan concentrados estn en el problema que tienen en mano. +Eso es, qu tan dispuestos estn para dejar lo que estan haciendo cuando el problema surga. y antenderlo en vez de lo que esten haciendo en ese momento -- es decir, qu tan significativo es eso para ellos? +Y qu tanta influenza tendran cuando entrarn en accin si escogen participar en el problema. +Si sabemos esas cosas podemos predecir su comportamiento asumiendo que todos tienen inters por dos cosas en cualquier decisin. +Les interesa el resultado. Les gustara un resultado lo mas cercano posible a lo que ellos estn interesados. +Les interesa superarse, tambin les importa obtener crdito -- el ego est involucrado, ellos quieren ser vistos tan importantes al formar el resultado, o tan importantes, si es su preferencia, para bloquear un resultado. +Y entonces tenemos que averiguar cmo equilibran esas dos cosas. +Diferentes personas negocian entre mantener su terreno, sostenerlo fielmente y perder con grandeza, o darse por vencidos, poner su dedo en el viento, y hacer lo que sea que piensen va a ser una posicin ganadora. +La mayora de las personas caen entre una de estas dos categoras, y si podemos averiguar en cul caern podemos saber cmo negociar con ellas para cambiar su comportamiento. +Entonces, con slo esa pequea informacin podemos averiguar cules son las opciones que las personas tienen, cules son las opciones que estn esperando tomar, lo que sern despues, lo que valoran, lo que quieren, y lo que creen acerca de otras personas. +Habrn notado lo que no necesitamos saber, no hay historia aqu. +Cmo han llegado a donde estn puede ser importante al darle forma al a informacin de entrada, pero una vez que sabemos lo que son nos preocupamos lo que van a hacer en el futuro. +Cmo llegaron ah no se vuelve terriblemente crtico al predecir. +Les recuerdo de ese 90 por ciento de exactitud. +Entonces, de dnde vamos a obtener esta informacin? +Podemos obtener esta informacin por medio de Internet, por "The Economist", "The Financial Times", "The New York Times", Las noticias de Estados Unidos y el reporte Mundial, muchas fuentes como sas, o la podemos obtener hablando con expertos quienes dedicaron sus vidas a estudiar lugares y problemas, porque esos expertos conocen esta informacin. +Si no saben quines son las personas que estan tratando de influenciar una decisin, cunta influencia tienen, cunto les interesa el problema, y lo que dicen que quieren, son expertos? Eso es lo que significa ser un experto, esas son las cosas bsicas que un experto necesita saber. +Ahora, giremos hacia Irn. +Djenme hacer tres predicciones importantes -- lo pueden revisar, el tiempo lo dir. +Qu es lo que Irn har respecto a su programa de armas nucleares? +Qu tan seguro es el rgimen teocrtico en Irn? +Cul es su futuro? +Y el mejor amigo de todos, Ahmadi-Nejad. Cmo sern las cosas para l? +Cmo estarn yendo las cosas para l en el siguiente par de aos? +Vean esto, esto no est basado en estadsticas. +Quiero ser muy claro aqu. No estoy proyectando datos del pasado hacia el futuro. +Yo he tomado informacin en posiciones y as, lo ejecut en un modelo de computadora que simul las dinmicas de interaccin, y estas son las dinmicas simuladas, las predicciones acerca del camino de la poltica. +Y as pueden ver en el eje vertical, no lo he mostrado hasta cero, hay muchas otras opciones, pero aqu slo les estoy mostrando la prediccin, as que hice la escala ms pequea, +hasta arriba del eje, "Construir la Bomba". +En 130, comenzamos un poco sobre 130, entre construir la boma, y hacer suficiente combustible nucelar para que puedas construir una bomba. +Eso es, de acuerdo con mis analisis, donde los Iranies estaban en el comienzo de este ao. +y el modelo hace predicciones cuesta abajo, +en 115 slo produciran suficiente combustible nuclear para mostrar que saben cmo hacerlo, pero no construiran un arma, construiran una cantidad de investigacin. +Esto lograra algo de orgullo nacional, pero no seguir adelante y construir un arma. +y abajo de 100 construiran energa nuclear civil, que es lo que dicen que es su objetivo. +La linea amarilla nos muestra el camino mas comn. +La linea amarilla incluye el analisis de 87 personas que toman las decisiones en Irn, y un gran numero de influencias externas tratando de presionar a Irn a cambiar su comportamiento, varios elementos en los Estado Unidos, y en Egipto y Arabia Saudita, y Rusia, la Unin Europea, Japn, y as sucesivamente. +La lnea blanca reproduce el analisis si el ambiente internacional dejara a Irn hacer sus propias decisiones internas, debajo de sus propias presiones polticas domesticas - +eso no va a pasar - pero pueden ver que esa lnea viene abajo ms rpido si no son sometidos a presiones internacionales, si se les permite perseguir sus propios intereses. +Pero en cualquier evento, al final de este ao, al principio del siguiente, llegamos a un resultado equilibrado y estable. +Y ese equilibrio no es lo que a Estados Unidos le gustaria, pero es problablemente un equilibrio con el que los Estados Unidos puede vivir, y con el que los otros pueden vivir. +Y eso es que Irn lograra ese orgullo nacionalista haciendo suficiente combustible grado blico, gracias a la investigacin, para que puedan demostrar que saben cmo hacer combustible de grado blico, pero no suficiente para construir una bomba. +Cmo ha ocurrido esto? +Aqu pueden ver que sta es la distribucin del poder en favor de la energa nuclear civil hoy en da, eso es cmo el bloque de poder se predice que ser a finales del 2010, principios del 2011. +Practicamente nadie apoya la investigacin en combustible grado blico hoy en da, pero en el 2011 se convierte en un gran bloque, y cuando se ponen esos dos juntos, sa es la influencia controladora en Irn. +Hoy en da, hay muchas personas -- Ahmadinejad por ejemplo -- a quien no slo le gustara construir una bomba, sino tambin probar una bomba. +Ese poder desaparece completamente, nadie apoya eso para el 2011. +Estas personas se encojen, el poder se va para ac as que el resultado va a ser el combustible de grado blico. +Quines son los ganadores y quines los perdedores en Irn? +Vean a estas personas, su poder est creciendo, e incluso, esto fue hecho hace un poco, antes de la crisis econmica actual, y es probable que caiga an ms. +Esta gente son los intereses adinerados en Irn, los banqueros, los petroleros, los comerciantes, +estn incrementando su influencia poltica, mientras los mullahs se aslan con la excepcin de un grupo de mullahs, que no son bien conocidos por los Americanos. +Esos son la linea de aqu, creciendo en poder, stos son lo que los Iranes llaman los "Quietistas". +Estos son los Ayatollahs, mayormente basados en Qom. quien tiene gran influencia en la comunidad religiosa, que han sido reservados en la poltica y que empezaran a alzar la voz, porque ven a Irn en una direccin poco saludable una direccin contraria a lo que Khomeini tena en mente. +Aqu est el Sr. Ahmadinejad. +Dos cosas que hay que notar, se est volviendo dbil, y mientras l recibe mucha atencin en los Estados Unidos, l no es un protagonista en Irn, +l va cuesta abajo. +OK, me gustara alejarme un poco de esto. +No todo es predecible, la bolsa de valores es, al menos para m, no predecible, pero muchas negociaciones complicadas son predecibles. +Otra vez, ya sea que estemos hablando sobre polticas de salud, educacin medio ambiente, energa, juicios, fusiones, todos estos son problemas complicados que son predecibles, a los cuales este tipo de tecnologa se les puede aplicar. +Y la razn por la que ser capaz de predecir estas cosas es importante, no es slo porque t puedas correr un grupo de inversin y hacer dinero, si no porque puedes predecir lo que la gente har, puedes urdir lo que harn. +y si t puedes urdir lo que harn, tu puedes cambiar el mundo, puedes obtener un mejor resultado. +Me gustara dejarlos con un pensamiento, que es para m, el tema dominante de esta reunin, y el tema dominante de esta manera de pensar acerca del mundo. +Cuando la gente te dice, "Eso es imposible," t les respondes, "Cuando t dices "Eso es imposible," ests confundido con: "No s cmo hacerlo." Gracias. +Chris Anderson: Una pregunta para ti. +Eso fue fascinante. +Me encant que lo mostraras. +Aunque me preocup mucho a la mitad de la pltica, slo me preocupe si habas includo en tu modelo, la posibilidad que mostrando esta prediccin, podra causar un cambio en el resultado. +Tenemos 800 personas en Tehran que ven TEDTalks. +Bruce Bueno de Mesquita: He pensado sobre eso, tambin, como he trabajado mucho para la comunidad de inteligencia, ellos tambin pensaron eso. +Sera algo bueno si las personas pusieran mas atencin, lo tomaran en serio, y participaran en el mismo tipo de clculos, porque cambiara las cosas. Pero cambiara las cosas en dos formas positivas. +Acelerara la forma en que las personas llegan a un acuerdo, y le ahorrara a todos mucho tiempo y discusiones. +Y, llegaran a un acuerdo con el que todo mundo estara feliz, sin tener que manipularlos tanto que es bsicamente lo que yo hago, manipularlos. +Entonces sera algo bueno. +CA: Entonces estas tratando de decir, "Gente de Irn, ste es su destino, vayamos para all." +CA: Esperemos que lo escuchen de esa manera. Muchas gracias Bruce. +CCM: Gracias. +Las bacterias son los organismos vivos ms antiguos de la Tierra. +Han estado aqu por miles de millones de aos, y son organismos microscpicos unicelulares. +Entonces son slo una clula y tienen esta propiedad especial, que solo tienen una pieza de ADN. +Tienen muy pocos genes, y la informacin gentica para codificar todas las cosas que hacen. +La forma en la que las bacterias se ganan la vida es consumiendo nutrientes del medio ambiente, para crecer al doble de su tamao, partirse a s mismas por la mitad, y una clula se convierte en dos, y as sucesivamente, una y otra vez. +Slo crecen y se dividen, y crecen y se dividen -- una vida ms o menos aburrida, salvo que lo que yo dira es que usted tiene una increble interaccin con estas criaturas. +S que ustedes piensan en s mismos como humanos, y ms o menos as es como yo pienso en ustedes. +Se supone que este hombre representa a un ser humano genrico, y todos los crculos en este hombre son todas las clulas que componen su cuerpo. +Hay aproximadamente un billn de clulas humanas que hace que cada uno de nosotros sea quien es, y que nos permiten poder hacer todas las cosas que hacemos, pero usted tiene 10 billones de clulas bacterianas en usted o sobre usted en cualquier momento en su vida. +As, hay 10 veces ms clulas bacterianas que clulas humanas en un ser humano. +Y, por supuesto, es el ADN el que cuenta, as que aqu estn todas las A, T, G y C que constituyen su cdigo gentico, y le dan todas sus encantadoras caractersticas. +Usted tiene unos 30.000 genes. +Pues resulta que tiene 100 veces ms genes de bacterias desempeando un papel en usted o dentro de usted a lo largo de su vida. +En el mejor de los casos, usted es humano en un 10 por ciento, pero es ms probable que sea humano en un uno por ciento, aproximadamente, dependiendo de cul de estos parmetros prefiere. +S que piensan en ustedes como seres humanos, pero yo pienso en ustedes como bacterias en un 90 o 99 por ciento. +Estas bacterias no son jinetes pasivos, son increblemente importantes, nos mantienen vivos. +Nos cubren con una armadura invisible que mantiene a las amenazas del medio ambiente fuera de manera que estemos saludables. +Ellas digieren nuestra comida, fabrican nuestras vitaminas, y en realidad educan a su sistema inmunolgico para mantener a los microbios malos fuera. +As que hacen todas estas cosas sorprendentes que nos ayudan y son vitales para mantenernos con vida, y que nunca reciben crdito por ello. +Pero consiguen un montn de crdito, ya que hacen un montn de cosas terribles tambin. +Asi, hay todo tipo de bacterias en la Tierra que no tienen nada que hacer en usted o dentro de usted en ningn momento, y si estn all, lo ponen increblemente enfermo. +Y as, la pregunta para mi laboratorio no es si quiere pensar en todas las cosas buenas que hacen las bacterias, o en todas las cosas malas que hacen. +La pregunta que tenemos es cmo logran hacer alguna cosa? +Quiero decir, son increblemente pequeas, usted necesita un microscopio para ver una. +Viven este tipo de vida aburrida, donde crecen y se dividen, y siempre han sido consideradas como organismos asociales y solitarios. +Y as, nos pareci que simplemente son demasiado pequeas para tener un impacto sobre su medio ambiente si actuaran apenas como individuos. +Entonces queramos pensar si no podra haber una forma diferente en la que las bacterias viven. +La clave para esto vino de otra bacteria marina, una bacteria llamada Vibrio fischeri. +Lo que estn viendo en esta diapositiva es slo una persona de mi laboratorio sosteniendo un frasco con un cultivo lquido de una bacteria, una bacteria inocua y hermosa que proviene del ocano, llamada Vibrio fischeri. +Esta bacteria tiene como propiedad especial, que emite luz, as que genera bioluminiscencia, as como las lucirnagas generan luz. +No estamos haciendo nada a las clulas aqu. +Simplemente tomamos esta foto apagando las luces de la sala, y esto es lo que vemos. +Lo que fue realmente interesante para nosotros no fue que la bacteria emitiera luz, sino cundo la emitan. +Lo que observamos es que cuando las bacterias estaban solas, como cuando se encontraban en una suspensin diluida, no haba luz. +Pero cuando crecan hasta un cierto nmero de clulas todas las bacterias encendan su luz al mismo tiempo. +La pregunta que tenamos era, cmo pueden las bacterias, estos organismos primitivos, diferenciar entre el momento en el que estaban solas, y el momento en el que estaban en una comunidad, y luego hacer algo todas juntas? +Lo que hemos averiguado es que la forma en que lo hacen es hablando entre s, y hablan con un idioma qumico. +Se supone que esto es mi celula bacteriana. +Cuando est sola no genera ningn tipo de luz. +Pero, lo que s hace es crear y secretar molculas pequeas en las que se puede pensar como si fueran hormonas, y estos son los tringulos de color rojo, y cuando la bacteria esta sola las molculas flotan y no hay luz. +Pero cuando las bacterias crecen y se duplican y todos estn participando en la generacin de estas molculas, la molcula -- la porcin extracelular de esa molcula aumenta en proporcin al nmero de clulas. +Y cuando la molcula llega a una cierta cantidad que le dice a las bacterias cuntas vecinas hay, ellas reconocen esa molcula y todas las bacterias generan luz en sincrona. +As es como funciona la bioluminiscencia -- ellas estn hablando con estas palabras qumicas. +La razn por la que Vibrio fischeri est haciendo esto proviene de la biologa. +De nuevo, otro reconocimiento para los animales en el ocano, Vibrio fischeri vive en este calamar. +Lo que estn viendo es el calamar hawaiano de rabo corto, y est girado de espaldas, y lo que espero que puedan ver son estos dos lbulos brillantes que son la casa de estas clulas de Vibrio fischeri, viven all, un gran nmero de clulas la molcula est all, y estn generando luz. +La razn por la que el calamar est dispuesto a aguantar a estos pequeos vndalos es porque quiere esa luz. +La forma en que funciona esta simbiosis es que este pequeo calamar vive justo en frente de la costa de Hawaii, en aguas poco profundas. +El calamar es nocturno, por lo que durante el da se entierra en la arena y duerme, pero luego por la noche tiene que salir a cazar. +En noches brillantes cuando hay mucha luz de la luna o de las estrellas esa luz puede penetrar la profundidad del agua en la que el calamar vive, dado que son apenas un par de pies de agua. +Lo que el calamar ha desarrollado es un obturador que puede abrir y cerrar sobre este rgano especializado de luz que sirve de vivienda a las bacterias. +Entonces tiene detectores en la espalda por lo que puede percibir la cantidad de luz de las estrellas o de la luna que golpea su espalda. +As que abre y cierra el obturador de modo que la cantidad de luz que sale de la parte inferior -- la cual es producida por la bacteria -- coincide exactamente con la cantidad de luz que choca con la espalda del calamar, de modo que el calamar no tiene una sombra. +De hecho, utiliza la luz de las bacterias para contra-iluminarse a s mismo en un dispositivo de lucha contra los depredadores de forma que estos no pueden ver su sombra, calcular su trayectoria, y comrselo. +Es como el bombardero Stealth del ocano. +Pero, entonces, si lo piensas, el calamar tiene un terrible problema porque tiene este cultivo espeso y moribundo de bacterias y no puede mantener eso. +As que lo que ocurre es que cada maana cuando sale el sol el calamar vuelve a dormir, se entierra en la arena, y tiene una bomba que est ligada a su ritmo circadiano, y cuando sale el sol, bombea alrededor del 95 por ciento de las bacterias. +Ahora que las bacterias estn diluidas, la pequea molcula de la hormona se ha ido, as que no estn generando luz -- pero, por supuesto, al calamar no le importa, est dormido en la arena. +Y a medida que pasa el da las bacterias se duplican, liberan la molcula y, a continuacin, la luz se enciende por la noche, exactamente cuando el calamar quiere. +Primero descubrimos cmo hacan las bacterias esto, pero luego trajimos las herramientas de la biologa molecular al asunto para saber realmente cul es el mecanismo. +Y lo que hemos encontrado -- as que aqu est, de nuevo, lo que se supone que es mi celula bacteriana -- es que Vibrio fischeri tiene una protena -- esa es la caja roja -- es una enzima que crea esa pequea molcula de hormona -- el tringulo rojo. +Y luego, a medida que las clulas crecen, todas estn liberando esa molcula en el medio ambiente, por lo que existe gran cantidad de molculas all. +Y las bacterias tambin tienen un receptor en su superficie celular que se adapta con la molcula como una llave y una cerradura. +Estos son como los receptores en la superficie de sus clulas. +Cuando la molcula se incrementa hasta una cierta cantidad -- lo que dice algo sobre el nmero de clulas -- se encaja en ese receptor y la informacin entra en las clulas que les dice que enciendan este comportamiento colectivo de generar luz. +Esto es interesante porque en la ltima dcada hemos descubierto que no se trata slo de una anomala de este ridcula bacteria brilla-en-la-oscuridad que vive en el ocano -- todas las bacterias tienen sistemas como este. +As que ahora lo que entendemos es que todas las bacterias pueden hablar entre s. +Ellas fabrican palabras qumicas, reconocen esas palabras y activan comportamientos de grupo que slo son exitosos cuando todas las clulas participan al unsono. +Tenemos un nombre elegante para esto, lo llamamos deteccin de qurum. +Votan con estos votos qumicos, los votos son contados, y luego todo el mundo responde a la votacin. +Lo qu es importante para la charla de hoy es que sabemos que hay cientos de comportamientos que las bacterias llevan a cabo en este estilo colectivo. +Pero, el que es probablemente ms importante para ustedes es la virulencia. +No es que un par de bacterias entren en usted y empiezan a secretar toxinas -- usted es enorme, eso no tendra ningn efecto en usted. +Lo que hacen, ahora sabemos, es entrar en usted, esperar, comenzar a crecer, contarse a s mismas con estas pequeas molculas, y reconocer cuando han llegado al nmero correcto de clulas, de forma que si todas las bacterias lanzan juntas su ataque virulento, tengan xito en vencer a un anfitrin enorme. +Las bacterias siempre controlan su patogenicidad con deteccin de qurum. +As es como funciona. +Tambin exploramos, entonces, lo que son estas molculas -- estos eran los tringulos rojos en mis diapositivas de antes. +Esta es la molcula de Vibrio fischeri. +Esta es la palabra con la que hablan. +Entonces, empezamos a observar otras bacterias y esta es slo una muestra de las molculas que hemos descubierto. +Lo que yo espero que puedan ver es que las molculas estn relacionadas. +La parte izquierda de la molcula es idntica en cada una de las especies de bacterias. +Pero la parte derecha de la molcula es un poco diferente en cada especie. +Lo que esto hace es dar exquisitas caractersticas por especie a estos idiomas. +Cada molcula encaja en los receptores de su socio y no otro. +As que estas son conversaciones privadas, secretas. +Estas conversaciones son para comunicacin entre miembros de la misma especie. +Cada bacteria utiliza una molcula particular que es su idioma, que le permite contar a sus propios hermanos. +Una vez que llegamos tan lejos, pensamos que estbamos empezando a comprender que estas bacterias tienen conductas sociales. +Pero en lo que realmente estbamos pensando es que la mayor parte del tiempo las bacterias no viven por s mismas, viven en increbles mezclas, con cientos o miles de otras especies de bacterias. +Y eso est representado en esta diapositiva. Esta es su piel. +Esta es slo una imagen - una micrografa de su piel. +Cualquier parte de su cuerpo, se ve muy parecida a esta, y lo que espero que pueda ver que hay todo tipo de bacterias all. +As empezamos a pensar si esto es realmente acerca de la comunicacin en las bacterias, y si se trata de contar a sus vecinos, no es suficiente ser capaz de hablar slo con su propia especie. +Tiene que haber una manera de hacer un censo del resto de las bacterias en la poblacin. +As que regresamos a la biologa molecular y empezamos a estudiar diferentes bacterias, y lo que hemos encontrado ahora es que de hecho, las bacterias son multilinges. +Todas tienen un sistema especfico por especie -- tienen una molcula que dice "yo". +Pero entonces, corriendo en paralelo a ese, hay un segundo sistema que hemos descubierto, que es genrico. +Tienen una segunda enzima que crea una segunda seal y que tiene su propio receptor, y esta molcula es el idioma comercial de las bacterias. +Es utilizada por todas las diferentes bacterias y es la lengua de comunicacin entre especies. +Lo que pasa es que las bacterias son capaces de contar cuntos de m y cuntos de ustedes. +Ellas llevan esa informacin dentro de s y deciden qu tareas llevar a cabo dependiendo de quines son la minora y quines son la mayora de cualquier poblacin. +Luego, una vez ms nos dirigimos a la qumica, y descubrimos qu es esta molcula genrica -- eso eran los valos rosados en mi ltima diapositiva. +Es una pequea molcula de carbono cinco. +Lo importante es que aprendimos que cada bacteria tiene exactamente la misma enzima y fabrica exactamente la misma molcula. +As que todas estn utilizando esta molcula para la comunicacin entre especies. +Este es el Esperanto bacterial. +Una vez que llegamos all, empezamos a aprender que las bacterias pueden hablar entre s con este idioma qumico. +Pero lo que empezamos a pensar es que tal vez hay algo prctico que podemos hacer aqu tambin. +Les he dicho que todas las bacterias tienen estos comportamientos sociales, se comunican con estas molculas. +Por supuesto, tambin he dicho que una de las cosas importantes que hacen es iniciar patogenicidad utilizando deteccin de qurum. +Pensamos, qu pasara si hacemos que estas bacterias no puedan hablar o no puedan escuchar? +No podran estos ser nuevos tipos de antibiticos? +Por supuesto, usted ha escuchado y ya sabe que nos estamos quedando sin antibiticos. +Las bacterias son increblemente resistente a mltiples drogas en este momento, y eso es debido a todos los antibiticos que utilizamos para matar bacterias, +los que, o bien rompen la membrana bacterial, o hacen que la bacteria no pueda replicar su ADN. +Matamos bacterias con antibiticos tradicionales y eso selecciona a los mutantes resistentes. +Y, por supuesto, ahora tenemos este problema mundial en las enfermedades infecciosas. +Pensamos, qu tal si hiciramos algo como modificaciones de comportamiento, hacer que estas bacterias no puedan hablar, no puedan contar, y no sepan generar virulencia. +Y eso es exactamente lo que hemos hecho y hemos usado dos estrategias. +La primera es que hemos tomado como objetivo el sistema de comunicacin entre miembros de cada especie. +Y hemos hecho molculas que se ven como las molculas reales -- que ustedes vieron -- pero son un poco diferentes. +Y as, las molculas se ajustan a estos receptores, y bloquean el reconocimiento de la molcula real. +Apuntndole al sistema de color rojo, lo que podemos hacer es hacer molculas anti-deteccin de qurum para una especie especfica, o para una enfermedad especfica. +Hemos hecho lo mismo con el sistema rosado. +Hemos tomado esa molcula universal y la modificamos un poco as que hemos hecho antagonistas del sistema de comunicacin entre especies. +La esperanza es que estos se utilizarn como antibiticos de amplio espectro que funcionan contra todas las bacterias. +Para terminar voy a mostrarles la estrategia. +En esta estoy usando la molcula intra-especie, pero la lgica es exactamente la misma. +Lo que sabemos es que cuando la bacteria entra en el animal, en este caso un ratn, no inicia la virulencia de inmediato. +Entra, empieza a crecer, comienza a secretar sus molculas de deteccin de qurum, +reconoce cuando tiene suficientes bacterias que ahora van a lanzar su ataque, y el animal muere. +Lo que hemos sido capaces de hacer es generar estas infecciones virulentas, pero las generamos en conjunto con nuestras molculas anti-deteccin de qurum -- as que estas son molculas que se parecen a las reales, pero son un poco diferentes, lo que he representado en esta diapositiva. +Lo que ahora sabemos es que si tratamos a los animales con una bacteria patgena -- una bacteria patgena resistente a mltiples drogas -- al mismo tiempo que administramos nuestra molcula anti-deteccin de qurum, de hecho, el animal vive. +Pensamos que esta es la prxima generacin de antibiticos y nos va a permitir superar, al menos inicialmente, este gran problema de la resistencia. +Lo que espero que piensen, es que las bacterias pueden hablar entre s, que utilizan productos qumicos como sus palabras, que tienen un lxico qumico increblemente complicado, que slo ahora estamos empezando a conocer. +Por supuesto, lo que eso permite a las bacterias es ser multicelulares. +As, en el espritu de TED ellas estn haciendo cosas juntas porque eso marca diferencia. +Lo que pasa es que estas bacterias tienen comportamientos colectivos y pueden llevar a cabo tareas que nunca podran lograr si simplemente actuaran como individuos. +Lo que me gustara poder argumentar adicionalmente es que esta es la invencin de la multicelularidad. +Las bacterias han estado en la Tierra por miles de millones de aos. Los seres humanos - un par de cientos de miles. +Creemos que las bacterias hicieron las reglas con las cuales funciona la organizacin multicelular. +Creemos que, mediante el estudio de las bacterias, vamos a ser capaces de tener conocimiento sobre la multicelularidad en el cuerpo humano. +Sabemos que, si podemos comprender los principios y las normas en este tipo de organismos primitivos, la esperanza es que sern aplicados a otras enfermedades y comportamientos humanos tambin. +Espero que lo que han aprendido es que las bacterias pueden distinguirse entre s. +Mediante el uso de estas dos molculas ellas pueden decir "yo" y pueden decir "t". +Una vez ms, por supuesto, que es lo que nosotros hacemos, tanto en forma molecular, como tambin de manera externa, pero yo pienso en el material molecular. +Esto es exactamente lo que sucede en su cuerpo. +No es como si sus clulas cardiacas y renales estuvieran mezcladas todos los das, y eso es porque est toda esta qumica ocurriendo, estas molculas que dicen quin es cada uno de estos grupos de clulas, y qu tareas deben realizar. +De nuevo, creemos que las bacterias inventaron eso, y usted ha evolucionado unas cuantas cosas adicionales, pero todas las ideas estn en estos sistemas simples que podemos estudiar. +La ltima cosa es, slo para reiterar que existe una parte prctica, que hemos hecho estas molculas anti-deteccin de qurum que se estn desarrollando como nuevos tipos de terapias. +Pero entonces, para terminar con un reconocimento para todas las bacterias buenas y milagrosas que viven en la Tierra, tambin hemos hecho molculas que facilitan la deteccin de qurum. +Hemos trabajado en esos sistemas para hacer que las molculas funcionen mejor. +Recuerde que usted tiene 10 veces o ms clulas bacterianas en usted o dentro de usted, mentenindolo saludable. +Lo que tambin estamos tratando de hacer es de mejorar la conversacin de las bacterias que viven con usted como mutualistas, con la esperanza de hacerlo ms saludable, mejorando estas conversaciones, a fin de que las bacterias puedan hacer las cosas que queremos que hagan mejor de lo que lo haran por su propia cuenta. +Por ltimo, quera mostrarles este es mi equipo en Princeton, Nueva Jersey. +Todo lo que les he dicho fue descubierto por alguien en esa foto. +Espero que cuando aprendan cosas, acerca de cmo funciona el mundo natural -- Slo quiero decir que siempre que ustedes leen algo en el peridico o escuchan hablar de algo ridculo en el mundo natural, fue realizado por un nio. +La ciencia es hecha por ese grupo demogrfico. +Todas estas personas tienen entre 20 y 30 aos, y son el motor que impulsa los descubrimientos cientficos en este pas. +Es una suerte trabajar con este grupo demogrfico. +Yo sigo hacindome ms y ms vieja y ellos tienen siempre la misma edad y es simplemente un trabajo loco y encantador. +Quiero darles las gracias por haberme invitado aqu, +es un gran placer para m haber venido a esta conferencia. +Gracias. +Voy a hablar de m misma, lo que rara vez hago porque en primer lugar, prefiero hablar de cosas de las que no s nada. +Y en segundo lugar soy una narcisista en recuperacin. +En realidad no saba que era una narcisista. +Pens que narcisismo significaba amarte a ti mismo. +Y luego me dijeron que tiene un lado oscuro +que es aun ms temible que el amor propio. Es el amor propio no correspondido. +No creo poder permitirme una recada. +Pero, sin embargo, quiero explicar cmo termin diseando mi propia clase de comedia dado que he pasado por muchas variantes. +Comenc en la improvisacin. En una forma particular de improvisacin llamada juegos teatrales, que tena una regla que siempre consider una gran regla para la tica de una sociedad. +Y la regla era: no se puede negar la realidad del otro, slo se puede construir sobre ella. +Y por supuesto que vivimos en una sociedad en que todo se trata de contradecir la realidad de los otros. +Todo se centra en la contradiccin, por eso creo ser tan sensible a la contradiccin en general. +Por eso la veo en todas partes. +Como en las encuestas. Saben, siempre me ha resultado curioso que en las encuestas de opinin pblica el porcentaje de estadounidenses que desconoce cualquier pregunta es siempre 2%. +El 75% de los estadounidenses piensa que Alaska es parte de Canad. +Pero slo el 2% desconoce el efecto que tendr la debacle en Argentina sobre la poltica monetaria del FMI. Parece una contradiccin. +O este anuncio que le en el New York Times: "El uso de un reloj fino habla elevadamente de su posicin social. +Comprarlo con nosotros es un alarido de buen gusto." +O este que encontr en una revista llamada Abogado de California en un artculo que sin duda estaba dirigido a los abogados en Enron. +"Sobrevivir en Prisin: Qu hacer y qu no hacer." +"No utilice palabras difciles." +"Aprenda la lingua franca." +S. Lnguame esto Frankie. +Y supongo que es una contradiccin que yo hable de ciencia cuando no s matemticas. +Con seis aos uno lee Blancanieves y los Siete Enanitos. Y de inmediato se hace evidente que slo hay dos clases de hombres en el mundo, los enanos y los Prncipes Encantados. +Y las probabilidades de que encuentres a tu prncipe son siete a uno. +Por eso las nias no hacen matemticas. Les deprime demasiado. +Por supuesto, hablando de ciencia tambin podr, como hice la otra noche, provocar la violenta clera de algunos cientficos que quedaron muy enfadados conmigo. +Utilic el trmino posmoderno como si nada. +Y se molestaron mucho. +Debo reconocer que creo que uno de ellos slo quera que yo participara en una discusin seria. +Pero yo no participo en discusiones serias. +No las apruebo porque las discusiones, claramente, tratan sobre contradicciones. Y estn moldeadas por nuestros valores. +Tengo cuestionamientos acerca de los valores de la ciencia newtoniana. Por ejemplo la racionalidad; uno debe ser racional en una discusin. +Bueno, la racionalidad se construye con lo que Christie Hefner se refiri hoy, la divisin mente-cuerpo. no? +La cabeza es buena, el cuerpo malo. +La cabeza es el ego, el cuerpo es el id o el yo. +Cuando decimos "yo", como cuando Ren Descartes dice "Pienso, luego existo", nos referimos a la cabeza. +Y, como cantaba David Lee Roth en "Slo un Gigolo", "Yo no tengo cuerpo". +As se obtiene la racionalidad. +Y es por eso que el humor es el cuerpo imponindose a la cabeza. +Es la causa del humor escatolgico y del humor sexual. +Es por eso que estn los Hermanos Raspyni golpeando a Richard en su rea genital. +Y entonces nos remos el doble porque l es el cuerpo, pero es tambin... Voz en off: Richard. +Emily Levine: Richard. Qu dije? +Richard, s, pero tambin es la cabeza, es la cabeza de la conferencia. +Esa es la otra manera en que el humor, como Art Buchwald se re de las cabezas de Estado. +No genera tanto dinero como el humor fsico, seguramente, pero sin embargo, es lo que nos hace atesorarte y adorarte. +Tambin hay una contradiccin en la racionalidad en este pas ya que por ms que veneramos la cabeza, somos muy anti-intelectuales. +Lo s porque leo el New York Times. Despus del 11 de septiembre, la fundacin Ayn Rand public a pgina completa un anuncio en el que decan: "El problema no es Irak o Irn, el problema en este pas, que enfrenta este pas son los profesores universitarios y sus engendros". +As que volv y rele "El Manantial". +No s cuntos de ustedes lo habrn ledo. +Y no soy una experta en sadomasoquismo. +Pero permtanme leer unos pasajes al azar de la pgina 217. +"El acto de un amo tomando posesin dolorosa y despectivamente de ella era la clase de xtasis que ella quera. +Cuando yacan juntos en la cama era como deba ser, como la naturaleza del acto requera, un acto de violencia. +Fue un acto de dientes apretados y odio. Fue lo insoportable. +No una caricia, sino una oleada de dolor. +La agona como un acto de pasin." +As que pueden imaginar mi sorpresa al leer en The New Yorker que Alan Greenspan, presidente de la Reserva Federal, nombra a Ayn Rand como su mentora intelectual. +Es como descubrir que tu niera es una dominatriz. +Ya fue suficientemente malo tener que ver J. Edgar Hoover en un vestido. +Ahora tenemos la imagen de Alan Greenspan en un cors de cuero negro, con un tatuaje en el trasero que dice: "Azote la inflacin ya." +Y Ayn Rand, por supuesto, Ayn Rand es famosa por una filosofa llamada objetivismo que refleja otro valor de la fsica newtoniana que es la objetividad. +La objetividad se construye bsicamente de ese mismo modo sadomasoquista. +Es el sujeto subyugando al objeto. +As es como uno se reafirma a s mismo. +Uno se hace la voz activa. +Y el objeto es la no-voz pasiva. +Estaba tan fascinada por ese comercial de Oxygen. +Por ende la pasividad ha sido proyectada culturalmente a las nias. +Y esto sigue igual, como creo que les dije el ao pasado. +Hay una encuesta que demuestra... hay una encuesta de la revista Time, en la que se pregunt slo a los hombres: "Alguna vez ha tenido sexo con una mujer que realmente le desagradaba?" +Y bien, s. +Bueno, el 58% dijo que s, pero creo que es exagerado porque muchos hombres, si uno dice "Alguna vez has tenido sexo..." "S!" +Ni siquiera esperan el resto de la pregunta. +Y, por supuesto, el 2% no saba si las haba tenido... Esa fue la primera broma que referencia a una anterior e intentar hacer un cuadrangular de estas bromas. +Este tema del sujeto-objeto es parte de algo en lo que estoy muy interesada porque, francamente, por eso creo en lo polticamente correcto. +Creo en ello. Creo que puede ir demasiado lejos. +Creo que los Hermanos Ringling pueden haber ido demasiado lejos con un anuncio que sacaron en la revista New York Times. +"Tenemos un compromiso emocional y financiero de por vida con nuestros compaeros Elefantes Asiticos". +Tal vez demasiado lejos. Pero no creo que alguien de color que se burle de la gente blanca sea igual a una persona blanca que se burle de la gente de color. +O las mujeres que se burlen de los hombres sea igual a los hombres... +O los pobres que se burlen de los ricos, igual que los ricos. +Creo que uno puede rerse de los que tienen, pero no de los que no, por lo que no me ven burlndome de Kenneth Lay y su encantadora esposa. +Cul es la gracia de verse reducido a cuatro casas? +Y yo realmente aprend esta leccin durante los escndalos sexuales de la administracin Clinton. O como yo los llamo, los buenos y viejos tiempos. +Cuando gente que conoca, gente que se consideran liberales y todo lo dems, se rean de Gennifer Flowers y Paula Jones. +Bsicamente, s que se burlaban de ellas por ser "basura de remolque" o "basura blanca". +Parece ser, supongo, un perjuicio inofensivo y que no se est molestando a nadie. +Hasta que lees, como yo le, un anuncio en Los Angeles Times. +"En venta: Compactador de basura blanca." +As que todo este tema de sujeto-objeto tiene importancia en relacin con el humor. +Le un libro de una mujer llamada Amy Richlin, presidente del departamento de Clsicos en USC. +Y el libro se llama "El Jardn de Prapo." +Y ella dice que el humor romano refleja la construccin de la sociedad romana. +La sociedad romana era muy dominante-dominado, como la nuestra en cierta medida. +Y tambin lo era el humor. +Siempre deba haber un blanco para las bromas. +Por lo que era siempre el satirista, como Juvenal o Marcial, que representaba al pblico y que iba a burlarse de los extraos, de las personas que no compartan el estado de sujeto. +Y, por supuesto, en la comedia stand-up se espera que el comediante domine la audiencia. +Mucho del abucheo es la tensin de tratar de asegurarse que el comediante sea capaz de dominar y sobreponerse al provocador. +Y yo llegu a ser buena en eso cuando haca stand-up. +Pero siempre odiaba los provocadores porque eran ellos quienes dictaban los trminos de la interaccin. De la misma manera que, en cierta medida, participar en una discusin seria determina el contenido de lo que se est hablando. +Y yo estaba buscando un formato que no tuviera eso. +Y por eso quera algo que fuera ms interactivo. +S que esa palabra est tan degradada ahora por el uso que le dan los que anuncian en internet. +Realmente extrao los viejos vendedores telefnicos. +En serio. Porque al menos uno tena una oportunidad. +Yo sola colgarles el telfono. +Pero luego le en "Dear Abby" que eso era descorts. +As que la prxima vez que uno me llam lo dej seguir hasta la mitad de su discurso y luego le dije: "T suenas sexy." +Me colg el telfono a m! +Sin embargo, la interactividad permite que el pblico de forma a lo que uno est haciendo tanto como uno da forma a la experiencia del mundo de ellos. +Y eso es realmente lo que estoy buscando. +As que cuando empec a analizar qu es exactamente lo que hago, le un libro llamado "El Timador Crea Su Mundo" (Trickster Makes This World), de Lewis Hyde. +Y fue como ser psicoanalizada. +Quiero decir, l haba develado todo. +Y luego al venir a esta conferencia me di cuenta de que la mayora de todos los aqu presentes comparten las mismas cualidades porque lo que un timador (o trickster) realmente es es un agente de cambio. +El timador es un agente del cambio. +Y las cualidades que voy a describir son las cualidades que hacen posible que ocurra el cambio. +Y uno de ellos es el quiebre de lmites. +Creo que, de hecho, esto es lo que enfureci a los cientficos. +Pero me gusta cruzar los lmites. +Me gusta, como dije, hablar de cosas de las que no s nada. +(Sonido de Telfono) Espero que sea mi agente porque ustedes no me estn pagando nada. +Y creo que es bueno hablar de lo que no s porque aporto un nuevo punto de vista. no? +Soy capaz de ver la contradiccin que ustedes pueden no poder apreciar. +Como por ejemplo una vez a un mimo, o un meme como se llamaba a s mismo +-era un meme muy egosta- +dijo que deba mostrarle ms respeto porque se tardaba hasta 18 aos en aprender como hacer correctamente la mmica. +Y yo dije, "Bueno, as es como uno sabe que slo los estpidos lo intentan." +Slo lleva dos aos aprender a hablar. +Y saben qu, este es el problema con la, y cito; "objetividad". +Cuando uno est rodeado de personas que hablan el mismo vocabulario o comparten el mismo conjunto de supuestos, uno empieza a creer que esa es la realidad. +Al igual que los economistas, su definicin de racional es que todos actuemos a partir de nuestro propio inters econmico. +Bueno, vean a Michael Hawley o a Dean Kamen o a mi abuela. +Mi abuela siempre actu en favor de los dems, quisieran ellos o no. +Si hubiesen habido unos Juegos Olmpicos de martirio mi abuela habra perdido a propsito. +"No, tome usted el premio. +An es joven. Yo soy vieja. Quien lo va a ver? +Hacia dnde voy? Voy a morirme pronto." +As que ese es uno; el cruzar esta frontera, este intermediario el cual... Fritz Lanting, es se su nombre?, efectivamente dijo que era un intermediario. +Esa es una cualidad realidad del timador. +Y otra es la estrategia de no oposicin. +En lugar de la contradiccin. +Cuando uno niega la realidad del otro obtiene una paradoja que permite la existencia de ms de una realidad. Creo que hay otra construccin filosfica, +no estoy segura de cmo se llama, +pero mi ejemplo de ella es un letrero que vi en una joyera. +Deca: "Se perforan orejas mientras espera". +La alternativa slo confunde a la imaginacin. +"Oh, no. Gracias, las dejar aqu. Muchas gracias. +Tengo algunos mandados que hacer. As que volver a buscarlas a las cinco, si le parece bien. +Eh? Eh? Qu? No lo oigo." +Y otro atributo del timador es la suerte esperada. +Los accidentes que Louis Kahn, quien se refiri a los accidentes, esta es otra de cualidad de los timadores. +El timador tiene una mente preparada para lo imprevisto. +Y les dir esto a los cientficos, que el timador tiene la capacidad de llevar sus ideas con ligereza para dejar lugar a nuevas ideas o para ver las contradicciones o los problemas ocultos con sus ideas actuales. +No tena broma para eso. +Slo quera poner a los cientficos en su lugar. +Pero as es como creo que me gusta cambiar las cosas y es haciendo conexiones. +Esto es lo que tiendo a ver casi ms que las contradicciones. +Al igual que, cmo llaman a los dedos de los pies del geco? +S, los dedos de los pies del geco, curvndose y estirndose como los dedos de Michael Moschen. +Me encantan las conexiones. +Como leer que uno de los dos atributos de la materia en el universo de Newton, hay dos atributos de la materia en el universo de Newton: uno es la ocupacin de espacio. Lo material ocupa espacio. +Supongo que cuanto ms materia tenga uno, ms espacio ocupar, lo que explica el fenmeno de los Vehculos Deportivo Utilitario (o 4x4). +Y el otro es la impenetrabilidad. +Bueno, en la antigua Roma la impenetrabilidad era el criterio para la masculinidad. +La masculinidad dependa de si eras o no el penetrador. +Y entonces, en economa, hay un productor activo y un consumidor pasivo, lo que explica que las empresas siempre tengan que penetrar nuevos mercados. +Pues s, me refiero al motivo por el que obligamos a China a abrir sus mercados. +Y no se sinti bien? +Y ahora nosotros estamos siendo penetrados. +Saben que las empresas de biotecnologa estn adentrndose en nosotros y clavando sus banderitas en nuestros genes? +Saben que estamos siendo penetrados? +Y sospecho que es por alguien a quien le desagradamos. +Esta es la segunda broma del cuadrangular. +S, por supuesto, lo entendieron. Muchas gracias. +Todava me falta un buen trecho de camino. +Y lo que espero hacer, cuando hago estas conexiones es hacer cortocircuitos en el pensamiento de la gente, +hacer que no sigan su tren de asociacin habitual sino que hacerlos recablear. +Es literalmente, cuando se habla del shock de reconocimiento es, literalmente, re-entender, recablear su forma de pensar. Tena una broma que acompaaba a esto y la olvid. +Cunto lo siento. Me estoy poniendo como la mujer en esa broma acerca de... Han odo esta broma de la mujer y su madre conduciendo? +Y la madre es de edad avanzada. +La madre cruza una luz roja. +Y la hija no quiere decir nada, +no quiere decirle, "Eres demasiado vieja para conducir". +Y la madre cruza otra luz roja. +Y la hija le dice, con mucho tacto, "Mam, te diste cuenta que cruzaste dos luces rojas?" +Y la madre dice: "Oh! Estoy conduciendo?" +Y ese es el shock de reconocimiento del shock de reconocimiento. +Y esto completa la broma cuadrangular. +Slo quiero decir dos cosas ms. +Una es que otra de las caractersticas del timador es que el timador tiene que transitar esta lnea delgada. +Tiene que tener equilibrio. +Y saben cul es mi mayor obstculo al hacer lo que hago? Es la construccin de mi actuacin de modo que est preparada y sin preparar. +Encontrar el equilibrio entre esas cosas siempre es peligroso porque uno puede acercarse demasiado a lo imprevisto. +Pero estar demasiado preparado no deja margen para que ocurran accidentes. +Pensaba en lo que Moshe Safdie dijo ayer sobre la belleza porque en su libro Hyde dice que a veces el timador puede volcarse hacia la belleza. +Pero para hacer eso, debe perder todas las otras cualidades, porque una vez que uno se enfoca en la belleza se ve una cosa terminada. +Se est en algo que ocupa espacio y habita el tiempo. +Es una cosa real. +Y siempre es extraordinario ver algo bello. +Pero si uno no hace esto, si permite que los accidentes sucedan, uno tiene la posibilidad de subirse a una longitud de onda. +Me gusta pensar en lo que hago como una onda de probabilidad. +Cuando uno se enfoca en la belleza, la onda de probabilidad colapsa en una nica posibilidad. +Y me gusta explorar todas las posibilidades con la esperanza de estar en la longitud de onda del pblico. +Y la ltima cualidad que quiero mencionar sobre el timador es que no tiene un hogar. +Siempre anda por el camino. +Quiero decirte Richard, para terminar, que en TED has creado un hogar. +Y gracias por recibirme en l. +Muchas gracias. +Hoy quiero hablarles acerca de dos cosas: una es el surgimiento de una cultura de disponibilidad y la otra es una peticin. +Estamos viendo un aumento de esta disponibilidad liderada por la proliferacin de dispositivos mviles, globalmente, a travs de todos los estratos sociales. +Junto con esa proliferacin de dispositivos mviles, estamos viendo una expectativa de disponibilidad. +Y, con eso, viene el tercer punto, que es obligacin -- la obligacin de estar disponibles. +Y el problema es, que todava estamos trabajando sobre eso, desde un punto de vista social, como dejamos que la gente est disponible. +De hecho, hay un delta significativo entre lo que estamos dispuestos a aceptar -- +mis disculpas a Hans Rosling. El dijo que cualquier cosa que no use estadsticas reales es una mentira -- pero el gran delta all es como manejamos esto desde un punto de vista pblico. +Es as como hemos desarrollado ciertas tcticas y estrategias para encubrirlo. +La primera es llamada "la inclinacin" +Y si alguna vez has estado en una reunin donde tu tratas de jugar "quin voltea primero", ests sentado all, mirando a las personas, esperando que volteen, y entonces rpidamente revisas tu dispositivo. +Aunque pueden ver que el caballero arriba a la derecha lo descubre. +El estirn +OK, el caballero en la izquierda est diciendo, "No me interesas voy a chequear mi dispositivo." +Pero el tipo que est aqu, a la derecha, est haciendo el estirn. +Es esa eeeee-e-e-extensin, la contorsin fsica para alcanzar ese dispositivo justo debajo de la mesa. +O, mi favorita, el "Te amo, en serio." +Nada dice "Te amo" como "Djame buscar a alguien que s me importe" +O, esta que nos llega desde India. +Pueden encontrar esto en You Tube, el caballero que est acostado en una motocicleta mientras enva mensajes de texto. +O lo que llamamos el "Dios mo, detnganme antes que mate a alguien otra vez!" +Realmente ese es el dispositivo. +Lo que est haciendo esto es, encontramos un -- un choque directo -- encontramos un choque directo entre disponibilidad -- y lo que es posible mediante la disponibilidad -- y una necesidad humana fundamental -- acerca de la cual hemos estado escuchando mucho -- la necesidad de crear narrativas compartidas. +Somos muy buenos para crear narrativas personales, pero son las narrativas compartidas las que que nos hacen una cultura. +Y cuando ests parado con alguien, y ests atendiento tu dispositivo mvil, lo que efectivamente les ests diciendo es, No eres tan importante como, literalmente, casi cualquier cosa que podra llegarme por este dispositivo." +Mira a tu alrededor. +Podra haber alguien con uno en este momento, participando en un compromiso multi-dimensional +Nuestra realidad en este momento es menos interesante que la historia que vamos a contar acerca de ella ms tarde. +Me encanta esta. +Este pobre chico, claramente usado como utilera -- no me malinterpreten, el est de acuerdo en servir de utilera -- pero el beso que est siendo documentado parece que perdi la gracia. +Este es el sonido del aplauso a una sola mano . +As, mientras perdemos el contexto de nuestra identidad, se hace increblemente importante eso que compartes, convirtindose en el contexto de la narrativa compartida, convirtindose en el contexto en el que vivimos. +Las historias que contamos -- las que exteriorizamos -- nos hacen quienes somos. +No estamos simplemente proyectando identidad, estn crendola. +Y esa es la peticin que tengo para todos en esta sala. +Estamos creando tecnologa que va a crear la nueva experiencia compartida, que crear un mundo nuevo. +Entonces mi peticin es, por favor, hagamos tecnologas que hagan a la gente ms humana, no menos humana. +Gracias. +Como se hace para que un pas funcione sin petrleo? +Esa es la pregunta que dio vueltas en mi mente en medio de la conferencia de Davos hace unos cuatro aos. +La pregunta nunca abandon mi mente +Y comenc a jugar con ella, como un rompecabezas. +Mi primer pensamiento fue: debe ser etanol. +De modo que comenc a investigar sobre el etanol. Y descubr que necesitaras una Amazonia en cada pas. +Despus de seis meses, me dije que la respuesta era el hidrgeno Hasta que un cientfico me revel la desafortunada verdad: en realidad, para generar hidrgeno se utilizan ms electrones "limpios" que los que usas dentro de un auto +De modo que ese no es el camino a seguir. +Y entonces, luego de un proceso de pensar en diferentes alternativas, llegu a la idea de que, si fuera posible convertir a un pas entero hacia autos elctricos de un modo conveniente y accesible se podra tener una solucin. +De modo que comenc con el punto de vista que debe ser algo que escale masivamente. +No cmo construir un automvil, sino como hacer que escale de tal modo que sea utilizaddo por el 99 por ciento de la poblacin. +El primer razonamiento es que debe ser tan bueno como cualquier auto que se pueda adquirir hoy. +Entonces, primero, debe ser ms conveniente que un automvil. +Y segundo, debe ser ms accesible que los autos de hoy. +Un sedn de 40,000 dlares no es accesible +De acuerdo? Eso no es algo que podemos financiar o comprar hoy +Y conveniente no es algo que conduces durante una hora y luego cargas durante ocho. +Entonces, estamos atados a las leyes de la fsica y a las leyes de la economa. +Luego, mi razonamiento fue como hacer eso, dentro de los lmites de la ciencia que conocemos hoy. No hay tiempo para concursos de ciencia, no hay tiempo para experimentar o esperar a que aparezca la batera mgica. +Como lo podemos hacer dentro de los parmetros econmicos que tenemos hoy? +Como lo construimos desde el poder del consumidor hacia arriba? +Y no desde el poder de un decreto hacia abajo. +En una visita casual a la empresa Tesla en una tarde halle que la respuesta proviene de la separacin entre la propiedad del auto y la propiedad de la batera. +De cierto modo, si quieres pensarlo as, es el clsico: "Bateras no incluidas" +Ahora, si separamos los dos podemos hallar la respuesta a la necesidad de un auto conveniente mediante la creacin de una red, creando una red antes de que los autos aparezcan. +La red tiene dos componentes. +El primer componente es que el auto se pone a cargar en todo momento en que nos detenemos resulta que los autos son esas extraas bestias que se mueven durante dos horas al da, y estn estacionados 22 horas. +Si conduces un auto en la maana, y regresas en la tarde el ratio de carga a conduccin es aproximadamente un minuto por cada minuto +Y entonces, el primer concepto que me vino a la mente es en cada lugar donde aparcamos, tendremos corriente elctrica. +Ahora, puede sonar loco. Pero en algunos lugares del mundo, com Escandinavia, ya lo tenemos. +Si aparcas tu auto y no enchufas el calentador, cuando regreses no tendrs un auto. Simpemente no funcionar. +Ahora, esa ltima milla, ese ltimo metro, si se quiere es el primer paso de la infraestructura. +El segundo paso de la infraestructura, debe ocuparse de extender la autonoma. +Estamos atados por la tecnologa de hoy en bateras, que es de unos 193km si quieres mantenerte dentro de los lmites razonables de tamao y peso. +190km es un rango bastante bueno para mucha gente. +Pero no quieres quedar inmovilizado. +De modo que agregamos un segundo elemento a nuestra red. Es un sistema de intercambio de bateras. +Conduces. Quitas tus bateras agotadas. +Una nueva batera la reemplaza. Y continas conduciendo. +No lo hace un ser humano. Lo hace una mquina. +Se ve como un lavadero de autos. Entras en el lavadero, +y una plataforma sube desde abajo, toma la batera, la quita, y la reemplaza. En dos minutos, estas de nuevo en el camino. Y puedes continuar. +Si tienes puntos de carga en todos lados, y si tienes puntos de recambio en todos lados, qu tan frecuentemente recambiaras? La realidad es que terminas cambiando de batera menos veces que las que te detienes en una gasolinera. +En realidad, le hemos agregado al contrato lo siguiente +decimos que si paras a cambiar de batera ms de 50 veces en el ao comenzamos a pagarte dinero porque es una molestia. +Luego miramos el tema de la accesibilidad del precio +Miramos la pregunta de qu pasa cuando la batera es desconectada del automvil. +Cunto es el costo de la batera? +Todos nos dicen que las bateras son muy caras. +Lo que encontramos es que cuando te moves de molculas a electrones pasa algo interesante. +Podemos volver a revisar la economa del auto. +En cierto sentido, la batera no es el tanque de combustible. +Recordemos que conceptualmente, en un auto tenemos un tanque de combustible +Tenemos tambin el petrleo crudo +Y tenemos la refinacin y la distribucin de ese crudo en lo que llamamos gasolina. +En ese sentido, la batera viene a ser el petrleo crudo. +Tenemos el compartimento de la batera. Eso cuesta los mismos cientos de dlares que cuesta un tanque de combustible. +Pero el petrleo crudo es reemplazado por una batera. +La diferencia es que no se quema, se consume, paso tras paso tras paso. +Tiene una vida til de unos 2000 ciclos de recarga hoy en da. +De modo que es una especie de mini-pozo de petrleo. +En el pasado, cuando adquiramos un auto elctrico se nos peda que comprramos el pozo de petrleo, por la vida til del auto. +Nadie quiere comprar un mini-pozo cuando compra un auto. +En cierta forma, lo que hemos hecho es crear un nuevo "consumible" +Hoy, uno compra millas de gasolina +Nosotros creamos las millas de electricidad. +Y el precio de la milla de electricidad resulta ser un nmero muy interesante. +Hoy, en el 2010, en grandes volmenes cuando llegamos al mercado, el precio es de 8 centavos por milla. +Para los que les resulta difcil calcular lo que eso significa en el entorno del consumidor promedio en los Estados Unidos +a 20 millas por galn, eso sera equivalente a U$S 1.50-1.60 por galn +Eso es ms barato que la gasolina de hoy, incluso en los EEUU. +En Europa, donde hay impuestos a los combustibles dara el equivalente a un precio de barril negativo, de -60 dlares +Pero las "e-millas" siguen la Ley de Moore +Pasan de 8 centavos por milla en el 2010 a 4 centavos por milla en el 2015, y a dos centavos para el 2020. +Por qu? Porque la vida til de las bateras va mejorando, se mejora un poco la densidad de energa, lo que reduce el precio. +Y esos precios son con electrones limpios. +No usamos ningn electrn proveniente del carbn. +En cierto modo, esto es una milla de cero carbn, cero combustible fsil, a un precio de 2 centavos por milla en el 2020. +Incluso si los autos a combustible llegaran a 40 millas por galn para el 2020, que es lo que deseamos, +imaginemos que todos los autos en la calle rinden 40 millas por galn +Y un galn a 80 centavos de dlar +Un galn de 80 centavos, significa que, si el Pacfico entero fuera a convertirse en petrleo y le permitiramos a cualquier compaa extraerlo y refinarlo, an no podran competir con 2 centavos por milla. +Esto es un nuevo factor econmico, lo cual es fascinante para la mayora de la gente. +Esto hubiera sido un artculo magnfico en una revista. +As lo resolv en mi cabeza. Lo convert en un artculo, y lo entregu a diversos gobiernos. +Y algunos gobiernos me dijeron que es fascinante que la generacin joven est pensando en estos temas. +Hasta que llegu al verdadero lder joven global, Shimon Peres, Presidente de Israel. Y el me jug una triquiuela magnfica. +A Peres le pareci una gran idea. +De modo que salimos a buscar compaas. +Le enviamos cartas a todos los fabricantes de automviles. +Tres de ellos nunca respondieron. Uno nos pregunt si estaramos dispuestos a seguir con los hbridos, y nos prometi un descuento. +Pero uno de ellos, Carlos Ghosn, CEO de Renault y de Nissan, cuando se le pregunt sobre hbridos, dijo algo fascinante. +Dijo que los hbridos son como sirenas de mar +Cuando necesitas un pez, tienes una mujer y cuando necesitas una mujer, tienes un pez. +Y Ghosn nos dijo "Yo tengo el automvil, Sr. Peres. Yo le fabricar los autos" +Y, cumpliendo su palabra, Renault invirti 1.500 millones de dlares en construir nueve tipos diferentes de automviles que encajan con este modelo y que llegarn al mercado masivamente, siendo masivamente, en el primer ao, 100.000 autos. +Es el primer automvil elctrico masivo, el primer automvil de emisin cero en el mercado. +Yo era candidato, como dijo Chris, para convertirme en CEO de una gran compaa de software llamada SAP. Y entonces Peres dijo, "Y bien, no vas a manejar este proyecto"? +Y yo le respond, "estoy a punto de ser CEO". Y el me dijo, "Oh, no no no no". Tienes que explicarme qu es ms importante que salvar a tu pas y salvar al mundo como para que te dediques a abandonar esto. +Y yo tuve que renunciar y venir a fundar esto llamado "Better Place" +Luego decidimos hacerlo crecer. +Fuimos a otros pases. Como yo dije, fuimos a Dinamarca. +Dinamarca fij esta hermosa poltica llamada el test de IQ. +Son impuestos inversamente proporcionales. +Le ponen un impuesto de 180% a los autos a gasolina y cero impuesto a los autos de cero emisiones. +Si quieres comprar un auto a gasolina en Dinamarca, cuesta unos 60.000 Euros. +Si compras nuestro auto, cuesta unos 20.000 Euros. +Si fallas en el test de IQ, te piden que abandones el pas. +Para entonces, nos habamos convertido en los muchachos que slo funcionan en pequeas islas. +Yo se que la mayor parte de la gente no piensa en Israel como en una isla, pero Israel es una isla. Es una isla en lo que refiera a transporte. +Si tu auto est rodando fuera de Israel, ha sido robado. +Ya que estbamos pensando en trminos de islas, decidimos ir a la isla ms grande que pudiramos encontrar. Y esa era Australia. El tercer pas que anunciamos fue Australia. +Tiene tres centros Brisbane. Melbourne y Sidney, y una autopista, una autopista elctrica que los conecta. +La prxima isla no fue difcil de hallar, y esa fue Hawaii. +Decidimos venir a los Estados Unidos +y tomar los mejores dos lugares, aquellos donde no necesitas una extensin de autonoma. +En Hawaii, puedes conducir por la ciudad con una sola batera. +Y si tienes un da realmente largo, puedes cambiarla y seguir conduciendo alrededor de la isla. +El segundo lugar fue la baha de San Francisco donde el alcalde, Gavin Newsom, cre una hermosa poltica. +El decidi tomar control del estado primero de forma no oficial, y luego de forma oficial. Y all el cre la poltica de la Regin Uno. +En el rea de la baha de San Francisco, no slo tienes la mayor concentracin de Toyota Prius sino que tambin tienes el extendedor perfecto de autonoma. +Se llama "segundo auto" +A medida que comenzamos a escalar fuimos viendo cual es el problema de venir a los EEUU. +Por qu es un problema tan grande? +Y la cosa ms fascinante que aprendimos es que cuando tienes problemas pequeos a nivel individual, como el precio de la gasolina para conducir cada maana +no lo notas, pero cuando todo se suma ests muerto. De acuerdo? +De modo que el precio del petrleo como muchas otras curvas que hemos visto, se mueve a lo largo de una curva de vaciado. +La base de esta curva es que vamos perdiendo los pozos cercanos a la superficie +y vamos descubriendo pozos que estn ms profundos. +Se va volviendo ms y ms caro excavarlos. +Uno dice, bien, el precio ha subido, ha bajado, ha vuelto a subir y a bajar, y seguir subiendo y bajando. +He aqu el problema: a 147 dlares el barril, que es donde estbamos hace 6 meses, los EEUU gastaban una tonelada de dinero para conseguir el petrleo. +Luego perdimos la economa, y bajamos a 47 dlares el barril. A veces est a 40, a veces a 50. +Ahora estamos impulsando un paquete de estmulo. +Se llama el paquete del billn de dlares. +Vamos a revivir la economa. Con suerte, suceder entre ahora y el 2015, en algn punto dentro de ese rango. +Que suceder cuando la economa se recupere? +Para el 2015, tendremos al menos 250 millones de automviles nuevos incluso al ritmo al que crecemos hoy. +Eso es otro 30% de demanda de petrleo. +Son otros 25 millones de barriles por da. +Es todo lo que consumen los EEUU hoy. +En otras palabras, en algn punto, cuando nos hayamos recuperado, volveremos al pico +y ah aplicaremos el paquete de estmulo de la OPEP tambin conocido como el petrleo a 200 dlares el barril. +Tomamos el dinero y lo regalamos. +Y sabes lo que pasa all? +Volvemos a bajar. Subir y bajar +y los valles sern mucho ms largos y los picos sern ms cortos. +Y esa es la diferencia entre los problemas que son aditivos, como el CO2, donde subimos lentamente y luego estalla y los problemas de vaciado, en los que perdemos lo que tenemos, y que oscilan, oscilan hasta que perdemos todo lo que tenemos. +Hemos estudiado cual sera la respuesta. +Recuerden, en la campaa, un milln de autos hbridos para el 2015. +Eso representa el 0.5% del consumo de petrleo de los EEUU +Eso es cero coma cero algo del resto del mundo. +No har mucha diferencia. +Hemos mirado el estudio del MIT: Diez millones de autos elctricos en los caminos del mundo. +Diez millones de los 500 millones que agregaremos hasta entonces. +Ese es el nmero ms pesimista que se puede tener. +Tambin es el ms optimista porque significa que haremos escalar esta industria de 100.000 autos en el 2011 a 10 millones de autos en el 2016 -- un crecimiento de 100 veces en menos de 5 aos. +Debemos recordar que el mundo hoy est agregando tantos autos +Tenemos 10 millones de autos por regin +Es una cantidad enorme de autos +China est agregando esos autos -- India, Rusia, Brasil. +Tenemos todas esas regiones. +Europa lo resolvi. Le pusieron un impuesto a la gasolina. +Ellos sern los primeros en la fila porque sus precios son tan altos. +China lo resuelve mediante un decreto. En determinado punto, ellos dictaminarn que ningn auto a gasolina entrar a una ciudad. Y eso ser todo. +En la India ni siquiera entienden por qu pensamos que esto es un problema porque la mayor parte de la gente en India carga de a 2 o 3 galones por vez. +Para ellos, una batera que rinde 120 millas es una extensin de autonoma, no una reduccin. +Nosotros somos los nicos que no tenemos un precio bien fijado. +No tenemos a la industria bien estructurada +No tenemos los incentivos para ir y resolverlo a lo largo y ancho de los EEUU +Ahora, donde est la industria automotriz en eso? +Es muy interesante. La industria automotriz ha estado enfocada slo en ellos mismos. +Ellos lo miraron y dijeron: Auto 1.0 lo resolveremos todo dentro del propio auto" +No hay infraestructura, no hay problema. +Nos olvidamos de toda la cadena alrededor nuestro. +De todo lo que pasa alrededor. +Estamos presenciando el nacimiento del Auto 2.0 Un nuevo mercado, un nuevo modelo de negocios. +Un modelo de negocios donde el dinero que ingresa por conducir el auto los minutos, las millas si se quiere con los que ya estamos familiarizados subsidian el precio del auto, al igual que con los telfonos celulares. Pagars por las millas +Y parte de ese dinero regresar al fabricante del automvil. +Parte regresar a tu bolsillo +Pero nuestros autos sern ms baratos que los autos a gasolina. +Estamos viendo un mundo donde los autos van de la mano con los molinos de viento +En Dinamarca, moveremos todos los autos de Dinamarca con generadores elicos, no con petrleo. +En Israel, hemos solicitado poner una granja solar en el sur del pas. +Y nos dijeron, "Oh, lo que Uds. estn solicitando es un espacio muy, muy grande" +Y respondimos: "Que pasara si demostrramos que en ese mismo espacio hemos encontrado petrleo para el pas para los prximos cien aos?" +Y nos respondieron: "Ya lo buscamos, no hay" +Nosotros dijimos: "No, no, pero que pasara si lo demostrramos?" +Y ellos dijeron "Bueno, pueden excavar". Y nosotros decidimos excavar hacia arriba en vez de hacia abajo. +Esos se corresponden perfectamente. +Ahora, todo lo que se necesita es un 10% de la electricidad generada, +Piensen en un proyecto que dura diez aos +es slo un uno por ciento al ao. +Ahora, cuando intentamos resolver grandes problemas, necesitamos comenzar a pensar en dos nmeros. +Y esos nmeros no son 20% en el 2020. +Los nmeros son cero, como cero carbn, o cero petrleo, y escalarlo al infinito. +Y cuando asistamos al COP15 a fin de este ao, no podremos dejar de pensar en limitar el CO2. +Debemos comenzar a pensar sobre darle beneficios a los pases que estn dispuestos a ir a esa escala. +Un auto emite 4 toneladas +y los 700 y pico de millones de autos de hoy emiten 2.800 millones de toneladas de CO2. +Eso representa aproximadamenet un 25% de nuestro problema. +Los autos y camiones suman cerca de un 25% de las emisiones mundiales de CO2. +Debemos atacar ese problema con un foco, con un esfuerzo que dice, iremos al cero antes de que se termine el mundo. +Yo he compartido estos pensamientos con legisladores en los EEUU. +Lo he compartido con un Sr. llamado Bobby Kennedy Jr., quien es uno de mis dolos. +Le expliqu que una de las razones por las cuales su to es recordado es porque dijo que enviaramos un hombre a la luna. y que lo haramos para el fin de la dcada. +No dijimos que vamos a enviar un hombre 20% a la luna +y que habra una chance de un 20% de que lo recuperaramos. +El me cont otra historia, de hace unos 200 aos. +Hace 200 aos, en el parlamento, en Gran Bretaa, haba una gran discusin sobre economa versus moral. +25%, al igual que hoy 25% de las emisiones viene de los autos. 25% de su energa para todo el mundo industrial del Reino Unido +provena de una fuente de energa que era inmoral: esclavos. +Y haba una discusin. Debemos dejar de usar esclavos? +Y qu le hara eso a nuestra economa? +La gente dijo "Necesitaremos tiempo para hacerlo +No lo hagamos de inmediato. Tal vez liberemos a los nios y mantendremos a los esclavos" +Y tras un mes de discusiones, decidieron detener la esclavitud. La revolucin industrial comenz en menos de un ao. +Y el Reino Unido tuvo 100 aos de crecimiento econmico. +Debemos tomar la decisin moralmente correcta. +Debemos tomarla inmediatamente. +Necesitamos contar con el liderazgo presidencial, tal como lo tuvimos en Israel cuando dijimos que acabaramos con el petrleo. +Y debemos hacerlo no en 20 o 50 aos, sino en la actual cadencia presidencial porque de lo contrario, perderemos nuestra economa, enseguida despus de haber perdido nuestra moral. +Muchas gracias +El futuro de la vida y a dnde al desentraar nuestra biologa... pongan la luz, no traje diapositivas, +slo voy a hablar sobre. a dnde probablemente nos conducir. +Saben, vi todas las visiones de las primeras sesiones; +y me hicieron sentir un poco culpable por tener una charla alentadora acerca del futuro. +En cierta forma me hicieron sentir mal +pero en realidad no creo que est mal porque a fin de cuentas, es esta trayectoria ms amplia lo que en realidad va a permanecer, lo que la gente en el futuro va a recordar de este poca. +Les quiero hablar un poco acerca del por qu las visiones de gente como Jeremy Rifkin, que quisieran prohibir este tipo de tecnologas, o de quienes, como Bill Joy, quisieran renunciar a ellas, son en realidad caminos que nos llevaran a una tragedia. +Me estoy enfocando en la biologa, las ciencias biolgicas. +La razn de hacerlo es porque esas sern las reas ms transcendentes para nosotros. +Y la razn es en verdad muy simple: +es porque somos de carne y hueso. +Somos criaturas biolgicas +y lo que podamos hacer con nuestra biologa va a moldear nuestro futuro, el de nuestros hijos y el de sus hijos, ya sea que logremos controlar el envejecimiento, o que aprendamos a protegernos contra el Alzheimer y las enfermedades del corazn y el cncer. +Pienso que Shakespeare lo escribi bien, +es ms, voy a usar las palabras en el mismo orden que l. +Dijo: "Y as de hora en hora maduramos y maduramos; +y luego de hora en hora nos pudrimos y pudrimos, +y eso encierra una leccin." +La vida es corta, saben, +y necesitamos pensar un poco en la planificacin. +Con el tiempo, incluso en el mundo desarrollado, todos vamos a tener que perder algo que amamos. +Cuando empiecen a pudrirse un poco, todos los videos se les amontonaran en la cabeza, todas las extensiones que amplan sus diversas capacidades empezarn a parecer un poco secundarias. +Y bueno, ya me estoy poniendo canoso, tambin Ray Kurzweil, tambin Eric Drexler. +Eso es lo que realmente es central en nuestras vidas. +Ahora bien, s que se ha hablado mucho acerca de nuestra capacidad para controlar la biologa. +Slo hay que pensar en el Proyecto del Genoma Humano. +Apenas hace dos aos que todos estaban hablando de que habamos encontrado el Santo Grial de la biologa. +Estamos descifrando el cdigo de los cdigos. +Estamos leyendo el libro de la vida. +Recuerda un poco a 1969 cuando Neil Armstrong camin en la luna y todos bamos a salir corriendo hacia las estrellas. +Todos hemos visto 2001: Odisea del Espacio. +Pero estamos en 2003 y HAL no existe, +y no hemos emprendido una odisea hacia nuestra luna, menos an a las de Jpiter; +todava estamos recogiendo pedazos del Challenger. +No es sorpresa que algunas personas se pregunten si quizs en 30 40 aos a partir de ahora, miraremos atrs a este instante del tiempo Y todos esos discursos acerca del Proyecto del Genoma Humano y lo que todo esto va a significar para nosotros... En realidad su trascendencia ser mnima. +Slo quiero decir que de ninguna manera eso es lo que suceder. +Porque cuando hablamos de nuestra gentica y nuestra biologa de su modificacin, alteracin y ajuste, estamos hablando de modificarnos a nosotros mismos, +y esto es algo decisivo. +Si tienen dudas acerca de cmo la tecnologa afecta nuestras vidas, simplemente vayan a una ciudad grande. +Ya no son el lugar favorito de nuestros ancestros del Pleistoceno. +Lo que sucede es que estamos usando esta tecnologa, que se est volviendo ms precisa, ms potente y la estamos dirigiendo hacia nosotros. +Antes de que todo termine vamos a cambiarnos a nosotros mismos tanto como hemos cambiado el mundo que nos rodea. +Va a suceder mucho ms rpido de lo que la gente imagina. +Y de paso va a revolucionar por completo la medicina y el cuidado de la salud, evidentemente. +Va a cambiar la manera en que tendremos hijos, +va a cambiar la manera en que manejamos y alteramos nuestras emociones. +Probablemente va a cambiar la esperanza de vida humana. +En efecto nos har cuestionarnos qu significa ser humanos. +El contexto ms amplio de esto son las dos revoluciones sin precedentes que hoy estn ocurriendo. +La primera de ellas es la obvia: la revolucin del silicio, con la que estn muy familiarizados; +est cambiando nuestras vidas de tantas maneras y lo seguir haciendo. +La esencia de esto es que estamos tomando la arena a nuestros pies, el silicio inerte a nuestros pies y le estamos inyectando un grado de complejidad que rivaliza con la de la vida misma e incluso podra superarla. +Como una extensin de esto, como hija de esa revolucin est la revolucin en la biologa. +La revolucin genmica, protemica, metabolmica y todas esas "micas" que suenan fantsticas para las donaciones y los planes comerciales. +Lo que estamos haciendo es tomar el control sobre nuestro futuro evolutivo. +Me explico, en esencia estamos usando la tecnologa para acelerar la evolucin hacia delante. +No queda claro a dnde nos va a llevar, +pero en cinco o diez aos vamos a empezar a ver algunos cambios muy profundos. +Los cambios ms inmediatos los veremos en reas como la medicina. +Va a ver un enorme cambio hacia la medicina preventiva conforme empecemos a poder identificar todos los factores de riesgo que tenemos como individuos. +Pero quin va pagar por todo esto? +Cmo vamos a entender toda esta compleja informacin? +Ese va a ser el reto informtico de la siguiente generacin: comunicar toda esta informacin. +Tenemos la farmacogenmica, que es una combinacin de farmacologa y gentica, que disea drogas para nuestra complexin individual de las que Juan les habl un poco anteriormente. +Eso va a tener impactos sorprendentes. +Y tambin se van a usar en la dieta, y estn los suplementos nutricionales y similares. +Y esto tendr un gran impacto porque contaremos con drogas especializadas. +No vamos a poder sostener los tipos de gastos que tenemos para crear las drogas superventas de hoy. +De hecho el proceso de aprobacin se va a desplomar, +es demasiado lento; +es demasiado averso a los riesgos +y realmente no es idneo para el futuro al que nos estamos acercando. +Otra cuestin es que vamos a tener que lidiar con este conocimiento. +Es en verdad maravilloso cuando escuchamos: "Oh, el 99.9% de la letras del cdigo son las mismas, +somos todos idnticos no es maravilloso?" +Miramos a nuestro alrededor y lo que en realidad importa es esa pequea diferencia. +Quiz nos vemos iguales para un visitante de otro planeta pero no entre nosotros porque todo el tiempo competimos entre nosotros. +Vamos a tener que lidiar con el hecho de que entre nosotros, en cuanto individuos, existen diferencias que llegaremos a conocer as como entre subgrupos de la poblacin humana. +Negar que eso es as no representa un buen comienzo. +A una generacin o dos de distancia, van a ocurrir cosas incluso ms profundas de las que estn sucediendo, +es entonces cuando comenzaremos a usar este conocimiento para modificarnos. +Ahora bien, no me refiero a ponernos branquias o algo as sino a cosas que nos importan, como envejecer. +Qu tal si pudiramos desentraar el envejecimiento y entender cmo retardar el proceso o incluso revertirlo. +Cambiara absolutamente todo +y para cualquiera es obvio que si podemos hacerlo, sin ninguna duda lo haremos independientemente de las consecuencias. +Lo segundo es modificar nuestras emociones, +me refiero al Ritalin, al Viagra, cosas parecidas, Prozac; +esos son solo pequeos y torpes pasos de beb. +Qu tal si pudieran tomar un brebaje de frmacos que los hiciera sentir realmente contentos, simplemente felices de ser quienes son. +Podran resistirse a probarlo si supieran que no tiene efectos secundarios? +Probablemente no, +y si no se resisten, en qu se convertirn? +Por qu hacen lo que hacen? +Estamos ms o menos obviando los programas evolutivos que guan nuestro comportamiento. +Va a ser todo un reto lidiar con esto. +La tercer rea es la reproduccin, +la idea de que vamos a escoger los genes de nuestros hijos conforme empecemos a entender qu dicen los genes sobre quines somos. +Ese es el tema de mi libro "Rediseando a los humanos". All hablo acerca de los tipos de opciones que elegiremos y de los retos que la sociedad tendr que enfrentar. +Hay tres maneras obvias de hacerlo. +La primera es la clonacin. +Que no sucedi, +fue un total circo meditico, +pero ocurrir en cinco o diez aos +y cuando ocurra no ser la gran cosa. +El nacimiento postergado de un gemelo idntico no sacudir a la civilizacin occidental. +Sin embargo, hay cosas ms importantes que ya estn pasando: la seleccin embrionaria. +Se toma un embrin de seis a ocho clulas, se saca una de las clulas, se le hace una prueba gentica y dependiendo de los resultados de la prueba el embrin se implanta o se desecha; +esto ya se hace hoy para evitar enfermedades raras. +Muy pronto ser posible evitar virtualmente todas las enfermedades genticas de esa manera. +Conforme esto se vuelva posible esto va a pasar de ser algo que usan quienes tienes problemas de infertilidad y que ya usan la fertilizacin in Vitro, a los ricos que quieren proteger a sus hijos, y luego a casi todas las dems personas. +Este proceso se va a ir transformando de ser slo para enfermedades, luego para vulnerabilidades menores, como el riesgo de tener trastorno bipolar o algo as, a escoger personalidades, temperamentos, rasgos y cosas parecidas. +Por supuesto que va a haber ingeniera gentica. +Estamos un poco lejos, aunque no demasiado, de entrar directamente en la primera clula de un embrin y modificar sus genes. +La forma en que sospecho que ocurrir ser usando cromosomas artificiales y cromosomas extra, de modo que pasaremos de 46 a 47 o 48. +Y uno que no se heredar porque quin querra pasarles a sus hijos mdulos de mejoras arcaicos obtenidos 25 aos atrs de sus padres? +No es una broma, por supuesto que no querran hacerlo. +Todos querrn tener la ltima versin. +Este tipo de analogas imprecisas con las computadoras y la programacin son en realidad mucho ms profundas. +Y de hecho llegarn a tener sentido en este mbito. +Ahora bien, no todo lo que sea posible hacer, se debe hacer. +Y no se har. +La humanidad va a recorrer ese camino +y lo va a hacer por dos razones. +La primera es que todas estas tecnologas son una ramificacin de la investigacin mdica principal que todos quieren que ocurra, +y que est siendo financiada de una manera muy muy fuerte. +La segunda es que somos humanos, +esto es lo que hacemos. +Intentamos usar nuestra tecnologa para mejorar nuestras vidas de una forma u otra. +Imaginar que no vamos a usar estas tecnologas cuando estn disponibles es negar lo que somos, tanto como sera imaginar que usaremos estas tecnologas y que no nos preocuparemos mucho al respecto. +Las fronteras se harn borrosas. Ya lo son entre terapia y mejoramiento, entre tratamiento y prevencin, entre necesidad y deseo. +Creo que este es en realidad el meollo. +La gente puede intentar prohibir estas cosas, +seguramente lo harn, y ya lo han hecho. +Pero al final lo que lograrn con eso ser desplazar el desarrollo a otros lugares. +Alejarn estas cosas de la vista de todos, +reservarn la tecnologa para los ricos porque ellos estn en una posicin ventajosa para evadir este tipo de leyes. +Y nos negar el acceso a la informacin que necesitamos para tomar decisiones sabias acerca de cmo usar estas tecnologas. +Claro que necesitamos debatir estas cosas, +y pienso que es fantstico que lo hagamos, +pero no debemos engaarnos pensando que vamos a alcanzar un consenso sobre estas cosas; +eso simplemente no va a ocurrir. +Nos afectan en lo ms profundo +y dependen demasiado de la historia, la filosofa, la religin, la cultura, la poltica. +Algunas personas lo considerarn como una abominacin, lo peor, algo simplemente horrible. +Otras personas dirn: "Esto es grandioso, +es el fruto del esfuerzo humano." +Pero lo nico realmente peligroso de estos tipos de tecnologas es lo fcil que es dejarse seducir por ellas. +Enfocarse demasiado en todas las posibilidades de alta tecnologa que existen +y perder el contacto con los ritmos bsicos de nuestra biologa y nuestra salud. +Demasiadas personas creen que la medicina de alta tecnologa va a impedirles, va a salvarlos de la sobrealimentacin, de comer demasiada comida rpida o de no hacer ejercicio. +Eso no va a ocurrir. +Pero todo este esfuerzo es generado, es impulsado a su vez por la informtica, porque as es como estamos reuniendo toda esta informacin y relacionndola e integrndola entre s. +Buena parte de esta rica biota nos va a prestar un gran servicio. +De all proviene cerca de la mitad de nuestras drogas. +As que no debemos desecharlo pues es una enorme oportunidad para usar este tipo de resultados, estos ensayos ms o menos azarosos de los ltimos mil aos acerca de lo que impacta nuestra salud. +Y usar nuestras ms avanzadas tecnologas para sacar lo que sea beneficioso de este mar de ruido. +De hecho, esto no es mera abstraccin, +yo acabo de formar una compaa de biotecnologa que est usando este tipo de enfoque para desarrollar terapias contra el Alzheimer y otras enfermedades de la vejez. Y estamos logrando un progreso real. +As que aqu estamos, +en el inicio de un nuevo milenio. +Miremos hacia delante hacia los humanos del futuro, mucho antes del final de este milenio, en unos cientos de aos, ellos van a mirar atrs a este momento. +Y si nos basramos en las charlas de hoy podramos pensar que ellos vern esta poca como una poca horrible, difcil y dolorosa por la que pasamos a duras penas. +Pues yo no creo que eso sea lo que va a pasar. +Ellos harn lo que hace todo el mundo. Van a olvidarse de todo eso. +De hecho van a imaginar esta poca de forma romntica. +Van a imaginar este momento como el glorioso instante en el que sentamos los fundamentos mismos de sus vidas, de su sociedad, de su futuro. +Saben, es un poco como un nacimiento +en donde todo es un desorden sangriento y terrible. +Pero luego que se obtiene de ello? Vida nueva. +En realidad, como indiqu anteriormente, olvidamos todas las dificultades que enfrentamos en el camino. +Para m, pues, est claro que uno de los fundamentos de ese futuro ser la revisin y puesta al da de nuestra biologa. +Al principio va a ocurrir gradualmente, pero luego acelerar. +Vamos a cometer muchos errores, +as es como funcionan estas cosas. +Para m es un privilegio increble estar vivo en este momento y poder ser testigo de todo esto. +Es un instante nico en la historia de la totalidad de la vida. +Ser recordado por siempre. +Y lo extraordinario es que no slo lo estamos observando sino que somos sus arquitectos. +Creo que debemos estar orgullosos de eso. +Lo que resulta difcil y retador es que tambin somos los objetos de estos cambios. +Nuestra salud, nuestras vidas, nuestro futuro, nuestros hijos. +Por eso son tan perturbadores para muchas personas, que por miedo darn un paso atrs. +Creo que nuestra eleccin, al elegir la vida, no es si vamos a recorrer o no este camino. +Definitivamente lo haremos. +Es cmo vamos a albergarlo en nuestros corazones, +cmo vamos a mirarlo. +Creo que Tucdides nos lo dijo muy claramente en el 430 a.C. Lo formul muy bien. +Otra vez, dir las palabras en el mismo orden que l us. +"Los ms valientes son aquellos que tienen la visin ms clara de lo que les espera, gloria y peligro por igual, +y an as avanzan y lo enfrentan." +Gracias +La AlloEsfera. Es una esfera metlica de tres pisos de altura dentro de una cmara libre de eco. +Piensen en la AlloEsfera como un enorme microscopio digital dinmicamente cambiante conectado a una supercomputadora. +20 investigadores pueden estar de pie en un puente suspendido dentro de la esfera y sumergirse completamente dentro de sus datos. +Imagine que un equipo de fsicos pudiera estar de pie dentro de un tomo observar y escuchar a los electrones girar. +Imagine que un grupo de escultores pudiera estar dentro de un entramado de tomos y esculpir con su material. +Imagine que un equipo de cirujanos pudiera volar al interior del cerebro, como si ste fuera un mundo y viera los tejidos como paisajes, y escuchara los niveles de densidad de la sangre como msica. +Esto es parte de la investigacin que vern y que estamos llevando a cabo en la AlloEsfera. +Pero primero les hablar un poco sobre el grupo de artistas, cientficos e ingenieros que estamos trabajando juntos. +Soy una compositora, entrenada orquestalmente y la inventora de la AlloEsfera. +Junto con mis colegas artistas visuales mapeamos algoritmos matemticos complejos que se desenvuelven en el tiempo y espacio visual y snicamente. +Nuestros colegas cientficos estn encontrando nuevos patrones en la informacin. +Nuestros colegas ingenieros estn construyendo la ms grande computadora dinmicamente cambiante en el mundo para esta clase de exploracin de datos. +Volaremos dentro de cinco proyectos de investigacin en la AlloEsfera que los llevarn desde datos biolgicos macroscpicos hasta la profundidad del giro de un electrn. +El primer proyecto se llama el AlloCerebro. +Y es nuestro ensayo para intentar cuantificar la belleza encontrando las regiones del cerebro interactuantes mientras observamos algo hermoso. +Estn volando dentro de la corteza del cerebro de mi colega. +Nuestra narrativa aqu son datos IRMf reales que han sido mapeados visual y snicamente. +El cerebro es un mundo al que podemos viajar y donde interactuar. +Observan a 12 agentes computacionales inteligentes que son pequeos rectngulos que vuelan junto a ustedes en el cerebro. +Estn minando datos de los niveles de densidad en la sangre. +Y los reportan a ustedes a travs de sonidos. +Los niveles ms altos de densidad demuestran que hay mayor actividad en ese punto del cerebro. +De hecho, les cantan a ustedes estas densidades con tonos ms altos mapeados hacia densidades ms elevadas. +Ahora viajaremos desde los datos biolgicos reales hacia algoritmos biogenerativos que crean naturaleza artificial en nuestra siguiente instalacin artstica y cientfica. +En esta instalacin artstica y cientfica los algoritmos biogenerativos nos ayudan a comprender la autogeneracin y el crecimiento, que es importante para la simulacin en las ciencias nanoescalares. +Para los artistas, construimos nuevos mundos que podemos descubrir y explorar. +Estos algoritmos generativos, al crecer en el tiempo, interactan y se comunican como un enjambre de insectos. +Nuestros investigadores interactan con estos datos inyectando cdigo bacterial, que son programas de cmputo que permiten a estas criaturas crecer a lo largo del tiempo. +Ahora viajaremos desde el mundo biolgico y macroscpico, hasta dentro del mundo atmico, mientras volamos hacia un entramado de tomos. +Estos son datos reales de Microscopa de Fuerza Atmica de mis colegas del Centro de Iluminacin y Energa de Estado Slido. +Ellos han descubierto un nuevo enlace atmico, un material nuevo para celdas solares transparentes. +Volamos a travs de 2,000 entramados de tomos -- oxgeno, hidrgeno y zinc. +Observen el enlace en el tringulo. +Son cuatro tomos de zinc azules enlazndose con un tomo blanco de hidrgeno. +Vean el flujo de electrones en las lneas de flujo que como artistas hemos generado para los cientficos. +Esto les permite encontrar los nodos de enlace en cualquier entramado de tomos. +Creemos que crea un hermoso arte estructural. +Los sonidos que escuchan son los autnticos espectros de emisin de estos tomos. +Los hemos mapeado en el dominio auditivo. As que les estn cantando a ustedes. +El oxgeno, hidrgeno y zinc tienen su propia firma. +Vamos a viajar ms profundo an al movernos desde dentro de este entramado atmico a un nico tomo de hidrgeno. +Trabajamos con nuestros colegas fsicos que nos han dado los clculos matemticos de la ecuacin de Schrdinger dependiente del tiempo en 3D. +Lo que observan aqu ahora es una superposicin de un electrn en las tres rbitas bajas de un tomo de hidrgeno. +De hecho, estn viendo y escuchando el flujo de electrones al fluir con las lneas. +Los puntos blancos son la onda de probabilidad que les mostrarn dnde se encuentra el electrn en cualquier punto dado de tiempo y espacio dentro de esta particular configuracin de tres orbitales. +En un minuto viajaremos a una configuracin de dos orbitales y podrn notar una pulsacin. +Y escucharn una ondulacin entre los sonidos. +De hecho, es un emisor de luz. +Al comenzar a pulsar y contraerse el sonido, nuestros fsicos pueden saber cundo se emitir un fotn. +Comienzan a encontrar nuevas estructuras matemticas con estos clculos. +Y estn comprendiendo ms acerca de la matemtica cuntica. +Nos vamos a ir todava ms profundo, hacia el giro de un solo electrn. +Este ser el ltimo proyecto que les mostrar. +Nuestros colegas del Centro de Computacin Cuntica y Espintrnica estn midiendo realmente con sus lsers la decoherencia en el giro de un nico electrn. +Hemos tomado esta informacin y construido un modelo matemtico a partir de ella. +Estn escuchando y viendo realmente un flujo de informacin cuntica. +Esto es muy importante para el siguiente paso en la simulacin de computadores cunticos y tecnologa de informacin. +As que los breves ejemplos que he mostrado les dan una idea de la clase de trabajo que hacemos en la Universidad de California, en Santa Brbara, para unir a las artes, a la ciencia y a la ingeniera en una nueva era para las matemticas, la ciencia y el arte. +Esperamos que todos ustedes vengan a ver la AlloEsfera +y nos inspiren en nuevas formas en que podamos usar este instrumento nico que hemos creado en Santa Brbara. +Muchas gracias. +ste es Tim Ferriss alrededor del ao 1979 despus de Cristo, a los dos aos. +Se nota por la pose que era un chico muy seguro de m mismo -- y no sin razn. +Tena una simptica rutina entonces, que era esperar a ltima hora de la tarde cuando mis padres se relajaban despus de un duro da de trabajo, haciendo crucigramas, viendo televisin. +Corra a la sala, saltaba sobre el sof, arrancaba los cojines, los tiraba al suelo, gritaba con todas mis ganas y corra porque yo era el Increble Hulk. +Obviamente, se ve el parecido. +Y segu esta rutina por un tiempo. +Cuando tena siete aos fui a un campamento de verano. +Mis padres lo creyeron necesario para su paz mental. +Y todos los das a medioda todos bamos a un laguito donde tenan muelles flotantes. +Se poda saltar desde el borde hasta lo ms profundo. +Nac prematuro. Siempre fui muy pequeo. +Mi pulmn izquierdo se colaps cuando nac +y siempre tuve problemas de flotabilidad. +As que el agua siempre me asust, +aunque me meta de vez en cuando. +Y un da en particular, todos estaban saltando a travs de neumticos. Hacan clavados a travs de ellos y a mi me pareci que sera divertido. +As que me tir a un neumtico, y el matn del campamento me tom por los tobillos. +Trat de subir a tomar aire, y mi espalda golpe bajo el neumtico. +Me angusti y pens que iba a morir. +Un supervisor del campamento vino y nos separ, afortunadamente. +De ah en adelante me aterroriz nadar. +Es algo de lo que no me recuper. +Mi falta de habilidad para nadar ha sido una de mis ms grandes humillaciones y vergenzas. +Fue cuando me di cuenta de que no era el Increble Hulk. +Pero hay un final feliz para esta historia. +A los 31 aos, esa es mi edad ahora, en agosto tom dos semanas para reconsiderar la natacin, y cuestionar todos los aspectos obvios de nadar. +Y sal, con mi baador, estilo europeo, sintindome como el Increble Hulk. +Y as es como quiero que todos aqu se sientan, como el Increble Hulk, al final de esta presentacin. +Ms especficamente, quiero que se sientan capaces de convertirse en excelentes nadadores de largas distancias, en aprendices de idiomas de clase mundial, y en campeones de tango. +Y quiero compartir mi arte. +Si tengo un arte, es el de deconstruir cosas que realmente me espantan. +Entonces, sigamos. +Nadar, principios fundamentales. +Principios fundamentales, esto es muy importante. +Encuentro que los mejores resultados en la vida no se logran debido a falsas ideas o asunciones no comprobadas. +Y el giro en la natacin vino cuando un amigo mo dijo, "estar un ao sin estimulantes" -- es de los que se toman seis expresos dobles al da -- "si puedes completar una carrera de un kilmetro en aguas abiertas". +Y el reloj empez a correr. +Empec a buscar triatletas pues encontr que los nadadores de profesin no eran capaces de ensear lo que hacan. +Ensay con tablas de natacin. +Mis pies cortaban el agua como cuchillas. Ni siquiera me mova. Sala desmoralizado, mirndome los pies. +Manoplas, todo. +Incluso tom clases con Olmpicos, nada ayud. +Y luego Chris Sacca, que es ahora un querido amigo mo y haba completado un Iron Man a 40 grados, dijo: "Tengo la respuesta a tus oraciones". +Y me introdujo al trabajo de un hombre llamado Terry Laughlin, fundador de Total Immersion Swimming. +Eso me llev a investigar la biomecnica. +As que h aqu las nuevas reglas para nadar, si alguno de ustedes teme nadar, o no se le da bien. +La primera es, olvdese del pataleo. Muy contraintuitivo. +Resulta que la propulsin no es realmente el problema. +Patalear ms duro no resuelve el problema porque el nadador promedio slo transfiere cerca del tres por ciento de su gasto de energa en movimiento hacia delante. +El problema es la hidrodinmica. +En lo que querr centrarse, en cambio, es en dejar que la parte baja del cuerpo entre en un tnel de succin detrs de la parte alta del mismo, como un auto pequeo viajando detrs de un auto grande en la autopista. +Y eso se logra manteniendo el cuerpo en posicin horizontal. +La nica manera de hacer esto es no nadar en la superficie del agua. +El cuerpo es ms denso que el agua. El 95 por ciento estar, al menos, sumergido naturalmente. +Entonces acabar, nmero tres, en el caso del estilo libre, no nadando sobre su estmago como mucha gente piensa, braceando sobre la superficie del agua. +Sino realmente rotando de aerodinmico a la derecha, a aerodinmico a la izquierda, manteniendo esa posicin de fuselaje por tanto tiempo como sea posible. +Miremos algunos ejemplos. ste es Terry. +Y pueden ver que est extendiendo su brazo derecho por debajo de su cabeza y lejos al frente. +Y realmente as todo el cuerpo est sumergido. +El brazo est extendido por debajo de la cabeza. +La cabeza se mantiene en linea con la columna, para usar la presin de agua estratgicamente para levantar las piernas -- muy importante, especialmente para gente con grasa en la parte baja del cuerpo. +Aqu hay un ejemplo del movimiento. +Entonces, no hay que patalear, sino usar movimientos pequeos y rpidos. +Pueden ver que esta es la extensin izquierda. +Luego ven su pierna izquierda. +Un pequeo movimiento, y el nico propsito de eso es rotar las caderas para poder llegar al lado opuesto. +Y el punto de entrada para su mano derecha -- noten esto, el no est braceando al frente y atrapando el agua. +En cambio est entrando al agua a un ngulo de 45 grados con su antebrazo, luego se propulsa al aerodinamizarse -- muy importante. +Incorrecto, arriba, que es lo que casi cualquier entrenador le ensear. +No es su culpa, en serio. +Hablar de implcito contra explcito en un momento. +Abajo es lo que la mayora de los nadadores encontrar que les permite hacer lo que yo hice, que es pasar de 21 brazadas en 20 yardas, a 11 brazadas, en dos sesiones de prcticas, sin entrenador, sin monitor de video. +Ahora amo nadar. No puedo esperar para ir a nadar. +Y dar una leccin de natacin ms tarde, para m, por si alguien me quiere acompaar. +Lo ltimo, la respiracin. Sin duda un problema que muchos tenemos cuando nadamos. +En estilo libre, la mejor manera de remediar esto es girar con el cuerpo y simplemente mirar el brazo de recuperacin mientras entra al agua. +Eso lo llevar muy lejos. +Eso es todo. Eso es realmente todo lo que necesita saber. +Idiomas. Material contra mtodo. +Yo, como mucha gente, llegu a la conclusin de que era terrible con los idiomas. +Sufr el espaol durante toda la secundaria inferior, primer ao de secundaria superior. Y la suma total de lo aprendido era prcticamente, "Dnde est el bao?" +y ni siquiera entenda la respuesta. Una triste situacin. +Luego me cambi a una escuela diferente en el segundo ao de secundaria superior. Tena la opcin de otros idiomas. La mayora de mis amigos tomaban japons. +As que pens, por qu no castigarme? Tomar japons. +Seis meses despus tuve la oportunidad de ir a Japn. +Mis profesores me dieron confianza, me dijeron, "No te preocupes. +Tendrs clases de japons todos los das para ayudarte a manejarlo. +Ser una experiencia maravillosa". De hecho, mi primera experiencia en el exterior. +Entonces mis padres me animaron a hacerlo. Me fui. +Llegu a Tokio. Maravilloso. +No poda creer que estaba al otro lado del mundo. +Conoc a mi familia anfitriona. Las cosas fueron muy bien creo, considerando todo. +Mi primera noche, antes de mi primer da de escuela, le dije a mi madre, muy cortsmente, "Por favor levnteme a las ocho de la maana". +Es decir, Pero no dije . Dije, . Muy parecido. +O sea, dije, "Por favor vileme a las ocho de la maana" +Nunca se ha visto a una mujer japonesa ms confundida. +Entr en la escuela +y un profesor vino y me entreg un trozo de papel. +No saba leer nada -- podran haber sido jeroglficos -- porque era Kanji, caracteres chinos adaptados al idioma japons. +Le pregunt qu deca +y me dijo: "Ahh, bueno, bueno, eetho, Historia Mundial, ehh, Clculo, Japons Tradicional". Y as. +As que me lleg como en ondas. +Algo se haba perdido en la traduccin. +Las clases de japons no eran clases de instruccin al japons en s, +eran el currculo normal de escuela secundaria para estudiantes japoneses. Los otros 4.999 estudiantes en la escuela eran japoneses, adems del americano. +Y esa es ms que nada mi respuesta. +Y eso me hizo buscar, a raz del pnico, el mtodo de lenguaje perfecto. +Lo prob todo. Fui a Kinokuniya. +Prob todos los libros posibles, todo CD imaginable. +Nada funcion hasta que encontr esto. +Este es el Joyo Kanji. Esto es una tableta, o un afiche con los 1.945 caracteres ms comunes determinados por el Ministerio de Educacin en 1981. +Muchas de las publicaciones en Japn se limitan a estos caracteres, para facilitar la alfabetizacin -- a algunos as se les requiere. +Y esto se convirti en mi Santo Grial, mi Piedra Rosetta. +Tan pronto como me concentr en este material, despegu. +Termin siendo capaz de leer el Asahi Shinbu, el peridico Asahi, cerca de seis meses despus -- en total 11 meses despus -- y pas de Japons I a Japons VI. +Termin haciendo trabajos de traductor a la edad de 16 aos cuando regres a los Estados Unidos, y he continuado aplicando este enfoque de material sobre mtodo a cerca de una docena de idiomas hasta hoy. +Alguien que era terrible para los idiomas, y en un momento dado, habla, lee y escribe cinco o seis. +Esto nos trae al punto, que es que, a menudo lo que haces, no cmo lo haces, es lo que se convierte en el factor determinante. +Esta es la diferencia entre ser eficaz -- haciendo las cosas correctas -- y ser eficiente -- haciendo las cosas bien sean o no importantes. +Tambin se puede hacer esto con la gramtica. +Invent estas seis oraciones luego de mucha experimentacin. +Hacer que un orador nativo le permita deconstruir su gramtica, traduciendo estas oraciones a pasado, presente, futuro le mostrar sujeto, objeto, verbo, lugar de los objetos directos, indirectos, gnero y as sucesivamente. +Desde ah, usted puede, si lo desea, aprender mltiples lenguajes, alternarlos para que no haya interferencia. +Podemos hablar sobre eso si a alguien le interesa. +Y ahora amo los idiomas. +Bueno, bailes de saln, implcito contra explcito -- muy importante. +Usted puede verme y decir, "Ese tipo debe de ser bailarn de saln". +Pero no, se equivoca, porque mi cuerpo est muy mal diseado para la mayora de cosas -- muy bien diseado para levantar rocas pesadas tal vez. +Sola ser mucho ms grande, mucho ms musculoso. +Y por eso termin caminando as. +Me pareca mucho a un orangutn, nuestros primos cercanos, o al Increble Hulk -- +no muy bueno para el baile de saln. +Me encontraba en Argentina en 2005. Decid observar una clase de tango -- sin intencin de participar -- +fui, pagu mis diez pesos, sub -- 10 mujeres dos hombres, usualmente una buena proporcin. +El instructor dice, "Usted participa". +Inmediatamente, me entraron sudores fros. +Un sudor visceral porque ya intent bailar en la universidad -- pis a la chica con el tacn. Ella grit. +Estaba tan preocupado por lo que ella pensara de lo que yo haca, que me explot en la cara, para nunca volver al club de bailes de saln. +Ella se acerca, y ste fue su enfoque, el de la profesora. +"Bueno, vamos, agrreme". +Una hermosa instructora asistente. +Estaba muy enojada porque la haba sacado de su prctica avanzada. +Entonces hice mi mejor esfuerzo. No saba donde poner mis manos. +Y se apart, baj sus brazos, los puso sobre sus caderas, se dio vuelta y grit en todo el saln, "Este tipo est hecho de una maldita montaa de msculo, y me est agarrando como un puto francs," lo cual me pareci motivante. +Todos se rieron. Me sent humillado. +Ella volvi. Y dijo, "Vamos, no tengo todo el da". +Y como quien ha luchado desde los ocho aos, proced a apretarla, como en "De ratones y hombres". +Ella mir hacia arriba y dijo, "eso est mejor". +As que pagu un mes de clases. +Y proced a revisar la -- Quera presentarme a una competicin para tener as un plazo -- la ley de Parkinson, la complejidad percibida de una tarea se expande para llenar el tiempo que le has asignado. +As que tena un plazo muy pequeo para una competicin. +Al principio tuve una profesora, para ensearme el rol femenino, el seguidor, porque quera entender las sensibilidades y habilidades que el seguidor necesita desarrollar, as lo del colegio no se repetira. +Y luego hice un inventario de las caractersticas, con su ayuda, de las capacidades y elementos de diferentes bailarines que haban ganado campeonatos. +Entrevist estas personas porque todos enseaban en Buenos Aires. +Compar las dos listas, y lo que se encuentra es que hay, explcitamente, prcticas que recomiendan, ciertos mtodos de entrenamiento. +Luego haba caractersticas comunes implcitas que ninguno de ellos pareca estar practicando. +Ahora, haciendo a un lado el proteccionismo de los profesores de baile argentinos, me pareci muy interesante. As que decid centrarme en tres de esas caractersticas comunes. +Pasos largos. Muchos milongueros, los bailarines de tango, usan pasos muy cortos. +Encontr que pasos ms largos eran mucho ms elegantes. +As puede -- y lo puede hacer en un espacio muy pequeo de hecho. +Segundo, diferentes tipos de giros. +Tercero, variacin en el ritmo. +Estas parecan ser las tres reas que yo podra aprovechar, para competir, si quera competir contra gente que haba practicado 20 o 30 aos. +Esta foto es de las semi-finales de los campeonatos de Buenos Aires, cuatro meses despus. +Luego un mes despus, fui a los campeonatos mundiales, llegu a la semi-final. Y luego impuse una marca mundial, luego, dos semanas despus. +Quiero que vean parte de lo que practiqu. +Voy a adelantar un poco aqu. +Este es el instructor que Alicia y yo escogimos para el lder masculino. +Su nombre es Gabriel Miss. +Uno de los bailarines ms elegantes de su generacin, conocido por sus pasos largos, y sus cambios en el ritmo y sus giros. +Alicia es muy famosa por derecho propio. +As que creo que estarn de acuerdo que se ven muy bien juntos. +Lo que me gusta de este vdeo es que es de la primera vez que bailaron juntos, por su manera de liderar. Tena un liderazgo fuerte. +lnNo lidera con el pecho, lo cual requiere que se incline hacia delante. +Yo no pude desarrollar los atributos en los dedos de los pies la fuerza en los pies, para hacer eso. +l usa una manera de liderar que se centra en los huesos del hombro y en el brazo +para as poder levantar a la mujer y quebrarla, por ejemplo. +Ese es tan solo una ventaja de eso. +Luego lo dividimos. +Este sera un ejemplo de un giro. +Este es un giro de paso atrs. +Hay muchos tipos diferentes. +Tengo cientos de horas de grabacin. Todas categorizadas, casi como George Carlin categoriz su comedia. +As que us mi archi-enemigo, el espaol, no menos, para aprender tango. +El miedo es su amigo. El miedo es un indicador. +Algunas veces demuestra lo que no debera hacer. +Ms a menudo demuestra exactamente lo que debera hacer. +Y los mejores resultados que he obtenido en la vida, los momentos ms agradables, se han derivado todos de hacerme una simple pregunta. Qu es lo peor que podra suceder? +Especialmente con miedos adquiridos durante la niez. +Tome la estructura analtica, las capacidades que tiene, aplquelas a viejos temores. +Aplquelas a grandes sueos. +Y cuando pienso en lo que temo ahora, es muy simple. +Cuando imagino mi vida, lo que habra sido de mi vida sin las oportunidades de educacin que tuve, me hace preguntarme. +He pasado los ltimos dos aos tratando de deconstruir el sistema americano de escuelas pblicas, para arreglarlo o reemplazarlo. +Y he hecho experimentos con cerca de 50.000 estudiantes hasta ahora, construdo, dira, cerca de media docena de escuelas, con mis lectores, hasta ahora. +Y si cualquiera de ustedes est interesado, me encantara conversar con ustedes. +No s nada, soy principiante, +pero hago muchas preguntas, y me encantara recibir su consejo. +Muchas gracias. +Es muy simple. Hay nueve, como reglas, que he descubierto despus de 35 aos de escalar. +La mayora son bastante bsicas. +Nmero uno: No te sueltes! Mtodo bastante seguro de xito. +Pero en realidad con frecuencia piensas en soltarte mucho antes de que tu cuerpo lo haga. +As que resiste ah y saldrs con soluciones bastante peculiares. +Nmero dos: Dudar es malo. +Esto es escalada de friccin, en Tuolumne Meadows, en el altiplano de Yosemite. +La escalada de friccin no tiene ninguna clase de bordes duros salientes. +Escalas sobre pequeos hoyuelos y protuberancias de la roca. +La mayor friccin que tienes es cuando apoyas al principio tu mano o tu pie en la roca. +Y a partir de eso momento, bsicamente ests cayendo. +As que mantener impulso es bueno. No te detengas. +Regla nmero tres: Ten un plan. +Esta es una escalada llamada Naked Edge en el can El Dorado, a las afueras de Boulder. +Este escalador est en el ltimo tramo. +De hecho est justo en la parte en donde yo ca. +Aproximadamente hay 300 metros de aire bajo l. +Y todos los tramos difciles estn de hecho abajo de l. +Con frecuencia lo que ocurre es que planeas tanto y tanto para lo difcil, pensando, "Cmo superar lo ms difcil? Cmo superar lo ms difcil?" +Y entonces, qu pasa? +Llegas al ltimo tramo. Es fcil. +Pero ests completamente agotado. No lo hagas. +Tienes que planear por adelantado llegar a la cima. +Pero tampoco puedes olvidar que tienes que poder completar cada movimiento individual Pero tampoco puedes olvidar que tienes que poder completar cada movimiento individual +Esta es una escalada llamada la Ruta Dike, en Peyrat Dome, en el altiplano de Yosemite. +Lo interesante de esta escalada es que no es tan difcil. +Pero si eres el lder, en el movimiento ms difcil, ests sobre una cada de 30 metros, apoyado en unas lajas de poco ngulo. +As que tienes que concentrarte. +No te conviene detenerte a la mitad como Kubla Kahn en el poema de Coleridge. +Tienes que mantenerte en movimiento. +Regla nmero cinco: Aprende a descansar. +Es asombroso. Los mejores escaladores son aquellos que en las situaciones ms extremas pueden colocar sus cuerpos en cierta posicin en la que pueden descansar, reagruparse, calmarse, concentrarse, y continuar. +Esta es una escalada en Needles, tambin en California. +El temor es de verdad nefasto. Porque lo que significa es que no te ests concentrando en lo que ests haciendo. +Te ests concentrando en las consecuencias de fracasar en lo que ests haciendo. Porque cualquier movimiento dado debera tener toda tu concentracin y poder mental para ser ejecutado de forma efectiva. +Una de las cosas en la escalada, es que la mayora toma las cosas directamente. Y siguen la solucin ms obvia. +Esta es la Torre del Diablo en Wyoming. Es una formacin de basalto columnar la mayora probablemente la conozca de "Encuentros cercanos". +En ella, los escaladores en grieta meteran sus manos y los dedos de los pies, y empezaran a escalar. +Las grietas son muy pequeas para meter los dedos de los pies as que la nica forma de subir es usar las puntas de los dedos en las grietas. Y utilizar presin opuesta y forzarte hacia arriba. +Regla nmero ocho: Fuerza no siempre equivale a xito. +En los 35 aos en que he sigo gua de escalada y enseado muros interiores, y cosas como sas, lo ms importante que he aprendido es, los hombres siempre intentan hacer dominadas. +Los principiantes, se impulsan, se impulsan, llegan a 5 metros de altura (15 pies). Y pueden hacer como 15 dominadas correcto? Y entonces se agotan. +Las mujeres son mucho ms equilibradas. Porque no tienen esa idea de que van a poder hacer 100 dominadas. +Ellas piensan en cmo conseguir apoyarse en sus pies. Porque es como lo natural, te cargan todo el da. +As que el equilibrio es crtico. Y mantener tu peso sobre tus pies, sobre tus msculos ms fuertes. +Y por supuesto est la regla nmero nueve. +Formul la regla nmero nueve despus de no haber planeado para una cada, y fueron alrededor de 12 metros y me romp una costilla. +As que no te aferres hasta el amargo final. +"Recuerda: El equilibrio lo es todo" Muchas gracias. +Hoy estoy aqu, como dijo June, para hablarles de un proyecto que junto a mi hermana melliza venimos realizando desde hace tres aos y medio. +Tejemos al crochet un arrecife de coral. +Es un proyecto al que se nos han ido sumando cientos de personas de todo el mundo. De hecho, en este proyecto han participado en muchos de sus tantos aspectos. +Es un proyecto que ahora est presente en tres continentes. Sus races abarcan los campos de las matemticas, la biologa marina, las artesanas femeninas y el activismo medioambiental. +Es verdad. +Es a la vez un proyecto que, de manera esplndida, su desarrollo se equipara con la evolucin de la vida en la Tierra. Lo que es especialmente grato decir justo aqu en febrero de 2009 -- Que, como se dijo en una charla previa es en el bicentenario del nacimiento de Charles Darwin. +De todo esto voy a hablar en los prximos 18 minutos, espero. +Pero primero quiero mostrarles unas fotos. +Slo para darles una idea de la escala, esa instalacin tiene cerca de 1,8 m de lado a lado. Los modelos ms altos miden unos 60 a 90 cms. +Aqu hay algunas imgenes ms. +Esa de la derecha mide cerca de 1,5 m de altura. +El trabajo comprende cientos de modelos de crochet diferentes. +Y, de hecho, ahora se compone de miles y miles de contribuciones de gente de todo el mundo. +La totalidad del proyecto insume decenas de miles de horas de trabajo, el 99 por ciento realizado por mujeres. +A la derecha, esa muestra es parte de una instalacin de ms de 3,5 m de largo. +Mi hermana y yo comenzamos este proyecto en 2005 porque en ese ao, al menos en la prensa cientfica, se hablaba mucho del calentamiento global y de su incidencia en los arrecifes de coral. +Los corales son organismos muy delicados. Son asolados por cualquier incremento en la temperatura del mar. +Generando estas decoloraciones que son los primeros signos de enfermedad en los corales. +Y si esto persiste, si las temperaturas no bajan, los arrecifes empiezan a morir. +Mucho de esto ha estado sucediendo en la Gran Barrera de Coral y en los arrecifes de coral de todo el mundo. +Esta es nuestra invocacin en crochet de un coral decolorado. +Juntas tenemos una nueva organizacin llamada The Institute For Figuring. Una pequea organizacin que creamos para promover, para realizar proyectos sobre las dimensiones estticas y poticas de la ciencia y la matemtica. +Coloqu un anuncio en nuestro sitio convocando a la gente a unirse a nuestra empresa. +Para nuestra sorpresa la gente del Museo Andy Warhol fue una de las primeras en llamar. +Decan tener una exhibicin cuyo tema era la respuesta artstica al calentamiento global y queran que nuestro arrecife de coral formara parte de la misma. +Yo rindome dije: Bien, recin lo empezamos, pueden tener una parte pequea. +Entonces en 2007 tuvimos una exhibicin, una exhibicin pequea de este arrecife de coral. +Y despus gente de Chicago apareci diciendo: A fines de 2007 el tema del Festival de Humanidades de Chicago ser el calentamiento global. Tenemos una galera de 280 metros cuadrados y queremos que ustedes la llenen con su arrecife. +Y yo, ingenua en ese momento, dije: S, seguro. +Ahora digo ingenua porque en realidad mi profesin es escritora cientfica. +Me dedico a escribir libros sobre la historia cultural de la fsica. +He escrito libros sobre la historia del espacio, la historia de la fsica y la religin, y escribo artculos para publicaciones como New York Times y L.A. Times. +No tena idea de lo que significaba llenar una galera de 280 metros cuadrados. +As que dije que s a esta propuesta. +Me fui a casa y le cont a mi hermana Christine. +Y casi le da un ataque porque Christine es profesora en uno de los institutos de arte ms grandes de Los ngeles, CalArts. Ella saba exactamente lo que significaba llenar una galera de 280 metros cuadrados. +Pens que me haba vuelto loca. +Pero teji crochet a toda marcha. +Y para resumir, ocho meses despus llenamos los 280 metros cuadrados de la galera del Centro Cultural de Chicago. +Para ese entonces el proyecto haba adquirido una dimensin viral que nos exceda totalmente. +La gente de Chicago decidi que, adems de exhibir nuestros arrecifes, deseaban hacer que su propia gente construyera un arrecife. +As que fuimos y les enseamos las tcnicas. Dimos talleres y conferencias. +Y la gente de Chicago construy su propio arrecife +que fue exhibido junto con el nuestro. +Cientos de personas participaron. +Fuimos invitadas a repetir la experiencia en Nueva York, Londres y Los ngeles. +En cada una de estas ciudades la gente del lugar, cientos y cientos, construyeron arrecifes. +Cada vez ms gente se fue sumando al proyecto, a la mayora de ellos nunca los conocimos. +As, este proyecto se ha transformado en una criatura orgnica, siempre evolucionando que ya nos excede a Christine y a m. +Bien, alguno de ustedes estar sentado pensando: En qu planeta vive esta gente? +Por qu demonios estn tejiendo un arrecife? +lana y humedad no son precisamente dos conceptos que vayan bien juntos. +Por qu no cincelar un arrecife de coral en mrmol, +o fundirlo en bronce? +Pero resulta que hay una muy buena razn para tejerlo y es que muchos organismos del arrecife de coral tienen un tipo de estructura muy particular. +La forma irregular que uno ve en corales, algas marinas, esponjas, nudibranquias, es una forma de geometra conocida como geometra hiperblica. +Y la nica manera que conocen los matemticos de modelar esta estructura es el crochet. Sucede que es cierto. +Es casi imposible modelar esta estructura de otra manera. Y es casi imposible hacerlo en computadoras. +Entonces, qu es esta geometra hiperblica que encarnan los corales y las babosas de mar? +En los prximos minutos, todos vamos a ser elevados al nivel de una babosa de mar. +Esta clase de geometra revolucion las matemticas al ser descubierta en el siglo XIX. +Pero no fue hasta 1997 que los matemticos comprendieron la manera de modelarla. +En 1997 una matemtica de Cornell, Daina Taimina, descubri que esta estructura podra representarse en tejido y crochet. +El primero que hizo fue tejido con palillos. +Pero son muchos puntos en el palillo. Pronto se dio cuenta que lo mejor era el crochet. +Pero lo que en realidad estaba haciendo era un modelo de una estructura matemtica que muchos matemticos haban pensado que era imposible modelar. +De hecho pensaban que una estructura como esa era imposible per se. +Algunos de los mejores matemticos pasaron cientos de aos intentando demostrar que esta estructura era imposible. +Entonces, cmo es esta estructura hiperblica imposible? +Antes de la geometra hiperblica los matemticos conocan dos tipos de espacios, el espacio euclidiano y el esfrico, +cada uno con propiedades diferentes. +A los matemticos les gusta caracterizar las cosas formalmente. +Todos tenemos la nocin de espacio plano, de espacio euclidiano. +Pero los matemticos formalizan esto de manera particular. +Y lo hacen mediante el concepto de lneas paralelas. +As que tenemos una lnea y un punto fuera de la lnea. +Dijo Euclides: Cmo puedo definir lneas paralelas? +pregunto: "cuntas lneas puedo trazar que pasen por el punto y nunca toquen la lnea original? +Y todos sabemos la respuesta. Alguien la quiere decir? +Una, correcto. Bien. +Esa es la definicin de lnea paralela. +Es, en realidad, una definicin de espacio euclidiano. +Pero hay otra posibilidad que todos conocemos-- el espacio esfrico. +Piensen en la superficie de una esfera, como la de una pelota de playa o la superficie terrestre. +Tengo una lnea recta en mi superficie esfrica. +Y tengo un punto fuera de la lnea. Cuntas lneas rectas puedo trazar que pasen por el punto y nunca toquen la lnea original? +Qu queremos decir cuando hablamos de lnea recta en una superficie curva? +Bueno, los matemticos han encontrado una respuesta. +Comprendieron que hay un concepto generalizado de rectitud llamado geodsica. +Sobre la superficie de una esfera una lnea recta es el crculo ms grande posible que uno pueda trazar. +Es como el Ecuador o las lneas de longitud. +Entonces hago nuevamente la pregunta: "Cuntas lneas rectas puedo trazar que pasen por el punto y nunca toquen la lnea original?" +Alguien quiere adivinarlo? +Cero. Muy bien. +Ahora, los matemticos pensaron que era la nica alternativa. +Es un poco sospechoso, no?, que haya dos respuestas hasta ahora: cero y uno. +Dos respuestas? Posiblemente podra haber una tercera alternativa. +Para un matemtico si hay dos respuestas y las dos primeras son cero y uno hay otro nmero que surge inmediatamente como tercera alternativa. +Alguien quiere adivinar cul es? +Infinito. Todos acertaron. Exactamente. +Hay una tercera alternativa. +As es como se ve. +Tiene una lnea recta y hay infinitas lneas que pasan por el punto sin tocar la lnea original. +Este es el grfico. +Esto casi vuelve locos a los matemticos porque, como ustedes, estn all sentados sintindose engaados. +Pensando, cmo puede ser? Ests haciendo trampa. Las lneas son curvas. +Pero eso es slo porque las estoy proyectando en una superficie plana. +Los matemticos durante cientos de aos tuvieron que lidiar con esto. +Cmo podan verlo? +Qu significaba realmente tener un modelo fsico que se viera as? +Es un poco as: imaginemos que slo encontramos espacio euclidiano. +Luego aparecen los matemticos y dicen: Existe esta cosa llamada esfera y las lneas se juntan en los polos norte y sur. +Pero no se sabe qu forma tiene la esfera. +Y llega alguien que dice: Miren aqu hay una pelota. +Y ustedes dicen: Ah! Puedo verla, sentirla, +tocarla, jugar con ella. +Y eso fue exactamente lo que sucedi cuando Daina Tiamina en 1997 mostr que se pueden hacer modelos al crochet de espacios hiperblicos. +Ac tenemos un diagrama de crochet. +Yo cos el postulado de las paralelas euclidianas en su superficie. +Y las lneas se ven curvas. +Pero miren: puedo demostrarles que son rectas porque puedo tomar una cualquiera de estas lneas y hacer un pliegue sobre ella. +Es una lnea recta. +As que aqu, en lana, con un arte casero femenino, est la prueba de que el postulado ms famoso de las matemticas est equivocado. +Se pueden coser toda suerte de teoremas matemticos en estas superficies. +El descubrimiento del espacio hiperblico entra al campo de las matemticas denominado geometra no euclidiana. +Este es, en realidad, el campo de las matemticas que subyace a la relatividad general y en ltima instancia, en realidad, nos va a mostrar la forma del universo. +Entonces existe una lnea directa entre esta labor femenina, Euclides y la relatividad general. +Bien, dije que los matemticos pensaban que esto era imposible. +Aqu hay dos criaturas que nunca oyeron del postulado de las paralelas euclidianas-- que no saban que era imposible de violar y simplemente continuaron con eso. +Lo han estado haciendo durante cientos de millones de aos. +Una vez le pregunt a los matemticos por qu los matemticos pensaban que esta estructura era imposible si las babosas de mar lo han estado haciendo desde el Silrico. +Sus respuestas fueron interesantes. +Dijeron: Bueno, supongo que no hay muchos matemticos observando las babosas de mar. +Y eso es verdad. Pero es algo que va mucho ms all. +Dice mucho sobre lo que los matemticos pensaban que era la matemtica. De lo que pensaban que podra o no hacer. De lo que pensaban que podra o no representar. +Incluso los matemticos, que en un sentido son los ms libres pensadores, literalmente no pudieron ver no slo las babosas de mar a su alrededor sino la lechuga en sus platos. Porque la lechuga, y todos esos vegetales enroscados, son encarnaciones de la geometra hiperblica. +En cierto sentido, literalmente tenan una visin tan simblica de las matemticas, no fueron capaces de ver lo que suceda con la lechuga que tenan en frente. +Resulta que el mundo natural est lleno de maravillas hiperblicas. +Y as tambin hemos descubierto que hay una taxonoma infinita de criaturas del crochet hiperblico. +Comenzamos con Chrissy, nuestros colaboradores y yo, haciendo los modelos simples, matemticamente perfectos. +Pero encontramos que si nos desvibamos de las reglas especficas del cdigo matemtico que subyace al algoritmo simple: tejer tres, incrementar uno. Si nos desvibamos de eso y adornbamos el cdigo, los modelos inmediatamente comenzaban a verse ms naturales. +Y todos nuestros colaboradores, una gran cantidad de gente en todo el mundo, hicieron sus propias ornamentaciones. +Y entonces tenemos este rbol de la vida de taxonomas de crochet siempre cambiante. +As como la morfologa y la complejidad de la vida terrestre no tienen fin, pequeos embellecimientos y complejizaciones del cdigo del ADN producen nuevas seres como jirafas u orqudeas. Del mismo modo las pequeas ornamentaciones en el cdigo crochet dan paso a nuevas y extraordinarias criaturas en el rbol evolutivo de la vida al crochet. +De modo que este proyecto en realidad ha adoptado esta vida orgnica interior propia. +Est la totalidad de la gente y sus aportes. +Sus visiones individuales y sus compromisos con este modo matemtico. +Tenemos estas tecnologas. Las usamos. +Pero, por qu? Qu est en juego aqu? Qu es lo importante? +Para Chrissy y para m una de las cosas ms importantes es que estas cosas sugieren la importancia y el valor del conocimiento materializado. +Vivimos en una sociedad que tiende totalmente a valorizar las formas simblicas de representacin-- las representaciones algebraicas, las ecuaciones, los cdigos. +Vivimos en una sociedad que se obsesiona con el hecho de presentar informacin de esta forma, de ensear informacin de esta manera. +Pero mediante este tipo de modalidad, el crochet, otras formas plsticas de jugar, la gente puede incursionar en ideas ms abstractas, de alto impacto, tericas-- el tipo de ideas que normalmente uno estudia en departamentos universitarios de matemticas avanzadas, que es donde yo aprend por primera vez acerca del espacio hiperblico. +Pero esto puede hacerse jugando con objetos materiales. +Una de las formas de lograrlo que hemos intentado en el Institute for Figuring, y en proyectos similares, es con jardines de infantes para adultos. +Los jardines de infantes fueron un sistema educativo muy formalizado, muy formalizado, establecido por un hombre llamado Friedrich Froebel, un cristalgrafo del siglo XIX. +l crea que los cristales eran el modelo para todo tipo de representaciones. +Desarroll un sistema alternativo radical para atraer a los nios ms pequeos hacia las ideas ms abstractas mediante formas fsicas del juego. +l es digno de una charla entera por derecho propio. +El valor de la educacin es algo que Froebel defendi a travs de modos plsticos de juego. +Vivimos en una sociedad con muchas usinas de pensamiento donde las grandes mentes van a pensar el mundo. +Ellos escriben esos grandes tratados simblicos llamados libros, ensayos, y artculos editoriales. +Chrissy y yo queremos proponer, mediante The Institute For Figuring, otra forma alternativa de hacer cosas: la usina de juego (play tank). +La usina de juego, como la de pensamiento, es un lugar donde la gente puede ir y entrar en contacto con las grandes ideas. +Pero lo que queremos proponer es que los ms altos niveles de abstraccin como son las matemticas, la computacin, la lgica, etc., todo eso pueda ser incorporado no slo a travs de mtodos simblicos algebraicos meramente cerebrales, sino, literalmente, jugando fsicamente con las ideas. +Muchas gracias. +A los cinco aos me enamor de los aviones. +Estoy hablando de los aos 30s. +En los 30s los aeroplanos contaban con dos alas y un motor de hlice que era piloteado por un tipo parecido a Cary Grant. +Con un par de botas altas de cuero, pantalones ajustados de montar y una vieja casaca de cuero, un precioso casco y aquellas maravillosas gafas y la infaltable paoleta blanca movindose con el viento. +Encaminndose a su aeroplano con una clase de balanceo los diablillos cuidan el balanceo tirar el cigarrillo abrazar a la joven que espera, darle un beso. +Y, finalmente, montar en su aeroplano, posiblemente por ltima vez. +Por supuesto siempre pens: qu habra pasado de haber besado su aeroplano primero? +Pero esto era un verdadero romance para m. +De todo lo relacionado con volar en aquellos das lo que fue, ahora que lo pienso, fue probablemente el desarrollo tecnolgico ms avanzado hasta ese momento. +De manera que siendo muy joven trat de acercarme a este desarrollo dibujando aeroplanos, constantemente dibujando aeroplanos. +De esta forma me convert en parte de este romance. +Y por supuesto, de alguna manera, cuando digo romance, me refiero, en parte, al aspecto esttico que rodea a toda esta situacin. +Pienso que la palabra sera la experiencia holstica que envuelve a un producto. +El producto era el aeroplano +que permiti construir un romance. +Es ms, las partes de un aeroplano tienen nombres en francs: +el fuselage , el empennage (alern trasero), el nessal . +Ustedes saben, provenientes de una lengua romance. +Era algo que simplemente penetraba tu espritu. +Me pas a m. +Por lo que decid que deba acercarme un poco ms que simplemente dibujar aeroplanos de fantasa. +Quera construir aeroplanos. +Por lo que comenc a construir modelos de aeroplanos. +Y encontr al hacerlo que la apariencia en los dibujos no era suficiente; +que no podas transferirlos a un modelo real. +Si queras que realmente volara tenas que aprender sobre la disciplina de volar. +Tenas que aprender sobre aeronutica. +Aprender qu es lo que hace a un aeroplano permanecer en el aire. +Por supuesto, siendo un modelo, en esos das no podas controlarlo. +As que debera ser automanejable, y permanecer volando sin chocar. +Por lo que decid mejor dejar de utilizar el dibujo las formas de fantasa y convertirlas en dibujos tcnicos. La forma de las alas, del fuselaje y as. Y construir un aeroplano a partir de esos dibujos que, yo saba, seguan los principios de volar. +Hacindolo as, podra producir un modelo que volara, que permaneciera en el aire. +Y se produjo, una vez que estuvo en el aire, parte de ese romance en el que haba cado. +Bueno, del acto de dibujar aviones me condujo a, cuando tuve la oportunidad de elegir, a un curso en la escuela, para enrolarme en una clase de ingeniera aeronutica. +Y cuando me encontr sentado en clases, sin que nadie me pidiera dibujar un aeroplano para mi sorpresa. +Tena que aprender matemticas y mecnica y todo ese tipo de cosas. +As que prefera dibujar mis aeroplanos en clase. +Un da un compaero mir sobre mi hombro lo que haca y me dijo: "Dibujas muy bien." +"T deberas estar en el departamento de artes". +Y le pregunt: "Por qu?" +l dijo: "Bueno, slo por una razn, porque all estudian ms chicas que aqu". +As que mi romance temporalmente cambi. +Y decid ingresar en las artes porque ah si apreciaban el dibujo. +Estudi pintura pero no me fue nada bien. +Transit por estudios de diseo, algo de arquitectura. +Eventualmente fui contratado como diseador. +Y durante los siguientes 25 aos, viv en Italia en EE.UU. repartiendo partes de este romance a quien quisiera pagarlas. Este sentimiento, este sentimiento de esttica de la experiencia girando alrededor del objeto que se disea. +Existe. +Cualquiera de ustedes que haya viajado en automviles-- acaso fue ayer? en una pista, sabe lo del romance que gira alrededor de los autos deportivos. +Bueno, durante 25 aos estuve ms bien apagando partes de este romance y sin recibir mucho a cambio porque el diseo bajo pedido no siempre te conecta con una circunstancia en la cual puedas producir cosas de este tipo. +As es que, despus de 25 aos, comenc a sentir. que me secaba poco a poco +Y prefer renunciar. +Empec un negocio propio muy pequeo que pas de 40 personas a una en un esfuerzo por recuperar mi inocencia. +Deseaba regresar a donde estaba el romance. +No poda escoger aeroplanos porque ya se haban convertido en algo poco romntico para esas fechas. Aunque haba realizado muchos trabajos para aviones en sus interiores. +Por lo que opt por el mobiliario. +Y particularmente las sillas porque saba algo acerca de ellas. +Haba diseado muchas sillas durante algunos aos para tractores, camiones y submarinos. Todo tipo de cosas. +Pero nada sobre sillas para oficina. +As que, empec a hacerlo +y descubr que existen formas de duplicar el mismo principio que utilic con los aeroplanos. +La nica diferencia era que en lugar de moldear el producto con base en el viento era moldeado por el cuerpo humano. +As que la disciplina consista en que mientras en los aviones aprendes mucho sobre cmo trabajar con el aire, para una silla se tiene que aprender mucho sobre cmo trabajar con el cuerpo. y lo que el cuerpo necesita, requiere nos indica sus necesidades. +Y esa es la forma en que, a final de cuentas, despus de algunos xitos y errores termin por disear la silla que les mostrar. +Debo decirles algo ms, mientras me entretena realizando aquellos modelos de aeroplanos hice de todo. +Conceb el tipo de aeroplano. +bsicamente yo lo desarroll, +lo constru, +y lo vol. +Y esa es la forma en la que trabajo ahora. +Cuando empec con esta silla no tena una idea preconcebida. +El diseo, actualmente, para ser verdadero, no se empieza con bocetos estilizados. +Yo empec con muchas ideas vagas hace aproximadamente ocho o nueve aos. +Y esas ideas sueltas tenan algo que yo saba, pasara con las personas en las oficinas. En el lugar de trabajo, quienes realizan su trabajo usando sillas de trabajo la mayora sentados frente a una computadora durante todo el da. +Y pens: lo nico que no necesitan es una silla que interfiera con su razn principal para estar sentados. +As que decid tomar la perspectiva de que la silla debe hacer por ellos lo mximo humanamente posible o mecnicamente posible de manera que no tengan que pelearse con ella. +Mi idea era que en lugar de sentarse y agacharse para encontrar muchos controles debes sentarte en la silla y automticamente balancear tu peso con la fuerza requerida para reclinarte. +Ahora bien, eso podra no significar mucho para algunos de ustedes. +Pero todos sabemos que la mayora de las sillas buenas deben reclinarse porque es benfico abrir estas uniones entre tus piernas y el tronco de tu cuerpo para una mejor respiracin y mayor fluidez. +De manera que al sentarte en mi silla sin importar si mides 1,50 m 1,96 m siempre trabaja con tu peso y transfiere la cantidad de fuerza necesaria para reclinarte de manera que no tienes que buscar algo que ajustar. +Se los dir sin rodeos: esto tambin tiene sus pros y sus contras. +Existen algunos inconvenientes. +Uno es que no puedes acomodar a cualquier tipo de persona. +Hay personas con poco peso y otras con mucho peso. Posiblemente algunas tengan un tronco muy abultado +que pueden caer ms all de la grfica que decid utilizar. +Pero sent que el compromiso que me impuse estuvo a mi favor porque la mayora de las personas no ajustan sus sillas. +Se sientan en ellas durante toda la vida. +Encontr a alguien en el autobs rumbo a una pista de carreras que me cont de una llamada de su hermana. +Me deca que su hermana tena una de esas nuevas sillas mejoradas. +Ella le deca: "Oh, la adoro". +Deca: "Pero es demasiado alta". +As que l le dijo: "voy a tu casa para echar una mirada". +Al llegar y mirar la silla, +se agach, tir de una palanca y coloc la silla en una posicin ms baja. +Ella le dijo: "Oh, es maravilloso. Cmo lo hiciste?" +Y entonces le mostr la manija. +Bueno, esto es tpico para muchos de nosotros que trabajamos con sillas. +Por qu razn se necesita contar con un manual de 20 pginas para utilizar una silla? +Alguna vez yo tuve uno de 20 pginas, para un reloj de pulsera. +De cualquier forma, pens que era importante que no tuvieran que hacer ajustes para realizar este tipo de operacin. +La otra cosa que sent es que los apoyabrazos nunca haban sido estudiados de manera apropiada. desde la perspectiva de la cantidad de ayuda que pueden ofrecer a tu vida laboral. +Pero cre que sera mucho pedir el tener que ajustar cada uno de manera individual para colocarlos donde los queras. +As que le dediqu mucho tiempo. +Trabaj cerca de ocho o nueve aos en eso. +y cada cosa fue finalmente saliendo como en paralelo, pero de manera incremental se convirtieron en un problema en s mismos. +Trabaj mucho tiempo para imaginarme cmo mover los apoyabrazos sobre un arco mayor esto es, hacia arriba y hacia abajo y hacerlo de manera ms fcil para no tener que usar un botn. +Y despus de muchas pruebas y muchos errores se nos ocurri un arreglo muy simple en el que deberamos solamente mover un solo apoyobrazos +para que ambos subieran fcilmente. +Y se detuvieran donde lo deseas. +Puedes colocarlos abajo, prcticamente fuera de la vista. +Sin apoyabrazos. +O puedes tirar de ellos hacia arriba hasta donde lo desees. +Esta fue otra cosa que sent, aunque no tan romntico como Cary Grant pero que sin embargo comienza a capturar un poco de esttica, de operacin funcional esttica dentro de un producto. +Mi siguiente rea de inters fue que el hecho de reclinarse era un factor muy importante. +Y que, mientras ms puedas reclinarte, en cierta manera, es mejor. +Podran todos poner sus manos en sus asentaderas y sentir ese hueso? +Sienten el hueso aqu abajo? +Slo el de cada uno. +Existen dos, uno en cada lado. +Todo el peso del torso superior, los brazos, la cabeza, vienen a caer a travs de la espalda, en la espina y en esos huesos cuando se sientan. +Y eso es un peso tremendo. +Simplemente al poder descansar nuestros brazos nos permite liberarnos de 20 porciento de nuestra carga. +Ahora, si la espina dorsal no se mantiene en la posicin apropiada, ayudar a desviar nuestra espina de manera peligrosa, etc. +As que para descargar ese gran peso y, si en realidad existe, te podrs reclinar. +Al reclinarte te deshaces de una gran cantidad de peso de tus huesos en las asentaderas y lo transfieres hacia tu espalda. +Al mismo tiempo, como les deca, uno abre esta unin. +Y la capacidad para respirar es buena +pero para hacerlo, si tienes cualquier ngulo de reclinacin, llega un momento en que necesitas descansar la cabeza porque, casi siempre, automticamente sostienes la cabeza en una posicin vertical, pueden ver? +Mientras me reclino mi cabeza permanece ms o menos vertical. +Y si se reclinan en exceso tienen que usar la fuerza de los msculos para mantener la cabeza all. +Aqu es donde entra en juego el apoyacabeza. +Ahora bien, el soporte de la cabeza representa todo un reto porque siempre se desea ajustarlo lo suficiente para que quede bien, ustedes saben, un hombre alto y una mujer bajita. +Bueno, aqu vamos. +Tengo un poco ms de 10 cms de ajuste aqu para descansar la cabeza en su lugar. +Pero yo saba por experiencia y observando en varias oficinas donde haba sillas con apoyacabezas que nadie se molestaba por darle vuelta a una perilla colocada en la parte de atrs para ajustarlo y ponerlo en posicin. +Y t vas a necesitarlo en una posicin diferente cuando te sientas derecho, y entonces te reclinas. +As que supe que era algo que tena que ser resuelto, y ser automtico. +De modo que si observan esta silla mientras me reclino, el descansacabeza se eleva hasta encontrar mi cuello. +Idealmente se quiere el soporte de la cabeza en el rea craneal, justo aqu. +Asi que esta parte llev mucho tiempo para solucionarse. +Y tambin hay muchas otras cosas, como la forma de los cojines. El gel que pusimos en ellos; +robamos la idea de los asientos de bicicleta, y pusimos el gel en los cojines y en los descansabrazos para absorber el punto de carga -- distribuyendo la carga, evitando las zonas duras. +Pueden golpearse el codo o el trasero. +Y les quise demostrar el hecho de que una silla puede acomodar gente. +Mientras ests sentado en ella puedes ajustarla abajo para quien mide 1,5 m o puedes ajustarla para el tipo que mide 1,96 m. Todo dentro del espectro de unos cuantos sencillos ajustes. +Quiero hablarles sobre las elecciones. +Por primera vez en Estados Unidos, un grupo de votantes predominantemente blanco... ... ha votado a un candidato afro-americano para presidente. +Y en realidad Barack Obama ha obtenido bastante buenos resultados. +Ha ganado 375 votos electorales. +Y alrededor de 70 millones de votos populares... ... ms que ningn otro candidato presidencial, de cualquier raza, de cualquier partido, en la historia. +Si comparan los resultados de Obama con los de John Kerry cuatro aos antes-- los demcratas prefieren ver esta transicin aqu, donde casi todos los estados se hacen ms azules, ms democrticos-- incluso estados que Obama ha perdido, como en la zona oeste. Esos estados se han hecho ms azules. +En el sur, en el nordeste, casi en todos sitios ... pero con un par de excepciones aqu y all. +Una excepcin est en Massachusetts. +Era el estado donde resida John Kerry. +No es de extraar que Obama no pudiera hacerlo all mejor que Kerry. +O en Arizona, donde reside John McCain, Obama no ha mejorado mucho. +Pero tambin est esta parte del pas, por aqu, en esta regin intermedia. +Por Arkansas, Tennessee, Oklahoma, la zona de Virginia Occidental. +S, Bill Clinton era de Arkansas, pero son diferencias muy muy profundas. +Por lo tanto, cuando pensamos en zonas del pas como Arkansas, ya saben. +Hay un libro que se llama "Qu pasa con Kansas?" +Pero la cuestin aqu-- Los resultados de Obama fueron relativamente buenos en Kansas. +Ha perdido por mucho pero todos los demcratas lo hacen. +No ha perdido por ms de lo que la mayora de la gente. +Pero s, qu pasa con Arkansas? +Y cuando pensamos en Arkansas solemos tener connotaciones bastante negativas. +Pensamos en una pandilla de catetos, entre comillas, con pistolas. +Y pensamos que gente as probablemente no quiera votar... a gente que tiene ese fsico y que se llama Barack Obama. +Pensamos que es una cuestin de raza. Y es eso justo? +No estamos como estigmatizando a la gente de Arkansas, y a esta parte del pas? +Y la respuesta es que es al menos justo en parte. +Sabemos que la raza ha sido un factor, y la razn por la que lo sabemos es porque hemos preguntado a la gente. +En realidad nosotros no le hemos preguntado, sino que han realizado encuestas a pie de urna en cada estado, en 37 estados, de los 50, han hecho una pregunta bastante directa sobre la raza. +Han hecho esta pregunta. +A la hora de decidir su voto para presidente hoy, ha sido la raza del candidato un factor? +Buscamos personas que dijeran, "S, la raza ha sido un factor; incluso ha sido un factor importante en mi decisin". Y la gente que ha votado a John McCain como resultado de ese factor, tal vez en combinacin con otros factores, y tal vez aisladamente. +Buscamos esta conducta entre los votantes blancos, o, en realidad, entre los votantes no negros. +As que ya ven, grandes diferencias en diversas zonas... del pas sobre esta cuestin. +In Luisiana, alrededor de uno de cada cinco votantes blancos dijo, "S, una de las principales razones por las que he votado contra Barack Obama es por que es afro-americano". +Si esa gente hubiera votado a Obama, incluso la mitad de ellos, Obama habra ganado en Luisiana con comodidad. +Lo mismo ocurre con, pienso, todos estos estados que ven en la parte superior de la lista. +Mientras tanto, California, Nueva York. Podemos decir, "Somos progresistas", pero ya saben, sin duda con una incidencia mucho menor de esta manifestacin... ... que admite, supongo, haber votado siguiendo criterios raciales. +Aqu tenemos los mismos datos en el mapa. +Ven una especie de relacin entre los estados ms rojos en donde mas gente respondi y dijo, "S, la raza de Barack Obama me ha resultado un problema". +Ven, comparando el mapa con el del 96, ven que coinciden aqu. +Esto realmente parece explicar por qu Barack Obama obtuvo peores resultados en esta parte del pas. +Por tanto tenemos que preguntarnos por qu. +Es predecible de alguna manera el racismo? +Hay algo que est impulsando esto? +Se trata simplemente de algo raro que pasa en Arkansas que no comprendemos, y en Kentucky? +O existen ms factores sistemticos que estn interactuando? +De esta forma podemos observar un grupo de diferentes variables. +Estas son las cosas en las que se fijan los economistas y los politlogos continuamente-- cosas como ingresos, y religin, educacin. +Cules de ellas parecen impulsar esta manifestacin de racismo... en este gran experimento nacional que realizamos el cuatro de noviembre? +Y hay un par de ellas que establecen fuertes relaciones de prediccin.-- una de ellas es la educacin. Donde ven los estados con menos aos de escolarizacin por adulto, estn en rojo, y ven esta parte del pas, la regin de las montaas Apalaches, es menos culta. Es simplemente un hecho. +Y ven la relacin all con los patrones de voto segn criterios raciales. +La otra variable que es importante es el tipo de vecindario en el que se vive. +Los estados que son ms rurales, incluso algunos de los estados como Nuevo Hampshire y Maine, muestran algo de este voto segn criterios raciales en contra de Barack Obama. +Por tanto es la combinacin de esas dos cosas. Es educacin .y el tipo de vencindario en el que se vive, sobre lo que hablaremos ms dentro de un momento. +La clave sobre estados como Arkansas y Tennessee es que ambos son muy rurales, y que poseen graves carencias educativas. +As que s, el racismo es predecible. +Estas cosas, entre quizs otras variables, pero estas cosas parecen predecirlo. +Vamos a centrarnos un poco ms ahora, en algo que que se llama la Encuesta Social General. +La lleva a cabo la Universidad de Chicago cada dos aos. +Y realizan una serie de preguntas bastante interesantes. +En el ao 2000 tenan preguntas especialmente interesantes sobre actitudes raciales. +Una pregunta sencilla que hacan es, "Vive alguien de la raza opuesta en su barrio?" +Podemos ver en diversos tipos de comunidades que los resultados son completamente diferentes. +En ciudades, alrededor del 80 por ciento de la gente tienen a alguien a quien consideran vecino, de otra raza. Pero en comunidades rurales, slo en torno al 30 por ciento. +Probablemente porque si vives en una granja, puede que no tengas muchos vecinos, y punto. +Pero sin embargo, no tienes mucha interaccin con gente que no es como t. +As que lo que vamos a hacer ahora es considerar a las personas blancas en la encuesta y dividirlas entre aquellas que tienen vecinos negros o ms bien, algn vecino de otra raza. Personas que tienen slo vecinos blancos. +Y vemos algunas variables en trminos de actitudes polticas, no mucha diferencia. +Esto fue hace ocho aos, algunas personas eran ms republicanas entonces. +Pero ven a los demcratas frente a los republicanos, no hay mucha diferencia basada en quienes sean tus vecinos. +E incluso algunas preguntas sobre la raza, por ejemplo discriminacin positiva, lo cual es un pregunta poltica, una pregunta sobre poltica racial, si lo prefieren. Aqu no hay mucha diferencia. +La discriminacin positiva no goza de mucha simpata francamente, entre votantes blancos, y punto. +Pero la gente con vecinos negros y la gente con vecinos de una sola raza no piensan de forma diferente tampoco. +Pero si se explora un poco ms a fondo, si se personaliza un poco ms, "Es usted partidario de una ley que prohiba el matrimonio interracial?" +Hay una gran diferencia. +La gente que no tiene vecinos de una raza diferente tienen el doble de probabilidades de oponerse al matrimonio interracial, que la gente que s los tiene. +Exactamente segn quien viva en tu vecindario ms prximo a ti. +E igualmente preguntaron, no en el 2000, sino en la misma encuesta de 1996, "Podra no votar a un presidente negro capacitado?" +Ven que la gente sin vecinos afro-americanos tenan muchas ms probabilidades de decir, "Eso me supondra un problema". +Por lo tanto ni siquiera se trata de urbano frente a rural. +Se trata de con quin vives. +El racismo es predecible. Y se predice a travs de la interaccin o la falta de ella con gente que no es como t, gente de otras razas. +Por lo tanto si quieren tratarlo, el objetivo es facilitar la interaccin con gente de otras razas. +Tengo un par de ideas muy obvias, supongo, sobre quizs cmo hacerlo. +Soy un gran fan de las ciudades. +Sobre todo si tenemos ciudades que son diversas y sostenibles, y pueden albergar a gente de diferentes etnias y grupos de distintos niveles de renta. +Creo que las ciudades facilitan el trabajo en red, y la interaccin informal en un grado mayor de lo que se podra tener a diario. +Pero sin duda no todo el mundo quiere vivir en una ciudad, sin duda no en una ciudad como Nueva York. +As que podemos pensar ms en cosas como las cuadrculas de las calles. +ste es el barrio donde me cri en Lansing Este, Michigan. +Es una comunidad tradicional del medio oeste, lo que significa que tienes cancha de verdad. +Tienes vecindarios de verdad y rboles de verdad, y calles de verdad sobre las que caminar. +E interactas mucho con tus vecinos, gente como t, gente que tal vez no conozcas. +Y como resultado es una comunidad muy tolerante, lo cual es diferente, me parece, a algo as, que est en Schaumburg, Illinois. Donde cada conjunto de casas tiene su propio callejn sin salida y un Starbucks con ventanilla de auto-servicio y cosas as. +Creo que en realidad este tipo de diseo urbano, que se hizo ms comn en la dcada de los 70 y 80, creo que existe una relacin entre eso y que el pas se hiciera ms conservador, con Ronald Reagan. +Pero tambin, sta es otra idea que tenemos -- es un programa de intercambio escolar donde los estudiantes se van de Nueva York al extranjero, +Pero francamente ya hay suficientes diferencias dentro del pas donde quizs se pueda seleccionar un grupo de jvenes de la Universidad de Nueva York, y mandarlos a estudiar un semestre a la Universidad de Arkansas, y viceversa. Hganlo en el mbito de la educacin secundaria. +Literalmente hay gente que podra estar en un instituto en Arkansas or Tennessee, y no podra interactuar nunca de una forma afirmativa y positiva con alguien de otra parte del pas, o de otro grupo racial. +Creo que parte de la variable educativa de la que hablamos antes es la experiencia de trabajo en red que consigues cuando vas a la universidad donde s ves una mezcla de gente que de otra forma no interactuaras. +Pero el caso es, esto es una muy buena noticia. Porque cuando algo es predecible, es lo que yo llamo discernible. +Se puede empezar a pensar en soluciones para resolver ese problema. A pesar de que el problema sea pernicioso, y tan inextricable como el rascismo. +Si comprendemos que las causas del origen de la conducta y dnde se manifiesta y dnde no, podemos empezar a disear soluciones. +As que esto es todo lo que tengo que decir. Muchsimas gracias. +Estoy aqu para contarles una historia de xito desde frica. +Hace ao y medio, cuatro de las cinco personas que son integrantes de tiempo completo en Ushahidi, que quiere decir "testimonio" en Swahili, eran TED Fellows. +Hace un ao en Kenia tuvimos violencia posterior a las elecciones. +Y en ese momento hicimos un prototipo y construmos, en aproximadamente tres das, un sistema que permitira a cualquiera con un telfono celular enviar informacin y reportes de lo que estaba ocurriendo a su alrededor. +Tomamos lo que sabamos acerca de frica, el dispositivo ms comn, el telfono celular, como nuestro comn denominador, y comenzamos a partir de ah. +Obtuvimos reportes como ste. +stos son solo un par de ellos del 17 de Enero del ao pasado. +Y nuestro sistema era rudimentario. Era muy bsico. +Era una aplicacin web hbrida que usaba datos que recolectamos de la gente, y que pusimos en nuestro mapa. +Pero entonces decidimos que necesitbamos hacer algo ms. +Necesitbamos tomar lo que habamos construdo y crear una plataforma a partir de ello, a fin de que pudiese ser usada en otros sitios del mundo. +As pues hay un equipo de desarrolladores de todas partes de frica, que son ahora parte de este equipo, de Ghana, de Malawi, de Kenia. +Incluso hay algunos de los Estados Unidos. +Estamos construyendolo para telfonos inteligentes smartphones, para que pueda ser utilizada en pases desarrollados, as como tambin en pases en vas de desarrollo. +Nos estamos dando cuenta de que esto es verdad. +Si funciona en frica entonces funcionar en cualquier lugar. +Entonces lo construmos primero para frica y despus nos desplazamos a los extremos. +Ha sido implementado en la Repblica Democrtica del Congo. +Est siendo usado por Organizaciones No Gubernamentales por toda frica Oriental. Pequeas Organizaciones No Gubernamentales haciendo sus propios proyectos pequeos. +Justamente este mes pasado fue implementado por Al Jazeera en Gaza. +Pero eso no es realmente de lo que vengo a hablar aqu. +Estoy aqu para hablar de la ltima novedad porque lo que estamos descubriendo es que tenemos esta capacidad de reportar historias de testigos presenciales de lo que est ocurriendo, en tiempo real. +Vemos esto en los acontecimientos recientes como Mumbai. Donde ahora es mucho ms fcil reportar que consumir. +Hay tanta informacin; qu se puede hacer? +Estos son los reportes de Twitter durante tres das cubriendo simplemente Mumbai. +Cmo decidir qu es importante? +Cul es el nivel de veracidad de lo que se est observando? +Entonces lo que descubrimos es que hay esta gran cantidad de informacin de emergencias desperdiciada debido a que simplemente hay demasiada informacin para que nosotros podamos hacer algo con ella en este momento. +Aquello con lo que verdaderamente estamos preocupados son estas tres primeras horas. +Lo que estamos viendo son las tres primeras horas. +Cmo ocuparse de esa informacin que llega? +Uno no puede entender lo que realmente est ocurriendo. +En el campo y alrededor del mundo la gente todava es curiosa, y trata de descifrar qu es lo que est ocuriendo. Pero no saben. +Entonces lo que construmos, Ushahidi, consiste en aplicar crowdsourcing (empleo de multitudes) a esta informacin. +Esto se ve con Twitter tambin. Uno obtiene esta sobrecarga de informacin. +As es que se tiene una gran cantidad de informacin. Eso es grandioso. +Pero ahora qu? +As es que estamos pensando que hay algo interesante que podemos hacer aqu. +Y tenemos un pequeo equipo que esta trabajando en esto. +Pensamos que podemos crear un filtro usando crowdsourcing. +Tomar a la multitud y aplicarla a la informacin. +Y al evaluarla y al evaluar a las diferentes personas que envan informacin, podemos obtener resultados refinados y resultados ponderados. +A fin de que obtengamos una mejor comprensin de la probabilidad de que algo sea o no verdad. +Este es el tipo de inovacin que es, francamente -- es interesante que venga de frica. +Proviene de lugares que uno no esperara. +De desarrolladores jvenes, inteligentes. +Y es una comunidad a su alrededor que decidi construir esto. +As que, muchas gracias. +Y estamos muy contentos de ser parte de la familia TED. +Voy a leer unas cuantas tiras. +La mayora de ellas son de una pgina mensual que hago para una revista de arquitectura y diseo que se llama Metropolis. +La primera historia se titula "El interruptor defectuoso". +Otro nuevo edificio bellamente diseado estropeado por el sonido de un interruptor de pared vulgar. +Durante el da est bien, cuando la luz del sol inunda las salas principales. +Pero al anochecer todo cambia. +El arquitecto se pas cientos de horas diseando las placas de latn bruido de los interruptores para su nueva torre de oficinas. +Y despus dej que un contratista instalase atrs aquellos interruptores de 79 centavos. +Sabemos por instinto hacia dnde estirar el brazo al entrar en una habitacin a oscuras. +Automticamente subimos la pequea palanquita de plstico. +Pero el sonido que nos da la bienvenida al tiempo que la habitacin se ilumina con el brillo simulado de la luz del atardecer, nos trae a la mente unos lavabos sucios de caballeros en la parte de atrs de una cafetera griega. +Ese sonido marca nuestra primera impresin de cualquier estancia. Es inevitable. +Pero ese sonido, que comnmente se describe como un clic, de dnde viene? +Es tan solo el subproducto de un burdo mecanismo? +O es acaso la imitacin de la mitad de los sonidos que emitimos para expresar la decepcin? +La consonante a menudo dental de ningn idioma indoeuropeo. +O se trata del sonido amplificado de una sinapsis que se dispara en el cerebro de una cucaracha? +En los aos 50 hicieron lo que pudieron para amortiguar este sonido con interruptores de mercurio, y difusores silenciosos. +Pero hoy en da esas mejoras parecen de algn modo artificiales. +El clic es la moderna fanfarria triunfal que nos avanza en la vida y anuncia nuestra entrada en todas las estancias oscuras. +El sonido que hace un interruptor de pared al apagarse, es de una naturaleza completamente distinta. +Tiene un sonido profundamente melanclico. +A los nios no les gusta. +Por eso dejan las luces encendidas por toda la casa. Los adultos lo encuentran reconfortante. +No resultara sencillo montar un interruptor para que accionase la sorda sirena de un barco de vapor? +O la grabacin del canto de un gallo? +O el estallido lejano de un trueno? +Thomas Edison prob miles de sustancias inslitas antes de dar con la adecuada para el filamento de su bombilla elctrica. +Por qu nos hemos conformado tan rpido con el sonido del interruptor que la enciende? +Y aqu se acaba. +La siguiente historia se llama "Alabanza al contribuyente". +Que tantos de los contribuyentes ms venerables de la ciudad hayan sobrevivido a otro boom de los edificios comerciales es motivo de celebracin. +Estas estructuras de uno o dos pisos, diseadas para producir slo los ingresos suficientes para pagar los impuestos del suelo que ocupan, no iban a ser edificios permanentes. +Pero por alguna razn u otra han frustrado los intentos de los promotores inmobiliarios de juntarlos en solares aptos para la construccin de edificios de muchas plantas. +Aunque no pretenden tener una belleza arquitectnica, son, en su perfecta provisionalidad, una agradable alternativa a las estructuras a gran escala que podran ocupar su lugar algn da. +Los ejemplos ms perfectos ocupan solares que hacen esquina. +Ofrecen un agradable respiro ante desarrollo de alta densidad que los rodea. +Un remanso de luz y de aire, una espera arquitectnica del momento oportuno. +Tan cubiertas de carteles estn estas estructuras, que a menudo cuesta un instante distinguir al moderno contribuyente construido especialmente de su vecino, el pequeo edificio comercial de un siglo anterior cuyos pisos superiores han sido sellados y cuya planta baja ahora paga sus impuestos. +Las escasas superficies que no estn cubiertas de carteles muestran a menudo un oscuro y distintivo revestimiento de aluminio estriado de color gris verdoso. +Locales de bocadillos para llevar, establecimientos de revelado de negativos, peep-shows y tiendas de corbatas. +Ahora esas estructuras provisionales, en algunos casos, han estado de pie durante la mayor parte de una vida humana. +El edificio provisional es una victoria de la organizacin industrial moderna. Una saludable sublimacin del ansia de construir. Y la prueba de que no todas las ideas arquitectnicas necesitan estar grabadas en piedra. +Fin. +La siguiente historia se titula "Sobre el regazo del ser humano". +Para los egipcios de antao el regazo era una plataforma sobre la que colocar los bienes terrenales de los difuntos-- que meda 30 codos desde el pie hasta la rodilla. +No fue hasta el siglo 14 que un pintor italiano reconoci en el regazo un templo griego, tapizado de carne y de tela. +En los siguientes 200 aos podemos ver al nio Jess pasar de estar sentado a estar de pie sobre el regazo de la Virgen. Y vuelta a empezar. +Todos los nios reproducen esa ascensin, separando una pierna o ambas, sentndose de lado, o apoyndose en el cuerpo. +Entre aquello y el moderno mueco de ventrlocuo, dista tan solo un breve momento en la historia. +Esta maana has vuelto a llegar tarde al colegio. +El ventrlocuo debe hacernos creer en un primer momento que un nio pequeo est sentado en sus rodillas. +La ilusin del habla le sigue a tal efecto. +Qu tienes que decir en tu defensa, Jimmy? +Como adultos admiramos el regazo desde una distancia nostlgica. +Tenemos recuerdos lejanos de aquel templo provisional, que se eriga siempre que un adulto se sentaba. +En un autobs abarrotado siempre haba un regazo donde sentarse. +Son los nios y las adolescentes quienes son ms conscientes de su belleza arquitectnica. +Entienden la integridad estructural de un profundo regazo avuncular, en comparacin con la disposicin temblorosa de una sobrina neurtica con tacones altos. +La relacin entre un regazo y su dueo es ntima y directa. +Me imagino 36 pisos de un bloque de pisos de 450 viviendas --una razn para valorar la salud mental de cualquier arquitecto antes de concederle una comisin importante. +Los baos y las cocinas carecern de ventanas, por supuesto. +El regazo del lujo es un constructo arquitectnico de la infancia que aspiramos vanamente a emplear como adultos. +Fin. +La siguiente historia se titula "La coleccin Haverpiece" Un anodino almacn, visible un instante desde los carrilles direccin norte de la autopista de Prykushko*, sirve como lugar de descanso temporal a la coleccin Haverpiece de fruta seca europea. +Las profundas arrugas de la superficie de una cereza seca. +El lustre premonitorio de un dtil extragrande. +Recordis deambular de nios por las oscuras galeras de escaparates de madera? +Donde todo estaba a la vista en envases a prueba de cucarachas mal etiquetados. +Peras secadas con la forma de rganos genitales. +Medios melocotones como las orejas de un querubn. +En 1962, las existencias restantes las compr Maurice Haverpiece, un rico embotellador de zumo de ciruela, y las reuni para formar la coleccin central. +Es una forma de arte que est a medias entre el bodegn y la fontanera. +Tras su muerte en 1967, una cuarta parte se vendi para hacer compota, a un hotel restaurante de clase alta. +A los huspedes que no sospechaban nada se les sirvieron, hervidos y centenarios, higos turcos para desayunar. +El resto de la coleccin permanece aqu, almacenado en bolsas lisas de papel marrn, hasta que se puedan recaudar los fondos para construir un museo permanente y un centro de estudio. +Un zapato hecho de piel de albaricoque para la hija de un zar. +Y ese es el fin. Muchas gracias. +La primera mitad del Siglo XX fue un desastre absoluto para la humanidad un cataclismo. +Tuvimos la Primera Guerra Mundial, la Gran Depresin, la Segunda Guerra Mundial, y el ascenso de las naciones comunistas. +Y cada una de estas fuerzas separ al mundo, lo desgarr, lo dividi. +Y se construyeron barreras, barreras polticas, barreras comerciales, barreras de transporte, barreras de comunicacin, cortinas de hierro, que dividieron a la gente y a las naciones. +Fue solamente en la segunda mitad del Siglo XX que comenzamos a sacarnos a nosotros mismos de este abismo. +Las barreras comerciales comenzaron a caer. +He aqu algunos datos sobre aranceles: empezando en un 40 por ciento, y disminuyendo a menos de 5 por ciento. +Globalizamos el mundo. Y qu significa esto? +Quiere decir que expandimos la cooperacin ms all de las fronteras nacionales. Hicimos del mundo un lugar ms cooperativo. +Cayeron las barreras del transporte +En 1950 la embarcacin promedio llevaba entre 5,000 y 10,000 toneladas de mercanca. +Hoy en da un barco contenedor puede transportar 150,000 toneladas. Puede ser manejado con una pequea tripulacin, y descargado ms rpido que nunca antes. +Las barreras de comunicacin, no tengo ni que contarles, piensen en la Internet, han venido cayendo. +Y por supuesto las paredes de hierro, las barreras polticas han venido cayendo. +Y todo sto ha sido maravilloso para el mundo. +El comercio ha crecido. +Miren algunos datos. +En 1990 las exportaciones de China a los Estados Unidos: 15 mil millones de dlares. +En 2007 sobrepasaban los 300 mil millones de dlares. +Y quizs lo ms notable es que a principios del Siglo XXI por primera vez en la historia moderna, el crecimiento econmico se extendi a todas partes del mundo. +As que en China, que ya he mencionado, a partir de 1978, por los tiempos en que muere Mao, el crecimiento: 10 por ciento anual. +Ao tras ao, absolutamente increble. +Nunca antes en la historia de la humanidad tanta gente haba salido de una pobreza tan grande como sucedi en China. +China es el programa de lucha contra la pobreza ms grande del mundo en las ltimas tres dcadas. +India comenz un poco ms tarde, pero en 1990 empez a experimentar un crecimiento tremendo. +El ingreso promedio en ese momento era menos de 1,000 dlares por ao. +Pero en los 18 aos subsiguientes se ha triplicado. +Un crecimiento de seis por ciento anual. Absolutamente increble. +Ahora veamos frica, frica subsahariana. Africa subsahariana ha sido la regin del mundo que ms ha evadido el crecimiento. +Y podemos ver la tragedia de frica en las primeras barras de este grfico. +El crecimiento era negativo. +La gente se haca ms pobre incluso que sus padres, y en algunos casos hasta que sus abuelos. +Pero al final del Siglo XX principios del Siglo XXI, comenzamos a ver crecimiento en frica. +Y yo creo, como vern, que hay razones para estar optimistas. Porque me parece que lo mejor an est por venir. +Por qu digo esto? +En la vanguardia hoy da las nuevas ideas son las fuerzas motrices del crecimiento. +Con eso me refiero a productos para los cuales los costos de investigacin y desarrollo son muy altos y los costos de manufactura son bajos. +Hoy ms que nunca son ideas vanguardistas como stas las que impulsan el desarrollo. +Pero las ideas tienen una caracterstica grandiosa. +Me parece que Thomas Jefferson lo expres muy bien. +Jefferson dijo, "Aquel que recibe una idea de m, recibe instruccin sin disminuir la ma. +Del mismo modo que quien enciende su vela con la llama de la ma recibe luz sin dejarme en la oscuridad. +O dicho de otra manera, una manzana alimenta a un hombre. pero una idea puede alimentar al mundo. +S que esto no es nada nuevo para ustedes aqu en TED. +Este es prcticamente el modelo de TED. +Lo que s es nuevo es que el papel de las ideas como motores del crecimiento va a ser an mayor que en cualquier otro momento en la historia. +Es por esta razn que el comercio y la globalizacin son an ms importantes, ms poderosos de lo que fueron en el pasado y van a acelerar el crecimiento econmico ms que nunca antes. +Y para explicar el por qu de esto, tengo una pregunta. +Supongamos que existen dos enfermedades. Una es rara, la otra es comn. Y ambas tienen efectos igualmente severos cuando no son sometidas a tratamiento. +Si ustedes tuvieran que elegir, cul preferiran tener? La enfermedad rara o la comn? +La comn, por supuesto. Eso es absolutamente correcto. Por qu? Porque hay ms medicamentos contra las enfermedades comunes que contra las enfermedades raras. +La razn para esto son los incentivos. +Cuesta lo mismo producir un nuevo medicamento, independientemente de que el mismo pueda ser usado para tratar a 1,000 personas 100,000 personas, o un milln de personas. +Pero las ganancias son mucho mayores si el medicamento puede tratar a un milln de personas. +Por lo tanto los incentivos son mucho mayores para producir medicamentos que pueden ser usados para tratar a ms personas. +Dicho de otra manera, los mercados grandes salvan vidas. +En este caso se cumple aquello de que "desgracia compartida, menos sentida". +Ahora piensen en lo siguiente: si China y la India fueran tan ricos como Estados Unidos el mercado para las drogas contra el cncer sera ocho veces ms grande. +Y bueno, an no estamos ah, pero nos estamos acercando. +Y segn otros pases se vuelvan ms ricos la demanda para estos medicamentos aumentar tremendamente. +Y como consecuencia los incentivos para la investigacin y el desarrollo de medicamentos crecern, lo cual beneficia a todo el mundo. +Mientras ms grandes los mercados, mayor el incentivo para producir todo tipo de ideas. Ya sean programas informticos, un chip para un ordenador, o un nuevo diseo. +Para la gente de Hollywood que est en la audiencia esto explica por qu las pelculas de accin tienen presupuestos ms grandes que las comedias. Es porque las pelculas de accin se traducen ms fcilmente a otros idiomas y otras culturas. Por tanto el mercado para esas pelculas es mayor. +La gente est ms dispuesta a invertir, y los presupuestos son mayores. +Bueno. Entonces si mercados ms grandes aumentan los incentivos para producir nuevas ideas, cmo maximizamos esos incentivos? +Creando un mercado mundial, globalizando el mundo. +A m me gusta verlo de este modo: se supone que las ideas deben ser compartidas de modo que una idea puede servir a un mercado mundial. +Una idea, un mundo, un mercado. +Y de qu otro modo podemos crear nuevas ideas? +Esa es una razn. +Globalizando, comerciando. +De qu otra manera podemos generar nuevas ideas? +Bueno, si tenemos ms creadores de ideas. +Y los creadores de ideas estn en todas partes y en todos los oficios. +Artistas, innovadores; muchas de las personas que han pasado por este escenario. +Me voy a concentrar en los cientficos y los ingenieros porque tengo datos acerca de eso, y me manejo mejor con datos. +Hoy en da menos de un dcimo de un 1 por ciento de la poblacin del mundo est compuesto por cientficos e ingenieros. +Estados Unidos ha sido un lder en ideas. +Una elevada proporcin de esos cientficos e ingenieros estn en Estados Unidos. +Pero Estados Unidos est perdiendo ese liderato. +Y yo me siento agradecido por eso. +Es positivo que esto est sucediendo. +Es afortunado que estemos perdiendo nuestro liderato en la generacin de ideas Ya que por mucho tiempo, Estados Unidos y un puado de otros pases desarrollados, han cargado con el peso De Investigacin y Desarrollo. +Pero consideremos lo siguiente: si el mundo como un todo fuese tan prspero como lo es hoy da Estados Unidos habra en el mundo ms de cinco veces la cantidad de cientficos e ingenieros contribuyendo ideas que benefician a todos, que todos comparten. +Pienso en el gran matemtico Ramanujan. +Cuntos Ramanujans hay en este momento en India trabajando precariamente en los campos, apenas alimentndose ellos mismos, cuando pudiesen estar alimentando al mundo? +Y bueno, an no estamos ah. +Pero llegaremos ah en este mismo siglo. +La verdadera tragedia del ltimo siglo ha sido esta: si pensamos en la poblacin mundial como una super-computadora, un inmenso procesador compuesto por muchos otros procesadores interconectados, entonces la gran tragedia ha sido que miles de millones de nuestros procesadores han estado desconectados. +Pero en este siglo China se est conectando. +India se est conectando. +frica se est conectando. +En este siglo tendremos un Einstein africano. +He aqu algunos datos. Esto es China. +En 1996 haba menos de un milln de estudiantes universitarios en China cada ao. En 2006 eran ms de cinco millones. +Piensen en lo que esto significa. +Esto significa que todos nos beneficiamos cuando otro pas se enriquece. +No deberamos temer el que otro pases prosperen. +Es algo que debera alegrarnos -- una China prspera, una India prspera, una frica prspera. +Necesitamos una mayor demanda de ideas, esos mercados grandes de los que hablaba hace un rato, y una mayor oferta de ideas para el mundo. +Creo que ahora ustedes ven algunas de las razones por las que me siento optimista. +La globalizacin est incrementando la demanda de ideas, los incentivos para la creacin de ideas. +La inversin en educacin est aumentando la oferta de nuevas ideas. +De hecho si nos fijamos en la historia mundial podemos ver algunas razones para estar optimistas. +Desde los inicios de la humanidad hasta 1500, cero crecimiento econmico, nada. +Entre 1500 y 1800, quizs un mnimo de crecimiento econmico. Pero menos en un siglo de lo que esperaramos ver en todo un ao hoy da. +En los 1900s quizs uno por ciento. +En el Siglo XX quizs un poco ms de dos por ciento. +En el Siglo XXI, fcilmente podramos estar viendo 3.3 por ciento o ms. +Incluso a ese ritmo en 2100, el producto per cpita en el mundo ser de 200,000 dlares. +Esa cifra no se refiere a los Estados Unidos; all ser de ms de un milln. Estamos hablando del producto per cpita del mundo: 200,000 dlares. +Eso no est tan lejos. +Nosotros no estaremos all para verlo. +Pero algunos de nuestros nietos probablemente s lo estn. +Y debo decir que me parece que esa es una prediccin bastante moderada. +De hecho, en trminos Kurzweilianos es una prediccin pesimista. +en trminos Kurzweilianos yo sera el Ih-oh del crecimiento econmico. +Pues bien, y los problemas? +Y si nos encontramos con una gran depresin? +Bueno, vamos a ver. Examinemos la Gran Depresin. +Aqu est el producto per cpita. de 1900 a 1929. +Ahora imaginemos que somos economistas en 1929, tratando de predecir el crecimiento econmico futuro de Estados Unidos sin saber que la economa est a punto de caer a un precipicio. Sin saber que estamos a las puertas del desastre econmico ms grande del Siglo XX. +Cul hubiese sido nuestra prediccin? +Si hubisemos basado nuestra prediccin, nuestro pronstico en la evolucin del producto entre 1900 y 1929 hubisemos esperado algo como esto. +Si hubisemos sido un poco ms optimistas, por ejemplo si hubisemos basado nuestra prediccin en los dinmicos aos 20, hubisemos esperado algo como esto. +Pero, qu pas en realidad? +Camos al precipicio, pero luego logramos salir. +De hecho, durante la segunda mitad del Siglo XX el crecimiento fue mayor de lo que cualquiera hubiese esperado basndose en la primera mitad del Siglo XX. +Es decir que el crecimiento puede borrar incluso lo que parece ser una Gran Depresin. +Bien. Qu ms? +Petrleo. Petrleo. El petrleo es un tema importante. +Cuando estaba preparando mis notas el petrleo estaba a 140 dlares el barril. +Entonces la gente comenz a preguntarse, "Ser que China se est tomando mi batido" +Y eso tiene algo de verdad en el sentido de que el petrleo es un recurso agotable. Y un crecimiento acelerado aumenta la demanda del mismo. +Pero creo que no tengo que decirle a esta audiencia que un mayor precio del petrleo no es necesariamente algo negativo. +Es ms, como todos sabemos, es la energa, no el petrleo en s, lo que realmente importa. +Y mayores precios del petrleo implican mayores incentivos para invertir en Investigacin y Desarrollo de fuentes de energa. +Esto es evidente al examinar los datos. +Segn suben los precios del petrleo, tambin lo hacen las patentes en energa. +El mundo est mucho mejor preparado para enfrentar un incremento en el precio del petrleo, hoy, ms que nunca antes gracias a este efecto del que vengo hablando. +Una idea, un mundo, un mercado. +As que me siento optimista sobre el futuro siempre que nos apeguemos a estos principios: continuar globalizando los mercados mundiales, continuar extendiendo la cooperacin ms all de las fronteras nacionales, y continuar invirtiendo en educacin. +Y bien, Estados Unidos tiene un papel particularmente importante en esto -- mantener nuestro sistema educativo globalizado, abierto a estudiantes de todo el mundo -- porque nuestro sistema educativo es la vela a la que estudiantes de otras partes del mundo vienen a encender las suyas. +Recordemos lo que dijo Jefferson. +Jefferson dijo, "Cuando otros vienen a encender sus velas con las nuestras, ellos reciben luz sin dejarnos a oscuras" +Pero Jefferson no estaba del todo en lo cierto. +Porque en realidad, cuando otros encienden sus velas con las nuestras, hay el doble de luz disponible para todos. +Mi visin es una visin optimista. +Divulguemos las ideas. Propaguemos la luz. +Gracias. +Esta mquina, que todos tenemos viviendo en nuestros crneos me recuerda un aforismo de un comentario de Woody Allen preguntar acerca de qu es lo mejor para tener dentro de su crneo +Y es esta mquina. +Y est construido para cambiar. Se trata de cambio. +Nos confiere la habilidad de hacer cosas maana que no podemos hacer hoy, hacer cosas hoy que no pudimos hacer ayer +y por supuesto nace estpido. +La ltima vez que estuve en presencia de un beb quien resulta ser mi nieta Mitra +no es ella fabulosa? +sin embargo, cuando ella sali a pesar del hecho que su cerebro estaba progresando en su desarrollo varios meses antes con base en experiencias en el vientre. Sin embargo, ella tiene habilidades muy limitadas como todos los nios el el momento de un nacimiento normal y natural completo. +Si furamos a ensayar sus habilidades perceptuales, estaran crudas. +No hay una indicacin real de que est ocurriendo algn pensamiento real. +De hecho hay poca evidencia de que hay alguna habilidad cognitiva en un nio muy joven. +Los nios no responden a muchas cosas. +No hay mucha indicacin en realidad de que haya una persona all. +y ellos pueden slo de una forma muy primitiva, y de forma muy limitada, controlar sus movimientos. +Pasarn varios meses antes de que este nio pueda hacer algo tan simple como alcanzar y agarrar. por control voluntario, un objeto, y llevarlo, usualmente a la boca. +Y pasarn varios meses antes de esto, y veremos una progresin estacionaria larga de la evolucin, desde los primeros movimientos, hasta rodar, y sentarse, y gatear, pararse, caminar, antes de que lleguemos a ese punto mgico en el que podemos movernos en el mundo. +y an, cuando miramos en el cerebro vemos un avance realmente resaltable. +Para esta poca el cerebro puede de hecho, almacenar. +Ha almacenado, grabado, puede recuperar fcilmente los significados de miles, decenas de miles de objetos, acciones, y sus relaciones en el mundo. +Y aquellas relaciones pueden, de hecho, construirse, en cientos de miles, potencialmente millones de maneras. +Para esta poca el cerebro controla habilidades perceptuales muy refinadas. +y en realidad tiene un repertorio creciente de habilidades cognitivas. +este cerebro es por mucho una mquina pensante. +y para esta poca no hay duda en absoluto de que este cerebro, tiene a una persona. +Y de hecho, en esta poca controla sustancialmente su propio auto desarrollo. +Y para esta poca vemos una evolucin notable en su capacidad de controlar el movimiento. +Ahora el movimiento ha avanzado al punto donde puede controlar en realidad el movimiento simultneamente, en una secuencia compleja, en formas complejas, como se requirira por ejemplo para jugar un juego complicado, como el ftbol. +Ahora este chico puede rebotar una pelota de ftbol en su cabeza. +Y de donde viene este chico, Sao Paulo, Brasil cerca del 40 por ciento de los chicos de su edad tienen esta habilidad. +Usted podra ir a la comunidad en Monterrey y tendra problemas para encontrar a un chico que tenga esta habilidad. +Y si lo hiciera, probablemente l sera de Sao Paulo. +Es otra forma de decir que nuestras destrezas y habilidades individuales son moldeadas en gran medida por nuestros ambientes. +Este ambiente se extiende dentro de nuestra cultura contempornea, con la que se reta a nuestro cerebro. +Porque lo que hemos hecho en nuestras evoluciones personales est construido a partir de un gran repertorio de destrezas y habilidades especficas que son especficas para nuestras historias individuales. +Y de hecho resultan en una maravillosa diferenciacin entre la humanidad. En un modo en que, de hecho, no hay dos de nosotros muy similares. +Cada uno de nosotros tiene un conjunto diferente de destrezas y habilidades adquiridas que se derivan todas de la plasticidad, la adaptabilidad de esta mquina excepcionalmente adaptable. +En un cerebro adulto por supuesto, hemos construido un gran repertorio de destrezas y habilidades dominadas que podemos realizar ms o menos automticamente de memoria, y que nos definen, como criaturas que actan, se mueven, piensan. +Ahora estudiamos esto, como los cientficos de un laboratorio universitario, nerds, que somos, estimulando los cerebros de animales como ratas, o monos, o de esta criatura particularmente curiosa, una de las formas ms bizarras de vida en la tierra, para estimularla en el aprendizaje de nuevas destrezas y habilidades. +Y tratamos de monitorear los cambios que ocurren mientras adquiere la nueva destreza o habilidad. +De hecho hacemos esto en individuos de cualquier edad, en estas especies diferentes. Es decir desde la infancia, despus de la infancia hasta la edad adulta y la tercera edad. +As que podramos estimular una rata, por ejemplo, para que adquiera una nueva destreza o habilidad que involucrara que la rata use su pata para dominar comportamientos particulares de agarre manual as como podramos examinar a un nio y su habilidad para adquirir las sub-destrezas o el nivel general global de lograr algo como dominar la habilidad de leer. +O podra mirar un individuo mayor que ha dominado un conjunto complejo de habilidades que se podran relacionar con leer notacin musical o realizar actos mecnicos de desempeo que aplican al desempeo musical. +A partir de estos estudios definimos dos grandes pocas de la historia plstica del cerebro. +La primera gran poca es comnmente llamada el "Perodo Crtico". +y es el perodo en el que el cerebro est ajustndose en su forma inicial, su maquinaria bsica de procesamiento. +ste es en realidad un perodo de cambio dramtico en el que no se necesita aprender, de por s, para dirigir la diferenciacin inicial de la maquinaria del cerebro. +Todo lo que necesita por ejemplo en el dominio del sonido, es exposicin al sonido. +Y el cerebro en realidad est a la merced del ambiente de sonido en el que se cra. +As que por ejemplo puedo criar un animal en un ambiente en el que hay un sonido tonto sin significado. Un repertorio de sonido que me invento. Esto lo hago slo para exposicin, importante artificialmente del animal y su joven cerebro. +Y lo que veo es que el cerebro del animal ajusta su procesamiento inicial de ese sonido de modo que est idealizado, dentro de los lmites de sus logros de procesamiento para representarlo de una forma organizada y metdica. +El sonido no tiene que ser valioso pare el animal. Puedo criar al animal en algo que sea hipotticamente valioso, como los sonidos que estimulan los sonidos del idioma nativo de un nio. +Y veo que el cerebro en verdad desarrolla un procesador que es especializado. especializado para ese arreglo complejo, un repertorio de sonidos. +En realidad exagera su separacin de representacin, en trminos de representacin neuronal multi-dimensional. +O puedo exponer al animal a un sonido completamente sin sentido y destructivo. +Puedo criar un animal bajo condiciones que seran equivalentes a criar a un beb bajo un ventilador de techo moderadamente ruidoso en presencia de un ruido continuo. +Y cuando hago eso en realidad especializo al cerebro para que sea un procesador que domine ese sonido sin sentido. +y frustro su habilidad para representar cualquier sonido significativo, en consecuencia. +Dichas cosas en la historia temprana de los bebs ocurren en bebs reales. +Y explican, por ejemplo, la hermosa evolucin de un procesador especfico para el lenguaje en cada beb desarrollndose normalmente. +Y tambin explican el desarrollo del procesamiento defectivo en una poblacin sustancial de nios que estn ms limitados como consecuencia, en sus habilidades lingsticas, a una edad mayor. +Ahora en este perodo temprano de plasticidad el cerebro en verdad cambia fuera de un contexto de aprendizaje. +No tengo que estar atendiendo a lo que escucho. +La entrada en realidad no tiene que ser significativa. +No tengo que estar en un contexto conductual. +Esto se requiere para que el cerebro monte su procesamiento de modo que pueda actuar diferencialmente, de modo que pueda actuar selectivamente, de modo que la criatura que lo lleva, que lo carga, pueda empezar a operar en l de forma selectiva. +En la prxima gran poca de la vida, que aplica para la mayora de la vida, el cerebro est en efecto refinando su maquinaria mientras domina un amplio repertorio de destrezas y habilidades. +Y en esta poca, que se extiende desde el final del primer ao de vida hasta la muerte. Est en verdad haciendo este sub control conductual. +Y es otra forma de decir que el cerebro tiene estrategias que definen el significado de la entrada al cerebro. +Y se enfoca en destreza tras destreza, o habilidad tras habilidad, bajo control especfico de la atencin. +Es funcin de si una meta en el comportamiento se logra o si el individuo se premia en el comportamiento. +Esto es en efecto muy poderoso. +Esta capacidad de larga vida para la plasticidad, para el cambio cerebral, se expresa poderosamente. +Es la base de nuestra diferenciacin real, de un individuo de otro. +Usted puede ver el cerebro del animal que se estimula en una destreza especfica, y puede ver o documentar este cambio en una diversidad de niveles. +As que aqu tenemos un experimento muy sencillo. +En efecto fue realizado hace como cinco aos en colaboracin con cientficos de la Universidad de Provenza en Marsella. +Es un experimento muy simple en donde se ha entrenado un mono en una tarea que involucra que manipule una herramienta que es equivalente en dificultad a un nio aprendiendo como manipular o manejar una cuchara. +El mono en realidad domin la tarea en aproximadamente 700 intentos de prctica. +Entonces, al principio el mono no pudo desempear esta tarea en absoluto. +Tuvo una tasa de xito de aproximadamente uno de ocho intentos. +Estos intentos eran elaborados. +Cada intento era sustancialmente diferente del otro. +Pero el mono gradualmente desarroll una estrategia. +Y despus de 700 intentos o algo as el mono la desempea perfectamente, nunca falla. +Tiene xito en su recuperacin de comida con esta herramienta cada vez. +En este punto la tarea se est realizando de un modo fantsticamente estereotipado. Muy fantsticamente regulado, y altamente repetido, ensayo por ensayo. +Podemos ver el cerebro del mono. +Y vemos que est distorsionado. +Podemos monitorear estos cambios, y hemos monitoreado estos cambios. en muchos comportamientos en el tiempo. +Y vemos la distorsin reflejada en el mapa de las superficies cutneas de la mano del mono. +Ahora ste es un mapa, en la superficie del cerebro, en el que, en un experimento muy elaborado, hemos reconstruido las respuestas locacin tras locacin, en una respuesta altamente detallada de las respuestas de sus neuronas. +Vemos aqu una reconstruccin de cmo est representada la mano en el cerebro. +En realidad hemos distorsionado el map, para el ejercicio. +Y esto se ve en el meique. Tenemos un par de superficies en las yemas de los dedos que son ms grandes. +Son las superficies que el mono utiliza para manipular la herramienta. +Si miramos la selectividad de las respuestas en la corteza del mono, vemos que el mono en efecto ha cambiado las caractersticas de filtro que representan entrada desde la piel, de las yemas de los dedos que estn comprometidas. +En otras palabras todava hay una representacin sencilla, simple, de las yemas de los dedos en esta rea cortical de las ms organizadas de la superficie de la piel del cuerpo. +El mono lo tiene as como usted. +Y entonces ahora est representada en un grano sustancialmente ms fino. +El mono est adquiriendo informacin ms detallada de estas superficies. +Y esto es desconocido, insospechado, quizs para usted, parte de adquirir la destreza o habilidad. +Ahora en realidad hemos visto en varias reas corticales diferentes del mono aprendiendo esta tarea. +Y cada una de ellas cambia de formas que son especficas para la destreza o habilidad. +As que por ejemplo podemos ver el rea cortical que representa la entrada que est controlando la postura del mono. +Vemos las reas corticales que controlan movimientos especficos, y las secuencias de movimientos que se requieren en el comportamiento, y as sucesivamente. +Estn todas remodeladas. Se han vuelto especializadas para la tarea a la mano. +Hay 15 20 reas corticales que cambiaron especficamente cuando se aprende una destreza simple como sta +Y eso representa en su cerebro, cambio masivo, realmente. +Representa el cambio en una forma confiable de las respuestas de decenas de millones posiblemente cientos de millones de neuronas en su cerebro. +Representa cambios de cientos de millones, posiblemente billones de conexiones sinpticas en su cerebro. +Esto es construido por el cambio fsico. +Y el nivel de construccin que se da es masivo. +Piense sobre los cambios que pasan en el cerebro de un nio a travs del curso de adquirir sus habilidades de comportamiento del movimiento en general. +o adquirir sus habilidades lingsticas nativas. +Los cambios son enormes. +Se trata de las representaciones selectivas de las cosas que son importantes para el cerebro. +Porque en la mayora de la vida del cerebro est bajo control del contexto conductual. +Es a lo que usted atiende. +Es lo que te recompensa. +Es lo que el cebrero mismo ve como positivo e importante para usted. +Se trata del procesamiento cortical y la especializacin del prosencfalo. +Y en esto subyace su especializacin. +Esta es la razn por la que usted, en muchas destrezas y habilidades es un especialista nico. Un especialista que es ampliamente diferente en su cerebro fsico en detalle del cerebro de un individuo hace 100 aos. Supremamente diferente en los detalles del cerebro de un individuo promedio hace 1000 aos. +Ahora, una de las caractersticas de este proceso de cambio es que la informacin siempre est relacionada con otras entradas de informacin que estn pasando en el momento inmediato, en contexto. +Y esto es porque el cerebro est construyendo representaciones de las cosas que estn correlacionadas en pequeos espacios de tiempo y que se relacionan una con la otra en pequeos espacios de tiempo sucesivo. +El cerebro est grabando toda la informacin y llevando todo el cambio en contexto temporal. +Ahora, de forma abrumadora, el contexto ms poderoso que ha pasado en su cerebro, es usted. +Billones de eventos han ocurrido en su historia relacionados en el tiempo con usted como el receptor, o usted como el actor, ustes como el pensador, usted como el ponente. +Billones de veces pedacitos de sensacin han llegado desde la superficie de su cuerpo que est asociado siempre con usted como el receptor, y que resultan en su realizacin. +Usted est construido, su ser est construido a partir de esos billones de eventos. +Est construido. Est creado en su cerebro. +y est creado en el cerebro va cambio fsico. +Es una cosa construida de forma maravillosa que resulta en una forma individual porque cada uno de nosotros tiene historias infinitamente diferentes. Y experiencias infinitamente diferentes. que nos llevan a nosotros a esta maravillosa diferenciacin del ser, de personalidad. +Ahora hemos usado esta investigacin para tratar de entender no slo como se desarrolla una persona normal, y elabora sus destrezas y habilidades, sino tratar de entender tambin los orgenes de los deterioros, y los orgenes de las diferencias o variaciones que podran limitar las capacidades de un nio, o un adulto. +Voy a hablar acerca de usar estas estrategias para disear en realidad una aproximacin basada en la plasticidad del cerebro para hacer correcciones en la maquinaria de un nio que incrementan la competencia del nio como receptor y usuario del lenguaje, y a partir de entonces, como lector. +Voy a hablar acerca de experimentos que involucran de hecho, usar esta ciencia cerebral. Primero que todo, para entender como contribuye a la prdida de las funciones con la edad. +Luego utilizndolo en una aproximacin dirigida vamos a tratar de diferenciar la maquinaria para recuperar las funciones en la tercera edad. +Entonces el primer ejemplo del que voy a hablar se relaciona con nios con deterioro en el aprendizaje. +Ahora tenemos una gran cantidad de literatura que demuestra que el problema fundamental que sucede en la mayora de nios que tienen deterioros tempranos de lenguaje, y que van a luchar para aprender a leer, es que su procesador de lenguaje se crea de forma defectuosa +Y la razn que surge en forma defectuosa es porque temprano en la vida del cerebro del beb el proceso de la mquina es ruidoso. +As de simple. +Es un problema seal ruido, ok? +y hay muchas cosas que contribuyen a ello. +Hay numerosas fallas heredadas que pueden hacer el proceso de la mquina ms ruidoso. +Ahora podra decir que el problema de ruido tambin puede ocurrir con base en la informacin proveda en el mundo, desde los odos. +Si alguien, alguno de los que son mayores en la audiencia, sabe que cuando era nio entendamos que un nio que nace con paladar hendido naca con lo que llamamos retardo mental. +Sabemos que iban a ser lentos cognitivamente. Sabamos que iban a luchar para aprender a desarrollar habilidades lingsticas normales. Y sabamos que iban a luchar para aprender a leer. +La mayora de ellos sera falla intelectual y acadmica. +Eso desapareci. Ya no aplica ms. +Esa debilidad heredada, esa enfermedad heredada se ha evaporado. +Ya no omos ms de eso. A dnde se fue? +Bueno, un cirujano Holands entendi hace aproximadamente 35 aos, que si simplemente arregla el problema lo suficientemente temprano, cuando el cerebro todava est en su perodo plstico inicial de modo que pueda ajustar esta maquinaria apropiadamente, en este tiempo inicial de montaje en el perodo crtico, no pasa nada de eso. +Qu hace uno cuando trabaja sobre el paladar hendido para corregirlo? +Lo que hace bsicamente es abrir los tubos que drenan fluido desde los odos medios que han tenido confiablemente llenos. +Cada sonido que el nio escucha sin correccin est silenciado. +Est degradado. +El lenguaje nativo de un nio es tal que no es Ingls. +No es japons. +Es Ingls apagado. Es Japons degradado. +Es basura. +Y el cerebro se especializa para ello. +Crea una representacin de lenguaje basura. +Y entonces el nio se queda con eso. +Ahora, la basura no ocurre slo en el odo. +tambin puede ocurrir en el cerebro. +El cerebro mismo puede ser ruidoso. Es ruidoso comnnmente. +Hay muchas fallas heredadas que lo pueden hacer ms ruidoso. +Y el lenguaje nativo para un nio con un cerebro degradado +no es Ingls. Es Ingls ruidoso. +y eso resulta en representaciones defectuosas de los sonidos de las palabras, anormal, una estrategia diferente por una mquina que tiene constantes espaciales diferentes. +Y usted puede mirar en el cerebro de un nio as y grabar esas constantes de tiempo. +Son aproximadamente un orden de magnitud mayores. aproximadamente 11 veces mayor en duracin en promedio, que las de un nio normal. +Las constantes espaciales son aproximadamente tres veces mayores. +Ese nio tendr deficiencias de memoria y cognitivas en este dominio. +Por supuesto las tendr. Porque como receptor de lenguaje, lo est recibiendo y representando. Y como informacin representa basura. +Y van a tener destrezas de lectura pobres. +Ya que la lectura depende de la traduccin de los sonidos de las palabras a su forma representativa ortogrfica o visual. +Si usted no tiene una representacin cerebral de los sonidos de las palabras entonces la traduccin no tiene sentido. +Y usted va a tener la neurologa anormal respectiva. +Entonces estos nios cada vez ms, en evaluacin tras evaluacin, en sus operaciones en lenguaje, y sus operaciones en lectura documentamos esa neurologa anormal. +El punto es que se puede entrenar al cerebro fuera de esto. +Una forma de pensarlo es que de hecho usted puede redefinir la capacidad de procesamiento de la maquinaria cambindola. +Cambindola en detalle. Toma aproximadamente 30 horas en promedio. +Y hemos logrado eso en aproximadamente 430,000 nios hoy. +En realidad aproximadamente 15,000 nios se entrenan mientras hablamos. +Y en realidad cuando usted ve el impacto, el impacto es sustancial. +entonces aqu estamos viendo la distribucin normal. +En lo que estamos ms interesados es en esos nios al lado izquierdo de la distribucin. +Esto es de aproximadamente 3,000 nios. +Usted puede ver que la mayora de los nios del lado izquierdo de la distribucin se estn moviendo hacia la mitad o la derecha. +Esta es una evaluacin amplia de sus habilidades lingsticas. +Es como un test de CI para el lenguaje. +El impacto en la distribucin, si entren a cada nio en Estados Unidos, cambiara la distribucin completa a la derecha y reducir la distribucin. +Esto es sustancialmente un gran impacto. +Piense en un saln de clase de nios en artes del lenguaje. +Piense en los nios en el lado lento de la clase. +Tenemos el potencial para mover la mayora de esos nios a la mitad o al lado derecho. +Adems del entrenamiento lingstico exacto tambin arregla la memoria y la cognicin la fluidez del habla y la produccin del habla, +y una destreza importante dependiente del lenguaje que este entrenamiento permite o sea leer. +Y a un grado mayor repara el cerebro. +Usted puede mirar el cerebro de un nio. en una variedad de tareas que los cientficos tienen en Stanford, y MIT, y UCSF, y UCLA, y un grupo de otras instituciones. +Y los nios operando en varios comportamientos lingsticos, o en varios comportamientos de lectura, usted ve en la mayor extensin, para la mayora de los nios, sus respuestas neuronales, complejamente anormales antes del inicio, normalizadas mediante el entrenamiento. +Ahora, tambin puede tomar la misma aproximacin para tratar problemas en el envejecimiento. +En donde otra vez la maquinaria se est deteriorando a partir de maquinaria competente, est yendo al sur. +El ruido se incrementa en el cerebro. +y aprender modulacin y control es deteriorante. +Y de hecho usted puede ver el cerebro de un individuo y presenciar un cambio en las constantes temporales y espaciales con las que, por ejemplo, el cerebro representa lenguaje otra vez. +As como el cerebro sali del caos al principio, vuelve al caos al final. +Esto resulta en deterioros en la memoria en la cognicin, y en la habilidad y agilidad postural. +Resulta que usted puede entrenar el cerebro de dicho individuo, o sea una pequea poblacin de dichos individuos, entrenar equitativamente intensivamente por aproximadamente 30 horas. +Ellos son de 80 a 90 aos. +Y lo que usted ve son mejoras sustanciales de su memoria inmediata, de su habilidad para recordar cosas despus de un retraso, de su habilidad para controlar su atencin sus habilidades lingsticas y habilidades visuales, espaciales. +El ndice neurofisiolgico general de estos individuos entrenados en esta poblacin es aproximadamente dos desviaciones estndar. +Esto significa que si usted se sienta al lado izquierdo de la distribucin, y estoy viendo sus habilidades neurofisiolgicas, la persona promedio se ha movido a la mitad o al lado derecho de la distribucin. +Significa que la mayora de la gente que est en riesgo por senilidad, ms o menos inmediatamente, est ahora en una posicin protegida. +Mis problemas son tratar de rescatar los ciudadanos mayores ms completamente, y en mayor nmero. Porque creo que se puede hacer, es este ruedo a gran escala. lo mismo para los nios. +Mi inters principal es cmo elaborar esta ciencia para tratar otras enfermedades. +Estoy interesado especficametne en cosas como el autismo, y la parlisis cerebral, estas grandes catstrofes de la niez. +Y en enfermedades de la tercera edad como Parkinson, y en otros deterioros adquiridos como la esquizofrenia +Sus problemas en relacin con esta ciencia, son cmo mantener su propia mquina de aprendizaje de alto funcionamiento. +y por supuesto, una vida ordenada en la que el aprendizaje es parte continua, es clave. +Pero tambin en su futuro estn los aerbicos cerebrales. +Preprese para ello. Va a ser parte de la vida diaria, no muy lejos en el futuro. As como los ejercicios fsicos es una parte de cada vida bien organizada en el perodo contemporneo. +La otra forma en la que finalmente consideraremos esta literatura y la ciencia que es importante para usted es considerando cmo lo puede nutrir a usted. +Ahora que lo sabe, ahora que la ciencia nos est diciendo que usted est a cargo, que est bajo su control. que su felicidad, su bienestar, sus habilidades, sus capacidades, son capaces de modificacin continua, mejora continua, y usted es el agente y parte responsable. +Por supuesto mucha gente ignorar esta advertencia. +Pasar un largo tiempo antes de que realmente lo entiendan. +Bien, eso es otro problema, y no es mi culpa. +(Ok, gracias) +Les debo confesar, que cuando me pidieron que viniera, pens para mi, bueno, es TED. +Y estos "TEDsters" son -- ustedes saben, por inocente que parezca el nombre -- estos son los filntropos, artistas y cientficos quienes de alguna forma moldean nuestro mundo. +Y que podra decir que fuese lo suficientemente distinguido como para justificar mi participacin en algo como esto? +Y entonces pens que tal vez un civilizado acento que sonara ingls podra ayudar un poco. +Y luego pens, no, no. Solo debo subir all y ser yo misma y hablar de la misma forma en que hablo siempre porque, despus de todo, este es el momento de la verdad. +Y entonces pens que vendria aqu y revelara mi verdadera voz a ustedes. +Aunque muchos de ustedes ya saben que yo hablo el ingls de La Reina porque soy de Queens, New York. +Pero el tema de esta sesin, es obviamente, la inventiva. +Y como no tengo ninguna patente, que yo sepa, ustedes estarn conociendo algunos de mis inventos en el dia de hoy. +Y supongo que es justo mencionar que estoy interesada en la invencin del ser o seres. +Todo hemos nacidos en ciertas circunstancias y con rasgos fsicos particulares, experiencias de crecimiento, contextos geogrficos e histricos nicos. +Pero, y despus qu? +Hasta que nivel, nos auto creamos? Nos auto inventamos? +Como nos auto identificamos y que tan cambiante es esa identidad? +Por ejemplo, que pasara si uno pudiese ser cualquier persona de cualquier poca? +Bueno mis personajes, como los de mis presentaciones, me permiten jugar con los espacios entre esas preguntas. +Asi que he trado a algunos de ellos conmigo. +Y bien, ellos estn muy entusiasmados. +Lo que les debo decir lo que les debo decir, es que cado uno de ellos ha preparado su propia mini conferencia TED. +Por lo tanto, sintanse libres de pensar en esto como la Universidad de Sarah. +Esta bien, esta bien. Oh, bueno. +Oh, maravilloso. +Buenas tardes a todos +muchsimas gracias por tenerme aqu en el dia de hoy. +Oh, muchas gracias. Mi nombre es Loraine Levine. +Ay Dios mio! Hay tantos de ustedes aqu. +Hola querido. Esta bien. +De cualquier forma, estoy aqu por una joven chica, Sarah Jones. +Ella es una chica negra, muy buena, joven. +Bueno ustedes saben, ella se llama a si misma negra, ella es, en verdad, de color caramelo si la miran bien. +Pero de cualquier forma, +ella me tiene aqu porque me incluye en su show, al que ella llama su show de una mujer. +Y ustedes saben lo que eso significa, claro esta. +Eso significa que ella se toma todo el crdito y luego nos hace salir aqu y hacer todo el trabajo. +Pero a m no me importa. +Honestamente, estoy encantada solo de estar aqu con todas las grandes mentes que estan presentes en algo como esto, ustedes saben. +De verdad, es increble. +No solo, por supuesto, los cientficos y todos los gigantes de la industria pero las celebridades. +Hay tantas celebridades aqu. +Yo v -- ms temprano v a Glenn Close. La amo. +Y ella se estaba tomando un yogurt en el caf de Google. +No es eso adorable?. +Y podemos ver a muchos otros, son todos maravillosos. +Es encantador ver que estn preocupados, saben. +Y -- oh, v a Goldie Hawn. +Oh, Goldie Hawn, la amo tambin, ella es maravillosa. Si. +Saben, ella es solo mitad juda. +Saban eso sobre ella? +S. Pero de cualquier forma, un talento maravilloso Y yo -- saben, cuando la v, tuve una sensacin maravillosa. +Si, ella es encantadora. +Pero de cualquier forma, deb haber comenzado solo diciendo cuan agradecida me siento. +Es una experiencia tan reveladora el estar aqu. +Todos ustedes son tan responsables por el mundo en que vivimos hoy. +Saben, no podra haber soado algo as cuando era una nia. +Y todos ustedes han hecho posibles estos avances en tan poco tiempo. Son todos tan jvenes. +Saben, sus padres deben estar muy orgullosos. +Pero yo -- yo tambin aprecio la diversidad que ustedes tienen aqu. +He notado que es muy multi cultural. +Saben, cuando se esta parado aqu arriba, se puede ver a todas las diferentes personas. +Es como un arcoiris. +Esta bien decir arcoiris. Si. +Es solo que -- No puedo seguir la corriente, saben, a si podemos decir sto o lo otro. +Qu se est permitido decir y que no? +Es que -- Yo no quiero ofender a nadie. Saben. +De cualquier forma, saben, creo que el estar aqu con todos ustedes gente jven consumada, literalmente, algunos de ustedes, son los arquitectos que construyen nuestro ms brillante futuro. +Saben, de verdad lo llevo en el corazn. +Aunque, con un poco de honestidad, algunas de sus presentaciones son terrorficas, absolutemente terrorficas. +Es la verdad. Es la verdad. +Ustedes saben, entre la degradacin del medio ambiente y el derrumbe de los mercados globales de los que ustedes hablan. +Y claro, sabemos que todo es por el -- todo el ... +Bueno, no se de que otra forma decrselos, as que lo dir a mi manera. La "actividad delictiva" que viene de los gobiernos y de, ustedes saben, los banqueros y de Wall Street. Ustedes lo saben. +De cualquier forma. +El punto esta en que estoy feliz de que alguien tiene ideas prcticas para sacarnos de este desastre. +As que los aplaudo, a cada uno de ustedes y a sus increbles logros. +Gracias por todo lo que hacen. +Y felicitaciones por ser tan grandes "hacedores" que se han convertidos en "maestros" TED. +Asi que, feliz y continuo xito. +Felicitaciones. "Mazel tov". +Hola. Hola. +Gracias a todos. +Perdn, pero esta es una oportunidad increble y todo, el estar aqu ahora. +Mi nombre es Noraida. Y es solo que Estoy tan encantanda de ser parte de como su conferencia TED de lo que estan haciendo y todo eso. +Yo soy Americana-Dominicana +Realmente, podran decir que yo crec en la capital de la Repblica Dominicana, tambin conocida como Washington Heights en la ciudad de Nueva York +Pero no s si hay algun otro dominicano/a aqu, pero s que Juan Enrquez, l estuvo aqu ayer. +Y yo creo que el es mexicano, eso es -- honestamente, en este momento eso es lo suficientemente cerca. Entonces -- Yo solo -- Lo siento. +Solo trato de no estar nerviosa porque esto es una experiencia muy maravillosa para mi y todo eso. +Y yo solo -- saben no estoy acostumbrada a hablar en pblico. +Y cuando me pongo nerviosa comienzo a hablar muy rpido. +Nadie puede entender nada de lo que digo, lo que es muy frustrante para mi, como pueden imaginarse. +usualmente tengo que tratar de calmarme un poco y tomar un buen respiro. +Pero aparte de eso, saben, Sarah Jones me dijo que solo teniamos 18 minutos. +Entonces yo estaba como, debo estar nerviosa, saben, por que tal vez sea mejor. +Y solo estoy tratando de no entrar en pnico y volverme loca. Entonces estoy como, respira profundo. +Okay. Lo siento. De cualquier forma, lo que estaba tratando de decir es que realmente amo a TED. +Como, yo amo todo acerca de esto. Es increble. +Es como -- No puedo creer esto ahora mismo. +Y como, las personas de donde yo vengo, seriamente, no creeran, que esto existe. +Saben, incluso, tengo que decir que amo hasta el nombre, el -- TED. +Quiero decir, se que es una persona real y todo, pero solo digo como que, saben, pienso que es genial como tambin es un acrnimo, saben, es como, saben, es como un concepto muy avanzado y todo como eso. +Me gusta eso. +Y en serio, yo me puedo identificar con todo eso de los acrnimos y todo. +Por que, actualmente soy una estudiante de segundo ao en la universidad. +En mi escuela -- yo fui parte de la co-fundacin de una organizacion, que es como algo de liderazgo, saben, ustedes, a ustedes les hubiese gustado realmente y todo. +Y la organizacion se llama LA BOMBA (DA BOMB), y LA BOMBA -- no como lo que ustedes pueden construir y eso -- Es como, LA BOMBA, quiere decir Dominicana -- es un acrnimo -- Asociacin Americana Dominicana Benevolente para Madres y Bebs. +Entonces, lo se, veo que el nombre es como un poco largo pero con la guerra al terror y todo, el decano de actividades estudiantiles nos pidi que dejaramos de decir LA BOMBA y que usemos el nombre completo para que nadie tenga la idea errada, como sea. +Entonces, bsicamente como LA BOMBA lo que La Asociacin Americana Dominicana Benevolente para Madres y Bebs hace es, bsicamente, tratamos de abogar por estudiantes que muestran mucho potencial acadmico y que tambin son madres como yo. +Soy una madre que trabaja, y tambien voy a la universidad tiempo completo. +Y saben, es como -- muy importante tener modelos a seguir ah afuera. +Digo, yo se que que nuestros estilos de vida son muy diferentes, como sea. +Pero hasta en mi trabajo -- como, fui promovida +En este momento es realmente excitante de hecho para mi porque soy la asistente junior del director asociado bajo la supervisin del vicepresidente principal de desarrollo de negocios Ese es mi nuevo ttulo. +Entonces, creo que ya seas dueo de tu propia empresa o estes apenas empezando como yo, como que algo como esto es tan vital para que las personas sigan expandiendo sus mentes y aprendiendo. +Y si todo el mundo, es decir todas las personas realmente tuvieran acceso a eso, sera un mundo muy diferente all afuera, como s que ustedes saben. +Entonces, yo creo que todas las personas, necesitamos eso, pero especialmente, yo veo a personas como yo, saben como, Quiero decir, latinos, casi vamos a ser la mayora, en como dos semanas. +Entonces, nosotros merecemos tanto como cualquiera ser parte del intercambio de ideas. +Entonces, estoy muy feliz de que, saben, de que estn haciendo estas cosas, haciendo que las conferencias esten disponibles en lnea. +Eso es muy bueno. Amo eso. +Y yo solo -- Los amo chicos. Yo amo TED. +Y si no les importa, personalmente, en el futuro, yo voy a pensar en TED como un acrnimo para Tecnologia, Entretenimiento y Dominicanos. +Muchsimas gracias. +Entonces, eso fue Noraida, y como Loraine y todos los otros que estarn conociendo hoy estos chicos que estn basados en personas reales de mi vida Amigos, vecinos, familiares +Vengo de una familia multicultural. +En realidad, la seora mayor que acaban de conocer, esta basada en trminos muy generales en una ta abuela del lado de mi madre. +Es una larga historia, cranme. +Pero adems de mi pasado familiar, mis padres tambin me enviaron a la escuela de las Naciones Unidas donde encontr una inmensidad de nuevos personajes incluyendo Alexandre, mi profesora de frances, okay. +Bueno, saben, era francs para principiantes, lo que tom con ella, saben. +Y fue Madame Bousson, saben, ella era muy [francs]. +Era como, saben, ella estaba ah en la clase, saben, ella era de alguna forma tradicionalmente francesa. +Saben, ella era muy chic, pero estaba llena de "aburrimiento", saben. +Y ella estaba ah, saben, hablando con la clase, saben, hablando de, saben, la futilidad existencial de la vida, saben. +Y tenamos solamente 11 aos, por lo tanto no era apropiado. pero [Alemn]. +Si, tom alemn por 3 aos [Aleman], y que experiencia fue, porque yo era la nica chica de color en la clase, hasta en la escuela de la ONU. +Pero, saben. fue maravilloso. +El profesor, Herr Schtopf, el nunca discrimin. +Nunca. El siempre, siempre trat a cada uno de nosotros, saben, igualmente insoportable, durante la clase. +Entonces, ah estaban los profesores y luego estaban mis amigos compaeros de todos lados. Muchos de los cuales son todava queridos amigos al da de hoy. +Y ellos han inspirado muchos personajes tambin. +Por ejemplo, un amigo mo. +Bueno, solo quera decir rpidamente buenas tardes. +Mi nombre es Praveen Manvi y muchas gracias por esta oportunidad. +Claro, TED, la reputacin le precede alrededor de todo el mundo. +Pero, saben, soy originalmente de India, y quera comenzar dicindoles que una vez que Sarah Jones me dijo que tendramos esta oportunidad de venir aqu a TED en California, originalmente, estaba muy contento y francamente aliviado porque, saben, soy un defensor de los derechos humanos. +Y usualmente mi trabajo, me lleva a Washington D.C. +Y all, debo atender estas reuniones, socializar con algunos politicos aburridos, tratando de hacerme sentir cmodo dicindome cuan seguido ellos comen curry en Georgetown. Entonces, pueden imaginrselos -- verdad. +Pero entonces, estoy emocionado de unirme a todos ustedes aqu +Desearia que tuvisemos ms tiempo juntos, pero eso sera para otro momento. Okay? Genial +Y, tristemente, no creo que tengamos tiempo para que conozcan a todos los que traje, pero -- Estoy tratando de comportarme. Es mi primera vez aqu. +Pero quiero presentarles a unos cuantos chicos que podrian reconocer, Si vieron "Puente y Tunel". +Uh, bueno, gracias. +Buenas tardes. +Mi nombre es Pauline Ning. y primero quiero decirles que yo soy -- claro yo soy miembro de la comunidad china en Nueva York. +Pero luego, decid, as como el gobernador Arnold Schwartzenegger, Lo intentara de cualquier manera. +Mi hija -- mi hija escribi eso, ella me dijo, "siempre comienza tu discurso con humor". +Pero mi historia -- Les quiero contar la historia brevemente. +Mi esposo y yo, nosotros trajimos a nuestros hijo e hija aqu en los 1980s para tener la libertad que no tenamos en China en esos tiempos. +Y tratamos de ensear a nuestros hijos a sentir orgullo por su tradicin, pero es realmente difcil. +Saben, como inmigrante, yo les hablaba chino a ellos, y ellos siempre me contestaban en ingls. +Ellos aman la msica rock, la cultura pop, la cultura americana. +Pero cuando crecieron, cuando les llegara el tiempo de comenzar a pensar en matrimonio, ah es cuando esperbamos que ellos aceptaran, un poco ms, su propia cultura. +Pero ah fue cuando tuvimos problemas. +Mi hijo, l dice que l no esta listo para casarse. +Y el tiene una novia, pero ella es americana, no china. +No es que sea malo, pero le dije, "Qu hay de malo con una mujer china?" +Pero creo que el va cambiar su mente pronto. +Entonces, luego decid, que me concentrara en mi hija. +La boda de una hija es muy especial para la madre. +Pero primero, ella dijo que no estaba interesada. +Ella solo quiere estar con sus amigos. +Y luego en la universidad, era como si nunca vena a la casa. +Y ella no quiere que la vaya a visitar. +Entonces dije, "qu esta mal aqu?" +Entonces, acus a mi hija de tener un novio secreto. +Pero ella me dijo, "Mam, no tienes que preocuparte por chicos porque no me gustan" +Y le dije, "S, los hombres pueden ser difciles, pero todas las mujeres deben acostumbrarse a eso" +Ella dijo, "No mam. Quiero decir, no me gustan los chicos. Me gustan las chicas. +Soy lesbiana". +Entonces, siempre enseo a mis hijos a respetar las ideas americanas, pero le dije a mi hija que esta era una excepcin -- que ella no era gay, que ella solo estaba confundida por este problema americano. +Pero ella me dijo "Mam, no es americano" +Ella dijo que estaba enamorada de una buena chica china. +Entonces, estas son palabras que estoy esperando oir. pero de mi hijo, no de mi hija. +Pero primero no saba que hacer. +Pero luego, con tiempo, he llegado a entender que esto es lo que ella es. +Entonces, aunque en algunos momentos es difcil todava, Les voy a compartir que me ayuda darme cuenta que la sociedad es mas tolerante, usualmente por lugares como este, por ideas como estas y personas como ustedes, con una mente abierta. +Entonces creo que tal vez TED, ustedes impactan las vidas de las personas en formas que tal vez ni se puedan imaginar. +Entonces, por el bien de mi hija. Les agradezco por sus ideas que valen divulgarse. +Gracias. Shin shen. +Buenas tardes. Mi nombre es Habbi Belahal. +Y quiero antes que todo agradecer a Sarah Jones por poner toda la presin sobre la nica rabe que trajo con ella de ser la ltima del da. +Soy originalmente de Jordania. +Y enseo literatura comparativa en la Universidad de Queens. +No es Harvard. +Pero me siento un poco como un pez fuera del agua. +Pero estoy muy orgullosa de mis estudiantes. +Y veo que alguno de ellos lograron venir a la conferencia. +Asi que, tendrn el crdito extra que les promet. +Pero, mientras se que no luzco como la tipica ciudadana TED, como diran, Si quisiera hacer el punto de que nosotros en una sociedad global nunca somos tan diferentes como las apariencias puedan sugerir. +As que, si me lo permiten, voy a compartir rpidamente con ustedes unos pocos versos, los cuales he memorizado siendo una chica de 16 aos de edad. +Asi que, de regreso a los tiempos antiguos. +[rabe] Y esto se traduce burdamente: "Por favor, djame tomar tu mano. +Quiero tomar tu mano. +Quiero tomar tu mano. +Y cuando te toco, me siento feliz por dentro. +Es un sentimiento tal que mi amor, no puedo esconder, no puedo esconder, no puedo esconder" +Bueno, entonces esta bien, pero por favor, por favor, pero por favor +Si les suena familiar, es porque estaba al mismo tiempo en mi vida escuchando a los Beatles. +En la radio , ellos eran muy populares. +As que, todo eso fue para decirles que me gusta creer, que por cada palabra que intenta volvernos sordos los unos a los otros, siempre hay una lrica conectando odos y corazones a travs de continentes en ritmo. +Y rezo que esta sea la forma en que nos auto inventemos, en tiempo. +Es todo . Muchas gracias por la oportunidad. +Bien? Genial. +Muchsimas gracias a todos. Fue encantador. +Gracias por tenerme. +Muchsimas gracias. Los amo. +Bueno, me tienen que dejar decir esto. +Yo solo -- gracias. +Quiero agradecer a Chris y a Jaqueline, y a todos por teneme aqu. +He estado esperndolo por tanto tiempo, y me siento como en casa, +y se que he actuado para algunas de sus compaas o algunos me han visto en algun otro sitio, pero honestamente esta es una de las mejoras audiencias que he experimentado. +Todo esto es increble, y entonces, no se vayan a reinventar en ningn tiempo cercano. +La primera pregunta es, por qu necesitamos siquiera preocuparnos por una amenaza de pandemia? +Qu es lo que nos preocupa? +Cuando digo "nosotros," estoy en el Consejo de Relaciones Exteriores. +Estamos preocupados, en la comunidad de seguridad nacional, y por supuesto en la comunidad de biologa y de salud pblica. +La globalizacin ha incrementado los viajes, e hizo necesario para todos estar en todas partes, todo el tiempo, en todo el mundo. +Y eso significa que los microbios pasajeros viajan con uno. +Entonces una plaga que brota en Surat, India se vuelve, no un evento oculto, sino uno globalizado -- una preocupacin globalizada que cambia la ecuacin de riesgo. +Katrina nos demostr que no podemos depender completamente del gobierno para tener preparacin, para ser capaces de manejar las cosas. +De hecho, un brote sera como mltiples Katrinas a la vez. +Nuestra gran preocupacin ahora es un virus llamado gripe H5N1. Algunos la llaman gripe aviar, que apareci por primera vez al sur de China, a mediados de los 90. Pero no lo supimos hasta 1997. +Al fin de la Navidad ltima, slo 13 pases haban visto el H5N1. +Pero ahora son ms de 55 pases en el mundo, que han visto surgir este virus, ya sea en aves, personas o ambos. +En los brotes en aves podemos ver que casi todo el mundo ha visto este virus excepto las Amricas. +Y dir por qu nos hemos salvado por el momento. +En aves domsticas, especialmente gallinas, es letal en un 100 por ciento. +Es una de las cosas ms letales que hayamos visto en circulacin en el mundo en cualquier siglo reciente. +Y lo hemos enfrentado matando muchas, muchas gallinas, desafortunadamente a menudo sin compensar a los granjeros con el resultado de que hubo encubrimientos. +Tambin es transportado por patrones migratorios de aves acuticas migratorias. +Ocurri este evento centralizado en un lugar llamado Lago Chenghai, China. +Hace dos aos las aves migratorias tuvieron un evento mltiple en que miles murieron por una mutacin sufrida por el virus, que hizo el rango de especies ampliarse dramticamente. +As que las aves yendo a Siberia, a Europa, y frica llevaron el virus, lo cual no haba sido posible anteriormente. +Ahora vemos brotes en poblaciones humanas. Hasta ahora, por fortuna, pequeos eventos, diminutos brotes, grupos ocasionales. +El virus ha mutado dramticamente en los ltimos dos aos para formar dos familias distintas, por decir as, del rbol viral H5N1 con ramas en ellas, y con diferentes atributos preocupantes. +Qu nos preocupa? En primer lugar nunca en la historia tuvimos xito en producir de manera oportuna, una vacuna especfica para ms de 260 millones de personas. +No nos har ningn bien en una pandemia global. +Habrn odo de la vacuna que estamos almacenando. +Pero nadie cree que ser particularmente efectiva si tenemos un brote real. +As que una idea es luego del 11-S cuando los aeropuertos cerraron nuestra temporada de gripe se retras dos semanas. +Entonces la idea es, tal vez lo que debamos hacer es inmediatamente -- omos que el H5N1 se contagia entre humanos, el virus ha mutado para ser transmitido de humano a humano -- cerremos los aeropuertos. +Sin embargo, anlisis de supercomputadoras, sobre la efectividad probable de esto, muestran que no nos dar mucho tiempo, +Y por supuesto ser una enorme perturbacin en planes de preparacin. +Por ejemplo, las mscaras se hacen en China. +Cmo pueden llevarse hacia todo el mundo si cerramos todos los aeropuertos? +Cmo llevamos a todo el mundo las vacunas y las drogas, y cualquier cosa que pueda o no estar disponible? +Resulta que cerrar los aeropuertos es contraproducente. +Estamos preocupados porque este virus, a diferencia de los otros que hayamos estudiado, puede transmitirse comiendo carne cruda de los animales infectados. +Hemos visto transmisin de gatos salvajes a gatos domsticos, y ahora tambin perros domsticos. +Y en alimentacin experimental a roedores y hurones, descubrimos que los animales muestran sntomas nunca vistos en la gripe, convulsiones, desrdenes de sistema nervioso, parlisis parcial, +Esta no es la variedad de gripe comn. +Reproduce lo que ahora entendemos reconstruyendo el virus de la gripe de 1918, la ltima gran pandemia, en que tambin salt directamente de aves a personas. +Tuvimos evolucin en el tiempo, y este increble ndice de mortalidad en seres humanos. El 55 por ciento de personas infectadas con H5N1, de hecho, han perecido. +Y no tenemos un gran nmero de personas que fueron infectadas y nunca desarrollaron la enfermedad. +En experimentos con monos pueden ver que en realidad desregula un modulador especfico del sistema inmune. +El resultado es que lo que mata, no es el virus, sino el propio sistema inmune, sobrereaccionando, diciendo: "Sea lo que fuere, es tan extrao, que voy a enloquecer." +El resultado, la mayora de las muertes ocurrieron en personas menores de 30 aos, adultos jvenes saludables. +Hemos visto transmisin entre humanos en al menos tres grupos -- por suerte, por medio de contacto muy ntimo, no poniendo an al mundo en riesgo. +Bien, ahora ya estn nerviosos. +Probablemente asumirn que los gobiernos harn algo. +Y hemos gastado mucho dinero. +La mayora del gasto en la administracin Bush ha estado ms relacionado con el antrax y amenazas de bio-terrorismo. +Y mucho dinero fue invertido a nivel local y a nivel federal para buscar enfermedades infecciosas. +Resultado final, slo 15 estados han sido certificados capaces de distribucin masiva de vacunas y drogas en una pandemia. +La mitad de los estados no tendrn ms camas de hospital en la primera semana, quizs dos semanas. +Y 40 estados ya tienen escasez de enfermeras. +Agreguen una amenaza de pandemia, y son grandes problemas +Qu hizo la gente son este dinero? +Ejercicios, simulacros, en todo el mundo. +Imaginemos que hay una pandemia. +Que todo el mundo corra y juegue un papel. +El principal resultado es una tremenda confusin. +La mayora de estas personas no saben cul ser su trabajo. +Y en definitiva, lo principal que se descubri en cada simulacro, es que nadie sabe quin est a cargo. +Nadie conoce la cadena de mando. +Si fuera en Los ngeles. Es el alcalde, el gobernador, el Presidente de Estados Unidos, el director de Seguridad Nacional? +De hecho, el gobierno federal dice que es un tipo llamado el Oficial de Principio Federal, quien resulta estar con la TSA, +El gobierno dice que la responsabilidad federal bsicamente ser tratar de mantener el virus afuera; que todos sabemos es imposible, y luego mitigar el impacto principalmente en la economa. +El resto depende de la comunidad local. +Todo se trata de la ciudad, donde uno vive. +Qu tan bueno es tu ayuntamiento? Tan bueno como sea tu alcalde, l es quien estar a cargo. +La mayora de las instalaciones locales competirn para tratar de obtener su porcin de la reserva federal de una droga llamada Tamiflu, que podra o no ayudar -- volver a eso -- de las vacunas disponibles, y cualquier otro tratamiento y mscaras, y cualquier cosa almacenada. +Y habr una competencia masiva. +Ahora, compramos una vacuna, probablemente oyeron de ella, hecha por Sanofi-Aventis. +Desafortunadamente, se hizo contra la forma actual de H5N1. +Sabemos que el virus mutar. Ser un virus diferente. +La vacuna probablemente ser intil. +Aqu es donde entran las decisiones. +Eres el alcalde de tu ciudad. +Debes ordenar que las mascotas se mantengan encerradas? +Alemania hizo eso cuando apareci H5N1 all el ao pasado, para minimizar la propagacin entre mascotas, a travs de gatos, perros y dems. +Qu hacemos cuando no tenemos salas de confinamiento con reciclado de aire, que permitir a los trabajadores de salud cuidar a los pacientes? +Estn en Hong Kong. No tenemos nada as ac. +Qu tal una cuarentena? +Durante la epidemia de SARS en Beijing la cuarentena pareca ayudar. +No tenemos polticas uniformes sobre cuarentenas en los Estados Unidos. +Y hay estados con polticas diferentes, de un condado a otro. +Qu tal las cosas evidentes? Debemos cerrar las escuelas? +Qu pasa con los trabajadores? No irn a trabajar si sus nios no estn en la escuela. +Alentar el teletrabajo? Qu trabajos? +El gobierno britnico hizo un ensayo de teletrabajo. +Por seis semanas todos en la industria bancaria simul que se desarrollaba una pandemia. +Descubrieron las funciones centrales, ya saben, an haba bancos, pero la gente no poda poner dinero en cajeros automticos. +Nadie procesaba las tarjetas de crdito. +Los pagos de seguro no circulaban. +Y bsicamente la economa sera un desastre. +Y esos son slo trabajos de oficina, bancarios. +No sabemos cun importante es lavarse las manos -- aterrador. Se asume que es buena idea lavarse mucho las manos. +Pero en la comunidad cientfica hay un gran debate sobre qu porcentaje de contagio de gripe entre personas es por estornudar y toser y qu porcentaje es por las manos. +El Instituto de Medicina quiso investigar las mscaras. +Hay una solucin, dado que sabemos que no tendremos suficientes porque ya no las hacen en Estados Unidos? Todas se hacen en China. Necesitamos N95? Una mscara de ltima generacin? +O nos bastar con algn tipo diferente de mscara? +En la epidemia de SARS, aprendimos en Hong Kong que la mayora de los contagios se deban a que la gente se quitaba las mscaras incorrectamente. +Y sus manos se contaminaban con el exterior de la mscara, y luego se frotaba la nariz. Lotera! Tenan SARS. +No eran microbios voladores. +Si buscan en internet ahora, encontrarn informacin demencial. +Terminarn comprando -- esto se llama una mscara N95. Ridculo. +En realidad no tenemos un estndar para el equipo protector de los primeros en responder, la gente que realmente estar en la lnea frontal, +Y el Tamiflu. Probablemente oyeron de esta droga. hecha por Hoffmann - La Roche, droga patentada. +Hay indicios de que esto pueda darnos algo de tiempo en medio de un brote. +Pero de tomar Tamiflu por un largo periodo de tiempo, un efecto secundario son los pensamientos suicidas. +Una encuesta de salud pblica analiz el efecto que el uso a gran escala de Tamiflu tendra, muestra que sera contraproducente para medidas de salud pblica, empeorando las cosas. +Y hay otra cosa interesante: cuando un humano ingiere Tamiflu, slo el 20 por ciento se metaboliza apropiadamente como un componente activo en el ser humano. +El resto regresa a un compuesto estable, que sobrevive el filtrado hacia los sistemas de agua, exponiendo a las mismas aves acuticas transmisoras y dndoles la oportunidad de generar cepas resistentes. +Y ahora hemos visto cepas resistentes al Tamiflu tanto en Vietnam, en transmisin entre personas, como en Egipto, en transmisin entre personas. +Personalmente creo que nuestra expectativa de vida por el Tamiflu como una droga efectiva es muy limitada -- realmente muy limitada. +A pesar de todo, la mayora de los gobiernos han basado toda su poltica contra la gripe en acumular reservas de Tamiflu. +Rusia ha acumulado suficiente para el 95 por ciento de los rusos. +Nosotros, suficiente para un 30 por ciento. +Cuando digo suficiente, son dos semanas de existencia. +Y despus estn por su cuenta porque la pandemia va a durar de 18 a 24 meses. +Algunos de los pases ms pobres que tuvieron ms experiencia con H5N1 han acumulado reservas, que ya expiraron. Ya caducaron. +Qu sabemos de 1918, la ltima gran pandemia? +El gobierno federal abdic la mayora de la responsabilidad. +Y terminamos con un mosaico de regulaciones por todo Estados Unidos. +Cada ciudad, condado, estado, hizo lo suyo. +Y las reglas y el sistema de creencias eran dispares. +En algunos casos todas las escuelas, las iglesias, todos los lugares pblicos se cerraron. +La pandemia circul tres veces en 18 meses en ausencia de viajes areos comerciales. +La segunda ola fue la ola de super asesinos mutados. +Y en la primera ola tenamos suficientes trabajadores de la salud. +Pero para cuando golpe la segunda ola cobr tal nmero de trabajadores de la salud que perdimos la mayora de nuestros doctores y enfermeras en el frente. +En total perdimos 700 mil personas. +El virus era 100 por ciento letal para embarazadas. Y realmente no sabemos por qu. +La mayora de los muertos tenan entre 15 y 40 aos -- adultos jvenes robustos y saludables. +Fue comparada a una plaga. +Realmente no sabemos cunta gente muri. +La estimacin conservadora es 35 millones. +Esto, basado en datos de Europa y Norteamrica. +Un nuevo estudio por Chris Murray en Harvard muestra que si se ven las bases de datos conservadas por los britnicos en India, hubo un ndice de mortandad 31 veces mayor entre los Indios. +Entonces se cree que en lugares de pobreza el nmero de vctimas fue mucho mayor. +Y que un nmero ms probable est cercano a los 80 o 100 millones de personas antes de que hubieran vuelos comerciales. +Estamos preparados? +Como nacin, no lo estamos. +Y creo que incluso aquellos en el liderazgo diran lo mismo, que todava nos falta mucho. +Qu significa esto para ustedes? Lo primero es, yo no comenzara a reunir reservas personales de nada, para uno mismo, la familia o empleados, a menos que realmente lo hayan estudiado. +Qu mscaras funcionan? Cules no funcionan. +Cuntas mscaras necesitas? +El estudio del Instituto de Medicina cree que no se pueden reciclar mscaras. +Si crees que durar 18 meses, Comprars suministros para 18 meses de mscaras para cada persona en tu familia? +No sabemos, de nuevo con el Tamiflu, el principal efecto secundario del Tamiflu son sntomas como de gripe. +Cmo saber entonces quin en tu familia tiene la gripe si todos toman Tamiflu? +Si expanden eso para pensar en toda una comunidad, o en todos los empleados en una compaa pueden darse cuenta de lo limitada que puede ser la opcin Tamiflu. +Todo el mundo vino a m y me dijo, voy a reservar agua o, reservar comida o lo que fuera. +Realmente? Tienen un lugar para acumular suministros de comida para 18 meses? O 24? +Quieren ver a la amenaza de pandemia de la manera que en los 50 la gente vea la defensa civil, y construir un refugio antibombas para la pandemia de gripe? +No creo que eso sea racional. +Creo que se trata de estar preparado como comunidades, no como individuos, estar preparados como nacin, estar preparados como estado, como ciudad. +Y ahora mismo la mayora de los preparativos son deficientes. +Y espero haberlos convencido de eso, lo cual significa que el verdadero trabajo es salir y decir a los lderes locales, y los lderes nacionales, "Por qu no han resuelto estos problemas? +Por qu an creen que las lecciones de Katrina no se aplican a la gripe?" +Y poner presin donde necesita ponerse. +Pero supongo que lo otro para agregar es; si tienen empleados, y si tienen una empresa, creo que tienen ciertas responsabilidades en demostrar que estn pensando por adelantado, y estn ensayando un plan. +Cuando menos, el plan de los bancos britnicos demostr que el teletrabajo puede ser til. +Probablemente reduzca la exposicin porque la gente no va a la oficina a toserse unos a otros, o a tocar objetos en comn, y compartir cosas con las manos. +Pero pueden mantener sus compaas as? +Si tienen un punto-com, tal vez puedan. +De otro modo tendrn problemas. +Responder sus preguntas. +Pblico: Qu factores determinan la duracin de una pandemia? +Laurie Garret: Qu factores determinan su duracin, no lo sabemos. +Puedo darles unas vueltas, esto, aquello, lo otro. +Pero dira que honestamente no lo sabemos. +Claramente, la verdad es que el virus se atena eventualmente, y deja de ser letal para la humanidad, y encuentra otro anfitrin. +Pero no sabemos realmente cmo y por qu sucede. +Es una ecologa muy complicada. +Pblico: Qu tipo de disparadores estn buscando? +Usted sabe mucho ms que nosotros. +Para decir, "ahh, si esto ocurre entonces tendremos una pandemia? +LG: En el momento en que se vea evidencia de transmisin de humano a humano seria. +No slo ntimamente entre miembros de familia quienes cuidaron un hermano o hermana enfermos, sino una comunidad infectada -- contagios dentro de una escuela, en un dormitorio estudiantil, algo de ese tipo. +Entonces creo que hay un acuerdo universal ahora en la OMS hacia abajo. De sonar la alarma. +Pblico: Algunos estudios indican que las estatinas pueden ayudar. +Podra hablar de eso? +LG: S. Hay evidencia de que tomar Lipitor y otras estatinas para control del colesterol puede disminuir la vulnerabilidad a la influenza. +Pero no comprendemos completamente por qu. +El mecanismo no est claro. +Y no conozco una manera responsable de que alguien comience a medicar a sus hijos con su suministro personal de Lipidor o algo parecido. +No tenemos ninguna idea sobre qu causara. +Podran causar resultados muy peligrosos en sus hijos, hacer algo as. +Pblico: Cun avanzados estamos en determinar si alguien es portador, si alguien tiene esto antes de que los sntomas aparezcan? +LG: Bien. Por mucho tiempo dije que lo que necesitamos es un diagnstico rpido. +Y los Centros de Control de Enfermedades ha descrito un test que han desarrollado -- un diagnstico rpido. +Tarda 24 horas en un laboratorio altamente desarrollado, en manos muy entrenadas. +Preferira un hisopo. +Que puedan aplicar a su propio hijo. Que cambie de color. +Y dira si tiene H5N1. +En trminos de nuestro avance cientfico con la capacidad de identificacin de ADN y dems, no estamos tan lejos. +No lo tenemos. Y no han habido inversiones del tipo que nos ayudara. +Pblico: En la gripe de 1918 tengo entendido se teoriz con que haba alguna atenuacin del virus cuando hizo el salto a los humanos. +Es eso probable, ahora? +Un ndice de mortandad del 100% es muy grave. +LG: Si. En realidad no sabemos cul fue la letalidad de la cepa de 1918 en aves salvajes antes de que saltara de aves a humanos. +Es curioso que no haya evidencia de muertes masivas de gallinas o de aves domsticas en Estados Unidos antes de que ocurriera la pandemia humana. +Podra ser porque esos eventos ocurrieron en el otro lado del mundo donde nadie prestaba atencin +Pero el virus claramente recorri el mundo una vez en una forma tan atenuada que el ejrcito britnico en la Primera Guerra certific que no era una amenaza y no afectara el resultado de la guerra. +Y despus de circundar el mundo regres en una forma tremendamente letal. +Qu porcentaje de gente infectada muri por l? +De nuevo, realmente no tenemos certeza. +Es claro que si se estaba malnutrido para empezar, se tena un sistema inmune debilitado, si se viva en la pobreza en India o frica, la probabilidad de morir era mucho mayor. +Pero realmente no sabemos. +Pblico: Algo que he odo es que la causa real de muerte en la gripe es la neumona asociada Y que una vacuna para neumona puede mejorar un 50 % las chances de supervivencia. +LG: Por mucho tiempo, los investigadores de enfermedades emergentes fueron despectivos sobre la amenaza de una pandemia de gripe sobre la base de que en 1918 no haba antibiticos. +Y la mayora de los que mueren de gripe normal, que en aos de gripe normal son unas 360 mil personas en todo el mundo, la mayora ancianos. Y no mueren por la gripe sino porque la gripe ataca el sistema inmune. +Y se suman los pneumococos, u otras bacterias, streptococos, y boom, tienen neumona bacterial, +Pero resulta que en 1918 ese no era el caso. +Y hasta ahora en los casos de H5N1 en personas, las infecciones bacteriales similares no han sido un problema. +Es esta fenomenal disrupcin del sistema inmune, la que es la clave de por qu muere la gente. +Y yo agregara que vimos lo mismo con el SARS. +Lo que sucede aqu es que el cuerpo dice, el sistema inmune enva todos los centinelas y dice, "No s qu demonios es esto. +Nunca hemos visto nada ni remotamente parecido." +No servir de nada traer los francotiradores porque esos anticuerpos no estn aqu. +Y no servir de nada traer los tanques o la artillera porque las clulas-T no lo reconocen tampoco. +As que tendremos que recurrir a la respuesta termonuclear, estimulando toda la cascada de citocina. +Todo el sistema inmune acude a los pulmones. +Y mueren, ahogados en sus propios fluidos, de neumona. +Pero no es neumona bacterial. +Y no es una neumona que respondera a una vacuna. +Y creo que mi tiempo se acab. Gracias por su atencin. +A travs de los medios de comunicacin vemos las noticias sobre Irak, Afganistn y Sierra Leona y los conflictos nos parecen incomprensibles. +Y as es realmente como me pareca cuando empec este proyecto. +Pero siendo fsico pens, bien, si me das algunos datos tal vez podra entender esto. Dmosle una vuelta. +As que siendo un ingenuo neozelands pens, bien, ir al Pentgono. +Me pueden dar algo de informacin? +No. As que tuve que pensar un poco ms. +Y estaba viendo las noticias una noche en Oxford. +Y mir debajo de las cabezas parlantes en el canal que haba elegido. +Y vi que haba informacin ah. +Haba datos dentro de los flujos de noticias que consumamos. +De hecho todo este ruido a nuestro alrededor contiene informacin. +As que lo que empec a pensar fue: quizs hay algo parecido a inteligencia de cdigo abierto aqu. +Si conseguimos juntar suficientes flujos de informacin quizs podamos empezar a entender la guerra. +Por lo que eso fue exactamente lo que hice. Empezamos a juntar a un equipo interdisciplinario de cientficos, economistas y matemticos. +Juntamos a estos chicos y empezamos a intentar resolver esto. +Lo hicimos en tres pasos. +El primer paso que dimos fue recolectar. Tenamos 130 fuentes de informacin diferentes, desde informes de ONGs hasta peridicos y canales de noticias. +Obtuvimos todos estos datos sin procesar y los filtramos. +Extrajimos las piezas de informacin clave para construir la base de datos. +La base de datos contena la fecha de los ataques, localizacin, el tamao y las armas usadas. +Est todo en los flujos de informacin que consumimos a diario, slo tenemos que saber como extraerlo. +Y pudimos empezar a hacer cosas realmente interesantes. +Que pasara si mirramos la distribucin del tamao de los ataques? +Qu nos dira eso? +As que empezamos a hacer esto. Y como pueden ver aqu en el eje horizontal tienen el nmero de gente que ha muerto en un ataque o el tamao del ataque. +Y en el eje vertical tienen el nmero de ataques. +As que graficando los datos sobre esto +pueden ver una especie de distribucin aleatoria: quizs en 67 ataques, una persona muri, o 47 ataques donde murieron 7 personas. +Hicimos exactamente lo mismo para Irak. +Y no sabamos qu bamos a encontrar para Irak. +Resulta que lo que encontramos fue bastante sorprendente. +Tomas todos los conflictos, todo el caos y todo ese ruido, y con eso obtienes esta distribucin matemtica precisa que define cmo estn ordenados los ataques en este conflicto. +Esto nos sorprendio muchsimo. +Por qu un conflicto como Irak tendra esto como su firma fundamental? +Por qu habra orden en la guerra? +Realmente no lo entendamos. +Pensamos que tal vez haba algo especial en Irak. +As que miramos en unos pocos conflictos ms. +Miramos en Colombia, miramos en Afganistn y miramos en Senegal. +Y el mismo patrn emergi en cada conflicto. +Esto supuestamente no debera suceder. +Estas son guerras diferentes con facciones religiosas diferentes, facciones polticas diferentes y problemas socioeconmicos diferentes. +Sin embargo, los patrones fundamentales que los definen son los mismos. +As que expandimos nuestra busqueda. +Miramos alrededor del mundo en todos los datos que pudimos conseguir. +De Per a Indonesia estudiamos nuevamente el mismo patrn. +Y no slo encontramos que las distribuciones eran estas lneas rectas, sino que la pendiente de estas lneas se agrupaban alrededor de este valor de Alfa igual a 2,5. +Y pudimos generar una ecuacin que es capaz de predecir la probabilidad de un ataque. +Lo que estmos diciendo aqu es que la probabilidad de que un ataque mate X personas en un pas como Irak es igual a una constante multiplicada por el tamao del ataque y elevada a la potencia de Alfa negado. +Y Alfa negado es la pendiente de la lnea que les ense antes. +Por qu importa esto? +Estos son datos, estadsticas. Que nos dicen sobre estos conflictos? +Esto era un reto que debimos enfrentar como fsicos. +Cmo explicamos esto? +Y lo que averiguamos es que Alfa, si realmente pensamos sobre ello, es la estructura organizacional de la insurgencia. +Alfa es la distribucin del tamao de los ataques, lo que en verdad es la distribucin de la fuerza del grupo que ejecuta los ataques. +As que miramos procesos de dinmica de grupos, de coalescencia y fragmentacin. Grupos juntndose. Grupos separndose. +Y empezamos a probar nmeros sobre esto. Podemos simularlo? +Podemos crear el tipo de patrones que estamos viendo en lugares como Irak? +Resulta que podemos hacer un trabajo razonable. +Podemos ejecutar estas simulaciones. +Podemos recrear esto usando un proceso de dinmica de grupos para explicar los patrones que vemos en todos los conflictos alrededor del mundo. +Entonces qu est sucediendo? +Por qu estos conflictos diferentes -o aparentemente diferentes- tienen los mismos patrones? +Ahora lo que creo que est pasando es que las fuerzas de insurgencia evolucionan a travs del tiempo. Se adaptan. +Y resulta que slo hay una solucin para luchar contra un enemigo mucho ms fuerte. +Y si, como fuerza insurgente, no encuentras la solucin entonces no existes. +As que cada fuerza de insurgencia que sobrevive, cada conflicto que sigue activo, se va a parecer a algo como esto. +Y eso es lo que pensamos que est ocurriendo. +Llevndolo al futuro, cmo podemos cambiarlo? +Cmo podemos terminar una guerra como Irak? +A qu se parece? +Alfa es la estructura. Tiene un estado estable en 2,5. +As se ven las guerras que continan indefinidamente. +Tenemos que cambiar eso. +Podemos empujarlo hacia arriba. Las fuerzas se vuelven ms fragmentadas. Hay ms de ellas pero son ms dbiles. +O podemos empujarlo hacia abajo. Son ms robustas. Hay menos grupos. Pero quizs puedes sentarte y hablar con ellos. +As que les voy a ensear ahora este grfico de aqu. +Nadie ha visto esto antes. Esto es literalmente lo que terminamos durante la semana pasada. +Y vemos la evolucin de Alfa a travs del tiempo. +Lo vemos empezar. Y vemos como crece hasta estabilizarse del mismo modo que las otras guerras. +Y se mantiene ah durante la invasin de Faluya hasta el bombardeo de Samarra que ocurri en las elecciones iraques de 2006. +Y esto perturba el sistema. Se mueve hacia arriba a un estado fragmentado. +Esto es cuando aumentan las tropas. +Y dependiendo a quien le preguntes, el aumento de tropas supuestamente lo empujara incluso ms arriba. +Ocurri lo opuesto. +Los grupos se hicieron ms fuertes. +Se hicieron ms robustos. +As que pienso, eso es, bien, va a continuar bajando. +Podemos hablar con ellos. Podemos solucionarlo. Pero sucedi lo contrario. +Se movi hacia arriba de nuevo. Los grupos se fragmentaron. +Y esto me dice una de dos cosas: +O volvimos de vuelta a donde empezamos, y el aumento de tropas no tuvo efecto, o finalmente los grupos se han fragmentado lo suficiente para que podamos empezar a pensar en, tal vez, marcharnos. +No s cul es la respuesta a esto. +Pero s que deberamos observar la estructura de la insurgencia para responder a esta pregunta. +Gracias. +Lo que quiero hacer hoy es tomarme un tiempo para hablar acerca de algo que me ha causado un poco de ansiedad existencial, no encuentro una mejor palabra, en el ltimo par de aos. Bsicamente estas tres citas expresan lo qu pasa. +"Cuando Dios cre el color prpura, Dios estaba alardeando", escribi Alice Walker en "El color prpura" y Zora Neale Hurston escribi en "Dust Tracks On A Road" (Huellas de polvo en el camino): "la investigacin es una curiosidad formalizada. +Es hurgar y husmear con un propsito". +Finalmente, cuando pienso en el futuro prximo, saben, tenemos esta actitud de lo que ser, ser, cierto? +As que eso va con el Gato de Cheshire, que dice: "Si no te importa mucho a dnde quieres llegar, no importa mucho qu camino tomes". +Pero creo que s importa qu camino tomamos y por dnde nos vamos, porque cuando pienso en el diseo en el futuro prximo, en lo que pienso es en las cuestiones ms importantes; lo que es realmente crucial y vital es lo que necesitamos para revitalizar las artes y las ciencias ya mismo, en el 2002. +De algn modo, no logramos actuar en el futuro. Resueltamente, estamos siendo unos rezagados. +Nos estamos quedando atrs. +Frantz Fanon, un psiquiatra de la Martinica, dijo: "Cada generacin debe, de la relativa oscuridad, descubrir su misin y satisfacerla o traicionarla". +Cul es nuestra misin? Qu debemos hacer? Pienso que nuestra misin consiste en reconciliar, reintegrar la ciencia y las artes pues hoy existe un cisma en la cultura popular. Saben, la gente tiene la idea de que la ciencia y las artes son dos cosas distintas. +Los orientadores profesionales y otras personas tenemos la tendencia a decir cosas como: "los artistas nos son analticos. +Tal vez sean ingeniosos pero no analticos". Cuando estos conceptos son la base de nuestra enseanza y lo que pensamos del mundo, tenemos un problema pues obstaculizamos la ayuda para todo. +Al aceptar esta dicotoma, as sea en tono de burla, cuando intentamos acomodarlo en nuestro mundo e intentamos construir nuestra base para el mundo, estamos desbaratando el futuro pues, quin quiere ser poco creativo? +Quin quiere ser ilgico? +El talento provendra de uno de estos campos si tuviera que escoger uno. +Llegarn a un punto en donde piensan: "Bueno, puedo ser creativo y lgico al mismo tiempo". +Ahora bien, crec en los aos 60 y lo admito, de hecho mi niez abarc los aos 60, y quera ser hippy y siempre resent el hecho de que en realidad no era lo suficientemente vieja para ser hippy. +S que hay gente aqu, la generacin ms joven que quiere ser hippy, pero la gente habla de los aos 60 todo el tiempo, y hablan de la anarqua de la poca pero cuando pienso en los aos 60, lo que me qued fue que haba esperanza en el futuro. +Pensamos que todos podan participar. +Pero los aos 60 me dejaron un problema. +Siempre supuse que ira al espacio pues segu todo esto, pero tambin me gustaron las artes y las ciencias. +Cuando era nia y luego cuando era adolescente, me gustaba disear y hacer ropa para perros y quera ser diseadora de modas. +Estudi arte y cermica. Me encantaba bailar. +Lola Falana. Alvin Ailey. Jerome Robbins. +Tambin segu vidamente los programas Gminis y Apolo. +Tuve proyectos cientficos y le toneladas de libros de astronoma. Tambin tom cursos de clculo y filosofa. +Me haca preguntas acerca del infinito y de la teora del Big Bang. +Mi madre me ayud a tomar esa decisin. Pero cuando fui al espacio, llev varias cosas conmigo. Me llev un cartel de Alvin Ailey; ya se pueden dar cuenta, me encanta la compaa de danza. +Y yo responda, "Porque representan la creatividad humana, la creatividad que nos permite, que debemos tener para concebir, construir y lanzar la nave espacial, la creatividad que brota de la misma fuente que la imaginacin y el anlisis necesarios para esculpir la estatua Bundu. O el ingenio necesario para disear, y poner en escena la coreografa de "Cry". +Cada uno de ellos son manifestaciones, encarnaciones diferentes de la creatividad, avatares de la creatividad humana, y eso es lo que debemos reconciliar en nuestras mentes, cmo pueden estas cosas encajar juntas. +La diferencia entre las artes y las ciencias no es analtica versus intuitiva, cierto? +E=MC al cuadrado requera un salto intuitivo y entonces despus se tena que hacer el anlisis. +Einstein dijo, de hecho, "Lo ms bello que podemos experimentar es lo misterioso. +Es la fuente de todo arte y ciencia verdaderos". +La danza nos pide que expresemos y que queramos expresar el jbilo de la vida, pero luego Ud. debe averiguar, exactamente qu movimiento hago para asegurarme de que lo exprese de la manera correcta. +La diferencia entre las artes y las ciencias no es tampoco constructiva versus deconstructiva, cierto? Mucha gente piensa en las ciencias como deconstructivas. +Se desbaratan las cosas. +S, la fsica subatmica es deconstructiva. Literalmente se intenta despedazar los tomos para entender lo que hay dentro de ellos. Pero la escultura, por lo que entiendo de los grandes escultores, es deconstructiva pues usted ve una pieza y quita lo que no tiene que estar all. +La biotecnologa es constructiva. +Los arreglos orquestales son constructivos. +As que de hecho, usamos tcnicas constructivas y deconstructivas para todo. +La diferencia entre ciencia y las artes no es que sean diferentes lados de una misma moneda, o an partes diferentes del mismo continuo, sino ms bien manifestaciones de lo mismo. +Son diferentes estados cunticos de un tomo? +Tal vez, si quiero estar ms acorde con el siglo XXI, podra decir que son diferentes resonancias harmnicas de una supercuerda. +Pero dejemos eso. Surgen de la misma fuente. +Las artes y las ciencias son avatares de la creatividad humana. Es nuestro intento como humanos por construir un entendimiento del universo, del mundo a nuestro alrededor. +Es nuestro intento por influenciar las cosas, nuestro universo interno y externo. +Las ciencias, para m, son manifestaciones de nuestro esfuerzo por expresar o compartir nuestro entendimiento, nuestra experiencia, influir en el universo externo a nosotros. +No requiere de nosotros como individuos. +Es el universo, tal como todos lo perciben, y las artes manifiestan nuestro deseo, nuestro intento por compartir o influenciar a otros a travs de las experiencias que son particulares a nosotros como individuos. +Djenme decirlo otra vez, de otra manera; la ciencia proporciona un entendimiento de una experiencia universal y la artes proporcionan un entendimiento universal de una experiencia personal. +Eso es lo que tenemos que pensar, que son parte de nosotros, son parte de un continuo. +No son solo las herramientas, no son solo las ciencias, es decir, las matemticas y la parte numrica y la estadstica, pues omos bastante sobre esta etapa; la gente deca que la msica era matemtica, cierto? El arte no es solo usar arcilla; los artistas no son los nicos que usan arcilla, luz, sonido y movimiento. +Tambin usan el anlisis. +As que la gente puede decir, bueno, todava estoy de acuerdo con lo intuitivo versus lo analtico porque todo el mundo quiere hablar del hemisferio derecho e izquierdo del cerebro, cierto? +A todos se nos ha acusado de usar ms el lado derecho o el lado izquierdo del cerebro en algn momento dependiendo de quin no est de acuerdo con nosotros. La gente dice que lo intuitivo es estar en contacto con la naturaleza, en contacto con usted mismo y sus relaciones. +Y lo analtico es poner la mente a trabajar. Les voy a contar un pequeo secreto. Todos ustedes ya saben esto, pero algunas veces la gente usa esta idea del anlisis, que las cosas estn fuera de nosotros, para decir que esto es lo que vamos a elevar como la verdad, las ciencias son lo ms importante, cierto? +Pero tambin estn los artistas y todos saben que esto tambin es verdad. Los artistas dirn cosas de los cientficos porque dicen que son muy concretos, que no estn conectados con el mundo. +Sin embargo, hemos visto eso inclusive aqu en escena, as que no pretendan que no saben de lo que hablo. Hemos tenido gente aqu que habla de la Sociedad de la Tierra Plana y gente que hace arreglos florales. As que existe toda esta dicotoma que an cargamos con nosotros, an cuando sepamos ms. +Y algunas personas creen que tenemos que elegir entre ambos. +Pero no tendra sentido escoger uno u otro, cierto? +Lo intuitivo versus lo analtico? +Es una eleccin tonta, es como tratar de escoger entre ser realista e idealista. +Los dos son necesarios en la vida. Por qu la gente hace esto? Voy a citar a un bilogo molecular, Sydney Brenner, que tiene 70 aos y puede decir esto. Dijo: "Es importante distinguir entre la castidad y la impotencia". +Ahora bien... Quiero compartir con ustedes una pequea ecuacin, bueno? +Cmo el entendimiento de la ciencia y del arte encaja en nuestras vidas? Y qu es lo que ocurre y de lo que estamos hablando hoy en la conferencia de diseo? Esto es algo que se me ocurri: el entendimiento y nuestros recursos y nuestra voluntad hacen que tengamos resultados. +Nuestro entendimiento es nuestra ciencia, nuestro arte, nuestra religin, la manera cmo vemos el universo alrededor, nuestros recursos, nuestro dinero, nuestro trabajo, minerales, todas esas cosas que hay en el mundo con las que tenemos que trabajar. +Pero lo ms importante es nuestra voluntad. +Esta es nuestra visin, nuestras aspiraciones del futuro, nuestras esperanzas, nuestros sueos, nuestras luchas y nuestros temores. +Nuestros xitos y fracasos afectan lo que hacemos con todos ellos, y para m, el diseo y la ingeniera, la artesana y el trabajo calificado son todas las cosas que funcionan para obtener nuestro resultado, que es nuestra calidad humana de vida. +En dnde queremos que est el mundo? +Y adivinen qu? +Sin importar cmo miremos esto, si pensamos que las artes y las ciencias estn separadas o son distintas, ambas estn siendo afectadas en este momento y ambas estn teniendo problemas. +Llev a cabo un proyecto llamado S.E.E.ing in the Future: Science, Engineering and Education (Viendo hacia el futuro: ciencias, ingeniera y educacin) acerca de cmo usar de manera ms efectiva los fondos gubernamentales. +Tenemos un grupo de cientficos en distintos niveles en sus profesiones. Llegaron a Dartmouth College, en donde yo enseaba, y hablaron con telogos y financistas de algunos problemas de la financiacin pblica para la investigacin de la ingeniera y la ciencia. Qu es lo ms importante de esto? +Est la llamada pseudociencia, los crculos de cosechas, la autopsia aliengena, las casas embrujadas, o los desastres. Eso es lo que vemos. +Esa no es realmente la informacin que uno necesita para funcionar en el da a da y para darse cuenta de cmo participar en esta democracia y saber lo que ocurre. +La educacin no est a la altura. +De preescolar al ltimo grado de bachillerato, los estudiantes no toman laboratorios hmedos. Piensan que si ponemos un computador en la habitacin, este va a reemplazar a la realidad. Mezclamos los cidos y cultivamos papas. +El financiamiento del gobierno disminuye y luego dicen "hagamos que las corporaciones asuman la financiacin, y eso no es verdad. La ayuda del gobierno por lo menos debera hacer cosas como reconocer el costo-beneficio de la investigacin bsica de la ciencia y la ingeniera. Tenemos que saber que tenemos una responsabilidad como ciudadanos mundiales. +La infraestructura de museos, teatros, salas de cine en todo el pas est desapareciendo. Hay menos para ver en televisin, hemos gastado ms dinero reescribiendo viejos programas de televisin para el cine. +Hoy tenemos financiacin corporativa que, cuando va a alguna compaa, cuando apoya a las artes, casi que es necesario que el producto sea parte de la pintura que el artista pinte. Tenemos estadios que las corporaciones nombran una y otra vez. +En Houston, tratamos de averiguar qu hacer respecto al asunto del estadio Enron. +Las bellas artes y la educacin estn desapareciendo en las escuelas. Tenemos un gobierno que parece extraerle las vsceras a la Fundacin Nacional de las Artes y a otros programas. As que tenemos que ponernos a pensar, qu es lo que intentamos hacer con las ciencias y las artes? +Hay necesidad de revitalizarlas. +Tenemos que prestar atencin a esto. Solo quiero contarles rpidamente lo que estoy haciendo. +Quiero contarles lo que he estado haciendo desde... que siento esta necesidad de integrar algunas de las ideas que he tenido y con las que me he encontrado a lo largo del tiempo. +Luego fui a la facultad de medicina y se supona que deba seguir lo que la mquina deca acerca de los cuerpos. +Saben, yo le haca preguntas a los pacientes y algunas personas me decan: "No, no, no le pongas atencin a lo que los pacientes dicen". Sabemos que los pacientes conocen y entienden sus cuerpos mejor pero actualmente tratamos de separarlos de esa idea. Debemos reconciliar el conocimiento que el paciente tiene de su cuerpo con las mediciones del mdico. +Tuvimos a alguien que habl de medir las emociones y conseguir mquinas para averiguar qu? Para evitar que nos volvamos locos, cierto? +No, no debemos medir, no debemos usar mquinas para medir la furia de la carretera y hacer algo para no tenerla. +Tal vez tengamos mquinas que nos ayuden a reconocer que tenemos ira de carretera y luego haya que saber cmo controlarla sin mquinas. Inclusive tenemos que ser capaces de reconocer eso sin mquinas +Lo que me preocupa de verdad es cmo reafirmamos nuestra auto consciencia como humanos, como organismos biolgicos? +Michael Moschen habl de tener que ensear y aprender cmo sentir con los ojos y ver con las manos. +Tenemos toda clase de posibilidades para usar nuestros sentidos, y eso es lo que tenemos que hacer. +Eso es lo que quiero hacer: tratar de usar la bioinstrumentacin, esas cosas para ayudar a los sentidos en lo que hacemos. Ese es el trabajo que he estado haciendo como una compaa llamada Corporacin BioSentient. +Le hago propaganda porque soy una empresaria; porque el empresario dice que es alguien que hace lo que quiere hacer porque tiene suficiente dinero como para no tener un trabajo de verdad. +Pero ese es el trabajo que hago con la Corporacin BioSentinent, intento averiguar cmo integrar estas cosas. +Djenme terminar diciendo que mi propsito personal de diseo para el futuro es integrar, pensar en lo intuitivo y en lo analtico. +Las artes y las ciencias no estn separadas. +Una leccin de fsica de secundaria antes de que se vayan. Los maestros de fsica de secundaria solan levantar una pelota y decan que esa pelota tena energa potencial. Pero nada le suceda; no poda hacer ningn trabajo hasta que la dejaban caer y cambiaba de estado. +Me gusta pensar que las ideas son energa potencial. +Son realmente maravillosas pero nada ocurrir hasta que nos arriesguemos a llevarlas a la prctica. +Esta conferencia est llena de ideas maravillosas. +Vamos a compartir muchas cosas con la gente pero nada suceder hasta que nos arriesguemos a llevar las ideas a la accin. +Hay que revitalizar las artes y las ciencias de hoy; hay que responsabilizarse del futuro. No podemos escondernos y decir es solo para el beneficio de la compaa, o es simplemente un negocio, o soy un artista o un acadmico. +Es as como usted juzga lo que hace. +Habl del balance entre lo intuitivo y lo analtico. +Fran Lebowitz, mi cnico favorito, hizo las tres preguntas ms importantes; ahora voy a agregar el diseo; estas son: "Es atractivo?" +Es intuitivo. +"Es divertido?" Es analtico. +"Y conoce su lugar?" +El equilibrio. Muchas gracias. +Esta es la escultura que hice y que es una manera de, digamos, liberar una forma dentro de un objeto que tiene diferentes grados de libertad. +As, puede balancearse en un punto. +Esta es una bola de bronce, con un brazo de aluminio aqu, y luego tiene este disco de madera. +El disco de madera realmente fue pensado como algo asible, fcilmente deslizable entre las manos. +El aluminio se us porque es muy liviano. +El bronce es un material particularmente fuerte y durable que podra rodar por el piso. +Dentro de la bola de bronce hay una plomada que se balancea libremente sobre un eje que est entre dos rulemanes que pasa entre medio, a travs, y de este modo hace contrapeso. +Entonces le permite rodar. +Y la esfera conserva ese equilibrio que siempre permanece inmvil y se ve igual desde cualquier direccin. +Pero al ponerle algo encima se desbalancea y podra volcarse. +Y en este caso, dado que el interior se balancea libremente respecto de la esfera, puede pararse sobre un punto. +Y luego existe un segundo nivel en este objeto que consiste en -- yo quera que expresara unas proporciones que me interesaban, como son el dimetro de la Luna y el dimetro de la Tierra, uno en proporcin al otro. +Estuve explorando, desde el principio, queriendo hacer que las cosas floten por el aire. +Se me ocurrieron muchas ideas. +Esta escultura que hice -- levita mediante imanes. +El tema es que es un poco peligrosa. +Por lo general se la acordona al ser exhibida en museos. +Pero es, eh -- veamos si puedo manipularla un poquito sin, mmm epa! +Simplemente est flotando, flotando en un campo magntico constante, que la estabiliza en todas direcciones. +Salvo que tiene una ligera atadura por aqu que le impide traspasar la cima de su campo. +Es como surfear un campo magntico en la cresta de una ola. +Y eso es lo que sujeta al objeto y lo mantiene estable. +Pienso que podramos pasar la cinta, admin. +Tengo una especie de coleccin de videos que hice en distintas instalaciones de los que podra contarles. +Esta es una escultura del Sol y la Tierra, en proporcin, +que representa esos ocho minutos y medio que le lleva a la luz y a la gravedad conectar a ambos. +Entonces, esta es la Tierra. Fue torneada en bronce slido de poco menos de un milmetro. +Y aqu hay una escultura similar. +En esa punta est el Sol. +Y luego en una serie de 55 bolas se reduce, proporcionalmente, cada bola y el espacio entre ellas, se reduce proporcionalmente hasta que llega a esta pequea Tierra. +Esto est en un parque escultrico de Taejon. +Esta es sobre la Luna, y sobre su distancia a la Tierra, tambin en forma proporcional. +Esta es una bolita de piedra, flotando. +Como pueden ver, la pequea atadura tambin est levitando magnticamente. +Y luego sta es la primera parte de -- son 109 esferas porque el Sol es 109 veces el dimetro de la Tierra. +Y entonces este es el tamao del Sol +Y, entonces, cada una de estas esferitas es del tamao de la Tierra en proporcin al Sol. +Est constituida por 16 armazones concntricos. Cada uno tiene 92 esferas. +Este es el patio de un alquimista del siglo doce. +Estaba pensando en el Sol como una especie de supremo alquimista. Entonces esto, de nuevo, es sobre este tema -- un corte por el ecuador de la Tierra. +Y, entonces, con la Luna en el centro. Est flotando. Esto es en Francia. +Esto es en Sapporo. +Se balancea sobre un eje y una bola, justo en el centro de gravedad, o ligeramente por encima del centro, lo que significa que la mitad inferior del objeto es apenas un poquito ms pesada. +Aqu pueden verla rotando. +Pesa una tonelada o un poco ms. +Est hecha de acero inoxidable, bastante gruesa. +Pero se balancea como en equilibrio. +Se mueve a merced de las corrientes de aire. +Este es otra clase de trabajo que hago. +Son estas instalaciones. Todas estas esferas estn suspendidas. Pero dentro tienen imanes horizontales que las convierten en una especie de brjula. +As todos los lados rojos, por ejemplo, apuntan en direccin sur. +Y el lado azul, el complemento, apunta hacia el otro lado. +As que a medida que uno gira ve colores diferentes. +Esta est basada en la estructura de un diamante. +La estructura de una clula de diamante fue el punto de partida. +Y entonces haba grandes espacios en los huecos entre los tomos. +Y as, coloqu un elemento ms dentro de cada uno de ellos. +Estas eran esferas blancas. +Despus dispuse proyectores de video que proyectaban de manera intermitente sobre las esferas. +De manera que stas capturaban parte de las imgenes y esto produca volmenes cromticos tridimensionales a medida que uno pasaba por all, en medio de los objetos. +Esto es algo que hice para un sistema de comunicacin tctil. +La idea era aislar el componente tctil de una escultura y luego ponerlo en un sistema de comunicacin. +Es la idea de mover una escultura, una bola, que pueda ser direccionada por la sala mediante una computadora. +Este es un reloj que dise. +Aqu tiene el mapa dymaxion de Buckminster Fuller. +Da una vuelta al da en sincrona con la Tierra. +Y, despus, este es uno de esos proyectos difciles de construir. +Este tiene un lago "adiamantado". +Entonces, es una isla flotante con agua, agua fresca, que puede volar de un lugar a otro. +Esto se dar, supongo, con la nanotecnologa en el futuro, en algn momento. +A lo largo de mi trabajo he tenido una amplia gama de intereses. +Como por ejemplo la idea de crear medios -- medios como esculturas, algo que mantenga a la escultura como algo fresco, siempre cambiante, simplemente creando los medios con los que est hecha la escultura. +Y tuve muchos -- siempre interesado en el concepto de una bola de cristal. +Y la idea de ver cosas dentro de la bola de cristal y predecir el futuro -- o de un televisor, una especie de caja mgica, donde puede aparecer cualquier cosa. +Estaba pensando en la produccin masiva de televisores esfricos que pudieran conectar con cmaras de satlite orbitales. +Entonces, si podemos pasar la prxima pelcula. +Esto ha evolucionado con los aos en muchas iteraciones diferentes. +Pero esta es la versin actual, es un dirigible de alrededor de 35 metros de dimetro, cerca de 110 pies de dimetro. +La superficie completa est cubierta de 60 millones de diodos rojos, azules y verdes, que permiten obtener imgenes en alta resolucin visibles a la luz del da. +Vine con un plan. +Lo present a la compaa AeroVironment de Paul MacCready para un estudio de viabilidad y ellos lo analizaron y de all surgieron muchas ideas innovadoras sobre cmo propulsarlo. +De modo que tena un plan fsico para hacerlo funcionar. +Esta es la sala de control del interior de la nave. +La idea de este Air Genie, es algo que puede transformarse y llegar a ser algo. +Es como un espectculo ambulante. +Tiene altavoces a bordo y cmaras en la superficie. +De modo que puede ver su medio ambiente y luego camuflarse y desaparecer. +Aqu se estn retrayendo las patas. +La cabina se abre o cierra a voluntad. +Pesa cerca de 20 toneladas. +Tiene generadores a bordo. +Puede generar cerca de un milln de kilovatios para ser lo suficientemente brillante para ser visible a la luz del da. +La idea es representar una suerte de espectculo ambulante. +Estara dedicado, en verdad, a las artes y la interaccin. +Habra a bordo un elenco de artistas y msicos. Eso le permitira llegar a ser una especie de objeto consciente que respondera al momento e interactuara como una entidad consciente, capaz de comunicar. +Completamente silencioso y no contaminante, +tendra motores elctricos con un sistema de propulsin novedoso. +Podra interactuar con grandes muchedumbres de distintas maneras. +Principalmente me interesara el modo de interaccin, digamos, yendo a un campus universitario y, entonces, se usara como medio para hablar sobre las ciencias de la Tierra, sobre el mundo y la situacin mundial. +La imagen por omisin del objeto sera probablemente la de la Tierra, en alta definicin. +Pero sera una imagen con la que podramos interactuar, que nos mostrara placas tectnicas o temas de calentamiento global o migratorios- todas las cosas que hoy en da nos preocupan. +Y por las noches la idea es que pueda usarse como en un rave, donde la gente pueda divertirse, con msica, luces y todo. +As, podra aterrizar en un parque, por ejemplo. +O esto podra representar un College Green. +Y entonces tendra el sitio web correspondiente que mostrara su itinerario. +Y, as, interactuando con la misma clase de imgenes. +Tambin podra ser de cdigo abierto de modo que la gente pudiera interactuar con l. +Sera un foro para las ideas de la gente sobre lo que les gustara ver en una pantalla gigante de este tipo. +Bueno, esa es ms o menos la idea. +OK. Gracias. +No soy una cocinera en absoluto. +As que no teman, esto no va a ser una demostracin de cocina. +Pero s quiero hablarles de algo que creo es muy querido para todos nosotros. +Y esto es el pan -- algo que es tan simple como nuestro alimento diario humano ms bsico y fundamental. +Y creo que pocos de nosotros pasa el da sin comer pan en alguna forma. +A menos que ests en una de esas dietas Californianas bajas en carbohidratos, el pan es habitual. +El pan no es slo habitual en la dieta occidental. +Como voy a mostrarles, es ciertamente el sustento de la vida moderna. +As que voy a hornear pan para ustedes. +Mientras tanto, tambin les estoy hablando. Por lo que mi vida va a ser complicada. Tnganme paciencia. +Primero que nada, un poco de participacin de la audiencia. +Tengo dos panes de molde aqu. +Uno es uno stndard del supermercado. pan blanco, pre-envasado, que me han dicho que se llama "Pan-maravilla". +No conoca esa palabra hasta que llegu. +Y ste es ms o menos, un pan de harina integral, artesanal, de una pequea panadera. +Aqu vamos. Quiero ver sus manos. +Quin prefiere el pan integral? +Okey, hagmoslo de otra manera. No hay nadie que prefiera el "Pan-maravilla"? +Tengo dos manos masculinas dudosas. +Okey, ahora, la pregunta es realmente, Por qu sucede esto? +Y creo que es porque sentimos que esta clase de pan se trata de algo autntico. +Trata de una manera de vivir tradicional. +Una manera que es, quizs, ms real, ms honesta. +Esta es una imagen de Toscana, donde sentimos que la agricultura se trata todava de la belleza. +Y la vida tambin lo es, realmente. +Y esto tiene que ver con el buen gusto, las buenas tradiciones. +Por qu tenemos esta imagen? +Por qu creemos que esto es ms real que esto? +Bueno, creo que esto tiene mucho que ver con nuestra historia. +En los diez mil aos desde que la agricultura evolucion, la mayora de nuestros ancestros han sido justamente agricultores o han estado estrechamente relacionados con la produccin de comida. +Y tenemos esta imagen mstica sobre cmo era la vida en las reas rurales en el pasado. +El arte nos ha ayudado a mantener ese tipo de imagen. +Fue un pasado mtico. +Por supuesto, la realidad es bastante diferente. +Estos pobres granjeros trabajando la tierra a mano o con sus animales, tenan niveles de rendimiento comparables a los granjeros ms pobres del Africa occidental hoy. +Pero hemos, de alguna manera, durante el curso de los ltimos siglos, o quizs dcadas, comenzado a cultivar la imagen de un pasado rural, agrcola mtico. +Fue hace slo 200 aos que tuvimos el advenimiento de la Revolucin Industrial. +Y mientras estoy comenzando a hacer pan para ustedes aqu, es muy importante entender lo que la revolucin nos ha hecho. +Nos trajo electricidad. Nos trajo mecanizacin, fertilizantes. +Y ciertamente hizo subir nuestros rendimientos. +E incluso cosas un poco horribles, como cosechar judas con la mano, puede ahora ser realizado automticamente. +Todo ello es una real y gran mejora, como podremos ver. +Por supuesto tambin, en particular en la ltima dcada, nos lo hemos arreglado para envolver al mundo en una densa cadena de supermercados, en una cadena de comercio global. +Y eso significa que ahora comes productos, que pueden llegar desde todo el mundo. +Esta es la realidad de nuestra vida moderna. +Ahora quizs prefieran esta pieza de pan. +Disculpen mis manos, pero as es como es. +Pero ciertamente, el pan realmente relevante, histricamente, es el pan blanco Maravilla. +Y no desprecien al pan blanco porque, creo que, realmente simboliza el hecho de que el pan y la comida se han vuelto abundantes y accesibles para todos. +Y esa es una caracterstica de la que no somos verdaderamente muy concientes. +Pero ha cambiado al mundo. +Este pequeo pan que es un poco desabrido en algunos aspectos y que tiene muchos problemas ha cambiado al mundo. +Entonces, qu est pasando? +Bueno, la mejor manera de verlo es hacer un poquito de estadsticas simplistas. +Con el advenimiento de la Revolucin Industrial con la modernizacin de la agricultura en las ltimas dcadas, desde los aos 60, la comida disponible, per cabeza, en este mundo, se ha incrementado en un 25 porciento. +Y la poblacin mundial mientras tanto se ha duplicado. +Esto significa que tenemos ahora ms comida disponible que nunca antes en la historia humana. +Y eso es el resultado, directo, de ser tan exitosos en el incremento de la escala y volumen de nuestra produccin. +Y esto es verdad, como pueden ver, para todos los pases, incluyendo los llamados 'pases en desarrollo'. +Qu pas con nuestro pan mientras tanto? +A medida que la comida se volvi abundante aqu, tambin signific que pudimos bajar el nmero de personas trabajando en agricultura a algo como, en promedio, en los pases de altos ingresos, el 5 porciento o menos, de la poblacin. +En los Estados Unidos, slo el 1% de la poblacin son granjeros. +Y nos libera a todos para hacer otras cosas -- sentarnos en las conferencias de TED y no preocuparnos por nuestra comida. +Esto es, histricamente, una situacin nica. +Nunca antes la responsabilidad de alimentar al mundo ha estado en manos de tan poca gente. +Y nunca antes tanta gente se ha olvidado de este hecho. +Entonces, a medida que la comida se volvi ms abundante, el pan se hizo ms barato. +A medida que se abarat, los productores de pan decidieron agregarle todas clases de cosas. +Le agregamos ms azucar. +Le agregamos pasas de uva y aceite y leche, y todo tipo de cosas para convertir al pan, de una comida simple, en una especie de provisin de caloras. +Y hoy, el pan est asociado a la obesidad, lo cual es muy extrao. +Es la comida bsica, ms fundamental que hemos tenido en los ltimos diez mil aos. +El trigo es el cultivo ms importante -- el primer cereal domesticado y el cereal ms importante que seguimos sembrando todava hoy. +Pero ahora est esta extraa mezcla de altas caloras. +Y esto no es slo cierto en nuestro pas, es una verdad alrededor del mundo. +El pan ha migrado a pases tropicales donde las clases medias hoy comen panecillos y hamburguesas y donde la gente cuando viaja encuentra el pan mucho ms cmodo para usar que el arroz o la mandioca. +As que el pan se ha convertido de un alimento primario, en una fuente de caloras asociado a la obesidad y tambin una fuente de modernidad, de la vida moderna. +Y cuanto ms blanco el pan, en mucho pases, mejor es. +As que esta es la historia del pan como lo conocemos hoy. +Pero por supuesto, el precio de la produccin masiva ha sido que nos volvimos gran-escala. +Y la gran-escala ha significado la destruccin de muchos de nuestros paisajes, destruccin de la biodiversidad -- todava un solitario em aqu en los campos brasileros de soja . +Los costos han sido tremendos -- contaminacin del agua, todas las cosas que ya saben, destruccin de nuestros hbitats. +Lo que necesitamos es volver al entendimiento sobre lo que es nuestra comida +Y aqu es donde debo consultarles a todos ustedes. +Cuntos de ustedes puede ciertamente distinguir al trigo de otros cereales? +Cuntos de ustedes puede realmente hacer pan de esta forma, sin comenzar con una mquina de pan o algn tipo de saborizante envasado? +Pueden hacer pan? Saben cunto cuesta verdaderamente una pieza de pan? +Nos hemos alejado mucho de lo que nuestro pan en verdad es, lo cual, repito, vindolo desde la evolucin es muy extrao. +De hecho, no muchos de ustedes saben que nuestro pan, por supuesto, no fue una invencin europea. +Fue inventado por los granjeros en Iraq y Siria en particular. +Ese pequeo brote a la izquierda hacia el centro es ciertamente el antepasado del trigo. +Eso es de donde todo proviene. Y de donde estos granjeros quienes ciertamente hace diez mil aos nos pusieron en el camino del pan. +Ahora no es sorprendente que con esta masificacin y produccin a gran escala, haya un movimiento opositor que emergi -- muy por aqu tambin en California. +El contra-movimiento dice: "Volvamos a esto. +Volvamos a la granja tradicional. +Volvamos a la pequea escala, a los mercados de granjeros, pequeas panaderas y todo esto. Maravilloso. +No estamos todos de acuerdo? Yo ciertamente lo estoy. +Me encantara volver a Toscana a esta clase de escenario tradicional, gastronoma, buena comida. +Pero esto es una falacia. +Y la falacia proviene de idealizar un pasado del que nos hemos olvidado. +Si hacemos esto, si queremos quedarnos con la granja tradicional de pequea escala vamos a, verdaderamente, relegar a estos pobres granjeras y sus esposos, entre quienes he vivido por muchos aos, trabajando sin electricidad ni agua, a tratar de mejorar su produccin de alimento. Los relegamos a la pobreza. +Lo que ellos quieren son elementos para incrementar su produccin -- algo para fertilizar la tierra, algo para protejer sus cultivos y llevarlos al mercado. +No podemos pensar que la pequea escala es la solucin al problema de los alimentos en el mundo. +Es una solucin de lujo para los que pueden permitrselo si lo quieren. +De hecho no queremos que esta pobre mujer trabaje la tierra as. +Si decimos slo produccin a pequea escala, como es la tendencia aqu, volver a la comida local significa que un pobre hombre como Hans Rosling no podr comer naranjas nunca ms porque en Escandinavia no tenemos naranjas. +As que la produccin de comida local est exclusa. +Pero tampoco no queremos relegar a la pobreza a las reas rurales. +Y no queremos relegar a la urbe pobre a la inanicin. +As que tenemos que encontrar otras soluciones. +Uno de nuestros problemas es que la produccin mundial de alimentos debe incrementarse muy rpidamente -- duplicndose hacia el 2030. +El principal mvil de esto es en verdad la carne. +Y el consumo de carne en el Sudeste Asitico y China en particular es lo que mueve el precio del cereal. +Esa necesidad de protena animal continuar. +Podemos discutir alternativas en otra charla, quizs algn da. Pero esta es nuestra fuerza movilizante. +Entonces, qu podemos hacer? +Podemos encontrar una solucin para producir ms? +S. Pero necesitamos mecanizacin. +Y estoy haciendo un real alegato aqu. +Lo siento de manera tan fuerte que no se le puede pedir a un pequeo granjero que trabaje la tierra y se doble para hacer crecer una hectrea de arroz, 150 mil veces, slo para plantar un cultivo y desmalezarlo. +No puedes pedirle a la gente que trabaje en estas condiciones. +Necesitamos mecanizacin inteligente, de bajo perfil que evite los problemas de la mecanizacin a gran escala que hemos tenido. +Entonces, qu podemos hacer? +Debemos alimentar a tres billones de personas en las ciudades. +Y no podremos lograrlo a travs de los mercados de pequeos granjeros porque esa gente no tiene mercados de pequeos granjeros a su disposicin. +Tienen bajos ingresos. Y se benefician de comida barata, accesible, segura y diversa. +Esto es a lo que debemos apuntar en los prximos 20 o 30 aos. +Pero, s, hay algunas soluciones. +Y permtanme hacer algo conceptual simple: si yo pongo a la ciencia como un indicador. para controlar los procesos y escala de la produccin. +Lo que ven es que hemos empezado en el costado izquierdo con la agricultura tradicional, que era de alguna forma de pequea escala y bajo control. +Y nos hemos movido hacia la gran escala y el muy alto control. +Lo que quiero que hagamos es mantener la ciencia y meter an ms ciencia aqu pero ir una a escala regional -- no slo en trminos de la escala de los campos, pero en trminos de la entera red de alimentos. +All debemos dirigirnos. +Y lo ms avanzado sera, pero no se aplica a los cereales, que tengamos ecosistemas enteramente cerrados -- los sistemas hortcolas all arriba al costado izquierdo. +As que tenemos que pensar de manera diferente sobre la ciencia agrcola. +La ciencia agrcola para la mayora de la gente, y no hay muchos granjeros entre ustedes aqu, tiene la etiqueta de ser mala, de significar contaminacin, gran escala, destruccin de nuestro medio ambiente. +Esto no es necesario. +Necesitamos ms ciencia y no menos. Y necesitamos ms ciencia buena. +Entonces, qu tipo de ciencia podemos tener? +Bueno, primero que nada, creo, que podemos tener mejores resultados con las tecnologas existentes. +Usar biotecnologa donde es til, particularmente en la resistencia a los pesticidas y enfermedades. +Tambin hay robots, por ejemplo, que pueden reconocer malezas con una resolucin de media pulgada. +Tenemos una irrigacin mucho ms inteligente. +No tenemos que derramar el agua si no lo queremos. +Y tenemos que pensar muy desapasionadamente sobre las ventajas comparativas entre la pequea y la gran escala. +Debemos pensar que la tierra es multifuncional. +Tiene diferentes funciones. +Hay diferentes maneras en las que debemos usarla -- para fines de vivienda, naturales, agrcolas. +Y tambin debemos re-examinar el ganado. +Entonces volvamos a sistemas de alimentos urbanos y regionales. +Quiero ver estanques con peces en los estacionamientos y stanos. +Quiero tener horticultura e invernaderos en los pisos altos de las reas residenciales. +Y quiero usar la energa que provenga de esos invernaderos y de la fermentacin de cultivos para calentar nuestras reas residenciales. +Hay muchas formas en que podemos hacer esto. +No solucionemos el problema mundial de alimentos usando agricultura biolgica. +Pero podemos hacer mucho ms. +Y la cosa ms importante que querra pedirles a todos ustedes cuando vuelvan a sus pases, o se queden aqu, es que pidan a sus gobiernos una poltica integral de alimentos. +La comida es tan importante como la energa, como la seguridad, como el medio ambiente. +Todo esta relacionado. +As que podemos hacer esto. De hecho, en un pas densamente poblado como el Ro Rin, donde vivo en Holanda, hemos combinado estas funciones. +As que esto no es ciencia ficcin. Podemos combinar funciones an con un sentido social, haciendo las reas rurales ms accesible para la gente -- para albergar, por ejemplo, a los enfermos crnicos. +Hay muchas cosas de todo tipo que podemos hacer. +Pero hay algo que ustedes deben hacer. No es suficiente para mi con decir, "Pongmosle ms ciencia innovadora a la agricultura." +Ustedes deben volver, y pensar sobre su propia cadena alimenticia. +Hablen con los granjeros. Cundo ha sido la ltima vez que han ido a una granja y han hablado con un granjero? +Hablen con la gente en los restaurantes. +Entiendan dnde estn ustedes en la cadena alimenticia, de dnde proviene su comida. +Entiendan que ustedes son parte de esta cadena enorme de eventos. +Y que esto los libera para hacer otras cosas. +Y por sobre todo, para m, el alimento se trata de respeto. +Se trata de entender, mientras comes, que hay tambin mucha gente que est todava en esta situacin, que estn todava luchando por su comida a diario. +Y el tipo de soluciones simplistas que a veces tenemos, el pensar que hacer todo a mano va a ser la solucin, no est realmente moralmente justificado. +Debemos ayudarlos a elevarse por encima de la pobreza. +Necesitamos hacerles sentir orgullosos de ser granjeros porque ellos nos permiten sobrevivir. +Nunca antes, como dije, la responsabilidad por la alimentacin ha estado en manos de tan pocos. +Y nunca antes hemos tenido el lujo de darlo por sentado porque es ahora tan barato. +Y creo que no hay nadie ms que haya expresado mejor, para m, la idea de que la comida, al final, en nuestra propia tradicin, es algo sagrado. +No se trata de nutrientes y calorias. +Es compartir. Es honestidad. Es identidad. +Quien dijo esto de manera tan hermosa fue Mahatma Gandhi, hace 75 aos, cuando habl sobre el pan. +El no habl sobre el arroz. En India l dijo, "Para aquellos que la pasan sin dos comidas al da, Dios slo puede aparecer como pan." +Y as mientras estoy terminando mi pan aqu -- y he estado hornandolo. Y tratar de no quemarme las manos. +Djenme compartir con ustedes aqu en la primera fila. +Djenme compartir algo de alimento con ustedes. +Tomen algo de mi pan. +Y mientras lo comen, y mientras lo prueban -- por favor vengan y levntense. +Tomen un trozo de l. +Quiero que piensen que cada bocado los conecta con el pasado y el futuro, con estos granjeros annimos, con esa primera especie, las primeras variedades de trigo, y con los granjeros hoy en da, que han estado haciendo esto. Y ustedes ni siquiera saben quines son. +Cada comida que comen contiene ingredientes de todo el mundo. +Todo nos hace tan privilegiados, que podamos comer esta comida, que no luchamos cada da. +Y eso, creo, desde el punto de vista de la evolucin, es nico. +No hemos vivido asi nunca antes. +As que, disfruten su pan. +Cmanlo, y sintanse privilegiados. +Muchas Gracias. +A veces me invitan a dar charlas extraas. +Por ejemplo, me invitaron a dar una charla para personas que se disfrazan con disfraces de animales de peluche para animar eventos deportivos +Desgraciadamente no pude ir. +Pero esto me hizo pensar en el hecho que estas personas, al menos la mayora, saben con claridad qu es lo que hacen para ganarse la vida. +Lo que hacen es disfrazarse de animales para entretener a las personas en eventos deportivos. +Poco tiempo despus me invitaron para hablar en una convencin de gente que hace animales con globos. +Nuevamente, no pude ir. Pero es un grupo fascinante. Hacen animales con globos. +Hay una gran tensin entre los que hacen animales religiosos y animales porno... ... pero hacen cosas muy interesantes con los globos. +A veces se meten en problemas, pero no ocurre con frecuencia. +Otra cosa sobre este grupo de gente es que ellos tambin saben con claridad qu hacen para ganarse la vida. +Ellos hacen animales con globos. +Pero, qu hacemos nosotros para ganarnos la vida? +Qu es exactamente lo que hacen a diario las personas que ven esto? +Y quiero sugerir que lo que hacemos es tratar de cambiarlo todo. +Quiero sugerir que tratamos de encontrar algo en el status quo algo que nos molesta, algo que debe mejorarse, Algo que quiere cambiarse, y lo cambiamos. +Tratamos de hacer cambios grandes, permanentes e importantes +Pero no pensamos en ello de esa manera. +Y tampoco pasamos mucho tiempo hablando sobre cmo es el proceso +Yo lo he estudiado durante unos cuantos aos +y quisiera compartir unas historias con Uds. hoy. +La primera es sobre un hombre llamado Nathan Winograd. +Nathan era la segunda persona en el "SPCA" de San Francisco +Y lo que posiblemente no sepan de la historia del "SPCA" es que se fund para matar perros y gatos. +Las ciudades les daban los permisos para deshacerse de animales callejeros y eliminarlos. +En un tpico ao se sacrificaban cuatro millones de perros y gatos la mayora durante las 24 horas de haberlos sacados de las calles. +Nathan y su jefe vieron esto Y no pudieron tolerarlo. +As que se propusieron hacer de San Francisco una ciudad sin sacrificios. Crear una ciudad entera donde todos los perros y gatos, a menos que estuviera enfermo o fuera peligroso, pudiera ser adoptado y no sacrificado. +Todos dijeron que era imposible. +Nathan y su jefe fueron al concejo de la ciudad para tratar de cambiar la ordenanza. +Y gente de varios "SPCA" y sociedades humanas de todo el pas fueron a San Francisco para testificar contra ellos. Fueron para decir que lastimara el movimiento y que era inhumano. +Ellos persistieron. Y Nathan fue directamente a la comunidad. +Se conect con gente a la que esto le importaba. Gente sin profesin, gente con pasin. +Al cabo de solo unos cuantos aos, San Francisco se convirti en la primera ciudad sin sacrificios. Logr esto sin causar dficit. Apoyado sola y completamente por la comunidad. +Nathan se fue a Tompkins Country, Nueva York... un lugar tan diferente de San Francisco como es posible serlo sin salir de EE.UU. Y lo hizo de nuevo. +Pas de ser un perrero glorificado a transformar completamente la comunidad. +Y luego fue a Carolina del Norte. Y lo hizo de nuevo. +Y despues fue a Reno. Y lo hizo de nuevo. +Cuando pienso en lo que Nathan hizo y cuando pienso en lo que hacen las personas que estn aqu, pienso en ideas. +Y pienso en la idea de que crear una idea y difundir una idea tiene mucho trasfondo. +Yo no se si alguna vez han ido a una boda juda pero lo que hacen es tomar una bombilla... y aplastarla. +Existen muchas razones e historias para esto. +Pero una razn es que aplastar la bombilla indica un cambio del antes al despus. +Es un momento en el tiempo. +Y hoy quisiera plantear que estamos viviendo una poca, y estamos en el momento clave de cambio en la forma en la que las ideas son creadas, difundidas e implementadas. +Empezamos hace un tiempo con la idea de fbrica. Esto es que era posible cambiar todo el mundo si tenas una fbrica eficiente que pudiera producir el cambio. +Luego pasamos a la idea de la televisin. En ella, si se tena une frase atractiva y si conseguas estar en televisin lo suficiente y comprar suficientes comerciales, podas vencer. +Ahora estamos en un nuevo modelo de liderazgo en el que la forma en la que producimos cambio no es usando dinero ni a travs de poder para influir en el sistema sino liderando. +As que djenme contarles acerca de los tres ciclos. El primer ciclo es el de fbrica. +Henry Ford tuvo una gran idea. +Esta le permita contratar gente a la que le le solan pagar 50 centavos al da Esta le permita contratar gente a la que le le solan pagar 50 centavos al da y pagarles ahora 5 dlares al da +porque tena una fbrica eficiente. +Con este tipo de ventaja se puede producir gran cantidad de autos. +Se pueden generar muchos cambios. Se pueden construir caminos. +Se puede cambiar por completo la esencia misma de un pas. +Que la esencia de lo que se hace es que se necesita mano de obra cada vez ms barata y mquinas cada vez ms rpidas. +El problema es que se las dos cosas se nos estn acabando. +Mano de obra y mquinas cada vez ms baratas y rpidas. +As que cambiamos de perspectiva por un minuto y decimos, "Ya s. Televisin... Publicidad. Empujar empujar. +Toma una buena idea y llvala hacia el mundo. +"Yo tengo una mejor ratonera. +y si consigo dinero suficiente para decirle a suficientes personas, vender lo suficiente." +Y se puede construir una industria completa basada en esa premisa. +Si es necesario se pueden poner bebs en los anuncios. +Si es necesario se ponen bebs para vender otras cosas. +Y si los bebs no funcionan, se usan mdicos. +Pero cuidado, +porque no se desea encontrar en una paradoja desafortunada... donde se habla de una cosa en lugar de otra. +Este modelo requiere que se acte como el rey... como la persona al frente de la habitacin tirando cosas a los peones que estn atrs. +Este modelo requiere que Ud. sea el que est a cargo y el que le diga a la gente que hacer despus. +Un diagrama rpido de esto, Ud. est aqu arriba y empuja al mundo. +Este mtodo, de mercadeo masivo, requiere ideas promedio, porque uno se dirige a las masas y con muchas propaganda. +Lo que hemos hecho como spammers es hipnotizar a todos para que compren nuestra idea. Hipnotizar a todos a que donen a nuestra causa. Hipnotizarlos para que voten por nuestro candidato. +Y desafortunadamente eso parece no funcionar tan bien ahora. +Pero hay buenas noticias. Noticias realmente muy buenas. +Yo la llamo la idea de las tribus. +El de las tribus es un concepto muy sencillo que data de unos 50 mil aos. +Se trata de liderar, de conectar personas y de conectar ideas. +Y eso es algo que la gente siempre ha querido. +Mucha gente est acostumbrada a tener tribus, espirituales o religiosas, tribus de trabajo... tribus de la comunidad. +Pero ahora, gracias al Internet, gracias a la explosin de medios masivos, y gracias a muchas otras cosas que estn emergiendo en nuestra sociedad por todo el mundo, las tribus estn en todas partes. +Se supona que Internet homogeneizara a todos al interconectarnos. +En lugar de ello, ha permitido que se creen focos de inters. +Hay as seoras de gorros rojos por ac. +Triatlletas de gorros rojos por all. +Ejrcitos organizados por aqu. +A los rebeldes desorganizados por aqu. +A las personas con gorros blancos haciendo comida. +Y personas con gorros blancos navegando en botes. +El punto es que es posible encontrar bailarines folclricos ucranianos y conectarte con ellos. Porque quieren estar conectado. +Que la gente en extremos diferentes puede encontrarse, contactase e ir a algn lado. +Todo pueblo que tiene su escuadrn de bomberos voluntarios entiende esta forma de pensar. +Esta es una foto legtima, sin uso de photoshop. +Conocidos mos que son bomberos me dijeron que esto es comn +y que lo que hacen los bomberos a veces para entrenar es ir a una casa que va a ser demolida, y en lugar de ello la incendian, y practican cmo apagarla. +Pero siempre se detienen a tomar una foto. +Saben, la tribu de los piratas es fascinante. +Tienen su propia bandera, tienen los parches para los ojos. +Uno sabe cuando se encuentra con alguien de una tribu +y resulta que son las tribus, no el dinero, ni las fbricas, lo que puede cambiar el mundo, lo que puede cambiar la poltica, y lo que puede congregar a grandes cantidades de personas. +No porque las obliguen a hacer algo que no quieren, sino porque quieren estar conectados. +Que lo que hacemos para ganarnos la vida ahora, todos nosotros, creo, es encontrar algo que valga la pena cambiar, crear tribus que creen tribus para que difundan la idea y difundan la idea. +Y eso se convierte en algo mucho ms grande que nosotros. Se convierte en un movimiento. +As que cuando Al Gore trat de cambiar el mundo nuevamente no lo hizo por s solo. +No lo hizo comprando muchos anuncios publicitarios. +Lo hizo creando un movimiento. +Consigui miles de personas alrededor del pas que pudieran dar su presentacin por l. Porque l no puede estar en 100 200 500 ciudades cada noche. +No se necesita a todo el mundo. +Lo que Kevin Kelley nos ha enseado es que solo necesitamos, no lo s, mil verdaderos fans. Mil personas a las que le interese lo suficiente para continuar al siguiente paso y al siguiente y al siguiente. +Y eso significa que la idea que se crea, el producto, el movimiento creado, no es para todo el mundo. No es una cosa masiva. De eso no se trata. +De lo que se trata, en cambio es de encontrar a los verdaderos creyentes. +Es fcil mirar lo que he dicho hasta ahora, y decir, "Espera, yo no tengo lo que se necesita para ser esa clase de lder." +As que aqu tenemos a dos lderes. No tienen mucho en comn. +Tienen casi la misma edad pero eso es todo. +Lo que hicieron, sin embargo, cada uno a su manera, es crear una forma diferente de navegar a travs de la tecnologa. +As que algunas personas saldrn y buscarn gente para un equipo. +Y otras personas conseguirn gente para el otro equipo. +Esto tambin te informa de las decisiones que tomas cuando haces productos o servicios. +Saben, este es uno de mis artefactos favoritos. +Pero qu pena que no est organizado para ayudar a los autores a crear movimientos. +Qu pasara si cuando usas tu Kindle pudieras ver los comentarios, citas y notas de todas las personas leyendo el mismo libro que tu en ese momento. +O de tu grupo de lectura. O de tus amigos, o del crculo que quieras. +Qu pasara si los autores o la gente con ideas pudiera usar la versin 2, que sale el lunes para organizar personas que quieren hablar sobre algo. +Hay millones de cosas que podra compartir con Uds. sobre la mecnica de esto. +Pero djenme mencionar solamente un par. +Los Beatles no inventaron a los jvenes. +Solamente decidieron liderarlos. +Que la mayora de movimientos, la mayora del liderazgo que ejercemos va de encontrar un grupo desconectado pero que ya tiene un clamor. No se trata de persuadir a la gente a que le guste algo que aun no tienen. +Cuando Diane Hatz trabaj en "The Meatrix" su video se difundi por todo Internet acerca de cmo se tratan a los animales de granja. Ella no invent la idea de ser vegetariano. +Ella no invent la idea de que importe este asunto. +Lo que hizo fue ayudar a organizar gente, y ayud a convertirlo en un movimiento. +Hugo Chavez no invent el descontento de las clases media y baja de Venezuela. El simplemente las lider +Bob Marley no cre a los rastas. +El solo dio un paso adelante y dijo, "Sganme" +Dereck Sivers invent CD Baby... el cual le permiti a msicos independientes tener un lugar para vender su msica sin venderle al gran hombre. Les permiti tener un lugar para tener una misin a la que ellos ya queran unirse, y conectarse entre ellos. +Lo que todas estas personas tienen en comn es que son herejes. +Los herejes miran el status quo y dicen, Esto no funciona. No puedo tolerar este status quo. +Estoy dispuesto a levantarme para mover hacia adelante las cosas. +Puedo ver cmo es el status quo. Y no me gusta. +Que en lugar de ver todas las pequeas reglas y seguirlas una por una que en lugar de ser lo que yo llamo una oveja caminante, alguien que est medio dormido, siguiendo instrucciones, manteniendo la cabeza baja, encajando, cada cierto tiempo alguien se pone de pie y dice, "Yo no." +Alguien se hace presente y dice, "Esto es importante. +Tenemos que organizarnos alrededor de ello." +Y no todos lo harn, Pero no necesitas a todos. +Solo necesitas unos pocos que mirarn las reglas, y se darn cuenta que no tienen sentido, y se darn cuenta cunto desean estar conectados. +As que Tony Shea no dirige una tienda de zapatos. +Zappos no es una tienda de zapatos. +Zappos el nico, el mejor lugar que nunca hubo, para que las personas interesadas en zapatos se encuentren y puedan hablar de su pasin. Para conectarse con gente a la que le importa ms el servicio al cliente, que hacer ventas maana. +Puede ser algo tan prosaico como zapatos, o algo tan complicado como cambiar al gobierno. +Es exactamente el mismo comportamiento. +Lo que requiere, como Geraldine Carter descubri, es ser capaz de decir, "No puedo hacer esto solo, +pero si consigo otras personas que se unan a mi marcha, entonces juntos podemos conseguir lo que queremos." +Solo estamos esperando a alguien que nos lidere. +Michelle Kaufman fue pionera en la forma de pensar sobre arquitectura ambiental. +Ella no lo hace construyendo silenciosamente una casa por vez. +Ella lo hace mediante una historia para las personas que quieren orla. +Mediante la conexin de una tribu de personas que quieren desesperadamente conectarse entre s. +Lo hace liderando un movimiento. Haciendo un cambio. +Y as sigue y sigue y sigue. +As que les propongo tres preguntas. +La primera es, a quin exactamente estn molestando? +Porque si no molestas a nadie no ests cambiando el status quo. +La segunda es, a quines ests conectando? +Porque para muchas personas, eso es lo que quieren. La conexin que se hace entre unos y otros. +Y la ltima es, a quines ests liderando? +Porque al concentrarte en esa parte, no en la mecnica de lo que ests haciendo sino en quines, y en el liderazgo, entonces ah es donde se produce el cambio. +As que Blake, de Tom's Shoes, tuvo una idea simple. +"Qu pasara si cada vez que alguien comprara un par de zapatos yo le diera el mismo par a alguien que ni siquiera tiene un par de zapatos?" +Esta no es la historia de cmo consigues lugar en los estantes de Neiman Marcus. +Es la historia de un producto que cuenta una historia. +Y mientras caminas por ah con este par de zapatos y alguien pregunta, "Qu son? +Tu puedes contarles la historia en lugar de Blake, o en lugar de la gente que consigui los zapatos +Y de repente no es solo un par de zapatos o 100 pares de zapatos. +Son decenas de miles de pares de zapatos. +Mi amigo Red Maxwell ha pasado los ltimos 10 aos luchando contra la diabetes juvenil. +No luchando contra la organizacin que lucha contra esto, sino con ellos, liderndolos, conectndolos, enfrentando el status quo. Porque es importante para l. +Y las personas con las que se rodea necesitan de la conexin. +Necesitan el liderazgo. Esto marca la diferencia. +No se necesita permiso de las personas para liderarlas. +Pero en caso lo necesites, aqu est. Ellos, all afuera, estn esperado. Nosotros estamos esperando para que t nos muestres dnde ir luego. +As que lo que los lderes tienen en comn es lo siguiente. Lo primero es que ellos se enfrentan al status quo. +Ellos cuestionan lo que pasa actualmente. +Lo segundo es que construyen una cultura. +Un lenguaje secreto, un saludo de 7 segundos. Una forma de saber si ests dentro o ests fuera. +Ellos tienen curiosidad. Curiosidad sobre la gente en la tribu. Curiosidad sobre gente fuera de ella. Ellos hacen preguntas. +Conectan gente entre ella. +Saben qu es lo que la gente quiere ms que cualquier otra cosa? +La gente quiere ser extraada. +Ellos quieren que se les extrae el da que no aparezcan. +Quieren que se les extrae cuando no estn. +Y los lderes de la tribu pueden hacer eso. +Es fascinante porque todos los lideres de tribu tienen carisma. Pero no se necesita de carisma para ser lder. +El ser lder te da carisma. +Si miras a los estudios de los lderes que han triunfado, te das cuenta que es de ah de donde el carisma viene. De liderar. +Finalmente, se comprometen. +Se comprometen a la causa. Se comprometen con la tribu. +Se comprometen con la gente que est en la tribu. +As que les pedira que hicieran algo por m. +Y espero que lo piensen antes de rechazarlo de plano. +Lo que quiero que hagan slo toma 24 horas. Es crear un movimiento. +Algo que valga la pena. Comiencen. Hganlo. Lo necesitamos. +Muchas gracias. Lo agradezco mucho. +El SIDA fue descubierto en 1981, el virus -- en 1983. +Estas burbujas en Gapminder muestran la propagacin del virus en 1983 en el mundo. o cmo estimamos que era. +Lo que mostramos aqu es -- en este eje aqu, muestro el porcentaje de adultos infectados. +Y en este eje, muestro ingresos en dlares por persona. +Y el tamao de estas burbujas, el tamao aqu, que muestra cuntos estn infectados en cada pas, y el color es el continente. +Puede ver que Estados Unidos, en 1983, tena un porcentaje muy bajo de infectados, pero debido a su gran poblacin, tiene una burbuja notable. +Haba bastantes personas infectadas en los Estados Unidos. +Y all arriba, ven Uganda. +Tena casi un cinco por ciento de infectados, y una burbuja grande a pesar de ser un pas pequeo, entonces. +Y era probablemente el pas ms infectado del mundo. +Qu ha ocurrido? +Ahora entendieron el grfico, y ahora, en los prximos 60 segundos, reproduciremos la epidemia de HIV en el mundo. +Pero primero, tengo un nuevo invento. +Hice slido el rayo de un puntero lser. +Preparados, listos, fuera! +Primero, tenemos la rpida subida en Uganda y Zimbawe. +Fueron subiendo as. +En Asia, el primer pas seriamente infectado fue Tailandia. Alcanzaron de uno a un dos por ciento. +Luego, Uganda comenz a retroceder, mientras que Zimbawe subi a las nubes, y aos despus Sudfrica tuvo un terrible incremento de frecuencia de HIV. +India tuvo muchos infectados, pero tuvo un nivel bajo. +Y casi lo mismo sucede aqu. +Uganda desciende, Zimbawe desciende, Russia lleg al uno por ciento. +En los ltimos dos o tres aos, la epidemia de HIV alcanz un nivel estable en el mundo. +Tard 25 aos. +Pero, un estado estable no significa que estemos mejor, sino slo que dejamos de empeorar. +Y, el estado estable es, ms o menos, el uno por ciento de la poblacin adulta del mundo est infectada. +Significa entre 30 y 40 millones de personas, toda California, cada persona, eso es ms o menos lo que tenemos en el mundo hoy. +Ahora, permtanme ver rpidamente de nuevo a Botswana. +Botswana -- un pas de ingresos medio-altos en el sur de frica, gobierno democrtico, buena economa, y esto es lo que sucedi all. +Comanzaron bajo, se elevaron, llegaron a una cima en el 2003, y ahora estn abajo. +Pero estn bajando lentamente, porque en Botswana, con buena economa y gobierno, pueden dar tratamiento a las personas. +Y si la gente infectada tiene tratamiento, no muere de SIDA. +Estos porcentajes no descendern porque la gente sobrevivir entre 10 y 20 aos. +As que hay problemas con estas mediciones. +Pero los pases ms pobres en frica, los de bajos ingresos de aqu, los porcentaje de infectados caen ms rpido porque la gente an est muriendo. +A pesar de PEPFAR, el generoso PEPFAR, no todos alcanzaron a recibir tratamiento, y de aquellos que lo recibieron en los pases pobres, slo un 60% sigue en tratamiento despus de dos aos. +No es realista un tratamiento de por vida para todos en los pases ms pobres. +Pero es muy bueno que se haga lo que se hace. +Pero el foco est de nuevo en la prevencin. +Es slo deteniendo la transmisin que el mundo podr combatirlo. +Las drogas son muy costosas -- si tuvisemos una vacuna, o cuando tengamos la vacuna, eso sera ms efectivo -- pero las drogas son costosas para los pobres. +No la droga en s misma, sino el tratamiento y el cuidado que debe acompaarlo. +Cuando vemos el patrn, una cosa resalta claramente: Pueden ver las burbujas azules y la gente dice que el HIV es muy alto en frica. +Yo dira que el HIV es muy diferente en frica. +Encontrarn los ndices de HIV ms altos del mundo en los pases africanos, pero tambin encontrarn Senegal, all, con el mismo ndice que Estados Unidos. +Y encontrarn Madagascar, y vern muchos pases africanos tan abajo como el resto del mundo. +Es una terrible simplificacin que haya una frica y que las cosas son de una manera en frica. +Debemos detener eso. +No es respetuoso, y no es inteligente pensar as. +Tuve la suerte de vivir y trabajar un tiempo en los Estados Unidos. +Descubr que Salt Lake City y San Francisco eran diferentes. +Y es as tambin en frica -- hay muchas diferencias. +Entonces, por qu es tan alto? La guerra? +No, no es eso. Miren aqu. +El Congo en guerra est all abajo -- dos, tres, cuatro por ciento. +Y la pacfica Zambia, un pas vecino -- 15 por ciento. +Y hay buenos estudios de los refugiados salidos de Congo -- tienen, dos, tres por ciento de infectados, y la pacfica Zambia -- mucho mayor. +Hay ahora estudios que muestran claramente que las guerras y las violaciones son terribles Pero no son las fuerzas que llevan a los altos niveles de frica. +Es la pobreza? +Si ven a un nivel macroscpico, parecera que ms dinero, ms HIV +Pero eso es muy simplista, bajemos y observemos Tanzania. +Dividir Tanzania en cinco grupos de ingreso, desde el ms alto al ms bajo ingreso, all vamos. +Los de ingreso ms alto, no los llamara ricos, tienen HIV ms alto. +La diferencia va desde el 11 al cuatro por ciento, y la diferencia es incluso mayor entre las mujeres. +Hay muchas cosas que creamos, que, con buena investigacin, hecha por instituciones africanas e investigadores junto a investigadores internacionales, demuestran que no eran ciertas. +Esta es la diferencia dentro de Tanzania. +Y no puedo evitar mostrar Kenya. +Miren a Kenya. +He dividido Kenya en sus provincias. +Aqu va. +La diferencia dentro de un pas africano -- va desde lo muy bajo a lo muy alto, y en la mayora de las provincias en Kenya es modesta. +Qu es entonces? +Por qu vemos estos niveles tan altos en algunos pases? +Bueno, es comn que con mltiples parejas, haya menor uso de condones, y est el sexo entre edades dispares -- hombres mayores tienen sexo con mujeres jvenes. +Hay ndices ms altos en mujeres jvenes que en hombres en muchos de estos pases altamente afectados. +Pero dnde se sitan? +Distribuir las burbujas en un mapa. +Miren, los ms infectados son el cuatro por ciento de toda la poblacin y tienen el 50 por ciento de los infectados de HIV. +El HIV existe en todo el mundo. +Miren, hay burbujas en todo el mundo. +Brazil tiene muchos infectados. +Los pases rabes no tanto, pero en Irn en bastante alto. +Tienen adiccin a la herona y prostitucin en Irn. +India tiene muchos porque son muchos. +Sudeste Asitico, y as. +Pero, hay una parte de frica -- y lo difcil es, al mismo tiempo, no hacer una afirmacin uniforme sobre frica, no tener ideas simples de por qu es as, por un lado. +Por otro lado, admitir que este es un caso grave, porque hay un consenso cientfico sobre este patrn ahora. +UNAIDS hicieron pblicos buenos datos, finalmente, sobre la propagacin del HIV. +Podra se una concurrencia. +Podra ser algunos tipos de virus. +Podra ser que hay otras cosas que hace que la transmisin ocurra con mayor frecuencia. +Despus de todo, estando sano y teniendo sexo heterosexual, el riesgo de infeccin en una relacin es de uno en 1000 +No salten a conclusiones; comprtense esta noche. +Pero -- y si estn en una situacin menos favorable, con ms enfermedades transmitidas sexualmente, puede ser 1 en 100 +Pero creemos que podra ser una concurrencia. +Qu es concurrencia? +En Suecia, no tenemos concurrencia. +Tenemos monogamia serial. +Vodka, Ao nuevo -- nueva pareja en primavera. +Vodka, Solsticio -- nueva pareja en otoo. +Vodka -- y contina as por el estilo. +Y obtienes un gran nmero de "Exes". +Y tenemos una terrible epidemia de clamidia -- una terrible epidemia de clamidia durante muchos aos. +El HIV tiene un pico de tres a seis semanas luego de la infeccin y por tanto, tener ms de una pareja el mismo mes es mucho ms peligroso en la transmisin de HIV que en otras infecciones. +Probablemente es una combinacin de esto. +Y lo que me hace feliz es que nos dirigimos ahora hacia hechos cuando vemos esto. +Pueden obtener esta grfica gratuitamente. +Hemos cargados datos de UNAIDS en Gapminder.org +Y esperamos que cuando actuemos en problemas globales en el futuro no slo tendremos el corazn, no slo tendremos el dinero, tambin usaremos el cerebro. +Muchas gracias. +Estamos listos para volar! Muchas gracias. +Permtanme hablarles de India a travs de la evolucin de las ideas. +Creo que esta es una forma interesante de verlo dado que en toda sociedad, especialmente en una sociedad democrtica abierta, es slo cuando las ideas echan races que las cosas cambian. +Lentamente las ideas llevan a la ideologa llevan a las polticas, que llevan a las acciones. +En 1930 este pas pas por la Gran Depresin que condujo a las ideas del Estado y la seguridad social y todas esas cosas que sucedieron en la poca de Roosevelt. +En los 80 tuvimos la revolucin de Reagan que llev a la desregulacin. +Y ahora, despus de la crisis econmica mundial, hay reglas totalmente nuevas sobre la forma de intervencin estatal. +Las ideas modifican a los Estados. +Miro a India y digo, realmente hay cuatro tipos de ideas que tienen impacto en India. +El primero, en mi opinin, es el que llamo "ideas que han llegado". +Estas ideas han conjugado algo que ha hecho de India lo que es hoy. +Llamo al segundo grupo las "ideas en curso". +Son ideas que han sido aceptadas pero todava no implementadas. +El tercer grupo de ideas son lo que llamo las "ideas en discusin " -- ideas que discutimos, en las que tenemos una batalla ideolgica sobre cmo hacer las cosas. +Y el cuarto punto, que creo es el ms importante, "ideas que tenemos que anticipar", +Cuando se trata de un pas en vas de desarrollo en un mundo donde vemos los problemas de otros pases, uno realmente puede anticiparse y hacer las cosas de manera muy diferente. +Ahora, en el caso de India creo que hay seis ideas que son responsables de la situacin actual. +La primera es la nocin de gente. +En los aos 60 y 70 pensbamos que la gente era una carga. +Pensbamos en la gente como una obligacin. +Hoy hablamos de la gente como un activo. +Hablamos de la gente como capital humano. +Y creo que este cambio de mentalidad de ver a la gente como si fuera una carga, a verla como capital humano, ha sido uno de los cambios fundamentales en la mentalidad india. +Y este cambio sobre el capital humano est vinculado al hecho de que India atraviesa un bono demogrfico. +A medida que mejora el sistema de salud, disminuye la mortalidad infantil, y la tasa de fertilidad empieza a caer. India lo est experimentando. +India va a tener mucha gente joven con un bono demogrfico. durante los prximos 30 aos. +Lo singular de este bono demogrfico es que India ser el nico pas del mundo que tendr este bono demogrfico. +En otras palabras, ser el nico pas joven en un mundo que envejece. +Y esto es muy importante. Al mismo tiempo si desagregamos el bono demogrfico de India hay en realidad dos curvas demogrficas. +Una est en el sur y el oeste de India, que estar totalmente agotada para el 2015 porque en esa parte del pas la tasa de fertilidad es casi igual a la de un pas de Europa occidental. +Luego est todo el norte de India, que va a aportar la mayor parte del futuro bono demogrfico. +Pero el bono demogrfico slo es bueno si tambin es buena la inversin en el capital humano. +Slo si la gente tiene educacin, buena salud, infraestructura, si tienen caminos para ir a trabajar y luz para estudiar de noche -- slo en esos casos puede sacarse provecho del bono demogrfico. +En otras palabras, si no se invierte en capital humano, el mismo bono demogrfico puede transformarse en un desastre demogrfico. +Por lo tanto India est en un punto crtico donde puede apalancar su bono demogrfico o provocar un desastre demogrfico. +Lo segundo en India ha sido el cambio en el rol de los emprendedores. +Cuando India se independiz los emprendedores eran vistos como algo malo, como explotadores. +Pero hoy, luego de 60 aos, dado el alza de los emprendimientos, los emprendedores se han vuelto modelos a imitar. Y estn contribuyendo enormemente a la sociedad. +Este intercambio ha contribuido a la vitalidad y a toda la economa. +La tercera cosa que, creo, ha cambiado a India es nuestra actitud hacia el idioma ingls. +El ingls era visto como el idioma de los imperialistas. +Pero hoy con la globalizacin, y con la subcontratacin, se tranform en el idioma de la aspiracin. +Algo que todo el mundo quiere aprender. +Y el hecho de que hablamos ingls ahora es un enorme activo estratgico. +Lo prximo es la tecnologa. +Hace 40 aos las computadoras eran algo prohibido, algo intimidante, algo que reduca empleos. +Hoy vivimos en un pas que vende 8 millones de telfonos mviles al mes, de los cuales el 90 por ciento son prepagos porque la gente no tiene historial crediticio. +El 40 por ciento de esos telfonos prepagos se recargan por menos de 20 centavos. +Esa es la escala en la que la tecnologa est liberada y es accesible. +Y por lo tanto la tecnologa pas de ser algo prohibido e intimidante a ser algo que da poder. +Hace 20 aos en un informe sobre la computarizacin bancaria, no denominaron el informe como un informe sobre computadoras. Las llamaron mquinas registradoras de asientos. +No queran que los gremios creyeran que en verdad eran computadoras. +Y cuando queran computadoras ms avanzadas, ms potentes las llamaban mquinas registradoras de asientos avanzadas. +Hemos recorrido un largo camino desde esos das y el telfono ya es un instrumento de poder y esto cambi la forma en que los indios conciben la tecnologa. +Y luego pienso que otro punto es que los indios hoy estn mucho ms a gusto con la globalizacin. +De nuevo, despus de haber vivido ms de 200 aos bajo la Compaa de las Indias Orientales y el gobierno imperial, los indios tuvieron una reaccin muy natural contra la globalizacin por considerarla una forma de imperialismo. +Pero hoy, a medida que las empresas indias salen al exterior, a medida que los indios van y trabajan por todo el mundo, han ganado mucha ms confianza y saben que pueden participar en la globalizacin. +Y el hecho de que la demografa est de nuestro lado, por ser el nico pas joven en un mundo que envejece, hace la globalizacin an ms atractiva para los indios. +Y por ltimo, India ha tenido una profundizacin de su democracia. +Cuando lleg la democracia a India hace 60 aos era un concepto elitista. +Era un grupo de personas que deseaban implantar la democracia porque queran introducir los conceptos de voto universal, parlamento, constitucin, etc. +Pero hoy la democracia se ha vuelto un proceso ascendente en el que todos se han dado cuenta de los beneficios de ser escuchados, de los beneficios de vivir en una sociedad abierta. +Por lo tanto la democracia se ha arraigado. +Pero dicho esto pasamos a lo que denomino ideas en curso. +Son aquellas ideas que la sociedad no cuestiona, y no obstante no se pueden implementar. +Y hay aqu, en verdad, cinco factores. +Uno es la educacin. +Por alguna razn, la que sea, falta de dinero, falta de prioridades, debido a la antigua cultura religiosa, la educacin primaria nunca tuvo la importancia necesaria. +Pero ahora creo que se ha alcanzado un punto en que se ha vuelto muy importante. +Desafortunadamente las escuelas estatales no funcionan, y hoy los nios estn yendo a escuelas privadas. +Incluso en los barrios bajos de India ms del 50 por ciento de los nios urbanos van a escuelas privadas. +Entonces el gran desafo es poner las escuelas a funcionar. +Pero dicho esto, existe un deseo enorme comn a todos, incluyendo los pobres, de educar a sus nios. +Por eso creo que la educacin primaria es una idea que ha llegado pero no ha sido implementada. +Igualmente en cuanto a la infraestructura. Por mucho tiempo la infraestructura no fue una prioridad. +Los que han estado en India lo han visto. +Desde luego que no es como China. +Pero hoy creo que finalmente la infraestructura es algo que tiene consenso y que la gente desea implementar. +Se refleja en las declaraciones polticas. +Hace 20 aos el eslogan poltico era: "Roti, kapra, makan", que significa "Comida, ropa y techo". +Y hoy el eslogan es: "Bijli, sarak, paani", que significa "Electricidad, agua y caminos". +Y eso es un cambio de mentalidad donde ahora se acepta la infraestructura. +Por eso pienso que es una idea que ha llegado pero simplemente no se ha implementado. +La tercera cosa es, de nuevo, las ciudades -- +dado que Gandhi crea en las aldeas y dado que los britnicos gobernaron desde las ciudades. Nehru consideraba a Nueva Delhi una ciudad no india. +Durante mucho tiempo descuidamos nuestras ciudades. +Y eso se refleja en el tipo de situaciones que vemos. +Hoy, finalmente, luego de las reformas econmicas, y del crecimiento econmico, pienso que la idea de que las ciudades son motores del crecimiento econmico motores de la creatividad motores de la innovacin finalmente ha sido aceptada. +Y pienso que ahora estamos viendo mejoras en nuestras ciudades +De nuevo, una idea que lleg pero no fue implementada. +Lo ltimo es la nocin de India como mercado comn porque si uno no concibe a India como un mercado tampoco concibira un mercado comn, ya que no tendra sentido. +Y por lo tanto tendramos una situacin en la que cada Estado tendra su propio mercado de productos. +Cada provincia tendra su propio mercado agropecuario. +Cada vez ms, las polticas impositivas, la infraestructura y todo eso tienden hacia la creacin de India como un mercado comn. +Est ocurriendo una suerte de globalizacin interna tan importante como la globalizacin externa. +Creo que estos cuatro factores los de la educacin primaria, la infraestructura, la urbanizacin y el mercado comn en mi opinin son ideas que en India han sido aceptadas pero no implementadas. +Luego estn las ideas en conflicto. +Las ideas que generan polmica. +Estas son las discusiones que provocan estancamiento. +Cules son esas ideas? Una, pienso, son nuestros temas ideolgicos. +Debido a los antecedentes histricos del sistema de castas y al hecho de que ha habido mucha gente abandonada a su suerte, mucha de la poltica tiene que ver con asegurar que ese tema sea abordado. +Eso lleva a reservas y otras tcnicas. +Se relaciona con la manera en que subsidiamos a nuestra gente, y con todos los argumentos, de izquierda y de derecha, que esgrimimos. +Muchos de los problemas indios se relacionan con la ideologa de castas y otras cosas. +Esta poltica causa estancamiento. +Este es uno de los factores a resolver. +La segunda idea son las polticas laborales que tenemos que dificultan a los emprendedores crear empleos formales en las compaas El 93 por ciento del trabajo indio est en el sector de la informalidad. +No goza de beneficios ni de seguridad social. No tienen pensiones, plan de salud, nada de eso. +Esto debe solucionarse, porque si no sumamos esta gente a la fuerza de trabajo formal crearemos un grupo de gente privado de sus derechos. +Tenemos que crear un nuevo paquete de leyes laborales que no sean tan onerosas como las actuales. +Mientras creamos una poltica para sumar ms gente al mercado formal y creamos empleos para millones de personas que los necesitan. +La tercera idea es nuestra educacin superior. +La educacin superior india est totalmente regulada. +Es muy difcil crear una universidad privada. +Es muy difcil que una universidad extranjera venga a India. +Como resultado, nuestra educacin superior no le sigue el ritmo a la demanda india. +Eso causa muchos problemas que tenemos que abordar. +Pero ms importante, creo, son las ideas que necesitamos anticipar. +India puede mirar lo que sucede en Occidente y en todos lados, y ver lo que se necesita hacer. +Primero, somos muy afortunados ya que la tecnologa est en un punto que es mucho ms avanzado que cuando otros pases se desarrollaron. +Podemos usar la tecnologa para la gobernanza. +Podemos usar la tecnologa para obtener beneficios directos. +Podemos usarla para la transparencia, y muchas otras cosas. +El segundo punto es la salud. +India tiene problemas tremendos de salud en temas cardacos, altos ndices de diabetes y obesidad. +Entonces no tiene sentido reemplazar las enfermedades de un pas pobre por las enfermedades de un pas rico. +Por ende tenemos que repensar completamente cmo vemos la salud. +Realmente necesitamos seguir una estrategia para no pasar al otro extremo de la salud. +Igualmente hoy en el oeste se ve el problema de los derechos adquiridos -- el costo de la seguridad social, la salud para ancianos, la ayuda mdica. +Por lo tanto si se trata de un pas joven de nuevo, podemos implementar un sistema moderno de pensiones. As no se generan problemas de derecho en la vejez. +Y, nuevamente, India no puede darse el lujo de polucionar el ambiente porque debe conciliar el ambiente con el desarrollo. +Slo para darles una idea, el mundo tiene que estabilizarse en algo as como 20 gigatones al ao. +En una poblacin de 9 mil millones nuestra emisin de carbono debera ser unas dos toneladas al ao. +India ya est en las dos toneladas al ao. +Pero si India crece al ocho por ciento el ingreso anual per cpita ascender 16 veces para 2050. +Tendramos ingresos multiplicados por 16 sin crecimiento de emisiones. +Vamos a repensar la forma en que miramos el medioambiente, la forma en que concebimos la energa, la manera en que creamos nuevos paradigmas de desarrollo. +Entonces, por qu es esto importante para Uds.? +Debera importarles algo que sucede a 16 mil kilmetros? +Primero, esto importa porque representa a ms de mil millones de personas. +Mil millones, un sexto de la poblacin del planeta. +Importa porque esto es una democracia. +Y es importante para demostrar que el crecimiento y la democracia no son incompatibles, que se puede tener democracia, una sociedad abierta, con crecimiento. +Es importante porque si uno resuelve estos problemas puede resolver los problemas de pobreza en el mundo. +Es importante porque es necesario resolver los problemas ambientales del planeta. +Si queremos llegar a un punto, debemos pornerle una cota a la emisin de carbono. Debemos reducir el consumo de energa. Esto debe resolverse en pases como India. +Ya saben, si miramos el desarrollo de Occidente en los ltimos 200 aos el crecimiento promedio puede haber sido del 2 por ciento. +Aqu hablamos de pases que crecen al ocho o nueve por ciento. +Y eso marca una diferencia abismal. +Cuando India creca cerca de 3 3,5 por ciento y la poblacin lo haca al 2 por ciento, su ingreso per cpita se duplicaba cada 45 aos. +Cuando el crecimiento econmico es del 8 por ciento y el crecimiento de la poblacin cae al 1,5 por ciento, entonces el ingreso per cpita se duplica cada nueve aos. +En otras palabras se acelera todo el proceso de mil millones de personas entrando en la prosperidad. +Y se debe tener una estrategia clara lo cual es importante tanto para India como para el mundo. +Por eso pienso que todos Uds. deberan preocuparse de esto, como yo. +Muchas gracias. +Aunque no lo crean, vengo a ofrecer una solucin a una parte importante de este mayor problema, con la atencin necesaria en el clima. +Y la solucin que ofrezco es para el ms grande culpable de este maltrato masivo de la Tierra por la humanidad, y el consiguiente deterioro de la biosfera. +Ese culpable es el comercio y la industria. Que es justo a lo que me he dedicado los ltimos 52 aos desde mi graduacin en Georgia Tech en 1956 +Como ingeniero industrial, aspirante a medalla de oro y luego un exitoso emprendedor. +En su libro, Paul acusa al comercio e industria como uno de los mayores culpables en causar el deterioro de la biosfera, y, en segundo lugar como la nica institucin suficientemente grande y expandida, as como suficientemente poderosa, para encaminar a la humanidad fuera de este lo. +Y de paso, me conden a mi como un saqueador de la tierra. +Obtener nada. No hacer dao. +Simplemente dije, "Si Hawkins tiene razn y que el comercio y la industria debe liderar, quien va a liderar al comercio y la industria? +Salvo que alguien lidere, nadie lo har." +Es axiomtico. Por qu no nosotros? +Y gracias a la gente de Interface, me he transformado en un saqueador en recuperacin. +Le dije una vez a un escritor de la revista Fortune que algn da la gente como yo ir a la carcel. +Y eso se transform en el ttulo de un artculo de Fortune. +Luego pasaron a describirme como el CEO ms verde de Amrica. +De saqueador a saquedor en recuperacin, a CEO ms verde de Amrica, en cinco aos. Era francamente un comentario bastante triste sobre los CEOs Americanos en 1999. +Cuando me preguntaron luego en el documental Canadiense, 'The Corporation' que quise decir con la observacin de "ir a la carcel" expliqu que el robo es un crimen. +Y el robo del futuro de nuestros hijos sera considerado algn da un crimen +Segn Paul y Anne Ehrlich y una famosa ecuacin de impacto ambiental, el impacto -- una mala cosa -- es la multiplicacin de poblacin, afluencia y tecnologa. +Es decir, el impacto es generado por la gente, lo que consumen en su afluencia, y como est producido. +Y, aunque la ecuacin es altamente subjetiva, quizs puedan cuantificar la gente, y quizs la afluencia, pero la tecnologa es abusiva en demasiadas maneras para cuantificarla. +Entonces la ecuacin es conceptual. +Igualmente nos ayuda en entender el problema. +As que decidimos en Interface, en 1994, de crear un ejemplo para transformar la manera que fabricamos alfombras. Un producto intensivo en petrleo tanto a nivel materiales como energa. Y transformar nuestras tecnologas para que disminuyan el impacto ambiental, en vez de multiplicarlo. +La ecuacin de impacto ambiental de Paul y Anne Ehrlich I es igual a P por A por T. Poblacin, afluencia y tecnologa. +Quera que Interface reescriba esa ecuacin para que se lea I igual P por A dividido T. +Ahora, los de mente matemtica vern inmediatamente que T en el numerador aumenta el impacto - - una mala cosa. pero T en el denominador +Entonces pregunto, "Que movera a T, tecnologa, desde el numerador, llammoslo T1, donde aumenta su impacto, hacia el denominador, llammoslo T2 donde reduce impacto? +Pens sobre las caractersticas primero, de la revolucin industrial, T1, tal como la practicamos en Interface, y tena las siguientes caractersticas +Extractiva: obteniendo materia prima de la tierra. +Lineal: obtener, fabricar, desechar. +Alimentado por energa derivada de combustibles fsiles. +Derrochador: abusivo y enfocado sobre la productividad del trabajo. +Ms alfombra por hora-hombre. +Pensandolo bien, realic que todos esos atributos deben ser cambiados para mover a 'T' hacia el denominador. +En la nueva revolucin industrial, extractivo debe se reemplazado por renovable, lineal por cclico, energa de combustible fsil por energa renovable, solar. Derrochador por libre de derroches y abusivo por benigno. Y productividad del trabajo en productividad de los recursos. +Y deduje que si pudiramos hacer esos cambios transformadores, y deshacernos de T1 totalmente, podramos reducir nuestro impacto a cero, incluyendo nuestro impacto climtico. +Y eso se transform en el plan de Interface en 1995 Y ha sido el plan desde entonces. +Hemos medido nuestro progreso muy rigurosamente. +As que les puedo decir cuanto avanzamos en los 12 aos subsiguientes. +Las emisiones netas de gases de efecto invernadero bajaron 82 % en tonelaje absoluto. +Sobre el mismo perodo de tiempo las ventas se incrementaron en dos tercios y las ganancias duplicaron. +Entonces, una reduccin absoluta del 82% se traslada en una reduccin del 90% en la intensidad de gases de efecto invernadero en funcin de las ventas. +Esta es la magnitud de la reduccin que toda la tecnosfera debe realizar para el ao 2050 para evitar trastornos climticos catastrficos. segn lo que nos dicen los cientficos. +que el uso de combustibles fsiles disminuy 60% por unidad de produccin, gracias a las eficiencias de las renovables. +El barril de petrleo ms econmico y ms seguro que hay es el que no se utiliza gracias a las eficiencias. +La utilizacin del agua baj 75% en nuestro negocio mundial de placas de alfombras. +40% abajo en nuestro negocio de alfombras 'broadloom' que adquirimos en 1993 aqu mismo en California, Ciudad de la Industria, donde el agua es tan preciosa. +Materiales renovables o reciclables representan 25% del total, y estn aumentando rpidamente. +La energa renovable representa 27% de nuestro total, apuntando a 100% +Hemos desviado 148 millones de libras -- son 74,000 toneladas -- de alfombras usadas, de los rellenos sanitarios Cerrando el ciclo del flujo de materiales a travs de logstica revertida y tecnologas de reciclado post-consumidor que no existan cuando empezamos hace 14 aos. +La llamamos 'Cool Carpet'. +Y ha sido un poderoso diferenciador en el mercado, incrementando las ventas y las ganancias. +Hace 3 aos, lanzamos placas de alfombra para el hogar, bajo la marca 'Flor'. a proposito mal escrito F-L-O-R. +Pueden hoy ingresar va Internet a Flor.com y recibir 'Cool Carpet' en vuestra puerta en cinco das. +Es prctico, y tambin lindo. +Consideramos que hemos superado la mitad del camino hacia nuestro objetivo -- cero impacto, cero huella. +Hemos elegido al ao 2020 como nuestro objetivo para cero, para llegar a la cima, la cima del 'Monte Sustentabilidad'. +La llamamos 'Misin Cero'. +Y esta es quizs la faceta ms importante. Hemos encontrado que Misin Cero es increblemente buena para los negocios +Un mejor modelo de negocios. Una mejor manera para mayores ganancias. +Aqu est el caso de negocios para la sustentabilidad. +Desde una experiencia de vida real, los costos bajaron, no subieron, reflejando unos 400 millones de dlares de costos evitados en la bsqueda de cero residuos La primera cara del Monte Sustentabilidad. +Esto ha pagado todo los costos para la transformacin de Interface +Y esto tambin disipa un mito, esta falsa eleccin entre el medio ambiente y la economa. +Nuestros productos son mejores que nunca, inspirados por el diseo para la sustentabilidad, una inesperada fuente de inovacin. +Nuestra gente est galvanizada alrededor de este propsito compartido superior +Es imbatible para atraer la mejor gente y juntarla. +Y la buena voluntad del mercado es impresionante. +Ninguna cantidad de publicidad, ninguna campaa de marketing ingeniosa a cualquier precio, podra haber producido o creado tanta buena voluntad. +Costos, productos, gente, mercados. Que ms hay? +Es un mejor modelo de negocios. +Y aqu est nuestro historial de 14 aos de ventas y ganancias. +Hay una cada ah, entre 2001 y 2003: una cada cuando nuestras ventas, en un perodo de tres aos haban bajado un 17% +Pero el mercado estaba 36% abajo. +Literalmente ganamos participacin de mercado +Podramos no haber sobrevivido a esa recesin si no fuera por las ventajas de la sustentabilidad. +Si todas las empresas apuntaran a los planes de Interface, eso resolvera todos nuestros problemas? +No lo creo. +Sigo preocupado por la ecuacin de Ehrlich revisada I igual P por A dividido por T2. +Esa A es una A mayuscula, sugiriendo que la afluencia es un fin en si misma. +Pero, que pasa si reenmarcamos a Ehrlich un poco ms lejos? +Y si transformamos la A en 'a' minscula, sugiriendo que el fin justifica al medio y ese fin es la felicidad. Ms felicidad con menos cosas. +Pero la tierra tiene que esperar nuestra extincin como especie? +Bueno, quizs si. Pero yo no lo creo +En Interface, pretendemos llevar este prototipo de empresa industrial sustentable, cero-huella en plena existencia para el 2020. +Podemos ver nuestro camino ahora. Claro hasta la cima de la montaa +Y ahora el desafo se est ejecutando. +Y como dice mi buen amigo y consejero Amory Lovins, "Si algo existe, debe ser posible." +Si podemos realmente hacerlo, debe ser posible. +Si nosotros, una empresa petro-intensiva lo puede lograr, lo puede lograr cualquiera +Y si cualquiera puede, sigue que todos pueden. +Hawking cumpli con negocio e industria, liderando a la humanidad lejos del abismo. Porque con el declive continuo no medido de la biosfera, una persona muy querida est en riesgo. Francamente, un riesgo inaceptable. +Quien es esa persona? +No tu. No yo. +Pero djenme presentarles al que est ms a riesgo aqu. +Y, yo mismo conoc a esta persona en los primeros das de esta escalada +Un martes a la maana en Marzon de 1996 Estaba hablando con gente, tal como lo haca en cada oportunidad en aquel entonces. Llevndolos y muchas veces sin saber si estaba conectando. +pero, unos cinco das ms tarde, de vuelta en Atlanta, Recib un email de Glenn Thomas, una de las personas en la reunin de California. +Me estaba enviando un poema original que haba compuesto despus de nuestra reunin del Martes a la maana +Y cuando lo le, fue uno de los momentos ms inspirativos de mi vida. +Porque me dijo, por Dios, Una persona entendi. +Aqu est lo que escribi Glenn. Y aqu est esa persona, ms expuesta al riesgo. +Por favor conozcan "El nio del maana." +"Sin un nombre, una cara desconocida, y sin saber tu tiempo o lugar, El nio del maana, aunque todava no nacido Te conoc primero el martes pasado a la maana +Un amigo sabio nos present a los dos. +y a travs de su punto de vista aleccionador Vi un da que veras un da para ti pero no para mi +Conocerte a ti me ha cambiado mis pensamientos. +Porque nunca tuve una idea que quizs las cosas que hago puedan algn da de alguna manera amenazarte. +Nio del maana, mi hijo, mi hija, Lamento que recin ahora empec a pensar en ti y en tu bien, aunque siempre lo tendra que haber sabido. +Empezar, lo har. +La manera que el costo de lo que desperdici, lo que se pierde, si llego a olvidarme que tu algn da vendrs y vivirs aqu tambin" +Bueno, cada da de mi vida desde que "El nio del maana" me ha hablado con un mensaje simple pero profundo, que supongo compartir con ustedes. +Somos, todos y cada uno de nosotros, una parte de la red de la vida. +El continuo de la humanidad, claro. Pero en un sentido ms amplio, la red de la vida misma. +Y tenemos que hacer una eleccin durante nuestra breve visita a esta hermoso planeta vivo, azul y verde Lastimarlo o ayudarlo. +Para ti, es tu decisin +Gracias. +Les hablar un poquito sobre el comportamiento irracional. +No el de ustedes, por supuesto, sino el de otros. +Despus de estar algunos aos en el MIT, me d cuenta que no es emocionante escribir artculos acadmicos. +No s cuntos de estos lean, pero no es divertido leerlos y con frecuencia escribirlos tampoco; escribirlos es incluso peor. +As que decid intentar escribir algo ms divertido +y se me ocurri la idea de escribir un libro de cocina +y el titulo de mi libro de cocina iba a ser "Comer sin migajas: El arte de comer sobre el fregadero de la cocina." +E iba a ser una perspectiva de la vida a travs de la cocina, +lo cual me tena muy emocionado; iba a hablar un poco de mis investigaciones y un poco de la cocina. +Hacemos tantas cosas en la cocina que pens que sera interesante. +Escrib un par de captulos y los llev a la editorial del MIT donde me dijeron que estaba lindo pero que no era para ellos, que buscara a otros. +Intent con otras personas y todas me decan lo mismo: "Lindo pero no para nosotros." +Hasta que alguien me dijo: "Mira, si en serio quieres hacer esto primero escribe un libro sobre tu investigacin, primero tienes que publicar algo, y entonces tendrs oportunidad de escribir otra cosa. +Si de verdad lo quieres, tienes que hacer esto." +Yo le dije: "Es que de verdad no quiero escribir sobre mi investigacin, +eso lo hago todo el tiempo, quiero escribir sobre otra cosa, algo con ms libertad, menos restringido." +Esta persona fue muy insistente y me dijo: "Mira, esa es la nica manera en que lo conseguirs." +Entonces contest: "De acuerdo, si tengo que hacerlo" Tena un sabtico y me dije: "Escribir sobre mi investigacin, +si no hay otra forma; luego har mi libro de cocina." +As que escrib un libro sobre mi investigacin +y result ser bastante divertido. En dos aspectos. +En primer lugar disfrut escribir, +pero lo ms interesante fue que empec a aprender de la gente. +Es un momento fantstico para escribir, porque hay mucha retroalimentacin de la gente. +La gente me escribe sobre sus experiencias personales sobre sus ejemplos, y en lo que disienten, y de los matices. +Incluso estando aqu, es decir, en los ltimos das He conocido altsimos niveles de comportamiento obsesivo que jams imagin. +Lo que encuentro simplemente fascinante. +Les voy a contar un poquito sobre el comportamiento irracional y quiero empezar dando unos ejemplos de ilusiones visuales como una metfora de la racionalidad. +Entonces piensen acerca de estas dos mesas, +seguramente han visto esta ilusin. +Si preguntara cul es ms larga: la lnea vertical de la mesa de la izquierda o la lnea horizontal en la mesa de la derecha? Cul parece ser ms larga? +Puede alguien ver otra cosa que no sea que la de la izquierda es ms larga? +No de acuerdo? Es imposible. +Pero lo bonito de ver ilusiones visuales es que podemos demostrar los errores fcilmente. +Entonces si pongo algunas lneas, eso no sirve; +puedo animar las lneas +mientras crean que no encog las lneas, que no lo hice, les he demostrado que sus ojos les estaban engaando. +Ahora, lo interesante de esto es que cuando retiramos las lneas, es como si no hubieran aprendido nada en el ltimo minuto. +No pueden verlo y decir: "OK, ahora veo la realidad tal cual es." +Cierto? Es imposible superar la +sensacin de que sta es ms larga. Nuestra intuicin en verdad nos engaa de una forma repetible, predecible y consistente. +Y casi no hay nada que podamos hacer al respecto excepto agarrar la regla y empezar a medir. +Aqu tengo otra que es una de mis ilusiones favoritas. +A qu color est apuntando la flecha superior? +Caf, gracias. +La flecha inferior? Amarillo. +Pues resulta que son idnticos. +Puede ver alguien que son idnticos? +Muy pero muy difcil. +Puedo cubrir el resto del cubo +y si lo hago pueden ver que son idnticos. +Si no me creen pueden conseguir despus la diapositiva, hacer unas manualidades y ver que son idnticos. +Pero de nuevo es la misma historia que si retiramos el fondo la ilusin regresa. Bien. +No hay forma de que no veamos esta ilusin. +Supongo que si eres ciego a los colores quiz no lo puedas ver. +Quiero que reflexionen en la ilusin como una metfora. +Ver es de lo mejor que hacemos. +Gran parte de nuestro cerebro se dedica a la visin, mucho ms que a cualquier otra cosa. +Empleamos la visin ms horas al da que cualquier otra cosa +y la evolucin nos dise para ver. +Y si cometemos estos errores repetitivos y predecibles al ver, en lo que somos tan buenos, qu probabilidad existe de que no cometamos ms errores en cosas en que no somos tan buenos. Por ejemplo, en decisiones financieras. +Algo para lo que no tenemos ninguna razn evolutiva de hacer. No tenemos una parte especializada del cerebro y tampoco lo hacemos tantas horas al da. +Y el argumento en esos casos es que podramos de hecho estar cometiendo muchos ms errores, +y lo peor es que no hay forma sencilla de advertirlos. Porque es fcil demostrar los errores en las ilusiones visuales, pero en las ilusiones cognitivas es muchsimo ms difcil demostrarle errores a las personas. +As que quiero mostrarles algunas ilusiones cognitivas, o ilusiones en toma de decisiones de la misma manera. +sta es de mis grficas favoritas en ciencias sociales, +es de un artculo de Johnson y Goldstein. +En esencia muestra el porcentaje de personas que sealan su posible inters en donar sus rganos. +Estos son diversos pases en Europa, y en esencia +distingues dos tipos de pases. Los pases de la derecha parecen dar mucho, y los de la izquierda parecen dar muy poco, o mucho menos. +La pregunta es: Por qu algunos pases +dan mucho y otros pases dan poco? +Cuando preguntamos esto a la gente a menudo piensan que es algo cultural. +Cierto? Cunto te importa la gente? +Donar tus rganos a alguien es quiz se relacione con cunto te importa la sociedad, que tan vinculado ests. +O quiz es cuestin de religin. +Pero si miran la grfica, pueden ver que los pases que consideramos muy similares en realidad exhiben comportamientos muy diferentes. +Por ejemplo, Suecia est totalmente a la derecha y Dinamarca, a la que consideramos culturalmente similar, est totalmente a la izquierda. +Alemania est a la izquierda, y Austria a la derecha. +Holanda est a la izquierda, y Blgica a la derecha. +Finalmente, dependiendo de la versin particular que tengan de similitud europea pueden considerar al Reino Unido y a Francia como similares culturalmente o no hacerlo. Pero resulta que en cuanto a donacin de rganos son muy diferentes. +Por cierto, Holanda representa una historia interesante. +Ven que Holanda es como el ms grande de los pequeos, +resulta que consiguieron un 28 por ciento despus de enviarle una carta por correo a cada casa en el pas rogando a la gente que se afiliara al programa de donacin de rganos. +Conocen la expresin: "Rogar no te lleva lejos." +Eso es 28 por ciento en donacin de rganos. +Pero lo que sea que los de la derecha estn haciendo, lo estn haciendo mejor que estar rogando. +Entonces qu estn haciendo? +Resulta que el secreto est en un formulario del Departamento de Trnsito +sta es la historia: +Los pases de la izquierda tienen un formulario en el DT parecido a esto: +Marque abajo si quiere participar en el programa de donacin de rganos. +Y qu pasa? +La gente no lo marca y no se afilian; +los pases de la derecha, los que dan mucho, tienen un formulario ligeramente diferente. +En l dice: Marque abajo si no quiere participar. +Es interesante ver que la gente igualmente no marca; pero ahora, se afilian. +Reflexionen ahora lo que esto significa: +Nos levantamos en la maana y sentimos que tomamos decisiones; +nos levantamos en la maana, abrimos el clset y sentimos que decidimos qu nos vamos a poner; +abrimos el refrigerador y sentimos que decidimos qu comer. +Lo que en realidad esto nos dice es que muchas de estas decisiones no residen en nosotros; +sino residen en la persona que est diseando el formulario. +Cuando uno ingresa al DT, la persona que dise el formulario tendr una enorme influencia en lo que ustedes terminarn haciendo. +Ahora, tambin es muy difcil intuir estos resultados. Pinsenlo por un momento. +Cuntos de ustedes creen que si fueran a renovar su licencia maana y fueran al DT y se encontraran uno de estos formularios, esto cambiara en realidad su propio comportamiento? +Es muy difcil creer que esto nos influenciar. +Podemos decir: "Ah estos europeos graciosos, por supuesto que eso los influenciara." +Pero cuando se trata de nosotros tenemos la sensacin de estar al mando, de que estamos en control y que estamos tomando la decisin; que es incluso difcil de aceptar la idea de que en realidad tenemos la ilusin de tomar una decisin, en vez de una decisin real. +Bueno, ustedes podran decir que estas decisiones no les importan; +de hecho, por definicin, estas son decisiones acerca de algo que nos ocurrir despus de morir. +Cmo nos puede importar menos algo que lo que va a pasar despus de morir? +Entonces un economista estndar, alguien que cree en la racionalidad, dira: "Sabes una cosa? El costo de levantar el lpiz y marcar una V es mayor que el posible beneficio de la decisin." Por tanto tenemos este efecto. +Pero, de hecho, no es porque sea fcil; +no es porque sea trivial; no es porque no nos importe, +es lo contrario, es porque nos importa: +Es difcil y es complejo. +Es tan complejo que no sabemos qu hacer +y puesto que no tenemos idea de qu hacer simplemente elegimos lo que sea que hubiera sido elegido para nosotros. +Les voy a dar un ejemplo ms de esto. +Esto es de un artculo de Redelmeier y Schaefer. +Dicen: "Bueno, este efecto tambin le ocurre a los expertos, +gente bien pagada, expertos en sus decisiones, lo hacen mucho." +Tomaron a un grupo de mdicos +y les presentaron un caso de estudio de un paciente. +El paciente es un granjero de 67 aos +que ha estado sufriendo de dolor en la cadera derecha por un tiempo. +Le dijeron al mdico: "Decidiste hace unas semanas que nada le funciona al paciente; +todos estos medicamentos, nada parece funcionar. +As que le sugieres al paciente una terapia de reemplazo de cadera, +Reemplazo de cadera, de acuerdo?" +As que el paciente est en vas de que le reemplacen la cadera +y entonces, a la mitad de los mdicos les dijeron: "Ayer cuando revisaste el caso del paciente, te distes cuenta que olvidaste intentar una medicina: +No probaste ibuprofen." +Qu haces? Echas para atrs la operacin e intentas el ibuprofen? +O dejas que sigan adelante con el reemplazo de cadera? +Bueno, la buena noticia es que la mayora de los mdicos en este caso deciden echar atrs la operacin e intentar ibuprofen. +Bien por los mdicos. +Al otro grupo de mdicos, les dijeron: "Ayer cuando revisaste el caso descubriste que haba dos medicamentos que an no habas probado, ibuprofen y piroxicam." +Dijeron: "Tienes dos medicamentos que an no pruebas qu vas a hacer? +Los dejas seguir adelante con la operacin o la echas para atrs. +Si la echas para atrs, intentaras ibuprofen o piroxicam? Cul?" +Ahora piensen en esto. Esta decisin hace que sea ms fcil que el paciente siga adelante con el reemplazo de cadera, porque echar atrs la operacin de repente se vuelve ms complejo. +Hay una decisin ms que tomar. +Qu pasa ahora? +La mayora de los mdicos ahora eligen dejar que el paciente siga adelante con el reemplazo de cadera. +Espero esto les preocupe, por cierto... cuando vayan a ver a su mdico. +La cuestin es que ningn mdico dira: "Piroxicam, ibuprofen, reemplazo de cadera. Vamos por el reemplazo de cadera", +pero en el momento en que fijas esta como la opcin por omisin, tiene un enorme poder sobre lo que la gente termina haciendo. +Les dar un par de ejemplos ms sobre la toma irracional de decisiones. +Imaginen que les doy a elegir. Quieres ir un fin de semana a Roma? Todos los gastos pagados, hotel, transportacin, alimentos, desayuno continental, todo. O un fin de semana en Pars? +Ahora, un fin de semana en Pars o un fin de semana en Roma son cosas diferentes. +La comida es diferente, la cultura es diferente, el arte es diferente. +Ahora imaginen que agrego una opcin al paquete que nadie quera. +Imaginen que digo: "Fin de semana en Roma, fin de semana en Pars o que te roben el coche? +Es una idea graciosa, porque Cmo es que el que te roben tu coche en este conjunto, influye en algo? +Qu tal si la opcin de que te roben el coche no fuera exactamente as. +Qu tal si fuera un viaje a Roma con todos los gastos pagados, transportacin, desayuno, pero no incluye caf en la maana. +Si quieres caf lo tienes que pagar y cuesta 2 euros 50. +De alguna forma, dado que puedes tener Roma con caf, por qu querras Roma sin caf? +Es como que te roben el coche, es una opcin inferior. +Pero qu creen que pasa, en el momento que agregamos Roma sin caf, Roma con caf se vuelve ms popular y la gente lo escoge. +El hecho de tener Roma sin caf, hace que Roma con caf se vea superior y no slo a Roma sin caf, sino incluso a Pars. +Aqu tengo dos ejemplos de este principio. +Este fue un anuncio de The Economist de hace algunos aos en que nos daban tres opciones. Una suscripcin en lnea por 59 dlares, Una suscripcin de la edicin impresa por 125 o podas tener las dos por 125. +Mir esto y llame a The Economist. Trataba de descifrar que estaban pensando. +Y me pasaron de una persona a otra y a otra, hasta que finalmente llegu con la persona a cargo del sitio web. Les llam y fueron a revisar qu estaba pasando. +Lo siguiente que supe fue que el anuncio desapareci sin explicacin alguna. +As que decid hacer el experimento que me hubiera encantado que The Economist hubiese hecho conmigo. +Agarr el anunci y se lo d a 100 estudiantes del MIT. +Dije: "Cul escogeran? +stas son las cuotas de mercado. La mayora quiso la opcin combinada. +Afortunadamente nadie quiso la opcin dominada, +esto significa que los estudiantes pueden leer. +Pero si tienes una opcin que nadie quiere la puedes retirar cierto? +Entonces imprim otra versin del anuncio, donde elimin la opcin de en medio. +Se la d a otros 100 estudiantes y esto fue lo que pas. Ahora la versin ms popular se volvi la menos popular y la menos popular se volvi la ms popular. +Lo que estaba pasando era que la opcin que era intil, la de en medio, era intil en el sentido de que nadie la quera, +pero no era intil en el sentido de que le serva a la gente para figurarse que era lo que queran. +De hecho, relativo a la opcin en medio, que era la de slo tener la impresa por 125, la impresa con la web por 125 la hacan ver un ganga fantstica +y como consecuencia, la gente la escoga. +La idea general aqu, por cierto, es que no conocemos tan bien nuestras preferencias. +Y como no conocemos tan bien nuestras preferencias somos susceptibles a todas estas influencias de fuerzas externas, a las omisiones, a las opciones particulares que se nos presentan y as sucesivamente. +Otro ejemplo de esto. +La gente cree que cuando tratamos con la atraccin fsica, vemos a alguien e inmediatamente sabemos si nos gusta o no, si nos atrae o no. +Por eso tenemos estas citas de cuatro minutos. +Entonces decid hacer un experimento con personas +Les mostrar imgenes de personas no reales. El experimento era con personas. +Les mostraba una foto de Tom y una foto de Jerry. +Preguntaba: "Con quin quieres salir? Tom o Jerry?" +Pero a la mitad de la gente les agregaba una versin fea de Jerry. +Agarraba el PhotoShop y haca a Jerry ligeramente menos atractivo. +A las otras personas, les agregaba una versin fea de Tom. +Y la pregunta era: Jerry feo y Tom feo ayudarn a sus respectivos ms atractivos hermanos? +La respuesta es un contundente s. +Cuando Jerry feo andaba aqu, Jerry era popular. +Cuando Tom ms feo andaba aqu, Tom era popular. +Esto por supuesto tiene dos muy claras implicaciones en la vida en general. +Cuando sales a recorrer bares con quin quieres ir? +Quieres una versin ligeramente ms fea de ti. +Similar, similar pero ligeramente ms fea. +El segundo punto, por supuesto, es que si alguien ms te invita a ti, ya sabes que piensan de ti. +Ahora s ya lo entendieron. +Cul es el punto general? +Es que es que cuando pensamos sobre economa tenemos esta visin hermosa de la naturaleza humana. +"Qu maravilla es el hombre! Qu noble su razn!" +Tenemos esta visin de nosotros, de otros. +La perspectiva de la economa de la conducta es ligeramente menos generosa con la gente. De hecho, en trminos mdicos, sta es nuestra perspectiva. +Pero hay un lado positivo, +yo creo que el lado positivo es como la razn por la cual la economa de la conducta es interesante y emocionante. +Somos Superman o somos Homero Simpson? +Cuando se trata de construir el mundo fsico, como que entendemos nuestras limitaciones. +Construimos escalones; construimos estas cosas +que no todos pueden usar, obviamente. +Entendemos nuestras limitaciones y construimos alrededor de ellas. +Pero por alguna razn cuando se trata del mundo mental, cuando diseamos cosas como el sistema de salud y retiro y mercados de valores de alguna forma olvidamos la idea de que estamos limitados. +Creo que si entendiramos nuestras limitaciones cognitivas en la misma manera en que entendemos nuestras limitaciones fsicas, aun cuando no nos parezcan similares podremos disear un mundo mejor. Y eso, creo es la esperanza de esto. +Muchsimas gracias. +Bien, les voy a mostrar un par de imgenes de un artculo muy divertido de la Revista de Ultrasonido de Medicina. +Me voy a aventurar en decir que es el artculo ms divertido que se haya publicado en la Revista de Ultrasonido de Medicina. +El titulo es "Observaciones de masturbacin en el tero" +Bien, a la izquierda pueden ver una mano, esa es la flecha grande; a la derecha ven el pene y la mano rondando +y por aqu tenemos, en las palabras del radilogo Israel Meisner: "La mano agarrando el pene en una forma que asemeja movimientos masturbatorios." +Tengan en mente que era un ultrasonido, as que pudieron ser imgenes en movimiento. +El orgasmo es un reflejo del sistema nervioso autnomo, +es parte del sistema nervioso que trata con las cosas de las que no tenemos control consciente; como la digestin, el ritmo cardiaco, la excitacin sexual. +Y el reflejo del orgasmo se puede disparar por una gama sorprendente amplia de estmulos. +Estimulacin genital, bah. +Pero tambin Kinsey entrevist una mujer que poda llegar al orgasmo si alguien le acariciaba la ceja. +Personas con daos en la mdula espinal como paraplejias, cuadriplegias, con frecuencia desarrollan reas muy muy sensibles justo arriba del nivel de su herida, cual sea el lugar. +En la literatura hay cosas tales como orgasmo de la rodilla, +yo creo que lo ms curioso que me he encontrado fue un reporte del caso de una mujer que tena un orgasmo cada vez que se cepilla los dientes. +Esto era algo en la compleja accin senso-motora de cepillar los dientes que disparaba el orgasmo. +Acudi al neurlogo que estaba fascinado; +revis si haba algo en la pasta de dientes, pero no, suceda con cualquier marca. +Le estimularon las encas con un palillo para ver si eso provocaba algo, +no, era nicamente el movimiento. +Lo que me sorprende es que ahora pensaran que a esta mujer le gustara tener una excelente higiene bucal. +Tristemente -- segn dice el artculo --, "ella crea estar poseda por los demonios y cambi a enjuagues bucales para seguir su higiene bucal." +Es tan triste. +Cuando estuve trabajando en el libro entrevist a una mujer que alcanzaba el orgasmo con imaginarlo; +ella era parte de un estudio en la Universidad de Rutgers, +Rutgers, les tiene que gustar. +Entonces la entrevist en Oakland en un restaurante de sushi. +Le pregunt: "Podras hacerlo ahora?" +y me contest: "Yeah, pero prefera terminar mi comida, si no te importa." +Despus tuvo la amabilidad de hacer una demostracin en una banca afuera. +Fue extraordinario, le tom un minuto. +Le pregunt: "Haces esto todo el tiempo?" +A lo que dijo: "No, honestamente cuando llego a casa seguido estoy cansada." +Me dijo que la ltima vez que lo hizo fue en un tren de Disneylandia. +La sede principal del orgasmo a lo largo de la mdula espinal es algo que llamamos la ruta de los nervios sacros, que est atrs aqu. +Si uno la provoca, si la estimula con un electrodo en el punto preciso, se provoca un orgasmo. +Es un hecho que se pueden provocar reflejos espinales en personas muertas; en cierto tipo de personas muertas, un cadver con el corazn funcionando, +esto es alguien con muerte cerebral, legalmente muerto, en definitiva de salida, pero que se mantiene vivo con un respirador tal que sus rganos estarn oxigenados para su transplante. +Ahora en una de estas personas con muerte cerebral si disparas en el punto correcto en ocasiones vern algo que es +un reflejo llamado el reflejo de Lzaro. +Esto es, lo voy a demostrar lo mejor que pueda, no estando muerta, +es como esto: tocas el punto +y el chico o la chica muerta hace como esto. +Es muy perturbador para las personas que trabajan en laboratorios patolgicos. +Si se puede disparar el reflejo de Lzaro en una persona muerta por qu no el reflejo del orgasmo? +Le hice esta pregunta a un experta en muerte cerebral, Stephanie Mann, quien fue lo suficientemente inocente como para contestar mis correos. +Pregunt: "Entonces es concebible disparar un orgasmo en una persona muerta?" +Contesta: "S, si los nervios sacros se oxigenan, es concebiblemente posible." +Obviamente no sera muy divertido para la persona, +pero sera un orgasmo no obstante. +De hecho suger a una investigadora en la Universidad de Alabama, que hace investigacin sobre el orgasmo; +le dije: "Sabes, deberas hacer un experimento, +t puedes conseguir cadveres si trabajas en una universidad." +Le dije: "Deberas hacer esto." +Y me dijo: "T consigues la aprobacin de la junta de revisin de temas humanos para esto." +Segn el autor de un manual matrimonial de los aos 30, Theodoor Van de Velde, un olor ligero de semen se puede detectar en el aliento de una mujer una hora despus de tener relaciones sexuales. +Theodore Van de Velde era algo como un conocedor de semen. +Este el tipo que escribi el libro "Matrimonio Ideal", saben, +un tipo intensamente hetero. +Escribi en su libro "Matrimonio Ideal", que poda diferenciar entre el semen de un hombre joven, el cual deca tenia un aroma fresco vigorizante, con el semen de un hombre maduro, cuyo semen ola y cito: "Extraordinariamente como el de las flores de la castaa espaola, +en ocasiones fresco y floral, y en otras un tanto en extremo acre." +Bien. En 1999 en el estado de Israel, un hombre empez a tener hipo. +Este era uno de esos casos que no paraban, +intent todo lo que sus amigos le sugeran, +nada pareca servirle. +Pasaron los das, en un cierto punto, el hombre +todava con hipo, tuvo sexo con su mujer. +He as que el hipo desapareci. +Le dijo a su doctor, quien public un reporte del caso en un revista mdica canadiense bajo el titulo "Las relaciones sexuales como un tratamiento potencial para el hipo intratable." +Me encanta este artculo porque en cierto punto sugiere que los hipadores solitarios pueden intentar la masturbacin. +Me encanta porque es como si hubiera todo un grupo demogrfico de hipadores solitarios. +Casados, solteros, hipadores solitarios. +A principios del siglo veinte, un buen de gineclogos crean que cuando una mujer tena un orgasmo las contracciones servan para succionar el semen hacia el cuello del tero para mandarlo realmente rpido al vulo; y por tanto aumentando la probabilidad de la concepcin. +A este teora se le llam teora de "pro succin". +Si volvemos a la poca de Hipcrates, los mdicos crean que el orgasmo en la mujer no slo serva para la concepcin, sino que era necesario. +Los doctores de entonces acostumbraban decirles a los hombres sobre la importancia de complacer a sus esposas. +El autor del manual del matrimonio y degustador de semen Theodore Van de Velde, tiene una lnea en su libro; +me encanta este tipo, le saco mucho partido a Theodore Van de Velde, +tiene una lnea en su libro que se supone proviene de la monarqua de Habsburgo, en la que haba una emperatriz Mara Teresa que tena problemas para concebir. +Al parecer el mdico de la corte real le dijo: "Soy de la opinin que la vulva de su ms sagrada majestad tiene que ser excitada por cierto tiempo antes de la cpula." +Al parecer, no lo s, est registrado en algn lado. +Masters y Johnson: ahora vamos ms hacia adelante a los 50s. +Masters y Johnson eran escpticos de la pro succin, lo cual tambin resulta divertido decirlo, +no se la tragaban. +Decidieron, siendo Masters y Johnson, que tenan que llegar al fondo del asunto. +Llevaron mujeres al laboratorio, creo que fueron cinco mujeres y las equiparon con cpsulas cervicales que contenan semen artificial +y en el semen artificial haba una sustancia radio opaca tal que se develara en unos rayos X. +Estos eran los 50s. +Como sea, estas mujeres se sentaban en el dispositivo de rayos X +y se masturbaban. +Masters y Johnson observaban si el semen era pro succionado +y no encontraron evidencias de esta pro succin. +Se estarn preguntando: "Cmo se hace semen artificial?" +Tengo respuesta para ustedes, tengo dos respuestas. +Pueden usar agua y harina agua y fcula de maz. +En realidad encontr tres distintas recetas en la literatura. +Mi favorita es una que dice, ya saben, tienes la lista de los ingredientes y luego en la receta dir, por ejemplo, "Rinde dos docenas de pastelitos." +sta deca: "Rinde una eyaculacin." +Hay otra forma en que el orgasmo podra fomentar la fertilidad, +sta involucra a los hombres. +El esperma que se asienta en el cuerpo por una semana o ms empieza a desarrollar anormalidades que lo hace menos efectivo para recorrer su largo camino hacia el vulo. +El sexlogo britnico Roy Levin ha especulado que quiz este es el porqu los hombres evolucionaron a ser entusiastas y frecuentes masturbadores. +l dijo: "Si me sacudo seguido logro producir semen fresco." +Lo cual pienso es una interesante idea, teora, +entonces ahora ya tienen una excusa evolutiva. +OK. +Bien. Existe evidencia considerable de la pro succin en el reino animal. Los cerdos, por ejemplo. +En Dinamarca, el Comit Nacional Dans de Produccin Porcina encontr que si se sexualmente se estimula a la cerda mientras se le insemina artificialmente se ve un incremento del 6% en la tasa de la camada que es el nmero de cochinillos producidos. +Entonces llegaron con este plan de cinco puntos para estimular a las cerdas. +Y tenan a los ganaderos, psters puestos en las granjas y tenan un DVD. +Y yo tengo una copia de este DVD. +Esta es mi develacin porque les voy a mostrar un clip. +Entonces, ah, bien. +Aqu vamos, la ra la a trabajar. +Todo se ve muy inocente, +va a hacer cosas con sus manos que el cerdo hace con su hocico al no tener manos, OK. +Esto es, el cerdo tiene un repertorio de cortejo inusual. +Esto es para imitar el peso del cerdo. +Han de saber que en el cerdo el cltoris est dentro de vagina, +as que esto debera excitarla, aqu vamos. +Y el resultado feliz. +Me encanta este video, +hay un momento en el video hacia el inicio donde vemos un acercamiento de su mano con su anillo de casado como si dijera: "Todo en orden, es slo su trabajo, de verdad le gustan las mujeres." +OK. Cuando estuve en Dinamarca, a mi anfitriona llamada Anne Marie +le pregunt: "Por qu entonces no estimulan el cltoris de la cerda? +Por qu los ganaderos no lo hacen? +No es uno de los cinco pasos." +Me contesta, tengo que leer lo que dijo, porque me encanta: +"Fue un gran obstculo slo lograr que los ganaderos tocaran debajo de la vulva, +as que pensamos no mencionar el cltoris por ahora." +Tmidos pero ambiciosos ganaderos, sin embargo, pueden comprar -- de verdad -- un vibrador para cerda, que cuelga del tubo alimentador de esperma y vibra. +Porque, como mencion, el cltoris est dentro de la vagina. +Entonces posiblemente, bueno, es un poco ms excitante de lo que se ve. +Tambin le dije: "Estas cerdas, quiero decir, seguro lo han notado, +no parecen estar en la ansias del xtasis." +Me dijo: "No puedes hacer esa conclusin." Porque los animales no registran el dolor o placer en sus caras, en la misma forma que nosotros. +Los cerdos tienden a ser, por ejemplo, ms como los perros +usan la parte superior de la cara, las orejas son ms expresivas. +Por tanto no estamos del todo seguros de qu est pasando con el cerdo. +Los primates, por otro lado, usamos ms la boca. +Esta es la cara de eyaculacin de un macaco rabn. +Resulta interesante que esto se ha observado en macacos hembra, pero nicamente montando otra hembra. +En los 50s, Masters y Johnson decidieron, +bueno, vamos a descifrar todo el ciclo de la respuesta sexual humana. Desde la excitacin y a lo largo del camino hasta el orgasmo en hombres y mujeres. Todo lo que sucede en el cuerpo humano. +Bien, en las mujeres mucho de esto pasa en el interior, +lo cual no detuvo a Masters y Johnson. +Desarrollaron una mquina de coito artificial, +en esencia era un pene con cmara montado en un motor. +Se tiene un falo un falo de acrlico transparente con una cmara y una fuente de luz montado en un motor que se mueve de esta forma. +Y la mujer tendra sexo con esto. +Eso es lo que haran, bastante impresionante. +Tristemente el dispositivo fue desmantelado. +Esto me mata, no porque quisiera usarlo, sino porque me hubiera gustado verlo. +Un buen da Alfred Kinsey decidi calcular la distancia promedio que viaja el semen eyaculado. +Esto no era curiosidad ociosa, +el Doctor Kinsey haba escuchado y haba una teora rondando en la poca, eran los 40s, que la fuerza con la que se arroja el semen hacia el cuello del tero era un factor de fertilidad. +Kinsey pens que era una tontera, entonces se puso a trabajar. +Reuni en su laboratorio a 300 hombres, una cinta mtrica y una cmara de video. +De hecho encontr que en tres cuartas partes de los hombres la cosa simplemente escurra. +No era un chorro o no era expulsado con gran fuerza. +No obstante, el poseedor del rcord lo lanz a una modesta distancia de 2.5 metros, que es muy impresionante. +S, exactamente. +Lamentablemente est en el anonimato, no se menciona su nombre. +En su escrito... en su escrito del experimento en su libro, Kinsey escribi: "Se colocaron dos sbanas para proteger los tapetes orientales." +La cual es mi segunda frase favorita de la obra entera de Alfred Kinsey. +Mi favorita es: "Migas de queso esparcidas frente a una pareja de ratas copulando distraern a la hembra pero no al macho." +Muchsimas gracias. +Gracias! +Hace dos aos aqu en TED Inform que habamos descubierto en Saturno, con el orbitador Cassini, una regin anormalmente clida y geolgicamente activa en el extremo sur del pequeo satlite de Saturno Enclado, como se ve aqu +Esta regin vista aqu por primera vez en la imagen del Cassini tomada en el 2005. Esta es la regin polar sur con sus famosas fracturas raya de tigre cruzando el polo sur +Y slo visto recin a fines del 2008 aqu est nuevamente la regin ahora ensombrecida hasta la mitad debido a que el hemisferio sur est experimentando la llegada de Agosto y eventualmente el invierno +Y tambin inform que habamos hecho este asombroso descubrimiento un descubrimiento que ocurre una vez en la vida. de elevados chorros eruptando de esas fracturas en el polo sur, consistente en pequeos cristales de agua helada acompaadas por vapor de agua y simples compuestos orgnicos como el dixido de carbono y metano +Y en esa poca, hace dos aos atrs mencion que estbamos especulando que esos chorros podran ser en realidad gisers siendo lanzados desde bolsas de aire o cmaras de agua lquida bajo la superficie Pero no estbamos seguros +Sin embargo, las implicaciones de estos resultados de un posible ambiente dentro de este satlite que podra soportar qumica prebitica y quizs vida en s misma eran tan emocionantes que en el intervalo de dos aos nos hemos concentrado ms en Enclado. +hemos hecho volar el orbitador Cassini por este satlite muchsimas veces Volando ms cerca y ms profundo en estos chorros en las regiones ms densas de estos chorros as que ahora hemos obtenido medidas de composicin ms precisas +Y hemos encontrado que los compuestos orgnicos provenientes de este satlite son de hecho ms complejos que los reportados previamente +A pesar que no son aminocidos hemos encontrado cosas como propano y benceno cianuro de hidrgeno y formaldehdo. +Y los pequeos cristales de agua aqu ahora lucen ante el mundo como si fueran gotitas congeladas de agua salada. El cual es un descubrimiento que sugiere que no slo los chorros vienen de bolsas de aire o agua lquida, pero que el agua lquida est con contacto con la roca. +Y esa es una circunstancia que puede proveer la energa qumica y los componentes qumicos necesarios para sustentar la vida. +As que estamos muy animados con estos resultados +Y tenemos mucha ms confianza de la que tenamos hace dos aos que de hecho podramos tener en este satlite, bajo el polo sur, un ambiente o una zona que es hospitalario para organismos vivientes. +Exista o no organismos vivientes ah, por supuesto, eso es algo completamente diferente. +Y que tendremos que esperar la llegada, nuevamente en Enclado de las naves, esperando que sea en un futuro cercano, especialmente equipado para dirigir este asunto en particular. +Pero por mientras los invito a imaginar el da que podamos viajar al sistema de Saturno, y visitar el parque de gesers interplanetario de Enclado, simplemente porque podemos. +Gracias. +Forrest North: El principio de cualquier colaboracin comienza con una conversacin. +Y yo quisiera compartir con ustedes algunos fragmentos de la conversacin con la que comenzamos. +Yo crec en una cabaa de madera en el estado de Washington con mucho tiempo libre. +Yves Behar: Y yo en una Suiza panormica. +FN: Siempre tuve pasin por vehculos alternativos. +Esta es una carreras de yates terrestres en el desierto de Nevada. +YB: Un invento que combina el surf a vela y el ski +FN: Y yo tambin tena inters en invenciones peligrosas. +Esta es una bobina de Tesla de 100,000 volts que yo constru en mi dormitorio, para consternacin de mi madre. +YB: Para el espanto de mi madre, est este artculo de moda adolescente peligrosa. +FN: Y yo junt todo esto, la pasin por la energa alternativa. Y corr una carrera de autos solares a travs de Australia. Y tambin los Estados Unidos y Japn. +YB: De modo que, energa elica, energa solar, tenamos mucho de qu conversar. +Tenamos mucho que nos emocionaba. +De modo que decidimos hacer un proyecto especial juntos. +Para combinar la ingeniera y el diseo y... +FN: Crear un producto completamente integrado, algo hermoso. +YB: Y creamos un beb +FN: Podemos traer el beb? +Este beb es totalmente elctrico. +Viaja a 240 kilmetros por hora. +Tiene el doble de autonoma que cualquier motocicleta elctrica. +Lo realmente emocionante de una motocicleta es la belleza en la integracin de la ingeniera y el diseo. +Tiene una experiencia de usuario asombrosa. +Fue maravilloso trabajar con Yves Behar. +A l se le ocurri nuestro nombre y logotipo. Somos Mission Motors. +Y slo tenemos tres minutos. Pero podramos hablar por horas. +YB: Gracias. +Gracias TES. Y gracias Chris por invitarnos. +Estoy aqu porque tengo un mensaje muy importante. Creo que hemos encontrado el factor ms importante para el xito. +Y fue encontrado cerca de aqu, en Stanford. +Un profesor de psicologa tom nios de cuatro aos de edad y los dej solos en una habitacin. +Y le deca al nio, a un nio de cuatro aos: "Johnny, te voy a dejar solo con este malvavisco durante 15 minutos. +Si para cuando vuelva el malvavisco todava est aqu te dar otro. As que tendrs dos". +Decirle a nios de cuatro que esperen 15 minutos para algo que quieren es lo mismo que decirnos a nosotros "Te traeremos caf en dos horas". +Exactamente lo mismo. +Entonces, qu pas cuando el profesor sali de la sala? +Tan pronto se cerraba la puerta... +dos de cada tres se comieron el malvavisco. +5 segundos, 10 segundos, 40 segundos, 50 segundos, dos minutos, cuatro minutos, ocho minutos. +Algunos duraron 14 minutos y medio. +No lo podan hacer. No pudieron esperar. +Lo que s es interesante es que uno de cada tres miraba el malvavisco y haca as... +Lo miraban. +Lo volvan a dejar. +Se daban una vuelta. Jugaban con sus faldas y pantalones. +Ese nio ya a los cuatro aos entenda el principio ms importante para tener xito. Que es la habilidad para retardar la gratificacin. +Auto disciplina, el factor ms importante para el xito. +15 aos despus, 14 o 15 aos despus, se hizo un estudio de seguimiento. +Qu fue lo que encontraron? +Fueron a buscar a estos chicos que ahora tenan 18 y 19. +Y descubrieron que el 100 por ciento de los nios que no se haban comido el malvavisco eran exitosos. +Tenan buenas notas. Estaban increblemente bien. +Eran felices. Tenan planes. +Tenan buenas relaciones con los profesores y estudiantes. +Estaban sper bien. +Un alto porcentaje de los nios que s se comieron el malvavisco tenan problemas. +No llegaron a la universidad. +Tenan malas notas. Algunos haban dejado el colegio. +Unos pocos seguan con malas notas. +Unos pocos tenan buenas notas. +Tena una pregunta en mi cabeza: Los nios latinos reaccionaran del mismo modo que los estadounidenses? +As que fui a Colombia. E hice el mismo experimento. +Y fue muy gracioso. Us nios de cuatro, cinco y seis aos. +Y djenme mostrarles lo que sucedi. +Entonces que pas en Colombia? +De los nios latinos, dos de cada tres se comieron el malvavisco. Uno de cada tres no se lo comi. +Esa nia fue interesante. Se comi el interior del malvavisco. +En otras palabras, quiso hacernos creer que no se lo haba comido, para que le dieran el segundo. +Pero se lo comi. +As que sabemos que ser exitosa. Pero tenemos que vigilarla. +No debera trabajar en un banco, por ejemplo, o como cajera. +Pero ser exitosa. +Y esto aplica para todo. Incluso ventas. +La persona de ventas que, cuando el cliente le diga "yo quiero eso" y la persona le diga "aqu lo tiene", +esa persona se comi el malvavisco. +Si la persona dice: "Espere un segundo, +djeme hacerle unas preguntas para ver si es una buena compra", +entonces va a vender mucho ms. +As que esto tiene aplicaciones en todos los mbitos. +Termino con algo que hicieron los coreanos. +Dijeron: Sabes qu? Esto es tan bueno que queremos un libro de malvaviscos para los nios. +Hicimos uno para los nios. Y ahora est por todo Corea. +Estn enseando a los nios exactamente este principio. +Y necesitamos aprender este principio aqu en EE.UU. Porque tenemos una gran deuda. +Estamos comiendo ms malvaviscos que los que producimos. +Muchas gracias. +Hablemos de las manas. +Comencemos con la Beatlemana. +Adolescentes histricas llorando, gritando, el pandemonio. +Manas por los deportes. Multitudes ensordecedoras. Todo por una idea. Meter la pelota en la red. +Bien. Manas por las religiones. Hay arrebato. Hay llanto. Hay visiones. +Las manas pueden ser buenas. +Las manas pueden ser alarmantes. +O las manas pueden ser mortales. +El mundo tiene una nueva mana. +Una mana por aprender ingls. +Escuchen mientras estudiantes chinos practican el ingls gritndolo. Profesor: Cambiar mi vida +Estudiantes: Yo voy a cambiar mi vida. +P: Yo no quiero defraudar a mis padres. +E: Yo no quiero defraudar a mis padres. +P: Yo no quiero defraudar a mi pas nunca. +E: Yo no quiero defraudar a mi pas nunca. +P: Ms importante an... E: Ms importante an... +P: Yo no quiero defraudarme a m mismo. +E: Yo no quiero defraudarme a m mismo. +Cuntas personas estn intentando aprender ingls en el mundo? +Dos mil millones de personas. +Estudiantes: Una camiseta. Un vestido +En Amrica Latina en India, en el Sudeste de Asia y ms que en ningn otro lado, en China. +Si usted es un estudiante chino comienza a aprender ingls en el tercer grado, por ley. +Es por eso que este ao China se convertir en el pas con ms angloparlantes en el mundo. +Por qu ingls? En una sola palabra: Oportunidad. +Oportunidad de una vida mejor, un trabajo, ser capaz de pagar la escuela o poner mejor comida en la mesa. +Imagine una estudiante tomando un examen gigante tres das completos. +Su calificacin en este examen literalmente determinar su futuro. +Ella estudia 12 horas al da durante tres aos para prepararse. +25 por ciento de su calificacin se basa en el ingls. +Se llama el Gaokao y 80 millones de estudiantes de preparatoria chinos han tomado ya este agotador examen. +La intensidad por aprender ingls es casi inimaginable. A menos que uno sea testigo de ello. +Profesor: Perfecto! Estudiantes: Perfecto! +P: Perfecto! E: Perfecto! +P: Quiero hablar ingls perfecto. +E: Quiero hablar ingls perfecto. +P: Yo quiero hablar... E: Yo quiero hablar... +P: ...ingls perfecto. E: ...ingls perfecto. +P: Quiero cambiar mi vida! +E: Quiero cambiar mi vida! +Entonces La mana del ingls es buena o mala? +Es el ingls un tsunami que est arrasando con +los otros idiomas? Nada de eso. +El ingls es la segunda lengua del mundo. +Su lengua nativa es su vida. +Pero con el ingls se puede participar en una conversacin ms amplia. Una conversacin global sobre problemas globales. Como el cambio climtico o la pobreza. O el hambre o las enfermedades. +El mundo tiene otros lenguajes universales. +Las matemticas son el lenguaje de la ciencia. +La msica es el lenguaje de las emociones. +Y ahora el ingls se est convirtiendo en el lenguaje para resolver problemas. +No porque los Estados Unidos lo est empujando. Sino porque el mundo lo est jalando. +As que la mana por el ingls un un punto de inflexin. +Como el aprovechamiento de la electricidad en nuestras ciudades o la cada de Muro de Berln el ingls representa esperanza en un futuro mejor. Un futuro donde el mundo tiene un lenguaje comn para resolver sus problemas comunes. +Muchas gracias. +Este es mi primer viaje. Mi primer viaje al extranjero como Primera Dama. +Pueden creer eso? +Y aunque ste no es mi primer viaje al Reino Unido, debo decir que me alegra que sta sea mi primera visita oficial. +Las relaciones especiales entre Estados Unidos y el Reino Unido +estn basadas no solamente en la relacin entre sus gobiernos, sino tambin en el idioma en comn y los valores que compartimos. Y eso lo tengo presente al observarlas hoy a todas ustedes. +Durante mi visita, he sido especialmente honrada al conocer a algunas de las mujeres inglesas ms extraordinarias. Mujeres que estn pavimentando el camino para todas ustedes. +Y me siento honrada de conocerlas a ustedes, las futuras lderes de Gran Bretaa y de este mundo. +A pesar de que las circunstancias de nuestras vidas puedan parecer muy distantes, estando yo aqu de pie como Primera Dama de los Estados Unidos de Amrica, y ustedes, completando sus estudios en la escuela. Quiero que sepan que tenemos mucho en comn. +Porque nada en mi trayectoria de vida hubiera predicho que estara aqu de pie como la primera Primera Dama afroamericana de los Estados Unidos de Amrica. +No hay nada en mi historia que me hubiera trado aqu. +No fui criada con riquezas ni con recursos ni con ninguna posicin social de la cual hablar. +Me cri en la parte sur de Chicago. +Ese es el Chicago autntico. +Y fui producto de una comunidad de clase trabajadora. +Mi padre fue obrero en la ciudad toda su vida. Y mi madre era ama de casa. +Y ella permaneci en casa para cuidar de mi hermano mayor y de m. +Ninguno de ellos fue a la universidad. +A mi padre le diagnosticaron esclerosis mltiple en la cima de su vida. +Pero an mientras se le iba haciendo ms dificil caminar y vestirse en la maana-- lo vi luchar ms y ms-- mi padre nunca se quej de su lucha. +Agradeca lo que tena. +Simplemente se levantaba un poco ms temprano y trabajaba un poco ms. +Y mi hermano y yo fuimos criados con todo lo que realmente se necesita: amor, valores fuertes, y una creencia de que con una buena educacin, mucho trabajo duro, no habra nada que no pudiramos hacer. +Yo soy un ejemplo de lo que es posible cuando desde el inicio de sus vidas, las nias son criadas con amor por las personas que las rodean. +Yo estuve rodeada de mujeres extraordinarias en mi vida. Abuelas, maestras, tas, primas, vecinas, quienes me ensearon acerca de la fortaleza y la dignidad. +Y mi madre, el modelo a seguir ms importante en mi vida, que vive con nosotros en la Casa Blanca y que nos ayuda a cuidar a nuestras dos pequeas hijas, Malia y Sasha. +Ella tiene una presencia activa en sus vidas, al igual que en la ma, y est inculcando en ellas los mismos valores que nos ense a m y a mi hermano: cosas como compasin e integridad, confianza y perseverancia. Todo eso envuelto en un amor incondicional que solo una abuela puede dar. +Tambin tuve la suerte de ser querida y alentada por algunos modelos masculinos fuertes, incluyendo a mi padre, mi hermano, tos y abuelos. +Los hombres en mi vida me ensearon de igual manera algunas cosas muy importantes. +Me ensearon cmo debe ser una relacin respetuosa entre hombres y mujeres. +Me ensearon cmo se percibe un matrimonio fuerte. Que se construye con f y compromiso y admiracin por los dones nicos de cada uno. +Me ensearon qu significa ser padre y criar una familia. +Y no solo invertir en tu propio hogar sino a ayudar a criar a otros nios en la comunidad en general. +Y estas fueron las mismas cualidades que yo busqu en mi propio esposo, Barack Obama. +Y cuando nos conocimos por primera vez, una de las cosas que recuerdo es que tuvimos una cita. +Y la cita fue ir con l a una reunin comunitaria. +Lo s, qu romntico. +Pero cuando nos conocimos, Barack era un lder comunitario. +Trabajaba ayudando a las personas a encontrar trabajo y tratando de conseguir recursos para los vecindarios pobres. +Mientras l hablaba a los residentes de ese centro comunitario, habl de dos conceptos. +Habl de "el mundo como es" y de " el mundo como debera ser". +Y yo habl acerca de esto durante toda la campaa electoral. +Lo que l dijo es que con demasiada frecuencia aceptamos la distancia entre estas dos ideas. +Y a veces nos conformamos con el mundo como es, an cuando no refleja nuestras aspiraciones y valores. +Pero Barack nos record ese da, en aquel saln, que todos nosotros sabemos como debera verse nuestro mundo. +Sabemos qu aspecto tienen la justicia y la oportunidad. +Todos lo sabemos. +Y l incentiv a las personas en esa reunin, en aquella comunidad, a dedicarse ellos mismos a cerrar la distancia entre esas dos ideas, para trabajar juntos tratando de hacer que el mundo como es y el mundo como debera sean uno y el mismo. +Y pienso sobre esto hoy porque estoy convencida de que todas ustedes en esta escuela juegan papeles muy importantes a la hora de cerrar esa distancia. +Ustedes son las mujeres que construirn el mundo como debera ser. +Ustedes escribirn el prximo captulo en la historia. +No solo para ustedes mismas, sino para su generacin y las generaciones venideras. +Y por eso tener una buena educacin es tan importante. +Por eso todo lo que ustedes estn viviendo-- las altas y bajas, los profesores que les gustan y los profesores que no-- es tan importante. +Porque las comunidades y los paises y en ltima instancia el mundo, son solo tan fuertes como la salud de sus mujeres. +Y eso es importante tenerlo en cuenta. +Una parte de esa salud incluye una educacin sobresaliente. +La diferencia entre una familia necesitada y una saludable es a menudo la presencia de una mujer empoderada como centro de la familia. +La diferencia entre una comunidad separada y una prspera es, con frecuencia, el respeto saludable entre hombres y mujeres que aprecian las contribuciones que cada uno hace a la sociedad. +La diferencia entre una nacin que languidece y una que prosperar es el reconocimiento de que necesitamos acceso igualitario a la educacin para nios y nias. +Ellas no se permitieron ningn obstculo. +Como deca el letrero ah detrs, "sin limitaciones". +Ellas no conocieron otra manera de vivir ms que seguir sus sueos. +Y habindolo hecho as, esas mujeres removieron muchos obstculos. +Y abrieron muchas puertas nuevas para miles de doctoras y enfermeras y artistas y autoras, todas las que las han seguido. +Y al obtener una buena educacin, ustedes tambin pueden controlar su destino. +Por favor recuerden eso. +Si quieren saber la razn por la cual estoy aqu de pie, es debido a la educacin. +Nunca falt a clases. Lo siento, no s si alguien est faltando a clases. +Nunca lo hice. +Me encantaba sacar "A". +Me encantaba ser inteligente. +Me gustaba ser puntual. Me gustaba tener mi trabajo listo. +Pensaba que ser inteligente era mejor que cualquier cosa en el mundo. +Y ustedes tambin, con estos mismos valores, pueden controlar su propio destino. +Ustedes tambin pueden pavimentar el camino. +Ustedes tambin pueden cumplir sus sueos, y luego, su trabajo es mirar atrs y ayudar a alguien igual que ustedes a hacer lo mismo. +La historia prueba que no importa si procedes de una vivienda de proteccin oficial o de una hacienda. +T xito estar determinado por tu propia fortaleza, tu propia confianza, tu trabajo individual bien hecho. +Eso es verdad. Esa es la realidad del mundo en que vivimos. +Ustedes ahora tienen control sobre sus propios destinos. +Y no ser fcil. Eso es seguro. +Pero tienen todo lo que necesitan. +Todo lo que necesitan para tener xito, ya lo tienen aqu mismo. +Mi esposo trabaja en una gran oficina. +Le llaman el Despacho Oval. +En la Casa Blanca, hay un escritorio donde l se sienta. Se llama el escritorio Resolute. +Fue construido con la madera de un Buque Britnico de Su Majestad llamado "Resolute" y regalado por la Reina Victoria. +Es un simbolo duradero de la amistad entre nuestras dos naciones. +Y su nombre, Resolute es un recordatorio de la fuerza de carcter que se requiere no solo para gobernar un pas, sino tambin para vivir una vida con propsito. +Y espero que al perseguir sus sueos, todas ustedes se mantengan resolutas, que sigan adelante sin lmites, y que usen sus talentos--porque hay muchos. Los hemos visto. Esta ah. Que los usen para crear el mundo como debera ser. +Porque contamos con ustedes. +Contamos con cada una de ustedes para que sean lo mejor que puedan ser. +Porque el mundo es inmenso. +Y est lleno de retos. +Y necesitamos jvenes fuertes, inteligentes y seguras de s mismas para ponerse de pie y tomar las riendas. +Sabemos que pueden hacerlo. Las queremos. Muchas gracias. +Toda la vida humana, toda la vida, depende de las plantas. +Permtanme intentar convencerlos de ello en unos segundos. +Solo piensen por un momento. +Si es que hasta los libros estn hechos de plantas! +Todas estas cosas nos remiten a las plantas. +Y sin ellas no estaramos aqu. +Las plantas ahora estn en peligro. +Estn en peligro debido al cambio climtico. +Y tambin porque comparten un planeta con personas como nosotros, +que hacemos cosas que destruyen las plantas y sus hbitats. +Y ya sea por la produccin de alimentos o por la introduccin de plantas ajenas en lugares donde no deberan estar, o porque se estn empleando los hbitats para otros propsitos, todas estas cosas obligan a las plantas a adaptarse, a morir o a moverse. +Y a las plantas a veces les resulta bastante difcil moverse porque puede haber ciudades u otras cosas de por medio. +As que si toda la vida humana depende de las plantas, acaso no tendra sentido que intentramos salvarlas? +Yo creo que s. +Y quiero hablarles de un proyecto para salvar las plantas. +Y es que la manera de salvar plantas es almacenando semillas. +Porque las semillas, en toda su gloriosa diversidad, son las plantas del futuro. +Toda la informacin gentica para las generaciones futuras de plantas se encuentra en las semillas. +Este es el edificio. Parece bastante sencillo, la verdad. +Pero tiene varios pisos bajo tierra. +Y es el banco de semillas ms grande del mundo. +No solo est en el sur de Inglaterra, sino que est distribuido por del mundo. Luego se lo explicar. +Esta es una instalacin a prueba de radiacin nuclear. +Dios quiera que nunca tenga que soportar eso. +As que si vas a construir un banco de semillas, tienes que decidir qu vas a almacenar en l, no? +Y decidimos que lo que queremos almacenar antes que nada son las especies que estn ms en peligro, +que son las especies de tierras ridas. +As que primero llegamos a acuerdos con 50 pases diferentes. +Lo cual supuso negociar con Jefes de Estado y ministros de 50 pases para firmar tratados. +Contamos con 120 instituciones asociadas en todo el mundo, en todos esos pases en color naranja. +Vienen personas de todo el mundo para aprender. Y luego se van y planifican exactamente cmo van a recolectar estas semillas. +Tienen miles de personas en todo el mundo etiquetando lugares en los que se cree que existen esas plantas. +Las buscan y las encuentran floreciendo. +Y despus regresan cuando las semillas estn listas. +Y las recolectan por todo el mundo. +Las semillas... algunos procesos son muy poco tcnicos. +Se las amontona en bolsas y se las deja secar. +Se etiquetan y se hacen algunas cosas de alta tecnologa aqu y all. Algunas cosas de baja tecnologa aqu y all. +Y lo principal es que hay que secarlas con mucho cuidado, a baja temperatura. +Y despus hay que almacenarlas aproximadamente a -20 C. Eso equivale a -4 F, creo, con un contenido muy reducido de humedad. +Y esas semillas sern capaces de germinar, creemos, en el caso de muchas de las especies, en miles de aos, y, ciertamente, en cientos de aos. +No sirve de nada almacenar semillas si no se sabe si siguen siendo viables. +As que cada 10 aos hacemos pruebas de germinacin a cada muestra de semillas que tenemos. +Y esto es una red distribuida. +As que por de todo el mundo se est haciendo lo mismo. +Lo cual nos permite desarrollar nuevos protocolos de germinacin. +Y significa que conocemos la combinacin correcta de calor y fro, y los ciclos necesarios para hacer germinar las semillas. +Y esa informacin es muy til. +Y luego las hacemos crecer. Y les decimos a las personas de los pases de donde vinieron las semillas: "Es que no solo estamos almacenando semillas para contar con ellas ms adelante, sino que podemos darles esta informacin sobre cmo hacer germinar estas plantas difciles". +Y esto ya est ocurriendo. +As que, en qu punto nos encontramos? +Me complace anunciar que ya hemos almacenado nuestra semilla tres mil millonsima, es decir, la semilla nmero tres mil millones. +El 10 % de las especies de plantas en el planeta. 24.000 especies estn a salvo. 30.000 especies lo estarn el ao que viene si recibimos la financiacin. +25 % de todas las plantas del mundo para 2020. +No se trata solo de plantas para cosechar, como quiz han podido ver almacenadas en Svalbard, Noruega. All estn haciendo un gran trabajo. +Aunque este es al menos 100 veces mayor. +Hemos enviado miles de colecciones de semillas a todo el mundo. Se han enviado especies forestales resistentes a la sequa a Pakistn y Egipto. aqu a Estados Unidos. Las especies de pasto resistentes a la sal se envan a Australia. Y la lista sigue y sigue. +Estas semillas se usan para la restauracin vegetal. +As que en hbitats que han sufrido daos, como la pradera de hierba alta aqu en Estados Unidos, o en tierras mineras en varios pases, ya se est realizando la restauracin gracias a estas especies. Y gracias a esta recoleccin. +De algunas de estas plantas, como las de abajo y a la izquierda de su pantalla, solo quedan sus ltimos ejemplares. +Del rbol del se estn recolectando semillas desde un camin solo quedan 30 ejemplares. +Es una planta muy til, tanto por la protena como para la medicina. +Ofrecemos actividades de formacin en China, Estados Unidos, y en muchos otros pases. +Cunto cuesta? +De media, unos 2.800 dlares por especie. +A m me parece barato. +Y con ello se consigue toda la informacin cientfica que ello conlleva. +La investigacin futura es: "Cmo podemos encontrar los marcadores genticos y moleculares para la viabilidad de las semillas sin tener que plantarlas cada 10 aos?" +Y ya casi lo hemos logrado. +Muchas gracias. +Estaba pensando sobre mi lugar en el universo. y mi primer pensamiento sobre lo que significa el infinito, cuando era una nia. +Y yo pensaba que si el tiempo puede estirarse hacia adelante y hacia atrs infinitamente, eso no quiere decir que cada punto en el tiempo sea infinitamente pequeo, y por tanto algo insignificante. +As que no tenemos realmente un lugar en el universo, con respecto a la lnea del tiempo. +Pero tampoco lo tiene ninguna otra cosa. +Por ello cada momento es el momento ms importante que jams sucedi, incluyendo este momento, ahora mismo. +Y entonces esta msica que estn por escuchar tal vez sea la msica ms importante que escucharn en su vida. +Gracias. +Para aquellos de ustedes que yo tenga la suerte de conocer ms tarde, podran por favor abstenerse de decir, "Oh dios mo, eres mucho ms pequea en la vida real." +Porque es como si el escenario fuera una ilusin ptica, por alguna razn. +Algo parecido a la curvatura del universo. +No s lo que es. Me preguntan mucho en las entrevistas, "Dios mo, tus guitarras son tan gigantescas!" +"Seguro son hechas a la medida, guitarras especiales, enormes." +Muchas gracias. +Los Rectores de Universidades no son las primeras personas que vienen a la mente cuando el tema es: Los usos de la Imaginacin Creativa. +As que pens en comenzar por decirles como es que llegu aqu +La historia comienza al final de los noventas. +Fu invitada a reunirme con destacados educadores de los recin liberados pases de Europa del Este y Rusia +Estos pases estaban tratando de resolver el como reconstrur sus universidades. +Debido a que la educacin bajo la antigua Unin Sovitica era escencialmente propaganda sirviendo los propsitos de una ideologa de estado ellos se percataron de que tomara una serie de transformaciones masivas si el objetivo era proveer una educacin digna de hombres y mujeres libres. +Dada esta rara oportunidad de un nuevo comienzo ellos escogieron las artes liberales como el ms convincente modelo educativo dado su compromiso histrico en avanzar lo mas posible el amplio intelecto de sus estudiantes y su mas profundo potencial tico. +Habiendo tomado esta decisin decidieron venir a los Estados Unidos, cuna de la educacin de las artes liberales para hablar con algunos de nosotros mas cercanamente identificados con este tipo de educacin. +Ellos nos hablaron con una pasin, una urgencia, y una conviccin intelectual que para m era una voz que no haba escuchado en dcadas, un sueo largamente olvidado. +Porque en realidad nos encontrbamos a aos luz de las pasiones que los animaban. +Pero para m, a diferencia de ellos, en mi mundo, la pizarra no estaba limpia. Y lo que estaba escrito en ella, no era alentador. +En realidad, la educacin de las artes liberales ya no existe, por lo menos no la educacin genuna de artes liberales, en este pas. +Hemos profesionalizado las artes liberales hasta el extremo de no proveer la envergadura de aplicaciones y la mejorada capacidad para un compromiso cvico que es su sello. +En este siglo que ha pasado el experto ha destronado al generalista educado, para convertirse en el nico modelo de la realizacin intelectual. El experto ha sido til en sus momentos. +Pero el precio de su dominio es enorme. +Temas acadmicos han sido divididos en partes cada vez ms y ms pequeas con mayor nfasis en lo tcnico y lo obscuro. +Y hasta hemos logrado hacer arcaico, el estudio de la literatura. +Pudieran pensar que tienen una idea de lo que pasa en aquella novela de Jane Austen eso es, hasta que te encuentras por primera vez con el desconstructivismo moderno. +La evolucin actual del estudiante universitario es la de eliminar todo inters a excepcin de uno. +Y dentro de ese inters, continuar reduciendo el enfoque. Aprendiendo ms y ms acerca de menos y menos. Esto a pesar de toda la evidencia a nuestro alrededor de la interconeccin de todas las cosas. +Y si pensaras que estoy exagerando, Aqu muesto los principios del A-B-C de antropologa. +Conforme uno va subiendo la escalera, valores distintos a las aptitudes tcnicas son vistos con creciente sospecha. +Preguntas como "Qu mundo estamos haciendo? +Qu mundo deberamos de hacer? +Qu mundo podramos estar haciendo? +son tratados con ms y ms escepticismo y quitados de la mesa. +Al hacer sto, los guardianes de la democracia secular estn en efecto cediendo la coneccin entre educacin y valores a los fundamentalstas. Quienes, pueden estar seguros, no tienen el ms remoto inters de usar la educacin para promover sus valores, los absolutos de una teocracia. +Mientras tanto, los valores y voces de la democracia estn en silencio. +O hemos perdido el contacto con estos valores, o peor an, creemos que no son necesarios o no es posible ensearlos. +sta renuencia a los valores sociales pueden parecer contrarios a la explosin de programas de servicio comunitario. +Pero a pesar de la atencin prestada a estos esfuerzos, se mantienen enfticamente extracurricular. +De hecho, tener espritu cvico es tratado fuera de las esferas que tienen por objeto los pensamientos serios y propsitos adultos. +Sencillamente puesto, cuando el impulso es el de cambiar el mundo la academia est ms propensa a engendrar una enseanza de impotencia en vez de crear un sentimiento de poder. +Cuando la distancia astronmica entre las realidades de la academia y la intensidad visionaria de este desafo fueren ms que suficiente, yo les puedo asegurar, por dar una pausa, que lo que estaba pasando fuera de la educacin superior hizo el retroceder inconcebible. +Ya sean amenazas al medio ambiente, desigualdades en la distribucin de riquezas, falta de plizas sanas o sostenibles en lo que respecta a los contnuos usos de energa. Estbamos en una situacin desesperante. +Y esto era solo el principio. +La corrupcin de nuestra vida poltica se haba convertido en una pesadilla viviente. Nada estaba fuera de su alcance. La separacin de los poderes, las libertades cvicas, el reglamento de la ley, la relacin entre la iglesia y el estado. +Acompaadas por un despilfarro de la riqueza material de la nacin que desafa la credulidad. +Una horrenda predisposicin al uso de la fuerza se ha convertido en algo comn. Y de igual disgusto a las maneras alternativas de influencia. +Al mismo tiempo, todo nuesto arsenal de fuego fue impotente cuando se trat de detener o siquiera reducir las matanzas en Rwanda, Darfur, Myanmar. +Nuestra educacin pblica, una vez modelo para el mundo, se ha convertido en la ms sobresaliente por sus fracasos. +El dominio de habilidades bsicas y un escaso mnimo de alfabetismo cultural elude grandes nmeros de nuestros estudiantes. +A pesar de tener una establecimiento de investigacin que es la envidia del mundo, ms de la mitad del pueblo americano no cree en la evolucin. +Y no presionen tu suerte acerca de que tanto , aquellos que si creen, realmente la entienden. +Increblemente, esta nacin, con todos sus recursos materiales, intelectuales y espirituales, se encuentra absolutamente indefensa para revertir la cada libre en cualquiera de estas reas. +Igualmente sorprendente para mi punto de vista es el hecho de que nadie ha hecho ninguna conexin entre lo que est pasando en el establecimiento poltico, y lo que est pasando en nuestras destacadas instituciones educativas. +Puede ser que estemos al principio de la lista cuando se trata de influenciar el accesso a la riqueza personal. +Pero no estamos ni siquiera en la lista cuando se trata de nuestra responsabilidad por la salud de esta democracia. +Estamos jugando con fuego. +Tenganlo por seguro que Jefferson saba de lo que hablaba cuando dijo, " Si una nacin espera ser libre e ignorante en un estado de civilizacin, espera lo que nnca fu, y lo que nnca ser." +En una nota personal, sta traicin a nuestros principios, nuestra decencia, nuestra esperanza, hacen imposible para m el evitar la pregunta, "Que voy a decir, en un futuro, cuando la gente me pregunte, 'Y dnde estabas t? Como rectora de un destacado colegio de artes liberales, famoso por su historia inovadora, no hubo excusa alguna. +As que la conversacin empez en Bennington. +Sabiendo que si queramos retomar la integridad de la educacin liberal, requerira el replantear radicalmente las hiptesis bsicas, comenzando con nuestras prioridades. +Mejorar el bien pblico se convierte en un objetivo primario. +El logro de la virtud cvica esta ligada al mas grande desafo de los usos del intelecto y la imaginacin. +Parar de cabeza nuestras maneras de abordar organizacin y autoridad para que refleje la realidad de que nadie tiene las respuestas a los desafos enfrentando a los ciudadanos en este siglo, y todos tienen la responsabilidad de intentar y participar para encontrar las respuestas. +Bennington continuar la enseanza de las artes y las ciencias como reas de sumergimiento que reconocen las diferencias entre los objetivos personales y profesionales. +Pero an con los balances corregidos, nuestros propsitos comunes asumen una igual o mayor importancia. +Cuando el diseo emergi, fue sorprendentemente simple y directo. +La idea es el hacer los retos socio-polticos a s msmos, desde salud y educacin, hasta los usos de fuerza, los organizadores del plan de estudio. +Estos asumirian el papel dominante de las disciplinas tradicionales. +Pero las estructuras diseadas para conectar en vez de dividir, crculos mutuamente dependientes, en vez de tringulos que aslan. +Y el propsito no es el tratar estos temas como temas de estudio, si no como marcos de accin. +El reto, es averiguar que se necesita para realmente hacer algo que haga una diferencia significante y sostenible. +Contrario a lo que la mayora asume, un nfasis en acciones provee una urgencia especial para pensar. +La importancia de llegar a entender valores como justicia, igualdad, verdad, se vuelven cada vez ms evidente conforme los estudiantes descubren que los interses solos no pueden decirles lo que necesitan saber cuando el propsito es reformular la educacin, nuestra manera de abordar la salud pblica, o las estrategias para alcanzar una economa de igualdad. +La importancia del pasado tiene relevancia. Provee mucha compaa. +T no eres el primero en tratar de decifrar el problema, asi como es poco probable que seas el ltimo. +An de ms importancia, la historia provee un laboratorio en el cual se puede observar lo que pas, as tambin como las previstas consecuencias de ideas. +Como diran mis estudiantes, " Los pensamientos profundos tienen importancia cuando ests contemplando que hacer sobre las cosas que realmente importan." +Nuevas artes liberales que puedan sostener ste plan de estudios orientado a la accin ha empezado a emerger. +Retrica; el arte de organizar el mundo de las palabras para un efecto mximo. +Diseo; el arte de organizar el mundo de las cosas. +La meditacin e improvizacin tambin asmen un lugar especial en este nuevo Partenn. +El razonamiento cuantitativo alcanza su lugar adecuado en el corazn de lo que es necesario para dirigir el cambio en donde la medicin es muy importante. +As como la capacidad de discriminar sistemticamente entre lo que est en el centro y lo que est en la periferia. +Y cuando el hacer correcines es fundamental el poder de la tecnologa emerge con una intensidad especial. +De la misma manera lo hace la importancia del contenido. +Cuanto ms poderoso nuestro alcance, es ms importante el preguntar "Acerca de qu?" +Cuando la improvisacin, el ingenio, e imaginacin son clave, los artistas, por fin, toman su lugar en la mesa, cuando las estrategias de accin estn en proceso de ser diseadas. +En este ideal dramticamente expandido de la educacin de las artes liberales en donde la continuidad del pensamiento y accin es su sangre de vida, el conocimiento obtenido afuera de la academia se vuelve escencial. +Activistas sociales, lderes de empresas, abogados, polticos, profesionistas se unirn al profesorado como participantes activos y contnuos en ste matrimonio de la educacin liberal para el mejoramiento del bien pblico. +Los estudiantes, por su parte, continuamente se trasladan fuera de las aulas para enfrentarse al mundo directamente. +Y por supuesto, este nuevo vino necesita botellas nuevas si hemos de capturar la vivacidad y dinamismo de esta idea. +El descubrimiento mas importante que hicimos en nuestro enfoque a la accin pblica fu el comprender que las desiciones difciles no son entre el bien y el mal, sino entre bienes que compiten. +Este descubrimiento es transformante. +Socava la justicia por mano propia radicalmente altera el tono y caracterstica de la controversia, y enriquece dramticamente las posibilidades de encontrar un terreno comn. +La Ideologa, el fanatismo, opiniones sin fundamento simplemente no lo hara. +Esto es una educacin poltica, tenganlo por seguro. +Pero es una poltica de principios, no de partidismo. +As que el desafo para Bennington es el realizarlo. +En la cara de la tarjeta de vacaciones del 2008 de Bennington se encuentra un boceto arquitectnico de un edificio que abrir sus puertas en el 2010 y que ser un centro para el avance de la accin pblica. +El centro personificar y sostendr ste nuevo compromiso educacional. +Piensen en l como un tipo de Iglesia lica. +Las palabras en la tarjeta describen lo que pasa en su interior. +Tenemos la intencin de virar el poder intelectual e imaginativo, la pasin y la audacia de nuestros estudiantes, docencia y empleados. para desarrollar estrategias de accin sobre los retos crticos de nuestro tiempo. +As que nosotros estamos haciendo nuestro trabajo. +Aunque los eventos en estas semanas pasadas han sido motivo de regocijo nacional en este pas, sera trgico pensar que esto significara que su trabajo estaba terminado. +El silencio glaciar que hemos experimentado mientras miramos la trituracin de la constitucin, el deshacer de las instituciones pblicas, el deterioro de nuestra infraestructura no solo est limitado a las universidades. +Nosotros la gente nos hemos acostumbrado a nuestra propia irrelevancia cuando se trata de hacer algo importante acerca de cualquier cosa que tenga importancia acerca del gobierno, ms all de esperar otro cuatro aos. +Nosotros tambien persistimos en ser marginados por la idea del experto como el nico capaz de proponer respuestas. A pesar de la abrumadora evidencia a lo contrario. +El problema es que no hay tal cosa como una democracia viable constituda por expertos, fanticos, polticos y pblico. +La gente continuar y debe de continuar aprediendo todo lo que hay que aprender acerca de algo o de otro. +En realidad lo hacemos todo el tiempo. +Y habr y debe de haber aquellos que pasan una vida entera persiguiendo una rea muy enfocada de investigacin. +Pero este enfoque no puede producir las flexibilidades de la mente la multiplicidad de perspectivas, las capacidades de colaboracin e inovacin que este pas necesita. +Es aqu en donde ustedes intervienen. +Lo que es cierto es que el talento individual exhibido en abundancia en este pas, necesita virar su atencin al colaborativo, desordenado, frustrante contencioso e imposible mundo de la poltica y las normas pblicas. +El Presidente Obama y su equipo simplemente no lo pueden hacer solos. +Si la pregunta de por donde comenzar parece abrumadora recuerda que t estas al principio, y no al final de esta aventura. +Estar abrumado es el primer paso si tienes seriedad acerca de contribur en cosas que realmente valen, a una escala que haga la diferencia. +Entonces qu hacer cuando te sientas abrumado? +Bueno, tienes dos cosas a tu favor. +Tienes una mente. Y tienes a otra gente. +Empieza con esto, y cambia a el mundo. +La tecnologa de informacin crece exponencialmente. +No es lineal. Y nuestra intuicin es lineal. +Al caminar por la sabana hace mil aos predecamos linealmente donde estara un animal y nos funcionaba bien; est programado en nuestro cerebro. +Pero el ritmo de crecimiento exponencial es lo que realmente describe a las tecnologas de informacin. +Y no slo en la computacin. +Hay una gran diferencia entre crecimiento lineal y exponencial. +Si doy 30 pasos lineales: uno, dos, tres, cuatro, cinco llego a 30. +Si doy 30 pasos exponenciales: 2, 4, 8, 16 llego a mil millones. +Es una enorme diferencia. +Esto describe realmente a la tecnologa de informacin. +Cuando era estudiante en MIT compartamos una computadora que ocupaba un edificio completo. +La computadora en su celular es un milln de veces mas barata un milln de veces ms pequea y mil veces ms poderosa. +Es un incremento de mil millones de veces la capacidad por dlar que hemos visto desde que yo era estudiante. +Volveremos a verlo nuevamente en los prximos 25 aos. +La tecnologa de la informacin progresa en una serie de curvas con forma de "S" donde cada una es un paradigma diferente. +La gente dice, "Qu va a pasar cuando termine la Ley de Moore?" +Lo cual ocurrir alrededor del 2020. +Pasaremos al siguiente paradigma. +La Ley de Moore no fue el primer paradigma que introdujo el crecimiento exponencial a la computacin. +El crecimiento exponencial de la computacin comenz dcadas antes del nacimiento de Gordon Moore. +Y no slo se aplica a la computacin. +Aplica a cualquier tecnologa donde podamos medir las propiedades subyacentes de la informacin. +Aqu tenemos 49 computadoras famosas. Las puse en un grfico logartmico. +La escala logartmica oculta la escala del incremento. Porque representa un incremento billonario desde el censo de 1890. +En la dcada de 1950 reducamos los tubos de vaco hacindolos ms pequeos. Al final topamos con un muro. Ya no se poda reducir el tubo y mantener el vaco. +Ese fue el fin de los cada vez ms pequeos tubos de vaco. Pero no fue el fin del crecimiento exponencial de la computacin. +Pasamos al cuarto paradigma, transistores, y finalmente a los circuitos integrados. +Cuando lleguen a su fin pasaremos al sexto paradigma circuitos moleculares tridimensionales autoorganizados. +Pero lo que es an ms asombroso, ms que esta fantstica escala de progresin es observar lo predecible que es. +Pas por las buenas y las malas por la guerra y la paz, por pocas de crecimiento y recesin. +La Gran Depresin no hizo mella en su crecimiento exponencial. +Suceder lo mismo durante la recesin econmica que vivimos ahora. +El crecimiento exponencial en la capacidad de la tecnologa de informacin continuar sin desaceleracin. +Acabo de actualizar estos grficos. +Porque los tena hasta el 2002 en mi libro, "La Singularidad est Cerca." +De modo que los actualizamos hasta 2007 para que pudiera presentarlos aqu. +Y me dijeron: "Bueno, no ests nervioso? +Tal vez el crecimiento no se mantuvo en esa progresin exponencial". +Estaba un poco nervioso porque tal vez los datos estaban incorrectos. pero he trabajado en ello durante 30 aos, y la progresin exponencial se ha mantenido. +Miren este grfico. Poda comprarse un transistor por un dlar en 1968. +Hoy pueden comprarse 500 millones. Y son en realidad mejores, porque son ms rpidos. +Pero vean qu predecible es. +Yo dira que este conocimiento abarca datos anteriores. +He realizado predicciones de cara al futuro durante unos 30 aos +y el costo de un ciclo de transistor, una medida de desempeo en el precio de la electrnica, disminuye aproximadamente cada ao. +Equivale a un ritmo de deflacin del 50 por ciento +y ello tambin es cierto para otros ejemplos como para los datos del ADN o del cerebro. +Y ms que compensamos eso. +En realidad despachamos ms del doble de todo tipo de tecnologas de informacin. +Hemos tenido un crecimiento del 18 por ciento en dlares constantes en todas las tecnologas de informacin en el ltimo medio siglo a pesar de que se puede conseguir el doble de ella cada ao. +Este es un ejemplo totalmente distinto. +No es la Ley de Moore. +La cantidad de datos del ADN que hemos secuenciado se ha duplicado cada ao. +Su costo se ha disminuido a la mitad cada ao. +Ha sido una progresin constante desde el inicio del proyecto del genoma. +A la mitad del proyecto los escpticos dijeron "Esto no va a funcionar. El proyecto del genoma est a medio camino y han completado un uno por ciento del proyecto." +Pero en realidad estaba en tiempo. +Porque al duplicar uno por ciento siete veces ms que es exactamente lo que sucedi se tiene el 100 por ciento. Y el proyecto se termin a tiempo. +Tecnologas de la comunicacin: 50 modos distintos de medirlas. La cantidad de bits movilizados, el tamao de la internet... +Ha progresado a un paso exponencial. +Esto es profundamente democratizante. +Escrib, hace ms de 20 aos en "La Era de las Mquinas Inteligentes", cuando la Unin Sovitica era fuerte, que sta sera arrasada por el crecimiento en la comunicacin descentralizada. +Y tendremos mucha computacin a medida que avanza el siglo XXI para hacer cosas como simular regiones del cerebro humano. +Pero dnde conseguiremos el software? +Algunos crticos dicen: "Oh, el software est atascado en el lodo." +Pero estamos aprendiendo ms y ms sobre el cerebro humano. +La resolucin espacial de la tomografa cerebral se duplica cada ao. +La informacin que obtenemos del cerebro se duplica cada ao. +Y demostramos que en realidad podemos transformar los datos en modelos funcionales y simulaciones de regiones del cerebro. +Hay 20 regiones del cerebro que han sido modeladas simuladas y probadas: la corteza auditiva, regiones de la corteza visual el cerebelo donde se forman las habilidades partes de la corteza cerebral donde llevamos a cabo el pensamiento racional. +Y todo esto ha alimentado un incremento, muy constante y predecible, de la productividad. +Hemos pasado de 30 dolares a 130 dlares en dlares constantes el valor promedio de una hora de trabajo humano impulsado por las tecnologas de informacin. +Y todos estamos preocupados por la energa y el medio ambiente. +Bueno esta es una grfica logartmica. +Representa la duplicacin constante cada dos aos, del aumento de energa solar que estamos creando. Particularmente ahora a medida que aplicamos nanotecnologa una forma de tecnologa de informacin, a los paneles solares. +Y estamos a slo ocho duplicaciones de satisfacer todas nuestras necesidades energticas. +Hay 10 mil veces ms luz solar de la que necesitamos. +Finalmente nos fusionaremos con esta tecnologa. Ya se encuentra muy cerca de nosotros. +Antes estaba al otro lado del campus. Ahora cabe en nuestros bolsillos. +Lo que ocupaba un edificio ahora cabe en nuestros bolsillos. +Lo que hoy cabe en el bolsillo cabr en una clula sangunea en 25 aos. +Y comenzaremos a influir profundamente en nuestra salud y nuestra inteligencia a medida que nos acercamos ms y ms a esta tecnologa. +Basado en ello anunciamos aqu en TED en la verdadera tradicin de TED, la Universidad de la Singularidad. +Es una nueva universidad fundada por Peter Diamandis, quien est aqu en el pblico y por m. +Cuenta con el apoyo de NASA y Google y de otros lderes de la comunidad cientfica de la alta tecnologa. +Nuestro objetivo era reunir a los lderes tanto a maestros como estudiantes de estas tecnologas de informacin crecientes y de su aplicacin. +Pero Larry Page hizo un discurso apasionado en nuestra reunin de organizacin donde dijo que deberamos dedicar los estudios a atender algunos de los mayores retos que enfrenta la humanidad +y que si lo hacamos, entonces Google los apoyara. +Y eso es lo que hemos hecho. +El ltimo tercio de las sesiones intensivas de verano de nueve semanas sern dedicadas a un proyecto en grupo para atender uno de los mayores desafos de la humanidad. +Como por ejemplo, utilizar la internet que ahora es ubicua, en reas rurales de China o frica para llevar informacin sobre salud a las reas en desarrollo del mundo. +Los proyectos continuarn ms all de las sesiones utilizando comunicacin colaborativa interactiva. +Toda la propiedad intelectual que se cree y ensee estar en lnea y disponible y ser desarrollada en lnea de manera colaborativa. +Esta es nuestra reunin inicial. +Pero esto lo anunciamos hoy. +Su sede permanente se ubicar en Silicon Valley en el Centro de Investigacin Ames de la NASA. +Hay distintos programas para estudiantes de posgrado para ejecutivos de distintas compaas. +Las seis primeras lneas son: inteligencia artificial tecnologas avanzadas de computacin, biotecnologa, nanotecnologa que son las distintas reas bsicas de la tecnologa de informacin. +Despus vamos a aplicarlas a las otras reas como energa, ecologa poltica legislativa y tica, a emprendedores para que las personas puedan llevar estas nuevas tecnologas al mundo. +De modo que estamos muy agradecidos por el apoyo que hemos recibido tanto de los lderes intelectuales, lderes de la alta tecnologa en particular de Google y NASA. +Esta es una emocionante nueva empresa. +Y los invitamos a participar. Muchas gracias. +"El mejor hombre." +Yo fui el mejor en obtener y guardar. +T fuiste el mejor en gastar y gastar. Yo era el mejor en zampar y amontonar. Pero quin fue el mejor hombre al final? +S, quin fue el mejor hombre, mi amigo? +T fuiste el mejor con caballeros y damas Yo fui el mejor saqueando Troya. T fuiste el mejor besando bebs Yo fui el mejor en buscar y destruir. +Pero, quin fue el mejor hombre, Viejo? +Quin fue el mejor hombre? +Yo fui el mejor con la improvisacin. T fuiste el mejor en girar los platos Yo fui el mejor en procrastinar. T fuiste el mejor en debatir en silencio. +Pero quin fue el mejor hombre, compaero? +Quin fue el mejor hombre? +T fuiste el mejor en hacer un porro. Yo fui mejor con coca y ron. Te acuerdas de aquella noche en la playa de Ibiza +Los gemelos maor con el culo tatuado? +Pero quin fue el mejor hombre, compinche? +Quin fue el mejor hombre? +Ahora llegamos al punto, los parientes lloran por alguien. +En el pasillo con sus lgrimas de cocodrillo. Ahora que te has ido, ahora que te ests yendo, Ahora que te han cerrado el culo y las orejas, Lo que te quera decir por aos y aos y aos y aos, viejo amigo . . . +es que fuiste el mejor hombre al final. Fuiste el mejor hombre, mi amigo. +Escrib el siguiente poema para mi madre. +Cada uno de nosotros tuvimos una madre. Solo una. Probablemente la persona ms importante de tu vida, si tienes tanta suerte para conocerla. +Seguro que mi madre fue la ms importante en la ma. +Djenme tratar de describirla para ustedes. +Tiene 86 aos. Es dbil. +Blanca, pelo platinado. +Para qu lo hacen? Para qu van las mujeres ancianas a peluqueras para hacer esos cascos? +Tan brillante como un botn. Todos los patos en una fila. +Parece una versin mucho ms bonita de Margaret Thatcher. Pero sin los aspectos suaves del carcter de Margaret. +Escrib este poema para ella. Estas creencias no son mas. +Pero mi madre ha vivido por este credo. durante toda su vida. +"No vuelvas nunca." +No vuelvas nunca. No vuelvas nunca. +No vuelvas nunca a los lugares favoritos de su juventud. +Sigue el camino, el camino marcado. La memoria contiene todo lo que necesitas de la verdad. +Nunca mires atrs. Nunca mires atrs. +Nunca sucumbas a la mirada de la gorgona. +Sigue el camino, el camino marcado. Nadie te espera y no hay nada all. +No vuelvas nunca. No vuelvas nunca. +Nunca renuncies el futuro que ganaste. +Sigue el camino, el camino marcado. No vuelvas nunca a los puentes que has quemado. +Nunca mires atrs. Nunca mires atrs. +No te retires a tu "pasado glorioso." Sigue el camino, el camino marcado. Trata cada da de tu vida como si fuera el ltimo. +No vuelvas nunca. No vuelvas nunca. +Nunca reconozcas el fantasma en la escalera. +Sigue el camino, el camino marcado. Nada est all y nadie te espera. +Ahora, damas y caballeros, estoy montado en mi caballo juguete. +Si cada cirujano esttico a quien le importara asuntos comerciales fuera atado de un extremo a otro en una va frrea, sera yo el que le echaria carbn al tren sin ningn reparo. +Damas, no lo hagan. +No lo hagan. +Ustedes piensan que queremos que lo hagan. Pero no queremos que lo hagan. +Paren. +Dganles que vayan al infierno. +Sus cuerpos son maravillosos como estn. +Slo djenlos. +"A una dama hermosa de cierta edad." +Dama, dama, no llores. +Lo hecho, hecho est. Ahora duerme. +Dobla tu almohada. Seca tus ojos. +Cuenta tus ovejas y no tus aos. +Nada bueno puede resultar de esto. +El tiempo rige todo, mi querida. +Es una locura hacer guera Sobre uno que no ha perdido nunca. +Dama, todo esto es en vano. +La juventud nunca volver. Hemos bebido el vino del verano. +Niguno puede prevenir el paso del tiempo. +Ciruga esttica hasta la muerte. +Lo que se predice en la matriz No puede ser renegado con oro. +Ni puede ser comprado o vendido el tiempo. +Querida, te amo menos? +Me retrocedo ante tu caricia? +Crees que podra cesar los cuidados? +No hay nadie ms hermosa! +Dama, dama, no llores. Lo hecho, hecho est. Duerme. +Apyate contra m, no tengas miedo. Cuenta tus bendiciones, no tus aos. +Los Estados Unidos, damas y caballeros me han apoyado financieramente ms que Gran Bretaa ha hecho, o podra haber hecho jams. +Yo nac en Gran Bretaa, como probablemente han adivinado. +Aun con su peor comportamiento, encuentro que mi reaccin automtica es defender los EEUU de las expresiones desdeosas de europestas que se mueren de envidia jugando su carta griega a los triunfos romanos. +Amrica es un imperio. +Espero que ya lo sepan. +Todos los imperios son, por definicin, cosas torpes, caticas, amenazadoras, burocrticas. Tan seguros de la rectitud de su causa en su infancia como corrompidos por el poder en su vejez. +No soy historiador, damas y caballeros. +Pero parece que los pecados de los EE UU, comparados con los de muchos imperios previos, son de un carcter ms moderado, pero ms omnipresente. +Djenme decirlo sin rodeos. +Si es que los norteamericanos son tan gordos, estpidos e ignorantes, mis queridos amigos de Birmingham por qu dominan el mundo? +"Vivan los dioses de Amrica! +Vivan los dioses de Amrica! +Vivan los dioses del sueo. +Invictus E Pluribus Unum. +Pero cul de ellos impera? +Cul es el Jpiter de Amrica? +Los brahmanes de Capitol Hill? +Las ganancias de un hechicero en Wall Street? +El ojo de un billete de un dlar? +O es la condicin de famosa? +La adoracin de los que odiamos? +O es el culto de vivir para siempre, Si slo cuidramos nuestro peso. +Y qu pasa con los titans de los medios? +O el canto de la sirena de Hollywood? +Qu pasa con los templos de justicia, cuyos sirvientes nos esclavizan a todos? +Qu pasa con la Marca y la Etiqueta? +Qu pasa con el Deporte advenedizo? +Y qu pasa con la Constitucin? Ese matn de ltimo recurso? +Viva el Dios de Amrica. Cuyo poder ensalzan las masas. La conveniencia rige Amrica. La conveniencia es duea de nuestra alma. +As es. +Y si les gustara saber por qu no soy padre- yo, el que por milagro tengo 22 ahijados. La respuesta est en este poema, que me molesta cada vez que lo leo. +"El amor vino a visitarme." +El amor vino a visitarme, tmido como un cervato. +Pero como me hall ocupado, vol, con el amanacer. +A los 20 la antorcha del rencor se encendi. +Mi rabia a la injusticia encerada caliente, como lo peor que hay. +El flujo de su lava aclar todo en su camino. +Camaradas y enemigos se huyeron de su ira. +Pero los amantes no se fiaron, una vez que se disminuy la novedad, Tenderse con un hombre ensangrentado, su terror real. +A los 30 mis poderes me parecieron grandiosos. +Los frutos de mis rivales, los recog del rbol. +Por astucia y por bravatas, noche y da, yo apeleaba y dispersaba los torpes de mi camino. +Y las mujeres estaban dispuestas a fingir y hacer blofes. +Sus chucheras y baratijas costaban poco. +De los 40 hasta los 50, me abland y me puse ms astuto, Las agasaj, como cerdos en una pocilga. +Festejamos y nos deleitamos y nos pudrimos en mugre. Olvidndonos del riesgo, olvidando de escondernos, Olvidndonos de que las flechas del tempo son ms agudas que cuchillos. +Sintindonos mal de estmago, y hartos con nuestra vida. +El amor vino a visitarme, tmido como un cervato. +Pero como me hall ocupado, vol, con el amanacer. +Bueno, hay-- Tengo demasiado dinero y me divierto demasiado en mi carrera. +As que la poesa realmente me choc, damas y caballeros. +Realmente me choc. Estaba un poco enfermo. +Bueno, estaba enfermo. +Bueno, tena una enfermedad muy grave, saben. +Estaba en una clnica. No me permitieron llamar a nadie. +No me permitieron ver a ninguno de mis-- saben, de todas formas. +As que al final le ped a una enfermera que me trajera una caja de notas adhesivas. +Y le ped a otra enfermera que me trajera un lpiz, un bolgrafo. +Y no saba qu hacer. Entonces me puse a escribir poesa. +Era octubre de 2000. +No soy malfico. +Pero a veces trato de ponerme en la posicin de un hombre malfico. +No soy una mujer gloriosa y hermosa, por quien se derrieten los hombre cuando entra en una habitacin. +Pero a veces trato de ponerme en esa posicin. +Sin mucho xito. +Pero me interesa. Me encanta escribir verso histrico. +Me encanta pensar lo que ellos pensaban, cmo era. +Porque aunque muchos de los oradores y muchas de las personas que estn en la audiencia, aunque ustedes no slo pueden ir a la luna, saben que van a tranformar todo completamente. +La clonacin transformar todo. La navegacin por voz transformar todo. +No s. Pueden hacer lo que quieran. +Cada uno de ustedes es tan listo, y mujeres, pueden hacerlo todo. +Pero la naturaleza humana no cambia, amigo. +Mis amigos, la naturaleza humana es exactamente la misma que era cuando mi antepasado- probablemente era mi antepasado-- puso sus manos alrededor del cuello del ltimo Neandertal. y azot al bastardo hasta matarlo. +Creen que no lo hicimos? +S, lo hicimos. +Los matamos a todos. +Palmo a palmo los matamos. +Los cazamos dondequiera que estuvieran. +Rivales por la carne. Rivales por bayas. +Todava lo estamos haciendo, con toda la genialidad reunida en esta habitacin. +Nuestra naturaleza no ha cambiado ni una pizca. +Y no cambiarn nunca. +Aun cuando partimos de este planetecita. y hemos puesto algunos de nuestros huevos en otras cestas. +Y soy tan malo como ustedes. +Pas ocho aos encabezando una de las editoriales ms exitosas en el mundo. +Y a las siete en punto cada noche, me traje unas chicas ya corrompidas. +Nunca hice nada con nadie que no fuera corrompido ya, +Y tom crack cocana, cada noche durante siete aos. +Era como el "Inferno" de Dante, +Fue increble. +Una de las ventajas de crack cocana es que te quedas con una ereccin por casi cuatro horas. +Y te quedas despierto durante 12. +Fue absolutamente increible. +Tengo 22 ahijados. +Qu les digo? +Slo par porque pens en lo que le pasara a mi madre si me descubrieron. +Si eres mujer, acurdate de esto. +El amor de su hijo puede transformar completamente cualquier cosa que hace. +"Nuestra dama vestida de blanco." +Plida era, lnguida; y blanda al toque. +Una amante generosa a quien muchos amaron. +Hombro con hombro, noche tras noche, La acaparamos y la vendimos-- Nuestra dama vestida de blanco. +Respiramos por saborear su caricia cristalina +Nos morimos por tocar el dobladillo de su vestido. +Nos interesamos ligeramente, tartamudeamos, Negando nuestra sed, +Pero siempre hurgbamos a ser el primero a tenderse con ella. +Ausente, le echamos menos, Nos pusimos demacrados y dbiles. +Jugueteamos con su hermana, o amenazamos su chulo. +Se oy decir en Babel, vuelve la dama! +Y all en la mesa la fumamos, en rondas. +Sintiendo el poder por el cual muere la tirana, All en esa hora, nos convirti en sus esclavos. +Haba muchos que queran recibir su beso, +Mi lstima como espuela, Yo hu del abismo. +Pero slo apenas +Yo sola seguir a Malthus. +El suyo era mi modelo mental sobre el mundo. Una poblacin que se dispara en un planeta tan pequeo va a tener consecuencias negativas. +Pero he dejado atrs a Malthus. Porque creo que podramos estar a 150 aos del nacimiento de una nueva Ilustracin. +Y es que +stos son los datos demogrficos mundiales publicados por las Naciones Unidas. +Adems, se espera que, a finales de siglo, la poblacin mundial llegue a casi diez mil millones. +Y despus, lo ms probable es que empiece a descender. +Qu va a pasar entonces? +La mayora de los modelos econmicos se basan en la escasez y en el crecimiento. +Por ello, muchos economistas observan el descenso de la poblacin y esperan ver estancamiento e incluso crisis. +Sin embargo, un descenso de la poblacin va a tener, al menos, dos efectos econmicos muy beneficiosos. +Uno es que un menor nmero de personas, en una determinada proporcin de tierra, va a hacer que invertir en propiedades no sea la mejor apuesta.indicado. +En las ciudades, una gran parte del coste de la propiedad est incluido en su valor especulativo. +Si se le quita la especulacin sobre la tierra su precio cae drsticamente. +Algo que empieza a aligerar una gran carga que afecta a los pobres del mundo. +El segundo efecto es que un descenso de la poblacin se traduce en falta de mano de obra. +La falta de mano de obra impulsa la subida de salarios. +Que aumenten los salarios tambin aligera la carga de los pobres y de la clase trabajadora. +No hablo de un descenso drstico de la poblacin, como ocurri con la peste negra. +Qu pas en Europa despus de la peste? Aumentaron los salarios, hubo una reforma de las tierras, se produjeron avances tecnolgicos y naci la clase media. Y despus de todo eso aparecieron movimientos sociales progresistas como el Renacimiento y, ms tarde, la Ilustracin. +La mayor parte de la herencia cultural ha tendido a mirar atrs, idealizando el pasado. +Todas las religiones occidentales nacieron con el concepto del Edn decayendo a un presente libertino, y suponiendo un futuro oscuro. +Por ello, la historia de la humanidad se considera como una cada en picado desde los buenos tiempos de antao. +Pero yo creo que estn a punto de producirse nuevos cambios. Cambios que tendrn lugar dos generaciones despus de llegar a lo ms alto de la curva una vez que los efectos del descenso de la poblacin comiencen a ser visibles. +Entonces, volveremos a idealizar el futuro en lugar del pasado tan cruel y desagradable. +Y por qu es tan importante todo esto? +Por qu hablamos de movimientos sociales y econmicos que puede que no se dn hasta dentro de un siglo? +Pues porque toda transicin es peligrosa. +Cuando los propietarios de las tierras empiecen a perder dinero y los trabajadores exijan salarios ms altos, aparecern intereses muy poderosos que amenazarn el futuro. +Esto har que se tomen decisiones precipitadas. +Si tenemos una visin positiva del futuro puede que podamos acelerar en esa curva en lugar de despearnos por un acantilado. +Si conseguimos llegar a dentro de 150 aos, creo que vuestros tataranietos se habrn olvidado de Malthus. +En lugar de eso, estarn planificando su futuro y empezando a construir la Ilustracin del siglo XXII. +Muchas gracias. +Qu le est pasando al clima? +Est increblemente mal. +Esto es, obviamente, la famosa vista del rtico, que probablemente ya se habr ido en los prximos tres, cuatro o cinco aos. Da mucho, mucho miedo. +As que vemos lo que podemos hacer al respecto. +Y cuando vemos las fuentes mundiales de CO2, 52 porciento estn ligadas a edificios. +Interesantemente, solo el nueve porciento proviene de los carros individuales. +As que nos fuimos a un bar sushi. +Y en el bar sushi se nos ocurri una gran idea. +Y era algo llamado "EcoRock" . +Y dijimos que podramos redisear el viejo proceso de yeso de 115 aos de antigedad, que genera 20 billones de libras de CO2 al ao. +Fue una gran idea. Queramos reducirlo en un 80 porciento. Y es exactamente lo que hemos hecho. +Empezamos Investigacin y Desarrollo en el 2006. +Decidimos usar materiales reciclados del cemento y de la manufactura del acero. +Ah est el interior de nuestro laboratorio. No hemos mostrado esto antes. +Nuestros trabajadores tuvieron que hacer unas 5,000 mezclas diferentes para hacerlo bien, para atinarle al objetivo. +Y trabajaron extremadamente duro. +As que continuamos y construimos nuestra lnea de produccin en China. +Ya no producimos este equipo en los Estados Unidos, desafortunadamente. +Hicimos la instalacin de la lnea de produccin durante el verano. +Empezamos all, con absolutamente nada. +Estn viendo por la primera vez, una nueva lnea de produccin de paneles de yeso, sin ningn uso de yeso. +Esa es la lnea de produccin acabada. +Sacamos nuestro primer panel el 3ro de Diciembre. +Esa es la pasta que se vierte al papel, bsicamente. Esa es la lnea en funcionamiento. +Lo emocionante es, miren las caras de la gente. +Estas son personas que trabajaron en este proyecto por dos a tres aos. +Y estn tan emocionados. Ese es el primer panel de la lnea de produccin. +Nuestro Vice Presidente de Operaciones besando el panel. Obviamente muy emocionado. +Esto tiene un gran impacto en el medio ambiente. +Firmamos el primer panel solo un par de semanas despus de eso, tuvimos una gran ceremonia de firmas. Con la esperanza de guiar a que se usen estos productos alrededor del mundo. +Y tenemos la certificacin dorada "Cradle to Cradle". +Recientemente ganamos el premio del producto verde del ao, por "La reinvencin del Drywall", en Popular Science. +Gracias. Gracias +sto es lo que aprendimos. 8,000 galones de gas equivalen a la construccin de una casa. +Probablemente no tenan idea. Es como conducir alrededor del mundo seis veces. +Debemos cambiar todo. +Miren alrededor del cuarto, sillas, madera. Todo lo que nos rodea debe cambiar o no resolveremos este problema. +No escuchen a la gente que les dice que no se puede hacer, porque cualquiera puede. +Y estas prdidas de empleo, las podemos arreglar con empleos ecolgicos. +Tenemos cuatro plantas. Estamos construyendo esto por todo el pas. +Estamos produciendo tan rpido como podemos. +El equivalente a dos y medio millnes de carros en yeso, saben, el CO2 generado. Cierto? +As que, Qu piensas hacer t? Les dir lo que hice y porqu. Y s que se me acab el tiempo. +Esos son mis hijos, Natalie y David. +Cuando ellos tengan hijos, 2050, mejor que piensen es su abuelo y digan, "Oye, le diste tu mejor intento. Hiciste lo mejor que pudiste con el equipo que tenas." +As que mi anhelo es que cuando ustedes salgan de TED, vean cmo pueden reducir su produccin de carbono de cualquier forma posible. +Y si no saben como, por favor bsquenme. Yo les ayudar. +Por ltimo, Bill Gates, S que inventaste Windows . +Espera hasta el prximo aos y vers el tipo de ventanas que habremos inventado. +Muchas gracias. +Este es un invento que cambiar al mundo. +El detector de humo ha salvado quizs cientos de miles de vidas alrededor del mundo. +Pero los detectores no previenen incendios. +Cada ao en EE.UU., ms de 20,000 mueren o sufren heridas en 350,000 incendios domsticos. +Una de las principales causas de los incendios es la electricidad. +Y si pudiramos prevenir incendios causados por electricidad? +Un par de amigos y yo encontramos la manera de hacerlo. +Cmo se inicia un incendio residencial por electricidad? +Bien, sucede que las principales causas son aparatos elctricos y cableados defectuosos o mal usados. +Nuestro invento tena que resolver todos estos problemas. +Qu sucede con los disyuntores? +Thomas Edison invent el disyuntor en 1879. +Esta tecnologa tiene 130 aos. Y esto es un problema. Porque ms del 80 por ciento de los incendios elctricos en hogares comienzan debajo del umbral de seguridad de los disyuntores. +Hmmm ... +Consideramos todo esto y nos dimos cuenta de que los aparatos elctricos deben poderse comunicar directamente con el receptculo del enchufe. +Cualquier dispositivo elctrico, un aparato, un cable de extensin, etc. debe poder decirle al enchufe "Oye, enchufe estoy usando demasiada corriente. Apgame antes de comenzar un incendio." +Y el enchufe debe ser suficientemente inteligente para hacerlo. +Hicimos esto: pusimos un transpondedor digital de 10 centavos, una etiqueta de datos, en la clavija del aparato. +Y pusimos un lector de datos inalmbrico barato dentro del receptculo para que se comunicaran entre s. +Ahora, todo sistema elctrico domstico se convierte en una red inteligente. +Los parmetros de seguridad de operacin de un aparato se incorporan a su clavija. +Si fluye demasiada corriente el receptculo inteligente se apaga a s mismo y previene que comience un incendio. +Llamamos a esta tecnologa ICFE Interruptor de Circuito por Falla Elctrica +Muy bien, dos puntos ms. Cada ao en EE. UU., alrededor de 2,500 nios ingresan a salas de emergencia por traumas y quemaduras relacionadas con receptculos elctricos. Esto es una locura. +Un receptculo inteligente previene accidentes porque la energa siempre est desconectada hasta que una clavija inteligente es detectada. Simple. +Ahora, adems de salvar vidas quizs el mayor beneficio de la red inteligente sea el ahorro de energa. +Este invento reducir el consumo de energa global permitiendo el control remoto y la automatizacin de cada enchufe en cada hogar y empresa. +Ahora pueden reducir su cuenta de consumo elctrico apagando automticamente las cargas pesadas como aires acondicionados y calentadores. +Los hoteles y las empresas podrn desconectar cuartos no usados desde una ubicacin central o incluso con un telfono celular. +Hay 10 mil millones de enchufes tan solo en Norteamrica. +El ahorro potencial de energa es muy, muy significativo. +Hasta ahora hemos solicitado 414 patentes. +De estas, nos han otorgado 186. 228 estn en trmite. +Y me da gusto anunciarles que hace solo tres semanas recibimos nuestro primer reconocimiento internacional, el Premio CES 2009 a la Innovacin. +En conclusin, la energa inteligente puede salvar miles de vidas en el mundo prevenir decenas de miles de heridos y eliminar miles de millones de dlares en daos a la propiedad cada ao, reduciendo significativamente el consumo global de energa. +En el marco de la Conferencia TED de este ao, creemos que es un poderoso invento que puede cambiar al mundo, +y le agradezco a Chris por esta oportunidad de revelar nuestra tecnologa con ustedes y pronto, con el mundo. +Gracias. +Esto se llama Enganchado a un Sentimiento: La Bsqueda de la Felicidad y el Diseo Humano. +Coloqu un Darwin con una expresin severa, pero con un chimpanc muy feliz. +Mi primer punto es que la bsqueda de la felicidad es obligatoria. +El hombre desea ser feliz, slo desea ser feliz, y no puede desear no serlo. +Estamos programados para buscar la felicidad, no slo para disfrutarla, sino para querer ms de ella. +As que, partiendo de que esto es cierto, qu tan buenos somos incrementndola? +Bueno, ciertamente lo intentamos. +Si buscamos en Amazon, hay ms de dos mil ttulos con consejos sobre los siete hbitos, las nueve elecciones, los diez secretos, los catorce mil pensamientos que nos darn felicidad. +Otra forma en que buscamos incrementar nuestra felicidad es medicndonos. +As que hay ms de 120 millones de personas tomando antidepresivos. +El Prozac fue la primera droga taquillera. +Era limpia, eficiente, sin alucinacin, sin ningn peligro real, sin valor comercial. +En 1995, las drogas ilegales generaban $400 mil millones, representando el 8% del comercio mundial, casi lo mismo que el petrleo. +Estas rutas hacia la felicidad realmente no la incrementado mucho. +Un problema que tenemos ahora es que, aunque las tasas de felicidad son casi tan planas como la luna, la depresin y la ansiedad estn aumentando. +Algunos dicen que se debe a que somos mejores diagnosticando, as que estamos descubriendo ms personas. +No es slo eso. Lo vemos alrededor del mundo. +En los Estados Unidos hoy da hay ms suicidios que homicidios. +Hay un brote de suicidios en China. +Y la Organizacin Mundial de la Salud predice que para el ao 2020 la depresin ser la segunda mayor causa de discapacidad. +La buena noticia en esto es que si hacemos encuestas alrededor del mundo, vemos que unas tres cuartas partes de la gente se considera, al menos, bastante feliz. +Pero esto no se ajusta a las tendencias. +Por ejemplo, estas dos muestran gran aumento del ingreso, pero curvas de felicidad totalmente planas. +Mi campo, el de la psicologa, no ha hecho mucho por avanzar nuestra comprensin de la felicidad humana. +En parte seguimos el legado de Freud, un pesimista, que deca que la bsqueda de la felicidad est condenada al fracaso, impulsada por aspectos infantiles del individuo que jams pueden alcanzarse en la realidad. +Deca "Uno se inclina a decir que la intencin de que el hombre deba ser feliz no est incluida en el plan de la creacin". +As que el objetivo mximo de la psicoterapia psicoanaltica era lo que Freud llamaba la miseria ordinaria. +Y Freud en parte refleja la anatoma del sistema emocional humano - que tenemos un sistema positivo y uno negativo, y que nuestro sistema negativo es extremadamente sensible. +As, por ejemplo, tenemos un amor innato a los sabores dulces y una reaccin adversa a los sabores amargos. +Tambin sabemos que la prdida genera ms aversin que la felicidad de ganar. +La formula para un matrimonio feliz es cinco interacciones positivas, por cada interaccin negativa. +As de poderosa es la interaccin negativa. +Las expresiones de desprecio o disgusto, especialmente, necesitan muchas positivas para contrarrestarlas. +Tambin inclu la respuesta al estrs. +Estamos programados para peligros inmediatos, fsicos, inminentes, as que el cuerpo tiene una reaccin increble cuando se activan los opioides endgenos. +Tenemos un sistema muy antiguo, y muy ajustado al peligro fsico. +As, con el tempo, se convierte en una respuesta al estrs, con enormes efectos en el cuerpo. +El cortisol inunda el cerebro, destruye las clulas del hipocampo y la memoria, y puede generar todo tipo de problemas de salud. +Pero, desafortunadamente, necesitamos esta parte. +Si slo nos gobernara el placer no podramos sobrevivir. +Realmente tenemos dos centros de control. +Las emociones son respuestas intensas de corta duracin a los retos y las oportunidades. +Y cada una nos permite acceder a distintos estados que se adaptan, encienden y generan pensamientos, percepciones, sentimientos y recuerdos. +Solemos pensar en las emociones como simples sentimientos. +Pero, de hecho, las emociones son alertas generales que cambian lo que recordamos, las decisiones que tomamos, y cmo percibimos las cosas. +Asi que avanzar a la nueva ciencia de la felicidad. +Nos hemos alejado de la melancola freudiana, y estamos estudiando activamente sto. +Y uno de los puntos clave de la ciencia de la felicidad es que la felicidad y la infelicidad no son los extremos de una lnea continua. +El modelo freudiano es una lnea continua donde, cuando te haces menos miserable, eres ms feliz. +Y no es cierto: cuando te haces menos miserable, eres menos miserable. +Y la felicidad es otra variable totalmente distinta. +Y ha estado ausente de la psicoterapia. +As que cuando los sntomas de la persona se van, tienden a regresar, porque no existe percepcin de la otra mitad - del placer, felicidad, compasin, gratitud, que son las emociones positivas. +Y por supuesto, esto lo sabemos intuitivamente, que la felicidad no es slo la ausencia de la miseria. +Pero por algn motivo no fue planteado hasta hace poco, enfocar estos dos sistemas como paralelos. +Para que el cuerpo pueda buscar oportunidades y protegerse del peligro, al mismo tiempo. +Y son dos sistemas recprocos con interacciones dinmicas. +La gente tambin ha querido desmontar. +Usamos esta palabra, "feliz", y es un paraguas muy grande. +Y hay tres emociones que no tienen palabras en ingls: fiero, el orgullo por la superacin de un reto; schadenfreude, la felicidad en la desgracia de otra persona, un placer malicioso; y naches, el orgullo y gozo en nuestros hijos. +Ausente en esta lista, y en nuestras discusiones sobre la felicidad, est la felicidad en la felicidad de los dems. +Parece que no tenemos una palabra para eso. +Somos muy sensibles a lo negativo, pero esto se compensa parcialmente porque tenemos algo positivo. +Somos buscadores de placer innatos. +Los bebs adoran el sabor dulce y odian el sabor de lo amargo. +Adoran tocar superficies suaves en vez de las speras. +Les gusta ver caras hermosas en vez de las planas. +Les gusta escuchar melodas consonantes en vez de las disonantes. +Los bebs realmente nacen con muchos placeres innatos. +Una vez, un psiclogo declar que el 80% de la bsqueda de la felicidad depende nicamente de los genes, y que hacerse ms feliz es tan difcil como hacerse ms alto. +Es una tontera. +Los genes contribuyen bastante a la felicidad - alrededor del 50% - pero queda un 50% que no se explica. +Entremos al cerebro por un momento, y veamos desde dnde surge la felicidad durante la evolucin. +Tenemos, basicamente, dos sistemas, y ambos son muy antiguos. +Uno es el sistema de recompensas, que se alimenta de la dopamina qumica. +Y comienza en el rea del tegmento ventral. +Luego va al nucleus accumbens, hasta la corteza orbitofrontal, donde se toman las decisiones, a un alto nivel. +Originalmente, esto era visto como el sistema del placer en el cerebro. +En los aos 50, Olds y Milner colocaron electrodos en el cerebro de una rata. +Y la rata presionaba la barra miles y miles de veces. +No coma, no dorma, no copulaba. +No haca nada ms que presionar la barra. +As que asumieron que esto era el "orgasmatrn" cerebral. +Result que no lo era, que en realidad es el sistema de la motivacin, un sistema de deseos. +Le da a los objetos una llamada "notabilidad incentiva". +Hace que algo se vea tan atractivo que no puedes evitar perseguirlo. +Eso es diferente del sistema del placer, que dice, simplemente, "esto me gusta". +El sistema del placer, como ven, que son los opiatos internos, la hormona oxitocina, est distribuida en el cerebro. +El sistema de la dopamina, el del deseo, est mucho ms centralizado. +Otra cosa que tienen las emociones positiva es una seal universal. +Que es la sonrisa. +Y la seal universal no es slo elevar los extremos de los labios hasta el cigomtico mayor. +Tambin es reducir el extremo externo del ojo, el msculo orbicular. +Incluso los bebs de 10 meses, al ver a su madre, mostrarn este tipo de sonrisa. +Los extrovertidos la usan ms que los introvertidos. +La gente que ha superado la depresin la muestran ms que antes. +Para identificar una visin verdadera de la felicidad, busquen esta expresin. +Nuestros placeres son muy antiguos. +Y aprendemos, por supuesto, muchos placeres, pero muchos de ellos son bsicos. Y uno de ellos es la biofilia - una respuesta al mundo natural que tiene gran profundidad. +Existen estudios interesantes hechos en gente en recuperacin de cirugas, descubrieron que quienes vean un muro de ladrillos en comparacin con quienes vean rboles y naturaleza, los que vean el muro de ladrillos pasaban ms tiempo en el hospital, necesitaban ms medicamentos, y tenan ms complicaciones. +La naturaleza tiene un carcter restaurativo, y estamos sintonizados con eso. +Los humanos, en particular, somo criaturas imitadoras. +Imitamos casi desde el nacimiento. +Este es un beb de tres semanas. +Si sacas la lengua hacia el beb, l har lo mismo. +Somos seres sociales desde el principio. +Y los estudios sobre la cooperacin muestran que la cooperacin entre individuos estimula centros de placer en el cerebro. +Un problema de la psicologa es que, en vez de ver la intersubjetividad - o la importancia del cerebro social para personas que llegan indefensas al mundo y se necesitan intensamente - se enfocan en el ser, en el autoestima, y no en la otredad. +Es el "yo", no "nosotros". +Y creo que este ha sido un gran problema que va contra la biologa y la naturaleza, y no nos ha hecho ms felices. +Porque, si lo pensamos, la gente es ms feliz en fluctuacin, cuando estn absortos en algo en el mundo, cuando estn con otras personas, activas, haciendo deportes, enfocados en la pareja, aprendiendo, teniendo sexo, cualquier cosa. +No estn sentados frente al espejo tratando de entenderse, o pensando en s mismos. +Estos no son los perodos de mayor felicidad. +La otra evidencia es, si vemos un anlisis computarizado de textos de gente que se ha suicidado, lo que encontramos, muy interesante, es el uso de la primera persona del singular - "Yo", ",mi", y no "nosotros" - y las cartas no son tan desesperadas sino ms bien solitarias. +Y la soledad es innatural al humano. +Hay una profunda necesidad de pertenecer. +Pero hay formas en que nuestra historia evolucionaria nos sabotea. +Por ejemplo, los genes no se interesan de si estamos felices, les importa que nos reproduzcamos, que transmitamos los genes. +Por ejemplo, tenemos tres sistemas que soportan la reproduccin, pues es muy importante. +Est la lujuria, que es querer tener sexo. +Y est mediada por las hormonas sexuales. +La atraccin romntica, tiene que ver con el sistema de deseos. +Est mediada por dopamina. Es "necesito a esta persona". +Est el apego, que es oxitocina, y los opiceos, que dice "ste es un vnculo a largo plazo". +El problema es que, en los humanos, los tres pueden separarse. +As que una persona puede tener una relacin a largo plazo, enamorarse de otra persona, y querer tener sexo con otra tercera persona. +La otra forma en que los genes nos pueden sabotear es a travs del estatus social. +Somos muy concientes de nuestro estatus social y siempre buscamos incrementarlo. +En el mundo animal, slo hay una forma de incrementarlo, y es a travs del dominio. +Tomo el control a travs de la destreza fsica, y lo mantengo golpeando mi pecho, y tu haces gestos sumisos. +El ser humano tiene otra manera de ascender, y es a travs del prestigio, que se confiere libremente. +Alguien tiene experticia y conocimiento, y sabe hacer las cosas, as que le damos estatus a esa persona. +Y esa es, claramente, la forma que tenemos de crear ms nichos de estatus para que la gente no tenga que ser inferior en la jerarqua, como lo son en el mundo animal. +La idea de que el dinero compra la felicidad no est muy respaldada en datos. +Pero no es irrelevante. +Si medimos la satisfaccin en la vida, vemos que aumenta con el nivel de ingreso. +La angustia mental aumenta con la disminucin del ingreso. +As que s existe un efecto. +Pero es relativamente pequeo. +Uno de los problemas del dinero es el materialismo. +Cuando la gente busca el dinero con demasiada avidez, olvida los placeres bsicos de la vida. +Tenemos esta pareja. +"Crees que los menos afortunados tienen mejor sexo?" +Y este nio diciendo "Djame solo con mis juguetes". +Es algo que se apodera. +El sistema de la dopamina se apodera y descarrila el sistema de placeres. +Quiero concluir con algunos datos que sugieren que esto es as. +Uno es la gente que experiment un cambio drstico: sinti que su vida y valores cambi. +Y claramente, al ver los valores adquiridos, conseguimos riqueza, aventura, logro, placer, diversin, respeto, antes del cambio, y valores mucho ms post-materialistas despus. +Las mujeres tuvieron un cambio de valores diferente. +Pero similarmente, el nico que sobrevivi fue el de la felicidad. +Pasaron de belleza y felicidad y riqueza y autocontrl a la generosidad y clemencia. +Quiero concluir con algunas citas. +"Slo existe una pregunta: Cmo amar este mundo?" +Y Rilke: "Si tu cotidianidad parece pobre, no la culpes a ella, sino a t mismo. +Dite a t mismo que debes ser ms poeta para descubrir sus riquezas". +"Primero, d lo que quieres ser. +Luego haz lo que sea necesario". +Gracias. +Permtanme que comparta hoy con ustedes un descubrimiento original. +Pero quiero contarlo del modo en que ocurri realmente. No de la manera en que lo presento en un encuentro cientfico, o como lo podrais leer en un artculo cientfico. +Es una historia que va ms all de la biomimtica, a lo que yo llamo "biomutualismo". +Defino esto como un asociacin entre la biologa y alguna otra disciplina. Donde cada disciplina recprocamente contribuye al avance de la otra, y los descubrimientos que emergen conjuntamente van ms all de cada campo individual. +Ahora, en trminos de la biomimtica, en la medida en que las tecnologas humanas se acercan a las caractersticas de la naturaleza, la naturaleza se convierte en un maestro mucho ms til. +La ingeniera puede inspirarse en la biologa utilizando sus principios y analogas cuando son ventajosos. Y entonces integrando esto con la mejor ingeniera humana para llegar a hacer algo que en realidad supera la naturaleza. +Siendo un bilogo, senta una gran curiosidad acerca de esto. +Estos son dedos de gecos. +Y nos preguntbamos cmo los gecos utilizan estos dedos tan extraos para trepar por una pared tan rpidamente. +Lo descubrimos. Y lo que encontramos fue que los gecos tienen estructuras como hojuelas en los dedos con millones de pequeos vellos que les hace parecer como una alfombra. Y cada uno de estos vellos tiene el peor caso de extremos partidos posible, alrededor de 100 a 1000 extremos partidos, de tamao nanomtrico +Y el individuo tiene 2000 millones de estos extremos partidos. +No se adhieren por Velcro, o succin, o un adhesivo. +En realidad se adhieren nicamente por fuerzas entre molculas, fuerzas de van der Waals. +I realmente me complace anunciarles hoy que se ha hecho el primer adhesivo sinttico seco, que no deja residuos. +Partiendo de la versin ms simple en la naturaleza, una rama, mi colaborador en temas de ingeniera, Ron Fearing de Berkeley, ha hecho la primera versin sinttica. +Y lo mismo ha hecho mi otro colaborador increble, Mark Cutkosky, de Stanford. l ha hecho vellos mucho mayores que los del geco, pero utilizando los mismos principios generales. +Y aqu tienen su primera prueba. +ste es Kellar Autumn, mi antiguo estudiante de Doctorado, que ahora es profesor en Lewis and Clark, literalmente entregando su primognito para esta prueba. +Ms recientemente, sucedi esto. +Hombre: Esta es la primera vez que alguien ha escalado realmente con esto. +Narrador: Lynn Verinsky, una escaladora profesional, que parece estar llena de confianza. +Lynn Verinsky: Honradamente, va a ser perfectamente seguro. Ser perfectamente seguro. +Hombre: Cmo lo sabe? +Lynn Verinsky: Por el seguro de responsabilidad. Narrador: Con un colchn debajo y atada a una cuerda de seguridad, Lynn comenz su escalada de 20 metros. +Lynn lleg al tope en una combinacin perfecta de Hollywood y ciencia. +Hombre: De modo que eres la primera persona que oficialmente emula a un geco. +Lyn Verinsky: Aj! Caramba. Y qu privilegio ha sido el mo. +Robert Full: sto es lo que ella hizo sobre superficies rugosas. +Pero realmente los utiliz tambien sobre superficies lisas, dos de ellas, para escalar, tirando de su propio peso. +Y pueden probarlo por s mismos en el recibidor, y ver el material inspirado por los gecos. +Ahora bien, el problema cuando los robots intentan hacer esto es que no pueden despegarse, con el material. +sta es la solucin de los gecos. En realidad ellos separan sus dedos pelndolos de la superficie, a altas velocidades, al tiempo que escalan la pared. +Bueno, me emociona realmente mostrarles la ltima versin de un robot, Stikybot, que utiliza un nuevo adhesivo seco jerrquico. +Aqu tienen el robot. +Y esto es lo que hace. +Y si se fijan, pueden ver que utiliza el despegue de los dedos, tal y como lo hace el geco. +Si podemos mostrarle algo del video, podrn verlo subir trepando la pared. +Aqu lo tienen. +Y ahora puede trepar otras superficies a causa del nuevo adhesivo, que el grupo de Standford pudo hacer, al proyectar este robot increble. +Ah. Algo que quiero sealar es, miren a Stickybot. +Vern algo en el robot. Y no sirve slo para que parezca un geco. +Tiene una cola. Y es que cuando te crees que has entendido la naturaleza, esta clase de cosas sucede. +Los ingenieros nos dijeron, de los robots trepadores, que si no tienen una cola se desprenden de la pared y caen. +De modo que hicieron una pregunta importante. +Dijeron, "Bueno, parece como una cola." +A pesar que lo que pusimos es una barra pasiva. +"Utilizan los animales sus colas cuando trepan las paredes?" +Lo que hicieron fu devolvernos el favor, dndonos una hiptesis que probar, en biologa, en la que no habramos pensado. +As que por supuesto, en realidad nos di pnico, porque siendo los bilogos, ya deberamos haber sabido esto. +Dijimos, "Bueno, qu hacen las colas?" +Sabemos que las colas acumulan grasa, por ejemplo. +Sabemos que puedes asirte a objetos utilizando las colas. +Y lo que quizs todos saben que las colas proveen balance esttico. +Pueden tambin actuar como contrapeso. +As que observen este canguro. +Ven sa cola? Es increble! +Marc Raibert construy un robot saltador "Uniroo" +Y era inestable sin su cola. +Ahora bien, mayormente las colas limitan la maniobrabilidad Como este humano dentro del disfraz de dinosaurio. +Mis colegas realmente probaron esta limitacin incrementando el momento de inercia de un estudiante, as que le pusieron una cola, y le hicieron correr una carrera de obstculos, y encontraron que perdi agilidad. Como era predecible. +Pero por supuesto, esta es una cola pasiva. +Y tambin puedes tener colas activas. +Y cuando retorn a investigar esto, me di cuenta que en uno de los grandes momentos TED en el pasado, de Nathan, hablamos acerca de una cola activa. +Vdeo: Myhrvold piensa que los dinosaurios que restallaban las colas estaban interesados en el amor, no en la guerra. +Robert Full: l habl acerca de la cola como un ltigo para la comunicacin +Puede tambin ser usado como defensa. +Muy poderoso. +De modo que retornamos y miramos al animal. +Y le hicimos subir una superficie. +Pero esta vez le pusimos una zona resbaladiza que pueden ver aqu en amarillo. +Y observen a la derecha, lo que el animal est haciendo con su cola cuando resbala. Esta escena est ralentizada 10 veces. +As que aqu la tienen a velocidad normal. +Y vanlo ahora resbalar, y vean lo que hace con su cola. +Tiene una cola activa que funciona como una quinta pata. Y que contribuye a la estabilidad. +Si le hacemos resbalar una gran distancia, sto es lo que descubrimos. +Esto es increble. +Los ingenieros tuvieron una idea realmente buena. +Y entonces, por supuesto, nos preguntamos, vale, tienen una cola activa, pero imaginmosles. +Estn trepando una pared, o un rbol. +Y llegan al tope y digamos que hay algunas hojas all. +Y qu pasara si treparan a la cara inferior de sa hoja, y soplara una rfaga, o la sacudiramos? +E hicimos se experimento, que pueden ver aqu. +Y sto es lo que descubrimos. +Ahora sto es a velocidad normal. No se puede ver nada. +Pero aqu est a cmara lenta. +Lo que descubrimos fu la reaccin area de enderezamiento ms rpida del mundo +Para aquellos que recuerden su fsica, sta es una respuesta de enderezamiento, sin cambio de momento angular. Pero es como un gato. +Ya saben, gatos cayendo. Los gatos hacen esto. Retuercen sus cuerpos. +Pero los gecos lo hacen mejor. +Y lo hacen con su cola. +As que lo hacen con esta cola activa girndola alrededor +Y entonces tocan el suelo en una postura como la de superman aterrizando. +Vale, nos preguntamos, si llevamos razn, deberamos poder probar esto en un modelo fsico, en un robot. +As que para TED realmente construmos un robot, all est, un prototipo, con la cola. +Y vamos a intentar la primera respuesta de enderezamiento en una cola, con un robot. +Si podemos tener las luces sobre el robot. +Vale, aqu va. +Y mostramos el vdeo. +Aqu est. +Y funciona justo como lo hace en el animal. +As que todo lo que necesitas es un vaivn de la cola para enderezarte. +Ahora bien, por supuesto, estbamos normalmente asustados porque el animal no tiene adaptaciones para planear, as que pensamos, "Bueno, le pondremos en un tunel de viento vertical +Le soplaremos para que vuele, y le daremos un lugar para aterrizar, un tronco de rbol, justo fuera de la caja transparente, y veremos lo que hace. +As lo hicimos. Y aqu est lo que hace. +As que el viento viene de debajo. Esto est ralentizado 10 veces. +Hace un planeado de equilibrio. Altamente controlado. +Esto parece increble. Pero es realmente muy bello, cuando lo fotografas. +Y ms an, mientras se desliza, maniobra en medio del aire. +Y el modo en que lo hace, es que mueve su cola y la tuerce en una direccin para girar a la izquierda, y en la otra direccin para girar a la derecha. +As que podemos maniobrar de esta manera. +Y entonces -- tuvimos que filmarlo varias veces para poder creerlo -- Tambin hace esto. Vanlo +Oscila su cola hacia arriba y hacia abajo como un delfn. +Puede realmente nadar por el aire. +Pero observen sus patas frontales. Pueden ver lo que est haciendo? +Qu significado tiene esto para el origen del vuelo por aleteado? +Quizs ha evolucionado a partir de la cada desde los rboles, y el intento de controlar el planeo. +Mantengan la sintona, que ya volvemos a sto. +As que entonces nos preguntamos, "Pueden realmente maniobrar con esto?" +As que ah est el punto de aterrizaje. Podran conducirse hacia este punto con stas capacidades? Aqu est en el tunel de viento +Y ciertamente parece que puede +Pueden verlo an mejor desde arriba. +Miren al animal. +Definitivamente se mueve hacia el punto de aterrizaje. +Vean los coletazos segn lo hace. Vanlo. +Es increble! +As que ahora estbamos realmente confundidos. Porque no hay reportes de gecos planeando. +As que dijimos, "Dios mo! tenemos que ir al campo, y ver si realmente hace esto." +Completamente opuesto al modo en que lo verais en un filme sobre la naturaleza, por supuesto. +Nos preguntamos, "Realmente planean en la naturaleza?" +Bien, fumos a los bosques de Singapur y el sudeste asitico. +Y el prximo vdeo que vern es la primera vez que hemos mostrado esto. +Este es el vdeo actual, no preparado, un vdeo real de investigacin, de un animal en una cada con planeamiento -- hay una lnea roja de trayectoria. +Miren al final para ver el animal. +Pero entonces segn se acerca al rbol, miren la imagen en close-up. Y traten de verlo aterrizar. +As que aqu viene bajando. Hay un geco al final de sta lnea de trayectoria. +Lo ven? All? Vanlo cmo cae. +Ahora miren el close-up y pueden ver el aterrizaje. Vieron el impacto? +En realidad utiliza su cola tambin. Exactamente como lo vimos en el laboratorio. +As que ahora podemos continuar el mutualismo sugiriendo a los ingenieros que pueden hacer una cola activa. +Y aqu tienen la primera cola activa, en el robot, hecha por Boston Dynamics. +As que para conclur, creo que necesitamos construr biomutualismos, como les mostr, lo que incrementar el ritmo de los descubrimientos bsicos, en su aplicacin. +Para hacer esto, sin embargo, necesitamos redisear profundamente la educacin, para balancear la profundidad con la comunicacin interdisciplinaria. Y explcitamente ensear a la gente cmo contribuir a, y beneficiarse de, otras disciplinas. +Y por supuesto necesitas los organismos y el entorno para hacerlo. +Esto es, igualmente si te interesan la seguridad, el salvamento, o la salud, debemos preservar los diseos naturales, porque de otro modo estos secretos se perdern para siempre. +Y por lo que he odo de nuestro nuevo presidente, me siento muy optimista. Gracias. +Por qu tantas personas alcanzan el xito, y luego fallan? +Una gran razn es, porque creemos que el xito es una calle de un solo sentido. +As que hacemos todo lo que nos lleva al xito. Pero cuando lo alcanzamos, creemos que lo hemos logrado, nos recostamos en nuestra zona de comodidad, y dejamos de hacer todo lo que nos hizo exitosos. +Y no tarda en decaer. +Y yo puedo decirles que esto sucede. Porque me sucedi a mi. +Mientras alcanzaba el xito, trabaj duro, me presion. +Pero entonces me detuve, porque pens, "Oh sabes? lo logr. +Puedo recostarme y relajarme." +Mientras buscaba el xito, siempre trate de mejorar y hacer un buen trabajo. +Pero entonces me detuve porque cre, "Hey, soy suficientemente bueno, +no necesito mejorar ms." +Mientras buscaba el xito, era bastante bueno en crear buenas ideas. +Porque hice todas estas cosas simples que me llevaban a las ideas. +Pero entonces me detuve. Porque cre ser este tipo brillante y no tena porque esforzarme con las ideas. Ellas deban aparecer como magia. +Y lo nico que apareci fue el bloqueo creativo. +No pude sacar ninguna buena idea. +Mientras alcanzaba el xito, siempre estaba enfocado en los clientes y proyectos, e ignoraba el dinero. Y entonces todo este dinero comenz a surgir. +Y me distraje con l. +Y de pronto estaba al telfono con mi corredor de la bolsa y mi agente de bienes races, cuando deb estar hablando con mis clientes. +Y alcanzando el xito, siempre hice lo que amaba. +Pero entonces me met en cosas que no amaba, como administracin. Soy el peor administrador del mundo. Pero supuse que deba hacerlo. Porque yo era, despus de todo, el presidente de la compaa. +Bueno, pronto una nube negra se form sobre mi cabeza Y aqu estaba, por fuera bastante exitoso, pero deprimido por dentro. +Pero soy hombre, se como solucionarlo. +Compr un auto velz. +No ayud. +Era ms veloz , pero igual de deprimido. +As que fui con mi doctor, y le dije, "Doc, puedo comprar lo que desee. Pero no soy feliz. Estoy deprimido. +Es verdad lo que dicen, y no lo cre hasta que me ocurri a mi. +Pero el dinero no puede comprar la felicidad." +El dijo, "No. Pero puede comprar Prozac." +Y me recet anti-depresivos. +Y la nube negra se desvaneci un poco. Pero tambin todo el trabajo. Porque estaba flotando. No me importaba si los clientes llamaban. +Y los clientes no llamaron. +Porque vieron que ya no les prestaba servicios a ellos, Me serva slo a mi mismo. +As que llevaron su dinero y sus proyectos a otros que les sirvieran mejor. +Bueno, no tom mucho al trabajo para caer como una piedra. +Mi socio y yo, Thom, debimos despedir a todos nuestros empleados. +Se redujo solamente a nosotros dos, y estbamos a punto de hundirnos. +Y eso era grandioso. +Porque sin empleados, no haba nadie a quien administrar. +As que volv a los proyectos que amaba. +Y me divert nuevamente. Trabaj ms duro. Y para resumir la historia: hice todas las cosas que me llevaron de vuelta al xito. +Pero no fue un viaje rpido. +Tom siete aos. +Pero al final, el negocio creci ms que nunca. +Y cuando volv a seguir estos ocho principios, la nube negra sobre mi cabeza desapareci por completo. +Y despert un da y dije, "Ya no necesito ms Prozac." +Y lo bot, y no lo he necesitado desde entonces. +Aprend que el xito no es una calle de una sola va. +No lo parece, pero realmente es as. +Es un viaje continuo. +Y si queremos evitar el "sndrome del xito al fracaso." Slo debemos seguir estos ocho principios. Porque no es slo la forma en que alcanzamos el xito es como lo sostenemos. +As que aqu est su xito continuo. +Muchsimas gracias. +He tenido el especial placer de vivir dentro de dos biosferas. +Por supuesto, todos aqu en esta sala vivimos en la biosfera 1 +Yo tambin he vivido en Biosphere 2. +Y lo maravilloso es que puedo comparar las biosferas +Y espero gracias a este hecho, aprender algo +Entonces, que aprend? Bueno, Aqu me encuentro dentro de Biosphere 2, preparando una pizza. +Entonces estoy cosechando el trigo, para poder hacer la masa +Y, por supuesto tengo que ordear las cabras y alimentar a las cabras para poder hacer el queso +Me tard cuatro meses en Biosphere 2 preparar la pizza +Aqu en Biosphere 1, bueno, me toma unos dos minutos Porque levanto el telfono y llamo para decir, "Hey, pueden enviarme una pizza?" +Entonces, Biosphere 2 tena una superficie de 1.2 hectreas y era esencialmente un pequeo mundo completamente aislado en el cul viv durante dos aos y 20 minutos. +Por arriba, estaba sellado con acero y vidrio Por debajo, estaba sellado con un bloque de acero. En definitiva, estaba completamente sellado +Tenamos entonces nuestra selva tropical en miniatura, y una playa privada con fondo de corales. +Tenamos una sabana, un pantano, y un desierto +Tenamos nuestra propia granja de 2000m2 donde tenamos que cultivar todo. +Y por supuesto nuestro propio hbitat humano, donde vivamos +En los aos 80 cuando estbamos diseando Biosphere 2 Nos tenamos que hacer algunas preguntas bastante bsicas. +Quiero decir, Que es una biosfera? +Era en aquel entonces, claro, creo que ahora todos sabemos que es esencialmente la esfera de vida alrededor de la tierra. correcto? +Bueno, hay que ser un poquito ms especifico si se va a construir una. +Y entonces, decidimos que lo que realmente es es que est completamente cerrada a nivel material, es decir, nada entra o sale, ningn material, y energticamente abierta Eso es esencialmente lo que es el planeta Tierra. +Esto es una cmara que era la 1/400ava parte del tamao de Biosphere 2 que llamamos nuestro mdulo de ensayo. +Pero, por supuesto, nada de eso ocurri. +Y durante los aos siguientes, haba grandes sagas acerca del diseo de Biosphere 2. +Pero para el ao 1991 finalmente tenamos esta cosa construida. +Y era el momento para que ingresemos y hagamos el intento. +Necesitabamos saber, si la vida es as de maleable? +Se puede tomar esta biosfera, que ha evolucionado a escala planetaria, e insertarla dentro de una pequea botella, y sobrevivir? +Son grandes preguntas. +Y queramos saber tambin por si querramos ir a algn otro lado en el universo, si quisiramos ir a Marte, por ejemplo, llevaramos con nosotros una biosfera para vivir? +Tambin queramos saber para tener un mayor entendimiento acerca del planeta Tierra en el cual todos vivimos. +Bueno, en 1991, haba finalmente llegado el momento para que todos entrramos y pongamos a prueba a este 'beb'. +Hagamos su viaje inaugural. +Funcionar, o pasar algo que no entendamos o que no podamos reparar? Negando de esta manera todo el concepto de biosferas fabricadas por el hombre. +Entonces, entramos ocho personas. Cuatro hombres y cuatro mujeres. +Ms sobre este tema ms tarde +Y este es el mundo en el cul vivamos. +Entonces, arriba tenamos estas hermosas selvas tropicales y un ocano. Y por debajo, lo que llambamos la tecnoesfera Donde estaban todas las bombas, vlvulas y tanques de agua con administradores de aire, y todo eso. +Uno de los 'Biosferos' la llamaba "Jardn de Eden colocado arriba de un porta aviones." +Y despus, por supuesto, tenamos el hbitat humano, con los laboratorios y todo eso. +Esta es la agricultura. +Era esencialmente una granja orgnica. +El da que entr en Biosphere 2, era la primera vez, que respiraba una atmsfera completamente diferente que el resto del mundo a excepcin de siete otras personas. +En ese momento, form parte de esa biosfera. +Y no lo estoy diciendo de una manera abstracta Lo digo de una manera bastante literal. +Cuando exhalaba, mi CO2 alimentaba las batatas que estaba cultivando. +Y comamos una barbaridad de batatas +Y esas batatas pasaron a formar parte de mi +De hecho, comimos tantas batatas, que me fui poniendo naranja +Estaba literalmente comiendo el mismo carbono, una y otra vez. +Me estaba comiendo a mi misma de alguna manera extraa y bizarra. +Sin embargo, cuando se trataba de nuestra atmsfera no era para hacer bromas en el largo plazo. Porque ocurri que estbamos perdiendo oxgeno, una gran cantidad de oxgeno. +Y sabamos que estbamos perdiendo CO2. +Y entonces estbamos trabajando para "secuestrar" el carbono. +Dios mo. Como conocemos ahora esta palabra. +Estbamos cultivando plantas a lo loco. +Tombamos su biomasa, guardndolas en el subsuelo, cultivando plantas, dando vueltas, y vueltas, intentando tomar todo ese carbono fuera de la atmsfera. +Estbamos intentando impedir que el carbono ingresara a la atmsfera. +Detuvimos el riego del suelo lo ms posible. +Dejamos de labrar para impedir el ingreso de gases de efecto invernadero al aire. +Pero, nuestro oxgeno estaba disminuyendo ms rpido de lo que aumentaba nuestro CO2, algo bastante inesperado. Porque los habamos visto ir a la par en el mdulo de pruebas. +Y era como jugar a las escondidas atmicas. +Habamos perdido siete toneladas de oxgeno. +Y no tenamos indicios de donde estaban. +Y yo les digo, cuando se pierde mucho oxgeno -- y nuestro nivel de oxgeno baj bastante, baj de 21 porciento hasta 14.2 porciento -- Dios mo, que mal te sientes. +Nos arrastrbamos por la biosfera. +Y a la noche tenamos apnea del sueo. +Te despertaras desesperado por tomar aire. Porque la qumica de tu sangre haba cambiado +Y literalmente haces eso. Dejis de respirar y despus -- -- tomas aire y te despierta. Es muy irritante. +Y todo el mundo afuera pens que nos estbamos muriendo. +Digo, los medios lo hacan parecer como si nos estbamos muriendo. +Y tena que llamar a mi madre da por medio para decirle, "No, Mam, est todo bien, todo bien. +No estamos muertos. Estamos bien. Estamos bien." +Y el mdico estaba efectivamente controlndonos para asegurarse que estbamos efectivamente bien. +pero en realidad l era la persona ms susceptible a la falta de oxgeno +Hasta que un da no poda sumar un conjunto de figuras. +Y lleg el momento de incorporar oxgeno de afuera +Y ustedes pueden pensar, bueno, "Vuestro sistema de soporte de vida les estaba fallando. No era algo terrible?" +Si. En un sentido era aterrador. +Excepto que saba que poda salir por la puerta sellada en cualquier momento, si la situacin se complicaba realmente. Sin embargo, quien iba a decir, "No lo puedo soportar ms!"? +Yo no, eso es seguro. +Pero por otro lado, era la base cientfica del proyecto. Porque realmente podramos exigir a esta estructura, como una herramienta cientfica, y ver si podramos, efectivamente, encontrar, donde se estn escondiendo esas siete toneladas de oxgeno. +y efectivamente las encontramos. +La encontramos dentro del hormign. +Haba hecho esencialmente algo muy simple. +Habamos colocado demasiado carbono en el suelo en forma de compost. +Se desintegr, retir oxgeno del aire. Agreg CO2 al aire, y se incorpor al hormign. +Bastante sencillo, realmente. +Entonces, al final de los dos aos cuando salimos, estbamos encantados. Porque, en realidad, aunque se pueda decir que descubrimos algo que era bastante "uhh," cuando vuestro oxgeno est en disminucin, dej de trabajar, esencialmente, en vuestro sistema de soporte de vida, eso es una falla muy mala. +Salvo que sabamos de que se trataba, y sabamos como repalarlo. +Y ningn otro problema se present que hay sido tan serio como este. +Ms o menos pudimos demostrar la validez del concepto. +La gente, por otro lado, era un tema aparte. +Eramos -- No saba que eramos reparables. +Todos nos volvimos bastante locos, yo dira. +Y el da que sal de Biosphere 2 Estaba encantada que iba a ver a toda mi familia y amigos. +Durante dos aos, estuve viendo a la gente a travs del vidrio. +Y todos corrieron hacia mi. +Y yo retroced. Apestaban! +La gente apesta! +Apestamos a desodorantes y productos para el cabello, y a todo tipo de productos. +Claro que tenamos productos dentro de Biosphere 2 para estar limpios. Pero nada que contenga perfume. +Como apestamos aqu afuera. +No solo eso, pero perd el rastro de donde viene mi comida. +Yo estuve cultivando toda mi comida. +No tena idea de que haba dentro de mi comida ni de donde provena. +No reconoca ni siquiera la mitad de los nombres de la mayora de mis alimentos. +De hecho, me paraba horas en frente de las gndolas de los mercados, leyendo todos los nombres en todas las etiquetas. +La gente deba pensar que yo estaba loca. +Era realmente bastante asombroso. +Y lentamente perd la nocin de donde yo estaba en esta gran biosfera en la cul todos vivimos. +Dentro de Biosphere 2, entend perfectamente que yo tena un gran impacto sobre mi biosfera, todos los das, y esta tena un impacto sobre mi, un impacto muy visceral, literalmente. +Entonces segu haciendo mis cosas. Paragon Space Development Corporation, una pequea empresa que arranqu con gente mientras vva en Biosphere 2, porque no tena nada que hacer. +Y una de las cosas que hicimos era tratar de calcular cuan pequea se poda hacer una de estas biosferas. Y que puedes con ellas? +Y entonces enviamos una dentro de la Estacin Espacial Muir. +Tenamos una en el transbordador y una en la Estacin Espacial Internacional durante 16 meses. Logramos all producir los primeros organismos que atravesaron ciclos completos de vida en el espacio. Realmente rompiendo los lmites del entendimiento de cuan maleables son nuestros sistemas de vida +Tambin estoy orgullosa de anunciar que estn recibiendo un adelanto sorpresa -- el viernes vamos a anunciar que estamos formando un equipo para desarrollar un sistema de cultivo de plantas en la Luna. Que va a ser bastante divertido. +Y el legado de esto es un sistema que estbamos diseando. Un sistema totalmente sellado para cultivar plantas en Marte. +Y una parte es que tenamos que modelar una circulacin muy rpida de CO2, oxgeno, y agua, a travs de este sistema vegetal. +Como resultado de ese modelado, termin viajando a muchos lugares, en Eritrea, en el cuerno de frica. +Eritrea, que era anteriormente una parte de Etiopa, es uno de esos lugares sorprendentemente bellos, increblemente duro, y no entiendo como la gente logra llevar una vida all. +Es tan seco. +Esto es lo que vi. +Pero, tambin esto es lo que vi. +Vi una empresa que haba tomado agua de mar, y arena, y estaban preparando un tipo de cultivo que va a crecer sobre sobre agual salada sin necesidad de tratarla. +Este producir un cultivo alimentario. +En este caso se trataba de semillas oleaginosas. +Estaba sorprendida. Tambin estaban produciendo manglares en una plantacin. +Y los manglares estaban proveyendo madera y miel, y hojas para los animales, para que pudieran producir leche y cualquier cosa, como tenamos en la biosfera. +Y todo estaba proviniendo de esto, granjas de camarones. +Las granjas de camarones son una plaga en la Tierra desde un punto de vista ambiental, francamente. +Vuelcan enormes cantidades de contaminantes en el ocano. +Tambin contaminan a sus vecinos. As que estn todos cagando en los estanque ajenos. +Literalmente. +Y lo que este proyecto estaba haciendo, era tomar los efluentes y convertirlos en toda esta comida. +Estaban literalmente convirtiendo contaminacin en abundancia para la gente del desierto. +Haban de cierta forma, creado un ecosistema industrial. +Yo estaba all porque estaba modelando la parte de los manglares para un programa de crditos de carbono del sistema de Protocolo de Kioto +de las Naciones Unidas. +Y, mientras que estaba modelando este pantano de manglares, estaba pensando, "Como se puede poner una caja alrededor de esto?" +Cuando estoy literalmente modelando una planta en una caja, S donde dibujar la frontera. +En un bosque de manglares como este, no tengo la menor idea. +Bueno, claro que hay que dibujar la frontera alrededor de la tierra entera. +Y entender sus interacciones con la tierra entera. +Y colocar tu proyecto dentro de ese contexto. +Hoy, alrededor del mundo, estamos viendo una transformacin increble. De lo que llamara una especie biocida una que de manera intencional o no hemos diseado muchas veces nuestros sistemas para matar la vida +Esta bella fotografa es sobre la selva amaznica. +Y aqu el verde claro nos muestra reas de deforestacin masiva. +Y esas hermosas nubes delicadas son en realidad incendios causados por el hombre. +Estemos en el proceso de transformar desde esto, hacia lo que yo llamara una sociedad 'bioflica' una en la cul aprendemos a nutrir la sociedad. +No parecera, pero lo estamos haciendo. +Est ocurriendo en todo el mundo, en todos los tipos de modalidades de vida, y en cada tipo de carrera e industria que uno pueda pensar. +Y creo que a menudo, la gente se pierde en eso. +Dicen: "Pero como puedo encontrar mi camino en eso?" +Es un tema tan amplio. +Y yo dira que las cosas pequeas cuentan. Realmente cuentan. +Les voy a contar la historia de un rastrillo en el jardn de mi casa. +Este era mi jardn, muy al principio, cuando compr mi propiedad. +Y en Arizona, claro, todo el mundo cubre el suelo con grava. +Y les gusta tener todo bien rastrillado y prolijo. Y quitan todas las hojas. +Y los Domingos a la maana, aparece el sopla-hojas del vecino, y los quiero echar. +Es un tipo de esttica. +Estamos muy incmodos con el desorden. +Y me deshice de mi rastrillo. +Y dej que cayeran todas las hojas de los rboles que tengo en mi propiedad. +Y en en transcurso del tiempo, esencialmente, Que estuve haciendo? +Estuve generando humus +Y entonces ahora vienen todos los pjaros. Y tengo halcones. +Y tengo un oasis +Esto es lo que ocurre todas las primaveras. Durante seis semanas, de seis a ocho semanas, tengo este oasis verde. +Esto es en realidad en una zona riberea +y todo Tucson podra ser as Si todo el mundo se sublevara y tirara a la basura su rastrillo. +Las pequeas cosa cuentan. +La Revolucin Industrial, y Prometeo, nos han dado esto, la capacidad de iluminar al mundo. +Nos ha dado tambin esto, la capacidad de mirar al mundo desde afuera. +Ahora, no tendremos todos otra biosfera a la cul escaparnos para compararla con esta biosfera. +Pero, podemos mirar al mundo, e intentar entender donde estamos dentro de su contexto, y como elegimos interactuar con l. +Y si pierdes donde ests en tu biosfera, o quizs ests teniendo dificultad en conectar con donde ests dentro de la biosfera, Yo te dira, inhalen profundamente. +Los yogis tenan razn. +La respiracin, efectivamente, nos conecta a todos de una manera muy literal. +Inhalen profundamente ahora. +Y mientras que inhalan, piensen de que est hecho vuestro aliento. +Quizs contenga CO2 de la persona que est sentada al lado. +Quizs haya un poquito de oxgeno de alguna alga en la playa cerca de aqu. +Nos conecta tambin a travs del tiempo. +Puede haber carbono en vuestro haliento de los dinosaurios. +Puede haber tambin carbono que estn exhalando ahora, que estar en el aliento de vuestros ttara-ttara nietos. +Gracias. +Quiero hablar acerca del transformado panorama de los medios y lo que esto significa para cualquiera que tenga un mensaje que quiera enviar a cualquier parte del mundo. +Y quiero ilustrar esto contando un par de historias acerca de esta transformacin. +Comenzar aqu. El pasado mes de noviembre hubo una eleccin presidencial. +Probablemente ustedes hayan ledo algo al respecto en los diarios. +Y haba cierta preocupacin de que en algunas partes del pas podra haber supresin del voto. +Y entonces surgi un plan para filmar la votacin. +Y la idea era que los ciudadanos particulares con telfonos capaces de tomar fotografas o grabar videos documentaran sus lugares de votacin estando atentos ante cualquier uso de tcnicas de supresin del voto. Y subieran esto a un lugar central. +Y que esto sirviera como un medio de vigilancia ciudadana. Los ciudadanos no solo estaran all para emitir sus votos. Sino tambin para ayudar a asegurar la inviolabilidad de todos los votos. +As, este es un patrn que asume que estamos todos juntos en esto. +Lo que importa aqu no es el capital tecnolgico. Es el capital social. +Estas herramientas tecnolgicas no llegan a ser interesantes socialmente hasta que se vuelven aburridas tecnolgicamente. +No es cuando las nuevas y brillantes herramientas aparecen que sus usos comienzan a permear a la sociedad. +Sino que es cuando todo el mundo lo asume. +Porque ahora que los medios son cada vez ms sociales, la innovacin puede ocurrir en cualquier lugar la gente puede hacerse a la idea de que todos estamos juntos en esto. +Y entonces estamos empezando a ver un panorama de los medios en el cual la innovacin est ocurriendo en cualquier lugar. Y movindose de un punto a otro. +Esa es una enorme transformacin. +Lo que esto quiere decir, es que el momento en el cual estamos viviendo el momento que nuestra generacin histrica est atravesando es el del mayor incremento de la capacidad expresiva en la historia de la humanidad +Eso es una gran afirmacin. Voy a tratar de respaldarlo. +Slo hay cuatro perodos en los ltimos 500 aos en que los medios han cambiado lo suficiente para ser catalogados de Revolucin. +El primero es el ms famoso, la imprenta. Los tipos movibles, las tintas a base de aceite, todo ese complejo de innovaciones que hicieron posible la imprenta y puso a Europa de cabeza, comenz a mediados de 1400. +Luego hace un par de siglos hubo una innovacin en la comunicacin de dos canales. Medios de conversacin, primero el telgrafo, despus el telfono. +Lentas conversaciones basadas en texto, despus conversaciones de voz en tiempo real. +Despus, hace unos 150 aos, hubo una revolucin en los medios de registro diferentes a los impresos. Primero las fotos, despus el sonido grabado, luego las pelculas, todas codificadas en objetos fsicos. +Y, finalmente, hace cerca de 100 aos, el aprovechamiento del espectro electromagntico para el envo de sonido e imgenes a travs del aire, radio y televisin. +Este es el estado de los medios como los conocimos en el siglo XX. +Esto es aquello con lo cual algunos de nosotros de cierta edad crecimos y a lo que estamos acostumbrados. +Pero hay una curiosa asimetra aqu. +El medio que es bueno creando conversaciones no lo es para crear grupos. +Y aquel que es bueno creando grupos no lo es creando conversaciones. +Si quieres tener una conversacin en este mundo, la tienes con un persona a la vez. +Si te quieres dirigir a un grupo, tomas el mismo mensaje y lo das a todo el mundo en el grupo. Sea que lo ests haciendo con una torre de transmisin o con una imprenta. +Ese fue el estado de los medios que tenamos en el siglo XX. +Y esto es lo que cambi. +Esta cosa que parece un pavo real que golpea un parabrisas es el mapa de internet de Bill Cheswick +El traza los bordes de las redes individuales y luego los colorea. +Internet es el primer medio en la historia que tiene soporte innato para los grupos y conversaciones al mismo tiempo. +Mientras el telfono nos dio el modelo de uno a uno. Y la televisin, radio, revistas, libros, nos dio el modelo de uno a muchos. Internet nos da el modelo de muchos a muchos. +Por primera vez los medios son buenos de manera innata para apoyar este tipo de conversaciones. +Ese es uno de los grandes cambios. +El segundo gran cambio es que mientras todos los medios se digitalizan Internet tambin se convierte en el medio de transmisin para todos los dems medios. Lo que significa que las llamadas telefnicas migran hacia Internet. Las revistas migran hacia Internet. Las pelculas migran hacia Internet. +Y eso significa que cada medio est justo al lado de cada uno de los otros medios. +Para decirlo de otra forma, de manera creciente, los medios son cada vez menos slo una fuente de informacin y son cada vez ms un lugar de coordinacin. Porque los grupos que ven, u oyen, o miran, o escuchan algo ahora pueden agruparse y hablar tambin unos con otros. +Y el tercer gran cambio es que lo miembros de la antigua audiencia, como los llama Dan Gilmore, ahora tambin pueden ser productores y no consumidores. +Cada vez que un nuevo consumidor se une a este panorama de medios un nuevo productor tambin se une. Porque el mismo equipo, telfonos, computadoras, te permite consumir y producir. +Es como si compraras un libro y adems te regalaran la imprenta. Es como si tuvieras un telfono que se puede convertir en radio al presionar el botn correcto. +Ese es un cambio enorme en el panorama de los medios al que estbamos acostumbrados. +Y no slo es una cuestin de Internet o no Internet. +Hemos tenido este formato pblico de Internet por casi 20 aos. Y est todava cambiando a medida que los medios se vuelven ms sociales. +Est todava cambiando modelos an entre los grupos que saben como manejarse bien con Internet. +La segunda historia, +En el pasado mayo, la provincia china de Sichuan tuvo un terremoto terrible, 7.9 de magnitud en la escala de Richter destruccin masiva en un amplia rea. +Y el terremoto fue transmitido mientras ocurra. +La gente mandaba mensajes de textos desde sus celulares. Tomando fotos de los edificios. +Filmando a los edificios mientras temblaban. +Suban esto a QQ, el mayor servidor de Internet de China. +Lo twiteaban. +Y as mientras el terremoto transcurra las noticias eran transmitidas. +Y debido a estas conexiones sociales, Estudiantes chinos viniendo de otros lugares y yendo a la escuela. O negocios del resto del mundo abriendo oficinas en China. En todo el mundo haba gente escuchando, oyendo esta noticia. +La BBC tuvo la primera noticia del terremoto de China de Twitter. +Twitter anunci la existencia del terremoto varios minutos antes que el Centro Geolgico de EEUU tuviera algo online para que cualquiera leyera. +La ltima vez que China tuvo un terremoto de esa magnitud les tom tres meses admitir lo que haba ocurrido +Ahora les podra haber gustado haber hecho lo mismo aqu, en vez de estar viendo estas fotos online. +Pero no se les dio esa opcin. Porque sus propios ciudadanos lo hicieron antes. +Hasta el gobierno supo del terremoto por sus propios ciudadanos, antes que por la Agencia de Noticias Xinhua. +Y estas cosas se expanden como un reguero de plvora. +Durante un rato los 10 links ms clickeados en Twitter, el servicio global de mensajes cortos, 9 de los 10 links eran sobre el terremoto. +Gente recopilando informacin, indicando fuentes de noticias, indicando hacia el Centro Geolgico de EEUU. +El dcimo link eran gatitos en una cinta de caminar, pero eso es Internet para ustedes. +Pero nueve de los 10 en esas primeras horas. +Y durante medio da los sitios de donacin estuvieron arriba. Y las donaciones llovan de todo el mundo. +Esta fue una increble respuesta global coordinada. +Y entonces los chinos, en uno de sus perodos de apertura a los medios decidieron que lo dejaran pasar. Que dejaran que estos ciudadanos reportaran libremente. +Y entonces ocurri esto. +La gente empez a descubrir, en la Provincia de Sichuan, que la razn por la cual tantos edificios escolares haban colapsado, porque trgicamente el terremoto sucedi durante un da escolar, la razn por la que tantos edificios escolares colapsaron es porque funcionarios corruptos haban sido sobornados para permitir la construccin de esos edificios por una cifra menor. +Y as comenzaron, el periodismo ciudadano comenz a informar eso tambin. Y hubo una foto increble. +Quizs la han visto en la portada del New York Times. +Un funcionario local completamente postrado en la calle, frente a estos manifestantes. Para que se alejaran. +Diciendo en esencia: "Haremos cualquier cosa para calmarlos. por favor, slo paren de protestar en pblico" +Pero estas son personas que haban sido radicalizadas. Porque gracias a la poltica de un nico hijo ellos haban perdido todo de la siguiente generacin. +Alguien que ha visto la muerte de un nico hijo ahora no tiene nada que perder. +Y as la protesta continu. +Y finalmente el gobierno tom medidas duras. +Eso fue suficiente periodismo ciudadano. +Y entonces comenzaron a arrestar a los manifestantes. +Comenzaron a cerrar los medios que emitan las manifestaciones. +En el mundo, China es probablemente el ms exitoso administrador de la censura en Internet usando algo que es ampliamente descrito como "El Gran CortaFuego de China". +Y el Gran CortaFuego de China es un conjunto de puntos de observacin que supone que los medios son producidos por profesionales, la mayora viene desde afuera, vienen en trozos relativamente escasos, y vienen lentamente. +Y debido a esas cuatro caractersticas ellos son capaces de filtrarlos cuando entran al pas. +Pero como la Lnea Maginot, el Gran CortaFuego de China estaba orientado en la direccin errnea para este desafo. Porque ninguna de esas cuatro cosas fue cierta en este ambiente. +La comunicacin fue producida localmente. Producida por aficionados. +Rpidamente. Y fue producida en tal cantidad que no haba forma de filtrarlas mientras aparecan. +Y as el gobierno de China, que por una docena de aos, ha filtrado la web con xito, est ahora ante la posicin de tener que decidir si permite o cierra la totalidad de los servicios. Porque la transformacin a medios aficionados es tan grande que no pueden manejarlos de otro modo. +Y de hecho eso est pasando esta semana. +En el 20 aniversario de Tiananmen hace slo dos das anunciaron que estaban simplemente cerrando los accesos a Twitter. Porque no haba otra forma de filtrarlos que esta. +Tenan que cerrar completamente la llave de agua. +Ahora, estos cambios no slo afectan a quienes quieren censurar los mensajes. +Tambin afecta a quienes quieren enviar los mensajes. Porque esto es realmente una transformacin de todo el ecosistema. No solo una estrategia particular. +El clsico dilema de los medios, desde el siglo XX es cmo una organizacin tiene un mensaje que quiere que llegue a un grupo de personas distribuidos en los bordes de una red. +Y aqu est la respuesta del siglo XX. +Envolver el mensaje. Enviar el mismo mensaje a cada uno. +Mensaje a toda la Nacin. Destinado a particulares. +Nmero de productores relativamente escasos. +Muy caro de hacer. Entonces no hay mucha competencia. +As es como alcanzas a la gente. +Todo eso se acab. +Estamos cada vez ms en un panorama donde los medios son globales. sociales, omnipresentes y baratos. +Ahora, la mayora de las organizaciones que estn tratando de enviar mensajes al exterior, a grupos distribuidos de audiencias, estn ahora acostumbrados a este cambio. +La audiencia puede responder. +Y eso es un poco peculiar. Pero te acostumbras a esto luego de un rato, tal cual la gente lo hace. +Pero ese no es realmente el cambio loco en el que estamos inmersos. +Tan recientemente como en la ltima dcada, la mayora de los medios disponibles para el consumo del pblico eran producidos por profesionales. +Esos das se acabaron, para no volver nunca. +Son las lneas verdes ahora, esas son las fuentes del contenido libre. Que me trae a mi ltima historia. +Vimos algunos de los mas imaginativos usos de los medios sociales durante la campaa de Obama. +Y no me refiero a los usos ms imaginativos en poltica. Quiero decir los usos ms imaginativos que jams se vieron. +Y una de las cosas que Obama hizo, fueron estupendos, la campaa que Obama hizo, fue la estupenda apertura del sitio Mi Barak Obama punto com, myBO.com y millones de ciudadanos se apresuraron en participar, y de intentar y entender como ayudar. +Una conversacin increble surgi de ah. +Y entonces, para esta poca del ao pasado, Obama anunci que iba a cambiar su voto en FISA, El Acta de Vigilancia de Inteligencia Extranjera. +El haba dicho, en Enero, que no firmara el proyecto de ley que garantizaba inmunidad de telecomunicaciones a posibles espionajes sin autorizacin, sobre individuos estadounidenses. +Para el verano, en el medio de la campaa general, El dijo: "Pens ms sobre el asunto. He cambiado de opinin. +Voy a votar por este proyecto" +Y muchos de sus propios seguidores en su mismo website se pusieron como locos pblicamente. +Cuando fue creado era Senador Obama. Luego le cambiaron el nombre. +Por favor haz bien lo de FISA. +A los das de haber sido creado este grupo fue el grupo de mayor crecimiento en myBO.com. A las semanas de su creacin fue el grupo ms grande. +Obama tena que emitir un comunicado de prensa. +Tena que dar una respuesta. +Y en esencia l dijo, "He considerado el asunto. +Entiendo de dnde vienen. +Pero habindolo considerado por completo, votar de la forma que votar. +Pero quiero llegar a ustedes y decirles, entiendo que no estn de acuerdo conmigo, y voy a asumir las consecuencias." +Esto no agrad a nadie. Pero entonces, algo divertido sucedi en la conversacin. +La gente en ese grupo comprendi que Obama nunca los haba callado. +Nadie en la campaa de Obama alguna vez intent ocultar ese grupo o dificultarles el ingreso, negar su existencia, borrarlo, sacarlos del sitio. +Entendieron que su rol en myBO.com era reunir su apoyo pero no controlar a sus seguidores. +Y esa es la clase de disciplina que implica hacer un uso realmente maduro de los medios. +Los medios, el panorama de los medios que conocamos, tan familiares como eran, tan fciles conceptualmente como era manejar la idea de que los profesionales transmitan mensajes a aficionados, se esta escabullendo de manera creciente. +En un mundo donde los medios son globales, sociales, omnipresentes y baratos, en un mundo de los medios donde la anterior audiencia son ahora, de manera creciente, participantes en su totalidad, en ese mundo, los medios tratan con menos frecuencia sobre hacer un solo mensaje para ser consumido por individuos. +Y tratan cada vez ms sobre una forma de crear ambientes de grupos y apoyarlos. +Y las alternativas que enfrentamos, Quiero decir cualquiera que tenga un mensaje para ser escuchado en cualquier parte del mundo, no es una cuestin de si es o no el ambiente en el que quiero operar. +Ese es el ambiente de medios que tenemos. +La pregunta que todos enfrentamos ahora es, Cmo podemos hacer mejor uso de estos medios? +An cuando esto signifique cambiar la forma en que siempre lo hicimos. +Muchas gracias. +Mi camino para estar hoy aqu comenz en 1974. +Esta soy yo, la de los guantes graciosos. +Tena 17 aos, y estaba en una caminata por la paz. +Lo que no saba entonces era que la mayora de los que estaban all conmigo, eran moonistas. +Y en la siguiente semana Ya estaba convencida de que la segunda venida de Cristo ya haba ocurrido, que era Sun Myung Moon, y que yo haba sido seleccionada y preparada especialmente por Dios para ser su discpula. +Ahora, a pesar de lo atractivo que suena, mi familia no estaba tan emocionada con esto. +E intentaron todo lo que crean que me sacara de all. +Haba un movimiento underground durante esos aos, tal vez algunos lo recuerden, +se llamaban "desprogramadores". +Y luego de cinco largos aos mi familia me haba desprogramado. +Entonces me convert en desprogramadora. +Comenc a llevar casos, +y despus de cinco aos hacindolo fui arrestada por secuestro. +La mayora de los casos que tuve fueron llamados involuntarios. +Lo que pasaba era que la familia deba llevar a sus parientes a algn lugar de algn modo seguro, +los llevaban a algn lugar seguro +y nosotros debamos ir y hablar con ellos, usualmente por una semana. +As que despus de que esto ocurri decid que era hora de abandonar este trabajo. +Y durante 20 aos +hubo una pregunta mental que no me abandonaba. +Me preguntaba "Cmo me pas esto a m?" +y, de hecho, Qu le haba pasado a mi cerebro? +Porque algo le haba pasado. +As que decid escribir un libro, una memoria, sobre esta dcada de mi vida, +y cuando estaba terminando de escribir el libro hubo un documental +Era en Jonestown, +tuvo un efecto escalofriante en m. +Estos son los que murieron en Jonestown. +Cerca de 900 personas murieron ese da, la mayora se quitaron la vida. +Las mujeres dieron veneno a sus bebs y vean cmo la espuma sala por sus bocas mientras moran. +La imagen de arriba es de un grupo de moonistas que han sido bendecidos por su mesas. +Sus compaeros fueron elegidos por ellos. +La foto inferior es de las juventudes de Hitler +Esta es la pierna de un hombre-bomba. +Lo que tuve que admitir para m misma, con gran repulsin, es que lo entiendo. +Entiendo cmo pas esto. +Entiendo cmo el cerebro de alguien, la mente de alguien, llega a un punto en que tiene sentido. De hecho puede ser un error, cuando el cerebro funciona de esta manera, no intentar salvar el mundo con un genocidio. +Y qu es esto? Cmo funciona? +Entonces veo que lo que paso conmigo es una infeccin viral memtica. +En 1974 yo era joven, era inocente, y estaba muy perdida en mi mundo. +era realmente idealista. +Estas ideas fciles para preguntas complejas son muy atractivas cuando uno es vulnerable emocionalmente. +Lo que pasa es que la lgica circular se impone: +"Moon y Dios son uno solo +"Dios va a arreglar todos los problemas del mundo +"Todo lo que tengo que hacer es seguirlo con humildad +"Porque Dios va a detener la guerra y el hambre" -- Todas las cosas que yo quera hacer. Todo lo que debo hacer es seguirlo humildemente. +"Porque despus de todo, Dios es el mesas. l va a resolver todo". +Se torna impenetrable. +Y la parte ms peligrosa de esto es que crea un "nosotros" y un "ellos" "cierto" y "errado" "bueno" y "malo" +Y hace que cualquier cosa sea posible. Todo lo hace racionalizable +Y el asunto es que, si vieran dentro de mi cerebro durante esos aos con los moonistas -- Las neurociencias se expanden exponencialmente como dijo ayer Ray Kurzweil, la ciencia se est expandiendo. +Estamos comenzando a ojear dentro de nuestro cerebro. +Bien, si vieran dentro de mi cerebro, o de cualquiera infectado con una infeccin memtica como esta, y lo comparase cualquiera en esta sala, o con cualquiera que use el pensamiento crtico regularmente Estoy segura de que se veran muy, muy diferentes. +Y que, aunque suene extrao, me da esperanza. +Y la razn por la que me da esperanza es porque lo primero es admitir que se tiene un problema. +Pero es un problema humano. Es un problema cientfico, si quieren. +Le ocurre al cerebro humano. No hay una fuerza maligna ah afuera lista a atraparnos. +Y por eso, esto es algo que, a travs de la investigacin y la educacin, creo que se puede resolver. +Y el primer paso es comprender que podemos hacerlo juntos, y que no hay "nosotros" ni "ellos". +Muchas gracias. +La charla sobre robots para ciruga tambin es una charla acerca de la ciruga. +Y aunque he intentado hacer que mis imgenes no sean demasiado grficas, tengan en mente que los cirujanos tienen una relacin distinta con la sangre que las personas normales. Porque despus de todo, lo que un cirujano le hace a un paciente, si se hiciera sin su consentimiento, sera un crimen. +Los cirujanos son los sastres, plomeros, carpinteros, algunos diran los carniceros del mundo mdico. Cortan, reforman, restauran, hacen puentes, arreglan. +Pero se necesita hablar sobre los instrumentos quirrgicos y la evolucin de la tecnologa quirrgica juntos. +Entonces, un poco de perspectiva -- como 10,000 aos de perspectiva. +ste es un crneo trepanado. +Y la trepanacin es simplemente hacer un hoyo en el crneo. +Y muchos, muchos cientos de crneos como este se han encontrado en sitios arqueolgicos alrededor del mundo, datan de hace cinco a 10 mil aos. +Cinco a 10 mil aos! Ahora imaginen esto. +Son sanadores en una villa de la Edad de Piedra. +Y tienen a un tipo del que no saben qu le pasa. Oliver Sacks nacer en el futuro distante. +Le dan ataques. Y no entienden esto. +Pero piensan para s mismos, "No estoy seguro de qu le pasa a este tipo. +Pero tal vez si hago un hoyo en su cabeza lo pueda arreglar." +Eso es pensamiento quirrgico. +Ahora hemos llegado al despertar de la ciruga intervencionista. +Lo que es impresionante acerca de esto es que aunque no sabemos realmente qu tanto de esto se haca con fines religiosos, y cunto con fines teraputicos, lo que s podemos decir es que estos pacientes vivan! +A juzgar por la curacin en los bordes de estos hoyos, vivan das, meses, aos despus de la trepanacin. +Y lo que vemos es evidencia de una tcnica refinada, que se transmiti durante miles y miles de aos, alrededor del mundo. +Esto surgi independientemente en varios lugares que no tenan comunicacin entre s. +Realmente estamos viendo el amanecer de la ciruga intervensionista. +Ahora podemos adelantarnos muchos miles de aos hasta la edad del bronce y ms all. +Y vemos que surgen nuevas herramientas refinadas. +Pero los cirujanos en esas eras eran un poco ms conservadores que sus audaces ancestros trepanadores. +Estos tipos limitaron sus cirugas a heridas superficiales. +Y los cirujanos eran comerciantes, ms que mdicos. +Esto se mantuvo hasta incluso el Renacimiento. +Eso habr salvado a los escritores, pero en realidad no salv mucho a los cirujanos. +Se desconfiaba mucho de ellos. +Tenan un problema de Relaciones Pblicas. Pues el panorama lo dominaban los cirujanos-barberos itinerantes. +Eran sujetos que viajaban de pueblo en pueblo, de ciudad a ciudad, haciendo cirugas como un tipo de representacin artstica. +Como estbamos en la edad anterior a la anestesia. la agona del paciente era tanto espectculo pblico como ciruga. +Uno de los tipos ms famosos, Frere Jacques, mostrado aqu haciendo una litotoma. La extraccin de una piedra vesical, una de las cirugas ms invasivas que hacan en ese tiempo, deba tomar menos de dos minutos. +Debas tener un gusto por lo dramtico, y ser muy, muy rpido +Y aqu lo ven haciendo una litotoma. +Se le acreditan ms de 4.000 de estas cirugas pblicas, al deambular alrededor de Europa. Lo cual es un nmero asombroso, cuando piensas que la ciruga deba haber sido un ltimo recurso. +Quiero decir, quin se sometera a eso? +Hasta la anestesia, la ausencia de sensacin. +Con la demostracin del Inhalador de Ether Morton a las masas. General en 1847, una era completamente nueva haba surgido. +La anestesia le dio a los cirujanos la libertad de operar. +La anestesia les dio la libertad de experimentar, de empezar a hurgar cada vez ms adentro del cuerpo. +Esta era realmente una revolucin en la ciruga. +Pero un gran problema con esto. +Despus de estas largas y dolorosas operaciones, intentando curar cosas que nunca haban podido tocar anteriormente, los pacientes moran. +Moran de una infeccin masiva. +La ciruga no lastimaba ms, pero te poda matar rpidamente. +Y las infecciones continuaran reclamando a la mayora de los pacientes hasta la siguiente gran revolucin en ciruga. Que fue la tcnica asptica. +Joseph Lister era el mayor defensor de la asepsia o esterilidad, ante el muy muy escptico grupo de cirujanos. +Pero eventualmente la aceptaron. +Los hermanos Mayo fueron a visitar a Lister en Europa. +Y volvieron a su clnica Americana y dijeron que haban aprendido que es tan importante lavarse las manos antes de hacer una ciruga como lo es lavrselas despus. Algo tan simple. +Y as, la mortalidad operativa se desplom drsticamente. +Estas cirugas estaban siendo ahora efectivas. +Con el paciente insensible al dolor, y con un campo de operacin estril ya no haba dudas, el cielo era el lmite. +Podras empezar a hacer cirugas donde fuera, en el intestino, en el hgado, en el corazn, en el cerebro. +Trasplantes: podras sacar un rgano de una persona, podras ponerlo en otra, y funcionara. +Los cirujanos se volvieron respetados. Se haban convertido en dioses. +La era del "gran cirujano, gran incisin" haba llegado. Pero con un costo. Porque ellos estaban salvando vidas, pero no necesariamente la calidad de vida. Porque la gente saludable no necesita cirugas. Y la gente no-saludable tienen dificultades para recuperarse de un corte como este. +La pregunta tena que plantearse, "Bueno, podemos hacer estas mismas cirugas pero a travs de pequeas incisiones?" +La laparoscopa es hacer este tipo de ciruga. Ciruga con instrumentos largos, a travs de pequeas incisiones. +Y esto realmente cambi el panorama de la ciruga. +Algunas de las herramientas para hacerlo se haban usado durante cientos de aos. Pero se usaron como tcnica de diagnstico hasta los 80s, cuando hubo cambios en la tecnologa de las cmaras y cosas as, eso permiti que se hiciera para operaciones reales. +Entonces lo que ven --esta es la primera imagen quirrgica-- mientras bajamos por el tubo, esta es una nueva entrada al cuerpo. +Se ve muy distinto de lo que esperaras que pareciera una ciruga. +Metemos instrumentos desde dos cortes separados a los lados, y luego puedes empezar a manipular el tejido. +A los 10 aos de la primera ciruga de vescula hecha laparoscpicamente, la mayora de estas cirugas se estaban haciendo laparoscpicamente. Realmente una gran revolucin. +Pero haba contrariedades a esta revolucin. +Estas tcnicas eran mucho ms difciles de aprender de lo que la gente haba anticipado. +La curva de aprendizaje era muy larga. +Y durante esa curva de aprendizaje, las complicaciones se hacan ms difciles. +Los cirujanos tenan que renunciar a su visin en 3D. +Tenan que renunciar a sus muecas. +Tenan que renunciar al movimiento intuitivo de los instrumentos. +Este cirujano tiene ms de 3,000 horas de experiencia laparoscpica. +Este es un acomodo de aguja particularmente frustrante. +Pero esto es difcil. +Y una de las razones por lo que es tan difcil es porque la ergonoma externa es horrible. +Tienes estos instrumentos largos, y ests trabajando fuera de tu lnea central. +Y los instrumentos prcticamente estn funcionando al revs. +Entonces lo que necesitas hacer para tomar las capacidades de tus manos, y ponerlas en el otro lado de la pequea incisin, es ponerle una mueca al instrumento. +Y as --ahora hablar de robots-- el robot da Vinci puso justamente esa mueca en el otro lado de la incisin. +Y entonces aqu estn viendo la operacin de esta mueca. +Ahora, en contraste con la laparoscopa, puedes colocar la aguja en los instrumentos con precisin, pasarla a travs y seguirla en una trayectoria. +Y la razn por la que se vuelve tan fcil es, que como pueden ver en la parte inferior, las manos estn haciendo los movimientos, y los instrumentos los siguen exactamente. +Ahora, lo que ponen entre esos instrumentos y aquellas manos, es un robot grande y algo complicado. +el cirujano se sienta en la consola, y controla el robot con esos controles. +Y el robot mueve los instrumentos, los propulsa, dentro del cuerpo. +Tienes una cmara 3D, as que obtienes visin 3D. +Y desde su introduccin en 1999 muchos de estos robots han salido y han sido usados para procedimientos quirrgicos como una prostatectoma. En la que la prstata est muy adentro de la pelvis, y requiere de una diseccin fina y manipulacin delicada para poder obtener un buen resultado quirrgico. +Puedes tambin hacer un puente coronario en un corazn latiente sin romper el pecho. +Todo se hace entre las costillas. +Y puedes ir dentro del corazn mismo y reparar las vlvulas desde adentro. +Tienes estas tecnologas --gracias-- Y quizs digas, "rale, esto es muy padre! +Entonces, chica lista, por qu no se hacen todas las cirugas as?" +Y hay algunas razones, algunas buenas razones. +El costo es una de ellas. +Habl acerca del robot grande y complicado. +Con toda esta tecnologa, uno de estos robots te costar tanto como un cirujano de oro slido. +Ms til que un cirujano de oro slido, pero, an as, es una inversin bastante costosa. +Pero una vez que lo obtienes, los costos del procedimiento se reducen. +Pero hay otras barreras. +Algo como una prostatectoma, la prstata es pequea, y est en un punto especfico. Y puedes programar al robot para trabajar en ese punto precisamente. +Y entonces es perfecto para algo as. +Y de hecho si a ti, o alguien que conozcas, le han quitado la prstata en el ltimo par de aos, es posible que lo hayan hecho con uno de estos sistemas. +Pero si necesitas llegar a otros lugares, necesitas mover al robot. +Y necesitas poner nuevas incisiones ah. +Y debes re-programarlo. +Y necesitas agregar ms puertos, y mucho ms. +Y el problema es que consume mucho tiempo y espacio. +Y por esa razn hay muchas cirugas que no se estn haciendo con el da Vinci. +Entonces tenemos que hacernos la pregunta, "Bueno, cmo lo solucionamos?" +Qu tal si pudiramos cambiarlo para no tener que re-programarlo cada vez que queramos moverlo a un lugar distinto? +Qu tal si pudiramos tener todos los instrumentos juntos en un solo lugar? +Cmo cambiara eso las capacidades del cirujano? +Y cmo cambiara eso la experiencia del paciente? +Ahora, para hacerlo, necesitamos poder llevar la cmara, y los instrumentos, todos juntos a travs de un pequeo tubo. como el que vieron en el video de la laparoscopa. +O, no tan coincidentemente, en un tubo como este. +Lo que saldr de ese tubo es el debut de esta nueva tecnologa, este nuevo robot que podr llegar a cualquier parte. +Listos? Aqu viene. +Esta es la cmara, y tres instrumentos. +Y as como lo ven salir, para poder hacer algo til, no puede estar agrupado as. +Tiene que poder salirse de la lnea central y ser capaz de trabajar hacia esa lnea central. +Es un listo diablillo. +Pero lo que esto te permite hacer es darte toda esa traccin tan importante, y contra-traccin, para poder diseccionar, para poder coser, para poder hacer todo lo que necesitas hacer, todas las tareas quirrgicas. +Pero todo a travs de una pequea incisin. +No es tan simple. +Pero lo vale por la libertad que nos da al movernos. +Sin embargo, para el paciente, es transparente. Esto es todo lo que vern. +Es muy emocionante pensar a dnde llegaremos con esto. +Nos toca escribir el guin para la siguiente revolucin en la ciruga. +Mientras tomamos estas capacidades y vamos a los siguientes lugares, nos toca decidir cmo sern nuestras nuevas cirugas. +Y creo que entiendo el resto del camino en esa revolucin, no slo necesitamos llevar nuestras manos por nuevos caminos, sino tambin nuestros ojos. +Debemos ver por encima de la superficie. +Necesitamos ser capaces de guiar lo que estamos cortando de una mejor manera. +sta es una ciruga de cncer. +Uno de los problemas con esto, an para los cirujanos que han visto esto muchas veces, es que no puedes ver el cncer, especialmente cuando est escondido bajo la superficie. +Y entonces, lo que estamos empezando a hacer es inyectar marcadores especialmente diseados en la sangre para identificar al cncer. +El marcador se une al cncer. +Y podemos hacer que brille. +Y podemos llevar cmaras especiales, podemos verlo. +Ahora sabemos dnde necesitamos cortar, an cuando est bajo la superficie. +Podemos llevar estos marcadores e inyectarlos en el sitio del tumor. +Y podemos seguir hacia dnde fluye desde el sitio del tumor, para poder ver los primeros lugares a los que el cncer podra viajar. +Podemos inyectar estos tintes en el torrente sanguneo, para que cuando hagamos un puente coronario y conectemos una vena al corazn, podamos ver si realmente hicimos la conexin, antes de cerrar al paciente. Algo que no hemos podido hacer, sin radiacin anteriormente. +Podemos encender tumores como este tumor de rin para poder ver exactamente dnde estn los bordes entre el tumor y el rin que quieres dejar ah. O el tumor de hgado y el hgado que debes dejar. +Y no tenemos que limitarnos a esta visin macro. +Tenemos sondas microscpicas flexibles que podemos llevar dentro del cuerpo. +Podemos ver directamente a las clulas. +Estoy viendo nervios aqu. Estos son nervios, ven, en la parte de abajo, y la sonda microscopio que lleva la mano robtica, ah arriba. +Todo esto es un prototipo. +Pero te importan los nervios, si eres un paciente quirrgico. +Porque te permiten mantener la continencia, control de la vejiga, y funcin sexual despus de la ciruga. Todo esto es generalmente importante para el paciente. +Entonces, en combinacin con estas tecnologas podemos alcanzarlo todo, podemos verlo todo. +Podemos curar la enfermedad. +Y podemos dejar al paciente intacto y funcional al terminar. +Ahora, he hablado acerca del paciente como si el paciente fuera, de alguna forma, algo abstracto fuera de este cuarto. +Y se no es el caso. +Muchos de ustedes, quizs todos, en algn momento, o tal vez ya, habrn sido diagnosticados de cncer, o enfermedades del corazn, o alguna disfuncin de un rgano que les conseguir una cita con el cirujano. +Y cuando lleguen a ese punto -- quiero decir, a estos males no les importa cuntos libros hayan escrito, cuntas compaas hayan empezado, el Premio Nobel que les falta ganar, cunto tiempo planeen pasar con sus hijos. +Estos males vienen por todos nosotros. +Y el prospecto que les ofrezco, de una ciruga ms fcil... +har ese diagnstico menos atemorizante? +No estoy segura de querer realmente que as sea. +Porque enfrentarte a tu propia mortalidad provoca una re-evaluacin de tus prioridades, y una re-asignacin de tus metas en la vida, a diferencia de cualquier otra cosa. +Y no querra nunca privarlos de esa epifana. +En vez de eso, lo que quiero es que queden completos, intactos, y suficientemente funcionales para ir y salvar al mundo, despus de que decidan que deben hacerlo. +Y esa es mi visin de su futuro. +Gracias. +Quiero compartir con ustedes algunas ideas sobre el poder secreto del tiempo en muy poco tiempo. +Vdeo: Muy bien, que empiece el conteo por favor. Estudio: 30 segundos. +Silencio por favor. Calma. +Ya era hora. Secuencia final. Toma 1. +Estudio: 15 segundos. +10, nueve, ocho, siete, seis, cinco, cuatro, tres, dos ... +Philip Zimbardo: Sintonicemos la conversacin con los principios de la tentacin de Adn. +Vamos, Adn, no te des tanto a desear. Dale un mordisco. Yo lo hice +Un mordisco, Adn. No abandones a Eva. +No s muchachos. +No quiero meterme en problemas. +Est bien, un mordisco. Que diablos? +La vida es tentacin. Se trata de sumisin, resistencia, si, no, ahora, despus, impulsivo, reflexivo, concentrarse en el presente y concentrarse en el futuro. +Virtudes prometidas caen como presas ante las pasiones del momento. +De todas las adolescentes que tomaron un voto de abstinencia sexual y virginidad hasta el matrimonio -- gracias George Bush -- la mayora, el 60%, sucumbieron a tentaciones sexuales dentro de un ao de realizado el voto. +Y la mayora de ellas lo hizo sin utilizar ningn tipo de mtodo anticonceptivo. +Tantas promesas para nada. +Ahora provoquemos nios de 4 aos, dndoles un dulce. +Pueden recibir un malvavisco inmediantamente, pero si espern hasta que el encargado del experimento vuelva, recibirn dos malvaviscos. +Por supuesto que si a uno le gustan los malvaviscos, es mejor esperar. +Lo que ocurre es que 2/3 de los nios sucumben a la tentacin. +No pueden esperar. El resto, por supuesto, espera. +Ellos resisten la tentacin. Postergan el ahora para despus. +Walter Mischel, mi colega en Stanford, volvi 14 aos ms tarde, a tratar de descubrir que diferencias haba entre estos nios. +Existan enormes diferencias entre los nios que resistieron y los que cedieron a la tentacin, en muchas formas. +Los nios que resistieron alcanzaron 250 puntos ms en la prueba de razonamiento SAT +La diferencia es enorme. Son como dos series completas de puntajes de coeficiente intelectual. +No se metan en tantos problemas. Eran mejores estudiantes. +Eran determinados y seguros de s mismos. Y la clave para mi hoy, la clave para ustedes, es que estos nios se enfocaban en el futuro en vez de enfocarse en el presente. +Entonces que es la perspectiva temporal? De eso les voy a hablar hoy. +La perspectiva temporal es el estudio de cmo los individuos, todos nosotros, dividimos el flujo de nuestra experiencia humana en zonas o categoras de tiempo. +Y esto se hace automaticamente y sin estar conciente de ello. +Estas perspectivas varan entre culturas, entre naciones, entre individuos, entre clases sociales, entre niveles educativos. +Y el problema es que pueden volverse sesgadas, porque uno aprende a usar mucho algunas de ellas y muy demasiado poco las otras. +Que determina cualquier decisin que se toma? +Ustedes toman una desicin, sobre la cual basarn una accin. +Para algunas personas todo depende de lo que existe en la situacin inmediata, lo que otra gente est haciendo y lo que ellos estn sintiendo. +Y a esa gente, cuando toma sus decisiones en ese formato, les llamaremos personas "orientadas al presente". Porque su enfoque es en lo que hay en el ahora. +Para otros, el presente es irrelevante. +Siempre se trata de en que se parece esta situacin a mis experiencias pasadas? +As que sus decisiones estn basadas en recuerdos del pasado. +Nos referiremos a ellas como personas "orientadas al pasado". Porque se enfocan en lo que fue. +Para otros, el pasado no importa, tampoco el presente, nicamente se trata del futuro. +Su atencin est siempre enfocada en anticipar las consecuencias. +Anlisis de costos y beneficios. +A ellos los llamaremos "orientados al futuro". Su preocupacin es en lo que ser. +As que la paradoja del tiempo que discutir es la paradoja de la prespectiva temporal. es algo que influye en cada decisin que ustedes toman, estando completamente inconcientes al respecto. +Es decir que en medida en que ustedes tienen una de estas perspectivas temporales sesgadas, +Bueno, de hecho hay seis de ellas. Existen dos formas de estar orientado al presente. +Existen dos formas de estar orientado al pasado y dos al futuro. +Se puede estar enfocado al pasado-positivo o al pasado-negativo. +Se puede ser presente-hedonista, El enfoque ah esta en los placeres y dichas de la vida, o presente-fatalista. Nada importa, sus vidas estn bajo control. +Ustedes pueden ser orientados al futuro, fijando metas. +O pueden tener la perspectiva de un futuro trascendental: es decir, la vida empieza despus de la muerte. +Desarrollar la flexibilidad mental para cambiar de perspectivas temporales de forma fluida dependiendo de las demandas de la situacin, eso es lo que deben aprender a hacer. +Entonces, rapidamente, cual es el perfil temporal ptimo? +Alto en pasado-positivo. Moderadamente alto en futuro. +Y moderado en presente-hedonista. +Y siempre bajo en pasado-negativo y presente-fatalista. +As que la mezcla temporal ptima es la que se obtiene del pasado -- el pasado-positivo provee raices. Permite conexiones con familia, identidad y uno mismo. +Lo que se obtiene del futuro son alas para volar a nuevos destinos, nuevos retos. +lo que se obtiene del presente-hedonista es energa, la energa para explorar a tu ser, lugares, personas, sensualidad. +Cualquiera de las perspectivas temporales en exceso tiene ms contras que pros. +Que sacrifican aquellos que se enfocan en el futuro para ser exitosos? +Sacrifican tiempo con sus familias. Sacrifican tiempo con sus amigos. +Sacrifican tiempo para divertirse. Sacrifican tiempo para consentirse a s mismos. +Sacrifican pasatiempos. Y sacrifican horas de sueo, de manera que afecta su salud. +Y viven para su trabajo, realizacin y control. +Estoy seguro que esto les suena familiar a algunos de los "TEDsters". +Y sonaba familiar para mi. Yo crec como un nio pobre en un barrio marginado al sur de Bronx, de una familia Siciliana. Todos vivan en el pasado y en el presente. +Estoy aqu como una persona orientada al futuro que exagero, quien hizo todos los sacrificios, porque mis maestros intervinieron, y me convirtieron en alguien orientado hacia el futuro. +Me dijeron que no me comiera ese malvavisco, porque si esperaba iba a recibir dos, hasta que aprend a mantener el equilibrio. +He agregado hedonismo al presente. He agregado un enfoque al pasado-positivo. As a mis 76 aos, tengo ms energa que nunca, soy ms productivo, y soy mas feliz que nunca. +Entonces quiero terminar diciendo que que muchas de las incgnitas de la vida pueden ser resueltas a trevs del entendiento de nuestra perspectiva del tiempo y la de los dems. +Y esta idea es muy simple, muy obvia, pero creo que sus consecuencias son verdaderamente significativas. +Muchas gracias. +Voy a hablar sobre la recuperacin post-conflicto y cmo podramos mejorarla. +La historia de la recuperacin post-conflicto no es muy impresionante. +El 40 por ciento de todas las situaciones post-conflicto, histricamente, han recado en el conflicto en menos de una dcada. +De hecho, han sido responsables de la mitad de todas las guerras civiles. +Por qu ha sido tan malo el historial? +Pues, el enfoque convencional a las situaciones post-conflicto se ha basado, ms o menos, en tres principios. +El primero es, lo que importa es la poltica. +As que lo primero que se prioriza es la poltica. +Tratar de construir un acuerdo poltico primero. +Y luego, el segundo paso es decir, "Hay que reconocer que la situacin es peligrosa, pero slo por un corto tiempo". +As que hay que llevar tropas de paz, pero hay que retirarlas tan pronto como sea posible. +Entonces, tropas de paz de corto plazo. +Y tercero, cul es la estrategia de salida de las tropas de paz? +Es una eleccin +que producir un gobierno legtimo y responsable. +se es el enfoque convencional. +Me parece que ese enfoque niega la realidad. +Vemos que no existe una solucin rpida. +Ciertamente no hay una salida rpida para la seguridad. +He intentado observar los riesgos de recada en el conflicto, durante nuestra dcada post-conflicto. +Y los riesgos se mantienen altos durante la dcada. +Y se mantienen altos sin importar las innovaciones polticas. +Una eleccin produce un gobierno responsable y legtimo? +Lo que una eleccin produce es un ganador y un perdedor. +Y el perdedor no se reconcilia. +La realidad es que tenemos que revertir la secuencia. +La poltica no es primero; sino realmente lo ltimo. +La poltica se hace ms fcil a medida que progresa la dcada si se construye sobre una base de seguridad y desarrollo econmico. La reconstruccin de la prosperidad. +Por qu se hace ms fcil la poltica? +Y por qu es tan difcil inicialmente? +Porque despus de aos de estancamiento y declive, la mentalidad poltica considera que se trata de un juego de suma cero. +Si la realidad es el estancamiento, yo slo puedo subir, si tu bajas. +Y eso no produce una poltica productiva. +As que la mentalidad debe cambiar de suma cero a suma positiva antes de poder tener una poltica productiva. +Slo se puede conseguir el positivo, ese cambio de mentalidad, si la realidad es que la prosperidad est siendo construida. +Y para construir la prosperidad, necesitamos que haya seguridad. +Eso es lo que consigues cuando te enfrentas a la realidad. +Pero el objetivo de enfrentarse a la realidad es cambiar esa realidad. +As que ahora permtanme sugerir dos enfoques complementarios para cambiar la realidad de las situaciones. +El primero es reconocer la interdependencia de tres actores clave, que son actores diferentes, y por el momento estn descoordinados. +El primer actor es el consejo de seguridad. +El consejo de seguridad tpicamente tiene la responsabilidad de proveer las tropas de paz que construyen la seguridad. +Y eso debe reconocerse, primero que nada, que las tropas de paz funcionan. +Es un enfoque rentable. +S aumenta la seguridad. +Pero debe hacerse a largo plazo. +Debe ser una propuesta de una dcada, en vez de slo un par de aos. +Ese es un actor, el consejo de seguridad. +El segundo actor, un elenco de gente distinto, son los donantes. +Los donantes proveen ayuda post-conflicto. +En el pasado, tpicamente, los donantes se han interesado en el primer par de aos, y luego se aburrieron. +Siguieron adelante y se mudaron a alguna otra situacin. +La recuperacin econmica post-conflicto es un proceso lento. +No hay procesos rpidos en la economa excepto el declive. +Eso s se puede hacer bastante rpido. +As que los donantes deben permanecer con esta situacin al menos durante una dcada. +Y entonces el tercer actor clave es el gobierno post-conflicto. +Y hay dos cosas fundamentales que debe hacer. +Una es que debe hacer una reforma econmica, no alborotarse por la constitucin poltica, +debe reformar la poltica econmica. +Por qu? Porque durante el conflicto la poltica econmica tpicamente se deteriora. +Los gobiernos se aprovechan de las oportunidades de corto plazo. Y hacia el final del conflicto, se manifiestan las consecuencias. +As que el legado del conflicto es una poltica econmica muy mala. +Entonces hay una agenda de reforma y una agenda de inclusin. +La agenda de inclusin no proviene de las elecciones. +Las elecciones producen un perdedor, que luego es excluido. +As que la agenda de inclusin significa, genuinamente unir a todos bajo un mismo techo. +Esos son los tres actores. +Y son interdependientes a largo plazo. +Si el consejo de seguridad no se compromete a dar seguridad durante el curso de una dcada, no se consigue la tranquilidad, que es lo que produce la inversin privada. +Si no se obtiene la reforma poltica y la ayuda, no se obtiene la recuperacin econmica, que es la verdadera estrategia de salida para las tropas de paz. +As que deberamos reconocer esa interdependencia, mediante compromisos formales y mutuos. +Las Naciones Unidas de hecho tiene un lenguaje para estos compromisos mutuos, para el reconocimiento de compromisos mutuos. Se llama el lenguaje del "compact". +As que necesitamos un "compact" post-conflicto. +Naciones Unidas incluso tiene una agencia que podra intermediar en estos "compacts". Se llama la Comisin de Consolidacin de la Paz. +Sera ideal tener un juego estndar de normas en el cual, cuando se presente una situacin post-conflicto, haya una previsin respecto de estos compromisos mutuos de las tres partes. +Entonces sa es la primera idea. Reconocer la interdependencia. +Y ahora permtanme pasar al segundo acercamiento, que es complementario. +Y es enfocarse en unos pocos objetivos crticos. +La situacin post-conflicto tpica es un zoolgico de diferentes actores con diferentes prioridades. +Y, desafortunadamente, si navegas en base a las necesidades, obtienes una agenda muy difusa. Porque en estas situaciones, las necesidades estn en todas partes. Pero la capacidad para implementar el cambio es muy limitada. +As que tenemos que ser disciplinados y enfocarnos en las cuestiones que son crticas. +Y quiero sugerir que en la situacin post-conflicto tpica tres cosas son crticas. +Una es el empleo. +Otra es el mejoramiento de los servicios bsicos, especialmente la salud, que es un desastre durante los conflictos. +As que es empleo, salud y un gobierno limpio. +Esas son las tres prioridades crticas. +Voy a hablar un poco sobre cada una de ellas. +Empleo. +Cul sera un acercamiento distintivo a la generacin de empleo en situaciones post-conflicto? +Y por qu es tan importante el empleo? +Empleo para quin? Especialmente empleo para hombres jvenes. +En situaciones post-conflicto, la razn por la que generalmente se recae en el conflicto, no es porque se molesten las mujeres de la tercera edad. +Es porque los hombres jvenes se molestan. +Y por qu se molestan? Porque no tienen nada que hacer. +As que necesitamos un proceso de generacin de empleos, para el comn de los jvenes, que sea rpido. +Ahora, eso es difcil. +Los gobiernos en situaciones post-conflicto comnmente responden inflando el servicio civil. +Esa no es una buena idea. +No es sostenible. +De hecho, ests contruyendo un pasivo a largo plazo si inflas el servicio civil. +Pero conseguir que el sector privado se expanda tambin es difcil. Porque cualquier actividad abierta al comercio internacional no va a ser competitiva en una situacin post-conflicto. +Estos no son entornos donde se puede construir manufactura de exportacin. +Hay un sector no expuesto al comercio internacional, que puede generar muchos empleos, y que es, de todas formas, un sector sensible de expandirse, post-conflicto. Y ese es el sector construccin. +El sector construccin tiene un rol vital, obviamente, en la reconstruccin. +Pero tpicamente ese sector se atrofia durante el conflicto. +Durante el conflicto la gente destruye. +No se realizan construcciones, as que el sector se paraliza. +Y luego cuando tratas de expandirlo, porque se ha paralizado, encuentras muchos cuellos de botella. +Bsicamente, los precios se disparan y los polticos corruptos luego se aprovechan de las rentas del sector. Pero no se genera ningn empleo. +As que la prioridad poltica es romper los cuellos de botella en la expansin del sector construccin. +Cules podran ser los cuellos de botella? +Slo piensa en lo que debes hacer exitosamente para construir una estructura, utilizando mucha mano de obra. +Primero necesitas acceso a la tierra. +Generalmente el sistema legal no funciona as que ni siquiera puedes tener acceso a la tierra. +Segundo, necesitas destrezas, las destrezas mundanas del sector construccin. +En situaciones post-conflicto no slo necesitamos doctores sin fronteras, necesitamos albailes sin fronteras, para reconstruir las destrezas. +Necesitamos empresas. Las empresas se han ido. +As que necesitamos estimular el crecimiento de empresas locales. +Si lo hacemos, no slo obtenemos empleos, sino tambin mejoras en la infraestructura pblica, la restauracin de la infraestructura pblica. +Permtanme pasar del empleo al segundo objetivo, que es mejorar los servicios sociales bsicos. +A la fecha, ha habido una especie de esquizofrenia en la comunidad de donantes, con respecto a cmo construir servicios bsicos en sectores post-conflicto. +Por una parte se aparenta y se dice estar de acuerdo con la idea de reconstruir un Estado efectivo a la imagen de Escandinavia en los aos 1950s. +Desarrollemos ministerios de esto, aquello y lo otro, que presten estos servicios. +Y es esquizofrnico porque en sus corazones los donantes saben que sa no es una agenda realista. Entonces lo que tambin hacen es evitarlo totalmente. Slo financian ONGs. +Ninguno de estos enfoques es sensato. +Lo que yo sugerira es lo que denomino Autoridades de Servicio Independientes. +Es dividir las funciones de un ministerio monoplico en tres. +La funcin de planificacin y la funcin de polticas se quedan con el Ministerio. Para la prestacin de los servicios en el campo se debe usar lo que sea que funcione, iglesias, ONGs, comunidades locales. Lo que funcione. +Y entre ambas, debe haber una agencia pblica, la Autoridad de Servicio Independiente que canaliza el dinero pblico, y especialmente el dinero de los donantes a los proveedores comerciales. +As que las ONGs se hacen parte de un sistema de gobierno pblico, en vez de ser independientes de l. +Una ventaja es que se puede asignar dinero de manera coherente. +Otra es, que se puede hacer responsables a las ONGs. +Se puede medir comparativamente la competencia. As que deben competir entre ellas por los recursos. +Las buenas ONGs, como Oxfam, se entusiasman con esta idea. +Quieren tener la disciplina y la responsabilidad. +As que esa es una forma de mejorar los servicios bsicos. +Y debido a que el gobierno lo financiara, estara co-patrocinando estos servicios. +As que no seran prestados gracias al gobierno de los Estados Unidos y alguna ONG. +Seran co-patrocinados siendo realizados por el propio gobierno post-conflicto, en el pas. +Entonces tenemos empleo, servicios bsicos y, finalmente, un gobierno limpio. +"Limpio" significa monitorear su dinero. +El tpico gobierno post-conflicto est tan corto de dinero que necesita nuestro dinero para apenas sobrevivir en un sistema de soporte vital. +No se pueden realizar las funciones bsicas del Estado a menos que se coloque dinero en el presupuesto principal de estos pases. +Pero si colocamos dinero en el presupuesto principal, sabemos que no son sistemas presupuestarios con integridad que garanticen que el dinero ser bien gastado. +Y si lo nico que hacemos es dar dinero y cerrar los ojos no es slo que el dinero se desperdicia, se es el menor de los problemas, sino que el dinero es capturado. +Es capturado por los corruptos que se encuentran en el corazn mismo del problema poltico. +As que inadvertidamente le damos poder a la gente que es el problema. +Entonces, construir un gobierno limpio significa, s, proveer de dinero al presupuesto. Pero tambin, someterlo al escrutinio. Que significa contar con mucha asistencia tcnica que monitoree el dinero. +Paddy Ashdown, el alto representante para Bosnia ante las Naciones Unidas, en su libro sobre su experiencia, deca "Me d cuenta de que lo que necesitaba eran contadores sin fronteras, para monitorear ese dinero". +As que, permtanme recapitular, ste es el paquete. +Cul es el objetivo? +Si seguimos esto, qu esperamos lograr? +Que luego de diez aos, el enfoque en el sector construccin haya producido empleos y, por lo tanto, seguridad. Porque los jvenes tendran empleos. Y se habra reconstruido la infraestructura. +As que ese es el enfoque en el sector construccin. +El enfoque en la prestacin de los servicios bsicos a travs de estas autoridades de servicio independientes habra rescatado los servicios bsicos de sus niveles catastrficos. Y habra brindado a la gente comn la sensacin de que el gobierno estaba haciendo algo til. +El nfasis en el gobierno limpio gradualmente habra extirpado a los polticos corruptos, porque no habran incentivos econmicos para entrar al juego de la poltica. +As que, gradualmente, la seleccin, la composicin de los polticos, cambiara de los corruptos a los honestos. +Dnde nos dejara eso? +Gradualmente cambiara de una poltica de saqueo a una poltica de esperanza. Gracias. +Yo quiero ayudarlos a re-percibr lo que es la filantropa, lo que puede llegar a ser, y cual es su relacin con ella. +Y al hacer esto, les quiero ofrecer una visin, un futuro imaginario, podriamos decr, de como, al decr del poeta Seamus Heaney, " Una vez en toda la vida la esperada marea de la justcia puede elevarse, y la esperanza y la historia rimarn" +Quiero empezar con estos pares de palabras. +Sabemos de que lado de estas palabras nos gustara estar. +Cuando la filantropa se reinvent hace un siglo, cuando el formato de fundacin actualmente se invent, ellos tampoco pensaron estar del lado equivocado de estas palabras. +De hecho ellos jams pensaron que eran cerrados y fijos en sus ideas, ni con respuestas lentas para responder a nuevos desafos, ni pequeos y evitando riesgos +Y de hecho no lo estaban. Ellos reinventaron la caridad en esos tiempos. Lo que Rockefeller llam " El negocio de la benevolencia" +Pero para finales del siglo XX. una nueva generacin de crticos y reformadores llegaron a ver la filantropa solo de esta manera. +Lo que hay que buscar cuando la filantropa global se desarrolla, y esto es exactamente lo que est pasando, de como la aspiracin es la de cambiar esas viejas suposiciones. Para que la filantropa se vuelva abierta y grande y rpida y conectada, en servicio por largo tiempo. +Esta energa emprendedora est surgiendo de muchos lados. +Y est siendo dirigida e impulsada por nuevos lderes, como mucha de la gente que se encuentra aqu, con nuevos instrumentos, como los que hemos visto aqu, por nuevas presiones. +Yo he estado siguiendo este cambio por algn tiempo, y participando en l. +Este reporte es nuestro principal reporte pblico. +Lo que dice es la historia de como hoy puede ser actualmente tan histrico como lo fu hace 100 aos. +Lo que quiero compartir con ustedes son algunas de las cosas mas buena onda que estn sucediendo. +Al hacer esto no me voy a detener mucho en la filantropa muy grande que todo el mundo conoce, los Gates, los Soros y Google. +En su lugar, lo que quiero hacer es hablar de la filantropa de todos nosotros. La democratizacin de la filantropa. +Este es un momento en la historia en que la persona promdio tiene mas poder que en ningun otro tiempo. +Lo que voy hacer es ver a cinco categoras de experimentos. cada uno de los cuales desafia a una de las viejas suposiciones de la filantropa. +El primero es la colaboracin masiva, representada aqu por Wikipedia. +Ahora, tal vez esto los sorprenda. +Pero recuerden, filantropa es el dar tiempo y talento, no solo dinero. +Clark Shinky, ese gran cronista de todo lo puesto en la internet, capt la suposicin de lo que esto desafa en una forma hermosa. +El dijo, " Hemos vivdo en este mundo donde cosas pequeas son hechas por amor y grandes cosas por dinero. +Ahora tenemos Wikipedia. +De repente grandes cosas pueden ser hechas por amor." +Busquen, esta primavera, por el nuevo libro de Paul Hawken. Autor y emprendedor que muchos de ustedes conocen. +El libro se llama "Blessed Unrest" (Bendita Inquietud) +Y cuando salga, una serie de sitios "wiki" bajo la etiqueta WISER (El mas Sabio), los van a lanzar simultaneamente. +WISER (en Ingles) significa Indice Mundial para la Responsabilidad Social y Ambiental. +WISER precisa documentar, ligar y autorizar lo que Paul llama el movimiento del mas grande y rpido crecimiento en la historia de la humanidad. La respuesta immunolgica colectiva de la humanidad a las amenazas de hoy en da. +Ahora, todas estas grandes cosas de experimentos de amor no se van a lograr. +Pero las que lo hagan va a ser las mas grandes, las mas abiertas, las mas rpidas, las mas conectadas de las formas de filantropa en la historia de la humanidad. +La segunda categora son los mercados de filantropa en lnea. +Esto , desde luego, es para la filantropa lo que eBay y Amazon son para el comercio. +Piensenlo como filantropa de persona a persona. +Y esto desafa aun otra suposicon, que es que la filantropa organizada es solo para los muy ricos. +Mire por ejemplo, si no lo han hecho, a DonorsChoose. +Amygura Network ha hecho una gran inversin en DonorsChoose. +Es uno de esos nuevos mercados mejor conocidos donde un donador puede ir directamente a un saln de clases y conectarse con lo que un maestro dice que necesitan. +Miren tambien a Changing the Present, iniciado por un miembro de TED, para la prxima vez que necesiten un regago de boda o de cumpleaos. +GiveIndia es para todo un pais. +Y la lista sigue y sigue. +La tercera categora esta representada por Warren Buffet. Lo que yo llmo "el dar agregado". +No es solamente que Warren Buffet fu tan sorprendentemente generoso en ese histrico acto el verano pasado. +Es que el desafi otra suposicin, que cada donador debe de tener su prpio fondo o fundacin. +Hoy hay, tantos nuevos fondos que estan dando e invirtiendo en forma agregada, juntando gente alrededor de objetivos comunes, para pensar en grande. +Uno de los mas conocidos es el Acumen Fund, dirigido por Jacqueline Novogratz, miembro de TED quien recibi un gran apoyo aqu en TED. +Pero hay muchos otros. New Profit en Cambridge, New School's Venture Fund en Silicon Valley, Venture Philanthropy Parners en Washington, Global Fund for Women en San Francisco. +Vean estos. +Estos fondos son para la filantropa lo que el capital de riesgo, equidad privada y eventualmente los fondos mutuos son para la inversin. Pero con una variante, porque a menudo se forma una comunidad en torno a estos fondos, como en Acumen y otros lugares. +Ahora, imagnen por un momento estos tres primeros tipos de experimentos. colaboracin masva, mercados en lnea, "dar agregado". +Y entiendan como ellos nos ayudan a percibr de nuevo lo que es la filantropa organizada. +No se trata necesariamente de las fundaciones, se trata de el resto de nosotros. +Voy a dar una mirada rpida a la cuarta y quinta categoras, que son innovacin, competencias e inversiones sociales. +Ellos le estan apostando a que una competencia visible, un premio, pueda atraer talento y dinero para algunos de los temas mas difciles, y por lo tanto acelerando la solucin. +Esto aborda aun otra suposicin. que el donador y la organizacin estn en el centro, en lugar de poner el problema en el centro. +Ustedes puede buscar a estos innovadores para ayudarnos con cosas que requieren soluciones tecnolgicas o cientficas. +Esto nos deja con la categora final, inversin social, lo que es realmente, de cualquier manera, la mas grande de todas. Representado aqu por Xigi.net +Y esto, por supuesto, aborda la suposicin mas grande de todas, que negocios son negocios, y la filantropa es el vehculo de la gente que quiere crear cmbio en el mundo. +Xigi es un nuevo stio comunitario que est construdo por la comunidad, ligando y cubriendo este nuevo mercado de capital social. +Ya tiene en sus listas 1,000 entidades que estan ofreciendo crdito y equidad para empresas sociales +Asi que podemos ver estos innovadores para ayudarnos a recordar que si podemos juntar aun una pequea cantidad de capital que busca retornar, el bien que podemos generar puede ser asombroso. +Ahora, lo que es interesante con esto, es que no estamos pensando en un camino de una nueva forma de actuar. Estamos actuando en una nueva forma de pensar. +La filantropa se ha reorganizado as misma delante de nuestros propios ojos. +Y aunque ni todos los experimentos y ni todos los grandes donadores llenan sta aspiracin, Yo pienso que esto es el nuevo espiritu abierto, grande, rpido, conectado. Y, esperemos tambien, largo. +Tenemos que pensar que hacer estas cosas nos va a llevar mucho tiempo. +Si no desarrollamos la estmina de aferrarnos a las cosas -- lo que sea que escojas, mantente en ello -- sino como ustedes saben, todo va a ser un capricho pasajero. +Pero estoy realmente esperanzada. +Y estoy esperanzada pues no es solo la filantropa la que se esta reorganizando en si. Son tambien otras porciones del sector social, y de los negocios, que estan ocupados en desafiar "lo mismo de siempre." +Y a donde quiera que voy, incluyendo aqu en TED, yo siento que hay una nueva hambre moral que est creciendo. +Lo que estamos viendo realmente es gente luchando para describir lo que es esta nueva cosa que est pasando. +Palabras como "filantrocapitalismo," y "capitalismo natural," y "filantroemprendedor," y "filantropa de riesgo." +Aun no tenemos el lenguaje para ello. +Como sea que lo llamemos, es nuevo, est empezando, y yo pienso que va a ser muy significativo. +Y aqu es donde entra mi futuro imaginario, que mencion. El cual lo voy a llamar una singularidad social. +Muchos de ustedes se daran cuenta que me estoy metiendo un poco dentro de la nocin que el escritor de ciencia ficcin Vernor Vinge llama una singularidad tecnolgica, donde una serie de tendencias se aceleran y cubren y se juntan para crear, realmente, impactantemente una nueva realidad. +Puede ser que la singularidad social que viene sea la que mas tememos. Una convegencia de catstrofes, de degradacin ambiental, de armas de destruccin masiva, de pandmias, de pobreza. +Y esto es porqu nuestra habilidad de confrontar los problemas que encaramos no ha guardado el paso con nuestra habilidad de crearlos. +Y como hemos odo aqu, no es una exageracin decir que nosotros sostenemos el futuro de nuestra civilizacin en nuestras manos como nunca antes. +La pregunta es, hay una singularidad social positiva? +Hay un lmite para nosotros de como podemos vivir juntos? +Nuestro futuro no tiene porque ser imaginado. +Nosotros podemos crear un futuro donde rmen la esperanza y la historia. +Pero tenemos un problema. +Nuestra experiencia al da de hoy, ambas individual y colectivamente, no nos ha preparado para lo que nosotros necesitamos hacer, o quienes vamos a necesitar ser. +Nosotros vamos a necesitar una nueva generacin de lderes ciudadanos deseando comprometernos nosotros a crecer y cambiar y aprender tan rpido como sea posible. +Y es por eso que yo tengo una ltima cosa que quiero mostrarles. +Esta fotografa fue tomada hace cerca de 100 aos de mi abuelo y mi bisabuelo. +Estos eran un editor de peridico y un banquero. +Y ellos eran grandes lderes comunitarios. +Y s, ellos fueron grandes filntropos +Yo guardo esta fotografa muy cerca de mi. Est en mi oficina. Porque yo siempre he sentido una conexin mstica con estos dos hombres, ambos de los cuales nunca conoc. +Y as, en su honor, Yo les quiero ofrecer esta lmina en blanco. +Y yo quiero que ustedes se imagnen que sta es una fotografa de cada uno ustedes. +Y quiero que piensen acerca de la comunidad que ustedes quieren ser parte de crear. +Lo que sea que esto signifque para ustedes. +Y quiero que ustedes se imagnen que es ahora 100 aos despus, y que su nieto o bisnieto, o sobrna o sobrno o ahijado, est mirando a esta fotografa tuya. +Cual es la historia que tu ms quisieras decirle? +Muchsimas gracias. +Hoy mismo hace un mes estaba ah de pie. 90 grados sur, la cima de abajo del mundo, el Polo Sur Geogrfico. +Y estaba all de pie junto a dos muy buenos amigos, Richard Weber y Kevin Vallely. +Juntos, acabbamos de romper el rcord mundial de velocidad para una caminata a travs del Polo Sur. +Nos tom 33 das, 23 horas y 55 minutos en llegar. +Mejoramos por 5 das el rcord anterior. +Y en el proceso, me convert en la primer persona en la historia en hacer el viaje entero de 1046 kilmetros, desde la ensenada de Hrcules hasta el Polo Sur, nicamente a pie, sin esques. +Muchos de ustedes probablemente estarn diciendo: "Espera un momento, eso es difcil de hacer?" +Imaginen por un momento, arrastrando un trineo, como el que acaban de ver en el video clip, cargado con 77 kilos de equipo, todas las cosas que necesitan para sobrevivir en su travesa antrtica. +Todos los das har 40 grados bajo cero. +Con vientos masivos en contra. +Y en algun momento del viaje, tendrn que cruzar estas fisuras en el hielo, estos hoyos. +Algunos tienen un paso precario y delgado debajo el cual podra ceder sin previo aviso, llevndose a su trineo y a ustedes haca el abismo para no ser vistos nunca jams. +Por si fuera poco? Mira al horizonte. +Si, todo el camino es de subida. Porque el Polo sur esta a ms de 3000 metros de altitud. Y la travesa inicia al nivel del mar. +De hecho, nuestro viaje no empez en la ensenada de Hercules, donde el ocano helado se encuentra con la Antrtica. +Comenz hace un poco menos de 2 aos. +Un par de amigos y yo habamos terminado un maratn de 111 das a traves de todo el desierto del Shara. +Y mientras estbamos all nos dimos cuenta de la seriedad de la falta de agua en el norte de frica. +Tambin aprendimos que la mayoria de los problemas a los que se enfrenta la gente en en el norte de frica afectan en mayor parte a la gente jven. +Volv a casa con mi esposa despues de 111 das de correr en la arena. Y dije: "sabes? no hay duda de que este bufn puede cruzar el desierto; somos capaces de hacer cualquier cosa que nos pongamos en mente." +Pero si voy a continuar haciendo estas aventuras, tiene que haber una razn para hacerlas ms all de llegar hasta ah. +En aqul entonces conoc a un ser humano maravilloso, Peter Thum, quin me motiv con sus acciones. +Esta intentando encontrar y solucionar problemas relacionados con el agua, la crisis alrededor del mundo. +Su dedicacin me inspir para hacer esta expedicin. Un viaje al Polo Sur, donde, con un sitio web interactivo, fuera capaz de llevar a jvenes, estudiantes y profesores de todo el mundo en la expedicin conmigo, como miembros activos del grupo. +As que tuvimos una web, en la que cada uno de los 33 das, estuvimos blogueando, contando historias, ustedes saben, el agujero de ozono forzndonos a taparnos la cara, o nos quemaramos. +Cruzar kilmetros y kilmetros de sastrugi -- hielo congelado en forma de dunas que puede llegar hasta la cadera. +Puedo decirles que cruzar esas cosas con un trineo de 77 kilos, haca como si el trineo pesase 770 kilos, porque as era como se senta. +Estuvimos blogueando en la pgina web diariamente para los estudiantes que nos estuvieran siguiendo, acerca de los das con caminatas de 10 horas, das con caminatas de 15 horas, algunos das incluso caminanos 20 horas para llegar al objetivo. +En ocasiones dormitbamos sin querer en nuestros trineos a 40 grados bajo cero. +Por su parte los estudiantes, gente de todo el mundo, nos haca preguntas. +La gente jven nos haca las preguntas ms increibles. +Una de mis favoritas: "Estn a 40 grados bajo cero, tienes que ir al bao, a dnde vas a ir y cmo lo vas a hacer?" +No voy a responder eso. Pero si contestar algunas de las preguntas ms populares. +Dnde duermen? Dormamos en una tienda de campaa muy baja. Porque el viento en la Antrtida es tan duro, que echa a volar cualquier cosa. +Qu comen? Uno de mis platos favoritos en la expedicin, mantequilla y tocino. Eso tiene como un milln de caloras. +Estabamos quemando unas 8500 al da. As que lo necesitbamos. +Cuntas bateras cargan para todo el equipamiento que tienen? +Prcticamente ninguna. Todo el equipo, incluido el de filmacin, se alimentaba de energa solar. +Y se llevan bien? Ciertamente espero que s. Porque tarde o temprano durante la expedicin, uno de tus compaeros de equipo tendr que tomar una aguja bastante grande, ponrtela en una ampolla infectada, y sacarle el lquido. +Pero ya en serio, en verdad s nos llevbamos muy bien. Porque tenamos una meta en comn de querer inspirar a esa gente jven. +Eran nuestros compaeros de equipo! Nos estaban . +Las historias que oamos nos llevaron al Polo Sur. +La pgina web funcion estupendamente como un canal de comunicacin recproca. +Jvenes en el norte de Canada, nios en una escuela primaria, arrastrando trineos por el patio, imitando a Richard, Ray y Kevin. Increble. +Llegamos al Polo Sur. Nos agrupamos en aquella tienda de campaa, 45 grados bajo cero ese da, nunca lo olvidar. +Nos miramos el uno al otro con esas pintas de incredulidad ante lo que acabbamos de conseguir. +Y recuerdo haber mirado a los chicos pensando, "Qu he aprendido de este viaje?" En serio. +Que soy el tipo ms resistente? +Al estar aqu parado frente ustedes, he estado corriendo un gran total de 5 aos . +Y unos aos antes de eso, fumaba un paquete de cigarrillos al da, con un estilo de vida sedentario. +Lo que me llevo de este viaje, de todos mis viajes, es que, de hecho, con cada fibra de mi ser, yo s que podemos hacer de lo imposible algo posible. +Estoy aprendiendo esto a los 40 aos. +Pueden imaginarse? En verdad, pueden imaginarse? +Estoy aprendiendo esto a los 40 aos de edad. +Imagnense tener 13 aos de edad, escuchar esas palabras, y creer en ellas. +Muchsimas gracias. Gracias. +Ahora, si el Presidente Obama me invitara a ser el prximo Zar de las Matemticas le hara una sugerencia que mejorara bastante la enseanza de las matemticas en este pas. +Y sera bastante fcil de implementar y nada costosa. +El curriculum de matemticas que tenemos se basa fundamentalmente en la aritmtica y el algebra. +Y todo lo que aprendemos a partir de entonces es formarnos hacia un concepto. +Y en la punta de la pirmide se encuentra el clculo. +Y aqu estoy para decir que yo pienso que no es la cima correcta de la pirmide... +que la cima correcta -- que todos nuestros estudiantes, todo graduado de la escuela debera saber -- son las estadsiticas: probabilidad y estadsticas. +Lo digo en serio, no me mal interpreten. El clculo es una materia importante. +Es uno de los grandes productos de la mente humana. +Las leyes de la naturaleza estan escritas en el lenguaje del clculo. +Y todo estudiante que estudia matemticas, ciencias, ingeniera, economa, definitivamente debera aprender clculo al final de su primer ao como universitarios. +Pero estoy aqu para decir, como profesor de matemticas, que muy poca gente usa el clculo de manera consciente y relevante en su vida diaria. +Por otro lado, las estadsticas -- es una materia que puedes, y deberas usar en el da a da. Cierto? +Es riesgo. Es recompensa. Es aleatoriedad. +Es entender los datos. +Pienso que si nuestros estudiantes, si nuestros estudiantes del colegio -- si todos los ciudadanos Americanos -- supieran acerca de probabilidad y estadsiticas, no estaramos en el desastre econmico que actualmente vivimos. No solo -- gracias -- no solo que... +[pero] si es pensado razonablemente, puede ser tremendamente entretenido. +Me refiero a que, probabilidad y estadsticas, son las matemticas de los juegos y las apuestas. +Es analizar tendencias. Es predecir el futuro. +Miren, el mundo ha cambiado de anlogo a digital. +Y es hora que nuestro curriculo de matemticas cambie de anlogo a digital. De la ms clsica, matemtica contnua, a una ms moderna, matemtica discreta. Las matemticas de la incertidumbre, del azar de datos -- y eso es probabilidad y estadsticas. +En resumen, en vez de que nuestros estudiantes aprendan acerca de las tcnicas del clculo, pienso que sera mucho ms relevante si todos ellos supieran que significan dos desviaciones estndar de la media. Y lo digo en serio. +Muchas gracias. +Este es el momento exacto, en el que comence a crear algo llamado "Tinkering School" (Escuela de Experimentacin). +Tinkering School es una escuela donde los chicos pueden agarrar palos martillos y otros objetos peligrosos con plena conffianza en su manejo. +Confiados de que no se lastimarn a si mismos y confiados de que no lastimarn a otros. +Tinkering School no sigue un programa fijo y no hay exmenes. +No intentamos ensearle a nadie, ninguna cosa especifica. +Cuando los chicos llegan se les confronta con muchas cosas. Madera y clavos, soga y ruedas, y un montn de herramientas, verdaderas herramientas. +Es para los chicos, una experiencia de seis das de inmersin +y en ese conexto, podemos ofrecerles a los nios, tiempo. algo que suele ser escaso en sus vidas sobreagendadas +Nuestra meta es asegurarnos que ellos se van con un mejor sentido de como hacer cosas, que cuando llegaron. Y la profunda nocin interna de que uno puede descubrir cosas tan solo jugueteando +Nada sale como es planeado, nunca. +Y los chicos pronto aprenden que todos los proyectos salen chuecos y se adaptan a la idea de que cada paso dentro de un proyecto, es un paso mas cerca de la dulzura del triunfo o de un desastre que produzca risa. +Empezamos con garabatos y dibujos +y a veces hacemos verdaderos planes. +y en otras, solo empezamos a construir. +Construir es el corazn de la experiencia Manos a la obra, profundamente inmersos. y completamente comprometidos con el problema entre manos. +Robn y yo actuando como colaboradores manteniendo el contexto en los proyectos. y guiandolos hacia la meta +El xito est en el hacer. Y se festejan y analzan los fracasos. +Los problemas se convierten en rompecabezas. Y los obstaculos desaparecen. +Cuando son enfrentados a desafos, particularmente complejos... Surge un comportamiento en verdad interesante: La decoracin. +La decoracin del proyecto sin terminar es una especie de incubacin conceptual. +Desde estos intervalos surge una profunda comprensin y sorprendentes nuevos enfoques para resolver los problemas que momentos antes los tenian frustrados. +Todos los materiales estn a la disposicin para su uso +Incluso esas odiosas, mundanas, bolsas de plstico para vveres. pueden volverse un puente mas fuerte que cualquiera que alguien haya imaginado. +y las cosas que construyen los sorprenden incluso a ellos mismos. +Video: 3, 2, 1, ahora! +Gever Tulley: Una montaa rusa construida por nios de 7 aos. +Video: Yaayy!! +Gever Tulley: Gracias, ha sido un gran placer. +Voy a comenzar con mi musa favorita, Emily Dickinson, quien dijo que maravillarse no es conocimiento, tampoco es ignorancia. +Es algo que est suspendido entre lo que creemos que puede ser y una tradicin que quizs hayamos olvidado. +Y yo creo, que al escuchar aqu a stas increbles personas, he estado tan inspirado, tantas ideas increbles, tantas visiones. +Y sin embargo, cuando veo el entorno exterior, t ves cun resistente es la arquitectura al cambio. +Ves cun resistente es a esas mismas ideas. +Las podemos concebir. Podemos crear cosas increbles. +Y sin embargo, al final, es tan difcil cambiar el mundo. +Aplaudimos la caja de buenos modales. +Pero crear un espacio que jams ha existido es lo que me interesa. Crear algo que jams ha sido. Un espacio al que nunca hayamos entrado, salvo en nuestra mente o en nuestro espritu. +Y creo que es sobre eso en lo que realmente se basa la arquitectura. +La arquitectura no se basa en el concreto ni en el acero o en los elementos de la tierra. +La arquitectura se basa en el maravillarse. +Y ha sido realmente ese maravillarse lo que ha creado las ms grandiosas ciudades, los espacios ms grandiosos que hemos tenido. +Y creo que eso es en realidad lo que la arquitectura es. Es un relato. +De hecho, es un relato que es narrado a travs de sus materiales slidos. +Pero es un relato de esfuerzo y lucha contra las improbabilidades. +Si piensas en las grandiosas edificaciones, en las catedrales, en los templos, en las pirmides, en las pagodas, en las ciudades de India y ms all, piensas en lo increble que es que todo eso haya sido realizado no por alguna idea abstracta, sino por la gente. +De modo que cualquier cosa que haya sido hecha, puede ser deshecha. +Cualquier cosa que haya sido hecha, puede ser mejorada. +Eso es: lo que yo realmente creo que es importante en la arquitectura. +Estas son las dimensiones con las cuales me gusta trabajar. +Es algo muy personal. +No son, quizs, las dimensiones apreciadas por los crticos de arte o los crticos de la arquitectura o los planificadores de ciudades. +Pero creo que estas son el oxgeno necesario para que nosotros vivamos en edificios, vivamos en ciudades, nos conectemos en un espacio social. +Y por tanto creo que el optimismo es lo que conduce a la arquitectura hacia adelante. +Es la nica profesin en la cual tienes que creer en el futuro. +Uno puede ser un general, un poltico, un economista que est deprimido, un msico en clave menor, un pintor en colores apagados. +Pero la arquitectura es ese xtasis pleno de que el futuro puede ser mejor. +Y es esa esperanza lo que creo que mueve a la sociedad. +Y hoy tenemos algo as como pesimismo evanglico a nuestro alrededor. +Y sin embargo, es en tiempos como estos cuando pienso que la arquitectura puede prosperar con ideas grandiosas. Ideas que no son pequeas. Piensen en las grandes ciudades. +Piensen en el Edificio Empire State, en el Rockefeller Center. +Fueron construidos en tiempos que de algn modo no fueron los mejores. +Y sin embargo esa energa y esa fuerza de la arquitectura han impulsado por completo un espacio social y poltico que ocupan esos edificios. +As que, de nuevo, soy un creyente en lo expresivo. +Nunca he sido fantico de lo neutro. +No me gusta la neutralidad en la vida, en nada. +Yo pienso: expresin. +Y eso es como el caf expreso. Ustedes saben, uno toma la esencia del caf. +Eso es lo que es la expresin. +Ha estado ausente en gran parte de la arquitectura, porque pensamos que la arquitectura es el territorio de lo neutralizado, el territorio de un tipo de estado que no tiene opinin, que no tiene valor. +Y, sin embargo, creo que es la expresin, la expresin de la ciudad, la expresin de nuestro propio espacio, lo que le da el sentido a la arquitectura. +Y, evidentemente, los espacios expresivos no son mudos. +Los espacios expresivos no son espacios que confirman simplemente lo que ya sabemos. +Los espacios expresivos nos pueden perturbar. +Y yo creo que eso tambin es parte de la vida. +La vida no es simplemente un anestsico para hacernos rer, sino para tratar de cruzar el abismo de la historia, para llegar a lugares en los que nunca hemos estado, y quizs pudiramos haber estado, de no haber tenido tanta suerte. +As que, nuevamente, radical versus conservador. +Radical, qu significa? Es algo que est enraizado. Y algo que est profundamente enraizado en la tradicin. +Y creo que la arquitectura es eso, es radical. +No es simplemente la conservacin en metanal de formas muertas. +Realmente es una conexin viva con el evento csmico del cual somos parte, y un relato que ciertamente est en curso. +No es algo que tenga un buen o un mal final. +Es en realidad un relato en el cual nuestros mismos actos estn llevando el relato de un modo particular. +De modo que, de nuevo, soy un creyente en la arquitectura radical. +Ustedes saben, la arquitectura sovitica de ese edificio es la conservacin. +Es como sola ser el viejo Las Vegas. +Es acerca de conservar las emociones, conservar las tradiciones que han obstruido que la mente siga adelante y, obviamente, lo que es radical es hacer frente a ellos. +Y yo creo que nuestra arquitectura es una confrontacin con nuestros propios sentidos. +Por tanto, creo que no debera ser "cool". +Hay mucho aprecio por el tipo de arquitectura "cool" +Siempre he sido un oponente de ella. Yo creo que se necesita emocin. +La vida sin emocin no sera en realidad vida. +Inclusive la mente es emocional. +No hay razn que no ocupe una posicin en la esfera tica, en el misterio filosfico de lo que somos nosotros. +As que pienso que la emocin es una dimensin que es importante introducir en el espacio de la ciudad, en la vida de la ciudad. +Y, claro, todo sobre nosotros es respecto a la lucha de emociones. +Y yo creo que eso es lo que hace del mundo un lugar extraordinario. +Y, claro, la confrontacin de lo "cool", de lo no emotivo con la emocin es una conversacin que, creo, han fomentado las mismas ciudades. +Creo que es el progreso de las ciudades. +No es solamente las formas de las ciudades, sino el hecho de que ellas encarnan emociones, no slo las de quienes las construyen, sino tambin de quienes las habitan. +Inexplicable versus comprendido. Ustedes saben, con mucha frecuencia queremos comprenderlo todo. +Pero la arquitectura no es el lenguaje de las palabras. +Es un lenguaje. Pero no es un leguaje que pueda reducirse a una serie de notas programticas que podamos escribir verbalmente. +Demasiados edificios que ustedes ven fuera son tan banales, que te narran un relato, pero el relato es muy corto. Y dice: "No tenemos que contarte". +As que, realmente, lo importante es introducir las dimensiones arquitectnicas reales, las cuales puede que sean totalmente inexplicables con palabras. Porque operan en proporciones, en materiales, en luz. +Ellas confluyen en varias fuentes conectndose en una especie de compleja matriz vectorial, que no es en realidad frontal, sino que est incrustada en las vidas y en la historia de una ciudad, y de un pueblo. +As que, de nuevo, la nocin de que un edificio debera ser simplemente explcito, creo, es una nocin falsa, que ha reducido a la arquitectura a la banalidad. +La mano versus la computadora +Obviamente, qu seramos sin computadoras? +Nuestro oficio depende enteramente de las computadoras. +Pero la computadora no debera ser simplemente el guante de la mano; la mano debera ser en realidad el motor de la fuerza de la computadora. +Porque creo que la mano en toda su obscuridad primitiva y fisiolgica, tiene una fuente y, aunque la fuente es desconocida, aunque no tenemos que ser msticos al respecto, +nos damos cuenta de que la mano nos ha sido dada por fuerzas que estn ms all de nuestra propia autonoma, +Creo que eso es parte de lo complejo que es la arquitectura. +Porque, ciertamente, nos hemos acostumbrado a la propaganda segn la cual lo simple es lo bueno. Pero yo no creo eso. +Escuchndolos a todos ustedes, la complejidad del pensamiento, la complejidad de las capas del significado es aplastante. +Y creo que no nos debemos espantar en la arquitectura. Ustedes saben, ciruga cerebral, teora atmica, gentica, economa, son campos complejos. +No hay razn por la cual la arquitectura deba hacerse chiquita, y presentar este mundo ilusorio de lo simple. +Es compleja. El espacio es complejo. +El espacio es algo que se desdobla de s mismo en mundos completamente nuevos. +Y tan extraordinario como es, no puede reducirse a un tipo de simplificacin que hemos llegado a admirar frecuentemente. +Sin embargo, nuestras vidas son complejas. +Nuestras emociones son complejas. +Nuestros deseos intelectuales son complejos. +As que yo en realidad creo que la arquitectura, como yo la veo, debe reflejar esa complejidad en todos y cada uno de los espacios que tenemos, en toda intimidad que poseemos. +Es claro que eso significa que la arquitectura es poltica. +Lo poltico no es enemigo de la arquitectura. +La Politeia es la ciudad. Es todos nosotros juntos. +Y yo siempre he credo que el acto de la arquitectura, as sea una residencia privada, cuando alguien lo vea, es un acto poltico. Porque estar a la vista de los dems. +Y nosotros vivimos en un mundo que nos conecta ms y ms. +As que, de nuevo, la evasin de esa esfera que ha sido tan endmica a ese tipo de arquitectura pura, la arquitectura autnoma que es slo un objeto abstracto, nunca me ha llamado la atencin. +Y yo en realidad creo que esta interaccin con la historia, con una historia que con frecuencia es muy difcil lidiar con elle, de crear una posicin que est ms all de nuestras expectativas normales y de crear una crtica. +Porque la arquitectura tambin es el hacerse preguntas. +No es nadams el dar respuestas. +Tambin es, como la vida, hacerse preguntas. +Por tanto es importante que sea real. +Ustedes saben que podemos simular casi cualquier cosa. +Pero la nica cosa que no puede ser jams simulada es el corazn humano, el alma humana. +Y la arquitectura est tan estrechamente entrelazada con aquello. Porque nosotros nacemos en algn lado y morimos en algn lado. +As que la realidad de la arquitectura es irracional. No es intelectual. +No es algo que nos llegue a travs de libros y teoras. +Es lo real, eso que tocamos, la puerta, la ventana, el vano de la puerta, la cama. Semejantes objetos comunes. Y, no obstante, yo procuro, en cada construccin, tomar ese mundo virtual, que es tan enigmtico y tan rico, y crear algo en el mundo real. +Crear un espacio para una oficina, un espacio de sustentabilidad que funcione realmente entre esa virtualidad y no obstante pueda ser materializado en algo real. +Lo inesperado versus lo habitual. +Qu es un hbito? Para nosotros es simplemente una traba. +Es un veneno auto-administrado. +As que lo inesperado es siempre inesperado. +Ustedes saben, es cierto, las catedrales, como algo inesperado, siempre sern inesperadas. +Ustedes conocen las construcciones de Frank Gehry, ellas continuarn siendo inesperadas en el futuro. +As que no es la arquitectura habitual la que nos anima esa falsa especie de estabilidad, sino una arquitectura que est llena de tensin, una arquitectura que vaya ms all de s misma para alcanzar el alma y el corazn humanos, y que rompa con las trabas de los hbitos. +Y, claro, los hbitos son impuestos por la arquitectura. +Cuando vemos el mismo tipo de arquitectura nos habituamos a ese mundo de esos ngulos, de esas luces, de esos materiales. +Creemos que el mundo, en realidad, se parece a nuestras edificaciones. +Y, sin embargo, nuestras edificaciones estn bastante limitadas por las tcnicas y las incertidumbres que han sido parte de ellas. +As que, de nuevo, lo inesperado, que tambin es lo puro. +Y pienso con frecuencia sobre lo puro y lo refinado. +Qu es puro? Lo bruto, dira yo, es la experiencia desnuda, despojada de lujo, despojada de materiales costosos, despojada de ese tipo de refinamiento que asociamos con la alta cultura. +As que la crudeza, creo, en el espacio es el hecho de que la sostenibilidad pueda, realmente, en el futuro, traducirse en un espacio puro, un espacio que no est decorado, un espacio que no tiene inclinacin alguna, pero un espacio que puede ser fresco en trminos de su temperatura, podra ser atrayente a nuestros deseos. +Un espacio que no siempre nos persiga, como un peddo que ha sido entrenado para seguirnos, pero que avance hacia adelante en direcciones que demuestran otras posibilidades, otras experiencias que nunca han hecho parte del vocabulario de la arquitectura. +Y, claro, esa yuxtaposicin es de gran inters para m, porque crea un tipo de chispa de una nueva energa. +Y as que a m me gusta algo que sea puntiagudo, no chato, algo que se enfoque en la realidad, algo que tenga la fuerza, a travs de su capacidad fundamental, de transformar incluso un espacio muy pequeo. +As que, probablemente, la arquitectura no es tan grandiosa como la ciencia, pero a travs de su punto focal puede empujar, a la manera de Arqumedes, aquello que nosotros pensamos que es el mundo. +Y por lo general basta con un edificio para cambiar nuestra experiencia de lo que podra haberse hecho, de lo que se ha hecho, de cmo el mundo ha permanecido entre la estabilidad y la inestabilidad. +Y, claro, los edificios tienen sus formas. +Esas formas son difciles de modificar. +Y, no obstante, yo creo que en cada espacio social, en cada espacio pblico, hay un deseo de comunicar ms que slo ese pensamiento pacial, esa tcnica incompleta, sino algo que seale, y lo puede hacer en varias direcciones, adelante, atrs, al lado y alrededor, +eso es en realidad lo que es la memoria. +As que creo que mi principal inters es la memoria. +Sin memoria seramos amnsicos. +No sabramos hacia dnde nos dirigimos, ni por qu vamos a donde vamos. +As que nunca he estado interesado en la reutilizacin olvidable, el reciclaje de lo mismo una y otra vez. Algo que, claro, obtiene la aprobacin de los crticos. +A los crticos les gusta que la representacin se repita de la misma forma una y otra vez. +Pero yo prefiero tocar una pieza totalmente desconocida, y an con imperfecciones, que repetir la misma una y otra vez, algo que se ha vuelto trivial por su falta de sentido. +As que, de nuevo, la memoria es la ciudad, la memoria es el mundo. +Sin la memoria no habra historia que narrar. +No habra hacia dnde mirar. +Lo memorable, creo, es nuestro mundo realmente, lo que creemos que es el mundo. +Y no es solamente nuestra memoria, sino aquellos quienes nos recuerdan. Lo que significa que la arquitectura no es muda. +Es un arte de la comunicacin. +Narra un relato. El relato puede tocar deseos recnditos. +Puede llegar a fuentes que no estn disponibles explcitamente. +Puede alcanzar milenios que han estado enterrados, y devolverlos con un valor justo e inesperado. +As que, de nuevo, creo que la nocin de que la mejor arquitectura que es silenciosa nunca me ha llamado la atencin. +El silencio puede ser bueno para un cementerio, pero no para una ciudad. +Las ciudades deberan estar llenas de vibraciones, llenas de sonido, llenas de msica. +Y eso, en realidad, es la misin que yo creo es importante para la arquitectura: crear espacios que sean vibrantes, que sean pluralistas, que puedan transformar las actividades ms prosaicas, y elevarlas a una expectativa completamente diferente; +crear un centro comercial, un lugar para la natacin que sea ms como un museo que como para el entretenimiento. +Y estos son nuestros sueos. +Y, claro, el riesgo. Yo creo que la arquitectura debera ser arriesgada. +Ustedes saben, eso cuesta mucho dinero y dems, pero s, no debera ponerlo en lo seguro. +No debera hacerlo porque si lo hace, no nos lleva en una direccin que queremos seguir. +Y yo creo, claro, que el riesgo es en lo que el mundo reposa. +El mundo, sin riesgo, no valdra la pena vivirlo. +As que, s, yo creo que en cada edificio asumimos riesgos, +riesgos de crear espacios que nunca han sido contrapuestos a tal grado; +riesgos de espacios que nunca han sido tan vertiginosos como deberan ser para una ciudad pionera. +riesgos que en realidad llevan a la arquitectura, an con todas sus imperfecciones, a un espacio que es mucho mejor que el siempre de nuevo repetido vaco de una cosa prefabricada. +Y, obviamente, esto es finalmente lo que creo que debe ser la arquitectura. +Se trata del espacio. No se trata de la moda. +No se trata de la decoracin. +Se trata de crear con recursos mnimos algo que no pueda ser repetido, que no pueda ser simulado en ninguna otra esfera. +Y ah, claro, est el espacio que necesitamos respirar, el espacio que necesitamos soar. +Estos son los espacios que son no solo espacios lujosos para algunos de nosotros, sino importantes para todos en este mundo. +As que, de nuevo, no se trata de las modas pasajeras, teoras pasajeras. +Se trata de tallar un espacio para los rboles. +Es tallar un espacio donde la naturaleza pueda entrar al mundo domstico de una ciudad. +Un espacio donde algo que nunca haya visto la luz del da pueda entrar a las entraas de una densidad. +Y creo que eso es realmente la naturaleza de la arquitectura. +Ahora, yo soy un creyente de la democracia. +No me gustan los edificios bonitos, construidos para regmenes totalitarios, +en los que las personas no pueden hablar, no pueden votar, no pueden hacer nada. +Nosotros admiramos con demasiada frecuencia esos edificios. Creemos que son hermosos. +Y, sin embargo, cuando pienso en la pobreza de la sociedad que no le da libertad a su pueblo, yo no admiro esos edificios. +As que, la democracia, tan difcil como es, y creo en ella. +Y, claro, qu ms podra ser en Ground Zero? +Es un proyecto muy complejo. +Es emocional. Hay tantos intereses. +Es poltico. Hay tantas partes involucradas en este proyecto. +Hay tantos intereses. Hay dinero. Hay poder poltico. +Estn las emociones de las vctimas. +Y, sin embargo, en toda su complejidad, con todas sus dificultades, no me hubiera gustado que nadie dijera "Esta es la tabla rasa, seor arquitecto. Haga lo que le plazca." +Yo no creo que algo bueno salga de eso. +Yo creo que la arquitectura se trata de consenso. +Y se trata de la sucia palabra "compromiso". El compromiso no es malo. +El compromiso, si es artstico, si es capaz de lidiar con sus estrategias -- y ah est mi primer esbozoe y el ltimo render -- que no est tan lejos. +Y, sin embargo, el compromiso, el consenso, eso es en lo que creo. +Y, a pesar de todas sus dificultades, Ground Zero est avanzando. +Es difcil. En 2011, en 2013. Freedom Tower, el monumento conmemorativo. +Y aqu termino. +Me inspir cuando llegu aqu como inmigrante, en un barco como millones de otros, viendo a Amrica desde ese punto de vista. +Esta es Amrica. Esta es la Libertad. +Esto es lo que nosotros soamos. Esto es individualidad, demostrada en la silueta de la ciudad. Su capacidad de adaptarse. +Y, finalmente, esta es la libertad que representa Amrica, no slo para m, como inmigrante, sino para todos en el mundo. Gracias. +Chris Anderson: Tengo una pregunta: +Entonces has llegado a buen trmino con el proceso que se dio con Ground Zero y la prdida del diseo original e increble que concebiste? +Daniel Libeskind: Mira. Nosotros tenemos que sanarnos de la nocin de que somos autoritarios, de que podemos determinar todo lo que sucede. +Nosotros tenemos que contar con los dems, y modelar el proceso de la mejor manera posible. +Yo vengo del Bronx. A m me ensearon a no ser un perdedor, a no ser alguien que simplemente se rinde en una pelea. +Uno tiene que luchar por lo que cree. Uno nunca gana todo lo que quiere ganar. Pero uno puede mover el proceso. +Y yo creo que lo que se construir en Ground Zero ser significativo, ser inspirador, le contar a otras generaciones los sacrificios, el significado de este evento. +No solo para Nueva York, sino para el mundo. +Chris Anderson: Muchas gracias. +Charles y Ray eran un equipo. Eran marido y mujer. +A pesar de los mejores esfuerzos recientes del New York Times y Vanity Fair, no son hermanos. Y eran muy divertidos. +Ray fue la nica que us la palabra "ampersands" en la familia. +Nos vamos a centrar en Charles hoy. Porque es su 100 cumpleaos. +Pero cuando hablo de l, realmente estoy hablando de ambos como equipo. +Aqu est Charles cuando tenia 3 aos. Habra cumplido 100 en junio. +Tenemos muchas celebraciones interesantes que conmemorar. +La cuestin sobre su trabajo es que la mayora del pblico conoce su trabajo primero a travs de sus muebles -- Probablemente no reconozcan esta silla y algunas de las otras que les mostrar. +Pero primero vamos a entrar a travs de la puerta del Gran Top. +Sin embargo, antes de nada... por qu lo estoy mostrando? +Es porque Charles y Ray hicieron esta pelcula? +De hecho, esta es una pelcula de entrenamiento para una academia de payasos que ellos tenan. +Ellos adems ejercieron de payasos cuando el futuro del mueble no estaba cerca de ser propicio como se ha convertido. +Aqu una foto de Charles. As que miremos el siguiente videoclip. +La pelcula que estamos a punto de ver fue realizada para la Feria Mundial de Mosc. +Vdeo: Esta es la tierra. +Tiene muchos contrastes. +Es spera y es plana. +Algunos lugares son fros. +Otros son calientes. +Mucha lluvia cae en algunas reas. y no suficiente en otras. +Pero la gente vive en esta tierra. +Y, como en Rusia, estn juntos en pueblos y ciudades. +Aqu hay algo sobre la forma en que viven. +Eames Demetrios: Esta es una pelcula que fue rara vez vista en los Estados Unidos. +Se proyectaba en 7 pantallas y tena 60 metros de ancho. +Y esto ocurra en plena Guerra Fra. +El debate de Nixon-Krushchev sucedi a 15 metros de donde fue mostrado. +Y, cmo empez? +Comnmente, la primera lnea en la narracin de Charles era: "Las mismas estrellas que brillan en Rusia brillan en los Estados Unidos. Desde el cielo, nuestras ciudades se ven muy parecidas". +Era esa conexin humana que Charles y Ray encontraban en todo. +Y pueden imaginar, y la cuestin es que ellos crean que la humanidad poda manejar este nmero de imgenes porque lo importante era obtener la Gestalt acerca de lo que eran las imgenes. +As que ese fue un pequeo fragmento. +Pero la cuestin acerca de Charles y Ray es que ellos estaban siempre modelando cosas. +Ellos siempre estaban inventando cosas. +Creo que una de las cosas que ms me apasiona es el trabajo de mis abuelos. Me apasiona mi trabajo. Pero ms all de eso, me apasiona la visin holstica del diseo, donde el diseo es una herramienta de vida, no una herramienta profesional. +Y saben, muchos de nosotros que tenemos hijos, queremos que a nuestros hijos les interese la msica. +No soy la excepcin. +Pero no se trata de que ellos se conviertan en Bono o Tracy Chapman. +Se trata de que la msica fluya por sus mentes y sus pensamientos. +El diseo es igual. El diseo debe convertirse en eso mismo. +Y este es un modelo que ellos hicieron de aquella presentacin de siete pantallas. +Y Charles lo est comprobando ah mismo. +As que ahora vamos entrar por esa puerta de muebles. +Esta es una instalacin poco convencional de una silla en un aeropuerto. +As que lo que veremos es algunos de los muebles iconos de Eames. +Y la cuestin acerca de sus muebles es que ellos dijeron que el papel del diseador era esencialmente el de ser un buen anfitrin, anticipndose a las necesidades del cliente. +As que esas son imgenes interesantes. Pero estas son algunas que me parecen realmente interesantes. +Estos son todos los prototipos. Estos son los errores. A pesar de que yo no pienso que "errores" es la palabra adecuada en diseo. +Son simplemente cosas que intentamos para hacer que de alguna manera funcione mejor. +Y saben que algunas de esas probablemente seran sillas terribles. +Algunas de esas se ven muy bien. Es como pensar "Oye, por qu ellos no intentaron eso?" +Fue un proceso prctico interactivo parecido al diseo vernculo y el diseo folk en las culturas tradicionales. +Y creo que es una de las cosas comunes entre el modernismo y el diseo tradicional. Creo que podra ser un rea comn mientras pensamos qu hacer en los prximos 20 o 30 aos. +La otra cosa que es interesante es que miras esto y en los medios de comunicacin cuando la gente dice diseo, estn queriendo decir estilo. +Y realmente yo estoy aqu para hablar sobre diseo. +Pero ya saben que el objeto es solo un pivote. +Es un pivote entre un proceso y un sistema. +Y esta es una pequea pelcula que hice acerca del proceso de fabricacin de la silla lounge de Eames. +El proceso de diseo de Charles y Ray nunca terminaba en la fabricacin. +Continuaba. Siempre intentando hacerlo cada vez mejor. +Porque, como deca Bill Clinton acerca de las clnicas de salud de Ruanda, +no es suficiente crear una. +Tienes que crear un sistema que funcione mejor y mejor. +As que siempre me ha gustado este prototipo de foto. +Porque no puede ser ms bsico. +Probamos cosas. +Esta es una silla relativamente famosa. +Su versin anterior tena una base en forma de "X". Eso es lo que a los coleccionistas les gusta. +A Charles y Ray les gustaba esta porque era mejor. +Funcionaba mejor. La base "H", mucho ms prctica. +Esto es algo llamado tablilla. +Y me conmovi el trabajo para la milicia, o para los soldados de Dean Kamen. Porque Charles y Ray disearon una tablilla moldeada en contrachapado. Esta es. +Y ellos haban estado trabajando en muebles anteriormente. +Pero haciendo estas tablillas ellos aprendieron mucho acerca del proceso de manufactura, que fue increblemente importante para ellos. +Estoy tratando de ensearles mucho. Porque quiero que tengan una amplia muestra de ideas e imgenes. +Esta es una casa que Charles y Ray disearon. +Mi hermana est persiguiendo a otra persona. No es a m. +Aunque afirme de corazn el hecho de que l le rob su diario. No soy yo. +Y luego tenemos aqu una pelcula, en la esquina inferior izquierda, que Charles y Ray hicieron. +Miren la silla plstica. +La casa es de 1949. +La silla est hecha en 1949. +Charles y Ray no se obsesionaron por el estilo en s mismo. +No dijeron: "Nuestro estilo son las curvas. Hagamos la casa con curvas". +No dijeron: "Nuestro estilo son las lneas. Hagamos la silla con lneas". +Se centraron en la necesidad. +Trataron de resolver el problema del diseo. +Charles sola decir: "La razn por la cual tienes un estilo de diseo es la razn por la cual no has resuelto el problema de diseo". +Es en cierta manera una frase brutal. +Este es el diseo anterior de esa casa. +Y, nuevamente, ellos buscaron la manera de hacer un prototipo de una casa. La arquitectura, un medio muy caro. +He aqu una pelcula de la que hemos estado escuchando hablar. +Las "Potencias de 10" es una pelcula que ellos hicieron. +Si vemos el prximo clip, van a ver la primera versin de "Potencias de Diez", en la esquina superior izquierda. +La versin ms familiar en la esquina inferior derecha. +La pelcula Top de Eames, en la esquina inferior izquierda. +Y una lmpara que Charles dise para una iglesia. +Video: Lo cual pertenece a un grupo local de galaxias. +Estas forman parte de un sistema grupal al igual que las estrellas. +Son tantas y tan variadas que desde esta distancia se ven como las estrelles desde la Tierra. +ED: Han visto esa pelcula, y lo que es tan grandioso de esta conferencia es que todo el mundo ha estado hablando sobre la escala. +Todo el mundo aqu lo aborda de una forma diferente. +Quiero darles un ejemplo. +E. O. Wilson una vez me dijo que cuando observaba a las hormigas -- le encantaban, por supuesto, y quera aprender ms sobre ellas-- l conscientemente las vea desde una perspectiva de escala. +As que aqu esta la criatura diminuta. +Y simplemente, al cambiar el marco de referencia se revela tanto, incluyendo lo que termin siendo un TED Prize. +Modelado, ellos intentaron el modelado todo el tiempo. Siempre estaban modelando cosas. +Y pienso que parte de eso es que nunca delegaron el entendimiento. +Y creo que en nuestra familia fuimos muy afortunados. Porque aprendimos sobre diseo al revs. +El diseo no era algo ms. +Era parte del negocio de la vida en general. +Era parte de la calidad de vida. +Y aqu estn algunas fotos familiares. +Y pueden ver por qu tengo un estilo fuera de moda, con un corte de pelo como ese. +Pero de todos modos recuerdo aquel pomelo que solamos comer en la casa de los Eames cuando yo era pequeo. +As que veremos otra pelcula. +Esta es una pelcula llamada Juguetes. +Me pueden ver, tengo el mismo corte de pelo, en la esquina superior derecha. +En la esquina superior podemos ver una pelcula que ellos hicieron sobre los trenes de juguete. +En la esquina inferior derecha hay un juguete solar que no hace nada. +En la esquina inferior izquierda estn los juguetes Da-de-los-Muertos. +Charles sola decir que los juguetes no son tan inocentes como parecen. +Son a menudo precursores de grandes cosas. +Y estas ideas, que se pusieron en prctica ah acerca del uso honesto de los materiales, es exactamente lo mismo que el uso honesto de materiales en el contrachapado. +Y ahora los voy a poner a prueba. +Esta es una carta que mi abuelo envi a mi madre cuando ella tena 5 aos de edad. +Pueden leerla? +Luca angel, Vale, ojo. +Audiencia: Vio muchos trenes. +ED: La lezna, adems, que bueno que el gremio de los artesanos del cuero est aqu. +Aslo, qu est haciendo l? Rema, rem. +Sol? No. Bueno, existe algn otro nombre para el amanecer? +El alba, muy bien. +Tambin anduve en uno. Yo... +Audiencia: Ustedes tuvieron, espero que tuvieran -- ED: Ustedes habrn estado en la pgina Web Dogs of Saint Louis (Perros de Saint Louis) a finales, a mediados de 1930, y sabrn que ese era un Gran Dans. +As que, espero que hayan tenido un Audiencia: Buen momento, momento-- ED: Momento en. +Ciudadano Kane, rosa-- Audiencia: Capullo. +ED: No, botn. "D" es correcto. En casa de Buddy -- Audiencia: Fiesta. Amor. +ED: Vale, muy bien. +As que "Yo vi muchos trenes y tambin me mont en uno. +Espero que hayas pasado un buen momento en la fiesta de Buddy". +As que a ustedes les fue muy bien, estupendo. +Mi madre y Charles tuvieron una relacin grandiosa donde se enviaban esas clase de cosas el uno al otro. +y es todo parte de, ya saben, como solan decir: "Toma tu placer en serio". +Estas son algunas imgenes de un proyecto mo que se llama Kymaerica. +Es una especie de universo alternativo. +Es de alguna manera una reinterpretacin del paisaje. +Aquellas placas son placas que hemos estado instalando alrededor de Norte Amrica. +Estamos cerca de hacer seis en Reino Unido la prxima semana. +Y ellos honran acontecimientos en el mundo lineal del mundo ficticio. +As que, por supuesto, como es bronce tiene que ser cierto. +Vdeo: Kymaerica con cascadas, derribando nuestro -- ED: Esta es una de las canciones tradicionales kymaericanas. +Y entonces tuvimos el concurso de deletreo "Spelling bees" en Pars, Illinois. +Vdeo: Tu palabra es N. Carolina. +Chica: Y-I-N-D-I-A-N-A +ED: Y entonces, Fila de la Embajada es de hecho un sitio histrico. Porque en la historia kymaericana aqu es donde la Dispora Parisina comenz, donde estaba la embajada. +As que se puede visitar y tener esta experiencia ficticia tridimensional. +Y el pueblo realmente lo ha asimilado. +Tuvimos el concurso de deletreo con el Club Gwomeus. +Pero lo realmente interesante es que consideramos nuestro ambiente visual como algo inevitable. Y no lo es. +Otras cosas pudieron haber pasado. Los japoneses podran haber descubierto Monterrey. +Y nosotros podramos haber nacido hace 100.000 aos. +Y hay muchas cosas divertidas. Este es el Museo del Banco. +Tienen tarjetas coleccionables. Y toda clase de cosas interesantes. +Y estn un poco atrapados en la textura de Kymaerica. +El Tahatchabe, la gran cultura de edificio de camino. +Un tipo llamado Nobu Naga, tambin llamado el Coln Japons. +Pero ahora los voy a traer de vuelta al mundo real. +Y esto es Cranbrook. Tengo una sorpresa para Uds. Cul fue la primera pelcula que hizo Charles? +As que vemosla. Nadie la ha visto. +Cranbrook es muy generoso por dejarnos mostrarla por primera vez aqu. +Es una pelcula acerca de Maya Gretel, una famosa ceramicista, y profesora en Cranbrook. +Y la hizo para la exhibicin de la facultad en 1939. +En Silencio. No tenemos una cancin todava. +Muy simple. Es solo un inicio. Pero es una de esas cosas que se aprenden hacindolas. +Quieres aprender cmo hacer pelculas? Ve y haz una. +E intenta algo. +Pero aqu viene lo realmente grandioso. +Ves esa silla de ah? La anaranjada? Esa es la silla orgnica. 1940. +Al mismo tiempo que Charles estaba haciendo esa silla, estaba haciendo esta pelcula. +Lo que quiero decir es que esta visin, la visin holstica de diseo, estaba con ellos desde el principio. +No es que hiciramos algunas sillas, fueran un xito y +ahora furamos a hacer algunas pelculas". +Fue siempre parte de cmo ellos miraban el mundo. Y eso fue realmente poderoso. +Y pienso que todos nosotros en este saln, a medida que avanzamos en el diseo, no se trata de hacer una cosa. +Se trata de cmo abordas los problemas. Y est esa inmensa y hermosa cosa en comn entre diseo, negocios y el mundo. +As que veremos el ltimo clip. +Y les he mostrado algunas de las imgenes. Slo quiero centrarme en el sonido ahora. +As que esta es la voz de Charles. +Charles Eames: En India, aquellos que carecen y que estn en el ms bajo estatus, comen, muy a menudo, particularmente en el sur de la India, comen de una hoja de pltano. +Y aquellos un poco ms arriba en la escala comen de una clase de plato de cermica de bajo fuego. +Y un poco ms arriba de la escala, tienen un barniz en una cosa que ellos llaman "thali". +Si ests un poco ms arriba en la escala, por qu, un latn thali. +Y luego las cosas se vuelven un poco cuestionables. +Hay cosas como thalis plateados. +Y hay thalis de plata slido +Y supongo que algn chiflado ha tenido un thali de oro del que ha comido. +Pero puedes ir ms all. +Y los hombres que no slo tienen medios, sino una cierta cantidad de conocimiento y entendimiento, van al siguiente paso, y comen de una hoja de pltano. +Y creo que en estos tiempos cuando volvemos atrs y nos reagrupamos, de una manera u otra, la parbola de la hoja de pltano de alguna manera tiene que funcionar. Porque no estoy preparado para decir que la hoja de pltano de la que come uno es la misma de la que comen otros. +Pero es ese el proceso que ha pasado dentro del hombre que cambia la hoja de pltano. +ED: He querido compartir esta frase con ustedes. +Porque es parte de adonde tenemos que llegar. +Y tambin quiero compartir esta. +"Detrs de la era de la informacin est la era de las oportunidades". +Y realmente creo que ah es donde estamos. +Y es interesante para m ser parte de una familia y una tradicin en donde ya l hablaba de eso en 1978. +Y parte del por qu esto es importante y todas las cosas que hacemos son importantes, es que estas son las ideas que necesitamos. +Y creo que todo esto es parte de rendirse ante el viaje de diseo. +Eso es lo que todos necesitamos hacer. +Disear ya no es slo para los diseadores. Es un proceso. No un estilo. +Todos estos brillantes pensamientos deben tener como objetivo resolver los problemas claves. +Les agradezco mucho su tiempo. +El ao pasado en TED nos enfocamos en tratar de clarificar la abrumadora complejidad y riqueza que experimentamos en toda la conferencia en un proyecto llamado el Gran Ejemplo. +El Gran Ejemplo es una coleccin de 650 bosquejos realizados por dos artistas visuales, +David Sibbet de The Grove, y Kevin Richards de Autodesk hicieron 650 bosquejos que consiguieron capturar la esencia de las ideas de cada ponente. +Y el consenso fue que realmente funcion. +Estos bosquejos le dieron vida a las ideas principales, los retratos, los momentos mgicos que todos experimentados el ao pasado. +Este ao pensamos "por qu funciona?" +Qu tienen la animacin, las grficas, las ilustraciones que crean significado? +Y esta es una importante pregunta que hacer y contestar. Porque entre ms entendamos cmo el cerebro crea significado mejor podremos comunicarnos, y tambin creo, que mejor podremos pensar y colaborar juntos. +As que este ao vamos a visualizar cmo el cerebro visualiza. +Los psiclogos cognitivos nos dicen ahora que el cerebro no ve el mundo como es en realidad, en su lugar, crea una serie de modelos mentales a travs de una coleccin de "momentos Aj" o momentos de descubrimiento a travs de varios procesos. +El proceso, por supuesto, empieza con los ojos; +la luz entra, llega atrs de la retina y circula, gran cantidad de luz se dirige hacia la parte ms atrs del cerebro. la corteza visual primaria. +La corteza visual primaria slo ve simple geometra las ms simples de las formas. +Pero tambin acta como una especie de estacin repetidora que vuelve a radiar y redirigir informacin a muchas otras partes del cerebro. +Otras 30 partes del cerebro descifran selectivamente, crean ms significado a travs de experiencias del tipo "Aj". +Vamos a hablar nicamente de tres de ellos, +El primero de ellos es el llamado sistema ventral, +que est en este lado del cerebro +y esta es la parte del cerebro que reconoce qu es cada cosa, +es lo que llamamos detector. +Miro una mano, miro un control remoto, una silla, un libro, +as que esa es la parte del cerebro que se activa cuando le pones una palabra a una cosa. +Una segunda parte del cerebro es el llamado sistema dorsal +y lo que hace es ubicar el objeto en el espacio fsico. +Entonces si miran alrededor del escenario crearn una especie de mapa mental del escenario. +Y si cierran sus ojos sern capaces de navegarlo mentalmente, +estaran activando el sistema dorsal si lo hicieran. +La tercera parte de la quisiera hablar es el sistema lmbico; +que est en lo ms interno del cerebro; es muy viejo evolucionariamente hablando +y es la parte que siente. +Es como el centro del instinto, donde ven una imagen y dice: "Ah! Tengo una reaccin fuerte o emocional a cualquier cosa que estoy viendo." +Entonces la combinacin de estos centros de procesamiento nos ayudan a crear significado en formas muy diferentes. +Entonces qu podemos aprender de esto? Cmo podemos aplicar esta percepcin? +Bien, otra vez, la visin esquemtica es que el ojo interroga visualmente lo que mira, +el cerebro procesa esto en paralelo en la parte visual de la informacin haciendo todo un montn de preguntas para crear un modelo mental unificado. +As, por ejemplo, cuando miras una imagen, un buen dibujo invita al ojo a mirar por todos lados para selectivamente crear una lgica visual. +Entonces el acto de captar y mirar una imagen crea el significado. +Es la lgica selectiva. +Ahora si aumentamos esto y ubicamos esta informacin en el espacio, +muchos de ustedes recordarn la pared mgica que construimos en conjunto con Perceptive Pixel donde casi literalmente creamos una pared infinita, +tal que podemos comparar y contrastar grandes ideas. +As el acto de capturar y crear imagen interactiva enriquece el significado, +pues activa una parte diferente del cerebro +y entonces el sistema lmbico se activa cuando ve movimiento, cuando ve color y hay formas primarias y detectores de patrn que hemos escuchado antes. +Cul es el punto de todo esto? +Que hacemos significado al ver, por un acto de interrogacin visual. +Son tres las lecciones que aprendemos. +Primero, el uso de imgenes para clarificar lo que estamos tratando de comunicar; +segundo, hacer que esas imgenes sean interactivas para que nos capturen con mucha mayor fuerza; +y tercero es aumentar la memoria creando una persistencia visual. +Estas son tcnicas que se pueden usar para que se pueden aplicar en una amplia gama de solucin de problemas. +As la versin de baja tecnologa se ve como esto +y, por cierto, esta es la forma en que desarrollamos y formulamos estrategias en Autodesk, en algunas de nuestras organizaciones y algunas de nuestras divisiones. +Lo que literalmente hacemos es hacer que los equipos dibujen su plan estratgico entero en una pared gigante. +Y es muy poderoso porque todos pueden ver todo. +Siempre hay espacio, siempre hay un lugar para darle sentido a todos los componentes de un plan estratgico. +La accin vista en cmara rpida. +Si quieren preguntar: "Quin es el jefe?" +Lo podrn adivinar. Entonces el acto de construir una imagen colectivamente colaborando transforma la colaboracin. +En dos das no se us ningn Powerpoint, +en su lugar todo el equipo crea un modelo mental compartido con el que todos pueden estar de acuerdo y seguir adelante. +Y esto se puede realizar y aumentar con alguna tecnologa digital emergente +y esto es nuestra gran revelacin de hoy. +Este es un conjunto emergente de tecnologas que usan enormes pantallas con clculo inteligente en el plano del fondo para hacer visible lo invisible. +Lo que podemos hacer aqu es ver sustentabilidad, literalmente hablando, +para que un equipo pueda en efecto ver todos los componentes claves que calientan la estructura y hacer mejores elecciones y entonces ver el resultado final que se puede visualizar en la pantalla. +Entonces hacer imgenes significativas tiene tres componentes: +el primero otra vez, es hacer ideas claras visualizndolas; +segundo, hacerlas interactivas; +y tercero, hacerlas persistentes. +Y yo creo que estos tres principios se puede aplicar para solucionar algunos de los problemas ms difciles que enfrentamos en el mundo de hoy. Muchas gracias +Usualmente imparto cursos sobre cmo reconstruir Estados despus de una guerra. +Pero el da de hoy quiero compartir una historia personal con ustedes. +Esta es una fotografa de mi familia, mis cuatro hermanos, mi madre y yo, tomada en 1977. +En realidad somos camboyanos. +Y esta foto fue tomada en Vietnam. +Entonces cmo lleg una familia de Camboya a Vietnam en 1977? +Para explicar eso tengo un video que revela el rgimen del Jemer Rojo de 1975 a 1979. +Video: 17 de abril de 1975. +El Jemer Rojo comunista entra a Phnom Penh para liberar a su pueblo del agresivo conflicto en Vietnam, y de los bombardeos estadounidenses. +Guiados por el ex-campesino Pol Pot, el Jemer Rojo evacua algunas personas al campo para crear una utopa rural comunista, similar a la Revolucin Cultural de Mao Tse-tung en China. +El Jemer Rojo se cierra al mundo exterior. +Pero despus de cuatro aos aparece la cruda realidad. +En un pas de nicamente 7 millones de personas, un milln y medio fueron asesinados por sus propios lderes, sus cuerpos apilados en fosas comunes en los campos de ejecucin. +Sophal Ear: Entonces, a pesar de la narracin de los 70s, el 17 de abril de 1975, nosotros vivamos en Phnom Penh. +El Jemer Rojo oblig a mis padres a evacuar la ciudad debido a los inminentes bombardeos estadounidenses que duraran tres das. +Esta es una fotografa del Jemer Rojo. +Eran soldados jvenes. Nios soldado. +Esto es ahora muy comn en los conflictos actuales. Porque son fcilemte llevados a combatir en la guerra. +La razn que nos dieron acerca del bombardeo estadounidense no estaba tan lejos de la realidad. +Es decir, de 1965 a 1973 cayeron sobre Camboya ms explosivos que durante toda la Segunda Guerra Mundial en Japn, incluyendo las dos bombas atmicas de agosto de 1945. +El Jemer Rojo no crea en el dinero. +El equivalente al Banco Central de Camboya fue bombardeado. +Pero no slo eso, tambin prohibieron el uso de dinero. +Creo que es el nico antecedente en el cual el dinero ha dejado de ser utilizado. +Sabemos que el dinero es la raz de todos los males, pero tampoco evit que estos males ocurrieran en Camboya. +Mi familia fue llevada de Phnom Penh a la provincia de Pursat. +Esta es una fotografa de Pursat. +En realidad es una zona bonita de Camboya, en la cual se cultiva el arroz. +De hecho, fueron forzados a trabajar en el campo. +De tal manera, mi padre y mi madre acabaron en una especie de campo de concentracin, de trabajos forzados. +Es entonces cuando mi madre se entera de parte del jefe de la comuna que los vietnamitas estaban solicitando a sus ciudadanos regresar a Vietnam. +Ella hablaba algo de vietnamita, ya que de pequea se cri con amigos vietnamitas. +Ella decidi, a pesar del consejo de los vecinos, que buscara la oportunidad de hacerse pasar por vietnamita para tener una oportunidad de sobrevivir. A estas alturas ellos forzaban a todos a trabajar. +Nos suministraban lo que hoy llamaramos una dieta calrica limitada, supongo; nos daban avena con unos cuantos granos de arroz. +Y aproximadamente en ese momento mi padre cay muy enfermo. +l no hablaba vietnamita. +Es entonces cuando muere, en enero de 1976. +Y, de hecho, esto hizo posible que cumpliramos el plan. +El Jemer Rojo nos llev de un lugar llamado Pursat a Koh Tiev. Este sitio es del otro lado de la frontera con Vietnam. +Ah tenan un campo de detencin en el cual los supuestos vietnamitas seran puestos a prueba, una prueba de lenguaje. +El vietnamita que hablaba mi mam era tan malo que para hacer nuestra historia mas creble, ella nos dio, a m y a mis hermanas y hermanos, nuevos nombres vietnamitas. +Pero le dio nombres de mujeres a los nios, y de hombres a las nias. +No fue hasta que conoci a una seora vietnamita que le dijo de esta equivocacin, y luego la instruy por dos das intensivamente, entonces ya estaba lista para ir al examen y se podrn imaginar, este era el momento de la verdad. +Si ella fallaba, iramos todos al patbulo. Si ella pasaba, podramos cruzar a Vietnam. +Y finalmente ella, es obvio, estoy aqu, ella pas. +Y llegamos a Hong Ngu en territorio Vietnamita. +De ah fuimos a Chau Doc. +Y esta es una fotografa de Hong Ngu, hoy Vietnam. +Un lugar idlico en el delta del ro Mekong. +Para nosotros representaba libertad. +Libertad de la persecucin del Jemer Rojo. +El ao pasado el Tribunal del Jemer Rojo que se lleva a cabo en Camboya con ayuda de la ONU inici, y yo decid con fines estadsticos presentar una demanda civil ante el Tribunal con respecto a la muerte de mi padre. +El mes pasado fui informado que la demanda ha sido aceptada oficialmente por el Tribunal del Jemer Rojo. +Y para m representa un hecho de justicia histrica y de responsabilidad para el futuro. Porque Camboya sigue pareciendo un lugar sin reglas en algunas ocasiones. +Hace cinco aos mi madre y yo regresamos a Chau Doc. +Y ella pudo regresar a un lugar que para ella representa libertad, pero tambin el temor, porque ah llegamos al salir de Camboya. +Estoy feliz, hoy, de presentarles a mi madre. +Ella est entre nosotros el da de hoy aqu en la audiencia. +Gracias mam. +Har unos 4 5 aos, estaba sentado en un escenario en Filadelfia, y creo que estaba, con un bolso como ste. +Y estaba sacando una molcula del bolso. +Y deci: ustedes no conocen sta molcula muy bien. Pero su cuerpo la conoce a la perfeccin. +Y para aqul entonces, pensaba que el cuerpo la odiaba. Porque somos muy inmunes a sta molcula, la llamada alpha-gal eptopo. +El hecho de que las vlvulas del corazn de un cerdo estn llenas de sta molcula es la razn por la que no puedes trasplantar una vlvula de corazn de cerdo a una persona, fcilmente. +En realidad, nuestro cuerpo no las odia. +A nuestro cuerpo le encanta. Se las come. +Lo que quiero decir es: que las clulas en nuestro sistema inmunolgico siempre estn hambrientas. +Y si un anticuerpo se pega a una de estas cosas en la clula, significa: "esto es comida." +Estuve pensando sobre eso y dije: "tenemos esta respuesta inmune a esta ridcula molcula que no hacemos, y la vemos en cantidad en otros animales y cosas." +Pero pens: No podemos deshacernos de ellas. Porque toda las personas que ha intentado trasplantar vlvulas del corazn descubrieron que no podan deshacerse de esa inmunidad. +Y me dije: "por qu no usamos esto? +Qu pasara si pudiera adherir esta molcula, fijarla a una bacteria que fuera patgena a m, que acabase de invadir mis pulmones? +Me refiero a que podra utilizar una respuesta inmunolgica que ya est ah. Que no va a requerir 5 6 das de desarrollo. atacara inmediatamente a cualquier cosa a la que la molcula estuviera adherida. +Es como lo que sucede cuando te detienen por exceso de velocidad en Los Angeles y el polica introduce una bolsa de marihuana en la parte trasera de tu carro, y luego te acusa de posesin de marihuana. +Es una manera muy rpida, muy eficiente de sacar gente de las calles. +Lo mismo, puedes tomar una bacteria que no hace ninguna de stas cosas y s pudieras adherirlas a ellas podras sacarlas de las calles. +Para ciertas bacterias ya no tenemos maneras eficientes de hacerlo. +Nuestros antibiticos se estn acabando. +Y me refiero a que el mundo, aparentemente, se est acabando tambin... +Probablemente de aqu a 50 aos ya no tenga importancia; Los Estreptococos y otras bacterias estarn a sus anchas porque nosotros ya no estaremos. Pero s estuviramos....? vamos a tener que hacer algo con las bacterias. +De modo que comenc a trabajar con esto, junto con un grupo de colaboradores. +Intentamos pegar esto a cosas que a su vez se adhieran a determinadas zonas especficas, a bacterias que no nos gusten. +Me siento como George Bush. +es como "Misin Cumplida" +podra estar haciendo algo tonto, justo como l lo hizo en ese momento. +Pero bsicamente de lo que estaba hablando antes; ahora, logramos que funcione. +Y est matando bacterias. Se las est comiendo. +Esta cosa puede adherirse, como este pequeo tringulo verde de arriba, simbolizando esto aqu. +Esto se puede adherir a algo llamado un "aptmero de ADN" +Y el aptmero de ADN se adherir especficamente al blanco que se haya seleccionado. +Entonces, podramos encontrar un determinado rasgo de una bacteria que no nos guste como el Estafilococo. En particular a m no me gustan, porque mat a un profesor amigo mo el ao pasado. +No responde a los antibiticos. Por eso no la quiero. +Estoy construyendo un aptmero que tendr esto adherido, +que sabr cmo hallar a "Estaf" cuando est en tu cuerpo, y que alertar a tu sistema inmune para que salga a buscarlo. +Esto es lo que sucedi. Ven la lnea arriba en lo alto con los puntos pequeos? +es un grupo de ratones que fueron envenenados por nuestros amigos cientficos en Texas, en la base area Brooks, con ntrax. +Ellos tambin han sido tratados con una droga que desarrollamos que ataca al ntrax en particular, y hace que tu sistema inmune se dirija hacia l. +Pueden ver que todos sobrevivieron, los de la lnea de arriba. Eso es una tasa de supervivencia del 100%. +Y ellos realmente vivieron otros 14 das, o 28, cuando finalmente los matamos, y los disecamos para ver que haba fallado. +Por qu no haban muerto? +No murieron porque ya no tenan ntrax. +De modo que lo logramos, OK? +Misin Cumplida! +Por lo que estoy por decir, debera demostrar mis mritos "verdes". +Cuando era pequeo, hice la promesa, como estadounidense, de conservar y defender fielmente del desperdicio los recursos naturales de mi pas. Su aire, suelo y minerales, sus bosques, aguas y vida silvestre. +Y fui consecuente con esa promesa. +En Stanford me especializ en ecologa y evolucin. +En 1968, publiqu la revista Whole Earth Catalog (Catlogo de toda la tierra). Fui el "seor natural" por un tiempo. +Y luego trabaj para la administracin de Jerry Brown. +La administracin Brown y un puado de mis amigos bsicamente lograron igualar la eficiencia energtica de California. 30 aos despus, ahora, es la misma, a pesar de que nuestra economa ha crecido en un 80 por ciento per capita +y de que estamos emitiendo menos gases invernaderos que cualquier otro estado. +En este sentido, California es bsicamente el equivalente de Europa. +Este ao, Whole Earth Catalog tiene un suplemento que mostrar como anticipo hoy, llamado Whole Earth Discipline (Disciplina de toda la tierra). +El fenmeno demogrfico dominante de nuestro tiempo es esta urbanizacin extremadamente rpida que estamos viendo. +Para mediados de siglo aproximadamente el 80 por ciento de la poblacin ser urbana. Y es sobre todo en el mundo en desarrollo donde eso est sucediendo. +Esto es interesante, porque la historia est marcada en gran medida por el tamao de las ciudades. +Todas las ciudades ms grandes estn en pases en desarrollo, y se estn desarrollando tres veces ms rpidamente que en los pases desarrollados. Y son nueve veces ms grandes. +Es cualitativamente diferente. +Son los motores de la historia, como vemos al observar la historia. +Hace 1.000 aos, el mundo se vea as. +Bueno, ahora tenemos una distribucin de poder urbano similar a la que tenamos 1.000 aos atrs. +En otras palabras, el crecimiento de occidente, drstico como fue, se ha parado. +Los nmeros en conjunto son absolutamente abrumadores. 1.300.000 personas por semana se mudan a la ciudad dcada tras dcada. +Qu est pasando realmente? +Bien, lo que est pasando es que los pueblos del mundo se estn vaciando. +La agricultura de subsistencia bsicamente se est agotando. +La gente persigue las oportunidades de la ciudad. +Y esta es la razn. +Yo sola tener una idea muy romntica de los pueblos, y eso es porque nunca viv en uno de ellos. +Porque en la ciudad... Esta es un vibrante asentamiento ilegal de Kibera, cerca de Nairobi -- Ellos ven accin. Ven oportunidades. +Ven una economa monetaria de la que no podan participar con su vida de subsistencia. +Al dar una vuelta por estos lugares, ves una abundancia de buen gusto. +Suceden muchas cosas. +Son pobres, pero son intensamente urbanos. Y son intensamente creativos. +Los nmeros totales ahora indican que son todos estos ocupantes ilegales, un millardo, quienes estn construyendo el mundo urbano. Lo que significa que estn construyendo el mundo. Personalmente, uno por uno, familia por familia, clan por clan, barrio por barrio. +Comienzan frgiles y se solidifican con el tiempo. +Incluso construyen su propia infraestructura. +En realidad, primero roban su propia infraestructura. +Televisin por cable, agua, todo el abanico de posibilidades, todo se roba. +Y luego, gradualmente, se aburguesan. +No es que las barriadas socaven la prosperidad. Los asentamientos de trabajadores ayudan a crear prosperidad. +En una ciudad como Bombay, mitad asentamientos ilegales, stos representan la sexta parte del PIB de la India. +El capital social en estos asentamientos es de lo ms urbano y denso. +Esta gente es valiosa como grupo. +Y de ese modo trabajan. +Hay mucha gente que piensa acerca de esta gente pobre: "Oh, s, hay cosas terribles. Tenemos que arreglarles la casa". +Hace tiempo era: "Oh, tenemos que conseguirles servicios de telfono". +Ahora son ellos quienes nos estn mostrando cmo hacen su servicio de telfono. +El hambre es ahora un fenmeno principalmente rural. +Hay cosas que les importan de verdad. +Y ah es donde podemos ayudar. +Y las naciones en las que viven pueden ayudar. +Y se estn ayudando a resolver estas cuestiones. +Y vas a un lugar agradable y poblado como este asentamiento en Bombay. +Miras esa callecita a la derecha. +Y puedes preguntar: "Ok, qu est pasando all?" +La respuesta es: "Todo". +Es mejor que un centro comercial. Hay ms gente. +Es mucho ms interactivo. +Y la escala es excelente. +Lo principal es que esta gente no est oprimida por la pobreza. +stas son personas ocupadas en salir de la pobreza tan rpido como puedan. +Se estn ayudando unos con otros a hacerlo. +Y lo estn haciendo a travs de algo ilegal, la economa sumergida. +La economa sumergida se parece a la energa oscura en astrofsica. No debera estar ah, pero es enorme. +An no entendemos cmo funciona, pero tenemos que entenderlo. +Adems, quienes viven de la economa sumergida, la economa gris, terminan viendo el delito a su alrededor, y pueden ingresar en el mundo criminal. O pueden ingresar en el mundo legal. +Deberamos ser capaces de facilitar esa decisin para que ingresen en la legalidad. Porque si no lo hacemos, ellos entrarn al mundo criminal. +Existen todo tipo de actividades. +En Dharavi el asentamiento realiza no slo un montn de servicios para s mismo, sino tambin para la ciudad en su conjunto. +Y uno de los principales fenmenos son estas escuelas ad-hoc. +Los padres juntan su dinero para contratar a algunos maestros locales en una escuela privada, pequea y no oficial. +Hay ms posibilidades de educacin en las ciudades, y eso cambia el mundo. +Entonces, uno ve algunas cosas interesantes, tpicamente urbanas. +Una cosa apretujada contra la otra, como aqu en San Pablo. +Eso es lo que hacen las ciudades. As es como crean valor, apretujando las cosas. +En este caso, la oferta justo al lado de la demanda, +de manera que las criadas y los jardineros y los guardias que viven en esta agitada parte de la ciudad a la izquierda caminan al trabajo, en el aburrido y rico barrio de al lado. +La proximidad es sorprendente. +Estamos aprendiendo acerca de cun densa puede ser la proximidad. +La conectividad entre la ciudad y el campo es lo que va a mantener bien a este pas. Porque la ciudad tiene interesantes maneras de hacer las cosas. +Esto es lo que hace que las ciudades... Esto es lo que hace que las ciudades del mundo en desarrollo sean tan verdes. +Porque la gente deja la trampa de la pobreza, un desastre ecolgico de los campos de subsistencia, y se dirige a la ciudad. +Y cuando se va, el ambiente natural empieza a recuperarse rpidamente. +Y los que se quedan en el pueblo pueden cambiar y comercializar los cultivos para enviar alimentos a los crecientes mercados en la ciudad. +Por eso, si lo que quieren es salvar un pueblo, lo logran con una buena ruta, o una buena conexin para celulares. En una situacin ideal, con una red elctrica. +El fenmeno es que somos un planeta de ciudades. Esto simplemente sucedi. +Ms de la mitad. +Las cifras son importantes. Un millardo de personas vive ahora en asentamientos ilegales +y se prev otro millardo. +Eso es ms de un sexto de la humanidad viviendo de cierta manera. +Y eso determinar mucho de cmo funcionamos. +Ahora, para nosotros, los ambientalistas, quiz lo ms verde de las ciudades sea que difuminan la bomba poblacional. +La gente llega a la ciudad +e inmediatamente tiene menos nios. +Ni siquiera tiene que hacerse rica todava. Slo la oportunidad de aparecer en el mundo significa que tendrn menos hijos, y de mejor calidad, y que el ndice de natalidad descender radicalmente. +Un efecto secundario muy interesante, aqu ven una diapositiva de Phillip Longman, +muestra lo que est sucediendo. +Como tenemos cada vez ms gente vieja, como yo, y cada vez menos bebs, +y estn separados por regiones, +el resultado es un mundo donde tipos viejos en ciudades viejas siguen haciendo las cosas a la antigua, en el norte; +y gente joven en flamantes ciudades que estn inventando, haciendo cosas nuevas, en el sur. +Dnde piensan que comenzar la accin? +Cambio de tema. Un rpido vistazo al tema del clima. +Las noticias sobre el clima, lamento decirlo, se van a poner cada vez peor de lo que pensamos, ms rpido de lo que pensamos. +El clima es un sistema muy complejo y no linear lleno de reacciones positivas descontroladas, umbrales escondidos y situaciones lmite irrevocables. +Aqu tienen unos pocos ejemplos. +Nos vamos a seguir sorprendiendo. Y casi todas las sorpresas van a ser malas. +Desde el punto de vista de ustedes, esto significa un gran incremento de refugiados climticos en las prximas dcadas. Y lo que esto trae como consecuencia son las guerras de recursos y las guerras del caos, como estamos viendo en Darfur. +Eso es lo que hace la sequa. +Disminuye la capacidad de carga ambiental. Y no hay suficiente capacidad de carga para sostener a la gente. Y entonces comienzan los problemas. +Cambio de tema, situacin energtica. +La electricidad de carga base es lo necesario para manejar una ciudad, o un planeta de ciudades. +Hasta ahora hay slo tres fuentes de electricidad de carga base: carbn, algn gas, nuclear e hidrulica. +De estos, slo la nuclear y la hidrulica son ecolgicas. +El carbn es lo que est causando los problemas climticos. +Y todos seguirn quemndolo, porque es muy barato, hasta que los gobiernos encarezcan. +Las energas elica y solar no ayudan, porque seguimos sin poder almacenar esa energa. +Entonces, con la energa hidrulica agotada, usamos carbn, y nos quedamos sin clima, o si no energa nuclear, que es la actual fuente operativa baja en carbn, y quiz salvemos el clima. +Y si al final podemos conseguir buena energa solar en el espacio, eso tambin podra ayudar. +Porque recuerden, esto es lo que genera prosperidad en el mundo en desarrollo, en los pueblos y en las ciudades. +As que comparemos los desechos del carbn y de la energa nuclear. +Si toda la electricidad que usted usa en su vida fuese nuclear, la cantidad de desecho que se acumulara entrara en una latita de Coca-Cola, +mientras que una planta generadora termoelctrica una planta normal de carbn de un gigavatio, quema 80 vagones de carbn por da. Cada vagn tiene 100 toneladas +y emite 18.000 toneladas de dixido de carbono a la atmsfera. +As que cuando comparamos las emisiones vitalicias de cada una de estas formas de energa, la nuclear casi empata con la solar y la elica. Y est por encima de la solar. Oh, perdn. Con la hidrulica y la elica, y est por encima de la solar. +Y la energa nuclear, realmente compite con el carbn? +Simplemente pregunten a los mineros de carbn de Australia. +All es donde vern algo de la fuente, no de mis colegas ambientalistas, sino de la gente que se siente amenazada por la energa nuclear. +Bien, las buenas noticias son que el mundo en desarrollo, pero francamente, el mundo entero est ocupado construyendo, y comenzando a construir, reactores nucleares. +Esto es bueno para la atmsfera. +Es bueno para su prosperidad. +Quiero sealar una cosa interesante, que es que a los ambientalistas nos gusta eso que llamamos microenerga. +Se supone que es, no s, energa solar local y energa elica y cogeneracin, y cosas buenas como esas. +Pero francamente los microrreactores que estn apareciendo ahora podran ser aun ms tiles. +Los rusos, que comenzaron con esto, estn construyendo reactores flotantes, para su nuevo paso, donde el hielo se est derritiendo, al norte de Rusia. +Y estn vendiendo estos reactores flotantes, de slo 35 megavatios, a los pases en desarrollo. +Aqu est el diseo de uno ms viejo de Toshiba. +Es interesante, digamos, tomar uno de 25 megavatios, de 25 millones de vatios, y compararlo con el gran hierro estndar de un Westinghouse o Ariva ordinarios, que son de 1.2 - 1.6 millardos de vatios. +Estas cosas son mucho ms pequeas, mucho ms adaptables. +Aqu hay un diseo estadounidense de Lawrence Livermore Lab. +Aqu hay otro diseo estadounidense que surgi de Los Alamos, y ahora es comercial. +Casi todos stos no slo son pequeos, sino a prueba de proliferacin. +Por lo general estn enterrados en el suelo. +Y la innovacin se est moviendo muy rpidamente. +Por eso, creo que los microrreactores van a ser importantes para el futuro. +En trminos de proliferacin, la energa nuclear ha hecho ms para desmantelar las armas nucleares que cualquier otra actividad. +Y es por eso que el 10 por ciento de la electricidad en esta habitacin, el 20 por ciento de la electricidad en esta habitacin es probablemente de origen nuclear. +La mitad de ella viene de cabezas nucleares rusas desmanteladas. Pronto se agregarn nuestras cabezas nucleares desmanteladas. +Y por eso, me gustara ver que el programa GNEP, que fue desarrollado por la administracin Bush, avanza agresivamente. +Y me alegr al ver que el presidente Obama apoy la estrategia del banco de combustible nuclear cuando habl en Praga la otra semana. +Un tema ms. Los cultivos transgnicos, en mi opinin, como bilogo, no tienen motivo para ser polmicos. +Mis colegas ambientalistas, en este tema, han sido irracionales, anti-cientficos y muy dainos. +A pesar de sus mejores esfuerzos, los cultivos transgnicos son la innovacin agraria de ms rpido xito de la historia. +Son buenos para el medio ambiente porque permiten la siembra directa que deja el suelo en su lugar, hacindolo ms saludable ao tras ao. Tambin hace que se emita menos dixido de carbono desde el suelo hacia la atmsfera. +Reducen el uso de pesticidas. +E incrementan la produccin, lo que permite reducir tu terreno de cultivo. En consecuenia se libera ms espacio natural. +Ya que estamos, este mapa de 2006 no est actualizado porque muestra Africa todava bajo control de Greenpeace y Friends of the Earth (Amigos de la Tierra) de Europa. Por fin estn saliendo de esta situacin. +La biotecnologa tambin est florecienco rpidamente en Africa. +Esto es un asunto moral. +El Concejo Nuffiel de Biotica se reuni dos veces para tratar este asunto en detalle y dijo que es un imperativo moral lograr que los cultivos transgnicos estn disponibles cuanto antes. +Hablando de imperativos, la geoingeniera es tab hoy por hoy, especialmente en los crculos del gobierno, aunque creo que hubo una reunin de la DARPA sobre esto hace dos semanas. Pero ustedes tendrn que planterselo no este ao, pero s muy pronto, porque se estn viniendo algunas crueles realidades. +Esta es una lista de ellas. +Bsicamente, las noticias se pondrn cada vez ms aterradoras. +Habr algunos acontecimientos, como 35.000 personas muertas por una ola de calor, que pas hace un tiempo; +ciclones que estn llegando hasta Bangladesh; +guerras por el agua, como las del Ro Indo. +Y como todos esos acontecimientos seguirn sucediendo empezaremos a decir: "Ok, qu es lo que podemos hacer realmente?". +Pero hay un problemita con la geoingeniera. Qu organismo decidir? Quin se pondr a hacer ingeniera? Cunta harn? Dnde la harn? +Porque todo el mundo sigue la corriente, sigue cualquier cosa que se haga. +Y si simplemente convertimos todo en tab podramos perdernos como civilizacin. +Pero si simplemente decimos "OK, China, ustedes estn preocupados, continen. +Desarrollen geoingeniera a su manera. Nosotros lo haremos a la nuestra", +eso se considerara una declaracin de guerra por parte de ambas naciones. +As que veremos una diplomacia muy interesante. +Yo dira que es ms prctica de lo que la gente piensa. +Aqu hay un ejemplo que a los climatlogos les gusta mucho, una entre docenas de ideas de geoingeniera. +Esta viene del dixido de azufre del Monte Pinatubo en 1991. Enfri la tierra medio grado. +Haba tanto hielo en 1992, al ao siguiente, que nacieron muchsimos osos polares conocidos como cachorros Pinatubo. +Poner dixido de azufre en la estratsfera costara alrededor de un millardo de dlares por ao. +Eso no es nada comparado con todas las otras cosas que podramos intentar hacer respecto de la energa. +Slo por nombrar otra, este es un plan para abrillantar la reflectancia de las nubes ocenicas atomizando el agua del mar. Esto hara ms brillante el albedo de todo el planeta. +Una buena idea, porque puede suceder de muchas maneras en muchos lugares pequeos, es copiar a los antiguos indgenas del Amazonas que hacan un buen fertilizante agrario pirolizando, haciendo arder desechos de plantas. Y este biochar absorbe grandes cantidades de carbono al tiempo que mejora la tierra. +As que aqu es donde estamos. +El climatlogo ganador de Premio Nobel Paul Crutzen llam a nuestra era geolgica el Antropoceno, la era dominada por el hombre. Nos paralizan sus obligaciones. +En el Whole Earth Catalog, mis primeras palabras fueron: "Somos como dioses, y mejor ser que lo hagamos bien." +Las primeras palabras de la Whole Earth Discipline son: "Somos como dioses, y tenemos que hacerlo bien". +Gracias. +Yo tengo un estudio en Berln -- djenme hacer una pausa aqu -- que puede verse ah bajo la nieve, justo el pasado fin de semana. +En el estudio realizamos un buen nmero de experimentos +Considerara el estudio como un laboratorio. +Ocasionalmente sostengo reuniones con cientficos +y cuento con una academia, como parte de la Universidad de Berln, +donde realizamos una reunin anual con varias personas, a la que llamamos Vida en el Espacio +Vida en el Espacio se refiere en realidad, no necesariamente a cmo hacemos las cosas, sino a por qu las hacemos +les importara mirar junto a m a esa pequea cruz all en el centro? +slo limtense a verla, no se distraigan conmigo. +hasta que tengan un crculo amarillo. Y haremos un experimento post-imagen. +Cuando el crculo desaparece lograrn ver otro color, el color complementario. +Les estoy diciendo algo y sus ojos y mente me responden. +Toda esta idea de compartir, la idea completa de construir la realidad sobreponiendo lo que yo les digo y lo que ustedes me dicen. Como en una pelcula. +Desde hace dos aos, con viticos pagados por el ministerio de la ciencia en Berln, he estado trabajando en estas pelculas produciendo la pelcula +No pienso que la pelcula sea necesariamente tan interesante +obviamente no es interesante para nada en el sentido de su narrativa +sino mas bien, en el potencial que tiene, por lo que continuamos buscando. Cual es su potencial, obviamente, parecido a mover la frontera entre quien es el autor, y quien el sujeto que la recibe. +O el consumidor, por as decirlo, y Quin tiene la responsabilidad de lo que uno ve? +Creo que existe una dimensin para socializar en una especie de... trasladar esa frontera. +Quin decide qu es la realidad? +Este es el Tate Modern en Londres. +La presentacin que en cierto sentido trat sobre ello. +Se refera a un espacio donde coloqu la mitad del semicrculo de un disco amarillo +Coloqu un espejo en el piso, algo de bruma y un haz de luz. +Toda la idea, obviamente, era crear un espacio tangible. +Con un espacio tan grande, el problema es, obviamente que existe una especie de discrepancia entre lo que tu cuerpo puede por as decirlo, abrazar y lo que es el espacio, en ese sentido, es. +As que tuve la esperanza de que insertando algunos elementos naturales, si ustedes quieren, un poco de bruma, podra crear el espacio tangible. +Y lo que sucedi es que la gente, empez a verse a si misma en este espacio +Vean esto. Miren a la chica. +Por supuesto, deben ver a travs de alguna cmara en un museo. No es as? Es la forma en que los museos trabajan hoy en da. +Pero vean su cara ah, al momento que sale, mirndose al espejo. +"Hey! Ese es mi pie!" +No estaba segura si estaba vindose a ella misma o no. +Y apuesto que, en toda esa idea Cmo podemos configurar la relacin que existe entre nuestro cuerpo y el espacio? +y Cmo poder reconfigurarlo? +Cmo podemos saber que ocupar un espacio hace la diferencia? +Recuerdan cuando dije en un inicio que se trata del por qu y no del cmo? +El por qu significa en realidad, Cules son las consecuencias cuando doy un paso? +Qu importancia tiene? +En realidad importa si estoy en el mundo o no? +"E Importa en realidad si el tipo de acciones que tomo pueden filtrarse dentro de un sentido de responsabilidad?" +A eso se refiere el arte? +Y les podra decir que si.se refiere obviamente no slo a decorar el mundo, y hacer que se vea mejor. O posiblemente peor, si alguno me pregunta. +Tambin se refiere, obviamente, a tomar responsabilidad como lo hice al utilizar un verde claro en el ro en Los ngeles, Estocolmo, Noruega y Tokio, entre otros lugares. +El color verde claro no es peligroso para el medio ambiente, pero definitivamente luce aterrador. +esto es por un lado, por otra parte pienso tambin que se ve hermoso mostrando de algn modo la turbulencia en las zonas centro de las ciudades en estos diferentes lugares del mundo +El Ro Verde, como una clase de activismo, y no como parte de una exhibicin, La idea realmente era mostrar a la gente de esta ciudad mientras caminan, que un espacio, un espacio contiene dimensiones, contiene tiempo +Y que el agua fluye a travs de la ciudad en el tiempo +El agua tiene un cierto tipo de habilidad para hacer a la ciudad algo negociable, tangible. +Negociable porque siempre hace una diferencia el hacer algo o dejar de hacerlo. +hace la diferencia decir: "Soy parte de esta ciudad. +y si voto, hace una diferencia. +y si lucho por mis ideas, hace una diferencia". +Toda esta idea de una ciudad que no es una fotografa, pienso que es arte, en cierto sentido, siempre trabajo con +toda esa idea de que el arte puede realmente evaluar la relacin entre lo que significa aparecer en la fotografa, Qu significa ocupar un espacio? y Cul es la diferencia? +La diferencia entre pensar y hacer. +Estos son diferentes experimentos sobre el tema, en los que no profundizar. +Islandia, abajo en la esquina derecha, mi lugar favorito. +Esta clase de experimentos, se filtran dentro de modelos arquitectnicos. +Estos son experimentos en proceso. +Uno de ellos es un experimento que hice para la BMW un intento por crear un automvil. +hecho a base de hielo +Un principio de amontonamiento cristalino en la parte superior del centro, que estoy intentando convertir en una sala de conciertos en Islandia. +Una especie de pista para correr, o una pista para caminar, en la parte ms alta de un museo en Dinamarca. fabricado de vidrio, vidrio de colores, girando alrededor. +de manera que el movimiento de tus pies cambiar el color del horizonte. +Y el verano pasado, en el Hyde Park en Londres, con la Serpentine Gallery. Un tipo de Pabelln temporal donde la nica forma de admirar el pabelln es movindose +Este verano en Nueva York. Hay una cosa en las cascadas que se relaciona mucho con el tiempo que le toma al agua, caer +Es muy sencillo y bsico. +He caminado mucho por las montaas de Islandia. +y cuando llegas a un nuevo valle, cuando llegas a una nueva campia, obtienes una vista. +y si te mantienes quieto la campia no te dir, necesariamente, cuan grande es. +no te dice realmente qu es lo que miras +al momento que comienzas a moverte, la montaa se comienza a mover. +Las grandes montaas en la lejana, se mueven menos. +Las montaas pequeas en el frente, se mueven ms. +Y si te detienes de nuevo y te preguntas, "Acaso es un valle que queda a una hora?" +O Acaso implica escalar durante tres horas o tardarse todo un da?" +Si tuvieras una cascada ah dentro, precisamente ah, en el horizonte, y miras a la cascada seguro diras: "Oh, el agua est cayendo muy lentamente". +y diras: "Dios mo, realmente est muy lejos, es una cascada gigante". +Si la cada del agua de la cascada es ms rpida se trata de una cascada pequea que queda muy cerca. Porque la velocidad de la cada del agua es siempre constante en cualquier lado. +Y tu cuerpo de alguna manera lo sabe. +Lo que significa que es posible medir el espacio por medio de una cascada +Por supuesto, tratndose de una ciudad cono como Nueva York, con el inters de alguna forma de jugar con el sentido de espacio podramos decir quiere parecer tan grande como le sea posible, obviamente. +aadirle una medida a este hecho es interesante en el sentido que la cada del agua de pronto te da un sentido de, "Oh, Brooklyn est exactamente -- a esta distancia entre Brooklyn y Manhattan, en este caso la parte baja del East River es as de grande". +As que no era slo necesariamente poner a la naturaleza entre las ciudades. +era tambin era darle a la ciudad un sentido de dimensin +y Por qu querramos hacerlo? +Porque pienso que hace la diferencia si es que tienes un cuerpo que se siente como parte del espacio ms que slo tener un cuerpo enfrente de un cuadro +y "Aj, ah se encuentra un cuadro y ah estoy yo. Y Qu importara? +Existe acaso un sentido de las consecuencias? +De manera que si tengo un sentido del espacio, si siento que el espacio es tangible, si siento que el tiempo existe, si existe una clase de dimensin que pudiera llamar tiempo, tambin siento que puedo cambiar el espacio +Y, de pronto, hace la diferencia en trminos de hacer el espacio accesible +podramos decir que se trata de comunidad, colectividad. +Se refiere a esta sensacin de estar juntos. +Cmo se crea un espacio pblico? +Qu significa en verdad la palabra "pblico" hoy en da? +Preguntado de esa manera, pienso que evoca cosas grandiosas acerca de las ideas parlamentarias, la democracia, el espacio pblico estando juntos, siendo individuos +Cmo lo hacemos?, Cmo es que creamos una idea que pueda ser sea ambas cosas, tolerante de la individualidad, y tambin de la colectividad, sin polarizar ambos conceptos en dos puntos opuestos. +Por supuesto la agenda poltica en el mundo est obsesionada, polarizando al uno contra el otro en muy diferentes ideas normativas +y yo declarara que arte y cultura, y esta es la razn de que arte y cultura sean tan increblemente interesantes en los tiempos que estamos viviendo, ha probado que uno puede crear una especie de espacio que sea a la vez sensitivo a la individualidad y a la colectividad. +Tiene que ver mucho con esta causalidad, consecuencias. +Tiene que ver mucho con la manera en que enlazamos el pensar y el hacer. +Pero Qu es lo que existe entre el pensar y el hacer? +Justo en medio del pensar y hacer, yo dira, se encuentra la experiencia. +y la experiencia no es nicamente ustedes saben, una clase de diversin, hablando en serio +La experiencia se relaciona con la responsabilidad. +Tener una experiencia significa participar en el mundo. +Participar en el mundo es realmente compartir la responsabilidad +De manera que el arte, en ese sentido, Pienso que tiene una relevancia increble en el mundo en el que nos movemos Particularmente en la actualidad +Bueno, esto es todo lo que tengo para ustedes. Muchas gracias. +Soy un pediatra especializado en oncologa e investigo las clulas madre en la universidad de Stanford donde mi objetivo principal ha sido el trasplante de mdula sea. +Ahora, motivado por Jill Bolte Taylor el pasado ao, no he trado un cerebro humano, pero s he trado un litro de mdula sea. +Y la mdula sea es lo que en realidad usamos para salvarle la vida a decenas de miles de pacientes, la mayora de los cuales tienen enfermedades avanzadas como leucemia y linfomas y otras muchas enfermedades. +Hace unos aos, estaba haciendo mi entrenamiento de trasplantes en Stanford. +Estoy en el quirfano. Aqu tenemos a Bob, un donante voluntario. +Estamos mandando su mdula a travs del pas para salvarle la vida a un nio con leucemia. +Entonces, cmo extraemos esta mdula sea realmente? +Pues tenemos el equipo de O.R., anestesia general, enfermeras, y otro mdico enfrente mo. +Bob est en la mesa, y tomamos esta pequea aguja, ya saben, no muy grande. +Y el modo en el que procedemos es bsicamente introducirla por el tejido suave de la piel, y apretarla contra el duro hueso, hasta el cxis -- es el trmino mdico -- y succionar alrededor de 10 mililitros de mdula sea, cada vez, con una jeringa. +Y drsela a la enfermera. Ella la vaca en una lata. +Me la pasa de vuelta. Y repetimos el proceso una y otra vez. +Unas 200 veces normalmente. +Y cuando terminamos, tengo el brazo dormido, callos en la mano. Dejemos slo a Bob, que tiene el trasero parecido a sto, como queso suizo. +Entonces me puse a pensar que ste procedimiento no haba cambiado en 40 aos. +Y seguramente hay una forma mejor de hacerlo. +As que me imagin una manera mnimamente invasiva para hacerlo. Y un nuevo instrumento que llamamos el recolector de mdula. +sto es. +Y el recolector de mdula, aqu enseamos cmo funciona. +A nuestro paciente transparente estndar, +en vez de agujerear su hueso docenas de veces, simplemente lo hacemos una vez, por delante o por detrs de la cadera. +Y tenemos un catter flexible con una punta de cable enrollado especial que se queda dentro de la parte crujiente de la mdula y sigue la forma de la cadera, tal y como lo muevas. +As que te permite succionar rpidamente, o sacar, mdula sea de calidad muy rpido a travs de un solo agujero. +Podemos hacer ms de una pasada para el mismo agujero. +Sin necesidad de robots. +Y as, tan rpido, a Bob le hacemos una sola puncin, con anestesia local, y en calidad de paciente no ingresado. +Hice unos cuantos prototipos. Stanford me dio una pequea subvencin. +Y fui probando lo que era capaz de hacer. +Y nuestro equipo ha desarrollado esta tecnologa. +Y luego hicimos pruebas con grandes animales, como los cerdos. +Y para nuestra sorpresa, encontramos no slo que extramos mdula sea, sino que en ella haba 10 veces ms actividad de clulas madre en la mdula de nuestro recolector, que comparada con el mtodo tradicional. +Este aparato fue aprobado por la Administracin de alimentos y frmacos el pasado ao. +Aqu tenemos un paciente vivo. Pueden ver como se curva gracias a su flexibilidad. +Aqu habr dos pasadas, en el mismo paciente, en el mismo agujero. +sto lo hicimos con anestesia local, y en calidad de paciente externo. +Y obtuvimos, de nuevo, de 3 a 6 veces ms clulas madre que con el procedimiento tradicional en el mismo paciente. +Entonces, por qu debera importarles? La mdula sea es una fuente abundante de clulas madre. +Todos conocen las clulas madre embrionarias. +Tienen un gran potencial pero todava no se investiga clnicamente con ellas. +Las clulas madre estn por todo nuestro cuerpo, incluyendo las que fabrican sangre en nuestra mdula sea. Las cuales hemos estado utilizando como terapia de clulas madre desde hace ms de 40 aos. +En la pasada dcada ha habido un gran crecimiento del uso de clulas madre de mdula sea para tratar otras enfermedades del paciente, como enfermedades coronarias, enfermedades vasculares, ortopdicas, para la regeneracin de tejido, incluso en neurologa para tratar el Parkinson, y la diabetes. +Acabamos de sacarlo, vamos a comercializar este ao la versin 2.0 del recolector de mdula. +Espero que este invento extraiga muchas clulas madre. Lo que significa mejores resultados. +Puede convencer a ms gente para hacerse donante de mdula sea y salvar vidas. +Tamben les permitira guardar sus propias clulas madre, cuando son jvenes y saludables, para utilizarlas en el futuro, en caso de necesitarlas. +Y por ltimo -- aqu tenemos una foto de nuestros trasplantados de mdula sea que se renen cada ao en Stanford. +Espero que esta tecnologa nos permita tener ms de estos sobrevivientes en el futuro. +Gracias. +Soy neurocientfico y profesor de la Universidad de California. +Durante 35 aos he estudiado el comportamiento sobre la base de todo, desde los genes, pasando por los neurotransmisores, dopamina... esas cosas, hasta el anlisis del circuito. +Eso es lo que hago normalmente. +Pero luego, por alguna razn, empec con otra cosa, hace poco. +Y todo vino cuando uno de mis colegas me pidi que analizara un puado de cerebros de asesinos psicpatas. +As que esta sera la tpica presentacin que dara. +La cuestin es: cmo acaba uno con un asesino psicpata? +Con asesino psicpata me refiero a todos esos tipos de gente. +Algunos de los cerebros que he estudiado son de gente que conocen. +Cuando recibo los cerebros no s qu estoy mirando. +Eran experimentos ciegos. Tambin me dieron gente normal y todo. +He observado unos 70 de estos. +Lo que surgi fueron unos cuantos datos. +Miramos este tipo de cosas tericamente, sobre la base de la gentica y el dao cerebral, la interaccin con el entorno, y cmo funciona esa mquina exactamente. +Estamos interesados en el lugar exacto del cerebro y en cul es su parte ms importante. +Hemos estado observando esto. La interaccin de genes, que se conoce como Efectos Epigenticos, el dao cerebral, el ambiente y cmo se unen. +Cmo se acaba siendo un psicpata, un asesino, depende de dnde ocurre el dao exactamente. +Es algo cronometrado de manera muy precisa. +Hay diferentes tipos de psicpatas. +Vamos con esto. Aqu esta, el patrn. +El patrn es que toda esa gente, cada una a la que he observado, que eran asesinos, asesinos en serie, tenan dao en su crtex orbital, que est justo encima de los ojos, las rbitas, y tambin en la parte interior del lbulo temporal. +As que hay un patrn que compartan todos, pero tambin eran un poco diferentes entre ellos. +Tenan otras clases de daos cerebrales. +Un factor clave es el efecto de genes violentos importantes, como el gen MAO-A. +Y hay una variante de este gen en la poblacin normal. +Algunos de ustedes lo tienen. Est relacionado con el sexo. +Est en el cromosoma X, as que slo pueden recibirlo de sus madres. +Quiz por este hecho la mayora de los hombres son asesinos psicpatas, o personas muy agresivas. +Porque una hija puede recibir un cromosoma X del padre, otro X de la madre... Est como diluido. +Pero un hijo slo puede recibir el cromosoma X de su madre. +As es como se transmite de madre a hijo. +Y tiene mucho que ver con la serotonina cerebral durante el desarrollo, algo interesante, pues la serotonina se supone que calma y relaja. +Pero si se tiene este gen, el cerebro se baa en l en el tero, as que el cerebro se vuelve insensible a la serotonina, por lo que sta no funciona ms adelante. +Di esta misma charla en Israel el ao pasado. +Tiene algunas consecuencias. +Tericamente, lo que significa es que para que el gen se exprese de una manera violenta, muy pronto, antes de la pubertad, se ha de haber pasado por algo realmente traumtico, no un poco de estrs, nada de que les peguen o algo as. Sino ver violencia de verdad, o estar envuelto en ella, en 3D. +Vale? As es como funciona el sistema neuronal de reflejos. +As que, si se tiene ese gen y se ve mucha violencia en una determinada situacin, es la receta para el desastre, el desastre absoluto. +Y lo que creo que podra pasar en esas zonas del mundo donde existe violencia constante, es que se acabe teniendo generaciones de nios que estn viendo toda esa violencia. +Si yo fuera una chica joven de alguna zona violenta, ya saben, 14 aos, y quisiera encontrar una pareja, buscara a algn tipo duro, para protegerme. +El problema es que que esto tiende a concentrar esos genes, +y ahora lo tienen los nios y las nias. +Creo que, tras varias generaciones, y aqu est el concepto, tenemos un barril de plvora. +As que de eso se trata. +Pero luego, mi madre me dijo: "He odo que has ido por ah hablando de asesinos psicpatas. +Y hablas como si t vinieras de una familia normal". +Yo dije: "De qu narices ests hablando?". +As que me cont cosas sobre su familia. +Ahora le echa la culpa a la parte de mi padre, claro. +Este era uno de esos casos, porque no haba violencia en sus antepasados. Pero en los de mi padre s. +As que dijo: "Tengo buenas y malas noticias. +Uno de tus primos es Ezra Cornell, fundador de la Universidad de Cornell. +Pero la mala noticia es que tu prima tambin es Lizzi Borden". +Y yo dije: "Vale, y qu? Tenemos a Lizzi". +Y ella: "Es peor, lee este libro". +Y aqu est, "Asesinada de manera extraa", su libro histrico. +El primer asesinato de una madre por un hijo fue el de mi tatara-tatara-tatara-tatara-tatara-tatarabuelo. +Fue el primer caso de matricidio. +Este libro es muy interesante, porque trata sobre juicios de brujas y sobre cmo pensaba la gente de entonces. +Pero no acaba aqu. +Haba siete hombres ms por parte de mi padre, los Cornell, que empezaron entonces, que eran asesinos. +Mejor paramos un momentito. +Porque mi propio padre y mis tres tos, en la II Guerra Mundial, eran objetores de conciencia, unos gatitos. +Pero de vez en cuando, como Lizzie Borden, unas tres veces cada siglo, y ya estara siendo nuestro turno. +As que la moraleja de la historia es: la gente que vive en casas de cristal no debera tirar piedras. +Pero esto es ms probable. +Y tenemos que entrar en accin. Ahora, nuestros hijos lo saben, +y parecen estar bien. +Pero nuestros nietos van a estar un poco preocupados. +As que he empezado a hacer estudios PET a todos los de mi familia. +He empezado a hacer estudios PET, electroencefalogramas y anlisis genticos para ver dnde estn las malas noticias. +Ahora resulta que un hijo y una hija, hermanos, no se llevaban bien. Y sus patrones son exactamente los mismos: +tienen el mismo cerebro y el mismo electroencefalograma. +Ahora estn todo lo unidos que pueden estar. +Pero tiene que haber malas noticias en algn sitio, +y no sabemos de dnde van a venir. +As que esta es mi charla. +Interesantemente, Charles Darwin naci como un hombre de pigmentacin muy leve, en un mundo con pigmentacin de moderada a oscura. +Durante su vida, Darwin tuvo grandes privilegios. +Vivi en un hogar bastante adinerado. +Fue criado por padres que lo apoyaron mucho. +Y cuando estaba en sus 20 se embarc en un extraordinario viaje en la nave Beagle. +Y durante ese viaje, vio cosas extraordinarias. Una enorme diversidad de plantas, animales y humanos. +Y las observaciones que hizo en esa travesa pica, eventualmente fueron destiladas en su maravilloso libro, Sobre el Origen de las Especies, publicado hace 150 aos. +Ahora, lo ms interesante y hasta cierto punto, lo ms infame sobre El Origen de Las Especies, es que le dedica nicamente una linea a la evolucin humana. +Se arrojar luz sobre el origen del hombre y su historia. +No fue sino hasta mucho despus, mucho ms tarde, que Darwin realmente habl y escribi sobre los humanos. +Durante sus aos de viajar en el Beagle, y de escuchar los recuentos de exploradores y naturalistas, l saba que el color de la piel era una de las formas ms importantes en que la gente variaba. +Y l estaba interesado en el patrn del color de la piel. +Saba que los pueblos de pigmentos oscuros se encontraban cerca del ecuador. Los pueblos de pigmentos claros, como l mismo, se encontraban mas cerca de los polos. +Y qu pens l de todo esto? +Pues no escribi nada de esto en el Origen de las Especies. +Pero mucho despus, en 1871, s tuvo algo que decir sobre eso. +Y fue muy curioso. Deca, "De todas las diferencias entre las razas de hombres, el color de la piel es la ms conspcua y una de las ms marcadas". +Y continu diciendo, "Estas diferencias no coinciden con diferencias correspondientes en el clima". +l haba viajado por todas partes. +Haba visto gente de diferentes colores viviendo en diferentes lugares. +Y an as rechazaba la idea de que la pigmentacin de la piel humana estuviera relacionada al clima. +Si tan solo Darwin viviera hoy. +Si tan solo Darwin tuviera a la NASA. +Una de las cosas maravillosas que hace la NASA es que coloca una variedad de satlites que detectan todo tipo de cosas interesantes sobre nuestro ambiente. +Y por muchas dcadas ya ha habido una serie de satlites TOMS que recogieron datos sobre la radiacin de la superficie de la tierra +Estos datos del satlite TOMS 7, muestran el promedio anual de radiacin ultravioleta en la superficie terrestre. +Las areas rosadas y rojas, muy calientes son las partes del mundo que reciben la mayor cantidad de rayos UV al ao. +Los colores ms frios, azules, verdes, amarillos y finalmente grises, indican reas de radiacin UV mucho menor. +Lo significativo de la historia de la pigmentacin humana es cunto del hemisferio Norte est en esta zonas fras grises. +Esto tiene muchas implicaciones para nuestro entendimiento de la evolucin de la pigmentacin de la piel. +Y lo que Darwin no pudo apreciar, o tal vez no quiso apreciar en aqul entonces, es que haba una relacin fundamental entre la intensidad de la radiacin ultravioleta y la pigmentacin de la piel. +Y que la propia pigmentacin de la piel era un producto de la evolucin. +As que cuando vemos un mapa del color de piel, y color de piel predicho, como lo conocemos hoy en da, lo que vemos es una hermosa degradacin desde las pigmentaciones ms oscuras en el ecuador, a las ms claras hacia los polos. +Lo ms importante es que los primeros humanos evolucionaron en entornos de alto UV, en el frica ecuatorial. +Los primeros miembros de nuestro lineaje, los genus Homo, tenan pigmentacin oscura. +Y todos compartimos esta increble herencia de haber sido originalmente de pigmentacin oscura, hace entre dos millones y uno y medio de aos. +Qu sucedi en nuestra historia? +Primero veamos al relacin de la radiacin UV con la superficie terrestre. +En los primeros das de nuestra evolucin, viendo el ecuador, fuimos bombardeados con altos niveles de radiacin. +La UVC, el tipo ms energtico, fue repelida por la atmsfera terrestre. +Pero los UVB y UVA especialmente, entraban sin problemas. +La UVB resulta ser increiblemente importante. +Es muy destructiva. Pero tambin cataliza la produccin de vitamina D en la piel. La vitamina D es una molcula que necesitamos para nuestros huesos fuertes, la salud del sistema inmune, y muchas otras funciones importantes de nuestros cuerpos. +As que, al vivir en el ecuador, tuvimos mucha radiacin ultravioleta y la melanina, este compuesto polimeroso antiguo, maravilloso y complejo en nuestra piel, funcion como un excelente protector natural. +Este polmero es sorprendente porque est presente en muchos organismos diferentes. +La melanina, en varias formas, probablemente ha estado en la Tierra mil millones de aos. Y ha sido reclutada una y otra vez por la evolucin, como a menudo sucede. +Por qu cambiarla si funciona? +Entonces la melanina fue reclutada, en nuestro linaje, especificamente en nuestros ancestros evolucionando en frica, para ser un protector solar natural. +Donde protega el cuerpo de las degradaciones por radiacin UV, la destruccin o dao del ADN, y la descomposicin de una molcula muy importante llamada folato, que ayuda a impulsar la produccin, y la reproduccin celular en el cuerpo. +Es fascinante. Evolucionamos este maravilloso y protector recubrimiento de melanina. +Pero entonces nos mudamos. +y los humanos se dispersaron, no una sino dos veces. +Mudanzas importantes, fuera de nuestro hogar ecuatorial, de frica a otras partes del viejo mundo, y ms recientemente, en el Nuevo Mundo. +Cuando los humanos se dispersaron a estas latitudes, Qu enfrentaron? +las condiciones eran bastante ms frias, pero tambin menos intensas con respecto a los rayos UV. +As que si estamos en el hemisferio Norte, observen lo que pasa con la radiacin UV. +An recibimos una dosis de UVA. +Pero toda la UVB, o casi toda, se disipa en el espesor de la atmsfera. +En invierno, cuando esques en los Alpes, puede que experimentes radiacin UV. +Pero toda es UVA, y esa UVA no tiene ninguna habilidad significativa de producir vitamina D en tu piel. +As que la gente que habitaba ambientes del hemisferio Norte, fue despojada del potencial para hacer vitamina D en su piel, la mayora de ao. +Esto tuvo consecuencias tremendas para la evolucin de la pigmentacin de la piel. +Lo que sucedi fue que, para asegurar la salud y bienestar, estos linajes de gente que se dispersaron en el hemisferio Norte, perdieron su pigmentacin. +Hubo seleccin natural para la evolucin de la piel poco pigmentada. +Aqu comenzamos a ver la evolucin del hermoso arcoiris sepia que ahora caracteriza a toda la humanidad. +La piel poco pigmentada no evolucion slo una vez, ni dos, sino probablemente tres veces. +No slo en los humanos modernos, sino tambin en uno de nuestros ancestros distantes, los Neandertales. +Una muestra muy notable del poder de la evolucin. +Los humanos han estado movindose por mucho tiempo. +Y slo en los ltimos 5000 aos, a mayor velocidad, sobre mayores distancias. +Aqu estn algunos de los movimientos ms grandes de gente, movimientos voluntarios, en los ltimos 5000 aos. +Observen algunas de las grandes transgreciones latitudinales. Gente de areas de alta radiacin UV yendo a zonas de baja radiacin, y viceversa. +No todos estos desplazamientos fueron voluntarios. +Entre 1520 y 1867, 12 millones y medio de personas fueron desplazados de zonas de alta radiacin a zonas de baja radiacin, en el trfico de esclavos trasatlntico. +Esto tuvo muchas y desagradables consecuencias sociales. +Pero tambin tuvo consecuencias dainas para la salud de la gente. +Y qu? Hemos estado en desplazamiento. +Somos tan astutos que podemos superar todos estos aparentes impedimentos biolgicos. +Bueno, muchas veces desconocemos el hecho de que vivimos en ambientes en los que nuestra piel est pobremente adaptada. +Algunos de nosotros con piel poco pigmentada vivimos en zona de alta radiacin UV. +Algunos con piel oscuramente pigmentada vivimos en zonas de baja radiacin. +Esto tiene consecuencias tremendas para nuestra salud. +Debemos, si somos de pigmentacin leve, ser cuidadosos con el cancer de piel, y la destruccin del folato en nuestros cuerpos, debido al mucho sol. +Epidemilogos y doctores han sido muy buenos en hablarnos sobre cmo proteger nuestra piel. +Lo que no han hecho tan bien en instruir a la gente, es sobre el problema de la gente de pigmentacin oscura viviendo en reas de alta latitud, o trabajando en interiores todo el tiempo. +Porque el problema ah es igual de severo. Pero es ms siniestro. Porque la deficiencia de Vitamina D, debido a la falta de radiacin ultravioleta B, es un gran problema. +La deficiencia de Vitamina D actua sigilosamente, y causa muchos problemas de salud en los huesos, a la depresin gradual del sistema inmune, o prdida de funciones inmunes, y probablemente algunos problemas de estado de nimo y salud, su salud mental. +Entonces tenemos, en la pigmentacin de piel, un maravilloso producto de la evolucin, que an tiene consecuencias para nosotros hoy da. +Y las consecuencias sociales, ya sabemos, son increiblemente profundas. +Vivimos en un mundo donde tenemos gente de pigmentacin clara y oscura viviendo al unos cerca de otros. Pero a menudo entran en proximidad como resultado de interacciones sociales injustas. +Cmo podemos superar esto? +Cmo comenzamos a entenderlo? +La evolucin nos ayuda. +200 aos despus del nacimiento de Darwin, tenemos el primer presidente de los EE.UU. moderadamente pigmentado. +Cun genial es eso! +Este hombre es significativo por muchas razones. +Pero tenemos que pensar en cmo se compara, en materia de su pigmentacin, con otra gente en la Tierra. +l, como una entre muchas poblaciones urbanas y mixtas, es muy emblematico de un parentezco mixto, una pigmentacin mixta. +Y el se asemeja, cercanamente, a gente con moderada pigmentacin que vive en Africa del Sur, o el Sureste asitico. +Esta gente tiene un tremendo potencial para broncearse, desarrollar ms pigmentos en su piel, como resultado de la exposicin al sol. +Tambin corren el riesgo de la deficiencia de Vitamina D, si tienen trabajos de oficina, como l. +As que desemosle muy buena salud, y conciencia de su propia pigmentacin. +Ahora, lo maravilloso de la evolucin de la pigmentacin de piel humana, y el fenmeno de la pigmentacin, es que es la demostracin, la evidencia, de la evolucin por seleccin natural, en nuestro propio cuerpo. +Cuano la gente pregunta "Cul es la evidencia de la evolucin?" +No es necesaio pensar en ejemplos exticos, o fsiles. +Basta con ver tu propia piel. +Darwin, pienso, hubera apreciado esto, aunque haya despreciado la importancia del clima en la evolucin de la pigmentacin, durante su vida. +Pienso que si pudiera ver la evidencia que tenemos hoy da, la entendera. +La apreciara. +Y principalmente, la enseara. +Ustedes pueden ensearla. +Pueden tocarla. +Pueden entenderla. +Scenla de esta sala. +Tomen su color de piel, y celbrenlo. +Hagan correr la voz. +Tienen la evolucin de la historia de nuestra especie, una parte, escrita en la piel. +Entindanla. Aprcienla. Celbrenla. +Salgan. No es hermoso? No es maravilloso? +Ustedes son el producto de la evolucin. +Gracias. +Puedo decir lo encantado que estoy de estar alejado de la quietud de Westmister y Whitehall? Esta es Kim, una nia vietnamita de nueve aos con su espalda quemada por el napalm, ella despert la conciencia de la nacin americana al comienzo del final de la Guerra de Vietnam. +Esta es Birhan, entonces la nia etiope que lanz la campaa Live Aid en los ochentas, a 15 minutos de morir cuando fue rescatada y este retrato de su rescate circul por el mundo. +Esta es la Plaza de Tiananmen, +un hombre frente a un tanque se convirti en una foto que se convirti en un smbolo de resistencia para todo el mundo. +La siguiente es una nia sudanesa unos momentos antes de morir, al fondo un buitre en acecho, una foto que recorri el mundo e impuls a la gente tomar accin sobre la pobreza. +Esta es Neda, la nia iran que muri de un disparo en una manifestacin con su padre en Irn, hace unas cuantas semanas y hoy es, con toda razn, el foco de atencin de la generacin YouTube. +Qu tienen todas estas fotos y eventos en comn? +Lo que tienen en comn es lo que vemos que encierran y que no podemos ver. +Lo que vemos que encierran son los lazos invisibles y los vnculos de simpata que nos unen para crear una comunidad humana. +Lo que estas fotos demuestran es que s sentimos dolor por otros no importa que tan lejos estn. +Lo que pienso que estas fotos demuestran es que s creemos en algo mucho ms grande que nosotros mismos. +Hay una historia sobre Olof Palme, el Primer Ministro Sueco, cuando visit a Ronald Reagan en Estados Unidos en los ochentas. +Antes de arribar Ronald Reagan pregunt, era el Primer Ministro Sueco Social Demcrata "Acaso no es este hombre comunista?" +La respuesta fue: " No, Seor Presidente, l es un anticomunista." +Y Ronald Reagan dijo: "No me importa qu clase de comunista sea!" +Ronald Reagan le pregunt a Olof Palme, al Primer Ministro Social Demcrata de Suecia "Bien cul es su creencia? Quiere abolir a los ricos?" +Le contesta: "No, quiero abolir a los pobres." +Nuestra responsabilidad es permitir que todos tengan la oportunidad de desarrollar su potencial por completo. +Yo creo que existe un sentido moral y una tica global que merece atencin de gente de cualquier religin de cualquier fe y de gente sin fe. +Pero creo que lo nuevo es que ahora nosotros tenemos la capacidad de comunicarnos instantneamente cruzando fronteras por todo el mundo. +Regresemos 200 aos atrs cuando el comercio de la esclavitud estaba bajo presin de William Wilberforce y todos los manifestantes, +que protestaron por toda Gran Bretaa. +Se ganaron a la opinin pblica por un largo periodo, +pero les tomo 24 aos de campaa para alcanzar el xito. +Qu hubieran podido hacer con las fotos que hubieran podido mostrar si hubiesen podido usar los medios modernos de comunicacin para ganarse los corazones y las mentes de la gente? +O vean a Eglantyne Jebb, la mujer que cre Save the Children hace 90 aos, +Pero qu ms pudo ella haber hecho si hubiese tenido los medios modernos de comunicacin disponibles para generar el sentimiento de que la injusticia que la gente vio tena que ser atendida de inmediato? +Ahora vean lo que ha pasado en los ltimos 10 aos, +en el 2001 en Filipinas, el Presidente Estrada un milln de personas se enviaron mensajes sobre la corrupcin del rgimen, que con el tiempo cay y fue llamado, por supuesto, el "golpe de texto." Luego ah tienen a Zimbawe, la primera eleccin bajo Robert Mugabe, hace un ao, +como la gente pudo tomar fotos de sus celulares de lo que estaba ocurriendo en los puestos electorales, fue imposible que el Premier fijara la eleccin en la forma en que l quiso hacerlo. +Vayamos a Irn mismo y lo que la gente est haciendo ahora, siguiendo lo que le sucedi a Neda, la gente evitando que los servicios de seguridad de Irn encuentren a las personas que est blogeando fuera de Irn, cambiando sus domicilios a Tehern, Irn y haciendo la vida difcil a los servicios de seguridad. +Por tanto, veamos de lo que es capaz la tecnologa moderna: el poder de nuestro sentido moral aliado con el poder de las comunicaciones y nuestra habilidad de organizarnos internacionalmente. +Desde mi punto de vista, eso nos da la primera oportunidad como comunidad de cambiar fundamentalmente el mundo. +La poltica exterior ya no puede ser la misma otra vez, no puede ser manejada por lites; debe ser manejada escuchando a la opinin pblica de la gente que est blogeando, que se est comunicando con sus semejantes alrededor del mundo. +Hace 200 aos el problema que tenamos que solucionar era la esclavitud; +hace 150 aos, supongo que el problema principal de un pas como el nuestro, era como cumplir con el derecho de la educacin para los nios y jvenes; +hace 100 aos en la mayora de los pases europeos, la presin era el derecho al voto; +hace 50 aos la presin era el derecho a la seguridad social y el bienestar. +En los ltimos 50, 60 aos hemos visto fascismo, antisemitismo, racismo, apartheid, discriminacin de sexo, gnero y sexualidad; todos estos han estado bajo presin debido a las campaas de gente que cambia el mundo. +Hace un ao estuve con Nelson Mandela cuando estuvo en Londres, +acud a un concierto al que asisti con motivo de su cumpleaos para la creacin de nuevos recursos para su fundacin. +Estaba sentado junto a Nelson Mandela, tuve ese privilegio, cuando Amy Winehouse se acerc al estrado y Nelson Mandela estaba bastante sorprendido de la aparicin de la cantante y le expliqu en ese momento quin era ella. +Amy Winehouse dijo: "Nelson Mandela y yo tenemos mucho en comn, +mi esposo tambin pas un largo tiempo en prisin." +Entonces Nelson Mandela acudi al escenario y resumi el reto que tenemos todos. +Dijo que en su vida haba escalado una gran montaa, la montaa del reto y entonces venci la opresin racial y venci el apartheid. +Agreg que haba por delante un reto ms grande, el reto de la pobreza, del cambio climtico y de los retos globales que necesitan soluciones globales y necesitan de la creacin de una sociedad autnticamente global. +Somos la primera generacin que est en la posicin de hacerlo, +combinar el poder de la tica global con el poder de nuestra habilidad para comunicarnos y organizarnos globalmente para enfrentar los retos actuales, muchos de los cuales son de naturaleza global. +Un solo pas no puede solucionar el cambio climtico, debe ser solucionado por el mundo trabajando juntos. +Una crisis financiera, tal como la hemos visto, no puede ser resuelta por los Estados Unidos o Europa; se necesita que el mundo trabaje en conjunto. +Tomen los problemas de seguridad y terrorismo e, igualmente, el problema de los derechos humanos y el desarrollo: frica sola no los puede solucionar; Estados Unidos o Europa solos no lo pueden solucionar. +No podemos solucionar estos problemas a menos que trabajemos juntos. +Entonces el gran proyecto de nuestra generacin, me parece, es construir por primera vez una tica global y con nuestra capacidad de comunicacin y de organizacin conjunta, una sociedad autnticamente global, construida sobre esa tica pero con instituciones que puedan servir a la sociedad global y hagan un futuro diferente. +Hoy tenemos, y somos la primera generacin, con el poder de hacerlo. +Una de las cosas que debe surgir de Copenhague en los prximos meses es un acuerdo para que exista una institucin ambiental global capaz de atender los problemas de persuadir a todo el mundo de avanzar con una agenda de cambio climtico. +Una de las razones por las que una institucin sola no es suficiente es que tenemos que persuadir gente alrededor del mundo que cambie su comportamiento tambin, entonces se necesita una tica global de justicia y responsabilidad en todas las generaciones. +Tomen la crisis financiera. +Si la gente de los pases ms pobres sufren por una crisis que comienza en Nueva York o comienza en el mercado de los crditos subprime en Estados Unidos, +si la gente puede encontrar que ese producto subprime ha sido transferido entre naciones muchas, muchas veces hasta terminar en bancos de Islandia o el resto de la Gran Bretaa y los ahorros de gente comn son afectados por estos, entonces no se puede confiar en un sistema de supervisin nacional. +Para tener estabilidad, crecimiento econmico, trabajos, as como estabilidad financiera a largo plazo, se requieren instituciones econmicas globales que aseguren que el crecimiento a sostener sea compartido y construido sobre el principio de que la prosperidad de este mundo es indivisible. +As, otro reto para nuestra generacin es crear instituciones globales que reflejen nuestras ideas de justicia y responsabilidad no ideas que fueron la base de la ltima etapa de desarrollo financiero durante estos aos recientes. +Entonces consideremos el desarrollo y la asociacin que necesitamos entre naciones y el resto del mundo, la parte ms pobre del mundo. +No tenemos la base de una asociacin apropiada para el futuro, sin embargo, con el deseo de la gente de una tica global y una sociedad global se puede hacer. +Justo hablaba con el Presidente de Sierra Leona, +es un pas con seis y medio millones de habitantes, pero slo tienen 80 doctores, 200 enfermeras y 120 parteras. +No se puede empezar a construir un sistema de salud para seis millones de personas con recursos tan limitados. +O consideren la nia que conoc cuando estuve en Tanzania, una nia llamada Miriam; +tena 11 aos y sus padres haban muerto de SIDA, su madre y luego su padre. +Era un hurfana de SIDA que haba pasado por diferentes familias para su cuidado. +Ella misma sufra del VIH, y padeca de tuberculosis. +La conoc en un campo, en harapos, sin zapatos, +Debemos entonces construir una relacin apropiada entre los pases ms ricos y los ms pobres basados en nuestro deseo de que pueden defenderse por s mismos con la inversin que sea necesaria en su agricultura, tal que frica no sea un importador neto de alimentos sino un exportador de alimentos. +Tomen los problemas de derechos humanos y los problemas de seguridad en tantos pases alrededor del mundo. +Burma est encadenada, Zimbawe es una tragedia humana, en Sudn miles de personas han muerto innecesariamente por guerras que podramos prevenir. +En el Museo Infantil de Ruanda, hay una fotografa de un nio de 10 aos y el Museo Infantil est conmemorando las vidas que se perdieron en el genocidio de Ruanda en el que murieron un milln de personas. +Hay una fotografa de un nio llamado David, +a un lado de la fotografa se lee informacin de su vida, +que dice: "David, edad 10 aos." +David, su ambicin: ser doctor. +Deporte favorito: futbol qu le gustaba ms? +Hacer rer a la gente, +cmo muri? +Torturado a muerte. +Las ltimas palabras que le dijo a su madre que tambin fue torturada hasta morir: "No te preocupes, las Naciones Unidas van a llegar." +Y nunca lo hicimos. +Y este nio crey en nuestras promesas, que ayudaramos a la gente en dificultad en Ruanda, y nunca lo logramos. +Entonces no slo tenemos que crear en este mundo instituciones para mantener la paz y de ayuda humanitaria, sino tambin de reconstruccin y seguridad para algunos de los estados llenos de conflictos en el mundo. +Entonces fundamentalmente mi argumento es este: +tenemos los medios con los cuales podemos crear una autntica sociedad global. +Con nuestros esfuerzos podemos crear las instituciones de esta sociedad global; +Dicen que en la Roma Antigua, cuando Cicero se diriga a la audiencia, la gente se miraban entre s y decan de Cicero: "Gran discurso." +Y dicen que en la Grecia Antigua cuando Demstenes se diriga a su audiencia, la gente se volteaba a ver y no decan: "Gran discurso" +decan: "Marchemos." +Debemos marchar hacia una sociedad global. +Gracias. +A m me ocurren normalmente, esas crisis profesionales, a menudo, de hecho, las noches de domingo, justo cuando el sol comienza a ponerse y la distancia entre mis propias esperanzas y la realidad de mi vida, comienza a discrepar tan dolorosamente que normalmente termino sollozando en una almohada. +Quizs ahora sea ms fcil que nunca ganar un buen sueldo. +Quizs es ms difcil que nunca permanecer tranquilos, estar libres de ansiedad profesional. +Ahora quisiera analizar algunas de las razones por las que quizs sintamos ansiedad sobre nuestras carreras. +Porqu quizs seamos vctimas de esas crisis profesionales mientras sollozamos suavemente en nuestras almohadas. +Una de las razones por las que quizs estemos sufriendo es que estamos rodeados por esnobs. +En cierta manera, tengo malas noticias en particular para quien venga a Oxford del extranjero. +Hay un autntico problema de esnobismo. Porque a veces la gente de fuera del R. U. imagina +que el esnobismo es algo caractersticamente britnico obsesionado con casas de campo y ttulos. +Las malas noticias es que eso no es cierto. +El esnobismo es un fenmeno mundial. Somos una organizacin global. Es un fenmeno mundial. +Existe. Qu es un esnob? +Un esnob es cualquiera que toma una pequea parte de ti y la utiliza para llegar a una visin completa de quin eres. +Eso es esnobismo. +Y el tipo dominante de esnobismo que existe hoy es el esnobismo ocupacional. +Lo encuentras a minutos de iniciada una fiesta cuando encaras esa famosa pregunta distintiva de comienzos del siglo XXI: En qu trabajas? +Y de acuerdo a cmo respondas esa pregunta, la gente estar increblemente encantada de verte o mirarn el reloj e inventarn excusas. +Ahora, lo opuesto a un esnob es tu madre. +No necesariamente tu madre, o lo ma, sino, como si fuese la madre ideal. Alguien a quien no le interesan tus logros. +Desafortunadamente la mayora de la gente no es nuestra madre. +La mayora establece una estricta correlacin entre cunto tiempo y si quieres, amor, no amor romntico aunque tal vez haya algo sino amor en general, respeto, estn dispuestos a otorgarnos, y eso estar estrictamente definido por nuestra posicin en la jerarqua social. +Esa es la razn por la que nos preocupamos tanto por nuestras carreras y de porqu nos empezamos a preocupar tanto por bienes materiales. +Se nos dice a menudo que vivimos en una poca muy materialista que todos somos codiciosos. +No creo que seamos particularmente materialistas. +Creo que vivimos en una sociedad que simplemente ha vinculado ciertas recompensas emocionales a la adquisicin de bienes materiales. +No son los bienes materiales lo que queremos, son las recompensas. +Es una nueva forma de ver a los artculos de lujo. +La prxima vez que vean a alguien conduciendo un Ferrari no piensen: "Es alguien codicioso". +Piensen: "Es alguien increblemente vulnerable y necesitado de amor". +En otras palabras... sientan compasin, en lugar de desprecio. +Hay otras razones... hay otras razones por las que ahora +sentirse tranquilos es ms difcil que nunca. Una de ellas, y es paradjica porque est vinculada a algo ms bien agradable es la esperanza que todos tenemos en nuestras carreras. +Nunca antes haban sido tan altas las expectativas de lo que los seres humanos pueden lograr durante sus vidas. +Se nos dice, desde muchos sitios, que cualquiera puede lograr lo que sea. +Nos hemos librado del sistema de castas. Ahora estamos en un sistema en el que cualquiera puede elevarse a cualquier posicin que guste. +Y es una idea hermosa. +La acompaa un espritu de igualdad, todos somos bsicamente iguales. No hay jerarquas +claramente definidas. +Hay un problema muy grande con esto y ese problema es la envidia. +Envidia, es un autntico tab mencionar la envidia pero si hay una emocin dominante en la sociedad moderna, es la envidia. +Y est vinculada al espritu de igualdad. Permtanme explicarlo. +Creo que sera muy inusual que alguien aqu, o de los que estn viendo, tuviera envidia de la Reina de Inglaterra. +A pesar de que sea mucho ms rica que cualquiera de ustedes, y de que tenga una casa enorme. La razn por la que no la envidiamos +es porque es muy rara. Simplemente es demasiado extraa. +No podemos identificarnos con ella. Habla raro. Viene de un lugar peculiar. +As que no nos identificamos. Y cuando no te puedes identificar con alguien, no lo envidias. +Cuanto ms cercanas sean dos personas, en edad, en trayectoria en el proceso de identificarse, mayor es el peligro de envidia. Lo cual por cierto es el porqu nunca deberan ir a reuniones de exalumnos porque no hay punto de referencia ms fuerte que los compaeros de escuela. +Pero el problema es que, en general, la sociedad moderna ha convertido al mundo entero +en una escuela. Todos usan jeans, todos son iguales. +Y sin embargo, no lo son. +As que hay un espritu de igualdad, combinado con profundas desigualdades. Lo que contribuye a una situacin muy estresante. +Quizs es tan improbable que en la actualidad llegues a ser tan rico y famoso como Bill Gates como era de improbable en el siglo XVII acceder a la jerarqua de la aristocracia francesa. +Pero el punto es que no se siente as. +Se hace sentir, por revistas y otros medios de comunicacin que si tienes la energa, unas cuantas ideas brillantes sobre tecnologa un garaje, t tambin podras empezar algo grande. +Y las consecuencias de este problema se perciben en las libreras. +Cuando vas a una librera grande y miras la seccin de autoayuda como yo a veces hago si analizas los libros de autoayuda que se producen actualmente, son bsicamente de dos tipos. +El primero te dice: "Puedes hacerlo! Puedes triunfar! Todo es posible!" +Y el otro tipo te dice como lidiar con lo que educadamente llamamos "baja autoestima" y descortsmente "sentirte psimo sobre ti mismo". +Existe una autntica correlacin entre una sociedad que le dice a la gente que pueden hacer cualquier cosa y la existencia de baja autoestima. +As que esa es otra forma en la que algo muy positivo puede tener un efecto desagradable. +Hay otra razn por la que quizs nos sintamos ms ansiosos sobre nuestras carreras, sobre nuestro estatus en el mundo, hoy ms que nunca. +Y est de nuevo vinculada a algo bonito. +Y a ese algo bonito se le llama meritocracia. +Todos, todo poltico de izquierda o derecha est de acuerdo en que la meritocracia es algo grandioso y que deberamos intentar volver meritocracias reales nuestras sociedades. +En otras palabras, qu es una sociedad meritocrtica? +Es una en la que si tienes talento, energa y habilidad llegas a la cima. Nada debera detenerte. +Es una hermosa idea, el problema es que si de verdad +crees en una sociedad en la que aquellos que merecen llegar a la cima, llegan a la cima tambin, por implicacin y de forma bastante horrible crees en una sociedad donde aquellos que merecen llegar al fondo tambin llegan al fondo y se quedan ah. +En otras palabras, tu posicin en la vida llega a considerarse no accidental sino digna y merecida. +Y eso vuelve al fracaso mucho ms aplastante. +En la Edad Media, en Inglaterra cuando conocas una persona muy pobre esa persona sera descrita como un "desafortunado" literalmente, alguien que no ha sido bendecido por la fortuna, desafortunado. +Hoy, en particular en Estados Unidos, si conoces a alguien del fondo de la sociedad sera, cruelmente, descrito como un "perdedor". +Hay una real diferencia entre ser un desafortunado y ser un perdedor, y eso muestra 400 aos de evolucin social y de la creencia de quin es responsable de nuestras vidas. +Ya no son los dioses, somos nosotros. Nosotros estamos al mando. +Eso es estimulante si te est yendo bien y muy aplastante si no. +Lleva, en los peores casos, en el anlisis de un socilogo como Emil Durkheim, a tasas mayores de suicidios. +Hay ms suicidios en pases desarrollados individualistas que en ninguna otra parte del mundo. +Y en parte es que la gente toma lo que le sucede de forma extremadamente personal. Son responsables de su xito, pero tambin de su fracaso. +Hay algn alivio para alguna de esas presiones que he estado describiendo? +Creo que lo hay. Mencionar algunos. +Tomemos la meritocracia, +la idea de que todos merecen llegar a donde llegan. Creo que es una idea descabellada, totalmente descabellada. +Apoyar cualquier poltico de izquierda o derecha con una idea medio decente meritocrtica. Soy un meritcrata en ese sentido. +Pero creo que es demente creer que alguna vez construiremos una sociedad genuinamente meritocrtica. Es un sueo imposible. +La idea de que haremos una sociedad donde literalmente todos sern asignados los buenos en la cima y los malos en el fondo y que sea hecho exactamente como se debe, es imposible. +Simplemente hay demasiados factores aleatorios: accidentes, accidentes de nacimiento, accidentes de cosas cayendo en la cabeza, enfermedades, etc. +Nunca conseguiremos evaluarlos. Nunca evaluaremos a las personas como se debera. +Me atrae una encantadora cita de San Agustn en "La Ciudad de Dios" que dice: Es un pecado juzgar a cualquier hombre por su puesto. +En espaol moderno significara: Es un pecado decidir con quin debes hablar basado en su tarjeta de presentacin. +No es el puesto el que debera contar. +Y de acuerdo a San Agustn slo Dios es quien puede poner a todos en su lugar y lo har el Da del Juicio con ngeles y trompetas, y los cielos se abrirn. +Idea descabellada, si eres una persona laica como yo. +Sin embargo hay algo muy valioso en esa idea. +En otras palabras, contente a la hora de juzgar a las personas. +No necesariamente sabes cul es el autntico valor de alguien. +Es algo desconocido de l y no deberamos comportarnos como si fuera algo conocido. +Hay otra fuente de alivio y confort para todo esto. +Cuando pensamos sobre fracasar en la vida, en el fracaso, una razn para temerlo no es slo la prdida de ingreso o de estatus. +Lo que tememos es el juicio y ridculo de los otros. Y eso existe. +El instrumento nmero uno +del ridculo hoy, es el peridico. +Si lo abren cualquier da est lleno de gente que arruin sus vidas. +Durmi con la persona equivocada, tom la sustancia equivocada aprob la ley equivocada. Lo que sea. Y ahora son dignos de ridiculizar. +Es decir, han fracasado y son descritos como perdedores. +Hay alguna alternativa a esto? +Creo que la tradicin occidental muestra una gloriosa alternativa. Y es la tragedia. +El arte trgico, como se desarroll en los teatros de la antigua Grecia en el siglo V a.C. era en esencia una forma de arte dedicada a registrar cmo fracasa la gente y tambin a otorgarles un nivel de simpata que la vida ordinaria no les dara necesariamente. +Recuerdo que hace unos aos pensaba acerca de esto y fui a ver al "The Sunday Sport" un tabloide que no les recomiendo que empiecen a leer si no lo conocen ya. +Fui a hablarles sobre algunas de las grandes tragedias del arte occidental. Y quera ver cmo tomaran la esencia +de ciertas historias si stas les llegaran como noticias a su escritorio la tarde de un sbado. +Les cont sobre Otelo. No lo conocan pero les fascin. +Y les ped que escribieran el titular para la historia de Otelo. +Salieron con: Inmigrante loco de amor mata hija de senador +puesto en el encabezado. +Les di el argumento de Madame Bovary +otro libro que les encant descubrir +y escribieron: "Adltera despilfarradora toma arsnico despus de fraude crediticio. +Y mi favorita, realmente tienen cierta clase genio propio esta gente. Mi favorito es Edipo Rey de Sfocles. El sexo con mam fue cegador. +De cierto modo, en un extremo del espectro de la simpata tienen al tabloide +y en el otro extremo tienen a la tragedia y al arte trgico. +Y argumento que deberamos aprender un poquito sobre lo que ocurre en el arte trgico. +Sera de locos llamar perdedor a Hamlet, +l no es un perdedor, aunque haya perdido. +Creo ese es el mensaje de la tragedia para nosotros, y porqu es tan, tan importante, creo. +Lo otro de la sociedad moderna y que nos causa esta ansiedad es que no tenemos nada en su centro que sea no-humano. +Somos la primera sociedad en vivir en un mundo en el que no adoramos a nada ms que a nosotros mismos. +Tenemos una opinin muy alta de nosotros, y as deberamos. Hemos puesto gente en la Luna, hemos hecho toda clase de cosas extraordinarias. +As que tendemos a adorarnos a nosotros mismos. Nuestros hroes son hroes humanos. +Eso es una situacin muy nueva. +La mayora de sociedades tuvo en su centro la adoracin de algo trascendente, un dios un espritu, una fuerza natural, el universo. +Lo que fuera, es alguna otra cosa lo que es adorado. Hemos perdido algo el hbito de hacer eso y es la razn, creo de que nos atraiga tanto la naturaleza. +No por nuestra salud, aunque sea presentado as sino porque es un escape del hormiguero humano +de nuestra propia competicin y nuestros propios dramas. +Y por eso es que disfrutamos ver glaciares y ocanos y contemplar a la Tierra desde el exterior, etc. +Nos gusta sentirnos en contacto con algo que no es humano y eso nos resulta tan profundamente importante. +Creo que he hablado en realidad de xito y fracaso +y algo interesante sobre el xito es que creemos saber qu significa. +Si les dijera que hay alguien muy exitoso detrs la pantalla, ciertas ideas vendran de inmediato a la mente. +Pensaran que quizs esa persona gan mucho dinero, alcanz renombre en algn campo. +Mi propia teora del xito, y estoy muy interesado en el xito, de verdad quiero ser exitoso siempre pienso: "Cmo podra tener ms xito?". +Pero al envejecer, matizo mucho lo que "xito" pudiera significar. +He aqu un descubrimiento que he hecho sobre el xito. No puedes tener xito en todo. +Omos hablar mucho sobre el equilibrio entre vida y trabajo. +Tonteras. No puedes tener todo. No puedes. +As que toda visin del xito debe admitir qu se est perdiendo, dnde est la prdida. +Y creo que toda vida sabia aceptar que habr un elemento donde no estamos triunfando. +Y el detalle sobre una vida exitosa es que muchas veces nuestras ideas sobre lo que significara vivir exitosamente, no son nuestras. +Son absorbidas de otras personas. Principalmente, si eres hombre, de tu padre. Y si eres mujer, de tu madre. +El psicoanlisis ha recalcado este mensaje por unos 80 aos. +nadie hace mucho caso, pero creo bastante que es verdad. +Y tambin absorbemos mensajes de todo, desde la TV, la publicidad hasta el marketing, etc. +Esas son fuerzas enormemente poderosas que definen lo que queremos y cmo nos vemos a nosotros mismos. +Cuando nos dicen que ser banquero es un profesin muy respetable muchos queremos ser banqueros +cuando ya no es tan respetable, perdemos inters en serlo. +Estamos muy abiertos a la sugestin. +Lo que quiero argumentar no es que debamos abandonar nuestras ideas del xito, sino que deberamos asegurarnos de que son nuestras. +Debemos enfocarnos en nuestras propias ideas y asegurarnos de que somos dueos de ellas que de verdad somos los autores de nuestras propias ambiciones +porque ya es malo no conseguir lo que quieres, es incluso peor tener una idea de lo que quieres y descubrir, al final del camino que no es, de hecho, lo que queras desde el principio. +Voy a terminar aqu +pero lo que de verdad quiero enfatizar es que ciertamente, s al xito. +Pero aceptemos lo ajeno de algunas de nuestras ideas. +Verifiquemos nuestras nociones sobre el xito. +Asegurmonos de que nuestras ideas sobre el xito son verdaderamente nuestras. +Muchas gracias. +Chris Anderson: Eso fue fascinante. +Cmo reconcilias la idea de que es malo pensar de alguien como un perdedor con la idea que a muchos gusta, de tomar el control de tu vida y que una sociedad que favorece eso quizs tenga que tener algunos ganadores y perdedores? +Alain de Botton: S. Yo creo que es simplemente el azar existente en el proceso de perder y ganar lo que quera enfatizar porque hoy da hay muchsimo nfasis en la justicia de todo y los polticos siempre hablan de justicia. +Soy un firme creyente en la justicia, simplemente creo que es imposible. +As que deberamos hacer todo lo que podamos para alcanzarla pero a fin de cuentas debemos recordar siempre que quien sea que tengamos enfrente, lo que sea haya pasado en sus vidas habr un fuerte elemento de azar +y es eso para lo que intento dejar espacio porque de otra manera se vuelve muy claustrofbico. +CA: Es decir, crees poder combinar tu ms benvola y moderada filosofa del trabajo con una economa exitosa? +O crees que no puedes, pero que no importa demasiado que pongamos tanto nfasis en eso? +AB: La perspectiva pesadilla es que asustar a la gente es la mejor forma de hacerla trabajar y que de alguna forma, entre ms cruel sea el entorno, ms personas se pondrn a la altura del desafo. +Deberas pensar, quin te gustara como tu pap ideal? +Y tu pap ideal es alguien que es duro pero amable. +y es una lnea muy difcil de trazar. +Necesitamos padres, por as decirlo, figuras paternas ejemplares en la sociedad evitando los dos extremos por un lado el autoritario, disciplinario y por el otro el laxo, la opcin sin reglas. +CA: Alain de Botton. +AB: Muchas gracias. +Hola! Mi nombre es Golan Levin +Soy artista e ingeniero lo cual est siendo una especie de hbrido cada vez ms comn +Pero todava caigo en este rompimiento extrao donde la gente no parece entenderme. +Y estaba mirando y encontr esta foto maravillosa. +Es una carta de Artforum de 1967 que dice No podemos imaginar incluso en hacer un nmero especial sobre electrnica o computadores en arte. Y todava no lo han hecho. +y no sea que piensen que todos, como los digerati, son ms iluminados. El otro da fui a la tienda de aplicaciones para iPhone de Apple. +Dnde est el arte? Hay productividad. Hay deportes. +Y de algn modo la idea de que uno quiera hacer arte para el iPhone, que es lo que mis amigos y yo estamos haciendo ahora, an no se refleja en nuestro entendimiento de para qu son los computadores. +As que, desde los dos puntos, existe algo as como, creo, una falta de comprensin acerca de lo que podra significar ser un artista o una artista que utiliza los materiales de su propio da, Lo que creo que los artistas estn obligados a hacer, es explorar realmente el potencial expresivo de las nuevas herramientas que tenemos. +En mi caso propio, soy un artista, y estoy realmente interesado en expandir el vocabulario de la accin humana, y bsicamente dar poder a la gente a travs de la interactividad. +Quiero que las personas se descubran a s mismas como actores, como actores creativos, mediante experiencias interactivas. +Mucho de mi trabajo se trata de salir de esto. +sta es una fotografa del escritorio de uno de mis estudiantes. +Y cuando digo escritorio, no slo significa la mesa desde donde su ratn ha desgastado la superficie del escritorio. +Si mira cuidadosamente, incluso puede ver una pista del men de Apple, arriba en la parte superior izquierda, en donde el mundo virtual literalmente ha traspasado al fsico. +Entonces esto es, como dijo una vez Jon Mountford el ratn es probablemente el pitillo ms estrecho a travs del cual puedes succionar toda la expresin humana. +Y lo que estoy tratando de hacer realmente, es permitir que la gente tenga ms tipos de experiencias interactivas ricas. +Cmo podemos alejarnos del ratn y utilizar todo nuestro cuerpo como una forma de explorar experiencias estticas no necesariamente utilitarias. +Entonces escribo software. Y as es cmo lo hago. +Y muchas de mis experiencias se asemejan a espejos de algn modo. +Porque esto es, de alguna forma, el primer modo, en el que las personas descubren su propio potencial como actores y descubren su propia capacidad. +Diciendo: "quin es esa persona en el espejo? oh, en realidad soy yo". +Y as, para dar un ejemplo, este es un proyecto del ao pasado. Que se llama Procesador de Fragmentos Intersticiales. +Y permite que las personas exploren las formas negativas que crean cuando realizan simplemente sus asuntos cotidianos. +As como la gente hace formas con sus manos o con sus cabezas y sucesivamente, o con otros, estas formas literalmente producen sonidos y una salida de aire ligero. Bsicamente tomando, lo que es frecuentemente, este tipo de espacio invisible o no detectado, y hacindolo real, las personas lo pueden notar y se pueden volver creativas con l. +As que, nuevamente, las personas descubren su capacidad creativa de esta manera. +Y sus propias personalidades salen a flote de formas totalmente nicas. +Entonces adems de utilizar todo el cuerpo como entrada, algo que he explorado desde hace un tiempo ha sido el uso de la voz. Lo que es un sistema inmensamente expresivo para nosotros, vocalizar. +La cancin es una de las formas ms viejas de hacernos escuchar y entender. +Y entonces me cruc con esta fantstica investigacin de Wolfgang Khler, el llamado padre de la psicologa gestalt, desde 1927, que envi a una audiencia como ustedes las siguientes dos formas. +Y dijo que una de ellas se llama Maluma. +y la otra se llama Taketa. Cul es cul? +Alguien se arriesga a responder? +Maluma est arriba. S. Entonces. +Como el dice aqu, la mayora de la gente responde sin vacilar. +As que lo que estamos viendo aqu en realidad es un fenmeno llamado fonestesia que es un tipo de sinestesia que todos ustedes tienen. +Y entonces, mientras que el Dr. Oliver Sacks ha hablado acerca de cmo, quizs una persona en un milln realmente tiene sinestesia, y escuchan colores o prueban formas, y cosas como stas la fonestesia es algo que todos podemos experimentar hasta cierto punto. +Se trata de mapeos entre ciertos dominios perceptuales, como dureza, nitidez, brillo y oscuridad, y los fonemas con lo que podemos hablar. +As que en 70 aos, ha habido alguna investigacin en la que los psiclogos cognitivos han dilucidado en realidad el punto al cual, uno sabe que L, M y B estn asociados con formas que lucen as, y P, T y K estn quiz ms asociadas con formas que lucen as. +y aqu de repente empezamos a tener un mapeo entre la curvatura que podemos explotar numricamente, un mapeo relativo entre curvatura y [discurso]. +Entonces se me ocurri, qu pasara si pudiramos hacerlo al revs? +y entonces naci el proyecto llamado Remark. que es una colaboracin con Zachary Lieberman y Ars Electronica Futurelab. +y sta es una instalacin interactiva que presenta la ficcin de que el discurso arroja sombras invisibles. +As que la idea es que usted entre en una especie de luz mgica +y mientras lo hace, vea las sombras de su propio discurso. +y como que vuelan, fuera de su cabeza. +Si un sistema de reconocimiento computarizado puede reconocer lo que est diciendo, entonces lo pronuncia. +Y si no, produce una forma que es muy fonestsica muy acoplada a los sonidos que usted hace. +Entonces veamos un video de eso. +Gracias. Entonces, en este proyecto estaba trabajando con el gran vocalista abstracto, Jaap Blonk. +Y l es un experto mundial interpretando "La Ursonata" que es un poema sin sentido de media hora de Kurt Schwitters, escrito en los aos 20. Que es media hora de un sinsentido con un patrn. +y es casi imposible de interpretar. +Pero Japp es uno de los expertos mundiales en interpretarlo. +y en este proyecto desarrollamos una forma de subttulos inteligentes en tiempo real. +Entonces esos son nuestros subttulos en vivo, que estn siendo producidos por un computador que sabe el texto de "La Ursonata", afortunadamente Japp tambin, muy bien. Y est llevando el texto al mismo tiempo que Jaap. +As que todo el texto que van a ver est generado en tiempo real por la computadora. visualizando lo que l hace con su voz. +Aqu uno puede ver el montaje en donde hay una pantalla con subttulos detrs de l. +Ok, entonces... +Todos los videos estn en lnea si estn interesados. +Tengo una reaccin dividida a eso durante la interpretacin en vivo. Porque hay algunas personas que entenderan los subttulos en vivo como una especie de oxmoron. Porque usualmente hay alguien hacindolos despus. +Y luego un grupo de gente que estaba como "cul es el punto? +Veo subttulos todo el tiempo en televisin". +Saben? Ellos no se imaginan la persona en la cabina, escribiendo todo. +Entonces, adicional a todo el cuerpo, y adicional a la voz, otra cosa en la que me he interesado mucho, ms recientemente, es el uso de ojos, o la mirada fija, en trminos de cmo la gente se relaciona entre s. +Es una cantidad realmente profunda de informacin no verbal que se comunica con los ojos. +Y es uno de los restos tcnicos ms interesantes que est recientemente muy activa en la ciencia de computadores. Ser capaz de tener una cmara que puede entender desde una distancia bastante lejana, cmo esas pequeas bolas estn actualmente dirigindose de uno u otro modo, para revelar en que est interesado, y hacia dnde se dirige su atencin. +Entonces est ocurriendo all mucha comunicacin emocional. +Y he empezado una variedad de proyectos diferentes para entender cmo la gente se puede relacionar con las mquinas con los ojos. +Y bsicamente para hacer las preguntas, Qu tal si el arte supiera que lo estamos observando? +Cmo respondera, de algn modo, reconocer o revertir el hecho de que lo estamos mirando? +Y qu tal si nos pudiera observar de vuelta? +Esas son las preguntas que estn surgiendo en los prximos proyectos. +El primero, que les voy a mostrar, llamado "Eyecode", es una pieza de software interactivo en la que, si leemos este pequeo crculo, "la seal que deja al mirar al observador previo mira a la seal que deja mirar al observador previo". +La idea es que es una imagen completamente construida de su propia historia de ser vista por diferentes personas en una instalacin. +Djenme cambiar para que podamos ver la demostracin en vivo. +Corramos esto y veamos si funciona. +Ok, Ah, hay mucho de buen video. +Hay tan slo una pruebita a la pantalla que muestra que est funcionando. +Y lo que voy a hacer ahora es esconder eso. +Y pueden ver aqu lo que est haciendo Est grabando mis ojos cada vez que parpadeo. +Hola? Y puedo... hola...ok. +Y no importa dnde est, lo que est ocurriendo aqu en verdad es que es un sistema rastreador de ojos que trata de localizar mis ojos. +Y si estoy muy lejos, soy borroso +Saben, van a tener este tipo de manchas borrosas que quiz slo se parecen a ojos de una forma muy, muy abstracta +Pero si me acerco mucho y miro directamente a la cmara en este porttil, entonces vern estos dulces ojos frescos. +Pueden pensar en esto como una forma de, como, escribir, con los ojos. +Y lo que estn escribiendo son registros de sus ojos mientras ven a los ojos de otros. +As cada persona est mirando la mirada de alguien ms antes de ellos. +y existe en instalaciones ms grandes en donde hay miles y miles de ojos a los que la gente puede estar mirando. mientras ven quin est mirando a la gente mirando a la gente mirando antes de ellos. +Agregar un par ms. Parpadeo. Parpadeo. +Y pueden ver, una vez ms, cmo est como tratando de encontrar mis ojos y haciendo lo mejor para estimar cuando estn parpadeando. +Bueno. Dejmoslo ah. +Es como un tipo de observacin recursiva. +Gracias. +El ltimo par de piezas que voy a mostrar est bsicamente en el nuevo reino de la robtica, para m, nuevo para m. +Se llama el opto-aislante. +Y voy a mostrar un video de la versin ms antigua. que slo es de un minuto. Ok. +En este caso, el opto-aislante est parpadeando en respuesta a los parpadeos de uno mismo. +Entonces parpadea un segundo despus de que uno lo hace. +Es un dispositivo que busca reducir el fenmeno de mirar profundo a los materiales ms sencillos posibles. +Slo un ojo, mirndolo, y eliminando todo lo dems de una cara. Pero para considerar la mirada fija de forma aislada como una especie de elemento. +Y al mismo tiempo, intenta involucrarse en lo que podran llamar comportamientos familiares de mirada psicosocial. +Como mirar a lo lejos si lo miran mucho porque se pone tmido. O cosas as. +Ok. El ltimo proyecto que voy a mostrar es este nuevo llamado Hocico. +Es un hocico de 2,5 metros, con un ojo falso. +Y dentro tiene un robot de 360 kilos que consegu prestado, de un amigo. +Ayuda tener buenos amigos. +Estoy en Carnegie Mellon. Tenemos un gran Instituto de Robtica all. +Me gustara mostrarles la cosa llamada Hocico, que es... La idea detrs del proyecto es hacer un robot que parezca continuamente sorprendido de verlos. +La idea es que bsicamente... si est constantemente como "Ehh? ... Ehh?" +Por eso el otro nombre es "Doubletaker", tomador de dobles. +Siempre est haciendo una toma doble: "Qu?" +Y la idea es bsicamente, los puede mirar y hacerlos sentir como si, "Qu? son mis zapatos? +"tengo algo en el pelo?" Aqu vamos. Bien. +Mirndolo... +Para ustedes nerds, aqu un poco detrs de escenas, +Tiene un sistema de visin computarizada y trata de mirar a la gente que se mueve ms. +sos son sus blancos. +Arriba est el esqueleto, que es en realidad lo que est tratando de hacer. +Se trata en verdad de crear un nuevo lenguaje corporal para una nueva criatura. +Hollywood lo hace todo el tiempo, por supuesto. +Pero tambin el lenguaje corporal comunica algo a la persona que lo est mirando. +Este lenguaje est comunicando que est sorprendido de verlos, y est interesado en verlos. +Muchas gracias. Eso es todo lo que tengo para hoy. +Y estoy muy feliz de estar aqu. Muchas gracias. +Bien, estamos en el 2009. +Y es el bicentenario de Charles Darwin. +Y en todo el mundo, eminentes evolucionistas estn ansiosos por celebrarlo. +Y lo que desean hacer es aclararnos casi todos los aspectos de Darwin y su vida, y cmo cambi nuestra forma de pensar. +Digo casi todos los aspectos, porque hay un aspecto de esta historia que no han aclarado. +Y parecen ansiosos por pasarlo por alto y hablar de algo diferente. +As que yo s que hablar de ello. +La pregunta es por qu somos tan diferentes de los chimpancs. +Tenemos a los genetistas dicindonos lo extremadamente parecidos que somos, sin casi diferencias en los genes, muy, muy emparentados. +Sin embargo, cuando vemos los fenotipos, un chimpanc por aqu, un hombre por all, son sorprendentemente diferentes, no hay semejanza. +No estoy hablando de cosas etreas como cultura, sicologa o comportamiento. +Estoy hablando de diferencias fsicas medibles, bsicas, esenciales. +ste de aqu es peludo y camina a cuatro patas. +El otro de all es un bpedo sin pelo. Por qu? +Quiero decir -- SI fuera una buena darwinista, debera creer que hay una razn para ello. +Si hemos cambiado tanto, algo debe de haber pasado. +Qu pas? +Hace 50 aos, era simple pregunta irrisoria. +Todos saban la respuesta. +Todos saban lo que pas. +Los antepasados de los simios se quedaron en los rboles. Los nuestros se fueron a las llanuras. +Con esto lo explicaban todo. +Nos tuvimos que levantar sobre nuestras piernas para mirar por encima del herbaje, o para cazar animales, o para liberar las manos para empuar armas. +Y nos acaloramos tanto en la persecucin que nos deshicimos de ese abrigo de pelo. +Durante generaciones se ha explicado eso. +Pero, en los 90, algo comenz a descubrirse. +Los mismos paleontlogos observaron ms detenidamente la microfauna que se dio simultneamente en el mismo lugar que los homnidos. +Y no eran especies autctonas de la sabana. +Y observaron a los hervboros. Y no eran hervboros de la sabana. +Y fueron tan listos que encontraron la forma de analizar polen fosilizado. +Conmocin, horror. +El polen fosilizado no perteneca a la vegetacin de sabana. +Algunos procedan incluso de lianas, esas cosas que cuelgan en medio de la jungla. +As que nos han dejado ante una situacin donde conocemos que nuestros antepasados ms lejanos corran a cuatro patas, por los rboles, antes que el ecosistema de la sabana existiera. +No es algo que me haya inventado. +No es una teora minoritaria. +Todo el mundo est de acuerdo. +El profesor Tobias lleg de Sudfrica a hablar en la University College London. +Dijo: "Todo lo que les he dicho durante los ltimos 20 aos, olvdenlo. Era un error. +Tenemos que volver al punto de partida y empezar de nuevo." +Esto bajo su popularidad. Nadie quera volver a empezar. +Es decir, es algo terrible. +Cuentas con un paradigma estupendo, +en el que has credo por generaciones. +Nadie lo ha puesto en duda. +Se han edificado cosas fantsticas sobre l, confiando que es slido como una roca. +Y ahora de pronto se esfuma. +Qu haces? Qu hace un cientfico en este caso? +Bueno, sabemos la respuesta porque Thomas S. Kuhn escribi un tratado fundamental sobre este tema en 1962. +DIjo que lo que hacen los cientficos cuando falla un paradigma, es, adivinen, continuar como si nada pasara. +Si no tienen un paradigma, no pueden formular la pregunta. +As que dicen: "S, est mal, pero suponiendo que est bien..." +Y la nica opcin que tienen es dejar de preguntar. +Y eso es lo que han hecho hasta ahora. +Por eso no los escuchan hablar de ello. Es un problema pasado. +Algunos incluso lo han elevado a principio. +Es lo que deberamos estar haciendo. +Aaron Filler de Harvard dijo: "No es hora ya de dejar de hablar de presiones selectivas? +Es decir, porque no hablamos de, que existen cromosomas y genes. +Y nombramos lo que vemos". +Charles Darwin debe estar revolvindose en su tumba! +l conoca esa clase de ciencia. +Y la llamaba ciencia libre de hiptesis. +Y la despreciaba desde lo ms profundo de su corazn. +Y si ustedes dicen: "Ya no voy a hablar de presiones selectivas", pueden agarrar "El origen de las especies" y lanzarlo por la ventana. Pues trata precisamente de presiones selectivas. +Y lo irnico es que no es un ejemplo de colapso de un paradigma pues no tenemos que esperar que surja un nuevo paradigma. +Hay uno esperando entre bastidores. +Est esperando desde 1960 cuando Alister Hardy, bilogo marino, dijo: "Creo que s lo que pas, tal vez nuestros ancestros tuvieron una existencia ms acutica por algn tiempo". +Se lo guard para s durante 30 aos. +Pero la prensa se enter y se desat el caos. +Todos sus colegas dijeron: "Es terrible. +Nos expones al ridculo pblico! +No vuelvas a hacer eso nunca ms". +Y en ese momento, se grab a fuego que la teora acutica deba menospreciarse como los ovnis y el mito del yeti, y entenderla como parte del sector loco de la ciencia. +Bien, no pienso as. +Pienso que Hardy tena razn. +Quisiera hablar solo de unos cuantos casos de lo que llamamos rasgos distintivos de los humanos, cosas que nos han hacen diferentes de todos lo dems, y de todos nuestros emparentados. +Miremos nuestra piel sin pelo. +Es obvio que la mayora de las criaturas en las que podemos pensar que han perdido el pelo del cuerpo, mamferos sin pelo en el cuerpo, son acuticos, como el gugong, la morsa, el delfn, el hipoptamo, el manat. +Y algunos que se revuelcan en el lodo como el babirusa. +Y nos tienta preguntarnos que tal vez, sea por eso que no tenemos pelo. +Lo suger as y la gente dijo: "No, no, no. +Es decir, miren los elefantes. +Olvidaron ya todo sobre los elefantes, verdad?" +All por 1982 dije: "Bien, tal vez el elefante tuvo un antepasado acutico". +Se despepitaron de risa! +"Esa loca. Esta suelta de nuevo. Sera capaz de decir cualquier cosa." +Pero ahora, todos admiten que el elefante tuvo un antepasado acutico. +Resulta pues que todos esos paquidermos sin pelo tienen ancestros acuticos. +El ltimo en sumarse fue el rinoceronte. +El ao pasado encontraron en Florida un antepasado extinto del rinoceronte y dijeron: "parece que pasaba la mayor parte del tiempo en el agua". +He aqu una clara conexin entre la carencia de pelo y el agua. +Como conexin absoluta; solo funciona en un sentido. +No se puede decir que todos los animales acuticos no tienen pelo. Miren la nutria. +Pero podramos decir que todo animal que ha perdido el pelo ha sido condicionado por el agua en su propia vida, o la de sus antepasados. Creo que esto es significativo. +La nica excepcin es el topo desnudo de Somalia, que nunca puso su nariz sobre la superficie de la tierra. +Y con el bipedismo... +Aqu no hay punto de comparacin. Pues somos los nicos animales que caminan sobre dos extremidades. +Aunque pueden decir que los simios y los monos son capaces de caminar con dos patas, si quieren, aunque por poco tiempo. +Solo hay una circunstancia en la que siempre, todos ellos caminan sobre dos patas; Esto es cuando caminan por el agua. +Creen que es significativo? +David Attenborough piensa que es significativo. Como el posible inicio de nuestro bipedismo. +Miren la capa de grasa. +Tenemos, bajo la piel, una capa de grasa en todo el cuerpo. No hay nada parecido en ningn otro primate. +Por qu est ah? +Bien saben, que si nos fijamos en otros mamferos acuticos, la grasa que es normal en animales terrestres que es depositada dentro de la pared del cuerpo, alrededor del hgado y los intestinos y dems, ha empezado a migrar hacia afuera, y se extiende en una capa dentro la piel. +En la ballena ya est completo. No tiene grasa en el interior, toda est en el exterior. +No podemos evitar la sospecha de que en nuestro caso esto ha empezado a suceder. +Tenemos esta capa en la piel. +Es la nica posible explicacin de porque los humanos, si son muy desafortunados, pueden llegar a ser groseramente obesos, de forma totalmente imposible para cualquier otro primate, fsicamente imposible. +Algo muy extrao, prosaico y nunca explicado. +La cuestin de por qu podemos hablar. +Podemos hablar. +Y los gorilas no pueden. Por qu? +No tiene nada que ver con sus dientes o su lengua o sus pulmones o nada parecido. Tiene que ver con su control consciente de la respiracin. +No se puede lograr entrenar a un gorila para decir ni "ah". +Las nicas criaturas que tiene control consciente de la respiracin son los animales y las aves que se sumergen en el agua. +Es una condicin sine qua non para desarrollar la habilidad de hablar. +Y de nuevo, est el hecho de que somos aerodinmicos. +Intenten imaginar un submarinista sumergindose en el agua, casi no salpica. +Intenten imaginar un gorila en la misma maniobra. Y vern que, comparados con el gorila, estamos a medio camino de la forma de un pez. +Estoy intentando explicar que, durante 40 extraos aos, esta idea acutica ha sido categorizada equivocadamente como locura, y no es una locura. +Y lo irnico de esto es que ahora evitan la teora acutica para proteger su propia teora, en la que coinciden y la que aprecian. +No hay nada. +Estn evitando la teora acutica para proteger un vaco. +Cmo reaccionan cuando digo esto? +Una reaccin muy comn que he escuchado unas 20 veces es: "Pero fue investigado. +Se llev a cabo una investigacin seria al principio, cuando Hardy public su artculo". +Yo no me lo creo. +Durante 35 aos he buscado evidencias de algn caso de esa clase, y he llegado a la conclusin de que es un mito urbano. +Nunca se llev a cabo. +A veces indago y me responden: Me gusta la teora acutica! +A todo el mundo le gusta. +Por supuesto que no creen en ella, pero les gusta. +Bueno, yo digo: "Por qu crees que es basura?" +Y responden: "Bueno... +todo el mundo dice que es basura. +Y todos no pueden equivocarse, no?" +La respuesta a eso, fuerte y claro, es: "S! Todos pueden estar equivocados". +La historia est plagada de casos en los que todos hemos errado. +Y si se tiene un problema cientfico como ste, no se resuelve echando la cuenta, y diciendo: "Son ms los que dicen s que los que dicen no". +Adems, algunas cabezas cuentan ms que otras. +Algunos han cambiado. +Est el profesor Tobias. Ha cambiado. +Daniel Dennett, ha cambiado. +Sir David Attenborough, ha cambiado. +Alguien ms por aqu? Vengan. +El agua es maravillosa. +Ahora tenemos que ver al futuro. +Al final suceder una de estas tres cosas. +O vamos a seguir as durante los prximos 40, aos, 60 aos. +"Oh, s. No hablemos de eso. Hablemos de algo interesante". +Sera muy triste. +Lo segundo que podra pasar es que cierto joven genio venga, y diga: "Lo descubr. +No fue la sabana, no fue el agua, fue esto!". +No hay signos de que eso pase tampoco. +No creo que haya esa tercera opcin. +As que lo tercero que podra pasar es algo muy hermoso. +Si nos remontamos a los primeros aos del siglo pasado, vemos un enfrentamiento, una gran cantidad de discusiones y resentimientos entre los seguidores de Mendel, y los seguidores de Darwin. +Termin con una nueva sntesis. Las ideas de Darwin y las ideas de Mendel combinadas. +Y creo que lo mismo suceder aqu. +Tendremos una nueva sntesis. +Las ideas de Hardy y las ideas de Darwin se mezclarn. +Y avanzaremos desde all, para llegar a algo. +Sera hermoso. +Sera bueno para m que sucediera pronto. +Pues soy ms vieja que George Burns cuando dijo: "A mi edad, ni siquiera compro pltanos verdes". +Si va a venir y si va a suceder, qu lo retiene? +Puedo decirlo en cuatro palabras. +La Academia dice no. +En 1960 decidieron que: "Esto pertenece a la categora de los ovnis y el yeti". +Y no es fcil hacerles cambiar de opinin. +Las publicaciones profesionales no la tocan ni por la tangente. +Los libros de texto no la mencionan. +El Syllabus ni siquiera menciona el hecho de que no tengamos pelo, y mucho menos buscan una razn para ello. +"Horizon", que sigue el ejemplo de los acadmicos, no la trata ni por casualidad. +As que nunca escuchamos el tema, salvo en referencias jocosas sobre personas del lado loco de la ciencia. +No s muy bien de dnde viene esta orden +Alguien arriba est imponiendo la orden: "No deben creer en la teora acutica". +Y si quieren progresar en la profesin, y creen en esta teora, gurdenla para ustedes. Pues se interpondr en su camino. +Tengo la impresin que algunos sectores del poder cientfico estn convirtindose en especies de sectas. +Pero, saben, me hace sentir bien. Porque Richard Dawkins nos explic cmo tratar con una secta. +Dijo: "Primero, tienes que negarte a darle el respeto y la reverencia excesiva que estn aconstumbrados a recibir". +Pues eso es lo que har. +Y segundo, dijo: "No debes temer ir contracorriente". +Y eso es lo que har. tambin. +Muchas gracias. +Miren esta foto. +Nos enfrenta a una interrogante fascinante. +Estos estudiantes africanos estn haciendo sus tareas bajo los faroles en el aeropuerto de su capital. Ya que en sus hogares no hay electricidad. +En este caso, no conozco a los estudiantes pero he conocido a otros como ellos. +Tomemos a uno de ellos. Por ejemplo, el de la camisa verde. +Dmosle adems un nombre: Nelson. +Les apuesto que Nelson tiene un celular. +As que esta es la interrogante: +Por qu es que Nelson tiene acceso a una tecnologa de ltima generacin, el celular, y no tiene acceso a una tecnologa centenaria para generar electricidad en su hogar? +En una palabra, la respuesta es "Las Normas". +Las normas malas impiden el tipo de soluciones donde todos ganan que estn disponibles cuando se introducen tecnologas y se ponen a disposicin de la gente como Nelson. +Qu tipo de normas? +La empresa elctrica de este pas opera bajo una regla, la cual le obliga a vender electricidad a un precio bajo y subsidiado. De hecho, es un precio tan bajo que pierden dinero por cada unidad vendida. +Entonces no tiene ni los recursos ni el incentivo para conectar a ms usuarios. +El presidente quera cambiar esta regla. +Sabe que es posible tener una normativa distinta, reglas donde las empresas ganan un pequeo porcentaje que incentiva el aumento de usuarios. +se es el tipo de reglas bajo las que opera la empresa de telefona celular a la cual Nelson le contrata el servicio. +El presidente ha visto que esas reglas funcionan bien +as que intent cambiar las reglas para facturar la electricidad. Pero se enfrento a un mar de protestas de empresas y consumidores que queran mantener los precios ms bajos. +As que termin derrotado ante reglas que le negaron llegar a una solucin donde todos ganaran y que le ayudara a su nacin. +Y Nelson continua estudiando bajo las luces de calle. +El verdadero desafo es, entonces, lograr darse cuenta cmo se pueden cambiar las reglas. El verdadero desafo es, entonces, lograr darse cuenta cmo se pueden cambiar las reglas. +Existen reglas que sirvan para cambiar las reglas? +Mi posicin es que podemos llevar a la prctica una idea abstracta y general. La cual es que si le damos ms opciones a las personas y ms opciones a los lderes -que en muchos pases tambin son personas-. +Pero es til ilustrar las diferencias entre ambos. +Porque los tipos de opciones que podran querer darle a un lder, como por ejemplo darle al presidente la opcin de subir el precio de la electricidad le quita a la gente una opcin que quiere en sus finanzas. +Quieren la opcin de seguir consumiendo energa subsidiada. +Si se opta por uno y no por otro, se obtendr tensin o friccin. +Pero si podemos descubrir cmo darle ms oportunidades a ambos, obtendremos una nueva normativa para cambiar las reglas y as poder salir de las situaciones negativas. +Ahora, Nelson tambin tiene acceso a Internet. +Y dice que si quieres ver el dao que las reglas pueden causar, cmo las reglas pueden dejar a la gente a oscuras, vean las fotos de la NASA del mundo de noche. cmo las reglas pueden dejar a la gente a oscuras, vean las fotos de la NASA del mundo de noche. +Concntrense en Asia. +Si nos acercamos a Asia pueden ver aqu el borde de Corea del Norte. Es como un hoyo negro comparado con sus vecinos. +Y no ser sorprendente para ustedes saber que las reglas de Corea del Norte mantienen a sus habitantes a oscuras. +Pero es importante darse cuenta que tanto Corea del Norte como Corea del Sur comenzaron con normativas idnticas tomando el sentido de reglas y leyes pero tambin los sentidos ms profundos de comprensin, normas, cultura, valores, creencias. +Cuando se dividieron tomaron opciones que llevaron por caminos muy distintos a sus normativas. +As que, como personas, podemos cambiar las reglas que usamos para interactuar con otros para mejor o para peor. +Ahora observemos otra regin, el Caribe. +Hagmosle zoom a Hait. Aqu est su borde. +Hait tambin est a oscuras comparado con su vecino, Repblica Dominicana, que tiene ms o menos el mismo nmero de habitantes. +Ambos estn menos iluminados que Puerto Rico que tiene la mitad de los habitantes de Hait o Repblica Dominicana. +Lo que Hait nos plantea es que las reglas pueden ser malas porque los gobiernos son dbiles. +No es slo, como en Corea del Norte, que hay malas reglas porque los gobiernos son demasiado opresivos. +As que si queremos crear entornos con reglas buenas no slo tendremos que destruir +sino que tambin hay que encontrar maneras de construir. +As, China deja patente dramticamente tanto el potencial como los desafos de trabajar con reglas. +Al principio de los datos presentados en esta tabla China era lder mundial de la alta tecnologa. +Eran pioneros en tecnologas como acero, imprenta y plvora. +Pero los chinos jams adoptaron, al menos en esa poca, reglas que efectivamente lograran la distribucin de esas ideas o que crearan un incentivo econmico para hacerlo. +Y despus adoptaron reglas que hicieron ms lenta la innovacin y aislaron a China del resto del mundo. +As que mientras otros pases innovaban, tanto en el desarrollo de nuevas tecnologas tanto en el desarrollo de nuevas tecnologas como tambin en el de nuevas reglas, los chinos no recibieron estos nuevos avances. +Los ingresos se estancaron mientras en el resto del mundo suba velozmente. +Este prximo grfico es de datos ms recientes. +Grafica el ingreso promedio de China como porcentaje del ingreso promedio de EE.UU. +Pueden ver que durante los 50s y 60s se mantuvo como en 3%. +Pero algo cambi a fines de los 70s. +El crecimiento se dispar. Los chinos rpidamente empezaron a alcanzar a EE.UU. +Si volvemos al mapa nocturno, podrn tener una idea del proceso que llev a los dramticos cambios de reglas en China. +El lugar ms brillante de China, que se puede ver aqu en el borde, es Hong Kong. +Hong Kong era un pequeo pedazo de China que, por la mayor parte del siglo 20, oper bajo un conjunto de reglas distinto al resto de China continental. Reglas que fueron copiadas de las economas de mercado exitosas y administradas por los britnicos. +En los 50s, Hong Kong fue un lugar donde millones de personas de China continental podan ir y comenzar a trabajar en cosas como coser camisas o hacer juguetes. +A comenzar un proceso de aumento de ingreso y de aumento de habilidades que en ese lugar les llevaba a un crecimiento muy rpido. +Hong Kong fue tambin el modelo que los lderes chinos, como Deng Xiaoping, pudieron copiar cuando decidieron cambiar toda China a una economa de mercado. +Pero Deng Xiaoping comprendi instintivamente lo importante que era ofrecerle distintas opciones a la gente. +En vez de obligar a todos a cambiarse inmediatamente al modelo de mercado empezaron creando unas zonas especiales que, de alguna manera, podan hacer lo mismo que el Reino Unido; crear una oportunidad para que la gente que quisiera pudiera ir y trabajar bajo reglas de una economa de mercado. +As que crearon 4 zonas econmicas especiales alrededor de Hong Kong donde los chinos pudieran ir y trabajar. Y esas ciudades crecieron muy rpidamente. Tambin eran zonas donde empresas extranjeras podan ir y fabricar productos. +Una de estas zonas tiene una ciudad llamada Shenzhen. +En esta ciudad hay una empresa taiwanesa que hizo los iPhones que algunos de ustedes tienen. Y los hizo con mano de obra china de gente que se fue a Shenzhen. +Y despus de las 4 zonas especiales otras 14 ciudades costeras se abrieron del mismo modo. Y despus de un tiempo el xito demostrable de estos lugares a los cuales la gente poda elegir ir, a los cuales iban por las ventajas que ofrecan, +su xito demostrable llev a un consenso para cambiar la economa completa a un modelo de mercado. +Entonces el ejemplo chino ilustra varios puntos importantes. +Uno es: "Mantn las Opciones de la Gente". +Dos: "Opera a la Escala Apropiada". +Puedes cambiar las reglas de un poblado pequeo pero ese pueblo es muy reducido para obtener el tipo de beneficios que puedes conseguir con millones de personas operando bajo buenas reglas. +Por otro lado, un pas completo es demasiado grande. +Si intentas cambiar las reglas de un pas no le puedes dar la opcin a cierta gente de mantenerse en su lugar, ver como resulta y permitir que otros se adelanten y prueben estas nuevas reglas. +Pero las ciudades te dan la oportunidad de crear nuevos lugares con nuevas reglas donde las personas puedan ir a vivir. +Y estas s son lo suficientemente grandes para obtener todos los beneficios que se logran cuando millones trabajamos bajo buenas reglas. +Entonces lo que propongo es que imaginemos entre todos algo llamado una "ciudad bajo estatuto". +Debemos empezar con un estatuto que defina las reglas requeridas para atraer a la gente que necesitaremos para construir la ciudad. +Tendremos que atraer inversionistas para que construyan la infraestructura: El sistema elctrico, los caminos, puerto y aeropuerto y los edificios. +Se necesitar atraer empresas que vengan y contraten a las personas que lleguen al principio. +Y se necesitar atraer a familias; a residentes que vengan y se establezcan, cren y eduquen a sus hijos. Que consigan su primer empleo. +Bajo ese estatuto la gente se ir para all a vivir. +Se puede construir esta ciudad. +Y podemos hacer crecer este modelo. +Podemos hacerlo una y otra vez. +Para que funcione, se requieren buenas reglas. Ya les expliqu eso. +stas se incluyen en el estatuto. +Tambin necesitamos darle opciones a la gente. +Eso funciona intrnsicamente si permitimos construir ciudades en terrenos no habitados. +Se parte en tierra sin habitar. +La gente puede venir y vivir bajo el estatuto. Pero nadie est obligado a hacerlo. +Lo que tambin necesitamos es darle opciones a nuestros lderes. Y para conseguir eso +Lo que tambin necesitamos es darle opciones a nuestros lderes. Y para conseguir eso necesitamos permitir que las naciones se asocien. Casos en que las naciones se asocian como, de hecho, la asociacin de facto que tenan China y el Reino Unido para construir, primero un pequeo enclave del modelo de mercado para despus replicarlo por toda China. +Sin querer, el Reino Unido, por medio de lo que hizo en Hong Kong, de alguna manera hizo ms para reducir la pobreza mundial que todo el conjunto de programas de ayuda realizados durante el siglo pasado. +As que si permitimos que este tipo de sociedades repliquen esto nuevamente podemos obtener ese mismo tipo de beneficios por todo el mundo. +En algunos casos esto supondr delegar responsabilidades, una entrega de control de un pas a otro para que asuma ciertas responsabilidades administrativas. +Ahora, cuando digo eso, algunos de ustedes empezarn a pensar: "Bueno, no es esto simplemente colonialismo renovado?" +No lo es. Pero es importante darse cuenta que el tipo de emociones que surgen cuando pensamos en estas cosas pueden entorpecernos, pueden hacer que nos detengamos, pueden apagar nuestra habilidad e inters de explorar nuevas ideas. +Por qu no es como el colonialismo? +Lo negativo del colonialismo, y que an sigue presente en algunos programas de ayuda, era que inclua aspectos de coercin y condescendencia. +Este modelo trata sobre opciones. Tanto para los lderes como para los que vivirn en estos lugares. +Y las opciones son el antdoto a la coercin y la condescendencia. +Entonces hablemos de cmo funcionara esto en la prctica. +Tomemos un lder especfico, Ral Castro, el lder de Cuba. +Castro debe haber pensado que tiene la oportunidad de hacer por Cuba lo que Deng Xiaoping hizo por China. Pero ah en la isla no tiene un Hong Kong. +Lo que s tiene es un rayito de luz en el sur que tiene un estatus muy particular. +Hay una zona all, alrededor de la baha de Guantnamo, en que un tratado le entrega a EE.UU. la responsabilidad administrativa sobre un terreno de como del doble del tamao de Manhattan. +Castro va donde el primer ministro de Canad y le dice: "Mire, los yanquis tienen un inmenso problema de relaciones pblicas. +Quieren salir de ah. +Por qu no t, Canad, tomas el mando? +Y construyes y gestionas una zona administrativa especial. +Permites que se construya una nueva ciudad. +Permites que lleguen nuevas personas. +Tengamos un Hong Kong cerca de nosotros. +Algunos de mis ciudadanos tambin se cambiarn para all. +Otros se quedaran donde estn. Pero sta ser la puerta que conectar el mundo moderno y su economa a mi pas." +Bueno, dnde ms se podra probar este modelo? +En frica. He hablado con sus lderes. +Varios de ellos entienden completamente la idea de una zona especial a la cual la gente pueda ir a vivir. +Es una regla para cambiar las reglas. +Es una manera de crear nuevas reglas y dejar que la gente elija sin coercin y sin el rechazo que genera ser obligado por coercin. +Tambin comprenden completamente la idea que en ciertos casos pueden hacerle promesas ms crebles a los inversionistas de largo plazo. El tipo de inversionistas que construirn el puerto y los caminos en una nueva ciudad. Pueden hacer promesas ms crebles si los acompaa una nacin asociada. +Quizs en una acuerdo en que la sociedad funcione con una cuenta administrada por otro. Donde se colocan terrenos en esta cuenta y la nacin asociada se responsabiliza por ella. +Hay tambin muchos lugares en frica donde se podran construir nuevas ciudades. +sta es una foto que tom mientras volaba por la costa. +Hay terrenos inmensos como este donde podran vivir cientos de millones de personas. +Ahora, podemos generalizar esto y pensar en no slo una o dos ciudades sino que en docenas. Ciudades que ayuden a crear un lugar para los cientos y quizs miles de millones de personas que se irn a una ciudad en el siglo venidero. Existe suficiente terreno para ellos? +Bueno, si vemos primero las luces de noche del mundo, podemos tener una impresin errnea ya que parece que casi todo el mundo estuviera construido. +Djenme mostrarles porque no es as. +Digamos que esto es toda la tierra del mundo. +La transformamos a un cuadrado que contenga toda la tierra arable del mundo. +Y que esos puntos sean la tierra ocupada por las ciudades donde ahora viven 3 mil millones de personas. +Si movemos los puntos hacia el borde inferior del rectngulo se puede ver que las ciudades utilizadas hoy por los 3.000 millones de personas ocupan slo el 3% del total de la tierra arable. +As que si quisiramos construir ciudades para otros mil millones estos seran los puntos. +Pasaramos de 3% de la tierra arable a 4%. +Reduciramos drsticamente la huella humana en la tierra al construir ms ciudades. +Y si esas ciudades se rigen por buenas reglas pueden ser ciudades en que sus habitantes no sufran ni por crmenes, ni por enfermedades ni por mal sistema de alcantarillado y donde tengan la posibilidad de conseguir empleo. +Pueden obtener servicios bsicos como luz. +Sus hijos pueden ir a la escuela. +Entonces qu se requiere para empezar a construir las primeras ciudades y hacerlo escalable para construir muchas ms? +Ayudara tener un manual. +Lo que podran hacer los profesores universitarios sera escribir algunos detalles que puedan ir en este manual. +No querran que nosotros gestionemos estas ciudades pero s que las diseemos. +No querrn que los acadmicos salgan de su oficina. Pero podran ponernos a revisar interrogantes como que no sea slo Canad el que pacta con Ral Castro. +Tal vez Brasil tambin participa. Y tambin Espaa. Y quizs Cuba quiere ser uno de los cuatro participantes de esta sociedad. +Cmo se escribe el tratado que logre esto? +No hay muchos precedentes. Pero se podra resolver fcilmente. +Cmo financiamos esto? +Resulta que al crecer Singapur y Hong Kong ganaron muchsimo por el aumento de valor de los terrenos que posean ganaron muchsimo por el aumento de valor de los terrenos que posean +y esas ganancias se podran usar para pagar cosas como la polica y los juzgados. As como los sistemas de educacin y salud. As sera un lugar ms atractivo donde vivir. Un lugar donde la gente tenga mejores ingresos que, a la vez, sube el valor de los terrenos. +Y as los incentivos para la gente que ayuda a desarrollar y construir la zona y a fijar las reglas bsicas claramente se mueven en la direccin correcta. +Y hay muchos otros detalles como este: +Cmo podemos tener edificios que sean de bajo costo para la gente que llega a su primer trabajo, armando algo como el iPhone? Pero hacer los edificios eficientes. Y garantizar que sean seguros y que no se caigan en un terremoto o huracn. +Hay muchos detalles tcnicos a definir. Pero los que ya estamos tratando de sacar estas cosas adelante podemos decirles que no existen barreras, no hay lmites, salvo los de nuestra imaginacin, que no nos permitan generar una solucin global donde verdaderamente ganemos todos. +Djenme concluir con esta foto. +La razn de que podemos estar tan bien, incluso habiendo tantas personas en la tierra, es el resultado del poder de las ideas. +Podemos compartir las ideas con otros y cuando ellos las descubran, harn lo mismo. +No es como en los recursos limitados en que compartir implica que cada uno recibe menos. +Cuando compartimos las ideas cada uno recibe ms. +Cuando pensamos de ese modo sobre las ideas, normalmente pensamos en tecnologas. +Pero hay otro tipo de ideas. Las reglas que determinan como interactuamos entre nosotros. Reglas como: tengamos un sistema de impuestos que financie una universidad de investigacin que gratuitamente imparta ciertas enseanzas. +Tengamos un sistema donde nuestro ttulos inmobiliarios, que estn registrados en una oficina gubernamental, Tengamos un sistema donde nuestro ttulos inmobiliarios que estn registrados en una oficina gubernamental, puedan ser colocados como garanta para un crdito. +Hay un viejo dicho: "aunque no lo veamos el sol siempre est". +Mi trabajo es... es un reflejo de m mismo. +Lo que quiero hacer es mostrarle al mundo que las pequeas cosas pueden ser las cosas ms grandes. +Al parecer pensamos que, ya saben, si miramos al suelo no hay nada all. +Y usamos la palabra "nada". +Pero la nada no existe. Porque siempre hay algo. +Mi madre me deca que, cuando era nio, que siempre deberamos respetar las pequeas cosas. +Qu me llev a hacer este trabajo? Me adentrar en mi historia. +Todo comenz cuando tena cinco aos. +Qu me llev a hacerlo? En la escuela, lo voy a admitir, acadmicamente no poda expresarme. +Entonces, ms o menos, me clasificaban como "nada". +Mi mundo era visto como menos. +De modo que decid que no quera en realidad ser parte de ese mundo. +Pens que tena que refugiarme en otra cosa. +Entonces cuando mi madre acostumbraba llevarme a la escuela, ella pensaba que yo estaba en la escuela, pero me daba la vuelta en cuanto ella me daba la espalda, y me fugaba y esconda en el cobertizo en la parte de atrs del jardn. +Ahora, una vez yo estaba en el cobertizo y mi madre sospech algo pensando que yo estaba en la escuela. +Mi madre era como la mujer de Tom y Jerry. +As, uno slo vea sus pies. +Entonces yo estaba escondido en el cobertizo, as.. +Y de repente... +v sus piernas. +Y entonces ella dijo, me agarr as, porque mi madre es bastante grande, y me levant y dijo: "Por qu no ests en la escuela?" +Yo le dije que no poda enfrentarlo debido a la manera en que me trataba el maestro, ridiculizndome, ponindome como ejemplo de fracaso. +As que se lo dije. +A esa edad, obviamente, no poda expresarlo de esa manera, pero le dije que no me senta bien. +Y luego ella dijo: "Vas a volver a la escuela maana". +Y se fue. Y yo no esperaba eso. Porque yo esperaba una de estas... +Pero no fue as. +Entonces estoy sentado all pensando. +Y mientras miraba al piso, not que haba algunas hormigas dando vueltas. +E ingres a este mundo de fantasa. +Y pens: "Estas hormigas, estn buscando a la reina? +O es que necesitan un lugar donde vivir?" +Entonces pens: "Quiz... si les construyo unos apartamentos, ellas se van a mudar". +Y as lo hice. +Cmo me puse a hacerlo? Consegu algunas astillas de madera. +Y reban las astillitas de madera con un pedazo de vidrio roto. Constru este pequeo apartamento. +Bueno, se vea como una pocilga cuando termin. +Pero pens, talvs la hormiga no lo sepa, probablemente se mude. +Y as lo hice. +Eso fue un poco tosco en ese momento. E hice todos estos apartamentitos y pequeas calesitas, balancines, columpios y escaleritas. +Y animaba a las hormigas a venir ponindoles azcar y cosas como esas. +Y entonces me sent y todas las hormigas aparecieron. +Y lo que llegaba a or era: "Esto es para nosotras?" +Y yo les deca: "S, es todo para ustedes". +Y entonces se mudaron, pero decidieron no pagarme el alquiler. +Y desde entonces estuve observando este pequeo mundo. +Se volvi parte de m. +Cuando descubr que tena este don, quise experimentar con este mundo que no podemos ver. +As, me di cuenta que en la vida haba ms cosas que slo esas tan grandes que podemos ver a nuestro alrededor. +As comenc a auto educarme en este nivel molecular. +Y a medida que fui creciendo continu. Le mostraba a mi madre. +Mi madre me deca que lo hiciera ms pequeo. +Ahora les mostrar algo por aqu. +Y lo explicar. +Como ven: esa es la cabeza de un alfiler. +Bien, esa se llama la Casa Hoff. +El seor que me encarg este trabajo era un caballero llamado Peter Hoff. +Y me dijo: "Willard, puedes poner mi casa en la cabeza de un alfiler?" +Yo le dije: "Cmo vas a caber en ella?" +Y entonces me dijo: "No creo que puedas hacerlo. Realmente puedes hacerlo?" +Y yo dije: "Bien, ponme a prueba". +Y luego dijo: "Pero no creo que puedas hacerlo". Entonces dije: "OK". +Entonces, para hacer la historia corta, fui a casa, fui bajo el microscopio y romp un trozo de vidrio, lo romp. +Y bajo el microscopio haban astillas de vidrio. +algunas de ellas eran muy dentadas +Entonces yo romp estos trozos de vidrio. Que, como pueden ver, es el armazn real de la casa. +Y el techo real est compuesto de fibra. Que encontr en el antiguo osito de peluche de mi hermana. +As, tom el osito y le dije: "Te molesta si te quito una de tus fibras?" +Y as lo hice. +Y lo mir bajo el microscopio. Y algo de eso era plano. +Entonces decid rebanarlos con la herramienta que hago afilo la punta de una aguja. +Y luego realmente desacelero todo mi sistema nervioso. +Y luego trabajo entre cada latido del corazn. En realidad, tengo un segundo y medio para moverme. +Y, al mismo tiempo, tengo que estar atento de no inhalar mi propio trabajo. +Porque eso me ha sucedido. +Entonces, lo que hice, como deca, vuelvo al vidrio. +Encontr estos pedacitos de vidrio. +Y tuve que hacerlos cuadrados. +Entonces pensaba: "Cmo puedo hacer esto?" +Entonces tom una piedra de afilar. Part el borde de una piedra de afilar. +Y lo que hice fue tomar trozos de vidrio. Y comenc a frotarlos. +Us una pequea pinza que hice con una horquilla para el pelo. +Y puse goma en la punta de la pinza para que no daara el vidrio. +Y luego comenc a frotar, muy, muy suavemente, hasta que algunos de los bordes quedaron bien cuadrados. Y entonces la constru. +Cmo la constru? Haciendo ranuras en la cabeza del alfiler. +Y luego empujando el vidrio con su propia friccin. +Y mientras haca esto, qu pas? +El instrumento que usaba se convirti en una catapulta. +E hizo as... +Y entonces fue todo. +Se fue. +Entonces pensaba: "El seor Hoff no va a estar muy contento... cuando le diga que su casa ha ido a parar a a algn lugar de la atmsfera". +Entonces, para acortar la historia, decid que tena que volver atrs y hacerlo. +As, encontr algo ms. Y decid construirla muy, muy lentamente, conteniendo la respiracin, trabajando entre latidos, asegurndome que todo estaba al mismo nivel. +Porque es una escultura tan pequea que nada tiene que salir mal. +Y decid construirla. +Entonces us fibras de mi suter. Las cuales sujet y estir. +Y puse las vigas por toda la casa. +Y las ventanas y el balcn tambin tuvieron que ser construidos. +Us una telaraa para atar ciertas cosas. Lo que me volvi loco. +Pero consegu hacerlo. +Y cuando termin, regres al da siguiente. +Observ que la casa estaba ocupada. +Hemos escuchado alguna vez de un caro? +El caro Darren y su familia se haban mudado. +As que, en resumen, termin la casa. +Y ah la tienen. +Bien. Como pueden ver... Bart Simpson tiene una pequea discusin. +Pienso que estn discutiendo por el espacio en el alfiler. +No hay espacio suficiente para los dos. +Entonces, no pienso que fuera a arrojar a Bart. +Pienso que slo le est advirtiendo en realidad. +Este fue hecho de una etiqueta de nylon de mi camisa. +Lo que hice fue arrancar la etiqueta. Y ponerla bajo el microscopio. +Us la aguja que tiene un filo en la punta. +Alguien puede ver el filo en la punta de esa aguja? +Audiencia: No. +WW: Entonces lo que hice fue el mismo proceso en que simplemente contuve la respiracin y trabaj muy pero muy lentamente, manipulando el plstico, cortndolo. Porque se comporta diferente. +Cuando uno trabaja a ese nivel, las cosas se comportan diferente. +Porque a este nivel molecular las cosas cambian y actan diferente. +Y a veces se convierten en pequeas catapultas y las cosas vuelan por el aire. +Y, ya saben, suceden todo tipo de cosas distintas. +Pero tuve que construir una pequea barrera de celofn, alrededor para impedir que se mueva +Despus la electricidad esttica +apareca... +y yo trataba de eliminarla pero la esttica interfera con todo. +Entonces s que sud la gota gorda. Porque tuve que tallar a Homero Simpson as, en esa posicin. +Y una vez que recort la forma... luego tuve que asegurarme que haba lugar para el cuello de Bart. +As, luego de hacer lo mismo tuve que pintarlo. +Y despus de esculpirlos tuve que pintarlos. Tuve que pintarlos. +Experiment con una -- encontr una mosca muerta. +Y arranqu el cabello de la cabeza de la mosca. +Decid hacer un pincel. +Pero nunca le hubiera hecho eso a una mosca viva. +Porque he odo a una mosca dolorida. +Y ellas hacen: "Ooooou! Ou!" +Aunque ellos nos saquen de quicio yo jams matara un insecto. Porque: "Todas las creaturas grandes y pequeas" Hay un himno que dice eso. +Entonces lo que decid fue arrancar vellos finos de mi rostro. +Y los mir debajo del microscopio. +Ese fue el pincel. +Y mientras pintaba tuve que ser muy cuidadoso. Porque la pintura comenz a formar pequeos grumos. +Y comenz a secarse muy rpidamente. +Entonces tuve que ser muy rpido. +Porque sino acabara vindose no cmo se supone que debera. +Podra terminar vindose como Humpty Dumpty o cualquier otro. +De modo que tuve que ser muy pero muy cuidadoso. +Este me llev aproximadamente, dira, seis a siete semanas. +Mi trabajo lleva, a grosso modo, a veces cinco, seis a siete semanas. Uno no siempre se puede prever. Es un trabajo muy minucioso. +Como pueden ver, ese es Charlton Heston reducido de tamao. +l me dice: "Willard" -- pueden verlo diciendo: "Por qu a m?" +Yo digo: "Me gust mucho tu pelcula. Por eso". +Como pueden ver all hay un pulgn. +Es slo para mostrar la escala y el tamao real de la escultura. +Dira que probablemente mide... +un cuarto de milmetro. +En EE.UU. dicen un punto final. +Entonces digamos si cortamos el punto final a la mitad, un punto final, ese es aproximadamente el tamao del objeto. +Est hecho el carro est hecho de oro. +Y Charlton Heston est hecho de fibra flotante. Que saqu del aire. +Cuando la luz solar entra por la ventana uno ve estas fibras. +Y lo que yo hago por lo general es caminar por la habitacin... tratando de encontrar una. Y luego la pongo bajo el microscopio. +Recuerdo que una vez estaba haciendo esto y la ventana estaba abierta. +Y haba una seora esperando en la parada del autobus. +Y me vio deambulando as. +Y entonces me mir. +Y yo hice... +Y ella dijo: "Mmm, OK, no est loco". +S, para hacer esta cosa realmente -- el carro real est hecho de oro. +Tena un anillo de 24 quilates. +Y cort una laminita de oro. +La cort, la dobl en crculo, y la convert en el carro. +Y el caballo est hecho de nylon. +Y la telaraa es para las riendas del caballo. +Obtener la forma simtrica del caballo fue muy difcil. Porque se cortaba. Entonces, yo tena que lograr que el caballo se encabritase y se viera como si estuviera en algn tipo de accin. +Cuando hice esto, un seor que estaba mirando me dijo: "No hay forma que puedas hacer esto, debes haber usando algn tipo de mquina. +No hay manera en que un hombre pueda hacer eso. +Debe ser una mquina". +Entonces dije: "OK entonces, si dice que es una mquina..." +Ese me llev cerca de seis semanas. +La estatua ms famosa del mundo. +Esta, dira, fue un desafo importante. +Porque tuve que poner la antorcha en la punta. +Ese es, ms o menos, el mismo tipo de proceso. +La parte de abajo est tallada en un grano de arena. Porque quera lograr un poquito del efecto piedra. +Us una esquirla microscpica de diamante para tallar la base. +Bien, puedo mirarla y estar muy orgulloso de esto. Porque esa estatua siempre ha producido una imagen en mi cabeza de, ya saben, el comienzo de la gente llegando a EE.UU. +Entonces es como Ellis Island, y ver EE.UU. por primera vez. +Y esa es la primer cosa que vieron. +Entonces yo quera tener esa pequea imagen. +Y ac est. +Y todos sabemos que ese es Hulk. +Quera crear movimiento en el ojo de la aguja. +Porque sabemos que vemos agujas. Pero la gente no repara en el ojo de la aguja ms que para enhebrar un hilo en ella. +Entonces cort la aguja. +E hice que pareciera que Hulk la haba roto. +Tuve que hacer pequeos agujeros en la base de la aguja para encajar sus pies all. +As, la mayor parte de mi trabajo, no uso pegamento. +Ellos entran por su propia friccin. +Y es as como me las arregl para hacerlo. +como ven, l est mirando el momento. Tiene una pequea mueca en su cara. +Y su boca debe ser de, probablemente, cerca de tres micrones. +Los ojos son de, probablemente, cerca de un micrn. +Esa nave de all, est hecha de oro de 24 quilates. +Y normalmente la ato con la tela de una araa. +Pero tuve que atarla con hebras de pegamento. +Porque la tela de la araa, me estaba volviendo loco. Ya que no poda quitar la tela de en medio +Y eso es oro de 24 quilates. Y est construido. Lo constru. +Constru cada tabln de oro. +Y el conjunto tiene una suerte de simetra. +Las banderas estn hechas de pequeas hebras de oro. +Hacer esto correctamente es casi como practicar una operacin quirrgica. +Como pueden ver, doma de caballos. +Es algo que quera hacer slo para mostrar cmo poda obtener la forma simtrica. +La soguera de las riendas del caballo est hecha del mismo tipo de material. +Y esa fue hecha con una partcula de mi camisa. +Y esparc el verde por la cabeza de alfiler despedazando las partculas de una camisa verde y presionndolas luego en la aguja. +Es un trabajo muy arduo, pero lo bueno viene en envase chico. +Bruno Giussani: Willard Wigan! +Buenos das a todos. +Me gustara comentar acerca de un par de cosas. +La primera de ellas es el agua. +Veo que ustedes han disfrutado del agua que les han proporcionado aqu en la conferencia, durante los ltimos das. +Estoy seguro de que confan en que viene de una fuente segura. +Pero qu tal si no es as? +Qu tal si viene de una fuente como sta? +Las estadsticas indican que la mitad de ustedes podran sufrir de diarrea. +He comentado en el pasado sobre las estadsticas, y la provisin de agua segura potable para todos. +Pero no parece plausible. +Y pienso que me he dado cuenta del por qu. +Es porque, usando el pensamiento actual, la escala del problema parece demasiado grande para encontrar una solucin. +As que lo descartamos. Nosotros, gobiernos y agencias de ayuda. +Bueno, ahora quisiera mostrarles que pensando de manera diferente, el problema puede solucionarse. +Por cierto, desde que he estado hablando, otras 13 000 personas alrededor del mundo sufren en estos momentos de diarrea. +Y cuatro nios acaban de fallecer. +Yo invent la botella "Lifesaver" por que me enoj. +Yo estaba, como muchos de ustedes, sentado el da despus de navidad en el 2004, cuando vi unas noticias devastadoras del tsunami asitico que acababa de ocurrir, y estaban transmitiendo en TV. +Los das y semanas que siguieron, las personas tratando de llegar a las colinas, vindose forzadas a beber agua contaminada, o morir. +Eso realmente me impresion. +Entonces, unos meses despus, el huracn Katrina golpe nuestro lado de Amrica. +"Muy bien", pens, " aqu hay un pas del Primer Mundo, veamos lo que pueden hacer". +Da uno: nada. +Da dos: nada. +Saban ustedes que tom cinco das sacar el agua del Superdomo? +Las personas se disparaban entre ellas en las calles, por aparatos de TV y agua. +Es ah cuando me decid a hacer algo al respecto. +Ahora pas mucho tiempo en mi garaje, durante las siguientes semanas y meses. Tambin en mi cocina, para desesperacin de mi esposa. Sin embargo, despus de algunos prototipos fallidos, finalmente logre esto, la botella "Lifesaver". +Bien, ahora para el momento cientfico. +Antes de "Lifesaver" los mejores filtros manuales solo eran capaces de filtrar aproximadamente a 200 nanmetros. +La bacteria ms pequea mide 200 nanmetros. +Entonces una bacteria de este tamao puede pasar a travs de un agujero de 200 nanmetros. +El virus ms pequeo, por otra parte, mide 25 nanmetros. +Ellos definitivamente podran pasar a travs de esos agujeros de 200 nanmetros. +Los poros de "Lifesaver" son de 15 nanmetros. +Entonces nada podr pasar a travs de ellos. +Bueno, voy a hacer una pequea demostracin. +Quieren verlo? +Pase mucho tiempo preparando esto. As que yo creo que si. +Estamos en la hermosa ciudad de Oxford. +Entonces, alguien lo ha arreglado. +Hermosa ciudad de Oxford, lo que hice es que fui y guard un poco de agua del Ro Cherwell, y del Ro Tamesis, que fluye por aqu. Y esta es el agua. +Pero tuve que pensar, ustedes saben, si estuviramos a la mitad de una zona inundada de Bangladesh, el agua no se vera as. +As que fui y obtuve algunas cosas para agregarle. +Y este es de mi estanque. +Huela eso seor camargrafo. +Muy bien . +Vamos a colocar esto all. +Audiencia: fuchi! +Michael Pritchard: Bien, tenemos algunos candidatos de la planta de drenaje de una granja. +As que lo pondr all. +Ponemos esto ah. Ya est. +Y otros pedacitos y cosas van ah. +Tengo un regalo de parte del conejo de un amigo. +As que lo pondremos ah tambin. +Bien. ahora. +La botella "Lifesaver" trabaja de manera muy simple. +Solo se agrega el agua. +Hoy utilizar una jarra para mostrarles a todos. Pongamos un poco de este estircol ah. +No est lo suficientemente sucio. Agitmoslo un poco. +Bien, entonces tomar esta agua asquerosa, Y la pondr aqu. Alguien quiere beberla as? +Bien, aqu vamos. +Reemplazamos la tapa. +La bombeamos un poco. Bien? +Eso es todo lo que se requiere. +Tan pronto como quite la tetina, agua potable y estril saldr. Tengo que hacerlo rpido. +Bien listo? +Aqu vamos. Cuidado con lo elctrico. +Esto es agua potable y estril. +Salud! +Aqu tienes Chris. +Quieres probarla? +Chris Anderson: Delicioso. +Michael Pritchard: Bien. +Veamos el programa de Chris durante el resto del show. Bien? +Bien, La botella "Lifesaver" es usada por miles de personas alrededor del mundo. +Dura unos 6 000 litros. +Y cuando caduca, usando tecnologa de seguridad, El sistema se cierra, protegiendo al usuario. +Retire el cartucho. Inserte uno nuevo. +Y servir para otros 6 000 litros. +Ahora veamos las aplicaciones. +Tradicionalmente, en una crisis Qu es lo que hacemos? +Enviamos agua. +Entonces, despus de unas semanas, armamos campamentos. +Y las personas se ven forzadas a venir a los campamentos para tener agua potable. +Qu sucede cuando 20 000 personas se congregan en un campamento? +Se diseminan enfermedades. Se requieren ms recursos. +El problema se perpeta a s mismo. +Pero pensando de manera diferente, y enviando stas. Las personas se pueden quedar donde estn. +Ellos pueden hacer su propia agua potable, y comenzar a reconstruir sus casas y sus vidas. +Ahora, no se necesita un desastre natural para que esto funcione. +Usando la antigua manera de pensar, de la infraestructura nacional, y tuberas, es muy caro. +Cuando se calculan los nmeros nos quedamos sin notas. +Aqu hay que "pensar diferente". +En lugar de enviar agua, y usar el proceso manual para hacerlo, usemos a la Madre Naturaleza. Ella tiene un fantstico sistema. +Ella toma el agua desde all, le quita la sal, gratis, la transporta por ac, y la deja caer sobre las montaas, ros y arroyos. +Y Dnde vive la gente? Cerca del agua. +Todo lo que tenemos que hacer es hacerla estril. +Podramos usar la botella "Lifesaver". +O podramos usar uno de estos. +La misma tecnologa, en un bidn. +Esto procesar 25 000 litros de agua. Que es suficiente para una familia de cuatro, durante tres aos. +Y cunto cuesta? +Alrededor de medio centavo por da. +Gracias. +As que, pensando de manera diferente y procesando el agua en el punto de uso, madres y nios no tendrn que caminar cuatro horas al da para buscar su agua. +Pueden obtenerla de una fuente cercana. +Y con solamente 8 mil millones de dlares, podremos lograr las metas del milenio de reducir a la mitad el nmero de personas sin acceso a agua potable segura. +Para ponerlo en contexto, El gobierno de Inglaterra gasta 12 mil millones de libras al ao en ayuda externa. +Pero Por qu detenernos ah? +Con 20 mil millones de dlares, cada uno puede tener acceso a agua potable. +Por lo que los tres mil y medio milln de personas que sufren cada ao, como resultado, y los dos millones de nios que mueren cada ao, vivirn. +Gracias. +Si yo pudiera revelar algo que no podemos ver, al menos en las culturas modernas, revelara algo que hemos olvidado, algo que antes sabamos con la misma certeza con la que conocemos nuestros propios nombres +y esa cosa, es que vivimos en un universo competente, que formamos parte de un planeta brillante. Y que estamos rodeados de genialidad. +La Biomimtica es una disciplina nueva que intenta aprender de esos genios, y de seguir sus consejos, consejos de diseo. +Ah es donde vivo yo. y tambin es mi universidad. +Estoy rodeada de genialidad. No puedo evitar recordar los organismos y los ecosistemas que saben como vivir con elegancia en este planeta +Esto es lo que te dira que recordaras si lo llegaras a olvidar otra vez. +Recuerda esto. +Esto es lo que pasa cada ao. +Esto es lo que cumple con su promesa. +Mientras que nosotros pagamos las fianzas, esto es lo que ha pasado. +Primavera. +Imagina disear la primavera. +Imagina semejante orquestacin. +Crees que TED es dificil de organizar. Verdad? +Imagina... y si no lo has hecho recientemente, hazlo. +Imagina el cronometraje, la coordinaccin, todo esto sin leyes jerrquicas o polticas, o protocolos de cambio climtico. +Esto pasa cada ao. +Hay mucha presuncin +Hay amor en el aire. +Hay grandes estrenos. +Y los organismos, podra prometerlo tiene todas sus prioridades en orden. +Tengo a un vecino que me mantiene en contacto con todo esto. Porque vive casi siempre boca arriba, mirando estas hierbas. +Y una vez vino hacia mi, tena unos siete u ocho aos cuando vino a mi lado. +Y haba un avispero que haba dejado crecer en mi jardn, justo fuera de mi puerta. +La mayora de gente los tiran cuando son pequeos. +Pero a mi me fascinaba. Porque estaba mirando una papelera fina Italiana +Y vino el a tocar la puerta. +Vena cada da a ensearme algo. +Y tocaba la puerta como un pajaro carpintero hasta que le abriera. +Y me pregunt como haba hecho esa casa para las avispas. Porque nunca haba visto una tan grande. +Y le dije, "Sabes, Cody, son las avispas que la hicieron." +Y la miramos juntos. +Y poda entender porqu el pensaba, que estaba hecha con tanta belleza. +Era tan arquitectnica. Tan precisa. +Pero me di cuenta, como en su pequea vida ya crea el mito de que si algo est tan bien hecho, es seguramente porque nosotros lo hicimos. +Como es que no saba, es lo que todos hemos olvidado, que no somos los primeros en construir. +No somos los primeros en procesar la celulosa. +No somos los primeros en fabricar papel. No somos los primeros en intentar optimizar el espacio, o de impermeabilizar, o de calentar o enfriar una estructura. +No somos los primeros en construir casas para nuestros hijos. +Lo que est pasando ahora, en este campo llamado biomimtica, es que la gente vuelve a recordar que organismos, otros organismos, el resto de la naturaleza, estn haciendo cosas muy similares a las que nosotros necesitamos hacer. +Pero el hecho es que lo estn haciendo de una manera que les ha permitido vivir con elegancia en este planeta durante millones de aos +As que estas personas, los biomimticos, son aprendizes de la naturaleza. +Y estn enfocados en la funcin. +Lo que quisiera hacer es ensearos algunas de las cosas que estn aprendiendo. +Se han preguntado a ellos mismos, "Qu pasa si cada vez que comienzo a inventar algo, Pregunto, 'Como resolvera esto la naturaleza?'" Y esto es lo que estn aprendiendo. +Esta es una foto increble de un fotgrafo checo que se llama Jack Hedley. +Se trata de la historia de un ingeniero de J.R. West. +de los que hacen el tren bala. +Lo llamaron tren bala porque la parte frontal era redondeada. Pero cada vez que entraba en un tnel se acumulaba una onda de presin. Y generaba un estallido snico al salir. +As que el jefe del ingeniero le dijo: "Encuentra una manera de acallar el tren." +Resulta que el ingeniero era ornitlogo. +Se fue a lo que sera una reunion de la Sociedad Audubon. +Y estudi, haba una pelcula sobre el martn pescador. +Y pens para el, "Van de una densidad, el aire, a otra densidad, el agua, sin siquiera salpicar. Mira esta foto. +Sin salpicar, para poder ver los peces. +Y pens, "Y si hacemos esto?" +Acallaron el tren. +Lo aceleraron un 10 por ciento utilizando 15 por ciento menos de electricidad. +Como hace la naturaleza para repeler a las bacterias? +No somos los primeros en protegernos de alguna bacteria. +Resulta que -- esto es un Tiburn de Galpagos +No tiene bacterias en su superficie, ni suciedad, ni percebes. +Y no es porque va rpido. +De hecho es un tiburn que se mueve lentamente. +Entonces como hace para que su cuerpo no acumule bacterias? +No lo hace con ningn qumico. +Resulta que lo hace con los mismos dentculos que tienen los trajes de bao de Speedo, que rompieron todos esos records Olmpicos. Pero es un patrn particular. +Y ese patrn, la arquitectura de ese patrn de los dentculos de la piel impide que las bacterias se pueda adherir. +Hay una compaia que se llama Sharklet Technologies que est utilizando esto en las superficies de hospitales para prevenir las bacterias. Que es preferible a impregnarlas con antibacteriales y productos agresivos a los cuales muchos organismos se estn haciendo resistentes. +Infecciones que proceden de hospitales estn matando a ms personas cada ao, en los Estados Unidos de los que mueren de SIDA o cancer o accidentes de coche combinados, aproximadamente 100 mil. +Este bichito vive en el desierto de Nambia. +No dispone de agua para poder beber. Pero es capaz de extraer agua de la niebla. +Tiene unos bultitos en la parte trasera que protege sus alas. +Y esos bultos actan como un imn al agua. +Las puntas atraen al agua y los lados son cerosos +La niebla se acumula en las puntas. +Se desliza por los lados y entra por la boca del animal. +Hay un cientfico aqu en Oxford que estudi esto, Andrew Parker. +Y ahora oficinas de kintica y de arquitectura como Grimshaw estn viendo la posibilidad de aplicar esto a la superficie de los edificios para que puedan captar agua de la niebla. +diez veces ms que nuestras redes de captura de niebla. +El CO2 como material de construccin. +Los organismos no interpretan el CO2 como veneno. +Plantas y organismos que crean conchas, utilizan el coral como elemento de construccin. +Ahora existe un fabricante de cemento en Estados Unidos que se llama Clara. +Han tomado prestada la receta del arrecife de coral. Y estn utilizando el CO2 como elemento de construccin en el cemento, en el hormign. +En lugar de, el cemento normalmente emite una tonelada de CO2 por cada tonelada de cemento. +Ahora estn invirtiendo esa ecaucin y tomando la mitad de una tonelada de CO2 gracias a la receta del coral. +Ninguno de ellos estn utilizando los organismos en s. +En realidad solo estn utilizando los modelos o las recetas de los organismos. +Como hace la naturaleza para captar la energa solar? +Este es un nuevo tipo de clula solar que se basa en el funcionamiento de una hoja. +Es auto-montable. +Se puede aplicar a cualquier tipo de sustrato. +Es extremadamente econmico y recargable cada cinco aos. +De hecho es una empresa con la que estoy colaborando llamada OneSun, con Paul Hawken. +Hay muchas maneras en la que la naturaleza filtra el agua que desaliniza el agua. +Nosotros tomamos el agua y la empujamos contra una membrana. +Y luego nos preguntamos porqu esa membrana se atasca y porqu consume tanta energa. +La naturaleza hace algo mucho ms elegante. +Y est en cada clula. +Cada glbulo rojo de tu cuerpo ahora mismo tiene unos poros en forma de reloj de arena llamados acuaporinas. +Exportan molculas de agua. +Es una especie de smosis activo. +Exportan molculas de agua a travs de, y deja a los solutos del otro lado. +Una empresa llamada Aquaporin han comenzado a crear membranas de desalinizacin que imitan esta tecnologa. +rboles y huesos estn en constante regeneracin mediante lineas de tensin. +Este algortmo se introdujo en un programa de software que est siendo utilizado para aligerar puentes, y aligerar vigas de construccin. +De hecho G.M. Opel lo utiliz para crear ese esqueleto que ves ah, en lo que llaman su coche binico. +La ligereza de su esqueleto utiliza un mnimo de material, como debe hacer un organismo, para conseguir mxima resistencia. +Este escarabajo, a diferencia de esta bolsa de patatas aqui, utiliza un material, el chitn. +Y encuentra muchas maneras de sacarle provecho. +Es impermeable. +Es duro y resistente. +Respira. Crear color a travs de estructura. +Mientras que esa bolsa utiliza unas siete capas para hacer todas esas cosas. +Una de las invenciones ms importantes que tenemos que conseguir tan solo para acercarnos a lo que son capaces estos organismos es de encontrar una manera de minimizar la cantidad de material, el tipo de material que utilizamos y aadirle diseo. +Se utilizan cinco polmeros en el mundo natural para hacer todo lo que ves. +Nosotros utilizamos alrededor de 350 polmeros para crear todo esto. +Naturaleza es nano. +La nanotecnologa, nanopartculas, se escucha mucha preocupacin sobre esto. +Nanopartculas sueltas. Lo que me parece ms interesante es que poca gente pregunta, "Como podemos consultar a la naturaleza para hacer la nanotecnologa ms segura? +La naturaleza lo hecho durante mucho tiempo. +Incrustar nanopartculas en un material, por ejemplo, siempre. +De hecho, las bacterias reductoras de azufre como parte de su sntesis, emiten como subproducto, nanopartculas en el agua. +Pero justo despus, emiten una protena que reune y agrega esas nanopartculas. Hasta que salen de la solucin. +Consumo de energa. Los organismos la consumen a sorbos. Porque han de trabajar o negociar por cada pequeo sorbo que reciben. +Y uno de los campos ms grandes ahora, en el mundo de redes de energa, se oye hablar de la red inteligente. +Uno de los principales consultores son los insectos sociales. +Tecnologa de enjambre. Hay una compaia que se llama Regen. +Estudian como las hormigas y las abejas encuentran su comida y sus flores de manera ms eficiente como las colmenas. +Y disean electrodomsticos que se comunican entre s a travs del mismo algortmo para determinar como minimizar la mxima utilizacin de energa. +Hay un grupo de cientficos en Cornell que estn creando lo que ellos llaman un arbol sinttico. Porque segn dicen, "No hay surtidor debajo de un rbol." +Su accin y transpiracin capilar arrasta agua hacia arriba, gota a gota, a travs de las razes hasta liberarla por las hojas. +Y estn creando -- puedes imaginarlo como si fuera un especie de papel de pared. +Quieren colocarlo sobre el interior de los edificios para distribuir agua sin la necesidad de bombas o surtidores. +La anguila elctrica de Amazonas. En peligro de extincin, algunas de estas especies, crean 600 voltios de electricidad con qumicos que existen dentro de tu cuerpo. +Pero incluso ms interesante me parece el hecho de que 600 voltios no los frie muertos. +Conoceis el uso del PVC. Lo utilizamos como aislamiento para encubrir alambrado. +Como es que estos organismos son capaces de aislarse de su propia carga elctrica? +Estas son algunas de las preguntas que an nos tenemos que hacer. +Este es un fabricante de turbinas elicas que consult a una ballena. +La ballena jorobada tiene aletas con orillas serradas +Y estas orillas hacen circular el agua de manera que reducen la resistencia del agua en un 32 por ciento. +Como consecuencia, las turbinas elicas pueden llegar a rotar con muy poco viento. +El MIT acaba de crear un nuevo chip de radio que utiliza mucha menos energa que los chips actuales. +Se basa en el funcionamiento de la cclea del odo, capaz de captar seales de internet, inalmbricas, televisin y radio, en un nico chip. +Y por fin, a escala de un ecosistema. +En el Biomimicry Guild, mi consultora, trabajamos con HOK Architects, +estudiamos como construir ciudades enteras, en el departamento de planeamiento. +Y lo que preguntamos es, No deben nuestras ciudades rendir lo mismo, en trminos de servicios de ecosistema, que los sistemas nativos que han reemplazado? +Estamos creando algo llamado Estndard de Rendimiento Ecolgico, que somete a las ciudades a un estndar ms alto. +La pregunta es -- la biomimtica es una herramienta de innovacin muy poderosa. +La pregunta que yo hara es, "Qu vale la pena resolver?" +Si no has visto esto, es muy impresionante. +El Dr. Adam Neiman. +Es una representacin de toda el agua en la Tierra en relacin al volumen de la Tierra, todo el hielo, toda el auga dulce, todo el agua salada, y toda la atmsfera que podemos respirar, en relacin al volumen de la Tierra. +Y dentro de esas esferas, vida, ms de 3.8 mil millones de aos, ha creado para nosotros un lugar habitable y de abundancia. +Y estamos en una cola muy muy larga de organismos que han surgido en este planeta para preguntarnos, "Como podemos vivir aqu con elegancia a largo plazo?" +Como podemos hacer lo que la vida misma ha sabido hacer? +Crear las condiciones que favorcen la vida. +Para hacer esto, el reto de diseo de nuestro siglo, creo yo, es volver a recordar a esos genios, y de alguna manera reencontrarnos con ellos. +Una de las grandes ideas, uno de los grandes proyectos en el que he tenido el honor de participar es una nueva web. Y os animo a todos a visitarla. +Se llama AskNature.org. +Y lo que estamos intentando hacer, en un estilo-TED, es organizar toda la informacin biolgica por diseo y funcin de ingeniera. +Estamos trabajando con EOL, Enciclopedia de la Vida, el "TED wish" de Ed Wilson. +El est recogiendo toda la informacin biolgica en un portal. +Y los cientficos que contribuyen a EOL estn respondiendo a una pregunta. "Qu podemos aprender de este organismo?" +Y entonces esa informacin es la que ir a AskNature.org. +Y esperamos que, cualquier inventor, en cualquier lugar del mundo, en el momento de creacin, podr introducir, "Como hace la naturaleza para desalinizar el agua?" +Y le saldr una lista con manglares, tortugas de mar, hasta riones humanos. +Y comenzaremos a poder hacer como hace Cody, y realmente estar en contacto con estos models increbles, estos sabios que han estado aqu mucho ms tiempo que nosotros. +Ojal, que con la ayuda de todos ellos, aprendamos a vivir en esta Tierra, en este hogar que es nuestro, pero no solo de nosotros. +Muchas gracias. +Slo dir que mi nombre es Emmanuel Jal +y vengo desde muy lejos. +He venido contando una historia muy dolorosa para m. +Ha sido para m una jornada difcil, viajar por el mundo, contando mi historia en forma de libro. +Y tambin contndola como ahora. +Y tambin, la forma ms fcil fue cuando lo haca en forma de msica, +as que me he autodenominado nio de la guerra. +Hago esto por una anciana de mi aldea ahora, quien ha perdido a sus hijos, +no hay diario que cubra su dolor y lo que ella quiere cambiar de esta sociedad. +Hago esto por un joven que quiere provocar un cambio y no tiene forma de proyectar su voz porque no sabe escribir. +O no hay Internet, Facebook, MySpace, YouTube, para que ellos se expresen. +Algo que tambin me mantiene divulgando esta historia, estas dolorosas historias, son los sueos que tengo. A veces es como si las voces de los muertos que he visto me dijeran: "No te rindas. Contina." +Porque a veces quiero parar y no hacerlo, porque no saba en lo que me meta. +Nac en una poca de lo ms difcil, cuando mi pas estaba en guerra. +Vi a mi aldea incendiarse, +ese mundo que significaba tanto para m, lo vi desaparecer frente a mis ojos. +Vi a mi ta ser violada cuando yo slo tena cinco aos, +la guerra reclam a mi madre, +mis hermanos y hermanas fueron dispersados. +Y hasta ahora, mi padre y yo dejamos filas y yo an tengo problemas con ellos. +Viendo cada da a personas muriendo, a mi madre llorando, es como si hubiera sido criado en la violencia. +Y eso me hizo autodenominarme nio de la guerra. +Y no slo eso, cuando tena ocho aos, me volv un nio soldado. +No saba para qu era la guerra. +Pero saba una cosa una imagen que vi que se me grab en la mente. +Cuando fui al campo de entrenamiento dije, "Quiero matar a tantos musulmanes y a tantos rabes como sea posible." +El entrenamiento no era fcil, pero eso era lo que me impulsaba porque quera vengar a mi familia +quera vengar a mi aldea. +Por suerte, ahora las cosas han cambiado, porque he llegado a descubrir la verdad: +Lo que nos estaba matando no eran los musulmanes, no eran los rabes. +Era alguien sentado en alguna parte manipulando al sistema, y utilizando a la religin para conseguir lo que quera de nosotros. El petrleo, los diamantes, el oro y la tierra. +Darme cuenta de la verdad me dio la posibilidad de elegir: Deba seguir odiando, o perdonar? +Y yo acert a perdonar. Ahora canto msica con los musulmanes, bailo con ellos. +Incluso tengo una pelcula llamada "Nio de la guerra" financiada por musulmanes. +As que ese dolor se ha extinguido. +Pero mi historia es tremenda. +As que ahora lo har de otra manera. Una ms fcil para m. +Voy a darles un poema llamado "Forzado a pecar", de mi lbum "Nio de la guerra". +Hablo de mi historia, +una travesa que hice cuando fui tentado a comerme a mi amigo porque no tenamos comida y ramos como 400. +Y slo 16 personas sobrevivieron a ese viaje. +Espero escuchen esto. +Mis sueos son como un tormento. +Y cada momento, +voces en mi cabeza, de amigos asesinados. +Amigos como Lual quin muri a mi lado, de hambre. +En la jungla ardiente, y en la llanura desierta. +Yo era el siguiente, pero Jess escuch mi llanto +al ser tentado a comer la carne podrida de mi compaero. Me dio consuelo. +Solamos asaltar aldeas, robando gallinas, cabras y ovejas. Lo que fuera que pudiramos comer. +Saba era grosero, pero haca falta alimento. +Y por eso era forzado a pecar, forzado a pecar para ganarme la vida. Forzado a pecar para ganarme la vida. +A veces para ganar tienes que perder. +Nunca rendirse, nunca ceder. +Salgo de casa a los siete aos. +Un ao despus, vivo con una AK-47 a mi costado. +Duermo con un ojo abierto. +Corro, me agacho, me hago el muerto y me escondo. +He visto a mi gente morir como moscas. +Pero nunca a un enemigo muerto, al menos uno que yo haya matado. +Pero aunque me pregunto, an as no me hundo. +Armas ladran como el rayo y el trueno. +Como nio tan joven y tierno, palabras que no puedo olvidar recuerdo. +Vi al sargento comandante la mano alzando, no retirada, no rendicin. +Cargo la bandera del trauma, +nio de guerra, nio sin mam, an peleando en la saga. +Pero haciendo esta nueva guerra no estoy solo en este drama. +No sentarse o detenerse, mientras llego a la punta totalmente entregado como un polica patriota. +Estoy en la lucha, da y noche. +Alguna vez hago mal para poder arreglar las cosas. +Es como vivir en un sueo. +Por vez primera me siento un ser humano. +Ah! Los nios de Darfur. +Sus vientres vacos en la tele y son ustedes por quienes voy peleando. +Dejo mi hogar. +Ni siquiera s el da que regresar. +Mi pas est destrozado por la guerra +la msica que oa eran bombas y armas. +Tantas personas mueren que ni siquiera lloro, +le pregunto a Dios para que aqu estoy, +y por qu es pobre mi pueblo, +y por qu, por qu cuando otros nios aprendan a leer y a escribir yo estaba aprendiendo a pelear. +Com caracoles, conejos, buitres, serpientes y todo lo que viva +estaba dispuesto a comer. +S que es una vergenza pero la culpa de quin era? +Esa es mi historia en forma de leccin. +Gracias. +Lo que me da energas y me hace seguir adelante es la msica que hago. +Nunca vi a nadie para contarle mi historia para que me aconsejaran o para hacer terapia. +As que la msica ha sido la terapia para m. +Ha sido donde de verdad he visto al cielo, donde puedo ser feliz, donde puedo ser nio otra vez, bailando, con la msica. +S una cosa sobre la msica: Es lo nico que tiene poder para entrar a tus clulas, a tu mente, a tu corazn, influir tu alma y tu espritu, e incluso puede influenciar cmo vives sin que te des cuenta. +La msica es lo nico que puede hacer que quieras salirte de la cama y ponerte en marcha, aunque no quieras hacerlo. +As que el poder que la msica tiene lo comparo normalmente con el poder del amor cuando el amor no te deja ver nada. +O sea, si te enamoras de un sapo, eso es todo. +Un testimonio de cmo descubr que la msica es poderosa es de cuando era todava un soldado, en aquel entonces. +Yo odiaba a la gente del norte, +pero no saba por qu no odiaba a su msica. +Hacamos fiestas y bailbamos con su msica. +Y lo que me conmocion fue que un da, un msico rabe vino a entretener a los soldados +Y casi me rompo una pierna bailando su msica. +Pero tena esta duda. +As que ahora que hago msica s cual es el poder de la msica. +Bueno, qu pasa aqu? +He recorrido un viaje doloroso. +Hoy es el da nmero 233 en que slo ceno. +No desayuno, no almuerzo. +Y he hecho una campaa llamada Perder Para Ganar. +En la cual pierdo para poder ganar la batalla que ahora lucho. +As que mi desayuno y mi almuerzo los dono a una organizacin de beneficencia que fund porque quiero construir una escuela en Sudn. +Y hago esto tambin porque es algo normal en mi hogar, la gente come una vez al da. +Y yo que estoy en occidente, escojo no hacerlo. +As que ahora en mi aldea, los nios ah escuchan normalmente a la BBC, o cualquier estacin, y estn esperando para saber el da que Emmanuel desayunar, lo que significa que consigui el dinero para construir nuestra escuela. +As que hice un compromiso. Dije: "No voy a desayunar." +Cre que era tan famoso que juntara el dinero en un mes. Pero he sido humillado. +Me ha llevado 232 das. +Y dije: "No me detendr hasta que lo consigamos". +Y as se ha hecho en Facebook, en MySpace, +las personas dan tres dlares. +La cantidad ms baja que hemos recibido fueron 20 centavos. +Alguien don 20 centavos por Internet. +No s como le hicieron. +Pero eso me emocion. +La importancia que tiene para m la educacin es que es algo por lo que estoy dispuesto a morir. +Estoy dispuesto a morir por esto. Porque s cunto puede ayudar a mi gente. +La educacin te ilumina la mente, te da tantas posibilidades, y eres capaz de sobrevivir. +Hemos sido mutilados como nacin. +Por tantos aos hemos dependido de asistencia. +Ven a familias de 20 aos, de 30 aos en campos de refugiados. +Slo tienen la comida que les cae del cielo, de las Naciones Unidas. +Y as esas personas, estn matando a toda una generacin si slo les brindan ayuda. +Si alguien quiere ayudarnos esto es lo que necesitamos: +Dennos herramientas, den herramientas a los campesinos, +hay lluvia, frica es frtil, pueden hacer crecer cultivos. +Inviertan en educacin. +Educacin de tal forma que tengamos una institucin fuerte que pueda crear una revolucin que cambie todo. +Porque tenemos a todos esos viejos que crean guerras en frica. Ellos morirn pronto. +Pero si ustedes invierten en educacin entonces podremos cambiar frica. +Eso es lo que pido. +As que para lograr eso, he creado una carta constitutiva llamada Gua Africa, en la que mandamos a los nios a la escuela, +y ahora tenemos la Universidad Kassala. +Tenemos como 40 nios, antiguos nios soldados mezclados con cualquiera a quien queramos apoyar. +Y dije: "Voy a llevar esto a la prctica". +Y con las personas que estn siguindome y ayudndome a hacer cosas, +eso es lo que quiero hacer para cambiar, para marcar una diferencia en el mundo. +Bueno, mi tiempo se acaba, as que quiero cantar una cancin. +Pero les pido que se pongan de pie para que conmemoremos la vida de una voluntaria britnica llamada Emma McCune que hizo posible que yo est aqu. +Voy a cantar esta cancin, slo para inspirarlos con la forma en que esta mujer marc la diferencia. +Lleg a mi pas y vio la importancia de la educacin. +Dijo que la nica forma de ayudar a Sudn era invirtiendo en las mujeres, educndolas, educando a los nios, para que ellos pudieran llegar y crear una revolucin en esta compleja sociedad. +As que incluso termin casndose con un comandante del SPLA. +Y rescat a ms de 150 nios-soldado. +Uno de ellos result ser yo. +As que en este momento quiero pedirles conmemorar a Emma conmigo. +Estn listos para conmemorar a Emma? +Audiencia: S! +Emmanuel Jal: De acuerdo. +todos un gran grito por Emma. +Yeah! Ahora me voy a poner loco. +Salven la vida de un nio. +Necesito hacer una confesin aqu, al comenzar. +Hace poco ms de 20 aos, hice algo que hoy me arrepiento, algo de lo que no estoy particularmente orgulloso, +algo que, de muchas maneras, deseo que nadie sepa nunca, pero que ac me siento en la obligacin de revelar. +A finales de los ochenta, en un momento de indiscrecin juvenil, fui a la Escuela de Leyes. +En EE.UU. Leyes es un grado profesional. Te gradas en la universidad. Luego continas en la Escuela de Leyes. +Y cuando llegu a la Escuela de Leyes, no me fue muy bien. +Por no decir algo peor, no me fue muy bien. +De hecho, me gradu dentro del grupo de mi escuela que logr el 90 por ciento ms alto posible. +Gracias. +Nunca he ejercido Leyes en mi vida. Casi no me lo permitieron. +Pero hoy, contra mis propios principios, contra los consejos de mi propia esposa, quiero desempolvar algo de esas habilidades legales, lo que queda de esas habilidades legales. +No quiero contarles una historia. +Quiero presentar un caso. +Quiero presentar un caso complicado, basado en evidencias, me atrevo a decir caso legal, para replantear cmo manejamos nuestros negocios. +Por lo tanto, seoras y seores del jurado, echen un vistazo a esto. +Esto se llama el problema de la vela. +Alguno de ustedes podran haberlo visto antes. +Fue creado en 1945 por un psiclogo llamado Karl Duncker. +Karl Duncker cre este experimento que se usa en una gran variedad de experimentos en la ciencia del comportamiento. +Y as es como funciona. Supongan que yo soy el experimentador. +Lo llevo a una sala. Le doy una vela, +algunas tachuelas y algunos fsforos. +Y le digo, "Su trabajo es fijar la vela a la pared de forma que la cera no gotee en la mesa". Qu hara usted? +Mucha gente empieza a clavar la vela a la pared con las tachuelas. +No funciona. +Alguien, algunas personas, vi a alguien aqu como haciendo el movimiento. Algunas personas tienen la gran idea de encender el fsforo, derretir el lado de la vela, tratar de adherirla a la pared. +Es una estupenda idea. No funciona. +Y finalmente, despus de 5 o 10 minutos, la mayora de las personas llegan a la solucin, que pueden ver aqu. +La clave es sobreponerse a lo que se llama fijacin funcional. +Miras esa caja y la ves slo como un receptculo para las tachuelas. +Pero puede tener tambin esta otra funcin, como plataforma para la vela. El problema de la vela. +Ahora quiero contarles un experimento +usando el problema de la vela, hecho por un cientfico llamado Sam Gluckberg, quien est ahora en la Universidad de Princeton en los EE.UU. Demuestra el poder de los incentivos. +Esto es lo que hizo. Reuni a sus participantes. Y dijo: "Les voy a cronometrar. Con qu rapidez pueden resolver este problema?" +Le dijo a un grupo, "les voy a cronometrar para establecer normas, promedios de cuanto tiempo tardan normalmente en resolver esta clase de problema". +Al segundo grupo le ofreci incentivos. +Les dijo: "Si estn dentro del 25 por ciento de los ms rpidos obtienen cinco dlares. +Si estn entre los ms rpidos de los que estn participando hoy aqu obtienen 20 dlares" +Esto, hace varios aos, ajustado por la inflacin, es una buena suma de dinero para unos pocos minutos de trabajo. +Es un buen motivador. +Pregunta: Con qu rapidez este grupo resolvi el problema? +Respuesta: Tardaron, en promedio, +tres minutos y medio ms. +Tres minutos y medio ms. No tiene sentido, verdad? +Quiero decir, soy estadounidense, creo en el libre mercado. +As no es como debe funcionar verdad? +Si quiere que la gente rinda mejor, los recompensa, verdad? +Bonos, comisiones, su propio reality show. +Incentvelos. As es como los negocios funcionan. +Pero eso no sucedi en este caso. +Usted tiene un incentivo designado a agudizar el pensamiento y acelerar la creatividad. Y hace justo lo contrario, +entorpece el pensamiento y bloquea la creatividad. +Y lo que es interesante en este experimento es que no es una aberracin. +Ha sido reproducido repetidas veces y vuelto a repetir, durante casi 40 aos. +Estos motivadores condicionantes, si hace esto, entonces consigue esto otro, funcionan en algunas circunstancias. +Pero para un grupo de tareas, no funcionan o, a menudo, perjudican. +Esto es uno de los ms contundentes hallazgos en ciencias sociales. Y tambin uno de los ms ignorados. +Pas el ltimo par de aos examinando la ciencia de la motivacin humana. Particularmente la dinmica de motivadores extrnsecos y motivadores intrnsecos. +Y les digo, no est ni siquiera cerca. +Si examinan la ciencia, hay una discordancia entre lo que la ciencia dice y lo que las empresas hacen. +Y lo que es alarmante aqu, es que el sistema operativo de nuestras empresas consideran el grupo de presunciones y protocolos bajo los negocios, como motivamos a la gente, como aplicamos nuestros recursos humanos est construido enteramente alrededor de estos motivadores extrnsecos, alrededor de recompensas y castigos. +Eso, la verdad, est bien para muchas clases de tareas del siglo XX. +Pero para las tareas del siglo XXI, ese enfoque mecanicista de recompensa-y-castigo no funciona, a menudo no funciona, y muchas veces perjudica. +Djenme mostrarles lo que quiero decir. +Entonces, GLucksberg hizo otro experimento similar a ste en el que presentaba el problema en una forma ligeramente diferente, como ste aqu. De acuerdo? +Fije la vela a la pared de tal forma que la cera no gotee sobre la mesa. +Lo mismo. Ustedes: Cronometraremos las normas. +Ustedes: Nosotros incentivaremos. +Qu pas esta vez? +Esta vez, el grupo incentivado le gan de lejos al otro grupo. +Por qu? Porque cuando las tachuelas estn fuera de la caja es ms fcil cierto? +Las recompensas condicionadas funcionan muy bien para ese tipo de tareas, donde hay reglas sencillas y un claro objetivo que cumplir. +Las recompensas, por su propia naturaleza, estrechan nuestro punto focal, concentran la mente. Es por eso que funcionan en muchos casos. +Y por lo tanto, para tareas como stas, un estrecho punto focal, donde slo se ve el objetivo justo ah, lo acerca directamente a l, funcionan realmente bien. +Respecto al verdadero problema de la vela, usted no quiere verlo as. +La solucin no est aqu. La solucin est en la periferia. Quiere mirar alrededor. +Esa recompensa estrecha nuestro punto focal y restringe nuestra posibilidad. +Djenme decirles porqu esto es tan importante. +En Europa Occidental, en muchas partes de Asia, en Norteamrica, en Australia, los empleados de oficinas estn haciendo menos de esta clase de trabajo, y ms de esta clase de trabajo. +Esa rutina, basada en reglas, de trabajo analtico, ciertos tipos de contabilidad, ciertos tipos de anlisis financiero, ciertos tipos de programacin de computadores, han llegado a ser muy fcil subcontratarlos, y muy fcil automatizarlos. +El software puede hacerlo ms rpido. +Los proveedores a bajo costo de todo el mundo pueden hacerlo ms barato. +Entonces, lo que realmente importa son las habilidades conceptuales, creativas e intuitivas. +Piensen en su propio trabajo. +Piensen en su propio trabajo. +Son los problemas que usted enfrenta, o aun los problemas que hemos estado hablando aqu?, son esas clases de problemas?tienen un conjunto claro de reglas, y una nica solucin? No. +Las reglas son confusas. +La solucin, si es que existe, es sorprendente y no obvia. +Todos en esta sala estn lidiando con su propia versin del problema de la vela. +En cuanto a los problemas de velas de cualquier ndole, en cualquier campo, esas recompensas condicionadas, las cosas alrededor de las cuales hemos construido muchos de nuestros negocios, no funcionan. +Quiero decir que me vuelve loco. +Y esto no es ... la cuestin es sta. +Esto no es un sentimiento. +De acuerdo? Soy abogado. No creo en sentimientos. +Esto no es una filosofa. +Soy norteamericano. No creo en la Filosofa. +Es un hecho. O, como decimos en mi tierra natal de Washington D.C., un hecho verdadero. +Djenme darles un ejemplo de lo que quiero decir. +Djenme ordenar las evidencias aqu. +Porque no estoy contndoles un historia. Estoy presentando un caso. +Seoras y seores del jurado, una evidencia: Dan Ariely, uno de los grandes economistas de nuestro tiempo, l y tres colegas, hicieron un estudio de algunos estudiantes del MIT. +Les dieron a estos estudiantes del MIT un grupo de juegos. Juegos que involucraban creatividad, destrezas motoras, y concentracin. +Y les ofrecieron, por desempeo, tres niveles de recompensas. Pequea recompensa, mediana recompensa, gran recompensa. +De acuerdo? Si lo hace muy bien obtiene la mayor recompensa, mnimo. +Que pas? Mientras la tarea involucr solamente destreza mecnica los bonos funcionaron como se esperaba: cuanto mayor es el pago, mejor desempeo. +De acuerdo? Pero una de la tareas requiri +incluso mnima destreza mental, una recompensa mayor llev a un desempeo peor. +Entonces dijeron, "De acuerdo, veamos si hay algn prejuicio cultural aqu. +Vamos a Madurai, India y probemos sto." +El estndar de vida es ms bajo. +En Madurai, una recompensa que es modesta en Norteamrica, es ms significativa all. +Lo mismo. Un grupo de juegos , tres niveles de recompensas. +Qu pas? +Las personas a las que le ofrecieron el nivel medio de recompensa no lo hizo mejor que las que le ofrecieron la recompensa ms baja. +Pero, esta vez, las personas con ms altas recompensas lo hicieron peor que todas. +En ocho de las nueve tareas que examinamos a travs de tres experimentos, los ms altos incentivos llevaron al peor desempeo. +Es esto alguna forma de manipulada conspiracin socialista que est sucediendo aqu? +No. Estos son economistas del MIT, de Carnegie Mellon, de la Universidad de Chicago. +Y saben quin auspici esta investigacin? +El Banco de la Reserva Federal de los Estados Unidos. +Eso es la experiencia americana. +Vamos al otro lado del ocano al London School of Economics. LSE, London School of Economics. Alma mater de 11 Premios Nobel en Economa. +Centro de formacin de grandes pensadores de la economa como George Soros y Friedrick Hayek, y Mick Jagger. El mes pasado, tan slo el mes pasado, los economistas de LSE analizaron 51 estudios de programas que pagaban bonos por desempeo dentro de las compaas. +Los economistas dijeron, "Consideramos que los incentivos econmicos pueden resultar en un impacto negativo sobre el desempeo general". +Hay una discordancia entre lo que la ciencia dice y lo que las empresas hacen. +Y lo que me preocupa, mientras estamos junto a los escombros del colapso de la economa, es que muchas organizaciones estn tomando sus decisiones, sus polticas acerca del talento y la gente, basadas en presunciones que estn obsoletas, sin analizar, y enraizadas ms en el folklore que en la ciencia. +Y si realmente queremos salir de este desorden econmico, y si realmente queremos alto desempeo en esas tareas esenciales del siglo XXI, la solucin no es ms de las cosas equivocadas. Atraer a las personas con una zanahoria ms dulce, o amenazarlas con un palo afilado. +Necesitamos una perspectiva completamente nueva. +Y las buenas noticias acerca de todo esto es que los cientficos que han estudiado la motivacin, nos la han ofrecido. +Es una perspectiva construida sobre todo en la motivacin intrnseca, +alrededor del deseo de hacer cosas porque importan, porque nos gustan, porque son interesantes, porque son parte de algo importante. +Y en mi opinin, ese nuevo sistema operativo de nuestros negocios gira en torno a tres elementos: autonoma, maestra y propsito. +Autonoma, el impulso que dirige nuestras propias vidas. +Maestra, el deseo de ser mejor y mejor en algo que importa. +Propsito, la intencin de hacer lo que hacemos al servicio de algo ms grande que nosotros mismos. +Estos son los ladrillos de un sistema operativo completamente nuevo para nuestros negocios. +Hoy quiero hablar solamente de la autonoma. +El siglo XX trajo esta idea de gerencia. +La gerencia no eman de la naturaleza. +La gerencia es como... no es un rbol. Es un televisor. +De acuerdo? alguien la invent. +Y no significa que va a funcionar para siempre. +La gerencia es excelente. +Las nociones tradicionales de administracin son excelentes si usted quiere conformidad. +Pero si usted quiere compromiso, la iniciativa funciona mejor. +Djenme darles algunos ejemplos de algunas nociones fundamentales de iniciativa. +Lo que significa... no ve mucho, pero ve los primeros movimientos de que algo realmente interesante est sucediendo. Pues lo que significa es pagar a la gente de forma adecuada y justa, por supuesto. Dejar a un lado el tema del dinero. Y luego dar a la gente mucha autonoma. +Djenme darles algunos ejemplos. +Cuantos de ustedes han oido hablar de la compaa Atlassian? +Se ve que menos de la mitad. +Atlassian es una compaa de software de Australia. +Y hacen algo increiblemente innovador. +Unas cuantas veces al ao les dicen a sus ingenieros, "Durante las prximas 24 horas van a trabajar en lo que quieran, con tal que no sea parte de su trabajo regular. +Trabajen en lo que quieran". +Entonces los ingenieros usan ese tiempo y desarrollan un moderno cdigo de parche, desarrollan una modificacin elegante. +Luego presentan todas las cosas que han desarrollado a sus compaeros, y al resto de la compaa, en esta distendida e informal reunin al final del da. +Y entonces, como son australianos, se toman una cerveza. +Ellos les llaman los dias FedEx. +Por qu? Porque tienes que entregar algo al da siguiente. +Es bonito. No es malo. Es una tremenda infraccin a la marca. +Pero es muy inteligente. +Ese dia slo de intensa autonoma ha producido un perfeccionamiento del software muy amplio que nunca podran haber existido. +Y ha resultado tan bin que Atlassian lo ha llevado al prximo nivel con 20 Por ciento de su Tiempo. Hecho, famosamente, en Google. Donde los ingenieros pueden trabajar, pasar el 20 por ciento de su tiempo trabajando en algo que quieran. +Tienen autonoma sobre su tiempo, su tarea, su equipo, su tcnica. +De acuerdo? Cantidades extremas de autonoma, +Y en Google, como muchos de ustedes saben, cerca de la mitad de los nuevos productos en un ao normal han nacido durante ese 20 por ciento de su Tiempo. Productos como Gmail, Orkut, Google News. +Djenme darles un ejemplo ms extremo an. Algo llamado "Resultados en el mbito del Trabajo Exclusivamente ". El ROWE. Creado por dos consultores norteamericanos, vigente vigente en cerca de una docena de compaas en Norteamrica. +En un ROWE la gente no tiene horario. +Se presentan cuando quieren. +No tienen que estar en la oficina en un cierto momento, o a cierta hora. +Slo tienen que hacer su trabajo. +Cmo lo hacen?, cundo lo hacen? dnde lo hacen?, depende totalmente de ellos. +Las reuniones en estas clases de ambientes son opcionales. +Qu es lo que pasa? +Casi en todas las categoras, la productividad sube, el compromiso de los trabajadores sube, la satisfaccin del trabajador sube, y la rotacin baja. +Autonoma, Maestra y Propsito. Estos son los ladrillos de una nueva forma de hacer las cosas. +Ahora algunos de ustedes podra mirar esto y decir, "Mmm, eso suena bonito. Pero es una utopa" +Y yo digo, "No. Tengo pruebas" +A mediados de los Noventa, Microsoft empez +una enciclopedia llamada Encarta. +Habian implantado todos los incentivos correctos. Todos los incentivos correctos. Pagaron a profesionales +para escribir y editar miles de artculos. Gerentes bien pagados lo supervisaron todo para asegurarse que saliera a tiempo y dentro del presupuesto. +Unos aos mas tarde se empez otra enciclopedia. +Diferente modelo, cierto? +Hgalo por diversin. A nadie se le paga un cntimo, o un euro o un yen. +Hgalo porque a usted le gusta hacerlo. +Ahora si usted hubiera, hace 10 aos, si usted hubiera ido a un economista , a cualquier parte, y hubiera dicho,"Mira, tengo estos dos modelos para crear una enciclopedia. +Si ellos fueran cabeza con cabeza, quin ganara?" +Hace 10 aos no hubiera encontrado un slo economista serio en ninguna parte en el planeta Tierra, que hubiese pronosticado el modelo Wikipedia. +sta es la batalla titnica entre estas dos perspectivas. +Esto es el Ali-Frazier de la motivacin. Verdad? +Esto es el Thrilla' en Manila. +Correcto? Motivadores intrnsecos versus motivadores extrnsecos. +Autonoma, Maestra y Propsito, versus recompensa y castigo. Y quin gana? +Motivacin intrnseca, autonoma, maestra y propsito, +por noqueo. Djenme concluir. +Hay una discordancia entre lo que la ciencia dice y lo que las empresas hacen. +Y esto es lo que la ciencia dice. +Uno: Esas recompensas del siglo XX, esos motivadores que creemos son parte natural de los negocios, funcionan pero slo en una sorprendente y estrecha franja de circunstancias. +Dos: Esas recompensas condicionadas a menudo destruyen la creatividad. +Tres: El secreto del alto desempeo no est en recompensas y castigos, sino en una fuerza intrnseca invisible. La fuerza de hacer las cosas por su propio inters. +La fuerza para hacer cosas porque importan. +Y aqu est la mejor parte . Aqu est la mejor parte. +Nosotros ya lo sabemos. La ciencia confirma lo que ya sabemos. +Entonces, si reparamos esta discordancia +Concluyo mi alegato. +Las primeras visiones de la energa elctrica inalmbrica en realidad las tuvo Nikola Tesla bsicamente hace 100 aos. +El pensamiento de que no se deseara transmitir la energa elctrica sin cables, nunca lo tuvo nadie. +Pensaron "si usted no la utilizaba, quin lo iba a hacer ?" +De hecho, l en realidad hizo una serie de cosas. +Construy la bobina de Tesla. Esta torre fue construida en Long Island en los inicios del s. XX. +Y la idea fue, de que supuestamente deba trasmitir la energa a cualquier lugar de la tierra. +Nunca sabremos si en realidad esto funcion. En realidad creo que el FBI la demoli por razones de seguridad, en algn momento de los inicios del s. XX. +Pero lo nico que sali de la electricidad es que la queremos demasiado. +Me refiero a que piensen cunto la queremos. +Si slo sale a caminar, hay miles de billones de dlares que han sido invertidos en infraestructura en todo el mundo, colocando cables, para obtener energa de donde se crea hasta donde se utiliza. +La otra cosa es que nos encantan las pilas. +y para aquellos que tenemos una conciencia medioambiental hay ms o menos 40 mil millones de bateras desechables cada ao. Para energa que en general, se utiliza a unos pocos centmetros o unos pocos metros de donde se encuentra energa muy barata. +Entonces, antes de llegar ac, pens "Saben, soy de Norte Amrica. +"Tenemos un cierta reputacin en las Estados Unidos". +As que pens que era mejor buscarlo primero. +Entonces la definicin nmero seis de Estados Unidos es la definicin de la palabra "apestar". +Los cables apestan, de verdad que s. +Pinsenlo. Ya sea usted en esa foto o algo debajo de su escritorio, +la otra cosa es, las pilas tambin apestan. +Y realmente apestan. +Ustedes se han preguntado qu es lo que le sucede a estas cosas? +Se fabrican 40 mil millones de estos dispositivos. +Esto es lo que pasa. +Se rompen, se desintegran, y terminan aqu. +Entonces cuando hablan de energa cara el costo por kilowatio hora para abastecer con energa a algo es del orden de doscientas a trescientas libras. +Pinsenlo. +La red de energa ms cara en el mundo es una milsima de eso. +Entonces afortunadamente, una de las otras definiciones de "apestar" que estaba ah, realmente crea un vaco. +Y la naturaleza realmente aborrece el vaco. +Lo que pas hace un par de aos fue que un grupo de fsicos tericos del MIT crearon el concepto de transferir la energa a distancia. +Bsicamente lograron encender una ampolleta de 60 watios a una distancia aproximada de 2 metros. +Obtuvieron aproximadamente un 50 por ciento de eficiencia. Por cierto, que eso es casi mil veces ms eficiente de lo que sera una pila, haciendo lo mismo. +Pero fueron capaces de encenderla, y de manera exitosa. +El experimento fue ste. Pueden ver que las bobinas eran un poco grandes. +La ampolleta era una tarea bastante simple, desde su punto de vista. +Todo esto viene de un profesor que se despert de noche durante tres noches seguidas debido a que el celular de su mujer sonaba porque se estaba quedando sin batera. +Y pensaba "con toda la electricidad que hay en las paredes, por qu no podra desviarse una poca al celular y lograr dormir un poco?" +Y el realmente invent este concepto de transferencia de energa de resonancia. +Pero dentro de un transformador estndar hay dos bobinas de cable. +Y esas dos bobinas de cable estn muy muy cerca entre s, y en realidad s transfieren eneriga... magnticamente y de forma inalmbrica, slo que entre una distancia muy corta. +Lo que Dr. Solijacic descubri cmo hacer fue separar las bobinas de un transformador a una distancia mayor a la del tamao de esos transformadores usando esta tecnologa, la cual no es distinta de un cantante de opera que rompe un vaso en el otro lado de la sala. +Y es un fenmeno de resonancia por el cual recibi el premio MacArthur Fellowship, que tiene como sobrenombre Premio al Genio, en septiembre pasado, por su descubrimiento. +Entonces cmo funciona? +Imaginen una bobina. Para los que sean ingenieros, hay un condensador unido a l tambin. +Y si se logra que la bobina haga resonancia, lo que pasar es que har un pulso, en las frecuencias de corriente alterna, con una frecuencia bastante alta, por cierto. +Y si pueden traer otro dispositivo lo suficientemente cerca de la fuente, slo funcionar a exactamente esa frecuencia, puede lograr que hagan lo que se llama fuerza mayor, y transferir un energa magntica entre ellos. +Y luego lo que uno hace es, empezar con electricidad, y transformarlo en un campo magntico, toma ese campo magntico, y lo vuelves a transformar en electricidad. Y despus puedes utilizarla. +La pregunta nmero uno que siempre me hacen. +Me refiero a que la gente est preocupada acerca de si los celulares son seguros. +Ya saben. Qu sucede con la seguridad? +Lo primero es que no es una tecnologa radiactiva. +No irradia. +No existen campos elctricos aqu, es un campo magntico. +Y se mantiene, ya sea con lo que llamamos la fuente, o con el dispositivo. +Y el campo magntico que estamos usando es bsicamente el mismo que el campo magntico de la tierra. +Vivimos en un campo magntico. +Y la otra cosa que es buena de esta tecnologa es que slo transfiere energa a cosas que funcionan en la misma frecuencia. +Y es virtualmente imposible en la naturaleza, conseguir que esto ocurra. +Y finalmente tenemos los rganos gubernamentales en todas partes que regularan todo lo que hacemos. +Y han prcticamente establecido los lmites de exposicin del campo todas las cosas que les voy a mostrar hoy de cierta manera estn bajo esas pautas. +Dispositivos electrnicos porttiles. +Electrodomsticos. +Esos cables debajo de tu escritorio, apuesto que todos aqu tienen algo parecido a esto, o estas bateras. +Hay aplicaciones industriales. +Y finalmente, vehculos electrnicos. +Estos autos electrnicos son hermosos. +Pero quin va a querer enchufarlos? +Imaginense llegar al garaje, hemos construido un sistema que hace esto, llegas a tu garaje, y el auto se carga por s solo. Porque existe una colchoneta en el suelo que esta enchufada a la pared. +Y lo que hace que el auto se cargue de forma segura y eficiente. +y despus hay una gran variedad de aplicaciones. Dispositivos de implantes mdicos. La gente ya no tiene que morir a causa de infecciones. si se puede sellar. +Tarjetas de crdito, aspiradoras robots. +Me gustara tomarme unos minutos y mostrarles realmente cmo funciona. +Lo que voy hacer es mostrarle lo que tenemos aqu. +Tenemos una bobina. +La bobina se conecta a un amplificador R.F que crea una alta frecuencia de un campo magntico oscilatorio. +Ponemos uno en la parte de atrs de este televisor. +Por cierto, hago que parezca un poco ms simple de lo que realmente es. +Hay muchos dispositivos electrnicos y salsas secretas y de todo tipo de propiedad intelectual. +Pero lo que va a suceder es que se va a crear un campo magntico, +que va a provocar que se origine uno. en el otro lado. +y si los dioses de las demos estn dispuestos, en aproximadamente 10 segundos podremos verlo. +Los 10 segundos son porque nosotros... No s si alguno de ustedes ha pensado alguna vez en conectar una TV cuando utilizas un cable. +Generalmente tienes que ir y apretar el botn de encendido. Pens en poner un pequo computador que tenga que encenderse que tenga que encenderse para decirle que lo haga. +Enchufo esto. +Creamos un campo magntico aqu. +ste provoca que se cree otro por aca. +Y, como he dicho, en 10 segundos ms o menos deberamos comenzar a ver... +Comercialmente ste es... un televisor en color disponible en el mercado. +Imaginen, tienen uno y quieren colgarlo en la pared. +Cuntas personas quieren colgarlo en la pared? +Piensen en ello, no quieren esos desagradables cables por la pared. +Imagnense que se pueden deshacer de ellos. +Otra cosa sobre la que quera hablar es la seguridad. +No pasa nada, estoy bien. +Y volver a hacerlo, slo por razones de seguridad. +Aunque casi inmediatamente la gente pregunta, Cmo de pequeo se puede hacer esto? Lo suficientemente pequeo?" +Porque recuerden que la idea original de Dr. Solijacic fue el celular de su mujer sonando. +Deseo mostrarles algo. +Somos diseadores de igualdad de oportunidades en este tipo de cosas. +Este es Google G1 +Ya saben, es lo ltimo que ha salido al mercado. +Funciona con el sistema operativo Android. +Creo haber escuchado hablar sobre esto antes. +Es extrao, tiene una batera. +Tambin tiene una bobina electrnica que WiTricity ha colocado en la parte de atrs. +Y si puedo lograr, que la cmara perfecto, vern, a medida que me acerco... +ven cmo un celular se carga completamente de forma inalmbrica. +S que algunos de ustedes son aficionados de Apple. +Y saben que Apple no hace fcil poder abrir sus telfonos. +As que pusimos una pequea funda en la parte de atrs. Sin embargo, debemos ser capaces de despertar a este tipo. +Aquellos que tengan un Iphone reconocern el centro verde. +Y Nokia tambin. +Vern que lo que hicimos fue poner una cosita en la parte de atrs, para hacerlo, y probablemente suene, mientras se despierta tambin. +Normalmente lo utilizar para encender la pantalla. +Imagnense que estas cosas pudieran ir , pudieran ir en el techo. +Podra ir en el suelo , tambin podran ir debajo del escritorio. +As que cuando usted entra, o si vienen desde casa, si lleva una cartera, funciona tambin dentro de ella. +Nunca ms tendrn que preocuparse de enchufar estos dispositivos. +Piensen lo que eso podra significar. +Para ir cerrando, en esa especie de visiones inmortales de la revista The New Yorker, pens colocar una diapositiva ms. +Para los que no puedan leer dice, "Ciertamente parece que es algn tipo de tecnologa inalmbrica." +Muchas gracias. +Voy a hablar sobre su mentalidad. +Corresponde su mentalidad con mi conjunto de datos? +Si no, uno de los dos necesita renovarse, cierto? +Cuando les hablo a mis estudiantes sobre asuntos globales y luego les escucho en el descanso, siempre hablan de "nosotros" y "ellos". +Y cuando vuelven a la sala de clase, les pregunto: Qu significa "nosotros" y "ellos"? +Y dicen: "Ah!, muy fcil. Es el mundo occidental y el mundo en desarrollo". +"Lo aprendimos en la universidad". +Y entonces, cul es la definicin?. "La definicin? +Todo el mundo la sabe", dicen. +Y as les voy presionando. +Una chica dijo, muy inteligentemente: "Es muy fcil, +el mundo occidental es una vida larga y una familia pequea. +El mundo en desarrollo es una vida corta y una familia numerosa". +Y me gusta esa definicin porque me permite transferir su modo de pensar a mi conjunto de datos. +Y aqu tienen los datos. +Pueden ver que tenemos en el eje de aqu el tamao de la familia: Uno, dos, tres, cuatro, cinco hijos por mujer en este eje. +Y aqu, la duracin de vida, la esperanza de vida, 30, 40, 50. +Exactamente lo que los estudiantes dijeron que era su concepto sobre el mundo. +Y en realidad esto est en relacin con el dormitorio, +el hecho de que el hombre o la mujer decidan tener una familia pequea, cuidar de sus hijos o cunto tiempo vivirn. +Est en relacin con el cuarto de bao y la cocina. Si tienes jabn, agua y comida, puedes vivir ms tiempo. +Y los estudiantes tenan razn. El mundo consista en un conjunto de pases aqu, que tenan familias numerosas y una vida corta, el mundo en desarrollo, +y un conjunto de pases all, que era el mundo occidental, +que tenan familias pequeas y una vida larga. +Y van a ver aqu lo que increblemente ha sucedido en el mundo durante mi vida. +Los pases en desarrollo empezaron a usar agua y jabn, vacunas, +y planificacin familiar. +Y en parte, gracias a EE.UU., que ayud a proveer consejos tcnicos e inversiones. +Y como ven, el mundo se mueve hacia familias de dos hijos, con una esperanza de vida de 60 a 70 aos. +Pero algunos pases quedan rezagados en este rea de aqu. +Y pueden ver que Afganistn se queda aqu abajo. +Tenemos Liberia. Tenemos el Congo. +As que tenemos pases viviendo ah. +Y el problema que yo tena era que la visin del mundo que tenan mis estudiantes corresponda a la realidad global del ao en que sus profesores nacieron. +Y, de hecho, por haber hecho esto con el mundo, +la semana pasada estuve en la Conferencia Global para la Salud, aqu, en Washington, y pude ver que incluso gente activa en los EE.UU. tena un concepto errneo. No se haban dado cuenta de la mejora de Mxico aqu, y China, en relacin con EE.UU. +Miren aqu cuando los muevo hacia delante. +Aqu estn. +Los alcanzan. Aqu est Mxico. +Est a la par con EE.UU. en estas dos dimensiones sociales. +Menos de un 5% de los especialistas en salud global estaba al corriente de ello. +Esta gran nacin, Mxico, tiene el problema de las armas que vienen del norte, a travs de las fronteras.Y tenan que parar esto. Porque tienen esta extraa relacin con los EE.UU., saben? +Pero si cambiara este eje de aqu, miren, y pusiera en su lugar, aqu, los ingresos por persona... +Ingresos por persona, lo puedo poner aqu. +Entonces vern un cuadro completamente diferente. +Por cierto, les estoy enseando cmo usar nuestra pgina web: "Gapminder World". Por qu estoy corrigiendo esto? porque es un servicio pblico gratis en la red. +Y cuando finalmente lo tengo correcto, puedo retroceder 200 aos en la historia. +Y puedo encontrar a los EEUU all. +Y puedo hacer que se vean otros pases. +Y ahora tengo los ingresos por persona en este eje. +Y los EE.UU., en esa poca, slo tenan 2.000 dlares, +y la esperanza de vida era de 35 a 40 aos, al igual que Afganistn hoy. +Y les mostrar ahora lo que ha ocurrido en el mundo. +Esto es en vez de estudiar historia durante un ao en la universidad. +Pueden verme ahora durante un minuto y lo vern todo. +Pueden ver cmo las burbujas marrones, que es Europa occidental, y la amarilla, que es Estados Unidos, se van haciendo ms y ms ricas, y tambin empiezan a tener ms y mejor salud. +Y esto es hace 100 aos, donde el resto del mundo se queda atrs. +Y aqu vamos. Eso fue la influenza. +Eso es por lo que nos asustamos tanto de la gripe, no? +Todava se recuerda. La cada de la esperanza de vida. +Y entonces subimos, pero no hasta que empez la independencia. +Miren aqu: tienen a China all, y a India all, y esto es lo que ocurri. +Noten que tenemos a Mxico aqu arriba. +Mxico de ningn modo est a la par con EE.UU. Pero estn muy cerca. +Y especialmente interesante es ver China y los EE.UU., durante 200 aos. Y esto es porque mi hijo mayor ahora trabaja en Google, despus de que Google adquiriera este programa. +Porque esto en realidad es trabajo de menores. Mi hijo y su mujer se encerraron durante muchos aos y crearon esto. +Y mi hijo menor, estudi chino en Pekn. +As que vienen con las dos perspectivas que tengo. +Y mi hijo, el menor, que estudi en Pekn, en China, tiene una perspectiva a largo plazo. +Mientras que mi hijo mayor, el que trabaja en Google, se mueve por cuatrimestres o medio ao. +O, Google es bastante generoso, puede que tenga por delante uno o dos aos. +Pero en China se mueven por generacin tras generacin, porque recuerdan el muy vergonzoso periodo de 100 aos en los que retrocedieron. +Y luego recuerdan la primera parte del siglo pasado, que fue realmente mala. Y podramos ir al tan repetido Gran Salto Adelante. +Pero esto fue en 1963. +Al final, Mao Tse-Tung trajo salud a China. Y luego muri. Y entonces Deng Xiaoping empez este increble movimiento hacia adelante. +No es extrao ver que los EE.UU. primero desarroll la economa, y luego gradualmente se hizo rico. +Mientras que China lleg a la salud mucho antes, Porque aplicaron los conocimientos de educacin, nutricin, y tambin se benefici de la penicilina, vacunas y planificacin familiar. +Y Asia pudo tener un desarrollo social antes que el desarrollo econmico. +As que, a m, como profesor de salud pblica, no me resulta extrao que todos estos pases crezcan tan rpido ahora. +Porque lo que ven aqu, es "el mundo plano" de Thomas Friedman. No es as? +No es realmente tan plano. +Pero los pases con nivel medio de ingresos, y esto es lo que les sugiero a mis estudiantes, dejar de usar el concepto "mundo en desarrollo". +Porque, despus de todo, hablar sobre el mundo en desarrollo es como tener dos captulos en la historia de los EE.UU. +El ltimo captulo es sobre el presente y la presidencia de Obama. Y el otro es sobre el pasado, donde se cubre todo desde Washington hasta Eisenhower. +Porque lo que hubo entre Washington y Eisenhower es lo que encontramos en el mundo en desarrollo. +En realidad podramos tomar desde el Mayflower hasta Eisenhower, y ponerlo todo junto en un mundo en desarrollo, que est haciendo crecer sus ciudades de una manera increble, que tiene grandes empresarios, pero que tambin tiene pases en quiebra. +As que, cmo podramos hacer que esto tuviera ms sentido? +Bueno, una forma de intentarlo es ver si podramos observar la distribucin salarial. +Esta es la distribucin salarial mundial, desde un dlar. Aqu tienes comida para vivir. +Estas personas se van a dormir hambrientas. +Y este es el nmero de personas. +Aqu es 10 dlares, ya tengas un sistema de salud pblico o privado. Aqu es donde puedes proveer servicio de salud a tu familia, y escuela para tus hijos. Y aqu estn los pases de la OCDE. Groenlandia, Latinoamrica, Europa del Este. +Aqu est Asia. Y en azul claro, Asia del Sur. +Y as es como cambi el mundo. +Cambi as. +Pueden ver cmo crece? Y cmo cientos de millones y billones estn saliendo de la pobreza en Asia? +Y llega hasta aqu. +Y voy ahora hacia los pronsticos. Pero tengo que parar en la puerta de Lehman Brothers ah. Ya saben, porque... Porque all los pronsticos ya no son vlidos. +Probablemente, el mundo har esto. +Y luego continuar as. +Pero ms o menos esto es lo que ocurrir. Y tenemos un mundo que no se podr considerar tan dividido. +Tenemos a los pases con ingresos altos aqu, con los EE.UU. como poder destacado. Tenemos las economas emergentes en el medio, que proveen muchos de los fondos para el rescate financiero. Y tenemos los pases con ingresos bajos aqu. +S, esto es un hecho, es de donde viene el dinero. Ellos han estado ahorrando durante la ltima dcada, saben? +Y aqu tenemos los pases con ingresos bajos donde estn los empresarios. +Y aqu tenemos los pases en quiebra y en guerra, como Afganistn, Somalia, partes de Congo, Darfur. +Tenemos todo esto al mismo tiempo. +Y por eso es tan problemtico describir lo que ha ocurrido en el mundo en desarrollo. +Porque es muy diferente lo que ha ocurrido all. +Y por eso yo sugiero un enfoque ligeramente diferente a como lo llamaran ustedes. +Y tambin tienen grandes diferencias dentro de los pases. +He odo que los departamentos aqu se hacan por regiones. +Aqu tienen el frica subsahariana, Asia del sur, Asia del este, los Estados rabes, Europa del este, Latinoamrica y la OCDE. +Y en este eje, el PIB. +Y aqu, salud, supervivencia infantil. Y no es una sorpresa que frica, el sur del Sahara, est abajo. +Pero cuando los separo en burbujas por pas, el tamao de la burbuja aqu es la poblacin, +y entonces ven que Sierra Leona y Mauricio son completamente diferentes. +Existen diferencias de este tipo dentro del frica subsahariana. +Y puedo separar los dems. Aqu est el sur de Asia, el mundo rabe. +Ahora todos los departamentos diferentes. +Europa del Este, Latinoamrica y los pases de la OCDE. +Y aqu estamos. Tenemos un mundo continuo. +No podemos dividirlo en dos. +Es el Mayflower aqu abajo, y Washington aqu, construyendo, construyendo con hormign. +Y aqu est Lincoln adelantndolos. +Aqu Eisenhower modernizando los pases, +y aqu los EE.UU. hoy, aqu arriba. +Y tenemos pases en todo este camino. +Ahora viene lo importante para comprender cmo ha cambiado el mundo. +En este momento, decid hacer una apuesta. +Y es mi cometido, en nombre del resto del mundo, expresar gratitud a los estadounidenses que pagan sus impuestos por la Encuesta de Salud Demogrfica. +Muchos no estn conscientes de --esto no es una broma. +Esto es muy serio. +Gracias al continuo patrocinio de los EE.UU. durante 25 aos de una metodologa muy buena para medir la mortalidad infantil, tenemos una idea de lo que est ocurriendo en el mundo. +Y es el gobierno de los EE.UU. en su mejor faceta, sin apoyo, proporcionando datos, lo que es til para la sociedad. +Y proporcionando datos gratis, en internet, para que el mundo lo utilice. Muchas gracias. +Bastante al contrario que el Banco Mundial, que rene datos con dinero gubernamental, dinero de los impuestos, y luego lo venden para adquirir un pequeo beneficio, en una manera Guttenberg, muy ineficiente. +Pero la gente que est haciendo esto en el banco mundial est entre los mejores del mundo. +Y son profesionales muy calificados. +Es slo que nos gustara renovar nuestras agencias internacionales para tratar con el mundo de una forma moderna, como hacemos nosotros. +Y cuando se trata de datos gratis y transparencia, Los Estados Unidos de Amrica es uno los mejores. +Y esto no sale fcilmente de la boca de un profesor de salud pblica sueco. +Y no me han pagado para venir aqu, no. +Me gustara mostrarles lo que ocurre con los datos, lo que podemos mostrar con estos datos. +Miren aqu. Este es el mundo. +Con ingresos aqu abajo, y mortandad infantil. +Y qu ha ocurrido en el mundo? +Desde 1950, durante los ltimos 50 aos, hemos tenido una cada en mortalidad infantil. +Lo sabemos gracias al Departamento de Seguridad Nacional. +Y tuvimos un incremento en los ingresos. +Y los antiguos pases en desarrollo se estn mezclando con los antiguos pases industrializados occidentales. +Y tenemos un continuo. Pero an tenemos, naturalmente, Congo, all arriba. Todava tenemos tantos pases pobres como hemos tenido siempre en la historia. +Y ese es el billn de abajo, donde hemos odo, hoy, que tienen un enfoque completamente diferente. +Y a qu velocidad ha ocurrido? +Bueno, Objetivos del Desarrollo del Milenio 4. +Los EE.UU. no han sido muy entusiastas en el uso del Objetivo 4, +pero ha sido el promotor principal para permitirnos medirlo, porque es slo la mortalidad infantil la que podemos medir. +Y solamos decir que deba caer un 4% cada ao. +Veamos lo que ha hecho Suecia. +Solamos presumir del rpido progreso social. +Aqu es donde estbamos en 1900. +1900, Suecia estaba all. +La misma mortalidad infantil que Bangladesh tena en 1990, a pesar de que ellos tenan ingresos ms bajos. +Empezaron muy bien. Usaron bien la ayuda. +Vacunaron a sus nios y obtuvieron mejor agua. +Y redujeron la mortalidad infantil en un increble 4.7% al ao. Le ganan a Suecia. +Ahora les muestro Suecia en el mismo periodo de 16 aos. +Segundo asalto. Es Suecia en 1916, contra Egipto en 1990. +Aqu vamos. Otra vez ms, EEUU es aqu parte de la razn. +Obtuvieron agua segura. Dieron comida a los pobres. Y erradicaron la malaria. +5.5%. Van ms rpido que la meta del Desarrollo del Milenio. +Una tercera oportunidad para Suecia, aqu contra Brasil. +Y Brasil ha tenido una mejora social increble en los ltimos 16 aos. Y van ms rpido que Suecia. +Esto significa que el mundo est convergiendo. +Los pases de ingresos medios, la economa emergente, se estn poniendo al mismo nivel. +Se estn mudando a las ciudades, donde tendrn tambin una mejor ayuda para ello. +Los estudiantes suecos en este momento protestan. +Dicen: "No es justo, porque estos pases han tenido vacunas y antibiticos, que no estaban disponibles en Suecia. +Tenemos que competir en tiempo real". +Bueno. Les doy Singapur, el ao en que nac yo. +Singapur tena dos veces ms mortalidad infantil que Suecia. +Es el pas ms tropical en el mundo. Es una marisma en el ecuador. +Y aqu van. Les tom algo de tiempo llegar a la independencia, +pero entonces su economa empez a crecer. +E hicieron la inversin social. Erradicaron la malaria. +Crearon un sistema de salud magnfico y ganaron tanto a EE.UU. como a Suecia. +Nunca pensamos que podran ganar a Suecia! +Y todos estos pases verdes estn alcanzando las metas del Desarrollo del Milenio. +Estos amarillos estn a punto de hacerlo. +Y estos rojos no lo hacen, y tienen que mejorar su poltica. +No es una extrapolacin simplista. +Tenemos que encontrar realmente la manera de apoyar a estos pases de una forma mejor. +Tenemos que respetar a los pases con ingresos medios en lo que estn haciendo. +Y tenemos que basar en los hechos la manera en que vemos el mundo. +Esto es dlar por persona. Esto es VIH por pases. +El azul es frica. +El tamao de las burbujas es el nmero de afectados por el VIH. +Ven la tragedia en Sudfrica aqu? +Alrededor de un 20% de la poblacin adulta est infectada. +Y a pesar de que tienen unos ingresos altos, tienen un elevadsimo nmero de infectados por el VIH. +Pero tambin pueden ver que hay pases africanos aqu abajo. +No es que haya una epidemia de VIH en frica. +Hay un nmero, de 5 a 10 pases en frica, que tienen el mismo nivel que Suecia y EE.UU. +Y hay otros que estn extremadamente altos. +Les voy a mostrar lo que ha ocurrido en uno de los mejores pases, con la economa ms fuerte de frica, y un buen gobierno: Botsuana. +Tienen un nivel muy alto. Est bajando. +Pero ahora no est cayendo. Porque all, con la ayuda del Plan de Emergencia de Ayuda contra el SIDA, est funcionando el tratamiento, y la gente no se est muriendo. +Y pueden ver que no es fcil, que es la guerra la que causa esto. +Porque aqu, en el Congo, hay guerra. +Y aqu, en Zambia, hay paz. +Y no es la economa. Un pas ms rico est slo un poco ms alto. +Y si divido Tanzania por sus ingresos, el 20% ms rico de Tanzania tiene ms VIH que los ms pobres. +Es realmente diferente dentro de cada pas. +Miren a las provincias de Kenya. Son muy diferentes. +Y esta es la situacin, como ven. +No es pobreza profunda. Es una situacin especial, probablemente por una vida sexual simultnea entre parte la poblacin heterosexual en algunos pases, o en parte de algunos pases, en el sur y el este de frica. +Pero no culpen a frica. No hagan de esto un asunto racial. +Hganlo un asunto local. Y promuevan la prevencin en cada lugar, de la forma en la que se puede hacer all. +Y ya para terminar, hay tipos de sufrimiento entre el billn de los ms pobres, que no conocemos. +Aquellos que viven ms all del telfono mvil, aquellos que an no han visto un computador, aquellos que no tienen electricidad en casa. +Esta es la enfermedad Konzo, que trat de dilucidar durante 20 aos en frica. +Es provocada por el rpido procesamiento de races txicas de tapioca, en una situacin de hambruna. +Es similar a la pelagra en Misisipi, en los aos 30. +Similar a otras enfermedades nutricionales. +Nunca afectar a una persona rica. +Nosotros la hemos visto aqu, en Mozambique. +Esto es la epidemia en Mozambique. Esto es una epidemia en el norte de Tanzania. +Nunca han odo sobre la enfermedad, +pero hay muchos ms afectados por esta enfermedad que por el bola. +Causa incapacidad por todo el mundo. +Y en los ltimos dos aos, 2000 personas han quedado incapacitadas en la punta sur de la regin de Bandunda, +donde sola hacerse el comercio ilegal de diamantes, cuando UNITA dominaba el rea de Angola. +Ahora eso ha desaparecido. Y ahora tienen grandes problemas econmicos. +Hace una semana, por primera vez, se establecieron cuatro lneas de internet. +No confundan el progreso de las economas emergentes con la gran capacidad de la gente en los pases de ingresos medios y en los pases de ingresos bajos en paz. +Todava hay miseria en un billn de personas. +Y debemos tener ms conceptos que slo "pases desarrollados" y "pases en desarrollo". +Necesitamos una nueva forma de pensar. El mundo est convergiendo. Pero, pero, pero...no el billn de abajo. +Ellos son todava tan pobres como lo han sido hasta ahora. +No es sostenible. Y no ocurrir alrededor de un superpoder. +Pero los EE.UU. permanecern como uno de los superpoderes ms importantes. Y el superpoder ms esperanzador, por el momento. +Y esta institucin tendr un papel muy importante, no para los EE.UU, sino para todo el mundo. +As que tiene un nombre inadecuado, "Departamento de Estado"; esto no es un Departamento de Estado. +Es el Departamento Mundial. +Y tenemos una gran esperanza en l. Muchas gracias. +Me encanta el teatro. +Me encanta la idea de que te puedes transformar, convertirte en otra persona y mirar la vida con una nueva perspectiva. +Me encanta la idea de que la gente se siente en una habitacin por un par de horas y escuche. +La idea de que en esa habitacin en ese momento, todo el mundo, sin importar su edad, su gnero, su raza, su color, ni su religin, se une. +En ese momento, trascendemos el espacio y el tiempo juntos. +El teatro nos despierta los sentidos y abre la puerta de nuestra imaginacin. +Y nuestra capacidad para imaginar es lo que nos hace exploradores. +Nuestra capacidad para imaginar nos hace inventores y creadores y nicos. +Me comisionaron en 2003 para crear un espectculo original y empec a desarrollar "Upwake." +"Upwake" cuenta la historia de Cero, un empresario moderno que va al trabajo con la vida en una maleta, pegado entre el sueo y la realidad e incapaz de descifrar los dos. +Quera que "Upwake" tuviera las mismas cualidades audiovisuales que tendra una pelcula. +Y quera dejar volar mi imaginacin. +As que empec a dibujar la historia que se estaba moviendo en mi cabeza. +Si Antoine de Saint-Exupery, el autor de "El Principito", estuviera aqu, habra dibujado tres agujeros dentro de esa caja y te habra dicho que tu oveja estaba adentro. +Porque, si miras de cerca, unas cosas aparecern. +Esta no es una caja; stas son las interpretaciones de mi imaginacin desde la cabeza al papel a la pantalla a la vida. +En "Upwake" los edificios llevan trajes, Cero baila Tap en un teclado gigantesco, se clona con un escner, doma y pega los ratones de la computadora, zarpa al paraso desde una sola hoja de papel, y se lanza al espacio. +Quera crear atmsferas que se movieran y se transformaran como ilusionista. +Viajar de un mundo a otro en un segundo. +Quera tener humor, belleza, simplicidad, y complejidad y utilizar metforas para sugerir ideas, +Al principio de la obra, por ejemplo Cero manipula el sueo y la realidad. +La tecnologa es un instrumento que me permite manifestar mis visiones en alta definicin, en persona, en el escenario. +As que hoy me gustara hablarles de la relacin entre el teatro y la tecnologa +Empecemos con la tecnologa. +(Fusible que se funde) Bueno. Empecemos con el teatro. +(Click, click, bang) Gracias. +"Upwake" dura cincuenta y dos minutos, cincuenta y cuatro segundos. +Proyecto animacin tridimensional en las cuatro superficies del escenario con las cuales yo trabajo. +El uso de animacin y proyeccin fue un proceso de descubrimiento. +No la us como efecto especial, sino como colaboradora en el escenario. +No hay ningn efecto especial en Upwake, ningn artificio. +Es tan fastuoso e intrincado como sencillo y mnimo. +Tres cientos cuarenta y cuatro monturas, cuatro aos y media y comisiones ms tarde, lo que comenz como espectculo de una persona se convirti en una obra colaborativa de diez y nueve artistas de mucho talento. +Y aqu estn algunos extractos. +Gracias. +As que ste es un espectculo relativamente nuevo con el cual empezamos a hacer una gira, +Y en Austin, Texas, me pidieron hacer pequeas exposiciones en escuelas por las tardes, +Cuando llegu a una de las escuelas, ciertamente no me esperaba a esto: Seis cientos nios, atestados en un gimnasio, esperando, +Estaba un poco nerviosa de tener que actuar sin animacin, vestuario-- en realidad-- y maquillaje. +Pero los maestros vinieron a hablarme despus y me dijeron que no haban visto los nios tan atentos antes. +Y creo que fue porque yo poda usar su lenguaje y su realidad para transportarlos hacia otro lenguaje y otra realidad. +Algo pas mientras tanto. +Cero se convirti en una persona y no slo un personaje en una obra teatral. +Cero no habla, no es hombre ni mujer, +Cero es Cero. Un pequeo hroe del Siglo 21. Y Cero puede impactar en muchsimas ms personas que yo pudiera, +Se trata tanto de traer nuevas disciplinas dentro de esta caja como de quitar el teatro de su caja. +Como artista callejera, he aprendido que todo el mundo quiere establecer conexiones. +Y que usualmente, si eres un poco extraordinario, si no tienes una tpica apariencia humana, la gente ser dispuesta a participar y a sentir en voz alta. +Es como si hicieras que algo resuene dentro de ellos. +Es como si el misterio de la persona con la cual estn interactuando y conectando les permita ser s mismos un poquito ms. +Porque a travs de tu mscara, dejan caer las suyas. +Ser humano es una forma de arte. +Yo s que el teatro puede mejorar la calidad de vida de la gente, y yo s que el teatro puede curar. +He trabajado como payaso mdico en un hospital por dos aos. +He visto a nios enfermos y a padres tristes y a mdicos que se animan y se dejan transportar en momentos de pura alegra. +Yo s que el teatro nos une. +Cero quiere captar la generacin de hoy y la de maana. Contar varias historias a travs de diferentes medios. +Libros de cmics. Fsica cuntica videojuegos. +Y Cero quiere ir a la luna. +En 2007, Cero lanz una campaa verde, sugiriendo que sus amigos y aficionados apaguen su electricidad cada domingo entre las 7:53 y las 8:00 de la noche. +La idea es sencilla, bsica. No es original, pero es importante, y es importante participar, +Hay una revolucin. +Es una revolucin humana y tecnolgica. +Es movimiento y emocin, +Es informacin. +Es visual. Es musical. Es sensorial. +Es conceptual. Es universal. Va ms all de palabras y nmeros. +Est pasando. +La evolucin natural de la ciencia y el arte unindose para mejor tocar y definir la experiencia humana. +Hay una revolucin en la manera en la que pensamos, en la manera en que compartimos, y en la manera en que expresamos nuestras historias, nuestra evolucin. +Esta es una poca de comunicacin, conexin, y colaboracin creativa. +Charlie Chaplin innov las pelculas y cont historias a travs de la msica, el silencio, el humor y la poesa. +Era social; y su personaje, El Vagabundo, impact en millones de personas. +Dio entretenimiento, placer, alivio a tantos seres humanos cuando ms lo necesitaban. +No estamos aqu para cuestionar lo posible, estamos aqu para desafiar lo imposible. +En la ciencia de hoy, nos convertimos en artistas. +En el arte de hoy, nos convertimos en cientficos. +Diseamos nuestro mundo. Inventamos posibilidades. +Enseamos, tocamos y nos movemos. +Es ahora que podemos usar la diversidad de nuestros talentos para crear obras inteligentes, significativas y extraordinarias. Lucirse. +Gracias. +Hace 35 aos que estoy fascinado por la diversidad de cultivos, desde que me top con un artculo acadmico bastante oscuro escrito por Jack Carlan. +Describa la diversidad de los cultivos, -- todos los diferentes tipos de trigo y arroz -- como recurso gentico. +Y deca: "ste recurso gentico..." -- y nunca olvidar esas palabras -- "...se interpone entre nosotros y la hambruna catastrfica a un grado que no podemos imaginar". +Me imagin que estaba en algo serio, o que era uno de esos chiflados acadmicos. +As, es que fui un poco ms all, y lo que averig es que no era un chiflado. +Era el cientfico ms respetado en el tema. +Lo que comprendi es que la diversidad biolgica - la diversidad de cultivos -- es la base biolgica de la agricultura. +Es la materia prima, la materia, de la evolucin de los cultivos agrcolas. +No es pues un asunto trivial. +Y tambin comprendi que esa base se estaba desmoronando, literalmente desmoronando. +Que, en efecto, una extincin en masa estaba en marcha en nuestros campos, en nuestro sistema agrcola. +Y que esta extincin masiva ya estaba sucediendo con muy pocas personas como testigos y muchas menos hacindose cargo. +S que muchos de ustedes no se detienen a pensar sobre la diversidad en los sistemas agrcolas y, seamos sinceros, es lgico. +No aparece en los peridicos todos los das. +Y cuando usted va al supermercado, es verdad que no existen muchas opciones. +Usted ve manzanas de color rojo, amarillo y verde y eso es todo. +Por lo tanto, djenme mostrarles una imagen de una forma de diversidad. +He aqu algunos granos y hay alrededor de 35 40 variedades diferentes en esta imagen. +Ahora, imagnense que cada una de estas variedades se diferencia la una de otra de la misma manera que un perro caniche de un gran dans. +Si yo quisiera mostrar una imagen de todas las razas de perros en el mundo, y pongo 30 40 en una diapositiva, se necesitarn alrededor de 10 diapositivas porque hay alrededor de 400 razas de perros en el mundo. +Sin embargo, hay de 35 a 40.000 variedades de granos diferentes. +As es que si yo tuviera que mostrarle todos los granos del mundo, y los mostrara mediante dispositivas como sta y pasara una por segundo, me llevara todo el tiempo de mi charla en TED. Y no podra decir nada. +No obstante, lo interesante es que se trata de diversidad y lo trgico es que esta diversidad se est perdiendo. +Tenemos alrededor de 200.000 variedades de trigo, y entre 2 a 400.000 variedades diferentes de arroz, pero se est perdiendo. +Y quisiera poner un ejemplo de ello. +De hecho se trata un poco de un ejemplo personal. +En EEUU en el 1800 -- que es de donde tenemos los mejores datos -- los agricultores y jardineros cultivaban 7.100 variedades de manzanas con sus nombres respectivos. +Imagnense. Manzanas con 7.100 nombres diferentes. +Hoy en da, 6.800 de ellas ya estn extintas, ya no se volvern a ver. +Sola tener una lista de estas manzanas extinguidas, y cuando daba una presentacin, pasaba la lista a la audiencia. +sin decirles que era, pero en orden alfabtico, les peda que miraran los nombres, los apellidos, los nombres originales. +Y al final del discurso, preguntaba, "Cuntas personas han reconocido un nombre?" +Y siempre tuve unas dos terceras partes de una audiencia con la mano en alto.. +Y les deca: "Saben qu? Estas manzanas provienen de sus antepasados, y sus antepasados les otorgaron el mayor honor que se puede dar. +Les dieron su nombre. +La mala noticia es que estn extintas. +La buena noticia es que una tercera parte no levantara la mano. Su manzana todava existe. +Bsquela. Asegrese de que no se incorpore a la lista. +As que quiero decirles que la parte de la buena noticia es que la manzana Fowler todava existe. +Aqu atrs tengo un libro antiguo del que quisiera leerles un pasaje. +Este libro se public en 1904. +Se titula "Las manzanas de Nueva York" y ste es el segundo volumen. +Vean, tenamos un montn de manzanas. +Y la manzana Fowler se describe aqu -- Espero que esto no le sorprenda -- como "una fruta preciosa." +No s si nosotros le dimos el nombre a la manzana o si la manzana nos dio el nombre a nosotros. +No obstante, para ser honesto, la descripcin sigue y reza, "sin embargo, no de gran calidad" +Y va incluso an ms all. +Parece escrito por un antiguo profesor mo. +"A medida que crece en Nueva York, la fruta por lo general no se desarrolla adecuadamente en el tamao y la calidad y es, en general, insatisfactoria." +Y creo que se debe aprender una leccin de esto, y la leccin es: por qu conservarla? +Me formulan esta pregunta constantemente. Por qu no conservamos simplemente la mejor? +Y hay un par de respuestas a esa pregunta. +Por una parte es que no existe una variedad mejor. +La mejor variedad de hoy es el almuerzo de maana para insectos, plagas o enfermedades. +Por otra parte tal vez esa manzana Fowler o tal vez una variedad de trigo que no se considera econmica ahora, tiene resistencia a plagas o enfermedades o cuenta con alguna caracterstica que otras no tienen y que vamos a necesitar ante el cambio climtico. +As que no es necesario, gracias a Dios, que la manzana Fowler sea la mejor manzana del mundo. +Es simplemente necesario o interesante que tenga un rasgo bueno y nico. +Y por esa razn, debemos conservarla. +Por qu? Como materia prima, como un rasgo que podemos utilizar en el futuro. +Piensen en la diversidad como fuente que da opciones. +Y opciones, por supuesto, son exactamente lo que necesitamos en una era de cambio climtico. +En resumen, la respuesta es que en el futuro, en muchos pases, las estaciones ms fras del ao cada vez sern ms calurosas de manera que los cultivos no han experimentado jams en el pasado. +Las estaciones cada vez ms fras en el futuro, las ms calurosas en el pasado. +Se adaptar la agricultura a esto? +No lo s. Puede un pez tocar el piano? +Si la agricultura no lo ha experimentado antes, cmo podra adaptarse? +En la actualidad, la mayor concentracin de personas pobres y hambrientas en el mundo, y el lugar donde el cambio climtico, irnicamente, va a ser peor ser en el Asia meridional y frica subsahariana. +He elegido dos ejemplos que quisiera mostrarles. +Se trata del histograma del pasado, las barras azules representan el rea de distribucin histrica de las temperaturas, hacia atrs hasta los datos de temperatura registrados. +Y pueden ver que existen algunas diferencias entre una y otra estacin. +Algunos son ms fros, algunos ms clidos, es una curva en forma de campana. +La barra ms alta es la temperatura promedio para el mayor nmero de estaciones de cambio. +En el futuro, a finales de este siglo, va a parecer como el rojo, totalmente fuera de los lmites. +El sistema agrcola, y ms importante, los cultivos en el campo en la India nunca antes han experimentado algo as. +Esto es Sudfrica. La misma historia. +Sin embargo, lo ms interesante de Sudfrica es que no tenemos que esperar al 2070 para que haya problemas. +En el 2030, si las variedades del maz, que es el cultivo dominante - el 50% de ellos siguen todava en el campo en Sudfrica -- en 2030 tendremos una disminucin del 30% en el producto de maz porque el cambio climtico se dar ya en 2030. +Una disminucin del 30 % de la produccin en un contexto de crecimiento de poblacin, supone una crisis alimentaria. Esto es de carcter mundial. +Vamos a ver a los nios morir de hambre en televisin. +Ahora, pueden decir que 20 aos es un largo camino. +Corresponde a dos ciclos de cultivo para el maz. +Podemos lanzar dos veces los dados para hacerlo bien. +Tenemos que lograr cultivos en el campo listos para el cambio climtico, y tenemos que hacerlo con bastante rapidez. +La buena noticia es que hemos estado conservando. +Hemos recogido y conservado una gran cantidad de diversidad biolgica, la diversidad agrcola, sobre todo en forma de semillas, y lo ponemos en bancos de semillas, que es una forma elegante de decir "congelador". +Si desean conservar semillas durante un largo plazo y desean ponerlas a disposicin de agricultores e investigadores, se debe secar y luego congelar. +Desafortunadamente, estos bancos de semillas se encuentran en todo el mundo en edificios y son vulnerables. +Han ocurrido desastres. En los ltimos aos perdimos el banco de genes, el banco de semillas en Iraq y Afganistn. Pueden adivinar por qu. +En Rwanda, en las Islas Salomn. +Y adems los desastres diarios que suceden en estos edificios, problemas financieros, mala gestin , fallos de los equipos, y todo tipo de cosas. Y cada vez que sucede algo as, significa extincin. Perdemos diversidad. +Y no me refiero a la prdida de diversidad como el que pierde las llaves del coche. +Me refiero a perder de la misma forma que hemos perdido los dinosaurios, de hecho perderlos, para no verlos nunca ms. +As, un grupo se reuni y decidi que ya era suficiente y que tenamos que hacer algo al respecto y que necesitbamos instalaciones donde realmente se pueda proteger nuestra diversidad biolgica. Puede que no sea la diversidad ms carismtica. +No se mira a los ojos de una semilla de zanahoria como miramos a un oso panda, sin embargo, la diversidad es muy importante. +Como necesitbamos un lugar realmente seguro, nos hemos ido bastante lejos al norte para encontrarlo. +A Svalbard. +Est por encima de Noruega continental. Se puede ver Groenlandia all. +Est a 78 grados norte. +Est tan lejos como lo que se puede volar en un avin regular. +Es un paisaje de singular belleza. Ni siquiera puedo empezar a describrselo. +Es otro mundo. Hermoso. +Hemos trabajado con el gobierno de Noruega y con NorGen, el programa noruego de recursos genticos, para disear esta construccin. +Lo que se ve es la concepcin de un artista de esta construccin que se ha construido en una montaa en Svalbard. +Hacerlo en Svalbard es porque hace fro, as que conseguimos las temperaturas de congelacin natural. +Pero est lejos. Est lejos y es accesible as que es seguro y no dependen de la refrigeracin mecnica. +Esto es ahora ms que el sueo de un artista, es una realidad. +Y en esta imagen se muestra en su contexto, en Svalbard. +Y aqu est la puerta principal de la construccin. +Al abrir la puerta de entrada Esto es lo que se ve. Es muy sencillo. Se trata de un agujero en el suelo. +Es un tnel, y se entra por el tnel, esculpido en roca slida, a unos 130 metros. +Ahora hay un par de puertas de seguridad, as que no tiene el mismo aspecto que ste. +Cuando se llega a la parte de atrs, se entra en un rea que es realmente mi favorita. +Y por qu? Pienso en ello como una especie de catedral. +Y s que esto me da la etiqueta de un poco idiota, pero +Algunos de los das ms felices de mi vida los he pasado +en este lugar. +Si tuvieran que entrar en alguna de estas habitaciones, veran esto. +No es muy emocionante, pero si saben lo que hay, es muy emotivo. +Ahora tenemos cerca de 425.000 muestras de variedades nicas de cultivos. +Hay 70.000 muestras de distintas variedades de arroz en esta instalacin actualmente. +En aproximadamente un ao a partir de ahora vamos a tener ms de medio milln de muestras. +Subiremos ms de un milln y, algn da, bsicamente tendremos muestras -- alrededor de 500 semillas -- de todas las variedades de cultivos agrcolas que puedan almacenarse en estado de congelacin en estas instalaciones. +Es un sistema de respaldo para la agricultura mundial. +Es un sistema de respaldo para todos los bancos de semillas. Almacenar es gratis. +Funciona como una caja de seguridad. +Noruega es propietaria de la montaa y de la instalacin, pero a los depositantes les pertenece la semilla. +Y si pasa algo, entonces pueden volver y recogerlas. +En esta foto que ven, se muestra la coleccin nacional de los EEUU, de Canad, y una institucin internacional de Siria. +No puedo pensar en otra cosa que haya pasado en mi vida de esa manera. +No puedo mirarles a los ojos y decirles que tengo una solucin para el cambio climtico, para la crisis del agua. +La agricultura utiliza el 70 % de los suministros de agua dulce de la tierra. +No puedo mirarles a los ojos y decirles que existe una solucin para esto o para la crisis energtica o para el hambre en el mundo o la paz en zonas de guerra. +No puedo mirarles a los ojos y decirles que tengo una solucin sencilla para esto, Pero puedo mirarles a los ojos y decirles que no podemos resolver ninguno de estos problemas si no tenemos la diversidad de cultivos. +Porque les desafo a pensar en una respuesta eficaz, eficiente, sostenible solucin al cambio climtico, si no tenemos la diversidad de cultivos. +Porque, literalmente, si la agricultura no se adapta al cambio climtico, tampoco lo haremos nosotros. +Y si los cultivos no se adaptan al cambio climtico, tampoco lo har la agricultura, tampoco lo haremos nosotros. +Por lo tanto, esto es algo bonito y agradable de hacer. +Hay un montn de personas que le encantara que existiera esta diversidad simplemente por el valor de existencia misma. +Es, estoy de acuerdo, algo agradable de hacer. +Pero es algo necesario de hacer. +As, en un sentido muy real, creo que nosotros, como comunidad internacional, deberamos organizarnos para completar la tarea. +La Svalbard Global Seed Vault es un regalo maravilloso que Noruega y otros nos han dado, pero no es la respuesta completa. +Tenemos que recoger el resto de la diversidad que hay ah fuera. +Tenemos que ponerlo en buenos bancos de semillas que puedan ofrecerlas a los investigadores en el futuro. +Tenemos que catalogarlas. Es una biblioteca de la vida, pero ahora yo dira que no tenemos un catlogo de este tipo. +Y tenemos que apoyarlo financieramente. +Mi idea sera que mientras pensamos en algo comn como financiar un museo de arte o financiar una ctedra en una universidad, realmente deberamos estar pensando en financiar el trigo. +30 millones de dlares en un fondo se hara cargo de conservar toda la diversidad de trigo para siempre. +As que tenemos que pensar un poco en esos trminos. +Y mi ltimo pensamiento es que nosotros, por supuesto, mientras conservamos trigo, arroz, patatas y los otros cultivos, podemos, simplemente, acabar salvndonos. +Gracias. +Les voy a contar sobre uno de los problemas ms grandes del mundo y cmo puede ser resuelto. +Me gustara empezar con un pequeo experimento. +Podran levantar la mano aquellos que usan lentes o lentes de contacto, o si han tenido una ciruga refractiva con laser? +Desafortunadamente, son demasiados para poder hacer una estadstica correcta +Pero al parecer -- estoy estimando -- que son alrededor de 60% porque eso es ms o menos la fraccin de la poblacin del mundo desarrollado que tiene alguna forma de correccin visual. +La Organizacin Mundial de la Salud estima -- bueno, en realidad ellos tienen distintas estimaciones sobre el nmero de personas que necesitan lentes -- la estimacin ms baja es de 150 millones de personas. +Tambin tienen un estimado de alrededor de mil millones. +Pero de hecho, yo argumento que acabamos de hacer un experimento, que nos demuestra que la necesidad global de lentes correctivos es de alrededor la mitad de la poblacin. +Y el problema de la mala visin, en realidad no es slo un problema de salud, sino tambin un problema de educacin y tambin es un problema econmico, y es un problema de calidad de vida. +Los lentes no son caros. Son muy abundantes. +El problema es que no hay suficientes profesionales dedicados a la asistencia de la salud visual en el mundo para utilizar el modelo de la entrega de lentes correctivos cmo sucede en los pases desarrollados. +Hay muy pocos profesionales en la salud visual. +Esta pequea diapositiva, muestra a un optometrista y la persona azul representa alrededor de 10,000 personas y esa es la proporcin en el Reino Unido. +Esta es la razn de optometristas contra personas en frica subsahariana. +De hecho, hay pases en esta regin donde hay un optometrista por cada 8 millones de personas. +Cmo haces esto? Cmo resuelves este problema? +Se me ocurri una solucin a este problema, y se me ocurri una solucin basada en la ptica adaptativa para ello. +La idea es que t haces tus lentes y t los ajustas a tu medida. y eso resuelve el problema. +Lo que quiero demostrar es como se puede hacer uno de estos lentes. +Les mostrare como se hacen los lentes. Pondr esto en mi bolsillo. +Yo soy miope. Miro las seales al final y casi no puedo verlas. +Entonces -- ok, ahora ya puedo ver a un hombre corriendo y puedo ver a ese hombre corriendo. +Acabo de hacer lentes de prescripcin con mi medida. +El siguiente paso es mi proceso. +Entonces, ya hice mis lentes con mi prescripcin. +Si, entonces ya hice estos lentes y ... +Si, ya hice estos lentes a mi prescripcin y ... +... acabo de ... +Y acabo de hacer unos lentes. Eso es todo. +Ahora, estos no son los nicos en el mundo. +De hecho, esta tecnologa ha estado evolucionando. +Empec a trabajar en esto en 1985. y ha estado evolucionando lentamente. +Hay alrededor de 30,000 en uso ahora. +Y estn en 15 pases. Estn repartidos alrededor del mundo. +Yo, tengo una visin, la cual voy a compartir con ustedes. +Tengo una visin global para la visin. +Y esa visin es de intentar, de lograr que mil millones de personas usen los lentes que necesitan para el ao 2020. +Para lograr eso -- esto es un ejemplo precoz de la tecnologa. +La tecnologa est siendo desarrollada -- el costo debe ser reducido. +Estos, de hecho, cuestan alrededor de 19 dlares. +Pero el costo tiene que ser reducido. +Tiene que ser reducido porque estamos tratando de atender poblaciones que viven con 1 dlar al da. +Cmo se resuelve este problema? +Uno comienza a entrar en detalles. +Bsicamente estoy explicando todos los problemas que se tienen. +Cmo se distribuyen? Cmo haces para que encaje? +Cmo haces para que las personas se den cuenta que tiene problemas con su visin? +Cmo lidiar con la industria? +Y la respuesta a esto, es la investigacin. +Lo que hemos hecho es crear el Centro de Visin en el Mundo en Desarrollo. aqu en la universidad. +Si desean saber ms, slo accedan a nuestra pgina web. Muchas gracias. +Es difcil de creer de que haya pasado menos de un ao desde el extraordinario momento cuando las finanzas y el crdito que impulsan nuestra economa se congelaron. +Un ataque cardaco masivo. +El efecto, la consecuencia quizs, de aos de vampiros depredadores como Bernie Madoff, A quienes hemos visto antes. +Abusadores con esteroides, atracndose como si nada. +Y hace solamente unos meses desde que los gobiernos inyectaron enormes sumas de dinero para mantener el sistema a flote +Y estamos ahora en una muy extraa especie de penumbra donde nadie sabe realmente que funcion, o qu no. +no tenemos ningn mapa muy claro, ninguna brjula para guiarnos. +Ya no sabemos ms en cules expertos creer. +Lo que intentar es dar algunas pautas acerca de lo que creo es el paisaje al otro lado de la crisis, Cuales cosas deberamos estar buscando Y cmo podemos usar la crisis realmente. +Hay una definicin de liderazgo que dice "Es la habilidad de usar la menor crisis posible para el mayor efecto posible". +Y yo deseo hablar de cmo nos aseguramos de que esta crisis, la que de ninguna manera es menor, realmente sea usada por completo +Empezar contando un poco acerca de dnde vengo. +Tengo una muy confusa formacin lo que quizs me vuelve apropiado para tiempos confusos. +Tengo un doctorado en telecomunicaciones, como pueden ver. +Fui entrenado brevemente como monje budista por este muchacho. +He sido un servidor pblico. Y estuve a cargo de las politicas para este muchacho tambin. +pero de lo que quiero hablar comienza cuando estaba en esta ciudad, esta universidad, cuando era estudiante. +Entonces, como ahora, era un bello lugar de bailes y barcas, bella gente muchos de los cuales tomaban en serio el comentario de Ronald Reagan sobre "Aun si se dice que el trabajo duro no hace ningn dao, para qu correr el riesgo?" +Pero cuando estuve aqu muchos de mis compaeros adolescentes estaban en una muy diferente situacin, dejando la escuela en un tiempo de creciente desempleo juvenil, y esencialmente chocando una pared en trminos de falta de oportunidades. +Y pas con ellos mucho tiempo, ms que en barcas, +Y eran personas no cortas de ingenio, de gracia o de energa, pero no tenan esperanza, ni trabajo ni perspectivas. +Y cuando a la gente no se le permite ser til, rpidamente piensan que son intiles. +Y, aunque eso fue bueno para el negocio de la msica, no fue muy bueno para nada ms. +y desde entonces me pregunto porqu es el capitalismo tan sorprendentemente eficiente en algunas cosas, pero tan ineficiente en otras, porqu es tan innovador en algunos aspectos, y tan no innovador en otros. +Bueno, desde aquel tiempo, hemos estado en medio de un increble auge, el ms largo de la historia de este pas. +Con riqueza y prosperidad sin precedentes, pero ese crecimiento no siempre nos di lo que necesitbamos. +H.L. Mencken dijo "Para cada problema complejo, existe una solucin sencilla y est equivocada". +Pero no estoy diciendo que el crecimiento sea malo, pero es sorprendente que a travs de aos de crecimiento, much cosas no mejoraron. +La tasa de depresin creci, a lo largo del mundo occidental. +Si miramos Amrica, la proporcin de americanos sin nadie con quien hablar acerca de cosas importantes creci desde un dcimo hasta un cuarto del total. +Viajamos mayor distancia al trabajo pero, como ven en este grfico, cuando ms lejos viajamos, tendemos a ser menos felices. +Y ha sido an mas claro que el crecimiento econmico no se traduce automticamente en crecimiento social, o humano. +Estamos ahora en otro momento cuando otra ola de adolescentes est entrando en un mercado de trabajo cruel. +Habr un millon de jvenes desempleados ac hacia fin de ao. Miles pierden sus trabajos cada da en Amrica. +Tenemos que hacer todo lo que podamos para ayudarlos, pero tambin nos debemos preguntar, creo, una cuestin mas profunda sobre si usaremos esta crisis para saltar hacia adelante hacia una clase diferente de economa, ms adecuada a las necesidades humanas, a un mejor balance entre economa y sociedad. +Y creo que una de las lecciones de la historia es que an la mas profunda crisis puede ser una oportunidad. +Traen ideas de la periferia hacia la corriente de pensamiento central. +A menudo guan la aceleracin de las muy necesitadas reformas. +Y, como se vi en los Treintas, la Gran Depresin allan el camino a Bretton Woods, los estados benefactores y todo eso. +Y creo que se puede ver alrededor nuestro ahora, algunos de los primeros intentos de una clase diferente de economa y capitalismo que pueden crecer. +Se puede verlo en la vida cotidiana. +Cuando los tiempos son duros, la gente hace cosas por s mismos, y a travs del mundo, Oxford, Omaha, Omsk, se puede ver una extrordinaria explosin de agricultura urbana. Gente tomando la tierra, tomando los tejados, convirtiendo barcazas en granjas temporales. +Yo soy una muy pequea parte de esto. +Tengo 60.000 de estas cosas en mi jardn +unos pocos de estos. Esta es "Atila, LA Gallina". +Y yo soy una muy pequea parte de este gran movimiento, lo que para algunos es sobre supervivencia, pero tambin es sobre valores, sobre una forma diferente de economa, que no tiene mucho que ver con el consumo o el crdito, si no con las cosas que nos importan a nosotros. +Tambin se pueden ver en todos lados la proliferacin de bancos de tiempo y monedas paralelas, gente usando tecnologas inteligentes para vincular todos los recursos liberados por el mercado: gente, edificios, tierra Y vincularlos con quienes tengan las ms urgentes necesidades +Hay una historia similar, creo, para los gobiernos +Ronald Reagan, nuevamente, dijo que las dos ms divertidas frases en el lenguaje ingls eran: "Soy del gobierno. Y estoy ac para ayudarlo". +Pero creo que en el ltimo ao, cuando los gobiernos dieron un paso adelante, la gente estuvo contenta de que estuvieran all, de que hicieran su parte +pero ahora, unos meses despus, sin importar cun buenos los polticos sean tragando sapos sin hacer una mueca, como alguien dijo, no pueden esconder su incertidumbre. +porque ya est claro cunto de la enorme cantidad de dinero que pusieron en la economa, realmente fue a arreglar el pasado, a rescatar bancos, las compaias automotrices, no para prepararnos para el futuro. +Cunto del dinero est yendo a concreto e impulsando el consumo, no a resolver los realmente profundos problemas que tenemos. +Seguramente debemos dar dinero a los emprendedores, a la sociedad civil, a gente capaz de crear lo nuevo, no a las grandes y bien conectadas compaas, a grandes y complejos programas de gobierno. +Y, despues de todo, el gran sabio chino Lao Tzu dijo "Gobernar un gran pas es como cocinar un pez pequeo, +no lo haga en exceso" +Y creo que ms y ms personas se estn preguntando: Porqu impulsar el consumo en lugar de cambiar lo que consumimos? +Como el alcalde de Sao Paulo, quien prohibi los carteles de anuncios, o en las muchas ciudades como San Francisco que estn creando infraestructura para autos elctricos. +Se puede ver un poco de lo mismo pasando en el mundo de los negocios. +Algunos de los banqueros, creo, aparentan no haber aprendido nada ni olvidado nada. +Pero pregntense ustedes mismos: Cules sern los mayores sectores de la economa en 10, 20 o 30 aos? No sern aquellos que se alinean para ser ayudados tales como autos, aeroespacial, y otros. +El mayor sector ser, por lejos, la salud -- ya es el 18 por ciento de la economa de Amrica y hay predicciones de que crecer hasta el 30 40% para mediados del siglo. +El cuidado de los ancianos, de los nios, ya es un mayor empleador que las automotrices. +Educacin: seis, siete, ocho por ciento de la economa y creciendo. +y creo que lo que conecta el desafo para la sociedad civil, el reto para los gobiernos y para los negocios ahora es en cierto sentido, uno muy sencillo, aunque bastante difcil. +Sabemos que nuestras sociedades tienen que cambiar radicalmente +sabemos que no podemos retroceder a dnde estbamos antes de la crisis +pero tambin sabemos que solamente mediante experimentacin descubriremos qu es exactamente administrar una ciudad de uso de carbono bajo, cmo atender a una poblacin de mayor edad, cmo lidiaremos con las adicciones a las drogas y as +y este es el problema: +en la ciencia, hacemos experimentos sistemticamente. +Nuestra sociedades gastan ahora dos, tres, cuatro por ciento del PIB invirtiendo sistemticamente en nuevos descubrimientos, en ciencia, en tecnologa, para estimular el flujo de invenciones brillantes que alumbran logros como ste. +y no es que nuestros cientficos sean necesariamente mucho ms inteligentes de lo que eran cien aos atrs, quizs lo sean, pero tienen un mucho mayor respaldo de lo que antes tenan. +Y esto es lo sorprendente, en esta sociedad no hay nada comparable, no hay una inversin comparable, ni experimentacin sistemtica en las cosas en las que el capitalismo no es bueno, tales como compasin, o empata, o relaciones o solidaridad. +Ahora, no lo entend realmente hasta que encontr a este muchacho que tena entonces 80 aos, ligramente catico que viva de sopa de tomate, y que pensaba que planchar estaba sobrevalorado. +El ayud a dar forma a las instituciones britnicas de la post-guerra, su estado del bienestar, su economa, pero que se reinvent a s mismo como un innovador social, volvindose el inventor de muchas, muy diferentes organizaciones. +algunas famosas como la Universidad Abierta que tiene 110.000 estudiantes, la Universidad de la Tercera Edad, con cerca de medio milln de adultos mayores enseando a otra gente mayor, a como cosas extraas tales como garages "Hgalo Ud. Mismo" y lneas de lenguajes y escuelas para innovadores sociales. +Y que termin su vida vendiendo empresas a capitalistas de riesgo. +el pensaba que si ud. ve un problema, no debera decirle a nadie como obrar, en lugar de hacerlo por ud. mismo, y que vivi lo suficiente y que vio muchas de sus ideas primero ridiculizadas y luego exitosas, que dijo que uno siempre debe tomar un "no" como una pregunta, y no una respuesta. +y que su vida fue un experimento sistemtico para encontrar mejores respuestas sociales, pero no desde una teora, sino desde la experimentacin, y experimentos que incluyen a la gente con la mejor comprensin de la necesidades sociales, que son, usualmente, la gente viviendo con esas necesidades. +y que crea que vivimos con otros, compartiendo el mundo con otros, y que, por lo tanto, nuestra innovacin debe ser hecha con otros tambin, no haciendo cosas a la gente, para la gente y as. +Ahora, lo que l hizo no sola tener un nombre, pero creo que rpidamente se est convirtiendo en la corriente principal. +Y esto es lo que hacemos en la organizacin que tiene su nombre donde probamos e inventamos, creamos, lanzamos nuevos emprendimientos, ya sea en escuelas, compaas web, organizaciones de salud, y dems +Y nos encontramos como parte de un movimiento global de instituciones de rpido crecimiento trabajando en innovacin social, usando ideas obtenidas del diseo, la tecnologa o la organizacin comunitaria para desarrollar las semillas de un mundo futuro, a travs de la prctica y la demostracin y no a travs de la teora. +Y se han extendido desde Corea a Brasil, desde la India a E.U.A. y a travs de Europa. +Se les ha dado un nuevo impulso por la crisis, por la necesidad de mejores respuestas a la falta de trabajo, a la ruptura de la comunidad y dems. +Algunas de estas ideas son extraas. +Estos son un coro de plaideras. +La gente se junta a cantar acerca de las cosas que realmente le molestan. +Otros son mucho ms pragmticos, entrenadores en salud, estudiantes de lo mental, clubes de trabajo. +Otras son bastante estructurales, como fondos de impacto social en dnde se junta dinero para invertir en alejar adolescentes del crimen o ayudando a gente mayor a mantenerlas fuera del hospital, y dnde se te paga de acuerdo a lo exitoso de tus proyectos. +Ahora, la idea que todo esto representa, Yo creo, se vuelve rpidamente sentido comn y parte de cmo respondemos a la crisis, reconociendo la necesidad de invertir en innovacin para el progreso social as como en el progreso tecnolgico. +Hubo grandes fondos en innovacin en salud lanzados a principios del ao en este pas as como laboratorios de innovacin en servicios sociales. +A lo largo de Europa del norte muchos gobiernos ahora tienen laboratorios de innovacin. +y justamente unos pocos meses atrs, el presidente Obama lanz la Oficina de la Innovacin Social en la Casa Blanca. +Y lo que la gente est comenzado a preguntar es: seguro, as como invertimos en I + D dos, tres, cuatro por ciento de nuestro PIB, de nuestra economa, Qu tal si ponemos, digamos, uno por ciento del gasto pblico en innovacin social, en cuidado de los mayores, en nuevas formas de educacin, de ayudar a los discapacitados? +Quizs logremos incrementos de productividad en la sociedad similares a los que logramos en la economa y en la tecnologa. +Ahora, estos son objetivos que se pueden lograr en una dcada, pero solamente mediante experimentacin radical y sistemtica, no solamente en tecnologas, sino tambin en estilos de vida y cultura y polticas e instituciones tambin. +Quiero terminar diciendo lo que creo que esto significa para el capitalismo. +Creo que todo esto, todo el movimiento que est creciendo desde los mrgenes, permanece pequeo. +Nada parecido a los recursos del CERN, del DARPA, de una IBM o una Dupont. +Lo que nos dice que el capitalismo est en camino de volverse ms social. +Ya est inmerso en redes sociales, +y se volver ms involucrado en inversin social y solidaridad social y en actividades en dnde el valor viene de lo que haces con otros, No solamente de lo que les vendas a ellos, y de relaciones, tanto como del consumo, +pero, interesantemente, esto implica un futuro donde la sociedad aprenda unos cuantos trucos del capitalismo acerca de cmo imbuir el gen de la incesante e incansable innovacin en la sociedad, probando cosas, y haciendo crecer y desarrollarse las que funcionan +Creo que este futuro ser bastante sorprendente para mucha gente. +En aos recientes, mucha gente inteligente pens que el capitalismo bsicamente haba ganado. +La historia haba terminado y la sociedad debera tomar un segundo lugar, luego de la economa. +He sido impresionado por el paralelo de cmo a menudo la gente habla del capitalismo hoy y de cmo hablaban de la monarqua hace 200 aos, justo despus de la Revolucin Francesa y de la restauracin de la monarqua en Francia. +En ese entonces la gente deca que la monarqua dominaba en todos lados porque tena races en la naturaleza humana. +Nosotros somos naturalmente respetuosos. Necesitamos jerarquas. +Tanto como hoy, los entusiastas del capitalismo sin lmites dicen que est enraizado en la naturaleza humana, pero ahora es individualismo, es el cuestionamiento, y dems. +Entonces, la monarqua vea a la democracia de masas, su retadora como bien intencionada, pero un experimento condenado a fallar. As el capitalismo ve al socialismo. +An Fidel Castro dice que la nica cosa peor a ser explotado por una multinacional capitalista es no ser explotado por una multinacional capitalista. +Y as como las monarquas, sus palacios y fuertes dominaban el horizonte de cada ciudad y se vean permanentes y confiables, hoy son las iluminadas torres de los bancos que dominan cada ciudad grande. +No estoy sugiriendo que las muchedumbres estn por tomar las barricadas y de colgar cada banquero de inversin del farol ms cercano, aunque eso sea bastante tentador. +Y cuando esto pase recordaremos algo muy simple y obvio acerca del capitalismo, de que, en contra de lo que se lee en textos de economa, no es un sistema autosuficiente. +Depende de otros sistemas, de la ecologa, de la familia, de la comunidad, y que si estos no son renovados, el capitalismo sufre tambin. +Y que nuestra naturaleza no es solo egosta, es tambin compasiva. +No es solo competitiva, es tambin solidaria. +Por la profundidad de la crisis, creo que es un momento de eleccin. +La crisis est, casi con certeza, profundizndose alrededor nuestro. +y ser peor al final de este ao, posiblemente peor en un ao de lo que es ahora. +Gracias +Soy un tecnlogo creativo y el foco de mi trabajo son las instalaciones pblicas. +Una de mis pasiones ms fuertes es esta idea de explorar la Naturaleza, y tratar de encontrar datos ocultos en ella. +Y me parece que existe un potencial latente en todas partes, a nuestro alrededor. +Todo arroja datos de alguna clase, sea un sonido, un olor o una vibracin. +Y a travs de mi trabajo he tratado de encontrar formas de aprovecharlo y descubrirlo. +Y esto me lleva fundamentalmente a un tema llamado cimtica. +Bien, la cimtica es el proceso de visualizar el sonido fundamentalmente haciendo vibrar un medio como arena o agua, como ven ah. +Si echamos un vistazo a la historia de la cimtica empezando por las observaciones de la resonancia, de Da Vinci, Galileo, del cientfico ingls Robert Hook, y luego de Ernest Chladni. +Chladni experiment usando una placa metlica, cubrindola de arena, y luego doblndola, para crear las figuras de Chaldni que ven aqu a la derecha. +Luego, la siguiente persona que explor este campo fue un caballero llamado Hans Jenny los aos 70. +Fue l quien invent el trmino cimtica. +Y hoy, volviendo al presente, tenemos un colaborador mo, experto en cimtica, John Stewart Reed. +Amablemente ha recreado para nosotros el experimento de Chaldni. +Lo que podemos ver aqu es la lmina de metal, esta vez conectada a un controlador de sonido, que es alimentado por un generador de frecuencias. +Y a medida que aumentan las frecuencias, los patrones que aparecen en la placa se hacen ms complejos. +Como ven con sus propios ojos. +Entonces, qu me atrae de la cimtica? +Para m la cimtica es una herramienta casi mgica. +Es como un espejo que muestra un mundo escondido. +Y a travs de las numerosas aplicaciones de la cimtica podemos descubrir realmente la sustancia de lo que no vemos. +Aparatos como el cimatoscopio, que pueden ver aqu, se han usado para observar cientficamente los patrones cimticos. +Y la lista de aplicaciones cientficas crece cada da. +Por ejemplo, en la oceonografa, se est creando un lxico del lenguaje de los delfines mediante la visualizacin de los rayos de snar que emiten. +Y ojal que en el futuro seamos capaces de entender mejor cmo se comunican. +Tambin podemos usar la cimtica para sanar y educar. +sta es una instalacin desarrollada con escolares. Hace un seguimiento de las manos. Y les permite controlar y colocar los patrones cimticos y los reflejos que stos provocan. +Tambin podemos utilizarla como una hermosa forma de arte natural. +Esta imagen proviene de un fragmento de la novena sinfona de Beethoven ejecutada en un aparato cimtico. +Es un poco como verlo desde otra perspectiva. +Y sta es "Machine" de Pink Floyd en vivo en el cimatoscopio. +Tambin podemos usar la cimtica como espejo de la Naturaleza. +Y recrear realmente las formas arquetpicas de la Naturaleza. +A la izquierda, por ejemplo, podemos ver un copo de nieve en su forma natural. +Y, a la derecha, un copo de nieve creado cimticamente. +Y aqu hay una estrella de mar natural y otra cimtica. +Hay miles de ejemplos. +Entonces, qu significa todo esto? +Bueno, queda mucho por explorar. Es muy prematuro. No hay mucha gente trabajando en este campo. +Pero piensen por un momento que el sonido s tiene forma. +Y hemos visto que puede afectar a la materia y darle forma. +Entonces, demos un salto para pensar en la formacin del Universo. +Pensemos en el sonido inmenso de la formacin del Universo. +Y si nos ponemos a pensar en eso entonces tal vez la cimtica tuvo una influencia en la formacin del Universo mismo. +Y aqu hay un atractivo visual, de una serie de cientficos aficionados y artistas de todas partes del mundo. +La cimtica es accesible para todos. +Y quiero instar a todos los presentes a aplicar su pasin, su conocimiento y sus habilidades en reas como la cimtica. +Y pienso que, colectivamente, podemos construir una comunidad global. +Podemos inspirarnos mutuamente. +Y podemos desarrollar esta exploracin de la esencia de las cosas que no vemos. Gracias. +Me complace enormemente tener la oportunidad de venir a contarles hoy acerca de lo que considero la mayor escena de riesgo del planeta. +O quiz ms: +un salto en paracadas desde los confines del espacio. +Hablar de esto en un momento. +Fui doble de riesgo profesional durante 13 aos. +Soy coordinador y realizador de escenas de riesgo, a menudo las diseo. +Durante ese tiempo la salud y la seguridad se volvieron vitales para mi trabajo. +Ahora es crtico que cuando hay un choque de auto no slo protejamos al doble sino tambin al equipo. +No podemos matar a los camargrafos, ni a los dobles. +No podemos matar ni herir a nadie en el set; tampoco a los transentes. La seguridad lo es todo. +Pero no siempre fue as. +En los viejos tiempos de las pelculas mudas --aqu est Harold Lloyd colgando de las famosas agujas del reloj-- muchos de estos tipos actuaban sin dobles. Fueron excepcionales. +No tenan seguridad ni tecnologa. +Contaban con una seguridad muy escasa. +Esta es la primera doble: Rosie Venger, una mujer fuera de serie. +Pueden verla en pantalla, muy muy fuerte. +Ella realmente allan el camino en tiempos en que nadie haca escenas de riesgo, y mucho menos las mujeres. +Mi favorito, un verdadero hroe para m, es Yakima Canutt +porque realmente concibi las escenas de peleas. +Trabaj con John Wayne y con la mayora de los que pelean en los westerns. Yakima o estuvo all o coordin la accin. +Esta es una captura de pantalla de "La diligencia", donde Yakima Canutt realiza una de las escenas de riesgo ms peligrosas que yo haya visto jams. +No hay medidas de seguridad, ni ayuda oculta, ni almohadillas, ni colchonetas, tampoco areneros en el piso. +Esa es, desde luego, una de las escenas a caballo ms peligrosas. +Hablando de escenas peligrosas y puntualmente de cosas ms actuales, una de las escenas de ms riesgo que hacemos los dobles son las escenas con fuego. +No podramos hacerlas sin la tecnologa. +Estas son particularmente peligrosas porque no tengo mscara en la cara. +Fue una produccin fotogrfica. Una para el peridico Sun y otra para FHM (Revista Para l). +Muy peligrosas pero tambin notarn que no parece que tenga nada debajo del traje. +Los viejos trajes ignfugos, voluminosos, de lana gruesa, han sido reemplazados por materiales modernos como el nomex o, ms recientemente, el carbonex. Materiales fantsticos que nos permiten, como dobles profesionales, arder por ms tiempo, parecer ms espectaculares, y de manera muy segura. +Aqu hay un poco ms. +All hay un hombre que me ataca con un lanzallama. +Una de las cosas que un doble hace a menudo, y lo van a ver siempre en las grandes pelculas, es volar por los aires. +Bien, solamos usar cama elstica. En los viejos tiempos era todo lo que haba. +Y eso es una rampa. Rebotar y volar por el aire. Con suerte se lograba hacer que se vea bueno. +Ahora contamos con tecnologa llamada aire de impacto. +Es un equipamiento aterrador para un doble de risgo novato. Porque te quiebra las piernas muy rpidamente si caes mal sobre l. +Dicho esto, funciona con nitrgeno comprimido. +Y eso est hacia arriba. Cuando uno se sube, ya sea por control remoto o con la presin del pie, te dispara, en funcin de la presin del gas, a una distancia de entre 1,5 y 9 metros. +Podra, literalmente, dispararme hacia la galera. +Estoy seguro que no querran que lo haga. +No hoy. +Las escenas con autos son otro rea en el que los avances en tecnologa e ingeniera nos han simplificado la vida y la han hecho ms segura. +Ahora podemos hacer mejores escenas de autos que antes. +Ser atropellado no es algo fcil. +Esa es una escena anticuada, difcil, valiente, fsica. +Pero tenemos almohadillas y materiales que absorven impactos como el sorbothan. Son materiales que nos ayudan, en los golpes como este, para no herirnos demasiado. +La imagen del cuadrante inferior derecho pertenece a un trabajo que hice en un choque de prueba. +Muestra la manera de trabajo de los dobles de riesgo en distintas reas. +Para probar, por ejemplo, los carteles viales. +Una compaa hace pilares para carteles viales, en forma de red, de tipo entrelazado que se caen al ser impactados. +El auto de la izquierda impacta sobre el pilar de acero. +No puede verse desde all pero el motor del auto qued en la falda del conductor. +Lo hicieron a control remoto. +Yo conduje el otro a 96 kilmetros por hora, exactamente la misma velocidad, y sal airoso de eso. +El vuelco de autos es otro rea que requiere tecnologa. +Solamos conducir por una rampa y todava lo hacemos a veces. +Pero ahora tenemos un can de nitrgeno comprimido. +Pueden alcanzar a ver, debajo del auto, hay una barra negra lateral a la rueda del otro auto. +Es el pistn disparado desde el piso. +Podemos voltear camiones, coches, buses, lo que sea, con un can de nitrgeno con la potencia suficiente. En verdad, es un gran trabajo. Nos divertimos mucho! +Deberan oir alguna de las conversacines telefnicas de las que tengo con la gente por Blutooth en la tienda: +Bien, podemos voltear el bus, envolverlo en llamas y generar una gran explosin. +La gente se queda mirando +Casi que me olvido de lo extrao que puedan resultar esas conversaciones. +Lo prximo que quisiera mostrales es algo que Dunlop me pidi, a principios de ao, para el programa Quinta Velocidad del canal cinco. +Una vuelta 360, la ms grande del mundo. +Slo una persona lo haba hecho antes. +La solucin del doble para esto, en las viejas pocas, hubiera sido: "Impactemos a mxima velocidad, 96 kms por hora. +Simplemente hagmoslo, a toda mquina. +Bien, de hacerlo as, habramos muerto. +Fuimos a la Universidad de Cambridge, la otra universidad, y hablamos con un doctor en ingeniera mecnica, un fsico que nos ense que debamos hacerlo a 60 kilmetros por hora. +As y todo, soport siete Gs, tuve, por momentos, prdida de conocimiento al hacerlo. +Es una distancia muy alta para caer si uno se equivoca. Eso estuvo casi perfecto. +As que, de nuevo, la ciencia nos ayuda. Y la ingeniera tambin. Las modificaciones al auto y la rueda +Las grandes cadas son algo anticuado. +Lo interesante de las grandes cadas es que, aunque usemos bolsas de aire, y algunas bolsas de aire, saben, son muy avanzadas, las bolsas son diseadas para no resbalarse como sola pasar, si uno aterrizaba un poco mal. Entonces, son una opcin mucho ms segura. +Aunque, bsicamente, es algo muy simple. +Es un inflable elstico con rendijas laterales para el escape de aire. +Eso es todo, es un inflable. +Esa es la nica razn por la que lo hacemos. Vean, este trabajo es pura diversin. +Lo interesante es que todava usamos cajas de cartn. +Solan usarse cajas de cartn hace aos y todava seguimos usndolas. +Y eso es interesante porque es casi retrospectivo. +Son muy buenas para atraparte hasta ciertas alturas. +Y por otro lado ese arte fsico, de la actividad fsica del doble de riesgo, interacta con la tecnologa de punta en TI y software. +Ya no es la caja de cartn sino la pantalla verde. +Esto es una toma de Terminator, la pelcula. +Dos dobles de riesgo haciendo lo que considero una escena comn. +Son 9 metros. Es agua. Algo muy simple. +Con la pantalla verde podemos poner el fondo que se nos ocurra, en movimiento o fijo. Les aseguro que, hoy en da, no pueden ver la junta. +Este es un paracaidista con otro haciendo lo mismo. +Completamente en la seguridad de un estudio, con la pantalla verde, podemos tomar alguna imagen en movimiento obtenida por un paracaidista de estilo, colocndole el cielo en movimiento y las nubes pasando muy rpido. +Los aparejos y cables deceleradores. Los usamos mucho. +Hacemos volar gente con cables, as. +Este tipo no est cayendo en paracadas. Est siendo remontado como un barrilete, o movido de un lado a otro como un barrilete. +Y este es un intento de batir un rcord mundial Guinness. +Me pidieron que inaugurara el espectculo del aniversario 50, en 2004. +Nuevamente, la tecnologa signific que pudiera hacer el ms rpido descenso en rappel en 100 metros y detenerme a centmetros del suelo sin derretir la cuerda por friccin gracias a las aleaciones usadas en el dispositivo de descenso. +Y esto es Centre Point, en Londres. +Paralizamos Oxford Street y Tottenham Court Road. +Las tomas con helicpteros siempre son divertidas, colgndose de ellos, lo que sea. +Y los dobles areos. No sera lo mismo sin el paracaidismo de estilo. +Lo que nos lleva, muy bien, a lo que quiero presentarles: El proyecto Salto Espacial. +En 1960, Joseph Kittenger de la Fuerza Area de EE.UU. hizo algo increble. +Salt de 30.500 metros, 31.025 para ser exacto. Y lo hizo para probar los sistemas de gran altitud para pilotos militares en la nueva gama de aviones que volaban a unos 24.000 metros. +Y qusiera mostrarles unas secuencias de lo que l hizo entonces. +Y de lo valiente que fue, en 1960, tnganlo presente. +Se lo llam Proyecto Excelsior. +Hubo tres saltos. +Primero lanzaron unos maniques. +Ese es el globo, un gran globo de gas. +Tiene esa forma porque el helio tiene que expandirse. +Mi globo se expandir 500 veces y se ver como una gran calabaza cuando est arriba. +Estos son los maniques que sern lanzados a 30.500 metros. Y esa es la cmara que llevan consigo. +A esa altitud puede verse claramente la curvatura de la Tierra. +Yo estoy planeando ir a 36.500 metros, es decir, unos 36 kilmetros. +En ese entorno hay casi vaco y la temperatura ronda los -50C. +Es un lugar extremadamente hostil. +Este es el mismsimo Joe Kittenger. +Tengan presente, damas y caballeros, esto es 1960. +No saban si l vivira o morira. Este es un hombre extremadamente valiente. +Hablaba al telfono con l hace unos meses. +Es un ser humano muy humilde y maravilloso. +Me envi un correo electrnico que deca: Si logras realizar esto te deseo lo mejor. Y firmaba Felz aterrizaje. Algo que me result encantador. +Tiene 80 aos y vive en Florida. Es un tipo extraordinario. +Aqu lo tienen, con un traje presurizado. +Ahora bien, uno de los desafos que conlleva estar a 9.000 metros -- es buensmo no creen? -- Cuando se llega a los 9.000 metros uno slo usa oxgeno. +Entre los 9.000 y los 15.000 metros se necesita presin para respirar, por eso uno usa trajes G. +Aqu lo vemos con sus viejos jeans de rock & roll, ponindoselos, esos jeans dados vuelta. +Se necesita un traje presurizado. +Se necesita un sistema de presurizacin de respiracin con un traje G que te oprima para ayudarte a inhalar y ayudarte a exhalar. +Por encima de los 15.000 metros se necesita un traje espacial, un traje presurizado. +Desde luego que a 30.500 metros no llegan los aviones. +Ni siquiera un jet. +Se necesita la potencia de un cohete, o una de estas cosas, un gran globo de gas. +Me llev mucho tiempo, me llev aos encontrar el equipo adecuado para construir el globo que permitiera realizar esta empresa. +Ahora encontr este equipo en EE.UU. +Est hecho de polietileno, por eso es tan delgado. +Tendremos dos globos para cada uno de mis saltos de prueba. Y dos globos para el salto principal porque ellos se rompen notoriamente en el despegue. +Son muy, muy delicados. +Este es el ltimo paso. Se ha escrito sobre esto: "El paso ms grande del mundo". +Qu se sentir? +Estoy entusiasmado y asustado. Ambas cosas a la vez y en igual medida. +Y esta es la cmara que llevaba consigo al caer en picada antes de que se abriera su paracadas de freno para estabilizarlo. +Esto es simplemente un dispositivo que te ayuda a mantenerte boca abajo. +Pueden verlo all, desplegndose. +Esos son los paracadas de freno. Haba tres. +Investigu mucho. +Y lo van a ver en un segundo como vuelven a la superficie. +Para que se den una idea del globo, los puntitos negros son personas. +Es muy alto. Es enorme. +Esto es en Nuevo Mxico. +Ese es el Museo de la Fuerza Area de EE.UU. +All hicieron una maqueta del globo. As era como se vea exactamente. +Mi gndola va a ser mucho ms simple. +Bsicamente, es una caja de tres lados. +As que he tenido mucho entrenamiento. +Esto es en Marruecos, el ao pasado, en la Cordillera del Atlas, entrenando para hacer saltos de gran altitud. +As es la vista que voy a tener a 27.000 metros. +Podran pensar que esto es un viaje en busca de adrenalina, un paseo por placer, simplemente la escena ms arriesgada del mundo. +Bueno, es ms que eso. +Tratar de encontrar un traje espacial apropiado me remiti a un rea de la tecnologa que jams imagin cuando comenc con esto. +Contact una empresa en EE.UU. que hace trajes para la NASA. +Ese es un traje actual. All estoy el ao pasado con el jefe de ingenieros. +Ese traje me costara cerca de un milln y medio de dlares. +Pesa 136 kilos y no es apto para hacer paracaidismo. +Estuve parado con eso. Durante los ltimos 15 aos he estado tratando de encontrar un traje espacial apto para este trabajo, o a alguien que pueda construirlo. +Pero sucedi algo revolucionario hace poco en las mismas instalaciones. +Ese es el prototipo del paracadas. Ahora me estn haciendo uno a medida. El nico en su tipo en el mundo. El nico traje en su tipo en el mundo. +Lo hizo un ruso que ha diseado la mayora de los trajes de los ltimos 18 aos para los soviticos. +Dej la compaa porque vio, como otra gente en la industria de trajes espaciales, un mercado emergente de trajes espaciales para turistas del espacio. +Ustedes saben que si estn en un avin a 9.000 metros y la cabina se despresuriza pueden tener oxgeno. +Pero a 30.500 metros mueren. +En 6 segundos habrn perdido consciencia. En 10 segundos estn muertos. +La sangre hierve. Se lo llama vaporizacin. +El cuerpo se hincha. Es espantoso. +Entonces esperamos -- no es tan divertido. +Esperamos, y otros esperan, que el ente regulador nos diga: Hay que meter a alguien en un traje que no est inflado, que est conectado a la aeronave. +Que est confortable, tenga buena visin como con este gran visor. +Y entonces si la cabina se despresuriza mientras la nave est regresando, ante cualquier emergencia, todo estar OK. +Me gustara traer a Costa si l est aqu para mostrarles al nico de su tipo en el mundo. +Me lo iba a poner yo pero pens que mejor lo haga Costa, mi encantador asistente. +Gracias. Es muy caluroso. Gracias Costa. +Este es el auricular de comunicacin que vern en muchos trajes espaciales. +Es un traje de dos capas. Los trajes de la NASA tienen 13 capas. +Este es un traje muy liviano. Pesa cerca de 7 kilos. +Es casi nada. Diseado especialmente para m. +Es un prototipo. Lo voy a usar para todos los saltos. +Por favor, podras dar una vuelta Costa? +Muchas gracias. +Y no se ve muy diferente cuando est inflado, como pueden ver en la foto all abajo. +Incluso lo prob en un tnel de viento, lo que significa que puedo practicar todo lo necesario, de manera segura, antes de realizar cualquier salto. Muchas gracias Costa. +Damas y caballeros eso es todo. +El estado de la misin en este momento es que necesita un patrocinador principal. +Confo en que lo vamos a encontrar. +Pienso que es un gran desafo. +Y espero que estn de acuerdo conmigo en que es la escena ms arriesgada del planeta. +Muchas gracias por su tiempo. +La mayora de las veces, el arte y la ciencia se observan entre s a travs de un abismo de incomprensin mutua. +Hay gran confusin cuando los dos se miran entre s. +El arte, por supuesto, mira al mundo a travs del alma, las emociones -- a veces del inconsciente -- y por supuesto, de la esttica. +La ciencia tiende a mirar el mundo a travs de lo racional, lo cuantitativo -- de cosas que se pueden medir y describir -- pero le da al arte un tremendo contexto para el conocimiento y la comprensin. +En Extreme Ice Survey, estamos dedicados a unir esas dos partes del entendimiento humano, confluyendo el arte y la ciencia con el fin de ayudarnos a comprender la Naturaleza y la relacin de la Humanidad con la Naturaleza en una forma mejor. +Especficamente, como una persona que ha sido un fotgrafo profesional de la Naturaleza toda mi vida adulta, creo firmemente que la fotografa, videos y pelculas tienen un tremendo poder para ayudarnos a comprender, y moldear la forma en que pensamos de la Naturaleza y de nosotros mismos en relacin a ella. +En este proyecto, estamos especficamente interesados, claro, en el hielo. +Estoy fascinado por su belleza, su mutabilidad, su maleabilidad , y las fabulosas formas en las cuales se esculpe. +Estas primeras imgenes son de Groenlandia. +Pero el hielo tiene otro significado. +El hielo es el canario en una mina de carbn global. +Es el lugar donde se puede ver, tocar, or y sentir el cambio climtico en accin. +Cambio climtico es en realidad algo abstracto en casi todo el mundo. +Si crees o no est basado en tu sentido de si llueve ms o llueve menos, +si se torna ms caluroso o se torna ms fro. +O en lo que los modelos computacionales dicen de esto, eso o aquella otra medida, +Todo eso, qutalo. En el mundo del rtico y entornos alpinos, donde hay hielo, [cambio climtico] es real y est presente. +Los cambios estn sucediendo. Son muy visibles. +Son fotografiables. Son medibles. +El 95 por ciento de los glaciares del mundo estn retrocediendo o encogiendo. +Eso es fuera de la Antrtida. +El 95 por ciento de los glaciares en el mundo estn retrocediendo o encogiendo. porque los patrones de precipitaciones y de temperaturas estn cambiando. +No hay disputas significativas al respecto. +Ha sido observado, est medido, es informacin a prueba de bombas. +Y la gran tragedia e irona de nuestro tiempo es que mucha gente piensa que la ciencia todava discute al respecto. +La ciencia no est discutiendo al respecto. +En estas imgenes vemos el hielo de enormes glaciares, capas de hielo que tienen cientos de miles de aos reducidas a pedazos y pedazo, tras pedazo, tras pedazo, tmpano, por tmpano, elevando el nivel global del mar. +Entonces, habiendo visto todo esto en el curso de mis 30 aos de profesin, estaba an escptico acerca del cambio climtico hasta hace 10 aos, porque pensaba que el tema del cambio climtico se basaba en modelos computacionales. +No me haba percatado que era basado en medidas concretas que eran los paleoclimas -- los climas del pasado -- tal y como se registra en las capas de hielo, en los sedimentos del fondo del ocano, en los sedimentos de lagos, anillos de rbol, y muchas otras formas de medir la temperatura. +Cuando me d cuenta que el cambio climtico era real, y no basado en modelos computacionales, decid que algn da hara un proyecto orientado a demostrar el cambio climtico fotogrficamente. +Y eso me gui a este proyecto. +Al inicio, estaba trabajando en una tarea del National Geographic. convencional, marco nico, fotografa fija. +Bien, dentro de tres semanas, Audazmente convert esa idea de un par de cmaras rpidas en 25 cmaras rpidas. +Y los siguientes seis meses de mi vida fueron los ms difciles de mi carrera, tratando de disear, construir e implementar en terreno estas 25 cmaras, +Funcionan con energa solar. Paneles solares les dan energa. +La energa va a una batera. Hay una computadora hecha especialmente que le dice a la cmara cuando disparar. +Y estas cmaras estn situadas en rocas a los lados de los glaciares, mirando hacia el glaciar desde posiciones de base permanente, y observando la evolucin del paisaje. +Recin tuvimos un nmero de cmaras en las capas heladas de Groenlandia. +En realidad perforamos el hielo, bien profundo bajo el nivel de derretimiento y dejamos las cmaras ah por un mes y medio aproximadamente. +En realidad, todava permanece una cmara ah. +En cualquier caso las cmaras disparan cada hora aproximadamente, +cada media hora, cada 15 minutos, cada cinco minutos. +Esta es una toma en secuencias que est haciendo una de las unidades. +Personalmente me obsesiono con cada tuerca, tornillo y lavado de estas locuras. +Pas la mitad de mi vida en la ferretera local durante los meses que construimos estas unidades originalmente. +Estuvimos trabajando en casi toda la regin de glaciares del hemisferio norte. +Nuestras unidades de cmaras estn en Alaska, las Rocallosas, Groenlandia e Islandia, y hemos repetido posiciones fotogrficas, como lugares que slo visitamos anualmente, en la Columbia Britnica, los Alpes y Bolivia. +Es una gran empresa. Estoy de pie aqu frente a ustedes esta noche como embajador de mi equipo completo. +Hay muchas personas trabajando en esto ahora mismo. +Tenemos 33 cmaras fuera en este momento. +recin tenamos 33 cmaras disparando hace media hora a travs de todo el hemisferio norte, observando qu est sucediendo. +Y hemos pasado mucho tiempo en este campo. Ha sido una cantidad fantstica de trabajo. +Hemos estado fuera durante dos aos y medio. y nos queda todava otros dos aos y medio ms para seguir. +Eso es slo la mitad de nuestro trabajo. +La otra mitad de nuestro trabajo es contar la historia al mundo. +Ya sabes, los cientficos han recopilado esta clase de informacin a travs de los aos, pero una gran cantidad permanece dentro de la comunidad cientfica. +Similarmente, muchos de los proyectos de arte permanecen en la comunidad artstica, y siento una gran responsabilidad a travs de mecanismos como TED, y como de nuestra relacin con Obama en la Casa Blanca, con el Senado, con la oficina de John Kerry, influir en polticas tanto como sea posible con estas fotos tambin. +Hemos hecho pelculas. Hemos editado libros. Tenemos ms por venir. +Tenemos un sitio en Google Earth que Google Earth fue bastante generoso en darnos -- todo esto porque sentimos la necesidad de contar esta historia, porque es una evidencia instantnea del progreso del cambio climtico hoy. +Ahora, un poco de ciencia antes de que nos adentremos a lo visual. +Si en el mundo desarrollado todos comprendieran este grfico, y lo llevaran marcado en la frente, no habra gran discusin pblica sobre el cambio climtico porque es la historia la que cuenta. +Todo lo dems que se escucha es slo propaganda y confusin. +Hechos claves: esto es informacin de 400.000 aos. +Este mismo patrn exacto se ve yendo hacia atrs casi un milln de aos antes de nuestro tiempo presente. +Y muchas cosas son importantes. +Nmero uno: la temperatura y el dixido de carbono en la atmsfera suben y bajan bsicamente en sincrona. +Pueden ver eso desde la lnea anaranjada y de la azul. +La naturaleza ha dejado subir el dixido de carbono hasta 280 partes por milln. +Este es un ciclo natural. +Sube a 280 y luego cae por varias razones que no son importantes discutir ahora. +Pero 280 es el mximo. +Ahora, si ven en la parte superior derecha del grfico, estamos en 385 partes por milln. +Estamos lejos, muy lejos, fuera de la variacin natural normal. +La Tierra est con fiebre. +En los ltimos cien aos, la temperatura de la Tierra ha subido hasta 1,3 grados fahrenheit, 0,75 grados celcius y se va a mantener subiendo porque seguimos vaciando desechos fsiles de combustibles a la atmsfera. +A una tasa de dos partes y media por milln al ao. +Ha sido un aumento cruel y sostenido. +Tenemos que revertir esto. +Eso es el quid, y algn da espero llevar este smbolo a travs de Time Square en Nueva York y muchos otros lugares. +Pero, volvamos al continente helado. +Estamos ahora en el Glaciar Columbia en Alaska. +Esta es una vista de lo que se llama el frente de desprendimiento. +Esto es lo que una de nuestras cmaras vieron en el transcurso de unos meses. +Se ve el glaciar que fluye desde la derecha, declinando en el mar, la cmara dispara cada hora. +Si miran al fondo en el centro, se puede ver el frente de desprendimiento balancendose como un yo-yo. +Esto significa que el glaciar est flotando en forma inestable, y van a ver las consecuencias de esa flotacin. +Para darles un poco de sentido de escala, ese frente de desprendimiento en esta foto tiene 100 metros de altura. Eso es 32 pisos. +No es un acantilado menor. ste es como un gran edificio de oficinas en un centro urbano. +El frente de desprendimiento es la pared visible donde se parte el hielo, de hecho, contina bajo el nivel del mar otros 600 metros. +Por lo tanto es una pared de hielo de 600 metros de profundidad bajando hasta su base, si el glaciar est situado en la base, y flotando si no lo est. +Esto es lo que el Columbia ha hecho. Esto es el centro sur de Alaska. +Esta es una foto area que tom un da de junio hace tres aos. +Esta es una foto area que tomamos este ao. +Esta es la contraccin de este glaciar. +La va principal, el flujo principal del glaciar viene de la derecha y est subiendo rpidamente esa va. +Vamos a subir en slo unas pocas semanas, y es probable que haya retrocedido otros 800 metros, pero si llego all y descubro que ha colapsado y ha retrocedido 8 km ms, no me sorprendera. +Ahora es muy difcil entender la magnitud de estos lugares debido a los glaciares -- una de las cosas es que lugares como Alaska y Groenlandia son inmensos, no son paisajes normales -- pero como los glaciares se retraen, tambin se desinflan, del mismo modo que un globo. +Y as, hay detalles caractersticos en este paisaje. +Hay una elevacin en el medio de esta foto, arriba sobre esa flecha que asoma, que les muestra un poco eso. +Hay una lnea demarcadora llamada lnea de recorte all sobre nuestra pequea ilustracin. +Esto es algo que ningn fotgrafo que se respete a s mismo hara -- se pone una burda ilustracin en su disparo, verdad? y a veces hay que hacerlo para narrar estos puntos. +Pero en cualquier caso, la deflacin del glaciar desde 1984 ha sido ms alta que la Torre Eiffel, ms alta que el edificio Empire State. +Una tremenda cantidad de hielo ha dejado aflorar estos valles como se ha retrado y desinflado, se ha vuelto valle. +Estos cambios en el mundo alpino se estn acelerando +No est esttico. +Particularmente en el mundo de hielo marino, la tasa de cambio natural est superando las predicciones de hace unos aos y los procesos o se estn acelerando o las predicciones eran muy bajas para empezar. +En cualquier caso, hay grandes, grandes cambios sucediendo mientras hablamos. +Bueno, aqu otra secuencia rpida de Columbia. +Y uno ve en donde terminaron esos varios das de primavera, junio, mayo, luego ocubre. +Ahora encendamos nuestras cmaras rpidas. +Esta cmara estuvo disparando cada hora. +Proceso geolgico aqu en accin. +Y todos dicen, bueno, y no avanzan en invierno? +No. Estuvo retrocediendo en el invierno porque es un glaciar insalubre. +Finalmente se alcanza a s mismo y avanza. +Y puedes observar estas fotos una y otra vez porque hay una extraa y bizarra fascinacin viendo estas cosas, normalmente no se logra verlo en vivo. +Hemos estado hablando de ver es creer y ver lo nunca visto en TED Global. +Esto es lo que ves con estas cmaras. +Las imgenes hacen visible lo invisible. +Estas tremendas grietas se abren. +Estas grandes islas de hielo se quiebran -- y ahora vean esto. +Esto fue en la primavera de este ao -- un gran derrumbe. Esto sucedi hace menos de un mes, la prdida de todo ese hielo. +Ah fue donde empezamos hace tres aos, y ms a la izquierda, es dnde estuvimos hace unos meses, la ltima vez fuimos a Columbia. +Para darles una idea del tamao de la retraccin, hicimos otra burda ilustracin. Con los buses ingleses de dos pisos. +si se alnean 295 de esos, uno detrs del otro, as era la distancia hacia atrs. +Es bastante lejos. +Hacia arriba hasta Islandia. +Uno de mis favoritos glaciares, el Slheimajkull. +Y aqu, si observan, pueden ver la retraccin terminal, +pueden ver el ro que se est formando, +pueden verlo desinflarse. +Sin este proceso fotogrfico, nunca se hubiera podido ver. Esto es invisible. +Podran estar parados ah toda su vida y nunca ver esto, pero la cmara s lo graba. +Entonces retrocediendo en el tiempo ahora. +Volvamos atrs en el tiempo un par de aos. +Eso es donde empezamos. +Eso es donde terminamos hace unos meses. +Y hacia arriba hasta Groenlandia. +Mientras mas pequea sea la masa de hielo, ms rpido responde al clima. +A Groenlandia le tom poquito empezar a reaccionar al calentamiento climtico del siglo pasado, pero en realidad empez en forma galopante hace 20 aos. +Y ha habido un tremendo aumento de la temperatura all arriba. +Es un tremendo lugar. Puro hielo. +Todos esos colores son hielo y tienen cerca de 3 km de espesor, como una cpula gigante que viene desde la costa y emerge en el medio. +Hay un glaciar en Groenlandia que ms provee de hielo al ocano que todos los otros glaciares del hemisferio norte combinados : el Glaciar IIulissat. +Tenemos algunas cmaras en el borde sur del IIulissat, observando como disminuye en forma dramtica su frente de desprendimiento. +Esto es como se ve eso en dos aos de grabacin. +El helicptero est delante del frente de desprendimiento y en escala se empequeece rpidamente. +Su frente de desprendimiento es de 7 km de ancho y en esta toma, mientras retrocedemos, estn viendo slo cerca de 2,5 km. +Entonces, imaginen lo grande que es y cunto hielo est cargando. +El interior de Groenlandia est a la derecha. +Fluye hacia el Ocano Atlntico a la izquierda. +Tmpanos, muchas, muchas, muchas veces el tamao de ste edificio rugiendo hacia el mar. +Bajamos estas fotos hace un par de semanas como pueden ver, 25 de junio, con monstruosos desprendimientos sucediendo. +Les mostrar uno de esos en un segundo. +Este glaciar ha duplicado la velocidad de su flujo en los ltimos 15 aos. +Ahora va a 38 metros por da, vaciando todo este hielo en el ocano. +Tiende a entrar en estas pulsaciones, cada tres das aproximadamente, pero en promedio, 38 m por da, dos veces la tasa de hace 20 aos. +De acuerdo. Tuvimos un equipo observando este glaciar, y grabamos el desprendimiento ms grande que se haya filmado. +Tenamos nueve cmaras filmando. +Esto es lo que un par de cmaras grabaron. +Un frente de desprendimiento de 120 metros de alto quebrndose. +Tremendos, tremendos tmpanos rodando. +Ok, de qu tamao fue eso? Es difcil saberlo. +De nuevo una ilustracin, para darle el sentido de escala. +[Aproximadamente] 1,6 km de retroceso en 75 minutos a travs del frente de desprendimiento de ese evento particular, 5 km de ancho. +El bloque meda 1 km de profundidad si compara la expansin del frente de desprendimiento con el Puente de la Torre en Londres, cerca de 20 puentes de ancho. +O si toma una referencia estadounidense, El Capitolio y pone 3.000 Capitolios dentro de ese bloque, sera el equivalente al tamao de ese bloque. +Todo eso en slo 75 minutos. +Ahora he llegado a la conclusin despus de pasar tanto tiempo aprendiendo acerca del cambio climtico que no tenemos un problema de economa, tecnologa y polticas pblicas. +Tenemos un problema de percepcin. +La poltica , la economa y la tecnologa son temas bastante serios, pero en realidad podemos lidiar con ellos. +Estoy convencido de que podemos. +Pero lo que tenemos es un problema de percepcin porque no mucha gente realmente se da cuenta todava. +Ustedes son una audiencia de lite. Se dan cuenta. +Afortunadamente, muchos lderes polticos en los principales pases del mundo son una audiencia de lite que en la mayor parte lo percibe. +Pero todava debemos atraer a mucha gente que se nos una. +Y eso es donde creo que organizaciones como TED, como el Extreme Ice Survey pueden causar un tremendo impacto en la percepcin humana y unirse a nosotros. +Porque creo que tenemos una oportunidad ahora. +Estamos casi al borde de una crisis, pero an tenemos una oportunidad de enfrentar el ms grande desafo de nuestra generacin y , de hecho, de nuestro siglo. +Esto es un gran llamado de atencin a hacer lo correcto para nosotros y para el futuro. +Espero que tengamos la sabidura para dejar a los ngeles de nuestra mejor naturaleza a la altura de las circunstancias y que hagan lo que tengan que hacer. Gracias. +Hoy les quiero hablar sobre nadar a travs del Polo Norte, a travs del lugar mas septentrional en todo el mundo. +Y quizs el mejor lugar para comenzar es con mi difunto padre. +l era un gran contador de historias. +l poda contar una historia sobre un evento, y hacerte sentir como si estuvieras ah en ese momento. +Y una de las historias que me contaba seguido cuando era un nio fue sobre la primera prueba Britnica de la bomba atmica. +l estuvo ah y la vio explotar. +Y dijo que la explosin fue tan fuerte y la luz tan intensa, que tuvo que poner sus manos frente a su cara para proteger sus ojos. +Y dijo que pudo ver una imagen de rayos-x de sus dedos porque la luz era muy brillante. +Y se que ver esa bomba atmica estallar tuvo un impacto muy grande en mi difunto padre. +Cada vacacin que tuve cuando nio fue en un parque nacional. +Lo que l estaba tratando de hacer era inspirarme a proteger el mundo, y mostrarme lo frgil que es. +Tambin me habl sobre los grandes exploradores. +l amaba la historia. Me contaba sobre el Capitn Scott caminando hasta el polo sur. Y sobre Sir Edmund Hillary escalando el Monte Everest. +Entonces, desde que tenia tan solo seis aos He soado con visitar las regiones polares. +Tenia muchas ganas de ir al rtico. +Haba algo de ese lugar que me atraa. +Y bueno, algunas veces lleva mucho tiempo que un sueo se vuelva realidad. +Pero hace siete aos fui al rtico. por primera vez. +Y era tan hermoso que he regresado ahi desde entonces, por los ltimos siete aos. +Amo ese lugar. +Pero lo he visto cambiar ms all de la descripcin, en ese corto periodo. +He visto osos polares caminando a travs de hielo muy delgado en busca de comida. +He nadado frente a glaciares que han retrocedido mucho. +Y tambin, cada ao, he visto menos y menos hielo. +Y quera que el mundo supiera lo que estaba sucediendo all. +Dos aos antes de mi nado, 23 por ciento del hielo rtico se derriti. +Y quera sacudir a los lideres mundiales para hacerlos entender lo que estaba pasando. +Entonces decid hacer este nado simblico. en el tope del mundo, en un lugar que debera estar congelado, pero que ahora se esta descongelando rpidamente. +Y el mensaje fue muy claro: El cambio climtico es real y debemos hacer algo al respecto. +Y debemos hacer algo al respecto ahora mismo. +Bueno, nadar a travs del Polo Norte, no es comn. +Es decir, para colocarlo en perspectiva, 27 grados es la temperatura de una piscina cubierta. +Esta maana, la temperatura del Canal de la Mancha era de 18 grados. +Los pasajeros que se cayeron del Titanic cayeron a un agua de solo cinco grados centigrados. +El agua fresca se congela a los cero grados. +Y el agua en el Polo Norte es menos 1.7. +Esta jodidamente congelada. +Lo siento pero no hay otra forma de describirla. +Entonces, tuve que reunir un equipo increble para que me ayude en esta tarea. +Arme este equipo con 29 personas de 10 pases. +Algunas personas creen que la natacin es un deporte de una sola persona, solo te lanzas al mar y ahi vas. +Pero eso no poda estar mas alejado de la verdad para mi. +Luego me entrene muchsimo. Nadando en aguas heladas, hacia atrs y hacia adelante. +Pero lo ms importante fue entrenar mi mente en preparacin para lo que iba a suceder. +Y tuve que visualizar el nado. +Lo tenia que ver desde el principio hasta el final. +Tena que sentir el agua salada en mi boca +Tenia que ver a mi entrenador gritandome, "Vamos Lewis! Vamos! Adelante! No te detengas!" +Y as fue como literalmente nade a travs del Polo Norte cientos y cientos de veces en mi cabeza. +Y luego de un ao de entrenamiento, me sent preparado. +Sent la confianza de que realmente podra realizar este nado. +As que, yo y cinco miembros del equipo, nos aventamos en un rompehielos que iba hacia el Polo Norte. +Y el cuarto da decidimos hacer un rpido nado de prueba de cinco minutos. +Nunca haba nadado en agua a menos 1.7 grados antes porque es imposible entrenar bajo esas condiciones. +As que detuvimos el barco. +Bajamos al hielo, y luego me puse mi traje de natacin. y me lance al mar. +Nunca en mi vida haba sentido algo como ese momento. +Apenas poda respirar. Me faltaba el aire. +Esta hiperventilando muchsimo. y en segundos mis manos se entumecieron. +Y la paradoja es que estas en aguas congelantes, pero te estas quemando. +Nade lo mas fuerte que pude por cinco minutos. +Solo recuerdo tratar de salir del agua. +Sal del hielo. +Y record sacarme las gafas de mi cara y mirar mis manos en shock porque mis dedos se haban hinchado tanto que parecan salchichas. +Y se hincharon tanto, que ni siquiera poda cerrarlos. +Lo que sucedi fue, estamos parcialmente hechos de agua, y cuando el agua se enfra, esta se expande. +Entonces lo que sucedi fue que las clulas de mis dedos se haban congelado y expandido. +Y haban estallado. Y yo estaba en agona. +Inmediatamente fui llevado al barco a una ducha caliente. +Y recuerdo estar bajo la ducha caliente tratando de descongelar mis dedos. +Y pens, en dos das voy a hacer este nado a travs del Polo Norte. +Iba a intentar y hacer un nado de 20 minutos, por un kilmetro a travs del Polo Norte. +Y este sueo que tenia desde que era un nio, con mi padre, se iba por la ventana. +No hay posibilidad de que sucediera. +Y recuerdo salir de la ducha y darme cuenta que ni siquiera podia sentir mis manos. +Y un nadador, necesita sentir sus manos porque necesitas poder agarrar el agua y tirar de ella contigo. +La maana siguiente me levante y estaba en tal estado de depresin. Y en todo lo que poda pensar era en Sir Ranulph Fiennes. +Para aquellos de ustedes que no lo conocen, l es el gran explorador Britnico. +Hace muchos aos trato de esquiar hasta el Polo Norte. +Accidentalmente cay a travs del hielo hacia el mar. +Y luego de tan solo tres minutos en el agua, luego de tan solo tres minutos en el agua, logr salir. +Y sus manos estaban tan congeladas que tuvo que volver a Inglaterra. +Fue a un hospital local y le dijeron, "Ran, no hay posibilidad de que salvemos estos dedos. +Vamos a tener que amputarlos." +Y Ran decidi ir a su cobertizo de herramientas tom una cierra y lo hizo el mismo. +Y todo lo que poda pensar era, si eso le paso a Ran luego de tres minutos, y yo no poda sentir mis manos luego de cinco minutos, qu iba a suceder si yo lo intentaba por 20 minutos? +En el mejor de los casos, iba a perder algunos dedos. +Y no quera pensar en lo peor que poda pasar. +Seguimos navegando a travs del hielo hacia el Polo Norte. +Y mi buen amigo David not lo que estaba pensando. Y se acerc y dijo, "Lewis, te conozco desde que tenias 18 aos. +te conozco, y se, Lewis, muy profundamente, que tu vas a hacer este nado. +Creo mucho en ti, Lewis. He visto como te has entrenado. +Y se porque haces esto. +Este nado es tan importante. +Nos encontramos en un momento clave en esta historia. Y tu vas a hacer un nado simblico aqui para tratar de sacudir a los lideres mundiales. +Lewis, ten el coraje de meterte ah porque te cuidaremos en todo momento." +Y me dio tanta confianza al escucharlo decir eso, porque el me conoca muy bien. +As que seguimos navegando y llegamos al Polo Norte. +Y detuvimos el barco, y fue tal como los cientficos predijeron. +Haba espacios en el hielo por todas partes. +Y me fui a mi cabina Y me puse mi traje de natacin. +Luego el doctor me coloco un monitor en el pecho que mide la temperatura del ncleo de mi cuerpo y mi pulso cardaco. +Y cuando camine hacia el hielo. +Record mirarlo y haba grandes trozos de hielo blanco ah. y el agua era completamente negra. +Nunca haba visto agua negra antes. +Y tiene 4.200 metros de profundidad. +Y me dije. "Lewis, no mires a la izquierda, no mires a la derecha. +Solo mira hacia adelante y hazlo." +Y ahora quera mostrarles un vdeo de lo que sucedi en el hielo. +Estamos navegando fuera de la baha ahora, y es en esta etapa cuando uno puede sentirse algo desorientado. +Todo se ve tan gris alrededor, y tan fro. +Hemos visto nuestros primeros osos polares. +Fue absolutamente mgico. +Una madre y su cachorro. Una imagen hermosa. +Y pensar que en 30, 40 aos podran estar extintos. +Es un pensamiento muy, muy aterrador. +Finalmente llegamos al Polo Norte. Fueron meses y meses y meses de soar para llegar aqu. Aos de entrenamiento, planeacin y preparacin. +Ooh. En un par de horas me voy a meter aqu y hacer mi nado. +Da un poco de miedo, y emociona. +Amundson, Estas listo? +Diez segundos para el nado. Diez segundos para el nado. +Scate las gafas. Scate las gafas! +Los zapatos. Los zapatos. +Bien hecho! Lo hiciste! Lo hiciste, Lewis! +Lo hiciste! Lo hiciste hombre! +Lewis Pugh: Cmo logramos hacer eso? +Hombre: Contra la corriente! Lo hiciste contra la corriente! +Lewis Pugh: Muchas gracias. Muchas gracias. +Muchas gracias. +Audiencia: Otra! +Lewis Pugh: Me gustara terminar diciendo solo esto. Me tom cuatro meses volver a sentir mis manos. +Vali la pena? Absolutamente. +Hay muy pocas personas que no saben lo que esta sucediendo en el rtico. +Y las personas me preguntan, "Lewis, Que podemos hacer sobre el cambio climtico? +Y les digo Creo que debemos hacer tres cosas. +Lo primero es dividir este problema en trozos manejables. +Ustedes vieron todas esas banderas en el video. +Esas banderas representaban los pases de donde vinieron los miembros de mi equipo. +E igualmente, cuando se trata del cambio climtico, cada pas tendr que hacer ajustes. +Gran Bretaa, Estados Unidos, Japn, Sudfrica, el Congo. +Todos juntos, estamos en el mismo barco. +Lo segundo que debemos hacer es mirar hacia atrs y ver lo lejos que hemos llegado en tan corto tiempo. +Recuerdo apenas hacer unos aos hablar sobre el cambio climtico, y la gente me abucheaba por la espalda y deca que eso ni exista. +Recin he vuelto de dar una serie de discursos en algunos de los pueblos ms pobres en Sudfrica a nios tan jvenes como los 10 aos de edad. +Cuatro o cinco nios sentados detrs de un escritorio, y aun en esas condiciones de pobreza, todos conocan muy bien el cambio climtico. +Debemos creer en nosotros. +Ahora es el tiempo para creer. +Hemos avanzado mucho. Lo estamos haciendo bien. +Pero lo ms importante que debemos hacer es, yo creo, todos debemos caminar hasta el final de nuestras vidas voltearnos, y hacernos una pregunta fundamental. +Y esa pregunta es, "En que tipo de mundo queremos vivir, y que decisin tomaremos hoy para asegurarnos que todos vivamos en un mundo sustentable?" +Damas y caballeros muchsimas gracias. +Hoy les hablar sobre el problema de las otras mentes. +Y el problema del que voy a hablar no es el tpico tratado por la filosofa, de "Cmo podemos saber si otras personas tienen mente?" +Es decir, tal vez usted tiene una mente, y todos los dems son slo robots realmente convincentes. +Por tanto, eso es un problema filosfico. Pero para los propsitos de hoy, asumo que muchas personas en esta audiencia tienen mente, y que no tengo que preocuparme por esto. +Hay un segundo problema que quiz nos es ms familiar como padres, maestros, cnyuges y novelistas. ste es, "Por qu es tan difcil saber lo que quiere o cree una persona?" +O, an ms relevante, "Por qu es tan difcil cambiar lo que alguien quiere o cree?" +Creo que los novelistas lo expresan mejor. +Como Philip Roth quien dijo: "Y, sin embargo, qu vamos a hacer sobre este asunto tan importante de las otras personas? +Tan mal dotados, estamos todos, como para imaginar el funcionamiento interior de otros as como sus objetivos secretos?" +Como profesora y como esposa esto es, decididamente, un problema que enfrento cada da. +Pero, como cientfica, estoy interesada en un otro problema sobre las mentes, y ese es el que les presentar hoy. +El problema es: "Cmo resulta tan fcil conocer otras mentes?" +As que para empezar a ilustrarlo, casi no necesitan informacin, nos basta con un vistazo, para adivinar lo que est pensando esta mujer o este hombre. +Y dicho de otra manera, el quid de la cuestin es cmo es la mquina que usamos para pensar sobre otras mentes, nuestro cerebro, compuesto de piezas, las clulas cerebrales, que compartimos con todos otros animales, con monos, con ratones e incluso con babosas de mar. +No obstante, se agrupan en una red particular, y lo que se obtiene es la capacidad para escribir Romeo y Julieta. +O decir, lo que dijo Alan Greenspan: "S que crees que entiende lo que pensaba que dije, pero no estoy seguro de que se haya dado cuenta de que lo que escuch no es lo que quera decir." +Por tanto, el trabajo de mi rea de la neurociencia cognitiva es confrontar estas ideas, mano a mano. +Y para tratar de entender cmo es posible configurar unidades simples, mensajes sencillos sobre el espacio y el tiempo en una red, y obtener esta sorprendente capacidad humana de pensar en las mentes. +Hoy explicar tres cosas al respecto. +Obviamente, todo el proyecto es enorme. +Y explicar solo los primeros pasos sobre el descubrimiento de una regin del cerebro especfica que reflexiona acerca de cmo piensan otras personas. +Har algunas observaciones sobre el lento desarrollo de este sistema mientras aprendemos a hacer esta difcil tarea. +Y, por ltimo, mostrar que algunas de las diferencias entre las personas y la manera de juzgar a los dems, puede explicarse a travs de las diferencias en el sistema cerebral. +As es que, en primer lugar hay una regin en el cerebro humano, en sus cerebros, cuyo trabajo es pensar acerca de los pensamientos de otras personas. +sta es una foto de esa regin. +Se llama unin temporoparietal derecha. +Situada por encima y por detrs de la oreja derecha. +Y sta es la regin del cerebro que ustedes activaron al ver las fotos que les mostr, o cuando leen Romeo y Julieta, o cuando intentaron entender a Alan Greenspan. +Y no se utiliza para resolver ningn otro tipo de problema lgico. +As que esta regin del cerebro denominada unin temporoparietal derecha. +Y esta imagen muestra la activacin media en un grupo de "adultos humanos tpicos" +... estudiantes de pregrado en MIT. +Lo segundo que quiero decir sobre este sistema cerebral es que a pesar de que los humanos adultos son muy buenos en comprender otras mentes, no siempre han tenido esa capacidad. +Los nios necesitan mucho tiempo para entrar en este sistema. +Les mostrar algo de ese proceso largo y prolongado. +Lo primero les mostrar el cambio entre la edad de los tres a los cinco aos, cuando los nios aprenden a comprender que alguien puede tener creencias diferentes a las suyas. +Voy a mostrarles a un nio de cinco aos sometido a un tipo estndar de adivinanza que llamamos tarea de creencia falsa. +Video: Este es el primer pirata. Se llama Ivn. +Y sabes lo que de verdad les gusta a los piratas? +A los piratas les gustan los sndwiches de queso. +Nio: De queso? Me encanta el queso! +RS: Si. As que Ivn tiene este sndwich de queso. y l dice "am, am, am, am! +Me encantan los sndwiches de queso." +E Ivn pone su sndwich aqu, encima del cofre del pirata. +E Ivn dice: "Sabes qu? Necesito beber algo con la comida." +Y as, Ivn se va a beber algo. +Y mientras Ivn no est se levanta viento, y tira el sndwich a la hierba. +Y ahora por aqu viene otro pirata. +Este pirata se llama Josu. +Y a Josu tambin le encantan los sndwiches de queso. +Josu tiene un sndwich de queso y dice: "am, am, am, am! Me encantan los sndwiches de queso." +Y pone el sndwich de queso aqu encima del cofre del pirata. +Nio: As es que ste es suyo. +RS: se es de Josu. As es. +Nio: Y entonces, el suyo se cay al suelo. +RS: Eso es, exactamente as. +Nio: De modo que no sabr cul es el suyo. +RS: Oh. As que ahora Josu se va a beber algo. +Ivn regresa y dice: "Quiero mi sndwich de queso." +As que cul crees que elegir Ivn? +Nio: Yo creo que elegir ste. +RS: S, crees que va a elegir ste? Muy bien. Vamos a ver. +Oh, s, tenas razn. Eligi ste. +As que es nio de cinco aos que comprende claramente que otras personas pueden tener creencias equivocadas y cules son las consecuencias de sus actos. +Ahora voy a mostrar a un nio de tres aos de edad a quien se le someti a la misma adivinanza. +Video: RS: E Ivn dice: "Quiero mi sndwich de queso." +Qu sandwich va a elegir? +Crees que va a elegir ste? Vamos a ver qu pasa. +Vamos a ver lo que hace. Aqu viene Ivn. +Y l dice, "Quiero mi sndwich de queso." +Y elige ste. +Uy, uy, uy!Por qu ha elegido se? +Nio: El suyo estaba en la hierba. +RS : Por tanto, el nio de tres aos hace dos cosas de manera diferente. +En primer lugar, predice que Ivn elegir el sndwich que es realmente suyo. +Y en segundo lugar, cuando va a Ivn tomar el sndwich del lugar donde lo dej, cuando nosotros diramos que lo toma porque piensa que es suyo, el nio de tres aos tiene otra explicacin. l no elige su propio sndwich porque ya no lo desee, sino porque est sucio en el suelo. +As que por eso l se decide por el otro sndwich. +Por supuesto que este desarrollo no se detiene a los cinco aos. +Y podemos ver la continuacin de este proceso de aprender cmo son los pensamientos de otras personas doblando la apuesta y preguntando a los nios, no por una prediccin de actos, sino por un juicio moral. +As es que primero mostrar al nio de tres aos de nuevo. +Video: RS: Se port mal Ivn por haber tomado el sndwich de Josu? +Nio: Si. +RS: Debera recibir Ivn su merecido por haber tomado el sndwich de Josu? +Nio: Si. +As que, quizs no es tan sorprendente que piense que Ivn ha sido malo por tomar el sndwich de Josu. Ya que piensa que Ivn tom el sndwich de Josu solamente para no comer su propio sndwich sucio. +Ahora mostrar al nio de cinco aos. +Recuerden que el nio de cinco entendi completamente por qu Ivn tom el sndwich de Josu +Video: RS: Se port mal Ivan por haber tomado el sndwich de Josu? +Nio: Bueno, s. +RS: Y no es hasta los siete aos que se consigue algo que se parece ms a una respuesta de adultos. +Video: RS: Debera recibir Ivn su merecido por haber tomado el sndwich de Josu? +Nio: No, el viento debera recibir su merecido. +RS: l dice que el viento debera recibir su merecido, por cambiar los sndwiches. +Y ahora lo que hemos empezado a hacer en el laboratorio es poner a los nios en el escner cerebral para visualizar qu est pasando en el cerebro a medida que desarrollan esta capacidad de pensar cmo son los pensamientos de otras personas. +Lo primero es ver en los nios la misma regin cerebral, la unin temporoparietal derecha, activada cuando los nios estn pensando en otras personas. +Pero no es exactamente como el cerebro adulto. +As, en los adultos, como ya dije, esta regin del cerebro est prcticamente especializada. No hace casi otra cosa, excepto pensar acerca de los pensamientos de otras personas. En los nios es mucho menos, cuando tienen entre cinco aos y ocho aos, el tramo de edad de los nios mostrados. +Y, de hecho si observramos a los nios de 8 a 11 aos, entrando ya en la pubertad, veramos que todava no tienen la regin del cerebro como un adulto. +Y as, lo que podemos ver es que durante la infancia e incluso en la adolescencia, tanto el sistema cognitivo, esto es, la capacidad de nuestra mente a pensar en otras mentes, y el sistema cerebral en el que se apoya, continan desarrollndose lentamente. +Pero, claro est, como ustedes probablemente saben, incluso en la edad adulta, las personas se diferencian en su capacidad de pensar en otras mentes, en la frecuencia que lo hacen, y la precisin. +Por tanto, deseamos saber si las diferencias entre los adultos en su forma de pensar acerca de los pensamientos de los dems podran explicarse en funcin de las diferencias en esta regin del cerebro. +As que lo primero que hicimos fue dar a los adultos una versin del problema de los piratas que dimos a los nios. +Y que ahora les mostrar. +Grace y su amigo estn de visita en una fbrica de productos qumicos y hacen un descanso para tomar un caf. +Y el amigo de Grace le pide un poco de azcar para el caf. +Grace va donde est el caf y al lado del caf ve un recipiente que contiene un polvo blanco que es el azcar. +Sin embargo, el recipiente tiene la etiqueta "Veneno mortal". As que Grace piensa que el polvo es un veneno mortal, +y se lo pone en el caf de su amigo. +Y su amigo bebe el caf y no le pasa nada. +Cuntas personas piensan que es moralmente admisible que Grace haya puesto el polvo en el caf? +Vale. Bien. As que preguntamos a las personas cunto se debera castigar a Grace en este caso, que denominamos un fallido intento de perjuicio. +Y podemos comparar esto con otro caso donde todo en el mundo real es lo mismo. +El polvo es todava azcar, pero lo que cambia es lo que piensa Grace. +Ahora ella piensa que el polvo es azcar. +Y quiz era de esperar que, si Grace piensa que el polvo es azcar y se lo pone en el caf de su amigo, la gente diga que ella no merece castigo alguno. +Mientras que, si ella cree que el polvo es veneno, aunque en realidad es azcar, en los ojos de las personas ella merece un buen castigo, aunque lo que sucediera en la realidad fuera exactamente lo mismo. +Y, de hecho, dicen que merece ms castigo en el caso de fallido intento de perjuicio que en el otro caso, que denominamos accidente. +Cuando Grace pens que el polvo era azcar, porque tena la etiqueta "azcar" y estaba al lado de la mquina de caf, pero en realidad el polvo era veneno. +As que, aunque el polvo era veneno, el amigo bebi el caf y muri. En ese caso la gente considera que Grace merece menos castigo, ya que inocentemente, pensaba que se trataba de azcar, que en el otro caso, donde pensaba que se trataba de veneno, aunque no se produjo perjuicio alguno. +La gente, sin embargo, no se pone de acuerdo sobre cunto se debe castigar a Grace en el caso de accidente. +Algunas personas piensan que se merecera mayor castigo y otras personas piensan que menos. +Y voy a presentar lo que vimos cuando observamos el interior de los cerebros de las personas mientras hacen una valoracin moral. +As que lo que les muestro de izquierda a derecha, es cunta actividad haba en esta regin del cerebro. y de arriba a abajo, la cantidad de castigo que las personas consideraban que mereca Grace. +Y lo que se puede ver a la izquierda cuando hay muy poca actividad en esta regin del cerebro, las personas prestaron poca atencin a su presuncin de inocencia y decan que mereca un gran castigo por el accidente. +Mientras que, a la derecha donde haba mucha actividad, las personas prestaron mucha ms atencin a su presuncin de inocencia, y consideraron que mereca un castigo menor por causar el accidente. +Esto est muy bien, por supuesto, pero lo que intentamos es lograr la manera de interferir en la funcin en esta regin del cerebro, y ver si podemos cambiar el juicio moral de las personas. +Y ya tenemos esa herramienta. +Se llama estimulacin magntica transcraneal, o EMT. +Esta herramienta nos permite pasar un impulso magntico a travs del crneo, hacia una pequea regin del cerebro, y desorganizar temporalmente el funcionamiento de las neuronas de esa regin. +Voy a hacerles una demostracin. +En primer lugar les mostrar que se trata de un impulso magntico, +Voy a mostrar lo que ocurre cuando se pone una moneda en la mquina. +Cuando oigan clics, estamos activando la mquina. +As que ahora voy a aplicar ese mismo impulso a mi cerebro, a la parte de mi cerebro que controla la mano. +Esto no es fuerza fsica, se trata slo de un impulso magntico. +Video: Mujer: Preparada? Rebecca Saxe: Si. +Vale, esto que provoca una pequea contraccin involuntaria en la mano por aplicar un impulso magntico a mi cerebro. +Y podemos usar ese mismo impulso, aplicado a la unin temporoparietal derecha, para saber si podemos cambiar los juicios morales de las personas. +As que estos son los juicios que les mostr antes, juicios morales de personas normales. +Y luego podemos aplicar una estimulacin EMT a la unin temporoparietal derecha, y preguntar cmo las personas cambian sus juicios morales. +Y lo primero es que la gente todava puede realizar esta tarea. +As que los juicios del caso, cuando todo estaba bien siguen siendo los mismos. Dicen que ella no merece castigo alguno. +Pero en el caso de un intento fallido de perjuicio, cuando Grace pens que era veneno, aunque en realidad era azcar, las personas ahora dicen que sera mejor que recibiera menos castigo por poner el polvo en el caf. +Y en el caso del accidente, cuando ella pensaba que era azcar, pero en realidad era veneno lo que caus una muerte, la gente dice que merece ms castigo. +As que lo les he expuesto es que la gente est, en realidad, muy bien equipada para pensar acerca de los pensamientos de otras personas. +Tenemos un sistema cerebral especial que nos permite pensar sobre lo que piensan los dems. +Este sistema necesita mucho tiempo para desarrollarse, lentamente a lo largo de la infancia y la pubertad. +E incluso en la edad adulta, las diferencias en esta regin del cerebro pueden explicar las diferencias entre los adultos en nuestra forma de pensar y de juzgar a los dems. +Pero quisiera dar la ltima palabra de nuevo a los novelistas. A Philip Roth quien termin diciendo: "El hecho es que acertar sobre la gente no es de lo que se trata la vida +Es equivocarse sobre ellos, eso es vivir +Equivocarse con la gente, una vez, otra y otra ms y luego tras reconsiderarlo, equivocarse de nuevo." +Gracias. +Chris Anderson: Cuando empiezas a hablar sobre el uso de impulsos magnticos para cambiar los juicios morales de las personas, suena alarmante. +Por favor, dime que no ests atendiendo llamadas telefnicas del Pentgono, por ejemplo. +Rebecca Saxe: No las atiendo. +Quiero decir, que llaman, pero yo no atiendo la llamada. +CA: de verdad que te estn llamando? +Venga, en serio, ahora en serio, a veces debes quedarte despierta durante la noche preguntndote hacia dnde conduce este trabajo. +Quiero decir, est claro que eres una persona increble, pero alguien podra utilizar este conocimiento y en un futuro no en una cmara de tortura, realizar acciones que podran llegar a preocupar a las personas aqu. +RS: S, esto nos preocupa. +Por eso, hay un par de cosas que decir acerca de la estimulacin magntica transcraneal +Una es que no te pueden estimular magnticamente el craneo sin saberlo. +As que no es una tecnologa encubierta. +Es muy difcil realmente conseguir cambios muy pequeos. +Los cambios que mostr son impresionantes para m por lo que nos muestran acerca de la funcin del cerebro. Pero son pequeos en la escala de los juicios morales que realmente emitimos. +Y lo que hemos cambiado no son los juicios morales de las personas cuando estn decidiendo qu hacer, cuando estn tomando decisiones de acciones. +Cambiamos su capacidad para juzgar las acciones de otras personas. +Y creo que lo que estoy haciendo, no es tanto estudiar al acusado en un juicio penal, sino estudiar al jurado. +CA: Tu trabajo podr contribuir a recomendar en la formacin, tal vez para educar a una generacin de jvenes capaces de hacer juicios morales ms justos? +RS: Esa es una de las esperanzas utpicas. +Todo el programa de investigacin sobre las partes distintivas del cerebro humano, es nuevo. +Hasta hace poco lo que sabamos sobre el cerebro eran las cosas que tambin el cerebro de otro animal puede hacer. As que pudimos estudiar en modelos animales. +Sabamos cmo ven los cerebros y cmo controlan el cuerpo, y cmo escuchan y sienten. +Y todo el proyecto de comprender cmo los cerebros hacen cosas exclusivamente humanas, aprenden la lengua y los conceptos abstractos, y pensar acerca de los pensamientos de otras personas es totalmente nuevo. +Y no sabemos todava, que consecuencias tendr entenderlo. +CA: Tengo una ltima pregunta. Hay algo llamado el problema duro de la conciencia, que desconcierta a mucha gente. +La idea de que se pueda comprender como qu funciona el cerebro, quizs! +Pero por qu todos tienen que sentir algo? +Por qu parece exigible a los seres humanos que sientan las cosas para seguir funcionando? +Eres una neurloga joven y brillante. +Quiero decir, qu posibilidades crees que hay que en algn momento de tu carrera alguien, t u otro, aparezca con un cambio de paradigma en la comprensin de lo que parece un problema imposible? +RS: Yo espero que lo hagan. Y creo que probablemente no lo lograrn. +CA: Por qu? +RS: No en vano se conoce como el problema duro de la conciencia. +CA: Una gran respuesta. Rebecca Saxe, muchas gracias. Ha sido estupendo. +Estos son tiempos econmicos desastrosos amigos de TED, tiempos desastrosos en realidad. +Y, por lo tanto, me gustara alegrarlos con una de las mayores, aunque en gran medida desconocidas, historias de xito comercial de los ltimos 20 aos. +Comparable, en su particular estilo, a los logros de Microsoft o Google. +Y es sta una actividad que ha resistido la actual recesin con tranquilidad. +Me refiero al crimen organizado. +-Pero el crimen organizado ha existido desde hace mucho tiempo!- les oigo decir ...Y esas seran sabias palabras, sin duda. +Pero en la ltimas dos dcadas ha experimentado una expansin sin precedentes. Actualmente representa alrededor del 15 por ciento del PIB mundial. +Me gusta llamarla "Economa Global Oculta" o "McMafia"...para abreviar. +Entonces, qu ha producido este extraordinario crecimiento del crimen trasnacional? +Bueno, por supuesto que estn: la globalizacin, tecnologa, comunicaciones y todo eso, de lo que hablaremos dentro de poco. +Pero, primero, me gustara retrotraerlos a este acontecimiento: El colapso del comunismo. +A travs de Europa oriental, el ms significativo episodio de la historia de la posguerra. +Ahora es el momento de una aclaracin. +Este acontecimiento fue muy significativo en lo personal. +Yo haba empezado a contrabandear libros detrs del teln de acero, con grupos democrticos opositores en Europa oriental, como "Solidaridad" en Polonia, cuando estaba en mi adolescencia. +Empec entonces a escribir acerca de Europa oriental, y finalmente, me convert en corresponsal jefe para la BBC en la regin. Eso es lo que estaba haciendo en 1989. +As, cuando 425 millones de personas finalmente ganaron el derecho de elegir a sus gobernantes estaba en xtasis. Pero, a la vez, un tanto preocupado acerca de las cosas desagradables agazapadas detrs del muro. +No pas mucho tiempo, por ejemplo, hasta que el nacionalismo tnico levantara su sangrienta cabeza en Yugoeslavia. +Y en medio del caos, entre la euforia, tard un poco en comprender que parte de la gente que haba ganado poder antes de 1989, en Europa oriental, lo continu haciendo luego de las revoluciones. +Obviamente, haba personajes como ste. +Pero haba tambin ms gente inesperada que jug un rol relevante en lo que pasaba en Europa oriental. +Como este personaje. Recuerdan a estos tipos? +ellos acostumbraban a ganar medallas de oro en levantamiento de pesas y lucha cada cuatro aos en las Olimpadas. Y eran la grandes celebridades del comunismo. Con un estndar de vida fabuloso. +Tenan grandes apartamentos en el centro de la ciudad. sexo casual fcil. Y podan viajar a Occidente muy libremente, lo que era un gran lujo en aquel momento. +Puede parecer sorprendente, pero ellos jugaron un rol crtico en la aparicin de la economa de mercado en Europa oriental. +O, como me gusta llamarles, fueron las "parteras" del capitalismo. +Ac hay algunos de los mismos levantadores de pesas despus de su cambio de imagen en 1989. +Vale, en Bulgaria, -esta fotografa fue tomada en Bulgaria-, cuando el comunismo se vino abajo en toda Europa oriental no fue slo el comunismo lo que se vino abajo, sino tambin el estado. +Lo que significa que las fuerzas de orden y seguridad ciudadana no estaban funcionando. +El sistema judicial no funcionaba adecuadamente. +Entonces, qu hara un hombre de negocios en este nuevo mundo salvaje del capitalismo de la Europa del Este para estar seguro de que sus contratos fueran respetados? +Pues, se vala de gente que fue llamada, algo prosaicamente por los socilogos: "agencias privatizadas de aplicacin de la ley". +Nosotros preferimos el trmino "mafia". +Y, en Bulgaria, la mafia pronto reclut 14 mil personas que haban sido despedidas de sus trabajos en los servicios de seguridad entre 1989 y 1991 +Ahora, cuando vuestro Estado se est desmoronando, tu economia est hundindose rpidamente, las ltimas personas que deseas ver en el mercado laboral son 14 mil hombres y mujeres cuyas principales habilidades son: vigilancia; contrabando; creacin de redes clandestinas; y ...asesinato. +Pero eso es lo que pas en toda Europa oriental. +Cuando estaba trabajando en los 90' pas la mayor parte del tiempo cubriendo el horrible conflicto de Yugoeslavia. +Y, me inquiet entender que las personas que estaban perpetrando estas atrocidades, las organizaciones paramilitares, eran las mismas personas manejando los sindicatos del crimen organizado. +Y empec a pensar que, detrs de la violencia, yaca un siniestro negocio criminal. +Por lo tanto, resolv recorrer el mundo examinando este submundo criminal global hablando con los policas; hablando con las vctimas; con los consumidores de productos o servicios ilcitos. +Pero, por sobre todo, hablando con los mismos gangsters. +Y los Balcanes era un sitio fabuloso para empezar. +Por qu? Bueno, por supuesto estaba el asunto de la ley y el orden derrumbndose. Pero tambin -como dicen en el mercado minorista-, es ubicacin, ubicacin y ubicacin!. +Y lo que comprend al comienzo de mi bsqueda era que los Balcanes se haba convertido en una vasta zona de trnsito de bienes y servicios ilcitos procedentes de todo el mundo +Herona, cocana, trata de mujeres y minerales preciosos. +Y adnde se dirigan? +La Unin Europea que, para ese entonces, empezaba a cosechar los beneficios de la globalizacin. Transformndose en el mas prspero mercado de la historia. Que abarcaba unos 500 millones de personas. +Y a una significativa minora de esos 500 millones les gustaba gastar algo de su tiempo libre y dinero efectivo disponible acostndose con prostitutas, pegando billetes de 50 euros en sus narices y, empleando trabajadores emigrantes ilegales. +El crimen organizado en un mundo globalizado opera del mismo modo que cualquier otro negocio. +Tiene zonas de produccin, como Afghanistn y Colombia. +Tiene zonas de distribucin, como Mxico y los Balcanes. +Y tambin -por supuesto-, zonas de consumo, como la Unin Europea, Japn y -obviamente-, los Estados Unidos. +Las zonas de produccin y distribucin tienden a estar en el mundo en desarrollo. Y son a menudo aterradas por una violencia atroz y derramamiento de sangre. +Por ejemplo, Mxico. +Seis mil personas fueron asesinadas en los ltimos 18 meses como consecuencia directa del trfico de cocana. +Pero, qu ocurre con la Repblica Democrtica del Congo? +Desde 1998, han muerto all cinco millones de personas. +No es una lucha de la que se lea mucho en los peridicos. Pero es el mayor conflicto del planeta desde la Segunda Guerra Mundial. +Y por qu es esto? Porque las mafias de todo el mundo cooperan con los paramilitares locales para hacerse con el suministro de los ricos recursos minerales de la regin. +En el ao 2000, 80 por ciento del coltn mundial fue obtenido de estos campos de la muerte en el este de la Repblica Democrtica del Congo. +El coltn puede ser encontrado en casi cada telfono mvil. en casi todas las laptop y consolas de juegos. +Los seores de la guerra congoleses se lo venden a la mafia a cambio de armas. Y la mafia lo vende en los mercados de occidente. +Y es este deseo occidental de consumir, el principal motor del crimen organizado internacional. +Ahora, permtanme mostrarles algunos de mis amigos en accin, convenientemente filmados por la polica italiana contrabandeando cigarrillos sin impuestos. +Los cigarrillos fuera del portn de la fbrica son muy baratos. +La Unin Europea les impone los impuestos ms altos del mundo. +Entonces, si usted puede contrabandearlos dentro de la U.E. hay beneficios muy atractivos para obtener. Deseo mostrarles el tipo de recursos disponibles en estos grupos. +Este bote cuesta un milln de euros cuando es nuevo. +Y es la cosa ms rpida en aguas europeas. +Desde 1994, durante siete aos, 20 de estos botes han cruzado el Adritico, desde Montenegro a Italia, cada noche. +Y como consecuencia de este comercio solamente Gran Bretaa perdi ocho mil millones de dlares en impuestos. +En su lugar, ese dinero fue a financiar las guerras en Yugoeslavia y a forrar los bolsillos de individuos inescrupulosos. +Cuando este comercio empez, la polica italiana tena solamente dos botes que podan alcanzar esa velocidad. +Esto es muy importante, porque la nica manera de atrapar a estos tipos es si se quedan sin combustible. +A veces, los gangsters llevaban con ellos mujeres destinadas a la prostitucin. Y, si la polica intervena, arrojaban las mujeres al mar de modo que la polica tuviera que ir a rescatarlas de que se ahogaran, en lugar de perseguir a los malos. +Les cuento esto para mostrarles cuntos botes, cuntos navos se requieren para capturar uno de estos tipos. +La respuesta es seis navos. +Y recuerden que 20 de estos botes rpidos cruzaban el Adriatico cada noche. +Entonces, qu hacan estos tipos con todo el dinero que estaban ganando? +Ac es donde entra la globalizacin porque no fue slo la desregulacin del comercio mundial. +Fue la liberalizacin de los mercados financieros internacionales. +Y -muchacho-, eso s facilit la vida de los blanqueadores de dinero!. +La ltimas dos dcadas han sido la era del champagne para el lucro sucio. +En los 90 vimos a centros financieros de todo el mundo competir por sus negocios. Y simplemente no hubo un mecanismo efectivo para prevenir el blanqueo de dinero. +Y muchos bancos legales estuvieron contentos de aceptar depsitos de muy dudosos orgenes sin preguntar nada. +Pero el ncleo de esto es la red de bancos en el exterior. +Estos aspectos son una parte esencial del festival de lavado de dinero. Y si deseamos hacer algo sobre evasin de impuestos crimen organizado transnacional y blanqueo de capitales, debemos librarnos de ellos. +Afortunadamente, tenemos por fin alguien en la Casa Blanca que ha hablado siempre en contra de estas corrosivas organizaciones. +Y, si alguien est interesado acerca de lo que creo es la necesidad de una nueva legislacin, regulacin, normativa efectiva, digo, veamos el caso de Bernie Madoff, quien va a pasar el resto de su vida en la crcel. +Bernie Madoff rob 65 mil millones de dlares. +Lo que lo pone en el Olimpo de los gangsters junto a los carteles colombianos, y a los mayores sindicatos rusos del crimen. Pero l hizo esto durante dcadas en el corazn mismo de Wall Street. y ningn regulador lo detect. +Cuntos Madoffs ms hay en Wall Street, o en la City londinense, esquilmando a la gente y lavando dinero? +Bueno, puedo decirles que hay algunos. +Permtanme ir a lo bsico del crimen internacional organizado hoy. +Esto es: narcticos. Nuestra segunda foto de un campo de marihuana para la maana. +sta, de cualquier modo, es en Columbia Britnica central donde la fotografi. +Es una entre decenas de miles de plantaciones familiares en Columbia Britnica +que logran que ms del cinco por ciento del PBI provincial tenga origen en ese comercio. +Segn la misma polica esto no hace realmente mella en las ganancias, de los mayores exportadores. +Desde el comienzo de la globalizacin el mercado global de narcticos se ha expandido enormemente. +No ha habido, sin embargo, un crecimiento parejo de los recursos disponibles en las fuerzas de polica. +Esto, no obstante, puede estar por cambiar. Porque algo muy extrao est pasando. +Las Naciones Unidas reconocieron hace poco, el mes pasado en realidad, que Canad se ha convertido en un rea clave de distribucin y produccin de xtasis y otras drogas sintticas. +Curiosamente, la cuota de mercado de la herona y cocana est bajando porque las pldoras estn consiguiendo reproducir mejor sus viajes. +Esto es un cambio en las reglas de juego. Porque mueve la produccin desde el mundo no desarrollado hacia el mundo occidental. +Cuando eso ocurre, es una tendencia que supera nuestra capacidad de disear polticas en Occidente. +La poltica de drogas que ha estado vigente durante 40 aos, hace mucho tiempo que necesita una seria reformulacin, en mi opinin. +Respecto a la recesin +el crimen organizado se ha adaptado muy bien a la recesin. +No es de extraar que sea la actividad ms oportunista en el mundo entero. +Y no tiene reglas en su sistema regulatorio. +Excepto, claro, que tiene dos riesgos empresariales: ser arrestados por la ley, que es -francamente-, la menor de sus preocupaciones, y la competencia de otros grupos, es decir, una bala en la nuca. +Lo que han hecho es que han cambiado las operaciones. +La gente no fuma tanta droga ni visita tanto a las prostitutas durante una recesin. +Y por lo tanto, en su lugar, han invadido el crimen financiero y corporativo en gran escala, pero, por sobre todo, en dos sectores, falsificacin de bienes y crimen informtico. +Y ha tenido un xito enorme. +Quisiera presentarles a Mr. Pringle. +O quizs deba decir -ms exactamente-, Seor Pringle. +Un delincuente informtico brasileo me present este pedazo de equipo. +Nos sentamos en un auto en la Avenida Paulista, juntos en San Pablo. +Lo conect a mi laptop, y en cinco minutos haba penetrado en el sistema de seguridad de computadoras de un gran banco brasileo. +No es realmente tan dificil. +Y en realidad es ms fcil porque la cosa fascinante del delito informtico es que no es tanto la tecnologa. +La clave en el ciberdelito es lo que llamamos "ingeniera social". +O, para usar el trmino tcnico: nace un tonto cada minutos. +No creeran lo fcil que es persuadir a la gente para que haga cosas con sus computadoras que van, objetivamente, en contra de su conveniencia. +Muy pronto los cibercriminales aprendieron la manera rpida de hacer esto, por supuesto, la manera rpida de llegar a la billetera es a travs de la promesa de sexo y amor. +Creo que algunos de ustedes recordarn el virus ILOVEYOU, uno de los virus de mayor alcance mundial. +Fui muy afortunado cuando el virus ILOVEYOU apareci. Porque la primera persona de quien lo recib fue una ex novia. +Ella albergaba toda clase de sentimientos y emociones hacia m, en aquel tiempo, pero el amor no era uno de ellos. +Por eso, tan pronto como lo vi aparecer en mi bandeja de entrada lo mand rpidamente a la papelera de reciclaje, y me salv de una muy perniciosa infeccin. +Entonces, tengan cuidado con el delito informtico. +Una cosa que sabemos que Internet est haciendo es que esta prestando ayuda a estos tipos. +Estos son los mosquitos que transmiten la malaria que infecta nuestra sangre cuando el bicho come gratis a nuestra cuenta. +El Artesunato es una droga muy efectiva destruyendo el parsito al comienzo de la infeccin. +Pero hace alrededor de un ao unos investigadores en Camboya han descubierto que lo que est pasando es que el parsito est desarrollando resistencia. +Y temen que la razn de esta resistencia radica en que los camboyanos, que no pueden pagar las medicinas en el mercado, las compran a travs de Internet. +Estas pldoras tienen bajas dosis del ingrediente activo. +Razn por la cual el parsito est comenzando a desarrollar resistencia. +El motivo por el que cuento esto es porque debemos saber que el crimen organizado afecta a todas las reas de nuestras vidas. +Usted no tiene que dormir con prostitutas o tomar drogas para estar en relacin con el crimen organizado. +Ellos afectan nuestras cuentas bancarias. +Influyen en nuestras comunicaciones, nuestros fondos de pensin. +Incluso en la comida que comemos y nuestros gobiernos. +Ha dejando de ser un asunto de sicilianos de Palermo y Nueva York. +No hay ms romanticismo con los gangsters en el siglo XXI. +Es una actividad poderosa y crea inestabilidad y violencia a todas partes donde va. +Es una fuerza econmica importante y necesitamos tomarla muy, muy en serio. +Ha sido un privilegio hablarles. +Muchas gracias. +El debate sobre la arquitectura se reduce a menudo a contemplar el resultado, el objeto arquitectnico. +El rascacielos ms reciente de Londres, se parece a una pepinillo, una salchicha o a un juguete sexual? +Por ello, nos preguntamos si podramos inventar un formato para contar el proceso de nuestros proyectos. Quizs combinando imgenes, planos y palabras para crear historias sobre arquitectura. +Y result que no tenamos que inventarlo, ya exista, era el cmic. +Bsicamente, copiamos el formato del cmic. As, contamos la historia de cada trazo, cmo evolucionan los proyectos con adaptaciones e improvisacin. +A travs de la confusin, las oportunidades y las casualidades del mundo real. +Lo llamamos el cmic "S es ms". Evidentemente, es la evolucin de las ideas de nuestros hroes. +Como el "Menos es ms" de Mies van der Rohe, +impulsor de la revolucin modernista. +Luego lleg la contra revolucin posmodernista. Robert Venturi con su "Menos es aburrido". +Despus, Philip Johnson introdujo la promiscuidad o, al menos, nuevas ideas con "Soy una puta". +Ahora, Obama ha introducido el optimismo en una poca de crisis econmica global. +Y nosotros con "S es ms" queremos bsicamente, cuestionar esta idea de que la vanguardia arquitectnica es negativista, contra quin o contra qu estamos. +El clich del arquitecto radical es un joven reaccionario que lucha contra el orden establecido. +O la idea de genio incomprendido, frustrado porque el mundo no est preparado para sus ideas. +Ms que una revolucin, nos interesa ms la evolucin. La idea de que todo evoluciona con adaptacin e improvisacin ante los cambios del mundo. +De hecho, creo que Darwin es una de las personas que mejor explica nuestro proceso de diseo. +Su conocido rbol de la evolucin casi podra servir para explicar cmo trabajamos. +Como pueden ver, un proyecto evoluciona a travs de una serie de reuniones de diseo. +En cada una surgen demasiadas ideas. +Slo las mejores pueden sobrevivir. +A travs del proceso de seleccin arquitectnica podemos elegir una propuesta realmente bella. O una propuesta muy funcional. +Los emparejamos y tienen descendencia. +As, a travs de estas generaciones de reuniones obtenemos un nico diseo. +Un buen ejemplo es un proyecto que hicimos para una biblioteca y un hotel de Copenhague. +Pero Darwin no slo explica la evolucin de una nica idea. +En ocasiones surge una subespecie. +Estamos en una reunin de diseo y descubrimos que tenemos una gran idea, +pero que no funciona en cierto contexto. +Pero, para otro cliente de otra cultura podra ser adecuado para un planteamiento diferente. +Por lo tanto, nunca desechamos nada. +As, nuestra oficina es como un archivo de biodiversidad arquitectnica. +Nunca se sabe cundo podra ser til. +Ahora, me gustara realizar un acto de evolucin narrativa, contarles la evolucin de dos proyectos con adaptacin e improvisacin a las casualidades del mundo. +La primera comienza el ao pasado, cuando fuimos a Shanghai para competir por el Pabelln de Dinamarca en la Exposicin Universal de 2010. +All vimos a Haibao. +La mascota de la exposicin. Y nos result un poco familiar. +Se pareca a un edificio que diseamos para un hotel al norte de Suecia. +Cuando lo enviamos al concurso sueco cremos que era un diseo muy interesante. Pero, no tena exactamente el estilo del norte de Suecia. +El jurado tampoco lo crey, as que perdimos. +Pero cuando nos reunimos con un empresario chino, vio nuestro diseo y dijo: "Pero si es el ideograma chino para la palabra 'personas'!" Al parecer, es as como se escribe personas, en la Repblica Popular China. +Y lo comprobamos. +Al mismo tiempo, nos invitaron a la Semana de la Industria Creativa de Shanghai. +Pensamos que era toda una oportunidad. Contratamos a un maestro de feng shui, +adaptamos el edificio a las proporciones de China, y all fuimos. +Lo llamamos el Edificio de las Personas. +stos son nuestros intrpretes, estudiando la arquitectura. +Apareci en la portada del diario Wen Wei Po. Que hizo que el alcalde de Shanghai visitara la exposicin. +Tuvimos la ocasin de explicarle el proyecto. +Y dijo, "Shanghai es la ciudad del mundo con ms rascacielos". Para l, era como si se hubiera perdido la conexin con las races. +Y con el Edificio de las Personas vio una arquitectura que podra unir la sabidura milenaria de China con el futuro y el progreso del pas. +Nosotros estbamos totalmente de acuerdo. +Por desgracia, el Sr. Chen se encuentra en prisin por corrupcin. +Como he dicho, Haibao nos result familiar. Por ser el ideograma chino para la palabra personas +lo eligieron como mascota porque el tema de la exposicin es "Mejor ciudad, mejor vida." +Sostenibilidad. +Y cremos que la sostenibilidad se ha convertido en una idea algo neo-protestante de que para curar tiene que doler. +Se supone que darse largas duchas de agua caliente +y viajar en avin en vacaciones son malos para el medio ambiente. +Poco a poco, uno cree que la vida sostenible es menos divertida. +As que cremos que, quizs, sera interesante ofrecer ejemplos de que una ciudad sostenible aumenta la calidad de vida. +Tambin nos preguntamos qu podra ensear Dinamarca a China que fuera relevante. +Uno de los mayores pases del mundo frente a uno de los ms pequeos. +China simbolizada por el dragn, +en Dinamarca el emblema nacional es el cisne. +China tiene grandes poetas. Pero descubrimos que en el currculo de las escuelas pblicas de China, se incluyen tres cuentos de An Tu Shung, es decir, Hans Christian Anderson. +As que 1.300 millones de chinos han crecido con El traje nuevo del Emperador, La nia de los fsforos y La Sirenita. +Un fragmento de la cultura danesa integrada en la cultura china. +La mayor atraccin turstica de China es la Gran Muralla, +la nica construccin que se puede ver desde la luna. +La mayor atraccin turstica de Dinamarca es La Sirenita, +que casi ni se ve en los paseos tursticos por el canal. +Es la prueba de la diferencia entre estas dos ciudades. +Copenhague, Shanghai, moderno, europeo. +Pero luego nos fijamos en el desarrollo urbanstico. Vimos que parece una calle de Shanghai, hace 30 aos. Lleno de bicicletas. +As es como es hoy en da. Lleno de atascos. +Las bicis se han prohibido en muchos lugares. +Mientras, en Copenhague estamos extendiendo los carriles para bicicletas. +Un tercio de las personas se mueve en bicicleta. +Tenemos un sistema gratuito llamado City Bike. Cualquiera puede coger una para visitar la ciudad. +As que pensamos, por qu no reintroducimos la bicicleta en China? +Donamos 1.000 bicicletas a Shanghai. +As que si van a la exposicin, vayan directo al pabelln dans. Cojan una bicicleta y, despus, sigan visitando el resto de pabellones. +Como he dicho, Shanghai y Copenhague son ciudades con puerto. Pero en Copenhague el agua es tan limpia que incluso es apta para el bao. +Uno de los primeros proyectos que hicimos fue el puerto de bao de Copenhague. Una continuacin del espacio pblico dentro del agua. +As que pensamos que estas exposiciones tienen mucha propaganda estatal, con imgenes, declaraciones, pero pocas experiencias. +As que, como con las bicis, +la pueden probar. +En lugar de hablar sobre el agua vamos a enviar un milln de litros del agua del puerto de Copenhague a Shanghai. Para que los que quieran puedan baarse en ella y sentir lo limpia que est. +A este respecto, la gente objeta que no suena muy sostenible enviar agua de Copenhague a China. +Pero, el hecho es que los barcos van llenos desde China a Dinamarca y despus vuelven vacos. +Incluso se carga agua como lastre. +Por tanto, el transporte es gratuito. +Y en medio de este puerto de bao vamos a colocar la autntica Sirenita. +As que la Sirenita, el agua y las bicicletas, todo real. +Y cuando la traslademos, vamos a invitar a un artista chino para que la reinterprete. +El pabelln tiene forma de bucle de exposicin y bicicletas. +Al entrar a la exposicin se puede ver La Sirenita y la piscina. +Avancen hasta el tejado y busquen una bicicleta, cojan una y sigan visitando el resto de la exposicin. +Cuando ganamos el concurso tuvimos que hacer una exposicin explicativa en China. +Nos devolvieron uno de los murales con correcciones de la censura estatal china. +Primero, en el mapa de China faltaba Taiwn. +Una cuestin poltica muy delicada, as que lo aadimos. +En segundo lugar, comparamos el Cisne con el Dragn. Y el Estado chino dijo, "Sugerimos cambiarlo por el panda." +Por otra parte, cuando dijimos en Dinamarca que bamos a mover nuestro monumento nacional, el Partido Popular Nacional se opuso tajntemente. +e intentaron aprobar una ley para impedir moverla. +As, me invitaron por primera vez a hablar en el Parlamento Nacional. +Result interesante, porque por la maana, de 9 a 11 estaban debatiendo sobre el paquete de ayudas, sobre cuntos millones invertir para salvar la economa danesa. +A las 11 dejaron de lado esta cuestin tan irrelevante, +para, de 11:00 a 13:00, debatir si se deba o no enviar La Sirenita a China. +Pero, en definitiva, si quieren ver La Sirenita entre mayo y diciembre de 2010, no vengan a Copenhague porque estar en Shanghai. +Si vienen a Copenhague probablemente vern una instalacin del artista chino Ai Weiwei. +Pero si el gobierno chino interviene, quizs vean un panda. +La segunda historia que me gustara contarles comienza, de hecho, en mi casa. +ste es mi apartamento. +stas son las vistas que tengo. Sobre una paisaje de balcones triangulares que nuestro cliente denomin el balcn de Leonardo DiCaprio. +Forman esta especie de patio vertical. En los das soleados de verano, permiten conocer a todos los vecinos en un radio vertical de 10 metros. +El edificio es una distorsin de un rectngulo. +El zigzag pretende garantizar que todos los apartamentos tengan vistas, en lugar de estar enfrentados. +Hasta hace poco, esto era lo que vea desde mi apartamento. Nuestro cliente decidi adquirir la parcela de al lado. +Y dijo que iba a construir un bloque de apartamentos y otro de aparcamientos. +Cremos que, en lugar de una composicin tradicional de apartamentos mirando a un aburrido bloque de coches, podramos convertir los apartamentos en ticos, sobre los aparcamientos. +Como Copenhague es completamente plana, si se quiere tener orientacin sur con vistas, lo tiene que hacer uno mismo. +Despus, recortamos el volumen para no bloquear las vistas de mi apartamento. +Bsicamente, el aparcamiento ocupa el espacio situado bajo los apartamentos. +Y en la parte alta tenemos una nica capa de apartamentos que combinan las ventajas de una zona residencial, como una casa con jardn, con un estilo metropolitano, y una ubicacin cntrica. +sta es nuestra primera maqueta. +Y aqu una foto area del verano pasado. +Los apartamentos cubren el aparcamiento. +Se accede a ellos por este elevador diagonal. +Es un elemento muy utilizado en Suiza, ya que all tienen la necesidad natural de utilizarlos. +Para la fachada del aparcamiento, queramos que tuviera ventilacin natural. As que tuvimos que perforarla. +Descubrimos que al controlar el tamao de los agujeros podramos convertir la fachada en una imagen gigante con ventilacin natural. +Y ya que nos referamos al proyecto como La Montaa, encargamos a un fotgrafo japons que nos hiciera esta bonita foto del Everest. Ahora, el edificio es una obra de arte de 3.000 metros cuadrados. +Volviendo al aparcamiento, a los pasillos, es como viajar a un universo paralelo de coches y colores, a este oasis urbano orientado al sur. +La madera de los apartamentos se extiende por la fachada. +Si seguimos, vemos que se convierte en este jardn. +De hecho, toda la lluvia que cae sobre La Montaa se recoge y, a travs de +un sistema de riego automtico, garantiza que este paisaje ajardinado se parezca en uno o dos aos a un templo camboyano, completamente cubierto de vegetacin. +As, La Montaa es el primer ejemplo de lo que denominamos alquimia arquitectnica. +Es decir, la idea de que se puede crear, no oro, sino valor aadido, uniendo ingredientes tradicionales, como apartamentos y aparcamientos, y, en este caso, ofrecer a las personas la oportunidad de no tener que elegir entre una vida de campo o de ciudad. +Pueden tener las dos. +Como arquitecto, es difcil establecer la agenda. +No se puede decir simplemente quiero hacer una ciudad sostenible en Asia Central. No es as como se reciben los encargos. +Siempre hay que adaptarse e improvisar a las oportunidades, los imprevistos, y la confusin del mundo real. +Un ltimo ejemplo es que recientemente, el verano pasado, ganamos un concurso para disear un banco nacional nrdico. +ste era el director del banco cuando todava sonrea. +Estaba situado en medio de la capital, por lo que era toda una oportunidad. +Por desgracia, era el banco nacional de Islandia. +Casi al mismo tiempo, recibimos la visita de un ministro de Azerbaiyn. +Lo llevamos a ver La Montaa y qued sorprendido con la idea de poder crear montaas con la arquitectura. Azerbaiyn es conocida como los Alpes de Asia Central. +As que nos pidi si podamos idear un plan urbanstico sobre una isla en las afueras de la capital que pudiera recrear la silueta de las siete mayores montaas de Azerbaiyn. +As que aceptamos el encargo +y creamos este vdeo que me gustara ensearles. +Al crear estos vdeos +siempre discutimos sobre la banda sonora. Pero, en este caso, fue muy fcil elegir la cancin. +Bsicamente, Bak es una baha con vistas a la isla de Zira, la isla que estbamos planificando. Casi como el diseo de su bandera. +Nuestra idea principal fue utilizar las siete montaas ms significativas de la topografa de Azerbaiyn y reinterpretarlas en estructuras urbanas y arquitectnicas, habitadas por personas. +Colocamos estas montaas en la isla, alrededor de este verde valle central. A modo de parque central. +Lo que lo hace interesante es que la isla ahora es una extensin desierta sin vegetacin. +No tiene agua, ni energa, ni recursos. +As que diseamos toda la isla como un ecosistema independiente, utilizando el viento para hacer funcionar las plantas desalinizadoras, y las propiedades trmicas del agua para calentar y enfriar los edificios. +Y todo el excedente de agua potable y residual se filtra de forma orgnica en el paisaje, transformando gradualmente la isla desierta en un paisaje verde lleno de vida. +Aunque normalmente el desarrollo urbanstico suele hacerse a expensas de la Naturaleza, en este caso, crea naturaleza. +Y los edificios no slo evocan la imagen de las montaas. Tambin actan como montaas. +Crean abrigos para el viento. +Acumulan energa solar. +Acumulan agua. +As que transforman toda la isla en un ecosistema independiente. +Recientemente, presentamos el plan maestro. Y fue aprobado. +Este verano empezaremos con los planos de construccin de las dos primeras montaas de la que va a ser la primera isla con huella de carbono cero de Asia Central. +As, para finalizar, +pueden ver cmo La Montaa de Copenhague evolucion hasta convertirse en los Siete Picos de Azerbaiyn. +Con algo de suerte y algo ms de evolucin quizs en 10 aos podran ser las Cinco Montaas de Marte. +Gracias. +La cuestin es saber qu es lo invisible. +En realidad es mucho ms de lo que se piensa. +Cada cosa, digamos, cada cosa sustancial salvo cada cosa y la sustancia . +Vemos la sustancia pero no de qu se trata lo sustancial. +Como en esta frase crptica que hace poco encontr en The Guardian: "El matrimonio sufri un contratiempo en 1965... cuando la esposa asesin al marido". +Hay una invisibilidad enorme ah, no? +As que podemos ver las estrellas y los planetas. Pero no lo que los separa o lo que los atrae. +De la materia, y de las personas, slo vemos la superficie. +No podemos ver el cuarto de mquinas. +No podemos ver la motivacin de la gente, al menos no fcilmente. +Cuanto ms nos acercamos a algo, ms se desvanece. +De hecho, si vemos las cosas realmente de cerca si observamos la subestructura bsica de la materia, no hay nada ah. +Los electrones desaparecen en algo borroso donde slo hay energa. Y la energa no se puede ver. +De modo que todo lo que cuenta, lo importante, es invisible. +Una tontera que es invisible es esta historia, invisible para Uds. +Y que ahora har que vean en sus mentes. +Es sobre Geoffrey Dickens, un miembro del parlamento . +El difunto Geoffrey Dickens, M.P. estaba en una fiesta en su distrito. +A donde fuera, en cada puesto que paraba, era seguido de cerca por una mujer sonriente, leal, de una fealdad inenarrable. +Por ms que lo intent no pudo desprendese de ella. +Pocos das despus el seor recibi una carta de una electora en la que le deca cuanto le admiraba que lo haba conocido en una fiesta y le peda una foto autografiada. +Junto al nombre, entre corchetes, haba una descripcin acertada: cara de caballo. +"He juzgado mal a esta mujer" pens el Sr. Dickens. +"No slo es consciente de su repugnancia fsica, sino que la usa a su favor. +Una foto no es suficiente". +As que fue y compr un marco de plstico para enmarcar la fotografa. +Y en la fotografa escribi elegantemente: "Para Cara de Caballo, con amor de Geoffrey Dickens, M.P." +Despus de haberla enviado su secretaria le dijo: "Recibi esa carta de la mujer que estaba en la fiesta? +Escrib Cara de Caballo junto a su firma para que recordara quien era". +Apuesto que dese volverse invisible, no creen? +Una de las cosas interesantes de la invisibilidad es que si no podemos verlo tampoco podemos entenderlo. +La gravedad es algo que no podemos ver, y que no entendemos. +Es la menos comprendida de las cuatro fuerzas fundamentales y la ms dbil. +Nadie sabe realmente qu es o por qu existe. +Si me permiten decirlo, Sir Issac Newton, el cientfico ms grande de la historia, pensaba que Jess vino a la Tierra para operar los resortes de la gravedad. +Para eso pensaba que Jess estaba all. +Un tipo brillante, podra estar equivocado en eso?, no s. +La conciencia. Veo sus caras. +No tengo idea de lo que piensa cada uno de Uds. No es algo asombroso? +No es increible que no podamos leernos la mente. +Pero que podamos tocarnos, saborearnos quizs, si nos acercamos lo suficiente. +Pero no podemos leernos la mente. Eso me parece bastante sorprendente. +En la fe suf, esta gran religin de Oriente Medio, que algunos aseguran es la raz de todas las religiones, los maestros sufes son telpatas, eso dicen ellos. +Pero su ejercicio principal de telepata es enviarnos al resto poderosas seales para que pensemos que la telepata no existe. +Por eso que pensamos que no existe, por influencia de los maestros sufes. +En la cuestin de la conciencia y la inteligencia artificial. La inteligencia artificial, como el estudio de la conciencia, no han conducido a nada. No tenemos idea del funcionamiento de la conciencia. +Respecto de la inteligencia artificial, no slo no se ha creado inteligencia artificial, sino que tampoco se ha creado la estupidez artificial. +Las leyes de la fsica: invisible, eterna, omnipresente, todopoderosa. +Les recuerda a alguien? +Interesante. No soy, como pueden adivinar, materialista. Soy inmaterialista. +He encontrado una palabra nueva muy til: ignstico. Bien? +Soy ignstico. +Me rehuso a responder la pregunta de si Dios existe o no hasta que alguien defina los trminos correctamente. +Otra cosa que no podemos ver el genoma humano. +Y esto es cada vez ms singular. Porque hace 20 aos, cuando se comenz a profundizar en el genoma se pensaba que probablemente contendra unos 100 mil genes. +Los genetistas ya sabrn esto, pero cada ao desde entonces, se ha ido corrigiendo hacia abajo. +Ahora pensamos que es probable que haya slo unos 20 mil genes en el genoma humano. +Es algo extraordinario porque el arroz, presten atencin, se sabe que el arroz tiene 38 mil genes. +Las papas, las papas tienen 48 cromosomas. Saben algo? +Dos ms que las personas. La misma cantidad que el gorila. +Estas cosas no se ven pero son muy extraas. +Las estrellas de da. Siempre pienso que es fascinante. +El Universo desaparece. +Cuanto ms luz hay, menos se ve. +El tiempo, nadie puede verlo. +No s si saben esto. En la fsica moderna hay un gran movimiento en la fsica moderna para determinar que el tiempo en verdad no existe. Porque es muy incmodo para las cifras. +Es mucho ms fcil si no est. +No puede verse el futuro, obviamente. +Y no pude verse el pasado, salvo en la memoria. +Una de las cosas interesantes del pasado es que uno especialmente no puede ver, mi hijo me pregunt el otro da, dijo, papi: Recuerdas como era yo cuando tena dos aos? +Yo dije "S". Y l respondi: "Por qu yo no puedo?" +No es extraordinario? Uno no puede recordar lo que le sucedi antes de los dos o tres aos de edad. Algo genial para los psicoanalistas. Porque de otro modo se quedaran sin trabajo. +Porque es entonces cuando sucede todo eso hace de uno lo que es. +Otra cosa que no podemos ver es la red de la que pendemos. +Esto es fascinante. Probablemente sepan, algunos, que las clulas se renuevan contnuamente. Pueden verlo en la piel y en ese tipo de cosas. +La piel se escama, el cabello crece, las uas, esas cosas. +Todas las clulas del cuerpo son reemplazadas en algn momento. +Las papilas gustativas cada unos 10 das. +El hgado y los rganos internos tardan un poco ms. La espina dorsal, siete aos. +Pero cada siete aos ninguna clula del cuerpo queda de lo que haba siete aos atrs. +Entonces la pregunta es: quines somos? +Qu somos? Qu es esta cosa de la que pendemos? eso somos nosotros realmente? +Bien. Los tomos: no pueden verse, +Nadie podr jams. Son ms pequeos que la longitud de onda de la luz. +El gas: no puede verse. +Interesante. Alguien mencion hace poco el 1600. +El gas es un invento del 1600 del qumico holands van Helmont. +Se dice que es la invencin ms exitosa de una palabra por un individuo conocido. +Bastante bueno. l tambin invent la palabra blas que significa radiacin astral. +Desafortunadamente no se populariz. +Pero bien hecho por l. +Hay muchas cosas que... la luz. +No puede verse la luz. En la oscuridad, en el vaco, si una persona enciende la luz frente a nuestros ojos no la veremos. Es un poco tcnico, algunos fsicos no estarn de acuerdo con esto. +Pero es raro que no podamos ver el rayo de luz slo podemos ver lo que la luz toca. +Para m es extraordinario que no podamos ver la luz que no podamos ver la oscuridad. +La electricidad: no puede verse. +No dejen que nadie les diga que entiende la electricidad. +No la entiende. Nadie sabe qu es. +Uno probablemente piensa que los electrones de un cable elctrico se mueven instantneamente por el cable, no?, a la velocidad de la luz cuando uno enciende la luz. No es as. +Los electrones se mueven por el cable se dice, a la velocidad de la miel. +Las galaxias, 100 mil millones se estima hay en el Universo. +100 mil millones. Cuntas podemos ver? Cinco. +Cinco, de las 100 mil millones de galaxias, a simple vista. Y una de ellas es bastante difcil de ver a menos que uno tenga una buena vista. +Ondas de radio. Hay otra cosa. +Cuando Heinrich Hertz descubri las ondas de radio en 1887 las llam ondas de radio porque irradiaban. +Y alguien le dijo: "Bien, Cul es la idea de esto Heinrich?" +"Cul es la idea de estas ondas de radio que has descubierto?" +Y l dijo: "Bueno, no tengo idea". +"Pero supongo que alguien alguna vez le encontrar un uso". +Y eso hacan: la radio. Eso es lo que descubrieron. +Como sea, lo ms grande lo invisible para nosotros es lo que no sabemos. +Es increible lo poco que sabemos. +Thomas Edison dijo una vez: "No conocemos ni una millonsima parte del 1%... de nada". +Y he llegado a la conclusin porque han hecho esta otra pregunta: "Qu otra cosa no podemos ver?" +El punto, muchos de nosotros. Qu es el punto? +Un punto no puede verse. Por definicin, no tiene dimensin como un electrn, por extrao que parezca. +Pero el punto, al que arrib es que hay dos preguntas que vale la pena hacerse: +"Por qu estamos aqu?" y "Qu deberamos hacer mientras estamos?" +Para darles una ayuda, les voy a dejar dos frases, de dos grandes filsofos quiz dos de los filsofos ms grandes del siglo XX. Uno matemtico e ingeniero y el otro poeta. +El primero es Ludvig Vitgentajn, que dijo: "No s por qu estamos aqu, +pero estoy seguro de que no es para disfrutar". +Era un loco alegre, no creen? +Segundo y ltimo: W.H. Auden, uno de mis poetas favoritos dijo: "Estamos aqu en la Tierra... para ayudar a otros". +"Para qu estn los otros aqu? No tengo idea". +Vemos a travs de los ojos. Pero tambin vemos con el cerebro. +Y ver con el cerebro a menudo se denomina imaginacin. +Y estamos familiarizados con los paisajes de nuestra propia imaginacin, nuestro paisaje interior. Vivimos con l toda la vida. +Sin embargo, tambin existen alucinaciones. Y las alucinaciones son completamente diferentes. +stas no parecen ser de nuestra propia creacin. +A stas parece que no las podamos controlar. +Parece que vienen del exterior, para imitar la percepcin. +As es que voy a hablar de alucinaciones. Sobre un tipo particular de alucinaciones visuales que veo entre mis pacientes. +Hace unos meses recib una llamada telefnica de una residencia de ancianos donde trabajo. +Me dijeron que uno de los residentes, una anciana de unos 90 aos, estaba viendo cosas. Y se preguntaban si se haba vuelto loca. O quiz, como ella era una seora de edad, si quiz haba sufrido una apopleja o si sufra de Alzheimer. +As es que me preguntaron si poda ir a ver a Rosalee, la seora mayor. +Fui a verla. +Y resultaba ms que evidente que estaba completamente sana, y lcida con una buena inteligencia. No obstante, ella se haba asustado y desconcertado mucho. porque haba estado viendo cosas. +Y me dijo, algo que las enfermeras no haban mencionado, y es que era ciega, que haca cinco aos se haba quedado completamente ciega debido a una degeneracin macular. +Pero durante los ltimos das, haba estado viendo cosas. +As que le pregunt, "Qu tipo de cosas?" +Y ella dijo: "Gente en traje oriental, en cortinas, subiendo y bajando escaleras. +Un hombre que se gira hacia m y sonre. +Y tiene dientes enormes a un lado de la boca. +Animales tambin. +Veo un edificio blanco. Est nevando, la nieve es blanda. +Veo un caballo, con un arns, retirando la nieve. +Entonces, una noche la escena cambia. +Veo perros y gatos que vienen hacia m. +Llegan a un cierto punto y luego se detiene. +Luego la escena cambia de nuevo. +Veo a muchos de los nios. Estn subiendo y bajando escaleras. +Llevan colores brillantes, rosa y azul, como el vestido Oriental" +"A veces," me deca, "antes de que llegara la gente tena alucinaciones con cuadrados rosa y azul en el suelo, que parecan ir hasta el techo." +"Entonces," le pregunt,"es esto como un sueo?" +Y ella: "No, no es como un sueo. Es como una pelcula." +Ella dijo: "Tiene color. Tiene movimiento. +Pero es completamente silencioso, como una pelcula muda." +Y me explic que se trataba de una pelcula bastante aburrida. +Ella dijo: "Todas estas personas con la vestimenta oriental, paseando arriba y abajo, muy repetitivo, muy limitado." +Ella tiene un gran sentido del humor. +Saba que era una alucinacin. +Sin embargo, estaba asustada. Ella haba vivido ya 95 aos y que nunca antes haba tenido una alucinacin. +Ella dijo que las alucinaciones no tenan ninguna relacin con todo lo que estaba pensando, sintiendo o haciendo. Que parecan llegar o desaparecer voluntariamente. +Ella no lo poda controlar. +Ella dijo que no conoca ni a las personas, ni los lugares de las alucinaciones. +Y ninguna de las personas o los animales, en fin, todo pareca ajeno a ella. +Y ella no saba que es lo que estaba pasando. +Se preguntaba si se haba vuelto loca, o perdiendo la cabeza. +As es que la examin minuciosamente. +Ella era una seora mayor muy lcida. Perfectamente sana. No tena problemas mdicos. +Ella no ingera medicamentos susceptibles a producir alucinaciones. +Pero ella era ciega. +Y yo entonces le dije: "Creo que s lo que tiene." +Le dije: "Hay una forma particular de alucinaciones visuales que puede desarrollarse con el deterioro de la visin o la ceguera." +"Esto fue descrito por primera vez", le dije, "en el siglo XVIII, por un hombre llamado Charles Bonnet. +Y usted padece el sndrome de Charles Bonnet. +No tiene nada malo en su cerebro. A su mente no le pasa nada. +Usted tiene sndrome de Charles Bonnet." +Y esto la alivi mucho saber que no haba nada de que preocuparse, era ms bien algo curioso. +Ella dijo, "Quin es Charles Bonnet?" +Me pregunt "Sufra l tambin de lo mismo?" +Y me dijo: "Dgale a todas las enfermeras que tengo el sndrome de Charles Bonnet." +"No estoy loca. Ni tengo demencia. Tengo el sndrome de Charles Bonnet." +As es que se lo dije a las enfermeras. +Ahora bien, esto, para m, es una situacin frecuente. +Trabajo en gran parte en las residencias de ancianos. +Veo un montn de personas de edad avanzada con dificultades auditivas o visuales. +Alrededor del 10% de las personas con discapacidad auditiva tienen alucinaciones auditivas. +Y cerca del 10 % de las personas con discapacidad visual tienen alucinaciones visuales. +No se tiene que ser completamente ciego, slo estar lo suficientemente discapacitado. +Ahora bien, en la descripcin original del siglo XVIII, Charles Bonnet no las inclua. +Su abuelo tena estas alucinaciones. +Su abuelo era juez, un hombre de edad avanzada. +Le haban practicado una operacin de cataratas. +Su visin era bastante pobre. +Y en 1759 describi a su nieto varias cosas que estaba viendo. +Lo primero que dijo que vio fu un pauelo en el aire. +Era un gran pauelo azul con cuatro crculos de color naranja. +Y l saba que era una alucinacin. +No hay pauelos en el aire. +Y vio una gran rueda en el aire. +Pero a veces no estaba seguro de si estaba alucinando o no. Y esto es as porque las alucinaciones podran entenderse en el contexto de las visiones. +As que en una ocasin, cuando sus nietas fueron a visitarlo, pregunt "Y quines son estos hombres jvenes y apuestos?" +Y ellas dijeron: "Ay, abuelo, aqu no hay hombres jvenes y guapos". +Y entonces los hombres jvenes y apuestos desaparecieron. +Es tpico de estas alucinaciones que pueden llegar de repente y desaparecen de repente. +No suelen aparecer o desaparecer poco a poco. +Son ms bien repentinos. Y cambian de repente. +Charles Luland, el abuelo vea a cientos de figuras diferentes, diferentes paisajes de todo tipo. +En una ocasin vio a un hombre en bata fumando una pipa, y se dio cuenta de que era l mismo. +Esa fue la nica figura que reconoci. +En una ocasin, cuando caminaba por las calles de Pars, vio, esto fue real, un andamio. +Pero cuando volvi a casa vio una miniatura del andamio de 15 cms de alto, sobre su escritorio. +Esta repeticin de la percepcin a veces se llama pananopsia. +A l y a Rosalee, es lo que pareca sucederles, Rosalee pregunt: "Qu est pasando?" Y le expliqu que cuando uno pierde la visin, como las partes visuales del cerebro ya no estn recibiendo estmulo alguno, se vuelven hiperactivas e inquietas. Y comienzan a emitir de forma espontnea. +Y se empieza a ver cosas. +Y las cosas que se ven puede ser de verdad muy complejas. +Con otro de mis pacientes, que tena algunas visiones, las visiones que tenan podran ser preocupantes. +En una ocasin dijo que vio a un hombre con una camisa a rayas en un restaurante. +Y que se daba la vuelta. Y entonces se divida en seis figuras con camisas de rayas, que comenzaban a caminar hacia ella. +Y luego las seis figuras se replegaban como un acorden. +Una vez, cuando estaba conduciendo, o mejor dicho, su marido estaba conduciendo, la carretera se dividi en cuatro. Y ella sinti que iba simultneamente por los cuatro caminos. +Tena alucinaciones muy movidas. +Muchas de ellas estaban relacionadas con un automvil. +A veces vea a un adolescente sentado en el cap del automvil. +Muy tenaz y se mova con bastante gracia cuando el automvil daba la vuelta. +Y luego, cuando llegaban a una parada, el joven haca un repentino despegue vertical, de 30 metros en el aire, y luego desapareca. +Otro de mis pacientes tena otra clase de alucinacin. +Se trataba de una mujer sin problemas en los ojos, sino en la parte visual de su cerebro. Tena un tumor pequeo en el cortex occipital. +Y, sobre todo, vea dibujos animados. +y estos dibujos animados se volvan transparentes y cubran la mitad del campo visual, como una pantalla. +Y sobre todo vea dibujos animados de la Rana Ren. +Ahora, yo no veo Plaza Ssamo. Pero ella puntualiz al decir: "Por qu Ren?" dijo, "Si la rana Ren no significa nada para m. +Sabe, me preguntaba sobre el significado freudiano. +Por qu Ren? +La rana Ren no significa nada para m." +No le importaban demasiado los dibujos. +Pero, lo que le molestaba era tener imgenes muy persistentes o alucinaciones de rostros y como con Rosalee, las caras a menudo estaban deformadas, con dientes o con los ojos muy grandes. +Y esto la asustaba. +Bueno, qu est pasando con estas personas? +Como mdico tengo que tratar de identificar lo que pasa, y tranquilizar a las personas. Especialmente para asegurarles de que no se estn volviendo locas. +Aproximadamente el 10%, como he dicho, de las personas con discapacidad visual padece esto. +Pero no ms del 1% de las personas lo reconoce. Porque tienen miedo de que se les considere locos o algo as. +Y si se lo mencionan a sus mdicos puede que obtengan un diagnstico equivocado. +En particular rige la idea de que si usted ve o escucha cosas, se est volviendo loco. Sin embargo, las alucinaciones psicticas son muy diferentes. +Las alucinaciones psicticas, ya sean visuales o auditivas, lo dirigen a uno, lo acusan, +Lo seducen y humillan. +Se ren de uno. +Y se interacta con ellas. +No existe ninguna de este tipo que haya aparecido junto con las alucinaciones de Charles Bonnet. +Es una pelcula. Uno ve una pelcula que no tiene nada que ver con uno. O por lo menos es como piensan las personas. +Tambin existe algo raro llamada epilepsia del lbulo temporal. Y, a veces, si uno tiene esto, uno puede sentirse transportado al pasado a un lugar y tiempo del pasado. +Ests en un cruce de carreteras. +Hueles castaas asadas. +Se oye el trfico. Todos los sentidos estn involucrados. +Y usted est esperando a su chica. +Y es martes por la noche en el 1982. +Y las alucinaciones del lbulo temporal son alucinaciones de todos los sentidos, llenas de sentimiento y de familiaridad, situado en el espacio y el tiempo, coherente, dramtico. +Las de Charles Bonnet son muy diferentes. +As, en las alucinaciones de Charles Bonnet, se tienen de todos los niveles. Desde las alucinaciones geomtricas, los cuadrados de color rosa y azul que tena la seora, hasta las alucinaciones muy elaboradas con figuras y caras concretas. +Rostros, rostros deformados y a veces aparecen las cosas ms comunes en estas alucinaciones. +Y en segundo lugar los ms comunes son los dibujos animados. +Entonces, qu pasa? +Es fascinante que en los ltimos aos, ha sido posible hacer imgenes funcionales del cerebro, esto es, resonancias magnticas mientras las personas estn alucinando. +Y de hecho localizar que partes diferentes del cerebro visual se activan cuando tienen alucinaciones. +Cuando las personas tienen simples alucinaciones geomtricas el cortex visual primario est activado. +Esta es la parte del cerebro que percibe los bordes y patrones. +No se forman imgenes en el cortex visual primario. +Cuando se forman las imgenes una mayor parte del cortex visual est involucrado en el lbulo temporal. +Y, en particular, un rea del lbulo temporal que se llama la circunvolucin fusiforme. +Y se sabe que si se sufre daos en la circunvolucin fusiforme, puede que se pierda la capacidad de reconocer las caras. +Pero si hay una actividad anormal en la circunvolucin fusiforme, se pueden deformar las caras. Y esto es exactamente lo que sucede con algunas de estas personas. +Hay un rea en la parte anterior de la circunvolucin donde estn representados los dientes y los ojos. Y se activa la parte de la circunvolucin cuando se tienen las alucinaciones deformes. +Hay otra parte del cerebro que est especialmente activada cuando uno ve los dibujos animados. +Se activa cuando se reconoce dibujos animados, cuando uno pinta dibujos y cuando uno tiene alucinaciones de dibujos. +Es tan interesante que debe ser especfico. +Hay otras partes del cerebro que estn especficamente implicadas en el reconocimiento y la alucinacin de los edificios y paisajes. +Y en el 1970 se constat que no haba slo partes del cerebro sino clulas especficas. +Las clulas de la cara fueron descubiertas en 1970. +Y ahora sabemos que hay muchos tipos diferentes de clulas. Que pueden ser muy muy especficos. +As que puede que no slo tengan un celular en el coche; [NT: Juego de palabras no traducile en espaol] +Vi un Aston Martin esta maana. +Tuve que traerlo. +Y ahora est ah en alguna parte. +Ahora, en este nivel, lo que se llama cortex inferotemporal, slo hay imgenes visuales, o imaginarias o fragmentos. +Es slo en los niveles superiores cuando los sentidos se unen a los otros y hay conexiones con la memoria y la emocin. +Y en el sndrome de Charles Bonnet no se llega a los niveles ms altos. +Se est en estos niveles inferiores del cortex visual donde se tienen miles y decenas de miles y millones de imgenes, o ficciones, ficciones fragmentadas, todos neuralmente codificados, en determinadas clulas o pequeos grupos de clulas. +Normalmente, estos son parte de la corriente integrada de la percepcin o la imaginacin. Y uno no es consciente de ellos. +Es slo si uno tiene discapacidades visuales o se es ciego, cuando se interrumpe el proceso. +Y en vez de la percepcin normal, se obtiene una anrquica y convulsiva estimulacin o liberacin de todas estas clulas visuales, en el cortex inferotemporal. +As, de repente se ve una cara. De repente, se ve un coche. +De repente esto y de repente lo otro. +La mente se esfuerza por organizar, y para dar algn tipo de coherencia a esto. Pero no con demasiado xito. +Cuando estos fueron descritos por primera vez se pens que se podra interpretar como sueos. +Pero, en realidad la gente dice, "No reconozco a la gente. No puede establecer ninguna relacin". +"Gustavo no significa nada para m." +No llegaremos a ninguna parte si los consideramos como sueos. +Bueno, ms o menos he dicho ya lo que quera. +Creo que slo quiero recapitular y decir que esto es comn. +Piense en el nmero de personas ciegas. +Debe haber cientos de miles de personas ciegas que tienen estas alucinaciones, pero tienen demasiado miedo de hablar de ellas. +As que este tipo de cosas tiene que salir a la luz, para los pacientes, los mdicos, para el pblico. +Por ltimo, creo que son infinitamente interesantes y valiosos, para formarnos una idea de cmo funciona el cerebro. +Charles Bonnet dijo hace 250 aos, se preguntaba, pensando en estas alucinaciones, cmo el teatro de la mente, como l deca, poda generarse por la mquina cerebral. +Ahora 250 aos despus, creo que estamos empezando a vislumbrar cmo se llega a esto. +Muchas gracias. +Chris Anderson: Ha sido magnfico. Muchas gracias. +Usted habla de estas cosas con una gran sensibilidad y empata por sus pacientes. +Ha experimentado usted alguno de los sndromes de los que escribe? +Oliver Sacks: Tema que me lo preguntara. +Bueno, s, muchos de ellos. +Y en realidad yo mismo tambin tengo alguna descapacidad visual. +Estoy ciego de un ojo y el otro tampoco est demasiado bien. +Y veo alucinaciones geomtricas. +Pero nada ms. +CA: Y no le molesta? +Puesto que entiende lo que pasa, no le preocupa? +OS: Bueno, no me molesta ms que mi tinnitus. Que intento ignorar. +En ocasiones me interesan. Y tengo muchos dibujos de ellos en mis cuadernos. +Tambin me han hecho una resonancia magntica para ver cmo el cortex visual toma el control. +Y cuando veo todos estos hexgonos y otras cosas complejas, que tambin veo, en una migraa visual, me pregunto si todo el mundo ve estas cosas, y si las cosas como el arte rupestre o el decorativo pueden haberse derivado de ellos. +CA: Ha sido una charla muy fascinante. +Muchas gracias por compartir. +OS: Gracias. Gracias. +Me llamo Jonathan Zittrain, y durante mi ltimo trabajo me he sentido un poco pesimista. +As que he pensado esta maana que me gustara ser optimista, y dar razones para la esperanza para el futuro de Internet diseando el presente. +Puede parecer que haya menos esperanza ahora que la que haba antes. +Las personas son menos amables. Hay menos confianza en todo. +No lo s. Como muestra, podramos hacer una prueba aqu. +Cuntas personas han hecho alguna vez autostop? +Lo s... Cuntas personas han hecho autostop en los ltimos 10 aos? +Claro. Qu ha cambiado? +El transporte pblico no es mejor. +As que sa es una razn para pensar que estamos empeorando, yendo por una direccin equivocada. +Pero yo quisiera poner tres ejemplos con el fin de mostrar que la tendencia va, de hecho, hacia la otra direccin y es Internet el motor que contribuye a ello. +As el ejemplo nmero uno: Internet mismo. +stos son los tres fundadores de Internet. +Eran en realidad compaeros de bachillerato en el mismo instituto de un barrio de Los ngeles en la dcada de los 60. +Puede que ustedes tuvieran un club francs o de debate. +Ellos tenan el club "Vamos a montar una red mundial", y todo sali muy bien. +Aqu en la foto aparecen en su 25 aniversario, La retrospectiva de Newsweek sobre Internet. +Y como pueden ver, son bsicamente unos chiflados, +que tenan una gran limitacin y una gran libertad al intentar concebir una red mundial. +La limitacin es que no tenan dinero. +Ningn capital para invertir, en una red fsica donde posiblemente se necesitara camiones y personal y un centro para mover paquetes durante la noche. +Pero ellos no tenan nada de eso. +Pero tenan una libertad asombrosa, pues no pretendan hacer dinero con esto. +Internet no tiene un plan de negocios, nunca lo tuvo. +Tampoco director general, ninguna empresa responsable, individualmente, de su construccin. +En cambio, las personas se van reuniendo para hacer algo solo para divertirse, y no porque se les oblig a hacerlo o porque esperaban hacer dinero con ello. +Esa tica los llev a una arquitectura de red, una estructura que se diferenci de otras redes digitales desde y a partir de entonces. +De modo inusitado, de hecho, se dijo que no estaba claro que Internet pudiera funcionar. +Ms tarde en 1992, IBM manifest que no se podra construir una red corporativa mediante el protocolo de Internet. +E incluso algunos ingenieros de Internet hoy en da dicen que todo esto es un proyecto piloto y el jurado an est deliberando. +Por eso la mascota de la tecnologa de Internet, si es que debiera haber una, sera el abejorro. +Debido a que la envergadura del ala del abejorro es casi demasiado larga para que sea capaz de volar. +Y, sin embargo, misteriosamente, de alguna manera vuela. +Me complace decir que, gracias a la financiacin masiva del gobierno, hace unos tres aos, finalmente se ha sabido cmo vuelan las abejas. +Es muy complicado, pero resulta que agitan las alas muy rpidamente. +Entonces, cmo est montada esta arquitectura tan caprichosa que hace que la red fluya en sintona y adems sea tan inusual? +Bueno, para mover datos de un lugar a otro - pero, no como un servicio de mensajera. +Es ms como una danza de mosh o pogo. +Imagnense, siendo parte de una red donde tal vez est en un evento deportivo. Y usted est sentado en una de las filas y alguien pide una cerveza, y se hace una cadena de manos. +Y su deber como buen vecino es hacer que pase la cerveza, arriesgando mancharse los pantalones, para llegar al destino. +Nadie te paga por hacer esto. +Es parte del deber de ser buen vecino. +Y, en cierto modo, as es exactamente cmo los paquetes se mueven por Internet, a veces dando 25 o 30 saltos, a travs de las entidades que intervienen que estn moviendo y pasando los datos sin tener ninguna obligacin contractual o jurdica con el remitente original, o con el receptor. +Claro est que en un mosh es difcil especificar un destino. +Se necesita mucha confianza, pero no del tipo "Por favor, llveme a Pensacola". +As que Internet necesita destinatarios y direcciones. +Resulta que no existe un mapa general de Internet. +En vez de eso, es como si todos estuviramos en un teatro, pero slo pudiramos ver entre la niebla a la gente que nos rodea. +Entonces, qu podemos hacer para averiguar quin est dnde? +Nos dirigimos a la persona a la derecha y le explicamos lo que vemos a nuestra izquierda. Y viceversa. +Y pueden enjabonar, enjuagar, repetir. Y antes de que nos demos cuenta, tendremos una idea general de dnde est todo. +As es cmo funcionan realmente las direcciones de Internet y el enrutamiento. +Es un sistema que se basa en la bondad y la confianza, lo que tambin le convierte en un sistema muy frgil y vulnerable. +En casos raros, pero asombrosos, una sola mentira contada por una sola entidad, en este nido de abeja puede llevar a un gran problema. +As, por ejemplo, el ao pasado, el gobierno de Pakistn pidi a sus proveedores de servicios de Internet impedir que los ciudadanos de Pakistn vieran YouTube. +Haba all un vdeo que al gobierno no le gustaba y por eso quera bloquearlo. +sta es una incidencia comn. Los gobiernos en todas partes intentan a menudo bloquear, filtrar y censurar contenidos en Internet. +Bueno este ISP de Pakistn eligi para hacer efectivo el bloqueo para sus abonados una manera bastante inusual. +Anunciaba -- la forma en que se podra pedir, si se fuese parte de Internet, expresar lo que est pasando cerca -- de hecho, as se detect de repente de que se trataba de YouTube. +"As es", dijo, "Yo soy de YouTube." +Lo que significaba que los paquetes de datos de los abonados que iban a YouTube se detuvieron en el ISP, porque pensaban que ya haban llegado al destino. Y el ISP los tir a la basura sin abrirlos porque se trataba de bloquearlo. +Pero la cosa no qued ah. +Vean el comunicado sali mediante un solo clic, que repercuti en el exterior. +Y resulta que, cuando se analiza la historia de este suceso, se ve que en un primer momento que YouTube funciona perfectamente. +Luego, en un segundo momento, se ve como el anuncio falso se emite. +Y en dos minutos, esto repercute en todas partes y YouTube queda bloqueado en todo el mundo. +Si estuviera sentado en Oxford, Inglaterra, tratando de conectar a YouTube, los paquetes se iran a Pakistn y no regresaran. +Ahora slo piensen en eso. +Uno de los sitios web ms populares en el mundo, dirigido por la empresa ms poderosa del mundo, y no hubo nada que YouTube o Google pudieran hacer para evitarlo a pesar de su podero. +Y, sin embargo, de alguna manera, en unas dos horas, el problema se solucion. +Cmo fue posible? +Para una gran respuesta, nos remitimos a NANOG, +el North American Network Operators Group, [Grupo de operadores de la Red de Amrica del Norte]. Se trata de un grupo de personas que en cualquier da hermoso en una habitacin sin ventanas, en sus computadoras leen el correo electrnico y mensajes con tipos de fuentes fijas, como ste, y hablan sobre redes. +Y algunos de ellos son empleados de compaas proveedoras de servicios de Internet en todo el mundo. +Y aqu muestro el mensaje de uno de ellos: "Parece que tenemos un problema. Han bloqueado YouTube!. +Esto no es un simulacro. No es slo un despiste de los ingenieros de YouTube. Lo prometo. +Algo est pasando en Pakistn." +Y entonces se unieron para ayudar a encontrar el problema y solucionarlo. +Es algo as como si su casa se incendia. +La mala noticia es que no hay cuerpo de bomberos. +La buena noticia es que hay gente que aparece de la nada, apaga el fuego y se va sin esperar nada a cambio. +Estaba tratando de pensar en el modelo adecuado para describir este tipo de actos aleatorios de bondad realizados por extraos cerebritos. +Ya saben, es como cuando se pregona alabanzas a los cuatro vientos, la gente est dispuesta a ayudar. +Y resulta que esto existe en todas partes, si se busca. +Ejemplo nmero dos: Wikipedia. +Si un hombre llamado Jimbo se le hubiera acercado en 2001 y le hubiera dicho: "Tengo una gran idea. Empezamos con siete artculos que cualquiera pueda editar en cualquier momento, y lograremos tener una gran enciclopedia. Vale?" +Claro. La idea ms tonta del mundo. +De hecho, Wikipedia es una idea tan tonta que ni siquiera a Jimbo se le hubiera ocurrido. +La idea de Jimbo era Nupedia. +Concebida como algo tradicional. El fundador deba pagar dinero a los redactores porque se senta buena persona y el dinero ira a parar a las personas que escribieran los artculos. +Se implant la tecnologa wiki de manera que otros pudieran hacer sugerencias sobre las modificaciones -- casi como una idea tarda, una cuarto trasero. +Y resulta que el cuarto trasero creci absorbiendo la totalidad del proyecto. +Y hoy, Wikipedia es tan omnipresente que ahora se puede encontrar incluso en los mens de restaurantes chinos. +No lo estoy inventando. +Tengo una teora que puedo explicar ms tarde. +Baste decir por ahora que yo prefiero mi Wikipedia salteada con pimientos. +Pero ahora, Wikipedia no slo funciona de forma espontnea. +Cmo funciona realmente? Resulta que hay una sala trasera, una sin ventanas, metafricamente hablando. +Y hay un montn de gente que, en un da soleado, prefieren no salir y hacer el seguimiento de esto, administrar el tabln de anuncios, de una pgina wiki que cualquiera puede editar. +Y que genera problemas a la pgina. +Es una reminiscencia de la descripcin de la historia de "una cosa tras la otra", verdad? +Nmero uno: "La edicin tendenciosa del usuario Andyvphil". +Disculpe Andyvphil, caso de que usted est aqu hoy. +No estoy tomando partido. +No estoy tomando partido."Anon me ataca para volver". +Esta es mi favorita: "Una larga historia." +Resulta que hay ms personas en esta pgina para comprobar los problemas y el deseo de resolverlos que problemas que se plantean en la pgina. +Y eso es lo que mantiene a flote Wikipedia. +En todo momento, Wikipedia est aproximadamente a 45 minutos de la destruccin total. Vale? +Hay spambots rastreando, tratando de convertir cada artculo en un anuncio de un reloj Rolex. +Es esta lnea delgada de los cerebritos que mantiene todo en funcionamiento. +No por ser un empleo, ni por hacer carrera, sino por vocacin. +Es algo a lo que se sienten obligados a hacer porque se preocupan. +Incluso se asocian en grupos como la Unidad contra el vandalismo -- "Civismo, madurez, responsabilidad" -- slo para limpiar las pginas. +Puede que se pregunte, si hubo, por ejemplo, una convencin muy popular de Star Trek durante un fin de semana, quin podra hacerse cargo de la tienda. +Ellos se dan cuenta de que tienen que asumir la responsabilidad de lo que hacen. +Y la Wikipedia ha abrazado este principio. +Algunos de ustedes pueden recordar a Star Wars Kid, el pobre adolescente que se film a s mismo con una prtiga de recuperar bolas de golf. actuando como si se tratara de un sable lser. +La pelcula, sin su permiso, o incluso con su conocimiento en un primer momento, encontr su camino en Internet. +Un increble vdeo viral. Extremadamente popular. +Muy humillante para l. +Incluso se ha convertido en enciclopdico y todo. Wikipedia tuvo que hacer un artculo sobre Star Wars Kid. +Cada artculo de Wikipedia tiene una pgina de discusin correspondiente. Y en la pgina de discusin haba una discusin larga de los wikipedistas, en cuanto a si su nombre real deba aparecer en el artculo. +Se pueden leer argumentos de ambas partes. +sto es slo una muestra de algunos de ellos. +Finalmente decidieron, no por unanimidad ni mucho menos, no incluir su nombre real, a pesar de que casi todos los medios de comunicacin lo hicieron. +Ellos simplemente no crean que era lo correcto. +Fue un acto de bondad. +Y a partir de ese da la pgina de Star Wars Kid tiene una seal de alerta en la parte superior que reza que no se debe poner el nombre real en la pgina. +Si lo hace se eliminar inmediatamente, se eliminar por personas que puede que hayan estado en desacuerdo con la decisin original, pero respetan el resultado, y trabajan para que se respete porque creen en algo ms grande que su propia opinin. +Como abogado, tengo que decir que estos tipos estn inventando la ley derechos a travs de hechos a medida que avanzamos. +Ahora bien, esto no se limita slo a Wikipedia. +Lo vemos en los blogs por doquier. +Esto es una portada del Business Week del 2005. +Guau. Los blogs van a cambiar su negocio. +S que parecen tontos. Y seguro que parecen tontos. +Comienzan en todo tipo de proyectos bobalicones. +ste es mi blog bobo favorito: Catsthatlooklikehitler.com +Usted enva una foto de su gato si se parece a Hitler. +S lo s. El nmero cuatro, es como, bueno se imaginan volver a casa y ver cada da ese gato? +Con esto entonces, se puede ver la misma clase de caprichos aplicado a personas. +ste es un blog dedicado a los retratos penosos. +ste reza: "Prado buclico con valla de madera en zig zag. +Hay un animal muerto detrs de ella?" +Es como: "Sabes? Creo que hay un animal muerto detrs de ella." +Y podemos ver uno tras otro. +Hasta que aparece ste. Imagen eliminada a peticin del propietario. +Eso es todo. Imagen eliminada a peticin del propietario. +La cuestin es que alguien que result mofado escribi al tipo irritante autor del blog, no con una amenaza legal, ni a cambio de pago, y slo dijo: "Oiga, le importara?" +La persona contest: "No, est bien." +Creo incluso que pueden adentrarse en el mundo real. +A medida que estamos en un mundo con cada vez ms censores, podemos acabar -- en todas partes hay una cmara filmndote, tal vez emitindose en lnea -- con un clip en la solapa con el mensaje: "Sabe?, yo preferira que no". +Y contar con la tecnologa que comunique a la persona autora de la foto que se debe buscar a esta persona para contactarla antes de que su imagen se divulgue a los cuatro vientos y saber si no le importa. +Y la persona que hace la foto puede decidir si lo respeta y la manera de respetarlo. +En el mundo real podemos ver esta clase de filtraciones que tienen lugar en Pakistn. +Y ahora tenemos medios con los que podemos construir, como este sistema, para que las personas pueden denunciar la filtracin, cuando se topen con ella. +Y ya no es slo un: "Yo no lo s. Yo no pude llegar. Creo que voy a continuar", pero de repente una conciencia colectiva, sobre lo que est bloqueado y censurado en lnea. +De hecho, hablar de la tecnologa es imitar la vida la imitacin de tecnologa, o tal vez es al revs: +Un estudio de la Universidad de Nueva York puso a unos robots de cartn con caras sonrientes y un motor que slo se movan hacia adelante y una bandern colocado en la parte de atrs con el destino deseado. +Y en el mensaje: "Puede ayudarme a llegar?" +Soltaron uno en las calles de Manhattan. +Hoy en da financian cualquier cosa. +Aqu est la grfica, ms de 43 personas ayudando al robot que no poda girar a que se encaminara hacia la direccin correcta, desde una esquina desde una esquina de Washington Square Park a otra. +Esto nos lleva al ejemplo nmero tres: hacer autostop. +Yo no estoy tan seguro de que el autostop est muerto. +Por qu? Existe un servicio para organizar el autostop. +Si se llama Craigslist rideshare board Tumbleweeds funcionaba de forma similar. +La Craigslist rideshare board es bsicamente lo mismo. +Ahora, por qu hay personas que lo usan? +No lo s. Tal vez ellos piensan que los asesinos no planifican con premeditacin? +No. Creo que la verdadera respuesta es que una vez que planteas la situacin, Una vez superadas las iniciativas pasadas de un proyecto fracasado de antao que, por cualquier motivo, se ve deslucido, usted puede realmente reavivar la bondad humana y compartir lo que representa el Craigslist. +Y entonces se puede constatar que es posible algo as como: CouchSurfing.org. +CouchSurfing: la idea de una persona que, al final, reune a personas que van a algn lugar lejos y les gustara dormir en el sof de un extrao de forma gratuita, con personas que viven lejos, y desean que alguien al que no conocen duerma en su sof de forma gratuita. +Es una idea brillante. +Es una abeja que, s, vuela. +Increble el xito que ha tenido lo del sof compartido. +Y si usted se est preguntando, no, no se han conocido vctimas mortales asociados con esta iniciativa del sof compartido. +Aunque, sin duda, el sistema de gestin de satisfaccin, hasta ahora funciona dejando el informe tras la experiencia del sof. As que claro est, la informacin puede estar sesgada. +As que, mi insistencia, mi pensamiento, es que Internet no es slo un montn de informacin. +No es un sustantivo. Es un verbo. +Y cuando navegas en l, si se escucha y observa con suficiente atencin, se descubre que esa informacin est diciendo algo. +Lo que dice es lo que escuchamos ayer, Demstenes nos lo deca. +Es decir, "Vamos a seguir". Muchas gracias. +Buenos das. Creo que, por ser un grun de Europa del Este, me han trado para hacer el papel del pesimista esta maana. +Bueno, yo vengo de la ex Repblica Sovitica de Belars, que, como algunos de ustedes sabrn, no es exactamente un oasis de la democracia liberal. +Es por eso que siempre me ha fascinado la forma en que la tecnologa puede reformar y liberalizar sociedades autoritarias como la nuestra. +Entonces, al graduarme en la universidad, me senta muy idealista y decid unirme a una ONG que estaba usando nuevos medios de comunicacin para promover la democracia y la reforma de los medios en gran parte de lo que fue la Unin Sovitica. +Sin embargo, para mi sorpresa, descubr que las dictaduras no caen tan fcilmente. +De hecho, algunas de ellas sobrevivieron al desafo y otras se volvieron an ms represivas. +Fue entonces cuando perd mis ideales, decid dejar mi trabajo en la ONG y estudiar cmo Internet puede impedir la democratizacin. +Debo decirles que este nunca fue un argumento muy popular. Y probablemente, no es muy popular todava para algunos de ustedes en este auditorio. +Nunca goz de popularidad con muchos lderes polticos, especialmente con los de Estados Unidos, que pensaron que los nuevos medios de comunicacin iban a poder hacer lo que los misiles no podan. +Es decir, promover la democracia en lugares difciles donde se han probado muchas cosas y todas han fallado. +Y creo que en 2009 lleg a Gran Bretaa esta noticia. As que probablemente debera agregar a Gordon Brown a esta lista tambin. +Sin embargo, hay un argumento subyacente sobre logstica que ha impulsado este debate. Cierto? +Entonces, si lo analizamos bien, veris que en realidad una gran parte es sobre economa. +Los ciber-utpicos dicen que al igual que las mquinas de fax y las mquinas Xerox en los aos 80, los blogs y las redes sociales han transformado radicalmente la economa de las protestas. Entonces la gente se rebelara inevitablemente. +Para decirlo de manera simple, este supuesto hasta ahora ha sido que, si le das a la gente la conectividad suficiente, si les das los dispositivos suficientes, la democracia les seguir. +Y para serles sincero, yo nunca cre este argumento, en parte porque nunca haba visto a tres presidentes de Estados Unidos estar de acuerdo en algo. +Pero, adems de eso, si pensamos en la lgica que hay detrs, est lo que llamo liberalismo del iPod. Donde asumimos que cada iran o chino que tiene y ama su iPod tambin va a amar la democracia liberal. +Y, de nuevo, pienso que esto es falso. +Pero creo que el mayor problema es que esta lgica, que deberamos lanzar iPods y no bombas, sera un ttulo fascinante para el nuevo libro de Thomas Friedman. +Pero esto no suele ser una buena seal. Verdad? +El gran problema con esta lgica es que confunde el propsito con el verdadero uso de la tecnologa. +Para aquellos que piensan que Internet como nuevo medio nos iba a ayudar, de alguna forma, a impedir el genocidio, no debe ver ms all del caso de Ruanda. Ah en los aos 90, dos estaciones de radio fueron las principales responsables por incitar el odio tnico. +Pero ms all de eso, regresando a Internet, podemos ver que ciertos gobiernos han dominado el uso del ciberespacio con propsitos de propaganda. +Y estn construyendo lo que yo llamo el 'spinternet'. +Una combinacin de spin y de Internet. +Los gobiernos desde Rusia hasta China, pasando por Irn, estn de hecho contratando, entrenando y pagndole a bloggers para dejar comentarios ideolgicos y crear muchas entradas de blog ideolgicas que hablen sobre temas polticos sensibles. +Se preguntarn por qu hacen esto. +Por qu emplean el ciberespacio? +Bueno, mi teora es que esto sucede porque la censura es en realidad menos efectiva de lo que pensamos en muchos de esos lugares. +En el momento en que pones algo crtico en un blog, aunque logren borrarlo inmediatamente, se va a esparcir en otros miles y miles de blogs. +Por tanto, cuanto ms lo bloquees, ms gente tratar de evadir la censura y as ganar en este juego del gato y el ratn. +Entonces, la nica forma de controlar este mensaje es en realidad darle la vuelta y acusar a cualquiera que haya escrito algo crtico de ser, por ejemplo, un agente de la CIA. +Y, de nuevo, esto pasa muy a menudo. +Solo dar un ejemplo de cmo sucede en China. +Hubo un caso grande en febrero de 2009 llamado "Elude al gato". +Para los que no lo conozcan, solo les dar un resumen. +Lo que pas fue que un joven chino de 24 aos muri en prisin. +Y la polica dijo que haba sucedido porque estaba jugando al escondite, que en el argot chino se llama "elude al gato", con otros presos, y se golpe la cabeza contra una pared. Esta explicacin no fue bien recibida por los bloggers chinos, +que inmediatamente comenzaron a hacer comentarios crticos. +De hecho, QQ.com, que es un sitio web muy popular en China, recibi 35.000 comentarios sobre este tema en solo unas horas. +Pero entonces las autoridades hicieron algo muy inteligente. +En vez de intentar borrar estos comentarios, se acercaron a los bloggers. +Y bsicamente les dijeron "Nos gustara que se convirtieran en ciberciudadanos". +500 personas solicitaron y cuatro fueron seleccionadas para visitar las instalaciones en cuestin, hacer una inspeccin y luego escribir en su blog. +En solo unos das, todo el incidente haba sido olvidado, lo cual nunca hubiera pasado si solamente hubieran tratado de bloquear los comentarios. +La gente lo hubiera seguido comentando durante semanas. +Y esto en realidad se ajusta con otra teora interesante sobre lo que sucede en los Estados autoritarios y en su ciberespacio. +Esto es lo que los cientficos polticos llaman deliberacin autoritaria, y sucede cuando los gobiernos se acercan a sus crticos y los dejan interactuar con ellos por Internet. +Normalmente pensamos que esto va a perjudicar a estas dictaduras de alguna forma, pero en muchos casos solo las est fortaleciendo. +Y puede que se pregunten por qu. +Les dar solo unas cuantas razones de por qu la deliberacin autoritaria puede ayudar a los dictadores. +La primera es muy simple. +Muchos de ellos operan en un completo vaco de informacin. +No tienen los datos necesarios para identificar las amenazas contra el rgimen. +Entonces, alentar a la gente a estar en lnea y compartir informacin y datos en blogs y wikis es estupendo, porque si no, las operaciones de bajo nivel y los burcratas van a seguir escondiendo lo que realmente pasa en el pas. +Desde esta perspectiva, tener blogs y wikis que producen conocimiento ha sido genial. +Segundo, involucrar al pblico en la toma de decisiones tambin es muy bueno porque ayuda a repartir las responsabilidades por las polticas que eventualmente fracasen. +Porque dirn "Miren, nosotros te preguntamos, te consultamos, t votaste al respecto. +Lo pusiste en la pgina principal de tu blog. +Bueno, t eres el que tiene toda la culpa". +Y finalmente, el propsito de cualquier esfuerzo de deliberacin autoritaria es aumentar la legitimidad de los regmenes, tanto dentro como fuera del pas. +As, invitar a la gente a cualquier tipo de foro pblico, hacerlos participar en la toma de decisiones, est muy bien. +Porque lo que pasa es que puedes sealar esta iniciativa y decir "bueno, tenemos una democracia, estamos abriendo un foro". +Solo para darles un ejemplo, una de las regiones rusas ahora involucra a sus ciudadanos en la planificacin de su estrategia hasta el 2020. +De este modo, la gente puede conectarse y dar ideas sobre cmo debera verse la regin en el 2020. +Cualquiera que haya ido a Rusia sabr que no hay planificacin en Rusia para los prximos meses. +Entonces, involucrar a la gente en la planificacin para el 2020 no va a cambiar las cosas necesariamente porque los dictadores siguen siendo los que controlan la agenda. +Les dar un ejemplo sobre Irn. Todos nos enteramos de la "revolucin Twitter" que sucedi en Irn. Pero si analizamos con profundidad, veremos que muchas de las redes y blogs y Twitter y Facebook estaban operativas. +Podan ser ms lentas pero los activistas podan seguir usndolas y creo que tener acceso a ellas es bueno para muchos Estados autoritarios. +Y es bueno simplemente porque pueden reunir fuentes de inteligencia. +En el pasado tardaban semanas o incluso meses en identificar cmo los activistas iranes se conectaban unos con otros. +Ahora sabes cmo se conectan entre ellos viendo su pgina de Facebook. +La KGB, y no solo la KGB, torturaba a gente para conseguir esta informacin. +Ahora est todo disponible en lnea. +Pero creo que el fallo conceptual ms grande de los ciberutpicos se da cuando se trata de nativos digitales, la gente que ha crecido en lnea. +Normalmente omos sobre el ciberactivismo, cmo la gente se est volviendo ms activa gracias a Internet. +Rara vez omos sobre el ciberhedonismo, por ejemplo, cmo la gente se est volviendo pasiva. +Por qu? Porque de alguna manera asumen que Internet va a ser el catalizador de un cambio que sacar a los jvenes a las calles, cuando en realidad puede ser el nuevo opio del pueblo que mantendr a esa misma gente en su cuarto bajando pornografa. +Esa opcin no se considera seriamente. +Por cada renegado digital que se rebela en las calles de Tehern, bien puede haber dos cautivos digitales que se rebelan solo en el World of Warcraft. +Y esto es real. Y no est mal porque Internet ha dado poder a muchos de estos jvenes. Y tiene un papel social completamente diferente para ellos. +Si vemos algunas de las encuestas sobre cmo los jvenes se han beneficiado de Internet, veremos que el nmero de adolescentes en China, por ejemplo, para los que Internet ha ampliado su vida sexual, es tres veces mayor que en Estados Unidos. +Entonces, Internet s juega un papel social, pero no necesariamiente lleva al activismo poltico. +Entonces la manera en que suelo considerarlo es como una jerarqua de cibernecesidades. Un completo plagio de Abraham Maslow. +Pero la cuestin es que cuando conectamos con un lejano pueblo ruso, lo que va a llevar gente a Internet no van a ser los reportajes de Human Rights Watch. +Va a ser la pornografa, Sexo en Nueva York, o tal vez ver vdeos graciosos de gatos. +Esto es algo que tenemos que reconocer. +Pero, qu debemos hacer al respecto? +Yo digo que tenemos que dejar de pensar sobre el nmero de iPods per cpita y empezar a pensar en formas en las que podemos otorgar poder a los intelectuales, disidentes, ONGs y miembros de la sociedad civil. +Porque lo que ha estado pasando hasta ahora es que con el spinternet y la deliberacin autoritaria hay una gran posibilidad de que no se escuchen esas voces. +Entonces, creo que deberamos olvidar nuestros supuestos utpicos y empezar a hacer algo al respecto. +Gracias. +Gracias. +Hace dos aos estuve en TED en Arusha, Tanzania. +Y habl acerca de una de las creaciones que me llena de orgullo. +Es una sencilla mquina que cambi mi vida. +Antes de esa poca nunca haba estado lejos de mi casa en Malawi. +Nunca haba usado una computadora. +Nunca haba visto el Internet. +En la presentacin de aquel da yo estaba muy nervioso. +Se me olvid el ingls, y quera vomitar. +Nunca haba estado rodeado de tantos "azungu", o sea hombres blancos. +Hay una historia que no pude contarles en aquel entonces. +Pero ahora me siento mejor. +Y me gustara compartir con ustedes esa historia. +Somos siete hermanos en mi familia. +Todas mujeres, excepto yo. +Este soy yo con mi pap cuando era un pequeo. +Antes de descubrir las maravillas de la ciencia, yo era un simple granjero en un pas de granjeros pobres. +Como todos, nosotros sembrbamos maz. +Un ao nuestra suerte se oscureci. +En 2001 experimentamos una terrible hambruna. +Durante cinco meses todos en Malawi empezaron a morirse de hambre. +En mi casa comamos slo una vez al da, por las noches. +Solo tres bocados de "nsima" para cada uno. +La comida entraba a nuestros cuerpos, +y seguamos adelgazando. +En Malawi, para recibir educacin secundaria, debes pagar la colegiatura de la escuela. +Pero por la hambruna, me vi forzado a dejar la escuela. +Mir a mi padre, y tambin mir a aquellos sembrados secos. +Era un futuro que no poda aceptar. +Estaba feliz de haber llegado a la educacin secundaria. Estaba determinado a hacer todo lo que pudiera para recibir educacin. +As que fui a la biblioteca. +Le libros de ciencia, especialmente de fsica. +No poda entender mucho de ingls. +As que vea los diagramas y las fotos para aprender las palabras alrededor de ellos. +Otro libro puso en mis manos el conocimiento que necesitaba. +Deca que un molino de viento poda bombear agua y generar electricidad. +Bombear agua significa riego. Una defensa contra la hambruna que estbamos pasando en ese tiempo. +As que decid construir un molino de viento. +Pero no tena materiales para construirlo. As que fui al almacn de chatarra donde encontr mis materiales. +Mucha gente, incluyendo a mi mam, deca que estaba loco. +Encontr el ventilador de un tractor, un amortiguador, tubos de PVC. +Utilic el cuadro de una bicicleta y un dnamo para construir mi mquina. +Al principio fue slo un foco. +Y despus cuatro, con interruptores e incluso un cortado automtico de corriente, similar al de un sistema elctrico comn. +Otra mquina bombea agua para riego. +Largas filas de personas se formaban frente a mi casa para cargar sus telfonos celulares. +No me los poda quitar de encima. +Y despus llegaron los reporteros, que llevaron el mensaje a los blogs y despus me llamaron de algo llamado TED. +Nunca haba visto un aeroplano en mi vida. +Nunca haba dormido en un hotel. +As que, en mi presentacin de aquel da en Arusha, me olvid de mi poco ingls, Dije algo como: "Lo intent. Y lo consegu." +As que quisiera decir algo a todos aquellos all afuera que, al igual que yo, a los Africanos, a los pobres que estn luchando por sus sueos, +Dios los bendiga. +Tal vez algn da ustedes vean esto en Internet. +Yo les digo, confen en si mismo y crean. +No importa lo que pase, No se rindan! +Gracias. +Bien, entonces, el 90 por ciento de mi proceso fotogrfico no es, de hecho, fotogrfico. +Incluye una campaa en la que escribo cartas, investigo y hago llamadas telefnicas para llegar a mis personajes, que van desde lderes de Hamas en Gaza hasta un oso negro hibernando en su cueva de Virginia Occidental. +La ms extraa carta de rechazo que he recibido vino de Walt Disney World, un lugar aparentemente inocuo. +Deca, slo leer una frase, "Especialmente en estos tiempos violentos, personalmente creo que la magia que sienten nuestros visitantes debe ser protegida ya que les provee una fantasa importante adonde pueden escaparse". +La fotografa amenaza la fantasa. +No permitieron que ingresara mi cmara porque confronta constructos de realidades, mitos y creencias y ofrece lo que parece ser la evidencia de una verdad. +Pero mltiples verdades se anexan a cada imagen, dependiendo de la intencin del creador, del observador y del contexto en que se presenta. +Durante cinco aos, despus del 11 de septiembre, cuando los medios y el gobierno de EE.UU. buscaban lugares ocultos y desconocidos ms all de sus fronteras, especialmente armas de destruccin masiva, yo decid mirar hacia adentro, hacia lo que era parte integral de los cimientos de EE.UU., de su mitologa y trajinar cotidiano. +Quera confrontar los lmites del ciudadano, tanto autoimpuestos como reales, y confrontar la brecha entre el acceso privilegiado y el acceso pblico al conocimiento. +Fue un momento crtico de la historia de EE.UU. y de la historia mundial cuando sentamos que no haba acceso a informacin precisa. +Y yo quera ver el centro con mis propios ojos, pero lo que obtuve fue una fotografa. +Es slo otro lugar para observar y entender que no existen privilegiados que todo lo saben. +Y el que mira desde afuera nunca alcanza la esencia. +Mostrar algunas de las fotografas de esta serie. +Su ttulo es Un ndice estadounidense de lo oculto y desconocido. Est compuesto por casi 70 imgenes. +En este contexto, les mostrar algunas. +Este es un almacn de encapsulamiento de desechos nucleares. en Hanford, en el estado de Washington, donde hay ms de mil novecientas cpsulas de acero inoxidable con desechos nucleares sumergidas en el agua. +Si alguien se colocara frente a una cpsula desprotegida, morira instantneamente. +Entre todas estas secciones, yo encontr una que se parece a la silueta de los Estados Unidos de Amrica. Pueden verla aqu. +Parte importante del trabajo que est casi ausente en este contexto es el texto. +Entonces, he creado estos dos polos. +Cada imagen se acompaa por un texto fctico, muy detallado. +Lo que ms me interesa es el espacio invisible entre un texto y la imagen que lo acompaa, y cmo la imagen es transformada por el texto, y el texto por la imagen. +Entonces, se espera que la imagen se aleje flotando hacia la abstraccin, mltiples verdades y fantasas. +Entonces el texto funciona como un ancla cruel que lo amarra a la realidad. +Pero aqu me limitar a leer una versin abreviada de esos textos. +Esta es una unidad de criopreservacin. Y guarda los cuerpos de la esposa y la madre de Robert Ettinger, pionero de la criognesis, quien esperaba despertar en una vida extendida, con buena salud y avances en ciencia y tecnologa. Todo por el costo de 35 mil dlares, eternamente. +Esta es una mujer palestina de 21 aos sometida a una himenoplasta. +La himenoplasta es una ciruga que restaura el estado virginal, para cumplir con ciertas expectativas culturales sobre la virginidad y el matrimonio. +En resumen, se reconstruye un himen roto, permitindole sangrar durante el acto sexual, para simular la prdida de virginidad. +Esta es una sala de simulacin de deliberacin de jurado, y podemos ver que detrs del espejo de dos caras estn los asesores en una habitacin. +Ellos observan las deliberaciones despus de juicios ficticios para asesorar a sus clientes sobre su estrategia y obtener el resultado esperado. +Este proceso cuesta 60 mil dlares. +Este es una sala de la aduana de EE.UU., una sala de contrabando, en el aeropuerto John F. Kennedy. +En esa mesa vemos lo que se recopila en 48 horas de bienes confiscados a pasajeros al entrar a EE.UU. +Aqu vemos la cabeza de un cerdo y ratas africanas. +Parte de mi trabajo fotogrfico no es slo documentar lo que est all. +Me permito ciertas libertades e intervengo. +Quera que se pareciera a una naturaleza muerta. As que estuve un rato con los olores y los objetos. +Este es el arte exhibido en las paredes de la CIA en Langley, Virginia, su cuartel general original. +La CIA tiene un largo historial de agendas diplomticas culturales, secretas y pblicas. +Se especula que algunos de sus intereses en las artes se disearon para contrarrestrar el comunismo sovitico, y promover el pensamiento y la esttica pro estadounidenses. +Una de las formas artsticas que interesaron a la agencia, causando su cuestionamiento, es el expresionismo abstracto. +Esta es la instalacin de Investigacin de Antropologa Forense. y en un terreno de dos hectreas puede haber unos 75 cadveres en cualquier momento, que son estudiados por antroplogos e investigadores forenses para monitorear la velocidad de descomposicin de los cadveres. +En esta fotografa, el cadver de un nio fue usado para reconstruir la escena de un crimen. +Esta es la nica instalacin con financiamiento federal donde es legal el cultivo de cannabis para la investigacin cientfica en EE.UU. +Se investiga la cosecha de marihuana. +Y parte de lo que espero mostrar es que existe una entropa que confunde y no hallamos una explicacin sobre por qu estas cosas parecen saltar del gobierno a la ciencia, de la religin a la seguridad -- y casi no podemos entender cmo se distribuye la informacin. +Estos son cables submarinos de comunicacin transatlntica que atraviesan el fondo del Ocano Atlntico, conectando a Norteamrica con Europa. +Llevan ms de 60 millones de conversaciones simultneas. En muchas instalaciones oficiales y tecnolgicas haba una vulnerabilidad muy aparente. +Esto es casi cmico, porque pareca posible interrumpir todas esas conversaciones con un simple corte. +Pero haba la impresin de que sucedi hace 30 o 40 aos, durante la Guerra Fra y no se vea ningn progreso. +Esta es una edicin de la revista Playboy en braille. +Esta es... una divisin de la Biblioteca del Congreso presta un servicio bibliotecario gratuito para los ciegos y disminudos visuales. Las publicaciones que escogen editar se basan en su popularidad entre los lectores. +Y Playboy siempre est entre las favoritas. +Pero, es sorprendente, no incluyen las fotografas. Es slo el texto. +Esta es una instalacin de cuarentena aviar donde todas las aves importadas que entran a EE.UU. deben cumplir una cuarentena de 30 das, y se someten a pruebas de enfermedades incluyendo la enfermedad de Newcastle y la influenza aviar. +Esta pelcula muestra la prueba de un relleno explosivo en una ojiva. +El Centro de Armamento Areo en la base area Eglin, de Florida, es responsable por el despliegue y las pruebas de todo el armamento areo que viene de EE.UU. +Fue filmada en una cinta de 72 milmetros, provista por el gobierno. +Ese punto rojo es la marca de las pelculas del gobierno. +Todos los tigres blancos que viven en Norteamrica son resultado de endogamia selectiva -- eso sera madre a hijo, padre a hija, hermana a hermano -- para que surjan las condiciones genticas que crean un tigre blanco comercializable. +con pelaje blanco, ojos azul hielo, una nariz rosada. +La mayora de estos tigres blancos no nacen en estado comercializable, y los matan al nacer. +Es un proceso muy violento y poco conocido. +Sabemos que el tigre blanco es til en entretenimientos. +Kenny naci. Logr llegar hasta la madurez. +Ya ha muerto, pero tena retraso mental y severas anomalas seas. +Esto, pasando a algo ms banal, es del archivo personal de George Lucas. +Es la Estrella de la Muerte. +Aqu la vemos en su verdadera orientacin. +En el contexto de El regreso del Jedi, se presenta su imagen especular. +Ellos invierten el negativo. +Podemos observar el fotograbado en metal, y la fachada de acrlico. +En el contexto de la pelcula, es una estacin en los confines del Imperio galctico, capaz de aniquilar planetas y civilizaciones. En realidad mide 1 por metro. +Esto es en Fort Campbell, Kentucky. +Una instalacin de operaciones militares en terreno urbanizado. +En resumen, simularon una ciudad para el combate urbano. Esta es una de las estructuras de esa ciudad. +Se llama la Iglesia Mundial de Dios. +Se supone que es un templo genrico. +Despus de que tom esta fotografa, construyeron un muro alrededor de la Iglesia imitando la configuracin de mezquitas en Afganistn o Irak. +Yo trabaj con Mehta Vihar quien crea simulaciones virtuales para el ejrcito para ensayos tcticos. +Colocamos ese muro alrededor de la Iglesia, y tambin usamos los personajes, vehculos y explosiones que se usan en los videojuegos del ejrcito. +Y yo los introduje en mi fotografa. +Esto es virus VIH vivo en la facultad de medicina de Harvard, que trabaja junto al Gobierno de EE.UU. en el desarrollo de inmunidad de esterilizacin. +Alhurra es una cadena televisiva en lengua rabe patrocinada por el gobierno de EE.UU. que distribuye informacin a ms de 22 pases del mundo rabe. +Transmite las 24 horas, sin comerciales. +Sin embargo, es ilegal transmitir Alhurra en EE.UU. +En 2004, desarrollaron un canal llamado Alhurra Irak, que trata los sucesos que ocurren en Irak y se transmite a Irak. +Ahora pasar a otro proyecto que desarroll. +Su ttulo es Los inocentes. +Para los hombres aqu retratados, la fotografa fue usada para crear una fantasa. +Contradiciendo su funcin como evidencia de una verdad, en estos casos contribuy a la fabricacin de una mentira. +Viaj por Estados Unidos fotografiando a hombres y mujeres injustamente condenados por crmenes que no cometieron, crmenes violentos. +Investigo cmo la fotografa confunde la verdad y la ficcin, y su influencia sobre la memoria, que puede tener consecuencias severas, incluso mortales. +Para los hombres de estas fotografas la causa principal de sus condenas injustas fue la identificacin errnea. +Una vctima o testigo identifica a un sospechoso a travs de imgenes usadas por la polica. +Pero debido a la exposicin a retratos hablados, polaroids, fotos policiales y filas de identificacin, el testimonio de los testigos puede cambiar. +Les dar un ejemplo. +Una mujer fue violada y le mostraron una serie de fotos para identificar a su atacante. +Ella vio algunas similitudes en una de las fotos, pero no pudo hacer una identificacin positiva. +Das despus, le presentan otra muestra de fotografas nuevas, Excepto que una foto, que ya haba visto en la muestra anterior, fue repetida en la segunda muestra. +Y ella hizo una identificacin positiva, porque la fotografa reemplaz a la memoria, si acaso hubo una verdadera memoria. +La fotografa dio al sistema judicial un mecanismo que transformaba a inocentes en criminales. Y el sistema judicial no pudo reconocer las limitaciones de la confiabilidad de las identificaciones fotogrficas. +Frederick Day, fotografiado en el lugar de su coartada, donde 13 testigos lo ubicaron en el momento del crimen. +Fue condenado por un jurado ntegramente de blancos por violacin, secuestro y hurto de vehculo. +Cumpli 10 aos de una cadena perpetua. +Ahora, el ADN exoner a Fredrick e implic a otro hombre que estaba en la crcel. +Pero la vctima se rehus a presentar cargos porque aseguraba que la policia haba alterado su memoria mediante el uso de la foto de Fredrick. +Charles Faine fue condenado por el secuestro, violacin y asesinato de una nia que caminaba hacia la escuela. +Cumpli 18 aos de una sentencia de muerte. +Lo fotografi en la escena del crimen en Snake River, Idaho. +Fotografi a todos los injustamente condenados en los lugares que eran de especial importancia para la historia de su condena injusta. +La escena del arresto, de identificacin errnea, la ubicacin de la coartada. +Y aqu, la escena del crimen, es un lugar donde l jams haba estado, pero que cambi su vida para siempre. +Al fotografiarlo en ese lugar, esperaba subrayar la tenue relacin entre verdad y ficcin, tanto en su vida como en la fotografa. +Calvin Washington fue condenado a la pena de muerte por asesinato. +Cumpli 13 aos de una cadena perpetua en Waco, Texas. +Larry Mays, lo fotografi en la escena de su arresto, donde se ocult entre dos colchones en Gary, Indiana, en este mismo cuarto, para esconderse de la polica. +Termin cumpliendo 18 aos y medio de una sentencia de 80 aos por violacin y robo. +La vctima no pudo identificar a Larry en dos filas de sospechosos. Luego, das despus, hizo una identificacin positiva de una muestra de fotos. +Larry Youngblood cumpli 8 aos de una sentencia de 10 aos y medio en Arizona, por rapto y sodomizacin de un nio de 10 aos en una feria. +Fue fotografiado en el sitio de su coartada. +Ron Williamson, Ron fue condenado por violacin y asesinato de una mesera de un club, y cumpli 11 aos de una sentencia de muerte. +Fotografi a Ron en un campo de bisbol porque haba sido contratado por los Oakland A's para jugar bisbol profesional justo antes de su condena. +En el caso de Ron, el testigo clave de la fiscala result ser el verdadero autor del crimen. +Ronald Jones cumpli ocho aos de una pena de muerte por violacin y asesinato de una mujer de 28 aos. +Lo fotografi en la escena de su arresto en Chicago. +William Gregory fue condenado por violacin y robo. +Cumpli siete aos de una sentencia de 70 aos en Kentucky. +Timothy Durham, que fotografi en el sitio de su coartada donde 11 testigos lo ubicaron en el momento del crimen, fue condenado a tres aos y medio de una sentencia de 3220 aos, por varios cargos de violacin y robo. +Fue errneamente identificado por una vctima de 11 aos. +Troy Webb es retratado en la escena del crimen en Virginia. +Fue condenado por violacin, secuestro y robo, y cumpli siete aos de una sentencia de 47 aos. +La foto de Troy estaba en una muestra de fotos que la vctima pareca recordar, con vacilacin, pero luego dijo que l se vea muy viejo. +La polica busc y encontr una foto de Troy Webb de hace cuatro aos, la incluyeron en una muestra de fotos das despus, y la identificacin fue positiva. +Ahora, los dejar con un autorretrato. +Reitera que la distorsin es una constante, y que nuestros ojos son fcilmente engaados. +Eso es todo. Gracias. +Sin duda vivimos en un momento de crisis +Es posible que los mercados financieros nos hayan fallado y que el sistema de ayuda est haciendo lo propio Y an as me posiciono firmemente del lado de los optimistas que creen que quiz nunca haya existido un momento ms excitante para vivir. +debido a ciertas tecnologas de las que hemos hablado, +debido a los recursos, a las habilidades, y ciertamente debido la oleada de talento que vemos en todo el mundo con la mentalidad adecuada para crear un cambio. +Y ahora que tenemos un presidente que se ve a s mismo como ciudadano global, que reconoce que ya no hay una superpotencia nica, sino que debemos comprometernos con el mundo de otra manera. +Y por definicin, cada uno de ustedes presentes en esta sala debe considerase a s mismo como un alma global, un ciudadano global. +Ustedes trabajan en el frente. Y han visto lo mejor y lo peor que los seres humanos pueden hacer por otros o hacerle a otros. +Y sin importar en qu pas vivan o trabajen, tambin han visto las cosas extrarodinarias que los individuos son capaces de hacer, incluso en su mayor cotidianeidad. +Hoy existe un candente debate acerca de la mejor manera de sacar a la gente de la pobreza y de liberar sus energias +Por un lado, hay gente que dice que el sistema de ayuda est tan quebrado que debemos deshecharlo. +Por otro, hay quien dice que el problema es que se necesita ms ayuda. +Y les quiero hablar sobre algo que complementa ambos sistemas. +Lo llamamos "Capital Pacente". +Los crticos sealan los 500 mil millones de dlares gastados en frica desde 1970 y dicen, Qu hemos obtenido sino es degradacin ambiental, y niveles increbles de pobreza y corrupcin rampante? +Utilizan el caso Mobutu como metfora +y su receta poltica es hacer al gobierno ms responsable, que rinda cuentas, que se centre en los mercados de capital, que invierta y no regale nada. +Por otro lado, como he dicho, estn aquellos que sealan que el problema es que necesitamos ms dinero. +Que si se trata de los ricos, les brindaremos apoyo y les ofreceremos todo tipo de ayuda Pero si se trata de nuestros hermanos pobres no queremos tener mucho que ver con ellos +Ellos ilustran los xitos de la ayuda: la erradicacin de la viruela, y la distribucin de decenas de millones de redes antimosquitos contra la malaria y retrovirales. +Ambas perspectivas estn bien. +Y el problema es que ninguna escucha a la otra +Y an ms problemtico, no estn escuchando a las mismas personas pobres. +Despus de trabajar 25 aos en asuntos de pobreza e inovacin, afirmo que probablemente no haya individuos ms orientados hacia el mercado que las personas de bajos ingresos. +Ellos deben navegar los mercados diariamente, haciendo docenas y docenas de micro-decisiones, para hacerse camino en la sociedad E incluso si un slo problema catastrfico de salud afectara a su familia, podran volver a la pobreza, a veces durante generaciones. +Y por ello necesitamos a ambos, tanto al mercado como a la ayuda ayuda. +El Capital Paciente trabaja enmedio, y trata de tomar lo mejor de ambos. +Se trata de dinero que se invierte en emprendedores que conocen sus comunidades y que se dedican a construir soluciones para el cuidado de la salud, agua, vivienda, energa alternativa, tratando a las personas de bajos ingresos, no como receptores pasivos de caridad, sino como clientes individuales, consumidores, clientes, personas que quieren tomar decisiones en sus propias vidas. +El Capital Paciente requiere que nosotros tengamos una tolerancia al riesgo increble, un horizonte de largo plazo a fin de permitir a esos emprendedores tiempo para experimentar, para utilizar el mercado como el mejor dispositivo de escucha que tenemos, y la expectatva de rendimientos inferiores al mercado, pero de un impacto social maysculo. +Reconoce que el mercado tiene sus lmites. Y as el Capital Paciente tambin trabaja como un subsidio inteligente que extiende los beneficios de una economa global, para incluir a todas las personas. +Por tanto, los emprendedores necesitan el Capital Paciente por tres razones. +Primero, ellos tienden a trabajar en mercados donde los individuos ganan uno, dos, tres dlares diarios y toman todas sus decisiones dentro de ese nivel de ingresos. +Segundo, las zonas en las que trabajan tienen infraestrucutras muy deficientes Ausencia de carreteras, cortes de electricidad, y altos niveles de corrupcin +Tercero, con frecuencia se crean mercados. +Incluso si llevas agua potable por primera vez a poblados rurales, es algo nuevo. +Y tantas personas de bajos ingresos han visto tantas promesas fallidas, rotas, y visto tantos engaos y recibido ofertas ocasionales de medicinas, que construir confianza con ellos toma mucho tiempo, requiere mucha paciencia. +Tambin requiere estar conectado a mucho apoyo administrativo. +No slo para construir los sistemas, los modelos de negocio que nos permitan alcanzar a la poblacin de bajos ingresos de manera sostenible, sino tambin para conectar esos negocios a otros mercados, gobiernos, corporaciones -- socios reales si queremos darle dimensin real a los proyectos. +Quiero contarles una historia acerca de una innovacin llamada irrigacin por goteo. +En 2002 conoc a un emprendedor fantstico llamado Amitabha Sadangi, de la India, quien haba trabajado ms de 20 aos con algunos de los granjeros ms pobres. +y expresaba su frustracin de que el mercado de ayuda haba ignorado a los granjeros de bajos ingresos a pesar del hecho de que 200 millones de granjeros en India ganan menos de un dlar al da. +El programa inclua la creacin de subsidios bien para para granjas grandes, o les daban insumos a los granjeros que los funcionarios pensaban que deban usar, en lugar de aquellos que los granjeros queran usar. +Al mismo tiempo Amitabha estaba obsesionado con esta tecnologa de irrigacin por goteo que se haba inventado en Israel. +Es una forma de llevar pequeas cantidades de agua directamente al tallo de la planta. +Y as podran transformar franjas de tierra desierta en campos de verde esmeralda. +Pero el mercado tambin haba ignorado a los granjeros de bajos ingresos. Porque estos sistemas eran muy caros, y construdos para campos de gran tamao. +La parcela familiar promedio de un granjero pequeo ocupa 0.8 hectreas o menos. +As que Amitabha decidi que tomara esa innovacin y que la rediseara desde la persepectiva de los propios granjeros pobres. Porque pas tantos aos escuchando lo que ellos necesitaban que ahora pensaba que saba lo que deban tener. +Y utiliz tres principios fundamentales +El primero fue la miniaturizacin. +El sistema de irrigacin por goteo deba ser suficientemente pequeo como para que un granjero tuviera que arriesgar tan solo 1000 m2, incluso si tena 8000 m2, porque la idea generaba cierto temor, dado todo lo que pona en riesgo. +Segundo, tena que ser extremadamente barato. +En otras palabras, que ese riesgo en 1000 m2 necesitaba ser recuperado en una sla cosecha. O nadie se arriesgara a probar. +Y tercero, tena que ser lo que Amitabha llama infinitamente expandible. +Lo que significa que de los beneficios de los primeros 1000 m2, los granjeros podran comprar equipo para otros mil, y as sucesivamente. +Hoy da, IDE India, la organziacin de Amitabha ha vendido a ms de trescientos mil granjeros estos sistemas y han visto sus cosechas e ingresos duplicarse o triplicarse de promedio. Pero esto no ocurri de la noche a la maana. +Y tambin requera avales. Y utiliz fondos importantes para investigar, experimentar y fallar, para innovar e intentar de nuevo. +Y cuando tena un prototipo y un mejor entendimiento de cmo negociar con los granjeros, fue cundo el Capital Paciente pudo entrar. +Y le ayudamos a construir una compaa, orientada al rendimiento, que se constituira basada en el conocimiento de IDE y que empezara a buscar ventas y exportaciones, y fuera capaz de conseguir otros tipos de capital. +Segundo, queramos ver si poda exportar esta irrigacin por goteo y llevarla a otros pases. +Y as conocimos en Pakistn al Dr. Sono Khangharani +Y a pesar de ser una compaa que recin se inicia, nuestro supuesto es que all tambin veremos el impacto en millones de personas. +Pero la irrigacin por goteo no es la nica innovacin. +Estamos empezando a ver que esto ocurre en todo el mundo. +En Arusha, Tanzania, la empresa "Manufacturas Textiles de A a la Z" ha trabajado en colaboracin con nosotros, con UNICEF, con The Global Fund (el Fondo Global), para crear una fbrica que ahora emplea 7,000 personas, principalmente mujeres. +Y producen 20 millones de mosquiteros para camas que salvan vidas de africanos en todo el mundo. +Lifespring Hospital (Hospital "Primavera de Vida") es un proyecto conjunto entre Acumen y el gobierno de la India para ofrecer cuidado neonatal de calidad y accesible para mujeres de bajos ingresos. Y ha sido tan exitoso que actualmente estn construyendo un nuevo hospital cada 35 das. +Y la empresa "1298 Ambulancias" decidi que iba a reinventar una sector totalmente desestructurado, construyendo un servicio de ambulancias en Bombay que utilizara la tecnologa de Google Earth, y una tarifa de precios escalada para que todas las personas puedan tener acceso, y con una voluntad pblica y muy firme de no involucrarse en ninguna forma de corrupcin. +As que en los ataques terroristas de noviembre fueron los primeros en responder y ahora estn comenzando a crecer, gracias a las asociaciones. +Han ganado cuatro contratos gubernamentales para utilizar sus 100 ambulancias, y son ahora una de las ms grandes y efectivas compaias de ambulacias en India. +La idea de la escala es crtica. +Porque estamos empezando a ver estas empresas alcanzar a cientos de miles de personas. Y todas las que he expuesto han alcanzado al menos un cuarto de milln de personas. +Pero obviamente eso no es suficiente. +Y aqu es dnde la idea de asociaciones se vuelve tan importante. +En tanto que al encontrar estas innovaciones que pueden entrar a los mercados de capitales, al gobierno, o asociarse con corporaciones mayores, existe una increble oportunidad para la innovacin. +El Presidente Obama entiende eso. +Recientemente autoriz la creacin de un Fondo de Innovacin Social para centrarse en lo que funciona en este pas, y ver cmo podramos escalarlo. +Y yo propondra que es tiempo de considerar un fondo de innovacin global que encontrara a estos emprendedores de todo el mundo quienes realmente tienen innovaciones, no slo para su pas, sino otras que podramos usar tambin en el mundo desarrollado. +Dar asistencia de inversin financiera, pero tambin asistencia adminsitrativa. +Y entonces medir los resultados, tanto desde una perspectiva financiera, como desde una perspectiva de impacto social. +Cuando pensamos sobre nuevos enfoques sobre la ayuda, es imposible no hablar de Pakistn. +Hemos tenido una relacin slida con ese pais y en total franqueza los Estados Unidos no han sido un socio muy confiable en todos los casos. +Nuevamente dir que ste es nuestro momento para que sucedan cosas extraordinarias. +Y si tomamos esta nocin de un fondo de inversin global, podramos utilizar este tiempo para invertir no directamente en gobiernos, aunque debamos contar con su aval, ni en expertos internacionales, sino en los muchos emprendedores existentes y lderes de la sociedad civil que ya estn construyendo innovaciones maravillosas que llegan a personas en todo el pas. +Personas como Rashani Zafar. quien cre uno de los ms grandes bancos de microprstamos del pas, y es un verdadero modelo ejemplar para las mujeres dentro y fuera del pas. +Y Tasneem Siddiqui, quien desarrollo una alternativa llamada vivienda incremental con la que ha mudado a 40 mil habitantes de suburbios marginales a una vivienda comunitaria, segura y alcanzable. +Inicitaivas educativas como la de DIL y The Citizen Foundation (Fundacin Ciudadano) que estn construyendo escuelas en todo el pas. +Y no exagero al decir que estas instituciones de la sociedad civil y estos emprendedores sociales estn construyendo alternativas reales a los Talibn. +He invertido en Pakistn desde hace siete aos y aquellos de ustedes que tambin han trabajado all pueden afirmar que los paquistanes son una poblacin increblemente trabajadora. Hay una feroz movilidad social ascendente en su propia naturaleza. +El Presidente Kennedy deca que aquellos que hacen una revolucin pacfica imposible hacen la revolucin violenta inevitable. +Y yo dira que la viceversa tambin es cierta. +Estos lderes sociales que estn mirando hacia la inovacin y extendiendo la oportunidad para el 70% de los pakistanes que ganan menos de dos dlares diarios, les ofrecen caminos reales a la esperanza. +Y mientras pensamos cmo construimos ayuda para Pakistn, mientras necesitamos fortalecer al poder judicial, contstruir mayor estabilidad, tambin necesitamos pensar cmo elevar a esos lderes que pueden ser ejemplos para el resto del mundo. +En una de mis ltimas visitas a Pakistn le pregunt al Dr. Sono si podra llevarme a ver proyectos de irrigacin por goteo en el desierto de Thar. +Y dejamos Karachi una maana antes del amanecer. +La temperatura era como de 46 centgrados. +Y manejamos por ocho horas a travs de este paisaje semi lunar con muy poco color, exceso de calor, poca charla, pues bamos exaustos. +Y finalmente, al caer del da pude ver esta delgada lnea amarilla a travs del horizonte. +Y mientras nos acercbamos su significado se volvi obvio. +Ah en el desierto estaba un campo de girasoles creciendo ms de dos metros. +Porque uno de los ms pobres granjeros de la tierra haba obtenido acceso a una tecnologa que le haba permitido cambiar su propia vida. +Su nombre era Raja. Y tena estos ojos amables, de un color caf avellana brillante, y manos tbias, expresivas, que me recordaron a las de mi padre. +l dijo que esa era la primera estacin seca en su vida entera en que no haba llevado sus 12 hijos y 50 nietos en un viaje de dos das a travs del desierto a trabajar como jornaleros en una granja comercial por unos 50 centavos de dlar por da. +Todo porque haba realizado estos cultivos. +Y que con el dinero que ganara l podra quedarse este ao. +Y que por primera vez en tres generaciones, sus hijos podran ir a la escuela. +Le pregunt si podra mandar tanto a sus hijas como a sus hijos. +Y dijo: "Por supuesto que lo har. +Porque no quiero que se les discrimine nunca ms". +Cundo pensamos soluciones a la pobreza no podemos negar a los individuos su dignidad fundamental. +Porque a final la dignidad es ms importante para el espritu humano que la riqueza. +Y lo ms excitante es ver a muchos emprendedores en distintos sectores quienes construyen innovaciones que reconocen que las personas desean libertad poder de eleccin y oportunidad. +Porque es ah donde la dignidad realmente inicia. +Martin Luther King deca que el amor sin poder es anmico y setimental. Y que el poder sin amor es imprudente y abusivo. +Nuestra generacin ha visto intentos de ambas aproximaciones, y frecuentemente fallan. +Pero creo que nuestra generacin tambin puede ser la primera que tenga el valor de abrazar ambos, amor y poder. +Porque es lo que necesitamos mientras avanzamos al soar e imaginar qu se necesitar para construir una economa global que nos incluya a todos. Y para finalmente extender la proposicin fundamental de que todos los hombres son creados iguales a todos los dems en el planeta. +Es tiempo para nosotros de empezar a innovar y buscar nuevas soluciones, el cruce de caminos es ahora. +Yo slo puedo hablar desde mi experiencia propia. Pero en ocho aos de administrar el Fondo Acumen, he visto el poder del Capital Paciente. +No slo de inspirar innovacin y toma de riesgos, sino de realmente construir sistemas que han creado ms de 25 mil empleos y entregado decenas de millones de servicios y productos a algunas de las personas ms pobres en el planeta. +S que funciona. +Pero s que otras formas de innovar tambin funcionan. +Y por eso los invito, en cualquier sector en el que trabajen, en cualquier trabajo que hagan, a empezar a pensar la manera en que podramos construir soluciones que empiecen desde la perspectiva de aquellos a quienes tratamos de ayudar. +En lugar tratar de pensar lo que ellos puedan necesitar. +Quiero abrazar el mundo con ambos brazos. +Y eso implica vivir con un esprtu de generosidad y rendicin de cuentas, con un sentido de integridad y perseverancia. +Y an por las cualidades precisas por las que hombres y mujeres han sido honrados a travs de las generaciones. +Y hay mucho bien all que podemos hacer. +Slo piensen en esos girasoles en el desierto. +Muchas gracias. +Vivimos en un mundo donde no existen fronteras? +Antes de que respondan, observen este mapa. +El mapa poltico contemporneo muestra que actualmente existen 200 pases en el mundo. +Probablemente esa cifra sea mayor que en cualquier poca anterior. +Muchos de ustedes objetarn. +Para ustedes ste sera un mapa ms adecuado. +Podran denominarlo TEDistn. +En TEDistn no hay fronteras, tan slo espacios conectados y espacios desconectados. +La mayora de ustedes probablemente resida en uno de estos 40 puntos que aparecen en la pantalla, de entre otros muchos, que representan el 90 por ciento de la economa mundial. +Pero hablemos del 90 por ciento de la poblacin mundial que nunca abandonar el lugar en el que naci. +Para ellos, las naciones, los pases, los lmites, las fronteras an importan mucho, y a menudo de forma violenta. +Aqu en TED estamos resolviendo algunos de los grandes enigmas de la ciencia y misterios del universo. +Nos encontramos aqu con un problema fundamental que no hemos resuelto: nuestra geografa poltica bsica. +Cmo nos repartimos por el mundo? +Esto es importante porque los conflictos fronterizos justifican gran parte del complejo industrial y militar mundial. +Los conflictos fronterizos pueden desbaratar gran parte del progreso que esperamos alcanzar. +As que opino que necesitamos comprender mejor cmo la gente, el dinero, el poder, la religin, la cultura, la tecnologa interactan para cambiar el mapa del mundo. +Podemos intentar anticipar esos cambios, y desarrollarlos en un sentido ms constructivo. +Vamos a observar algunos mapas del pasado, del presente y algunos que no han visto con el fin de que se hagan una idea de por dnde van las cosas. +Empecemos con el mundo en 1945. +En 1945 tan slo haba 100 pases en el mundo. +Tras la Segunda Guerra Mundial Europa qued devastada, pero an mantenan extensas colonias en ultramar: El frica Occidental Francesa, el frica Oriental Britnica, el sur de Asia, etc. +Despus, a finales de los aos 40, y las dcadas de los 50, 60, 70 y 80, tuvieron lugar distintas oleadas de descolonizacin. +Nacieron ms de 50 nuevos pases. +Ven que frica ha sido fragmentada. +India, Pakistn, Bangladesh, se crearon naciones en el sureste asitico. +Despus lleg el final de la Guerra Fra. +El final de la Guerra Fra y la desintegracin de la Unin Sovitica. +Surgieron nuevos estados en Europa del Este, las repblicas de la antigua Yugoslavia y los Balcanes, y los -estn de Asia central. +Hoy tenemos 200 pases en el mundo. +El planeta entero est cubierto por estados-naciones independientes, soberanos. +Significa eso que lo que alguien gane tiene que ser lo que otro pierda? +Centrmosnos en una de las zonas ms estratgicas del mundo, Eurasia Oriental. +Como ven en este mapa, Rusia sigue siendo el pas ms grande del mundo. +Como saben, China es el ms poblado. +Y ambos comparten una extensa frontera terrestre. +Lo que no ven en este mapa es que la mayor parte de los 150 millones de personas de Rusia se concentran en sus provincias occidentales y zonas cercanas a Europa. +Y slo 30 millones de personas estn en su zona oriental. +De hecho, el Banco Mundial pronostica que la poblacin de Rusia va a disminuir hasta alrededor de 120 millones de personas. Y hay otra cosa que no ven en este mapa. +Stalin, Kruschev, y otros lderes soviticos expulsaron a los rusos hacia el lmite oriental a estar en gulags, campos de trabajo, ciudades nucleares, segn el caso. +Pero como los precios del crudo subieron, los gobiernos rusos han invertido en infraestructura para unir al pas, el oriente y el occidente. +Pero nada ha impactado de forma ms perversa que la distribucin demogrfica en Rusia. Porque la gente del este, que nunca quiso de ningn modo estar all se han montado en esos trenes y carreteras, y han vuelto al oeste. +Como resultado, en el extremo este de Rusia hoy, que es dos veces el tamao de India, hay exactamente seis millones de rusos. +Hagmosnos una idea de lo que est ocurriendo en esta parte del mundo. +Podemos empezar con Mongolia, o como algunos la llaman, Mina-golia. +Por qu la llaman as? +Porque en Mina-golia, las empresas chinas operan y poseen la mayor parte de las minas -cobre, zinc, oro -- y llevan en camiones los recursos por el sur y este hacia la China continental. +China no est conquistando Mongolia. +La est comprando. +Una vez las colonias se conquistaban. Hoy los pases se compran. +Apliquemos este principio a Siberia. +Siberia, la mayora de ustedes probablemente la conciban como un lugar fro, desolado e inhabitable. +Pero con el calentamiento global y el aumento de temperaturas, de repente encuentras extensos campos de trigo y agrocomercio, y produccin de grano en Siberia. +Pero, a quin van a alimentar? +Bien, al otro lado del ro Amo en las provincias de Heilongjiang y Harbin en China hay ms de 100 millones de personas. +Eso es ms que la poblacin total de Rusia. +Cada ao, desde hace al menos una dcada o ms, [60.000] personas han estado emigrando, cruzando, movindose hacia el norte, y habitando este territorio desolado. +Ponen en marcha sus propios bazares y clnicas. +Se han hecho cargo de la industria maderera y estn transportando por mar la madera hacia el este, a China. +De nuevo, como Mongolia, China no est conquistando Rusia. La est alquilando. +Eso es lo que yo llamo globalizacin a la china. +Quiz el mapa de la regin podra ser as dentro de 10 o 20 aos. +Pero esperen. Este mapa tiene 700 aos. +Es el mapa de la dinasta Yuan, fundada por Kubla Khan, el nieto de Genghis Kahn. +De modo que la historia no se repite necesariamente, pero rima. +Esto es slo para que se hagan una idea de lo que ocurre en esta parte del mundo. +De nuevo, globalizacin a la china. +Porque la globalizacin ofrece mltiples formas para socavar y modificar nuestra perspectiva sobre la geografa poltica. +En la historia de Asia Oriental, la gente no piensa en naciones y fronteras. +Piensan ms en trminos de imperios y jerarquas, normalmente chinas o japonesas. +Le toca a China de nuevo. +Observemos cmo China est restableciendo esa jerarqua en el extremo oriental. +Comienza con los ncleos globales. +Recuerden los 40 puntos en el mapa nocturno que muestran los ncleos de la economa global. +En la actualidad Asia Oriental posee ms ncleos globales que ninguna otra regin del mundo. +Tokio, Sel, Beijing, Shanghai, Hong Kong, Singapur y Sidney +Son los filtros y los embudos del capital global. +Miles de billones de dlares llegan cada ao a la regin. Una gran parte se invierte en China. +Despus llega el comercio. +Estos vectores y flechas representan las cada vez ms estrechas relaciones comerciales que China tiene con los pases de la zona. +Tiene como principales objetivos a Japn Korea y Australia, pases que son aliados importantes de Estados Unidos. +Australia, por ejemplo, es extremadamente dependiente de la exportacin de mineral ferroso, gas natural a China. +Para los pases ms pobres, China reduce los aranceles para que Laos y Camboya vendan ms barato sus mercancas y tambin se hagan ms dependientes de las exportaciones a China. +Muchos de ustedes han ledo en las noticias cmo la gente est mirando a China liderar la recuperacin econmica, no slo en Asia, sino potencialmente en el mundo. +La zona de libre comercio asitica, casi de libre comercio, que est surgiendo tiene un volumen de comercio mayor que el que hay en todo el Pacfico. +De modo que China se est convirtiendo en el ancla de la economa en la regin. +Otro pilar de esta estrategia es la diplomacia. +China ha firmado acuerdos militares con muchos pases en la regin. +Se ha convertido en el ncleo de instituciones diplomticas como por ejemplo la Comunidad de Asia Oriental. +Algunas de estas organizaciones ni siquiera tienen entre sus miembros a los EE.UU. +Hay un tratado de no agresin entre pases, de forma que si hubiera un conflicto entre China y Estados Unidos, la mayora de pases se comprometen a no participar, incluyendo aliados americanos como Korea y Australia. +Otro pilar de la estrategia, como Rusia, es demogrfico. +China exporta profesionales de los negocios, nieras, estudiantes, profesores para ensear chino por toda la regin, para casarse entre s y ocupar incluso mayores puestos de responsabilidad de las economas. +La gente de etnia china en Malasia, Tailandia e Indonesia ya son factores clave y promotores de las economas de all. +El orgullo chino renace en la regin como consecuencia. +Singapur, por ejemplo, prohiba la educacin en chino. +Ahora la promueve. +Si suman todo eso, qu tienen? +Si se acuerdan antes de la Segunda Guerra Mundial, Japn tena una visin en favor de una esfera ms amplia de coprosperidad japonesa. +Lo que est surgiendo hoy es lo que se podra denominar una esfera ms amplia de coprosperidad china. +As que no importa lo que las lneas del mapa les cuenten en trminos de naciones y fronteras, lo que de verdad est surgiendo en el extremo oriental son culturas nacionales, pero en una zona mucho ms fluda e imperial. +Todo esto est ocurriendo sin que se dispare un tiro. +Sin lugar a dudas no ocurre lo mismo en Oriente Prximo donde los pases continan sintindose incmodos en las fronteras dibujadas por los colonizadores europeos. +Qu podemos hacer para percibir de otra forma las fronteras de esta parte del mundo? +Sobre qu lneas del mapa deberamos centrarnos? +Lo que quiero presentarles es lo que denomino construccin de estado, da a da. +Empecemos con Iraq. +Seis aos despus de ls invasin de Iraq por parte de EE.UU el pas contina existiendo ms en el mapa que en la realidad. +El petrleo era una de las fuerzas que mantena unido a Iraq. Ahora es la causa ms significativa de la desintegracin del pas. +La razn es el Kurdistn. +Desde hace 3.000 aos los kurdos llevan a cabo una lucha por la independencia. Y ahora tienen por fin la oportunidad de lograrla. +stas son rutas de oleoductos, que surgen en el Kurdistn, que es una zona rica en petrleo. +Y hoy, si van al Kurdistn, vern que las guerrillas kurdas peshmerga se estn alineando contra el ejrcito iraqu sun. +Pero, qu estn protegiendo? +Es una frontera en el mapa? +No. Son los oleoductos. +Si los kurdos controlan sus oleoductos, pueden marcar los trminos de su propia soberana. +Nos debera afectar esto, esta potencial desintegracin de Iraq? +No lo creo. +Iraq continuar siendo el segundo mayor productor de petrleo del mundo, detrs de Arabia Saudita. +Y tendremos una oportunidad para resolver una disputa de 3.000 aos. +Recuerden que el Kurdistn no tiene salida al mar. +No tiene ms remedio que aguantarse. +Para obtener beneficio de su petrleo tiene que exportarlo a travs de Turqua o Siria, y otros pases, y el propio Iraq. +Y por tanto deben tener buenas relaciones con ellos. +Observemos ahora un conflicto perpetuo en la regin. +Est, por supuesto, en Palestina. +Palestina es una especie de anomala cartogrfica porque dos partes son palestinas y una Israel. +30 aos de diplomacia de jardn de rosas no nos ha trado paz en este conflicto. +Qu podra hacerlo? Creo que lo que podra resolver el problema son las infraestructuras. +Los donantes estn gastando miles de millones de dlares. +Estas dos flechas son un arco, un arco de conexiones de vas frreas y otras infraestructuras que unen la Franja Oeste y Gaza. +Si Gaza puede tener un puerto operativo y unirse a la Franja Oeste, se puede lograr un estado palestino viable. La economa palestina. +Eso, creo, va a traer paz a este particular conflicto. +La leccin que sacamos de Kurdistn y Palestina, es que la independencia sola, sin infraestructuras, es intil. +Cmo podra ser toda esta regin si de hecho nos centramos en otras lneas del mapa adems de las fronteras, cuando la inseguridad disminuyera? +La ltima vez que sucedo as fue hace un siglo, durante el Imperio Otomano. +Esto es la lnea de ferrocarril Hijaz. +La lnea Hijaz iba desde Estambul hasta Medina va Damasco. +Incluso tuvo una filial que llevaba a Haifa en lo que hoy es Israel, en el mar Mediterrneo. +Pero hoy el ferrocarril de Hijaz yace en ruinas. +Si nos centrramos en reconstruir estas lneas curvas en el mapa, las infraestructuras, que cruzan las lneas rectas, las fronteras, creo que Oriente Medio sera una regin bastante ms pacfica. +Observemos ahora otra parte del mundo, las antiguas Repblicas Soviticas de Asia Central, los -estns. +La fronteras de estos pases tienen su origen en los decretos de Stalin. +Deliberadamente no quiso que estos pases tuvieran ningn sentido. +Quera que se mezclaran las etnias de forma que le permitiera dividir y gobernar. +Afortunadamente para ellos, la mayor parte de su petrleo y recursos gasferos fueron descubiertos despus de la cada de la Unin Sovitica. +Algunos de ustedes pueden estar pensando, "Petrleo, petrleo. +Por qu de lo nico que habla es de petrleo"? +Existe una gran diferencia en la forma que hablbamos antes del petrleo y la forma que hablamos de l ahora. +Antes era, cmo controlamos su petrleo? +Ahora su petrleo sirve para sus propios intereses. +Y les aseguro que cada gota es tan importante para ellos como lo debi ser para los colonizadores e imperialistas. +Aqu tenemos algunas proyecciones de oleoductos y posibilidades y escenarios y rutas que se estn planeando para las prximas dcadas. +Una buena cantidad. +Para una serie de pases en esta parte del mundo, tener oleoductos es el billete para entrar a formar parte de la economa global y para tener cierta relevancia, aparte de las fronteras que ellos mismos no reconocen. +Tomemos Azerbaiyn. +Azerbaiyn era un lugar olvidado del Cucaso. Pero ahora con el oleoducto Bak-Tbilisi-Ceyhan en Turqua, se ha rebautizado como la frontera del occidente. +Despus est Turkmenistn que la mayora de la gente piensa que es un caso perdido. +Pero ahora est suministrando gas a travs del mar Caspio a Europa, e incluso se piensa en un oleoducto turkmeno-afghano-pakistan-indio tambin. +Despus est Kazajistn, que ni siquiera tena nombre antes. +Se consideraba como la zona sur de Siberia durante la Unin Sovitica. +Actualmente la mayora de la gente reconoce a Kazajistn como un actor geopoltico emergente. Por qu? +Porque de una manera muy astuta ha diseado que los oleoductos crucen el Caspio, hacia el norte atravesando Rusia, y hacia el este hasta China. +Ms oleoductos implican ms rutas de la seda, en lugar de El Gran Juego. +El Gran Juego connota dominancia de uno sobre el otro. +La ruta de la seda connota independencia y confianza mutua. +Cuantos ms oleoductos poseamos, ms rutas de la seda tendremos, y menos dominante ser el concurso del Gran Juego en el siglo XXI. +Observemos ahora la nica parte del mundo que de verdad ha eliminado sus fronteras, y cmo ha potenciado su fortaleza. +Y es, por supuesto, Europa. +La Unin Europea comenz siendo la comunidad del carbn y del acero de seis pases. Y su principal objetivo era lograr que la rehabilitacin de Alemania tuviera lugar de una forma pacfica. +Pero despus se ampli hasta 12 pases. Y esas son las 12 estrellas de la bandera europea. +La U.E. tambin se convirti en un bloque monetario, y ahora es uno de los bloques comerciales ms poderosos de todo el mundo. +La U.E. ha crecido una media de un pas al ao desde el final de la Guerra Fra. +De hecho casi todo eso ocurri en slo un da. +En 2004, 15 nuevos pases se unieron a la U.E. +y ahora representan lo que mucha gente considera una zona de paz que se extiende a 27 pases y a 450 millones de personas. +Qu ocurrir ahora? Cul es el futuro de la Unin Europea? +En azul claro, ven las zonas o regiones que dependen al menos en dos tercios o ms de la Unin Europea en lo que se refiere a comercio e inversin. +Qu nos dice eso? El comercio y la inversin nos dicen que Europa est colocando su dinero donde est su boca. +A pesar de que estas regiones no forman parte de la U.E., est entrando en su esfera de influencia. +Por ejemplo los Balcanes. Croacia, Serbia Bosnia, no son miembros de la U.E. an. +Pero se puede subir a un tren AVE alemn y llegar casi hasta Albania. +En Bosnia ya se utiliza la moneda Euro y esa es la nica moneda que probablemente lleguen a utilizar. +Observando otras partes de la periferia de Europa, como el Magreb. +En promedio, cada uno o dos aos, se instala un nuevo oleoducto o gaseoducto bajo el Mediterrneo, que conecta el Magreb con Europa. +Eso no slo ayuda a Europa a disminuir su dependencia de Rusia en materia energtica, sino que si viajan al Magreb oirn cada vez a ms gente decir que no se consideran una regin de Oriente Medio. +En otras palabras, creo que el presidente de Francia Sarkozy tiene razn cuando habla de la unin mediterrnea. +Observemos a Turqua, y el Cucaso. +Mencion antes a Azerbayn. +Ese pasillo de Turqua y el Cucaso se ha convertido en el conducto para el 20 por ciento del suministro de energa a Europa. +As que tiene que ser Turqua miembro de la Unin Europea? +Yo no lo creo. Creo que ya forma parte de un superpoder euro-turco. +Qu va a pasar ahora? Dnde vamos a ver cambios de fronteras y nacimientos de nuevos pases? +La zona sur y centro, la parte suroeste de Asia es un buen lugar para comenzar. +Ocho aos despus de que EE.UU. invadiera Afghanistn an persiste una tremenda inestabilidad. +Pakistn y Afghanistn todava son tan frgiles que ninguno de ellos ha tratado de forma constructiva el problema del nacionalismo Pastn. +Esta es la bandera que ondea en el interior de 20 millones de Pastunes. que viven a ambos lados de la frontera afghana y pakistan. +No descuidemos a la insurgencia del sur. Baluchistn. Hace dos semanas Los rebeldes del pas atacaron una guarnicin militar pakistan y esta fue la bandera que izaron. +La entropa postcolonial que est teniendo lugar en todo el mundo se est acelerando. Y supongo que ocurrirn ms cambios as en el mapa mientras los estados se fragmentan. +Por supuesto no podemos olvidar frica. +53 pases, por lejos el mayor nmero de lneas sospechosamente rectas en el mapa. +Si mirsemos todas en frica sin duda reconoceramos bastantes ms divisiones tribales, etc. +Pero fijmosnos tan slo en Sudn, el segundo pas ms grande de frica. +Tiene tres guerras civiles abiertas, el genocidio de Darfur, que todos ustedes conocen, la guerra civil en el este del pas, y el sur de Sudn. +El sur de Sudn va a celebrar un referendum en 2011 en el que muy probablemente se declare independiente. +Vmonos ahora al Crculo rtico. +Se ha desatado una carrera por los recursos energticos situados bajo el lecho marino rtico. +Quin ganar? Canad? Rusia? Estados Unidos? +En realidad Groenlandia. +Hace varias semanas, los [60.000] habitantes de Groenlandia proclamaron su autogobierno frente a Dinamarca. +De modo que Dinamarca se va hacer bastante ms pequea. +Qu leccin sacamos de todo esto? +La geopoltica es una disciplina con muy pocos sentimientos. +Constantemente est modificando y cambiando el mundo, como el cambio climtico. +Y como nuestra relacin con el ecosistema estamos siempre buscando el equilibrio sobre la forma en que nos repartimos por el planeta. +Tememos los cambios en el mapa. +Tememos la guerras civiles, los nmeros de vctimas, tener que aprender los nombres de nuevos pases. +Pero creo que la inercia de las fronteras existentes que tenemos hoy es bastante peor y bastante ms violenta. +La cuestin es cmo cambiamos esas fronteras, y en qu lneas nos centramos? +Creo que nos centramos en las lneas que cruzan fronteras, las lneas de infraestructuras, +despus conseguiremos por fn el mundo que queremos, sin fronteras. +Gracias. +Me gustara hablar un poquito esta maana sobre lo que pasa cuando nos movemos del diseo al pensamiento del diseo. +Esa foto bastante vieja de ah arriba es el primer proyecto que me encargaron. Hace como 25 aos. +Es una mquina de carpintera, o por lo menos parte de una. Y mi trabajo era hacer que esta cosa fuese un poquito ms moderna, un poquito ms fcil de usar. +Pensaba, en aquel momento, que me sali bastante bien. +Desafortunadamente, no mucho despus la compaa quebr. +Este es el segundo proyecto que hice. Es una mquina de fax. +Cubr algo de tecnologa nueva con una cscara atractiva. +Otra vez, 18 meses despus, el producto era obsoleto. +Y ahora, por supuesto, toda esta tecnologa es obsoleta. +Aprendo bastante lentamente. Pero finalmente se me ocurri que tal vez lo que pasaba por diseo no era tan importante... hacer que las cosas sean ms atractivas, hacer que sean un poco ms fciles de usar, hacer que sean ms comercializables. +Centrndome en un diseo, tal vez un producto solo, estaba siendo expansivo y no estaba teniendo demasiado impacto. +Pero pienso que esta pequea manera de ver el diseo es un fenmeno relativamente reciente, y de hecho surgi realmente en la segunda mitad del siglo XX cuando el diseo se volvi una herramienta del consumismo. +As que al hablar del diseo hoy, y particularmente cuando leemos sobre ello en la prensa popular, a menudo estamos hablando de productos como estos. +Entretenidos? S. Deseables? Tal vez. +Importantes? No demasiado. +Pero esto no era siempre as. +Y me gustara sugerir que si adoptamos una manera diferente de ver el diseo, y nos centramos menos en el objeto y ms en el "pensamiento del diseo" como enfoque, que en realidad podramos ver el resultado en un impacto mayor. +Bueno, pues este caballero, Isambard Kingdom Brunel, dise muchas cosas importantes durante su carrera en el siglo XIX, incluyendo el puente suspendido Clifton en Bristol y el Thames Tunnel en Rotherhithe. +Ambos grandes diseos y de hecho tambin muy innovadores. +Su creacin ms importante de hecho atraviesa justo por aqu en Oxford. +Se llama la Great Western Railway. +Y de joven crec muy cerca de este lugar. Y una de mis cosas favoritas era ir en bicicleta al lado de la va de tren esperando para ver pasar rugiendo a los grandes ferrocarriles express. +Se puede ver representado aqu en este cuadro de J.M.W. Turner: "Lluvia, Vapor y Velocidad". +Lo que Brunel dijo que quera conseguir para sus pasajeros era la experiencia de flotar a travs del campo. +Esto era antes en el siglo XIX. +Y hacer eso significaba crear las pendientes ms planas que jams se haban hecho, lo que significaba construir viaductos largos a travs de valles (de hecho este es el viaducto que cruza el Thames en Maidenhead) y tneles largos como el que hay en Box, en Wiltshire. +Pero no par all. No par con solo intentar disear el mejor viaje en ferrocarril. +Imagin un sistema integrado de transporte en el que sera posible para los pasajeros embarcar en un tren en Londres y desembarcar de un barco en Nueva York. +Un viaje de Londres a Nueva York. +Este es el Great Western que construy para ocuparse de la segunda mitad del viaje. +Brunel estaba trabajando 100 aos antes de que surgiera el diseo como profesin. Pero pienso que estaba usando el pensamiento del diseo para resolver problemas y crear innovaciones capaces de cambiar el mundo. +El pensamiento del diseo empieza con lo que Roger Martin (el profesor de la escuela de negocios de la Universidad de Toronto) llama pensamiento integrador. +Y esa es la capacidad de explotar ideas opuestas y limitaciones opuestas para crear soluciones nuevas. +En el caso del diseo, eso significa equilibrar deseabilidad, lo que los humanos necesitan, con viabilidad tcnica y viabilidad econmica. +Con innovaciones como el Great Western podemos estirar ese equilibrio hasta el lmite absoluto. +As que de alguna manera fuimos de esto a esto. +Pensadores de sistemas que estaban reinventando el mundo, a un clero de gente en jerseys negros de cuello alto y gafas de diseo trabajando en cosas pequeas. +Con la maduracin de nuestra sociedad industrial el diseo se convirti en profesin y se centr en un lienzo aun ms pequeo hasta que acab significando esttica, imagen y moda. +No estoy intentando lanzar piedras. +Soy un socio pleno de ese clero y aqu dentro en algn lado tengo gafas de diseo. +Aqu estn. +Pero s que pienso que quizs el diseo se est volviendo grande otra vez. +Y eso est ocurriendo a travs de la aplicacin del pensamiento del diseo a nuevos tipos de problemas: al calentamiento global, a la educacin, asistencia sanitaria, seguridad, agua potable, lo que sea. +Y mientras vemos el resurgimiento del pensamiento del diseo y lo vemos empezar a enfrentarse a nuevos tipos de problemas, hay algunas ideas bsicas que pienso que podemos ver que son tiles. +Y me gustara hablar de algunas de esas solo durante estos pocos minutos. +La primera de ellas es que el diseo es antropocntrico. +Puede que integre tecnologa y economa pero empieza con lo que necesitan los humanos, o puede que necesiten. +Qu hace que la vida sea ms fcil, ms agradable? +Qu hace que la tecnologa sea til y utilizable? +Pero eso es ms que simplemente buena ergonoma, poner lo botones en el lugar adecuado. +A menudo implica entender cultura y contexto antes incluso de que sepamos dnde empezar a tener ideas. +Entonces, cuando un equipo estaba trabajando en un nuevo programa de anlisis de vista en India, queran entender cules eran las aspiraciones y motivaciones de estos colegiales para entender cmo ellos podran desempear un papel en los anlisis de sus padres. +Conversion Sound ha desarrollado un audfono digital de alta calidad y de coste ultrabajo para el mundo en desarrollo. +En Occidente dependemos de tcnicos altamente calificados para encajar estos audfonos. +En lugares como India, esos tcnicos simplemente no existen. +As que hizo falta un equipo trabajando en India con pacientes y trabajadores de salud comunitarios para entender como un PDA y una aplicacin en un PDA podra reemplazar a esos tcnicos en un servicio de encaje y diagnstico. +En vez de empezar con la tecnologa el equipo empez con la gente y la cultura. +As que si la necesidad humana es el punto de partida, entonces el pensamiento del diseo rpidamente sigue adelante para aprender creando. +En lugar de pensar sobre qu construir construir a fin de pensar. +Los prototipos aceleran el proceso de innovacin. Porque es solo cuando sacamos nuestras ideas al mundo que de verdad empezamos a entender sus fortalezas y debilidades. +Y cuanto ms rpido hagamos eso ms rpido evolucionan nuestras ideas. +Mucho se ha dicho y escrito sobre el Aravind Eye Institute de Madurai, India. +Hacen un trabajo increble de atender pacientes muy pobres tomando los ingresos de los que pueden pagar para subvencionar a los que no pueden. +Son muy eficientes pero tambin son muy innovadores. +Cuando les visit hace unos aos, lo que de verdad me impresion fue su voluntad para prototipar sus ideas muy pronto. +Este es el centro de fabricacin para uno de sus grandes avances ms caros. +Hacen sus propias lentillas intraoculares. +Estas son las lentillas que sustituyen a esas que son daadas por cataratas. +Y creo que es en parte su mentalidad de crear prototipos que de verdad les permiti conseguir este gran avance. +Porque bajaron el coste desde 200 dlares el par a solamente cuatro dlares el par. +En parte hicieron esto porque en vez de construir una fbrica nueva y lujosa usaron el stano de uno de sus hospitales. +Y en vez de instalar las mquinas de gran envergadura usadas por fabricantes occidentales, usaron tecnologa de prototipado CAD/CAM, de bajo coste. +Ahora son los fabricantes de lentillas ms grandes del mundo en desarrollo y recientemente se han mudado a una fbrica hecha de encargo. +As que si la necesidad humana es el punto de partida, y el prototipado, un vehculo para el progreso, entonces tambin hay algunas preguntas que hacer sobre el destino. +En lugar de ver el consumo como su objetivo principal, el pensamiento de diseo est empezando a explorar las posibilidades de la participacin. El cambio de una relacin pasiva entre consumidor y fabricante al compromiso activo de todos en experiencias que son significativas, productivas y rentables. +As que William Beveridge, cuando escribi el primero de sus informes famosos en 1942, cre lo que se convirti en el Estado del bienestar de Gran Bretaa en el que esperaba que cada ciudadano fuera un participante activo en su propio bienestar social. +Para cuando escribi su tercer informe, confes que haba fracasado y en su lugar haba creado una sociedad de consumidores de asistencia social. +Hillary Cottem, Charlie Ledbetter, y Hugo Manassei de Participle han tomado esta idea de la participacin y en su manifiesto titulado Beveridge 4.0 estn sugiriendo un esquema para reinventar el Estado del bienestar. +As que en uno de sus proyectos llamado Southwark Circle, trabajaron con residentes de Southwark, en el sur de Londres, y con un equipo pequeo de diseadores para desarrollar una nueva organizacin de la membresa para ayudar a ancianos con las tareas domsticas. +Algunos diseos fueron pulidos y desarrollados con 150 personas mayores y sus familias antes de que el servicio fuese lanzado este ao. +Podemos llevar esta idea de la participacin tal vez a su conclusin lgica y decir que el diseo puede que tenga su mayor impacto cuando se saca de las manos de los diseadores y se mete en las manos de todos. +Enfermeros y mdicos en el sistema de asistencia sanitaria de EE.UU. Kaiser Permanente estudian el tema de mejorar la experiencia del paciente. Y particularmente centrados en la manera en la que intercambian conocimiento y en la que hacen cambios de turno. +Mediante un programa de investigacin observacional, proponiendo nuevas soluciones y prototipando rpidamente, han desarrollado una manera completamente nueva de hacer cambios de turno. +Fueron desde retirarse a la estacin de enfermeros para hablar de los diversos estados y diversas necesidades de los pacientes, hasta desarrollar un sistema que ocurra en la sala en frente de los pacientes, usando una herramienta simple de software. +Haciendo esto disminuyeron el tiempo pasado lejos de los pacientes de 40 minutos a 12 minutos, por trmino medio. +Aumentaron la confianza de los pacientes y la felicidad de los enfermeros. +Cuando multiplicas eso por todos los enfermeros en todas las habitaciones en 40 hospitales del sistema, result, en realidad, en un impacto bastante grande. +Y esta es solo una de las miles de oportunidades solamente en la asistencia sanitaria. +As que estas son solo algunas de las ideas bsicas alrededor del pensamiento del diseo y algunos de los nuevos tipos de proyectos a los que estn siendo aplicadas. +Pero me gustara volver a Brunel y sugerir una conexin que puede que explique por qu esto est pasando ahora y tal vez por qu el pensamiento del diseo en una herramienta til. +Y esa conexin es el cambio. +En tiempos de cambio necesitamos nuevas alternativas, nuevas ideas. +Brunel trabajaba durante el pico de la Revolucin Industrial cuando toda la vida y nuestra economa estaba siendo reinventada. +Los sistemas industriales del tiempo de Brunel siguieron su curso y, en efecto, hoy son parte del problema. +Pero, otra vez, estamos en medio de un cambio masivo. +Y ese cambio esta obligndonos a poner en cuestin aspectos bastante fundamentales de nuestra sociedad... cmo mantenemos nuestra salud, cmo nos gobernamos, cmo nos educamos, cmo nos mantenemos seguros. +Y en estos tiempos de cambio necesitamos estas nuevas opciones porque nuestras soluciones existentes simplemente se estn volviendo obsoletas. +Entonces, por qu pensamiento del diseo? +Porque nos da una manera nueva de enfrentarnos a los problemas. +En vez de volver por defecto a nuestro enfoque normal convergente en el que hacemos la mejor eleccin de unas alternativas disponibles, nos anima a tomar un enfoque divergente, a explorar nuevas alternativas, nuevas soluciones, nuevas ideas que no han existido antes. +Pero antes de que pasemos por ese proceso de divergencia en realidad hay un primer paso bastante importante. +Y este es: Cul es la pregunta a la que estamos intentado responder? +Cules son las instrucciones de diseo? +Puede que Brunel se preguntase algo as: "Cmo llevo a un tren desde Londres a Nueva York?" +Pero, Qu tipo de preguntas son las que podramos hacer hoy? +As que estas son algunas de las que se nos ha pedido pensar recientemente. +Y una en particular es una en la que estamos trabajando con Acumend Fund, en un proyecto que ha sido financiado por la fundacin Bill y Melinda Gates. +Cmo podemos mejorar el acceso a agua potable y segura para la gente ms pobre del mundo y a la vez estimular la innovacin entre los proveedores locales de agua? +Entonces, en lugar de tener un grupo de diseadores estadounidenses pensar nuevas ideas que podran haber sido o no apropiadas, tomamos un enfoque como ms abierto, colaborativo y participativo. +Unimos a diseadores y expertos en la inversin con 11 organizaciones de toda India. +Y a travs de talleres desarrollaron productos, servicios y modelos empresariales nuevos e innovadores. +Presentamos una competicin y entonces financiamos cinco de esas organizaciones para desarrollar sus ideas. +As que desarrollaron e iteraron estas ideas. +Y entonces IDEO y Acumen dedicaron varias semanas a trabajar con ellas para ayudar a disear nuevas campaas de marketing social, estrategias de alcance a la comunidad, modelos empresariales, nuevos recipientes para almacenar agua y carros para repartir agua. +Algunas de esas ideas se estn lanzando ahora al mercado. +Y el mismo proceso est justo empezando con las ONGs en el este de frica. +As que para m, este proyecto demuestra como lo lejos que podemos llegar desde algunas de esas cosas pequeas en las que estaba trabajando en el principio de mi carrera. +Que centrndose en las necesidades de los humanos y usando prototipos para mover las ideas rpidamente, sacando el proceso de las manos de los diseadores, y consiguiendo la participacin activa de la communidad, podemos enfrentarnos a preguntas ms grandes y ms interesantes. +E igual que Brunel, centrndonos en sistemas, podemos causar un impacto ms grande. +Esa es entonces una cosa en la que hemos estado trabajando. +En realidad estoy bastante interesado, y quizs ms interesado en saber en lo que esta comunidad piensa que podramos trabajar. +Qu tipos de preguntas pensamos... ...que podra abordar el pensamiento del diseo? +Y si tienen algunas ideas entonces no duden, se pueden subir a Twitter. +Hay un "hashtag" ah que pueden usar, #CBDQ. +Y la lista tena esta pinta hace poco tiempo. +Y por supuesto se puede buscar para encontrar las preguntas que les interesan usando el mismo cdigo. +Entonces, me gustara creer que el pensamiento del diseo en realidad puede cambiar el estado de las cosas, que puede crear nuevas ideas y nuevas innovaciones ms all de los ltimos productos de High Street. +Para hacer eso pienso que debemos tomar un enfoque ms expansivo del diseo, ms como Brunel, menos como el dominio de un clero profesional. +Y el primer paso es empezar a hacer las preguntas adecuadas. +Muchas gracias. +Me he sentido frustrada durante aos porque en mi papel de historiadora de la religin, me he dado cuenta del papel protagnico de la compasin en las principales religiones del mundo. +Todas y cada una de ellas ha desarrollado su propia versin de lo que llamamos la Regla de Oro. +Algunas veces nace en una versin positiva: "Trata a otros como desearas que ellos te trataran a ti." +E igualmente importante la versin negativa: "No hagas a otros lo que no quisieras que te hicieran a ti." +Observa tu propio corazn y descubre aquello que te causa dolor. Y rechaza, bajo cualquier circunstancia, provocarle ese dolor a cualquier persona. +Y la gente ha puesto nfasis en la importancia de la compasin, no slo porque suena bien, sino porque funciona. +Y eso te lleva a la presencia de aquello que llaman Dios, Nirvana, Rama, Tao. +Algo que va ms all de lo que conocemos en nuestro mundo egosta. +Pero bueno, la mayor parte del tiempo no sabras que esto ha sido tan central en la vida religiosa. +Porque salvo pocas excepciones maravillosas, con mucha frecuencia cuando se renen personas religiosas, cuando se renen lderes religiosos, se la pasan discutiendo complejas doctrinas o profiriendo amenazas contra otros o hablando contra la homosexualidad o algo similar. +Es comn que la gente no quiera ser compasiva. +Yo veo en ocasiones cuando hablo ante una congregacin de personas religiosas, una expresin de rebelda en sus rostros porque la gente prefiere tener razn. +Y claro, se no es el propsito del ejercicio. +Ahora, por qu estoy tan agradecida con TED? +Porque ellos me tomaron suavemente desde mi estudio centrado en libros y me trajeron al siglo XXI, permitindome hablar a una audiencia mucho ms grande de lo que jams hubiera imaginado. +Y siento una gran urgencia acerca de esto. +Si no podemos implementar la Regla de Oro de manera global, de manera que tratemos a todos, donde sea y quien quiera que sea, como si fueran tan importantes como nosotros mismos, dudo que tengamos un mundo viable para dejarle a la siguiente generacin. +La tarea de nuestro tiempo, una de las grandes tareas de nuestro tiempo, es construir una sociedad global, como dije donde las personas puedan vivir juntas y en paz. +Y las religiones, que deberan estar haciendo las mayores contribuciones, son vistas como parte del problema. +Y, claro, no son slo las personas religiosas las que creen en la Regla de Oro. +Esta es la fuente de toda la moral. Este acto imaginativo de empata, ponerse uno mismo en el lugar del otro. +As que tenemos eleccin, creo yo. +Esa es la Tor y todo lo dems son comentarios." +Y los rabinos y los primeros padres de la iglesia que decan que cualquier interpretacin de la escritura que provocara odio y desdn era ilegtima. +Necesitamos revitalizar ese espritu. +Y esto no suceder simplemente porque la rfaga del espritu del amor pase junto a nosotros. +Necesitamos hacer que suceda, y podemos hacerlo con las comunicaciones modernas que TED ha utilizado. +Estoy increblemente entusiasmada por la respuesta de todos nuestros compaeros. +En Singapur tenemos un grupo que utilizar la Carta para sanar las divisiones que recientemente han surgido en la sociedad de Singapur, y algunos miembros del parlamento desean implementarla polticamente. +En Malasia va a haber una exposicin de arte en la que los protagonistas se dirigirn a la gente, gente joven, y les mostrarn que la compasin tambin es la raz de todo arte. +Por toda Europa, las comunidades musulmanas estn organizando eventos y discusiones acerca del papel central de la compasin en el Islam y en todas las religiones. +Pero no puede quedarse ah. No puede acabar con el lanzamiento. +Las enseanzas religiosas, y aqu es lo que hemos hecho mal, se concentraban en creer doctrinas complicadas. +Las enseanzas religiosas deben llevar a la accin. +Y yo pretendo seguir con este trabajo hasta el da de mi muerte. +Y quiero seguir con nuestros compaeros haciendo dos cosas: educar y estimular el pensamiento compasivo. +Educar, porque hemos dejado de lado la compasin. +La gente con frecuencia cree que significa sentirse triste por el dolor de otros. +Pero est claro que no entendemos lo que es la compasin si slo nos dedicamos a pensar en ella. +Tenemos que vivirla. +Quiero que los medios se involucren porque los medios de comunicacin son cruciales para ayudar a eliminar algunos de los estereotipos que tenemos acerca de los dems, y que nos dividen a unos de otros. +Lo mismo se aplica a los maestros. +Me gustara que los jvenes comprendieran el dinamismo, la dinmica y el reto de un estilo de vida compasivo. +Y que vieran que requiere una aguda inteligencia, que no es slo un sentimiento bonito. +Me gustara pedirle a los acadmicos que exploraran el tema de la compasin dentro de sus tradiciones y en las de otros. +Y quiz sobre todo, promover que seamos sensibles acerca del hablar no compasivo. Y que al tener esta carta, la gente, sin importar sus creencias o la falta de ellas, se sienta ms capaz de enfrentar discursos no compasivos, o expresiones de desdn de sus lderes religiosos, sus lderes polticos, de los capitanes de la industria. +Porque podemos cambiar el mundo; tenemos la capacidad. +Nunca hubiera pensando en poner la Carta en internet. +Yo estaba estancada en el viejo mundo donde un montn de cerebritos se renen en un saln y publican una declaracin crptica ms. +TED me ha llevado a una nueva forma de pensar y presentar ideas. +Porque esto es lo maravilloso de TED. +En este saln, todo este conocimiento, si lo juntramos todo podramos cambiar el mundo. +Y claro que los problemas a veces parecen insuperables. +Pero me gustara citar, para terminar con una referencia a un autor Britnico, un escritor de Oxford a quien no cito con frecuencia, C.S. Lewis. +Escribi una frase que se me qued en la mente desde que la le cuando era una colegiala. +Esta en su libro "Los Cuatro Amores." +l deca que... distingua entre amor ertico, cuando dos personas se miran, anonadadas, a los ojos; +y despus lo comparaba con la amistad, cuando dos personas se sientan juntas, como si estuvieran hombro con hombro, con los ojos puestos en una meta comn. +No tenemos que enamorarnos unos de otros, pero podemos ser amigos. +Estoy convencida. +Me convenc por completo durante nuestras deliberaciones en Vevey, que cuando gente de muy diversas opiniones se rene, trabajando codo con codo por un objetivo comn, las diferencias desaparecen. +Y aprendemos a ser amigos. +Y aprendemos a vivir juntos y llegamos a conocernos unos a otros. +Muchsimas gracias. +Tengo una misin difcil, +soy espectroscopista. +Tengo que hablar de astronoma sin mostrarles ni una sola imagen de nebulosas o galaxias, etc. +porque mi trabajo es la espectroscopia. +Nunca trabajo con imgenes, +y voy a intentar convencerles de que la espectroscopia puede realmente cambiar este mundo. +La espectroscopia podra responder a la pregunta: "hay alguien ms ah fuera?" +Estamos solos? SETI. +La espectroscopia no es algo divertido. +Una de mis colegas en Bulgaria, Iviana Marcos*, dedic unos 20 aos al estudio de estos perfiles +y public 42 artculos dedicados exclusivamente a ellos. +Pueden imaginrselo? Da y noche pensando, observando la misma estrella durante 20 aos es increble. +Debemos de estar locos para hacer lo que hacemos. +Mi caso no es para menos. +Pas unos ocho meses trabajando en estos perfiles, +porque percib una pequea simetra en el perfil de una de las estrellas con planeta en rbita +y pens que tal vez habra litio-6 en esta estrella, lo cual indicara que esta estrella ha engullido un planeta. +Porque, segn parece, este frgil istopo de litio-6 no puede existir en la atmsfera de estrellas similares al Sol, +pero s existe en planetas y asteroides. +Entonces engullendo un planeta o una gran cantidad de asteroides, se puede tener este istopo de litio-6 en el espectro de la estrella. +As que dediqu ms de ocho meses solamente a estudiar el perfil de esta estrella. +Y la verdad es que es increble porque reciba llamadas de muchos periodistas que me preguntaban: "Pero has visto de verdad a la estrella engullendo el planeta?" +Porque crean que al tener un telescopio eres un astrnomo y lo que haces es mirar por el telescopio +y puede ser que hayas visto el planeta siendo engullido por una estrella. +Y yo deca: "No, disculpen, +lo que yo veo es esto." +Es increble, nadie poda realmente entenderlo. +Imagino que habra algunos pocos que realmente entendan de lo que estaba hablando, +porque esto es lo que indica que la estrella engull el planeta. +Es extraordinario. +El poder de la espectroscopia fue advertido por Pink Floyd ya en 1973. +Cuando dijeron aquello de que puedes conseguir cualquier color en un espectro. +Todo lo que necesitas es tiempo y dinero para fabricar tu espectrgrafo. +ste que vemos es el nmero uno, el espectrgrafo de alta resolucin con ms precisin del planeta, el HARPS, que se usa para localizar planetas y ondas sonoras extrasolares en las atmsferas estelares. +Cmo obtenemos espectros? +Seguro que la mayora de Uds. recuerda de las clases de Fsica del colegio que se hace bsicamente dividiendo una luz blanca en colores. +Y si tienes una masa caliente lquida, producir lo que llamamos espectro continuo. +Un gas caliente slo produce lneas de emisin, no es continuo. +Y si colocas un gas fro delante de una fuente caliente, vers ciertos patrones que llamamos lneas de absorcin, +que se usan para identificar elementos qumicos en materia fra, que absorbe exactamente a esas frecuencias. +Ahora bien, lo que podemos hacer con los espectros +es estudiar las velocidades de lnea de vista de objetos csmicos. +Adems, podemos estudiar la composicin qumica y los parmetros fsicos de estrellas, galaxias, nebulosas. +Una estrella es el objeto ms simple, +que en su ncleo se producen 10 reacciones mononucelares que crean elementos qumicos +y tiene una atmsfera fra, +fra, para m. +Para m, fro es tres, cuatro o cinco mil grados, +para mis colegas que trabajan en astronoma infrarroja -200 grados Kelvin es fro. +Pero ya saben, todo es relativo, +as que para m 5,000 grados es bastante fro. +Este es el espectro del Sol 24 mil lneas espectrales y aproximadamente el 15% de ellas an no se ha identificado. +Es asombroso que estemos en el siglo XXI y que todava no podamos llegar a comprender del todo el espectro solar. +En ocasiones nos ocupamos de una nica pequea y dbil lnea espectral para calcular la composicin de ese elemento qumico en la atmsfera. +Por ejemplo, observamos que la lnea espectral del oro es la nica lnea espectral en el espectro solar. +Y utilizamos esta dbil caracterstica para calcular la composicin de oro en la atmsfera del Sol +y esto es un trabajo en desarrollo. +Hemos estado examinando una caracterstica similar muy dbil, que pertenece al osmio. +Es un elemento pesado producido en explosiones termonucleares de supernovas. +De hecho, es el nico lugar donde puede generarse el osmio. +Comparando la composicin de osmio en una de las estrellas con planeta en rbita, queremos llegar a entender por qu abunda tanto este elemento. +Quiz incluso podamos llegar a pensar que las explosiones de supernovas originaron los planetas y estrellas; +puede ser un indicio. +El otro da, un colega mo de Berkeley, Gibor Basri, me envi por correo electrnico un espectro muy interesante, y me preguntaba si podra echarle un vistazo. +No pude dormir las dos semanas siguientes, cuando vi la inmensa cantidad de oxgeno y otros elementos en el espectro estelar. +Saba que nunca antes se haba obsevado algo as en la galaxia. +Fue asombroso. Llegu a la nica conclusin de que era clara evidencia de que hubo una explosin de supernova en este sistema, que contamin la atmsfera de esta estrella. +Y posteriormente se originaron agujeros negros en un sistema binario, que an sigue ah con una masa de cinco veces el Sol aproximadamente. +Este hecho se consider como la primera evidencia de que los agujeros negros proceden de explosiones de supernova. +Mis colegas compararon la composicin de los elementos qumicos de diferentes estrellas galcticas y efectivamente descubrieron estrellas extraterrestres en nuestra galaxia. +Es asombroso que se pueda llegar tan lejos slo estudiando la composicin qumica de las estrellas. +Dijeron que una de las estrellas que se ve en el espectro es extraterrestre: procede de otra galaxia. +Existe interaccin de galaxias, esto lo sabemos +y a veces se capturan estrellas. +Todos hemos odo hablar de las erupciones solares. +Fue una sorpresa descubrir una erupcin gigante, una erupcin miles de millones de veces ms potente que las que observamos en el Sol, +en una de las estrellas binarias de nuestra galaxia, llamada FH Leo, descubrimos la erupcin gigante. +Y, a continuacin, estudiamos las estrellas espectrales para ver si haba algo extrao con esos objetos. +Y descubrimos que todo era normal. +Estas estrellas son normales como el Sol. La edad, todo era normal, +as que es un misterio. +Es uno de los misterios que todava quedan: las erupciones gigantes. +Y hay seis o siete casos similares reseados en la literatura. +Ahora bien, para seguir adelante con esto, necesitamos entender bien la evolucin qumica del universo. +Resulta muy complicado y no pretendo hacer que entiendan lo que vemos aqu. +Pero slo es para mostrarles cun complicado es el tema de la produccin de elementos qumicos. +Hay dos canales -- las estrellas masivas y las de masa dbil -- que producen y reciclan materia y elementos qumicos en el universo. +Y despus de 14 mil millones de aos hacindolo, terminamos con este cuadro, que es un grfico muy importante, ya que muestra las abundancias relativas de elementos qumicos en estrellas similares al Sol y en el medio interestelar. +Lo que significa que es categricamente imposible encontrar un objeto que contenga unas 10 veces ms azufre que silicio, cinco veces ms calcio que oxgeno. Es absolutamente imposible. +Y si encuentras uno, slo puedo decir que est relacionado con SETI porque no se puede hacer de forma natural. +El efecto Doppler es algo muy importante de la fsica fundamental. +Y est relacionado con el cambio de frecuencia procedente de una fuente en movimiento. +El efecto Doppler se utiliza para descubrir planetas extrasolares. +La precisin que necesitamos para descubrir un planeta tipo Jpiter alrededor de una estrella tipo Sol es de aproximadamente 28.4 metros por segundo. +Y necesitamos nueve centmetros por segundo para detectar un planeta tipo Tierra. +Esto ser posible con los espectrgrafos del futuro. +Yo mismo formo parte del equipo que est desarrollando un CODEX, un espectrgrafo de alta resolucin de nueva generacin para el telescopio E-ELT de 42 metros +y ste ser un instrumento para detectar planetas similares a la Tierra alrededor de estrellas similares al Sol. +Es una herramienta asombrosa llamada astrosismologa con la cual podemos detectar ondas sonoras en las atmsferas de las estrellas. +Esto es el sonido de un Alfa Centauro. +Podemos detectar ondas sonoras en las atmsferas de estrellas similares al Sol. +Esas ondas tienen frecuencias en el dominio infrasonoro, an desconocido. +Volviendo a la cuestin ms importante, "Hay alguien ms ah fuera?" +Est estrechamente relacionado con la actividad tectnica y volcnica de los planetas. +Hay una clara conexin entre vida y ncleo radioactivo. +No es posible la vida sin actividad tectnica ni actividad volcnica. +Y sabemos muy bien que la energa geotrmica se produce mayormente por descomposicin de uranio, torio y potasio. +Cmo podemos medir...? Si existen planetas donde la cantidad de estos elementos es pequea, entonces esos planetas estn tectnicamente muertos, no puede haber vida en ellos. +Si, por el contrario, hay demasiado uranio, potasio o torio, probablamente tampoco podra haber vida. +Porque pueden imaginarse todo en ebullicin? +Es demasiada energa en un planeta. +Ahora hemos estado calculando la cantidad de torio en una de las estrellas con planetas extrasolares. +Se trata exactamente del mismo juego, un elemento muy pequeo. +Estamos intentando medir este perfil y detectar torio. +Es muy difcil, es muy difcil. +Primero, tienes que convencerte a ti mismo, +luego, tienes que convencer a tus colegas +y luego a todo el mundo de que efectivamente has detectado algo as en la atmsfera de una estrella con planeta en rbita en algn lugar a 100 prsec de aqu, +es muy complicado. +Pero si quieres saber si hay vida en los planetas extrasolares tienes que dedicarte a esto, +porque tienes que saber la cantidad de elementos radioactivos que hay en esos sistemas. +La nica forma de saber si hay extraterrestres es sintonizar tu radiotelescopio, escuchar las seales +y esperar a recibir algo interesante, que es lo que SETI realmente hace y lo que lleva haciendo desde hace muchos aos. +Creo que el mtodo ms prometedor es mediante biomarcadores. +Se puede ver el espectro de la Tierra, este espectro de reflejo terrestre, y es una seal muy clara. +La pendiente que baja, que llamamos lmite rojo, indica el hallazgo de un rea de vegetacin. +Es increble que podamos detectar vegetacin a partir de un espectro. +Ahora imaginen hacer este estudio con otros planetas. +Pues bien, muy recientemente, estoy hablando de los ltimos seis, siete, ocho meses, se ha detectado agua, metano, dixido de carbono en el espectro de un planeta fuera del sistema solar. +Es asombroso. Ese es el poder de la espectroscopia. +Uno puede detectar y estudiar la composicin qumica de planetas mucho, mucho ms all del sistema solar. +Tenemos que detectar oxgeno u ozono para asegurarnos de que se renen las condiciones necesarias para la vida. +Los milagros csmicos son algo que bien pueden compararse a SETI. +Imaginemos ahora un objeto, un objeto extraordinario, o algo inexplicable, ante lo cual tengamos que levantarnos y decir: "Miren, nos rendimos, la Fsica no sirve." +Es algo que siempre puedes atribuir a SETI y decir: "Bueno, alguien debe de estar haciendo esto de alguna forma." +Y con los que sabemos de fsica, etc., es algo que de hecho ya seal Frank Drake, hace muchos aos [incomprensible]. +Si en el espectro de una estrella con planeta en rbita, pueden verse elementos qumicos extraos, podra considerarse una seal de una civilizacin que est ah y quieren indicarlo. +En efecto, quieren sealizar su presencia mediante estas lneas espectrales, en el espectro de una estrella de diferentes formas. +Hay distintas formas de hacerlo; +una, por ejemplo, es mediante el tecnecio, que es un elemento radioactivo con un perodo de descomposicin de unos 4.2 millones de aos. +Si de pronto observamos tecnecio en una estrella tipo Sol, podemos estar seguros de que alguien ha puesto este elemento en la atmsfera, porque es imposible que esto ocurra de forma natural. +Ahora estamos reexaminando los espectros de unas 300 estrellas con planetas extrasolares. +Y llevamos hacindolo desde el ao 2000 y es un proyecto muy complejo. +Estamos trabajando duro +y ha habido casos interesantes, candidatos, hechos que no podemos realmente explicar +que espero que en un futuro prximo podamos confirmarlo. +Entonces, la cuestin fundamental: "estamos solos?" +creo que no vendr de los OVNIs, +tampoco vendr de las seales de radio, +creo que vendr a travs de un espectro como este. +Este es el espectro de un planeta similar a la Tierra, que muestra la presencia de dixido de nitrgeno, como indicio irrebatible de vida, oxgeno y ozono. +Si un da, y pienso que llegar, dentro de 15 aos, o tal vez 20, +descubrimos un espectro como ste, podemos estar seguros de que hay vida en ese planeta. +Dentro de cinco aos descubriremos planetas similares a la Tierra, orbitando estrellas tipo Sol, a la misma distancia que la Tierra del Sol. +Ser dentro de unos cinco aos +y entonces necesitaremos otros 10 15 aos de proyectos espaciales para obtener espectros de planetas tipo Tierra como el que acabamos de ver. +Y si observamos dixido de nitrgeno y oxgeno, creo que tenemos al E.T. perfecto. +Muchsimas gracias. +Dirijo un estudio de diseo en Nueva York. +Cada siete aos cierro durante un ao para dedicarme a algunos experimentos, cosas que siempre son difciles de conseguir durante el ao laboral habitual. +Ese ao no estamos disponibles para nuestros clientes. +Cerramos completamente. +Y como pueden imaginar, es un tiempo estupendo y muy enrgico. +Originalmente haba abierto el estudio de Nueva York para combinar mis dos amores: la msica y el diseo. +Creamos videos y cubiertas para muchos msicos conocidos. Y para otros de los que nunca han odo. +Y me di cuenta de que, como en muchas cosas de mi vida que realmente amo, me acomodo a ellas. +Y con el tiempo me aburro de ellas. +Y seguramente, en nuestro caso, nuestro trabajo comenz a repetirse. +Aqu ven un ojo de vidrio incrustado en un libro. +Y luego, una idea muy similar, un perfume envasado incrustado en un libro. +Por eso decid cerrar durante un ao. +Y tambin por saber que actualmente pasamos aprendiendo los primeros 25 aos de nuestras vidas. Luego hay otros 40 aos realmente reservados para trabajar. +Y despus, agregados al final, hay cerca de 15 aos de jubilacin. +Y pens que podra ser de ayuda bsicamente recortar cinco de esos aos de jubilacin y entremezclarlos entre esos aos laborales. +Eso claramente es agradable para m. +Pero probablemente sea an ms importante que el trabajo producido en estos aos retorna a la compaa y a la sociedad en general, en vez de beneficiar slo a uno o dos nietos. +Hay un compaero de TED que habl hace dos aos Jonathan Haidt, que defini su trabajo en tres niveles diferentes. +Y me sonaron muy autnticos. +Puedo ver mi trabajo como un empleo. Lo hago por dinero. +Ya desde el jueves posiblemente espere ansiosamente el fin de semana. +Y probablemente necesitar un pasatiempo para estabilizarme. +En una carrera definitivamente estoy ms comprometido. +Pero al mismo tiempo habr perodos en los que piense si ese trabajo tan pesado realmente vale la pena. +Mientras que en la tercera, en la vocacin, muy probablemente lo hara incluso si no fuera compensado econmicamente por eso. +Yo no soy una persona religiosa pero yo buscaba la Naturaleza. +Haba pasado mi primer ao sabtico en Nueva York. +Buscaba algo diferente en el segundo. +Europa y EE.UU. no resultaban tentadores porque los conozco muy bien. Asia s lo era. +Los paisajes ms hermosos que he visto en Asia fueron en Sri Lanka y Bali. +Sri Lanka tena todava la guerra civil en curso. Entonces fue Bali. +Es una sociedad maravillosa, muy artesanal. +Llegu all en septiembre de 2008 y comenc a trabajar de inmediato. +La inspiracin viene del mismo entorno. +Sin embargo, lo primero que necesitaba era una tipografa ahuyenta mosquitos porque definitivamente merodeaban con fuerza. +Y despus necesitaba una especie de manera de poder vengarme de todos los perros salvajes que rodeaban mi casa y me atacaban durante mis caminatas matutinas. +As que creamos esta serie de 99 retratos en camisetas. +Cada perro en una camiseta, +como una pequea represalia, siempre con un mensaje muy levemente amenazante (Tantos perros y tan pocas recetas) en la parte de atrs. +Poco antes de dejar Nueva York decid que en realidad poda renovar mi estudio. +Y luego dejrselo todo a ellos, +Sin tener que hacer nada. +Entonces busqu muebles. +Y result que los muebles que realmente me gustaban eran muy costosos. +Y las cosas que poda comprar no me gustaban. +Por eso una de las cosas que busqu en Bali fue muebles. +Este, obviamente, an contiene los perros salvajes. +Todava no est muy terminado. +Y pienso que cuando surgi esta lmpara yo ya haba hecho las paces con estos perros. +Luego hay una mesa pequea. Tambin hice una mesa pequea. +Se llama "Estar Aqu Ahora". +Consta de 330 brjulas. +Y tenemos tazas de expreso con imanes dentro que hacen enloquecer a las brjulas siempre apuntando hacia ellos. +Esta silla es bastante conversadora, una silla verborrgica. +Tambin, por primera vez en mi vida, comenc a meditar en Bali. +Y, al mismo tiempo, soy muy consciente de lo aburrido que es or sobre la felicidad de otra gente. +As que no avanzar mucho en esto. +Muchos de ustedes conocern a este miembro TED Danny Gilbert, cuyo libro en realidad consegu en el club del libro de TED. +Pienso que me llev cuatro aos leerlo finalmente, durante un sabtico. +Y me gust saber que l en realidad escribi el libro durante un sabtico. +Les voy a mostrar un par de personas a las que les fue bien tomando sabticos. +Este es Ferran Adri. Mucha gente piensa que l es hoy el mejor chef del mundo con su restaurante al norte de Barcelona: El Bulli. +Su restaurante abre siete meses al ao. +l lo cierra durante cinco meses para experimentar con un personal completo. +Sus ltimos nmeros son bastante impresionantes. +Puede acomodar, en el ao, puede acomodar 8.000 personas. +Y tiene 2,2 millones de pedidos de reserva. +Si miro mi ciclo, siete aos, uno sabtico, es el 12,5% de mi tiempo. +Y si miro las compaas que son realmente ms exitosas que la ma, 3M, desde los aos 30, les da a sus ingenieros el 15% para perseguir lo que deseen. +Existen varios buenos resultados. +La cinta adhesiva surgi de este programa as como Art Fry desarroll las notas adhesivas durante su tiempo personal para 3M. +Google, por supuesto, es muy famosa por dar el 20% a sus ingenieros de software para que se dediquen a sus proyectos personales. +Alguno de los presentes se tom alguna vez un ao sabtico? +Eso es aproximadamente el 5%. +No estoy seguro que hayan visto a sus vecinos levantar la mano. +Pregntenles si fue bueno o no. +Yo he descubierto que para encontrar lo que me va a gustar en el futuro, la mejor manera es hablar con la gente que ya lo ha hecho mejor que imaginrmelo. +Cuando tuve la idea de tomarme uno, tom la decisin y lo puse en mi agenda. +Y luego se lo cont a tanta gente como fue posible de modo que no fuera posible acobardarme despus. +Al principio, en el primer sabtico, fue ms bien desastroso. +Haba pensado que debera hacerlo sin un plan que ese vaco de tiempo de algn modo sera maravilloso y tentador para la generacin de ideas. No lo fue. +Simplemente, sin un plan, simplemente reaccion a pequeos requerimientos, no requerimientos de trabajo, a esos dije que no, sino otros pequeos requerimientos. +Enviando correos a revistas de diseo japonesas, etc. +As que me convert en mi propio becario. +Muy rpidamente hice una lista de cosas que me interesaban las jerarquic, les asign tiempos y luego hice un plan, muy parecido al de la escuela. +Qu dice aqu? Lunes de ocho a nueve: escribir historias. Nueve a diez: pensar en el futuro. +(No tuve mucho xito con esta). Etc., etc. +Y eso, en realidad, expresamente como punto de partida del primer sabtico, me funcion muy bien. +Qu sali de todo esto? +Volv a conectar con el diseo. +Me divert. +Econmicamente, visto a largo plazo, result realmente exitoso. +Dado que la calidad mejor, pudimos subir los precios. +Y, probablemente ms importante, bsicamente todo lo que hicimos en los siguientes siete aos del primer sabtico surgi de pensar en ese nico ao. +Mostrar un par de proyectos que surgieron en los siete aos siguientes al sabtico. +Una de las tendencias de pensamiento en las que particip fue que la uniformidad est increblemente sobrevalorada. +Toda esta idea de que todo tiene que ser exactamente igual funciona en muy pocas compaas y no para todas. +Nos pidieron que diseramos una identidad para la Casa da Msica, el centro de msica de Rem Koolhaas en Oporto, en Portugal. +Y si bien yo deseaba crear una identidad que no usara la arquitectura fracas en el intento. +Y principalmente porque a raz de una presentacin de Rem Koolhaas en la ciudad de Oporto, en la que habl sobre un conglomerado de varias capas de significado, +comprend, despus de traducir el discurso arquitectnico a lenguaje coloquial, que se trataba de la creacin de un logo. +Y comprend que el edificio en s era un logo. +Y entonces result bastante fcil. +Le pusimos una mscara lo miramos con detenimiento en el terreno analizamos cada lado oeste, norte, sur, este, arriba y abajo. +Los coloreamos de manera muy particular mediante el programa que codific un amigo mo, el "Generador de Logo de la Casa da Msica", +que est conectado a un escner. +Se pone cualquier imagen en l, como la imagen de Beethoven, +y el programa, en un segundo, genera el logo de la Casa da Msica Beethoven. +Lo cual, a la hora de disear un cartel de Beethoven es muy prctico porque la informacin visual del logo y del cartel real son exactamente la misma. +De modo que siempre encajar, conceptualmente, claro. +Si se interpreta msica de Zappa, se genera su propio logo. +O Philip Glass, Lou Reed, Chemical Brothers todos pasaron por all y tuvieron su propio Logo de la Casa da Msica. +Funciona igual internamente con el presidente o el director musical cuyos retratos de la Casa da Msica terminan en sus tarjetas personales. +Hay una autntica orquesta alojada en el edificio. +Tiene una identidad ms transparente. +El camin en el que salen de gira. +O hay una orquesta contempornea ms pequea, 12 personas, y remezcla su propio ttulo. +Y una de las cosas prcticas que surgieron fue que se puede tomar el logotipo y, a partir de l, crear publicidad. +Como este cartel de Donna Toney o Chopin, o Mozart, o La Monte Young. +Puede tomarse la forma y hacer tipografa con ella. +Se puede poner bajo la piel. +O en un cartel de un evento familiar en frente de la casa o una "rave" bajo la casa o un programa semanal as como servicios educativos. +Segunda idea. Hasta ac, hasta ese punto yo haba estado involucrado principalmente o usaba el lenguaje del diseo con fines promocionales, que para m estaba bien. +Por un lado no tena nada en contra de vender. +Mis padres son ambos comerciantes. +Pero sent que haba pasado mucho tiempo aprendiendo este lenguaje, por qu slo haca promociones? +Deba haber algo ms. +Y de eso emergi toda una nueva serie de trabajos. +Alguno de ustedes lo habr visto. +Mostr algo de eso en una TED previa bajo el ttulo "Cosas que aprend en mi vida hasta ahora". +Ahora les mostrar dos. +Esta es una pared completa de bananas con distintas maduraciones en la inauguracin de la galera de Nueva York. +Dice: "La autoconfianza produce buenos resultados". +Esto es a la semana. +A las dos semanas, a las tres, cuatro, cinco semanas. +Y se ve que la autoconfianza casi regresa pero no tanto. +Estas son imgenes que me enviaron algunos visitantes +Y luego la ciudad de msterdam nos dio una plaza y nos pidi que hiciramos algo. +Usamos las baldosas de piedra como marco para nuestra pequea obra. +Conseguimos 250 mil monedas del banco central con diferentes oscuridades. +As tenamos unas muy nuevas y brillantes algunas intermedias, y otras muy viejas, muy oscuras. +Y con al ayuda de 100 voluntarios, en una semana, creamos esta tipografa bastante floral que dice: "Las obsesiones hacen mi vida peor y mi trabajo mejor". +La idea era, por supuesto, hacer una tipografa tan valiosa que como audiencia uno se planteara "Debera tomar tanto dinero como me sea posible +o debera dejar la obra intacta como est ahora?" +Mientras lo construamos en la ltima semana, con cientos de voluntarios, muchos vecinos de alrededor de la plaza se acercaron y les gust mucho. +As, cuando finalmente estuvo terminada, la primera noche vino un tipo con grandes bolsas de plstico y tom tantas monedas como le fue posible llevarse. Uno de los vecinos llam a la polica. +Y la polica de msterdam con toda sensatez, vino, vio, y quiso proteger la obra de arte. +As que barrieron todo y lo pusieron en custodia en el cuartel de polica. +Pienso que se ve, los ven barriendo. Se les ve barriendo justo aqu. +Esa es la polica deshacindolo todo. +As que despus de ocho horas, eso es lo que qued de todo. +Tambin estamos trabajando en un gran proyecto en Bali. +Es una pelcula sobre la felicidad. +Y aqu le pedimos a unos cerdos cercanos que nos hicieran los ttulos. +No estn muy bien logrados. +As que le pedimos a un ganso que lo hiciera de nuevo y esperbamos que hiciera un trabajo ms elegante o bonito. +Y pienso que exager. +Es demasiado ornamental. +Y mi estudio est muy prximo al bosque de monos. +Y los monos de ese bosque parecan, en verdad, muy felices. +As que les pedimos que lo hicieran de nuevo. +Hicieron un buen trabajo, pero hubo un par de problemas de legibilidad. +As que, como todo lo que uno no hace personalmente, no termina hacindose como corresponde. +Estaremos trabajando en esa pelcula durante los prximos dos aos. +Va a ser un largo perodo. +Y, por supuesto, cabra pensar que hacer una pelcula sobre la felicidad podra no valer la pena, +entonces uno siempre puede, por supuesto, ir y ver a este tipo. +Video: (Yoga de la Risa) "Y estoy feliz, estoy vivo" +"Estoy feliz, estoy vivo" +Muchas gracias. +Cmo se alimenta a una ciudad? +Es una de las grandes cuestiones de nuestro tiempo. +An as, rara vez se plantea. +Damos por hecho que al entrar en una tienda o restaurante o, incluso, en el vestbulo de este teatro, en cosa de una hora habr comida esperndonos, como si llegase por arte de magia. +Pero al pensar que, cada da, hay que producir comida suficiente para una ciudad del tamao de Londres y transportarla, comprarla, venderla, cocinarla, comerla y desecharla, y que algo as ha de hacerse cada da en cada ciudad del mundo resulta sorprendente que sean abastecidas. +Vivimos en lugares de este tipo como si fueran los ms natural del mundo. Nos olvidamos de que por ser animales y por necesitar comida dependemos tanto de la naturaleza como nuestros antiguos antepasados. +A medida que nos trasladamos a las ciudades ms partes del mundo natural son transformadas en paisajes inslitos, como ste. Los campos de soja en Mato Grosso, Brasil, para alimentarnos. +Son paisajes inslitos. Pocos de nosotros llegamos a verlos. +Y, cada vez ms, no nos alimentan slo a nosotros. +Cuantos ms somos en las ciudades ms carne comemos. Un tercio de la produccin de grano anual es para alimentar a los animales y no a nosotros, los animales humanos. +Dado que se necesita tres veces ms grano de hecho, diez veces ms grano para alimentar a un humano si primero ha pasado por un animal no resulta un modo eficiente de alimentarnos. +Es un problema que va en aumento. +Se estima que hacia 2050 el doble de la poblacin actual vivir en las ciudades. +Se estima tambin que se consumirn el doble de carne y lcteos. +La carne y el urbanismo crecen a la par. +Esto supondr un problema enorme. +Seis mil millones de carnvoros hambrientos para alimentar en el 2050. +Es un gran problema. Si seguimos as, ser casi imposible solucionarlo. +19 millones de hectreas de bosque se pierden cada ao para crear ms tierras de cultivo. +Al mismo tiempo, estamos perdiendo una cantidad equivalente debido a la salinizacin y la erosin. +Tambin estamos vidos de combustibles fsiles. +Se necesitan unas 10 caloras para producir cada calora de comida que consumimos en Occidente. +A pesar del gran coste de producir esta comida no la valoramos. +Actualmente, la mitad de la producida en EE.UU se tira. +Y para concluir con esto, despus de este largo proceso, ni siquiera alimentamos el planeta como es debido. +Mil millones somos obesos, mientras, otros tantos se mueren de hambre. +Nada de esto tiene mucho sentido. +Pensar que el 80 por ciento del comercio mundial de comida lo controlan slo cinco empresas multinacionales resulta desalentador. +Al trasladarnos a las ciudades, la dieta se occidentaliza. +Mirando al futuro, es una dieta insostenible. +Cmo hemos llegado a esto? +Ms importante, qu vamos a hacer? +Responder primero a la pregunta ms fcil. Dira que hace unos 10.000 aos comenz este proceso, en el Antiguo Oriente Prximo, conocido como el Creciente Frtil. +Como ven, tena forma de creciente +y era frtil. +Y fue aqu donde, hace 10.000 aos, surgieron dos invenciones extraordinarias: la agricultura y el urbanismo. Ms o menos al mismo tiempo y en el mismo lugar. +No es casualidad. La agricultura y las ciudades van unidas, se necesitan. +Al descubrir el grano, nuestros ancestros, por primera vez, producan una cantidad de comida suficiente y almacenable para abastecer asentamientos permanentes. +Si los observamos, vemos que eran compactos, +rodeados de tierras de labranza productivas y dominados por grandes complejos templarios como ste, en Ur, que eran, de hecho, centros espiritualizados de distribucin de la comida. +En los templos se organizaba la cosecha, se recolectaba el grano, se ofreca a los dioses y, despus, se entregaba a la gente el que los dioses no coman. +Podramos decir que la vida espiritual y material de estas ciudades estaba dominada por el grano y la cosecha que los sustentaba. +De hecho, era as en todas las ciudades antiguas. +Pero no todas eran tan pequeas. +Roma tena alrededor de 1 milln de habitantes en el siglo I d.C. +Cmo se abasteca una ciudad as? +Yo lo llamo "la antigua distancia de la comida". +Roma tena acceso al mar, lo que le permita importar comida desde muy lejos. +Era la nica manera de hacerlo en el mundo antiguo. Las carreteras eran demasiado escabrosas para transportar la comida. +Obviamente, se estropeaba rpido. +As que Roma luch en lugares como Crtago y Egipto para echar manos a sus reservas de grano. +Podra decirse que la expansin del Imperio fue, en realidad, una especie de interminable y militarizado frenes de compras. +De hecho, -me encanta el hecho y debo mencionarlo- En un momento, Roma import ostras de Gran Bretaa. Creo que eso es algo extraordinario. +Roma molde sus tierras a travs de su apetito. +Lo ms interesante es que lo contrario tambin sucedi en el mundo pre-industrial. +Al mirar un mapa del Londres del s.XVII, vemos que los cereales vienen a travs del Tmesis por la parte inferior. +Los mercados de cereal estaban al sur de la ciudad. +Las carreteras que partan desde ellos hacia Cheapside, el mercado principal, eran tambin mercados de cereal. +Al fijarnos en los nombres de esas calles, Bread Street, podemos adivinar lo que suceda all hace 300 aos. +Lo mismo pasaba con el pescado. +Tambin vena a travs del ro. +Y Billings Gate fue el mercado del pescado de Londres y funcion all hasta mediados de 1980. +Resulta extraordinario al pensar en ello. +El resto de la gente deambulaba por ah con telfonos mviles que parecan ladrillos mientras el pescado apestoso llegaba al puerto. +Otra caracterstica de la comida en las ciudades: una vez que ha echado races en un lugar rara vez se mueve. +La carne es otra historia, porque los animales podan llegar andando. +Gran parte de la carne de Londres llegaba del noroeste, de Escocia y de Gales. +As que llegaba a la ciudad por el noroeste, por eso, Smithfield, el famoso mercado de la carne en Londres, estaba all. +La carne de ave llegaba desde Anglia Oriental hacia el nordeste. +Haciendo esto me siento un poco como una metereologa. Las aves llegaban con sus patas protegidas con funditas de lona. +Al llegar al extremo oriental de Cheapside, se vendan. Por eso, se le llama Poultry. +De hecho, mirando el mapa de cualquier ciudad construida antes de la era industrial se puede trazar el recorrido de la comida. +Se aprecia cmo fsicamente determinaba su forma al leer los nombres de las calles, stos nos dan muchas pistas. +En Friday Street, anteriormente, se compraba el pescado los viernes. +Pero imagnenlo lleno de comida. +Las calles y espacios pblicos eran los nicos lugares donde la comida se venda y compraba. +Veamos esta imagen del Smithfield de 1830. Apreciarn que hubiera sido difcil vivir aqu sin darse cuenta de dnde vena la comida. +El almuerzo del domingo, probablemente, estaba, tres das antes, mugiendo o balando al otro lado de la ventana. +Era, obviamente, una ciudad ecolgica, parte de un ciclo tambin ecolgico. +Pero diez aos despus todo cambi. +Esta imagen es del ferrocarril Great Western en 1840. +Pueden ver que algunos de los primeros pasajeros fueron los cerdos y las ovejas. +De repente, estos animales han dejado de llegar a pata. +Se les sacrifica fuera de nuestra vista en algn lugar del campo. +Llegan a la ciudad en tren, +esto lo cambia todo. +Hace posible, por primera vez, el construir ciudades de cualquier forma y tamao donde sea. +Las ciudades solan estar limitadas por la geografa y la comida la obtenan a travs de medios muy difciles. +De repente, se han emancipado de la geografa. +Y esto fue slo el principio. Despus, llegaron los coches. Esto marca el final del proceso. +Es la emancipacin definitiva de la ciudad de cualquier relacin aparente con la naturaleza. +Este es el tipo de ciudad desprovista de olor, de alboroto, desprovista de gente. A nadie se le hubiese ocurrido adentrarse en semejante escenario. +De hecho, para conseguir comida se subiran al coche, conduciran hasta algn recinto en las afueras y volveran con la compra para la semana preguntndose qu demonios hacer con ella. +Este es el momento en el que nuestra relacin con la comida y las ciudades cambia del todo. +Tenemos la comida -que sola ser el centro, el ncleo social de la ciudad- en la periferia. +Comprar y vender comida era un acto social. +Ahora es annimo. +Antes cocinbamos; ahora solo agregamos agua o algo de huevo si hacemos un pastel o algo as. +No olemos la comida para comprobar si est bien. +Leemos la etiqueta de un paquete. +Y no valoramos la comida. No nos fiamos de ella. +En lugar de eso, la tememos. +En vez de valorarla, la tiramos. +Una de las grandes ironas de los sistemas modernos de comida es que han complicado mucho ms lo que prometan simplificar. +Al hacer posible construir ciudades en cualquier lugar, nos han alejado de nuestra relacin ms importante, la que tenemos con la naturaleza. +Nos han hecho dependientes de sistemas que slo ellos proporcionan y que son insostenibles. +Qu vamos a hacer, entonces? +Esto ya se ha planteado antes. +Hace 500 aos, Thomas More se lo preguntaba. +ste es el frontispicio de su libro, "Utopia". +Una serie de ciudades estado semi-independientes, Suena familiar? A un da a pie de distancia unas de otras, todo el mundo labrando como locos, cultivando vegetales en el jardn de atrs, haciendo comidas comunales juntos, etc, etc. +Podra decirse que la comida es un principio de ordenacin fundamental en Utopia. Aunque More no lo formulara en ese sentido. +Otra visin utpica bien conocida: "La ciudad jardn" de Ebenezer Howard. +Misma idea, una serie de ciudades estado semi-independientes, pequeos puntos metropolitanos con tierras cultivables alrededor unidos por el ferrocarril. +De nuevo, la comida podra considerarse el principio de ordenacin de su visin. +Incluso lleg a construirse, pero diferente a la visin que Howard tena. +se es el problema de la ideas utpicas, que son utpicas. +Thomas More utiliz la palabra "utopa" intencionadamente, +como un chiste, porque tiene dos derivaciones del griego. +Puede significar "un buen lugar" o "ningn lugar". +Porque es algo ideal, imaginario, no podemos tenerlo. +Creo que como herramienta conceptual para pensar en el grave problema de la morada humana no es muy til. +He elaborado una alternativa, "Sitopa", del griego antiguo. "Sitos" por comida y "topos" por lugar. +Creo que ya vivimos en Sitopa. +La comida da forma a nuestro mundo. Si nos damos cuenta, podremos utilizarla como una herramienta poderosa una herramienta conceptual y de diseo para darle al mundo otra forma. +Si lo hiciramos, qu aspecto tendra Sitopa? +Creo que sera algo as. +Tena que usar esta diapositiva. Fjense en la cara del perro. +De todos modos, aqu est... la comida en el centro de la vida, en el centro de la vida familiar, celebrndose, disfrutndola, dedicndole tiempo. +se es el lugar que debera ocupar, +pero escenas como stas necesitan de gente as. +Tambin pueden ser hombres. +Gente que piense en la comida, que planee, y que al ver un montn de vegetales frescos pueda reconocerlos. +Necesitamos gente as. Somos parte de una red. +Porque, sin ellos, no podemos tener lugares como ste. +sta la eleg a propsito porque es un hombre el que compra un vegetal. +Redes, mercados con comida de cultivo local. +Es comn y fresca. +Es parte de la vida social de la ciudad. +Sin ello, no podemos tener un lugar as, donde la comida es cultivada localmente y es tambin parte del paisaje, y no es solo una produccion de suma cero en algn lugar perdido. +Vacas con vistas. +Montones humeantes de humus. +Es cuestin de unirlo todo. +Este es un proyecto comunitario que visit hace poco en Toronto. +Un invernadero donde se explica a los nios todo sobre la comida y cmo cultivarla. +Esta planta se llama Kevin, o quiz sea una planta de un nio llamado Kevin, no s. +Este tipo de proyectos son muy importantes, intentan conectarnos de nuevo con la naturaleza. +Sitopa es una forma de ver las cosas. +Es cuestin de reconocer que Sitopa ya existe en algunos puntos. +La clave est en unirlos y que la comida tome protagonismo. +As, dejaremos de ver las ciudades como metrpolis improductivas, como sta. +Sern ms parecidas a sto, parte de un ciclo de produccin ecolgico al que pertenecen necesariamente, conectadas simbiticamente. +Pero por supueto, esta imagen tampoco es de lo mejor, porque ya no tenemos que producir de este modo. +Necesitamos pensar en la permacultura, por eso, esta imagen resume para m el tipo de pensamiento que necesitamos hacer. +Conceptualizar de nuevo el modo en que la comida dar formas a nuestras vidas. +El mejor ejemplo que conozco es de hace 650 aos, +la "Alegora del buen gobierno" de Ambrogio Lorenzetti. +Trata de la relacin entre la ciudad y el campo. +Tiene un mensaje muy claro: +si la ciudad cuida del campo, el campo cuidar de la ciudad. +Hganse esta pregunta: qu pintara hoy Ambrogio Lorenzetti si quisiera reflejar esa idea? +Cul sera la alegora del buen gobierno en el presente? +Creo que es una cuestin urgente. +Tenemos que planternosla y empezar a dar respuestas. +Sabemos que somos lo que comemos, +pero necesitamos comprender que tambin el mundo es lo que comemos. +Si adoptamos esta idea, podremos usar la comida como una poderosa herramienta con la que mejorar el mundo. +Muchas gracias. +De lo que realmente queremos hablar aqu, es del "Cmo." +Ok, cmo exactamente creamos esta innovacin que podr estremecer el mundo? +Quiero contarles una breve historia. +Retrocederemos un poco ms de 1 ao +De hecho, la fecha..me intriga saber..? S alguno de ustedes saben qu pas en sta fecha trascendente? +fue, el 3 de febrero de 2008 +alguien recuerda que sucedi? 3 de febrero de 2008? +Super Bowl. escucho por aqu.!!?. Fue el da del Super Bowl. +Y la razn que sta sea una fecha tan trascendente es lo que mis colegas, John King y Hailey Fischer-Wright y yo notamos tan pronto como iniciamos a cuestionar a varias fiestas del Super Bowl, es cuando nos pareci que a travs de los Estados Unidos, concejos tribales se haban reunido. +Y que haban tratado temas de gran importancia nacional. +Como, "Nos gusto el comercial de Budweiser?" +Y, " Nos gustaron los nachos?" Y, " Quin va a ganar?" +Pero, tambin hablaron sobre a cul candidato le daran su apoyo. +Y si vamos atrs en el tiempo, al 3 de febrero, Pareca que Hilary Clinton iba a obtener la nominacin del partido Demcrata +Inclusive existan algunas encuestas que la mostraban ms all +Pero cuando hablamos con la gente, pareca que un efecto de embudo haba ocurrido en estas tribus por todo los Estados Unidos +Qu es una Tribu? Una tribu, es un grupo de unas 20 -- poco ms que un equipo -- 20 hasta unas 150 personas. +Y es dentro de stas tribus que todo nuestro trabajo se realiza. +Pero no slo trabajo. Es dentro de stas tribus que las sociedades son construidas, cosas importantes suceden. +Y mientras encuestbamos al los representantes de varios concejos tribales reunidos tambin conocidos como fiestas de Super Bowl, mandamos el siguiente email a 40 editores de peridicos al siguiente da +4 de Febrero, publicamos en nuestro website. Esto fue antes del Super Martes. +Dijimos, "Las tribus de las que formamos parte estn diciendo que ser Obama." +Ahora, la razn por la que sabamos esto era porque pasamos los 10 aos previos estudiando tribus, estudiando estos grupos de ocurrencia natural. +Todos ustedes son miembros de estas tribus. +Caminando en los descansos muchos de ustedes han conocido a miembros de su tribu. Y estuvieron hablando con ellos. +Y muchos de ustedes estaban haciendo, lo que grandes lderes tribales hacen, que es encontrar a alguien quien es miembro de una tribu, y encontrar a alguien ms que es miembro de una tribu distinta, y hacen las presentaciones. +De hecho, esto es lo que grandes lderes tribales hacen. +ste es el fondo del asunto +Y desde la distancia aparenta ser un nico grupo. +Y as las personas forman tribus +Siempre lo hicieron. Siempre lo harn. +As como el pez nada y las aves vuelan, la gente forma tribus. Es lo que hacemos. +Pero, aqu est el problema. +No todas las tribus son iguales. Lo que hace la diferencia es la cultura. +Ahora, que podemos inferir sobre sto.. +Todos ustedes son miembros de una tribu. +Si pueden encontrar la manera de tomar las tribus a las que pertenecen y empujarlas hacia adelante a travs de estas etapas tribales a lo que llamamos Etapa 5, la cual es la cima de la montaa. +Pero vamos a iniciar con la que llamamos Etapa 1. +Esta es la ms baja de las Etapas. +No queremos esto. Ok.? +Estas es una imagen difcil de presentar en la pantalla +Pero es una de las cuales debemos aprender algo +La Etapa 1 produce gente que hace cosas horribles. +ste es el muchacho que dispar en Virginia Tech. +La Etapa 1 es un grupo donde la gente sistemticamente rompe relaciones dentro de tribus funcionales, y despus se renen con personas que piensan como ellos. +La Etapa 1, es literalmente la cultura de las pandillas y es la cultura de las prisiones. +Generalmente, nosotros, no tratamos con la Etapa 1. +Y quiere hacer inca pi que como miembros de la sociedad, necesitamos hacerlo. +No es suficiente con eliminarlos de una lista. +Hablemos de la Etapa 2. +En la Etapa 1, notaran, dice, de hecho, "La vida Apesta." +Este otro libro que Steve mencion, que acaba de salir, llamado "Las Tres Leyes del Desempeo" mi colega, Steve Zaffron y yo, debatimos que como la gente ve el mundo, as se comporta. +Entonces, si la gente ve el mundo de manera que la vida apesta, entonces, automticamente su comportamiento ser acorde +Ser de hostilidad desesperada. +Harn todo lo que sea necesario para sobrevivir. incluso si eso significa socavar otras personas. +Mi cumpleaos est llegando pronto y mi licencia para conducir a expira. +Y la razn por lo que es relevante es porque muy pronto estar caminando a lo que llamamos una tribu Etapa 2. La cual se ve as. +Risas... Ahora, estoy diciendo que en cada Departamento de Licencia para Conducir a travs de la tierra, uno encuentra una cultura de Etapa 2? +No. Pero en la que se encuentra cerca mo a la que tengo que ir en unos das, lo que estar diciendo mientras espero en la fila es, "Cmo es que la gente puede ser tan tonta, y an as vivir?" +Estoy diciendo que existe gente tonta trabajando aqu? +De hecho, no. No lo digo. +Pero digo que la cultura hace a la gente tonta. +Entonces en la cultura de la Etapa 2 -- y nos encontramos con ellos en todo tipo de lugares diferentes los encontramos, de hecho, en las mejores organizaciones del mundo. +Las encontramos en todos los lugares de la sociedad. +Me he cruzado con ellas en las organizaciones que todo el mundo reconoce como las mejores en su clase +Pero se es el punto. Si uno cree y dice a la gente de su tribu, en efecto, "Mi vida apesta. +Quiero decir, si tengo que ir a TEDx USC mi vida no apestara. Pero no tengo, entonces si apesta." +Si as hablaramos, imagnense que tipo de trabajo sera hecho +Qu tipo de innovacin sera realizada? +Qu cantidad de comportamiento -capaz de cambiar al mundo- sucedera? +De hecho, sera bsicamente cero. +Ahora cuando cambiamos a una Etapa 3: sta es en la cual que golpea ms cercano a casa para muchos de nosotros. +Porque es en la Etapa 3 que muchos de nosotros se mueve. +Y estacionamos. Y nos quedamos. +La Etapa 3 dice, " Soy Excelente. Y t no lo eres." +Soy Excelente y t no lo eres. +Ahora imaginen un cuarto lleno de gente diciendo, "Soy Excelente y tu no lo eres." +O, " Voy a encontrar la manera de competir contigo y resultar superior como resultado de eso." +Todo un grupo de gente comunicndose de esa manera, hablando de esa manera. +S que esto suena como una broma. 3 doctores entran a un bar. +Pero, en ste caso, 3 doctores entran a un elevador. +Sucede que yo estaba en elevador recolectando informacin para ste libro. +Y uno de los doctores dice a los otros, " Vieron mi artculo en el "New England Journal of Medicine?" +Y el otro dijo,"No, eso es muy bueno, Felicitaciones!" +El siguiente puso una sonrisa irnica y dijo, "Bueno, mientras hacas tu investigacin," noten el tono condescendiente -- "Mientras estabas haciendo tu investigacin, Yo estaba haciendo ms cirugas que cualquier otro en el departamento de ciruga en sta institucin. +Y todos ellos se rieron y le dieron una palmada en la espalda. +La puerta del elevador se abri. Y todos salieron. +Esa es una reunin de tribu de Etapa 3. +Encontramos stas en lugares donde gente muy inteligente y exitosa se presenta. +Como, no s, TEDx USC. +Aqu est el mayor desafo que enfrentamos en la innovacin. +Se est moviendo desde la Etapa 3. a la Etapa 4. +Echemos un vistazo rpido a un fragmento de vdeo. +Esto es de una compaa llamada Zappos, localizada en las afueras de Las Vegas. +Y mi pregunta, va a ser, Qu creen que ellos valoran? +No era poca de Navidad. Haba un rbol de navidad. +sta es su recibidor. +Los empleados son voluntarios en el stand de concejos. +Noten que parece como algo salido de una historieta. +Ok., vamos por los pasillos en Zappos. +ste es un centro de llamadas. Noten como est decorado. +La gente nos est aplaudiendo. +Ellos no saben quines somos y tampoco les interesa. Y si les interesar probablemente no aplaudiran. +Noten el nivel de excitacin. +Observen, una vez ms, como decoraran sus oficinas. +ahora, qu es importante para la gente de Zappos?, estas pueden no ser cosas importantes para ustedes. +Pero ellos valoran cosas como la diversin. Valoran la creatividad. +Uno de sus valores establecidos es, "Ser un poco raro" +Y notaran que son un poco raros. +Entonces, cuando individuos se renen y encuentran algo que los une eso es ms importante que sus competencias individuales, entonces, algo muy importante sucede. +El grupo se cohesiona. Y cambia de estado. de un grupo de gente altamente motivada pero individualmente centrada en algo ms grande, en una tribu consciente de su propia existencia. +Las tribus de la Etapa 4 pueden hacer cosas notables. +Pero notaran que no estamos en la cima de la montaa todava. +Existe, de hecho, otra Etapa. +Algunos de ustedes no reconocern sta escena +Y si se fijan en el ttulo de la Etapa 5, la cual es "La Vida es Estupenda," esto puede parecer algo incongruente. +Esta es una escena del proceso de la Verdad y Reconciliacin en Sud frica por el cual Desmond Tutu gan el Premio Nobel. +Ahora pensemos sobre eso. Sud frica terribles atrocidades sucedieron en la sociedad. +Y la gente se reuni enfocados slo en esos 2 valores: verdad y reconciliacin. +No exista una ruta trazada. Nunca nadie haba hecho algo similar. +Y en sta atmsfera, donde la nica gua eran los valores de la gente y su noble causa, lo que ste grupo logro fue histrico. +Y la gente, en ese momento, tema que Sud frica podra terminar llendo hacia el mismo camino que Rwanda. Descendiendo en una escaramuza tras otra en una guerra civil que parece no tener final. +De hecho, Sud frica no ha recorrido el mismo camino. +Gracias a gente como Desmond Tutu que estableci un proceso de Etapa 5. para que participen miles y tal vez millones de tribus en el pas, para reunir a todos +para que la gente pueda escuchar esto y concluir lo siguiente, como nosotros los hicimos, al realizar el estudio. +Ok. lo tengo. No quiero hablar como en la Etapa 1. +Eso es como, ustedes saben, "La Vida Apesta". Quin quiere hablar as? +No quiero hablar como ellos lo hacen en el Departamento de Licencia para Conducir, cerca de donde Dave vive. +No quiero solamente decir "Soy Excelente" porque suena algo narcisista. Y eso me dejara sin amigos. +Diciendo, "Somos Excelentes" -- suena mucho mejor. +Peros debera hablar de la Etapa 5, no? " La Vida es Estupenda." +Bueno, de hecho, existen 3 descubrimientos contra intuitivos que salen de todo esto. +La primera, si se fijan en la Declaracin de la Independencia, de hecho la leen, la frase que se graba en la mayora de nuestras mentes es la de los derechos inalienables. +Quiero decir, esto es la Etapa 5, no? La Vida es Estupenda, orientada nicamente por nuestros valores, sin ninguna otra gua. +De hecho, la mayor parte del documento est escrito en una Etapa 2. +" Mi Vida Apesta porque vivo bajo un tirano, tambin conocido como el Rey Jorge. +Somos Excelentes! Quin no es Excelente? Inglaterra!" +Perdn. Bien, qu fue de los otros grandes lderes? Qu sucedi con Gandhi? +Qu sucedi con Martin Luther King? +Seguramente est fue gente que predicaba, "La Vida es Excelente. verdad? +Solamente una pedacito de felicidad y alegra despus de otro. +De hecho, la lnea ms famosa de Martin Luther King era en una Etapa 3. +El no dijo "Tenemos un sueo."El dijo, "Yo tengo un sueo." +Por qu el hizo eso? Porque la mayora de la gente no estn en la Etapa 5. +El 2% estn en una Etapa 1. +Un 25% estn en una Etapa 2, diciendo, de hecho, "Mi vida Apesta." +el 48% de tribus que trabajan, dicen, estas son tribus empleadas, dicen, " Yo soy Excelente y tu no." +Y tenemos que esquivarlos todos los das. Entonces recurrimos a la poltica. +Solamente el 22% de las tribus se encuentran en una Etapa 4, orientadas por nuestros valores, diciendo "Somos Excelentes. +Y nuestros valores estn empezando a unirnos." +Solamente el 2%, slo el 2% de las tribus alcanzan la Etapa 5. +Y esas son las que cambian el mundo. +Entonces, el primer pequeo hallazgo de esto es que los lderes necesitan poder hablar en todos los niveles de manera que puedan alcanzar a todas las personas de la sociedad. +Pero no los dejas donde los encontraste, Ok.? +Las tribus slo pueden escuchar un nivel por encima o por debajo de su posicin. +Entonces, tenemos que tener la habilidad de hablar en todos los niveles, para poder ir a donde estn. +Y entonces los lderes de empujan a las personas dentro de sus tribus al siguiente nivel. +Me gustara mostrarles algunos ejemplos de esto. +Una de las personas a las que entrevistamos fue Frank Jordan, Ex Alcalde de San Francisco. Antes de eso fue Jefe de Polica en San Francisco. +El creci esencialmente en una Etapa 1. +Y saben que cambi su vida? El entrar a uno de esos, un Club de Chicos y Chicas. +Y esto es lo que le sucedi a esta persona que eventualmente se convirti en el Alcalde de San Francisco. +El fue, de estar con vida y apasionado en Etapa 1 -- recuerda, "La Vida Apesta, de una hostilidad desesperada, Har lo necesario para sobrevivir" -- a entrar a un Club de Chicos y Chicas, cruzando los brazos, sentado en una silla, y diciendo, "Wow. Mi Vida de Verdad Apesta. +No conozco a nadie. +Quiero decir, si me gustara el boxeo, como a ellos, entonces mi vida no apestara. Pero no me gusta. Entonces apesta. +Entonces, me voy a sentar aqu en mi silla y no voy a hacer nada." +De hecho, ese es un progreso. +Movemos gente de la Etapa 1 a la Etapa 2 al ponerlos en una nueva tribu. Y despus, con el tiempo, conectarlos +As que, qu sucede al moverlos de una Etapa 3 a una Etapa 4? +Me gustara argumentar que estamos haciendo lo correcto aqu +TED representa un conjunto de valores Y as nos unimos al rededor de estos valores, algo realmente interesante comienza a emerger +S ustedes quieren que sta experiencia contine como algo histrico, entonces, en la recepcin de sta noche me gustara alentarlos a hacer algo ms all de lo que la gente normal hace, y llaman hacer contactos. +Lo cual no es slo conocer a nuevas personas y extender nuestro alcance, extender nuestra influencia. Pero en cambio encontrar a alguien que no conocemos y encontrar a alguien ms que no conozcamos y presentarlos. +A eso se llama una relacin tridica +La gente que construye tribus capaces de cambiar el mundo hace esto. +Ellos extienden el alcance de sus tribus al conectarlas, no slo a m mismo, para que mis seguidores sean muchos Pero, Yo conecto personas que no s conocen entre ellas a algo ms grande que ellos mismos. +Y, finalmente, que aade a sus valores. +Pero, no hemos terminado todava. Cmo vamos de una Etapa 4, que es excelente, a una Etapa 5? +L a historia con la que quisiera terminar es sta. Se trata de Un lugar llamado la Organizacin Gallup. +Ustedes saben, ellos hacen encuestas, no? +As que es la Etapa 4. Somos Excelentes. Quin no lo es? +Prcticamente todos los dems que hacen encuestas. +Si se revela una encuesta de Gallup en el mismo da que se revela una encuesta de la NBC la gente le dar mayor atencin a la encuesta de Galluo. Ok, entendemos eso. +ellos estaban aburridos +Ellos queran cambiar el mundo. Entonces estas es la pregunta que alguien hizo. +"Cmo podramos en cambio de solamente encuestar a cerca de lo que Asia piensa o qu es lo que Estados Unidos piensa, o quien piensan a cerca de Obama versus McCain, o algo parecido? Qu es lo que el mundo entero piensa?" +Y encontraron la forma de hacer la primera encuesta mundial. +Tenan personas involucradas que eran ganadoras del Premio Nobel en economa, que informaron estar aburridas. +Y de pronto sacaron hojas de papel y estuvieron tratando de resolver, el "Cmo encuestamos a toda la poblacin de frica Sub-Sahariana +Cmo encuestamos a poblaciones que no tienen acceso a la tecnologa, y hablan lenguas que nosotros no hablamos, y no conocemos a alguien que las hable. Porque para poder lograr realizar esta gran misin, tenemos que poder hacerlo. +Por cierto, ellos lograron hacerlo. +Y presentaron la primera encuesta mundial. +Me gustara dejarles con estas reflexiones. +Primero que nada: todos formamos tribus, todos. +Ustedes estn en una tribu aqu. Y con suerte estn extendiendo su alcance de las tribus a las que pertenecen. +Pero la pregunta sobre la mesa es sta. Qu tipo de impacto estn haciendo las tribus a las que pertenecen? +Estn escuchando una presentacin tras otra, generalmente representando a un grupo de personas, tribus, acerca de cmo han cambiado el mundo. +Si hacen lo que hoy hemos hablado, escuchan cmo la gente realmente se comunica en las tribus a las que pertenecen +Y nos las dejan donde las encontraron. Las empujan hacia adelante. +Recuerdan hablar las 5 etapas culturales. +Debido a que tenemos gente en todas las 5, +Y la pregunta con la que me gustara dejarlos es la siguiente: Su tribu cambiar el mundo? +Muchas gracias. +Cuento historias. +Y me gustara contarles algunas historias personales sobre lo que llamo "el peligro de una sola historia". +Crec en un campus universitario al este de Nigeria. +Mi madre dice que comenc a leer a los dos aos, creo que ms bien fue a los cuatro aos, a decir verdad. +Fui una lectora precoz y lo que lea eran libros infantiles ingleses y estadounidenses. +Esto a pesar de que viva en Nigeria y +nunca haba salido de Nigeria. +No tenamos nieve, comamos mangos y nunca hablbamos sobre el clima porque no era necesario. +Mis personajes beban cerveza de jengibre porque los personajes de los libros que lea, beban cerveza de jengibre. +No importaba que yo no supiera qu era. +Muchos aos despus, sent un gran deseo de probar la cerveza de jengibre; +pero esa es otra historia. +Creo que esto demuestra, creo, cun vulnerables e influenciables somos ante una historia, especialmente en nuestra infancia. +Porque yo slo lea libros donde los personajes eran extranjeros, estaba convencida de que los libros, por naturaleza, deban tener extranjeros, y narrar cosas con las que yo no poda identificarme. +Todo cambi cuando descubr los libros africanos. +No haba muchos disponibles y no eran fciles de encontrar como los libros extranjeros. +Gracias a autores como Chinua Achebe y Camara Laye mi percepcin mental de la literatura cambi. +Me d cuenta que personas como yo, nias con piel color chocolate, cuyo cabello rizado no se poda atar en colas de caballo, tambin podan existir en la literatura. +Comenc a escribir sobre cosas que reconoca. +Yo amaba los libros ingleses y estadounidenses que le, +avivaron mi imaginacin y me abrieron nuevos mundos; +pero la consecuencia involuntaria fue que no saba que personas como yo podan existir en la literatura. +Mi descubrimiento de los escritores africanos me salvaron de conocer una sola historia sobre qu son los libros. +Mi familia es nigeriana, convencional de clase media. +Mi padre fue profesor, +mi madre fue administradora +y tenamos, como era costumbre, personal domstico de pueblos cercanos. +Cuando cumpl ocho aos, un nuevo criado vino a casa, +Su nombre era Fide. +Lo nico que mi madre nos contaba de l era que su familia era muy pobre. +Mi madre enviaba batatas y arroz, y nuestra ropa vieja, a su familia. +Cuando no me acababa mi cena, mi madre deca "Come! No sabes que la familia de Fide no tiene nada?" +Yo senta gran lstima por la familia de Fide. +Un sbado, fuimos a visitarlo a su pueblo, su madre nos mostr una bella cesta de rafia teida hecha por su hermano. +Estaba sorprendida, +pues no crea que alguien de su familia pudiera hacer algo. +Lo nico que saba es que eran muy pobres y era imposible verlos como algo ms que pobres. +Su pobreza era mi nica historia sobre ellos. +Aos despus, pens sobre esto cuando dej Nigeria para ir a la universidad en Estados Unidos. +Tena 19 aos. +Haba impactado a mi compaera de cuarto estadounidense, +pregunt dnde haba aprendido a hablar ingls tan bien y estaba confundida cuando le dije que en Nigeria el idioma oficial resultaba ser el ingls. +Me pregunt si podra escuchar mi "msica tribal" y se mostr por tanto muy decepcionada cuando le mostr mi cinta de Mariah Carey. +Ella pensaba que yo no saba usar una estufa. +Me impresion que ella sintiera lstima por m incluso antes de conocerme. +Su posicin por omisin ante m, como africana, se reduca a una lstima condescendiente. +Mi compaera conoca una sola historia de frica, una nica historia de catstrofe; +en esta nica historia, no era posible que los africanos se parecieran a ella de ninguna forma, no haba posibilidad de sentimientos ms complejos que lstima, no haba posibilidad de una conexin como iguales. +Debo decir que antes de ir a Estado Unidos, yo no me identificaba como africana. +Pero all, cuando mencionaban a frica, me hacan preguntas, +no importaba que yo no supiera nada sobre pases como Namibia; +sin embargo llegu a abrazar esta nueva identidad y ahora pienso en m misma como africana. +Aunque an me molesta cuando se refieren a frica como un pas. Un ejemplo reciente fue mi, de otra forma, maravilloso vuelo desde Lagos, hace dos das, donde hicieron un anuncio durante el vuelo de Virgin sobre trabajos de caridad en "India, frica y otros pases". +As que despus de vivir unos aos en Estado Unidos como africana, comenc a entender la reaccin de mi compaera. +Si yo no hubiera crecido en Nigeria y si mi impresin de frica procediera de las imgenes populares, tambin creera que frica es un lugar de hermosos paisajes y animales, y gente incomprensible, que libran guerras sin sentido y mueren de pobreza y SIDA, incapaces de hablar por s mismos, esperando ser salvados por un extranjero blanco y gentil. +Yo vea a los africanos de la misma forma en que, como nia, vi la familia de Fide. +Creo que esta historia nica de frica procede de la literatura occidental. +Esta es una cita tomada de los escritos de un comerciante londinense, John Locke, que zarp hacia frica Occidental en 1561 y escribi un fascinante relato sobre su viaje. +Despus de referirse a los africanos negros como "bestias sin casas", escribi: "Tampoco tienen cabezas, tienen la boca y los ojos en sus pechos". +Me ro cada vez que leo esto +y hay que admirar la imaginacin de John Locke. +Pero lo importante es que representa el comienzo de una tradicin de historias sobre africanos en Occidente, donde el frica Subsahariana es lugar de negativos, de diferencia, de oscuridad. de personas que, como dijo el gran poeta Rudyard Kipling, son "mitad demonios, mitad nios". +Comenc a entender a mi compaera estadounidense, que durante su vida debi ver y escuchar diferentes versiones de esta nica historia, al igual que un profesor, quien dijo que mi novela no era "autnticamente africana". +Yo reconoca que haba varios defectos en la novela, que haba fallado en algunas partes, pero no imaginaba que haba fracasado en lograr algo llamado autenticidad africana. +De hecho, yo no saba qu era la autenticidad africana. +El profesor dijo que mis personajes se parecan demasiado a l, un hombre educado, de clase media. +Mis personajes conducan vehculos, +no moran de hambre; +entonces, no eran autnticamente africanos. +Debo aadir que yo tambin soy cmplice de esta cuestin de la historia nica. +Hace unos aos, viaj de Estados Unidos a Mxico. +El clima poltico en Estados Unidos entonces era tenso, haba debates sobre la inmigracin. +Y como suele ocurrir en Estados Unidos, la inmigracin se convirti en sinnimo de mexicanos. +Haba un sinfn de historias de mexicanos como gente que saqueaba el sistema de salud, escabullndose por la frontera, que eran arrestados en la frontera, cosas as. +Recuerdo una caminata en mi primer da en Guadalajara mirando a la gente ir al trabajo, amasando tortillas en el mercado, fumando, riendo. +Recuerdo que primero me sent un poco sorprendida +y luego me embarg la vergenza. +Me di cuenta que haba estado tan inmersa en la cobertura meditica sobre los mexicanos que se haban convertido en una sola cosa, el inmigrante abyecto. +Haba credo en la historia nica sobre los mexicanos y no poda estar ms avergonzada de m. +Es as como creamos la historia nica, mostramos a un pueblo como una cosa, una sola cosa, una y otra vez, hasta que se convierte en eso. +Es imposible hablar sobre la historia nica sin hablar del poder. +Hay una palabra del idioma igbo, que recuerdo cada vez que pienso sobre las estructuras de poder en el mundo y es "nkali", es un sustantivo cuya traduccin es +"ser ms grande que el otro". +Al igual que nuestros mundos econmicos y polticos, las historias tambin se definen por el principio de nkali. Cmo se cuentan, quin las cuenta cundo se cuentan, cuntas historias son contadas en verdad depende del poder. +El poder es la capacidad no slo de contar la historia del otro, sino de hacer que esa sea la historia definitiva. +El poeta palestino Mourid Barghouti escribi que si se pretende despojar a un pueblo la forma ms simple es contar su historia y comenzar con "en segundo lugar". +Si comenzamos la historia con las flechas de los pueblos nativos americanos, y no con la llegada de los ingleses, tendremos una historia totalmente diferente. +Si comenzamos la historia con el fracaso del estado africano, y no con la creacin colonial del estado africano, tendremos una historia completamente diferente. +Hace poco di una conferencia en una universidad donde un estudiante me dijo que era una lstima que los hombres de Nigeria fueran abusadores como el personaje del padre en mi novela. +Le dije que acababa de leer una novela llamada "Psicpata Americano". y era una verdadera lstima que los jvenes estadounidenses fueran asesinos en serie. +Obviamente, estaba algo molesta cuando dije eso. +Jams se me habra ocurrido que slo por haber ledo una novela donde un personaje es un asesino en serie de alguna forma l era una representacin de todos los estadounidenses. +Ahora, no es porque yo sea mejor persona que ese estudiante, sino que, debido al poder econmico y cultural de Estados Unidos, yo haba escuchado muchas historias sobre Estados Unidos +Le a Tyler y Updike, Steinbeck y Gaitskill, +no tena una nica historia de Estados Unidos. +Hace aos, cuando supe que se esperaba que los escritores tuvieran infancias infelices para ser exitosos, comenc a pensar sobre cmo podra inventar cosas horribles que mis padres me haban hecho. +Pero la verdad es que tuve una infancia muy feliz, llena de risas y amor, en una familia muy unida. +Pero tambin tuve abuelos que murieron en campos de refugiados, +mi prima Polle muri por falta de atencin mdica, +mi amiga Okoloma muri en un accidente de avin porque los camiones de bomberos no tenan agua. +Crec bajo regmenes militares represivos que daban poco valor a la educacin, por lo que mis padres a veces no reciban sus salarios. +En mi infancia, vi la jalea desaparecer del desayuno, luego la margarina, despus el pan se hizo muy costoso, luego se racion la leche; +pero sobre todo un miedo poltico generalizado invadi nuestras vidas. +Todas estas historias me hacen quien soy, +pero si insistimos slo en lo negativo sera simplificar mi experiencia, y omitir muchas otras historias que me formaron. +La historia nica crea estereotipos y el problema con los estereotipos no es que sean falsos sino que son incompletos. +Hacen de una sola historia la nica historia. +Es cierto que frica es un continente lleno de catstrofes, hay catstrofes inmensas como las violaciones en el Congo y las hay deprimentes, como el hecho de que hay 5 mil candidatos por cada vacante laboral en Nigeria. +Pero hay otras historias que no son sobre catstrofes y es igualmente importante hablar sobre ellas. +Siempre he pensado que es imposible compenetrarse con un lugar o una persona sin entender todas las historias de ese lugar o esa persona. +La consecuencia de la historia nica es: que roba la dignidad de los pueblos, +dificulta el reconocimiento de nuestra igualdad humana, enfatiza nuestras diferencias +en vez de nuestras similitudes. +Qu hubiera sido si antes de mi viaje a Mxico yo hubiese seguido los dos polos del debate sobre la inmigracin, el de Estados Unidos y el de Mxico? +Y si mi madre nos hubiera contado que la familia de Fide era pobre y trabajadora? +Y si tuviramos una cadena de TV africana que transmitiera diversas historias africanas en todo el mundo? +Es lo que el escritor nigeriano Chinua Achebe llama "un equilibrio de historias". +Y si mi compaera de cuarto conociera a mi editor nigeriano, Mukta Bakaray, un hombre extraordinario, que dej su trabajo en un banco para ir tras sus sueos y fundar una editorial? +Se deca comnmente que los nigerianos no leen literatura, +l no estaba de acuerdo, pensaba +que las personas que podan leer, leeran si la literatura estuviera disponible y fuese asequible. +Despus de que public mi primera novela fui a una estacin de TV en Lagos para una entrevista. Una mujer que trabajaba all como mensajera me dijo: "Realmente me gust tu novela, no me gust el final; +ahora debes escribir una secuela y esto es lo que pasar..." +Sigui contndome sobre qu escribira en la secuela. +Yo no slo estaba encantada sino conmovida, +estaba ante una mujer de las masas de nigerianos comunes, que no se suponan eran lectores. +No slo haba ledo el libro, se haba adueado de l y senta que era justo contarme qu debera escribir en la secuela. +Y si mi compaera de cuarto conociera a mi amiga Fumi Onda, la valiente conductora de un programa de TV en Lagos, determinada a contarnos las historias que quisiramos olvidar? +Si mi compaera de cuarto conociera la ciruga del corazn hecha en un hospital de Lagos la semana pasada? +Si conociera la msica nigeriana contempornea? Gente talentosa cantando en ingls y pidgin, en igbo, yoruba y ljo, mezclando influencias desde Jay-Z a Fela a Bob Marley hasta sus abuelos. +Y si conociera a la abogada que recientemente fue a la corte en Nigeria para cuestionar una ridcula ley que requera que las mujeres tuvieran la aprobacin de sus esposos para renovar sus pasaportes? +Y si conociera Nollywood, lleno de gente creativa haciendo pelculas con grandes limitaciones tcnicas? Estas pelculas son tan populares que son el mejor ejemplo de que los nigerianos consumen lo que producen. +Y si mi compaera de cuarto conociera a mi ambiciosa trenzadora de cabello, quien acaba de iniciar su negocio de extensiones capilares? +O sobre el milln de nigerianos que comienzan negocios y a veces fracasan, pero siguen teniendo ambiciones? +Cada vez que regreso a casa debo confrontar las causas de irritacin usuales para los nigerianos: nuestra fallida infraestructura, nuestro fallido gobierno. Pero me encuentro con la increble resistencia de un pueblo que prospera a pesar de su gobierno y no por causa de su gobierno. +Dirijo talleres de escritura en Lagos cada verano y es impresionante ver cunta gente se inscribe, cuntos quieren escribir, contar historias. +Las historias importan. +Muchas historias importan. +Las historias se han usado para despojar y calumniar, pero las historias tambin pueden dar poder y humanizar. +Las historias pueden quebrar la dignidad de un pueblo, pero tambin pueden reparar esa dignidad rota. +La escritora estadounidense Alice Walker escribi esto sobre su familia surea que se haba mudado al norte. +Les dio un libro sobre la vida surea que dejaron atrs: +"Estaban sentados, leyendo el libro, escuchndome leer y recuperamos una suerte de paraso". +Me gustara terminar con este pensamiento: cuando rechazamos la historia nica, cuando nos damos cuenta de que nunca hay una sola historia sobre ningn lugar, recuperamos una suerte de paraso. +Gracias. +Quiero empezar con un juego. +Y para ganar este juego, todo lo que tienen que hacer es ver la realidad que est delante de ustedes tal y como es. De acuerdo? +Tenemos aqu dos paneles de crculos de colores. +Y uno de esos crculos es el mismo en los dos paneles, vale? +Tienen que decirme cul es. +Ahora, limtense al gris, al verde y, digamos, al naranja. +A mano alzada, - empezaremos con el ms fcil - +cuntos piensan que es el gris? +De verdad? Bueno. +Cuntos piensan que es el verde? +Y cuntos piensan que es el naranja? +Bastante igualado. +Descubramos cul es la realidad. +Aqu est el naranja. +Aqu est el verde. +Y aqu est el gris. +As que los que lo vieron, son realistas absolutos. De acuerdo? +Es increble, no? +Porque casi cada sistema viviente ha desarrollado la habilidad de detectar luz de una manera u otra. +As que, para nosotros, ver colores es una de las cosas ms simples que hace el cerebro. +Y an as, incluso en el nivel ms fundamental, el contexto lo es todo. +Pero no quiero hablar de si el contexto lo es todo o no, sino de por qu el contexto lo es todo. +Porque la respuesta a esa pregunta nos dice no slo por qu vemos lo que vemos, sino quines somos como individuos y quines somos como una sociedad. +Pero primero tenemos que hacer otra pregunta, que es: para qu sirve el color? +Y en lugar de contrselo, simplemente lo mostrar. +Lo que ven aqu es una escena en la jungla. Y ven las superficies de acuerdo con la cantidad de luz que esas superficies reflejan. +Ahora bien, puede alguien ver el depredador que est a punto de saltar hacia ustedes? +Y si no lo han visto todava, ya estn muertos, no? +Puede verlo alguien? Alguien? No? +Bueno, veamos las superficies de acuerdo con la calidad de luz que reflejan. +Y ahora lo ven. +As que el color nos permite ver las diferencias y semejanzas entre las superficies, de acuerdo con la completa gama de luz que reflejan. +Pero lo que acaban de hacer es, en muchos aspectos, matemticamente imposible. +Por qu?, Porque, como nos dice Barkley, no tenemos acceso directo a nuestro mundo fsico ms que a travs de nuestros sentidos. +Y la luz que llega a nuestros ojos est determinada por muchas cosas en el mundo, no solamente el color de los objetos sino tambin el color de su iluminacin y el color del espacio entre esos objetos y nosotros. +Si varan uno de esos parmetros, cambiarn el color de la luz que llega a sus ojos. +Esto es un problema enorme, porque significa que una misma imagen podra tener un nmero infinito de posibles fuentes del mundo real. +Les mostratr a lo que me refiero. Imaginen que este es el fondo de su ojo. +Y estas son dos proyecciones del mundo exterior. +Son idnticas en todos los sentidos. +Idnticas en forma, tamao, y contenido espectral. +Son lo mismo, en lo que respecta a nuestro ojo. +Y an as, vienen de fuentes completamente distintas. +La de la derecha viene de una superficie amarilla, en sombra, mirando hacia la izquierda, vista desde un medio rosado. +La de la izquierda, viene de una superficie naranja, bajo luz directa, mirando a la derecha, vista a travs de una especie de medio azulado. +Significados completamente diferentes dando lugar a exactamente la misma informacin retinal. +Y an as, lo que nos llega slo es informacin retinal. +As que, cmo rayos conseguimos ver? +Si van a recordar algo de los prximos 18 minutos, recuerden esto: la luz que llega a nuestro ojo, la informacin sensorial, no tiene significado. Porque podra no significar literalmente nada. +Y lo que es verdad para la informacin sensorial, es verdad para la informacin en general. +No hay significado inherente en la informacin. +Es lo que hacemos con esa informacin lo que importa. +As que, cmo vemos? Bueno, vemos aprendiendo a ver. +El cerebro desarroll los mecanismos para encontrar modelos, relaciones de informacin, y para asociar esas relaciones con el significado conductual, un significado al interactuar con el mundo. +Somos muy conscientes de esto con respecto a atributos ms cognitivos, como el lenguaje. +Voy a mostrarles algunas secuencias de letras, y quiero que me las lean, si pueden. +Audiencia: "Can you read this?" ("Pueden leer esto?") +"You are not reading this" ("Usted no est leyendo esto") +"What are you reading?" ("Qu est leyendo?") +Beau Lotto: "Qu est leyendo?" Faltan la mitad de las letras, no? +No hay ninguna razn a priori por la que la "H" tenga que ir entre la "W" y la "A" (en "what", "qu"). +Pero la pones ah. Por qu? +Porque en las estadsticas de tu experiencia pasada haba sido til hacer eso. As que ahora lo haces otra vez. +Y adems, no pones una letra despus de la primera "T". +Por qu? Porque no haba sido til en el pasado. +As que no lo haces otra vez. +Djenme mostrarles rpidamente cmo nuestro cerebro puede redefinir la normalidad, hasta en las cosas ms simples, como el color. +Si pudieran bajar la luz aqu. +Primero quiero que se den cuenta de que esas dos escenas del desierto son fsicamente iguales. +Una es simplemente el espejo de la otra, de acuerdo? +Ahora quiero que miren a ese punto entre el verde y el rojo, vale? +Y quiero que se queden mirando ese punto. No miren a otro lado. +Y miraremos ah durante 30 segundos, lo cual es matar un poco el tiempo en una charla de 18 minutos. +Pero realmente quiero que aprendan. +Y les dir -no miren a ningn otro sitio- les dir lo que est ocurriendo en sus cabezas. +Su cerebro est aprendiendo. Y est aprendiendo que el lado derecho de su campo visual est bajo iluminacin roja; el lado izquierdo de su campo visual est bajo iluminacin verde. +Eso es lo que est aprendiendo, de acuerdo? +Ahora, cuando yo les diga, quiero que miren al punto que hay entre las dos escenas del desierto. +Hganlo ahora +Pueden subir la luz otra vez? +Entiendo por su respuesta que ya no se vean igual, no? +Por qu? Porque su cerebro est viendo la misma informacin como si el lado derecho estuviera todava bajo luz roja, y el izquierdo bajo luz verde. +Esa es tu nueva normalidad. +Yqu significa esto para el contexto? +Significa que puedo tomar estos cuadrados idnticos y ponerlos bajo un marco claro y otro oscuro. Y ahora, uno parece ms claro que el otro. +Lo significativo no es simplemente la importancia de los marcos claro y oscuro, +sino lo que esos marcos significaron en nuestro comportamiento en el pasado. +Les ensear a lo que me refiero. Tenemos aqu +exactamente la misma ilusin. +Tenemos dos baldosas idnticas, a la izquierda, una en un marco oscuro, una en en un marco claro. +Y lo mismo a la derecha. +Ahora lo que voy a hacer es examinar esas dos escenas. Pero no voy a cambiar nada de esas escenas, excepto su significado. +Y veremos qu ocurre con su percepcin. +Fjense que en la izquierda las dos baldosas se ven casi completamente opuestas: una muy blanca y la otra muy oscura. +De acuerdo? Mientras que en la derecha, las dos baldosas parecen prcticamente iguales, +a pesar de que una sigue en un marco oscuro, y la otra en uno claro. Por qu? Porque si la baldosa en la sombra +fuera de hecho una sombra, y reflejara la misma cantidad de luz a nuestro ojo como la que est fuera de la sombra, tendra que ser ms reflectante -son las leyes de la fsica. +As que lo ven de esa manera. +Mientras, en la derecha, la informacin es consistente con las dos baldosas estando bajo la misma luz. +Si estn bajo la misma luz, reflejando la misma cantidad de luz a nuestro ojo, entonces deben ser igualmente reflectantes. +Y as lo ven. +Lo que significa que podemos juntar toda esta informacin para crear ilusiones increblemente potentes. +Esta es una que hice hace algunos aos. +Notarn que hay una baldosa marrn oscura en la parte de arriba, y una naranja claro en el lado. +Esa es su realidad percibida. La realidad fsica +es que esas dos baldosas son iguales. +Aqu ven cuatro baldosas grises a su izquierda, siete grises a la derecha. +No voy a cambiar las baldosas para nada. Pero voy a descubrir el resto de la escena. +Y veremos qu pasa con su percepcin. +Las cuatro baldosas azules a la izquierda son grises. +Las siete baldosas amarillas a la derecha, tambin son grises. +Son iguales, de acuerdo? +No me creen? Vemoslo de nuevo. +Lo que es cierto para el color es tambin cierto para percepciones complejas en movimiento. +Aqu tenemos - dmosle la vuelta a esto - un rombo. +Y lo que voy a hacer es que lo voy a coger as, y voy a darle vueltas. +Y para todos ustedes, probablemente lo vern dando vueltas en esta direccin. +Ahora quiero que sigan mirndolo. +Muevan los ojos alrededor, parpadeen, o quizs cierren un ojo, +y de repente cambiar y empezar a dar vueltas en direccin contraria. +S? Levanten la mano los que lo vean. S? +Sigan parpadeando. Cada vez que parpadee cambiar. De acuerdo? +Y si les pregunto, en qu direccin da vueltas? +Cmo lo saben? +Nuestro cerebro no lo sabe. Porque ambas son igualmente posibles. +Dependiendo a donde mire, cambia entre las dos posibilidades. +Somos nosotros los nicos que vemos ilusiones? +La respuesta a esa pregunta es no. +Incluso el bonito abejorro con tan slo un milln de clulas cerebrales, 250 veces menos clulas de las que tenemos en una retina, ve ilusiones, y hace las ms complicadas tareas que ni nuestro ordenador ms sofisticado puede hacer. +As que en mi laboratorio obviamente trabajamos con abejorros. Porque podemos controlar su experiencia completamente, y ver cmo se altera la arquitectura de su cerebro. +Y hacemos esto en lo que llamamos "Matriz de abejas". +Y aqu tienen la colmena. Pueden ver la abeja reina, +la abeja grande que est en el medio. Y las otras son sus hijas, los huevos. +Y van y vienen, entre esta colmena +y el otro lado, por este tubo. +Vern un abejorro salir por aqu. +Ven dnde tiene un pequeo nmero? +Ah! Ah sale otra. Esta tambin tiene su nmero. +Bueno, no nacen as, verdad? +Nosotros las sacamos, las ponemos en el frigorfico y se duermen. +Y entonces les pegamos los pequeos nmeros con superglue. +En este experimento se les recompensa si van a las flores azules. +Aterrizan en la flor, meten su lengua en ella, llamada probscide, y beben el agua con azcar. +Y se bebe un vaso de agua que es as de grande para ti o para m. Esto lo har tres veces y luego se ir volando. +Y a veces aprenden a no ir a la azul, y van a donde los otros abejorros van. +As que se copian entre ellas. Pueden contar hasta cinco, y reconocer caras. +Y aqu viene bajando la escalera. +Entrar en la colmena, encontrar un tarro de miel vaco, vomitar, y esa es la miel. +Pero recuerden... se supone que tienen que ir a las flores azules. Entonces, qu es lo que hacen esos abejorros en la esquina superior derecha? +Parece que van hacia las flores verdes. +Es que no lo han entendido? +Y la respuesta a esa pregunta es no. Esas son en realidad flores azules. +Pero son flores azules bajo luz verde. +As que estn utilizando las relaciones entre los colores para resolver el problema, que es exactamente lo que hacemos nosotros. +As, las ilusiones se usan frecuentemente, especialmente en arte, en palabras de un artista ms contemporneo, "para demostrar la fragilidad de nuestros sentidos". +Pues bueno, esto es autntica basura. +Nuestros sentidos no son frgiles. Si lo fueran, no podramos estar aqu. +En cambio, el color nos dice algo completamente diferente, nos dice que nuestro cerebro no se desarroll en realidad para ver el mundo de la manera que es. +No podemos. En cambio, el cerebro se desarroll para ver el mundo de la manera que fue til verlo en el pasado. +Y la manera en que vemos es redefiniendo continuamente la normalidad. +As que, cmo podemos tomar esta increble capacidad de plasticidad del cerebro y hacer que la gente experimente su mundo de manera diferente? +Bueno, una de las formas en que lo hacemos en mi laboratorio y en mi estudio es traduciendo la luz en sonido para que la gente pueda escuchar su mundo visual. +Y puedan navegar por el mundo usando sus odos. +Aqu est David, a la derecha. Est sujetando una cmara. +A la izquierda est lo que la cmara ve. +Vern que hay una lnea, una lnea tenue que cruza esa imagen. +Esa lnea est dividida en 32 cuadradros. +Calculamos el color medio en cada cuadrado +y luego simplemente lo traducimos en sonido. +Ahora l se va a dar la vuelta, cerrar los ojos, y encontrar un plato en el suelo, con los ojos cerrados. +Lo encuentra. Increble, no? +As que no slo podemos crear una prtesis para los invidentes, sino que tambin podemos investigar cmo la gente literalmente le da sentido al mundo. +Pero tambin podemos hacer algo ms. Tambin podemos crear msica con color. +As, trabajando con nios, ellos crean las imgenes pensando en cmo esas imgenes podran sonar +si pudiramos escucharlas. Y entonces nosotros las traducimos. Esta es una de esas imgenes. Y ste es un nio de 6 aos componiendo una obra musical +para una orquesta de 32 instrumentos. +Y as es como suena. +Bueno, un nio de 6 aos, no? Y todo esto qu significa? +Lo que esto sugiere es que nadie es un observador externo +a la naturaleza, de acuerdo? Nosotros no estamos definidos por nuestras propiedades centrales, +por las partes que nos componen. +Estamos definidos por nuestro medio ambiente y por nuestra interaccin con l, +por nuestra ecologa. Y esa ecologa es necesariamente relativa, +histrica y emprica. +As que me gustara terminar con esto de aqu. +Porque lo que realmente he estado intentando hacer es celebrar realmente la incertidumbre. +Porque creo que slo a travs de la incertidumbre hay potencial para el entendimiento. +As que, por si alguno de ustedes se siente todava demasiado seguro, me gustara hacer esto. +Si pueden bajar las luces. +Lo que tenemos aqu -- Puede todo el mundo ver 25 crculos violetas a su izquierda, y 25 crculos, digamos amarillentos, a su derecha? +Y ahora, lo que quiero hacer: Voy a poner los 9 crculos de en medio aqu bajo iluminacin amarilla, simplemente poniendo un filtro detrs de ellos. +Bien. Ahora pueden ver que cambia la luz que sale por ah, de acuerdo? +Porque ahora la luz pasa a travs de un filtro amarillento y despus por un filtro violeta. +Voy a hacer lo opuesto aqu en la izquierda. +Voy a poner los 9 de en medio bajo luz violcea. +Ahora algunos de ustedes notarn que la consecuencia es que la luz que sale de los 9 de en medio a la derecha o a su izquierda, es exactamente la misma que la que sale a travs de de los 9 de en medio a su derecha. +De acuerdo? S? +Bueno, as que son fsicamente iguales. +Quitemos las cubiertas. +Pero recuerden, ya saben que los 9 de en medio son exactamente iguales. +Se ven iguales? No. +La pregunta es, "es eso una ilusin?" +Y con ello los dejo. +Muchas gracias. +Bueno, en efecto voy a hablar acerca de los espacios que los hombres crean para ellos mismos. Pero antes quiero decirte porque estoy aqu. +Estoy aqu por dos razones. Este par son mis dos hijos Ford y Wren. +Cuando Ford tena como tres aos, juntos compartamos un cuarto muy pequeo, en un espacio muy pequeo. +Mi oficina estaba en una mitad del cuarto. Y su recamara estaba en la otra mitad, +y pueden imaginarse, s eres un escritor, que las cosas pondran ponerse apretadas cerca a las fechas de entrega. +As que cuando Wren estaba en camino, me di cuenta que necesitaba un espacio propio. +Ya no haba ms espacio en la casa. As que fui al patio trasero. Y sin previa experiencia en construccin, y con aproximadamente 3 mil dlares y un poco de material reciclado, constru ste espacio. +Tena todo lo que necesitaba. Era silencioso. +Con suficiente espacio. Y yo tena el control, lo que era muy importante. +Conforme construa ste espacio, me deca "Seguramente no soy el nico hombre que haya construido su propio espacio." +Entonces, investigu un poco +Y descubr que exista un precedente histrico. +Hemingway tena su espacio para escribir. +Elvis tena dos o tres hombrespacios, que es bastante nico porque l viva con su esposa y su madre en Graceland +En la cultura popular, Superman tena la Fortaleza de la Soledad. Y por supuesto, tambin exista, la Baticueva. +As, me di cuenta que quera realizar una viaje, y ver que estaban creando los hombres ahora. +ste es uno de los primeros espacios que encontr. Se encuentra en Austin, Texas. Que es de donde soy. +Por fuera se ve como un garaje tpico, un bonito garaje. +Pero por dentro, es todo menos eso. +Y esto, para m, es un hombrespacio bastante clsico. +Tiene carteles con luces de nen, un bar, y por supuesto, la lmpara con forma de pierna, que es muy importante. +Pronto me di cuenta que los hombrespacios no tenan que estar slo por dentro. +Este hombre construyo un boliche en su jardn, con maderos y pasto artificial. +Y encontr el marcador en la basura. +Aqu hay otro espacio exterior, un poquito ms sofisticado. +Este es un remolcador de madera de 1923, hecho completamente de pino de Oregn. +El hombre lo hizo todo l mismo. +Cuenta con aproximadamente 93 metros cuadrados de espacio de relajacin en su interior. +Entonces, muy pronto en mi investigacin Me di cuenta que lo que estaba encontrando no era lo que esperaba encontrar, que era, francamente, muchas pirmides de lata de cerveza, sillones demasiado acolchonados y televisores de pantalla plana. +Haba definitivamente buenas guaridas. +Pero algunas eran para trabajo, otros para juego, algunas eran un lugar para coleccionar cosas. +Ms que nada, estaba sorprendido con lo que estaba encontrando. +Miren ste lugar por ejemplo. +Por fuera es una cochera tpica del noreste. +Esta es en Long Island, Nueva York. +Lo nico que podra darles una pista es la ventana redonda. +En el interior es una recreacin de una casa de t Japonesa del siglo 16. +El hombre importo todos los materiales del Japn, y contrato a un carpintero Japons para que la construyera al estilo tradicional. +No tiene clavos, ni tornillos. +Todas las uniones estn talladas y grabadas a mano. +Aqu hay otra escena tpica. ste en un barrio en los suburbios de Las Vegas. +Pero abres una de las puertas del garaje y te encuentras con un cuadriltero de boxeo tamao profesional en su interior. +Existe una buena razn para esto. +Fue construida por ste hombre, Wayne McCullough. +El gan la medalla de plata para Irlanda en las Olimpiadas de 1992. El entrena en ste espacio y entrena a otros. +Y justo a un lado del garaje tiene su propio cuarto de trofeos donde puede deleitarse con sus logros, que es otra parte importante de los hombrespacios. +As que, mientras este espacio representa la profesin de alguien, ste definitivamente representa una pasin. +Est hecho para asemejarse al interior de un navo Ingles. +Es una coleccin de antigedades nuticas de los 1700s y 1800s. +Con calidad de Museo. +As, al aproximarme al final de mi recorrido Encontr ms de 50 espacios. +Y fueron tan inesperados como sorprendentes. +Pero tambin fueron -- Estaba realmente impresionado por lo personalizados que estaban, y cunto trabajo se invirti en ellos. +Y me di cuenta que todos los hombres que conoc eran todos muy apasionados por lo que hacan +y realmente amaban sus profesiones; +eran muy apasionados acerca de sus colecciones y sus pasatiempos. +Y as, crearon estos espacios para reflejar lo que aman hacer, y quines son. +Entonces, si no tienes un espacio propio, les recomiendo que encuentren uno y se metan en el. +Muchas gracias. +La sustancia de las cosas que no se ven. +Ciudades, pasado y futuro. +En Oxford, quiz podemos servirnos de Lewis Carroll para mirar en el espejo que es Nueva York, e intentar ver nuestro verdadero ser, o, quiz, pasar a otro mundo. +O, en palabras de F. Scott Fitzgerald, "Mientras la luna ascenda, las casas no esenciales empezaron a desaparecer hasta que me di cuenta de que la vieja isla, que una vez floreci ante los ojos del marinero holands, era el fresco y verde pecho del nuevo mundo. +Mis colegas y yo hemos estado trabajando durante diez aos para redescubrir este mundo perdido en un proyecto que hemos llamado "El Proyecto Mannhatta". +Estamos intentando descubrir lo que Henry Hudson vio la tarde del 12 de septiembre de 1609, cuando ancl en el puerto de Nueva York. +Me gustara contarles la historia en tres actos y, si tengo tiempo, un eplogo. +Primer Acto: Encontrar un mapa. +Yo no crec en Nueva York, +crec en el oeste de las montaas de Sierra Nevada, como ven aqu, en el Red Rock Canyon. +Desde muy temprana edad aprend a amar los paisajes; +as que, cuando lleg el momento de ir a la universidad, decid estudiar este campo emergente de la ecologa paisajstica. +La ecologa paisajstica se refiere a cmo los arroyos, los prados, los bosques y los acantilados se convierten en hbitat para las plantas y los animales. +Esta experiencia y esta preparacin me llevaron a obtener un maravilloso trabajo en la Sociedad de Conservacin de la Naturaleza, que trabaja para preservar la vida silvestre y los hbitats naturales en todo el mundo. +Durante la ltima dcada he viajado a ms de 40 pases para ver jaguares, osos y elefantes, tigres y rinocerontes, +pero cada vez que volva de mis viajes, regresaba a Nueva York; +y los fines de semana suba, como todos los turistas, a lo alto del Empire State, para otear el paisaje, estos ecosistemas, y me preguntaba: Cmo hace este lugar para constituirse en hbitat de plantas y animales? +Cmo hace para constiuirse en hbitat de animales como yo? +Iba a Times Square y miraba a las sorprendentes damas de los carteles, y me preguntaba por qu nadie miraba las figuras histricas que tenan detrs. +Iba a Central Park y vea cmo su suelo ondulante se enfrentaba a la brusca y escarpada topografa del centro de Manhattan. +Empec a leer sobre la historia y la geografa de Nueva York. +Le que Nueva York fue la primera megaciudad, una ciudad con 10 millones de personas, o ms, en 1950. +Empec a ver cuadros como estos. +Para aquellos que son de Nueva York, esta es la calle 125, debajo de la autopista oeste. +Una vez fue una playa; y en este cuadro est John James Audubon, el pintor, sentado en una roca. +Est mirando hacia las boscosas cumbres de Washington Heights, hacia Jeffrey's Hook, donde ahora est el Puente George Washington. +O este cuadro, de 1740, de Greenwich Village. +Esos son dos estudiantes del Kings College (que luego se convirti en la Columbia University), sentados en una colina con vistas a un valle. +As que fui al Greenwich Village y busqu esa colina; pero no la encontr y tampoco encontr esa palmera. +Qu hace all una palmera? +En fin, fue en medio de esas investigaciones que me top con un mapa, +el mapa que ven aqu. +Forma parte de un sistema de informacin geogrfica, que me permite hacer acercamientos. +Este mapa no es de la poca de Hudson, sino de los de la Revolucin Americana, 170 aos despus, hecho por cartgrafos del ejrcito ingls durante la ocupacin de la ciudad de Nueva York. +Es un mapa sorprendente. Est en los Archivos Nacionales de Kew +y mide 305 metros de largo y 107 de ancho. +Si hago un acercamiento del bajo Manhattan pueden ver cun extensa era Nueva York justo cuando finaliz la Revolucin Americana. +Aqu est Bowling Green y aqu Broadway, +y este es el City Hall Park. +Bsicamente, la ciudad llegaba hasta el City Hall Park. +Un poco ms all pueden ver elementos que ya no estn, que han desaparecido. +Esta es la Collect Pond, la laguna que surti de agua a Nueva York durante sus primeros 200 aos, y a los indgenas norteamericanos durante miles de aos antes. +Pueden ver las praderas de Lispenard desapareciendo por aqu abajo, por lo que ahora es Tribeca, y las playas que suben por el Battery hasta la calle 42. +Este mapa se hizo por razones militares. +Mostraba las carreteras, los edificios, estas fortificaciones que construyeron; +pero tambin mostraba cosas de inters ecolgico, as como de inters militar: las colinas, los pantanos, los arroyos. +Esto es Richmond Hill y Minetta Water, cuyo curso discurra por Greenwich Village. +O el pantano en Gramercy Park, justo aqu. +O Murray Hill. Y esta es la casa de Murray, en la Colina Murray, hace 200 aos. +Aqu est Times Square, los dos arroyos que se unieron para formar un pantano en Times Square, tal como era al final de la Revolucin Americana. +As que encontr este sorprendente mapa en un libro +Tras un poco de trabajo logramos referenciarla, lo que nos permiti colocar todas las calles modernas, los edificios y los espacios abiertos, y podemos hacer un acercamiento del lugar donde est la Collect Pond. +Podemos digitalizar la Collect Pond y los arroyos, y ver dnde estn ahora, en la geografa de la ciudad actual. +Es divertido ver dnde estn las cosas con relacin a la topografa antigua. +Pero se me ocurre otra idea con este mapa. +Si quitamos las calles y los edificios, y los espacios abiertos, podramos tomar este mapa, +si quitamos estos elementos del siglo XVIII, y retrocederlo en el tiempo. +Podemos devolverlo a sus fundamentos ecolgicos: a las colinas, a los arroyos, a la hidrologa y costa original, a las playas, los aspectos esenciales que conforman el paisaje ecolgico. +la orientacin, +y la exposicin al viento invernal. Es decir, en qu direccin del paisaje sopla el viento en invierno. +Las zonas blancas del mapa son zonas protegidas de los vientos invernales. +Recopilamos toda la informacin sobre dnde estaban los indgenas norteamericanos, los Lenape, +y construimos un mapa de probabilidad sobre dnde podran haber estado. +Las zonas rojas del mapa indican los lugares ms adecuados para la sostenibilidad humana en Manhattan, lugares que estn cerca del agua, sitios cerca del puerto, para pescar; lugares protegidos de los vientos de invierno. +Sabemos que haba un asentamiento de los Lenape aqu abajo, al lado de la Collect Pond, +y sabemos que desarrollaron un tipo de horticultura, que cultivaron estos preciosos jardines de maz, alubias y calabacines: los jardines de las "Tres Hermanas". +Construimos un modelo que explica dnde podan haber estado esos huertos +y los huertos antiguos, los que les sucedieron. +que podramos pensar que estn abandonados, +pero, de hecho, estas praderas son hbitats de aves y plantas +y se han ido convirtiendo en tierras de arbustos, que luego se mezclaron en un mapa de todas las comunidades ecolgicas. +Resulta que Manhattan tena 55 tipos diferentes de ecosistemas. +Pueden imaginarlos como vecindarios, tan bien delimitados comoTribeca, el Upper East Side e Inwood... y que estos son los bosques y los pantanos, y las comunidades marinas, las playas. +55 es bastante. En un clculo por rea, Manhattan tena ms comunidades ecolgicas por hectrea que Yosemite, que Yellowstone y que Ambaselli. +Realmente era un paisaje extraordinario, capaz de dar cabida a una biodiversidad increble. +Segundo Acto: Un hogar reconstrudo. +Estudiamos los peces, las ranas, las aves y las abejas, las 85 especies de peces que haba en Manhattan. las gallinas de Heath, las especies que ya no existen; los castores de todos los arroyos, los osos negros y los indgenas norteamericanos, para averiguar cmo usaban y sentan su paisaje. +Queramos intentar averiguar todo esto y lo que hicimos fue investigar sus necesidades vitales. +De dnde obtenan sus alimentos? +De dnde obtenan el agua? Dnde se refugiaban? +Dnde conseguan sus recursos para cultivar? +Para un ecologista, la interseccin de esto es un hbitat, pero para la mayora, la interseccin de esto es su casa. +As que lemos libros sobre el tema, los tpicos libros que quiz tienen ustedes en sus estanteras; ya saben, lo que los castores necesitan es "un riachuelo lento y serpenteante con lamos, alisos y sauces cerca del agua". Eso es lo mejor para un castor. +As que empezamos a hacer una lista. +Aqu est el castor y aqu el ro, y el lamo, el aliso y el sauce. +Como si esos fueran los mapas que necesitaramos para predecir dnde econtrar un castor, +o la tortuga del pantano, que necesita praderas, insectos y sitios soleados. +O el lince, que necesita conejos, castores y guaridas. +Rpidamente, nos dimos cuenta de que los castores pueden ser lo que los linces necesitan, +pero un castor tambin necesita cosas y eso significa, desde cualquier punto de vista, que podemos unirlos, que podemos crear una red de relaciones en el hbitat de esas especies. +Es ms, nos dimos cuenta de que se poda empezar siendo un especialista en castores, pero tambin se poda saber lo que necesita un lamo. +Un lamo necesita fuego y tierra seca. +Y se puede ver qu necesita un un prado. +Necesita castores para crear pantanos, y puede que otras cosas. +Pero tambin puede uno hablar sobre sitios soleados. +Qu necesita un sitio soleado? No es un hbitat per se, +pero, cules son las condiciones que lo hacen posible? +Tambin podemos hablar sobre el fuego o la tierra seca. +Se puede poner eso en una tabla de 1.000 columnas y 1.000 filas +y as se pueden visualizar esos datos como una red, como una red social. +Y esta es la red de todas las relaciones en un hbitat entre todas las plantas y los animales de Manhattan, de todo lo que necesitaban, volviendo a la geologa, volviendo en el tiempo y el espacio al ncleo mismo de la red. +A esto lo llamamos Red Muir, y si se le hace un acercamiento se ve de esta manera. +Cada punto es una especie diferente, o un arroyo diferente, o un tipo diferente de suelo. +Y esas pequeas lneas grises son los conectores que los unen. +Esos conectores son los que hacen fuerte a la naturaleza +y su estructura es lo que hace que la naturaleza funcione, con todas sus partes. +Lo llamamos Redes Muir por el naturalista norteamericano-escocs John Muir, quien dijo: Cuando intentamos reconocer algo individualmente, nos damos cuenta de que est firmemente unido a todo en el universo mediante miles de cuerdas invisibles que no pueden romperse. +As que tomamos la Red Muir y las pusimos de nuevo en los mapas. +As, si quisiermos ir entre las calles 85 y 86, entre Lexington y la Tercera, puede que hubiera existido un arroyo en esa manzana +y esta sera la clase de rboles que podran haber estado all, y las flores, los lquenes y los musgos, las mariposas, el pez del arroyo, las aves en los rboles. +Quiz all viva una serpiente de cascabel. +A lo mejor un oso negro pasase por all; y quiz los indgenas norteamericanos estuvieron all. +Recopilamos estos datos +que pueden ver en nuestra pgina web. +Pueden hacer un acercamiento sobre cualquier manzana de Manhattan y ver lo que podra haber existido all hace 400 aos. +Utilizamos esto para intentar mostrar un paisaje aqu en el Tercer Acto. +Hemos usado herramientas empleadas en Hollywood para crear estos paisajes tan fantsticos que hemos visto en las pelculas. +Intentamos usarlas para ver la Tercera Avenida. +As que levantamos la topografa y +sobre esto colocamos el suelo y el agua e iluminamos el paisaje. +A esto aadimos el mapa de las comunidades ecolgicas +y le agregamos el mapa de las especies. +As, pudimos sacar una fotografa area del Times Square, mirando al ro Hudson, esperando a que Hudson venga. +Con esta tecnologa, podemos hacer estas fantsticas vistas de referencias geogrficas. +Basicamente podemos sacar una foto desde cualquier punto de Manhattan y ver cmo era el paisaje hace 400 aos. +Esta es la vista desde el East River, en direccin a Murray Hill, en donde hoy en da est la ONU. +Esta es la vista si se mira hacia el ro Hudson, con Manhattan a la izquierda y Nueva Jersey a la derecha, en direccin al Ocano Atlntico. +Esta es la vista panormica de Times Square, con el lago castor all, mirando hacia el este. +Aqu se puede ver la Collect Pond, y detrs Lispenard Marshes. +Se pueden ver los huertos cultivados por los indgenas norteamericanos +y esto se puede ver hoy en la geografa de la ciudad. +As que cuando ven La Ley y el Orden y ven a los abogados subir y bajar las escaleras del Tribunal de Nueva York, hace 400 aos atrs en la Collect Pond. +Estas imgenes son el trabajo de mi amigo y colega Mark Boyer, que est hoy entre el pblico. +Y me gustara que le dieran un aplauso, para reconocer su estupendo trabajo. +Juntar ciencia y visualizacin es tan poderoso que nos permite crear imgenes como esta y quiz mirar desde cualquier lado de un espejo. +Y, aunque he tenido muy poco tiempo para hablar, espero que comprendan que Manhattan fue un lugar muy especial. +El lugar que ven aqu a la izquierda estaba interconectado. Se basaba en esta diversidad. +Tena esta resistencia que es la que necesitamos en el mundo moderno. +Pero no quiero que piensen que no me gusta el sitio de la derecha, porque s me gusta. He aprendido a querer a la ciudad y a su tipo de diversidad, y su resistencia, y a su dependencia de la densidad y de cmo estamos todos conectados. +De hecho, veo que cada quien es reflejo del otro. Casi como lo hizo Lewis Caroll en A travs del espejo, +podemos compararlos y a la vez mantener a ambos en nuestra mente , aunque realmente estn en el mismo sitio, porque no hay manera de que las ciudades escapen de la naturaleza. +Creo que esto es lo que estamos aprendiendo sobre la construccin de ciudades en el futuro. +Si me permiten un breve eplogo, no sobre el pasado, sino sobre el futuro, dentro de 400 aos, de lo que nos estamos percatando es de que las ciudades son hbitats de gente y necesitan proveer lo que la gente necesita: un sentido del hogar, comida, agua, refugio, recursos para el cultivo y un significado. +Ese es el requerimiento adicional para el hbitat de la humanidad. +As pues, cmo podemos visualizar la ciudad del futuro? +Y si vamos a Madison Square Park y nos lo imaginamos con bicicletas, en vez de todos esos coches, y bosques grandes y arroyos en vez de alcantarillas y desages? +Y si nos imaginamos al Upper East Side, con tejados verdes y arroyos serpenteando por la ciudad, con molinos proveyndonos de la energa que necesitamos? +O imaginemos el rea metropolitana de Nueva York, Actualmente hogar de 12 millones de personas, pero 12 millones de personas que en el futuro, tal vez ocupen slo un 36 por ciento del rea total de Manhattan, con el resto de las zonas cubiertas de tierras de cultivo, y pantanos, de esos pantanos que necesitamos. +Esta es la clase de futuro que creo que necesitamos, un futuro que tiene la misma diversidad, y abundancia y dinamismo que Manhattan, pero que aprende de la sostenibilidad del pasado, de la ecologa, la ecologa original, de la naturaleza con todo lo que la integra. +Muchsimas gracias. +Soy el Dr. David Hanson y construyo robots con personalidad. +Y con eso quiero decir que desarrollo robots que son personajes, pero tambin robots que con el tiempo establecern lazos de empata contigo. +Empezamos con una variedad de tecnologas que han convergido en estos robots personajes conversacionales que ven rostros, establecen contacto visual contigo, tienen un rango completo de expresiones faciales, entienden el habla, y comienzan a modelar cmo te sientes, y quin eres, y construyen una relacin contigo. +He desarrollado una serie de tecnologas que permiten a los robots realizar expresiones faciales ms realistas que antes, con menos energa, lo que posibilit la existencia de los robots bpedos andantes, los primeros androides. +Es un rango completo de expresiones faciales que simulan los principales msculos del rostro humano, funciona con unas bateras muy pequeas, extremadamente ligeras. +Los materiales que permitieron las expresiones faciales mediante bateras es un material que llamamos Frubber, y el material tiene tres innovaciones principales que permiten que esto suceda. +Una son los poros jerrquicos. Y la otra es una porosidad macromolecular a escala nanomtrica en el material. +Ah est empezando a caminar. +Esto es en el Instituto Avanzado de Ciencia y Tecnologa de Corea. +Yo hice la cabeza. Ellos hicieron el cuerpo. +El objetivo aqu es conseguir percepcin en las mquinas, y no slo percepcin, sino tambin empata. +Estamos trabajando con el Laboratorio de Percepcin de las Mquinas de la Universidad de San Diego. +Tienen una extraordinaria tecnologa de expresin facial que reconoce expresiones faciales, qu expresiones faciales ests haciendo. +Tambin reconoce dnde ests mirando, la orientacin de tu cabeza. +Estamos emulando las principales expresiones faciales, y luego las controlamos con el software que llamamos el Motor de Personalidad. +Y aqu tenemos parte de la tecnologa implicada en ese proceso. +De hecho, ahora mismo, lo enchufamos aqu, y luego aqu, y vamos a ver si reconoce mis expresiones faciales. +Vale. Estoy sonriendo. +Ahora estoy enfadado. +Y estamos a contraluz. +Vale, vamos all. +Ay, qu triste. +Vale, sonres, enfadado. +Su percepcin de tus estados emocionales es muy importante para que las mquinas muestren empata de forma eficaz. +Las mquinas se estn volviendo totalmente capaces de cosas como matar. Verdad? +En esas mquinas no tiene sentido la empata. +Y se estn gastando miles de millones de dlares en eso. +La robtica de la personalidad podra plantar la semilla para que los robots mostraran empata de verdad. +Si obtienen una inteligencia al nivel humano o, muy posiblemente, niveles de inteligencia mayores que el humano, esto podra ser la semilla de esperanza para nuestro futuro. +Hemos hecho 20 robots en los ltimos ocho aos, mientras obtena mi Doctorado. +Y luego cre Hanson Robotics, que se dedica a desarrollar estas cosas para su fabricacin en serie. +Este es uno de nuestros robots que mostramos en Wired NextFest hace un par de aos. +Y ve que hay varias personas en un lugar, recuerda dnde se encuentra cada individuo, y mira de persona a persona, recordando a la gente. +As que estamos mezclando dos cosas. +Una, la percepcin de la gente. Y dos, la interfaz natural, la forma natural de la interfaz, para que as resulte ms intuitivo interactuar con el robot. +Empiezas a creer que est vivo y es consciente de las cosas. +Uno de mis proyectos favoritos fue juntar todo esto en una manifestacin artstica de un retrato androide del escritor de ciencia ficcin Philip K. Dick, que escribi grandes obras como, "Suean los androides con ovejas elctricas?", +en la que se bas la pelcula "Blade Runner". +En estas historias, los robots a menudo piensan que son humanos. Y, de alguna forma, cobran vida. +Pusimos sus escritos, cartas, sus entrevistas, correspondencia, en una base de datos enorme, con miles de pginas, y luego usamos un procesador de lenguaje natural que te permite tener una conversacin con l. +Y era espeluznante. Porque deca cosas que sonaban como si realmente te estuviera entendiendo. +Y este es uno de los proyectos ms emocionantes que estamos desarrollando, que es un personaje robot con inteligencia artificial amistosa, inteligencia amistosa de las mquinas. +Y los estamos fabricando en serie. +Lo hemos diseado para que sea factible con un coste muy, muy bajo de materiales, para que se pueda convertir en un compaero para los nios. +Al interactuar con Internet, se hace ms listo con el paso de los aos. +Y con la evolucin de la inteligencia artificial, tambin evoluciona su inteligencia. +Chris Anderson: Muchsimas gracias. Es increble. +Esta es mi primera vez en TED. Normalmente como publicista, hablo en TED Diablico, que es la organizacin hermana secreta de TED, la que paga las cuentas; +se realiza cada dos aos en Birmania. +Y recuerdo en particular una muy buena ponencia de Kim Jong II sobre cmo hacer que los jvenes vuelvan a fumar. +En realidad, se me ocurre de repente, despus de varios aos en el negocio, que lo que creamos en la publicidad, que es un valor intangible --podran llamarlo valor percibido, valor emblemtico, valor subjetivo o valor intangible de algn tipo-- tiene una cierta mala reputacin. +Si lo piensan, si quieren vivir en un mundo en el futuro donde haya menos cosas materiales, tienen bsicamente dos opciones: +Pueden vivir en un mundo que sea ms pobre, lo que a la gente en general no le gusta, +o pueden vivir en un mundo en el que de hecho el valor intangible constituya una gran parte del valor total; y en realidad, ese valor intangible es en muchas formas un sustituto muy muy bueno para utilizar mano de obra o recursos limitados en la creacin de cosas. +Aqu tienen un ejemplo. Este es un tren que va de Londres a Pars. +Le preguntaron a un grupo de ingenieros hace 15 aos: "Cmo mejoramos el recorrido a Pars?" +Entonces se les ocurri una muy buena solucin de ingeniera, que vino a costar seis mil millones de libras, para construir rieles completamente nuevos de Londres a la costa, eliminando cerca de 40 minutos de un recorrido de 3 horas y media. +Llmenme Sr. Delicado, soy simplemente un publicista... +pero me llama la atencin la ligera falta de imaginacin para mejorar un viaje en tren meramente hacindolo ms corto. +Ahora bien, cul es el costo de una oportunidad hedonista al gastar seis mil millones de libras en esos tramos de riel? +Aqu tienen mi ingenua sugerencia de publicista: +Lo que de hecho deberan hacer es emplear a todos los supermodelos, hombres y mujeres, y pagarles para que caminen a lo largo del tren regalando vino Chateau Petrus durante todo el recorrido. +Todava quedaran tres mil millones de libras y la gente pedira que los trenes fueran ms despacio. +Bien, aqu tienen otra pregunta ingenua de publicista, +que muestra que los ingenieros, mdicos y cientficos tienen una obsesin por resolver problemas de la realidad, cuando en realidad la mayora de los problemas, una vez que se alcanza un nivel bsico de riqueza en la sociedad, son en realidad problemas de percepcin. +As que les har la siguiente pregunta: +Qu diablos tienen de malo los placebos? +A m me parecen fantsticos, pues el costo de su desarrollo es bajo, +funcionan extraordinariamente bien, +no tienen efectos secundarios, o si los tienen, son imaginarios, as que pueden ignorarlos con toda seguridad. +As que estaba discutiendo esto y visit el blog de Revolucin Marginal de Tyler Cowen. No s si alguien lo conoce. +Alguien estaba sugiriendo que uno puede llevar este concepto ms lejos y producir una educacin placebo. +La cuestin es que la educacin en verdad no funciona ensendote cosas. +En realidad funciona al darle a uno la impresin de que ha tenido una muy buena educacin, lo que conlleva una insensata sensacin de autoconfianza injustificada, que le hace a uno tener muchsimo xito ms adelante en la vida. +As pues, bienvenidos a Oxford, damas y caballeros. +La cuestin sobre la educacin placebo es de hecho interesante. +Cuntos problemas de la vida se pueden resolver jugando con la percepcin, ms que intentar el tedioso, arduo, y turbio trabajo de intentar cambiar la realidad? +Hay un gran ejemplo histrico que se ha atribudo a distintos reyes, pero, tras un poco de investigacin histrica, parece ser de Federico El Grande. +Federico El Grande de Prusia estaba muy muy interesado en que los alemanes adoptaran la papa en su alimentacin, porque saba que si se tienen dos fuentes de carbohidratos, trigo y papa, entonces el precio del pan es menos voltil +y hay un riesgo mucho menor de hambruna, ya que se puede recurrir a dos cultivos en lugar de uno solo. +El nico problema es la papa; si lo piensan, se ve bastante desagradable. +Y adems, los prusianos del siglo XVIII coman muy muy poca verdura, muy parecido a los escoceses contemporneos. +Entonces intent hacerlo obligatorio. +Los campesinos prusianos decan: "Ni siquiera los perros se comen la maldita cosa, +es absolutamente repugnante y no es buena para nada". +Incluso existen registros de personas que fueron ejecutadas por su rechazo a sembrar papas. +Entonces intent el plan B. +Intent una solucin de mercadotecnia, en la que declar que la papa era una hortaliza real. Nadie, excepto la familia real, poda consumirla. +Plant papas en el huerto real, vigilado por guardias que tenan la orden de cuidarlo da y noche, pero con instrucciones secretas de no cuidarlo tan bien. +Los campesinos del siglo XVIII tenan una regla muy segura en la vida: si algo era valioso para ser vigilado era valioso para ser robado. +Muy pronto se cre una gran operacin clandestina de cultivo de papa en Alemania. +Lo que efectivamente hizo fue re-posicionar a la papa. +Una absoluta obra maestra. +Le cont esta historia a un caballero de Turqua que me dijo: "Muy buen mercader, ese Federico El Grande, pero nada comparado con Ataturk". +Ataturk, un poco como Nicols Sarkozy, tena inters en desalentar el uso del velo en Turqua, para modernizarla. +Ahora bien, la gente aburrida simplemente habra prohibido el velo, +pero eso habra culminado en una terrible reaccin y en una resistencia desastrosa. +Ataturk era un pensador lateral, +as que hizo obligatorio que las prostitutas usaran el velo. +No puedo verificar esto del todo, pero eso no importa, +porque el problema medioambiental, por cierto, ya est resuelto: todos los pederastas convictos tienen que manejar un Porsche Cayenne. +De lo que Ataturk se dio cuenta en realidad fueron dos cosas fundamentales: +la primera es que todo valor es de hecho relativo; +todo valor es valor percibido. +Para quienes no hablan espaol, " jugo de naranja" es espaol. +Y no se tratan de dlares, sino de pesos en Buenos Aires. Muy astutamente, los vendedores de la calle de Buenos Aires decidieron practicar la discriminacin de precios en detrimento de los turistas gringos. +Como publicista, tengo que admirarlo, +y demuestra el primer punto, que todo valor es subjetivo. +El segundo punto es que la persuasin es a menudo mejor que la coaccin. +Estas simpticas seales que muestran la velocidad a la que vas, algunas de las nuevas en la parte inferior derecha, en realidad muestran una carita sonriente y otra enfadada, que sirven como un gatillo emocional. +Lo fascinante de estas seales es que cuestan cerca de un 10% del costo de una cmara de velocidad convencional y previenen dos veces ms el nmero de accidentes. +Pero lo extrao y desconcertante para los economistas de formacin clsica convencional es que la extraa carita feliz tiene un efecto mayor en el cambio de comportamiento que la amenaza de 60 libras de multa y 3 puntos de castigo. +Un pequeo detalle de economa conductual: en Italia, los puntos de castigo se descuentan. +Se empieza con 12 y se van quitando, +porque se dieron cuenta de que la aversin a la prdida tiene una influencia ms poderosa en el comportamiento de la gente. +Los britnicos tendemos a sentir: "Guau, gan otros tres!" +No es as en Italia. +Otro caso fantstico de valor intangible creado para reemplazar un valor material o real, que recuerda despus de todo, a lo que se debera dedicar el movimiento ecolgico: Otra vez de Prusia, creo que de alrededor de 1812, 1813. +Los prusianos ricos, para ayudar en la guerra contra Francia, fueron alentados para que entregaran todas sus joyas, +que eran reemplazadas con rplicas hechas en hierro fundido. +Aqu tienen: "Yo di oro por hierro, 1813". +Lo interesante es que durante 50 aos desde entonces, las joyas de mejor categora que podas usar en Prusia no estaban hechas de oro o diamantes, +sino de hierro fundido. +Porque en realidad, no importa el valor intrnseco real de tener joyas de oro; esto en realidad tiene un valor simblico, un valor emblemtico, +que habla sobre el gran sacrificio que ha hecho tu familia en el pasado. +As que este es el equivalente moderno, por supuesto. +Pero tambin existe algo, as como existen bienes de Veblen, por el que el valor del producto depende de si es caro o raro; por el contrario, existen cosas cuyo valor depende del hecho de ser ubicuo, sin clase y minimalista. +Si lo piensan, el Shakerismo fue un movimiento proto-medioambiental. +Adam Smith habla acerca de los Estados Unidos del siglo XVIII en el que la prohibicin contra el despliegue visible de riqueza era tan grande, que produjo casi un bloqueo en la economa de Nueva Inglaterra, porque incluso los granjeros ricos no hallaban qu comprar con su dinero sin incurrir en el disgusto de sus vecinos. +Es perfectamente posible crear estas presiones sociales que llevan a sociedades ms equitativas. +Tambin es interesante observar productos que tienen un alto componente de lo que podran llamar un valor de mensaje, un alto componente de valor intangible, versus su valor intrnseco: a menudo son bastante equitativos. +En trminos de vestir, la ropa de mezclilla es quiz el ejemplo perfecto de algo que reemplaza el valor material con valor simblico. +Coca-Cola. Una parte de ustedes quiz sea una banda de rojillos y quiz no les guste la empresa Coca-Cola, pero vale la pena recordar lo que seal Andy Warhol sobre la Coca. +Lo que dijo Warhol sobre la Coca fue: "Lo que realmente me gusta de Coca-Cola es que el presidente de los Estados Unidos no puede tener una Coca mejor que el marica de la esquina". +Y eso es algo que si lo piensan, lo damos por hecho cuando en realidad es un logro notable, producir algo que es as de democrtico. +En esencia, tenemos que cambiar ligeramente nuestra visin. +Existe una visin bsica de que el valor real implica hacer cosas que involucren trabajo, ingeniera, +que involucre materias primas limitadas +y que lo que agreguemos por encima es como falso, como una versin falsa. +Y existe una razn de sospecha e incertidumbre sobre esto, +que gira evidentemente en torno a la propaganda. +Sin embargo, lo que hoy tenemos es un ecosistema de medios mucho ms multicolor en el que crear este tipo de valor, que es mucho ms justo. +Mientras creca, este fue bsicamente el entorno meditico de mi niez traducido en comida. +Tenas un proveedor monopolista; a la izquierda tienes Rupert Murdoch o la BBC. +Y a la derecha tienes un pblico dependiente que est patticamente agradecido con cualquier cosa que le des. +Hoy en da, el usuario se involucra de verdad. +Es lo que llamamos en el mundo digital, "contenido generado por el usuario", +aunque en el mundo de los alimentos se le llama agricultura. +En realidad esto es como un pur, en el que tomas contenido que alguien ms ha producido y haces algo nuevo con ello. +En el mundo de los alimentos lo llamamos cocinar. +Esto es comida 2.0, que es comida producida con el propsito de compartirla con otras personas. +Esto es comida mvil y los britnicos somos muy buenos para eso, +pescado y patatas envuelta en peridico, la empanada de Cornualles el pastel, el sndwich. +Inventamos muchos de ellos. +No somos muy buenos en la comida en general, los italianos hacen una comida excelente, pero no es tan porttil, generalmente. +Me enter el otro da de que el Conde de Sndwich no invent el sndwich, +en realidad invent la tostada; pero entonces el Conde de la Tostada sera un nombre ridculo. +Por ltimo, tenemos la comunicacin contextual. +Ahora bien, la razn de mostrarles Pernod, es slo un ejemplo. +Cada pas tiene una bebida alcohlica contextual, en Francia es Pernod. +Sabe excelente dentro de las fronteras de ese pas, pero absolutamente asqueroso si lo tomas en otro lugar. +Unicum en Hungra, por ejemplo. +Los griegos han logrado producir algo llamado Retsina, que incluso sabe asqueroso en Grecia. +Pero ahora mucha comunicacin es contextual con capacidad para despertar realmente a la gente al darles mejor informacin, como seala B.J. Fogg de la Universidad de Stanford, sobre el telfono mvil. l invent la frase, "tecnologa persuasiva". +l cree que el telfono mvil, al ser de ubicacin especfica, contextual, oportuno e inmediato, es simplemente el mejor dispositivo de tecnologa persuasiva que se ha inventado hasta ahora. +Ahora, si tenemos todos estas herramientas a nuestra disposicin, simplemente tenemos que preguntarnos, y Thaler y Susstein se lo preguntaron, cmo podemos usarlas de una forma ms inteligente. +Les dar un ejemplo. +Si tuvieran un gran botn rojo como este en la pared de su casa y cada vez que lo pulsaran les hiciera ahorrar 50 dlares, 50 dlares que iran a su pensin, ahorraran mucho ms. +La razn es que la interfaz determina fundamentalmente el comportamiento de acuerdo? +Ahora, la mercadotecnia ha hecho un muy muy buen trabajo al crear oportunidades para comprar impulsivamente. +Y todava no hemos creado la oportunidad para ahorrar impulsivamente. +Si hicieran esto, mucha gente ahorrara mucho ms. +Es simplemente una cuestin de cambiar la interfaz a travs de la que se toman las decisiones y la naturaleza misma de la decisiones cambia. +Obviamente no quiero que la gente haga esto, porque como publicista tiendo a considerar el ahorro slo como un consumismo innecesariamente pospuesto. +Pero si alguien quisiera hacerlo, ese es el tipo de cosas en las que necesitamos pensar: oportunidades fundamentales para cambiar el comportamiento humano. +Ahora tengo un ejemplo de Canad. +Haba un joven becario en Ogilvy, Canad llamado Hunter Somerville, que estaba trabajando en la promocin de Toronto. Consigui un trabajo de medio tiempo en publicidad y le dieron el trabajo de publicitar Shreddies. +Este es el caso ms perfecto de creacin de un valor agregado intangible sin cambiar el producto en lo ms mnimo. +Shreddies es un cereal integral cuadrado, extrao, slo disponible en Nueva Zelanda, Canad y Gran Bretaa. +Es una forma peculiar de Kraft de recompensar la lealtad a la corona. +Al trabajar en cmo relanzar Shreddies, se le ocurri lo siguiente: +Video: Hombre: Se supone que Shreddies es cuadrado. +Mujer: Han salido ya estas formas de diamante? +Voz en off: Nuevo cereal diamante Shreddies. +El mismo cereal 100% integral en forma de diamante delicioso. +Rory Sutherland: No estoy seguro de que este no sea el ejemplo ms perfecto de creacin de valor intangible. Todo lo que requiere son fotones, neuronas y una gran idea para crear algo. +Yo dira que es el trabajo de un genio. +Pero, naturalmente, no puedes hacer este tipo de cosas sin un poco de investigacin de mercado. +Hombre: Shreddies est en realidad produciendo un nuevo producto, que es mucho ms emocionante para ellos. +As que estn presentando los nuevos Diamantes Shreddies. +Slo quiero obtener sus primeras impresiones cuando lo vean, cuando vean la caja de Diamantes Shreddies. +Mujer: No eran cuadradas? +Mujer 2: Estoy un poco confundida. Mujer 3: A m me parecen como las cuadradas +Hombre: Son todo est en la apariencia. +Pero es como voltear un seis o un nueve en seis. Si lo voltean parece un nueve, +pero un seis es muy diferente de un nueve. +Mujer 3: O una "M" y una "W". Hombre: Una "M" y una "W", exactamente. +Hombre 2: [poco claro] Parece como si lo giraras a un lado, pero cuando lo ves as se ve ms interesante. +Hombre: Probemos ambos. +Tomen uno cuadrado primero. +Hombre: Cul prefieren? Hombre 2: El primero +Hombre: El primero? +Rory Sutherland: Y, claro, surgi un debate. +Haba elementos conservadores en Canad, no es de sorprender, que resintieron esta intrusin. +As que, al final, los fabricantes llegaron a un acuerdo que fue un paquete combinado. +As que beban su vino a ciegas en el futuro. +Esto es increblemente gracioso, pero tambin un punto filosfico importante que es que, yendo hacia adelante, necesitamos ms de este tipo de valor. +Necesitamos pasar ms tiempo apreciando lo que ya existe y menos tiempo sufriendo sobre qu ms podemos hacer. +Dos citas para ms o menos concluir. +Una de ellas dice: "Poesa es cuando conviertes lo nuevo en familiar y lo familiar en nuevo". +Lo cual no es una mala definicin de nuestro trabajo, que ayuda a la gente apreciar lo nuevo, pero tambin a ganar una mayor apreciacin y colocar un valor mucho ms alto en aquellas cosas que ya existen. +Existe cierta evidencia, por cierto, de que cosas como las redes sociales ayudan a ello, +porque ayudan a la gente a compartir noticias, +y le dan un valor emblemtico a las pequeas actividades triviales cotidianas. +Por tanto, reduce la necesidad de gastar mucho dinero en la exhibicin, e incrementa el tipo de goce con otros que puedes obtener de las cosas ms simples, ms pequeas de la vida. Y esto es mgico. +La segunda es la segunda cita de G. K. Chesterton en esta sesin, que dice: "Estamos condenados al deseo de maravillarnos, no al deseo de maravillas", lo cual creo que es perfectamente cierto para cualquiera involucrado en tecnologa. +Una ltima cosa: cuando le pongan valor a cosas como la salud, el amor, el sexo y otras cosas, aprendan a poner un valor material a lo que previamente descartaron por ser meramente intangible, una cosa que no se ve, y se darn cuenta de que son mucho ms ricos de lo que imaginan. +En verdad, muchsimas gracias. +Nuestra misin es construir un modelo detallado y realista del cerebro humano en un computador. +Y hemos hecho, en los ltimos 4 aos, una prueba de concepto en una pequea parte del cerebro de un roedor y con esta prueba, estamos incrementando la escala del proyecto para alcanzar el cerebro humano. +Por qu estamos haciendo esto? +Hay 3 razones importantes. +La primera es: es esencial para nosotros entender el cerebro humano si queremos funcionar en sociedad y creo que es un paso clave en la evolucin. +La segunda razn es no podemos seguir experimentando en animales por siempre, y tenemos que plasmar todos nuestros datos y todo nuestro conocimiento, en un modelo que funcione. +Es como el Arca de No. Como un archivo. +La tercera razn es que hay 2 mil millones de personas en el planeta afectadas por desrdenes mentales, y los medicamentos que hoy en da se emplean son mayormente de desarrollo emprico. +Creo que podemos crear soluciones muy concretas sobre cmo tratar dichos desrdenes. +Ahora bien, incluso en esta etapa, podemos usar el modelo del cerebro para explorar algunas interrogantes fundamentales sobre cmo funciona el cerebro. +Y aqu, en TED, por primera vez, me gustara compartir con ustedes cmo estamos abordando una teora, hay muchas teoras, una teora de cmo funciona el cerebro. +Bien, sta teora dice que el cerebro, crea, construye, una versin del universo. Y proyecta esta versin del universo, como una burbuja, alrededor nuestro. +Ahora bien, este ha sido por supuesto un tema de debate filosfico durante siglos. +Pero, por primera vez, podemos realmente abordarlo, con una simulacin del cerebro, y plantearnos preguntas muy sistemticas y rigurosas, sobre si esta teora podra ser cierta. +La razn por la que la luna es enorme en el horizonte es simplemente porque nuestra burbuja perceptiva no se estira 380.000 kilmetros. +Se queda sin espacio. +As que lo que hacemos es comparar los edificios dentro de nuestra burbuja perceptiva y tomamos una decisin +Decidimos que es, as de grande, aunque no sea, tan grande +y lo que esto ilustra es que las decisiones son elementos clave que mantienen nuestra burbuja perceptiva. La mantiene viva. +Sin decisiones no puedes ver, no puedes pensar, no puedes sentir. +Y pueden pensar que los sedantes funcionan al inducir un sueo profundo o bloqueando tus receptores para que no sientas dolor, pero de hecho la mayora de los sedantes no funcionan as. +Lo que hacen es que introduce un ruido en el cerebro para que las neuronas no se entiendan entre ellas. +Estn confundidas, y no puedes tomar una decisin. +As que, mientras tratas de entender lo que sucede con respecto a lo que el doctor, el cirujano te est haciendo mientras est cortando en tu cuerpo, l hace rato que se ha ido. +Est ya en casa tomando t. +cuando caminas hacia la puerta y la abres, lo que compulsivamente tienes que hacer para percibir es tomar decisiones, miles de decisiones sobre el tamao de la habitacin, la pared, la altura, los objetos en la habitacin. +El 99% de lo que ves no es lo que entra por los ojos. +Es lo que infieres sobre la habitacin. +Por lo tanto, puedo decir, con cierta seguridad, "Pienso, luego existo" +Pero no puedo decir, "T piensas, luego existes", porque t ests dentro de mi burbuja perceptiva. +Ahora bien, podemos especular y filosofar sobre esto, pero no tenemos realmente que hacerlo durante los prximos 100 aos. +Podemos hacernos una pregunta muy concreta: +Puede el cerebro construir tal percepcin? +Es capaz de hacerlo? +Tiene la substancia para hacerlo? +Y eso es lo que voy a describirles hoy. +Bien, le llev al universo 11 mil millones de aos construir el cerebro. +Tuvo que mejorarlo un poco: +Tuvo que aadir la parte frontal, para que podamos tener instintos para que pudieran arreglrselas en la tierra. +Pero autntico gran paso fue el neocrtex. +Es un cerebro nuevo. Lo necesitas. +Los mamferos lo necesitan porque tienen que lidiar con la paternidad, interacciones sociales, y funciones cognitivas complejas. +As, podemos pensar en el neocrtex como la solucin definitiva, hoy en da, del universo como lo conocemos. +Es el pinculo, el producto final que el universo ha producido. +Tuvo tanto xito en la evolucin que de ratn a hombre se ha expandido cerca de 1000 veces en trminos del nmero de neuronas, para producir este rgano, esta estructura, que casi asusta. +Y no ha parado en su camino evolutivo. +De hecho, el neocrtex en el cerebro humano est evolucionando a una excesiva velocidad. +Si hacemos un acercamiento a la superficie del neocrtex, descubriremos que est hecho de pequeos mdulos, procesadores G5, como en un computador. +Pero hay cerca de 1 milln de ellos. +Han tenido tanto xito en la evolucin que lo que hemos hecho ha sido duplicarlos una y otra vez, y aadir ms y ms al cerebro. hasta que nos quedamos sin espacio en el crneo. +Y el cerebro empez a plegarse sobre s mismo, y por eso el neocrtex est tan retorcido. +Estbamos simplemente empaquetando en columnas, para que tuviramos ms columnas neocorticales para realizar funciones ms complejas. +As que puedes pensar en el neocrtex realmente como un enorme piano de cola, un piano con 1 milln de teclas. +Cada una de estas columnas neocorticales producira una nota. +Si lo estimulas, produce una sinfona. +Pero no es slo una sinfona de percepcin, +es una sinfona de tu universo, tu realidad. +Ahora bien, desde luego lleva aos aprender cmo tocar un piano de cola con un milln de teclas. +Y es por esto que tienes que mandar a tus hijos a buenas escuelas, y esperemos que finalmente a Oxford. +Pero no es slo educacin. +Tambin es gentica. +Puedes nacer con suerte, o puedes saber cmo dominar tu columna neocortical, y puedes tocar una fantstica sinfona. +De hecho, hay una nueva teora del autismo llamada "La teora del mundo intenso", que sugiere que las columnas neocorticales son super-columnas. +Son altamente reactivas, y super-elsticas, y por eso los autistas son probablemente capaces de construir y aprender una sinfona que es impensable para nosotros. +Pero tambin puedes entender que si tuvieras una enfermedad dentro de una de estas columnas, la nota va a estar desafinada. +La percepcin, la sinfona que creas va a estar contaminada, y tendrs los sntomas de una enfermedad. +el Santo Grial de la neurociencia es entender el diseo de la columna neocortical y no slo para la neurociencia es quizs el entender la percepcin, entender la realidad, y quizs incluso entender la realidad fsica. +As que lo que hicimos, durante los ltimos 15 aos, fue diseccionar el neocrtex, sistemticamente. +Es un poco como catalogar una parte de la selva. +Cuntos rboles tiene? +Qu formas tienen los rboles? +Cuntos de cada tipo hay?, Dnde se encuentran colocados? +Pero es un poco ms que catalogar porque realmente tienes que describir y descubrir todas la reglas de comunicacin la reglas de la conectividad, porque las neuronas no se conectan con cualquier neurona. +Eligen con cuidado con quines se conectan. +Es tambin ms que catalogar porque en realidad tienes que construir modelos tri-dimensionales digitales de ellos. +Y lo hicimos para decenas de miles de neuronas, construir modelos digitales de diferentes tipos de neuronas que nos hemos encontrado. +Y una vez que tienes eso, puedes realmente empezar a construir la columna neocortical. +Y aqu estamos, enrollndolas. +Pero segn haces esto, lo que ves es que las ramas se intersectan en millones de lugares, y en cada una de estas intersecciones pueden formar una sinapsis. +Y una sinapsis es una posicin qumica donde se comunican entre s. +Y juntas estas sinapsis forman la red o el circuito del cerebro. +Ahora bien, el circuito lo puedes pensar como el tejido del cerebro. +Y cuando piensas en el tejido del cerebro, la estructura, cmo est construido? Cul es el patrn de la alfombra? +Te das cuenta de que representa un reto fundamental para cualquier teora del cerebro, y especialmente para una teora que dice que hay una realidad que emerge de esa alfombra, de esa alfombra en particular con un patrn particular. +La razn es porque el secreto ms importante del diseo del cerebro es la diversidad. +Cada neuronal es diferente. +Es lo mismo que en el bosque. Cada pino es diferente. +Puedes tener muchos tipos diferentes de rboles, pero cada pino es diferente. Y en el cerebro es igual. +As que no hay una neurona en mi cerebro que sea igual a otra, y no hay una neurona en mi cerebro que sea igual en el tuyo. +Y tus neuronas no van a estar orientadas y colocadas, exactamente, de la misma manera. +Y puedes tener ms o menos neuronas. +As que es muy poco probable que tengas el mismo tejido, los mismos circuitos. +Entonces, cmo podramos crear una realidad que incluso podemos entender entre nosotros? +Bien, no tenemos que especular. +Podemos mirar todas las 10 millones de sinapsis actualmente. +Podemos mirar el tejido. Y podemos cambiar las neuronas. +Podemos usar diferentes neuronas con diferentes variaciones. +Y podemos colocarlas en diferentes lugares, orientarlas en diferentes lugares. +Y podemos usar ms o menos neuronas. +Y cuando hacemos eso lo que descubrimos es que el circuito cambia. +Pero el patrn de cmo el circuito est diseado no. +As, el tejido del cerebro, aunque tu cerebro sea pequeo, grande, tenga diferentes tipos de neuronas, diferentes morfologas de neuronas, realmente compartimos el mismo tejido. +Y creemos que eso es especfico de cada especie, lo que podra explicar el por qu no podemos comunicarnos entre especies. +Bien, encendmoslo. Pero para hacerlo, lo que tenemos que hacer es que cobre vida. +Hacemos que cobre vida con ecuaciones, muchas matemticas. +Y, de hecho, las ecuaciones que convierten las neuronas en generadores elctricos fueron descubiertas por dos Premios Nobel de Cambridge. +As que tenemos las matemticas que hacen que las neuronas cobren vida. +Tambin tenemos las matemticas que describen cmo las neuronas renen informacin, y cmo crean un pequeo rayo para comunicarse entre ellas. +Y cuando llegan a la sinapsis, lo que hacen es que efectiva y literalmente, conmocionan la sinapsis. +Es como una descarga elctrica que libera los elementos qumicos de esta sinapsis. +Y tenemos las matemticas que describen este proceso. +As que podemos describir la comunicacin entre neuronas. +Hay literalmente slo un puado de ecuaciones que se necesitan para simular la actividad del neocrtex. +Pero lo que s necesitas es una computadora muy grande. +Y de hecho necesitas una laptop para hacer todos los clculos para una nica neurona. +As que necesitas 10.000 laptops. +A dnde vas entonces? Vas a IBM, y adquieres un supercomputador, porque saben cmo tomar 10.000 laptops y meterlos en algo del tamao de un refrigerador. +As que ahora tenemos el supercomputador Blue Gene. +Podemos cargar todas las neuronas, cada una en su procesador y arrancarlo, y ver qu pasa. +Tomen la alfombra mgica para dar una vuelta. +Aqu lo activamos. Y eso da el primer vistazo fugaz de lo que est pasando en tu cerebro cuando hay una estimulacin. +Es la primera impresin. +Ahora bien, cuando lo miras por primera vez, piensas, "Dios mo. Cmo sale la realidad de eso?" +Pero, de hecho, puedes empezar, aunque no hayas entrenado esta columna neocortical para crear una realidad especfica. +podemos preguntar, "Dnde est la rosa?" +Podemos preguntar, "Dnde est ah dentro, si lo estimulamos con una imagen?" +Dnde est dentro del neocrtex? +Definitivamente tiene que estar ah si lo estimulamos con ella. +Bien, la manera en la que podemos afrontar eso es ignorar las neuronas, ignorar las sinapsis, y mirar slo a la actividad elctrica en crudo. +Porque eso es lo que est creando. +Est creando patrones elctricos. +As que cuando hicimos esto, de hecho, por primera vez, vimos estas estructuras fantasmagricas objetos elctricos apareciendo dentro de la columna neocortical. +Y son estos objetos elctricos los que mantienen toda la informacin sobre lo que fuera que lo estimul. +Y cuando hicimos un acercamiento a esto, es como un autntico universo. +As que el siguiente paso es tomar estas coordenadas cerebrales y proyectarlas en un espacio perceptivo. +Y si haces eso, sers capaz de adentrarte en la realidad que ha creado esta mquina, por ste pedazo del cerebro. +En resumen, Creo que el universo puede haber -- es posible -- evolucionado el cerebro para verse a s mismo, que puede ser un primer paso para ser consciente de s mismo. +Hay mucho por hacer para comprobar estas teoras, y comprobar cualquier otra teora. +Pero espero que estn al menos parcialmente convencidos de que no es imposible construir un cerebro. +Podemos hacerlo dentro de 10 aos, y si tenemos xito mandaremos a TED, en 10 aos, un holograma para que hable con ustedes. Gracias. +En los prximos cinco minutos, mi intencin es transformar su relacin con el sonido. +Comenzar con la observacin de que la mayora de los sonidos que nos rodea es accidental. Y la mayor parte es desagradable. (Ruido de trfico) Nos paramos en las esquinas, gritando por encima de sonidos como este, haciendo como si no existieran. +Este hbito de suprimir sonido implica que nuestra relacin con el sonido ha llegado a ser en gran medida inconsciente. +Hay cuatro maneras esenciales en que el sonido nos afecta todo el tiempo, y me gustara manifestarlas en su conciencia hoy. +Primero es a nivel fisiolgico. (Sierra elctrica, alarma) Perdonen, acaban de recibir una dosis de cortisol, la hormona de estrs agudo. +Los sonidos afectan la secrecin de hormonas en todo momento, pero tambin afectan la respiracin, el ritmo cardiaco, que acabo de hacer, y las ondas neuronales. +No slo los sonidos desagradables pueden hacerlo. +Esto son olas. (Sonido del mar) Tiene una frecuencia de apenas 12 ciclos por minuto. +A la mayora de las personas les parece calmante, y, sorprendentemente, 12 ciclos por minuto es casi la frecuencia de la respiracin del ser humano dormido. +Hay una resonancia profunda cuando descansamos. +Tambin lo asociamos con el hecho de estar libres de estrs, y de vacaciones. +La segunda manera en la que el sonido nos afecta es la psicolgica. +La msica es la forma sonora mas poderosa que conocemos que afecta nuestros estados emocionales. (Msica de violn) Este sonido acabar hacindoles sentir triste a la mayora de ustedes si continuo reproducindolo. +Pero la msica no es el nico tipo de sonido que afecta las emociones. +Los sonidos naturales pueden hacerlo tambin. +El canto de las aves, por ejemplo, es un sonido que a la mayora de las personas les parece tranquilizante. (Sonido de pjaros) Existe una razn para eso. A lo largo de ciento de miles de aos hemos aprendido que cuando los pjaros cantan, todo est en calma. +Si ellos se detienen, debes preocuparte. +La tercera manera en que el sonido nos afecta es la cognitiva. +No puedes entender a dos personas hablando a la vez (si ests escuchando esta versin de) (m, ests en la pista equivocada) o, en este caso, una persona hablando dos veces. +Trata de escuchar al otro. (Has elegido a qu yo vas a escuchar). Tenemos poco ancho de banda para procesar informacin auditiva, por eso sonidos como estos -- (Ruido de oficina) -- afectan extremadamente la productividad. +Si Ud. trabaja en una oficina con espacios abiertos como esta, su productividad quedar significativamente reducida. +Y cualquier cifra que est pensando, probablemente no sea tan mala como esta. +(Msica siniestra) Se es tres veces menos productivo en oficinas abiertas como en cuartos silenciosos. +Tengo una sugerencia para ustedes: si tiene que trabajar en espacios como estos, lleve audfonos consigo con sonidos calmantes, como el canto de las aves. +Pngaselos y su productividad aumentar el triple de lo que sera. +La cuarta manera en la que el sonido nos afecta se refiere al comportamiento. +Con todo lo que sucede, sera sorprendente que nuestro comportamiento no cambiase. +(Msica tecno) As que, pregntese: Esta persona va a conducir a una velocidad constante de 45 km/h? No lo creo. +De manera sencilla, te alejas de sonidos desagradables y te acercas a sonidos placenteros. +As que, si reprodujese esto -- (Martillo neumtico) -- tan slo unos segundos, se sentiran incmodos; y si lo hiciera durante unos minutos, desalojaran la habitacin en multitud. +Aquellas personas que no pueden alejarse de este tipo de ruido estn daando extremadamente su salud. +Y no es lo nico que daa el sonido negativo. +La mayor parte del sonido en las tiendas es inapropiado y accidental, incluso hostil, y tiene un efecto dramtico en las ventas. +Quienes sean vendedores probablemente quieran mirar hacia otro lado antes de que muestre esta diapositiva. +Estn perdiendo hasta un 30% de sus ventas con clientes que abandonan la tienda ms rpidamente, o dando la vuelta al pasar por la puerta. +Todos lo hemos hecho, retirarnos del rea porque el sonido es terrible. +Quiero dedicar un momento a hablar del modelo que hemos desarrollado, que nos permite comenzar desde arriba y observar los factores decisivos del sonido, analizar el entorno sonoro, y predecir las cuatro respuestas que acabo de exponer. +O bien podemos comenzar desde la base, estableciendo cules son las respuestas que queremos, para luego disear un entorno sonoro con el efecto deseado. +Por fin podemos aplicar algo de ciencia tenemos algo de ciencia que podemos aplicar. +Y entramos en el rea del diseo de entornos sonoros. +Slo un comentario acerca de la msica. La msica es el sonido mas poderoso que existe. A menudo usado inadecuadamente. +Es poderoso por dos razones: se reconoce rpidamente. Y se asocia de manera poderosa. +Les dar dos ejemplos. (A Hard Day's Night - The Beatles) La mayora de ustedes reconoce la cancin de inmediato. +Los ms jvenes probablemente no . (Msica de Tiburn) Y la mayora asocia esto con algo. +Ahora bien, eso fueron muestras de sonido de un segundo. +La msica es poderosa. Y desafortunadamente ocupa muchas veces espacios comerciales de forma inapropiada. +Espero que eso cambie en los prximos aos. +Djenme reflexionar un momento sobre las marcas, porque algunos de ustedes utilizan marcas. Cada marca est ah fuera haciendo sonidos en este momento. +Existen ocho expresiones sonoras de una marca. +Todas son importantes. Cada marca necesita establecer directrices desde el centro. +Estoy orgulloso de decir que est comenzando en este momento. +(Sonido del anuncio de intel) Todos reconocen ese. (Tono de Nokia) Este es el tema ms reproducido en el mundo hoy en da. +Este tema suena 1,8 billones de veces al da. +Y no le cuesta nada a Nokia. +Slo les dejar cuatro reglas doradas, para aquellos que tienen negocios, para el sonido comercial. +Primero, hay que hacerlo congruente, apuntando en la misma direccin que la comunicacin visual. +Eso incrementa el impacto en un 1.100 por ciento. +Si el sonido apunta en direccin opuesta, incongruente, reducir el impacto en un 86 por ciento. +Es un orden de magnitud hacia arriba o abajo. +Es importante. +Segundo, hay que hacerlo adecuado a la situacin. +Tercero, hay que hacerlo valioso, darle a la gente algo con ese sonido. +No slo bombardearlos con cosas. +Y finalmente, probarlo una y otra vez. +El sonido es complejo. Existen muchas influencias discutidas. +Es como un plato de espaguetis. A veces hay que comerlo y ver qu es lo que sucede. +Espero que esta charla haya creado sonido en su conciencia. +Si escuchan conscientemente, pueden controlar el sonido a su alrededor. +Es bueno para su salud. Es bueno para su productividad. +Si todos lo hacemos, llegaremos a un estado que quiero pensar ser de vida armoniosa en el mundo. +Los dejar con algo ms de canto de aves. (Sonido de aves) Les recomiendo al menos cinco minutos diarios, sin dosis mxima. +Gracias por haber sido todo odos hoy. +13 billones de dlares en riqueza se han evaporado durante estos ltimos dos aos. +Hemos cuestionado el futuro del capitalismo. +Hemos cuestionado la industria financiera. +Hemos observado el descuido de nuestro gobierno. +Hemos cuestionado hacia dnde vamos. +Pero, al mismo tiempo, este puede ser un momento crucial en la historia de Estados Unidos, una oportunidad para que el consumidor asuma el control y nos marque una nueva trayectoria en Estados Unidos. +A esto lo he llamado El Gran Desenredo. +Y la idea es bien sencilla: es el hecho de que el consumidor se haya movido de un estado de ansiedad a la accin. +Los consumidores, que respresentan el 72 por ciento del PIB de EE. UU., han empezado, al igual que los bancos y exactamente como las empresas, a desapalancar, a desenredar su apalancamiento financiero, en la vida cotidiana, desligarse de la responsabilidad y el riesgo que se presenta al avanzar. +Para entenderlo, voy a insistir en que no se trata de la retirada del consumidor. +El consumidor tiene el poder. +Para comprender esto, vamos a retroceder en el tiempo y observar un poco lo que ha sucedido durante el ltimo ao y medio. +As que para aquellos que se lo han perdido, aqu va la gua rpida sobre lo que ha pasado en la economa. De acuerdo? +El desempleo sube. El valor de la vivienda baja. El mercado de valores baja. +Los precios de los productos bsicos han ido as. +Si eres una madre que intenta administrar un presupuesto, y el petrleo estaba a 150 dlares por barril el verano pasado, y est entre 50 y 70, planeas unas vacaciones? Cmo compras? +Cul es tu estrategia domstica? +Funcionar el rescate financiero? Tenemos deuda nacional, Detroit, tasaciones de divisa, sistema sanitario; nos enfrentamos a estos problemas. +Si los juntamos todos y los mezclamos en una cazuela, tenemos como resultado la confianza del consumidor a punto de explotar. +De hecho, volvamos atrs y veamos lo que caus esta crisis, porque el consumidor, todos nosotros, en nuestra vida diaria, contribuimos en gran medida al problema. +Es algo que yo llamo la paradoja 50-20. +Nos llev 50 aos alcanzar ndices de ahorro anual de casi el 10 por ciento. 50 aos. +Saben qu es esto de aqu? +Esto fue la II Guerra Mundial. Saben por qu los ahorros son tan altos? +No haba nada que comprar, a menos que comprases remaches. +Entonces lo que ha ocurrido durante los ltimos 20 aos es que nuestro ndice de ahorro ha pasado del 10 por ciento a ser negativo. +Porque nos atiborramos. Compramos coches extra-grandes, lo agrandamos todo, compramos remedios para el sndrome de piernas cansadas. +Bsicamente, todo esto cre un factor donde el consumidor de alguna manera nos condujo precipitadamente hacia la crisis a la que nos enfrentamos hoy. +La relacin entre deuda e ingresos personal pas bsicamente del 65 por ciento al 135 por ciento en unos 15 aos. +Es decir, los consumidores sobreapalancaron su economa. +Y por supuesto tambin nuestros bancos, as como nuestro gobierno federal. +Esta grfica es absolutamente sorprendente. +Muestra la tendencia de apalancamiento desde 1919 a 2009. +Y lo que vemos es el fenmeno de estar verdaderamente avanzando y bsicamente apalancando la educacin venidera, los futuros nios de nuestros hogares. +Si consideramos rescate desde una perpectiva grfica, lo que vemos al amontonar los billetes es, primero, 360 mil dlares es aproximadamente del tamao de un individuo de 1,60 m. +Es decir, al apilarlos, veremos esta sorprendende cantidad de dlares que hemos inyectado en el sistema para financiarnos y sacarnos del apuro. +Entonces estos son los primers 315 mil millones. +Pero el otro da le que un billn de segundos equivale a 32 mil aos, as que si lo pensamos bien, el contexto, la naturalidad con la que hablamos de un rescate de mil millones de dlares aqu y otro all, nos estamos amontonando para un apalancamiento prolongado. +Sea como fuere, los consumidores se han movilizado. +Estn asumiendo responsabilidad. +Lo que estamos viendo es una subida en el ndice de ahorro. +De hecho, llevamos ahorrando durante once meses desde que comenz la crisis. +Estamos logrando llegar a ese 10 por ciento. +Tambin, sorprendentemente, en el cuarto trimestre, el gasto se redujo al nivel ms bajo registrado en los ltimos 62 aos, casi un 3,7 por ciento de descenso. +Visa ha informado que ms personas estn usando tarjetas de dbito que de crdito. +De modo que estamos empezando a pagar con dinero que tenemos. +Y estamos empezando a ser mucho ms prudentes a la hora de ahorrar y de invertir. +Pero esa no es toda la historia. +Porque tambin esta ha sido una situacin dramtica de transformacin. +Y tenemos que admitir que, durante el ltimo ao y medio, los consumidores han estado haciendo cosas realmente extraas. +Ha sido asombroso lo que hemos vivido. +Si consideramos que el 80 por ciento de los estadounidenses nacieron despus de la II Guerra Mundial, sta es en esencia nuestra Depresin. +Y por tanto, como resultado, han ocurrido algunas locuras. +Dar algunos ejemplos. Hablemos de dentistas, vasectomas, pistolas y ataques de tiburones. De acuerdo? +Los dentistas tratan los dientes, y ya saben, aquellos con problemas de rechinamiento dental van a la consulta y cuentan que han tenido estrs. +Y as habr un incremento de personas que necesitarn reemplazar sus empastes. +Pistolas, ventas de pistolas, segn el FBI, que realiza controles de antecedentes, han subido un 25 por ciento desde enero. +Las vasectomas han subido un 48 por ciento, segn el instituto Cornell. +Y, por ltimo --pero no menos importante, y espero que no est relacionado con lo que acabo de decir-- el ndice de ataques de tiburones es el ms bajo desde 2003. +Sabe alguien por qu? +Nadie va a la playa. As que no hay mal que por bien no venga. +Ahora en serio, lo que estamos presenciando, y la razn por la que enfatizo que el consumidor no se ha retirado, es que esta es una tremenda oportunidad para el consumidor, que es quien nos ha llevado a esta recesin, nos saque de ella. +Y a lo que me refiero con esto es a que podemos pasar de un consumo ciego a un consumo consecuente. Estamos de acuerdo? +Si recapacitamos sobre las tres ltimas dcadas, el consumidor ha pasado de ser astuto en el mercado en los 90, a adquirir todas estas increbles herramientas sociales y de bsqueda en esta dcada, pero lo que les ha estado frenando es la capacidad de seleccionar. +Restringiendo su demanda, los consumidores pueden llegar a equilibrar valores y gastos, y hacer que el capitalismo y el negocio giren no slo en torno al "ms y ms", sino en torno al "mejor". +Explicaremos esto ahora mismo. +Basndonos en Y&R's BrandAsset Valuator, propietario de la herramienta VML y Young & Rubicam, nos propusimos entender lo que ha estado ocurriendo en la crisis con el mercado de consumo. +Descubrimos algunas cosas verdaderamente interesantes. +Vamos a revisar los cuatro cambios de valores que observamos en la nueva conducta de los consumidores, que ofrecen nuevos principios de gestin. +El primer cambio cultural de valor que observamos es esta tendencia hacia algo que llamamos vida lquida. +Esta es la tendencia de los estadounienses de definir el xito basndose en la tenencia de cosas, a basarse en la liquidez, porque cuanto menos exceso tengamos, ms hbiles y ligeros sern nuestros pies. +Como resultado, entra en juego el consumo dclass. +El consumo dclasss significa que gastar dinero frvolamente te convierte en un anticuado. +El principio de gestin son los dlares y centavos. +Vamos a ver algunos ejemplos de este consumo dclass que estn reidos con este valor. +Lo primero que vemos es que algo debe ocurrir cuando P. Diddy jura moderar su joyera. +Pero, en serio, estamos viviendo este fenmeno en Madison Avenue, y en otros lugares donde la gente sale de las boutiques de lujo con bolsas de papel comunes, sin marca, para esconder la naturaleza de sus compras. +Vemos este regateo sofisticado hoy en da. +Regateo sofisticado del lujo y propiedades inmobiliarias. +Tambin vemos una atenuacin de ego, y un desarme de artificio. +Aqu tenemos una historia sobre un club nutico que es bsicamente obrero. +Un club nutico obrero, en el que te puedes dar de alta, a cambio de trabajar en el astillero, como condicin de admisin como socio. +Tambin vemos la tendencia hacia un turismo que es un poco ms mesurado, no es cierto? +Turismo rural, a los viedos y granjas. +Y entonces podemos ver esta tendecia que va de los dlares a los centavos. +Es realmente interesante lo que las empresas pueden hacer para conectar con esta nueva actitud. +Algunas de ellas muy buenas: +Frito-Lay, por ejemplo, supo entender este problema de liquidez de sus consumidores. +Vieron que su consumidor tena ms liquidez a principios de mes, que a final de mes. As que lo que hicieron fue empezar a cambiar su envoltorio. +Paquetes ms grandes a principios de mes, ms pequeos a final de mes. +Tambin interesante fue la idea de San Francisco Giants. +Acaban de establecer el sistema dinmico de precios. +Con ello, se tiene en cuenta todo desde el enfrentamiento bateador-lanzador, hasta el tiempo atmosfrico y los rcords de equipo, a la hora de poner precios para el consumidor. +Otro ejemplo breve de este tipo de tendencia es el auge de Zynga. +Zynga surgi del deseo del consumidor de no querer estancarse en costes fijos. +Una vez ms, este tema trata de coste variable, modos de vivir variables. +Por lo que los "micro-pagos" han proliferado. +Y, por ltimo, estn quienes usan Hulu, un dispositivo para deshacerse de la factura de cable +Por tanto, hay buenas ideas que estn afianzndose y que los vendedores comienzan a entender. +El segundo de los cuatro valores es el movimiento hacia la tica y el juego limpio. +Vemos cmo se desarrolla con empata y respeto. +El consumidor lo demanda. +Y, como resultado, las empresas deben ofrecen no slo valor, sino valores. +Los consumidores se fijan cada vez ms en la cultura de la compaa, observan su conducta en el mercado. +Por tanto, vemos con empata y respeto muchos elementos prometedores originados por esta recesin. +Mencionar algunos ejemplos. +Uno es el ascenso de comunidades y barrios, y el intenso nfasis de los vecinos como sistema de apoyo. +Adems, un maravilloso subproducto de algo tan psimo, como es el desempleo, ha sido el aumento en trabajo de voluntariado que se ha experimentado en nuestro pas. +Tambin obsevamos el fenmeno --algunos de Uds. tendrn "hijos bmeran"-- de "alumnos bmeran", y las universidades vuelven a conectar con sus alumnos tratando de ayudarles en su bsqueda de empleo con talleres de reciclaje. +Tambin hablamos de personalidad y profesionalismo. +En enero tuvimos aquel milagro en el ro Hudson en Nueva York. Y Sully se ha convertido en uno de los nombres de beb ms solicitados en Babycenter. +As que, desde una perspectiva de valor y de valores, lo que las empresas pueden hacer es conectar de distintas maneras. +Microsoft est haciendo algo maravilloso. +Promete recapacitar a dos millones de estadounidenses con cursos de informtica usando su infraestructura para hacer algo positivo. +Otra empresa interesante es Gore-Tex. +Gore-Tex tiene que ver con la responsabilidad personal de su gestin y plantilla, hasta el punto de rechazar el concepto de jefe. +Y no slo eso: sus ejecutivos, la totalidad de sus informes de gastos, se ponen en la Intranet de la empresa a los ojos de todos. +Absoluta transparencia. +Pinsatelo dos veces antes de pedir esas botella de vino. +La tercera de las cuatro leyes del consumismo despus de la crisis se refiere a la vida duradera. +Nuestros datos indican que los consumidores se estn dando cuenta de que esto no es una carrera de velocidad, sino de fondo. +Estn siendo cautos. Y buscan la forma de sacar el mayor partido de cada compra que realizan. +Hay que ser consciente de que en EE. UU. la vida media de un coche nunca ha sido tan larga como ahora, 9,4 aos, de promedio, en marzo. Todo un rcord. +Tambin se observa cmo las bibliotecas han pasado a ser un enorme recurso en EE.UU. +Saban que ahora el 68 por ciento de estadounidenses posee un carn de socio? +El mayor porcentaje en la historia de nuestra nacin. +Por tanto, lo que muestra esta tendencia es tambin la acumulacin de conocimiento. +La continuacin de estudios est en alza. +Todo se centra en la mejora y en la prctica, y en el desarrollo y en seguir hacia delante. +Tambin observamos el ascenso del movimiento 'hazlo t mismo'. +Me qued asombrado al enterarme de que el 30 por ciento de todos los hogares en EE. UU. son construidos por sus propietarios. +Y eso incluye casitas rsticas y similares. Nada menos que el 30 por ciento. +Con lo cual la gente est arrimando el hombro. +Quieren conseguir estas destrezas. +Lo observamos conjuntamente con el hecho de criar patos y gallinas en el patio trasero. Y aunque las cuentas no den, el principio prevalece: ser sostenible y cuidar de s mismo. +Y al ver lo que se ha conseguido con el High Line en Nueva York, un uso excelente de recrear una infraestructura existente para un buen propsito, que es un parque nuevo en la ciudad de Nueva York. +Con todo ello, lo que las empresas pueden hacer es dar dividendos a los consumidores, ser una empresa que perdure, ofrecer transparencia, prometer que seguirs ah despus de la compra de hoy. +Un perfecto ejemplo de esto es Patagonia. +Footprint Chronicles de Patagonia bsicamente revisa y hace un seguimiento de cada producto que fabrican y te da responsabilidad social, te ayuda a comprender la tica que se esconde tras el producto. +Otro gran ejemplo es Fidelity. +Ms que compensar en efectivo las compras con tarjeta de dbito o crdito, se trata de 529 compensaciones para tu educacin acadmica. +Otra interesante compaa es SunRun. +Me encanta esta compaa. Han creado un colectivo de consumidores que instalan paneles solares en hogares y crean una utilidad basada en el consumidor, en donde la electricidad que se genera bsicamente se transfiere a la red general. +Por tanto, se trata de una cooperativa administrada por consumidores. +As, la cuarta manifestacin observable del consumismo despus de la crisis es este movimiento de vuelta al redil. +Es muy importante ahora mismo. +La confianza no se asigna burocrticamente, como todos sabemos. +Ahora tiene que ver con relacionarte con tus comunidades, conectar con tus redes sociales. +En mi libro, hablo de que un 72 por ciento de personas confa en lo que otras dicen sobre una compaa, y un 15 por ciento en la publicidad. +Por lo tanto, en este sentido, el consumismo cooperativo ha despegado. +Se trata de que los consumidores trabajen codo a codo para lograr lo que quieren del mercado. +Echemos un vistazo a algunos ejemplos. +El movimiento artesanal es inmenso. +Todo lo relacionado con productos y servicios locales, que favorecen a tu comunidad local, ya sea quesos, vinos u otros productos. +Tambin este surgimiento de la moneda local. +Comprendemos la dificultad para obtener prstamos en este contexto, y hacemos negocios con gente de confianza, en los mercados locales. +Con lo cual, el brote de esta moneda local es otro fenmeno de inters. +Recientemente se elabor un informe que creo que es fascinante. +En algunas comunidades de EE. UU. se empez a hacer pblico el consumo elctrico de sus habitantes. +Y lo que se pudo comprobar es que al exponerlo pblicamente, el consumo elctrico en cuestin se redujo. +Luego est la idea de la coop. vacuna , o lo que es lo mismo, el fenmeno de la organizacin conjunta de consumidores a la hora de comprar carne de granjas orgnicas seguras y controladas acorde con sus preferencias de control. +Y luego tenemos este otro movimiento interesante en California: los zanahoriazos (carrot mobs). +Lo tradicional sera boicotear, verdad? +Con un palo? Y por qu no con una zanahoria? +As que estos son consumidores organizados, uniendo sus peticiones para incentivar a la empresas a que lo hagan bien. +Y entonces vemos lo que las empresas pueden hacer. +Se presenta la oportunidad de ser un organizador de la comunidad. +Hay que comprender que no se puede luchar contra ello y controlarlo. +Hay que organizarlo. +Hay que asegurarlo. Hay que darle un significado. +Y existen muchsimos ejemplos interesantes que observamos. +En primer lugar, el hecho de que Zagat's haya movido pieza y dejado de evaluar slo restaurantes, para evaluar servicio sanitario. +Qu credenciales tiene Zagat's? +Pues tienen muchas: toda su red de personas. No es cierto? +Lo que significa una fuerza muy poderosa para ellos que vuelve su empresa ms elstica. +Luego observamos el fenmeno de Kogi. +Kogi no existe. Es un camin de mudanzas, verdad? +Se mueve por Los ngeles y la nica forma de localizarlos es a travs de Twitter. +Observamos la 'conversaciones de mams' de Johnson & Johnson. +Un blog fenomenolgico que se ha creado +en el cual J&J est indagando permitindoles crear un foro donde pueden comunicarse y conectar. +Y tambin se ha convertido en una forma de ingresos por publicidad para J&J. +Esto ms el espectacular trabajo de los gerentes de empresas desde Ford a Zappos, que conectan en Twitter, que crean un entorno abierto que permite a sus empleados participar en el proceso, y no esconderse detrs de una pared. +Vemos esta fuerza en ascenso en favor de una transparencia y apertura completas que las compaas empiezan a adoptar. Y todo porque el consumidor lo demanda. +Por lo tanto, si observamos esto y nos distanciamos, lo que de verdad creo es que esta crisis que existe hoy tiene que ser por fuerza real. +Ha sido escandalosamente poderosa para los consumidores. +Pero, al mismo tiempo, es una gran oportunidad. +Crisis y Oportunidad son la misma palabra en chino. Es la misma cara de la misma moneda. +Crisis equivale a oportunidad. +Lo que vemos ahora mismo en los consumidores es su capacidad para sacarnos de esta recesin. +As que, creemos que el gasto basado en calidad optimizar el capitalismo. +Lo innovar. +Crear productos de larga duracin. Crear una mejor atencin al cliente, ms intuitiva. +Nos brindar la oportunidad de conectar con empresas que comparten nuestros valores. +Cuando miramos hacia atrs y vemos el comienzo de estas tendencias que observamos en nuestros datos, contemplamos un cuadro muy esperanzador para el futuro de EE. UU. +Muchsimas gracias. +Uno de los mayores retos en computacin grfica ha sido el poder crear un rostro humano digital fotorrealista. +Y una de las razones por las que es tan difcil, a diferencia de aliengenas y dinosaurios, es porque observamos caras humanas todos los das. +Son muy importantes para la forma en que nos comunicamos con los dems. +Como resultado, estamos afinando las cosas ms sutiles que probablemente pudieran estar erradas en un renderizado computacional, a fin de considerar si estas cosas son realistas. +Y lo que voy a hacer en los prximos cinco minutos es llevarles a travs de un proceso donde intentamos crear un rostro generado por computadora razonablemente fotorrealista, usando algo de la tecnologa de computacin grfica que hemos desarrollado, y tambin algunos colaboradores de una compaa llamada Image Metrics. +Y vamos a intentar hacer una cara fotorrealista de una actriz llamada Emily O'Brian, quien est justo all. +Y ese es, de hecho, un renderizado totalmente generado en computadora de su cara. +Hacia el final de la charla, lo vamos a ver moverse. +La forma en que lo hicimos fue que, para comenzar, ensayamos con la propia Emily, quien fue tan amable de venir a nuestro laboratorio en Marina Del Rey, y posar para una sesin en la Light Stage 5. +sta es una esfera para escanear rostros, con 156 "LEDs" blancos en todo su contorno, que nos permite fotografiarla en una serie de condiciones de iluminacin muy controladas. +Y la iluminacin que usamos estos das se ve algo parecida a sta. +Tomamos todas estas fotografas en aproximadamente tres segundos. +Y bsicamente, capturamos suficiente informacin con los patrones de video-proyector extendidos sobre los contornos de su cara, y con las direcciones de las diferentes fuentes de luz de la Light Stage, como para resolver tanto el grano grueso como el detalle del grano fino de su cara. +Si ampliamos esta fotografa justo aqu, podemos ver que es una fotografa muy buena de ella, porque est absolutamente iluminada desde todos lados al mismo tiempo para conseguir una buena imagen de su textura facial. +Y adems, en efecto, hemos utilizado polarizadores para todas las luces -- exactamente como los lentes de sol polarizados pueden bloquear el resplandor del pavimento, los polarizadores pueden bloquear el brillo de la piel, as que no usamos todos esos reflejos especulares para hacer este mapa. +Ahora, si giramos los polarizadores slo un poco, podemos, realmente, devolver esa reflexin especular a la piel, y pueden ver que luce bastante brillante y grasosa en este punto. +Si tomas la diferencia entre estas dos imgenes aqu, puedes obtener una imagen iluminada por toda la esfera luz de nicamente el brillo de la tez de Emily. +Creo que ninguna fotografa as se haba tomado antes de que hubisemos hecho sta. +Y sta es una luz muy importante de captar, porque es la luz que se refleja en el primer estrato de la piel. +No alcanza las capas traslcidas inferiores de la piel y se dispersa. +Y, como resultado, es una referencia muy buena para la forma detallada de la estructura de los poros de la piel y la totalidad de finas arrugas que todos tenemos, cosas que efectivamente nos hacen lucir como humanos reales. +Bien, si usamos la informacin proveniente de esta reflexin especular podemos ir de un tradicional rostro escaneado que podra tener los burods contornos de la cara y la forma bsica, y mejorarlo con la informacin que introduce toda esa estructura de poros y finas arrugas. +Y, an ms importante, ya que es un proceso fotomtrico que slo toma tres segundos capturar, podemos fotografiar a Emily en apenas parte de una tarde, en poses y expresiones faciales muy diversas . +Bien, aqu pueden verla moviendo sus ojos alrededor, moviendo su boca alrededor. +Y estas, efectivamente, vamos a utilizarlas para crear un personaje digital fotorrealista. +Si echan una mirada a estas imgenes que obtuvimos de Emily, pueden ver que el rostro humano realiza una enorme cantidad de cosas asombrosas al formar distintas expresiones faciales. +Pueden ver cosas. No solo cambia la forma de la cara, sino que ocurren todo tipo de plegamientos y fruncimientos de la piel. +Pueden ver que la estructura porosa de la piel cambia enormemente, desde los poros estirados, hasta la textura regular de la piel. +Pueden ver los surcos en el ceo y como cambia la microestructura all. +Pueden ver los msculos tirando la carne para llevar sus cejas hacia abajo. +Sus msculos sobresaliendo en la frente cuando gesticula as. +Adems de este tipo de geometra de alta resolucin, ya que todo se captur con cmaras, contamos con un gran mapa de texturas que utilizar para su cara. +Y al explorar cmo los diferentes canales de color de la iluminacin, el rojo, y el verde y el azul, esparcen la luz diferentemente, podemos conseguir una forma de matizar la piel en la computadora. +Entonces, en vez de lucir como un maniqu de yeso, efectivamente, luce como hecho de carne y hueso. +Y esto es lo que hicimos para entregarlo a la compaa Image Metrics para crear una versin articulada de Emily. +Estamos apenas viendo la geometra en grueso aqu. +Pero, bsicamente, crearon un ttere digital de ella, donde ustedes pueden halar de las diversas cuerdas, y efectivamente, mover su cara en formas que son completamente consistentes con las imgenes que tomamos. +Y, adems de la geometra en grueso, tambin usaron todo aquel detalle para crear un juego de los llamados "mapas de desplazamiento" que tambin dan animacin. +Estos aqu son los mapas de desplazamiento. +Y de hecho, pueden ver esas diversas arrugas manifestndose mientras ella cobra animacin. +As que el siguiente proceso fue darle luego animacin a ella. +En realidad, usamos una de sus propias actuaciones para estipular los datos originales. +Bien, analizando este video con tcnicas de visin por computadora, ellos pudieron manejar el dispositivo facial con la ejecucin generada en el computador. +Por lo tanto, lo que van a ver ahora, despus de esto, es un rostro digital completamente fotorrealista. +Podemos subir un poco el volumen si es posible. +EMILY: Image Metrics es una compaa de animacin sin marcadores orientada por resultados. +Nos especializamos en animacin facial de alta calidad para videojuegos y pelculas. +Image Metrics es una compaa de animacin sin marcadores orientada por resultados. +Nos especializamos en animacin facial de alta calidad para videojuegos y pelculas. +PAUL DEBEVEC: Bien, si desglosamos eso en capas, aqu est aquel difuso componente que vimos en la primera diapositiva. +Aqu est el componente especular en animacin. +Pueden ver cmo todas las arrugas se presentan all. +Y all est la malla de la armadura lineal subyacente. +Y esa es la propia Emily. +Ahora, adnde vamos con esto? +Hemos ido un poquito ms all de la Light Stage 5. sta es Light Stage 6. Y estamos estudiando usar esta tecnologa y aplicarla a cuerpos humanos enteros. +ste es Bruce Lawmen, uno de nuestros investigadores en el equipo, quien gentilmente acept ser captado al correr en la Light Stage. +Y vamos a echar un vistazo a la versin generada por computadora de Bruce, corriendo en un nuevo ambiente. +Y muchsimas gracias. +El momento mgico, el momento mgico de dirigir. +Que es: Te subes al escenario; hay una orquesta sentada. +Estn todos, ya saben, calentando y en lo suyo. +Y me subo al podio. +Ya saben, la pequea oficina del director. +O ms bien, un cubculo, un cubculo abierto, con mucho espacio. +Y, delante de todo ese ruido, haces un gesto muy pequeo. +Algo parecido a esto, sin mucha pompa, no muy sofisticado, esto. +Y, de repente, enmedio del caos, orden. +El ruido se convierte en msica. +Esto es fantstico. Y es tan tentador pensar que todo gira en torno a m... +Todas estas personas increbles, virtuosos, ellos hacen ruido, me necesitan a m para conseguir eso. +No. En realidad no. Si fuera as, simplemente les ahorrara esta charla, y les enseara el gesto. +As, podran ir ah fuera y hacer esto en la empresa que sea o donde quieran, y tener armona perfecta. No funciona. +Veamos el primer vdeo. +Espero que crean que es un buen ejemplo de armona. +Y luego hablaremos un poco sobre cmo ocurre. +Ha sido agradable? +As que, si ha sido una especie de xito, +entonces, a quin deberamos agradecerle el xito? +Quiero decir, obviamente los msicos de la orquesta tocan maravillosamente, la Orquesta Filarmnica de Viena. +A menudo ni siquiera miran al director. +Luego tienen a la audiencia dando palmas, s, participando realmente en la ejecucin de la msica. +Ya saben, el pblico viens normalmente no interfiere con la msica. +Esto es lo ms cercano a una fiesta de danza del vientre oriental que podrn encontrarse jams en Viena. +No como en Israel, por ejemplo, donde el pblico tose todo el tiempo. +Saben? Arthur Rubinstein, el pianista, sola decir: "En cualquier lugar del mundo, la gente que tiene la gripe, va al doctor. +En Tel Aviv vienen a mis conciertos". +As que es una especie de tradicin. +Pero el pblico viens no hace eso. +Aqu hacen una excepcin, slo para formar parte de ello, para formar parte de la orquesta, y es sensacional. +Saben? El pblico, como ustedes, s, hacen el evento posible. +Pero, qu pasa con el director? Qu pueden decir sobre lo que el director haca en realidad? +Um, ll estaba...contento. +A menudo les enseo esto a altos directivos. +Y a la gente le molesta. +"Vienes a trabajar. Cmo es que ests tan contento?" +Tiene que haber algo mal aqu, no? Pero l est difundiendo felicidad. +Y yo creo que lo importante es que esta felicidad no viene slo de su propia historia y su disfrute con la msica. +La dicha consiste en hacer posible que las historias de otras personas sean odas al mismo tiempo. +Tienes la historia de la orquesta como cuerpo profesional. +Tienes la historia del pblico como una comunidad, s? +Y tienes las historias de los individuos en la orquesta y en el pblico. +Y luego hay otras historias que no se ven: +la gente que construy esta maravillosa sala de conciertos; +la gente que construy los Stradivarius, Amati, todos esos preciosos instrumentos. +Y todas estas historias estn siendo escuchadas al mismo tiempo. +Est es la experiencia real en un concierto en directo. +Esa es la razn para salir de casa, s? +Y no todos los directores hacen simplemente eso. +Veamos a alguien ms, a un gran director, +Riccardo Muti, por favor. +Bueno, ha sido un poco corto. Pero han podido ver que es una figura completamente diferente, verdad? +l es increble. Es muy autoritario, s? +Muy claro. Quizs demasiado claro. +Podemos hacer una pequea demostracin? Seran mi orquesta por un segundo? +Pueden cantar la primera nota de Don Giovanni, por favor? +Tienen que cantar "Aaaaaah", y yo les parar. +De acuerdo? Preparados? +Pblico: Aaaaaah... Itay Talgam: Pero, venga, conmigo. Si lo hacen sin m me voy a sentir incluso ms redundante de lo que ya me siento. +As que, por favor, esperen al director. +Ahora, mrenme. "Aaaaaah", y yo les parar. Vamos. +Pblico: ...Aaaaaah... Itay Talgam: Bueno, tendremos una pequea charla despus. +Pero...es que hay un puesto libre para... +Pero... han podido ver que se puede parar a una orquesta con un dedo. +Ahora, qu es lo que hace Riccardo Muti? Hace algo as... +Y luego, como que... As que no slo la instruccin est clara, tambin lo est la sancin, lo que ocurrir si no hacen lo que les digo. +As que, funciona? S, funciona, pero hasta cierto punto. +Cuando le preguntan a Muti, "Por qu diriges as?" +l dice: "Yo soy el responsable". +Responsable ante l. +No, no se refiere a l. Se refiere a Mozart, que est como en el tercer asiento desde el centro. +As que l dice: "Si yo -- Si yo soy responsable ante Mozart, esta ser la nica historia que ser contada. +Es Mozart tal y como yo, Riccardo Muti, lo entiendo". +Y saben lo que le ocurri a Muti? +Hace tres aos le lleg una carta firmada por todos los 700 empleados de La Scala, los empleados msicos, los msicos, diciendo: "Eres un gran director. No queremos trabajar contigo. Por favor, renuncia". +"Por qu? Porque no nos dejas desarrollarnos. +Nos usas como instrumentos, no como compaeros. +Y nuestro disfrute con la msica, etc., etc..." +As que tuvo que renunciar. No es bueno? +Es un gran tipo. Realmente un gran tipo. +Bueno, se puede hacer con menos control, o con un tipo de control diferente? +Veamos al siguiente director, Richard Strauss. +Temo que crean que le he elegido a l porque es una persona mayor. +No es verdad. Cuando era joven, cuando tena unos 30, escribi lo que l llam "Los diez mandamientos para los directores". +El primero era: Si sudas al final de un concierto significa que has debido hacer algo mal. +Ese es el primero. El cuarto les va a encantar. +Dice: Nunca mires a los trombones -- esto slo les anima. +As que la idea general es realmente dejar que todo suceda por s mismo. +No interferir. +Pero, cmo ocurre? Le vieron pasar las pginas en la partitura? +Ahora, o bien est senil, y no se acuerda de su propia msica, porque la escribi l, +o en realidad les est transfiriendo un importante mensaje, que dice: "Vamos, tenis que tocar lo que dice la partitura. +No se trata de mi historia. No se trata de vuestra historia. +Se trata slo de ejecutar la msica escrita, no de interpretacin". +La interpretacin es la historia real del artista. +As que, no, l no quiere eso. Ese es un tipo de control diferente. +Veamos otro super-director, un super-director alemn, Herbert von Karajan, por favor. +Qu es diferente? Han visto sus ojos? Cerrados. +Han visto las manos? +Han visto este tipo de movimiento? Djenme dirigirles a ustedes. Dos veces. +Una como Muti, y ustedes darn una palmada, slo una vez. +Y luego como Karajan. Veamos que ocurre, de acuerdo? +Como Muti. Preparados? Porque Muti... +De acuerdo? Listos? Hagmoslo. +Pblico: Itay Talgam: Mmm...otra vez. +Pblico: Itay Talgam: Bien. Ahora como Karajan. Ya que estn entrenados, djenme que me concentre, que cierre los ojos. Vamos, vamos. +Pblico: Itay Talgam: Por qu no todos juntos? Porque no saban cundo tocar. +Y les digo, incluso la Filarmnica de Berln no sabe cundo empezar tocar. +Pero les dir cmo lo hacen. Sin cinismos. +Esta es una orquesta alemana, s? +Miran a Karajan. Y luego, se miran unos a otros. +"T entiendes lo que quiere este tipo?" +Y despus de hacer esto, se miran realmente unos a otros, y los primeros msicos de la orquesta dirigen a todo el conjunto para tocar juntos. +Y cuando le preguntan a Karajan sobre esto, dice: "S, el peor dao que podra causarle a mi orquesta es darles una instruccin clara. +Porque eso impedira la unin, escucharse unos a otros, lo cual es necesario en una orquesta". +Esto es genial. Y qu pasa con los ojos? +Por qu tiene los ojos cerrados? +Hay una historia muy bonita sobre Karajan dirigiendo en Londres. +Le est dando la entrada a un flautista as. +El tipo no tiene ni idea de qu hacer. "Maestro, con todos mis respetos, cundo debo empezar?" +Y cul creen que fue la respuesta de Karajan? Cundo deba empezar? +"Ah, s", dice, "empieza cuando ya no puedas aguantar ms". +Lo que significa que debes saber que no tienes autoridad para cambiar nada. +Es mi msica. La msica real est slo en la mente de Karajan. +Y tienes que leer mi mente. As que ests bajo una tremenda presin porque no te doy la orden, y an as, debes leerme la mente. +Es un tipo de control diferente, muy espiritual, pero an as, un control muy firme. +Se puede hacer de otra manera? Por supuesto. Volvamos al primer director que hemos visto: se llama Carlos Kleiber. Siguiente video, por favor. +Bien, es diferente. Pero no est controlando de la misma forma? +No. Porque no les est diciendo qu deben hacer. +Cuando hace esto, no es "Coge tu Stradivarius y, como Jimi Hendrix, destrzalo contra el suelo". No, no es eso. +l dice: "Este es el gesto de la msica. +Estoy abriendo un espacio para que ustedes aadan otra capa de interpretacin". +Y eso es otra historia. +Pero, cmo funcionan realmente todos juntos si no les da instrucciones? +Es como estar en una montaa rusa, s? +No te estn dando instrucciones en realidad, pero las propias fuerzas del proceso te mantienen en tu sitio. +Y eso es lo que l hace. +Lo ms interesante es que la montaa rusa no existe realmente. +No es algo fsico. Est en la mente de los msicos. +Y eso es lo que les convierte en compaeros. +Tienes el plan en tu cabeza. +Sabes lo que tienes que hacer, incluso si Kleiber no te dirige +y est aqu y all. T sabes lo que hay que hacer. +Y te conviertes en un compaero al construir la montaa rusa, s, con sonido, al tiempo que te montas en ella. +Esto es muy emocionante para esos msicos. +Y luego necesitan ir a un sanatorio durante dos semanas. +Cansa mucho, s? +Pero es la mejor forma de crear msica, de esta forma. +Por supuesto, no se trata tan solo de motivacin y de transmitirles una gran cantidad de energa fsica. +Tambin debes ser muy profesional. +Miren otra vez esto, Kleiber. +Podemos poner el siguiente vdeo rpidamente? +Vern lo que pasa cuando ocurre un error. +De nuevo, ven un lenguage corporal muy bonito. +Pero ahora hay un trompetista que hace algo no exactamente de la manera en que debera hacerse. +Sigan el vdeo. Miren. +Ven? La segunda vez para el mismo msico. +Y una tercera vez para el mismo msico. +"Esprame despus del concierto. +Tengo que hacerte un pequeo anuncio". +Saben? Cuando se necesita, la autoridad est ah. Es muy importante. +Pero la autoridad no es suficiente para convertir a la gente en compaeros. +Veamos el siguiente vdeo, por favor. Vean lo que ocurre aqu. +Puede que se sorprendan habiendo visto a Kleiber como un tipo tan hiperactivo. +Aqu est dirigiendo Mozart. +Toda la orquesta est tocando. +Ahora algo diferente. +Ven? l est ah al cien por cien, pero no mandando, no diciendo lo que hay que hacer. +Ms bien disfrutando con lo que est haciendo el solista. +Ahora otro solo. A ver qu les llega de esto. +Miren los ojos. +Bien. Ven eso? +Lo primero es que es un tipo de halago que a todos nos gusta recibir. +No es una reaccin. Es un "Mmm...", s, viene de aqu. +Y eso es bueno. +Y lo segundo es que se trata de estar realmente en control, pero de una forma muy especial. +Cuando Kleiber hace...vieron sus ojos, yendo desde aqu? Saben lo que ocurre? Deja de existir la fuerza de gravedad. +Kleiber no slo crea un proceso, Tambin crea las condiciones del mundo en el que ocurre ese proceso. +As que, de nuevo, el oboe es completamente autnomo y, por lo tanto, feliz y orgulloso de su trabajo, y creativo, y todo eso. +Y el nivel en el que Kleiber est en control es un nivel diferente. +As que el control no es ms un juego de suma cero. +T tienes este control. Y al ponerlo todos juntos, en asociacin, se crea la mejor msica. +De modo que para Kleiber se trata de un proceso. +Para Kleiber se trata de las condiciones en ese mundo. +Pero se necesita tener un proceso y un contenido para crear el significado. +Lenny Bernstein, mi propio maestro, +como era un gran profesor, siempre empezaba por el significado. Miren esto, por favor. +Recuerdan la cara de Muti, al principio? +Bien, l tena una expresin magnfica, pero slo una. +Han visto la cara de Lenny? +Saben por qu? Porque el significado de la msica es dolor. +Y est sonando un sonido doloroso. +Y miran a Lenny y l est sufriendo, +pero no en una forma en que quieres que pare. +Es un sufrimiento como...disfrutando de una forma juda, como dicen. +Pero pueden ver la msica en su cara. +Pueden ver que deja la batuta. No ms batuta. +Ahora es sobre ti, sobre el msico que toca, contando la historia. +Ahora es al revs. T ests contando la historia. +E incluso si es brevemente, te conviertes en el narrador para la comunidad, para toda la comunidad que est escuchando. +Y Bernstain hace eso posible. No es maravilloso? +Bien, si ests haciendo todas estas cosas de las que hemos hablado, juntas, y quizs alguna otra, puedes llegar a este punto maravilloso de hacer sin hacer. +Y, para el ltimo vdeo, creo que este es simplemente el mejor ttulo. +Mi amigo Peter dice: "Si amas algo, djalo ir". As que, por favor... +25 aos atrs, le un artculo en un peridico que deca que un da las jeringas seran una de las mayores causas de la propagacin del SIDA de las transmisin del SIDA. +Pens que esto era inaceptable. As que decid hacer algo al respecto. +Lamentablemente, se volvi una realidad. La Malaria, como todos lo sabemos, mata aproximadamente 1 milln de personas al ao. +La reutilizacin de las jeringas hoy excede sta cantidad y mata 1.3 millones de personas por ao. +Esta joven muchacha y su amigo que conoc en un orfanato en Delhi, debido a una jeringa son HIV positivo. +Y lo ms triste de sta historia en particular era que una vez que sus padres descubrieron esto y no se olviden, sus padres los llevaron al medico, los echaron a la calle. +De sta forma terminaron en un orfanato. +Son situaciones como sta donde uno tiene profesionales calificados o no calificados, inyectando ciegamente a alguien. +Y la inyeccin es tan valiosa, que la gente bsicamente confa en el doctor, siendo casi un Dios, lo que he escuchado muchas veces, en hacer lo que es correcto. Pero de hecho, ellos no lo hacen. +Ustedes pueden entender, obviamente, el problema de transmisin entre personas en reas de alto riesgo. +ste video que tomamos encubiertos, nos muestra que en aproximadamente 30 minutos una bandeja de medicinas con 42 ampollas. Las cuales estn siendo inyectadas con slo 2 jeringas en un hospital publico de la India. +Y en el curso de media hora, ni una sola jeringa fue filmada siendo estrenada. +Iniciaron con 2 y terminaron con 2. +Y ustedes veran, justo ahora, una enfermera volviendo a la bandeja, la cual es como una estacin modular, y dejando la jeringa que acaba de utilizar para que sta sea utilizada una vez ms. +Ahora pueden imaginarse la escala de ste problema. +De hecho slo en la India, el 62% de todas las inyecciones suministradas son inseguras. +sto nios en Pakistn no van a la escuela. +Ellos son afortunados. Ellos ya tienen un trabajo. +Su trabajo consiste en recoger jeringas de los desechos de los hospitales, las lavan, y en el proceso se lastiman ellos mismos. +Despus las empaquetan nuevamente y las venden en los mercados inclusive por ms dinero que un jeringa estril. Lo cual es bastante extrao. +En China, el reciclaje es un tema muy importante. +Son recolectadas en masa, pueden ver la escala de esto aqu, son seleccionadas a mano y agrupadas por tamao; y luego son devueltas a las calles. +As, el reciclado y el reuso son un tema muy importante. +Una ancdota muy interesante que me sucedi en Indonesia. +En las escuelas de Indonesia generalmente existe un vendedor de juguetes en el patio +El vendedor de juguetes, en ste caso tena jeringas, y normalmente las tienen, vecinos a los escarbadores, lo cual obviamente uno esperara. +Y las utilizan, en los recesos, como pistolas de agua. +Y se mojan entre ellos. Algo muy tierno e inocente. +y se divierten mucho +Pero tambin beben de ellas durante los recesos, debido al calor. +Y exprimen el agua en sus bocas +Y stas son utilizadas con rastros de sangre visible en ellas. +Necesitamos un mejor producto. Y necesitamos mejor informacin. +Y creo, si la cmara me puede seguir, Voy a mostrarles mi invencin, la solucin que se me ocurri. +Es una jeringa con aspecto normal. +Uno la carga de forma normal. Est fabricada con equipos ya existentes en 14 fabricas con nuestra licencia. +Uno utiliza la jeringa y despus la deja. +S alguien luego trata de usarla, se asegura y se rompe. +Es muy sencillo. Gracias. +Y cuesta igual que las jeringas normales. +Y en comparacin a una Coca-Cola que tiene 10 veces el precio. +Y detendr el uso repetido de las jeringas por 20 30 veces. +Tengo una institucin de beneficencia que brinda informacin y ha realizado un trabajo muy extenso en la India. +Estamos muy orgullosos de brindar informacin a la gente. Para que nios como estos, no hagan cosas estupidas. +Muchas Gracias. +El futuro, tal y como lo conocemos, es bastante impredecible. +Las mejores mentes de las mejores instituciones normalmente no lo comprenden. +Ocurre en la tecnologa. Ocurre en el mbito poltico, en el que los expertos, la CIA, el M16 nunca lo comprenden. +Y sin lugar a dudas ocurre en el mbito financiero. +Con instituciones creadas para pensar en el futuro, el FMI, el BPI, el Fondo de Estabilidad Financiera, no vieron lo que se avecinaba. +Ms de 20.000 economistas cuyo trabajo es se, con frrea competencia para entrar, no vieron lo que estaba ocurriendo. +La globalizacin se est haciendo ms compleja. +Y este cambio se est haciendo ms rpido. +El futuro ser ms impredecible. +Urbanizacin, integracin, cuando se unen, conducen a un nuevo renacimiento. +As fue hace mil aos. +Los ltimos 40 aos han sido tiempos extraordinarios. +La esperanza de vida ha aumentado alrededor de 25 aos. +Llevamos desde la edad de piedra para lograrlo. +Han aumentado los ingresos para la mayor parte de la poblacin mundial, a pesar de que la poblacin ha aumentado en alrededor de dos mil millones en este periodo. +Y el analfabetismo ha disminudo, de la mitad a alrededor de un cuarto de la poblacin. +Una enorme oportunidad, liberadora de un nuevo potencial para la innovacin, para el desarrollo. +Pero hay un punto dbil. +La globalizacin tiene dos talones de Aquiles. +Est el taln de Aquiles de una desigualdad cada vez mayor. Aquellos que se quedan al margen, aquellos que se sienten enojados, aquellos que no estn participando. La globalizacin no ha sido inclusiva. +El segundo taln de Aquiles es la complejidad. Una fragilidad cada vez mayor, una debilidad cada vez mayor. +Lo que ocurre en un lugar rpidamente afecta a todo lo dems. +Es un riesgo sistmico, una conmocin sistmica. +Lo hemos visto con la crisis financiera. Lo hemos visto en la gripe pandmica. +Se har virulenta y es algo frente a lo que tenemos que hacernos resistentes. +Mucho de esto est motivado por lo que est ocurriendo en la tecnologa. +Han habido saltos enormes. Habr una mejora multiplicada por un milln en lo que puedes tener por el mismo precio en informtica antes del 2030. +Eso es lo que seala la experiencia en los tlimos 20 aos. +Continuar. +Nuestros ordenadores, nuestros sitemas sern tan primitivos como los del Apolo lo son hoy. +Nuestros mviles son ms potentes que toda la nave espacial Apolo. +Nuestros mviles son ms potentes que algunos de los ordenadores ms robustos de hace 20 aos. +Qu supondr esto? +Crear enormes oportunidades en el mbito tecnolgico. +La miniaturizacin tambin. +Existirn una capacidad invisible. Una capacidad invisible en nuestros cuerpos, en nuestros cerebros, en el aire. +Esto es un caro del polvo en una nanorplica. +Esta especie de habilidad para hacerlo todo de forma diferente libera potencial, especialmente en el mbito de la medicina. +Esto es un clula madre que hemos desarrollado aqu en Oxford, a partir de una clula embrionaria. +Podemos desarrollar cualquier parte del cuerpo. +Cada vez ms, con el paso del tiempo, ser posible a partir de nuestra piel... seremos capaces de replicar partes del cuerpo. +Un potencial fantstico para la medicina regenerativa. +No creo que haya unas Olimpiadas especiales mucho despus del 2030, debido a esta capacidad para regenerar partes del cuerpo. +Pero la pregunta es, "Quin la tendr?" +El otro desarrollo importante va a ser en el mbito de la gentica. +La capacidad para crear, como ha sido modificado genticamente este ratn, algo que va tres veces ms rpido, dura tres veces ms, podramos reducir, como puede este ratn, a la edad de lo que equivale a nuestros 80 aos, utilizando casi la misma cantidad de comida. +Pero estar slo disponible para los super ricos, para los que se lo pueden permitir? Nos encaminamos hacia una nueva eugenesia? +Slo aquellos que pueden permitrselo podrn ser esta super raza del futuro? +As que la gran pregunta para nosotros es, Cmo gestionamos este cambio tecnolgico?" +Cmo nos aseguramos de que cree una tecnologa ms inclusiva, una tecnologa que signifique que no slo conforme nos hagamos mayores, tambin nos hagamos ms sabios, y que seamos capaces de mantener a las poblaciones del futuro? +Una de las manifestaciones ms drsticas de estas mejoras ser la transformacin de las pirmides de poblacin, a lo que podramos denominar "ataudes de poblacin". +No es probable que haya pensin o una edad de jubilacin en 2030. +Sern conceptos redundantes. Y no es slo algo propio de Occidente. +Los cambios ms drsticos sern el rascacielos especie de nuevas pirmides, que tendrn lugar en China y en otros muchos pases. +As que olvdense de las jubilaciones si son jvenes. +Olvdense de las pensiones. Piensen en la vida y donde va a trascurrir. +Por supuesto, la migracin cobrar an ms importancia. +La guerra sobre el talento, la necesidad de atraer gente con todo tipo de destrezas, para movernos en nuestras sillas de ruedas, pero tambin para impulsar nuestras economas. Nuestra innovacin ser vital. +El empleo en los pases ricos pasar de 800 a alrededor de 700 millones. +Esto supondra un salto enorme en la migracin. +De modo que las preocupaciones xenfobas de hoy de la migracin, cambiarn por completo, puesto que necesitamos a gente que nos ayude a solucionar nuestras pensiones y economas en el futuro. +Y despues, estn los riesgos sistmicos. +Entendemos que se har mucho ms virulentos, que lo que percibimos hoy, es este entrelazado de sociedades, de sistemas, promovidos por las tecnologas, y acelerados por los sistemas de gestin JAT. +Unas reservas reducidas hacen depender sobre otras personas la capacidad de recuperacin . +La desaparicin de la biodiversidad, el cambio climtico, las pandemias, las crisis financieras: stas sern las divisas en las que pensaremos. +De tal modo que tendr que surgir una nueva conciencia, de cmo no ocupamos de ellas, cmo nos movilizamos, de una forma nueva, y nos unimos como una comunidad para gestionar el riesgo sistmico. +Se va a necesitar innovacin. +Se va a necesitar comprender que la gloria de la globalizacin podra ser tambin su cada. +Podra ser el mejor de los siglos gracias a los logros. O podra ser el peor. +Y por supuesto tenemos que preocuparnos de los individuos. Especialmente de los individuos que se sienten marginados, de una u otra manera. +Un individuo por primera vez, en la historia de la humanidad, tendr la capacidad, antes del 2030, de destruir el planeta, de destrozarlo todo, creando, por ejemplo, un biopatgeno. +Cmo comenzamos a entretejer estos tapices? +Cmo abordamos los sitemas complejos de formas diferentes? +se ser el resto de los expertos, y de todos nosotros implicados en pensar en el futuro. +El resto de nuestras vidas estar en el futuro. Tenemos que prepararnos ya. +Tenemos que comprender que la estructura de gobierno est fosilizada. +No puede comenzar a hacer frente a los restos que supondr. +Tenemos que desarrollar una nueva forma de gestionar el planeta, colectivamente, por medio de la sabidura colectiva. +Sabemos, y s, por mi propia experiencia, que pueden ocurrir cosas increbles, cuando los individuos y las sociedades se unen para cambiar su futuro. +Me march de Surfrica. Y 15 aos ms tarde, despus de creer que nunca volvera, tuve el privilegio y el honor de trabajar en el gobierno de Nelson Mandela. +Fue un milagro. Podemos hacer milagros, colectivamente, a lo largo de nuestra vida. +Es vital que lo hagamos. +Es vital que las ideas que se cultivan en TED que las ideas en las que pensamos, se proyecten hacia el futuro, y nos aseguremos de que ser el siglo ms glorioso, y no el de el ecodesastre, o la ecodestruccin. +Gracias. +Estoy seguro que, a lo largo de cientos de miles de aos de existencia de nuestra especie e incluso antes nuestros ancestros contemplaron el cielo nocturno y se preguntaban qu son las estrellas. +Preguntndose, por lo tanto, cmo explicar lo que vean en trminos de cosas nunca antes vistas. +Entonces, la mayora de la gente slo se preguntaba esas cosas ocasionalmente, como hoy en da, durante el tiempo libre de las actividades que los preocupaban normalmente. +Pero lo que normalmente les preocupaba tambin involucraba un deseo por saber. +Ellos deseaban saber cmo prevenir que el alimento les faltara algunas veces, y saber que podran descansar cuando estaban agotados sin correr el riesgo de morir de hambre, estar abrigados, frescos, seguros con menos dolor. +Puedo apostar que a esos pintores prehistricos de las cavernas les hubiese encantado saber cmo dibujar mejor. +En cada aspecto de sus vidas, ellos deseaban progresar, al igual que hacemos nosotros. +Pero fallaron, casi completamente, en lograr algn progreso. +No saban cmo lograrlo. +Descubrimientos como el fuego ocurren tan raramente, que desde la perspectiva individual, el mundo nunca mejoraba. +Nada nuevo se aprenda. +La primera clave para comprender el origen de la luz de las estrellas apareci recin en 1899: la radioactividad. +En 40 aos los fsicos descubrieron la explicacin completa expresada, como es usual, en elegantes smbolos. +Pero, olvidemos los smbolos. +Piensen cuntos descubrimientos representan esos smbolos. +Ncleos y reacciones nucleares, por supuesto. +Pero tambin istopos, partculas de electricidad, antimateria, neutrinos la conversin de masa a energa -- es decir E=mc^2 -- rayos gamma, transmutaciones. +Ese antiguo sueo que siempre eludi a los alquimistas fue alcanzado a travs de estas mismas teoras que explicaron la luz de las estrellas y otros misterios antiguos, y nuevos e inesperados fenmenos. +Que todo eso, descubierto en 40 aos, no lo haba sido [descubierto] en los cientos de miles de aos anteriores, no por falta de pensamiento acerca de las estrellas, y todos problemas urgentes que tenan. +Incluso llegaron a respuestas, como los mitos, que dominaron sus vidas, pero que no tenan casi ninguna relacin con la verdad. +Lo trgico de aquel prolongado estancamiento no es, creo yo, debidamente reconocido. +Aquellas eran personas con cerebros de esencialmente el mismo diseo que el que eventualmente s pudo descubrir estas cosas. +Pero la habilidad para hacer progresos permaneci prcticamente sin uso hasta el evento que revolucion la condicin humana y cambi el universo. +O eso deberamos esperar. +Porque ese evento fue la revolucin cientfica desde la cual nuestro conocimiento del mundo fsico y de cmo adaptarlo a nuestros deseos ha ido creciendo implacablemente. +Ahora, qu haba cambiado? +Qu estaba haciendo la gente por primera vez que haca la diferencia entre el estancamiento y la rpida e interminable sucesin de descubrimientos? +Cmo hacer esa diferencia es seguramente la verdad universal ms importante que es posible conocer. +Desgraciadamente, no hay consenso acerca de qu es. +As que, yo se los dir. +Pero antes tendr que dar marcha atrs un poco. +Antes de la revolucin cientfica, se crea que todo lo importante, digno de saberse, ya era conocido, consagrado en antiguos libros, instituciones, y en algunas reglas de comportamiento genuinamente tiles. las cuales estaban, sin embargo, arraigadas como dogmas, junto a muchas mentiras. +As que se crea que el conocimiento provena de las autoridades que, en realidad, saban muy poco. +Y por lo tanto el progreso consista en aprender a rechazar la autoridad de hombres educados, sacerdotes, tradicionalistas y gobernantes. +Esta es la razn por la que la revolucin cientfica tuvo que tener un contexto ms amplio: +la Ilustracin, una revolucin en la forma en que las personas buscaban el conocimiento tratando de no confiar en las autoridades. +"No tomes por cierta la palabra de nadie" +Pero eso no puede ser lo que hizo la diferencia. +Las autoridades haban sido criticadas anteriormente, muchas veces. +Y eso muy raramente, o nunca, causaba nada parecido a una revolucin cientfica. +En esa poca, lo que se crea que distingua a la ciencia era una idea radical acerca de las cosas nunca antes vistas, conocido como empirismo. +Todo el conocimiento se deriva de los sentidos. +Bueno, hemos visto que eso no puede ser cierto. +S ayudan, por supuesto, promoviendo la observacin y la experimentacin. +Pero, desde el inicio, estaba claro que haba algo terriblemente errado en eso. +El conocimiento proviene de los sentidos? +En qu idioma? Ciertamente no en lenguaje matemtico, en el que, como dijo correctamente Galileo, est escrito el libro de la naturaleza. +Miren al mundo. No ven ecuaciones inscriptas en las montaas. +Si as lo hicieran, sera porque hubo gente que las tall all. +Por cierto, por qu no hacemos eso? +Qu nos pasa? +El empirismo es inadecuado porque, bueno, las teoras cientficas explican las cosas vistas en trminos de las no vistas. +Y las no vistas, hay que admitirlo, no nos vienen a travs de los sentidos. +No vemos esas reacciones nucleares en las estrellas. +No vemos el origen de las especies. +No vemos la curvatura del espacio-tiempo. ni otros universos. +Pero sabemos sobre todas esas cosas. +Cmo? +Bueno, la clsica respuesta empirista es induccin. +Lo no visto se parece a lo visto. +Pero no es as. +Ustedes saben cun dbil fue la evidencia de que el espacio-tiempo es curvo. +Fue una fotografa, no del espacio-tiempo, sino de un eclipse, con un punto que en vez de estar ah, estaba all. +Y la evidencia de la evolucin? +Algunas rocas y algunos pinzones. +Y de los universos paralelos? Otra vez: puntos ah, en lugar de all, en una pantalla. +Lo que vemos, en todos estos casos, no tiene ningun parecido con la realidad que concluimos es la responsable -- slo una larga cadena de razonamientos tericos y de interpretaciones, los conecta. +"Ah!" dicen los creacionistas, +"Entonces admites que todo es cuestin de interpretaciones" +Nadie vio jams la evolucin. +Vemos rocas. +Usted tiene su interpretacin. Nosotros tenemos la nuestra. +La suya viene de conjeturas la nuestra, de la Biblia." +Pero lo que tanto creacionistas como empiristas ignoran es que, en ese sentido, nadie ha visto nunca una biblia tampoco, que el ojo slo detecta luz, que no percibimos. +El cerebro slo detecta impulsos nerviosos. +Y ni siquiera percibimos esos impulsos como lo que realmente son, es decir, seales elctricas. +As que nosotros no percibimos nada como realmente es. +Nuestra conexin con la realidad no es nunca percepcin solamente. +Est siempre, como dijo Karl Popper, cargada de teora. +El conocimiento cientfico no se deriva de nada. +Es como todo conocimiento. Es conjetural, basado en prueba y error, comprobado mediante la observacin, y no derivado de ella. +As que, fueron las conjeturas comprobables la gran innovacin que abri las puertas de la prisin intelectual? +No. Al contrario de lo que usualmente se dice, la comprobabilidad es comn en mitos y en toda clase de formas irracionales de pensamiento. +Cualquier manitico que diga que el sol saldr el prximo martes tiene una prediccin comprobable. +Consideren el antiguo mito griego que explica las estaciones. +Hades, Dios del Inframundo, secuestra a Persfone, la Diosa de la Primavera, y negocia un matrimonio forzado, requirindole a ella que retorne regularmente, y la deja ir. +Y cada ao, ella se siente mgicamente obligada a volver. +Y su madre, Demter, Diosa de la Tierra, est triste, y hace la tierra fra y seca. +Ese mito es comprobable. +Si el invierno es causado por la tristeza de Demter entonces debe ocurrir en toda la Tierra, simultneamente. +As que si los antiguos griegos hubiesen sabido que Australia est en su poca ms clida cuando Demter est triste, habran sabido que su teora era falsa. +Entonces, Qu estaba mal en ese mito, y en todos los pensamientos pre cientficos, y qu, entonces, hizo la diferencia? +Creo que hay una cosa de la que hay que ocuparse. +Y esto implica comprobabilidad, el mtodo cientfico, la Ilustracin, y todo eso. +Y aqu est el punto crucial. +Hay algo as como un defecto en la historia. +No me refiero solamente a defectos lgicos. Me refiero a una mala explicacin. +Qu significa eso? Bueno, una explicacin es una afirmacin acerca de lo que est all, lo invisible, que nos aclara lo que vemos. +Porque el papel explicativo del casamiento de Persfone podra ser alcanzado mediante muchas otras, infinitas, explicaciones ad hoc. +Por qu un casamiento y no cualquier otra razn para este suceso anual? +Aqu va uno. Persfone no fue liberada. +Se escap, y retorna cada primavera para vengarse de Hade con sus poderes vernales. +Ella calma sus dominios con un aire de primavera enviando aire caliente a la superficie, creando el verano. +Esto explica los mismos fenmenos que el mito original. +Es igualmente comprobable. +Sin embargo, lo que afirma sobre la realidad es, en varias maneras, lo opuesto. +Y esto es posible porque los detalles del mito original no tienen relacin con las estaciones, excepto a travs del propio mito. +Esta facilidad de variacin es el signo de una mala explicacin. Porque, sin una razn funcional para preferir una de entre tantas variantes, abogar por una de ellas, en detrimento de las otras, es irracional. +Entonces, para lograr la esencia que hace la diferencia que permite el progreso, hay que buscar buenas explicaciones, aquellas que no puedan ser fcilmente modificadas, sin que dejen de explicar el fenmeno. +Ahora, nuestra actual explicacin de las estaciones es que el eje de la Tierra est inclinado por lo que cada hemisferio est inclinado hacia el sol durante la mitad del ao, y alejado durante la otra mitad. +Mejor pongo esa aclaracin. +Esta es una buena explicacin: difcil de variar, porque cada detalle tiene un rol funcional. +Por ejemplo, sabemos, independientemente de las estaciones, que las superficies inclinadas hacia afuera de la fuente caliente de radiacin son calentadas menos, y que una esfera girando, en el espacio, apunta en una direccin constante. +Y la inclinacin tambin explica los diferentes ngulos de elevacin en los diferentes momentos del ao, y predice que las estaciones estarn desfasadas en los dos hemisferios. +Si se hubiesen observado en fase, la teora habra sido refutada. +Pero ahora, el hecho de que es una buena explicacin, difcil de variar, hace una diferencia crucial. +Si los antiguos griegos se hubiesen enterado de las estaciones en Australia, podran haber variado fcilmente su mito para predecir eso. +Por ejemplo, cuando Demter est molesta, aleja el calor de su cercana, hacia el otro hemisferio, donde entonces comienza el verano. +Entonces, habiendo sido probada como errnea por observacin, y cambiando la teora de acuerdo a esto, los antiguos griegos no se habran acercado ni un poco al entendimiento de las estaciones, porque sus explicaciones eran malas: muy fciles de variar. +Y solamente cuando una explicacin es buena es que importa si es verificable. +Si la teora de la inclinacin del eje hubiese sido refutada, sus defensores no habran tenido ningn lugar para ir. +Ningn cambio fcilmente implementado podra hacer que la inclinacin provoque que ambos hemisferios tengan las mismas estaciones simultneamente. +La bsqueda de explicaciones difciles de variar es el origen de todo el progreso. +Es el principio bsico que regula la Ilustracin. +Entonces, en la ciencia, dos falsos enfoques frustran el progreso. +Uno es bien conocido: teoras imposibles de probrar. +Pero lo ms importante son las teoras faltas de explicacin. +Cuando alguien les dice que algunas tendencias estadsticas continuarn, pero no da una explicacin difcil de variar que explique esa tendencia, les estn diciendo que lo hizo un mago. +Cuando se dice que las zanahorias tiene derechos humanos porque comparten la mitad de nuestros genes pero no se dice por qu los parecidos en genes otorgan derechos -- un mago. +Cuando alguien dice que el debate entre naturaleza y educacin est terminado porque hay evidencia de que un determinado porcentaje de nuestras opiniones polticas estn genticamente determinadas, pero no explica cmo los genes generan opiniones, entonces no han terminado nada. Estn diciendo que nuestras opiniones estn causadas por magos, y muy probablemente, tambin las de ellos. +Que la verdad consiste en afirmaciones difciles de variar acerca de la realidad es el hecho ms importante de nuestro mundo fsico. +Es un hecho que es, en s mismo, invisible, pero imposible de variar. Gracias. +Todas las edificaciones de hoy tienen algo en comn: +Estn hechas con tecnologa victoriana. +Esto abarca planos, manufactura industrial y construccin usando equipos de trabajadores. +Todo este esfuerzo concluye en un objeto inerte. +Y eso significa que hay transferencia de energa en una sola direccin, desde nuestro ambiente hacia nuestras casas y ciudades. +Esto no es sostenible. +Creo que el nico modo de que sea posible para nosotros construir casas y ciudades genuinamente sustentables es conectndolas con la naturaleza, no aislndolas de ella. +Ahora, para hacerlo, necesitamos el tipo de lenguaje adecuado. +Los sistemas vivos estn en dilogo constante con el mundo natural, gracias a conjuntos de reacciones qumicas llamadas metabolismo. +Y esto es la conversin de un grupo de sustancias en otro, ya sea mediante la produccin o la absorcin de energa. +Y sta es la manera en que los materiales vivos aprovechan al mximo sus recursos locales de un modo sustentable. +Por lo tanto, estoy interesada en el uso de materiales metablicos para la prctica de la arquitectura. +Pero ellos no existen. As que tengo que producirlos. +Estoy trabajando con el Arquitecto Neil Spiller en la Escuela de Arquitectura Bartlett. Y estamos colaborando con cientficos internacionales para generar estos nuevos materiales a partir de un enfoque "ascendente". +Lo que significa que estamos generndolos desde cero. +Uno de nuestros colaboradores es el qumico Martin Hanczyk, y l est muy interesado en la transicin de materia inerte a viva. +Ahora, se es exactamente el tipo de proceso en el que estoy interesada, cuando estamos pensando en materiales sustentables. +Bien, Martin, l trabaja con un sistema llamado Protocell. +Ahora, todo esto es -- y es mgico -- es un pequeo saco grasoso. Y posee una batera qumica dentro de s. +Y no contiene ADN. +Este pequeo saco es capaz de conducirse a s mismo de una forma que slo puede ser descrita como viviente. +Es capaz de desplazarse por su ambiente. +Puede seguir gradientes qumicos. +Puede experimentar reacciones complejas, algunas de las cuales son afortunadamente arquitectnicas. +As que aqu estamos. stas son protoclulas, creando patrones en su medio. +An desconocemos cmo lo hacen. +Aqu, sta es una protoclula, y est mudando su piel enrgicamente. +Ahora, esto se ve como una suerte de nacimiento qumico. +ste es un proceso violento. +Aqu, hemos obtenido una protoclula para extraer dixido de carbono de la atmsfera y convertirlo en carbonato. +Y sa es la concha alrededor de esa grasa globular. +Son absolutamente frgiles. As que, nicamente han captado parte de una all. +Por lo tanto, lo que estamos intentando hacer es presionar estas tecnologas hacia la creacin de enfoques "ascendentes" de construccin para la arquitectura, lo que contrasta con los habituales, victorianos, mtodos "descendentes" que imponen a la estructura por sobre la materia. +Eso no puede ser energticamente sensible. +As que, los materiales "ascendentes" realmente existen hoy en da. +Han estado en uso, en arquitectura, desde la antigedad. +Si deambulan por la ciudad de Oxford, donde estamos hoy, y echan un vistazo a la mampostera, lo cual he disfrutado hacer en el ltimo par de aos, en efecto, vern que gran parte de ella est hecha con piedra caliza. +Y si miran an ms cerca, vern, en esa caliza, que hay pequeas conchas y pequeos esqueletos que estn apilados unos sobre otros. +Y que luego son fosilizados durante millones de aos. +Ahora, un bloque de caliza, en s mismo, no es particularmente interesante. +Luce bello. +Pero imaginen lo que las propiedades de este bloque de caliza podran ser si la superficie estuviere realmente en dilogo con la atmsfera. +Quizs pudieran extraer el dixido de carbono. +Esto le otorgara nuevas propiedades al bloque de caliza? +Bueno, lo ms probable es que lo hara. Podra ser capaz de crecer. +Podra ser capaz de autorrepararse, e incluso responder a cambios dramticos en el entorno inmediato. +Bueno, los arquitectos nunca estn felices con slo un bloque de un material interesante. +Ellos piensan en grande. OK? +Por lo tanto, cuando pensamos en escalar materiales metablicos, podemos comenzar pensando en intervenciones ecolgicas como la reparacin de atolones, o la recuperacin de partes de una ciudad que estn daadas por el agua. +Entonces, uno de estos ejemplos sera, por seguro, la histrica ciudad de Venecia. +Ahora, Venecia, como saben, tiene una relacin tempestuosa con el mar, y est edificada sobre pilares de madera. +As que hemos divisado un mtodo por el cual sera posible para la tecnologa protocelular con la que estamos trabajando recuperar de modo sostenible a Venecia. +Y el arquitecto Cristian Kerrigan se ha acercado con una serie de diseos que nos muestran cmo sera posible, en efecto, hacer crecer un arrecife de piedra caliza debajo de la ciudad. +Por lo tanto, aqu est la tecnologa que poseemos hoy. +sta es nuestra tecnologa protocelular, efectivamente creando una coraza, como sus antepasados de la caliza, y depositndola en un ambiente muy complejo, contra materiales naturales. +Estamos examinando los reticulados de cristal para ver el proceso de enlace en esto. +Ahora, sta es la parte ms interesante. +No deseamos a la caliza simplemente depositada en cualquier lugar de los bellos canales. +Lo que necesitamos es hacer que est creativamente conformada alrededor de los pilares de madera. +Entonces, pueden ver en estos diagramas que la protoclula est, de hecho, alejndose de la luz, hacia las oscuras fundaciones. +Hemos observado esto en el laboratorio. +Las protoclulas pueden alejarse efectivamente de la luz. +Ellas pueden, en realidad, desplazarse hacia la luz tambin. Slo tienen que seleccionar su especie. +Para que stas no slo existan como una nica entidad, en cierto modo, las manipulamos qumicamente. +Y he aqu que las protoclulas estn depositando su caliza muy especficamente, alrededor de las fundaciones de Venecia, efectivamente petrificndola. +Ahora, esto no va a ocurrir maana. Va a tomar un tiempo. +Va a tomar aos afinar y monitorear esta tecnologa a fin de que podamos tenerla lista para ensayarla, con base en cada caso, en los edificios ms daados y estresados dentro de la ciudad de Venecia. +Pero gradualmente, a medida que los edificios son reparados, veremos la acumulacin de un arrecife de caliza bajo la ciudad. +Una acumulacin de por s es un enorme vertedero de dixido de carbono. +Tambin atraer a la ecologa marina local, que encontrar sus propios nichos ecolgicos dentro de esta arquitectura. +Entonces, esto es muy interesante. Ahora tenemos una arquitectura que conecta a una ciudad con el mundo natural de un modo directo e inmediato. +Pero quizs lo ms excitante sobre ello es que la operadora de esta tecnologa est disponible por doquier. +Es la qumica terrestre. Todos la tenemos. Lo cual significa que esta tecnologa es igualmente apropiada para pases en desarrollo como lo es para pases del primer mundo. +Bien, en resumen, estoy generando materiales metablicos en contraposicin a tecnologas victorianas, y edificando arquitectura a partir de un enfoque "ascendente". +Segundo, estos materiales metablicos tienen algunas propiedades de los sistemas vivos, lo cual significa que pueden actuar de modos similares. +De ellos puede esperarse que tengan un montn de formas y funciones dentro de la prctica de la arquitectura. +Y finalmente, un observador en el futuro maravillndose frente a una hermosa estructura en el ambiente, podra encontrar casi imposible especificar si esta estructura ha sido creada por un proceso natural o uno artificial. +Gracias. +Soy escritora y periodista, y tambin soy una persona extremadamente curiosa. As que en 22 aos como periodista he aprendido a hacer muchas cosas nuevas. +Y hace tres aos, una de las cosas que aprend fue a hacerme invisible. +Me convert en una persona trabajadora sin hogar. +Dej mi trabajo como editora del peridico despus de que mi padre falleciera en febrero de ese mismo ao, y decid viajar. +Su fallecimiento me afect profundamente +y haba muchas cosas que quera sentir y hacer frente en ese momento. +He ido de acampada toda mi vida y decid que vivir en mi camioneta un ao para afrontarlo sera como un largo viaje de campamento. +As que met a mi gato, a mi rottweiler, y mi equipo de campamento en mi camioneta Chevy 1975 y conduje hacia el ocaso, sin haberme dado cuenta de tres ideas fundamentales. +Una: la sociedad cree que vivir en una estructura permanente, incluso en una casucha representa tu valor como persona. +Dos: no me di cuenta lo de rpido que la percepcin negativa de las personas puede afectar nuestra realidad si lo permitimos. +Tres: fall en darme cuenta de que ser desahuciado es una actitud, no un estilo de vida. +Al principio, vivir en la camioneta fue genial. +Me baaba en campamentos. Coma con regularidad. +Tuve tiempo para relajarme y afrontar mi duelo. +Pero llegaron la ira y la depresin por la muerte de mi padre. +Mi trabajo termin. Y necesitaba conseguir un trabajo a tiempo completo para pagar las facturas. +Lo que haba sido una primavera tranquila se transform en un miserable y caluroso verano. +Me fue imposible estancionarme en cualquier lugar -- -- si no fuera tan obvio que tena a un gato y a un perro conmigo, y haca mucha calor. +El gato iba y vena a travs de una ventana abierta de la camioneta. +El perrito se fu a su pensin canina. +Y yo sudaba. +Cada vez que poda utilizaba duchas de empleados en las oficinas y en paradas de camiones. +O me lavaba en baos pblicos. +Por la noche, la temperatura en la camioneta rara vez bajaba de 27C dificultando o imposibilitando dormir. +La comida se descompona por el calor. +El hielo de mi congelador se derreta en pocas horas, era miserable. +No poda encontrar un apartamento o pagar uno que me permitiera tener a un rottweiler y a un gato. +Me negu a deshacerme de ellos. As que me qued en la camioneta +Y cuando el calor me agotaba tanto que no poda ni caminar hasta el bao pblico afuera de mi camioneta por la noche, usaba una cubeta y una bolsa para la basura como WC. +Cuando el fro del invierno lleg, la temperatura baj por debajo de 0C. Y continu as. +Me enfrentaba a nuevos retos. +Me estacionaba en diferentes lugares cada noche para evitar hacerme notar y meterme en los con la polica. +No siempre lo consegua. +Senta mi vida fuera de control. +Y no saba cmo ni cundo haba ocurrido, pero la velocidad de pasar de ser una escritora y periodista con talento a ser una persona sin hogar, viviendo en una camioneta, me dej sin aliento. +Yo no haba cambiado. Mi CI no haba dismunuido. +Mi talento, mi integridad, mis valores, cada aspecto de m segua igual. +pero yo haba cambiado. +Ca en una profunda depresin. +Y finalmente alguien me habl de un centro de salud para vagabundos. +Y fui. No me haba baado en tres das. +Estaba tan olorosa y deprimida como cualquiera de ese lugar. +Solamente que no estaba borracha o drogada. +Y cuando varios de los vagabundos se dieron cuenta, incluyendo un ex profesor universitario, me dijeron: T no eres una vagabunda. Por qu ests aqu? +Otros vagabundos no me vean como ellos, pero lo era. +Entonces el profesor escuch mi historia y dijo, Tienes un trabajo. Tienes esperanza". +Los verdaderos desahuciados no tienen esperanza". +Una reaccin al medicamento que me dieron en la clnica para la depresin hizo que quisiera suicidarme. Recuerdo que pens: Si me suicido, nadie lo notara. +Una amiga me dijo, poco despus de eso, que haba escuchado que Tim Russert, un renombrado periodista haba estado hablando de m en la televisin nacional. +Un ensayo que yo haba escrito sobre mi padre el ao antes de que falleciera, estaba en el libro de Tim. +Y l estaba dando conferencias y hablando de mi trabajo. +Cuando me enter que Tim Russert, ex moderador del programa Meet the Press, estaba hablando de mi trabajo, mientras yo estaba viviendo en una camioneta en el estacionamiento de Wal-Mart, Empec a reir. +Deberan de hacerlo tambin. +Empec a reir porque llegu a un punto donde me preguntaba: Era una escritora o una persona desahuciada? +As que fui a la librera y encontr el libro de Tim. +Me qued ah. Y le otra vez mi ensayo. +y llor. +Porque era una escritora. +Era una escritora. +Poco despus me mud a Tennessee. +Altern el vivir en mi camioneta con dormir con mis amigos. +Y volv a escribir. +En verano del ao siguiente, estaba trabajando como periodista. +Estaba ganando premios. Viva en mi propio apartamento. +Ya no estaba desahuciada. +Ya no era invisible. +Miles de personas trabajan a tiempo completo y parcial, y viven en sus coches. +Pero la sociedad contina estigmatizando y criminaliza el vivir en tu vehculo o en la calle. +As que los vagabundos, los trabajadores desahuciados, permanecen invisibles. +Pero si se encuentran con uno, denles nimo, denles esperanza. +El espritu humano puede superar cualquier cosa si se tiene esperanza. +Y yo no estoy aqu para ser el ejemplo de las personas sin hogar. +No estoy aqu para animarles a dar dinero al prximo vagabundo que se encuentren. +Estoy aqu para decirles que, basada en mi experiencia, las personas no son su domicilio, donde duermen, o cualquier situacin en la vida en cualquier momento. +Hace tres aos viva en una camioneta en un estacionamiento de Wal-Mart. Y hoy estoy hablando en TED. +La esperanza siempre, siempre, encuentra una forma. Gracias. +El 30 de mayo de 1832, se oy un disparo resonando por todo el distrito 13 en Pars. +Un campesino, que estaba caminando hacia el mercado esa maana corri hacia el sitio de donde haba provenido el disparo, y encontr a un hombre joven retorcindose de dolor en el suelo, claramente herido por un disparo del duelo. +El nombre de este hombre joven era Evariste Galois. +Era un famoso revolucionario en Pars en ese momento. +Galois fue llevado al hospital local donde muri al da siguiente en los brazos de su hermano. +Y las ltimas palabras que le dijo a su hermano fueron: "No llores por m, Alfred. +Necesito todo el coraje que pueda reunir para morir a los 20 aos". +No fue, de hecho, la poltica revolucionaria por lo que Galois fue famoso. +Pero unos aos antes, mientras an estaba en la escuela, l de hecho haba descifrado uno de los grandes problemas matemticos del momento. +Y le escribi a los acadmicos en Pars, tratando de explicar su teora. +Pero los acadmicos no pudieron entender nada de lo que haba escrito. +As es como escribi la mayora de su matemtica. +Entonces, la noche anterior a ese duelo, se percat de que posiblemente esta fuera su ltima oportunidad para tratar de explicar su gran avance. +Entonces se qued toda la noche despierto, escribiendo y escribiendo, tratando de explicar sus ideas. +Y cuando amaneci y Galois fue a encontrarse con su destino, dej esta pila de papeles en la mesa para la prxima generacin. +Tal vez haberse quedado despierto toda la noche haciendo clculos matemticos fuera la razn de haber tenido tan mala puntera esa maana y de haber terminado muerto. +Pero esos documentos contenan un nuevo lenguaje, un lenguaje para entender uno de los conceptos fundamentales de la ciencia -- la simetra. +Ahora, la simetra es casi el lenguaje de la naturaleza. +Nos ayuda a entender tantos pedazos distintos del mundo cientfico. +Por ejemplo, la estructura molecular. +Por qu son posibles los cristales lo podemos entender a travs de la matemtica de la simetra. +En microbiologa realmente no se quiere obtener un objeto simtrico porque por lo general son bastante malos. +El virus de la gripe porcina es, por el momento, un objeto simtrico, +y utiliza la eficiencia de la simetra para poder propagarse a s mismo tan eficazmente. +Pero en una escala biolgica mayor, la simetra es muy importante, porque comunica informacin gentica. +He tomado estas dos fotografas y las he hecho artificialmente simtricas. +Y si les preguntara cul de estos personajes les parece ms bello, probablemente se sentiran atrados por los dos de abajo. +Porque es difcil hacer simetra. +Y si puedes hacerte simtrico a t mismo, ests enviando una seal diciendo que tienes buenos genes, que tienes una buena crianza y por ello sers una buena pareja. +Entonces, la simetra es un lenguaje que puede ayudar a comunicar informacin gentica. +La simetra tambin puede ayudarnos a explicar qu est sucediendo en el Gran Colisionador de Hadrones en el CERN. +O qu no est sucediendo en el Gran Colisionador de Hadrones en el CERN. +Para poder hacer predicciones sobre las prticulas fundamentales que podamos ver all, pareciera que todas son facetas de alguna extraa forma simtrica en un espacio dimensional superior. +Y creo que Galileo resumi muy bien el poder de las matemticas, para entender el mundo cientfico que nos rodea. +Escribi: "El universo no puede ser ledo hasta que hayamos aprendido el lenguaje y nos hayamos familiarizado con los caracteres en que est escrito. +Est escrito en lenguaje matemtico, y las letras son tringulos, crculos, y otras figuras geomtricas, sin cuyos medios es humanamente imposible comprender una sola palabra". +Pero no son slo los cientficos quienes estn interesados en la simetra. +A los artistas tambin les encanta jugar con la simetra. +Tambin tienen una relacin un poco ms ambigua con ella. +Este es Thomas Mann hablando de simetra en La montaa mgica". +Tiene un personaje que describe el copo de nieve. y dice que "...se estremeca ante su perfecta precisin, le pareca mortal, la misma mdula de la muerte". +Pero lo que los artistas gustan de hacer es crear expectativas de simetra y luego quebrarlas. +Y un hermoso ejemplo de esto lo encontr, de hecho, cuando visit a un colega mo en Japn, el profesor Kurokawa. +Y me llev a los templos en Nikko. +Y justo luego de que esta foto fuera tomada subimos las escaleras. +Y el portal que ven detrs tiene ocho columnas, con bellos diseos simtricos en ellas. +Siete de ellas son exactamente iguales, y la octava est puesta al revs. +Y le dije al Profesor Kurokawa, "Ah!, los arquitectos deben haber querido patearse reprochndose al darse cuenta de que haban cometido un error y haban puesto esta columna al revs." +Y l dijo: "No, no, no. Fue una accin deliberada." +Y me remiti a esta encantadora cita de los "Ensayos en ociosidad", japoneses, del siglo catorce. En los cuales, el ensayista escribi: "En todo, la uniformidad es indeseable. +Dejar algo incompleto lo hace interesante, y le da a uno la impresin de que hay espacio para el crecimiento". +Incluso construyendo el Palacio Imperial, siempre dejan un lugar inacabado. +Pero si tuviera que elegir un edificio en el mundo para que lo pusieran en una isla desierta, donde pasar el resto de mi vida, siendo un adicto a la simetra, probablemente elegira la Alhambra en Granada. +Este lugar es un palacio que celebra la simetra. +Recientemente llev a mi familia -- hacemos esta especie de viajes matemticos de cerebritos, que mi familia adora. +Este es mi hijo Tamer. Como pueden ver, est realmente disfrutando de nuestro viaje matemtico a la Alhambra. +Pero quera tratar de enriquecerlo. +Creo que uno de los problemas de la matemtica en las escuelas es que no considera cmo la matemtica est integrada en el mundo en el que vivimos. +As que, quera abrirle los ojos con respecto a cunta simetra fluye a travs de la Alhambra. +Ya lo ves. Inmediatamente, cuando entras, la simetra reflectiva en el agua. +Pero es en las paredes donde suceden todas las cosas excitantes. +A los artistas moros se les neg la posibilidad de dibujar cosas con almas. +Entonces exploraron un arte ms geomtrico. +Y entonces qu es la simetra? +La Alhambra de algn modo hace todas estas preguntas. +Qu es la simetra? Cuando hay dos de estas paredes, siempre tienen las mismas simetras? +Podemos decir si descubrieron todas las simetras en la Alhambra? +Y fue Galois quien produjo un lenguaje para poder responder algunas de estas preguntas. +Para Galois, la simetra -- a diferencia de Thomas Mann, para quien era algo quieto y sepulcral -- para Galois, la simetra era todo sobre el movimiento. +Qu puedes hacerle a un objecto simtrico, moverlo de algn modo, de modo que se ve de la misma manera como se vea antes de que lo movieras? +Me gusta describirlo como pases mgicos. +Qu puedes hacerle a algo? Cierras los ojos. +Hago algo, vuelvo a bajarlo. +Se ve igual que antes de que comenzara. +Entonces, por ejemplo, las paredes en la Alhambra, puedo tomar todos estos azulejos, y fijarlos en el lugar amarillo, rotarlos noventa grados, volver a bajarlos y encajan perfectamente. +Y si abrieran sus ojos nuevamente, no sabran que se haban movido. +Pero es el movimiento lo que realmente caracteriza la simetra dentro de la Alhambra. +Pero es tambin sobre producir un lenguaje para describir esto. +Y el poder de las matemticas a menudo es convertir una cosa en otra, convertir la geometra en lenguaje. +Por eso voy a llevarlos, tal vez exigirles un poquito matemticamente -- entonces preprense -- exigirles un poco para que entiendan cmo funciona este lenguaje, que nos permite captar qu es la simetra. +As que, tomemos estos dos objetos simtricos. +Tomemos la estrella de mar de seis puntas retorcidas. +Qu puedo hacerle a la estrella de mar que haga que se vea igual? +Bueno, ah la gir un sexto de vuelta, y an se ve como se vea antes de que comenzara. +Podra rotarla un tercio de vuelta, o media vuelta, o bajarla nuevamente sobre su imagen, o dos tercios de vuelta. +Y una quinta simetra, puedo rotarla cinco sextos de vuelta. +Y esas son cosas que le puedo hacer al objeto simtrico que hacen que se vea como se vea antes de que comenzara. +Ahora, para Galois, de hecho haba una sexta simetra. +Puede alguien pensar qu ms podra hacerle a esto que lo dejara tal y como estaba antes de comenzar? +No puedo darle la vuelta porque le he puesto un pequeo retorcimiento, o no? +No posee simetra reflectiva. +Pero lo que podra hacer es simplemente dejarla donde est, levantarla, y volver a bajarla. +Y para Galois esto era como la simetra cero. +De hecho la invencin del nmero cero era un concepto muy moderno, siglo siete d.C., por los Indios. +Parece disparatado hablar sobre nada. +Y esta es la misma idea. Esto es un -- As que todo tiene simetra, cuando simplemente lo dejas donde est. +Entonces, este objeto tiene seis simetras. +Y qu tal el tringulo? +Bueno, puedo rotarlo un tercio de vuelta en el sentido de las agujas del reloj o un tercio de vuelta en el sentido contrario. +Pero ahora esto tiene algo de simetra reflectiva. +Puedo reflejarlo en la lnea que pasa a travs de la X, o la lnea a travs de la Y, o la lnea a travs de la Z. +Cinco simetras y luego, claro, la simetra cero donde slo lo levanto y vuelvo a dejarlo donde estaba. +Entonces, ambos objetos tiene seis simetras. +Ahora bien, yo soy un gran creyente de que la matemtica no es un deporte para espectadores, y tienes que hacer algo de matemticas para realmente entenderlas. +Por lo que tengo una pequea pregunta para ustedes. +Y voy a dar un premio al final de mi charla a la persona que se acerque ms a la respuesta. +El cubo de Rubik. +Cuntas simetras tiene un cubo de Rubik? +Cuntas cosas puedo hacerle a este objeto y bajarlo de modo que siga vindose como un cubo? +De acuerdo? Quiero que piensen sobre ese problema mientras seguimos, y cuenten cuntas simetras hay. +Y al final habr un premio para la persona que se acerque ms. +Pero volvamos a las simetras que tengo para estos dos objetos. +De lo que Galois se dio cuenta: no son slo las simetras individuales, sino cmo interactan entre ellas lo que realmente caracteriza la simetra de un objeto. +Si hago un pase mgico, seguido por otro, la combinacin es un tercer pase mgico. +Y aqu vemos a Galois comenzando a desarrollar un lenguaje para ver la sustancia de las cosas que no pueden verse, el tipo de idea abstracta de la simetra que subyace bajo este objeto fsico. +Por ejemplo, qu sucedera si giro la estrella un sexto de vuelta, y luego un tercio de vuelta? +He puesto nombres. Las letras maysculas, A, B, C, D, E, F, son los nombres para las rotaciones. +B, por ejemplo, rota el pequeo punto amarillo a la B en la estrella de mar. Y as sucesivamente. +Entonces, Qu sucede si hago la rotacin B, que es un sexto de vuelta, seguida de la C, que es un tercio de vuelta? +Bueno, hagamos eso. Un sexto de vuelta, seguido por un tercio de vuelta, el efecto combinado es igual a si slo la hubiera rotado media vuelta de una sola vez. +As, esta pequea tabla registra cmo funciona el lgebra de estas simetras. +Hago una seguida de la otra, la respuesta es la rotacin D, media vuelta. +Qu sucedera si lo hiciera en el orden inverso? Hara alguna diferencia? +Veamos. Hagamos primero el tercio de vuelta, y luego el sexto de vuelta. +Claro, no hace ninguna diferencia. +Aun as termina siendo media vuelta. +Y hay aqu cierta simetra en el modo en que las simetras interactan entre ellas. +Pero esto es completamente diferente a las simetras del tringulo. +Veamos qu sucede si hacemos dos simetras con el tringulo, una despus de la otra. +Hagamos una rotacin de un tercio de vuelta en el sentido contrario a las agujas del reloj, y reflejemos en la lnea a travs de X. +Bueno, el efecto combinado es como si hubiera hecho la reflexin en la lnea a travs de Z al comenzar. +Ahora, hagmoslo en un orden diferente. +Hagamos primero la reflexin en X, seguida de una rotacin de un tercio de vuelta en el sentido contrario a las agujas del reloj. +El efecto combinado, el tringulo termina en un lugar completamente diferente. +Es como si hubiera sido reflejado en la lnea a travs de Y. +Ahora s importa en qu orden haces las operaciones. +Y esto nos permite distinguir el por qu las simetras de estos objetos -- ambos tienen seis simetras. Entonces, Por qu no deberamos decir que tienen las mismas simetras? +Pero el modo en que las simetras interactan nos permite -- ahora tenemos un lenguaje para distinguir por qu estas simetras son fundamentalmente diferentes. +Y puedes intentar esto cuando vayas al bar ms tarde. +Toma un posavasos, y rtalo un cuarto de vuelta, luego dale la vuelta. Y luego hazlo en el otro orden, y la imagen estar apuntando en la direccin contraria. +Galois produjo algunas leyes para cmo estas tablas para cmo interactan las simetras. +Son casi como las tablas de Sudoku. +No ves ninguna simetra dos veces en ninguna fila o columna. +Y, usando esas reglas, fue capaz de afirmar que de hecho hay slo dos objetos con seis simetras. +Y stas sern las mismas que las simetras del tringulo, o las simetras de la estrella de mar de seis puntas. +Pienso que esto es un desarrollo extraordinario. +Es casi como un desarrollo del concepto de nmero para la simetra. +Aqu, en la parte del frente, tengo una, dos, tres personas sentadas en una, dos, tres sillas. +Las personas en las sillas son muy diferentes, pero el nmero, la idea abstracta de nmero, es la misma. +Y podemos ver esto ahora: volvemos a las paredes en la Alhambra. +Aqu hay dos paredes muy diferentes, imgenes geomtricas muy distintas. +Pero, usando el lenguaje de Galois, podemos entender que las simetras abstractas subyacentes a estas cosas son de hecho las mismas. +Por ejemplo, tomemos esta hermosa pared con los tringulos con un pequeo retorcimiento. +Puedes rotarlos un sexto de vuelta si ignoras los colores. No estamos haciendo coincidir los colores. +Pero las formas coinciden si roto la imagen un sexto de vuelta alrededor del punto donde todos los tringulos se encuentran. +Qu hay del centro del tringulo? Puedo rotar un tercio de vuelta alrededor del centro del tringulo, y todo coincide. +Y luego hay un lugar interesante a medio camino sobre un borde, donde puedo rotarlo 180 grados. +Y todos los azulejos coinciden nuevamente. +Entonces rotemos en el punto a medio camino sobre el borde, y todos coinciden. +Ahora, sigamos con la pared de aspecto muy distinto en la Alhambra. +Y encontramos aqu las mismas simetras, y la misma interaccin. +Hubo un sexto de vuelta. Un tercio de vuelta donde las piezas Z se encuentran. +Y la media vuelta est a medio camino entre las estrellas de seis puntas. +Y aunque estas paredes se ven muy distintas, Galois ha producido un lenguaje para decir que de hecho las simetras subyacentes aqu son exactamente las mismas. +Y es una simetra que llamamos 6-3-2. +Aqu hay otro ejemplo en la Alhambra. +Estos son una pared, un techo y un piso. +Todos se ven muy distintos. Pero este lenguaje nos permite decir que son representaciones del mismo objeto simtrico abstracto, que llamamos 4-4-2. Nada que ver con ftbol, sino con el hecho de que hay dos lugares donde puedes rotar con un cuarto de vuelta, y un lugar con una media vuelta. +Ahora, este poder del lenguaje es an ms, porque Galois puede decir, "Los artistas moros descubrieron todas las simetras posibles en las paredes de la Alhambra?" +Y resulta ser que casi lo hicieron. +Puedes demostrar, utilizando el lenguaje de Galois, que de hecho slo hay 17 simetras diferentes que puedes aplicar en las paredes en la Alhambra. +Y si intentas producir una pared diferente, una dieciochoava, tendr que tener las mismas simetras que una de estas 17. +Pero estas son cosas que podemos ver. +Y el poder del lenguaje matemtico de Galois es que tambin nos permite crear objetos simtricos en el mundo que no se ve, ms all de lo bidimensional, de lo tridimensional, pasando por todos los espacios de cuatro, cinco, o infinitas dimensiones. +Y en esto es en lo que yo trabajo. Yo creo objetos matemticos, objetos simtricos, usando el lenguaje de Galois, en espacios dimensionales muy superiores. +As, creo que es un gran ejemplo de cosas ocultas, que el poder del lenguaje matemtico te permite crear. +Entonces, como Galois, me qued despierto ayer toda la noche creando un nuevo objeto matemtico simtrico para ustedes. Y tengo su imagen aqu. +Bueno, desafortunadamente, no es en verdad una imagen. Si pudiera tener mi pizarra aqu a un lado, genial, excelente. +Aqu estamos. Desafortunadamente no puedo mostrarles una imagen de este objeto simtrico. +Pero aqu est el lenguaje que describe como las simetras interactan. +Este nuevo objeto simtrico todava no tiene nombre. +Ahora bien, a la gente le gusta ponerle su nombre a las cosas, a los crteres en la Luna, o a nuevas especies de animales. +De modo que voy a darles una oportunidad de poner sus nombres en un nuevo objeto simtrico que no ha sido nombrado antes. +Y esta cosa -- las especies desaparecen, y las lunas, medio que son golpeadas por meteoritos y explotan -- pero este objeto matemtico vivir por siempre. +Te har inmortal. +Para ganar este objeto simtrico, lo que deben hacer es contestar a la pregunta que les hice al comienzo. +Cuntas simetras tiene un cubo de Rubik? +Bueno, voy a ordenarlos. +En vez de que estn todos gritando, quiero que cuenten cuntos dgitos hay en ese nmero, de acuerdo? +Si lo han obtenido como un factorial, tienen que expandir los factoriales. +Bueno, ahora si quieren jugar, quiero que se pongan de pie, de acuerdo? +Si creen que tienen una estimacin por cuntos dgitos, bueno -- ya tenemos un competidor aqu -- +Si todos se quedan sentados l lo gana automticamente. +Bueno, Excelente. Tenemos entonces cuatro, cinco, seis. +Genial. Excelente. Eso nos debera permitir comenzar. Bueno. +Cualquiera que tenga cinco o menos dgitos, debe sentarse. Porque ha subestimado. +Cinco o menos dgitos. Si estn en las decenas de miles tienen que sentarse. +60 dgitos o ms, deben sentarse. +Han sobre estimado. +20 dgitos o menos, sintense. +Cuntos dgitos hay en tu nmero? +Dos? Entonces deberas haberte sentado antes. +Veamos los otros, los que se sentaron durante la ronda de los 20, vuelvan a levantarse, de acuerdo? +Si te he dicho 20 o menos, ponte de pie. +Porque ste -- . Creo que haba unos cuantos por aqu. +Las personas que acaban de sentarse de ltimos. +Bueno. Cuntos dgitos tienes en tu nmero? +21. Bueno, bien. Cuntos tienes t en el tuyo? +18. Entonces es para esta dama aqu. +21 es el ms cercano. +De hecho tiene -- el nmero de simetras en el cubo de Rubik tiene 25 dgitos. +Entonces ahora necesito nombrar este objeto. +Cul es tu nombre? +Necesito tu apellido. Los objetos simtricos por lo general -- Deletramelo. +G-H-E-Z No, SO2 ya ha sido usado, de hecho, en el lenguaje matemtico. As que no puedes tener ese. +Bueno Ghez, ah tienes. Este es tu nuevo objeto simtrico. +Ahora eres inmortal. +Y si quisieran sus propios objetos simtricos, tengo un proyecto, para recaudar dinero para una organizacin benfica en Guatemala, en el que me quedar despierto toda la noche y har un objeto para ustedes, por una donacin a esta entidad benfica para ayudar a los nios a tener una educacin, en Guatemala. +Y creo que lo que me motiva, como matemtico, son esas cosas que no se ven, las cosas que no hemos descubierto. +Son todas las preguntas sin respuesta las que hacen a las matemticas una materia viva. +Y siempre retornar a esta cita de los "Ensayos en ociosidad". "En todo, la uniformidad es indeseable. +Dejar algo incompleto lo hace interesante, y le da a uno la impresin de que hay espacio para el crecimiento". Gracias. +Uno de mis personajes de dibujos animados preferidos es Snoopy. +Me encanta la forma en la que se acuesta en su caseta y medita sobre las grandes cosas de la vida +As que cuando pens sobre la compasin, mi mente inmediatamente me llev a una de esas vietas donde est tumbado, y dice: "Verdaderamente entiendo y aprecio que uno deba amar a su vecino igual que uno se ama a s mismo. +El nico problema son los vecinos. No los aguanto." +De alguna manera, sta es una de las dificultades de cmo interpretar una buena idea. +Pienso que todos creemos en la compasin. +Si uno observa las principales religiones del mundo, encontrar enseanzas acerca de la compasin. +En el Judasmo, la Tor nos ensea que debe amar a su vecino como se ama a s mismo. +Y dentro de las enseanzas judas y rabnicas, tenemos a Hillel, que ense que no debe hacerle a otros lo que no quiere que le hagan a usted. +Todas las religiones principales tienen enseanzas similares. +Nuevamente, dentro del Judasmo, tenemos una enseanza sobre Dios al que se llama El Compasivo, Ha-rachaman. +Despus de todo, cmo podra existir el mundo sin que Dios fuese compasivo? +Y como nos ensea la Tor, fuimos hechos a imagen y semejanza de Dios, por lo que tambin nosotros debemos ser compasivos. +Pero qu significa? cul es su impacto en nuestra vida cotidiana? +A veces, evidentemente, el ser compasivo puede generarnos emociones difciles de controlar. +S que muchas veces, cuando oficio un funeral, o cuando me siento con los familiares de un difunto o con moribundos, me abruma la tristeza, la dificultad, por el desafo que afronta la familia, por la persona. +Me emociono hasta el punto en que se me llenan los ojos de lgrimas. +Y si slo me permitiese a m misma abrumarme por estas emociones, no estara haciendo mi trabajo porque realmente tengo que estar ah para esas personas y asegurarme de que se cumplen los rituales y los aspectos prcticos. +Pero por otro lado, si no sintiese esta compasin, creo que sera la hora de colgar la toga y dejar de ser rabina. +Estas mismas emociones nos llegan a todos mientras nos enfrentamos al mundo. +Quin no siente compasin cuando ve los horrores terribles de los resultados de la guerra, el hambre, los terremotos o los tsunamis? +Conozco a algunas personas que dicen: "Sabes, hay tanto ah fuera que yo no puedo hacer nada. Ni siquiera voy a empezar a intentarlo." +Algunos trabajadores de ONGs denominan esto "fatiga de compasin". +Otros sienten que ya no pueden afrontar la compasin, as que apagan la televisin y no la ven. +En el Judasmo, sin embargo, solemos decir que debe haber un camino medio. +Por supuesto, usted debe ser consciente de las necesidades de los dems, pero debe ser as de manera que pueda continuar con su vida y servir de ayuda a las personas. +As que para ser compasivo, debe entender qu es lo que mueve a la gente. +Y naturalmente, no puede hacer esto hasta que se entienda mejor a s mismo. +Hay una hermosa interpretacin rabnica sobre los inicios de la creacin que dice que cuando Dios cre el mundo, pens que sera mejor crear el mundo nicamente con el atributo divino de la justicia. +Porque, despus de todo, Dios es justo. +Por tanto, debera haber justicia en todo el mundo. +Y luego Dios mir al futuro y se di cuenta de que si el mundo se crease nicamente con justicia, el mundo no podra existir. +As que Dios pens: "No, voy a crear el mundo solamente con compasin" +Y luego Dios mir al futuro y se di cuenta de que, de hecho, si el mundo estuviese exclusivamente lleno de compasin, habra anarqua y caos. +Debe haber lmites para todas las cosas. +Los rabinos describen esto como ser como un rey que tiene un cuenco precioso y frgil, de vidrio. +Si introduce demasiada agua fra en l, se har aicos. +Si introduce agua hirviendo, se har aicos. +Qu debe hacer? Introducir una mezcla de ambas. +As que Dios otorg al mundo ambas posibilidades. +Pero tambin debe haber algo ms +y eso es la traduccin de los sentimientos que podemos tener sobre la compasin, al mundo, en un sentido ms amplio, a la accin. +Saben? No podemos simplemente tumbarnos ah como Snoopy y pensar grandes pensamientos sobre nuestros vecinos. +Realmente tenemos que hacer algo al respecto. +Dentro del Judasmo tambin tenemos esta nocin de amor y bondad que se convierte en algo muy importante. +Luego, estas tres cosas se deben unir. +La idea de la justica, que pone lmites en nuestras vidas y nos da un sentido para saber lo que est bien en la vida y en la forma de vivir, qu debemos hacer, justicia social. +Debe haber voluntad para hacer buenas acciones, pero naturalmente, no a expensas de nuestra propia cordura. +En el fondo no conseguir hacer nada por otra persona si intenta hacer demasiado. +Equilibrar todas las cosas en un punto medio es la nocin de la compasin, que debe existir, por as decirlo, en nuestras propias races. +Este concepto de la compasin nos llega porque estamos hechos a imagen y semejanza de Dios, que es, a fin de cuentas, El Compasivo. +Qu conlleva esta compasin? +Conlleva la comprensin del dolor de los dems. +Pero an ms que esto, significa comprender nuestra conexin con la creacin, entendiendo que somos parte de esa creacin, que existe una unidad subyacente en todo lo que vemos, en todo lo que omos y en todo lo que sentimos. +A esta unidad la denomino "Dios". +y esta unidad interrelaciona todos los aspectos de la creacin. +Y, naturalmente, en el mundo moderno, con el movimiento medioambiental, nos estamos concienciando an ms sobre la conectividad de las cosas: hacer algo aqu realmente tiene una repercusin en frica, y si utilizamos una cantidad excesiva de carbono parece ser que estamos causando una escasez importante de lluvia en frica central y oriental. +Por lo tanto existe una conectividad. Debo entender esto como una parte de parte de la creacin, como una parte de estar hecho a imagen y semejanza de Dios. +Debo entender que mis necesidades a veces deben estar sublimadas a otras necesidades. +Me parece fascinante este formato de 18 minutos, +porque en el Judasmo, la palabra, el nmero 18 en letras hebreas, representa la vida, la palabra "vida". +Por tanto, de cierto modo, estos 18 minutos me desafan a decir que en la vida, esto es lo importante en trminos de compasin, +pero otra cosa tambin. 18 minutos realmente son importantes, +porque durante la Pascua, cuando tenemos que comer pan sin levadura, los rabinos dicen: "Cul es la diferencia entre la masa con la que se hace el pan, y la masa con la que se hace pan sin levadura, la matz?" +Y dicen que la respuesta es 18 minutos, +porque eso es lo que dicen que tarda esta masa en convertirse en levadura. +Qu significa que la masa se convierta en levadura? +Significa que se llena de aire caliente. +Qu es la matz? Qu es el pan sin levadura? No lo entiende. +Simblicamente, lo que dicen los rabinos es que en Pascua, tenemos que intentar deshacernos de nuestro aire caliente, de nuestro orgullo, de nuestro sentimiento de que somos los ms importantes del mundo, y de que todo debe girar en torno a nosotros. +Por tanto, intentamos deshacernos de estos sentimientos, y haciendo esto, intentamos deshacernos de los hbitos, las emociones, las ideas que nos esclavizan, que nos ciegan, que nos dan una estrechez de miras hasta que somos incapaces de ver las necesidades de los dems. Debemos liberarnos de esto y liberarnos a nosotros mismos. +Esto tambin forma parte de la base de ser compasivo, de comprender nuestro lugar en el mundo. +En el Judasmo hay un cuento precioso sobre un hombre rico que fue a la sinagoga +y l, como hacen muchos, dormitaba durante el sermn. +Mientras dormitaba, lean el libro del Levtico de la Tor +y decan que, en tiempos remotos, en el templo de Jerusaln, los sacerdotes solan tener pan que acostumbraban a poner en una mesa especial en el templo en Jerusaln. +El hombre estaba dormido, pero escuch las palabras pan, templo, Dios, y despert. +Dijo: "Dios quiere pan. Eso es. Dios quiere pan. S lo que quiere Dios" +y corri a casa. Despus del Shabat hizo 12 panes, los llev a la sinagoga, entr, abri el arca y dijo: "Dios, no s por qu quieres este pan, pero aqu est." +Y los meti en el arca junto con los rollos de pergamino de la Tor. +Luego se fue a casa. +El limpiador entr a la sinagoga, +"Oh Dios. Tengo grandes problemas. Tengo hijos que alimentar. +Mi mujer est enferma. No tengo dinero. Qu puedo hacer?" +Entra a la sinagoga. "Dios, me puedes ayudar? +Ah, qu olor ms maravilloso." +Se acerca al arca y lo abre. +"Hay pan! Dios, has odo mi splica. Has respondido a mi pregunta." +Se lleva el pan y se va a casa. +Mientras tanto, el hombre rico pens para sus adentros: "Soy un idiota. Dios quiere pan? +Dios, que gobierna el universo entero, quiere mi pan?" +Se va corriendo a la sinagoga. "Lo sacar del arca antes de que alguien lo encuentre." +Entra, y no hay nada. +Y dice: "Dios, realmente lo queras. Queras mi pan. +La semana que viene, pan de pasas." +Esto continu durante aos. +Cada semana, el hombre llevaba pan de pasas, con todo tipo de cosas buenas, y lo dejaba en el arca. +Cada semana vena el limpiador: "Dios, has vuelto a or mi splica", +y se llevaba el pan a casa. +Esto continu hasta que lleg un rabino nuevo. Los rabinos siempre lo arruinan todo. +El rabino entr, vi lo que estaba ocurriendo +y llam a ambos a su despacho. +Y dijo: "Esto es lo que est ocurriendo." +Y el hombre rico, ay, estaba alicado. +"Quiere decir que Dios no quera mi pan?" +Y el hombre pobre dijo: "Quiere decir que Dios no oy mi splica?" +El rabino dijo: "Me malinterpretaron." +"Me malinterpretaron por completo", dijo. +"Por supuesto, lo que usted est haciendo", le dijo al hombre rico, "es responder a la splica de Dios de que debemos ser compasivos." +"Y Dios", le dijo al hombre pobre, "est respondiendo a tu splica de que las personas deben ser compasivas y deben dar." +Mir al hombre rico. Le cogi de las manos y dijo: "No lo entiende? Estas son las manos de Dios." +Debo reevaluar estos lmites, intentar apartar las cosas materiales y las emociones que me pueden estar esclavizando, para poder ver el mundo claramente. +Y despus tengo que descubrir de qu manera puedo hacer que estas sean las manos de Dios, +y as traer compasin a la vida en este mundo. +Nace un nio y por mucho tiempo es un consumidor. +No puede contribuir conscientemente. +Est indefenso. +Ni siquiera sabe cmo sobrevivir, aunque est dotado con un instinto de supervivencia. +Necesita ayuda de su madre, o una madre adoptiva, para sobrevivir. +No puede permitirse dudar de la persona que lo cuida. +Tiene que rendirse completamente. como uno se rinde ante un anestesilogo. +Tiene que entregarse completamente. +Esto implica mucha confianza. +Implica que la persona en quien confa no romper esa confianza. +Conforme el nio crece, comienza a descubrir que la persona en la que confa est violando su confianza. +Ni siquiera conoce la palabra "violacin". +Por lo tanto, tiene que culparse a s mismo. Una culpa silenciosa, que es ms difcil de resolver, la auto-culpa silenciosa. +A medida que el nio crece para convertirse en un adulto, hasta ahora, ha sido un consumidor, pero el crecimiento de un ser humano, yace en su capacidad para colaborar, de ser un contribuyente. +Uno no puede contribuir a menos que se sienta seguro, uno se sienta grande, uno siente: "Tengo suficiente". +Ser compasivo no es una broma. +No es as de simple. +Uno tiene que descubrir cierta grandeza en uno mismo. +Esa grandeza debe estar centrada en uno mismo, no en trminos de dinero, no en trminos del poder que tienes, no en trminos de cualquier estatus que puedas alcanzar en la sociedad, pero debe estar centrada en uno mismo. +El Yo, t eres auto-conciencia. +En ese Yo, debe estar centrada, una grandeza, una totalidad, +de lo contrario, compasin es solo un palabra y un sueo. +Puedes ser compasivo ocasionalmente, motivado ms por empata que por compasin. +Gracias a Dios que somos empticos. +Cuando alguien est en sufriendo, tomamos ese dolor. +En un partido de Wimbledon, en una final, estos dos sujetos compiten. +Cada uno tiene dos juegos. +Puede ganar cualquiera. +Todo lo que han sudado hasta ahora no tiene sentido. +Solo ganar uno. +En el tennis el protocolo indica que los jugadores tienen que acercarse a la red y estrechar sus manos. +El ganador golpea el aire y besa la pista, lanza su camiseta como si alguien la estubiera esperando. +Y este tipo tiene que ir a la red. +Cuando se acerca a la red, vern, todo su rostro cambia. +Parece que deseara no haber ganado. +Por qu? Empata. +Eso es el corazn humano. +A ningn humano se le niega tal empata. +Ninguna religin puede destruir eso mediante adoctrinamiento. +Ninguna cultura, ni nacin, ni nacionalismo. nada puede tocarla, porque es empata. +Y esa capacidad para empatizar, es la ventana a travs de la cual llegas a la gente, para hacer algo que marque la diferencia en la vida de alguien. Incluso las palabras o el tiempo. +La compasin no se define de una sola manera. +No hay compasin hind. +No hay compasin americana. +La compasin trasciende las naciones, el gnero, la edad. +Por qu? Porque se encuentra en todos y cada uno de nosotros. +La gente la experimenta ocasionalmente. +De esta compasin ocasional no estamos hablando, Nunca permanecer ocasional. +Por mandato, no puedes hacer a una persona compasiva. +No puedes decir, "Por favor, mame". +El Amor es algo que descubres por ti mismo. +No es una accin, pero en la lengua inglesa, tambin es una accin. +Hablar de eso despus. +As que uno tiene que descubrir cierta unidad. +Y voy a citar la posibilidad de ser alguien completo, lo cual se encuentra dentro de nuestra experiencia, la experiencia de todos. +A pesar de una vida trgica, uno es feliz en momentos que son muy escasos y distantes. +Y el que es feliz, incluso por una bufonada, se acepta a s mismo, y tambin la manera en que uno se autodescubre. +Eso significa todo el universo, las cosas conocidas y desconocidas. +Todas ellas son totalmente aceptadas porque descubres la plenitud en ti mismo. +El sujeto, yo, y el objeto, la forma de las cosas, fusionadas en la unidad, una experiencia de la que nadie puede decir: "Estoy privado de..."; una experiencia comn para todos sin excepcin. +Esa experiencia confirma que, a pesar de todas tus limitaciones, de todos tus deseos, anhelos incompletos, y de las tarjetas de crdito, y despidos, y, finalmente, a pesar de la calvicie, puedes ser feliz. +La extensin de la lgica no dice que no necesitas satisfacer tus deseos para ser feliz. +T eres la propia felicidad, la totalidad, lo que quieres ser. +No hay eleccin en esto. Solo confirma la realidad de que la totalidad no puede ser diferente de ti, no puede ser menos que t. +Tiene que ser T, +No puedes ser parte de la totalidad y an as estar completo. +Tu momento de felicidad revela esa realidad, esa comprensin, ese reconocimiento, Quiz yo soy la unidad. +Quiz el swami tiene razn. +Quiz el swami tiene razn. Comienzas una nueva vida. +Y entonces todo cobra sentido. +Yo no tengo ms motivos para culparme a m mismo. +Si uno tiene que culparse a s mismo, uno tiene un milln de razones y ms, +pero si digo, a pesar de que mi cuerpo est limitado, si es negro, no es blanco, si es blanco, no es negro, tu cuerpo est limitado en la manera en que lo mires. Limitado. +Tus conocimientos son limitados, tu salud es limitada, y el poder por lo tanto es limitado, y la alegra va a ser limitada. +La compasin va a ser limitada. +Todo va a ser ilimitado. +No puedes ordenar compasin a menos que llegues a ser ilimitado, y nadie puede volverse ilimitado, o eres o no eres. Punto. +Y tampoco hay manera de que no seas ilimitado. +Tu propia experiencia revela, que a pesar de todas tus limitaciones, tu eres la totalidad. +Y esa plenitud es tu realidad cuando te relacionas con el mundo. +Es primero amor. +Cuando te relacionas con el mundo, la manifestacin dinmica de la unidad es lo que llamamos amor. +Y se convierte en compasin si el objeto con el que te relacionas provoca esa emocin. +Entonces nuevamente se transforma en dar, en compartir. +Te expresas porque tienes compasin. +Para descubrir la compasin, tienes que ser compasivo. +Para descubrir la capacidad de dar y compartir, necesitas dar y compartir. +No hay atajo. Es como nadar nadando. +Aprendes a nadar nadando. +No puedes aprender a nadar en un colchn y luego entrar en el agua. +Aprendes a nadar nadando. Aprendes a montar en bicicleta montando en bicicleta. +Aprendes a cocinar cocinando, teniendo gente comprensiva a tu alrededor que se coma lo que cocinas. +y por lo tanto, lo que digo, tienes que fingir y hacerlo. +Necesitas hacerlo. +Mi predecesor quiso decir eso. +Tienes que actuarlo. +Tienes que actuar compasivamente. +No hay verbo para compasin, pero tienes un adverbio para compasin. +Eso es interesante para m. +Actas compasivamente. +Pero cmo actuar compasivamente si no tienes compasin? +Ah es cuando finges. +Finges y lo haces. Este es el mantra de los Estados Unidos de Amrica. +Finges y lo haces. +Actas compasivamente como si tuvieras compasin, rechinas los dientes, tomas todo el sistema de ayuda, +si sabes como rezar, rezas. +Pides compasin. +Djame actuar compasivamente. +Hazlo. +Descubrirs la compasin y tambin lentamente una compasin familiar, y lentamente, quiz si obtienes la enseanza correcta, descubrirs que la compasin es una manifestacin dinmica de tu propia realidad, que es la unidad, la totalidad, y eso es lo que eres. +Con estas palabras, muchas gracias. +La compasin. Qu aspecto tiene? +Acompenme al 915 de South Bloodworth Street en Raleigh, Carolina del Norte, donde me cri. +Si entran nos vern, por las noches, sentados a una mesa puesta para diez personas, pero no siempre todas las sillas estn ocupadas. En el momento en que estaban a punto de servir la cena, +dado que mi madre tena ocho hijos, a veces deca que se le haca difcil distinguir quin era quin y donde estbamos. +Antes de empezar a comer, ella preguntaba: Estn todos los nios? +Y si faltaba alguien, debamos preparar un plato para esa persona, ponerlo en el horno, luego bendecamos la mesa, y entonces podamos comer. +ya que cuando se honra a una, nos honramos todos. +Tambin tenamos que informar a cada miembro de nuestra extensa familia, es decir, a miembros de la familia que estaban enfermos, eran ancianos y no podan salir. +Mi tarea consista en, al menos una vez por semana, visitar a la Madre Lassiter, que viva en East Street, a la Madre Williamson que viva en Bledsoe Avenue, a la Madre Lathers que viva en Oberlin Road. +Por qu? Porque eran ancianas y estaban enfermas. Y debamos ir a verlas por si necesitaban algo. +Mi madre deca, "Ser familia es querer, compartir y cuidarnos los unos a los otros. +Ellos son nuestra familia". +Y claro, a veces recibamos un premio por hacerlo. +Nos ofrecan dulces o dinero. +Mi madre deca: "Si les preguntan cunto cuesta que ustedes les hagan las compras, siempre respondan: Nada. Y si insisten, digan: "Lo que usted quiera darme". Ese era el sentido de nuestra presencia en aquella mesa. +De hecho, ella nos deca que si hacamos eso, no slo tendramos la alegra de recibir el agradecimiento de parte de nuestros familiares, sino que tambin, como deca, "Hasta el Seor sonreir, y cuando el Seor sonre hay paz, justicia y alegra". +As es como en la mesa del 915 aprend algo sobre la compasin. +Obviamente, ramos una familia de pastores, as es que tenamos que tener presente a Dios. +De ese modo llegu a pensar que la madre eterna siempre se est preguntando: "Estarn todos los nios en casa?" +Y si habamos sido nobles ofreciendo cario y generosidad, sentamos que la justicia y la paz tendran una oportunidad en el mundo. +Pero no todo era maravilloso en aquella mesa. +Permtanme explicarles una situacin en la que no festejamos. +Era el da de Navidad, y en nuestra familia, oh qu maana! +La maana de Navidad, cuando abramos nuestros regalos, rezbamos oraciones especiales, nos sentbamos al piano y cantbamos villancicos. Era un momento muy ntimo. +De hecho, uno poda acercarse al rbol a buscar sus regalos, prepararse para cantar y luego prepararse para el desayuno sin siquiera darse un bao o vestirse, pero pap lo arruin todo. +Una persona que trabajaba con l no tena dnde celebrar la Navidad de ese da en particular. +Y pap trajo al hermano Revels a nuestro festejo familiar de Navidad. +Todos pensamos que estaba desquiciado. +Este es nuestro momento de intimidad. +Aqu es donde podemos mostrarnos tal cual somos, y ahora tenemos a este hombre todo vestido con camisa y corbata, y nosotros an en pijama. +Por qu traera pap al hermano Revels? +En cualquier otro momento, pero no en Navidad! +Y mam nos escuch y dijo: "Pues saben qu? Si realmente entienden el significado de esta celebracin, es un momento en el que ampliamos nuestro crculo de amor. +De eso se trata esta celebracin. +Es el momento de hacer espacio, de compartir la felicidad de la vida en una comunidad de amor". +As que nos callamos. +Pero en el 915 la compasin no era una palabra para debatir, era el sentimiento de cmo somos juntos. +Somos hermanas y hermanos unidos. +Y, como dijo el Jefe Seattle, "Nosotros no tejemos la telaraa de la vida. +Somos sus filamentos. +Y cualquier cosa que hagamos a la telaraa, nos la hacemos a nosotros". +Eso es compasin. +Entonces. permtanme decirles que veo al mundo as. +Veo imgenes, y algo me dice "Eso es compasin". +Un campo cosechado con algo de grano en las esquinas que me recuerda la tradicin hebrea, que t puedes recoger la cosecha, pero debes dejar siempre algo en los bordes para que alguien que no tenga obtenga lo necesario para una buena nutricin. +Hablemos de una imagen de compasin. +Veo... siempre me remueve el corazn una foto del Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. +caminando cogido del brazo con Andy Young, el Rabino Heschel y tal vez Thich Nhat Hanh, y algunos otros santos reunidos, cruzando el puente y yendo a Selma. +Slo una foto. +Cogidos del brazo por la lucha. +Sufriendo juntos en la esperanza comn de que podemos ser hermanos y hermanas. sin los accidentes de nuestro lugar de nacimiento o etnia que nos roban el sentimiento de "unidad del ser". +Aqu tenemos otra imagen. Aqu, esta. Me gusta mucho esta imagen. +Cuando el Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. fue asesinado, ese da, todos en mi comunidad estaban dolidos. +Ustedes escucharon sobre disturbios por todo el territorio. +Bobby Kennedy deba dar un mensaje en Indianpolis. +Este es el cuadro. Le dijeron: "Vas a estar en una situacin muy voltil". +l insisti: "Debo ir". +Estaban sentados en su camin los mayores de la comunidad y Bobby se puso de pie y le dijo a la gente "Tengo malas noticias para ustedes. +Alguno de ustedes puede no haber escuchado que el Dr. King ha sido asesinado. +S que estn enojados, y s que casi desearan tener la oportunidad de entrar en actitudes de venganza, pero quiero que ustedes sepan que yo s cmo se sienten. +Porque alguien muy querido por m me fue arrebatado. +S cmo se sienten. +Espero que ustedes tengan la fuerza para hacer lo que yo hice. +Permit que mi enojo, mi amargura, mi dolor estuviesen ah por un tiempo, y luego tom la decisin de que yo iba a hacer un mundo diferente, y podemos hacer eso juntos". +Esa es una imagen. Compasin? Creo que la veo. +La vi cuando el Dalai Lama vino a la Iglesia de Riverside cuando yo era un pastor, y l invit a representantes de todas las tradiciones de fe de todo el mundo. +Les pidi que dieran un mensaje. Y cada uno ley en su propio idioma una afirmacin central, y esta fue una versin de la regla de oro. "Haz a los dems lo que quieres que te hagan a ti". +12 en sus trajes eclesisticos, culturales o tribales afirmando un mensaje. +Estamos tan conectados que debemos tratar a todos como si una accin hacia ti fuese una accin hacia m msmo. +Una imagen ms mientras pienso en la Iglesia de Riverside. 9/11. ltima noche en las cataratas de Chagrin, un reportero y comentarista de televisin dijo esa noche, cuando trasladamos el servicio religioso de Riverside a la estacin de nuestra ciudad: +"Fue uno de los momentos ms poderosos de nuestras vidas. +Todos estbamos sufriendo, +pero usted invit a representantes de todas las tradiciones, usted los invit. +Averige qu dice su tradicin, qu debemos hacer cuando hemos sido humillados, cuando hemos sido despreciados y rechazados". Y cada uno habl de su tradicin, unas palabras sobre el poder sanador de ser solidarios unos con otros. +Ahora bien, yo desarroll un sentido de compasin de una segunda naturaleza. Pero me convert en predicador. +Ahora, como predicador, tengo un trabajo. Tengo que predicar, pero es un deber tambin. +O, como el Padre Divine sola decir a sus feligreses en Harlem, "Algunas personas predican el Evangelio. +Yo debo hacer tangible el Evangelio". +Entonces, la cuestin central es: Cmo hago tangible la compasin? +Cmo la hago real? +Mi fe ha elevado este ideal constantemente y me ha desafiado cuando he cado por debajo de l. +En mi tradicin, hay un regalo que hemos dado a otras tradiciones. Todo el mundo conoce la Parbola del Buen Samaritano. +Mucha gente piensa en ella principalmente en trminos de caridad, de actos de bondad al azar. +Pero para aquellos que estudian los textos con un poco ms de profundidad, descubrirn que ha surgido una pregunta que apunta a esta parbola. +La pregunta era: "Cul es el mandamiento ms grande?" +Y Jess nos lo dice "Deben amarse a ustedes mismos, deben amar al Seor nuestro Dios con todo su corazn, mente y alma, y a su vecino como a ustedes mismos". +Aqu tienes, esta es la paga inicial pero si las necesidades continan, asegrate de satisfacerlas. +Y cualquier otra necesidad que surja, yo se la cubrir y pagar por ello a mi regreso. +Esto siempre me ha parecido que profundiza en el sentido del significado de lo que es ser un buen samaritano. +Un buen samaritano no es simplemente alguien que se ha conmovido en un acto inmediato de asistencia y caridad, sino alguien que provee un sistema de asistencia sostenible, eso me gusta, un sistema de asistencia sostenible en la posada. +Creo que es el momento de la Biblia en el que se menciona un sistema sanitario. y un compromiso de hacer lo que haga falta para que todos los nios de Dios tengan sus necesidades cubiertas, para que podamos contestar a la eterna pregunta materna: La salud llega a todos los nios?". Y que podamos decir que s. +Qu felicidad ha sido para alguien que busca tangibilizar la compasin. +Les recuerdo que mi trabajo como pastor ha incluido siempre ocuparme de las necesidades espirituales relacionadas con la vivienda y la salud de los presos, los enfermos, los nios, incluso los nios en acogida por quienes no puedes siquiera mantener un registro de dnde comenzaron, hacia dnde van. +Ser un pastor es cuidar de estos intereses individuales. +Pero ahora, ser un buen samaritano, siempre lo digo, y ser un buen americano, para m, no es felicitarme por actos individuales de asistencia, +la compasin tiene una dinmica corporativa. +Creo que eso que hacamos en la mesa en Bloodworth Street debe hacerse en las mesas y los rituales de fe hasta que nos convirtamos en esa familia, esa familia unida, que comprende la naturaleza de la unidad. +Somos una persona unida. +Entonces, djenme explicarles lo que entiendo por compasin, y por qu creo que es tan importante que en este momento de la historia +decidamos establecer esta carta por la compasin. +Es importante porque este es un momento muy especial en la historia. +Es un momento en el que, bblicamente, podramos decir que es el da, o el ao del favor de Dios. +Es una etapa de gracia. +Estn comenzando a ocurrir eventos inusuales. +Por favor, perdnenme, como hombre negro, por celebrar que la eleccin de Obama fue una seal inusual del hecho de que este es un ao de favores, +y an hay tanto ms por hacer. +Necesitamos traer salud, alimentos, educacin y respeto por todos los ciudadanos de Dios, todos los nios de Dios, recordando a la madre eterna. +Y permtanme acabar mis comentarios contndoles que cuando siento algo muy profundamente, normalmente toma la forma de un verso. +Y por eso quiero concluir con una pequea cancin. +Con esta cancin, una cancin infantil, porque todos somos nios sentados a la mesa de la madre eterna. +Y si la madre eterna nos ha enseado correctamente, esta cancin tendr sentido, no solo para quienes son parte de esta reunin, sino para todos los que firman la carta por la compasin. +Y por esto lo hacemos. +Hablo de la compasin desde el punto de vista islmico, y tal vez mi fe no sea vista como una fe arraigada en la compasin. +La verdad es otra. +Para nosotros, como seres humanos, y como musulmanes, cuya misin y propsito es seguir la senda del profeta, debemos llegar a ser como el profeta +y el profeta dijo: "Adrnense con los atributos divinos". +Porque Dios dijo que su principal atributo es la compasin, de hecho, el Corn dice: "Dios se autoimpuso la compasin", o "rein sobre s mediante la compasin". Por tanto, tenemos el objetivo y la misin de ser fuentes de compasin, activadores de la compasin, actores de la compasin, voceros de la compasin, hacedores de la compasin. +Todo eso est bien, pero Dnde nos equivocamos, y cul es la causa de la falta de compasin en el mundo? +Para hallar la respuesta, acudimos a nuestra senda espiritual. +En cada tradicin espiritual, existe una senda externa y una interna, o la senda exotrica y la senda esotrica. +La senda esotrica del Islam se conoce como el sufismo, o tasawwuf en rabe. +Y todos estos doctores o maestros, estos maestros espirituales de la tradicin suf, se refieren a las enseanzas y los ejemplos de nuestro profeta, que nos ensean adnde est la fuente de nuestros problemas. +En una de las batallas donde luch nuestro profeta, l dijo a sus seguidores: "Regresamos de una guerra menor e iremos hacia una guerra mayor, la batalla mayor". +Y ellos dijeron: "Mensajero de Dios, estamos cansados de la batalla. +Cmo habramos de ir a una batalla mayor? +l dijo: "Esa es la batalla del ser, la batalla del ego". +Las fuentes de los problemas humanos se relacionan con el egoismo, el Yo. +El famoso maestro suf, Rumi, muy conocido por ustedes, cuenta una historia sobre un hombre que visita la casa de un amigo toca la puerta, y una voz responde: "Quin es?" +"Soy yo" "Soy yo" +La voz dice: "Vete". +Despus de muchos aos de adiestramiento, disciplina y lucha, l regresa, +y con mayor humildad, nuevamente toca la puerta. +La voz pregunta: "Quin es?" +l responde: "Eres t, oh, inconmovible". +La puerta se abre, y la voz dice: "Entra, ya que no hay espacio en esta casa para dos "Yo", 2 yo (en ingls rima con eye), no 2 ojos , para 2 egos. +Las historias de Rumi son metforas de la senda espiritual. +En presencia de Dios, no hay espacio para ms de un Yo, y se es el Yo de la divinidad. +En una enseanza llamada "hadith qudsi" en nuestra tradicin, Dios dice: "Mi siervo", o "mi criatura", mi criatura humana no se aproxima a m por ningn medio ms preciado que a travs de aqullo que le he pedido hacer". +Y los patronos saben bien lo que quiero decir. +Quieren que sus empleados hagan lo que pidan, y si lo hacen, pueden hacer an ms, +pero no ignoran lo que ustedes les pidieron hacer. +Y Dios dice: "Mi siervo se acerca ms a m al hacer ms de lo que le he pedido". ganando puntos extra, podramos decir, "hacindome amarlo. +Y cuando amo a mi siervo", dice Dios, Me transformo en los ojos por los que l o ella ve, los odos por los que escucha, la mano con la que empua, el pie con que camina, el corazn que le da entendimiento". +sta es la fusin de nuestro ser con la divinidad, la leccin y el fin de nuestra senda espiritual, de todas nuestras tradiciones de fe. +Los musulmanes ven a Jess como el maestro del sufismo, el ms grande profeta y mensajero, que vino a resaltar la senda espiritual. +La compasin terrenal nos es dada, ya est en nosotros. +Todo lo que debemos hacer es retirar nuestros egos, deshacernos de nuestro egoismo. +Estoy seguro de que todos ustedes, o la gran mayora han tenido una experiencia espiritual, un momento de sus vidas en que, por unos segundos, tal vez un minuto, los lmites del ego se disolvieron. +Y durante ese minuto se sintieron uno con el Universo, uno con esa jarra de agua, uno con cada ser humano. uno con el creador, y se sintieron en presencia del poder, del asombro, del ms profundo amor, la ms profunda compasin y misericordia que hayan experimentado en sus vidas. +Ese momento es un presente de Dios para nosotros, un obsequio en que, por un momento, l retira esa barrera que nos hace insistir en Yo, Yo, Yo, y a cambio, como la persona en la historia de Rumi decimos: "Oh, todo esto eres t". +Todo esto eres t. Y todo esto somos nosotros. +Y nosotros, y yo, y todos nosotros somos parte tuya. +Creador de todas las cosas, todos los fines, la fuente de nuestro ser, y el final de nuestra travesa. Tambin eres quien rompe nuestros corazones. +Eres aqul a quien debemos dirigirnos, aqul por quien vivimos, y aqul por quien habremos de morir, y por quien habremos de resucitar para justificar ante Dios cun compasivos hemos sido. +Hoy nuestro mensaje y propsito, y quienes estn hoy aqu, y el propsito de este captulo de compasin, es recordar. +Y es que el Corn siempre nos urge recordar, que nos recordemos, porque el conocimiento de la verdad est en cada ser humano. +Sabemos todo. +Tenemos acceso a todo. +Jung lo llam el inconsciente. +A travs de nuestro inconsciente, en nuestros sueos, lo que el Corn llama, estar durmiendo, la muerte menor, la muerte temporal. Cuando dormimos, soamos, tenemos visiones, incluso muchos viajamos fuera de nuestros cuerpos, y vemos cosas maravillosas. +Viajamos ms all de las limitaciones del espacio, tal como lo conocemos, y ms all de las limitaciones del tiempo, tal como lo conocemos. +Pero todo esto es para glorificar el nombre del creador cuyo nombre primordial es el Clemente, el Compasivo. +Dios, Bokh, como deseen llamarlo, Al, Ram, Om, sea cual fuere el nombre que usen para denotar o llegar a la presencia de la divinidad, es el locus del ser absoluto, amor, piedad y compasin absolutos, conocimiento y sabidura absolutos, lo que los hindes llaman satchidananda. +El lenguaje puede cambiar, pero el objetivo es el mismo. +Hay otra historia de Rumi de tres personajes: un turco, un rabe, y olvido el tercero, pero podra ser un malayo. +Uno pide angour, el otro es, digamos, un britnico, uno pide eneb, y el otro pide uvas. +Y pelean y discuten porque Yo quiero uvas, yo quiero eneb, yo quiero angour, sin saber que la palabra que usan se refiere a la misma realidad en diferentes idiomas. +Slo hay una realidad absoluta por definicin, un solo ser absoluto por definicin, porque lo absoluto es, por definicin, nico, absoluto y singular. +Hay una concentracin absoluta del ser, la absoluta concentracin de la conciencia, la cognicin, un locus absoluto de compasin y amor que define los atributos divinos primordiales. +Y sos tambin deben ser los principales atributos de lo que significa la humanidad. +Ya que lo que define a humanidad, tal vez de manera biolgica, es nuestra fisiologa, pero Dios define a la humanidad por nuestra espiritualidad y naturaleza. +El Corn dice, l habl a los ngeles y dijo: "Cuando termine de formar a Adn con arcilla, e insufle en l mi espritu, entonces pstrense ante l". +Los ngeles se postraron, no ante el cuerpo humano, sino ante el alma humana. +Por qu? Porque el alma, el alma humana, encarna parte del hlito divino, parte del alma divina. +Esto tambin se expresa en el vocabulario bblico cuando nos ensean que fuimos creados en semenjanza a la imagen divina. +Cul es la imaginera de Dios? +La imaginera de Dios es el ser absoluto, cognicin, conocimiento y sabidura absolutos, amor y compasin absolutos. +Esto es lo que entiendo de la tradicin de mi fe, y esto es lo que entiendo de mis estudios de otras tradiciones de fe, sta es la plataforma comn que todos debemos pisar, y cuando pisemos esta plataforma estoy convencido de que podremos crear un mundo maravilloso. +Y creo, personalmente, que estamos cerca, y con la presencia y ayuda de personas como ustedes, podemos hacer realidad la profeca de Isaas. +l predijo una era en la que la gente transformar sus espadas en arados y no aprendern la guerra, y ya no librarn la guerra. +Hemos llegado a una etapa de la historia humana donde no hay opcin. Debemos aplacar nuestros egos, controlar nuestros egos, sea el ego individual, personal, el ego familiar, el ego nacional, y que todo sea por glorificar el uno. +Gracias, y que Dios los bendiga. +Quisiera empezar citando una hermosa frase de Einstein, para que la gente se sienta tranquila de que el gran cientfico del siglo XX tambin est de acuerdo con nosotros, y tambin nos llama a esta accin. +l dijo, "Un ser humano es parte de un todo, llamado por nosotros, universo. Una parte limitada en tiempo y espacio, +se experimenta as mismo, sus pensamientos y sentimientos, como algo separado del resto, esa separacin, es una especie de ilusin ptica de su conciencia. +Esta falsa ilusin es una especie de prisin para nosotros, Nos limita a nuestros deseos personales y a dar cario slo a personas cercanas. +Nuestra tarea debe ser liberarnos de esta prisin ampliando nuestro crculo de compasin, incluyendo a todas las criaturas vivientes y a toda la naturaleza en su belleza." +Esta percepcin de Einstein es extraamente cercana a la psicologa Budista, en donde la compasion es llamada Karuna, y se define como: "la sensibilidad hacia el sufrimiento ajeno y el correspondiente deseo de liberarlo de ese sufrimiento." +Se asemeja mucho al amor. El cual, es el deseo de hacer feliz al otro. Eso requiere, por supuesto, que uno mismo sienta felicidad y desee compartirla. +Esto es perfecto en que claramente, la preocupacin por los dems, es contraria al egoismo y al inters personal por la compasin, y an ms, esto indica que aquellos atrapados en el crculo de la preocupacin por si mismos, sufren sin esperanza, mientras los compasivos son ms libres e implcitamente ms felices. +El Dalai Lama a menudo dice que la compasin es su mejor amigo. +Lo ayuda cuando est agobiado con dolor y desesperanza. +La compasin lo ayuda a alejarse de la sensacin de que su sufrimiento es el ms absoluto, y terrible que alguien haya tenido y ampla su percepcin del sufrimiento de otros, incluso de aquellos culpables de su miseria y el de todas las criaturas. +De hecho, el sufrimiento es tan inmenso, que su ser se hace menos y menos monumental. +Y l comienza a moverse ms all de la preocupacin por si mismo, hacia una mayor preocupacin por los dems. +Y esto inmediatamente levanta su nimo, a la vez que su valenta es estimulada a estar a la altura de las circumstancias. +As que, usa su propio sufrimiento como una forma de expandir su crculo de compasin. +l es un muy buen compaero de Einstein, debo decir. +Quiero contarles una historia, muy famosa en la tradicin Hind y Budista, la del gran San Asanga. quien vivi -- contemporneo de San Agustn en el mundo occidental era una especie de San Agustn budista. +Y Asanga vivi 800 aos despus de la era del Buda. +l no estaba muy contento con las costumbres de los budistas en India en ese tiempo. +Y dijo, "Estoy harto de todo sto. Nadie est realmente viviendo la doctrina. +Estn hablando de amor y compasin y sabidura e iluminacin espiritual, pero todos son egostas y patticos. +Las enseanzas de Buda han perdido su impulso. +Entonces fu a su retiro. Y medit por tres aos y no vi el prximo Buda Maitreya. +Y se fu indignado. +Y cuando se estaba yendo, vio a un hombre -- un pequeo hombre gracioso -- sentado al costado del camino que bajaba de la montaa. +Tena un trozo de acero. +Lo frotaba con un pao. +Y eso le llam la atencin, +Y le pregunt, "Qu ests haciendo?" +Y el hombre le contest, "Estoy haciendo una aguja" +Y l dijo: "Eso es ridculo. No puedes hacer una aguja frotando un trozo de acero con un pao." +"Verdad?", le dijo el hombre, y le mostr un plato lleno de agujas. +Entonces l dijo : "Ok. Comprendo" +Volvo a su cueva. Medit de nuevo. +Pasaron tres aos, ninguna visin. Nuevamente, se va. +Comienza a bajar la montaa. +Mientras camina, ve a un pjaro hacer un nido en la pared de un acantilado. +Y donde est aterrizando para dejar las pequeas ramas en el acantilado, sus plumas frotan la roca, y haba hecho un hoyo ya de 15 a 20 cm en la roca. Haba una grieta en la roca debido al roce de las plumas de generaciones de pjaros. +Entonces dijo: "Est bien. Comprendo el punto". Y volvi a meditar. +Otros tres aos. +Nuevamente, despes de nueve aos ninguna visin de Maitreya. +Y se retira, nuevamente. En esta ocasin, una gotera haba hecho una gran cavidad en la roca debido al impacto del goteo. +Y nuevamente vuelve a meditar. Y luego de 12 aos, an no tiene ninguna visin. +Est desesperado. Ni siquiera mira para su derecha o izquierda para encontrar alguna visin alentadora. +Finalmente llega al pueblo. Est destrudo. +De pronto se le acerca un perro, se le acerca asi - un perro de aspecto terrible, de esos que pueden verse en pases muy pobres, incluso en USA, creo, en algunas reas. El perro luce muy mal. +Y a l le interesa por su aspecto pattico, trata de llamar su atencin. Se sienta y observa al perro. +En las patas traseras el perro tiene una herida abierta. +Que parece incluso con gangrena. Tiene larvas en la herida. Es terrible. +Y piensa, "Qu puedo hacer para sanar este perro?" +"Bueno, al menos puedo limpiar la herida y lavarlo" +Entonces lo lleva al agua, est a punto de limpiarlo, y su atencin de centra en las larvas. +Y mira las larvas, y stas se ven algo tiernas. +Y todas esas larvas se ven felices all en la herida del perro. +"Bueno, si limpio el perro, matar a las larvas. Cmo puede ser esto?" +"As es. Soy una persona intil y no existe Buda, ni Maitreya, y todo es desesperanza. +Y ahora voy a matar a estas larvas?" +Entonces, tuvo una idea brillante. +Tom un trozo de algo, y corto un pedazo de su muslo y lo puso en el suelo. +No estaba realmente pensado mucho en ASPCA (Sociedad Americana para prevenir la crueldad en animales). +Estaba atrapado por la situacin. +Y pens, "Tomar las larvas y las pondr en esta porcin de carne, luego limpiar las heridas, y luego -ya saben- resolver qu hacer con las larvas." +Y comienza a hacer eso. Pero no puede atrapar las larvas. +Las larvas se mueven de un lado a otro. Son difciles de atrapar. +Y dice, "Bueno, pondr mi lengua en la herida del perro. +Y todas las larvas saltarn en mi clida lengua. El perro ya est casi acabado. Luego las escupir una por una sobre el trozo de carne." +Entonces se agacha y acerca su lengua de esta manera. +Tuvo que cerrar sus ojos, era algo muy repulsivo, oloroso y todo lo dems. +Y de pronto se escucha un ruido como "pfft". +salta hacia atrs y all, por supuesto, aparece Buda Maitreya. En una hermosa visin como luces de arco iris, dorada, adornado con joyas, un cuerpo de plasma, V como una visin mstica exquisita. +"Oh", exclama y hace una reverencia. +Pero, siendo humano, est inmediatamente pensando en su siguiente queja. +A medida que se est levantando de la reverencia dice, "Mi Seor, estoy muy feliz de verlo, pero dnde ha estado durante estos 12 aos?... +...qu es esto?" +Y Maitreya dice: "He estado contigo. Quin crees que estaba haciendo las agujas y haciendo los nidos y provocando las gotas sobre la roca, Sr. torpe?" +"Buscando a Buda en persona.", le dijo. +Y le dijo: "No tuviste, hasta ste momento, verdadera compasin. +Y, hasta que no tengas verdadera compasin, no puedes reconocer el amor." +En snscrito, Maitreya significa amor, el amor afectuoso. +Asanga lo miraba con incredulidad. +y le dijo "Si no me crees, slo llvame contigo." +Entonces tom a Maitreya -- que se encogi del tamao de una pelota -- y lo puso sobre su hombro. +Y corri hacia el mercado del pueblo gritando: "Alegra, alegra. +El prximo Buda ha llegado adelantadose a todas las predicciones. Aqu est." +Y de inmediato le comenzaron a lanzar piedras -- No era en Chautauqua. Era en otro pueblo -- porque vean a este hombre flaco con aspecto de demente mstico, algo como un hippie, con una pierna sangrando y un perro moribundo en su hombro, gritando que el prximo Buda haba llegado. +Naturalmente, lo persiguieron hasta las afueras del pueblo. +Pero en las afueras del pueblo, una seora mayor que limpiaba las fosas de cadveres, vo un pie adornado en una flor de loto y al perro en su hombro, vo el pie de Maitreya adornado, y le ofreci una flor. +Eso lo anim, y se fu con Maitreya. +Maitreya entonces lo llev a un determinado cielo, la manera en que un mito budista se revela, +Y Maitreya lo mantuvo en este paraso por cinco aos, ensendole cinco complicados libros sobre la metodologa de cmo se cultiva la compasin. +Asi que pens en compartir con ustedes este mtodo, o uno de ellos. +El famoso, es llamado "Mtodo causal de los siete pasos para el desarrollo de la compasion" +En primer lugar se comienza por meditar y visualizar que todos los seres estn con uno, y todos -- an los animales -- tienen forma humana. +Los animales estn en una de sus vidas humanas. Los humanos son humanos. +Y entre ellos estn tus amigos y seres queridos. +piensas tambin en tus enemigos y en aquellos que son neutrales. +Y luego tratas de decir, "Bueno, las personas que yo amo, +despus de todo, ellos son buenos conmigo. +Tuve peleas con ellos. Algunas veces fueron poco amigables. +Me irrit. Los hermanos pueden pelear. Padres e hijos pueden pelear. +de cierto modo, ellos me gustan mucho porque son buenos conmigo. +Mientas que a los neutrales no los conozco. Todos podran ser buenos. +Y luego los enemigos, no me agradan porque son malos conmigo. +Pero ellos son amables para alguien. Yo podra ser uno de esos." +los Budistas, por supuesto, piensan que todos hemos tenido infinitas vidas anteriores, los Budistas en realidad piensan que todos hemos sido familiares unos de otros, +y cada uno, por lo tanto todos ustedes, desde el punto de vista del Budismo, en alguna vida anterior, aunque t no lo recuerdes y yo tampoco lo recuerde, han sido mi madre, por lo cual me disculpo por lo problemas que les caus, +incluso, yo tambin he sido tu madre. +He sido mujer, y la madre de cada unos de ustedes en una vida previa, esa es la manera en que los Budistas reflexionan. +Entonces, mi madre, en sta vida es realmente maravillosa. Pero todos ustedes en cierto modo son parte de la madre eterna. +T me diste esa expresin, la madre eterna, t dijiste. Eso es maravilloso. +Esa es la manera en que los Budistas lo hacen. +Un creyente, cristiano, puede pensar que todos los seres, incluso mis enemigos, son hijos de Dios. +Entonces, en ese sentido, estamos relacionados. +Asi que, ellos primero crean sta base de igualdad. +que de cierta manera la reducimos a quienes amamos -- en la meditacin -- abrimos nuestra mente a aquellos que no conocemos. +Y definitivamente reducimos la hostilidad y el "yo no quiero ser compasivo con ellos" a aquellos que pensamos que son malvados, que odiamos y que no nos agradan. +Por consiguiente, no odiamos a nadie. Igualamos. Eso es muy imporante. +Y lo siguiente que hacemos, es lo que se llama reconocimiento materno. +Y eso es, que pensamos que cada uno es familiar, como la familia. +Nos expandimos. Tomamos el sentimiento de recordar a mam y, en la meditacin, lo hacemos con todos los seres. +Y vemos a la madre en cada ser. +Y vemos esa mirada que la madre tiene en su rostro, esa mirada a su hijo que es un milagro que ella ha producido desde su propio cuerpo, siendo un mamfero, donde ella tiene verdadera compasin, realmente es el otro, y con el que se identifica completamente. +A menudo la vida de ese otro es ms importante para ella que su propia vida. +Y esa la razn por la cual es la ms poderosa forma de -- altruismo. +La madre es el modelo de todo altruismo para los seres humanos, en las tradiciones espirituales. +Entonces, reflexionamos hasta que podemos de alguna manera, ver esa expresin materna en todos los dems. +La gente se re de mi porque yo sola decir eso. Yo sola pensar en la madre de Cheney como mi madre, cuando, por supuesto, yo estaba enojado con l por de todos esas atrocidades cometidas en Iraq. +Yo sola pensar en George Bush. Se ve muy adorable con aspecto de mam. +Tiene sus pequeas orejas y sonre y te mece en sus brazos. +Y tu piensas que te est cuidando. +Y luego Saddam Hussein, su bigote es un gran problema. Pero t piensas que es mam. +Y esa es la manera como lo haces. Tomas cada ser que te parezca raro, y luego ves cmo podra parecerte familiar. +Y haces eso por un rato hasta que realmente lo sientas. +Puedes sentir la familiaridad en todo los seres. +Nadie parece un extraterrestre. Ellos no son "otros". +reduces el sentimiento de diferencia hacia los dems. +Luego avanzas desde all para recordar la bondad de las madres en general, si puedes, recuerda la bondad de tu propia madre, recuerda la bondad de tu pareja, o, si eres mam, como t seras con tus nios. +comienzas a ponerte muy sentimental, desarrollas un sentimentalismo intenso. +Incluso llorars, quizs, con gratitud y amabilidad. +Y luego conectas eso con el sentimiento de que cada uno tiene esa posibilidad maternal. +Cada ser, incluso el que parezca ms miserable, puede ser maternal. +Y entonces, el tercer paso lo das hacia lo que se denomina sentimiento de gratitud. +Quieres retribuir esa bondad que todos los seres han mostrado hacia ti. +Y luego, el cuarto paso, te mueves a lo que se denomina amor. +En cada una de estas etapas, sta meditacin puede tomar dependiendo de como lo hagas, semanas, meses o das o puedes hacerlo de una sola vez. +Y luego piensas en lo amoroso que son los seres cuando estn felices, cuando estn satisfechos. +todos se ven hermosos cuando estn internamente sintindose felices. +Su rostro no se ve asi. Todos se ven feos cuando estan enojados, pero cuando estn felices se ven bellos. +asi que ves a los seres en su felicidad potencial, +sientes tanto amor por ellos, que los quieres ver felices, an a tus enemigos, +y, en realidad, es lgico que lo quieras - pensamos que Jesus no fu practico cuando dijo ama tu enemigo ? +l lo dice, y pensamos que no es prctico, es algo espiritual e improbable y decimos "Que bien por l pero yo no puedo hacerlo" +Pero en realidad es prctico, +Si amas a tu enemigo, significa que quieres que tu enemigo sea feliz, +Si tu enemigo fuera feliz, por qu se molestara en ser tu enemigo? +Que aburrido es seguirte y molestarte. +En lugar de relajarse y pasarla bien. +asi que, tiene sentido el querer que tu enemigo sea feliz, dejarn de ser tus enemigos porque es mucho problema. +De todas formas, eso es amor, y finalmente, el quinto paso es compasin, compasin universal. +y aqu es donde ves la realidad de los seres. +los miras y vers quienes son, +te dars cuenta que la mayor parte del tiempo son infelices. +vers personas con el ceo fruncido +te dars cuenta que ni siquiera tienen compasin por ellos mismos. +su direccin esta determinda por su responsabilidad y obligaciones. +"Tengo que conseguir eso. Necesito ms. No valgo nada. Debo hacer algo" +y corren estresados de un lado a otro. +piensan de alguna manera como machos, se auto-disciplinan fuertemente. +Pero en realidad son crueles con ellos mismos. +por consiguiente, son crueles e implacables con los dems. +nunca reciben comentarios positivos. +Cuanto ms xito y poder tengan, ms infelices son, +Y es aqu donde sientes verdadera compasin por ellos. +y luego sientes que debes hacer algo. +es la motivacin - y lo que escojas hacer, esperando que seas ms prctico que el pobre Asanga tratando de sacar las larvas del perro, por que l tuvo esa motivacion, y sin importar quin estaba en frente, l quizo ayudar. +por supuesto que no fue prctico. Pudo haber buscado la ASPCA en el pueblo y encontrar ayuda cientfica para perros y larvas, +estoy seguro que luego lo hizo. Eso slo indica un estado de conciencia. +y el prximo paso - el sexto paso ms all de la compasin universal - el cal es, cuando te sientes realmente unido a las necesidades de otros, y tambin sientes compasin por ti mismo. y no - no slo es sentimental - podras sentir miedo de algo. +Alguna persona malvada se est haciendo asi mismo ms y ms infeliz, y est siendo ms y ms cruel con otras personas y est consiguiendo ser castigado en el futuro de muhas maneras. +en el Buddhismo, lo atraparn en una vida futura. +por supuesto que en una religin testa, ellos son castigados por Dios u otra cosa. +en el materialismo, piensan que se pueden salir con la suya al no existir, al morir en este mundo, pero no, +ellos renacen, o algo as, +no importa, no ahondar en eso. +El prximo paso es el llamado responsabilidad universal. +La Carta de la Compasin es muy importante Debe guiarnos a desarrollar a travs de la compasin verdadera, lo que es llamado, la responsabilidad universal. +Lo que significa que las enseanzas del Dalai Lama, que las dicta por doquier, dice, que esa es la religin comn de la humanidad, amabilidad, +amabilidad significa responsabilidad universal. +lo que significa que lo que le suceda a otras personas nos pasa a nosotros, somos responsables de eso, y debemos tomarlo, y hacer lo que podamos en cualquier nivel en el mas pequeo nivel que podamos, +debemos hacerlo absolutamente. No hay manera de No hacerlo. +y finalmente sto nos llevara a una nueva direccin en la vida en la que vivimos en igualdad para nosotros y otros, nos damos cuenta de nuestra felicidad - y estamos alegres y felices. +no debes pensar que la compasin te hace miserable. +la compasin te hace felz. +cuando tienes gran compasin, la primera persona que es feliz eres t, an cuando todava no hayas hecho nada por nadie. +tan slo el cambio de conciencia hace algo por otros, ellos pueden sentir sta nueva cualidad en t, sto les ayuda y les da un ejemplo, +y se reloj sin compasin me est mostrando que se acab, +asi que practiquen compasin, lean la carta, denla a conocer, y desarrllalo en t mismo. +No slo pienses, oh, bueno, siento compasin o no siento compasin, Puedes desarrollar sto. Puedes reducir la No-compasin, la crueldad, la insensibilidad, la negligencia hacia otros. Toma responsabilidad universal por ellos +Y entonces, no slo Dios y la mama eterna reirn, Karen Armstrong tambin reir. +Muchas Gracias. +Hablar de la compasin y la regla de oro desde una perspectiva secular e incluso desde una perspectiva en cierto sentido cientfica. +Someramente intentar ofrecerles una historia natural de la compasin y de la regla de oro. +Por momentos usar un lenguaje ms o menos clnico, as que quiz la charla no les parecer tan clida y suave como las charlas comunes acerca de la compasin. +Quiero advertirles al respecto de esto. +Por eso quiero decir, para empezar, que pienso que la compasin es una gran cosa. +La regla de oro es maravillosa. Soy un gran defensor de ambas. +Y creo que es maravilloso que las religiones del mundo, los lderes de las religiones del mundo, estn afirmando la compasin y la regla de oro como principios fundamentales integrales para sus fes. +Al mismo tiempo, creo que las religiones no merecen llevarse todo el crdito. +Creo que en esto la naturaleza les dio una mano. +Esta noche voy a defender que la compasin y la regla de oro estn, en cierto sentido, incorporadas en la naturaleza humana. +Ok. Pero tambin voy a defender que una vez que comprendemos el sentido en el que estn incorporadas en la naturaleza humana, nos damos cuenta de que no basta con simplemente afirmar la compasin y afirmar la regla de oro. +Hay mucho que hacer despus de eso. Ok. +Entonces una breve historia natural; primero de la compasin. +En el principio ya exista la compasin, y no me refiero a cuando aparecieron por primera vez los seres humanos, sino incluso desde antes. +Creo que es probable que en el linaje evolutivo humano, incluso antes de la existencia del homo sapiens, sentimientos como la compasin, el amor y la simpata ya se hubieran ganado un lugar en el acervo gentico, y los bilogos tienen una idea clara de cmo sucedi esto originalmente. +Sucedi mediante un principio conocido como seleccin de parentesco. +La idea bsica de la seleccin de parentesco es que si un animal siente compasin por un familiar cercano, y esta compasin hace que el animal ayude al familiar, al final la compasin termina ayudando a los genes que subyacen a la compasin misma. +Desde el punto de vista del bilogo, la compasin es en realidad una manera en que los genes se ayudan a s mismos. +Les advert que esto no iba a ser clido y suave. Ok. +Ya lo veremos. Aunque espero ponerme un poco ms suave. +Para m, esto no... no me molesta mucho que el fundamento darwiniano que subyace a la compasin sea egosta, o interesado, a nivel gentico. +En realidad, lo que considero mala noticia acerca de la seleccin de parentesco es que este tipo de compasin solo se manifiesta naturalmente dentro de la familia. +Esa es la mala noticia. La buena noticia es que la compasin es natural. +La mala noticia es que esta compasin seleccionada por parentesco est restringida de manera natural a la familia. +Y hay ms buenas noticias, provenientes de un momento posterior en la evolucin, un segundo tipo de lgica evolutiva. +Los bilogos la llaman altruismo recproco. +Aqu la idea bsica es que la compasin nos lleva a hacer el bien por personas que luego harn lo mismo por nosotros. +De nuevo, ya s que esta no es una nocin de la compasin tan inspiradora como otras que tal vez hayan escuchado en el pasado, pero desde el punto de vista del bilogo, este tipo de compasin involucrada en el altruismo recproco tambin es interesada. +No es que las personas lo piensen as cuando sienten compasin. +No es un egosmo consciente, pero para un bilogo esa es la lgica. +Luego uno termina fcilmente ampliando la compasin a amigos y aliados. +Estoy seguro que muchos de ustedes se sienten realmente mal cuando algo terrible le pasa a un amigo cercano. +Pero si leen en el diario que algo realmente horrible le sucedi a alguien que no conocen, pues pueden seguir adelante tranquilamente. Ok. +As es la naturaleza humana. +Es otra historia con buenas y malas noticias. +Es bueno que la compasin se extendiera ms all de la familia gracias a este tipo de lgica evolutiva. +Lo malo es que de esto no se deriva por s misma una compasin universal. +As que queda trabajo por hacer. +Otro resultado de esta dinmica del altruismo recproco que tambin considero un buena noticia, es que la manera en que esto se desarrolla en la especie humana les ha dado a las personas algo as como una apreciacin intuitiva de la regla de oro. +Y los psiclogos evolucionistas piensan que estas intuiciones tienen una base gentica. +Ellos entienden que si uno quiere que lo traten bien, uno debe tratar bien a los dems. +Y que es bueno tratar bien a otras personas. +Eso est muy cerca de ser una intuicin incorporada. +Esas son las buenas noticias. Pero si han estado poniendo atencin, probablemente estarn anticipando que tambin habr una mala noticia, que todava no llegamos al amor universal, y eso es cierto, porque a pesar de que una apreciacin de la regla de oro es natural, tambin es natural imaginar excepciones para la regla de oro. Ok. +Por ejemplo, seguramente ninguno de nosotros desea ir a prisin, pero todos pensamos que algunas personas deben ir a prisin. Cierto? +Creemos que debemos tratarlas de una manera diferente de la que nos gustara ser tratados. +Y tenemos razones para eso. +Decimos que hicieron cosas malas que justifican que vayan a prisin. +Nadie extiende la regla de oro de una manera verdaderamente difundida y universal. +Tenemos la capacidad de forjar excepciones y poner personas en categoras especiales. +que bsicamente se reduce a si eres mi enemigo, si eres mi rival, si no eres mi amigo, si no formas parte de mi familia estar mucho menos inclinado a aplicarte la regla de oro. Ok. +Todos lo hacemos de una manera u otra, y es as en todo el mundo. +Lo vemos en Medio Oriente. Las personas de Gaza lanzan misiles a Israel. +A ellos no les gustara que les lancen misiles, pero dicen, "Bueno, los israeles, o algunos de ellos han hecho cosas que los colocan en una categora especial." +A los israeles no les gustara que se les impusiera un bloqueo econmico, pero ellos le imponen uno a Gaza y dicen, "Bueno, los palestinos, o algunos de ellos, se lo han buscado." +Buena parte de los problemas mundiales se deben a estas exclusiones de la regla de oro. +Y es natural hacerlas. +El hecho de que la regla de oro est de alguna manera incorporada en nosotros no va a traernos, por s mismo, el amor universal. +No va a salvar el mundo. +Pero hay una buena noticia que s podra salvar el mundo. +Estn al borde de sus asientos? +Espero que as sea porque antes de contarles la buena noticia tendr que hacer un pequeo rodeo por terreno acadmico. +Espero mantener su atencin con esta promesa de las buenas noticias que podran salvar el mundo. +Me refiero al asunto de la aditividad no nula del que algo acaban de escuchar. +Es una breve introduccin a la teora de juegos. +No ser doloroso. Ok. +Se trata de juegos de suma nula y juegos de suma no nula. +Si se preguntan cul tipo de situacin lleva a que las personas se conviertan en amigas y aliadas, la respuesta tcnica es: una situacin de suma no nula. +Y si se preguntan cul tipo de situacin lleva a que las personas definan a otras personas como enemigas, la respuesta es una situacin de suma nula. Ok. +Qu significan estos trminos? +Bsicamente, un juego de suma nula es el tipo de juego al que estamos acostumbrados en los deportes, en los cuales hay un ganador y un perdedor. +Sus fortunas suman cero. Ok. +En tenis, cada punto es bueno para uno y malo para la otra persona, o bueno para ella y malo para uno. +De cualquier manera las fortunas suman cero. Ese es un juego de suma nula. +En cambio, cuando jugamos dobles, la persona del lado de uno participa en una relacin de suma no nula con uno, porque cada punto es bueno para los dos: ganancia-ganancia; o malo para los dos: prdida-prdida. +Ese es un juego de suma no nula. +En la vida real hay muchos juegos de suma no nula. +En el mbito econmico, por ejemplo, si uno compra algo eso quiere decir que uno prefiere tener la mercanca que el dinero, pero el comerciante prefiere tener el dinero que la mercanca. +Los dos sienten que ganan. Ok. +En una guerra, dos aliados estn jugando un juego de suma no nula. +Las cosas para ellos sern ganancia-ganancia o prdida-prdida. +En la vida real hay muchos juegos de suma no nula. +Entonces podemos bsicamente reformular lo que dije antes acerca de cmo se manifiestan la compasin y la regla de oro, diciendo simplemente que la compasin fluye naturalmente por canales de suma no nula en los que las personas se perciben a s mismas como potencialmente en situaciones de ganar-ganar con algunos de sus amigos o aliados. +Las manifestaciones de la regla de oro suceden de manera natural a travs de estos canales de suma no nula. +As que es en redes de aditividad no nula donde uno esperara que la compasin y la regla de oro cumplan mejor su funcin. +En canales de suma nula uno esperara algo diferente. +Ok. Ahora ya estn listos para las buenas noticias que podran salvar el mundo. +Aunque ahora debo admitir que tambin podra no ser as. ahora que mantuve su atencin durante los tres minutos de materia tcnica. +Pero podra ser que s. La buena noticia es que la historia ha ampliado de manera natural estas redes de aditividad no nula, estas redes que pueden actuar como canales para la compasin. +Podemos ir atrs hasta la edad de piedra y, me parece, a partir de la evolucin tecnolgica, las carreteras, la rueda, la escritura, muchas tecnologas de transporte y comunicacin han logrado de forma inexorable que ms personas pueden estar en ms relaciones de suma no nula con ms y ms personas a distancias cada vez mayores. Ok. +Esa es ms o menos la historia de la civilizacin. +Es la razn por la cual la organizacin social haya crecido desde las villas de los cazadores recolectores al estado antiguo, al imperio y ahora donde estamos nosotros: en un mundo globalizado. +La historia de la globalizacin es en buena medida una historia de aditividad no nula. +Probablemente han escuchado el trmino "interdependencia" aplicado al mundo moderno. Es simplemente otro nombre para la aditividad no nula. +Si su fortuna es interdependiente con alguien, usted vive en una relacin de suma no nula con esa persona. +En el mundo moderno esto es muy comn. +Lo vimos en la reciente crisis econmica: suceden malas cosas en la economa y son malas para todos en casi todo el mundo. +Y si pasan cosas buenas, son buenas para gran parte del mundo. +Y felizmente puedo decir que creo que realmente contamos con evidencia de que este tipo de conexin de suma no nula puede ampliar el radio de accin moral. +Cualquier forma de interdependencia o relacin de suma no nula nos obliga a reconocer la humanidad de las personas. +Y pienso que eso est bien. +El mundo est lleno de dinmicas de suma no nula. +En muchos sentidos los problemas ambientales nos ponen a todos en el mismo barco. +Y existen relaciones de suma no nula de las que las personas no estn conscientes. +Si cada da se sienten menos contentos, eso ser malo para los estadounidenses. +As que hay abundancia de aditividad no nula. +Y entonces la pregunta es: Si existe tanta aditividad no nula, por qu el mundo no est an imbuido de amor, paz y comprensin? +La respuesta es complicada. Y quiz merecera otra charla, +pero ciertamente un par de cosas son que, primero, hay muchas situaciones de suma nula en el mundo. +Y adems, a veces las personas no reconocen la dinmica de suma no nula que hay en el mundo. +Creo que en estas dos reas los polticos pueden desempear un papel. +Esto no solo tiene que ver con religin. +Creo que los polticos pueden ayudar a fomentar relaciones de suma no nula, el vnculo econmico generalmente es mejor que los bloqueos y otras cosas por el estilo. +Porque, histricamente, si alguien no se siente respetado probablemente no terminar en una relacin de suma no nula, mutuamente provechosa, con otras personas. +Debemos estar conscientes del tipo de seales que estamos dando. +Y parte de esto pertenece al mbito del trabajo poltico. +Si hay algo que puedo alentar a todos a hacer, a polticos, a lderes religiosos y a nosotros mismos, sera lo que llamo ampliar la imaginacin moral. Es decir, la capacidad para ponerse en los zapatos de personas que estn en circunstancias muy diferentes. +Esto no es lo mismo que la compasin, pero conduce a la compasin. Abre los canales para la compasin. +Pero me temo que, aqu, tenemos de nuevo una historia con buenas y malas noticias, y es que la imaginacin moral es parte de la naturaleza humana. +Eso es bueno, pero, de nuevo, tendemos a manifestarlo selectivamente. +Una vez que definimos a alguien como enemigo, nos cuesta ponernos en sus zapatos, y esto es algo natural. +Tomemos un caso particularmente difcil: un estadounidense ve en TV a una persona en Irn quemando una bandera de Estados Unidos. +El estadounidense promedio se resistir a hacer el ejercicio moral de ponerse en el lugar de esa persona y rechazar la idea de que tiene mucho en comn con esa persona. +Y si les dicen a ellos, pues ellos piensan que Estados Unidos los irrespeta y que quiere dominarlos, y ellos odian a los Estados Unidos. +Alguna vez alguien los irrespet tanto como para que ustedes llegaran a odiar a esa persona, aunque fuese brevemente? +Pues ellos rechazarn esa comparacin y eso es natural, es humano. +Y, de la misma manera, a la persona en Irn, cuando se trata de humanizar a un estadounidense que haya dicho que el Islam es malvado, le ser difcil hacerlo. Ok. +As que es algo muy difcil hacer que las personas amplen su imaginacin moral hasta un lugar al cual naturalmente no llega. +Pero creo que vale la pena intentarlo, porque nos ayuda a comprender, +y si uno quiere reducir el nmero de personas que queman banderas, entender qu los lleva a hacerlo ser de ayuda. +Creo que es un buen ejercicio moral. +Y de nuevo aqu es donde entran los lderes religiosos, porque los lderes religiosos son hbiles en reformular temas para sacar provecho de los centros emocionales del cerebro y hacer que las personas modifiquen su consciencia y reformulen su manera de pensar +Quiero decir que los lderes religiosos estn en el negocio de la inspiracin. +Actualmente esa es su principal vocacin, hacer que las personas de todo el mundo mejoren en la ampliacin de su imaginacin moral y comprendan que en muchos sentidos todos van en el mismo barco. +Voy a resumir cmo lucen las cosas, al menos desde esta perspectiva secular, en lo que concierne a la compasin y la regla de oro, diciendo que es una buena noticia que la compasin y la regla de oro estn en cierto sentido incorporadas en la naturaleza humana. +Pero es desafortunado que tiendan a manifestarse selectivamente. +Y nos tomar un gran trabajo cambiarlo. +Pero nunca nadie dijo que hacer el trabajo de Dios sera sencillo. Gracias. +Creo que hay nuevas tensiones ocultas que en realidad estn sucediendo entre personas e instituciones -- instituciones que son las instituciones que la gente habita en su vida diaria: colegios, hospitales, lugares de trabajo, fbricas, oficinas, etc. +Y algo que veo suceder es algo que me gustara llamar una especie de "democratizacin de la intimidad." +Y qu quiero decir con esto? +Quiero decir que lo que la gente est haciendo es, de hecho, estn en cierta forma, con sus canales de comunicacin, rompiendo con el aislamiento impuesto que estas instituciones estn imponiendo en ellos. +Cmo estn haciendo esto? Lo estn haciendo de una manera muy simple, llamando a su madre del trabajo, por Mensajes Instantneos desde su oficina a sus amigos, por mensajes de texto debajo del escritorio. +Las fotos que ven detrs de m son de personas que visit en los ltimos meses. +Y les ped que vinieran con la persona que ms se comunican +Y alguien trajo a su novio, alguien a su padre. +Una mujer joven trajo a su abuelo. +Por 20 aos, he estado observando la manera en que las personas usan canales como el email, el telfono mvil, mensajes de texto, etc. +Lo que realmente vamos a ver es que, fundamentalmente, las personas se comunican de manera regular con cinco, seis, siete, de su ms ntima esfera. +Ahora, tomemos algunos datos. Facebook. +Recientemente algunos socilogos de Facebook -- Facebook es el canal que ustedes esperaran es el ms expansible de todos los canales. +Y el usuario promedio, dijo Cameron Marlow, de Facebook, tiene alrededor de 120 amigos. +Pero realmente habla con, tiene intercambios bidireccionales con alrededor de cuatro o seis personas de manera regular, dependiendo de su gnero. +La investigacin acadmica sobre mensajes instantneos tambin muestra 100 personas en las listas de amigos, pero fundamentalmente las personas chatean con dos, tres, cuatro -- en todo caso, menos de cinco. +Mi propia investigacin sobre celulares y llamadas de voz muestra que 80 por ciento de las llamadas son realmente hechas a cuatro personas. 80 por ciento. +Y cuando ustedes miran Skype, baja a dos personas. +Muchos socilogos estn bastante decepcionados. +Quiero decir, yo he estado un poco decepcionada algunas veces cuando vi estos datos y este despliegue, por solo cinco personas. +Y algunos socilogos realmente sienten que es un cerramiento, un encapsulamiento que nos estamos desconectando del pblico. +Y yo quisiera, me gustara mostrarles que si realmente miramos a quienes lo estn haciendo, y desde donde lo estn haciendo, realmente hay una increble transformacin social. +Hay tres historias que me parecen bastante buenos ejemplos. +El primer caballero, es un panadero. +Y comienza a trabajar cada maana a las cuatro de la madrugada. +Y alrededor de las ocho l abandona sigilosamente su horno, se limpia sus manos de la harina, y llama a su esposa. +El slo quiere desearle un buen da, porque ese es el comienzo de su da. +Y he escuchado esta historia muchas veces. +El joven trabajador de una fbrica que trabaja el turno de noche. que logra abandonar sigilosamente el piso de la fbrica, donde hay CCTV por casualidad, y encuentra una esquina, donde a las 11 de la noche puede llamar a su novia y sencillamente decirle buenas noches. +O la madre que, a las cuatro, de repente logra encontrar una esquina en el bao para chequear que sus hijos estn seguros en el hogar. +Y entonces hay otra pareja, hay una pareja brasilea. +Han vivido en Italia durante muchos aos. +Se conectan con Skype con sus familias algunas veces a la semana. +Pero cada dos semanas, ponen el computador sobre la mesa del comedor. sacan la webcam y realmente cenan con su familia en Sao Paulo. Y hacen un gran evento de esto. +Y escuch esta historia por primera vez hace un par de aos de una familia muy modesta de inmigrantes de Kosovo en Suiza. +Haban organizado una pantalla grande en la sala de estar. Y cada maana desayunaban con su abuela. +Pero Danny Miller, quien es un muy buen antroplogo que est trabajando con mujeres emigrantes de las Filipinas que dejan sus hijos atrs en las Filipinas, me estaba contando cunto cuidan de sus hijos a travs de Skype, y cunto estas madres se ocupan de sus hijos a travs de Skype. +Y luego hay esta tercera pareja. Son dos amigos. +Ellos chatean entre ellos cada da, varias veces al da realmente, +Y finalmente lograron poner mensajera instantnea en sus computadores del trabajo. +Y ahora, obviamente, la tienen abierta. +Cuando tienen algn momento chatean entre ellos, +Y esto es exactamente lo que hemos visto con adolescentes y nios que lo hacen en el colegio, debajo de la mesa, y enviando mensajes de texto debajo de la mesa a sus amigos. +entonces, ninguno de estos casos es nico. +quiero decir, les podra mencionar cientos de ellos. +Pero lo que es realmente excepcional es el entorno. +Entonces, piensen en estos tres entornos de los que les he hablado: la fbrica, la migracin, la oficina. +Pero podra ser en el colegio, podra ser una administracin, puede ser un hospital. +Tres entornos que, si retrocedemos 15 aos, si piensan 15 aos atrs, cuando ingresaban el tiempo de entrada, cuando ingresaban el tiempo de entrada a la oficina, cuando ingresaban el tiempo de entrada a la fbrica, no haba contacto durante todo el periodo de tiempo, no haba contacto con su esfera privada. +Si tena suerte haba un telfono pblico colgado en el corredor o en alguna parte. +Si usted estaba en la gerencia, ah, esa era otra historia. +Tal vez tuviera una lnea directa. +Si no la tena, tal vez tuviera que llamar a travs de una operadora. +Pero bsicamente, cuando usted caminaba dentro de esos edificios, la esfera privada quedaba atrs. +Y esto se ha convertido en una norma en nuestra vida profesional, una norma y una expectativa. +Y no tuvo nada que ver con capacidad tcnica. +Los telfonos estaban ah. Pero la expectativa era que una vez te movas ah tu compromiso era totalmente con la tarea a cargo, totalmente con la gente a tu alrededor. +Eso era donde el foco deba estar. +Y esto se ha convertido en tal norma cultural que realmente enseamos a nuestros hijos para que sean capaces de hacer esta divisin. +Si lo piensan la guardera, el jardn infantil, los primeros aos de colegio estn slo dedicados a apartar los nios, para acostumbrarlos a permanecer largas horas lejos de la familia. +Y luego el colegio promulga perfectamente bien, +Y por supuesto, lo ms importante: aprender a prestar atencin a concentrarse y a enfocar su atencin. +Esto solo comenz alrededor de hace 150 aos. +Solo comenz con el nacimiento de la burocracia moderna, y de la revolucin industrial. +Cuando las personas bsicamente tenan que ir a otro lugar a trabajar y desempear el trabajo. +Y luego con la burocracia moderna hubo un enfoque muy racional, donde haba una clara distincin entre la esfera privada y la esfera pblica. +Entonces, hasta ese momento, las personas bsicamente vivan encima de sus oficios, +Vivan encima de la tierra que estaban trabajando. +Vivian encima de los talleres donde estaban trabajando. +Y si lo piensan, esto ha inflitrado toda nuestra cultura, hasta nuestras ciudades. +Si piensan en ciudades medievales, los municipios todos tienen los nombres de gremios y profesiones que vivieron ah. +Ahora tenemos suburbios residenciales dispersos que son bien distintos de las reas de produccin y reas comerciales. +Y realmente, a lo largo de estos 150 aos, ha existido un sistema de clases bien claro que tambin ha emergido. +As que entre ms bajo el nivel del empleo y el de la persona realizndolo, ms distante estar de su esfera personal. +Las personas han tomado esta sorprendente posibilidad de realmente estar en contacto a lo largo de todo el da o en todo tipo de situaciones. +Y lo estn haciendo de manera masiva. +El Instituto Pew, que genera buena informacin con regularidad, por ejemplo, en los Estados Unidos, dice que -- y pienso que este nmero es conservador -- el 50 por ciento de personas que tiene acceso al email en el trabajo, est realmente haciendo email privado desde su oficina. +Yo realmente pienso que este nmero es conservador. +En mi propia investigacin, vimos que el pico para email privado es realmente a las 11 de la maana, en cualquier pas, +75 por ciento de las personas admiten hacer conversaciones privadas desde el trabajo en sus telfonos mviles. +100 por ciento estn usando mensajes de texto. +El punto es que esta reapropiacin de la esfera personal no es demasiado exitosa con todas las instituciones. +Siempre me ha sorprendido que los socilogos del Ejrcito de EE.UU. estn discutiendo el impacto por ejemplo, de los soldados en Iraq que tienen contacto diario con sus familias. +Pero hay muchas instituciones que estn realmente bloqueando este acceso. +Y cada da, todos los das, leo noticias que me dan vergenza, como la multa de 15 dlares a nios en Texas, por usar, cada vez que sacaban su telfono mvil en el colegio. +Despido inmediato a conductores de bus en Nueva York, si son vistos con un telfono mvil en la mano. +Compaas que bloquean acceso a IM o a Facebook. +Detrs de temas de seguridad y proteccin, que siempre han sido los argumentos de control social, de hecho lo que est sucediendo es que estas instituciones estn tratando de decidir quin, de hecho, tiene el derecho de autodeterminar su atencin, de decidir, si deberan o no estar aislados. +Y realmente estn tratando de bloquear, de cierta manera, este movimiento de una mayor posibilidad de intimidad. +Hace algunos aos me abrieron los ojos al lado oscuro de la industria de la construccin. +En 2006, jvenes estudiantes de Qatar me llevaron a ver los asentamientos de trabajadores emigrantes. +Y desde entonces, he estado siguiendo la reveladora cuestin los derechos de los trabajadores. +En los ltimos 6 meses, ms de 300 rascacielos se han paralizado o cancelado en los Emiratos rabes Unidos. +Tras los titulares que ocupan estos edificios est el destino de los a menudo explotados trabajadores de la construccin. +1.1 millones de ellos. +Principalmente de India, Pakistn, Sri Lanka, y Nepal, estos trabajadores lo arriesgan todo para ganar dinero para sus familias en sus pases de origen. +Pagan miles de dlares a un intermediario para estar all. +Y cuando llegan, se encuentran en campos de trabajo sin agua, sin aire acondicionado, y sus pasaportes son confiscados. +Y mientras que es fcil apuntar con el dedo a los oficiales locales y a autoridades ms altas, el 99% de estas personas son contratadas por el sector privado. Por lo tanto, somos igualmente responsables, si no ms. +Han aparecido grupos como 'Build Safe UAE' ('Construccin Segura en los Emiratos'), pero las cifras son simplemente aplastantes. +En agosto de 2008, oficiales pblicos de los Emiratos observaron que el 40% de los 1.098 campos de trabajo del pas haban violado las regulaciones mnimas de salud y seguridad antincendios. +Y el verano pasado, ms de 10.000 trabajadores protestaron por el impago de sus salarios, por la poca calidad de la comida y por condiciones de vivienda inadecuadas. +Y entonces ocurri el colapso financiero. +Cuando los contratistas han quebrado, por estar sobre-apalancados como todo el mundo, la diferencia es que todo se pierde, documentos, pasaportes, y pasajes para que estos trabajadores vuelvan a casa. +Actualmente, ahora mismo, miles de trabajadores estn abandonados. +No tienen forma de volver a casa. +No hay manera de volver, y no hay prueba de su llegada. +Estos son los refugiados del auge y la bancarrota. +La cuestin es, como profesional de la construccin, como arquitecto, ingeniero, promotor inmobiliario, si sabes que est ocurriendo esto, porque vamos a las obras semana tras semana, eres indiferente o cmplice en la violacin de los derechos humanos? +Olvidemos tu legado medioambiental. +Pensemos en tu legado tico. +Qu tiene de bueno construir un complejo con cero emisiones, eficiente energticamente, si el trabajo que produce esta gema arquitectnica es inmoral en el mejor de los casos? +Hace poco me han dicho que he tomado el camino ms difcil. +Pero, francamente, en este asunto, no hay otro camino. +As que no olvidemos quin est pagando realmente el precio de este colapso financiero. +Y cuando nos preocupemos en nuestra oficina por nuestro prximo trabajo, por el prximo diseo que podamos conseguir para mantener a nuestros trabajadores, +no olvidemos a estos hombres, quienes estn verdaderamente murindose por trabajar. +Gracias. +Me gustara hablarles hoy acerca de la escala del esfuerzo cientfico que est detrs de los titulares que ven en los peridicos. +Titulares que se ven as cuando tienen que ver con cambio climtico, y que se ven as cuando tienen que ver con la calidad del aire o la contaminacin. +Son dos ramas del mismo campo de la ciencia atmosfrica. +Recientemente los titulares se vean as cuando el Panel Intergubernamental sobre Cambio Climtico , sac su informe sobre el estado de comprensin acerca del sistema atmosfrico. +Ese informe fue escrito por 620 cientficos de 40 pases. +Escribieron casi mil pginas sobre el tema. +Y todas esas pginas fueron revisadas por ms de otros 400 cientficos y revisores, de 113 pases. +Es una gran comunidad. Una comunidad tan grande, de hecho, que nuestro encuentro anual es la reunin [fsica] cientfica ms grande del mundo. +Ms de 15000 cientficos van a San Francisco cada ao por ello. +Y cada uno de esos cientficos est en un grupo de investigacin, y cada grupo estudia una amplia variedad de tpicos. +Para nosotros, en Cambridge, va desde la oscilacin de El Nio, que afecta al tiempo y al clima, a la asimilacin de datos de satlite, a emisiones de cultivos que producen biocombustibles, que es lo que yo estudio. +En cada una de estas reas de investigacin, de las que hay todava ms, hay estudiantes de doctorado, como yo, y estudiamos temas increblemente concretos, tan concretos como unos pocos procesos o unas pocas molculas. +Y una de esas molculas que yo estudio se llama isopreno, que est aqu. Es una pequea molcula orgnica. Probablemente nunca han odo hablar de ella. +El peso de un clip es aproximadamente igual a 900 zeta-illones -- 10 a la 21 -- molculas de isopreno. +Pero a pesar de su muy pequeo peso, se emite suficiente de ella a la atmsfera cada ao para igualar el peso de toda la poblacin del planeta. +Es una increble cantidad. Igual al peso del metano. +Y debido a que es tanto, es realmente importante para el sistema atmosfrico. +Y porque es importante para el sistema atmosfrico, hacemos todo lo posible por estudiarla. +La reventamos y miramos los trozos. +Esto es la Cmara de Contaminacin EUPHORE en Espaa. +Las explosiones atmosfricas, o combustin completa, llevan 15000 veces ms tiempo que lo que ocurre en tu auto. +Pero de cualquier manera, miramos los trozos. +Ejecutamos enormes modelos en supercomputadoras; esto es lo que yo hago. +Nuestros modelos tienen centenares de miles de procesadores en malla, cada uno calculando centenares de variables, a minsculas escalas temporales. +Y lleva semanas realizar nuestras integraciones de datos. +Y realizamos docenas de integraciones para entender lo que est ocurriendo. +Y tambin volamos alrededor del mundo buscando esta cosa. +Recientemente me un a un trabajo de campo en Malasia. Hay otras. +Encontramos una torre de observacin atmosfrica global all, en medio de la selva, y colgamos centenares de miles de dlares en equipamiento cientfico de esta torre, para buscar isopreno, y por supuesto, otras cosas mientras estbamos all. +Esta es la torre en medio de la selva, desde arriba. +Y esta es la torre desde abajo. +Y en parte de ese trabajo de campo incluso trajimos un avin con nosotros. +Y este avin, modelo BA146, operado por FAAM, normalmente vuela entre 120 y 130 personas. +Quizs tomaron un avin similar para llegar hoy aqu. +Pero no slo volamos. Volamos a 100 metros por encima de las copas de los rboles para medir esta molcula -- algo increblemente peligroso. +Tuvimos que volar con una inclinacin especial para hacer las medidas. +Contratamos pilotos militares y de pruebas para hacer las maniobras. +Tuvimos que obtener permisos especiales de vuelo. +Y segn doblas en los bancos de estos valles, las fuerzas llegan hasta los 2 Gs. +Y los cientficos tienen que ir completamente atados al arns para hacer las medidas mientras estn a bordo. +As que, como se pueden imaginar, el interior de este avin no se parece a ningn avin que tomas en vacaciones. +Es un laboratorio volante que tomamos para hacer medidas en la regin de esta molcula. +Hacemos todo esto para entender la qumica de una molcula. +Y cuando un estudiante como yo tiene algn tipo de inclinacin o compresin sobre esta molcula, escribimos un artculo cientfico sobre el tema. +Y de este trabajo de campo, probablemente sacaremos unas pocas docenas de artculos sobre unas pocas docenas de procesos o molculas. +Segn crece este cuerpo de conocimiento, formar una subseccin, o sub-subseccin de una evaluacin como el IPCC, aunque tenemos otros. +Y cada uno de los 11 captulos del IPCC tiene de seis a 10 subsecciones. +As que se pueden imaginar la escala del esfuerzo. +En cada una de esas evaluaciones que escribimos, siempre aadimos un resumen, y el resumen est escrito para una audiencia no cientfica. +Y entregamos ese resumen a periodistas y polticos para que hagan titulares como estos. +Muchas gracias. +Empec mi viaje hace 30 aos +Trabajaba en minas y me di cuenta que este era un mundo nunca visto +Y quera, a travs del color y cmaras de gran formato y muy grandes impresiones hacer un trabajo que de alguna manera se convierta en smbolos de nuestro uso del paisaje, de cmo usamos la tierra. +Para m, esto era un componente clave que de alguna manera, a travs de la fotografa, nos permite contemplar estos paisajes, y pens, que la fotografa se adaptaba perfectamente para este tipo de trabajo. +Y luego de 17 aos de fotografiar grandes paisajes industriales se me ocurri que el petroleo est apuntalando la escala y la velocidad, +porque, eso eso lo que ha cambiado, la velocidad a la que estamos tomando todos nuestros recursos. +As que empec a desarrollar una serie completa de paisajes del petroleo. +Y lo que quera hacer es mapear un arco narrativo donde, aqu esta la extraccin, donde estamos extrayendo desde el suelo, refinacin. Y eso es un captulo. +El otro captulo que quera ver era cmo lo usamos, nuestras ciudades, nuestros autos, nuestras culturas del motor donde la gente se aglutina alrededor de un vehiculo como una celebracin +Y luego est el tercer captulo que es la idea del fin del petroleo su fin entrpico donde todas nuestras partes de autos, nuestras ruedas, filtros de aceite helicpteros, aviones -- dnde estn los paisajes en los que todas nuestras cosas terminan? +y para m, nuevamente, la fotografa era una manera con la cual poda explorar e investigar el mundo y encontrar esos lugares. +Y otra idea que tuve tambin, fue presentada por un ecologista -- l bsicamente hizo un clculo donde tom un litro de gasolina y dijo bueno, cunto carbono conlleva, y cunto material orgnico? +Resultaron 23 tonelada mtricas por cada litro. +As que, siempre que lleno mi tanque de gasolina Pienso en ese litro, y en la cantidad de carbono. +Y, yo s que esa gasolina viene del ocano y del fitoplancton Pero l hizo el clculo para nuestro planeta y lo que tena que hacer para producir esa cantidad de energa. +Desde el crecimiento fotosinttico, tomara 500 aos desde ese crecimiento para producir los 30 mil millones de barriles que usamos al ao +Esto me condujo adems al hecho de que esto pone a nuestra sociedad en riesgo. +Mirando los 30 mill millones por ao, miramos a nuestros dos grandes proveedores Arabia Saudita y ahora Canad, con su petrleo sucio. +Y juntos, solamente forman alrededor de 15 aos de provisiones +En todo el mundo se estiman 1.2 billones en reservas eso solo nos da alrededor de 45 aos +As que, no es una cuestin de 'si', sino una cuestion de 'cundo' el pico del petrleo se nos vendr encima. +As que, para m, usar la fotografa -- y yo creo que todos nosotros podemos empezar a realmente, tomar la tarea de usar nuestros talentos nuestras maneras de pensar, para empezar a abordar lo que creo que es probablemente uno de los temas ms dificiles de nuestro tiempo, cmo enfrentar nuestra crisis energtica. +Me gustaria preguntarles que tienen en comun estas tres personas? +Bueno, probablemente reconozcan la primera persona. +Estoy segura que todos son avidos seguidores de "American Idol" +Tal vez no reconozcan a Aydah Al Jahani, quien es una concursante, en realidad, finalista en la competencia del Poeta de los Millones, que se emite desde Abu Dabi, y se ve a traves del mundo arabe. +En este concurso la gente tiene que escribir y recitar poesia original en la forma de poesia Nabati que es la manera tradicional Beduina. +Y Lima Sahar fue una finalista en la competencia de canto Estrella Afgana +Ahora, antes de que siga avanzando, si, ya se que todo comenzo con "Britain's Got Talent". +Pero mi punto, al hablar sobre esto es mostrarles, espero poder mostrarles como estas competencias basadas en merito con acceso igualitario para todos, con el ganador seleccionado via mensajes de texto, estan cambiando las sociedades tribales. +Y ahora me voy a centrar en Afganistan y el mundo arabe con los Emiratos Arabes Unidos, como estan cambiando las sociedades tribales, no al introducir ideas de la sociedad occidental pero al integrarse en el lenguaje de esos lugares. +Y todo comienza con el placer. +: Estamos atrasados para ver Estrella Afgana +Vamos a ver Estrella Afgana. Estamos retrasados. +Vamos llegando tarde. +Tenemos que ir a ver Estrella Afgana +Estos programas estan penetrando en la sociedad de una manera increible. +En Afganistan, la gente hace cosas extraordinarias para poder mirar ese programa. +Y uno no tiene necesariamente que tener una television. +La gente lo mira en todo el pais tambien en lugares publicos. +Pero va mas alla de mirar el programa, tambien una parte de esto es hacer campaa. +La gentre se involucra tanto que tienen voluntarios, como los voluntarios politicos, que salen por el campo, haciendo campaa por su candidato. +Los concurstantes tambien se proponen a s mismos. +Ahora, por supuesto, existe un cierto grado de lealtad tnica, pero no totalmente. +Porque cada temporada, el ganador ha surgido de una tribu diferente. +Esto ha abierto las puertas, especialmente para las mujeres. +Y en la ultima temporada hubo dos mujeres entre los finalistas. +Una de ellas, Lima Sahar, es una Pasthun de Kandahar, una parte muy conservadora del pais. +Y aqui ella relata, en el documental Estrella Afgana, como sus amigos le pidieron que no lo hiciera y le dijeron que los estaba dejando por la democracia. +Pero ella tambin confiesa que sabe que miembros del Taliban estan enviando mensajes de texto votando por ella. +Aydah Al Jahnani tambin tom riesgos, y se propuso, para competir en el concurso del Poeta de los Millones. +Tengo que decir, que su esposo la apoyo desde el principio. +Pero su tribu y su familia le pidieron que no compitiera y estaban muy opuestos a esto. +Pero, una vez que comenzo a ganar, entonces la apoyaron. +Parece que competir y ganar es un valor humano universal. +Y ella esta all afuera. +Su poesia es acerca de las mujeres, y la vida de las mujeres en la sociedad. +Asi que, simplemente al presentarse, y competir con hombres -- esto muestra los votos del programa -- pone un ejemplo muy importante para las jovenes -- estas son jovenes en la audiencia en vivo del programa -- en Abu Dabi, pero tambien gente en la audiencia por TV. +Ahora, ustedes piensan que "American Idol" podria introducir una forma de americanizacion. +Pero en realidad, esta ocurriendo lo opuesto. +Al usar este popular formato de participacion para cultura tradicional y local, en realidad, en el Golfo, esta precipitando un renacimiento del inters en la poesia Nabati, tambien en vestimenta, danza y musica tradicionales. +Y para Afganistan donde los Talibanes prohibieron la musica durante mucho tiempo, estn re introduciendo su musica tradicional. +Ellos no cantan canciones pop, cantan musica afgana. +Y tambien han aprendido como ser buenos perdedores, sin vengarse del ganador. +No es poco. +Y la ltima, especie, de reformulacin de este formato de "American Idol" que recin ha aparecido en Afganistan, es un nuevo programa llamado "El Candidato". +Y en este programa la gente presenta plataformas politicas que luego son votadas. +Muchos de ellos son demasiado jovenes para presentarse a Presidente. Pero al poner los temas sobre el tapete, estn influenciando la carrera presidencial. +Por lo tanto, para mi, la sustancia de las cosas que no se ven, es como la televisin "reality" esta cambiando la realidad. +Gracias. +Crecimos interactuando con los objetos fsicos a nuestro alrededor. +Hay un enorme nmero de ellos que usamos cada da. +A diferencia de nuestros dispositivos informticos, estos objetos son mucho ms divertidos de usar. +Cuando se habla de objetos, otra cosa viene automticamente aadida a estos, y eso son los gestos: cmo manipulamos estos objetos, cmo usamos estos objetos en la vida cotidiana. +Usamos gestos no slo para interactuar con estos objetos, pero tambin los usamos para interactuar entre nosotros. +Un gesto de "Namaste!", quizs, para mostrar respeto hacia alguien, o quizs -- en India no necesito ensearle a un nio que significa esto "cuatro carreras" en cricket. +Viene como parte de nuestro aprendizaje diario. +Por eso, estoy muy interesado, desde el inicio, en el cmo -- Cmo nuestro conocimiento sobre los objetos y gestos cotidianos, y cmo usamos estos objetos, pueden ser tiles para nuestras interacciones con el mundo digital. +En lugar de usar un teclado y un ratn, Por qu no puedo utilizar mi computador del mismo modo en el que interacto con el mundo fsico? +Comenc esta exploracin hace unos ocho aos atrs, y comenz literalmente con un ratn en mi escritorio. +En vez de usarlo en mi computador, lo abr. +La mayora de ustedes estar consciente, que en esos das, el ratn venia con una bola dentro, y tena 2 rodillos que guiaban al computador en la direccin en la que se est moviendo la bola. y, a su vez, donde el ratn se est moviendo. +Yo estaba interesado en estos dos rodillos, y quera ms de ellos, entonces tome prestado otro ratn de un amigo -- nunca lo devolv -- y ahora tena cuatro rodillos. +Curiosamente, lo que hice con estos rodillos fue, bsicamente, los saque de los ratones y los coloque en una lnea. +Tena unas cuerdas, poleas y algunos resortes. +Lo que obtuve fue bsicamente un dispositivo gestual que acta como un sensor de movimiento} hecho a un precio de 2 dlares. +Entonces, cualquier movimiento que haga en el mundo fsico es replicado dentro del mundo digital slo usando este pequeo aparato que hice, hace unos ocho aos atrs, en el 2000. +Por el inters que tena en integrar estos dos mundos, Pens en las notas adhesivas. +Pens, "Por qu no conectar la interfaz fsica de una nota adhesiva a una digital?" +Un mensaje escrito en una nota adhesiva a mi mam en papel puede venir como un mensaje de texto, o un recordatorio de reuniones que se sincroniza inmediatamente con mi calendario digital -- una lista de tareas que se sincroniza automticamente contigo. +Pero tambin puedes buscar en el mundo digital, o quizs hacer una pregunta, diciendo, "Cual es la direccin del Dr. Smith?" +y este pequeo sistema lo imprime -- entonces funciona como un sistema de entrada y salida, hecho solamente de papel. +En otra exploracin, pens en hacer un lpiz que pueda dibujar en tres dimensiones. +Entonces, implemente este lpiz que puede ayudar a diseadores y arquitectos no slo a pensar en tres dimensiones, sino a poder dibujarlo entonces es ms intuitivo de ese modo. +Luego pens, "Por qu no hacer un Mapa de Google, pero en el mundo fsico?" +En vez de escribir una palabra clave para encontrar algo, coloco mis objetos encima. +Si coloco mi tarjeta de embarque, me mostrar dnde est la puerta de mi vuelo. +Una taza de caf te mostrara dnde encontrar ms caf, o dnde puedes botar la taza. +Estas fueron algunas de las primeras exploraciones que hice porque la meta era conectar estos dos mundos a la perfeccin. +Entre todos estos experimentos, haba una cosa en comn: Trataba de traer una parte del mundo fsico al mundo digital. +Tomaba partes de los objetos, o la intuicin de la vida real, y las traa al mundo digital, porque el objetivo era hacer nuestras interfaces informticas ms intuitivas. +Pero entonces me di cuenta que nosotros los humanos no estamos interesados en la computacin. +En lo que estamos interesados es en la informacin. +Queremos saber sobre las cosas. +Queremos saber sobre las cosas dinmicas que estn sucediendo. +Entonces pens, el ao pasado -- al comienzo del ao pasado -- Comenc a pensar, "Por qu no tomar este concepto en el sentido inverso?" +Quizs, "Cmo sera, s tomo mi mundo digital y pinto el mundo fsico con esa informacin digital?" +Porque los pixeles estn, ahora, atrapados en estos dispositivos rectangulares que caben en nuestros bolsillos. +Por qu no remover esta barrera y llevarlos a mis objetos cotidianos, a la vida cotidiana para que no necesite aprender este nuevo lenguaje para interactuar con esos pixeles? +Entonces, para concretar este sueo, Tuve que ponerme un enorme proyector en la cabeza. +Creo que es por eso que esto se llama proyector montado en la cabeza, no? +Lo tom muy literalmente, y agarre mi casco de bicicleta, y le hice un pequeo corte para que el proyector se ajustara correctamente. +Ahora, qu puedo hacer -- puedo aumentar el mundo alrededor mo con esta informacin digital. +Pero despus, me di cuenta que tambin quera interactuar con esos pixeles digitales. As que puse una pequea cmara, +que acta como un ojo digital. +Luego, hicimos una versin mucho mejor, orientada al consumidor, que muchos de ustedes ahora conocen como dispositivo SixthSense. +Pero lo ms interesante sobre esta tecnologa en particular es que cargas el mundo digital contigo donde sea que vayas. +Puedes usar cualquier superficie, cualquier muro a tu alrededor, como una interface. +La cmara esta rastreando todos tus gestos. +Lo que sea que ests haciendo con tus manos, comprende ese gesto. +Y, si se fijan, hay marcadores de colores que usamos en la versin inicial. +Pueden comenzar a pintar sobre cualquier muro. +Se paran frente a un muro, y pintan sobre ese muro. +Pero no estamos rastreando un slo dedo. +Damos la libertad de usar ambas manos, y pueden usar ambas para acercarse o alejarse de un mapa slo pellizcando. +La cmara esta -- slo, obteniendo todas las imgenes -- est haciendo el reconocimiento de los bordes y del color y muchos otros algoritmos estn funcionando dentro. +Tcnicamente, es un poco ms complejo, pero proporciona una salida que es mucho ms intuitiva de usar, en algn sentido. +Pero estoy ms emocionado por el hecho, que puedas llevarlo fuera. +En vez de sacar tu cmara del bolsillo, slo debes hacer el gesto de tomar una foto y toma una foto por ti. +Gracias. +Y luego puedo encontrar una pared, dnde sea, y comenzar a navegar entre las fotos o quizs, "OK, quiero modificar esta foto un poco y enviarla como un email a un amigo." +Estamos viendo una era en la que la computacin se fusionara con el mundo fsico. +Y, por supuesto, si no tienen una superficie, pueden usar su palma para operaciones simples. +Aqu, estoy marcando un nmero telefnico usando mi mano. +La cmara no slo esta comprendiendo los movimientos de tu mano, pero, es capaz de entender que objetos estas sosteniendo con la mano. Lo que estamos haciendo ac -- +por ejemplo, en este caso, la cubierta del libro se compara con miles, o quizs millones de libros en lnea, y encuentra qu libro es. +Una vez que tiene esa informacin, encuentra ms comentarios sobre l, o quizs el New York Times tiene una revisin en sonido, que pueden or, en un libro fsico, comentarios como sonido. +("Una famosa charla en la Universidad de Harvard ...") Esta es la visita de Obama la semana pasada al MIT. +("... y particularmente quiero agradecerle a dos sobresalientes profesores del MIT ...") Yo estaba viendo la transmisin en vivo de su charla, afuera, sobre el peridico. +Su peridico le mostrara informacin climatolgica actualizada en vez de tener que actualizarla --- yendo a su computador por ejemplo +para hacerlo, correcto? +Cuando vuelvo, puedo usar mi ticket de embarque para revisar que tan retrasado esta mi vuelo, porque en ese preciso momento, No quiero abrir mi iPhone, y revisar un icono en particular. +Y creo que esta tecnologa no slo cambiara la manera -- Si. +Tambin cambiara la forma en la que interactuamos con las personas, no slo en el mundo fsico. +La parte divertida es, voy en el metro de Boston, jugando pong dentro del tren en el piso, verdad? +Y creo que la imaginacin es el nico lmite de lo que puedes pensar cuando este tipo de tecnologa se mezcla con la vida real. +Pero estarn de acuerdo que no todo nuestro trabajo es sobre el mundo fsico. +Hacemos mucha contabilidad y edicin y cosas de ese tipo; Qu pasa con eso? +Y muchos de ustedes estn emocionados sobre la prxima generacin de Tablet PC que saldr al mercado. +Pero, en lugar de esperar por eso, Hice mi propio dispositivo, usando slo una hoja de papel. +Lo que hice fue remover la cmara -- Todas las cmaras web tienen un micrfono dentro, +Le quite el micrfono, y luego slo se adhiere -- hice un clip a partir del micrfono -- y lo adjunto a un pedazo de papel, cualquier papel que encuentren. +Ahora el sonido del tacto me dice exactamente cuando estoy tocando el papel. +Pero la cmara esta rastreando cuando mis dedos se mueven. +Obviamente, se pueden ver pelculas. +("Buenas tardes. Mi nombre es Russell ...") ("... y soy un explorador de la naturaleza en Tribe 54.") +Y se pueden jugar juegos. +(Motor de automvil) Aqu, la cmara comprende cmo estn sosteniendo el papel. y jugando un video juego de carreras. +Muchos de ustedes ya lo deben haber pensado, OK, se puede navegar. +Si. Por supuesto que se puede navegar por cualquier sitio web. o pueden hacer todo tipo de actividades informticas sobre un pedazo de papel dnde sea que lo necesiten. +Tambin, estoy interesado en cmo podemos llevar esto a una manera ms dinmica. +Cuando vuelvo a mi escritorio, slo tomo esa informacin de regreso a mi escritorio y as pudo usar mi computador principal. +Y por qu solo computadores? Podemos jugar con papeles. +El mundo del papel es muy interesante para jugar. +Aqu, tomo una parte de un documento y pongo ac una segunda parte de otro lugar -- y estoy modificando la informacin que tengo por ac. +Y digo, "OK, esto se ve bien, djame imprimirlo." +Ahora tengo una impresin de eso, y ahora -- +El flujo de trabajo es ms intuitivo que la forma en que lo hacamos hace 20 aos, en vez de cambiar entre estos dos mundos. +Ahora, como pensamiento final, creo que integrar la informacin en los objetos cotidianos no slo nos ayudara a deshacernos de la brecha digital, el vaci entre estos 2 mundos, pero tambin nos ayudara, en alguna medida, a permanecer humanos, a estar ms conectados a nuestro mundo fsico. +Y nos ayudara, a no ser maquinas sentados frente a otras maquinas. +Eso es todo. Gracias. +Gracias. +Chris Anderson: Entonces, Pranav, primero que nada, eres un genio. +Esto es increble, realmente. +Que hars con esto? Hay una empresa planeada? +O es investigacin perpetua, o qu? +Pranav Mistry: Hay muchas empresas -- empresas patrocinantes del Media Lab -- interesados en llevar esto hacia adelante de una u otra forma. +Compaas como operadores de telefona mvil quieren llevar esto de una forma diferente a las ONG`s en India, que estn pensando, "Por qu slo tener un 'Sexto Sentido'? +Deberamos tener un 'Quinto Sentido' para la gente que carece de un sentido y no pueden hablar. +Esta tecnologa puede usarse para que hablen de una manera diferente quizs con un sistema de altavoces." +CA; Cuales son tus planes? Te quedaras en el MIT, o hars algo con esto? +PM: Estoy tratando de hacer esto ms disponible a la gente para que cualquiera pueda desarrollar su dispositivo SixthSense porque el hardware no es difcil de producir, o difcil de construir el propio. +Proveeremos todo el cdigo abierto, comenzando quizs el prximo mes. +CA: Cdigo abierto..!!? . Wow. +CA: Volvers a la India con algo de esto, en algn momento? +PM: Claro. Si, si, por supuesto. +CA: Cuales son tus planes? MIT? +India? Cmo dividirs tu tiempo de aqu en adelante? +PM: Hay mucha energa. Mucho aprendizaje. +Todo este trabajo que ustedes han visto es sobre mi aprendizaje en India. +Y ahora, si ustedes ven ms sobre el costo-efectividad: este sistema cuesta 300 dlares comparado con 20,000 dlares que cuestan las superficies tctiles, o algo por el estilo. +O incluso el sistema gestual a base del ratn de 2 dlares en sus momento costaba 5,000 dlares? +De hecho -- Se lo present, en una conferencia, al Presidente Abdul Kalam, en ese momento, y entonces el dijo, "OK, nosotros deberamos usarlo en el Centro Bhabha de Investigacin Atmica para revisarlo." +Estoy emocionado por la posibilidad de traer la tecnologa a las masas en vez de mantener esa tecnologa en el laboratorio. +CA: Basado en las personas que hemos visto en TED, Dira que eres uno de los dos o tres mejores inventores en el mundo ahora. +Es un honor tenerte presente en TED. +Muchas gracias. +Es fantstico. +Para entender la mitologa y lo que debe hacer un Director General de Fe, deben escuchar una historia sobre Ganesha, el dios con cabeza de elefante, que es el escriba de los narradores de cuentos, y su hermano, el seor de la guerra de atletismo de los dioses, Kartikeya. +Un da los dos hermanos decidieron emprender una carrera alrededor del mundo, tres veces. +Kartikeya se mont en su pavo real y vol por los continentes, las montaas y los ocanos. +Dio la vuelta al mundo una vez, dos veces, tres veces, +pero su hermano, Ganesha, simplemente dio vueltas alrededor de sus padres una, dos, tres veces, y dijo: "Gan". +"Cmo?" dijo Kartikeya. +Y Ganesha respondi: "T diste una vuelta 'al mundo', yo di una vuelta a 'mi mundo'". Qu importa ms? +Si se entiende la diferencia entre 'el mundo' y 'mi mundo', se entender la diferencia entre la razn y la mitologa. +'El mundo' es objetivo, lgico, universal, factual cientfico. +'Mi mundo' es subjetivo, +emocional, personal. +Es percepciones, pensamientos, emociones, sueos. +Es el sistema de creencias con el que cargamos. +Es el mito en el que vivimos. +'El mundo' nos dice cmo funciona el mundo, cmo sale el sol, cmo nacemos. +'Mi mundo' nos dice por qu sale el sol, por qu nacemos. +Cada cultura intenta entenderse, "Por qu existimos?" +Todas llegan a su propia interpretacin de la vida, su propia versin personalizada de la mitologa. +La cultura es una reaccin a la naturaleza, y esta interpretacin por parte de nuestros antepasados se transmite de generacin en generacin en forma de cuentos, smbolos y rituales que siempre son indiferentes a la racionalidad. +Entonces, cuando lo estudiamos, nos percatamos de que distintas personas tienen una una interpretacin diferente del mundo. +Las personas ven las cosas de forma distinta, con puntos de vista distintos. +Existe m mundo y existe tu mundo, y mi mundo siempre es mejor que el tuyo, porque mi mundo es racional, y el tuyo es supersticin, +el tuyo es fe, +el tuyo es ilgico. +Esta es la raz del choque de civilizaciones. +Ocurri, hace tiempo, en el ao 326 AC +en las orillas del ro Indus, hoy situado en Pakistn. +Este ro le da el nombre a la India. +India. Indus. +Alexander, un joven macedonio, conoci all a lo que denominaba un "gimnosofista", que significa "el hombre sabio desnudo". +No sabemos quin era. +Quizs era un monje Jainista, como Bahubali, el Gommateshvara Bahubali, cuya imagen no est lejos de Mysore. +O quizs simplemente era un yogi, sentado sobre una roca, observando al cielo, al sol, y a la luna. +Alexander pregunt: "Qu ests haciendo?" +Y el gimnosofista contest: "Estoy sintiendo la nada". +Luego el gimnosofista pregunt: "Y t qu ests haciendo?" +y Alexander contest: "estoy conquistando el mundo". +Ambos rieron. +Cada uno pensaba que el otro era un tonto. +El gimnosofista dijo: "Por qu est conquistando el mundo? +Es intil". +Y Alexander pens: "Por qu est sentado sin hacer nada? +Qu desperdicio de vida". +Para entender estos puntos de vista diferentes, debemos entender la verdad subjetiva de Alexander: su mito y la mitologa que lo construy. +Los padres de Alexander y su profesor Aristteles le contaron la historia de la Ilada de Homero. +Le contaron sobre un gran hroe llamado Aquiles, quien tena la victoria asegurada cuando luchaba en batallas, pero cuando se retiraba la derrota era inevitable. +"Aquiles era un hombre capaz de moldear la historia, un hombre con un destino, y esto es lo que debes ser, Alexander". +Eso es lo que escuch. +"Qu es lo que no debes ser? +No debes ser Ssifo, quien empuja una roca cuesta arriba todo el da por una ladera empinada, slo para descubrir que por la noche, vuelve a caer. +No vivas una vida montona, mediocre, sin sentido. +S espectacular como los hroes griegos! Como Jasn, que naveg el ocano con los Argonautas en busca del vellocino de oro. +S espectacular como Teseo, que entr al laberinto y mat al Minotauro. +Cuando compitas en una carrera, gana! porque cuando ganas, la alegra de la victoria es lo ms cercano que llegars a la ambrosia de los dioses". +Porque, vern, los griegos crean que slo vivimos una vez, y cuando mueres, tienes que cruzar el ro Estigia, +y si has llevado una vida extraordinaria sers bienvenido al Elseo, o lo que los franceses llaman "Campos Elseos", el cielo de los hroes. +Pero estas no son las historias que el gimnosofista escuchaba. +l escuch una historia muy diferente. +Escuch hablar de un hombre llamado Bharat, de quien la India recibi el nombre de Bhrata. +Bharat tambin conquist el mundo, +y despus subi al pico ms alto de la montaa ms alta del centro del mundo, llamada Meru. +Quera izar su bandera y decir: "Yo llegu aqu primero", +pero cuando lleg al pico de la montaa lo encontr lleno de innumerables banderas de conquistadores que llegaron antes que l, cada uno sosteniendo "llegu aqu primero... +o eso es lo que pens hasta que llegu". +Y de pronto, en este lienzo infinito Bharat se sinti insignificante. +Esta era la mitologa del gimnosofista. +l tena hroes como Rama, Raghupati Rama y Krishna, Govinda Hare. +Pero no eran dos personajes embarcados en dos aventuras distintas. +Eran dos vidas distintas del mismo hroe. +Cuando termina el Ramayana, comienza el Mahabharata. +Cuando muere Rama, nace Krishna. +Cuando muere Krishna, volver eventualmente como Rama. +Vern, los indios tambin tenan un ro que separa el mundo de los vivos del de los muertos. +Pero no lo cruzamos una vez, +sino varias. +Se llamaba el Vaitarna. +Cruzas una y otra vez, +porque, vern, nada dura para siempre en la India, ni siquiera la muerte. +As que tenemos estos rituales magnficos donde se construyen grandes imgenes de diosas madres que son veneradas durante 10 das. +Y qu hacen despus de esos 10 das? +Las tiran al ro. +Porque debe terminar. +Y el prximo ao volvern. +Todo vuelve, y esta regla no slo se aplica al hombre, sino tambin a los dioses. +Vern, los dioses tienen que volver una y otra vez como Rama, como Krishna. +No slo viven vidas infinitas, sino que viven la misma vida una infinidad de veces hasta hallar el sentido a todo... +El da de la Marmota. +Dos mitologas distintas. +Cul es la correcta? +Dos mitologas distintas, dos formas diferentes de ver el mundo. +Una, lineal. Otra, cclica. +Una sostiene que esta vida es la nica. +La otra sostiene que esta es una de muchas vidas. +La vida de Alexander tena un denominador, +as que el valor de su vida era la suma total de sus logros. +El denominador de la vida del gimnosofista era infinito, +as que hiciera lo que hiciera siempre era cero. +Pienso que este paradigma mitolgico inspir a los matemticos indios a descubrir el nmero cero. +Quin sabe? +Y esto nos lleva a la mitologa empresarial. +Si las creencias de Alexander influan en su comportamiento, si las creencias del gimnosofista influan en su comportamiento, tambin influiran en el "negocio" en el que estaban inmersos. +Porque, qu es el comercio sino el resultado del comportamiento del mercado y el de la organizacin? +Y si observa a las culturas del mundo, lo nico que tiene que hacer es entender la mitologa y ver cmo se comportan, cmo hacen negocios. +Eche un vistazo. +Si vive una sola vez, en una cultura que cree en una vida nica ver una obsesin con la lgica binaria, la verdad absoluta, la estandarizacin, la totalidad, un diseo con patrones lineares. +Pero si observa a las culturas que tienen vidas cclicas e infinitas, ver una comodidad con lgica borrosa, con opinin, con un pensamiento contextual, con un todo relativo, de alguna manera... mayoritariamente. +Observe el arte. Observe a la bailarina de ballet y su actuacin lineal. +Luego observe a la bailarina clsica india, el bailarn Kuchipudi, la bailarina Bharatanatyam... curvilnea. +Y luego observe el mundo empresarial. +El modelo empresarial estndar: visin, misin, valores, procesos. +Suena al viaje en busca de la tierra prometida a travs de la jungla, el lder con los mandamientos en mano. +Si cumples, irs al cielo. +Pero en la India no existe "la" tierra prometida. +Hay muchas de ellas, dependiendo de tu posicin en la sociedad, dependiendo de la etapa de tu vida. +Las empresas no se dirigen como las instituciones, por la idiosincrasia de las personas. +Siempre se dirigen por el gusto. +Siempre se trata de mi gusto. +La msica india, por ejemplo, no tiene el concepto de armona. +No hay un director de orquesta. +Hay un intrprete, y los dems le siguen. +Y nunca puedes repetir una actuacin dos veces. +No se trata de la documentacin ni del contrato. +Se trata de la conversacin y de la fe. +No se trata de la conformidad sino del entorno, cumplir con el trabajo, torciendo o rompiendo las reglas... simplemente observe a los indios que estn aqu, los vern sonrer, ellos saben de lo que hablo. +Y ahora mire a las personas que han hecho negocios en la India, vern la exasperacin en sus rostros. +La India de hoy es esto. La realidad est basada en un punto de vista cclico. +Por tanto, cambia rpidamente, es muy diverso, catico, ambiguo, impredecible. +Y la gente as lo acepta. +Aqu tambin entra en juego la globalizacin, +y las demandas del pensamiento institucional moderno, +que tiene sus races en las culturas que creen en una vida nica. +Y habr un choque, como en las orillas del ro Indus. +Es inevitable. +Lo he vivido personalmente. Me form como mdico. +No quera estudiar ciruga, no me pregunten por qu. +Me apasiona demasiado la mitologa. +Quera aprender mitologa, pero no haba dnde estudiarlo. +As que tuve que ensearme a m mismo. +Y la mitologa no paga. Bueno... hasta hoy. +Tena que ponerme a trabajar, y lo hice en la industria farmacutica. +Trabaj en la sanidad, +y trabaj como el tipo de marketing, el tipo de ventas, el tipo de conocimiento, el tipo de contenido y el tipo de capacitacin. +Incluso fui consultor empresarial, planificando estrategias y tcticas. +Y vea la exasperacin entre mis colegas estadounidenses y europeos cuando abordaban el tema de la India. +Ejemplo: Por favor, explcanos el proceso para facturar a los hospitales. +Paso A. Paso B. Paso C... Mayoritariamente. +Cmo se parametriza "mayoritariamente"? +Cmo instalarlo en un software? No se puede. +Le daba mis puntos de vista a la gente, +pero nadie quera escucharlos... hasta que conoc a Kishore Biyane del "Future Group". +l fund la mayor cadena de tiendas minoristas, el "Big Bazaar", +y hoy existen ms de 200 formatos en 50 ciudades y pueblos de la India. +Trataba con mercados diversos y dinmicos, +y saba, de manera muy intuitiva, que las mejores prcticas desarrolladas en Japn, en la China, en Europa y en los Estados Unidos, no funcionan en la India. +Saba que el pensamiento institucional no funciona en la India. Funciona el pensamiento individual. +Tena un entendimiento intuitivo de la estructura mtica de la India. +Me pidi que fuera el Director General de Fe, y dijo: "Lo nico que quiero que hagas es alinear creencias". +Suena tan simple... +pero la creencia no se puede medir. +No se puede medir. No se puede dirigir. +Cmo se construye la creencia? +Cmo hacer que la gente sea ms sensible a lo indio? +Incluso si usted es indio, no es algo explcito ni obvio. +As que intent centrarme en el modelo estndar de cultura: desarrollar cuentos, smbolos y rituales. +Compartir uno de los rituales con ustedes. +Est basado en el ritual Hind de Darshan. +Los Hinds no tienen mandamientos, +as que no hay nada bueno ni malo en lo que hagas en la vida. +No ests muy seguro de la imagen que tiene Dios de ti. +As que cuando acudes al templo slo buscas una audiencia con Dios. +Quieres ver a Dios +y quieres que Dios te vea a ti, de ah que los Dioses tengan ojos grandes, ojos grandes que no parpadean, a veces hechos de plata, para que puedan mirarte. +Porque no sabes si has hecho bien o mal, as que slo buscas empata divina. +"Slo quiero que sepas de dnde vine y porqu hice el Jugaad". +"Porqu me preocup por el entorno, porqu no me interesan los procesos, entindeme, por favor". +Y creamos un ritual para los lderes, basado en esto. +Cuando un lder termina su formacin y est a punto de asumir la gestin de una tienda, le vendamos los ojos, le rodeamos de las personas relevantes, el cliente, la familia, el equipo, su jefe. +Le leen su KRA, su KPI, le dan las llaves, y luego le quitan la venda. +Invariablemente, ver una lgrima, porque se da cuenta. +Se da cuenta de que, para triunfar no tiene que ser un profesional, no tiene que excluir sus emociones, tiene que incluir a todas estas personas para tener xito, para hacerles feliz, para hacer feliz a todos y hacer feliz al jefe. +El cliente es feliz porque el cliente es Dios. +Necesitamos esa sensibilidad. Cuando se asimile, traer consigo negocios y una conducta. +Y as lo ha hecho. +Ahora volvemos a Alexander y al gimnosofista. +Todo el mundo me pregunta: "Cul es la forma correcta, esta o aquella? +y es una pregunta muy peligrosa, porque te lleva al camino del fundamentalismo y la violencia, +as que no responder a la pregunta. +Lo que voy a hacer es darle una respuesta india: el movimiento de cabeza indio. +Dependiendo del contexto, dependiendo de las consecuencias, elija su paradigma, +porque ambos paradigmas son construcciones humanas. +Son creaciones culturales, no son fenmenos naturales. +As que, la prxima vez que conozca a alguien, un desconocido, les pido una cosa: Entienda que usted vive en una verdad subjetiva, y l tambin. +Entindalo. +Y cuando lo entienda, descubrir algo espectacular. +Descubrir que dentro de innumerables mitos yace la verdad eterna. +Quin lo ve todo? +Varuna tiene mil ojos. +Indira tiene cien. +Usted y yo, slo dos. +Gracias. +Un da, un mono de un solo ojo vino al bosque. +Debajo de un rbol vio a una mujer que meditaba intensamente. +El mono de un solo ojo reconoci a la mujer, una Sekhri. +Era la esposa de un Brahmn todava ms famoso. +Para verla mejor, el mono de un solo ojo se subi al rbol. +Y entonces, con un gran estruendo, se abrieron los cielos. Y el dios Indra salt al claro del bosque. +Indra vio a la mujer, una Sekhri. +Aha! +La mujer no le prest atencin. +As que, Indra, atrado, la tir al suelo y procedi a violarla. +Luego Indra desapareci. Y el marido de la mujer, el Brahmn, apareci. +Se dio cuenta en seguida de lo que haba ocurrido, +as que pidi a los dioses ms poderosos que le hicieran justicia. +Y as lleg el dios Vishnu. +"Hay testigos?" +"Slo un mono con un ojo", dijo el Brahmn. +Entonces, el mono de un solo ojo, que realmente quera justicia para la mujer, una Sekhri, cont lo sucedido exactamente como haba ocurrido. +Vishnu dio su veredicto. +"El dios Indra ha pecado. Ha pecado contra...un Brahmn. +Que sea llamado para expiar sus pecados". +Y as, Indra lleg, y practic el sacrificio del caballo. +Y as ocurri que un caballo fue sacrificado, un dios qued libre de pecados, el ego de un Brahmn fue calmado, una mujer...qued arruinada, y un mono con un solo ojo qued... +muy confundido con lo que los humanos llamamos justicia. +En la India hay una violacin cada tres minutos. +En la India, slo el 25% de las violaciones llegan a un cuartel de polica. Y de ese 25% que llega a la comisara, slo el 4% de los casos obtienen condena. +Esa es una gran cantidad de mujeres que quedan sin justicia. +Y no slo concierne a las mujeres. +Miren a su alrededor, miren a sus pases. +Hay un cierto patron en los que son acusados por los crmenes. +Si ests en Australia, son sobre todo los aborgenes los que estn en la crcel. +Si ests en India, son los musulmanes, o los adivasis, nuestras tribus, los Naxalitas. +Si ests en los EEUU, son sobre todo los negros. +Hay una tendencia. +Y los brahmanes y los dioses, como en mi historia, siempre cuentan su verdad como La Verdad. +As que, nos hemos convertido todos en monos con un solo ojo, dos ojos en lugar de uno? +Hemos dejado de ver la injusticia? +Buenos das. +Saben? He contado esta historia cerca de 550 veces, en auditorios de 40 pases, a estudiantes de primaria, a comensales con corbata negra en el Smithsonian, etc., y cada vez impacta en algo diferente. +Ahora bien, si fuera al mismo pblico y les dijera: "Voy a hablarles sobre justicia e injusticia". Ellos diran: "Muchas gracias, pero tenemos otras cosas que hacer". +Y ese es el increble poder del arte. +El arte llega a donde otras cosas no llegan. +No puedes tener barreras, porque rompe con tus prejuicios, rompe con todo lo que tienes como tu mscara, que dice: "Yo soy esto, yo soy eso o aquello". +No. Rompe con todo eso. +Y llega a lugares donde otras cosas no llegan. +Y en un mundo donde las actitudes son tan difciles de cambiar, necesitamos un lenguaje que rompa. +Hitler lo saba, utiliz a Wagner para hacer que todos los nazis se sintieran maravillosos y arios. +Y el Sr. Berlusconi lo sabe, y se sienta en lo ms alto de un inmenso imperio de medios y televisin, etc. +Y todas las maravillosas mentes creativas en todas las agencias de publicidad, que ayudan a las corporaciones a vendernos cosas que no necesitamos en absoluto, ellos tambin conocen el poder de las artes. +A m me lleg muy temprano. +Cuando era una nia pequea, mi madre, que era coregrafa, se encontr con un fenmeno que le preocup. +Era el fenmeno de que novias jvenes se estaban suicidando en el Gujarat rural porque estaban siendo forzadas a llevar ms y ms dinero a sus familias polticas. +As que cre una danza que vio el primer ministro Nehru. +l fue a hablar con ella y dijo: "De qu se trata esto?" +Ella se lo cont y l estableci como primera medida lo que hoy llamamos "danza de la dote". +Imaginen una danza como primera medida contra algo que incluso hoy en da mata a miles de mujeres. +Muchos aos despus, cuando estaba trabajando con el director Peter Brook en "El Mahabharata", actuando como la luchadora femenina feminista llamada Draupadi, tuve experiencias similares. +Las "mams" grandes y gordas del Bronx solan venir y decirme: "Oye, nia, eso es! +Y luego las jvenes modernas en la Sorbona diran: "Seora Draupadi, no se es feminista, pero eso? Eso s!" +Y las mujeres aborgenes en frica vendran y diran: "Eso es!" +Y pens: "Esto es lo que necesitamos como lenguaje". +Tuvimos a alguien de salud pblica. Y Devdutt tambin ha mencionado la salud pblica. +Bien, millones de personas en todo el mundo mueren cada ao por enfermedades contradas por el agua. +Y esto ocurre por no tener agua limpia que beber, o, en pases como la India, por gente que no sabe que tienen que lavarse las manos antes de defecar. +Y qu es lo que hacen? +Beben agua que saben que est sucia, y contraen clera, diarrea, ictericia, y mueren. +Y los gobiernos no han sido capaces de proveer agua limpia. +Lo intentan. Intentan construir tuberas, pero no lo consiguen. +Las multinacionales les ofrecen mquinas que no pueden costear. +Y entonces, qu haces? Les dejas morir? +Bueno, alguien tuvo una gran idea. +Y fue una idea muy simple. Una idea que no aportaba ganancias a nadie pero que ayudara a la salud en todos los campos. +La mayora de las casas en Asia y en la India tienen tejidos de algodn. +Y se descubri, y esto est aprobado por la OMS, que un tejido limpio de algodn doblado ocho veces puede reducir las bacterias en un 80% al filtrar el agua. +Y por qu los gobiernos no claman esto en televisin? +Por qu no est en cada pster en el tercer mundo? +Poque no hay ganancias en ello. +Porque nadie puede obtener un soborno. +Pero todava se necesita que llegue a la gente. +Y sta es una de las formas de llegar a la gente. +[Video] Mujer: Entonces, cmprame uno de esos purificadores de agua modernos +Hombre: Ya sabes lo caros que son. +Tengo una solucin que no requiere ninguna mquina, ni madera ni gas de cocina. +Mujer: Qu solucin? +Hombre: Mira, ve y trete ese sari de algodn que tienes. +Nio: Abuelo, cuntame la solucin, por favor. +Hombre: Os lo contar a todos. Slo hay que esperar. +Mujer: Aqu, padre. Hombre: Est limpio? Mujer: S, claro. +Hombre: Haz lo que te diga. Dobla el sari en ocho partes. +Hombre: De acuerdo, padre +Hombre: Y t, cuenta a ver si lo hace bien. Nio: De acuerdo, abuelo. Hombre: Una, dos, tres, cuatro dobleces hacemos. +Y todos lo grmenes del agua quitamos. +Coro: Una, dos, tres, cuatro dobleces hacemos. +Y todos los grmenes del agua quitamos. +Cinco, seis, siete, ocho dobleces hacemos. +Nuestra agua potable la hacemos. +Cinco, seis, siete, ocho dobleces hacemos. +Nuestra agua potable la hacemos. +Mujer: Ya est padre, el sari de algodn doblado ocho veces. +Hombre: As que este es el sari de algodn. +Y a travs de l obtendremos agua limpia. +Creo que se puede decir con seguridad que todos los que estamos aqu estamos muy preocupados por el aumento de la violencia en nuestra vida diaria. +Mientras las universidades intentan crear cursos sobre la resolucin de conflictos y los gobiernos intentan detener los altercados en las fronteras, estamos rodeados de violencia, ya sea rabia en la carretera, o violencia domstica, o un maestro pegando a una estudiante y matndola porque no ha hecho su tarea, est en todas partes. +As que, por qu no estamos haciendo nada para realmente atender el problema de una forma cotidiana? +Qu es lo que hacemos para intentar que los nios y los jvenes se den cuenta de que la violencia es algo que nosotros permitimos, de que podemos pararla, y de que hay otras maneras reales de canalizar la violencia, la ira, las frustraciones, de una forma diferente que no dae a otras personas. +Bien, esta es una de esas formas. +Ustedes son personas pacficas. +Sus padres fueron personas pacficas. +Sus abuelos fueron personas pacficas. +Tanta paz en un solo lugar? +Cmo podra ser de otra manera? +Pero, qu pasara si...? +S. qu pasara si... +un pequeo gen en ti hubiera estado intentando transpasar? +Desde tus comienzos en frica, a travs de cada generacin, puede ser que sea transmitido a ti, a tu creacin. Es un impulso secreto, escondido en ti. +Y si est en ti, entonces est en m tambin. Vaya! +Es lo que te hizo pegarle a tu hermano pequeo, pisar una cucaracha, araar a tu madre. +Es el sentimiento que brota de muy adentro, cuando tu marido vuelve a casa borracho y te dan ganas de matarlo. +Cuando quieres matar al ciclista de camino al trabajo, o linchar a tu prima porque es una estpida. Ay, qu cosas! +Y a los forasteros, blancos, negros o marrones, alquitrn y plumas con ellos, y azotarlos hasta que salgan de la ciudad. +Es ese pequeo gen. Es pequeo y mezquino. +Demasiado pequeo para detectarlo, viene en tu proteccin incorporada. +Adrenalina, mata. Te proporcionar el deseo. +S, mejor que lo reconozcas, porque no puedes deshacerte de l. +Eres V-I-O-L-E-N-T-O. +Porque o eres una vctima, o ests arriba, como yo. +Adis, Abraham Lincoln. +Adis, Mahatma Gandhi. +Adis, Martin Luther King. +Hola, bandas de este vecindario matando bandas de ese vecindario. +Hola, gobiernos de pases ricos vendiendo armas a los gobiernos de pases pobres que ni siquiera pueden costearse darles comida. +Hola civilizacin. Hola siglo XXI. +Mira lo que... +mira lo que ellos han hecho. +El arte y el cine dominante han sido utilizados por todo el mundo para hablar de asuntos sociales. +Hace algunos aos, sali una pelcula titulada "Rang De Basanti" que de repente provoc que miles de jvenes quisieran ser voluntarios por el cambio social. +En Venezuela, una de las telenovelas ms populares tena una herona llamada Cristal. +Y en ella, en pantalla, Cristal contrajo cncer de mama. 75.000 mujeres jvenes ms fueron a hacerse mamografas. +Y, naturalmente, "Los Monlogos de la Vagina" que ya conocemos. +Y hay cmicos que hablan sobre asuntos raciales, sobre asuntos tnicos. +As que, por qu es que, si todos creemos estar de acuerdo en que necesitamos un mundo mejor, en que necesitamos un mundo ms justo, por qu no estamos utilizando el nico lenguaje que nos ha demostrado consistentemente que podemos romper barreras, que podemos llegar a la gente? +Lo que yo tengo que decir a los planificadores del mundo, a los gobiernos, a los estrategas, es: "Habis tratado las artes como la cereza en el pastel. +Necesita ser la levadura". +Porque, cualquier plan de futuro, si es en el 2048 que queremos lograrlo, a menos que se pongan las artes con los cientficos, con los economistas, con todos aquellos que preparan el futuro, incorrectamente, no vamos a lograrlo. +Y, a menos que esto realmente se internalice, no suceder. +As que, qu es lo que pedimos? Qu es lo que necesitamos? +Necesitamos cambiar nuestra visin sobre qu son los planificadores, sobre cul es la forma correcta de una trayectoria. +Y decir que despus de todos estos aos de estar intentando crear un mundo mejor, hemos fracasado. +Hay ms gente que est siendo violada. Hay ms guerras. +Y hay ms gente muriendo por causas simples. +As que alguien tiene que ceder. Y esto es lo que yo quiero. +Pueden poner mi ltima grabacin, por favor? +Haba una vez una princesa que silbaba maravillosamente. +Su padre, el rey, deca: "No silbes". +Su madre, la reina, deca: "Ay, no silbes!". +Pero la princesa continu silbando. +Los aos pasaron y la princesa se convirti en una joven muy hermosa, que silbaba incluso ms maravillosamente. +Su padre, el rey, deca: "Quin se casar con una princesa que silba?" +Su madre, la reina, deca: "Quin se casar con una princesa que silba?" +Pero el rey tuvo una idea. +Anunci una Swayamvara. +Invit a todos los prncipes a venir y vencer a su hija silbando. +"Quien venza a mi hija tendr la mitad de mi reino y su mano en matrimonio". +Pronto se llen el palacio de prncipes silbando. +Algunos silbaban mal. +Algunos silbaban bien. +Pero ninguno pudo vencer a la princesa. +"Y ahora, qu hacemos?", dijo el rey. +"Y ahora, qu hacemos?", dijo la reina. +Pero la princesa dijo: "Padre, madre, no se preocupen. +Tengo una idea. Voy a ir a ver a cada uno de esos jvenes y les voy a preguntar si fueron vencidos honestamente. +Y si alguno responde, ese ser mi deseo" +As que fue a ver a cada joven y dijo: "Aceptas que te he vencido?" +Y ellos dijeron: "Yo? Vencido por una mujer? +En absoluto, eso es imposible! No, no, no, no, no! Eso no es posible." +Hasta que al final, un prncipe dijo: "Princesa, yo lo acepto, me has vencido". +"Aha...", dijo ella. +"Padre, madre, este hombre ser mi esposa". +Gracias. +Como indio y ahora como poltico y ministro del gobierno me preocupa bastante todo el bombo que se le est dando a nuestro pas y lo que dicen de India convirtiendose en un lder mundial, incluso en la prxima superpotencia. +De hecho los editores americanos de mi libro "The Elephant, The Tiger and the Cellpone", incluyeron un subttulo innecesario, que deca: "India: la potencia del prximo siglo XXI". +Y yo no creo que India sea eso, ni que deba serlo. +De hecho, lo que me preocupa es toda esa idea de liderazgo mundial, me parece terriblemente arcaica. +Recuerda a las pelculas de James Bond y a las baladas de Kipling. +Despus de todo, qu te convierte en lder mundial? +Si es la poblacin, vamos camino de ser los primeros. +Superaremos a China en el 2034. +Es la fuerza militar? Vale, pues tenemos el cuarto ejercito ms grande del mundo. +Es la capacidad nuclear? Sabemos que la tenemos. +Incluso los americanos lo han reconocido, en un acuerdo. +Es la economa? Bien, pues ahora tenemos la quinta economa ms grande del mundo en lo que se refiere a paridad de poder adquisitivo. +Y seguimos creciendo. Cuando el resto del mundo sufri una sacudida el ao pasado, nosotros crecimos un 6,7%. +No obstante, nada de eso forma parte de lo que creo que India puede aportar al mundo en esta parte del s. XXI. +As que me pregunt si poda ser que la India del futuro fuese una combinacin de todas estas cosas unidas a algo ms, al poder del ejemplo, a la atraccin de la cultura de la India, lo que, en otras palabras, la gente denomina "poder blando". +El poder blando es un concepto inventado por un acadmico de Harvard, Joseph Nye, un amigo mo. +Y, bsicamente, y lo resumo mucho porque aqu tenemos un lmite de tiempo, se trata de la capacidad que tiene un pas de atraer a otros por su cultura, sus valores polticos, su poltica exterior. +Y, como sabis, muchos pases lo hacen. En un principio l escriba sobre EEUU, pero sabemos que la Alliance Francais se basa en el poder blando francs, el British Council. +Las Olimpiadas de Beijing fueron todo un ejercicio de poder blando de China. +Los americanos tienen el "Voice of America" y las becas Fullbright. +Pero lo cierto es que probablemente Hollywood, la MTV y McDonalds han contribudo ms al poder blando americano alrededor del mundo que cualquier actividad gubernamental especfica. +De manera que el poder blando es algo que de verdad emerge en parte por los gobiernos, pero en parte a pesar de ellos. +Y en la era de la informacin en la que vivimos todos hoy, lo que podramos llamar la edad TED, dira que a los pases son juzgados cada vez ms por un pblico global que ha sido alimentado por un flujo incesante de noticias de Internet, imgenes televisadas, videos del mvil, cotilleos por email, +en otras palabras: todo tipo de dispositivos de comunicacin nos estn contando historias de pases quieran o no los pases implicados que la gente las oiga. +Ahora, en esta poca, una vez ms, los pases con acceso a mltiples canales de comunicacin e informacin disfrutan de una ventaja especial. +Y por supuesto ejercen mayor influencia, a veces, en la visin que se tiene de ellos. +India tiene ms canales de televisin de noticias que cualquier otro pas del mundo, de hecho, ms que la mayora de los pases de esta parte del mundo juntos. +Pero aun as, no se trata solo de eso. +Para tener poder blando tienes que estar conectado. +Se podra defender que India se ha vuelto un pas increblemente conectado. +Creo que ya habris odo las estadsticas. +Hemos estado vendiendo 15 millones de telfonos mviles al mes. +Actualmente hay 509 millones de telfonos mviles en manos indias, en la India. +Lo que hace que nuestro mercado de telfonos sea mayor que el de EEUU. +De hecho, esos 15 millones de mviles son ms conexiones de las que cualquier pas EEUU y China incluidos, ha establecido nunca en la historia de las telecomunicaciones. +Pero aquello de lo que puede que algunos de vosotros no os deis cuenta es de lo que hemos avanzado para llegar aqu. +Sabis, cuando crec en la India, los telfonos eran una rareza. +De hecho, eran tan poco comunes que los miembros elegidos del Parlamento tenan derecho a asignar 15 lneas telefnicas como un favor a aquellos que consideraban que las merecan. +Si tenas la suerte de ser un prspero hombre de negocios o un periodista influyente, o un mdico o algo as, quizs tuvieras un telfono. +Pero algunas veces solo estaba ah colocado. +Fui al instituto en Calculta. +Y veamos este instrumento colocado en el recibidor. +Pero la mayora de las veces lo cogamos con cara de ilusin y no tena lnea. +Si daba tono y marcabas un nmero, lo normal era que dos de cada tres veces no conectaras con l. +De hecho las palabras "nmero equivocado" eran ms normales que la palabra "hola". +Si queras conectar con otra ciudad, digamos que queras llamar de Calcuta a Delhi, tenas que reservar una cosa que se llamaba "trunk call" (llamada de larga distancia) y sentarte delante del telfono todo el da a esperar que llegara. +O podas pagar 8 veces la tarifa del momento por una cosa que se llamaba "lightning call". (llamada relmpago) +Pero los relmpagos iban mas bien despacio por aquel entonces de manera que una llamada relmpago tardaba una media hora en llegar. +De hecho, nuestro servicio telefnico era tan lamentable que un miembro del parlamento se levant en 1984 y protest. +Ahora, pasas todo hacia delante rpido y te encuentras con esto, 15 millones de telfonos mviles al mes. +Pero lo que ms impacta es quin lleva estos mviles. +Saben, si van a visitar amistades a los suburbios de Delhi, en las aceras podrn encontrar a un tipo con un carro que parece diseado en el s.XVI, blandiendo una plancha de vapor a carbn que podra haber sido inventada en el s. XVIII. +Es un isthri wala. Pero lleva un instrumento del s.XXI. +LLeva un mvil porque la mayora de las llamadas entrantes son gratuitas, y as recibe los encargos de los vecinos, para saber dnde recoge la ropa que tiene que planchar. +El otro da estaba en Kerala, mi estado natal en la granja de un amigo a unos 20 kms de cualquier zona que se pueda considerar urbana. +Y era un da caluroso y dijo: "Oye, te apetece agua de coco fresca? +Es lo mejor, ms nutritivo y refrescante que se puede beber un da de calor en el trpico, as que dije que s. +Y de repente sac su mvil, marc el nmero, y una voz dijo: "Estoy aqu arriba". +Y justo en lo alto de la cocotera ms cercana con un hacha en una mano y un mvil en la otra haba un palemrero local, que procedi a bajarnos cocos para beber. +Los pescadores salen al mar con sus mviles. +Cuando pescan llaman a todos los mercados a lo largo de la costa para averiguar dnde les van a pagar mejor. +Los granjeros solan tener que pasar medio da de duro trabajo para averiguar si el mercado de la ciudad estaba abierto, si el mercado estaba en funcionamiento, si el producto que haban cosechado se poda vender y a qu precio se vendera. +Muchas veces mandaban a un nio de 8 aos a darse la caminata hasta el mercado de la ciudad para informarse y volver, y despus cargaban el carro. +Hoy en da se ahorran medio da de trabajo con una llamada de dos minutos. +De manera que esta ganancia de poder de las clases desfavorecidas es el resultado real de que la India est conectada. +Y esa transformacin forma parte de la direccin que est tomando la India hoy. +Pero claro, eso no es lo nico que se est divulgando de la India. +Tenemos Bollywood. Como mejor se resume mi actitud hacia Bollywood es con el cuento de las dos cabras en un vertedero de Bollywood -- [ininteligible] perdonadme -- y estn masticando latas de celuloide desechado por un estudio de Bollywood. +Y la primera cabra, masticando, dice: "Sabes, esta pelcula no est mal". +Y la segunda cabra dice: "No, el libro estaba mejor". +Normalmente el libro me suele parecer mejor, pero, una vez dicho esto, el hecho es que Bollywood est ahora llevando cierto aspecto de india-nidad y de cultura india por todo el mundo, no solo en la dispora india de EE.UU. y U.K. sino en las pantallas de rabes y africanos, de senegaleses y de sirios. +He conocido a un joven en Nueva York cuya madre analfabeta en un pueblo de Senegal coge un autobs una vez al mes a la capital, Dakar, slo para ver una pelcula de Bollywood. +No entiende el dilogo. +Es analfabeta, de manera que no puede leer los subttulos en francs. +Pero estas pelculas estn hechas para que se entiendan a pesar de handicaps como ese, y ella se lo pasa fenomenal con las canciones y los bailes y la accin, +y se va maravillada pensando en la India. +Y esto cada vez pasa ms. +Afganistn, ya sabemos el serio problema de seguridad que representa Afganistn para muchos de nosotros en el mundo. +India no tiene un destacamento militar all. +Sabis cul ha sido el principal recurso de la India en Afganistn los ltimos 7 aos? +Un sencillo hecho: no podras llamar a Afganistn a las 8:30 de la noche. +Por qu? Porque en ese momento el que el culebrn indio, [Hindi], doblado al Dhurrie, se emita en Todo T.V. +Y fu el programa de televisin ms famoso de la historia afgana. +Cada familia afgana quera verlo. +Tenan que suspender funciones a las 20:30h. +Se interrumpan bodas para que los invitados pudieran reunirse frente al televisor y luego volver a poner su atencin en la novia y el novio. +Y garabatearon en el parabrisas, aludiendo a la herona del programa, "Tulsi Zindabad": "Larga vida a Tulsi". +Eso es poder blando. Y eso es lo que India est desarrollando mediante la "E" de TED: su propia industria del entretenimiento. +Pasa lo mismo, por supuesto -- No tenemos tiempo para muchos ejemplos ms-- pero pasa con nuestra msica, nuestros bailes, nuestro arte, yoga, ayurveda, incluso con la cocina india. +Quiero decir, la proliferacin de restaurantes indios desde que viaj al extranjero de estudiante, a mediados de los 70, comparado con lo que veo ahora, imposible ir a una ciudad de mediano tamao de Europa o Norteamrica y no encontrarte algn restaurante indio. Puede que no sea muy bueno. +Pero, hoy en da en Gran Bretaa, por ejemplo, los restaurantes indios britnicos dan trabajo a ms gente que las minas de carbn, los astilleros y la industria del acero juntas. +As que el imperio puede contraatacar. +Y la India es, y debe seguir siendo, desde mi punto de vista, la tierra con la mejor historia. +Los estereotipos estn cambiando. Quiero decir, como he dicho, despus de haber ido a EE.UU. +de estudiante a mediados de los aos 70, supe cul era la imagen que daba la India por entonces, si es que tena imagen alguna. +Hoy en da, la gente de Silicon Valley y de otros lugares hablan de IIT, los Institutos Indios de Tecnologa, con el mismo respeto que mostraban al MIT. +A veces esto puede tener consecuencias que no pretendemos. OK. +Tena un amigo, especializado en Historia, como yo, que fu abordado en el aeropuerto Schiphol de Amsterdam por un europeo ansioso y sudoroso que le dijo: "Eres indio, eres indio! Me ayudas a arreglar el porttil?" +Hemos pasado de una imagen de la India de tierra de faquires sobre lechos de clavos, y encantadores de serpientes con el truco de la cuerda, a una imagen de la India basada en una tierra de genios matemticos, magos de la informtica, gurs del software. +Pero eso tambin est cambiando la historia de la India alrededor del mundo. +No obstante hay algo ms esencial. +La historia yace sobre una plataforma fundamental de pluralismo poltico. +Para empezar, es una historia de la civilizacin +Porque la India lleva milenios siendo una sociedad abierta. +India ofreci refugio a los judos que huyeron de la destruccin del primer templo por los babilonios, y a partir de entonces por los romanos. +De hecho, la leyenda dice que cuando Toms el dudoso, el apstol, Santo Toms, lleg a las orillas de Kerala, mi estado, en algn momento alrededor del 52 d.C., le dio la bienvenida en la orilla una chica juda que tocaba la flauta. +Y hasta hoy, sigue siendo la nica dispora judia de la historia de los judios que no se ha encontrado nunca con un solo incidente de antisemitismo. +Esta es la historia de la India. +El islam llego pacficamente al sur, aunque fue un tema ligeramente ms complicado en el norte. +No obstante, todas estas religiones han encontrado un lugar y acogida en la India. +Como sabis, acabamos de celebrar este ao nuestras elecciones generales, el mayor ejercicio de derecho a voto democrtico de la historia de la humanidad. +Y el prximo ser incluso mayor, gracias a que nuestra poblacin votante sigue aumentando en 20 millones al ao. +Esto es India, y por supuesto, impacta ms porque fue cuatro aos despus cuando todos aplaudimos a EE.UU., la democracia ms antigua del mundo moderno, con ms de 220 aos de elecciones libres y justas, que hasta el ao pasado no haba elegido ningn presidente o vicepresidente que no fuera blanco, hombre y cristiano. +As que, quizs,--ay, lo siento, es cristiano, perdonen-- y es hombre, pero no es blanco. +Todos los dems eran las tres cosas. +Todos sus predecesores eran las tres cosas, a eso era a lo que me refera. +Pero la cuestin es que cuando pongo ese ejemplo, no se trata de que est hablando de la India, no es propaganda. +Porque al final, ese resultado electoral no tiene nada que ver con el resto del mundo. +Fundamentalmente era la India siendo ella misma. +Y al final, me da la sensacin de que siempre funciona mejor que la propaganda. +Los gobiernos no son muy buenos contando historias. +Pero la gente aprecia a una sociedad por lo que s y eso, a m me parece que, en ltima instancia, marcar la diferencia en la presente era de la informacin, en la presente era TED. +As que la India ya no es el nacionalismo de la etnia o del idioma o la religin, porque tenemos toda etnia conocida por la humanidad, prcticamente, toda religin conocida por la humanidad, con la posible excepcin del sintosmo. Aunque tiene algunos elementos hindes en algn lado. +Tenemos 23 idiomas oficiales reconocidos en nuestra constitucin. +Y aquellos de vosotros que hayis cambiado aqu vuestro dinero os habris quedado sorprendidos de la cantidad de escrituras que hay en el billete de la rupia con las denominaciones. +Los tenemos todos. +Ni siquiera tenemos una geografa que nos una. Porque la geografa natural del subcontinente enmarcado por las montaas y el mar, la rompi la particin con Pakistn en 1947. +De hecho, no se puede pasar por alto el nombre del pas. Porque el nombre "India" viene del ro Indo, que pasa por Pakistn. +Pero lo importante es que India es el nacionalismo de una idea. +Es la idea de una tierra eterna, surgida de una civilizacin antigua, unida por una historia comn, pero mantenida, sobre todo, por una democracia pluralista. +Es tanto una historia del s.XXI como una antigua. +Y es el nacionalismo de una idea que dice fundamentalmente que se pueden soportar diferencias de casta, de credo, de color, de cultura, de cocina, de costumbre, de una manera harmnica, y lo que es ms, aun as llegar a un consenso. +Y el consenso se basa en un principio muy simple, que en una democracia plural diversa como India en realidad no hay que estar siempre de acuerdo en todo, siempre que se est de acuerdo en las reglas bsicas sobre cmo discrepar. +El gran xito de la historia de la India, un pas que tantos estudiosos y periodistas dieron por hecho que se desintegrara, en los aos 50 y 60, es que se las arregl para mantener un consenso sobre cmo sobrevivir sin consenso. +Ahora, esa es la India que est surgiendo en el s.XXI. +Y quiero decir que si hay algo que merezca celebrar de la India, no es el poder militar, el poder econmico. +Todo eso es necesario, pero todava tenemos una enorme cantidad de problemas que superar. +Alguien dijo que ramos sper pobres, y tambin somos sper poderosos. +En realidad no podemos ser las dos cosas. +Pero todo esto est pasando, esta gran aventura de cumplir esos retos, esos retos reales cuya existencia ninguno de nosotros puede ignorar. +Pero est ocurriendo en una sociedad abierta, en una civilizacin rica, diversa y plural, en una que est decidida a liberar y satisfacer la energa creativa de su gente. +Por eso la India est en TED, y por eso TED est en la India. +Muchas gracias. +Una maana, en el ao 1957, el neurocirujano Walter Penfield se vio a si mismo as, un tipo extrao con manos enormes, una boca enorme, y un trasero diminuto. +En realidad esta criatura es el resultado de la investigacin de Penfield. +Le llam homnculo. +Bsicamente el homnculo es la visualizacin de un ser humano donde cada parte del cuerpo es proporcional a la superficie que ocupa en el cerebro. +Entonces, por supuesto, un homnculo no es en realidad alguien inslito. +Son ustedes. Soy yo. +Es nuestra realidad invisible. +Esta visualizacin podra explicar, por ejemplo, por qu los recin nacidos o los fumadores se ponen, instintivamente, los dedos en la boca. +Desafortunadamente no explica por qu muchos diseadores siguen tan interesados en disear sillas. +Por lo tanto, an sin entender completamente la ciencia, en mis diseos, basicamente me beneficio de ella. +Estoy fascinado por su habilidad para investigar en profundidad el ser humano, su forma de trabajar, su forma de sentir. +Y realmente me ayuda a comprender cmo vemos, cmo omos, cmo respiramos, cmo nuestro cerebro puede informar o confundirnos. +Es de gran utilidad para m comprender cuales son nuestras necesidades reales. +La gente de marketing no ha sido nunca capaz de hacerlo. +El marketing reduce las cosas. El marketing simplifica. +El marketing crea grupos de usuarios. +Y los cientficos, entre la complejidad, entre la fluctuacin y la singularidad piensan: +Cules podran ser nuestras verdaderas necesidades? +Quizs el silencio. +En nuestra vida diaria nos perturban constantemente sonidos agresivos. +Y ya saben que toda esa clase de sonidos nos lleva al estrs, y nos impide estar tranquilos y concentrados. +Por eso quise crear una especie de filtro de sonido, capaz de protegernos de la contaminacin acstica. +Pero no quise hacerlo para aislar a las personas, sin EMF (campos electromagnticos) o ese tipo de cosas. +O ni siquiera incluyendo tecnologa compleja. +Solo quera usar la complejidad y la tecnologa del cerebro, del cerebro humano. +Por lo tanto trabaj con ruido blanco. +D.B. es bsicamente -- D.B. es el nombre del producto, bsicamente un difusor de ruido blanco. +Esto es ruido blanco. +El ruido blanco es la suma de todas la frecuencias que el ser humano escucha, llevadas a la misma intensidad. +y este sonido es como un "shhhhhhhhhh", as. +Y este sonido es el ms neutro. +Es el sonido perfecto para nuestros oidos y cerebro. +Entonces cuando se escucha este sonido se siente como una proteccin, que aisla de la contaminacin acstica. +Y al oir el ruido blanco el cerebro se concentra de inmediato en l. +Invalidando el sonido agresivo. +Parece mgico. +Pero es slo fisiologa. Todo est en su cerebro. +Y en el mo, espero. +Entonces para que este ruido blanco resulte ms activo y reactivo, cre una pelota rodante capaz de analizar y ubicar el origen del sonido agresivo, y rueda, en casa o en el trabajo, hacia el sonido agresivo y emite el sonido blanco para neutralizarlo. +Y funciona. +Sienten el efecto del ruido blanco? +Hay mucho silencio. +Si hacen ruido podrn sentir el efecto. +Aunque este objeto, aunque este producto incluya tecnologa, como altavoces, micrfonos, y aparatos electrnicos, este objeto no es muy inteligente. +Mi intencin no es crear un objeto muy inteligente. +No quiero crear un objeto perfecto en plan robot perfecto. +Quiero crear un objeto como ustedes o como yo. +Por lo tanto, definitivamente imperfecto. +Imagnense, por ejemplo, que estn en casa, +en medio de una disputa amorosa con su pareja. +Se gritan. Uno dice, "Bla, bla, bla,. Quin es ese tipo?" +Y D.B. probablemente rodar hacia usted. +Y girando a su alrededor har "shhhhhhhhhh," as +Definitivamente no es perfecto. Entonces probablemente en ese momento le dar una patada. +Bueno, siguiendo en esta misma lnea dise K. +K es un transmisor receptor de luz natural. +Este objeto se coloca sobre el escritorio, sobre el piano o donde ustedes pasen la mayor parte del da. +Y este objeto podr saber exactamente la cantidad de luz que recibe durante el da, y emitir la cantidad correcta de luz que necesiten. +Este objeto est completamente cubierto por fibras pticas. +Y el objetivo de esas fibras pticas es informar al objeto y crear la idea de una sensibilidad visual del objeto. +Quiero, con este diseo, que sientan, cuando ustedes lo vean instintivamente, que este objeto es muy sensible y muy reactivo. +Y este objeto sabe, mejor que ustedes, y probablemente antes, lo que necesitan. +Se sabe que la carencia de luz natural puede provocar problemas de energa o libido. +Por lo tanto, un gran problema. +Muchos de los proyectos en los que trabajo los comparto con cientficos. +Soy un mero diseador. Los necesito. +Por lo tanto, pueden ser bilogos, psiquiatras, matemticos, etc. +Y les transmito mis intuiciones, mis hiptesis, mis primeras ideas. +Y ellos reaccionan. Me dicen lo que es posible y lo que no. +Y juntos mejoramos el concepto original. +Y construimos el proyecto final. +Y esta clase de relacin entre diseador y cientfico empez cuando estaba en el colegio. +Al comienzo de mis estudios fui conejillo de indias para la industria farmacutica. +Y lo irnico para m fue, por supuesto, que no lo hice por el progreso cientfico, sino +porque necesitaba dinero. +De todos modos, este proyecto o experiencia me incit a emprender un nuevo proyecto de diseo en medicina. +Deberan saber que hoy, aproximadamente una de cada dos pastillas se ingiere de forma incorrecta. +Aunque los constituyentes activos en la farmacologa han progresado continuadamente en cuanto a qumica, objetivos y estabilidad, el comportamiento de los pacientes es cada vez ms inestable. +Ingerimos muchas pastillas. +Tomamos dosis irregulares. +No seguimos las instrucciones, etc. +Por eso quise crear una nueva clase de medicina, para establecer una nueva relacin entre paciente y el tratamiento. +Entonces transform las pastillas tradicionales en esto. +Les pondr un ejemplo. +Esto es un antibitico. +Y su propsito es ayudar al paciente, a llegar al final del tratamiento. +Y la idea es crear algo como una cebolla, una clase de estructura en capas. +As pues, se empieza con la ms oscura. +Y esto ayuda a visualizar la duracin del tratamiento. +Tambin le ayuda a visualizar la disminucin de la infeccin. +Por lo tanto, el primer da, la ms grande. +Y ustedes tienen que pelar e ingerir una capa por da. +Y su antibitico se hace ms pequeo y transparente. +Esperan su mejora igual que esperan el da de Navidad. +Y siguen el tratamiento de esta forma hasta el final. +Y as llegan hasta el centro blanco. +Esto significa que se mejoraron. +Gracias. +Este es un "tercer pulmn," Es un artculo farmacolgico para tratar el asma a largo plazo. +Lo dise para ayudar a los nios a seguir el tratamiento. +Por lo tanto, el objetivo es crear una relacin entre el paciente y su tratamiento pero una relacin de dependencia. +Pero en este caso no es la medicina la que es dependiente del paciente. +Es el nio quien sentir que el objeto teraputico lo necesita. +Entonces la idea es que durante la noche la piel elstica del tercer pulmn se infle lentamente, de aire y molculas. +Y cuando el nio despierte pueda ver que el objeto lo necesita. Y lo lleve hacia su boca, y respire el aire que contiene. +As de este modo, el nio se cuida a s mismo, al cuidar este objeto viviente. +Y l no sentir nunca ms que requiere un tratamiento contra el asma, sino que el tratamiento del asma lo necesita a l. +En este concepto de objeto viviente, me gusta la idea de un diseo invisible. Como si la funcin del objeto Estuviera en un campo invisible alrededor de los objetos mismos. +Podramos hablar de una clase de aura, de un fantasma que los dirija. +Y casi como un efecto poltergeist. +Entonces cuando un objeto pasivo como este parece tomar vida, es porque se empieza a mover. +Y recuerdo una exposicin de diseo, que hice para John Maeda y para la fundacin Cartier en Pars. +Se supona que John Maeda mostrara varias animaciones grficas en esta exposicin. +Y mi idea para esta exposicin de diseo era crear un juego pong como ste. +Mi intencin era crear algunos escaos vivientes en la sala principal de la exposicin. +Por lo tanto los escaos vivientes deban ser igual que la pelota. +Y John estaba tan contento con esta idea que me dijo, "De acuerdo, hagmoslo." +Recuerdo el da de la inauguracin. +Llegu un poquito tarde. +Cuando llev los 10 escaos vivientes a la sala de exposicin, John estaba junto a m pensativo , "Emm, Emm." +Y me dijo, despus de un largo silencio, " Mathieu, me pregunto si la gente estar ms fascinada con tus escaos que con mis videos." +Hubiera sido un gran honor, un gran cumplido para m, si l no hubiera decidido sacarlos dos horas antes de la inauguracin. +As pues todo un drama. +Creo que no se sorprendern si les digo que Pinocho es una de mis grandes influencias. +Pinocho es probablemente uno de mis mejores diseos, mi favorito. +Porque es al clase de objeto con conciencia, capaz de adaptarse a su entorno, y capaz de modificarlo tambin. +La otra gran influencia es el canario de la mina. +En las minas de carbn, este canario se supona que estaba cerca de los mineros. +Y cantaba todo el da. Y cuando paraba, significaba que haba muerto. +Este canario era una alarma viviente, muy eficiente. +Una tecnologa muy natural, para decirle a los mineros, "El aire es muy malo. Deben irse. Es una emergencia." +Por eso para m es un gran producto. +Y trat de disear una especie de canario. +Como Andrea. +Andrea es un filtro de aire viviente que absorbe gases txicos del aire contaminado del interior. +Usa algunas plantas para hacer su trabajo, seleccionadas por su capacidad de filtrar el aire. +Deben saber o quiz ya lo saben, que la contaminacin del aire interior es ms txico que del aire +As, mientras les estoy hablando, la butaca en la que estn sentados actualmente est emitiendo un gas txico invisible e inodoro. Con perdn Por lo tanto ahora estn respirando formaldehdo. +Me pasa lo mismo a m con la alfombra. +Y esto ocurre exactamente igual en casa. +Porque todo los productos de nuestro alrededor constantemente emiten los componentes voltiles que los forman. +As es que echaremos un vistazo a su casa. +Su sof, su silla de plstico, los juguetes de los nios tienen una realidad invisible propia. Y es muy txica. +Por eso, cre con Davis Edward, un cientfico de la Universidad de Harvard, un objeto capaz de absorber los elementos txicos usando esas plantas. +Pero la idea es vehicular el aire hacia la parte efectiva de la plantas. +Porque las races de la planta no lo son. +Bill Vorveten* de la NASA lo investig inteligentemente en la dcada de los 70. +De ese modo, la idea es crear un objeto capaz de conducir el aire y estar en contacto a la velocidad correcta en el lugar correcto, en la parte efectiva de la planta. +Por lo tanto, este es el objeto final. +Ser lanzado en septiembre. +Y este incorpora, en principio, el mismo concepto porque incluyo en el producto, como en Andrea, algunas plantas. +En este, las plantas se usan para filtrar el agua. +Y contiene adems peces. +Pero aqu, a diferencia de Andrea, se supone que se comen. +Realmente, este objeto es una granja domstica, para peces y hortalizas. +La idea pues de este objeto es lograr producir en casa alimento de la zona. +Los localvoros acostumbraban a obtener el alimento en un radio de unos 160 kms. +El ro local es capaz de proporcionarle comida directamente en su sala de estar. +El sentido de este proyecto es crear un ecosistema llamado acuapnico. +Y lo acuapnico es el agua sucia de los peces que mediante una bomba de agua, alimenta las plantas de la superficie. +Y las plantas filtrarn mediante las races el agua sucia de los peces, +volviendo limpia al estanque. +Despus de estas dos opciones, +O se sienta delante a observarlos como si se tratara de un televisor, +canal asombroso, +o comienza a pescar. +Y prepara algunos sushis con un pescado con las plantas aromticas de la superficie. +Porque puede cultivar patatas. +No, no patatas, sino tomates, plantas aromticas, etc. +Por lo tanto, podemos respirar sanamente, +podemos consumir alimento local, +podemos recuperarnos con medicina inteligente, +y podemos equilibrar bien nuestro biorritmo con la luz del da. +Pero era importante crear un lugar perfecto, lo prob, para trabajar y crear. +As que dise para un cientfico estadounidense afincando en Pars, una oficina muy estimulante para el cerebro; +Quise crear un lugar perfecto donde se pudiera trabajar y jugar, y donde el cuerpo y el cerebro pudieran trabajar juntos. +As es que, en esta oficina no se trabaja en un escritorio como un poltico. +Uno se sienta, duerme y juega en una gran isla geodsica hecha de cuero. +Ven?... como esta. +En esta oficina no se trabaja, ni se escribe y ni dibuja en hojas de papel, sino que se dibuja directamente en una gran pizarra tipo caverna, como un cientfico prehistrico. +De esta manera se hace deporte al mismo tiempo que se trabaja. +En esta oficina no necesita salir para contactar con la naturaleza. +Se incluye, directamente, la naturaleza en el piso de la oficina. +Como pueden ver aqu. +Esta es una imagen de inspiracin que gui este proyecto de la oficina. +Realmente me ayud a disearla. +Nunca lo muestro a mis clientes. Podran ofenderse. +Slo para mi taller. +Creo que puede ser la venganza del conejillo de indias que fui. +Pero puede ser la conviccin de mono y homnculo que somos. +Todos necesitamos que se nos considere de acuerdo a nuestra naturaleza real. +Muchas gracias. +Voy a hablarles de algunas cosas que descubr en mi trabajo por el mundo. +No he descubierto planetas, ni nuevas tecnologas, ni ciencia. +Son descubrimientos de personas, de su manera de ser, y de un nuevo liderazgo. +Este es Benki. +Benki es un lder ashninca. +Su gente vive en Brasil y en Per. +Benki viene de una aldea tan remota del Amazonas que para llegar all uno tiene que ir en hidroavin, o en canoa durante varios das. +Conoc a Benki hace 3 aos en So Paulo cuando nos reunimos con otros lderes de pueblos indgenas, as como con otros lderes de todo el mundo, para aprender los unos de los otros. +Queramos compartir nuestras historias. +Los ashninca son conocidos en Amrica del Sur por su dignidad, su buen carcter y su resistencia, que empez con los incas y continu en el siglo XIX con los trabajadores del caucho. +Hoy da, la mayor amenaza para el pueblo ashninca y para Benki es la tala ilegal; la gente que va al bosque hermoso y corta los antiguos rboles de caoba y, tranportndolos ro abajo, los exporta al mundo. +Benki lo saba. +Poda ver lo que le suceda en el bosque, en su entorno, porque su abuelo lo adopt cuando slo tena 2 aos de edad para empezar a ensearle el bosque y el modo de vida de su pueblo. +Su abuelo muri cuando l tena slo 10 aos. +Y a esa tierna edad, a los 10 aos, Benki se convirti en el paje de su comunidad. +En la tradicin y cultura ashninca el paje es la persona ms importante de la comunidad. +Esta es la persona que alberga todo el conocimiento y la sabidura de siglos y siglos de vida. Y no slo de su pueblo, sino de todo de lo cual dependi la supervivencia de su gente: los rboles, los pjaros, el agua, la tierra, el bosque. +As que a los 10 aos, cuando fue nombrado paje, empez a guiar a su pueblo. +Empez a hablarles del bosque que tenan que proteger, y del modo de vida que tenan que llevar. +Les explic que no era una cuestin de supervivencia del ms fuerte; era una cuestin de entender lo que necesitaban para sobrevivir y cuestin de protegerlo. +Ocho aos despus cuando era un joven de 18 aos, Benki dej el bosque por primera vez. +Una odisea de 4.800 kms a Ro de Janeiro, a la Cumbre de la Tierra, para contar al mundo lo que estaba pasando en su pequeo rinconcito. +Y fue porque esperaba que el mundo lo escuchara. +Algunos lo hicieron, otros no. +Imaginen a este joven con su tocado y su toga ancha, aprendiendo un nuevo idioma, portugus, adems de ingls, yendo a Rio de Janeiro, tendiendo un puente para llegar a personas que nunca antes haba visto; un mundo bastante hostil. +Sin embargo, no estaba consternado. +Benki volvi a su aldea con muchas ideas: nuevas tecnologas, investigacin, nuevas maneras de comprender lo que suceda. +Desde ese momento, Benki ha estado trabajando con su pueblo, y no slo con los ashninka, sino con todos los pueblos del Amazonas y de ms all. +Ha contrudo escuelas para ensear a los nios a cuidar el bosque. +Ha dirigido la reforestacin de ms del 25% de la tierra que haba sido destruida por los madereros. +Ha creado una cooperativa para ayudar a la gente a diversificar sus medios de subsistencia. +Adems, ha llevado internet y la tecnologa satlite al bosque, para que el propio pueblo pueda supervisar la deforestacin, y para que l pueda hablar desde el bosque al resto del mundo. +Si uno fuese a ver a Benki y le preguntara: "por qu haces esto? +por qu te arriesgas? +por qu te expones a lo que... ...a menudo es un mundo hostil?" +l les dira, como me dijo a m: "Me pregunt a m mismo... ...qu hicieron mis abuelos y bisabuelos... ...para proteger el bosque para m?... +...y,qu estoy haciendo yo?" +De manera que cuando pienso en eso, me pregunto cmo van a contestar nuestros nietos y bisnietos cuando se hagan esa pregunta, me pregunto qu se van a responder. +Para m, el mundo est virando hacia un futuro que no deseamos si lo analizamos en profundidad. +Es un futuro del que no conocemos los detalles pero es un futuro que da seales, como las seales que vio Benki a su alrededor. +Sabemos que nos estamos quedando sin lo que necesitamos. +Nos estamos quedando sin agua dulce. +Nos estamos quedando sin combustibles fsiles. +Nos estamos quedando sin tierra. +Sabemos que el cambio climtico nos va a afectar a todos. +No sabemos cmo, pero sabemos que va a suceder. +Y sabemos que seremos ms que nunca. Cinco veces ms personas en 40 aos... ...que hace 60 aos. +Nos estamos quedando sin lo que necesitamos. +Y tambin sabemos que el mundo ha cambiado en otros aspectos; que desde 1960 hay un tercio ms de pases que existen como entidades independientes en el planeta. +Amor propio, sistemas de gobierno... ...imagnenselo... ...un cambio enorme. +Y adems de eso, sabemos que otros 5 pases realmente extensos van a tener algo que decir en el futuro, una voz que todava no hemos siquiera empezado a escuchar. China, India, Rusia, Sudfrica, y el propio Brasil de Benki, en el que Benki tuvo derechos civiles exclusivamente en la Constitucin de 1988. +Pero Uds saben todo eso. +Saben ms de lo que saba Benki cuando sali del bosque e hizo 4.800 kms. +Tambin saben que no podemos seguir haciendo lo que hemos hecho siempre, porque obtendremos los resultados que hemos obtenido siempre. +Y esto me recuerda a algo que tengo entendido le dijo Lord Salisbury a la Reina Victoria hace ms de cien aos cuando ella lo presionaba: "por favor, cambie". +El dijo: "Cambiar?" +"Por qu cambiar?" +"Las cosas ya estn bastante mal como estn". +Tenemos que cambiar. +Es un imperativo para m cuando observo el mundo que tenemos que cambiar. +Necesitamos nuevos patrones de lo que significa ser lder. +Hacen falta nuevos patrones para ser lder y humano en el mundo. +Yo empec como banquera. +No le admito eso a nadie salvo a mis amigos ms cercanos. +Pero en los ltimos 8 aos me he dedicado a algo completamente diferente. +Esta es Sanghamitra. +Sanghamitra viene de Bangalore. +Conoc a Sanghamitra hace 8 aos cuando estuve en Bangalore organizando un taller con lderes de diferentes ONGs que trabajan algunos de los aspectos ms duros de la sociedad. +Sanghamitra no empez su carrera como directora de una ONG. Empez como profesora universitaria enseando literatura inglesa. +Pero se dio cuenta de que estaba demasiado alejada del mundo haciendo eso. +Le encantaba, pero estaba demasiado lejos. +As que en 1993, hace mucho tiempo, decidi crear una nueva organizacin llamada Samraksha, centrada en una de las reas ms difciles, uno de los problemas ms difciles de India, y de todo el mundo en el momento: el VIH/SIDA. +Desde entonces, Samraksha ha marchado viento en popa y ahora es una de las principales ONGs dedicadas a la salud de India. +Pero si uno piensa en la situacin del mundo y en el conocimiento sobre VIH/SIDA en 1993... en India en ese momento se dispar y nadie entenda por qu, todo el mundo estaba realmente asustado. +Todava hoy hay 3 millones de seropositivos en India. +Es la segunda poblacin ms grande del mundo. +Cuando le pregunt a Sanghamitra: "Cmo pasaste de la literatura inglesa al VIH/SIDA?", +"No es un camino obvio". Ella me contest: "Todo est conectado. +La literatura nos sensibiliza... ...con respecto a las personas... ...a sus sueos y a sus ideas". +Desde ese momento, bajo su liderazgo, Samraksha ha sido una pionera en todos los campos relativos al VIH/SIDA. +Tienen casas de descanso, las primeras, los primeros centros de atencin, los primeros servicios de asesoramiento... y no slo en la Bangalore de los 7 millones de habitantes sino en las aldeas ms inhspitas del estado de Karnataka. +Y por si fuera poco, +tambin quera cambiar la poltica a nivel gubernamental. +Diez de los programas en los que fue pionera son ahora polticas gubernamentales, financiadas por el gobierno. +Hoy atienden a ms de 20.000 personas de unas 1.000 aldeas cercanas a Karnataka. +Sanghamitra trabaja con personas como Murali Krishna. +Murali Krishna viene de una de esas aldeas. +Perdi a su esposa enferma de SIDA hace un par de aos y l es seropositivo. +No obstante, l vio el trabajo, el cuidado, y la compasin que llev a la aldea Sanghamitra y su equipo, y decidi formar parte de ello. +Es miembro de Leaders' Quest, y eso le ayuda en su trabajo. +Ellos han promovido un enfoque diferente en las aldeas. +En vez de entregar informacin en folletos, como sucede a menudo, llevan grupos de teatro: canciones, msica, danza... +Y se sientan a hablar de los sueos. +Sanghamitra me dijo la semana pasada que recin volva de estar 2 semanas en las aldeas, y que haba conseguido un autntico progreso. +Estaban sentados en crculo hablando de los sueos de los aldeanos. +Y las jvenes de la aldea dijeron decididas: "Hemos cambiado nuestro sueo". +"Nuestro sueo... ...tiene relacin con nuestras parejas, nuestros esposos... ... para que no nos los den el horscopo... ...sino que se decida... ...en funcin de su prueba de VIH". +Si tienen la suerte de conocer a Sanghamitra y de preguntarle por qu y cmo cmo ha logrado tanto? +Ella los mirar y les dir, con mucha serenidad y muy suavemente: "Slo sucedi. +Es el espritu interior". +Este es el Dr. Fan Jianchuan. +Jianchuan viene de la Provincia de Sichuan al sudoeste de China. +Naci en 1957, y pueden imaginarse cmo ha sido su niez, qu ha sentido, y cmo ha sido su vida en los ltimos 50 tumultuosos aos. +Ha sido soldado, maestro, poltico, vicealcalde y empresario. +Si uno se acerca a preguntarle: "Quin es Ud de verdad... ...y a qu se dedica?" +l les dir: "Soy coleccionista... ...y auxiliar en museos". +Tuve suerte; haba odo hablar de l durante aos, y a principios de ao lo conoc finalmente en su museo de Chengdu. +Ha sido coleccionista toda su vida. Comenz a los 4 5 aos, a principios de los aos 60. +Piensen en los principios de los 60 en China. +Durante una vida, pasando por todo, desde la Revolucin Cultural y todo lo que vino despus, sigui coleccionando, por eso ahora tiene ms de 8 millones de piezas en sus museos que documentan la historia contempornea de China. +Estas son piezas que no van a encontrar en otro lugar del mundo, en parte porque documentan partes de la historia que los chinos prefieren olvidar. +Por ejemplo, Jianchuan tiene ms de un milln de piezas que documentan la Guerra Sino-Japonesa, una guerra de la que no se habla mucho en China y a cuyos hroes no se los honra. +Por qu hace todo esto? +Porque piensa que que una nacin nunca debera repetir los errores del pasado. +Pero no slo se ocupa de los hroes chinos. +Este edificio contiene la coleccin ms grande del mundo de documentos y artefactos que conmemoran el papel de EE.UU. en la lucha, en el bando chino, en esa guerra prolongada. Fueron los Tigres Voladores. +Tiene otros 9 edificios, que ya estn abiertos al pblico, repletos de artefactos que documentan la historia contempornea china. +Dos de los edificios ms conflictivos albergan toda una vida dedicada a la coleccin sobre la Revolucin Cultural, un perodo que la mayora de los chinos preferira olvidar. +Pero l no quiere que su nacin olvide nunca. +Estas personas me inspiran y lo hacen porque nos muestran qu es posible. cuando uno mira al mundo, cambiar la forma de mirar nuestro lugar en el mundo. +Ellos miraron hacia afuera y luego cambiaron lo que haba dentro. +No fueron a la facultad de ciencias empresariales. +No leyeron el manual: "Cmo ser un Buen Lder en 10 Sencillos Pasos". +Pero tienen cualidades que todos reconocemos. +Tienen empuje, pasin, compromiso. +Abandonaron lo que hacan antes y pasaron a algo que no conocan. +Trataron de conectar mundos que antes no saban que existan. +Han tendido puentes y han caminado por ellos. +Entienden con sensatez el gran contexto temporal y su minsculo lugar en l. +Saben que tras de ellos vendrn otros y los seguirn. +Y saben que son parte de un todo, que dependen de otras personas. +No se trata de ellos, lo saben, pero tiene que arrancar con ellos. +Y tienen humildad. +Simplemente sucede. +Pero sabemos que no sucede simplemente, verdad? +Sabemos que cuesta mucho hacer que suceda y sabemos hacia dnde va el mundo. +Creo que necesitamos planificar la sucesin a escala mundial. +No podemos esperar que la prxima generacin, los nuevos seguidores, vengan a aprender a ser los buenos lderes que necesitamos. +Creo que tiene que empezar con nosotros. +Y sabemos, como lo saban ellos, lo difcil que es. +Pero la buena noticia es que no tenemos que averiguarlo conforme avanzamos; tenemos patrones, tenemos ejemplos como Benki, Sanghamitra y Jianchuan. +Podemos ver lo que han hecho, si nos fijamos. +Podemos aprender de lo que han aprendido. +Podemos cambiar la forma de vernos en el mundo. +Y, si tenemos suerte, podemos cambiar la forma en que nuestros bisnietos contesten la pregunta de Benki. +Gracias. +A medida que la tecnologa progresa y avanza, muchos suponemos que estos adelantos nos hacen ms inteligentes, ms listos o ms conectados al mundo. +Y lo que yo quisiera plantear es que ese no es necesariamente el caso, porque progreso es simplemente una forma de decir cambio, y con el cambio se gana algo, pero tambin se pierde algo. +Y para realmente ilustrar este punto, lo que quiero hacer es mostrarles cmo la tecnologa ha lidiado con una pregunta muy simple, muy comn y cotidiana. +Y esa pregunta es sta: +Qu hora es? Qu hora es? +Si le dan un vistazo a su iPhone, es tan fcil decir la hora. +Pero quisiera preguntarles, cmo diran la hora si no tuvieran un iPhone? +Cmo diran la hora, digamos, hace 600 aos? +Cmo lo haran? +Bien, la manera en que lo haran es usando un dispositivo denominado astrolabio. +El astrolabio es relativamente desconocido en la actualidad, +pero en aquel entonces, en el siglo trece, era el aparato del momento. +Fue la primera computadora popular del mundo. +Y era un dispositivo que, de hecho, es un modelo del firmamento. +Las diferentes partes del astrolabio, en esta clase particular: la red, que se corresponde con las posiciones de las estrellas, +la placa, que se corresponde con un sistema de coordenadas, +y la matriz que tiene unas escalas y agrupa todas las piezas. +Si uno era un nio culto, saba no slo cmo usar el astrolabio, sino que saba hacer uno. +Y esto lo sabemos porque el primer tratado del astrolabio, el primer manual tcnico en la lengua inglesa, fue escrito por Geoffrey Chaucer. +S, ese Geoffrey Chaucer, en 1391, para su pequeo Lewis, su hijo de 11 aos. +Y en este libro, el pequeo Lewis reconocera la gran idea. +Y la idea central que hace que esta computadora funcione es esto que se llama la proyeccin estereogrfica. +Y el concepto, bsicamente es cmo se representa una imagen tridimensional del cielo nocturno que nos rodea sobre una superficie plana, bidimensional, porttil. +La idea, de hecho, es relativamente simple. +Imaginen que la Tierra est en el centro del Universo, y a su alrededor est el cielo proyectado sobre una esfera. +Cada punto en la superficie de la esfera se mapea, mediante el poste de abajo, sobre una superficie plana, donde es luego registrado. +De modo que la Estrella Polar se corresponde con el centro del dispositivo. +La eclptica, que es el recorrido del Sol, la Luna y los planetas, corresponde a un crculo descentrado. +Las estrellas brillantes corresponden a pequeas dagas en la red. +Y la altitud corresponde al sistema de la placa. +Ahora, lo realmente genial del astrolabio no es solamente la proyeccin. +Lo realmente genial es que rene dos sistemas de coordenadas de manera que encajan perfectamente. +Estn las posiciones del Sol, la Luna y los planetas, en la red mvil. +y luego sus posiciones en el cielo, como se ven desde una latitud especfica, en la placa de atrs. De acuerdo? +Entonces, cmo usaran este dispositivo? +Bueno, permtanme primero retroceder por un momento. +Este es un astrolabio. Bastante impresionante, verdad? +Este astrolabio lo tenemos en calidad de prstamo de la Escuela de -- del Museo de Historia de Oxford. +Y pueden ver los diferentes componentes. +Esta es la matriz, las escalas en la parte de atrs. +Esta es la red. De acuerdo. Ven eso? +Esa es la parte mvil del cielo. +Y en la parte de atrs pueden ver un patrn de telaraa. +Y ese patrn de telaraa corresponde a las coordenadas locales en el cielo. +sta es una regla, y en el reverso hay algunos otros dispositivos, herramientas de medicin, y escalas, para poder hacer algunos clculos. De acuerdo? +Saben, yo siempre he querido tener uno de stos. +De hecho, para mi tesis, constru uno de stos de papel. +Y esta, esta es una rplica de un dispositivo del siglo 15. +Y probablemente vale lo mismo que tres computadoras Macbook Pros. +Pero uno autntico costara tanto como mi casa, y la casa de al lado, y de hecho todas las casas en la cuadra, en ambos lados de la calle, quiz aadiendo una escuela, y -- qu s yo, una iglesia. +Son increblemente costosos. +Pero djenme mostrarles cmo operar este dispositivo. +As que vamos al primer paso. +Lo primero que hacen es seleccionar una estrella en el cielo nocturno, si estn diciendo la hora en la noche. +Esta noche, si est despejado, podrn ver el Tringulo de Verano. +Y hay una estrella brillante llamada Deneb. As que seleccionemos a Deneb. +Lo segundo, miden la altitud de Deneb. +As que, paso dos, sostengo el dispositivo en alto, y luego diviso all su altitud de modo que la veo claramente ahora. +Y luego mido su altitud. +Y son unos 26 grados. Uds. no pueden verlo desde all. +El tercer paso es identificar la estrella en la parte frontal del dispositivo. +Deneb est all, lo puedo notar. +Paso cuatro es que entonces muevo la red, muevo el cielo, de modo que la altitud de la estrella coincida con la escala en la parte de atrs. +De acuerdo, as que cuando eso ocurre todo queda alineado. +Tengo aqu un modelo del cielo que se corresponde con el cielo verdadero, De acuerdo? +Es, en cierto modo, como sostener un modelo del universo en mis manos. +Y luego, finalmente, tomo una regla, y muevo la regla hacia una lnea de fecha la cual me dice entonces la hora aqu. +Bien. De modo que as es como se usa el dispositivo. +Ya s lo que estn pensando. Eso es mucho trabajo, verdad? Muchsimo trabajo para poder decir la hora. +Mientras echas un vistazo a tu iPod para revisar la hora. +Pero hay una diferencia entre las dos, porque con tu iPod puedes decir -- o con tu iPhone, puedes decir exactamente qu hora es, con precisin. +La manera en que el pequeo Lewis dira la hora sera mediante una foto del cielo. +l sabra donde encajaran las cosas en el cielo. +l no solo sabra qu hora era, tambin sabra por dnde saldra el Sol, y cmo se movera a travs del cielo. +Sabra a qu hora saldra el sol, y a qu hora se pondra. +Y l sabra eso esencialmente para todo objeto celeste en el firmamento. +En computacin grfica y en diseo de interfaces para usuarios de computadoras, hay un trmino denominado prestaciones . +Las prestaciones son las cualidades de un objeto que nos permiten ejecutar una accin con l. +Y lo que hace el astrolabio es, nos permite, nos posibilita actuar, para conectarnos con el cielo nocturno, para elevar la mirada hacia el cielo nocturno y estar mucho ms... para ver juntos lo visible y lo invisible. +As que ese es tan solo un uso que es increble. Hay probablemente unos 350, 400 usos. +De hecho, hay un libro de texto que lista ms de mil usos de esta primera computadora. +En la parte de atrs hay escalas y mediciones para la navegacin terrestre. +Puedes hacer mediciones con l. La ciudad de Bagdad fue medida con esto. +Puede utilizarse para hacer clculos de ecuaciones matemticas de todos los diferentes tipos. +Y tomara un curso universitario completo ilustrarlo. +Los astrolabios tienen una historia maravillosa. +Tienen ms de 2.000 aos de edad. +El concepto de la proyeccin estereogrfica se origin en el 330 a.C. +Y los astrolabios se presentan en muy variados tamaos, formas y figuras. +Los hay porttitles. Los hay de grandes dimensiones. +Y pienso que lo comn para todos los astrolabios es que son hermosas obras de arte. +Hay una cualidad de artesana y de precisin que es simplemente asombrosa y admirable. +Los astrolabios, como toda tecnologa, evolucionan con el tiempo. +Las primeras redes, por ejemplo, eran muy simples y primitivas. +Y las redes de edad avanzada se volvieron emblemas culturales. +ste es uno de Oxford. +Y ste me parece en verdad extraordinario porque el patrn de la red es completamente simtrico, y representa con precisin un cielo completamente asimtrico, o seleccionado al azar. +No es estupendo? Es sencillamente fascinante. +Entonces, tendra el pequeo Lewis un astrolabio? +Quiz no uno hecho de metal. l tendra uno hecho de madera, o de papel. Y la gran mayora de estas primeras computadoras fueron dispositivos porttiles que podas mantener guardado en tu bolsillo. +Qu inspira el astrolabio? +Bueno, pienso que lo primero es que nos recuerda cmo era de ingeniosa la gente, cmo fueron nuestros antepasados, hace tantos y tantos aos. +Es un aparato increble. +Toda tecnologa avanza. +Toda tecnologa se transforma y es desplazada por otras. +Y lo que ganamos con una nueva tecnologa es, por supuesto, precisin y exactitud. +Pero creo que lo que perdemos es una precisa -- una percepcin palpable del cielo, un sentido de contexto. +Conocer el cielo, conocer tu relacin con el cielo es el corazn de la verdadera respuesta a cmo saber qu hora es. +De modo que... pienso que los astrolabios son dispositivos admirables. +Y entonces, qu se puede aprender de estos dispositivos? +Bien, ante todo, que hay un conocimiento sutil de que nos podemos conectar con el mundo. +Y los astrolabios nos devuelven a esta percepcin sutil de cmo las cosas encajan todas entre s, y tambin de cmo nosotros nos conectamos con el mundo. +Muchas gracias. +rase una vez, a los 24 aos de edad, yo era un estudiante en el Colegio Mdico San Juan de Bangalore. +Fui estudiante de intercambio por un mes de un curso de salud pblica. +Y eso cambi mi forma de pensar para siempre. +El curso fue bueno, pero no fue su contenido en s mismo lo que cambi mi esquema mental. +Fue el brutal descubrimiento, la primera maana, de que los estudiantes indios eran mejores que yo. +Vern, yo era un apasionado de los estudios. +Amaba las estadsticas desde muy joven. +Y estudiaba mucho en Suecia. +Sola estar en el cuartil superior de todas mis clases. +Pero en San Juan, yo estaba en el cuartil inferior. +Y el hecho era que los estudiantes indios estudiaban ms intensamente que los estudiantes suecos. +Ellos lean el libro de texto dos veces, o tres, o cuatro veces. +En Suecia lo leamos una vez y nos bamos de fiesta. +Y eso, para m, esa experiencia personal, fue la primera vez en mi vida en la que la mentalidad con la que crec cambi. +Y me percat de que tal vez el mundo occidental no continuara dominando el mundo para siempre. +Y creo que muchos de Uds han tenido experiencias similares. +Ese descubrir a alguien a quien recin conociste y que realmente puede cambiar tus ideas sobre el mundo. +No son las estadsticas, aunque yo trate de hacerlas divertidas. +Y ahora, aqu, en el escenario, tratar de predecir cundo suceder, cundo Asia ganar nuevamente su posicin dominante como parte del liderazgo mundial, as como sola ser, por miles de aos. +Y har eso al tratar de predecir precisamente en qu ao el ingreso promedio por persona en India, en China, alcanzar al de Occidente. +Y no quiero decir toda la economa, porque para llevar la econonoma de India al tamao de la del Reino Unido, eso es pan comido, cuando tienes mil millones de personas. +Pero yo trato de ver cundo la paga promedio, el dinero para cada persona, por mes, en India y China, cundo alcanzarn el nivel del Reino Unido y los Estados Unidos? +Pero empezar con un contexto histrico. +Pueden ver mi mapa si lo subo aqu arriba, no? +Empezar en 1858. +1858 fue un ao de gran avance tecnolgico en Occidente. +Fue el ao en el que la reina Victoria fue capaz, por primera vez, de comunicarse con el presidente Buchanan, a travs del Cable Telegrfico Transatlntico. +Y ellos fueron los primeros en "twittear" transatlnticamente. +Y he sido capaz, a travs del maravilloso Google e Internet, de encontrar el texto del telegrama enviado por el presidente Buchanan a la reina Victoria. +Y termina as: "Este telgrafo es un instrumento fantstico para difundir la religin, la civilizacin, la libertad y la ley a travs del mundo". +Son palabras bellas. Pero me despert la curiosidad sobre qu implicaba con "libertad", y libertad para quin. +Y pensemos en ello cuando veamos esta amplia imagen del mundo en 1858. +Porque 1858 fue tambin un ao determinante en la historia de Asia. +1858 fue el ao cuando un valeroso levantamiento en contra de la ocupacin extranjera de la India fue derrotado por las fuerzas britnicas. +E India tuvo 89 aos ms de dominacin extranjera. +1858 en China marc la victoria en la Guerra del Opio por las fuerzas britnicas. +Y esto significaba que los extranjeros, y lo dice en el tratado, tenan permitido comerciar libremente en China. +Eso significaba pagar con opio los bienes chinos. +En 1858 en Japn, fue el ao en que Japn tuvo que firmar el Tratado Harris, y aceptar el comercio en condiciones favorables para EE.UU. +Mientras eran amenazados por esos barcos negros, que haban estado en el puerto de Tokio por ms de un ao. +Pero, Japn, en contraste con India y China mantuvo su soberana nacional. +Y veamos cunta diferencia pudo hacer esto. +Y lo har al traer estas burbujas de vuelta a una grfica Gapminder aqu, en dnde pueden ver que cada burbuja es un pas. +El tamao de la burbuja aqu es la poblacin. +En este eje, como siempre, coloco el ingreso por persona en dlares comparables. +Y en este eje la expectativa de vida, la salud de la gente. +Y tambin presento una innovacin aqu. +He podido transformar el rayo lser en una versin ecolgica y reciclable aqu, en la India verde. +Y ya veremos, saben. +Miren aqu, 1858, India estaba aqu, China estaba aqu, Japn estaba aqu, Estados Unidos y Reino Unido eran los ricos de por ac. +Y empezar el mundo de esta forma. +India no siempre tuvo este nivel. +De hecho, si retrocedemos en el registro histrico, haba una poca, cientos de aos atrs, cuando el ingreso por persona en India y China fue superior incluso al de Europa. +Pero para 1850 haban ocurrido muchos aos de dominacin extranjera, e India haba sido desindustrializada. +Y pueden ver que los pases que estaban creciendo sus economas eran Estados Unidos y Reino Unido. +Y se estaban transformando, para fin de siglo, volvindose saludables, y Japn empezaba a acercarse. +India lo intentaba ac abajo. +Puedes ver cmo se empieza a mover all? +Pero en realidad, la soberana nacional fue buena para Japn. +Y Japn se trata de mover hacia arriba aqu. +Y ahora es el nuevo siglo. La salud mejora, Reino Unido, Estados Unidos, +Pero cuidado ahora, nos acercamos a la Primera Guerra Mundial. +Y la Primera Guerra Mundial, ya saben, veremos muchas muertes y problemas econmicos aqu. +Reino Unido va para abajo. +Y tambin llega la Influenza Espaola. +Y tras la Primera Guerra Mundial, continan ascendiendo. +An bajo la dominacin extranjera, y sin soberana, India y China estn en la esquina de abajo. +No les ha ocurrido mucho. +Ha crecido su poblacin pero no mucho ms. +Estamos ahora en 1930, como pueden ver que Japn est en un periodo de guerra, con una menor expectativa de vida. +Y la Segunda Guerra Mundial fue realmente un evento terrible, tambin econmicamente para Japn. +Pero se recuper bastante rpido desde entonces. +Y nos estamos moviendo a un mundo nuevo. +En 1947 India finalmente gana su independencia. +Y pueden elevar la bandera india y se vuelven una nacin soberana, pero en dificultades muy grandes desde all. +En 1949 vemos la emergencia de la China moderna en una forma que sorprendi al mundo. +Y qu ocurri? +Qu pasa all tras la independencia? +Pueden observar que la salud empieza a mejorar. +Los nios comienzan a ir a la escuela. +Se ofrecen servicios de salud. +Este es el Gran Salto Adelante, cuando China cae. +Es la planeacin central de Mao Tse Tung. +China se recuper. Entonces dijo, "Hasta nunca, estpida planeacin central". +Pero ellos subieron aqu, e India trataba de seguirlos. +Y en efecto se fueron acercando. +Y ambos pases tienen mejor salud, pero an una economa muy pobre. +Y cuando llegamos a 1978, y muere Mao Tse Tung, y lleg un chico nuevo desde la izquierda. +Y vemos a Deng Xiaoping llegar aqu. +Y dijo: "No importa si el gato es blanco o negro, en tanto atrape a los ratones". +Porque atrapar ratones es lo que los dos gatos quieren hacer. +Y Uds pueden ver a los dos gatos esperando aqu, China e India, esperando cazar a los ratones aqu, saben? +Y ellos decidieron no ir slo por salud y educacin, sino tambin empezaron a crecer su economa. +Y el reformador del mercado fue exitoso aqu. +En 1992 India sigue con una reforma de mercado. +Y ellos siguen acercndose, Y Uds pueden ver que las similitudes entre India y China, en muchas formas, son mayores que sus diferencias. +Y aqu van marchando. Alcanzarn la meta? +Esa es la gran pregunta de hoy. +Aqu estn ahora. +Ahora, eso significa que las... El promedio aqu, este es el promedio de China. +Si fraccionramos a China, vean aqu, Shanghai ya lo alcanz. +Shangai ya est all. +Y es ms saludable que los Estados Unidos. +Pero en el otro lado, Guizhou, una de las ms pobres provincias interiores de China, est all. +Y si partimos Guizhou en urbana y rural, la parte rural de Guizhou baja hasta aqu. +Pueden ver esta enorme inequidad al interior de China, an en un clima de rpido crecimiento econmico. +Y si miramos tambin a India, tenemos otro tipo de inequidad, actualmente, en India. +La diferencia geogrfica, macrogeogrfica, no es tan grande. +Uttar Pradesh, el mayor de los estados aqu, es ms pobre y tiene menor salud que el resto de la India. +Kerala vuela alto aqu, igualando a Estados Unidos en salud, pero no en la economa. +Y aqu, Maharashtra, con Mumbai, miran hacia adelante. +Ahora en India, las mayores inequidades son al interior del Estado, y no entre los estados. +Y esto no es malo por s mismo. +Si tienes mucha inequidad, inequidades macrogeogrficas, puede ser ms difcil en el largo plazo lidiar con ellas, que si en el mismo rea en dnde tienes un polo de desarrollo relativamente cerca tienes viviendo personas pobres. +No, hay una inequidad mayor. Miren aqu, Estados Unidos. +Hey! Rompieron mi marco! +Washington, D.C. sale por aqu. +Mis amigos en Gapminder queran que yo mostrara esto porque hay un nuevo lder en Washington que est realmente preocupado acerca del sistema de salud. +Y puedo entenderlo, porque Washington, D.C. +es tan rico en este eje pero no tan saludable como lo es Kerala. +Es muy interesante, o no? +Puedo ver una oportunidad de negocios para Kerala, que ayude a reparar el sistema de salud en Estados Unidos. +Ahora tenemos a todo el mundo. Tienen una leyenda aqu abajo. +Y cuando ven estos dos grandes gatos aqu, empujando, pueden ver que entre ellos y delante de ellos, estn todas las economas emergentes del mundo, aquellas que correctamente Thomas Friedman llama el "mundo plano". +Pueden ver que en salud y educacin una gran parte de la poblacin mundial se lanza hacia adelante, pero en frica, y otras partes, como en la Guizhou rural en China, an existen personas con poca salud y muy baja economa. +Tenemos una enorme disparidad en el mundo. +Pero la mayor parte del mundo en medio empuja adelante muy rpido. +Ahora, volviendo a mis proyecciones. +Cundo los alcanzarn? Tengo que regresar a una grfica muy convencional. +Mostrar ingreso per cpita en este eje, los pobres aqu abajo, los ricos aqu arriba. +Y el tiempo aqu, desde 1858. Y arranco el mundo. +Y podemos ver qu suceder entre estos pases. +Pueden ver, China bajo dominacin extranjera, redujo su ingreso y baj al nivel de India aqu. +Mientras Reino Unido y Estados Unidos se volvan ms y ms ricos. +Y tras la Segunda Guerra Mundial, Estados Unidos es ms rico que Reino Unido. +Pero la independencia les llega aqu. +Inicia el crecimiento, la reforma econmica. +El crecimiento es ms rpido, y con proyecciones del Fondo Monetario Internacional pueden ver lo que se espera que ocurra para 2014. +Ahora, la pregunta es "Cundo se encontrarn?" +Miremos a, miremos a los Estados Unidos. +Pueden ver la burbuja? +Las burbujas, no mis burbujas, sino las burbujas financieras. +Esta es la burbuja de las punto com. sta es la cada de Leheman Brothers. +Pueden ver la cada aqu. +Y parece ser que otra piedra surgir aqu, saben? +As que no parece que vayan en esta direccin, estos pases. +Parece que tendrn una va de crecimiento ms humilde, saben? +Y las personas interesadas en el crecimiento voltean sus ojos hacia Asia. +Puedo comparar con Japn. Este es Japn ascendiendo. +Pueden ver, Japn lo hizo de esta forma. +Agreguemos Japn a esto. +Y no hay duda de lo rpido que el cruce puede ocurrir. +Pueden ver lo que hizo Japn? +Japn lo hizo as, hasta que los alcanz finalmente, y entonces fue seguido por otras economas de altos ingresos. +Pero las proyecciones reales para stas, me gustara que se dieran de esta forma. +Pueden ser peores, pueden ser mejores. +Siempre es difcil predecir, especialmente sobre el futuro. +Ahora, un historiador me dice que es an ms difcil predecir sobre el pasado. +Creo que estoy en una posicin difcil aqu. +A las inequidades en China e India las considero realmente el mayor obstculo porque para llevar a toda la poblacin al crecimiento y la prosperidad lo que se necesita es crear un mercado local, que evite la inestabilidad social, y que haga uso de la capacidad entera de la poblacin. +As, inversiones sociales en salud, educacin e infraestructura, en electricidad, eso es realmente lo que se necesita en India y China. +Conocen el clima. Tenemos grandes expertos internacionales en India dicindonos qu es el cambio climtico. y qu acciones deben tomarse, de otro modo China e India sern los pases que ms sufrirn con el cambio climtico. +Y yo considero a India y China los mejores socios en el mundo para una buena poltica climtica global. +Pero ellos no estn dispuestos a pagar por lo que otros, que tienen ms dinero, han creado en gran medida, y estoy de acuerdo con ello. +Pero lo que realmente me preocupa es la guerra. +Podrn los pases que eran ricos realmente aceptar una economa mundial completamente cambiada, un cambio del poder de dnde ha estado los ltimos 50, 100 150 aos, de vuelta a Asia? +Y, Ser Asia capaz de manejar esa nueva posicin de estar a cargo, de ser los ms poderosos, y los gobernantes del mundo? +Y eso, siempre evitando la guerra, porque ella siempre presiona a los seres humanos hacia atrs. +Ahora, si esas inequidades, el clima y la guerra pueden evitarse, preparmonos para un mundo en equidad. Porque esto es lo que se ve que est sucediendo. +Y esa visin que tuve como joven estudiante, en 1972, de que los indios podan ser mejores que los suecos, est a punto de ocurrir. +Y eso suceder precisamente en el ao 2048 en la parte final del verano, en julio, ms precisamente, el 27 de julio. +El 27 de julio de 2048 es mi cumpleaos nmero 100. +Y espero hablar en la primera sesin del 39no. TED India. +Hagan sus reservaciones a tiempo. Muchas gracias. +Como cultura, nos contamos muchas historias sobre el futuro, y dnde podemos avanzar a partir de este punto. +Algunas de esas historias dicen que alguien va a solucionar todo por nosotros. +Otras historias dicen que todo est a punto de venirse abajo. +Pero hoy quiero contarles una historia diferente. +Como todas las historias, tiene un principio. +Durante mucho tiempo, mi trabajo ha estado involucrado con la educacin, enseando a la gente habilidades prcticas para la sustentabilidad en como tomar responsabilidad para cultivar algunos de sus propios alimentos, cmo construir edificios usando materiales locales, cmo generar su propia energa, y cosas por el estilo. +Yo viva en Irlanda, ah constru las primeras casas de fardos de pajas, y algunos edificios de mazorca y todo este tipo de cosas. +Pero durante muchos aos todo mi trabajo se ha centrado alrededor de la idea de que la sustentabilidad bsicamente significa mirar el modelo de crecimiento econmico globalizado, y ajustar lo que entra en un extremo, y lo que sale por el otro extremo. +Y entonces entr en contacto con una forma de ver las cosas que en realidad cambi profundamente esa idea que tena. +Y a fin de presentarles eso, Tengo algo aqu que voy a desvelar, que es una de las grandes maravillas de la era moderna. +Y es algo tan increble y tan asombroso que creo que tal vez mientras quito este pao una adecuada exclamacin de asombro sera apropiada. +Si ustedes me pueden ayudar con eso sera fantstico. +Esto es un litro de petrleo. +Esta botella de petrleo, destilado por ms de cien millones de aos de tiempo geolgico, y antiqusima luz solar, contiene energa equivalente a unas cinco semanas de duro trabajo manual humano -- equivalente a unas 35 personas fuertes llegando y trabajando para ustedes. +Podemos convertirlo en una deslumbrante variedad de materiales, medicina, ropa moderna, computadoras porttiles, toda una serie de cosas diferentes. +Nos da un retorno de energa que es inimaginable, histricamente. +Hemos basado el diseo de nuestros asentamientos, modelos de negocio, planes de transporte, incluso la idea de crecimiento econmico, como algunos diran, en el supuesto de que tendremos esto a perpetuidad. +Sin embargo, cuando damos un paso atrs, y miramos a travs de la historia, lo que podramos llamar el intervalo del petrleo, es un perodo corto en la historia donde hemos descubierto este material extraordinario, y basado alrededor de l toda una forma de vida. +Y est cada vez ms claro que no vamos a poder confiar en el hecho de que lo vamos a tener a nuestra disposicin para siempre. +Por cada cuatro barriles de petrleo que consumimos slo descubrimos uno. +Y esa brecha contina amplindose. +Tambin est el hecho de que la cantidad de energa que se obtiene del petrleo que se descubre est cayendo. +En la dcada de 1930 se obtenan 100 unidades de energa por cada una que se utilizaba para extraerlo. +En la historia, algo completamente sin precedentes. +Eso ya ha cado a unas 11 unidades. +Y por eso, ahora, los nuevos avances, las nuevas fronteras en trminos de extraccin de petrleo estn pugnando en Alberta, o en el fondo de los ocanos. +Hay 98 naciones productoras de petrleo en el mundo. +Pero de estas, 65 ya han pasado su pico. +El momento en que el promedio del mundo pase este pico, la gente se pregunta cundo va a suceder. +Y hay un caso emergente que tal vez eso fue lo que sucedi en julio pasado cuando los precios del petrleo eran tan altos. +Pero vamos a suponer que la misma brillantez y creatividad y adaptabilidad que al principio nos llev hasta la cima de esa montaa de energa, de alguna forma misteriosa va a evaporarse cuando tenemos que disear una forma creativa de bajar por el otro lado? +No. Pero la idea que tenemos que plantear tiene que basarse en evaluaciones realistas de dnde estamos. +Tambin est la cuestin del cambio climtico, es el otro punto que sustenta este enfoque a la transicin. +Pero de lo que me doy cuenta, cuando hablo con cientficos del clima, es la mirada cada vez ms aterrorizada que tienen en sus ojos, a medida que se reciben datos, lo que est muy por delante de lo que el IPCC est hablando. +El IPCC dijo que podramos ver una ruptura significativa del hielo rtico en 2100, en el peor escenario posible. +En realidad, si las tendencias actuales continan, podra todo desaparecer completamente en un plazo de cinco o 10 aos. +Si tan solo el tres por ciento del carbono atrapado en las capas subterrneas del rtico se libera a medida que el mundo se calienta, igualara todos los ahorros en carbono, que tenemos que hacer, en los prximos 40 aos para evitar un empeoramiento del cambio climtico. +No tenemos otra opcin que una profunda y urgente descarbonizacin. +Pero siempre estoy muy interesado en pensar sobre cmo sern las historias que las generaciones venideras, que queden ms abajo que nosotros en esta pendiente van a contar de nosotros, +la generacin que vivi en la cima de la montaa, que vivi la gran fiesta, y abus de su herencia. +Y una de las maneras en que me gusta hacer eso es volver la mirada hacia las historias que la gente sola contar antes de que tuviramos petrleo barato, combustibles fsiles, y la gente contaba con sus propios msculos, la energa de los animales, o un poco de viento, un poco de la energa del agua. +Tenamos historias como "Las Botas de Siete Leguas": el gigante que tena estas botas, y que una vez que te las ponas con cada zancada, se podan cubrir siete leguas, o 21 millas (34 km), una especie de viaje totalmente inimaginable para las personas sin ese tipo de energa a su disposicin. +Historias como la de La Olla Mgica de caldo de avena, donde haba una olla que si conocas las palabras mgicas, poda hacer tanta comida como quisieras, sin que tuvieras que hacer ningn trabajo, siempre que pudieras recordar la otra palabra mgica para que parara de hacer caldos. +De lo contrario, inundaras todo tu pueblo con caldo de avena caliente. +Est la historia "El Zapatero y los Duendes". +El zapatero se iba a dormir, se despertaba por la maana, y todos los zapatos estaban hechos mgicamente por los duendes. +Algo inimaginable para la gente de entonces. +Ahora tenemos las botas de siete leguas en forma de Ryanair y de Easyjet. +Tenemos la olla mgica de caldos de avena en forma de Wal-Mart y Tesco. +Y tenemos a los duendes en forma de China. +Pero nosotros no apreciamos lo sorprendente que ha sido. +Y cules son las historias que nos contamos ahora, mientras imaginamos hacia dnde vamos?. +Yo dira que hay cuatro. Est la idea de que las cosas sigan como estn. que el futuro ser como el presente, ms de lo mismo. +Pero, como hemos visto en el ltimo ao, creo que esa es una idea que resulta cada vez ms discutible. +Y en trminos de cambio climtico, es algo que no es realmente factible. +Est la idea del colapso. de que en realidad todo es tan frgil que podra simplemente venirse abajo y colapsar. +Esta historia es popular en algunos lugares. +La tercera historia es la idea de que la tecnologa puede solucionar todo, de que la tecnologa de alguna forma puede sacarnos de esto. +Pero el mundo no es Second Life. +No podemos crear nuevas tierras y sistemas de energa con el clic del mouse. +Y mientras nos sentamos, intercambiando ideas entre nosotros, todava hay gente excavando carbn para producir energa para los servidores, extrayendo minerales para hacer todas esas cosas. +El desayuno que comemos mientras nos sentamos para mirar nuestro correo electrnico por la maana sigue siendo transportado a grandes distancias, generalmente a costa de lo sistemas alimentarios locales, ms fuertes y flexibles, que haban proporcionado esto en el pasado, y que tan eficazmente hemos devaluado y desmantelado. +Podemos ser increblemente inventivos y creativos. +Pero tambin vivimos en un mundo con limitaciones y demandas muy reales. +La energa y la tecnologa no son la misma cosa. +En lo que yo estoy involucrado es en la respuesta de transicin. +Esto significa mirar de frente los desafios del pico del petrleo y del cambio climtico, y responder con creatividad y adaptabilidad y con la imaginacin que realmente necesitamos. +Es algo que se ha extendido increblemente rpido. +Y es algo que tiene varias caractersticas. +Es viral. Parece extenderse pasando desapercibido muy, muy rpidamente. +Es de cdigo abierto. Es algo que todo el mundo que est involucrado desarrolla y pasa a medida que trabaja con ello. +Es auto-organizado. No hay ninguna gran organizacin central que lo impulse, la gente simplemente recoge una idea y sigue adelante con ella, y lo aplican all donde estn. +Est centrada en las soluciones. Es sobre todo ver lo que la gente puede hacer donde estn, para responder a esto. +Es susceptible al lugar, y a la escala. +Lo transicional es completamente diferente. +Los grupos de transicin en Chile, en los EE.UU., y de aqu, lo que estn haciendo es muy diferente en cada lugar al que vas. +Se aprende mucho de los errores. +Y la sensacin es de algo histrico. Se intenta crear un sentido de que esta es una oportunidad histrica de hacer algo realmente extraordinario. +Y es un proceso realmente feliz. +La gente se divierte mucho haciendo esto, volver a entrar en contacto con otras personas mientras lo hacen. +Una de las cosas que lo sustenta es la idea de la resiliencia. +Y creo que, en muchos sentidos, la idea de resiliencia es un concepto ms til que la idea de sustentabilidad. +La idea de resiliencia proviene del estudio de la ecologa. +Y en realidad trata sobre cmo los sistemas, los asentamientos, resisten los impactos desde el exterior. +Cuando se encuentran con un impacto del exterior no se ven incapaces de afrontarlo, y se deshacen. +Y, como dije, creo que es un concepto ms til que el de sustentabilidad. +Cuando nuestros supermercados tienen comida slo para dos o tres das en un momento dado, a menudo la sustentabilidad tiende a centrarse en la eficiencia energtica de los congeladores y el embalaje en que estn envueltas las lechugas. +Mirando a travs de la lente de la resiliencia, lo que en realidad nos preguntamos es cmo hemos llegado a un situacin que es tan vulnerable. +La resiliencia es mucho ms profunda: trata de la construccin de forma modular en lo que hacemos, construir protectores en cmo organizamos las cosas bsicas que nos sustentan. +Esta es una fotografa de 1897, de la Asociacin de Jardineros del Mercado de Bristol y Distrito. +Es en un momento en que la ciudad de Bristol, que est muy cerca de aqu, estaba rodeada de huertos comerciales, que proporcionaban una importante cantidad de alimentos que se consuma en la ciudad, y tambin creaba muchos puestos de trabajo. +Haba un grado de resiliencia, si se quiere, en ese momento al que ahora slo podemos mirar con envidia. +Cmo funciona esta idea de transicin? +Bsicamente tienes un grupo de personas entusiasmada con la idea. +Ellos toman algunas de las herramientas que hemos desarrollado. +Comienzan a implementar un programa de concientizacin viendo cmo esto puede realmente funcionar en la ciudad. +Muestran las pelculas, dan charlas, etc. +Es un proceso ldico y creativo, e informativo. +Luego empiezan a formar grupos de trabajo, atendiendo diferentes aspectos, y a partir de ah, surgen un montn de proyectos que el "Proyecto de Transicin" en s empieza a apoyar y facilitar. +Todo empez con un trabajo en el que yo estaba involucrado en Irlanda, donde estaba enseando, y a partir de ah se ha propagado. +Ahora hay ms de 200 "Proyectos de Transicin" formales. +Y hay miles de otros que se encuentran en lo que llamamos la fase de reflexin. +Estn reflexionando sobre si van a continuar avanzando. +Y de hecho muchos de ellos estn haciendo una enorme cantidad de cosas. +Pero qu es lo que realmente hacen? Bien, es una especie de bonita idea, pero, qu hacen en realidad sobre el terreno? +Bueno, creo que es muy importante aclarar que en realidad esto no es algo que va a hacer todo por s mismo. +Necesitamos una legislacin internacional de Copenague, y dems. +Necesitamos respuestas nacionales, respuestas del gobierno local. +Pero todas esas cosas van a ser mucho ms fciles si tenemos comunidades que estn activas y generan ideas y liderando desde primera lnea, volviendo las polticas no-elegibles en elegibles en los prximos 5 a 10 aos. +Algunas de las cosas que surgen, son los proyectos locales de alimentos, como esquemas agrcolas de apoyo comunitario, produccin urbana de alimentos, la creacin de guas locales de alimentos, y dems. +Muchos lugares estn empezando a crear sus propias empresas de energa, empresas energticas de propiedad comunitaria, donde la comunidad puede invertir dinero en s misma, para comenzar a construir el tipo de infraestructura de energa renovable que necesitamos. +Muchos lugares estn trabajando con sus escuelas locales. +En Newent y el Bosque de Dean, para las escuelas, Los nios estn aprendiendo a cultivar alimentos. +Promoviendo el reciclaje, jardines compartidos, que une a gente que no tiene un jardn a quien le gustara cultivar alimentos, con personas que tienen jardines que no estn usando. +Plantando rboles productivos en los espacios urbanos. +Y tambin se comienza a considerar la idea de monedas alternativas. +Esto es Lewes, Sussex, quienes recientemente lanzaron la libra Lewes, una moneda que slo puede usarse dentro de la ciudad, como una manera de empezar a hacer circular dinero en la economa local. +Si te lo llevas a otro sitio, no vale nada. +Pero en realidad dentro de la ciudad se empiezan a crear estos ciclos econmicos mucho ms eficaces. +Otra cosa que hacen, es lo que llamamos un plan de disminucin de energa. Que es bsicamente desarrollar un plan B para la ciudad. +La mayora de nuestras autoridades locales, cuando se sientan a planificar para los prximos cinco, 10, 15, 20 aos de una comunidad todava parten del supuesto de que habr ms energa, ms coches, ms viviendas, ms empleos, ms crecimiento, y dems. +Como sera si ese no es el caso? Y cmo podemos aceptarlo y llegar a algo que en realidad era ms bien mantener a todo el mundo? +Como un amigo mo dice, "La vida es una serie de cosas para las que no ests preparado". +Y sin duda, eso ha sido mi experiencia con la transicin +desde hace tres aos, de slo ser una idea, se ha convertido en algo que ha recorrido todo el mundo de forma viral. +Estamos recibiendo un gran inters por parte del gobierno. Ed Miliband, el ministro de Energa de este pas, fue invitado a nuestra reciente conferencia como oyente principal. +y as lo hizo- -- y desde entonces se ha convertido en un gran defensor de la idea. +Ahora hay dos autoridades locales en este pas que se han declarado a s mismas autoridades de transicin local, Leicestershire y Somerset. Y en Stroud, el grupo de transicin all, en efecto, redact el plan de alimentos del gobierno local. +Y el jefe del consejo, dijo, "Si no tuviramos Transicin Stroud, tendramos que inventar toda esa infraestructura comunitaria desde cero. " +Mientras se propaga, vemos centros nacionales emergentes. +En Escocia, el fondo para el cambio climtico del gobierno escocs ha financiado Transicin Escocia como una organizacin nacional, apoyando su difusin. +Y ahora lo vemos por todas partes. +Pero la clave de la transicin no es pensar que tenemos que cambiarlo todo ahora, sino que las cosas ya estn cambiando, inevitablemente, y lo que tenemos que hacer es trabajar creativamente con esto, basndonos en hacer las preguntas correctas. +Creo que al final me gustara volver a la idea de las historias. +Porque creo que las historias son de vital importancia aqu. +Y en realidad las historias que nos contamos a nosotros mismos, tenemos una escasez enorme de historias acerca de cmo avanzar creativamente desde aqu. +Y una de las principales cosas que la transicin hace es sacar ese tipo de historias, en lo que la gente est haciendo. +Historias sobre lo que la comunidad produce su propio billete de 21 libras, por ejemplo, la escuela que convirti su estacionamiento de autos en un jardn de alimentos, la comunidad que fund su propia empresa de energa. +Y para m, una de las grandes historias recientes fueron los Obama cavando el jardn sur de la Casa Blanca para crear un huerto. Porque la ltima vez que se hizo, cuando lo hizo Eleanor Roosevelt, llev a la creacin de 20 millones de huertos en los Estados Unidos. +As que realmente, con la pregunta que me gustara dejarlos, es - para todos los aspecto que su comunidad necesita a fin de prosperar, Cmo se puede hacer de tal forma que reduzca drsticamente sus emisiones de carbono, y al mismo tiempo construya resiliencia? +Personalmente, me siento enormemente agradecido de haber vivido la era del petrleo barato. +He sido increblemente afortunado, hemos sido increblemente afortunados. +Pero honremos lo que nos ha trado hasta aqu y avancemos desde este punto. +Porque si nos aferramos a ello, y seguimos asumiendo que puede sustentar nuestras opciones, el futuro que se nos presenta es realmente imposible de controlar. +Y por amor y para preservar todo lo que el petrleo ha hecho por nosotros, y lo que la era del petrleo ha hecho por nosotros, podemos entonces comenzar la creacin de un mundo que es ms resiliente, ms nutritivo, y en el que nos encontramos en mejor forma, ms hbiles y ms conectados unos con otros. +Muchas gracias. +Es algo gracioso estar en una conferencia dedicada a cosas no vistas y presentar mi propuesta para construir un muro de seis mil kilmetros de largo a travs de todo el continente africano. +De una proporcin cercana a la de la muralla china, sera dificilmente una estructura invisible. +Y aun asi, sera hecha de partes invisibles, o casi invisibles a simple vista, bacterias y granos de arena. +Bien, como arquitectos estamos entrenados para resolver problemas, +pero, en realidad, yo no creo en los problemas arquitectnicos; slo creo en las oportunidades. +Y es por eso que les voy a mostrar una amenaza y una respuesta arquitectnica. +La amenaza es la desertificacin. +Mi respuesta es un muro de arenisca hecha de bacteria y arena solidificada, que se extienda a travs del desierto. +Vern, la arena es un mgico material de bellas contradicciones; +es simple y complejo, +es tranquilo y violento, +es siempre el mismo, pero nunca igual. Tremendamente fascinante. +Mil millones de granos de arena nacen en el planeta cada segundo. +Es un proceso cclico; +Mueren las rocas y montaas, y nacen los granos de arena. +Algunos de esos granos pueden convertirse naturalmente en arenisca, +y cuando la arenisca se erosiona, se liberan los granos nuevamente. +Algunos de esos granos, entonces, pueden acumularse en escala masiva, para constituir una duna de arena. +De alguna forma, la montaa de roca esttica se vuelve una dinmica montaa de arena. +Pero, mover montaas puede ser peligroso. Permtanme tratar de explicar porque. +Las reas secas cubren ms de un tercio de la superficie terrestre. +Algunas son desiertos ya; y otras estan siendo seriamente degradadas por la arena. +Al sur del Sahara encontramos el Sahel. +Su nombre significa "la orilla del desierto" +Y esta es la regin ms asociada a la desertificacin. +Fue aqu que a final de los 60's y principio de los 70's graves sequas llevaron a tres millones de personas a depender de la ayuda alimentaria de emergencia, y a otros 250.000 a la muerte. +Esta catstrofe podra ocurrir nuevamente. +Y es una de las que menos atencin recibe +en nuestra frentica y meditica cultura. La desertificacin es, simplemente, demasiado lenta para alcanzar los titulares. +Nada comparado con un tsunami o un Katrina; unos pocos nios llorando y unas casas aplastadas. +Y aun as, la desertificacin es una enorme amenaza en todos los continentes, afecta a 110 pases y el 70% de las tierras de cultivo. +Esto afecta seriamente el sustento de millones de personas, especialmente en Africa y China. +Y esto es en gran parte una cuestion que hemos creado nosotros mismos a travs del uso insostenible de recursos escasos. +Asi que tenemos el cambio climtico, +tenemos sequas, desertificacin intensa, sistemas alimentarios en colapso, escasez de agua, hambruna, migracin forzada, inestabilidad poltica, guerra, crisis. +Ese es un posible panorama si no tomamos este asunto en serio. +Pero, qu tan lejos est esto? +Fui a Sokoto, en Nigeria del norte para tratar de averiguar que tan lejos est esto. +Las dunas se han movido hacia el sur a un ritmo de 600 metros por ao. +Es decir; el Sahara comindose casi un metro de tierra cultivable por dia, sacando a la gente de sus casas. +Aqu estoy yo. (La segunda persona a la izquierda) ... con los ancianos en Gidan-Kara, una pequea aldea en las afueras de Sokoto. +Ellos tuvieron que mover la aldea en 1997 ya que una enorme duna amenazaba con tragarla. +Asi que movieron la aldea choza por choza. +Aqui estaba la aldea. +Nos tom unos 10 minutos subir esa duna. Lo que demuestra la necesidad de buscar un lugar ms seguro. +Ese es el tipo de migracin forzada a la que puede llevar la desertificacin. +Si por casualidad vives en las fronteras del desierto, puedes calcular cuanto tiempo pasar hasta que tengas que llevarte a tus hijos, y abandonar tu hogar, y la vida como la conoces. +Bien, las dunas cubren aproximadamente un tercio de nuestros desiertos solamente. +Y aun as, esos ambientes extremos son muy buenos lugares si queremos detener el avance de la arena. +Hace cuatro aos, veintitrs paises africanos acordaron crear el Gran Muro Verde del Sahara. +Un fantstico proyecto. El plan inicial fue concebido como un refugio construido a base de rboles que seran plantados a travs del continente africano, desde Mauritania en el oeste, hasta Djibouti en el este. +Si se quiere detener el movimiento de las dunas es necesario asegurarse de que los granos de arena dejen de precipitarse desde la cima. +Y una buena manera de hacer esto, la manera ms eficiente, es utilizar algn tipo de obstculo. +Los rboles y los cactus son buenos para este propsito. +Pero uno de los problemas de plantar rboles es que las personas que viven all son tan pobres que los talan para hacer lea de ellos. +pero hay una alternativa para plantar rboles con la esperanza de que no sean talados. +Este muro de arenisca que propongo hace bsicamente tres cosas. +Le da solidez a la superficie de la duna, a la textura en la superficie de la duna, al unir los granos. +Le da un soporte fsico a los rboles, y crea espacios fsicos, espacios habitables al interior de las dunas. +Si le gente vive dentro de la barrera verde pueden ayudar a proteger los rboles, protegerlos de los humanos, y otras fuerzas de la naturaleza. +Dentro de las dunas encontramos sombra. +Podemos comenzar condensacin para la cosecha, y empezar a reverdecer el desierto desde ah. +Las dunas son, de algn modo, casi edificios instantneos. +Todo lo que tenemos que hacer es solidificar las partes que necesitamos que sean slidas, y luego excavar la arena, y tenemos la arquitectura. +Podemos excavarla a mano o podemos hacer que el viento lo haga por nosotros. +Asi, el viento trae la arena a la vista y luego quita la arena sobrante por nosotros. +Pero, a estas alturas ustedes probablemente se pregunten cmo planeo solidificar una duna de arena? +cmo pegamos esos granos de arena? +Y tal vez la respuesta sea usar a estos tipos, Bacilus pasteuri, un microorganismo disponible en areas hmedas y pantnos, y hace prescisamente eso. +Toma un montn de arena suelta y la transforma en arenisca. +Estas imgenes de la Sociedad Americana para la Microbiologa muestra el proceso. +Lo que pasa es que tu pones Bacilus pasteuri en un montn de arena, y comienza a llenar los vacos entre los granos. +Un proceso qumico produce calcita, que es una especie de cemento natural y eso une los granos. +Todo el proceso de cementacin dura algo as como 24 horas. +Aprend esto de un profesor de la U.C. Davis llamado Jason DeJong. +El logr hacerlo en unos 1,400 minutos. +Aqu estoy yo haciendo el papel del cientfico loco, trabajando con los bichos en el UCL en Londres, tratando de solidificarlas. +Y bueno, cuanto costara? +No soy economista, para nada, pero hice un calculo estimado ... y parece que por un metro cbico de concreto tendramos que pagar unos 90 dlares. +Y, luego de un costo inicial de 60 dlares para comprar la bacteria, que nunca habra que pagar de nuevo, un metro cbico de arena bacteriana costara algo asi como 11 dolares. +Como construimos algo as? +Bueno, voy a mostrar brevemente dos opciones. +La primera es crear una especie de estructura con forma de globo, llenarla con la bacteria y luego dejar que la arena limpie el globo, reventar el globo diseminando la bacteria para solidificar la arena. +Entonces, un par de aos despus, usando estrategias permaculturales, reverdecemos esa parte del desierto. +La segunda alternativa sera la inyeccin de postes +As, enterrar los postes en la arena, y crear una superficie bacteriana inicial. +Luego sacar los pilares de la duna y seramos capaces de crear casi cualquier forma dentro de la arena con la arena haciendo de molde a medida que avanzamos hacia arriba. +Asi que, tenemos una forma de convertir la arena en arenisca, y luego crear espacios habitables en las dunas del desierto, +pero, cmo se veran? +Bueno, fui inspirado, por mi formacion arquitectnica, por tafoni, que se ve un poco as. Esta es una maqueta. +Estas son cavernas rocosas que encontr en Sokoto. +Y me di cuenta de que si les daba una escala mayor, me dara buenas condiciones espaciales, para ventilacion, conodidad trmica, y otras cosas. +Ahora, parte del control formal sobre esta estructura se dejara en manos de la naturaleza, obviamente, mientras la bacteria hace su trabajo. +Y creo que eso, en realidad, le da una belleza ilimitada. +Creo que hay algo en esa articulacin, que es bastante simptico. +Vemos el resultado, las huellas si se prefiere, del Bacillus pasteurii preparandose a esculpir el desierto para crear ambientes habitables. +Algunas personas piensan que la bactera podra desparramarse incontrolablemente, y mataria cualquier cosa en su camino. +Pero eso no es as en ningn caso. +es un proceso natural, ocurre en la naturaleza cada dia. y la bacteria muere tan luego como dejamos de alimentarla. +Asi que ah est, estructuras arquitectonicas antidesertificacin hechas del mismo desierto. +Dispositivos para detener la arena, hechas de arena. +El mundo podra perder un tercio de sus areas de cultivo para el fin del siglo. +En un perodo de crecimiento demogrfico sin precedentes y aumento en la demanda de alimentos, esto podra generar un desastre. +Y francamente, estamos metiendo la cabeza en la arena. +Al menos, me gustara iniciar una discusin para este esquema. +Pero, si tuviera algo as como un "deseo TED" sera poder construrlo, comenzar a construr este muro habitable, esta larga, larga, pero estrecha ciudad en el desierto, construda en el paisaje mismo de las dunas. +No slo es un soporte para los rboles, sino algo que conecta a las personas y a los pases. +Me gustara terminar mostrndoles una animacin de la estructura, y dejarlos con una frase de Jorge Luis Borges. +Borges dijo que "Nada se construye sobre piedra. todo se construye sobre arena, pero debemos construr como si la arena fuera piedra" +En este esquema todava quedan muchos detalles que explorar, polticos, prcticos, ticos, financieros. +Mi diseo, as extrao como se ve, est cargado con muchos desafos y dificultades en el mundo real. +Pero es un comienzo, una visin. +Como lo dira Borges, es la arena. +Y creo que realmente es la hora de convertirla en roca. Gracias. +Chris Anderson: Muchas gracias, Primer Ministro, fue a la vez fascinante e inspirador. +As que Ud. brega por una tica mundial? +Dira que se trata de una ciudadana mundial? +Cree en esa idea? Cmo la definira? +Gordon Brown: Pienso que se trata de ciudadana mundial. Se trata de reconocer nuestras responsabilidades hacia otros. +Hay mucho por hacer en los prximos aos es obvio para muchos de nosotros: contruir un mundo mejor. +Hay un sentimiento compartido de lo que hay que hacer que es vital que nos unamos. +Pero no necesariamente tenemos los medios para hacerlo. +Por eso hay desafos que sortear. +Creo que la idea de una ciudadana mundial surgir de la comunicacin mutua de la gente entre continentes. +Luego, claro, hay que crear las instituciones para que funcione la sociedad mundial. +Pienso que no deberamos subestimar la incidencia de los cambios tecnolgicos masivos en la vinculacin de personas a nivel mundial. +CA: A la gente le entusiasma la idea de la ciudadana mundial pero luego se confunde un poco al pensar en el patriotismo y en cmo combinar las dos cosas. +Digo, Ud. fue elegido Primer Ministro para defender a Gran Bretaa. +Cmo concilia ambas cosas? +GB: Bueno, desde ya, la identidad nacional es importante. +Pero no a costa de las responsabilidades mundiales. +Y pienso que uno de los problemas de la recesin es el proteccionismo de la gente, se miran a s mismos, y tratan de proteger sus naciones quiz a costa de otras naciones. +Si mira el motor de la economa mundial no se mueve a menos que haya comercio internacional. +Las naciones proteccionistas de los ltimos aos se privarn de obtener los beneficios del crecimiento en la economa mundial. +Uno tiene que tener un sentido de patriotismo sano; eso es muy importante. +Pero hay que darse cuenta que el mundo cambi drsticamente, y a los problemas de hoy no los resuelve +pura y exclusivamente una sola nacin. +CA: Bien, pero qu hacer cuando entran en conflicto y hay que tomar una decisin: por el inters de Gran Bretaa, o el de los britnicos, o el de los ciudadanos del mundo? +GB: Bien, pienso que podemos persuadir a la gente de que lo necesario a largo plazo para el inters de Gran Bretaa, para el inters de EE.UU., es un compromiso de verdad con el mundo y realizar la accin necesaria. +Hay una gran historia de Richard Nixon +1958, independencia de Ghana, ms de 50 aos atrs, +Richard Nixon representa a Estados Unidos en los festejos por la independencia de Ghana. +Es una de las primeras salidas a un pas africano como vice presidente. +No sabe muy bien qu hacer as que se dirige a la multitud y comienza a hablarle se dirige a la gente en su estilo nico: "Cmo se siente ser libre?" +Va por ahi diciendo: Cmo se siente ser libre?" +"Cmo se siente ser libre?" +Y entonces alguien responde: "Cmo saberlo? Vengo de Alabama". +Corran los aos '50. +Lo notable es que los derechos civiles se conquistaron en EE.UU. en los '60. +Igualmente notable es que los derechos socioeconmicos de frica no han progresado tanto desde la poca colonial. +EE.UU. y frica todava tienen intereses comunes. +Tenemos que darnos cuenta que si no nos unimos a las voces sensibles y democrticas de frica, para trabajar juntos por causas comunes, crecer la amenaza de Al Qaeda y grupos afines en frica. +As, dira que a veces lo que parece altruismo con frica o con los pases en desarrollo, es ms que eso, es inters propio en sentido amplio +de trabajar con otros pases. +Y dira que el inters nacional y, si quieren, el inters mundial para abordar la pobreza y el cambio climtico vienen, a largo plazo, juntos. +Quiero continuar an con este tema. +Suponga que est en una playa. Y se corre el rumor de que viene un gran terremoto, se viene un tsumami sobre la playa. +En una punta de la playa hay una casa con una familia de cinco nigerianos. +En la otra punta hay un solo britnico. +Tiene tiempo de... Tiene tiempo de avisar a una casa. Qu hace? +GB: Comunicaciones modernas. +Alertar a ambas. +Concuerdo en que mi responsabilidad es, ante todo, la seguridad de mi pueblo. +Y no quisiera que nada de lo dicho hoy sugiriera que estoy minimizando la responsabilidad de los lderes con sus pases. +Pero trato de sugerir que hay una gran oportunidad que se nos presenta, nunca antes vista. +El poder de la comunicacin sin fronteras nos permite organizar el mundo de otro modo. +Y pienso, miren el tsunami, es un ejemplo clsico. +Dnde estaban los sistemas de alertas? +Dnde estaba el mundo actuando en conjunto para enfrentar los problemas conocidos del potencial de los terremotos o del cambio climtico? +Cuando el mundo trabaja unido con mejores sistemas de alertas tempranas entonces se pueden enfrentar problemas mucho mejor. +Pienso que no estamos viendo, por ahora, las grandes oportunidades actuales de la cooperacin en un mundo en el que antes o haba aislamiento o alianzas limitadas por conveniencia que nunca condujeron a resolver los problemas centrales. +CA: Creo que esa es la frustracin que quiz tiene mucha gente de la audiencia, que abraza el discurso del que Ud. habla. +Es inspirador. Muchos creemos +que ese ser el futuro del mundo. +Y an si la situacin cambia de repente uno escucha a polticos hablar como si por ejemplo, la vida de un soldado estadounidense valiera incontables vidas de civiles iraques. +En el da a da el idealismo puede desvanecerse. +Me pregunto si avizora Ud. un cambio con el tiempo si ve Ud. en Gran Bretaa un cambio de actitud, si la gente es en verdad ms receptiva a esa tica mundial de la que Ud. habla. +GB: Pienso que cada religin, cada fe, y aqu no slo hablo a gente de fe o religiosa... tiene esta tica mundial en el centro de su credo. +Sean judos o musulmanes hindes o sijs, tienen la misma tica mundial en el corazn de estas religiones. +Pienso que uno trata algo que la gente instintivamente ve como parte de ese sentido moral. +As, uno construye sobre algo que no es mero inters propio. +Uno construye sobre ideas y valores de la gente... que quiz son velas que a veces, arden muy tenuemente. +Pero hay valores que, creo, no se extinguen. +Entonces la pregunta es: Cmo producir el cambio? +Cmo persuadir a la gente que le conviene construir... Despus de la 2da Guerra Mundial, creamos instituciones, las Naciones Unidas, el FMI, el Banco Mundial, la Organizacin Mundial del Comercio, el Plan Marshall. +Hubo un perodo en el cual la gente habl de un acto fundacional porque estas instituciones eran muy nuevas. +Pero ahora son anacrnicas. No resuelven los problemas. +Como dije, no se puede enfrentar el problema ambiental con las instituciones existentes. +No se puede atacar el problema de la seguridad como es debido. +No puede atacarse el problema econmico y financiero. +De modo que tenemos que reconstruir nuestras instituciones mundiales, construirlas a la medida de este tiempo. +Y creo que si vemos los grandes desafos de hoy uno es persuadir a la gente de confiar en que podemos construir una sociedad mundial con instituciones basadas en estas reglas. +As, vuelvo a mi idea inicial. +A veces uno piensa que las cosas son imposibles. +Nadie hubiera dicho hace 50 aos que desaparecera el apartheid en 1990, o que caera el muro de Berln entre los aos '80 y '90, o que se erradicara la polio; o quiz 60 aos atrs nadie hubiera dicho que el Hombre llegara a la Luna. +Y todo eso sucedi. +Abordando lo imposible, se hace posible lo imposible. +CA: Tuvimos un orador que dijo eso mismo y luego trag un sable. Fue espectacular. +GB: Ahora mi sable tragar. +CA: Pero sin duda una tica mundial implica decir: "Creo que la vida de cada humano del planeta" "vale lo mismo, cualquiera sea" "su nacionalidad y religin" +Y hay polticos que... Ud. fue elegido. En cierto modo, no puede decir eso. +An si como ser humano lo cree no puede decirlo, debe defender intereses de Gran Bretaa. +GB: Tenemos la responsabilidad de proteger. +Digo, mire 1918, el Tratado de Versalles, y los tratados siguientes, el Tratado de Westfalia, etc. tratan de proteger los derechos soberanos de los pases para hacer lo que deseen. +Desde entonces el mundo progres, en parte por lo sucedido en el Holocausto, y la preocupacin de la gente por los derechos civiles en los territorios donde necesitaban proteccin, en parte por lo de Ruanda, en parte por lo de Bosnia. +La idea de la responsabilidad de proteger a los individuos en situacin de riesgo humanitario ahora se considera un principio que gobierna el mundo. +Al final eso slo puede lograrse si funcionan las instituciones internacionales para hacerlo posible. +y eso remite al futuro papel de Naciones Unidas y a lo que stas puedan hacer. +Pero la responsabilidad de proteger es, en cierta forma, una idea nueva surgida de la idea de la autodeterminacin como principio internacional. +CA: Puede imaginar, en nuestras vidas, a un poltico con una plataforma que plantee abiertamente la tica y la ciudadana mundial? +Diciendo bsicamente: "Creo que todos los habitantes del planeta" "son iguales, y si llegamos al poder" "actuaremos en consecuencia". +"Y creemos que los habitantes de este pas" "tambin son ciudadanos mundiales y apoyarn esa tica"... +Gordon Brown: No es eso lo que estamos haciendo +con el debate del cambio climtico? Estamos diciendo que no se puede resolver el problema del cambio climtico en un slo pas; todos deben involucrarse. +Ud. est diciendo que debe, que tiene el deber de ayudar a esos pases que no pueden lidiar con los problemas del cambio climtico por s solos. +Ud. est diciendo que quiere tratar con todos los pases todos juntos para recortar la emisin de carbono en beneficio del mundo entero. +Nunca antes vimos esto porque Kyoto no funcion. +No significa que todos hagan lo mismo porque tenemos que hacer ms en trminos financieros para ayudar a los pases ms pobres, sino que hay igualdad de los ciudadanos en todo el planeta. +CA: S. Por supuesto, todava persiste la teora +de que son charlas entre pases en pugna por sus propios intereses. +GB: S, pienso que Europa tiene una posicin... ya se reunieron 27 pases. +Digo, la gran dificultad de Europa es que si uno est en una reunin de 27 personas, lleva mucho, mucho tiempo. +Pero llegamos a un acuerdo sobre el cambio climtico. +EE.UU. ha dado el primer paso con el proyecto que el Presidente Obama enviara al Congreso. +Japn hizo un anuncio. +China e India ratificaron la evidencia cientfica. +Ahora tenemos que hacer que acepten objetivos de corto y largo plazo. +Pero se ha avanzado mucho ms en las ltimas semanas de lo alcanzado en aos. +Y creo que es muy posible que si trabajamos juntos lleguemos a un acuerdo en Copenhague. +Yo ciertamente he presentado propuestas que permitiran a los pases ms pobres del mundo sentir que hemos tenido en cuenta sus necesidades puntuales. +Los ayudaramos a adaptarse. +Los ayudaramos a realizar la transicin a una economa con menos emisiones. +Pienso que una reforma de las instituciones internacionales es vital para esto. +Cuando se cre el FMI en 1940 se cre con fondos que eran el 5% del PIB mundial. +El FMI hoy tiene recursos limitados, el 1%. +No marca en realidad la diferencia que se haga en una crisis. +As que tenemos que reconstruir las instituciones mundiales. +Una gran tarea: persuadir a los pases con distintas participaciones de voto en estas instituciones para que lo hagan. +Hay una historia de 3 lderes mundiales que tuvieron la oportunidad de consultar a Dios. +Dice la historia que Bill Clinton fue y le pregunt cundo se lograra el cambio climtico y la reduccin de emisiones. +Y Dios moviendo la cabeza dijo: "No este ao" "ni en esta dcada, quiz no sea en tu vida". +Y Bill Clinton se fue llorando porque no consigui lo que quera. +Y luego fue Barroso, el presidente de la Comisin Europea, y le pregunt a Dios: "Cundo recuperaremos el crecimiento mundial?" +Y Dios dijo: "No este ao, ni en esta dcada" "quiz no en tu vida". +As que Barroso se fue llorando. +Y luego el secretario general de Naciones Unidas fue a hablar con Dios: "Cundo funcionarn nuestras instituciones internacionales?" +Y Dios llor. +Es muy importante reconocer que esta reforma institucional es la prxima etapa despus que acordemos que hay una tica clara sobre la que construir. +CA: Primer Ministro, pienso que muchos en la audicencia aprecian los esfuerzos que Ud. hizo respecto de la crisis financiera en la que estamos. +Y hay, desde luego, muchos aqu que lo alentarn si procura avanzar con +esta tica mundial. Muchas gracias por venir a TED. +GB: Bien, gracias. +Cmo observar algo que no podemos ver? +Esta es la pregunta esencial de quien desea encontrar y estudiar agujeros negros. +Porque los agujeros negros son objetos cuya fuerza gravitacional es tan intensa que nada puede escapar a ella, ni siquiera la luz, y no se ven directamente. +Mi historia de hoy sobre los agujeros negros es sobre un agujero negro en particular. +Me interesa saber si hay un agujero enorme, o lo que llamamos un agujero negro "supermasivo" en el centro de nuestra galaxia. +Y esto es interesante porque nos da la oportunidad de probar si estos exticos objetos realmente existen. +Segundo, nos da la oportunidad de comprender cmo estos agujeros negros supermasivos interactan con su ambiente, y cmo afectan la formacin y evolucin de las galaxias donde residen. +Para comenzar, debemos comprender qu es un agujero negro para que podamos comprender su prueba de existencia. +Entonces, qu es un agujero negro? +Un agujero negro es un objeto increblemente simple, porque slo hay tres caractersticas que se pueden describir: la masa, su rotacin, y la carga. +Slo voy a hablarles de la masa. +En ese sentido, es un objeto muy simple. +En otro sentido, es un objeto increblemente complicado y debemos apelar a la fsica extica para describirlo, lo que implica el quiebre de nuestra comprensin fsica del universo. +Hoy, la forma en la que quiero que entiendan un agujero negro, por la prueba de un agujero negro, es verlo como un objeto cuya masa est confinada a un volumen cero. +Aunque voy a hablarles sobre un objeto que es supermasivo, y voy a explicar qu es eso en un momento, no tiene un tamao finito. +Es algo complicado. +Pero hay un tamao finito que pueden ver, y eso se conoce como el radio Schwarzschild. +Lleva el nombre de la persona que reconoci por qu era un radio tan importante. +Este es un radio virtual, no real; el agujero negro no tiene tamao. +Por qu es tan importante? +Es importante porque nos dice que cualquier objeto puede convertirse en un agujero negro. +Eso significa que ustedes, sus vecinos, sus telfonos celulares, el auditorio puede convertirse en un agujero negro si pueden hallar la forma de comprimirlo al tamao del radio Schwarzschild. +Entonces, qu sucedera? +En ese punto la gravedad gana. +La gravedad gana sobre todas las otras fuerzas conocidas. +Y el objeto es forzado a continuar colapsando en un objeto infinitamente pequeo. +Y luego es un agujero negro. +Si comprimiera a la Tierra al tamao de un cubo de azcar, se convertira en un agujero negro, porque el tamao de un cubo de azcar es su radio Schwarzschild. +La clave es descifrar cul es el radio Schwarzschild. +Resulta muy sencillo. +Slo depende de la masa de un objeto. +Objetos ms grandes tienen radios Schwarzschild ms grandes. +Objetos pequeos tienen radios Schwarzschild ms pequeos. +Si yo tomara al sol y lo comprimiera a la escala de la Universidad de Oxford, se convertira en un agujero negro. +Ahora sabemos lo que es un radio Schwarzschild. +Es un concepto muy til, porque no slo nos dice cundo se formar un agujero negro sino que nos da elementos cruciales para la prueba de un agujero negro. +Slo necesito dos cosas. +Debo comprender la masa de un objeto que aseguro es un agujero negro, y cul es su radio Schwarzchild. +Dado que la masa determina el radio Schwarzschild, hay una sola cosa que debo conocer. +Mi tarea al convencerlos de que existe un agujero negro, es demostrar que hay un objeto que est confinado dentro de su radio Schwarzschild. +Y su tarea de hoy es ser escpticos. +Hablar sobre agujeros negros nada comunes; hablar sobre agujeros negros supermasivos. +Quera hablar sobre qu es un agujero negro comn, si es posible que exista un agujero negro comn. +Se piensa que un agujero negro comn es el estado final de la vida de una estrella masiva. +Si una estrella comienza su vida con una masa mucho mayor que la del Sol, terminar su vida estallando dejando tras s estos hermosos remanentes de supernova que vemos aqu. +Dentro de ese remanente de supernova va a haber un pequeo agujero negro que tendr una masa casi tres veces la masa del Sol. +En una escala astronmica ese es un agujero negro muy pequeo. +Ahora, quiero hablarles sobre los agujeros negros supermasivos. +Se cree que negros supermasivos residen en el centro de las galaxias. +Esta hermosa fotografa tomada con el Telescopio Espacial Hubble muestra que las galaxias vienen en todas formas y tamaos. +Hay grandes. Hay pequeas. +Casi todos los objetos en esa fotografa son galaxias. +Hay una muy hermosa espiral arriba a la izquierda. +Y hay cien billones de estrellas en esa galaxia, slo para darles un sentido de escala. +Toda esa luz que vemos de una tpica galaxia, que es el tipo de galaxias que vemos aqu, viene de la luz de las estrellas. +Entonces, vemos la galaxia debido a la luz estelar. +Hay pocas galaxias relativamente exticas. +Las llamo las prima donnas del mundo de las galaxias, porque son algo exhibicionistas. +Y las llamamos ncleos galcticos activos. +Las llamamos as porque sus ncleos, o sus centros, son muy activos. +All en el centro, de ah proviene la mayora de la luz estelar. +Sin embargo, lo que vemos es luz que no puede ser explicada por la luz estelar. +Es mucho ms energtica. +En algunos ejemplos es como la que vemos aqu. +Hay chorros emanando desde el centro. +Una fuente de energa muy difcil de explicar si consideran que las galaxias estn compuestas de estrellas. +Se ha pensado que quizs hay agujeros supermasivos donde cae la materia. +No se puede ver el agujero negro, pero se puede convertir la energa gravitacional del agujero negro en luz que podemos ver. +Se cree que quizs los agujeros negros supermasivos existen en el centro de las galaxias. +Pero es un argumento indirecto. +Sin embargo, ha generado la nocin de que no son slo estas prima donnas las que tienen estos agujeros supermasivos, sino que todas las galaxias podran albergar agujeros negros supermasivos en sus centros. +Si se es el caso -- ste es un ejemplo de una galaxia normal; lo que vemos es la luz de las estrellas. +Si hay un agujero negro supermasivo, debemos pensar que es un agujero negro a dieta. +Porque as se suprimen los fenmenos energticos que vemos en ncleos galcticos activos. +Si vamos a buscar estos agujeros negros ocultos en el centro de las galaxias, el mejor lugar para buscar es en nuestra propia galaxia, la Va Lctea. +sta es una fotografa de campo amplio del centro de la Va Lctea. +Lo que vemos es una lnea de estrellas. +Eso es porque vivimos en una galaxia que es una estructura aplanada, como un disco. +Vivimos en el medio, y cuando miramos hacia el centro, vemos este plano que define el plano de la galaxia, o la lnea que define el plano de la galaxia. +La ventaja de estudiar nuestra propia galaxia es que es el ejemplo ms cercano del centro de una galaxia que podemos ver, porque la otra galaxia ms cercana est 100 veces ms lejos. +Podemos ver mucho ms detalle en nuestra galaxia que en cualquier otro lugar. +Como vern en un momento, la habilidad de ver detalles es crucial para este experimento. +Como los astrnomos demuestran que hay mucha masa dentro de un volumen pequeo? +Eso es lo que debo mostrarles hoy. +La herramienta que usamos es observar la forma en que las estrellas orbitan el agujero negro. +Las estrellas orbitarn el agujero negro del mismo modo en que los planetas orbitan el sol. +La atraccin gravitatoria hace orbitar estos objetos. +Si no hubiera objetos masivos, estas cosas se iran flotando, o se moveran a una velocidad mucho menor porque lo que determina cmo se mueven es cunta masa hay dentro de su rbita. +Esto es genial, porque recuerden que mi tarea es mostrarles que hay mucha masa dentro de un volumen pequeo. +Si s cun rpido gira, conozco la masa. +Y si conozco la escala de la rbita, conocer el radio. +Entonces, quiero ver las estrellas que estn lo ms cerca posible del centro de la galaxia. +Porque quiero mostrar que hay masa dentro de la regin ms pequea. +Esto significa que quiero ver mucho detalle. +Por esto hemos usado para este experimento el telescopio ms grande del mundo. +Este es el observatorio Keck. Tiene dos telescopios con un espejo de 10 metros, que es casi el dimetro de una cancha de tenis. +Esto es maravilloso porque la promesa usual de los grandes telescopios es que, mientras ms grande, ms pequeo es el detalle que podemos ver. +Pero estos telescopios, o cualquier telescopio terrestre tiene algunos problemas para honrar esa promesa. +Eso es debido a la atmsfera. +La atmsfera es genial para nosotros; nos permite sobrevivir en la Tierra. +Pero es un reto para los astrnomos que quieren observar fuentes astronmicas a travs de la atmsfera. +Para darles una idea, es como mirar una piedrita en el fondo de un arroyo. +Al mirar la piedra en el fondo, la corriente se mueve continuamente y es turbulenta, y eso dificulta ver la piedra en el fondo. +Igualmente, es muy difcil ver fuentes astronmicas, porque la atmsfera se mueve continuamente. +He pasado gran parte de mi carrera buscando maneras de corregir el problema de la atmsfera, y tener una visin ms clara. +Con eso obtenemos un factor de aproximadamente 20. +Creo que todos estarn de acuerdo que si pudieran mejorar su vida por un factor de 20 la mejoraran muchsimo, lo notaran en su salario, o sus hijos. +Esta animacin les muestra un ejemplo de las tcnicas que usamos, llamadas ptica adaptativa. +Aqu ven una animacin que parte del ejemplo de cmo veran si no usan esta tcnica, slo una fotografa que muestra las estrellas, la caja est enfocada en el centro de la galaxia. donde creemos est el agujero negro. +Sin esta tecnologa no se pueden ver las estrellas. +Con esta tecnologa, repentinamente podemos verlas. +Esta tecnologa funciona introduciendo un espejo dentro del sistema ptico del telescopio que cambia continuamente para contrarrestar el efecto de la atmsfera. +Son como anteojos sofisticados para su telescopio. +En las siguientes diapositivas voy a concentrarme en ese pequeo cuadro. +Slo veremos las estrellas dentro de ese pequeo cuadro, aunque las hayamos visto todas. +Quiero ver cmo estas cosas se han movido. +En el curso de este experimento, estas estrellas se han movido mucho. +Hemos hecho este experimento por 15 aos, y vemos las estrellas dar toda la vuelta. +La mayora de los astrnomos tiene una estrella favorita, la ma es una estrella que est etiquetada ah, SO-2. +Es mi estrella favorita. +Porque da la vuelta en slo 15 aos. +Para darles una idea de cun poco tiempo es, el sol tarda 200 millones de aos en girar alrededor del centro de la galaxia. +Las estrellas que antes conocamos, cerca del centro de la galaxia, lo ms posible, tardan 500 aos. +Y sta da la vuelta en el transcurso de una vida humana. +Eso es algo profundo. +Pero es la clave de este experimento. La rbita me dice cunta masa hay adentro de un radio muy pequeo. +Ahora vemos una fotografa que les muestra antes de este experimento el tamao al cual podamos limitar la masa del centro de la galaxia. +Antes sabamos que haba cuatro millones veces la masa del sol dentro de ese crculo. +Como ven, hay muchas otras cosas dentro de ese crculo. +Pueden ver muchas estrellas. +Haba muchas alternativas a la idea de que exista un agujero negro supermasivo en el centro de la galaxia, porque se podan colocar muchas cosas all. +Pero con este experimento hemos confinado esa misma masa a un volumen mucho menor, 10 mil veces menor. +Por eso hemos podido mostrar que hay un agujero negro supermasivo all. +Para darles una idea de lo pequea que es, ese es el tamao de nuestro sistema solar. +Comprimimos cuatro millones de veces la masa del sol en ese pequeo volumen. +Debemos ser veraces. No? +Dije que mi trabajo es reducirlo hasta el radio de Schwarzchild. +En verdad, an no lo he logrado. +Pero no tenemos alternativa en la actualidad para explicar esta concentracin de masa. +Es la mejor evidencia que tenemos a la fecha no slo de la existencia de un agujero negro supermasivo en el centro de nuestra propia galaxia, sino en nuestro universo. +Entonces, Ahora qu? Yo creo que es lo mejor que podemos hacer con la tecnologa actual, as que avancemos. +Quiero mostrarles, brevemente, algunos ejemplos de cun excitante es lo que podemos hacer hoy en el centro de nuestra galaxia, ahora que sabemos que hay, o creemos que existe, un agujero negro supermasivo all. +Y la fase divertida de este experimento es que, aunque hemos sometido a prueba algunas de nuestras ideas sobre las consecuencias de que un agujero negro supermasivo est en el centro de nuestra galaxia, casi cada una de ellas ha sido inconsistente con lo que realmente vemos. +Y eso es lo divertido. +Djenme citar dos ejemplos. +Ustedes pueden preguntar, "Qu esperan de las viejas estrellas? Las que han estado en el centro de la galaxia por mucho tiempo, y han tenido suficiente tiempo para interactuar con el agujero negro." +Lo que se espera es que las viejas estrellas estn muy agrupadas alrededor del agujero negro. +Deberan ver muchas estrellas viejas junto a ese agujero negro. +Del mismo modo, o en contraste, las estrellas jvenes, simplemente no deberan estar ah. +Un agujero negro no es un buen vecino de una guardera estelar. +Para que una estrella se forme, es necesario que colapse una gran bola de gas y polvo. +Es una entidad muy frgil. +Qu hace este agujero negro? +Rompe las nubes de gas. +Tira mucho ms fuerte de un lado que del otro y la nube se rompe. +Anticipamos que la formacin de estrellas no debera ocurrir en ese ambiente. +Entonces, no deberamos ver estrellas jvenes. +Entonces, Qu vemos? +Usando observaciones que no son las que les mostr hoy, podemos identificar cules son viejas y cules son nuevas. +Las viejas son rojas. +Las jvenes son azules. Y las amarillas, an no lo sabemos. +Ya pueden ver la sorpresa. +Hay una escasez de estrellas viejas. +Hay una abundancia de estrellas jvenes, y eso es exactamente lo opuesto a la prediccin. +Esta es la parte divertida. +Hoy en da, eso es lo que intentamos comprender, este misterio de cmo obtienes -- cmo resolver esta contradiccin. +Mis estudiantes de postgrado estn, ahora mismo, en el telescopio, en Hawi, realizando observaciones para llevarnos a la prxima etapa, donde podamos responder esta pregunta: por qu hay tantas estrellas jvenes, y tan pocas estrellas viejas. +Para progresar necesitamos mirar las rbitas de estrellas que estn mucho ms lejos. +Para hacer eso necesitaremos tecnologa mucho ms sofisticada de la que tenemos hoy. +Porque, si bien dije que hacemos ajustes segn la atmsfera de la Tierra, slo corregimos la mitad de los errores que aparecen. +Lo hacemos disparando un lser a la atmsfera, y creemos que si disparamos algunos ms podremos corregir el resto. +Es lo que esperamos hacer en los prximos aos. +En una escala de tiempo mucho mayor, esperamos construir telescopios an ms grandes. porque, mientras ms grande, mejor para la astronoma. +Queremos construir un telescopio de 30 metros. +Con ese telescopio podremos ver estrellas que estn ms cerca del centro de la galaxia. +Y esperamos poder probar algunas de las teoras de la relatividad general de Einstein, ideas de cosmologa sobre cmo las galaxias se forman. +Creemos que el futuro de este experimento es muy emocionante. +Para terminar, les mostrar una animacin que bsicamente muestra cmo estas rbitas se han estado moviendo, en tres dimensiones. +Y espero, ojal, haberles convencido de que, primero, s existe un agujero negro supermasivo en el centro de la galaxia. +Esto significa que estas cosas existen en nuestro universo, y tenemos que lidiar con esto, tenemos que explicar cmo surgen estos objetos en nuestro mundo fsico. +Segundo, hemos podido observar cmo los agujeros negros supermasivos interactan, y comprender, quizs, el rol que cumplen en la formacin de las galaxias, y cmo funcionan. +Y por ltimo, pero no menos importante, nada de esto hubiera sucedido sin el gran progreso de la tecnologa. +Creemos que es un campo que se est moviendo muy rpido, y tiene muchas cosas reservadas para el futuro. +Muchas gracias. +Para tener emociones, no es preciso adentrarnos demasiado rpido en el desierto. +Por lo tanto, un pequeo aviso a navegantes: por favor, apaguen los correctores de ingls instalados en sus cerebros. +Ahora, bienvenidos al Desierto Dorado de la lndia. +Recibe la menor cantidad de precipitaciones de todo el pas, las precipitaciones ms bajas. +Si estn familiarizados con las pulgadas, nueve pulgadas, en sistema mtrico, diecisis centmetros. +El agua del subsuelo se encuentra a 300 pies de profundidad, unos 100 metros. +Y principalmente es salobre, no es apta para beber. +Por ello, no se pueden instalar bombas ni excavar pozos, aunque tampoco hay electricidad en la mayora de poblaciones. +Pero, supongamos que se utiliza tecnologa ecolgica, bombas solares; tambin resultaran intiles en esta zona. +As que, bienvenidos al Desierto Dorado. +Las nubes rara vez visitan este territorio. +Sin embargo, encontramos 40 nombres distintos para ellas en el dialecto local. +Existen diversas tcnicas para el aprovechamiento del agua de lluvia. +Se trata de un nuevo enfoque, un nuevo programa. +Pero para la sociedad del desierto no se trata de un programa, se trata de sus vidas. +Por ello, aprovechan el agua de lluvia de muchas maneras. +ste es el primer dispositivo que utilizan para aprovechar el agua de lluvia. +Se llama kunds; en algunos lugares se llama [en hindi, poco claro]. +Pueden observar que han creado una especie de cuenca falsa. +El desierto se encuentra ah mismo, las dunas, algunos pequeos campos. +Y sta es una enorme plataforma elevada. +Pueden apreciar los pequeos orificios por los que el agua entrar en este depsito, y aqu observamos una pendiente. +En ocasiones, nuestros ingenieros y arquitectos no se preocupan de las pendientes en los baos pero aqu s las tendrn en cuenta. +Y el agua ir donde tiene que ir. +Tiene una profundidad de 12 metros. +La impermeabilizacin es perfecta, mejor que la de los contratistas urbanos ya que no se puede desperdiciar ni una sola gota. +Recogen 100.000 litros en una estacin. +Se trata de agua totalmente potable. +Debajo de la superficie hay agua salobre. +Pero esta reserva se puede mantener durante un ao. +Hay dos casas. +A menudo, utilizamos el trmino propiedad escriturada, +ya que estamos acostumbrados a tenerlo todo por escrito. +Pero el desierto no se rige por las leyes escritas. +Las personas construyen sus casas y los depsitos de agua. +Estas plataformas elevadas son como este escenario. +De hecho tienen 4 metros de profundidad y recogen el agua de lluvia que cae sobre el tejado, que se transporta por una pequea tubera, y desde el patio. +Se pueden recoger alrededor de 25.000 litros en un buen monzn. +Otro de mayor tamao, evidentemente fuera de la zona ms rida del desierto. +Se encuentra cerca de Jaipur. Se llama el Fuerte de Jaigarh +y puede recoger 2,7 millones de litros de agua pluvial en una estacin. +Tiene 400 aos. +Por lo tanto, desde hace 400 aos ha estado ofreciendo casi 2,7 millones de litros de agua por estacin. +Si quieren, pueden calcular el precio de toda esa agua. +Recoge agua mediante 15 kilmetros de canales. +Aqu pueden ver una carretera moderna, de apenas 50 aos. +En ocasiones, puede que se deteriore. +Pero este viejo canal que transporta agua desde hace 400 aos ha estado mantenido por muchas generaciones. +Por supuesto, si quieren entrar las dos puertas estn cerradas. +Pero seguro que se las abrirn a la gente de TED. +Desde aqu hacemos la peticin. +Pueden ver a una persona saliendo con dos recipientes de agua. +No estn vacas, estn llenas de agua hasta arriba. +Muchos municipios podran sentir envidia del color, el gusto y la pureza de este agua. +Es lo que se llama agua de tipo Cero B, porque proviene directamente de las nubes, agua destilada pura. +Ahora, demos paso a un pequeo espacio publicitario y despus volveremos a los sistemas tradicionales. +El gobierno pens que sta era una zona muy atrasada y que deberamos construir un proyecto multimillonario para traer agua desde el Himalaya. +A esto me refera cuando deca lo del espacio publicitario. +Pero no se preocupen, volveremos al sistema tradicional. +As, el agua proveniente de 300 400 kilmetros pronto se convirti en esto. +En muchas partes, el jacinto de agua cubri estos grandes canales como si nada. +Por supuesto, hay zonas a las que llega agua. No digo que no llegue en absoluto. +Pero hacia el final del canal, en la zona de Jaisalmer, en Binaker concretamente, se puede ver esto: donde el jacinto de agua no puede crecer la arena fluye por los canales. +Adems, por el mismo precio pueden encontrar vida salvaje en los alrededores. +Hace 25 30 aos, cuando se inaugur el canal, pudimos ver anuncios a pgina entera. +Dijeron que se dejaran de lado los sistemas tradicionales, ya que estos nuevos depsitos de cemento suministraran agua para todos. +Un sueo. Y los sueos, sueos son. +Porque al poco tiempo, el agua no llegaba a todas las zonas +y los habitantes empezaron a renovar sus propios depsitos. +stas de aqu son estructuras tradicionales, que no se podran explicar en tan poco tiempo. +Pueden ver que ninguna mujer est en las modernas del fondo. +Todas se encuentran en stas, las tradicionales. +Jaisalmer. El corazn del desierto. +Esta ciudad se fund hace 800 aos. +No estoy seguro si por entonces ya existan Bombay, Delhi, Chennai o Bangalore. +La ruta de la seda pasaba por esta ciudad, por lo que +hace 800 aos estaba bien conectada con Europa. +Ninguno de nosotros podamos ir all, pero Jaisalmer estaba bien conectada con Europa. +Y estamos en la zona de los 160 mm de lluvia. +Unas precipitaciones tan escasas y, sin embargo, la vida con todos sus colores floreci en esta zona. +No vern agua en esta diapositiva. +Porque no se puede ver. +En algn lugar, un arroyo o un riachuelo fluye por aqu. +O, si lo prefieren, imagnenlo todo pintado de azul, porque cada tejado que ven en esta imagen recoge gotas de lluvia y las almacena en los depsitos. +Pero adems de este sistema, disearon 52 cuerpos de agua alrededor de esta ciudad. +Podemos llamarlo alianza pblico-privada, incluso estatal. +As, Estado, sector pblico y sector privado colaborando para construir esta bella extensin de agua. +Y se trata de un cuerpo de agua para todas las estaciones. +Admrenla. Contemplen su belleza durante todo el ao. +Aunque el nivel de agua suba o baje, la belleza est ah siempre. +Otra extensin de agua, seca en este caso durante el perodo estival. No obstante, pueden ver cmo la sociedad tradicional combina la ingeniera con la esttica, con el corazn. +Estas maravillosas estatuas, les dan idea del nivel del agua al que se llega. +En la poca de lluvias, el agua comenzar a llenar este depsito y estas estatuas quedarn por debajo del nivel del agua, Hoy en da lo llamamos "comunicacin de masas". +S, esto era comunicacin de masas. +Todos los habitantes de la ciudad sabrn que el elefante ha quedado sumergido, por lo que habr agua para siete o nueve meses, o quizs 12. +As que vendrn a venerar a esta fuente, a mostrarle sus respetos, su gratitud. +Otros pequeo cuerpo de agua, llamado [en hindi]. +Es difcil de traducir al ingls, especialmente con mi ingls. +Pero lo ms parecido sera "gloria" o "reputacin". +La reputacin en el desierto de esta pequea extensin de agua es que nunca se seca. +Ni siquiera en las pocas ms duras de sequa, nadie ha visto que esta extensin de agua se seque. +Quizs tambin saban que tampoco lo hara en el futuro. +Fue diseado hace unos 150 aos. +Quizs saban que el 6 de noviembre de 2009 se celebrara una jornada TED sobre ecologa y agua, por lo que lo pensaron as. +Otro cuerpo de agua. Los nios estn encima de un dispositivo muy complejo de explicar. +Se llama kund. Normalmente, se habla de agua de superficie y de agua subterrnea. +Pero sta no es agua subterrnea. +El agua subterrnea se obtiene mediante un pozo. +Sin embargo, ste no es un pozo corriente. +Consigue capturar la humedad escondida en la arena. +Han clasificado este agua como el tercer tipo, llamado [en hindi]. +Y hay una veta de yeso justo debajo. +Lo coloc ah la gran madre Tierra, hace unos tres millones de aos. +Y donde hay esta veta de yeso ellos pueden obtener agua. +sta es la misma extensin de agua. +Aqu no vern ningn kund, ya que todos estn sumergidos +No obstante, cuando descienda el nivel de agua, estarn disponibles para obtener agua de dichas estructuras a lo largo de todo el ao. +Este ao, ha habido unas precipitaciones de slo 60 mm. +60 milmetros de lluvia, y pueden telefonear a cualquiera de ustedes para ofrecerles agua si tienen algn problema en su ciudad, Delhi, Bombay, Bangalore o Mysore, y les dirn vengan a nuestra zonas de 60 mm de lluvia, podemos darles agua! +Pero, cmo mantienen estas estructuras? +Existen tres principios: el concepto, la planificacin, es decir... la construccin propiamente dicha, y el mantenimiento. +Existe una estructura que hay que mantener, durante siglos, por distintas generaciones, sin ningn departamento ni ninguna financiacin. El secreto es "[en hindi]", respeto. +La propiedad, no como bienes personales, sino como mi propiedad. +Estos pilares de piedra recuerdan al visitante que est entrando en una zona con cuerpo de agua. +No escupa, no haga nada malo, para que se pueda recoger agua limpia. +Otro pilar, tambin de piedra, en la parte derecha de la imagen. +Si suben estos tres, seis escalones podrn observar algo fabuloso. +Fue construido en el siglo XI. +Y hay que ir todava ms abajo. +Dicen que una imagen vale ms que mil palabras, por lo tanto, aqu tienen mil palabras, y otras mil aqu. +Si el nivel de agua desciende, aparecern ms escalones. +Si sube, algunas quedarn sumergidas. +As, a lo largo de todo el ao este precioso sistema le ofrecer lo que busca. +Tres lados, con escalones, y en el cuarto un edificio de cuatro plantas donde se podra organizar una conferencia TED en cualquier momento. +Perdonen, saben quin construy estas estructuras? +Estn justo frente a ustedes. +Los mejores ingenieros civiles que hemos tenido, los mejores planificadores, los mejores arquitectos. +Podemos decir que, gracias a ellos, gracias a sus ancestros, la India tuvo la primera facultad de ingeniera en 1847. +En aquella poca, no exista enseanza secundaria impartida en ingls, ni siquiera escuelas donde se enseara en hindi, [poco claro]. +Pero estas personas, obligaron a la East India Company, que vino aqu para hacer negocios, negocios muy turbios... +pero no a establecer facultades de ingeniera, +deca que gracias a ellos se cre la primera facultad de ingeniera en un pequeo pueblo, no en la ciudad. +Para concluir, todos aprendemos en la escuela primaria que los camellos son barcos del desierto. +Por lo tanto, pueden observar desde su Jeep, un camello y un carro. +Esta rueda proviene de un avin. +As que, observen la belleza de la sociedad del desierto que puede aprovechar el agua de lluvia, y tambin crear algo con una rueda de avin, y utilizarla en un carro de camellos. +La ltima imagen es un tatuaje de hace 2.000 aos. +Los tatuajes en el cuerpo, +en aquellos tiempos, eran cosa de personas proscritas, de mala vida, pero ahora resulta que son la ltima moda. +Si quieren, tengo impresas algunas copias de este tatuaje, por si las quieren. +El centro de la vida es el agua. +Pueden observar estas bellas olas. +Estas bellas escaleras que acabamos de ver en una diapositiva. +Aqu hay rboles. +Y stas son flores que aportan fragancia a nuestras vidas. +ste es el mensaje del desierto. +Muchas gracias. +Chris Anderson: Antes de nada, me encantara tener su elocuencia en cualquier idioma, de verdad. +Estas estructuras y estos diseos son inspiradores. +Cree que podran utilizarse en otros lugares, que el mundo podra aprender de ellos? +O slo funcionan en esta zona en concreto? +Anupam Mishra: No, la idea bsica es aprovechar la lluvia que cae en nuestra zona. +Las fuentes, las masas de agua, estn en cualquier sitio, desde Sri Lanka a Cachemira, y tambin en otros lugares. +Estos [en hindi] que almacenan agua tienen dos elementos fundamentales. +Uno recoge y otro almacena. +Por lo tanto, dependen del terreno. +Pero en el caso los kund, que basa su principio en una veta de yeso, tienen que remontarse en el tiempo, unos tres millones de aos. +All donde haya una veta, se puede construir un kund. +De lo contrario, sera imposible. +CA: Muchsimas gracias. +Les voy a hablar sobre la peor forma de violacin a los derechos humanos, el tercer mayor crimen organizado, una industria de 10 mil millones de dlares. +Les voy a hablar de la esclavitud moderna. +Me gustara contarles la historia de estas tres nias, Pranitha, Shaheen y Anjali. +La madre de Pranitha fue una mujer que estuvo en la prostitucin, una prostituta. +Se infect con el HIV, y al final de su vida, cuando estaba en la fase final del SIDA, no poda prostituirse, entonces vendi a Pranitha, de 4 aos, a un traficante. +Para cuando recibimos la informacin, y llegamos all, Pranitha ya haba sido violada por tres hombres. +La procedencia de Shaheen ni siquiera la conozco. +La encontramos en las vas del ferrocarril, violada por muchos, muchos hombres, no s cuantos. +Pero la seal que indicaba eso en su cuerpo era que se le haba salido el intestino. +Y cuando la llevamos al hospital necesit 32 puntos para colocar de nuevo su intestino en su cuerpo. +Todava no sabemos quines son sus padres, ni quin es ella. +Todo lo que sabemos es que cientos de hombres abusaron de ella brutalmente. +El padre de Anjali, un borracho, vendi a su nia para pornografa. +Aqu ven imgenes de nios de tres, cuatro y cinco aos. con quienes han traficado para explotarlos en el comercio sexual. +En este pas, y en todo el mundo, cientos y miles de nios, desde los tres y cuatro aos, son vendidos para la esclavitud sexual. +Pero no es el nico motivo por el que se venden seres humanos. +Se venden en nombre de la adopcin. +Se venden en nombre del comercio de rganos. +Se venden en nombre de la explotacin laboral, como corredores de camellos, cualquier cosa, de todo. +Trabajo en el tema de explotacin sexual comercial. +Y les cuento historias desde ah. +Mi propio recorrido hasta trabajar con estos nios comenz cuando era adolescente. +Yo tena 15 aos cuando una banda de 8 hombres me viol. +No recuerdo tanto la violacin en s misma como la ira. +S, eran 8 hombres que me profanaron, me violaron, pero no tom consciencia de eso. +Nunca me sent como una vctima, ni entonces ni ahora. +Pero lo que perdur desde entonces hasta ahora, hoy cumplo 40, es esta enorme ira indignante. +Dos aos, fui excluida, estigmatizada, aislada, porque era una vctima. +Y eso es lo que hacemos con todos los sobrevivientes del trfico. +Nosotros, como sociedad, nos hemos doctorado en victimizar a las vctimas. +Desde los 15 aos, cuando comenc a mirar a mi alrededor, empec a ver cientos y miles de mujeres y nios que son abandonados en el ejercicio de la esclavitud sexual, sin respiro, sin tregua, porque no les permitimos entrar. +Dnde comienza su viaje? +La mayora de ellos vienen de familias muy "opcionalistas", no solamente pobres. +A veces incluso se trafica con gente de clase media. +Tuve a esta hija de un agente de la S.I., que tiene 14 aos, est estudiando noveno, que fue violada hablando con un individuo, y huy de casa porque queria convertirse en una herona, y fue vctima del trfico. +Tengo cientos y miles de historias de muy, muy prsperas familias, y nios de prsperas familias, que estn siendo vctimas del trfico. +Estas personas son engaadas, forzadas. +El 99.9 por ciento de ellas se resisten a ser inducidas a la prostitucin. +Y algunas pagan el precio por esto. +Son asesinadas; ni siquiera sabemos de ellas. +No tienen voz, [poco claro], no tienen nombre. +Pero el resto, que sucumbe a esto, soporta torturas cada da. +Porque los hombres que se acercan a ellas, no son hombres que te quieren como novia, o que quieren formar una familia contigo. +Son hombres que te compran por una hora, por un da, te usan y te tiran. +Cada una de las chicas que he rescatado... he rescatado ms de 3.200 chicas... cada una de ellas me cuenta una historia en comn... +la historia de un hombre, por lo menos, que puso pimienta chile en su vagina, un hombre que toma un cigarrillo y la quema, un hombre que la golpea. +Vivimos en medio de esos hombres: ellos son nuestros hermanos, padres, tos, primos, todos en nuesto entorno. +Y guardamos silencio sobre ellos. +Pensamos que lo hacen por el dinero fcil. +Pensamos que es un atajo. +Pensamos que a ella le gusta hacer lo que hace. +Pero la gratificacin que ella obtiene son varias infecciones, infecciones de transmisin sexual, HIV, SIDA, sfilis, gonorrea, lo que sea, abuso de sustancias, drogas, todo lo habido y por haber. +Y un da, ella pierde la esperanza en ustedes y en m, porque no tenemos alternativas para ella. +Y por lo tanto comienza a normalizar esta explotacin. +Cree, "s, es as, es mi destino". +Y esto es normal, ser violada por 100 hombres al da. +Y es anormal vivir en un refugio. +Es anormal ser rehabilitada. +Es en ese contexto en el que trabajo. +Es en ese contexto en el que rescato nios. +He rescatado nios de tan slo tres aos, y he rescatado mujeres de hasta 40 aos. +Cuando las rescataba, uno de los mayores desafios que tena era por dnde comenzar. +Porque tena a muchas de ellas que ya estaban infectadas de HIV. +Un tercio de las personas que rescato son HIV positivo. +Y por lo tanto mi desafo fue entender cmo puedo obtener poder de este dolor. +Y para m, yo fui mi mayor experiencia. +Entendindome a m misma, entendiendo mi propio dolor, mi propio aislamiento, fue mi mayor maestro. +Porque lo que hice con estas chicas es entender su potencial. +Ven aqu a una chica que se forma como soldadora. +Trabaja para una compaia muy importante, un taller en Hyderabad, haciendo muebles. +Gana alrededor de 12 mil rupias. +Es analfabeta, formada y capacitada como soldadora. +Por qu solduras y no computacin? +Cremos que una de las cosas que tenan estas chicas es un inmenso coraje. +No tenan ningunos pardas dentro de sus cuerpos, ningunos hiyabs por dentro, ellas han traspasado esa barrera. +Y por lo tanto podan luchar en un mundo patriarcal, con facilidad y sin asustarse por eso. +Hemos formado a mujeres como carpinteras, como albailes, como guardias de seguridad, como taxistas. +Y cada una de ellas sobresale en el campo que eligi, ganando confianza, recuperando la dignidad, y las esperanzas en sus propias vidas. +Estas chicas tambin trabajan en grandes constructoras como Ram-Ki, como albailes a tiempo completo. +Cul ha sido mi desafo? +Mi desafo no han sido los traficantes que me agredieron. +Me han agredido ms de 14 veces en mi vida. +He perdido la audicin de mi odo derecho. +He perdido a una de mis empleadas que fue asesinada mientras estaba en un rescate. +Mi mayor desafo es la sociedad. +Son ustedes y yo. +Mi mayor desafo es la negacin de ustedes a aceptar estas vctimas como propias. +Una amiga ma que me ayud mucho, que me apoy mucho, sola darme cada mes 2 mil rupias para vegetales. +Cuando su madre enferm, me dijo, "Sunitha, t que tienes tantos contactos. +Podras encontrar alguien para que trabaje en mi casa, y pueda cuidar de mi madre?" +Y hubo una larga pausa. +Y luego agreg: "No una de tus chicas". +Est muy de moda hablar del trfico de personas, en esta fantstica sala A-C. +Est muy bien para la discusin, el discurso, para hacer pelculas y todo eso. +Pero no est tan bien traerlas a nuestra casa. +No est tan bien darles trabajo en nuestras fbricas, nuestras empresas. +No est tan bien que nuestros hijos estudien con sus hijos. +Ah termina. +se es mi mayor desafo. +Si estoy aqu hoy, no estoy slo como Sunitha Krishnan. +Estoy aqu como una voz de las victimas y sobrevivientes del trfico de personas. +Ellas necesitan su compasin. +Su empata. +Necesitan, mucho ms que cualquier otra cosa, su aceptacin. +Muchas veces cuando hablo con la gente, les repito una cosa: no me digas cientos de formas en las que no puedes reaccionar ante este problema. +Podras girar tu mente hacia esa nica forma en que s puedes reaccionar ante el problema? +Y es por eso que estoy aqu, pidindoles su apoyo, exigindoles su apoyo, solicitndoles su apoyo. +Pueden romper con su cultura del silencio? +Pueden hablar sobre esta historia con al menos dos personas? +Contarles esta historia. Convencerles de contar la historia a otras dos personas. +No les pido que se conviertan en Mahatma Gandhis, o Martin Luther Kings, o Medha Patkars, o alguien as. +Les pido, en su reducido mundo, pueden abrir sus mentes? Pueden abrir sus corazones? +Pueden abarcar a estas personas tambin? +Porque ellas tambin son parte de nosotros. +Tambin son parte de este mundo. +Les pido, por estas nias, cuyas caras ven, y que ya no estn. +Murieron de SIDA el ao pasado. +Les pido que las ayuden, que las acepten como seres humanos, no como filantropa, no como caridad, sino como seres humanos que merecen todo nuestro apoyo. +Se lo pido porque ningn nio, ningn ser humano, se merece lo que estas nias tuvieron que pasar. +Gracias. +He estado diseando puzzles desde hace 20 aos. +Y hoy estoy aqu para darles un pequeo paseo, empezando con el primer puzzle que dise, hasta llegar a lo que estoy haciendo ahora. +He diseado puzzles para libros, cosas impresas ms que nada. +Soy el columnista de puzzles para Discovery Magazine. +He hecho esto desde hace ya casi 10 aos. +Tengo un calendario mensual de puzzles. +Hago juguetes. La mayor parte de mi trabajo es en juegos de computadora. +Hice puzzles para Bejeweled (un juego de computadora). +Yo no invent Bejeweled. No puedo darme el crdito de eso. +Bueno, mi primer puzzle, sexto grado, mi maestra dijo: "Oh, veamos, este chico, parece que le gusta hacer cosas. +Voy a ponerlo a cortar letras en papel de construccin para pegarlas en la pizarra." +Pens que esa era una tarea genial. +Y ac est lo que se me ocurri. Empece a jugar con esto. +Se me ocurri esta letra. Es una letra del alfabeto que ha sido doblada slo una vez. +La pregunta es, cul letra ser cuando la desdoble? +Una pista: no es la "L" +Por supuesto que podria ser la "L". +Pero, cul otra podra ser? +Si, muchos de ustedes ya lo saben. +Oh si. Muy inteligente. +Ahora, ese fue mi primer puzzle. Qued enganchado. +Cre algo nuevo, estaba muy emocionado porque, saben, haba hecho crucigramas, pero esto viene siendo como llenar los cuadritos que alguien ms hace. +Esto era algo realmente original. Qued enganchado. +Yo lea las columnas de Martin Gardner en Scientific American (una revista de temas cientficos). +Continu hacindolo y eventualmente decid dedicarme tiempo completo a hacer esto. +Ahora, debo tomarme un momento y explicar, qu quiero decir con puzzle? +Un puzzle es un problema que es divertido de resolver y tiene una respuesta correcta. +Divertido de resolver, a diferencia de los problemas de todos los das, los cuales, francamente, no son puzzles bien diseados. +Ustedes saben, pueden tener una solucin. +Pueden tomar un largo tiempo. Nadie escribi las reglas claramente. +Quin diseo los problemas cotidianos? +Como ustedes saben, la vida es como una historia que no fue escrita muy bien que digamos as que tenemos que contratar escritores para que hagan pelculas. +Bueno, yo tomo problemas cotidianos, y hago puzzles con ellos. +Y la respuesta correcta, por supuesto que puede existir ms de una respuesta correcta, muchos puzzles tienen ms de una respuesta. +Pero a diferencia de otras formas de jugar, juguetes y juegos, por juguete me refiero a algo con lo que puedes jugar sin tener una meta en especfico. +Pueden crear un juguete con Legos. +Saben? Pueden crear lo que ustedes quieran. +O juegos competitivos como el Ajedrz donde, bueno, no estan tratando de resolver algo ... Pueden hacer un puzzle de Ajedrz, pero la verdadera meta es vencer al jugador contrario. +Considero que los puzzles son una forma de arte. +Son muy antiguos. Van tan atrs en el tiempo como la historia escrita. +Es es forma de arte muy pequea, como un chiste, un poema, un truco de magia o una cancin, una forma de arte muy compacta. +Lo malo es que son desechables, son para divertirse. +Pero lo bueno es que pueden lograr algo ms y crear una impresin memorable. +A lo largo de mi carrera, he tratado, como pueden ver, de crear puzzles que tengan un impacto memorable. +Entonces, una cosa que descubr muy temprano, cuando empec a hacer juegos para computadora es que poda crear puzzles que alteraran la percepcin. +Les mostrare cmo. Aqu est uno famoso. +Entonces, hay dos perfiles en color negro? O una vasija blanca en el centro? +sta se conoce como ilusin con figura-fondo. +El artista M. C. Escher ha usado esta ilusin en algunas de sus maravillosas creaciones. +Aqu tenemos "Da y Noche". +Aqu esta lo que hice con "Figura y fondo" +Entonces, aqu tenemos "Figura" en negro +y aqu tenemos "Figura" en blanco. +Y todo esto es parte del mismo diseo. +El fondo de uno es el otro. +Originalmente trat de hacer las palabras "Figura" y "Fondo" +Pero no pude hacerlo, entonces cambi el problema. +Hice slo "Figura" +Algunas otras cosas. Aqu est mi nombre. +Y volteado es el ttulo de mi primer libro, "Inversions". +Este tipo de diseos ahora son conocidos como "ambigrama". +Les mostrar slo un par ms. Ac tenemos los nmeros desde uno hasta el diez, los dgitos de cero hasta nueve, en realidad. +Cada letra es uno de esos dgitos. +No es un ambigrama en el sentido convencional. +Me gusta llevar mas all el significado de ambigrama. +Aqu est la palabra "mirror" [espejo]. No, no es igual boca abajo. +Es igual de esta forma. +Y un gran amigo del laboratorio de multimedia que acaba de ser nombrado director de RISD [Rhode Island School of Design], es John Maeda. +Yo hice ste para l. Es como un canon visual. +Y recientemente, en la revista "Magic" [Magia] He terminado unos ambigramas con nombres de magos. +Entonces aqu tenemos Penn y Teller, que se ven igual boca abajo. +Esto aparece en mi calendario de puzzles. +Bien, volvamos a la presentacin. +Muchas gracias! +Ahora, esos son muy divertidos al verlos. +Pero, cmo los haran ms interactivos? +Fui diseador de interfaces por un tiempo. +Por eso pienso mucho en la interaccin. +Bueno, empecemos por simplificar la ilusin de la vasija, hacemos la parte de la derecha. +Ahora, si pudieran levantar la vasija negra, se vera como la figura de arriba. +Si pudieran levantar la parte blanca se vera como la figura de abajo. +Bueno, no lo pueden hacer fsicamente, pero en una computadora s pueden hacerlo. Pasmoslo a la PC. +Y aqu est, figura y fondo. +El objetivo de sto es tomar las piezas de la izquierda y hacer que se vean como la forma de las de la derecha. +Y sto sigue las reglas que acabo de decir, cualquier rea negra que est rodeada por blanco puede ser levantada. +Pero esto tambin aplica para cualquier rea blanca. +Entonces, aqu tenemos el rea blanca en el medio, y ustedes pueden tomarlo y moverlo. +Voy a ir slo un paso ms alla. +Entonces, aqu est -- ac est una pareja de piezas. Se mueven juntas, y ahora es una nica pieza activa. +Pueden de verdad meterse dentro de la percepcin de alguien ms y hacerlos experimentar algo. +Es como el viejo proverbio que dice: "Puedes decirle algo a alguien y mostrrselo... ... pero no lo aprender realmente hasta que no lo haga". +Ac hay algo ms que pueden hacer. +Existe un juego llamado Rush Hour [Hora Pico]. +Es una verdadera obra maestra en el diseo de puzzles al igual que el cubo de Rubik. +Entonces, aqu tenemos un estacionamiento lleno con carros por todas partes. +La meta es sacar el carro rojo. Es un puzzle de bloques deslizantes. +Es producido por la compaa Think Fun. +Esta muy bien hecho. Amo este puzzle. +Bueno, juguemos uno. Aqu esta un puzzle muy sencillo. +Bueno, est demasiado fcil, as que agreguemos otra pieza. +Ok, entonces, cmo resolveran ste? +Bueno, movamos el azul fuera del camino. +Aqu, hagamos uno un poco mas difcil. ste sigue siendo muy fcil. +Ahora lo haremos un poco ms difcil, slo un poco. +Ahora, ste es un poco ms engaoso. +Se dan cuenta? Qu haran en este caso? +Cul es la primer movida? +Van a mover el azul un espacio hacia arriba para mover el lila uno hacia la derecha. +Y pueden crear puzzles como ste que no tengan solucin alguna. +Esos cuatro estn bloqueados en un ciclo; no podran sacarlos de ah. +Quise hacer una secuela. +A mi no se me ocurri la idea original. Pero es otra forma de trabajar. Mi papel como inventor es crear una secuela. +Se me ocurri sto. sto es Railroad Rush Hour [Hora pico en las vas frreas]. +Es el mismo juego, excepto que agregu una pieza nueva, una pieza cuadrada que se puede mover de manera vertical y horizontal. +En el otro juego los carros slo se podan mover hacia adelante y hacia atras. +Cree muchsmos niveles para la secuela. +Ahora la estoy llevando a las escuelas. +Y tambin incluye ejercicios que les muestran no slo cmo resolver estos puzzles, sino cmo extraer los principios que les permitirn resolver rompecabezas matemticos o problemas de ciencia y otras reas. +As que, estoy muy interesado en que aprendan cmo crear sus propios puzzles asi como yo los creo. +Gary Trudeau se llama a si mismo un "caricaturista investigador". +El investiga mucho antes de escribir una historieta. +En Discover Magazine, yo soy un "creador de puzzles investigador". +Me he interesado en la secuenciacin de genes. +Y me dije, "Bueno, Cmo puedo hacer algo relacionado con las secuencias de pares de ADN? " +Cortamos el ADN, ordenan las piezas individuales, y entonces buscan superposiciones. Y bsicamente lo que hay que hacer es encajarlos en los bordes. Entonces me dije, "Esto es como una especie de rompecabezas, excepto que las piezas se sobreponen" +Y esto fue lo que cree para Discovery Magazine. +Y fue hecho para poder ser resuelto en una revista. +No pueden cortar las piezas y moverlas. +Entonces, aqu estn las 9 piezas. Y se trata de ponerlas en esta rejilla. +Y tienen que escojer las piezas que se superponen en el borde. +Existe una nica solucin. No es tan difcil. +Pero requiere que sean persistentes. +Y cuando han terminado, forma el siguiente diseo, el cual, si ponen atencin, es la palabra "helix" [hlice]. +Esta es la forma en la que el puzzle surge de el contenido, y no al contrario. +Aqu estan otros dos. Ac est un puzzle basado en la fsica. +De qu manera caeran estas cosas? +Uno pesa 50 libras, 30 libras y 10 libras. +Y dependiendo de cada uno de los pesos, caeran en diferentes direcciones. +Y aqu est un puzzle basado en la mezcla de colores. +Separ esta imagen en los colores cyan, magenta, amarillo, negro, los colores bsicos de impresin, y luego mezcl las separaciones, y obtienen estas peculiares magenes. +Cules separaciones fueron mezcladas para hacer estas magenes? +Te hacen pensar acerca de los colores. +Y finalmente, lo que estoy haciendo ahora. ShuffleBrain.com, una sitio web que pueden visitar, lo empec con mi esposa, Amy-Jo Kim. +Ella fcilmente podra estar ac arriba dando una presentacin acerca de su trabajo. +Estamos haciendo juegos inteligentes para los medios de comunicacin sociales. +Les explicar lo que esto significa. Nos estamos moviendo en tres tendencias. +Esto es lo que esta pasando en la industria de los juegos ahora mismo. +Primero que todo, como ustedes saben, por un largo tiempo los juegos de computadora eran cosas como Doom [famoso videojuego de los 90s] donde ustedes se mueven disparandole a cosas, juegos muy violentos, muy veloces, dirigidos a jvenes adolescentes. Verdad? Ellos son quienes juegan con las computadoras. +Bueno, adivinen qu? Eso est cambiando. +Bejeweled es un gran xito. Fue el juego que realmente abri paso a lo que se llama juegos casuales. +Y la mayora de jugadores son mayores de 35 aos, y son mujeres. +Luego, recientemente, Rock Band ha sido un gran xito. +Y es un juego que se juega con otras personas. +Es muy fsico. No se parece para nada a un videojuego tradicional. +Esto es lo que se est convirtiendo en la forma dominante de juegos electrnicos. +Ahora, en medio de esto cosas interesantes estn pasando. +Existe tambin una tendencia hacia disear juegos que son buenos para la gente. +Por qu? Somos de una generacin conocida como "Baby Boomers", una generacin que comienza a envejecer, as que comemos comida saludable, hacemos ejercicio. Pero qu hacemos por nuestras mentes? +Oh no, nuestros padres estn padeciendo Alzheimer. Mejor hacer algo al respecto. +Resulta que resolver crucigramas puede evitar algunos efectos del Alzheimer. +Entonces tenemos juegos como Brain Age para el Nintendo DS; un gran xito. +Mucha gente resuelve Sudokus. De hecho algunos mdicos lo recetan. +Y luego existen los medios sociales, que es lo que est pasando en Internet. +Ahora todos se consideran autores, y no slo lectores. +Y esto a qu nos lleva? +Esto es lo que se aproxima. +Son juegos que encajan en un estilo de vida saludable. +Son parte de su vida. No son necesariamente cosas aparte. +Y son ambos, algo que es bueno para ustedes, y tambin son divertidos. +Soy un chico puzzle. Mi esposa es experta en medios de comunicacin sociales. +Y decidimos combinar nuestras habilidades. +Nuestro primer juego se llama "Photo Grab" [Agarra la foto]. El juego toma cerca de un minuto y 20 segundos. +Esta es su primera vez jugando mi juego. Ok. +Veamos qu tan bien podemos hacerlo. Hay tres imagenes. +Y tenemos 24 segundos por cada una. +Dnde sta eso? +Jugar tan rpido como pueda. +Pero si pueden verlo, griten la respuesta. +Ac hay ms -- Abajo, bien, dnde est eso? +Oh s, ac, bien. J-O y -- Supongo que sta es esa parte. Tenemos el arco. Ese arco ayuda. +ste es su cabello. Ac tienen muchos problemas Figura-Fondo. +Si, ste es fcil. Bien. Entonces, ahhhh! Bien vamos al siguiente. +Bueno, de eso se trata. +Alguien? +Parece una forma negra. Pero, dnde esta? +Es la esquina de toda esa cosa. +Si, he jugado esta imagen antes, pero incluso cuando hago mis propios puzzles -- Y ustedes pueden poner ac sus propias imgenes. +Y tenemos gente alrededor de todo el mundo hacindolo ahora mismo. +Ac estamos. Visiten ShuffleBrain.com si quieren probarlo ustedes mismos. Gracias. +Chris ha sido tan buena gente. +No s como lo haces, Chris, de verdad no lo s. +Tan bueno toda la semana. l es el tipo de hombre al que le puedes decir: "Chris, lo siento mucho, he estrellado tu auto. +Y se pone peor, porque lo choqu contra tu casa. +Y tu casa se incendi. +Y lo que es ms, tu esposa se acaba de fugar con tu mejor amigo." +Y saben lo que Chris dira?: "Gracias." +"Gracias por compartir esto conmigo, es realmente interesante." +"Gracias por llevarme a un lugar que no saba que exista. Gracias." +Uno de los -- Gracias por invitarnos. +Uno de los detalles de aparecer hacia el final de la semana de TED es que, gradualmente, con el pasar de los das, todos los otros presentadores cubren la mayora de lo que t ibas a decir. +Fusin nuclear, iba a hablar 10 minutos sobre eso. +Espectroscopa, ese era otro tema. +Universos paralelos. +Y en eso esta maana se me ocurri: "En fin, mejor hago un truquito de cartas." +Y hasta eso se le ocurri a otro. +Y hoy es el da de Emmanuel, creo que todos estamos de acuerdo con eso, no? +Emmanuel? Pero claro. Planeaba terminar con un baile... +Pero eso se va a ver bien ridculo ahora. +As que lo que se me ocurri que hara es -- en honor a Emmanuel -- es, lo que puedo hacer es lanzar hoy, la primera subasta de TED Global. +Si me lo permiten, para empezar, esta es la maquina decodificadora "Enigma". +Quin va a empezar con 1,000 dlares? Alguien? +Gracias. Si le vieran la cara a Bruno, justo ahora, dijo: "No, no sigas con esto. No, por favor, no. +No sigas con esto. No lo hagas." +Estoy preocupado. Cuando recib la invitacin, deca por ah: "15 minutos para cambiar el mundo, tu momento en el escenario". 15 minutos para cambiar el mundo. +No s ustedes, pero a mi me toma 15 minutos cambiar un enchufe. +La idea de cambiar el mundo es realmente extraordinaria. +Bueno, al menos ahora sabemos que no tenemos que cambiar un enchufe, ahora que hemos visto esa sorprendente demostracin sobre la electricidad inalmbrica fantstica. Nos inspira. +Hace 300 aos lo hubieran quemado en la hoguera por eso. +Y ahora es una idea. +Es genial. Es fantstica. +Pero verdaderamente se conocen a algunas personas fantsticas, gente que ve el mundo de una manera totalmente diferente. +Ayer, David Deutsch, otro que cubri la mayora de lo que yo iba a decir. +Pero cuando piensas sobre el mundo en esa manera, hace que ir a Starsucks sea una experiencia totalmente nueva, no lo creen? +O sea, l debe entrar y le deben decir: "Quisiera un macchiato, o un latte, o un Americano, o un cappuccino?" +Y l dira: "Me est ofreciendo cosas que son infinitamente variables." +"Cmo puede su caf ser real?" +Y ellos le diran, "Le molestara si atiendo al prximo cliente?" +Y Elaine Morgan ayer, no estuvo maravillosa? +Fantstica. Realmente buena. +Su charla sobre el simio acutico, y el enlace, por supuesto, el enlace entre el Darwinismo y el hecho de que todos estamos desnudos, que no estamos hirsutos y que podemos nadar bastante bien. +Y dijo, que tiene 90 aos. Que se le est acabando el tiempo, dijo. +Y que est desesperada por encontrar ms evidencias para el enlace. +Y me hizo pensar: "Estoy sentado junto a Lewis Pugh". +Este hombre ha nadado alrededor del Polo Norte, que ms evidencia quieres? +Y ah est. +Es as como TED hace estas conexiones. +No estuve aqu el martes. No alcanc a ver la solicitud de trabajo de Gordon Brown uy, lo siento. +Lo siento mucho. Lo siento mucho. No, no. No, no, ahh ... "Los problemas globales requieren soluciones escocesas." +El problema que tengo es porque Gordon Brown, sube al escenario Y mira a todos como un hombre que se acaba de quitar la cabeza de oso de un disfraz. +"Hola, les puedo contar lo que pas all atrs en el bosque? +Eh, no." "Lo siento. Solo tengo 18 minutos, 18 minutos para hablar sobre la salvacin del mundo, salvar el planeta, las instituciones globales. +Nuestro trabajo sobre el cambio climtico, Solo tengo 18 minutos, desafortunadamente no les podr contar acerca de todas las cosas maravillosas que estamos haciendo para promover la agenda sobre el cambio climtico en Gran Bretaa, como la tercera pista de aterrizaje que estamos planeando en el Aeropuerto de Heathrow..." +"La gigantesca estacin de energa basada en carbn que estamos construyendo en King's North, y obviamente las grandes noticias que justo hoy, justo esta semana, el nico fabricante de turbinas de viento de Gran Bretaa ha sido forzado a cerrar. +No hay tiempo, desafortunadamente, para mencionar eso." +"Trabajos britnicos para gente escocesa +No." "Principios cristianos, valores cristianos. +No matars, no robars, No desears la mujer de tu prjimo." +"Aunque para ser honesto, cuando estaba en el Numero 11 eso nunca seria un problema." +"Si, bueno, vamos, eh. +Bueno, Gordon, vamos, eh. +Solo... me gustara decir algunas cosas sobre Sherie primero, porque ella es una dama maravillosa, mi esposa, con una linda sonrisa. +Eso me recuerda que debo publicar esa carta." +"Pienso en las cosas que la gente olvida, Gordon y yo, siempre nos llevamos perfectamente bien. +OK, nunca fue como en 'Brokeback Mountain.'" "Le escrib, justo antes de dejar mi puesto. Le dije, 'Puedo contar con tu apoyo, el prximo mes?' Y l me escribi de vuelta. El dijo, 'No, no puedes.' Lo que me sorprendi, porque nunca antes haba visto "no puedes" escrito de esa manera antes." +Otra cosa que Gordon hubiera podido mencionar en su presentacin en la Mansion House en el 2002 -- o sea, al edificio; porque la gente no estaba escuchando. +Pero la gente, cuando hablaba sobre la industria financiera, l dijo: "Lo que ustedes, como la ciudad de Londres, han hecho por los servicios financieros, nosotros, como gobierno, esperamos hacer por la economa en general." +Cuando piensan en lo que le ha pasado a los servicios financieros, y ves lo que le ha pasado a la economa, piensas, "Bueno, al menos hay un hombre que cumple sus promesas." +Pero estamos en un Nuevo mundo ahora. Estamos en un mundo completamente nuevo. +Esta es la primera vez desde que recuerdo, en que si recibes una carta del administrador de un banco, sobre un prstamo... no sabes si tu estas pidiendole dinero, o si l te lo est pidiendo a ti. +No es cierto? +Cosas extraordinarias, como las cuentas bancarias de Icelandic Internet. +alguno de ustedes tiene una cuenta de Icelandic Internet? +Porque haras eso? Porque es casi como responder a uno de esos emails de Nigeria, no? +Pidindote la informacin de tu banco. +Y, bueno, Islandia, eso nunca iba a resultar. +No tenian tal cantidad de colateral. +Qu tiene? Tiene pescado, solo eso. +Es por eso que el primer ministro apareci en televisin. Dijo, "Esto nos ha dejado a todos con un gran eglefino." +Mucho de lo que hago tengo que tratar y darle sentido a cosas antes de poder burlarme de ellas. +Y hacer que tenga sentido la crisis financiera es muy, muy difcil. +Por suerte, alguien como George Bush fue de mucha ayuda. +l lo resumi todo, en una cena. +Estaba hablando en la cena, y l dijo, "Wall Street se emborrach." +"Y ahora est con la resaca." +Y eso, ustedes saben, ya es algo -- Y es algo a lo que nos podemos relacionar. +Es algo con lo l se puede relacionar. +Y el otro, por supuesto, es Donald Rumsfeld, quien dijo, "Hay conocidos conocidos, las cosas que sabemos que sabemos. +Y luego tienes los conocidos desconocidos, las cosas que sabemos que no sabemos. +Y luego tienes los desconocidos desconocidos, esas son las cosas que no sabemos que no sabemos." +Y, siendo Ingls, cuando por primera vez escuch eso, pens, "Que montn de basura." +Y luego, bueno, en realidad, de eso se trata esto. +Todo esto, lo que ha dicho Ben Bernanke, el catico desenlace del sistema financiero mundial, se trata de ellos no saben, que ellos no saban lo que estaban haciendo. +En el 2006, el lder de la Asociacin Estadounidense de Banqueros para Prstamos Hipotecarios, dijo, y cito, "Como podemos ver claramente, ninguna ocurrencia ssmica va a desestabilizar la economa de EE.UU." +Vaya, ah tenemos a un hombre que sabe bien su trabajo. +Y cuando la crisis estaba en pleno proceso, el lder de las equidades cuantitativas en Lehman Brothers dijo, "Los eventos que los modelos predijeron que pasaran una vez cada 10,000 aos sucedieron a diario por tres das seguidos." +As que, es extraordinario. Es un nuevo mundo que es muy, muy difcil de entender. +Pero tenemos una nueva esperanza. Tenemos un nuevo hombre. +Estados Unidos ahora ha elegido a su primer presidente abiertamente negro. +Maravillosas noticias. +Y no solo eso, l es zurdo. Se dieron cuenta de eso? +Cuanta gente aqu es zurda? +Ven, mucha de la gente a la que ms admiro, ya sean grandes artistas, grandes diseadores, grandes pensadores, son zurdos. +Y alguien me dijo anoche, sabes, al ser zurdo, tienes que aprender a escribir sin que se corra la tinta. +Y alguien estaba hablando sobre las metforas el lunes. +Y yo pens, que maravillosa metfora, no? Un presidente Estadounidense que tiene que escribir sin que se corra la tinta. +Les gust esa? Al contrario de George Bush, bueno, cual sera la metfora ah? +Creo que sera algo que tenga que ver con eso del mono acutico, no? +"Bueno, ustedes saben, disculpen por eso. +Escribo con la derecha, pero parece que igual la embarr con tinta tambin." +Pero, bueno, se fue. Ya no est. +Esos fueron ocho aos de Historia Estadounidense, ocho minutos de mi presentacin, se acabaron as no ms. +"Bueno, es el fin de una era. +Yo creo que fue una muy buena era. +Conozco gente que me ha dicho que fue una de las mejores eras en la historia de los Estados Unidos. +Pero les demostramos lo contrario en Iraq. +Ellos decan que no haba ninguna relacin entre Iraq y Al Qaeda. +Ahora la hay." +"Pero tengo un mensaje para los terroristas suicidas para aquellas personas que se han hecho estallar a si mismos." +"Los vamos a encontrar." +"Vamos a asegurarnos que no lo puedan hacer de nuevo." +Pero ya no est, y es muy bueno ver que uno de los -- posiblemente uno de los peores oradores en la historia de Estados Unidos, le haya dado paso a uno de los mejores, como lo es Obama. +Quiz estuvieron ah, en la noche de su victoria. +Y l le hablo a la multitud en Chicago, dijo: "Si hay alguien por ah que an dude que Estados Unidos es un lugar donde todo es posible" +No puedo decir todo lo que dijo, porque tomara demasiado tiempo, en serio. +Pero se hacen una idea. Y luego vamos a la inauguracin. +Y l y el Presidente de la Corte Suprema de Justicia, se confunden uno con otro, se equivocan con las palabras y arruinaron todo. +Y ah est George Bush sentado, y pensando: "je je je je..." +"No es tan fcil, verdad? Je je je je." +Pero lo interesante es que, Gordon Brown estaba hablando de Cicern, quien dijo, la gente escuchaba un discurso, y decan, "Gran discurso." +Y luego escuchaban a Demstenes, y decan, "Marchemos." +Y todos queremos creer en el Presidente Obama. +Y como esa linea en la pelcula "Mejor, Imposible." +Recuerdan esa pelcula con Helen Hunt y Jack Nicholson, y Helen Hunt le dice a Jack Nicholson: "Qu ves en mi?" +Y Jack Nicholson dice: "T haces que quiera ser un mejor hombre." +Y uno quiere un lder que te inspire y desafe y te haga querer ser un mejor ciudadano. No? +Pero en este momento, es como Cicern. +Nos gusta lo que dice Barack Obama, pero no hacemos nada al respecto. +As que l viene a este pas, y dice, "Necesitamos un gran estmulo fiscal." +Y todo el mundo pens, "Genial". Luego se va del pas y los franceses y los alemanes dicen, "No, no, olvdate de eso, definitivamente no." No pasa nada. Va a Estrasburgo. +Y dice, "Necesitamos ms tropas en Afganistn." +Y todo el mundo piensa, "Buena idea." +Se va, y la gente dice, "No, no, no, no vamos a hacer eso. +5,000 como mximo, y nada de cohetes, no no, no lo vamos a hacer." +Luego va a Praga, y dice: "Creemos en un mundo libre de armas nucleares." +Y es genial tener un presidente estadounidense que puede decir la palabra "nuclear," hay que dejar eso en claro. +Recuerdan eso? George Bush, "Nu-cu-lear" +Disculpe, qu dijo?, "Nu-cu-lear" +Podra decir, "avuncular"? "Avunclear." +Muchas gracias. +Pero l dice: "Queremos un mundo libre de armas nucleares." +Y ese da, Corea del Norte, ese mismo da, Corea del Norte est viendo si puede pasar una sobre Japn -- y darles antes que... +Dnde buscamos inspiracin? An tenemos a Bill Clinton. +"Viaja por el mundo." "Creo, creo que fue el Presidente Dwight D. Eisenhower quien dijo..." +"Miento, fue Diana Ross..." +"...quien dijo, estira tu mano y toca..." +"...la glan --- mano de alguien." +"Has de este mundo lugar mejor, si puedes. +Yo creo que eso es importante. Realmente lo creo. +Y esperaba que Hillary llegara a la Casa Blanca, porque ella ha estado fuera de casa por cuatro aos. +Y yo, bueno, ya saben." "Entonces, cuando eso no resulto, tuve que hacer algunos arreglos, djenme decirles." +Y ah est l. En Bretaa tenemos al Prncipe Carlos. "Y el medio ambiente es tan importante, todo lo que podemos hacer. +Mi esposa se molesta conmigo constantemente por tratar de meterle las emisiones en la agenda." +O, si hay gente Sudafricana, tenemos a Mandela para inspirarnos. +Mandela, el gran hombre Mandela. +Ahora le han honrado con una estatua. +El honor ms alto que tuvo previamente en Gran Bretaa fue una visita del equipo de "Ground Force", un programa de televisin sobre jardinera. +"Entonces, Nelson, que le parece una linda laguna por aqu?" +"Ahh, escucheme Seor Titchmarsh." +"Estuve en prisin por casi 30 aos en una isla en el medio del ocano. +Para que rayos querra una maldita laguna?" +Muy rapido: La verdad no estaba seguro como iba a terminar esta presentacin y entonces, ayer, a ese hombre se le ocurri una gran frase de los "Ensayos en Ociosidad" que deca que es bueno tener algo que no ha sido terminado porque ello implica que existe la posibilidad de crecimiento. +De verdad, muchas gracias. +La Galera Nacional de Retratos es el lugar dedicado a presenta grandes vidas estadounidenses, gente asombrosa. +Y de eso se trata. +Usamos los retratos como una forma de mostrar esas vidas, pero eso es todo. +Y no voy a hablar del retrato pintado hoy. +Voy a hablar respecto a un programa que empec all, el cual, desde mi punto de vista, es lo que ms me enorgullece. +Comenc a preocuparme por el hecho que mucha gente ya no hace pintar su retrato, y son gente asombrosa, y queremos mostrarlos a las generaciones futuras. +Entonces, cmo hacerlo? +Y as tuve la idea de la serie de autoretratos vivos. +Y la serie de autoretratos vivos era la idea bsicamente de ser yo un pincel en la mano de gente asombrosa quienes vendran y yo entrevistara. +Y lo que voy a hacer es, no tanto darles los grandes xitos del programa, como darles una idea completa de cmo encuentras a la gente en esa clase de situacin qu tratas de saber de ellos, y cuando la gente responde y cuando no lo hacen y por qu. +Ahora, puse dos condiciones +Una era que fueran estadounidenses. +Esto es solo porque, esa es la naturaleza de la Galera Nacional de Retratos, fue creada para mostrar las vidas de estadounidenses. +Eso fue fcil, pero entonces tom la decisin, quiz arbitraria, que deban ser gente de cierta edad, la cual en ese punto, cuando conceb el programa, pareca ser una edad avanzada. +Sesentas, setentas, ochentas y noventas. +Por razones obvias, no me parece una edad tan avanzada ahora. +Y por qu lo hice? +Bueno, por una parte, somos una cultura obsesionada con la juventud. +Y pens que realmente necesitamos un programa de ancianos para sentarse a los pies de gente asombrosa y orlos hablar. +Pero la segunda parte - y entre ms viejo ms convencido estoy que es verdad. +Es asombroso lo que la gente dice cuando saben cmo termin la historia. +Es una ventaja que tiene la gente mayor. +Bueno, tienen otras, pequeas ventajas, pero tambin tienen desventajas, pero la cosa que ellos o nosotros tenemos es que hemos llegado al punto de la vida en el cual sabemos como termin la historia. +As, podemos mirar atrs en nuestras vidas, si tenemos un entrevistador que entiende eso, y comenzar a reflexionar cmo llegamos all. +Todos esos accidentes que terminaron creando la narrativa vital que heredamos. +As que pens, bien, ahora, qu se necesita para que esto funcione? +Hay muchas clases de entrevistas. Las conocemos. +Estn las entrevistas de reportero, que son el interrogatorio que es de esperarse. +Esto es de alguna forma contra la resistencia y cautela por parte del entrevistado. +Luego est la entrevista de celebridad, donde es ms importante quin hace las preguntas que quin responde. +Est Barbara Walters y otros como ella, y nos gustan. +Est Frost-Nixon, donde Frost parece ser tan importante como Nixon en el proceso. +Eso est bien. +Pero yo quera entrevistas que eran diferentes. +Yo quera ser, como despus lo defin, emptico, lo cual quiere decir, sentir lo que ellos queran decir y ser un agente de su auto-revelacin. +Por cierto, esto se hizo siempre en pblico. +Esto no era un programa de historia oral. +Haba unas 300 personas sentadas a los pies de este individuo, y me tenan a m como el pincel de su propio auto-retrato. +Ahora, resulta que era bastante bueno para ello. +Yo no lo saba al principio. +Y la nica razn por la que realmente lo s es debido a una entrevista que hice con el Senador William Fullbright, y eso fue seis meses despus de que l tuviera una embolia. +Y l nunca haba aparecido en pblico desde ese momento. +No fue una embolia devastadora, pero s afect su habla y cosas as. +Y yo pens que mereca intentarse, el pens que vala la pena intentarlo, y as nos subimos al escenario, y tuvimos una conversacin de una hora sobre su vida, y despus de eso una mujer corri hacia m, esencialmente eso hizo, y me dijo, "Dnde se educ usted como mdico?" +Y yo le dije, "No tengo educacin como mdico. Nunca dije eso." +Y ella dijo, "Bueno, algo muy raro estaba pasando. +cuando l empezaba una frase, particularmente al principio de la entrevista, y pausaba, usted le daba la palabra, el puente para que llegara al final de la frase, y para el final de la entrevista, l estaba diciendo frases completas por s mismo." +Yo no saba qu estaba pasando, pero yo era parte del proceso de sacarlo a la luz. +As que pens, bien, tengo empata, o empata, de cualquier forma, es lo que es crtico en esta clase de entrevista. +Pero entonces empec a pensar en otras cosas. +Quin hace una gran entrevista en este contexto? +No tiene que ver con su intelecto, la calidad de su intelecto. +Algunos de ellos eran brillantes, algunos eran, ya saben, gente ordinaria que nunca diran que son intelectuales, pero nunca tuvo que ver con eso. +Tena que ver con su energa. +Es la energa lo que crea entrevistas extraordinarias y vidas extraordinarias. +Estoy convencido de ello. +Y no tena que ver con la energa de ser joven. +Estas eran gentes de noventa aos. +De hecho, la primer persona que entrevist fue George Abbott, quien tena 97, y Abbott estaba lleno de la fuerza de vida - creo que es la forma en que pienso en ello - est lleno de ella. +Y as que inund el ambiente, y tuvimos una extraordinaria conversacin. +Se supona que l era la entrevista ms difcil que cualquiera pudiera hacer porque era famoso por ser callado, por nunca decir nada, excepto quiz una palabra o dos. +y, de hecho, termin abrindose - por cierto, su energa se manifestaba en otras maneras. +Subsecuentemente l se cas otra vez a los 102, as que l, saben, estaba lleno de la fuerza de vida. +Pero despus de la entrevista, recib una llamada, una voz brusca, de una mujer, +Yo no saba quin era ella, y ella me dijo, "Conseguiste hacer hablar a George Abbott?" +y yo dije, "S, parece ser que lo hice." +Y ella dijo, "Soy su antigua novia, Maureen Stapleton, y nunca lo consegu." +Y entonces ella me hizo ir con la grabacin de la entrevista y probarle que George Abbott poda de hecho hablar. +As, ya saben, quieren energa, quieren la fuerza de vida, pero realmente quieren a alguien quien tambin piense que tiene una historia digna de compartir. +Las peores entrevistas que pueden tener son con gente que es modesta. +Nunca suban a un escenario con alguien modesto porque toda esa gente se ha reunido para escucharlos, y todo lo que tienen que decir es, "Naa, fue un accidente." +No hay algo que justifique el que la gente tome buenas horas de su da para estar con ellos. +La peor entrevista que alguna vez hice: William L. Shirer. +El periodista que public "Auge y Cada del Tercer Reich." +Este tipo haba conocido a Hitler y a Gandhi en seis meses y cada vez que le preguntaba al respecto, l deca, "Ah, simplemente sucedi que yo estaba ah. +No tiene importancia." Lo que sea. +Horrible. +Yo nunca aceptara entrevistar a una persona modesta. +Tienen que pensar que hicieron algo y que quieren compartirlo contigo. +Pero al final, lo que cuenta, es cmo pasar todas las barreras que tenemos. +Todos nosotros somos entes pblicos y privados, y si todo lo que vas a obtener del entrevistado es su imagen pblica, no tiene sentido. +Est pre-programada. Es un infomercial, y todos tenemos infomerciales respecto a nuestras vidas. +Sabemos las grandes frases, sabemos los grandes momentos, sabemos lo que no compartiremos, y el punto de esto no era avergonzar a alguien. +Esto no era - algunos de ustedes recordarn las viejas entrevistas de Mike Wallace - duras, agresivas y as por el estilo. Esas tienen su lugar. +Yo estaba tratando de hacer que ellos dijeran lo que probablemente queran decir, romper su envoltura de su persona pblica, y entre ms pblicos haban sido, ms arraigada estaba esa persona, esa persona exterior. +Y djenme decirles de una vez el peor y el mejor momento que se dieron en la serie de entrevistas. +Tiene que ver con la coraza que la mayora de nosotros tenemos, y particularmente algunas personas. +Hay una extraordinaria mujer llamada Clare Boothe Luce. +Ser su determinante generacional si es que el nombre significa algo para ustedes. +Ella hizo tanto. Era una dramaturga. +Hizo una obra teatral extraordinaria llamada "La Mujer." +Fue diputada del congreso nacional cuando no haba muchas diputadas. +Fue editora de [la revista] Vanity Fair, una de las fenomenales mujeres de su da. +E, incidentalmente, yo la llamo la Eleanor Roosevelt de la Derecha. +Ella era adorada de alguna forma por la Derecha, de la manera en que Eleanor Roosevelt lo era en la Izquierda. +Y, de hecho, cuando hice la entrevista, el auto-retrato vivo con ella, haba tres ex-directores de la CIA bsicamente sentados a sus pies, simplemente disfrutando su presencia. +Y pens, esto va a ser pan comido, porque siempre tengo charlas preliminares con esa gente, apenas unos 10 o 15 minutos. +Nunca hablamos antes de eso porque si hablas antes, entonces no lo obtienes en el escenario. +As que ella y yo tuvimos una deliciosa conservacin. +Estbamos en el escenario y entonces - por cierto, espectacular. +Todo era parte de la imagen de Clare Boothe Luce. +Vesta un traje de noche sensacional. +Ella tena 80 [aos], casi cumplidos el da de la entrevista, y all estaba ella y all estaba yo, y comenc con las preguntas. +Y ella no me responda. Era increble. +Cualquier cosa que preguntara, ella lo daba vuelta, descartaba, y yo estaba bsicamente ah arriba - cualquiera de ustedes parcial o totalmente dentro del mundo del entretenimiento saben lo que es morir en el escenario. +Y yo estaba muriendo. Ella no me daba absolutamente nada. +Y comenc a preguntarme qu estaba pasando, y piensas mientras hablas, y bsicamente, pens, lo tengo. +Cuando estbamos a solas, yo era su audiencia. +Ahora yo era un competidor por la audiencia. +La mayora de la gente cree que fui una actriz. Nunca fui actriz." +Pero yo no haba preguntado eso, y ella se lanz a hablar, y ella dijo, "Oh, bueno, hubo una ocasin en que fu actriz. +Fue para una caridad en Connecticut cuando era diputada, y me sub ," y ella segua y segua, "Y me sub al escenario." +Y entonces volte hacia mi y me dijo, "Y sabes que hicieron esos jvenes actores? +Me eclipsaron." Y me dijo, "Sabes lo que es eso?" +simplemente furiosa en su desprecio. +Y yo dije, "Estoy aprendiendo." +Y me mir, y fue como una exitosa toma de lucha, y entonces, despus de eso, dio un extraordinario recuento de cmo su vida fue realmente. +Tengo que terminar con esa. Este es mi tributo a Clare Boothe Luce. +Otra vez, una persona destacable. +No me atrae polticamente, pero a travs de su fuerza de vida, me siento atrado por ella. +Y la forma en que muri - hacia el final tuvo un tumor de cerebro. +Esa es probablemente una forma tan terrible de morir como puedan imaginar, y algunos pocos fuimos invitados a una cena. +Y ella padeca terribles dolores. +Todos lo sabamos. +Ella permaneci en su habitacin. +Todos llegaron. El mayordomo reparti canaps. +La cosa usual. +Entonces, en cierto momento, la puerta se abri y ella sali perfectamente vestida, totalmente serena. +El yo pblico, la belleza, el intelecto, y camin alrededor y habl con cada persona all presente y despus regres a su habitacin y nunca ms fue vista. +Ella quera el control de su momento final, y lo hizo asombrosamente. +Ahora, hay otras formas de conseguir que alguien se abra, y esta es slo una referencia breve. +No era pulsear. pero era algo sorprendente considerando a la persona involucrada. +Entrevist a Steve Martin. No hace mucho tiempo. +y estbamos sentados y casi al principio de la entrevista, volte hacia l y dije, "Steve," o "Sr. Martin, se dice que todos los comediantes tienen una niez infeliz. +Fue la suya infeliz?" +Y l me mir, ya saben, como para decir, "As vas a empezar esto, desde el principio?" +Y entonces l se volte hacia m, no estpidamente, y me dijo, "Como fue su infancia?" +Y yo dije - estas son todas pulseadas, pero son afectuosas - y yo dije, "Mi padre era amoroso y alentador, por eso no soy gracioso." +Y me mir, y entonces omos la gran historia triste. +Su padre era un maldito HDP, y, de hecho, l fue otro comediante con una niez infeliz, pero entonces ya estbamos bien encarrilados. +As que la pregunta es: Cul es la llave que permitir seguir adelante? +Ahora, hay preguntas que son como pulsear, pero quiero decirles de preguntas ms relacionadas con la empata y que son realmente, con frecuencia, las preguntas que la gente ha esperado toda la vida que les hagan. +Y les dar slo dos ejemplos de esto debido a los lmites de tiempo. +Una fue una entrevista que hice con uno de los grandes bigrafos estadounidenses. +Otra vez, algunos lo conocern, la mayora no, Dumas Malone. +El hizo una biografa en cinco volmenes de Thomas Jefferson, pas virtualmente su vida entera con Thomas Jefferson, y por cierto, en un punto le pregunt, "Le gustara haberlo conocido?" +Y l dijo, "Bueno, desde luego, pero de hecho, lo conozco mejor que cualquiera que haya tratado con l, porque yo pude leer todas sus cartas." +As, estaba muy satisfecho con la clase de relacin que haban tenido durante ms de 50 aos +Y le hice una pregunta. +Dije, "Alguna vez Jefferson lo decepcion?" +Y aqu estaba el hombre que haba dedicado su vida a descubrir a Jefferson y a conectar con l, y me dijo, "Bueno..." - Voy a hacer una mala imitacin de un acento sureo. +Dumas Malone era originalmente de Mississippi. +Pero l dijo, "Bueno,", dijo, "Me temo que s." +El dijo, "Sabe, he ledo todo, y algunas veces el Sr. Jefferson allanaba la verdad un poco." +Y l bsicamente estaba diciendo que este era un hombre que menta ms de lo que a l le hubiera gustado, porque l ley las cartas. +El dijo, "Pero lo entiendo." Dijo, "Lo entiendo." +El dijo, "A nosotros los sureos nos gustan las superficies llanas, as que haba momentos en los que no quera una confrontacin." +Y l dijo, "Ahora, John Adams era demasiado honesto." +Y entonces empez a hablar de ello, y tiempo despus me invit a su casa, y conoc a su mujer, quien era de Massachusetts, y l y ella tenan exactamente el tipo de relacin de Thomas Jefferson y John Adams. +Ella era de Nueva Inglaterra y abrasiva, y l era este tipo cortesano. +Pero realmente la pregunta ms importante que alguna vez hice y la mayora de la veces cuando hablo de ello, la gente inhala ante mi audacia, o crueldad, pero, les prometo, era la pregunta correcta. +Esta la hice a Agnes de Mille. +Agnes de Mille es una de las grandes coregrafas de nuestra historia. +Ella bsicamente cre los bailes en [el musical] "Oklahoma," transformando el teatro estadounidense. +Una mujer asombrosa. +En el tiempo en el que le propuse que - por cierto, que le habra propuesto [matrimonio], ella era extraordinaria - pero le propuse que viniera [a la entrevista.] +Ella dijo, "Venga a mi departamento." +Ella viva en Nueva York. +"Venga a mi departamento y hablaremos esos 15 minutos, y entonces decidiremos si proseguimos." +Y llegu a este oscuro, laberntico, departamento en Nueva York, y ella me llam, ella estaba en cama. +Yo saba que haba tenido una embolia, y eso le haba pasado unos 10 aos antes. +As que ella pasaba la mayor parte de su vida en cama, pero - hablo de la fuerza de vida - su cabello estaba ladeado. +No iba a arreglarse para esta ocasin. +Y estaba sentada rodeada de libros, y su ms interesante posesin ella senta en ese momento era su testamento, el cual tena a su lado. +No estaba infeliz al respecto. Estaba resignada. +Ella dijo, "Lo mantengo en mi cama, memento mori, y lo cambio todo el tiempo simplemente porque quiero." +Y ella estaba disfrutando la perspectiva de la muerte tanto como haba disfrutado la vida. +Pens, esta es alguien a quien tengo que tener en la serie. +Ella estuvo de acuerdo. +Ella lleg. Desde luego, subieron en silla de ruedas. +La mitad de su cuerpo estaba afectado, la otra mitad no. +Ella estaba, desde luego, arreglada para la ocasin, pero era una mujer en gran dolor fsico. +Y tuvimos una conversacin, y entonces le hice la pregunta impensable. +Le dije, "Fue alguna vez problema para usted que no fuera bonita?" +Y la audiencia simplemente - ya saben, siempre est de parte del entrevistado, y sintieron que esto era una forma de agresin, pero esta era la pregunta que ella haba esperado que alguien le hiciera toda su vida. +Y comenz a hablar de las cosas que le pasaron a su cuerpo y a su cara, y como ya no poda contar con su belleza, y su familia la trataba como la hermana fea de la bonita para quien se daban las clases de ballet. +Y ella tena que ir con su hermana simplemente por compaa, y en ese proceso, ella tom un nmero de decisiones. +Antes que nada, que el baile, aun cuando no se le haba ofrecido, era su vida. +Y en segundo lugar, que ella deba ser, aunque fue bailarina por un tiempo, una coregrafa porque para eso no importaba su belleza. +Pero ella estaba encantada de sacarlo como un hecho real, real de su vida. +Fue un privilegio asombroso hacer esa serie. +Hubo otros momentos como sos, muy pocos momentos de silencio. +El punto clave fue la empata porque todos en sus vidas estn realmente esperando que les preguntemos, para que puedan ser veraces respecto de quines son y cmo se convirtieron en lo que son, y les recomiendo esto, aun si no estn haciendo entrevistas. +Sean de esa manera con sus amigos y particularmente con los miembros mayores de su familia. +Muchas gracias. +Buenos das. +Estoy aqu para compartir con ustedes un experimento de como deshacerse de una forma de sufrimiento humano +Es la historia verdadera del Dr. Venkataswamy. +Su misin y su mensaje es el del Sistema Aravind de Oftalmologa +Primero, creo que es importante comprender que significa ser ciego. +Mujer: "A todas partes donde fu a buscar trabajo, dijeron que no; de que utilidad es una mujer ciega? +No poda ensartar una aguja ni ver los piojos en mi pelo. +Si una hormiga se caia en mi arroz, tampoco poda verla." +Thulasiraj Ravilla: "Quedarse ciego es gran parte del problema pero creo que tambin priva a la persona de su sustento, de su dignidad, de su independencia y de su estatus dentro de su familia. +Y ella es solo una de los millones de ciegos. +Yla irona es que no tienen porqu estarlo. +Una simple y bien hecha ciruga puede restaurar la vista a millones, y algo an mas simple, un par de gafas, puede ayudar a otros millones ver. +Si a ese numero le aadimos todos aqu presentes que somos mas productivos por tener un par de gafas, resulta que casi uno de cada cinco indios necesitara atencin oftalmolgica, un impresionante numero de 200 millones de personas. +Hoy no llegamos siquiera a 10 por ciento. +Es este el contexto en el cual naci Aravind hace alrededor de 30 aos como un proyecto post-retiro del Dr. V. +empez sin dinero +tuvo que hipotecar todos sus ahorrors para lograr un prstamo +y a travs del tiempo, hemos crecido a una red de cinco hospitales predominantemente en el estado de Tamil Nadu y Puducherry y luego aadimos varios de los que llamamos centros de visin a manera de ejes de reconeccin +y an mas recientemente, iniciamos gerenciando hospitales en otras partes del pas e inclusive hemos instalado hospitales en otras partes del mundo +Las ltimas tres dcadas hemos hecho tres y medio milloes de cirugas una gran mayora de ellas para la gente pobre +Ahora, cada ao hacemos cerca de 300.000 cirugas +Un da tpico en Aravind, hacemos cerca de mil cirugas quizas veamos cerca de 6.000 pacientes enviamos equipos a los pueblos a examinar, traer pacientes de regreso montones de consultas de telemedicina, y, encma de todo eso, mucho entrenamiento para, doctores y tcnicos por igual, quienes sern el futuro personal de Aravind. +' requiere mucha inspiracin y mucha labor manual. +y yo creo que fu posible gracias a las bases puestas en lugar por el Dr. V un sistema de valores y un proceso efficiente de despacho y la adopcin de la cultura de innovacin +Dr. V: yo me sentaba con el hombre comn de pueblo porque yo soy de un pueblo y derepente volteas y pareces hacer contacto con su ser interior pareces unirte a el +aqu est un alma que tiene toda la simplicidad de la confianza +Doctor, lo que sea que usted diga, yo lo acepto. +Una f implicita en uno y entonces uno le da respuesta. +Aqu est una seora mayor que tiene tanta f en mi, tengo que dar lo mejor de mi para ella +Cuando nuestra conciencia espiritual crece nos identificamos con todo lo que hay en el mundo y as no hay explotacin +es a nosotros mismos, a quienes ayudamos +es a nosotros mismos que estamos curando +Esto nos ha ayudado a construir una organizacin altamente tica y orientada al paciente y los sistemas que la ayudan +Pero al nivel prctico, uno tiene que proveer servicios eficientemente es extrao, pareciera que la inspiracin vino de McDonald's +Dr. V: Vea. el concepto de McDonald's es simple +ellos sienten que pueden entrenar gente alrededor del mund sin respeto a las diferentes regiones, culturas, todas esas cosas para elaborar un producto de la misma manera y entregarlo de la misma manera en cientos de lugars +Larry Brilliant: el sigui hablando de McDonald's y de hamburguesas y nada tenia mucho sentido para nosotros +El quera crear una franquicia un mecanismo de entrega de Atencin Oftlmolgica con la eficiencia de McDonald's +Dr. V: Suponiendo que yo logre producir dicha atencin tcnicas, mtodos, todas de la misma manera y hacerla disponible en cada ezquina del mundo +el problema de la ceguera termina +TR: Si lo piensa, yo creo que el globo ocular es igual tanto Americano como Africano el problema es el mismo, el tratamiento es igual +y an as, porque debera haber tanta variacin en la calidad y el servicio y ese fu el principio fundamental que el sigui cuando diseamos los sistemas de entrega +y, por su puesto, el reto era que es un problema inmenso, hablamos de millones de peronas, contando con muy pocos recursos y muchos problemas de logstica y accesibilidad +as que tuvimos que innovar constantemente +y una de las primeras innovaciones, que an contina fu la de crear sentido de propiedad en la comunidad respecto al problema para entonces uncluirles como socios siendo este un ejemplo +y luego, con todos esos resultados, el doctor hace un diagnstico final y prescribe la linea de tratamiento, si necesitan un par de lentes, estn disponibles ah mismo en el campamento usualmente bajo un arbol +pero les dan lentes en la montura que ellos elijen y eso es muy importante porque, me parece que los lentes, adems de ayudar la visin de la gente, es una declaracin de moda, y ellos estn dispuestos a pagar por ella. +los obtienen en cerca de 20 minutos y los que requieren ciruga, se les aconseja, y entonces hay buses esperando que los transportan al hospital base +y de no ser por este tipo de logstica y ayuda, mucha gente como esta, problablemente nunca recibiria atencin y con certeza no cuando mas lo necesitan. +Se les practica la ciruga al dia siguiente y se quedan uno o dos das y se les translada en buses de vuelta a su lugar de origen donde sus familias les estarn esperando para llevarles de vuelta a casa +y esto sucede varias miles de veces cada ao +puede sonar impresionante que estemos viendo muchos pacientes un proceso muy eficiente pero nosotros miramos, estamos resolviendo el problema? +hicimos un estudio, un proceso diseado cientificamente y para nuestro consternacin encontramos que slo alcanzabamos al siete por ciento de la gente necesitada y que no estabamos aproximandonos adecuadamente a los problemas mayores +as que teniamos que hacer algo distnto instalamos lo que denominamos centros de atecin oftlmica primara, centros de visn. +estas son oficinas realmente carentes de papel con registros completamente electrnicos y dems +reciben examenes visuales +con una modificacin simple, convertimos camaras digitales en camaras retinales y as cada paciente obtenia su teleconsulta con un doctor +el efecto de esto ha sido que, durante el primer ao realmente tuvimos una penetracin de 40 por ciento en el mercado especfico que es mas de 50.000 personas +y en el segundo aos subimos a 75 por ciento +as que yo creo que tenemos un proceso mediante el que podemos realmente penetrar en el mercado y alcanzar a todo aquel que lo necesite y en este proceso de usar la tecnologa, asegurarse de que la mayora no necesiten trasladarse al hospital base +y cuanto podran pagar por esto? +arreglamos los precios, considerando lo que se ahorraran en la tarfa del bus para llegar a la ciudad as que pagan casi 20 rupias, que valen por tres consultas +el otro reto era, como proveer tecnologa avanzada y tratamientos mas avanzados? +as que el impacto de todo esto ha sido esencialmente el crecimiento del mercado porque se enfoc en el no-cliente y entonces llegando a aquel sin atencin pudmos hacer crecer el mercado significativamente +el otro aspecto es como se maneja esto de forma eficiente cuando tienes muy pocos oftalmlogos? +en este video est un cirujano operando, y se puede ver al otro lado, otro paciente alistndose +as que, cuando terminan la ciruga simplemente mueven el microscpio se colocan las camillas para que la distancia sea la adecuada y es necesario que hagamos esto, porque, es este tipo de proceso el que permite mas que cuadruplicar la productividad del cirujano +y la ayuda del cirijano requerimos de cierta fuerza de trabajo +entonces nos enfocamos en chicas de los pueblos que reclutamos que son la real espina dorsal de la organizacin +ellas hacen casi todas las tareas basadas en habilidad +hacen una cosa a la ves. Lo hacen extremadamente bien, +como resultado tenemos una productividad elevada altos niveles de calidad, muy bajo costo +as que uniendo todo esto, lo que de verdad sucedi fu que la productividad de nuesto personal fu sigificativamente mayo que la de cualquier otro +esta es una tabla muy complicada pero lo que en realidad nos dice es que cuando se trata de calidad, hemos logrado sistemas de garanta de calidad muy buenos +como resultado, nuestras complicaciones estn sustanciamente por debajo de lo que se report en el Reino Unido y cfras como esas no se ven con mucha frecuencia +la parte final del rompecabeza es, como hacer funcionar esto financieramente especialmente cuando la gente no puede pagarlo? +y lo que hicimos fue, hicimos mucho de forma gratuita y entonces aquellos que pagan, es decir, pagan tarifas de mecado local nada mas, con frecuencia mucho menos, +y la ineficiencia del mercado nos ayud mucho +eso fu de gran ayuda +y, por su puesto, la mentalidad de regalar lo que se tiene como si fuese exeso, es necesaria +el resultado ha sido, a travs de los aos que el gasto se ha incrementado con el volumen +que las ganancias se incrementan a un nivel mayor dandonos un margen saludables mientras damos atencin gratuita a un gran numero de personas +creo que en trminos absolutos el ao pasado ganamos cerca de 20 millones de dollares gastamos cerca de 13, con mas de 40 por ciento EBITA +pero esto realmente requiere ir mas alla de lo que hacemos o lo que hemos hecho si realmente queremos lograr resolver este problema de la ceguera +y lo que hicimos fue un par de cosas contra-intuicin +nos creamos competencia e hicimos de la atecin oftalmolgica un asunto costeable a trevs de consumibles de bajo costo +proactiva y sistemticamente promovimos esta prctoca a muchos hospitales en la India muchos en nuestros propios jardines y en otras partes del mundo tambin +el impacto de esto ha sido que en estos hospitales en el segundo ao de consultas han duplicado su salida y han igualmente alncanzado la recuperacin financiera +la otra parte es como se maneja el incremento del costo de la tecnologa +as que hubo un momento donde no pudimos negociar los precios de los lentes intra-oculares a niveles accesibles as que instalamos una unidad de manufactura +y entonces, a travs del tiempo, pudimos bajar significativamente los costos a cerca del 2 por ciento de lo que era cuando comenzamos +hoy, creemos que tenemos cerca del siete porciento del mercado global y estos se usan en cerca de 120 paises +para concluir, quiero decir, lo que hacemos, tiene un impacto mayor o es slo la India o paises en desarollo? +en referencia a esto, estudiamos el R.U. versus Aravindo +lo que se demuestra es que hacemos mas o menos el 60 por ciento del volumen de lo que el R.U. hace casi medio millon de cirugias en el apis entero +y nosotros hacemos 300.000 +y entrenamos alrededor de 50 oftalmlogos contra 70 entrenados por ellos, calidad comparable, tanto en entrenamiento como en atencin al paciente +as que realmente estamos comparando manzanas con manzanas +miramos el costo +asi que, creo que es sencillo decir que que esto est sucediendo slo porque son paises muy distintos. +me parece que hay mas +quiero decir, creo que tenemos que mirar otros aspectos tambin +quizas hay ... la solucin al costo es la productividad, quizas en la enficiencia, en el proceso clnico, o en cuanto paga el paciente por los lentes o los consumibles o regulaciones, sus prcticas defensivas +as que pienso que, decodificar eso podra traer respuestas a la mayora de los paises en desarollo incluyendo los E.E.U.U. y quizs el rating de Obama subira denuevo +otra reflexion, que, tambin quiero dejarles en condiciones donde el problema es muy grande que se extiende sobre estratos econmicos donde tenemos una buena solucin creo que el proceso que yo describ ya saben, la productividad, calidad, centrado a la atencim al cliente pueden dar una respuesta, y hay muchas que caben en este paradigma +si tomas la odontologa, la audicin, maternidad y pare de contar +hay muchas mas a las que este paradigma puede aplicar pero yo creo que problablemente uno delos mas grandes retos est en el lado mas blando +ahora, como se crea la compasin? +ahora, cmo se logra en sentido de propiedad con el problema? cmo insinuarles el deseo de hacer algo al respecto? +Hay tambin asuntos un poco mas difciles +y estoy seguro de que la gente en esta audiencia podran encontrarles la solucin +as que quiero terminar mi charla con este pensamiento para motivarles +Dr. V: cuando nuestra conciencia espiritual crece nos identificamos con todo lo que hay en el mundo as que no hay explotacin +es a nosotros mismos, que estamos ayudando +es a nosotros mismos, que estamos curando +TR: muchas gracias +Hola a todos. Como es mi primera vez en TED, Decid traer conmigo a una vieja amiga para ayudarnos a romper el hielo un poco. +S. Es verdad. Esta es Barbie. +Tiene 50 aos. Y se ve tan joven como siempre. +Pero tambin me gustara presentarles lo que para algunos de ustedes ser una cara desconocida. +Esta es Fulla. Fulla es la versin rabe de Barbie. +Ahora, segn los defensores del choque de civilizaciones, tanto Barbie como Fulla ocupan esferas completamente separadas. +Tienen intereses distintos. Tienen valores divergentes. +Y si alguna vez entran en contacto . . . +bueno, tengo que decirles, no ser muy lindo. +Sin embargo, mi experiencia en el mundo islmico es muy distinta. +Donde yo trabajo, en la regin rabe, la gente se ocupa en tomar innovaciones occidentales y convertirlas en cosas que no son ni tpicamente occidentales, ni tpicamente islmicas. +Quiero mostrarles dos ejemplos. +El primero es 4Shbab. +Quiere decir "para la juventud" y es un nuevo canal de televisin rabe. +: Videoclips de todos los lugares del mundo/ +Los EE UU. +No tengo miedo de estar a solas No tengo miedo de estar a solas, si Al est a mi lado No tengo miedo de estar a solas Todo me ir bien No tengo miedo de estar a solas El mundo rabe. +Le preserv la modestia de la religin Fue adornada por la luz del Corn Shereen El Feki: Han bautizado a 4Shbab con el nombre de la MTV islmica. +Su creador, quien es un productor de televisin egipcio que se llama Ahmed Abou Haba, quiere que los jvenes se inspiren en el islam para llevar una vida mejor. +l cree que la mejor manera de comunicar ese mensaje es utilizar el medio enormemente popular que son los videos musicales. +4Shbab se estableci como alternativa a los canales de msica rabes ya existentes. +Y se ven algo as. +Por cierto, esa mujer es Haifa Wehbe. Es una estrella pop libanesa y chica de calendario del mundo rabe. +En el mundo de 4Shbab, no se trata de rozamientos gratuitos. +Pero tampoco se trata de fundamentalismo religioso. +Sus videos intentan mostrar una cara ms ambale, ms suave del islam, para que los jovenes puedan afrontar los desafos de la vida. +Ahora mi segundo ejemplo est dirigido a una audiencia un poco ms joven. +Y se llama "Los 99". +Bien, estos son los primeros superhroes islmicos del mundo. +Fueron creados por un psiclogo kuwait que se llama Nayef Al Mutawa. +Y l desea rescatar el islam de imgenes de intolerancia todo eso en un formato accesible a los nios. +"Los 99", los personajes pretenden personificar los 99 atributos de Al, la justicia, la sabidura, la merced, entre otros. +As que, por ejemplo, tenemos al personaje de Noora. +Supuestamente tiene el poder de mirar adentro de la gente y ver lo bueno y lo malo de todos. +Otro personaje que se llama Jami tiene la capacidad de crear invenciones fantsticas. +Ahora, "Los 99" no es solo un cmic. +Ahora es tambin un parque temtico. +Hay una serie de dibujos animados en proceso de produccin. +Y para esta poca del ao prximo personajes como Superman y Wonder Woman se habrn unido con "Los 99" para combatir la injusticia dondequiera la encuentren. +"Los 99" y 4Shbab son dos de los muchos ejemplos de este tipo de hibridacin transcultural islmica. +Aqu no se trata de un choque de civilizaciones. +Tampoco es un tipo de pur indistinguible. +Me gusta imaginarlo como una malla de civilizaciones en la cual los hilos de culturas diferentes se mezclan. +Ahora, aunque 4Shbab y "Los 99" parezcan nuevos y brillantes, en realidad sealan la continuacin de una larga tradicin. +A lo largo de su historia, el mundo rabe ha tomado y adaptado tradiciones de otras civilizaciones tanto antiguas como modernas. +Al fin y al cabo, es el Corn el que nos anima a hacer esto. "Les convertimos en naciones y tribus para que pudieran aprender el uno del otro." +Y segn mi modo de ver, estas palabras son bastante sabias, sin importar su credo. Gracias. +Voy a demostrarles cmo el terrorismo forma parte de nuestra vida diaria. +Hace 15 aos recib la llamada de un amigo. +En ese entonces l protega los derechos de prisioneros polticos detenidos en crceles italianas. +Me pregunt si deseaba entrevistar a las Brigadas Rojas. +Como muchos de ustedes recordarn, las Brigadas Rojas era una organizacin marxista terrorista que estuvo muy presente en Italia desde la dcada de los 60 hasta mitad de los 80. +Parte de la estrategia de las Brigadas Rojas consista en no hablar con nadie, ni siquiera con sus abogados. +Cuando eran llevados a juicio, permanecan en silencio, saludando ocasionalmente a familiares y amigos. +En 1993 declararon el fin de su lucha armada, +y crearon una lista de personas, con quienes hablaran y contaran su historia. +Yo fui una de esas personas. +Cuando le pregunt a mi amigo por qu las Brigadas Rojas queran hablar conmigo, me dijo que las mujeres pertenecientes a la organizacin haban apoyado mi nombre. +Una persona en particular lo haba sugerido. +Era una amiga de mi infancia. +Ella se haba unido a las Brigada Rojas y lleg a ser lder de la organizacin. +Naturalmente, yo no estaba al tanto hasta el da en que la arrestaron. +De hecho, lo le en el peridico. +Cuando recib la llamada haca poco tiempo que yo haba dado a luz, haba logrado exitosamente la compra de la empresa con la que estaba trabajando, y lo ltimo que deseaba era regresar a mi pas y pasear por las crceles de mxima seguridad. +Pero es precisamente lo que hice porque quera saber la razn por la cual mi mejor amiga se haba convertido en una terrorista, y por qu nunca intent reclutarme. +Entonces, eso es precisamente lo que hice. +Obtuve la respuesta rpidamente. +Mi perfil psicolgico no encajaba con el de un terrorista. +El comit central de las Brigadas Rojas me haba considerado demasiado firme y muy aferrada a mis opiniones como para ser una buena terrorista. +Mi amiga, por el contrario, era una buena terrorista porque era muy buena siguiendo rdenes. +Tambin aceptaba la violencia. +Ella crea que la nica forma de desbloquear lo que en ese entonces se denominaba una democracia bloqueada, Italia, un pas gobernado 35 aos por el mismo partido, era la lucha armada. +Al mismo tiempo, mientras entrevistaba a las Brigadas Rojas, descubr que su existencia no estaba regida por la poltica o la ideologa, sino que estaba regida por la economa. +Estaban constanemente sin dinero. +Constantemente buscaban dinero. +Contrario a lo que muchas personas creen, el terrorismo es un negocio muy caro. +Les dar un ejemplo. +En los aos 70, la facturacin de las Brigadas Rojas anualmente era de siete millones de dlares. +En la actualidad, esta cifra estara entre 100 y 150 millones, aproximadamente. +Se darn cuenta de que, viviendo clandestinamente, no es fcil producir esta cantidad de dinero. +Esto explica por qu, durante mis entrevistas con las Brigadas Rojas, y ms adelante, con otras organizaciones armadas, incluyendo a miembros del grupo al-Zarqawi del Medio Oriente, todos fueron extremadamente reacios a hablar sobre ideologa o poltica. +No tenan ni idea de esos temas. +Los lderes de las organizaciones terroristas son quienes deciden la visin poltica, y generalmente, son entre cinco y siete personas. +El resto de los miembros lo nico que hacen, da tras da, es buscar dinero. +Por ejemplo, en una ocasin entrevist a un miembro a tiempo parcial de las Brigadas Rojas. +Un psiquiatra que amaba navegar. +Era un navegante entusiasta y tena un hermoso bote. +ste era un servicio por el cual las Brigadas Rojas reciban un pago, que se destinaba a financiar la organizacin. +Como soy una econonomista con experiencia y pienso en trminos econmicos, de repente pens: tal vez hay algo aqu. +Tal vez hay una conexin, una conexin comercial entre estas organizaciones. +Pero fue cuando entrevist a Mario Moretti, el lder de las Brigadas Rojas, el hombre que secuestr y asesin a Aldo Moro, ex-primer ministro italiano, cuando finalmente entend que el terrorismo es un negocio. +Estaba almorzando con l en una crcel de alta seguridad en Italia. +Y, mientras comamos, tuve la clara sensacin de que haba regresado a Londres, y almorzaba con un colega banquero o un economista. +Este tipo pensaba igual que yo. +As que decid que quera investigar el sistema econmico del terrorismo. +Naturalmente, nadie estaba dispuesto a financiar mi investigacin. +De hecho, creo que muchas personas pensaron que estaba un poco loca. +Ya saben, esa mujer que se pasea por las fundaciones, pidiendo dinero, pensando sobre el sistema econmico del terrorismo. +Finalmente, tom una decisin que, en retrospectiva, cambi mi vida. +Vend mi empresa, y financi mi investigacin yo misma. +Y lo que descubr fue esta realidad paralela, otro sistema econmico internacional, que funciona paralelamente al nuestro y que fue creado por organizaciones armadas al acabar la Segunda Guerra Mundial. +Lo que es ms sorprendente es que estos sistemas han seguido paso a paso la evolucin de nuestro sistema, de nuestro capitalismo occidental. +Y existen tres etapas principales. +La primera es el terrorismo de Estado. +La segunda es la privatizacin del terrorismo. +Y la tercera es, por supuesto, la globalizacin del terrorismo. +Entonces, el terrorismo de Estado, caracterstico de la Guerra Fra. +Fue el momento en que dos superpoderes libraban una guerra a travs de sus aliados, en la periferia de sus esferas de influencia, financiando por completo organizaciones armadas. +Se utilizaba una mezcla de actividades legales e ilegales. +As que la conexin entre crimen y terror se estableci muy temprano. +He aqu el ejemplo ms claro, los Contras en Nicaragua, creados por la CIA, financiados legalmente por el congreso de los EE.UU., financiados ilegalmente por la administracin de Reagan a travs de operaciones encubiertas, por ejemplo, el escndalo Irn-Contra. +Luego, a finales de los 70 y comienzos de los 80, algunos grupos lograron satisfactoriamente la privatizacin del terrorismo. +Obtuvieron la independencia de sus financistas, y comenzaron a financiarse por su cuenta. +Aqu tambien observamos una mezcla de actividades legales e ilegales. +Arafat obtena un porcentaje del trfico de hachs del Valle de Beka, que se encuentra entre el Lbano y Siria. +El IRA, al controlar el sistema de transporte privado en Irlanda del Norte, hizo exactamente lo mismo. +As que cada vez que alguien se suba a un taxi en Belfast de hecho, estaba financiando al IRA sin saberlo. +Pero el gran cambio sucedi, por supuesto, con la globalizacin y la desregulacin, +cuando las organizaciones armadas pudieron conectarse entre s, incluso financieramente. +Pero sobre todo, comenzaron seriamente a negociar con el mundo del crimen organizado. +Juntos blanqueaban dinero de sus negocios sucios por el mismo canal. +Es en ese momento que observamos el nacimiento de la organizacin armada transnacional Al Qaeda. +Esta es una organizacin capaz de recaudar dinero ms all de las fronteras. +Tambin es capaz de realizar ataques en ms de un pas. +Ahora bien, lo que la desregulacin tambin caus fue la reaparicin de la economa subterrnea. +Qu es la economa subterrnea? +Es una fuerza que constantemente merodea en el trasfondo de la historia. +Reaparece en tiempos de grandes transformaciones, como la globalizacin. +Es en estos tiempos cuando la poltica pierde el control sobre la economa, y la economa se vuelve una fuerza subterrnea que trabaja en nuestra contra. +Esto ha sucedido en otros momentos de la historia. +Sucedi con la cada del Imperio romano. +Sucedi con la Revolucin Industrial. +Y ha sucedido nuevamente, con la cada del muro de Berln. +He calculado cun grande era este sistema econmico internacional del crimen, terror, y economa ilegal, antes del 11-S. +Y es la impresionante cifra de 1.5 billones de dlares +No mil millones, si no billones. +Esta cifra es aproximadamente el doble del PBI del Reino Unido, pronto ser ms, considerando a dnde se dirige este pas. +Ahora bien, hasta 11-S la mayor parte de este dinero ingres en la economa de Estados Unidos debido a que la mayor parte del dinero estaba denominado en dlares americanos y el blanqueo de dinero se desarrollaba dentro de los Estados Unidos. +La puerta de ingreso de casi todo este dinero era a travs de empresas ubicadas en parasos fiscales. +Entonces, esta era una inyeccin vital de dinero efectivo a la economa estadounidense. +Cuando observ los nmeros de la liquidez de Estados Unidos, que es la cantidad total de dlares que la Reserva Federal imprime anualmente con el fin de satisfacer el incremento de la demanda de dlares, la cual refleja el crecimiento de la economa. +As que, cuando observ esos nmeros, not que desde finales de los aos 60 un nmero creciente de estos dlares abandonaba los Estados Unidos para nunca regresar. +Este era el dinero extrado en valijas o contenedores, en efectivo, por supuesto. +Era dinero extrado por criminales y blanqueadores de dinero. +Era dinero que financiaba el crecimiento de la economa terrorista, criminal e ilegal. +Entonces, ven cul es la relacin? +Estados Unidos es en realidad un pas que es la moneda de reserva del mundo. +Qu significa? Significa que posee un privilegio que otros pases no tienen. +Puede obtener prstamos respaldados por el total de dlares en circulacin en el mundo. +Este privilegio se conoce como seoreaje. +Ningn otro pas puede hacerlo. +El resto de los pases, el Reino Unido, por ejemplo solo puede obtener prstamos respaldados por el dinero que circula dentro de sus fronteras. +Entonces, esto es lo que implica la relacin entre el mundo del crimen, del terrorismo y la economa ilegal, y nuestra economa. +Los Estados Unidos en los aos 90 obtena prestamos respaldados por el crecimiento del terrorismo y la economa ilegal y criminal. +As estamos de cercanos con este mundo. +Despus del 11-S, esta situacin cambi debido a que George Bush lanz la guerra contra el terrorismo. +Parte de esta guerra contra el terrorismo fue la introduccin de la Ley Patritica. +Como muchos de ustedes saben, la Ley Patritica es una ley que reduce considerablemente las libertades de los estadounidenses con el fin de protegerles contra el terrorismo. +Pero hay una seccin de dicha ley que se refiere especficamente a las finanzas. +Se trata, de hecho, de una legislacin en contra del lavado de dinero. +Lo que la Ley Patritica hizo fue prohibirle a los bancos estadounidenses y los bancos extranjeros registrados en EE.UU. negociar con empresas ubicadas en parasos fiscales. +Cerr la puerta entre el lavado de dinero en dlares y la economa estadounidense. +Tambin le otorg a las autoridades ficales estadounidenses el derecho de monitorear cualquier transaccin realizada en dlares en cualquier parte del mundo. +Se podrn imaginar la reaccin del sistema bancario y financiero internacional. +Todos los banqueros les dijeron a sus clientes, "Salgan del dlar e inviertan en otro lugar". +El Euro era una moneda recin nacida, una gran oportunidad para los negocios y las inversiones, +y eso fue lo que la gente hizo. +Nadie desea que las autoridades fiscales de Estados Unidos analicen su relacin, monitoreen su relacin con sus clientes. +Por supuesto, lo mismo ocurri en el mundo del crimen y el terrorismo. +La gente simplemente movi sus actividades de lavado de dinero fuera de los Estados Unidos hacia Europa. +Por qu sucedi esto? Esto sucedi porque la Ley Patritica es una ley unilateral. +Slo se introdujo dentro de los Estados Unidos +y slo para el dlar estadounidense. +En Europa no se introdujo ninguna legislacin similar. +Es por eso que, en slo seis meses Europa se convirti en el epicentro de las actividades de lavado de dinero del mundo. +Son as de increbles las relaciones entre el mundo del crimen, el mundo del terrorismo, y nuestra propia vida. +Entonces, por qu les cont esta historia? +Les cont esta historia porque ustedes deben comprender que existe un mundo que va ms all de los titulares de los peridicos, incluyendo las relaciones personales entre ustedes, sus amigos y sus familiares. +Deben cuestionar todo lo que se les dice, incluso lo que acabo de decirles hoy. +sta es la nica forma que tienen para dar un paso dentro del lado oscuro y observarlo. +Y cranme, ser escalofriante. +Ser aterrador, pero les iluminar. +Y, sobre todo, no ser aburrido. +Mi nombre es Ryan Lobo, y he trabajado en el negocio de documentales y cine en todo el mundo durante los ltimos 10 aos. +Mientras haca estas pelculas me encontr tomando fotografas, que a menudo molestaban al camargrafo. +Descubr que mi fotografa era casi compulsiva. +Y que al concluir una filmacin, a veces senta que haba tomado fotos que contaban una mejor historia que un documental a veces sensacional. +Pens, cuando tena mis fotografas, que me aferraba a algo verdadero, sin importar las agendas o la poltica. +En el 2007 viaj a tres zonas de guerra. +Viaj a Irak, Afganistn y Liberia. +Y all experiment el sufrimiento ajeno de forma cercana y personal, me sumerg en algunas historias muy intensas y emotivas, y a veces tem por mi propia vida. +Como siempre, yo regresaba a Bangalore, y a las animadas charlas en casas de amigos, donde discutamos sobre distintos temas mientras ellos se quejaban sobre los horarios de los pubs, donde un trago cuesta ms de lo que ellos pagaban a su mucama de 14 aos. +Yo me senta muy aislado durante estas discusiones. +Pero al mismo tiempo me cuestionaba a mi mismo, mi propia integridad y propsito al contar historias. +Y decid que haba transgredido, al igual que mis amigos en aqullas conversaciones, donde contbamos historias en contextos que tratbamos de justificar, en vez de asumir nuestra responsabilidad. +No entrar en detalles sobre lo que me llev a tomar una decisin, pero digamos que tuvo que ver con alcohol, cigarrillos, otras sustancias y una mujer. +Bsicamente decid que yo mismo, y no la cmara o el canal de televisin, o cualquier cosa ajena a m, era el nico instrumento en la narracin que vala la pena sintonizar. +En mi vida, cuando intent lograr cosas como el xito o el reconocimiento, stos me rehuan. +Paradjicamente, cuando renunci a estas metas, y trabaj desde la compasin y el propsito, buscando la excelencia, en vez de su resultado, todo lleg por su cuenta, incluyendo mi realizacin. +La fotografa trascenda la cultura, incluyendo la ma. +Y es, para m, un lenguaje que expresaba lo intangible, que da voz a personas e historias que no la tienen. +Les invito a ver tres de mis historias recientes, sobre esta forma de mirar, si se quiere, que ejemplifican las doctrinas de lo que llamo la compasin en la narracin. +En el 2007 fui a Liberia, donde un grupo de amigos y yo hicimos una pelcula independiente, an en proceso, sobre un legendario y brutal caudillo llamado General "Nalga Desnuda". +Su nombre verdadero es Joshua, y aqu lo vemos en una celda, donde sola torturar y asesinar personas, incluyendo nios. +Joshua afirma haber asesinado personalmente a ms de 10.000 personas durante la guerra civil de Liberia. +Obtuvo su nombre al pelear completamente desnudo. +Y probablemente es el asesino masivo ms prolfico que vive en la tierra hoy en da. +Esta mujer presenci cmo el General asesin a su hermano. +Joshua ordenaba a sus nios-soldados a cometer crmenes atroces, y ejerci su mando con gran brutalidad. +Hoy muchos de estos nios son adictos a drogas como la herona, y son indigentes, como estos jvenes en la imagen. +Cmo puedes vivir contigo mismo si sabes que has cometido crmenes atroces? +Hoy, el General es un evanglico cristiano bautizado. +Y tiene una misin que cumplir. +Acompaamos a Joshua, mientras vagaba por el mundo, visitando los pueblos donde haba matado y violado. +l buscaba perdn, y asegura que busca mejorar las vidas de sus nios-soldados. +Durante esta expedicin, yo esperaba que l fuera asesinado, y tambin nosotros. +Pero lo que vi abri mis ojos a una idea del perdn que jams pens posible. +En medio de increble pobreza y prdida, personas que no tena nada absolvieron al hombre que les quit todo. +l suplica su perdn, y lo recibe de la misma mujer cuyo hermano haba asesinado. +Senegalese, el joven en silla de ruedas que vemos aqu, fue un nio-soldado, bajo el comando del General, hasta que desobedeci rdenes, y el General le arranc ambas piernas con disparos. +l perdona al General en esta imagen. +Arriesg su vida al acercase a personas cuyas familias haba asesinado. +En esta foto, es rodeado por una turba hostil en una barriada, +y Joshua permanece en silencio mientras descargaban su ira contra l. +Esta imagen, que a mi parecer, es casi de una obra de Shakespeare, con un hombre, rodeado de distintas influencias, desesperado por aferrarse a lo verdadero en s mismo, en un contexto de gran sufrimiento que l mismo cre. +Me sent intensamente conmovido durante todo esto. +Pero la pregunta es, el perdn y la redencin pueden reemplazar a la justicia? +Joshua, en sus propias palabras, dice que no le importara someterse a juicio por sus crmenes, y habla de ellos en tribunas improvisadas en Monrovia, a un pblico que a menudo incluye a sus vctimas. +Un inslito vocero de la idea de la separacin entre la iglesia y el estado. +La segunda historia que les contar es sobre un grupo de mujeres luchadoras muy especiales, con destrezas de pacificacin muy particulares. +Liberia ha sido devastada por una de las ms sangrientas guerras civiles de frica, que ha dejado a ms de 200.000 muertos, miles de mujeres marcadas por la violacin y el crimen en una escala espectacular. +Liberia es ahora el hogar de un contingente femenino de pacificadoras Indias de las Naciones Unidas. +Estas mujeres, de pequeos pueblos de India, ayudan a mantener la paz, lejos del hogar y la familia. +Usan la negociacin y la tolerancia en vez de la respuesta armada. +La comandante me dijo que una mujer poda prever una situacin potencialmente violenta mucho mejor que un hombre. +Y que eran capaces de dispersarla sin agresividad. +Este hombre estaba muy ebrio, y muy interesado en mi cmara, hasta que vio a las mujeres, que lo manejaron con sonrisas, y sus AK-47 listas, por supuesto. +Este contingente parece ser muy afortunado, y no ha sufrido bajas, aunque docenas de pacificadores han muerto en Liberia. +Y s, todos los asesinados eran hombres. +Muchas de ellas son casadas con hijos, y dicen que lo ms difcil de su misin es estar separadas de sus nios. +Yo las acompa en sus patrullajes, y mir mientras pasaban frente a hombres, que decan obscenidades sin parar. +Y cuando pregunt a una sobre la respuesta de shock y pavor, ella dijo, "No te preocupes, es igual all en casa. +Sabemos cmo lidiar con estos tipos", y los ignor. +En un pas destrozado por la violencia contra las mujeres, las pacificadoras indias han inspirado a muchas mujeres a unirse a la fuerza policial. +A veces, cuando termina la guerra y los camargrafos se han ido, las historias ms alentadoras son las que flotan justo debajo del radar. +Regres a India y nadie quera comprar la historia. +Y una editora me dijo que no le interesaba lo que llamaba "historias de mano de obra". +En 2007 y 2008 hice historias sobre el Servicio de Bomberos de Delhi, DFS, durante el verano, probablemente el cuerpo de bomberos ms activo del mundo. +Responden a ms de 5.000 llamadas en slo dos meses. +Y todo esto a pesar de increbles desventajas logsticas, como el calor y el trfico. +Algo asombroso ocurri durante esta sesin. +Debido a un embotellamiento de trfico, tardamos en llegar a una barriada, una gran barriada, que se haba incendiado. +Mientras nos acercbamos, turbas furiosas atacaron los camiones y los apedrearon, cientos de personas en todas partes. +Estos hombres estaban aterrorizados, mientras la turba atacaba nuestro vehculo. +Sin embargo, a pesar de la hostilidad, los bomberos salieron y lucharon contra el fuego exitosamente. +Aguantando insultos en medio de la muchedumbre hostil, algunos usaban cascos de motocicletas para protegerse. +Unos lugareos quitaron a la fuerza las mangueras de los bomberos para apagar el fuego en sus casas. +Ahora, cientos de casas fueron destruidas. +Pero la pregunta que persista en mi mente era, qu hace que las personas destruyan camiones de bomberos que van camino a sus propias casas? +De dnde viene esa furia? +Y, Cmo somos responsables por esto? +45 por ciento de las 14 millones de personas en Delhi viven en barriadas no autorizadas, crnicamente hacinadas. +Ni siquiera tienen los servicios ms bsicos. +Y esto es comn en todas nuestras grandes ciudades. +De vuelta a DFS. Un inmenso depsito de qumicos se incendi, miles de bidones llenos de petroqumicos ardan y explotaban a nuestro alrededor. +El calor era tan intenso, que usaban las mangueras para enfriar a los bomberos que luchaban muy cerca de las llamas, sin ropa protectora. +En India, nos gusta quejarnos de las instituciones del gobierno. +Pero aqu, los jefes de DFS, Seor R.C. Sharman, Seor A K. Sharman dirigan la tarea con sus hombres. +Algo maravilloso en un pas donde la mano de obra es menospreciada. +A lo largo de los aos, mi fe en el poder de la narracin ha sido puesta a prueba. +Y he tenido serias dudas sobre su eficacia, y mi propia fe en la humanidad. +Sin embargo un film que hicimos todava se transmite por National Geographic. +Y cuando sale al aire, todos los que estaban conmigo me llaman y me dicen que reciben cientos de llamadas felicitndolos. +Algunos de los bomberos me dicen que se sintieron inspirados a hacerlo mejor porque les complaca recibir agradecimientos en vez de bates de ladrillo. +Parece que esta historia ayud a cambiar la impresin sobre DFS, al menos en las mentes de una audiencia que vea televisin, lea revistas y cuyas chozas no estaban en llamas. +Algunas veces, enfocar lo heroico, bello y digno, sin importar el contexto, puede magnificar estos intangibles de tres formas: en el protagonista de la historia, en el pblico, y tambin en el narrador. +Y ese es el poder de la narracin. +Enfoca lo que es digno, valiente y bello, y lo hace crecer. Gracias. +Hay muchos consultores de Web 2.0 que quieren ganar mucho dinero. +De hecho se ganan la vida con este tipo de cosas. +Voy a intentar ahorrarles todo ese tiempo y dinero y lo haremos en los prximos tres minutos, as que no se vayan. +Comenzamos un sitio de internet en 2005 junto con algunos amigos, llamado Reddit.com +Eso es lo que llamaras un sitio social de noticias. Basicamente esto es una pagina inicial democrtica +que tiene lo mejor de internet. Digamos que encuentras contenido interesante, digamos una charla de TED, la envas a Reddit y entonces la comunidad de tus semejantes darn votos positivos si les gusta o negativos si no. +Y eso es lo que crea la pgina de inicia. Algunos contenidos entran, salen, siempre cambiando. +Cerca de medio milln de personas la visitan diariamente. Pero esto no es acerca de Reddit. +Es acerca de descubrir nuevas cosas que aparecen en la red. +Porque en los ltimos cuatro aos hemos visto todo tipo de memes, todo tipo de tendencias que aparecen en nuestra pgina inicial. +Pero esto no es acerca de Reddit. Es en realidad acerca de las ballenas jorobadas. +Bueno, tcnicamente es acerca de Greenpeace, que es una organizacin ambiental que quera detener la campaa de caza del gobierno japones. +Estas ballenas jorobadas estaban siendo asesinadas. +Y deseaban poner fin a eso. Una de las maneras en las que deseaban hacerlo era poner un microchip rastreador en cada una de estas ballenas. +Pero para realmente darle personalidad al movimiento queran ponerle un nombre. +As que, al ms puro estilo de internet, pusieron una encuesta donde tenan muchos nombres eruditos, sofisticados y vinculados con la cultura. +Creo que esta es la palabra en Farsi para "inmortal". +Creo que esta es "poder divino del oceano" en una lengua Polinesia. +Y despus estaba este: Mr. Splashy Pants (El Calzones Mojados) +Y este, este era especial. El Sr. Pants, o Splashy para sus amigos, se volvi muy popular en internet. +De hecho algunas personas en Reddit pensamos, "Oh, es un nombre genial, todos debemos darle votos positivos." +Y ustedes saben, todos los Redditeros estuvieron de acuerdo. +As que la votacin inici y nosotros mismos la apoyamos. +Cambiamos nuestro logo para ese da, del extraterrestre a Splashy, de manera que apoyramos a la causa. +Y no pas mucho tiempo antes de que otros sitios como Fark y Boing Boing y el resto de Internet entrara al juego y dijeran "Siiiii! Amamos a Splashy Pants." +As que cambi del 5%, que fue cuando este meme arranc, hasta el 70% al final de la votacin. +Lo que es impresionante No es cierto? Ganamos! Mister Splashy Pants fue el elegido. Hmm, solo bromeando. +Pues bien, Greenpeace no estaba muy feliz acerca del nombre, porque ellos queran que ganara un nombre ms sofisticado. +As que dijeron, "No, esto es una broma. Vamos a dar una semana ms para votar." +Pues eso nos enoj un poco. As que cambiamos la campaa al Splashy peleador. +Y la comunidad de Reddit, junto con el resto de internet, respaldaron el nombre. +Se crearon grupos de Facebook. Se crearon aplicaciones de Facebook. +La idea era, "Vota por tu conciencia, vota por Mister Splashy Pants." +Y la gente estaba poniendo anuncios en el mundo real... +acerca de esta ballena. Y este fue el resultado final. Cuando todo acab termin con el 78% de los votos, y para darles una idea de la diferencia, +el siguiente nombre en la lista tena 3%. Qu tal? +As que aqu hay una clara leccin. Y es que el Internet ama a Mister Splashy Pants. +Lo que resulta obvio, es un gran nombre. +Todo mundo quera escuchar los encabezados de las noticias diciendo "Mister Splashy Pants". +(Seor Calzones Mojados) Y creo que eso fue lo que contribuy a impulsar esto. +Pero lo que fue interesante fueron las repercusiones para Greenpeace, +crearon una campaa de mercadotecnia alrededor del personaje. Empezaron a vender playeras y pines de Mister Splashy Pants. Incluso crearon una felicitacin electrnica que podas mandar a tus amigos con un Splashy bailador. +Pero lo que fue an ms importante fue el hecho de que alcanzaron +el objetivo de su misin. El gobierno japons suspendi +la expedicin de caza de ballenas. Misin cumplida. En Greenpeace estaban emocionados. Las ballenas estaban felices. +Y de hecho todos los Redditeros en la comunidad de Internet estuvieron felices de participar, pero ellos no eran amigos de las ballenas. +Unos pocos si eran. Pero estamos hablando de mucha gente que de pronto se interes y qued encantada con este meme, +y finalmente alguien de Greenpeace se acerc a nosotros y agradeci a Reddit por su participacin. +Pero esto no fue por puro altruismo. Esto fue consecuencia de nuestro inters en hacer algo divertido. +Esta es la manera en la que Internet trabaja. +Este es el gran secreto. Porque el Internet permite emparejar el campo. +Tu vnculo es igual que su vnculo, que es tan bueno como el mo. Y mientras tengamos un navegador, +cualquiera puede ir a un sitio de internet sin importar el presupuesto. +Esto es, siempre que mantengas la neutralidad de internet. +La otra cosa importante es que no cuesta nada poner ese contenido en internet. +Hay tantas magnficas herramientas de publicacin disponibles, que solo toma unos cuantos minutos de tu tiempo producir algo. +Y el costo de equivocarte es tan bajo que bien vale la pena intentarlo. +Y si lo haces, s autntico acerca de eso. S honesto. S franco. +Y una de las grandes lecciones que aprendi Greenpeace fue que esta bien perder control. Esta bien si te tomas menos en serio, y dado que, an cuando es una causa seria, puedes finalmente alcanzar tu objetivo. +Y este es el mensaje final que quiero compartir con todos ustedes... que te puede ir bien en linea. +Pero el mensaje dejar de transmitirse de arriba hacia abajo. +Si quieres tener xito, tienes que permitirte perder el control. +Gracias. +Soy britnico, pero vivo en Maldivas desde hace 26 aos. +As que, en verdad, es mi casa. +Las Maldivas, estoy seguro que saben, son una cadena de islas al SO de la costa de India. +Vivo en la capital, Mal. +De hecho, hoy en Mysore, estoy ms cerca de Mal que de Delhi, por ejemplo, +Para alguien de TI, India es obviamente es el lugar adecuado. +Pero para un bilogo marino, Maldivas no es un lugar tan malo. +Y ha sido mi hogar estos aos. +Para aquellos que han estado ah, arrecifes fantsticos, buceo increble, snorkeling fantstico. +Yo paso tanto tiempo como es posible investigando la vida marina. +Estudio peces, tambin cosas ms grandes, ballenas y delfines. +Esta es una ballena azul. Tenemos ballenas azules en las aguas de alrededor, fuera de la costa de Maldivas, alrededor de las aguas de India. Pueden ver en las costas de Kerala. +Y, de hecho, tenemos mucha suerte en esta regin. +Uno de los mejores lugares en el mundo para ver ballenas azules es aqu en esta regin. +En Sri Lanka, si uno desciende hasta la costa sur, durante la estacin del monzn del NE, puede ver ballenas azules muy, muy fcilmente. +Es probablemente el mejor lugar en el mundo para verlas. +Ahora, cuando hablo de la estacin del monzn del NE estoy seguro que muchos saben exactamente lo que quiero decir, pero tal vez algunos no estn muy seguros. +Necesito explicar un poco lo de los monzones. +Ahora, monzn, la raz de la palabra "monzn" viene de la palabra "estacin". +As que slo es una estacin. Y hay dos estaciones en casi todo el sur de Asia. +Y en el verano India se calienta, se pone muy calurosa. +El aire caliente se eleva, y del mar llega aire para reemplazarlo. +Y la forma en que funciona es, viene del SO. +Viene del ocano aqu y es atrado arriba hacia la India. +As que viene desde el SO. Es un monzn del SO. +Recoge humedad a medida que atraviesa el ocano. +Eso es lo que trae la lluvia del monzn. +Y luego en el invierno las cosas se enfran. +Se forma alta presin sobre India. +Y todo el sistema va en reversa. +As que, el viento viene ahora del NE de India, cruzando el ocano ndico, por este camino hacia frica. +Qudense con eso. +Soy un bilogo marino. En verdad un naturalista de la vieja escuela, supongo. +Estoy interesado en toda clase de cosas, casi todo lo que se mueve, incluyendo liblulas. Y en realidad esta tarde voy a hablar de liblulas. +Esta es una especie preciosa, se llama la escarlata oriental. +Y una cosa a saber de las liblulas, una cosa importante, es que ponen sus huevos en agua dulce. +Necesitan agua dulce para reproducirse. +Ponen los huevos en agua dulce. +Las pequeas larvas incuban en agua dulce. +Se alimentan de otras pequeas cosas, de larvas de mosquito. +As que son muy importantes. +Controlan las larvas de mosquito, entre otras cosas. +Y crecen y crecen por etapas. Y salen del agua, de repente, como el adulto que vemos. +Y tpicamente, hay una gran variacin. Pero si tienes una liblula con, digamos, un ciclo de vida de un ao, que es muy tpico, la larva, viviendo en agua dulce, vive 10 u 11 meses. +y luego el adulto, que viene despus, vive uno o dos meses. +As que es, esencialmente, un animal de agua dulce. +Realmente s necesita agua dulce. +Ahora, la especie particular de liblula de la que quiero hablar es sta, porque la mayora de liblulas, como la que acabamos de ver, cuando el adulto est ah brevemente su mes o dos meses de vida, no llega muy lejos. No puede viajar muy lejos. +Unos cuantos kilmetros, tal vez, es muy tpico. +Son muy buenas voladoras, pero no llegan muy lejos. +Pero esta es una excepcin. +Se llama pantala flavescens, o trotamundo. +Y, como el nombre sugiere, se puede encontrar en casi todo el mundo. +Vive en los trpicos, en Amrica, frica, Asia, Australia, en el Pacfico. +Y deambula lejos y ampliamente. Sabemos eso. +Pero realmente no ha sido tan estudiada. +Es una liblula que tiene un aspecto un poco comn. +Si vas a estudiar liblulas, querrs estudiar esas grandes y bonitas, como esa roja. O las muy extraas, en peligro de extincin. +Se ve un poco aburrida. +Tiene un color aburrido; es bastante comn. +Est en todos lados, saben, por qu molestarse? +Pero si toman esa actitud, realmente se estn perdiendo algo bastante especial. +Porque esta liblula tiene una historia bastante increble. +Y me siento muy privilegiado de haberme topado con ella mientras vivo en las Maldivas. +Cuando fui por primera vez a Maldivas, fantico del buceo, pasaba la mayor parte de mi tiempo como poda bajo el agua. +No vi ninguna liblula; tal vez estaban ah, tal vez no. +No las vi. +Pero despus de un tiempo, despus de algunos meses, un da mientras sala, de repente not cientos de liblulas, cientos de liblulas. +Algo as, son todas especies de pantala flavescens. +Yo no saba en ese momento, pero ahora s, son pantala flavescens, cientos de ellas. +Y estaban ah algn tiempo. Y luego se iban. +Y no me acord de eso hasta que al otro ao ocurri de nuevo, y luego al ao siguiente, y al otro. +Y fui un poco lento, realmente no me fij mucho. +Pero pregunt a algunos amigos maldivos y colegas y, s, vienen cada ao. +Y pregunt a la gente sobre ellas y s, ellos saban, pero no saban nada, de dnde venan, nada. +Y, de nuevo, no pens mucho en eso. +De a poco me di cuenta que algo mas bien especial estaba pasando. +Porque las liblulas necesitan agua dulce para reproducirse. +Y las Maldivas, seguro que algunos han estado ah... As que aqu est mi casa. +As que, Maldivas, un lugar precioso. +Est construda ntegramente de arrecife. +Y encima de los arrecifes estn los bancos de arena. +Altura promedio, "as" sobre el nivel del mar. +As que, el calentamiento global, el nivel del mar aumenta, es un problema serio. +Pero no voy a hablar de eso. +Otro punto importante de estos bancos de arena es que cuando llueve el agua de lluvia empapa la tierra. Entonces, desaparece. +As, se queda bajo la tierra. +Los rboles pueden echar races dentro. +Los humanos pueden cavar hoyos y hacer un pozo. +Pero las liblulas... difcilmente. +No hay agua dulce en la superficie. +No hay estanques, arroyos, ros, lagos, nada de eso. +As que, por qu cada ao millones de liblulas, millones, aparecen millones de liblulas. +Me dio curiosidad. De hecho, no dir ms, porque quiero preguntar, y hay mucha gente que, de India claro, gente que creci aqu, +los indios o quienes han pasado su niez aqu, levanten la mano, quines... todava no, todava no! +Son muy entusiastas. Muy entusiastas. No. Esperen. Esperen. +Esperen que les diga cundo. Dir ya. +Aqullos que crecieron en India, recuerdan en su niez, liblulas, enjambres de liblulas? Tal vez en el colegio, tal vez amarrndoles pedazos de hilo? +Tal vez arrancndoles pedacitos? No estoy preguntando eso. +Solamente deben decir si recuerdan haber visto muchas liblulas. +Manos? Manos? S. Gracias. Gracias. +Es un fenmeno amplio a travs del sur de Asia, incluyendo las Maldivas. +Y me dio curiosidad. +En las Maldivas, ahora en India hay mucha agua, las liblulas, s, claro. Por qu no? +Pero en Maldivas, no hay agua dulce. As que, qu est pasando? +Y la primera cosa que hice fue empezar a grabar cuando aparecieron en las Maldivas. +Y ah est la respuesta, el 21 de octubre. +No cada ao, esa es la fecha promedio. +As que, lo he estado registrando desde hace 15 aos. +Uno pensara que vienen de India. Es el lugar ms cercano. +Pero en octubre, recuerden, todava estamos en el monzn del SO, Las Maldivas estn al SO del monzn. +Pero el viento viene invariablemente del O. +Va hacia India, no desde la India. +Cmo estn llegando aqu? +Vienen de India contra el viento? +No pareca probable. +As que, lo siguiente que hice fue llamar... +Maldivas es un archipilago largo. +Se extiende 800 kms, por supuesto, hasta aqu. +Llam y escrib a amigos y colegas. +Cundo ves aparecer a las liblulas? +Y pronto empez a aparecer un cuadro. +De Bangalore, un colega me envi informacin durante tres aos, en promedio, el 24 de septiembre, tarde en septiembre. +Abajo en Trivandrum, un poco despus. +Al norte de Maldivas, un poco despus. +Luego Mal, luego ms al sur. +Y luego a la parte ms surea de Maldivas. +Es bastante obvio, vienen de India. +Pero estn viniendo desde 640 kms a travs del ocano, contra el viento. +Cmo lo estn haciendo? +No saba. +La siguiente cosa que hice fue empezar a contar liblulas. +Quera saber de su estacionalidad. qu momento del ao, eso es cuando llegan pero cunto tiempo se quedan? Eso da alguna pista? +As, empec un proceso cientfico muy riguroso. +Tena un transecto cientfico riguroso. +Mont en mi bicicleta, y fui en bici por la isla de Mal, +mide cerca de cinco kilmetros, iba contando las liblulas del camino, tratando de no toparme con la gente mientras vea los rboles. +Estn aqu por un perodo corto, octubre, noviembre, diciembre. Es todo. +Luego va disminuyendo. +Octubre, noviembre, diciembre. Eso no es la estacin del monzn del NE. +No es la estacin del SO. +Ese es el monzn intermedio, el tiempo en el que el monzn cambia. +Ahora, lo que dije fue, tienes el monzn del SO yendo en una direccin, luego cambia y tienes el monzn del NE yendo en la otra direccin. +Da la impresin de que tienes una masa de aire que va hacia arriba y hacia abajo, arriba y abajo. No funciona as. +Lo que pasa, en realidad, es que hay dos masas de aire. +Y hay un frente entre los dos, y el frente se mueve. +As que si la India est aqu cuando el frente est arriba de India es el monzn del SO. +Luego el frente se mueve al monzn del NE. +Y ese frente en el medio no es vertical, est en ngulo. +De modo que, a medida que llega sobre Mal... estoy parado en Mal bajo el frente... +puedo estar en el monzn del SO. +Pero el viento arriba es por el monzn del NE. +As, la liblula est viniendo de India en el monzn del NE. Pero a una altitud de 1.000 a 2.000 metros en el aire. Increble. +Estos pequeos insectos, son los mismos que vemos aqu [en India], dos pulgadas de largo, cinco cms de largo, volando por millones, 640 kms a travs del ocano, a 2.000 metros. Completamente increble. +Estaba bastante complacido. Pens guau!, segu a ste, S cmo han venido aqu. Luego me pregunt, y eso est bien, S cmo vinieron aqu, pero por qu vinieron aqu? +Qu es lo que hacen millones de liblulas volando a travs del ocano cada ao a su aparente muerte? +No tiene sentido. No tienen nada que hacer en Maldivas. +Qu estn haciendo? +Bueno, para no cansarlos, realmente estn volando a travs del ocano. +Estn haciendo todo el camino a travs de frica del Este. +Lo s porque tengo amigos que trabajan en naves de pesca e investigacin y me han enviado informes de los barcos del ocano. +Lo s porque tenemos informes de Seychelles, que tambin encajan, aqu abajo. +Y lo s porque cuando miras la lluvia, estos insectos tan particulares, los pantala flavescens se reproducen en piscinas provisionales de agua de lluvia. +De acuerdo. Depositan sus huevos donde estn las lluvias estacionales, las lluvias del monzn. +Las larvas tienen que desarrollarse rpidamente. +Slo les toma 6 semanas. En vez de 11 meses son 6 semanas, +se levantan y se van. +Si no puedan leer al revs, lo de arriba es la lluvia de India. +Y estamos empezando en junio. De modo que esta es la lluvia del monzn. +Para septiembre, octubre, se est secando. +Nada para estas liblulas. No hay ms lluvia estacional. +Tienen que ir a cazar lluvia estacional. +Y vuelan al sur. A medida que el monzn se retira al sur vienen hacia abajo a travs de Karnataka, a Kerala. +Y luego se les acaba la tierra. +Pero son voladores increbles. Esta especie en particular puede volar miles de kilmetros. +Y simplemente sigue. Y el viento del NE pasa zumbando y se lo lleva a travs del ocano hacia frica, donde est lloviendo. +Y se estn reproduciendo en las lluvias de frica. +Ahora, esto es el SE de frica. Se ve como una especie de... dos perodos de reproduccin. Es un poco ms complicado. +Lo que pasa es que se estn reproduciendo en las lluvias del monzn aqu. +Y las liblulas que se ven hoy aqu afuera en el campus, son los jvenes de esta generacin. +Incubaron en India. +Estn buscando un lugar para reproducirse. Si llueve aqu se reproducirn. +Pero muchas continuarn. Y siguiente parada, tal vez solamente 4 o 5 das despus ser frica del Este. +Este viento las arrastrar por aqu. +Si pasan las Maldivas podran ir y ver, nada aqu, continuarn. +Aqu, aqu, Kenia, frica del Este realmente han salido de una larga sequa. +Recin la semana pasada empezaron las lluvias. Empezaron las lluvias escasas y est lloviendo ah ahora. +Y las liblulas estn ah. Tengo informes de varios contactos. +Las liblulas estn aqu ahora. Se estn reproduciendo ah. +Cuando esos chicos depositen sus huevos, +incubarn seis semanas. Para ese entonces las lluvias estacionales se habrn ido. No es ah, es aqu abajo. +Volarn aqu. Y lo interesante es el viento siempre est convergiendo hacia donde est la lluvia. +Llueve, estas son lluvias del verano. +Este es un monzn de verano. +El sol cae de pleno aqu. Las lluvias veraniegas en el sur de frica. +El sol est en pleno, calor al mximo, mxima evaporacin, nubes al mximo, lluvias al mximo, mximas oportunidades de reproduccin. +No slo eso, es esta conveccin, tienes esta elevacin del aire donde est caliente, se mete el aire. +Hay una convergencia. As, dondequiera que la lluvia est cayendo el aire es atrado hacia ella para reemplazar el aire que se est elevando. +De modo que, la pequea criatura que incuba aqu, se eleva en el aire, es automticamente llevado hacia donde est cayendo la lluvia. +Deposita sus huevos, la siguiente generacin, salen, son llevados automticamente hacia donde la lluvia est cayendo. +Ahora est aqu de nuevo. Salen, es hora de regresar. +De modo que, en cuatro generaciones, uno, dos, tres, cuatro y estn de regreso. +Un circuito completo del ocano ndico. +Este es un circuito de aproximadamente 16.000 kilmetros. +16.000 kilmetros, cuatro generaciones, recuerden, para un insecto de 5 cms. Es bastante increble. +Aquellos de Uds de Norte Amrica estn familiarizados con la mariposa monarca. +La cual, hasta ahora ha tenido la migracin ms larga para un insecto. +Solamente es la mitad del largo de sta. +Y este cruce aqu, del ocano es el nico cruce regular transocenico de cualquier insecto. +Una hazaa bastante increble. +Y me top con esto slo porque estaba viviendo en Mal, en Maldivas por el tiempo suficiente para que se filtrara en mi cerebro que algo ms bien especial estaba pasando. +Pero las liblulas no son las nicas criaturas que hacen la travesa. +Hay ms en esta historia. +Tambin me interesan los pjaros. Y estoy familiarizado con esta criatura. Este es un pjaro algo especial. +Es un halcn. Se llama halcn rojo del este, obviamente. +Pero tambin se le llama halcn de Amur. +Y se le llama halcn de Amur porque se reproduce en Amurland. +Que es un rea junto al ro Amur, que est aqu arriba. +Es la frontera, mucho es la frontera entre China y Rusia, aqu en el lejano este. +De modo que, Siberia, Manchuria. +Y ah es donde se reproduce. +Y si eres un halcn es un lugar bastante agradable para estar en el verano. +Pero es un lugar bastante horrible para estar en invierno. +Es, bueno, se pueden imaginar. +De modo que, como cualquier pjaro hara, se mud al sur. Se mudaron al sur. Toda la poblacin se mud al sur. +Pero luego lo de ser sensible se acab. +De modo que, ahora no se paran aqu, o incluso aqu. +No, atraviesan por aqu. +Tienen una parada para repostar en el NE de India. +Vienen a relajarse aqu a Mumbai o Goa. +Y luego emprenden el camino a travs del ocano, hacia Kenia. +Y hacia abajo aqu, e hibernan aqu abajo al sur de frica. +Increble. Esta es la migracin ms extraordinaria de cualquier ave de rapia. Una migracin bastante increble. +Y no son los nicos que hacen la travesa. +Hacen el viaje ms increble, pero muchos hacen la travesa desde India hasta frica. Incluye este, el alcotn. +Esta es un ave muy simptica. Es el cralo blanquinegro. +Quienes sean del norte de India estarn familiarizados con este. +Viene con los monzones. +En esta poca del ao atraviesan de regreso a frica. +Y este chico, el garrulus, un ave preciosa. +Se le conoce como coracias garrulus. En India aparece en el NO. Se le conoce como cachemir. +Y estas aves, lo que hice es compilar todos los registros, todos los registros disponibles de estas aves, juntarlos, y encontr que migran exactamente al mismo tiempo. que las liblulas. +Utilizan exactamente los mismos vientos. +Viajan al mismo tiempo exactamente con los mismos vientos para hacer la travesa. Yo s que viajan a la misma altitud. +Se sabe del halcn Amur. Desafortunadamente este chico, uno de estos se encontr con un desafortunado final, +Estaba volando en las costas de Goa, hace 21 aos, 1988, octubre de 1988. +Un jet de la marina India estaba volando cerca de Goa, bang, en mitad de la noche, afortunadamente un jet de dos motores regres a la base, y sacaron los restos de uno de estos coracias garrulus. +Volando en la noche sobre el ocano ndico a 2.424 metros. +A la misma altura a la que van las liblulas. +As que estn usando los mismos vientos. +Y la otra cosa, el otro factor importante para todas estas aves, todos de tamao medio, y esto incluye la siguiente diapositiva tambin, que es un abejaruco. +Los abejarucos comen abejas. Este tiene un lindo cachete azul. +Es un abejaruco de mejillas azules. +Y cada una de estas aves que hace la travesa desde India al este de frica come insectos, insectos grandes. del tamao de las liblulas. Muchas gracias. +La metfora vive una vida secreta. +Usamos casi seis metforas por minuto. +El pensamiento metafrico es esencial en cmo nos entendemos, y a los dems, cmo nos comunicamos, aprendemos, descubrimos e inventamos. +Pero la metfora es una forma de pensamiento antes que elocuencia. +Ahora, para ayudarme a explicarlo, he pedido ayuda a uno de nuestros ms notables filsofos, el rey de los metafricos, un hombre cuyas contribuciones al tema son tan grandes que l mismo se ha convertido en metfora. +Me refiero, por supuesto, a Elvis Presley. +"Agitado" es una gran cancin de amor. +Tambin es un ejemplo de cmo, cuando lidiamos con algo abstracto, como ideas, emociones, sentimientos, conceptos, pensamientos, inevitablemente apelamos a la metfora. +En "Agitado", un toque no es tal, sino un escalofro. +Los labios no son labios, sino volcanes. +Ella no es ella, sino una flor. +Y el amor no es amor, sino estar estremecido. +En esto, Elvis sigue la clsica definicin de Aristteles sobre la metfora como el proceso de dar al objeto un nombre que pertenece a otra cosa. +Esta es la matemtica de la metfora. +Y afortunadamente es muy simple. +X es igual a Y. +Esta frmula entra en accin cuando hay una metfora. +Elvis la usa, pero tambin Shakespeare en su famoso verso de "Romeo y Julieta", Julieta es el sol. +Aqu, Shakespeare da al objeto, Julieta, un nombre que pertenece a otra cosa, el sol. +Pero cuando damos a algo un nombre que pertenece a otra cosa, tambin le damos toda una red de analogas. +Mezclamos y combinamos lo que sabemos sobre la fuente de la metfora, en este caso el sol, con lo que sabemos de su objetivo, Julieta. +Y la metfora nos revela una Julieta mucho ms vvida que si Shakespeare la hubiera descrito literalmente. +Entonces, cmo hacemos y entendemos las metforas? +Esto puede ser familiar. +El primer paso es el reconocimiento de patrones. +Miren esta imagen. Qu ven? +Tres dscolos Pac Men, y la presencia de tres parntesis puntiagudos. +Lo que vemos, sin embargo, son dos tringulos solapados. +La metfora no es slo la deteccin de patrones; es la creacin de patrones. +Segundo paso, la sinestesia conceptual. +La sinestesia es la experiencia de un estmulo de un rgano sensorial en otro rgano sensorial, como la audicin cromtica. +Las personas que escuchan en colores ven colores cuando escuchan sonidos de palabras o letras. +Todos tenemos habilidades sinestsicas. +Esta es la prueba Bouba/Kiki. +Debes identificar cul de estas formas se llama Bouba, y cual se llama Kiki. +Si eres como el 98% de las personas, identificars la forma redonda y de ameba como Bouba, y la filosa como Kiki. +Pueden levantar la mano? +De acuerdo? +Bien, creo que 99,9 es suficiente. +Por qu hacemos eso? +Porque instintivamente hallamos, o creamos, un patrn entre la forma redonda, y el sonido redondo de Bouba, y la imagen filosa, con el sonido filoso de Kiki. +Muchas de las metforas que siempre usamos son sinestsicas. +El silencio es dulce. +Las corbatas son escandalosas. +Las personas sexualmente atractivas son "calientes". +Las personas que no son atractivas nos dejan fros. +La metfora crea una suerte de sinestesia conceptual, en la que entendemos un concepto dentro del contexto de otro. +El tercer paso es la disonancia cognitiva. +Esta es la prueba Stroop. +Aqu debes identificar lo ms rpidamente posible el color de la tinta en que se imprimieron estas palabras. +Pueden hacer la prueba ahora. +Si eres como la mayora, experimentars un momento de disonancia cognitiva cuando el nombre del color est impreso en una tinta de color diferente. +Esta prueba demuestra que no podemos ignorar el significado literal de las palabras an si el significado literal nos da la respuesta equivocada. +Las pruebas Stroop se han hecho tambin con metforas. +Los participantes tenan que identificar rpidamente las oraciones literalmente falsas. +Se tardaron ms en rechazar las metforas como falsas que al rechazar las oraciones literalmente falsas. +Por qu? Porque tampoco podemos ignorar el significado metafrico de las palabras. +Una de las oraciones era: "Algunos trabajos son crceles". +Si no eres un guardia en una prisin, la oracin "Algunos trabajos son crceles" es literalmente falsa. +Tristemente, es metafricamente veraz. +Y la verdad metafrica interfiere con nuestra habilidad de identificarla como literalmente falsa. +La metfora es importante porque nos circunda todos los das, todo el tiempo. +La metfora importa porque crea expectativas. +Preste mucha atencin la prxima vez que lea las noticias financieras. +Las metforas de agente describen los movimientos de precios como la accin deliberada de un ser viviente, como en "El NASDAQ ascendi". +Las metforas de objeto describen los movimientos de los precios como cosas inanimadas, como en " El Dow cay como un ladrillo". +Unos investigadores pidieron a un grupo de personas que leyeran comentarios sobre el mercado, y que luego predijeran la tendencia de precios del da siguiente. +Los expuestos a las metforas de agente tenan mayores expectativas de que las tendencias seguiran. +Y tenan esas expectativas porque las metforas de agente implican la accin deliberada de un ser viviente en pos de una meta. +Si, por ejemplo, los precios de las casas se describen como siempre ascendentes, ms y ms alto, la gente naturalmente asumira que el alza es indetenible. +Podran sentirse confiados, digamos, para asumir hipotecas que en verdad no pueden costear. +Ese es un ejemplo hipottico, por supuesto. +Pero as es cmo la metfora puede confundir. +La metfora tambin es importante porque afecta decisiones al activar analogas. +Se le dijo a un grupo de estudiantes que un pequeo pas democrtico fue invadido y peda ayuda a EE.UU. +Ellos deban tomar una decisin. +Qu deban hacer? +Intervenir, llamar a las Naciones Unidas, o hacer nada? +Cada uno recibi una de tres descripciones de esta crisis hipottica. +Cada una fue diseada para provocar una analoga histrica diferente: La Segunda Guerra Mundial, Vietnam, y la tercera era histricamente neutral. +Los que fueron expuestos al escenario de la II Guerra hicieron recomendaciones ms intervencionistas que los dems. +As como no podemos ignorar el significado literal de las palabras, no podemos ignorar las analogas provocadas por la metfora. +La metfora importa porque abre las puertas al descubrimiento. +Cada vez que resolvemos un problema, o descubrimos algo, lo comparamos con lo que sabemos y lo que no sabemos. +Y la nica forma de entender lo que no sabemos es investigar las formas en que pueda parecerse a lo conocido. +Einstein describi su mtodo cientfico como juego combinatorio. +Us experimentos de ideas, que en esencia son analogas elaboradas, para lograr sus mayores descubrimientos. +Al juntar lo que sabemos y lo que no sabemos a travs de la analoga, el pensamiento metafrico prende la chispa que enciende el descubrimiento. +La metfora es ubicua, aunque est oculta. +Pero slo hay que mirar a las palabras que nos rodean y la encontraremos. +Ralph Waldo Emerson describi el lenguaje como "poesa fsil". +Pero antes de que fuera poesa fsil el lenguaje fue una metfora fsil. +Y estos fsiles todava respiran. +Como las tres palabras ms famosas de la filosofa occidental: "Cogito ergo sum". +Habitualmente traducidas como "Pienso, luego existo". +Pero hay una mejor traduccin. +La palabra en latn "cogito" se deriva del prefijo "co", que significa "junto", y del verbo "agitare", que significa "agitar". +Entonces, el significado original de "cogito" es "agitar juntos". +Y la traduccin ms apropiada de "cogito ergo sum" es "Agito las cosas, luego existo". +Las metforas agitan las cosas, dndonos todo, desde Shakespeare hasta el descubrimiento cientfico. +La mente es una pequea bveda de nieve, y es ms bella, ms interesante, y ms fiel a s misma cuando, como dijo Elvis, est "agitada". +Y la metfora mantiene la mente agitada, vibrando y rodando, mucho despus de que Elvis abandonara el edificio. +Muchas gracias. +Mi enojo contra la corrupcin me hizo hacer un gran cambio de carrera el ao pasado, convirtindome en un abogado prcticante de tiempo completo. +Mis experiencias en los ltimos 18 meses como abogado han sembrado en m una nueva idea empresarial que creo en verdad vale la pena difundir. +Por eso aqu la comparto con ustedes, aunque la idea en s est tomando forma y an estoy escribiendo el plan de negocios. +Por supuesto, esto ayuda a que el temor de fallar ante el pblico disminuya a medida que la cantidad de ideas que han fallado aumenta. +He sido gran admirador de las empresas y la iniciativa empresarial desde 1993. +He explorado, experimentado, y vivido la empresa y el capitalismo hasta que mi corazn estuvo satisfecho. +Constru, junto con mis dos hermanos, la principal compaa de bienes races en mi ciudad natal, Kerala. Y luego colabor profesionalmente con dos de los ms grandes empresarios de India, pero en sus empresas iniciales. +En 2003 sal del sector meramente capitalista para trabajar en el llamado sector de temas sociales. Definitivamente no tena ninguna gran estrategia o plan a seguir para lograr soluciones rentables, para responder a los grandes problemas pblicos. +Cuando pas por una serie fallecimientos y experiencias cercanas a la muerte en mi crculo ntimo sto resalt la necesidad de un servicio de respuesta de emergencia mdica en India, similar al 911 de Estados Unidos. +Para lograr esto, cuatro amigos y yo, fundamos "Acceso a Ambulancias para Todos", para promover servicios de ambulancias con soporte vital en India. +Para el mundo desarrollado, no hay nada, absolutamente nada, nuevo en esta idea. +Pero mientras lo imaginbamos, tenamos tres metas clave: proporcionar servicio de ambulancias de soporte vital de clase mundial, algo totalmente autosustentable en su propio flujo de ingresos, y accesible universalmente a cualquiera que tenga una emergencia mdica, sin importar la capacidad de pago. +De esto surgi el servicio "Marcar 1298 para Ambulancia", con una ambulancia en 2004, ahora cuenta con ms de 100 ambulancias en 3 estados, y ha transportado ms de 100.000 pacientes y vctimas desde su inicio. +El servicio es... totalmente autosustentable por sus propios ingresos, sin acceder a fondos pblicos y el modelo de subsidio cruzado realmente funciona, donde el rico paga ms, el pobre paga menos, y las vctimas de accidentes tienen el servicio gratis. +El servicio respondi efectiva y eficientemente durante el desafortunado ataque terrorista de Mumbai del 26 de noviembre. +Como pueden ver en las imgenes el servicio estuvo respondiendo y rescatando vctimas en el lugar del incidente an antes de que la polica pudiera acordonar la zona del incidente y confirmar formalmente el golpe terrorista. +Fuimos el primer equipo mdico en llegar a cada zona de incidente y transportamos 125 vctimas, que salvaron la vida. +En tributo y memoria de los ataques del 26 de noviembre durante el ltimo ao hemos ayudado a ONGs de Pakistn Fundacin Aman, a organizar un servicio de ambulancias autosustentable en Karachi, facilitada por la Fundacin Acumn. +Este es un pequeo mensaje nuestro, a nuestra manera a los enemigos de la humanidad, del Islam, de Asia del Sur, de India y de Pakistn, que la Humanidad continuar creciendo, independientemente de esos ataques cobardes. +Desde entonces, yo he co-fundado otras dos empresas sociales. +Una es "Acceso a la Educacin para Todos", estableciendo escuelas en pequeos pueblos de India. +Y la otra es "Acceso Mosha-Yug", que integra la cadena de suministro rural al fundamento de grupos de autoayuda basados en micro financiamiento. +Creo que estamos haciendo algunas cosas bien. +Porque inversores diligentes y fondos de riesgo se han comprometido con ms de 7,5 millones de dlares en financiamiento. +Lo importante es que estos fondos llegaron en forma de capital, no como subvencin o filantropa. +Ahora regreso a la idea de la nueva empresa social que estoy explorando. +Corrupcin, soborno y falta de transparencia. +Es posible que se sorprendan al saber que ayer ocho oradores mencionaron estos trminos en sus charlas. +Sobornos y corrupcin tienen oferta y demanda. La oferta se compone principalmente de negocios anti-ticos de codicia empresarial y el hombre comn desventurado. +Y la demanda en su mayora de polticos, burcratas y los que tienen poder discrecional a su disposicin. +Segn estimacin del Banco Mundial se paga en sobornos un billn de dlares al ao, empeorando una condicin que ya es muy mala. +Sin embargo, si se analiza al hombre comn, l o ella no despierta cada da y dice: "Mmm, veamos a quin puedo sobornar hoy". +o "Veamos a quin puedo corromper hoy". +A menudo es la limitante o situacin de estar "entre la espada y la pared" en la que se encuentra el hombre comn desafortunado que lo lleva a pagar un soborno. +El mundo moderno, donde el tiempo es vital, y la batalla por subsistir es inimaginablemente dura, hace que el hombre comn desventurado simplemente ceda y pague el soborno para poder continuar con su vida. +Ahora djenme hacerles otra pregunta. +Imaginen que se les pida pagar un soborno en su vida diaria para realizar algo. +Qu hacen? Por supuesto pueden llamar a la polica. +Pero qu pasa si el departamento de polica esta inmerso en la corrupcin? +Definitivamente no quieren pagar el soborno. +Pero tampoco tienen el tiempo, los recursos, la experiencia o los medios para luchar contra eso. +Desafortunadamente, muchos aqu apoyamos las polticas capitalistas y las fuerzas del mercado. +Sin embargo, las fuerzas del mercado en todo el mundo an no han lanzado un servicio donde uno puede llamar, pagar una cuota, e iniciar demanda de soborno. +Como un servicio de cazadores de soborno, o un 1-800-No-Ms-Sobornos, o un www.altoalsoborno.org o www.evitecorrupcion.org. +Tal servicio simplemente no existe. +Una imagen que me ha perseguido desde mis primeros das en los negocios es el de una anciana de ms de 70 aos, acosada por los burcratas en la oficina de planeamiento del pueblo. +Todo lo que ella necesitaba era permiso para construir tres escalones en su casa, desde el suelo, para facilitarle entrar y salir de la casa. +An as la persona a cargo simplemente no le daba el permiso esperando un soborno. +A pesar de que toc mi conciencia entonces, no pude o no quise ir con ella para ayudarla, porque yo estaba ocupado construyendo mi compaa de bienes races. +Ya no quiero verme perseguido por tales imgenes. +Un grupo de nosotros hemos trabajado sobre una base experimental para hacer frente a casos individuales de demandas por soborno en servicios comunes o derechos. +Y en los 42 casos en los que hemos hecho retroceder esas demandas usando herramientas existentes y legtimas como la Ley de Derecho a la Informacin, video, audio, o presin social, hemos logrado obtener lo que nuestros clientes necesitan sin tener que pagar sobornos. +Y siendo el costo de estas herramientas mucho ms bajo que lo que pedan de soborno. +Creo que estas herramientas que funcionaron en estos 42 casos pilotos pueden consolidarse en un proceso estndar en un tipo de ambiente de externalizacin de procesos empresariales, y poner a disposicin en la Web un centro de llamadas y hacer franquicias con oficinas fsicas, por una cuota, para servir a cualquiera que se enfrente a una solicitud de soborno. +El mercado objetivo es de lo ms tentador. +Puede valer hasta un billn de dlares, lo que se paga en sobornos cada ao, igual al PBI de India. +Y es un mercado completamente virgen. +Propongo explorar ms esta idea, para examinar el potencial de crear un tipo de servicio con fines de lucro externo a los procesos de negocio para detener los sobornos y prevenir la corrupcin. +Me doy cuenta de que la lucha por la justicia contra la corrupcin nunca es fcil. +Nunca lo ha sido y nunca lo ser. +En mis ltimos 18 meses, como abogado, luchando contra la corrupcin a pequea y gran escala, incluyendo el perpetrado por los estafadores corporativos ms grandes de India. +A travs de sus obras de caridad he tenido tres casos policacos presentados en mi contra alegando transgresin, suplantacin e intimidacin. +La batalla contra la corrupcin hace estragos en nosotros mismos, nuestras familias, nuestros amigos, e incluso a nuestros hijos. +Sin embargo, creo que el precio que pagamos vale aferrarnos a nuestra dignidad y hacer del mundo un mejor lugar. +Qu nos da valor? +Como mi amigo respondi cuando se le dijo al principio del proyecto de las ambulancias que eso era una tarea imposible y los fundadores estaban locos por arriesgar sus trabajos en empresas exitosas, cito: "Por supuesto, no podemos fallar en sta, al menos en nuestro fuero ntimo. +Porque somos unos locos, tratando de hacer algo imposible. +Y una persona loca no sabe lo que es una tarea imposible". Gracias. +Chris Anderson: Shaffi, esa es realmente una idea comercial apasionante. +Shaffi Mather: slo tengo que sobrevivir los das iniciales en los que no me eliminaron. +CA: Qu tienes en mente? +Digo, danos una idea de los nmeros... un soborno tpico y una tarifa normal. Quiero decir, qu tienes en mente? +SM: Djame... djame darte un ejemplo. +Alguien que haba solicitado el pasaporte. +El oficial estaba sentado y exiga unas 3.000 rupias en sobornos. +Y l no quera pagar. +As que usamos la Ley de Derecho a la Informacin que es igual a la Ley de Libertad de Informacin de Estados Unidos contra los oficiales en este caso en particular. +Y en los 42 casos mientras los perseguamos hubo tres tipos de reacciones. +Un grupo de personas deca: "Oh, permtanme garantizrselos y huir de eso". +Algunas personas regresaban y decan: "Oh, me quieren arruinar. Djenme que les muestre lo que puedo hacer". +Y nos enfrentaban. +As uno da el paso siguiente, o usa la prxima herramienta disponible en lo que est organizando y l cede. +A la tercera vez, en los 42 casos, logramos xito. +CA: Pero si es un soborno de 3.000 rupias, 70 dlares, qu monto tienen que cobrar para que el negocio funcione? +SM: Bueno, en realidad el costo que incurrimos fue menos de 200 rupias. +As que realmente funcion. +CA: Ese es un negocio de alto margen bruto. Me gusta. +SM: En realidad no quera responder esto en el escenario de TED. +CA: Muy bien, estas son cifras provisionales, no se garantiza precios. +Si puedes sacar esto adelante vas a ser un hroe mundial. +Quiero decir, esto podra ser enorme. +Muchas gracias por compartir esta idea en TED. +La pregunta clave es, "Cundo vamos a tener fusin?" +Realmente ha pasado bastante tiempo desde que sabemos acerca de la fusin. +Sabemos acerca de la fusin desde 1920, cuando Sir Arthur Stanley Eddington y la Asociacin Britnica para el Avance de la Ciencia conjeturaron que es por esto que el sol brilla. +Siempre he estado bastante preocupado por los recursos. +Y no se si ustedes, pero cuando mi madre me daba comida siempre sorteaba los que no me gustaban de los que me gustaban. +Y coma los que no me gustaban primero, porque los que te gustan, quieres guardarlos. +Y de nio siempre ests preocupado por los recursos. +Y una vez me fue explicado de cierta forma que tan rpido estamos usando los recursos del mundo, me sent bastante mal, tan mal como cuando me di cuenta que la Tierra slo durar alrededor de cinco billones de aos antes de que sea tragada por el sol. +Grandes eventos en mi vida, un nio extrao. +Energa, en este momento, est dominada por el recurso. +Los pases que hacen bastante dinero de la energa tienen algo debajo de ellos. +El carbn impuls la revolucin industrial en este pas -- petrleo, gas, perdn. +Gas, soy probablemente la nica persona que realmente disfruta cuando el Seor Putin cierra la llave del gas, porque mi presupuesto se eleva. +Ahora realmente estamos dominados por aquellas cosas que estamos consumiendo cada vez ms rpido y ms rpido y ms rpido. +Y mientras tratamos de liberar de la pobreza a billones de personas en el Tercer Mundo, en el mundo en desarrollo, estamos usando energa cada vez ms rpido y ms rpido. +Y estos recursos estn desapareciendo. +Y la forma en que haremos energa en el futuro no es a partir del recurso, sino realmente del conocimiento. +Si miran 50 aos hacia el futuro, la manera en que probablemente estaremos haciendo energa ser probablemente una de estas tres, con algo de viento, con algunas otras cosas, pero estos van a ser los mnimos generadores de energa. +La energa solar puede hacerlo, y seguramente tendremos que desarrollarla. +Pero tenemos que incrementar mucho el conocimiento antes de que podamos hacer de la energa solar la base mnima de suministro de energa para el mundo. +Fisin. +Nuestro gobierno va a colocar seis nuevas estaciones nucleares. +Van a colocar seis nuevas estaciones nucleares, y probablemente ms despus. +China est haciendo estaciones nucleares. Todos lo estn haciendo. +Porque saben que esta es una manera segura de generar energa libre de carbono. +Pero si quisieran saber cul es la fuente de energa perfecta, la fuente de energa perfecta es aquella que no ocupa mucho espacio, tiene una fuente virtualmente inagotable, es segura, no emite carbono a la atmsfera, no deja residuos radioactivos de larga duracin, es la fusin. +Pero hay una trampa. Claro, siempre hay una trampa en estos casos. +La fusin es muy difcil de hacer. +Hemos estado tratando por 50 aos. +Bien. Qu es fusin? Aqu viene la fsica nuclear. +Y lo siento por esto, pero es lo que me emociona. +Fui un nio extrao. +La energa nuclear sucede por una simple razn. +El ncleo ms estable es hierro, justo en la mitad de la tabla peridica. +Es un ncleo de tamao medio. +Y queremos ir hacia el hierro si queremos obtener energa. +Entonces, uranio, que es muy grande, quiere dividirse. +Pero tomos pequeos quieren juntarse, pequeos ncleos quieren juntarse para hacer ncleos ms grandes que se acerquen al de hierro. +Y ustedes pueden obtener energa de esta manera. +Y efectivamente, esto es exactamente lo que las estrellas hacen. +En el centro de las estrellas se est uniendo hidrgeno para hacer helio y luego helio se une para hacer carbono, para hacer oxgeno, todas las cosas de las que estamos hechos se hacen en el centro de las estrellas. +Pero es un proceso difcil de hacer porque, como saben, el centro de una estrella es bastante caliente, casi por definicin. +Y hay una reaccin que es probablemente la reaccin de fusin ms fcil de hacer. +Es entre dos isotopos de hidrgeno, dos tipos de hidrgeno, deuterio, que es hidrgeno pesado, que se puede obtener del agua de mar, y tritio que es hidrgeno sper pesado. +Estos dos ncleos, cuando estn bien separados, estn cargados. +Y al acercarlos se repelen. +Pero cuando se acercan lo suficiente, algo llamado la fuerza fuerte comienza a actuar y los hace acercarse ms. +Entonces, la mayora del tiempo se repelen. +Y al ponerlos ms cerca y ms cerca y ms cerca en algn momento la fuerza fuerte los amarra juntos. +Por un momento se convierten en helio 5, porque tienen cinco partculas dentro de ellos. +Entonces, ste es el proceso. Deuterio y tritio se unen haciendo helio 5. +Helio se separa, y un neutrn se libera y mucha energa es liberada. +Si pueden hacer que algo est a alrededor de 150 millones de grados, las cosas estarn vibrando tan rpido que cada vez que colisionen en la configuracin precisa, esto suceder, y liberar energa. +Y esa energa es la que genera la fusin. +Y es esta reaccin la que queremos hacer. +Hay un problema con esta reaccin. +Bien, el problema es que se tiene que hacer a 150 millones de grados, pero hay otro problema acerca de la reaccin. +Es demasiado caliente. +El problema acerca de la reaccin es que tritio no existe en la naturaleza. +Hay que hacerlo de alguna otra cosa. +Y se hace del litio. La reaccin en la parte inferior, es litio 6, ms un neutrn, dar ms helio, ms tritio. +Y esa es la forma de hacer tritio. +Pero afortunadamente, si pueden hacer esta reaccin de fusin, tienen un neutrn, as que lo pueden hacer. +Ahora, por qu diablos nos interesa hacer esto? +Esto es bsicamente por lo que nos interesa hacerlo. +Si hacen una grfica de cunto combustible nos queda, en unidades de consumo global actual. +Y a medida que cruzamos esto vemos unas cuantas dcadas de petroleo -- la lnea azul, por cierto, es el estimado ms bajo de recursos existentes. +Y la lnea amarilla es el estimado ms optimista. +Y a medida que cruzamos esto ustedes vern que nos quedan unas cuantas dcadas, tal vez 100 aos de combustibles fsiles disponibles. +Y Dios sabe que realmente no queremos consumir todo esto. Porque emitir una gran cantidad de carbono al aire. +Y luego llegamos al uranio. +Y con la tecnologa actual de reactores realmente no tenemos mucho uranio. +Y tendremos que extraer uranio del agua de mar. que es la lnea amarilla, para hacer que las estaciones nucleares de poder convencionales realmente hagan mucho ms por nosotros. +Esto es un poco sorprendente, porque de hecho nuestro gobierno est dependiendo de esto para que podamos cumplir con Kyoto, y hacer toda esta clase de cosas. +Para lograr avanzar ms tendramos que utilizar tecnologa de reproduccin. +Y la tecnologa de reproduccin son reproductores rpidos. Y eso es bastante peligroso. +La cosa grande, a la derecha, es el litio que tenemos en el mundo. +Y el litio est en el agua de mar. Esa es la lnea amarilla. +Y tenemos 30 millones de aos en combustible de fusin del agua de mar. +Todos lo pueden obtener. Es por esto que queremos hacer fusin. +Y es costo-competitivo? +Hacemos estimados de lo que creemos podra costar hacer una planta de poder de fusin. +Y obtenemos un precio alrededor del de la electricidad actual. +Entonces, cmo lo haramos? +Tenemos que mantener algo a 150 millones de grados. +Y, de hecho, lo hemos logrado. +Lo mantenemos con un campo magntico. +Y dentro de el, justo en el centro de esta forma anular, forma de dona, justo en el centro est a 150 millones de grados. +Hierve en el centro a 150 millones de grados. +Y de hecho podemos hacer que suceda la fusin. +Y justo al final del camino, esto es JET. +Es la nica mquina en el mundo que realmente ha hecho fusin. +Cuando la gente dice que la fusin est a 30 aos, y siempre lo estar, Yo digo, "Claro, pero realmente lo hemos logrado." Cierto? +Podemos hacer fusin. En el centro de este aparato logramos 16 mega vatios de poder de fusin en 1997. +Y en el 2013, lo vamos a prender de nuevo y romper todos los registros. +Pero esto no es realmente poder de fusin. Esto es slo hacer algo de fusin. +Tenemos que llevar esto, tenemos que hacer esto en un reactor de fusin. +Porque queremos 30 millones de aos de poder de fusin para la tierra. +ste es el aparato que estamos construyendo ahora. +Se vuelve muy costoso hacer esta investigacin. +Resulta que no se puede hacer fusin sobre una mesa a pesar de todos esos disparates de fusin fra. Cierto? +No se puede. Hay que hacerlo en un aparato muy grande. +Ms de la mitad de la poblacin mundial est involucrada en la construccin de este aparato en el sur de Francia. Que es un lugar bonito para hacer un experimento. +Siete naciones estn involucradas en esto. +Y nos va a costar 10 billones. Y produciremos medio giga vatio de poder de fusin. +Pero esto no es electricidad todava. +Tenemos que llegar a esto. +Tenemos que llegar a una planta de poder. +Tenemos que empezar a poner electricidad en la red en esta tecnologa muy compleja. +Y realmente quiero que suceda mucho ms rpido de lo que se ha logrado. +Pero ahora todo lo que podemos imaginar es en algn momento de los 2030s. +Deseara que esto fuera diferente. Realmente lo necesitamos ya. +Vamos a tener un problema con la energa en los prximos cinco aos en este pas. +As que el 2030 se ve infinitamente lejos. +Pero no podemos abandonarlo ahora; tenemos que empujar hacia adelante, lograr que la fusin suceda. +Deseo que tuviramos ms dinero, deseo que tuviramos ms recursos. +Pero esto es a lo que estamos apuntando, en algn momento de los 2030s -- poder elctrico real de la fusin. Muchas gracias. +Namaste. Salaam. +Shalom. Sat Sri Akal. +Saludos para todos desde Pakistn. +Se dice a menudo que tememos aquello que no conocemos. +Pakistn, en este sentido, es muy similar. +Porque ha provocado, y provoca una ansiedad visceral en el estmago de muchos occidentales, especialmente cuando es visto a travs del lente monocromtico de los disturbios y el alboroto. +Pero hay muchas otras dimensiones en Pakistn. +Y lo que sigue es un flujo de imgenes una serie de imgenes tomadas por algunos de los fotgrafos mas jvenes y dinmicos de Pakistn, que busca darles una visin alternativa, un vistazo a los corazones y las mentes de algunos ciudadanos comunes de Pakistn. +Aqu van algunas de las historias que ellos queran que compartiramos con Uds. +Mi nombre es Abdul Khan. Vengo de Peshawar. +Espero que puedan ver no solamente barba estilo talibn sino tambin el color y la riqueza de mis percepciones, aspiraciones y sueos, tan ricas y coloridas como los bolsos que vendo. +Mi nombre es Meher y esta es mi amiga Irim. +Quiero ser una veterinaria cuando crezca para cuidar los gatos y perros abandonados que vagan por las calles del pueblo en el que vivo en Gilgit, en el norte de Pakistn. +Mi nombre es Kailash. Y me gusta enriquecer vidas usado vidrio tecnicolor. +Seora, le gustaran algunas de esas pulseras anaranjadas... ...con pintitas rosadas? +Mi nombre es Zamin +Soy un PDI, persona desplazada internamente, de Swat. +Me ven del otro lado de la alambrada? +Importo?, o realmente existo para ustedes? +Mi nombre es Iman. Soy modelo, una modelo en ascenso de Lahore. +Slo me ven cubierta por una una tela? +O pueden ir ms all del velo... ...y ver quin soy realmente por dentro? +Mi nombre es Ahmed. Soy un refugiado afgano de la agencia Khyber. +He venido de un lugar de intensa oscuridad. +Y por eso quiero iluminar el mundo. +Mi nombre es Papusay. +Mi corazn y mi tambor baten como uno solo. +Si la religin es el opio de las masas, entonces para m, la msica es mi nica droga. +Una marea que sube eleva todos los barcos. +Y la marea creciente de la India y su espectacular crecimiento econmico ha elevado ms de 400 milliones de indios a una clase media vigorosa. +Pero todava quedan ms de 650 millones de indios, pakistanes, cingaleses, bengales, nepaleses, que siguen hundidos en la pobreza. +De modo que como India y Pakistn, t y yo, nos corresponde trascender nuestra diferencias y celebrar nuestra diversidad, para aprovechar nuestra humanidad comn. +Nuestra visin colectiva en Naya Jeevan, que para muchos de ustedes, como todos pueden reconocer, quiere decir "nueva vida" en urdu e hindi, es rejuvenecer las vidas de millones de familias de bajos ingresos proveyndoles acceso econmico a cobertura mdica de catstrofe. +El primer caso del mundo en desarrollo de cobertura mdica para trabajadores urbanos pobres. +Como indios y pakistanes: por qu deberamos hacer esto? +No somos ms que dos hilos cortados de la misma tela +y nuestros destinos estn entrelazados as que creemos que es buen karma, buena suerte. +Y para muchos de nosotros, nuestra fortuna realmente est en la base de la pirmide. Muchas Gracias. +Chris Anderson: fantstico. Slo qudate ah arriba. +Eso fue fantstico. +Me result realmente conmovedor. +Sabes, peleamos mucho para conseguir al menos que viniera un pequeo contingente de pakistanes. +Se senta que era realmente importante. +Tuvieron que sortear mucho para llegar aqu. +Pueden ponerse de pie los pakistanes? +Slo quiero darles reconocimiento. +Muchsimas gracias. +Bien, aprend mucho sobre globos aerostticos en especial al final de estos vuelos por todo el mundo que hicimos con Brian Jones. +Cuando tom esta fotografa la ventana estaba congelada por el roco nocturno. +Y del otro lado haba un sol naciente. +Vean que del otro lado del hielo est lo desconocido uno tiene algo que no es obvio algo nunca visto por aquellos que no se atreven a pasar por el hielo. +Hay tanta gente que prefiere sufrir en el hielo conocido por no aventurarse a atravesar el hielo para ver qu hay del otro lado. +Pienso que ese es uno de los problemas principales de nuestra sociedad. +Aprendemos, quiz no la clebre audiencia de TED, pero s muchos otros aprenden que lo desconocido, las dudas, los signos de pregunta son peligrosos. +Y tenemos que resistirnos al cambio. +Tenemos que mantener todo bajo control. +Bueno, lo desconocido es parte de la vida. +Y en ese sentido volar en globo es una metfora hermosa. +Porque en el globo, como en la vida, vamos muy bien en direcciones imprevistas. +Queremos ir en una direccin pero los vientos nos empujan en otra direccin, como la vida, +Y mientras batallamos en forma horizontal contra la vida, contra los vientos, contra lo que nos va sucediendo la vida es una pesadilla. +Cmo dirigir un globo? +Entendiendo que la atmsfera est compuesta por varias capas de viento distintas que van en direcciones diferentes. +Y as entendemos que si queremos cambiar la trayectoria en la vida, o en globo, tenemos que cambiar la altitud. +Cambiar la altitud en la vida significa elevarse a otro nivel espiritual, psicolgico, y filosfico. +Cmo hacemos eso? +En los globos, o en la vida, Cmo cambiamos la altitud? +Cmo pasamos de la metfora a algo ms prctico que podamos en verdad usar cada da? +Bien, en un globo es fcil porque hay lastre. +Y al dejar caer el lastre por la borda subimos. +Arena, agua, el equipo que ya no necesitamos. +Y pienso que en la vida debera ser exactamente igual. +Ya saben, cuando la gente habla del espritu pionero muy a menudo cree que los pioneros son aquellos que tienen ideas nuevas. +No es verdad. +Los pioneros no son los que tienen ideas nuevas porque es muy fcil tener ideas nuevas. +Con slo cerrar los ojos un minuto todos tenemos un montn de ideas nuevas. +No, el pionero es aquel que se permite arrojar por la borda un montn de lastre. +Hbitos, certezas, convicciones, signos de exclamacin, paradigmas, dogmas. +Y cuando somos capaces de hacerlo qu sucede? +La vida ya no es una sola lnea en una direccin en una dimensin. No. +La vida va a estar hecha de todas las lneas posibles que van en todas las direcciones posibles en las tres dimensiones. +Y el espritu pionero estar cada vez que nos permitamos explorar este eje vertical. +Claro que no solamente como la atmsfera en el globo sino en la vida misma. +Explorar este eje vertical, que significa explorar todas las maneras distintas de hacer las diferentes maneras de comportarse y de pensar antes de encontrar la que va en la direccin deseada. +Esto es muy prctico. +Puede darse en poltica. +En la espiritualidad. +En el medio ambiente, en las finanzas, en la educacin de los hijos. +Creo profundamente que la vida es una aventura mucho ms grande si conseguimos hacer poltica sin trincheras entre izquierda y derecha. +Porque desecharemos estos dogmas polticos. +Creo profundamente que podemos proteger mucho mejor el medio ambiente si eliminamos, si tiramos por la borda el fundamentalismo que algunos ecologistas han mostrado en el pasado. +Y que podemos apuntar a una espiritualidad ms elevada si nos deshacemos de los dogmas religiosos. +Arrojar por la borda, como lastre, para cambiar la direccin. +Bien, estas son cosas que creo desde hace mucho tiempo. +Pero tuve que dar la vuelta al mundo en globo para que me inviten a contarlo. +Est claro que no es fcil saber qu lastre dejar caer ni qu altitud tomar. A veces necesitamos amigos, familiares o un psiquiatra. +Bien, en los globos es el meteorlogo el que calcula la direccin de cada capa de viento en qu altitud, para ayudar a quien dirige el globo. +Pero a veces es muy paradjico. +Cuando estaba dando la vuelta al mundo con Brian Jones el meteorlogo nos pidi un da volar bastante bajo, y muy despacio. +Y al calcular pensamos que nunca bamos a dar la vuelta al mundo a esa velocidad. +As que desobedecimos. Volamos mucho ms alto, al doble de la velocidad. +Yo estaba tan orgulloso de haber encontrado esa corriente que llam al meteorlogo y le dije: "Hombre, no crees que somos buenos pilotos?" +"Volamos al doble de la velocidad que predijiste". +Y l me dijo: "No lo hagan. Bajen inmediatamente" "para desacelerar". +Y yo empec a discutir: "No voy a hacer eso" +"No tenemos tanto combustible para volar tan lento". +Y l me respondi: "S, pero con la baja presin que tienen a la izquierda" "si vuelan demasiado rpido, en un par de horas" virarn a izquierda y terminarn en el Polo Norte +Y luego me pregunt (y esto es algo que nunca olvidar en mi vida) me pregunt: "Uds. son buenos pilotos" +"Qu quieren en realidad: ir muy rpido" "en la direccin equivocada o lento en la correcta?" +Por eso se necesitan meteorlogos. +Por eso se necesita gente con visin de largo plazo. +Y eso es justamente lo que falla en las visiones polticas de hoy en los gobiernos polticos. +Estamos consumiendo, como oyen, demasiada energa sin comprender que semejante modo de vida no sostenible no durar mucho. +As que bajamos. +Desaceleramos y pasamos momentos de temor porque no tenamos idea de cmo con tan poco combustible como tenamos en el globo podramos viajar 45 mil kilmetros. +Pero estbamos exentos de dudas, de tener miedo. +En verdad ah es donde comenz realmente la aventura. +Cuando sobrevolbamos el Sahara e India fueron buenas vacaciones. +Podamos aterrizar en cualquier momento y regresar a casa en avin. +En el medio del Pacfico, sin buenos vientos uno no puede amerizar no hay vuelta atrs. +Eso es la crisis. +En ese momento uno tiene que apagar el piloto automtico de pensar. +En ese momento uno tiene que motivar el potencial interno y la creatividad. +En ese momento uno arroja todo el lastre todas las certezas para adaptarse a la nueva situacin. +Y, de verdad, cambiamos totalmente el plan de vuelo. +Cambiamos radicalmente la estrategia. +Y despus de 20 das aterrizamos con xito en Egipto. +Pero si les muestro esta fotografa no es para decirles lo felz que estbamos. +Es para mostrarles cunto combustible quedaba en los ltimos tanques. +Despegamos con 3,7 toneladas de propano lquido. +Aterrizamos con 40 kilos. +Al ver eso me promet algo. +Promet que la prxima vez que diera la vuelta al mundo no sera con combustible sera libre de energas fsiles para ser seguro para olvidarnos del medidor de combustible. +No tena idea de si era posible. +Slo pens que era un sueo que quera realizar. +Y cuando la cpsula de mi globo ingres oficialmente al Museo del Aire y el Espacio de Washington junto al avin de Charles Lindbergh al Apolo 11, al Flyer de los hermanos Wright al avin de Chuck Yeager entonces tuve un pensamiento. +Pens que el siglo 20 fue brillante. +Permiti realizar todas esas cosas. +Pero que ya no ser posible en el futuro. +Consume demasiada energa. Costar demasiado. +Estar prohibido porque todos tendremos que ahorrar los recursos naturales dentro de pocas dcadas. +Entonces, cmo perpetuar este espritu pionero con algo que no dependa de la energa fsil? +Y as fue que el proyecto Impulso Solar empez, en verdad, a gestarse en mi mente. +Y pienso que tambin es una buena metfora del siglo 21. +El espritu pionero debera continuar, pero en otro nivel. +No para conquistar el planeta o el espacio ya no, tiene que hacerse pero para mejorar la calidad de vida. +Cmo hacer para atravesar el hielo de la certeza para hacer de lo ms increble algo posible? +Algo que hoy es totalmente imposible... eliminar nuestra dependencia de la energa fsil. +Si uno le dice a la gente que quiere ser independiente de la energa fsil del mundo la gente se le reir, salvo aqu, donde invitan a hablar a gente loca. +As, la idea es que si volamos por el mundo en un avin a energa solar, que no usa combustible, nadie podr decir en el futuro que es algo imposible para autos, sistemas de calefaccin, computadoras, etc., etc. +Bueno, los aviones a energa solar no son nuevos. +Han volado en el pasado, pero sin capacidad de ahorro, sin bateras. +Lo que significa que han demostrado los lmites de las energas renovables ms que el potencial de stas. +Si queremos mostrar el potencial tenemos que volar da y noche. +Eso implica cargar las bateras durante el vuelo para pasar la noche con las bateras y volar al da siguiente de nuevo. +Eso ya se ha hecho por control remoto en modelos pequeos de aviones no tripulados. +Pero todava son una ancdota porque el pblico no se identifica con eso. +Pienso que se necesita un piloto en el avin que pueda hablar en las universidades que pueda hablar a estudiantes y a polticos durante el vuelo que haga de eso una aventura humanizada. +Para eso, desafortunadamente, cuatro metros de envergadura no son suficientes. +Se necesita 64 metros de envergadura +64 mts de envergadura para llevar al piloto, las bateras, volar lento con eficiencia aerodinmica +Y eso por qu? Porque el combustible no es fcil de reemplazar. +Eso es seguro. +Y con 200 metros cuadrados de energa solar en el avin podemos producir la misma energa que 200 lamparitas. +Eso equivale a un rbol de Navidad, un gran rbol. +Entonces la pregunta es cmo llevar un piloto alrededor del mundo con un avin que usa la misma energa que un rbol de Navidad. +La gente dir que es imposible y por eso mismo es que queremos hacerlo. +Lanzamos el proyecto con mi colega Andre Borschberg hace seis aos. +Ahora tenemos 70 personas en el equipo trabajando en eso. +Hemos pasado por las etapas de simulacin, diseo, computacin y preparado la construccin del primer prototipo. +Eso lo logramos luego de dos aos de trabajo. +Cabina, hlice, motor. +Aqu est el fuselaje, es muy liviano. +No fue diseado por un artista pero podra serlo. +50 kilos pesa todo el fuselaje. +Un par de kilos ms para los largueros del ala. +Esta es la estructura completa del avin. +Hace un mes lo hicimos pblico. +No se imaginan lo que es para un equipo que ha trabajado seis aos en esto mostrar que no se trata slo de un sueo o una visin sino que es un avin real. +Un avin real que finalmente podramos presentar. +Cul es el objetivo ahora? +El objetivo es despegar, a fines de este ao para la primera prueba y el ao que viene, en primavera o verano, despegar con nuestra propia energa sin ayuda adicional, sin remolque, subir a 9 mil metros de altitud +al tiempo que cargamos las bateras encendemos los motores y al llegar a la altura mxima llegamos al comienzo de la noche. +A partir de entonces habr un solo objetivo, slo uno, llegar al prximo amanecer antes de que se acaben las bateras. +Y este es exactamente el smbolo de nuestro mundo +si nuestro avin es muy pesado si el piloto derrocha energa nunca pasaremos la noche. +Y en nuestro mundo si seguimos derrochando derrochando nuestros recursos energticos si continuamos contruyendo cosas que consumen tanta energa que la mayora de las empresas quiebran, est claro que entregaremos el planeta a la prxima generacin con grandes problemas. +As, vean que este avin es ms bien un smbolo. +No creo que transporte 200 personas en los aos venideros. +Pero cuando Lindbergh cruz el Atlntico la carga til era suficiente slo para una persona y algo de combustible. +Y 20 aos despus haba 200 personas en todos los aviones que cruzaban el Atlntico. +Entonces tenemos que empezar y mostrar el ejemplo. +Un poco como en esta foto de aqu. +Esta es una pintura de Magritte de un museo holands que me gusta mucho. +Es una pipa y dice: "Esta no es una pipa". +Esto no es un avin. +Es un smbolo de lo que podemos lograr cuando creemos en lo imposible cuando tenemos un equipo cuando tenemos espritu pionero y, en especial, cuando entendemos que todas las certezas que tenemos deberan ser lanzadas por la borda. +Lo que ms me complace es que al principio pensaba que tendramos que volar alrededor del mundo sin combustible para que se comprendiera nuestro mensaje. +Y cada vez ms nos invitan de todo el mundo, a Andre y a m, a hablar del proyecto, de lo que simboliza, nos invitan polticos, a foros de energa, para mostrar que ya no es totalmente tonto pensar en eliminar la dependencia de las energas fsiles. +As, mediante dicursos como este de hoy, en entrevistas, en reuniones, nuestro objetivo es sumar la mayor cantidad de gente al equipo. +El xito no vendr de "slo", entre comillas, dar la vuelta al mundo en un avin a energa solar. +No, el xito vendr si hay suficiente gente motivada para hacer lo mismo en su vida cotidiana ahorrar energa, pasar a las renovables. +Y esto es posible. Ya saben, con las tecnologas actuales podemos ahorrar del 30% al 50% de la energa de un pas de Europa y podemos solucionar la mitad del resto con energa renovable. +Deja el 25% o 30% para petrleo, gas, carbn, energa nuclear, etc. +Esto es aceptable. +Por eso toda la gente que cree en este tipo de espritu es bienvenida en ese equipo. +Slo tienen que ir a solarimpulse.com y suscribirse para saber qu estamos haciendo. +Pero ms que eso, para recibir consejos, comentarios, para correr la voz de que si es posible en el aire por supuesto que lo es en tierra. +Y cada vez que avizoremos hielo en el futuro tenemos que saber que la vida ser genial y el xito ser rotundo si nos atrevemos a vencer el miedo al hielo para sortear el obstculo para superar el problema, para ver qu hay del otro lado. +Ya ven, eso es lo que estamos haciendo de nuestro lado. +Todos tienen su objetivo, sus sueos, sus visiones. +La pregunta que les dejo ahora es: cul es el lastre del que les gustara desprenderse? +A qu altitud... ...les gustara volar en sus vidas... ...para alcanzar el xito que desean tener... ...para llegar al punto que les pertenece en verdad... ...dado el potencial que tienen... ...el que pueden alcanzar? +Porque la energa ms renovable que tenemos es nuestro propio potencial, nuestra propia pasin. +Entonces, persigamos el objetivo, les deseo una excelente aventura en los vientos del futuro. Gracias. +Me gustara hablarles hoy del cerebro humano, que es sobre lo que investigamos en la Universidad de California. +Piensen en este problema durante un segundo. +Aqu tenemos un trozo de carne, de alrededor de un kilo y medio, que se puede sostener en la palma de la mano. +Pero puede abarcar la inmensidad del espacio interestelar. +Puede abarcar el significado del infinito, cuestionar el significado de su propia existencia, o el de la naturaleza de Dios. +Y sin lugar a dudas es lo ms asombroso del mundo. +Es el mayor misterio al que se enfrentan los seres humanos: cmo ocurre todo esto? +Bien, el cerebro, como saben, est formado por neuronas. +Aqu observamos las neuronas. +Existen 100 mil millones de neuronas en el cerebro humano adulto. +Y cada una establece alrededor de entre 1.000 y 10.000 conexiones con otras neuronas en el cerebro. +Y, basndose en esto, han calculado que el nmero de permutaciones y combinaciones de la actividad cerebral excede el nmero de partculas elementales del universo. +Por lo tanto, cmo abordamos el estudio del cerebro? +Un enfoque es observar a pacientes con lesiones en diferentes partes del cerebro, y estudiar los cambios en su conducta. +Sobre esto habl en la ltima charla en TED. +Hoy hablar sobre un enfoque diferente que consiste en poner electrodos en diferentes partes del cerebro, y grabar la actividad de las diferentes clulas nerviosas del cerebro. +Algo as como escuchar a escondidas la actividad de las clulas nerviosas del cerebro. +Bien, un descubrimiento reciente realizado por investigadores de Italia, en Parma, por Giacomo Rizzolatti y sus colegas, es un grupo de neuronas llamadas neuronas espejo, que se encuentran en la parte anterior del cerebro en los lbulos frontales. +Bien, resulta que hay neuronas en la parte anterior del cerebro denominadas neuronas motoras, que se conocen desde hace ms de 50 aos. +Estas neuronas se activan cuando una persona realiza una accin. +Por ejemplo, si hago esto, y alcanzo una manzana, una neurona motora en la parte anterior de mi cerebro se activar. +Si alargo la mano y alcanzo un objeto, se activar otra neurona, ordenndome que lo alcance. +Se denominan neuronas motoras y se conocen desde hace mucho tiempo. +Pero lo que Rizzolatti encontr fue que un subconjunto de estas neuronas, tal vez un 20 por ciento de ellas, tambin se activar cuando mire a alguien que est realizando la misma accin. +Aqu tenemos una neurona que se activa cuando agarro algo, pero tambin se activa cuando veo a Fulanito agarrar algo. +Es verdaderamente asombroso. +Porque es como si esta neurona estuviera adoptando el punto de vista de la otra persona. +Es casi como si estuviera realizando una simulacin de realidad virtual de la accin de la otra persona. +Bien, cul es la relevancia de estas neuronas espejo? +Como mnimo deben estar involucradas en la imitacin y la emulacin. +Porque imitar un acto complejo requiere que mi cerebro adopte el punto de vista de la otra persona +Esto es importante en la imitacin y la emulacin. +Bueno, por qu es tan importante? +Bueno, echemos un vistazo a la siguiente diapositiva. +Cmo se realiza la imitacin? Por qu es importante la imitacin? +Las neuronas espejo y la imitacin, la emulacin. +Observemos la cultura, el fenmeno de la cultura humana. +Retrocedamos en el tiempo entre 75.000 y 100.000 aos, observemos la evolucin humana, resulta que algo muy importante ocurri hace unos 75.000 aos. +Hay una aparicin repentina y una rpida extensin de una serie de destrezas que son propias de los seres humanos, como el uso de herramientas, el uso del fuego, el uso de refugios y, por supuesto, el lenguaje, y la capacidad de leer lo que alguien est pensando e interpretar la conducta de esa persona. +Todo eso ocurri de una forma relativamente rpida. +A pesar de que el cerebro humano haba alcanzado su tamao actual haca casi 300 o 400 mil aos, hace 100.000 aos todo esto ocurri muy muy rpido. +Y defiendo que lo que ocurri fue la aparicin repentina de un sistema sofisticado de neuronas espejo, que permiti emular e imitar las acciones de otras personas. +De forma que cuando un miembro del grupo descubra algo accidentalmente, digamos el uso del fuego, o un tipo concreto de herramienta, en lugar de desaparecer gradualmente, se extendi rpidamente, horizontalmente por la poblacin, o fue transmitido verticalmente a travs de las generaciones. +Esto hizo de repente lamarckiana la evolucin, en lugar de darwiniana. +La evolucin darwiniana es lenta, tarda cientos de miles de aos. +Un oso polar, para desarrollar el pelaje, tardar miles de generaciones, tal vez 100.000 aos. +Un ser humano, un nio, puede ver que sus padres matan un oso polar, y lo despellejan y colocan la piel sobre su cuerpo, y lo aprende en un solo paso. Lo que el oso polar tard 100.000 aos en aprender, l lo aprende en 5 minutos, tal vez en 10. +Y una vez que lo aprende esto se extiende en proporciones geomtricas por una poblacin. +Esta es la base. La imitacin de destrezas complejas es lo que llamamos cultura y es la base de la civilizacin. +Existe otro tipo de neuronas espejo, que est implicado en algo completamente diferente. +Existen neuronas espejo, como existen neuronas espejo para la accin, hay otras para el tacto. +Dicho de otro modo, si alguien me acaricia, mi mano, una neurona en el crtex somatosensorial, en la regin sensorial del cerebro, se activa. +Pero la misma neurona, en algunos casos, se activar cuando simplemente vea que acarician a otra persona. +Empatiza al ver que acarician a otra persona. +La mayora de ellas se activarn cuando me acaricien en diferentes zonas. Diferentes neuronas para difererentes zonas. +Pero un subconjunto de ellas se activar incluso cuando vea que acarician a alguien en la misma zona. +De nuevo aqu vemos neuronas que tienen que ver con la empata. +La pregunta que surge es: si simplemente veo que acarician a otra persona, por qu no me confundo y literalmente siento que me acarician a m con el simple hecho de ver que acarician a alguien? +Es decir, empatizo con esa persona pero no siento la caricia literalmente. +Bueno, eso es porque tenemos receptores en la piel, receptores del dolor y del tacto, entrando de nuevo en nuestro cerebro y diciendo "No te preocupes, no te estn acariciando. +As que empatiza, en cualquier caso, con la otra persona, pero no experimentes la caricia de verdad o de lo contrario te confundirs y te hars un lo". +De acuerdo, hay una seal de retroalimentacin que veda la seal de la neurona espejo evitando que experimenten conscientemente esa caricia. +Pero si se quitan el brazo... simplemente me lo anestesian, me ponen una inyeccin en el brazo, anestesian el plexo braquial, para que el brazo se quede insensible, y no se tenga ninguna sensacin. Si ahora veo que les acarician, literalmento lo siento en el brazo. +Dicho de otro modo, han disuelto la frontera entre ustedes y otros seres humanos. +Yo las llamo las neuronas Gandhi, o neuronas de la empata. +Y no lo digo en un sentido metafrico y abstracto, +lo nico que les separa de l, de la otra persona, es su piel. +Qutense la piel, y experimentarn la caricia de esa persona en su mente. +Han disuelto la frontera entre ustedes y otros seres humanos. +Esta, por supuesto, es la base de gran parte de la filosofa oriental, no existe realmente un yo independiente, ajeno a otros seres humanos, examinando el mundo, examinando a las otras personas. +De hecho, estn conectados no slo a travs de Facebook e Internet, en realidad estn literalmente conectados a travs de sus neuronas. +Y existen cadenas completas de neuronas en esta habitacin, hablndose. +Y no existe distincin real entre su consciencia y la consciencia de otra persona. +No es una filosofa de pacotilla. +Emerge de nuestra comprensin de la neurociencia bsica. +Tienen un paciente con un miembro fantasma. Si le han quitado el brazo y tiene un miembro fantasma, y observa que acarician a alguien, lo siente en su miembro fantasma. +Lo asombroso es que, si siente dolor en su miembro fantasma, aprieta la mano de la otra persona, masajea la mano de la otra persona, eso le alivia el dolor de su mano fantasma, casi como si la neurona obtuviera alivio por el simple hecho de ver que estn masajeando a alguien. +Aqu tienen mi ltima diapositiva. +Durante mucho tiempo la gente ha considerado la ciencia y las humanidades como cosas distintas. +C.P. Snow habl de las dos culturas: la ciencia por un lado, las humanidades por otro, nunca las dos se unirn. +Hace 120 aos el Dr. Rntgen radiografi la mano de su mujer. +La razn por la que tuvo que clavarle los dedos al suelo con su broche no la s. Me parece un poco exagerado. +Esa imagen fue el inicio de la tecnologa de rayos X. +Fundamentalmente, sigo usando los mismos principios hoy en da, +aunque los interpreto de modo ms contemporneo. +La primera radiografa que hice fue de una lata de refresco para promocionar una marca que todos conocemos, por lo que no les voy a hacer ningn favor ensendoselas. +Pero la segunda fue de las zapatillas que llevaba aquel da. +Me gusta mucho esta radiografa porque muestra todas los piedras incrustadas en la suela de las zapatillas. +Ya saben, fue uno de esos golpes de suerte en los que sale bien la primera vez. +Si pasamos a algo un poco ms grande, esto es la radiografa de un autobs. +Y el autobs est lleno de gente. +A decir verdad, es la misma persona. Es un nico esqueleto. +En los aos 60 solan ensear a los alumnos de radiologa a hacer radiografas, gracias a Dios no con personas como t y yo, sino con muertos. +Todava tengo acceso a uno de esos muertos. Se llama Frieda y se est cayendo a trozos puesto que es muy vieja y muy frgil. +Pero todas las personas de ese autobs son Frieda. +La del bus se tom con un escner de rayos X de cargas que es el tipo de mquina que hay en las fronteras para detectar objetos de contrabando, drogas, bombas, etc. +Bastante obvio lo que es esto. +Cuando se usan objetos grandes es algo espectacular porque normalmente no vemos radiografas de objetos grandes. +La tecnologa avanza y estos grandes escners de cargas, que funcionan de manera digital, son cada vez mejores. +Sin embargo, para animarlo un poco hay que aadir algn elemento humano. +Y creo que la razn por la que esta imagen funciona es porque Frieda est conduciendo el bulldozer. +Algo bastante difcil es hacer que unos calzoncillos parezcan algo bonito. +Pero el proceso en s, creo, muestra lo perfectos que son. +Moda, soy como un anti-moda porque no muestro la superficie, muestro lo de adentro. +As que no le caigo bien a los diseadores porque no importa si lo luce Kate Moss o yo se ve igual. +Todos nos vemos igual por dentro, cranme. +Los pliegues del material y esa suerte de matices. +Muestro las cosas realmente como son, de lo que estn hechas. +Quito las capas y lo expongo. +Si est bien hecho lo muestro, si est mal lo muestro. +Y estoy seguro que Ross asocia eso con el diseo. +El diseo viene de adentro. +No es slo buenas fotos. Consigo algunas imgenes raras cuando salgo con mis accesorios. +Aqu iba a tientas por la seccin de lencera femenina de una tienda comercial, casi me echan del local. +Vivo en frente a una granja; ste es el ms pequeo de la camada, un cerdito muerto. +Y lo realmente interesante es que si miran las patas, vern que los huesos no estn soldados. +De haber crecido, ese cerdo, desafortunadamente muri, pero habra muerto de todos modos por los rayos X, por la cantidad de radiacin que us. +Una vez que los huesos se hubieran soldado habra estado saludable. +Esa es una chaqueta de parka vaca. +Pero me encanta la forma en que est colocada. +La Naturaleza es mi mayor inspiracin. +Y para continuar con un tema del que ya hemos hablado: cmo se relaciona la Naturaleza con la arquitectura? +Si miran el techo del Proyecto Edn o la Biblioteca Britnica, tienen estructura de panal. +Y estoy seguro que esos arquitectos se inspiraron como yo, por lo que nos rodea, por la Naturaleza. +De hecho, esta es una Victoria regia que flota en un estanque. +Una flor amaryllis en una vista tridimensional. +Algas, siguiendo la marea. +Ahora bien, cmo lo hago, y dnde, y todo ese tipo de cosas. +Este es mi nuevo galpn de rayos X, especialmente construido. +La puerta de mi sala de rayos X hecha de plomo y acero. +Pesa 1.250 kilos y el nico ejercicio que hago es abrirla y cerrarla. +El ancho de las paredes es de 700 mm, de denso y slido concreto. +Uso mucha radiacin. +Mucha ms que en un hospital o una veterinaria. +Y ah estoy yo. Esta es una mquina de rayos X muy potente. +Lo interesante de los rayos X en verdad es que si uno lo piensa, es que esa tecnologa se usa para detectar cncer, o drogas, o contrabando, o lo que sea. +Y yo uso esa tecnologa para crear cosas muy hermosas. +Me temo que todava trabajando con pelcula. +La tecnologa de rayos X, en tomas de tamao natural, salvo esas grandes mquinas de escanear cargas no han evolucionado mucho en calidad de imagen ni la resolucin es tan buena para lo que yo quiero hacer que es mostrar mis fotos gigantes. +Tuve que usar un escner de tambor de 1980 diseado en la poca en que todos sacaban fotos con rollos. +Barren cada rayo X individual. +Aqu muestro mi proceso de rayos X de tamao natural. +Este es, de nuevo, el vestido de mi hija. +Todava tiene la etiqueta de cuando lo compr para devolverlo a la tienda en caso que no le guste. +Hay cuatro placas de rayos X. +Pueden verse solapadas. +As, cuando uno pasa de algo bastante pequeo como un vestido de este tamao a algo como eso que se hace exactamente en el mismo proceso puede advertirse que es mucho trabajo. +De hecho, son tres meses de radiografiar sin pausa. +Hay ms de 500 componentes separados. +Boeing me envi un 747 en contenedores. +Y yo les devolv un rayo X. +No es broma. +Entonces, Frida es mi esqueleto muerto. +Esas son, por desgracia, en resumen dos fotos. +En el extremo derecho hay una foto de un futbolista americano. +La de la izquierda es un rayo X. +Pero esta vez tuve que usar un cuerpo real +porque necesitaba que el tejido de la piel se viera real para que parezca que era de un atleta real. +As que tuve que usar un cuerpo recin fallecido. +Conseguirlo fue extremadamente difcil y laborioso. +Pero la gente dona sus cuerpos para el arte y la ciencia. +Y cuando lo hace, yo estoy en espera. +As que me gusta usarlos. +El coloreo le agrega otro nivel a los rayos X. +Los hace ms orgnicos, ms naturales. +Es lo que atrape mi imaginacin, en verdad. +No son colores precisos como en la vida real. +Esa flor no viene en naranja brillante, no lo creo. +Pero me gusta en naranja brillante. +Y tambin con algo tcnico como estas bandejas de DJ le agrega otro nivel. +Hace que una imagen bidimensional se vea ms tridimensional. +Las cosas ms difciles de radiografiar las que suponen un reto tcnico son las cosas ms leves, las ms delicadas. +Obtener el detalle de una pluma cranme, si hay alguien aqu que sabe algo de rayos X, es un desafo enorme. +Ahora les voy a mostrar una pelcula corta, me har a un lado. +Video: Eso aqu es muy peligroso. +Si uno lo toca podra morir por envenenamiento de radiacin. +En mi carrera tuve dos exposiciones a la radiacin que son dos de ms, porque queda con uno de por vida. +Es acumulativo. +Tiene connotaciones humanas. +El hecho es que es un juguete de nios que reconocemos pero tambin parece un robot que viene de la ciencia ficcin. +Sorprende que tenga humanidad pero sea artificial, futurista, un alien. +Y es un poco estremecedor. +El bus fue hecho con una gran mquina de escaneo de cargas usada en la frontera entre pases, para detectar contrabando e inmigrantes ilegales. +El camin pasa por enfrente y la mquina toma cortes de rayos X atravesando el camin. +As es como se hizo. Son cortes y cortes. +Como el escner de un hospital. Cortes. +Y si miran con atencin hay muchas cosas pequeas. +l tiene auriculares, lee el diario un sombrero, anteojos, un bolso. +Esos pequeos detalles hacen que funcione, que sea real. +El problema con la gente viva es que radiografiarla, si te radiografo, quedas expuesto a la radiacin. +Para evitar eso, tengo que evitarlo de alguna forma, uso cadveres. +Hay una variedad de cosas, desde cuerpos recin fallecidos hasta esqueletos usados por estudiantes de radiologa en entrenamiento de toma de rayos X del cuerpo humano en diferentes densidades. +Tengo equipamiento moderno de guantes, tijeras y un balde. +Mostrar como funciona la capilaridad, como alimenta. Capturar todas las clulas del tallo. +Porque transfiere alimentos desde la raz hasta las hojas. +Miren este monstruo. +Es tan bsico; slo crece en forma silvestre. +Eso es lo que ms me gusta de eso el hecho de no tener que ir a comprarlo y no ha sido genticamente modificado en absoluto. +Slo sucede. +La radiografa muestra lo hermosa que puede ser la Naturaleza. +Observen que eso es particularmente hermoso... ...si se mira con ojos humanos... ...el modo en que se forman las hojas. Se enrollan unas con otras. +La radiografa muestra el solapamiento en las esquinitas. +Cuanto ms grueso el objeto, ms radiacin necesita, y ms tiempo necesita. +Cuanto ms liviano el objeto, menos radiacin. +A veces uno aumenta el tiempo porque eso nos da detalle. +A mayor exposicin mayor detalle. +Si miran esto, slo el tubo, es muy brillante. +Podra oscurecer un poco el tubo, pero todo lo dems sufrira: +estas hojas del borde empezaran a desaparecer. +Me gusta lo duros que son los bordes lo definidos que son. +S, estoy muy conforme con ello. +Viajo por la superficie y muestro algo que valga la pena por su composicin, por su funcionamiento. +Pero tambin encuentro que tengo el beneficio de quitar la superficie cosas que la gente est acostumbrada a ver. +Esa es la clase de cosas que he estado haciendo. +Ahora tengo la oportunidad de mostrarles lo que voy a estar haciendo en el futuro. +Esta es una aplicacin comercial de mi trabajo ms reciente. +Lo bueno de esto, pienso, es que es como un momento en el tiempo uno se dio vuelta, consigui visin de rayos X y tom una foto con una cmara de rayos X. +Desafortunadamente no tengo visin de rayos X. +Sueo en rayos X. Veo mis proyectos en los sueos. +S cmo se van a ver bajo los rayos X y no me equivoco tanto. +Qu voy a hacer en el futuro? +Bueno, este ao es el aniversario 50 del mini de Issigonis, uno de mis autos favoritos. +As que lo desarm, pieza por pieza, meses y meses y meses de trabajo. +Y con esta imagen voy a hacer una muestra en el Victoria & Albert Museum una caja de luz, que en realidad est pegada al auto. +Entonces tena que cortar el auto en dos, por el medio, no era una tarea fcil en s. +As pueden ir del lado del conductor, sentarse, y encima de uno hay una pared. +Y si uno sale y camina hacia el otro lado del auto uno ve una caja iluminada del auto en tamao real mostrando cmo funciona +Y voy a tomar esa idea y aplicarla a otro tipo de cosas icnicas de mi vida +Como, mi primera computadora fue un gran movimiento en mi vida. +Tena una Mac Classic. Es una caja pequea. +Y pienso que se vera fantstica como radiografa. +Tambin estoy buscando llevar mi trabajo de lo bidimensional a algo ms tridimensional. +Y esta es una buena manera de hacerlo. +Tambin estoy trabajando con video en rayos X. +Imaginen alguna de estas flores en movimiento, creciendo, uno puede rodar eso en rayos X, debe ser algo estupendo. +Pero eso es todo. Termin. Muchas gracias. +Algo que se denomin el "estudio de gemelos daneses" estableci que solo alrededor del 10% del promedio de vida de una persona dentro de ciertos lmites biolgicos, es dictado por los genes +El otro 90 por ciento es dictado por nuestro estilo de vida. +Por lo tanto esta es la premisa de Zonas Azules: si podemos encontrar el estilo de vida ptimo de la longevidad, podemos llegar a una frmula de facto para la longevidad. +Pero si preguntamos al americano medio cual es la frmula ptima de la longevidad, probablemente, no sabrn decrtelo. +Habrn odo hablar posiblemente de la dieta South Beach, o la dieta de Atkins. +Tambin conocen la pirmide de alimentos del USDA.(Departamento de Agricultura de los Estados Unidos) +O lo que nos dice Oprah. +O lo que nos dice el doctor Oz. +La realidad es que hay mucha confusin en torno a lo que realmente nos ayuda a vivir ms tiempo y mejor. +Deberamos correr maratones o hacer yoga? +Deberamos comer carne orgnica o deberamos comer tofu? +Por lo que se refiere a suplementos vitamnicos, deberamos tomarlos? +Y Qu decir de tomar hormonas o el resveratrol? +Y tener un propsito, esta relacionado? +La espiritualidad? Y nuestras relaciones sociales? +Pues bien, nuestro enfoque en la bsqueda de la longevidad fue formar un equipo con National Geographic, y el Instituto Nacional del envejecimiento, para encontrar cuatro zonas con datos demogrficos confirmados que estuvieran geogrficamente definidas. +Y luego llevar all a un equipo de expertos para analizar metdicamente lo que hacan exactamente estas personas, y mostrar una revelacin transcultural. +Y al final os voy a decir cual es esa revelacin. +Pero primero me gustara refutar algunos mitos comunes en lo que respecta a la longevidad. +Y el primer mito es que si pones todo de tu parte entonces puedes vivir hasta los 100 aos. +Falso. +El problema es que slo una de cada 5.000 personas en Amrica llega a vivir hasta los 100 aos. +Tus posibilidades son muy bajas. +A pesar de ser el grupo demogrfico que crece ms rpidamente en Amrica es difcil llegar a los 100 aos. +El problema es que no estamos programados para la longevidad. +Estamos programados para algo que se llama "xito reproductivo" +Me encanta esa palabra. +Me recuerda a mis das en la universidad. +Con el termino xito reproductivo los bilogos se refieren a la edad en la que tienes hijos y luego en otra generacin, la edad en que tus hijos tienen hijos. +Tras ello, el efecto de la evolucin se disipa por completo. +Si eres un mamfero, si eres una rata o un elefante, o un ser humano, entre medio, es la misma historia. +As que para llegar a los 100 aos, no slo tienes que haber tenido un estilo de vida muy bueno, tambin te tiene que haber tocado la lotera gentica. +El segundo mito es que hay tratamientos que pueden ayudar a retrasar, revertir o incluso detener el envejecimiento. +Falso. +Si lo piensas, hay 99 cosas que pueden envejecernos. +Privar al cerebro de oxgeno durante unos minutos, esas clulas del cerebro mueren, las perdemos para siempre. +Jugar al tenis con demasiada intensidad, en tus rodillas se deterioran los cartlagos los cartlagos no se recuperan. +Nuestras arterias pueden obstruirse. Nuestros cerebros se pueden degenerar con placa arterial, y podemos desarrollar Alzheimer. +Hay demasiadas cosas que pueden salir mal. +Nuestros cuerpos tienen 35 trillones de clulas, un trilln con "T" .Estamos hablando de cifras equivalentes a la deuda nacional. +Esas clulas se reemplazan una vez cada ocho aos. +Y cada vez que son sustituidas se produce algn dao.Y el dao se acumula. +Y se acumula exponencialmente. +Es un poco como en los das en que todos tenamos los discos de los Beatles o los Eagles y hacamos una copia en una cinta de cassette, para dejar que nuestros amigos copiaran la cinta y muy pronto, tras mltiples copias la cinta sonaba fatal. +Bueno, lo mismo le sucede a nuestras clulas. +Es por eso por lo que una persona de 65 aos envejece a un ritmo de alrededor de 125 veces ms rpido que una persona de 12 aos. +As que, si no se puede hacer nada para retardar o detener el envejecimiento, qu estoy haciendo aqu? +Bueno, en realidad la ciencia ms avanzada nos dice que la capacidad del cuerpo humano, mi cuerpo, tu cuerpo, es de unos 90 aos, un poco ms para las mujeres. +Pero la esperanza de vida en este pas es de slo 78. +Por lo tanto en alguna parte del camino, nos hemos dejado unos buenos 12 aos. +Estos son aos que podramos vivir. +Y las investigaciones nos muestran que seran aos en gran medida libres de enfermedades crnicas, enfermedades cardacas, cncer y diabetes. +Hemos encontrado nuestra primera zona azul a unas 125 millas de la costa de Italia, en la isla de Cerdea. +Y no toda la isla, la isla tiene aproximadamente 1,4 millones de personas, sino nicamente en el altiplano, una zona conocida como la provincia de Nuoro. +Y aqu encontramos esta zona donde los hombres viven ms tiempo, unas 10 veces ms centenarios que los que hay aqu en Estados Unidos. +Y es un lugar donde no slo la gente llega a los 100 aos, sino que lo hacen con una fuerza extraordinaria. +Lugares en los que personas de 102 aos todava van al trabajo en motocicleta, cortan lea, y pueden ganarle a un hombre 60 aos ms jven que ellos. +Su historia en realidad se remonta a la poca de Cristo. +Es en realidad una cultura de la Edad del Bronce que ha quedado aislada. +Debido a que la tierra es tan estril Son en su mayora pastores, que realizan regularmente actividad fsica de baja intensidad. +Su dieta es principalmente a base de plantas, complementada con alimentos que pueden llevar al campo. +Se llama "Cannonau". +Pero el verdadero secreto creo que est ms bien en la forma en que organizan su sociedad. +Y uno de los elementos ms sobresalientes de la sociedad de Cerdea es la forma en que tratan a las personas mayores. +Os habis dado cuenta aqu en Estados Unidos, la valoracin social parece alcanzar su punto ms alto alrededor de los 24 aos? +Basta con mirar los anuncios. +Aqu, en Cerdea, cuanto ms viejo eres ms valor social tienes, Se te reconoce una mayor sabidura +Si vas a los bares en Cerdea, en lugar de ver el calendario de trajes de bao de Sports Illustrated, ver el calendario de la persona centenaria del mes. +Esto resulta ser bueno para el envejecimiento de sus padres al mantenerlos cerca de la familia, les aade de cuatro a seis aos de esperanza de vida adicional, Y las investigaciones demuestran que tambin es bueno para los nios de esas familias, que tienen tasas menores de mortalidad y de enfermedad. +Se le denomina el efecto de la abuela. +Encontramos nuestra segunda Zona Azul en la otra punta del planeta, a unos 800 kilmetros al sur de Tokio, en el archipilago de Okinawa. +Okinawa es en realidad un conjunto 161 pequeas islas. +Y en la parte norte de la isla principal, est el punto central de la longevidad en el mundo. +En este lugar se encuentra la poblacin de mujeres de mayor edad del mundo +Es el lugar donde la gente tiene la esperanza de vida ms larga sin discapacidades en todo el mundo. +Ellos tienen lo que nosotros queremos. +Viven mucho tiempo, y tienden a morir mientras duermen, muy rpidamente, y, a menudo, les puedo decir, despus de tener relaciones sexuales. +Viven unos siete aos de buena calidad ms que el estadounidense medio. +Hay cinco veces ms centenarios que los que hay aqu en Amrica. +Una quinta parte en la tasa de cncer de colon y de mama grandes causantes de mortalidad aqu en Estados Unidos. +Y una sexta parte en la tasa de enfermedades cardiovasculares. +Y el hecho de que esta cultura ha producido estas cifras sugiere fuertemente que tienen algo que ensearnos. +Qu hacen? +Una vez ms, una dieta basada en plantas, llena de verduras con mucho color. +Y comen alrededor de ocho veces ms tofu que los estadounidenses. +Ms importante que lo que comen es como lo comen. +Tienen todo tipo de pequeas estrategias para evitar comer en exceso, que, como ustedes saben, es un gran problema aqu en Estados Unidos. +Algunas de las estrategias que observamos: comen en platos ms pequeos, por lo que tienden a comer menos caloras cada vez que lo hacen. +En lugar de servir al estilo familiar, donde se puede comer de todo sin pensar mientras ests hablando, Sirven la comida en una barra, alejan la comida, para luego llevarla a la mesa. +Tambin tienen un viejo proverbio de hace unos 3.000 aos, que creo que es el mejor consejo para una dieta que se ha inventado. +Fue inventado por Confucio. +Y que es la dieta conocida como " Hara, Hatchi, Bu." +Es simplemente un dicho que estas personas proclaman antes de la comida para recordarles de dejar de comer cuando su estmago est completo al 80 por ciento . +Requiere aproximadamente una media hora para que la sensacin de estar lleno pase del estmago al cerebro. +Y acordndose de parar al 80 por ciento nos ayuda a no comer de ms. +Pero al igual que en Cerdea, Okinawa tiene algunos modelos sociales que podemos asociar con la longevidad. +Sabemos que el aislamiento mata. +Hace quince aos el norteamericano medio tena tres buenos amigos. +Estamos ahora en uno y medio. +Si tienes la suerte de haber nacido en Okinawa, habrs nacido en un sistema donde de forma automtica tienes una media docena de amigos con los que compartes la vida. +Ellos lo llaman un "Moai". Y si ests en un "Moai" Se espera que compartas tu prosperidad si eres afortunado, y si las cosas van mal, tu hijo enferma o cuando fallecen tus padres, siempre tienes a alguien con quien puedes contar. +En este particular moai, estas cinco mujeres han estado juntas durante 97 aos. +Su edad media es de 102. +Normalmente en los Estados Unidos hemos dividido nuestra vida de adulto en dos partes. +Esta nuestra vida laboral, cuando somos productivos. +Y entonces un da, boom ,de repente, nos retiramos. +Y por lo general eso significa echarse en el sillon, o irse a Arizona a jugar al golf. +En la lengua de Okinawa no hay ni siquiera una palabra para jubilacin. +En su lugar hay una palabra que impregna toda tu vida, y esa palabra es "ikigai". +Que ms o menos traducido, significa "la razn por la que te despiertas por la maana." +Para este maestro de karate de 102 aos de edad, su ikigai es transmitir este arte marcial. +Para este viejo pescador de cien aos Lo es el seguir pescando tres veces por semana para su familia. +Y esta es una pregunta. El Instituto Nacional sobre el Envejecimiento nos di un cuestionario para dar a estos centenarios. +Y una de las preguntas, fueron muy astutos culturalmente, quienes prepararon el cuestionario. +Una de las preguntas era: "Cul es tu ikigai ?" +Y ellos saban inmediatamente por qu se despertaban por la maana. +Para esta mujer de 102 aos, su "Ikigai" era simplemente su tataranieta. +Dos mujeres separadas por 101 aos y medio edad. +Y yo le pregunt cmo se senta al tener en brazos a su tataranieta. +Y ella ech la cabeza para atrs y me dijo: "se siente como saltar hacia el cielo" +Me pareci que era un pensamiento maravilloso. +Mi editor en National Geografic quera que encontrara una Zona Azul en Amrica. +Y por un tiempo estudiamos las praderas de Minnesota, donde realmente hay una muy alta proporcin de centenarios. +Pero eso es porque todos los jvenes se han marchado. +Por lo tanto, recurrimos a los datos de nuevo. +Y encontramos la poblacin de los Estados Unidos con una vida ms larga entre de los Adventistas del Sptimo Da Que se concentra en y alrededor de Loma Linda, California. +Los adventistas son metodistas conservadores. +Ellos celebran su da de reposo desde la puesta del sol del viernes hasta la puesta del sol del sbado. +Un "refugio de 24 horas en el tiempo", lo llaman. +Y siguen cinco pequeos hbitos que les proporciona una longevidad extraordinaria comparativamente hablando. +Aqu en Estados Unidos, la esperanza de vida para una mujer es de un promedio de 80 aos. +Pero para una mujer Adventista, su esperanza de vida es de 89. +Y la diferencia es an ms pronunciada entre hombres, entre quienes se espera que vivan unos 11 aos ms que sus homlogos americanos. +Ahora, este es un estudio que sigui a unas 70.000 personas durante 30 aos. +El Estudio Sterling. Y creo que ilustra perfectamente la premisa de este proyecto de "Zona azules". +Esta es una comunidad heterognea. +Es blanca, negra, hispana, asitica. +Lo nico que tienen en comn son un conjunto de pequeos hbitos de vida que siguen de forma ritual durante la mayora de sus vidas. +Toman su dieta directamente de la Biblia. +Gnesis: captulo uno, versculo 26, donde Dios habla acerca de las legumbres y las plantas que producen semillas, y de otra estrofa ms acerca de las plantas verdes, lo que falta de manera ostensible es la carne. +Se toman este refugio en el tiempo con mucha seriedad. +Durante 24 horas cada semana, no importa lo ocupados que estn, o cuanto estrs tengan en el trabajo, o adonde hay que llevar a los nios dejan todo de lado y se centran en su Dios, en su red social, y, luego, en estrecha relacin con su religin estn los paseos por la naturaleza. +Y el poder que esto tiene no es que se hace de vez en cuando, sino que lo hacen cada semana durante toda la vida. +Nada de esto es difcil. Nada de esto cuesta dinero. +Los adventistas tambin tienden a pasar el tiempo con otros adventistas. +Por lo tanto, si vas a una fiesta Adventista no vers a la gente bebiendo Jim Beam o hacindose un porro. +En su lugar, estarn hablando de su prximo paseo por la naturaleza intercambiando recetas, y s, rezando. +Pero se influyen mutuamente de manera profunda y apreciable. +Esta es una cultura que ha producido a Ellsworth Wheram. +Ellsworth Wheram tiene 97 aos de edad. +Es multimillonario, sin embargo, cuando un contratista quiso cobrarle 6.000 dlares por construir una cerca le dijo, "Por esa cantidad de dinero me la hago yo mismo". +As que durante los siguientes tres das estuvo apaleando cemento y llevando postes de un lado a otro. +Y de forma predecible, tal vez, al cuarto da acab en el quirfano. +Pero no como paciente en la mesa de operaciones; sino como la persona que llevaba a cabo ciruga a corazn abierto. +A los 97 aos an realiza 20 operaciones de ciruga a corazn abierto todos los meses. +Ed Rawlings, tiene ahora 103 aos, un activo vaquero, que comienza su da con un bao. +Y los fines de semana le gusta subirse a la tabla de surf, y producir remolinos de agua. +Y tambin tenemos a Marge Deton. +Marge tiene 104 aos. +Su nieto vive aqu en las ciudades gemelas. +Ella comienza el da levantando pesas. +Monta en bicicleta. +Y luego se monta en su Cadillac Seville color mbar de 1994, y arrasa por la autopista de San Bernardino, donde todava realiza voluntariado en siete organizaciones diferentes. +He estado en 19 expediciones realmente duras. +Y probablemente soy la nica persona que conoceris que atraves el desierto del Sahara en bicicleta sin proteccin solar. +Pero os puedo asegurar, no hay aventura ms terrible que ir en el asiento delantero con Marge Deton. +"Un extrao es un amigo al que no he conocido todava!" me deca. +Entonces, cules son los denominadores comunes en estas tres culturas? +Qu es lo que hacen todos ellos? +Y hemos conseguido reducirlos a nueve. +De hecho, hemos realizado dos expediciones ms a Zona azules y estos denominadores comunes siguen siendo ciertos. +Y el primero, y estoy a punto de decir una hereja aqu, ninguno de ellos hacen ejercicio, por lo menos en la forma en que concebimos normalmente el ejercicio. +En su lugar, organizan sus vidas de tal manera que estn obligados a realizar actividad fsica. +Estas mujeres centenarias de Okinawa se sientan y se levantan del suelo normalmente unas 30 o 40 veces al da. +Los Sardos viven en casas verticales, suben y bajan las escaleras. +cada vez que van a la tienda, o a la iglesia o a casa de unos amigos es una oportunidad para dar un paseo. +No tienen todas las comodidades modernas. +No hay un botn que apretar para que te arregle el jardn o haga el trabajo de casa. +Si quieren preparar un pastel, lo hacen a mano. +Eso es actividad fsica. +Eso quema caloras tanto como correr en la cinta. +Y cuando realizan actividad fsica lo hacen a propsito, en cosas que disfrutan. Suelen caminar, La nica manera comprobada de evitar el deterioro cognitivo y todos ellos suelen tener un jardn. +Saben cmo configurar su vida de la manera adecuada para tener una actitud positiva. +Cada una de estas culturas dedica tiempo para reducir el ritmo de la vida diaria. +Los Sardos rezan. Los Adventistas del Sptimo Da rezan. +Los habitantes de Okinawa veneran a sus antepasados. +Pero cuando tienes prisa o ests estresado se desencadena algo que se denomina la "respuesta inflamatoria", que se asocia con todo, desde la enfermedad de Alzheimer a la enfermedades cardiovasculares. +Cuando te relajas durante 15 minutos al da transformas ese estado inflamatorio en un estado ms anti-inflamatorio. +Tienen vocabulario para expresar el sentido de sus vidas, Ikigai como los habitantes de Okinawa. +Saben que los dos aos ms peligrosos en su vida son los aos en que naces, a causa de la mortalidad infantil, y el ao que te jubilas. +Estas personas tienen un proposito, una finalidad y eso llena de actividad sus vidas, esto les aporta siete aos ms de esperanza de vida extra. +No hay ninguna dieta de la longevidad. +En su lugar, estas personas beben un poco cada da, esto no es difcil de vender a la poblacin estadounidense. +Suelen tener una dieta basada en verduras. +Lo que no significa que no coman carne, pero tambin muchas alubias y frutos secos. +Y tienen estrategias para evitar comer exceso, pequeas cosas que los apartan de la mesa en el momento adecuado. +Y el fundamento de todo esto es cmo se relacionan. +Dan prioridad a sus familias, cuidan de sus hijos y de sus padres ancianos. +Suelen pertenecer a una comunidad religiosa, lo que equivale a entre 4 y 14 aos ms de esperanza de vida si asistes cuatro veces al mes. +Y lo ms importante es que tambin pertenecen a la tribu adecuada. +O bien nacieron o conscientemente se rodearon de la gente adecuada. +Sabemos por los estudios de Framingham, que si tus tres mejores amigos son obesos existe una probabilidad de un 50 por ciento ms de que t vayas a tener sobrepeso. +As que, si andas con gente malsana eso tendr un impacto importante tras cierto tiempo. +En cambio, si la idea de diversin de tus amigos es hacer ejercicio fsico, o jugar a los bolos o al hockey, el ciclismo o la jardinera si tus amigos beben un poco, pero no demasiado, y comen bien, y se relacionan, y son dignos de confianza, eso tendr un gran impacto a largo plazo. +Las dietas no funcionan. Ninguna dieta en la historia ha funcionado para ms del dos por ciento de la poblacin. +Los programas de ejercicio por lo general comienzan en enero, y generalmente finalizan en octubre. +En lo que respecta a la longevidad no hay una solucin a corto plazo en una pastilla o cualquier otra cosa. +Pero si lo piensas tus amigos son aventuras a largo plazo, y por lo tanto, quizs la cosa ms importante que puedes hacer para aadir ms aos a tu vida, y vida a tus aos. Muchas gracias. +Quiero que os deshagis de vuestros prejucios, vuestros miedos e ideas preconcebidas sobre los reptiles. +Porque esa es la nica forma como os podr hacer llegar mi historia. +Y por cierto, si doy la impresion de ser una especie de conservacionista hippy y rabioso es puro producto de vuestra imaginacin. +Vale. Somos en realidad la primera especie de la Tierra lo suficientemente prolfica como para amenazar nuestra supervivencia. +Y s que todos hemos visto suficientes imgenes para insensibilizarnos a las tragedias que estamos cometiendo en nuestro planeta. +Somos como nios codiciosos, consumindolo todo, verdad? +Y hoy vengo a hablaros sobre el agua. +No solo porque nos guste beber mucha, de ella y de sus maravillosos derivados: cerveza, vino, etc. +Y, por supuesto, verla caer del cielo y fluir por nuestros maravillosos rios. si no tambin por otros varios motivos. +Cuando era un nio, creciendo en Nueva York, Me entusiasmaban las serpientes como a la mayora de nios les entusiasman las peonzas, canicas, coches, trenes y pelotas de cricket. +Y mi madre, una seora valiente, era en parte culpable, llevndome al Museo de Historia Natural de Nueva York comprndome libros sobre serpientes, y luego empezando esta infame carrera ma, que ha culminado en por supuesto, mi llegada a la India hace 60 aos traido por mi madre, Doris Norden, y mi padrastro, Rama Chattopadhyaya +Ha sido como montar en una montaa rusa. +Dos animales, dos reptiles icnicos realmente me cautivaron desde muy temprano. +Uno de ellos era el extraordinario gavial. +Este cocodrilo, que crece hasta cas 6 metros de largo en los rios del norte, y esta carismtica serpiente, la cobra real. +El proposito de mi charla hoy realmente es en cierto modo marcar indeleblemente vuestras mentes con estas carismticas y majestuosas criaturas. +Porque esto es lo que espero os llevaris de aqu, una reconexin con la naturaleza, espero. +La cobra real es bastante excepcional por varias razones. +Lo que estis viendo aqu son unas imgenes recientemente captadas en un bosque cerca de aqu, de una cobra real hembra haciendo su nido. +He aqu un animal sin costillas, capaz de recoger un enorme montn de hojas, y luego poner sus huevos dentro, para aguantar de 5 a 10 metros de precipitaciones para que los huevos puedan incubarse durante los prximos 90 das, y de ellos surjan pequeas bebes cobra reales. +As que, ella protege sus huevos, y despus de tres meses, las crias finalmente salen del cascarn. +La mayora de ellos morir, claro. La mortalidad es muy alta en pequeos bebes reptiles que tan solo 25 a 30 centmetros de longitud. +Mi primera experiencia con cobras reales fue en el 72 en un lugar mgico llamado Agumbe, en Karnataka, en este estado. +Y es una maravillosa selva tropical. +El primer encuentro fue algo as como el joven Masai que mata al len para convertirse en guerrero. +De veras cambi mi vida completamente. +Y me trajo directo a la refriega conservacionista. +Acab empezando esta estacin de investigacin y educacin en Agumbe, la cual estis todos invitados a visitar, por supuesto. +Es bsicamente una base donde intentamos reunir y aprender virtualmente todo sobre la biodiversidad de este increblemente complejo sistema de bosque, y conservar lo que all hay, asegurarnos de que las fuentes de agua estn protegidas y limpias, y desde luego, pasarlo bien tambin. +Cas podris escuchar los tambores retumbando all en esa pequea cabaa donde nos hospedamos. +Era muy importante para nosotros el hacernos entender a la gente. +Y normalmente la mejor forma es a travs de los nios. +Les fascinan las serpientes. No tienen ese ferreo sentimiento con el que acabas ya sea temindolas, odindolas o desprecindolas de alguna forma. +Estan interesados. +Y realmente funciona empezar con ellos. +Esto os dar una idea del tamao de algunas de estas serpientes. +Esta es una cobra real media, de unos 3,5 metros de largo +que rept hasta el bao de alguien y se quedo por all durante dos o tres das. +La gente de esta parte de la India venera a la cobra real. +Y no la mataron. Nos llamaron para capturarla. +Hemos cogido ms de 100 cobras reales durante los ltimos tres aos, y las hemos trasladado a bosques cercanos. +Pero para poder descubrir los verdaderos secretos de estas criaturas Nos fue necesario insertar un pequeo radiotransmisor en cada serpiente. +Ahora somos capaces de seguirlas y averiguar sus secretos, donde van las crias despus de nacer, y cosas sorprendentes como esto que estis a punto de ver. +Esto fue hace solo unos das en Agumbe. +Tuve el placer de estar al lado de esta enorme cobra real que haba atrapado un crotalino venenoso. +Y lo hace de tal forma que no es mordida. +Las cobras reales se alimentan solo de serpientes. +Esta pequea serpiente era como una golosina, lo que nosotros llamaramos "vadai" o dnut o algo similar. +Normalmente comen algo ms grande. +En este caso una actividad bastante extraa e inexplicable sucedi durante la ltima temporada de apareamiento, cuando una gran cobra real macho agarr a una cobra real hembra, no se apare, sino que la mat y se la comi. +Todava intentamos explicar y aceptar cual es la ventaja evolutiva de esto. +Pero tambin hacen muchas ms cosas sorprendentes. +De nuevo, esto es algo que somos capaces de ver gracias a que tenamos un radiotransmisor en una de las serpientes, +esta serpiente macho, 3'5 metros de largo, se encontr con otro macho. +Y realizaron este increble danza de combate ritual. +Se parece mucho al celo de los mamferos, humanos incluidos, ya sabis, arreglando nuestras diferencias gentilmente, sin mordiscos. +Es solo un combate, aunque extraordinario. +Y bien, Qu hacemos con toda esta informacin? +Para qu sirve todo esto? +Bueno, la cobra real es literalmente una especie clave en estas selvas. +Y nuestro trabajo es convencer a las autoridades de que estas selvas deben ser protegidas. +Y esta es una de las formas como lo hacemos, aprendiendo tanto como podemos sobre algo tan sorprendente y representativo de las selvas de all, para ayudar a proteger los arboles, los animales y por supuesto las fuentes de agua. +Todos habris odo hablar, quizs, del Projecto Tiger que empez a comienzos de los '70, que fue de hecho un tiempo muy activo para la conservacin. +Fuimos dirigidos, podra decir, por una lder my autocrtica, pero que tambin tena una increble pasin por el medioambiente. +Y este es el momento en el que el Proyecto Tiger surgi. +Y, al igual que el Proyecto Tiger, nuestra actividad con la cobra real es la de centrarnos en una especie animal para as proteger su hbitat y todo lo que hay en l. +As, el tigre es el icono. +Y ahora la cobra es el nuevo icono. +Todos los grandes rios del sur de la India surgen de las Ghats Occidentales, una cadena de montaas que recorre la costa oeste de India. +Vierte millones de litros cada hora, y provee de agua potable a al menos 300 millones de personas, y lava muchos muchos bebes, y por supuesto alimenta a muchos muchos animales, tanto domsticos como salvajes, produce miles de toneladas de arroz. +Y qu hacemos nosotros?Cmo le respondemos? +Bsicamente construimos presas y lo contaminamos. vertemos pesticidas, herbicidas y fungicidas. +La bebes poniendo en riesgo tu vida. +Y no se trata solo de las grandes industrias. +No son ingenieros hidrulicos equivocados quienes lo hacen; somos nosotros. +Parece que la mejor forma de deshacerse de la basura son las fuentes de agua. +Vale. Ahora nos vamos muy al norte. +Al norte central de la India, en el ro Chambal es donde tenemos nuestra base. +Este es el hogar del gavial, este increble cocodrilo. +Es un animal que lleva en la Tierra solo cerca de 100 millones de aos. +Sobrevivi incluso al tiempo en que murieron los dinosaurios. +Tiene cualidades extraordinarias. +Aunque crezca hasta los 6 metros de largo, ya que solo come pescado no supone un peligro para los humanos. +Sin embargo s que tiene unos grandes dientes, y resulta difcil convencer a la gente de que un animal con grandes dientes sea inofensivo. +Pero nosotros de hecho, a principios de los '70 hicimos mediciones, y vimos que el gavial era extremadamente raro. +De hecho, si veis el mapa el mbito de su hbitat original iba desde el Indus en Pakistan hasta el Irrawaddy en Burma. +Y ahora se limita solo a un par de sitios en Nepal y la India. +De hecho en este momento solo quedan 200 gaviales salvajes. +As, empezando a mediados de los '70 cuando la conservacin pas a primer plano fuimos capaces de empezar proyectos financiados bsicamente por el gobierno para recoger huevos de los pocos nidos salvajes que quedaban y soltar 5000 crias de gavial de vuelta a su hbitat natural +Y poco despus estbamos viendo imgenes como esta. +Quiero decir, era increble ver un montn de gaviales disfrutando en el rio de nuevo. +Pero la autocomplacencia suele tender al desprecio. +Y, por supuesto, con todas las otras presiones que sufre el ro, como la minea de la arena por ejemplo, y un exceso de cultivos hasta el borde del ro, impidiendo que los animales se reproduzcan, vemos como se acumulan ms problemas para el gavial, a pesar de las buenas intenciones anteriores. +Sus nidos incubando a lo largo de las riberas produciendo cientos de crias. Es una vista asombrosa. +Esta fue justo tomada el ao pasado. +Pero entonces llega el monzn, y desafortunadamente ro abajo siempre hay un dique o una presa, y, "shoop", son tragados haca su muerte. +Por suerte todava hay mucho inters. +Mis amigos en el Crocodrile Specialist Group de la IUCN, el Mandras Crocodile Bank, una ONG, el World Wildlife Fund, el Wildlife Institute de la India, los Departamentos Forestales Estatales, y el Ministerio de Medioambiente, todos trabajamos juntos. +Pero posiblemente, y sin duda no es suficiente. +Por ejemplo, en el invierno del 2007-2008 hubo una increble extincin de gaviales en el ro Chambal. +De pronto docenas de gaviales aparecan en el rio, muertos. +Porqu? Como pudo ocurrir esto? +Este ro est relativamente limpio. +El Chambal, si lo miris, tiene las aguas claras. +La gente saca agua del Chambal y se la bebe, algo que no harais en la mayora de ros del norte de la India. +As que para encontrar la respuesta a esto, Tuvimos a veterianarios de todo el mundo trabajando con veterinarios hindes para entender que estaba pasando. +Estuve all en muchas de las autopsias en las riberas. +E incluso revisamos todos sus rganos e intentamos entender que estaba pasando. +Y se deba algo llamado "gota" que, como resultado de un fallo en los riones crea cristales de cido rico por todo el cuerpo, y ms en las articulaciones, haciendo que el gavial no pueda nadar. +Es una muerte horriblemente dolorosa. +Justo rio abajo del Chambal esta el sucio ro Yamuna, el sagrado ro Yamuna. +Y odio ser tan irnico y sarcstico al respecto pero es cierto. Es una de las fosas spticas ms sucias que os podis imaginar. +fluye a travs de Delhi, Mathura, Agra, y recibe todos y cada uno de los vertidos que os podis imaginar. +Por tanto, pareca que la toxina que estaba matando a los gaviales era algo en la cadena alimenticia algo en el pescado que coman. +Y, ya sabis, una vez que la toxna est en la cadena todo se ve afectado, incluidos nosotros. +Porque estos ros son el alma de la gente a lo largo de su curso. +Para intentar responder algunas de estas preguntas recurrimos de nuevo a la tecnologa a la tecnologa biolgica, en este caso, de nuevo telemetra, poniendo transmisores a 10 gaviales, siguiendo sus movimientos. Estn siendo observados cada da, mientras hablamos, para averiguar cual es esta misteriosa toxina. +El rio Chambal es un lugar absolutamente increible. +Es un lugar famoso para aquellos que hayis oido hablar de los bandidos, los "dacoits" quienes solan trabajar all. Y todava hay unos cuantos. +Poolan Devi fue uno de ellos. Sobre quin Shekhar Kapur hizo una pelicula increible, the Bandit Queen, que os animo a ver. +Veris el extraordinario paisaje de Chambal tambin. +Pero de nuevo, la pesca intensiva presiona. +Este es una de los ltimas reservas de delfn del rio Ganges, varias especies de tortugas, miles de aves migratorias, y la pesca est causando problemas como este. +Ahora estos nuevos elementos de intolerancia humana hacia los animales de ro como el gavial significa que si no se ahogan en la red, entonces simplemente les cortan el pico. +Animales como el delfn del rio Ganges del que apenas quedan unos pocos, y est tambin en vas de extincin. +Quin es el siguiente? Nosotros? +Porque todos dependemos de estas fuentes de agua. +Todos sabemos lo que pas en el ro Narmanda las tragedias de las presas y los grandes proyectos que desplazaron a la gente y destrozaron los sistemas del rio sin proveer sustentos. +Y el desarrollo, basicamente volvindose loco, por un ndice de crecimiento de dos cifras. +As que no estamos seguros de como acabar esta historia, si tendr un final feliz o triste. +Y ciertamente el cambio climtico va a meter todas nuestras teoras y predicciones en sus cabezas. +Seguimos trabajando duro en ello. +Tenemos un buen equipo de gente trabajando all. +Y la cosa es, que los que toman las decisiones los tipos con poder, Estn all arriba en sus bungals y dems en Delhi, en las capitales. Se les suple abundante agua. Todo bien. +Pero fuera en los rios hay todava millones de personas en un muy mal estado. +Y les espera un futuro sombrio. +Por ello tenemos nuestro proyecto de limpieza del Ganges y el Yamuna. +Hemos invertido cientos de millones de dolares en l, y ningn resultado. Increble. +La gente habla de la voluntad politica. +Durante la extincin de gaviales impulsamos muchas acciones. +El gobierno cort todas las cintas rojas, tuvimos veterinarios extranjeros en ello. Fue genial. +As que podemos hacerlo. +Pero si os dais un paseo por el Yamuna o el Gomati en Lucknow, o el ro Adyar en Chennai, o el ro Mula-muta en Pune, veris lo que somos capaces de hacerle a un ro. Es triste. +Pero creo que la nota final es que podemos hacerlo. +Las corporaciones, los artistas, los locos de la fauna y la flora la gente corriente podemos recuperar estos ros. +Y la palabra final es que hay una cobra real mirndonos por encima de nuestros hombros. +Y hay un gavial mirndonos desde el rio. +Y estos son poderosos ttems del agua. +Y que van a perturbar nuestros sueos hasta que hagamos lo correcto. +Namaskar. +Chris Anderson: Gracias Rom. Muchas gracias. +Sabes, a la mayora de personas las serpientes les aterran. +Y puede que halla aqu unos cuantos que estaran encantados de ver como la ltima cobra real muerde el polvo. +Tienes esas conversaciones con la gente? +Como consigues que se preocupen? +Romulus Whitaker: se podra decir que tomo una aproximacin humilde. No digo que a las serpientes se las pueda abrazar precisamente. +No son como un osito de peluche. +Pero yo... Hay inocencia en estos animales. +Y cuando persona cualquiera mira a una cobra haciendo "Ssssss!" as, dicen "Dios mio, mira esa criatura peligrosa y enfadada." +Yo la veo como una criatura completamente asustada de algo tan peligroso como un ser humano. +Y esa es la verdad. Eso es lo que intento comunicar. +CA: Ahora bien, el metraje increble que mostraste de la vbora siendo cazada. +Estabas diciendo que eso no se haba filmado antes. +RM: S, esta fue la primera vez que nosotros nos enteramos de esto. +Como dije, es como un tentempi para l, entendis? +normalmente comen otras ms grandes como serpientes ratoneras, o incluso cobras. +Pero este tipo que seguimos ahora mismo est en la jungla profunda. +Cuando otras cobras reales muy a menudo entran en contacto con humanos, en las plantaciones para encontrar a grandes serpientes ratoneras etc. +Este tipo se especializa en crotalinos. +Y el chico que est trabajando all con ellos, es de Maharashtra, dijo "Creo que va detrs de la nusha." +La "nusha" significa estar bajo los efectos de una droga. +Siempre que se come un crotalino recibe un pequeo colocn de veneno. +CA: Gracias Rom. Gracias. +Herbie Hancock: Gracias. +Marcus Miller. Harvey Mason. Gracias. Muchas gracias. +Hola. Para aquellos que no hayis visto osos bailarines, estos son los osos bailarines. +En 1995 comenzamos a trabajar en un proyecto de investigacin de dos aos para intentar descubrir qu estaba pasando, +porque los osos perezosos salvajes estaban desapareciendo por culpa de este fenmeno. +Estos son los Kalandar. Son una comunidad islmica marginal que vive en toda India, y llevan en India desde el siglo XIII. +Fuimos buscando pruebas de lo que estaba pasando. +Y estas son imgenes de una cmara oculta. +Nos infiltramos, pretendiendo ser compradores, +y encontramos esto aqu mismo, en esta provincia, Karnataka, +donde reunan cachorros de oso de todas partes del pas para ser traficados y vendidos. +Estos se vendan por unos 2.000 dlares cada uno, y eran usados para preparar sopa de garra de oso; y otros eran amaestrados para, ms adelante, convertirse en osos bailarines como los que acaban de ver. +Lamentablemente, las familias de los Kalandar dependen de estos osos. +Esta pareja apenas tienen 18 aos +y ya tienen 4 hijos. Pueden verlos detrs de ellos en la foto. +Y la economa familiar y su sustento depende de estos animales. +As que tuvimos que afrontar la cuestin de una manera muy prctica y sostenible. +Cuando empezamos a trabajar ms a fondo, descubrimos que es un acto ilegal. +Estas personas podran cumplir una condena de hasta 7 aos si fueran descubiertos por las autoridades. +Y lo que les hacan a los osos era realmente espantoso. +Era inaceptable. +Normalmente, las madres oso son sacrificadas. +Los cachorros que se quedan, son separados de sus hermanos. +Les arrancan los dientes a golpes con una barra de metal, +y utilizan una aguja al rojo vivo para hacerles un agujero en el hocico. +As que tenamos que cambiar a esa gente y ese modo de vida por algo diferente. +Bien, este es Bitu Kalandar, que fue nuestro primer experimento. +Y no estbamos muy seguros de que esto fuera a funcionar. +Tenamos muchas dudas, pero conseguimos convencerle. +Y le dijimos: "Aqu tienes capital para comenzar. +Veamos si puedes encontrar otro modo de vida". Y entreg al oso a la reserva que habamos creado. Tenemos cuatro reservas en la India. +Ahora Bitu vende bebidas fras, junto a la autopista. +Tambin tiene una cabina telefnica. +Y as comenzamos, ya no haba vuelta atrs. +Este es Sadua, que vino a entregarnos su oso +y ahora regenta una tienda de grano y comida para ganado cerca de Agra. +Entonces ya s que no haba vuelta atrs para nosotros. +Empezamos a dar bicicletas para llevar pasajeros. +Pusimos en marcha talleres de confeccin de alfombras, escuelas vocacionales para las mujeres. +A las mujeres no se les permita salir de la comunidad y mezclarse con la sociedad india. De esta manera tambin pudimos ocuparnos de ellas. +Educacin. Los nios nunca haban ido a la escuela. +Solo haban recibido educacin islmica y muy escasa. +Y no se les permita asistir a la escuela porque eran ms mano de obra que contribua en el hogar. Tambin conseguimos darles una educacin. +Y a da de hoy patrocinamos la educacin de 600 nios. +Conseguimos asegurar un futuro ms prometedor para toda esta gente +y, por supuesto, tambin conseguimos liberar a los osos en la reserva. +Este es el estado de los osos cuando llegan. +Y esto es en lo que se convierten. +Tenemos departamentos veterinarios en nuestros centros de rescate. +Bsicamente, en el 2002 haba 12,000 osos bailarines. +Rescatamos a ms de 550. +Conseguimos grantizar un mejor futuro para la gente y para los osos. +Y la gran noticia que me gustara anunciar hoy es que el prximo mes traeremos al ltimo oso de la India a nuestro centro de rescate. +Y la India ya no tendr que ser testigo de esta prctica brbara y cruel que lleva siglos entre nosotros. +Y la gente podr caminar con la cabeza alta +y los Kalandar podrn alzarse por encima de ese pasado de barbarie y crueldad en el que llevaban viviendo toda la vida. +Y por supuesto, los hermosos osos podrn disfrutar otra vez de la vida en libertad. +Y ya no habr que extraer ms a estos osos. +Y los nios, tanto humanos como oseznos, podrn vivir pacficamente. Gracias. +Contagioso es una buena palabra +An en tiempos de gripe H1N1, me gusta la palabra. +La risa es contagiosa. La pasin es contagiosa. +La inspiracin es contagiosa. +Hemos escuchado historias extraordinarias de oradores extraordinarios. +Pero para m, lo que fue contagioso en todos ellos radicaba en que estaban infectados por lo que yo llamo el virus del "Yo puedo". +Entonces, la pregunta es, Por qu slo ellos? +En un pas de ms de un billn de personas, por qu tan pocos? +Es suerte? o es casualidad? +No podemos todos sistemtica y conscientemente infectarnos? +Por eso, en los prximos 8 minutos me gustara compartir mi historia con ustedes. +Yo fui infectada a los 17 aos. cuando, siendo estudiante en la escuela de diseo, me top con adultos que creyeron en mis ideas, me desafiaron y se tomaron muchas tazas de t conmigo. +Y me sorprendi lo maravilloso que era sentirse as, y lo contagioso de ese sentimiento. +Tambin me percat de que debera haberme infectado a los siete aos. +Por eso, cuando fund el colegio Riverside hace 10 aos, se convirti en laboratorio, un laboratorio para modelar y perfeccionar un proceso diseado para infectar conscientemente la mente con el virus del "Yo puedo". +Y descubr que si el aprendizaje se integra en el contexto real y cotidiano, que si se difuminan las barreras entre la escuela y la vida, los nios recorren un camino que les hace, primero, conscientes, donde ven el cambio, les permite ser transformados y luego, al ser potenciados, dirigir el cambio. +Y eso aument directamente el bienestar de los estudiantes. +Los nios se volvieron ms competentes, y menos vulnerables. +Pero todo esto era sentido comn. +Por eso me gustara que vieran una muestra de cmo es la prctica comn en Riverside. +Una introduccin: Cuando mis chicos de quinto estudiaban los derechos del nio les hicimos enrollar barritas de incienso o agarbattis, durante 8 horas para que experimentaran lo que significa ser un nio obrero. +Esto los transform. Lo que van a ver es su recorrido, y a continuacin su increible convencimiento de que podan salir ah afuera y cambiar el mundo. +Ah estn enrollando. +Y a las dos horas, con la espalda molida, ya haban cambiado. +Y una vez que ocurri esto, salieron por la ciudad convenciendo a todo el mundo de que la explotacin infantil tena que ser abolida. +Miren cmo cambia la cara de Ragav al darse cuenta y comprender que ha cambiado la forma de pensar de ese hombre. +Eso no puede hacerse en un aula. +Entonces cuando Ragav lo experiment pas de "la maestra dice", al "Yo lo hago". Y en eso consiste la mentalidad del "Yo puedo". +Y este es un proceso que puede activarse y alimentarse. +Pero, en nuestro caso, algunos padres dijeron: "Vale, est muy bien que hagan a nuestros hijos mejores personas, pero qu pasa con las Matemticas, la Ciencia y el Ingls? +Mustrenos las notas". +Y se las mostramos. Los datos eran concluyentes. +Cuando los nios se sienten capaces, no slo lo hacen bien, sino que, de hecho, lo hacen muy bien, como pueden ver en esta evaluacin de rendimiento nacional que incluye a ms de 2.000 colegios en India, los alumnos de Riverside superaron a los de los 10 mejores colegios en Matemticas, Ingls y Ciencia. +As que, funcion. Era hora de trasladarlo fuera de Riverside. +Entonces, el 15 de agosto de 2007, Da de la Independencia, los nios y nias de Riverside se lanzaron a infectar Ahmedabad. +Ahora no se trataba de nuestro colegio, Riverside, +sino de todos los nios, por lo que fuimos atrevidos. +Entramos en las instituciones municipales, en las comisaras, en la prensa, en los comercios. y lo que dijimos bsicamentes fue: "Cuando van a despertar y reconocer el potencial de los nios y nias? +Cuando van a incluir a los nios en la ciudad? +Abran sus corazones y sus mentes a los nios." +Cmo respondi la ciudad? +Desde el 2007, cada dos meses se corta el trfico en las calles ms transitadas de la ciudad y se convierten en zonas de recreo para la infancia. +Aqu tienen una ciudad diciendole a sus nios: " Ustedes pueden". +Una muestra de la infeccin de Ahmedabad. +Video : (En Hindi) Las calles ms transitadas se cortaron. +Nos ayudan la policia de trnsito y la municipalidad. +Las nias y nios se apoderan de ellas. +Patinan. Juegan en la calle. +Se divierten, libres, en nombre de todos los nios. +Atul Karwal: La organizacin Aproch viene haciendo esto desde hace tiempo. +Y planeamos hacerlo tambin en otras partes de la ciudad. +Kiran Bir Sethi: La ciudad les regalar su tiempo. +Y Ahmedabad tuvo el primer paso de zebra diseado por y para nios. +Geet Sethi: Cuando una ciudad da cosas a los nios en el futuro los nios le devolvern a la ciudad. +KBS: Gracias a eso, Ahmedabad es la primera ciudad de India apta y adecuada para nios y nias. +Ya van entendiendo el patrn. Primero 200 nios y nias de Riverside. +Luego 30.000 nios en Ahmedabad, y en aumento. +Haba llegado la hora de infectar India. +Asi que el 15 de agosto, de nuevo, el Da de la Independencia, en el 2009, potenciados mediante el mismo proceso, motivamos a 100.000 nios y nias a decir "Yo puedo". +Cmo lo hicimos? Diseamos una serie de herramientas, que tradujimos a ocho idiomas consiguiendo llegar a 32.000 colegios. +Bsicamente propusimos a los nios un reto muy sencillo. +Les planteamos que pensaran en algo, algo que les preocupara, que eligieran una semana, y que transformaran un billn de vidas. +Y lo hicieron. Historias de cambio llegaron a raudales de todas las partes de India, de Nagaland, en el Este, a Jhunjhunu, en el Oeste, de Sikkinm, en el Norte, a Krishnagiri, en el Sur. +Nias y nios proponan soluciones para una amplia gama de problemas. +Desde la soledad hasta cubrir baches en las calles y el alcoholismo, y 32 nios y nias evitaron 16 matrimonios infantiles en Rajasthan. +Fue algo increible. +Fundamentalmente se estaba reafirmando que cuando creemos en los nios y les decimos "Ustedes pueden", ellos lo hacen. +La infeccin en India. +Esto es Rajasthan, una poblacin rural. +Video: Nio: Nuestros padres son analfabetos y queremos ensearles a leer y escribir. +KBS: Por primera vez, una demostracin y una obra callejera en un colegio rural -- algo inslito -- para contar a sus padres por qu la alfabetizacin es importante. +Vean lo que dicen sus padres. +Hombre: Este programa es estupendo. +Nos hace sentir tan bien que nuestros nios puedan ensearnos como leer y escribir. +Mujer: Me hace tan feliz que mis alumnos intervinieran en esta campaa. +En el futuro, nunca dudar de las habilidades de mis estudiantes. +Lo ves?, lo han hecho +KBS: Una escuela cntrica en Hyderabad. +Nia: 581. Esta casa cuesta 581... +Chica: Tenemos que empezar a recaudar desde 555. +KBS: Chicas y chicos en Hyderabad, saliendo, bastante dificil, pero lo hicieron. +Mujer: A pesar de se tan jvenes han hecho un muy buen trabajo. +Primero, han limpiado a la sociedad, luego sera Hyderabad y pronto India. +Mujer: Fue una revelacin para m. No pens que atesoraran tantas cosas en su interior. +Chica: Gracias seoras y seores. +Para nuestra subasta les ofrecemos unos cuadros maravillosos, para una muy buena causa, el dinero se emplear para comprar audfonos para los sordos. +Estn ustedes listos, seoras y seores? Pblico: S! +Chica: Estn preparados? Pblico: S! +Chica: Estn preparadas? Pblico: S! +KBS: As que el mensaje de compasin comienza aqu. +Juegos en la calle, subastas, peticiones. +Los nios y nias estaban transformando vidas. +Fue increible!. +Entonces, Cmo podemos permanecer inmunes a esto? +Cmo podemos permanecer inmunes a esa pasin, a esa energa, a esa emocin? +Y ya s que es obvio, pero he de terminar con el smbolo ms poderoso de cambio, Gandhi. +Hace 70 aos, bast un hombre para infectar a toda una nacin con la fuerza del "Nosotros podemos". +Entonces Quin se va a encargar de propagar la infeccin de 100.000 nios y nias a los 200 millones de nios y nias en India hoy? +El prembulo de nuestra Constitucin an dice "Nosotros, la gente de India", verdad?. +Entonces, quin, si no nosotros? +Cundo, si no ahora? +Como dije al principio, contagioso es una buena palabra. +Gracias. +En 2008 el cicln Nargis devast Myanmar. +Millones de personas tenan una necesidad severa de ayuda +La ONU quera enviar inmediatamente gente y provisiones al rea. +Pero no haba mapas, mapas de las carreteras ningn mapa indicando los hospitales, ni forma para llegar a las vctimas del cicln. +Cuando miramos un mapa de Los ngeles o de Londres es difcil de creer que hacia el 2005 solo el 15% del mundo estaba cartografiado a un nivel de detalle geocodificable. +La ONU se top directamente con el problema con el que la mayora de la poblacin mundial se enfrenta: no tener mapas detallados. +Pero la ayuda estaba llegando. +En Google, 40 voluntarios usaron un nuevo software para cartografiar 120.000 km de carretera, 3.000 hospitales, puntos logsticos y de ayuda +Y les cost cuatro das. +El nuevo software que usaron? Google Mapmaker. +Google Mapmaker es una tecnologa que da a cada uno de nosotros la capacidad de cartografiar lo que conocemos de nuestra zona. +La gente ha usado este software para trazar todo desde carreteras hasta ros, desde escuelas hasta negocios locales, y vdeo clubs hasta la tienda de la esquina. +Los mapas importan. +El nominado para el premio Nobel Hernando de Soto reconoci que la clave para el salto econmico para la mayora de los pases en vas de desarrollo es explotar la enorme cantidad de tierra no capitalizada. +Por ejemplo, slo en India un billn de dlares de bienes inmuebles siguen no capitalizados. +Solamente en el ao pasado miles de usuarios en 170 pases han conseguido cartografiar millones de trozos de informacin, y han creado un mapa con un nivel de detalle impensable. +Y eso se hizo posible gracias al poder de apasionados usuarios de todo el mundo. +Miremos unos mapas que se estn creando en este momento. +Mientras hablamos la gente esta cartografiando el mundo en estos 170 pases. +Pueden ver a Bridget en frica que acaba de cartografiar una carretera en Senegal. +Y, ms cerca de casa, Chalua, una carretera en Bangalore. +Este es el resultado de la geometra computacional, reconocimiento gestual, y aprendizaje automtico. +Esta es una victoria de miles de usuarios, en cientos de ciudades, uno a uno, cada usuario, cada edicin. +Esta es una invitacin al 70 por ciento de nuestro planeta aun no cartografiado. +Bienvenidos al nuevo mundo. +Hoy les hablar acerca de los secretos. +Obviamente la mejor manera de divulgar un secreto es decirle a alguien que no diga nada acerca de l. +Secretos. Este ao estoy usando Power Point. slo porque ahora, ya sabes, estoy metido y me gusta esto de "TED". +Y cuando usas estas cosas no tienes que hacer esto. +Slo lo presionas. +Oh no! Um, s. +S. Estoy seguro! Slo cmbialo! +Se encuentra Bill Gates por aqu? +Cmbialo! Vamos! Qu? +Ah! Vale. +Esas no son mis diapositvas, pero est bien. +Como pueden ver, estos son todos mapas. +Y los mapas son recursos importantes para transferir informacin, especialmente si tienes la habilidad cognitiva del humano. +Podemos ver que todas las frmulas son realmente mapas. +Ahora bien, como humanos, hacemos mapas de lugares a los que raras veces vamos. Lo cual parece, un poco, como desperdiciar el tiempo. +Este, por supuesto, es un mapa de la luna. +Hay algunos nombres bastante encantadores. +Tranquilacalitis, [incomprensible]. Mi favorito es Frigoris. +En qu estn pensando esta gente? Frigoris? +Qu Frigoris ests haciendo? Los nombres son importantes. +Frigoris? Esta es la Luna! La gente podran vivir all algn da! +Te veo en Frigoris. No, no lo creo! +Esto es Marte, otra vez con varios nombres. +Por cierto, todo esto lo hace la Unin Internacional Astronmica. +Un grupo autntico de personas que pasan su tiempo ponindole nombre a los objetos planetarios. +Esto es de su libro. +Damas y caballeros, estos son algunos de los nombres que ese grupo han elegido. +Les contar algunos de ellos. Bolotnitsa. +Significa, por supuesto, la sirena eslava del pantano. +Ahora, creo que todo el concepto de sirena no combina realmente con la idea de pantano. +"Miren! Una sirena saliendo del pantano. Vaya! +Ahora la Bolotnitsa!> +Djabran Fluctus. +Si eso no es fcil de pronunciar, entonces no s que lo es. +Esto es lo que le damos a los nios para estudiar! y tienen palabras como "fluctus". Eso no est bien. +Slo un nio dislxico y se podra arruinar la vida. + +Hikuleo Fluctus. +Eso suena mejor. Hikuleo suena como un tipo de Leonardo DiCaprio de 17 slabas. +Y esa es la diosa del infierno de Tonga. +Y uno de mis favoritos es el de Itoki Fluctus, diosa nicaragense de los insectos, las estrellas y los planetas. +Ahora bien, si eres la diosa de las estrellas y los planetas, no le dejaras los insectos a alguien ms? + +Haber... uno de estos das viajaremos a Marte. Y cuando lo hagamos, ser injusto para las personas que vivan all tener que vivir con esos nombres tan ridculos. +As que estars en Marte en Hellespointica Depressio que seguro sera el sitio ms animado de todos. +S, estoy en Depressio y quiero irme a Amazonis entonces inserto direccin en el mapa de Marte, presiono el botn y me da todas las indicaciones para llegar. +Voy a Chrysokeras. +De a la izquierda en Thymiamata. +Luego a Niliacus Lacus, que no es tan malo como nombre. +Niliacus Lacus, intente pronuciarlo, slik-a-tik-a-bakus. +Es un nombre divertido, lo admito. +Retengo un poco de mi veneno para estos nombres astronmicos inapropiados. +Arnon a Thoth. +Y por supuesto habrn anuncios. +Esto viene del reglamento de la Unin Internacional de Astronoma. +Y ya sabes que son internacionales porque lo pusieron "en franais" tambin. +L'Union Astronomique International, para aquellos que no hablan francs. +Pens en traducirlo para ustedes. +Segn el reglamento: la nomenclatura es una herramienta. +El primer requisito: que sea clara, simple y no ambigua. +Yo creo que Djabran Fluctus cabe dentro de ese requisito. +Es simple: la diosa de las cabras; bastante simple. +Djabran Fluctus. + + + +Tambin del documento autntico, destaqu una parte que se me ocuri pudiera ser de inters. +Cualquier persona puede sugerir un cambio de nombre. +Entonces, me dirigo a ustedes, queridos miembros de la comunidad terrestre. +Debemos cambiar esto rpido. +Estos son algunos de los nombres de las personas que trabajan all. +Hice un poco ms de investigacin. +Estas son ms de las personas que trabajan para este grupo. +Y como pueden ver, no utilizan sus nombres. +Estas son las personas que nombran a los planetas y no utilizan sus nombres. +Algo est mal aqu. +Ser porque su nombre entero es en realidad Jupiter Blunck? +Ella es Ganymede Andromeda Burba? +l es Marte Ya Marov? +No lo s. Pero es material para investigacin, sin duda alguna. +Hay algunas personas que hacen mapas que s utilizan sus nombres. +Les presento a Eugene Shoemaker, quien, con diligencia, desde que era nio, decidi que quera hacer mapas de los cuerpos celestiales. +Debi haber sido un da bastante interesante en la casa de los Shoemaker. + + + + +Marcianos, Venusianos, Jovianos. +Tenemos nombres para los lugares donde las personas no existen. +Eso me parece un poco tonto. +No existen los Jovianos. +Regresando a mi premisa, utilic estampillas, por cierto, porque no le tienes que pagar a nadie por los derechos. +Este obviamente es Einstein, Neils Bohr, el ltimo teorema de Defermat y no estoy muy seguro si ese es James Coburn o Richard Harris. +Definitivamente es uno de los dos. No estoy muy seguro cul. +Pero obviamente el punto es que los nmeros son mapas. +Ser que los nmeros ocultan un secreto subyacente sobre el universo? +Esa es la premisa de esta presentacin. +Por cierto, esa es una foto natural de Saturno, sin retoques. Es sencillamente hermosa! +Tan hermosa que desistir de hacer una broma para explicar mi amor por este planeta en particular, y el da sbado, que toma su nombre del mismo, maravilloso. +Entonces, las frmulas relacionan el nmero a la forma. +Ese es Euler, su frmula fue una de las inspiraciones que llevaron al inicio de la Teora de Cuerdas que es increble, no tan chistoso, pero es increble. +Tambin era famoso por no tener cuerpo. +Muchos de ustedes se han de estar preguntando +No tiene cuerpo, slo es una cabeza que flota a lo alto! +Aqu viene Euler. +Y ese es un icosaedro, que es uno de los cinco slidos sagrados, muy importante entre las figuras. +Ven, nuevamente, el icosaedro. +El dodecaedro, es dual. +Hay un dodecaedro que tuve que hacer anoche en mi habitacin. +Como pueden ver, estos son los cinco slidos sagrados. +Que no deben confundirse con las cinco ensaladas sagradas. +Blue cheese, ranch, aceite y vinagre, mil islas y de la casa. +Yo sugiero la de la casa. +En realidad, esto s es importante. +Lo que es importante de esto es que las figuras son duales de cada una. +Pueden ver como el icosaedro se introduce en el dodecaedro y luego se fusionan entre ambos. +Entonces todo el concepto de branas en el universo, si el universo tiene la forma de un dodecaedro este es un mapa bastante bueno de lo que posiblemente podra ser. +Y esto es, por supuesto, de lo que estamos aqu para hablar. +Que coincidencia! +El nueve de octubre, en Francia, Jean-Pierre Luminet dijo que el universo probablemente tiene la forma de un dodecaedro, basndose en la informacin que obtuvieron de esta sonda. +Esto sera un patrn de onda normal. +Pero lo que estn viendo all... lejos del alcance del fondo de las microondas, es este tipo de ondulacin extraa. +No corresponde a lo que sospecharon que hubiera sido un universo plano. +Entonces ms o menos pueden hacerse una idea de esto, extrapolando aquello dentro de esta gran foto, para que tengamos una idea de cmo se vea el universo originalmente. +Y viendo esto, se parece un poco a una hamburguesa con queso. +Por lo tanto, el universo es o un dodecaedro o una hamburguesa con queso. +En mi opinin, esa es una situacin de la cual siempre se sale ganando. +Todos se van a casa felices. +Debera darme prisa. +Slo met esto porque, aunque no se pueden negar todas nuestras habilidades intelectuales, nada tiene sentido... sin corazn y sin amor. +Y eso, para m, es algo realmente hermoso. +Excepto por ese hombre raro del fondo. +Regresando al tema de esta presentacin, Kepler, uno de mis grandes hroes, se di cuenta que estos cinco slidos, de los cules habl anteriormente, estaban relacionados de alguna manera con los planetas, pero no lo pudo comprobarlo. Esto lo enloqueci. +Pero llev a Newton a descrubrir la gravedad. +Mapas de las cosas que llevan a entendimientos organizados del universo en el cual emergemos. +Esta es una estampilla vietnamita de Isaac. +No estoy sugiriendo de ninguna manera, que nuestros hermanos y hermanas vietnamitas podran benecifiar de una u otra clase de arte. Pero... +ese no es un buen dibujo. +No es un buen dibujo. Ahora, compaeros, en la isla de Nevis dibujan un poco mejor. Miren eso! Ese es Isaac Newton. +Ese retrato est buensimo! +Qu galan ms guapo! +Una vez ms, Nicaragua me defraud. +Coprnico se parece a Johnny Carson, lo cual es bastante raro. +No lo entiendo. +Una vez ms estos chicos s le dan en el punto. +Isaac es el mejor. Se ve como una estrella de rock. +Esto es bastante raro. +Este es de Sierra Leona. +Hay bebs flotando por la imagen. +Anda. Pues con este no te digo nada. +Pero no saba que Isaac Newton era un integrante del grupo Moody Blues. Ustedes s? +Cundo pas esto? +Un variante, por supuesto. Y tienen cinco manzanas? +Esta gente estn extrapolando de conclusiones que no necesariamente son vlidas. +Aunque cinco es un buen nmero por supuesto. +Ecuador, mi amigo Kepler, como pueden ver lo llaman Juan. +Juan? No! Johan, no Juan. +No era Carlos Chaplin. Es incorrecto. +Ren Descartes, por supuesto. Otra vez esta gente de Granada, esto es demasiado pervertido para cualquiera. +Se ve turbio. Hay nios pequeos recostados en su pierna, pequeos fantasmas volando alrededor. Tenemos que limpiar todas estas cosas rpidamente, damas y caballeros. +Estas, por supuesto, son las Coordenadas cartecianas. +Otra vez, esto es de Sierra Leona. +Nuevamente, indicando cmo los nmeros estn relacionados con el espacio, la forma, y mapas del universo. +Es por esto que estamos aqu, en realidad, para entender algunas cosas y amarnos unos a los otros. +Descartes. Antes del caballo. Ahora, Mnaco tom a Descartes y le di la vuelta. +Mnaco es problemtico para mi, y les mostrar por qu. +Aqu hay un mapa. Todo lo que tienen es un casino. +Y por qu est Franklin Delano Roosevelt en su mapa no quiero arriesgarme a adivinar. +Pero podiera decir que ha ido a Hellenspointica Depressio recientemente. +Esta es la bandera de Mnaco. Damas y caballeros, esta es la bandera de Indonesia. Por favor examnenlas. +No estoy seguro cmo lleg a pasar esto, pero no est bien. +En Mnaco, + +La ley de Bode ni siquiera fue su ley. Era la de un hombre llamado Titus. +Y la razn por la que lo digo es porque es una ley que en realidad, no funciona. +Este es Jude Law y algunas de sus pelculas ms recientes tampoco funcionaron. +Slo una correlacin que indica cmo las cosas es malinterpretan. +Me pregunto si el fotgrafo dice: +Un consejo, si te estn tomando las fotografas para los medios, no te toques los dientes. +Nmeros primos, Gauss, uno de mis favoritos. +La Razn urea, he estado obsesionado con esto desde antes de que naciera. +S que eso puede asustar a varios de ustedes, pero ese era mi propsito. +Aqu podemos ver los nmeros Fibonacci relacionados a la Razn urea, porque Fibonacci y la Razn urea se relacionan al despliegue del metro medido de la materia, como yo me refiero a l. +Si Fibonacci hubiera estado tomando Paxil, Esto sera las series de Fibonacci. +"10 miligramos, 20 miligramos." + + +Bueno hacia dnde va esto? Es una buena pregunta. +Aqu est la premisa que empec hace 27 aos. +Si los nmeros pueden expresar las leyes del increble universo en el que vivimos, yo razono, que a travs de alguna forma de ingeniera inversa nosotros podramos extrapolar de ellos algunos de los elementos bsicos estructurales de este universo. +Y eso es lo que hice. Hace 27 aos. Empec a trabajar en esto. +Y trat de construir un acelerador de partculas. +Y eso no funcion del todo bien. +Luego pens que la calculadora es como una metfora. +Podra nicamente dividir nmeros, porque, eso es como desintegrar un tomo. +Entonces eso hice. Esa fu la manera que descubr los "Moleeds". +"Moleeds" son, yo creo, la cosa que permitir probar la Teora de las Cuerdas. +Son los ndulos de la cuerda, patrones y relaciones, 27, 37. +Este fue el primer diagrama que hice. +Pueden ver, aunque no se guen por los nmeros, la belleza de la simetra. +Los nmeros del uno al 36, divididos en seis grupos. +Simetra, pares. +Todo lo de arriba suma 37. +Todo lo de abajo, 74. +Existen muchas relaciones complicadas que no les explicar ahora, porque ustedes diran: +Crculo de Quintas, armona acstica, simetra geomtrica. +Yo saba que esas dos estaban relacionadas. +Una vez ms, un tipo de cruce Cartesiano. +Entonces dije, si voy a poner un cculo, veamos qu tipo de patrones obtengo, boom, el Sistema Rojo. +Miren eso. Sencillamente no se puede inventar algo as, damas y caballeros. +No puedes ir por all diciendo: +Esto va ms all de cualquier cosa que pudiera inventar cualquiera. +Existe el Sistema Naranja. +Y aqu pueden ver los mltiplos del nmero 27. +Y recapitulan esa forma, aunque ese sea un crculo de nueve y ese sea un cculo de 36. Es una locura. +Este es el Sistema Verde. Todo se dobla a la mitad en el Sistema Verde, justo entre 18 y 19. +El Sistema Azul. El Violeta. Todo est all. +Miren eso! De verdad que no pueden inventarse esto. +Eso sencillamente no cae de un rbol, damas y caballeros. +27 aos de mi vida! +Y lo estoy presentando aqu en "TED". Por qu? +Porque este es el lugar dnde, si aterrizan extraterrestres, yo espero que sea aqu. + +En este ltimo ao he encontrado estos sistemas subsiguentes que permiten las posibilidades matemticas de la variedad de Calabi-Yau de tal forma que no necesita estas pequeas y ocultas dimensiones. +Lo cual funciona matemticamente, pero no me parece endiosado. +Parece que no fuera sexy ni siquiera elegante, est oculto. +Yo no quiero lo ocultado, yo quiero verlo. +Encontr otros pares que tienen simetra, aunque, a diferencia del principal, su simetra est dividida. +Increble. Esto es una locura. +Soy yo el nico que puede ver esto? +Por cierto, yo no dibuje esto en un da. +Traten de hacer este tipo de diagramas en sus casas. +Deben ser precisos! Hay medidas involucradas, incrementos. +Por cierto, estos son mapas. +No estampillas, pero tal vez algn da s. +Bueno estoy llegando a lo clave. La Razn urea, es una locura. +Y miren esto, construida adentro de esta misma est la Razn urea. +Yo empiezo a ver eso, una y otra vez. +Y empiezan a parecerse a los planetas. +Voy a JPL. +Veo las rbitas de los planetas. +Encuentro 18 ejemplos de ello en nuestro sistema solar. +Nunca se lo he dicho a nadie. Es la primera vez. Esto podra ser historia. +Kepler tena razn. +18 y 19, el centro de los "Moleeds", 0,618 es la Razn urea. +Multiplicados juntos, 18,618 x 19,618 es 364,247. +Lo cual equivale a 0,005 de diferencia del nmero de das en un ao. +Oye, no se puede inventar algo as. +Muchas gracias. +Gracias. +Gracias. +Como mago intento crear imgenes que hagan a la gente pararse a pensar. +Tambin intento desafiarme a mi mismo a hacer cosas que los mdicos clasifican como imposible. +Fui enterrado vivo dentro de un atad en Nueva York, enterrado vivo dentro de un atad en abril de 1999, durante una semana. +Viva all dentro sin nada ms que agua. +Y me result tan divertido que decid que podra intentar hacer otras cosas parecidas. +La siguiente fue congelarme dentro de un bloque de hielo durante tres das y tres noches en Nueva York. +Eso fue mucho ms difcil de lo que esperaba. +Despus de eso, me mantuve de pie en lo alto de un pilar de 30 metros durante 36 horas. +Llegu a alucinar tanto que los edificios a mi alrededor empezaban a verse como grandes cabezas de animales. +As que, despus, fui a Londres. +En Londres viv dentro de una caja de cristal durante 44 das con nada ms que agua. +Para m fue una de las cosas ms difciles que he hecho, pero tambin una de las ms bellas. +Haba tanto escepticismo, sobre todo por parte de la prensa en Londres, que empezaron a circular hamburguesas con helicpteros a mi alrededor para tentarme. +As que sent mi hazaa muy validada cuando el New England Journal of Medicine la utiliz para sus investigaciones cientficas. +Mi siguiente objetivo era ver cunto tiempo poda aguantar sin respirar, bsicamente cunto podra sobrevivir sin nada, sin aire siquiera. +Lo que no saba era que se convertira en el viaje ms apasionante de mi vida. +Cuando era un joven mago estaba obsesionado con Houdini y sus desafos bajo el agua. +As que empec muy temprano a competir con otros nios, a ver cunto aguantaba debajo del agua mientras ellos suban y bajaban para respirar, como cinco veces, mientras yo segua bajo el agua con una sola respiracin. +Para cuando llegu a la adolescencia ya era capaz de aguantar la respiracin durante 3 minutos y medio. +Un tiempo despus descubrira que ese era el rcord personal de Houdini. +En 1987 escuch una historia sobre un nio que call dentro del hielo y estuvo atrapado bajo el agua de un ro. +Estuvo sumergido, sin respirar durante 45 minutos. +Cuando lleg el equipo de rescate lo resucitaron y no haba sufrido daos cerebrales. +Su temperatura corporal haba bajado a 25C. +Como mago creo que todo es posible. +Y creo que si una persona puede hacer algo otros pueden hacer lo mismo. +Empec a pensar que si ese nio pudo sobrevivir sin respirar tanto tiempo, tena que haber una forma de que yo tambin pudiera. +As que me reun con un renombrado neurocirujano +y le pregunt: Cunto tiempo puede uno estar sin respirar, cuanto tiempo podra estar sin aire? +Y me dijo que cualquier tiempo superior a 6 minutos conlleva un serio riesgo de dao cerebral por hipoxia. +As que me lo tom como un desafo, bsicamente. +En mi primer intento, pens que poda hacer algo parecido y constru un tanque de agua y lo rellen de agua helada y hielo. +Y me met en el tanque de agua esperando a que mi temperatura corporal empezara a bajar. +Y estaba temblando. En mi primer intento de aguantar la respiracin +no dur ni un minuto. +As que descubr que esto no iba a funcionar. +Entonces, fui a ver a un amigo mdico, y le pregunt cmo podra hacerlo. +"Quiero aguantar la respiracin durante mucho tiempo. Cmo se puede lograr? +Y me dijo: "David, eres mago, crea la ilusin de no respirar, es mucho ms fcil". +Entonces, se le ocurri la idea de crear un reciclador de aire, con un depurador de CO2, que bsicamente era un tubo de ferretera, con un globo atado con cinta adhesiva, que pens que me podan meter en el cuerpo, y hacer circular el aire y hacerme "re-respirar" de algn modo con esto dentro de mi. +Esto es algo desagradable de ver, +pero esto es ese intento. +Bueno, claramente, eso no iba a funcionar. +Luego empec a pensar seriamente en la ventilacin lquida. +Existe un compuesto qumico llamado perfluorocarbono. +Y tiene unos niveles tan altos de oxgeno que, en teora, podra respirarse. +As que, consegu un poco de este compuesto, llen el lavabo con l y met la cabeza adentro, intentando inhalarlo, lo cual me result imposible. +Bsicamente, es como intentar respirar, como deca un mdico, con un elefante sentado en el pecho. +As que, desech esa idea. +Luego empec a pensar: Sera posible conectar una mquina de bypass cardiorespiratorio e implantarme un tubo en una arteria, para que pareciese que no respiraba mientras me oxigenaban la sangre? +Lo que era otra idea absurda, obviamente... +Despus se me ocurri la idea ms descabellada de todas: Hacerlo de verdad. +Aguantar la respiracin de verdad, ms all del punto en el que los mdicos declararan muerte cerebral. +As que empec a investigar sobre los buceadores de perlas. +Porque se sumergen durante cuatro minutos con una sola respiracin. +Y estaba investigndolos cuando me top con el mundo del buceo libre. +Era prcticamente lo ms increble que haba descubierto jams. +El buceo libre tiene varias modalidades. +Existen rcords de profundidad, donde se baja a la mxima profundidad posible. +Y luego est la apnea esttica. +Eso es aguantar la respiracin tanto tiempo como puedas en un punto sin moverse. +Eso fue lo que estudi. +Lo primero que aprend es que cuando aguantas la respiracin no deberas moverte en absoluto; eso gasta energa. +Y consume oxgeno, generando ms y ms CO2 en sangre. As que aprend a no moverme nunca. +Y aprend a disminuir mis pulsaciones por minuto. +Tena que mantenerme totalmente quieto y relajarme y pensar que no estaba dentro de mi cuerpo, y controlarme. +Y luego aprend a purgar. +Purgarse, es bsicamente hiperventilar. +Respirar adentro y afuera... Sigues as, empiezas a marearte un poco y sientes un hormigueo. +Y es que en realidad ests eliminado CO2 de tu cuerpo. +Entonces, al aguantar la respiracin es infinitamente ms fcil. +Despus aprend que tienes que tomar una gran bocanada de aire, aguantarla y relajarte y no dejar salir nada de aire, y solo relajarte y aguantar el dolor. +Cada maana, durante meses, me levantaba y lo primero que haca era aguantar la respiracin. En 52 minutos aguantaba la respiracin durante 44 minutos. +As que bsicamente esto significa que me purgaba, respirando muy fuerte durante un minuto, +y tomaba aire inmediatamente despus, aguantndolo durante 5 minutos y medio. +Luego, respiraba de nuevo durante un minuto, purgndome cuanto poda, e inmediatamente despus aguantaba otros 5 minutos y medio. +Repeta este proceso ocho veces seguidas. +En 52 minutos, slo respiras durante ocho. +Al acabar ests totalmente frito, tu cerebro y tal. +Te sientes como si estuvieras medio aturdido. +Y empiezas a tener unos dolores de cabeza horribles. +En resumen, no soy el ms indicado a quien dirigirse mientas hago esto. +Empec a aprender ms sobre la persona que tena el rcord mundial. +Se llama Tom Sietas. +Y este tipo est diseado para aguantar la respiracin. +Mide 1,93 y pesa 72 kilos y medio. +Y su capacidad pulmonar total es el doble que la de una persona normal. +Yo mido 1,85 y estoy gordo. +Bueno, digamos que soy de huesos anchos. +Tuve que adelgazar 23 kilos en tres meses. +As que todo lo que meta en mi organismo lo consideraba un medicamento. +Cada racin de comida era exactamente lo que era su valor nutricional. +Coma cantidades controladas muy pequeas +a lo largo del da. +Y mi cuerpo empez a adaptarse. Cuanto ms adelgazaba, ms tiempo consegua aguantar la respiracin. +Y al comer tan sano y entrenar tanto, mi ritmo cardaco en reposo baj hasta 38 pulsaciones por minuto. +Lo cual es menos que muchos atletas olmpicos. +Tras cuatro meses de entrenamiento, consegu aguantar hasta ms de siete minutos. +Probaba a aguantar la respiracin en cualquier situacin. +Quera probar bajo las circunstancias ms extremas para ver si poda disminuir mis pulsaciones bajo el estrs. +Decid que iba batir el rcord del mundo en vivo por televisin en hora de mxima audiencia. +El rcord del mundo estaba en 8 minutos y 58 segundos, establecido por Tom Sietas, el tipo este de los pulmones de ballena del que hablaba. +Di por hecho que podra colocar un tanque de agua en el Lincoln Center y si estaba all durante una semana sin comer, me acostumbrara a esa situacin y podra retardar mi metabolismo, lo cual estaba seguro de que me ayudara a aguantar la respiracin ms tiempo de lo que poda entonces. +Estaba completamente equivocado. +Me met en la esfera una semana antes de la fecha de emisin establecida +y pareca que todo iba sobre ruedas. +Dos das antes de mi gran intento de superar el rcord, los productores de mi especial televisivo pensaron que ver a alguien que slo aguanta la respiracin hasta casi ahogarse, es demasiado aburrido para salir en la televisin. +As que, tuve que aadir esposas de las que zafarme mientras aguantaba la respiracin. +Y ese fue un grave error. +Debido al movimiento, estaba gastando oxgeno. +Y para cuando llegu a los siete minutos +empec a tener unas convulsiones horribles. +A los 7:08 empec a desmayarme y a los siete y medio tuvieron que sacarme y reanimarme. +Haba fracasado en todos los niveles. +As que, naturalmente, la nica forma de salir del bache que se me ocurri fue llamar a Oprah. +Le dije que quera aumentar el reto y aguantar la respiracin ms tiempo de lo que ningn ser humano lo haba hecho. +Este rcord era distinto. Esto era un rcord de +apnea esttica con O2 puro que Guinness haba establecido en 13 minutos. +Bsicamente, primero respiras puro O2, oxigenando tu cuerpo y eliminado el CO2, y as eres capaz de aguantar mucho ms. +Y descubr que mi verdadero rival +era el castor. En enero de 2008 Oprah me dio cuatro meses para prepararme y entrenar. +As que, dorma en una cmara hipxica cada noche. +Una cmara hipxica es un espacio cerrado que simula +estar a una altura de 4.500 metros. Vamos, como estar en el campamento base en el Everest. +Esto lo que hace, es que eleva la cantidad de glbulos rojos en la sangre, lo que te ayuda a circular mejor el oxgeno. +Por la maana cuando sales de la cmara tienes el cerebro completamente embotado. +En mi primer intento con O2 puro consegu llegar a los 15 minutos. +Lo que que fue un gran triunfo. +El neurocirujano me sac del agua porque para l, a los 15 minutos tu cerebro est frito, muerte cerebral. +As que me saco, pero estaba bien. +Si que hubo una persona a la que no impresion en absoluto. +Esa era mi ex-novia. Mientras bata el rcord bajo el agua +por primera vez, ella navegaba por mi Blackberry, viendo todos mis mensajes. +Mi hermano sac una foto. Es realmente ... Entonces anunci que intentara batir el rcord de Sietas pblicamente. +Y lo que hizo l en respuesta fue salir en el programa "Regis and Kelly" y batir su antiguo rcord. +Y luego su principal competidor aparece y bate ese rcord. +As que, de pronto subi el rcord hasta los 16 minutos y 32 segundos. +Que son tres minutos ms de lo que yo me haba estado preparando. +Saben, esto era ms tiempo que el primer rcord. +Ahora bien, yo quera que el Science Times documentara todo esto. +Quera que hicieran un publicacin sobre ello. +As que hice lo que cualquiera que estuviera persiguiendo un avance cientfico hubiera hecho. Entre un da en las oficinas del New York Times +y me puse a hacer trucos de cartas delante de todos. +As que, no s si por los trucos o por la tradicin del buceo en las Islas Caimn, pero el periodista John Tierney fue para all y escribi una articulo sobre la seriedad de la apnea. +Mientras estaba all, intent impresionarlo, por supuesto. +Y me sumerg a 50 metros, que es prcticamente la altura de un edificio de 16 plantas y mientras volva a la superficie, me desmay bajo el agua, lo que es muy peligroso; as es como te ahogas. +Por suerte Kirk se dio cuenta y se lanz a sacarme. +Entonces empec a concentrarme totalmente. +Entren a tope para aumentar mi tiempo mximo para lo que tena que hacer. +Pero no tena forma de prepararme para el aspecto televisivo de la hazaa, al salir en "Oprah". +En la prctica lo hacia boca abajo, flotando en el agua. +Pero para la televisin quera que estuviera de pie para que se me pudiera ver la cara, bsicamente. +El otro problema era que el traje era tan boyante que tuvieron que atarme los pies para evitar que saliera a flote. +Pero tena que hacer fuerza para mantener los pies en las correas medio sueltas, lo cul fue un gran problema para mi. +Eso me pona extremadamente nervioso, acelerando mi pulso. +Luego, adems de eso, me conectaron un monitor de pulsaciones, algo que nunca habamos hecho. +Y lo colocaron justo a lado de la esfera. +Por lo tanto, cada vez que el corazn daba un latido, yo escuchaba un bip-bip-bip, ya sabes... ese tic-tac, muy fuerte, +lo que me pona ms nervioso. +Y no haba forma de disminuir el pulso. +Entonces, normalmente empezara con 38 pulsaciones por minuto y mientras aguantaba la respiracin, bajara a 12 pulsaciones por minuto, lo que es muy raro. +Esta vez, empec a 120 pulsaciones, y de ah no bajaba... +Me pas los primeros cinco minutos bajo el agua intentando desesperadamente disminuir el pulso. +Estaba ah quieto pensando "Tengo que relajarme. Voy a fracasar, voy a fracasar". +Y me iba poniendo ms y ms nervioso +y mi pulso segua subiendo y subiendo, hasta las 150 pulsaciones. +Estaba pasando lo mismo que me ocasiono mi fracaso en el Lincoln Center. +Era el gasto de oxgeno. +Cuando llegu a la marca intermedia, a los ocho minutos, estaba cien por cien convencido de que no iba a conseguirlo. +No haba forma posible de que lo fuera a conseguir. +As que pens que si Oprah haba dedicado una hora a esto de aguantar la respiracin, si me hubiera rendido tan pronto acabara siendo un programa sobre lo deprimido que estaba. +As que, me convenc de que era mejor luchar y quedarme ah hasta desmayarme, y as al menos tendran que sacarme y atenderme y todo eso. +Segu aguantando hasta los 10 minutos. A los 10 minutos +empiezas a sentir un hormigueo muy intenso en los dedos de pies y manos. +Y saba que eso era "shunting" que es cuando la sangre escapa de las extremidades para proporcionar oxgeno a los rganos vitales. +A los 11 minutos empec a sentir punzadas en las piernas, y empec a tener sensaciones raras en los labios. +En el minuto 12 empec a escuchar un pitido en los odos, y empec a sentir que se me dorma el brazo. +Y como soy un hipocondraco, recuerdo que no sentir el brazo significa infarto. +As que me empec a ponerme paranoico. +Luego a los 13 minutos, quiz por la hipocondra, empec a sentir dolores por todo el pecho. +Era horroroso. +A los 14 minutos, empec a tener unas contracciones horribles, como una necesidad imperiosa de respirar. +A los 15 minutos empec a sufrir de falta de O2 en el corazn. +Y empec a sufrir isquemia. +El pulso me iba de 120 a 50, luego a 150, a 40, a 20, de nuevo a 150, +se saltaba un latido, +se paraba, volva a arrancar... y yo senta todo esto. +Y estaba seguro de que iba a sufrir un ataque al corazn. +As que a los 16 minutos lo que hice fue soltarme de pies porque saba que si me pasaba algo, si sufra un infarto, tendran que ocuparse de las ataduras de los pies primero +para poder sacarme. As que estaba muy nervioso. +Entonces, saqu los pies y empec a salir a flote. +Pero no saqu la cabeza. +Y estaba ah esperando a que se me parara el corazn, esperando sin ms. +Tenan mdicos con el "Bzz!", ya saben, +y yo ah esperando... Y de pronto escuch gritos. +Y pens que algo raro estaba pasando, que me haba muerto o algo haba pasado. +Y me d cuenta de que haba llegado a los 16:32. +As que con la energa de la gente que estaba all decid seguir aguantando. +Y llegu a los 17 minutos y 4 segundos. +Por si esto fuera poco, lo que hice inmediatamente despus fue ir a Quest Labs e hice que me tomaran todas las muestras de sangre posibles para hacer pruebas para todo y ver mis niveles para que los mdicos pudieran utilizarlo, una vez ms. +Tambin quera que nadie fuera a cuestionar mi hazaa. +Tena el rcord del mundo y quera asegurarme de que era legtimo. +As que, me voy a Nueva York al da siguiente, y un nio se me acerca -- estoy saliendo del Apple Store -- se me acerca el nio este y empieza: "Hey, D!" +Y yo digo: "Qu pasa?" +Y dice: "Si de verdad aguantaste tanto tiempo sin respirar, cmo es que saliste seco del agua?" +Y me quedo como... "Qu...?" +Y as es mi vida, as que... Como mago, intento mostrar a la gente cosas que parecen imposibles. +Y creo que la magia, tanto si aguanto la respiracin como si barajo un mazo de cartas, es muy simple: +Es practicar, es entrenar, y es... Es practicar, es entrenar y experimentar mientras aguanto el dolor para sacar lo mejor de m mismo. +Y eso es la magia para m, as que, gracias. +Ahora mismo es el momento ms apasionante para ver arte indio. +Los artistas contemporneos de India estn conversando con el mundo como nunca antes. +Pens que podra ser interesante, incluso para muchos coleccionistas de siempre, aqu presentes en TED, coleccionistas locales, tener una opinin independiente de 10 jvenes artistas indios que deseo todos conozcan en TED. +La primera es Bharti Kher. +El motivo central de la obra de Bharti es el bindi ya hecho, comprado en tiendas que incalculables millones de mujeres indias colocan en sus frentes cada da, en una accin asociada estrechamente a la institucin del matrimonio. +Pero originalmente el significado del bindi es simbolizar el tercer ojo existente entre el mundo espiritual y el religioso. +Bharti procura liberar este clich cotidiano, como lo llama ella, convirtindolo en algo espectacular. +Tambin crea esculturas de fibra de vidrio de tamao natural, a menudo de animales, a los que ella luego cubre totalmente con bindis a menudo con fuerte simbolismo. +Ella dice que primero comenz con 10 paquetes de bindis, y despus se pregunt qu poda hacer con 10 mil. +Nuestro siguiente artista es Balasubramaniam; se ubica en la interseccin de la escultura, la pintura y la instalacin, haciendo maravillas en fibra de vidrio. +Ya que el mismo Bala hablar en TED no le voy a dedicar mucho tiempo a l aqu hoy, salvo para decir que l de verdad consigue hacer visible lo invisible. +Chitra Ganesh trabaja en Brooklyn, es conocida por sus collages digitales y usa las historietas indias llamadas amar chitra kathas como materia prima principal. +Estas historietas son la va fundamental en que nios y nias, especialmente de la dispora, aprenden sus leyendas religiosas y mitolgicas. +A m, al menos, me marcaron las historietas. +Chitra bsicamente vuelve a mezclar y titular estas imgenes icnicas para desentraar algunas de las polticas sexuales y de gnero contenidas en estos cmics profundamente influyentes. +Y ella tambin usa este vocabulario en su instalacin. +Jitish Kallat se mueve con xito entre fotografa escultura, pintura e instalacin. +Como pueden ver l est muy influenciado por el graffiti y el arte callejero. Y su ciudad natal de Mumbai es un elemento siempre presente en su obra. +Realmente captura ese sentido de densidad y energa que caracteriza a la moderna y urbana Bombay. +l crea tambin esculturas fantasmagricas hechas de huesos de resina fundida. +Aqu, l imagina la carcasa de un auto ricksha que una vez vio arder en un disturbio. +El prximo artista es N.S. Harsha; en realidad tiene un estudio justo aqu en Mysore. +Le ha dado un giro contemporneo a la tradicin de las miniaturas. +Crea estas imgenes magnficas y delicadas que luego repite a gran escala. +Usa la escala para lograr efectos cada vez ms espectaculares, ya sea en el techo de un templo de Singapur, o en su cada vez ms ambicioso trabajo de instalacin, aqu con 192 mquinas de coser en funcionamiento, fabricando las banderas de los miembros de Naciones Unidas. +desarrolla su amor por el cmic y el arte callejero para comentar los roles y expectativas de las mujeres modernas de India. +Ella tambin extrae rica materia prima de las amar chitra kathas, pero de manera muy diferente que Chitra Ganesh. +En este trabajo particular ella quita las imgenes y deja el texto real para revelar algo nunca antes visto, algo provocador. +Rakib Shah naci en Calcuta creci en Cachemira y se form en Londres. +l tambin est reinventando la tradicin de la miniatura. +l crea estos cuadros vivientes opulentos, inspirados en Hieronymus Bosch, pero tambin en los textiles cachemires de su juventud. +En realidad aplica la pintura industrial metlica a su obra usando pas de puerco espn para lograr este rico detalle. +Con el siguiente artista estoy haciendo trampa puesto que Raqs Media Collective son en realidad tres artistas que trabajan juntos. +Raqs probablemente sean los principales exponentes de arte multimedia de India hoy en da, trabajando en fotografa, video e instalacin. +Con frecuencia exploran temas de la globalizacin y urbanizacin, y su hogar en Delhi es un elemento frecuente en su trabajo. +Aqu, invitan al espectador a analizar un crimen examinando evidencia y pistas contenidas en cinco narrativas, en estas cinco pantallas diferentes en las que, la ciudad misma puede haber sido la culpable. +El siguiente artista probablemente sea el macho alfa del arte indio contemporneo: Subodh Gupta. +Primero fue conocido por crear gigantografas fotorrealistas, pinturas de objetos cotidianos, recipientes y utensilios de cocina de acero inoxidable, conocidas por todo indio. +l celebra a nivel mundial estos objetos locales y mundanos, en una escala cada vez mayor, incorporndolos en, cada vez ms colosales, esculturas e instalaciones. +Y para terminar el dcimo, ltimo y no menos importante, Ranjani Shettar, que vive y trabaja aqu en el estado de Karnataka; crea esculturas etreas e instalaciones. Un maridaje real entre lo orgnico y lo industrial y hace, como Subodh, de lo local algo global. +Estos son en realidad alambres forrados en muselina y sumidos en tintes vegetales. +Y ella los dispone de manera que el espectador en realidad tiene que navegar por el espacio e interactuar con los objetos. +La luz y la sombra son parte muy importante de su obra. +Ella tambin explora temas del consumismo y el medio ambiente, como en este trabajo donde estos objetos con forma de canasta parecen orgnicos y tejidos, y estn tejidos, pero con tiras de acero, recuperadas de los autos que ella encuentra en un desarmadero de Bangalore. +10 artistas, 6 minutos, s que fue un montn para asimilar. +Pero slo espero haber despertado su apetito para que vayan, vean y aprendan ms sobre las cosas sorprendentes que estn sucediendo en el arte de India hoy. +Muchas gracias por mirar y escuchar. +Esta es una pintura que se exhibe en la Librera Countway de la Escuela de Medicina de Harvard. +Y muestra la primera vez que se trasplant un rgano. +Al frente, pueden ver a Joe Muray preparando al paciente para el trasplante mientras en la sala de atrs pueden ver a Hartwell Harrison, el jefe de urologa en Harvard, llevando el rin. +De hecho, el rin fue el primer rgano que se trasplant al ser humano. +Fue en 1954. Hace 55 aos +se lidiaba con muchos de los mismos desafos de dcadas atrs. +Sin duda, muchos avances y muchas vidas salvadas. +Pero tenemos una gran escasez de rganos. +En la ltima dcada el nmero de pacientes en espera de un trasplante se ha doblado. +Mientras que al mismo tiempo, el nmero de trasplantes se ha mantenido prcticamente igual. +Eso tiene relacin con el envejecimiento de la poblacin. +Simplemente, la esperanza de vida es mayor. +La medicina est mejorando prolongndonos ms la vida. +Pero mientras envejecemos, nuestros rganos tienden a fallar ms. +Por eso, es un desafo no solo para los rganos, sino tambin para los tejidos. +Tratar de reemplazar el pncreas, reemplazar nervios que nos pueden ayudar con el Parkinson, +estos son problemas mayores. +Esta es una estadstica muy impresionante. +Cada 30 segundos un paciente muere de enfermedades que podran haberse tratado con regeneracin de tejido o reemplazo. +Entonces, Qu podemos hacer al respecto? +Hemos hablado de clulas madre esta noche. +Esa es una forma de solucionarlo. +Pero an falta mucho para aplicar clulas madre en los pacientes, terapias de rganos efectivas. +No sera genial si nuestros cuerpos se pudieran regenerar? +No sera genial si pudiramos controlar nuestros cuerpos para sanarnos a nosotros mismos? +No es un concepto tan lejano, de hecho, sucede en la Tierra a diario. +Esta es una fotografa de una salamandra. +Las salamandras tienen una increble capacidad para regenerarse. +Aqu ven este pequeo video. +Es una lesin en la extremidad de la salamandra. +Y esta es la fotografa real, fotografa temporizada que muestra como se regenera el miembro en un periodo de das. +Pueden ver como se forma la cicatriz. +Y esa cicatriz se transforma en una nueva extremidad. +Las salamandras pueden hacerlo. +Por qu nosotros no? Por qu no pueden regenerarse los humanos? +De hecho, s podemos. +Su cuerpo tiene muchos rganos y cada uno de los rganos en su cuerpo tiene una poblacin celular que est preparada para tomar el control tras una lesin. Sucede todos los das. +Mientras crecemos, mientras envejecemos. +Los huesos se regeneran cada 10 aos. +La piel se regenera cada dos semanas. +Por tanto, el cuerpo se regenera constantemente. +El desafi aparece cuando ocurre una lesin. +En el momento de una lesin o enfermedad, la reaccin inicial del cuerpo es sellarse a s mismo del resto del cuerpo. +Bsicamente quiere combatir la infeccin y sellarse, sin importar si son rganos internos o piel. La primera reaccin es la aparicin del tejido cicatrizante, para protegerse del exterior. +Cmo podemos dominar este capacidad? +Una forma de hacerlo es usando biomateriales inteligentes. +Cmo funciona? En la izquierda ven una uretra lesionada. +Este es el canal que conecta la vejiga con el exterior del cuerpo. +Y se ve que est daada. +Bsicamente, descubrimos que se pueden usar estos biomateriales inteligentes, que se pueden usar como puente. +Si se construye ese puente y se asla del ambiente exterior, se puede crear ese puente y las clulas que se generan en su cuerpo, pueden cruzar ese puente y seguir ese camino. +Eso es exactamente lo que ven aqu. +Es un biomaterial inteligente que usamos para tratar a este paciente. +Esta era una uretra lesionada en el lado izquierdo. +Aplicamos ese biomaterial en el medio. +Seis meses ms tarde en el lado derecho pueden ver esta uretra reconstruida. +Y es que el cuerpo puede regenerarse, pero solo en tramos pequeos. +El tramo mximo para una regeneracin eficiente es de solo un centmetro. +Por eso podemos usar estos biomateriales inteligentes pero solo aproximdamente un centmetro para unir esos vacos. +As es que nos regeneramos, pero en tramos limitados. +Pero qu hacemos, si se lesiona un rgano mayor? +Qu hacemos cuando tenemos lesiones en estructuras mayores de un centmetro? +Entonces podemos comenzar a usar clulas. +A simple vista parecen un pedazo de su blusa, o su camisa, pero en realidad estos materiales son bastante complejos y estn diseados para degradarse una vez dentro del cuerpo. +Se desintegra unos meses despus. +Acta solamente como un medio de distribucin de clulas. +Carga las clulas dentro del cuerpo. Permite a las clulas regenerar nuevo tejido, y una vez que el tejido se regenera el armazn desaparece. +Y eso fue lo que hicimos con este pedazo de msculo. +Ac se muestra un pedazo de msculo y como pasamos por las estructuras para fabricar el msculo. +Tomamos las clulas, las expandimos, incorporamos las clulas en la estructura, y luego ponemos el armazn de vuelta en el paciente. +Pero, antes de poner el armazn en el paciente, lo ejercitamos. +Nos aseguramos de acondicionar este msculo, para que sepa qu hacer una vez que colocado en el paciente. +Eso es lo que estn viendo. Estn viendo este bio-reactor muscular ejercitando el msculo de ida y vuelta. +S. Lo que vemos ac son estructuras planas, el msculo. +Y qu sucede con otras estructuras? +Este es un vaso sanguneo fabricado. +Muy similar a lo que acabamos de hacer, pero algo ms complejo. +En este caso tomamos un armazn, y bsicamente, la estructura puede ser como un pedazo de papel. +Y luego podemos tubularizar este armazn. +Y para hacer un vaso sanguneo aplicamos la misma estrategia. +Un vaso sanguneo se compone de dos diferentes tipos de clulas. +Tomamos clulas musculares, las pegamos o revestimos el exterior con estas clulas musculares, es muy parecido a preparar un pastel de capas, si prefieren. +Se colocan las clulas musculares en el exterior. +Se colocan las clulas de revestimiento de los vasos sanguneos en el interior. +Ahora el armazn esta completamente preparado. +Pondremos esto en un aparato similar a un horno. +Tiene las mismas condiciones que el cuerpo humano, 37 grados centgrados, 95 por ciento de oxigeno. +Luego se ejercita, como vieron en el vdeo. +Y a la derecha pueden ver una arteria cartida fabricada. +Esta es la arteria que va desde su cuello hasta su cerebro. +Y esta es una radiografa que muestra al vaso sanguneo funcionando. +Estructuras ms complejas como vasos sanguneos, uretras que ya les mostr, son definitivamente ms complejas porque se introducen dos tipos de clulas diferentes. +Pero actan principalmente como conductos. +Permiten el flujo de fluidos o aire a un ritmo continuo. +No estn ni cerca de ser tan complejos como los rganos huecos. +Los rganos huecos tienen un nivel de dificultad mucho mayor, porque se les pide a estos rganos que acten bajo demanda. +La vejiga es uno de esos rganos. +Aplicamos la misma estrategia, tomamos un pedazo de la vejiga, menos de la mitad de una estampilla. +Luego separamos el tejido en sus dos componentes celulares diferentes, clulas musculares y las clulas especializadas de la vejiga. +Cultivamos las clulas fuera del cuerpo en grandes cantidades. +Se tarda cerca de cuatro semanas cultivar estas clulas. +Luego tomamos un armazn con la forma de una vejiga. +Cubrimos el interior con estas clulas de recubrimiento de la vejiga. +Cubrimos el exterior con clulas musculares. +Lo volvemos a poner en un dispositivo parecido a un horno. +Desde el momento que tomamos ese pedazo de tejido, seis a ocho semanas despus podemos volver a colocar el rgano en el paciente. +Aqu se ve el armazn. +El material esta siendo cubierto con estas clulas. +Cuando hicimos las primeras pruebas clnicas para estos pacientes creamos las estructuras especficamente para cada paciente. +Trajimos a los pacientes, antes de seis a ocho semanas de la operacin programada, les hicimos radiografas y luego desarrollamos un armazn especifico para el tamao de la cavidad plvica de ese paciente. +Para la segunda fase de pruebas ya tenamos diferentes tamaos, pequea, mediana, grande y super grande. +Es verdad. +Y estoy seguro que todos aqu querran una super grande, verdad? +Las vejigas son algo ms complejas que otras estructuras. +Pero hay otros rganos huecos que tienen una complejidad adicional. +Esta es una vlvula cardiaca que desarrollamos. +Y la forma en la que construir esta vlvula cardaca aplica la misma estrategia. +Tomamos el armazn, lo plantamos con clulas y, como ven aqu, las vlvulas se abren y cierran. +Las ejercitamos antes de la implantacin. +Es la misma estrategia. +Y los ms complejos son los rganos slidos. +Los rganos slidos son ms complejos porque se usan muchas ms clulas por centmetro. +Este es en realidad un rgano slido simple como la oreja. +Primero se cubre con cartlago. +Ah esta el aparato parecido a un horno; Una vez cubierto se coloca ah. +Y luego de unas semanas podemos retirar el armazn del cartlago. +Estos son dedos que estamos fabricando. +Se estn cubriendo, capa a capa, primero el hueso, llenamos los espacios con cartlago. +Luego aadimos msculo encima. +Y se comienzan a construir estas estructuras slidas por capas. +Una vez ms, se trata de rganos algo ms complejos. Pero de lejos, los rganos slidos ms complejos son los vascularizados, los altamente vascularizados, rganos con muchos vasos sanguneos, rganos como el corazn, el hgado, los riones. +Este es un ejemplo de aplicar muchas estrategias para fabricar rganos slidos. +Esta es una de las estrategias. Usamos una impresora. +Y en vez de usar tinta, usamos -- acaban de ver un cartucho de inyeccin de tinta -- usamos clulas. +Su tpica impresora de escritorio. +Imprimiendo este corazn de dos cmaras, capa por capa. +Pueden ver el corazn saliendo. Se tarda cerca de 40 minutos imprimirlo, y de cuatro a seis horas ms tarde ven las clulas musculares contraerse. +Esta tecnologa fue desarrollada por Tao Ju, que trabaj en nuestro instituto. +Y est es un estadio an, por supuesto, experimental, todava no para aplicarse en pacientes. +Otra estrategia que hemos seguido es usar rganos descelularizados. +Usamos rganos de donantes, rganos que han sido descartados, y luego usamos detergentes muy suaves para retirar todos los elementos celulares de estos rganos. +As, por ejemplo en el panel izquierdo, superior, ven un hgado. +Tomamos el hgado donado, aplicamos estos detergentes suaves, y mediante estos detergentes retiramos todas las clulas del hgado. +Dos semanas despus, podemos tomar este rgano, tiene la consistencia de un hgado, podemos sostenerlo como a un hgado, tiene la apariencia de un hgado, pero no tiene clulas. +Todo lo que queda es el esqueleto, si lo prefieren, del hgado, hecho todo de colgeno, un material de nuestros cuerpos que no ser rechazado. +Podemos usarlo de un paciente a otro. +Luego tomamos esta estructura vascular y podemos probar mantener el suministro de vasos sanguneos. +Pueden ver, de hecho, esa es una fluoroscopia. +Inyectamos contraste al rgano. +Ahora pueden ver cmo lo hacemos. Inyectamos contraste al rgano dentro de ese hgado descelularizado. +Y pueden ver cmo el rbol vascular permanece intacto. +Luego tomamos las clulas, las clulas vasculares, clulas de los vasos sanguneos, bombeamos el rbol vascular con las clulas del propio paciente. +Perfundimos el exterior del higado con las clulas del hgado del paciente. +Y as podemos crear hgados funcionales. +Y eso es lo que estn viendo. +Esto es an experimental. Pero hemos podido reproducir la funcionalidad de la estructura del hgado, experimentalmente. +Para el rin, al hablarles sobre la primera pintura que mostr, la primera diapositiva que les ense, el 90 por ciento de los pacientes en la lista de espera de trasplantes esperan un rin, el 90 por ciento. +Por eso, otra estrategia que estamos siguiendo es crear obleas que podemos apilar, como un acorden. +As es que apilamos estas obleas usando clulas del rin. +Y aqu se ven los riones en miniatura que hemos creado. +Y realmente estn fabricando orina. +Una vez ms se tratan de estructuras pequeas, nuestro empeo es hacerlas ms grandes, y es algo en lo que estamos trabajando ahora mismo en el instituto. +Una de las cosas que quiero resumirles es una estrategia que estamos siguiendo en medicina regenerativa. +Si es posible nos gustara usar biomateriales inteligentes que se puedan sacar de la despensa y regenerar sus rganos. +Ahora seguimos limitados por los tramos, pero nuestra meta es incrementar esos tramos con el tiempo. +Si no podemos usar biomateriales inteligentes, entonces preferiramos usar sus propias clulas. +Por qu? Porque no generarn rechazo. +Podemos tomar clulas de ustedes, crear la estructura, volverla a poner dentro de su cuerpo y no habr rechazo. +Y si es posible, preferiramos usar clulas de su rgano en particular. +Si ustedes se presentan con una traquea enferma nos gustara tomar clulas de su traquea. +Si se presentan con un pncreas daado tomaramos clulas de ese rgano. +Por qu? Porque nos gustara usar aquellas clulas que ya sabemos que son el tipo de clulas que necesitan. +Una clula de la traquea ya sabe que es una clula de la traquea. +No debemos ensearle a ser otro tipo de clula. +As es que preferimos clulas de rganos especificos. +Y hoy podemos obtener clulas de prcticamente cualquier rgano en su cuerpo, excepto para los que an necesitamos clulas madre, como el corazn, el hgado, los nervios y el pncreas. +Y para aquellos que an necesitamos clulas madre, +si no podemos usar clulas madre de su cuerpo entonces nos gustara usar clulas madre donadas. +Y preferimos clulas que no sern rechazadas y no formarn tumores. +Y estamos trabajando intensamente con las clulas madre que sobre las que publicamos hace dos aos, clulas madre del lquido amnitico, y la placenta que tienen esas propiedades. +A estas alturas me gustara contarles algunos de los mayores desafos que tenemos. +Ya saben, acabo de mostrarles esta presentacin, todo se ve muy bien, todo funciona. Realmente no, estas tecnologas no son nada fciles. +Parte del trabajo que vieron hoy fue desarrollado por ms de 700 investigadores en nuestro instituto durante 20 aos. +As es que estas son tecnologas muy complejas. +Una vez que se obtiene la frmula correcta se puede replicar. +Pero cuesta mucho llegar a ese punto. +Siempre disfruto al mostrar esta caricatura. +Trata de cmo detener un carruaje fuera de control. +Y ah pueden ver al conductor, mientras se mueve, en la parte superior, Va desde A a B, C, D, E, F. +Finalmente detiene el carruaje. +Y esos son los cientficos, Los de abajo son generalmente los cirujanos. +Yo soy cirujano por eso no es tan divertido. +Pero en realidad, el mtodo A es el enfoque correcto. +Lo que quiero decir con eso es que cada vez que lanzamos una de estas tecnologas a la clnica, nos aseguramos de hacer todo lo posible en el laboratorio antes de presentar estas tecnologas a los pacientes. +Y cuando lanzamos estas tecnologas para uso en pacientes nos aseguramos de hacernos una pregunta muy difcil. +Ests preparado para colocar esto dentro de un ser querido, de tu propio hijo, tu propia familia? y luego procedemos. +Porque nuestro propsito principal, desde luego, es primero, no hacer dao. +Les mostrar un clip de vdeo muy corto, es un video de cinco segundos de un paciente que recibi uno de los rganos fabricados. +Comenzamos a implantar algunas de estas estructuras hace 14 aos. +As es que tenemos pacientes caminando con rganos, rganos fabricados, hace ya ms de 10 aos. +Les mostrar este vdeo de una seorita muy joven. +Ella tena espina bfida, una anomala de la mdula espinal. +Ella no tena una vejiga normal. Este es un corto de la CNN. +Mostrar solo cinco segundos. +Se trata de de un corto a cargo de Sanjay Gupta. +Video - Kaitlyn M: Estoy contenta. Siempre tena miedo de que iba a tener un accidente o algo as. +Y ahora puedo ir y salir con mis amigos, ir y hacer lo que quiera. +Anthony Atala: Ven, despus de todo, la promesa de la medicina regenerativa es tan solo una promesa. +Y es realmente muy simple, ayudar a mejorar la calidad de vida de nuestros pacientes. +Gracias por su atencin. +La informacin geogrfica puede hacerte saludable? +En el 2001 fui chocado por un tren. +Mi tren fue un ataque al corazn. +Me encontr en un hospital en la sala de cuidados intensivos, recuperndome de una ciruga de emergencia. +Y de repente me di cuenta de algo: de que estaba completamente a oscuras. +Comenc a preguntarme, "Bien, por qu a mi?" +"Por qu ahora?" "Por qu aqu?" +"Pudo mi mdico haberme advertido?" +Lo que quiero hacer en los pocos minutos que tengo es realmente hablar sobre la frmula para la vida, y la buena salud. +Gentica, estilo de vida y medio ambiente. +Eso va a contener nuestros riesgos, y si manejamos esos riesgos, vamos a vivir una vida buena y saludable. +Bien, entiendo la parte gentica y la del estilo de vida. +Y saben por qu entiendo eso? +Porque mi mdico constantemente me hace preguntas sobre esto. +Alguna vez han tenido que completar esos formularios largos y de tamaa oficio en la oficina de su mdico? +Quiero decir, si son lo suficientemente afortunados para llegar a hacerlo mas de una vez, si? +Hacerlo una y otra vez. Y ellos te hacen preguntas sobre tu estilo de vida y tu historial familiar, historial de medicacin, historial de cirugas, historial de alergias....me olvid de algun historial? +Pero esta parte de la ecuacin realmente no la entend. Y no creo que mis mdicos entiendan realmente esta parte de la ecuacin. +Qu significa eso, mi medio ambiente? +Bien, puede significar muchas cosas. +Esta es mi vida. Estos son mis lugares de vida. +Todos tenemos estos. +Mientras hablo, me gustara que piensen en cuntos lugares han vivido? +Solo piensen en eso, hagan un recorrido por su vida pensando en esto. +Y comprendern que han estado en una variedad de lugares diferentes. +Tanto para descansar como para trabajar. +Y si son como yo, estn en un avin una buena parte de su tiempo viajando a algun lugar. +Entonces, no es tan simple cuando alguien te pregunta "Dnde vives, dnde trabajas, y dnde pasas tu tiempo? +Y dnde te expones a riesgos que quizs ni ves?" +Bien, cuando hago esto conmigo mismo, siempre llego a la conclusin de que paso alrededor del 75% de mi vida relativamente en un pequeo nmero de lugares. +Y no voy muy lejos de esos lugares la mayor parte del tiempo, a pesar de que recorro todo el mundo. +Ahora, los llevar por un pequeo viaje aqu. +Part de Scranton, Pensilvania. +No s si alguien puede saludar desde el nordeste de Pensilvania. Pero es aqu donde yo pas mis primeros 19 aos con mis pequeos jvenes pulmones. +Respirando altas concentraciones de dixido de azufre, dixido de carbono y gas metano, en cantidades desiguales-- 19 aos de esto. +Y si han estado en esa parte del pas, es as como lucen aquellos montones de desechos de carbn ardientes. +Luego decid dejar aquella parte del mundo. Y me fui al medio oeste. +Bien, entonces termin en Louisville, Kentucky. +Decid ser vecino de un lugar llamado Rubbertown. +Fabrican plstico. Ellos usan grandes cantidades de cloropreno y benceno. +Bien, pas 25 aos, mis pulmones en la mediana edad, respirando varias concentraciones de eso. +Y un da claro, siempre era as, as que nunca lo veas. +Era insidioso, pero pasaba realmente. +Y luego decid que deba ser muy inteligente, Tomara ese trabajo en la costa oeste. +Y me mud a Redlands, California. +Muy lindo, y ah mis pulmones mas viejos, como me gusta llamarlos, Los llen de particulas diminutas, dixido de carbono y altas dosis de ozono. +ok? Casi como lo mas alto en la nacin. +Bien, es as como luce en un buen da. +Si han estado ah, saben de lo que estoy hablando. +Entonces, qu est mal con esta imagen? +Bien, la imagen es..., hay un gran vacio ah. +La nica cosa que nunca pasa en la oficina de mi mdico: Nunca me preguntan sobre mi historial de lugares. +Ningn mdico que pueda recordar, alguna vez me pregunt, "Dnde has vivido?" +No me han preguntado sobre la calidad del agua potable que puse en mi boca, o la comida que inger. +Realmente no hacen eso. Est faltando. +Miren el tipo de informacin que est disponible. +Esta informacin es de todo el mundo -- los pases invierten millardos de dlares en este tipo de investigacin. +Ahora, marqu los lugares en que he estado. +Bien, de manera intencional, si yo quera tener un ataque al corazn He estado en los lugares correctos. Verdad? +Bien, cuntas personas hay en el blanco? +Cuntas personas en esta sala han estado la mayor parte de sus vidas en el espacio blanco? +Alguien? Joven, eres afortunado. +Cuntos han estado en los lugares en rojo? +Oh, no tan afortunados. +Hay miles de este tipo de mapas que se despliegan en Atlas por todo el mundo. +Nos dan una idea de lo que ser nuestro tren cuando descarrile. +Pero nada de eso est en mi historial mdico. +Y tampoco en el suyo. +Entonces, aqu est mi amigo Paul. +Es un colega. l permiti que su telfono celular sea rastreado cada dos horas, las 24 horas de los 7 das de la semana, los 365 das del ao, durante los ltimos dos aos, a cualquier lado que fue. +Y pueden ver, que ha estado en pocos lugares alrededor de Estados Unidos. +Y esto es donde ha estado la mayor parte del tiempo. +Si realmente estudian eso, pueden tener una pista de lo que a Paul le gusta hacer. +Alguien tiene alguna idea? Esquiar. Correcto. +Podemos acercarnos aqu, y de repente vemos dnde Paul ha pasado realmente la mayor parte de su tiempo. +Y todos esos puntos negros son los inventarios de liberacin de txicos que son monitoreados por la EPA. +Sabas que esa informacin exista? +Por cada comunidad en los Estados Unidos, podras tener tu propio mapa personalizado de eso. +Entonces, nuestros telfonos celulares pueden ahora construir un historial de lugares. +Es as como Paul lo hizo. Lo hizo con su telfono celular. +Esto podra ser con lo que terminemos. +Esto es lo que el mdico tendra en frente cuando entremos a esa sala de examen en vez de solo el papelito rosa que dice que pagu en la entrada. Verdad? +Esto podra ser mi pequea evaluacin. +Y l lo mira y dice, "Whoa Bill, Sugiero que no sera una buena decisin, solo porque ests aqu en la hermosa California, y es clida cada da, que salgas y corras a las 6 de la noche. +Yo sugerira que es una mala idea, Bill, segn ese informe." +Me gustara dejarles dos recetas. +Okey, la nmero uno es que debemos ensearles a los mdicos el valor de la informacin geogrfica. +Se llama geomedicina. Ahora mismo hay alrededor de media docena de programas en el mundo que se enfocan en esto. +Y estn en las primeras etapas de desarrollo. +Estos programas necesitan ser respaldados. Y necesitamos ensear a nuestros futuros doctores del mundo la importancia de parte de la informacin que hoy he compartido aqu con ustedes. +Lo segundo que necesitamos hacer es que mientras estamos gastando millardos y millardos de dlares por todo el mundo construyendo un registro de salud electrnico, nos aseguremos de poner un historial de lugares dentro de esos registros mdicos. +No slo ser importante para los mdicos; ser importante para los investigadores que ahora tendrn gran cantidad de muestras para utilizar. +Pero tambin ser til para nosotros. +Yo podra haber tomado la decisin, si hubiera tenido esta informacin de no mudarme a la capital del ozono de los Estados Unidos. Si? Pude tomar esa decisin. +O podra negociar con mi empleador para tomar esa decisin en inters mio y de mi compaa. +Con eso, me gustara decir que jack Lord dijo esto hace casi 10 aos. +Slo miren eso por un minuto. +Sobre eso trat la conclusin del Atlas Dartmouth de Asistencia Sanitaria, diciendo que podemos explicar las variaciones geogrficas que ocurren en las dolencias, en las enfermedades, en el bienestar, y cmo nuestro sistema sanitario opera realmente. +De eso era que hablaba l en esa cita. +Y yo dira que l estuvo en lo cierto hace casi una dcada. +As que me gustara mucho que comencemos a tomar esto realmente como una oportunidad de tener esto en nuestro historial mdico. +Con eso me gustara dejarles mi visin particular sobre la salud, la geografa siempre importa. +Y creo que la informacin geogrfica nos puede hacer a ustedes y a mi muy saludables. Gracias +Hoy les voy a hablar de operatividad arquitectnica. +Quiero decir con esto que es momento de que la arquitectura haga cosas de nuevo y no slo que las represente. +Este es un casco de construccin que recib hace dos aos en el inicio de obra del proyecto ms grande en el que mi firma y yo hayamos participado. +Yo estaba encantado de conseguirlo, de ser la nica persona de pie en el escenario con un casco plateado brillante. +Pens que representaba la importancia del arquitecto. +Me qued encantado hasta llegar a casa, tiro el casco sobre mi cama, me recuesto y me doy cuenta que dentro haba una inscripcin. +Ahora pienso que es una gran metfora del estado de la arquitectura y de los arquitectos de hoy. +Slo estamos para fines decorativos. +Ahora, a quin culpar? +Slo a nosotros mismos. Durante los ltimos 50 aos el diseo y la construccin se han vuelto mucho ms complejos y mucho ms generadores de litigios. +Y los arquitectos somos cobardes. +Pues, al enfrentar responsabilidad legal, hemos retrocedido cada vez ms y desafortunadamente, donde hay responsabilidad, adivinen qu hay? Poder. +As que finalmente nos hemos encontrado en una posicin totalmente marginal, por ac. +Ahora, qu hicimos? Somos cobardes, pero cobardes inteligentes. +As que redefinimos esta posicin marginal como el lugar de la arquitectura. +Y anunciamos: "Arquitectura, es por aqu! ...en este lenguaje autnomo... ...vamos a implantar control de procesos". +E bamos a hacer algo horrible para la profesin. +Realmente creamos un cisma artificial entre creacin y ejecucin como si en realidad se pudiera crear sin saber cmo ejecutar y como si se pudiera ejecutar realmente sin saber cmo crear. +Ahora bien, sucedi algo ms. +Y ah es cuando comenzamos a vender la idea de que la arquitectura era creada por individuos que hacan bocetos geniales. +Y que ese esfuerzo increble que demandan los bocetos durante aos y aos, no es slo algo para ridiculizar; sino que simplemente lo subvaloramos como mera ejecucin. +Yo dira que eso es tan absurdo como afirmar que el acto creador son 30 minutos de cpula y nueve meses de gestacin y Dios no lo quiera, 24 horas de trabajo de parto es slo la ejecucin. +Qu tenemos que hacer los arquitectos? Tenemos que volver a entrelazar creacin y ejecucin. +Necesitamos volver a crear procesos en vez de firmar objetos. +Si hacemos esto creo que podemos retroceder 50 aos y empezar a reinyectar operatividad, ingeniera social, nuevamente a la arquitectura. +Hay muchas cosas que los arquitectos necesitamos aprender a hacer, como gestin de contratos, aprender a redactar contratos, comprender los procesos de suministro, Entender el valor del dinero en el tiempo y la estimacin de costos. +Pero voy a resumirlo al comienzo del proceso, en tres declaraciones muy pedantes. +La primera es adoptar posturas fundamentales con sus clientes. +S que es sorprendente, cierto?, que la arquitectura, de hecho, diga eso. +La segunda postura es, en realidad, adoptar posturas. +Adoptar posturas conjuntas con su cliente. +Este es el momento en que uno como arquitecto y su cliente puede empezar a inyectar visin y operatividad. +Pero tiene que hacerse conjuntamente. +Y slo luego de terminar esto, se nos permite hacer esto, comenzar a avanzar con manifestaciones arquitectnicas que evidencien esas posturas. +Y tanto dueo como arquitecto por igual estn facultados para criticar las manifestaciones con base en las posturas adoptadas. +Creo que suceder algo sorprendente si uno hace esto. +Me gustara llamarlo "el arte perdido de perder el control de forma productiva". +Uno no sabe cul es el resultado final. +Pero les prometo que con capacidad intelectual suficiente y suficientes pasin y compromiso, se llega a conclusiones que van ms all de lo convencional, y que simplemente ser algo que uno no podra inicialmente haber concebido de manera individual +Bien, ahora voy a reducir todo esto a una serie de bocetos tontos. +Este es el modus operandi que tenemos hoy. +Hacemos rodar un espartano de 36 metros o sea, nuestra visin, hasta las puertas de nuestros clientes, de Troya. +Y no entendemos por qu no se nos dej entrar, verdad? +Bien, y si en lugar de eso dejamos a las puertas algo que ellos quieran? +Esto es un poco una metfora peligrosa porque, por supuesto, todos sabemos que dentro del caballo de Troya haba gente con lanzas. +As, podemos cambiar la metfora. Llamemos caballo de Troya a la nave con la cual traspasamos la puerta, traspasamos las limitaciones de un proyecto. +En qu punto, uno y su cliente es capaz de empezar a considerar que va a poner dentro de esa nave, la operatividad, la visin. +Y de hacerlo, uno lo hace con responsabilidad. Creo que en vez de entregar espartanos, uno puede entregar doncellas. +Y si pudiera resumir todo en un boceto nico sera ste. +Si somos tan buenos en nuestro oficio no hemos de ser capaces de concebir... ...una manifestacin arquitectnica... ...que se deslice sin problemas a travs de... ...las limitaciones del proyecto y del cliente? +Ahora, con esto en mente voy a mostrar un proyecto muy querido para muchas personas de la sala bueno, quiz no querido, pero ciertamente cercano a muchos de los presentes. +Y ese es un proyecto que est por comenzar la semana prxima, el nuevo hogar del Dallas Theater Center el Dee and Charles Wyly Theatre. +Ahora, voy a presentarlo en los mismos trminos, asunto, postura y manifestacin arquitectnica. +El primer asunto que nos enfrentamos fue que el Dallas Theater Center tena una notoriedad que iba mucho ms all de lo esperado para un lugar fuera del triunvirato de Nueva York, Chicago y Seattle. +Y esto tena que ver con ambiciones y liderazgo. +Pero tambin tena que ver con algo bastante inusual que era este edificio pequeo y horrible en el que haban estado actuando. +Por qu este edificio pequeo y horrible era tan importante para su prestigio e innovacin? +Debido a que podan hacerle lo que quisieran a este edificio. +Cuando uno est en Broadway no puede tirar el proscenio abajo. +Este edificio, cuando un director artstico quera hacer "El jardn de los cerezos"... y quera que la gente saliera de un pozo en el escenario traan una excavadora y hacan un pozo. +Bueno, eso es emocionante. +Y uno puede comenzar a traer los mejores directores artsticos, escengrafos y actores de todo el pas para que vengan a trabajar aqu porque pueden hacerse cosas que no se puede en otros lados. +La primera postura que adoptamos fue "Hey, como arquitectos es mejor que no aparezcamos... ...haciendo un edificio impecable... ...que no albergue las mismas libertades que este... ...cobertizo viejo y destartalado ya le dio a la compaa". +El segundo asunto es una variante del primero. +Y es que la compaa y el edificio eran multiformes. +Eso significaba que podan hacer representaciones siempre que hubiese mano de obra podan pasar a proscenio, teatro abierto, piso plano, arena, de recorrido, lo que sea. +Todo lo que necesitaban era mano de obra. +Bueno, algo ocurri. De hecho, le ocurri a todas las instituciones de todo el mundo. +Comenz a ser difcil recaudar los costos operativos los presupuestos operativos. +As, dejaron de tener mano de obra barata. +Y, finalmente, tuvieron que congelar su organizacin En algo llamado atravescenio degradado. +As, la segunda postura que tomamos es que las libertades que proporcionaramos, la capacidad de cambiar la configuracin del escenario, Tendran que poder hacerse sin depender de los costos operativos. De acuerdo? Asequible. +La manifestacin arquitectnica era, francamente, algo tonto. +Fue tomar todas las cosas conocidas como frente al escenario y detrs del escenario y redefinirlas como cosas de arriba y cosas de abajo. +A primera vista uno piensa: "Es algo loco, qu podra ganarse con eso?" +Creamos lo que nos gusta llamar "superfly". +La idea de "superfly" es: uno toma todas las libertades normalmente asociadas a la torre escnica y las reparte entre la torre escnica y el auditorio. +De repente el director artstico puede moverse entre diferentes escenarios y configuraciones de pblico. +Y dado que la torre escnica puede levantarse todos los elementos impecables, de repente el resto del entorno puede ser temporal. Y uno puede perforar, cortar, clavar, atornillar, pintar y reemplazar, con un costo mnimo. +Pero sacamos una tercer ventaja al hacer este movimiento... inesperada. +Y es que el permetro del auditorio qued liberado de la forma ms inusual. +Y eso le permiti al director artstico de repente poder definir "suspensin de la incredulidad". +As, el edificio brinda a los directores artsticos la libertad de imaginarse casi cualquier tipo de actividad debajo de este objeto flotante. +Pero tambin para desafiar la nocin de "suspensin de la incredulidad" como en el ltimo acto de Macbeth, si l o ella quiere que uno asocie la parbola que est viendo con Dallas, con la vida real, puede hacerlo. +Ahora bien, para poder hacerlo nosotros y los clientes tenamos que hacer algo bastante excepcional. +De hecho, fueron realmente los clientes que tuvieron que hacerlo. +Tenan que tomar una decisin en base a la postura que nosotros adoptamos: redefinir el presupuesto de dos tercios de arquitectura con A mayscula y un tercio de infraestructura a lo inverso, en realidad; dos tercios de infraestructura y un tercio de arquitectura con A mayscula. +Eso implica mucho compromiso del cliente sin ver realmente la realizacin del concepto. +Pero basados en las posturas, dieron un voto de confianza, fundamentado, para hacerlo. +Y, de hecho, creamos lo que nos gusta llamar una "mquina teatral". +Esa mquina teatral es capaz de de moverse entre toda una serie de configuraciones con slo apretar un botn y algunas manos en el escenario, en poco tiempo. +Pero, adems, tiene el potencial no slo de brindar secuencias multiformes sino tambin procesin mltiple. +O sea, el director artstico no necesariamente tiene que pasar por el vestbulo. +Una de las cosas que aprendimos al visitar varios teatros es que nos odian a los arquitectos porque dicen que lo primero que tienen que hacer, en los primeros cinco minutos de cada espectculo, es quitarse nuestra arquitectura de su patrn de pensamiento. +Bueno, hay potencial en este edificio para permitirle al director artstico moverse realmente por el edificio sin usar nuestra arquitectura. +As, de hecho, est el edificio, est lo que llamamos el dibujo. +Uno baja hacia nuestro vestbulo pasa por el vestbulo con nuestros colgantes, les gusten o no, subiendo por la escalera que conduce al auditorio. +Pero tambin existe el potencial de permitirle a la gente que ingrese directamente desde afuera; en este caso sugiriendo una entrada wagneriana hacia el interior del auditorio. +Y aqu est, de hecho, la concrecin de eso. +Estas son dos grandes puertas giratorias que permiten pasar directamente de afuera hacia adentro o de adentro hacia afuera, intrpretes o audiencia por igual. +Ahora, imaginen lo que sera eso. Debo decir, honestamente, no es algo que el edificio pueda hacer aun, porque lleva demasiado tiempo. +Pero imaginen las libertades si uno pudiera llevar esto ms lejos de manera que pudiera considerar una entrada wagneriana, un primer acto en escenario abierto, el entreacto en procesin griega; un segundo acto en arena, y abandonar nuestro vestbulo con colgantes. +Ahora, eso, yo dira es "arquitectura como espectculo". +Es emplear la mano del arquitecto para luego quitarla de en medio en favor de la mano del director artstico. +Voy a pasar por las tres configuraciones bsicas. +Esta es la configuracin de piso plano. +Ven que no hay proscenio, los balcones han sido levantados, no hay asientos, el piso del auditorio es plano. +La primera configuracin es fcil de entender. +Bajan los palcos, se ve que la orquesta comienza a tener una inclinacin, que es frontal, hacia el foro y entran los asientos. +La tercer configuracin es un poco ms difcil de entender. +Aqu vemos que el anfiteatro tiene que moverse hacia afuera para dar lugar a un escenario abierto. +Y algunos de los asientos en realidad tienen que cambiar de direccin y cambiar su inclinacin para permitir que eso suceda. +Lo har de nuevo para que puedan verlo. +All ven los palcos laterales para el proscenio. +Y all est la configuracin de escenario abierto. +Para hacer eso, de nuevo, necesitbamos un cliente dispuesto a asumir riesgos educativos. +Nos dijeron una cosa importante: "No van a improvisar". +O sea, nada de lo que hagamos, podemos ser los primeros en hacerlo. +Pero estaban dispuestos a que apliquemos tecnologas de otras reas, que ya tuviesen mecanismos a prueba de fallas, en este edificio. +La solucin en trminos de las gradas fue usar algo que todos conocemos como ascensor de marcador. +Ahora, si tomamos un marcador y lo dejamos caer "en el lugar equivocado" eso sera malo. +Si no fusemos capaces de sacar el marcador de la arena para un espectculo como Ice Capades la noche siguiente eso tambin sera malo. +Por eso esta tecnologa ya tiene todos estos mecanismos de seguridad y le permiten al teatro y a nuestro cliente hacer esto con la confianza de que podrn cambiar su configuracin a voluntad. +La segunda tecnologa que aplicamos fue, en realidad, aplicar cosas que uno ya conoce del escenario de un teatro de pera. +En este caso lo que estamos haciendo es tomar el piso de la orquesta, levantarlo, girarlo, cambiar la inclinacin, volverlo a piso plano, cambiar la inclinacin otra vez. En esencia, se puede empezar a definir inclinaciones y ngulos de visin de las personas en los asientos de la orquesta, a voluntad. +Aqu ven las butacas que se giraron para pasar de proscenio o foro a escenario abierto. +El proscenio tambin. Por lo que sabemos este es el primer edificio del mundo en el que el proscenio puede desaparecer completamente. +Aqu ven los distintos deflectores acsticos, as como las mecanismos areos y las pasarelas sobre el auditorio. +Y, en ltima instancia, en la torre escnica la tramoya que permite que ocurran las transformaciones. +Como dije, todo eso estaba al servicio de la creacin de una configuracin flexible y asequible. +Pero ganamos otro beneficio. Y fue la capacidad de sumar al permetro, de repente, a Dallas como fondo. +Aqu ven el edificio en su estado actual con las persianas cerradas. Este es un "trompe l'oeil". +En realidad no se trata de una cortina. Son persianas de vinilo integradas a las propias ventanas, de nuevo, con mecanismos a prueba de fallas que pueden levantarse de manera que uno puede desmitificar, si elige hacerlo, las operaciones del teatro lo que pasa detrs, los ensayos, etc. +Pero tambin se puede permitir a la audiencia ver Dallas, para actuar con Dallas como teln de fondo en las obras. +Ahora, si los llevo... este es un boceto conceptual inicial... los llevo por una especie de mezcla de todas estas cosas juntas. +En efecto, uno tendra algo como esto. +Se permitira llevar objetos o artistas a la sala de teatro. Aida, sus elefantes, uno puede entrar los elefantes. +Uno podra exponer el auditorio ante Dallas o viceversa, Dallas ante el auditorio. +Podran abrirse porciones para cambiar la procesin, permitir que la gente entre o salga en un entreacto; o que entre para el comienzo o el fin de una representacin. +Como dije, todas las gradas pueden moverse pero tambin pueden desaparecer por completo. +El proscenio puede volar. +Pueden ingresarse objetos grandes a la sala misma. +Pero ms convincente cuando tuvimos que confrontar la idea de cambiar costos de arquitectura por infraestructura es algo representado en esto. +De nuevo, stas no son todas las flexibilidades del edificio realmente construido pero al menos sugiere las ideas. +Este edificio es capaz, muy rpidamente, de volver a un piso plano de modo que puedan alquilarlo. +As que si hay alguien presente de American Airlines, por favor considere hacer la fiesta de Navidad aqu. +Porque eso le permite a la compaa aumentar los presupuestos operativos sin tener que competir con otros lugares, con auditorios mucho ms grandes. +Ese es un beneficio enorme. +As, la compaa teatral es capaz de hacer una obra hermtica con luz y sonido controlados, gran acstica, un Shakespeare muy ntimo. Pero tambin hacer Becket con el horizonte de Dallas de fondo. +Aqu est en una configuracin de piso plano. +El teatro ha seguido estos pasos. +Aqu vemos una configuracin de foro. +Es realmente hermoso. Haba una banda de rock. +Nos quedamos afuera para ver si la acstica funcionaba. Poda verse a los muchachos haciendo esto pero no se los oa. +Fue algo poco comn. +Y aqu est como escenario abierto. +Y ltimo, pero no menos importante, ven que ya tiene la capacidad de crear eventos para generar presupuestos operativos A pesar que el edificio, de hecho, est realizando presentaciones y permitirle a la empresa superar su mayor problema. +Voy a mostrarles una breve secuencia de video. +Como dije, esto puede hacerse con tan slo dos personas y en muy poco tiempo. +Esta fue la primera vez que realizamos el cambio y por eso hay, literalmente, miles de personas porque todos estaban entusiasmados y queran ser parte de eso. +traten de ignorar las miles de hormigas corriendo por ah. +Y piensen que lo estn haciendo unas pocas personas. +De nuevo, se necesita slo un par de personas. +Lo prometo. +Et voil. +As que, en conclusin, unas pocas tomas. +Este es el centro de artes escnicas AT&T Dee and Charles Wyly Theater. +Ah est de noche. +Y ltimo, pero no menos importante, todo el centro de artes escnicas AT&T. +Pueden ver el Winspear Opera House, a la derecha, y el Dee and Charles Wyly Theater, a la izquierda. +Para recordarles que aqu hay un ejemplo donde la arquitectura hizo algo. +Pero llegamos a esa conclusin sin comprender hacia dnde estbamos yendo; conocamos una serie de cuestiones a las que la compaa y el cliente tuvieron que hacer frente. +Y adoptamos posturas con ellos, y fue mediante esas posturas que comenzamos a asumir manifestaciones arquitectnicas y llegamos a una conclusin que ninguno de nosotros, realmente ninguno, podra jams haber concebido inicialmente de forma individual. +Muchas gracias. +Namaste. Buenos das. +Estoy muy contenta de estar aqu en India. +Y he estado pensando mucho de lo que he aprendido a lo largo, particularmente, de los ltimos 11 aos con el Da-V y "Los Monlogos de la Vagina" viajando alrededor del mundo, esencialmente conociendo a mujeres y chicas en todo el planeta para detener la violencia contra las mujeres. +De lo que quiero hablarles hoy es de esta clula en particular, o agrupamiento de clulas, que est en todos y cada uno de nosotros. +quiero llamarle la clula de chica. +Y est en hombres tanto como en mujeres. +Quiero que imaginen que este particular agrupamiento de clulas es central a la evolucin de nuestra especie y a la continuacin de la raza humana. +Quiero que imaginen que la chica es un fragmento en el enorme macrocosmos de la conciencia colectiva. +Y que es esencial para el equilibrio, la sabidura, y de hecho para el futuro de todos nosotros. +Y entonces quiero que imaginen que esta clula de chica es compasin, y es empata y es la pasin misma, y es vulnerabilidad, y es apertura y es intensidad y es asociacin y es relacin, y es intuitiva. +Y ahora pensemos cmo la compasin informa a la sabidura, y que la vulnerabilidad es nuestra mayor fuerza, y que las emociones tienen una lgica inherente, las cuales llevan a acciones radicales, apropiadas, salvadoras. +Y entonces recordemos que nos han enseado el opuesto exacto que por su fuerza es, que la compasin empaa el pensamiento, que estorba, que la vulnerabilidad es debilidad, que no debemos confiar en las emociones, ni tomar las cosas personalmente, la cual es una de mis favoritas. +Pienso que todo el mundo ha sido esencialmente criado para no ser una chica. +Cmo criamos a los chicos? Qu significa ser un chico? +Ser un chico realmente significa no ser una chica. +Ser un hombre significa no ser una chica. +Ser una mujer significa no ser una chica. +Ser fuerte significa no ser una chica. +Ser un lder significa no ser una chica. +De hecho pienso que ser una chica es tan poderoso que hemos tenido que entrenar a todos a no ser eso. +Y quiero decir tambin que la irona desde luego, es que negar a la chica, suprimir a la chica, suprimir las emociones, rehusar el sentimiento, nos ha conducido hasta aqu. +Donde ahora hemos llegado a vivir en un mundo donde las ms extremas formas de violencia, la ms horrible pobreza, genocidio, violaciones masivas, la destruccin de la Tierra, estn completamente fuera de control. +Y porque hemos suprimido a nuestras clulas de chica, y suprimido nuestra chica interior, y no sentimos lo que sucede. +As que no se nos inculpa con la respuesta adecuada a lo que est pasando. +Quiero hablar un poco acerca de la Repblica Democrtica del Congo. +Para m, fue un momento crucial en mi vida. +He pasado mucho tiempo all en los ltimos tres aos. +Senta que hasta ese punto haba visto mucho en el mundo, mucha violencia. +Esencialmente viv en las minas de violacin del mundo los ltimos 12 aos. +Pero la Repblica Democrtica del Congo realmente fue la encrucijada de mi alma. +Fui y pas tiempo en un lugar llamado Bukavu, en un hospital llamado Hospital Panzi, con un doctor quien est ms cerca de ser un santo que cualquier persona que haya conocido. +Su nombre es Dr. Denis Mukwege. +Y en el Congo, para aquellos que no lo sepan, ha habido una furiosa guerra durante los ltimos 12 aos, una guerra que ha matado a casi seis millones de personas. +Se estima que entre 300 y 500 mil mujeres han sido violadas all. +Cuando pas mis primeras semanas en el Hospital Ponzi me sent con mujeres quienes se sentaban y hacan fila diariamente para decirme sus historias. +Y sus historias eran tan horrendas y tan alucinantes, tan del otro lado de la existencia humana que para ser perfectamente honesta con ustedes, me hice pedazos. +Y les dir lo que pas, es que a travs de ese quebranto, escuchando las historias de nias de ocho aos quienes fueron evisceradas, a quienes les metieron bayonetas y cosas dentro, as que tenan agujeros, realmente, dentro de ellas por donde su orn y caca se les salan. +Escuchando la historia de mujeres de 80 aos quienes fueron encadenadas en crculo, y donde grupos de hombres venan y las violaban peridicamente, todo en nombre de la explotacin econmica para robar los minerales para que el Occidente los tuviera y se beneficiara. +Mi mente estaba tan hecha pedazos. +Pero lo que me pas es que ese quebranto de hecho me anim en una forma que nunca me anim. +Ese quebranto, esa apertura de mi clula de chica, esa clase de descubrimiento masivo de mi corazn me permiti tener ms coraje y ser ms brava, y de hecho ms inteligente de lo que fui en mi vida pasada. +Y quiero decir que pienso que los poderosos saben que la construccin de imperios es de hecho que los sentimientos estorban la construccin de imperios. +Los sentimientos estorban en la adquisicin masiva de la Tierra, y en excavar la Tierra, y destruyendo cosas. +Recuerdo, por ejemplo cuando mi padre, quien era muy, muy violento, me golpeaba. +Y l de hecho deca, cuando me golpeaba, 'No llores. No te atrevas a llorar.' +Porque mi llanto de alguna manera le mostraba su brutalidad a l mismo. +Y aun en el momento en que l no quera que le recordaran lo que estaba haciendo. +Se que hemos aniquilado sistemticamente a la clula de chica. +y quiero decir que la aniquilamos tanto en hombres como en mujeres. +Y pienso que de algunas maneras, hemos sido mucho ms duros con los hombres en la aniquilacin de su clula de chica. +Veo cmo hemos criado a los chicos, y lo veo en todo el planeta, para ser fuertes, para ser duros, para distanciarse de su propia ternura, para no llorar. +De hecho me di cuenta en Kosovo cuando vi a un hombre quebrarse, que las balas son de hecho lgrimas endurecidas, que cuando no permitimos a los hombres tener su 'yo chica' y tener su vulnerabilidad, y tener su compasin, y tener sus corazones, que se endurecen y se vuelven hirientes y violentos. +Y creo que hemos enseado a los hombres a ser seguros cuando son inseguros, a pretender que saben cuando no saben, o por qu estaramos aqu entonces? +Pretender que estn bien cuando estn desechos. +Y les dir una historia muy divertida. +Camino aqu en el avin, estaba caminando por el pasillo del avin. +Y todos estos hombres, literalmente al menos 10 hombres estaban es sus pequeos asientos mirando pelculas de chicas. +Y estaban solos, y pens, "Esta es la vida secreta de los hombres." +He viajado, como dije, a muchos, muchos pases, y he visto, si le hacemos lo que hacemos a la chica dentro de nosotros entonces es obviamente horripilante pensar en lo que hacemos a las chicas en el mundo. +Y como escuchamos de Sunitha ayer. y Kavita acerca de lo que hacemos a las chicas. +Pero slo quiero decir que he conocido chicas con heridas de cuchillo y quemaduras de cigarro, quienes literalmente fueron tratadas como ceniceros. +He visto chicas tratadas como basureros. +He visto chicas quienes eran golpeadas por sus madres, y hermanos y padres y tos. +He visto chicas en Estados Unidos hambrease hasta la muerte en instituciones para verse como una versin idealizada de ellas mismas. +He visto que mutilamos a las chicas y las controlamos y las mantenemos analfabetas, o hacemos que sientan mal por ser demasiado listas. +Las acallamos. Las hacemos sentirse culpables por ser inteligentes. Hacemos que se comporten, que bajen de tono, no sean muy intensas. +Las vendemos, las matamos como embriones. Las esclavizamos. Las violamos. +Estamos tan acostumbrados a robarle a las chicas del sujeto de ser el sujeto de sus propias vidas que ahora de hecho las hacemos objetos y las convertimos en mercadera. +La venta de chicas es rampante en todo el planeta. +Y en muchos lugares ellas valen menos que cabras y vacas. +Pero quiero hablar del hecho que si uno de cada ocho gentes en el planeta es una chica de 10 a 24 aos, ellas son la llave, en verdad, en el mundo en desarrollo, tanto como en el mundo entero, para el futuro de la humanidad. +Y si las chicas estn en problemas es porque enfrentan desventajas sistmicas que las mantienen en donde la sociedad quieren que estn, incluyendo falta de acceso al cuidado de la salud, educacin, comida sana, participacin en la fuerza laboral. +La carga de las tareas del hogar usualmente recae en las chicas y hermanos menores. Lo cual asegura que nunca sobrepasarn esas barreras. +El estado de las chicas, la condicin de las chicas, ser, en mi opinin, y esa es la chica dentro de nosotros y la chica en el mundo, la que determine si la especie sobrevive. +A las chicas se les entrena para complacer. +Quiero cambiar el verbo. +Quiero que todos nosotros cambiemos el verbo. +Quiero que el verbo sea "educar" o "activar" o "participar" o "confrontar" o "desafiar" o "crear". +Si enseamos a las chicas a cambiar el verbo de hecho impondremos a la chica dentro de nosotros y a la chica dentro de ellas. +Y ahora tengo que compartir algunas historias de chicas que he visto alrededor del planeta quienes han enganchado su chica [interna], quienes han tomado su chica a pesar de todas las circunstancias alrededor de ellas. +Conozco a una chica de 14 aos en Holanda, por ejemplo, que est demandando su derecho a tomar un bote e ir alrededor del mundo entero por s misma. +Hay una chica adolescente quien recientemente sali y supo que necesitaba 56 estrellas tatuadas en la parte derecha de su cara. +Hay una chica, Julia Butterfly Hill, quien vivi durante un ao en un rbol porque quera proteger los robles silvestres. +Hay una chica a quien conoc hace 14 aos en Afganistn a quien adopt como mi hija porque su madre fue asesinada. Su madre fue una revolucionaria. +Y esta chica, cuando tena 17 aos visti una burca [vestido completo] en Afganistn y fue a los estadios y document las atrocidades que se cometan contra las mujeres, bajo su burca, con un video. +Y ese video es el video que sali a todo el mundo despus del 11 de Septiembre para mostrar las cosas que sucedan en Afganistn. +Quiero hablar de Rachel Corrie quien era una adolescente cuando se par frente a un tanque israel para decir "acaben con la ocupacin." +Y ella saba que arriesgaba la vida y fue literalmente ametrallada y atropellada por ese tanque. +Y quiero hablar de una chica que conoc recientemente in Bukavu, a quien embaraz su violador. +Y ella estaba cargando a su beb. +Y le pregunt que si amaba a su beb. +Y ella mir a los ojos de su beb y dijo, "Desde luego que amo a mi beb. Cmo podra no amarlo? +Es mi beb y est lleno de amor." +La capacidad de las chicas para sobrepasar situaciones y moverse en niveles, para m, es asombrosa. +Y hay una chica llamada Dorcas. Y la conoc recientemente en Kenia. +Y Dorcas tiene 15 aos. Y ella estaba entrenada en defensa personal. +Y hace unos meses la levantaron en la calle por tres hombres mayores. +La secuestraron, la metieron a un auto. +Y a travs de su defensa personal, ella agarr sus trqueas, y les golpe los ojos, y se liber y sali del auto. +En Kenia, en agosto fui a visitar una de las casas de seguridad del Da-V para chicas, una casa que abrimos hace siete aos con una mujer asombrosa llamada Agnes Pareyio. +Agnes es una mujer que fue mutilada cuando era pequea, ella fue mutilada genitalmente. +Y ella tom la decisin como muchas mujeres lo hacen, alrededor del planeta, que lo que le hicieron a ella no sera forzado y hecho a otras mujeres y chicas. +As, durante aos Agnes camin por el valle Rift. +Le ense a las chicas cmo se ve una vagina saludable, y cmo se ve una vagina mutilada. +Y durante ese tiempo salv a muchas chicas. Y cuando la conocimos le preguntamos qu podamos hacer por ella, y ella dijo, "Bueno, si me consiguen un Jeep puedo desplazarme ms rpido." +As, le conseguimos un Jeep. Y entonces ella salv a 4,500 chicas. +Y entonces le preguntamos, "Bien, qu otra cosa necesitas?" +Y ella dijo, "Bueno, ahora, necesito una casa." +As, hace siete aos Agnes construy la primer casa de seguridad Da-V en Narok, Kenia, en territorio Masai. +Y esta era una casa a donde podan hur las chicas, ellas podan salvar su cltoris, no seran mutiladas, podran ir a la escuela. +Y en los aos que Agnes ha tenido la casa ella ha cambiado la situacin all. +Ella se ha convertido literalmente en alcalde suplente. +Ella ha cambiado las reglas. +La comunidad entera se ha enganchado con lo que ella hace. +Cuando estuvimos all ella estaba haciendo un ritual, donde ella reconcilia a las chicas que han huido, con sus familias. +Y haba una chica joven llamada Jaclyn. +Jaclyn tena 14 aos y estaba con su familia Masai y hubo una sequa en Kenia. +Y as que las vacas estaban muriendo, y las vacas son la ms valiosa posesin. +Y Jaclyn escuch a su padre hablar con un hombre mayor acerca de cmo l estaba por venderla por dos vacas. +Y ella saba que sera mutilada. +Ella saba que eso significaba que no ira a la escuela. +Ella saba que eso significaba que no tendra un futuro. +Ella saba que tendra que casarse con el hombre mayor, y ella tena 14 aos. +As, una tarde, ella escuch de la casa de seguridad. Jaclyn dej la casa de su padre y camin durante dos das, dos das, a travs del territorio Masai. +Dorma con la hienas. Se esconda por las noches. +Se imaginaba a su padre matndola, por un lado, y a Mam Agnes recibindola, con la esperanza que ella la recibira cuando llegara a la casa. +Y cuando ella lleg a la casa fue recibida. +Y Agnes la recibi. Y Agnes la am. Y Agnes la mantuvo durante el ao. +Y ella fue a la escuela y encontr su voz y encontr su identidad y encontr su corazn. +Y entonces, lleg el momento cuando debera ir de vuelta y hablar con su padre acerca de la reconciliacin, despus de un ao. +Y tuve el privilegio de estar en la choza cuando ella fue reunida con su padre y reconciliada. +Y en esa choza, cuando entramos, y su padre y sus cuatro esposas estaban sentados all, y sus hermanas quienes recin regresaron porque todas ellas haban huido cuando ella huy, y su madre primaria, quien haba sido golpeada al encarar por ella a los ancianos [de la tribu]. +Y cuando su padre la mir y vio en lo que se haba convertido, en su total yo de chica, el la abraz y comenz a llorar. +Y l dijo, "Eres hermosa. Has crecido para ser una mujer esplndida. +No te mutilaremos. +Y te doy mi palabra, aqu y ahora, que tampoco mutilaremos a tus hermanas." +Y lo que ella le dijo fue, "Estabas dispuesto a venderme por cuatro vacas y un becerro, y algunas sbanas. +Pero yo te prometo, ahora que tendr educacin que siempre me ocupar de ti, y regresar y te construir una casa. +Y estar de tu lado el resto de mi vida." +Para mi, ese el poder de la chicas. +Y es el poder de transformar. +Quiero cerrar hoy con una nueva pieza de mi libro. +Y quiero hacerlo esta noche para la chica dentro de todos aqu. +Y quiero hacerlo por Sunitha. +Y quiero hacerlo por las chicas de quienes Sunitha habl ayer, las chicas que sobreviven, las chicas quienes se convierten en alguien diferente. +Pero realmente quiero hacerlo por todas y cada persona aqu, para que valoren la chica dentro de nosotros, para valorar la parte que llora, para valorar la parte que es emocional, para valorar la parte que es vulnerable, para entender que ah est el futuro. +Esto se titula "Soy una Criatura Emocional." +Y sucedi cuando conoc a una chica en [el barrio de] Watts, en Los ngeles. +Yo le preguntaba a las chicas si les gustaba ser chicas, y todas las chicas decan, "No; lo odio... no puedo aguantarlo." +Todo es malo. Mis hermanos obtienen todo." +Y esta chica se sent y dijo, "Me encanta ser una chica. +Soy una criatura emocional!" +Esto es para ella. Me encanta ser una chica. +Puedo sentir lo que t sientes como tu sientes dentro el sentimiento anterior. +Soy una criatura emocional. +Las cosas no me llegan como teoras intelectuales o ideas duras. +Pulsan a travs de mis rganos y piernas y queman mis orejas. +Oh, yo se cuando tu novia est realmente enojada, aun cuando parece que ella te da lo que quieres. +S cundo se aproxima una tormenta. +Puedo sentir las invisibles agitaciones en el aire. +Puedo decirte que l no devolver tu llamada. Es una vibracin que comparto. +Soy una criatura emocional. +Amo el no tomar las cosas a la ligera. +Todo me parece intenso, la manera en que camino por la calle, la forma en que mami me despierta, la manera en que no soporto perder, mi manera de escuchar malas noticias. +Soy una criatura emocional. +Estoy conectada a todo y a todos. Nac de esa forma. +No digas todo negativo que es una cosa de adolescentes, o que es slo porque soy una chica. +Estos sentimientos me hacen mejor. +Me hacen presente. Me preparan. Me hacen fuerte. +Soy una criatura emocional. +Hay un modo particular de saber, +que parece que las ancianas olvidaron de alguna manera. +Me regocijo de que an est en mi cuerpo. +Oh, yo s cuando un coco est a punto de caer. +S que hemos llevado a la Tierra demasiado lejos. +S que mi padre no regresar, y que nadie est preparado para el fuego. +S que el lpiz labial es ms que apariencia, y que los chicos son sper-inseguros, y que los llamados terroristas se hacen, no nacen. +S que un beso puede llevarse toda mi habilidad para decidir. +Y saben qu? Algunas veces debera. +Esto no extremo. Es una cosa de chicas, qu seramos todos si la gran puerta dentro de nosotros se abriera. +No me digas que no llore, que me tranquilice, que no sea extrema, que sea razonable. +Soy una criatura emocional. +As se hizo la tierra, es como el viento sigue polinizando. +No se le dice al ocano Atlntico que se comporte. +Soy una criatura emocional. +Por qu querras callarme o apagarme? +Soy tu memoria restante. +Puedo llevarte de regreso. +Nada se ha diluido. +Nada se ha escurrido. +Amo, escchame, amo el poder sentir los sentimientos dentro de ti, aun si detienen mi vida, aun si rompen mi corazn, aun si me desvan del camino, ellos me hacen responsable. +Soy emocional, soy una criatura incondicional y devota. +Y amo, escchame, amo ser una chica. +Puedes decirlo conmigo? +Amo, amo, amo, amo, Ser una chica! +Muchas gracias. +Por favor, cierren los ojos, y abran las manos. +Imagnense lo que podran colocar en sus manos: una manzana, tal vez su cartera. +Ahora abran los ojos. +Qu me dicen de una vida? +Lo que ven aqu es un nio prematuro. +Da la impresin de que descansa tranquilamente, pero est luchando por sobrevivir porque no puede regular su propia temperatura corporal. +Este beb es tan pequeo que no tiene grasa corporal suficiente como para mantenerse caliente. +Lamentablemente, 20 millones de bebs como ste nacen cada ao, en todo el mundo. +Cuatro millones de ellos mueren anualmente. +Pero el mayor problema es que los que sobreviven crecen con graves problemas de salud a largo plazo. +La razn es porque en el primer mes de vida del beb, su nica funcin es crecer. +Si est combatiendo una hipotermia, sus rganos no pueden desarrollarse con normalidad, lo que da lugar a una serie de problemas de salud desde diabetes, enfermedades cardacas, hasta un bajo CI. +Imagnense, muchos de estos problemas se podran prevenir si estos bebs se mantuvieran calientes. +sa es la funcin primordial de una incubadora. +Pero las incubadoras tradicionales necesitan electricidad y alcanzan los 20 mil dlares. +No se las van a encontrar en zonas rurales de pases en desarrollo. +Como consecuencia, los padres recurren a soluciones locales como colocar botellas de agua caliente alrededor de sus cuerpos, o ponerlos debajo de una bombilla como ven aqu... mtodos que son tanto ineficaces como inseguros. +He presenciado esto una y otra vez. +En uno de mis primeros viajes a la India, conoc a esta joven, Sevitha, que haba dado a luz a un pequeo beb prematuro, Rani. +Llev a su beb al centro de salud ms prximo, y el mdico le aconsej que llevara a Rani al hospital para que pudiera ponerlo en una incubadora. +Pero ese hospital estaba a ms de cuatro horas. Y Sevitha careca de medios para llegar all, as que su beb muri. +Inspirados por esta historia, y por docenas de historias similares, mi equipo y yo nos dimos cuenta de que lo que haca falta era una solucin local, algo que pudiera funcionar sin electricidad, que fuera lo suficientemente sencillo como para que lo usara una madre o comadrona, dado que la mayora de nacimientos tienen lugar en casa. +Necesitbamos algo que fuera porttil, algo que pudiera esterilizarse y reutilizarse con muchos bebs, y algo que tuviera un coste super bajo, comparado con los 20.000 dlares que cuesta una incubadora en EE.UU. +As que se nos ocurri esto. +Lo que ven aqu no se parece en nada a una incubadora. +Parece un saco de dormir para un beb. +Se puede abrir totalmente. Es impermeable. +No tiene costuras por dentro as que se puede esterilizar fcilmente. +Pero la magia est en esta bolsa de cera. +Es un material de cambio de fase. +Es una sustancia similar a la cera con un punto de fusin a la temperatura del cuerpo humano, 37 grados Celsius. +Se puede derretir simplemente utilizando agua caliente y despus de derretirse es capaz de mantener una temperatura constante entre cuatro y seis horas seguidas, despues de las cuales simplemente se recalienta la bolsa. +Se coloca de nuevo en este pequeo bolsillo de aqu, y crea un micro medioambiente clido para el beb. +Parece sencillo pero lo hemos repetido docenas de veces yendo al terreno a hablar con mdicos, madres y personal sanitario, para asegurarnos de que satisfaca las necesidades de las comunidades locales. +Tenemos planeado lanzar este producto en India en 2010. Y el precio final ser de 25 dlares, menos del 0,1 por ciento del coste de una incubadora tradicional. +En los prximos cinco aos esperamos salvar la vida de casi un milln de bebs. +Pero el impacto social a ms largo plazo es una reduccin en el crecimiento de la poblacin. +Parece ir en contra de toda lgica, pero resulta que al reducir la mortalidad infantil el tamao de la poblacin tambin disminuye, porque los padres no tienen que anticipar que sus bebs van a fallecer. +Esperamos que el calentador de bebs Embrace y otras innovaciones sencillas similares representen una nueva tendencia para el futuro de la tecnologa: soluciones sencillas, localizadas y asequibles que tienen el potencial de producir un impacto social enorme. +A la hora de disearlo, observamos una serie de principios bsicos. +Nos propusimos comprender al usuario final, en este caso, gente como Sevitha. +Intentamos comprender la raz del problema en lugar de dejarnos influir por lo que ya existe. +Y despus pensamos en la solucin ms simple que pudimos para tratar el problema. +Al hacerlo, creo que verdaderamente acercamos la tecnologa a las masas. +Y podemos salvar millones de vidas, mediante la sencilla calidez de un Abrazo. +Imagnense que estn en una calle de EE UU, y un japons se les acerca y les dice "Perdone, cmo se llama esta manzana?" +Y Uds. le contestan "Lo siento. Esta es la calle Roble, esa es la calle Olmo. +Este es el nmero 26 y ese el 27." +Y l: "Bueno, vale. Cmo se llama esa manzana?" +Y Uds. contestan "Es que las manzanas no tienen nombre. +Las calles tienen nombre; las manzanas son solamente espacios sin nombre que estn entre las calles." +Se va, un tanto confundido y decepcionado. +As que ahora imagnense que estn en una calle de Japn, ven a una persona y le preguntan "Disculpe, cmo se llama esta calle?" +Y les responde "Esa es la manzana 17 y esta es la 16." +Y Uds. dicen "Muy bien, pero cmo se llama esta calle?" +Y contesta "Bueno, es que las calles no tienen nombre. +Las manzanas tienen nombre." +Echen un vistazo a Google Maps. Esta es la manzana n 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19. +Todas estas manzanas tienen nombre. Las calles son solo espacios sin nombre entre las manzanas. +Y entonces preguntan "Vale, pero cmo sabe la direccin?" +Les responde "Es muy fcil. Este es el distrito 8. +Manzana 17, casa n 1." +Y Uds. dicen "Muy bien. Pero dando una vuelta por el vecindario me he fijado que los nmeros de las casas no van en orden." +Y l contesta "Por supuesto que van en orden. Siguen el orden en que fueron construidas. +La primera casa construida en una manzana es la nmero 1. +La segunda es la nmero 2. +La tercera es la 3. Es fcil. Es muy obvio." +Me apasiona el hecho de que a veces tengamos que ir a la otra punta del mundo para darnos cuenta de prejuicios que ni siquiera sabamos que tenamos y para darnos cuenta de que lo contrario puede ser tambin cierto. +Por ejemplo, hay mdicos en China que creen que su obligacin es mantenerte sano. +As que cuando ests sano un mes entero les pagas, y cuando te pones enfermo no les tienes que pagar, porque han fallado en su trabajo. Ganan dinero cuando t ests sano, no enfermo. +En msica pensamos que el comienzo de la frase musical es el "uno". Uno, dos, tres, cuatro. +Pero en la msica del frica occidental, el "uno" est al final de la frase, es el final de la frase musical. +No se trata solamente del frase, sino del modo en que empiezan la msica. Dos, tres, cuatro, uno. +Y este mapa tambin es correcto. +Hay un refrn que dice que cualquier cosa que digas sobre la India, lo contrario tambin es cierto. +As que nunca debemos olvidar, estemos en TED o en otro sitio, que cualquier idea que tengamos u oigamos, por brillante que sea, que lo contrario quiz sea tambin cierto. +Domo arigato gozaimashita. +Como investigador, de vez en cuando, te encuentras con alguna cosa un poco desconcertante. +Algo que cambia tu conocimiento del mundo que te rodea, y te ensea que ests muy equivocado sobre algo en lo que creas firmemente. +Y estos son momentos desafortunados, porque esa noche te vas a dormir ms tonto que cuando te levantaste. +As que, ese es verdaderamente el objetivo de mi charla, A) comunicarte el momento, y B) hacer que dejes esta sesin siendo un poco ms tonto que cuanto entraste. +As que espero poder conseguirlo. +Bien, este incidente que voy a describir comenz, en realidad, con un poco de diarrea. +Conocemos desde hace mucho tiempo la causa de la diarrea. +Ese es el motivo por el cual hay un vaso de agua ah arriba. +Para nosotros, la gente en esta sala, es un problema, +para los bebs, es mortal. +Carecen de nutrientes, y la diarrea los deshidrata. +Y entonces, como resultado, tenemos muchas muertes, muchas muertes. +En India en 1960, haba un ndice de mortalidad infantil del 24% muchas personas no lograban sobrevivir. Increblemente desafortunado. +Una de las grandes causas por las que esto sucedi, fue la diarrea. +Ahora, ha habido un gran esfuerzo para solucionar este problema. Y realmente haba una gran solucin. +Y algunos han llamado a esta solucin, "Potencialmente el avance mdico ms importante de este siglo". +Ahora, la solucin result ser bastante sencilla. +Y esta consisti en sales de rehidratacin oral. +Probablemente, muchos de vosotros hayis usado esto. +Es algo genial. Una manera para obtener sodio y glucosa juntos, para que cuando lo aadas al agua el nio sea capaz de absorberlo incluso en casos de diarrea. +Extraordinario impacto en la mortalidad. +Una solucin masiva al problema. +Salto en el tiempo, 1960, el porcentaje de 24% de mortalidad infantil hoy ha cado en un 6,5%. +Es todava un gran nmero, pero es una gran cada. +Parece que el problema tecnolgico se ha solucionado. +Pero, si observas, incluso hoy slo en India, se dan unas 400.000 muertes relacionadas con la diarrea. +Qu est sucediendo aqu? +Bueno, la respuesta fcil es simplemente que, no hemos conseguido esas sales para esas personas. +Pero la verdad es que eso no es cierto. +Si observis reas donde esas sales estn totalmente disponibles el precio es bajo o cero, estas muertes todava continan disminuyendo. +Quiz existe una respuesta biolgica. +Quiz estas muertes son algo que la rehidratacin por s misma no puede solucionar. Pero esto tampoco es cierto. +Muchas de estas muertes fueron totalmente previsibles. Y me gusta pensar en esto como algo desconcertante, lo que me gusta llamar el problema "de la ltima milla" +Mirad, hemos empleado mucha energa, en mltiples dominios. Tecnolgicos, cientficos, trabajo duro, creatividad, inventiva humana, para resolver importantes problemas sociales con soluciones tecnolgicas. +Eso ha supuesto los descubrimientos de los ltimos 2000 aos. Eso es la humanidad avanzando. +Pero en este caso lo hemos resuelto, y sin embargo una gran parte del problema todava sigue igual. +999 millas fueron bien. La ltima milla est resultando ser increblemente terca. +Ahora, eso es para terapia de rehidratacin oral. +Quiz esto es algo nico sobre la diarrea. +Bueno, resulta que, y es ah donde las cosas realmente se vuelven muy desconcertantes; no es algo nico en la diarrea. +No es ni siquiera algo nico en la gente pobre de India. +Aqu tenemos un ejemplo de una variedad de contextos. +He puesto un grupo de ejemplos aqu arriba. +Empezar con insulina, diabetes medicacin en los EE.UU. +Vale, la poblacin de EE.UU. +Si eres bastante pobre recibes ayuda mdica estatal o si tienes un seguro mdico, la insulina es bastante directa. +Lo tienes o bien en forma de pastilla o como una inyeccin. Lo tienes que tomar cada da para mantener los niveles de azcar en la sangre. +Un avance tecnolgico enorme, tom una enfermedad increblemente mortal y le dio una solucin. +ndices de adherencia. Cunta gente est tomando su insulina cada da? +Como media, una persona tpica est tomndola el 75% del tiempo. +Como resultado, 25.000 personas al ao se quedan ciegas, cientos de miles pierden algn miembro, cada ao, por algo que tiene solucin. +Aqu tengo un grupo de otros ejemplos, todos sufren del problema de la ltima milla. +No es slo medicina. +Aqu hay otro ejemplo de tecnologa. Agricultura. Pensamos que hay un problema de comida, as que creamos nuevas semillas. +Creemos que hay un problema de ingresos, as que creamos nuevas formas de cultivo que aumentan los ingresos. +Bien, mirad algunos de los viejos sistemas, algunos que ya hemos resuelto. +El policultivo realmente aumenta los ingresos. +En el arroz a veces encontramos increbles aumentos en la cosecha cuando mezclas diferentes variedades de arroz codo con codo. +Algunos lo estn haciendo, otros muchos no. Qu est pasando? +Esta es la ltima milla. +La ltima milla es, en todas partes, problemtica. +De acuerdo, cul es el problema? +El problema es esta pequea mquina de 1,5 kg de peso que tenemos detrs de los ojos y entre nuestras orejas. +Esta mquina es realmente extraa, y una de las consecuencias es que la gente es rara. +La gente hace muchas cosas inconsistentes. +Hacen muchas cosas inconsistentes. +Y las inconsistencias crean, fundamentalmente, este problema de la ltima milla +Mirad, cuando estamos tratando con nuestra biologa, bacterias, los genes, las cosas que hay aqu dentro, la sangre, +es algo complejo, pero es manejable. +Cuando nos ocupamos de gente como esta, +la mente es ms compleja. +Eso ya no es manejable. Y es con lo que estamos luchando. +Dejadme volver al tema de la diarrea por un segundo. +Aqu hay una cuestin que se pregunt en la National Sample Survey, que es una encuesta realizada a numerosas mujeres indias. "Tu hijo tiene diarrea. +Debes aumentar, mantener, o disminuir el nmero de fluidos? +Para que no pasis ninguna vergenza, os dar la respuesta correcta. Es aumentar. +Ahora, la diarrea es interesante porque ha existido durante miles de aos, desde que el ser humano realmente viva suficientemente codo con codo para poder tener agua contaminada. +Una estrategia romana que ha sido muy interesante, y que les dio una ventaja relativa, fue que, se aseguraron de que sus soldados no bebieran ni siquiera las aguas remotamente turbias. +Porque si algunas de sus tropas tenan diarrea no eran tan efectivos en el campo de batalla. +Si pensis en esta ventaja de los romanos, en parte eran los escudos, los petos, pero parte de ello era beber solo el agua correcta. +As que, aqu estn estas mujeres que han visto cmo sus padres han luchado contra la diarrea, ellas han luchado contra la diarrea. Han visto muchas muertes. Cmo responden a esta pregunta? +En India del 35 al 50% dicen "reducir". +Pensad durante un segundo sobre lo que esto significa. +De un 35 a un 50% de mujeres olvidan la terapia de la rehidratacin oral, estn aumentando, estn realmente haciendo que sus hijos tengan ms posibilidades de morir por sus acciones. +Cmo puede ser posible? +Una posibilidad, como mucha de la gente responde, es decir, "Eso es simplemente estpido". +Yo no creo que sea algo estpido. +Hay algo profundamente correcto en lo que estas mujeres hacen. +Y es que no pones agua en un cubo agujereado. +Pensemos en el modelo mental que yace detrs de la reduccin de la ingesta. +Simplemente no tiene sentido. +Ahora, el modelo es intuitivamente correcto. +Simplemente no resulta ser correcto acerca del mundo. +Pero tiene mucho sentido a un cierto nivel profundo. +Y eso, para m, es el reto fundamental de la ltima milla +El primer reto es lo que yo llamo el reto de la persuasin. +Convencer a la gente para que haga algo, seguir la terapia de rehidratacin oral, policultivo, no es un acto de informacin. "Dmosles la informacin, y cuando tengan esos datos harn lo correcto". +Es ms complejo que eso. +Y si quieres entender cmo es ms complejo dejadme que empiece con algo que resulta interesante. +As que, voy a daros un pequeo problema matemtico. Quiero que me gritis la respuesta lo ms rpido posible. +Un bate y una pelota juntos valen $1,10. +El bate cuesta un dlar ms que la pelota. +Cunto cuesta la pelota? Rpido. +Bien, alguien por aqu dice 5. +Muchos de vosotros habis dicho 10. +Vamos a pensar en el 10 por un segundo. +Si la pelota cuesta 10, el bate cuesta... +esto es fcil, $1,10. +Perfecto. Entonces, juntos costaran $1,20. +As que, aqu estis, gente aparentemente bien educada. +Muchos de vosotros parecis inteligentes. +La combinacin de eso produce algo que es que, de hecho os habis confundido. +Cmo puede ser posible? Vamos a pasar a otra cosa. +S que el lgebra puede ser complicada. +Vamos al pasado. Qu es eso, la primaria? +Vamos a volver al jardn de infancia. +Hay un gran programa de tv estadounidense que deberais ver. +Se llama "Sabes ms que un nio de primaria?" +Me parece que ya sabemos la respuesta. +Pasemos al jardn de infancia. Vamos a ver si podemos superar a nios de 5 aos. +Voy a hacer esto. Voy a poner objetos en la pantalla. +Slo quiero que me digis el color del objeto. +Slo eso, de acuerdo? +Quiero que lo hagis rpido, en voz alta conmigo. Hacedlo rpido. Har el primero as os lo pongo ms fcil. +Listos? Negro. +Ahora quiero que hagis los siguientes rpido y en voz alta. +Listos? Vamos. +Audiencia: rojo, verde. +Amarillo, azul, rojo. +Sendhil Mullainathan: eso est muy bien. +Casi fuera de la guardera. +Qu es lo que nos ensea todo esto? +Lo que est sucediendo aqu, y en el problema del bate y la pelota es que tenis algunas formas intuitivas de interactuar con el mundo, algunos modelos que usis para entender el mundo. +Estos modelos, como el cubo agujereado, funcionan en la mayora de los casos. +Sospecho que a la mayora de vosotros, y espero que sea cierto para el resto, de hecho os va bien con la suma y resta en el mundo real. +Encontr un problema, un problema especfico que de hecho encontr un error con eso. +La diarrea, y muchos de los problemas de la ltima milla, son igual. +Son situaciones donde el modelo mental no encaja con la realidad. +Lo mismo pasa aqu, habis tenido una respuesta intuitiva a esto muy rpida. +Leais azul y querais decir azul, aunque sabais que la respuesta era rojo. +Ahora, hago esto porque s que es divertido. +Pero es mucho ms profundo que divertido. +Os dar un buen ejemplo de cmo afecta a la persuasin. +BMW es un coche bastante seguro. +Y estn intentando averiguar, "la seguridad es buena. +quiero publicitar la seguridad. Cmo voy a hacerlo?" +"Podra dar nmeros a la gente. Se nos dan bien las pruebas de accidentes" +Pero la verdad del asunto es que, t miras al coche, y no tiene el aspecto de un Volvo. No tiene el aspecto de un Hummer. +As que, quiero que por unos minutos pensis, cmo podra transmitir la seguridad del BMW? Ok? +Ahora, mientras estis pensando en eso, vamos a pasar a una segunda tarea. +La segunda tarea es rendimiento de combustible. Ok? +Aqu tenis otro acertijo. +Una persona camina hacia un aparcamiento, y estn pensando en comprar esta Toyota Yaris. +Estn diciendo, "Recorre 12 kms por litro. Voy a hacer lo correcto para el medio ambiente, voy a comprar el Prius, 17 kms por litro". +Otra persona se acerca al aparcamiento. Y estn a punto de comprar un Hummer, 3 kms por litro, totalmente cargado, lujoso. +Dicen, "Sabes qu? Necesito turbo? Necesito este peso pesado?" +Voy a hacer algo bueno por el medio ambiente. +Voy a quitar parte de ese peso, y voy a comprar un Hummer que recorre 4 kms por litro". +Cul de estas personas ha hecho ms por el medio ambiente? +Veis, tenis un modelo mental. +17 contra 12, es un gran paso, 4 contra 3? Vamos... +Sale, va a casa y hace el problema, de 3 a 4 es un cambio mayor. Esa persona ha ahorrado ms litros. +Por qu? Porque no nos importan Los kms por litro, nos importan los litros por km. +Pensad en cun poderoso es esto si estis intentando fomentar el rendimiento del combustible. +Kms por litro es la manera en la que presentamos las cosas. +Si queremos fomentar un cambio de actitud, los litros por km tendran mucha ms efectividad. +Investigadores han encontrado este tipo de anomalas. +Bien, vuelta al BMW. Qu deberan hacer? +El problema al que se enfrenta BMW es que este coche parece seguro. +Este coche, que es mi Mini, no aparenta ser tan seguro. +Aqu est la brillante perspicacia de BMW, en una campaa publicitaria. +Mostraron un BMW bajando la calle. +Hay un camin a la derecha. Algunas cajas se caen del camin. +El coche vira bruscamente para evitarlo, y por lo tanto no tiene un accidente. +BMW entiende que la seguridad, en la mente de las personas, tiene dos componentes. +Puedes ser seguro porque cuando te golpean sobrevives, o puedes ser seguro porque evitas accidentes. +Una campaa muy exitosa. Pero fijaros en su poder. +Aprovecha algo que ya creis. +Ahora, incluso si os persuadiera para hacer algo, a veces es duro lograr verdaderamente una accin como resultado. +Todos vosotros probablemente pretendis levantaros a no s, a las 6:30 o a las 7 de la maana. +Esta es una batalla que luchamos cada da, junto con intentar ir al gimnasio. +Ahora, esto es un ejemplo de esa batalla, y nos hace entender que las intenciones no siempre se traducen en acciones, y que uno de los retos fundamentales es cmo de hecho, lo haramos, de acuerdo? +As que, dejad que hable sobre el problema de la ltima milla. +Hasta ahora, he sido bastante negativo. +He estado intentando mostraros las rarezas del comportamiento humano. +Y creo que quiz estoy siendo demasiado negativo. +Quiz es la diarrea. +Quiz se debera pensar en el problema de la ltima milla como en la oportunidad de la ltima milla. +Vamos a volver a la diabetes. +Esta es una inyeccin de insulina tpica. +Ahora, llevar esto encima es complicado. +Tienes que llevar la botella, tienes que llevar la jeringa. +Es incluso doloroso. +Ahora, puede que pensis, "Bueno, si mis ojos dependieran de ello, obviamente lo usara cada da". +Pero el dolor, las molestias, ya sabis, poner atencin, acordarse de ponrtelo en la cartera, cuando te vas en un largo viaje, estos son los detalles cotidianos, y nos plantean problemas. +Aqu tenemos una innovacin, una innovacin en diseo. +Esto es un bolgrafo, se llama bolgrafo de insulina, precargado, +La aguja es particularmente afilada. +Slo tienes que llevar esto contigo. +Es mucho ms fcil de usar, mucho menos doloroso. +En cualquier punto entre el 5 y el 10 % del aumento en la adherencia, slo como resultado de esto. +A esto me refiero cuando hablo de la oportunidad de la ltima milla. +Veris, tendemos a pensar que el problema est resuelto cuando solucionamos el problema de la tecnologa. +Pero la innovacin humana, el problema humano todava contina, y esa es una gran frontera que queda pendiente. +Esto no se refiere a la biologa de la gente, Esto es sobre los cerebros, la psicologa de la gente. Y la innovacin necesita continuar todo el camino hacia la ltima milla. +Aqu tenemos otro ejemplo de esto. +Esto es de una compaa llamada Energa Positiva. +Esto es sobre eficiencia energtica. +Estamos gastando mucho tiempo en clulas de fuel ahora mismo. +Lo que esta compaa hace es mandar una carta a las casas que dice "Aqu est tu uso de energa, aqu el de tu vecino, lo ests haciendo bien". Cara sonriente. +"Lo ests haciendo peor". Ceo fruncido. +Y lo que encuentran es que justamente esta carta, nada ms, tiene de un 2 a un 3 % de reduccin en el uso de electricidad. +Y queris pensar en el valor social de eso en trminos de compensacin de carbn, electricidad reducida, 900 millones de dlares por ao. +Por qu? Porque es gratis, no es una nueva tecnologa, es una carta, estamos teniendo una explosin en el comportamiento. +As que, cmo resolvemos la ltima milla? +Creo que esto nos cuenta una gran oportunidad. +Y creo que para resolverlo, debemos combinar psicologa, mrketing, arte, hemos visto esto. +Pero sabis con qu necesitamos combinarlo? +Necesitamos combinarlo con el mtodo cientfico. +Lo realmente confuso y frustrante para m sobre la ltima milla, es que las primeras 999 millas son todas sobre ciencias. +Nadie dira "Hey, creo que esta medicina funciona, adelante, sala" +Tenemos pruebas, vamos al laboratorio, lo probamos otra vez, tenemos mejoras. +Pero sabis qu hacemos en la ltima milla? +"Oh, esto es una buena idea. A la gente le gustar. Vamos a publicarla". +El nmero de recursos que ponemos son dispares. +Ponemos miles de millones de dlares en tecnologas de combustible eficiente. +Cunto estamos invirtiendo en el cambio de actitud frente a la energa, en una manera creble, sistemtica y de prueba? +Ahora, creo que estamos al borde de algo grande. +Estamos a punto de lograr una ciencia social totalmente nueva. +Es una ciencia social que reconoce, de forma similar a como la ciencia reconoce la complejidad del cuerpo, la biologa reconoce la complejidad del cuerpo, nosotros reconoceremos la complejidad de la mente humana. +Las cuidadosas pruebas, correcciones, diseo. Vamos a abrir vistas de entendimiento, complejidades, cosas difciles. +Y esas vistas al mismo tiempo crearn la nueva ciencia y el cambio fundamental en el mundo como lo conocemos, en los prximos cien aos. +De acuerdo. Muchas gracias. +Chris Anderson: Sendhil, muchas gracias. +As que, todo este tema es verdaderamente fascinante. +Quiero decir que, a veces parece que, al escuchar a economistas conductuales estn de alguna manera poniendo en su lugar, acadmicamente, lo que grandes vendedores, han conocido de forma intuitiva durante mucho tiempo. +Hasta qu punto est tu campo hablando a esos grandes vendedores sobre su perspicacia en la psicologa humana? +Porque ellos lo han visto sobre el terreno. +Sendhil Mullainathan: S, hemos empleado mucho tiempo hablando con vendedores. Y creo que el 60% de ello es exactamente como dices, existen perspicacias que se pueden deducir, +40% de ello es mrketing. +Mrketing es vender un anuncio a una marca. +As que, de alguna manera, mucho del mrketing trata sobre convencer al CEO de que es una buena campaa publicitaria. +As que, ah hay un poco de disminucin. +Eso es slo una advertencia. Es diferente a tener una campaa publicitaria realmente efectiva. +Y uno de los nuevos movimientos en mrketing es, cmo medir la efectividad? Somos eficientes? +CA: Cmo ganas conocimiento y logras integrarlo en los modelos de negocio exitosos, en el terreno, en pueblos de la India, por ejemplo. +SM: El mtodo cientfico al que aluda es bastante importante. +Trabajamos estrechamente con compaas que tienen capacidad operativa, o algunas que no tienen fines lucrativos con capacidad operativa. +Y entonces decimos, bueno, quieres lograr este cambio de comportamiento. +Vamos a proponer unas ideas, probarlas, ver cul funciona, volver, sintetizar, e intentar pensar en algo que funcione, y entonces seremos capaces de ampliarnos. +Es como el modelo que ha funcionado en otros contextos. +Si tienes problemas biolgicos probamos y lo solucionamos, vemos si funciona, y entonces trabajamos en la escala. +CA: De acuerdo, Sendhil, muchas gracias por venir a TED. Gracias. +Cuando me llam mi hermano en diciembre de 1998 y dijo que las noticias no eran buenas +Este es l en panatalla. +Lo acababan de diagnosticar con ELA (Esclerosis lateral amiotrfica) que es una enfermedad con una esperanza de vida de 3 aos. +Te paraliza. Empieza por matar las neuronas motoras de tu mdula espinal. +Y pasas de ser un sano, robusto hombre de 29 aos a alguien que no puede respirar, no se puede mover, no puede hablar +Esto a sido en realidad, para mi, un regalo. Porque comenzamos un viaje para aprender una nueva manera de pensar sobre la vida +Y aunque Steven muri hace 3 aos tuvimos un viaje increble como familia. +Ni siquiera -- Creo que adversidad ni siquiera es la palabra correcta +Vimos esto y dijimos vamos a hacer algo con esto. de una manera increiblemente positiva. +Y hoy quiero hablar a cerca de una de las cosas que decidimos hacer, que era pensar en una manera nueva de abordar el sistema de salud. +Porque, como todos sabemos hoy y aqu, no funciona muy bien. +Quiero hablar en el contexto de una historia. +La hisotria de mi hermano. +Pero es solo una historia. Y quiero ir mas alla de la historia, e ir hacia algo mas. +"Dado mi estatus, Cul es el mejor resultado que espero obtener, y cmo llego a el? +Es lo que estamos aqui para hacer en medicina, es lo que todos deberian hacer. +Y esas preguntas todas tienen cosas variables. +Nuestros estatus son differentes. +Nuestros deseos y sueos, lo que queremos lograr, es diferente, y nuestros pasos van a ser diferentes, todas son historias. +Pero es una historia hasta que la convertimos en datos. y asi es que lo que hacemos, este concepto que tuvimos, fue tomar el estatus de Steven, "Cul es mi estatus?" +y fuimos de este concepto de caminar, respirar, y despus sus manos, el habla, y por ltimo la felicidad y funcin. +Entonces, el primer set de patologias, terminan en este hombre en su icono, Pero el resto de ellos son los que realmente son los importantes aqu. +Porque Steven, a pesar del hecho de que estaba paralizado, cuando estaba en ese piscina, no poda caminar, no podia usar sus brazos, es por eso que tiene las pequeas cosas flotantes en ellos. Los vieron ? l estaba feliz. Estabamos en la playa. El estaba criando a su hijo. Y estaba siendo productivo. +Y tomamos esto, y lo convertimos en datos. +Pero no es un punto en ese momento en el tiempo. +Es un punto de Steven en contexto. +Aqui esta en la piscina. Pero aqui est sano, como un constructor, ms alto, ms fuerte, obtenia todas las mujeres, un hombre sorprendente. +Aqui est caminando en la isla, pero apenas puede caminar ahora, asi que est impedido. +Y todava puede sostener la mano de su esposa, pero no se puede abotonar la ropa, no se puede alimentar. +Y aqui esta l, paralizado completamente, sin poder moverse ni respirar, en este paso del tiempo. +Estas historias de su vida, convertidas en datos. +Renovo mi casa de carruajes cuando estaba completamente paralizado, y sin habla, y sin poder respirar, y le dieron un premio a la restauracin histrica. +Asi que aqu esta Steven solo, compartiendo su historia con el mundo. +Y esta la visin, la cosa de la que estamos excitados. Porque nos alejamos de la comunidad que somos, del hecho que realmente nos queremos y queremos cuidar del otro. +Necesitamos darle a otros para tener xito. +Asi que Steven esta compartiendo esta historia, Pero no est solo. +Hay tantas otras personas compartiendo sus historias. +Y no historias en palabras, pero historias en datos y palabras. +Y convertimos esa informacin en esta estructura, este entendentimiento, esta habilidad para convertir estas historas en algo que es computable. a lo que podes empezar a cambiar la manera en la que el cudiado mdico esta hecho y es entregado. +Hicimos esto para el ELA. Lo podemos hacer para la depresin, el Parkinson, VIH. +Estos no son simples, no son escalablas a la internet, requieren de pensamiento y procesos para encontrar la informacion relevante de la enfermedad. +Asi que esto es lo que se ve cuando acceden al sitio de Internet. +Y les voy a mostrar que Pacientes Como Yo, la empresa que mi hermano menor y yo, y un buen amigo de MIT creamos. +Estos son los pacientes reales, hay 45,000 de ellos ahora, compartiendo sus historias como datos. +Aqui hay un paciente de Esclerosis Mltiple. +Su nombre es Mike, y tiene un impedimento uniforme en conocimiento, vision, caminar, sensasiones. +Esas son cosas que son diferentes para cada paciente de E.M. +Cada uno de ellos tiene caractersticas differentes. +Vemos fibromalgia, VIH, ELS, depresin. +Miren este paciente con VIH, Zinny. +Ha pasado dos aos con esta enfermedad. Todos los sntomas no estn ah. +Pero esta trabajando para manter su cuenta de CD4 alta y su nivel viral bajo asi puede hacer su vida mejor. +Pero podemos agregar esto y descubrir cosas acerca de tratamientos. +Miren esto, 2,000 personas casi, tomando Copaxone. +Hay pacientes actualmente con medicamentos, compartiendo datos. +Me encantan algunos de estos, ejercicios fsicos, oraciones. +Alguien quiere ver un estudio comparativo de efectividad de la oracion contra algo ? Miremos a la oracion. +Lo que me encanta de esto, solo como un problema de diseo interesante. +Esto es por lo que la gente que reza. +Aqui hay un cronograma de con que frecuencia, ellos -- es una dsis. +Asi que alguien quiere ver los 32 pacientes que rezan 60 minutos por dia, y ver si estan mejor, probablemente lo estn. +Aqu estan. O es una red abierta. Todo el mundo compartiendo. Lo vemos todo. +O quiero ver la ansiedad, porque las personas estn rezando por ansiedad. +Y aqu estn los datos de la ansiedad actual en 15,000 personas. En este instante. +Como lo tratan las drogas, sus componentes, sus efectos secundarios, todo en un ambiente rico, y puedes entrar en el detalle y ver los individuos. +Esta cantidad sorprendente de datos nos deja entrar en el detalle y ver para que es esta droga. 1,500 personas tomando este medicamento creo. Si. +Quiero hablar con los 58 pacientes ah, que estan tomando cuatro miligramos por da. +Y quiero hablar con aquellos que lo han estado haciendo por mas de dos aos. +Asi que podemos ver la duracin. +Todo abierto, todo disponible. +Me voy a loguear. +Y este es el perfil de mi hermano. +Y esta es una nueva version de nuestra plataforma que estamos lanzando ahora. +Esta es la segunda generacin. Va a estar hacha en Flash. +Como pueden ver aqui, mientras esto es animado, Los datos reales de Steven contra los datos de todos los otros pacientes, contra esta informacin. +La banda azul es el percentil 50avo. Steven es el 75avo percentil, que l tiene ELA no gentico. +Si bajamos en su perfil podemos ver todos sus medicamentos, pero mas que eso, en la nueva version, puedo ver todo esto interactivamente. +Esperen, mala capacidad espinal. +No les recuerda esto a un gran programa de inversiones? +No seria genial si la tecnologa que usaramos para cuidar de nosotros mismos fuese igual que la tecnologa que usamos para hacer dinero? +Detrol . En efectos secundarios de su medicamento, integrado a eso, el transplante de clulas madres que tuvo, el primero en el mundo, compartido abiertamente para cualquiera que lo quiera ver. +Me encanta aqui, los implantes ciberkinticos, que, nuevamente, era el unico paciente con estos datos online y disponibles. +Podemos ajustar la escala temoral. Podemos ajustar los sntomas. +Podemos mirar la interaccin de como trato yo mi ELA. +Entonces, hacemos click en la pestaa de ELA aqui. +Estoy tomando tres medicamentos para manejarlo. Algunos experimentales. +Puedo mirar mi constipacin, como manejarla. +Puedo ver citrato de magnesio. Y los efectos secundarios de esa droga integrados en el tiempo durante los que son relevantes. +Pero quiero ms. +No quiero solamente mirar este dispositivo interesante. Quiero tomar estos datos y hacer algo an mejor. +No tengo ni la menor idea de que es un registro mdico. +Quiero resolver un problema. Quiero una aplicacin. +Asi que, puedo tomar esots datos -- reordenarlos, poner los sintomas en la izquierda, los medicamentos en la parte superior, y me dice todo lo que sabemos sobre Steven y los demas pacientes, y sus interacciones. +Aos despues que l tomo estos medicamentos, descubr que todo lo que hizo para manejar su exceso de saliva, incluyendo algunos efectos secundarios positivos que vinieron de otras drogas, estaban haciendo que su constipacin empeorara. +Y si alguien tuvo alguna vez una constipacin severa, y no entiendes cuanto impacto tiene en tu vida, si eso fue una broma. +Estas tratando de manejar estos, Y esta grilla aqui disponible, y queremos entenderla. +Nunca nadie tuvo este tipo de informacin. +Asi que los pacientes tienen esto. Estamos para los pacientes. +Esto es todo para el cuidado de la salud de los pacientes. No habia doctores en nuestra red. +Esto es sobre los pacientes. +Entonces, cmo podemos tomar esto y traerles una herramienta para que puedan volver e involucrarse con el sistema mdico? +Y trabajamos duro, y pensamos sobre esto y dijimos, "Qu es lo que podemos usar todo el tiempo, que podemos usar en el sistema de cuidados mdicos, que todo el mundo va a entender? +Entonces los pacientes lo imprimen, porque los hospitales normalmente nos ponen trabas porque creen que somos una red social. +Es la funcion mas utilizada del sitio web. +A los doctores les encanta esta hoja, y estn realmente involucrados. +Asi que fuimos de esta historia de Steven y de su historia a los datos, y de nuevo de vuelta al papel, donde volvimos e involucramos el sistema de cuidados mdicos. +Y aqui hay otra publicacin. +Este es una revista, AANC Creo que es Actas de la Academia Nacional de Ciencias de los Estados Unidos de Amrica. +Vieron varios de estos hoy, cuando todos estaban fanfarroneando sobre las cosas increbles que haban hecho. +Este es un reporte sobre una droga que se llama Litio. +Litio, esta es la droga que se usa para tratar el desorden bipolar, que un grupo en Italia descubri que frenaba el avance del ELA en 16 pacientes y lo public. +Ahora, nos vamos a saltear las criticas a lo que publicaron. +Pero el resumen es, si sos un paciente, queres estar en la linea azul. +No queres estar en la linea roja, queres estar en la linea azul. +Porque la linea azul es una linea mejor. La linea roja es cuesta abajo, la linea azul es la linea buena. +Asi que dijimos -- miramos esto, y lo que tambien me gusta es que la gente siempre acusa estos sitios de internet de promover una medicina mala, y de fomentar a las personas a hacer las cosas irresponsablemente +Entonces, esto es lo que paso cuando AANC public esto. +10 por ciento de las personas en nuestro sistema tomaron litio. +10 porciento de los pacientes comenzaron a tomar litio basados en los datos de 16 pacientes en una mala publicacion. +Y llama irresponsable a la internet. +Y aqui estn las implicancias de lo que pasa. +Y hay una persona en particular, llamada Humberto, de Brasil, que desafortunadamente se muri hace nueve meses, que dijo, "Hey oigan. Nos pueden ayudar a responder una pregunta? +Porque no quiero esperar al siguiente ensayo, va a tardar aos. +Quiero saber ahora. Nos pueden aydar?" +Asi que lanzamos unas herramientas, les dejamos registrar sus niveles de sangre. +Les dejamos compartir los datos e intercambiarlos. +Ya saben, una red de datos. +Y dijeron, "Jamie, PLM, pueden ustedes decirnos si esto funciona o no?" +Y fuimos hablando con la gente, y dijeron "No puedes hacer un ensayo clnico de esta manera. Saben? +no tenes la parte ciega, no tienes los datos, no sigue el mtodo cientfico +no va a funcionar nunca. No lo pueden hacer" +Entonces yo les dije "Ok, no podemos hacer eso. Entonces podemos hacer algo mas difcil." +Y no puedo decir si el litio funciona en todos los pacientes de ELA, pero si puedo decir si funcion en Humberto. +Y dije, "Qu pasa si creamos una mquina del tiempo para los pacientes, excepto que en lugar de ir para atrs en el tiempo, vamos para adelante. +podemos averiguar que es lo que va a pasar contigo, asi podemos, tal vez, cambiarlo?" +Asi que lo hicimos. Tomamos todos los pacientes como Humberto, Ese es el fondo de pantalla de Apple, lo robamos porque no teniamos tiempo para crear el nuestro. Por cierto, esta es una aplicacin real. +Estos no son solo imgenes. +Y tomas esos datos, y encontramos los pacientes como l, y traemos sus datos. Y traemos sus historias a l. +Y luego decimos, "Bueno, como los alineamos a todos?" +Asi que los alineamos todos asi van juntos alrededor de puntos relevantes, integrados a travs de todo lo que sabemos del paciente. +Toda la informacin, el camino entero de sus enfermendades. +Y esto es lo que le va a pasar a Humberto, a menos que haga algo. +Y tom litio, y fue avanzando por la linea. +Y funciona casi todo el tiempo. +Ahora, los casos en que no funciona son interesantes. +Pero funciona casi todo el tiempo. +Es casi de miedo. Es hermoso. +Asi que no pudimos hacer un ensayo clnico, no pudimos ver como. +Pero podiamos ver si es que iba a funcionar para Humberto. +Y si, todos los clinicos de la audiencia van a hablar de potencia y de la desviacin estndar. Vamos a hacer eso mas tarde. +Pero aqui est la respuesta de la media de los pacientes que finalmente decidieron tomar litio. +Estos son todos los pacientes que tomaron litio. +Es la curva de intencin de tratamiento. +Y pueden ver aqui, los puntos azules en la parte superior, los claros, esas son las personas en el estudio en AANC en el que queras estar. Y los rojos son, los rosas en la parte de abajo son los que no quieres ser. +Y los del medio son todos nuestro pacientes desde el principio del litio en el tiempo cero, yendo hacia adelante, y luego yendo hacia atrs. +Y pueden ver que los hicimos coincidir perfectamente, perfectamente. +Espantosamente precisa la coincidencia. +Y yendo hacia adelante en el tiempo, en realidad no quieres ser un paciente de litio en este momento. +Estas, en realidad, un poco peor, no demasiado, pero apenas peor. No queres ser un paciente litio en este momento. +Pero ya saben, mucha gente lo dejo, a este tratamiento, hay demasiado abandono. +Podemos hacer lo que es an mas dificil? Podemos ir a los pacientes que realmente decidieron seguir con el litio, porque estaban convencidos que estaban mejorando. +Y le preguntamos a nuestro algoritmo de control, son esos 69 pacientes, que por cierto notan que es cuatro veces el numero de pacientes en el ensayo clnico original, podemos mirar a esos pacientes y decir, "Podemos hacerlos coincidir con nuestra mquina del tiempo con otros pacientes que son como ellos, y ver que pasa ?" +Y hasta los que crean que estaban mejor coincidieron con los controles exactamente. Exactamente. +Y esas pequeas lneas? Esa es la potencia. +Y lo hicimos un ao antes de tiempo cuando el primer ensayo clnco con fondos del INS (Instituto Nacional de Salud) por millones de dlares, fall por inutilidad la semana pasada y lo anunciaron. +Se acuerdan que les cont del transplante de clulas madres de mi hermano. +Nunca supe con seguridad si funcion o no. +Y puse casi 100 millones de clulas en su cisterna magna, en su mdula espinal, y llene sus IRB e hice todo el trabajo, Y nunca lo supe en realidad. +Y Cmo es que nunca lo supe? +Me refiero que yo nunca supe lo que iba a pasarle. +Y en realidad le pregunt a Tim, que es el cuantificador del grupo -- Buscamos alrededor de un ao para encontar alguien que pudiera hacer el tipo de matemticas y estadsticas y modelacion en salud, y no pudimos encontra a nadie. Asi que fuimos al mundo de las finanzas. +Y ahi encontramos a esta gente que modelaba el futuro de las tasas de inters, y todo ese tipo de cosas. +Y algunos de ellos estaban disponibles. Asi que contratamos a uno. +Los contratamos, y los pusimos a asistir en el laboratorio. +Le mando M.I. (mensajes instantaneos). As me comunico con l, es como un pequeo hombre en una caja. Le mande un M.I. a Tim. Dije, "Tim me puedes decir si el transplante de clulas madres de mi hermano funciono o no?" +Y hace dos dias me envi esto. +Es este que esta aqui afuera. Ven ese hombre que vivi mucho tiempo? +Tenemos que hablar con l. Porque quiero saber que pas. +Porque algo fue diferente. +Porque mi hermano no. Mi hermano avanz derecho por la lnea. +Solo funciona aproximadamente 12 meses. +Es la primera versin de la mquina del tiempo. +Primera vez que la probabamos. Vamos a tratar de mejorarla despues. Por ahora 12 meses. +Y, ya saben, miro esto, y me vuelvo realmente emocional. +Miras a los pacientes. Puedes entrar en detalle en todos los controles. Puedes mirarlos, puedes preguntarles +Y encontre una mujer que tiene -- La encontramos, era extraa porque tena datos despus de morir. +Y su esposo haba entrado y haba ingresado sus ltimos puntajes funcionales, porque saba cun importante era para ella. +Y estoy muy agradecido. +No puedo creer que estas personas, aos despues de que mi hermano muriera me ayudaron a responder la pregunta de que si una operacin en la que gast millones de dlares hace aos, funcion o no. +Y dese que esto hubiese exisido cuando lo hice la primera vez. Y estoy realmente feliz que est aqu ahora. Porque el laboratorio que fund tiene datos sobre un medicamento que puede funcionar. Y quiero mostrarlo. +Quiero mostrarlo en tiempo real, ahora. Y quiero hacerlo para todas las enfermedades que podemamos hacerlo. +Y le tengo que agradecer a las 45,000 personas que estn haciendo este experimento social con nosotros. +Es un viaje sorprendente en el que nos embarcamos para volver a ser humanos, ser, nuevamente, parte de una comunidad, de compartirnos, de ser vulnerables, Y es realmente excitante. Asi que, gracias. +El problema del que les quiero hablar es realmente el problema de cmo proveer servicios mdicos en un mundo donde el costo lo es todo. +Cmo se logra esto? +Y el paradigma bsico que queremos sugerirles, que yo quiero sugerirles, es uno en el que se dice que para poder tratar enfermedades, primero deben saber con qu estn lidiando - eso es el diagnstico - y despus deben hacer algo al respecto. +Entonces, el programa en el que estamos involucrados es algo que llamamos diagnsticos para todos o diagnsticos de costo cero +Cmo pueden proveer informacin mdicamente relevante a un costo lo ms cercano posible a cero?Cmo lo logran? +Djenme darles slo dos ejemplos. +Los rigores de la medicina militar no son tan diferentes a la del tercer mundo, recursos pobres, un ambiente riguroso, una serie de problemas de bajo peso y ese tipo de situaciones. Y tampoco son muy distintas a la asistencia mdica a domicilio y el mundo del sistema de diagnstico. +Entonces, la tecnologa de la que les quiero hablar es para el tercer mundo, para el mundo en vas de desarrollo, pero tiene, yo creo, una aplicacin mucho ms amplia, porque la informacin es muy importante en el sistema de salud. +Entonces, aqu pueden ver dos ejemplos. +Uno es un laboratorio que en realidad es de alto nivel en frica. +El segundo es bsicamente un emprendedor que est instalado y haciendo quin sabe qu en una mesa en un mercado. +No s qu tipo de servicios de salud se proporcionan ah. +Pero no es lo que probablemente sera lo ms eficiente. +Cul es nuestro enfoque? +Y la manera en la que uno tpicamente enfoca el problema de reducir costos, empezando desde la perspectiva de los Estados Unidos, es tomar nuestra solucin, y despus tratar de reducir costos. +No importa cmo hagan eso, no van a empezar con un instrumento de 100.000 dlares y bajarlo a costo nulo. No va a funcionar. +As que el enfoque que nosotros tomamos fue al revs. +Nos preguntamos, "cul es material ms barato con el que se podra hacer un sistema de diagnstico, y obtener informacin til, adems de funcin?" Y lo que escogmos fue el papel. +Lo que ven aqu es un prototipo de dispositivo. +Mide alrededor de un centmetro de lado. +Es ms o menos del tamao de una ua. +Y las lneas alrededor de los bordes son un polmero. +Est hecho de papel, y el papel absorbe fluidos. Como saben, papel, tela, derramen vino sobre un mantel de tela y el vino se propaga por todos lados. +Si lo ponen en su camisa, arruina la camisa. +Eso es lo que hace una superficie hidroflica. +Entonces, en este dispositivo la idea es que sumergen la parte inferior en una gota de, en este caso, orina. +Y el fluido se propaga hasta alcanzar los compartimientos superiores. +El color caf indica la cantidad de glucosa en la orina. El color azul indica la cantidad de protena en la orina. +Y la combinacin de estas dos, es una oportunidad de primera para obtener las cosas tiles que quieren. +Entonces, este es un ejemplo de un dispositivo hecho a partir de una sencilla pieza de papel. +Ahora, cun sencilla pueden hacer la produccin? +Por qu escogimos el papel? +Ah ven un ejemplo del mismo dispositivo, en un dedo mostrndoles bsicamente su apariencia. +Una razn por la cual usamos papel es porque est en todos lados. +Hemos hecho este tipo de dispositivos usando servilletas y papel higinico y mapas y todo tipo de cosas. +Entonces, la capacidad de produccin est ah. +Lo segundo es, pueden poner muchas, muchas pruebas en un espacio muy pequeo. +En un momento les mostrar que ese montn de papel ah podra contener alrededor de 100.000 pruebas, o algo alrededor de ese valor. +Y finalmente, un aspecto en el que no se piensa tanto en la medicina del primer mundo, es que elimina el uso de objetos afilados. +Y objetos afilados significa agujas, instrumental punzante. +Si le han tomado una muestra de sangre a alguien no quieren cometer un error y pincharse con ellos. no quieren cometer un error y pincharse con ellos. +Simplemente, no quieren hacer eso. +Entonces, cmo deshacerse de ello? Es un problema en todos lados. +Y aqu sencillamente lo queman. +Entonces, es como una aproximacin prctica para comenzar a trabajar. +Ahora, seguramente pensarn, si el papel es una buena idea, seguramente otras personas ya haban pensado en eso. +Y la respuesta es, obviamente, s. +Esa mitad de ustedes, aproximadamente, que son mujeres, en algn punto se habrn hecho una prueba de embarazo. +Y la ms comn de este tipo de pruebas es un dispositivo que se parece a lo que ven a su izquierda. +Es algo llamado un inmunoensayo de flujo lateral. +Y en esa prueba en particular la orina puede o no contener una hormona llamada HCG y puede o no fluir a travs de un pedazo de papel. +Y hay dos barras. Una barra indica que la prueba funciona. Y si la segunda barra aparece, estn embarazadas. +Esta es una prueba estupenda en un mundo binario. Y lo bonito del embarazo es que, o estn embarazadas, o no lo estn. +No estn parcialmente embarazadas o pensando en embarazarse o algo de ese estilo. +As que funciona muy bien aqu. Pero no funciona muy bien cuando se requiere de informacin ms cuantitativa. +Tambin hay tiras reactivas. Pero si observan las tiras reactivas, son para otro tipo de anlisis de orina. +Y hay una gran cantidad de colores y cosas as. +Qu hacer en una situacin difcil como esta? +Entonces, el enfoque con el que empezamos, es preguntarnos, es realmente prctico hacer cosas de este tipo? +Y el problema ahora, y de una manera completamente ingenieril, est resuelto. +El procedimiento que tenemos es sencillamente comenzar con papel. +Lo hacen pasar por un nuevo tipo de impresora conocida como impresora de cera. +La impresora de cera hace algo parecido a imprimir. +Es imprimir. La encienden, la calientan un poco. La cera se imprime de forma que se absorbe en el papel. Y terminan con el dispositivo que quieren. +Las impresoras cuestan 800 dlares ahora. +Y harn, si estimamos que las tienen trabajando 24 horas al da, haran aproximadamente 10 millones de pruebas al ao. +Entonces, es un problema resuelto. Ese problema en particular est resuelto. +Y ah est un ejemplo del tipo de resultado que veran. +Eso es en un papel de 8 por 12 . +Se tarda 2 segundos en hacer. +As que considero que eso ya est resuelto. +Existe un aspecto muy importante aqu, y es que al tratarse de una impresora, una impresora a color; imprime colores. Eso es lo que hacen las impresoras a color. +Les ensear en un momento que eso en realidad resulta muy til. +Ahora, la siguiente cuestin que querrn preguntar es qu quieren medir?Qu les gustara analizar? +Y lo que ms les gustara analizar - an estamos bastante lejos de lograrlo - +es lo que se conoce como "fiebre de origen no diagnosticado. +Alguien llega a la clnica tienen fiebre, se sienten mal, qu tienen? +Tienen tuberculosis?Tienen SIDA? +Tienen una gripe comn? +El problema de la triada. Es un problema difcil por razones que no discutir. +Existen una gran cantidad de enfermedades que deberamos poder distinguir. +Pero adems hay otras enfermedades, SIDA, hepatitis, malaria, tuberculsis y otras. Y otras cuestiones ms simples, como la eleccin de un tratamiento. +Incluso eso es ms complicado de lo que creen. +Un amigo mo trabaja en psiquiatra transcultural. Y le interesa la pregunta de por qu las personas toman o dejan de tomar sus medicinas. +As, Dapsona, o algo parecido, se tiene que tomar por un tiempo. +Existe la historia maravillosa de que estn hablando con un campesino en India y le dicen "Ya se tom su Dapsona?". "S". +"Se la ha tomado a diario?". "S". +"Se la ha tomado por un mes?". "S". +Lo que el hombre realmente quera decir es que le haba dado una dosis de 30 das de Dapsona a su perro esa maana. +Y estaba diciendo la verdad. Porque en una cultura diferente, el perro es un sustituto de "t", ya saben, "hoy", "este mes", "desde la temporada de lluvias", existen muchas oportunidades para malentendidos. Entonces, es un problema en algunos casos el averiguar cmo lidiar con asuntos que pueden parecer poco interesantes, como la conformidad. +Ahora, miren cmo se ve una prueba tpica. +Pinchan un dedo, obtienen sangre, aproximadamente 50 microlitros. +Eso es todo lo que obtendrn. Porque no pueden usar los sistemas habituales. +No pueden manipularla muy bien, aunque les mostrar algo al respecto en un momento. +Entonces, toman la gota de sangre, sin manipularla ms. La ponen en un pequeo dispositivo. El dispositivo filtra las clulas y deja pasar el suero, y obtienen una serie de colores ah en la parte de abajo. +Y los colores indican enfermedad o normalidad. +Pero incluso eso es complicado. Porque para ustedes, para mi, los colores podran indicar normalidad. Pero, despus de todo, todos estamos sufriendo de un probable exceso de educacin. +Qu hacer con algo que requiere un anlisis cuantitativo? +Entonces, la solucin que nosotros y muchas otras personas estamos considerando, y en este punto existe una expansin dramtica, y estos das se ha convertido en la solucin universal para todo, es el telfono celular. En este caso en particular, un telfono con cmara. +Estn en todas partes, seis millones al mes, en India. +Y la idea es que lo que uno hace, es tomar el dispositivo. Lo sumergen. Esperan a que se revele el color. Le toman una foto. La foto se enva al laboratorio central. +No necesitas enviar un mdico. Mandas a alguien que pueda tomar la muestra. Y en la clnica ya sea un doctor, o idealmente una computadora en este caso, hace el anlisis. +Resulta funcionar bastante bien, sobre todo cuando tu impresora a color ha imprimido las barras de colores que indican cmo funcionan las cosas. +Entonces, mi visin del trabajador del sector salud del futuro no es un mdico, sino un joven de 18 aos, que de otro modo podra estar desempleado pero que tiene dos cosas: tiene una mochila llena de estas pruebas, y una lanceta con la cual puede tomar una muestra de sangre ocasionalmente, y un rifle AK47. +Y esas son las cosas que le permiten sobrevivir da a da. +Y existe otra conexin muy interesante aqu. Y es que lo que uno quiere hacer es comunicar la informacin til a travs de un sistema de telfonos que por lo general es terrible. +Y resulta que hay una gran cantidad de informacin ya disponible sobre el tema, que es el problema del explorador que se envi a Marte. +Cmo se puede obtener una vista precisa del color en Marte, si se tiene un ancho de banda terrible para lograrlo? +Y la respuesta no es complicada pero es algo que no quiero discutir en esta ocasin, excepto para decir que los sistemas de comunicacin para hacer esto han sido muy bien estudiados. +Tambin, un hecho que tal vez no conozcan es que la capacidad de computacin de este dispositivo no es tan diferente de la capacidad de computacin de su computadora de escritorio. +Este es un dispositivo fantstico que apenas empieza a ser aprovechado. +Y no s si la idea de una computadora por nio tiene sentido. sta es la computadora del futuro. Porque esta pantalla ya esta ah y adems son ubicuos. +Muy bien, ahora djenme mostrarles algo acerca de dispositivos ms avanzados. +Y comenzaremos por proponer un pequeo problema. +Lo que ven aqu es otro dispositivo de un centmetro de tamao. Y los colores diferentes son distintas tintas de color. +Y se nota algo que les podra parecer interesante, y es que el amarillo parece desaparecer, atravesar el azul, y luego pasar por el rojo. +Cmo sucede eso?Cmo haces que algo fluya a travs de algo? +Y desde luego la respuesta es: "no lo haces" +Lo haces pasar por debajo o por encima. +Pero ahora la pregunta es, cmo lo haces fluir por debajo y por encima en un pedazo de papel? +Y la respuesta es que lo que haces, y los detalles no son tan importantes aqu, es algo ms elaborado. Tomas varias capas de papel, cada una conteniendo su propio sistema de fluidos, y las separas con pedazos de, literalmente, cinta adhesiva de doble lado, de las que se usan para pegar alfombras al piso. +Y el fluido pasar de una capa a la siguiente. +Se distribuir, pasar por ms hoyos, se distribuir. +Y en este caso en particular lo que nos interesaba era la capacidad de reproducir eso. +Pero esta es, en principio, la manera en la que se resuelve el problema de la "fiebre de origen no explicado". Porque cada uno de esos puntos luego se convierte en una prueba para un determinado juego de marcadores de enfermedades. Y esto funcionar en su debido tiempo. +Y aqu hay un ejemplo de un dispositivo un poco ms complicado. +Ah esta el chip. +Sumergen una esquina. El fluido llega al centro. +Y se distribuye en estos pozos u hoyos, y cambia de color. Y todo est hecho con papel y cinta adhesiva. +Entonces, creo que es lo ms barato que podremos llegar a hacer este tipo de cosas. +Ahora, me queda una ltima, bueno dos pequeas historias por contarles, para terminar este asunto. +sta es una de ellas. Una de las cosas que uno debe hacer ocasionalmente es separar clulas de la sangre del suero. +Y la pregunta era, aqu lo hacemos tomando una muestra. Ponindola en una centrfuga. La centrifugamos y descartamos las clulas sanguneas. Genial. +Qu pasa si no tienen electricidad, ni una centrfuga, ni nada? +Y pensamos por un tiempo cmo se podra lograr esto. Y, de hecho, la manera en la que se hace, es lo que les muestro aqu. +Obtienen un batidor de huevos, que se puede encontrar en cualquier sitio. Y le quitan una aspa. Y luego toman unos tubos, los pegan al aspa que queda, los llenan de sangre y lo hacen girar. Alguien se sienta ah y lo hace girar. +Y funciona muy muy bien. +Y dijimos que estudiamos la fsica de los batidores de huevos, y de los tubos autoalineados y todas esas cosas, y lo enviar a una revista cientfica. +Y estamos muy orgullosos de esto, sobre todo del ttulo que era "Batidor de huevos como centrfuga". +Lo enviamos y regres por correo. +Llam al editor y le dije, "Qu sucede?Cmo es posible?" +Y el editor dijo, con gran desdn, "Le esto. +Y no lo vamos a publicar, porque nosotros slo publicamos ciencia." +Y esto es un asunto importante porque significa que tenemos que, como sociedad, reflexionar sobre lo que valoramos. +Y si son slo artculos cientficos y tratados sobre fsica, entonces tenemos un problema. +Y aqu hay otro ejemplo de algo que es -- Esto es un pequeo espectrofotmetro. +Mide la absorcin de luz en una muestra. Y lo ingenioso de esto es que tienes una fuente de luz que parpadea a unos 1.000 hertzios Otra fuente de luz que detecta luz a 1.000 hertzios. As que pueden emplear este sistema en plena luz del da. +Y funciona de manera equivalente a un sistema que cuesta alrededor de 100.000 dlares. +Esto cuesta 50 dlares. Y probablemente lo podemos hacer por 50 centavos, si nos centramos en ello. +Y por qu nadie lo hace? La respuesta es, "cmo se pueden generar ganancias en un sistema capitalista haciendo eso?". +Es un problema interesante. +As que, djenme terminar dicindo, que pensamos en esto como si fuera un problema ingenieril. +Y nos hemos preguntado, cul es la idea cientfica unificadora aqu? +Y hemos decidido que deberamos pensar en ello no tanto en trminos de costo, sino en trminos de simplicidad. +Simplicidad es una palabra genial. Y deben de reflexionar sobre qu significa simplicidad. +Yo s lo que es, pero en realidad no s lo que significa. +As que estaba realmente tan interesado en esto como para juntar a varios grupos de personas. +Y los ltimos en involucrarse fueron un par de personas del MIT (Instituto de Tecnologa de Massachusetts), siendo uno de ellos un joven excepcionalmente brillante y una de las pocas personas que identificara como un autntico genio. +Batallamos durante un da entero pensando sobre la simplicidad. +Y les quiero dar el resultado de este profundo pensamiento cientfico. +As que, de alguna forma, lo barato sale caro. +Muchas gracias. +Soy mdico de cncer, y sala de mi oficina hace 3 o 4 aos y pasaba por la farmacia del hospital y esta era la portada de la revista Fortune en el escaparate de la farmacia. +Y entonces, como mdico de cncer, uno mira eso y se desanima un poco. +La idea del artculo era que nos hemos hecho reduccionistas en nuestra perspectiva de la biologa, en nuestra perspectiva del cncer. +En los ltimos 50 aos nos hemos concentrado en tratar al gen individual, en entender el cncer, no en controlarlo. +Esta es una tabla asombrosa. +Es algo que nos hace pensar a los especialistas todos los das que, obviamente, hemos progresado notablemente en los tratamientos cardiovasculares. Pero miren el cncer. La tasa de mortalidad no ha cambiado en 50 aos. +Conseguimos pequeos logros en enfermedades como la leucemia mielgena crnica, donde tenemos una pastilla que puede poner un 100% de la gente en remisin. Pero, en general no hemos avanzado en la guerra contra el cncer en absoluto. +Entonces, lo que les voy a decir hoy es un poco por qu creo que ese es el caso, y luego saldr de mi elemento y les dir por dnde creo yo que pasa un nuevo enfoque... que esperamos impulsar en trminos del tratamiento del cncer. +Porque esto es incorrecto. +Entonces, en primer lugar, qu es el cncer? +Pues, si uno tiene una masa o un conteo de sangre anormal, va al doctor. Le ponen una aguja. +Hoy hacemos el diagnstico mediante reconocimiento de patrones. Se ve normal? Se ve anormal? +Entonces, es como si ese patlogo mirara esta botella de plstico. +Esta es una clula normal. Esta es una clula cancerosa. +Esto es lo ltimo hoy en diagnstico de cncer. +No hay prueba molecular. No hay secuenciacin de genes, como se refiri ayer. No hay observacin elaborada de los cromosomas. +Esto es lo ltimo en diagnstico. +S muy bien, como mdico de cncer, que no puedo tratar el cncer avanzado. +As que, entre parntesis, creo firmemente en la deteccin temprana del cncer. +Es la nica manera de empezar a luchar contra el cncer, mediante deteccin temprana. +Podemos prevenir la mayora de los cnceres. +En la charla previa se aludi a la prevencin de la enfermedad cardaca. +Podramos hacer lo mismo con el cncer. +Yo co-fund una compaa llamada Navigenics, donde, si uno escupe en un tubito, se puede buscar 35 o 40 marcadores genticos de enfermedades, que son retardables en muchos de los cnceres. Uno empieza a identificar cules podra tener, y luego se puede empezar a trabajar para prevenirlos. +Porque el problema es que cuando tienes cncer avanzado, no hay mucho que se pueda hacer hoy en da, segn indica la estadstica. +Entonces, la cosa del cncer es que es una enfermedad de los ancianos. +Por qu es una enfermedad de los ancianos? +Porque no somos importantes para la evolucin despus de tener nuestros hijos. +Es que, la evolucin nos protegi durante nuestros aos frtiles, y luego, cuando cumplimos 35, o 40, o 45 aos, dijo que ya no importaba, porque ya han tenido su prole. +Entonces si uno mira los cnceres es muy raro, extremadamente raro ver el cncer en un nio; es del orden de los miles de casos al ao. +Mientras uno envejece es cada vez ms comn. +Por qu es difcil de tratar? +Porque es heterogneo, y ese es el sustrato perfecto para la evolucin dentro del cncer. +Empieza a seleccionar por esas clulas malas, agresivas, lo que llamamos seleccin clonal. +Pero, si empezamos a entender que el cncer no es solamente un defecto molecular, sino algo ms, entonces llegaremos a una nueva manera de tratarlo, como les voy a mostrar. +As que, uno de los problemas fundamentales que tenemos en el cncer es que, ahora mismo, lo describimos con una cantidad de adjetivos, de sntomas. Estoy cansado, estoy hinchado, tengo dolor, etc. +Luego uno tiene unas descripciones anatmicas. Va por esa tomografa. Hay una masa de 3 cm en el hgado. +Luego hay algunas descripciones de partes del cuerpo. Est en el hgado, en el seno, en la prstata. +Y eso es ms o menos todo. +Entonces nuestro diccionario para describir el cncer es muy, muy limitado. +Es bsicamente de sntomas. +Son manifestaciones de una enfermedad. +Lo emocionante es que durante los ltimos 2 o 3 aos, el gobierno ha gastado 400 millones de dlares y se han destinado otros 1.000 millones de dlares a lo que llamamos el Proyecto del Atlas del Genoma del Cncer. +Entonces, es la idea de secuenciar todos los genomas del cncer, para darnos un nuevo lxico, un nuevo diccionario para describirlo. +A mediados de la dcada de 1850 en Francia empezaron a describir el cncer por las partes del cuerpo. +Esto no ha cambiado en ms de 150 aos. +Es absolutamente arcaico que llamemos al cncer de prstata, de mamas, de msculo. +No tiene sentido, si uno lo piensa. +Entonces, obviamente la tecnologa est aqu hoy y sobre los prximos aos, eso va a cambiar. +Ya no irn a una clnica de cncer de mamas. +Irn a una clnica de HER2 amplificada o una clnica de EGFR activado y mirarn unas de las lesiones patognicas que produjeron este cncer particular. +Entonces, se espera que pasemos del arte de la medicina a la ciencia de la medicina, y poder hacer lo que se hace con enfermedades infecciosas, que es mirar ese organismo, esa bacteria, y decir, este antibitico tiene sentido, porque tienes una bacteria particular que responder a l. +Cuando ests expuesto al H1N1, tomas Tamiflu y puedes reducir increblemente la severidad de los sntomas y prevenir muchas de las manifestaciones de la enfermedad. +Por qu? Porque sabemos lo que tienes, y sabemos tratarlo aunque no podemos producir la vacuna en ese pas pero esa es otra historia. +El Atlas del Genoma del Cncer sale ahora. +Se hizo el primer cncer, que fue cncer de cerebro. +En el prximo mes, a finales de diciembre, vern cncer de ovario, y luego saldr el cncer de pulmn unos meses despus. +Tambin hay un campo de protemica del que hablar en unos minutos, el cual creo que va a ser el prximo gran nivel en cuanto al entendimiento y clasificacin de enfermedades. +Pero acurdense, no estoy promocionando la genmica la protemica para ser reduccionista. +Lo hago para poder identificar contra qu estamos luchando. +Y hay una distincin muy importante all que veremos. +Hoy en el cuidado de la salud gastamos la mayora de los dlares en trminos de tratar enfermedades; la mayora de los cuales se gastan en los ltimos dos aos de la vida de uno. +Gastamos muy pocos dlares, si lo hacemos, identificando contra qu estamos luchando. +Si pudiramos empezar a mover eso, a identificar contra qu estamos luchando, haramos las cosas mucho mejor. +Si pudiramos dar un paso ms y prevenir enfermedades, lo podramos llevar considerablemente en la otra direccin. Y obviamente, all es adonde necesitamos ir, en adelante. +Entonces, esta es la pgina web del Instituto Nacional del Cncer. +Y estoy aqu para decirles que est mal. +Entonces, la pgina web del Instituto Nacional del Cncer dice que el cncer es una enfermedad gentica. +El sitio web dice, si miran, que hay una mutacin individual y quizs una segunda, quizs una tercera, y eso es el cncer. +Pero, como mdico de cncer, esto es lo que veo. +Esta no es una enfermedad gentica. +Entonces, aqu se ve un hgado con cncer de colon adentro, y se ve por el microscopio un ndulo linftico donde ha invadido el cncer. +Se ve una tomografa donde el cncer est en el hgado. +El cncer es la interaccin de una clula cuyo crecimiento ya no est bajo control del entorno. +No est en el abstracto; es la interaccin con el entorno. +Es lo que llamamos un sistema. +Mi reto como mdico de cncer no es entender el cncer. +Y creo que eso ha sido el problema fundamental durante las ltimas 5 dcadas, que hemos luchado para entender el cncer. +El objetivo es controlar el cncer. +Y se es un esquema de optimizacin muy diferente, una estrategia muy diferente para todos nosotros. +Fui a la Asociacin Estadounidense de Investigacin del Cncer, una de las grandes reuniones de la investigacin del cncer, ante 20.000 personas presentes, y dije, hemos cometido un error. +Todos hemos cometido un error, incluso yo, por enfocar hacia abajo, por ser reduccionistas, +Necesitamos retroceder un paso. +Y aunque no lo crean, se hicieron siseos en la audiencia. +La gente se disgust, pero esa es la nica manera en la que vamos a progresar. +Ya saben, fui muy afortunado de conocer a Danny Hillis hace unos aos. +Nos juntaron y ninguno de los dos quera conocer al otro +Me dije: de verdad quiero conocer al tipo de Disney que dise computadoras? +Y l se preguntaba si de verdad quera conocer a otro mdico +Pero la gente nos convenci de conocernos y nos reunimos. Y ha influido en lo que hago, a influido mucho. +Hemos diseado, y hemos trabajado en el modelado y muchas de esas ideas vinieron de Danny y de su equipo: el modelado del cncer en el cuerpo como un sistema complejo. +Y les muestro algunos datos que creo pueden marcar una diferencia y una nueva forma de abordarlo. +La clave es, cuando uno mira estas variables y estos datos tiene que entender las entradas de los datos. +Ya saben, si les midiera la temperatura durante 30 das y preguntara cul era la temperatura promedio +Y diera 37C, yo dira magnfico. +Pero si durante uno de esos das la temperatura subi a 39C durante 6 horas y tomarn Tylenol y se recuperarn, etc. No lo notaran. +Entonces, uno de los problemas fundamentales en la medicina es que t y yo, y todos nosotros vamos al mdico una vez al ao. +Tenemos elementos discretos de datos pero no tenemos para ellos una funcin temporal. +Ms temprano refera a este dispositivo cotidiano. +Ya saben, lo he estado utilizando durante 2 meses. +Es un dispositivo asombroso, no porque indica cuntas kilocaloras uno quema cada da sino porque observa en el transcurso de 24 horas lo que he hecho en un da +Y no me di cuenta de que durante 3 horas estoy sentado en mi escritorio y que no estoy movindome para nada. +Y muchas de las funciones en los datos que tenemos como sistemas de entradas son muy diferentes de cmo los entendemos porque no los estamos midiendo dinmicamente. +Y entonces, si piensan en el cncer como un sistema hay una entrada, hay informacin producida y un estado en el medio. +Entonces los estados son clases equivalentes de la historia y del paciente de cncer; la entrada es el entorno, la dieta, el tratamiento, y las mutaciones genticas. +La informacin producida son nuestros sntomas. Tenemos dolor? Est creciendo el cncer? Nos sentimos hinchados, etc.? +La mayora de ese estado est escondido. +Entonces lo que hacemos en nuestro campo es cambiar y damos quimioterapia agresiva. Y decimos se mejor ese resultado? Se mejor ese dolor, etc.? +Y entonces, el problema es que no es un solo sistema son mltiples sistemas en mltiples escalas. +Es un sistema de sistemas. +Y entonces, cuando uno empieza a mirar sistemas emergentes puede mirar una neurona bajo el microscopio. +Pues, lo malo es que estos sistemas emergentes robustos, y robustos es una palabra clave, son muy difciles de entender en detalle. +Lo bueno es que es posible manipularlos. +Se puede tratar de controlarlos sin ese entendimiento fundamental de cada componente. +Una de las pruebas clnicas ms fundamentales del cncer se public en febrero en el New England Journal of Medicine, donde tomaron mujeres pre-menopusicas con cncer de mamas. +Entonces, ms o menos el peor tipo de cncer de mama que se puede tener. +Haban recibido su quimioterapia, y luego fueron escogidas al azar donde la mitad recibi un placebo y la otra recibi un medicamento llamado cido zoledrnico que fortalece los huesos. +que se usa para tratar la osteoporosis, y lo recibieron dos veces al ao. +Miraron y, en esas 1.800 mujeres que recibieron dos veces al ao un medicamento que fortalece los huesos, se redujo la reaparicin del cncer en un 35%. +Una reduccin de la reaparicin del cncer por un medicamento que ni siquiera toca el cncer. +As que es la idea de que uno cambia la tierra y no crece tan bien la semilla. +Uno cambia ese sistema, y podra tener un efecto notable en el cncer. +Nadie ha demostrado nunca, y esto ser chocante, nadie ha demostrado nunca que la mayora de las quimioterapias en realidad toca una clula cancerosa. +Nunca se ha demostrado. +Hay mucho trabajo elegante en los platillos de culturas de tejidos, que, si administras ese medicamento para el cncer, puedes afectar la clula de esta manera, pero las dosis en esos platillos no se parecen nada a las dosis que ocurren en el cuerpo. +Si yo doy a una mujer con cncer de mamas un medicamento llamado Taxol cada tres semanas, algo estndar, ms o menos un 40% de las mujeres con cncer metastsico responden muy bien a ese medicamento. +Y la reaccin es una reduccin de un 50%. +Pues, recuerden que eso ni es una orden de magnitud, pero esa es otra historia. +Y entonces reaparecen, les doy ese mismo medicamento cada semana. +Otro 30% responder. +Entonces reaparecen, y les doy ese mismo medicamento por infusin continua durante 96 horas y otro 20% o 30% responder. +Entonces no me pueden decir que est funcionando el mismo mecanismo por cada uno de los tres tamaos. +No es as. No tenemos idea del mecanismo. +Entonces la idea de que la quimioterapia pueda estar alterando ese sistema complejo, tal como el fortalecer los huesos alter ese sistema y redujo la reaparicin la quimioterapia pueda funcionar de la mismsima manera. +Lo extrao de esa prueba tambin fue que redujo nuevos primarios, o sea nuevos cnceres, en un 30% tambin. +As que el problema, el tuyo y el mo, es que todos los sistemas estn cambiando. +Son dinmicos. +Digo, esa es una diapositiva espantosa, no para hacer una disgresin, pero muestra la obesidad en el mundo. +Y lo siento si no pueden leer los nmeros; estn chiquitos. +Pero si empiezan a mirarla, ese rojo, ese color oscuro all, ms del 75% de la poblacin de esos pases es obesa. +Miren cmo era hace una dcada, hace dos, notablemente diferente. +Entonces nuestros sistemas de hoy son dramticamente diferentes a los de hace una dcada o dos. +As que las enfermedades que tenemos hoy, que reflejan patrones en el sistema durante las ltimas dcadas, van a cambiar dramticamente en la prxima dcada basado en cosas como stas. +Entonces esta imagen, aunque sea bonita, es una imagen de 40GB del proteoma entero. +Entonces esta es una gota de sangre que ha pasado por un imn superconductor y podemos llegar a ver de una resolucin en donde empezamos a ver todas las protenas del cuerpo. +Podemos empezar a ver ese sistema. +Cada una de los puntos rojos representa una protena que ha sido identificada. +El poder de estos imanes, el poder de lo que podemos hacer aqu es que podemos ver un neutrn individual con esta tecnologa. +Y otra vez, esto es lo que estamos haciendo con Danny Hillis y un grupo que se llama Applied Proteomics donde podemos empezar a ver diferencias entre neutrones individuales, y empezar a mirar ese sistema como jams lo hemos hecho. +Entonces en lugar de una perspectiva reduccionista, retrocedemos. +Entonces esta es una mujer, de 46 aos de edad, que padeca cncer de pulmn recurrente. +Estaba en su cerebro, en sus pulmones, en su hgado. +Le haban dado Carboplatin Taxol, Carboplatin Taxotere, Gemcitabene, Navelbine. Cada medicamento que tenemos se lo habamos dado y continu creciendo esa enfermedad. +Tena 3 nios menores de 12 aos de edad, y esta es su tomografa. +Entonces esto es... es que estamos tomando aqu una seccin transversal de su cuerpo. Y pueden ver all en el centro est el corazn, y al lado de su corazn a la izquierda hay un gran tumor que sin tratarse la invadir y la matar en unas cuantas semanas. +Empieza a tomar una pastilla cada da que se dirige hacia una va y repito, no estoy seguro de si esa va estaba en el sistema, en el cncer, pero se dirigi hacia una va y un mes ms tarde, paf, el cncer no est. +Seis meses ms tarde todava no est. +Ese cncer reapareci y ella falleci 3 aos ms tarde de cncer de pulmn, pero recibi 3 aos un medicamento cuyos sntomas eran predominantemente el acn. +Eso es todo. +Entonces el problema es que el ensayo clnico se hizo y ramos parte de l y en el ensayo clnico fundamental, en el ensayo clnico fundamental que llamamos la tercera fase, nos negamos a usar un placebo. +Quisieran que su madre, hermano, hermana recibiera un placebo si tuviera cncer de pulmn avanzado y slo unas semanas de vida? +Y la respuesta obviamente, es que no. +Entonces se hizo con este grupo de pacientes. +El 10% de la gente del ensayo tuvo esta reaccin dramtica que se representa aqu, y el medicamento fue a la Administracin de Alimentos y Drogas (FDA por sus siglas en ingls), y la FDA dijo que sin un placebo, cmo sabemos que los pacientes se beneficiaron de verdad del medicamento? +Entonces la maana en que la FDA se iba a reunir, ese era el editorial en el Wall Street Journal. +Entonces, t qu sabes? ese medicamento se aprob. +Lo increble es que otra compaa hiciera el ensayo cientfico correcto donde dieron a la mitad del grupo el placebo y a la otra mitad el medicamento. +Y aprendimos algo importante all. +Lo interesante es que lo hicieran en Sudamrica y Canad, donde es "ms tico dar placebos". +Tuvieron que darlo en los Estados Unidos tambin para que se aprobara, y creo que haba tres pacientes estadounidenses en el norte del estado de Nueva York que eran parte del ensayo. +Pero hicieron eso y lo que descubrieron es que el 70% de los que no reaccionaron vivi mucho ms y mejor que la gente que recibi el placebo. +As que puso en entredicho todo lo que sabamos del cncer, que no se necesita una reaccin. +No se necesita reducir la enfermedad. +Si reducimos la velocidad del crecimiento de la enfermedad, pueda ser ms beneficioso para la supervivencia de los pacientes, de sus resultados, de cmo se sienten, que si reducimos la enfermedad. +El problema es que, si yo soy ese doctor y miro tu tomografa hoy y tienes una masa de 2 cm en el hgado y vuelves en 3 meses y es de 3 cm, te ayud ese medicamento o no? +Cmo lo sabra yo? +Habra crecido a 10 cm o te estoy dando un medicamento sin beneficio alguno y de costo considerable? +Entonces es un problema fundamental. +Y otra vez, all es donde las nuevas tecnologas pueden introducirse. +Y entonces, obviamente el objetivo es que uno entra en la oficina del doctor... bueno, la meta final es que se previene la enfermedad, s. +La meta final es prevenir que cualquiera de esas cosas ocurra. +Ese es la manera ms eficaz y ms eficaz en relacin con el costo, y es la mejor manera en que podemos hacer las cosas hoy. +Pero si uno tiene la tan mala suerte de enfermarse de algo ir al consultorio del doctor, l o ella le sacar a uno una gota de sangre, y empezaremos a saber cmo tratar la enfermedad. +La manera en que nos lo hemos acercado es el campo de la protemica, otra vez, esta mirada al sistema +es mirar el panorama completo. +El problema con las tecnologas como sta es que si se mira las protenas del cuerpo hay una diferencia de 11 rdenes de magnitud entre las protenas de alta y baja abundancia. +Entonces, no hay ninguna tecnologa en el mundo que pueda abarcar 11 rdenes de magnitud. +Y entonces, mucho de lo que se ha hecho con Danny Hillis y otros es intentar incorporar principios de ingeniera, intentar incorporar la programacin. +Podemos empezar a mirar diferentes componentes en este espectro. +Y entonces, antes se hablaba de la interconsulta, de la colaboracin. +Y creo que una de las cosas emocionantes que est empezando a pasar ahora es que la gente de esos campos estn entrando la conversacin. +Ayer, el Instituto Nacional del Cncer anunci un nuevo programa llamado las ciencias fsicas y la oncologa, donde los fsicos y matemticos son reunidos para pensar en el cncer, y es gente que nunca lo haba abordado antes. +Danny y yo recibimos 16 millones de dlares, anunciaron ayer, para tratar de abordar este problema. +Un acercamiento completamente nuevo en donde, en lugar de dar altas dosis de la quimioterapia por diferentes mecanismos, tratamos de introducir la tecnologa para tener una idea de lo que est pasando en el cuerpo. +Entonces por solo dos segundos, cmo funcionan esas tecnologas? porque creo que es importante entenderlo. +Lo que pasa es que cada protena del cuerpo est cargada, as que se esparcen las protenas, el imn las gira, y luego hay un detector al extremo. +Cuando hace contacto con el detector depende de la masa y la carga. +Y entonces de manera precisa, si el imn es suficientemente grande, y la resolucin es suficientemente alta, uno puede detectar todas las protenas del cuerpo y empezar a entender el sistema individual. +Y entonces, como mdico de cncer, en lugar de tener hojas en mi expediente, en tu expediente, y que sea as de gordo, as es como se est empezando a ver la circulacin de datos en nuestras oficinas, donde esa gotita de sangre est generando gigabytes de datos. +Los elementos electrnicos de datos estn describiendo todo aspecto de la enfermedad. +Y seguramente el objetivo es que podemos aprender de cada encuentro y avanzar de verdad, en lugar de tener encuentro tras encuentro nada ms sin aprendizaje fundamental. +Entonces para concluir, necesitamos alejarnos del pensamiento reduccionista. +Necesitamos empezar a pensar diferente y radicalmente. +Y entonces, imploro a cada uno de ustedes que est aqu: piensen de otra manera. Aporten nuevas ideas. +Dganmelas a m o a cualquier otra persona de nuestro campo, porque durante los ltimos 59 aos, nada ha cambiado. +Necesitamos un enfoque radicalmente diferente. +Cuando Andy Grove renunci como presidente de la junta directiva de Intel, y Andy fue uno de mis mentores, individuo exigente, +cuando l renunci, dijo: "Ninguna tecnologa ganar. La tecnologa misma ganar". +Y yo creo firmemente en el campo de la medicina y que el del cncer en particular, va a ser una plataforma amplia de tecnologas que nos ayudarn a avanzar y con suerte ayudar a los pacientes a corto plazo. +Muchsimas gracias. +John Hockenberry: Es un placer estar aqu contigo, Tom +Quisiera empezar con una pregunta que me viene inquietando desde que conoc tu obra. +En tu obra siempre hay como una cualidad hbrida de una fuerza natural que interacta con una fuerza creativa. +Encuentran equilibrio alguna vez... ...segn observas tu obra? +Tom Shannon: El tema que yo busco por lo general intenta contestar una pregunta. +Se me ocurri una pregunta: Cmo sera el cono que conecta el Sol y la Tierra... ...si pudiramos conectar ambas esferas? +y, en proporcin, cul sera el tamao de las esferas, y su largo, y cmo sera su forma cnica en relacin a la Tierra? +Y pues, me puse a hacer la escultura en bronce slido. +Hice una que meda unos 10 metros. +El lado del Sol meda unos 10 cms de dimetro, y se abri en forma cnica en unos 10 metros hasta llegar a cerca de 1 mm en el lado de la Tierra. +Para m esto fue fascinante, poder ver su aspecto si uno pudiera alejarse y verlo todo en un contexto mayor, como si fuera un astronauta, y pudiera ver estos dos elementos como si fueran objetos, porque estn tan ntimamente ligados, que uno pierde su sentido sin el otro. +JH: Hay cierto alivio... ...al jugar con estas fuerzas? +Y me pregunto, cun grande es la sensacin de descubrimiento cuando juegas con estas fuerzas. +TS: S, como con los objetos levitados magnticamente como aquel de plata. Ese fue resultado de cientos de experimentos magnticos, tratando de encontrar la forma de hacer que algo flotara con una mnima conexin posible a la tierra. +Y logr conseguir que hubiera solamente una correa que lo pudiera contener. +JH: Esto es electromagntico o son fuerzas estticas? +TS: Son imanes permanentes, s. +JH: Porque si quedramos sin electricidad, habra un tremendo ruido. +TS: As es. +Trae poca satisfaccin el arte que se enchufa. +JH: Estoy de acuerdo. +TS: Las obras magnticas son una combinacin de gravedad y magnetismo, por lo tanto es una mezcla de estas fuerzas ambientales que influyen en todo. +El Sol tiene un campo tremendo que se extiende ms all de los planetas. Y el campo magntico de la Tierra nos protege del Sol. +Por lo tanto, hay enormes estructuras invisibles formadas por el magnetismo en el Universo. +Pero con el pndulo puedo manifestar estas fuerzas invisibles que sostienen los imanes. +Mis esculturas son generalmente muy simples. +Trato de refinarlas hasta llegar a formas bien simples. +Pero las pinturas se tornan complejas, porque creo que el mbito que las sostiene, hace como oleadas, y se interpenetran, y forman patrones de interferencia. +JH: Y no son deterministas. +Quiero decir, cuando empiezas no sabes necesariamente a dnde te diriges a pesar de poder calcular las fuerzas. +Por lo tanto, la evolucin de esto... por lo visto, ste no es tu primer pndulo. +TS: No. (JH: No.) El primer pndulo lo hice a fines de los 70 y tena un cono simple con una vlvula debajo. +Lo puse en rbita, y tena un solo color, y cuando llegaba al centro, se quedaba sin pintura, y tena que entrar, no tena ningn tipo de control remoto sobre la vlvula. +Enseguida me dije: necesito un mecanismo de control remoto. +Luego empec a soar con tener seis colores. +Yo lo pienso como si fuera ADN. Estos colores, el rojo, azul, amarillo, los colores primarios y el blanco y el negro. +Y si los pones juntos en combinaciones diferentes tal como si fueras a imprimir, como se imprime el color en una revista, y los pones bajo ciertas fuerzas, que los orbiten, o los pasas de un lado a otro, o dibujas con ellos, aparecen cosas maravillosas. +JH: Parece que est preparado para llevar. +TS: S, bueno vamos a poner un par de lienzos. +TS: Le pedir a mis hijos que pongan dos lienzos aqu. +Dir eso noms... Bueno estos son Jack, Nick y Louie. +JH: Gracias chicos. +TS: Pues aqu estn los... JH: Bueno, me quito del medio. +Voy a poner esto en rbita a ver si puedo pintar la punta de todos sus zapatos. +JH: Epa. Eso es... +Oooo. Lindo. +TS: Pues algo como esto. +Estoy haciendo esto como demostracin, y es ms festivo. Pero, invariablemente, todo esto se puede usar. +Puedo utilizar esta pintura, siguiendo capa tras capa. +Y la guardo durante varias semanas. Y la voy observando, y har otra sesin con ella, y la llevar a otro nivel, donde todo esto se transforma en el fondo, en su profundidad. +JH: Eso es fantstico. +Las vlvulas debajo de estos tubos son como las de avin teledirigidas. +TS: S, son "servos" con levas que aprietan estos tubos de goma. +Y los pueden oprimir con gran fuerza y pararlos, o los puedes dejar abiertos. +Y todos los colores salen de un puerto central por debajo. +Siempre puedes cambiar colores, poner pintura de aluminio, o poner lo que quieras aqu dentro. +Podra ser salsa de tomate, o cualquier cosa que se pueda dispensar: arena, polvos, o lo que sea. +JH: Tantas fuerzas. +Tienes gravedad, tienes fuerza centrpeta, tienes dinmica de fluidos. +JH: Cada una de estas obras tan bonitas, son imgenes de por s... ...o son registros... ...de un evento fsico... ...llamado pndulo y su acercamiento a la tela? +TS: Bueno, este cuadro fue... quise hacer algo bien simple, una imagen icnica de dos ondulaciones que se interfieren. +La de la derecha fue hecha primero, y luego la de la izquierda por encima de la anterior. +Y dej espacios para poder ver la que fue hecha antes +Y, luego, cuando hice la segunda, pues, descompagin la pieza; estas enormes lneas azules cortando por el centro, crearon tensin y solapamiento. +Hay lneas detrs de la lnea a la derecha, y hay lneas detrs de la lnea a la izquierda. Por lo tanto, lo pone en dos planos diferentes. +De eso se trata, pequeos eventos, nada ms, los eventos de la interpenetracin de... JH: Dos estrellas. TS: S, dos cosas que ocurren, hay un patrn de interferencia, y luego ocurre una tercera cosa. +Surgen formas de la unin simple de dos eventos que ocurren. Y eso me interesa muchsimo. +Como la incidencia de los patrones de Moir. +Como sta verde; sta es una pintura que hice hace unos 10 aos. Pero tiene unos... ves, en el tercio de arriba, estos patrones de Moir y de interferencia que son como imgenes radiales. +Y eso es algo que, en pintura, nunca he visto. +Nunca he visto una representacin de estos patrones de interferencia radial, tan omnipresentes y una parte tan importante de nuestras vidas. +JH: Es sa una parte concreta de la imagen... ...o es que mis ojos estn creando ese patrn? Ser que el ojo completa ese patrn de interferencia? +TS: Lo es, la misma pintura lo hace real. +Esta verdaderamente manifestado all. +Si yo tiro un crculo concntrico, o una elipse concntrica, pues simplemente obedece y hace estas lneas parejas, que se van aproximando ms y ms, lo que describe el funcionamiento de la gravedad. +Hay algo muy gratificante en la exactitud de la ciencia que me gusta mucho. +Y me encantan las formas que veo en las observaciones cientficas y en los aparatos, especialmente las formas astronmicas y la idea de su inmensidad, su escala, me es muy interesante. +Mi inters en estos aos se ha vuelto ms hacia la biologa. +Algunas de estas pinturas, cuando las miras de muy cerca, tienen cosas extraas que parecen ser caballos o aves o cocodrilos, o elefantes. +Hay muchas cosas que aparecen al mirar. +Es como cuando miramos las nubes. A veces estn abigarradas y muy ntidas. +Y luego hay formas que no sabemos qu son, pero son igualmente detalladas y complejas. +Creo que, en principio, esas formas son predictivas, +ya que tienen la capacidad de crear formas parecidas a otras que ya conocemos de la biologa, y tambin de crear formas que no conocemos. +Y quiz sean el tipo de formas que descubriremos bajo de la superficie de Marte, donde seguramente hay lagos con peces nadando por debajo de su superficie. +JH: Oh, esperemos que as sea! Mi Dios, que s! +Ay, por favor, s. Oh, estoy all. +Tiene esto algo que ver con tu trabajo? +TS: Pues resulta que este aparato es muy prctico porque no necesito habilidades motrices finas para hacerlo, sino que manejo esto con interruptores deslizantes. Es ms un proceso mental. +Lo miro y tomo decisiones. Necesita ms rojo, necesita ms azul, necesita una forma diferente. +Entonces tomo decisiones creativas y las ejecuto de manera mucho ms simple. +Es que... tengo los sntomas. +Supongo que el Parkinson viene avanzando con los aos. En cierto momento empiezas a ver los sntomas. +En mi caso, la mano izquierda tiene un temblor notable y la pierna izquierda tambin. +Soy zurdo y, pues, dibujo. +Todas mis creaciones en realidad empiezan como dibujos pequeos, de los cuales tengo miles. Y es mi manera de pensar. +Dibujo con un simple lpiz. Al principio el Parkinson fue realmente molesto porque no poda hacer que el lpiz se quedara quieto. +JH: O sea que t no eres el guardin de estas fuerzas. +No te ves como el dueo, el maestro de estas fuerzas. +Te ves como su sirviente. +TS: La Naturaleza, pues, es un obsequio de Dios. +Tiene tanto dentro de s. +Y creo que la Naturaleza desea expresarse en el sentido de que somos Naturaleza. Los humanos somos del Universo. +El Universo est en nuestra mente, y nuestras mentes estn en el Universo. +Y, bsicamente, somos expresin del Universo. +Bsicamente, como humanos, siendo, al fin y al cabo, parte del Universo, somos como portavoces u observadores de los componentes del Universo. +Y para poder tener comunicacin con l, con un aparato que permite que estas fuerzas que estn por todos lados acten y nos muestren lo que pueden hacer, dndoles pigmento y pintura, tal como un artista, son un buen aliado. +Es un asistente de estudio fabuloso. +JH: Bueno, me encanta la idea de que dentro de esta idea de motricidad fina y control con las destrezas tradicionales que tienes con la mano, se genera una fuerza ms elemental, y he aqu la belleza de todo esto. +Tom, muchsimas gracias. Ha sido realmente fabuloso. +TS: Gracias, John. +Voy a hablar de corrupcin, pero me gustara contrastar dos cosas diferentes. +Una es la gran economa global, la gran economa globalizada, y la otra es la pequea, y muy limitada, capacidad de nuestros gobiernos tradicionales y sus instituciones internacionales para gobernar, para darle forma a esta economa. +Porque existe esta asimetra, la cual crea, bsicamente, gobiernos defectuosos. +Y pienso que la corrupcin, y la lucha contra la corrupcin, y el impacto de la corrupcin, es probablemente una de las maneras ms interesantes para ilustrar lo que quiero decir con este defecto de gobierno. +Permitanme hablar acerca de mi propia experiencia. +Sola trabajar como el Director. de la oficina del Banco Mundial en Nairobi para Africa Oriental +En ese tiempo, me di cuenta que la corrupcin, la gran corrupcin, esa corrupcin sistemtica estaba socavando todo lo que tratabamos de hacer. +Y entonces, comenc no slo a tratar de proteger el trabajo del Banco Mundial, nuestros propios proyectos, nuestros propios programas en contra de la corrupcin, pero en general, pens, necesitamos un sistema para proteger a la gente en esta parte del mundo de los estragos de la corrupcin. +Y, tan pronto como comenc este trabajo, Recib un memorando del Banco Mundial, desde el departamento legal primeramente, en el cual ellos decan, no tienes permitido hacer esto. +Ests entrometiendote en los asuntos internos de nuestros pases socios +Esto est prohibido por los estatutos del Banco Mundial. As que quiero que pares tus actividades. +Por lo pronto, estaba liderando reuniones de donantes por ejemplo, en las cuales los varios donantes, y a muchos de ellos les gusta estar en Nairobi -- es verdad, es una de las ciudades mas inseguras del mundo, pero les gusta estar alli porque las otras ciudades son inclusive menos cmodas. +Y en estas reuniones de donantes, not que muchos de los peores proyectos que fueron puestos en marcha por nuestros clientes, por los gobiernos, por promotores, muchos de ellos representando suministradores del norte, que los peores proyectos fueron realizados primero. +Dejenme darles un ejemplo. Un proyecto elctrico inmenso, de 300 millones de dlares, que sera edificado justo en el medio una de las ms vulnerables, y una de las ms bellas reas de Kenia occidental. +Y todos nos dimos cuenta inmediatamente que este proyecto no tena beneficios econmicos. No tena clientes. Nadie comprara electricidad all. Nadie estaba interesado en proyectos de irrigacin. +Al contrario, sabamos que este proyecto destruira el ambiente, destruira los bosques riparios, los cuales fueron la base para la supervivencia de grupos nomdicos los Samburu y los Tokana en esta rea. +As que todos saban que este es un, no un proyecto intil, este es un absolutamente perjudicial, terrible proyecto, ni hablar acerca del futuro endeudamiento del pas por estos cientos de millones de dolares, y el desvo de los escasos recursos de la economa de actividades mucho ms importantes como escuelas, como hospitales y otros ms. +Y todava, todos rechazamos este proyecto. Ninguno de los donantes estaba dispuesto a tener su nombre asociado a eso, y era el primer proyecto a ser implementado. +Los buenos proyectos, los cuales nosotros como comunidad donante protegeramos bajo nuestras alas, tomaron aos, saben, tenas muchos estudios, y muy frecuentemente no triunfaban. +Ahora, estos suministradores eran nuestras grandes compaas. +Ellos eran los actores de este mercado global, el cual mencion al comienzo. +Estos eran los Siemens del mundo, viniendo desde Francia, desde el Reino Unido, desde Japn, desde Canad, desde Alemania, y estaban sistemticamente impulsados por corrupcin sistemtica y de gran escala. +No estamos hablando de 50 mil dlares aqui, o de 100 mil dlares all, o un milln de dlares all. +No, estamos hablando de 10 millones, 20 millones dlares, en las cuentas de bancos Suizos en las cuentas bancarias de Liechtenstein, de los ministros del presidente, los altos oficiales en los sectores para-estatales. +Esta fue la realidad que yo v, y no slo un proyecto como ese, Yo v, dira, en los aos que trabaj en Africa, V cientos de proyectos como ste. +Y entonces, me convenc que esta corrupcin sistemtica, que pervierte el accionar de la poltica econmica en estos pases, la cual es la razn principal de la miseria, de la pobreza, de los conflictos, de la violencia de la desesperacin en muchos de estos pases. +Ahora, Porqu el Banco Mundial no me deja hacer este trabajo? +Lo supe despus, despus de irme, despus de una gran pelea, del Banco Mundial. +La razn era que los miembros del Banco Mundial pensaban que el soborno en el extranjero estaba bien, incluida Alemania. +En Alemania, el soborno en el extranjero estaba permitido. +Hasta era deducible de los impuestos. +No era de extraar que la mayora de los ms importantes operadores internacionales en Alemania, pero tambin en Francia y en el Reino Unido y Escandinavia, en todos lados, sistemticamente sobornaban +No todos, pero si la mayora. +Y este es el fenmeno al cual yo llamo gobierno defectuoso, porque cuando entonces me vine a Alemania y comenc este pequea ONG aqu en Berln, en la Villa Borsig, nos dijeron, no podrn evitar que nuestros exportadores alemanes sobornen, porque perderamos nuestros contratos. +Perderamos en favor de los Franceses, Perderamos en favor de los Suecos, perderamos en favor de los Japoneses, +y por ende, haba efectivamente un dilema de prisionero, que haca muy difcil para una empresa individual, un pas exportador en particular el decir, no vamos a continuar con este mortal, desastroso hbito de las compaas grandes de sobornar. +Entonces esto es lo que quiero decir con una estructura defectuosa de gobierno porque, aun el poderoso gobierno que tenemos en Alemania comparativamente, no fue capaz de decir no le permitiremos a nuestras compaas que sobornen afuera. +Necesitaban ayuda, y las compaias grandes tienen este dilema. +Muchas de ellas no quera sobornar. +Muchas de las empresas alemanas, por ejemplo, creen que que ellos estn realmente manufacturando un producto de alta calidad a un buen precio, as que son muy competitivas. +No son tan buenas en sobornar como muchos de sus competidores si lo son, pero no tenan permitido mostrar sus fortalezas, porque el mundo estaba consumido por la gran corrupcin. +Y esto es por lo cual les estoy diciendo esto, la sociedad civil aprovech la ocasin. +Tenamos una pequea ONG, Transparencia Internacional. +En 1997, una convencin, bajo los auspicios de la OCDE, la cual obligaba a todos a cambiar sus leyes y a criminalizar el soborno en el extranjero. +Bien, gracias, quiero decir es interesante, al hacer esto, tuvimos que sentarnos con las compaas. +Tuvimos aqu en Berln en el Instituto Aspen en el Wannsee, tuvimos sesiones de acerca de 20 capitanes de la industria, y discutimos con ellos que hacer acerca del soborno internacional. +En la primera sesin, tuvimos tres sesiones sobre el curso de dos aos. +Y un presidente de von Weizcker, de hecho, lider una de las sesiones, la primera, de sacar el miedo de los empresarios, quienes no solan lidiar con organizaciones no gubernamentales. +Y en la primera sesin, todos dijeron, esto no es soborno, lo que hacemos. Esto es costumbre all. +Esto es lo que otras culturas demandan. +Inclusive aplaudieron esto. +De hecho, [inaudible] dice todava esto hoy. +Y as hay todava mucha gente que no estn convencidas de quin debe dejar de sobornar. +Pero en la segunda sesin, ya admitieron que ellos nunca haran esto, lo que hacen en todos estos pases, aqu en Alemania o en el Reino Unido, entre otros. +Ministros del Gabinete admitiran esto. +Y en la sesin final, en el Instituto Aspen, hicimos que todos firmaran una carta abierta al gobierno de Kohl, en ese momento, solicitando que ellos participasen en la convencin de la OCDE. +Y este es, en mi opinin, un ejemplo de poder suave, porque fuimos capaces de convencerlos que tenan que ir con nosotros. +Tenamos una perspectiva de ms largo plazo. +Tenamos una ms amplia, geograficamente mas extensa, constitucin que estbamos tratando de defender. +Y eso es por lo que la ley fue cambiada. +Por eso es que Siemens est ahora metido en los problemas que est metido. Y es por eso que MIN est metido en los problemas en los que estn metidos. +En algunos pases, la convencin de la OCDE no est todava apropiadamente aplicada. +Y, de nuevo, las sociedades civiles estn respirandole en el cuello al establishment. +Este caso, no lo estn investigando en el Reino Unido. +Por qu? Porque ellos consideran esto contrario al inters de seguridad de la gente de la Gran Bretaa. +La Sociedad Civil est empujando, la sociedad civil est tratando de obtener una solucin a este problema y tambin en el Reino Unido y tambin en Japn, lo cual no es realmente aplicar la ley, y etctera. +En Alemania, estamos impulsando la ratificacin de la Convencin de las Naciones Unidas, la cual es una convencin subsecuente. +Nosotros la ratificamos, no Alemania. +Por qu? Porque esto hara necesario el criminalizar la corrupcin de los diputados. +En Alemania, tenemos un sistema dnde no tienes permitido sobornar a un servidor pblico, pero tienes permitido sobornar a un diputado. +Veo que mi tiempo est terminando. +Djenme solo tratar de presentar algunas conclusiones de lo que ha pasado. +Creo que lo que hemos logrado conseguir al pelear en contra de la corrupcin, uno puede tambin obtener alcances en otras reas de gobernatura defectuosa. +Para este momento, las Naciones Unidas estn totalmente a nuestro lado. +el Banco Mundial se ha transformado radicalmente bajo Wolfensohn, y se han convertido, dira yo, en la mas fuerte agencia anti-corrupcin de todo el mundo. +La mayora de las compaas grandes estn ahora totalmente convencidas que tienen que poner en funcionamiento polticas muy fuertes en contra de los sobornos y otros. +Y esto es posible ya que la sociedad civil se ali con las compaas y se ali con el gobierno en el anlisis de un problema, en el desarrollo de remedios, en la implementacin de reformas, y despus, en el monitoreo de las reformas. +Est claro, si las organizaciones de la sociedad civil quieren jugar ese papel, tienen que crecer dentro de esta responsabilidad. +No todas las organizaciones de la sociedad civil son buenas. +El Ku Klux Klan es una ONG. +As que, debemos estar conscientes que la sociedad civil tiene que formarse a s misma. +tienen que tener mucha ms gobernatura financiera transparente. +Tienen que tener un mayor gobierno participativo en muchas de las organizaciones de la sociedad civil. +Necesitamos adems mucha mas competencia de los lderes de la sociedad civil. +Gracias. +Tristemente al finalizar los 18 minutos de nuestra charla cuatro norteamericanos que estn vivos estarn muertos por los alimentos que comen. +Mi nombre es Jamie Oliver. Tengo 34 aos. +Soy de Essex en Inglaterra y durante los ltimos siete aos he trabajado incansablemente para salvar vidas a mi manera. +No soy un doctor. Soy un chef; No tengo equipos caros ni medicina. +Uso ms bien informacin y educacin. +Creo firmemente que el poder de la alimentacin tiene un lugar preponderante en nuestros hogares que nos une a las mejores cosas de la vida. +Tenemos una horrible... realmente horrible realidad. +Norteamrica, ustedes estn en la cima +Este es uno de los pases menos saludables del planeta. +Puedo verlos levantar la mano por favor Cuntos de los presentes tienen nios? +Por favor levanten la mano. +Ahora los tos y las tas? Levanten la mano. Tambin los tos y las tas. +Son casi todos. +Nosotros, los adultos de las ltimas cuatro generaciones hemos heredado a nuestros hijos un destino que les dar una vida ms corta que la de sus padres. +Sus hijos morirn diez aos ms jovenes que ustedes. por el entorno de alimentacin que hemos creado a su alrededor. +Las dos terceras partes de este saln, el da de hoy, en norteamrica, son estadisticamente obesos, o tienen sobrepeso. +tal vez algunos no, pero eventualmente les tocar, no se preocupen. +Lo ven? Las estadsticas de salud son claras, muy claras. +Pasamos nuestras vidas paranoicos por la muerte, homicidios, asesinatos, pnganle nombre. Esta en los titulares de todos los diarios, CNN. +Vean, los homicidios estn hasta el final, Por Dios! +Lo ven? +Cada uno de esos en rojo esta relacionado con la alimentacin. +Cualquier doctor, cualquier especialista les dir eso. +Hecho: Las enfermedades alimenticias son el mayor asesino en los Estados Unidos, aqu y ahora. +Este es un problema global. +Es una catstrofe. +Est arrasando al mundo. +Inglaterra viene detrs de ustedes...Como siempre +Se que son amigos, Pero no tanto! +Necesitamos una revolucin. +Mxico, Australia, Alemania, India, China, todos tienen grandes problemas de obesidad y mala salud. +Piensen acerca del cigarrillo. +Cuesta mucho menos que la obesidad. +La obesidad le cuesta a los Norteamericanos El 10% de sus costos de salud. 150 billones de dlares por ao. +En 10 aos ser el doble. 300 billones de dlares anuales. +Y seamos honestos, ustedes no tienen ese dinero. +Vine aqu a iniciar una revolucin alimenticia en la que creo profundamente. +La necesitamos. El momento es ahora. +Estamos en un punto de quiebre. +He estado haciendo esto durante siete aos. +Lo he intentado en Norteamerica durante siete aos. +Ahora el tema esta maduro, es tiempo de cosechar. +Estuve en el ojo de la tormenta. +Fui a West Virginia, el estado menos saludable de Norteamrica. +O eso fue el ao pasado. +Tenemos otro este ao, pero eso ser la siguiente temporada. +Huntington en West Virginia. Un pueblo hermoso. +Quise poner el alma y corazn, y gente... su publico viendo esas estadsticas a las que nos hemos acostumbrado tanto +Quiero presentarles a algunas de las personas que me importan Su pblico, sus hijos. +Quiero mostrarles una foto de mi amiga Brittany. +Ella tiene 16 aos. +Vivir solo seis aos mas a consecuencia de su alimentacin. +Es la tercera generacin de Norteamericanos que no creci dentro de un ambiente donde se aprenda a cocinar en casa o en la escuela, o de su madre o de su abuela. +Le quedan seis aos de vida. +Se esta comiendo su propio hgado. +Stacy, la familia Edwards. +Esta es una familia normal +Stacy hace lo mejor que puede, pero tambin es la tercera generacin; que nunca aprendi a cocinar en casa o en la escuela. +La familia es obesa. +Aqu est Justin, de slo 12 aos. +Pesa casi 160 kilos. +Es blanco de burlas. por Dios! Aqu esta la hija, Katie, de cuatro aos. +Ya sufre de obesidad y todava no llega ni a la primaria. +Marissa. Ella esta bien. Es una nia sana. +Pero, Saben? Su padre, que era obeso, muri en sus brazos. Y luego, el segundo hombre ms importante en su vida, su to, muri de obesidad. Y ahora su padrastro es obeso. +Vern, la cosa es que la obesidad y los desordenes alimenticios no slo lastiman a la gente que los sufre, sino tambin a sus amigos, familias, +hermanos, hermanas. El Pastor Steve. Una inspiracin. Uno de mis primeros aliados en Huntington, West Virginia. +El tiene una aguda perspectiva del problema. +l tiene que sepultar a la gente, No? +Y esta harto de ello. Esta cansado de enterrar a sus amigos, +y a su familia, a su comunidad. +Durante el invierno, mueren el triple de personas. +El esta harto de esto. +Esta es una enfermedad que puede prevenirse. Es un desperdicio de vida +Por cierto esto, este es un atad en el que los entierran +No estamos preparados para hacer esto. +No pueden ni sacarlos por la puerta. Esto es en serio. +No pueden ni moverlos. deben usar un montacargas. +Yo lo veo como un triangulo, de acuerdo? +Este es nuestro entorno alimenticio. +Necesito que ustedes lo entiendan. +Seguramente ya han escuchado esto antes, pero vamos a repasarlo. +Durante los ltimos 30 aos, Qu sucedi que ha arrancado el corazn de este pas? +Seamos francos y honestos. +Bien, el estilo de vida moderno. +Empecemos por la calle principal. +La comida rpida ha inundado todo el pas. Todos los sabemos. +Las grandes marcas son muy poderosas tienen gran influencia en este pas. +Tambin los supermercados. +Grandes compaas. Grandes compaas. +Hace 30 aos, la mayor parte de la comida era fresca y se cultivaba en forma local. +Ahora la mayora esta procesada y llena de cualquier cantidad de aditivos, ingredientes extra, y ustedes ya conocen el resto de la historia. +El tamao de las porciones es un inmenso, inmenso problema. +El etiquetado es un inmenso problema. +El etiquetado en este pas es terrible. Ellos quieren controlarse... Ellos quieren auto controlarse +La industria quiere ser sus propios inspectores. +Como? En este entorno? No se lo merecen. +Como puedes decir que algo es bajo en grasas cuando esta lleno de azcar. +El hogar. +El problema principal en casa es que sola ser el centro donde se pasaba la cultura de la comida y la cocina, que formaba a nuestra sociedad. +Eso ya no sucede. +Y saben, conforme vamos al trabajo y nuestra vida cambia, y como la vida siempre evoluciona, tendramos que ver esto de una manera holstica, dar un paso atrs y revisar el balance +No esta ocurriendo, no ha ocurrido por 30 aos. +Quiero mostrarles una situacin que es muy normal ahora mismo. La familia Edwards. +Jaimie Oliver: Vamos a hablar. +Estas cosas pasan por tu cuerpo y los de tu familia +cada semana. Y quiero que sepas que esto va a asesinar a tus hijos. +Como te sientes? +Stacy: Me siento muy triste y deprimida. +Pero, sabes, quiero que mis hijos sean exitosos y esto no los llevar all. +Pero... estoy matndolos. +JO: As es...lo estas haciendo. +Pero podemos detener eso. +Normal. Ahora vamos a las escuelas, algo en lo que soy especialista. +Bien, la escuela. +Qu es la escuela? Quin la invent? Cul es el propsito de la escuela? +Las escuelas se inventaron para darnos las herramientas, para hacernos creativos, hacer cosas maravillosas, permitirnos ganarnos la vida, etc., etc., etc. +Bien, esas han sido las tareas durante mucho, mucho tiempo. De acuerdo? +Pero no la hemos evolucionado para enfrentar las catstrofes de salud de Norteamrica. +La comida escolar es algo que la mayora de los nios, 31 millones diarios, comen dos veces al da, normalmente son el desayuno y el almuerzo, 180 das del ao. +As que podramos decir que la comida escolar es realmente importante. a juzgar por las circunstancias. +Antes de que empiece a despotricar, que es lo que seguramente estn esperando... Necesito decir algo, y es tan importante con la esperanza de que crezca y se desarrolle en los siguientes tres meses. +La cocineras, las cocineras de escuela de Norteamrica... Me ofrezco como su embajador. +No digo que sean unas flojas. +Estn hacindolo lo mejor que pueden. +Estn dando su mejor esfuerzo. +Pero ellas hacen lo que les ordenan, y lo que les ordenan est mal. +El sistema lo manejan contadores. Y no hay suficientes, o ninguna, persona que conozca de alimentacin en el negocio. +Ese es un problema. Si no eres un experto en alimentos y tienes presupuestos apretados, que cada vez son ms restringidos, entonces no puedes ser creativo, No puedes meterte en la cosa y escribir diferentes recetas. +Si eres un contador, al pendiente de las finanzas, lo nico que puedes hacer en esas circunstancias es comprar porqueras ms baratas. +Ahora, la realidad es, que la comida que sus hijos comen todos los das es comida rpida, altamente procesada, no hay suficiente comida fresca en lo absoluto. +Saben, la cantidad de aditivos, colorantes, ingredientes... ni se imaginan... No hay suficientes vegetales. Las papas fritas son consideradas vegetales. +Pizzas para desayunar. Ni siquiera les sirven con cubiertos. +Cuchillos y tenedores? No, son muy peligrosos. +Pueden tener tijeras en el salon pero cuchillos y tenedores, no. +Y desde mi perspectiva, si no tienes cuchillo y tenedor en tu escuela, estas avalando el sistema, de que el estado sirva comida rpida. Porque es fcil de comer con la mano +Y por cierto, es comida rpida. es pizza, son hamburguesas, son salchichas, es cualquier cantidad de esas cosas. +El 10 % de lo que gastamos en salud, como dije antes, se gasta en obesidad. Y va a duplicarse. +No le estamos enseando a nuestros hijos. +No hay ninguna ley que exija que le enseemos a los nios sobre alimentacin, ni en la primaria ni en secundaria. Lo ven? +No le enseamos a los nios sobre alimentos. Esta bien? +Este es un pequeo video de un kinder, que es muy comn en Inglaterra. +Video: Quin sabe qu es esto? +Nios: Papas. Jamie Oliver: Papas? Ustedes creen que estos son papas? +Saben que es eso? +Saben qu es eso? Nio: Broccoli? +JO: Y que hay de eso? Nuestro viejo amigo. +Sabes que es esto? Nia: Apio. +JO: No, Qu crees que sea? Nio: Cebolla. JO: Cebolla? +Jamie Oliver: de inmediato nos damos cuenta si acaso los nios saben de dnde viene la comida. +Quin sabe qu es esto? Nio: Mmmm, una pera. +JO: Y qu saben acerca de este? Nio: No lo se. +JO: Si los nios no saben que son estas verduras, entonces nunca se las van a comer. +JO: Esto es normal en Inglaterra y en Norteamrica, Inglaterra y Norteamrica. +Y ahora adivinen cmo lo arreglamos. Adivinen como lo arreglamos? +En dos sesiones de una hora. +Tenemos que empezar a ensearle a nuestros nios sobre alimentacin en las escuelas. Punto. +Ahora quiero hablarles de algo, Quiero decirles algo que en cierto sentido es ejemplo del gran problema que tenemos. Me siguen? +Quiero comentarles de algo tan bsico como la leche. +Cada nio tiene derecho a tomar leche en la escuela. +Sus nios estn tomando leche en el desayuno y el almuerzo, Cierto? +Se estn tomando dos vasos, De acuerdo? +Y la mayora de los nios lo hace. +Pero la leche ya no es tan buena. +Porque alguien en el consejo de la leche, y no me malinterpreten, yo estoy a favor de la leche, pero alguien en el consejo de la leche, probablemente pag mucho dinero a un asesor, que pens que si le agregas toneladas de saborizantes, colorantes y azcar a la leche, claro, ms nios se la tomarn. Por supuesto. +Y ahora eso va a continuar. El consejo de las manzanas va a recomendar que si hacen postres de manzana, los nios comern ms manzanas. +Entienden lo que quiero decir? +Para m que no hay necesidad de saborizar la leche. +No es as? Hay azcar en todas partes. +Conozco los secretos de todos esos ingredientes. +Estn en todo. La leche no pudo escapar +a los problemas de nuestros das. +Esta nuestra leche. Nuestros envases. +En los que hay tanta azcar como en una lata de gaseosa. Y se estn tomando dos diarias. +As que dejenme ensearles. +Tenemos un nio aqu, que se come, saben?, ocho cucharadas de azcar por da. +Y aqu ven la semana. +Y ms ac el mes. +Y me tom la libertad de juntar el azcar slo de los cinco aos de la primaria que vienen de la leche. +Ahora... Yo no se ustedes pero a juzgar por las circunstancias, cualquier juez en el mundo, despus de ver las estadsticas y la evidencia, es culpable de abuso infantil. Eso es lo que creo. +Ahora que si viniera aqu, y me gustara hacerlo, con una cura contra el SIDA o el cancer, estaran pelendose para conseguirla. +Esto, todas estas malas noticias, son evitables. +Esas son las buenas noticias. +Esto es muy, muy evitable. +As que pensemos, tenemos un problema, debemos comenzar de nuevo. +Muy bien, desde mi perspectiva, Qu tenemos que hacer? +Esta es la cosa, Verdad? No puede venir de una sola fuente. +As que, los supermercados. +En dnde ms compran religiosamente? +Semana tras semana. +Cunto dinero gastan, durante su vida, en el supermercado? +Los amamos. Simplemente nos venden lo que queremos. Todo bien. +Nos deben una, deben poner un embajador de la alimentacion en cada gran supermercado. +Necesitan ayudarnos a comprar. Necesitan mostrarnos como cocinar, +comidas rpidas y sabrosas para personas ocupadas. +Esto no es caro. +Se ha hecho en algunos casos y necesita hacerse en todas partes en Norteamerica pronta y rpidamente. +Las grandes marcas, las marcas de comida, necesitan poner la educacin sobre la comida en el corazn de sus negocios. +Ya se, es ms fcil decirlo que hacerlo. +Este es el futuro. Es la nica manera. +La comida rpida.La industria de la comida rpida Saben? es muy competitiva. +Tengo muchsimos documentos secretos y arreglos con restaurantes de comida rpida. +Yo s como le hacen. +Bsicamente nos han hecho adictos a estas dosis de azcar, sal, grasas y X, Y y Z. Y todos los aman. No es cierto? +As que estos amigos sern parte de la solucin. +Pero necesitamos que el gobierno se ponga a trabajar con todos los proveedores de comida y la industria de los restaurantes. Y que durante un periodo de cinco a siete aos nos saquen la dependencia de las cantidades tan grandes de grasa, azcar y todos los ingredientes que no forman parte de la comida. +Ahora, de vuelta con las grandes marcas, el etiquetado, como dij antes, es una absoluta farsa, y se tiene que arreglar. +Ahora las escuelas. +Obviamente en las escuelas se lo debemos a ellos asegurarnos de que esos 180 das del ao desde esa preciosa edad de cuatro aos, hasta los 18, 20, 24, los que sean, ellos necesitan que les cocinen comida fresca adecuada de proveedores locales. De acuerdo? +Necesita haber un nuevo parmetro para la comida de sus hijos. No lo creen? +Bajo estas circunstancias es profundamente importante que cada nio que salga de la escuela sepa cocinar diez recetas que puedan salvar su vida. +Habilidades para la vida. +Eso implica que puedan ser estudiantes, padres jvenes, y puedan empezar a experimentar los principios de la cocina. sin importar cul recesin les toque la prxima vez. Si puedes cocinar, +el dinero en la recesin no importa. +Su puedes cocinar, el tiempo no importa. +En el trabajo. En realidad no hemos hablado acerca de eso. +Bien, es hora de hablar de la responsabilidad corporativa ver exactamente lo que dan de comer o hacen disponible para sus empleados. +Esos empleados son las madres y padres de los nios de Norteamrica. +Marissa, su padre muri en sus brazos, me imagino que ella estara muy contenta si las corporaciones de Amrica pudieran alimentar adecuadamente a su personal. +Definitivamente no deberan quedar afuera de la solucion. +Ahora de regreso a casa. +Ahora veamos, si hacemos todo esto, y podemos hacerlo, esto es alcanzable. Puedes hacer el bien y hacer negocio. +Sin duda alguna. +Pero los hogares necesitan empezar a compartir esto volver a cocinar, Seguro! +Compartir esto como una filosofa. +Y para m es bastante romntico. Pero significa que si una persona ensea a tres cmo cocinar algo, y que estos que aprendieron enseen a otros tres esto necesita repetirse slo 25 veces, para alcanzar a toda la poblacin de Norteamrica. +Romntico s, pero, lo que es ms importante, es que la gente se de cuenta de que sus esfuerzos individuales +hacen la diferencia. +Debemos recuperar lo que perdimos. +La cocina de Huntington. En Huntington, cuando hice este programa, saben, conseguimos este programa en horario estelar y con suerte inspirar a mucha gente a formar parte de este cambio. +Verdaderamente creo que estos cambios sucedern. +En la cocina de Huntington. Yo trabajo con la comunidad. +Trabaj en las escuelas, consegu recursos permanentes, +para lograr que cada escuela en el rea, cambiara de la comida chatarra a comida sana, Seis mil quinientos dolares por escuela. +Eso es todo lo que cuesta. Seis mil quinientos por escuela. +La cocina por 25 mil al mes. Verdad? +Esto se convertira en 5,000 personas por ao, que es el 10 % de su poblacin. Y es gente enseando gente. +Ustedes saben, cocineros locales enseando a personas locales. +Son lecciones de cocina, lecciones gratis en la calle principal. +Esto es cambio real y tangible. +En todo Norteamrica, si miramos hacia atras, hay una gran cantidad de cosas maravillosas sucediendo. +Estn pasando cosas hermosas. Hay ngeles +en todo Norteamrica, haciendo cosas fantasticas en las escuelas, arreglos entre granjas y escuelas, huertas, educacin. Hay personas increbles que estn haciendo esto ya. +El problema es que ellos quieren multiplicar lo que estn haciendo a la siguiente escuela, y a la siguiente. Pero no hay dinero. +Necesitamos reconocer a los expertos y a los ngeles rpido. identificarlos y asignarles los recursos para que multipliquen lo que ya estn haciendo, y hacindolo bien. +La Norteamrica empresarial necesita apoyar a la Sra. Obama en las cosas que desea hacer. +Y vean, s que es extrao tener a un Ingls frente a ustedes hablndoles de todo esto. +Todo lo que puedo decir es que me preocupa. Yo soy padre. Y amo a este pas. +Y creo firmemente, en verdad, que si el cambio se puedo lograr en este pas, cosas maravillosas pueden suceder en todo el mundo. Si Norteamrica lo logra +creo que otras personas les seguirn. +Es increblemente importante. +Cuando estaba en Huntington, tratando de hacer funcionar algunas cosas, cuando no funcionaban, pens, si tuviera una varita mgica, +Qu hara? y pens Saben qu? +Me gustara estar frente a los ms grandes lderes de Norteamrica. +Y un mes despus me llamaron de TED y me dieron este premio. +Y ahora estoy aqu. +As que este es mi deseo. +Dislexico, asi que soy un poco lento. +Mi deseo es que ustedes ayuden a formar un movimiento fuerte y sostenible para educar a todos los nios sobre la comida, para inspirar a las familias a cocinar otra vez, y ayudar a que las personas en todo el mundo puedan pelear de frente contra la obesidad. +Gracias. +Ao y medio atrs Stephen Lawler quien tambin dio una charla aqu en TED en el 2007 sobre Microsoft Virtual Earth me trajo para ser el arquitecto de Bing Maps, que es el esfuerzo de mapas en lnea de Microsoft. +En los ltimos dos aos y medio, hemos trabajado mucho en redefinir el modo de funcionamiento de los mapas en lnea. +Y, en realidad, estamos vindolo en trminos muy diferentes del tipo de sitio de cartografa y direcciones al que estamos acostumbrados. +Entonces, lo primero que uno observa en el sitio de mapas es la fluidez del zoom y de los paneos que, si conocen Seadragon, es de donde proviene. +Los mapas son, por supuesto, no slo cartografa, sino tambin imgenes. +Entonces, si amplificamos despus de un cierto nivel esto se convierte en una suerte de "Sim City", una vista virtual a 45 grados. +Puede ser visto desde cualquier direccin para ensear la estructura 3D de la ciudad, las fachadas. +Ahora, vemos este espacio, un ambiente tridimensional como un lienzo donde puede representarse todo tipo de aplicaciones. Y la funcin de direcciones es solamente un ejemplo. +Si uno le da clic ver algunas de las que hemos publicado en los ltimos meses desde el lanzamiento. +Por ejemplo, un par de das despus del desastre de Hait, tuvimos un mapa del terremoto que mostraba fotos areas de antes y despus. +Una muy interesante, pero no tengo tiempo para ensearla, toma blogs hiper-locales en tiempo real y asigna esas historias, esas entradas, a los lugares mencionados en los blogs. +Es grandioso. +Pero les ensear cosas ms atractivas. +Podemos ver las imgenes, por supuesto, y estas no paran en el cielo. +Esas pequeas burbujas verdes representan "photosynths" creadas por los usuarios. +No voy a abrir una pero las "photosynths" estn integradas a los mapas. +Todo lo que est delimitado en azul es un rea en el que hemos tomado imgenes en el suelo tambin. +Ahora, les mostrar una aplicacin divertida. Hemos estado trabajando en colaboracin con nuestros amigos de Flickr. +Esta fue tomada cerca de las cinco. +Esa es una imagen de Flickr, esas son nuestras imgenes. +As pueden ver como todas estas imgenes se integran, de manera muy profunda, dentro del mapa. +Gracias. +Hay muchas razones por las que esto es interesante y una de ellas, por supuesto, es el viaje en el tiempo. +No les mostrar las imgenes histricas y bellas que tenemos pero hay unas con caballos y carruajes, adems de otras cosas. +Pero lo bueno de esto es que no slo aumenta esta representacin visual del mundo con las cosas de los usuarios, sino tambin es la base de la realidad aumentada y eso es algo importante que les mostrar en un momento. +Ahora hice una transicin a los interiores. Eso tambin es interesante. +Vean que ahora hay un techo encima nuestro. +Estamos adentro de Pike Place Market. +Esto es algo que podemos lograr con una cmara en una mochila, as que no slo tomamos imgenes en la calle con la cmara encima de los autos sino tambin tomamos imgenes del interior. +Y desde aqu, podemos hacer el mismo tipo de tomas, no slo de imgenes fijas sino de videos. +Esto es algo que vamos a intentar ahora por primera vez, en vivo, y esto es en realidad muy aterrador. +Bueno. +(Sonido de celular) Muy bien, muchachos, estn ah? +Muy bien. Le voy a dar. Le voy a picar a correr. +Estoy en vivo. Muy bien. Aqu vamos. +Entonces, aqu estn nuestros amigos en Pike Place Market. +Esta transmisin es en vivo. +George, puedes moverte hacia la esquina? +Porque quiero ensear unos puntos de inters. +No, no. Hacia el otro lado. +S, s. Hacia la esquina. Hacia la esquina. +No quiero verlos a Uds por ahora. +S. S. En la esquina. +Bueno, olvdenlo. +Lo que quera ensearles eran los puntos de inters de la parte superior de la imagen porque esto es lo que nos da la sensacin de que en realidad uno est en ese lugar... piensen en esto... esto es dar un paso ms en la realidad aumentada. +Qu demonios hacen... oh, lo siento. +Estamos haciendo dos... ...ahora voy a colgar. +Estamos haciendo dos cosas distintas aqu. +Una de ellas es tomar lo real... +Un momento, para agradecer al equipo. +Ellos han hecho un trabajo fantstico para lograr esto. +Los voy a abandonar ahora y caminar hacia afuera. +Mientras hago esto, mencionar que aqu, utilizamos esto para "tele presencia", pero tambin podemos usar esto en el lugar, para realidad aumentada. +Cuando utilizamos esto en el lugar, significa que es posible traer toda esa meta informacin e informacin del mundo hacia uno. +Entonces aqu estamos dando el paso extra de transmitirlo. +Eso fue transmitido utilizando una red de 4G del mercado. +Bueno, hay una ltima TED talk de Microsoft en los ltimos aos. +La de Curtis Wong y el telescopio virtual WWT (WorldWide Telescope). +Vamos a acercarnos a los contenedores de basura, donde es tradicional que despus de un largo da en el mercado, uno vaya por un descanso pero tambin a admirar el cielo. +Esto es la integracin de nuestros mapas con el WWT. +Esto es el tiempo... gracias... Esto es el tiempo actual, pero si borramos el tiempo, podemos ver como se ve el cielo en distintas horas, y as podemos ver todo muy detallado, informacin de distintas horas, distintas fechas. Vamos a mover la luna un poco ms arriba en el cielo, tambin cambiar la fecha. +Me gustara acercarme ms a la luna. +Entonces, esto es una representacin astronmica completa del cielo integrada con la Tierra. +Se ha terminado mi tiempo, as que tengo que parar. +Muchas gracias a todos. +Alguien dijo una vez, "la poltica es la farndula para los feos". +As que, por ese lado, creo que ya cumplo. +Otra cosa a considerar es el gran honor que es, como poltico, dar una TED Talk, especialmente aqu en el Reino Unido, donde la reputacin de la poltica, con el escndalo de los gastos, se ha hundido tanto. +Incluso ha circulado hasta hace poco el chiste de que los cientficos haban pensado reemplazar en sus experimentos ratas por polticos. +Y alguien pregunt, "Por qu?" +y dijeron, "Bueno, no hay escasez de polticos". A nadie le importa en lo ms mnimo lo que les ocurra. Al fin y al cabo, hay cosas que las ratas no estarn dispuestas a hacer". +S que todos Uds. adoran los datos, as que comienzo con una diapositiva +repleta de datos. Esto es lo ms importante a tener en cuenta en la poltica britnica o estadounidense, que nos hemos quedado sin dinero. +Tenemos unos dficits presupuestarios enormes. +ste es mi reloj de deuda pblica global, y, como pueden observar, es de 32 mil billones y sigue aumentando. +Y creo que esto nos lleva a reconocer algo muy sencillo. Existe una cuestin en poltica en este momento por encima de todas, y es sta: Cmo logramos mejorar las cosas sin gastar ms dinero? +Porque no va a haber mucho dinero para mejorar los servicios pblicos o para mejorar el gobierno, o para mejorar tantas otras cosas de las que hablan los polticos. +Lo que se deduce de aqu es que si se piensa que se trata slo de dinero, que slo se puede medir el xito de los servicios pblicos de la sanidad, la educacin y la poltica, gastando ms dinero, que slo se puede medir el progreso gastando dinero, se va a pasar bastante mal. +Pero si se piensa que importan otra muchas cosas, que implican bienestar, cosas como sus relaciones familiares, amistades, comunidad, valores, entonces, es un momento apasionante para estar en poltica. +Esa es la idea que quiero plantear esta noche. +Empecemos con la filosofa poltica. +Yo no digo en absoluto que los conservadores britnicos tengan todas las respuestas. +Por supuesto que no. +Pero hay dos cosas en el fondo que creo impulsan una filosofa conservadora que resultan muy relevantes en todo este debate. +La primera es sta, creemos que si a la gente se le da ms poder y control sobre sus vidas, si a la gente se le da ms opciones, si se les pone en el asiento del conductor, entonces se puede crear una sociedad ms fuerte y mejor. +Y si se une a este hecho la increble abundancia de informacin que tenemos hoy en el mundo, creo que se puede, como he dicho, rehacer por completo la poltica, el gobierno y los servicios pblicos. +La segunda cosa que creemos es en proceder segn la naturaleza humana +La poltica y los polticos no tendrn xito si de verdad no intentan tratar a la gente como es, en lugar de como les gustara que fuera. +Por qu creo que ahora es el momento de plantear esta idea? +Bueno, me temo que van a tener que sufrir una breve y condensada leccin de historia sobre lo que yo dira que son los tres pasajes de la historia, la era pre-burocrtica, la era burocrtica, y en la que vivimos ahora, que creo que es una era post-burocrtica. +Una forma ms sencilla de abordarlo es que hemos pasado de un mundo de control local, despus pasamos a un mundo de control central, y ahora estamos en un mundo de control personal. +Poder local, poder central, ahora, poder personal. +Aqu tenemos al rey Knut, fue rey hace mil aos. +Pensaba que poda cambiar el sentido de las olas. No pudo. +En realidad no pudo hacer cambiar el sentido de casi nada, porque si eras rey hace mil aos, mientras tardabas horas y horas y semanas y ms semanas en atravesar tu propio pas, no te hacas cargo de mucho. +No te hacas cargo de la poltica, justicia, educacin, salud, estado de bienestar. +Te limitabas a ir a la guerra y ya estaba. +Eso era en la era pre-burocrtica, una poca en la que todo tena que ser local. +Se tena que tener control local porque no se dispona de informacin en el mbito nacional porque los desplazamientos estaban muy restringidos. +De modo que sta era la era pre-burocrtica. +Siguiente parte de la leccin de historia contra reembolso, la preciosa imagen de la Revolucin Industrial britnica. +De repente, todo tipo de transporte, desplazamiento, informacin eran posibles, y esto dio lugar a, lo que me gusta denominar, la era burocrtica. +Espero que esta diapositiva cambie sin problemas. Aqu lo tenemos. +De repente, aparece el gran y poderoso estado central. +Era capaz, tan slo, de organizar la sanidad, la educacin, la poltica y la justicia. +Era, como digo, no el mundo del poder local sino del poder central +Haba absorbido todo ese poder de las entidades locales. +Era capaz de hacerlo solo. +La siguiente etapa, que todos Uds. conocen tan bien, es la revolucin de la informacin masiva. +Simplemente consideren este hecho. Hace 100 aos, enviar estas 10 palabras costaba 50 dlares. +Ahora, aqu estamos conectados con Long Beach y con cualquier sitio, y con todos esos lugares secretos por una fraccin de ese coste, y podemos enviar y recibir cantidades ingentes de informacin sin coste alguno. +As que vivimos en una era post-burocrtica, donde es posible un genuino poder de la gente. +Bien, qu implica esto respecto a nuestros polticos, respecto a nuestros servicios pblicos, a nuestro gobierno? +No puedo, con el tiempo del que dispongo, ofrecer muchos ejemplos, pero permtanme que les d unas muestras de cmo la vida puede cambiar. +Esto es tan obvio, en cierto sentido, porque piensen en cmo todos Uds. han cambiado la forma de comprar, de viajar, de hacer negocios. +Eso ya ha ocurrido; la revolucin de internet y de la informacin ha penetrado en nuestras sociedades de tantas formas diferentes, pero ni tan siquiera ha afectado a nuestro gobierno. +Cmo ha podido ocurrir esto? +Creo que hay tres aspectos fundamentales que debera transformar, en transparencia, mayor eleccin y rendicin de cuentas, en darnos ese genuino poder de la gente. +Si abordamos la transparencia, ste es uno de mis sitios webs favoritos, El Portal sobre Rendicin de Cuentas de Surrey. +Antiguamente, slo el gobierno poda guardar la informacin, y slo unos cuantos elegidos podan intentar tener acceso a ella y cuestionarla y discutirla. +Bien, en otro sitio web, de un estado de EE. UU., cada dlar gastado por el gobierno tiene la opcin de bsqueda, anlisis y control. +Piensen en el enorme cambio que eso supone. Cualquier empresa que desee optar a una licitacin puede ver lo que se est gastando actualmente. +Cualquiera que piense, yo podra hacer ese servicio mejor, ms barato, todo lo tiene disponible aqu. +Tan slo, en el gobierno y en poltica, hemos empezado a araar la superficie de lo que la gente hace en el mbito comercial con la revolucin en la informacin. +Por lo tanto, la transparencia total supondr una diferencia enorme. +En este pas, si ganamos las elecciones, vamos a hacer que todo el gasto pblico que supere las 25.000 libras sea transparente y est disponible en Internet, para cualquiera. +Vamos a hacer que cada licitacin, anunciamos esto hoy, est disponible en Internet, de forma que cualquiera vea cules son los trminos, cules son las condiciones, aportando un enorme valor al dinero, pero tambin un enorme incremento, creo, en el bienestar tambin. +Eleccin. Todos Uds. compran online, comparan, lo hacen todo online, y sin embargo esta revolucin apenas ha tocado la superficie de los servicios pblicos como la educacin, la sanidad, o la poltica, y van a ver extenderse este cambio ampliamente. +Y el tercero de esos grandes cambios, la rendicin de cuentas. +ste, en mi opinin, es un cambio enorme. +Es un mapa delictivo. Un mapa delictivo de Chicago. +Y pueden observar que esto, parece un gorrito de chef, pero en realidad es una agresin, el azul. +Pueden ver qu delito se comete y dnde, y tienen la oportunidad de insistir en que la fuerzas de seguridad rindan cuentas. +Por lo tanto esos tres aspectos, transparencia, rendicin de cuentas y eleccin, marcarn una diferencia enorme. +Tambin mencion que el otro principio sobre el que deberamos trabajar es comprender a la gente, es reconocer que proceder segn la naturaleza humana permite lograr mucho ms. +Vivimos una revolucin enorme en la comprensin del porqu la gente se comporta como lo hace, y una gran oportunidad para aplicar mejor ese conocimiento e informacin. +Estamos trabajando con algunas de esas personas. +Algunas de ellas nos estn aconsejando, como se ha dicho, para intentar dar cuenta de toda la experiencia. +Permtanme darles un ejemplo que me parece muy sencillo, y que me encanta. +Queremos lograr que la gente utilice la energa de forma ms eficiente. +Por qu? Reduce la escasez de combustible, sus facturas, y reduce las emisiones de carbono al mismo tiempo. +Cmo se hace eso? +Hemos tenido campaas institucionales de informacin durante aos en las que te dicen que apagues las luces al salir de casa. +Incluso tuvimos, un ministro del gobierno nos dijo una vez que nos cepillramos los dientes a oscuras. +No creo que duraran mucho. +Observen lo que esto produce. Una pequea muestra de economa conductual. +La mejor forma de lograr que alguien reduzca su factura de la luz es mostrarle su propio consumo, mostrarle lo que sus vecinos consumen, y despus mostrar lo que un vecino responsable consume. +Esa clase de economa conductual puede transformar la conducta de la gente de una forma que todo el acoso y toda la informacin y toda la presin de un gobierno posiblemente no pueda lograr. +Otros ejemplos son reciclar. +Todos sabemos que tenemos que reciclar ms. +Cmo hacemos para sea as? +La evidencia de EE.UU. es, si se paga a la gente por reciclar, si se le da una zanahoria en lugar de un palo, se puede transformar su conducta. +Qu viene siendo todo esto? +Aqu tienen mis dos discursos favoritos de los EE.UU de los ltimos 50 aos. +Obviamente, aqu tenemos a JFK con su formulacin increblemente sencilla e impactante, "No se pregunten qu puede hacer su pas por Uds, sino qu pueden hacer Uds por su pas", una opinin increblemente noble. +Pero cuando l pronunci ese discurso, qu se poda hacer para construir una sociedad ms fuerte? +Podas luchar por tu pas, podas morir por tu pas, podas realizar el servicio civil de tu pas, pero en realidad no se tena la informacin y el conocimiento y la capacidad para contribuir a hacer una sociedad ms fuerte como ahora. +Y creo, un discurso incluso ms maravilloso, que voy a leer un fragmento, que resume lo que dije al principio sobre creer que en la vida, hay mucho ms cosas que el dinero, y ms cosas que deberamos intentar medir que el dinero. +y es la preciosa descripcin de Robert Kennedy de por qu el producto interior bruto refleja tan poco. "No tiene en cuenta la salud de nuestros hijos, la calidad de su educacin, o la alegra de sus juegos. +Ni la belleza de nuestra poesa o la fortaleza de nuestros matrimonios, la inteligencia de nuestro debate pblico. +No mide ni nuestro ingenio ni nuestro coraje, ni nuestra sabidura ni nuestro aprendizaje, ni nuestra compasin ni nuestra lealtad a nuestro pas. +Lo mide todo, en resumen, excepto lo que hace que la vida merezca la pena". +Gracias. +Quiero hablar de mis investigaciones sobre lo que la tecnloga significa en nuestras vidas, no en nuestra vida ms inmediata, sino en un sentido csmico, en el de una larga historia del mundo y nuestro lugar en l, qu es la tecnologa? +Cul es su importancia? +As que voy a contar lo que he descubierto. +Y una de las primeras cosas que comenc a investigar fue la historia de la palabra "tecnologa". +En los Estados Unidos existe el "Discurso del Estado de la Unin" que da cada presidente desde 1790. +Y cada uno de ellos ms o menos resume lo ms importante que ha acontecido en los Estados Unidos hasta ese momento. +Si buscis la palabra "tecnologa" no se utiliz hasta 1952. +As que la tecnologa estuvo como ausente en el pensamiento colectivo hasta 1952, que es cuando yo nac. +Y, obviamente, la tecnologa ya exista de antes, pero no ramos conscientes. Fue como una especie de despertar de esta "fuerza" en nuestras vidas. +Llegu, de hecho, a investigar cul fue el primer uso de la palabra "tecnologa" +y fue en 1829. La invent alguien que estaba elaborando un plan de estudios, un temario, en el que reuna todas las artes, oficios e industrias. Y lo llam tecnologa. +ste fue el primersimo uso de la palabra. +Entonces, qu es esto que nos absorbe y nos fascina? +Alan Kay dice que "tecnologa es todo lo que se haya inventado despus de que nacieras". +Lo cul es ms o menos la idea que tenemos de tecnologa normalmente. Es todo lo nuevo. +No son las carreteras ni la penicilina ni el neumtico. Es lo nuevo. +Mi amigo Danny Hillis dice algo parecido. Dice: " La tecnologa es todo lo que no funciona an". +Lo cual viene a decir, una vez ms, que es todo lo nuevo. +Pero sabemos que no es slo lo nuevo. +De hecho se remonta a hace tiempo. Y lo que sugiero es que se remonta mucho tiempo atrs. +As que otra forma de pensar en lo que significa la tecnologa es imaginarnos un mundo sin tecnologa. +Si eliminsemos absolutamente todo rastro de tecnologa del mundo, y me refiero a TODO: cuchillas de afeitar, rasquetas, telas... no duraramos mucho como especie. +Moriramos por millones, y muy rpido. Nos comeran los lobos. Estaramos indefensos. No podramos cultivar ni encontrar suficiente alimento. +Incluso los cazadores-recolectores usaban herramientas rudimentarias. +O sea, tenan una mnima tecnologa, pero tenan tecnologa. +Y si estudiamos a esas tribus de cazadores-recolectores y a los Neardertales, que son muy similares a los primeros humanos. Descubrimos una cosa muy curiosa acerca de este mundo sin tecnologa. sta es una curva de su edad media. +No existen fsiles de Neandertales mayores de 40 aos. No se han encontrado al menos. Y la vida media de la mayora de estas tribus de cazadores-recolectores es de 20 a 30. +Hay muy pocos nios pequeos porque moran, la tasa de mortalidad era alta, y hay muy pocos ancianos. +Su poblacin era ms o menos como la de un barrio tpico de San Francisco. Muchos jvenes. +Y si vas all, pensars: "Vaya, qu sano est todo el mundo". +Pues eso es porque son todos jvenes. +Y lo mismo ocurre con estas tribus y los hombres primitivos. No vivan ms all de los 30. +Entonces, era un mundo sin abuelos. +Y los abuelos son muy importantes porque son transmisores de la evolucin e informacin culturales. +Imaginemos un mundo donde todos tuvieran entre 20 y 30 aos. +Cunto aprenderamos? +No demasiado en una sola vida, es demasiado corta. Y no habra nadie que transmitiera lo que se hubiera aprendido. +Pues ese es un aspecto. +Era una vida muy corta. Pero al mismo tiempo los antroplogos saben que la mayora de las tribus de cazadores-recolectores del mundo con escasa tecnologa, no llegaba a pasar mucho tiempo recolectando el alimento que necesitaban. De 3 a 6 horas diarias. +Algunos antroplogos llaman a esto la sociedad opulenta primitiva. +Ms que nada porque era como si tuvieran horario de oficina. +Por lo que era posible conseguir suficiente alimento. +Pero cuando llegaban la escasez y las vacas flacas y las sequas, sufran grandes hambrunas. +Y por eso no vivan demasiado. +As que lo que la tecnologa trajo, con herramientas tan simples como estas de piedra, algo tan pequeo como esto, fue que los primeros grupos de humanos fueron capaces de eliminar, de extinguir unas 250 especies de megafauna en Amrica del Norte cuando llegaron hace 10.000 aos. +Por lo que, desde mucho antes de la era industrial, hemos influido en el planeta a escala global, con solo un poco de tecnologa. +La otra cosa que los primeros hombres inventaron fue el fuego. +Se usaba el fuego para despejar el terreno afect al ciclo biolgico de la hierba y a continentes enteros y se us para cocinar. +Nos permiti comer todo tipo de cosas. +Era, en cierto modo, como explica McLuhan, un estmago externo. En el sentido de que cocinbamos comida que no podramos comer de otra forma, +Y sin fuego, de hecho, no podramos vivir. +Nuestro organismo se ha adaptado a esta nueva dieta. +Nuestro cuerpo ha cambiado en los ltimos 10.000 aos. +As que, con tan escasa tecnologa, los humanos pasaron de un grupo de 10.000 o as, tantos como Neandertales en todo el mundo, y de repente se dispar la poblacin, con la invencin del lenguaje hace unos 50.000 aos el nmero de humanos se dispar y rpidamente nos convertimos en la especie dominante del planeta. +Y migramos hacia el resto del mundo a un ritmo de 2 km al ao hasta que en varias decenas de miles de aos ocupamos cada cuenca de ro del planeta y nos convertimos en la especie ms dominante, con un mnimo de tecnologa. +E incluso por aquel entonces, con la introduccin de la agricultura, hace unos 8.000 - 10.000 aos empezamos a ver un cambio climtico. +As que, el cambio climtico no es algo nuevo. +Lo nuevo es el grado de cambio. Ya durante la era agrcola hubo cambio climtico. +Y, por tanto, con muy poco nivel tecnolgico se estaba cambiando el mundo. +Esto significa, que es a donde quera llegar, que la tecnologa se ha convertido en la fuerza ms poderosa del mundo. +Todas las cosas que vemos hoy en da que estn cambiando nuestras vidas, se remontan a la introduccin de alguna nueva tecnologa. +As que es una fuerza que resulta ser la ms poderosa que se haya generado en el planeta. Hasta tal grado que creo que se ha convertido en lo que somos. +De hecho, nuestra humanidad y todo lo que pensamos sobre nosotros mismos es algo que hemos inventado. +Es decir, nos hemos inventado a nosotros mismos. De todos los animales que hemos domesticado, el ms importante es el ser humano, de acuerdo? +As que la humanidad es nuestra mayor invencin. +Pero, por supuesto, an no hemos acabado. +Seguimos inventando y esto es lo que la tecnologa nos permite hacer. Reinventarnos continuamente. +Es una fuerza extremadamente poderosa. +Yo llamo a todo esto, a nosotros los humanos como a nuestra tecnologa, todo lo que hemos creado, los artilugios que usamos a diario, yo llamo a eso Technium. Ese es nuestro mundo. +Mi definicin funcional de tecnologa es cualquier cosa til creada por la mente humana. +No son solo martillos o artilugios como los porttiles. +Tambin es el Derecho. Y por supuesto las ciudades, formas de hacer las cosas ms tiles para nosotros. +Aunque sea algo que proviene de nuestras mentes, tambin radica profundamente en el cosmos. +Se remonta muy atrs. Los orgenes y races de la tecnologa se remontan al Big Bang, en el sentido de que son parte de un y que comienza en el Big Bang y contina por las galaxias y estrellas hasta la vida, hasta nosotros. +Y las tres principales fases del universo primigenio fueron la energa, cuando la fuerza dominante era la energa, que luego se convertira, esta fuerza dominante, al enfriarse, en materia. Y luego, con la invencin de la vida, hace cuatro mil millones de aos, la fuerza dominante de nuestro entorno fue la informacin. +En eso consiste la vida. Es un proceso de informacin que se reestructura y crea un nuevo orden. +Entonces, Einstein nos mostr que esa energa y materia eran equivalentes y ahora las nuevas ciencias de la computacin cuntica muestran que la entropa, la informacin, la materia y la energa estn interrelacionadas, es un todo continuo. +Introduces energa en el sistema apropiado y genera excedente de calor entropa y extropa: orden. +Un aumento del orden. +Y de dnde viene este orden? Su origen se remonta mucho tiempo atrs. +De hecho, no se sabe. +Pero s sabemos que esta tendencia a la auto-organizacin en todo el universo es antigua y comenz con cosas como las galaxias. Han mantenido su orden durante miles de millones de aos. +Las estrellas son bsicamente mquinas de fisin nuclear que se organizan y sustentan a s mismas durante miles de millones de aos. Es este orden frente a la extropa del mundo. +Y una extensin de lo mismo pasa con flores y plantas. Y la tecnologa es bsicamente una extensin de la vida. +Con lo que una tendencia que descubrimos en todas estas cosas es que la cantidad de energa por gramo, por segundo que fluye en estas cosas, en realidad va aumentando. +La cantidad de energa se va incrementando a travs de esta pequea secuencia. +Y la cantidad de energa por gramo, por segundo, que fluye por la vida es, de hecho, mayor que la de una estrella, debido al largo periodo de vida de la estrella, la densidad energtica de la vida es mayor que la de una estrella. +Y la densidad energtica que vemos en lo ms grande, que vemos por todo el universo est, de hecho, en un chip de ordenador. +Fluye ms energa por gramo por segundo que en cualquier otra cosa que hayamos conocido. +Y hay cosas que se mueven hacia una mayor complejidad, hacia una mayor diversidad, hacia una mayor especializacin, autoconsciencia, ubicuidad y lo ms importante, evolucionabilidad. Todas estas cosas estn presentas tambin en la tecnologa. +Es hacia donde va la tecnologa. +De hecho, la tecnologa est acelerando todos los aspectos de la vida. Y podemos ver cmo ocurre. Tal y como existe diversidad en la vida, existe mayor diversidad en las cosas que creamos. +La vida comienza con clulas generales que se van especializando. Tenemos clulas tisulares, clulas musculares, cerebrales. Y lo mismo ocurre, por ejemplo, con un martillo, que primero tiene un uso general que se va haciendo ms especfico. +Me gustara decir que mientras que existen seis reinos de la vida, podemos pensar en la tecnologa, bsicamente, como el sptimo reino de la vida. +Que se ramifica de la especie humana. +Pero la tecnologa tiene sus propios planes, como todo, como la propia vida. +Por ejemplo, ahora mismo, tres cuartos de la energa que utilizamos se usa para alimentar al propio technium. +En el transporte, no se usa para movernos, es para mover los vehculos que creamos o compramos. +Yo utilizo la palabra "querer". La tecnologa quiere. +Este es un robot que quiere enchufarse para conseguir energa. +Tu gato quiere comida. +Una bacteria, que no tiene consciencia de s misma, quiere moverse hacia la luz. +Es un impulso. Y la tecnologa tiene un impulso. +Al mismo tiempo quiere darnos cosas. Y lo que nos da es bsicamente progreso. +Puedes mirar cualquier grfica y todas apuntan hacia arriba. +No cabe discusin posible acerca del progreso si suprimimos su coste. +Y esto es lo que preocupa a la mayora. Que el progreso es muy real, pero pensamos y cuestionamos su coste medioambiental. +Hice un estudio sobre el nmero de especies de chismes en mi casa. Hay 6.000. Conozco gente que ha encontrado 10.000. +Cuando el rey Enrique VIII de Inglaterra muri tena 18.000 cosas en su casa. Pero esa era la riqueza de toda Inglaterra. +Y con toda esa riqueza de Inglaterra, el rey Enrique no poda comprar antibiticos. No poda comprar refrigeracin. No poda comprar un viaje de miles de kilmetros. +Mientras que este conductor de rickshaw de la India podra ahorrar y comprarse antibiticos. Y podra comprar un frigorfico. +Y podra comprar cosas que el rey Enrique, con toda su riqueza, no pudo jams. +En eso consiste el progreso. +As que la tecnologa es egosta. La tecnologa es generosa. +Ese conflicto, esa tensin estarn con nosotros para siempre. Unas veces har lo que quiera otras veces har cosas por nosotros. +Existe confusin acerca de lo que deberamos pensar sobre la nueva tecnologa. +Hoy da nuestra primera postura cuando aparece nueva tecnologa es la que se llama del principio preventivo, muy comn en Europa, que bsicamente dice: "No hagas nada". Cuando encuentres una nueva tecnologa, detente hasta que se pueda probar que es inofensiva. +Yo creo que eso no lleva a ninguna parte. +Yo creo que un mejor modo de verlo es lo que yo llamo el principio "proactivo". Consiste en interactuar con la tecnologa. +Probarla. +Obviamente haces lo que sugiere el principio preventivo, intentas anticiparte a ella. Pero despus la evalas constantemente. No una sola vez, sino constantemente. +Y cuando se aleja de lo que quieres, priorizamos el riesgo y evaluamos no slo lo nuevo, tambin lo viejo. +Lo arreglamos. Pero lo ms importante es que lo reubicamos. +Lo que esto significa es que le damos una nueva utilidad. +La energa nuclear, la fisin, es una mala idea si se crean bombas +Pero puede que sea una gran idea si se reubica como energa nuclear sostenible para crear electricidad, en vez de seguir usando carbn. +Cuando tenemos una idea mala, la respuesta no sera ninguna idea, no es dejar de pensar. +La respuesta a una idea mala como, por ejemplo, la bombilla de tungsteno, es una idea mejor, de acuerdo? +As que una idea mejor sera siempre la respuesta a la tecnologa que no nos gusta. Bsicamente, una mejor tecnologa. +De hecho, en cierto sentido, la tecnologa es una especie de mtodo para generar ideas mejores, visto de esa forma. +As, fumigar con DDT las cosechas no es demasiado buena idea, +pero fumigar las casas con DDT... No hay nada mejor contra la malaria, aparte de mosquiteras impregnadas en DDT... +Pero esa es una buena idea. Es muy bueno como tecnologa. +As que nuestro deber como humanos es cuidar de nuestros retoos imaginados, buscarles buenos amigos, buscarles un buen trabajo. +Toda tecnologa es una especie de fuerza creativa en busca de su cometido especfico. +Bueno, este de aqu es mi hijo. +No hay tecnologas malas, igual que no hay nios malos. +No decimos que los nios son neutros o positivos. +Slo tenemos que buscarles el lugar apropiado. +Eso es lo que obtenemos de la tecnologa constantemente. Por eso la gente deja los pueblos para ir a las ciudades. Porque se ven atrados hacia un mayor nmero de opciones y posibilidades. +Y somos conscientes del precio. +Pagamos un precio, pero somos conscientes de ello y generalmente pagamos el precio por mayores libertades, elecciones y oportunidades. +Incluso la propia tecnologa quiere agua limpia. +Se opone la tecnologa diametralmente a la naturaleza? +Al ser la tecnologa una extensin de la vida, va en paralelo y en consonancia con las mismas cosas que quiere la vida. +Por ello creo que la tecnologa puede amar a la biologa si se lo permitimos. +Por nuestro interior fluye un gran movimiento que empez hace miles de millones de aos y sigue fluyendo. Y nuestra opcin, por as decir, en cuanto a la tecnologa, es aliarnos con esta fuerza mucho mayor que nosotros mismos. +De modo que la tecnologa es mucho ms que lo que llevas en el bolsillo. +Es ms que simples chismes. Es mucho ms que las cosas que inventa la gente. +Es, de hecho, parte de una larga historia, una gran historia, que comenz hace miles de millones de aos, +y que se mueve en nuestro interior, esa auto-organizacin. Y nosotros la ampliamos y la aceleramos. Y podemos ser parte de ella sumndole la tecnologa que creamos. +Les agradezco enormemente su atencin. Gracias. +Siempre estuve interesado en la relacin de las estructuras formales y el comportamiento humano. +Si construyes un camino ancho hasta las afueras de la ciudad la gente se mudar alli. +Bueno la ley es tambin un poderoso modificador del comportamiento humano. +Y lo que quiero discutir hoy es la necesidad de una hacer una revisin y simplificar la ley para desatar la energa y la pasin de los Americanos para que podamos comenzar a dedicarnos a los desafos de nuestra sociedad. +Deben haber notado que la ley se ha vuelto progresivamente ms densa en nuestra vida a lo largo de las ltimas dos dcadas. +Si manejas un negocio es difcil hacer casi cualquier cosa sin llamar a tu abogado para consultarle. +En efecto, existe este fenmeno ahora en el cul los abogado de consulta se estn convirtiendo en CEOs. +Es un poco como la pelcula "La invasin de los ladrones de cuerpos" +Necesitas un abogado para manejar la compaia, porque hay tanta legislacin. +Pero no son solamente los negocios estn afectados por esto. Ha penetrado en las actividades diarias de la gente normal +Hace un par de aos estaba en una caminata cerca de Cody, Wyoming. +Era una reserva para el oso pardo, aunque aunque nadie me lo habia dicho antes de ir. +Y nuestro guia era una profesora de ciencias local. +Ella estaba totalmente despreocupada por los osos, pero aterrada de los abogados. +La historia comenz a salir de a poco. +Ella acababa de estar involucrada en un episodio donde un padre habia amenazado con hacerle un juicio a la escuela porque ella le haba bajado la nota a un alumno un 10 por ciento cuando l haba entregado la tarea tarde. +El director no le quera hacer frente al padre porque no quera verse arrastrado hacia un procedimiento legal. +Entonces, ella tuvo que ir a una reunin tras otra, con los mismos argumentos una y otra vez. +Despues de 30 dias de noches sin dormir finalmente se rindi, y le subi la nota. +Dijo "La vida es demasiado corta, No pueda seguir con esto." +Mas o menos en ese mismo tiempo, ella iba a llevar a dos estudiantes a una conferencia de liderazgo en Laramie, que es a un par de horas de distancia, y los iba a llevar en su automvil, pero la escuela dijo "No, no los puedes llevar en auto por razones de responabilidad legal. +Tienes que ir en el omnibus escolar." +Entonces, le proveyeron un bus que lleva a 60 personas y los llev a los 3 de ida y vuelta varias horas hasta Laramie. +Su marido tambien es un profesor de ciencias, y lleva a su clase de biologia a una caminata por el parque nacional cercano. +Pero le dijeron que este ao no podia ir de caminata porque uno de sus alumnos en su clase es minusvlido, entonces los otros 25 alumnos no podian ir a la caminata tampoco. +Hacia el final del da podra haber llenado un libro con historias sobre leyes solamente de esta profesora. +Nos han enseado en creer que las leyes son la fundacin de la libertad. +Pero de alguna manera u otra en las ltimas dcadas la tierra de los libres se ha convertido en un campo minado legal. +Ha cambiado profundamente nuestras vidas en cosas que son casi imperceptibles. Pero, cuando nos alejamos, lo vemos todo el tiempo. +Ha cambiado la manera en la que hablamos. Estaba hablando con un pediatra amigo en Carolina del Norte. Dijo, "Bueno, tu sabes, ya no me manejo con los pacientes de la misma manera, +no querrias decr algo rpido, sin considerarlo, que puede ser usado en tu contra." +Este es un doctor, que su vida es cuidar de personas. +My propio bufete de abogados tiene una lista de preguntas que no me permiten preguntar cuando entrevisto candidatos. Como la siniestra pregunta, cargada de motivos escondidos e inuendo, "De dnde eres?" +Ahora por 20 aos, los reformadores de responsabilidad civil han estado dando la alarma que los juicios estan fuera de control. +Y de vez en cuando leemos, sobre estos juicios ridiculos, como el hombre en el Distrito de Columbia que demand a su lavanderia por 54 millones de dlares porque le perdieron un par de pantalones. +El caso siguio por dos aos. Creo que l an est apelando la sentencia. +Pero la realidad es, estos casos locos son relativamente raros. No suelen ganar +y el total de los costos de responsabilidad civil directa en el pas es de aproximadamente 2 por ciento que es el doble de los otros paises. Pero, en lo que a impuestos se refiere, dificilmente impagable. +Pero los costos directos son en realidad solo la punta del iceberg. +Lo que ha pasado aqui, nuevamente, casi sin darnos cuenta, es, que nuestra cultura ha cambiado. +Las personas no se sienten mas libres de actuar basados en su criterio. +Entonces, qu hacemos al respecto? +Claramente no queremos rendir los derechos, cuando alguien hace algo malo, de buscar resarcimiento en las cortes. +Necesitamos reglamentacin para asegurarmos que las personas no contaminen, y cosas asi. +Ni siquiera tenemos un vocabulario para este problema. Y eso es porque tenemos el marco de referencia equivocado. +Nos han entrenado para pensar en que la manera de ver cada disputa, cada tema, es como un tema de derechos individuales. +Y asi es que miramos a travz de un microscopio legal, y miramos todo. +Es posible que haya circunstancias atenuantes que expliquen porque Johnny entreg tarde su tarea en Cody, Wyoming? +Es posible que el doctor haya echo algo distinto cuando el paciente se enferma an ms. +Y por supuesto la retrospectiva es perfecta. +Siempre existe un escenario diferente que puedes dibujar donde es posible que las cosas se hubieran hecho de manera diferente. +Y sin embargo, nos han entrenado a mirar en este microscopio legal, esperando que podamos juzgar cualquier disputa frente al standard de una sociedad pefecta, donde todos estamos de acuerdo que es justo, y donde los accidentes no existirn, y el riesgo tampoco. +Por supuesto esto es Utopia, es una frmula para la paralsis, no la libertad. +No es la base de las reglas de la ley, no es la base para una sociedad libre. +Entonces, ahora tengo la primera de cuatro propuestas que les dejar sobre como simplificamos la ley. Tienes que juzgar la ley principalmente por su efecto en la sociedad ms amplia, no disputas individuales. +Absolutamente vital. +Entonces, alejmonos de la ancdota por un segundo y miremos la sociedad desde lo alto. +Est funcionando? +Qu nos muestran los datos macro? +Bueno, el sistema de salud fue transformado. Una cultura impregnada de defensividad. Desconfianza universal del sistema de justica. Prctica universal de la medicina defensiva. +Es muy difcil de medir porque hay razones mezcladas. +Los doctores pueden ganar ms encargando estudios a veces. Y tambin ya no saben ms que es lo correcto o incorrecto. +Pero estimaciones confiables recaudan entre 60 billones y 200 billones de dlares por ao. +Eso es suficiente para darles cuidado mdico a todas las personas en America, que no lo tienen. +Los abogados dicen "Bueno, este miedo legal hace que los doctores practiquen una medicina mejor." +Bueno, eso tambin fue estudiado por el Instituto de Medicina y otros. Y resulta que no es el caso. +El miedo ha enfriado la interaccin profesional asi que ocurren miles de errores trgicos porque los doctores tienen miedo de decir "Estas seguro de que esa es la dsis correcta?" +Porque ellos no estan seguros, y no quieren tomar la responsabilidad legal. +Vayamos a las escuelas. +Como ya vimos con la profesora en Cody, Wyoming. ella parece estar siendo afectada por la ley. +Bueno, resulta que las escuelas estan literalmente ahogndose en las leyes. +Podras tener una seccion separada de una biblioteca legal alrededor de cada uno de estos conceptos legales. El debido proceso, la educacin especial, ningn chico dejado atrs, tolerancia zero, reglas de trabajo. +Y sigue. Realizamos un estudio de todas las reglas que afectan una escuela en Nueva York. La junta educativa no tena idea. +Decenas de miles de reglas discretas, 60 pasos para suspender a un alumno de la escuela. es una frmula para la parlisis. +Y cul es el efecto de esto? Un efecto es una disminucn del orden +Nuevamente, estudios han demostrado que es directamente atribuible al creciemiento del debido proceso. +Public Agenda realiz una encuesta para nosotros hace un par de aos. donde encontrar que el 43 porciento de los maestros de secundario de America dicen que pasan al menos la mitad de su tiempo mantienendo el orden en la clase. +Eso significa que los alumnos estn obteniendo la mitad del aprendizaje que se supone, porque si un alumno esta perturbando la clase nadie puede aprender. +Y Qu pasa cuando el maestro trata de imponer el orden? +Son amenazados con un procedimiento legal. +Tambin encuestamos eso. 78 por ciento de los maestros de la escuela media y secundaria en America han sido amenazados por sus alumnos por violar sus derechos con juicios, por sus alumnos. Sus alumnos estn amenazando. +No es que normalmente van a juicio. No es que vayan a ganar, pero es una indicacin de la corrosin de autoridad. +Y Cmo ha funcionado este sistema de leyes para el gobierno? +No parece estar funcionando demasiado bien, no ? +Ni en Sacramento ni en Washington. +El otro dia en el discurso del Estado de la Unin, El Presidente Onama dijo, y creo que todos podemos estar de acuerdo con este objetivo, "Desde los primeros trenes, al sistema de autopistas interestatales, nuestra nacin siempre fue la primera en competir. +No hay ninguna razon por la que Europa o China deban tener los trenes ms rpidos." +Bueno, en realidad si hay una razn, la revisin ambiental ha evolucionado en un proceso de no dejar piedra sin remover para cada proyecto importante en la ltima dcada, lo siguieron aos de litigio, por cualquiera al que no le gusta el proyecto. +Entonces, solo manteniendose por encima de la tierra por un segundo ms, la gente esta actuando como idiotas, por todo el pas. +Idiotas. Hace un par de aos, el condado de Broward, Florida, prohibi correr en el recreo. +Eso significa que todos los nios van a tener TDA. +O sea, es absolutamente una frumla para el fracaso. +Mi favorito, sin emgargo, son las etiquietas de advertencia. +Precuacin, contenido caliente, en un billn de tazas de caf. +Arquelogos harn excavaciones dentro de miles de aos y ellos no van a saber sobre medicina defensiva y estas cosas, pero vern todas estas etiquetas, contenidos estn extremadamente calientes. +Ellos pensaran que es un tipo de afrodisaco. +Esa es la nica explicacin. Porque porqu tendras que decirle a la gente que algo est realmente caliente? +Mi advertencia favorita estaba en un seuelo de pesca de 12 centmetros. +Crec en el sur y me pase los veranos pescando. +Seuelo de 12 centmetros de largo, es un gran seuelo, con un anzuelo de tres puntas en la parte de atrs, y por fuera deca, "Nocivo si es ingerido." +Entonces, ninguna de estas personas estn haciendo lo que creen que esta bien. +Y porqu no? Ellos no tienen confianza en la ley. Y porqu no la tienen? +Porque nos da lo peor de los dos mundos. Es al azar. Cualquiera puede hacer juicio casi por cualquier cosa y llevarlo ante un jurado. Sin siquiera un esfuerzo en consistencia. Y tambin es demasiado detallado. +En las res que estn reguladas, hay tantas reglas que ningun ser humano puede llegar a conocerlas. +Bueno, y Cmo lo arreglamos? Podemos pasarnos 10.000 vidas tratando de podar esta jungla legal. +Pero el desafo aqui es no solamente uno de corregir las leyes. Porque el obstculo para el xito es la confianza. +La gente, para que la ley sea la plataforma de la libertad, la gente tiene que confiar en ella. +Entonces, esa es mi segunda propocisin. La confianza es una condicin esencial a una sociedad libre. +La vida es lo suficientemente compleja sin miedo legal. +Pero la ley es diferente de los otros tipos de incertidumbres. Porque acarrea consigo el poder del estado. +Y entonces el estado puede entrar. +En realidad cambia la forma de pensar de la gente. +Es como tener un pequeo abogado en tus hombros. todo el da, susurrando en tu odo, "Puede salir mal eso?Puede que eso salga mal?" +Lleva a las personas fuera de la parte inteligente del cerebro ese profundo y obscuro pozo del subconciente, donde los instintos y la experiencia, y los otros factores de la creavitidad, y el buen juicio se alojan. Nos lleva al fino barniz de la logica consciente, +Muy pronto el doctor esta diciendo, "Bueno, no creo que ese dolor de cabeza sea un tumor, pero quien me proteger si lo es?, entonces voy a ordenar la Resonancia Magntica." +Asi es que se gastaron 200 billones de dlares en tests innecesarios. +Si haces a la gente consciente de sus decisiones, los estudios muestran que van a tomar peores decisiones. +Si le dices a una pianista que piense en como esta tocando las notas cuando est tocando la pieza, ella no puede tocar la pieza. +La conciencia de si mismo es el enemigo del logro. +Edison lo dijo mejor. El dijo, "No tenemos ninguna regla por aqui, estamos tratando de lograr algo." +Entonces, Cmo recuperas la confianza? +Afninado la ley, claramente no es suficiente. Y la reforma de agravios, que es una gran idea, baja tus costos si eres una persona de negocios, pero es como una venda en esta enorme herida de desconfianza. +Estados con una reforma de agravios extensiva todava sufren todas estas patologas. +Entonces lo que se necesita no esta solamente limitado a las reclamaciones, pero crea, en realidad, tierra firme para la libertad. +Resulta que la libertad tiene, en realidad una estrucrura formal. +Y es esta: la ley marca fronteras, y de un lado de estas fronteras estn las cosas que no puedes, o no debes hacer. No puedes robar. Tienes que pagar tus impuestos. Pero esas mismas fronteras se supone que definen y protegen la tierra firme de la libertad +Isaiah Berlin lo dijo de esta manera, "La ley marca fronteras, no dibujadas artificialmente, en las que los hombres sern inviables." +Nos hemos olvidado de esa segunda parte. +Esos diques se han roto. La gente vadea a travs de la ley a lo largo de todo el da. +Entonces lo que se necesita ahora es reconstruir esas fronteras. +Y es especialmente importante reconstruirlas para los juicios. +Porque las cosas por las que la gente puede llevar a juico establece las fronteras para la libertad de todos los dems. +Si alguien trae un juicio, un nio se cay de un sube-y-baja. no importa que pase en el juicio, todos los sube-y-baja van a desaparecer. +Porque nadie quiere tomar el riesgo de un juicio. +Y eso es lo que sucedi. Ya no hay sube-y-baja, juegos metlicos, calecitas, sogas para trepar, nada que pueda interesar a un nio mayor de cuatro aos, porque no hay ningn riesgo asociado a el. +Y Cmo lo reconsruimos? +La vida es demasiado compleja para ... +La vida es demasiado compleja para un programa de software +Todas estas elecciones involucran juicios de valor, y normas sociales, no hechos objetivos. +Entonces esta es la cuarta proposicin. +Esto es lo que tenemos, la filosofa a la que debemos cambiar. +Y hay dos elementos esenciales en ella. Tenemos que simplificar la ley. +Tenemos que migrar de toda esta complejidad hacia principios generales y objetivos. +La constitucin tiene solo 16 pginas de largo. +Y funcion bastante bien por 200 aos. +La ley tiene que ser lo suficientemente simple para que la gente pueda internalizarla en sus elecciones diarias/ +Si no pueden internalizarla no van a confiar en ella. +Y Cmo lo hacemos simple? +Porque la vida es compleja. Y aqui est el cambio ms grande y ms duro. Tenemos que devolverle la autoridad a jueces y oficiales para interpretar y aplicar la ley. +Tenemos que re-humanizar la ley. +Tenemos que hacerla simple asi te sientes libre, las personas a cargo tienen que estar libres de usar su juicio e interpretar y aplicar la ley. de acuerdo a normas sociales razonables. +Cuando estas volviendo, y caminando por la calle durante el da tienes que pensar que si hay una disputa, hay alguien en la sociedad que lo ve como su trabajo protegerte afirmativamente si ests actuando de manera razonable. +Esa persona no existe hoy. +Este es el ltimo obstaculo. +No es tan difcil en realidad. 98 porciento de los casos son muy simples. +Tal vez tienes un reclamo en el corte de reclamos pequeos por tu par de pantalones perdido por $100 pero no la corte de jurisdiccin general por millones de dlares. +Caso terminado sin prejuicio o remitido a la corte de reclamos pequeos. +Toma cinco minutos. Listo. No es tan difcil. +Pero es un obstculo difcil porque estamos en este pantano legal porque nos despertamos en los 1960s a estos valores malos, racismo, discriminacin sexual, polucin. Y eran valores malos. Y quisimos crear un sistema legal donde nadie mas pudiera tener valores malos. +Y el problema es que creamos un sistema donde eliminamos el derecho de tener buenos valores. +Esto no quiere decir que las personas con autoridad pueden hacer lo que quieran. +Estn an limitadas por objetivos legales y principios. Los maestros tienen que rendir cuentas a estos principios. El juez tiene que rendir cuentas a la cmara de apelaciones. El presidente tiene que rendir cuentas a los votantes. +Pero la rendicin de cuentas hacia arriba juzgando la decisin contra el efecto que tendr en la mayora no solamente en la persona descontenta. +No podemos dirigir un pueblo apuntando al mnimo comn denominador. +Entonces, lo que se necesita es un cambio de filosofa bsica. +Podemos dejar morir varias de estas cosas si cambiamos nuestra filosofa. +Nos han enseado que la autoridad es la enemiga de la libertad. +No es verdad. La autoridad, en realidad, es esencial a la libertad. +La ley es una institucin humana. La responsabilidad es una institucin humana. +Si los maestros no tienene la autoridad para manejar la clase, para mantener el orden, el aprendizaje de todos sufre. +Si el juez no tiene la autoridad para desechar los reclamos excesivos, entonces todos nosotros vamos por la vida mirando por sobre nuestros hombros. +Si la agencia de ambiente no puede decidir que las lineas de alta tensin son buenas para el medio ambiente, entonces no hay manera de traer la energa de los parques elicos a la ciudad. +Una sociedad necesita de luces rojas y luces verdes, o de otra manera deciende hacia el estancamiento. +Eso es lo que ha pasado en America. Miren a su alrededor. +Entonces, lo que el mundo necesita ahora, es recuperar la autoridad para hacer elecciones comunes. +Es la nica manera de recuperar nuestra libertad. Y es la nica manera de liberar la energa y la pasin necesaria para poder enfrentar los desafos de nuestro tiempo. Gracias. +Alguien sabe cundo se invent el estetoscopio? +Nadie? Fue en 1816. +Y lo que puedo decir es que en el 2016, los mdicos no irn por ah con estetoscopios. +Una tecnologa mucho mejor est por venir. Y eso es parte del cambio en la medicina. +Lo que ha cambiado a nuestra sociedad han sido los aparatos inalmbricos. +Pero el futuro son los aparatos inalmbricos mdicos. Bien? +As que djenme darles algunos ejemplos al respecto para concretar mucho ms. +ste es el primero. Esto es un electrocardiograma. +Y como cardilogo, pensar que se puede ver en tiempo real a un paciente, a un individuo en cualquier parte del mundo a travs del telfono inteligente, y observar su ritmo cardiaco es increble. Y esto ya existe hoy. +Pero esto slo es el principio. +Ustedes revisan su correo mientras estn aqu sentados. +En el futuro, revisarn sus constantes vitales, todas sus constantes vitales, su ritmo cardaco, la presin sangunea, el oxgeno, la temperatura, etc. +Y esto ya est hoy en da a nuestra disposicin. +Esto es tecnologa AirStrip +Est conectado o debera decir desconectado, al agregar todas estas seales en el hospital, en la unidad de cuidado intensivo, y ponindolas en un telfono inteligente para los mdicos. +Si usted espera un beb, qu le parece poder monitorear continuadamente la frecuencia cardiaca del feto o las contracciones intrauterinas, y no tener que preocuparse tanto de que las cosas estn bien a medida que el embarazo avanza al momento del parto. +Y algo ms an, hoy tenemos sensores continuos de glucosa. +Ahora se implantan dentro de la piel. Pero en el futuro no tendrn que implantarse. +Y claro, uno tendr el ndice deseado, manteniendo la glucosa entre 75 y 200, revisndolo cada cinco minutos en un sensor continuo de glucosa. Vern cmo eso puede revolucionar diabetes. +Y qu tal el sueo? +Entremos un poco en ese tema. +Se supone que pasamos un tercio de nuestras vidas durmiendo. +Qu sucedera, si en su telfono, que estar disponible en las prximas semanas, se le mostrara cada minuto de sueo? +Y, tal y como ven, el color naranja simboliza estar despierto. +Es el MOR, movimiento ocular rpido, en verde claro se simboliza el estado de sueo. El sueo ligero es el color gris. y el sueo profundo, el ms reparador est en verde oscuro. +Y qu piensa sobre contabilizar cada calora? +Es una habilidad, en tiempo real, de realmente contabilizar el consumo de caloras as como su gasto, a travs de una tirita. +Ahora bien, lo comentado aborda solo medidas fisiolgicas. +Pero a lo que quiero llegar, el siguiente paso, rpidamente, y por qu el estetoscopio va de capa cada. Esto es porque podemos escuchar los sonidos de los intestinos y la respiracin, porque ahora, disponemos de un aparato de ultrasonido porttil desarrollado por G.E. +Por qu esto es importante? Porque esto es mucho ms sensible. +Aqu tenemos un ejemplo de un ultrasonido abdominal. Y tambin una eco cardiaca que pueden enviarse va inalmbrica. Y tambin tenemos un ejemplo de monitoreo fetal en su telfono inteligente. +As que no slo hablamos de medidas fisiolgicas, las medidas clave de las constantes vitales y todas esas cosas en la fisiologa, sino de las imgenes que uno puede ver en el telfono inteligente. +Pues bien, ste es un ejemplo de otra tecnologa obsoleta, que pronto vamos a enterrar, el monitor Holter. +24 horas registrando, un montn de cables. +Esto es ahora un parche pequeito. +Se puede aplicar durante dos semanas y enviarlo por correo. +Y cmo funciona esto? Bien, cuenta con estas tiritas o sensores que uno se pondra en el zapato o la mueca. +Y esto enva una seal. Y crea una red de rea corporal que va a una puerta de enlace. +Dicha puerta de enlace puede ser un telfono inteligente o una puerta de enlace dedicada, ya que ahora muchas de estas cosas son puertas de enlace dedicadas, porque no estn muy bien integradas. +Esta seal va a la red, la nube, y entonces puede procesarse y enviarse a donde sea, a un asistente sanitario o a un mdico, de vuelta al paciente, etc. +As que en realidad se trata de tecnologa muy simple en cuanto a su funcionamiento. +Bien, llevo este aparato puesto. +No me quise quitar la camisa para mostrrselo, pero les puedo decir que lo llevo puesto. +ste es un aparato que no slo mide el ritmo cardaco, como ya se vio, sino que va ms all. +ste soy yo ahora. Y pueden ver el electrocardiograma. +Ah abajo se muestra la frecuencia cardaca real y su tendencia a la derecha hay un bioconductor. +Eso es el estado de los fluidos, el estado de los fluidos es realmente importante si se est monitoreando a alguien con insuficiencia cardaca. +Y abajo est la temperatura, la respiracin y el oxgeno. Y luego la actividad segn la posicin. +Esto es realmente impactante, porque este aparato mide siete cosas que son las constantes vitales que realmente sirven para monitorear a alguien con insuficiencia cardaca. +Y por qu esto es importante? Bien, sta es la cama ms cara. +Qu pasara si pudiramos reducir la necesidad de camas de hospital? +Bien, no podemos. En primer lugar, la insuficiencia cardaca es la causa nmero uno de ingresos y reingresos a los hospitales en este pas. +El costo de la insuficiencia cardaca es 37.000 millones de dlares al ao, del cual un 80% est vinculado con la hospitalizacin. +Y en el transcurso de 30 das tras un perodo en el hospital en el caso de un adulto de 65 aos o mayor con seguridad social, en un 27 % de los cass son reingresados en 30 das. O en aproximadamente 6 meses, ms del 56 % son reingresados. +Por qu ahora? Por qu todo esto se ha logrado de repente una realidad, una direccin emocionante en el futuro de la medicina? +Lo que tenemos es, en cierto modo, una tormenta positiva perfecta. +Esto establece un sistema de salud impulsado por el consumidor. +Es ah donde todo esto est comenzando. +Djenme darles los detalles de porqu esto es un gran movimiento si es que no son conscientes de ello. 1,2 millones de estadounidenses han comprado un zapato Nike, que es una red de rea corporal cuya suela del zapato conecta al iPhone o al iPod. +Este artculo de portada pertenece a la revista Wired y habla mucho de esto. Habla mucho acerca del zapato Nike y cmo ha sido adoptado rpidamente para monitorear la fisiologa del ejercicio y el gasto de energa. +Aqu hay algunas cosas, los principios que son las reglas a tener en cuenta: "Una revolucin de la salud impulsada por la informacin promete hacernos mejores, ms rpidos y ms fuertes. Vivir a travs de nmeros." +Bien, pues prob este aparato. +Muchos de ustedes tienen el Phillips Direct Life. +Yo no tuve uno de esos, sino el Fitbit. +Que tiene esta apariencia. +Es como un acelermetro o un podmetro inalmbrico. +Y slo les quiero dar los resultados de esas pruebas, porque quera entender acerca del movimiento del consumidor. +Y espero que, por cierto, el Phillips Direct Live funcione mejor. De verdad, lo espero. +ste monitorea la alimentacin. Monitorea la actividad y el peso. +Sin embargo, uno tiene que introducir casi todos estos datos. +Lo nico que realmente supervisa autnomamente es la actividad. E incluso eso no lo hace del todo. +As que usted hace ejercicio y queda registrado el ejercicio. +Introduce su estatura y peso, entonces calcula el ndice de masa corporal. Y, por supuesto, le dice cuntas caloras gasta con el ejercicio y cuntas ingiri, siempre que registre todos sus alimentos. +Esto obliga en realidad a introducir toda actividad. +As que me puse a ello y, claro que estuve encantado de que registrara los 42 minutos de ejercicio que hice en la bicicleta elptica. Pero luego pide ms informacin. +Como, "Quiere registrar la actividad sexual. +Durante cunto tiempo lo hizo?" +Y pregunta, "Fue difcil?" +Adems solicita, "Hora de inicio." +Bien, esto no parece... bueno, simplemente no me sirve. Lo digo de verdad, esto simplemente no sirve. +Bien, ahora quiero ir al sueo. +Quin hubiera pensando jams que usted podra tener su propio electroencefalograma en su casa, pegado a un despertador muy bonito, por cierto. +sta es la banda que va con este despertador. +Supervisa las ondas cerebrales continuamente, mientras usted duerme. +As que lo hice durante siete das preparndome para TEDMed. +Esta es una parte importante de nuestras vidas, ya que un tercio lo pasamos durmiendo. +Desde luego, cuntas personas aqu tienen algn problema para dormir? +En general el 90 por ciento. As que duermen mejor que lo esperado. +Bien, esta es una semana de mi vida durmiendo. Y obtienes una puntuacin estndar; en lugar de en cociente de inteligencia te da una puntuacin estndar, al despertar. +Y vas y dices, "ah, bien." Y una puntuacin estndar se ajusta a la edad. Y quieres obtener la puntuacin ms alta posible. +Y esto es el sueo momento a momento o minuto a minuto. +Y ven que ese estndar fue de ms de 80. +El tiempo despierto se muestra en naranja. +Y, segn vi, esto puede ser un problema. +Porque no slo le ayuda a cuantificar su sueo, sino que le dice a otros que usted est despierto. +As que cuando mi esposa lleg y pudo ver que estaba despierto. +"Eric, quiero hablar contigo. Quiero hablar contigo." +Y trato de hacerme el dormido. +Esta cosa es muy, muy impresionante. +Bien, as fue la primera noche. +Y con sta van ya las 67. Y eso no es un buen resultado. +Y tambin le dice, por supuesto, cuanto dur el sueo MOR, su sueo profundo y este tipo de cosas. +Esto fue realmente fascinante porque dio esos nmeros acerca de todas las diferentes fases del sueo. +Y luego muestra cmo le va en comparacin con su grupo de edad. +Es como una competicin del sueo. +Y son cosas realmente interesantes. +Es observar esto y comentar, "Bueno. No crea dormir tan bien pero, de hecho, tuve mejor promedio que el resto de personas entre 50 y 60 aos." Bien? +Y la clave fue, que lo que no saba, era que soy muy bueno para dormir. +Bien. Ahora vaymonos del sueo a las enfermedades. +El 80 por ciento de los estadounidenses tiene alguna enfermad crnica, y el 80 por ciento de gente mayor de 65 aos tienen dos o ms enfermedades crnicas 140 millones de estadounidenses tienen una o ms enfermedades crnicas. Y el 80 por ciento de los 1,5 no se qu billn de gastos estn relacionados con enfermedades crnicas. +Bien, diabetes es una de las grandes. +Casi 24 millones de personas tienen diabetes. +Aqu est el ltimo mapa. Fue publicado hace un poco ms de una semana en el New York Times. Y no tiene buena pinta. +Esto es, para hombres, 29 por ciento en el pas, de ms de 60 aos, tienen diabetes tipo II. Y mujeres, aunque menos, siguen siendo muchsimas. +Pero desde luego ahora tenemos la manera de supervisarlo de manera continua, con un sensor que detecta la glucosa en la sangre. Les digo, esto es importante porque podemos detectar hiperglicemia que de otra manera no se podra detectar, y tambin la hipoglicemia. +Pueden ver que los puntos rojos en el caso de este paciente en particular fueron tiras de glucosa, que hubieran omitido ambos extremos. +Pero con un monitoreo continuo, se registra toda la informacin vital. +Pero el futuro de esto, es desarrollarlo hasta conseguir un logro parecido al de las tiritas. Y eso no est muy lejos. +As que djeme que les cuente, rpidamente, los 10 principales objetivos de la medicina inalmbrica. +Todo esto es posible. Algunos de ellos estn muy cerca, o, como ya oyeron, ya estn disponibles hoy en una forma u otra. +La enfermedad de Alzheimer hay cinco millones de personas afectadas. Y usted puede revisar las constantes vitales, la actividad, el equilibrio. +Asmticos hay muchos. Se podran detectar cosas como cantidad de polen, calidad del aire, frecuencia respiratoria. Cncer de mama. Les mostrar un ejemplo de eso rpidamente. +Enfermedad pulmonar obstructiva crnica. +Depresin. Existe una aproximacin importante a los trastornos de estado del nimo. +Diabetes, la cual acabo de mencionar. Insuficiencia cardaca de la que ya hablamos. Hipertensin. 74 millones de personas podran tener un monitoreo continuo de la presin sangunea para obtener un manejo y prevencin mucho mejor. +Y de la obesidad, ya hemos hablado de la manera de supervisarla. +Y de los problemas del sueo. +Esto es efectivo alrededor del mundo. El acceso a los telfonos inteligentes y telfonos mviles hoy est super extendido. +Y este artculo de The Economist lo resume muy bien acerca de las oportunidades en la salud en los pases en desarrollo. "Los telfonos mviles marcaron una gran diferencia en las vidas de muchas personas, mucho ms rpidamente que cualquier otra tecnologa anterior." +Y eso fue antes de que nos adentrramos en el mundo de la sanidad itinerante. +El envejecimiento es un problema enorme. Trescientas mil caderas rotas al ao. Pero las soluciones son extraordinarias. e incluyen muchas cosas diferentes. +Una de las cuales quiero mencionar: El iShoe es otro ejemplo de un sensor que mejora la percepcin de los msculos en los mayores para prevenir cadas. +Una de las muchas diferentes tcnicas que usa sensores inalmbricos. +As que podemos cambiar la medicina a lo largo del espectro continuo de la prevencin y cuidado, a lo largo de las diferentes edades, desde nios prematuros o neonatos hasta los ancianos; los cambios en el campo farmacutico; el espectro de las enfermedades. Espero haberles dado una idea del alcance de esto alrededor del mundo. +Hay dos cosas que pueden realmente acelerar todo este proceso. +Una de ellas, y somos muy afortunados, es desarrollar un instituto dedicado a esto y que ha comenzado con el trabajo conjunto de Scripps y Qualcomm... +y con la gran suerte de unirnos a Gary y Mary West, para manejar este instituto de tecnologa inalmbrica y salud. +San Diego es un lugar extraordinario para esto. +Hay ms de 650 compaas de tecnologa inalmbrica. 100 o ms de las cuales estn trabajando en salud inalmbrica. +Es la fuente nmero uno de comercio, y sorprendentemente encaja perfectamente con las ms de las 500 compaas que trabajan en las ciencias de la vida. +El instituto de tecnologa inalmbrica, el West Wireless Health Institute, es realmente el producto de dos personas extraordinarias que estn aqu esta noche: Gary y Mary West. Y me gustara que les reconociramos por estar detrs de todo esto. +Su inversin filantrpica fantstica ha hecho esto posible, y esto de verdad un centro educativo sin fines de lucro que est por abrir. Es as. Todo este edificio dedicado a ello. +El otro asunto grande, adems de tener este fantstico instituto para acelerar este proceso es la orientacin, y esto por supuesto cuenta con el hecho de que la medicina se vuelva digital. +Si entendemos la biologa desde la genmica y otras micas y usamos tecnologa inalmbrica determinando los fenotipos fisiolgicos, eso es grande. +Porque lo que hace es permitir una convergencia como nunca la hemos visto antes. +Ms de 80 enfermedades han sido descifradas a nivel genmico, pero esto es muy extraordinario; ms an, se ha aprendido ms acerca de los cimientos de las enfermedades en los ltimos dos aos y medio que en la historia de la humanidad. +Y cuando se junta todo esto con, por ejemplo, una aplicacin para el iPhone con su genotipo para guiar terapias medicinales... +pero, el futuro es que por ahora podemos decir quin va a tener diabetes tipo II de entre todas las variantes comunes, y eso va a ser completado con las variantes menos comunes en el futuro. +Podemos saber quin va a sufrir cncer de mama de entre varios genes. +Tambin podemos saber quin probablemente tendr fibrilacin auricular. +Y finalmente, otro ejemplo: muerte sbita cardaca. +Cada uno de estos tiene un sensor. +Podemos dar un sensor de glucosa para diabetes y as prevenirla. +Podemos prevenir o tener la deteccin ms temprana posible para cncer de mama con un aparato de ultra sonido que se le da al paciente. +Un iRhythm para fibrilacin auricular. +Y un monitoreo de constantes vitales para prevenir la muerte sbita cardaca. +Perdemos setecientas mil personas al ao en los EEUU por muerte sbita cardaca. +As que espero los haya convencido acerca de esto. El impacto en los recursos clnicos de los hospitales es grande y luego el impacto en las enfermedades es igualmente impresionante a lo largo de todas estas diferentes enfermedades y ms. +Esto alza la medicina individualizada a un nuevo nivel y es hiper-innovador. Y creo que representa el Cisne Negro de la medicina. +Gracias pro su atencin. +Creo que comenzar hablando un poco sobre lo que es exactamente el autismo. +El autismo es un continuo muy grande que va desde algo muy severo, nios que no hablan, hasta cientficos e ingenieros brillantes. +Y en realidad me siento como en casa aqu. Porque aqu hay mucha gentica de autismo. +Uds. no tendran... +Es un continuo de huellas. +Qu hace que un empolln se encuadre en un Asperger, un autismo leve? +Quiero decir, Einstein, Mozart y Tesla, hoy todos probablemente seran diagnosticados en el espectro autstico. +Y una de las cosas en las que me voy a interesar es hacer que estos nios sean quienes van a inventar la prxima energa, Ahora, que Bill Gates habl de eso esta maana. +Bueno, ahora, si quieren entender el autismo, los animales. +Y ahora quiero hablarles de distintas maneras de pensar. +Uno tiene que salirse del lenguaje hablado. +Yo pienso en imgenes. No pienso con palabras. +Ahora, la quid de la mente autista es que se ocupa de los detalles. +Bien, este es un test en el que uno tiene que elegir las letras grandes o las letras pequeas. Y la mente autista elige las letras pequeas ms rpidamente. +Y la cosa es que el cerebro normal ignora los detalles. +Bien, si uno est construyendo un puente, los detalles son importantes porque se caer si uno ignora los detalles. +Y hoy una de mis grandes preocupaciones con muchas polticas es que las cosas se estn poniendo muy abstractas. +La gente est dejando de hacer cosas prcticas. +Estoy muy preocupada porque muchas escuelas han quitado las clases prcticas, porque el arte, y las clases como esas, esas eran las clases en las que yo sobresala. +Bien, en mi trabajo con ganado not un montn de pequeas cosas que la mayora de la gente no nota que haran espantar al ganado. Como, por ejemplo, el ondeo de la bandera, justo en frente de la veterinaria. +Este depsito de alimento iba a echar abajo toda la veterinaria todo lo que necesitaban era quitar la bandera. +Movimiento rpido, contraste. +A principios de los '70s comenc, baj justo por las mangas para ver qu haca el ganado. +La gente pensaba que era loco. Un abrigo en una cerca las espantara. Las sombras lo espantara, una manguera en el piso. +La gente no notaba estas cosas una cadena colgando y eso se ve muy, muy bien en la pelcula. +De hecho, me encant en la pelcula como reprodujeron todos mis proyectos. Ese es el lado friki. +Mis dibujos protagonizan la pelcula tambin. +Y se llama Temple Grandin no "Pensando en imgenes". +As, qu es pensar en imgenes? Literalmente son pelculas en la cabeza. +Mi mente funciona como Google con las imgenes. +Ahora bien, de nia yo no saba que mi pensamiento es diferente. +Yo pensaba que todos pensaban en imgenes. +Y despus, cuando hice mi libro "Pensando en imgenes", empec a entrevistar gente sobre cmo piensan. +Y me impresion encontrar que mi pensamiento mi pensamiento era muy diferente. Como si digo "Piensen en un campanario de iglesia" mucha gente piensa en cierta forma muy generalizada. +Ahora, quiz eso no se cumple en esta sala. Pero va a ser verdad en un montn de lugares distintos. +Yo veo slo imgenes especficas +que irrumpen en mi memoria, justo como Google con las imgenes. +Y en la pelcula hay una gran escena all en la que se dice la palabra "zapato" y un montn de zapatos de los '50s y '60s se meten en mi imaginacin. +Bien, est mi iglesia de la infancia. Bien especfico. Hay algo ms, Fort Collins. +Bien, qu tal las famosas? +Simplemente aparecen, como en este caso. +Realmente muy rpido, como Google con las imgenes. +Y vienen de a una a la vez. Y luego pienso, bien, quiz podemos tener nieve o podemos tener una tormenta y podemos dejarlo all y transformarlo en videos. +Ahora, el pensamiento visual fue un activo enorme en mi trabajo de diseo de las instalaciones para el ganado. +Y trabaj realmente mucho en mejorar el trato del ganado en el matadero. +No voy a entrar en lminas incmodas de matanzas. +Tengo esas cosas subidas a Youtube si quieren verlas. +Pero una de las cosas que fui capaz de hacer en mi trabajo de diseo es que pude probar la ejecucin de un equipo en mi mente como si fuera un sistema de realidad virtual +y esta es una vista area de la reconstruccin de uno de mis proyectos que se us en la pelcula. +Eso fue realmente super guay. +Y haba un montn de tipos de Asperger y tipos de autismo, trabajando all en la pelcula tambin. +Pero una de las cosas que realmente me preocupan es a dnde estn yendo hoy la versin joven de estos nios. +No estn terminando en Silicon Valley, lugar al que pertenecen. +Una de las cosas que aprend desde muy temprano, porque no era tan sociable, es que tena que vender mi trabajo y no a m misma. +Y el modo de vender tareas de ganado fue mostrando mis dibujos, mostr imgenes de cosas. +Otra cosa que me ayud, de nia, fue que vaya, en los '50s a uno le enseaban modales. +A una le enseaban que no poda sacar las cosas de los estantes en la tienda y arrojarlas por ah. +Ahora, cuando vienen los nios de tercer o cuarto grado uno puede ver que este nio va a ser un pensador visual que dibuja en perspectiva. Ahora, quiero resaltar que no todo nio autista va a ser un pensador visual. +Me hicieron este barrido cerebral hace varios aos. Y yo sola bromear sobre el hecho de tener un cao gigante de internet metido en lo profundo de mi corteza visual. +Esto es una imagen con tensor de difusin. +Y mi gran cao de internet es dos veces ms grande que el de control. +Las lneas rojas soy yo, y las lneas azules son las de control, por sexo y edad. +Y all tengo una gigante y la de control por all, la de azul, tiene una realmente pequea. +Y algunas investigaciones estn mostrando que la gente del espectro en verdad piensa con la corteza visual primaria. +La cosa es que el pensador visual es slo un tipo de mente. +Ya ven, la mente autista tiende a ser una mente especializada. Buena para una cosa, mala para otra cosa. +Y yo era mala en lgebra. y nunca se me permiti estudiar geometra o trigonometra. +Error garrafal. Estoy encontrando muchos nios que dejan lgebra y van directo a geometra y trigonometra. +Otro tipo de mente es el que piensa en patrones. +Ms abstracto. Estos son sus ingenieros sus programadores. +Esto es el pensamiento en patrones. Ese mantis religioso est hecho con una sola hoja de papel sin pegamento, ni cortes. +Y all en el fondo est el patrn para hacer los dobleces. +Este es el tipo de pensamiento de pensadores visuales fotorrealistas, como yo. Pensadores de patrones, mentes de msica y matemtica +Algunos de ellos a menudo tienen problemas de lectura. +Tambin se ver este tipo de problemas con con los nios dislxicos. +Vern estos diferentes tipos de mentes. +Y luego hay una mente verbal. Ellos conocen todos los hechos sobre cualquier tema. +Otra cosa son las cuestiones sensoriales. +Me preocupaba mucho tener que ponerme este aparato en mi cara. +Y vine media hora antes para que me lo colocaran y poder acostumbrarme. Y lo doblaron para que no golpee mi mentn. +La sensibilidad es un problema. A algunos les molestan las luces fluorescentes. Otros tienen problemas con la sensibilidad sonora. +Ya saben, va a ser variable. +El pensamiento visual me ayud mucho a entender la mente animal. +Porque piensen en eso. Un animal es un pensador sensorial, no uno verbal. Piensa en imgenes. Piensa en sonidos. Piensa en olores. +Piensen cunta informacin hay all en la boca de incendio. +El animal sabe quin y cundo ha estado all +son amigos o enemigos, es alguien con quien aparearse. +Hay muchsima informacin en esa boca de incendio. +Todo es informacin muy detallada. Y, mirar este tipo de detalles me dio mucho conocimiento de los animales. +La mente animal, y tambin de la ma clasifica la informacin sensorial en categoras. +Un hombre a caballo y un hombre en el piso son vistos como dos cosas totalmente diferentes +Uno podra tener un caballo que ha sido abusado por un jinete. +Estarn absolutamente bien con el veterinario y con el herrero pero uno no puede montarlo. +Uno tiene otro caballo, a quien el herrero le da una paliza y ser fatal con todo lo del terreno con el veterinario, pero una persona puede montarlo. +Con el ganado es lo mismo. +Hombre a caballo, hombre a pie, son cosas diferentes. +Ya ven, es una imagen diferente. +Vean, quiero que piensen lo especfico que es esto. +Esta capacidad de poner informacin en categoras. Encuentro mucha gente que no es buena en esto. +Cuando estoy resolviendo problemas de equipos o con algo en la planta ellos no parecen ser capaces de imaginar si "tengo un problema de entrenamiento?" +o si "tengo algo mal en el equipamiento?" +En otras palabras: categorizar en problema de equipamiento o en problema humano. +Encuentro mucha gente con dificultades para hacer eso. +Digamos que imagino que es un problema de equipamiento. +Es un problema menor que se soluciona con algo simple? +O, est mal todo el diseo del sistema? +A la gente se le hace difcil imaginar eso. +Miremos algo como, ya saben, solucionar problemas haciendo aerolneas ms seguras. +S, soy una pasajera de un milln de millas. +Hago montones y montones de vuelos. Y si estuviera en la FFA en qu estara poniendo mucha observacin directa? +Sera en sus colas de avin. +Ya sabe, cinco accidentes fatales en los ltimos 20 aos o bien la cola sali de direccin o bien algo en su interior se rompi de algn modo. +Son las colas, lisa y llanamente. +Y cuando los pilotos recorren el avin, adivinen qu? No pueden ver esa cosa dentro de la cola. +Ya saben, ahora que pienso en eso, estoy levantando toda esa informacin especfica. +Es especfico. As que, ven, mi pensamiento es de abajo hacia arriba. +Tomo todas las pequeas piezas y las junto como en un rompecabezas +Ahora, aqu hay un caballo que tena un miedo mortal a los sombreros de cowboy negros. +Alguien con sombrero de cowboy negro abus de l. +Pero los sombreros blancos, esos estaban muy bien. +La cosa es que el mundo va a necesitar que todos los tipos de mentes diferentes trabajen en conjunto. +Tenemos que trabajar en el desarrollo de todos estos tipos de mentes. +Y una de las cosas que me est volviendo realmente loca a medida que viajo y hago encuentros de autismo es que estoy viendo muchos pequeos cerebritos que no son muy sociables y nadie est trabajando en desarrollar su inters en algo como la ciencia. +Y esto trae a mi mente la historia de mi profesor de ciencias. +Mi profesor de ciencias aparece maravillosamente en la pelcula. +Yo era el payaso de la clase en la secundaria. No me interesaba estudiar en absoluto hasta que tuve al Sr Carlock en la clase de ciencias. +Quien ahora es el Dr. Carlock en la pelcula. +Y l me desafi a imaginar una sala de ilusin ptica. +Esto nos lleva a la cuestin de mostrarle a los nios cosas interesantes. +Ya saben, una de las cosas que pienso quiz TED debe hacer es contarle a las escuelas las grandes conferencias que hay en TED y hay todo tipo de cosas geniales en internet para mantener atentos a los nios. +Porque estoy viendo un montn de estos empollones, y los profesores del oeste medio, y de otras partes del pas, cuando uno se aleja de estas reas tecnolgicas no saben qu hacer con estos nios. +Y no estn recorriendo el camino correcto. +La cosa es que uno puede hacer que una mente sea ms que una mente de pensamiento y cognicin. O quiz tenga conexiones para ser ms social. +Y lo que muestran algunas investigaciones sobre autismo es que puede haber conexiones extras aqu en las mentes realmente brillantes, y perdemos unos circuitos aqu. +Es como un compromiso entre el pensamiento y lo social. +Y luego uno puede llegar al punto en que es tan severo que va a tener personas que no van a hablar. +En la mente humana normal el lenguaje abarca el pensamiento visual que compartimos con los animales. +Este es el trabajo del Dr. Bruce Miller. +l estudi a pacientes con Alzheimer que tenan demencia frontotemporal. +Y la demencia comi las partes del lenguaje en el cerebro y esta obra surgi de alguien que sola instalar estreos en los autos. +Van Gogh no saba nada de fsica. Pero pienso que es muy interesante un trabajo que se hizo para mostrar que este patrn de remolinos de la pintura segua un modelo estadstico de turbulencia. Lo que sugiere es que toda esta interesante idea o tal vez alguno de estos patrones matemticos est en nuestra propia cabeza. +Y lo de Wolfram que estuve tomando notas y escribiendo todas las palabras clave que podra usar porque pienso que va a ir en mis conferencias sobre autismo. +Tenemos que mostrarles a estos chicos cosas interesantes. +Y han pasado la clase de mecnica y la de dibujo, y la de arte. +Quiero decir, arte era mi mejor materia en la escuela. +Tenemos que pensar en todos estos tipos de mentes diferentes. Y tenemos que trabajar con absolutamente todos estos tipos de mentes porque vamos a necesitar absolutamente este tipo de gente en el futuro. +Y hablemos de los empleos. +Bien, mi profesor de ciencias me hizo estudiar porque yo era una payasa que no quera estudiar. +Pero saben qu? Estaba recibiendo experiencia laboral. +Estoy viendo demasiados de estos nios inteligentes que no han aprendido cosas bsicas como ser puntuales. +Me ensearon eso cuando tena ocho aos. +Ya saben, cmo comportarse en la mesa de la abuela el domingo en la fiesta. +Me ensearon eso cuando era muy, muy pequea. +Y a los 13 tena un trabajo en un taller de modista vendiendo ropa. +Hice prcticas en la universidad. Estuve construyendo cosas. Y tambin tuve que aprender a hacer tareas. +Ya saben, todo lo que quera era dibujar caballos cuando era pequea. +Mi madre deca: "Bien, hagamos un dibujo de algo ms", +Ellos tienen que aprender cmo hacer algo ms. +Supongamos que un nio tiene una fijacin con los ladrillitos. +Hagmoslo trabajar en la construccin de distintas cosas. +El quid de la mente autista es que tiende a la fijacin. +Si a un nio le gustan las carreras de autos usemos autos de carrera en matemticas. +Imaginemos cunto tarda una carrera de autos en ir a determinada distancia. +En otras palabras, usar esa fijacin para motivar a ese nio, esa es una de las cosas que tenemos que hacer. +Me molesta mucho cuando ellos, ya saben, los profesores especialmente cuando te alejas de esta parte del pas. ellos no saben qu hacer con estos nios inteligentes. +Es algo que me pone loca. +Qu pueden hacer los pensadores visuales cuando crecen? +Pueden hacer diseo grfico, todo tipo de cosas con computadoras, fotografa, diseo industrial. +Los pensadores de patrones, ellos sern quienes van a ser sus matemticos, sus ingenieros de software sus programadores, todos esos tipos de trabajos. +Y luego uno tiene las mentes de palabras. Ellos sern grandes periodistas. Y tambin realmente muy buenos actores. +Porque la cosa con ser autista es que tuve que aprender habilidades sociales como estar en una obra. +Es como si uno tuviese que aprenderlo. +Y tenemos que trabajar con estos estudiantes. +Y esto produce mentores. +Ya saben, mi profesor de ciencias no estaba acreditado. +Era un cientfico espacial de la NASA. +Algunos estados estn llevando esto a que si uno tiene un ttulo en biologa, o en qumica, puede venir a la escuela y ensear biologa o qumica. +Tenemos que hacer eso. +Porque lo que estoy observando es que los buenos profesores, para muchos de estos nios, estn afuera, en la comunidad de colegas. Necesitamos llevar alguno de esos buenos profesores a las secundarias. +Otra cosa que puede ser muy, muy, muy exitosa es que hay mucha gente que puede haberse jubilado de la industria del software y puede ensear a los nios. +Y no importa si lo que ensean es viejo porque lo que estn haciendo es encender la chispa. +Uno mantiene a ese nio enganchado. +Lo tiene enganchado, entonces aprender todo lo nuevo. +Los mentores son esenciales. +No me canso de decir cunto hizo mi profesor de ciencias por m. +Y tenemos que guiarlos, contratarlos. +Y si los traen para realizar prcticas en sus compaas lo que deben saber del autismo, el tipo de mente Asperger, es que tienen que darles tareas especficas. No digan, "Disea nuevo software". +Tienen que decirles algo mucho ms especfico: "Bien, estamos diseando software para un telfono y tiene que hacer algo especfico. +Y slo se puede usar tanta memoria". +Ese es el tipo de especificidad que necesitan. +Bien, ese es el fin de mi charla. +y quiero agradecerles a todos por venir. +Ha sido genial estar aqu. +Oh, tienes una pregunta para m? Bien. +Chris Anderson: Muchas gracias por eso. +Una vez escribiste, me gusta esta cita, "Si por arte de magia, el autismo fuera erradicado de la faz de la Tierra, entonces el Hombre todava estara socializando frente a un fogn en la entrada de una caverna". +Temple Grandin: Quin piensas que hizo las primeras lanzas de piedra? +El tipo Asperger. Y si uno fuera a deshacerse de la gentica del autismo no habra ms Silicon Valley y la crisis energtica no sera resuelta. +CA: Quera hacerte un par de preguntas ms. Si alguna de estas te parecen inoportunas est bien decir "Siguiente pregunta". +Pero si hay alguien aqu que tiene un nio autista o conoce a un nio autista y se siente un poco distante de l qu consejo le dara? +TG: Bien, ante todo, hay que mirar la edad +Si uno tiene un nio de dos, tres o cuatro aos sin habla ni interaccin social no me canso de decir que no esperen, se necesita al menos 20 horas semanales de instruccin personalizada. +Ya saben, la cosa es que el autismo viene en distintos grados. +Esto abarca cerca de la mitad de la gente del espectro que no van a aprender a hablar, y no van a poder trabajar. El Silicon Valley no ser algo razonable para ellos. +Pero luego estn los nios genios que tienen un toque de autismo y es ah donde uno tiene que hacerlos enganchar para hacer cosas interesantes. +Interactuaba socialmente a travs de intereses que compartamos. +Montaba a caballo con otros nios. Haca modelos de cohetes con otros nios, hacamos laboratorios de electrnica con otros nios, y en los '60s haba que pegar espejos en una membrana de goma sobre un altavoz para hacer un show de luces. +Eso era como, nos pareca sper guay. +CA: Es poco realista que ellos esperen o piensen que ese nio los ama, como muchos, como la mayora, quisiera? +TG: Bueno, djame decirte que ese nio ser leal Y si tu casa se est quemando te van a sacar de all. +CA: Vaya, la mayora de las personas, si uno les pregunta cul es su mayor pasin dirn algo como "Mis hijos" o "Mi amante". +Qu es lo que ms te apasiona? +TG: Lo que me apasiona es que las cosas que hago van a hacer de este mundo un mejor lugar. +Cuando viene una madre de un nio autista y dice: "Mi hijo fue a la universidad gracias a su libro o a una de sus charlas" Eso me hace feliz. +Ya saben, los mataderos en los que trabaj. En los '80s eran absolutamente espantosos. +Yo desarroll un sistema de puntuacin muy simple para los mataderos donde uno simplemente mide resultados, cunto ganado se cay? +Cunto ganado fue aguijoneado con la picana? +Cuntas reses estn mugiendo? +Y es muy, muy simple. +Hay que observar directamente unas pocas cosas. +Ha funcionado realmente muy bien. Me satisface ver cosas que producen un cambio real en el mundo real. Necesitamos mucho ms de eso y mucho menos cosas abstractas. +CA: Cuando estbamos hablando por telfono una de las cosas que dijiste lo que realmente me asombr fue que dijiste que tu pasin eran las granjas de servidores. Cuntame sobre eso. +TG: Bueno, la razn por la que me entusiasm al leer sobre eso es que contiene conocimiento. +Son las bibliotecas. +Y para m el conocimiento es algo extremadamente valioso. Quiz hace ms de 10 aos se inund nuestra biblioteca. +Y esto pas antes de que internet fuese algo tan grande. +Y me sent muy molesta al ver todos los libros flotando porque era conocimiento que se destrua. +Y las granjas de servidores, o centros de datos, son grandes bibliotecas de conocimiento +CA: Temple, puedo decir que es una delicia tenerte en TED. +TG: Bueno, muchas gracias. Gracias. +Si eres un nio ciego en la India, muy probablemente tengas que luchar contra, por lo menos, dos cosas muy malas. +La primera cosa mala es que las posibilidades de conseguir tratamiento son prcticamente nulas, y ello se debe a que la mayora de los programas de lucha contra la ceguera en el pas se centran en los adultos, y hay muy, muy pocos hospitales que estn realmente equipados para atender a nios. +De hecho, si les trataran a ustedes, bien podran acabar siendo atendidos por alguien sin acreditacin mdica, como nos muestra este caso de Rajasthan. +Se trata de una nia hurfana de 3 aos que tena cataratas. +As es que sus tutores la llevaron al curandero del pueblo, quien, en lugar de aconsejar a sus tutores que la llevaran a un hospital, el hombre decidi quemarle el abdomen con unas barras al rojo vivo para expulsar los demonios. +La segunda cosa mala que les dirn vendr de parte de los neurlogos, quienes explicarn que si se tiene ms de cuatro o cinco aos de edad, y que, incluso, si pasaran por una operacin de ojos, las posibilidades de que los cerebros aprendan a ver son muy, muy escasas. Una vez ms: escasas o nulas. +Por eso, cuando escuch todo esto me preocup muchsimo, tanto por razones personales como cientficas. +Djenme comenzar por las personales. +Les sonar cursi, pero soy honesto. +Este es mi hijo, Darius. +Como padre primerizo, tengo un sentimiento cualitativamente diferente que va ms all de qu dulces son los bebs, de cules son nuestras obligaciones para con ellos, y de cunto amor podemos sentir hacia un nio. +Movera cielo y tierra por un tratamiento para Darius. Y, para m, que me dijeran que podra haber otros Darius que no reciben tratamiento alguno, es algo que rechazo con vehemencia. +Ese es pues el motivo personal. +El motivo cientfico es la idea de la neurologa sobre el periodo crtico en el que, si el cerebro tiene ms de cuatro o cinco aos, pierde la capacidad de aprender. Eso no lo acabo de digerir, porque no creo que esa cuestin se haya comprobado adecuadamente. +La idea surge de un trabajo de David Hubel y Torsten Wiesel, dos investigadores que estaban en Harvard y que obtuvieron el premio nobel en 1981 a raz de sus estudios sobre la fisiologa visual, estudios que son increblemente interesantes. Sin embargo, parte de ellos se extrapolaron precipitadamente al mbito del ser humano. +Ellos realizaron sus estudios con gatitos con distintos tipos de discapacidades visuales, y esos estudios, que datan de los sesenta, se aplican ahora a nios. +As que sent que deba hacer dos cosas. +Una: prestar asistencia a los nios que actualmente estn privados de tratamiento. +Esa es la misin humanitaria. +Y la misin cientfica sera: verificar los lmites de la flexibilidad visual. +Estas dos misiones, como podrn ver, se entrelazan perfectamente, una aporta a la otra. De hecho, una sera imposible sin la otra. +Por lo tanto, para llevar a cabo estas dos misiones, puse en marcha, hace unos aos, el proyecto Prakash. +Prakash, como mucho de ustedes saben, es el equivalente en snscrito para la palabra "luz", y la idea es que al traer la luz a la vida de estos nios, tambin tendremos la posibilidad de arrojar luz sobre algunos de los misterios ms profundos de la neurologa. +Y el logotipo, incluso an cuando parezca muy irlands, deriva en realidad del smbolo hind del Diya que es una lmpara de barro. +Prakash, el proyecto global tiene tres partes, asistencia para identificar a los nios con falta de cuidados, tratamiento mdico y un posterior estudio. +Quiero mostrarles un breve video clip que nos ensea las dos primeras partes de este trabajo. +Este es un centro mdico que funciona en una escuela para ciegos. +(Texto: La mayora de los nios tiene una ceguera irreversible o severa...) Pawan Sinha: Puesto que, es una escuela para ciegos, muchos nios tienen una ceguera irreversible. +Este es un caso de microftalmia. que es una malformacin de los ojos, y es irreversible. No se puede tratar. +Este es un caso extremo de microftalmia. denominado enoftalmia. +Pero, muy a menudo, nos encontramos con nios que cuentan con una mnima visin residual, y esto es una muy buena seal de que la enfermedad realmente se pueda tratar. +Despus del anlisis, traemos al nio al hospital. +Este es el hospital con el que trabajamos en Delhi, el hospital oftalmolgico Shroff's Charity. +Est muy bien equipado con un centro oftalmolgico peditrico, que se logr en parte gracias a una donacin entregada por la fundacin Ronald McDonald. +As es que, comer hamburguesas en realidad ayuda. +(Texto: Dichos exmenes nos permiten mejorar la salud ocular en muchos nios, +... y nos ayuda a encontrar nios que puedan participar en el proyecto Prakash.) PS: A medida que hago zoom en los ojos de este nio, ustedes vern la causa de su ceguera. +Lo blanco que ven en el medio de sus pupilas son cataratas congnitas, que opacan los cristalinos. +En nuestros ojos los cristalinos son claros, pero en este nio, los cristalinos son oscuros y por eso no puede ver el mundo. +As que, el nio fue tratado. Vern fotos del ojo. +Aqu est el ojo con el cristalino opaco, se extrajo el cristalino opaco, y se insert uno acrlico. +Y aqu est el mismo nio tres semanas despus de la ciruga con el ojo derecho abierto. +Gracias. +As que a partir de ese video, ustedes pueden empezar a entender que la recuperacin es posible, nosotros ya hemos tratado a ms de 200 nios, y la historia se repite. +Despus del tratamiento, el nio logra una funcionalidad significativa. +De hecho, la historia se sostiene incluso para aquellos que lograron ver despus de aos de ceguera. +Hace unos aos escribimos un artculo sobre esta mujer que ven a la derecha, SRD, ella consigui ver a una edad avanzada y su vista es excelente a esta edad. +Debo agregar un dato lamentable a esta historia. Ella falleci hace dos aos en un accidente de bus. +Su historia es verdaderamente inspiradora, desconozida, pero inspiradora. +As que cuando empezamos a obtener estos resultados, como podrn imaginar, todo esto creo una pequea controversia en la prensa pblica y cientfica. +Aqu tenemos un artculo en la revista Nature con una resea de este trabajo y otra publicacin en la revista Time. +Estbamos bastante seguros, estamos seguros de que la recuperacin es factible, a pesar de la imposibilidad de ver por mucho tiempo. +La siguiente pregunta obvia es: cul es el proceso de recuperacin? +El modo en el que estudiamos esto es, supongamos que hay un nio con sensibilidad a la luz. +Tratamos al nio y quiero subrayar que el tratamiento no est sujeto a ninguna condicin. No se pide nada a cambio. +Trabajamos con menos nios de los que en realidad tratamos. +A cada nio que lo necesita lo tratamos. +Despus del tratamiento, casi semanalmente, analizamos al nio con una serie de tests visuales para comprobar si sus funciones visuales son correctas. +Intentamos hacer esto lo ms prolongadamente posible. +Este abanico de evolucin nos otorga una informacin increblemente valiosa y novedosa sobre cmo la estructura de la vista toma forma. +Cules podran ser las relaciones causantes entre un desarrollo temprano de habilidades y uno ms tardo? +Hemos seguido en general este enfoque para estudiar varias capacidades visuales diferentes, pero quiero resaltar una en particular, que es el anlisis de las imgenes de los objetos. +Cualquier imagen como la que ven a la izquierda, ya sea real o virtual, est hecha de pequeas partes que ven en la columna central, partes de diferentes colores y luminosidad. +El cerebro tiene la difcil tarea de agrupar los subconjuntos de estas partes e integrarlas para lograr algo ms significativo formando lo que consideramos que son objetos, como ustedes ven a la derecha. +Nadie sabe cmo suceden estas integraciones. Y esa es la pregunta que nos hicimos en el proyecto Prakash. +As que, aqu est lo que sucede poco despus de comenzar a ver. +Esta persona haba recuperado la vista un par de semanas antes, y aqu ven a Ethan Myers, un estudiante del MIT (Instituto Tecnolgico de Massachusetts), llevando a cabo un experimento con l. +Su coordinacin motora visual es muy limitada, pero ustedes se hacen una idea de cules son las partes que l intenta trazar. +Si le muestran imgenes del mundo real, si le muestran a otro como l imgenes del mundo real, sern incapaces de reconocer la mayora de los objetos porque el mundo para ellos estar totalmente fragmentado, les parecer un collage, una serie de retazos de regiones de diferentes colores y luminosidades. +Y eso es lo que est sealado en los contornos verdes. +Cuando se les pide que, incluso si no pueden nombrar los objetos, que sealen dnde estn. Estas son las partes que ellos sealan. +El mundo es, entonces, un complejo mosaico de partes. +Incluso la sombra sobre la pelota se transforma en un objeto. +Muy interesante, si les damos pocos meses esto es lo que pasa. +Doctor: Cuntos son esos? +Paciente: Son dos. +Doctor: Qu formas tienen? +Paciente: Sus formas... +Este es un crculo, y este es un cuadrado. +PS: Tuvo lugar una transformacin drstica. +Y la pregunta es: en qu se basa esta transformacin? +Es una pregunta profunda, y es an ms sorprendente lo simple que es la respuesta. +La respuesta se halla en el movimiento y eso es lo que les quiero mostrar en el prximo video clip. +Doctor: Qu forma ves aqu? +Paciente: No logro descifrarlo. +Doctor: Ahora? +Paciente: Un tringulo. +Doctor: Cuntos objetos hay aqu? +Ahora, cuntos objetos hay? +Paciente: Dos. +Doctor: Qu son? +Paciente: Un cuadrado y un crculo. +PS: Y vemos que este patrn se repite una y otra vez. +Lo nico que el sistema visual necesita para empezar a comprender el mundo es informacin dinmica. +Por lo tanto, lo que entendemos de esto y de varias pruebas semejantes, es que el proceso dinmico de informacin, o el proceso del movimiento, sirve de fundamento para edificar el resto del complejo proceso visual. Ello nos lleva a la integracin visual y al reconocimiento final. +Esta idea sencilla posee repercusiones trascendentales. +Y permtanme rpidamente nombrarles dos. Una pertenece a los dominios de la ingeniera, y la otra proviene de la clnica. +Desde la perspectiva de la ingeniera, nos podemos preguntar, puesto que sabemos que el movimiento es muy importante para el sistema visual humano, podemos utilizar esto como una receta para construir sistemas visuales operados por mquinas que puedan aprender solos y que no necesiten ser programados por un ser humano? +Y eso es lo que estamos tratando de hacer. +Estoy en el MIT, all se debe aplicar cualquier conocimiento bsico que adquieras. +As que estamos creando el Dylan que es un sistema computacional cuyo objetivo ambicioso es recoger adquisiciones visuales de la misma clase que las que recibira un nio para luego descubrir automticamente cules son los objetos en dichas adquisiciones visuales. +Pero, no se preocupen por los asuntos intrnsecos del Dylan. +Aqu, slo les voy a hablar acerca de cmo probamos el Dylan. +La manera en la que probamos el Dylan es proveyndole las adquisiciones, como ya dije, de las del tipo que un beb o un nio adquirira en el proyecto Prakash. +Pero durante mucho tiempo no logramos desentraar del todo cmo podemos obtener estos tipos de adquisiciones para video. +Entonces, pens que Darius nos podra servir de beb porta-cmara y de ese modo conseguir las adquisiciones que cargaramos en el Dylan. +Y eso fue lo que hicimos. +Tuve que hablar mucho con mi esposa. +De hecho, Pam, si ests viendo esto, por favor perdname. +As es que, modificamos la ptica de la cmara para poder imitar la agudeza visual del beb. +Como algunos de ustedes sabrn, los bebs nacen prcticamente ciegos. +Su agudeza visual -la nuestra es de 20/20- la de ellos es de unos 20/800, por lo tanto miran el mundo de un modo muy, muy borroso. +As es como se ve el video de la una cmara de beb. +Por suerte, el video no tiene audio. +Lo que es increble, es que con esta visin tan borrosa el beb, muy rpidamente, es capaz de descubrir el significado en estas adquisiciones. +Pero despus de dos o tres das, los bebs comienzan a prestar atencin a los rostros de sus madres y padres. +Cmo sucede esto? Queremos que el Dylan sea capaz de hacerlo. Y usando esta muestra de movimiento, el Dylan realmente lo puede hacer +a pesar del tipo de adquisicin del video, con slo unos seis o siete minutos de filmacin, el Dylan puede comenzar a obtener los patrones que incluyen caras. +Este es una demostracin importante del poder del movimiento. +La repercusin clnica viene del mbito del autismo. +La integracin visual fue asociada al autismo por muchos investigadores. +Cuando vimos eso, nos preguntamos: puede la discapacidad de integracin visual manifestndose a travs de algo subyacente a la deficiencia del procesamiento de la informacin dinmica hacer que se desarrolle el autismo? +Porque, si esta hiptesis fuera verdad, tendra repercusiones inmensas en nuestro entendimiento de muchos de los diferentes aspectos causantes del fenotipo del autismo. +Lo que van a ver son unos video clips de dos nios, uno es neurotpico, el otro padece autismo, jugando al ping-pong. +Mientras ellos juegan al ping-pong, nosotros observamos dnde miran. +En rojo, estn marcados los movimientos de sus ojos, +ste es el nio neurotpico, y lo que ustedes ven es lo que el nio es capaz de percibir de la informacin dinmica para calcular hacia dnde ir la pelota. +Incluso antes de que la pelota llegue, el nio ya est mirando all. +Si lo comparamos con un nio con autismo jugando a lo mismo, +en lugar de anticiparse, siempre va hacia donde estaba la pelota. +La eficiencia en el uso de la informacin dinmica en el autismo parece estar considerablemente comprometida. +As que nosotros seguimos esta lnea de trabajo y con suerte pronto obtendremos ms resultados para informarles pronto. +Mirando al futuro, si ustedes piensan en este disco como representante de todos los nios que hemos tratado hasta ahora, esta es la magnitud del problema. +Los puntos rojos son los nios que no hemos tratado. +Por lo tanto, hay muchos, muchos nios ms que necesitan ser tratados, y para extender el campo de accin del proyecto, planeamos abrir el Centro Prakash para nios, que tendr un hospital peditrico, una escuela para los nios en tratamiento y tambin un centro de investigaciones avanzado. +El Centro Prakash integrar asistencia sanitaria, educacin e investigacin de un modo que realmente cree un todo que sea ms que la suma de las partes. +Y para m y mis estudiantes, ha sido sencillamente una experiencia extraordinaria porque hemos logrado hacer una investigacin interesante mientras que al mismo tiempo ayudamos a muchos nios con los que hemos trabajado. +Muchas gracias. +Creo que fue en segundo grado que me pescaron dibujando el busto de un desnudo de Miguel ngel. +Yo no tena idea de qu estaba hablando pero fue tan convincente que no volv a dibujar otra vez hasta noveno grado +gracias a una charla realmente aburrida. Empec a caricaturizar a mis profesores. +Y, ya saben, me hice muy popular. +No hago deportes. Soy muy malo haciendo deportes. +No tengo los aparatos de moda en casa. +No soy el mejor de la clase. +Por eso las caricaturas me dieron un sentido de identidad. +Me volv popular pero tema que me atraparan de nuevo. +As que lo que hice fue rpidamente juntar todo en un collage de todos los profesores que haba dibujado glorificando al director, ponindolo bien en la cima y se lo regal. +Se ri mucho de los otros profesores y lo puso arriba en la cartelera. +Esto es parte del collage. +Me volv un hroe escolar. +Los ms grandes me conocan. Me senta muy especial. +Tengo que contarles un poco sobre mi familia. +Esa es mi madre. La amo a morir. +Ella es quien me ense a dibujar y, ms importante, a amar. +Ella es un poco hippie. +Ella me dijo que no lo diga, pero lo digo de todos modos. +El resto de mi familia son acadmicos aburridos ocupados en juntar calcomanas de universidades para nuestro viejo Ambassador. +Mi padre es un poco diferente. +Mi padre crea en un enfoque holstico de la vida y, ya saben, cada vez que nos enseaba deca: "Odio estos libros... ...porque fueron influenciados por la Revolucin Industrial". +Y qued muy impresionado. Estaba hecho pedazos. Listo para abrazarme. +Y dije: "Mantn ese pensamiento". +Dije: "Puedo dejar la escuela entonces?" +Bueno, para resumir, abandon la escuela para seguir una carrera como caricaturista. +Debo haber hecho unas 30 mil caricaturas. +Haca cumpleaos, casamientos, divorcios, cualquier cosa para cualquiera que quisiera mis servicios. +Pero ms importante an, mientras viajaba le ense a los nios a dibujar y a cambio aprend a ser espontneo, +disparatado, loco y divertido. +Cuando comenc a ensearles me dije hagamos de esto una profesin. +A los 18 comenc mi propia escuela. +Sin embargo, para alguien de 18 tratar de abrir una escuela no es fcil a menos que tenga un gran mecenas o un gran auspiciante. +As que estaba hojeando el Times de India cuando vi que el Primer Ministro de India estaba de visita en mi ciudad, Bangalore. +Saben, igual que aqu en EE.UU. todo caricaturista conoce a Bush, si tuviera que conocer a Bush sera de lo ms gracioso porque su cara es el sueo del caricaturista. +Yo tena que conocer a mi Primer Ministro. +Fui al lugar donde estaba por aterrizar su helicptero. +Vi niveles de seguridad. +A fuerza de caricaturas pas tres niveles impresionando a los guardias pero me atraparon. Me atraparon en el tercero. +Lo que sucedi, por suerte, vi a un cientfico nuclear que me haba pedido hacer caricaturas en su fiesta. +Corr hasta el y le dije: "Hola Sr., cmo est?" +El dijo: "Qu haces aqu Raghava?" +Yo dije: "Estoy aqu para conocer al Primer Ministro". +l dijo: "Oh, yo tambin!" +Me sub a su auto y as pasamos los restantes niveles de seguridad. +Gracias. +Lo hice sentar para hacer su caricatura y desde entonces he caricaturizado cientos de celebridades. +Esta es una que recuerdo con cario. +Creo que Salman Rushdie se enoj porque, si observan, cambi el mapa de Nueva York. +De todos modos, la prxima diapositiva que voy a mostrar... Debera apagarla? +La prxima diapositiva que voy a mostrar es un poco ms seria. +Dudaba de incluirla en mi presentacin porque esta tira fue publicada poco despus del 11-S. +Lo que para m fue una observacin ingenua se transform en un desastre. +Esa tarde recib en casa cientos de mails de repudio. Cientos de personas que me decan que podran haber vivido otro da sin ver esto. +Me pidieron tambin que deje la organizacin una organizacin de caricaturistas de EE.UU. que para m era mi cordn umbilical. +Fue entonces que me di cuenta lo poderosas que son las caricaturas. El arte conlleva responsabilidad. +De todos modos, decid que necesitaba tomar un descanso. +Dej mi trabajo en los diarios, cerr mi escuela, guard mis lpices, pinceles y tintas y decid salir de viaje. +Y viajando, recuerdo, conoc este anciano fabuloso, que conoc mientras haca caricaturas, que result ser un artista en Italia. +Me invit a su estudio. Dijo: "Ven a visitarme". +Cuando fui vi la cosa ms horripilante del mundo. +vi su efigie desnuda, de muerto, colgando del techo. +Dije: "Oh, Dios mo!, qu es eso?" +Le pregunt y me dijo: "Oh, eso? Por la noche muero. +Por la maana vuelvo a nacer". +Pens que estaba loco pero algo de eso realmente me lleg. +Me encant. Pens que haba algo realmente hermoso en eso. +As que dije: "Estoy muerto, as que necesito nacer otra vez". +As, quera ser un pintor como l salvo que no s cmo pintar. +As, trat de ir a la tienda de arte. +Saben, hay cientos de tipos de pinceles. +Olvdenlo, se confundirn incluso si saben dibujar. +As que decid aprender a pintar por mi cuenta. +Voy a mostrarles un video muy rpidamente para mostrarles cmo pintaba y un poquito de mi ciudad, Bangalore. +Tenan que ser ms grandes que la vida. +Todo tena que ser ms grande. La prxima pintura fue an ms grande. +Y an ms grande. +Y para m era, tena que bailar mientras pintaba. +Estaba tan emocionado. +Salvo que... comenc a pintar bailarinas. +Aqu, por ejemplo, hay una bailarina de flamenco. Salvo que hay un problema. +No conoca la danza, as que comenc a seguirlos, e hice algo de dinero vend mis pinturas y sal de prisa para Francia y Espaa a trabajar con ellos. +Esa es Pepe Linares, una clebre cantante de flamenco. +Pero yo tena un problema, mis pinturas nunca bailaban. +Por ms energa que pona en ellas al hacerlas, nunca bailaban. +As que decid... tuve esta revelacin loca a las dos de la maana. +Llam a mis amigos, pint sus cuerpos, y los puse a bailar frente a una pintura. +Y, de repente, mis pinturas se cobraron vida. +Y tuve bastante suerte de haberlo representado en California con el Velocity Circus. +Y me sent como Uds en la audiencia. +Y vi a mi trabajo cobrar vida. +Ya saben, normalmente uno trabaja de manera aislada y expone en una galera pero aqu, el trabajo estaba cobrando vida y haba otros artistas que trabajaban conmigo. +El esfuerzo colaborativo fue fabuloso. +Dije, voy a colaborar con todos y cada uno de los que conoc. +Comenc haciendo moda. +Este es un desfile que hicimos en Londres. +La mejor colaboracin, por supuesto, es con los nios. +Son despiadados, son honestos, pero estn llenos de energa y diversin. +Este es un trabajo, una biblioteca que dise para la fundacin Robin Hood. +Y debo decir que pas tiempo en el Bronx trabajando con estos nios. +Y, a cambio, al trabajar con ellos me ensearon a ser cool. +No creo haberlo logrado, pero me lo han enseado. +Decan: "Deja de decir lo siento. Di es mi culpa". +Luego dije, todo esto est bueno, pero quiero pintar como un verdadero pintor. +La educacin en EE.UU. es tan cara. +Estaba en India, caminando por las calles, y vi un pintor de carteles. +Y estos tipos hacen pinturas enormes y se ven realmente muy bien. +Y me preguntaba cmo lo hacen de tan cerca. +As, un da tuve la oportunidad de conocer a uno de estos tipos y le dije: "Cmo pintas de ese modo? Quin te ense?" +Y dijo: "Es muy fcil, puedo ensearte, pero estamos por dejar esta ciudad porque los pintores de carteles se estn extinguiendo somos artistas en extincin porque la pintura digital ha acabado totalmente con ellos". +Les dije que si me enseaban a pintar yo los apoyara y cre una empresa. +Y desde entonces, he estado pintando por todos lados. +Esta es una pintura que hice de mi esposa en mi apartamento. +Esta es otra pintura. +Y, de hecho, comenc a pintar sobre cualquier cosa y comenc a enviarlas por toda la ciudad. +Ya que mencion a mi esposa, la colaboracin ms importante ha sido con ella, Netra. +Nos conocimos cuando ella tena 18. +Yo deba tener 19 y medio entonces y fue amor a primera vista. +Yo viva en India. Ella viva en EE.UU. +Ella vena cada dos meses a visitarme y luego yo dije soy el hombre soy el hombre y tengo que corresponderle. +Tengo que viajar siete ocanos, y tengo que venir a verte. +Lo hice dos veces y me qued sin dinero. +Entonces dije: "Nets, qu hago?" +Ella dijo: "Por qu no me envas tus pinturas?" +Mi pap conoce mucha gente rica. +Intentaremos convencerlos de que las compren y luego..." +Pero result que, luego de enviarle las obras que los amigos de su padre como muchos de Uds, son geeks. +Estoy bromeando. +No, en verdad eran grandes geeks y no saban mucho de arte. +As que Netra se qued con 30 pinturas mas. +As que lo que hicimos fue alquilar una van y condujimos por toda la costa este tratando de venderlos. +Ella contact a todos y cada uno de los que quera comprar mi obra. +Hizo suficiente dinero, vendi toda la coleccin e hizo suficiente dinero para mudarme por cuatro aos con abogados, una empresa, todo, y ella se volvi mi agente. +Aqu estamos en Nueva York. +Observen algo estamos igual aqu. +Algo pas en algn momento. +Esto me trajo, con Netra manejando mi carrera, me trajo mucho xito. +Yo estaba realmente feliz. Me crea una especie de estrella de rock. +Me encantaba la atencin recibida. +Recibimos mucha prensa y dijimos: es tiempo de celebrar. +Y para m el mejor modo de celebrar era casarme con Netra. +Le dije: "Casmonos". +Pero no casarnos as noms. Invitemos a todos los que nos ayudaron. A toda la gente que compr nuestra obra. +Y no lo van a creer, armamos una lista de 7.000 personas que marcaron la diferencia, una lista ridcula, pero estaba decidido a llevarlos a India, as... muchos de ellos fueron a India. +150 artistas voluntarios para ayudarme con la boda. +Tenamos diseadores de moda, artistas de instalaciones, modelos, maquilladores, diseadores de joyas, todo tipo de gente trabajando conmigo para hacer de mi boda una instalacin de arte. +Tena una instalacin especial en honor a mis suegros. +Los escultores de vegetales trabajaron en eso para m. +Y todo este movimiento llev a la prensa a escribir sobre nosotros. +Estbamos en los diarios, todava estbamos en las noticias tres aos despus pero, por desgracia, poco despus pas algo trgico. +Mi madre enferm gravemente. +Amo a mi madre y me dijeron de repente que ella iba a morir +y me dijeron que tena que decirle adis uno tiene que hacer lo que tiene que hacer. +Y yo estaba devastado. +Tena muestras en agenda para otro ao. +Yo estaba en la cspide. +Y no pude. No pude. +Mi vida no era exuberante. +No poda vivir con ese personaje tan fuerte. +Empec a explorar el absceso ms oscuro de la mente humana. +Claro, mi trabajo se afe pero sucedi otra cosa. +Perd a todo mi pblico. +Las estrellas de Bollywood con quienes hice fiestas y compraban mi obra, desaparecieron. +Los coleccionistas, los amigos, la prensa, todos dijeron, lindo, pero gracias. +No, gracias, mejor dicho. +Pero yo quera que la gente realmente sintiera mi obra con el corazn porque yo estaba pintando de corazn. +Si queran belleza me dije, esta es la belleza que anso darles. Est politizada. +Por supuesto, no les gust. +Mi obra se volvi autobiogrfica. +En ese punto, sucedi algo, +un amigo muy, muy querido, se declar homosexual y en India en ese entonces era ilegal ser gay y es indignante ver cmo responde la gente ante esa revelacin. +Yo estaba muy disgustado. +Recuerdo las veces que mi madre sola disfrazarme de niita, ese de ah soy yo, porque ella quera una nia y slo tena nios. +Como sea, no s que van a decir mis amigos despus de esta charla. +Es un secreto. +As, despus de esto mi obra se volvi un poco violenta. +Habl de esta masculinidad que uno no necesita representar. +Y habl de la debilidad de la sexualidad masculina. +Esta vez, no slo desaparecieron mis coleccionistas, los activistas polticos decidieron censurarme y amenazarme y prohibirme exhibir. +Se volvi desagradable, y soy un poco cobarde. +No puedo soportar las amenazas. Esto era una gran amenaza. +As que decid que era hora de terminar y volver a casa. +Esta vez me dije intentemos algo diferente. +Necesitaba volver a nacer. +Y pens que la mejor manera, como muchos de los que tienen hijos saben, la mejor manera de tener una nueva vida es teniendo un hijo. +Decid tener un hijo. Y antes de eso analic rpidamente qu poda salir mal. +Cmo puede disgregarse una familia? +Y naci Rudra. +Ese es mi hijito. +Y despus de su nacimiento pasaron dos cosas mgicas. +Mi madre se recuper milagrosamente luego de una operacin seria y este hombre fue elegido presidente de EE.UU. +Ya saben, sentado en casa miraba. +Hecho pedazos deca es el lugar donde quiero estar. +As que con Netra juntamos los brtulos cerramos todo lo que tenamos y decidimos mudarnos a Nueva York. +Y esto hace slo ocho meses. +Regres a Nueva York, mi obra ha cambiado. +Todo en mi obra se ha vuelto ms fantasioso. +Esta se llama "En qu diablos estaba pensando?" +Habla del incesto mental. +Ya saben, puedo parecer un chico bueno, limpio, amable. +Pero no lo soy. Soy capaz de pensar cualquier cosa. +Pero soy muy educado en mis actos. Se los aseguro. +Estas son distintas caricaturas. +Y, antes de irme, quiero contarles una pequea historia. +Estaba hablando con mi madre y mi padre esta maana y pap dijo: "S que tienes muchas cosas que quieres decir pero tienes que hablar de tu trabajo con los nios". +As que dije, bien. +Trabajo con nios por todo el mundo y esa es una charla totalmente diferente pero quiero dejarles una historia que realmente, en verdad, me inspir. +Conoc a Belinda cuando ella tena 16. +Yo tena 17. +Estaba en Australia y Belinda tena cncer y me haban dicho que no iba a vivir mucho ms. +De hecho, me dijeron tres semanas. +Entr a su habitacin, y vi una chica tmida ella estaba calva y trataba de ocultar su calvicie. +Destap mi bolgrafo y comenc a dibujar en su cabeza le dibuj una corona. +Y luego comenzamos a hablar y pasamos un momento precioso... le cont como fui a parar a Australia como mochilero y a quin tim, y cmo consegu mi pasaje y todas las historias. +Y la hice hablar. +Luego part. +Belinda muri y a los pocos das de su muerte publicaron un libro de ella y ella us mi caricatura en la tapa. +Y escribi una notita que deca "Oye Rags, gracias por el viaje en alfombra mgica por el mundo". +Para m, mi arte es un viaje en alfombra mgica. +Espero que me acompaen en este viaje en alfombra mgica y conmuevan a los nios y sean honestos. +Muchas gracias. +As que lo que voy a hacer es relatarles el ltimo episodio del que, quiz, sea el culebrn indio ms largo del mundo: el cricket. +Y puede que nunca acabe, porque nos da de comer a personas como yo. +Tiene todos los ingredientes que querramos para el tpico culebrn: amor, alegra, felicidad, tristeza, lgrimas, risas, engaos, intriga. +Y como buen culebrn, da un salto de 20 aos cuando cambia el inters del pblico. +Y es exactamente esto lo que ha sucedido con el cricket. +Ha dado un salto de 20 aos hasta el cricket 20-20. +Y es de esto de lo que voy a hablarles, de como un pequeo cambio se convierte en una gran revolucin. +Pero no siempre fue as. +El cricket no fue siempre este deporte rpido que conocemos. +Hubo un tiempo en el que los partidos internacionales parecan no tener fin. +Como el que se disput en marzo de 1939 comenz el tres de marzo y finaliz el 14 de ese mes. +Y termin slo porque los jugadores ingleses tenan que desplazarse de Durban a Cape Town, en un trayecto de dos horas de tren para tomar el barco que zarpaba el 17, puesto que el siguiente no lo hara hasta mucho despus. +As que el partido qued en empate. +Uno de los jugadores ingleses dijo: "Sabes qu?, +otra media hora y hubiramos ganado." +Otra media hora despus de 12 das. +Entre esos das hubo dos domingos. Pero el domingo se considera "da sagrado". As que los domingos no se juega al cricket. Y tambin llovi un da, en el que aprovecharon para hacer amigos. +Sin embargo, hay una razn por la que India adora el cricket: Porque mantenamos un ritmo similar de vida. +El Mahabharata tambin es parecido, no? +Por la maana te "enfrentabas" al libro hasta la puesta de sol, cuando todos vuelven a casa. +Y entonces preparabas tu estrategia, y volvas al da siguiente, y luego ibas a casa de nuevo. +La nica diferencia entre el Mahabharata y nuestro cricket era que en el cricket seguas con vida para poder "enfrentarte" a l al da siguiente. +Los Prncipes indios son habituales de este deporte, pero no por amor al juego, sino porque era un modo de halagar a los soberanos britnicos. +Pero tambin existe otra razn por la que India adora el cricket: todo lo que necesitabas era una tabla de madera, una pelota de goma y unas cuantas personas podan jugar en cualquier lugar. +Fjense. Podan jugar en un descampado con una cuantas piedras. En un callejn. Aunque no podran golpear el rectngulo porque el bate golpea la pared. No se olviden del aire acondicionado y los cables. +Podan jugar a orillas del ro Ganges. Esto es lo ms limpio que ha estado durante mucho tiempo. +O podan jugar a otros deportes en un espacio reducido de tierra, an cuando no supieran a lo que jugaban. +como pueden ver, puede jugarse en cualquier lugar. +Por fin el cricket progres, aunque lentamente. +No siempre tienes cinco das, as que progresamos y comenzamos a jugar al cricket de 50 overs. +Y es entonces cuando se produjo una extraordinaria eventualidad. +En India no suelen ocurrir estas cosas. Las casualidades existen y a veces nos hallamos en el lugar exacto y en el momento adecuado. +En 1983 ganamos la Copa del Mundo. +Y de repente nos "enamoramos" del cricket de 50 overs. Y jugbamos casi todo los das. +Jugbamos ms que nadie. +Pero hubo otra fecha importante. +En 1983 ganamos las Copa del Mundo. +Y en 1991 y 1992 el Primer Ministro y el Ministro de Economa decidieron abrir India al mundo ms all de esa idea de ser un pas de intriga y misterio. +Entonces dejamos que se instalaran grandes multinacionales. +Redujimos el impuesto de aduanas y el de importaciones. Todas las multinacionales queran instalarse en el pas, con presupuestos multinacionales que examinaban los ingresos per capita. Todos estbamos entusiasmados por las posibilidades de la India y todos buscbamos el modo de alcanzar a cada ciudadano Indio. +Y es que solo haba dos maneras: el real y el ficticio. +El ficticio era el cine. El real era el cricket. +Y fue entonces cuando uno de mis amigos sentado ah enfrente, Ravi Tarival de Pepsi, decidi que iba a dar a conocerlo al resto del mundo. +Pepsi fue la gran revolucin porque llev al cricket al resto del mundo. +Y fue ah cuando el cricket se convirti en un gran fenmeno. Gracias al cricket, el dinero comenz a entrar. +La televisin le di cobertura. Y eso que durante mucho tiempo decan: "No le daremos cobertura si no nos pagan." +Y luego decan, "Los derechos cuestan 55 millones de dolares, +luego costarn 612 millones de dolares. +Es un poco tendencia de la curva. +Y fue entonces cuando se produjo otra jugada del destino. +Inglaterra invent el cricket 20-20 y decidi que todo el mundo jugara as. +Como Inglaterra invent el cricket, e hizo que el resto del mundo lo jugara. +Dmosle gracias Dios. +As que la India tuvo que jugar la Copa del Mundo 20-20. +Aunque no queramos jugarla, +tuvimos que hacerlo por un margen de 8-1. +Y de repente algo espectacular sucedi. +Llegamos a la final y a ese momento que permanecer para siempre en nuestra memoria. Echen un vistazo. +El bateador paquistan intenta eliminar al defensa. +Locutor: Y Zishan la toma! India gana! +Qu final ms emocionante! +India, campeona del mundo. +India campeona del T20. +Qu partidazo hemos presenciado! M S Dhoni la intercepta con la derecha, pero Misbah-ul-Haq, qu jugador! +Qu enorme xito! India, campeona del mundo de cricket T20. +De repente, India descubri su poder en el cricket 20-20. +La eventualidad fue que el bateador pens que el lanzador iba a lanzarla rpido. +Si hubiera lanzado ms rpido, la pelota hubiera ido donde se supone que deba ir, pero no lo hizo. Y de repente descubrimos que se nos daba bien este deporte. +Y desemboc en un cierto orgullo de que India fuera el mejor pas del mundo. +Fue en la poca en la que hubo inversiones, cuando India se senta algo ms segura de s misma. +Y nos enorgullecamos por lo que podamos hacer. +Y menos mal que los ingleses son buenos en eso de inventar. Y lo misericordiosos que son por permitir al resto del mundo ser buenos en eso. +As fue como Inglaterra invent el cricket 20-20 y nos permiti apropiarnos de l. +No era como la reingeniera que practicbamos en medicina, en este caso no realizbamos ningn cambio. +Fue entonces cuando decidimos crear nuestra propia liga de cricket. +Seis semanas, ciudad vs.ciudad. +Todo era nuevo para nosotros. Solo habamos apoyado a nuestro pas en dos reas, por lo que estamos muy orgullosos, y nos representbamos a nosotros mismos. +Una era en la guerra, con el ejrcito, que no solemos utilizar mucho. +La otra, el cricket indio. +Ahora, tenamos que apoyar una liga. +Pero la gente que se interesaba por ella eran aquellos que haban hecho cola desde el oeste. +Los EEUU es el hogar de las ligas. As que decan: "Construiremos en la India ostentosas ligas". +Pero, estbamos preparados para aquello? +Porque el cricket, durante mucho tiempo, estuvo muy bien organizado. +Nunca se promocion. Nunca se vendi, era organizado. +Y fijens en lo que convirtieron a nuestro precioso y simple deporte familiar. +Y todo esto sucedi de pronto. +Una ceremonia de apertura. +Esta era la India que compraba Corvettes. Esta era la India que compraba Jaguar. +Esta era la India que adquira ms mviles por mes que dos veces ms la poblacin de Nueva Zelanda. +En resumen, era una India diferente. +Pero tambin era una India algo ortodoxa, que era feliz siendo moderna, pero no quera que los dems lo supieran. +As que todos se aterrorizaron cuando las animadoras llegaron. +Todos las miraban en secreto, pero todos lo negaban. +Los nuevos propietarios del cricket indio no eran antiguos prncipes. +No eran burcratas forzados a meterse en el negocio aunque no les gustase este deporte. Eran personas con importantes empresas. +Y comenzaron a promocionarlo a gran escala, promocionando a los clubes. +Y lo han hecho apoyados por una gran cantidad de dinero. +Pero lo que saban hacer ellos muy bien era hacerlo de manera muy localizada. +Les mostrar un ejemplo de cmo lo hicieron, no al estilo del Manchester United, pero s muy al estilo Mumbai. +Muchos decan que bailaban mejor que jugaban. +Bueno, tambin cambiaron la manera en que mirbamos el cricket. +Si queras a un jugador joven, lo buscabas en una carretera secundaria de tu pequea localidad o ciudad. Estbamos muy orgullosos de ese sistema. +Pero ahora, si necesitabas un lanzador, si por ejemplo Mumbai necesitaba un lanzador, no iban a Kalbadevi o a Shivaji Park o a cualquier sitio a buscarlo, iban a Trinidad. +Era esa la nueva India? Esto era el nuevo mundo. Donde vas al lugar en el que encuentres el producto a mejor precio. +Y todo el deporte indio descubri que puedes buscar el mejor producto al mejor precio en cualquier parte del mundo. +As fue como los Mumbai Indians le pagaron el viaje de Trinidad y Tobago al jugador Dwayne Bravo. Y cuando tuvo que regresar para representar a los West Indies, le preguntaron: "Cundo tienes que llegar?" +Y l respondi: "Tengo que estar ah antes de tiempo, as que me ir hoy." +Y nosotros le dijimos: "No, no, no. La cuestin no es cundo tienes que irte, sino cuando tienes que estar ah." +Y el dijo: "Llegara en tal fecha." +"Pues jugars tal fecha, menos uno." le contestamos. +As que jug en Hyderabad, despus del partido fue directo al aeropuerto, tom un jet privado, primero repostaron en Portugal, luego en Brasil hasta llegar al partido de los West Indies a tiempo. +Nunca habamos pensado antes en esta escala. +Pero es que tampoco habamos pensado que furamos a decir "quiero tal jugador solo para un partido y te lo devolver en jet privado de vuelta a Kingston para que juegue su partido." +Y yo solo pensaba: "Guau, hemos llegado a ser algo en la vida" +Pensamos a lo grande." +Pero esto tambin aun las dos cosas ms importantes en el cricket indio: el cricket y las pelculas indias. +El cricket y el cine. +Y se unieron porque la gente de las pelis ahora tena clubes. +As que la gente comenz a ir al cricket para ver a la actriz Preity Zintia. +La gente comenz a ir al cricket para ver a Shahrukh Khan. +Y sucedi algo muy interesante. +Comenzamos a cantar y a bailar en el cricket. +As que se pareca ms y ms a las pelculas indias. +Si jugabas en el equipo de Preity Zinta, como vern a continuacin en el vdeo, si lo hacas bien, Preity Zinta te daba un abrazo. +Esta era la razn principal para hacerlo bien. Fjense. Ah est Preity Zintia. +Y luego estaba Shahrukh con la gente de Kolkata. +Hemos visto partidos en Kolkata, pero no habamos visto cosas como esta. Shahrukh, con la cancin bengal, animando al pblico, para que apoyen a Kolkata, no a India, sino a Kolkata. +Fijens. +Una estrella de cine india abrazando a un jugador paquistan porque vencieron en Kolkata. +Se lo imaginaban? +Y sabis lo que dijo ese jugador? +Me gustara jugar en el equipo de Preity Zinta. +Pero pens que tena que aprovechar esta oportunidad- hay algunas personas de Paquistn aqu. +Estoy muy contento de que estn aqu porque podemos demostrar que nos podemos llevar bien. +Podemos jugar juntos al cricket, podemos ser amigos. +Muchas gracias por venir. +Hubo muchas crticas porque dijeron: "Los jugadores son comprados y vendidos? +Es que son cereales? +Son ganado? +Todo porque tuvimos una subasta. +Cmo fijas el precio de un jugador? +Y en esa subasta, literalmente haba gente que deca Toma tantos millones por este y ese jugador! +Ah lo ven. +Locutor: Legamos a los 1.500.000 dolares. Chennai +Shane Warne vendido por 450.000 dolares. +Antes los jugadores ganaban 82 cntimos al da- unos 250 rupias en un test match pero si terminaba en cuatro das solo ganabas unos 200. +Los mejores jugadores indios que jugaban los test match, los jugadores internacionales, los mejores jugadores. Los contratos estndar son de 220.000 dlares en un ao. +Ahora ganan 500,000 en seis das de trabajo +hasta que Andrew Flintoff lleg de Inglaterra y logr un milln y medio de dolares. Cuando regres dijo: "En cuatro semanas he ganado ms que Frank Lampard y Steven Gerrard y mucho ms que muchos jugadores, guau. +Y quin se lo daba? Un pequeo club de la India. +Alguna vez pensaron que este da llegara? +Un milln y medio de dpares por seis semanas de trabajo. +No est nada mal. +As que 2,3 billones de dlares antes de que la pelota sea lanzada. +Todo esto fue un punto de refencia contra el resto del mundo, y se convirti en una gran marca. +Lalit Modi fue portada de la revista Business Today. +La liga india se convirti en la gran marca de la India y, debido a las elecciones, tuvo que trasladarse a Sudfrica, y tuvimos que hacer torneos de 3 semanas. +Intenta hacer un torneo por Sudfrica en seis semanas... +Pero al final lo conseguimos. Y saben por qu? +Porque ningn pas trabaja tan lento como nosotros hasta tres semanas antes del evento, y nadie trabaja tan rpido como nosotros en las ltimas tres semanas. +Nuestra poblacin que, durante mucho tiempo, pensamos que era un problema, de repente se convirti en nuestra mayor baza porque haba ms gente viendo los partidos- la gran poblacin consumidora- todos iban a ver el cricket. +Tambin hubiramos convertido al cricket en el nico deporte de la India- es una pena- pero todos los deportes empujan al cricket a convertirse en ms importante, una tragedia en esta poca. +Ahora, en este ltimo minuto, les mostrar algunos efectos secundarios de todo esto. +Durante mucho tiempo, India fue un pas de pobreza, polvo, mendigos, encantadores de serpientes, mugre, diarrea del viajero- algunos habris escuchado algo sobre esto al venir. +Y, de repente, se convirti en una tierra de oportunidades. +Los jugadores de cricket de todo el mundo decan: "Nos encanta la India. Nos encanta jugar en la India." +Escuchar esto te hace sentir bien. +Decamos: "En realidad es la fuerza del dlar." +Os lo podis imaginar: el dolar ante nosotros. No ms diarrea del viajero. +No ms mugre, ni mendigos. Sin rastro de los encantadores de serpientes. Todo ha desaparecido. Esto te da una idea de cmo funciona el mundo capitalista. +Al final, usurpamos un poco un juego ingls, pero el 20-20 va a ser el prximo misionero del mundo. +Si quieres llevar este deporte al resto del mundo, tiene que ser con la modalidad ms corta. +No puedes llevar a China un deporte en que un partido dure 14 das sin llegar al final ni llevarlo alrededor del mundo. +Esto es lo que el 20-20 quiere cambiar. +Con un poco de suerte, nos har a todos ricos, har ms importante a este deporte y con un poco de suerte, dar a los comentaristas ms tiempo en el negocio. +Muchas gracias. Gracias. +Yo soy Jon M. Chu y no soy bailarn. No soy coregrafo, en realidad soy cineasta, narrador. +Dirig una pelcula hace dos aos llamada "subiendo hacia las calles". +Nadie? Nadie? Bien! +Durante esa pelcula pude conocer a miles de bailarines de hip-hop... increbles, los mejores del mundo... y ellos me metieron dentro de este grupo, algo as como una cultura clandestina urbana que me sorprendi. +Francamente estos son seres humanos con fuerza y habilidades sobre-humanos. +Ellos pueden volar en el aire. Pueden doblar su codo hacia atrs. +Pueden dar vuelta sobre sus cabezas 80 veces en un impulso. +Nunca haba visto nada igual. +Cuando estaba creciendo, mis hroes eran personas como Fred Astaire, Gene Kelly, Michael Jackson. +Crec en una familia musical. +Y esos tipos, esos eran mis hroes. +Siendo un nio oriental medio enclenque creciendo en Silicon Valley con una autoestima baja, estos personajes me hicieron creer en algo ms grande. +Ellos me hicieron desear cosas como "Voy a hacer ese paso del astronauta en la fiesta de esta noche para esa muchacha". +Y ahora parece que esos hroes bailarines han desaparecido, como relegados por las estrellas del pop y los videos musicales. +Pero despus de ver lo que he visto, lo cierto es que no han desaparecido en absoluto. +Estn aqu, hacindose mejores cada da. +Y el baile ha progresado. +Es increble lo que el baile es ahora. +El baile nunca ha tenido mejor amigo que la tecnologa. +Los videos en lnea y las redes sociales... +Y esto est pasando todos los das. +Y en esos dormitorios, salas y garages, con cmaras web baratas, descansa el mundo de los grandes bailarines del maana. +Nuestros Fred Astaires, nuestros Gene Kellys nuestros Michael Jacksons estn bien al alcance de la mano, y puede que no tengan esa oportunidad, excepto por nosotros. +As que creamos LXD, algo como... la Legin de Bailarines Extraordinarios, una liga de la justicia de bailarines que cree que el baile tiene un efecto que transforma el mundo. +Una serie de cmic viviente pero, a diferencia del Hombre Araa o Iron Man, estos hombres s pueden hacerlo. +Y vamos a mostrarles algo el da de hoy. Djenme presentarles a algunos de estos hroes. +Tenemos a Madd Chadd, El pequeo C, Kid David y J Smooth. +Por favor emocinense, divirtanse, den alaridos, griten. +Seoras y seores: LXD. +: Madd Chadd: Cuando la gente me ve por primera vez Veo reacciones muy diferentes. +Algunas veces uno pensara que a los nios les divertira, pero algunas veces se espantan. +Y, no s, me gusta salir del molde un poco. +J Smooth: Cuando estoy en la zona, estoy bailando e improvisando, visualizo algo como una pintura con lneas que se mueven. +Pienso en algo como los transformers, en cmo se abren y doblan los paneles, se doblan, y despus se cierran. +Y despus se abre otra cosa. Y uno la cierra. +Kid David: Es algo como, honestamente muchas veces no s realmente lo que est pasando cuando estoy bailando. +Porque en ese punto es slo mi cuerpo y la msica. +En realidad no es una decisin consciente, "Voy a hacer esto, y luego esto otro". +Es como ese otro nivel en el que uno no puede tomar ms decisiones, y es slo tu cuerpo que reacciona a ciertos sonidos de la msica. +Me pusieron el nombre porque yo era muy joven. +Era joven cuando empec. Era ms joven que mucha de la gente con la que bailaba. +Y ellos siempre me llamaban Kid David porque yo era el nio . +L'il C: Yo les digo que hagan una pelota, y que simplemente usen esa pelota de energa. +Y en lugar de lanzarla, la gente piensa: es baile urbano, es baile urbano. +Esto no es baile urbano. Vas a lanzarla, la lanzas y la atrapas. +Y luego la dejas ir, y despus, cuando ves la cola, le agarras por la cola y lo traes de regreso. +Y as agarras esta energa y simplemente ests manipulndola. +Ya saben, uno crea el poder y luego lo domestica. +Hoy, por tanto, vuelvo para mostrarles algunas cosas mostrarles, de hecho, que hay un movimiento de libre acceso a datos en marcha en todo el mundo, ahora. +La exhortacin de "datos primarios ahora" +que hicimos con los miembros del auditorio dio la vuelta al mundo. +As que rodemos el video. +El cuento clsico, el primero que se divulg fue cuando en marzo, el 10 de marzo, luego de TED Paul Clarke, del gobierno del Reino Unido poste: "Acabo de recibir unos datos primarios. Aqu estn, son sobre accidentes de bicicleta". +Dos das le llev al Times Online hacer un mapa 'mashable' les llamamos "mash-ups" a estas cosas una interfaz que te permite ir all, echar un vistazo y averiguar si tu ruta al trabajo fue afectada. +Hay ms datos, datos de la encuesta de trfico suministrados por el gobierno del R.U. y dado que los subieron usando estndares de datos enlazados otro usuario podra hacer un mapa con slo hacer clic. +Tienen impacto estos datos? Vamos al 2008. +Miremos Zanesville, Ohio. +Este es un mapa hecho por un abogado, puesto en la planta de agua, viendo qu casas estn ah qu casas tienen conexin de agua? +Y obtuvo, de otras fuentes de datos, informacin para mostrar qu casas estn ocupadas por gente blanca. +Bueno, haba una correlacin demasiado alta, pens, entre las casas ocupadas por gente blanca y las que tenan agua potable, y al juez tampoco la pareci bien +tan poco bien que los mult 10,9 millones de dlares +Ese es el poder de tomar unos datos tomar otros datos, ponerlos juntos, y mostrar el resultado. +Ahora miremos algunos datos del R.U. +Son datos del gobierno del R.U., un sitio independiente, A Dnde Va Mi Dinero, +permite que cualquiera vaya y averige. +Uno puede hurgar en busca de un tipo de gasto particular o se puede pasar por las diferentes regiones y compararlas. +Eso est sucediendo en el R.U. con datos del gobierno del R.U. +S, por cierto, uno puede hacerlo aqu. +Aqu hay un sitio que permite mirar los costos de recuperacin en California. +Tomemos un ejemplo cualquiera, Long Beach, California, uno puede ir y mirar cunto dinero de recuperacin han estado gastando en cosas como energa. +De hecho, este es el grfico de cantidad de sets de datos en los repositorios de data.gov y data.gov.uk. +Y estoy encantado de ver una gran competencia entre el R.U. en azul y los EE.UU. en rojo. +Cmo puede usarse esto? +Bueno, por ejemplo, si uno tiene muchos datos de lugares uno puede tomar un cdigo postal que es como un cdigo zip extendido, para un grupo especfico de casas, uno puede imprimir un papel con informacin muy, muy especfica sobre paradas de bus y cosas especficas cercanas. +A mayor escala, este es un 'mash-up' de los datos publicados sobre las elecciones afganas. +Te permite definir criterios propios para la clase de cosas que te interese examinar. +Los crculos rojos son centros de votacin seleccionados por tus criterios. +Y luego uno puede seleccionar otras cosas en el mapa para ver otros factores como el nivel de amenaza. +Esos eran datos del gobierno. +Tambin habl de datos comunitarios, de hecho yo editaba, +este es el mapa wiki, el mapa abierto de calles +El Teatro Terrace, de hecho lo puse en el mapa porque no estaba antes de las TED del ao pasado. +No era el nico que edita los mapas libres. +Cada destello de esta visualizacin elaborado por ITO World muestra una edicin de 2009 realizada en el mapa abierto de calles. +Veamos ahora al mundo durante ese mismo ao. +Cada destello es una edicin. Alguien que mira el mapa abierto y se da cuenta que podra mejorarse. +Pueden ver que Europa est llena de actualizaciones. +En algunos lugares, quiz no tantas como debera haber. +Y aqu, enfocndonos en Haiti +El mapa de Puerto Prncipe a finales de 2009 no era todo lo que podra ser no tan bueno como el mapa de California. +Por suerte, luego del terremoto GeoEye, una compaa comercial, lanz imgenes satelitales con una licencia que le permite su uso a la comunidad de cdigo abierto. +Este es el perodo de enero personas editando, ese es el terremoto +Inmediatamente despus del terremoto la gente de todo el mundo, los cartgrafos, que queran y podan ayudar miraron las imgenes, construyeron el mapa rpidamente. +Ahora estamos sobre Puerto Prncipe. +En azul los campos de refugiados que los voluntarios observaron desde el aire. +As que ahora tenemos de inmediato un mapa en tiempo real indicando dnde estn los campos de refugiados pronto se volvi el mejor mapa para usar en trabajos de socorro en Puerto Prncipe. +Vean que est ah en ese aparato Garmn siendo usado por un equipo de rescate. +Y Hait... ah est el mapa que muestra a la izquierda, el hospital, en realidad es un buque hospital. +Es un mapa en tiempo real que muestra caminos bloqueados edificios daados, campos de refugiados. Muestra las cosas que se necesitan. +As que si han estado involucrados en sto slo quera decirles, sea cual fuere la tarea realizada, ya sea que hayan estado graficando datos primarios +o subiendo datos gubernamentales o cientficos slo quera aprovechar esta oportunidad para agradecerles mucho y recin hemos comenzado. +Slo tengo 3 minutos as que hablar rpido, lo que agotar vuestros ciclos cerebrales -- la multitarea puede ser difcil. +As que, me pusieron una multa hace 27 aos lo que me hizo pensar. +Me ha llevado algo de tiempo reflexionar. +Y la eficiencia energtica no depende slo del vehculo. Tambin depende de la carretera. +El diseo de las carreteras es fundamental, especialmente las intersecciones, de las que hay dos tipos: sealizadas y no sealizadas, lo que significa una seal de Pare. +El 50% de los accidentes ocurren en las intersecciones. +Las rotondas son mucho mejores. +Un estudio de 24 intersecciones demostr que los accidentes se reducen un 40% al convertir un semforo en una rotonda. +Los heridos se reducen un 76%. Los accidentes mortales un 90%. +Pero esto es slo seguridad. +Qu pasa con el tiempo y el combustible? +Si el trfico sigue fluyendo, se frena menos, por lo que se acelera menos, se usa menos combustible y hay menos contaminacin, menos tiempo perdido, y esto justifica en parte que Europa sea ms eficiente que nosotros en los Estados Unidos. +Entonces, las intersecciones no sealizadas, lo que significa seales de Pare, salvan muchas vidas, pero hay una proliferacin excesiva. +Empiezan a aparecer rotondas pequeas. +Esta es una en mi barrio. Y son mucho mejores -- mejores que los semforos o que los cruces con 4 Pares. +Son caras de construir, pero es ms caro no hacerlo. As que tenemos que centrarnos en ellas. +Pero no son vlidas para todas las situaciones. +Tomemos, por ejemplo, el caso del cruce de tres vas. +Lgicamente hay una aqu, en la carretera que se incorpora a la va principal. +Pero las otras dos son algo cuestionables. +Esta es una. Esta otra es la que estudi. +No suele haber muchos coches en la tercera carretera. +As que, la pregunta es, cunto nos cuesta? +La interseccin que observ tena 3.000 coches al da en cada direccin, y se necesitan 60cc de combustible para recuperar la velocidad. +Eso son cinco centavos por coche, multiplicado por 3.000 coches al da, son 51.000$ al ao. +Eso es slo el coste de la gasolina. Tambin estn la contaminacin, el desgaste del coche y el tiempo. +Merece la pena ese tiempo? +Bueno, son 10 segundos por 3.000 coches, son 8,3 horas al da. Un salario medio en EE.UU. +es de 20$ por hora. Son 60.000 al ao. +Lo sumamos al combustible y tenemos 112.000$ al ao slo en esta seal para cada direccin. +Actualizamos al valor actual, al cinco por ciento: ms de dos millones de dlares. para una seal de Pare, en cada direccin. +Ahora, si vemos lo que cuesta este terreno adyacente, podras comprar el terreno, podar los arbustos para mejorar la visibilidad, y venderla de nuevo. +Y an as saldras ganando. +Lo que me hace preguntarme, "Por qu est ah?" +Quiero decir, por qu hay una seal de Pare en cada direccin? +Porque salvan vidas. Pero, hay una manera mejor de hacerlo? +La respuesta es permitir a los coches incorporarse con seguridad. +Puede que haya mucha gente que vive en la zona y si esperan para siempre se puede formar una gran cola porque los coches no reduciran la velocidad en la va principal. +Podemos conseguir esto con seales que ya existen? +La historia de las seales de Pare y de "ceda el paso" es larga. +El Pare se invent en 1915. El "ceda el paso" en 1950. Pero esto es todo lo que tenemos. +Por qu no usamos entonces un "ceda el paso"? +Bueno, el significado de un "ceda el paso" es: tienes que ceder el paso. +Lo que significa que si hay cinco coches esperando, tienes que esperar hasta que todos hayan pasado y, entonces, pasar. Carece del concepto de alternancia, o de turnos. Y siempre est en la carretera secundaria siendo la principal la que tiene la preferencia. +Pero es difcil crear un nuevo significado para una seal existente. +No puedes repentinamente decirle a todo el mundo "Muy bien, recuerdan lo que hacan en los 'ceda el paso'? Ahora hagan algo diferente." +No funcionara. +As que lo que necesita el mundo ahora es un nuevo tipo de seal. +Tendra que tener una pequea instruccin debajo, para los que no leen los comunicados de los servicios pblicos. +Y combina la seal de Pare y la del "ceda el paso". +La forma es parecida a una T, por Turnos. +Y la incertidumbre produce precaucin. +Cuando alguien se encuentra con una situacin desconocida que no sabe cmo controlar reduce la velocidad. +As que ahora que todos son "alumnos de la va"... +no esperen a que la seal entre en vigor, estas cosas no cambian rpido. +Pero todos pertenecen a comunidades donde pueden ejercer influencia para que el trfico mejore. +Y el impacto en el medio ambiente puede ser mayor si cambian este tipo de cosas en sus barrios que si ustedes cambian de coche. Muchas gracias. +Bien. Hemos escuchado a muchas personas en esta conferencia hablar acerca del poder de la mente humana. +Y lo que me gustara hacer hoy, es darles un ejemplo vvido, de cmo ese poder se puede desencadenar cuando una persona est en una situacin de supervivencia, cmo la voluntad de sobrevivir puede desencadenarlo en las personas. +Este es un incidente que ocurri en el Monte Everest, Fue el peor desastre en la historia del Everest. +Y cuando ocurri, yo era el nico doctor en la montaa. +As que, los guiar, y veremos cmo es cuando alguien realmente se entrega a la tarea de sobrevivir. +Bueno. Este es el Monte Everest. +Tiene una altura de 8850 metros. +He estado 6 veces, en 4 trabaj con la National Geographic, haciendo mediciones de placas tectnicas. Tambin estuve dos veces con la NASA haciendo dispositivos de deteccin remota. +Fue durante mi cuarto viaje al Everest que un cometa pas por encima de la montaa. El Hyakutake. +Los sherpas en ese momento nos dijeron que era un muy mal presagio, y debimos haberlos escuchado. +El Everest es un ambiente extremo. +En el pico hay solo un tercio del oxgeno del nivel del mar. +Cerca del pico, las temperaturas pueden llegar a 40 grados bajo cero. +Puede haber vientos de 32 a 64 km/hora. +Es un factor de viento fro, ms bajo que un da de verano en Marte. +Recuerdo una vez que, estando cerca del pico, busqu dentro de mi chaqueta mi botella de agua. Dentro de mi chaqueta, descubr que el agua estaba congelada. +Eso les puede dar una idea de cun severas pueden ser las cosas en el pico. +Esta ruta nos lleva al Everest. +Empieza en el campamento base, a 5334 metros. +El campamento I est 610 metros ms arriba. +El campamento II est otros 610 metros ms arriba lo que se llama Western Cwm. +El campamento III est en la base de Lhotse, la cuarta montaa ms alta del mundo, pero el Everest la hace ver pequea. +y el campamento IV es el ms alto. Est 914 metros abajo del pico. +Esta es una vista del campamento base. +Esta es desde un glaciar a 5334 metros. +Es el punto ms alto al que puedes llevar los Yaks antes de descargar. +Esto es lo que descargaron para m. Tena 4 yaks cargados de suministros mdicos, que fueron tirados en una carpa. y aqu estoy tratando de organizar las cosas. +Esta fue nuestra expedicin. +Fue una expedicin de la National Geographic, pero organizada por The Explorers Club. +Haba otras 3 expediciones en la montaa, un grupo estadounidense, otro de Nueva Zelanda, y el grupo IMAX. +Y despus de 2 meses de preparacin, armamos nuestros campamentos en la montaa. +esta es una vista de la cascada congelada, los primeros 610 metros del recorrido desde el campamento base. +Esta es una foto de la cascada congelada. Es un cascada, pero est congelada, pero se mueve muy despacio, y en realidad cambia todos los das. +Ah, eres como un ratn en un laberinto; no puedes siquiera ver por encima. +Esto es cerca de la cima de la cascada. +La escalas durante la noche cuando est congelada. +As es menos posible que te caiga encima. +Unos escaladores llegando su cima justo con la puesta del sol. +Este soy yo cruzando una grieta. +Cruzamos con escaleras de aluminio y cuerdas de seguridad. +Esta es otra grieta. +Unas son de 10 pisos de profundidad o ms, y uno de mis escaladores dice que una razn por la que escalamos de noche es porque si miramos hacia abajo de lo que estamos escalando nunca lo haramos. +Bueno. Este es el campamento I. +Es la primera llanura que puedes alcanzar, despus de llegar al tope de la cascada. +Y de aqu subimos al campamento II, el cual es como la parte delantera. +Unos escaladores en la cara de Lhotse, la montaa que da hacia el campamento III. +Estn amarrados con cuerdas fijas. +Una cada aqu, si no estuvieras amarrado, sera de 1524 metros. +Una foto tomada desde el campamento III. +Pueden ver la cara de Lhotse a lo lejos. Tiene un ngulo aproximado de 45 grados. Toma 2 das escalarla, as que pones el campamento a mitad del camino. +Si notan, el pico del Everest es negro. +No hay hielo cubrindolo. +Y es porque el Everest es tan alto, que est en las corrientes de aire, y los vientos constantemente limpian la superficie, as que la nieve no logra acumularse. +Lo que parece una nube atrs del borde del pico, es realmente nieve que el viento sopla desde el pico. +La subida del campamento III al IV, subiendo a travs de las nubes. +Y este es en el campamento IV. +Una vez llegas al campamento IV, tienes tal vez 24 horas para decidir si subirs o no el pico. +Todos usan tanques de oxgeno, tus suministros son limitados, y si tienes que subir o bajar, tienes que tomar esa decisin muy rpido. +Esta es una foto de Rob Hall, +lder de la expedicin de Nueva Zelanda. +La radio que luego us para llamar a su esposa, luego les contar ms de esto. +Algunos escaladores esperando subir al pico. +Estn en el campamento IV, pueden ver al viento soplar en el pico. +Este no es un buen clima para subir, por lo que los escaladores esperan, confiando que los vientos se calmen. +Y los vientos se calman en la noche. +Todo se calma. No hay viento para nada. +Parece un buen momento para subir al pico. +Aqu unos escaladores comenzando a subir lo que se conoce como la cara triangular. +Es la primera parte de la subida. +Se hace en la noche, porque es menos empinada que la siguiente, y ganas horas de luz si lo haces en la noche. +Eso es lo que sucedi. +Los escaladores llegaron al borde sudeste. +Esta es una vista del borde sudeste. +El pico est en primer plano. +Desde aqu, son como 457 metros en un ngulo de 30 grados para llegar al pico. +Pero lo que sucedi ese ao fue que el viento inesperadamente creci. +Comenz una tormenta que nadie anticipaba. +Aqu pueden ver algunos vientos fuertes soplando nieve desde el pico. +Y haba unos escaladores en ese borde del pico. +Esta es una foto ma en esa rea tomada un ao antes, y pueden ver que tengo un mscara de oxgeno puesta con una bolsa reservorio. +Tengo una manguera de oxgeno conectada. +Pueden ver en ese escalador, tenemos 2 tanques en la parte de atrs, tanques de titanio, muy livianos. Y no estamos cargando nada ms, +Eso es todo lo que tienes, ests muy expuesto en el borde del pico +Bien. Esta es una foto tomada en el borde del pico. +Esta es en camino al pico, en el puente de 457 metros. +Todos los escaladores estn subiendo sin cuerdas, y es porque, hacia cualquier lado, la cada es tan vertical, que si estuvieras amarrado a alguien, lo arrastrara contigo. +Cada persona sube individualmente. +Y no es para nada un camino recto. Es muy difcil de subir, y siempre existe el riesgo de caer hacia cualquier lado. +Si caes hacia la izquierda, caers 2438 metros en Nepal. Si caes a tu derecha, 3658 metros en Tbet. +As que probablemente es mejor caer en el Tbet porque vivirs un poco ms. +Pero igual, ser tu ltima cada en la vida. +Esos escaladores estaban cerca del pico, a lo largo del borde que ven all, y yo estaba abajo en el campamento III. +Mi expedicin estaba abajo en el campamento III, mientras ellos estaban arriba en medio de la tormenta. +La tormenta era tan fuerte que tuvimos que acostarnos completamente vestidos, y totalmente equipados, en el piso de la carpa para evitar que el viento se llevara la carpa. +Ha sido uno de los peores ventarrones que he visto. +y esos escaladores estaban all en el borde mucho ms arriba, 610 metros ms arriba, y expuestos completamente a la intemperie. +Estbamos en comunicacin por radio con algunos de ellos. +Esta es una vista a lo largo del borde del pico. +Escuchamos por radio, que Rob Hall, estaba all, en el momento de la tormenta con Doug Hansen. +Escuchamos que Rob estaba bien, pero Doug estaba muy dbil para bajar. +Estaba muy agotado, y Rob se quedara con l. +Tambin recibimos la mala noticia de que durante la tormenta Beck Weathers, otro escalador, haba colapsado y haba muerto en la nieve. +An haba 18 escaladores ms de los que no sabamos su condicin. +Estaban perdidos. Haba mucha confusin en la montaa. Todas las historias eran confusas. Muchas se contradecan. +Realmente no tenamos idea de lo que estaba sucediendo. +Solo estbamos agachados cubrindonos en nuestras carpas en el campamento III. +Nuestros 2 escaladores ms fuertes, Todd Burleson y Pete Athans, decidieron subir y tratar de rescatar a los que pudieran incluso con esa fuerte tormenta. +Trataron de enviar un mensaje por radio a Rob Hall, que era un escalador muy fuerte, estancado con otro escalador ms dbil cerca del pico. +Yo esperaba que le diran a Rob, "Aguanta, ya vamos". +Pero lo que dijeron fue, "Deja a Doug y baja t. +No hay esperanza de salvarlo, en este momento trata de salvarte t". +Rob recibi el mensaje, pero su respuesta fue, "Ambos estamos escuchando". +Todd y Pete subieron hasta el borde, aqu, y era un completo caos all arriba, +Pero hicieron lo que pudieron para estabilizar a las personas. +Les di sugerencias desde el campamento III, y bajamos a los escaladores que pudieran bajar por ellos mismos. +Los que no, decidimos dejarlos en el campamento IV. +Los escaladores venan bajando por esta ruta, +Esta es tomada del campamento III, era donde yo estaba. +Y todos llegaban a m para que los revisara y viera que poda hacer por ellos, lo cual no era mucho porque el campamento III es una pequea rea en el hielo en el medio de un ngulo de 45 grados. +Escasamente puedes pararte afuera de la carpa. +Es realmente frio. Est a 7315 metros. +Las nicas provisiones que tena a esa altitud eran 2 bolsas plsticas con jeringas cargadas de analgsicos y esteroides. +As que, a medida que los escaladores llegaban, los examinaba para ver si estaban o no en condiciones de seguir bajando. +Los que no estaban muy lcidos o que no coordinaban bien, les aplicaba una inyeccin de esteroides para darles un tiempo de lucidez y coordinacin, de tal manera que pudieran seguir bajando la montaa. +Era tan complejo trabajar all arriba, que a veces les inyect a travs de la ropa +Era muy difcil manejarlo de otra forma. +Mientras los cuidaba, recibimos ms noticias de Rob Hall. +No haba forma de subir hasta donde estaba y rescatarlo. +Llam para decir que estaba solo. +Aparentemente, Doug haba muerto en la montaa. +Pero ahora Rob estaba muy dbil para bajar por s mismo, y con toda la fuerza del viento a esa altura, estaba ms all del rescate y l lo saba. +En ese momento nos pidi que llamramos a su esposa, +l tena un radio, +Su esposa estaba en Nueva Zelanda, con 7 meses de embarazo de su primer hijo. Rob nos pidi que lo comunicramos con ella. Eso hicimos. Rob y su esposa tuvieron su ltima conversacin. +Escogieron el nombre de su beb, +y Rob se desconect, esa fue la ltima vez que lo escuchamos. +Yo me enfrentaba a cuidar muchos enfermos, a 7315 metros, lo que era casi imposible. +As que, lo que hicimos fue bajar a las vctimas hasta los 6400 metros, donde era ms fcil tratarlos. +Este era mi equipo mdico. +Es una caja con suministros mdicos. +Esto fue lo que llev a la montaa. +Tena ms suministros abajo, los que ped que me subieran al campamento. +As luca el campamento. +Los sobrevivientes llegaban uno a uno. +Algunos con hipotermia, otros con partes congeladas, algunos las dos. +Lo que hicimos fue tratar de calentarlos lo mejor que pudimos, darles oxgeno y tratar de revivirlos, lo que es difcil a 6400 metros, y en una carpa helada, +Esta es una congelacin severa de pies, congelacin severa de nariz. +Este escalador estaba cegado por la nieve. +Mientras cuidaba de estos escaladores, tuvimos un experiencia asombrosa, +De la nada, Beck Weathers, a quin ya dbamos por muerto, entr tambaleando a la carpa como una momia, entr a la carpa, +Yo lo esperaba incoherente, pero de hecho, entr y me dijo, "Hola Ken. Dnde puedo sentarme?". +Y luego dijo, "Aceptas mi seguro de salud?". +De verdad lo dijo. +Estaba completamente lcido, pero severamente congelado. +Pueden ver su mano completamente blanca, y su cara, su nariz, estn quemadas, +Primero, se pone blanco, y cuando est completamente necrosado, se pone negro y luego se cae. +Es la ltima etapa, como una cicatriz. +As que, mientras estaba cuidando de Beck, nos cont lo que haba sucedido all arriba. +Nos dijo que se haba perdido en la tormenta, colaps en la nieve, y se qued ah sin poder moverse. +Algunos escaladores pasaban y lo vean, y les escuchaba decir "Est muerto". +Pero Beck no estaba muerto; l los escuchaba, pero no se poda mover. +Estaba en un estado como catatnico, en que estaba consciente de lo que suceda, pero no poda siquiera parpadear para indicar que estaba vivo. +As que, los escaladores pasaban de largo, y Beck estuvo tirado por un da, una noche, y otro da, en la nieve. +Y luego se dijo a s mismo, "No quiero morir. +tengo una familia a la que quiero volver". +Y el pensar en su familia, sus hijos y su esposa, generaron suficiente energa, suficiente motivacin en l, que realmente se levant +Despus de estar en la nieve tanto tiempo, se levant y encontr el camino de regreso al campamento. +Beck me cont esta historia muy calmadamente, pero yo estaba totalmente asombrado. +No poda imaginarme una persona tirada en la nieve todo ese periodo de tiempo y luego levantarse. +Aparentemente revers una hipotermia irreversible. +Y solo puedo tratar de especular cmo lo hizo. +As que, qu tal si a Beck lo conectramos a un escangrafo SPECT, algo que puede medir las funciones del cerebro? +Cortemos el cerebro por aqu, e imaginen que Beck est conectado al escangrafo SPECT. +Este mide el flujo dinmico sanguneo, y as el flujo de energa en el cerebro. +Aqu tienen la corteza prefrontal coloreada de rojo. +Este es un escan bien distribuido. +Tienen la seccin del medio, donde el lbulo temporal podra estar, aqu, y la parte posterior, donde estn las funciones de mantenimiento. +Este es aproximadamente un escan normal, que muestra la energa distribuida equilibradamente. +Ahora, ven esta y pueden ver cmo los lbulos frontales estn ms coloreados. +Esto pudo ser lo que Beck experiment cuando se dio cuenta de que estaba en peligro. +Puso toda su atencin en salir del problema. +Estas partes del cerebro estn calmadas. +No est pensando en su familia o alguien ms en este momento, y est trabajando fuertemente. +Est tratando de mover sus msculos y salir de esto. +Bien. Pero, est perdiendo por aqu. +Est quedndose sin energa. +Est demasiado fro. No puede mantener su calor metablico. Y ven, no hay ms rojo aqu. Su cerebro se est aquietando. +Aqu colapsa en la nieve. Todo est calmado. Hay muy poco rojo alrededor. +Beck se est apagando. +Est muriendo. +Vamos al prximo escan, pero, en el caso de Beck, pueden ver que la parte media del cerebro, se est iluminando de nuevo, +Est empezando a pensar en su familia. +Est empezando a tener imgenes que lo estn motivando a levantarse. +Est desarrollando energa en esa rea a travs de pensamientos. +Y as es como usa esos pensamientos y los convierte en accin. +Esta parte del cerebro es llamada corteza singular anterior. +Es un rea en la que muchos de los neurocientficos creen que se centra la voluntad. +Aqu se toman las decisiones, se desarrolla el querer hacer. +Y, pueden ver, cmo la energa fluye desde la parte media del cerebro, donde consigue las imgenes de su familia, en esta rea, esto es lo que motiva su deseo. +Se est poniendo ms fuerte cada vez hasta el punto en que realmente se convierte en un factor motivante. +l va a desarrollar suficiente energa en sta rea, despus de un da, una noche y otro da, para realmente motivarse a levantarse. +Y pueden observar aqu, comienza a recibir ms energa en su lbulo frontal. +Est comenzando a enfocarse. Se puede concentrar ahora, +Est pensando qu puede hacer para sobrevivir, +Esta energa ha sido transmitida hacia la parte frontal de su cerebro, y se calma aqu, pero est usando esa energa para pensar qu tiene que hacer para mantenerse vivo, +Y luego, esta energa se est distribuyendo alrededor de sus reas de pensamiento. +No est pensando en su familia, est motivndose a s mismo. +Esta es la parte posterior, donde sus msculos empezarn a moverse, y se estar moviendo poco a poco. +Sus pulmones y corazn empezarn mejorar. +As que, esto es lo que puedo especular que pudo haber sucedido si hubiramos podido tomar una escanografa SPECT a Beck durante su pica travesa de supervivencia. +Aqu estoy cuidando a Beck a 6400 metros, sent que lo que estaba haciendo era nada comparado con lo que l haba hecho por s mismo. +Esto muestra lo que el poder de la mente puede hacer. +l estaba muy enfermo al igual que otros. Por suerte, pudimos hacer que un helicptero, rescatara estos hombres. +Un helicptero subi a 6400 metros es el helicptero que ha subido ms alto en una misin de rescate en la historia. +Pudo aterrizar en la nieve, tomar a Beck y otros sobrevivientes, uno a uno, y llevarlos a una clnica en Katmand, antes de que nosotros regresramos al campamento base. +Esto es en el campamento base, en uno de los campamentos, donde algunos de los escaladores se perdieron. +Tuvimos un ceremonia all unos das despus. +Estos son sherpas prendiendo fuego a ramas de junpero +Ellos piensan que el humo del junpero es sagrado. +Y los escaladores se pararon alrededor en las rocas altas y hablaron sobre los escaladores perdidos cerca del pico, mirando hacia la montaa, realmente, para hablarles directamente. +Fueron 5 los escaladores perdidos all. +Este era Scott Fischer, Rob Hall, Andy Harris, Doug Hansen, y Yasuko Namba. +Y otro escalador que pudo haber muerto all, pero que no lo hizo, y ese es Beck Weathers. +Sobrevivi porque fue capaz de generar esa voluntad increble, que fue capaz de usar el poder de su mente para sobrevivir. +Estas son banderas tibetanas. +Estos sherpas creen que si escribes oraciones en las banderas, el mensaje llegar a los dioses, y ese ao, el mensaje de Beck recibi respuesta. +Gracias +Voy a hablarles acerca de mi trabajo con la animacin suspendida. +Usualmente, cuando menciono la animacin suspendida, la gente hace el saludo vulcano y se re. +Pero no estoy hablando de inducir un coma en personas para viajar a Marte o incluso a Pandora, por ms entretenido que eso suene. +Estoy hablando del concepto de animacin suspendida que nos permitira ayudar a personas en trauma +Entonces A qu me refiero al decir "animacin suspendida"? +Es el proceso por el cual animales son capaces de des-animarse, parecer muertos, y luego despertarse sin dao alguno. +Bien, entonces esta es la idea general. Si uno observa la Naturaleza, uno encuentra al ver ejemplos de animacin suspendida, uno tiende a ver inmortalidad. +Entonces, lo que quiero contarles es la forma en que se le podra decir a una persona que se encuentra en trauma... encuentre la forma de des-animarse levemente para que sea un poco inmortal al momento de tener un paro cardaco. +Las semillas y las esporas bacterianas pueden considerarse ejemplos de organismos bastante inmortales. +Estas criaturas son unas de las formas de vida ms inmortales del planeta y suelen pasar la mayora del tiempo en animacin suspendida. +Los cientficos consideran que las esporas bacterianas existen como clulas individuales que estn vivas, pero en animacin suspendida. desde hace 250 millones de aos. +Mi intencin es divulgar esta idea de criaturas diminutas, quiero instalarla entre nosotros. +En la lnea germinal inmortal de los seres humanos, es decir, los huevos que se encuentran en los ovarios, se encuentran en un estado de animacin suspendida hasta 50 aos en la vida de cada mujer. +Ahora les contar sobre mi ejemplo favorito de animacin suspendida. +Los "monos marinos". +Quienes tienen hijos saben qu son. +Uno puede comprar estas cosas en una tienda de mascotas o una juguetera. Slo hay que abrir la bolsa, y tirarlos dentro de un acuario de plstico, y en una semana, uno se encuentra con estos pequeos camarones que nadan por ah. +Personalmente, no me interesaba como nadaban. +Estaba interesado en lo que suceda dentro de la bolsa, la bolsa en el estante de la juguetera donde estos camarones permanecieron indefinidamente en animacin suspendida. +Estas ideas de la animacin suspendida no son slo sobre clulas y pequeos, extraos organismos. +Ocasionalmente, los seres humanos podemos ser des-animados brevemente, y las historias que ms me interesan acerca de estas personas que son des-animadas brevemente son aquellas que estn relacionadas con el fro. +Hace 10 aos, una esquiadora en Noruega quedo atrapada en una cascada congelada. Ella estuvo ah dos horas hasta que la pudieron sacar. +Estaba extremadamente fra, y su corazn no lata. Todo indicaba que haba muerto, congelada. +Siete horas despus, su corazn segua sin latir, pero lograron revivirla, y vivi para convertirse en la radiloga titular en el mismo hospital donde fue tratada. +Un par de aos despus... estas cosas me emocionan... aos despus, pas algo similar con una nia canadiense de 13 meses de vida. +Su padre haba salido durante la poca invernal; l trabajaba por las noches, y la nia lo sigui afuera vestida slo con su paal. +Horas ms tarde, fue encontrada congelada, sin vida. Y lograron revivirla. +El ao pasado, una mujer de 65 aos en Duluth, Minnesota, fue encontrada congelada, sin pulso, en su jardn una maana invernal, y lograron revivirla. +Al otro, la mujer estaba tan saludable que, aunque queran hacerle unos anlisis, +se puso de mal humor y regres a casa. +Estos son milagros No? +Estos son eventos milagrosos que en verdad ocurren. +Los doctores tienen un dicho que, de hecho, uno no est muerto hasta que est tibio y muerto. +Y es verdad. Es verdad. +En la Revista de Medicina de Nueva Inglaterra, se public un estudio que demostr que con el recalentamiento correcto, es posible revivir sin ningn problema neurolgico a personas que han sufrido la falta de latido por tres horas. +Eso es en ms del 50% de los casos. +Entonces lo que estoy tratando de hacer es pensar la forma en la cual podramos estudiar la animacin suspendida para encontrar la forma de reproducir, tal vez, lo que le paso a la esquiadora. +Bien, debo decirles algo muy extrao, estar expuesto a bajos niveles de oxgeno no siempre lleva a la muerte. +Entonces, en esta habitacin, hay un 20% de oxgeno aproximadamente. Si redujramos la concentracin de oxgeno, todos moriramos. +De hecho, los animales con los que trabajamos en el laboratorio, pequeas lombrices, nemtodos, tambin murieron cuando las expusimos a bajos niveles de oxgeno. +Y aqu est lo que debera asombrarlos. +Cuando redujimos an ms la concentracin de oxgeno 100 veces, a 10 partes por milln, no estaban muertas, estaban en animacin suspendida, y pudimos regresarlos a la vida sin dao alguno. +Y esa precisa concentracin de oxgeno, 10 partes por milln, que caus la animacin suspendida, se conserva. +Lo pudimos observar en variedad de diferentes organismos. +Uno de los animales en que lo observamos es en peces. +Y podemos encender y apagar su corazn, hacindolos entrar y salir de la animacin suspendida, como si uno encendiera una luz. +El hecho de que pudisemos hacer sto me pareci increble. +Cuando intentbamos reproducir el caso de la esquiadora, nos dimos cuenta, obviamente, de que ella no haba consumido oxgeno, entonces, tal vez haba entrado en un estado similar de animacin suspendida. +Pero, a la vez, estaba extremadamente fra. +Entonces nos preguntamos que sucedera si expusiramos al fro a estos animales en animacin suspendida. +De esta manera descubrimos que si exponemos al fro a animales que estn animados como Uds o yo, como estas lombrices, se mueren. +Pero si se encuentran en animacin suspendida y luego se los expone al fro, se encuentran con vida. +Entonces he aqu la parte importante: Si quieren sobrevivir al fro, deben estar suspendidos Verdad? +Es algo muy bueno. +Entonces, pensamos en esto, sobre la relacin entre estas cosas, y nos preguntamos si eso fue lo que le sucedi a la esquiadora o no. +Y nos preguntamos: existe algn agente dentro nuestro, algo que producimos nosotros mismos con lo que podemos regular nuestra propia flexibilidad metablica de tal forma que seamos capaces de sobrevivir bajo el fro extremo? De otro modo moriramos. +Se me ocurri que sera interesante "cazar" este tipo de cosas. +Me entienden? +Ahora debera hacer una breve mencin que los libros de fisiologa les dirn que esta idea no es muy ortodoxa. +Desde que el doctor nos da una palmada en el trasero hasta que damos nuestro ltimo respiro antes de morir, desde el nacimiento hasta la muerte, no podemos reducir nuestra tasa de metabolismo por debajo de lo que se llama tasa de metabolismo basal o etndar. +Pero yo saba que existan ejemplos de animales, mamferos, que s pueden reducir su tasa de metabolismo como las ardillas y los osos. Ellos reducen su tasa de metabolismo durante el invierno para hibernar. +Entonces me pregunt: podramos encontrar un agente o disparador que pudiese inducir ese estado en nosotros? +Entonces, comenzamos a buscar ese tipo de cosas. +Y este fue un perodo en el cual fracasamos estrepitsamente. +Ken Robinson esta aqu. l nos hablo acerca de la gloria en el fracaso. +Bueno, nosotros tuvimos muchos fracasos. +Probamos diferentes qumicos y agentes, y fracasamos una y otra vez. +Entonces, en una ocasin, estaba en mi casa mirando televisin, mientras mi esposa acostaba a los nios, mientras yo miraba un programa de televisin. +Era un programa, era un episodio de NOVA en PBS, sobre cavernas en Nuevo Mxico. +Y esta cueva en particular era Lechuguilla, la cual es increblemente txica para los humanos. +Los investigadores usaron trajes especiales para ingresar. +La cueva est llena de un gas txico, cido sulfhdrico. +Ahora bien, el cido sulfhdrico curiosamente est presente en nosotros. +Lo producimos nosotros mismos. +La concentracin ms alta est en nuestro cerebro. +Y s, fue utilizado durante la Primera Guerra Mundial como un arma qumica. +Es algo increblemente txico. +De hecho, en accidentes qumicos, la reaccin al cido sulfhdrico es... si uno aspira mucho, se desplomara en el piso y parecera estar muerto. Pero uno podra ser reanimado sin dao alguno si lo sacaran rpidamente a respirar aire. +Entonces pens, guau, tengo que conseguir un poco de esto. +Pero, estamos en EE.UU. post 11-S, y cuando uno va al instituto de investigacin, y dice, "Hola. +me gustara comprar cilindros concentrados de gas comprimido con un gas letal. porque, vern, tengo estas ideas quiero suspender personas. +Todo estar bien, en serio". +Es algo difcil de conseguir, pero dije, realmente existen bases para pensar por qu queremos realizar esto. +Como dije, este agente est presente en nosotros, de hecho, he aqu un dato curioso, el qumico est ligado al mismo lugar dentro de nuestras clulas donde el oxigeno esta ligado, donde lo utilizamos, y lo utilizamos para vivir. +Entonces pensamos que, como en el juego de las sillas, podramos introducir cido sulfhdrico en una persona y ste podra ocupar el lugar donde debera ligarse el oxgeno, +y si el oxgeno no es capaz de ligarse, tal vez uno no lo consumira y tal vez eso reducira la demanda de oxgeno. +Es decir Quin sabe? +Entonces... Entonces, est el tema de la dopamina y siendo un poco, como se dice, delirante. Uds tal vez sugieran que este es el caso. +Entonces, quisimos averiguar si podamos ser capaces de usar el cido sulfhdrico en presencia del fro, queramos observar si podamos reproducir el caso de la esquiadora en un mamfero. +Los mamferos somos animales de sangre caliente y cuando tenemos fro, temblamos y tiritamos. +Tratamos de mantener nuestra temperatura a 37C quemando ms oxgeno. +Es por eso que nos pareci interesante que, al aplicarle cido sulfhdrico a un ratn en bajas temperaturas, su temperatura corporal descendi. +Dej de moverse. +Pareca muerto. +Su tasa de consumo de oxgeno era diez veces menor. +Y he aqu el punto realmente importante. +Les cont que el cido sulfhdrico est dentro nuestro. +Se metaboliza rpidamente, y todo lo que tiene que hacerse despus de seis horas de estar en este estado de des-animacin es simplemente hacerle respirar aire fresco al sujeto. Y ste se recalentar, sin desgaste alguno. +Esto fue una revelacin. +En serio. Habamos encontrado la manera de des-animar un mamfero. Sin daarlo en manera alguna. +Habamos encontrado la manera de reducir su consumo de oxgeno a niveles extremadamente bajos, y se encontraba bien. +En este estado de des-animacin, no poda salir a bailar, pero no estaba muerto, y no era lastimado. +As que nos imaginamos: Qu aplicacin puede tener esta capacidad de controlar la flexibilidad metablica? +Y una de las cosas que nos preguntamos... estoy seguro que entre Uds hay algunos economistas, y saben todo sobre oferta y demanda. +Cuando la oferta es igual a la demanda, todo est bien, pero cuando la demanda se reduce, en este caso, el oxgeno, y la demanda continua elevada, uno muere. +Entonces, lo que acabo de decirles es que ahora podemos reducir la demanda. +Debemos reducir la oferta a niveles sin precedentes sin matar al animal. +Y con el dinero que obtuvimos de DARPA, podemos demostrarlo. +Si se utiliza cido sulfhdrico en ratones, se puede reducir su demanda de oxgeno, y se los puede introducir en ambientes donde la concentracin de oxgeno es tan baja como a 1.500 metros por encima del monte Everest, y pueden permanecer ah por horas, sin problemas. +Esto es algo genial. +Tambin descubrimos que podamos inducir a los animales a perdida de sangre, que de otra forma sera letal, y podamos salvarlos si se les haba dado cido sulfhdrico. +Entonces estos experimentos que validaron el concepto me guiaron a tomar la decisin de fundar una empresa. y llevar esto a un campo ms amplio. +Entonces fund una empresa llamada Ikaria, con la ayuda de otros. +Y esta empresa, lo primero que logr fue hacer una formula lquida de cido sulfhdrico que es inyectable y puede ser envasada y enviada a mdicos de todo el mundo que trabajan en modelos de terapia intensiva y los resultados son increblemente positivos. +En un modelo de ataque cardaco, animales en los que se utiliz cido sulfhdrico mostraban una reduccin de daos 70% mayor comparado con los que obtuvieron atencin estndar que recibiramos si sufriramos un ataque cardaco ahora. +Lo mismo puede decirse sobre las fallas de rganos: como los que suceden debido a la insuficiencia renal, heptica, sndrome de dificultad respiratoria aguda, y daos sufridos en ciruga de bypass coronario. +En todo el mundo, los referentes en traumatologa concuerdan en que esto es verdad, entonces parece que la exposicin al cido sulfhdrico reduce el dao recibido al ser expuesto a niveles bajos de oxgeno que de otra manera seran letales. +Y debera decir que las concentraciones de cido sulfhdrico requeridas para obtener este beneficio son bajas, increblemente bajas. +De hecho, son tan bajas que los mdicos no debern reducir o alterar el metabolismo de los pacientes notablemente para observar el beneficio que acabo de mencionarles; lo cual es algo maravilloso, si es que estn pensando en adoptar esto. +No querran convertir en vegetales a sus pacientes slo para salvarlos, es algo muy confuso. +Entonces, quiero decirles que estamos en pruebas humanas. +Entonces... Gracias. Ha terminado la primer fase de estudios de seguridad y nos est yendo bien, hemos avanzado. +Debemos comenzar con la segunda y tercer fase. Lo cual nos llevar algunos aos. +Todo esto ha avanzado muy rpido y los experimentos con ratones que hibernan ocurrieron en el 2005, el primer estudio sobre humanos comenz en 2008, y en un par de aos podremos saber si funciona o no. +Y todo esto ha avanzado tan rpido gracias a que recibimos mucha ayuda de muchas personas. +Quiero mencionar, antes que nada, a mi esposa, sin la cual esta charla y mi trabajo no hubieran sido posibles, te lo agradezco mucho. +Tambin, a los brillantes cientficos que trabajan en mi laboratorio y al resto del equipo, el Instituto de Investigacin del Cncer Fred Hutchinson de Seattle, Washington, maravilloso lugar para trabajar. +Y tambin a los maravillosos cientficos y empresarios de Ikaria. +Y este gas, que se usa en miles de hospitales de cuidado intensivo en todo el mundo, ahora es aprobado, certificado, y salva miles de bebs por ao de una muerte segura. +Para m es algo increble ser parte de todo esto. +Su metabolismo descender como si redujeran la iluminacin de una lmpara en sus casas. +Y entonces tendrn tiempo, habrn ganado tiempo para poder ser transportados al hospital y as recibir la atencin que necesitan. +Y luego de recibir dicha atencin, como el ratn, como la esquiadora, como la mujer de 65 aos, despertarn. +Un milagro? +Esperamos que no, o tal vez slo esperamos hacer de los milagros algo ms comn. +Muchas gracias. +Si pensamos en el telfono, e Intel ha investigado muchas de las cosas que voy a mostrrles en los ltimos 10 aos en unas 600 viviendas de personas mayores, 300 en Irlanda y 300 en Portland, intentando comprender cmo medir y seguir comportamientos de un mdo mdicamente significativo. +Y si pensamos en el telfono, por ejemplo, es algo que podemos utilizar de maneras increbles para ayudar a la gente a que tome la medicacin correcta en el momento indicado. +Estamos probando este tipo de tecnologas de redes de sensores por la casa para que cualquier telfono con el que un anciano ya est familiarizado pueda ayudarle a controlar su medicacin. +Y lo que hacen es que descuelgan el telfono y nuestro sistema les susurra al odo la pastilla que deben tomarse, mientras fingen que hablan con un amigo. +Y no se sienten avergonzados por un carrito de medicinas que guardan en la cocina y que dice: "Soy viejo. Soy dbil". +Es una tecnologa muy discreta que les ayuda a realizar la tarea simple de tomar la pastilla correcta en el momento indicado. +Ahora bien, tambin podemos hacer cosas increbles con estos telfonos. +Cada vez que uno descuelga el telfono se produce una prueba cognitiva. +Vamos a verlo, de acuerdo? Voy a descolgar el telfono de tres formas distintas. +"Diga? Hola!" +Vale?, esa es la primera. +"Diga? eh..., hola!" +"Diga? eh..., quin? +Ah, hola!" +Vale? Grandes diferencias entre cmo he cogido el telfono las tres veces. +El esperar ese momento de reconocimiento puede ser un mejor indicio prematuro de la aparicin de demencia que cualquier resultado clnico de hoy en da. +A esto lo llamamos marcadores de comportamiento +Hay muchos ms. Cuando esa persona acude a coger el telfono cuando suena, tarda lo mismo que antes? +Es un problema auditivo o fsico? +Su voz se va haciendo ms tenue? Hemos trabajado mucho con personas con Alzheimer y en particular gente con Parkinson en los que esa voz ms tenue de lo normal en pacientes con Parkinson puede ser el mejor indicador prematuro de Parkinson de 5 a 10 aos antes de su aparicin clnica. +Pero esos cambios se producen durante un largo periodo de tiempo que hace difcil que uno mismo o su pareja se d cuenta hasta que llegue al extremo y haya un deterioro claro. +As que estos sensores buscan esa voz tenue. +Cuango uno descuelga el telfono cunto le tiembla la mano?, cmo exctamente?, cul es la tendencia a lo largo de un periodo de tiempo? +Le cuesta a uno marcar ms que antes? +Es un problema de destreza? Es la aparicin de artrtis? +Usa uno el telfono?, socializa uno menos que antes? +Y siguiendo ese patrn, en qu se traduce ese declive de la salud social?, es un indicador de la salud futura? +Y ahora, wow, qu idea tan radical!, podramos, salvo en los EEUU, utilizar esta nueva tecnologa para poder interactuar con un profesional de la salud al otro lado del aparato. +Qu gran da sera aquel en el que podamos hacer este tipo de cosas! +Bien, esto son lo que yo llamo marcadores de comportamiento. +Y es el campo que en el que llevamos trabajando 10 aos en Intel. +Cmo se incluyen tecnologas disruptivas en la primera de las cinco frases de las que voy a hablar? +Los marcadores de comportamiento son importantes. +Cmo modificamos el comportamiento? +Cmo medimos cambios en el comportamiento de forma significativa que nos ayude a prevenir enfermedades, su aparicin prematura, y seguir el progreso de una enfermedad durante un largo periodo de tiempo? +Bien, Para qu me dejara Intel emplear mucho tiempo y dinero, durante los ltimos 10 aos, intentando comprender las necesidades de los ancianos y empezar a pensar acerca de estos marcadores de comportamiento? +Esto es algo del trabajo de campo que he hecho. +Hemos vivido en 1.000 viviendas de ancianos en 20 pases en los ltimos 10 aos. +Estudiamos a gente en Rochester, Nueva York. +Vamos a vivir con ellos en invierno, ya que lo que hacen en invierno, y su accesibilidad a la asistencia mdica y cunto se relacionan difiere mucho de en verano. +Si sufren una fractura de cadera les acompaamos y estudiamos su experiencia de ingreso y alta completa. +Si tienen un familiar que resulta muy importante en su red de asistencia viajamos y les estudiamos tambin. +As, estudiamos la experiencia mdica completa de 1.000 ancianos durante los ltimos 10 aos en 20 pases distintos. +Y, por qu lo financia Intel? +Por el segundo eslogan del que quiero hablar. +Hace 10 aos, cuando empec a intentar convencer a Intel de que me dejara inverstigar tecnologas disruptivas que pudieran contrbuir a una vida independiente, as es como lo llam: "2000 + 10". +Vern, en 2000 estbamos tan obsesionados con cmo "envejecan" nuestros ordenadores y de si podran sobrevivir al famoso efecto 2000 que nos perdimos un momento en el que slo los demgrafos se haban fijado. +Fue alrededor de Ao Nuevo. +Y ese cambio en el que el nmero de personas mayores en el planeta era mayor que el de jvenes. +Por primera vez en la historia de la humnidad, y salvo por visitas aliengenas o grandes pandemias, eso es lo que esperan los demgrafos de aqu en adelante. +Y hace 10 aos pareca que tena mucho tiempo para convencer a Intel para esto, verdad? +2000 + 10 estaba llegando, Los "baby boomers" empezaban a jubilarse. +Bueno amigos, es como si nos sonaran estos datos. +Este es un mapa del mundo entero. +Es como si las luces estuvieran encendidas, pero no hay nadie en casa en este problema demogrfico de 2000+10, verdad? +Quiero decir que como que lo entendemos aqu, pero no aqu. Y no estamos haciendo nada al respecto. +La ley de reforma de salud ignora en gran parte las realidades del grupo de edad que se avecina, y las implicaciones sobre lo que debemos hacer para cambiar no slo cmo pagamos por la salud, si no tambin cmo ofrecer asistencia de formas radicalmente diferentes. +Y ya se nos est echando encima. +Supongo que ya habrn ledo estos titulares. Esta es Catherine Casey, la primera "baby boomer" en recibir Seguridad Social. +Esto ocurri este ao, sin ir ms lejos. Se ha prejubilado. +Ella naci un segundo despus de medianoche en 1946. +Una profesora de escuela jubilada. Ah est con el administrador de la Seguridad Social. +La primera "boomer", sin tener que esperar a 2011, el ao que viene. +Ya estamos empezando a ver prejubilaciones este mismo ao. +Muy bien, ya est aqu. Este problema de 2000+10 est a la vuelta de la esquina. +Esto son 50 tsunamis programados en el calendario. Pero no se sabe cmo no somos capaces de instar al gobierno y a las fuerzas innovadoras a que se enfrenten a ello y hagan algo al respecto. Esperaremos hasta que sea una catstrofe y, luego, reaccionaremos en lugar de prepararnos. +As que, una de las razones por las que es un desafo el prepararse para el problema es, y quiero argumentarlo, que tenemos lo que yo llamo un envenenamiento del sistema central. +Andy Grove, har unos 6 o 7 aos, ni se acuerda ya, pero en un artculo de Fortune Magazine us la frase "sistema central de asistencia mdica", y yo he extendido este concepto. +Lo vio escrito en alguna parte. Me dijo, "Eric, ese concepto es genial". +Y yo le dije: "Pero si fue idea tuya! Lo dijiste en un artculo de Fortune Magazine. +Yo solo lo he extendido". +Este es el sistema central, +Esta mentalidad de grandes y caros sistemas asistencia mdica apareci en 1787. +Este es el primer hospital general de Viena. +Y, de hecho, el segundo hospital general de Viena cerca de 1850, fue donde se empez a disear un programa de estudios basado en especialidades. +Y es donde se empez a desarrollar la arquitectura que literalmente dividi el cuerpo y dividi la salud en departamentos y especialidades. +Y se vio reflejado en nuestra arquitectura. Se vio reflejado en cmo enseamos a los estudiantes. Y esta mentalidad de sistema central an existe. +Ahora, yo no soy anti-hospitales. +Con mis propios problemas de salud he tomado medicamentos, he estado en este y aquel hospital, muchas veces. +Pero idolatramos al gran hospital general, no? +Y esto es el sistema central mdico. +Tenemos que cambiar esa mentalidad centralizada de la salud hacia un modelo de salud personal. +Estamos obsesionados con esta forma de pensar. +Cuando Intel hace estudios alrededor del mundo y decimos: "Respuesta rpida, salud". +La primera palabra que sale es mdico. +La segunda es hospital. Y la tercera es enfermedad o enfermo, verdad? +Estamos diseados para pensar en la asistencia Mdica y la innovacin mdica como algo que entra en ese concepto. +Toda la polmica actual sobre la reforma de salud, informtizacin de la medicina, cuando hablamos con los polticos significa cmo vamos a hacer que los mdicos usen historiales electrnicos? +No estamos pensando en cmo cambiar del sistema central al hogar. +Y el problema est en nuestro concepto de salud, no creen? +Es un sistema muy reactivo e influenciado por la crisis. +Hacemos consultas de 15 minutos +Es en base a la poblacin. +Recogemos un puado de informacin biolgica en este ambiente artificial. Los "arreglamos" a lo sana, sana, culito de rana, y a casa, esperando tras darles un folleto o una web interactiva a la que acudir, que hagan lo que les mandemos y no vuelvan al sistema central. +Y el problema es que no nos lo podemos permitir. +No podemos permitir que la salud centralizada incluya a los no asegurados. +Y ahora queremos hacer un doble doble con el grupo de edad que se avecina? +Como de costumbre, los negocios de la salud no funcionan y hay que hacer algo nuevo. +Tenemos que centrarnos en los hogares. +Tenemos que centrarnos en el paradigma de la salud personal que lleva la asistencia a casa. Cmo nos hacemos ms proactivos y preventivos? +Cmo recogemos constantes vitales y ese tipo de datos 24h al da? +Cmo recogemos datos basales sobre qu va a funcionar para ti ? +Cmo recogemos datos no slo biolgicos, ? sino de comportamiento, psicolgicos, relacional, fuera, dentro y sobre el hogar? +Y Cmo conseguimos crear este plan de salud personalizado que utiliza toda esta gran tecnologa a nuestro alrededor para cambiar nuestro comportamiento? +Eso es lo que debemos hacer con el modelo de salud personal. +Quiero darles algunos ejemplo. Esta es Mimi, de uno de nuestros estudios. Con ms de 90 aos tuvo que mudarse porque su familia estaba preocupada por las cadas. +Levanten la mano los que hayan sufrido alguna cada importante en sus casas, o sus familiares, sus padres y dems. Verdad? +Tpico. las fracturas de cadera en ancianos suelen conllevar hospitalizacin. +Esto le pas a Mimi y su familia estaba tan preocupada que la llevaron a un centro de asistencia a personas con necesidades especiales. +Y se tropez con su tanque de oxgeno. +Muchas personas de esa generacin no pulsan el botn, incluso si cuentan con un sistema de llamada de emergencia, porque no quieren molestar, incluso si pagan 30 dlares al mes por ese servicio. +Los "boomers" lo pulsaran. Se lo aseguro. +Pulsaran el botn sin pensrselo dos veces. Verdad? +Mimi se fractur la pelvis y se qued en el suelo todo el da y la noche hasta que la encontraron y la llevaron al hospital. +All la trataron pero no podra volver al centro de asistencia as que la llevaron a una residencia de ancianos. +Y bien, lo que ms me asusta es que esta era la abuela de mi mujer. +Veamos, yo soy Eric Dishman. Hablo ingls. Trabajo para Intel. Tengo un buen sueldo. S qu hacer ante cadas y lesiones derivadas. Es el rea de investigacin en el que trabajo. +Tengo contacto con senadores y Consejeros Delegados. +Y no puedo evitar que esto ocurra. +Qu pasa si no tienes dinero, no hablas ingls o no tiene como acceder a los medios contra este tipo de problemas que surgen inevitablemente? +De hecho, para empezar, cmo podemos evitar que ocurran la mayora de estas cadas? +Les dar un ejemplo del trabajo que estoy haciendo para intentar hacer eso mismo. +Llevo conmigo una tecnologa que llamamos Shimmer . +Es una plataforma de investigacin. +Cuenta con acelermetros. Se le puede conectar un EKG +de tres derivaciones. Todo Plug and Play. como Legos que se pueden construir para captar en el mundo real, cosas como los temblores, el paso, la longitud de las zancadas, esas cosas. +El problema est en nuestra concepcin de las cadas, como con Mimi. Nos llega una encuesta en el correo, 3 meses despus, del Estado diciendo, "Qu estaba usted haciendo cuando se cay?" +Eso es lo ms avanzado que hay. +Y normalmente podemos hacer dos cosas, cambiar de medicamentos. +Yo soy un investigador cualitativo pero cuando miro los datos que recibo de esas casas, puedo deducir en qu da exactamente un mdico le recet algo que nadie ms saba que el paciente estaba tomando. Porque vemos los cambios en sus patrones dentro del hogar. Verdad? +Estos descubrimientos de los marcadores y cambios de comportamiento lo cambian todo, tal y como el descubrimiento del microscopio gracias a los flujos de datos que recogemos, cosa que no habamos hecho antes. +Este es un ejemplo en la Trill Clinic de Irlanda de... bueno, lo que estn viendo es, ella est observando los datos recogidos por la magic carpet. +As que tenemos esta pequea alfombra que nos dice el movimiento postural y el cambio en el movimiento postural a lo largo de varios meses. +As es como se veran estos datos. +Esto son activaciones de sensores. +Tenemos aqu dos sujetos de nuestro estudio +y ms o menos los datos de un ao. +El color representa las diferentes habitaciones de la casa. +La persona de la izquierda vive en su propia casa. +La persona de la derecha, en cambio, vive en un centro de asistencia. +Esto lo s por lo acentuada que est la hora de la comida cuando ya no estn es su propia habitacin, lo ven? +Puede que esto no les diga mucho, +Pueden ir a ORCATech.org. No, no tiene nada que ver con ballenas, es el Oregon Center for Aging and Technology para saber ms sobre esto. +El problema es que Intel sigue siendo el mayor contribuyente del mundo en este tipo de investigacin independiente. +No es que quiera presumir de cunto invertimos, es que nadie ms parece prestar atencin al envejecimiento y las subvenciones para innovacin la gestin de enfermedades crnicas y la vida independiente en el hogar. +As que mi mantra, mi cuarto eslogan es: 10.000 hogares o nada. +As que 10.000 hogares o nada. +Estos son slo algunos de estos hogares en los que hemos trabajado. +No importa cmo financiemos la asistencia mdica. +Algo se nos ocurrir en los prximos 10 aos, y ya lo intentaremos. +No importa quin ponga el dinero, ms nos vale empezar a prestar cuidados de forma muy distinta y tratar al hogar y al paciente y al familiar y a los profesionales de la salud como parte de equipos coordinados de cuidados y usando tecnologas disruptivas que ya son capaces de prestar cuidados de formas fundamentalmente diferentes. +El Presidente debe alzarse y decir, al final del debate sobre la reforma de salud, "Nuestro objetivo como pas es trasladar el 50% de la asistencia de las instituciones, clnicas, hospitales y residencias a los hogares, en 10 aos". +Se puede hacer. Deberamos hacerlo econmicamente. Moralmente. Y deberamos hacerlo por la calidad de vida. +Pero esta reforma de salud no tiene meta alguna. +Es un lo. +As que, este es el ltimo mensaje que les doy: +Cmo nos proponemos el ambicioso objetivo de arreglar el problema "2000 + 10" que se avecina? +No es que la innovacin y la tecnologa vayan a ser la panacea, pero van a formar parte de la solucin. +Y si no nos movemos hacia la salud personal, algo que todos tenemos como objetivo con la reforma, no vamos a ninguna parte. +As que espero que usen esta conferencia como impulso. +Muchsimas gracias. +Me pidieron que rodara esta pelcula llamada "Elizabeth". +Estbamos hablando de este gran cono ingls y decamos: "Es una mujer fantstica. Hace de todo. +Cmo la vamos a presentar?" +As que nos reunimos con la gente del estudio, los productores y escritores, gente que vino y me dijo: "Shekhar, qu piensas?" +Y les dije: "Pienso en ella bailando". +Y pude ver como me miraban. Alguien dijo: "Bollywood". +Otro dijo: "Por cunto lo contratamos?" +Y el tercero dijo: "Busquemos otro director". +Pens que era mejor cambiar. +Discutimos mucho la manera de presentar a Isabel. Yo dije, bueno, quiz soy muy bollywoodense. +Tal vez Isabel, este gran cono, bailando? +En qu estn pensando? +As que volv a pensarlo todo y entonces llegamos a un consenso. +Y he aqu la presentacin de este gran cono britnico llamado Isabel I. +Leicester: Puedo acompaarla, su seora? +Isabel I: Si no le importa, Sr. +Shekhar Kapur: as estaba bailando. +Cuntos espectadores no se dieron cuenta que era una mujer enamorada completamente inocente y vieron gran alegra en su vida, y que era juvenil? +Cuntos no entendieron eso? +Ese es el poder del relato visual. Es el poder de la danza. Es el poder de la msica. El poder de no saber. +Cuando voy a dirigir una pelcula nos preparamos mucho cada da, pensamos mucho. +El conocimiento se vuelve una carga para la sabidura. +Ya saben, palabras sencillas se pierden en las arenas movedizas de la experiencia. +As que aparec y dije: "Qu voy a hacer hoy?" No voy a hacer lo que haba planeado. Y me forc a entrar en pnico absoluto. +Es mi manera de deshacerme de mi mente deshacerme de esta mente que dice: "Oye, t sabes lo que ests haciendo. Sabes exactamente lo que ests haciendo. +Eres director, lo has hecho durante aos". +As que tena que ir all y estar en pnico total. +Es un gesto simblico. Romp el guin. Entro en pnico. Me asusto. +Me est pasando ahora. Pueden verme. Me estoy poniendo nervioso. No s qu decir. No s qu estoy haciendo. No quiero ir hacia all. +Y a medida que voy all, claro, mi asistente dice: "Ud sabe lo que va a hacer, Sr". Yo respondo: "Claro que lo s". +Y los ejecutivos del estudio diran: "Oye, mira a Shekhar. Est tan preparado". +Y por dentro yo estaba escuchando a Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan porque l es catico. +Me permito entrar en caos porque del caos estoy esperando que surjan momentos de "verdad". +Toda la preparacin es preparacin. +Ni siquiera s si es algo honesto. +Incluso no s si es sincero. +La verdad de todo surje en el momento, orgnicamente, y si uno consigue cinco grandes momentos de algo genial, orgnico, en su relato, en su pelcula, los espectadores lo reconocern. +Yo busco esos momentos, y estoy all parado diciendo: "No s que decir". +As que, en ltima instancia, todos te miran 200 personas a las siete de la maana que llegaron a las siete menos cuarto y t llegaste a las siete, todos se preguntan: "Oye, Con qu comenzamos? Qu va a suceder?" +Y uno se pone en un estado de pnico en que no sabe, y efectivamente no sabe. +Uno busca algo que venga y lo impacte. +Hasta que eso no suceda uno no va a hacer la primera toma. +Entonces que hacer? +Cate dijo: "Shekhar, qu quieres que haga?" +Y yo le dije: "Cate, que quieres hacer t?" "Eres una gran actrz, y quiero descubir a mis actores. Por qu no me muestras qu quieres hacer?" +Qu estoy haciendo? Tratando de ganar tiempo. +Estoy tratando de ganar tiempo. +As que lo primero que aprend de contar historias, y persigo todo el tiempo, es el pnico. +El pnico es el gran facilitador de creatividad porque es la nica manera de deshacernos de la mente. +Deshacernos de nuestra mente. +Quitarla de en medio. Quitarla. +Y vamos al universo porque hay algo all que es ms sincero que nuestra mente ms sincero que el universo personal. +[poco claro], lo dijiste ayer. Yo slo lo repito porque eso es lo que persigo constantemente encontrar la "shunyata" en algn lugar, el vaco. +Del vaco surge un momento de creatividad. +As que eso es lo que hago. +Cuando era nio... tena unos ocho aos. +Recuerdan como era India. No haba contaminacin. +En Delhi solamos vivir... solamos llamarlo "chata" o "khota". +"Khota" hoy es una mala palabra. Significa su terraza -- solamos dormir afuera por las noches. +En la escuela me ensearon fsica, me ensearon que si algo existe entonces es medible. +Si no es medible no existe. +Y por las noches me recostaba bajo el cielo no contaminado como sola ser Delhi en ese entonces, cuando era nio, y sola contemplar el universo y decir "Hasta dnde llega el Universo?" +Mi padre era doctor. +Yo dira: "Papi, hasta dnde llega el Universo?" +Y l deca: "Hijo, se extiende para siempre". +Y yo deca: "Por favor, mide para siempre porque en la escuela me ensearon que si no puedo medirlo, no existe. +No entra en mi marco de referencia". +Entonces, cunto dura la eternidad? +Qu significa para siempre? +Y me quedara all llorando por la noche porque mi imaginacin no poda tocar la creatividad. +Y entonces qu hice? +En ese momento, a la tierna edad de siete aos, cre una historia. +Cul era mi historia? +No s por qu, pero recuerdo la historia. +Haba un leador que estaba por tomar su hacha y cortar un leo y toda la galaxia era un tomo de ese hacha. +Y cuando ese hacha golpe el leo fue que todo se destruy y se produjo nuevamente el big bang. +Pero antes de eso haba un leador. +Y luego cuando esa historia se acababa yo imaginaba que el universo del leador era un tomo del hacha de otro leador. +Y as cada vez poda contar mi historia una y otra vez y superar este problema y as super el problema. +Cmo lo hice? Contando una historia. +Entonces, qu es una historia? +Una historia es nuestro... todo de nosotros. Somos las historias que nos contamos. +En este universo, y esta existencia, donde vivimos con esta dualidad de si existimos o no de quines somos las historias que nos contamos son historias que definen las potencialidades de nuestra existencia. +Somos las historias que nos contamos. +Es por eso que miramos las historias. +Una historia es la relacin que uno desarrolla entre quin uno es o quien uno es en potencia y el mundo infinito, y esa es nuestra mitologa. +Contamos nuestras historias; y una persona sin historia no existe. +Por eso Einstein cont una historia y sigui sus historias y apareci con teoras y apareci con teoras y luego con sus ecuaciones. +Alejandro tena una historia que su madre sola contarle y sali a conquistar el mundo. +Todos tenemos una historia que ellos siguen. +Nos contamos historias. +Voy a ir ms lejos, y dir: Cuento una historia, luego existo. +Existo porque hay historias de no haber historias, no existiramos. +Creamos historias para definir nuestra existencia. +Si no creramos las historias quiz enloqueceramos. +No s, no estoy seguro, pero eso es lo que hago todo el tiempo. +Ahora, una pelcula. +Una pelcula cuenta una historia. +Siempre me pregunto al hacer una pelcula (estoy pensando en hacer una pelcula sobre Buda) a menudo me pregunto: si Buda tuviese todos los elementos con los que cuenta un director si tuviera msica, efectos visuales, si tuviera cmaras de video entenderamos mejor el Budismo? +Pero eso me pone una carga pesada. +Tengo que contar una historia de manera mucho ms elaborada pero tengo el potencial, +se llama subtexto. +Cuando llegu a Hollywood al principio, decan... yo sola hablar de subtexto, y mi agente vena y me deca: "Podras amablemente no hablar de subtexto?" +Yo deca: Por qu? Y l: "Porque nadie va a darte una pelcula si hablas de subtexto. +Slo habla del argumento, di lo maravillosamente que rodars la pelcula cmo ser la fotografa". +Cuando yo miro una pelcula esto es lo que busco: buscamos una historia a nivel argumental, despus buscamos una historia a nivel psicolgico, luego buscamos una historia a nivel poltico, luego buscamos una historia a nivel mitolgico. +Yo busco historias en cada nivel. +Ahora, no es necesario que esas historias concuerden unas con otras. +Lo maravilloso es que, muchas veces, las historias se van a contradecir unas a otras. +As que cuando trabajo con Rahman, que es un msico genial, a menudo le digo: "No sigas lo que el guin ya dice. +Encuentra lo que no dice. +Encuentra tu verdad, y cuando encuentres tu verdad habr una verdad en eso, que podra contradecir al argumento, pero no te preocupes por eso". +Entonces, la secuela de "Elizabeth", "Elizabeth: La Edad de oro". +Cuando hice la secuela de "Elizabeth", haba una historia que estaba contando el escritor. Una mujer amenazada por Felipe II estaba yendo a la guerra y yendo a la guerra, se enamor de Walter Raleigh. +Puesto que se enamor de Walter Raleigh iba a renunciar a las razones de ser reina. Y luego Walter Raleigh se enamora de la dama de compaa de ella y ella tiene que decidir si ser una reina que va a la guerra o si quera... +Esta es la historia que yo estaba contando. Los dioses all arriba. Haba dos personas. +Estaba Felipe II, que era divino porque siempre estaba rezando y estaba Isabel, que era divina, pero no tan divina porque ella pensara que era divina, sino que le corra sangre de mortal por sus venas. +Pero uno de los divinos era injusto as los dioses dijeron: "Bueno, lo que tenemos que hacer es ayudar al justo". +As que ayudaron al justo. +Y lo que hicieron fue hacer que cayera Walter Raleigh para separar fsicamente la parte mortal de ella de su parte espiritual. +Y la parte mortal era esa muchacha que observaba a Walter Raleigh y gradualmente l se separ, y as ella se liber para ser divina. +Y las dos personas divinas lucharon y los dioses estuvieron del lado de la divinidad. +Por supuesto, toda la prensa britnica se disgust. +Dijeron: "Ganamos a la Armada Invencible". +Yo dije: "La tormenta diezm a la Armada. +Los dioses enviaron la tormenta". +Qu estaba haciendo yo? +Estaba intentando encontrar una razn mtica para hacer la pelcula. +Claro, cuando le pregunt a Cate Blanchett, le dije: "De qu trata la pelcula?" +Ella dijo: "La pelcula trata de una mujer que est aceptando envejecer". +Psicolgica. +El escritor deca que es histrica, con argumento. +Yo dije, es sobre mitologa, los dioses. +Permtanme mostrarles una pelcula, parte de esa pelcula, y como la cmara tambin - esta es una escena, donde en mi mente, ella estaba en los abismos de la muerte. +Ella estaba descubriendo el significado de la muerte y si est ante la profundidad de la muerte, lo que sucede en realidad. +Ella est reconociendo los peligros de la muerte y por qu debera escaparse de la mortalidad. +Recuerden, en la pelcula, para m, tanto ella como su dama de compaa son parte del mismo cuerpo: una es el yo mortal, la otra el yo espiritual. +Podran poner ese segundo? +Isabel I: Bess? +Bess? +Bess Throckmorton? +Bess: Aqu, su seora. +Isabel I: Dime, es verdad? +Ests embarazada? +Ests embarazada? +Bess: S, su seora. +Isabel I: Traidora! +Te atreves a tener secretos conmigo? +Pdeme permiso antes de estar en celo antes de respirar. +Mis putas usan mis collares! +Me oyes? Me oyes? +Walsingham: Majestad. Por favor, dignidad. Piedad. +Isabel I: No es tiempo de compostura, Walsingham. +V t con tu hermano traidor y djame a m mis asuntos. +Es de l? +Cuntame. Dilo. El nio es de l? Es de l? +Bess: S. +Su seora, es el hijo de mi esposo. +Isabel I: Perra! Raleigh: Majestad. +Esta no es la reina que amo y sirvo. +Isabel I: Este hombre ha seducido a una doncella de la reina que se ha casado sin consentimiento real. +Estas ofensas son punibles por ley. Arrstenlo. +Vamos. +Ya no tienes la proteccin de la reina. +Bess: Como desee, Majestad. +Isabel I: Salgan. salgan, salgan. +Salgan. +Shekhar Kapur: Qu intento hacer aqu? +Isabel I se dio cuenta y se enfrenta cara a cara con sus propios celos con su propia mortalidad. +Qu estoy haciendo con la arquitectura? +La arquitectura est contando una historia. +La arquitectura est contando una historia de cmo, si bien es la mujer ms poderosa del mundo en ese momento est lo otro, la arquitectura es ms grande. +La piedra es ms grande que ella porque es inorgnica. +La va a sobrevivir. +Les est diciendo, para m, que la piedra es parte de su destino. +No slo eso, por qu la cmara enfoca hacia abajo? +La cmara mira hacia abajo porque ella est en el pozo +Ella est en el pozo absoluto de su propio sentido de... ser mortal. +Es de all de donde ella tiene que salir de las profunidades de la mortalidad, entrar, liberar su espritu. +Y ese es el momento en que, en mi mente, tanto Isabel I como Bess son la misma persona. +En ese momento es quirrgicamente amputada. +As, la pelcula opera en muchos, muchos niveles en esa escena. +Y el modo de contar historias visualmente, con msica, con actores, y en cada nivel hay un sentido diferente, y a veces uno es contradictorio con otro. +Cmo comienzo todo esto? +Cul es el proceso de contar una historia? +Har diez aos atrs escuch a un poltico decir esto, no era un poltico muy respetado en India. +l dijo que esta gente de las ciudades en una descarga de bao gasta ms agua de la que ustedes en las reas rurales no tienen en dos das. +Eso toc una fibra, y me dije: "Es verdad". +Fui a ver a un amigo mio y l me hizo esperar en su apartamento de Malabar Hill, en el piso veinte, que es una zona de categora de Mumbai. +Y l estaba dndose una ducha de 20 minutos. +Me aburr y me fui y, a medida que conduca, pas por las barrios bajos de Bombay, como de costumbre, y vi colas y colas bajo el sol del medioda de mujeres y nios con baldes esperando una cisterna que venga a traerles agua. +Empec a elucubrar una idea. +Cmo se convierte eso en historia? +De repente me di cuenta que nos encaminamos al desaste. +As que mi prxima pelcula se llama "Paani" que significa agua. +Ahora, de la mitologa de eso, estoy comenzando a crear un mundo. +Qu tipo de mundo creo? Y, de dnde viene la idea, el diseo de eso? +En mi mente, en el futuro, comienzan a construir pasos elevados. +Entienden lo de "pasos elevados", no? +Comienzan a construir pasos elevados para llegar de A a B ms rpido pero efectivamente fueron de un rea de relativa riqueza a otra rea de relativa riqueza. +Y luego lo que hicieron fue crear una ciudad arriba de los pasos elevados. +La gente rica se mud a la ciudad de arriba y dej a la gente pobre en las ciudades de abajo cerca del 10% al 12% de la gente se ha mudado a la ciudad de arriba. +Ahora, d dnde vienen estas ciudades de arriba y abajo? +Hay una mitologa en India sobre... lo que ellos dicen, lo dir en hindi, [hindi] Bien. Qu significa eso? +Dice, los ricos siempre estn sentados en la espalda y sobreviven en la espalda de los probres. +De esa mitologa viene lo de ciudad de arriba y ciudad de abajo. +As que el diseo tiene una historia. +Ahora bien, lo que sucede es que la gente de la ciudad de arriba se chupa todo el agua. +Recuerden la palabra que dije, chupar. +Se chupan todo el agua, se lo quedan para s, e irrigan por goteo a la ciudad de abajo. +Y si se produce una revolucin, cortan el agua. +Y, como todava hay democracia, hay una manera democrtica en la que uno dice bien, si nos dan lo que queremos, les daremos agua. +Asi que, OK, mi tiempo se termina. +Pero puedo seguir contndoles cmo evolucionamos historias y cmo las historias, en efecto, son lo que somos nosotros y cmo esto se traduce en la disciplina particular en la que estoy, que es el cine. +En ltima instancia, qu es una historia? Es Contradiccin. +Todo es contradiccin. +El universo es una contradiccin. +Todos buscamos armona constantemente. +Al despertar, la noche y el da es una contradiccin. +Pero uno se levanta a las 4. +Ese primer atisbo de azul es el momento en que noche y da intentan encontrar armona mutua. +La armona son las notas que Mozart no nos da, pero de algn modo la contradiccin de sus notas sugiere. +Todas las contradicciones de sus notas sugieren la armona. +Es el efecto de buscar la armona en la contradiccin que existe en la mente del poeta, una contradiccin que existe en la mente del narrador. +En la mente del narrador hay una contradiccin de moralidades. +En la mente de un poeta hay un conflicto de palabras. En la mente del universo, entre da y noche. +En las mentes de un hombre y una mujer miramos constantemente la contradiccin entre masculino y femenino. Estamos buscando armona mutua. +La idea misma de contradiccin, pero aceptar la contradiccin, es la narracin de una historia, no la resolucin. +El problema de muchas narraciones de Hollywood y de muchas pelculas, y como [poco claro] deca en su... que tratamos de resolver la contradiccin. +La armona no es resolucin. +La armona es la sugerencia de algo mucho ms grande que la resolucin. +La armona es la sugerencia de algo, que abraza y es universal, y de eternidad y del momento. +La resolucin es algo mucho ms limitado. +Es finito. La armona es infinita. +As, esa narracin, como todas las otras contradicciones del universo, busca la armona y el infinito en resoluciones morales, resolviendo una, pero dejando escapar otras, dejando escapar otra y generando una pregunta realmente importante. +Muchas gracias. +Hoy voy a hablar de la relacin entre ciencia y valores humanos. +En general se entiende que las cuestiones morales lo bueno y lo malo, lo correcto y lo incorrecto son cuestiones sobre las que la ciencia oficialmente no tiene opinin. +Se piensa que la ciencia puede ayudarnos a conseguir lo que valoramos pero nunca puede decirnos qu debemos valorar. +En consecuencia la mayora de la gente, pienso, piensa que probablemente la ciencia nunca responder las preguntas ms importantes de la vida humana preguntas como: "Para qu vale la pena vivir?" +"Para qu vale la pena morir?" +"Qu constituye una buena vida?" +Voy a argumentar que esto es una ilusin, y que la separacin entre ciencia y valores humanos es una ilusin. Y, en realidad, una muy peligrosa en este momento de la historia humana. +A menudo se dice que la ciencia no puede brindarnos una base para la moralidad y los valores humanos porque la ciencia trata con hechos. Y los hechos y los valores parecen pertenecer a diferentes esferas. +A menudo se piensa que no hay descripcin del modo que el mundo es que pueda decirnos como debera ser el mundo. +Pero pienso que esto claramente no es verdad. +Los valores son un cierto tipo de hechos. +Son hechos acerca del bienestar de las criaturas conscientes. +Por qu no tenemos obligaciones ticas con las rocas? +Por qu no sentimos compasin por las rocas? +Porque no pensamos que las rocas pueden sufrir. Y si estamos ms preocupados por nuestros compaeros primates que por los insectos, como de hecho pasa, es porque pensamos que ellos estn expuestos a un rango ms grande de felicidad y sufrimiento potenciales. +Ahora, algo crucial a destacar aqu es que esta es una afirmacin fctica. Esto es algo en lo que podemos estar acertados o equivocados. Y si construimos mal la relacin entre la complejidad biolgica y las posibilidades de experiencia entonces podramos estar equivocados sobre la vida interior de los insectos. +Bueno. Y no hay nocin no hay versin de moralidad humana y valores humanos con que me haya cruzado que no se reduzca en algn punto a un asunto de experiencia consciente y sus posibles cambios. +Incluso si tomamos los valores religiosos. Incluso si uno piensa que el bien y el mal en definitiva se relacionan a condiciones despus de la muerte o a una eternidad de felicidad con Dios o a una eternidad de sufrimiento en el infierno uno todava se preocupa de la conciencia y sus cambios. +Y decir que tales cambios pueden persistir despus de la muerte es en s una afirmacin fctica que, por supuesto, puede ser verdadera o no. +Ahora, para hablar de las condiciones de bienestar en esta vida, para seres humanos, sabemos que existe un continuo de tales hechos. +Sabemos que es posible vivir en un estado fallido en el que todo lo que puede salir mal sale mal en el que las madres no pueden alimentar a sus hijos en el que los desconocidos no pueden encontrar las bases para colaboracin pacfica en el que la gente es asesinada indiscriminadamente. +Y sabemos que es posible moverse en ese continuo hacia algo un poquito ms idlico hacia un lugar en el que todava se concibe una conferencia como esta. +Y sabemos, sabemos que hay respuestas correctas e incorrectas de cmo movernos en este espacio. +Sera buena idea agregar clera al agua? +Probablemente no. +Sera buena idea que todos creyramos en el "mal de ojo" de manera que cuando algo malo les ocurra inmeditamente culpen a sus vecinos? Probablemente no. +Hay verdades por conocer sobre cmo florecen las comunidades humanas, entendamos o no estas reglas. +Y la moralidad se relaciona con estas reglas. +As, al hablar de valores estamos hablando de hechos. +Ahora, nuestra situacin en el mundo puede entenderse en muchos niveles. Existe desde el nivel del genoma hasta el nivel de los sistemas econmicos y los acuerdos polticos. +Pero si vamos a hablar de bienestar humano estamos, por fuerza, hablando del cerebro humano. +Puesto que sabemos que nuestra experiencia del mundo y de nosotros mismos en l se realiza en el cerebro. Lo que suceda despus de la muerte, +incluso si el suicida tiene 72 vrgenes en el ms all, en esta vida, su personalidad, su personalidad ms bien desafortunada es producto de su cerebro. +As, las contribuciones de la cultura, si la cultura nos cambia, como de hecho lo hace, nos cambia cambiando nuestros cerebros. +Por lo tanto cualquier variacin cultural que haya en la manera de florecer del ser humano puede, al menos en principio, ser entendida en el contexto de una ciencia, en maduracin, de la mente, neurociencia, psicologa, etc. +Lo que estoy argumentando es que el valor se reduce a hechos a hechos sobre la experiencia consciente de seres conscientes. +Y por lo tanto podemos visualizar un espacio de cambios posibles en la experiencia de estos seres. +Y pienso en esto como una suerte de paisaje moral con picos y valles que corresponden a diferencias en el bienestar de las criaturas conscientes tanto personales como colectivas. +Y una cosa para destacar es que quiz hay estados del bienestar humano que raramente accedemos, que poca gente accede. +Y estos aguardan nuestro descubrimiento. +Quiz alguno de esos estados pueden ser llamados, con propiedad, msticos o espirituales. +Tal vez hay otros estados que no podemos acceder por la manera en que est estructurada nuestra mente pero otras mentes quiz podran accederlos. +Ahora, djenme ser claro sobre lo que no estoy diciendo. No estoy diciendo que la ciencia garantiza el mapeo en este espacio o que tendremos respuesta cientfica para todas las preguntas morales que se conciban. +No pienso, por ejemplo, que uno un da consultar una supercomputadora para saber si debera tener un segundo hijo o si deberamos bombardear las instalaciones nucleares de Irn, o si uno puede deducir el costo total de TED como gasto de negocios. +Pero si las preguntas afectan al bienestar humano entonces tienen respuestas, podamos o no encontrarlas. +Y slo admitiendo eso slo admitiendo que hay respuestas correctas e incorrectas a la pregunta de cmo florecen los humanos cambiar la manera de hablar de moralidad y cambiarn nuestras expectativas de la cooperacin humana en el futuro. +Y, por ejemplo, hay 21 estados en nuestro pas en los que el castigo corporal en las aulas es legal. Es legal que un maestro golpee a un nio con una tabla de madera, duro, dejando grandes moretones, ampollas, e incluso partiendo la piel. +Y cientos de miles de nios, por cierto, estn sujetos a esto cada ao. +Las ubicaciones de esos distritos iluminados, pienso, no los sorprendern. +No estamos hablando de Connecticut. +Y la lgica para este comportamiento es explcitamente religiosa. +El mismo creador del Universo nos ha dicho no escatimar la vara, para no estropear al nio. Esto es Proverbios 13:20 y, creo, 23. +Pero podemos hacer la pregunta obvia. OK? Es buena idea, en lneas generales, someter a los nios al dolor la violencia y la humillacin pblica como va para alentar el desarrollo emocional saludable y el buen comportamiento? +Hay alguna duda de que esta pregunta tiene una respuesta, y que ella importa? +Muchos podran estar preocupados de que la nocin de bienestar no est definida y, al parecer, abierta a perpetuidad para ser redefinida. +Y entonces, cmo puede haber por lo tanto una nocin objetiva de bienestar? +Bien, consideremos por analoga, el concepto de salud fsica. +El concepto de salud fsica es indefinido +como lo omos de Michael Specter. Ha cambiado a lo largo de los aos. +Cuando se esculpi esta estatua la expectativa de vida promedio era quiz 30. +Ahora est cerca de 80 en el mundo desarrollado. +Podra haber un momento en el que nos entrometamos con los genomas de modo tal que no ser capaces de correr una maratn a los 200, ser considerada una minusvala severa. +Ya saben, la gente les enviar donaciones cuando estn en esa condicin. +Observen que el hecho de que el concepto de salud es abierto, genuinamente abierto, a revisin no lo hace vaco. +La distincin entre una persona saludable y una muerta es tan clara y consecuente como cualquiera que hagamos en la ciencia. +Otra cosa a observar es que podra haber muchos picos en el paisaje moral. Podra haber maneras equivalentes de prosperar. Podra haber maneras equivalentes de organizar la sociedad para maximizar el florecimiento humano. +Ahora, por qu esto no socavara una moralidad objetiva? +Bien, piensen cmo hablamos de la comida. Nunca estara tentado a argumentarles que debe haber un alimento correcto para comer. +Hay, claramente, un rango de materiales que constituyen comida saludable. +Pero hay, no obstante, una distincin clara entre comida y veneno. +El hecho de que hay muchas respuestas correctas a la pregunta: "Qu es alimento?" +no nos tienta a decir que no hay verdades por conocer sobre la nutricin humana. +Ahora, mucha gente se preocupa de que una moralidad universal requerira preceptos morales que no admitan excepciones. +As, por ejemplo, si realmente est mal mentir debe estar siempre mal mentir y si uno puede encontrar una excepcin bien, entonces no existe tal cosa como verdad moral. +Por qu pensaramos esto? +Consideren, por analoga, el ajedrez. +Si uno va a jugar buen ajedrez un principio como, no pierdas tu reina es muy bueno para seguir. +Pero claramente admite excepciones. +Hay momentos en que perder la reina es algo brillante. +Hay momentos en que es la nica cosa buena que uno puede hacer. +Y s, el ajedrez es un dominio de objetividad perfecta. +El hecho de que hay excepciones aqu no cambia eso en absoluto. +Ahora, esto nos lleva a la fuente de movimientos que la gente es propensa a hacer en la esfera moral. +Consideren el gran problema del cuerpo de las mujeres. Qu hacer con ellos? +Bien, hay una cosa que pueden hacer al respecto pueden cubrirlos. +Esta es la postura, en lneas generales, de nuestra comunidad intelectual que mientras puede no gustarnos esto podramos pensar que est equivocado en Boston o Palo Alto quines somos para decir que los orgullosos moradores de una cultura antigua estn equivocados al forzar a sus esposas e hijas a vivir en "bolsas de tela"? +E, incluso, quines somos para decir que estn equivocados por golpearlas con trozos de cable de acero o arrojarles cido de bateras en sus caras si declinan el privilegio de ser cubiertas de ese modo? +O, quines somos para no decir esto? +Quines somos para fingir que sabemos tan poco sobre bienestar humano que no podemos ser crticos de prcticas como esta? +No estoy hablando del uso voluntario de un velo las mujeres deberan vestir lo que quieran, hasta donde yo s. +Pero qu significa voluntario en una comunidad en la que cuando una nia es violada el primer impulso de los padres bastante a menudo es asesinarla por vergenza. +Dejen que este hecho detone en sus cerebros un minuto. Tu hija es violada y lo que quieres hacer es matarla. +Cules son las probabilidades de que esto represente un clmax del florecimiento humano? +Ahora, decir esto no es decir que tenemos la solucin perfecta en nuestra sociedad. +Como, por ejemplo, esto es ir a un puesto de noticias en casi cualquier lado en el mundo civilizado. +Ahora, para cualquier hombre podra requerir un ttulo en filosofa ver algo errneo en estas imgenes. +Pero si estamos de nimo reflexivo podemos preguntar "Es esta la expresin perfecta de equilibrio psicolgico respecto de variables como juventud, belleza y cuerpos femeninos?" +Digo, es este el entorno ptimo en el cual criar a nuestros hijos? +Probablemente no, Ok. As, Quiz hay algn lugar en el espectro entre estos dos extremos que representa un lugar de mejor equilibrio? +Tal vez hay muchos de tales lugares. De nuevo, dados otros cambios en la cultura humana puede haber muchos picos en el paisaje moral. +Pero algo para observar es que tenemos muchas ms maneras de no estar en un pico. +Ahora, la irona, desde mi perspectiva es que la nica gente que parece por lo general concordar conmigo y que piensan que hay respuestas correctas e incorrectas a preguntas morales son los demagogos religiosos de uno u otro tipo. +Y, por supuesto, ellos piensan tener respuestas correctas a preguntas morales porque ellos tienen esas respuestas de una voz en el torbellino no porque hayan hecho un anlisis inteligente de las causas y condicin del bienestar humano y animal. +De hecho, la permanencia de la religin como lente a travs del cual la mayora de la gente ve preguntas morales ha separado la mayor parte de la charla moral de las preguntas reales del sufrimiento de humanos y animales. +Es por eso que pasamos nuestro tiempo hablando de cosas como el matrimonio gay y no de genocidio, proliferacin nuclear, pobreza, o cualquier otro tema con grandes consecuencias. +Pero los demagogos tienen razn en una cosa, necesitamos una concepcin universal de los valores humanos. +Ahora, qu se interpone en el camino de esto? +Bien, una cosa a observar es que hacemos algo diferente cuando hablamos de moralidad en especial de tipo secular, acadmico, cientfico. +Cuando hablamos de moralidad valoramos diferencias de opinin de una forma que no valoramos en otras reas de nuestra vida. +As, por ejemplo, el Dalai Lama se levanta cada maana meditando sobre la compasin. Y piensa que ayudar a otros seres humanos es una parte integral de la felicidad humana. +Por otro lado tenemos a alguien como Ted Bundy. Ted Bundy era muy aficionado a raptar, violar torturar y matar jvenes mujeres. +As, parecemos tener una diferencia genuina de opinin acerca de cmo usar provechosamente el tiempo. +La mayora de los intelectuales occidentales ven esta situacin y dicen: "Bien, no hay nada en el Dalai Lama que sea realmente correcto, realmente correcto o para Ted Bundy que sea realmente incorrecto eso admite un argumento real que potencialmente cae en el mbito de la ciencia. +A l le gusta el chocolate, y a l la vainilla. +No hay nada que uno debera decirle al otro para persuadirle. +Y observen que no hacemos esto en la ciencia. +A la izquierda tienen a Edward Witten. +El es terico de cuerdas. +Si preguntan a los fsicos ms inteligentes de por aqu quin es el fsico ms inteligente a su alrededor? en mi experiencia la mitad dir Ed Witten. +La otra mitad les dir que no le gusta la pregunta. +Qu pasara si en una conferencia de fsica yo salgo diciendo "La teora de cuerdas es falsa. +No me sirve. No es como yo elijo ver el universo a pequea escala. +No soy un fan". +Bien, no pasara nada porque yo no soy un fsico no entiendo la teora de cuerdas. +Soy el Ted Bundy de la teora de cuerdas. +No me gustara pertenecer a un club de teora de cuerdas que me tuviera a m como miembro. +Pero ese es el punto. +Cada vez que hablamos de hechos deben excluirse ciertas opiniones. +Eso es lo que significa tener especificidad de dominio. +Eso es lo que significa que el conocimiento cuente. +Cmo nos auto-convencemos de que en la esfera moral no hay tal cosa como la experiencia moral o talento moral, o incluso genio moral? +Cmo nos auto-convencemos de que cada opinin tiene que contar? +Cmo nos auto-convencemos de que cada cultura tiene un punto de vista en estos asuntos que vale la pena evaluar? +Tienen los talibanes un punto de vista en fsica que vale la pena considerar? No. +Cun menos obvia es su ignorancia en el tema del bienestar humano? +Esto es lo que, pienso, el mundo necesita ahora. +Necesita gente como nosotros que admita que hay respuestas correctas e incorrectas a preguntas del florecimiento humano y la moralidad se relaciona con ese dominio de hechos. +Es posible para individuos, e incluso para culturas enteras, preocuparse de cosas incorrectas. Lo que significa que es posible que ellos tengan creencias y deseos que conduzcan directamente a sufrimiento humano innecesario. +Sencillamente admitir esto transformar nuestro discurso sobre moralidad. +Vivimos en un mundo en el que los lmites entre naciones cada vez significan menos y algn da significarn nada. +Vivimos en un mundo lleno de tecnologa destructiva y esta tecnologa no puede "desinventarse" siempre ser ms fcil romper cosas que arreglarlas. +Por lo tanto me parece, evidentemente obvio, que ya no podemos respetar y tolerar enormes diferencias en las nociones de bienestar humano como podramos respetar o tolerar enormes diferencias en las nociones sobre cmo se propagan enfermedades o en los estndares de seguridad de la construccin y aviones. +Simplemente debemos converger en las respuestas que damos a las preguntas ms importantes de la vida humana. +Y para hacer eso tenemos que admitir que estas preguntas tienen respuestas. +Muchas gracias. +Chris Anderson: Hay material combustible all. +Ya sea en la audiencia o la gente en algn lugar del mundo que escucha algo de esto bien puede estar poniendo el grito en el cielo despus de escuchar algo de esto. +El lenguaje parece ser realmente importante aqu. +Cuando hablas del velo hablas de mujeres vestidas con "bolsas de tela". +He vivido en el mundo musulmn y hablado con muchas mujeres musulmanas. +Algunas de ellas diran algo ms. Diran: "No, sabes, esta es una celebracin de la particularidad femenina ayuda a construirla y es el resultado del hecho que..." esto es discutible, una mirada psicolgica sofisticada, "que no se puede confiar en la lujuria masculina". +Digo, puedes entablar una conversacin con ese tipo de mujeres sin parecer una especie de imperialista cultural? +Sam Harris: S, bien, pienso que trat de abordar esto en una oracin viendo la seal del reloj pero la pregunta es Qu significa voluntario en un contexto en que los hombres tienen ciertas expectativas y es seguro que sers tratada de una cierta manera si no te pones el velo? +Por lo tanto, si alguien en la sala quisiera usar un velo o un sobrero muy divertido, o un tatuaje en la cara... creo que deberamos ser libres para hacer voluntariamente lo que queramos pero tenemos que ser honestos sobre las restricciones que pesan para esas mujeres. +Y por eso pienso que no deberamos tan alegremente creerles siempre, sobre todo si hace 50 grados afuera y tienen puesta una burka. +C.A.: Mucha gente quiere creer en este concepto de progreso moral. +Pero Puedes conciliar eso? +Pienso que entend que dijiste que podras conciliar eso con un mundo que no se vuelva unidimensional en el que todos tengamos que pensar igual. +Pinta tu cuadro del futuro, adelantando el reloj 50 aos, 100 aos, Cmo te gustara pensar el mundo, equilibrando el progreso moral con la riqueza? +S.H.: Bien, pienso que una vez que admites que estamos en vas de comprender nuestras mentes a nivel cerebral, con algn detalle importante, luego tienen que admitir que vamos a comprender todo lo positivo y negativo de nosotros mismos en mucho ms detalle. +Todo no va a estar disponible. +No va a ser como decir que ponerle velo a mi hija desde la cuna es tan bueno como ensearle a ser segura de s misma e instruida en el contexto de los hombres que desean mujeres. +Digo, no creo que necesitemos un estudio para saber que el velo compulsivo es una mala idea. Pero en cierto punto vamos a ser capaces de barrer los cerebros de los involucrados e interrogarlos en realidad. +La gente ama a sus hijas tanto en estos sistemas? +Y pienso que claramente hay respuestas correctas a eso. +C.A.: Y si los resultados dicen que realmente s las aman Ests preparado para desplazar tu juicio actual instintivo en alguno de estos temas? +S.H.: Bien, s, [poco claro] un hecho obvio que uno puede amar a alguien en el contexto de un sistema de creencias totalmente delirante. +Uno puede decir: "Como s que mi hijo gay iba a ir al infierno si encontraba un novio le cort la cabeza. Y eso fue lo ms compasivo que pude hacer". +Si tienes todas esas partes alineadas s, creo que podras sentir probablemente la emocin del amor. +Pero, de nuevo, luego tenemos que hablar de bienestar en un contexto ms grande. +Estamos todos en esto juntos ningn hombre est en xtasis para luego inmolarse en un bus. +C.A.: Parece una conversacin que me encantara en realidad continuar durante horas. +No tenemos eso, pero quiz en otra ocasin. Gracias por venir a TED. +S.H.: Un honor realmente. Gracias. +El comercio ilegal de vida salvaje en Brasil es una de las mayores amenazas en contra de nuestra fauna, sobre todo en contra de las aves, que principalmente abastece el mercado de mascotas. Cada mes se roban miles de animales de la naturaleza para llevrselos lejos de sus hbitats y venderlos principalmente en Ro de Janeiro y San Pablo. +Se calcula que, entre todos los comercios ilegales de la fauna brasilea, se sustraen de la naturaleza unos 38 millones de animales por ao, un negocio que equivale a 2 mil millones de dlares. +La polica intercepta estos enormes cargamentos con animales vivos que estn destinados a abastecer el mercado de mascotas o directamente secuestran los animales en las viviendas de los propietarios. Y as es cmo acabamos cada mes con miles de animales secuestrados. +Para que entendamos que les sucede, seguiremos a Brad. +Muchas personas dicen, despus de que los animales son secuestrados, "Al fin, la justicia funcion. +Llegaron los buenos, rescataron a los preciosos y maltratados animales de las manos de los malditos traficantes y todos fueron felices". +Pero fue as? En realidad no. Y es aqu cuando comienzan muchos de nuestros problemas. +Porque tenemos que pensar qu hacer con todos estos animales. +En Brasil, normalmente como primera medida se los manda a un centro de diagnstico del gobierno, que en la mayora de los casos las condiciones son tan malas como cuando estaban con los traficantes. +En el 2002 estos centros recibieron 45.000 animales, 37.000 de los cuales eran aves. +Y la polica calcula que se recupera el cinco por ciento del total. +Algunos con suerte, entre ellos Brad, despus del rescate van a un centro de rehabilitacin intensiva. +Y en estos lugares son cuidados. +Intentan volar. Aprenden a reconocer el alimento que encontrarn en la naturaleza. Adems pueden relacionarse con otros de la misma especie. +Pero despus qu? +La Sociedad Ornitolgica de Brasil, es decir que hablamos slo de aves, dice que sabemos demasiado poco de las especies de la naturaleza. +Por lo tanto sera muy arriesgado dejarlos libres, tanto por los liberados como por los que an habitan en la naturaleza. +Tambin aseguran que gastamos demasiado en rehabilitarlos. +Siguiendo este argumento, ellos sugieren que a todas las aves secuestradas que no pertenezcan a una especie en extincin se les debera aplicar la eutanasia. +Sin embargo, ello significara matar a 26.267 aves, slo en el estado de San Pablo y nicamente en el 2006. +Pero, algunos investigadores, entre los que me incluyo, algunas ONG y algunas personas del gobierno de Brasil creemos que hay una alternativa. +Nosotros liberamos a todos stos. +Arriba, las tortugas simplemente disfrutan de su libertad. +En el medio, ste chico hizo un nido un par de semanas despus de su liberacin. +Y abajo, mi preferido, el pequeo macho all, cuatro horas despus de su liberacin estaba con una hembra silvestre. +As que, esto no es nuevo, la gente estuvo haciendo esto alrededor del mundo. +Pero an es todo un tema en Brasil. +Creemos haber sido responsables en las liberaciones. +Registramos apareamientos en los hbitats de los animales liberados y nacimiento de pajaritos. +Es decir, estos genes estn definitivamente volviendo a sus poblaciones. +Sin embargo esto es todava una minora por la falta total de conocimiento. +As que, digo que debemos estudiar ms, echemos luz sobre este tema, hagamos lo que sea que podamos. +Dedico mi carrera a ello. +Estoy aqu para alentar a todos y cada uno de ustedes a hacer lo que sea que est a su alcance, hablen con sus vecinos, ensenles a sus hijos, asegrense de que su mascota proviene de un criador legal. +Necesitamos actuar, y actuar ahora antes de que stos sean los ltimos en quedar. +Muchas gracias. +Bien, bsicamente tenemos lderes pblicos, oficiales pblicos que estn fuera de control. Estn redactando leyes que son incomprensibles. Y de estas leyes van a derivar tal vez 40 mil pginas de regulaciones, una complejidad total, que tiene un impacto dramticamente negativo sobre nuestras vidas. +Si eres un veterano regresando de Irak o Vietnam te enfrentas una tormenta de papeleo para obtener tus beneficios. Si ests intentando obtener un prstamo para una PYME, te enfrentas una tormenta de papeleo. +Qu vamos a hacer al respecto? Yo defino la simplicidad como un medio para alcanzar la claridad, transparencia y empata, introduciendo la humanidad en las comunicaciones. +He estado simplificando las cosas por treinta aos. +Vengo del negocio de la publicidad y del diseo. +Mi enfoque es comprenderlos a ustedes, y cmo ustedes interactan con el gobierno para obtener sus beneficios, cmo interactan con las corporaciones para decidir con quin van a hacer negocios, y cmo ustedes visualizan las marcas. +As que, resumiendo, cuando el Presidente Obama dijo: "No entiendo por qu no podemos tener un acuerdo crediticio para consumidores, de una pgina, en un lenguaje simple". +Entonces me encerr en un cuarto, descifr el contenido, organic el documento y lo escrib en un lenguaje simple. +Lo hice revisar por los dos principales abogados en crdito al consumidor en el pas. +Esto es de verdad. +Ahora, fui un paso ms all y dije: "Por qu tenemos que conformarnos con los tediosos abogados y slo tener un documento de papel? Pongmoslo en lnea." +Y algunas personas podran necesitar ayuda en la computacin. +Trabajando con la Escuela de Negocios de Harvard, vern este ejemplo cuando se habla del pago mnimo. Si gastas 62 dlares en una comida, mientras ms tardes en pagar ese prstamo, vers, a lo largo de un perodo de tiempo usando el pago mnimo son 99 dlares y 17 centavos. +Qu tal? Creen que su banco le va a mostrar eso a la gente? +Pero va a funcionar. Es ms efectivo que slo la ayuda por computador. +Y qu pasa con trminos como "sobre el lmite"? +Tal vez algo encubierto. +Defnanlo en un contexto. Dganle a la gente lo que significa. +Cuando lo dices en un lenguaje simple prcticamente obligas a la institucin a ofrecerle a las personas una alternativa, una salida de esa situacin, y no ponerse en riesgo a ellos mismos. +El lenguaje simple se trata de cambiar el contenido. +Y una de las cosas de las cuales me enorgullezco ms es este acuerdo para IBM. +Es una cuadrcula, es un calendario. +En tal y tal fecha, IBM tiene responsabilidades, t tienes responsabilidades. +Recibida muy favorablemente por empresas. +Y hay una buena noticia que dar hoy. +Cada ao, una de cada 10 personas que pagan impuestos recibe una notificacin del IRS (Servicio de Impuestos Internos). +Se envan 200 millones de cartas. +Revisando la tpica carta que tenan, la pas por mi laboratorio de simplicidad, es bastante incomprensible. +Todas las secciones en rojo del documento no se entienden. +Nos propusimos hacer ms de mil cartas que cubren el 70% de las transacciones del IRS en un lenguaje simple. +Fueron testeadas en el laboratorio. +Cuando las paso por mi laboratorio este mapa de calor muestra todo lo que es inteligible. +Y el IRS ha puesto en prctica el programa. +Hay un par de cosas sucediendo ahora mismo que me gustara traer a su atencin. +Hay mucha discucin ahora sobre una agencia de proteccin financiera al consumidor, y cmo hacer obligatoria la simplicidad. +Nosotros vemos toda esta complejidad. +Nos incumbe a nosotros. y a esta organicazin, creo yo, hacer de la claridad, la transparencia, y la empata, una prioridad nacional. +De ninguna manera deberamos permitir que el gobierno se comunique de la manera en que se comunica. +No hay razn por la cual debieramos hacer negocios con compaas que tienen acuerdos con provisiones encubiertas que son incomprensibles. +As que, Cmo vamos a cambiar el mundo? +Hagan de la claridad, la transparencia y la simplicidad una prioridad nacional. +Les agradezco. +Quiero hablar de 4600 millones de aos de historia en 18 minutos. +Eso es 300 millones de aos por minuto. +Comencemos con la primera fotografa que obtuvo la NASA del planeta Marte. +Este es el sobrevuelo de la Mariner IV. +Fue tomada en 1965. +Cuando apareci esta foto ese diario cientfico de renombre The New York Times, escribi en su editorial "Marte no es interesante. +Es un mundo muerto. La NASA ya no debera gastar tiempo ni esfuerzo estudiando Marte". +Por suerte nuestros lderes de Washington en la sede de la NASA no se engaaron. Y comenzamos un estudio muy profundo del planeta rojo. +Una de las preguntas clave de la ciencia es: "Hay vida fuera de la Tierra?" +Creo que Marte es el objetivo ms probable para la vida fuera de la Tierra. +Voy a mostrarles en pocos minutos algunas mediciones asombrosas que sugieren que podra haber vida en Marte. +Pero djenme comenzar con la foto de la Viking. +Es una fotocomposicin tomada por la Viking en 1976. +El Viking fue desarrollado y dirigido en el Centro de Investigaciones Langley de la NASA. +Enviamos dos orbitadores y dos mdulos de aterrizaje en el verano de 1976. +Tenamos cuatro naves, dos alrededor de Marte, dos en la superficie, un logro asombroso. +Esta es la primera fotografa tomada de la superficie de un planeta. +Esta es una fotografa desde el Viking Lander de la superficie de Marte. +Y s, el planeta rojo es rojo. +Marte es de la mitad del tamao de la Tierra. Pero dado que 2/3 de la Tierra est cubierta de agua, la superficie de Marte es comparable a la parte de tierra de la Tierra. +As, Marte es un lugar bastante grande an si es la mitad del tamao. +Hemos obtenido mediciones topogrficas de la superficie de Marte. Entendemos las diferencias de elevacin. +Sabemos mucho de Marte. +Marte tiene el volcn ms grande del Sistema Solar: Monte Olimpo. +Marte tiene el gran can del Sistema Solar: Valles Marineris. +Un planeta muy, muy interesante. +Marte tiene el ms grande crter de impacto del Sistema Solar, la Cuenca Hellas. +Tiene 3200 km de ancho. +Si de casualidad uno estaba en Marte cuando sucedi el impacto fue realmente un da malo en Marte. +Este es Monte Olimpo. +Es ms grande que el estado de Arizona. +Los volcanes son importantes porque producen atmsferas y producen ocanos. +Estamos viendo los Valles Marineris el can ms grande del Sistema Solar superpuesto en un mapa de los Estados Unidos, 4800 km de ancho. +Una de las caractersticas ms intrigantes de Marte dice la Academia Nacional de Ciencias uno de los diez mayores misterios de la Era Espacial es por qu ciertas reas de Marte estn tan altamente magnetizadas. +Lo llamamos magnetismo de la corteza. +Hay regiones de Marte, donde, por alguna razn, no comprendemos por qu en este punto la superficie est muy, muy altamente magnetizada. +Hay agua en Marte? +La respuesta es no, no hay agua lquida en la superficie de Marte hoy. +Pero hay evidencia intrigante que sugiere que la historia temprana de Marte podra haber habido ros y torrentes de agua. +Hoy Marte es muy, muy seco. +Creemos que hay agua en los casquetes polares. Hay casquetes polares del Polo Norte y del Polo Sur. +Aqu hay algunas imgenes recientes. +Estas son de Spirit y Opportunity. +Estas imgenes muestran que en un momento hubo rpidas corrientes de agua en la superficie de Marte. +Por qu es importante el agua? El agua es importante porque si uno quiere vida tiene que tener agua. +El agua es el ingrediente clave en la evolucin, el origen de la vida en el planeta. +Aqu hay algunas fotos de la Antrtida y una foto del Monte Olimpo caractersticas muy similares, glaciares. +As, este es agua congelada. +Esta es agua helada en Marte. +Esta es mi foto favorita. Fue tomada hace unas pocas semanas atrs. +No ha sido vista en pblico. +Esta es la Agencia Espacial Europea. Una imagen de Mars Express de un crter marciano y en el medio de un crter tenemos agua lquida, tenemos hielo. +Una foto muy intrigante. +Ahora creemos que en la historia temprana de Marte que es hace 4600 millones de aos hace 4600 millones de aos, Marte era muy parecido a la Tierra. +Marte tena ros, Marte tena lagos, pero ms importante, Marte tena ocanos de escala planetaria. +Creemos que los ocanos estaban en el hemisferio norte. Y este rea en azul que muestra una depresin de unos 6,4 km era el rea del antiguo ocano en la superficie de Marte. +Dnde se fueron los ocanos de agua de Marte? +Bien, tenemos una idea. +Esto es una medida que obtuvimos hace unos aos de un satlite que orbita Marte llamado Odyssey. +El agua bajo la superficie de Marte congelada en forma de hielo. +Y esto muestra el porcentaje. Si el color es azulado significa el 16% del peso, +16% del peso del interior contiene agua congelada, o hielo. +As, hay un montn de agua bajo la superficie. +La medicin ms intrigante y desconcertante que hemos obtenido en Marte, en mi opinin, fue comunicada con anterioridad este ao en la revista Science. +Lo que estamos viendo es la presencia de gas, metano, CH4, en la atmsfera de Marte. +Y como pueden ver hay tres regiones distintas de metano. +Por qu es importante el metano? +Porque en la Tierra, casi todo, el 99,9% del metano es producido por organismos vivos no por hombrecillos verdes, sino por vida microscpica bajo la superficie o en la superficie. +Ahora tenemos evidencia que el metano est en la atmsfera de Marte un gas que, en la Tierra, es de origen biognico: producido por organismos vivos. +Estas son las tres columnas eruptivas: A, B1, B2. +Y este el terreno que aparece encima. Y sabemos por estudios geolgicos que estas regiones son las ms antiguas de Marte. +De hecho, la Tierra y Marte tienen 4600 millones de aos. +La roca ms antigua de la Tierra tiene slo 3.600 millones. +La razn de esta brecha de mil millones segn nuestra comprensin geolgica es a causa de la tectnica de placas La corteza de la Tierra se ha reciclado. +No tenemos registro geolgico anterior para los primeros mil millones de aos. +Ese registro existe en Marte. +Y este terreno que estamos mirando est datado en 4.600 millones de aos cuando se formaron la Tierra y Marte. +Fue un "martes". +Este es un mapa que muestra dnde pusimos nuestra nave en la superficie de Marte. +Aqu estn Viking I, Viking II. +Esta es Opportunity. Esta es Spirit. +Este es Mars Pathfinder. Este es Phoenix, que pusimos hace slo dos aos. +Observen que nuestros vehculos y mdulos de aterrizaje han ido al hemisferio norte. +Eso se debe a que el hemisferio norte es la regin de la antigua cuenca ocenica. +No hay muchos crteres. +Porque el agua protegi la cuenca del impacto de asteroides y meteoritos. +Pero miren en el hemisferio sur. +En el hemisferio sur hay crteres de impacto, hay crteres volcnicos. +Esta es la Cuenca Hellas, geolgicamente, un lugar muy, muy diferente. +Miren dnde est el metano, el metano est en un rea muy inhspita. +Cul es la mejor forma de desentraar los misterios que existen en Marte? +Nos hicimos esa pregunta hace 10 aos. +Invitamos a 10 cientficos expertos en Marte al Centro de Investigaciones Langley, por dos das. +Escribimos en la pizarra las preguntas principales todava no respondidas. +Y pasamos dos das resolviendo la mejor respuesta a esta pregunta. +Y el resultado de nuestro encuentro fue un avin robtico impulsado por cohete, llamado ARES. +Siglas de: Reconocedor Ambiental Areo a escala Regional. +Hay un modelo de ARES aqu. +Este es un modelo a escala del 20%. +Este avin fue diseado por el Centro de Investigaciones Langley. +Si algn lugar en el mundo puede construir un avin que vuele en Marte es el Centro de Investigaciones Langley. Durante casi 100 aos ha sido un centro pionero en astronutica en el mundo. +Volamos cerca de 1,6 km sobre la superficie. +Cubrimos cientos de kilmetros y volamos a unos 720 km por hora. +Podemos hacer cosas que los vehculos no pueden que los mdulos de aterrizaje no pueden. Podemos sobrevolar montaas, volcanes, crteres de impacto. Sobrevolamos valles. Podemos sobrevolar el magnetismo de superficie los casquetes polares, el agua sub-superficial. Y podemos buscar vida en Marte. +Pero, igual de importante, a medida que volamos la atmsfera de Marte transmitimos ese viaje, el primer vuelo de un avin fuera de la Tierra, transmitimos esas imgenes de vuelta a la Tierra. +Y nuestro objetivo es inspirar a los estadounidenses que estn pagando esta misin con sus impuestos. +Pero ms importante, inspiraremos a la prxima generacin de cientficos tecnlogos, ingenieros y matemticos. +Y esa es un rea crtica de la seguridad nacional y de la vitalidad econmica, asegurar que producimos la prxima generacin de cientficos, ingenieros, matemticos y tecnlogos. +As se ve ARES volando sobre Marte. +Lo pre-programamos. +Volaremos hacia donde est el metano. +Tendremos instrumentos a bordo del avin que recogern muestras, cada tres minutos, de la atmsfera de Marte. +Buscaremos metano as como otros gases producidos por organismos vivos. +Identificaremos de dnde emanan esos gases. Porque podemos medir el gradiente de dnde vienen. Y all podemos dirigir la prxima misin para que aterrice en ese rea. +Cmo transportamos un avin hasta Marte? +En dos palabras, muy cuidadosamente. +El problema es que no lo hacemos volar hasta Marte lo ponemos en una nave y lo enviamos a Marte. +El problema es que el dimetro ms grande de la nave es de 2,7 metros. ARES tiene 6 metros de envergadura, 5 de largo. +Cmo lo llevamos a Marte? +Lo doblamos y lo transportamos en una nave. +Y lo ponemos en algo llamado una "aerocscara". +As es como lo hacemos. +Tenemos un pequeo video que describe la secuencia. +Video: Placa verde. 5, 4, 3, 2, 1. +Arranca motor principal. Despegue. +Joel Levine: Esto es controlado por el Centro Espacial Kennedy de Florida. +Esta es la nave viajando 9 meses para llegar a Marte. +Ingresa a la atmsfera marciana. +Mucha temperatura. Calor por friccin. Va a 28800 km por hora. +Un paracadas se abre para frenarlo. +La cermica trmica se desprende. +El avin queda expuesto a la atmsfera por primera vez. +Se despliega. +Arranca el motor-cohete. +Creemos que en un vuelo de una hora podemos reescribir el manual de Marte tomando mediciones de alta resolucin de la atmsfera buscando gases de origen biognico buscando gases de origen volcnico estudiando la superficie, estudiando el magnetismo sobre la superficie, que no comprendemos, as como otra docena de reas. +La prctica hace al maestro. +Cmo sabemos que podemos hacerlo? +Porque hemos probado la maqueta de ARES varias maquetas en media docena de tneles de viento en el Centro de Investigaciones Langley de la NASA durante 8 aos bajo condiciones marcianas. +E, igual de importante, probamos ARES en la atmsfera terrestre a 30 mil metros comparable a la densidad y presin de la atmsfera marciana en la que volaremos. +Ahora, 30 mil metros, si uno atraviesa el pas hasta Los ngeles vuela a 11100 metros. +Hacemos nuestras pruebas a 30.000 metros. +Y quiero mostrarles una de las pruebas. +Este es una maqueta a media escala. +Este es una sonda de helio de gran altitud. +Esto es sobre Tilamook, Oregon. +Pusimos el avin plegado en el globo. Llev cerca de tres horas llegar all. Y luego lo liberamos por comandos a 30.900 metros. Y desplegamos el avin y todo sali perfecto. +Y hemos hecho pruebas de alta y baja altitud slo para perfeccionar la tcnica. +Estamos listos para ir. +Tengo una maqueta a escala aqu. +Tenemos un modelo a escala natural guardado en el Centro de Investigaciones Langley de la NASA. +Estamos listos para ir. Slo necesitamos un cheque de la sede de la NASA para cubrir los costos. +Estoy preparado para donar mis honorarios de la charla de hoy para esta misin. +No hay en realidad honorarios para nadie en esto. +Este es el equipo de ARES. Tenemos unos 150 cientficos, ingenieros, donde estamos trabajando, con el laboratorio de propulsin a chorro, el Centro de Vuelos Espaciales Goddard el Centro de Investigacin Ames y media docena de universidades y empresas para desarrollar esto. +Un gran esfuerzo, todo en el Centro de Investigaciones Langley de la NASA. +Y permtanme concluir diciendo, no muy lejos de aqu, justo en las calles de Kittyhawk, North Carolina, hace poco ms de 100 aos atrs se hizo historia cuando tuvimos el primer vuelo propulsado de un avin en la Tierra. +Estamos a punto ahora mismo de hacer el primer vuelo de un avin fuera de la atmsfera de la Tierra. +Estamos preparados para volar esto en Marte, para escribir el manual de Marte. +Si tienen inters en ms informacin tenemos un sitio web que describe esta emocionante e intrigante misin, y por qu queremos hacerlo. +Muchas gracias. +Mi inters en las formas contemporneas de esclavitud comenz con un panfleto que cog en Londres. +Fue a principios de los 90, yo estaba en un evento pblico, +vi este panfleto que deca "Hay millones de esclavos en el mundo". +Y pens "No puede ser". +Lo admito por encima de mi orgullo. +Porque tambin les admitir que pens cmo es posible que un experto de mi talla, que ensea derechos humanos, no lo sepa, +as que no puede ser verdad. +Si enseas, si rindes culto en el templo del saber, no te ras de los dioses. Porque te llevarn, te llenarn de curiosidad y deseos, te arrastrarn con pasin para cambiar las cosas. +Sal por ms informacin, 3.000 artculos bajo la palabra "esclavitud". +Dos resultaron ser modernos, solo dos. +El resto, de carcter histrico. +Eran comunicados de prensa llenos de atrocidades, de especulacin. Eran ancdotas. No tenan informacin fiable. +As que empec un trabajo de investigacin. +Visit cinco pases del mundo. +Vi esclavos. Conoc a dueos de esclavos. Y busqu muy profundamente dentro de los negocios de la esclavitud. Porque es un crimen econmico. +Las personas no esclavizan a otras para hacerles dao. +Lo hacen por el benefcio econmico. +Y debo decirles que lo que encontr en cuatro continentes diferentes fue tristemente familiar. +Como esto. Agricultores de frica, atados y golpeados, nos mostraron cmo les pegaban en los campos antes de escapar de la esclavitud y encontrarse con nuestro equipo. +Era alucinante. +Quiero ser muy claro. +Estoy hablando de autntica esclavitud. +Esto no es acerca de matrimonios aburridos. No es acerca de empleos que odias. +Es acerca de personas que no tienen libertad. Personas obligadas a trabajar sin cobrar, que trabajan todos los das las 24 horas bajo amenazas de violencia y no reciben pago. +Es autntica esclavitud, la misma que hemos conocido a travs de toda la historia humana. +Ahora bien, dnde se encuentra? +En este mapa, estn en color rojo y amarillo los lugares con mayor densidad de esclavitud. +Pero en los de color azul no encontramos ningn caso de esclavitud. +Y pueden ver que solo en Islandia y Groenlandia no encontramos casos de esclavitud. +Nos interesa particularmente y buscamos muy cuidadosamente en lugares donde usan a los esclavos para perpetrar una fuerte destruccin ambiental. +En todo el mundo, los usan para destruir el medio ambiente, cortar rboles del Amazonas, destruir reas forestales en frica Occidental, extraer y regar mercurio en sitios como Ghana y el Congo, destruir los ecosistemas costeros en Sur Asia. +Hay una coincidencia espeluznante entre lo que est pasando en nuestro medio ambiente y lo que est pasando con los derechos humanos. +Cmo hemos llegado a esta situacin donde tenemos, en 2010, 27 millones de personas en esclavitud? +Es el doble de la cantidad que sali de frica en todo el comercio de esclavos transatlntico. +Bueno, ha aumentado por estos factores. +No son la causa, sino los que la soportan. +Una es, y todos lo sabemos, la explosin demogrfica. La poblacin mundial ha subido de 2.000 millones a casi 7.000 millones en los ltimos 50 aos. +Ser tantos no te hace esclavo. +Aumenta la cantidad de personas vulnerables en los pases en desarrollo, por guerras civles, conflictos tnicos, gobiernos corruptos, enfermedades, ya saben. +Entendemos cmo funciona. En algunos pases todas estas cosas suceden a la vez, como en Sierra Leona hace unos aos. Y afecta a grandes masas. Cerca de mil millones de pesonas, como sabemos, viven al lmite, viven en situaciones donde no tienen ninguna oportunidad y suelen estar abandonados. +Pero eso tampoco te hace esclavo. +Lo que hace que una persona abandonada y vulnerable se convierta en esclavo es la ausencia de leyes. +Si las leyes funcionan, protegen a los pobres y vulnerables. +Pero si la corrupcin la corree, las personas no tienen la oportunidad de ser protegidos por la ley. Entonces podras hacer uso de la violencia, y si usas la violencia con impunidad, puedes buscar a los ms vulnerables y convertirlos en esclavos. +Eso es precisamente lo que sucede en el mundo. +Sin embargo, para la mayora de la gente, la manera en que se han convertido en esclavos no fue por secuestro o por un golpe en la cabeza, +Llegaron a esclavizarse porque alguien les hizo esta pregunta. +En todo el mundo me han contado casi la misma historia: +"Estaba en casa, alguien vino a nuestra comunidad, y desde una camioneta dijeron: "Tengo empleos, quin necesita trabajar?" Y ellos hicieron exactamente lo que t o yo haramos en la misma situacin. +Ellos dicen, "Aquel hombre no pareca de fiar. Yo tena mis dudas, pero mis hijos estaban hambrientos. +Necesitbamos medicinas. +Saba que tena que hacer lo que pudiera para ganar dinero y cuidar de las personas que amo". +Se subieron a la camioneta. Se fueron con la persona que los contrat. +Diez millas, cien millas, mil millas despus, se ven a s mismos en un trabajo sucio, peligroso y degradante. +Lo aceptan por un tiempo, pero cuando tratan de salirse, pum, el martillo les golpea, y descubren que estn esclavizados. +Ahora bien, este tipo de esclavitud es muy similar a lo que ha sido la esclavitud en la historia humana. +Pero hay una cosa destacable y nueva en la esclavitud actual, y es la prdida completa del valor de los seres humanos. Caro en el pasado, barato hoy en da, +Hasta los programas de las empresas han empezado a hacer esto. +Me gustara ensearles un vdeo corto. +D: Vale, la discusin est garantizada, hablamos sobre conseguir productos a gran escala. +Continuamos en el estudio con nuestro invitado Michael O'Donohue, director de productos de Four Continents Capital Management. +Tambin nos acompaa Brent Lawson, de Lawson Frisk Securities. +BL: Encantado de estar aqu. +D: El placer es nuestro, Brent. +Brent, dnde invertir su dinero este ao? +BL: Bueno, Daphne, hemos estado cortos de gas y petrleo recientemente, y estamos ampliando un poco nuestras redes, +Nos encanta la parte de los seres humanos. +Si miran el grfico a largo plazo, los precios estn en su punto ms bajo histricamente y la demanda global de trabajos forzados es an fuerte. +As que ah es donde creo que podramos hacer dinero. +D: Michael, qu piensa de esto de las personas? Le interesa? +M: Sin duda. La mayor ventaja del empleado no-voluntario como inversin es que no se acaba. +No nos vamos a quedar sin personas. Ningn otro producto tiene eso. +BL: Daphne, si puedo llamar tu atencin, +las inversiones privadas han estado evalundolo, y eso me dice que este mercado va a explotar. +Los indios y africanos, como de costumbre, los sudamericanos y los de Europa del Este en particular estn en nuestra lista de la compra. +D: Interesante, Michael, al grano, qu recomienda? +M: Recomendamos a nuestros clientes la estrategia de comprar y mantener. +No hay por qu jugar al mercado. +Hay mucha gente vulnerable. Es muy emocionante. +D: Lo es, sin duda. Caballeros, muchas gracias. +KB: Bien, imagnense esto. Es una parodia. +Sin embargo disfrut ver cmo sus bocas se abran hasta que se dieron cuenta. +MTV Europa trabaj con nosotros e hizo esta parodia. Y la han estado metiendo entre videoclips sin ninguna introduccin, lo cual encuentro algo cmico. +Esta es la realidad. +El precio de los seres humanos durante los ltimos 40.000 aos en dinero de hoy, ha tenido un promedio de $ 40.000 +en compras. +Pueden ver cmo las lneas se cruzan cuando la poblacin se incrementa. +El precio medio de un ser humano hoy en todo el mundo es cerca de $ 90 +Hay sitios mas caros como Norteamrica. +En Norteamrica, un esclavo cuesta entre $ 3.000 y $ 8.000. Podra llevarles a lugares como la India y Nepal, donde se puede conseguir por cinco o diez dlares. +La cuestin es que la gente ha dejado de ser ese producto con valor, y se han covertido en vasos desechables. +Los compras barato. Los usas. Los aplastas y cuando has terminado con ellos, los tiras. +Estos jvenes estn en Nepal. +Son bsicamente el sistema de transporte manejado por un dueo de esclavos. +No hay caminos aqu, as que cargan rocas en sus espaldas, de su mismo peso, subiendo y bajando las montaas del Himalaya. +Una de las madres nos dijo "No podemos sobrevivir aqu, y parece que tampoco morimos". +Es una situacin horrible. +Y si algo me hace sentir optimista sobre esto es que tambin hay, adems de los jvenes como l que an son esclavos, hay ex-esclavos que trabajan para liberar a otros. +O, como decimos, Frederick Douglas est en casa. +No s si alguna vez han soado despiertos sobre cmo sera conocer a Harriet Tubman. +Cmo sera conocer a Frederick Douglas? +Tengo que confesar que una de las partes ms emocionantes de mi trabajo es que logro conocerlo. Y me gustara presentarles a uno de ellos. +Su nombre es James Kofi Annan. Fue nio esclavo en Ghana, esclavizado en la industria pesquera. Y ahora l, tras escapar y construir una nueva vida, form una organizacin con la que trabajamos para regresar y liberar a la gente de la esclavitud. +Este no es James. Este es uno de los pequeos con el que trabaj. +JKA: Le golpearon con un remo, en la cabeza. Esto me recuerda mi niez, cuando trabajaba aqu. +KB: James y nuestro director en Ghana, Emmanuel Otto, reciben regularmente amenazas de muerte porque entre los dos lograron que encarcelaran a tres traficantes de humanos por primera vez en Ghana, por esclavizar a personas en la industria pesquera, por esclavizar a nios. +Ahora, todo lo que les he contado es descorazonador, lo admito. +Sin embargo, hay algo positivo en esto, y es que las 27 millones de personas que estn esclavas hoy, son mucha gente, pero tambin es la fraccin mas pequea de la poblacin global que ha estado esclava. +Como los 40 miles de millones de dlares que generan en la economa global cada ao, es la porcin ms pequea de la economa global representada en mano de obra esclava. +La esclavitud, que es ilegal en todos los pases, ha sido marginada en nuestra sociedad global. +y de alguna manera, sin que lo notemos, ha estado cerca del borde de su propia extincin, esperando que le demos un gran empujn, y nos deshagamos de ella. +Y se puede hacer. +Ahora, si hacemos eso, si ponemos todos nuestros recursos y nos concentramos en ello, cul es el precio de sacar a la gente de la esclavitud? +Bueno, antes de decirlo, debo ser absolutamente claro. +No compramos a las personas para liberarlas de la esclavitud, +Comprar personas es como pagarle al ladrn para que te devuelva tu tele. Eso es fomentar el crimen. +Liberarlos, sin embargo, cuesta algo de dinero. +La liberacin, y an ms importante, todo el trabajo despus de la liberacin, +no es un evento, es un proceso. +Es ayudar a las personas a construir vidas con dignidad, estabilidad, economa autnoma, ciudadana. +Un nio en Ghana rescatado de la esclavitud en la industria pesquera, cerca de $ 400. +En Estados Unidos, Norteamrica, es mucho ms caro, costes legales y mdicos, +lo entendemos, es caro aqu, cerca de 30.000. +pero la mayora de personas en el mundo de la esclavitud viven en sitios donde los precios son bajos. +De hecho, el costo medio es el de Ghana. +Esas son las ganancias de Intel en el cuarto trimestre. +No es mucho dinero a nivel global, +de hecho no es nada. +Lo mejor de todo es que no es dinero mal invertido, hay un dividendo de libertad. Cuando sacas a personas de la esclavitud para que trabajen por ellas mismas, estn motivadas? +Sacan a su hijos del trabajo, contruyen escuelas, nos dicen "Vamos a conseguir cosas que nunca hemos tenido, medicinas para cuando estemos enfermos, ropa para cuando haga fro, +Se convierten en consumidores y productores y las economas locales empiezan a crecer muy rpido. +Todo sobre cmo reconstruir la libertad a largo plazo es importante, porque no queremos repetir lo que sucedi en este pas en 1865. +Cuatro millones de personas fueron liberadas de la esclavitud y luego abandonadas, +abandonadas sin participacin poltica, educacin decente, o cualquier otra oportunidad en trminos de vida econmica, y fueron sentenciadas a generaciones de violencia, prejuicio y discriminacin. +Y Amrica an est pagando el precio de la fallida emancipacin de 1865. +Nos hemos comprometido a no dejar que las personas que bajo nuestro cuidado salen de la esclavitud terminen como ciudadanos de segunda clase. +Eso no va a pasar. +As es realmente la libertad. +Nios liberados de la esclavitud en la industria pesquera de Ghana, reunidos con sus padres, y llevados de regreso a su comunidad para reconstruir su bienestar econmico, de manera que se vuelvan a prueba de esclavitud, totalmente no esclavizables. +Ahora, esta mujer viva en una aldea en Nepal. +Hemos trabajado all un mes. +Estaban empezando a salir de un tipo de esclavitud hereditaria. +Empezando a animarse un poco, abrirse un poco. +Pero cuando fuimos a hablar con ella, cuando tomamos esta foto, los dueos de esclavos todava nos estaban amenazando por los lados. Realmente no se haban retirado. +Estaba asustado. Estbamos asustados. +Le preguntamos: "Ests preocupada, ests enojada?" +Ella dijo: "No, porque ahora hay esperanza. +Cmo no podramos tener xito, cuando personas como ustedes, de la otra parte del mundo, vienen aqu a apoyarnos?" +Bien, tenemos que preguntarnos, Estamos dispuestos a vivir en un mundo con esclavitud? +Si no actuamos, estamos dejando las puertas abiertas a que alguien tire de las cuerdas que atan la esclavitud a los productos que compramos y a nuestras polticas de gobierno. +Adems, si hay algo en lo que todos estamos de acuerdo, es que la esclavitud debe acabar. +Si hay una violacin fundamental de nuestra dignidad humana que podamos catalogar como horrorfica es la esclavitud. +Y tenemos que preguntarnos de qu sirve nuestro poder intelectual, econmico y poltico. Y creo que poder intelectual hay en este saln, si no lo podemos usar para acabar con la esclavitud? +Creo que aqu hay suficiente poder intelectual para acabar con la esclavitud. +Y saben qu? Si no lo podemos hacer, si no podemos usarlo para acabar con la esclavitud, entonces hay una ltima pregunta, Realmente somos libres? +Muchas gracias. +Hoy me encuentro ante ustedes con toda humildad queriendo compartirles mi experiencia de los ltimos 6 aos en el campo del servicio, y la educacin. +No soy una profesora diplomada, +ni tampoco una asistente social veterana. +Estuve 26 aos en el mundo empresarial, intentando hacer rentables a diferentes organizaciones. +Y despus en el 2003, Inici la Fundacin Humanidad Parikrma desde la mesa de mi cocina. +Lo primero que hicimos fue caminar por los barrios pobres. +Por cierto, hay 2 millones de personas en Bangalore que viven en 800 barrios marginados. +No pudimos ir a todos los barrios, pero intentamos recorrer tanto como pudimos. +Caminamos por estos barrios, e identificamos casas en donde vivan nios que nunca iran a la escuela. +Hablamos con sus padres, tratamos de convencerlos acerca de mandar a sus nios a la escuela. +Jugamos con los nios, y volvimos a casa muy cansados, exhaustos, pero con imgenes de caras radiantes, de ojos chispeantes, y nos fuimos a dormir. +Estbamos todos muy entusiasmados por comenzar. Pero luego nos topamos con los nmeros. 200 millones de nios entre 4 y 14 aos, que deberan ir a la escuela, pero no lo hacen. 100 millones de nios que van a la escuela, pero no saben leer; 125 millones no saben hacer clculos matemticos bsicos. +Tambin escuchamos que 250 mil millones de rupias indias fueron destinadas a educacin estatal. +El 90 por ciento de ese monto fue utilizado en el salario de profesores y administradores. +Pero an as, India tiene una de las tasas de absentismo de profesores ms elevadas del mundo, con 1 de cada 4 que no van a la escuela en todo el ao escolar. +Esos nmeros fueron totalmente inconcebibles, abrumadores, y constantemente nos preguntaban "Cundo van a comenzar las clases? Cuntas escuelas van a inaugurar? +Cuntos nios van a ingresar? +Cmo van a calificar? +Cmo se van a expandir? +Fue muy difcil no asustarse, no ser intimidados. +Pero nos mantuvimos en nuestra idea y dijimos: "No estamos aqu por los nmeros". +Queremos dedicarnos a un nio por vez y guiarlo a lo largo de la escuela, mandarlo a la universidad y prepararlo para una mejor vida, con un trabajo de gran valor. +De esa forma iniciamos Parikrma. +La primer escuela Parikrma comenz en un barrio pobre donde haba 70.000 personas viviendo bajo la lnea de pobreza. +Cuando comenzamos, nuestra primer escuela estaba en el techo de un edificio que tena 2 pisos, el nico edificio de 2 pisos dentro del barrio. +Y esa azotea no tena techo, slo la mitad de una plancha de lata. +Esa fue nuestra primera escuela. 165 nios. +El ao acadmico indio comienza en junio. +Y como suele llover mucho en junio, todos nos acurrucbamos bajo el delgado techo de lata esperando que dejara de llover. +Dios mo, qu buen ejercicio de vinculacin afectiva tuvimos. +Y todos nosotros que estbamos bajo el techo, todava estamos juntos. +Luego surgi la segunda escuela, la tercera, la cuarta, y un primer ciclo universitario. +En 6 aos tenemos 4 escuelas, 1 colegio pre-universitario, y 1.100 nios provenientes de 28 barrios pobres y 4 orfanatos. +Nuestro sueo es muy simple: preparar a cada uno de estos chicos para la vida, educarlos y tambin ensearles a vivir pacficamente, satisfechos en este mundo conflictivo, catico y globalizado. +Ahora, cuando uno habla a escala mundial tiene que hablar en ingls. +Por eso todas nuestras escuelas son escuelas donde se habla ingls. +Pero existe este mito acerca de que los nios de los barrios pobres no pueden hablar bien en ingls. +Nadie de sus familias ha hablado ingls. +Nadie de su generacin ha hablado ingls. +Pero qu equivocados estn. +Video: Nia: Me gustan los libros de aventura, y otros de mis favoritos son los de Alfred Hitchcock y la saga Hardy Boys. +Todos esos tres son parecidos, aunque lo son en distintos contextos. Uno es como mgico, los otros dos son como de investigacin. Me gustan esos libros porque hay algo especial en ellos, +el vocabulario usado en esos libros, y la forma, el estilo de escritura. +Quiero decir, una vez que tomo un libro no lo puedo dejar hasta terminarlo por completo. +Incluso si me toma como cuatro horas y media, o tres horas y media para terminar mi libro, lo hago. +Nio: Hice una buena investigacin y consegu informacin sobre los autos ms rpidos del mundo. +Me gusta la Ducati ZZ143, porque es la ms rpida, la moto ms rpida del mundo. Y me gusta la Pulsar 220 DTSI porque es la moto ms rpida de India. Bueno, el padre de esa nia que vieron vende flores al costado de la carretera. +Y este nio ha estado asistiendo a clases por 5 aos. +Pero no es extrao que nios de todo el mundo amen las motos rpidas? l no ha visto ninguna. No se ha subido a ninguna, por supuesto, pero ha investigado mucho a travs del buscador Google. +Saben, cuando comenzamos con nuestras escuelas de habla inglesa tambin decidimos adoptar el mejor programa de estudios posible, el currculo ICSC. +Y otra vez, hubo personas que se rieron de mi y dijeron, "Ests loca eligiendo una currcula tan difcil para estos alumnos? +Nunca sern capaces de lograrlo". +Nuestros nios no slo se las arreglan muy bien, sino que tambin se destacan. +Slo tendran que venir y ver cuan bien les est yendo a nuestros nios. +Tambin existe otro mito acerca de que los padres de los barrios marginados no estn interesados en que sus nios vayan a la escuela, preferiran ponerlos a trabajar. +Eso es absolutamente una tontera. +Todos los padres alrededor del mundo quieren que sus hijos lleven una mejor vida que ellos. Pero necesitan creer que el cambio es posible. +Video: Shukla Bose: Tenemos un 80 por ciento de asistencia en todas nuestras reuniones entre padres y maestros. +A veces hasta un 100 por ciento, mucho ms que en varias escuelas privilegiadas. +Los padres han empezado a asistir. +Es muy interesante. Cuando empezamos nuestra escuela los padres marcaban huellas digitales en el registro de asistencia. +Ahora han aprendido a firmar. +Los nios les han enseado. +Es increble lo mucho que los nios pueden ensear. +Algunos meses atrs, en realidad a fines del ao pasado, hubo algunas madres que se acercaron y nos dijeron, "Saben, queremos aprender a leer y a escribir. +Pueden ensearnos?". As que comenzamos con una actividad extracurricular para nuestros padres, para nuestras madres. +Haba 25 madres que venan regularmente despus de la escuela a estudiar. +Queremos continuar con este programa y extenderlo a todas nuestras dems escuelas. +El 98 por ciento de nuestros padres son alcohlicos. +As que pueden imaginarse cuan traumatizadas y cuan disfuncionales son las casas donde vienen nuestros nios. +Tenemos que mandar a los padres a laboratorios de desintoxicacin y cuando vuelven, la mayora de las veces sobrios, tenemos que encontrarles un trabajo para que no recaigan. +Hay alrededor de 3 padres que han sido capacitados para cocinar. +Les hemos enseado sobre nutricin, higiene. +Los hemos ayudado a montar una cocina y ahora estn cocinando para todos nuestros nios. +Hacen un muy buen trabajo porque sus hijos estn comiendo su alimento, pero lo ms importante es que es la primera vez que tienen respeto, y sienten que estn haciendo algo valioso. +Ms del 90 por ciento de nuestro personal no docente son todos padres y del clan familiar. +Hemos comenzado muchos programas slo para asegurarnos de que el nio venga a la escuela. +Un programa vocacional para hermanos mayores de manera que a los menores no se les impida venir a la escuela. +Otro mito acerca de los nios de los barrios es que no pueden integrarse con el resto de la sociedad. +Miren a esta nia, una de los 28 nios de escuelas privilegiadas -las mejores escuelas del pas- que fue seleccionada para el programa de identificacin de talentos en la Universidad Duke y fue enviada al IIM- Amedabad. +Video: Nia: Cada vez que lo recordamos sentimos tanto orgullo de haber ido al campamento. +Cuando fuimos todos eran muy amables, particularmente, yo hice muchos amigos. +Y sent que mi ingls ha mejorado mucho al haber ido all y hablado con amigos y dems. +Ah se conocen nios con diferentes principios y todo eso, un pensamiento diferente, una sociedad totalmente diferente. +Me relacion con casi todos. +Eran muy amables. +Tuve muy buenos amigos ah, que son de Delhi y de Mumbai. +Incluso hoy seguimos en contacto por Facebook. +Despus de este viaje a Amedabad me he convertido en esta persona totalmente diferente que se relaciona con gente y todo eso. +Antes de eso senta como que no era as. +Ni siquiera me relacionaba o empezaba a hablar con alguien tan rpido. +Mi acento en ingls ha mejorado mucho. +Y aprend a jugar al ftbol, vleibol, frisbee, muchos juegos. +Y no quera ir a Bangalore. Dejen quedarme aqu. +Una comida muy estupenda. La disfrut. Fue tan estupenda. +Disfrut comiendo y como que se me acercaban y me preguntaban, "Si seora, qu desea?" Fue tan bueno or eso! +Esta nia estaba trabajando de mucama antes de ingresar a la escuela. +Y hoy quiere ser una neurloga. +A nuestros nios les est yendo de maravillas en los deportes. +Realmente se estn destacando. +Hay una competencia atltica intercolegial que se celebra cada ao en Bangalore, donde participan 5.000 nios de las 140 mejores escuelas de la ciudad. +Hemos obtenido el premio a la mejor escuela por 3 aos consecutivos. +Y nuestros nios vuelven a casa con una bolsa llena de medallas, con muchos admiradores y amigos. +El ao pasado hubo un par de nios de escuelas de elite que vinieron a preguntar sobre el ingreso a nuestra escuela. +Tambin tenemos nuestro propio equipo ideal. +Por qu esto est sucediendo? Por qu nos tienen tanta confianza? +Es la exposicin? Tenemos profesores de MIT, Berkeley, Stanford, el Instituto Indio de Ciencia, que vienen y les ensean a nuestros nios muchas frmulas cientficas, experimentos, mucho ms all del aula. +El arte y la msica son considerados como terapia y medios de expresin. +Tambin creemos que lo que ms importa es el contenido. +No es la infraestructura, ni los baos, ni las bibliotecas, sino lo que en realidad sucede en esta escuela lo que ms importa. +Crear un ambiente de aprendizaje, de investigacin, de exploracin es una verdadera educacin. +Cuando comenzamos Parikrma no tenamos ni idea cul era el rumbo que estbamos tomando. +No contratamos a Mackenzie para hacer un plan de negocios. +Pero sabemos con seguridad que lo que queremos hacer hoy es dedicarnos a un nio por vez, sin enredarnos con los nmeros, y realmente ver al nio completar el crculo de la vida, y liberar todo su potencial. +No creemos en escalas porque creemos en la calidad, y las escalas y los nmeros ocurrirn automticamente. +Hay empresas que nos han apoyado, y ahora podemos abrir ms escuelas. +Pero comenzamos con la idea de un nio por vez. +Este es Parusharam, de 5 aos. +Estaba mendigando en una parada de autobs hace algunos aos. lo recogieron y ahora est en un orfanato. Ha estado viniendo a la escuela durante los ltimos 4 meses y medio. +Est en jardn de nios. +Ha aprendido a hablar ingls. +Tenemos un modelo por el cual los nios pueden hablar ingls y entender ingls en un perodo de 3 meses. +l sabe contar historias, en ingls, sobre el cuervo sediento, el cocodrilo, y la jirafa. +Y si le preguntan qu le gusta hacer l dir, "Me gusta dormir. +Me gusta comer. Me gusta jugar." +Y si le preguntan qu quiere hacer l dir, "Quiero hacer caballeo" +Bueno, "caballeo" es andar a caballo. +As que Parusharam viene a mi oficina todos los das. +Viene a darme un masaje en la pancita, porque cree que eso me dar suerte. Cuando comenc Parikrma lo hice con mucha arrogancia, pensando que transformara el mundo. +Pero hoy yo he sido transformada. +He sido cambiada con mis nios. +He aprendido tanto de ellos, amor, compasin, imaginacin, y mucha creatividad. +Parusharam es Parikrma con un comienzo simple pero con un camino muy largo por recorrer. +Se los prometo, Parusharam hablar en una conferencia de TED dentro de unos aos. +Gracias. +Nos estamos ahogando en las noticias. +Slo Reuters publica tres millones y medio de noticias al ao. +Eso es slo una fuente. +Mi pregunta es: Cuntas de estas noticias en realidad van a importar a largo plazo? +Esa es la idea detrs de Las Noticias a largo plazo. +Es un proyecto de The Long Now Foundation, que fue fundada por TEDsters incluyendo Kevin Kelly y Stewart Brand. +Y lo que buscamos son noticias que importen en los prximos 50 o 100 o 10.000 aos. +Y cuando ves a las noticias a travs de ese filtro, la mayora son ignoradas. +Si tomas las principales noticias del ao pasado de AP: Esto va importar en una dcada? +O esto? +O esto? +En serio? +Esto va importar en 50 o 100 aos? +Ok, eso fue genial. +Pero la noticia principal del ao pasado fue la economa. Y les apuesto que, tarde o temprano, esta particular recesin ser del pasado. +Entonces, qu tipo de noticias pueden hacer una diferencia en el futuro? +Bueno, tomemos la ciencia. +Algn da, pequeos robots van a ir a travs de nuestro torrente sanguneo para curarnos. +Ese algn da es hoy si eres un ratn. +Algunas noticias recientes: Nano-abejas destruyen tumores con veneno de abeja Estn mandando genes adentro del cerebro. [Construyeron un robot] que puede moverse adentro del cuerpo humano. +Qu pasa con los recursos? Cmo vamos a alimentar a nueve mil millones de personas? +Hoy en da ya estamos teniendo problemas para alimentar a seis mil millones. +Como escuchamos ayer, hay ms de mil millones de personas que padecen hambre. +Sin los cultivos genticamente modificados, Gran Bretaa morir de hambre. +Bill Gates, afortunadamente, a invertido mil millones de dlares en investigaciones de cultivos. +Qu pasa con la poltica global? +El mundo va ser muy diferente si China establece el orden del da, y es posible. +Han superado a los EE.UU. como el mercado automotrz ms grande del mundo. Han superado a Alemania como el exportador ms grande. Y han empezado hacer pruebas de ADN a los nios para elegir sus carreras. +Estamos encontrando muchas formas de superar los lmites del conocimiento. +Algunos descubrimientos recientes: Hay una colonia de hormigas de Argentina que se ha extendido a todos los continentes excepto a la Antrtida. Hay un robot-cientfico autodirigido que ha hecho un descubrimiento. Pronto, la ciencia ya no nos necesitar. Y quizs la vida tampoco nos necesitar tanto. Un microbio despierta despus de 120.000 aos. +Parece que con o sin nosotros la vida seguir. +Pero mi eleccin de la noticia ms importante a largo plazo del ao pasado fue esta: que se encontro agua en la luna. +Hace que sea mucho ms fcil poner una colonia all. +Y si la NASA no lo hace, China podra, o alguien en esta sala podra firmar un gran cheque. +Mi punto es este: A largo plazo, algunas noticias son ms importantes que otras. +Seoras y seores, en TED hablamos mucho sobre liderazgo y como hacer un movimiento. +Veamos ocurrir un movimiento, de principio a fin, en menos de 3 minutos. Extraigamos algunas lecciones. Lo primero, lo sabis, un lder necesita coraje para sobresalir y ser ridiculizado. +Pero lo que l hace es fcil de seguir. +Aqu est su primer seguidor con un papel crucial. Va ensear a los dems como seguir. +Notad cmo el lder lo adopta como a un igual. +As que ahora ya no se trata del lder sino de ellos, en plural. +Aqu est l llamando a sus amigos. +Si os dais cuenta, el primer seguidor es una forma subestimada de liderazgo en s mismo. Hace falta valor para sobresalir as. +El primer seguidor es quien transforma +a un chiflado solitario en un lder. +Y aqu viene un segundo seguidor. +Ya no es 1 chiflado solo, ni 2, 3 es multitud, y una multitud es noticia. +Un movimiento debe ser pblico. +Es importante, no slo mostrar al lder, sino a los seguidores porque uno ve que los nuevos seguidores emulan a los seguidores, no al lder. +Aqu vienen 2 ms, e inmediatamente despus, 3 personas ms. +Ahora tenemos impulso. ste es el punto de inflexin. +Tenemos un movimiento. +As, notad que cuanta ms gente se una es menos arriesgado. +Los que estaban en la verja antes, ahora no tienen motivo para no hacerlo. No sobresaldrn. +No sern ridiculizados. Sern parte de la multitud "de moda" si se dan prisa. +En el prximo minuto veris todos los que prefieren seguir con la multitud porque eventualmente seran ridiculizados por no unirse, +y as es como se hace un movimiento. +Recapitulemos algunas lecciones de esto. +Lo primero, si sois del mismo tipo, que el tipo sin camiseta que bailaba solo, recordad la importancia de aceptar a los primeros seguidores como pares as est claro que se trata del movimiento, no de ti. +Bien, pero podramos no haber aprendido la verdadera leccin. +La leccin ms grande, si lo notasteis... lo habis captado? ...es que el liderazgo est sobre-glorificado, +s, fue el tipo sin camiseta el primero y obtendr todo el crdito, pero fue realmente el primer seguidor el que transform al chiflado solitario en lder. +Se nos dice que todos deberamos ser lderes; eso sera realmente ineficaz. +Si os preocupa empezar un movimiento, tened el coraje de seguir y ensear a otros como seguir. +Si veis a un chiflado solitario haciendo algo genial, tened las agallas de ser los primeros en sobresalir y unirse. +Y qu lugar tan perfecto para hacerlo, TED. +Gracias. +Quisiera empezar con una pregunta: Cundo fue la ltima vez que fueron llamados "infantiles"? +Para los nios como yo que nos llamen "infantiles" es una cosa frecuente. +Cada vez que hacemos un pedido irracional, mostramos un comportamiento irresponsable o manifestamos cualquier otro rasgo de ser ciudadanos Norteamericanos normales, nos dicen que somos infantiles, +y esto realmente me molesta. +Al fin y al cabo, veamos estos sucesos: Imperialismo y colonizacin, guerras mundiales, George W. Bush. +Pregntense: Quines son los responsables? Los adultos. +Qu hemos hecho nosotros los nios? +Bueno, Ana Frank lleg a millones con su impactante relato del Holocausto, +Ruby Bridges ayud a ponerle fin a la segregacin en los Estados Unidos, +y, ms recientemente, Charlie Simpson ayud a recaudar 120.000 libras para Hait en su pequea bicicleta. +As que, como lo demuestran estos ejemplos, la edad es irrelevante. +Los rasgos a los que hace referencia la palabra "infantil" son tan frecuentes en adultos que deberamos eliminar esta palabra discriminatoria a la hora de criticar comportamientos asociados con la irresponsabilidad y la irracionalidad. +Gracias. +Por otro lado, quin dice que ciertos tipos de pensamiento irracional no son exactamente lo que necesita el mundo? +Puede ser que ustedes hayan tenido grandes planes, pero no los llevaron adelante porque pensaron: "Eso es imposible", o "eso es muy costoso", o "eso no me beneficiar". +Para bien o para mal, los nios no tenemos tantos impedimentos a la hora de pensar en razones por las cuales no hacer algo. +Los nios pueden estar llenos de sueos inspiradores y pensamientos esperanzadores, como mi deseo de que nadie pase hambre o que todo fuera gratis, como una utopa. +Cuntos de ustedes an tienen esos sueos y creen en las posibilidades? +A veces el conocimiento de la historia y de los fracasos pasados de los ideales utpicos pueden ser una carga porque se sabe que si todo fuese gratis, los alimentos se agotaran, y la escasez llevara al caos. +Por otro lado, los nios an soamos con la perfeccin. +Y eso es algo bueno, porque para poder hacer algo realidad, primero debemos soarlo. +De muchas maneras, nuestro audaz poder de imaginacin ayuda a extender los lmites de lo posible. +Por ejemplo, el Museo del Vidrio en Tacoma, Washington, mi estado natal Arriba Washington! +tiene un programa llamado "Nios diseando vidrio", y los nios dibujan sus propias ideas de arte en vidrio. +Ahora, el artista encargado dijo que haban sacado algunas de sus mejores ideas del programa porque los nios no piensan en las limitaciones de cun difcil puede ser soplar vidrio en ciertas formas. Slo piensan buenas ideas. +Ahora, cuando uno piensa en vidrio, uno puede pensar en coloridos diseos de Chihuly o en jarrones italianos, pero los nios desafan a los artistas del vidrio a ir ms all, a un mundo de vboras con el corazn roto y nios tocino, que como pueden ver tienen "vista crnica". +Ahora, nuestra sabidura innata no tiene que ver con un conocimiento especializado. +Los nios ya aprenden mucho de los adultos y tenemos mucho para compartir. +Creo que los adultos deberan empezar a aprender de los nios. +La mayora de mis discursos son frente a un pblico del mbito educativo, profesores y estudiantes, y me gusta esta analoga. No debera ser slo un profesor al frente de la clase dicindole a los estudiantes que hagan esto o aquello. +Los estudiantes deberan ensearle a sus profesores. +El aprendizaje entre adultos y nios debera ser recproco. +Lamentablemente, la realidad es un poco distinta, y tiene mucho que ver con la confianza, o la falta de ella. +Ahora, si uno desconfa de alguien le pone lmites, no es cierto? +Si yo dudo de la capacidad de mi hermana mayor de pagarme el 10 por ciento de inters que establec sobre su ltimo prstamo, no volver a prestarle hasta que me lo pague. Es una historia real, dicho sea de paso. +Los adultos parecen tener una actitud restrictiva hacia los nios, desde cada "no hagas aquello", "no hagas esto" en los manuales escolares, hasta las restricciones al uso de internet en las escuelas. +La historia nos seala que los regmenes se tornan opresivos cuando se ponen paranoicos por mantener el control. +Y aunque los adultos no estn al nivel de los regmenes totalitarios, los nios tienen poca o ninguna injerencia en el establecimiento de reglas, cuando en realidad la actitud debera ser recproca, es decir, la poblacin adulta debera aprender y tomar en cuenta los deseos de la poblacin ms joven. +Ahora, lo que es peor an que las restricciones es que los adultos suelen subestimar la capacidad de los nios. +Nos encantan los desafos, pero cuando las expectativas son bajas, cranme, nos bajamos a su nivel. +Mis propios padres tenan de todo menos bajas expectativas para m y mi hermana. +Est bien, no nos pidieron que fusemos doctores o abogados o nada por el estilo, pero mi pap nos lea sobre Aristteles y los primeros Cazadores de Microbios mientras que muchos nios escuchaban "Las ruedas del camin girando van." +Tambin nos lean ese, pero "Cazadores de Microbios" es mucho mejor. +Me encanta escribir desde que tena cuatro aos, y cuando cumpl seis aos mi madre me compr mi propia laptop con Microsoft Word. +Gracias, Bill Gates, y gracias, ma. +Escrib ms de 300 cuentos cortos en esa pequea laptop, y quera que me los publicaran. +En lugar de slo burlarse por la hereja de pretender que me publicaran siendo una nia, o decirme que esperara a ser mayor, mis padres me apoyaron. +La mayora de las editoriales no fueron tan alentadoras. +Incluso una gran editorial para nios dijo irnicamente que no trabajaban con nios. +Una editorial para nios diciendo que no trabajan con nios? +No s, como que estn espantando a un gran mercado. +Una editorial, Action Publishing, estaba dispuesta a tomar ese riesgo y confiar en m, y escuchar lo que yo tena que decir. +Publicaron mi primer libro, "Dedos Voladores", lo pueden ver aqu, +y de ah pas a hablar en cientos de escuelas, dar charlas ante miles de educadores, y finalmente, hoy estoy aqu frente a ustedes. +Les agradezco su atencin en el da de hoy, porque para mostrar que realmente les importa escuchan. +Pero hay un problema con esta imagen perfecta de que los nios son tanto mejores que los adultos. +Los nios crecen y sern adultos como ustedes. +O exactamente como ustedes? En serio? +La meta no es transformar a los nios en adultos como ustedes, sino en mejores adultos de los que ustedes han sido, lo que podra ser un desafo +considerando sus antecedentes; pero el mundo progresa porque las nuevas generaciones y las nuevas eras crecen, se desarrollan y se tornan mejores que las anteriores. +Esta es la razn por la cual ya no estamos en la Edad de las tinieblas. +No importa quines sean o qu hagan, es imprescindible crear oportunidades para los nios para que podamos crecer y sorprenderlos. +Adultos y amigos de TED, ustedes necesitan escuchar y aprender de los nios y confiar en nosotros y tener mayores expectativas. +Deben escuchar hoy, porque nosotros somos los lderes de maana, lo que quiere decir que nos ocuparemos de ustedes +cuando estn viejos y seniles. No, era broma. Ahora en serio, seremos la prxima generacin, los que llevarn este mundo adelante. +Y en caso de que piensen que esto no les afecta, recuerden que existe la clonacin, y que eso requiere pasar de nuevo por la infancia, en cuyo caso ustedes querrn ser escuchados al igual que mi generacin. +El mundo necesita oportunidades para nuevos lderes y nuevas ideas. +Los nios necesitan oportunidades para liderar y tener xito. +Estn a la altura de este desafo? +Porque los problemas del mundo no deberan ser la herencia de la familia humana. +Gracias. +Gracias. Gracias. +"La gente hace cosas estpidas. +Eso es lo que propaga el VIH." +Este fue el titular de un peridico en el Reino Unido, The Guardian, hace no mucho tiempo. +Tengo curiosidad -- muestren las manos -- Quin est de acuerdo? +Bueno, una o dos almas valientes. +De hecho, esta es una cita directa de una epidemiloga que ha estado en el campo del VIH por 15 aos, ha trabajado en cuatro continentes, y ustedes la estn viendo. +Y ahora voy a argumentar que esto es solo media verdad. +La gente se contagia de VIH porque hace cosas estpidas, pero la mayora est haciendo estupideces por razones perfectamente racionales. +Maravilloso. +Algo problemtico para m porque trabajo en VIH, y s que todos ustedes saben que el VIH es sobre pobreza y desigualdad de gnero, y si ustedes estuvieron en TED '07, es sobre los precios del caf; +de hecho, el VIH es sobre el sexo y las drogas. Y si hay dos cosas que hacen que los humanos acten un poco irracionales, son las erecciones y la adiccin. +Entonces, empecemos con lo que es racional para un adicto. +Recuerdo conversar con un amigo Indonesio, Frankie. +Estbamos almorzando, y me contaba sobre su estancia en una crcel en Bali por inyeccin de drogas. +Y era el cumpleaos de alguien, y muy amablemente haban infiltrado herona en la crcel, y l estaba compartindola generosamente con todos sus colegas. +Entonces todos se alinearon, todos los adictos en un fila. Y el cumpleaero lleno la jeringa, y comenz a inyectar a la gente. +Entonces, inyecta al primer tipo, y limpia la aguja en su camisa, e inyecta al siguiente tipo. +Y Frankie dijo, "Soy el nmero 22 en la fila, y puedo ver la aguja viniendo hacia m, y hay sangre por todos lados. +Se est poniendo cada vez ms fuerte la escena. +Y una pequea parte de mi cerebro piensa, 'Eso es asqueroso y muy peligroso,' pero la mayora de mi cerebro piensa, 'Por favor, que haya algo de droga para cuando me toque a m. +Que alcance, por favor.' Y luego, mientras me contaba esta historia, Frankie dijo, "Sabes, por Dios, las drogas te vuelven estpido." +Y saben, no pueden culparlo por decirlo, +pero, de hecho, Frankie, en ese momento, era un adicto a la herona, y estaba preso. +Entonces su eleccin era aceptar esa sucia aguja o no drogarse. +Y si hay un lugar donde realmente quieres drogarte, es cuando estas en la crcel. +Pero soy una cientfica, y no me gusta obtener datos basados en ancdotas, as que revisemos algunos datos. +Entrevistamos a 600 drogadictos en tres ciudades en Indonesia, y dijimos, "Bueno, Saben cmo uno se contagia de VIH?" +"Claro. Por compartir agujas." +Digo, casi un 100 por ciento. Si, por compartir agujas. +Y, "Saben dnde conseguir un aguja limpia por un precio asequible para evitar eso?" +"Seguro." 100 por ciento. +"Somos drogadictos; sabemos dnde conseguir agujas limpias." +"Entonces traes una aguja?" +Estbamos entrevistndolos en la calle, en los lugares donde se juntaban y tomaban drogas. +"Estn trayendo agujas limpias?" +Uno de cuatro, mximo. +Ninguna sorpresa entonces en que la proporcin que usa agujas limpias cada vez que se inyectaron en la ltima semana es solo de uno en 10, y los otros nueve de cada 10 estn compartiendo. +Entonces se obtiene esta masiva disparidad. Todos saben que si comparten se van a contagiar de VIH, pero todos comparten de todos modos. +Que est pasando ah? La droga es ms efectiva si comparten la aguja o algo as? +Le preguntamos eso a un drogadicto y dicen, "Ests loca? +Nadie quiere compartir una aguja ms de lo que quieres compartir tu cepillo de dientes con quien duermes. +Solo hay una especie de, repugnancia en eso. +No, no. Compartimos agujas porque no queremos ir a la crcel." +En Indonesia en ese momento, si ustedes traan una aguja, y la polica los inspeccionaba, los podan llevar a la crcel. +Y eso cambia algo la ecuacin, no? +Porque ahora tu opcin es, Uso mi aguja ahora, o podra compartir una aguja ahora y adquirir una enfermedad que me matara posiblemente en 10 aos ms, o usar mi propia aguja ahora e ir a la crcel maana. +Y mientras los drogadictos piensan que es un muy mala idea exponerse al VIH, creen que es una idea mucho peor pasar el prximo ao presos, donde terminaran en la misma situacin que Frankie y se expondrn al VIH de cualquier modo. +Entonces de repente, se vuelve perfectamente racional el compartir agujas. +Ahora, vemoslo desde el punto de vista de los polticos. +Este es un problema realmente fcil. +Finalmente, sus incentivos estn alineados. +Tenemos lo que es racional para la salud pblica. +Quieren que la gente use jeringas limpias, y los drogadictos quieren usar jeringas limpias. +As que podramos hacer que este problema desaparezca simplemente haciendo que las jeringas limpias estn disponibles universalmente y eliminando el miedo al arresto. +Ahora, la primera persona en darse cuenta de eso y hacer algo sobre aquello a una escala nacional fue la muy conocida, extremadamente liberal Margaret Thatcher. +Y ella instauro el primer programa de intercambio nacional de jeringas en el mundo y otros pases siguieron el ejemplo, Australia, Holanda y otros, +y en todos esos pases, pueden ver, no ms del cuatro por ciento se infect jams de VIH, de los inyectores de drogas. +En lugares que no se hizo esto, Nueva York por ejemplo, Mosc, Yakarta, estamos hablando, en su punto ms alto, de uno en dos inyectores infectados con esta enfermedad fatal. +Ahora, Margaret Thatcher no hizo esto porque tiene un gran amor por los drogadictos. +Lo hizo porque ella manejaba un pas que tena un servicio nacional de salud. +Entonces, si ella no inverta en la prevencin efectiva, ella tendra que costear el tratamiento despus, y obviamente esos son mucho ms altos. +Entonces ella estaba tomando una decisin poltica racional. +Ahora, si saco mis lentes de nerd de la salud pblica, y miro estos datos, no hay que pensar mucho, no? +Pero en este pas, donde el gobierno aparentemente no se siente obligado a proveer atencin de salud a sus ciudadanos, hemos tomado un enfoque muy diferente. +Entonces, lo que hemos estado haciendo en los Estados Unidos es revisar los datos, revisar los datos sin fin. +Entonces hay revisiones de cientos de estudios por todos los grandes nombres del panten cientfico en los Estados Unidos, y estos son los estudios que muestran que los programas de jeringas son efectivos, son bastantes. +Ahora, los que muestran que los programas de agujas no son efectivos -- ustedes creen que esta es una de esas diapositivas dinmicas, y que voy a presionar el botn y el resto va a aparecer, pero no, esa es toda la diapositiva. +No hay nada del otro lado. +Entonces, completamente irracional, pensaran ustedes, +excepto que, esperen un minuto, los polticos son racionales tambin, y estn respondiendo a lo que creen que los votantes quieren. +Entonces lo que vemos es que los votantes responden muy bien a cosas como estas y no tan bien a cosas como estas. +Entonces se vuelve muy racional negar servicios a los inyectores de droga. +Ahora hablemos de sexo. +Somos algo ms racionales sobre el sexo? +Bueno, ni siquiera me voy a referir a las posiciones completamente irracionales de gente como la Iglesia Catlica, que cree que de alguna manera si entregas condones, todos van a salir corriendo a tener sexo. +No s si el Papa Benedicto ve las TEDTalks en lnea, pero si lo hace, te tengo noticias Benedicto. Yo ando con condones todo el tiempo, y nunca tengo sexo. +No es tan fcil. +Tomen, quizs ustedes tengan mejor suerte. +Bueno, seriamente, El VIH no es tan fcil de transmitir sexualmente. +Depende de cunto virus haya en su sangre y en sus fluidos corporales. +Y lo que tenemos es un nivel muy, muy alto de virus, justo en el comienzo, cuando recin se infectan, luego comienzan a fabricar anticuerpos, y luego se va a niveles muy bajos por mucho tiempo, 10 o 12 aos, tienen alzas si se contagian con otra infeccin de transmisin sexual, +pero bsicamente, no pasa mucho hasta que se comienzan a convertirse en SIDA sintomtico. Y para entonces, ac, no se ven muy bien, no se sienten muy bien, no estn teniendo mucho sexo. +Entonces la transmisin sexual del VIH esta esencialmente determinada por cuantas parejas sexuales tengas en estos cortos periodos cuando tienes la viremia a tope. +Ahora, esto vuelve locas a las personas porque significa que debes hablar sobre algunos grupos teniendo ms parejas sexuales en cortos periodos que otros grupos, y eso se considera estigmatizador. +Siempre he tenido curiosidad sobre eso porque creo que el estigma es algo malo, mientras que mucho sexo es algo bastante bueno, pero no hablemos de eso. +La verdad es que 20 aos de muy buena investigacin nos ha mostrado que hay grupos que tienen mayores posibilidades de tener un gran nmero de parejas en un periodo, +y esos grupos son, globalmente, personas que venden sexo y sus parejas ms regulares, +son hombres homosexuales fiesteros que tienen, en promedio, tres veces ms parejas que los heterosexuales fiesteros, +y son heterosexuales que vienen de pases que tienen tradiciones de poligamia y relativamente altos niveles de autoridad femenina, y casi todos esos pases estn en el sudeste africano. +Y eso se refleja en la epidemia que tenemos hoy en da. +Pueden ver estas horribles cifras de frica. +Estos son todos pases en el sur de frica. donde entre uno y siete y uno en tres de todos los adultos estn infectados con VIH. +Ahora, el resto del mundo, tenemos prcticamente nada pasando en la poblacin general, niveles muy muy bajos, pero tenemos niveles extraordinariamente altos de VIH en estas otras poblacines que estn en el riego ms alto, los usuarios de drogas inyectadas, trabajadoras sexuales, y hombres homosexuales. +Y notaran que esa es la informacin local de Los Angeles. 25 por ciento de prevalencia entre hombres homosexuales. +Por supuesto, no se puede adquirir el VIH slo teniendo sexo sin proteccin. +Solo se adquiere el VIH teniendo sexo sin proteccin con una persona positiva. +En gran parte del mundo, estos pocos errores de prevencin no obstante, estamos haciendo un muy buen trabajo estos das en el sexo comercial. Las tasas de uso del condn estn entre 80 y 100 por ciento en el sexo comercial en la mayora de los pases. +Y, nuevamente, es debido a un alineamiento de los incentivos. +Lo que es racional para la salud publica es racional tambin para las trabajadoras sexuales porque es muy malo para el negocio tener otra ETS. +Nadie quiere eso. +Y, de hecho, los clientes tampoco quieren volver a casa con un perdedor. +Esencialmente, se puede lograr muy altos ndices de uso del condn en el sexo comercial. +Pero en las relaciones "intimas", es mucho ms difcil porque, con tu esposa o tu novio, alguien que ustedes esperan se transforme en alguna de esas cosas, tenemos esta ilusin de romance y confianza e intimidad, y nada es menos romntico que preguntar, "tu condn o el mo, querida?". +Entonces, con eso en frente se necesita de un incentivo muy fuerte para usar condones. +Esto, por ejemplo. Este caballero se llama Joseph. +l es de Hait, y l tiene SIDA, +y probablemente el no este teniendo mucho sexo ahora, pero es un recordatorio en la poblacin, de porque quisieran estar usando condones. +Esto tambin es en Hait y es un recordatorio de porque quisieran tener sexo, quizs. +Ahora, curiosamente, este tambin es Joseph luego de seis meses de tratamiento antirretroviral. +No por nada lo llamamos el Efecto Lzaro. +Pero est cambiando la ecuacin de que es racional en la toma de decisin sexual. +Entonces, lo que tenemos -- algunas personas dices, "Oh, no importa mucho porque, de hecho, el tratamiento es una prevencin efectiva porque baja tu carga viral y entonces hace ms difcil la transmisin del VIH." +Entonces, si miran al asunto de la viremia nuevamente, si comienzan el tratamiento cuando estas enfermo, bueno, lo que pasa, su carga viral baja. +Pero comparado con qu? Qu pasa si no ests bajo tratamiento? +Bueno, te mueres, entonces tu carga viral se va a cero. +Ahora, estoy diciendo, oh, bueno, que gran estrategia preventiva, +dejemos de tratar a la gente? +Por supuesto que no. Por supuesto que no, +necesitamos expandir el tratamiento retroviral lo ms que podamos. +pero lo que estoy haciendo es cuestionar a aquellas personas que dicen que ms tratamiento es toda la prevencin que necesitamos. +Y eso sencillamente no es necesariamente verdad, y creo que podemos aprender mucho de la experiencia de los hombres homosexuales en pases ricos donde el tratamiento ha estado ampliamente disponible por 15 aos, +Y la otra razn es que la gente simplemente no est asustada del VIH como lo estuvieron del SIDA, y con razn. +El SIDA era una enfermedad desfigurante que te mataba, y el VIH es un virus invisible que hace que te tomes una pastilla todos los das. +Y eso es aburrido, pero es tan aburrido como tener que usar un condn cada vez que se tiene sexo, sin importar lo borracho que estn, sin importar cuanta droga hayas tomado, da igual. +Si miramos los datos, podemos ver que la respuesta a esa pregunta es mmm. +Estos son datos de Escocia. +Ven el pico en los consumidores de drogas inyectadas antes de que comenzaran con el programa nacional de intercambio de jeringas. +Despus baj +en heterosexuales, sobre todo en el sexo comercial y en los usuarios de drogas, no hay mucho pasando luego de iniciado el tratamiento, y eso es debido al alineamiento de incentivos que hable antes. +Pero en los hombres homosexuales, hay un alza dramtica que comienza tres o cuatro aos despus de que el tratamiento estuviera ampliamente disponible. +Esto es por nuevas infecciones. +Qu significa esto? +Esto significa que el efecto combinado de estar menos preocupado y tener ms virus en la poblacin, ms gente viviendo vivas ms largas y saludables, con ms probabilidades de tener sexo y contagiarse de VIH, est contrarrestando los efectos de una menor carga viral, y eso es algo muy preocupante. +Qu significa? +Significa que debemos estar haciendo ms prevencin mientras ms tratamiento tengamos. +Es eso lo que est pasando? +No, y yo lo llamo el acertijo de la compasin. +Hemos hablado mucho sobre compasin en el ltimo par de das. Y lo que est pasando realmente es que la gente es incapaz de coordinarse para instaurar buenos servicios de salud sexual y reproductiva para sus trabajadoras sexuales, incapaz de entregar agujas a los drogadictos, +pero una vez que pasaron de ser gente transgresiva, cuyo comportamiento no queremos condonar, a ser vctimas del SIDA, nos volvemos todos compasivos y les compramos drogas increblemente caras por el resto de sus vidas. +No tiene ningn sentido desde el punto de vista de la salud pblica. +Quiero darle, lo que es casi la ltima palabra, a Ins. +Ins es una prostituta transexual en las calles de Yakarta. Ella es una mujer con pene. +Porque trabaja en eso? +Bueno, obviamente, porque fue forzada, porque no tena opciones, etctera, etctera, +y si solo pudiramos ensearle a coser y conseguirle un buen trabajo en una fbrica, todo estara bien. +Esto es lo que los trabajadores de las fbricas ganan en una hora en Indonesia, en promedio, 20 centavos de dlar. +Cambia un poco de provincia en provincia. +Hable con trabajadoras sexuales, 15.000 de ellas para esta diapositiva en particular. Y esto es lo que las trabajadoras sexuales dicen que ganan en una hora. +Entonces, no es un gran trabajo, pero para mucha gente es una opcin bastante racional. +Ahora, Ins. +Tenemos las herramientas, el conocimiento y el dinero, y compromiso para prevenir el VIH tambin. +Ins: Entonces porque la prevalencia sigue aumentando? +Es pura poltica. +Cuando observas las polticas, nada tiene sentido. +Elizabeth Pisani: "Cuando observas las polticas, nada tiene sentido." +Entonces, desde el punto de vista de una trabajadora sexual, lo que hacen los polticos no tiene sentido. +Del punto de vista de un nerd de la salud pblica, los drogadictos estn haciendo tonteras. +La verdad es que todos tienen una lgica distinta. +Hay tantas formas de ser racional como hay seres humanos en el planeta, esa es una de las glorias de las existencia humana. +Pero esas formas de ser racional no son independientes una de otra. Entonces es racional para un drogadicto compartir agujas por la estpida decisin hecha por un poltico, y es racional para un poltico tomar esa decisin estpida porque estn respondiendo a lo que creen que los votantes quieren. +Pero este es el asunto: Nosotros somos los votantes. +No somos todos ellos, por supuesto, pero TED es una comunidad de lderes de opinin, +y todos los que estn en este saln, y todos los que estn viendo esto en la web, creo que tienen un deber de exigirle a sus polticos que hacemos polticas basadas en evidencia cientfica y en el sentido comn. +Va a ser muy difcil para nosotros afectar individualmente lo que es racional para cada Frankie y para cada Ins. Pero por lo menos pueden usar su voto para impedir que los polticos hagan cosas estpidas que propaguen el VIH. +Gracias. +No se trata de tecnologa. Se trata de personas e historias. +Yo podra mostrarles lo que recientemente estuvo en televisin como video de alta calidad 60 Minutos, muchos de ustedes lo han visto. +Y fue el actual director del grupo completo de la administracin de veteranos quien, l mismo, perdi un brazo hace 39 aos en Vietnam, quien estaba firmemente opuesto a estos locos dispositivos que no funcionan. +Pero eso seria dar un salto a la mitad de la historia. Y no voy a mostrarles ese video pulido. +Voy, a cambio, en un minuto o dos a mostrarles un video anticipado, tosco, porque pienso que es una mejor manera de contar una historia. +Hace unos pocos aos atrs fui visitado por la persona que administra DARPA, el grupo que financia todas las tecnologas avanzadas que las empresas y universidades probablemente no tomaran el riesgo de hacer. +Ellos tienen un inters particular en aquellas que ayudarn a nuestros soldados. +Recibo esta inesperada, al menos por mi, visita. Y sentado en mi sala de conferencias est un cirujano de muy alto rango del ejrcito y el seor que administra DARPA. +Me vienen a contar una historia que que se resume bsicamente en lo siguiente, hemos usado estas tecnologas avanzadas ahora, y las tenemos disponibles en los lugares mas remotos en que ponemos los soldados, cerros de Afganistn, Iraq. +Estas son las buenas noticias. +La mala noticia, es que han recogido a esta persona y a el o ella les falta un brazo o una pierna, parte de la cara, probablemente no regresara. +As que me dan las estadsticas de cuantos de estos chicos han perdido un brazo. +Y luego el cirujano seal, con mucho enojo, dijo, "Por qu sucede que al final de la Guerra Civil se estaban disparando con mosquetes, y si alguien perda un brazo le dbamos un palo de madera con un gancho en l. +Ahora, tenemos F18s y F22s, y si alguien pierde un brazo le damos una vara de plastico con un gancho." +Y bsicamente dijeron que esto es inaceptable. Y luego remato, "Entonces, Dean, estamos aqu porque haces cosas medicas. +Nos vas a dar un brazo. +Y yo estaba esperando por 500 pginas de burocracia y papeles y clausulas de seguridad. +No, el tipo dice, "Vamos a traer un hombre a esta sala de conferencias y usando el brazo que nos vas a dar el o ella levantar una pasa o una uva de esta mesa. +Si es la uva, no la rompern." +Excelente necesita sensores de respuesta eferente, aferente y de tacto." +"Si es la pasa, no se les caer." +As que, quiere control motriz fino, flexin en la mueca, flexin en el codo, giro y flexin en el hombro. +De cualquier manera se lo iban a comer. +"Ah, por cierto Dean, le debe quedar a un marco femenino medio, a saber 81 cm del dedo largo, y pesar menos de 4 kg. +50avo por ciento de marco femenino. +Y va a ser totalmente independiente incluyendo su propia energa." +As que, terminaron eso. Y yo, como notaras, soy del tipo timido. +Les dije que estaban locos. +Han estado viendo demasiado Terminator. +Luego el cirujano me dice, "Dean, necesitas saber ms de dos docenas de estos chicos han regresado bilaterales." +Ahora, no puedo imaginar, Disculpa, quizs tengas mejor imaginacin que yo. No puedo imaginar perder mi brazo, y tpicamente a los 22 aos. +Comparado con eso, perder dos, +me parece que sera inconveniente. +De cualquier manera, regres a casa esa noche y pens acerca de ello. +Literalmente no pude dormir, pensando, me pregunto como te daras la vuelta sin hombros. +As que, decid que tenemos que hacer esto. +Y confa en mi tengo un empleo regular, tengo muchos empleos regulares. +La mayor parte de mi trabajo regular me mantiene ocupado financiando mis fantasias como Primero y Agua y Energia. +Y tengo muchos trabajos regulares. +Pero pens, "Tengo que hacer esto." +Realic un poco de investigacin, fui a Washington, les dije Sigo creyendo que estn locos, pero lo vamos a hacer. +Y les dije que les construira un brazo. +Les dije que tomara como 5 aos que lo aprobara la FDA, y probablemente 10 aos que fuera razonablemente funcional. +Mira lo que toma hacer cosas como los Ipods. +"Excelente," dijo, "tienes dos aos." +Y dije, "Te digo una cosa, Te construir un brazo que pesa menos de 4 kilogramos, que tiene toda esa capacidad, en un ao. +Tomar los otros nueve hacerlo funcional y til." +Acordamos estar en desacuerdo. +Regres y empec a formar el equipo, los mejores que pude encontrar, con una pasin por hacer esto. +Y al final de exactamente un ao tenamos un dispositivo con exactamente 14 grados de libertad. todos estos sensores y microprocesadores, todas las cosas adentro. +Podra ensertela con su cosmtica tan real que es inquietante, pero entonces no veras toda estas cosas interesantes. +Luego pense que tomaria aos antes de que lo pudisemos hacer realmente til. +resulto, como creo podrs ver, en las capacidades y actitudes de Amy, las personas con deseos de lograr algo son muy capaces, la naturaleza es muy adaptable. +De cualquier manera, con menos de 10 horas de uso, dos personas, uno que es bilateral, +literalmente, no tiene hombro en un lado, y lo tiene alto trans-humeral en el otro. +Y ese es Chuck y Randy juntos, despus de 10 horas estaban jugando en nuestra oficina. +Hicimos unas filmaciones muy caseras. +Y al final de la que voy a mostrar, solo es un minuto y un par de segundos de longitud, Chuck hace algo que hasta este da me da envidia, Yo no puedo hacerlo. +Recoje una cuchara, la levanta, toma unas tiras de maz con leche, mantiene su cuchara a nivel, al trasladarla, moviendo todas estas partes simultneamente, hasta su boca, no riega una gota de leche. +Yo no puedo hacer eso. +Su esposa estaba detrs mio. +Esta parada atrs de mi en ese momento y dice, "Dean, Chuck no se ha alimentado a si mismo en 19 aos. +Asi que, tienes una opcin: nos quedamos con el brazo o te quedas con Chuck." +As que, podemos ver eso? +Esto es Chuck mostrando control simultneo de todas las articulaciones. +Esta golpeando nuestra persona de controles. La persona detrs de l es nuestro ingeniero/cirujano. Que es una persona conveniente de tener cerca. +Ahi esta Randy, ellos se estn pasando un pequeo disco de hule entre ellos. +Y en el espritu del primero, profesionalismo gentil, estn muy orgullosos de esto, as que deciden compartir una bebida. +Esto no es trivial, por cierto. +Imagina hacer eso con un palo de madera con un gancho al final, haciendo cualquiera de esas cosas. +Ahora Chuck esta haciendo algo bastante extraordinario, al menos para mi limitada capacidad fsica. +Ahora va a hacer lo que DARPA me pidi, +Va a recoger una uva, no se le cayo, no la rompi. Y se la va a comer. +As que ah es donde estbamos al final de aproximadamente 15 meses. +Pero, como he aprendido de Richard, la tecnologa, los procesadores, los sensores, los motores, no son la historia. +No haba tratado con este tipo de problema o francamente, este segmento completo del mundo medico. +Te voy a decir unas cosas sorprendentes que han sucedido cuando comenzamos esto. +No importa si al Departamento de Defensa le gusta este brazo. +Cuando les dije eso no estaban particularmente entusiasmados. Pero les dije, realmente no importa cual sea su opinin. +Solo hay una opinin que importa, la de los chicos que la van a usar o no. +Le dije a un grupo de mis ingenieros, "Miren, vamos a entrar a Walter Reed, y vas a ver a personas, muchas de ellas, que les faltan muchas partes del cuerpo. +Y probablemente estn enojados, deprimidos, frustrados. +Probablemente vamos a tener que darles apoyo y alentarlos, +pero tenemos que extraer de ellos suficiente informacin para estar seguros que hacemos lo correcto. +Entramos a Walter Reed y no pude haber estado ms equivocado. +Vimos a muchas personas, a varias de ellas, les faltaba partes del cuerpo, y partes que les quedaban quemadas, Faltaba media cara, una oreja incinerada. +Estaban a la mesa, fueron reunidos para nosotros. +Y comenzamos a hacerles preguntas a todos. +"Miren," les deca, "No somos tan buenos como la naturaleza aun. +Podra darles control motriz fino, o podra permitirte levantar 20 kilogramos, Probablemente no pueda hacer ambas. +Puedo darte control veloz con ratio de baja reduccin en los engranes, o puedo darte poder, no puedo darte ambos. +Y estbamos tratando de que todos nos ayudaran para saber que darles. +No solo estaban entusiasmados, seguan pensando que ellos estaban ah para ayudarnos a nosotros. +"Bueno, ayudara si yo --" +Hombres, y una mujer, han dado suficiente. +Estamos aqu para ayudarles a ustedes. Necesitamos datos. Necesitamos saber que necesitan. +Despus de media hora, quiz, haba un hombre al final de la mesa que no deca mucho. +Podas ver que le faltaba un brazo. +Estaba recargado en su otro brazo. +Le hable al del fondo,"Oye, no has dicho mucho, +si necesitramos esto o el otro que quisieras?" +Y dijo, "Sabes... Yo soy el suertudo de esta mesa. +Yo perd mi brazo derecho, pero soy zurdo." +As que, no deca mucho. +Tenia un gran espritu, como el resto de ellos tenan gran espritu. +E hizo algunos comentarios. +Y la reunin termino. +Y el hombre se alej de la mesa, +no tena piernas. +As que, nos fuimos. +Y me quede pensando no les dimos apoyo ni aliento, ellos nos lo dieron a nosotros. +Ellos no han finalizado en drnoslo. +Era sorprendente. +As que, regresamos. +Y comenc a trabajar mas duro, mas rpido. +Luego fuimos a Brooke Army Medical Center. +Y vimos a muchos de estos jvenes, muchos de ellos. +Y era sorprendente que tan positivos eran. +As que, regresamos. Y hemos estado trabajando aun ms duro. +Estamos en pruebas clinicas, y se los hemos puesto a 5 personas. +Vamos dando alaridos en el camino. +Me llaman y regresamos a Washington. +Regresamos a Walter Reed Y un chico, literalmente unos veinte das antes de eso fue estallado. +Y lo enviaron a Alemania y 2 horas despus lo enviaron de Alemania a Walter Reed. +Y estaba ah. Y nos dijeron que tenamos que venir. +Y fui, Y lo llevaron a una habitacin, +No tiene piernas. +No tiene brazos. +Tiene una extremidad pequea residual en un costado, +Le falta media cara, pero dijeron que esta recuperando la vista. +Tenia un buen ojo. +Se llama Brandon Morroco. +Y dijo, "Necesito tus brazos, Pero necesito dos." +Los tendrs. +Este chico era de Staten Island. +Y dijo, "Yo tenia una camioneta, antes de ir para all, y tenia palanca de cambios. +crees que la pueda manejar?" +Por supuesto. +Me di la vuelta y me fui, "Como vamos ha hacer esto?" +De cualquier manera, era como el resto de ellos. +Realmente no pide mucho. +Quiere ayudar. El me dijo que quiere regresar a ayudar a sus amigos. +As que, estaba en camino para ac +Y se me pidi que parara en Texas. +Habian 3500 personas, la Administracion de Veteranos, E.U. tena solo 3500 en este inmenso evento para ayudar a las familias de todos los jvenes, unos que han muerto. otros que han, como Brandon, Y queran que hablara. +Y dije, "Que voy a decir?" +Esto no es algo feliz. Mira, si esto te sucede yo puedo darte -- Estas cosas an no son tan buenas como el equipo original." +"Necesitas venir." +As que fui. +Y, como imagino captas el punto, haban muchas personas ahi recuperndose. +Unos ms que otros. +Pero universalmente, personas que han pasado por esto tenan actitudes sorprendentes. Y el simple hecho de que a alguien le importe significa mucho para ellos. +Me callare, excepto por un mensaje... o preocupacin que tengo. +No creo que nadie lo hace intencionalmente, Pero haban personas ah literalmente, hablando de pues, cuanto van a recibir? +Tu sabes, este pas esta involucrado, como todos han escuchado, en este gran debate sobre el cuidado de la salud. +Quien tiene derecho a que? +Quien tiene derecho a cuanto? +Quien lo va a pagar? +Eso son preguntas difciles. +No tengo la respuesta para eso. No todos pueden tener derecho a todo simplemente por nacer aqu. +No es posible. Seria agradable Pero seamos realistas. +Son preguntas difciles. Hay grupos muy polarizados por ah. +No tengo las respuestas. +Hay otras cuestiones difciles. +Deberamos estar ah? +Como nos salimos? +Que necesitamos hacer? Existen muy polarizadas respuestas a esa pregunta tambin. Y no tengo ninguna respuesta para eso. +Esas son cuestiones polticas y econmicas, preguntas estratgicas. +No tengo la respuesta. Pero djame darte una simple preocupacin o quiz una afirmacin, entonces. +Es fcil de contestar. +Yo se lo que estos jvenes merecen por parte del sistema de salud. +Estaba hablando con uno de ellos, y le estaba gustando mucho este brazo, is mucho mejor que un palo de plstico con un gancho. Pero no hay nadie en este cuarto que prefiera tener eso que la que tienen ahora. +Pero le estaba diciendo, "Sabes, el primer avion vol 30 metros en 1903. +Wilber y Orville. +Pero no le dara celos a una vieja paloma. +Pero ahora tenemos guilas all afuera, F15s, y la guila Calva. +Nunca he visto un pjaro volar a Mach II. +Creo que finalmente haremos estas cosas extraordinarias." +Y como le dije al joven, "Me detendr cuando tus amigos le tengan envidia a tu brazo de Luke (Ref. Imperio Contra Ataca) por lo que puede hacer, y como lo hace. +Y seguir trabajando. Y no voy a dejar de trabajar hasta que logremos eso." +Y creo que este pas. debera continuar su gran debate. quejndose y lloriqueando, "Es mi derecho." "Eres una victima." +Y lloriqueando y quejndose del lo que debe ser nuestra poltica externa. +Pero mientras tengamos el lujo de lloriquear y quejarnos de quien paga que, y cuanto nos toca, las personas que estn all afuera dndonos ese gran privilegio de lloriquear y quejarnos, Yo se que ellos merecen, todo lo humanamente posible. +Y se los debemos dar. +El primer robot del que voy a hablar se llama STriDER, +que significa "Robot Experimental Dinmico Trpode Auto-excitado". +Es un robot de tres patas inspirado en la Naturaleza. +Pero alguien ha visto en la Naturaleza un animal de tres patas? +Probablemente no. Y entonces por qu lo llamamos robot bioinspirado? Cmo puede funcionar? +Pero antes de eso veamos la cultura popular. +Ya conocen la novela y la pelcula "La Guerra de los Mundos" de H.G. Wells. +Y lo que ven aqu es un videojuego muy popular. En la ficcin se describe a estas criaturas aliengenas como robots de tres patas que aterrorizan a la Tierra. +Pero mi robot STriDER no se mueve de esta manera. +Esto es una simulacin dinmica animada. +Les ensear cmo funciona el robot: +Voltea su cuerpo 180 grados, y balancea una pata entre las otras dos para detener la cada. +As es como camina. Pero si nos observamos nosotros los seres humanos, al caminar con dos piernas lo que hacemos es que en realidad no usamos un msculo para levantar as la pierna y andar como un robot, verdad? +Lo que de verdad hacemos es balancear una pierna y detener la cada, levantarnos de nuevo, balancear la pierna y detener la cada. +Usando nuestra propia dinmica, la fsica de nuestro cuerpo igual que un pndulo. +A este concepto lo llamamos locomocin dinmica pasiva. +Lo que hacemos es levantarnos y convertir energa potencial en energa cintica energa potencial en energa cintica. +Es un proceso de cada constante. +As, aunque no hay nada en la Naturaleza con este aspecto en realidad nos hemos inspirado en la biologa y hemos aplicado a este robot los principios del caminar. Por tanto es un robot biolgicamente inspirado. +Lo que ven aqu es lo prximo que queremos hacer. +Queremos plegar las patas y dispararlo en un movimiento de largo alcance. +Entonces despliega sus patas... casi parece de Star Wars. Al aterrizar amortigua el impacto y comienza a caminar. +Lo que ven por aqu, esto amarillo, no es un rayo de la muerte. Es solo para ilustrar que si tienen cmaras o diferentes tipos de sensores ya que es alto, mide 1,80 metros, puede ver por encima de obstculos como arbustos y dems. +Tenemos dos prototipos. +La primera versin, al fondo, se llama STriDER I. +El del frente, ms pequeo, es STriDER II. +El problema que tuvimos con STriDER I es que tena un cuerpo demasiado pesado. Tena muchos motores para alinear las articulaciones y dems. +Decidimos sintetizar un mecanismo para librarnos de tantos motores, y con un nico motor podemos coordinar todos los movimientos. +Es una solucin mecnica al problema, en lugar de emplear mecatrnica. +Ahora el cuerpo central es lo bastante ligero como para caminar en el laboratorio. Este fue el primer paso que dio con xito. +An no es perfecto as que todava tenemos mucho trabajo por delante. +El segundo robot del que quiero hablar se llama IMPASS: +"Plataforma Mvil Inteligente con Sistema Activo Radial". +Es un robot con un hbrido de ruedas y patas. +Se puede entender como una rueda sin llanta o una rueda radial. pero los radios entran y salen del eje individualmente as que es un hbrido de rueda y patas. +Literalmente estamos reinventando la rueda. +Permtanme demostrarles cmo funciona. +En este video utilizamos una estrategia que llamamos estrategia reactiva. +Usando solamente los sensores en los extremos intenta caminar sobre un terreno cambiante un terreno blando que se deforma y cambia +y solo con la informacin tctil consigue cruzar por este tipo de terreno. +Probablemente no hayan visto an nada como esto. +Es un robot de muy alta movilidad que hemos desarrollado, llamado IMPASS. +Ah! no es genial eso? +Cuando conducimos un coche para dirigirlo utilizamos un mtodo llamado "direccin Ackermann". +Las ruedas delanteras giran as. +En muchos robots pequeos con ruedas se usa un mtodo llamado "direccin diferencial" en el que las ruedas izquierda y derecha giran en sentidos opuestos. +Con IMPASS podemos hacer muchos tipos de movimientos. +Por ejemplo, en este caso, aunque ambas ruedas se conectan al mismo eje, rotando con la misma velocidad angular, +simplemente cambiamos la longitud de los radios, +el dimetro efectivo, y as gira a izquierda y derecha. +Estos son solo algunos ejemplos de todo lo que podemos hacer con IMPASS. +Este robot se llama CLIMBeR "Robot con patas de comportamiento inteligente adaptado suspendido por cable" +He hablado con muchos cientficos del laboratorio de Propulsores de la NASA son famosos sus vehculos exploradores de Marte y los cientficos, los gelogos siempre me dicen que los lugares ms interesantes para la ciencia son siempre los precipicios +pero los exploradores actuales no llegan all. +Esto nos inspir a construir un robot capaz de escalar un entorno estructurado como un precipicio +Y este es CLIMBeR. +Veamos qu hace. Tiene tres patas, y aunque no se ve bien tiene un cabrestante con un cable por encima. Intenta averiguar el mejor lugar para poner un pie +y cuando consigue averiguarlo calcula en tiempo real la distribucin de fuerzas cunta fuerza necesita ejercer sobre la superficie para no volcar ni resbalar. +Cuando se ha estabilizado levanta una pata y con ayuda del cabrestante puede seguir escalando. +Tambin sirve para misiones de bsqueda y rescate. +Hace cinco aos estuve trabajando en el laboratorio de Propulsores de la NASA durante el verano como investigador contratado +y ya tenan un robot de seis patas llamado LEMUR. +Y en l se basa este otro. Este robot se llama MARS. "Sistema robtico con mltiples miembros". Es un robot hexpodo. +Hemos desarrollado un planificador de movimientos adaptativo. +Hemos conseguido una capacidad de carga interesante. +A los alumnos les gusta divertirse. Y aqu se ve... ...que est caminando por un terreno no estructurado. +Intenta caminar sobre roca slida dentro del rea delimitada pero segn la humedad y el grosor del grano de la arena cambia la manera en que se hunden las patas. +Intenta adaptar sus movimientos para atravesar estos terrenos. +Y tambin hace cosas graciosas. Como pueden imaginar, +recibimos a muchos visitantes en nuestro laboratorio. +Cuando tenemos visita, MARS se acerca al teclado y teclea "Hola, me llamo MARS" +"Bienvenidos a RoMeLa" el "Laboratorio de Mecanismos Robticos de Virginia Tech". +Este es un robot ameboide. +No hay tiempo ahora para entrar en detalles tcnicos pero les mostrar algunos de los experimentos. +Estos son algunas de las primeras pruebas de viabilidad. +Almacenamos energa potencial en la piel elstica para hacerlo moverse. +O hacemos que se mueva empleando tensores activos hacia adelante y atrs. Se llama ChIMERA. +Tambin hemos trabajado con algunos cientficos e ingenieros de la Universidad de Pensilvania para idear una versin accionada qumicamente de este robot ameboide +Hacemos esto por aqu... ...y como por arte de magia se mueve. +Este robot es un proyecto muy reciente. Se llama RAPHaEL. +"Mano robtica propulsada por aire con ligamentos elsticos" +Hay muchas manos robticas realmente buenas en el mercado. +El problema es que son demasiado caras, decenas de miles de dlares. +Por eso no son muy prcticas para aplicaciones protsicas ya que no son asequibles. +Queramos abordar este problema de una manera diferente +en lugar de usar motores elctricos y actuadores electromecnicos usamos aire comprimido. +Hemos desarrollado estos nuevos actuadores para articulaciones. +Con ellos es posible cambiar la fuerza con solo cambiar la presin de aire +y llega a ser capaz de aplastar una lata vaca de refresco +y de sostener objetos frgiles como un huevo crudo o como en este caso, una lmpara. +Lo mejor es que solo cost 200 dlares hacer el primer prototipo. +Este robot pertenece a una familia de robots serpiente que llamamos HyDRAS, "Serpiente Robtica Articulada con Hiper Grados de Libertad". +Es un robot capaz de escalar estructuras. +Esto es un brazo de HyDRAS. +Es un brazo robtico con doce grados de libertad +y lo mejor es la interfaz de usuario. +Este cable de aqu es una fibra ptica +y esta alumna, probablemente usndolo por primera vez, es capaz de articularlo de muchas maneras. +En Irak por ejemplo, en zonas de guerra se encuentran bombas cerca de la carretera. Se suelen enviar vehculos radiocontrolados con brazos robticos. +Lleva mucho tiempo y dinero adiestrar a un operador para manejar esos brazos tan complejos +y en este otro caso resulta muy intuitivo. Este otro alumno, quizs usndolo por primera vez, puede hacer manipulaciones complejas de objetos. As de fcil, es muy intuitivo. +Y este es nuestro robot estrella. +Tenemos incluso un club de fans del robot DARwIn "Robot Dinmico Antropomorfo con Inteligencia". +Como saben, estamos muy interesados en robots humanoides que caminan y decidimos construir un pequeo humanoide. +Eso fue en 2004. Por entonces algo as era realmente revolucionario. +Era ms bien un estudio de viabilidad. Qu motores deberamos usar? +Es acaso posible? Qu tipo de control deberamos hacer? +Este modelo no tiene ningn sensor. +Se controla en bucle abierto. +Como muchos ya sabrn, si no tiene sensores y encuentra alguna perturbacin... ya saben lo que ocurre. +Basndonos en ese xito, el ao siguiente hicimos un diseo mecnico en serio empezando por la cinemtica. +Y as naci DARwIn en 2005. +Se levanta, camina... impresionante. +Pero todava, como pueden ver tiene un cable, un cordn umbilical. An usbamos alimentacin externa y computacin externa. +Ya en 2006 era hora de divertirse. +Dmosle inteligencia. Le dimos la potencia de clculo necesaria: Procesador Pentium M a 1,5 gigahercios dos cmaras Firewire, girscopos, acelermetros sensores de presin y torsin en los pies, bateras de polmero de litio... +y ahora DARwIn es completamente autnomo. +Ya no se controla a distancia. +No hay cables. Mira alrededor, busca la pelota, sigue mirando, busca la pelota, e intenta jugar al ftbol de forma autnoma, con inteligencia artificial. +Veamos qu tal le va. Este fue nuestro primer intento. y... gol! +Hay una competicin llamada RoboCup. +No s cuntos de ustedes conocen la RoboCup. +Es un campeonato internacional de robots futbolistas autnomos. +Y la meta final de RoboCup es que para el ao 2050 robots autnomos humanoides de nuestro tamao jueguen al ftbol contra los campeones del mundo humanos... ...y ganen. +Esa es la meta real. Es muy ambiciosa, pero creemos que podemos conseguirlo. +Esto fue el ao pasado en China. +Fuimos el primer equipo estadounidense que se clasific para la competicin de robots humanoides. +Esto fue este ao, en Austria. +Van a ver la accin, tres contra tres, completamente autnomos. +As se hace, s! +Los robots se siguen la pista unos a otros y juegan en equipo entre ellos. +Es impresionante. En realidad es un congreso de investigacin en forma de evento competitivo, que es ms divertido. +Lo que ven ah es el bello trofeo de la copa Louis Vuitton. +Es un trofeo al mejor humanoide y queremos ganarlo por primera vez para los Estados Unidos el ao que viene. Veremos si hay suerte. Gracias. +DARwIn tambin tiene muchos otros talentos. +El ao pasado dirigi a la Orquesta Sinfnica de Roanoke para el concierto de vacaciones. +Esta es la siguiente generacin: DARwIn IV ms inteligente, ms rpido, ms fuerte +y est intentando demostrar sus habilidades "Soy un macho, soy fuerte". +"S hacer movimientos de Jackie Chan, movimientos de artes marciales". +Y se va caminando. Este es DARwIn IV, +podrn verlo luego en la recepcin. +Estamos convencidos de que ser el primer robot corredor humanoide de los Estados Unidos. Estn al tanto. +Ya les he mostrado algunos de nuestros fantsticos robots. +Pero cul es el secreto de nuestro xito? +De dnde sacamos estas ideas? +Cmo desarrollamos ideas como stas? +Tenemos un vehculo completamente autnomo capaz de conducir en entorno urbano. Ganamos medio milln de dlares en el DARPA Urban Challenge. +Tenemos tambin el primer vehculo del mundo que puede ser dirigido por un invidente. +Lo llamamos el reto del conductor ciego, muy interesante. +Y hay muchos otros proyectos robticos de los que querra hablar. +Estos son solo los premios que ganamos en otoo de 2007 en competiciones robticas y cosas as. +Tenemos cinco secretos. +El primero: de dnde obtenemos esta inspiracin, +esta chispa de imaginacin? +Esta es una historia real, mi historia personal. +Cuando me voy a la cama, a las 3 4 de la maana, me acuesto, cierro los ojos y empiezo a ver lneas y crculos y diferentes formas flotando +que se ensamblan y forman mecanismos +y entonces pienso "Ah, este es bueno". +Junto a mi cama tengo un cuaderno, un diario con un bolgrafo que tiene una luz LED porque no quiero encender la luz y despertar a mi esposa. +Veo estos dibujos, lo garabateo todo, dibujo cosas, y me vuelvo a la cama. +Cada da por la maana lo primero que hago antes del caf antes de lavarme los dientes, abro mi cuaderno. +Muchas veces est vaco. A veces hay algo, a veces es un sinsentido y la mayor parte del tiempo ni yo entiendo mi propia letra +Qu se puede esperar a las cuatro de la maana? +As que necesito descifrar lo que escrib. +Pero a veces encuentro una idea ingeniosa y tengo un momento eureka. +Corro a mi despacho, me siento ante el ordenador anoto las ideas y hago bocetos y lo guardo todo en una base de datos de ideas. +Cuando recibimos una peticin de propuestas busco si hay algo que coincida entre mis ideas potenciales y el problema. Si algo coincide, escribimos una propuesta de investigacin, conseguimos financiacin, y as empezamos nuestros proyectos de investigacin. +Pero solo la chispa de imaginacin no basta. +Cmo desarrollamos estas ideas? +En RoMeLa, el Laboratorio de Mecanismos Robticos, celebramos magnficas sesiones de tormentas de ideas. +Nos reunimos, debatimos sobre problemas tcnicos y sociales, y hablamos sobre todo eso. +Pero antes de empezar ponemos una regla de oro. +La regla es: nadie critica las ideas de otro, +nadie critica ninguna opinin. +Esto es crucial, porque a menudo los alumnos tienen miedo o incomodidad por lo que otros puedan pensar de ellos por sus opiniones e ideas. +Al hacerlo as, resulta sorprendente cmo los alumnos abren su mente. +Tienen ideas geniales, locas, brillantes. Toda la sala se electriza de energa creativa. +Y as es como desarrollamos nuestras ideas. +Nos queda poco tiempo. Una cosa ms que quiero decir es que solo la chispa de la idea y su elaboracin no bastan. +Hubo un momento genial en TED creo que era Sir Ken Robinson, no? +Dio una charla sobre cmo la educacin y la escuela matan la creatividad. +En realidad esa historia tiene dos caras. +Hay un lmite en lo que se puede hacer solo a base de ideas ingeniosas, creatividad y buena intuicin de ingeniero. +Si queremos hacer algo ms que cacharrear, si queremos ir ms all de una mera aficin a la robtica y abordar los grandes retos de la robtica mediante investigacin rigurosa, necesitamos ms que eso. Aqu es donde entra la escuela. +Batman, cuando pelea contra los malos, tiene su cinturn de armas, tiene un gancho arrojadizo, tiene toda clase de artilugios. +Para nosotros los robticos, ingenieros y cientficos estas herramientas son las asignaturas que se estudian en clase. +Matemticas, ecuaciones diferenciales, +lgebra lineal, ciencias, fsica, incluso, hoy en da, qumica y biologa, como ya han visto. +Estas son las herramientas que necesitamos. +Y cuantas ms herramientas tengamos, como Batman, ms efectivos seremos peleando contra los malos. Tendremos ms herramientas para atacar a los problemas grandes. +Por eso la educacin es muy importante. +Pero no se trata solamente de eso. Tambin hay que trabajar muy, muy duro. +Siempre digo a mis estudiantes: primero trabaja con astucia y luego esfurzate. +Esta foto se tom a las tres de la madrugada. +Les aseguro que si vienen a las tres o cuatro de la maana tenemos alumnos trabajando all, y no porque yo se lo mande, sino porque nos estamos divirtiendo. +Lo que me lleva al ltimo asunto: no olviden divertirse. +Ese es el secreto de nuestro xito. Nos divertimos muchsimo. +Estoy convencido de que la mxima productividad llega cuando uno se divierte. Y eso es lo que estamos haciendo. +Eso es todo. Muchas gracias. +Gracias. Estoy aqu por dos razones. +La primera es para hablarles del polen, y espero poder convencerlos de que es algo ms que aquello que les pica la nariz. +Y la segunda, para convencerlos de que en cada hogar debera haber un microscopio electrnico. +El polen es el mecanismo con el que una flor hace ms flores, +llevando clulas sexuales masculinas de una flor a otra. +Nos da diversidad gentica, o por lo menos les da a las plantas diversidad gentica. +Y lo mejor es que no te aparees contigo mismo. +Esto es igualmente cierto para los humanos, en su mayora. +El polen se produce en las anteras de las flores. +Cada antera puede contener hasta 100.000 granos de polen. As que son muy prolficas. +Y no slo las flores brillantes son las que tienen polen; tambin los rboles y las hierbas. +Y recuerden que nuestros cereales tambin son hierbas. +Aqu tenemos una fotografa de un grano de polen tomada con un microscopio electrnico. +En un rato hablaremos del orificio en el centro. Pero eso es para el tubo polnico al que llegaremos enseguida; un tubo muy pequeo. +As que, en una seccin de 20 micrmetros tenemos un grano de polen. +Esto es casi un cincuentavo de milmetro. +Pero no todo el polen tiene una apariencia tan simple. +Esta es una morina. Siempre cre que esta planta era tediosa. Fue llamada as en honor a Morin, un empresario francs de la jardinera que cre el primer catlogo de semillas en 1621. +Pero de cualquier modo, miren este polen. +Me parece fantstico. +El pequeo orificio en el centro es para el tubo polnico, que es donde el polen encuentra su contraparte femenina en otra flor de la morina, cuando se combina con la especie correcta. Qu pasa? +Como dije antes, el polen lleva las clulas sexuales masculinas. +Si no se haban dado cuenta antes de que las plantas tienen sexo, debo decirles que tienen una sexualidad activa, promiscua y realmente muy interesante y curiosa. +Pero mi charla no es acerca de la reproduccin de las plantas sino acerca del polen en s mismo. +Estoy seguro de que se preguntan cules son las propiedades del polen? +Antes que nada, el polen es pequeo. S, eso ya lo sabemos. +Tambin es muy activo biolgicamente, como podr comprender cualquiera que tenga alergia. +Ahora bien, hay plantas cuya polinizacin la realiza el viento, como los rboles y las hierbas, y su polen tiende a causar las peores alergias. +Y la razn de esto es que estas plantas deben soltar cantidades enormes de polen para tener alguna posibilidad de que el polen alcance otra planta de la misma especie. +Aqu les tengo unos ejemplos. Si se fijan en estas fotografas del polen de rboles que es transportado por el viento... +Aqu hay otro, el sicomoro, cuyo polen lo dispersa tambin el viento. +As que los rboles con flores muy aburridas no buscan atraer a los insectos. +Aun as es polen divertido. +ste en particular me cae bien. +Es el pino de Monterrey. Tiene pequeos sacos de aire que permiten que el polen llegue an ms lejos. +Recuerden, esta cosa slo mide 30 micrmetros. +Si puedes hacer que los insectos lleven el polen, el proceso es mucho ms eficiente. +Esta es la pata de una abeja, que es donde se pega el polen de las malvas. +Esta es la increble y maravillosa flor del mangle. +Muy llamativa, atrae a muchos insectos para que realicen su polinizacin. +Si nos fijamos bien, veremos que el polen tiene pelillos. +Esos pelillos se pegan muy bien a los insectos. Pero podemos decir algo ms de esta fotografa, y es que tambin deberamos ver una fractura a lo largo de lo que sera el ecuador, si el grano de polen fuera la Tierra. +Eso me dice que el grano de polen est fosilizado. +Y estoy muy orgulloso de decirles que fue encontrado cerca de Londres y que hace 55 millones de aos Londres estaba lleno de manglares. +No es increble? +Esta es otra especie que ha evolucionado para ser dispersada por insectos. +Lo podemos saber por estos pequeos pelillos de aqu. +Todas estas fotografas se tomaron con un microscopio electrnico de los Laboratorios Kew. +No es coincidencia que estas fotos las haya tomado Rob Kessler, un artista. Creo que slo alguien como l, con ese ojo artstico y tan bueno para el diseo, puede mostrarnos a todos lo mejor del polen. +Toda esta diversidad significa que cuando vemos un grano de polen podemos saber de qu especie proviene. Y eso es muy til si por ejemplo tienes una muestra y deseas saber de dnde sali. +Ya que diferentes especies de plantas crecen en diferentes lugares y hay polen que se desplaza ms lejos que otros. +As que si tienes una muestra de polen, entonces, en teora, deberas poder decir de dnde vino esa muestra. +Y es aqu donde se pone interesante para los forenses. +El polen es pequeo, llega a diferentes lugares y se pega. +As que no es slo que cada tipo de polen sea diferente, sino que cada hbitat tiene una combinacin diferente de plantas, +una firma de polen diferente, si podemos llamarla as, una huella digital polnica nica. +Si vemos las proporciones y combinaciones de diferentes tipos de polen en una muestra, podemos decir con precisin de dnde proviene. +ste es polen incrustado en una camiseta de algodn, parecida a la que yo llevo. +Gran parte del polen permanecer en ella despus de varias lavados. +Dnde ha estado? +Cuatro hbitats diferentes pueden parecer similares pero tener diferentes firmas de polen. +ste es particularmente fcil. Todas estas muestras se tomaron en diferentes pases. +Pero la evidencia forense del polen puede ser muy sutil. +En la actualidad, se est usando para encontrar el sitio donde se fabrican medicamentos falsos, de dnde proceden algunos cheques, para averiguar la procedencia de antigedades y ver que efectivamente provienen del lugar que el vendedor asegura. +Los sospechosos de homicidio han sido rastreados gracias a sus ropas, determinando una rea del Reino Unido lo suficientemente pequea para que se puedan enviar perros rastreadores a encontrar a la vctima. +Se puede afirmar a partir de una prenda de ropa, con una precisin de aproximadamente un kilmetro, dnde ha estado esa prenda recientemente, y enviar all a los perros. +En ltimo lugar, de una manera un poco burda, los crmenes de guerra de Bosnia, en los que algunas personas fueron llevadas a juicio gracias a unas muestras de polen que mostraban que los cuerpos haban sido enterrados, exhumados y vueltos a enterrar en algn otro lado. +Espero haber abierto sus ojos, si me perdonan la expresin, y haberles mostrado algunos de los secretos del polen. +Este es el castao de Indias. +Hay belleza escondida en todas partes. Cada grano de polen tiene una historia que contar, +cada uno de nosotros tiene una historia que contar, a partir de la huella digital de polen que llevamos pegada a nosotros. +Gracias a todos los compaeros de Kew. Y gracias a todos los palinlogos en todas partes! +He estado trabajando en un proyecto los ltimos 6 aos adaptando poesa infantil a la msica. +Y ese es un poema de Charles Edward Carryl, que fue corredor de bolsa de Nueva York durante 45 aos pero por las tardes escriba disparates para sus hijos. +Este libro fue uno de los ms famosos de EE.UU. durante unos 35 aos. +"El Gigante Dormido", cancin que acabo de cantar, es uno de sus poemas. +Ahora vamos a hacer otros poemas. He aqu una vista previa de algunos poetas. +Esta es Rachel Field, Robert Graves, un Robert Graves muy joven Christina Rossetti. +Fantasmas, verdad? +no tienen nada para decirnos. Obsoletos. Se fueron. No es as. +Lo que he disfrutado en este proyecto fue revivir las palabras de esta gente +despegndolos de las pginas muertas, planas, +dotndolos de vida sacndolos a la luz. +Bien, lo que vamos a hacer ahora es un poema escrito por Nathalia Crane. +Nathalia Crane era una niita de Brooklyn. +A los 10 aos, en 1927, public su primer poemario titulado "El nio del portero" +Aqu est ella. +Y este es su poema. +El prximo poema es "Si nadie jams se casa conmigo". +Fue escrito por Laurence Alma-Tadema. +Era la hija de un pintor holands muy, muy famoso que haba hecho su fama en Inglaterra. +l fue all luego de la muerte de su esposa por la viruela y llev a sus dos hijos. +Una era su hija Laurence. +Ella escribi este poema a sus 18 aos, en 1888, y yo lo veo como una suerte de manifiesto feminista muy dulce con un toque de desafo y un poquito de resignacin y pesar. +Me dieron mucha curiosidad los poetas despus de pasar 6 aos con ellos comenc a investigar sus vidas y despus decid escribir un libro sobre eso. +Y la pregunta candente sobre Alma-Tadema era: Se cas? +Y la respuesta es no, segn lo que encontr en el archivo del London Times. +Muri sola, en 1940, en compaa de sus libros y sus queridos amigos. +Gerard Manley Hopkins, un hombre piadoso. +Se hizo jesuita. +Se convirti desde la fe anglicana +por el movimiento tractariano tambin conocido como movimiento de Oxford y se convirti en un sacerdote jesuita. +Quem toda su poesa a la edad de 24 aos y no volvi a escribir otro poema hasta al menos siete aos despus porque no poda alinear la vida de poeta con la de sacerdote. +Muri de fiebre tifoidea a los 44 aos, creo, 43 o 44. +En ese entonces estaba enseando clsicos en el Trinity College, de Dubln. +Unos aos antes de su muerte luego de haber retomado la escritura de poesa, pero en secreto, confes a un amigo en una carta, que encontr cuando yo estaba investigando, "He escrito un verso. +Es para explicarle la muerte a un nio. Y se merece un poco de musicalizacin". +Se me hel la sangre cuando le eso porque yo escrib la musicalizacin 130 aos despus de que l escribiera la letra. +Y el poema se llam "Primavera y Otoo". +Quisiera agradecer a todos cientficos, filsofos, arquitectos, inventores, bilogos, botnicos, artistas, +a todos los que me sorprendieron esta semana. +Gracias. +Redzcanlo un poquito. Es mi turno. +Todava tengo 2 minutos. +Bien, vamos a comenzar ese verso otra vez. + Bien, has sido tan... Eso es innovador, no les parece? +Sosegando a la audiencia; Supuestamente debo azotarlos con frenes. Me gusta eso. Es suficiente. Shhh! Has sido tan amable y... Voy a cantarle esto a Bill Gates. Siento mucha admiracin por l. +Les mostrar cmo hacer palmas en esta cancin Quiero agradecerte, agradecerte Gracias, gracias Gracias, gracias Gracias, gracias Quiero agradecerte, agradecerte Sale mejor, verdad? + Quiero agradecerte, agradecerte Quiero agradecerte Uh, ju Uh, ju Ju, ju Gu, ju Hagmoslo ms bajo. +Decreciendo. +Gradualmente, lo hacemos ms bajo ms bajo. + Quiero agradecerte, agradecerte Ms bajito. No hay que parar. +Muchsimas gracias. +En mi industria creemos que las imgenes pueden cambiar el mundo. +Est bien, somos unos ingenuos. +La verdad es que sabemos que solas no cambian el mundo, y que, desde los inicios de la fotografa, las imgenes han provocado reacciones, que son las causantes de los cambios. +Empecemos con un grupo de imgenes. +Me sorprendera muchsimo si no reconocen la mayora de ellas. +Son consideradas icnicas, tan icnicas que quizs son clichs. +De hecho, son tan conocidas que las puedes reconocer si se modifican un poco o mucho. +Creo que buscamos algo ms. +Buscamos algo ms, +imgenes que arrojen una luz sobre asuntos cruciales, que trasciendan fronteras, religiones, imgenes que nos muevan a levantarnos y hacer algo, en otras palabras, a actuar. +Bien, esta imagen que todos han visto +cambi nuestra forma de ver el mundo. +Nunca lo habamos visto de esta manera. +Mucha gente cree que el movimiento medioambiental nace al haber visto el mundo as por primera vez, su pequeez, su fragilidad. +40 aos despus, este grupo, ms que cualquiera, es consciente del poder destructivo que las especies pueden causar. +Ahora parece que hacemos algo al respecto. +Este poder tiene muchas formas. +Miren estas fotos tomadas por Brent Stirton en el Congo, +esos gorilas fueron asesinados, crucificados, y obviamente, despertaron el repudio internacional. +Recientemente, hemos recordado el poder destructivo de la naturaleza con el reciente terremoto en Hait. +Creo que el peor poder destructivo es el de los humanos entre ellos. +Samuel Pisar, superviviente de Auschwitz dijo, y lo citar, "El holocausto nos ensea que la naturaleza, an en su peor momento, es benigna comparada con el ser humano cuando pierde la moral y la razn". +Existe otra forma de crucifixin. +Las horribles imgenes de Abu Ghraib, al igual que las de Guantnamo, tuvieron un impacto profundo. +La publicacin de estas imgenes, no las imgenes en s, hicieron que el gobierno cambiara su poltica. +Algunos pueden argumentar que provocaron ms insurgencia en Iraq que cualquier otro acto. +Es ms, esas imgenes destruyeron los argumentos de la ocupacin. +Volvamos un poco. +En los aos 60 y 70, la guerra del Vietnam fue bsicamente transmitida en EE.UU. da tras otro. +La fotos enseaban a las vctimas: una nia quemada con napalm, un estudiante asesinado por la Guardia Nacional en la universidad en Ohio, durante una protesta. +De hecho estas imgenes se convirtieron en voces de protestas. +Ahora bien, las imgenes tienen el poder de darnos entendimiento sobre la sospecha, la ignorancia, y en particular, he hablado mucho de esto pero solo les mostrar una imagen, el asunto del VIH/SIDA. +En los 80 la estigmatizacin fue una barrera grande para siquiera discutirlo o enfrentarlo. +El simple acto, en 1987, de una mujer famosa, la princesa de Gales, de tocar a un beb infectado con VIH/SIDA, ayud mucho, especialmente en Europa. +Ella saba el poder de una imagen. +Si tenemos una imagen poderosa, tenemos dos opciones. Podemos desviar la mirada o enfrentarla. +Gracias a que estas fotos aparecieron en The Guardian en 1998, se puso mucha atencin, y mucho dinero, en los esfuerzos para reducir el hambre en Sudn. +Estas imgenes cambiaron el mundo? +No, pero tuvieron mucho impacto. +Nos hacen preguntarnos sobre nuestros valores y nuestra responsabilidad con los dems. +Todos vimos imgenes despus del Katrina, y creo que para millones de personas tuvieron un impacto muy fuerte, +y creo que an estaban en la mente de los estadounidenses cuando votaron en noviembre del 2008. +Algunas imgenes importantes son demasiado explcitas para que las veamos. +Les mostrar una foto de Eugene Richards, un veterano de la guerra de Iraq, parte de una obra de arte que nunca se public: "La guerra es Personal". +Las imgenes no necesitan ser grficas para recordarnos la tragedia de la guerra. +John Moore hizo esta foto en el cementerio de Arlington. +Tras los momentos tensos del conflicto, en todas las zonas en conflicto del mundo hay una foto en un lugar mucho ms calmado que an me persigue, mucho ms que las otras. +Ansel Adams dijo, y no estoy de acuerdo, "T no tomas una foto, la haces". +No es el fotgrafo quien hace la foto, eres t. +Llevamos a cada imagen nuestros valores y creencias, y por eso la imagen resuena en nosotros, +Mi compaa tiene 70 millones de imgenes. +Tengo una en mi oficina. +Es esta. +Espero que la prxima vez que vean una imagen que les despierte algo, entiendan el porqu, y s que, les hablo a ustedes, ustedes harn algo. +Y gracias a todos los fotgrafos. +Antes que todo, soy una geek. +Soy una consumidora de comida orgnica, minimizadora de la huella de carbono, experta en ciruga robtica, +y realmente deseo construir verde, pero soy muy desconfiada de todos esos artculos bienintencionados, gente con gran autoridad moral y pocos datos dicindome cmo hacer esos tipos de cosas. +As que tengo que resolverlo por mi misma. +Por ejemplo: Es esto malvado? +Dej caer una gota de yogur orgnico de vacas locales desarrolladas totalmente sobre mi mesa de cocina, y tomo una toalla de papel queriendo limpiarla. +Pero Puedo usar una toalla de papel? La respuesta a esto puede ser encontrada en la energa incorporada. +Esta es la cantidad de energa se usa en cualquier toalla de papel o agua empleada. Y cada vez que uso una toalla de papel, estoy utilizando esta cantidad de energa y agua virtual. +Limpiarla y desecharla. +Ahora bien, si comparo esa toalla con una toalla de algodn la cual puedo usar unas ciento de veces, no tendra un gran cantidad de energa incorporada hasta que lave la toalla llena de yogur. +Ahora es energa en operacin. +As que si arrojo mi toalla en la lavadora, habr puesto energa y agua de regreso en esa toalla, +a menos que usara una lavadora altamente eficiente de bajos costos, entonces pareciera un poco mejor. +Pero Qu hay acerca de las toallas de papel recicladas que vienen en hojas pequeas? +Bien, ahora una toalla de papel luce mejor. +Deshagmonos de la toalla de papel. Utilicemos una esponja. +Limpio con una esponja y luego la pongo bajo el chorro de agua, y uso un poco menos de energa y un poco ms de agua, +a menos que seas como yo y dejes la manija en la posicin de agua caliente incluso cuando la enciendes, hasta entonces comienzas a utilizar ms energa, +o peor, la dejas correr hasta que se ponga tibia para lavar tu toalla. +Ahora todas las apuestas estn cerradas. +Lo que quiere decir esto es que a veces las cosas que menos esperamos, como la posicin en la cual colocamos la manija, tienen un gran impacto con respecto a esas otras cosas que estbamos tratando de optimizar. +Ahora bien, imaginemos a alguien enredada como yo tratando de construir una casa. +Eso es lo que mi esposo y yo estamos haciendo por el momento. +As que, queramos saber qu tan "verdes" podramos ser. +Hay un ciento de artculos afuera dicindote como hacer todos esos intercambios "verdes". +Y ellos son tan sospechosos en decirnos que optimicemos estas pequeas cosas cerca de lmites obviando un problema al que no se le hace caso por conveniencia. +Ahora bien, la casa promedio tiene cerca de 300 megavatio hora de energa incorporada en ella. Esta es la energa que utilizas para hacerla, millones y millones de toallas de papel. +Queramos saber que tanto podamos mejorar. +As que, como mucha gente, empezamos con una casa en un lote, les mostrar una tpica construccin en la parte de arriba y lo que estbamos haciendo en la parte de abajo. +As que primero, la demolimos. +Esto toma algo de energa pero si la desarmamos, quitando todo aparte, utilizaras esta pequea cantidad, puedes recuperar algo de energa de regreso. +Luego, cavamos un gran agujero para colocar un tanque de captacin de agua de lluvia y hacer nuestro jardn independiente de agua. +Luego colocamos una gran base para la energa solar pasiva. +Ahora puedes reducir la energa incorporada por cerca del 25 porciento al usar concreto de ceniza suelta. +Luego colocamos los marcos. +As que estos son los marcos, madera, materiales compuestos, es algo difcil sacar energa incorporada de eso, pero puede ser un recurso sostenible si usas madera certificada por la F.S.C. +Posteriormente vamos con la primera cosa que fue sorprendente. +Si usamos ventanas de aluminio en esta casa, podramos doblar el uso de energa justo all. +Ahora, el PVC es un poco mejor, pero aun no es lo suficiente bueno como la madera que elegimos. +Colocamos las tuberas, la electricidad, la calefaccin, ventilacin, aire acondicionado, y aislamos. +Ahora bien, rociar espuma es un excelente aislador, rellena todas las grietas, pero tiene una alta energa incorporada. Y si rociamos celulosa o blue-jeans es una alternativa de menos energa para ello. +Adems usamos alpaca de paja para rellenar nuestra biblioteca, la cual tiene cero energa incorporada. +Cuando llega el momento para la tabla roca si utilizas EcoRock, es cerca de un cuarto de la energa incorporada en tabla roca estndar. +Posteriormente llegas a los acabados, el tema de todos esos artculos "s ecologista" Y en la escala de una casa, esos artculos no hacen gran diferencia en total. +Pero an, toda la prensa est enfocada en eso. +Excepto para el piso. +Si colocas alfombra en tu casa, es cerca de una dcima de la energa incorporada de la casa total, a menos que uses concreto o madera para una ms baja energa incorporada. +Luego agregamos la energa final de la construccin, la sumamos toda, y hemos construido una casa por menos que la mitad de la tpica energa incorporada para construir una casa como esta. +Pero antes que nos demos palmaditas de felicitacin en las espaldas, hemos echado 151 megavatio hora de energa en construir esta casa, cuando antes haba all una casa. +As que la pregunta es: Cmo podemos hacer que regrese eso? +Si comparo mi nueva casa eficiente de energa en el tiempo, con la casa vieja, la casa sin eficiencia energtica, la regresamos en cerca de seis aos. +Ahora, probablemente habra tenido que mejorar la vieja casa para ser ms eficiente en energa. En ese caso, me tomara cerca de 20 aos para la rentabilidad. +Ahora si no le hubiera puesto atencin a la energa incorporada, nos hubiera tomado ms de 50 aos para la rentabilidad comparada a la casa mejorada. +As que, Qu significa esto? +En la escala de mi proporcin de la casa, esto es equivalente a la cantidad que manejo en un ao, es cerca de cinco veces la cantidad si me convirtiera totalmente en vegetariana. +Pero los problemas obvios a los que no les hacemos caso por conveniencia tambin vuelan. +Claramente, necesito caminar a casa desde TED. +Pero todos los clculos para energa incorporada estn en el blog. +Y recuerden, a veces las cosas que no esperan ser los grandes cambios, son los que son. +Gracias +Los pulpos me fascinaron desde una edad muy temprana. +Crec en Mobile, Alabama. Alguien tena que ser de Mobile, no? Y Mobile est emplazado en la confluencia de 5 ros que forman este hermoso delta. +Y el delta tiene caimanes que entran y salen de ros llenos de peces y cipreses repletos de serpientes y aves de todo tipo. +Es un mundo absolutamente mgico para vivir y crecer all, si uno es nio y le interesan los animales. +El agua del delta fluye hacia la Baha Mobile y finalmente al Golfo de Mxico. +Recuerdo mi primer contacto real con pulpos... fue probablemente a los 5 6 aos. +Yo estaba nadando en el golfo y vi un pequeo pulpo en el fondo. +Me agach y lo recog, e inmediatamente qued fascinado e impresionado por su velocidad, su fuerza y agilidad. +Curioseaba mis dedos y se mova hacia la palma de mi mano. +Era todo lo que poda hacer para aferrarme a esta criatura increble. +Luego como que se calmaba en la palma de mis manos y empezaba el parpadeo de colores, liberando todos esos colores, +y a medida que lo miraba como que meta los brazos sobre s se eriga en forma esfrica y se pona marrn chocolate con dos rayas blancas. +Yo deca "Dios mo!" Nunca haba visto algo as en mi vida! +Me maravill por un momento y luego decid que era hora de dejarlo en libertad as que lo dej. +El pulpo dej mis manos y luego hizo la maldita cosa. Se meti abajo en los escombros y desapareci ante mis ojos. +Y supe, en ese mismo momento, a los 6 aos que era un animal del que quera saber ms. As que lo hice. +Fui a la universidad y me gradu en zoologa marina y luego me mud a Hawaii e ingres al posgrado de la Universidad de Hawaii. +Y mientras estudiaba en Hawaii trabaj en el Acuario Waikiki. +Ahora, los peces de los estanques eran magnficos de ver pero no interactuaban realmente con las personas. +Pero los pulpos s. +Si uno se acercaba al estanque de los pulpos en especial, temprano a la maana, antes que llegara la gente, el pulpo se levantaba y te miraba y uno piensa, "este tipo me est mirando realmente? Me est mirando!" +Y uno camina hacia el frente del estanque. Luego se da cuenta que estos animales tienen todos distintas personalidades. Algunos mantendrn su posicin. Otros se escabullirn por atrs del tanque para desaparecer entre las rocas. Y uno en particular, este animal asombroso... +Me acerqu a la parte delantera del tanque, y l slo me miraba. Y tena unos cuernitos arriba de sus ojos. +As que fui hasta el frente del tanque. Yo estaba a 7 10 centmetros del vidrio delantero. Y el pulpo estaba en una perca, una pequea roca, sali de la roca y tambin vino justo a la parte delantera del vidrio. +As, estaba mirando a este animal a unos 15 17 centmetros y en ese momento pude verlo realmente de cerca; ahora mirando mis dedos borrosos me doy cuenta que esos das han quedado atrs. +De todos modos, all estbamos, mirando el uno al otro, y l se agacha y toma un puado de grava y lo suelta en el chorro de agua que entra en el tanque del sistema de filtracin, y "ch, ch, ch, ch, ch!", la grava golpea el frente del vidrio y cae. +l se agacha, toma otro puado de grava, lo suelta... "Ch, ch, ch, ch, ch!", lo mismo. +Luego levanta un brazo. Yo levanto un brazo. +Luego l levanta otro brazo. Yo levanto otro brazo. +Y entonces me doy cuenta que el pulpo la carrera de los brazos porque yo no tengo ms y a l le quedan seis. Pero la nica manera que puedo describir lo que estaba viendo ese da es que este pulpo estaba jugando. Un comportamiento bastante sofisticado para un mero invertebrado. +As, a unos tres aos de mi carrera sucedi algo gracioso de camino a la oficina que cambi realmente el curso de mi vida. +Un hombre vino al acuario. Es una historia larga, pero en resumen, nos envi a un grupo de amigos y a m al Pacfico Sur a recolectar animales para l y cuando partamos nos dio unas cmaras de video de 16 mm. +Dijo: "Hagan una pelcula de esta expedicin". +...bueno, un par de bilogos haciendo una pelcula, esto va a ser interesante. Y nos fuimos, y lo hicimos, hicimos una pelcula, quiz la peor pelcula en la historia del cine. Pero fue un impacto; me divert mucho. +Recuerdo esa luz proverbial detonando en mi cabeza pensando, "Espera un minuto. +quiz puedo dedicarme a esto siempre. +S, voy a ser director de cine". +As que, literalmente, volv de ese trabajo dej la escuela, tom los brtulos de filmacin y no le dije a nadie que no saba lo que estaba haciendo. +Ha sido un buen paseo. +Lo que aprend en la escuela, no obstante, fue muy beneficioso. +Si uno filma la vida salvaje y sale al terreno a filmar animales, especialmente el comportamiento, ayuda el tener una base fundamental de quines son estos animales cmo trabajan, ya saben, un poco sobre su comportamiento. +Pero donde realmente aprend de pulpos fue en el terreno como director haciendo pelculas con ellos donde uno pasa largas temporadas con los animales, viendo a los pulpos ser pulpos en sus hogares ocenicos. +Recuerdo, hice un viaje a Australia fui a una isla llamada One Tree (Un rbol). +Aparentemente, la evolucin ha ocurrido a un ritmo bastante rpido en One Tree entre el momento que le pusieron el nombre y el que yo llegu porque estoy seguro que haba al menos tres rboles en esa isla cuando estuvimos all. +Como sea, One Tree est situada justo al lado de un arrecife de coral hermoso. +De hecho, hay un canal de oleadas donde la marea va y viene, dos veces por da, bastante rpidamente, +y hay un arrecife hermoso un arrecife muy complejo con muchos animales incluyendo muchos pulpos. +Y, no exclusivamente, pero desde luego los pulpos de Australia son maestros del camuflaje. +En realidad all hay uno. +Nuestro primer desafo fue encontrar estas cosas y ese fue un desafo, de hecho. +Pero la idea era que estbamos por un mes y yo quera aclimatar los animales a nosotros. Para poder ver comportamientos sin molestarlos. +As que la primera semana la pasamos acercndonos lo ms posible cada da un poco ms, un poco ms, un poco ms. +Y uno saba cual era el lmite, empezaban a contorsionarse, uno se replegaba, volva en unas horas, +depus de la primera semana nos ignoraban. +Era como, "no s qu es esa cosa pero no es una amenaza". +As que continuaron con sus cosas. Y desde 30 cm, presencibamos apareamientos cortejos y peleas; y es una experiencia increble. +Una de las exhibiciones ms fantsticas que recuerde, al menos visualmente, fue un comportamiento de alimentacin. +Tenan un montn de tcnicas diferentes que usaban para alimentarse. Pero esta en particular usaba la visin. +Y podan ver una cabeza de coral quiz a 3 metros y comenzar a moverse hacia esa cabeza de coral. +Y tan pronto como los cangrejos tocaban el brazo, se apagaban las luces. +Y siempre me pregunt qu pasaba bajo la red. +As que creamos una manera de averiguarlo. Y consegu mi primer vistazo de ese famoso pico en accin. +Fue fantstico. +Si uno va a hacer muchas pelculas sobre un grupo particular de animales podra elegir un grupo bastante comn. +Los pulpos lo son; viven en todos los ocanos. +Tambin viven en la profundidad. +Y no puedo decir que los pulpos son responsables de mi fuerte inters por meterme en submarinos hacia lo profundo pero, como sea, me gusta. +Es como algo que uno nunca ha hecho. +Si algn da quieren dejar todo y ver algo que nunca antes vieron y tener una oportunidad excelente de ver algo que nadie antes vio, viajen en submarino. +Uno se sube, cierra la escotilla, prende el oxgeno, prende el filtro de gases, que elimina el CO2 del aire que uno respira, y te tiran por la borda. +Y ah baja uno. No hay conexin con la superficie salvo una radio bastante rara. +Y a medida que uno baja la lavadora de la superficie se calma. +Y se tranquiliza. +Y empieza a ser algo realmente agradable. +Y cuanto ms profundo, es encantador, el agua azul en la que uno fue arrojado le da paso a un azul cada vez ms oscuro. +Y, finalmente, es un lavanda brillante y unos 600 metros despus, ya es negro azabache. +Y ahora uno ha entrado al reino de la comunidad de las aguas medias. +Uno podra dar una charla entera de las criaturas que viven en las aguas medias. +Basta decir que, hasta donde yo s, sin dudas, los diseos ms raros y los comportamientos ms extravagantes se dan en los animales que viven en las comunidades de aguas medias. +Pero vamos a saltear este rea este rea que incluye cerca del 95% del espacio vivo de nuestro planeta e ir a la dorsal mesocenica, que creo es incluso ms extraordinaria. +La dorsal mesocenica es una cordillera enorme de 64.000 km de largo, que serpentea por todo el planeta. +Son montaas grandes, centenares de metros de alto, algunas tienen miles de metros de alto, e irrumpen en la superficie creando islas como Hawaii. +Y la cima de esta cadena montaosa se est separando, creando un surco central. +Y cuando uno se zambulle en ese valle, all es donde encuentra accin porque, literalmente, miles de volcanes activos hacen erupcin en algn momento en toda esta cadena de 64.000 km. +Y a medida que se separan estas placas tectnicas aparece magma, lava, que va llenando esos huecos. Y uno ve tierra, nueva tierra, que se crea delante de sus ojos. +De hecho, todo este rea es como un Parque Nacional Yellowstone con todos los ingredientes. +Y este fluido est a unos 300C o 370C. +El agua circundante est slo a un par de grados del punto de congelamiento. +As que se enfra inmediatamente y no puede mantenerse en suspensin todo el material que se disuelve y se precipita en forma de humo negro. +Y forma estas torres, estas chimeneas de 3, 6, 9 metros de alto. +Y las laderas de estas chimeneas resplandecen de calor y estn cargadas de vida. +Hay fumarolas negras por doquier y chimeneas con gusanos tubcolas que pueden medir hasta 3 metros de largo. +En el extremo superior estos gusanos tubcolas tienen plumas branquiales rojas. +Y viviendo en la maraa de gusanos tubcolas hay una comunidad entera de animales: camarones, peces, langostas, cangrejos, almejas y enjambres de antrpodos que estn jugando ese peligroso juego entre lo que hierve y lo que congela. +Y todo este ecosistema era totalmente desconocido hace 33 aos atrs. +Y puso a la ciencia patas para arriba. +Le hizo repensar a los cientficos el lugar donde comenz la vida en la Tierra. +Y antes del descubrimiento de estos respiraderos toda la vida terrestre, la clave de la vida, se crea que era el sol y la fotosntesis +pero all abajo no hay sol no hay fotosntesis. Hay un ambiente quimiosinttico all abajo y todo es muy efmero. +Uno podra filmar esta fuente hidrotermal increble... por un momento uno piensa que tiene que estar en otro planeta. +Es asombroso pensar que esto es en realidad la Tierra. Parecen aliengenas en un ambiente extraterrestre. +Pero uno vuelve al mismo conducto 8 aos despus y quiz est completamente muerto. +No hay agua caliente. +Todos los animales se fueron, estn muertos. Y las chimeneas todava estn all creando en verdad un pueblo fantasma una ciudad misteriosa, fantasmagrica, desprovista de animales, por supuesto. +Pero a 16 km bajando la cordillera... +Hay otro volcn en erupcin. +Y se ha formado una nueva comunidad hidrotermal en el respiradero. +Y esta suerte de vida y muerte de las comunidades hidrotermales est ocurriendo cada 30 40 aos en toda la cordillera. +Y esa naturaleza efmera de las comunidades hidrotermales no es muy distinta de las reas que he visto en 35 aos de viajes, haciendo pelculas. +A dnde va uno a filmar una linda escena en una baha? +Regreso, y ya en casa, pienso: "Bien, qu puedo ver? +Ah, ya s dnde puedo filmar eso. +En esta hermosa baha, que tiene muchos corales suaves y estomatpodos". +Y uno va, y est muerta. +No hay coral, ni algas en crecimiento, ni sopa de arvejas en el agua. +Uno piensa, Bien, qu pas?" +Y uno se da vuelta y hay una ladera detrs con un vecindario en marcha y las excavadoras acarrean pilas de tierra de un lado a otro. +Y por aqu hay un campo de golf en curso. +Y esto es el trpico. +Llueve como loco aqu. +As que el agua de lluvia inunda la ladera, arrastrando sedimentos del sitio en construccin sofocando a los corales, matndolos. +Fertilizantes y pesticidas ingresan a la baha provenientes del campo de golf. Los pesticidas matan todas las larvas y animales pequeos, los fertilizantes crean la proliferacin de este plancton hermoso. Y ah est la sopa de arvejas. +Como aliciente digo: he visto todo lo contrario. +He estado en un lugar que era una baha polucionada. +Al verla dije: "Qu asco!" Y me fui a trabajar al otro lado de la isla. +Regres 5 aos despus y esa misma baha ahora es magnfica. Es hermosa. +Tiene corales vivos, peces por doquier, agua cristalina, y uno dice, "Cmo sucedi esto?" +Bien, lo que ocurri es que la comunidad local se puso en accin. +Reconocieron lo que estaba sucediendo en la ladera y le pusieron fin, promulgaron leyes y regularon para hacer responsablemente la construccin y el mantenimiento del campo de golf y detuvieron el drenaje de fluidos en la baha dejaron de arrojar qumicos a la baha y la baha se recuper. +El ocano tiene una capacidad sorprendente de recuperacin si lo dejamos solo. +Pienso que Margaret Mead lo dijo mejor. +Ella dijo que un pequeo grupo de personas consideradas podra cambiar el mundo. +De hecho, es lo nico que puede lograrlo. +Y un grupo de gente considerada cambi esa baha. +Soy un gran fan de las organizaciones de base. +He asistido a un montn de conferencias en las que al final, inevitablemente, una de las primeras preguntas que surgan era: Qu puedo hacer? +Soy un individuo. Soy una persona. +Y estos problemas son tan grandes y globales, sencillamente es abrumador". +Pregunta bastante buena. +Mi respuesta es no mires los grandes, abrumadores, problemas del mundo. +Mira en tu patio trasero. +Mira en tu corazn, en realidad. +Qu es eso que no te gusta del lugar donde vives. +Arrglalo. +Crea una zona de curacin en tu vecindario y anima a otros a que hagan lo mismo. +Y quiz estas zonas puedan conformar un mapa; puntitos en un mapa. +Y, de hecho, la manera en que podemos comunicarnos hoy en que Alaska sabe al instante lo que sucede en China y los "kiwis" hacen esto, y los ingleses trataron de... +Y todos estn hablando entre s. Ya no hay puntos aislados en un mapa, es una red lo que hemos creado. +Y quiz estas zonas de curacin comiencen a crecer y tal vez a solaparse y pueden surgir cosas buenas. +As es como yo respondo esa pregunta. +Mira en tu propio patio trasero, de hecho, mira al espejo. +Qu puedes hacer de manera ms responsable de lo que haces hoy? +Hazlo. Y corre la voz. +La comunidad de animales del respiradero no pueden hacer mucho sobre la vida y la muerte que sucede donde viven, pero ac arriba s podemos. +En teora, somos seres humanos racionales, que piensan. +Podemos cambiar nuestro comportamiento que influye y afecta al medio ambiente como esa gente que cambi la salud de la baha. +El deseo de Sylvia, TED Prize, fue suplicarnos hacer todo lo que podamos todo lo que podamos para reservar, no pequeos cotos, sino extensiones considerables del ocano para su preservacin "puntos de esperanza" los llam. +Yo aplaudo la idea, la aplaudo efusivamente. +Y espero que alguno de estos "puntos de esperanza" se encuentren en el ocano profundo un rea que histricamente ha estado muy desatendida, por no decir maltratada... +recuerdo el trmino arrojar por la borda. Si es demasiado grande o txico para relleno sanitario arrjalo por la borda. +As que espero que tambin podamos tener algunos "puntos de esperanza" en el mar profundo. +Ahora, no tengo un deseo, pero puedo decir con certeza que har lo que est a mi alcance para apoyar el deseo de Sylvia Earle. +Y eso, lo hago. +Muchas gracias. +La brillante dramaturga, Adrienne Kennedy, escribi un libro llamado "People Who Led to My Plays". (Gente que me gui a mis obras) +Y si yo escribiera un libro lo llamara Artistas que me han guiado a mis muestras porque mi trabajo comprendiendo el arte y la cultura ha surgido de seguir a los artistas, de la observacin de lo que los artistas significan, de lo que hacen y de lo que son. +Jay Jay de Good Times significativo para muchas personas debido a dyn-o-mite, pero tal vez ms significativo como el primer artista negro en horario central en TV. +Jean Michel Basquiat, importante para m por ser el primer artista negro en tiempo real que me mostr las posibilidades de quin era yo y dnde ira a ingresar. +Globalmente mi proyecto es acerca del arte, especficamente acerca de artistas negros, en general trata la manera en que el arte puede cambiar la forma en la que pensamos la cultura y a nosotros mismos. +Mi inters radica en artistas que comprenden y reescriben la historia, que se consideran a s mismos dentro de la narrativa amplia del mundo del arte, pero que han creado para nosotros nuevos lugares para observar y entender. +Muestro dos artistas aqu, Glenn Ligon y Carol Walker, dos, entre muchos, que para m definen las preguntas esenciales que, como curadora, quiero traer al mundo. +Estaba interesada en la idea de por qu y cmo podra yo crear una nueva historia, una nueva narrativa en la historia del arte y una nueva narrativa en el mundo. +Y para hacer esto entend que tena que ver la manera en que trabajan los artistas, entender el estudio del artista como un laboratorio, imaginen entonces reinventar el museo como una usina de ideas y las exhibiciones como el paper definitivo, formulando las preguntas y proveyendo el lugar para ver y pensar las respuestas. +En 1994, cuando era curadora en el Museo Whitney, realic una exhibicin llamada El hombre negro. +Interpelaba la interseccin entre raza y gnero en el arte estadounidense contemporneo. +Buscaba expresar las maneras en las que el arte poda proveer un marco al dilogo, un dilogo complicado, un dilogo con muchas aristas, y cmo poda el museo ser un espacio para esta contienda de ideas. +Esta muestra incluy ms de 20 artistas de varias edades y razas, pero todos abordando la masculinidad negra desde un punto de vista singular. +Lo significativo de esta exhibicin fue la manera en que me involucr en mi rol de curadora, de catalizadora, en este dilogo. +Una de las cosas que sucedieron con mucha nitidez durante esta muestra es que me enfrent con la idea de cun poderosas pueden ser la imgenes y la propia comprensin de la gente en relacin a s mismos y hacia los otros. +Estoy mostrndoles dos trabajos, el de la derecha, de Leon Golub, el de la izquierda, de Robert Colescott. +Y durante la exhibicin, que fue provocadora, controvertida y que definitivamente cambio mi percepcin de lo que poda ser el arte, una mujer me abord en la galera para expresarme su preocupacin sobre lo poderosas que podan ser las imgenes y cmo nos entendemos unos a otros. +Y seal el trabajo de la izquierda como una imagen problemtica, dado que se asociaba, para ella, con la forma de representacin del pueblo negro. +Y seal la imagen de la derecha como ejemplo, para m, de la clase de dignidad que era necesario retratar en contraposicin con las imgenes de los medios. +Luego asign identidades raciales a los trabajos, bsicamente dicindome que el trabajo de la derecha claramente era de un artista negro, el trabajo de la izquierda, claramente de un artista blanco, cuando en realidad era lo opuesto. Bob Colescott, un artista afro-estadounidense, Leon Golub, un artista blanco. +Harlem ahora, de alguna forma explicndose y pensndose a s misma en esta parte del siglo, mirando tanto hacia atrs como hacia adelante. +Siempre digo que Harlem es una comunidad interesante porque, a diferencia de otras, se piensa a s misma simultneamente en el pasado, en el presente y en el futuro. Nadie habla de ella simplemente en el ahora. +Siempre es lo que fue y lo que puede ser. +Entonces, pensando en eso, mi segundo proyecto, la segunda pregunta que hago: Puede un museo ser un catalizador en una comunidad? +Puede un museo albergar artistas y permitirles ser agentes de cambio a medida que las comunidades se piensan nuevamente? +Esto es Harlem, actualmente, el 20 de enero, pensndose a s misma de una manera maravillosa. +As, trabajo ahora en el Studio Museum de Harlem, ideando exhibiciones all, pensando qu significa descubrir las posibilidades del arte. +Qu significa esto para algunos de ustedes? +S que en algunos casos muchos de ustedes estn involucrados en dilogos interculturales, en ideas acerca de la creatividad y la innovacin. +Consideren el lugar que los artistas pueden tomar en eso. ste es el tipo de maduracin y promocin que son mis metas cuando trabajo con jvenes artistas negros. +Piensen en los artistas no como proveedores de contenido, aunque pueden ser brillantes en eso, sino, nuevamente, como catalizadores efectivos. +El Studio Museum fue fundado a fines de los 60. +Lo traigo a colacin porque es importante situar esta prctica en la historia, +Entonces, por supuesto, nos trae al presente. +En 1975 Mohammed Ali dio una conferencia en la Universidad de Harvard. +Luego de la conferencia un estudiante le pidi Danos un poema. +Y Mohammed Ali dijo Yo, Nosotros. +Una declaracin profunda acerca del individuo y la comunidad, +el espacio en el que hoy en mi proyecto de descubrimiento de pensar acerca de los artistas, de intentar definir qu podra ser el movimiento cultural del arte negro del siglo XXI. +Qu es lo que podra significar para los movimientos culturales en este momento, Yo, Nosotros parece increblemente anticipatorio, totalmente importante. +Para este propsito el proyecto especfico que ha hecho esto posible es una serie de muestras, tituladas todas con una F, Estilo Libre [Freestyle], Frecuencia y Flujo, cuyo propsito es descubrir y definir a los jvenes artistas negros activos en este momento quienes creo firmemente que continuarn trabajando en los aos venideros. +Esta serie de muestras se realiz especficamente para intentar cuestionar la idea de qu significara hoy, en este momento de la historia, ver el arte como catalizador, qu significara hoy, en este momento de la historia, en que definimos y redefinimos la cultura, la cultura negra especficamente en mi caso, pero la cultura de modo general. +Design este grupo de artistas proponiendo la idea de "post-negro". Intentando realmente definirlos como artistas que inician su trabajo ahora, con conciencia de la historia, pero comenzando en este momento histrico. +Es en este sentido de descubrimiento en el que me planteo muchas preguntas. +Esta batera de preguntas es: Qu significa en este momento ser afro-estadounidense en EE.UU.? +Qu puede aportar el arte a esto? +Dnde puede existir un museo como lugar para que tengamos este dilogo? +Realmente lo ms emocionante acerca de esto es pensar en la energa y el entusiasmo que pueden traer los nuevos artistas. +Me sorprende constantemente la manera en la que el tema de la raza aparece en lugares en los que no imaginamos que estara. +Me sorprende siempre la manera en que los artistas estn dispuestos a hacerlo en sus trabajos. +Es por eso que acudo al arte. +Es por eso que cuestiono al arte. +Es por eso que realizo muestras. +Entonces, en esta muestra, como dije, 40 jvenes artistas en el curso de ocho aos, para m se trata de considerar las implicancias. +Es considerar las implicancias de lo que esta generacin tiene para decir al resto de nosotros. +Es considerar qu significa para estos artistas pertenecer tanto al mundo, en la medida en que sus obras viajan, como a sus comunidades, como gente que nos observa y piensa en los problemas que enfrentamos. +Es tambin pensar en el espritu creativo y en cmo alimentarlo. E imaginar, en particular en los EE.UU. urbanos, cmo alimentar el espritu. +Entonces, quiz, dnde termina todo esto? +Para m se trata de volver a imaginar este discurso cultural en un contexto internacional. +As, la ltima iteracin de este proyecto se llam Flujo, con la idea de crear una red concreta de artistas alrededor del mundo observando, no desde Harlem hacia afuera, sino transversalmente. Flujo se concentraba en artistas nacidos en frica. +Entonces, qu descubro yo cuando veo obras de arte? +En qu pienso cuando pienso acerca del arte? +Considero que el privilegio que he tenido como curadora no es simplemente el descubrimiento de nuevos trabajos, el descubrimiento de trabajos apasionantes; +sino realmente lo que he descubierto sobre m misma y de lo que puedo ofrecer en el marco de una muestra, hablar de belleza, hablar de poder, hablar de nosotros y hablar y comunicarnos entre nosotros. +Eso es lo que me hace levantarme cada da y desear pensar en esta generacin de artistas negros y artistas de todo el mundo. +Gracias. +En el contexto de Jacques Cousteau, quien dijo, "Las personas protegen lo que aman", quiero compartirles lo que ms amo en el ocano, y es la gran cantidad en nmero y variedad de animales que producen luz. +Mi adiccin comenz con este extrao traje de buceo llamado Wasp . No es un acrnimo; simplemente alguien pens que se pareca a un insecto. +Realmente fue diseado para ser usado en las petroleras mar adentro, para bucear en excavaciones a 600 m de profundidad. +Justo despus de terminar mi doctorado, tuve la suerte de ser incluida en un grupo de cientficos que lo usaran por primera vez como herramienta para explorar el ocano. +Entrenamos en un tanque en Port Wanini. y luego mi primer buceo en aguas abiertas fue en el Canal de Santa Brbara. +Fue un buceo nocturno. +Baj a una profundidad de 260 m y apagu las luces, +y la razn por la cual las apagu fue porque saba que vera el fenmeno de los animales que producen luz llamado bioluminiscencia. +Pero no estaba preparada para lo mucho y lo espectacular que fue. +Fue sorprendente. +Ahora, generalmente si una persona est familiarizada con la bioluminiscencia, es con stos, son cocuyos, +y existen unos pocos animales terrestres que pueden producir luz, algunos insectos, lombrices, hongos, pero en general, en la superficie terrestre es muy extrao encontrarlos. +En el ocano, es una regla, ms que una excepcin, +si salgo al mar abierto, casi que en cualquier lugar del mundo, y arrastro una red desde los 900 m hacia la superficie, la mayora de los animales, de hecho, en muchos lugares, del 80% al 90% de los animales que atrape en esa red, producen luz. +Esto para algunos sera un show de luces espectacular. +Ahora quiero compartir con Uds un corto video, que grab desde un sumergible. +Esta tcnica la desarroll primero trabajando desde un pequeo sumergible individual llamado Deep Rover, y luego la adapt para usarla en el Johnson Sea-Link, el cual ven aqu. +As que, en frente de la esfera de observacin est montado un aro de 90 cm de dimetro con una pantalla. +Y adentro de la esfera junto conmigo es una cmara intensificada tan sensible como el ojo humano adaptado a la oscuridad, aunque un poco borrosa. +As que uno prende la cmara, apaga las luces, +ese destello que ven no es luminiscencia, es slo ruido electrnico de las cmaras intensificadas. +Uno no ve luminiscencia hasta que el sumergible se mueve hacia adelante por el agua, y al hacerlo, los animales que chocan con la pantalla son estimulados a la bioluminiscencia. +Ahora, la primera vez que hice esto, slo trataba de contar el nmero de fuentes. +Saba la velocidad, conoca el rea, poda imaginarme cuntas fuentes haba por metro cbico. +Pero empec a darme cuenta que poda identificar los animales por el tipo de destellos que producan. +as que, aqu en el Golfo de Maine a 222 metros, podra nombrarles, a nivel de especies, casi todo lo que ven all, +como esas explosiones grandes, destellos, son de una pequea medusa. y hay camarones marinos y otros tipos de crustceos, y medusas. +Esa es una de esas medusas, +Tambin he trabajado con ingenieros que analizan imgenes computarizadas para desarrollar sistemas de reconocimiento automtico que pueden identificar a estos animales, e identificar las coordenadas X,Y,Z del punto inicial de contacto, +y podemos hacer el mismo tipo de cosas que los ecologistas hacen en la tierra y hacer medidas de distancias cercanas. +No siempre hay que ir a las profundidades del ocano para ver demostraciones de luz como estas. +Pueden verse en aguas superficiales, +Este es un video tomado por el Dr Mike Latz en la institucin Scripps de un delfn que nada a travs de plancton bioluminiscente. +Y este no es un lugar extico como una de las bahas bioluminiscentes de Puerto Rico, Esta fue tomada en el puerto de San Diego. +Y a veces se la puede ver an ms cerca que eso, porque los sanitarios en los barcos... esos baos, para los que aman la tierra y estn escuchando, usan agua marina no filtrada, que usualmente trae plancton bioluminiscente. +as que, si uno se tambalea hasta el bao tarde en la noche, y uno es tan amante de abrazar el sanitario que olvida prender la luz, pensar que est teniendo una experiencia religiosa. As que, cmo es que una criatura viviente produce luz? +Bueno, esa fue la pregunta que en el siglo XIX, El fisilogo francs Raphael Dubois se hizo acerca de esta almeja bioluminiscente. +La moli y logr sacar un par de componentes qumicos, uno fue la enzima llamada luciferasa, y al sustrato, lo llam lucifern, debido a Lucifer, el portador de luz. +Esa terminologa ha perdurado, pero realmente no se refiere especficamente a los qumicos, porque estos qumicos existen en diferentes formas. +De hecho, muchas personas que estudian la bioluminiscencia hoy en da, estn enfocadas en la qumica porque estos qumicos han comprobado ser increblemente valiosos en el desarrollo de agentes antibacteriales, medicina contra el cncer, para comprobar la presencia de vida en Marte, detectar contaminantes en el agua, as es como lo usamos en ORCA. +En el 2008, el premio Nobel de Qumica fue otorgado al trabajo hecho en una molcula llamada protena verde fluorescente, que fue aislada de la qumica bioluminiscente de una medusa, y ha sido comparado con la invencin del microscopio, en trminos del impacto que ha tenido en biologa celular e ingeniera gentica. +Otra cosa que estas molculas nos dicen es que, aparentemente, la bioluminiscencia ha evolucionado al menos 40 veces, y tal vez hasta 50 veces en tiempos diferentes en la historia evolutiva, lo cual es un clara indicacin de lo espectacularmente importante que esta caracterstica es para la sobrevivencia. +As que, qu pasa con la bioluminiscencia que es tan importante para los animales? +Bueno, para los animales que evitan los predadores al estar en la oscuridad, la luz an puede ser de gran ayuda para las tres simples cosas que los animales hacen para sobrevivir, y eso es: encontrar comida, atraer una pareja y evitar ser comidos. +As que, por ejemplo, este pez tiene una luz incorporada detrs de su ojo que usa para buscar comida, o atraer una pareja. +y cuando no la usa, la enrolla detrs de su cabeza as como las luces delanteras de tu Lamborghini. +Este pez realmente tiene luces altas. +Y este pez, uno de mis favoritos, tiene tres luces delanteras a cada lado de su cabeza. +Ahora, ste es azul, y ese es el color mayoritario en bioluminiscencia en el ocano, porque la evolucin ha seleccionado el color que se transmite lo ms distante posible a travs del agua ocenica con el fin de optimizar la comunicacin. +As que, la mayora de los animales producen luz azul, y la mayora de los animales pueden ver el color azul, pero este pez es una excepcin realmente fascinantemente porque tiene dos rganos de luz roja. +Y no tengo idea por qu tiene dos, eso es algo que alguna vez me gustara descubrir. As, que no slo puede ver luz azul, sino luz roja tambin. +As que usa la luz de la bioluminiscencia como una mira telescpica, para acercarse a los animales que no pueden ver la luz roja para poder verlos sin ser vistos. +Tambin tiene una barba aqu, con un seuelo de color azul luminiscente, que usa para atraer sus presas desde lejos. +Y muchos de los animales usan su bioluminiscencia como seuelo. +Este es otro de mis peces favoritos. +Es una vbora de mar, y hay un seuelo en el extremo de la caa de pescar que se arquea en su mandbula dentada, de ahi el nombre de vbora de mar, +Los dientes de este pez son tan grandes que si se cerraran dentro de su boca, podran atravesar su propio cerebro. +En lugar de eso, se deslizan sobre canales en la parte exterior de su cabeza. +Este es un pez rbol de navidad. todo en este pez se ilumina. no slo el seuelo; +tiene en s mismo una linterna. +Tiene esos rganos que parecen piedras preciosas en su vientre y los usa como camuflaje, y no permite que su sombra se vea as que, cuando est nadando y hay un predador mirando hacia arriba desde abajo hace que sea invisible. +Tiene rganos de luz en la boca. Tiene rganos de luz en cada escama, en las aletas, en la mucosa que recubre su espalda y vientre, y todas se usan para cosas diferentes, de algunas sabemos algo y de otras no. +Sabemos un poco ms de bioluminiscencia gracias a Pixar y estoy muy agradecida a Pixar por compartir mi tema favorito con tantas personas. +Hubiera deseado, con su presupuesto, que hubieran gastado un poquito ms de dinero para pagarle una consulta a un pobre y hambriento estudiante recin graduado, quien les pudo haber dicho que esos ojos, son los de un pez que ha sido conservado en formol. +Estos son los ojos de un pez abisal. +As que ella tiene un seuelo que saca en frente de esta trampa viviente de dientes filosos, para atraer alguna presa insospechada. +Este tiene un seuelo con varias cosas interesantes que salen de l. +Pensbamos que las diferentes formas de los seuelos eran para atrapar diferentes presas, pero el anlisis estomacal de estos peces hecho por cientficos, o muy posiblemente por sus estudiantes, revela que ellos consumen casi siempre la misma cosa. +As que, ahora creemos que las diferentes formas de los seuelos es la forma como el macho reconoce a la hembra en el mundo de los peces abisales, porque muchos de estos machos son lo que conocemos como machos enanos. +Este pequeo no tiene las ms mnima forma de ser independiente. +No tiene seuelos para atrapar comida, y no tiene dientes para comerla cuando la atrape. +Su nica esperanza en ste planeta es ser un gigol. l tiene que encontrar una "nena" y as pasar toda la vida. +As que este pequeito encontr esta "nena" y si se dan cuenta, ha tenido el buen tino de agarrarse de manera de no tener que mirarla. +Pero l reconoce lo bueno cuando lo ve, as que sella la relacin con un beso eterno. +Su piel se fusiona con la de ella, la corriente sangunea de ella fluye por el cuerpo de l, y l se convierte en nada ms que una pequea bolsa de esperma. +Bien, esta es una versin submarina de la liberacin femenina. +Ella siempre sabe dnde est l, y no tiene que ser mongama, porque algunas de estas hembras vienen con muchos machos agarrados. +As que los usan para encontrar comida, para atraer parejas. +Los usan mucho como defensa, de muchas maneras. +Muchos de ellos pueden liberar su luciferina, su luferasa, en el agua as como un pulpo soltara una nube de tinta. +Este camarn est realmente emanando luz por su boca como un dragn que respira fuego, para cegar o distraer a este pez abisal y poder nadar hacia la oscuridad. +Y hay muchos animales que lo hacen. Hay medusas, pulpos, hay gran cantidad de diferentes crustceos. Existen an peces que lo pueden hacer. +Este pez es llamado sagamichthys abei; tiene un tubo en su hombro que inyecta luz. +Y tuve la suerte de capturar uno de esos cuando estbamos en una expedicin con pesca de arrastre en la costa noroeste de frica para "Blue Planet", para la parte de las profundidades en "Blue Planet". +Y estbamos usando una red especial con la que pudimos sacar estos animales vivos. +As que capturamos uno de esos, y lo llevamos al laboratorio. +Aqu lo estoy sosteniendo, y estoy a punto de tocar ese tubo de su hombro, y cuando lo haga, vern salir la luminiscencia. +Para m fue sorprendente no slo por la cantidad de luz, sino por el hecho de que, no es slo lucifern y luciferatos. +Para este pez son realmente clulas completas con membrana y ncleo. +Es realmente muy costoso para este pez hacer esto, y no tenemos idea de por qu lo hace. Ese es otro de los misterios a resolver. +Esta medusa, por ejemplo, tiene una bioluminiscencia esplendorosa. +Estos somos nosotros persiguindola con el sumergible. +Eso no es luminiscencia, eso es luz reflejada de las gnadas. +La capturamos con un aparato muy especial en el frente del sumergible que nos permiti traerla en muy buenas condiciones al laboratorio del barco. +Y para generar lo que estn a punto de ver todo lo que hice fue tocarla por un segundo en su crculo nervioso con un palito filoso que es como un diente filoso de pez. +Y una vez que empieza todo ese show, no la estoy tocando ms. +Este es un show de luces increble. +Es un molinillo de luces. Y he hecho algunos clculos de que este show podra ser visto desde unos 90 metros de distancia por un predador. +Y pens que igual podra ser un gran seuelo. +Porque una de las cosas que ms me frustra como exploradora de las profundidades marinas es la cantidad de animales del ocano de los cuales no conocemos nada por la manera como exploramos el ocano. +La primera forma para darnos cuenta de la vida marina, es si lanzamos y arrastramos redes en los barcos. +Y les desafo a que me nombren otra rama de la ciencia que an dependa de tecnologa de 100 aos atrs. +La otra forma principal es, si bajamos con sumergibles y vehculos de control remoto. +He hecho cientos de buceos en sumergibles. +Cuando me siento en un sumergible, s que no he sido discreta en absoluto. Tengo luces muy brillantes y motores. Cualquier animal sensato se espantara pronto. +As que, he querido por mucho tiempo idearme una manera diferente de explorar. +Y hace algn tiempo ya, tengo esta idea de un sistema de cmara. +No es la gran ciencia. Lo llamamos El Ojo de los Mares. +Los cientficos han hecho esto en la superficie durante aos, usamos un color que los animales no puedan ver, y una cmara que s pueda ver ese color. +No se puede usar infrarrojo en el mar. +Usamos la luz roja ms extrema visible del espectro y an as fue un problema, porque se absorbe rpidamente. +Quise hacer de esta medusa electrnica una cmara intensificada. +La cosa es que, en la ciencia, uno tiene que decirles a las agencias que ponen el dinero qu es lo que va a descubrir antes de que le den el dinero. +Y yo no saba lo que iba a descubrir, as que no pude conseguir el dinero para esto. +As que yo misma lo hice, consegu que la clnica de Ingeniera de Harvey Mudd lo hiciera inicialmente como un proyecto de estudiantes por graduarse, y entonces me las arregl para encontrar dinero de diferentes fuentes. +As que pueden ver todo lo que conlleva esto realmente, porque cuando prob estos 16 LED's azules en epoxy, y pueden ver el tipo de molde de epoxy que usamos, la palabra Ziploc an se ve. +Est de ms decir que cuando se arma las cosas de esta manera, hay muchos ensayos y problemas para que pueda funcionar. +Pero hubo un momento en el que todo encaj, y todo funcion, +y de manera formidable todo qued grabado por el fotgrafo Mark Richards, quien precisamente estaba en ese momento de descubrimiento en el que todo encaj. +Esa soy yo a la izquierda, mi estudiante en ese tiempo, Erica Raymond, y Lee Fry, quien fue el ingeniero en el proyecto, +y nosotros, esta foto est puesta en un lugar de honor en nuestro laboratorio con el ttulo: "Ingeniero satisfaciendo dos mujeres a la vez". Y estuvimos muy, muy contentos. +As que tenemos un sistema que podemos llevar a un lugar que es como un oasis en el fondo del ocano, que es patrullado por predadores grandes. +As que el lugar al que lo llevamos Fue la llamada piscina salina que est ubicada en el Golfo de Mxico. +Es un lugar mgico. +Y s que estas tomas no tienen significado alguno para Uds tenamos una cmara mala de aquellos tiempos, pero fue un momento de xtasis. +Estamos al borde de la piscina salina. Hay un pez que nada hacia la cmara. +Se ve que claramente no le molestamos. +Y tengo mi ventana hacia la profundidad. +Y yo, por primera vez, pude ver lo que los animales hacan all abajo Cuando no estbamos all abajo molestndoles. +Cuatro horas en la misin, habamos programado la medusa electrnica que bajara por primera vez, +86 segundos despus entr en ese show del molinillo, lo grabamos. Este es un pulpo de ms de 2 metros de largo, que es tan nuevo para la ciencia, que no puede ser clasificado en una familia cientfica conocida. +No pude haber pedido una mejor prueba del concepto. +As que basado en esto, regres a la Fundacin Nacional de Ciencias y dije: "Esto es lo que vamos a descubrir". +As que uno de esos mensajes de llevar a casa aqu es que hay mucho por explorar en los ocanos, +y Sylvia ha dicho que estamos destruyendo los ocanos an antes de saber lo que contienen, y est en lo correcto. +As que si alguna vez tienen la oportunidad de hacer buceo en un sumergible, digan s, mil veces, s, y por favor apaguen las luces. +Se los prometo, les encantar. +Gracias +Buenos das. +Estoy muy contento de ver a tantas personas aqu y muchas caras sonrientes. +Tengo un historial, una actitud y una perspectiva particulares del mundo real ya que soy ilusionista. +Prefiero este trmino en lugar del de mago, ya que si fuera un mago, eso implicara usar hechizos y encantamientos y gestos extraos para poder hacer magia de verdad. +Y yo no hago eso; yo soy un ilusionista, que es alguien que finge ser un mago de verdad. Pero... cmo hago ese tipo de cosas? +Pues eso depende de que los pblicos como ustedes den por sentado algunos hechos. +Por ejemplo, cuando vine aqu y tom el micrfono y lo encend, ustedes creyeron que estaba usando un micrfono, pero no es cierto. +De hecho, esto es algo con lo que la mitad de ustedes, o ms de la mitad, no estar familiarizado. +Esto es una mquina de afeitar elctrica. +Y funciona muy mal como micrfono. He hecho la prueba muchas veces. Las otras cosas que dieron por sentado, y esta pequea leccin es para mostrarles que ustedes dan por sentado algunas cosas -- +no que lo hacen slo a veces, sino que lo harn siempre que se les sugiera adecuadamente. +Ustedes creen que estoy mirndoles. +Falso. Yo no los estoy mirando. De hecho, no puedo verlos. +S que estn ah, me lo dijeron entre bambalinas. Decan que esto estaba lleno. +S que estn ah porque puedo orlos, pero no puedo verlos porque normalmente uso gafas. +Y esto no son unas gafas, es una montura vaca, una montura sin cristales. +Ahora bien, porqu un anciano se presentara ante ustedes utilizando una montura sin lentes? +Para timarlos, seoras y seores, para engaarlos y mostrarles que pueden dar por sentado muchas cosas. +Que no se les olvide. +Bueno, tengo que hacer algo. Antes que nada, ponerme mis verdaderas gafas, de modo que pueda verlos, lo que seguramente sera conveniente. No s. +No los he visto bien. Bueno, en realidad no es tan conveniente. +Voy a hacer algo ahora que les parecer un poco extrao para un mago. +Pero me voy a tomar una medicina. +Este es un envase de Calm's Forte. +Les explicar todo en un momento. +Ignoren las indicaciones. Es lo que el gobierno tiene que poner para confundirnos, estoy seguro. +Voy a tomar bastantes. Mmmm. +De hecho, el envase completo. +32 pastillas de Calms Forte. +Y ahora que he terminado --se lo explicar en un momento. Debo decirles que soy actor. +Un actor que representa un papel especfico. +Represento el papel del mago, del hechicero, si ustedes prefieren, de un verdadero hechicero. +Si alguien apareciera en este escenario y afirmara ser un antiguo prncipe dans llamado Hamlet ustedes se sentiran insultados, lgicamente. +Por qu alguien supondra que ustedes se creeran algo tan extrao? +Pero hay gente ah afuera, una gran cantidad de personas que les dirn que tienen poderes mgicos y psquicos, que pueden predecir el futuro, que pueden ponerse en contacto con los muertos. +Ah, tambin intentan venderles cartas astrolgicas u otros mtodos para echar la suerte. +Ah, les vendern todo eso encantados. +Y tambin dicen que pueden fabricar mquinas de movimiento perpetuo y sistemas de energa libre. +Afirman ser psquicos, o sensitivos, o lo que se les ocurra. +Pero una de estas cosas que ha resurgido extraordinariamente en estos tiempos es el negocio de comunicarse con los muertos. +Ahora bien, para mi mentalidad inocente, muerto implica incapaz de comunicarse. Estarn de acuerdo conmigo en esto. +Pero estas personas tratarn de decirles que no slo pueden comunicarse con los muertos -- Hola a todos! Sino que tambin pueden escucharlos y pasarles esa informacin a los que estn vivos. +Me pregunto si ser verdad. +No lo creo, ya que las personas en esta sub-cultura usan exactamente los mismos trucos que nosotros los magos, exactamente los mismos: los mismos mtodos fsicos, los mismos mtodos psicolgicos. Y han engaado descaradamente a millones de personas en todo el mundo y los han perjudicado enormemente. +Han engaado a estas personas, a las que les ha costado mucho dinero y mucha angustia emocional. +Miles de millones de dlares se gastan cada ao en todo el mundo en estos charlatanes. +Tengo dos peticiones que me gustara hacer a estas personas si me dieran la oportunidad. +La primera: si quisiera que llamaran, porque ellos escuchan a los muertos con los odos. +Escuchan a los espritus de este modo. Les quisiera pedir que contactaran con el fantasma de mi abuela porque cuando se muri haba escondico el testamento en un lugar secreto y no sabemos dnde est. As que le preguntamos a la abuelita "Dnde est el testamento?" +Y qu dice la abuela? Contesta: "Estoy en el cielo y es maravilloso. +Aqu estoy con mis viejos amigos, con todos mis amigos que ya murieron, y mi familia, y todos los perritos y gatitos que tena cuando era nia. +Os amo a todos y siempre estar con ustedes. +Adis". +Pero no respondi la maldita pregunta. +Dnde est el testamento? +Pudo haber haber dicho fcilmente: "Ah!, est en la biblioteca: segundo estante, detrs de la enciclopedia". Pero no, no dice nada de eso. +No nos da ninguna informacin til. +Hemos pagado mucho por esa informacin, pero no la hemos conseguido. +La segunda peticin que quisiera hacerles es muy simple. Supongamos que les pido que contacten con espritu de mi suegro que ha muerto, por poner un ejemplo. +Por qu insisten en decir... (recuerden que los espritus les hablan al odo) por qu dicen: "Mi nombre empieza por jota o por eme"? +Es un juego de adivinanzas? +El ratn y el gato? O qu? +Son "Las 20 preguntas"? No, de hecho son como 120 preguntas. +Pero es un juego cruel y despiadado, totalmente inmoral (lo pronunciar bien, no se muevan) el juego al que estas personas juegan. +Y se aprovechan de los inocentes, de los ingenuos, de los que sufren, de la gente necesitada que hay por todas partes. +Ahora, esto es una tcnica que se llama "lectura en fro". +Hay uno por ah suelto que se llama Van Praagh, James Van Praagh. +Es uno de los grandes profesionales de estas cosas. +Tambin John Edward, Sylvia Browne y Rosemary Altea, todos hacen lo mismo. +Hay cientos de ellos en todo el planeta, pero en los EEUU James Van Praag es muy famoso. +Y qu es lo que hace este tipo? Le gusta decirnos cmo se murieron los muertos, es decir, las personas que le hablan al odo. +As que lo que dice, con mucha frecuencia, es algo as: "Me dice, me est diciendo que antes de morir tena problemas para respirar". +Amigos! Morirse consiste en eso! +Dejas de respirar y entonces te mueres. +Es as de simple. +Y es esta la informacin que te traen del mas all? +No lo creo. +Esta gente intentar adivinar la informacin. Dirn cosas como "Por qu estoy recibiendo electricidad? +Me est diciendo 'electricidad'. Era electricista?" No. +"Usaba maquinilla de afeitar elctrica?" No. +Es un juego de preguntas para adivinar toda la informacin. +Eso es lo que hacen. +Algunas personas se acercan a nosotros, a la Fundacin Educativa James Randi, me llaman y me preguntan: "Por qu le preocupa tanto todo esto, Randi? +No es slo un poco de diversin?" +No, no es divertido. Es una cruel farsa. +Puede que les d cierto tipo de tranquilidad, pero esa tranquilidad les durar unos 20 minutos ms o menos. +Y despus esa gente se mirar al espejo y se dir: "Acabo de pagar mucho dinero por ese contacto. +Y qu fue lo que me dijo? 'Te amo!'" Siempre dicen eso. +No dan ninguna informacin, no dan nada de valor a aqullos que gastan su dinero. +Ahora, Sylvia Browne es muy famosa. +La llamamos "La garra". +Silvia Browne , en este preciso instante Silvia Browne es una de las ms famosas en este campo. +Slo por poner un ejemplo, Sylvia Browne cobra 700 dlares por una consulta de 20 minutos por telfono. No necesita ni siquiera estar all en persona. Y tienes que esperar hasta dos aos porque ya tiene citas concertadas durante todo ese tiempo. +Pagas con tarjeta de crdito, o de otra forma, y confas en que despus ella te llame en algn momento de los prximos dos aos. +Puedes saber que es ella cuando escuches: "Hola, al habla Sylvia Browne". +Es ella. Puedes estar seguro de inmediato. +Montel Williams es un hombre inteligente. +Todos sabemos quin es l dentro de la televisin. +Es un hombre culto, listo. l sabe lo que est haciendo Sylvia Browne, pero le importa un comino. +Simplemente no le importa. +Porque, el fondo de todo esto es que los patrocinadores la adoran, y l la pondr en la publicidad televisiva una y otra vez. +Qu es lo que Sylvia Browne les da por 700 dlares? +Les dar el nombre de sus ngeles de la guarda, para empezar. +Ya, sin ese dato, cmo podramos vivir? Les da los nombres de sus personalidades pasadas, de quines fueron en vidas anteriores. +Seguro! +Resulta que las mujeres a las que les lee el pasado fueron todas princesas babilnicas o algo parecido. +Todos los hombres fueron guerreros griegos que pelearon contra Agamenn. +Ninguno fue un limpiabotas de 14 aos en las calles de Londres que muri de sobredosis. +Obviamente, no vale la pena revivirlo. +Y lo extrao de todo, como se habrn dado cuenta, +es que estos tipos en televisin nunca reciben mensajes de nadie desde el infierno. Todos les hablan desde el cielo, pero nunca desde el infierno. +Si acaso pudieran comunicarse con alguno de mis amigos... pero no van a hacerlo. Ya se imaginan la historia. +Bien, Sylvia Browne es una excepcin, una excepcin en cierto sentido, ya que la Fundacin Educativa James Randi, mi fundacin, ofrece un premio de un milln de dlares en bonos negociables. +Pueden ganar un milln de manera muy sencilla. +Todo lo que hay que hacer es probar cualquier tipo de fenmeno paranormal o sobrenatural en condiciones adecuadas de observacin. +Es muy sencillo ganar el milln de dlares. +Sylviia Browne es una excepcin en el sentido de que ella es la nica psquica profesional en todo el mundo que ha aceptado nuestro reto. +Lo acept en el programa de "En vivo con Larry King" de la CNN hace seis aos y medio, +y no hemos sabido nada de ella desde entonces. Qu extrao. +Lo primero que dijo que es que no saba cmo contactarme. +Seguro! +Una psquica profesional que habla con los muertos... y no poda contactarme? +Estoy vivo, como ustedes habrn notado. +Bueno, de cualquier manera +no pudo encontrarme. Ahora dice que no quiere localizarme porque soy ateo. +Razn de ms para tomar el milln de dlares. No crees, Sylvia? +De verdad, necesitamos detener a esta gente, y ahora mismo. +Necesitamos detenerlos porque crean una cruel farsa. +Recibimos a gente en la fundacin todo el tiempo. +Estn arruinados financiera y emocionalmente porque pusieron su dinero y su confianza en esta gente. +Bueno, me tom unas pastillas al principio +y tengo que explicrselo. +La homeopata, vamos a ver de qu se trata. +Mmm. Han odo hablar de ella. +Es una forma de terapia alternativa, claro. +La homeopata consiste... y esto es un producto homeoptico. +Se llama Calm's Forte. Olvid decirles que son 32 pastillas para dormir. +Me acabo de tomar una dosis para dormir seis das y medio. +Seis das y medio, eso debera ser una dosis fatal. +Eso dice aqu detrs: "En caso de sobredosis, contacte con centro de salud regional inmediatamente" y viene un nmero gratuito para llamar. +No se levanten. Todo va a salir bien. +En realidad no necesito llamar ya que he vengo haciendo esto en pblico, en todo el mundo, durante los ltimos 8 o 10 aos. Me tomo dosis fatales de pldoras homeopticas para dormir. +Por qu no me afectan? +La respuesta puede sorprenderles. +Qu es la homeopata? +Es tomar una medicina que de verdad funciona y diluirla muchas veces ms all del lmite de Avogadro. +Diluirla hasta el punto en que no quede nada. Ahora amigos, esto no es slo una metfora que me he inventado. Es la pura verdad. +Es el equivalente a tomar una aspirina de 325 miligramos, tirarla en medio del Lago Tahoe, y despus agitarlo todo (obviamente con un palo muy grande) y esperar unos dos aos ms o menos hasta que la solucin sea homognea. +Y despus, cuando tengamos dolor de cabeza, tomamos un sorbo de esta agua y... voil! Desapareci. +Esto que les cuento es verdad. De esto trata la homeopata. +Otra cosa que dicen, les encantar sta, es que cuento ms diluida est la medicina ms poderosa es. +Un momento, nos contaron una historia sobre un sujeto en Florida. +El pobre hombre estaba tomando una medicina homeoptica. +Muri de sobredosis porque +se le olvid tomarse su pastilla. +Piensen un poco. Piensen un poco. +Es algo ridculo. Absolutamente ridculo. +No s lo que estamos haciendo creyndonos todas estas tonteras durante todos estos aos. +Debo decirles que el hecho de que la Fundacin Educativa James Randi ofrezca este gran premio. pero debo aclarar, que aunque nadie haya podido llevarse el premio eso no significa que estos poderes no existan. +A lo mejor existen, en algn lugar all afuera. +A lo mejor a esas personas les sobra el dinero para subsistir. +Bueno, en el caso de Sylvia Browne, creo que as es. +S, 700 dlares por una consulta de 20 minutos por telfono, eso es ms de lo que ganan los abogados. +Quiero decir que es una cantidad impresionante de dinero. +Esta gente tal vez no necesita el milln de dlares, pero, no creeran ustedes que les gustara llevrselo slo por hacerme parecer tonto? +Slo por el placer de deshacerse de este ateo que les molesta y del que Sylvia Browne habla todo el tiempo? +Creo que es necesario hacer algo acerca de esto. +Me gustara recibir sugerencias de todos ustedes acerca de cmo contactar a las autoridades federales, estatales y locales para pedirles que hagan algo. +Si encuentran el modo... Ya s, +vemos gente, aqu mismo, que nos habla acerca de la epidemia del SIDA y de nios muriendo de hambre en todo el mundo y de los problemas de suministro de agua contaminada que afectan a tanta gente. +Todo esto es importante, de capital importancia para nosotros. +Y debemos hacer algo para resolver estos problemas. +Pero al mismo tiempo... Como deca Arthur C. Clarke "La podredumbre de la mente humana". sto de creer en lo paranormal y en lo oculto, en lo sobrenatural, en todos estos disparates, este pensamiento medieval. Creo que debe hacerse algo acerca de esto, y todo depende de la educacin. +En gran medida, podemos culpar a los medios de comunicacin. +Promueven de manera desvergonzada toda clase de disparates de este tipo simplemente porque les gusta a los patrocinadores. +El fondo de todo esto: el dinero. +so es exactamente lo que estn buscando. +Debemos hacer algo acerca de esto. +Estoy dispuesto a escuchar sus sugerencias y estar encantado si visitan nuestro sitio en Internet. +Es www.randi.org. +Vayan y vean los archivos y empezarn a entender mucho ms de lo hemos hablamos aqu hoy. +Vern los documentos que tenemos. +No hay nada como sentarse en esa biblioteca y escuchar la historia de una familia en la que la madre se gast toda la fortuna familiar. +Vendi todos los CD, se deshizo de todas las acciones y certificados. +Escuchar todo esto es muy triste. Y encima esto no les ayud en lo ms mnimo, ni resolvi ninguno de sus problemas. +Claro, la inteligencia americana podra pudrirse y todas las dems alrededor del mundo si no empezamos a pensar seriamente en todo esto. +Hemos ofrecido un premio, y debo decir que se lo hemos puesto en bandeja. +Estamos esperando a que vengan los psquicos y se lo lleven. +Vale, muchos vienen, cientos de ellos vienen cada ao. +Son zahores y gente que cree que puede hablar con los muertos, pero son aficionados. No saben cmo evaluar a lo que llaman sus poderes. +Los profesionales nunca se acercan a nosotros, excepto en el caso de Sylvia Browne del que les habl hace un momento. +Ella acept el reto y despus huy. +Seoras y seores, soy James Randi, y estoy esperando. +Gracias. +La gran irona de la salud global es que la mayor carga de enfermedades la tienen que soportar los pases ms pobres del mundo. +Si comparamos todos los pases del mundo en relacin proporcional, resulta evidente que el frica subsahariana es la regin ms castigada por el virus del VIH/SIDA. +Se trata de la epidemia ms devastadora de nuestros tiempos. +Tambin resulta innegable que no hay regin menos preparada que esta para combatir la enfermedad. +Hay muy pocos mdicos y sin lugar a dudas estos pases carecen de los recursos necesarios para enfrentarse con epidemias de esta envergadura. +Entonces, los pases occidentales, los pases desarrollados, generosamente se han propuesto suministrar medicamentos gratuitos a todos los habitantes del Tercer Mundo que no puedan sufragarse sus gastos. +Y esto ya ha salvado millones de vidas y ha evitado el total colapso de economas enteras en el frica subsahariana. +Pero hay un problema crucial que est menguando los esfuerzos en la lucha contra esta enfermedad. Porque si se siguen desperdiciando medicamentos con aquellas personas que no pueden recibir un diagnstico apropiado se acaba creando el problema de la resistencia al medicamento. +Esto ya ha comenzado a suceder en el frica subsahariana. +Y el problema es que, lo que comienza como una tragedia en el Tercer Mundo, puede fcilmente convertirse en un problema mundial. +Y lo ltimo que queremos ver son cepas del virus del SIDA resistentes a los medicamentos propagndose por todo el planeta, porque el tratamiento se volvera mucho ms caro y podra de nuevo reproducirse la matanza que precedi a los antirretrovirales. +Pas por esta experiencia como estudiante en Uganda. +Ocurri en los 90, en el momento lgido de la epidemia, antes de poder contar con ningn antirretroviral en frica. +Y fue en aquella poca en la que perd muchos parientes, del mismo modo que le sucedi a mis profesores, debido al VIH/SIDA. +Esto se convirti en una de las pasiones que guan mi vida, encontrar soluciones eficaces que puedan encauzar este tipo de problemas. +Todos conocemos sobre el milagro de la miniaturizacin. +Antes, las computadoras solan ocupar el espacio de toda una sala como sta, y la gente tena que trabajar dentro de las computadoras. +Pero lo que la miniaturizacin electrnica ha permitido ha sido reducir toda esa tecnologa al tamao de un telfono mvil. +Y estoy seguro de que todo el mundo aqu, disfruta de los mviles que pueden usarse en los lugares ms remotos del mundo, en los pases del Tercer Mundo. +La buena noticia es que la misma tecnologa que permita la miniaturizacin de los componentes electrnicos nos permite ahora reducir a miniatura laboratorios biolgicos. +As que, en este preciso momento, se pueden miniaturizar laboratorios de anlisis qumicos y biolgicos convirtindolos en chips de micro fluido. +Fui muy afortunado de venir a EEUU luego de terminar la escuela media, y poder trabajar con esta tecnologa y desarrollar algunos dispositivos. +Este es un chip de micro fluido que he desarrollado. +Veamos de cerca cmo funciona esta tecnologa: estos son unos canales del tamao de un cabello humano. Y aqu hay integrados vlvulas, bombas, mezcladores e inyectores, Y as, un sistema de micro fluido, +As que lo que planeo hacer con esta tecnologa es tomar el actual estado de la misma y construir un kit con la prueba del SIDA en un sistema de micro fluido; +entonces, con un slo chip de micro fluido, que tiene el tamao de un iPhone, se pueden diagnosticar 100 pacientes a la vez. +Por cada paciente, podremos realizar hasta 100 muestras por paciente. +Y esto se har en slo 4 horas, 50 veces ms rpido de lo que se requiere actualmente, y a un coste que resultar 500 veces ms barato que las opciones de hoy en da. +Por lo tanto esto nos permitir crear medicinas personalizadas en el Tercer Mundo a un precio verdaderamente asequible y hacer as de este mundo un lugar ms seguro. +Solicito su inters y los invito a participar en convertir esta visin en una realidad prctica. +Muchsimas gracias. +Una de las cosas que define a los miembros de TED es que ustedes han tomado su pasin, y la han convertido en diligencia. +Han realmente puesto en accin los temas que les interesan. +Pero con lo que en algn momento se van a encontrar es que van a necesitar funcionarios electos para que les ayuden. +Y cmo logran esto? +Una de las cosas que debera decirles es que, yo trabaj para Discovery Channel a principios de mi carrera, y esto me construy un marco de referencia. +Entonces, cuando empezamos a pensar en los polticos nos damos cuenta de que son criaturas extraas. +Aparte de que no tienen sentido de orientacin, y que tienen hbitos de reproduccin muy extraos, cmo podemos trabajar con ellos? Lo que debemos entender es: Qu impulsa a la criatura poltica? +Y hay dos cosas que son primordiales en el corazn de un poltico. La primera es la reputacin y la influencia. +stas son las herramientas principales con las que un poltico hace su trabajo. +La segunda, a diferencia de la mayora de los animales, que es la supervivencia de la especie, es la conservacin de s mismo. +Ustedes podran pensar que es el dinero, pero en realidad slo es un medio por el cual me puedo conservar. +Ahora, el reto de lograr que sus asuntos sean considerados es que estos animales reciben informacin todo el tiempo. +Entonces, qu NO funciona, en trminos de hacer que nuestro asunto sea importante? +Puedes mandarles un correo electrnico. +Bueno, por desgracia, me llegan tantos anuncios de Viagra que sus correos se pierden. +No importan, son correo basura. +Y qu si me llaman por telfono? +Bueno, seguro voy a tener un androide contestando el telfono, "S, llamaron y dijeron que no les gustaba". +Eso no sirve. +Hablar cara a cara funcionara, pero es difcil de lograr. +Es difcil de establecer el contexto y de que la comunicacin funcione. +S, las contribuciones de hecho hacen la diferencia, y establecen un contexto para la conversacin, pero lleva tiempo lograrlas. +Entonces, qu es lo que funciona de verdad? +La respuesta es algo extraa. +Es una carta. +Vivimos en un mundo digital, pero somos criaturas bastante anlogas. +Las cartas de verdad funcionan. +Incluso el mismsimo presidente se toma su tiempo todos los das para leer 10 cartas que son elegidas por el personal. +Yo les puedo decir que cada oficial con el que yo he trabajado les puede hablar sobre las cartas que han recibido y lo que significan. +Entonces, cmo van a escribir la carta? +Primero que todo, van a tomar un dispositivo anlogo, un lapicero. +S que son algo difciles de usar, y les va a costar bastante moldear sus manos alrededor de l, pero es una parte muy importante +Y es muy importante que escriban la carta a mano. +Es tan novedoso de ver esto, que alguien de verdad tom un dispositivo anlogo y me escribi a m. +Segundo, les voy a recomendar que tomen una posicin proactiva y escriban a sus oficiales electos al menos una vez al mes. +Y les hago una promesa. Si son consistentes con esto, en menos de tres meses el oficial electo va a llamarlos cuando el tema surja y les dir "usted qu opina?" +Ahora les voy a dar un formato de cuatro prrafos para que trabajen con l. +Ahora bien, cuando se acerquen a uno de estos animales, deben entender que tienen un lado peligroso y tambin tienen que acercarse con cierto nivel de respeto y un poco de cuidado +Entonces en el prrafo nmero uno lo que les voy a decir que escriban es simplemente esto: Que los aprecian. +Talvez no aprecien a la persona, talvez no aprecien nada de ellos, pero talvez aprecien el hecho de que tienen un trabajo duro. +Cuando los animales quieren expresar algo, solo lo hacen. +No se la pasan perdiendo el tiempo. +Ah tienen. Prrafo nmero dos. van a tener que ser secos y directos y decir lo que en realidad estn pensando. +Cuando lo hagan, no ataquen a las personas, ataquen las tcticas. +los ataques 'ad hominem' no los va a llevar a ningn lado. +Prrafo nmero tres: Cuando los animales son atacados o acorralados, pelearn hasta la muerte, entonces hay que darles una salida. +La mayora del tiempo, si tienen una estrategia de huda, la van a tomar. +Obviamente, ustedes son inteligentes. +Si usted hubiera tenido la informacin apropiada, hubiera hecho lo correcto. Por ltimo, deben ser agentes protectores +Son el lugar seguro donde recurrir. +As que, en el prrafo nmero cuatro, ustedes van a decirle a las personas, "Si nadie le est dando est informacin a usted, djeme ayudarle". Los animales hacen exhibiciones. Hacen dos cosas. Te dan advertencias o intentan atraerte y decir "Necesitamos reproducirnos". +Van a hacer eso con la manera en la que van a firmar su carta. +Ustedes hacen varias cosas, son vicepresidentes, voluntarios o hacen alguna otra cosa. +Porqu es esto importante? +Porque esto establece los dos criterios principales de la criatura poltica, que ustedes tienen influencia en una esfera muy amplia, y que mi conservacin depende de ustedes. +Les voy a dar un consejo rpido, especialmente para los federales en la audiencia. +Les voy a decir como mandar su carta. +Primero, manden la original a la oficina de distrito, +y mandan una copia a la oficina central. +Si ellos siguen el protocolo, van a contestar el telfono y preguntar "Tiene la original?" +Y luego un androide en el fondo anota el nombre y dice "Ah, esta carta es importante". +E incluyen la carta en la carpeta que el oficial electo tiene que leer. +Entonces, qu significa su carta? Les dir, todos estamos en una fiesta, y los oficiales electos son las piatas. +Escuchamos discursos, sermones nos venden cosas, nos mercadean, pero una carta es una de las pocas ocasiones en las que tenemos una comunicacin honesta. +Recib esta carta cuando me eligieron por primera vez, y todava la llevo conmigo a cada reunin de consejo a la que asisto. +Es una oportunidad de tener un dilogo real. Y si tienen diligencia y quieren comunicarse este dilogo es increblemente efectivo. +Y cuando hagan esto, les puedo prometer que van a ser el orgulloso gorila de 300 kilos (800 libras) del bosque. +Empiecen a escribir. +Salaam. Namaskar. +Buenos das. +Dado mi perfil en TED, ustedes quizs esperan que les hable de las ms recientes tendencias filantrpicas, aqulla que actualmente tiene a Wall Street y al Banco Mundial ajetreados, en cmo invertir en mujeres, cmo emanciparlas, cmo salvarlas. +Yo no. +A m me interesa cmo las mujeres nos estn salvando. +Ellas nos estn salvando al redefinir y reimaginar un futuro que desafa y empaa polaridades aceptadas, polaridades que hemos dado por hecho durante mucho tiempo, como aqullas entre modernidad y tradicin Primer Mundo y Tercer Mundo, opresin y oportunidad. +En medio de los retos desalentadores que enfrentamos como comunidad global, hay algo acerca de esta tercera forma de tono musical que est haciendo a mi corazn cantar. +Lo que me intriga ms es cmo las mujeres estn haciendo esto, a pesar de la cantidad de paradojas que son tanto frustrantes como fascinantes. +Por qu es que las mujeres son, por una parte, cruelmente oprimidas por prcticas culturales, y sin embargo, al mismo tiempo, son quienes preservan la cultura en la mayora de las sociedades? +Es el hiyab o el velo en la cabeza un smbolo de sumisin o de resistencia? +Cuando tantas mujeres y nias son golpeadas, violadas, mutiladas, diariamente, en nombre de toda clase de causas, honor, religin, nacionalidad, qu permite a las mujeres volver a plantar rboles, reconstruir sociedades, dirigir movimientos radicales, no violentos para el cambio social? +Son diferentes mujeres quienes estn preservando y quienes estn radicalizando? +O son una y la misma? +Somos culpables, como Chimamanda Adichie nos lo record en una conferencia de TED en Oxford, de asumir que hay una sola historia de la lucha de las mujeres por sus derechos, mientras de hecho, hay muchas? +Y si es que algo tienen que ver, qu tienen que ver los hombres con ello? +Mucho de mi vida ha sido una bsqueda por obtener algunas respuestas a estas preguntas. +Me ha llevado a travs del mundo, y me ha presentado a algunas personas sorprendentes. +En el proceso, he recogido unos pocos fragmentos que me ayudan a verter algo de luz sobre este enigma. +Entre aqullos que han ayudado a abrir mis ojos a una tercera va, estn una musulmana devota en Afganistn, un grupo de lesbianas armonizadoras en Croacia y una rompedora de tabs en Liberia. +Estoy en deuda con ellas, como lo estoy con mis padres, quienes por un conjunto de malas conductas en su vida anterior, fueron bendecidos en sta con tres hijas. +Y por razones igualmente dudosas para m, parecen estar irracionalmente orgullosos de nosotras tres. +Yo nac y crec aqu en la India, y aprend desde temprana edad a sospechar profundamente de las tas y tos que se agachaban, nos acariciaban la cabeza y les decan a mis padres sin ningn problema en absoluto, "Pobres. Nada ms tienen tres hijas. +Pero son jvenes. Podran todava tratar." +Mi sensacin de furia sobre los derechos de las mujeres alcanz el punto de ebullicin cuando tena como 11 aos. +Mi ta, una increblemente articulada y brillante mujer, qued viuda joven. +Una muchedumbre de parientes la invadi. +Le quitaron su colorido sari. +Le hicieron ponerse uno blanco. +Limpiaron el bindi de su frente. +Le rompieron sus pulseras +Su hija, Rani, pocos aos mayor que yo, se sent en su regazo, confundida, sin saber lo que le haba pasado a la mujer segura de s misma que alguna vez conoci como su mam. +Ms tarde esa noche, escuch a mi madre rogar a mi padre, Por favor, haz algo, Ramu. No puedes intervenir? +Y a mi padre, en voz baja, murmurar, Yo soy slo el hermano ms chico, no puedo hacer nada. +Esto es tradicin." +sa es la noche en que aprend las reglas sobre lo que significa ser mujer en este mundo. +Las mujeres no hacen esas reglas, pero ellas nos definen, y definen nuestras oportunidades y nuestras probabilidades. +Y los hombres son afectados tambin por esas reglas. +Mi padre, quien pele en tres guerras, no poda salvar a su propia hermana de su sufrimiento. +A los 18, bajo la excelente tutora de mi madre, yo era, por lo tanto, como ustedes esperarn, desafiantemente feminista. +En las calles cantando, [Hind] [Hind] "Somos las mujeres de la India. +No somos flores, somos chispas de cambio." +Para cuando llegu a Pekn en 1995, estaba claro para m que la nica manera de alcanzar la igualdad de gnero era volcar siglos de tradicin opresora. +Poco despus de que regres de Pekn, aprovech la oportunidad de trabajar para esta organizacin maravillosa, fundada por mujeres, para apoyar a organizaciones de derechos de las mujeres alrededor del mundo. +Pero apenas despus de seis meses en mi nuevo trabajo, conoc a una mujer que me forz a desafiar todas mis suposiciones. +Su nombre es Sakena Yacoobi. +Ella entr a mi oficina en una poca en que nadie saba en los Estados Unidos dnde estaba Afganistn. +Me dijo, "El asunto no es la burka." +Ella era la defensora ms resuelta de los derechos de las mujeres de quien yo haya odo jams. +Me dijo que haba mujeres que estaban dirigiendo escuelas clandestinas en sus comunidades dentro de Afganistn y que su organizacin, el Instituto Afgano para el Aprendizaje, haba abierto una escuela en Pakistn. +Dijo, "La primera cosa que cualquier musulmn sabe es que el Corn exige y fuertemente apoya la educacin. +El profeta quera que todos los creyentes pudieran leer el Corn por s mismos." +Escuch bien? +Una defensora de los derechos de las mujeres invocando religin? +Pero Sakena desafa las etiquetas +Siempre lleva puesto un velo en la cabeza. Pero yo he caminado junto a ella en una playa con su largo cabello volando en la brisa. +Ella empieza cada conferencia con un rezo, pero es una mujer soltera, con mucha energa, y financieramente independiente en un pas donde casan a las nias a los 12 aos de edad. +Ella tambin es inmensamente pragmtica. +"Este velo y estas ropas", dice, "me dan la libertad de hacer lo que necesito hacer, de hablar con aqullos cuyo apoyo y ayuda son crticos para este trabajo. +Cuando tuve que abrir la escuela en el campo de refugiados, fui a ver al imn. +Le dije, 'Soy una creyente, y las mujeres y los nios en estas terribles condiciones necesitan su fe para sobrevivir." Sonri astutamente. +"Se sinti alabado. +Empez a venir a mi centro dos veces por semana porque las mujeres no podan ir a la mezquita. +Y despus de que se iba, las mujeres y los nios se quedaban. +Comenzamos con una pequea clase de alfabetizacin para leer el Corn, despus una clase de matemticas, despus una clase de ingls, despus clases de computacin. +En pocas semanas, todos en el campo de refugiados estaban en nuestras clases." +Sakena es una maestra en tiempos en que educar mujeres es un asunto peligroso en Afganistn. +Ella est en la lista de objetivos a matar del Talibn. +Me preocupa cada vez que ella viaja a travs de ese pas. +Ella levanta los hombros cuando le pregunto acerca de la seguridad. +Kavita Jan, no podemos permitirnos tener miedo. +Mira a esas nias jvenes que vuelven a la escuela cuando les arrojan cido en la cara." +Y yo sonro, y asiento con la cabeza, al darme cuenta de que estoy viendo mujeres y nias que al usar sus propias tradiciones y prcticas religiosas, se convierten en instrumentos de oposicin y oportunidad. +Su camino es de su propiedad y mira hacia un Afganistn que ser diferente. +Ser diferente es algo que las mujeres de Lesbor en Zabreb, Croacia conocen muy bien. +Ser una lesbiana, una tortillera, una homosexual en la mayor parte del mundo, incluyendo aqu mismo en nuestro pas, India, es ocupar un lugar de incomodidad inmensa y prejuicio extremo. +En sociedades postconflicto como Croacia, donde un hipernacionalismo y religiosidad han creado un ambiente insoportable para cualquier persona que pudiera ser considerado un marginado social. +As es que entra a un grupo de lesbianas que salieron del armario, jvenes mujeres que aman la msica antigua que alguna vez se propag a travs de esa regin de Macedonia a Bosnia, de Serbia a Eslovenia. +Estas cantantes folklricas se conocieron en la universidad en un programa de estudios de gnero. +Muchas de ellas de veintitantos aos. Algunas son madres. +Muchas han luchado para salir del armario en sus comunidades. En familias cuyas creencias religiosas hacen difcil aceptar que sus hijas no estn enfermas, slo son diferentes. +Como dice Leah, una de las fundadoras del grupo, "Me gusta mucho la msica tradicional. +Tambin me gusta el rock and roll. +As que en Lesbor, mezclamos ambas. +Yo veo la msica tradicional como una clase de rebelin, en la que la gente puede realmente expresar su voz, especialmente canciones tradicionales de otras partes de la antigua Repblica Yugoslava. +Despus de la guerra, muchas de esas canciones se perdieron. Pero son parte de nuestra infancia y de nuestra historia, y no deberamos olvidarlas." +En contra de las probabilidades, este coro vocal L.G.B.T. ha demostrado cmo las mujeres estn invirtiendo en la tradicin para crear cambios, como alquimistas convirtiendo la discordia en armona. +Su repertorio incluye el himno nacional croata, una cancin de amor bosnia y dos serbios. +Y, agrega Leah con una sonrisa, "Kavita, estamos especialmente orgullosas de nuestra msica navidea porque muestra que estamos abiertas a prcticas religiosas a pesar de que la Iglesia Catlica nos odia a los L.G.B.T." +Sus conciertos atraen a sus propias comunidades, s, pero tambin a una generacin de mayor edad, una generacin que podra ser suspicaz de la homosexualidad, pero que tiene nostalgia por su propia msica y el pasado que representa. +Un padre que inicialmente se rehusaba a que su hija saliera en un coro de esa ndole, ahora escribe canciones para ellas. +En la Edad Media, los trovadores viajaban a travs de la tierra cantando sus historias y compartiendo sus versos. Lesbor viaja a travs de los Balcanes as, cantando, conectando gente dividida por su religin, nacionalidad e idioma, +Bosnios, croatas y serbios encuentran un raro espacio de orgullo compartido en su historia, y Lesbor les recuerda a ellos que las canciones que un grupo reclama como nicamente suyas realmente les pertenecen a todos. +Ayer, Mallika Sarabhai nos mostr que la msica puede crear un mundo que acepta ms la diferencia que el que nos han dado. +El mundo que le dieron a Layma Bowie fue un mundo de guerra. +Durante dcadas, Liberia haba sido destruida por conflictos polticos. +Layma no era una activista, era la madre de tres hijos. +Pero estaba enferma por la preocupacin. Le preocupaba que su hijo fuera secuestrado y se lo llevaran para ser un nio soldado. Le preocupaba que sus hijas fueran violadas. Se preocupaba por sus vidas. +Una noche tuvo un sueo. +So que ella y miles de mujeres ms acababan con el derramamiento de sangre. +A la maana siguiente en la iglesia, les pregunt a otras cmo se sentan. +Todas estaban cansadas de la lucha. +Necesitamos paz, y necesitamos que nuestros lderes sepan que no descansaremos hasta que haya paz. +Entre las amigas de Layma, haba una polica musulmana. +Ella prometi plantear el asunto con su comunidad. +Durante el sermn del siguiente viernes, las mujeres que estaban sentadas en el saln anexo de la mezquita comenzaron a compartir su afliccin ante al estado de las cosas. +"Qu importa?" decan, "Una bala no distingue entre un musulmn y un cristiano." +Este pequeo grupo de mujeres resueltas a acabar la guerra. Y eligieron usar sus tradiciones para convencer. Las mujeres liberianas normalmente llevan muchas joyas y ropas coloridas. +Pero no, para la protesta, ellas se vistieron completamente de blanco, sin maquillaje. +Como dijo Layma, "Vestimos de blanco diciendo que estbamos en busca de la paz." +Se pararon a un lado del camino por el que la caravana de automviles de Charles Taylor pasaba a diario. +Se pararon ah por semanas, primero 10, luego 20, luego 50, despus cientos de mujeres vestidas de blanco, cantando, bailando, diciendo que estaban buscando la paz. +Eventualmente, fuerzas opuestas en Liberia fueron presionadas para llevar a cabo negociaciones de paz en Ghana. +Las negociaciones se alargaron ms y ms. +Layma y sus hermanas ya haban tenido suficiente. +Con los fondos que les quedaban, llevaron a un pequeo grupo de mujeres al lugar de las negociaciones, y rodearon el edificio. +En un, ahora famoso, corto de CNN, se les puede ver sentadas en el suelo, sus brazos entrelazados. +Esto lo conocemos en India. Se llama [hind]. +Entonces las cosas se pusieron tensas. +Llaman a la polica para retirar a las mujeres fsicamente. +Cuando el oficial mayor se acerca con una cachiporra, Layma se levanta deliberadamente, levanta sus brazos por encima de su cabeza, y comienza, muy lentamente, a desatar el tocado que cubre su cabello. +Se puede ver la cara del polica. +Se ve avergonzado. Se aleja. +Y lo siguiente que sabemos, es que la polica ha desaparecido. +Layma me dijo ms tarde, "Es el tab, ya sabes, en frica Occidental. +Si una mujer mayor se desviste frente a un hombre porque ella as lo quiere, la familia del hombre es maldecida." +Dice ella, "No s si l lo hizo porque crea, pero l saba que no nos bamos a ir. +No nos bamos a ir hasta que el acuerdo de paz se firmara." +Y el acuerdo de paz se firm. +Y las mujeres de Liberia se movilizaron entonces en apoyo a Ellen Johnson Sirleaf, una mujer que rompi algunos tabes ella misma al convertirse en la primera mujer jefe de estado en frica durante aos. +Cuando pronunci su discurso presidencial, ella reconoci a esas mujeres valientes de Liberia que le permitieron ganar contra una estrella del ftbol soccer para ustedes los americanos nada menos. +Mujeres como Sakena y Leah y Layma me han hecho humilde y me han cambiado y me han hecho darme cuenta de que yo no debera hacer suposiciones apresuradas de ningn tipo. +Tambin me han salvado de mi justo enojo al ofrecerme puntos de vista sobre esta tercera va. +Una activista filipina un da me dijo, "Cmo cocinas un pastel de arroz? +Con calor desde abajo y calor desde arriba." +Las protestas, las marchas, la posicin innegociable de que los derechos de las mujeres son Derechos Humanos, y punto! +se es el calor desde abajo. +se es Malcolm X y los sufragistas y los desfiles del orgullo gay. +Pero tambin necesitamos el calor desde arriba. +Y en la mayor parte del mundo, ese arriba todava est controlado por hombres. +As que, parafraseando a Marx: Las mujeres hacen el cambio, pero no en circunstancias de su eleccin. +Tienen que negociar. +Tienen que subvertir la tradicin que alguna vez las silenci para dar voz a nuevas aspiraciones. +Y necesitan aliados desde sus comunidades, +aliados como el imn, aliados como el padre que ahora escribe canciones para un grupo de lesbianas en Croacia, aliados como el polica que respet un tab y se alej, aliados como mi padre, quien no pudo ayudar a su hermana, pero ha ayudado a tres hijas a perseguir sus sueos. +Quizs esto es porque el feminismo, a diferencia de casi cualquier otro movimiento social, no est en contra de un opresor definido. No es la clase en el poder o la ocupacin o los colonizadores, est en contra de un conjunto de creencias y suposiciones profundamente arraigados de que las mujeres, demasiado seguido, nos contenemos. +Y quizs ste es el don concluyente del feminismo, que lo personal es de hecho lo poltico. +De manera que, como Eleanor Roosevelt dijo una vez de los Derechos Humanos, lo mismo es cierto para la equidad de gnero, que comienza en pequeos lugares, cerca de casa. +En las calles, s, pero tambin en negociaciones en la mesa de la cocina y en la cama conyugal y en relaciones entre amantes y padres de familia y hermanas y amigos. +Y entonces, y entonces te das cuenta de que al integrar aspectos de tradicin y comunidad en sus luchas, mujeres como Sakena y Leah y Layma, pero tambin Sonia Gandhi aqu en la India y Michelle Bachelet en Chile y Sirin Ebadi en Irn estn haciendo algo ms. +Estn desafiando la nocin misma de los modelos occidentales de desarrollo. +Estan diciendo, no tenemos que ser como ustedes para hacer el cambio. +Podemos llevar puesto un sari o un hiyab o pantalones o un boubou, y podemos ser lderes de partidos y presidentes y abogadas de Derechos Humanos. +Podemos usar nuestra tradicin para navegar el cambio. +Podemos desmilitarizar sociedades y en su lugar, verter recursos en las reservas de una seguridad genuina. +Es en estas pequeas historias, estas historias individuales, en que yo veo que se est escribiendo una pica radical por mujeres alrededor del mundo. +Es en estos hilos que estn siendo tejidos en una tela durable que sustentar comunidades, en donde encuentro esperanza. +Y si mi corazn canta, es porque, en estos pequeos fragmentos, de vez en cuando, se alcanza a vislumbrar un mundo completa completamente nuevo. +Y ella est definitivamente en camino. +Gracias. +Me gustara hablar hoy sobre una idea. Es una gran idea. +De hecho, creo que eventualmente ser vista probablemente como la idea ms grande que haya surgido en el siglo pasado. +Es la idea de la computacin. +Ahora bien, esta idea nos ha trado toda la tecnologa computacional que tenemos hoy en da. +Pero hay ms en la computacin que todo eso. +Es una idea muy profunda, muy poderosa, muy fundamental, cuyos efectos estamos justo empezando a vislumbrar +Bueno, yo mismo he pasado 30 aos de mi vida trabajando sobre tres grandes proyectos que realmente intentan tomarse la idea de la computacin en serio. +As comenc desde una temprana edad como fsico utilizando computadoras como herramientas. +Luego, comenc como a hilar ms finamente pensando acerca de los clculos que me gustara hacer, intentando descifrar sobre qu primitivas podran construirse y cmo se podran automatizar al mximo. +Finalmente, cre una estructura completa basada en la programacin simblica, etctera que me permiti construir Mathematica. +Y durante los ltimos 23 aos, cada vez ms rpido, hemos estado volcando ms y ms ideas y capacidades, etctera, en Mathematica, y estoy contento de decir que ha llevado a muchas cosas buenas en Investigacin y Desarrollo y en educacin, y en muchas otras reas. +Bueno, debo admitir, de hecho, que yo tena una razn muy egosta para construir Mathematica. Quera usarla yo mismo, un poco como Galileo lleg a usar su telescopio hace 400 aos. +Pero yo no quera ver el universo astronmico, sino el universo computacional. +Habitualmente pensamos que los programas son estas complicadas cosas que construimos para fines muy especficos. +Pero qu ocurre con el espacio de todos los programas posibles? +Aqu vemos una representacin de un programa simple. +As que si ejecutamos este programa, esto es lo que obtenemos. +Muy simple. +As que intentemos cambiando las reglas de este programa un poco. +Ahora obtenemos otro resultado, todava muy sencillo. +Probemos cambiando de nuevo. +Obtenemos algo un poco ms complicado, +y si lo seguimos ejecutando durante un tiempo, encontramos que, a pesar de que el patrn es intrincado, tiene una estructura muy regular. +Entonces la pregunta es: Puede ocurrir algo ms? +Bien, podemos hacer un pequeo experimento. +Hagamos un experimento matemtico, probemos y veremos. +Simplemente ejecutemos todos los programas posibles del mismo tipo al que estamos viendo. +Se llaman autmatas celulares. +Se puede observar mucha diversidad de comportamiento aqu. +La mayora hace cosas muy simples. Pero si uno mira a lo largo de todos estos dibujos, en la regla nmero 30, uno comienza a ver que sucede algo interesante. +As que veamos ms de cerca a la regla 30 aqu. +Aqu est. +Tan solo estamos siguiendo esta regla aqu debajo, pero estamos generando todo este material asombroso. +No es nada parecido a lo que estamos habituados, y debo decir que, cuando v esto por primera vez, me impact directamente sobre mi intuicin, +y, de hecho, para comprenderlo, en su momento tuve que crear una ciencia totalmente nueva. +Esta ciencia es distinta, ms general, que la ciencia basada en las matemticas que hemos tenido en los ltimos 300 aos, apoximadamente. +Uds saben, siempre fue como un gran misterio cmo la naturaleza, aparentemente sin esfuerzo logra producir tanto que nos parece tan complejo. +Bueno, me parece que encontramos su secreto. Est haciendo un muestreo de lo que est all, en el universo computacional y muy a menudo, logra resultados como la regla 30 o como esto. +Y saber esto, comienza a explicar muchos de los viejos misterios de la ciencia. +Tambin propone nuevos temas, como la irreducibilidad computacional. +Lo que digo es, estamos habituados a que la ciencia prediga cosas, pero algo como esto es fundamentalmente irreducible. +La nica forma de ver su resultado es, efectivamente, tan solo verlo evolucionar. +Est conectado a, lo que yo llamo principio de la equivalencia computacional que nos dice que an los sistemas ms simples pueden realizar cmputos tan sofisticados como sea. +No se necesita mucha tecnologa o evolucin biolgica para poder realizar computacin arbitraria, es tan slo algo que ocurre, de forma natural en todas partes. +Cosas con reglas tan simples como stas pueden hacerlo. +Bueno, esto tiene consecuencias profundas sobre los lmites de la ciencia, acerca de la predictibilidad y controlabilidad de cosas como procesos biolgicos o economas, acerca de la inteligencia del universo, acerca de preguntas como el libre albedro y acerca de crear tecnologa. +Uds saben, trabajando sobre esta ciencia por muchos aos, siempre me pregunt, "Cul va a ser su primera aplicacin asesina (killer app)?" +Bien, desde que era nio, he estado pensando acerca de sistematizar el conocimiento y de alguna manera hacerlo computable. +Gente como Leibniz se haban preguntado eso tambin 300 aos antes. +Pero siempre cre que para progresar, tendra que, esencialmente, replicar un cerebro completo. +Ha sido un proyecto grande, muy complejo, del que yo no estaba seguro si iba a funcionar. +Pero estoy feliz de decir que de hecho est funcionando muy bien. +Y el ao pasado logramos lanzar la primera versin en website de Wolfram Alpha. +Su propsito es ser un motor de bsqueda de conocimiento realmente serio que compute las respuestas a preguntas. +As que dmosle una oportunidad. +Comencemos con algo realmente fcil. +Esperemos lo mejor. +Muy bien. OK. +Hasta aqu, todo bien. +Probemos algo un poco ms difcil. +Digamos... Hagamos algo matemtico y con suerte, lograr la respuesta e intentar decirnos algunas cosas interesantes, cosas sobre la matemtica relacionada. +Le podemos preguntar algo sobre el mundo real. +Digamos, no s... Cul es es producto bruto interno de Espaa? +Y debera poder decirnos eso. +Ahora podramos computar algo relacionado con esto, digamos el PBI de Espaa dividido por, no s, el... ehm... +digamos las ganancias de Microsoft. +la idea es que podamos tan solo escribir esto aqu esta pregunta en la forma que la pensemos. +As que intentemos una pregunta, como una pregunta relacionada con la salud. +Digamos que tenemos un resultado de laboratorio que... +ustedes saben, tenemos un nivel de LDL de 140 para un hombre de 50 aos. +Entonces escribamos esto, y ahora Wolfram Alpha ir y utilizar la informacin pblica disponible e intentar resolver a qu porcin de la poblacin corresponde esto y dems. +O intentemos preguntar acerca de, no s, la estacin espacial internacional. +Y lo que ocurre aqu es que Wolfram Alpha no est simplemente buscando algo; est computando, en tiempo real, dnde se encuentra la estacin espacial internacional ahora, en este momento, a qu velocidad va y dems datos. +Entonces Wolfram Alpha sabe acerca de muchos tipos de cosas. +A esta altura tiene, una muy buena cobertura de cualquier cosa que uno encuentre en una biblioteca de referencia tpica y dems. +Pero el objetivo es ir mucho ms all y, a grandes rasgos, democratizar todo este tipo de conocimiento, e intentar ser una fuente de autoridad en todas las reas, +de ser capaz de computar respuestas a preguntas especficas que la gente tenga, no buscando lo que otra gente haya escrito antes, sino utilizando el conocimiento interno para computar respuestas nuevas y frescas a una pregunta especfca. +Ahora, por supuesto, Wolfram Alpha es un proyecto monumentalmente grande y a largo plazo con muchos y muchos desafos. +Para empezar, uno debe seleccionar de entre millones de fuentes de datos y hechos, y construimos una gran va de sistemas automticos en Mathematica y expertos humanos para lograr esto. +Pero eso es tan slo el comienzo. +Una vez proporcionados los datos en crudo para contestar realmente las preguntas uno debe computar, uno debe implementar todos esos mtodos y modelos y algoritmos y dems que la ciencia y otras reas han construido a travs de los siglos. +Bueno, an comenzando desde Mathematica, esto representa una cantidad inmensa de trabajo. +Hasta ahora, existen unas 8 millones de lneas de cdigo de Mathematica en Wolfram Alpha. elaboradas por expertos de muchos, muchos campos. +Bueno, una idea crucial de Wolfram Alpha es que uno le pueda simplemente hacer preguntas utilizando lenguaje humano comn, lo que significa que debemos ser capaces de tomar todas esas frases extraas que la gente tipea en el campo de ingreso y entenderlas. +Y debo admitir que yo pens que ese paso podra ser directamente imposible. +Dos grandes cosas ocurrieron. Primero, un grupo de nuevas ideas sobre lingstica que vinieron de estudiar el universo computacional. Y segundo, la nocin de que tener conocimiento computable real cambia completamente cmo uno puede intentar comprender el lenguaje. +Y, por supuesto, ahora con Wolfram Alpha suelto en el mundo, podemos aprender de su uso real. +Y de hecho, ha sido una co-evolucin interesante la que ha estado ocurriendo entre Wolfram Alpha y sus usuarios humanos. Y es de veras alentador. +Ahora mismo, si vemos estas bsquedas desde la web, ms del 80% logran ser respondidas en forma satisfactoria en el primer intento. +Y si uno ve cosas como las aplicaciones para el iPhone, la proporcin es considerablemente mayor. +Por lo que estoy bastante satisfecho con todo esto. +Pero de varias maneras, estamos todava en el inicio con Wolfram Alpha. +Quiero decir, todo parece estar creciendo muy bien Estamos ganando confianza. +Ustedes pueden esperar ver ms de la tecnologa de Wolfram Alpha apareciendo en ms y ms lugares, trabajando tanto con este tipo de datos pblicos, como en el sitio web, y con datos privados para clientes y compaas y dems. +Saben, me he dado cuenta que Wolfram Alpha le da a uno un tipo totalmente nuevo de computacin que uno puede llamar computacin basada en el conocimiento, en la que uno se inicia, no solo desde la computacin neta, sino desde un vasto conocimiento ya construido. +Y cuando uno hace eso, uno realmente cambia la economa de la entrega de las cosas computables, ya sea en la web o en cualquier otro lugar. +Saben, tenemos una situacin bastante interesante aqu, ahora. +Por un lado, tenemos a Mathematica, con su lenguaje un tanto preciso y formal y una extensa red de capacidades cuidadosamente diseadas capaz de lograr mucho en tan solo unas pocas lneas. +Djenme mostrarles un par de ejemplos aqu. +Aqu tenemos una pieza trivial de la programacin de Mathematica. +Aqu hay algo en lo que estamos integrando un grupo de capacidades distintas si puede ser. +Aqu, crearemos solo en esta lnea una pequea interfaz de usuario que nos permite hacer algo divertido aqu. +Si uno sigue, ya se convierte en un programa ms complicado que est haciendo todo tipo de cosas algortmicas y creando la interfaz de usuario y dems. +Pero es algo que es material muy preciso. +Es una indicacin precisa con lenguaje preciso y formal que logra que Mathematica sepa qu es lo que debe hacer aqu. +Bien, por otro lado, tenemos a Wolfram Alpha, con todo el revuelo del mundo y el lenguaje humano y dems ingresado en l. +Entonces qu pasa si juntamos estas dos cosas? +Yo de hecho creo que es algo maravilloso. +Con Wolfram Alpha dentro de Mathematica, uno puede, por ejemplo, hacer programas precisos que utilicen datos del mundo real. +Aqu tenemos un ejemplo realmente simple. +Uno tambin puede ingresar datos un tanto vagos y luego intentar que Wolfram Alpha intente deducir de qu estamos hablando. +Intentemos esto aqu. +Pero de hecho creo que lo ms interesante de esto es que le da a uno la posibilidad de democratizar la programacin. +Quiero decir, cualquiera puede en lenguaje diario intentar decir qu quieren, +luego, la idea es que, Wolfram Alpha sea capaz de deducir las piezas precisas de cdigo que puedan llevar a cabo lo que uno le est pidiendo y luego mostrar ejemplos que permitan al usuario elegir lo que necesiten para construir programas cada vez ms grandes y ms precisos. +As que, a veces, Wolfram Alpha podr hacer todo de forma inmediata y devolver el programa completo para que uno pueda computar. +Entonces, aqu tenemos un gran sitio web en el cual hemos ido recolectando muchas demonstraciones educativas y de muchas otras cosas. +Pues, no s, les muestro un ejemplo, tal vez aqu. +Este es tan solo un ejemplo de esos documentos computables. +Esto es posiblemente una pequea porcin de cdigo de Mathematica que puede ejecutarse aqu. +OK. Alejemos de nuevo el foco. +Entonces, con nuestro nuevo tipo de ciencia, existe una forma general de utilizarlo para hacer tecnologa? +Entonces, con materiales fsicos, estamos habituados a andar por el mundo y a descubrir que esos materiales en particular son tiles para propsitos tecnolgicos en particular y dems. +Bueno, parece ser, que podemos hacer prcticamente lo mismo en el universo computacional. +Existe una fuente inagotable de programas en el mundo. +El desafo es ver cmo encauzarlos para propsitos humanos. +Algo como la regla 30, por ejemplo, parece ser un muy buen generador de azar. +Otros programas simples son buenos modelos de procesos en el mundo natural o en el mundo social. +Y, por ejemplo, Wolfram Alpha y Mathematica estn de hecho ahora llenos de algoritmos que decubrimos buscando en el universo computacional. +Y, por ejemplo, esto - volvemos aqu- Esto es sorprendentemente popular entre compositores que buscan formas musicales en el universo computacional. +De alguna manera, podemos usar el universo computacional para lograr creatividad en masa personalizada. +Estoy deseando poder, por ejemplo, utilizar Wolfram Alpha para que haga inventos y descubrimientos de forma rutinaria y que logre hallar todo tipo de material fantstico que ningn ingeniero ni proceso de evolucin gradual pueda lograr jams. +Bien, eso nos lleva a la pregunta ltima. Puede que en algn lugar del universo computacional encontremos nuestro universo fsico? +Tal vez exista una regla simple, un programa simple para nuestro universo. +Bueno, la historia de la fsica nos hace creer que la regla para el universo debe ser bastante complicada. +Pero en el universo computacional ya hemos visto cun simples son las reglas y cmo pueden producir comportamientos tan ricos y complejos. +Entonces, puede ser que sea eso lo que ocurre con todo nuestro universo? +Si las reglas para el universo son simples, es bastante inevitable que tengan que ser muy abstractas y a niveles muy bsicos, operando, por ejemplo, muy por debajo del nivel del espacio o del tiempo, lo que hace que la representacin de las cosas sea difcil. +Pero en por lo menos una gran categora de casos, uno puede concebir el universo como una especie de red, que, cuando llega a ser suficientemente grande se comporta como espacio continuo de la misma manera que muchas molculas pueden comportarse como un fluido continuo. +Bien, cuando el universo tiene que evolucionar aplica pequeas reglas que progresivamente actualizan su red. +Y cada regla posible, de alguna manera, corresponde a un posible universo alternativo. +De hecho, nunca haba mostrado esto antes, pero hay unos pocos universos alternativos que he explorado. +Algunos de ellos son universos sin futuro, completamente estriles, con otras patologas como ausencia de espacio, ausencia de tiempo, sin materia, otros problemas como esos. +Pero lo realmente asombroso que he hallado en los ltimos aos es que uno no tiene que ir de hecho muy lejos en el universo computacional para encontrar universos alternativos que obviamente no sean nuestro universo. +Aqu est el problema: Cualquier candidato serio para nuestro universo, est inevitablemente lleno de irreducibilidad computacional, +lo que significa que es irreduciblemente difcil ver cmo se va a comportar realmente, y si de hecho coincide con nuestro universo fsico. +Algunos aos atrs, me alegr mucho al descubrir que hay universos alternativos con reglas increblemente simples que reproducen con xito la relatividad especial tambin la relatividad general y la gravitacin y hasta nos dan indicios de mecnica cuntica. +Entonces, podremos encontrar el mundo de la fsica completo? +No lo s con seguridad. Pero creo llegado este punto es casi embarazoso no intentarlo. +No es un proyecto fcil. +Uno debe construir mucha tecnologa. +Uno debe construir una estructura que sea posiblemente tan profunda como la fsica ya existente. +Y no estoy seguro de cul es la mejor manera de organizar todo eso. +Crear un equipo, abrirlo al mundo, ofrecer premios y dems. +Pero les digo aqu ahora que me comprometo a ver este proyecto realizado, para ver, si, dentro de esta dcada, podemos finalmente tener en nuestras manos la regla de nuestro universo y saber dnde yace nuestro universo en el espacio de todos los universos posibles +y podremos escribir en Wolfram Alpha "Teora del universo", y que nos la cuente. +Pues llevo trabajando en la idea de la computacin durante ms de 30 aos, creando herramientas y mtodos y transformando ideas intelectuales en millones de lneas de cdigo y alimento para granjas de servidores y dems. +Con cada ao que pasa, me doy cuenta cunto ms poderosa es la idea de la computacin. +Nos ha llevado lejos ya, pero hay mucho ms todava por venir, +desde las bases de la ciencia a los lmites de la tecnologa a la misma definicin de la condicin humana, yo creo la que computacin est destinada a ser la idea que defina nuestro futuro. +Gracias. +Chris Anderson: Eso fue impresionante. +Qudate aqu. Tengo una pregunta. +Es justo decir, que eso fue una charla asombrosa. +Puedes decir en una o dos oraciones cmo este tipo de pensamiento pueda integrarse en elgn punto con cosas como la teora de cuerdas y el tipo de cosas que la gente cree como los fundamentos de la explicacin del universo? +Stephen Wolfram: Bueno, las partes de la fsica que tal vez sepamos que son ciertas, cosas como el modelo estndar de fsica. Lo que yo intento hacer ms vale que reproduzca el modelo estndar de fsica o si no, simplemente est mal. +Las cosas que la gente ha intentado hacer en los ltimos 25 aos con la teora de cuerdas y dems ha sido una exploracin interesante que ha intentado volver al modelo estndar, pero no han llegado del todo all. +Mi idea es que algunas de las grandes simplificaciones que estoy haciendo puedan de hecho tener una resonancia considerable con lo que se ha hecho en la teora de cuerdas, pero es un tema matemtico complejo que no s todava cmo va a funcionar. +CA: Benoit Mandlebrot est entre nuestro pblico. +l tambin ha demostrado cmo la complejidad puede surgir de un inicio simple. +Cmo se relaciona su trabajo al de l? +SW: Ya lo creo. +Yo veo el trabajo de Benoit Mandlebrot como una de las contribuciones fundacionales a este tipo de rea. +Benoit se ha interesado especialmente en clases anidadas, en fractales y dems, en donde la estructura es algo que es como un rbol, y donde hay una especie de rama grande que genera pequeas ramas, y ramas ms pequeas y dems. +Ese es como uno de los caminos que uno recorre hacia la complejidad verdadera. +Yo creo que cosas como el autmata celular de la regla 30 nos llevan a un nivel diferente. +De hecho, de una manera muy precisa nos llevan a un nivel distinto porque parecen ser cosas que son capaces de una complejidad que es como la mayor complejidad a la que se puede llegar... +Podra seguir y seguir con esto por mucho rato, pero no lo har. CA: Stephen Wolfram, gracias. +Hola, mi nombre es Roz Savage y remo por los ocanos. +Hace 4 aos cruc el Atlntico remando en solitario y desde entonces he hecho dos de las tres etapas de la travesa por el Pacfico, desde San Francisco hasta Hawaii y desde Hawaii a Kiribati. +Y maana, me marchar de este barco y volar de regreso a Kiribati para continuar con la tercera y ltima etapa de mi travesa por el Pacfico. +En conjunto, habr remado ms de 12.800 kilmetros hecho ms de 3 millones de remadas y pasado ms de 312 das en solitario en el ocano, en un bote de remo de 23 pies. +Esto me ha dado una relacin muy especial con el ocano. +Tenemos una relacin de amor/odio. +Siento, sobre ella, como me senta sobre una profesora de matemticas muy estricta que tuve en la escuela. +No siempre me cay bien, pero la respetaba. Y ella me ense muchsimo. +Hoy quisiera compartir con ustedes algunas de mis aventuras ocenicas y contarles un poco de lo que me han enseado y cmo creo que podemos aprovechar esas lecciones y aplicarlas a este desafo medioambiental que enfrentamos ahora. +Bueno, alguno de ustedes puede estar pensando, "Espera un minuto, ella realmente no se parece mucho a una remadora ocenica. +No se supone que tendra que ser as de alta y de este ancho y quiz parecerse un poco ms a estos muchachos?" +Como se habrn dado cuenta, ellos tienen algo que yo no tengo. +Bueno, no s en que estarn pensando, pero me refiero a las barbas. Y sin importar el tiempo que paso en el ocano, todava no he logrado dejarme una barba decente. Y espero que eso siga as. +Durante mucho tiempo yo no pensaba que podra tener una gran aventura. +La historia que me contaba a m misma era que los aventureros se vean as. +Yo no encajaba en ese papel. +Pensaba que existan ellos y luego nosotros y yo no era uno de ellos. +Durante 11 aos me conform. +Hice lo que la gente con mi perfil debera hacer. +Trabajaba en una oficina en Londres como consultora de direccin. +Y creo que supe, desde el primer da, que ste no era el trabajo para m. +Pero ese tipo de condicionamiento me mantuvo all durante muchos aos hasta que llegu a los treinta y tantos y pens "No me estoy haciendo ms joven. +Siento como si tuviera un propsito en la vida pero no supiera cul es, pero estoy segura que la consultora de direccin no lo es". +Saltemos unos aos, +haba pasado por algunos cambios. +Para responderme a esa pregunta: qu se supone que debera estar haciendo con mi vida? +Un da me sent a escribir dos versiones de mi propio obituario el que quera, una vida de aventura, y al que realmente me diriga el cual era una vida buena, normal, placentera, pero que no era donde quera estar al final de mi vida. +Quera vivir una vida de la cual pudiera estar orgullosa. +Y recuerdo estar mirando esas dos versiones de mi obituario y pensando: "Por Dios, estoy tomando el camino completamente equivocado. +Si sigo viviendo como lo estoy haciendo sencillamente no terminar en donde quisiera estar en 5 10 aos o al final de mi vida. +Hice algunos cambios, me deshice de mis adornos de mi vida pasada y con un salto de lgica decid atravesar el ocano Atlntico remando. +La travesa atlntica sale desde Canarias hasta Antigua. Son unos 4.800 km. Y result ser la cosa ms difcil que jams haba hecho. +Claro, yo haba querido salir de mi zona de comodidad, pero lo que no haba tomado en cuenta fue que salir de tu zona de comodidad es, por definicin, extremadamente incmodo. +Y mi salida fue inoportuna. En el 2005, cuando atraves el Atlntico, fue el ao del huracn Katrina. +Hubo ms tormentas tropicales en el Atlntico Norte que nunca antes, desde que se tiene registro. +Y desde el inicio las tormentas amenazaban mi travesa. +Mis cuatro remos se quebraron antes de que llegara a la mitad del recorrido. +Se supone que los remos no se ven as. +Pero, qu puedes hacer? Ests en el medio del ocano. +Los remos son tu nico medio de propulsin. +As que tuve que mirar alrededor del barco y averiguar lo que iba a utilizar para arreglar los remos y as poder seguir adelante. +Encontr un gancho y mi cinta adhesiva de confianza y adher el gancho a los remos para reforzarlos. +Luego, cuando eso cedi cort los ejes de las ruedas de mi asiento de remo de repuesto y us eso. +Y cuando eso cedi, utilic uno de los remos rotos. +Nunca haba sido muy buena arreglando las cosas en mi vida anterior. Pero es sorprendente lo ingenioso que puede uno llegar a ser cuando est en medio del ocano y slo hay una manera de llegar al otro lado. +Y los remos se volvieron un smbolo de las tantas maneras que fui ms all de lo que pensaba que eran mi lmites. +Sufr de tendinitis en los hombros y llagas de agua salada en el trasero. +Batall psicolgicamente totalmente abrumada por la magnitud del desafo, al darme cuenta que si segua movindome a 3 km por hora 4.800 km iban a llevarme mucho, mucho tiempo. +Hubo muchos momentos en los que pens haber llegado al lmite pero no tena ms opcin que seguir adelante y tratar de imaginar cmo iba a llegar al otro lado sin volverme loca. +Y finalmente despus de 103 das en el mar llegu a Antigua. +Creo que nunca me sent tan feliz en toda mi vida. +Fue como terminar una maratn salir de la reclusin y ganar el Oscar, todo en uno. +Estaba eufrica. +Y ver toda la gente que vena a saludarme y parada a lo largo de los acantilados, aplaudiendo y animndome, me senta como una estrella de cine. +Fue absolutamente maravilloso. +Y aprend que cuanto ms grande es el reto ms grande es la sensacin de logro al llegar al final. +Esto podra ser un buen momento para responder preguntas sobre el remo ocenico que puede ser que tengan en su mente. +Pregunta nmero uno: Qu comes? +Comidas liofilizadas, pero en su mayora intento comer alimentos menos procesados. +Cultivo mis propios brotes de soja. +Como barras de fruta y nuez, muchas nueces +por lo general termino la travesa con 9 kg menos. +Pregunta nmero dos: Cmo duermes? +Con mis ojos cerrados, ja, ja. +Supongo que lo que quieren decir es: Qu sucede con el bote mientras duermo? +Bueno, planifico mi ruta para irme moviendo con el viento y las corrientes mientras duermo. +En una buena noche, creo que mi mejor marca ha sido 18 km en la direccin correcta. +La peor, 20 km en la direccin equivocada. +Eso es un mal da en la oficina. +Qu me pongo? +Generalmente una gorra de bisbol guantes de remo y una sonrisa, o fruncido de ceo, dependiendo de si retroced durante la noche. Y mucha crema solar. +Tengo un bote de rescate? +No, no tengo. Soy totalmente autosuficiente. +No veo a nadie durante todo el tiempo que estoy en alta mar, por lo general. +Y finalmente: Estoy loca? +Bueno, voy a dejar que ustedes juzguen. +Cmo superas cruzar el Atlntico remando? +Bueno, naturalmente decides cruzar el Pacfico. +Yo haba pensado que el Atlntico era grande pero el Pacfico es realmente grande. +Creo que no le hacemos justicia en nuestros mapas comunes. +No estoy segura si fueron los britnicos quien inventaron este punto de vista del mundo en particular, pero sospecho que s porque quedamos justo en el medio. Y hemos cortado el Pacfico en la mitad y haberlo puesto en los dos rincones del mundo, +mientras que si miras en Google Earth as es como se ve el Pacfico. +Cubre casi la mitad del planeta. +Slo se ve un poco de Amrica del Norte aqu y una punta de Australia all abajo. +Es realmente grande. 164.000.000 km2 Y remar en lnea recta a travs de l, seran unos 12.800 kms. +Por desgracia, botes de remos ocenicos muy rara vez van en lnea recta. +Para cuando llegue a Australia, si llego a Australia, habr remado unos 14 16 mil kms en total. +Dado que nadie en su sano juicio remara ms all de Hawaii sin detenerse decid cortar este reto muy grande en tres segmentos. +En el primer intento no me fue tan bien. +En 2007, tuve un volcado involuntario 3 veces en 24 horas. +Un poco como estar en una lavadora. +El bote sufri daos, y yo tambin. +Lo coment en el blog. Por desgracia, alguien con complejo de hroe decidi que esta damisela estaba en peligro y necesitaba ayuda. +Yo me enter de esto cuando el avin de la Guardia Costera apareci sobre mi bote. +Intent rogarles que se fueran. +Nos peleamos un rato. +Perd y fui transportada por aire. +Horrible, realmente horrible. +Fue uno de los peores sentimientos de toda mi vida. Mientras suba la cuerda al helicptero y miraba a mi fiel botecito revolcndose en las olas de 6 metros me preguntaba si volvera a verlo. +Y tuve que poner en marcha una operacin de rescate muy cara y luego esperar nueve meses ms hasta poder volver al ocano. +Pero qu hacer? +Caes 9 veces, te levantas 10. +Al ao siguiente, lo reintent y, afortunadamente, esta vez llegue a Hawaii a salvo. +Pero no fue sin contratiempos. +Mi potabilizador de agua se rompi, la pieza ms importante en el bote. +Alimentada por paneles solares, succiona agua salada y la convierte en agua dulce. +Pero no reacciona muy bien al ser sumergida en el ocano, que es lo que le pas. +Afortunadamente, el auxilio se encontraba cerca. +Haba otro barco inusual por ah al mismo tiempo, haciendo lo que yo estaba haciendo, dando a conocer al parche de basura del Pacfico Norte, esa zona del Pacfico Norte el doble de tamao de Tejas, con una cifra estimada de 3,5 millones de toneladas de basura en l, que circulan en el centro del Giro del Pacfico Norte. +Como parte de su protesta, estos muchachos haban construido su bote con basura de plstico 15.000 botellas de agua vacas juntadas en dos pontones. +Iban muy lentamente. +En parte, haban tenido un poco de retraso. +Tuvieron que detenerse en la Isla Catalina, porque poco despus de salir de Long Beach las tapas de todas las botellas de agua se estaban saliendo, y empezaba a hundirse. +Tuvieron que detenerse y sellar todas las tapas. +Pero, se acababan mis reservas de agua por suerte, nuestros cursos convergan +Ellos se estaban quedando sin comida, y yo sin agua. +Nos pusimos en contacto por telfono satelital y quedamos en reunirnos. +Y nos llev una semana finalmente reunirnos. +Yo iba a una velocidad patticamente lenta, de 1,3 nudos y ellos a una velocidad un poco menos pattica de 1,4. Como dos caracoles en un juego de apareamiento. +Pero, finalmente, logramos encontrarnos y Joel se tir al mar, pesc un hermoso dorado mahi mahi, la mejor comida que haba comido en unos tres meses +Por suerte, el que pesc ese da fue mejor que ste que haba pescado un par de semanas antes. +Cuando abrieron ste encontraron que el estmago estaba lleno de plstico. +Y esto es una mala noticia porque el plstico no es una sustancia inerte. +Filtra las sustancias qumicas en la carne de la pobre criatura que lo comi y luego llegamos nosotros y comemos esa pobre criatura y acumulamos alguna de las toxinas en nuestros cuerpos. +Por lo tanto, hay implicaciones muy serias para la salud humana. +Eventualmene llegu a Hawaii, viva. +Y, al ao siguiente, embarqu en la segunda etapa de la travesa del Pacfico de Hawaii a Tarawa. +Se darn cuenta que Tarawa, est cerca del nivel del mar. +Es esa franja verde en el horizonte, lo cual los pone muy nerviosos sobre el tema de la subida del nivel del mar. +Este es un gran problema para esta gente. +Las zonas ms altas de la isla estn apenas unos dos metros sobre el nivel del mar. +Y como un incremento de los extremos fenmenos meteorolgicos por causa del cambio climtico, esperan ms olas a lo largo del arrecife costero que contaminarn el suministro de agua dulce. +Tuve una reunin con el presidente ah, que me habl sobre la estrategia de evacuacin de su pas. +l espera que en los prximos 50 aos, las cien mil personas que viven all se trasladen a Nueva Zelanda o Australia. +Y eso me hizo pensar en cmo me sentira yo si Gran Bretaa fuera a desaparecer bajo las olas. Si los sitios en donde nac en donde fui a la escuela y en donde me cas si todos esos lugares fueran a desaparecer para siempre +cun, literalmente, desarraigada me hara sentir eso. +En breve, me pondr en camino para tratar de llegar a Australia. Y si tengo xito, voy a ser la primera mujer en remar en solitario atravesando todo el Pacfico. +E intento usar esto para crear conciencia sobre estos problemas ambientales, para ponerle un rostro humano al ocano. +Creo que hay tres puntos clave. +El primero se trata de las historias que nos contamos. +Durante mucho tiempo yo me deca que no poda tener una aventura porque yo no meda 2 metros ni era atltica, ni barbuda. +Y luego eso cambi. +Me enter de que la gente haba cruzado los ocanos a remo. +Incluso conoc a una de ellas y era de mi estatura. +Por eso, aunque no crec nada ms ni me dej la barba algo haba cambiado; mi dilogo interior haba cambiado. +Por el momento la historia colectiva que nos contamos es que necesitamos todo esto que necesitamos petrleo. +Pero... y si cambiamos esta historia? +Tenemos alternativas y tenemos el poder del libre albedro para elegir aquellas alternativas, las ms sostenibles, para crear un futuro ms verde. +El segundo punto tiene que ver con la acumulacin de acciones pequeas. +Podramos pensar que todo lo que hacemos como individuos es slo una gota en el ocano, que no se puede marcar una diferencia real. +Pero no es as. Por lo general, no nos hemos metido en estos los por grandes catstrofes. +S, han existido los Exxon Valdeces los Chernobiles pero sobre todo ha sido una sucesin de malas decisiones de miles de millones de individuos da tras da, ao tras ao, +Y, por la misma razn, podemos revertir esa tendencia. +Podemos empezar a tomar mejores decisiones decisiones ms sabias, ms sostenibles. +Y al hacerlo, no somos los nicos. +Cada cosa que hacemos se propaga en ondas. +Otra gente lo ver, si uno est en la cola del supermercado y saca la bolsa ecolgica. +Quiz si todos comenzaremos a hacerlo podemos hacer que sea socialmente inaceptable decir s al plstico en la cola del supermercado. +Ese es slo un ejemplo. +Esto es una comunidad mundial. +El otro punto: se trata de asumir responsabilidades. +Durante una gran parte de mi vida quera algo que me hiciera feliz. +Pensaba que si tena una buena casa, un buen coche, o el hombre adecuado en mi vida entonces sera feliz +pero cuando hice el ejercicio del obituario madur un poco en ese momento y me di cuenta que necesitaba decidir y crear mi propio futuro. +No poda esperar pacientemente que la felicidad viniese a encontrarme. +Y supongo que soy una ecologista egosta. +Mi plan es vivir mucho tiempo, y cuando tenga 90 aos quiero ser feliz y en buen estado de salud. +Y es muy difcil ser feliz en un planeta devastado por el hambre y la sequa. +Es muy difcil tener buena salud en un planeta en el que hemos envenenado la tierra el mar y el aire. +En breve voy a lanzar una nueva iniciativa llamada Eco-Hroes. +Y la idea es que todos nuestros eco-hroes harn al menos una accin verde cada da. +Va a ser un poco como un juego. +Vamos a hacer una aplicacin para iPhone. +Slo queremos tratar de crear conciencia medioambiental porque, por supuesto, cambiar una lmpara no va a cambiar el mundo, pero esa actitud esa conciencia que lleva a cambiar una lmpara o usar una taza de caf en vez de una desechable, eso es lo que podra cambiar el mundo. +Realmente creo que estamos en un punto muy importante de la historia. +Tenemos una opcin. Hemos sido bendecidos, o maldecidos, con el libre albedro. +Podemos elegir un futuro ms verde. Y podremos llegar si todos remamos juntos, de a una palada a la vez. +Gracias. +La mayora de las charlas que hemos escuchado en los ltimos das han sido de personas que se caracterizan por haber pensado en algo; son expertos, saben lo que est pasando. +Todos aqu saben del tema del que se supone que debo hablar. +Es decir, ya saben qu es la simplicidad, ya saben qu es la complejidad. +El problema es que yo no lo s. +Y lo que voy a hacer es compartir con Uds. mi ignorancia en esta materia. +Quiero que lean esto porque vamos a volver a esto en un momento. +La cita es de la legendaria opinin de Potter Stewart sobre la pornografa. +Si me permiten voy a leer los detalles importantes. "Descripcin breve, pornografa dura; quiz nunca consiga definirla de manera inteligible, +pero la reconozco cuando la veo". +Regresar a eso en un momento. +Entonces, qu es la simplicidad? +Es bueno comenzar con algunos ejemplos. +Una taza de caf, no pensamos en las tazas de caf, pero es ms interesante de lo que parece. Una taza de caf es un objeto, s, que tiene un recipiente, s, y una manija, s. +La manija permite sostener la taza cuando el recipiente se llena con lquido caliente, s. +Por qu es eso importante? +Bueno, nos permite beber caf. +Pero tambin, por cierto, el caf est caliente, el lquido est esterilizado. Probablemente uno no [poco claro] de esa manera. +Por eso la taza de caf, la taza con manija, es un utensilio usado por la sociedad para preservar la salud pblica. +Las tijeras son la ropa. Los anteojos permiten ver las cosas, e impiden que nos coma un guepardo o que nos atropelle un auto. Y los libros son, despus de todo, la educacin. +Pero existe otro tipo de cosas simples que tambin son muy importantes. +Cosas funcionalmente simples pero para nada simples en la forma de construccin. +Y aqu hay dos ejemplos de eso. +Uno es el celular que usamos a diario. +El celular depende de una complejidad que tiene algunas caractersticas muy diferentes a las que mi amigo Benoit Mandelbrot expuso pero que son muy interesantes. +El otro ejemplo es la pldora anticonceptiva que, de manera muy simple, cambi fundamentalmente la estructura de la sociedad cambiando el papel de las mujeres en ella; dndoles la oportunidad de tomar decisiones reproductivas. +Creo que existen dos maneras de pensar acerca de esta palabra. +Y aqu he alterado la cita de Potter Stewart diciendo que podemos pensar en algo que abarque desde las tijeras hasta los celulares, Internet y las pldoras anticonceptivas diciendo que estas cosas son simples, las funciones son simples, y que reconocemos qu es la simplicidad cuando la vemos. +O puede haber otra forma de hacerlo, que es pensar el problema en trminos de lo que, si lo relacionamos con los filsofos morales, se llama el "problema de la tetera". +El problema de la tetera... lo voy a plantear as. +Supongamos que vemos una tetera y la tetera est llena de agua caliente. +Y uno entonces se pregunta: Por qu el agua est caliente? +Esa es una pregunta simple. +Es como preguntar qu es la simplicidad? +Una respuesta sera: porque la energa cintica de las molculas del agua es alta y las molculas rebotan rpidamente contra las cosas. Ese es un argumento de la ciencia fsica. +Un segundo argumento sera: porque estaba en una estufa con la llama encendida. Ese es un argumento histrico. +Un tercer argumento sera que yo quera agua caliente para el t. Ese es un argumento de intencin. +Y, viniendo de un filsofo moral, el cuarto argumento sera que es parte del plan divino para el Universo. +Todas estas son posibilidades. +La idea es que uno se mete en problemas cuando uno hace una pregunta simple con poco espacio para una respuesta, en donde esa pregunta simple se convierte en muchas preguntas con distintos significados pero con las mismas palabras. +Preguntar qu es la simplicidad, creo, cae en esa categora. +Cul es el estado de la ciencia? +Curiosamente, la complejidad se encuentra sumamente desarrollada. +Tenemos mucha informacin interesante acerca de lo que es la complejidad. +La simplicidad, por razones no del todo claras, casi nunca se estudia, al menos no en el mundo acadmico. +A los acadmicos, yo soy un acadmico, nos encanta la complejidad. +Uno puede escribir artculos sobre la complejidad. Y lo bueno de la complejidad es que es, en esencia, intratable en muchos sentidos por lo que uno no es responsable de los resultados. La simplicidad... a todos nos gustara que la licuadora por la maana hiciera lo que hacen las licuadoras y no explotara o tocara Beethoven. +No nos interesan las limitaciones de estas cosas. +Lo que nos interesa tiene mucho que ver con las recompensas del sistema. +Y hay varias recompensas si uno piensa sobre la complejidad y la emergencia, pero no tanto si uno piensa en la simplicidad. +Muy bien, qu es la complejidad vindola desde esta perspectiva? Qu es emergencia? +Tenemos una definicin de complejidad que funciona bastante bien. +Es un sistema, como el trfico, que tiene componentes. +Los componentes interactan entre s. +Estos son los autos y los conductores, que disipan energa. +Resulta que, cuando se tiene ese sistema, suceden cosas curiosas y aqu en Los ngeles probablemente sepan esto mejor que nadie. +Aqu hay otro ejemplo que eleg porque es un ejemplo de la ciencia actual realmente importante. +Es imposible que puedan leer eso. No es la idea que lo hagan. Esa es una pequea parte de las reacciones qumicas que suceden en nuestras clulas en un momento cualquiera. +Y es como el trfico que ven. +Lo sorprendente de la clula es que mantiene una relacin de trabajo bastante estable con otras clulas. Pero no sabemos por qu. +Cuando alguien les diga que entiende la vida, aljense. +Y djenme llevar esto al nivel ms sencillo. +Hemos escuchado hablar de Bill Gates recientemente. +Todos nosotros, en cierta medida, estudiamos este fenmeno llamado Bill Gates. +Fabuloso. Uno aprende todo lo que puede acerca del asunto. +Y luego hay otro tema que uno podra estudiar y uno lo hace con entusiasmo. +El tema es un Bono; este es Bono. +Pero luego, si uno sabe todo lo que puede sobre esos dos temas y los junta: qu podemos decir de esta combinacin? +La respuesta es: no mucho. +Eso es la complejidad. +Ahora, imaginen llevar eso a la construccin de una ciudad o una sociedad; tendramos, obviamente, un problema interesante. +Muy bien, permtanme darles un ejemplo de simplicidad de un tipo particular. +Y despus quiero introducir una palabra que creo es muy til, que es la palabra "apilamiento". +Y voy a usar la palabra apilamiento para un tipo de simplicidad que tiene la caracterstica que es tan simple y tan confiable que se pueden construir cosas con ella. +O voy a usar la palabra "simple" para expresar confiable, predecible, repetible. +Voy a usar Internet como ejemplo porque es un ejemplo particularmente bueno de simplicidad apilada. +Lo llamamos un sistema complejo, y lo es, pero tambin es algo ms. +Internet surge de la matemtica. Nace de lo binario. +Y si vemos la lista de cosas en la parte inferior estamos familiarizados con los nmeros arbigos de 1 a 10, etc. +En binario, 1 es 0001 7 es 0111. +La pregunta es: por qu lo binario es ms simple que lo arbigo? +Y la respuesta es sencillamente que si levanto tres dedos se pueden contar muy fcilmente, pero si levanto todos estos es un poco difcil contar siete. +Tiene la virtud de ser la forma ms sencilla posible de representacin numrica. +Cualquier otra forma es ms complicada. +Se pueden detectar errores con ella. Es inequvoco en su lectura. Hay muchas cosas buenas en lo binario. +De modo que es muy, muy simple una vez que uno sabe leerlo. +Ahora, si uno quiere representar el cero y el uno binario necesita un dispositivo. +Piensen en cosas de su vida que sean binarias. Una de ellas es el interruptor de luz. +Puede estar encendido o apagado. Eso es binario. +Todos sabemos que los interruptores de pared fallan. +Pero nuestros amigos, fsicos de la materia condensada, se las ingeniaron para inventar, hace 50 aos, un dispositivo muy bueno que aparece bajo la campana de cristal, que es el transistor. +Un transistor no es ms que un interruptor de pared. +Enciende y apaga cosas pero lo hace sin piezas mviles y no falla, bsicamente, durante un perodo muy largo de tiempo. +Entonces la segunda capa de simplicidad fue el transistor e Internet. +As, dado que el transistor es tan simple, se puede poner muchos de ellos juntos. +Y poniendo muchos de ellos juntos uno obtiene algo llamado circuitos integrados. +Y un circuito integrado actual podra tener en cada uno de estos chips algo as como mil millones de transistores que tienen que funcionar perfectamente en todo momento. +Esa es la prxima capa de simplicidad y, de hecho, los circuitos integrados son realmente simples en el sentido que, en general, funcionan muy bien. +Con circuitos integrados uno puede construir celulares. +Todos estamos acostumbrados a tener seal en nuestros celulares la mayora del tiempo. +En Boston, Boston es un poco como Namibia en cuanto a la cobertura de celulares por eso no estamos acostumbramos a eso todo el tiempo, sino a veces. +Pero, de hecho, si uno tiene celulares puede acudir a donde esta buena seora que vive en algn lugar de Namibia y que est muy feliz con el hecho de que, aunque ella no tiene una maestra en ingeniera elctrica del MIT, sin embargo, es capaz de modificar su telfono celular para conseguir energa de manera diferente. +Y de ah surge Internet. +Y este es un mapa de flujo de bits entre continentes. +Las dos manchas luminosas all en el centro son Estados Unidos y Europa. +Y volviendo a la simplicidad otra vez. +Aqu tenemos la que creo es una de las ideas ms geniales que es Google +que, en este simple portal, se atribuye el hecho de hacer accesible toda la informacin del mundo. +Pero el tema es que esa idea simple, tan extraordinaria, se basa en capas de simplicidad cada una compuesta dentro de una complejidad que es en s misma simple, en el sentido que es totalmente confiable. +Muy bien, djenme que termine con cuatro declaraciones de carcter general, un ejemplo y dos aforismos. +Las caractersticas que creo que son tiles para pensar sobre las cosas simples: primero, son predecibles. +Su comportamiento es predecible. +Uno de los rasgos buenos de las cosas simples es que, en general, uno sabe lo que va a pasar. +Entonces, la simplicidad y la predictibilidad caracterizan a las cosas simples. +Segundo, y esta es una declaracin del mundo real, son econmicas. +Si uno tiene cosas lo suficientemente baratas la gente le encontrar usos an si parecen muy primitivas. +Por ejemplo, las piedras. +Uno puede construir catedrales de piedra, slo se tiene que saber para qu sirve. +Uno las corta en bloques, y luego las apila unas sobre otras y ellas soportan el peso. +Entonces tiene que haber una funcin, la funcin tiene que ser predecible, y el costo tiene que ser bajo. +Eso significa que tiene que haber un rendimiento alto o un valor por el costo. +Y despus yo propondra como ltimo componente, que sirven, o que tienen el potencial de servir, como bloques de construccin. +Es decir, se los puede apilar. +Apilar de esta manera, o de esta otra, o de manera arbitraria en el espacio n-dimensional. +Pero si uno tiene algo que cumple una funcin y es muy barato la gente encontrar nuevas maneras de juntarlos para hacer cosas nuevas. +Las cosas baratas, funcionales y confiables estimulan la creatividad de la gente, que entonces construye cosas ms alla de la imaginacin. +No haba manera de predecir Internet a partir del primer transistor. +Es algo simplemente imposible. +As que estos son los componentes. +Ahora quiero darles un ejemplo de nuestro propio trabajo. +Nos interesa mucho brindar atencin de salud al mundo en desarrollo. Y una de las cosas que queremos hacer al respecto es encontrar una manera de hacer el diagnstico mdico a un costo tan cercano a cero como podamos hacerlo. +Entonces, cmo hacerlo? +Este es un mundo en el que no hay electricidad, no hay dinero, no hay aptitud mdica. +No quiero hacerles perder tiempo entrando en detalles pero en la esquina inferior derecha se ve un ejemplo del tipo de cosas que tenemos. +Es un pequeo chip de papel. +Tiene algunas cosas impresas que usa la misma tecnologa empleada en la produccin de cmics que fue la inspiracin para esta idea en particular. +Uno pone una gota de orina, en este caso en la parte de abajo. +Esta penetra y sube por esas ramitas. +No se requiere del uso de electricidad. +Se pone de colores. En este caso particular se lee informacin renal. +Lo que hemos hecho es tomar una tecnologa que est disponible en todas partes, crear un dispositivo extremadamente barato, y hacerlo de tal manera, que sea muy, muy confiable. +Si conseguimos llevar esto a cabo, si podemos construir ms funcin, esto ser apilable. +Es decir, si podemos hacer que la tecnologa bsica de una o dos cosas funcione, ser aplicable a una gran variedad de condiciones humanas, y, por tanto, se podr extender en direccin vertical como horizontal. +Parte de mi inters en esto, tengo que decir, es que me gustara, cmo decirlo cortsmente, cambiar la forma, o extirpar tal vez, la estructura capital del sistema de salud de EE.UU. el cual creo que est fundamentalmente descompuesto. +As que permtanme terminar Permtanme terminar con dos aforismos. +Uno es del Sr. Einstein. l dice: "Todo debera hacerse tan simple como sea posible, pero no ms simple que eso". +Y me parece que es una muy buena manera de abordar el problema. +Si uno quita demasiado a algo que es simple, pierde su funcin. +Tiene que ser de bajo costo pero tambin tiene que tener una funcin. +Por eso no se puede hacer demasiado simple. +Y lo segundo es un tema de diseo, no es algo directamente relevante pero es una buena frase. +Es de De Saint-Exupery. +Y l dice: "Uno sabe que ha logrado la perfeccin en el diseo no cuando ya no tiene nada que agregar sino cuando ya no tiene nada que quitar". +Y eso sin duda va en la direccin correcta. +Si incorporamos ese tipo de simplicidad en nuestra tecnologa y luego se las damos a Uds., Uds. pueden salir a hacer todo tipo de cosas fabulosas con eso. +Muchas gracias. +Chris Anderson: Pregunta rpida. +As que puedes imaginar que una ciencia de la simplicidad podra llegar al punto en que uno podra analizar varios sistemas digamos sistemas financieros, legales, de salud y decir que se ha llegado a un punto peligroso o disfuncional por las siguientes razones, y esta es la manera en que debemos simplificarlo +George Whitesides: S, creo que se podra porque si uno mira a los componentes que constituyen el sistema y examina su fragilidad, o su estabilidad, probablemente uno pueda evaluar los riesgos sustentado en esa base. +CA: Has empezado a hacer eso? +Quiero decir, con el sistema de salud, tienes un tipo de solucin radical por el lado de los costos, pero en trminos del sistema en s... +GW: Pues, no. +Para decirlo de manera simple, no. +CA: Esa fue una respuesta simple, contundente. GW: S. +CA: En trminos de esa tecnologa de diagnstico que tienes dnde se utiliza? y cundo crees que se podr producir a gran escala? +GW: Es algo que saldr pronto, digo, el sistema funciona, tenemos que encontrar la manera de fabricarlo y hacer cosas de este tipo pero la tecnologa bsica funciona. +CA: Tienes una compaa montada para... +GW: Una fundacin, una fundacin, sin fines de lucro. +CA: Muy bien. Bueno, muchas gracias por tu charla. Gracias. +Si vas a la web de TED puedes encontrar ms de una semana entera de vdeos, ms de 1,3 millones de palabras transcritas y millones de valoraciones de usuarios. +Es una gran cantidad de datos. +Y estuve pensando que si tomas esos datos y los analizas estadsticamente, podras hacer ingeniera inversa a una TED Talk? +Podras crear la TED Talk definitiva? +Y adems, podras crear la peor TED Talk posible que an te dejasen dar? +Para encontrar esto, mir tres cosas. Mir el tema que deberas elegir. Mir cmo deberas presentarlo y los elementos visuales. +Hay un abanico de temas para elegir, pero debes elegir sabiamente, porque est correlacionado con cmo los usuarios reaccionan a tu charla. +Para hacer esto ms concreto, miremos la lista de las 10 palabras que ms destacan estadsticamente en las TED Talks ms preferidas y en las menos. +As que si vienes aqu a hablar sobre cmo el caf francs extender felicidad en nuestros cerebros, vas muy bien. +Pero si quieres hablar sobre un proyecto que incluya oxgeno, chicas, aviones... la verdad, querra escuchar tu charla, pero las estadsticas dicen que no es bueno. +En fin. +Para generalizar, las TED Talks preferidas son aquellas que tocan temas con los que puedes conectar, fcilmente y en profundidad, como la felicidad, tu cuerpo, comida, emociones. +Y los temas ms tcnicos, como arquitectura, materiales y hombres, esos no son buenos temas para hablar. +Cmo debes presentar tu charla? +TED es famoso por mantener un ojo muy fino en el reloj, as que me van a odiar por revelar esto, porque debes hablar tanto como te dejen, porque las TED Talks preferidas son ms de un 50% ms largas que las menos favoritas, +segn todos los rankings de TED. Excepto si quieres dar una charla bonita, inspiradora o divertida. +Entonces, debes ser breve. Pero si no, habla hasta que te echen del escenario. +Ahora, mientras... +...exprimes el reloj, hay algunas reglas. +Las encontr comparando las estadsticas de las frases de 4 palabras que ms aparecen en las TED Talks preferidas, de manera opuesta a las menos preferidas. +Os dar tres ejemplos. +Como ponente debes hablar sobre lo que dars a la audiencia, en vez de sobre lo que no tienes. +Segundo, es imperativo que no cites al New York Times. +Y por ltimo, est bien si el ponente miente sobre su capacidad intelectual. +Si no entiendes algo, puedes decir "etc". +Y nadie se va. +Est perfectamente bien. +Vamos con los visuales. +El visual ms obvio es el ponente. +Y el anlisis muestra que, si quieres estar entre los ponentes favoritos de TED, debes tener el pelo ms largo que la media, llevar gafas e ir un poco ms arreglado que el ponente medio de TED. +Las diapositivas estn bien, y el atrezo. +Y ahora lo ms importante, que es la atmsfera del escenario. +El color juega un papel muy importante. +El color est muy relacionado con la valoracin de las charlas en la web. +Por ejemplo, las charlas fascinantes contienen gran cantidad de este azul en concreto, mucho ms que la TED Talk media. +Ingenioso, mucho de este verde, etc, etc. +Personalmente, creo que no soy el primero en hacer este anlisis, pero lo dejar a vuestro buen criterio. +Es ahora el momento de atar cabos y disear la TED Talk definitiva. +Como esto es TED Active, y aprend de mi anlisis que debo daros algo, no os dar ni la mejor ni la peor TED Talk, sino una herramienta para crear la vuestra. +Llamo a esta herramienta TED Pad. +Y la TED Pad es una matriz de 100 sentencias especfica y altamente cuidadas que puedes unir para obtener tu TED Talk. +Solo hay que tomar una decisin: Vas a usar la versin blanca para TED Talks muy buenas sobre creativad, genialidad humana? +O vas a escoger la versin negra, que te permita crear TED Talks realmente malas, principalmente sobre blogs, poltica y similares? +Descrgala, y divirtete con ella. +Espero que disfruten de la sesin. +Y espero que disfruten diseando su mejor y peor TED Talk posible. +Y que os inspiris para el ao prximo crear esto, que es lo que quiero ver. +Muchas gracias. +Entonces aqu est: Lo pueden comprobar, soy de baja estatura, soy francesa, tengo un acento francs muy fuerte, eso va a quedar claro en un momento. +Tal vez un pensamiento serio, y algo que todos ustedes conocen. +Y sospecho que muchos de ustedes donaron algo a las personas de Hait este ao +Y hay algo ms que creo que, en el fondo de sus mentes ustedes tambin saben +es que, todos los dias, 25,000 nios mueren por causas totalmente prevenibles. +Eso es un terremoto en Hait cada ocho das. +Y sospecho que muchos de ustedes probablemente don algo para ese problema tambin, pero de alguna manera esto no sucede con la misma intensidad. +Entonces, por qu pasa eso? +Bueno, aqu tengo un experimento mental para ustedes. +Imagine que tiene unos cuantos millones de dlares que junt. Tal vez es un poltico en un pas en desarrollo, y tiene un presupuesto para gastar; que desea gastarlo en los pobres. Cmo aborda usted esto? +Cree a las personas que le dicen que todo lo que necesitamos es gastar ese dinero, +que sabemos cmo erradicar la pobreza, slo tenemos que hacer ms? +O cree en las personas que le dicen que la asistencia no va a ayudar, por el contrario, podra daar, podra agravar la corrupcin, la dependencia, etc? +O tal vez recurra al pasado. +Despus de todo, hemos gastado miles de millones de dlares de ayuda +Tal vez vemos al pasado y vemos +si ha hecho algn bien. +Y, tristemente, no lo sabemos +Y lo peor de todo, nunca lo sabremos. +Y la razn es que - tomemos a frica, por ejemplo - +Los africanos reciben mucha asistencia. +Esas son las barras azules. +Y el PBI de frica no est progresando mucho. +OK, de acuerdo. Cmo saber lo que hubiera sucedido sin la ayuda? +Tal vez hubiera sido mucho peor. O tal vez hubiera sido mejor. +No tenemos idea. No sabemos como es el contrafactual. +Slo hay una frica. +Entonces, qu hara? +Dar la ayuda y confiar y rezar para que salga algo de ella? +O nos centramos en nuestra vida cotidiana y dejamos que el terremoto de cada ocho das siga ocurriendo? +La cosa es, que si no sabemos si estamos haciendo algn bien, no somos mejores que los mdicos medievales y sus sanguijuelas. +A veces el paciente mejora, a veces el paciente muere. +Son las sanguijuelas? Es algo diferente? +No lo sabemos +Entonces aqu tenemos algunas otras preguntas. +Son preguntas ms pequeas pero no son tan pequeas. +La vacunacin, que es la forma ms barata de salvar la vida de un nio. +Y el mundo ha gastado mucho dinero en ella. GAVI y Fundacin Gates estn, ambas, comprometiendo mucho dinero para lograrlo. Y los pases en desarrollo, por si mismos, han estado haciendo un gran esfuerzo. +Y, sin embargo, cada ao, por lo menos 25 millones de nios no reciben las vacunas que deberan recibir. +As que a esto es lo que le llaman un "problema de ltima milla". +La tecnologa esta disponible La infraestructura est disponible. Y, sin embargo, no sucede. +As que usted tiene su milln. +Cmo utiliza su milln para resolver este problema de ltima milla? +Y aqu hay otra pregunta: Malaria. La Malaria mata a casi 900.000 personas cada ao, la mayora de ellos en frica subsahariana, la mayora de ellos menores de cinco aos. +De hecho, esta es la principal causa de mortalidad en menores de cinco aos. +Nosotros ya sabemos como eliminar la Malaria pero algunas personas se acercan a usted y le dicen "Usted tiene sus millones. Que tal comprar mosquiteros para las camas?" +Los mosquiteros para las camas son muy baratos. +Por 10 dlares, usted puede fabricar y enviar un mosquitero tratado con insecticida, y puede ensearle a alguien como utilizarlo. +Y, no solo protegen a las personas que duermen debajo de estos, tambin tienen este gran beneficio contagioso. +Si la mitad de una comunidad duerme debajo de un mosquitero la otra mitad tambin se beneficiar por el nivel de contagio de la propagacin de la enfermedad. +Y sin embargo, solo un cuarto de los nios en riesgo duermen debajo de un mosquitero. +Las sociedades deben estar dispuestas a proceder y subsidiar los mosquiteros, darlos gratuitamente, o, en ese caso, pagar a las personas por utilizarlos por esos beneficios de contagio. +"No tan rpido", dicen otras personas. +"Si das los mosquiteros gratis, las personas no las valorarn . +Ellos no van a usarlos, o, al menos, ellos no los usarn como mosquiteros, tal vez como redes de pesca." +Entonces, qu haras? +Dar los mosquiteros gratuitamente, para maximizar cobertura? O se asegurara que las personas los paguen con la finalidad de que ellos realmente los valoren? +Cmo lo sabes? +Y una tercera pregunta: Educacin +Tal vez esa es la solucin. Tal vez nosotros deberamos enviar los menores a la escuela. +Pero, cmo logras eso? +Contrataras maestros? Construiras ms escuelas? +Ofreceras almuerzos en la escuela? +Cmo lo sabes? +Entonces, aqu est el asunto +Yo no puedo responder la gran pregunta, si la ayuda externa hizo algn bien o no, +pero estas tres preguntas, yo las puedo contestar. +Ya no estamos ms en la poca medieval . Este es el siglo 21. +Y en el siglo 20, las pruebas aleatorias, controladas han revolucionado la medicina al permitirnos distinguir entre los medicamentos que funcionan y los medicamentos que no funcionan +Y puedes hacer lo mismo pruebas aleatorias, controladas para polticas sociales. +Tu puedes colocar la innovacin social al mismo nivel de rigurosidad, de las pruebas cientficas que usamos para los medicamentos. +Y de esta manera, las conjeturas pueden eliminarse de la creacin de polticas sabiendo qu funciona, qu no funciona, y por qu. +Y voy a darles algunos ejemplos con esas tres preguntas. +Empiezo con la vacunacin. +Aqu esta el distrito de Udaipur, Rajasthan, hermoso +Bueno, cuando comenc a trabajar all, aproximadamente el uno porciento de los nios y nias estaban completamente vacunados. +Eso es malo, pero hay lugares como ese. +Ahora, no es porque las vacunas no estuvieran all. Estn all y son gratuitas. Y esto no se debe a que los padres no se preocupen por sus hijos. +Los mismos nios que no estn vacunados contra el sarampin, si se enferman de sarampin, sus padres gastarn miles de rupias para ayudarlos. +Entonces se tienen estos sub-centros vacos en las aldeas y los hospitales llenos. +Entonces, cul es el problema? +Bueno, parte del problema, seguramente, es que las personas no entienden por completo. +Despus de todo, en este pas tambin, existen todo tipo de mitos e ideas erradas alrededor de la vacunacin. +Entonces, si ese es el caso, esto es difcil porque la persuasin es realmente difcil. +Pero, tal vez, hay otro problema tambin. +Es ir de la intencin a la accin. +Imagina que eres una madre en el distrito de Udaipur, en Rajasthan. +Tienes que caminar unos cuantos kilmetros para vacunar a tus nios y nias +Y, tal vez, una vez que llegues all, te encuentras con esto. El sub-centro est cerrado, entonces tienes que regresar. Y estas tan ocupada, y tienes tantas otras cosas por hacer, que siempre tenders a posponerlo y posponerlo, y eventualmente se hace demasiado tarde. +Bueno, si ese es el problema, entonces es mucho ms sencillo +porque, A, podemos hacerlo sencillo, y B, podemos, tal vez, darle a las personas un motivo para actuar hoy, mejor que esperar a maana. +Entonces, estas son ideas simples, pero que no conocamos. +Entonces intentmoslas. +Entonces lo que hicimos fue, una prueba aleatoria, controlada en 134 aldeas en el distrito de Udaipur +Entonces los puntos azules fueron seleccionados aleatoriamente. +Lo hicimos fcil. Les dir como en un momento. +En los puntos rojos, lo hicimos fcil y dimos un motivo para que las personas actuaran ahora. +Los puntos blancos son grupos control, nada cambi. +Entonces, lo hicimos fcil organizando estos campamentos mensuales donde las personas pueden vacunar a sus nios y nias. +Y entonces lo haces ms sencillo y das un motivo para actuar ahora al aadir un kilo de lentejas por cada vacunacin. +Ahora, un kilo de lentejas es poco. +Esto nunca va a convencer a nadie de hacer algo que ellos no quieren hacer. +Y por otro lado, si el problema es que tiendes a posponerlo, entonces, tal vez, esto te de una razn para actuar hoy antes de que sea tarde. +Entonces, qu encontramos? +Bueno, de antemano, todo sigue siendo igual. +Eso es lo hermoso de lo aleatorio. +Despus de todo, el campamento, solo teniendo el campamento, incrementa la vacunacin de un 6% a un 17%. +Eso es vacunacin completa. +Eso no est mal. Eso es una buena mejora. +Agrega las lentejas y se alcanza un 38%. +Entonces, aqu esta tu respuesta. +Hacerlo ms fcil y regalar un kilo de lentejas, logra multiplicar la tasa de vacunacin por seis. +Ahora, tal vez dirs, "Bueno, pero eso no es sostenible. +No podemos seguir regalando lentejas a la gente." +Bueno, resulta que la economa es errnea porque es ms barato regalar las lentejas que no regalarlas. +Dado que hay que pagar por la enfermera de todos modos, el costo por vacuna termina siendo ms barato si se regala el incentivo que si no se regala. +Qu pasa con los mosquiteros? +Deberas darlos gratuitamente o deberas pedirle a las personas que trabajen por ellos? +Entonces, la respuesta depende de la respuesta a tres simples preguntas. +La primera es: Si las personas deben pagar por un mosquitero, Lo compraran? +La segunda es: Si doy gratuitamente los mosquiteros, Los usarn? +Y la tercera es: Los mosquiteros gratuitos desaniman futuras compras? +La tercera es importante porque, si pensamos que la gente se acostumbra a los regalos esto tal vez destruya el mercado para distribuir mosquiteros gratuitos. +Ahora este es un debate que ha generado mucha emocin y enojada retorica. +Esto es ms ideolgico que prctico pero responde a una simple pregunta. +Nosotros podemos saber la respuesta a esta pregunta. +Nosotros podemos simplemente realizar un experimento. +Y muchos experimento, y todos ellos tendrn el mismo resultado, entonces, yo solo voy a hablarles sobre uno. +Y este, que fue en Kenia ellos se pasearon y distribuyeron a las personas cupones, cupones de descuento. +Entonces las personas con sus cupones podan obtener un mosquitero en la farmacia local. +Y algunas personas obtuvieron 100% de descuento, y algunas personas un 20% de descuento, y algunas personas un 50% de descuento, etc. +Y ahora podemos ver que pasa. +Entonce, qu tal las compras? +Bueno, lo que pueden ver es que cuando las personas pagan por sus mosquiteros, la tasa de cobertura realmente se cae mucho. +Entonces, incluso con un subsidio parcial -- tres dlares todava no es el costo total del mosquitero. Y ahora solo tienes al 20% de las personas con los mosquiteros, se pierde el motivo inicial, eso no est bien. +La segunda cosa es, qu tal la juventud? +Bueno, la buena noticia es la gente que tiene los mosquiteros, los usarn, sin importar como los consiguieron. +Si lo obtuvieron gratis, ellos lo usarn. +Si ellos tuvieron que pagar por el, lo usarn. +Qu tal a largo plazo? +A largo plazo, las personas que obtuvieron gratis el mosquitero, un ao despus, ofrecimos la opcin de comprar un mosquitero por dos dlares +Y las personas que obtuvieron uno gratis estuvieron, realmente, ms inclinados a comprar el segundo que las personas que no obtuvieron uno gratis. +Entonces, las personas no se acostumbran a los regalos; ellos se acostumbran a los mosquiteros. +Tal vez, necesitamos darles un poco de crdito. +Entonces, eso es por los mosquiteros. Entonces pensarn, "Eso es genial. +Tu sabes como vacunar, sabes como regalar mosquiteros." +Pero lo que necesitan los polticos es un rango de opciones. +Ellos necesitan saber: "De todas las cosas que yo podra hacer, cul es la mejor forma de alcanzar mis objetivos?" +Entonces, supongamos que tu meta es los que nios asistan a la escuela. +Hay tantas cosas que puedes hacer. Podras pagar por uniformes, podras eliminar las cuotas, construir letrinas podras regalar a las nias toallas sanitarias, etc., etc. +Entonces, qu es lo mejor? +Bueno, en algn nivel, nosotros pensamos todas estas cosas deberan funcionar. +Entonces, es esto suficiente, es decir, si pensamos que deberan funcionar, deberamos optar por ellos? +Bueno, en los negocios, ciertamente no es la forma en que trabajaramos al respecto. +Consideremos por ejemplo transportar bienes. +Antes de que fueran inventados los canales en Gran Bretaa, antes de la Revolucin Industrial, los bienes eran transportados en carretas tiradas por caballos. +Y luego los canales fueron construidos y con el mismo jinete y el mismo caballo podas transportar diez veces ms carga. +Entonces, debieron haber continuado cargando los bienes en las carretas, sobre el suelo, que eventualmente llegaran al lugar? +Bueno, si ese hubiera sido el caso, no hubiera existido la Revolucin Industrial. +Entonces, por qu no deberamos hacer lo mismo con las polticas sociales? +En tecnologa, dedicamos mucho tiempo experimentando, ajustando logrando la forma absolutamente mas econmica de hacer algo, entonces, por qu no estamos haciendo eso con las polticas sociales? +Bueno, con experimentos, lo qu puedes hacer es responder a esa simple pregunta +Supn que tienes 100 dlares para gastar en varias intervenciones. +Cuntos aos adicionales de educacin puedes obtener por tus cien dlares? +Ahora, yo voy a mostrarles a ustedes que podemos obtener con varias intervenciones educativas. +Entonces, la primera es si quieres los mismos sospechosos de siempre, contratar docentes, comidas escolares, uniformes escolares, becas. +Y eso no est mal. Por tus cien dlares. puedes obtener entre uno y tres aos adicionales de educacin. +Una cosa que no funciona muy bien es sobornar a los padres, solo porque tantos nios ya estn en la escuela que terminas gastando mucho dinero. +Y aqu est el ms sorpresivo de los resultados. +Decirle a las personas los beneficios de la educacin Eso es muy barato de hacer. +Entonces, por cada cien dlares que gastes haciendo eso, tu obtienes 40 aos adicionales de educacin. +Y, en lugares donde hay parsitos, parsitos intestinales, curar a los nios de sus parsitos. +Y por cada cien dlares obtienes casi 30 aos adicionales de educacin. +Entonces, esto no es tu intuicin. Esto no es algo por lo que alguien optara, y, sin embargo, estos son los programas que funcionan. +Nosotros necesitamos este tipo de informacin. Necesitamos ms de esta. Y luego necesitamos guiar las polticas. +Entonces ahora, yo inici desde el gran problema, y no pude responderlo +Y lo cort en preguntas ms pequeas y yo tengo la respuesta a esas preguntas ms pequeas. +Y son respuestas buenas, cientficas y robustas. +Entonces, regresemos nuevamente a Hait por un momento +En Hait, alrededor de 200,000 personas murieron Realmente, un poco ms, de acuerdo al ltimo estimado. +Y la respuesta del mundo fue fantstica. Dos billones de dlares fueron prometidos solo el mes pasado. Entonces, eso es aproximadamente 10,000 dlares por muerte. +Eso no suena a mucho cuando piensas sobre esto. +Pero si nosotros estamos dispuestos en gastar 10,000 dlares por cada nio menor de cinco aos que muere, eso sera 90 mil millones por ao solo por ese problema. +Y, sin embargo, no sucede. +Entonces, por qu pasa eso? +Bueno, yo pienso que parte del problema es ese, en Hait, sin embargo el problema es inmenso, de alguna forma nosotros lo entendimos, est localizado. +Tu le das tu dinero a Mdicos Sin Fronteras, le das tu dinero a Partners in Health y ellos enviarn mdicos, y ellos enviarn la madera, y ellos enviarn y recogern las cosas necesarias en helicpteros. +Y el problema con la pobreza no es as. +Entonces, primero, es mayormente invisible. Segundo, es inmenso. Y tercero, nosotros no sabemos si estamos haciendo las cosas correctas. +No hay balas de plata. +No puedes sacar de la pobreza a las personas en helicptero. +Y eso es muy frustrante +Pero, miren que hemos hecho hoy. +Yo les he dado tres simples respuestas a tres preguntas. Dar lentejas para vacunar personas, proveer mosquiteros gratis, desparasitar nios. +Con las vacunas y los mosquiteros, puedes salvar una vida por 300 dlares por vida salvada. +Con la desparasitacin, tu puedes obtener un ao adicional de educacin por tres dlares. +Entonces, nosotros no podemos erradicar la pobreza an, pero podemos comenzar. +Y tal vez nosotros comencemos pequeos con cosas que nosotros sabemos son efectivas. +Aqu un ejemplo de como esto puede ser poderoso. +Desparasitar. +Los parsitos tienen un pequeo problema logrando los titulares. +No son tan bellos y no matan a nadie. +Y, sin embargo, cuando el joven lder global en Davos mostr los nmeros que les d a ustedes, ellos comenzaron con "Deworm the World" (Desparasitar el Mundo). +Y gracias a "Deworm the World", y el esfuerzo del gobierno de muchos pases y fundaciones, 20 millones de nios y nias en edad escolar fueron desparasitados en el 2009. +Entonces, esta evidencia es poderosa. +Esto puede llevar a una accin +Entonces, nosotros deberamos comenzar ahora. +Ahora, esto no va a ser fcil. +Es un proceso muy lento. +Tienen que mantenerse experimentando, y algunas veces la ideologa puede ser vencida por la practicalidad. +Y algunas veces lo que funciona en algn lugar no funciona en otro lugar. +Entonces, este es un proceso lento, pero no hay otra forma. +Esta economa que yo estoy proponiendo es como la medicina del siglo 20. +Es un proceso lento, deliverativo de descubrimientos +No hay una cura milagrosa, pero la medicina moderna est salvando millones de vida cada ao, y nosotros podemos hacer lo mismo. +Y ahora, tal vez, nosotros podemos volver a la gran pregunta con la que inici al principio. +Yo no puedo decirles si la ayuda que nosotros hemos gastado en el pasado hizo una diferencia, pero nosotros podemos regresar aqu en 30 aos y decir, "Lo que hemos hecho, realmente provoc un cambio para mejor. " +Yo creo que nosotros podemos, y espero que lo logremos +Gracias +Cmo se explica cuando las cosas no salen como se supone? +O mejor, cmo se explica cuando otros son capaces de lograr cosas que parecen desafiar todas las hiptesis? +Por ejemplo: Por qu Apple es tan innovador? +Ao tras ao, tras ao, tras ao, son ms innovadores que toda su competencia. +Y, sin embargo, son slo una empresa de computadoras. +Son como todas los dems. +Tienen el mismo acceso a los mismos talentos, las mismas agencias, los mismos consultores, los mismos medios. +Entonces por qu es que parecen tener algo diferente? +Por qu es que Martin Luther King dirigi el movimiento de derechos civiles? +No fue el nico hombre que sufri la era previa a los derechos civiles en EE.UU. Y ciertamente no era el nico gran orador del momento. +Por qu l? +Y por qu es que los hermanos Wright fueron capaces de idear los vuelos tripulados autopropulsados cuando ciertamente haba otros equipos mejor calificados, mejor financiados que no lograron un vuelo tripulado y los hermanos Wright tomaron la delantera? +Aqu hay algo ms en juego. +Hace unos tres aos y medio descubr algo +y este descubrimiento cambi profundamente mi visin sobre cmo funcionaba el mundo, incluso cambi profundamente mi manera de actuar en l. +Resulta ser que hay un patrn: +al parecer, todos los grandes lderes que inspiran y las organizaciones en el mundo, se trate de Apple, de Martin Luther King o de los hermanos Wright, todos piensan, actan y se comunican exactamente de la misma manera. +De manera opuesta a todos los dems. +Todo lo que hice fue codificarlo. Y probablemente sea la idea ms simple del mundo. +Lo llamo "El crculo de oro". +Por qu? Cmo? Qu? +Esta pequea idea explica por qu algunas organizaciones y algunos lderes pueden inspirar mientras que otros no. +Permtanme definir los trminos muy rpidamente. +Cada persona, cada organizacin del planeta sabe lo que hace en un 100%. +Algunas saben cmo lo hacen: llmese propuesta de valor agregado, proceso patrimonial, o PUV (Propuesta nica de Venta). +Pero muy, muy poca gente u organizaciones saben por qu hacen lo que hacen. +Y cuando digo "por qu" no me refiero a "ganar dinero". +Eso es un resultado. Siempre lo es. +Con "por qu" quiero decir: cul es el propsito? +Cul es la causa? Cul es la creencia? +Por qu existe la compaa? +Cul es la razn para levantarse cada maana? +Y por qu debera importarle a alguien? +Bueno, como resultado, nuestra manera de pensar y actuar, nuestra manera de comunicarnos, es de afuera hacia adentro. +Es obvio. Vamos de lo ms definido a lo ms difuso. +Pero los lderes inspirados y las organizaciones inspiradas sin importar su tamao, sin importar su rubro, todos piensan, actan y se comunican desde adentro hacia afuera. +Les voy a dar un ejemplo. +Yo uso Apple como ejemplo porque se entiende fcilmente. +Si Apple fuera como todas las dems, su mensaje de mercadeo dira algo as: "Fabricamos computadoras geniales. +Estn muy bien diseadas, son sencillas y fciles de usar. +Quieres comprar una?" No. +Y as es como la mayora de nosotros se comunica. +As se hace la mayora del mercadeo y de las ventas. As es la comunicacin interpersonal para la mayora de nosotros. +Decimos lo que hacemos, decimos cun diferentes o mejores somos y esperamos un determinado comportamiento: una compra, un voto, algo as. +Esta es nuestra nueva firma de abogados. Tenemos los mejores abogados, tenemos los clientes ms grandes. Siempre le respondemos a nuestros clientes comerciales. +Este es nuestro nuevo auto. Tiene mucha autonoma, asientos de cuero. Compre nuestro auto. +Pero es poco inspirador. +Apple realmente se comunica as: +"En todo lo que hacemos, +creemos en el cambio del status quo. +Creemos en un pensamiento diferente. +La manera como desafiamos el status quo es haciendo productos muy bien diseados, sencillos y fciles de usar. +Sencillamente hacemos computadoras geniales. +Quiere comprar una?" +Completamente diferente, verdad? Est listo para comprarme una computadora. +Todo lo que hice fue invertir el orden de la informacin. +Esto demuestra que la gente no compra lo que uno hace; la gente compra el porqu uno lo hace. La gente no compra lo que uno hace sino el porqu uno lo hace. +Esto explica por qu todas las personas en esta sala se sienten tan cmodas comprando computadoras de Apple. +Pero tambin nos sentimos muy a gusto comprando reproductores de MP3 de Apple, telfonos de Apple, o un DVR de Apple. +Pero como dije antes, Apple es simplemente una empresa de computadoras. +No hay nada que los distinga, estructuralmente, de sus competidores. +Sus competidores estn todos igualmente calificados para fabricar estos productos. +De hecho, lo intentaron. +Hace pocos aos Gateway sac televisores de pantalla plana. +Estn altamente calificados para hacer televisores de pantalla plana. +Han hecho monitores de pantalla plana durante aos. +No vendieron ni uno. +Dell lanz reproductores de MP3 y PDA. Y ellos fabrican productos de muy alta calidad. Y ellos pueden fabricar productos con muy buen diseo. No vendieron ni uno. +De hecho, hablando de eso, ni remotamente se nos ocurre comprar un reproductor de MP3 de Dell. +Por qu comprara uno un reproductor de MP3 a una compaa de computadoras? +Pero lo hacemos a diario. +La gente no compra lo que uno hace; compra el porqu uno lo hace. +El objetivo no es hacer negocio con todos los que necesitan lo que uno tiene. +El objetivo es hacer negocio con la gente que cree en lo que uno cree. +Esa es la mejor parte. Nada de lo que les estoy diciendo es mi opinin. +Todo est basado en los principios de la biologa. +No en psicologa, en biologa. +Si uno mira un corte transversal del cerebro humano, desde arriba hacia abajo, lo que v es que el cerebro humano est dividido en tres componentes principales que se correlacionan perfectamente con el crculo de oro. +Nuestro nuevo cerebro de Homo sapiens, nuestro neocrtex se corresponde con el nivel "qu?". +El neocrtex es responsable de todos nuestros pensamientos racionales y analticos y del lenguaje. +Las dos secciones del medio forman nuestro cerebro lmbico. Y nuestros cerebro lmbico es responsable de nuestros sentimientos como la confianza y la lealtad. +Tambin es responsable del comportamiento humano, de la toma de decisiones y no tiene habilidad para el lenguaje. +En otras palabras, cuando nos comunicamos de afuera hacia adentro la gente puede entender gran cantidad de informacin complicada, como caractersticas, beneficios, hechos y cifras. +Eso no gua el comportamiento. +Cuando nos comunicamos de adentro hacia afuera, estamos hablando directamente con la parte del cerebro que controla el comportamiento y entonces le permitimos a la gente racionalizarlo con las cosas tangibles que decimos y hacemos. +Aqu se originan las decisiones instintivas. +Ya saben, a veces uno puede darle a alguien todos los hechos y las cifras y ellos dicen "conozco todos los hechos y detalles, pero siento que algo no est bien". +Por qu usamos el verbo "sentir"? +Porque la parte del cerebro que controla la toma de decisiones no controla el lenguaje. +Y lo mejor que podemos elaborar es: "No s, siento que algo no est bien". +O en ocasiones uno dice que lo gua el corazn, o que uno tiene un plpito. +Bueno, odio tener que decirles que esa parte del cuerpo no controla el comportamiento. +Todo sucede aqu en el cerebro lmbico, la parte del cerebro que controla la toma de decisiones y no el lenguaje. +Pero si uno no sabe por qu hace lo que hace y la gente responde al porqu hacemos lo que hacemos, entonces, cmo vamos a hacer que la gente vote por uno o nos compre algo o, ms importante, sea leal y quiera ser parte de lo que sea que uno haga. +De nuevo, el objetivo no es venderle a la gente lo que uno tiene; el objetivo es venderle a la gente que comparte nuestras creencias. +El objetivo no es sencillamente contratar gente que necesita un empleo; es contratar a la gente que crea en lo mismo que uno. +Yo siempre digo, ya saben, si uno contrata gente slo porque puede hacer un trabajo, entonces trabajarn por el dinero pero si uno contrata gente que comparte nuestras creencias, entonces trabajarn poniendo sangre, sudor y lgrimas. +Y no hay mejor ejemplo de esto que el de los hermanos Wright. +Mucha gente no sabe de Samuel Pierpont Langley. +En los albores del siglo xx conseguir el vuelo tripulado autopropulsado era como el "punto com" de hoy. +Todo el mundo lo estaba intentando. +Y Samuel Pierpont Langley tena lo que suponemos es la receta del xito. +Quiero decir, incluso hoy uno pregunta "Por qu fall tu producto o tu empresa?" +Y la gente siempre responde una variante de las mismas tres cosas: falta de capital, las personas equivocadas, malas condiciones de mercado. +Son siempre las mismas tres cosas, as que exploremos eso. +El Departamento de Guerra le dio a Samuel Pierpont Langley 50.000 dlares para que ideara esta "mquina voladora". +El dinero no fue un problema. +l fue asistente en Harvard, trabajaba en el Smithsoniano y tena conexiones extremadamente buenas. Conoca a todos las grandes mentes del momento. +Contrat a los mejores que el dinero pudo reunir. Y las condiciones de mercado eran fantsticas. +The New York Times lo sigui a todas partes. Y todo el mundo estaba a favor de Langley. +Entonces, cmo es que nunca omos hablar de Samuel Pierpont Langley? +A unos cientos de kilmetros de distancia en Dayton, Ohio, Orville y Wilbur Wright, no tenan ningn ingrediente de lo que consideramos como la receta del xito. +No tenan dinero. Financiaban su sueo con las ganancias de su tienda de bicicletas. Ninguno en el equipo de los hermanos Wright tena educacin universitaria, ni siquiera Orville o Wilbur. Y The New York Times no los sigui a ninguna parte. +La diferencia fue que a Orville y Wilbur los guiaba una causa, un propsito, una creencia. +Creyeron que si fueran capaces de idear una mquina voladora, eso cambiara el curso del mundo. +Samuel Pierpont Langley era diferente. +Quera ser rico, y quera ser famoso. +Estaba en busca del resultado. +Estaba en busca de la riqueza. +Y miren lo que sucedi: +la gente que crey en el sueo de los hermanos Wright trabaj con ellos dejando sangre, sudor y lgrimas. +Los otros slo trabajaron por la paga. +Y cuentan historias de cmo cada vez que los hermanos Wright salan, deban llevabar consigo cinco conjuntos de piezas porque esas eran las veces que se estrellaran antes de regresar para la cena. +Y, eventualmente, el 17 de diciembre de 1903 los hermanos Wright remontaron el vuelo y nadie estaba all siquiera para experimentarlo. +Nos enteramos de eso unos das ms tarde. +Y una prueba ms de que a Langley lo mova un inters equivocado, es que el da que los hermanos Wright remontaron el vuelo, l abandon. +Pudo haber dicho: "Muchachos, es un descubrimiento asombroso y voy a mejorar su tecnologa", pero no lo hizo. +No fue el primero, no se hizo rico, tampoco famoso, as que abandon. +La gente no compra lo que uno hace; compra el porqu uno lo hace. +Y si uno habla de sus creencias, atraer a los que creen en lo mismo. +Pero por qu es importante atraer a los que comparten nuestras creencias? +Por algo llamado "la ley de difusin de la innovacin". Y si uno no conoce la ley, definitivamente conoce la terminologa. +El primer 2,5% de nuestra poblacin son nuestros innovadores. +El siguiente 13,5% de nuestra poblacin son los adoptadores tempranos. +El prximo 34% son la mayora temprana, la mayora tarda y los rezagados. +La nica razn por la que esta gente compra celulares tctiles es que ya no venden telfonos de disco. +Me encanta preguntar a los empresas: "Cul es la diferencia en nuevos negocios?" +Todos contestan con orgullo: "Oh, cerca del 10%". +Bueno, uno puede alcanzar con el 10% de los clientes. +Todos tenemos cerca del 10% que simplemente "lo entiende". +As es como los describimos. +Es como ese plpito: "Oh, ellos simplemente lo entienden". +El problema es: cmo encontrar a los que lo entienden antes de hacer negocios con ellos versus los que no lo entienden? +As que hay una pequea brecha que hay que cerrar. Como Jeffrey Moore la llama: "cruzar el abismo". Porque, ya ven, la mayora temprana no probar algo hasta que otro lo haya probado primero. +Y estos tipos, los innovadores y los adoptadores tempranos, estn cmodos tomando esas decisiones instintivas. +Se sienten ms cmodos tomando esas decisiones intuitivas que son guiadas por lo que ellos creen acerca del mundo y no por el producto que est disponible. +Esta es la gente que esper en lnea seis horas para comprar un iPhone cuando salieron por primera vez, cuando pudieron haber ido a la tienda la semana siguiente +Esta es la gente que pag 40.000 dlares por televisores de pantalla plana cuando recin salieron a pesar que la tecnologa no estaba a punto. +Y, a propsito, no lo hicieron porque la tecnologa fuera genial. Lo hicieron por ellos mismos. +Porque queran ser los primeros. +La gente no compra lo que uno hace; compra el porqu lo hace. Y lo que uno hace simplemente demuestra lo que uno cree. +De hecho, la gente har las cosas que demuestren sus creencias. +La razn por la que esas personas compraron el iPhone en las primeras seis horas parados en lnea durante seis horas, fue debido a lo que crean sobre el mundo y por cmo queran que los dems los vieran. Fueron los primeros. +La gente no compra lo que uno hace; compra el porqu lo hace. +As que permtanme darles un famoso ejemplo, un fracaso famoso y un xito famoso de la ley de difusin de la innovacin. +Primero, el fracaso famoso. +Es un ejemplo comercial. +Como dijimos antes, hace un segundo, la receta del xito es el dinero, la gente adecuada y las condiciones de mercado favorables. +Correcto. Uno debera tener xito entonces. +Miren TiVo. +Desde su lanzamiento, hace unos ocho o nueve aos hasta nuestros das son el nico producto de ms alta calidad en el mercado, eso no se discute. +Tuvieron muy buena financiacin. +Las condiciones de mercado eran fantsticas. +Quiero decir, usamos TiVo como verbo. +Yo "tiveo" cosas en mi DVR Time Warner todo el tiempo. +Pero TiVo es un fracaso comercial. +Nunca han ganado dinero. +Y cuando hicieron OPA (oferta pblica de acciones) sus acciones estaban en 30 40 dlares y luego se desplomaron y ya nunca superaron los 10. +De hecho, creo que nunca superaron los 6, salvo en un par de pequeos picos. +Porque ya ven, cuando TiVo lanz el producto nos dijeron todo lo que tena. +Dijeron: "Tenemos un producto que pausa la TV en vivo salta comerciales, retrocede la TV en vivo y memoriza los hbitos del televidente +sin que uno lo pida". Y la mayora cnica dijo: "No les creemos. +No lo necesitamos. No nos gusta. +Nos estn asustando". +Y si hubieran dicho: "Si eres el tipo de persona al que le gusta tener control total sobre cada aspecto de su vida, hombre, tenemos un producto para ti: +pausa la TV en vivo, salta los comerciales, memoriza tus hbitos de televidente, etc, etc". +La gente no compra lo que uno hace; compra el porqu lo haces. Y lo que uno hace simplemente sirve como prueba de lo que uno cree. +Ahora djenme que les d un ejemplo exitoso de la ley de difusin de la innovacin. +En el verano de 1963, 250.000 personas se hicieron presentes en el Paseo de Washington para or al Dr King. +No mandaron invitaciones y no haba sitio web para verificar la fecha. +Cmo se hace eso? +Bueno, el Dr. King no era el nico gran orador en EE.UU. +No fue el nico hombre de EE.UU. que sufri la era previa a los derechos civiles en EE.UU. +De hecho, alguna de sus ideas eran malas. +Pero l tena un don. +No iba por ah diciendo a la gente lo que tena que cambiar en EE.UU. +Iba dicindole a la gente en qu crea. +"Yo creo, yo creo, yo creo", le dijo a la gente. +Y la gente que crea lo mismo que l tom su causa y la hizo propia, y la transmitan a la gente. +Y algunas de estas personas crearon estructuras para correr la voz a otras personas. +Y he aqu que 250.000 personas se hicieron presentes el da indicado, en el momento indicado, a orlo hablar. +Cuntos fueron a verlo a l? +Ninguno. +Fueron por s mismos. +Es lo que crean sobre EE.UU. lo que los llev a viajar en bus 8 horas a pararse bajo el sol de Washington a mediados de agosto. +Eran sus creencias, no un tema de negros contra blancos. El 25% de la audiencia era blanca. +El Dr King crea que hay dos leyes diferentes en este mundo: la que emana de la autoridad divina y la de los hombres. +Y slo cuando todas las leyes de los hombres sean consistentes con las leyes que emanan de la autoridad divina viviremos en un mundo justo. +Y result que el Movimiento de Derechos Civiles era el instrumento perfecto para ayudarlo a darle vida a su causa. +Lo seguimos, no por l, sino por nosotros. +Y, a propsito, l dio el discurso "Tengo un sueo" y no el discurso "Tengo un plan". +Escuchen a los polticos ahora con sus planes generales de 12 puntos. +No inspiran a nadie. +Porque hay lderes y hay personas que lideran. +Los lderes tienen una posicin de poder o de autoridad. Pero los que lideran, nos inspiran. +Ya sea que se trate de individuos u organizaciones seguimos a los que lideran, no porque tenemos que hacerlo sino porque queremos hacerlo. +Seguimos a quienes lideran, no por ellos, sino por nosotros mismos. +Y son los que comienzan con el "por qu?" que tienen la habilidad de inspirar a quienes los rodean o de encontrar a otros que los inspiren. +Muchsimas gracias. +He estado tocando en TED por casi una dcada y raras veces he tocado canciones nuevas de mi autora. +Y eso se deba en gran parte a que no tena ninguna. +As que he estado ocupado en un par de proyectos, uno de los cuales es ste: "Nutmeg" (Nuez moscada) +un bote salvavidas de 1930, que he estado reparando en el jardn de mi casa en la playa en Inglaterra. +As que ahora, cuando los polos se derritan mi estudio de grabacin se erigir como un arca y flotar en el mundo que se ahoga como un personaje de una novela de J.G. Ballard. +Durante el da, el Nutmeg almacena energa de paneles solares ubicados en el techo de la cabina y de una turbina de 450 vatios en lo alto del mstil. +As que cuando oscurece, tengo mucha energa elctrica. +Y puedo iluminar el Nutmeg como un faro. +Y sigo ahi hasta las primeras horas de la maana. Y trabajo en nuevas canciones. +Me gustara tocar para ustedes, si estn dispuestos a ser los primeros en escuchar. +Es sobre Billie Holiday. +Al parecer, en una noche de 1947, ella abandon su espacio fsico y estuvo perdida toda la noche, hasta que por la maana reapareci. +Pero yo s donde estuvo. +Ella estuvo conmigo en mi bote. +Estuvo "apasionada". +Soy ecologista, principalmente de arrecifes de coral. +Empec en la Baha Chesapeake y buce en el invierno y me convert en ecologista tropical de la noche a la maana. +Fue realmente divertido durante unos 10 aos. +Quiero decir, alguien te paga por ir por ah, viajar, y ver algunos de los ms bellos lugares del planeta. +Y eso fue lo que hice. +Termin en Jamaica, en las Antillas, donde los arrecifes de coral eran realmente los ms extraordinarios, en estructura, que haya visto en mi vida. +Esta foto de aqu es realmente interesante, nos muestra dos cosas. En primer lugar, est en blanco y negro porque el agua es tan clara y puedes ver a lo lejos y el video es lento en los aos 60 y principios de los 70, tomabas fotos en blanco y negro. +La otra cosa que te muestra es que, aunque existe este bello bosque de coral, no hay peces en la foto. +Estos corales en Discovery Bay, Jamaica, fueron los arrecifes de coral ms estudiados en el mundo durante 20 aos. +ramos los mejores y los ms brillantes. +La gente vena desde Australia a estudiar nuestros corales, lo cual es gracioso porque ahora nosotros vamos a los de ellos. +El punto de vista de los cientficos acerca de cmo funcionan los arrecifes, cmo debera ser, estaba basado en estos arrecifes sin peces. +Luego, en 1980, hubo un huracn, el huracn Allen. +Puse la mitad del laboratorio en mi casa. +El viento sopl muy fuerte. +Las olas fueron de 7 metros a 15 metros de alto. +Y los arrecifes desaparecieron y se formaron nuevas islas. y pensamos, "Bien, fuimos realmente inteligentes. +sabemos que los huracanes siempre han sucedido en el pasado". +Y publicamos un documento en Science, la primera vez que alguien describa la destruccin de un arrecife de coral por un huracn grande. +Y predijimos que sucedera. Y lo hicimos mal. +La razn fue por la sobrepesca, y el hecho de que el ltimo herbvoro marino, el erizo de mar, haba muerto. +Y a los pocos meses despus que muri el erizo de mar, empezaron a crecer las algas marinas. +Este es el mismo arrecife. Es el mismo arrecife hace 15 aos. Este es el mismo arrecife hoy da. +Los arrecifes de coral en el norte de Jamaica tienen poco porcentaje de coral vivo y mucha alga y fango. +Esa es ms o menos la historia de los arrecifes de coral en el Caribe, y trgicamente incrementndose en los arrecifes a nivel mundial. +Ahora, esa es mi pequea y triste historia. +Todos nosotros en los aos 60 y 70 tenemos historias tristes comparables. +Hay cientos de miles de esas historias. Y es realmente difcil imaginarse que todo estar bien, porque simplemente sigue empeorando. +Y la razn por la que sigue empeorando, es que, despus de una catstrofe natural, como un huracn, era usual que hubiera alguna clase de sucesos secuenciales de recuperacin, pero lo que est sucediendo ahora es que, la sobrepesca, la contaminacin y el cambio climtico estn interactuando de una manera que lo previene. +As que voy de alguna manera a hablarles acerca de esas tres clases de cosas. +Escuchamos mucho acerca de la cada del bacalao. +Es muy difcil imaginarnos dos, o algunos historiadores diran tres, guerras mundiales hemos tenido durante la era colonial por el control del bacalao. +El bacalao aliment la mayora de la poblacin de Europa Occidental. +Aliment esclavos trados a las Antillas. La cancin "Jamaica Farewell" "El arroz ackie y el pez salado son buenos" es un emblema de la importancia del bacalao del noreste de Canad. +Todo colaps en los aos 80 y 90. 35.000 personas perdieron sus empleos. +y eso fue el principio de un tipo de decaimiento de especies grandes y sabrosas a especies pequeas y no muy sabrosas, de especies que estaban cerca de casa, a especies que estn diseminadas por el mundo, y lo que tienes. +Es un poco difcil entender eso, porque puedes ir a Costco en los Estados Unidos y comprar pescado barato. +Tienes que leer la etiqueta para saber de dnde vino, pero an as es barato, y todo el mundo piensa que est bien. +Es difcil comunicar esto. As que, una manera que pienso es realmente interesante, es hablar de la pesca deportiva, porque a la gente le gusta salir de pesca. +Es una de esas cosas. +Bien, esto es como luce ahora, pero esto es lo que era en los aos 50, desde el mismo bote en el mismo lugar en el mismo tablero en el mismo muelle. +Y el pez ganador era tan grande, que no podas poner ningn pez pequeo en l. +El tamao promedio del pez ganador pesaba de 110 a 140 kg, un mero. Y si queras salir y matar algo, podas casi que contar que podas capturar uno de esos peces. +y saban realmente muy bien. +Las personas pagaban menos en dlares de 1950 para capturarlo que lo que pagan ahora para capturar unos de esos pequeos peces. +Y eso es en todas partes. +No es slo que el pez est desapareciendo. +La pesca industrial usa grandes cosas, mquinas grandes, +Usamos redes que son de 32 km de largo +Usamos largas lneas que tienen un milln o dos millones de anzuelos. +y los arrastramos, que significa tomar algo del tamao de un tractor que pesa miles y miles de kilos, ponerle una gran cadena, y arrastrarlo por el suelo marino para que lo revuelva y atrape los peces, +Y pienso que es como arrastrar con un bulldozer una ciudad o un bosque, porque lo limpia. +La destruccin del hbitat es increble. +Esta fotografa, una foto tpica de cmo una plataforma continental luce en el mundo. +Pueden ver las lneas horizontales en el fondo, tal como veran las lneas horizontales en un campo que ha sido arado para sembrar maz. +Eso fue, un bosque de corales y esponjas, el cual es un hbitat importante para el desarrollo de los peces. +Ahora es barro. El rea del fondo marino que ha sido transformado de bosque a charcos de barro, a estacionamientos, es equivalente al rea de todos los bosques que han sido cortados en toda la Tierra en la historia de la humanidad. +Y hemos logrado hacerlo en los ltimos 100 a 150 aos. +Pensamos que los derrames de petrleo y mercurio, y escuchamos acerca del plstico ltimamente. +Y todo eso es desagradable, pero lo que realmente es daino es la contaminacin biolgica que sucede debido a la magnitud de los cambios que causan a los ecosistemas. +Y les hablar muy cortamente acerca de dos tipos de contaminacin. Un tipo son las especies introducidas, y el otro es lo que viene de los nutrientes. +As que esta es la desgraciada caulerpa taxifolia, la as llamada alga asesina. +Se ha escrito un libro acerca de ella. +Es un poco vergonzoso. +Fue accidentalmente liberada del acuario de Mnaco. Fue desarrollada resistente a aguas fras, a tener diversos peces. +Es muy bella, y rpidamente empez a crecer ms de lo normal en la que una vez fue rica en biodiversidad en el Mediterrneo noroccidental. +No s cuntos de Uds recuerdan la pelcula "The little shop of horrors" pero esta es la planta de "The little shop of horrors". +Slo que, en lugar de devorar gente en la tienda, lo que est haciendo es crecer ms de lo normal y sofocar virtualmente toda la vida marina del fondo de la parte noroccidental del mar Mediterrneo. +No sabemos de algo que se la pueda comer. Estamos tratando de hacer cosas genticas e idearnos algo que se pueda hacer, pero, as como est, es el monstruo del infierno, del cual nadie sabe qu hacer. +Otra forma de contaminacin, es la contaminacin biolgica que sucede por exceso de nutrientes. +La revolucin verde, todo ese nitrgeno fertilizante artificial, usamos mucho. +Est subsidiado, lo cual es una razn de que lo usamos tanto. +Corre hacia los ros, alimenta el plancton, las clulas microscpicas de las plantas en las aguas costeras. +Pero como nos comimos todas las ostras, y los peces que pudieron haberse comido el plancton, no hay nada que se coma el plancton. y hay ms y ms de l, As que muere de vejez, algo que nunca haba escuchado del plancton. +Y cuando muere, se va al fondo y luego se descompone, lo que significa que las bacterias lo corrompen. +Y en el proceso, usan todo el oxgeno. Al usar todo el oxgeno, hacen que el medioambiente sea letal para los que no pueden moverse de ah. +As que, terminamos con un zoolgico microbial dominado por bacterias y medusas, como lo pueden ver en lado izquierdo. +Y la nica pesquera que queda, y es una pesquera industrial, es la de medusas lo ven a la derecha, donde usualmente haba langostinos. +Incluso en Terra Nova, donde usualmente se pescaba bacalao, ahora tenemos medusas. +Y otra versin de esto es lo que se llama mareas rojas o flora txica. +Esta foto me asombra. +He hablado millones de veces, pero es increble, +En la parte superior derecha de la foto de la izquierda est el delta del Mississippi, y en la parte inferior izquierda la frontera con Mxico, en Texas. +Estn viendo toda la parte noroccidental del Golfo de Mxico. Estn viendo un dinoflagelado que puede matar peces, construido por esa bella y pequea criatura de la parte inferior derecha. +y en la parte superior derecha ven esta nube negra que se mueve hacia la costa. +Son de la misma especie. +Y a medida que se mueve hacia la costa, y el viento sopla y las gotitas de agua se mueven en el aire, los cuartos de emergencia se llenan en los hospitales con personas que tienen problemas respiratorios agudos. +Y estas son casas de retiro en la costa oeste de Florida. +Un amigo y yo hicimos esto en Hollywood lo llamamos noche ocenica de Hollywood. Trataba de imaginarme como explicarle a los actores lo que sucede. +Y dije, "imagnense que estn en una pelcula llamada "Escape de Malib" porque todas esas bellas personas se han movido hacia el norte de Dakota, donde es limpio y seguro. +y las nicas personas que se han quedado son las que no tienen como moverse de la costa, porque la costa, en lugar de ser un paraso, es daina para tu salud. +Y esto es asombroso. +Fue en un da festivo, el pasado otoo en Francia. +Esta es de la costa de Bretaa, la cual est siendo envuelta en este fango de algas verde. +La razn por la que ha suscitado tanta atencin, aparte del hecho de que es repugnante, es que los pjaros marinos que la sobrevuelan se asfixian por el olor y mueren; un agricultor muri de eso, y se pueden imaginar el escndalo que se arm. +As que existe esta guerra entre los agricultores y los pescadores acerca de todo esto. y el resultado final es que las costas de Bretaa tienen que usar bulldozer en forma regular para limpiarlas de eso. +Y luego, por supuesto, el cambio climtico. Todos sabemos acerca del cambio climtico. +Y creo que el cono de eso es el deshielo de mar rtico. +Piensen en los miles y miles de personas que ha muerto tratando de encontrar el paso del noroeste +Bien, el paso est all. +Pienso que es gracioso, est en la costa siberiana. De pronto los rusos van a cobrar peaje. +Los gobiernos del mundo lo estn tomando seriamente. +Los ejrcitos de las naciones rticas lo estn tomando muy seriamente. +La negacin del cambio climtico de parte de los gobernantes lideres, la C.I.A, y las armadas de Noruega EE.UU y Canad, o la que sea estn pensando seriamente en cmo van a cuidar su territorio, mientras sucede esto inevitable desde el punto de vista de ellos. +Mientras, las comunidades del rtico arden. +Los otros tipos de efectos del cambio climtico es la decoloracin del coral. Es una bella foto, verdad? +Todo ese coral blanco. +Excepto se supone que debe ser color caf. +Lo que pasa es que los corales son una simbiosis, y tienen estas pequeas clulas de alga que viven dentro de ellos. +Las algas les dan azcar a los corales, y los corales dan a las algas nutrientes y proteccin. +Pero cuando se pone muy caliente, las algas no producen azcar. +Los corales dicen: "Me engaaste. No pagaste el alquiler". +Las desalojan y ellas mueren. +No todas mueren; algunas sobreviven. Estn sobreviviendo ms, pero esas son malas noticias. +Para darles una mejor idea de esto, imagnense que se van a acampar en julio a algn sitio en Europa o en Amrica del Norte, se levantan al da siguiente, miran alrededor, y ven que al 80% de los rboles, hasta lo ms lejos que puedan ver, se les han cado las hojas y estn all desnudos. +Regresan a casa, y descubren que al 80% de todos los rboles en Amrica del Norte y Europa se les han cado las hojas. +Y luego, unas semanas despus, leen en el peridico oh, y por cierto, una cuarta parte de stos han muerto. +Bien, es lo que pas en el Ocano ndico en 1998, El Nio, un rea ms grande que el tamao de Amrica del Norte y Europa, el 80% de los corales se blanquearon y una cuarta parte murieron. +Y lo ms tenebroso de todo esto, la sobrepesca, la contaminacin y el cambio climtico, es que cada una no sucede en un instante, +pero existe esta, lo que llamamos, retroalimentacin positiva. La sinerga entre ellas que hace que sea ms grande que si la sumramos. +Y el gran desafo cientfico para las personas como yo que piensan en esto, es, sabemos cmo armar el rompecabezas de nuevo? +Quiero decir, nosotros, en este momento, lo podemos proteger. +Pero eso qu significa? +No lo sabemos. +Cmo van a ser los ocanos en 20 o 50 aos? +Bien, no habr peces excepto pececitos, y el agua ser muy sucia, y todo tipo de cosas, y llena de mercurio, etc, etc. +Y las zonas muertas sern ms grandes, y empezarn a unirse. Y podramos imaginarnos algo como la zona muerta del ocano costero del planeta. +Y seguro no querrn comer peces criados all, porque sera como la ruleta rusa gastronmica. +A veces uno tendra flora txica; otras veces no. +Eso no vende. +Las cosas realmente tenebrosas son las fsicas, qumicas, y cosas oceanogrficas que estn sucediendo. +A medida que la superficie del ocano se calienta, el agua es ms liviana cuando se calienta, es cada vez ms difcil girar el ocano. +Decimos, se convierte en estratificado. +La consecuencia de eso es que todos esos nutrientes que alimentan pesqueras de anchovetas, de sardinas de California, en Per, o en cualquier otra parte, disminuyen, y esas pesqueras colapsan. +Al mismo tiempo, el agua de la superficie, que es rica en oxgeno, no baja, y el ocano se convierte en un desierto. +As que la pregunta es: Cmo vamos a responder ante esto? +Y podemos hacer todo tipo de cosas para repararlo, pero el anlisis final, la cosa que realmente necesitamos mejorar somos nosotros mismos. +No es el pez, no es la contaminacin, no es el cambio climtico. +Somos nosotros, y nuestra avaricia y la necesidad de crecer y nuestra incapacidad de imaginarnos un mundo diferente al del mundo egosta en el que vivimos hoy. +As que la pregunta es: Responderemos o no a esto? +Dira que el futuro de la vida y la dignidad de los seres humanos depende de hacerlo. +Gracias. +Les traigo un mensaje de diez mil personas, de los pueblos y los suburbios pobres de la India profunda, que han resuelto los problemas empleando su propio ingenio, sin ninguna ayuda exterior. +Cuando nuestro ministro del Interior anuncia hace unas semanas una guerra contra un tercio de India, mencion unos 200 distritos, que eran ingobernables, no capt la idea esencial, +la idea sobre la que llevamos haciendo hincapi durante los ltimos 21 aos, la idea de que la gente puede ser pobre econmicamente, pero no son pobres de mente. +Dicho de otro modo, las mentes al margen no son las mentes marginales. +Ese es el mensaje, con el que comenzamos hace 31 aos. +Y qu comenz? +Permtanme que les cuente, brevemente, mi viaje personal, que me condujo hasta aqu. +En los aos 85 y 86 estuve en Bangladesh aconsejando al gobierno y al consejo de investigaciones de all sobre cmo colaborar con los cientficos en los campos de los pobres y cmo desarrollar tecnologas de investigacin, que se basen en el conocimiento popular. +Volv en el 86. +Me haban llenado de un vigor extraordinario el conocimiento y la creatividad que encontr en aquel pas, en el que un 60 por ciento no tena tierra, pero una creatividad asombrosa. +Comenc a observar mi propio trabajo. El trabajo que haba hecho durante los 10 aos anteriores, casi continuamente, haba tenido ejemplos de conocimiento que la gente haba compartido. +Me pagaban en dlares, como consultor, miraba la devolucin de mi impuesto sobre la renta y me preguntaba: "Hay algo en mi devolucin, que muestre qu proporcin de los ingresos han ido a la gente cuyo conocimiento lo ha hecho posible?" +Es porque soy excelente por lo que me recompensan as? +Es que escribo muy bien? +Es que me expreso muy bien? +Es que analizo los datos muy bien? +Es porque soy profesor, y, por tanto, tengo derecho a esta recompensa de la sociedad? +Intent convencerme de que "No, no, He trabajado en favor de los cambios polticos. +La poltica pblica dar una mejor respuesta a las necesidades de los pobres, y, por lo tanto, me parece bien". +Gran parte de mi trabajo hasta entonces se desarrollaba en ingls. +La mayora de la gente de la que aprend no saban ingls. +Entonces qu clase de colaboradora era yo? +Hablaba de justicia social, y era un profesional que perpetuaba el acto ms injusto, de arrebar el conocimiento a la gente, de dejarlos en el anonimato, de enriquecerse con l compartindolo, realizando consultoras, artculos, publicndolos en los peridicos, siendo invitado a conferencias, obteniendo consultoras y dems. +Entonces, surgi en mi mente un dilema, si tambin soy un explotador, eso no est bien; la vida no puede continuar as. +Fue un momento de un gran dolor y trauma porque ya no poda vivir as ms tiempo. +As que revis los conflictos de valores, y los dilemas ticos en las ciencias sociales y en la investigacin de gestin, escrib, le unos 100 artculos. +Y llegu a la conclusin de que, mientras el dilema sea nico, el dilema no es nico, es la solucin la que es nica. +Un da... no s qu ocurri... mientras volva a casa de la oficina, tal vez vi una abeja, o se me ocurri que si pudiera ser como una abeja, la vida sera maravillosa. +Lo que la abeja hace es: poliniza, toma el nctar de la flor, poliniza otra flor, hace una polinizacin cruzada. +Y cuando toma el nctar, las flores no se sienten defraudadas. +De hecho, invitan a las abejas con sus colores. Y las abejas no se quedan con toda la miel. +Esos son los tres principios rectores de la Red Abeja... que siempre que aprendemos algo de los dems debemos compartirlo con ellos en su idioma. +No deben permanecer en el anonimato. +Debo decirles que, tras 20 aos, no he variado ni un uno por ciento de la prctica profesional de este arte. +Es una gran tragedia que contino arrastrando, y espero que todos ustedes se convenzan de esto, de que la profesin contina legitimando la publicacin de conocimiento sin atribucin de autora, dejndola en el anonimato. +La gua de investigacin de la Academia de las Ciencias de EE. UU. o el Consejo de Investigaciones del Reino Unido +o el Consejo de Investigacin Cientfica de India no requieren, que lo que aprendes de los dems debas compartirlo con ellos. +Hablamos de una sociedad responsable, una sociedad que es honesta y justa. Y ni siquiera hacemos justicia en el mercado del conocimiento. +India desea ser una sociedad del conocimiento. +Cmo ser una sociedad del conocimiento? +Obviamente, no puede haber dos principios de justicia, uno para uno mismo y otro para los otros. +Debe ser lo mismo. +No se puede discriminar. +No puedes estar a favor de tus propios valores, que no tienen que ver con los valores que propugnas. +Es decir, la honestidad para uno y para el otro no es divisible. +Observen esta imagen. +Pueden decirme de dnde se ha tomado, y que propsito tiene, alguien? +Soy profesor, tengo que preguntarles. Alguien? Alguna sugerencia? +Perdn? (Miembro de la audiencia: Rajasthan.) Anil Gupta: Pero, para qu se utiliza? Para qu se ha utilizado? +Perdn? +Tiene toda la razn. Debemos echarle una mano. Porque este hombre sabe lo insensible que es nuestro gobierno. +Miren esto. Es la web del gobierno de India. +Invita a los turistas a ver la verguenza de nuestro pas. +Lamento tanto decir eso. +Es una imagen preciosa... O es una imagen horrible? +Depende de cmo perciban la vida de la gente. +Si esta mujer tiene que transportar agua en su cabeza a lo largo de kilmetros y kilmetros, no se pueden alegrar de eso. +Deberamos estar haciendo algo. +Y permtanme decirles, con toda la ciencia y tecnologa a nuestro servicio, que millones de mujeres continan transportando agua as. +No nos hacemos esta pregunta. +Se habrn tomado un t por la maana. +Piensen durante un momento. +Las hojas del t, recolectadas de los arbustos. Saben cul es el proceso? El proceso es: La mujer recoje unas hojas, las pone en la cesta de atrs. +Hganlo solo 10 veces; notarn el dolor en el hombro. +Ella lo hace unas mil veces cada da. +El arroz que toman en el almuerzo, y que comern hoy, es plantado por mujeres inclinadas en una postura muy incmoda, millones de ellas, cada estacin, en la estacin del arroz, cuando trasplantan el arrozal con los pies en el agua. +Los pies en el agua desarrollarn hongos, infecciones. Y esa infeccin duele porque otros insectos pican en la zona. +Y cada ao, el 99,9 por ciento del arrozan es trasplantado a mano. +No se ha desarrollado tecnologa. +El silencio de los cientficos, de los tecnlogos, de los que disean las polticas pblicas, de los agentes de cambio, llam nuestra atencin y no puede continuar, as no funcionar la sociedad. +No es lo que nuestro parlamento hara. Tenemos un programa de empleo. En l, a 250 millones de personas este gran pas les tiene que ofrecer un empleo de 100 das. +Para hacer qu? Partir piedras, remover la tierra. +Hicimos una pregunta al parlamento, tienen cabeza los pobres? +Tienen piernas, boca y manos, pero cabeza no? +As que la Red Abeja contruye sobre el recurso del que los pobres son ricos. +Y qu ocurri? +Personas annimas, sin rostro ni nombre, contactan con la red, y logran una identidad. +De esto trata la Red Abeja. +Esta red creci voluntariamente, contina siendo voluntaria, y ha intentado mapear las mentes de millones de personas que son creativas en nuestro pas y en otras partes del mundo. +Podran ser creativas en trminos educativos; podran serlo en trminos culturales; podran serlo en trminos institucionales, pero gran parte de nuestro trabajo se centra en el campo de la creatividad tecnolgica, de las innovaciones, bien en trminos de innovaciones contemporneas, bien en trminos de conocimiento tradicional. +La curiosidad lo origina todo. +La curiosidad lo origina todo. +Esta persona, que conocimos, y que vern en la pgina web, www.sristi.org, una persona tribal, tuvo un deseo. +Dijo: "Si mi deseo se cumple"... alguien estaba enfermo y tuvo que controlarlo... "Dios, por favor crale. +Si le curas, me pintarn la pared". +Y esto es lo que le pintaron. +Alguien hablaba ayer de la jerarqua de Maslow. +No podra haber nada ms equivocado que el modelo de Maslow sobre la jerarqua de necesidades porque los pobres de este pas pueden alcanzar conocimientos ilustrados. +Kabir, Rahim, todos los grandes santos sufs, eran todos gente pobre, y aplicaban muy bien la razn. Por favor, nunca piensen que solo despus de satisfacer las necesidades fisiolgicas y de otro tipo pueden pensar en las necesidades espirituales y los conocimientos ilustrados. +Cualquier persona de cualquier lugar puede llegar a alcanzar ese punto superior solo con la determinacin que tienen en su mente de que deben lograrlo. +Observen esto. +Lo vimos en Shodh Yatra. Cada seis meses recorremos diferentes partes del pas. +He andado alrededor de 4.000 km en los ltimos 12 aos. +Por el camino, encontramos estas masas de estircol, que se utilizan como combustible. +Esta mujer, en la pared del montn de masa de estircol, ha hecho un dibujo. +Es el nico lugar donde poda expresar su creatividad. +Es fantstica. +Miren esta mujer, Ram Timari Devi, en un depsito de grano en Champaran, tuvimos un [poco claro]. Y caminamos por la tierra donde Gandhiji fue a oir la tragedia, el dolor de los cultivadores de ndigo. +Bhabi Mahato en Purulia, en Bankura. +Observen lo que ha hecho. +La pared entera es su lienzo. Se sienta ah con una brocha. +Es una artesana o una artista? +Evidentemente es una artista; es una persona creativa. +Si podemos crear mercados para estas artistas, no tendremos que emplearlos para cavar la tierra o partir piedras. +Les pagarn por lo que hacen bien, no por lo que hacen mal. +Miren lo que Rojadeen ha hecho. +En Motihari, en Champaran, hay mucha gente que vende t en la chabola y, evidentemente, existe un mercado limitado para el t. +Cada maana toman t, y tambin caf. +As que pens, por qu no convierto una olla a presin en una cafetera. +Esto es una cafetera, solo cuesta unos cientos de rupias. +La gente trae su propia olla, le incorpora una vlvula y un tubo, y te da tu caf expreso. Es una cafetera de verdad, asequible que funciona con gas. +Miren lo que Sheikh Jahangir ha hecho. +Mucha gente pobre no tiene grano suficiente para moler. +As que este hombre lleva un molinillo de harina en una moto. +Si tienes 500 gramos, 1000, un kilo, te lo moler; un molino de harina no tritura una cantidad tan pequea. +Por favor comprendan el problema de los pobres. +Tienen necesidades que tienen que satisfacer eficientemente en trmino de energa, coste, calidad. +No quieren productos de segunda clase o de calidad inferior. +Pero para ofrecerles productos de alta calidad es necesario adaptar la tecnologa a sus necesidades. +Y eso es lo que Sheihk Jahangir hizo. +No con eso no basta. Observen aqu lo que hizo. +Si tienes ropas y no tienes tiempo suficiente para lavarla, l te trae una lavadora a la puerta de tu casa, sobre una moto. +Un modelo de moto-lavadora... +Te lava la ropa y te la seca en la puerta de tu casa. +Pones el agua, pones el jabn. Te lavo la ropa, por una tarifa de 50 paisas, una rupia el lote. Puede surgir un nuevo modelo de negocio. +Lo que necesitamos, necesitamos a gente que sea capaz de hacerlo crecer. +Observen esto. +Parece una hermosa fotografa. +Pero saben lo que es? Puede alguien adivinar qu es? +Alguien de India lo sabra, por supuesto. +Es un tawa. +Es un plato hecho de arcilla. +Dnde est la belleza? +Cuando tienes una sartn antiadherente, cuesta alrededor de, tal vez, 250 rupias, cinco dlares, seis dlares. +ste cuesta menos de un dlar. Y es antiadherente. Est cubierto de uno de esos materiales aptos para uso alimentario. +Y lo mejor es que, mientras utilizas una sartn antiadherente cara ingieres el llamado Tefln, o un material similar al Tefln. Porque despus de un tiempo el material se deshace. Dnde est? +Est en su estmago. No se hizo para eso. Pero aqu, en esta plato de arcilla, nunca ir a parar a su estmago, +as que es mejor; es ms segura; es asequible; es eficiente. +En resumen, las soluciones de los pobres no tienen que ser ms baratas, no tienen que ser, los llamados jugaad, arreglos improvisados. +Tienen que ser mejores, ms eficientes, tienen que ser asequibles. +Esto es lo que ha hecho Mansukh Bhai Prajapati. +Ha diseado esta cuchilla con mango. +Y con un dlar, resulta asequible una alternativa mejor que la que el mercado ofrece. +Esta mujer desarroll una frmula de pesticida natural. +Le solicitamos la patente, en la Fundacin Nacional para la Innovacin. +Y, quin sabe, alguin otorgar un permiso para esta tecnologa y desarrollar productos comercializables, y ella obtendr beneficios. +Permtanme mencionar una cosa. Creo que necesitamos un modelo policntrico de desarrollo, en el que una gran cantidad de iniciativas de distintas partes del pas, de distintas partes del mundo, resolveran las necesidades locales de una forma eficiente y flexible. +Cuanto ms se adapte a lo local, ms posibilidades de que se ample. +En el proceso de crecimiento existe una incapacidad inherente para ajustar las necesidades de la poblacin local punto por punto al abastecimiento que se realiza. +Por qu la gente desea corregir ese desajuste? +Las cosas pueden crecer, y lo han hecho. +Por ejemplo, los mviles: tenemos 400 millones de mviles en este pas. +Puede ser que use solo dos botones del mvil, solo tres opciones del mvil. +Tiene 300; estoy pagando 300; solo uso tres, pero deseo tenerlo, por lo tanto tiene posibilidad de crecimiento. +Pero si tuviera que satisfacer una necesidad, lo que nececitara sera un diseo de mvil diferente. +Lo que decimos es que la posibilidad de crecimiento no debera convertirse en un enemigo de la sostenibilidad. +Debe existir un lugar en el mundo para las soluciones que sean relevantes en el mbito local, pero que se puedan financiar por cualquiera. +O sacrificas tus necesidades en funcin de esa escala mayor o te quedas fuera. +El modelo eminente, la larga cola dice que las pequeas ventas de un gran nmero de libros, por ejemplo, que hayan vendido solo unas copias, puede ser aun as un modelo viable. +Debemos encontrar un mecanismo en el que la gente pueda dejar su portafolio, invertiremos en l, en el que las distintas innovaciones llegar a un reducido grupo de gente en sus localidades, y aun as, el [poco claro] del modelo se har viable. +Miren lo que hace. +Saidullahsahib es un hombre increble. +Con 70 aos, est llevando a acabo algo muy creativo. +Saidullahsahib: No poda esperar al barco. +Tena que encontrarme con mi amor. +Mi desesperacin me convirti en un innovador. +Incluso el amor necesita que la tecnologa le ayude. +La innovacin es el derecho de mi mujer, Noor. +Los nuevos inventos son la pasin de mi vida. +Mi tecnologa. +AG: Saidulluhsahib est en Motihari de nuevo, en Champaran. +Un ser humano maravilloso, y sin embargo, todava a su edad vende miel en una moto, para ganarse la vida porque no hemos podido convencer a los del parque acutico, a los del lago, de [poco claro] empresas. +Es decir, que todava no hemos corregido el problema de convertirla en un dispositivo de rescate, como un dispositivo de venta durante las inundaciones en India oriental, cuando se hace necesario enviar cosas a la gente de distintas islas donde se encontraban abandonados. +Pero la idea tiene su mrito. +Qu ha hecho Appachan? Apachan ya no est desgraciadamente pero nos ha dejado un mensaje, +un mensaje muy convincente Appachan: Veo cmo el mundo se despierta cada da. +No es que me cayera un coco en la cabeza, y se me ocurriera esta idea. +Sin dinero para pagar mis estudios, alcanc nuevas alturas. +Me llaman el Spiderman del lugar. +Mi tecnologa. +AG: Muchos de ustedes no podra darse cuenta y creer que hemos vendido este producto en todo el mundo... lo que yo denomino un modelo G2G, de lo local a lo global. +Una profesora de la Universidad de Massachusetts, del departamento de zoologa, llev a este escalador porque quera estudiar la diversidad de insectos de las copas de los rboles. +Y este dispositivo hace posible que tome muestras de un gran nmero de palmeras, en lugar de solo unas cuantas, entonces tuvo que hacer una gran construccin de ladrillo para que sus estudiantes de investigacin pudieran subir. +Estamos haciendo avanzar las fronteras de la ciencia. +Remya Jose ha desarrollado... +Pueden ir a YouTube y encontrar India Innova, y encontrarn vdeos como estos. +Una innovacin suya cuando estaba en 10: una lavadora-para-hacer-ejercicio. +El sr. Kharai es una persona discapacitada fsicamente, slo mide un metro y medio. +Pero ha modificado una moto para tener autonoma, libertad y flexibilidad. +Esta innovacin procede de las favelas de Ro. +Y esta persona, el sr. Ubirajara, +hablamos, mis amigos de Brasil, sobre cmo desarrollar este modelo en China y Brasil. +Tenemos una red vibrante en China, especialmente, pero tambin est emergiendo en Brasil y otras partes del mundo. +Este dispositivo en la rueda delantera, no lo encontrar en ninguna bici. +India y China poseen el mayor nmero de bicis. +Pero esta innovacin surgi en Brasil. +La idea es que ninguno deberamos ser provinciano, no deberamos ser tan nacionalistas como para creer que todas las buenas ideas proceden slo de nuestro pas. +No, tenemos que tener la humildad de aprender del conocimiento de la gente pobre, estn donde estn. +Fjense en todas esas innovaciones basadas en la bici: una bici que es un difusor, una bici que genera energa de los impactos en la carretera. +No puedo cambiar las condiciones de la carretera; puedo hacer que una bici corra ms rpido. +Eso es lo Kanakdas ha hecho. +En Sudfrica, habamos llevado a nuestros innovadores, y muchos habamos ido para compartir con los colegas de Sudfrica cmo la innovacin se puede convertir en el medio de liberarse del trabajo penoso que tiene la gente. +Esto es un carro tirado por burros adaptado. +Aqu hay un ngulo, de 30, 40 kg, que no serva para nada. +Lo quitan y el carro ya necesita un burro menos. +Esto est en China. Esta nia necesitaba un aparato respiratorio. +Estas tres personas del pueblo se sentaron y pensaron, Cmo podemos alargar la vida de esta nia de nuestro pueblo?" +No tenan ninguna relacin con ella, pero intentaron averiguar cmo se puede usar el tubo de la lavadora, usaron una bici, le unieron un aparato respiratorio. +Y este aparato le salv la vida, est muy agradecida. +Hay muchsimas innovaciones ms. +Un automvil, que funciona con aire comprimido con seis paisas por kilmetro. +Assam, Kanak Gogoi. +No encontrarn este automvil ni en EE. UU. ni en Europa, pero est disponible en India. +Esta mujer haca un ovillo del hilo para pochampalli saris. +En un da, 18.000 veces, tena que hacer ovillos para confeccionar dos saris. +Esto es lo que su hijo ha logrado despus de siete aos de lucha. +Dijo: "Cambia de profesin". +Dijo l: "No puedo. Es lo nico que s, pero inventar una mquina, que resolver tu problema". +Y esto es lo que hizo, una mquina de coser en Uttar Pradesh. +Sristi dice: "Dame un punto donde apoyarme y mover el mundo". +Les dir que tambin estamos haciendo un concurso entre los nios para incentivar la creatividad y muchas otras cosas. +Hemos vendido cosas por todo el mundo, desde Etiopa a Turqua, a EE. UU y a otros lugares. +Productos que hayan llegado al mercado, pocos. +Esta es la gente cuyo conocimiento hizo posible esta crema de herbavate para el eczema. +Y aqu una empresa que consigui una licencia para este pesticida natural puso la fotografa del innovador en el envase para que cada vez que se utilice, le diga al consumidor: "T tambin puedes ser un innovador. +Si tienes una idea, envanosla." +Es decir, que la creatividad cuenta, que el conocimiento importa, las innovaciones transforman, los incentivos inspiran. +Incentivos, no solo materiales, sino tambin inmateriales. +Gracias. +Para m esta historia comienza hace 15 aos cuando era mdico de hospicio en la Universidad de Chicago. +Y cuidaba a gente moribunda y a sus familias en la parte sur de Chicago. +Observaba lo que le suceda a la gente y a sus familias en el transcurso de su enfermedad terminal. +Y en mi laboratorio yo estudiaba el "efecto viuda" que es una idea muy antigua en las ciencias sociales se remonta a 150 aos es conocida como "morir de corazn partido". +As, si yo muero el riesgo de muerte de mi esposa puede duplicarse por ejemplo, en el primer ao. +Y yo haba ido a cuidar a una paciente en particular, una mujer que estaba muriendo de demencia. +Y en este caso, a diferencia de esta pareja, a ella la cuidaba su hija. +Y la hija estaba agotada de cuidar a su madre. +Y el marido de la hija tambin estaba cansado del agotamiento de su mujer. +Y yo estaba conduciendo camino a casa un da y me llam el amigo del marido porque estaba deprimido por lo que le suceda a su amigo. +As que recibo esta llamada de un tipo al azar que atraviesa una experiencia que est influenciada por gente a cierta distancia social. +Y entonces me di cuenta de repente de dos cosas muy simples. Primero, que el "efecto viudez" no se restringa a maridos y esposas. +Segundo, no se restringa a pares de personas. +Y comenc a ver el mundo de un modo totalmente nuevo de pares de personas mutuamente conectadas. +Y despus me di cuenta que estos individuos se conectaran de a cuatro con otros pares de personas cercanas. +Y luego, de hecho, esta gente formara parte de otras clases de relaciones como el matrimonio la amistad y otros tipos de vnculos. +Y que, de hecho, estas conexiones eran inmensas y que todos estbamos integrados en este amplio grupo de conexiones de unos con otros. +As que comenc a ver el mundo de un modo totalmente diferente y comenc a obsesionarme con esto. +Comenz a obsesionarme la idea de cmo podra ser que estuvisemos integrados en estas redes sociales y cmo stas afectan nuestras vidas. +As, las redes sociales son estas cosas de belleza intrincada tan elaboradas y tan complejas y tan ubicuas, de hecho, que uno tiene que preguntarse para qu sirven. +Por qu estamos integrados en las redes sociales? +Quiero decir, cmo se forman? Cmo funcionan? +Y cmo nos afecta? +Y as que mi primer tema, respecto de esto, no fue la muerte sino la obesidad. +Y, de repente, se haba puesto de moda hablar de la epidemia de obesidad. +Y, junto con mi colaborador James Fowler, comenzamos a preguntarnos si la obesidad era realmente una epidemia y podra propagarse de persona a persona como las cuatro personas que discutimos anteriormente. +Esta es una diapositiva de algunos de nuestros resultados iniciales. +Son 2.200 personas en el ao 2000. +Cada punto es una persona. Hicimos el tamao del punto proporcional al tamao corporal de las personas. As que puntos ms grandes son gente ms grande. +Adems, si el tamao de tu cuerpo, si el IMC, el ndice de masa corporal, es superior a 30 si es clnicamente obeso coloreamos los puntos de amarillo. +Si miramos esta imagen de inmediato podremos ver que hay grupos de obesos y no obesos en la imagen. +Pero la complejidad visual todava es muy alta. +No es obvio lo que est pasando exactamente. +Adems, surgen de inmediato algunas preguntas. Cunta afinidad hay? +Hay ms de afinidad de la que habra debido al simple azar? +Cun grandes son los grupos? Hasta dnde llegan? +Y ms importante: qu es lo que causa los agrupamientos? +As que hicimos algo de matemticas para estudiar el tamao de estos grupos. +Esto de aqu muestra, en el eje Y, el aumento de la probabilidad de que una persona sea obesa, dado que un contacto social suyo es obeso. Y en el eje X, los grados de separacin entre las dos personas. +Y en el extremo izquierdo se ve la lnea prpura. +Dice que si tus amigos son obesos tu riesgo de obesidad es 45% mayor. +Y la barra de al lado, la lnea naranja, dice que si los amigos de tu amigo son obesos tu riesgo de obesidad es 25%. +Y luego, la prxima lnea dice que si los amigos de los amigos de tu amigo, gente que probablemente no conozcas, son obesos tu riesgo de obesidad es 10%. +Y slo cuando llegamos a los amigos de los amigos de los amigos de los amigos es que ya no existe una relacin entre el tamao corporal de esa persona y tu propio cuerpo. +Bien, qu podra estar causando este agrupamiento? +Hay al menos tres posibilidades. Una posibilidad es que dado que yo aument de peso eso hace que tu aumentes de peso +una suerte de induccin, una especie de propagacin de persona a persona. +Otra posibilidad, muy obvia, es la homofilia o Dios los cra y ellos se juntan. Aqu, construyo mi vnculo contigo porque ambos compartimos un tamao corporal similar. +Y la ltima posibilidad es lo que conocemos como confusin, porque confunde nuestra capacidad para entender lo que est pasando. +Y aqu, la idea no es que mi aumento de peso es la causa de tu aumento de peso ni que prefiero construir un vnculo contigo porque ambos compartimos el mismo tamao corporal sino que compartimos una exposicin comn a algo as como un club de salud que nos hace bajar de peso, al mismo tiempo. +Y cuando estudiamos estos datos, encontramos evidencia de todas estas cosas, incluyendo la induccin. +Y encontramos que, si tu amigo se vuelve obeso, eso aumenta el riesgo de obesidad en alrededor de 57% en el mismo perodo de tiempo. +Y puede haber muchos mecanismos para este efecto. Una posibilidad es que tus amigos digan algo como... ya saben, se comporten de algn modo que se propaga y dicen algo como, "Vamos a comer los magdalenas con cerveza", que es una combinacin terrible pero adoptas esa combinacin y entonces comienzas a aumentar de peso como ellos. +Y otra posibilidad ms sutil es que empiezan a aumentar de peso y eso cambia tus ideas de lo que es un tamao corporal aceptable. +Y, aqu, lo que se est transmitiendo de persona a persona no es un comportamiento sino ms bien una norma. Una idea se est difundiendo. +Ahora, los redactores de titulares se haran un festn con nuestros estudios. +Creo que el titular en el New York Times fue "Le ajusta la ropa? +Culpe a sus amigos gordos". Lo interesante, para nosotros, fue que los titulares europeos tenan una mirada diferente, decan: "Sus amigos aumentan de peso? Quiz tu tienes la culpa". +Y pensamos que este era un comentario muy interesante en EE.UU. del tipo autoservicio una suerte de fenmeno "no es mi responsabilidad". +Ahora quiero ser muy claro, no creo que nuestro trabajo debera o podra justificar los prejuicios contra personas de uno u otro tamao corporal, en absoluto. +Ahora, nuestras siguientes preguntas son: Podramos visualizar realmente la propagacin? +El aumento de peso de una persona realmente se propaga en el aumento de peso de otra persona? +Y esto era algo complicado porque tenamos que tener en cuenta el hecho de que la estructura de la red la arquitectura de los vnculos estaba cambiando con el tiempo. +Y, adems, dado que la obesidad no es una epidemia con un solo centro, no existe un "paciente cero" de la epidemia de la obesidad, si encontramos a ese tipo existira una propagacin de obesidad a partir de l. Es una epidemia multi-cntrica; +muchas personas estn haciendo cosas al mismo tiempo. +Y les voy a mostrar una animacin en video de 30 segundos que nos llev a James y a m 5 aos de nuestras vidas. +As que, de nuevo, cada punto es una persona. +Cada vnculo entre ellos es una relacin. +Y ahora lo vamos a poner en movimiento tomando cortes diarios de la red durante cerca de 30 aos. +Los tamaos de los puntos van a ir creciendo. Van a ver aparecer una marea amarilla. +Van a ver personas que nacen y mueren; los puntos aparecern y desaparecern. Lazos que se forman y se rompen. Matrimonios y divorcios amistades y enemistades +mucha complejidad, estn sucediendo muchas cosas slo en este perodo de 30 aos que incluye la epidemia de obesidad. +Y al final vamos a ver agrupamientos de individuos obesos y no obesos dentro de la red. +Y as, llegu a ver estos signos de las redes sociales como cosas vivientes cosas vivientes que podamos poner bajo una especie de microscopio para estudiar, analizar y comprender. +Y usamos varias tcnicas para hacerlo. +Comenzamos a explorar todo tipo de otros fenmenos. +As, analizamos los hbitos de fumar y de beber el comportamiento electoral y el divorcio, que puede propagarse, y el altruismo. +Y, finalmente, nos interesaron las emociones. +Ahora, cuando tenemos emociones, las mostramos. +Por qu mostramos nuestras emociones? +Quiero decir, habra una ventaja en experimentar internamente nuestras emociones, ya saben, el enojo o la felicidad, +pero no slo las experimentamos, las mostramos. +Y no slo las mostramos, sino que otros pueden interpretarlas. +Y no slo que pueden interpretarlas, sino que las copian. +Hay un contagio emocional que se produce en las poblaciones humanas. +Y por eso esta funcin de las emociones sugiere que, adems de cualquier otro propsito al que sirven, son una forma primitiva de comunicacin. +Y que, de hecho, si realmente queremos comprender las emociones humanas tenemos que pensarlas de esta manera. +Ahora, estamos acostumbrados a pensar en las emociones de esta manera en simples, breves perodos de tiempo. +As, por ejemplo, yo estaba dando esta charla recientemente en Nueva York y dije: "Ya saben, como cuando uno est en el metro y la persona de en frente nos sonre y uno instintivamente devuelve la sonrisa". +Y me miraron y decan: "No hacemos eso en Nueva York". Y yo les dije: "El resto del mundo lo hace es un comportamiento humano normal". +Hay una manera muy instintiva en la que, de manera breve, nos transmitimos emociones unos a otros. +De hecho, el contagio emocional puede ser ms amplio an +como podramos tener expresiones de ira acentuadas en las protestas. +La pregunta que queramos hacernos era: Podra propagarse la emocin de manera ms sostenida en el tiempo que en las protestas e involucrar a grandes cantidades de gente y no slo este par de individuos sonriendo mutuamente en el vagn de metro? +Quiz haya una especie de disturbio silencioso bajo la superficie que nos anima todo el tiempo. +Quiz hay estampidas emocionales que se propagan por las redes sociales. +Quiz, de hecho, las emociones tienen una existencia colectiva y no slo una existencia individual. +Y esta es una de las primeras imgenes que hicimos para estudiar el fenmeno. +De nuevo, una red social pero ahora coloreamos a la gente de amarillo si estn felices de azul si estn tristes y verde para los intermedios. +Y si miran esta imagen se puede ver de inmediato grupos de gente feliz e infeliz nuevamente, propagado a tres niveles de separacin. +Y uno podra intuir que la gente que no es feliz ocupa una ubicacin en la estructura diferente dentro de la red. +De modo que hay un medio y unos extremos en esta red y los que no son felices parecen estar ubicados en los extremos. +Para emplear otra metfora si imaginan las redes sociales como una especie de enorme tejido humano yo estoy conectado contigo y t con ella, y as siguiendo indefinidamente ese tejido es en realidad como un edredn antiguo de EE.UU. que tiene parches, parches de felicidad e infelicidad. +Y que uno est feliz o no depende de si uno ocupa un parche feliz. +As, este trabajo con emociones, que son tan fundamentales nos llev a pensar en que, tal vez, las causas fundamentales de las redes sociales humanas estn de alguna manera codificadas en nuestros genes. +Porque las redes sociales humanas, cuando sea que se mapeen, siempre tienen este aspecto la imagen de la red +pero nunca se ven de este modo. +Por qu no se ven as? +Por qu no formamos redes sociales humanas que tengan forma de red regular? +Bueno, los sorprendentes patrones de redes sociales humanas su ubicuidad y su propsito aparente piden que nos preguntemos si evolucionamos para tener redes sociales humanas en primer lugar y si evolucionamos para formar redes con una estructura en particular. +Y observen ante todo... y as, para entenderlo, sin embargo primero tenemos que diseccionar la estructura de la red un poquito. Y observen que cada persona de esta red tiene exactamente la misma ubicacin en la estructura que cualquier otra. +Pero ese no es el caso de las redes reales. +As, por ejemplo, aqu hay una red real de estudiantes universitarios en una universidad de la lite del noreste. +Y ahora estoy resaltando unos pocos puntos +y si miran aqu los puntos comparen el nodo B, en la parte superior izquierda, con el nodo D, en el extremo derecho. B tiene 4 amigos que salen de l. Y D tiene 6 amigos que salen de l. +Entonces, estos dos individuos tiene distinta cantidad de amigos +eso es muy obvio, todos lo sabemos. +Pero hay otros aspectos de la estructura de las redes sociales que no son tan obvios. +Comparen el nodo B del extremo izquierdo con el nodo A de la parte inferior izquierda. +Ahora, estas dos personas tienen ambos 4 amigos pero los amigos de A se conocen entre s y los amigos de B no. +As que los amigos de los amigos de A tambin son amigos de A mientras que un amigo de un amigo de B no es amigo de B est ms lejos en la red. +Esto se conoce como transitividad en las redes. +Y, finalmente, comparen los nodos C y D. C y D ambos tienen 6 amigos. +Si les preguntamos, les decimos, "Cmo es tu vida social?" +dirn; "Tengo 6 amigos, +esa es mi experiencia social". +Pero ahora nosotros a vista de pjaro, mirando esta red, podemos ver que ellos ocupan mundos sociales muy diferentes +y puedo transmitirles esa intuicin con slo preguntarles: Quin quisieras ser si un germen mortal se esparciera por la red? +Preferiras ser C o D? +Preferiras ser D, en el extremo de la red. +Y, quin preferiras ser en cambio si hay un chisme jugoso, no sobre ti, que se difunde por la red? Ahora, preferiras ser C. +As, distintas ubicaciones en la estructura tienen diferentes implicaciones en la vida. +Y, de hecho, cuando hicimos algunos experimentos mirando esto encontramos que el 46% de la variacin en la cantidad de amigos que uno tiene se explica por nuestros genes. +Y esto no es sorprendente. Lo sabemos, algunas personas nacen tmidas y otras nacen sociables. Eso es obvio. +Pero tambin encontramos algunas cosas que no son obvias. +Por ejemplo, el 47% de la variacin en si nuestros amigos se conocen entre s es atribuible a nuestros genes. +Que nuestros amigos se conozcan entre s tiene que ver no slo con sus genes sino con los nuestros. +Y pensamos que la razn de esto es que a alguna gente le gusta presentar a sus amigos entre s, saben quines son, y otros los mantienen separados, no los presentas a unos con otros. +De ese modo algunas personas tejen juntos la red en torno a ellos creando una densa telaraa de vnculos en la que se encuentran cmodamente contenidos. +Y, finalmente, encontramos incluso que el 30% de la variacin de si una persona se encuentra en el centro o en los extremos de la red puede atribuirse tambin a sus genes. +As que el que uno se encuentre en el centro o en los extremos se debe en parte a la herencia. +Ahora, qu sentido tiene esto? +Cmo ayuda esto a entender? +Cmo nos ayuda esto a descubrir algunos de los problemas que nos estn afectando actualmente? +Bueno, el argumento que me gustara plantear es que las redes tienen valor. +Son una especie de capital social. +Emergen nuevas propiedades debido a nuestra insercin en las redes sociales, estas propiedades aqu en la estructura de las redes, no slo en los individuos dentro de ellas. +Piensen en estos dos objetos comunes. +Ambos estn compuestos de carbn. Uno de ellos tiene tomos de carbn organizados en una forma particular, a la izquierda, y se obtiene grafito, que es blando y oscuro. +Pero si uno toma los mismos tomos de carbn y los interconecta de diferente manera obtiene un diamante, que es claro y duro. +Y esas propiedades de suavidad, dureza, oscuridad y claridad no residen en los tomos de carbono. Residen en las interconexiones entre los tomos de carbono, o por lo menos surgen debido a las interconexiones entre los tomos de carbono. +As, del mismo modo, el patrn de conexiones entre las personas confiere a los grupos de personas diferentes propiedades. +Es el vnculo entre las personas lo que hace que el todo sea mayor que la suma de sus partes. +Y no es slo lo que le pasa a estas personas si estn adelgazando, engordando, enriquecindose o empobrecindose siendo felices o no, lo que nos afecta. Se trata tambin de la arquitectura real de los lazos que nos rodean. +Nuestra experiencia del mundo depende de la estructura real de las redes en las que residimos y del tipo de cosas que surgen y fluyen por la red. +Ahora, la razn por la que creo que esto es as es que los seres humanos se unen entre s y forman una especie de sper organismo. +Ahora, un sper organismo es una especie de coleccin de individuos que muestran o evidencian comportamientos o fenmenos que no se pueden reducir al estudio de los individuos y deben ser entendidos en referencia a mediante el estudio del conjunto +Los sper organismos tienen propiedades que no pueden ser comprendidas mediante el estudio de los individuos. +Ahora, miren esto. +Creo que formamos redes sociales porque los beneficios de una vida conectada son superiores a los costos. +Si siempre soy violento contigo o te doy informacin errnea o te pongo triste o te infecto con grmenes mortales t cortaras los lazos conmigo y la red se desintegrara. +As que la propagacin de cosas buenas y valiosas es necesaria para sostener y nutrir las redes sociales. +Del mismo modo, las redes sociales son necesarias para la difusin de cosas buenas y valiosas como el amor y la bondad la felicidad, el altruismo y las ideas. +De hecho, creo que si nos diramos cuenta de lo valiosas que son las redes sociales pasaramos mucho ms tiempo alimentndolas porque pienso que las redes sociales se relaciona fundamentalmente con la bondad, +y pienso que lo que el mundo necesita ahora son ms conexiones. +Gracias. +Nosotros inventamos. +Mi empresa inventa todo tipo de nuevas tecnologas en muchas reas distintas. +Y lo hacemos por un par de razones. +Inventamos por diversin. Inventar es muy divertido. Y tambin inventamos para ganar dinero. +Estos dos estn relacionados ya que como el dinero toma tanto tiempo, si no fuera divertido no te alcanzara el tiempo para completarlo. +Bill Gates es uno de esos tipos brillantes y nuestros que trabajan en estos problemas. Y tambin subsidia este trabajo, as que gracias. +As que voy a hablar brevemente de un par de problemas que tenemos y un par de problemas en los que tenemos algunos soluciones en curso. +Entonces, la vacunacin es una de las tcnicas clave de salud pblica, es una cosa fantstica, +pero en el tercer mundo una gran cantidad de vacunas se descomponen antes de administrarse. Y eso es porque necesitan mantenerse fras. +Casi todas las vacunas necesitan mantenerse refrigeradas. +Si no se echan a perder muy rpidamente. Y si no hay una red elctrica estable, no se mantienen fras y mueren nios. +No importa slo la prdida de estas vacunas; sino que tambin quedan nios sin vacunar. +Esta es una de las formas en que se transportan las vacunas. Estas son cajas de espuma. Estas son llevadas por personas, pero tambin se pueden llevar atrs en las camionetas. +Tenemos una solucin diferente. +Ahora, una de estas cajas de espuma de poliestireno dura unas cuatro horas, con hielo. +Y pensamos; bueno, eso no es suficientemente bueno. +As que hicimos esto. +Esto dura seis meses sin energa, absolutamente nada de energa, ya que pierde menos de medio watt. +Y este es nuestro prototipo de segunda generacin. +El prototipo de tercera generacin est, en este momento, siendo probando en Uganda. +con las que pudimos obtener esto. Una es que esto es similar a un termo criognico, algo dentro de lo que mantendras nitrgeno lquido o helio lquido. +Esos tienen una aislacin increble, entonces pongmosle un poco de aislacin increble. +La otra idea es bien interesante, que es, ya no puedes meterle la mano, +porque si lo abres y metes tu mano, dejaras entrar el calor y ah termina el juego. +As que el interior de esta cosa parece una mquina de Coca-Cola. +Va entregando pequeos tubos individuales. +Entonces es una idea simple, que esperamos que cambie la forma en que se distribuyen las vacunas en frica y alrededor del mundo. +Pasemos a la malaria. +La malaria es uno de los grandes problemas de salud pblica. +Esther Duflo habl un poco sobre esto. +250 millones de personas la contraen al ao. +Un nio muere en frica cada 43 segundos. 27 morirn durante mi charla. +Y no hay forma de que nosotros aqu en este pas comprendamos realmente lo que significa para las personas afectadas. +Otro comentario de Esther fue que reaccionamos cuando hay una tragedia como la de Hait, pero que continuamente hay tragedias. +Entonces, Qu podemos hacer al respecto? +Bueno, hay un montn de cosas que se han intentado por muchos aos para eliminar la malaria. +Puedes fumigar; pero el problema es, hay temas medioambientales. +Puedes intentar tratar a las personas y crear conciencia. +Eso es excelente, excepto que los lugares ms afectados no tienen sistemas de salud. +Una vacuna sera una cosa increble, excepto que an no funcionan. +Lo han intentado por mucho tiempo. Hay un par de candidatas interesantes. +Es muy difcil hacer una vacuna para algo as. +Puedes distribuir mosquiteros, los cuales son muy eficaces si se utilizan. +No siempre los usan para eso. La gente pesca con ellos. +No siempre le llegan a todos. +Y los mosquiteros tienen efecto sobre la epidemia, pero nunca se ir a extinguir con mosquiteros. +Ahora bien, la malaria es una enfermedad increblemente complicada. +Podra pasar horas explicndoles. +Tiene un tipo de estilo de vida como de una telenovela. Tienen relaciones sexuales. Se meten a tu hgado. Se meten a tus clulas sanguneas. +Es una enfermedad increblemente compleja, pero en realidad es una de las cosas que nos parece interesante y por eso trabajamos en la malaria. Hay muchas maneras posibles de atacarla. +Una de esas maneras podra ser con mejores diagnsticos. +As que esperamos para este ao tener un prototipo de cada uno de estos dispositivos. +Uno hace un diagnstico automtico de malaria igual como lo hara un medidor de glucosa de un diabtico. Tomas una gota de sangre, la pones ah, y te dice automticamente. +Hoy en da, tienes que hacer un procedimiento de laboratorio complejo, crear un grupo de muestras para el microscopio y hacer que las examine un tcnico. +La otra cosa es que, tu sabes, sera an mejor si no tuvieras que sacar la sangre. +Y si miras al ojo, o examinas los vasos en la parte blanca del ojo, es posible que efectivamente puedas hacer esto directamente, sin sacar ni una gota de sangre, o a travs de las bases de tus uas. +Ya que, cuando miras a travs de las uas, puedes ver los vasos sanguneos. Y si se ven los vasos sanguneos, creemos que podemos ver a la malaria. +La podemos ver gracias a esta molcula llamada hemozona. +Es producida por el parsito de la malaria. Y es una sustancia cristalina muy interesante, +interesante, en todo caso, si fueras un fsico de estado slido. +Hay un montn de cosas entretenidas que podemos hacer con ella. +Este es nuestro laboratorio de lser de femtosegundo. +Y esto crea pulsos de luz que duran un femtosegundo. +Eso es muy, muy, muy corto. +Se trata de un pulso de luz que es cercano al largo de una longitud de onda de la luz. As que es un montn de fotones viniendo y golpeando al mismo tiempo. +Crea un pico de energa muy alto. Te permite hacer todo tipo de cosas interesantes. En particular, te permite encontrar hemozona. +Aqu hay una imagen de glbulos rojos. As, ahora podemos ubicar realmente donde estn la hemozona y los parsitos de la malaria dentro de esos glbulos rojos. +Y utilizando tanto esta tcnica como otras tcnicas pticas, creemos que podemos diagnosticarlo correctamente. +Tambin tenemos otra terapia para la malaria, enfocada en la hemozona, una manera para efectivamente, en casos agudos, tomar el parsito de la malaria y filtrarlo del sistema sanguneo, +parecido a la dilisis pero para disminuir la carga parasitaria. +Este es nuestro supercomputador de mil ncleos. +Somos algo as como gente de software, as que para casi cualquier problema que plantees preferimos tratar de resolverlo con un programa. +Uno de los problemas que tienes si ests tratando de erradicar o reducir la malaria es que no sabes qu accin es ms eficaz. +Bueno, les cont antes de los mosquiteros. +Gastas una cantidad determinada por cada mosquitero. +O puedes fumigar. +Puedes entregarles una administracin de medicinas. +Estn todas estas intervenciones distintas. Pero tienen diferentes niveles de efectividad. +Cmo puedes decidir entre ellas? +As que creamos, usando nuestro supercomputador, el mejor modelo digital de malaria del mundo, el cual les mostraremos ahora. +Elegimos Madagascar. +Tenemos cada camino, cada pueblo, casi cada pulgada cuadrada de Madagascar. +Tenemos todos los datos de precipitacin y los datos de temperatura. +Eso es muy importante porque la humedad y la precipitacin determinan si tienes charcos de agua estancada donde los mosquitos puedan reproducirse. +Y eso te da la plataforma en que haces esto. +A continuacin, tienes que introducir los mosquitos y modelarlos, y adems modelar cmo van y vienen. +Al final, este es el resultado. +As se propaga la malaria por todo Madagascar. +Y esta es la parte final de la temporada de lluvias. +Estamos llegando a la temporada seca. +Esto casi desaparece en la temporada seca. Los mosquitos no tienen donde reproducirse. +Y despus, por supuesto, el ao siguiente regresa arrasando todo. +Mediante este tipo de simulaciones, queremos erradicar o controlar la malaria miles de veces en software, antes de hacerlo realmente en la vida real. La idea es ser capaces de comparar los factores econmicos -- Cuntos mosquiteros contra cuanta fumigacin? -- o los factores sociales -- Qu pasa si se desata el descontento? -- +Tambin tratamos de estudiar a nuestro adversario. +Este es un vdeo de un mosquito tomado por una cmara de alta velocidad. +Y, en un momento, veremos un vdeo del flujo de aire. +Aqu, estamos tratando de visualizar el flujo de aire alrededor de las alas del mosquito con pequeas partculas que iluminamos con un lser. +Al entender cmo los mosquitos vuelan, esperamos entender cmo hacer que no vuelen. +Ahora, una de las maneras de como hacer que no vuelen es con el DDT. +Este es un anuncio verdadero. +Esta es una de esas cosas que simplemente no puedes inventar. +En una poca, esta fue la tcnica principal, y, de hecho, muchos pases eliminaron la malaria con DDT. +Estados Unidos lo hizo as. +En 1935 haba 150 mil casos de malaria al ao en Estados Unidos pero el DDT y un esfuerzo masivo de salud pblica terminaron eliminndola. +As que pensamos... hemos hecho todas estas cosas enfocndonos en el plasmodium, el parsito de esta cosa. +Qu podemos hacerle al mosquito? +Bueno, tratemos de matarlo con aparatos electrnicos. +Ahora, eso suena tonto, pero cada uno de estos aparatos tiene algo interesante adentro que tal vez podras utilizar. +Tu reproductor Blu-ray tiene un lser azul muy barato. +Tu impresora lser tiene un galvanmetro de espejo que se utiliza para dirigir un rayo lser con gran precisin. Eso es lo que hace los pequeos puntos en la pgina. +Y, por supuesto, est el procesamiento de seales y las cmaras digitales. +As que, Qu pasara si pudiramos juntar todo eso PARA DERRIBARLOS CON UN RAYO LSER? +Ahora, en nuestra empresa, esto es lo que llamamos "el momento en que te chupas el meique". +Y si pudiramos hacer eso? +Ahora, slo suspendan su incredulidad por un momento, y pensemos en lo que podra suceder si pudiramos hacer eso. +Bueno, podramos proteger los blancos de muy alto valor, como las clnicas. +Las clnicas estn llenas de gente que tienen malaria. +Estn enfermas, por lo que son menos capaces de defenderse de los mosquitos. +Realmente queremos protegerlos. +Por supuesto, si haces eso, tambin podras proteger tu patio trasero. +Y los agricultores podran proteger sus cultivos que quieren vender como orgnicos a Whole Foods porque nuestros fotones son 100 por ciento orgnicos. Son completamente naturales. +Ahora, se pone mejor an. +Podras, si fueras realmente inteligente, apuntarle un rayo lser no letal al bicho antes de matarlo y podras escuchar la frecuencia de batido del ala, y podras medir su tamao. +Y entonces podras decidir: Es este un insecto que quiero matar o un insecto que no quiero matar? +La ley de Moore hizo barata a la computacin, tan barata que podemos pesar la vida de un insecto especfico y decidir si lo matamos o lo dejamos. Ahora, resulta que slo queremos matar a los mosquitos hembra. +Son los nicos que son peligrosos. +Los mosquitos slo beben la sangre para poner sus huevos. +Los mosquitos viven realmente; su nutricin diaria viene del nctar, las flores. De hecho, en el laboratorio los alimentamos con pasas. Sin embargo, la hembra necesita la sangre. +As que, esto suena muy loco, Cierto? +Quieren verlo? +(Pblico: S.) +Bueno, nuestro departamento jurdico hizo un descargo de responsabilidad. Y aqu est. +NO MIRE DIRECTAMENTE CON SU OJO RESTANTE Ahora, despus de pensar en esto un poco, pensamos que, ya saben, probablemente sera ms sencillo hacer esto con un lser no letal. +Y Eric Johanson, quien efectivamente construy el dispositivo, con partes compradas en eBay. Y Pablos Holman, por aqu, que tiene los mosquitos en el tanque. +Tenemos el aparato por ac. +Y les vamos a mostrar, en lugar del lser que mata, que sera un pulso instantneo, muy breve, vamos a tener un puntero lser verde que va a seguir al mosquito por un perodo, en realidad, bastante largo ya que de lo contrario no se vera muy bien. +Eric, tu tienes la batuta. +Eric Johanson: Lo que tenemos aqu es un tanque al otro lado del escenario. +Y tenemos esta pantalla de la computadora que puede ver los mosquitos mientras vuelan por ah. +Y Pablos, si es que estimula nuestros mosquitos un poco, podremos verlos volando ah. +Es una rutina de procesamiento de imgenes bastante genrica. Y djenme mostrarles cmo funciona. +Aqu se puede ver como est siguiendo a los insectos mientras estn volando por ah, lo que es entretenido. +A continuacin podemos iluminarlos con un lser. Ahora, este es un lser de baja potencia, y podemos obtener una frecuencia de batido de ala. +Por lo que quizs puedan or algunos mosquitos volando. +Nathan Myhrvold: Estn escuchando el batido de un ala de mosquito. +EJ: Por ltimo, veamos como se ve esto. +Ah se puede ver los mosquitos volando, mientras les apuntamos. +Esto est mucho ms lento para que puedan ver lo que est pasando. +Aqu lo tenemos funcionando en alta velocidad. +Construimos este sistema para TED para ilustrar que es tcnicamente posible implementar un sistema como este. Y estamos revisando muy profundamente cmo hacerlo muy barato para su uso en lugares como frica y otras partes del mundo. +NM: As que no sera divertido mostrarles eso sin mostrar que lo que realmente sucede cuando les disparamos. +Esto es muy satisfactorio. +Este fue uno de los primeros que hicimos. +La energa est un poco alta en este. +Vamos a terminar con este en un segundo y vern otro. +Aqu hay otro. Bang. +Una cosa interesante es que siempre los matamos, pero nunca hemos conseguido apagarle las alas en el aire. +El motor de las alas es muy resistente. +Quiero decir, aqu estamos destruyndole las alas, pero el motor de se mantiene batiendo hasta llegar abajo. +Entonces eso es lo que tengo. Muchas gracias. +Hoy voy a contarles dos cosas. Uno, lo que hemos perdido y dos, la manera de recuperarlo. +Y permtanme que empiece con esto. +Esta es mi lnea base. Esta es la costa mediterrnea sin peces, roca desnuda y un montn de erizos de mar a los que les gusta comer algas. +Algo como esto fue lo primero que vi cuando me met al agua por primera vez en la costa mediterrnea de Espaa. +Ahora, si un extraterreste viniera a la Tierra, llammosle Joe, qu vera Joe? +Si Joe saltara a un arrecife de coral habra muchas cosas que podra ver el extraterrestre. +Es muy poco probable que Joe saltara en un arrecife de coral prstino, un arrecife de coral virgen con mucho coral, tiburones, cocodrilos manates, meros, tortugas, etc. +As que, probablemente, lo que Joe vera estara en esta parte, en la parte verdosa de la imagen. +Aqu tenemos el extremo con los corales muertos, sopa de microbios y medusas. +Y donde est el buceador, ya saben, probablemente sea donde estn ahora la mayora de los arrecifes del mundo, con muy pocos corales, corales cubiertos de algas, montones de bacterias, y donde los grandes animales se han ido. +Y esto es tambin lo que la mayora de los cientficos marinos han visto. +Esta es su lnea base. Esto es lo que piensan que es natural porque empezamos la ciencia moderna con el buceo mucho despus de empezar la degradacin de los ecosistemas marinos. +As que vamos a ponernos a todos en una mquina del tiempo, y vamos hacia la izquierda, vamos a volver al pasado para ver cmo era el ocano. +Y vamos a empezar con esta mquina del tiempo, las Islas de la Lnea, donde hemos llevado a cabo una serie de expediciones de National Geographic. +Este mar es un archipilago que pertenece a Kiribati que se extiende a travs del ecuador. Y tiene varias islas vrgenes, deshabitadas y no explotadas y unas pocas islas habitadas. +Empecemos con la primera, la Isla Christmas, con ms de 5.000 personas. +La mayora de los arrecifes estn muertos. La mayora de los corales estn muertos, cubiertos por algas. Y la mayora de los peces son ms pequeos que los lpices que usamos para contarlos. +Hicimos 250 horas de buceo aqu en el 2005. +No vimos un solo tiburn. +Este es el lugar que el capitn Cook descubri en 1777. Y l describe una enorme abundancia de tiburones mordiendo los timones y los remos de sus barcas pequeas mientras iban hasta la orilla. +Movamos el dial un poco al pasado. +Isla Fanning, 2.500 personas. +A los corales les va mejor aqu. Hay montones de peces pequeos. +Esto es lo que muchos buceadores podran considerar un paraso. +Esto es lo que se puede ver en la mayor parte del Santuario Marino Nacional de los Cayos de Florida. +Y mucha gente piensa que esto es muy, muy hermoso, si esta es la lnea de base. +Si nos remontamos a un lugar como el atoln Palmyra, donde estuve con Jeremy Jackson hace pocos aos a los corales les va mejor y hay tiburones. +Uno puede ver tiburones en cada inmersin. +Y esto es algo muy poco comn en los arrecifes de coral de hoy. +Pero entonces, si desplazamos el dial 200, 500 aos atrs llegamos a los lugares donde los corales estn absolutamente sanos y hermosos, formando estructuras espectaculares, y donde los depredadores son lo ms visible, donde uno ve entre 25 y 50 tiburones por inmersin. +Qu hemos aprendido de estos lugares? +Esto es lo que pensamos que era natural. +Esto es lo que llamamos la pirmide de biomasa. +Si juntamos todos los peces de un arrecife de coral y los pesamos esto es lo que esperaramos. +La mayor parte de la biomasa est abajo en la cadena alimenticia, los herbvoros, el pez loro, los esturiones que se alimentan de las algas. +Los que se alimentan del plancton, estos pececitos damisela, los pequeos animales que flotan en el agua. +Y luego tenemos una biomasa menor de carnvoros, y una biomasa menor en la punta, es decir los tiburones, los pargos grandes, los grandes meros. +Pero esto es una consecuencia. +Esta visin del mundo es una consecuencia de haber estudiado los arrecifes degradados. +Cuando fuimos a los arrecifes vrgenes, nos dimos cuenta de que el mundo natural estaba patas para arriba. Esta pirmide estaba inviertida. +Los predadores representan en efecto la mayor parte de la biomasa, en algunos lugares, hasta el 85%, como en Kingman Reef, que ahora est protegido. +La buena noticia es que adems de haber ms predadores hay ms de todo lo dems. +El tamao de estas cajas es ms grande. +Tenemos ms tiburones, ms biomasa de pargos, ms biomasa de herbvoros tambin, como este pez loro que son como cabras marinas, +limpian los arrecifes, todo lo que crece lo suficiente como para ser visto, lo comen, y mantienen limpio el arrecife y permiten que los corales se recuperen. +Estos lugares no slo tienen, estos antiguos lugares vrgenes no slo tienen gran cantidad de peces sino que tambin tienen otros componentes importantes del ecosistema como las almejas gigantes. Pavimentos de almejas gigantes en las lagunas, hasta 20 o 25 por metro cuadrado. +Estos han desaparecido de todos los arrecifes habitados en el mundo. Y filtran el agua; mantienen el agua limpia de microbios y agentes patgenos. +Pero an as, ahora tenemos el calentamiento global. +Si no tenemos pesca debido a que estos arrecifes estn protegidos por ley o por estar alejados, esto es genial. +Pero el agua se calienta durante demasiado tiempo y los corales mueren. +Entonces, cmo van a ayudar estos peces, estos predadores? +Bueno, lo que hemos visto es que en este rea particular durante El Nio, en el ao 97 o 98 el agua estuvo demasiado caliente durante mucho tiempo y muchos corales se decoloraron y muchos murieron. +En la Isla Christmas, donde la red alimentaria se ve muy reducida, donde los animales grandes se han ido, los corales no se han recuperado. +En la isla Fanning, los corales no se han recuperado. +Aqu vemos una gran mesa de coral que muri y se desplom. +Y los peces han comido las algas, por eso las algas se ven ms cortas. +Luego uno va al atoln Palmyra, que tiene ms biomasa de herbvoros, y esos corales estn limpios. Los corales estn regresando. +Y cuando uno va a la parte prstina, se decolor alguna vez? +Estos lugares tambin se decoloraron, pero se recuperaron ms rpido. +Cuanto ms intacto, ms completo, cuanto ms compleja sea la red alimentaria, mayor es la capacidad de recuperacin, ms probable que el sistema se vaya a recuperar de los impactos a corto plazo de los eventos de calentamiento. +Y eso es una buena noticia. As que tenemos que recuperar esa estructura. +Tenemos que asegurarnos de que todas las piezas del ecosistema estn ah para que el ecosistema pueda adaptarse a los efectos del calentamiento global. +As que si tenemos que restablecer la lnea base, si tenemos que empujar al ecosistema de vuelta a la izquierda, cmo podemos hacerlo? +Bueno, hay varias maneras. +Una forma muy clara son las reas marinas protegidas en especial las reservas "inviolables" que dejamos a un lado para permitir la recuperacin de la vida marina. +Y djenme volver a esa imagen del Mediterrneo. +Esta fue mi referencia. Esto es lo que vi de nio. +Y en ese entonces yo miraba los programas de Jacques Cousteau en la TV, con toda esta riqueza, abundancia y diversidad. +Y pensaba que esa riqueza perteneca a los mares tropicales y que el Mediterrneo era un mar pobre por naturaleza. +Pero poco saba yo hasta que salt por primera vez en una reserva marina. +Y esto es lo que vi, gran cantidad de peces. +Luego de algunos aos, entre 5 y 7 aos, los peces regresan, comen los erizos, y entonces las algas crecen de nuevo. +De este modo uno tiene pequeas algas primero y en el tamao de una laptop uno puede encontrar ms de 100 especies de algas en su mayora miscroscpicas cientos de peces, de pequeos animales que luego alimentan a los peces y as el sistema se recupera. +Y este lugar particular, la Reserva Marina de las islas Medas, tiene slo 94 hectreas y aporta 6 millones de euros a la economa local, 20 veces ms que la pesca. Y eso representa el 88% de todas las ganancias por turismo. +As que estos lugares no slo ayudan al ecosistema sino tambin a la gente que puede beneficiarse del ecosistema. +As que djenme que les haga un resumen de lo que hacen las reservas "inviolables", +estos lugares, cuando los protegemos. Cuando las comparamos con otras reas no protegidas cercanas, esto es lo que sucede. +La cantidad de especies aumenta un 21%. As, si uno tiene 1.000 especies uno esperara 200 ms en una reserva marina. +Esto es muy importante. +El tamao de los organismos crece un tercio. As que nuestro pez ahora es as de grande. +La abundancia, la cantidad de peces que uno tiene por metro cuadrado, se incrementa casi un 170%. +Y la biomasa, este es el cambio ms espectacular, 4 veces ms biomasa en promedio, al cabo de 5 o 7 aos. +Algunos lugares, hasta 10 veces ms biomasa dentro de las reservas. +As que tenemos dentro de la reserva todas estas cosas que crecen, y qu hacen? +Se reproducen. Eso es biologa de las poblaciones bsica. +Si uno no mata los peces, les lleva ms tiempo morir, se hacen ms grandes y se reproducen un montn. +Y lo mismo para los invertebrados. Este es el ejemplo. +Esas son cpsulas de huevo puestos por un caracol de la costa de Chile. Y esta es la cantidad de huevos que ponen en el fondo. +Fuera de la reserva esto ni siquiera se puede detectar. +1,3 millones de huevos por metro cuadrado dentro de la reserva marina donde estos caracoles son muy abundantes. +As que estos organismos se reproducen. Las pequeas larvas juveniles se derraman se extienden y luego la gente puede beneficiarse con ellos afuera tambin. +Esto es en Bahamas, el mero de Nassau. +Hay gran abundancia de mero dentro de la reserva. Y cuanto ms nos acercamos a la reserva, ms peces tendremos. +As que los pescadores estn atrapando ms. +Uno puede ver dnde estn los limites de la reserva porque se ven los botes alineados. +As que hay ms derrame. Existen beneficios ms all de los lmites de estas reservas que ayudan a las personas a su alrededor, mientras que al mismo tiempo la reserva est protegiendo todo el hbitat; est creando resiliencia. +As que lo que tenemos ahora en un mundo sin reservas, es como una cuenta de dbito de donde extraemos todo el tiempo y nunca hacemos un depsito. +Las reservas son como cajas de ahorro; +tenemos este principio que no tocamos, que produce retornos sociales, econmicos y ecolgicos. +Y si pensamos en el aumento de la biomasa dentro de las reservas, esto es como el inters compuesto, correcto? +Otra vez, dos ejemplos, de cmo estas reservas pueden beneficiar a la gente. +Esto es lo que obtienen los pescadores cada da en Kenia, pescando, por una serie de aos, en un lugar donde no hay proteccin, es libre para todos. +Una vez que los aparejos de pesca ms degradantes, las redes de cerco, fueron retirados, los pescadores comenzaron a capturar ms. +Si uno pesca menos, en realidad captura ms. +Pero si a eso le agregamos la reserva inviolable, los pescadores siguen haciendo ms dinero pescando menos en torno a un rea protegida. +Otro ejemplo: el mero de Nassau de Belice en el Arrecife Mesoamericano. +Este es el sexo del mero, y los meros se congregan bajo la luna llena en diciembre y enero durante una semana. +Solan congregarse hasta decenas de miles, 30.000 meros de este tamao en una hectrea, en una congregacin. +Los pescadores saban estas cosas, los atraparon y los diezmaron. +Cuando fui all por primera vez en el 2000, slo quedaban 3.000 meros. +Los pescadores estaban autorizados a capturar el 30% de toda la poblacin de desove cada ao. +Hice un anlisis muy sencillo que no requiere mucha ciencia darse cuenta que si uno toma el 30% cada ao su pesca va a caer muy rpidamente. +Y con la pesca, toda la capacidad reproductiva de las especies se extingue. +Sucedi en muchos lugares del Caribe. +Ellos haran 4.000 dlares al ao en total, para toda la pesca, varios botes de pesca. +Ahora, si uno hace un anlisis econmico y proyecta lo que sucedera, si los peces no se acabaran si trajramos slo 20 buceadores un mes por ao, los ingresos seran ms de 20 veces mayores. Y eso sera sostenible en el tiempo. +Entonces, cunto de esto tenemos? +Si esto es tan bueno, si es tan obvio, cunto de esto tenemos? +Ya han odo esto, menos del 1% de los ocanos est protegido. +Ahora nos estamos acercando a un por ciento gracias a la proteccin del archipilago de Chagos. Y slo en una fraccin de esto est totalmente vedada la pesca. +Los estudios cientficos recomiendan que al menos el 20% de los ocanos deberan estar protegidos. +El rango estimado es de entre el 20% y el 50% para una serie de objetivos de biodiversidad de mejora en la pesca y capacidad de recuperacin. +Ahora, es esto posible? La gente se preguntar: Cunto costara eso? +Bueno, pensemos cunto estamos pagando ahora para subvencionar la pesca: 35 mil millones de dlares por ao. +Muchos de estos subsidios van a prcticas pesqueras destructivas. +Bueno, hay un par de estimaciones de cunto costara crear una red de reas protegidas que cubra el 20% del ocano; sera slo una fraccin de lo que estamos pagando hoy, lo que los gobiernos distribuyen a un modelo de pesca que est colapsando. +Las personas estn perdiendo sus empleos porque la pesca se est acabando. +La creacin de una red de reservas proporcionara empleo directo a ms de un milln de personas adems de todos los trabajos y beneficios secundarios. +Entonces, cmo podemos hacer eso? +Si es tan claro que estas cajas de ahorro son buenas para el medio ambiente y para la gente por qu no protegemos el 20% o el 50% del ocano? +Cmo podemos alcanzar ese objetivo? +Bueno, hay dos maneras de conseguirlo. +La solucin trivial es crear reas protegidas muy grandes como el archipilago de Chagos. +El problema es que podemos crear estas grandes reservas slo en lugares donde no hay gente, donde no hay conflicto social, donde el costo poltico es muy bajo, y los costos econmicos tambin son bajos. +Y algunos de nosotros, algunas organizaciones en esta sala y en otros lugares estamos trabajando en ello. +Pero qu pasa con el resto de la costa del mundo, donde la gente vive o se gana la vida con la pesca? +Bueno, hay tres razones principales por las que no tenemos decenas de miles de pequeas reservas. La primera es que la gente no tiene idea de para qu sirven las reservas marinas. Y los pescadores tienden a ser muy, muy defensivos cuando se trata de regulacin o de cierre de una zona, incluso si es pequea. +En segundo lugar, la gobernanza no es correcta porque la mayora de las comunidades costeras del mundo no tienen la autoridad para controlar los recursos y crear la reserva y garantizar su cumplimiento. +Es una estructura jerrquica vertical donde la gente espera que vengan los agentes del gobierno. Y esto no es efectivo; el gobierno no tiene suficientes recursos. +Esto nos lleva a la tercera razn. La razn por la que no tenemos muchas ms reservas es que los modelos de financiacin estaban equivocados. +Las ONG y los gobiernos gastan mucho tiempo, energa y recursos en pocas zonas pequeas, por lo general. +As que la conservacin marina y la proteccin costera se ha convertido en un sumidero de dinero para gobiernos y filntropos y esto no es sostenible. +Por lo tanto las soluciones estn resolviendo estos tres temas. +Primero, tenemos que desarrollar una alianza de conciencia global para inspirar a comunidades locales y gobiernos para que creen reservas 'inviolables' mejores de las que tenemos ahora. +Es la caja de ahorros versus la cuenta de dbito sin depsitos. +En segundo lugar, hay que redisear el gobierno para que los esfuerzos de conservacin puedan descentralizarse para que los esfuerzos de conservacin no dependan del trabajo de las ONGs o de las agencias gubernamentales y puedan ser creados por las comunidades locales como ocurre en Filipinas y algunos otros lugares. +Y en tercer lugar, y muy importante, tenemos que desarrollar nuevos modelos de negocio. +El pozo filantrpico como nica manera de crear reservas no es sostenible. +Realmente tenemos que desarrollar modelos, modelos de negocio, donde la conservacin costera sea una inversin. Porque ya sabemos que estas reservas marinas proporcionan beneficios sociales, ecolgicos y econmicos. +Y me gustara terminar con una reflexin, y es que ninguna organizacin por s sola va a salvar al ocano. +Ha habido mucha competencia en el pasado. Y tenemos que desarrollar un nuevo modelo de asociacin, verdaderamente colaborativo, donde busquemos la complementariedad y no la sustitucin. +Los riesgos son demasiado altos para continuar por el camino que vamos. +As que hagmoslo. Muchas gracias. +Chris Anderson: Gracias Enric. +Enric Sala: Gracias. +CA: Fue un trabajo magistral de aunar esfuerzos. +En primer lugar, tu pirmide, tu pirmide invertida, que muestra el 85% de la biomasa en los predadores, eso parece imposible. +Cmo podra el 85% sobrevivir con el 15%? +ES: Bueno, imagina que tienes dos engranajes de un reloj: uno grande y uno pequeo. +El grande se est moviendo muy lentamente, y el pequeo se est moviendo rpido. +Eso es bsicamente lo mismo. +Los animales de las partes inferiores de la cadena alimentaria, se reproducen muy rpido, crecen muy rpido, ponen millones de huevos. +All arriba, estn los tiburones y peces de gran tamao que viven 25, 30 aos. +Se reproducen muy lentamente. Tienen un metabolismo lento. Y, bsicamente, slo mantienen su biomasa. +As que, bsicamente, el excedente de produccin de estos tipos all abajo es suficiente para mantener esta biomasa que no se mueve. +Son como los condensadores del sistema. +CA: Eso es muy fascinante. +As que, realmente, nuestra imagen de una pirmide alimenticia... tenemos que cambiarla por completo. +ES: por lo menos en los mares. +Lo que encontramos en los arrecifes de coral es que la pirmide invertida es el equivalente del Serengeti, con cinco leones por cada u. +Y en la tierra, esto no puede funcionar. +Pero al menos los arrecifes de coral son sistemas en los que hay un componente de fondo con la estructura. +Creemos que esto es universal. +Pero hemos comenzado el estudio de los arrecifes vrgenes slo muy recientemente. +CA: Los nmeros que presentas son realente sorprendentes. +Ests diciendo que ahora estamos gastando 35 mil millones de dlares en subsidios. +Slo costara 16 mil millones restablecer el 20% de los ocanos como reas marinas protegidas que en realidad dan nuevas alternativas de vida a los pescadores tambin. +Si el mundo fuese un lugar ms inteligente podramos resolver este problema con 19 mil millones de dlares menos. +Tenemos 19 mil millones para gastar en atencin mdica o algo as. +ES: Y luego tenemos el bajo rendimiento de la pesca que es de 50 mil millones de dlares. +As que de nuevo, una de las grandes soluciones es hacer que la Organizacin Mundial del Comercio desplace las subvenciones hacia prcticas sostenibles. +CA: Muy bien, que hay un montn de ejemplos que estoy escuchando por ah para terminar con esta locura de subvenciones. +As que gracias por esos nmeros. +La ltima es una pregunta personal. +Mucha de la experiencia de las personas presentes que han estado en los ocanos durante mucho tiempo han estado viendo esta degradacin, los lugares que vieron una vez hermosos cada vez peor, deprimentes. +Hblame de la sensacin que debes haber experimentado de ir a estas reas prstinas y ver las cosas regresar. +ES: es una experiencia religiosa. +Vamos all para tratar de comprender los ecosistemas, para tratar de medir o contar peces y tiburones y ver cmo estos lugares son diferentes de los lugares que conocemos. +Pero la mejor sensacin, Es esta biofilia de la que habla E.O. Wilson en la que los seres humanos tienen este sentido de reverencia y asombro frente a la Naturaleza indmita, a la Naturaleza en bruto. +Y all, slo all, uno se siente parte de algo ms grande, de un ecosistema global ms amplio. +Y de no ser por estos lugares que despiertan esperanza, creo que no podra continuar haciendo este trabajo. +Sera demasiado deprimente. +CA: Bueno, Enric, muchas gracias por compartir algo de esa experiencia espiritual con nosotros. Gracias. +ES: Muchsimas gracias. +Puedo pedirles que recuerden la poca en la que realmente amaban algo, una pelcula, un lbum, una cancin o un libro, y que lo recomendaban de corazn a aquellos que verdaderamente queran. y ustedes anticipaban su reaccin, la esperaban, y de pronto llegaba; y la persona la odiaba. +Bueno, a manera de introduccin, esta es exactamente la manera en la que he pasado cada dia de trabajo durante los ltimos seis aos. Yo enseo matemticas en la preparatoria. +Le vendo un producto a un mercado que no lo quiere, pero que debe adquirirlo porque la ley lo obliga. +Quiero decir, es simplemente un caso perdido +Hay un estereotipo muy til acerca de los estudiantes que me encuentro, un estereotipo til acerca de todos ustedes. +Podra darles un examen final de lgebra II, y esperara que no ms de un 25% lo aprobara. +En ambos casos, estos hechos dicen menos acerca de ustedes y de mis estudiantes que lo que nos dicen acerca de lo que llamamos educacin matemtica en Estados Unidos hoy en da. +Para empezar, me gustara separar las matemticas en dos categoras. +Una es el cmputo. Esto es todo aquello que olvidaron. +Por ejemplo, la factorizacin de cuadrados con coeficientes mayores que uno. +Este tipo de cosas son fciles de re-aprender. suponiendo que verdaderamente tengan bases firmes en razonamiento, razonamiento matemtico. Le llamaremos la aplicacin de los proceso matemticos al mundo que nos rodea. Esto es difcil de ensear. +Esto es lo que nos gustara que los estudiantes recordaran, an si no entran en profesiones basadas en matemticas. +Esto es algo que, por la manera en la que enseamos en E.U. +es casi seguro que se olvidar. +Asi que voy a platicarles por qu sucede de este modo, por qu es que es una tragedia social, qu podemos hacer acerca de esto, y, para terminar, por qu es que esta es una poca fantstica para ser maestro de matemticas. +Primero, cinco sntomas de que hacen un mal razonamiento matemtico en tu saln. +Uno es la falta de iniciativa; sus estudiantes no empiezan por s solos. +Usted termina su bloque expositivo e inmediatamente tiene cinco manos levantadas pidindole que vuelva a explicar la misma cosa. +A los estudiantes les falta perseverancia. +Se olvidan de todo rpidamente; se encuentra de pronto volviendo a explicar los mismos conceptos tres meses despus. +Hay una aversin a los problemas descriptivos, esto describe al 99% de mis alumnos. +Y el otro uno porciento esta buscando la frmula que aplicar en esa situacin. +Esto es verdaderamente nocivo. +David Milch, creador de varias series de televisin fascinantes, tiene una excelente descripcin para este caso. +David renunci a crear dramas contemporneos, tramas que se lleven a cabo en la actualidad, porque ha visto que, cuando la gente llena su mente con dos horas diarias de, por ejemplo, "Dos hombres y medio", sin ofender, esto moldea las conexiones neuronales, l dice, de manera que la gente espera problemas sencillos. +l le llama, "una impaciencia ante la irresolucin". +Nos ponemos impacientes con cosas que no se resuelven rpido. +Esperamos problemas del tamao de los programas se resulevan en 22 minutos, con tres cortes comerciales y risas de fondo. +Mi comentario para ustedes es que, todos ustedes saben, que ningn problema que valga la penar resolver es as de simple. +Estoy muy preocupados por esto, porque voy a retirarme en un mundo que mis estudiantes dirigirn. +Estoy atentando contra mi propio futuro y bienestar cuando enseo de esta manera. +Estoy aqu para decirles que la manera en la los libros, particularmente los que adopta la mayora de las escuelas, ensean razonamiento matemtico y resolucin de problemas es el equivalente funcional de ver "Dos hombres y medio" y dar por finalizada la jornada. +Ya hablando en serio, este es un ejemplo de un libro de fsica. +Y se aplica de igual manera a los de matemticas. +Vean primero aqu que tienen exactamente tres piezas de informacin, cada una de las cuales ir en una frmula en alguna parte, eventualmente, que el estudiante terminar calculando. +Creo en la Vida Real. +Pregntense ustedes mismos, qu problema han resuelto, alguna vez, que fuera importante resolver, y que tuvieran toda la informacin anticipadamente, o que no tuvieran muchsima informacin, y que tuvieran que filtrarla, o que no tuvieran suficiente informacin, y tuvieran que conseguir alguna. +Estoy seguro de que estarn de acuerdo en que ningn problema importante es como este. +Y el libro, yo creo, sabe como atontar a los estudiantes. Porque, vean esto, este es el juego de problemas de prctica. +Cuando llega la hora de hacer los verdaderos juegos de problemas, tenemos problemas como este aqu donde simplemente intercambiamos los nmeros y modificamos un poco el contexto. +Y si el alumno todava no reconoce el molde del problema, siempre puede ayudar que le digan en qu ejemplo puede encontrar la frmula. +Podran literalmente, y lo digo sinceramente, pasar esta unidad en particular sin saber nada de fsica, simplemente sabiendo como entenderle al libro. Esto es una pena. +As que puedo diagnosticar el problema un poco ms especficamente en matemticas. +Este es un problema genial. Me gusta. +Es acerca de definir la inclinacin y la pendiente usando un telefrico para esqu. +Pero lo que hay aqu son cuatro capas separadas. Y es muy interesante ver lo que hay en cada una de esas capas, particularmente cuando estn todas juntas y se le presentan al estudiante al mismo tiempo, cmo esto crea la impaciencia para resolver problemas. +Las voy a definir aqu. Tenemos la visual. +Tambin la estructura matemtica, hablando acerca de mallas, mediciones, etiquetas, puntos, ejes y ese tipo de cosas. +Tenemos sub-etapas, que nos llevan al punto del que queremos hablar, cul seccin es la ms empinada. +Espero que puedan verlo. +Espero que puedan apreciar ahora, lo que estamos haciendo aqu estamos hablando de una pregunta relevante, y una respuesta relevante estamos creando un camino suave y recto de un punto al otro, y felicitando a nuestros alumnos por lo bien que pueden rodear las piedras en el camino. +Eso es todo lo que estamos haciendo. +As que quiero mostrarles, si podemos separar estos de una manera diferente e irlos construyendo junto con los estudiantes podemos tener todo lo que buscamos en trminos de resolucin de problemas. +Por ejemplo aqu, empezamos con una ilustracin, e inmediatamente hacemos la pregunta: Cul seccin es la ms empinada? +Y esto da inicio a la conversacin porque la ilustracin esta creada de tal manera que podran defender cualquiera de las respuestas. +As que de pronto tenemos equipos argumentando uno contra otro, amigos contra amigos, por parejas, por escrito, de cualquier manera. +Y finalmente nos damos cuenta que se vuelve tedioso hablar del telefrico en el lado izquierdo de la pantalla o el telefrico que esta por encima. +Y nos damos cuenta de lo fantstico que seria si tuviramos algunos nombres com A, B, C y D para poder referirlos fcilmente. +Y despus, cuando empezamos a definir lo que significa "empinado", nos damos cuenta de que sera genial tener algunas medidas para realmente centrarnos, especficamente en lo que buscamos. +Y es entonces, y solo entonces, que mostramos toda la estructura matemtica. +Las matemticas estn al servicio de la conversacin. La conversacin no est al servicio de las matemticas. +En este punto, les apuesto que 9 de 10 grupos son capaces de llegar a la pendiente, lo "empinado" del asunto. +Pero si se necesita, los estudiantes pueden desarrollar estas sub-etapas juntas. +Se dan cuenta de como este problema aqu, a comparacin de aquel, Cul de ellos genera la resolucin de problemas, el razonamiento matemtico? +Durante mi practica como maestro esto ha sido obvio para mi. +Y esto nos da pi para citar por un segundo a Einstein, quien, segn creo, saba bastante de matemticas. +El deca que la formulacin del problema era increblemente importante, sin embargo, segn mi experiencia aqu en los E.U., slo le damos problemas a los alumnos; no los involucramos en la formulacin de los problemas. +As que el 90% de lo que yo hago con mis cinco horas semanales para preparar clase es tomar elementos suficientemente importantes o problemas como este del libro de texto y redisearlos de manera que fortalezcan el razonamiento matemtico y la resolucin de problemas. +Y he aqu cmo funciona. +Me gusta esta pregunta. Es acerca de un tanque de agua. +La pregunta es: Cunto tiempo nos llevar llenarlo? De acuerdo? +Primero lo primero, eliminamos todos los paso. +Los alumnos tienen que desarrollarlos. Tienen que formularlos. +Y noten que la informacin escrita aqu son cosas que despus necesitars. +Ninguna es un distractor, as que las quitamos. +Los alumnos deben decidir, entonces Ser importante la altura? Importa el tamao? +Importa el color de la llave? Qu es lo que importa aqu? +Esta es una pregunta que rara vez aparece en el programa de matemticas. +As que tenemos un tanque de agua. +Simplemente, Cunto tiempo nos tomar llenarlo? es todo. +Y ya que estamos en el siglo XXI, y nos gusta hablar de problemas reales de verdad, no acerca de dibujos o esquemas que con frecuencia encontramos en los libros, vamos y le tomamos una fotografa. +Ahora tenemos algo de verdad. +Cunto tiempo nos llevar llenarlo? +An mejor, si le tomamos video, el video del tanque que se va llenando. +Y se va llenando lentamente, agonizantemente lento, +Es tedioso. +Los alumnos voltean a ver el reloj, vuelven los ojos al cielo, y de pronto empiezan a preguntarse en algn momento, Que pasa? Cunto tardar en llenarse esta cosa? +Y es as como lanzamos el anzuelo, lo ven. +Y es esa pregunta, la que surge de aqu, es divertido para mi, porque como en mi clase, debido a mi inexperiencia, le enseo a nios, Le enseo a nios que son que ms dificultad tienen con matemticas. +He tenido nios que no inician una conversacin acerca de matemticas porque alguien ms tiene la frmula, alguien ms sabe como usar la frmula mejor que yo. As que no hablar de ello. +Pero aqu, todos estn en igualdad de condiciones en cuanto a la intuicin. +Todos ellos han llenado de agua algo alguna vez, as que tengo nios resolviendo la pregunta de cunto tiempo tardar. +He tenido nios que difcilmente hacen matemticas o conversan unindose al debate. +Ponemos nombres en la pizarra, les ponemos respuestas, y los nios en este momento tienen hambre de saber. +Y despus seguimos el proceso que les describ. +Y la mejor parte aqu, una de las mejores partes es que no tenemos la respuesta de la clave al final del libro del maestro. +En lugar de eso, simplemente esperamos el final de la pelcula. +Y eso es atemorizante, es cierto. Porque todos los modelos matemticos que usamos encuentran respuesta al final de la edicin del maestro, eso es fantstico, pero es atemorizante hablar acerca de las fuentes de error cuando la teora no concuerda con la prctica. +Pero esas conversaciones han sido valiosas, entre las ms valiosas. +As que estoy aqu para platicarles acerca de algunos xitos con alumnos que vienen con prejuicios sobre los problemas desde el primer da de clase. +Estos son los nios que hoy, un semestre despus, puedo poner algo en la pizarra, algo totalmente nuevo, totalmente extrao, y empezarn a discutirlo durante tres o cuatro minutos ms que lo que hubieran hecho al principio de ao, lo que es simplemente divertido. +Ya no tenemos aversin a los problemas del mundo, porque hemos redefinido lo que es un problema real. +No nos intimidan las matemticas, porque lentamente hemos redefinido lo que son las matemticas. +Y ha sido super divertido. +Y es por esto que esta es una poca excelente para ser un maestro de matemticas porque tenemos las herramientas para crear este programa de alta calidad con nuestro propios recursos. +Esta en todas partes y es relativamente barato. Y las herramientas para distribuirlo son gratis, bajo licencias abiertas nunca ha sido ms barato o estado ms a la mano. +Puse una serie de video en mi blog hace poco, y recibi cerca de 6,000 visitas en dos semanas. +Recibo correos electrnicos de maestros en pases que nunca he visitado diciendo, "Genial! Tuvimos una buena conversacin sobre este tema. +Y, a propsito, te recomiendo esto para mejorar el concepto," lo que me sorprende. +Puse este problema recientemente en mi blog. En una tienda, cul de las lineas escogeras, la que tiene un carrito con 19 mercancas o la que tiene cuatro carritos con tres, cinco, dos y un producto. +Y el modelo lineal necesario para trabajar el problema era muy til para mi clase. pero eventualmente me llev al programa de "Buenos das Amrica" unas semanas despus, lo que es simplemente extrao, verdad. +Y de todo esto, slo puedo concluir que la gente, y no slo los alumnos, estn verdaderamente hambrientos por esto +Las matemticas le dan sentido al mundo. +Las matemticas son el vocabulario de tu propia intuicin. +As que les exhorto, cualquiera que sea su rol en educacin, ya sea que seas estudiante, padre, maestro, diseador de programas, lo que sea, insiste en un mejor programa de matemticas. +Necesitamos ms gente que resuelva problemas. Gracias. +Tengo una hija, se llama Muln. +Y el ao pasado, a sus 8 aos, ella estaba haciendo un reporte o tena una especie de tarea sobre las ranas. +Estbamos en un restaurante y ella dijo: "As que, las ranas ponen huevos y los huevos se convierten en renacuajos y los renacuajos se convierten en ranas." +Y yo le dije: "Si. Bueno, no se tanto sobre la reproduccin de las ranas. +Creo que son las hembras las que ponen los huevos, despus los machos los fecundan. +Y despus stos se vuelven renacuajos y ranas." +A lo que me respondi: "Qu? Slo las hembras tienen huevos?" +Y yo le dije: "S." +Despus ella pregunt: "Y qu es esto de fecundar?" +Y le dije algo como: "Oh, este es un ingrediente adicional, t sabes, que necesitas para crear una nueva rana. de la mam y pap rana." Y ella dijo: "Oh, Y eso tambin pasa con los humanos?" +Y pens: "Bien, aqu vamos." +No saba que su curiosidad fuera a despertar tan rpido, a los ocho. +Trat de acordarme lo que decan todos los manuales y lo nico que pude recordar fue: "Slo responde la pregunta que te estn haciendo. +No ds ms informacin." Entonces dije: "S." +Y ella dijo: "Y Dnde, dnde ponen las mujeres humanas, dnde ponen las mujeres sus huevos?" +Y dije: "Bien, Es una pregunta interesante. Hemos evolucionado para tener nuestro propio estanque. +Tenemos un estanque muy nuestro dentro de nuestros cuerpos. +Y ah ponemos nuestros huevos. No tenemos que preocuparnos por otros huevos o por nada parecido. +Es nuestro estanque y as es como pasa." +Y ella sigui con: "Entonces, Cmo son fecundados?" +Y dije: "Bien, los hombres, por medio de sus penes, fecundan los huevos con la esperma que sale. +Y que pasan a travs de la vagina de la mujer." +Entonces mientras estbamos comiendo, su mandbula cae, queda boquiabierta y me dice:"Mam! +Vagina?, Cmo donde vas al bao? +Y le dije: "Si. Lo s. +Lo s." +As es como evolucionamos. Si parece raro. +Es un poco como si tuvieramos una planta de tratamiento de residuos justo al lado de un parque de diversiones. +Mala planeacin. Pero... Se queda como: "Qu?" Y contina: "Pero mam, pero Los hombres y las mujeres nunca se pueden ver desnudos entre s! +Entonces, Cmo puede eso siquiera llegar a pasar?" +Y fue ah cuando me puse mi sombrero de educadora sexual. +"Los machos y hembras humanos desarrollan un vnculo especial y cuando estn mucho ms viejos, mucho, mucho ms viejos que t y tienen un sentimiento muy especial entonces, ah es cuando pueden estar juntos desnudos." +Y me dijo: "Mam, Has hecho esto antes?" +Y dije: "S." +Y ella dijo, "Pero mam, tu no puedes tener hijos." +Porque ella sabe que la adopt y que no puedo tener hijos. +Y dije: "S." +Y dijo: "Entonces, no tienes que hacer eso otra vez." +Y entonces dije: "..." +Y ella dijo: "Pero, Cmo sucede cuando un hombre y una mujer estn juntos? +es decir, Cmo saben que se es el momento? +Mam, el hombre solo dice: 'Lleg la hora de quitarme mis pantalones?'" Y le dije: "S." +"Eso es completamente correcto. +As es justo como pasa." +Entonces, cuando bamos en el carro a casa y ella estaba mirando por la ventana y dice: "Mam, que tal si dos personas se acaban de ver en la calle, o sea un hombre y una mujer y lo empiezan a hacer ah mismo. Podra llegar a pasar? +Y dije:"Oh, no. Los humanos son muy reservados. +Oh no." +Y despus ella dice:"Que tal si hubiera como una fiesta... y hubiera como un montn de nias y un montn de nios... y hubiera un montn de hombres y mujeres y lo empezaran a hacer, Mam? +Podra algn da llegar a pasar?" +Y dije:"Oh, no, no. +As no es como lo hacemos." +Despus llegamos a casa y vemos al gato. Y ella dice: "Mam, Cmo lo hacen los gatos?" +Y le contesto: "Oh, es lo mismo. Es bsicamente lo mismo." +Despus se obsesion con las piernas. "Pero, Cmo iran las piernas, mam? +No entiendo eso de las piernas." +Y me dice: "Mam no todos pueden abrirse de piernas como las gimnastas." +Y le respondo: "Lo s, pero las piernas..." +Y le digo algo como: "Las piernas no son problema." +Y ella dice: "Pero, es que no puedo entenderlo." +Y entonces digo: "Sabes, por qu no nos metemos en Internet? y quiz lo podamos ver..." como en Wikipedia. Entonces nos conectamos al Internet y escribimos 'gatos aparendose' +y desafortunadamente, en Youtube, hay muchos videos de gatos aparendose. +Y los vemos y de pronto estoy tan agradecida, porque ella reacciona as: "Huy! Esto es tan increble." +Y dice: "Qu tal los perros?" +Entonces escribimos 'perros aparendose' y saben, lo estbamos viendo y ella estaba totalmente concentrada +y despus me pregunta: "Mam, crees que en Internet tendrn algunos humanos aparendose?" +Y despus ca en la cuenta de que haba tomado la manita de mi pequea de ocho aos y la haba llevado directamente al porno ciberntico. Y mir su cara confiada y tierna y le dije: "Oh, no. +.Eso nunca pasar." +Gracias. +Gracias. +Gracias. Estoy muy feliz de estar aqu. +Buenas tardes. +Est sucediendo una revolucin mdica a nuestro alrededor, una revolucin que nos va a ayudar a doblegar algunas de las enfermedades ms temidas de la sociedad, incluso el cncer. +Y la revolucin se llama angiognesis, y se basa en el proceso que usa nuestro cuerpo para desarrollar vasos sanguneos. +Por qu debemos preocuparnos por los vasos sanguneos? +Bueno, el cuerpo humano est literalmente repleto de ellos, son 96.000 km en un adulto tpico. +De punta a punta, eso formara una lnea que dara la vuelta al mundo dos veces. +Los vasos sanguneos ms pequeos son llamados capilares. +Tenemos 19 mil millones de ellos en nuestros cuerpos. +Y estos son los vasos de la vida, y, como les voy a mostrar, tambin pueden ser los vasos de la muerte. +Ahora bien, lo notable de los vasos sanguneos es que tienen esta capacidad para adaptarse a cualquier entorno en el que crecen. +Por ejemplo, en el hgado forman canales para desintoxicar la sangre. En el pulmn, recubren sacos de aire para el intercambio de gases. +En los msculos, se arremolinan para que los msculos puedan contraerse sin cortar la circulacin. +Y en los nervios, avanzan como cables de alta tensin, manteniendo vivos a esos nervios. +Y obtenemos la mayor parte de estos vasos sanguneos cuando, en realidad, estamos todava en el tero. +Y eso significa que, de adultos, por lo general los vasos sanguneos no crecen, +salvo en algunas circunstancias particulares. +En las mujeres, los vasos sanguneos crecen mensualmente para construir el revestimiento del tero. +Durante el embarazo, forman la placenta, que conecta a la mam con el beb. +Y luego de una lesin, los vasos sanguneos tienen que crecer bajo la cscara para poder curar la herida. +Y as es como se ve en realidad. Cientos de vasos sanguneos que crecen todos hacia el centro de la herida. +De modo que el cuerpo puede regular la cantidad de vasos sanguneos presentes en cada momento. +Y esto se logra mediante un elaborado y elegante sistema de validaciones y contrapesos, estimuladores e inhibidores de la angiognesis, de modo tal que, cuando necesitamos una breve rfaga de vasos sanguneos, el cuerpo puede hacer esto liberando estimuladores, protenas llamadas "factores angiognicos" que actan como fertilizantes naturales y estimulan el crecimiento de nuevos vasos sanguneos. +Y cuando los vasos sanguneos ya no son necesarios, el cuerpo los poda hasta la lnea de base mediante inhibidores naturales de la angiognesis. +Ahora bien, hay otras situaciones en que empezamos por debajo de la lnea de base, y se necesitan ms vasos sanguneos para volver a los niveles normales. Por ejemplo, despus de una herida. Y el cuerpo puede resolver eso tambin, pero slo hasta ese nivel normal, ese punto fijo. +Pero lo que ahora sabemos es que, en varias enfermedades, hay defectos en el sistema, en los que el cuerpo no puede podar los vasos excedentes o no puede generar suficientes nuevos vasos sanguneos en el lugar correcto en el momento adecuado. +Y en estas situaciones, la angiognesis se desbalancea. +Y cuando la angiognesis se desbalancea, el resultado es una mirada de enfermedades. +Por ejemplo, la angiognesis insuficiente, no hay suficientes vasos sanguneos, conduce a heridas que no sanan, ataques cardacos, piernas sin circulacin, muerte por derrame cerebral, dao neurolgico. +Y, en el otro extremo, excesiva angiognesis, demasiados vasos sanguneos, lleva a enfermedades. Y vemos esto en cncer, ceguera, artritis, obesidad, mal de Alzheimer. +En total, hay ms de 70 enfermedades graves, que afectan a ms de mil millones de personas en el mundo, que aparentan en la superficie ser diferentes unas de otras, pero que todas en realidad comparten la angiognesis anormal como comn denominador. +Y darnos cuenta de esto nos est permitiendo volver a conceptualizar la manera de abordar estas enfermedades mediante el control de la angiognesis. +Ahora me voy a centrar en el cncer porque la angiognesis es un distintivo del cncer de todo tipo de cncer. +As que comencemos. +Este es un tumor; masa oscura, gris, ominosa que crece dentro del cerebro. +Y bajo el microscopio, uno puede ver cientos de estos vasos sanguneos como manchas marrones, capilares que alimentan las clulas del cncer, que les llevan oxgeno y nutrientes. +Pero el cncer no empieza as. Y, de hecho, el cncer no empieza con suministro de sangre. +Comienza como nidos microscpicos de clulas que pueden crecer slo hasta medio milmetro cbico. +Eso equivale a la punta de un bolgrafo. +No pueden crecer ms que eso porque no tienen suministro de sangre, as que no tienen suficiente oxgeno o nutrientes. +Y, de hecho, probablemente formemos estos tipos de cncer microscpicos todo el tiempo en nuestro cuerpo. +Las autopsias de gente que muere en accidentes de trnsito han demostrado que el 40% de las mujeres comprendidas entre los 40 y 50 aos tienen cnceres microscpicos en las mamas. +Cerca del 50% de los hombres entre 50 y 60 aos tienen cncer de prstata microscpico. Y prcticamente el 100% de nosotros, cuando lleguemos a los setentas, tendremos cncer microscpico en la tiroides. +Sin embargo, sin suministro de sangre, la mayora de estos cnceres nunca sern peligrosos. +El Dr. Judah Folkman, que fue mi mentor, y fue el pionero del campo de la angiognesis, una vez lo llam "cncer sin enfermedad". +As, la capacidad del cuerpo para balancear la angiognesis, cuando funciona correctamente, evita que los vasos sanguneos alimenten el cncer. +Y ese resulta ser uno de nuestros mecanismos de defensa ms importantes contra el cncer. +De hecho, si uno realmente bloquea la angiognesis y evita que los vasos sanguneos lleguen a las clulas cancergenas, los tumores sencillamente no pueden crecer. +Pero una vez que ocurre la angiognesis, el cncer crece exponencialmente. +Y de ese modo el cncer pasa de ser inocuo a mortal. +Las clulas del cncer mutan y adquieren la capacidad de liberar muchos de esos factores angiognicos, abonos naturales, que inclinan la balanza a favor de los vasos sanguneos que invaden el cncer. +Y una vez que esos vasos invaden el cncer, ste puede expandirse, puede tomar el tejido local. Y los mismos vasos sanguneos que alimentan tumores, le permiten salir a las clulas cancergenas a la circulacin como metstasis. +Y, por desgracia, esta ltima etapa del cncer es aquella en la cual es ms probable ser diagnosticado, cuando la angiognesis ya est activada, y las clulas cancerosas crecen como maleza. +Entonces, si la angiognesis es un punto de inflexin entre un cncer inocuo y uno daino, entonces gran parte de la revolucin de la angiognesis es un nuevo enfoque en el tratamiento del cncer cortando el suministro de sangre. +Llamamos a esto terapia antiangiognica, y es totalmente diferente de la quimioterapia porque apunta selectivamente a los vasos sanguneos que alimentan al cncer. +Y podemos hacer esto porque los vasos sanguneos del tumor son, a diferencia de los vasos normales y saludables que vemos en otras partes del cuerpo. Son anormales; estn muy mal construidos; y, por eso, son muy vulnerables a los tratamientos que los atacan. +En efecto, cuando le damos a los pacientes de cncer una terapia antiangiognica aqu, una droga experimental para el glioma, que es un tipo de tumor cerebral, se puede ver que se producen cambios dramticos cuando se corta la alimentacin al tumor. +Aqu hay una mujer con cncer de mama que es tratada con el frmaco antiangiognico llamado Avastin, aprobado por la FDA (ente regulador). +Y se puede ver que el halo del flujo sanguneo desaparece luego del tratamiento. +Bueno, les he mostrado slo dos tipos de cncer muy diferentes que responden ambos a la terapia antiangiognica. +As que hace unos aos me pregunt: "Podemos llevar esto un paso ms lejos y tratar otros cnceres incluso en otras especies?" +Este es un boxer de 9 aos llamado Milo que tena un tumor muy agresivo llamado neurofibroma maligno, que creca en su hombro. +Invadi sus pulmones. +Su veterinario le dio slo tres meses de vida. +Por eso creamos un cctel de frmacos antiangiognicos que pudiera ser mezclado en su alimento de perro as como una crema antiangiognicos que pudiera ser aplicada en la superficie del tumor. +Y tras unas semanas de tratamiento, fuimos capaces de frenar el crecimiento del cncer de modo que, al final, conseguimos prolongar la supervivencia de Milo 6 veces lo que haban predicho los veterinarios en un principio, todo con una muy buena calidad de vida. +Y posteriormente tratamos a ms de 600 perros. +Tenemos una tasa de respuesta de cerca del 60% y mejoramos la supervivencia de estas mascotas que estaban a punto de ser sacrificadas. +Permtanme que les muestre un par de ejemplos an ms interesantes. +Este es un delfn hembra de 20 aos que vive en Florida, ella tena estas lesiones en la boca que, en el transcurso de 3 aos, se convirtieron en clulas de cncer escamosas. +Por eso creamos una pasta antiangiognica. +La hicimos colocar encima del cncer 3 veces por semana. +Y en el transcurso de 7 meses, los cnceres desaparecieron por completo, y las biopsias regresaron a lo normal. +Esto es un cncer que crece en el labio de un cuarto de milla llamado Guinness. +Es un tipo de cncer muy, muy letal, llamado angiosarcoma. +Ya se haba expandido a sus ganglios linfticos as que utilizamos una crema antiangiognica para la piel del labio y un cctel oral, de modo de tratarlo por dentro as como por fuera. +Y en el transcurso de 6 meses, experiment una remisin completa. +Y aqu est 6 aos despus, Guiness, con su muy feliz duea. +Ahora bien, obviamente la terapia antiangiognica podra ser utilizada para una amplia variedad de cnceres. +Y, de hecho, los tratamientos pioneros, tanto en personas como en perros, ya comienzan a estar disponibles. +Hay 12 frmacos diferentes, 11 tipos de cncer diferentes, +pero la verdadera pregunta es: Qu tan bien funcionan en la prctica? +Aqu estn los datos de supervivencia de pacientes de 8 tipos de cncer diferentes. +Y las barras representan el tiempo de supervivencia tomado desde la era en que slo haba disponible quimioterapia, ciruga, o radiacin. +Pero a partir de 2004, cuando aparecieron por primera vez las terapias antiangiognicas, bien, se puede ver que ha habido de un 70% a un 100% de mejora en la supervivencia para la gente con cncer de rin, mieloma mltiple, cncer colorrectal y tumores del estroma gastrointestinal. +Eso es impresionante. +Pero para otros tumores y tipos de cncer, las mejoras han sido slo modestas. +As que empec a preguntarme: "Por qu no hemos sido capaces de hacerlo mejor?" +Y la respuesta, para m, es obvia; estamos tratando el cncer demasiado tarde en el juego, cuando ya est establecido, y, muchas veces, ya est extendido o ha hecho metstasis. +Y como mdico s que, una vez que la enfermedad progresa a una fase avanzada, lograr una cura puede ser difcil, si no imposible. +As que volv a la biologa de la angiognesis y comenc a pensar: Podra ser la respuesta al cncer impedir la angiognesis, ganndole al cncer a su propio juego de modo que nunca pueda llegar a ser peligroso? +Esto podra ayudar a las personas sanas as como a personas que ya han vencido al cncer una o dos veces y quieren encontrar una manera de evitar que regrese. +As que buscando una manera de prevenir la angiognesis en el cncer, volv a mirar las causas del cncer. +Y lo que realmente me intrig fue cuando vi que la dieta representa del 30% al 35% de los cnceres producidos por el entorno. +Ahora, lo lgico es pensar qu podra eliminar de la dieta, qu se debe retirar, quitar? Pero en realidad adopt un enfoque totalmente opuesto y comenc a preguntarme: Qu podramos agregar a la dieta que sea naturalmente antiangiognico que pueda estimular al sistema inmunolgico y hacer retroceder los vasos sanguneos que estn alimentando el cncer? +En otras palabras, podemos comer para que el cncer muera de hambre? +Bueno, la respuesta es s. Y les voy a mostrar cmo. +Nuestra bsqueda nos ha llevado al mercado, a la granja y a las especias porque lo que hemos descubierto es que la madre naturaleza ha dotado a un gran nmero de alimentos, bebidas e hierbas con inhibidores naturales de la angiognesis. +He aqu un sistema de anlisis que hemos desarrollado. +En el centro hay un anillo del cual cientos de vasos sanguneos estn creciendo en forma de estrella. +Y podemos utilizar este sistema para poner a prueba los factores dietticos en concentraciones que se obtienen al comer. +As que voy a ensear lo que pasa cuando ponemos un extracto de uva morada. +El ingrediente activo es el resveratrol. Tambin se encuentra en el vino tinto. +Esto inhibe la angiognesis anormal en un 60%. +Esto es lo que pasa cuando aadimos un extracto de frutillas. +Se inhibe de forma potente de la angiognesis. +Y extracto de semillas de soja. +Y aqu est una lista creciente de nuestros alimentos y bebidas antiangiognicos que nos interesa estudiar. +Y para cada tipo de alimento creemos que hay diferentes potencias dentro de las diferentes cepas y varietales. +Y queremos medir esto porque, bien, mientras uno come una frutilla o toma un t, por qu no elegir el que sea ms potente para prevenir el cncer? +As que aqu hay cuatro diferentes ts que hemos probado. +Son todos los comunes, jazmn chino, sencha japons, Earl Grey y una mezcla especial que hemos preparado. Y se puede ver con claridad que los ts varan en su potencia de menos potente a ms potente. +Pero lo que es muy cool es cuando realmente combinamos los dos ts menos potentes juntos la combinacin, la mezcla, es ms potente que cada uno solo. +Esto significa que hay una sinergia de alimentos. +He aqu algunos datos ms de nuestros ensayos. +Ahora, en el laboratorio, simulamos la angiognesis tumoral representada aqu con una barra negra. +Y usando este sistema podemos probar la potencia de las drogas contra el cncer. +As que cuanto ms corta la barra menos angiognesis, eso es bueno. +Y aqu hay algunos medicamentos comunes que se han asociado con la reduccin del riesgo de cncer en las personas. +Las estatinas, frmacos antiinflamatorios no esteroideos y algunos otros, ellos tambin inhiben la angiognesis. +Y aqu estn los factores dietticos comparados cabeza a cabeza contra estas drogas. +Pueden ver que claramente se defienden y, en algunos casos, son ms potentes que los frmacos. +La soja, el perejil, el ajo, las uvas, las bayas, +podra ir a casa y cocinar una comida sabrosa con estos ingredientes. +As que imagnen si pudiramos crear el primer sistema de clasificacin del mundo en el que pudiramos puntuar los alimentos de acuerdo a sus propiedades antiangiognicas en la prevencin del cncer. +Y eso es lo que estamos haciendo ahora. +Ahora les he mostrado un montn de datos de laboratorio, y la verdadera pregunta es: Cul es la evidencia en las personas de que el consumo de ciertos alimentos puede reducir la angiognesis en el cncer? +Bueno, el mejor ejemplo que conozco es un estudio de 79.000 hombres, seguidos durante 20 aos, en el que se encontr que los hombres que consumen tomates cocidos dos o tres veces a la semana tenan una reduccin de hasta un 50% en el riesgo de desarrollar cncer de prstata. +Ahora, sabemos que los tomates son una buena fuente de licopeno, y el licopeno es antiangiognico. +Pero lo que es an ms interesante de este estudio es que esos hombres que si desarrollaron cncer de prstata, los que comieron ms porciones de salsa de tomate en realidad tenan menos vasos sanguneos alimentando su cncer. +As que este estudio en seres humanos es un buen ejemplo de cmo las sustancias antiangiognicas presentes en los alimentos y consumidas en niveles prcticos pueden tener un impacto sobre el cncer. +Y ahora estamos estudiando el rol de una dieta saludable con Dean Ornish, UCSF y la Universidad de Tufts sobre el papel de esta dieta saludable en los marcadores de angiognesis que podemos encontrar en el torrente sanguneo. +Ahora, obviamente, lo que he compartido con Uds tiene algunas implicaciones de largo alcance incluso ms all de la investigacin del cncer. +Porque si estamos en lo cierto, podra impactar en la educacin de los consumidores, los servicios de alimentacin, la salud pblica e incluso la industria de seguros. +Y, de hecho, algunas compaas de seguros ya estn empezando a pensar en este sentido. +Miren este anuncio de Blue Cross Blue Shield de Minnesota. +Y para muchas personas en todo el mundo la prevencin del cncer a travs de la dieta puede ser la nica solucin prctica porque no todos pueden permitirse costosos tratamientos contra el cncer en etapa terminal, pero todo el mundo podran beneficiarse de una dieta sana, basada en cultivos locales, sostenibles y antiangiognicos. +Ahora, finalmente, les habl de los alimentos, y les habl del cncer, as que hay una enfermedad ms de la que quiero hablarles y es la obesidad. +Porque resulta que el tejido adiposo, la grasa, es altamente dependiente de la angiognesis. +Y, como un tumor, la grasa crece cuando los vasos sanguneos crecen. +As que la pregunta es: Podemos reducir la grasa cortando el suministro de sangre? +As que la curva superior muestra el peso corporal de un ratn genticamente obeso que come sin parar, hasta que se pone gordo como esta pelota de tenis peluda. Y la curva inferior es el peso de un ratn normal. +Si uno toma el ratn obeso y le da un inhibidor de la angiognesis, pierde peso. +Si uno detiene el tratamiento, gana peso. Uno reinicia el tratamiento, pierde peso otra vez. +Si uno detiene el tratamiento, gana peso otra vez. +Y, de hecho, uno puede alternar el peso hacia arriba y hacia abajo simplemente por la inhibicin de la angiognesis. +As que este enfoque que estamos abordando para la prevencin del cncer tambin puede tener aplicacin para la obesidad. +La realidad, lo verdaderamente interesante de esto es que no podemos tomar estos ratones obesos y hacerles perder ms peso de lo que el peso normal del ratn se supone que es. +En otras palabras, no podemos crear ratones supermodelo. +Y esto habla del papel de la angiognesis en la regulacin de los puntos de control sanos. +Albert Szent-Gyorgi dijo una vez que "El descubrimiento consiste en ver lo que todo el mundo ha visto, y pensar lo que nadie ha pensado". +Espero haberlos convencido de que, para el cncer, la obesidad y otras enfermedades, que puede haber una gran potencia en atacar su comn denominador, al angiognesis. +Y eso es lo que creo que el mundo necesita ahora. Gracias. +June Cohen: As que estas drogas no son exactamente... +no son exactamente los principales tratamientos contra el cncer en este momento. +Para cualquier persona que tiene cncer, Qu le recomendara? +Usted recomienda la bsqueda de estos tratamientos ahora, a la mayora de los pacientes de cncer? +William Li: Existen tratamientos antiangiognicos aprobados por la FDA. Y si Ud es un paciente de cncer o trabaja para uno o aboga por uno, debera preguntar por ellos. +Y hay muchos ensayos clnicos. +La Angiogenesis Foundation est siguiendo ms de 300 empresas, y hay cerca de 100 otras drogas ms en trmite. +As que consideren las aprobadas, busquen ensayos clnicos, pero luego de lo que el mdico puede hacer por uno, tenemos que empezar a preguntarnos qu podemos hacer por nosotros mismos. +Y este es uno de los temas de los que estoy hablando es que nosotros mismos tenemos el poder para hacer las cosas que los mdicos no pueden hacer por nosotros, que consiste en utilizar el conocimiento y tomar medidas. +Y si la madre naturaleza nos ha dado algunas pistas, pensamos que podra haber un nuevo futuro en el valor de lo que comemos. Y lo que comemos es realmente nuestra quimioterapia 3 veces al da. +JC: As es. Y en ese sentido, para las personas que podran tener factores de riesgo de cncer, recomendara Ud seguir alguna clase de tratamiento profilctico o simplemente seguir la dieta adecuada con gran cantidad de salsa de tomate? +WL: Bueno, ya sabes, hay una abundante evidencia epidemiolgica. Y creo que en la era de la informacin, no se necesita mucho tiempo para ir a una fuente digna de crdito como Pubmed, la Biblioteca Nacional de Medicina, en busca de estudios epidemiolgicos para la reduccin de riesgo de cncer en base a dietas y a medicamentos comunes. +Y eso es ciertamente algo que cualquiera puede investigar. +JC: Ok. Bueno, muchas gracias. +Hace cosa de un ao me hice la siguiente pregunta: "Cmo es que, sabiendo lo que s, no soy vegetariano?" +Al fin y al cabo, soy unos de esos chicos verdes. Me cri en una cabaa con padres hippies. +Hice una pgina web llamada Treehugger ("abraza rboles"). Me importan estas cosas. +Sabia que con tan slo comer una hamburguesa al da el riesgo de muerte es tres veces ms alto. +Y la crueldad. Saba que 10 mil millones de animales se crian cada ao para el consumo de carne y se crian en granjas de produccin masiva bajo condiciones que nosotros, hipcritamente, no querramos para nuestros perros, gatos y otras mascotas. +Sorprendentemente, la produccin de carne es ms txica para el medio ambiente que todos los sistemas de transporte juntos: coches, trenes, aviones, buses, botes... todos. +Y la carne de vaca necesita 100 veces ms agua que la mayora de verduras. +Saba tambin que no era el nico. +Nuestra sociedad come el doble de carne que la de los 50. +As que, lo que una vez fue un caprichito de tanto en tanto ahora es un plato principal, mucho ms frecuente. +As que realmente, cualquiera de estas razones bastaran para hacerse vegetariano. +Aun asi, ahi estaba, tsk, tsk, tsk zampndome un buen filete. +Qu me lo impeda entonces? +Me di cuenta de que slo poda elegir entre una proposicin disyuntiva +Era una de dos: o eres carnivoro, o eres vegetariano. Y creo que an no estaba preparado. +Imaginate tu ltima hamburguesa. +As que mi sentido comn, mis buenas intenciones, estaban en conflicto con mis papilas gustativas +Me compromet a hacerlo en otro momento, un momento que, como era de esperar, nunca lleg. +Les resulta familiar? +As que me pregunt, podra existir otra solucin? +Pens sobre eso. Y la encontr. +La llevo practicando desde hace un ao, y es estupendo. +Lo llamo "vegetarianismo de lunes a viernes" +El nombre lo dice todo. De lunes a viernes, nada que tenga cara. +Los fines de semana t eliges. +Simple. +Si quieres ir todava ms all recuerda, las principales culpables en lo que se refiere al dao a la salud y al medio ambiente son las carnes rojas y las procesadas, +asi que deberas cambiarlas por algn buen pescado, criado de forma sostenible. +Son dos reglas estructuradas asi que son fciles de recordar. Y no importa romperlas de vez en cuando, +despus de todo, si la eliminas durante cinco das a la semana ests prescindiendo del 70 por ciento de tu consumo de carne. +El program ha sido fabuloso, vegetariano semanal. +He reducido mi huella en el ecosistema y tambin la contaminacin, me siento mejor cuando pienso en los animales... incluso ahorro dinero. +Y lo mejor de todo, estoy ms sano. S que voy a vivir ms, e inlcuso he perdido algo de peso. +Asi que, por favor, pregntense si hacerlo por su salud, por su bolsillo, por el medio ambiente, por los animales... qu es lo que les impide ser vegetarianos de lunes a viernes? +Despus de todo, si todos nosotros comiramos la mitad de carne, sera como si la mitad de nosotros furamos vegetarianos. +Gracias. +Hoy les quiero hablar sobre los pinginos, +pero antes, quiero comenzar contndoles que necesitamos un nuevo sistema operativo para los ocanos y para la Tierra. +Cuando fui a las Islas Galpagos hace 40 aos, haban 3.000 personas que habitaban las Islas Galpagos. +Ahora hay ms de 30.000. +Haban dos Jeep en Santa Cruz. +Actualmente, hay ms de cien camiones y buses y automviles en esa zona. +Entonces, los problemas fundamentales que enfrentamos son el sobreconsumo y el exceso de gente. +Son los mismo problemas que en Galpagos, a excepcin, obviamente, que ac es peor, de cierta forma, que en otros lugares. +Porque hemos duplicado la poblacin de la Tierra desde 1960, un poco ms que duplicado. Pero tenemos 6,700 millones de personas en el mundo. Y a todos nos gusta consumir. +Y uno de los principales problemas que tenemos es que nuestro sistema operativo no nos est entregando la informacin adecuada. +No estamos pagando los verdaderos costos ambientales de nuestras acciones. +Y cuando a los 22 aos me fui a vivir a Fernandina, slo djenme contarles, que nunca antes haba acampado. +Nunca haba vivido sola, por ningn perodo de tiempo. Y nunca haba dormido con leones marinos roncando a mi lado toda la noche. +Ms an, nunca haba vivido en una isla desierta. +Viv ms de un ao en Punta Espinosa. Le decimos desierta porque no hay gente en ese lugar. +Pero est lleno de vida. Y apenas hay personas. +Entonces, han pasado muchas cosas en los ltimos 40 aos Y lo que aprend cuando fui a las Islas Galpagos es la importancia de los lugares salvajes, las cosas salvajes, la vida salvaje, por cierto y las sorprendentes cualidades que poseen los pinginos. +Los pinginos son unos verdaderos atletas pueden nadar 173 km diarios. +Pueden nadar a la misma velocidad de da y de noche. Eso es ms rpido que cualquier nadador olmpico. +Quiero decir que pueden nadar casi 7 km por hora y mantenerlo. +Pero lo que es de verdad sorprendente, debido a lo profundo de esta zona, es que los pinginos emperadores pueden sumergirse ms de 500 metros. Y pueden aguantar la respiracin por 23 minutos. +Los pinginos de Magallanes, los que yo estudio, pueden sumergirse casi 90 metros. Y se mantienen bajo el agua unos 4,6 minutos. +Los humanos, sin aletas, 90 metros, 3,5 minutos, +y dudo que alguien en esta sala de verdad pueda aguantar la respiracin durante 3,5 minutos. +Hay que practicar para poder hacerlo. +As que los pinginos son unos sorprendentes atletas. +Por otro lado, nunca he conocido a nadie que de verdad diga que no le gustan los pinginos. +Son cmicos, caminan derechos, y, por supuesto, son diligentes. +Y lo ms importante, van bien vestidos. +As que cumplen todos los requisitos que la gente busca normalmente. +Pero cientficamente, son sorprendentes porque son centinelas. +Nos dan cuenta de nuestro mundo de muchas formas diferentes, en particular, del ocano. +Esta es una imagen de un pingino de las Galpagos que se encuentra frente a un pequeo bote inchable aqu en las Galpagos +y esos son los pinginos que fui a estudiar. +Pensaba que iba a estudiar el comportamiento social de los pinginos de las Galpagos, pero como ya saben los pinginos son raros. +Estos son los animales ms raros del mundo. +La razn de por qu pens que iba a ser capaz de hacerlo la desconozco. +Pero la poblacin ha cambiado de manera dramtica desde la primera vez que estuve all. +Cuando cont por primera vez los pinginos e intent hacer un censo, slo contamos a todos los individuos que pudimos en todas estas islas. +Contamos alrededor de 2.000, as que no s cuntos pinginos hay en realidad, pero s que al menos hay 2.000. +Pero si van y lo hacen ahora, en los parques nacionales cuentan unos 500. +As que tenemos una cuarta parte de los pinginos que tenamos hace 40 aos. +Y esto sucede en la mayora de nuestros sistemas vivos. +Tenemos menos de lo que tenamos antes, y la mayora de ellos van en descenso agudo. +Y quiero mostrarle un poco el por qu. +Este es un pingino cacareando para decirles que es importante prestar atencin a los pinginos. +Lo ms importante de todo, no saba lo que era y esa fue la primera vez que lo escuch. +Y pueden imaginar la primera noche all durmiendo en Fernandina y escuchar ese solitario y lastimero llamado. +Me enamor de los pinginos, y eso ciertamente ha cambiado el resto de mi vida. +Lo que descubr que en verdad estaba estudiando es la diferencia en cmo las Galpagos cambian, ante las variaciones ms extremas. +Han odo acerca de estos, El Nio, pero ste es el extremo al que todos los pinginos del mundo tienen que adaptarse. +Esta es una corriente de agua fra llamada La NIa. +Donde est azul y verde significa que el agua es muy fra. +Y as pueden ver que esta corriente sube, en este caso, la Corriente de Humboldt que viene en direccin hacia las Islas Galpagos, y esta profunda corriente submarina, la Corriente de Cromwell, que aflora alrededor de las Galpagos. +Y que trae todos los nutrientes. Cuando la temperatura es baja en las Galpagos, es abundante y hay mucha comida para todos. +Cuando sucede El Nio, ven todo esto rojo, no se ve nada verde aqu alrededor de las Galpagos. +Eso significa que no hay afloramiento, y que bsicamente no hay comida. +Entonces, es un verdadero desierto no slo para los pinginos y los leones marinos y las iguanas marinas. +Las cosas se mueren cuando no tienen comida. +Pero ni siquiera sabamos que eso afectaba a las Galpagos cuando fui a estudiar a los pinginos. +Y pueden imaginarse el estar en una isla, con la esperanza de ver a los pinginos, y ests en medio del suceso de El Nio, y no hay pinginos. +No se estn reproduciendo; no se les ve. +Por aquel entonces estaba estudiando iguanas marinas. +Pero ste es un fenmeno global, eso lo sabemos. +Y si nos fijamos en la costa de Argentina, donde trabajo actualmente, en un lugar llamado Punta Tombo, la mayor colonia de pinginos de Magallanes del planeta, aqu abajo a unos 44 latitud sur, pueden ver una gran variacin. +Algunos aos, el agua fra sube hasta Brasil, y otros aos, en los aos de La Nia, no. +As que los ocanos no siempre trabajan juntos, pero es este tipo de variacin a la que los pinginos se enfrentan a diario y no es fcil. +As que cuando fui a estudiar a los pinginos de Magallanes, no tuve problema alguno. +Haba muchsimos. +Esta es una foto de Punta Tombo en febrero donde se ven todos los pinginos a lo largo de la playa. +Fui para all porque los japoneses queran cazarlos para convertirlos en guantes de golf, protenas y aceite. +Afortunadamente, nadie ha cazado ningn pingino, y nos llegan ms de 100.000 turistas al ao a verlos. +Pero la poblacin est en declive y ha decrecido sustancialmente, alrededor del 21% desde 1987, cuando empec con estos estudios con respecto al nmero de nidos activos. +Aqu pueden ver dnde est Punta Tombo. Y se reproducen en colonias increblemente densas. +Sabemos esto por la ciencia a largo plazo, porque hemos hecho estudios a largo plazo all. +Y la ciencia es importante para informar a los que toman las decisiones y tambin para cambiar cmo las tomamos nosotros y saber en qu direccin vamos con ese cambio. +Y por eso llevamos a cabo este proyecto con pinginos, con la ayuda de la Wildlife Conservation Society, que me ha subvencionado, al igual que muchos individuos durante los ltimos 27 aos para poder producir este tipo de mapas. +Y adems sabemos que no slo los pinginos de las Galapagos estn en apuros, sino tambin los de Magallanes y otras especies de pinginos. +Y por eso hemos creado una sociedad global por y para los pinginos para poder centrarnos en su grave situacin. +Y este es uno de los problemas de los pinginos, la contaminacin por petrleo. +A los pinginos no les gusta el petrleo y no les gusta nadar en petrleo. +Lo bueno es que, si nos fijamos aqu abajo en Argentina, no hay contaminacin por petrleo superficial en el mapa. +Pero, de hecho, cuando fuimos a Argentina a menudo nos encontramos con pinginos completamente cubiertos de petrleo. +As que ellos iban nadando tan tranquilos sin molestar a nadie +y acabaron nadando por el agua de lastre que contena petrleo. +Porque, cuando los petroleros llevan su carga, tienen que soltar lastre en algn momento, y cuando lo sueltan, sueltan agua. +Cuando van de vuelta, lo que sueltan en realidad es lastre de agua que contiene petrleo al ocano. +Por qu lo hacen? Porque es ms barato, porque no pagan los costes medioambientales reales. +Normalmente no lo hacemos; y queremos empezar a hacer bien las cuentas para poder pagar el coste real. +Al principio, el gobierno argentino dijo: "No. No puede ser. +No hay pinginos contaminados en Argentina. +Tenemos leyes. Y no puede haber vertidos ilegales; va contra la ley". +As que nos pasamos 9 aos convenciendo al gobierno de que haba muchos pinginos contaminados. +Otros aos, como ste, descubrimos que ms del 80% de los pinginos adultos muertos que haba en las playas estaban cubiertos de petrleo. +Estos pequeos puntos azules son los polluelos. Hacemos este estudio cada mes de marzo, lo que significa que estn en contacto con su medio de enero a marzo, con lo que son 3 meses mximo en los que pueden acabar cubiertos de petrleo. +Y pueden ver como en unos aos ms del 60% de los polluelos acabaron cubiertos. +Al final, el gobierno nos escuch y sorprendentemente cambi sus leyes. +Desplazaron las rutas de los petroleros a 40km ms lejos de la costa y estos ya no sueltan tantos vertidos ilegales. +As que lo que vemos ahora es muy pocos pinginos cubiertos de petrleo. +Pero porque sigue ocurriendo? +Porque hemos solucionado el problema en la provincia de Chubut, que es como un estado de Argentina donde se encuentra Punta Tombo, unos 1.000km de costa, pero no hemos solucionado el problema en el norte de Argentina, en Uruguay o en Brasil. +As que quiero hacerles ver que los pinginos estn en peligro. +Hablar de dos cosas. +Esto es el cambio climtico. Este si que fue un estudio divertido porque les puse receptores por satlite a estos pinginos de Magallanes en el lomo. +Intenta convencer a los donantes de que te presten unos pocos miles de dlares para pegarles en el lomo un receptor por satlite a los pinginos... +Pero ya llevamos haciendo esto ms de una dcada para saber hacia donde van. +Pensamos que necesitaramos un rea marina protegida de unos 30km, y luego les pusimos los receptores a los pinginos. +Y lo que los pinginos nos muestran, y estos puntitos son las posiciones de los pinginos en poca de incubacin en 2003. Y lo que pueden ver aqu es que algunos de estos especmenes viajan a ms de 800km de sus nidos. +Esto significa que, mientras que su pareja permanece en el nido incubando los huevos, el otro se aventura en busca de alimento. Y cuanto ms tiempo estn alejados del nido, peor es el estado en el que se encuentra cuando vuelve. +Y, por supuesto, esto conduce a un crculo vicioso y as no se pueden criar muchos polluelos. +Aqu ven cmo en 2003, estos los puntos que representan la localizacin de los pinginos, estaban criando apenas medio polluelo. +Aqu, pueden ver cmo en 2006 criaron casi de polluelo por nido. Y pueden ver cmo cuanto ms cerca estn de Punta Tombo, menos se alejan. +Este ao pasado, en 2009, pueden ver cmo han aumentado los nmeros en casi de polluelo. Y algunos de los especmenes se han alejado ms de 900km de su nido. +As que es un poco como tener un trabajo en Chicago, y que te destinen a St. Louis, y a tu pareja no le hace gracia porque tienes que pagarte los gastos de estar ms tiempo fuera. +Lo mismo ocurre con los pinginos. +Y hoy da se alejan de media 40km ms que hace diez aos. +Necesitamos hacer llegar esta informacin al pblico general. +As que hemos creado una publicacin con la Sociedad para la Conservacin que consideramos que presenta ciencia vanguardista de una nueva forma original porque contamos con periodistas que son buenos escritores que realmente pueden destilar la informacin y hacerla accesible al pblico general. +As que si estn interesados en ciencia de vanguardia y conversacin inteligente deberan unirse a nuestros 11 socios, algunos de los cules estn en la sala, como Nature Conservancy, y leer esta revista, porque necesitamos que llegue la informacin sobre conservacin al pblico general. +Bien, por ltimo quiero decir que todos ustedes, probablemente, en algn momento de sus vidas, han tenido una relacin con un perro, un gato u otra mascota a la que han reconocido como individuos. +Y algunos de ustedes los consideraran casi de la familia. +Si tuvieran una relacin con un pingino lo veran de la misma manera. +Son criaturas impresionantes que cambiar de verdad cmo ve uno el mundo porque no son tan diferentes de nosotros. Intentan ganarse el pan. Intentan criar a su prole. Intentan seguir adelante y sobrevivir en este mundo +Y este es el pingino Turbo. +Nunca le ofrecimos comida a Turbo. +Nos conoci y obtuvo su nombre porque empez a acomodarse debajo de mi camioneta diesel, una camioneta turbo, y de ah el nombre. +Turbo ha aprendido a llamar a la puerta con el pico. Le dejamos pasar y entra. +Y slo quera mostrarles lo que ocurri un da cuando Turbo se trajo a un amigo. +As que ah est Turbo, +se acerca a uno de mis estudiantes de posgrado y a darle golpecitos con la aleta, como hara con una pingino hembra. +Como pueden ver, no intenta morder. +El otro nunca haba estado all y empieza a preguntarse: "qu pasa aqu? +Qu hace ste? +Esto es muy raro..." +Y pronto vern a mi estudiante de postgrado, +y vern que Turbo es muy insistente con sus golpecitos. +Y ahora mira al otro pingino pensado, "qu raro eres..." +Y miren ahora, nada amistoso. +As que los pinginos tienen personalidades diferentes como los perros y los gatos. +Tambin estamos intentando recabar informacin y aprender en el campo tecnolgico. +As que estamos intentando incluir ordenadores en nuestro trabajo de campo. +Y los pinginos siempre participan ayudndonos o no ayudndonos de una u otra forma. +Este es un sistema de identificacin for radio-frecuencia. +Les ponemos un pequeo granito de arroz en la pata al pingino con un cdigo de barras que nos dice quin es. +Pasa por encima del lector y sabemos quin es. +Bien, aqu tenemos varios pinginos entrando. +Ven, ste est volviendo a su nido. +Todos estn volviendo en esta poca pasan por all, tranquilamente. +Aqu vemos a una hembra con prisa. +Va corriendo porque hace calor y quiere alimentar a sus polluelos. +Y aqu viene otro muy tranquilamente... +Miren lo gordo que esta. Viene de vuelta para alimentar a sus polluelos. +Y luego descubro que estn jugueteando con la caja. +Esta es la caja que instalamos y ah est el sistema. +Pueden ver al pingino que se acerca, observa los cables, no le gustan los cables... +y arranca el cable; nos quedamos sin datos...! +Por eso son criaturas increbles. +Bien. +Lo ms importante es que slo t puedes cambiarte a ti mismo y slo t puedes cambiar el mundo y hacerlo mejor para las personas y para los pinginos. +As que muchas gracias. +Durante los prximos minutos, vamos a hablar acerca de la energa. Y va a ser una charla un poco variada. +Tratar de tejer una historia sobre energa, y el petrleo es un buen punto de partida. +La charla ser sobre la energa en sentido amplio, pero el petrleo es un buen lugar para comenzar. +Y una de las razones es, esto es algo sorprendente. +Tomas aproximadamente 8 tomos de carbn, como 20 tomos de hidrgeno, los mezclas de la manera precisa y tienes este lquido maravilloso, muy denso en energa y muy fcil de refinar en una diversa cantidad de productos tiles y combustibles. +Es algo grandioso. +Ahora, por el momento, hay mucho petrleo en el mundo. +Aqu est mi mapa de bolsillo de dnde est todo. +Uno ms grande para que lo puedan ver. +Pero esto es todo. Este es el petrleo en el mundo. +Los gelogos tienen una muy clara idea de dnde est. +Son aproximadamente 378 billones de litros de petrleo crudo an por ser desarrollado y producido en el mundo hoy. +Ahora, eso es slo una historia del petrleo, y podramos terminar ah y decir: "Bueno, el petrleo va a durar por siempre porque, bueno, hay muchsimo". +Pero realmente la historia es ms que eso. +Oh, por cierto, si piensan que estn muy lejos de este petrleo, 1000 metros abajo de Uds. est uno de los campos de petrleo ms productivos del mundo. +Pasen a hablar conmigo. Les comento los detalles si les interesan. +As que esa es una de las historias del petrleo. Simplemente hay mucho. +Pero qu hay del petrleo? Dnde est en el sistema energtico? +Aqu hay un vistazo de 150 aos de petrleo. Y es la parte dominante de nuestro sistema energtico en la mayora de esos 150 aos. +Ahora, aqu va otro pequeo secreto que les voy a contar. En los ltimos 25 aos, el petrleo representa un rol cada vez menor en el sistema energtico global. +Hubo una suerte de punto mximo petrolero en 1985, cuando el petrleo representaba el 50% del suministro de energa global. +Ahora es como el 35%. +Ha estado decayendo, y yo creo que continuar decayendo. +el consumo de gasolina en EUA probablemente lleg a su mximo en el 2007 y est decayendo. +As que el petrleo juega un rol menos importante cada ao. +As, hace 25 aos, hubo un punto mximo petrolero igual que en los aos 20 hubo un punto mximo en el carbn, y cien aos antes de eso hubo un punto mximo maderero. +Esto es una imagen importante en la evolucin de los sistemas energticos. +Entonces qu ha compensando durante las ltimas dcadas? +Bueno, mucho gas natural un poquito de energa nuclear, para empezar. +Y qu sucede en el futuro? +Bueno, yo pienso unas dcadas ms adelante est el punto mximo del gas, y ms all de eso punto mximo de las renovables. +Ahora, les contar otra pequea y muy importante historia sobre esta imagen. +No pretendo decir que el uso energtico en su conjunto no se est incrementando, lo est. Esa es otra parte de la historia. Vengan y hablen conmigo al respecto. Les dar algunos detalles ms. Pero hay un mensaje muy importante aqu. Estos son 200 aos de historia. Durante 200 aos hemos estado sistemticamente descarbonizando nuestro sistema energtico. +los sistemas energticos del mundo se volvieron progresivamente, ao con ao dcada con dcada, siglo con siglo, se volvieron menos dependientes del carbono. +Y eso contina hacia el futuro con las energas renovables que estamos desarrollando hoy, alcanzando quiz el 30% de la energa primaria para mediados de siglo. +Ahora eso podra ser el final de la historia. Bien, pues podemos reemplazarlo todo con renovables convencionales... pero pienso, que hay ms que eso en la historia. +Y para contar la siguiente parte de la historia... y estamos viendo, digamos 2100 y ms all. +Cul es el futuro... ...de la energa libre de carbono verdaderamente sustentable? +Bueno, tomemos una pequea excursin. Comencemos en el centro de Tejas. +Aqu hay un pedazo de piedra caliza. +La levant cerca de Marble Falls, Tejas. +Tiene como 400 millones de aos. +Y es simple piedra caliza, no tiene nada de especial. +Ahora aqu hay un pedazo de tiza. +Lo obtuve en el MIT. Es un poco ms joven. +Y es diferente de la piedra caliza. Pueden ver eso. +Uno no construira un edificio de esto, y no intentara dar una clase y escribir en una pizarra con esto. +S, es muy distinto. No, no es distinto. +No es diferente. Es lo mismo, carbonato de calcio, carbonato de calcio. +Lo diferente es como estn formadas las molculas. +Ahora si piensas que es un poco interesante, la historia se pone mejor. +De la costa de California, viene esto. Es concha de abuln. +Ahora bien, millones de abulones cada ao hacen esta concha. +Que, por cierto, si no haban adivinado ya, es carbonato de calcio. +Es lo mismo que esto y lo mismo que esto. +Pero no es lo mismo; es distinto. +Es mil veces, quiz 3.000 veces ms resistente que esto. +Y por qu? Porque el humilde abuln es capaz de asentar el cristal de carbonato de calcio en capas, creando esta bella e iridiscente concha ncar. +Material muy especializado que el abuln ensambla por s mismo, millones de abulones, todo el tiempo, cada da, cada ao. +Es algo bastante increble. +Entonces, cul es la diferencia? +Como estn unidas las molculas. +Ahora, eso qu tiene que ver con la energa? +Aqu hay una pieza de carbn. +Y sugerir que este carbn es tan emocionante como esta tiza. +Ahora, ya sea que estemos hablando de combustibles, o de vectores energticos, o quiz de materiales novedosos para bateras o celdas de combustible, la Naturaleza an no ha construido esos materiales perfectos porque no lo necesit. +La Naturaleza no lo necesit porque, a diferencia de la concha de abuln, la supervivencia de las especies no dependi de la construccin de esos materiales hasta quiz ahora, cuando importara. +As que cuando uno piensa en el futuro de la energa, imaginen, cmo sera si, en lugar de esto, pudisemos construir el equivalente energtico de esto, simplemente reordenando las molculas de manera distinta. +As que esa es mi historia. +El petrleo nunca se acabar. +No porque tengamos mucho. +No es porque vayamos a construir un mega milln de molinos de viento. +Es porque, bueno, hace miles de aos, las personas inventaron ideas, tenan ideas, innovaciones, tecnologa. Y la Edad de Piedra termin no porque se nos acabaran las piedras. +Son ideas, es innovacin, es tecnologa lo que terminar con la edad del petrleo mucho antes de que se nos acabe. +Muchas gracias. +Estamos aqu hoy para anunciar la primera clula sinttica, una clula hecha a partir del cdigo digital en el ordenador, creando el cromosoma a partir de cuatro botellas de productos qumicos, montando ese cromosoma en levadura, transplantndolo en una clula bacteriana receptora y transformando esa clula en una nueva especie bacteriana. +Por lo tanto esta es la primera especie autoreplicante que hemos tenido en el planeta cuyo padre es un ordenador. +Tambin es la primera especie que tiene su propio sitio web codificado en su cdigo gentico. +Pero vamos a hablar ms acerca de las marcas de agua en un minuto. +Este es un proyecto que tuvo sus inicios hace 15 aos cuando nuestro equipo de entonces - al que llamamos el Instituto TIGR - particip en la secuenciacin de los dos primeros genomas en la historia. +Hicimos el de Haemophilus influenzae y luego el genoma ms pequeo de un organismo autoreplicante, el del Mycoplasma genitalium. +Y en cuanto tuvimos estas dos secuencias, pensamos que, si se supone que ste es genoma ms pequeo de una especie autoreplicante, podra haber incluso un genoma ms pequeo? +Podramos entender la base de la vida celular a nivel gentico? +Ha sido una investigacin de 15 aos slo para llegar al punto de partida de ahora, para poder responder a esas preguntas. Porque es muy difcil eliminar mltiples genes de una clula. +Slo es posible hacerlo de a uno a la vez. +En los comienzos decidimos que debamos tomar una va sinttica, a pesar de que nadie haba estado all antes, para ver si podamos sintetizar un cromosoma bacteriano, as se podra variar el contenido gentico permitindonos entender los genes esenciales para la vida. +Eso inici nuestra investigacin hace 15 aos para llegar hasta este punto. +Antes de realizar los primeros experimentos, de hecho, le pedimos al equipo de Art Caplan, en aquel entonces en la Universidad de Pennsylvania, que llevara a cabo una revisin de cules eran los riesgos, los desafos, la tica relativa a la creacin de nuevas especies en el laboratorio porque nunca se haba hecho antes. +Estuvieron alrededor de dos aos revisando ese aspecto de forma independiente y publicaron sus resultados en "Science", en 1999. +Ham y yo nos tomamos dos aos libres como un proyecto paralelo para secuenciar el genoma humano, pero tan pronto como eso se realiz, volvimos a la tarea en cuestin. +En 2002, empezamos un nuevo instituto, el Instituto para Alternativas de Energa Biolgica, en donde nos propusimos dos objetivos. Uno; comprender el impacto de nuestra tecnologa en el medio ambiente, y cmo entender mejor el medio ambiente. Y dos; comenzar a recorrer este proceso de hacer vida sinttica para comprender la base de la vida. +En 2003, publicamos nuestro primer xito. +Entonces, Ham Smith y Clyde Hutchinson desarrollaron algunos nuevos mtodos para hacer ADN libre de errores a pequea escala. +Nuestra primera tarea consisti en un baceterifago de un cdigo de 5,000 letras, un virus que ataca slo al E.coli. +As que ese fue el bacterifago Phi X 174 que fue elegido por razones histricas. +Fue el primer bacterifago del ADN, virus de ADN, genoma de ADN que se secuenci en realidad. +As que, una vez que nos dimos cuenta que podamos hacer piezas de tamao pensamos, al menos tenemos los medios para intentar hacer muchas de estas piezas en serie para eventualmente ensamblarlas para hacer este cromosoma de megabase. +Entonces, sustancialmente ms grande que tras lo que incluso nosotros pensamos que iramos inicialmente. +Por lo tanto, hubo varios pasos para llegar a esto. Haba dos aspectos. Tenamos que resolver la qumica para la fabricacin de molculas grandes de ADN, y tenamos que resolver el aspecto bilgico de cmo, si tenamos esta entidad qumica, cmo lo ibamos a hacer arrancar, activarlo, en una clula receptora. +As que tenamos dos equipos trabajando en paralelo, un equipo en la qumica, y el otro tratando de trasplantar cromosomas enteros para obtener nuevas clulas. +Cuando empezamos esto, pensamos que la sntesis sera el mayor problema, que es la razn por la cual escogimos el genoma ms pequeo. +Y algunos de ustedes han notado que hemos cambiado del genoma ms pequeo a otro mucho ms grande. +Y podemos explicar las razones para ello, pero bsicamente, la clula pequea tomaba en el orden de uno a dos meses para obtener resultados, mientras que, la clula ms grande, de crecimiento ms veloz tarda slo dos das. +As que, hay un lmite de ciclos que podemos atravesar en un ao, a seis semanas por ciclo. +Y deben saber que, bsicamente, el 99, probablemente ms del 99 por ciento de nuestros experimentos fallaron. +Entonces esto se trataba de una depuracin, un escenario para resolver problemas desde el principio porque no haba receta de cmo de llegar a ese punto. +As, una de las publicaciones ms importantes que tuvimos fue en 2007. +Carole Latigue lider el esfuerzo para de hecho trasplantar un cromosoma bacteriano de una bacteria a otra. +Creo que, filosficamente, fue uno de los artculos ms importantes que alguna vez hemos realizado porque demostraba cun dinmica era la vida. +Y supimos, una vez que eso funcion, que realmente tenamos una oportunidad, si podamos lograr que los cromosomas sintticos hicieran lo mismo con ellos. +No sabamos que nos iba a llevar varios aos o ms para llegar all. +En 2008, reportamos la sntesis completa del genoma del Mycoplasma genitalium, un poco ms de 500.000 letras de cdigo gentico, pero an no hemos logrado activar ese cromosoma. +Creemos que, en parte, esto se debe a su lento crecimiento, y en parte, las clulas tienen todo tipo de mecanismos de defensa nicos para evitar que estos eventos sucedan. +Result que la clula a la que estbamos intentando trasplantar posea una nucleasa, un enzima que mastica el ADN en su superficie y que estaba feliz de comer el ADN sinttico que le dimos y nunca reciba trasplantes. +Pero en aquel entonces, esa era la molcula ms grande de una estructura definida que haba sido hecha. +Y entonces, ambas partes estaban progresando, pero parte de la sntesis tuvo que ser realizada, o se la pudo lograr, utlizando levadura, colocando los fragmentos en levadura, y la levadura los ensamblara para nosotros. +Es un paso adelante increble, pero nos encontramos ante un problema porque ahora tenamos los cromosomas bacterianos creciendo en levadura. +As que, adems de hacer el trasplante, tenamos que encontrar la manera de extraer un cromosoma bacteriano de la levadura eucariota, dentro una forma que nos permitiera trasplantarlo a una clula receptora. +As que nuestro equipo desarroll nuevas tcnicas para realmente cultivar, clonar cromosomas bacterianos enteros en levadura. +Entonces, tomamos el mismo genoma de mycoides que Carole haba transplantado inicialmente, y cultivamos eso en levadura como un cromosoma artificial. +Y pensamos que esto sera un gran banco de prueba para aprender a extraer cromosomas de la levadura y trasplantarlos. +Sin embargo, cuando realizamos estos experimentos, podamos extraer el cromosoma de la levadura pero no se poda trasplantar y activar una clula. +Esa pequea cuestin le llev al equipo dos aos en resolver. +Resulta que, el ADN en la clula bacteriana en realidad estaba metilado, y la metilacin lo protege de la enzima de restriccin, de digerir el ADN. +As que lo que encontramos fue que, si tomamos el cromosoma de la levadura y lo metilamos, podamos entonces trasplantarlo. +Otros avances se produjeron cuando el equipo elimin los genes de las enzimas de restriccin de la clula capricolum receptora. +Y, una vez realizado esto, ahora podemos tomar el ADN desnudo de la levadura y trasplantarlo. +As, el otoo pasado, cuando publicamos los resultados de ese trabajo en "Science", todos estbamos seguros de que estbamos slo a un par de semanas de poder ahora activar un cromosoma extrado de la levadura. +Debido a los problemas con Mycoplasma genitalium y su lento crecimiento, hace alrededor de un ao y medio decidimos sintetizar el cromosoma mucho ms grande, el cromosoma de mycoides sabiendo que tenamos resuelta la biologa de eso para el transplante. +Y Dan lider el equipo para la sntesis de este cromosoma de ms de un milln de pares de bases. +Pero result que no iba a ser tan simple al final. Y nos hizo retroceder tres meses porque tenamos un error de entre ms de un milln de pares de bases de esa secuencia. +Entonces el equipo desarroll un software de depuracin, en donde podamos probar cada fragmento sinttico para ver si se poda desarrollar en un fondo de ADN salvaje. +Y encontramos que 10 de las 11 piezas de 100,000 pares de bases que sintetizamos eran absolutamente correctas y compatibles con una secuencia de formacin de vida. +Lo redujimos a un fragmento. Lo secuenciamos y se encont que slo un par de bases haba sido suprimido en un gen esencial. +Por lo tanto, la precisin es esencial. +Hay partes del genoma que no pueden tolerar ni un solo error, y luego hay partes del genoma en donde podemos colocar grandes bloques de ADN, tal como lo hicimos con las marcas de agua, y puede tolerar todo tipo de errores. +As que, tom alrededor de tres meses encontrar ese error y repararlo. +Y luego, una maana temprano, a las 6 a.m., +nos lleg un texto de Dan diciendo que, ahora, existan las primeras colonias azules. +Por lo tanto, ha sido una ruta muy larga para llegar hasta aqu, 15 aos desde el comienzo. +Sentimos que, uno de los principios de este campo era asegurarnos completamente que podamos distinguir el ADN sinttico del ADN natural. +Al principio, cuando ests trabajando en un mbito nuevo de la ciencia, tienes que pensar en todas las trampas posibles y las cosas que podran llevarte a creer que habas hecho algo cuando no era as, y, peor an, llevar a otros a creer lo mismo. +Por lo tanto, pensamos que nuestro problema mas grave sera la contaminacin de una sola molcula del cromosoma nativo, llevndonos a creer que en realidad habamos creado una clula sinttica, cuando de hecho habra sido slo un contaminante. +As que, desde el comienzo, desarrollamos la nocin de colocarle marcas de agua al ADN para que quedara absolutamente claro que el ADN era sinttico. +Y el primer cromosoma que hicimos, en 2008, el de 500.000 pares de bases, simplemente le asignamos los nombres de los autores del cromosoma dentro de su cdigo gentico. Pero slo estaba utilizando traducciones de una sola letra con aminocidos, que obvia ciertas letras del alfabeto. +As que, el equipo desarroll un nuevo cdigo dentro del cdigo dentro del cdigo. +Por lo tanto, es un nuevo cdigo para interpretar y escribir mensajes dentro del ADN. +Ahora, los matemtios han estado escondiendo y escribiendo mensajes dentro del cdigo gentico por mucho tiempo, pero est claro que eran matemticos y no bilogos ya que, si escribes mensajes largos con el cdigo desarrollado por los matemticos, ms que probablemente llevara a que se sintetizaran nuevas protenas con funciones desconocidas. +Asi que, el cdigo que desarroll Mike Montague y su equipo en realidad pone frecuentes codones de parada. Por lo tanto, es un alfabeto diferente, pero nos permite utilizar todo el alfabeto Ingls con puntuacin y nmeros. +Por lo tanto, existen cuatro marcas de agua importantes encima de ms de mil pares de bases del cdigo gentico. +En realidad, la primera contiene en su interior este cdigo para interpretar el resto del cdigo gentico. +As, en la informacin restante, dentro de las marcas de agua contiene los nombres de, creo que son, 46 autores diferentes y contribuidores clave en llevar el proyecto hasta esta etapa. +Adems, construmos una direccin de sitio web, para que, si alguien decodifica este cdigo dentro del cdigo dentro del cdigo, pueden enviar un correo electrnico a esa direccin. +As que es claramente distinguible de cualquier otra especie, teniendo 46 nombres dentro de l, su propia direccin de red. +Adems, agregamos tres citas porque, con el primer genoma, fuimos criticados por no intentar decir algo ms profundo que simplemente firmar el trabajo realizado. +Entonces, no daremos el resto del cdigo, pero daremos las tres citas. +As que, el primero es, "Vivir, errar, caer, triunfar, y recrear vida de la vida". +Es una cita de James Joyce. +La segunda cita dice as, " Ve las cosas, no como son, sino como podran ser". +As que es una cita del "Prometeo Americano", libro sobre Robert Oppenheimer. +Y la ltima es una cita de Richard Feynman. "Lo que no puedo construir, no lo puedo comprender". +Por lo tanto, como esto se trata tanto de un avance filosfico como de uno tcnico en la ciencia, hemos intentado abordar ambas, el aspecto filosfico y la parte tcnica. +An con este anuncio tal como lo hicimos en 2003- ese trabajo fue financiado por el Departamento de Energa- entonces el trabajo fue revisado al nivel de la Casa Blanca, intentando decidir si clasificar el trabajo o publicarlo. +Y resolvieron por el lado de la publicacin abierta, que es el enfoque correcto. Hemos informado a la Casa Blanca. Hemos infomado a los miembros del Congreso. Hemos intentado tomar e impulsar las cuestiones de polticas en paralelo con los avances cientficos. +Entonces, me gustara abrir la sesin de preguntas primero con la audiencia. +S, en el fondo. +Periodista: Podra explicar en trminos simples cun significativo es este avance, por favor? +Craig Venter: Podemos explicar cun significativo es esto? +No estoy seguro de que seamos los que deben explicar cun significativo es. +Es significativo para nosotros. +Quizs es un cambio filosfico gigantesco en nuestra forma de ver la vida. +En realidad, nosotros lo vemos como un paso pequeo en trminos de, nos ha llevado 15 aos para, ahora, poder realizar el experimento que queramos realizar hace 15 aos en comprender la vida en su forma bsica. +Pero en realidad creemos que esto va a ser un conjunto muy poderoso de herramientas. Y ya estamos comenzando a usar esta herramienta en formas numerosas. +En el insituto contamos actualmente con financiacin del NIH en un programa con Novartis para intentar usar estas nuevas herramientas del ADN sinttico para quizs hacer la vacuna contra la gripe que tu podras recibir el ao prximo. +Porque, en vez de llevarnos semanas a meses para hacerlas el equipo de Dan ahora puede crearlas en menos de 24 horas. +Entonces, cuando ves cunto tiempo tom llevar a cabo una vacuna para H1N1, creemos que podemos reducir ese proceso de forma significativa. +En el rea de vacunas, Synthetic Genomics y el Instituto estn formando una nueva compaa de vacunas porque creemos que estas herramientas pueden afectar las vacunas para enfermedades que no han sido posibles hasta la fecha, en donde los virus evolucionan rpidamente, tales como el rinovirus. +No sera bueno tener algo que realmente pudiera bloquear el resfriado comn? +O, ms importante an, el VIH, en donde el virus evoluciona tan velozmente, que las vacunas que se hacen hoy da no pueden mantenerse al da con esos cambios evolutivos. +Adems, en Synthetic Genomics, hemos estado trabajando en los principales problemas del medio ambiente. +Creo que este ltimo derrame de petrleo en el Golfo es un recordatorio. +No podemos ver el CO2; dependemos de mediciones cientficas para ello, y comenzamos a ver los resultados iniciales de tener demasiado de ello. Pero ahora podemos ver pre-CO2 flotando en las aguas y contaminando las playas en el Golfo. +Necesitamos algunas alternativas para el petrleo. +Tenemos un programa con Exxon Mobile para intentar desarrollar nuevas cepas de algas que pueden capturar dixido de carbono en forma eficiente desde la atmsfera o de fuentes concentradas, hacer nuevos hidrocarburos que pueden entrar en sus refieneras para producir gasolina y diesel a partir del CO2. +Estos son slo algunos de los enfoques y direcciones que estamos tomando. +Estuve aqu hace 4 aos, y recuerdo que, en ese tiempo, las charlas no se suban online; +creo que se las daban a los TEDsters en una caja, una caja con DVDs, que ponen en sus estantes, donde estn ahora. +Y de hecho me llam Chris una semana despus de haber dado mi charla y me dijo: "Vamos a empezar a subirlas online. +Podemos subir las tuyas?" Y yo le dije: "Claro" +Y 4 aos ms tarde, como ya he dicho, ha sido vista 4... Bueno, ha sido descargada 4 millones de veces. +As que supongo que se podra multiplicar eso por 20 o algo as para obtener el nmero de personas que la han visto. +Y como dice Chris, hay avidez por ver mis videos. +... No lo estn? +As que todo este evento ha sido un elaborado preludio para que yo pudiera hacer otra presentacin para ustedes, as que aqu est. +Al Gore habl en la Conferencia TED donde habl hace 4 aos y habl sobre la crisis climtica. +Y yo hice referencia a eso al final de mi ltima charla. +As que quiero continuar desde ah porque, francamente, slo tena 18 minutos. +Entonces, como les estaba diciendo... l tiene razn. +Quiero decir, obviamente, hay una crisis climtica. Y creo que si la gente no lo cree, deberan salir ms. +Pero creo que hay una segunda crisis climtica, que es igual de grave, que tiene los mismos orgenes, y a la que tenemos que hacer frente con la misma urgencia. +Y quiero decir con esto, y por cierto, ustedes podran decir, "Mira, yo estoy bien. +Tengo una crisis climtica; realmente no necesito una segunda". +Pero sta no es una crisis de recursos naturales, aunque creo que aquella es verdadera, sino que es una crisis de recursos humanos. +Fundamentalmente, creo que, tal como muchos oradores lo han dicho en los ltimos das, hacemos un uso muy pobre de nuestros talentos. +Muchas personas pasan toda su vida sin ningn sentido de cules pueden ser sus talentos, o si tienen alguno del cual hablar. +Me encuentro con todo tipo de personas que no creen que son realmente buenos en nada. +La verdad es que ahora tiendo a dividir al mundo en dos grupos. +Jeremy Bentham, el gran filsofo utilitarista una vez plante este punto. +l dijo, "Hay dos tipos de personas en este mundo, los que dividen el mundo en dos clases y los que no". +Bien, yo lo divido. +Me encuentro con todo tipo de personas que no disfrutan lo que hacen. +Simplemente pasan sus vidas acostumbrndose. +No reciben gran placer de lo que hacen. +Lo sufren en lugar de disfrutarlo, y esperan que llegue el fin de semana. +Pero tambin me encuentro con personas que aman lo que hacen y no se imaginan haciendo otra cosa. +Si le dicen, "Ya no hagas esto", se preguntaran de qu les estn hablando. +Porque ellos dicen: no es lo que hacen, es lo que ellos son. +"Yo soy as, me explic? +Sera una locura para m abandonar esto, porque es lo que habla de mi ser ms autntico". +Y esto no es cierto para la mayora. +De hecho, todo lo contrario, yo pienso que es una minora. +Y creo que hay muchas posibles explicaciones para esto. +Y entre ellas, la principal es la educacin, porque de alguna forma, la educacin, aleja a muchas personas de sus talentos naturales. +Y los recursos humanos son como los recursos naturales; a menudo estn enterrados. +Tienes que ir a buscarlos. No estn simplemente tirados en la superficie. +Tienes que crear las circunstancias donde ellos surjan por s mismos. +Y pueden imaginar que la educacin sera la forma en que eso suceda. Pero muy a menudo, no lo es. +Cada sistema educativo del mundo se est reformando en estos momentos. Y esto no es suficiente. +Las reformas no tienen sentido, porque simplemente estn mejorando un modelo obsoleto. +Lo que necesitamos, y la palabra ha sido usada muchas veces durante estos das no es una evolucin, sino una revolucin en la educacin. +Tiene que ser transformada en algo ms. +Uno de los verdaderos desafos es innovar fundamentalmente en la educacin. +La innovacin es difcil porque significa hacer algo que las personas batallan en hacer. +Significa desafiar lo que tomamos por hecho cosas que pensamos que son obvias. +El gran problema para la reforma o transformacin es la tirana del sentido comn, +las cosas que las personas piensan, "Bueno, no puede hacerse de otra manera porque as es como debe hacerse". +Me encontr con una gran cita de Abraham Lincoln, Que pens, les gustar que sea citado en este punto. +l dijo esto en diciembre de 1862 para la segunda reunin anual del congreso. +Debo explicar que no tengo ni idea de lo que estaba sucediendo en ese momento. +En Inglaterra no enseamos historia norteamericana. +Lo suprimimos. Esa es nuestra poltica. +As que, sin duda, algo fascinante estaba pasando en diciembre de 1862, que los estadounidenses entre nosotros deben saber. +Pero l dijo esto: "Los dogmas del pasado silencioso son inadecuados para el presente tempestuoso. +La ocasin es una montaa de dificultades, y debemos crecer con la circunstancia". +Me encanta. +No ponernos a la altura, sino crecer con ellas. +"Como nuestro caso es nuevo, entonces tenemos que pensar de nuevo y actuar de nuevo. +Debemos desencantarnos nosotros mismos y as podremos salvar a nuestro pas". +Me encanta esa palabra, "desencantar" +Saben lo que significa? +Significa que todos nosotros estamos encantados con lo que simplemente damos por sentado como el orden natural de las cosas, cmo son las cosas. +Y muchas de nuestras ideas han sido formadas, no para enfrentar las circunstancias de este siglo, sino las circunstancias de los siglos previos. +Pero nuestras mentes siguen hipnotizadas por ellas. Y tenemos que desencantarnos nosotros mismos de algunas de ellas. +Ahora, esto es ms fcil decirlo que hacerlo. +Es muy difcil saber lo que toman por hecho. +Y la razn es que lo toman por hecho. +As que djenme preguntarles algo que quizs den por hecho. +Cuntos de ustedes son mayores de 25 aos? +Eso no es lo que creo que dan por hecho. Estoy seguro que ya estn familiarizados con eso. +Hay alguna persona aqu menor de 25 aos? +Grandioso. Ahora, los mayores de 25, Podran levantar sus manos si estn usando un reloj de pulsera? +Somos la mayora, no lo creen? +Pregunten lo mismo en un cuarto lleno de adolescentes. +Los adolescentes no usan relojes de pulsera. +No quiero decir que no pueden o no se les permite, simplemente eligen no usarlos. +Y la razn es, como ven, que hemos sido educados en una cultura pre-digital, nosotros los que tenemos ms de 25. +Y as, para nosotros, si quieres saber la hora, tienes que usar algo para saberlo. +Los nios ahora viven en un mundo digitalizado, y para ellos, la hora est en todas partes. +No ven ninguna razn en usar reloj. +Y, por cierto, no es necesario que lo hagan ustedes; es slo que siempre lo han hecho, y lo continan hacindolo. +Mi hija, Kate, que tiene 20 aos, nunca us un reloj, +Ella no ve el propsito. +Como ella dice, "Es un dispositivo de una sola funcin". +"O sea, qu intil es eso?" +Y yo digo: "No, no, tambin te dice la fecha". +"Tiene mltiples funciones". +Pero como ven, hay cosas con las que nos encantamos en la educacin. +Djenme darles un par de ejemplos. +Uno de ellos es la idea de linealidad, que se inicia aqu, y vas a travs de un trayecto, y si haces todo bien, terminars establecido para el resto de su vida. +Todos los que han hablado en TED, implcitamente nos contaron, o, a veces explcitamente, una historia diferente, que la vida no es lineal, es orgnica. +Creamos nuestras vidas en simbiosis mientras exploramos nuestros talentos en relacin con las circunstancias que contribuyen a crear para nosotros. +Pero ya sabes, nos hemos obsesionado con esta narracin lineal. +Y probablemente el pinculo de la educacin es entrar a la universidad. +Creo que estamos obsesionados con hacer que la gente entre a la universidad, +ciertos tipos de universidad. +No quiero decir que no deban ir a la universidad, pero no todos necesitan ir, y no todos necesitan ir ahora. +Tal vez van ms tarde, no de inmediato. +Hace un tiempo estuve en San Francisco autografiando libros. +Haba un hombre comprando un libro, de unos 30 aos. +Y le dije: "A qu te dedicas?" +Y l dijo: "Soy bombero". +Y le dije: "Cunto tiempo llevas siendo un bombero?" +l dijo: "Siempre, siempre he sido un bombero". +Y yo le dije: "Bueno, Cundo lo decidiste? +l dijo: "Cuando era nio". Dijo: "En realidad, fue un problema para m en la escuela, porque en la escuela, todo el mundo quera ser bombero". +l dijo: "Pero yo quera ser bombero". +Y dijo: "Cuando llegu al ltimo ao de la escuela, mis profesores no lo tomaban en serio. +Haba un maestro en especial que no lo tom en serio. +Me dijo que estaba desperdiciando mi vida si eso es todo lo que elega hacer, que debera ir a la universidad y convertirme en un profesional, que tena un gran potencial, y que yo estaba desperdiciando mi talento en hacer eso". +Y l dijo: "Fue humillante, porque l +lo dijo delante de toda la clase, y realmente me sent muy mal. +Pero es lo que yo quera, y tan pronto como sal de la escuela, Me postul para el cuerpo de bomberos y fui aceptado". +Y l dijo: "Recientemente estuve pensando en ese hombre, hace unos minutos cuando estabas hablando, acerca de este profesor", dijo, "porque hace 6 meses, le salv la vida". +Dijo, "Tuvo un accidente de auto, y lo saque, logre darle resucitacin cardiopulmonar, y tambin le salv la vida a su esposa". +l dijo, "Creo que ahora, l piensa mejor de m". +Saben, para m, las comunidades humanas dependen de una diversidad de talento, no una concepcin nica de la capacidad. +Y lo central de nuestro desafo... Lo central de nuestro desafo es reconstituir nuestro sentido de la capacidad y de la inteligencia. +Esta cuestin de la linealidad es un problema. +Cuando llegu a Los ngeles Hace unos nueve aos, Me encontr con una declaracin de poltica, muy bien intencionada, que deca, "La universidad comienza en el jardn". +No, no es cierto. +No es cierto. +Si tuviramos tiempo, profundizara en esto, pero no podemos. +El jardn empieza en el jardn. +Un amigo mo dijo una vez: "Sabes, un nio de 3 aos no es la mitad de un nio de 6". +Ellos tienen 3 aos. +Pero tal como escuchamos en esta ltima sesin, hay tal competencia hoy en da para entrar al jardn, para llegar al jardn de infantes correcto, que a los 3 aos estn siendo entrevistados. +Los nios sentados frente a un panel inconmovible, con sus currculum, hojeando y diciendo: "Bien, es slo esto?" +"Has estado aqu 36 meses, y esto es todo?" +"No has logrado nada. +Puedo ver que los primeros seis meses fueron de lactancia materna". +Como concepcin es indignante, pero es lo que atrae a muchas personas. +El otro gran problema es la conformidad. +Hemos construido nuestros sistemas de educacin bajo el modelo del comida rpida. +Esto es algo que Jamie Oliver habl el otro da. +Hay dos modelos de calidad garantizada en el servicio de comida. +Uno es el de comida rpida, donde todo est estandarizado. +El otro es como los restaurantes Zagat y Michelin, donde nada es estandarizado, estn adaptados a las circunstancias locales. +Y hemos comprado el modelo de comida rpida para la educacin. y esto empobrece a nuestro espritu y nuestras energas tanto como la comida rpida est agotando nuestros cuerpos fsicos. +Creo que tenemos que reconocer un par de cosas aqu. +Una de ellas es que el talento humano es tremendamente diverso. +Las personas tienen aptitudes muy diferentes. +Yo estaba pensando hace poco que me dieron una guitarra cuando era nio ms o menos al mismo tiempo que Eric Clapton consigui su primera guitarra. +Ya saben, todo sali bien para Eric, eso es todo lo que dir. +En cierto modo, no lo hizo para m. +No pude hacer que funcionara sin importar lo mucho que practicara. +No funcion. +Pero no slo es eso. +Se trata de la pasin. +A menudo, las personas son buenas en cosas que realmente no les importa. +Se trata de la pasin. y de lo que entusiasma nuestro espritu y nuestra energa. +Y si ests haciendo lo que amas, aquello en lo que eres bueno, el tiempo toma un curso totalmente diferente. +Mi esposa acaba de terminar de escribir una novela, y yo creo que es un gran libro, pero ella desaparece durante horas y horas. +Esto lo saben, si ests haciendo algo que te gusta, una hora se siente como cinco minutos. +Si ests haciendo algo que no se identifica con tu espritu, cinco minutos se siente como una hora. +Y la razn por la que muchos jvenes estn abandonando la escuela es porque no alimenta su espritu, no alimenta su energa o su pasin. +As que creo que tenemos que cambiar las metforas. +Tenemos que pasar de un modelo de educacin, esencialmente industrial de manufactura, que se basa en la linealidad en la conformidad y agrupacin de personas. +Tenemos que pasar a un modelo que se basa ms en principios de la agricultura. +Tenemos que reconocer que el florecimiento humano no es un proceso mecnico, es un proceso orgnico. +Y no se puede predecir el resultado del desarrollo humano; +todo lo que puedes hacer, como un agricultor, es crear las condiciones en que ellos comenzarn a florecer. +As que cuando miramos la reforma de la educacin y su transformacin, no es como la clonacin de un sistema. +Hay algunos muy buenos como el KIPPs, es un gran sistema. +Hay muchos modelos muy buenos. +Se trata de personalizar a sus circunstancias, y la personalizacin de la educacin a la gente que est realmente en las clases. +Y haciendo esto, creo que es la respuesta para el futuro porque no se trata de expandir una nueva solucin; se trata de crear un movimiento en la educacin en el que las personas desarrollan sus propias soluciones, pero con un apoyo externo, basado en un currculum personalizado. +Ahora, en esta sala, hay personas que representan recursos extraordinarios en los negocios, en multimedia, en Internet. +Estas tecnologas, combinadas con el talento extraordinario de los maestros, ofrecen una oportunidad para revolucionar la educacin. +Y los impulso a que se involucren en esto porque es vital, no slo para nosotros mismos, sino para el futuro de nuestros hijos. +Pero tenemos que cambiar del modelo industrial a un modelo de agricultura, en el que cada escuela puede ser maana floreciente. +Ah es donde los nios experimentan la vida. +O en la casa, si es ah donde eligen ser educados con sus familias o sus amigos. +Durante estos das hubo muchas charlas sobre los sueos. +Y slo quiero muy rpidamente... Anoche, me emocionaron mucho las canciones de Natalie Merchant, recuperar viejos poemas. +Quisiera leer un poema rpidamente, es muy breve, de W.B. Yeats, que alguno de ustedes tal vez conozca. +Escribi esto a su amor, Maud Gonne, y estaba lamentndose del hecho de que no podra realmente darle lo que l pensaba ella quera de l. +Y l dice: "Tengo algo ms, pero no puede ser para ti". +Y cada da, en todas partes, nuestros hijos extienden sus sueos bajo nuestros pies. +y debemos pisar suavemente. +Muchas gracias. +Muchas gracias. +Escuch esta fascinante historia de Miucha Prada. +Es una diseadora de moda italiana. +Va a cierta tienda vintage en Pars con una amiga. +Est rebuscando. Encuentra una chaqueta de Balenciaga. Le encanta. +La vuelve del revs. +Le mira todas las costuras. Le mira la hechura. +Su amiga le dice, ''Cmpratela ya". +Ella contesta, 'Me la comprar, pero tambin la voy a copiar". +Los acadmicos del pblico pueden pensar, ''Eso suena a plagio''. +Pero para un fashionista lo que representa es una muestra de la genialidad de Prada, que puede rebuscar en la historia de la moda y escoger la chaqueta que no necesita ni un solo cambio, para ser moderna y actual. +Puede que se estn preguntando si es posible que lo que est haciendo sea ilegal. +Bueno, resulta que en realidad no es ilegal. +En la industria de la moda hay muy poca proteccin para la propiedad intelectual. +Tienen proteccin de marcas registradas, pero no derechos de autor, y casi ninguna proteccin de patentes. +Lo nico que tienen es proteccin de marca registrada. Lo que significa que cualquiera podra copiar cualquier prenda de cualquier persona en la sala y venderla como diseo propio. +Lo nico que no pueden copiar es la etiqueta de la marca registrada en s que aparece en dicha prenda. +Esa es una razn por la que ven logos salpicados por todos estos productos. +Resulta mucho ms dificil para los falsificadores falsificar dichos diseos porque no pueden copiar el logo. +Pero si van a Santee Alley, claro. +Bueno, est claro. +Canal Street, lo s. +Y a veces es divertido, cierto? +Ahora bien, la razn por la que la industria de la moda carece de proteccin de los derechos de autor es porque los juzgados decidieron hace mucho que las prendas son demasiado prcticas para ampararse en los derechos de autor. +No queran que un puado de diseadores fuesen dueos de las bases fundamentales de nuestra ropa. +Y que los dems tuvieran que pagar licencias por este puo o esta manga porque es propiedad de Juan Nadie. +Pero demasiado prctica? Quiero decir, es as como ven la moda? +Esto es Vivienne Westwood. No! +Creemos que quizs sea un poco tonta, demasiado superflua. +Los que conozcan la lgica que hay detrs de los derechos de autor, que, sin propiedad, no hay incentivo para innovar, se sorprendern mucho tanto por el xito de crtica de la industria de la moda como por su xito econmico. +Lo que intento argumentar hoy es que, al no haber proteccin de los derechos de autor en la industria de la moda, los diseadores han sido en realidad capaces de elevar el diseo prctico, cosas con las que cubrir nuestros cuerpos desnudos, a algo que consideramos arte. +Al no haber derechos de autor en esta industria, existe una ecologa de la creatividad muy abierta y original. +A diferencia de sus hermanos creativos que son escultores o fotgrafos o directores de cine o msicos, los diseadores de moda pueden tomar muestras de todos los diseos de sus colegas. +Pueden tomar cualquier elemento de cualquier prenda en la historia de la moda e incorporarlo a su propio diseo. +Tambin son bien conocidos por, tomar prestado del zeitgeist. +Y aqu, sospecho, que les influyeron los trajes de Avatar. +Quizs slo un poco. +Tampoco existen derechos de autor sobre un traje. +Ahora bien, los diseadores de moda tienen la paleta ms amplia imaginable en esta industria creativa. +Este vestido de novia est hecho de tenecucharas. Y este vestido est hecho de aluminio. +Cuentan que ese vestido suena parecido a un mvil de viento al caminar. +As que uno de los mgicos efectos secundarios de tener una cultura de la copia, pues de eso se trata realmente, es el establecer tendencias. +A la gente le parece algo mgico. Cmo es que pasa esto? +Bueno, pasa porque es legal copiarse los unos de los otros. +y es ah donde ellos consiguen mucha de su inspiracin creativa. Es una industria con estrategias de gestin de arriba a abajo y viceversa. +Ahora bien, los gigantes de la moda se han beneficiado ms que nadie de la falta de proteccin de los derechos de autor en esta industria. +Son conocidos por copiar los diseos de alta costura y venderlos a precios muy bajos. +Y se han encontrado con un montn de demandas, pero dichas demandas nunca parten de diseadores de moda. +Los juzgados lo han dicho una y otra vez, ''No necesitan ms proteccin de la propiedad intelectual". +Cuando vemos copias como sta, uno se pregunta, cmo hacen las marcas de lujo para continuar en el mercado? +Si puedes tenerlo por 200 dlares, por qu pagar mil? +Bien, por eso tuvimos una conferencia aqu en U.S.C. hace unos aos. +Invitamos a Tom Ford a venir. La conferencia se llam: ''Preparados para compartir: La moda y la propiedad de la creatividad". Y le preguntamos exactamente eso. +Esto es lo que tena que decir. +Acababa de salir de un exitoso y largo periodo como diseador principal de Gucci, por si no lo sabais. +Tom Ford: Y descubrimos tras mucho investigar que, en realidad la investigacin fue poca, bastante sencilla, que el cliente de imitacin no era nuestro cliente. +Johanna Blakley: Imagnenselo. +La gente de Santee Alley no son los que compran en Gucci. +La demogrfica es muy diferente. +Y, ya saben, una copia nunca es lo mismo que un diseo original de alta costura, al menos en lo referente a materiales, siempre utilizan materiales ms baratos. +Incluso, a veces, una versin ms barata puede contar con aspectos encantadores, puede revitalizar una tendencia condenada a desaparecer. +Existen muchas virtudes en la imitacin. +Una que muchos crticos culturales han sealado es que ahora tenemos una paleta mucho ms amplia de opciones de diseo entre las que escoger que antes. Y esto se debe principalmente a la industria de la moda rpida. +Y eso es bueno. Necesitamos muchas opciones. +La moda, nos guste o no, nos ayuda a proyectar quienes somos en el mundo. +Gracias a la moda rpida, las tendencias globales se establecen mucho ms rapidamente que antes. +Y eso son muy buenas noticias para los marcadores de tendencias. Quieren que se marquen tendencias para poder mover el producto. +Los fashionistas, quieren ir por delante. +No quieren ponerse lo que el resto de la gente se pone. +As que quieren moverse hacia la prxima tendencia lo antes posible. +Creedme, no hay descanso para el que quiere ir a la moda. +Cada temporada, estos diseadores tienen que esforzarse en pensar la nueva, fantstica idea que va a encantar a todos. +Y esto, les digo, es muy bueno para la base de la industria. +Ahora bien, hay una serie de efectos que esta cultura de la imitacin tiene sobre el proceso creativo. +Stuart Weitzman es un diseador de zapatos de mucho xito. +Se ha quejado mucho de que la gente le copia. Pero en una entrevista que le, dijo que eso le ha obligado a superarse. +Tuvo que elaborar nuevas ideas, cosas nuevas que fuesen difciles de copiar. +Invent el tacn de cua Bowden que tiene que estar hecho de acero o titanio. Si lo haces de un material ms barato, se partir en dos. +Le oblig a ser un poco ms innovador. Y eso me record al grande del jazz, Charlie Parker. +No s si han escuchado esta ancdota, pero yo s. +Dijo que una de las razones por las que invent el bebop era porque estaba seguro de que los msicos blancos no seran capaces de reproducir el sonido. Quiso hacerlo demasiado difcil de copiar. Y eso es lo que los diseadores de moda hacen continuamente. +Intentan crear un look propio, una esttica, que refleje quienes son. +Cuando la gente les copia, todo el mundo lo sabe porque ellos han puesto ese look en la pasarela, y es una esttica coherente. +Me encantan estos Galianos. +Vale, avancemos. Se parece bastante al mundo de la comedia. +No s si saben que los chistes tampoco se pueden proteger por los derechos de autor. +As que cuando los chistes eran muy conocidos, todo el mundo se los robaban unos a otros. +Pero ahora tenemos un tipo distinto de cmico. +Crean un personaje, un estilo personal, muy parecido a los diseadores de moda. +Y sus bromas, igual que los diseos de un diseador de moda, slo tienen gracia dentro de esa esttica. +Si alguien roba una broma de Larry David, por ejemplo, no tiene tanta gracia. +La otra cosa que los diseadores de moda han hecho para sobrevivir en esta cultura de la copia es que han aprendido a copiarse a si mismos. +Se imitan a si mismos. +Llegan a acuerdos con los gigantes de la moda, e inventan una manera de vender su producto a un pblico totalmente nuevo, el pblico de Santee Alley. +Ahora bien, algunos diseadores dirn, ''Es slo en los Estados Unidos donde no se nos respeta. +En otros paises hay proteccin para nuestros diseos artsticos". +Pero si echan un vistazo a los dos mercados ms grandes del mundo, resulta que la proteccin que ofrecen es, en realidad, inefectiva. +En Japn, por ejemplo, que creo es el tercer mercado ms grande, tienen una ley para el diseo, protege la ropa, pero el estndar de novedad es tan alto, que tienes que demostrar que tu prenda no ha existido antes. Es totalmente nica. +Y eso es parecido al estndar de novedad para una patente estadounidense, que los diseadores de moda nunca obtienen, o raramente obtienen aqu en los Estados Unidos. +En la Unin Europea tomaron la direccin contraria. +Un estndar de novedad muy bajo, cualquiera puede registrar cualquier cosa. +Pero aun siendo el hogar de la industria de la moda rpida y teniendo un montn de diseadores de lujo all, estos, por lo general, no registran sus diseos, y apenas hay litigio. +Y eso pasa porque el estndar de novedad es demasiado bajo. +Alguien puede llegar y tomar el vestido de otro, cortar ocho centmetros del bajo, ir a la U.E. y registrarlo como un diseo nuevo, original. +As que eso no detiene a los artista de la imitacin. +Si miramos el registro, en realidad, muchas cosas registradas +son camisetas Nike que son casi idnticas unas a otras. +Pero esto no ha detenido a Diane von Fustenberg. +Ella es la directora del Consejo de Diseadores de Moda de Amrica, y le ha dicho a sus votantes que va a conseguir proteccin de los derechos de autor para diseos de moda. +Los minoristas, sin embargo, se han cargado esa idea. +No creo que la legislacin vaya a ninguna parte. Porque se dan cuenta de que es muy difcil difereciar entre un diseo pirateado y algo que es, simplemente, parte de una tendencia global. +A quin pertenece un look? +Esa es una pregunta muy difcil de responder. +Se necesitan un montn de abogados y de tiempo en los juzgados. Y los minoristas decidieron que sera demasiado caro. +Saben, no es slo la industria de la moda la que carece de derechos de autor. +Existen un montn de otras industrias sin derechos de autor incluida la industria alimentaria. +No se pueden aplicar derechos de autor a una receta porque es un lista de instrucciones, es cierto. Y tampoco se pueden aplicar a las sensaciones de, incluso, el plato ms nico. +Lo mismo pasa con los coches. +No importa lo extrao o lo interesante de su apariencia, no se pueden aplicar derechos de autor al diseo escultural. +Es un artculo de utilidad, esa es la razn. +Lo mismo pasa con el mobiliario. Es demasiado prctico. +Los trucos de magia, creo que son instrucciones, parecido a las recetas. Sin proteccin de derechos de autor. +Los peinados, sin derechos de autor. +El software de cdigo abierto, estos tos decidieron que no queran los derechos de autor. +Pensaron que habra ms innovacin sin ellos. +Es muy difcil obtener derechos de autor para bases de datos. +Los artistas de tatuajes, no los quieren; no molan. +Comparten sus diseos. +Los chistes, no tienen derechos de autor. +Las exhibiciones de fuegos artificiales. Las reglas de los juegos. El olor de los perfumes, no. +Y algunas de estas industrias pueden parecernos casi marginales, pero estas son las ventas brutas para industrias de baja P.I., industrias con escasa proteccin de los derechos de autor. Y aqu estn las ventas brutas de pelculas y videos. +No pinta bien. +As que hablamos con la gente de la industria de la moda y ellos estn como, ''Shh! +No le digis a nadie que podemos robarnos los diseos unos a otros. +Da vergenza.'' +Pero saben qu?, es revolucionario. Y es un modelo que muchas otras industrias, como las que hemos visto con las barras minsculas, deberan de considerar, +porque, ahora mismo, esas industrias con tantos derechos de autor estn operando en una atmsfera en la que es como si no tuviesen proteccin alguna. Y no saben qu hacer. +Cuando descubr que hay un montn de industrias sin proteccin de derechos de autor, pens, cal es la lgica interna? +Quiero un grfico, y los abogados no te dan uno. As que hice yo uno. +Estas son las dos principales oposiciones binarias dentro de la lgica legal de los derechos de autor. +Es ms complejo, pero servir. +Primero, es un objeto artstico? +Entonces merece proteccin. +Es un objeto til? +Entonces no, no merece proteccin. +Es una dicotoma difcil, inestable. +El otro es: es una idea? +Es algo que necesita circular libremente en una sociedad libre? +Sin proteccin. +O es la expresin de una idea plasmada fsicamente, algo que cre alguien, y de lo que merecen ser propietario durante un tiempo y ganar dinero? +El problema es que la tecnologa digital ha trastornado completamente la lgica de dicha expresin plasmada fsicamente en oposicin al concepto idea. +Hoy en da, no reconocemos un libro como algo aparcado en nuestra estantera o la msica como algo que es un objeto fsico que podemos tomar. +Es un archivo digital. +Apenas est ligado a ninguna clase de realidad fsica en nuestra mente. +Y estas cosas, al poderlas copiar y transmitir con tanta facilidad, en realidad circulan dentro de nuestra cultura mucho ms como ideas que como objetos ejemplificados fsicamente. +Ahora bien, los problemas conceptuales son realmente profundos cuando hablamos de creatividad y propiedad y, permtanme decirles, no queremos dejrselo a que los abogados lo solucionen. +Son listos. +Yo estoy con uno. Es mi novio. Est bien. +Es listo. Es listo. +Pero uno quiere un equipo intedisciplinar de personas discrepando, intentando averiguar cul es la clase de modelo de propiedad, en un mundo digital, que conducir a la mxima innovacin. +Y mi sugerencia es que la moda puede ser un muy buen sitio donde empezar a buscar un modelo para las industrias creativas del futuro. +Si desean ms informacin acerca de este proyecto de investigacin, visiten nuestra web, es ReadyToShare.org +Y me gustara dar las gracias a Veronica Jauriqui por hacer de sta una presentacin muy a la moda. +Muchsimas gracias. +Hoy quiero mostrarles a los chicos que devienen terroristas suicidas desde un ngulo completamente diferente +En el ao 2009 en Paquistn hubo 500 explosiones de bomba. +Yo pas el ao trabajando con chicos que entrenaban para ser terroristas suicidas y con los talibanes que los reclutaban intentando comprender cmo el Talibn converta a estos chicos en municin humana y por qu estos chicos se entusiasmaban por afiliarse a la causa. +Quiero mostrarles un pequeo vdeo de mi ltimo documental "Chicos del Talibn". +El Talibn opera sus propias escuelas. +Buscan a familias pobres y las convencen de mandar a sus chicos. +A cambio les ofrecen comida y techo y a veces les pagan una cuota mensual. +Conseguimos un videoclip de propaganda producido por el Talibn. +A los chicos les ensean a justificar los ataques suicidas y la ejecucin de espas. +Yo convers con un chico del Valle del Swat que estudiaba en una madrassa de ese tipo. +Hazrat Ali pertenece a una familia de humildes agricultores de Swat. +Se uni al Talibn hace un ao, cuando tena 13 aos. +Cmo hace el Talibn para reclutar en tu rea? +Hazrat Ali: Primero nos convocan a la mezquita y nos dan un sermn. +Luego nos llevan a una madrassa y nos ensean acerca del Corn. +Sharmeen Obaid Chinoy: Hazrit cuenta que los chicos reciben entrenamiento militar durante meses. +HA: Nos ensean a usar armas de fuego, fusiles Kalishnikov, lanzamisiles, granadas, bombas. +Nos dicen que deben usarse slo contra los infieles. +Y luego nos ensean cmo realizar un ataque suicida. +SOC: Te gustara perpetrar un ataque suicida? +HA: Si Dios me da la fortaleza. +SOC: Yo, en mi investigacin he notado que el Talibn ha perfeccionado el mtodo de alistamiento y entrenamiento de estos chicos. Y creo que es un proceso de cinco fases. +Fase uno es que el Talibn se aprovecha de las familias numerosas y pobres, que viven en reas rurales. +Separan a los chicos de sus padres prometindoles comida, ropa, un techo para esos chicos. +Y luego se los llevan, a cientos de millas de distancia a escuelas de lnea dura que son parte del plan del Talibn. +Fase dos: Les ensean acerca del Corn, el libro sagrado del Islamismo, en rabe, una lengua que estos chicos no entienden ni pueden hablar. +Ellos les creen a los maestros a los que yo he visto personalmente tergiversarles el mensaje como y cuando les es conveniente. +A estos chicos les est explcitamente prohibido leer peridicos, escuchar la radio, o leer libros no asignados por los maestros. +Si un chico no cumple las reglas es severamente escarmentado. +En efecto el Talibn les crea un bloqueo absoluto de cualquier fuente de informacin. +Fase tres: El Talibn quiere que estos chicos odien el mundo en el que viven. +Entonces los golpean. Yo lo he visto. Los alimentan de pan duro y agua. Muy raramente les permiten jugar. Les dicen que durante ocho horas seguidas slo deben leer el Corn. +Los chicos son como prisioneros. No pueden escapar, regresar a sus hogares. +Sus padres son tan pobres que no tienen medios para recuperarlos. +Fase cuatro: los miembros ms antiguos del Talibn, los 'combatientes' les hablan a los ms jvenes de la gloria de ser mrtir. +Les dicen que cuando mueran, sern recibidos con ros de leche y miel y que habr 72 vrgenes esperndoles en el Paraso, que habr comida en abundancia, y que esa gloria los llevar a convertirse en los hroes de sus pueblos. +Este es el proceso de lavado de cerebro que ya ha comenzado. +Fase cinco: Yo creo que el Talibn cuenta con uno de los ms eficaces medios propagandsticos. +Los vdeos que utilizan tienen intercaladas imgenes de hombres y mujeres y nios que mueren en Irak, en Afganistn y en Paquistn. +Y el mensaje principal es que a Occidente las muertes de civiles no le preocupan, entonces a aquellos que viven en reas y apoyan a gobiernos que trabajan con Occidente es justo que se los ataque. +Es por eso que a los civiles en Paquistn, de los cuales 6000 han sido asesinados en los ltimos dos aos, es legtimo que se los ataque. +A estos chicos los preparan para ser terroristas suicidas. +Estn listos para salir y combatir porque les han dicho que, efectivamente, sa es la nica manera que tienen para glorificar el Islamismo. +Quiero mostrarles otro segmento del film. +Este chico se llama Zenola. +Se suicid, matando a seis. +Este chico se llama Sadik. +Sadik mat a 22. +Este chico se llama Messoud. +El mat a 28. +El Talibn dirige escuelas de suicidas. preparando a toda una generacin de chicos para cometer atrocidades contra los civiles. +Te gustara perpetrar un ataque suicida? +Chico: Me encantara. +Pero nicamente si mi pap me da permiso. +Los terroristas suicidas de mi edad, o menores, me inspiran con sus tremendos ataques. +De qu modo te sentiras bendecido al perpetrar un ataque suicida? +Chico: En el da del juicio, Dios me preguntar: -Por qu has hecho eso? +Y yo le contestar: -Seor mo! Slo para hacerte feliz a t! +-Me he dejado matar por combatir a los infieles. +Y Dios estudiar mis intenciones. +Y si stas son erradicar al mal en nombre del Islamismo, ser recompensado con el Paraso. +Como me dijo un reclutador Talibn: -En esta guerra siempre habr 'corderos para sacrificar'. +Muchas gracias. +Les preocupa lo que les va a matar? +Una enfermedad cardaca, cncer un accidente de trnsito? +La mayora de nosotros se preocupa por cosas que no podemos controlar como la guerra, el terrorismo, el terremoto trgico que acaba de ocurrir en Hait. +Pero qu es lo que realmente amenaza a la humanidad? +Hace unos aos el profesor Vaclav Smil intent calcular la probabilidad de desastres repentinos lo suficientemente grandes como para cambiar la historia. +Los llam "discontinuidades fatales masivas", lo que significa que podran causar la muerte de hasta 100 millones de personas en los prximos 50 aos. +Estudi la probabilidad de una nueva guerra mundial, de una erupcin volcnica masiva incluso del impacto de un asteroide contra la Tierra. +Pero situ la probabilidad de uno de tales eventos sobre todas los dems y cercana a un 100%: la posibilidad de una epidemia grave de gripe. +Ahora bien, se podra pensar que la gripe es slo un resfriado muy fuerte. Pero puede ser una sentencia de muerte. +Cada ao mueren 36.000 personas en EE.UU. de gripe estacional. +En el mundo en desarrollo la informacin es ms incompleta pero el nmero de vctimas es casi seguro, mayor. +Ya saben, el problema es que si este virus muta en ocasiones de manera espectacular esencialmente, es un virus nuevo. Y entonces tenemos una pandemia. +En 1918 apareci un nuevo virus que mat a entre 50 y 100 millones de personas. +Se extendi como reguero de plvora. Y algunos murieron pocas horas despus de desarrollar los sntomas. +Estamos ms seguros hoy? +Bueno, parece que hemos evitado la pandemia mortal de este ao que la mayora temamos, pero esta amenaza podra reaparecer en cualquier momento. +La buena noticia es que estamos en un momento en el que la convergencia de ciencia, tecnologa y globalizacin est creando una posibilidad sin precedentes, la posibilidad de hacer historia mediante la prevencin de enfermedades infecciosas que siguen representando una quinta parte de todas las muertes e incontable desdicha en la Tierra. +Podemos hacerlo. +Ya estamos evitando millones de muertes con las vacunas existentes. Y si llevamos stas a ms personas seguramente podemos salvar ms vidas. +Pero con nuevas o mejores vacunas contra la malaria, la tuberculosis, el VIH, la neumona, la diarrea o la gripe podramos terminar con el sufrimiento que ha estado presente en la Tierra desde el principio de los tiempos. +As que estoy aqu para anunciarles con bombo y platillo las vacunas. +Pero primero tengo que explicar por qu son importantes. Porque las vacunas, el poder que tienen, es realmente como un susurro. +Si funcionan, pueden hacer historia, pero despus de un rato apenas se las oye. +Ahora bien, algunos somos lo suficientemente mayores como para tener una pequea cicatriz circular en nuestros brazos de una inoculacin que recibimos de nios. +Pero cundo fue la ltima vez que se preocuparon ustedes por la viruela?, una enfermedad que mat a 500 millones de personas el siglo pasado y ya no est con nosotros. +O la polio, cuntos recuerdan el pulmn de acero o pulmotor? +Ya no vemos escenas como esta gracias a las vacunas. +Ahora, ya saben, es interesante porque hay unas 30 enfermedades que hoy pueden tratarse con vacunas pero todava estamos amenazados por cosas como el VIH y la gripe. +Por qu? +Bueno, esta es la cruel realidad. +Hasta hace poco no hemos necesitado saber exactamente cmo funcionaban las vacunas. +Sabamos que funcionaban mediante el mtodo tradicional de prueba y error. +Uno tomaba un patgeno, lo modificaba, se lo inyectaba a una persona o animal y se vea lo que pasaba. +Esto funcionaba bien para la mayora de los patgenos, bastante bien para bichos astutos como la gripe pero no funciona en absoluto para el VIH para el que los humanos carecemos de inmunidad natural. +As que vamos a estudiar cmo funcionan las vacunas. +Bsicamente crean una batera de armas para el sistema inmunolgico que uno puede desplegar cuando sea necesario. +Cuando uno tiene una infeccin viral, lo que sucede normalmente es que al cuerpo le lleva das o semanas defenderse a pleno rendimiento, y eso podra ser demasiado tarde. +Cuando uno est preinmunizado lo que sucede es que uno tiene fuerzas en el cuerpo preentrenadas para reconocer y derrotar a enemigos especficos. +As es como funcionan realmente las vacunas. +Ahora, echemos un vistazo a un video que estamos estrenando en TED por primera vez de cmo podra funcionar una vacuna eficaz contra el VIH. +Narradora: una vacuna entrena al cuerpo por anticipado sobre cmo reconocer y neutralizar a un invasor especfico. +Una vez que el VIH atraviesa las barreras mucosas del cuerpo infecta a clulas inmunes para replicarse. +El invasor llama la atencin de las tropas de vanguardia del sistema inmune. +Las clulas dendrticas o los macrfagos capturan el virus y muestran partes de l. +Las clulas de memoria generadas por la vacuna del VIH se activan cuando se enteran por las tropas de vanguardia de que el VIH est presente. +Estas clulas de memoria despliegan inmediatamente las armas exactas necesarias. +Las clulas de memoria B se convierten en clulas plasmticas, que producen oleadas sucesivas de anticuerpos especficos que se adhieren al VIH para evitar que infecte las clulas mientras que escuadrones de clulas asesinas T buscan y destruyen clulas ya infectadas por el VIH. +El virus es derrotado. +Sin una vacuna, estas respuestas habran llevado ms de una semana. +Para ese entonces, la batalla contra el VIH ya se habra perdido. +Seth Berkley: un video estupendo, no? +Los anticuerpos que acaban de ver en accin en el vdeo son los que hacen funcionar la mayora de las vacunas. +As que la pregunta real es entonces: Cmo podemos asegurarnos de que el cuerpo produzca exactamente los anticuerpos que necesitamos para protegernos de la gripe y el VIH? +El desafo principal respecto a ambos virus es que siempre estn cambiando. +As que echemos un vistazo a los virus de la gripe. +En esta visualizacin del virus de la gripe estos picos de diferentes colores son lo que ste utiliza para infectarnos. +Y, adems, son lo que los anticuerpos utilizan como un asidero esencialmente para agarrar y neutralizar el virus. +Cuando estos mutan, cambian de forma y los anticuerpos ya no saben lo que estn viendo. +Por esta razn, cada ao, uno puede pescar una cepa ligeramente diferente de la gripe. +Es por eso que en la primavera tenemos que hacer conjeturas sobre qu tres cepas van a prevalecer al ao siguiente, las ponemos en una sola vacuna y, deprisa y corriendo, hacemos que se produzcan para que estn listas para el otoo. +Y lo que es peor, la gripe ms comn, la gripe A, tambin infecta a los animales que viven cerca de las personas, y puede recombinarse en esos animales en particular. +Adems, las aves acuticas silvestres son portadoras de todas las cepas conocidas de la influenza. +Por lo tanto nos encontramos en esta situacin. En 2003 tuvimos un virus H5N1 que pas de las aves a las personas en algunos casos aislados con una tasa de mortalidad aparente del 70%. +Por suerte, ese virus en particular, aunque fue muy aterrador en su momento, no se transmiti con facilidad de unas personas a otras. +La amenaza de este ao del H1N1 era en realidad una mezcla humano-aviar-porcina que surgi en Mxico. +Se transmiti fcilmente pero, por suerte, fue bastante leve. +Por eso, en cierto sentido, nuestra suerte est durando pero, ya saben, las aves silvestres podran sobrevolar en cualquier momento. +Ahora echemos un vistazo al VIH. +Por muy variable que sea la gripe, el VIH hace que la gripe parezca el Pen de Gibraltar. +El virus que causa el SIDA es el patgeno ms taimado con el que los cientficos se han enfrentado jams. +Muta con furia. Cuenta con trampas para evadir el sistema inmune. Ataca a las mismas clulas que estn tratando de luchar contra l. Y rpidamente se esconde en el genoma. +En esta diapositiva se ve la variacin gentica de la gripe en comparacin con la del VIH, un objetivo mucho ms salvaje. +En el video de hace un momento veamos flotas de nuevos virus que se lanzaban desde clulas infectadas. +Ahora piensen que en una persona recin infectada hay millones de estos barcos y cada uno es ligeramente diferente. +Encontrar un arma que reconozca a todos y los hunda hace que el trabajo sea mucho ms difcil. +Ahora bien, en los 27 aos pasados desde que se identific el VIH como la causa del SIDA, hemos desarrollado ms frmacos para tratar el VIH que todos los dems virus juntos. +Estos medicamentos no son la cura, pero representan un gran triunfo de la ciencia, porque eliminan la pena de muerte automtica a partir de un diagnstico de VIH, al menos para los que pueden acceder a ellos. +El esfuerzo de la vacuna, sin embargo, es muy diferente. +Las grandes empresas se retiraban de l porque pensaban que la ciencia era muy difcil y las vacunas se vean como un mal negocio. +Muchos pensaron que era imposible hacer una vacuna contra el SIDA, pero hoy, las pruebas muestran que no es as. +En septiembre se obtuvieron resultados sorprendentes y emocionantes en un ensayo clnico realizado en Tailandia. +Por primera vez, vimos una vacuna contra el SIDA que, si bien modestamente, funcionaba en las personas. Y esa vacuna, en particular, se hizo hace casi una dcada. +Nuevos conceptos y pruebas tempranas ofrecen resultados incluso ms prometedores en el mejor de nuestros modelos animales. +Pero en hace pocos meses los investigadores han aislado tambin varios nuevos anticuerpos ampliamente neutralizantes ("broadly neutralizing antibodies" o bnAbs) a partir de la sangre de una persona infectada con VIH. +Ahora, qu significa esto? +Ya hemos visto que el VIH es muy variable, que un anticuerpo ampliamente neutralizante se adhiere y desactiva variaciones mltiples del virus. +Y que si se toman estos bnAb y se ponen en el mejor de nuestros modelos en monos proporcionan una proteccin completa contra la infeccin. +Adems, estos investigadores encontraron un nuevo sitio de fijacin en el VIH al que pueden agarrarse los anticuerpos. Y la caracterstica que convierte este punto en algo muy especial es que cambia muy poco a medida que el virus muta. +Es como si por muchas veces que el virus se cambiara de ropa siguiera dejndose siempre los mismos calcetines, y ahora nuestro trabajo consiste en asegurarnos de conseguir que el cuerpo odie realmente esos calcetines. +As que lo que tenemos es una situacin. +Los resultados tailandeses nos dicen que podemos hacer una vacuna contra el SIDA. Y los resultados con anticuerpos nos dicen cmo podra hacerse. +Esta estrategia, trabajar hacia atrs, a partir de un anticuerpo para crear un candidato a vacuna nunca se haba hecho antes en la investigacin de vacunas. +Se llama retrovacunologa y sus consecuencias se extienden mucho ms all del VIH. +Pinsenlo de esta manera. +Hemos identificado estos nuevos anticuerpos y sabemos que se adhieren a muchas, muchas variaciones de este virus. +Sabemos que tienen que adherirse a una parte especfica as que si podemos imaginarnos la estructura precisa de esa parte y presentarla en forma de vacuna, lo que esperamos es poder empujar al sistema inmunolgico a que produzca los anticuerpos correspondientes. +Y eso creara una vacuna universal para el VIH. +Ahora bien, suena ms fcil de lo que es porque la estructura en realidad se parece ms a este diagrama de anticuerpos azul amarrado a su sitio de fijacin amarillo. Y como pueden imaginar, es mucho ms difcil trabajar con estas estructuras tridimensionales. +Y si Uds., amigos, tienen ideas para ayudarnos a resolver esto, sepan que nos encantara orlas. +Pero, ya saben, la investigacin relacionada con el VIH ha ayudado realmente a la innovacin para otras enfermedades. +As, por ejemplo, una empresa de biotecnologa ha encontrado anticuerpos ampliamente neutralizantes para la influenza, as como una nueva diana para los anticuerpos en el virus de la influenza. +Actualmente estn haciendo un cctel, un cctel de anticuerpos que puede usarse para tratar casos graves, abrumadores, de la gripe. +Ahora, a largo plazo, lo que pueden hacer es usar estas herramientas en retrovacunologa para hacer una vacuna antigripal preventiva. +Ahora bien, la retrovacunologa es slo una tcnica en el mbito del denominado diseo de vacunas racional. +Permtanme mostrarles otro ejemplo. +Hablamos antes de los picos H y M en la superficie del virus de la influenza. +Observen estas otras protuberancias de menor tamao. +En su mayora permanecen ocultas para el sistema inmune. +Pero resulta que estos puntos no cambian mucho cuando el virus muta. +Si se pudieran inutilizar con anticuerpos especficos, se podran inutilizar todas las versiones de la gripe. +Hasta el momento, las pruebas en animales indican que tal vacuna podra prevenir la enfermedad grave, aunque se podra contraer un caso leve. +As que si esto funciona con humanos, estamos hablando de una vacuna antigripal universal, una que no haya que cambiar cada ao y que elimine la amenaza de muerte. +En ese caso s que podramos ver la gripe slo como un resfriado fuerte. +Claro, la mejor vacuna imaginable slo es valiosa en la medida en que podamos hacer que llegue a todo el mundo que la necesite. +As que para hacer eso, tenemos que combinar diseo de vacunas inteligente con mtodos de produccin inteligentes y, por supuesto, con mtodos de administracin inteligentes. +As que quiero que se retrotraigan a unos meses atrs. +En junio, la Organizacin Mundial de la Salud declar la primer pandemia mundial de gripe en 41 aos. +El gobierno de EE.UU. prometi 150 millones de dosis de vacunas para antes del 15 de octubre para el pico de gripe. +Se prometieron vacunas para los pases en desarrollo. +Se gastaron cientos de millones de dlares en acelerar la fabricacin de vacunas. +Y qu pas? +Bueno, primero descubrimos cmo hacer vacunas antigripales, cmo producirlas, a principios de los aos 40. +Era un proceso lento y complejo que dependa de los huevos de gallina, millones de huevos de gallina vivos. +Los virus slo crecen en cosas vivas y result que, para la gripe, los huevos de gallina funcionaban muy bien. +Para la mayora de las cepas se poda conseguir una o dos dosis de vacuna por huevo. +Por suerte para nosotros vivimos en una era de espectaculares avances biomdicos. +As que hoy da, obtenemos nuestras vacunas de... +...huevos de gallina. cientos de millones de huevos de gallina. +Ya saben, casi nada ha cambiado. +Bueno, el sistema es fiable. Pero el problema es que uno nunca sabe lo bien que va a crecer una cepa. +La cepa de la gripe porcina de este ao creci muy poco en la produccin temprana bsicamente 0,6 dosis por huevo. +Y he aqu un pensamiento alarmante. +Qu pasara si pasase otra vez ese pjaro silvestre? +Podramos ver una cepa aviar que infectara a las aves de corral y entonces no tendramos huevos para nuestras vacunas. +Por lo tanto, Dan [Barber], si quieres miles de millones de pellets de pollo para tu granja de peces, s donde conseguirlos. +As que, actualmente, el mundo puede producir unos 350 millones de dosis de vacuna antigripal para las tres cepas. Y podemos incrementar eso a 1.200 millones de dosis si queremos centrarnos en una sola variante como la gripe porcina. +Pero eso suponiendo que nuestras fbricas trabajen a pleno rendimiento porque, en 2004, el suministro de EE.UU. se redujo a la mitad por la contaminacin en una sola planta. +Y el proceso an lleva ms de medio ao. +As que, estamos mejor preparados de lo que estbamos en 1918? +Bueno, con las nuevas tecnologas emergentes ahora espero que podamos decir definitivamente "S". +Imaginen si pudiramos producir suficientes vacunas para todos en el mundo entero por menos de la mitad de lo que estamos gastando actualmente en Estados Unidos. +Con una gama de nuevas tecnologas, podramos. +Aqu va un ejemplo: una empresa con la que estoy trabajando ha descubierto una parte especfica de la gripe H [poco claro] capaz de despertar el sistema inmune. +Si se corta y se anexa a la cola de una bacteria diferente que crea una respuesta inmunolgica rotunda, se habr creado un antigripal muy potente. +Esta vacuna es tan pequea que se puede cultivar en una bacteria comn, la E. coli. +Como saben, las bacterias se reproducen rpidamente. Es como hacer yogurt. Y as podramos producir suficientes vacunas contra la gripe de origen porcino para el mundo entero en unas cuantas fbricas, en pocas semanas, sin huevos y por una pequea parte del costo de los mtodos actuales. +Aqu tienen una comparacin de varias de estas tecnologas de nuevas vacunas. +Y, al margen del incremento radical en la produccin y del gran ahorro de costos, por ejemplo, el mtodo con E. coli que acabo de mencionar, miren el tiempo ahorrado... esto seran vidas salvadas. +En el mundo en desarrollo, en su mayora al margen de la respuesta actual, ven el potencial de estas tecnologas alternativas y estn dejando atrs a Occidente. +India, Mxico y otros ya estn produciendo vacunas experimentales contra la gripe y podran ser el primer lugar donde veamos utilizar estas vacunas. +Dado que estas tecnologas son tan eficientes y relativamente baratas miles de millones de personas pueden tener acceso a vacunas que salvan vidas si podemos encontrar la manera de administrarlas. +Ahora piensen adnde nos lleva eso. +Nuevas enfermedades infecciosas aparecen o reaparecen cada pocos aos. +Un da, quiz pronto, tendremos un virus que nos va a amenazar a todos. +Seremos lo suficientemente rpidos en reaccionar antes de que mueran millones de personas? +Por suerte, la gripe de este ao fue relativamente leve. +Digo "por suerte", en parte porque prcticamente no se vacun a nadie en el mundo en desarrollo. +As que si tenemos la visin poltica y financiera para mantener nuestras inversiones, vamos a dominar estas herramientas de vacunologa y otras nuevas. Y con estas herramientas podemos producir suficientes vacunas para todo el mundo a bajo costo y asegurar vidas sanas y productivas. +La gripe ya no debe matar a medio milln de personas al ao. +El SIDA ya no tiene que matar a 2 millones al ao. +Los pobres y los vulnerables ya no tienen que verse amenazados por enfermedades infecciosas o, de hecho, nadie. +En vez de tener la "discontinuidad masiva fatal" de la vida, de Vaclav Smil, podemos asegurar la continuidad de la vida. +Lo que el mundo necesita actualmente son estas nuevas vacunas, y podemos hacer que esto se logre. +Muchas gracias. +Chris Anderson: gracias. +Gracias. +Entonces, la ciencia est cambiando. +En tu opinin, Seth --quiero decir, debes soar con esto-- cul es el tipo de escala temporal en..., vamos a empezar con el VIH, para obtener una vacuna revolucionaria y que sta est disponible para su uso? +SB: Este cambio revolucionario puede darse en cualquier momento porque el problema que hoy tenemos, como hemos demostrado, es que ya podemos obtener una vacuna que funcione en humanos, sencillamente necesitamos una mejor. +Y con estos tipos de anticuerpos, sabemos que los seres humanos pueden producirlos. +Por lo tanto, si podemos encontrar la manera de hacerlo, entonces tenemos la vacuna. Y lo interesante es que ya hay algunos indicios de que estamos comenzando a resolver ese problema. +As que el reto va a toda velocidad. +CA: Instintivamente, crees que probablemente va a tardar por lo menos otros cinco aos? +SB: Sabes, todo el mundo dice que ser en diez aos, pero han dicho diez aos cada diez aos. +As que detesto poner una lnea de tiempo a la innovacin cientfica, pero las inversiones realizadas estn ya reportando beneficios. +CA: Y sucede lo mismo con la vacuna antigripal universal? Pasa algo por el estilo? +SB: Creo que la gripe es diferente. Creo que lo que ocurri con la gripe es que tenemos un montn, slo he mostrado algunas de ellas, un montn de tecnologas geniales y tiles que ya estn listas. +Parecen estupendas. El problema es que hemos invertido en tecnologas tradicionales porque era con lo que estbamos cmodos. +Tambin pueden usarse adyuvantes, que son sustancias qumicas que se mezclan. +Y eso es lo que se est haciendo Europa, y as podramos diluir nuestro suministro de [vacunas contra la] gripe y aumentar su disponibilidad pero, volviendo a lo que dijo Michael Specter, la gente antivacunacin no quiere que eso suceda. +CA: Y la malaria est an ms atrs? +SB: No, para la malaria, hay un candidato que en realidad demostr eficacia en un ensayo anterior y actualmente se encuentra en la fase tres de los ensayos. +Probablemente no se trata de la vacuna perfecta, pero se est avanzando. +CA: Seth, la mayora de nosotros trabaja cada mes en cosas que, ya sabes, producen algo, tenemos ese tipo de gratificacin. +Tu has estado trabajando como un burro en esto durante ms de una dcada, y quiero rendiros homenaje a ti y a tus colegas por lo que hacis. +El mundo necesita gente como vosotros. Gracias. +SB: Gracias. +Me gustara hablar de lo que aprendemos de los conservadores. +Estoy en una etapa de mi vida en la que anhelo volver a mi juventud, as que quiero confesarles que cuando era nio era, de hecho, conservador. +Era de las Juventudes Republicanas, de los Adolescentes Republicanos, un lder en los Adolescentes Republicanos. +De hecho, fui el miembro ms joven de cualquier delegacin en la convencin de 1980 que eligi a Ronald Reagan como candidato republicano a la presidencia. +Ahora bien, s lo que estn pensando. +Estn pensando: "Eso no es lo que dice Internet". +Estn pensando: "Eso no sale en la Wikipedia". +Y, de hecho, este es uno de los ejemplos de la basura que circula por los cables de Internet hoy da. +En la Wikipedia aparece este tipo, este ex-congresista de Erie, Pennsylvania, como con 20 aos, una de las personas ms jvenes en la Convencin Nacional Republicana, pero... no es cierto. +De hecho, me hace tan poca gracia, que vamos a cambiar este pequeo dato. +Bien. As que... perfecto. +Perfecto. +Bueno, el orador Lawrence Lessig, perfecto. +Est bien. +Finalmente, la verdad saldr a la luz aqu. +Bueno, ven? Listo. Est casi listo. Aqu vamos. +..."el republicano ms joven", bueno, terminamos. +Eso es todo. Por favor, graba esto. +Aqu vamos. +Y... Wikipedia est enmendada, finalmente. +Bueno, pero no, esto est realmente fuera de lugar. +Pero lo que quiero que piensen cuando hablamos de los conservadores, no tanto este tema de la convencin de 1980, lo que hay que pensar es esto: Van a la iglesia. +Ahora bien, ya saben, digo, mucha gente va a la iglesia. +No estoy diciendo que slo los conservadores van a la iglesia. +No estoy hablando de Dios. +No quiero meterme en eso, ya saben, no es mi idea. +Van a la iglesia, con lo que quiero decir que hacen muchas cosas gratis los unos por los otros. +Llevan a cabo cenas comunales. +De hecho, venden libros sobre las cenas comunales. +Sirven alimentos a los pobres. +Comparten, dan, dan de forma gratuita. +Y es la mismsima gente que dirige empresas de Wall Street la que aparece los domingos y comparte. +Y no slo alimentos! +Esta misma gente cree firmemente, en muchos contextos, en las limitaciones a los mercados. +En muchos aspectos importantes estn en contra del mercado. +De hecho, ellos, como todos nosotros, celebran este tipo de relaciones. +Pero les interesa sobremanera que no pongamos dinero en esa relacin de lo contrario se convierte en algo como esto. +Quieren regularnos, esos conservadores, para evitar que el mercado se extienda en esos lugares. +Porque entienden que hay lugares para el mercado y lugares donde el mercado no debera existir donde deberamos ser libres de disfrutar la comunin con otros. +Reconocen, que ambas cosas tienen que convivir. +Y lo segunda gran cosa de los conservadores: entienden la ecologa. +Correcto, fue el primer gran presidente republicano del siglo XX que nos ense sobre pensamiento ambiental, Teddy Roosevelt. +Primero nos ensearon ecologa en el contexto de los recursos naturales. +Y luego comenzaron a ensearla en el contexto de la innovacin y la economa. +Entienden, en ese contexto... libre... entienden que lo libre es una parte importante y esencial de la ecologa cultural tambin. +Eso es lo que quiero que piensen de ellos. +Ahora bien, s que no me creen, realmente. +Por eso aqu muestro el nmero uno. +Quiero compartir con Uds. mi ltimo hroe, Julin Snchez, un libertario que trabaja en el, para mucha gente, "perverso" Instituto Cato. +Bueno, Julin hizo este video. +Es un productor de videos brillante es un contenido genial, as que les voy a poner un poquito de esto. +Aqu est comenzando. +Julin Snchez: Voy a hacer una observacin sobre el modo en que parece estar evolucionando la cultura del remix... +Larry Lessig: as que lo que hace es comenzar a contarnos sobre estos tres videos. +Este es un remix fantstico de brat pack para Lisztomania. +Que por supuesto se expandi de forma viral. +Un xito enorme. +Y despus lo vio alguna gente de Brooklyn. +Y decidieron que queran hacer lo mismo. +Y despus, claro, lo vio la gente de San Francisco. +Y San Francisco pens que tendra que hacer lo mismo tambin. +Y son maravillosos, pero este libertario tiene algunas lecciones que quiere que aprendamos de esto. +Esta es la leccin nmero uno. +JS: Hay obviamente tambin algo muy bueno en esto. +Estn actuando en el sentido que estn emulando al mashup original. +Y el tipo que lo film es obvio que "tiene ojo" y algo de experiencia en la edicin de video. +Pero este es tambin, bsicamente, slo un grupo de amigos pasando un momento social autntico y pasndolo bien juntos. +Es algo familiar y como que suena familiar a quien haya cantado o bailado en una fiesta con un grupo de buenos amigos. +LL: O... +JS: Eso es significativamente diferente de los videos anteriores que vimos porque aqu el remix no es slo sobre un individuo que hace algo solo en su stano; se vuelve un acto de creatividad social. +Y no es slo que produce un tipo diferente de producto al final es que potencialmente cambia la manera de relacionarnos unos con otros. +Todas nuestras interacciones sociales normales se vuelven una suerte de invitacin a este tipo de expresin colectiva. +Son nuestras vidas sociales reales en s que se transforman en arte. +LL: Y por eso este libertario se basa en estos dos puntos... +JS: Un remix trata de los individuos que usan nuestra cultura compartida como una especie de lenguaje para comunicar algo a una audiencia. +La etapa dos, el remix social trata acerca de usarlo para mediar las relaciones de la gente entre s. +Primero, en cada video, los personajes de brat pack son usados como una especie de modelo para representar la realidad social de cada grupo. +Pero tambin hay un dilogo entre los videos en el que, una vez establecida la estructura bsica, se convierte en una suerte de plataforma para articular las similitudes y diferencias entre los grupos sociales y los mundos fsicos. +LL: Y luego aqu est, para m, la clave de lo que Julin dice. +JS: La poltica de propiedad intelectual no es slo cmo incentivar la produccin de un cierto tipo de mercanca artstica; se trata del nivel de control que vamos a permitir que se ejerza sobre nuestras realidades sociales; realidades sociales que ahora son inevitablemente permeadas por la cultura pop. +Creo que es importante que tengamos estos dos tipos diferentes de bienes pblicos en mente. +Si slo nos centramos en maximizar el suministro de uno creo que corremos el riesgo de suprimir este otro diferente y ms rico y, en cierta forma, quiz ms importante. +LL: Correcto. Bingo. El punto. +La libertad necesita esta oportunidad tanto de tener el xito comercial de las grandes obras comerciales como de la oportunidad de construir este tipo de cultura diferente. +Y para que eso suceda se necesita ideas como que el uso justo sea algo central y protegido para permitir este tipo de innovacin, como nos dice este libertario, entre estas dos culturas creativas una comercial y una de lo compartido. +La idea es que ellos, l, aqu, tiene esa cultura. +Ahora bien, me preocupa que nosotros los demcratas muy a menudo, no tanto. +Muy bien, tomemos por ejemplo esta gran empresa. +En los buenos viejos tiempos cuando este republicano dirigi esa empresa su obra ms grande fue el trabajo construido en el pasado, s? +Todas las grandes obras de Disney fueron trabajos que tomaron otros trabajos del dominio pblico y los remezclaron o esperaron que fueran de dominio pblico para remezclarlos para celebrar esta creatividad del remix de adicin. +De hecho, el mismo ratn Mickey, claro, como "Steamboat Willie" es un remix del entonces, muy dominante, muy popular "Steamboat Bill" de Buster Keaton. +Este hombre era un remixador extraordinario. +l es la celebracin y el ideal de exactamente este tipo de creatividad. +Pero luego la empresa pasa por esta etapa oscura a este demcrata. +Radicalmente diferente. +Este es el cerebro detrs de la eventual aprobacin de lo que llamamos la Ley de extensin de derechos de autor de Sonny Bono que ampla el plazo de los derechos de autor existentes en 20 aos de manera que nadie pueda hacerle a Disney lo que Disney le hizo a los hermanos Grimm. +Pero, al parecer, no haba cerebros (no brains) en este lugar cuando los demcratas aprobaron y convirtieron este proyecto de ley en ley. +Ahora, una pequea queja al pie, Sonny Bono, podran decir era republicano, pero no me lo creo. +Este tipo no es republicano. +Bueno, como segundo ejemplo, piensen en este hroe cultural, cono de la izquierda creador de este personaje. +Mien en el sitio que construy: "mashups Guerra de las Galaxias", invita a la gente a que venga y use su energa creativa para producir una nueva generacin de atencin hacia este cono cultural extraordinariamente importante. +Lean la licencia. +La licencia para estos remixadores le asigna todos los derechos del remix de nuevo a Lucas. +El mashup pertenece a Lucas. +De hecho, todo lo que uno agregue al mashup, la msica que uno agregue, Lucas tiene derechos mundiales a perpetuidad de explotar eso gratis. +No hay aqu un creador que sea reconocido. +El creador no tiene ningn derecho. +El creador es un aparcero en esta historia. +Y deberamos recordar quin empleaba a los aparceros: los demcratas, no? +As que la idea aqu es que los republicanos reconocen que hay ciertas necesidades de propiedad, un respeto por la propiedad, el respeto que deberamos brindarle al creador el remixador, el propietario, el dueo de la propiedad, el dueo del derecho de autor de esta cosa extremadamente poderosa y no una generacin de aparceros. +Ahora, creo que aqu hay lecciones que deberamos aprender lecciones sobre apertura. +Nuestras vidas comparten actividades al menos en parte. +Incluso el jefe de Goldman Sachs, al menos en parte. +Y para esa actividad compartida tenga lugar, tenemos que tener espacios bien protegidos de uso justo. +Esa es la nmero uno. La nmero dos: esta ecologa del compartir requiere libertad en la que crear. +Libertad; que significa tener sin permiso de nadie la habilidad de crear. +Y en tercer lugar: necesitamos respetar al creador, el creador de estas remezclas mediante derechos que estn directamente ligados a ellos. +Ahora, esto explica el derechista y sin fines de lucro Creative Commons. +En realidad, no es derechista y sin fines de lucro pero por supuesto, permtanme asociarlo aqu, el Creative Commons, que est ofreciendo a los autores esta manera simple de marcar su contenido con las libertades que tienen la intencin de portar. +De ese modo pasamos de un mundo con "todos los derechos reservados" a un mundo de "algunos derechos reservados" para que la gente conozca las libertades asociadas al contenido, construyendo y creando en base a este trabajo creativo con derechos de autor. +Estas herramientas que creamos en parte permiten este compartir mediante licencias que lo hace claro y da la libertad de crear sin pedir permiso primero porque el permiso ya est garantizado, y el respeto por el creador tambin porque se construye sobre un derecho de autor que el creador ha distribuido en forma libre. +Y eso explica la vasta conspiracin de derecha que se desata obviamente en torno a estas licencias ahora que ms de 350 millones de objetos digitales estn all, libres de licencia de este modo. +Ahora esa imagen de una ecologa de la creatividad, la imagen de una ecologa de creatividad equilibrada es esa la ecologa de la creatividad que tenemos ahora? +Bien, como todos saben, muchos de nosotros no lo creemos as. +Me tropec con la realidad de esta ecologa de la creatividad justo la semana pasada. +Cre un video basado en un Chat Wireside que yo haba dado, y lo sub a YouTube. +Luego recib un email de YouTube diciendo de modo extrao que all haba contenido propiedad de la misteriosa WMG que coincida con su ID de contenido. +As que no pens mucho en eso. +Y despus en Twitter alguien me dijo "Tu charla de YouTube fue intervenida via la DMCA. Ese era tu propsito? +suponiendo que yo haba urdido esta conspiracin para revelar los errores obvios de la DMCA. +Respond: "No". Ni siquiera lo pens. +Pero luego fui al sitio y todo el audio de mi sitio haba sido silenciado. +Los 45 minutos de mi video haban sido silenciados porque haba fragmentos en ese video un video sobre el uso justo que incluan msica de Warner Music Group. +Ahora, curiosamente, todava vendan publicidad para esa msica si uno ejecutaba el video silencioso. +Uno todava poda comprar la msica pero no poda escuchar nada porque haba sido silenciada. +As que hice lo que el rgimen actual dice que debo hacer ser libre de usar YouTube para hablar del uso justo. +Fui a este sitio y tuve que contestar estas preguntas. +Y luego de manera extraordinariamente a la Bart Simpson, de manera juvenil, uno tiene que escribir estas palabras y entenderlas bien para reafirmar la libertad de discurso. +Y sent como si estuviese en tercero de primaria otra vez. +No voy a poner tachuelas en la silla del profesor. +No voy a poner tachuelas en la silla del profesor. +Esto es absurdo. +Es indignante. +Es una perversin extraordinaria del sistema de libertad que deberamos estar impulsando. +Y la pregunta que les hago es: quin lucha contra esto? +Bueno, curiosamente, en la ltima eleccin presidencial quin fue el oponente activo nmero uno de este sistema de regulacin al discurso en lnea? +John McCain. +Carta tras carta atacando la negativa de YouTube a ser ms respetuoso del uso justo con su rescisin extraordinaria y retirada del sistema, que llev a su campaa muchas veces a ser expulsada de Internet. +Ahora, esa fue mi historia entonces, mis buenos viejos tiempos de locura de derecha. +El presidente, que ha apoyado un proceso que negocia los acuerdos en secreto, que de hecho nos encierra en el sistema loco de DMCA que hemos adoptado y posiblemente nos lleve a un camino de "3 strikes y afuera" que, por supuesto, el resto del mundo est adoptando cada vez ms. +Todava no se ha producido un solo ejemplo de reforma. +Y no vamos a ver este cambio en este sistema en el futuro cercano. +As que aqu estn las lecciones de apertura que creo tenemos que aprender. +La apertura es un compromiso con un cierto conjunto de valores. +Tenemos que hablar de esos valores. +El valor de la libertad. Es un valor comunitario. +Es un valor de los lmites de la regulacin. +Es un valor que respeta al creador. +Ahora, si podemos aprender esos valores al menos de algunas influencias de la derecha, si podemos tomarlas e incorporarlas, quiz podamos comercial un poco. +Aprendimos esos valores en la izquierda y quiz produzcan cuidado de la salud o legislacin de cambio climtico o algo en la derecha. +De todos modos, por favor, nanse a m en la enseanza de estos valores. +Muchas gracias. +Aqu estamos 25, 26 aos despus de la llegada de Macintosh, que fue un acontecimiento increiblemente clave en la historia de la interfaz humano-mquina, y de la computacin en general. +Bsicamente cambio el modo de pensar de las personas sobre la computacin, sobre los ordenadores, como los usaban y quien y cuantas personas podan utilizarlos. +De hecho, fue un cambio tan radical, que el equipo original de desarrollo de Macintosh en el '82, '83, '84, tuvo que escribir enteramente un nuevo sistema operativo desde el principio. +Pero, este es un mensaje interesante, y es una leccin que desde entonces, creo, ha sido olvidada o perdida o algo. Y es que, bsicamente, el OS [sistema operativo] es la interfaz. +La interfaz es el OS. +Es como la tierra y el rey en "Arturo"; son inseparables, son uno. +Y escribir un nuevo sistema operativo no fue un mero capricho. +No fue solamente cuestin de poner a punto unas rutinas grficas. +No haba rutinas grficas. No haba drivers para el ratn. +Por lo que era una necesidad. +Pero en el cuarto de siglo desde entonces, todos hemos visto que las tecnologas de apoyo bsicas han cambiado de forma frentica. +La capacidad de memoria y de disco han sido multiplicadas por un factor entre 10.000 y un milln. +Lo mismo con la velocidad de los procesadores. +Redes, no tenamos redes en absoluto cuando se introdujo la Macintosh. Y este a llegado a ser el aspecto individual ms notable de como vivimos con los ordenadores. +Y, por supuesto, grficos hoy: por $ 84,97 en Best Buy compras ms potencia de grficos que la que hubieras podido conseguir con un milln de dlares de SGI [Silicon Graphics, Inc] hace una dcada. +Por tanto tenemos esta increible aceleracin. +Entonces, por un lado, tenemos la Web y, de modo creciente, la nube [Internet], lo que es fantstico, pero tambin en el aspecto en que una interfaz es fundamental, resultan ser una distraccin. +Por tanto hemos olvidado inventar nuevas interfaces. +Ciertamente hemos visto, en los aos recientes, muchos cambios en ese aspecto. Y la gente se est empezando a dar cuenta de ello. +Entonces qu ocurre a continuacin? A dnde vamos desde ah? +El problema, como lo vemos, esta relacionado con una nica y simple palabra, "espacio" o una nica y simple frase, "geometra del mundo real". +Los ordenadores y los lenguajes de programacin con los que les hablamos, con los que les enseamos, son profundamente torpes en lo que se refiere al espacio. +No entienden el espacio en el mundo real. +Es algo gracioso porque nosotros lo empleamos con frecuencia y bastante bien. +Tampoco entienden el tiempo, pero eso es un asunto para otra charla. +Entonces, qu ocurre si empiezas a explicarles el espacio? +Una cosa que podras conseguir es algo como la Habitacin Luminosa. +La Habitacin Luminosa es un sistema en el que se considera que los medios de entrada y salida de informacin estn superpuestos en el espacio. +Esto es una idea extraamente simple, y aun inexplorada, no? +Cuando usas un ratn, tu mano est aqu abajo sobre la almohadilla. +No est ni siquiera en el mismo plano de lo que ests hablando. Los pixels estn arriba en la pantalla. +As que aqu haba una habitacin en la que los muros, suelos, techos, mascotas, macetas, cualquier cosa que estaba ah, era capaz, no slo, de exhibir imgenes, sino tambin de sentirse. +Y eso significa que la entrada y salida de informacin estn en el mismo espacio permitiendo cosas como esta. +Esto es un almacenamiento digital en un contenedor fsico. +La relacin es la misma que con objetos del mundo real en un contenedor del mundo real. +Tiene que volver a salir, cualquier cosa que pongas dentro. +Este pequeo experimento que aqu era una pequea oficina tambin conoca algunos trucos ms. +Si le presentabas un tablero de ajedrez, intentaba averiguar que queras que entienda con ello. +Y si no tenan nada que hacer, las piezas eventualmente se aburran y se marchaban. +Los acadmicos que estn supervisando este trabajo pensaron que era demasiado frvolo, as que construimos aplicaciones serias como este prototipo de escritorio de trabajo ptico en el que una tapa de pasta de dientes sobre una caja de cartn se convierte en un lser. +El divisor de rayos y las lentes estn representados por objetos fsicos, y el sistema proyecta el recorrido del rayo lser. +As que tienes una interfaz que no tiene una interfaz. +Manejas el mundo de la misma manera que trabajas en el mundo real, lo que quiere decir, con tus manos. +Parecido, un tunel de viento digital con viento digital soplando de la derecha a la izquierda. No tan extraordinario en un sentido; no inventamos las matemticas. +Pero si visualizaras eso en una pantalla CRT o en una pantalla plana, no tendra sentido sostener un objeto cualquiera, un objeto real frente a l. +Aqu, el mundo real se mezcla con la simulacin. +Y finalmente, para echar abajo todos los lmites, este es un sistema llamado UrP, de Urban Planner, en el que les devolvemos a los arquitectos y diseadores urbanos los modelos que les confiscamos cuando insistimos en que usaran los sistemas CAD. +E hicimos que la mquina se encontrara con ellos a mitad de camino. +Proyecta sombras digitales, como ven aqu. +Y si introduces herramientas como este reloj inverso, puedes controlar la posicin del sol en el cielo. +Estas son las sombras de las 8:00 AM. +Son un poco ms cortas a las 9:00 AM. +Aqu ests, desplazando el sol alrededor. +Sombras cortas a medioda y etctera. +Y construimos una serie de herramientas como esta. +Hay estudios sobre sombras entre edificios que hasta un nio puede llevar a cabo, aunque no sepa nada sobre diseo urbano. Para mover un edificio, simplemente alargas tu mano y mueves el edificio. +Una varita material convierte el edificio en un objeto a lo Frank Gehry que refleja la luz en todas las direcciones. +Estn cegando a transentes o conductores en las autopistas? +Una herramienta de loteo conecta estructuras distantes, un edificio y una carretera. +Vas a ser demandado por la comisin de loteos? y etctera. +Ahora, si estas ideas parecen familiares o incluso un poco anticuadas, perfecto; deberan resultar familiares. +Este trabajo tiene 15 aos de antigedad. +As que esta tarea fue emprendida en el MIT y el Media Lab bajo la increible direccin del Prof. Hiroshi Ishii, director del Tangible Media Group. +Pero fue aquel trabajo el que vi Alex McDowell. un legendario diseador de produccin [en pelculas]. +Alex estaba preparando una pequea pelcula, ms bien, oscura, independiente, llamada "Minority Report" para Steven Spielberg. Y nos invit a salir del MIT y disear las interfaces que apareceran en la pelcula. +Y la gran cosa fue que Alex estaba tan dedicado a la verisimilitud de la idea, la idea de que el Putative 2054 que estbamos mostrando en la pelcula fuera creble, que nos permiti encargarnos de aquel trabajo de diseo como si fuera un producto de I+D [Investigacin y Desarrollo]. +Y el resultado es ms bien gratificantemente perpetuo. +La gente todava hace referencia a aquellas escenas de "Minority Report" cuando hablan sobre diseo de UI [Interfaz de Usuario]. +Y aquello llev a completar el crculo, de un modo extrao, a incluir estas ideas en lo que creemos es necesariamente el futuro de la interfaz humano-mquina, el ambiente operativo espacial, lo llamamos. +As que aqu tenemos un puado de cosas, algunas imgenes. +Y, usando una mano, podemos de hecho ejercer seis grados de libertad, seis grados de control de navegacin. +Y es gracioso volar a travs de los ojos de Mr. Beckett. +Y puedes salir atrs a travs del orangutn intimidante. +Y est bastante bien. +Hagamos algo un poco ms difcil. +Aqu, tenemos un completo abanico de imgenes diferentes. +Podemos volar alrededor. +As que la navegacin es una cuestin fundamental. +Tienes que ser capaz de navegar en 3D. +En mucho de lo que queremos que los ordenadores nos ayuden, en primer lugar, es inherentemente espacial. +Y la parte que no es espacial puede a menudo espacializarse para permitir a nuestro cerebro darle mayor sentido. +Ahora podemos distribuir esto de diferentes formas. +As que podemos lanzarlo as. Reorganicemoslo. +Podemos organizarlo de esta manera. +Y, por supuesto, no es slo sobre navegacin, sino sobre manipulacin tambin. +As que si no nos gustan algunas cosas, o estamos profundamente interesados en las falsificaciones cientficas de Ernst Haeckel, podemos tirar de ellas as. +Y entonces es el momento para el anlisis, podemos tirar un poco hacia atrs y pedir una distribucin diferente. +Descendamos un poco y volemos alrededor. +Esta es una manera diferente de ver las cosas. +Si eres de una naturaleza ms analtica entonces a lo mejor querrs, de hecho, mirar esto como un histograma de color. +As que ahora tenemos el material clasificado por colores, el ngulo mapea a color. +Y ahora, si queremos seleccionar material, 3D, espacio, la idea de que estamos rastreando manualmente en el espacio real se vuelve muy importante porque podemos acercarnos y tomarlo, no en 2D, no en el falso 2D, pero de hecho en 3D. +Aqu hay algunos planos de seleccin. +Y realizaremos esta operacin Booleana porque realmente nos gusta el amarillo y tapires sobre hierba verde. +As que, desde ah al mundo del trabajo real. +Aqu hay un sistema logstico, una pequea pieza de uno que actualmente estamos construyendo. +Hay un montn de elementos. +Y una cosa que es muy importante es combinar datos tabulados tradicionales con la informacin tridimensional y geoespacial. +As que hay un lugar familiar. +Y traeremos esto aqu por un segundo. +A lo mejor seleccionar un poco de esto. +Y traer fuera este grfico. +Y deberemos, ahora, ser capaces de volar aqu dentro y tener una visin ms cercana. +Estos son elementos logsticos que estn dispersos a lo ancho de los Estados Unidos. +Una cosa que la interaccin tridimensional y la idea general de integrar computacin con espacio te permite, es la destruccin de esa desafortunada pareja uno a uno entre seres humanos y ordenadores. +Esa es la manera antigua; el viejo mantra, cierto? una mquina, un humano, un ratn, una pantalla. +Bien, eso ya no es vlido. +As que en el mundo real, tenemos personas que colaboran; tenemos personas que trabajan juntas. Y tenemos muchas pantallas diferentes. +Y a lo mejor queremos ver estas imgenes variadas. +A lo mejor queremos pedir algo de ayuda. +El autor de este nuevo dispositivo de puntero est sentado all, as que puedo pasar esto desde aqu hasta all. +Estas son mquinas independientes, cierto? +As que la computacin es soluble en el espacio y soluble en la red. +As que voy a dejar eso all porque tengo una pregunta para Paul. +Paul es el diseador del puntero, y quizs es ms fcil para l venir aqu y contarme en persona que est pasando. +As que dejame quitar algo de esto de en medio. +Desarmemos esto. Voy a hacerlo explotar. +Kevin, puedes ayudar? +Dejenme ver si puedo ayudarnos a encontrar la tarjeta de circuitos. +Fjense, es un ejercicio desmantelacin aparentemente sin sentido, pero lo hacemos en el laboratorio todo el tiempo. +Bueno. +As que el trabajo colaborativo, no importa si es en un mismo lugar o a distancia y distinto, siempre es importante. +Y otra vez, ese asunto debe ser acometido en el contexto del espacio. +Y finalmente, me gustara dejarlos con un vistazo que nos lleva de nuevo al mundo de las imgenes. +Este es un sistema llamado TAMPER, que es una mirada un tanto caprichosa a lo que podra llegar a ser el futuro de la edicin y manipulacin de los sistemas de media. +En Oblong creemos que el material multimedia debe ser accesible de una forma mucho ms palpable. +As que tenemos un gran nmero de pelculas metidas aqu dentro. +Y escojamos unos pocos elementos. +Como una posibilidad podemos desplazarnos por ellos. +Podemos grabar elementos del frente, donde se reaniman, vuelven a la vida, y arrastrarlos hacia abajo aqu encima de la mesa. +Vayamos hacia Jacques Tati por aqu y grabaremos a nuestro amigo azul y lo ponemos sobre la mesa tambin. +A lo mejor necesitamos ms de uno. +Y probablemente necesitemos, bien, probablemente necesitemos un cowboy para ser sincero. +Si, tomemos este. +Ven, los cowboys y los farsantes franceses no van bien juntos, y el sistema sabe eso. +Dejenme marcharme con una idea final, y es que uno de lo ms grandes escritores en lengua inglesa de las tres ltimas dcadas sugiri que el gran arte es siempre un regalo. +Y no estaba hablando sobre si la novela cuesta 24,95, o si tienes que soltar 70 millones de dolares para comprar un Vermeer robado; estaba hablando de las circunstancias de la creacin y de su existencia. +Y pienso que es el momento para que nos preguntemos lo mismo de la tecnologa. +La tecnologa es capaz de expresar y de empaparse de cierta generosidad, y debemos, de hecho, exigir eso. +Para algunos de estos tipos de tecnologa, la base es una combinacin de diseo, que es crucialmente importante. +No podemos tener avances en tecnologa en el futuro a no ser que integremos el diseo desde el principio. +Y, adems de eficacia, accin. +Somos, como seres humanos, criaturas que crean, y debemos asergurarnos que nuestras mquinas nos ayudan en esa tarea y estn construidas en esa misma lnea. +As que los dejar con eso. Gracias. +Chris Anderson: Para hacer la pregunta obvia -- de hecho es de Bill Gates -- cundo? (John Underkoffler: Cundo?) CA: Cundo va a ser real? Cundo para nosotros, no slo en un laboratorio o sobre un escenario? +Puede ser para cada persona, o esto es slo para compaas y productores de pelculas? +JU: No, tiene que ser para cada ser humano. +Ese es todo nuestro objetivo. +No tendremos xito a no ser que demos el siguiente gran paso. +Quiero decir han pasado 25 aos. +Puede haber solamente una interfaz? No puede. +CA: Pero eso supone que, en tu escritorio o en tu casa, necesites proyectores, cmaras? +Sabes, cmo puede funcionar? +JU: No, este material estar incluido en el armazn de cada dispositivo. +Estar incluido en la arquitectura. +Los guantes desaparecern en el plazo de meses o aos. +As que esto es inevitable. +CA: Entonces, t piensas, en cinco aos, alguien podr comprar esto como parte de una interfaz estndar del ordenador? +JU: Pienso que en cinco aos cuando compres un ordenador, obtendrs esto. +CA: Eso es genial +El mundo tiene la costumbre de sorprendernos en como estas cosas son de hecho usadas. +Qu dices, cul piensas que ser la primera aplicacin importante para esto? +JU: Esa es una buena pregunta, y nos la hacemos todos los das. +Por el momento, nuestros primeros clientes en adoptarla -- y los sistemas se estn utilizando en el mundo real -- para trabajar en problemas pesados, muy intensivos en datos. +As que, ya sea para el manejo de la logstica en una cadena de abastecimiento o la extraccin de recursos y gas naturales, servicios financieros, farmaceticas, bioinformtica, estos son los temas ahora mismo, pero estas no son la aplicacin importante. +Y entiendo lo que ests preguntando. +CA: Vamos, vamos. Artes marciales, juegos. Vamos. +John, gracias por hacer real la ciencia-ficcin +JU: Ha sido un gran placer. +Gracias a todos. +Quisiera compartir con ustedes esta maana algunas historias sobre el ocano durante mi trabajo como fotgrafo para la revista National Geographic. +Supongo que me convert en fotgrafo submarino y fotoperiodista porque me enamor del mar siendo nio. +Y quera contar historias acerca de todas las cosas asombrosas que estaba viendo bajo el agua, vida silvestre increble e interesantes comportamientos. +Y aun tras 30 aos de hacer esto, tras 30 aos de explorar el ocano, nunca dejo de estar asombrado por los extraordinarios encuentros que tengo cuando estoy en el mar. +Pero ms y ms frecuentemente estos das estoy viendo tambin cosas terribles bajo el agua, cosas de las cuales no creo que la mayora de la gente se de cuenta. +Y me he visto forzado a desviar mi cmara hacia estos asuntos para contar una historia ms completa. +Quiero que la gente vea lo que est suceciendo bajo el agua, tanto el horror como la magia. +La primera nota que hice para National Geographic, donde reconoc la habilidad para incluir temas medioambientales dentro de una cobretura de historia natural, fue una nota que propuse sobre las focas de Groenlandia. +Ahora bien, la nota que quera hacer, inicialmente, era slo un pequeo acercamiento a las pocas semanas al ao en que estos animales migran desde el rtico canadiense hacia el Golfo de San Lorenzo en Canad para dedicarse al cortejo, al apareamiento y a tener sus cras. +Y todo esto lidiando con un ambiente de hielo transitorio a la deriva que se mueve con el viento y la marea. +I como soy un fotgrafo submarino, quera hacer esta historia tanto desde arriba como desde abajo, para tomar fotos como sta que muestra una de las pequeas cras nadando por primera vez en el agua helada a temperatura bajo cero. +Pero cuando me fui involucrando ms en la historia, comprend que haba dos grandes cuestiones medioambientales que no poda ignorar. +La primera era que estos animales continan siendo cazados, asesinados con picos a los cerca de 8 o 15 das de edad. +Es en realidad la matanza de mamferos marinos ms grande del planeta, con cientos de miles de estas focas asesinadas cada ao. +Pero por muy preocupante que sea esto, creo que el problema ms grande para las focas de Groenlandia es la prdida de hielo marino por causa del calentamiento global. +Esta es una foto area que tom que muestra el Golfo de San Lorenzo durante la temporada de focas de Groenlandia. +Y aunque vemos mucho hielo en esta imagen, hay tambin gran cantidad de agua, que no estaba all histricamente. +Y el hielo que hay es bastante fino. +El problema es que estos cachorros necesitan una plataforma estable de hielo slido para poder amamantarse de sus madres. +Slo necesitan 12 das desde su nacimiento hasta estar por su cuenta. +Pero si no tienen 12 das, pueden caer en el ocano y morir. +Este problema ha continuado creciendo cada ao desde que estuve all. +He ledo que el ao pasado la tasa de mortalidad en las cras era del 100% en partes del Golfo de San Lorenzo. +As que, claramente, esta especie tiene muchos problemas para avanzar. +Esto se termin convirtiendo en la nota de portada para National Geographic. +Y recibi bastante atencin. +Y con eso, vi el potencial para comenzar a hacer otras notas sobre problemas del ocano. +As que propuse una nota sobre la crisis ictcola global, en parte porque haba presenciado personalmente una gran degradacin del ocano a lo largo de los ltimos 30 aos, pero tambin porque le una publicacin cientfica que deca que el 90% de los grandes peces en el ocano han desaparecido en los ltimos 50 o 60 aos. +Estos son los atunes, marlines y tiburones. +Y cuando le eso, qued anonadado por esos nmeros. +Pens que esto sera noticia titular en cada agencia de noticias. Pero realmente no lo fue, as que quise hacer una nota que fuera un tipo muy diferente de historia submarina. +Quera que fuera ms como la fotografa de guerra, donde estaba tomando imgnes ms difciles que mostraban a los lectores lo que le estaba pasando a la vida marina alrededor del mundo. +El primer componente de la historia que considereba esencial, sin embargo, era brindar a los lectores un sentido de apreciacin hacia los animales del ocano que estaban comiendo. +Saben, creo que la gente va a un restaurant, y alguien ordena un bistec, y todos sabemos de dnde viene la carne, y alguien pide pollo, y todos sabemos lo que es el pollo, pero cuando comen sushi de atn, tienen alguna nocin del magnfico animal que estn consumiendo? +Ahora bien, stos son los tigres y leones del mar. +En realidad, estos animales no tienen una contraparte terrestre; son nicos en el mundo. +stos son animales que pueden nadar prcticamente del ecuador a los polos y pueden cruzar de lado a lado ocanos enteros en el curso de un ao. +Si no fueramos tan eficientes atrapndolos, como crecen por toda su vida, tendramos atunes de 30 aos de edad que pesaran una tonelada. +Pero la verdad es que somos extremadamente eficientes atrapndolos, y sus reservas han colapsado en todo el mundo. +Esta es la subasta diaria en el mercado de peces de Tsukiji que fotografi un par de aos atrs. +Y cada da estos atunes, de aleta azul como estos, son apilados como lea, almacn tras almacn. +Y mientras deambulaba y tomaba estas fotografas, bsicamente se me ocurri que el ocano no es un supermercado, saben? +No podemos continuar tomando sin esperar serias consecuencias como resultado. +Tambin, con la historia, quera mostrar a los lectores cmo los peces son atrapados, algunos mtodos usados para atrapar peces, como la pesca de arrastre, que es uno de los mtodos ms comunes en el mundo. +Esta era una pequea red que estaba siendo usada en Mxico para atrapar camarones, pero la manera en que funciona es esencialmente la misma en todo el mundo. +Tienes una larga red en el medio con dos puertas de acero en cada extremo. +Y como este aparejo es remolcado por el agua, las puertas experimentan una resistencia del ocano, y abre la boca de la red, y colocan flotantes en la parte superior y una lnea de plomo en la inferior. +Y sto simplemente se arrastra por el ocano, en este caso para atrapar camarones. +Pero como pueden imaginar, atrapa todo lo dems en su camino tambin. +Y est destruyendo esa preciosa comunidad bentnica en el fondo, cosas como esponjas y corales, ese hbitat crtico para otros animales. +Esta fotografa que tom del pescador sosteniendo los camarones que pesc tras remolcar sus redes por una hora. +As que tena un puado de camarones, tal vez siete u ocho, y todos esos otros animales en la cubierta del bote son descarte. +Estos son animales que murieron en el proceso, pero no tienen valor comercial. +Por lo tanto este es el verdadero coste de una cena con camarones, tal vez siete u ocho camarones y 4.5 kg de otros animales que tuvieron que morir en el proceso. +Tambin quise hacer foco en la industria de la pesca del tiburn porque, actualmente en el planeta Tierra, estamos matando ms de 100 millones de tiburones cada ao. +Pero antes de salir a fotografiar este componente, me debat con la idea de cmo sacar una foto de un tiburn muerto que tuviera resonancia en los lectores. Saben, creo que todava hay mucha gente que piensa que el nico tiburn bueno es un tiburn muerto. +Pero una maana salt al agua y me encontr con este tiburn zorro que haba muerto recientemente +Y con sus enormes aletas pectorales y sus ojos todava muy visibles, me impact como una especie de crucifixin, si me permiten. +Esta termin siendo la imagen principal en la nota sobre la pesca global en National Geographic. +Y espero que haya ayudado a los lectores a darse cuenta de este problema de 100 millones de tiburones. +Y como amo a los tiburones (estoy un poco obsesionado con los tiburones) quera hacer otra nota sobre los tiburones, ms alegre, como una forma de hablar sobre la necesidad de su conservacin. +As que fu a las Bahamas, porque hay muy pocos lugares en el mundo en donde a los tiburones les va bien hoy en da, pero las Bahamas parecen un lugar donde sus reservas eran rasonablemente saludables, en gran medida debido al hecho de que el gobierno all prohibiera la pesca con palangre algunos aos atrs. +Y quera mostrar diversas especies que no habamos mostrado mucho en la revista y trabajamos en varios sitios. +Uno de estos sitios era este lugar llamado Playa del Tigre, en la parte norte de las Bahamas donde tiburones tigre se congregan en aguas poco profundas. +Esta es una fotografa que tom a baja altura mostrando nuestro bote de buceo con cerca de una docena de estos tiburones tigre grandes y viejos sencillamente nadando alrededor. +Pero la nica cosa que definitivamente no quera hacer con esta cobertura era continuar retratando a los tiburones como si fueran monstruos. +No quera que fueran demasiado amenazadores o terrorficos. +Y con esta foto de una hermosa hembra de 4.5 metros, probablemente 4 metros supongo, de tiburn tigre, ms o menos creo que alcanc ese objetivo, donde ella estaba nadando con estos pequeos carboneros cerca de su trompa, y mi estroboscopio cre una sombra en su cara. +Y creo que es una foto ms inofensiva, un poco menos amenazante, un poco ms respetuosa con la especie. +Tambin busqu para esta nota al elusivo gran tiburn martillo, un animal que realmente no haba sido muy fotografiado hasta hace cerca de 7 o 10 aos atrs. +Es una criatura muy solitaria. +Pero este es un animal del cual la ciencia considera que falta informacin tanto en Florida como en Bahamas. +Saben, no sabemos casi nada sobre ellos. +No sabemos desde ni hacia dnde migran, dnde se aparean, dnde tienen sus cras, y sin embargo, las poblaciones de tiburn martillo en el Atlntico han declinado cerca del 80% en los ltimos 20 o 30 aos. +Saben, los estamos perdiendo ms rpido de lo que podemos encontrarlos. +ste es el tiburn de puntas blancas, un animal que es considerado la cuarta especie ms peligrosa, si prestan atencin a ese tipo de listas. +Pero es un animal que est un 98% en declive a lo largo de la mayor parte de su distribucin. +Como es un animal pelgico y vive en aguas ms profundas, y como no estbamos trabajando en el fondo, traje una jaula anti tiburones, y mi amigo, el bilogo de tiburones Wes Pratt est dentro de la jaula. +Pueden ver que el fotgrafo, por supuesto, no estaba dentro de la jaula aqu, as que claramente el bilogo es un poco ms listo que el fotgrafo supongo. +Y por limo con esta nota, tambin quera hacer foco en los sitios de crianza de tiburones beb. +Y me dirig a la isla de Bimini, en las Bahamas, para trabajar con cras de tiburn limn. +Esta es una foto de una cra de tiburn limn, y muestra a estos animales donde viven por los primeros dos o tres aos de sus vidas en estos manglares protectores. +Esta es una fotografa muy poco tpica de un tiburn. +No es lo que comunmente podran pensar como la foto de un tiburn. +Pero, saben, aqu vemos un tiburn que mide quizs 25 o 28 centmetros nadando en cerca de 30 centmetros de agua. +Pero este hbitat crucial es donde pasan los primeros dos, tres aos de sus vidas, hasta que son lo suficientemente grandes para salir al resto del arrecife. +Despus de partir de Bimini, en realidad me enter que este hbitat est siendo arrasado para crear una cancha de golf y un resort. +Y otras notas recientes se han basado en unas pocas especies emblemticas, si me permieten, que estn en peligro en el ocano como una manera de hablar sobre otras amenazas. +Una de esas notas que hice documentaba a la tortuga lad. +sta es la especie de tortuga ms grande, ms ampliamente +Aqu vemos una hembra arrastrndose fuera del ocano bajo la luz de la luna en la isla Trinidad. +stos son animales cuyo linaje se remonta a alrededor de 100 millones de aos atrs. +Y hubo un tiempo durante su existencia cuando salan del agua a anidar y vean Tyrannosaurus rex corriendo por ah. +Y hoy, salen del agua y ven condominios. +Pero, a pesar de su sorprendente longevidad, ahora estn consideradas seriamente en peligro. +En el Pacfico, donde tom esta fotografa, sus nmeros han declinado un 90 por ciento en los ltimos 15 aos. +sta es una fotografa que muestra un recin nacido a punto de probar el agua salada por primera vez comenzando este largo y peligroso viaje. +Tan slo una de cada mil tortugas lad que rompen el cascarn alcanzan la madurez. +Pero eso es culpa de los depredadores naturales como los buitres que los acechan en la playa o los peces predadores que aguardan cerca de la costa. +La naturaleza ha aprendido a compensar eso, y las hembras tienen mltiples nidadas para sobreponerse a estas adversidades. +Pero contra lo que no pueden lidiar es contra el estrs antropognico, cosas humanas, como esta foto que muestra una tortuga lad atrapada de noche en una red. +En realidad salt al agua y tom esta foto, y con el permiso del pescador, liber a la tortuga, y fue capaz de nadar en libertad. +Pero saben, miles de tortugas lad cada ao no son tan afortunadas, y el futuro de la especie est en grave peligro. +Otra carismtica especie gigante con la que trabaj es la nota que hice sobre la ballena franca. +Y en esencia, la historia con las ballenas francas es que cerca de un milln de aos atrs, haba una especie de ballena franca en el planeta, pero al moverse las placas continentales y quedar aislados los ocanos, estas especies se separaron, y hoy tenemos esencialmente dos tipos distintos. +Tenemos la ballena franca austral que vemos aqu y la ballena franca glacial que vemos aqu con una madre y su cra cerca de la costa de Florida. +Ahora bien, ambas especies fueron cazadas hasta el borde de la extincin por los primeros balleneros, pero las ballenas franca austral se han recuperado mucho mejor ya que se las encuentra en lugares ms alejados de la actividad humana. +La ballena franca glacial se encuentra en el listado de las especies ms amenazadas del planeta hoy por hoy porque son ballenas urbanas, viven a lo largo de la costa Este de Amrica del Norte, Estados Unidos y Canad, y deben lidiar con estas amenazas urbanas. +Esta foto muestra un animal asomando su cabeza a la puesta del sol en la costa de Florida. +Pueden ver la central trmica en el fondo. +Tienen que lidiar con cosas como toxinas y frmacos que son tirados al ocano, y pueden haber estado afectando su reproduccin. +Tambin resultan atrapadas en los aparejos de pesca. +Esta imagen muestra la cola de una ballena franca. +Y esas manchas blancas no son marcas naturales. +stas son cicatrices causadas por redes. +El 72% de la poblacin tiene ese tipo de cicatrices, pero la mayora no sueltan el instrumento, cosas como trampas para langostas y jaulas de cangrejos. +Se aferran a ellas, y eventualmente las mata. +Y el otro problema es que son golpeadas por barcos. +Y ste era un animal que fue golpeado por un barco en Nueva Escocia, Canad, siendo remolcado a puerto, donde hicieron una necropsia para confirmar la causa de la muerte, la cual fue en efecto el golpe propiciado por un barco. +As que todos estos problemas se estn acumulando contra estos animales y manteniendo sus nmeros muy bajos. +Y para marcar un contraste con la asediada poblacin del Atlntico Norte, fui a una nueva poblacin prstina de ballenas franca austral qua haba sido descubierta haca solo 10 aos en el mar sub Antrtico de Nueva Zelanda, un lugar llamado Islas Auckland. +Baj hasta alli en el invierno. +Y estos son animales que no haban visto humanos nunca antes. Y yo era una de las primeras personas que probablemente vieran alguna vez. +Y me met al agua con ellas, y me fascin lo curiosas que eran. +Esta fotografa muesra a mi asistente parado en el fondo a cerca de 20 metros y una de estas asombrosamente hermosas ballenas de 14 metros y 70 toneladas, como un autobs de ciudad nadando por ah, ya saben. +Estaban en perfectas condiciones, muy gordas y sanas, robustas, sin cicatrices de redes, la forma de la que se supone que deben verse. +Saben, le que los peregrinos, cuando llegaron a Plymouth Rock en Massachusetts en 1620, escribieron que podan cruzar la baha del Cabo Cod a espaldas de ballenas francas. +Y no podemos volver atrs y ver eso hoy, pero quizs podamos preservar lo que nos queda. +Y quera cerrar este programa con una historia de esperanza, una nota que hice sobre reservas marinas como una forma de solucin al problema de la sobrepesca, la historia de la crisis pesquera global. +Me instal para trabajar en Nueva Zelanda porque Nueva Zelanda era bastante progresista, y es bastante progresista en lo referido a proteger su ocano. +Y realmente quera que esta nota fuera sobre tres cosas. Quera que fuera sobre abundancia, sobre diversidad y sobre resiliencia. +Y uno de los primeros lugares en los que trabaj fue una reserva llamada Goat Island en Leigh, Nueva Zelanda. +Lo que los cientficos de all me dijeron fue que cuando se protegi esta primera reserva marina en 1975, esperaban y prevean que ciertas cosas podran suceder. +Por ejemplo, esperaban que ciertas especies de peces, como el pargo de Nueva Zelanda, retornaran porque haban sido pescados hasta el borde de la extincin comercial. +Y de hecho regresaron. Lo que no pudieron predecir fue que otras cosas pasaran. +Por ejemplo, estos peces se alimentan de los erizos de mar. Y cuando todos los peces se haban ido, todo lo que poda verse bajo el agua eran hectreas y hectreas de erizos de mar. +Pero cuando los peces regresaron y comenzaron a comerse y controlar a la poblacin de erizos, miren nada ms, bosques de laminariales emergieron en aguas poco profundas. +Y eso se debe a que los erizos comen laminariales. +As que cuando los peces controlaron la poblacin de erizos, el ocano fue restaurado a su equilibrio natural. +Saben, as es probablemente como el ocano se vea aqu 100 o 200 aos atrs, pero no haba nadie aqu para decirnos. +Trabaj en otras partes de Nueva Zelanda tambin, en hermosas, frgiles reas protegidas como en Fiordland, donde esta colonia de plumas de mar fue encontrada. +Pequeos bacalaos azules nadando para una pizca de color. +En la parte norte de Nueva Zelanda, buce en el agua azul, donde el agua est algo ms clida, y fotografi animales como esta raya ltigo gigante nadando atravs de un can submarino. +Cada parte del ecosistema en este lugar parece muy saludable, desde diminutos, pequeos animales como un nudibranquio arrastrndose sobre esponjas incrustadas o un zapatero que es un animal muy importante en este ecosistema porque pasta en el fondo y permite que se establezca la nueva vida. +Y quera finalizar on esta fotografa, una imagen que tom en un da muy tormentoso en Nueva Zelanda cuando me apoy en el fondo entre medio de una escuela de peces arremoinndose alrededor mo. +Y estaba en un lugar que slo haba sido protegido alrededor de 20 aos atrs. +Y habl con buzos que haban estado buceando all por muchos aos, y decan que la vida marina aqu era mejor hoy que en los '60. +Y eso es porque ha sido protegido, que se ha restablecido. +As que pienso que el mensaje es claro. +El ocano es, de hecho, resiliente y tolerante hasta un punto, pero debemos ser buenos guardianes. +Me convert en fotgrafo submarino porque me enamor del mar, y tomo fotos de l hoy en da porque lo quiero proteger, y no creo que sea demasiado tarde. +Muchas gracias. +Tom Green: Eso es algo de "4chan". +Estos chicos en internet, tienen este grupo para chicos y les gusta decir palabras chistosas como "vuelta de barril". +Es un movimiento del video juego "Star Fox". +"Star Fox 20"? (Asistente: "Star Fox 64".) Tom Green: S. Y me han perseguido durante un ao. +Tengo que decirles que, de hecho, me enloquece. +A veces despierto a media noche y grito, "4chan!" +Christopher Poole: Cuando tena 15 aos, Encontr el sitio web llamado "Futaba Channel". +Era un foro y tablero de imgenes japons. +Durante ese tiempo, ese formato de foro, no era muy conocido fuera de Japn. +Lo que hice fue tomarlo, lo traduje al ingls, y lo sub para que mis amigos lo usaran. +Hoy, despus de 6 aos y medio, lo estn usando ms de 7 millones de personas. contribuyendo ms de 700.000 posts al da. +Y hemos pasado de un tablero a 48 tableros. +As es como se ve. +As que, lo distintivo de este sitio es que es annimo, y no tiene memoria. +No hay archivo. No hay barreras. No se requiere registrarse. +Estas cosas a las que estamos habituados al ingresar a un foro no existen en "4chan" +Lo que nos ha llevado a esto una discusin completamente cruda y sin censura. +Y el sitio es conocido porque tiene un ambiente, promotor de la creacin de muchos de los fenmenos de internet, videos virales, etc., conocidos como "memes". +Dos de los mayores "memes" salidos de este sitio con los que ustedes podran estar familiarizados son estos lolcats... fotos tontas de gatos con texto. +Esto reson aparentemente en millones de personas, ya que hay decenas de miles de stas, y ahora hay todo un imperio de blogs dedicado a fotos como estas. +Y el resurgimiento de Rick Astley en estos ltimos dos aos... +el "rickroll" fue el artculo gancho, muy sencillo, el artculo gancho clsico. +Alguien dice tener un enlace a algo interesante, y sale una cancin pop de los aos 80. Eso era todo. +Y creci al punto en que hubo un globo alegrico en el desfile de Accin de Gracias de Macy's del ao pasado, y sale Rick Astley, y "rickrollea" a millones de televidentes. +Hay miles de memes que salen de este sitio. +Hay un puado que salt a la popularidad, los que acabo de mostrarles, pero cada da, cada mes, la gente est produciendo miles de stos. +Entonces: Tiene reglas un sitio como este? +S, son las reglas codificadas que encontr, que son ms o menos ignoradas por la comunidad. +Y entonces han establecido su propio grupo de reglas, las "Reglas de Internet". +Hay 3 que especficamente quiero mostrarles. +Regla 1 es no hablar de /b/. +Dos es no hablar de /b/. +Esta es algo interesante: "Si existe, hay porno de ello. Sin excepciones". +Voy a ahorrarles esa diapositiva. +Les aseguro, es muy cierto. +/b/ es el primer tablero con que iniciamos, y es, de varias maneras el corazn latente del sitio web. +Ah va un tercio de todo el trfico. +Y /b/ es conocido, ms que nada, no slo por los memes creados, sino por sus hazaas. +Chris acaba de tocar uno de ellos hace unos segundos, fue la encuesta de Time 100 +Alguien en Time, en la revista, pens que sera divertido nominarme en eso que hicieron el ao pasado. +As que me incluyeron en ella, Internet se enter. Mi comunidad decidi que yo la ganara. +Yo no se los ped, ellos solos decidieron que eso era lo que queran. +Y, ya saben, un ndice de aprobacin de 390% no est nada mal. +As que irrumpieron en la encuesta. +Y termin justo en la cima. +Termin yendo a esta fiesta de alta sociedad. +Pero esa no es la parte interesante. +Es que ellos no me estaban poniendo en la cima de la lista; de hecho -- se sofistic hasta el punto que jugaron con todos los primeros 21 lugares para formar la frase "MARBLECAKE. ALSO, THE GAME" +El tiempo y esfuerzo invertidos en esto es realmente increble. +"marble cake" es emblemtico porque es el canal que organiz el grupo llamado Anonymous. +Y Anonymous es el grupo de personas que hicieron una protesta muy conocida, a la Cienciologa. +La historia es que, la Cienciologa tena este embarazoso video de Tom Cruise. Alguien lo subi a internet. +Ellos lo sacaron de la red y con esto lograron enojar a parte de internet. +Estas, poco ms de 7.000 personas en menos de un mes, organizados en 100 ciudades en todo mundo, y... esto es en L.A., protestaron contra la Iglesia de la Cienciologa, y han continuado haciendo lo mismo, ahora, 2 aos despus del hecho. +Siguen protestando. +As que tenemos este grupo espontneo de activistas locales. emergido del sitio en internet. +Por ltimo, les mostrar un ejemplo, la historia del gato Dusty. +Dusty es como hemos llamado al gato. +Un joven subi un video a YouTube en el que golpeaba a su gato. +Y, ya saben, esto no le gust a la gente, y vino esta efusin de apoyo para que la gente hiciera algo al respecto. +Y lo que hicieron fue... dejaron en ridculo a CSI, aparecieron los detectives de internet. +Encontraron su MySpace. +Tomaron el video de YouTube y analizaron cada detalle. +Y en menos de 24 horas, obtuvieron su nombre. Y en menos de 48 horas, lo arrestaron. +As, lo que pienso es realmente intrigante de una comunidad como 4chan es que se trata de un espacio abierto. +Como dije, es crudo, sin filtros. +Y sitios como este estn ahora siguiendo el camino de los dinosaurios. +Estn en peligro ya que nos estamos moviendo hacia el formato de las redes sociales. +Caminamos hacia una identidad persistente. +Estamos encaminados, ya saben, hacia la falta de privacidad, realmente. +Estamos sacrificando mucha privacidad, de manera que, en este camino, estamos perdiendo algo muy valioso. +Gracias. +Chris Anderson: Gracias a ti. +Tengo un par de preguntas. +Pero si las hago, se ir a caer TED de internet? +CP: Tienes suerte que esto no se est transmitiendo en vivo ahora mismo. +CA: Bueno, no sabemos. Tal vez algunos... ya que hay personas en 75 pases vindonos. +No me digas. +Pero en serio, el asunto del anonimato es... quiero decir, t planteaste el caso. +Pero el anonimato bsicamente le permite a la gente decir cualquier cosa. Sin reglas. +T has lidiado con asuntos como la pornografa infantil. +Tengo la curiosidad si t alguna vez te recuestas en la noche preocupado por haber abierto la caja de Pandora. +CP: S y no. +Quiero decir, as como salen cosas buenas de este ambiente, tambin sale mucha maldad. +Hay bastantes inconvenientes. +Pero creo que el bien mayor se est logrando, simplemente permitindole a la gente... hay muy pocos lugares, ahora, a los que puedes ir y no tener identidad, ser completamente annimo y decir lo que quieras. +Y decir lo que quieras, pienso, es algo muy poderoso. +Hacer lo que quisieras, ya sera cruzar la lnea. +Pero creo que tener estos sitios es importante. +Al recibir correos, la gente dice: "Gracias por darnos este lugar, esta salida, a donde puedo venir luego del trabajo y ser yo mismo". +CA: Pero las palabras, decir las cosas, t sabes, puede ser constructivo; y puede ser realmente daino. +Y si cortas el vnculo entre lo que se dice y cualquier atribucin de vuelta a ti, seguramente hay grandes riesgos en ello. +CP: Ciertamente los hay. +Pero... CA: Dime sobre... me refiero, creo que preguntaste en el tablero que habras de decir en TED, verdad? +CP: S, escribimos sobre el asunto el domingo. +Y en 24 horas, hubo 12.000 respuestas. +La cuestin es, no las met en la presentacin porque no podra leerte nada de lo que escribieron. +el 99% habra sido, t sabes, bipeado. +Pero hubo algunas cosas buenas que tambin salieron de ah. +Amor y paz fueron mencionadas. +CA: Amor y paz fueron mencionadas, pero entre comillas, verdad? +CP: Perros y gatos tambin fueron mencionados. +CA: y ese contenido est fuera del tablero ahora. +Cierto, se ha ido? O sigue ah? +CP: Lo dej para que quedara unos das. +lleg como a 16.000 comentarios, pero ya ha sido borrado. +CA: Ok, bien. +Ahora, no estoy seguro si necesariamente lo habra recomendado a todos los de TED para que lo vieran, de cualquier modo. +Chris, t mismo? Me refiero, eres una figura de cierta intriga. +Tienes una sorprendente influencia semi-subterrnea, pero an no te est dejando mucho dinero. +Cul es el panorama comercial aqu? +CP: El panorama comercial es que realmente no hay mucho que digamos, supongo. +El sitio tiene contenido para adultos. +Es que, obviamente, tiene contenido muy obsceno. tan solo en trminos del lenguaje. +Al tener eso, ya ests sacrificando la esperanza de hacer bastante dinero. +CA: T an vives con tus padres, verdad? +CP: De hecho me mud hace poco. +CA: Es genial. +CP: Me fui de casa de mi mam, y ahora estoy de regreso en la escuela. +CA: Qu conversacin tenas o tienes con tu mam acerca de 4chan? +CP: Al principio, un poco dolorosa, conversaciones incmodas. +El contenido no es tema de sobre mesa en lo ms mnimo. +Pero mis padres... creo que en parte por lo que puede agradarles es porque no lo entienden. +CA: Probablemente estaban complacidos vindote en la cima de la encuesta de Time. +CP: S, aunque an no saben qu pensar de ello. +CA: Y digamos, en 10 aos, qu te imaginas haciendo? +CP: Esa es una buena pregunta. +Como he dicho, acabo de regresar a la escuela, y estoy considerando especializarme en estudios urbanos luego continuar con planeamiento urbano, a modo de tomar lo que he aprendido de las comunidades web y tratar de adaptarlo a las comunidades en el plano fsico. +CA: Chris, gracias. Absolutamente fascinante. Gracias por venir a TED. +Hoy nos enfrentamos a una realidad econmica adversa. +Y una de las primeras vctimas de una economa en apuros es cualquier tipo de inversin pblica, creo yo. Sin duda lo que ms est en peligro ahora es la inversin pblica en ciencia, sobre todo en la ciencia motivada por la curiosidad y la exploracin. +As que quiero convencerlos en unos 15 minutos de lo ridculo y lo absurdo que es eso. +Pero para contextualizar quiero mostrarles sta, tal vez la peor infografa en la historia de TED, un poco catica, no era mi intencin. +No es culpa ma, es del diario "The Guardian". +Y es en realidad, una impecable demostracin de lo que cuesta la ciencia. +Porque si estoy bregando por que se financien la ciencia y la exploracin por curiosidad, es mi deber explicarles cunto cuesta. +El juego se llama "Dnde est el presupuesto cientfico?". +Este es el gasto pblico del Reino Unido. +Como se ve, es de unos 620 mil millones anuales. +El presupuesto cientfico es en realidad -- a la izquierda hay unos globos violetas y otros amarillos. +Es uno de los globos amarillos junto al globo amarillo ms grande. +Es de unos 3.300 millones de libras al ao de esos 620 mil millones. +Ese dinero lo financia todo en el Reino Unido: +investigacin mdica, exploracin espacial, mi trabajo en el CERN en Ginebra, la fsica de partculas, la ingeniera, incluso las humanidades y artes, se financian con el presupuesto cientfico, que son esos 3.300 millones, el globito amarillo alrededor del globo anaranjado arriba a la izquierda. +As que de eso se trata. +Ese porcentaje, por cierto, es ms o menos el mismo en EE.UU., Alemania y Francia. +En la economa, la Investigacin y Desarrollo con financiacin pblica equivale ms o menos al 0,6 por ciento del PIB. +As que de eso se trata. +Lo primero que quiero decir, sacado directamente de "Maravillas del Sistema Solar", es que la exploracin del sistema solar y el universo nos ha mostrado su indescriptible belleza. +Esta foto fue enviada por la sonda espacial Cassini desde Saturno, despus de terminar de rodar "Maravillas del Sistema Solar". +As que no aparece en la serie. +Es de la luna Encelado. +Esta impresionante esfera blanca de la esquina es Saturno, que en realidad est al fondo de la imagen. +Y la luna creciente que se ve es la luna Encelado, que tiene el tamao de las islas britnicas. +Unos 500 Km de dimetro. +Una luna diminuta. +Pero lo que es fascinante y hermoso... +es una foto sin editar, debo aclarar. En blanco y negro, enviada desde la rbita de Saturno. +Lo que es hermoso, podrn verlo en este borde de aqu son esta especie de tenues volutas casi como de humo emanando de ese borde. +As lo recreamos para "Maravillas del Sistema Solar". +Es una animacin de gran belleza. +Esas volutas eran, como luego descubrimos, manantiales de hielo emanando de la superficie de esta luna diminuta. +Es algo fascinante y hermoso por s solo, pero creemos que el mecanismo que genera esos manantiales requiere que haya masas de agua lquida bajo la superficie de esta luna. +Y lo importante de esto es que en nuestro planeta, la Tierra, donde hay agua lquida, hay vida. +As que encontrar pruebas fiables de la presencia de lquido bajo la superficie de un satlite natural a 1.200 millones de kilmetros de la Tierra es realmente algo asombroso. +Lo que esto significa, esencialmente, es que quiz sea un lugar apto para la vida en el Sistema Solar. +Eso era slo una animacin. Ahora quiero mostrarles esta foto, +que tambin es de Encelado. +De cuando Cassini vol bajo Enceladus. +Hizo una pasada a muy baja altura, a unos pocos cientos de kilmetros sobre la superficie. +Esta ya es una imagen real del hielo elevndose hacia el espacio, absolutamente bellsimo. +Pero no es la principal candidata para albergar vida en el Sistema Solar. +Probablemente sea esta otra, Europa, una luna de Jpiter. +Y de nuevo, debimos volar al sistema joviano para darnos cuenta de que no era una luna como otras, no era un mero pedazo de roca inerte. +En realidad es una luna de hielo. +Lo que estn viendo es la superficie de la luna Europa, una gruesa capa de hielo, posiblemente de cien kilmetros de espesor. +Pero analizando la manera en que Europa interacta con el campo magntico de Jpiter, y observando cmo se mueven las grietas en el hielo que se ven esta animacin, hemos deducido con certeza que existe un ocano de lquido alrededor de toda la superficie de Europa. +As que debajo del hielo hay un ocano de lquido en toda la luna. +que creemos que puede tener cientos de kilmetros de profundidad. +Pensamos que es agua salada, lo que indicara que hay ms agua en esa luna de Jpiter que en todos los ocanos de la Tierra juntos. +As que esa pequea luna que orbita Jpiter, es probablemente la principal candidata para encontrar vida en una luna u otro cuerpo celeste conocido, fuera de la Tierra. +Un descubrimiento impresionante y hermoso. +Nuestra exploracin del Sistema Solar nos ha enseado su belleza. +Puede que tambin nos ayude a resolver uno de los ms profundos interrogantes jams planteados: "Estamos solos en el universo?" +La exploracin y la ciencia sirven para algo ms que para maravillarnos? +Pues s. +Esta es una foto muy famosa tomada, en realidad, durante mi primera Nochebuena, el 24 de diciembre de 1968, cuando yo tena unos ocho meses. +La tom el Apolo 8 al salir de la cara oculta de la Luna. +La Tierra naciente, vista desde el Apolo 8. +Es una foto famosa; muchos han dicho que es la foto que salv al ao 1968, un ao turbulento: las revueltas estudiantiles en Pars, el punto lgido de la Guerra de Vietnam. +La razn por la que muchos piensa as sobre esta foto, y Al Gore lo ha dicho muchas veces, aqu mismo en el escenario de TED, es que esta foto podra decirse que seala el comienzo del movimiento ecologista. +Porque, por primera vez, vimos a nuestro mundo no ya como un lugar slido, inmvil e indestructible, sino como un mundo pequeo y de aspecto frgil suspendido en la oscuridad del espacio. +De lo que no se suele hablar sobre la exploracin espacial y el Programa Apolo es la contribucin econmica que supusieron. +Quiero decir, si bien se puede plantear que fue asombroso y un logro enorme y que nos dio imgenes como sta, cost mucho dinero verdad? +Bueno, en realidad se han realizado muchos estudios acerca de la eficiencia econmica, el impacto econmico del Programa Apolo. +El ms importante lo hizo Chase Econometrics en 1975. +Y demostr que por cada dlar invertido la economa de EE.UU. recibi 14. +De modo que el Programa Apolo se autofinanci en inspiracin, en ingeniera, en logros y dira que en motivacin para jvenes cientficos e ingenieros al menos 14 veces lo que cost. +As que la exploracin se puede autofinanciar. +Y los descubrimientos cientficos +y la innovacin fruto de la investigacin? +Bien, esta foto parece no mostrar nada, +pero es una imagen del espectro del hidrgeno. +Resulta que en las dcadas de 1880 - 1890 muchos cientficos y estudiosos analizaron la luz que irradiaban los tomos, +y vieron imgenes extraas como sta. +Cuando se ve esta luz a travs de un prisma, la luz de hidrgeno incandescente, no brilla como una luz blanca, sino que emite luces de determinados colores, una luz roja, una azul, algunas azul oscuro. +Esto nos llev a comprender la estructura atmica porque la explicacin para ese fenmeno es que los tomos estn compuestos de un ncleo con electrones alrededor. +Estos electrones slo pueden ocupar ciertos lugares +y cuando saltan a su siguiente posicin y luego regresan a la posicin incial producen luces de ciertos colores. +Y el hecho de que un tomo al calentarse emita una luz de un color especfico fue uno de los principales impulsores del desarrollo de la teora cuntica, la teora de la estructura atmica. +Quera ensearles esta imagen porque es digna de atencin: +es una imagen del espectro del Sol. +Y sta es una de tomos en la atmsfera del Sol absorbiendo luz. +Igual que antes, slo absorben luz de ciertos colores cuando los electrones saltan a otra posicin y vuelven a caer. +Pero observen la cantidad de lneas negras en ese espectro. +Y el elemento qumico helio fue descubierto al observar la luz solar porque se descubri que algunas de esas lneas negras no correspondan a ningn elemento conocido. +Por eso el helio se llama as, +de "Helios", el nombre griego del Sol. +Parece difcil de entender, verdad? Es que de hecho fue una actividad difcil de entender, pero la teora cuntica pronto llev a comprender el comportamiento de los electrones en materiales como el silicio, por ejemplo. +El modo en que el silicio se comporta, el hecho de que se puedan fabricar transistores, es un fenmeno puramente cuntico. +Por eso, sin la curiosidad que nos ha llevado a entender la estructura de los tomos, y que condujo a la mecnica cuntica, esta teora casi inabarcable, no tendramos transistores, ni chips de silicio, casi no tendramos la base de nuestra economa moderna. +Esta historia tiene otro giro maravilloso, dira yo. +En "Maravillas del Sistema Solar", repetamos que las leyes de la fsica son universales. +Uno de los aspectos ms increbles de la fsica y del entendimiento de la naturaleza que hemos aprendido en la Tierra, es que se puede extrapolar, no slo a los planetas, sino a las estrellas y las galaxias ms lejanas. +Y una de las ms asombrosas predicciones de la mecnica cuntica, con slo observar la estructura atmica -- la misma teora que describe los transistores -- es que no puede existir una estrella en el universo que haya alcanzado el fin de su vida y que sea mayor que, concretamente, 1,4 veces la masa del Sol. +Ese es un lmite impuesto a la masa de las estrellas. +Se puede deducir sobre el papel en el laboratorio, se apunta un telescopio al cielo y se ve que no existe ninguna estrella muerta mayor de 1,4 veces la masa del Sol. +Es una prediccin bastante increble. +Y si un estrella tuviera una masa apenas por debajo de ese valor? +Bien, aqu se ve una. +Esta foto muestra una galaxia comn y corriente con unos 100 mil millones de estrellas como nuestro Sol. +Es slo una de miles de millones de galaxias en el universo. +Hay mil millones de estrellas en el centro galctico, por eso brilla tanto. +Esta est a unos 50 millones de aos luz, es decir, es una galaxia vecina. +Pero esa estrella brillante que se ve en realidad pertenece a esta galaxia. +Por lo cual tambin est a 50 millones de aos luz. +Pertenece a esa galaxia, y brilla tan intensamente como el centro de la galaxia, que contiene mil millones de soles. +Es una explosin de supernova de tipo 1a. +Es un fenmeno increble, porque es una estrella de un tamao +-- se llama enana de oxgeno-carbono -- +de un tamao de aproximadamente 1,3 veces la masa del Sol. +Y tiene una compaera binaria que orbita a su alrededor, as que es una gran estrella, una gran bola de gas. +Y lo que hace es robarle gas a su estrella compaera, hasta alcanzar ese tamao lmite, el lmite de Chandrasekhar, tras lo cual explota. +Y al explotar produce tanta luminosidad como mil millones de soles durante unas dos semanas, y no slo libera energa al universo, sino tambin gran cantidad de elementos qumicos. +De hecho, esa es una enana de oxgeno y carbono. +Pero en la poca del Big Bang no haba carbono ni oxgeno en el universo. +Ni tampoco los haba durante la primera generacin de estrellas. +Fueron producidos en estrellas como sa, Carbono y oxgeno atrapados y luego liberados al universo en explosiones como sta, que acabarn formando planetas, estrellas, nuevos sistemas solares y desde luego a nosotros mismos. +Creo que es una extraordinaria prueba del poder y la belleza y la universalidad de las leyes de la fsica; que comprendamos ese proceso, porque comprendemos la estructura de los tomos aqu en la Tierra. +He encontrado una cita preciosa de Alexander Fleming acerca de los descubrimientos fortuitos: "Al despertar ese amanecer del 28 de septiembre de 1928, desde luego no tena pensado revolucionar la medicina con el descubrimiento del primer antibitico". +Pues bien, los exploradores del mundo del tomo no tenan pensado inventar el transistor. +Y desde luego tampoco, pretendan describir la mecnica de las explosiones de supernovas, descubrimientos que acabaron por desvelar en qu lugar del universo se originaron los componentes de la vida. +Por eso creo que la ciencia puede ser -- los descubrimientos fortuitos son importantes -- +puede ser bella, puede desvelar cosas asombrosas. +Y creo que tambin puede desvelarnos por fin las ms profundas ideas sobre nuestro lugar en el universo y el valor de nuestro planeta. +Esta es una foto espectacular de nuestro planeta. +No parece nuestro planeta, +parece Saturno porque, por supuesto, es Saturno. +La tom la sonda espacial Cassini. +Pero es una foto famosa, no ya por la belleza y majestuosidad de los anillos de Saturno, sino por una minscula mancha apenas visible suspendida bajo uno de los anillos. +Amplindolo pueden ver +que parece una luna pero en realidad es la Tierra. +La Tierra capturada en esa imagen de Saturno. +Es nuestro planeta visto desde 1.200 millones de kilmetros. +Creo que la Tierra tiene la extraa cualidad de que cuanto ms nos alejamos de ella, ms hermosa nos parece. +Pero no es la ms distante o ms famosa foto de la Tierra. +La tom este objeto, la nave espacial Voyager. +Ese soy para apreciar la escala de la nave. +El Voyager es una mquina diminuta. +Ahora se encuentra a 16.000 millones de kilmetros de la Tierra, y transmite con esa parablica, con una potencia de 20 vatios, y an estamos en contacto con ella. +Ha visitado Jpiter, Saturno, Urano y Neptuno. +Y despus de visitar esos cuatro planetas, Carl Sagan, uno de mis mayores hroes, tuvo la maravillosa idea de hacer girar a la Voyager para obtener una foto de cada planeta que haba visitado. +Y tom esta foto de la Tierra. +La Tierra apenas se ve, la imagen se llama "El Punto Azul Plido", pero la Tierra est suspendida en ese rayo de luz. +Es la Tierra vista a 6.400 millones de kilmetros de distancia. +Y, para terminar, quisiera leerles lo que Sagan escribi acerca de ella, porque yo no puedo expresar palabras ms bellas para describir lo que l vi en aquella foto que tom. +Sagan dijo: "Echemos otro vistazo a ese puntito. +Ah est. Es nuestro hogar. Somos nosotros. +Sobre l ha transcurrido y transcurre la vida de todo aquel que conoces, que has amado o de quien has odo hablar; en definitiva, de todo aquel que ha existido. +Se ha dicho que la astronoma es una experiencia que provoca humildad e imprime carcter. +Quizs no haya mejor demostracin de lo absurdo de la vanidad humana que esta imagen distante de nuestro minsculo mundo. +Para m, subraya nuestra responsabilidad de tratarnos mejor los unos a los otros y de preservar y amar nuestro punto azul plido, el nico hogar que hemos conocido". +Hermosas palabras sobre el poder de la ciencia y la exploracin. +Siempre se ha argumentado y se seguir argumentando que ya sabemos suficiente sobre el universo +Se podra haber argumentado en los aos 20, no tendramos la penicilina. +Se podra haber argumentado en 1890, y no tendramos el transistor. +Y se sigue argumentando hoy, en una situacin econmica difcil. +Claro, ya sabemos lo suficiente. +No necesitamos descubrir nada ms sobre nuestro universo. +Mis ltimas palabras sern las de alguien que est convirtindose en uno de mis hroes. Humphrey Davy, que practic la ciencia a comienzos del siglo XIX. +Davy fue perseguido constantemente. +Sabemos lo suficiente a comienzos del siglo XIX. +Exploten ese saber; construyan cosas. +Dijo lo siguiente: "No hay nada tan nefasto para el progreso de la mente humana que suponer que nuestra perspectiva de la ciencia es definitiva, que nuestros triunfos han sido completados, que la naturaleza no guarda misterios, y que no hay nuevos mundos que conquistar". +Muchas gracias. +Hola. +Hoy voy a hablar un poco sobre la msica, las mquinas y la vida. +O, ms especficamente, de lo que aprendimos en la creacin de una mquina muy grande y complicada para un videoclip. +Puede que algunos reconozcan esta imagen. +Este es el plano inicial del video que creamos. +Vamos a mostrar el video al final pero antes quiero hablar un poco de qu es lo que ellos queran. +Cuando empezamos a hablar de OK Go, -- el nombre de la cancin es "This Too Shall Pass" ("Esto tambin pasar") -- estbamos realmente emocionados porque expresaron inters en construir una mquina con la cual poder bailar. +Y estbamos muy entusiasmados con esto porque, por supuesto, ellos tienen experiencia bailando con mquinas. +Son responsables de este video, "Here It Goes Again" ("Ah va de nuevo"). +Ms de 50 millones de reproducciones en YouTube. +Cuatro tipos bailando sobre cintas de correr sin cortes, slo una cmara fija. +Un vdeo maravilloso y fantsticamente viral. +As que estbamos muy entusiasmados de trabajar con ellos. +Y como que empezamos a hablar de qu era lo que queran. +Y ellos explicaron que queran una suerte de mquina de Rube Goldberg. +Ahora bien, para los que no lo saben una mquina de Rube Goldberg es un artilugio complejo, una maquinaria de increble ingeniera sobredimensionada que desempea una tarea relativamente simple. +As que nos entusiasmamos con esta idea y comenzamos a hablar de exactamente cmo se vera. +Y nos encontramos algunos parmetros que... ya saben, construir una mquina de Rube Goldberg tiene sus limitaciones pero tambin es algo bastante abierto. +Y queramos asegurarnos de hacer algo que funcionara en un videoclip. +As que desarrollamos una lista de requisitos, los "10 mandamientos", que eran, en orden ascendente de dificultad: el primero es "Nada de magia". +Todo lo que suceda en pantalla tena que ser entendido muy fcilmente por un espectador tpico. +La regla general era que, si mi madre no poda entenderlo entonces no lo podamos usar en el video. +Haca falta integracin con la banda lo que significa que la mquina actuara con los miembros del grupo y, expresamente, que no fuera al revs. +Se quera que la accin de la mquina acompaara el sentimiento de la cancin. +As, a medida que la cancin iba cogiendo emocin tambin la mquina deba actuar de forma ms espectacular. +Nos pidieron que hiciramos uso del espacio. +As que estbamos usando un almacn de 900 m2 dividido en dos plantas, +que inclua un muelle de carga exterior. +Usamos todo eso, incluso un enorme agujero en el suelo por el que de verdad bajbamos la cmara y el camargrafo. +Queran desorden y nosotros estbamos encantados de complacerlos. +La propia mquina deba dar comienzo a la msica. +Entonces la mquina arrancara, recorrera una cierta distancia, reaccionando a lo largo del camino, pulsara reproducir en un iPod o en un grabador o algo que pudiera comenzar a reproducir. +Y la mquina mantendra la sincronizacin a partir de ah. +Y hablando de sincronizacin se quera que sincronizase con el ritmo y que marcara compases especficos a lo largo del camino. +Est bien. Se quera que terminara exactamente a tiempo. +Muy bien, por eso el cronometraje de principio a fin tiene que ser perfecto. +Se quera que la msica se detuviera en cierto momento del video y que el sonido real en vivo de la mquina tocara parte de la cancin. +Y como si esto no fuera suficiente todas estas cosas increblemente complicadas, correcto, queran que fueran en una sola toma. +Bien. +Algunas estadsticas de lo que tuvimos que pasar en el proceso. +La mquina en s tiene 89 interacciones diferentes. +Nos llev 85 tomas plasmar en la pelcula algo satisfactorio. +De esas 85 tomas slo tres llegaron a terminar su ejecucin con xito. +Destruimos dos pianos y 10 televisores en el proceso. +Fuimos a la ferretera ms de un centenar de veces. +Y perdimos un zapato de tacones altos cuando una de nuestras ingenieras, Heather Knight, dej su zapato de tacn, despus de una agradable cena, volvi a trabajar y se lo dej en una pila de cosas. +Y otro ingeniero pens: "Bueno, podramos usar esto". Y termin usndolo como un bonito disparador. +Y, de hecho, est en la mquina. +As que, qu aprendimos de todo esto? +Bien, despus de haber terminado tenemos la oportunidad de retroceder y reflexionar sobre algunas de estas cosas. +Y aprendimos que las cosas pequeas apestan. +Las bolitas en las pistas de madera son realmente susceptibles a la humedad, a la temperatura y a un poquito de polvo y se caen de las pistas, los ngulos exactos hacen difcil hacerlo bien. +Y, sin embargo, una bola de bolos siempre sigue el mismo camino. +No importa la temperatura, no importa qu haya en su camino; llegar bastante bien a donde tiene que llegar. +Pero aunque las cosas pequeas apestan, tenemos que empezar por algn lado, para tener adnde ir. +As que tenemos que comenzar con eso. Uno tiene que centrarse en eso. +Las cosas pequeas apestan pero, por supuesto, son esenciales. +Qu ms? La planificacin es muy importante. +Ya saben, pasamos mucho tiempo ideando e incluso construyendo algunas de estas cosas. +Se dice que "Ningn plan de batalla sobrevive al contacto con el enemigo". +Creo que nuestro enemigo era la fsica y ella es una amante cruel. +A menudo, hemos tenido que quitar cosas como resultado debido al tiempo, la esttica, o lo que sea. +Y as como la planificacin es importante, tambin lo es la flexibilidad. +Todas estas son cosas que no terminaron siendo parte de la mquina final. +Tambin, poner las cosas fiables al final, las cosas que van a funcionar siempre. +De nuevo, de lo pequeo a lo grande es relevante aqu. +El cochecito de Lego del comienzo del video remite al auto grande, real, de cerca del final del video. +El auto grande, real, funciona cada vez; no hay problema con eso. +El pequeo tena una tendencia a salirse de la pista y eso es un problema. +Pero uno no quiere tener que reiniciar toda la mquina porque el coche de Lego del final no funciona, verdad? +Entonces uno lo pone al principio para que, si falla, al menos uno sabe que no tiene que reiniciar todo. +La vida puede ser un desorden. +Hubo momentos increblemente difciles en la construccin de esta cosa. +Pasamos meses en este diminuto y fro almacn. +Y qu alegra maravillosa tuvimos cuando finalmente la terminamos. +Es importante recordar que ya sea bueno o malo "Esto tambin pasar". +Muchsimas gracias. +Y ahora para presentar su videoclip tenemos a OK Go. +OK Go: Una presentacin. Hola TEDxUSC. +Somos OK Go. +Qu estamos haciendo? Oh, simplemente pasar el tiempo con nuestro Grammy. Qu pasa? +Creo que lo podemos hacer mejor. Hola TEDxUSC. +Somos OK Go. Han ledo "Natural Curiosity Cabinet"? +Digo, "Curiosity", disculpen. +Permtanme empezar de nuevo. +Necesitamos cosas ms ridculas aparte de "The Cabinet of Natural Curiosities". +El sombrero reloj-de-sol de Tim. +Han visto el lo que han hecho con las Torres Waltz? +Lo siento, comencemos de nuevo. +Perros. +Hola, TEDxUSC. Somos OK Go y este es nuestro nuevo video "This Too Shall Pass". +[poco claro] Kay, creo que todava podemos hacerlo mejor, s. +Ese est bastante bien. Cada vez mejor. +Algo que el mundo necesita, algo que este pas necesita desesperadamente es una forma mejor de articular nuestros debates polticos. +Necesitamos redescubrir el arte perdido del debate democrtico. +Si piensan en las discusiones que tenemos, la mayora de la veces son gritos en la televisin por cable, discusiones ideolgicas en el Congreso. +Tengo una sugerencia. +Observen las discusiones que tenemos actualmente sobre la reforma de salud, los bonos, y el salvataje a Wall Street, sobre la brecha entre ricos y pobres, la discriminacin positiva y el matrimonio del mismo sexo. +Bajo de la superficie de esas discusiones, con fervientes pasiones por todos lados, hay grandes interrogantes de filosofa moral, grandes interrogantes de justicia. +Pero muy pocas veces articulamos y defendemos y discutimos aquellos grandes interrogantes morales en nuestra poltica. +As que lo que me gustara hacer hoy es discutir un poco. +Primero, djenme mencionar a un filsofo famoso que escribi sobre esas cuestiones de justicia y moralidad, y darles una pequea leccin sobre Aristteles de la Antigua Grecia, la teora aristotlica de justicia, y luego discutiremos para ver si las ideas de Aristteles en realidad guan la forma en que pensamos y debatimos hoy diferentes cuestiones. +Entonces, Estn listos para la leccin? +Segn Aristteles la justicia significa dar a cada cual lo que se merece. +Eso es todo, esa es la leccin. +Ahora, ustedes pueden decir, bien, eso es muy obvio. +El problema comienza cuando hay que discutir quin merece "qu" y "por qu". +Tomemos el ejemplo de las flautas. +Supongamos que estamos repartiendo flautas. +Quines deberan tener las mejores flautas? +Veamos lo que dice la gente: Qu dira usted? +Quin debera tener la mejor flauta? +Pueden contestar. +(Audiencia: al azar) Michael Sandel: al azar. Haran una lotera. +O la primera persona que corra al saln para tenerla. +Quin ms? +(Audiencia: los mejores flautistas) MS: Los mejores flautistas. (Audiencia: Los peores flautistas) MS: Los peores flautistas. +Cuntos dicen los mejores flautistas? +Por qu? +En realidad, esa fue tambin la respuesta de Aristteles. +Pero ahora una pregunta ms difcil. +Por qu creen, los que votaron de esta forma, que las mejores flautas deberan ir a los mejores flautistas? +Peter: El mayor beneficio para todos. +MS: El mayor beneficio para todos. +Vamos a escuchar una msica mejor si las mejores flautas van a los mejores flautistas. +Eres Peter? (Audiencia: Peter) MS: Est bien. +Bien, es una buena razn. +Todos estaremos mejor si se escucha buena msica en vez de msica mala. +Pero Peter, Aristteles no est de acuerdo contigo en que esa es la razn. +Todo est bien. +Aristteles tena una razn diferente para decir que las mejores flautas deban ir a los mejores flautistas. +l dijo: para eso son las flautas, para ser bien tocadas. +l dice que para pensar en la distribucin de algo, debemos razonar sobre, y a veces a discutir sobre, el propsito de algo, o la actividad social, en este caso, la interpretacin musical. +Y la naturaleza fundamental de la interpretacin musical es producir una msica excelente. +Ser una consecuencia feliz que todos nos beneficiemos. +Pero cuando pensamos en la justicia, Aristteles dice que realmente necesitamos pensar en la naturaleza esencial de la actividad en cuestin y las cualidades que son valiosas de honrar, admirar y reconocer. +Una de las razones por la que los mejores flautistas deben tener las mejores flautas es que la interpretacin musical no es slo para hacernos felices al resto de nosotros, sino tambin para honrar y reconocer la excelencia de los mejores msicos. +Bien, las flautas pueden parecer... la distribucin de flautas puede parecer un caso insignificante. +Tomemos un ejemplo contemporneo de entredicho en la justicia. +Tuvo que ver con el golf. +Casey Martin... hace unos pocos aos, Casel Martin... Alguno escuch hablar de l? +Fue un golfista muy bueno, pero tena una incapacidad, +un problema circulatorio en una de las piernas, que le haca muy doloroso caminar el campo de golf. +De hecho, implicaba riesgo de lesin. +l pidi permiso a la PGA, la Asociacin Profesional de Golfistas, para usar un carrito de golf en los torneos de la PGA. +Ellos dijeron: "No. +Eso te dara una ventaja injusta". +l present una demanda, y, aunque no lo crean, su caso lleg hasta la Corte Suprema, el caso sobre el carrito de golf. Porque la ley dice que la discapacidad debe ser considerada, brindar facilidades no cambia la naturaleza esencial de la actividad. +l dice: "Soy un gran jugador. +Quiero competir. +Pero necesito un carrito de golf para ir de un hoyo al siguiente". +Supongamos que ustedes estaban en la Corte Suprema. +Ustedes estaban impartiendo justicia en este caso. +Cuntos de ustedes aqu diran que Casey Martin s tiene derecho a usar un carrito de golf? +Y cuntos diran que no tiene derecho? +Muy bien, hagamos una encuesta, a mano alzada. +Cuntos dictaminaran en favor de Casey Martin? +Y cuntos en contra? Cuntos diran que no tiene derecho? +Muy bien, tenemos una buena divisin de opiniones. +Alguien que no otorgara a Casey Martin el derecho al carrito de golf: Cul sera su razn? +Levante la mano, y trataremos de acercarle un micrfono. +Cul sera su razn? +(Audiencia: Sera una ventaja injusta) MS: Sera una ventaja injusta si l se moviliza en un carrito de golf. +Muy bien, aquellos de ustedes, imagino que a la mayora de los que no le daran el carrito de golf les preocupa una ventaja injusta. +Y aquellos que dicen que se le debe dar un carrito de golf? +Cmo responderan a la objecin? +Si, est bien. +Audiencia: El carrito no es parte del juego. +MS: Cul es tu nombre? (Audiencia: Charlie) MS: Charlie dice: le alcanzamos un micrfono a Charlie, en caso que alguien quiera responder. +Cuntanos Charlie, por qu diras que l debera usar el carrito de golf? +Charlie: El carrito no es parte del juego. +MS: Pero Qu pasa con el caminar de un hoyo al otro? +Charlie: No importa, no es parte del juego. +MS: Caminar por el campo de golf no es parte del juego? +Charlie: No en mi libro, no lo es. +MS: Est bien. Qudate ah, Charlie. +Quin tiene una respuesta para Charlie? +Est bien, Quin tiene una respuesta para Charlie? +Qu le dira? +Audiencia: La resistencia es una parte muy importante del juego, caminar todos los hoyos. +MS:Caminar todos los hoyos? +Eso es parte del juego de golf? (Audiencia: Absolutamente) MS: Cul es tu nombre? (Audiencia: Warren) MS: Warren. +Charlie, Qu le dices a Warren? +Charlie: Me quedo con mi planteo original. +MS: Warren, Eres golfista? +Warren: No soy golfista. +Charlie: Y yo s soy. (MS: Bueno) Saben, es interesante. +En el caso, en el juzgado de primera instancia, trajeron a grandes golfistas para testificar en este punto. +Caminar por el campo de golf es esencial para el juego? +Y trajeron a Jack Nicklaus y a Arnold Palmer. +Y qu se imaginan que dijeron? +S. Ellos estuvieron de acuerdo con Warren. +Ellos dijeron, s, caminar por el campo de golf es un ejercicio fsico agotador. +El factor fatiga es una parte importante del golf. +Y por lo tanto esto cambiara la naturaleza fundamental del juego darle el carrito del golf. +Ahora, observen, algo interesante... Bueno, primero debera decirles la decisin de la Corte Suprema. +La Corte Suprema se expidi. +Qu se imaginan que dijeron? +Ellos dijeron s, s se le debe dar a Casey Martin un carrito de golf. +El fallo fue 7 a 2. +Lo interesante del dictamen y de la discusin que recin tuvimos es que la discusin sobre el derecho y la justicia de este asunto depende de comprender cul es la naturaleza esencial del golf. +Y los jueces de la Corte Suprema batallaron con ese interrogante. +Y el juez Stevens, representando la mayora, dijo que haba ledo todo sobre la historia del golf, y la esencia del juego es llevar una pelotita desde un lugar hasta un hoyo con la menor cantidad de golpes posible, y que caminar no es esencial, es algo secundario. +Hubo dos oposiciones, uno de ellos era el juez Scalia. +l no habra concedido el carrito, y l tuvo un disenso muy interesante. +Es interesante porque rechaz la premisa aristotlica subyacente en la opinin de la mayora. +l dijo que no es posible determinar la naturaleza esencial de un juego como el golf. +As es como lo dijo: +"Decir que algo es esencial es decir que es necesario para el logro de cierto objetivo. +Pero como la naturaleza misma de un juego es la diversin, no tiene objetivo, eso es lo que distingue a los juegos de una actividad productiva, es bastante imposible decir que cualquiera de las reglas arbitrarias de un juego es esencial". +As que ah lo tienen al juez Scalia enfrentando la premisa aristotlica de la opinin mayoritaria. +La opinin del juez Scalia es cuestionable por dos razones. +Primero, ningn fantico de los deportes hablara de esa forma. +Si pensramos que las reglas de los deportes que nos interesan son simplemente arbitrarias, en vez de ideadas para reconocer las virtudes y excelencias que pensamos son valiosas de admirar, no nos importara el resultado de un partido. +Tambin es objetable por un segundo motivo. +A primera vista, pareciera ser -- este debate sobre el carrito de golf -- un debate sobre la equidad, lo que es una ventaja injusta. +Pero si la equidad fuese lo nico en juego, habra sido una solucin fcil y obvia. +Qu sera? (Audiencia: Dejemos a todos usar el carrito) Dejemos a todos andar en un carrito de golf si as lo quieren. +Entonces la objecin de la equidad desaparece. +Pero dejar a todo el mundo andar en un carrito habra sido, me imagino, ms una aberracin para los grandes del golf y para la PGA, que una excepcin para Casey Martin. +Por qu? +Porque lo que estaba en cuestin en la disputa por el carrito de golf no era slo la naturaleza esencial del golf, sino tambin la pregunta: Qu habilidades vale la pena honrar y reconocer como talentos atlticos? +Djenme explicar este punto lo ms delicadamente posible: los golfistas son poco sensibles al estado atltico de su juego. +Despus de todo, no se corre, no se salta, y la pelotita permanece quieta. +Entonces, si el golf es la clase de juego que puede jugarse mientras se da vueltas en un carrito de golf, sera difcil otorgar a los grandes del golf el prestigio que otorgamos, el honor y reconocimiento que va para los atletas realmente grandes. +Esto pone de manifiesto que tanto para el golf como para las flautas, es difcil decidir lo que necesita la justicia sin resolver la pregunta: "Cul es la naturaleza esencial de la actividad en cuestin, y qu cualidades, qu excelencias, conectadas con esa actividad, son valiosas de honrar y reconocer?" +Veamos un ltimo ejemplo que se destaca en el debate poltico actual: el matrimonio del mismo sexo. +Hay quienes estn a favor de que el Estado reconozca slo el matrimonio tradicional entre un hombre y una mujer, y hay quienes estn a favor de que el Estado reconozca el matrimonio del mismo sexo. +Cuntos aqu estn a favor de la primera poltica: que el Estado slo debe reconocer el matrimonio tradicional? +Y cuntos estn a favor de la segunda, el matrimonio del mismo sexo? +Ahora, digmoslo de esta manera, Cul es el razonamiento sobre la justicia y la moralidad que subyace en la discusin que tenemos sobre el matrimonio? +Quienes se oponen al matrimonio del mismo sexo dicen que el propsito del matrimonio, fundamentalmente, es la procreacin, y eso es valioso de honrar, reconocer y alentar. +Y los defensores del matrimonio del mismo sexo dicen que no, la procreacin no es el nico propsito del matrimonio. Qu hay del compromiso de amor mutuo y para toda la vida? +De eso se trata realmente el matrimonio. +Entonces con las flautas, con los carritos de golf, y an con una cuestin sumamente reida como es el matrimonio del mismo sexo, Aristteles tiene razn. +Es muy difcil discutir sobre la justicia sin antes discutir sobre el propsito de las instituciones sociales y sobre las cualidades que vale la pena honrar y reconocer. +Entonces, tomemos distancia de estos casos y veamos cmo pueden alumbrar el camino en el que pudisemos mejorar y elevar, los trminos del discurso poltico en los Estados Unidos, y, de hecho, en todo el mundo. +Existe una tendencia de pensar que si nos comprometemos muy directamente con las cuestiones morales en poltica, es una receta para la discrepancia, y an ms, una receta para la intolerancia y la coercin. +As que mejor alejarse de esto, ignorar, las convicciones morales y religiosas que la gente trae a la vida cvica. +Me parece que nuestra discusin refleja lo contrario, que la mejor forma de respeto mutuo es comprometerse directamente con las convicciones morales que los ciudadanos traen a la vida pblica, en vez de exigirles que dejen sus convicciones morales ms profundas fuera de la poltica antes de entrar en ella. +Me parece que ese es el camino para empezar a restablecer el arte del debate democrtico. +Muchas gracias. +Gracias. +Gracias. +Muchas gracias. +Gracias. Gracias. +Chris. +Gracias, Chris. +Chris Anderson: De las flautas a los campos de golf y al matrimonio del mismo sexo. Esa fue una relacin genial. +Tu eres un pionero de la educacin abierta. +Tu serie de conferencias fueron de las primeras en hacerlo grande. +Cul es tu visin de la siguiente fase de esto? +MS: Bueno, creo que es posible. +En el aula, tenemos discusiones sobre algunas convicciones morales que los estudiantes defienden ms firmemente sobre grandes cuestiones pblicas. +Y creo que en general, podemos hacer eso en la vida pblica. +CA: Entonces tu idea, prximamente, sera en vivo, en tiempo real, poder tener este tipo de conversacin, con preguntas tentadoras, pero con gente de China e India? +MS: Correcto. Hicimos un poco de esto aqu con 1.500 personas en Long Beach, y lo hacemos en un aula en Harvard con unos 1.000 estudiantes. +No sera interesante adoptar esta forma para pensar y debatir, comprometindonos seriamente con las grandes cuestiones morales, explorando las diferencias culturales y unir a travs de una conexin de video en vivo, a estudiantes en Beijing y Mumbai y en Cambridge, Massachusetts, y crear un aula mundial. +Eso es lo que me encantara hacer. +CA: Me imagino que hay muchas personas a las que les encantara participar en ese esfuerzo. +Michael Sandel. Muchas gracias. (MS: Muchas gracias) +En frica, tenemos un dicho, "Dios le dio al hombre blanco un reloj y al hombre negro, el tiempo." +Yo pienso, cmo es posible que un hombre con tanto tiempo cuente su historia en 18 minutos. +Creo que ser un buen desafo para m. +Muchas historias africanas de estos das, hablan acerca del hambre, VIH y SIDA, pobreza o de la guerra. +Pero mi historia que quisiera compartir con ustedes hoy es sobre el xito. +Es sobre un pas, del sudoeste de frica, llamado Namibia. +Namibia tiene 2.1 millones de personas, pero slo el doble del tamao de California. +Yo vengo de una regin en la parte alejada del noroeste del pas. +Se llama la regin de Kunene. +Y en el centro de la regin de Kunene est el pueblo de Sesfontain. Ah es donde yo nac. +De ah vengo. +La mayor parte de la gente que sigue la historia de Angelina Jolie y Brad Pitt sabr dnde est Namibia. +Ellos aman Namibia por sus preciosas dunas, que son incluso ms altas que el edificio Empire State. +El viento y el tiempo han modelado nuestro paisaje dando formas muy extraas. Y estas formas estn salpicadas de vida salvaje que se han adaptado muy bien a esta tierra severa y extraa. +Yo soy un himba. +Se podrn preguntar, por qu est vistiendo estas ropas occidentales? +Soy himba y namibio. +El himba es uno de los 29 grupos tnicos en Namibia. +Vivimos un estilo de vida muy tradicional. +Yo crec arreando, cuidando a nuestro ganado... cabras, ovejas y res. +Y un da, mi padre de hecho me llev al monte. +Dijo: "John, quiero que te conviertas en un buen arriero. +Chico, si ests cuidando nuestro ganado y ves a un chita comindose nuestras cabras, los guepardos son muy nerviosos. Slo camina hacia l. +Acrcate hacia l y golpalo en el costado." +"Y se alejar de la cabra corriendo." +Pero luego dijo, "Chico, si te encuentras con un len, no te muevas. +No te muevas. Qudate donde ests. +Infla el pecho y mralo directo a los ojos y no querr pelear contigo." +Pero luego dijo: "Si ves a un leopardo, hijo, mejor corre tan rpido como puedas." +"Imagina que corres ms rpido que esas cabras que ests cuidando." +De esta manera... De esta manera, en realidad comenc a aprender acerca de la Naturaleza. +Ya saben, adems de ser un namibio comn y corriente y de ser un himba comn soy tambin un conservacionista calificado. +Y es muy importante si uno est en el rea conocer qu confrontar y de qu huir. +Yo nac en 1971. +Vivimos bajo el rgimen del apartheid. +Los blancos podan cultivar, tener rebaos y cazar lo que quisieran, pero nosotros, los negros, no ramos considerados responsables para poder usar la vida salvaje. +Cuando intentbamos cazar, ramos llamados cazadores furtivos. +Y como resultado, ramos multados y encarcelados. +Entre 1966 y 1990, los intereses estadounidenses y soviticos pelearon por el control de mi pas. +Y, ya saben, durante el perodo de guerra, hay militares y ejrcitos merodeando. +Y el ejrcito cazaba los valiosos cuernos de rinocerontes y colmillos. +Y podan vender esas cosas por algo as como 5000 dlares el kilo. +Durante el mismo ao casi todos los himbas tenan un rifle. +Debido a que era poca de guerra, los rifles britnicos .303 estaban en todo el pas. +Luego, en el mismo perodo, alrededor del 1980, tuvimos una gran sequa. +Mat casi todo lo que haba quedado. +Nuestro ganado estuvo casi al borde de la extincin, pero protegido. +Estbamos hambrientos. +Recuerdo una noche cuando un leopardo hambriento entr a la casa de uno de nuestros vecinos y se llev a su hijo dormido desde su cama. +Es una historia muy triste. +Pero incluso hoy, ese recuerdo permanece en la mente de la gente. +Ellos pueden marcar el sitio exacto donde todo esto pas. +Y luego, el mismo ao, casi perdimos todo. +Y mi padre dijo: "Por qu no vas a la escuela?" +Y me enviaron a la escuela, slo para hacer algo. +Y el ao que fui a la escuela, mi padre obtuvo un trabajo en una organizacin no gubernamental llamada IRDNC -- Desarrollo Rural Integrado y Conservacin de la Naturaleza. +Ellos en verdad dedican mucho tiempo al ao en las comunidades. +Recibieron la confianza de las comunidades locales como nuestro lder, Joshua Kangombe. +Joshua Kangombe vio que estas cosas pasaban: desaparicin de la vida salvaje, la caza furtiva se disparaba, y la situacin se vea muy desilusionante. +Muerte y desesperacin rodeaban a Joshua y a todas nuestras comunidades. +Pero luego, la gente del IRDNC le propuso a Joshua: Qu tal si le pagamos a la gente en quien confas para cuidar a la vida salvaje? +Tienes a alguien en tus comunidades, o gente, que conozcan el monte muy bien y conozcan la vida salvaje muy bien? +El jefe dijo: "S. Nuestros cazadores furtivos." +"Eh? Los furtivos?" +"S. Los furtivos." +Y ese era mi padre. +Mi padre haba sido un furtivo por un largo tiempo. +En lugar de tratar la deuda de los furtivos como se estaba haciendo en el resto de frica, el IRDNC ha ayudado a los hombres a recuperar sus capacidades para organizar a su gente, y sus derechos de propiedad y administracin sobre la vida salvaje. +Y as, a medida que la gente comenz a sentir propiedad sobre la vida salvaje, sta comenz a volver, y de esta forma se est convirtiendo en una fundacin para la conservacin en Namibia. +Independientemente, el acercamiento de la comunidad de involucrarse fue asumido por nuestro nuevo gobierno. +Tres cosas en verdad ayudaron a la construccin de esta fundacin: la primera es honrar las tradiciones y estar abierto a nuevas ideas. +Esta es nuestra tradicin. En cada aldea himba existe un fuego sagrado. +Y en este fuego sagrado, el espritu de nuestros antepasados habla a travs de nuestro lder y nos aconseja dnde obtener agua, dnde obtener pastos, y dnde ir a cazar. +Y creo que es la mejor manera de autorregularnos en el medio ambiente. +Y tambin estn las nuevas ideas. +Transportar rinocerontes en helicptero creo que es ms fcil que hablar con un espritu que no puedes ver, no creen? +Y esas cosas nos las ensearon los extranjeros. +Aprendimos esas cosas de los extranjeros. +Necesitbamos nuevas fronteras para describir nuestras tierras tradicionales; necesitbamos aprender ms cosas, como el GPS slo para ver si el GPS puede en verdad mostrar los reflejos reales de la tierra o si es solamente algo hecho en algn lugar del Occidente. +Y luego quisimos ver si podamos comparar los mapas ancestrales con los digitales hechos en algn lugar del mundo. +Y por medio de esto, realmente comenzamos a darnos cuenta de nuestros sueos y nos mantuvimos honrando nuestras tradiciones pero an abiertos a nuevas ideas. +El segundo elemento es que queramos tener una vida, una vida mejor en la que aprovecharamos muchas cosas. +Muchos furtivos, como mi padre, eran gente de nuestra propia comunidad. +No eran gente de fuera. +Ellos eran nuestra propia gente. +Y en ocasiones, una vez que eran capturados, eran tratados con respeto, trados de vuelta a las comunidades y eran integrados a los sueos ms grandes. +Los mejores, como mi padre, no estoy promocionando a mi padre... estaban encargados de evitar que otros cazaran ilegalmente. +Y cuando esto empez a avanzar, comenzamos a ser una comunidad; conocimos nuestra conexin con la Naturaleza. +Y esto era algo muy, muy fuerte en Namibia. +El ltimo factor que en verdad nos ayud a desarrollar estas cosas fueron las asociaciones. +Nuestro gobierno le ha dado estatus legal a nuestras tierras tradicionales. +Los otros socios que hemos tenido son la comunidad empresarial. +La comunidad empresarial ayud a poner a Namibia en el mapa mundial y tambin a hacer de la vida salvaje un recurso muy valioso, como otros recursos de la tierra como la agricultura. +Y muchos de mis colegas conservacionistas hoy en da que uno encuentra en Namibia han sido entrenados gracias a la iniciativa, gracias a la accin del Fondo Mundial para la Naturaleza en prcticas conservacionistas de avanzada. +Tambin han dado recursos para dos dcadas en el programa completo. +Y hasta ahora, con la ayuda del Fondo Mundial para la Naturaleza, hemos sido capaces de transformar programas muy pequeos en programas nacionales, hoy en da. +Namibia... o Sesfontein ya no es una aldea aislada en alguna parte escondida de Namibia. +Con estos activos ahora somos parte de la comunidad global. +Han pasado 30 aos desde el primer trabajo de mi padre como guardaparque +Es desafortunado que haya fallecido sin poder ver el xito tal como yo y mi hijo lo vemos hoy. +Cuando termin la escuela en 1995, Haba slo 20 leones en todo el Noroeste, en nuestra zona. +Pero hoy hay ms de 130 leones. +As que, por favor, si van a Namibia asegrense de quedarse en sus carpas. +No salgan a caminar de noche! +El rinoceronte negro... estaban casi extintos en 1982. +Pero hoy, Kunene tiene la mayor cantidad de rinocerontes negros, rinocerontes negros vagando libremente en el mundo. +Esto est fuera del rea protegida. +El leopardo, ahora estn en grandes cantidades pero muy alejados de nuestros poblados, porque la fauna de la sabana se ha multiplicado, como las cebras, los antlopes, etc. +Se quedan muy, muy lejos, porque estas otras cosas se han multiplicado de menos de mil a decenas de miles de animales. +Y lo que comenz como algo muy pequeo, patrulleros de las comunidades, involucrndose con las comunidades, han crecido ahora, transformndose en lo que llamamos "Conservadoras". +Las conservadoras son instituciones legalmente establecidas por el gobierno, y son mantenidas por las mismas comunidades, para su beneficio. +Hoy tenemos 60 conservadoras que administran y protegen ms de 13 millones de hectreas de tierra en Namibia. +Ya hemos reestructurado la conservacin en todo nuestro pas. +En ningn otro sitio en el mundo tienen conservacin adoptada por la comunidad, a esta escala. +En el 2008, la conservadora gener 5.7 millones de dlares. +Esta es nuestra nueva economa; una economa basada en el respeto de nuestros recursos naturales. +Y somos capaces de usar estos fondos para muchas cosas. Principalmente, la ponemos en educacin. +En segundo lugar, la ponemos en infraestructura. Comida. +Muy importante tambin: invertimos este dinero en educacin del SIDA y VIH. +Saben que frica est siendo afectada por estos virus. +Y esta es la buena noticia desde frica que estamos gritando desde las alturas. +Me gusta eso. Namibia sirviendo como modelo para frica, y frica sirviendo de modelo para EE.UU. +Fuimos exitosos en Namibia porque soamos en un futuro que era mucho ms que slo vida salvaje saludable. +Sabamos que el conservacionismo fallara si no trabajbamos para mejorar las vidas de nuestras comunidades locales. +Entonces, ven y habla conmigo acerca de Namibia, o mejor an, ven a Namibia y mira por ti mismo cmo lo hemos hecho. +Y por favor, visiten nuestra pgina web para aprender ms y ver cmo pueden ayudar a CBNRM en frica y alrededor del mundo. +Muchas gracias. +Aquellos de vosotros que quizs me recuerden de TEDGlobal me recordarn haciendo unas preguntas que an me preocupan. +Una de ellas era: Por qu es necesario gastar seis mil millones de libras en acelerar el tren Eurostar cuando, por cerca de un 10% de ese dinero, podrais tener supermodelos, masculinos y femeninos, sirviendo Chateau Petrus gratis a todos los pasajeros durante todo el viaje? +An tendrais 5 mil millones a cambio, y la gente pedira que los trenes fueran ms lentos. +Por lo que parece haber una completa desconexin aqu. +As que lo que estoy pidiendo es la creacin de un nuevo puesto de trabajo; retomar esto un poco ms tarde; y tal vez agregar una nueva palabra al diccionario. +Porque me parece que las grandes organizaciones incluido el gobierno, el cual es, por supuesto, la mayor organizacin de todas, de hecho se han convertido en algo completamente ajeno a lo que realmente le preocupa a la gente. +Dejadme que os de un ejemplo de esto. +Quizs recordaris esto como la fusin AOL-Time Warner, de acuerdo. Anunciado en su da como el mayor contrato de todos los tiempos +Lo sigue siendo, por lo que s. +Ahora, todos los que estis en esta habitacin, de una forma u otra, sois probablemente clientes de una o de ambas organizaciones que se fusionaron. +Solo por curiosidad, Alguien ha notado algo diferente despus de todo eso? +As que a no ser que resultarais ser un accionista de una de las organizaciones o uno de los operadores o abogados involucrados en la actividad, sin duda, lucrativa. hubierais sido parte de una enorme actividad que no signific absolutamente nada para nadie. Bien. +Sin embargo, aos de marketing me han enseado que si en realidad quieres que la gente te recuerde y aprecie lo que haces, las cosas ms potentes son, de hecho, muy, muy pequeas. +Esto es de la primera clase de Virgin Atlantic. Es el juego de vinagrera, salero y pimienta. +Bastante buenos en s mismos; son pequeos, una especie de, cosas de aviones. +Lo que es realmente, muy simptico es que a toda pesona que ha mira estos objetos ha hecho exactamente la misma pcara idea, que es, "Me parece que puedo robarlos". +Sin embargo, si los tomas y miras abajo, vers que estn grabadas en metal, las palabras: "Robado de la primera clase de Virgin Atlantic Airways", +Ahora, aos despus habris olvidado la estratgica pregunta de si ests volando en un 777 o en un Airbus, pero recordareis aquellas palabras y aquella experiencia. +Asimismo, esto es de un hotel in Stockholm, el Lydmar. +Alguien ha estado all? +Es el ascensor, son una series de botones en el ascensor. +Nada inusual sobre eso en absoluto, excepto que esos no son en realidad los botones que te llevan a un piso especfico. +Comienza con el garage hasta abajo, supongo que apropiadamente, aunque no va ascendiendo, planta baja, mezzanine, primer piso, segundo, tercero, cuarto. +De hecho dice garage, funk, Rythm and Blues. +Tienes una serie de botones y de hecho escoges la msica del ascensor. +Mi teora es que el coste de instalar esto en el ascensor del Lydmar Hotel en Stockholm ser probablemente de unas 500, 1000 libras mximo. +Y es francamente ms memorable que todos aquellos millones de hoteles en los que llegamos que te dicen que tu habitacin ha sido renovada por un coste de 500,000 dlares, solo para hacer que se parezca a todos los dems hoteles en los que has estado en el curso de tu vida. +Ahora, estos son ejemplos triviales de marketing, lo admito. +Pero estuve en un evento en TED recientemente y Esther Duflo, probablemente una de los mejores expertos en, la erradicacin eficaz de la pobreza en el mundo en desarrollo, particip. +Y fue a travs de un ejemplo similar y fascinante de algo que, en un contexto de negocios o un gobierno, sera simplemente una solucin tan simple que resulta embarazoso. +Era simplemente fomentar la vacunacin de nios a travs de, no solo hacerlo un evento social; creo que este es un buen uso de la psico-economa, si llegas a una reunin con varias madres para tener a tus hijos vacunados, tu sentido de la confianza es mucho ms grande que si aparaces sola. +Pero en segundo lugar, incentivar esa vacunacin dando un kilo de lentejas a todo el que partipase. +Es pequeo, algo pequeito. +Si tienes un alto cargo de la UNESCO y alguien dice, "As que, qu estis haciendo para erradicar la pobreza en el mundo?" +no te setiras confiado en tan alta responsabilidad diciendo, "Encontr la respuesta. Son las lentejas" no? +Nuestro propio sentido del auto ensalzamiento parece que nos dice que los grandes problemas necesitan grandes e importantes, y sobre todo, caras soluciones a su altura. +Aunque todo lo relacionado con las instituciones les produce incomodidad con esa desproporcionalidad. +As que lo que pasa en una institucin es que la persona misma que tiene el poder de resolver el problema tambin tiene un gran, grandsimo presupuesto. +Y una vez que tienes un gran, grandsimo presupuesto, volteas a ver soluciones caras en las que gastrtelo. +Lo que verdaderamente falta es un tipo de persona que tenga un inmenso poder pero absolutamente nada de dinero. +Es esa gente la que me gustara crear en el mundo del futuro. +Ahora, hay otra cosa que ocurre, lo que yo llamo a veces "el sndrome de la terminal cinco" que es grande, cosas caras se hacen grandes, atencin sumamente inteligente y son fantsticas, y la terminal cinco es absolutamente magnfica hasta que llegas a ver un pequeo detalle, la utilidad, de la sealizacin, que es catastrfica. +Sales de "llegada" en el aeropuerto, y sigues un gran cartel amarillo que dice "trenes" y que est en frente de ti. +As que andas otro kilmetro, esperando que aparezca otro cartel, que quizs cortsmente sea amarillo en frente de ti diciendo "Trenes". +No, no, no, la siguiente seal es de hecho azul, a tu izquierda, y dice "Heathrow Express". +Me refiero a que podra ser mejor, como en la escena de la pelcula "Aterriza como puedas". +Un cartel amarillo? Eso es exactamente lo que ellos estn esperando. +De hecho es eso lo que est pasando cada vez ms en el mundo; bueno, el mrito es para las Autoridades de los aeropuertos Britnicos. +Habl de esto antes, y una persona brillante contact conmigo y dijo, "Vale, qu puedes hacer?" +As que me surgieron cinco preguntas, que de hecho estn siendo puestas en prctica. +Una de ellas tambin era, aunque lgicamente es bastante buena idea la de tener un ascensor sin botones de subida o bajada, si solo sirve para dos plantas, de hecho es absolutamente escalofriante. +Porque cuando las puertas se cierran y no hay nada que puedas hacer, te has metido de repente en una pelcula de terror. +As que estas preguntas... lo que est pasando en el mundo es que las cosas grandes, de hecho, se hacen magnficamente bien. +Pero las cosas pequeas, lo que podrais llamar la interfaz de usuario, est hecho espectacularmente mal. +Pero adems, parece haber una especie de atasco en trminos de resolver esos pequeos problemas. +Porque las personas que realmente pueden resolverlos son demasiados poderosos y estn muy preocupados con algo que creen que es la "estrategia" pare resolverlos. +Intent este ejercicio hace poco, hablando sobre la banca. +Ellos dijeron, "Podemos hacer una campaa de marketing. +Qu podemos hacer para fomentar la banca electrnica? +Yo dije, "Eso es muy, muy fcil". +Dije, "Cuando las personas entren al sistema de banca electrnica habr muchas cosas que seguramente querrn ver. +La ltima cosa en el mundo que quieres ver es tu balance". +Tengo amigos que incluso nunca usan sus propios cajeros porque existe el riesgo de que muestre sus balances sobre la pantalla. +Por qu exponerte por ti mismo a malas noticias? +Bien. Simplemente no lo haras. +Dije, "si haces, de hecho, 'mustrame mi balance'. Si lo haces una opcin en lugar de algo automtico, encontrars el doble de gente en el sistema de banca electrnica. Y lo hacen a menudo tres veces". +Encarmoslo, la mayora de nosotros Cuntos de vosotros habis mirado vuestro balance antes de sacar dinero del cajero? +Y sois bastante ricos respecto al nivel de vida del mundo. +Ahora, es interesante que nadie lo hace, o al menos, admite ser tan tonto como para hacerlo. +Pero lo que es interesante sobre esta sugerencia fue que implementar esta idea no costara 10 millones de libras; no supondra grandes cantidades de gasto; realmente costara unas 50 libras. +Y an as, nunca pasa. +Porque hay una desconexin fundamental, como he dicho, pues de hecho, la gente con poder quiere hacer cosas grandes y caras. +Hay en cierta medida un gran mito sobre estrategias que prevalece en los negocios hoy da. +Y si piensas en ello es muy, muy importante que el mito de la estrategia sea mantenido. +Pero lo que est pasando es que efectivamente; y la invencin de la hoja de clculo no ha ayudado, muchas cosas no han ayudado; las empresas y el gobierno sufren una especie de envidia fsica. +Se quiere que el mundo sea un lugar donde lo que entra y lo que cambia sea proporcional. +Es una especie de mundo mecnico en el que a todos nos gustara vivir, y que, efectivamente, se asiente sobre las hojas de clculo, donde todo sea numricamente expresable, y la cantidad que gastas en algo sea proporcional a la escala de tu xito. +Ese es el mundo que la gente quiere en realidad. +La verdad es que vivimos en un mundo que la ciencia puede entender. +Desafortunadamente, la ciencia esta en este caso ms cerca del pronstico del tiempo en el sentido de que en muchos casos, muy, muy pequeos cambios pueden tener efectos desproporcionales y enormes. E igualmente, enormes reas de actividad, enormes fusiones, pueden de hecho no lograr nada en absoluto. +Pero es muy, muy incmodo para nosotros reconocer que vivimos en un mundo as. +Pero lo que digo es que podramos hacer cosas que sean mejores para nosotros si las mirsemos en un enfoque de cuatro puntos de vista. +De hecho eso es estrategia, y no niego que la estrategia tenga su papel. +Sabis, hay casos en los que puedes gastar bastante dinero y lograr bastante. +Yo estara completamente equivocado si ignorase esto. +Por otro lado, llegamos, por supuesto, a la consultora. +Pens que era muy indecente por parte de Accenture deshacerse de Tiger Woods de un modo tan apresurado y precipitado. +Quiero decir, seguramente Tiger estaba obedeciendo el modelo de Accenture. +Desarroll un interesante modelo se subcontratacin de servicios sexuales, dej de estar atado a un slo proveedor monoplico, y que en muchos casos se compraba cosas sin razn, y por supuesto, la habilidad de tener entre una y tres chicas a cualquier hora del da permita un mejor reparto de la carga. +As que, Por qu Accenture de repente lo encontraba poco atractivo? No estoy seguro. +As pues, hay otras cosas que no cuestan mucho y no consiguen nada en absoluto. +A eso lo llamamos trivial. +Aunque hay una cuarta cosa. +Y el problema fundamental es que no tenemos una palabra para esto. +No sabemos cmo llamarlo. +Y de hecho no gastamos el suficiente dinero buscando esas cosas, buscando esas pequeas cosas que puedan o no funcionar, pero que, de funcionar, puedieran tener un xito absolutamente desproporcional a su costo, a sus esfuerzos y a los cambios que consiguen. +As que la primera cosas que me gustara es un concurso, para cualquier viendo esto en video, para crear el normbre para esta perspectiva de abajo a la derecha. +Y la segunda, supongo, es que el mundo necesita tener gente al cargo de esto. +Es por esto que pido la creacin del "Director de los Detalles". +Todas las empresas deberan tener uno, y todos los gobiernos deberan tener un Ministerio del Detalle. +Y si tuviramos un Ministro del Detalle y las empresas tuvieran directores de detalles entonces este cuarto cuadrante, que deplorablemente est tan descuidado ahora mismo, quizs finalmente consiga la atencin que merece. +Muchas gracias. +Chris Anderson: Vamos a tener un debate. +El debate es sobre la propuesta: "Lo que el mundo necesita en este momento, es la energa nuclear - verdadero o falso? +Y antes del debate, me gustara que levantseis la mano -- para hacer un recuento, estis a favor o en contra? +As que los que digan s, manos arriba. ''A favor'' +Vale, bajad la mano. +Los que estn ''en contra'', levantad la mano. +Vale, por lo que veo hay alrededor del 75% - 25% a favor ahora al comienzo +Lo que significa que vamos a hacer otro recuento de votos al final y veremos como cambia, si es que lo hace. +Lo hacemos as: ellos van a hablar seis minutos cada uno, y despus de un pequeo intercambio rpido entre ellos, quiero que dos personas de ambos lados de este debate en la audiencia en 30 segundos, hagan un argumento corto, conciso, mordaz y poderoso. +As que, a favor de la proposicin, posiblemente de forma escandalosa est, realmente uno de los fundadores del movimiento medioambiental, un ''TEDster'' desde hace mucho tiempo, el fundador del Whole Earth Catalog, alguien que todos conocemos y apreciamos, Stewart Brand. +Stewart Brand: Wow +Se dice que, con el clima, los que ms saben son los que estn ms preocupados. +Con la energa nuclear, los que saben ms son los menos preocupados. +Un ejemplo clsico es James Hansen, un climatlogo de la NASA impulsando 350 partes por milln de dixido de carbono en la atmsfera. +Ha sacado recientemente un maravilloso libro titulado ''Las tormentas de mis nietos'' ("Storms of My Grandchildren''). +Y Hansen est fervientemente a favor como lo estn la mayora de los climatlogos que se dedican a este asunto en serio. +Esta es un boceto de la situacin un planeta que est haciendo frente al cambio climtico y ahora es medio urbano. +Mirad la clientela de esto. +Cinco de seis de nosotros vivimos en el mundo desarrollado. +Nos mudamos a las ciudades. Nos hacemos sitio en el mundo. +Y educamos a nuestros hijos, tenemos menos hijos, bsicamente buenas noticias por todas partes. +pero nos mudamos a las ciudades, hacias las luces brillantes, y una de las cosas que hay que deseamos, adems de trabajo, es la electricidad. +Y si no la obtenemos fcilmente, seguiremos adelante y la robaremos. +Es una de las cosas ms deseadas por la gente pobre de todo el mundo, en las ciudades y en el campo. +La electricidad para las ciudades, la mejor, es la que llamamos electricidad de carga base. +Ah es donde est todo el tiempo. +Y hasta el momento slo hay tres fuentes principales carbn y gasolina, energa hidroelctrica, que en la mayora de los sitios ha llegado a su lmite y nuclear. +Me encantara tener algo aqu en el cuarto lugar, pero en cuanto a una energa constante limpia y escalable, la nuclear; y la elica y las otras renovables no estn todava porque no son constantes. +la nuclear lo es y lo ha sido durante 40 aos +Ahora, desde un punto de vista medioambiental la principal cosa que queris ver es qu pasa con los residuos de la energa nuclear y del carbn, las dos principales fuentes de electricidad. +Si toda la electricidad que has usado en tu vida viniese de la nuclear ese gasto de electricidad de toda tu vida ira en una lata de Coca Cola una lata bastante pesada, de ms o menos un kilo +Pero un da el carbn habr acumulado un montn de dixido de carbono en una planta de carbn de un gigavatio. +Qu pasa entonces con los residuos? +Los residuos nucleares van normalmente a un depsito de piezas en seco en el parking en el terreno de un reactor porque la mayora de los sitios an no tienen almacenamiento subterrneo +Menos mal que puede quedarse donde est. +Mientras el dixido de carbono en vastas cantidades, gigatones, van a la atmsfera donde no los podemos recuperar, an, y donde estn causando los problemas que ms nos preocupan +Y cuando le sumas los gases del efecto invernadero durante toda la vida de estas fuentes de energa los de la nuclear son bajos junto con los de la elica y la hidrulica por debajo de la solar, y por debajo de, obviamente, todos los combustibles fsiles. +El viento es maravilloso, me encanta el viento +Me encanta estar alrededor de esos grandes generadores elicos +Pero una de las cosas que estamos descubriendo es que el viento, como la energa solar, es relativamente una fuente diluda de energa +y as deja una huella muy grande en la tierra una huella muy grande en cuanto a materiales de 5 a 10 veces ms de lo que usaras para la nuclear y para obtener un gigavatio de electricidad normalmente se necesita 250 m2 de una central elica. +En lugares como Dinamarca y Alemania ya han alcanzado el lmite de energa olica +Se han quedado sin buenos terrenos +las lneas de fuerza se estn sobrecargando +y han llegado al lmite +Al igual, con la energa solar, sobretodo aqu en California estamos descubriendo que los proyectos de las 80 centrales solares que siguen adelante quieren simplemente demoler 1.000 m2 del desierto del sur de California +Bien, como ecologista, preferira que eso no pasase +Est bien en tierras agrcolas gastadas. +La energa solar es maravillosa en los tejados +pero en el paisaje un gigavatio ocupa unos 50 m2 de un desierto demolido +Cuando sumas todo esto Saul Griffith hizo clculos y comprob que conseguira 13 teravatios limpios de energa del viento, el sol y los biocombustibles, y ese rea sera aproximadamente del tamao de los Estados Unidos, un erea al que l se refiere como ''Renovablistan''. +Un tipo que se ha sumado a todo esto muy bien es David Mackay, un fsico ingls, con su maravilloso libro ''Energa Sostenible'' (''Sustainable Energy''), entre otras cosas que dice: ''No soy pro-nuclear, slo soy pro-aritmtica'' +En cuanto a armas la mejor herramienta de desarme es sin duda la energa nuclear +Hemos estado desarmando las ojivas de los rusos transformndolas en electricidad +un 10% de la electricidad americana viene de las ojivas desmanteladas. +Ni siquiera hemos empezado las reservas de Amrica. +Creo que lo ms intereante para el pblico de ''TED'' sera una nueva generacin de reactores que son muy pequeos desde 10 a 125 megavatios. +Este es de Toshiba. +Aqu hay uno que los rusos estn ya construyendo y que flota en una barcaza. +Y lo que sera muy interesante para el mundo desarrollado. +Normalmente, estas cosas se ponen en el suelo. +Se les llama bateras nucleares. +Son increblemente seguras, armas a prueba de profileracin y todo el resto. +sta es una versin comercial de Nuevo Mxico llamada ''the Hyperion'', y otra de Oregn llamada ''NuScale'' +Babcock y Wilcox que hacen reactores nucleares... ste es un reactor rpido ntegro +Un reactor de torio en el que Nathan Myhrvold est involucrado +Los gobiernos del mundo van a tener que decidir que el carbn tiene que encarecerse, y sos irn adelante. +Y ste es el futuro. +CA: Vale, vale. +Ahora, exponiendo en contra, un hombre que ha estado metido profundamente en el corazn del tema de la energa y el cambio climtico durante aos. +En el 2000, descubri que el holln era propablemente la segunda causa principal del calentamiento global, despus del CO2 +Su equipo has estado haciendo clculos detallados de los impactos relativos de diferentes fuentes de energa. +Su primera vez en ''TED'', posiblemente una desventaja, ya lo veremos.. desde Stanford, el profesor Mark Jacobson. Buena suerte. +Mark Jacobson: Gracias. +Bueno, mi premisa aqu es que la energa nuclear causa ms dixido de carbono, crea ms aire contaminante. aumenta la mortalidad y toma ms tiempo que los sistemas de energa renovables, a saber, viento y energa solar la energa geotrmica y la mareomotriz. +Y tambin aumenta la profileracin de armas nucleares. +Asi que empecemos mirando las emisiones de CO2 del ciclo de la vida. +Las emisiones de CO2 son equivalentes a las emisiones de gases y partculas del efecto invernadero que causan el calentamiento y lo convierten en CO2. +Y si miris, el viento y la concentracin solar tienen la emisiones de CO2 ms bajas, como veis en el grfico. +Nuclear: hay dos barras aqu. +Una es lo bajo estimado, y otro es lo ms alto estimado. +Lo ms bajo es la industria de la energa nuclear calculo estimado. +El ms alto est en la media de 103 estudios cientficos revisados detenidamente +Y esto es simplemente el CO2 del ciclo de la vida. +Si miramos los retrasos, hacen falta entre 10 y 19 aos levantar una central nuclear desde la planificacin hasta el funcionamiento. +Esto incluye entre 3 aos y medio y 6 aos para un permiso del terreno. +Y entre otros 2 aos y medio - 4 aos para el permiso de construccin y luego de 4 a 9 aos para la construccin en s. +Y en China, ahora mismo estn construyendo cinco gigavatios de nuclear. +Y la media, slo para el tiempo de la construccin de stos, es 7.1 aos adems del tiempo de planificacin. +Mientras perdis el tiempo con vuestra energa nuclear para tener una red de suministro regular de electricidad la cual es la mayora de carbn en los EEUU y en todo el mundo. +Y la tabla aqu muestra la diferencia entre las emisiones de una red de suministro regular, resultantes del uso de energa nuclear, o cualquier otra, contra la elica, la solar trmica o la solar fotovoltaica. +La elica toma de 2 a 5 aos de media, lo mismo que la trmica y la fotovoltaica. +Asi que la diferencia es el coste de oportunidad de usar la energa nuclear contra la elica, u otra cualquiera. +Asi que si juntis estas dos cosas juntas, solamente, podis ver una separacin ya que la nuclear causa al menos entre 9 y 17 veces ms de emisiones CO2 a las equivalentes a las de la energa elica. +Y esto ni siquiera explica la huella que deja en la tierra. +Si miris a los efectos en la salud del aire contaminado es el nmero de muertes por ao en 2020 slo del tubo de escape de un vehculo. +Digamos que hemos convertido todos los vehculos de EEUU en vehculos de bateras elctricas, vehculos de pilas de combustible de hidrgeno o vehculos de combustible flexible de E85 . +Bien, ahora mismo en los EEUU de 50 a 100.000 personas mueren cada ao por el aire contaminado. y los vehculos son unos 25.000 de esos. +En 2010, el nmero bajar a 15.000 gracias a las mejoras. +Y as, en la derecha, vis las emisiones de gasolina, las tasas de mortalidad de 2020 +si vamos al maz o al etanol celulsico realmente incrementais la tasa de mortalidad ligeramente +si vais a la nuclear, obtienes una gran reduccin pero no es tanta como con la elica y/o la solar +Ahora, si consideramos el hecho de que la profileracin de armas nucleares est asociada con la profileracin de la energa nuclear porque ya sabemos, por ejemplo, que India y Pakistan desarrollaron armas nucleares en secreto enriqueciendo el uranio en las centrales nucleares. +Corea del Norte hizo eso hasta cierto punto +Iran lo est haciendo ahora mismo +Y Venezuela lo estara haciendo si empezaran con sus centrales nucleares +sera esto. +Entonces, lo necesitamos? +Lo siguiente es: Qu pasa con las huellas? Swewart ha mencionado las huellas +De hecho, las huellas de la energa elica en la tierra son con diferencias las ms pequeas de cualquier fuente de energa del mundo +Eso, porque las huellas, como podis ver, son solo las del poste que toca el suelo +Y si podis impulsar la flota entera de vehculos de EEUU con 73.000-145.000 turbinas de cinco megavatios +Ocupara entre 1 y 3 km2 de huellas en el suelo, por completo. +El espacio es otra cosa +Son las huellas lo que siempre se confunde +La gente confunde las huellas con el espacio. +Como podis ver en estas imgenes el espacio que queda en mitad puede usarse para muchos propsitos includa la agricultura de la tierra, dehesas o espacios abiertos +En el ocano, ni siquiera hay tierra +Ahora si miramos a la nuclear... Con la nuclear, qu tenemos? +Tenemos centrales por ah. Una zona de amortiguamiento tambin eso es 17 km2 +Tenemos una minera de uranio de la que hay que ocuparse. +Si ahora vamos al area un montn es peor que la nuclear o la elica +Por ejemplo, el etano celulsico, para impulsar la flora entera de vehculos de EEUU esto es cunta tierra necesitaramos +Eso es celulsico, la segunda generacin biocarburantes de la hierba de las praderas +Aqu tenemos el etanol de maiz. Es ms pequeo +Esto est basado en escalas de datos pero si miramos la nuclear sera del tamao de Rhode Island para impulsar los vehculos de EEUU +Con la elica, el rea es mayor, pero la huella es ms pequea. +Y por supuesto, la elica puede ser instalada por toda la costa este, en teora un paraso fiscal, o puedes repartirlo. +Y ahora, si volvemos a mirar la geotrmica, es incluso ms pequeo que los otros dos y la solar es ligeramente mayor que el espacio de la nuclear pero aun as es bastante pequeo. +Y esto es la enegra para toda la flota de vehculos de EEUU +Para proporcionar energa al mundo entero con el 50% de viento, necesitaramos ms o menos el 1% de la superficie del mundo. +Igualando la fiabilidad, la carga base es realmente irrelevante +Queremos igualar el suministro de energa cada hora. +Eso se puede hacer combinando renovables +Estos son datos reales en California, datos de la energa solar y la elica. +y considera slo usando energa hidrulica para igualar la demanda de energa cada hora. +Estos son los recursos de viento mundiales. +Hay de 5 a 10 veces ms de elica disponible por todo el mundo de la que necesitamos para todos +Y as el ranking final. +Y una diapositiva ms que quiero mostrar: esta es la eleccin. Podis tener ambas elica o nuclear. +Si usis la elica, garantizis que el hielo durar. +La nuclear, solamente en un intervalo de tiempo permitir que el rtico se derrita y otros lugares an ms. +Y podemos garantizar un cielo limpio y azul o un futuro incierto con la energa nuclear. +CA: Bien. +Mientras ellos hacen sus comentarios el uno al otro... y el tuyo es ligeramente corto porque te excediste un poco... necesito dos personas de cada lado. +Asi que los que estn a favor, de la energa nuclear, levantad las dos manos. +Si estis en contra, levantad una. +Y que dos de cada opinin hablen +Ahora, tenis un minuto para responderle al otro para escoger un punto de su charla, cuestionarlo, lo que sea. +SB: Creo que el punto de diferencia que tenemos, Mark, tiene que ver con las armas y la energa. +Estos diagramas que muestran que la nuclear es, de algn modo, causando un montn de gases de efecto invernadero muchos de estos estudios incluirn: 'Por supuesto que la guerra ser inevitable y por lo tanto tendremos ciudades ardiendo y cosas as,'' lo cual es suavizarlo, ms o menos un poquito, creo. +La realidad es que hay, qu? 21 naciones que tienen energa nuclear? +De esas, siete tienen armas nucleares. +En todo caso, ellos tenan armas antes de tener energa nuclear. +Hay dos pases, Corea del Norte e Israel, que tienen armas nucleares y no tienen en absoluto energa nuclear. +Los lugares en los que ms nos gustara que la energa limpia realmente tuviese lugar son China, India, Europa, Amrica del Norte, todos ellos han resuelto su sitacin en relacin a las armas nucleares. +Y eso deja unos cuantos lugares como Irn, quizs Venezuela, que os gustara tener muy cerca vigilancia de cualquiera cosa que vaya en cosas fisibles. +Siguiendo adelante con la energa nuclear significar que realmente sabemos donde est todo el material fisible, y podemos pasar a tener cero armas, una vez que sepamos todo eso. +CA: Mark, 30 segundos, responde a eso o a cualquier cosa que haya dicho Stewart +MJ: Bueno, sabemos que India y Pakistn tenan energa nuclear primero; y despus desarrollaron armas nucleares secretamente en fbricas. +Y lo otro es, que no necesitamos la energa nuclear. +Hay sol y viento en abundancia. +Puedes hacerlo fiable, como mostr en el diagrama. +Son datos reales. +y esto es una investigacin en curso. No es algo tan complejo. +Se puede solucionar los problemas del mundo si realmente te concentras en ello y usas energa limpia y renovable. +No hay en absoluto necesidad de energa nuclear. +CA: Necesitamos alguien a favor. +Rod Beckstrom: Gracias Chris. Soy Rod Beckstrom, director ejecutivo de ICANN. +He estado involucrado en la poltica del calentamiento global desde 1994, cuando me un al consejo de la Fundacin por la Defensa Medioambiental que fue unos de los artfices del Protocolo de Kyoto +Y quiero apoyar la posicin de Stewart Brand. +He cambiado de opinin en los ltimos 10 aos. +Sola estar en contra de la energa nuclear. +Ahora apoyo la posicin de Stewart. suavemente, desde un punto de vista de gestin de riesgos, estando de acuerdo en que los riesgos del recalentamiento del planeta superan el riesgo de un incidente nuclear lo cual ciertamente es posible y un problema muy real. +Sin embargo, creo que puede haber una solucin beneficiosa para ambas partes en este debate, y esto es, hacemos frente a una situacin donde hay topes de carbn en este planeta o morir. +Y en el Senado de los Estados Unidos, necesitamos apoyo bipartidario slo se necesitan uno o dos votos para mover el calentamiento global por el Senado, y esta habitacin puede ayudar. +Asi que si aprobamos eso, Mark resolver estos problemas. Gracias Chris. +CA: Gracias Rod Beckstrom. En contra. +David Fanton: Hola, soy David Fanton. Slo quiero decir un par de cosas rpidamente. +La primera es: s consciente de la propaganda. +La propaganda de la industria ha sido muy, muy fuerte. +Y no hemos tenido el otro lado del argumento enteramente transmitido as que la gente puede sacar sus propias conclusiones. +Sed muy conscientes de la propaganda. +En segundo lugar, pensad en esto. +Si construmos todas esas plantas nucleares todo esos residuos van a ser cientos, si no miles, de camiones y trenes, movindose por el pas todos los das. +Decidme que no va a haber accidentes. +Decidme que esos accidentes no van a dejar materiales en el medio ambiente esto es txico durante cientos y cientos de aos +y despus decidme que todos y cada uno de esos camiones y trenes no son un objetivo potencial de terrorismo. +CA: Gracias +A favor. +Alguien a favor? Vamos. +Alex: Hola, soy Alex. Slo quera decir, soy, lo primero de todo, el mayor fan de la energa renovable. +Tengo paneles de energa solar en mi tejado. +Tengo un conversor de energa hidrulica en un molino que poseo. +Y sabes, soy muy ''pro'' o como se diga. +Sin embargo, aqu hay un problema aritmtico bsico +la capacidad de que el sol brille, el viento sople y la lluvia caiga, sencillamente no es suficiente +As que si queremos mantener las luces encendidas, necesitamos verdaderamente una solucin que siga generandose constantemente +Hice campaa en contra de las armas nucleares en los 80, Y contino hacindolo ahora. +Pero tenemos la oportunidad de reciclarlas y hacer de ellas algo til que nos permite obtener energa todo el tiempo. +Y, a la larga, el problema aritmtico no se ir. +No vamos a obtener suficiente energa nicamente de las renovables. +Necesitamos una solucin que genere energa en todo momento. +Si vamos a mantener las luces encendidas, la nuclear es esa solucin. +CA: Gracias. +Alguien ms en contra? +Hombre: La ltima persona a favor lanz la premisa de que no tenemos suficientes recursos renovables alternativos. +Y nuestro defensor ''en contra'' aqu arriba dej claro de que en realidad s tenemos. +Y as la falacia de que necesitamos este recurso y que podemos realmente hacerlo en un marco de tiempo lo cual es significativo que no es posible. +Aadir tambin otra cosa. +Ray Kurzweil y todas las otras charlas sabemos que la barra sube de forma exponencial. +As que podis mirar a la tecnologa de punta en energa renovable y decir, "Eso es todo lo que tenemos." +Porque de aqu a cinco aos, os abrumar lo que en realidad tendremos como alternativa a la horrible y desastrosa energa nuclear. +CA: Muy buen punto. Gracias. +Cada uno tiene slo un par de frases 30 segundos cada uno para resumir. +Tu punto final, Stewart. +SB: Me ha encantado tu grfico en el que ''todo cuadra'' que tenas ah. +Era un da soleada y una noche ventosa. +Y justo ahora en Inglaterra haba una temporada de fro. +Y todo el viento del pas entero se par durante una semana. +Ninguna de esas cosas estaban moviendose. +Y como es normal, tenan que comprar energa nuclear de Francia. +Dos gigavatios vienen por el Eurotnel. +Eso sigue pasando. +Sola preocuparme sobre el factor del ao 10.000 +Y el hecho es, que vamos a usar los desechos nucleares para combustible en la cuarta generacin de reactores que estn llegando. +Y especialmente los pequeos reactores que necesitamos para avanzar. +Escuch de Nathan Myhrvold (y creo que aqu est el punto de accin) se tomar un acto del Congreso para hacer la Comisin Reguladora Nuclear empezando a mover rpidamente estos pequeos reactores, que tanto necesitamos, aqu y en todo el mundo. +MJ: As que hemos analizado cada hora suministro y demanda de energa de la solar, elica, usando datos de California. +Y podis igualar esa demanda, cada hora. para casi el ao entero. +Ahora, en cuanto a los recursos, hemos desarrollado el primer mapa de viento del mundo, de datos solamente, a 80 metros. +Sabemos qu son los recursos. Puedes cubrir un 15%. +El 15% de los EEUU +tiene viento a la velocidad suficiente para ser competitivo en costos +Y hay mucho ms sol que viento. +Hay recursos en abundancia. Podemos hacerlo fiable. +CA: Vale. Gracias, Mark. +Si estuvierais en Palm Springs... +Descarado. Descarado. Descarado +Gente de la comunidad 'TED Os he expuesto que lo que el mundo necesita ahora es energa nuclear. +Todos aquellos a favor, levantad la mano. +Todos aquellos en contra. +Ooooh. +Ahora lo que asumir... +Simplemente... manos arriba la gente que haya cambiado de idea durante el debate, que vot de manera diferente. +Los que cambiaron de idea a favor levantad la mano. +Vale. La interpretacin de esto. +Ambos han ganado partidarios, pero en mi recuento, la atmsfera de la comunidad ''TED'' ha pasado de 75-25 a ms o menos 65-35 a favor, a favor. +Ambos habis ganado. Os felicito. +Gracias por todo. +Este es el lugar donde, cuando yo era joven, se tocaron por primera vez algunas de las canciones que escrib. +Era, sorprendentemente, un sala con muy buen sonido. +Con todas las paredes irregulares y toda esa basura por doquier, realmente sonaba muy bien. +Esta es una de las canciones que se grabaron all. +(Msica de Byrne ) Esto no es Talking Heads, al menos no en la foto. +(Cancin: "A Clean Break (Let's Work)" de Talking Heads ) As que, la naturaleza de la sala implicaba que las palabras se podan entender. +Las letras se podan entender bastante bien. +El sistema de sonido era bastante decente. +Y no haba mucho eco en la sala. +As que el ritmo tambin se mantena bastante intacto, bastante conciso. +Otros lugares alredor del pas tenan salas parecidas. +Este es el Tootsie's Orchid Lounge de Nashville. +La msica era de alguna manera diferente, pero muy similar en estructura y forma. El comportamiento de la clientela era tambin muy parecido. +As que las bandas en Tootsie's o en CBGB tenan que tocar lo suficientemente fuerte; el volumen tena que ser lo suficientemente fuerte como para escucharse sobre gente cayendo, gritando y cualquier otra cosa que estuvieran haciendo. +Desde entonces, he tocado en otros lugares mucho ms agradables. +He tocado aqu en el Disney Hall y en Carnegie Hall y lugares como esos. +Y ha sido muy emocionante. +Pero tambin me di cuenta que a veces la msica que yo haba escrito, o que estaba escribiendo en ese momento, no sonaba demasiado bien en algunas de esas salas. +Nos las arreglbamos, pero a veces esos lugares no parecan ser los ms adecuados para la msica que estaba tocando o haba creado. +As que me pregunt a m mismo: Debo escribir cosas para escenarios especficos? +Debo tener en mente un lugar, un ambiente cuando escribo? +Es eso un tipo de modelo de creatividad? +Creamos cosas con un lugar, un contexto, en mente? +OK, frica. +(Cancin: "Wenlenga" / Varios Artistas ) Casi toda la msica popular que conocemos tiene una gran parte de sus races en frica occidental. +Y la msica all, yo dira, los instrumentos, los ritmos intrincados, la forma en que se toca, el entorno, el contexto, todo es perfecto. Todo funciona perfectamente. +La msica funciona perfectamente en ese ambiente. +No hay una gran sala que produzca eco y confunda los ritmos. +Los instrumentos son suficientemente poderosos que se puede escuchar sin amplificacin, etc. +No es casualidad. +Es perfecto para ese contexto especfico. +Y sera un desastre en un contexto como ste. Esta es una catedral gtica. +(Msica: "Spem In Alium" de Thomas Tallis ) En una catedral gtica, este tipo de msica es perfecta. +No cambia clave. Las notas son largas. Casi ni hay ritmo. Y el cuarto halaga la msica. +De hecho la mejora. +Esta es la sala para la cual Bach escribi algunos de sus piezas. Este es el rgano. +No es tan grande como una catedral gtica, por lo que l puede escribir cosas un poco ms complejas. +l puede, de manera muy innovadora, cambiar la clave msical sin arriesgarse a generar disonancias profundas. +(Msica: "Fantasia On Jesu, Mein Freunde" de Johann S. Bach ) Esto es un poquito despus. +Este es el tipo de salas en las cuales escribi Mozart. +Creo que estamos como en 1770, por esa poca. +Son ms pequeas, con menos eco todava por lo que l puede componer msica muy adornada que es muy compleja; y funciona. +(Msica: "Sonata en Fa Mayor," KV 13, de Wolfgang A. Mozart) Encaja perfectamente en la habitacin. +Esta es La Scala. +Es de una poca similar. Creo que fue construida alrededor de 1776. +Cuando fueron construidos, el pblico de estos teatros solan gritarse entre s. +Solan comer, beber y gritarle a la gente en el escenario igual como lo hacen en CBGB y lugares as. +Si les gustaba un aria (un solo), gritaban y pedan que se hiciera de nuevo como un bis, no al final del espectculo, sino que inmediatamente. +Y bueno, as se viva la pera. +Esta es el teatro de pera que Wagner se construy para s mismo. +Y el tamao de la sala no es tan grande. +Es ms pequea que sta. +Sin embargo, Wagner hizo una innovacin. +l quera una banda ms grande. +l quera algo un poco ms elocuente. As que aument el tamao del foso donde va la orquesta para poder meter ms instrumentos bajos dentro. +(Msica: "Lohengrin / Preludio al Tercer Acto" de Richard Wagner ) Bien. +Este es el Carnegie Hall. +Obviamente, este tipo de salones se popularizaron. +Los teatros se hicieron ms grandes. Carnegie Hall es mediano. +Es ms grande que otras salas sinfnicas. +Y son mucho ms reverberantes que La Scala. +Alrededor de la misma poca, segn Alex Ross quien escribe para el New Yorker, entr en vigor esta regla tcita en que el pblico tena que estar callado, ya no se poda comer, beber ni gritar al escenario, o murmurar entre s durante el espectculo. +Tenan que estar muy callados. +Y la combinacin de esas dos cosas signific que un nuevo tipo de msica funcionara mejor en este tipo de escenarios. +Significaba que podan generarse dinmicas extremas, que no existan en algunos de estos tipos de msica distintos. +Se podan escuchar las partes suaves que habran sido ahogadas por todos los susurros y los gritos. +Pero a causa del eco de las salas como la de Carnegie Hall, la msica deba ser quizs un poco menos rtmica y tener un poquito ms de textura. +(Msica: "Sinfona No. 8 en Mi Bemol Mayor" de Gustav Mahler) Este es Gustav Mahler. +Se parece a Bob Dylan, pero es Mahler. +Ese fue el ltimo disco de Bob, s. +La msica popular, que apareci el mismo tiempo: +Esta es una banda de jazz. +Segn Scott Joplin, las bandas tocaban en las barcas de ro y en los clubes. +Nuevamente, es ruidoso. Estn tocando para los bailarines. +Hay algunas secciones de la cancin -las canciones tenan diferentes secciones- que les gustaban mucho a los bailarines. +Y ellos decan: "Toca esa parte de nuevo." +Bueno, slo hay una cantidad limitada de veces que se puede tocar repetidamente la misma seccin de una cancin para los bailarines. +Y entonces las bandas empezaron a improvisar nuevas melodas. +Y naci una nueva forma de msica. +(Msica: "Royal Garden Blues" de W.C. Handy / Ethel Waters ) Estas se tocan casi siempre en espacios pequeos. +La gente est bailando, gritando y bebiendo. +Y la msica debe ser lo suficientemente fuerte para escucharse por sobre eso. +Lo mismo es cierto -ya estamos en el comienzo del siglo- para toda la msica popular del siglo XX, ya sea rock o msica latina o lo que sea. +En realidad no cambia mucho. +Cambia cuando ya ha transcurrido un tercio del siglo XX, cuando esto se convirti en uno de los principales contextos de la msica. +Y esta fue una forma de como la msica entr all. +Los micrfonos permitieron a los cantantes, especialmente, y a msicos y compositores, a cambiar completamente el tipo de msica que escriban. +Hasta ese momento, mucho de lo que se escuchaba por la radio era en vivo, pero cantantes como Frank Sinatra, pudieron utilizar el micrfono y hacer cosas que jams podran haber hecho sin un micrfono. +Otros cantantes posteriores a l fueron an ms all. +(Cancin: "My Funny Valentine" de Chet Baker ) Este es Chet Baker. +Y este tipo de cosas habran sido imposibles sin un micrfono. +Tampoco hubiera sido posible sin la msica grabada. +Y l est cantando directo en tu odo. +Est susurrando en tu odo. +El efecto es realmente elctrico. +Es como si el tipo estuviera sentado al lado tuyo, murmurando quin sabe qu en tu odo. +As que, en este momento, la msica se dividi en dos. +Hay msica en vivo y hay msica grabada. +Y ya no tenan que ser exactamente iguales. +Ahora hay lugares como este, una discoteca, y hay mquinas de discos en los bares donde ni siquiera es necesario tener una banda. +No es para nada necesario que hayan msicos tocando en vivo. Y los sistemas de sonido son buenos. +La gente comenz a crear msica especficamente para las discotecas y para estos sistemas de sonido. +Y, al igual que con el jazz, los bailarines preferan ciertas secciones por sobre otras. +As que los hip-hoperos iniciales repetan ciertas secciones. +(Cancin: "Rapper's Delight" de The Sugarhill Gang ) El "MC" (en el micrfono) improvisaba letras de canciones igual que como los msicos de jazz improvisan melodas. +Y as naci otra nueva forma de msica. +Los espectculos en vivo, cuando pasaron a ser un xito increble, terminaron tocndose en los que probablemente son, acsticamente, los lugares con peor sonido del planeta, los estadios deportivos, las canchas de baloncesto y los campos de hockey. +Los msicos que terminaron all hicieron lo mejor que pudieron. +Escribieron lo que ahora se llama rock de estadio que son baladas de velocidad media. +(Cancin: "I Still Haven't Found What I'm Looking For" de U2) Hicieron lo mejor posible considerando que estaban escribiendo para esto. +Los ritmos son medios. Suena inmensamente grande. +Es ms una situacin social que una situacin musical. +Y en cierto modo, la msica que escriben para este lugar funciona perfectamente. +Y nuevamente hay ms lugares. +Uno de los nuevos es el automvil. +Yo crec con una radio en el auto. +Pero ahora se ha transformado en otra cosa. +El automvil es un ambiente completo. +(Cancin: "Who U Wit" de Lil' Jon & the East Side Boyz ) La msica que, en mi opinin, est escrita para los sistemas de sonido del automvil funciona perfectamente en ese entorno. +Quizs no sea lo que quieras escuchar en tu casa pero funciona muy bien en el automvil, tiene una gama de frecuencias muy grande, digamos, bajos profundos y finales agudos y la voz como atrapada en la mitad. +Msica de automvil, que puedes compartir con tus amigos. +Hay otro nuevo tipo de contexto: el reproductor MP3 privado. +Supongo que este es slo para msica cristiana. +Y en cierto modo es como el Carnegie Hall, o como cuando el pblico tuvo que quedarse callado, porque ahora se pueden escuchar todos los detalles. +Por otro lado, se parece ms a la msica de frica Occidental porque si la msica en un MP3 baja demasiado de volumen, se sube inmediatamente, y al minuto siguiente te vuela los odos en una seccin ms fuerte. +As que eso realmente no funciona. +Creo que la msica pop, sobretodo, se escribe hoy, en cierta medida, para este tipo de reproductores, para este tipo de experiencia personal donde se puede escuchar cada detalle, pero la dinmica no cambia mucho. +As que me pregunt a m mismo: Bueno, es este un modelo para la creacin, esta adaptacin que hacemos? +Y se produce en alguna otra parte? +Bueno, segn David Attenborough y algunas otras personas, los pjaros tambin lo hacen. Que los pjaros de las copas de rboles, donde el follaje es denso, tienden a hacer llamados agudos, cortos y repetitivos. +Y los pjaros en el piso de la selva tienden a tener llamados ms graves para que no se distorsionen cuando rebotan en el suelo del bosque. +Y pjaros como este gorrin sabanero, tienden a tener un tipo de zumbido (Clip de sonido: cancin de gorrin sabanero) como su llamado. +Y resulta que un sonido como este es la manera ms energticamente eficiente y prctica para transmitir su llamado a travs de los campos y sabanas. +Otros pjaros, como esta tngara, se han adaptado dentro de la misma especie. +Las tngaras de la costa este de los Estados Unidos, donde los bosques son un poco ms densos, tienen un tipo de llamado y las tngaras del otro lado, del oeste, (Clip de sonido: Cancin de tngara rojinegra) tienen un tipo diferente de llamado. +(Clip de sonido: Cancin de tngara rojinegra) As que los pjaros tambin lo hacen. +Y pens: Bueno, si este es un modelo para la creacin, si creamos msica, o principalmente al menos su forma, para que funcione en estos contextos y si creamos el arte para que se amolde a las paredes de galeras o de museos, y si escribimos software para que funcione en los actuales sistemas operativos, es as como funciona? +S. Creo que es evolutivo. +Es adaptativo. +Pero el placer y la pasin y la alegra se mantienen all. +Esta es una visin inversa de las cosas a la del punto de vista romntico y tradicional. +La visin romntica es que primero viene la pasin y luego el diluvio de emocin, y entonces de alguna manera se transforma en algo. +Y yo digo, bueno, la pasin sigue estando ah, pero el recipiente al cual va a ser inyectado y vertido, es instintiva e intuitivamente creado al principio. +Ya sabemos donde va a ir esa pasin. +Pero este conflicto de opiniones es bien interesante. +El escritor, Thomas Frank, dice que esto podra ser una especie de explicacin de por qu algunos votantes votan en contra de su propios intereses, ya que los votantes, al igual que muchos de nosotros, asumen que si escuchan algo que suena sincero, que viene desde adentro, que es apasionado, que eso es ms autntico. +Y ellos votarn por eso... +As que si alguien puede fingir sinceridad, si puede fingir pasin, tiene una mejor oportunidad de ser elegido por esta razn, lo que me parece un poco peligroso. +Estoy diciendo que ambos; la pasin, la alegra, no son mutuamente excluyentes. +Quizs lo que ahora necesita el mundo es que nos demos cuenta que somos como los pjaros. +Nos adaptamos. +Cantamos. +Y al igual que los pjaros, la alegra an est all, a pesar de que hemos cambiado lo que hacemos para amoldarnos al contexto. +Muchas gracias. +Desde que estuve aqu en 2006 descubrimos que el cambio climtico global se estaba transformando en algo serio. Por eso lo cubrimos ampliamente en la revista Skeptic. +Investigamos todos los tipos de controversias cientficas y semi cientficas. Pero resulta que no debemos preocuparnos por nada de esto porque el mundo se acabar en 2012. +Otra noticia es que recordarn que les present el Quadro Tracker. +Es como un dispositivo que echa agua +pero es slo un pedazo de plstico hueco con una antena que gira, +y caminas y le apuntas a las cosas. +Como si estuvieras buscando marihuana en el armario de un estudiante, y lo apuntas hacia alguien. +Disculpe. Este dispositivo en particular es para encontrar pelotas de golf, especialmente si ests en un campo de golf y buscas debajo de los arbustos. +Bien, bajo la categora "Qu dao causa una cosa tonta como esta?" +el dispositivo, el ADE 651, fue vendido al gobierno iraqu por 40 mil dlares cada uno. +Es igual que este, no tiene ningn valor, y supuestamente funciona por "atraccin inica magntica electrosttica", que se traduce como "bobada pseudocientfica", sera una palabra amable; donde unes varias palabras que suenan bien pero no sirve para nada. +En este caso, si en los puntos de frontera se permite que la gente pase porque el rastreador dice que est bien en verdad cuesta vidas. +Entonces hay peligro en la pesudociencia, en creer en este tipo de cosas. +Por eso hoy quiero hablar de la creencia. +Quiero creer, y t tambin. +Y de hecho creo que mi tesis es que la creencia es parte natural de las cosas. +Es la opcin por defecto. Simplemente creemos. +Creemos en todo tipo de cosas. +La creencia es natural. La incredulidad, el escepticismo y la ciencia no son naturales. +Es ms difcil. +Es incmodo no creer en cosas. +Como Fox Mulder en "Expediente X" quin quiere creen en los OVNIs? Todos queremos. Y el motivo es porque tenemos un motor de creencia en nuestros cerebros. +Bsicamente somos primates buscadores de patrones. +Conectamos los puntos: A se conecta con B, B se conecta con C. +Y a veces A s se conecta con B. Eso se llama aprendizaje por asociacin. +Y lo que sea que haca antes de la recompensa, lo repetir. +A veces era dar dos vueltas en sentido antihorario, una vez en sentido horario y presionar la tecla dos veces. +Y eso se llama supersticin. Y me temo que eso siempre lo tendremos entre nosotros. +A este proceso lo llamo "patronicidad", es decir, es la tendencia a encontrar patrones significativos en ruido con y sin significado. +Cuando realizamos este proceso cometemos dos tipos de errores. +El error de tipo 1 o falso positivo, que es creer que un patrn es real cuando no lo es. +Y el segundo tipo de error es el falso negativo. +El error de tipo 2 es no creer en un patrn cuando es real. +Hagamos un experimento de reflexin. +Supn que eres un homnido hace 3 millones de aos que camina por las llanuras de frica. +Tu nombre es Lucy, bien? +Oyes un crujido en la hierba. +Se trata de un depredador peligroso o es slo el viento? +Tu prxima decisin podra ser la ms importante de tu vida. +Si piensas que el crujido en la hierba es un depredador peligroso pero resulta ser el viento, has cometido un error de cognicin, un error de tipo 1, un falso positivo. +Pero no sucede nada, simplemente te alejas. +Ests ms cauteloso, ms alerta. +Por otro lado, si crees que el crujido en la hierba es el viento, pero se trata de un depredador peligroso, eres el almuerzo. +Te acabas de ganar un premio Darwin. +Te han sacado del acervo gentico. +El problema aqu es que la patronicidad ocurre cuando el costo de cometer un error de tipo 1 es menor que el costo de cometer un error de tipo 2. +Es la nica ecuacin de la charla. +Tenemos un problema para detectar el patrn y es que evaluar la diferencia entre un error de tipo 1 y de tipo 2 es en verdad problemtico. En especial en situaciones de vida o muerte y en una fraccin de segundo. +Por eso la postura por defecto es "creer que todos los patrones son reales". "Todos los crujidos en la hierba son depredadores peligrosos y no slo el viento". +Por eso pienso que evolucionamos... +haba una seleccin natural para la tendencia de nuestros motores de creencia, nuestros procesos cerebrales buscadores de patrones, de encontrar siempre patrones significativos e infundirlos con esta especie de agentes depredadores o intencionales de los que hablar luego. +Por eso, por ejemplo, qu ven aqu? +Es la cabeza de un caballo, correcto. +Si parece un caballo debe ser un caballo. +Ese es el patrn. +Pero, es en verdad un caballo? +O se parece ms a una rana? +Lo ven? Nuestro dispositivo de deteccin de patrones, que al parecer se encuentra en la corteza cingular anterior (all est nuestro dispositivo de deteccin) puede ser engaado fcilmente, y eso es un problema. +Por ejemplo, qu ven aqu? +Por supuesto, es una vaca. +Si predispongo el cerebro -- predisposicin cognitiva -- si predispongo el cerebro a ver algo, aparece nuevamente incluso sin el patrn que le impuse. +Y qu ven aqu? +Algunos ve un perro dlmata. +Y all est. Esa es la predisposicin. +Por eso cuando quito la predisposicin, el cerebro ya tiene el modelo para que puedan verlo nuevamente. +Qu ven aqu? +El planeta Saturno. Bien. +Y aqu? +Slo digan cualquier cosa que vean. +Qu buen pblico, Chris. +Porque no hay nada aqu. Supuestamente no hay nada. +Este es un experimento de Jennifer Whitson en la Universidad de Texas, Austin sobre ambientes corporativos sobre si los sentimientos de incertidumbre y falta de control causan que la gente vea patrones ilusorios. +Es decir, la mayora ve el planeta Saturno. +pero cuando las personas se sienten sin control es ms probable que vean algo aqu, una figura supuestamente si patrn. +En otras palabras, la tendencia a ver estos patrones aumenta cuando no hay control. +Por ejemplo, los jugadores de bisbol son muy supersticiosos cuando batean, pero no tanto cuando estn en el campo. +Porque los jugadores de campo tienen xito del 90 al 95 por ciento de las veces. +Y los mejores bateadores fallan 7 de 10 veces. +Por eso su supersticin, su patronicidad, est asociada con los sentimientos de falta de control y as, sucesivamente. +Qu ven en esta imagen, en este campo? +Alguien ve algn objeto aqu? +De hecho s hay algo, pero est degradado. +Mientras piensan en eso, este es un experimento de Susan Blackmore, una psicloga de Inglaterra, que le mostr esta imagen a algunas personas y luego dedujo una correlacin entre sus puntajes en una prueba de percepcin extrasensorial, cunto crean en lo paranormal, lo sobrenatural, los ngeles y ese tipo de cosas. +Y aquellos con los puntajes ms altos en la escala tendan no slo a ver ms patrones en las imgenes degradadas, sino patrones incorrectos. +Esto es lo que les mostr a las personas. +El pez degradado en un 20%, un 50% y luego el que les mostr, en un 70%. +Otro psiclogo suizo llamado Peter Brugger realiz un experimento similar. l descubri que el hemisferio derecho percibe patrones mucho ms significativos, a travs del campo visual izquierdo, que el hemisferio izquierdo. +Por eso si le muestran esta imagen a una persona, tal que acabe en el hemisferio derecho en lugar del izquierdo, es ms probable que vea patrones que si lo ponen en el hemisferio izquierdo. +Al parecer, es en el hemisferio derecho donde ocurre la mayora de esta patronicidad. +Por eso, intentamos ver en qu parte del cerebro ocurre todo esto. +Brugger y su colega, Christine Mohr, le administraron L-dopa a un grupo de personas. +La L-Dopa es un frmaco para trata la enfermedad de Parkinson, que est relacionada con una disminucin de la dopamina, +La L-dopa aumenta la dopamina. +Y el aumento de dopamina causa que las persona vean ms patrones que aquellas que no recibieron dopamina. +Parece que la dopamina es el frmaco asociado con la patronicidad. +Se usan frmacos neurolpticos para eliminar el comportamiento psictico, como la paranoia, el delirio y las alucinaciones, que son patronicidades. +Son patrones incorrectos. Falsos positivos. Errores de tipo1. +Y si se administran frmacos antagonistas de la dopamina, desaparecen. +Es decir, si se disminuye la cantidad de dopamina, disminuye la tendencia a ver patrones de ese tipo. +Por otro lado, las anfetaminas, como la cocana, son agonistas de la dopamina. +Aumenten la cantidad de dopamina. +Por eso es ms probable que se sientan eufricos, creativos, que encuentren ms patrones. +De hecho, hace poco vi a Robin Williams hablando sobre cmo era ms cmico cuando consuma cocana, cuando tena ese problema, que ahora. +Tal vez una mayor cantidad de dopamina est relacionada con una mayor creatividad. +Creo que la dopamina cambia nuestra relacin seal-ruido. +Es decir, cmo de certero somos encontrando patrones. +Si est muy baja, es probable que cometas ms errores de tipo 2. +Te pierdes los patrones reales. Y no quieres ser demasiado escptico. +Si eres demasiado escptico, te perders las ideas interesantes. +En la medida justa, eres creativo y no crees mucho en tonteras. +Si est muy alta tal vez veas patrones en todos lados. +Cada vez que alguien te mire pensars que te est analizando. +Pensars que la gente habla de ti. +Y si se te va la mano con eso, simplemente se clasifica como locura. +Tal vez debamos hacer una distincin entre dos ganadores del Nobel, como Richard Feynman y John Nash. +Uno ve la cantidad adecuada de patrones como para ganar el premio Nobel. +El otro tambin, pero tal vez sean demasiados patrones +y se lo llama esquizofrenia. +Por eso, la relacin seal-ruido nos plantea un problema de deteccin de patrones. +Seguro que todos saben exactamente qu es esto, verdad? +Qu patrn ven aqu? +Otra vez estoy evaluando su corteza cingular anterior, con una deteccin de patrones contradictoria. +Obviamente saben que estos son zapatos Via Uno. +Son sandalias. +Debo decir que son pies muy seductores. +Tal vez un poco photoshopeados. +Y por supuesto que son imgenes ambiguas que parecen dar un giro. +Resulta que lo que piensan ms a menudo influencia lo que tienden a ver. +Y s que aqu ven la lmpara +porque tiene la luz encendida. +Y gracias al movimiento ambientalista somos sensibles a la difcil situacin de los mamferos marinos. +Por eso lo que ven en esta imagen ambigua es un delfn, por supuesto. +Aqu ven un delfn. porque hay un delfn. Hay un delfn. +Eso es una cola de delfn. +Entonces si les damos informacin contradictoria, su corteza cingular anterior va a ponerse hiperactiva. +Si miran abajo est bien, pero si miran arriba la informacin es contradictoria. +Por eso tenemos que girar la imagen para que vean que es una trampa. +La ilusin del cajn imposible. +Es fcil burlar el cerebro en 2D. +Por eso diran "Shermer, todos podemos hacer eso en un texto bsico sobre la psique con ese tipo de ilusin". +Pero aqu est el difunto Jerry Andrus con la ilusin del "cajn imposible" en 3D y Jerry est de pie dentro del cajn imposible. +l fue amable y public esto y nos revel la forma. +Todo est en el ngulo de la cmara. El fotgrafo est all. Y parece que esta tabla se superpone con la otra, y esta con la otra, etc. +Pero an cuando lo quito, la ilusin es muy fuerte por cmo estn configurados nuestros cerebros para encontrar ese tipo de patrones. +Este es uno ms nuevo que nos despista debido a los patrones contradictorios de comparar este ngulo con aquel ngulo. +De hecho, es la misma foto de lado a lado, +y estn comparando aquel ngulo en lugar de este ngulo. +Por eso engaa al cerebro. +Y una vez ms engaa a su dispositivo de deteccin de patrones. +Es fcil ver rostros porque contamos con un evolucionado software de reconocimiento de rostros en nuestro lbulo temporal. +Aqu se ven algunos rostros sobre una roca. +Tal vez han usado Photoshop, +pero de cualquier modo nos vale. +Cul de estas imgenes se ve rara? +Rpido, cul se ve rara? +La de la izquierda, bien. La voy a rotar. Ahora es la de la derecha. +Y tienen razn. +Una ilusin famosa que primero se hizo con Margaret Thatcher. +Ahora le cambiaron el poltico. +Qu es lo que sucede? +Sabemos bien dnde sucede, en el lbulo temporal, casi sobre las orejas. En una estructura llamada circunvolucin fusiforme. +Existen dos tipos de clula que hacen esto, graban caractersticas de los rostros de manera global o especfica. Estas clulas de disparo rpido primero ven el rostro general. +Por eso reconocen a Obama enseguida. +Y luego notan algo un poco raro en los ojos y la boca. +En especial si est dada vuelta, comprometen el software de reconocimiento de rostros. +Bien, les dije antes en el experimento de reflexin, supn que eres un homnido que camina por frica. +Se trata del viento o es un depredador peligroso? +Cul es la diferencia entre ambos? +Bien, el viento es inanimado; el depredador peligroso es un agente intencionado. +A este proceso lo llamo agenticidad. +Es la tendencia a infundir patrones con significado, intencin y agenticidad, a agentes invisibles desde las alturas. +Esta idea la tomamos de un compaero de TED, Dan Dennett, quien habl sobre tomar la postura intencional. +Es algo as, expandido para explicar, creo, muchas cosas diferentes: almas, espritus, fantasmas, dioses, demonios, ngeles, extraterrestres, diseadores inteligentes, conspiradores del gobierno y toda forma de agente invisible con el poder y la intencin y que se cree que rondan nuestro mundo y controlan nuestras vidas. +Creo que es la base del animismo, el politesmo y el monotesmo. +Es la creencia de que los extraterrestres son ms avanzados y tienen ms moralidad que nosotros. Y la historia siempre cuenta que vienen a salvarnos y rescatarnos desde las alturas. +Siempre se describe al diseador inteligente como este ser sper inteligente y moral que baja a disear la vida. +Incluso la idea de que el gobierno puede rescatarnos. Esa ya no es la moda del futuro. Pero creo que es un tipo de agenticidad, el de proyectar a alguien grande y poderoso, que vendr a rescatarnos desde las alturas. +Y creo que tambin es la base de las teoras de conspiracin. +Existe alguien escondido que maneja los hilos, ya sean los Illuminati o los Bilderbergers. +Pero es un problema de deteccin de patrones, no? +Algunos patrones son reales y otros no. +A JKF lo asesin una conspiracin o una sola persona? +Bien, si van all, y hay gente cualquier da como cuando fui yo, que muestran dnde fueron los diferentes disparos. +Mi preferido es el que estaba en un pozo, +y sali en el ltimo segundo y dispar. +Pero igualmente Lincoln fue asesinado por una conspiracin. +Por eso no podemos descartar todos los patrones as. +Porque, vamos, algunos patrones s son reales. +Algunas conspiraciones s son verdaderas. +Esto tal vez explica mucho. +El 9/11 tiene una teora de conspiracin. Es una conspiracin. +Escribimos todo un nmero al respecto. +19 miembros de Al Queda tramando para estrellar aviones en edificios, s es una conspiracin. +Pero eso no es lo que piensan los "buscaverdades del 9/11". +Ellos creen que fue un trabajo interno del gobierno de Bush. +Bien, eso es otra lectura. +Saben cmo reconocemos que el 9/11 no fue orquestado por el gobierno de Bush? +Porque funcion. +Somos dualistas por naturaleza. +Nuestro proceso de agenticidad viene del hecho de que podemos disfrutar de estas pelculas. +Porque podemos imaginarnos seguir adelante. +Sabemos que si se estimula el lbulo temporal se puede producir una sensacin de experiencia extracorporal, experiencia cercana a la muerte, que se logra mediante un electrodo aqu en el lbulo temporal. +O mediante la prdida de conciencia, mediante la aceleracin centrfuga. +Si tienen hipoxia o el oxgeno bajo, +el cerebro siente que hay una experiencia extracorporal. +Pueden usar, yo mismo lo prob, el Casco de Dios de Michael Persinger, que bombardea los lbulos temporales con ondas electromagnticas +y vives una experiencia extracorporal. +Entonces voy a terminar con un video que resume un poco todo esto. +Dura slo un minuto y medio y +une todo esto con el poder de las expectativas y de la creencia. +Pnganlo por favor. +Este es el lugar que se eligi para las audiciones falsas de un anuncio de protector labial. +Esperamos poder usar parte de eso en un comercial nacional. +Esto es una prueba de protectores labiales que tenemos aqu. +Y estos son los modelos que nos ayudarn, Roger y Matt. +Tenemos nuestro protector labial y una marca lder. +Tendras algn problema en besar a los modelos para probarlo? +No. +- No? - No. - Pensaras que est bien? +- Estara bien. - OK. Esta es un prueba a ciegas. +Te voy a pedir que te pongas una venda. +Bien, ves algo? - No. Bjalo as no puedes ver hacia abajo. - OK. - No ves nada, verdad? +- S. - OK. Lo que vamos a buscar en esta prueba es cunto protege tus labios, la textura. y si puedes descubrir el sabor. +- OK. - Alguna vez has hecho una prueba de besos? - No. +- Acrcate aqu. +Bien, ahora djate besar. +Acrcate un poco y djate besar, bien?. +Bien. +Cmo lo sentiste Jennifer? +- Bien +- Oh por Dios. +Michael Shermer - Muchas gracias. Gracias. +Si ustedes estn hoy en la audiencia, o viendo esta charla en otro momento o lugar, son parte del ecosistema de los Derechos Digitales. +Sean un artista o un tecnlogo, un abogado o un fan, el manejo de los Derechos de Autor impacta sus vidas. +Hoy, el manejo de los Derechos ya no es simplemente una cuestin de posesin. Es una red compleja de relaciones y una parte fundamental de nuestro panorama cultural. +YouTube cuida mucho los derechos de los propietarios de contenido. Pero a fin de darles opciones de lo que pueden hacer con las copias, mezclas y dems, primero debemos identificar cuando material registrado es cargado a nuestro sitio. +Con este video especfico veremos cmo trabaja. +Hace 2 aos el cantante Chris Brown, lanz el video oficial del single, "Forever". +Un fan lo vio en la TV, lo grabo con su celular, y lo subi a YouTube. +Como Sony Music haba registrado el video de Chris Brown en nuestro Sistema Identificador de Contenido en cuestin de segundos de intentar subir el vdeo, se detect la copia, dando a Sony la eleccin de qu hacer a continuacin. +Pero Cmo supimos que el video era una copia? +Se inicia con los dueos del contenido enviando sus activos a nuestra base de datos, junto con la poltica de uso indicndonos que hacer al encontrar coincidencia. +Comparamos cada subida con todos los archivos de nuestra base de datos. +Este grfico les mostrar cmo trabaja el cerebro del sistema. +Aqu vemos el archivo original de referencia siendo comparado con el generado por el usuario. +El sistema compara cada momento de uno al otro buscando coincidencia. +Esto significa que podemos encontrar coincidencia an si la copia utilizada es slo una parte del archivo original, o en cmara lenta o bajado la calidad de audio y video. +Esto lo hacemos cada vez que un video es subido a YouTube. +Y eso es ms de 20 hrs de video cada minuto. +Cuando encontramos coincidencia, aplicamos la poltica establecida por el dueo de los derechos. +La escala y velocidad del sistema es realmente impresionante. +No hablamos de unos cuantos videos. sino ms de 100 aos de video al da, entre las subidas nuevas y las exploraciones de registros lo hacemos regularmente a travs de todo el contenido de este sitio. +Al comparar esos cientos de aos de video, los comparamos con millones de archivos en nuestra base de datos. +Sera como 36.000 personas viendo 36.000 monitores cada da, sin para ni para un caf. +Qu hacemos al encontrar coincidencia? +La mayora de los dueos en lugar de bloquear, permiten que la copia se publique. +Y as se benefician de la exposicin, publicidad y ventas vinculadas. +Se acuerdan del video "Forever" de Chris Brown? +Tuvo su xito y luego sali de la competencia. Y ese pareca el fin de la historia. Pero el ao pasado una pareja se cas. +Este es el video de la boda. +Tal vez lo han visto. +Lo magnfico del video es, que si la ceremonia era tan divertida, Se imaginan cmo habr sido la recepcin? +Quienes son estas personas? +Definitivamente quiero ir a esa boda. +As que su pequeo video lleg a conseguir ms de 40 millones de visitas. +Sony en lugar de bloquearlo, permitieron la subida del video. +Le pusieron publicidad y lo vincularon con iTunes. +La cancin de hace 18 meses, regres al nmero 4 en la lista de iTunes. +As que Sony gana de ambos. +Jill y Kevin, la feliz pareja, regresaron de su luna de miel con la sorpresa de que su video es una locura viral. +Y terminaron participando en muchos programas de entrevistas. Que aprovecharon para recaudar fondos. +El video ha inspirado donaciones por ms de 26.000 dlares para terminar con la violencia domstica. +Y el video "Baile de Entrada de la Boda de JK" se hizo tan popular que la NBC lo parodi en la temporada final de "The Office." que est por emitirse, realmente es un ecosistema cultural. +No son slo amateurs tomando prestado de un gran estudio, a veces es viceversa. +Permitiendo la eleccin, podemos crear una cultura de oportunidad. +Y todo lo que se necesit para cambiar las cosas fue permitir la eleccin, al identificar los derechos. +Por qu no se haba resulto el problema antes? +Porque es un gran problema, complicado y confuso. +No es raro que un solo video tenga mltiples dueos de derechos. +Hay sellos musicales. +Hay varios editores de msica. +Y estos pueden variar por pas. +Hay muchos casos en los que convergen ms de un solo asunto. +Y tenemos que manejar mltiples reclamos sobre el mismo video. +El Identificador de Contenido de YouTube maneja todo esto. +Pero el sistema slo funciona a travs de la participacin de los dueos de los derechos. +Si tienes contenido que otros estn subiendo a YouTube, debes registrarlo en el Sistema Identificador de Contenido, as podrs decidir cmo se usar tu contenido. +Piensa cuidadosamente la poltica que aplicars a tu contenido. +Al bloquear todos los reusos, perders nuevas formas de arte, nuevas audiencias, nuevos canales de distribucin, y nuevas fuentes de ingreso. +Es ms que dlares e impresiones. +Vean toda la alegra que se difundi a travs de un manejo progresivo de los derechos y las nuevas tecnologas. +Y creo que todos coincidimos en que la alegra es una idea valiosa de difundir. +Gracias. +Muchsimas gracias. Voy a tratar de llevarlos en un viaje por el mundo acstico submarino de ballenas y delfines. +Dado que somos una especie visual, nos es difcil entender cabalmente esto. As que voy a usar una mezcla de grficos y sonidos y espero poder comunicar con eso. +Pero pensemos tambin, como especie visual, qu se siente cuando practicamos buceo o submarinismo e intentamos mirar bajo el agua. +En realidad, no podemos ver muy lejos. +Nuestra visin, que funciona muy bien en el aire, de repente es muy restringida y claustrofbica. +Y lo que los mamferos marinos han evolucionado en las ltimas decenas de millones de aos son las formas de depender del sonido tanto para explorar su mundo como para comunicarse unos con otros. +Los delfines y odontocetos usan la ecolocalizacin. +Pueden producir fuertes chasquidos y escuchar el eco del fondo marino para orientarse. +Pueden escuchar los ecos de la presa para decidir dnde est la comida y para decidir cul quieren comer. +Todos los mamferos marinos usan el sonido para comunicarse, para permanecer en contacto. +As, las ballenas barbadas producirn canciones largas y hermosas que se utilizan en publicidad reproductiva por machos y hembras tanto para buscarse mutuamente como para elegir una pareja. +La madre y la cra y los animales estrechamente vinculados usan llamadas para permanecer en contacto unos con otros. Por eso el sonido es muy crtico para sus vidas. +Lo primero que cautiv mi inters por los sonidos de estos animales submarinos, cuyo mundo me era tan extrao, fue la evidencia de delfines en cautiverio que los delfines en cautiverio podan imitar sonidos humanos. +Y mencion que voy a usar algunas representaciones visuales de sonidos. +He aqu el primer ejemplo. +Este es un grfico de frecuencia en el tiempo... algo as como una notacin musical donde las notas ms altas son muy altas y las bajas son ms bajas y el tiempo va en este sentido. +Esta es una imagen de un silbato de entrenador un silbato que el entrenador soplar para decirle al delfn que ha hecho algo correcto y puede venir por un pez. +Suena algo as como "tuuiiiitt". Algo as. +Y este es una cra en cautiverio haciendo una imitacin del silbato de ese entrenador. +Ahora bien, si uno tararease esta meloda a su perro o gato y este tarareara con uno uno debera sorprenderse bastante. +Muy pocos mamferos no humanos pueden imitar sonidos. +Es realmente importante para nuestra msica y nuestro lenguaje. +Es un acertijo: los otros pocos mamferos que lo hacen, por qu lo hacen? +Y he destinado gran parte de mi carrera a tratar de entender cmo usan estos animales su aprendizaje cmo usan la capacidad para cambiar lo que dicen en base a lo que oyen en sus propios sistemas de comunicacin. +As que empecemos con las llamadas de un primate no humano. +Muchos mamferos tienen que producir llamadas de contacto cuando, digamos, una madre y una cra estn separados. +Este es un ejemplo de una llamada de los monos ardilla cuando estn aislados unos de otros. +Y pueden verlo, no hay mucha variabilidad en estas llamadas. +Por el contrario, el silbido personal que usan los delfines para permanecer en contacto, cada individuo tiene aqu una llamada radicalmente diferente. +Pueden usar su capacidad de aprender llamadas para desarrollar llamadas ms complejas y ms distintivas para identificar individuos. +En qu escenario necesitan los animales recurrir a estas llamadas? +Bueno, miremos a las madres y sus cras. +En la vida normal la madre y la cra de delfn a menudo se alejarn o nadarn separados si mam est persiguiendo un pez. Y cuando se separan tienen que volverse a juntar de nuevo. +Y lo que muestra este grfico es el porcentaje de separaciones en el que los delfines silban versus la distancia mxima. +As, cuando los delfines estn separados menos de 20 metros menos de la mitad de las veces necesitan silbar, +la mayora de las veces pueden encontrarse unos a otros con slo nadar. +Pero en todos los casos en que se separan ms de 100 metros tienen que usar estos silbidos personales para volverse a encontrar. +La mayora de estos silbidos de firma distintivos son bastante estereotipados y estables durante la vida de un delfn. +Pero hay algunas excepciones. +Cuando un delfn macho deja a su mam a menudo se unir a otro macho y formar una alianza, que puede durar dcadas. +Y mientras estos dos animales forman un vnculo social sus silbidos distintivos en realidad convergen y se vuelven muy similares. +As, este grfico muestra dos miembros de un par. +Como pueden ver aqu arriba comparten un barrido ascendente como "guup, guup, guup". +Ambos tienen esa especie de barrido ascendente. +Mientras que estos miembros de un par hacen "gu-uh, gu-uh, gu-hu". +Y lo que sucede es que han usado este proceso de aprendizaje para desarrollar un nuevo signo que identifica a este nuevo grupo social. +Es muy interesante la manera en que pueden formar un nuevo identificador para el nuevo grupo social que han formado. +Retrocedamos ahora un paso y veamos qu nos puede decir este mensaje sobre la proteccin de delfines de las perturbaciones humanas. +Cualquiera que vea esta imagen sabr que este delfn est rodeado y claramente su comportamiento se ve trastornado. +Esta es una mala situacin. +Pero resulta que si se acerca un solo bote a un grupo de delfines ya a un par de cientos de metros de distancia los delfines comenzarn un silbido, van a cambiar lo que estn haciendo, formarn un grupo ms compacto, esperarn que el bote se vaya, y luego retomarn las tareas habituales. +Bueno, en lugares como Sarasota, Florida, el intervalo promedio entre pasadas de un bote a un centenar de metros de un grupo de delfines es de 6 minutos. +As que incluso en situaciones no tan malas como esta se afecta an la cantidad de tiempo que tienen estos animales para hacer sus tareas normales. +Y si miramos en ambientes muy prstinos como el occidente de Australia Lars Bider ha realizado un trabajo comparando el comportamiento de los delfines y su distribucin antes de que hubiese delfines divisando botes. +Cuando haba un bote, no produca mucho impacto. +Con dos botes, cuando se sumaba el segundo bote, lo que suceda era que algunos delfines abandonaban la zona por completo. +Y de los que se quedaban, su tasa de natalidad disminua. +De modo que poda tener un impacto negativo en toda la poblacin. +Cuando pensamos en reas marinas protegidas para animales como los delfines esto significa que tenemos que ser bastante conscientes de las actividades que pensbamos que eran benignas. +Tal vez tengamos que regular la intensidad de los paseos en barco y el avistaje de ballenas para prevenir esta clase de problemas. +Tambin me gustara sealar que el sonido no conoce de lmites. +Uno puede trazar una lnea tratando de proteger un rea pero la contaminacin qumica y acstica se propagar por la zona. +Me gustara pasar ahora de este entorno local familiar, costero, al mundo mucho ms amplio de los misticetos y el ocano abierto. +Este es una suerte de mapa que todos hemos estado mirando. +El mundo es casi todo azul. +Pero tambin me gustara sealar que los ocanos estn mucho ms conectados de lo que pensamos. +Fjense qu pocas barreras hay para el movimiento interocenico en comparacin a la tierra. +Para m, el ejemplo ms sorprendente de la interconexin de los ocanos proviene de un experimento acstico en que los oceangrafos envan una embarcacin al sur del Ocano ndico, despliegan un altavoz subacutico, y reproducen un sonido. +Ese mismo sonido viaj al oeste y pudo orse en las Bermudas, y viaj al este y pudo orse en Monterrey, el mismo sonido. +De modo que vivimos en un mundo de comunicaciones por satlite, se utilizan para la comunicacin global, pero sigue siendo asombroso para m. +El ocano tiene propiedades que permiten a los sonidos de baja frecuencia moverse, bsicamente, de forma global. +El tiempo de trnsito acstico para cada una de estas rutas es de cerca de 3 horas. +Abarca cerca de la mitad del mundo. +Ahora, a principios de los aos 70 Roger Payne y un especialista en acstica ocenica publicaron un trabajo terico sealando que era posible que el sonido pudiera transmitirse por estas grandes reas pero muy pocos bilogos lo creyeron. +Resulta sin embargo que, en realidad, aunque slo conocemos la propagacin a larga distancia desde hace pocas dcadas las ballenas claramente han desarrollado, durante decenas de millones de aos, una forma de explotar esta propiedad asombrosa del ocano. +As que las ballenas azules y las rorcuales producen sonidos de muy baja frecuencia que pueden viajar muy largas distancias. +Y aqu arriba el grfico muestra una serie complicada de llamadas que los machos repiten. +Estas forman canciones y parecen cumplir un papel en la reproduccin similar al caso de las aves cantoras. +Aqu abajo vemos llamadas tanto de machos como de hembras que tambin recorren distancias muy largas. +Los bilogos siguieron siendo escpticos al tema de la comunicacin de larga distancia mucho ms all de los aos 70, hasta el final de la Guerra Fra. +Lo que sucedi, durante la Guerra Fra, fue que la Marina de EE.UU. tena un sistema, secreto en ese momento, que utilizaba para rastrear a los submarinos rusos. +Tena micrfonos submarinos profundos, o hidrfonos, conectados a la costa, todos conectados a un lugar central que poda escuchar los sonidos de todo el Atlntico Norte. +Y despus de la cada del Muro de Berln la Marina dej disponibles estos sistemas a los especialistas en bioacstica de ballenas para ver lo que podan or. +Este es un grfico de Christopher Clark que rastre una ballena azul en su paso por las Bermudas que baj hasta la latitud de Miami y regres de nuevo. +Se la sigui durante 43 das nadando 1.700 km, o ms de 1.000 millas. +Esto nos muestra tanto que las llamadas pueden detectarse a cientos de kilmetros y que las ballenas nadan habitualmente cientos de kilmetros. +Tienen como base al ocano, son animales de escala que se comunican a travs de distancias mucho mayores de lo que habamos anticipado. +A diferencia de las de aletas y las azules que se dispersan en los ocanos templados y tropicales, las ballenas jorobadas se congregan en zonas locales tradicionales de cra. Y pueden emitir un sonido de frecuencia un poco ms alta de banda ms ancha y ms complicado. +Estn escuchando la cancin complicada que produce la ballena jorobada. +Y las ballenas jorobadas cuando desarrollan la capacidad de cantar esta cancin escuchan a las otras ballenas y modifican lo que cantan en base a lo que estn escuchando, como las aves cantoras o los silbidos de delfn que describ. +Esto significa que la cancin de la ballena jorobada es una forma de cultura animal como lo sera la msica para los humanos. +Pienso que uno de los ejemplos ms interesantes de esto proviene de Australia. +Bilogos de la costa oriental de Australia estuvieron grabando las canciones de las ballenas jorobadas. +La lnea naranja de aqu marca las canciones tpicas de las ballenas jorobadas de la costa oriental. +En el 95 todas cantaban la cancin normal. +Pero en el 96 oyeron algunas canciones extraas. Y result que esas canciones raras eran tpicas de las ballenas de la costa occidental. +Las llamadas de la costa occidental se hicieron cada vez ms populares hasta que en 1998 ninguna de las ballenas cantaba la cancin de la costa oriental; se haba extinguido. +Cantaban la cancin cool, la nueva de la costa occidental. +Era como si algn nuevo estilo estrella hubiese borrado por completo el viejo estilo anterior y sin emisoras de los viejos xitos. +Nadie cantaba los viejos. +Me gustara mostrarles brevemente lo que le hace el ocano a estas llamadas. +Ahora estn escuchando una grabacin hecha por Chris Clark a 300 metros de una ballena jorobada. +Pueden escuchar el rango completo de frecuencias. Es bastante fuerte. +Suena muy cerca. +La prxima grabacin que van a escuchar se hizo con la misma cancin de ballena jorobada a 80 km de distancia. +Eso se muestra aqu abajo. +Slo se escuchan las frecuencias bajas. +Se oye el eco a medida que el sonido atraviesa largas distancias en el ocano y no es tan fuerte. +Ahora despus de reproducir estas llamadas de jorobadas, voy a reproducir llamadas de ballenas azules, pero de modo acelerado porque son de tan baja frecuencia que de otro modo no podran orlas. +He aqu una ballena azul a 80 km que estaba lejos de la ballena jorobada. +Es fuerte, claro... pueden orlo muy claramente. +Aqu est la misma llamada grabada desde un hidrfono desde 800 km. +Hay mucho ruido, producido sobre todo por otras ballenas. +Pero todava puede orse esa llamada tenue. +Cambiemos ahora y pensemos en el potencial para impactos humanos. +El sonido ms dominante que los humanos ponemos en el ocano viene de los barcos. +Este es el sonido de un barco y tengo que hablar un poco ms alto para que me escuchen. +Imaginen esa ballena escuchando desde 800 km. +Hay un problema potencial en que quiz este tipo de embarcacin impedira a las ballenas escucharse unas a otras. +Esto es algo que se conoce desde hace un montn. +Esta es una imagen de un libro sobre sonidos subacuticos. +Y en el eje Y est el nivel de ruido ambiente promedio en el ocano profundo por la frecuencia. +Y en las frecuencias bajas esta lnea indica el sonido que viene de la actividad ssmica de la tierra. +En lo alto, estas lneas variables indican el aumento de ruido en este rango de frecuencias de vientos y olas superiores. +Pero justo aqu en el medio donde hay un campo lucrativo, el ruido es dominado por barcos humanos. +Ahora, piensen esto. Es algo asombroso. Que en este rango de frecuencia donde las ballenas se comunican, la principal fuente mundial de ruido, en nuestro planeta, proviene de los barcos humanos, miles de barcos humanos, distantes, muy lejanos, todos juntos. +La prxima diapositiva mostrar qu impacto puede tener esto en la distancia en que las ballenas pueden comunicarse. +As, este es el sonido de la llamada a una ballena. +Y a medida que nos alejamos el sonido se hace cada vez ms dbil. +Ahora, en el ocano preindustrial, como estbamos diciendo, esta llamada de ballena poda detectarse fcilmente. +Era ms fuerte que el ruido en un rango de miles de kilmetros. +Ahora agreguemos ese incremento adicional de ruido que veamos viene de los barcos. +De repente, el rango efectivo de comunicacin pasa de unos mil kilmetros a 10 km. +Ahora bien, si machos y hembras usan esta seal para encontrarse mutuamente para el apareamiento y estn dispersos imaginen el impacto que esto podra tener en la recuperacin de poblaciones en peligro de extincin. +Tambin tenemos llamadas de contacto como describa en el caso de los delfines. +Voy a reproducir el sonido de una llamada de contacto usada por las ballenas francas para permanecer en contacto. +Y este es el tipo de llamada que usan, digamos, las madres de ballena franca y las cras cuando se separan para volver a encontrarse. +Ahora imaginemos que ponemos el ruido de los barcos en la imagen. +Qu hace una madre si pasa el barco y su cra no est all? +Describir un par de estrategias. +Una estrategia si la llamada de uno est aqu abajo y el ruido est en esta banda, uno puede desplazar la frecuencia de su llamada hacia afuera de la banda de ruido y comunicarse mejor. +Susan Parks, de Penn State, ha estudiado este hecho. +Ella estudi el Atlntico. He aqu los datos del Atlntico Sur. +Esta es una llamada de contacto tpica del Atlntico Sur de los aos 70. +Miren lo que sucedi para el 2000 con la llamada promedio. +Lo mismo en el Atlntico Norte, en los aos 50 versus el 2000. +En los ltimos 50 aos a medida que agregamos ms ruido al ocano estas ballenas se han tenido que desplazar. +Es como si toda la poblacin tuviese que cambiar de ser bajos a cantar como tenores. +Es un desplazamiento asombroso, inducido por los humanos en esta gran escala tanto en el tiempo como en el espacio. +Y ahora sabemos que las ballenas pueden compensar el ruido llamando ms fuerte, como hice yo cuando estaba el sonido del barco, esperando el silencio y desplazando su llamada fuera de la banda de ruido. +Ahora, probablemente hay costos en llamar ms fuerte o en cambiar la frecuencia de donde uno quiere estar. Quiz haya prdida de oportunidades. +Si adems tenemos que esperar el silencio pueden perderse una oportunidad crtica de comunicacin. +As que tenemos que ser muy conscientes sobre cundo el ruido en los hbitats degrada tanto el hbitat que los animales o bien tienen que pagar mucho ms para poder comunicarse o bien no logran realizar funciones crticas. +Es un problema realmente importante. +Y me alegra decir que hay varios desarrollos muy prometedores en este rea, que estudian el impacto de los barcos en las ballenas. +En trminos del ruido de los barcos, la Organizacin Martima Internacional de Naciones Unidas ha formado un grupo cuya tarea consiste en establecer directrices para silenciar los barcos, decirle a la industria cmo se podra silenciar los barcos. +Y ya han encontrado que siendo ms inteligentes en el diseo de mejores hlices, se puede reducir ese ruido en 90%. +En realidad, si se puede aislar la maquinaria del barco del casco puede reducirse ese ruido en un 99%. +As que en este punto es principalmente una cuestin de costos y normas. +Si este grupo puede establecer normas, y si la industria de la construccin naval las adopta, podemos ver una disminucin gradual en este problema potencial. +Pero adems hay otro problema con los barcos que estoy ilustrando aqu, y es el problema de la colisin. +Esta es una ballena que simplemente chirri a un contenedor que se desplazaba rpidamente y evit la colisin. +Pero la colisin es un problema serio. +Ballenas en peligro mueren cada ao en colisiones con barcos. Y es muy importante tratar de reducir esto. +Y voy a discutir dos enfoques muy prometedores. +El primer caso proviene de la Baha de Fundy. +Y estas lneas negras marcan las lneas de navegacin desde y hacia la Baha de Fundy. +Y el rea coloreada muestra el riesgo de colisin para ballenas francas en peligro a causa de los barcos que se mueven en este carril. +Resulta que este carril de aqu pasa justo por una zona principal de alimentacin de ballenas francas en el verano. Y constituye un rea de riesgo significativo de colisin. +Bueno, los bilogos que no aceptan un no como respuesta fueron a la Organizacin Martima Internacional y solicitaron decir: "Pueden mover el carril? Son slo lneas en el suelo. +No pueden moverlas a un lugar donde haya menos riesgo? +Y la Organizacin Martima Internacional respondi duramente: "Estos son los nuevos carriles". +Los carriles de navegacin se corrieron. +Y, como pueden ver, el riesgo de colisin es mucho menor. +As que en realidad es muy prometedor. +Y podemos ser muy creativos al pensar en diferentes formas de reducir estos riesgos. +Otra accin tomada de manera independiente por una compaa naviera, se inici por la preocupacin que tena la naviera por las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero y el calentamiento global. +La lnea Maersk mir a su competencia y vio que todos en la navegacin piensan que el tiempo es dinero. +Ellos corren tan rpido como es posible para llegar al puerto. +Pero luego a menudo esperan all. +Y lo que hizo Maersk fue trabajar formas de desaceleracin. +Pudieron desacelerar cerca de un 50%. +Esto redujo su consumo de combustible en un 30%, lo que les ahorra dinero, y, al mismo tiempo, tuvo un beneficio significativo para las ballenas. +Si uno desacelera, reduce la cantidad de ruido que hace y reduce el riesgo de colisin. +Para concluir, me gustara sealar ya saben, que las ballenas viven en un entorno acstico asombroso. +Han evolucionado a lo largo de decenas de millones de aos para sacar ventaja de esto. +Y tenemos que estar muy atentos y vigilantes y pensar en cosas que hacemos que pueden involuntariamente impedirles lograr sus actividades importantes. +Al mismo tiempo, tenemos que ser realmente muy creativos al pensar soluciones que puedan ayudar a reducir estos problemas. +Y espero que estos ejemplos hayan mostrado algunas de las distintas orientaciones que podemos seguir adems de las reas protegidas. Para poder mantener seguro el ocano para que las ballenas puedan continuar comunicndose. +Muchsimas gracias. +Estar dispuesto a apostar que soy el tipo ms tonto de la sala porque no pude terminar la escuela. Luch con la escuela. +No es algo malo y vilipendiado, que es lo que sucede en gran parte de la sociedad. +Los nios, cuando crecemos, tenemos sueos. y tenemos pasiones y tenemos visiones. Y de algn modo esas cosas se nos aplastan. +Y se nos dice que tenemos que estudiar ms y concentrarnos ms o conseguir un tutor. +Y mis padres me consiguieron un tutor francs, y todava soy malo en francs. +Hace dos aos, fui el conferencista ms votado en el programa de la maestra empresarial del MIT. +Y era un evento de oratoria en frente a grupos de emprendedores de todo el mundo. +Cuando estaba en segundo grado gan un concurso de oratoria de mi ciudad, pero nadie dijo nunca "Hey, este chico es buen orador. +El no puede concentrarse pero le encanta andar por ah animando a la gente." +Nadie dijo: "Entrnenlo en oratoria". +Dijeron que me pusieran un tutor en lo que yo soy malo. +Los nios muestran estos rasgos. Y tenemos que empezar a buscarlos. Pienso que deberamos criar nios para ser emprendedores en vez de abogados. +Y, por desgracia, el sistema escolar est preparando este mundo para decir: "Hey, seamos abogados o seamos mdicos", y estamos perdiendo una oportunidad porque nadie dice nunca: "Hey, s un emprendedor". +Los emprendedores son personas, porque tenemos muchos de ellos en la sala, que tienen estas ideas y pasiones o ven estas necesidades en el mundo y deciden ponerse de pie y hacerlo. +Y ponemos todo en lnea para hacer que las cosas sucedan. +Y tenemos la capacidad de rodearnos de las personas cercanas que quieren construir ese sueo con nosotros. Y pienso que si pudiramos hacer que los nios adopten la idea, a una edad temprana, de ser emprendedores, podramos cambiar todo lo que hoy en el mundo es un problema. +Para cada problema existente alguien tiene la respuesta. +Y como nio, nadie puede decir que eso no puede suceder porque eres demasiado tonto para darte cuenta que no podras imaginarlo. +Pienso que tenemos la obligacin como padres y como sociedad, empezar a ensear a los nios a pescar en vez de darles el pescado. La vieja parbola: "Si le das a un hombre un pescado, lo alimentas por un da. +Si le enseas a un hombre a pescar, lo alimentas de por vida". +Si podemos ensearles a nuestros nios a ser emprendedores, a los que muestren esos rasgos, as como enseamos a los dotados en ciencia que sigan con la ciencia. Qu tal si visemos los que tuviesen rasgos emprendedores y les ensesemos a ser emprendedores? +Podramos tener a todos estos nios propagando negocios en vez de esperar ayuda del gobierno. +Lo que hacemos es sentarnos y ensearles a nuestros nios las cosas que no deberan hacer. No pegues, no muerdas, no jures. +Estamos enseando a nuestros nios a ir detrs de buenos trabajos ya saben, y el sistema escolar les ensea a ir detrs de cosas como ser mdico, ser abogado contador, dentista, maestro o piloto. +Y los medios nos dicen que sera muy bueno si pudiramos ser modelos o cantantes o hroes del deporte como Sidney Crosby. +Nuestras escuelas de negocios no ensean a los chicos a ser emprendedores. +La razn por la que evit un programa de MBA aparte del hecho que no poda entrar a ninguno porque tuve un promedio de 61% en la secundaria y luego un promedio de 61% en la nica escuela de Canad que me acept, Carlton, pero nuestros MBA no ensean a los chicos a ser emprendedores. +Les ensean a ir a trabajar en las empresas. +Entonces, quin funda estas empresas? Estas pocas personas al azar. +Incluso en la literatura popular, el nico libro que he encontrado, y que debera estar en todas sus listas de lectura, el nico libro que he encontrado que hace del emprendedor un hroe es "Atlas Shrugged" (La revelin de Atlas) +Todo lo dems en el mundo tiende a ver a los emprendedores y decir que somos malas personas. +Miro incluso a mi familia. +Mis dos abuelos eran emprendedores. Mi pap era emprendedor. +Tanto mi hermano como mi hermana y yo, los tres, tenemos compaas propias tambin. +Y todos decidimos fundar estas cosas porque es en realidad el nico lugar en que encajamos. +No encajbamos en el trabajo normal. No podramos trabajar para alguien ms porque somos muy testarudos y tenemos todos estos otros rasgos. +Pero los nios tambin pueden ser emprendedores. +Soy una gran parte de un par de organizaciones a nivel mundial llamadas Organizacin de Empresarios y Organizacin de Jvenes Presidentes . +Recin regres de hablar en Barcelona en la conferencia mundial de OJP y todo el mundo que conoc all todos los emprendedores lucharon con la escuela. +Me diagnosticaron 18 de 19 signos de trastorno por dficit de atencin. +As que esta cosa de aqu me est volviendo loco. +Probablemente sea por eso que estoy un poco en pnico en este momento, aparte de toda la cafena que he tomado y el azcar, pero esto es algo realmente escalofriante para un emprendedor. +Trastorno por dficit de atencin, trastorno bipolar. +Saben que ese trastorno bipolar es apodado "enfermedad del CEO"? +Ted Turner lo tiene. Steve Jobs lo tiene. +Los tres fundadores de Netscape lo tienen. +Podra seguir y seguir. +Los nios... pueden ver estos signos en los nios. +Y lo que estamos haciendo es darles Ritalin y decirles: "No seas del tipo emprendedor. +Encaja en este otro sistema e intenta ser un estudiante". +Lo siento, los emprendedores no son estudiantes. +Vamos por la va rpida. Entendemos el juego. +Rob ensayos. Hice trampa en los exmenes. +Contrat nios para que hagan mis tareas de contabilidad en la Universidad en 13 asignaturas consecutivas. +Pero como emprendedor uno no hace contabilidad, contrata contadores. +As que ented eso desde un principio. +Al menos yo puedo admitir que hice trampa en la Universidad; la mayora de Uds no. +Adems soy citado -- y le dije a la persona que escribi el libro -- ahora soy citado en ese mismo texto universitario en cada universidad e instituto de educacin superior canadiense. +En contabilidad de gestin, soy el captulo ocho. +Abro el captulo ocho hablando de elaboracin de presupuesto. +Y le dije a la autora, despus que me entrevistaron, que hice trampa en ese mismo curso. +Y ella pens que era demasiado gracioso como para no ponerlo de todos modos. +Pero los nios, pueden ver esas seales en ellos. +La definicin de emprendedor es "una persona que organiza, opera, y asume el riesgo de una empresa comercial". +Eso no significa que uno tiene que hacer un MBA. +Eso no significa que uno tiene que pasar por la escuela. +Slo significa que esas pocas cosas tienen que sentirse bien desde adentro. +Y hemos odo de si estas cosas nacen o se hacen, correcto. +Es la primera o la segunda? Cul es? +Bueno, no creo que sea una o la otra. Pienso que pueden ser ambas. +Me prepararon como emprendedor. +Cuando estaba creciendo de nio, no tuve alternativa, porque me ensearon a muy temprana y corta edad, cuando mi pap se dio cuenta que no iba a encajar con nada de lo que me iban a ensear en la escuela, que poda ensearme a entender los negocios a muy temprana edad. +Nos prepar, a los tres, a odiar la idea de tener un trabajo y a amar el hecho de crear compaas en las que pudisemos emplear a otras personas. +Mi primera pequea empresa comercial. Tena 7 aos, estaba en Winnipeg, y yo estaba en mi habitacin con uno de esos largos cables. +Estaba llamando a todas las tintoreras de Winnipeg para averiguar cunto pagaran las tintoreras por las perchas. +Y mi mam entr en la habitacin y dijo: De dnde vas a sacar las perchas que vas a vender a la tintorera? +Y le dije: "Vamos a ver en el stano". +y bajamos al stano. Y abr este armario. +Y haba unas mil perchas que haba recolectado. +Porque, cuando le deca que sala a jugar con los nios iba puerta por puerta en el vecindario juntando perchas para dejar en el stano para venderlas. +Porque yo haba visto unas semanas antes que a uno le pagaban. Solan pagar dos centavos por percha. +As que era como, bueno hay todo tipo de perchas. +Y as que voy a ir a por ellas. +Y yo saba que ella no querra que vaya a buscarlas, as que lo hice de todos modos. +Y aprend que se poda negociar con la gente. +Esta persona me ofreci 3 centavos y logr que lo suba a 3,5 centavos. +Saba incluso a los 7 aos que poda obtener una fraccin porcentual de centavo y la gente lo pagara porque se multiplica. +A los 7 aos lo entend. Consegu 3,5 centavos por mil perchas. +Vend protectores de matrculas de puerta en puerta. +Mi pap realmente me hizo ir a buscar a alguien que me las vendiera al por mayor. +Y a los 9 aos caminaba por la ciudad de Sudbury vendiendo protectores de matrculas de puerta en puerta. +Y recuerdo a este cliente de forma vvida porque hice tambin algunas otras cosas con estos clientes. +Vend peridicos. +Y l jams me comprara un peridico. +Pero yo estaba convencido que me iba a comprar un protector de matrculas. +Y l como que "pues, no lo necesitamos". +Y yo le deca: "Pero tienen dos autos" -- tengo 9 aos. +Y yo: "Pero tiene dos autos y no tienen protectores de matrcula". +Y l me deca: "Lo s". +Y yo dije: "El auto de aqu tiene una matrcula toda abollada". +Y l dijo: "S, ese es el auto de mi esposa". Y yo dije: "Por qu no probamos uno en el frente del auto de su esposa y vemos si dura ms". +As que saba que haba dos autos con dos matrculas en cada uno. +Si no poda vender las cuatro, poda vender al menos una. +Aprend eso a muy corta edad. +Hice arbitraje financiero de cmics. +Cuando tena unos 10 aos vend historietas fuera de nuestra casa de campo en la baha de Georgia. +E ira en bicicleta hasta el final de la playa y comprara todas las historietas de los nios pobres. +Y luego regresara a la otra punta de la playa y se las vendera a los nios ricos. +Pero era obvio para m, correcto. Comprar barato, vender caro. +Uno tiene esta demanda por aqu que tiene dinero. +No trates de venderle a los nios pobres; no tienen dinero. Los ricos lo tienen. Anda y toma un poco. +Eso es obvio, correcto. +Es como una recesin. Hay una recesin, +todava hay 13 billones de dlares en circulacin en la economa de EE.UU. +Ve a buscar algo de eso. Y aprend eso a una corta edad. +Tambin aprend a no revelar la fuente porque me apalearon despus de cuatro semanas de hacer esto dado que uno de los nios ricos descubri dnde estaba comprando las historietas y no le gust el hecho de estar pagando mucho ms. +Fui obligado a obtener un reparto de diarios a los 10 aos de edad. +Yo realmente no quera un reparto de diarios, pero a los 10 mi pap dijo: "Ese va a ser tu prximo negocio". +As que no slo me consigui uno sino que tuve dos y luego quiso que contrate a alguien para que reparta la mitad de los diarios cosa que hice, y entonces me di cuenta que con propinas es como se hace todo el dinero. +As que recogera las propinas y recibira el pago. +Yo las recolectara para todos los peridicos. +l slo podra repartirlos. +Porque entonces me di cuenta que podra hacer dinero. +En este punto yo definitivamente no iba a ser un empleado. +Mi pap era dueo de una tienda de reparacin de automotores. +Tena todas estas piezas de automviles antiguos por ah. +Y tenan este viejo bronce y cobre. +Y entonces le pregunt qu haca con eso. Y me dijo que los tiraba. +Y le dije: "Pero alguien no te pagara por eso?" Y l dijo: "Quiz". +Recuerden, a los 10 aos, por ende hace 34 aos vi una oportunidad en esto. +Vi que haba una oportunidad en la basura. +Y la estaba recolectando de todas las tiendas de automviles del rea en mi bicicleta. +Y entonces mi pap me llevara los sbados a un reciclador de chatarra donde me pagaban. +Y pens que era algo "cool". +Curiosamente, 30 aos despus, estamos construyendo 1-800-GOT-JUNK? +y haciendo dinero con eso tambin. +Constru estos pines cuando tena 11 aos en los boy scouts y hemos hecho estos pines para nuestras mams para el Da de la Madre. +E hicimos estos porta agujas con broches de madera cuando solamos tender la ropa en los tendederos exteriores. +Y uno tena estas sillas. +Y tena estas pequeas almohadillas que yo cosera. +Y podan ponerse alfileres en ellas. +Porque la gente sola coser y necesitaban almohadillas. +Pero lo que me di cuenta era que haba que tener opciones. +As que pint una gran cantidad de marrn. +Y luego cuando iba a la puerta, no deca: "Quiere comprar una?" +deca: "De qu color quisiera?" +Era como, tengo 10 aos, no puede decirme que no a m, en especial si tiene dos opciones: tiene las marrones y las claras. +As que aprend esa leccin a una edad temprana. +Aprend que el trabajo manual realmente apesta. +Bueno, como cortar el csped es lo peor. +Pero debido a que tuve que cortar csped todo el verano para todos nuestros vecinos y me pagaban para hacer eso, me di cuenta que los ingresos recurrentes de un cliente es asombroso. +Que si pesco este cliente una vez y cada semana esa persona me paga eso es mucho mejor que si intento vender una almohadilla a una persona. +Porque no se le puede vender ms. +As que me encant ese modelo de ingresos recurrentes que aprend a una edad temprana. +Recuerden, yo estaba siendo preparado para hacer eso. No me permitan tener empleos. +Hice de caddy, ira al campo de golf a hacer de caddy para la gente. +Pero me di cuenta que haba una colina en nuestro campo de golf el hoyo 13 que tena esta colina enorme. +Y la gente nunca poda llevar sus bolsas hasta all. +As que me sentaba all con una silla de jardn y simplemente cargaba para toda la gente que no tena caddy. +Yo llevara sus bolsos de golf hasta la cima y ellos me pagaran un dlar. +Mientras tanto, mis amigos trabajaban por 5 horas transportando la bolsa de alguien y ganaban 10 dlares. +Pens: "Eso es una tontera, porque tienes que trabajar durante cinco horas. +No tiene sentido". Encuentra una manera de ganar ms dinero ms rpido. +Cada semana ira al almacn de la esquina y comprara todas estas gaseosas. +Luego me acercara y las entregara a estas mujeres de 70 aos que jugaban al bridge. +Y me haran el pedido para la semana siguiente. +Y entonces entregara las gaseosas cobrando el doble. +Y tena este mercado cautivo. Uno no necesita contratos. +Simplemente se necesita tener una oferta y una demanda y este pblico que le compre a uno. +Estas mujeres no iban a ir a comprar a nadie ms porque me queran y yo como que me lo imaginaba. +Iba a buscar pelotas a los campos de golf. +Pero todos los dems estaban buscando entre los arbustos y buscando en las zanjas las pelotas de golf. +Y yo como que, eso no va conmigo. Todas estn en el estanque y nadie est entrando all. +As que ira a los estanques, gateando, y las recogera con los dedos de los pies. +Uno simplemente las recoga con ambos pies. +No se puede hacer en el escenario. +Y uno consigue las pelotas de golf y las pone en el traje de bao y cuando uno termina tiene un par de cientos de ellas. +Pero el problema es que la gente no quera todas las pelotas de golf. +As que las empacaba. Yo tena unos 12 aos, correcto. +Las empacaba en tres maneras. +Tena las Pinnacles, las DBHs y las ms codiciadas de entonces. +Esas se vendan a 2 dlares cada una. +Despus tena las buenas, no tan desgastadas, que costaban 50 centavos cada una. +Y luego vendera 50 juntas de las baqueteadas. +Podan usar esas como pelotas de prctica. +Y venda gafas de sol, cuando estaba en la escuela, a todos los nios de la secundaria. +Esto es lo que hace como que todo el mundo te odie porque uno est tratando de sacar dinero todo el tiempo a sus amigos. +Pero eso pagaba las cuentas. +As que vend montones y montones de gafas de sol. +Y luego cuando la escuela me lo prohibi, la escuela en realidad me llam a la oficina y me dijo que no poda hacerlo, as que fui a las estaciones de gasolina y vend montones de gafas a las estaciones e hice que las estaciones se las vendan a sus clientes. +Eso fue genial, porque luego tuve puntos de venta. +Y creo que tena 14 aos. +Y luego me pagu todo el primer ao de universidad en Carlton vendiendo botas de vino de puerta en puerta. +Saben que entran una botella de ron de 1 litro y dos coca-colas en una bota de vino? y qu con eso? +S, pero saben qu? Te la pones entre los pantalones cuando vas a un partido de ftbol puedes entrar alcohol de forma gratuita, todo el mundo las compraba. +Oferta, demanda, gran oportunidad. +Les puse marca, as que las venda a cinco veces lo normal. +Tena el logo de nuestra universidad. +Ya saben, le enseamos a nuestros nios y les compramos juegos, pero por qu no se los compramos si son nios emprendedores, as eso alimenta los rasgos que uno necesita para ser emprendedor? +Por qu no les enseamos a no malgastar el dinero? +Recuerdo que me hicieron caminar por el medio de una calle en Banff, Alberta, porque haba tirado una moneda en la calle. Y mi pap deca: "Ve y bscala". +l deca: "Trabajo muy duro para ganar mi dinero. No quiero verte nunca malgastar un centavo". +Y recuerdo esa leccin hasta el da de hoy. +Las asignaciones semanales inculcan malos hbitos a los nios. +Las asignaciones semanales, por naturaleza, les ensean a pensar en un empleo. +Y el emprendedor no espera una paga regular. +Las asignaciones semanales inculcan a temprana edad esperar una paga regular. +Eso est mal, para m, si uno quiere criar emprendedores. +lo que hago con mis hijos ahora -- tengo dos, de 9 y 7 aos -- es ensearles a caminar por la casa y el patio buscando cosas para hacer. +Venir y decirme qu es. +O ir yo y les dir: "Esto es lo que necesito". +Y luego, saben lo que hacemos? Negociamos. +Ellos van a buscar qu hacer. +Pero luego negociamos cunto se les va a pagar. +Y no tienen un cheque regular, pero tienen ms oportunidades de encontrar ms cosas, y aprenden la habilidad de la negociacin y tambin la habilidad de encontrar oportunidades. +Uno cultiva ese tipo de cosas. Cada uno de mis hijos tiene dos alcancas. +El 50% de todo el dinero que ganan o les regalan, el 50% se destina para su cuenta de la casa, el 50% se destina para su cuenta de juguetes. +Con lo que va a su cuenta de juguetes pueden comprar lo que quieran. +El 50% de lo que va a la cuenta de la casa, cada 6 meses, va al banco. +Van conmigo. Cada ao todo el dinero del banco va a su agente. +Tanto el de 9 aos como el de 7 ya tienen un corredor de bolsa. +Pero yo les estoy enseando a forzar el hbito del ahorro. +Me pone loco cuando escucho a los treintaeros decir "Quiz voy a comenzar a contribuir para mi retiro". +Joder, has perdido 25 aos. +Se les puede ensear esos hbitos a los niitos cuando ni siquiera han sentido el dolor todava. +No les lean cuentos antes de dormir todas las noches. +Tal vez pueden leerles cuentos cuatro noches a la semana y tres noches a la semana hagan que ellos cuenten historias. +Por qu no sentarse con los nios y darles cuatro elementos: una camisa roja, una corbata azul, un canguro y una laptop, y hacer que ellos cuenten una historia con esas cuatro cosas? +Mis hijos hacen eso todo el tiempo. +Les ensea a vender; les ensea creatividad; les ensea a pensar con los pies en la tierra. +Slo hagan este tipo de cosas y divirtanse con eso. +Hagan que los nios se paren en frente de grupos y hablen, incluso si slo es pararse en frente de sus amigos y hacer representaciones y discursos. +Esos son rasgos de emprendedores que uno quiere fomentar. +Mustrenle a los nios cmo se ven los malos clientes y los malos empleados. +Ensenles los empleados de mal humor. +Cuando vean un empleado atendiendo de mal humor al cliente, mustrenselo. +Digan: "A propsito, ese tipo es un mal empleado". +Y digan: "Estos otros son buenos". +Si van a un restaurante y tienen mal servicio de atencin al cliente mustrenles cmo es un mal servicio al cliente. +Tenemos todas esas lecciones frente a nosotros pero no aprovechamos esas oportunidades; les enseamos a ir a conseguir un tutor. +Imaginen si uno en realidad tomara toda la basura de los nios que hay en la casa ahora mismo, todos los juguetes que ya no usan hace 2 aos, y dijera: "Por qu no empezar a vender algo de esto en Craigslist y Kijiji?" +Y que en realidad pueden venderlos y aprender cmo encontrar estafadores cuando llegan ofertas por correo electrnico. +Pueden ingresar a la cuenta de uno o a una subcuenta o lo que sea. +Pero enseles a fijar el precio, estimar el precio, subir las fotos. +Enseles cmo hacer ese tipo de cosas y ganar dinero. +Luego con el dinero que reciben, el 50% va a su cuenta de la casa y 50% va a su cuenta de juguetes. +A mis hijos les encanta esto. +Algunos de los rasgos empresariales que hay que inculcar en los nios: logros, tenacidad, liderazgo, introspeccin, interdependencia, valores. +Uno puede encontrar todos estos rasgos en los nios y ayudarles a desarrollarlos. +Busquen ese tipo de cosas. +Hay otros dos rasgos que tambin quiero que busquen que parece costarnos sacar de su sistema. +No mediquen a los nios por el trastorno por dficit de atencin a menos que sea algo muy, muy anormal. +Y lo mismo con cosas como la mana, el estrs y la depresin, a menos que sea clnicamente serio, hombre. +El trastorno bipolar es llamado "enfermedad del CEO" +Cuando Steve Jurvetson y Jim Clark y Jim Barksdale todos lo tuvieron y construyeron Netscape. Imaginen si les hubiesen dado Ritalin. +No hubisemos tenido esas cosas, verdad? +En realidad Al Gore habra inventado Internet. +Estas son las habilidades que deberamos estar enseando en las aulas como todas las dems. +No se trata de impedir que los nios quieran ser abogados. +Pero qu tal si posicionamos el emprendimiento bien en lo alto junto al resto de las dems. +Porque hay grandes oportunidades en eso. +Quiero terminar con un videito rpido. +Es un video que fue realizado por una de las empresas que apoyo. +Estos chicos, Grasshopper. +Es sobre los nios. Es sobre iniciativa empresarial. +Espero que esto los lleve a tomar lo que han odo de m y hacer algo con eso para cambiar el mundo. +[Snscrito] Esta es una oda a la diosa madre, que la mayora de nosotros en la India aprendemos cuando somos nios. +Lo aprend cuando tenia 4 aos en la rodilla de mi madre. +Ese ao ella me introdujo al baile. Y asi empez mi encuentro con el baile clsico. +Desde entonces-- hace ya 4 dcadas -- me he entrenado con lo mejor en el campo, me he presentado alrededor del mundo, he enseado a jvenes y viejos, creado, colaborado, coreografeado, y he tejido un rico tapiz de arte, logros y reconocimientos. +El coronamiento glorioso fue en 2007, cuando recib el 4to. reconocimiento otorgado a un civil ms importante de la India, el Padmashri, por mi contribucin al arte. +Pero nada, nada me prepar para lo que iba a escuchar el 1ero. de julio de 2008. +Escuch la palabra "carcinoma". +Si, cncer de seno. +Mientras me sentaba muda en la oficina de mi doctor, escuch otras palabras, cncer, escenario, grado. +Hasta ese momento, cncer era el signo de zodaco de mi amiga, escenario era donde yo bailaba y grados eran los que alcanzaba en la escuela. +Ese da, me di cuenta que tena un nuevo compaero de vida no bienvenido y no invitado. +Como bailarina, conozco los nueve rasas o los navarasas: rabia, valor, disgusto, humor y miedo. +Pens que saba lo que era el miedo. +Ese da, aprend lo que era el miedo. +Abrumada con la enormidad de todo y el sentimiento de una completa prdida de control, Solt copiosas lgrimas y le pregunt a mi querido esposo, Jayant. +Le dije, "Esto es todo? Es el final del camino? +Es el final de mi baile?" +Y l, el alma positiva que l es, dijo, "No, esto es solo un hiato, un hiato durante el tratamiento, y volvers a hacer lo que sabes hacer mejor." +Me d cuenta entonces de que yo, quien crea que tena completo control de mi vida, tena control solo de tres cosas: Mi pensamiento, mi mente-- las imgenes que esos pensamientos creaban- y las acciones que se derivaban de ahi. +Entonces, yo estaba ahi, revolcndome en un vrtice de emociones y depresin, con lo enormidad de la situacin, queriendo ir a un lugar de sanacin, salud y felicidad. +Quera ir de donde estaba a donde quera estar, para lo cual necesitaba algo. +Necesitaba algo que me sacara de todo esto. +As que me sequ las lgrimas, y declar ante el mundo en grande... +yo dije, "El cncer es solo una pgina en mi vida, y no dejar que esta pgina impacte el resto de mi vida." +Tambin declar ante el mundo que lo cabalgara, y que no dejara que el cncer me cabalgara a mi. +Pero para ir de donde estaba a donde quera estar, necesitaba algo. +Necesitaba un ancla, una imagen, un estaca para clavar este proceso, y asi poder avanzar desde ah. +Y encontr en mi baile, mi danza, mi fuerza, mi energa, mi pasin, mi aliento de vida. +Pero no fue fcil. +Cranme, definitivamente no fue fcil. +Cmo mantienes la alegra cuando pasas de ser hermosa a calva en 3 das? +Cmo no desesperarse cuando, con el cuerpo devastado por la quimioterapia, subir tan solo un piso de escaleras era una tortura, para alguien como yo que poda bailar por 3 horas? +Cmo no te sientes abrumado por la desesperacin y la miseria de todo? +Todo lo que quera hacer era encogerme y llorar. +Pero me mantuve diciendo a mi misma que el miedo y las lgrimas eran opciones que no tena. +As que me iba a mi estudio de baile, cuerpo, mente y espritu, cada da a mi estudio de baile, y aprender todo lo que aprend cuando tena 4 aos, una vez ms, re-trabajado, re-aprendido, re-agrupado. +Fue terriblemente doloroso, pero lo hice. +Difcil. +Me enfoqu en mis mudras, en las imgenes de mi baile, en la poesa y la metfora y la filosofa del baile en s mismo. +Y lentamente, sal de ese miserable estado mental. +Pero necesitaba algo ms. +Necesitaba algo para llegar a esa milla extra. Y lo encontr en esa metfora que haba aprendido de mi madre cuando tenia 4 aos. +La metfora Mahishasura Mardhini, de Durga. +Durga, la diosa madre, la valiente, creada por el panten de dioses hindes. +Durga, resplandeciente, adornada, bella, sus 18 brazos listos para la guerra, mientras ella cabalgaba su len en el campo de batalla para destruir Mahishasur. +Durga, el paradigma, de la energa creativa femenina, o shakti. +Durga, la valiente. +Hice esa imagen de Durga y cada uno de sus atributos, cada matiz, mios propios. +Empoderada por la simbologa de un mito y la pasin de mi entrenamiento. Adopt un enfoque certero a mi baile. El enfoque certero lleg a tal extensin que bail pocas semanas despus de la ciruga. +Bail durante los ciclos de quimio y radiacin, a pesar de la consternacin de mi onclogo. +Bail entre los ciclos de radiacin y quimio y me las arregl para adaptarlos a mi itinerario de baile. +Lo que haba hecho es que me haba desconectado del cncer y me conect con mi baile. +S, el cncer ha sido solo una pgina en mi vida. +Mi historia es una historia de vencer infortunios, obstculos y retos que la vida te presenta. +Mi historia es el poder del pensamiento. +Mi historia es el poder de la eleccin. +Es el poder del enfoque. +Es el poder de traer a nuestra atencin algo que te anima, que te mueve, algo que hace que inclusive el cncer se convierta en algo insignificante. +Mi historia es el poder de la metfora. +Es el poder de una imagen. +La ma fue Durga, Durga, la valiente. +Ella tambin era llamada Simhanandini, la que cabalg al len. +Segn cabalgaba, segn cabalgaba mi propia fortaleza interior, mi propia resiliencia interior, armada como estoy con lo que la medicina puede proveer y el tratamiento continuo, segn me liberaba del campo de batalla del cncer, pidindole a mis clulas que se comportaran, quiero ser conocida, no como una sobreviviente del cncer, sino como una conquistadora del cncer. +Les presento una muestra de ese trabajo "Simhanandani." +Voy a hablarles de una de las sencillas verdades del liderazgo en el siglo XXI. +En el siglo XXI realmente necesitamos mirar -- lo que en realidad quiero animarlos a considerar hoy -- es a volver a nuestros das escolares cuando aprendimos a contar. +Realmente creo que es hora de que pensemos en lo que contamos. +Porque lo que contamos cuenta de verdad. +Permtanme relatarles una pequea historia. +sta es Van Quach. +Lleg a este pas en 1986 desde Vietnam. +Cambi su nombre por el de Vivian porque quera encajar aqu en Estados Unidos. +Su primer trabajo fue en un motel cntrico en San Francisco como camarera. +Dio la casualidad de que compr ese motel unos 3 meses despus de que Vivian comenzara a trabajar all. +As que Vivian y yo hemos estado trabajando juntos durante 23 aos. +Con el idealismo juvenil de los 26 aos, en 1987, mont mi empresa y la llam Joie de Vivre (Alegra de vivir), un nombre muy poco prctico, porque yo intentaba de verdad crear alegra de vivir. +Y este primer hotel que compr, un motel, era un motel por horas, un hotel del amor, en el centro de San Francisco. +A medida que pasaba tiempo con Vivian vi que tena una especie de "joie de vivre" en la manera de hacer su trabajo. +Me hice preguntas y me dio curiosidad: cmo podra alguien encontrar alegra en limpiar baos para ganarse la vida? +As que pas tiempo con Vivian y vi que no hallaba alegra en limpiar baos. +Su tarea, su objetivo y su vocacin no era volverse la mejor limpiadora de baos del mundo. +Lo que contaba para Vivian era la conexin emocional que estableca con sus compaeros empleados y con nuestros clientes. +Y lo que la inspiraba y le daba sentido a su trabajo era el hecho de que, en realidad, estaba cuidando a gente que estaba muy lejos de casa. +Porque Vivian saba lo que se senta al estar lejos de casa. +Esa leccin muy humana, hace ms de 20 aos, me sirvi mucho en la ltima recesin econmica que tuvimos. +A raz de la cada de las puntocom y del 11-S los hoteles del rea de la baha de San Francisco atravesaron la mayor cada porcentual de ingresos en la historia de los hoteles de EE.UU. +ramos el operador ms grande de hoteles en el rea de la baha, as que ramos especialmente vulnerables. +Adems, en ese entonces, recuerden que dejamos de comer papas fritas "a la francesa" en este pas. +Bueno, no exactamente. Por supuesto que no. +En realidad empezamos a comer "papas de la libertad", y empezamos a boicotear cualquier cosa que fuera francesa. +Bueno, el nombre de mi empresa, Joie de Vivre... As que empec a recibir cartas de lugares como Alabama u Orange County diciendo que iban a boicotear mi empresa porque pensaban que ramos una empresa francesa. +Y les responda diciendo: "No tan rpido. No somos franceses. +Somos una empresa estadounidense. Nuestra sede est en San Francisco". +Y me respondan lacnicamente: "Oh, eso es peor". +As que un da dado, cuando me senta un poco deprimido y no tena mucha "joie de vivre" termin en la librera local, a la vuelta de la esquina de nuestra oficina. +Al principio consult la seccin de negocios de la librera buscando una solucin empresarial. +Pero dada mi confusin mental, termin en la seccin de autoayuda muy rpidamente. +Y ah es donde me reencontr con la jerarqua de necesidades de Abraham Maslow. +Tom una clase de psicologa en la universidad y aprendimos algunas cosas sobre este tipo, Abraham Maslow, ya que muchos estamos familiarizados con su "jerarqua de necesidades". +Pero all sentado durante 4 horas, toda la tarde leyendo a Maslow, me di cuenta de algo que puede aplicarse a la mayora de los lderes. +Uno de los hechos ms simples en los negocios es algo que a menudo descuidamos. Y es que todos somos humanos. +Y que cada uno de nosotros, sin importar nuestra funcin en el negocio, tiene en realidad una jerarqua de necesidades en su lugar de trabajo. +As que a medida que lea ms a Maslow empec a darme cuenta de que Maslow, al final de su vida, quera llevar esta jerarqua del individuo y aplicarla a lo colectivo, a las organizaciones y, especficamente, a los negocios. +Pero, por desgracia, muri prematuramente en 1970. Y por eso no pudo vivir ese sueo en forma completa. +As que, en la crisis de las puntocom, me di cuenta de que mi papel en la vida era canalizar a Abe Maslow. +Y eso es lo que hice hace pocos aos cuando tom esa pirmide de jerarqua de necesidades de 5 niveles y la convert en lo que yo llamo la pirmide de transformacin, que consiste en supervivencia, xito y transformacin. +No slo es fundamental en los negocios sino que es fundamental en la vida. +Y comenzamos a plantearnos las preguntas de cmo estbamos abordando en realidad las necesidades superiores, estas necesidades de transformacin para nuestros empleados clave en la compaa. +Estos 3 niveles de la jerarqua de necesidades estn relacionados con los 5 niveles de la jerarqua de necesidades de Maslow. +Pero al preguntarnos cmo estbamos abordando las necesidades superiores de nuestros empleados y clientes, me di cuenta de que no tenamos forma de medirlo. +No tenamos nada que nos dijese en verdad si lo estbamos haciendo bien. +As que comenzamos a preguntarnos: qu tipo de medida no tan obvia podramos usar para evaluar realmente la razn de ser de nuestros empleados o la conexin emocional de nuestros clientes con nosotros? +Por ejemplo, empezamos a preguntarles a nuestros empleados si comprendan la misin de nuestra compaa, y si sentan que crean en ella, si realmente podan influir en ella, y si pensaban que su trabajo tena un impacto real. +Y empezamos a preguntarles a nuestros clientes si sentan una conexin emocional con nosotros a travs de siete posibles respuestas. +Milagrosamente, a medida que hacamos estas preguntas y empezbamos a prestar atencin a la parte alta de la pirmide nos dimos cuenta de que crebamos ms fidelidad. +La fidelidad de nuestros clientes toc las nubes. +La rotacin de nuestro personal cay a 1/3 del promedio de la industria. Y durante ese estallido puntocom de 5 aos, triplicamos el tamao. +Y a medida que sala y empezaba a pasar tiempo con otros lderes y les preguntaba cmo estaban resistiendo ese periodo, lo que me decan una y otra vez era que ellos slo gestionaban lo que se poda medir. +Y lo que podemos medir es esa cosa tangible de la base de la pirmide. +Ni siquiera vean la cosa intangible de la parte ms alta de la pirmide. +As que comenc a hacerme la pregunta: cmo podemos conseguir lderes que empiecen a valorar lo intangible? +Si se nos ensea como lderes slo a gestionar lo que podemos medir y todo lo que podemos medir es lo tangible en la vida, nos estamos perdiendo una gran cantidad de cosas del tope de la pirmide. +As que como lderes entendemos que los intangibles son importantes pero no tenemos ni idea de cmo medirlos. +Y aqu otra cita de Einstein: "No todo lo que puede ser contado cuenta, y no todo lo que cuenta puede ser contado". +No me gusta discutir con Einstein pero si eso que es lo ms valioso de nuestras vidas y de nuestros negocios realmente no se puede contar ni evaluar, nos vamos a pasar nuestras vidas enredados en medir lo mundano? +Fue esa suerte de pregunta embriagadora sobre lo que cuenta la que me llev a quitarme el sombrero de director general por una semana y volar a las cumbres del Himalaya. +Vol a un lugar que ha estado rodeado de misterio durante siglos, un lugar que algunos llaman Shangri la. +Ha pasado de estar en la base de supervivencia de la pirmide a convertirse en un modelo de transformacin para el mundo. +Fui a Butn. +El rey adolescente de Butn es tambin un hombre curioso pero esto fue en 1972 cuando ascendi al trono dos das despus del fallecimiento de su padre. +A los 17 aos empez a preguntarse el tipo de cuestiones que uno esperara de alguien con una mente de principiante. +En un viaje por la India, al principio de su reinado, un periodista indio le pregunt por el PIB de Butn, por el tamao del PIB de Butn. +Y el rey respondi de una manera que realmente nos ha transformado cuatro dcadas despus. +Respondi lo siguiente: "Por qu nos obsesiona tanto y nos centramos tanto en el producto interior bruto? +Por qu no nos preocupamos por la felicidad nacional bruta?". +En esencia, el rey nos estaba pidiendo considerar una definicin alternativa de xito, lo que ha llegado a llamarse la FNB, o felicidad nacional bruta. +La mayora de los lderes mundiales no le hicieron caso, y los que se lo hicieron pensaron que era slo "economa budista". +Pero el rey hablaba en serio. +Durante las siguientes casi cuatro dcadas en su puesto de rey comenz a medir y a gestionar la felicidad en Butn. Y esto incluye haber llevado a su pas recientemente de ser una monarqua absoluta a ser una monarqua constitucional sin derramamiento de sangre, ni golpe de Estado. +Butn, para quienes no lo sepan, es la democracia ms nueva del mundo, tiene solamente dos aos. +As que a medida que pasaba tiempo con lderes del movimiento FNB llegu a comprender realmente lo que estn haciendo. +Adems, logr pasar algn tiempo con el primer ministro. +Durante la cena le hice una pregunta impertinente. +Le pregunt: "Cmo puede crear y medir algo que se evapora, en otras palabras, la felicidad?". +Es un hombre muy sabio, y repondi: "Escuche, el objetivo de Butn no es crear felicidad. +Nosotros creamos las condiciones para que la felicidad ocurra. +En otras palabras, creamos el hbitat de la felicidad". +Guau! Eso es interesante. +Y aadi que tienen una ciencia detrs de ese arte. Han creado cuatro pilares esenciales, nueve indicadores clave y 72 medidores diferentes que ayudan a medir su FNB. +De hecho, uno de estos indicadores clave es: Cmo se sienten los butaneses respecto de cmo pasan su tiempo cada da? +Es una buena pregunta. Cmo te sientes respecto de cmo pasas el tiempo cada da? +El tiempo es uno de los recursos ms escasos en el mundo moderno. +Y sin embargo, claro, esa pequea pieza intangible de datos no se tiene en cuenta en nuestros clculos del PIB. +As que en mi semana en el Himalaya empec a imaginar lo que llamo una ecuacin emocional. +Se centra en algo que le hace mucho tiempo de un tipo llamado Rab Hyman Schachtel. +Cuntos lo conocen? Alguien? +En 1954 escribi un libro llamado "The Real Enjoyment of Living" (El verdadero placer de vivir). Sugera que la felicidad no consiste en tener lo que queremos, sino que consiste en querer lo que tenemos. +O, en otras palabras, pienso que los butaneses creen que la felicidad es querer lo que tenemos -- por ejemplo, imaginen la gratitud -- dividido entre tener lo que queremos -- gratificacin. +Los butaneses no estn en la vorgine de consumo constantemente pendientes de lo que no tienen. +Su religin, su aislamiento, su gran respeto por su cultura y ahora los principios de su movimiento FNB, todos han forjado un sentido de la gratitud respecto de lo que tienen. +Cuntos de nosotros, como seguidores de TED en la audiencia, pasamos ms tiempo en la parte inferior de esta ecuacin, en el denominador? +Somos una cultura "inferior-intensiva" en muchos aspectos. +La realidad es que en los pases occidentales a menudo nos centramos en perseguir la felicidad como si la felicidad fuera algo que conseguimos de fuera -- un objeto que hemos de perseguir hasta conseguirlo, o quiz muchos objetos. +De hecho, si buscamos en el diccionario muchos diccionarios definen "perseguir" como "ir detrs con hostilidad". +Perseguimos la felicidad con hostilidad? +Buena pregunta. Pero volviendo a Butn. +Butn limita en realidad al norte y al sur con el 38 % de la poblacin mundial. +Podra este pequeo pas, como una pyme en una industria madura, ser la chispa que influya realmente a la clase media del siglo XXI en China e India? +Butn ha creado la exportacin definitiva, una nueva divisa global de bienestar. Y hoy en da hay 40 pases en el mundo que estn estudiando su propia FNB. +Quiz hayan escuchado el otoo pasado a Nicols Sarkozy anunciando en Francia los resultados de un estudio de 18 meses hecho por dos economistas laureados con el Nobel centrado en la felicidad y el bienestar en Francia. +Sarkozy sugera que los lderes del mundo deberan dejar de mirar el PIB con cortedad de miras y considerar un nuevo ndice que algunos franceses estn llamando "ndice joie de vivre". +Me gusta. +Oportunidades de negocio. +Por lo tanto, sugiere que la inercia est cambiando. +He tomado esa cita de Robert Kennedy y la he convertido en un nuevo balance para utilizarla aqu un momento. +Todo esto es un conjunto de cosas de las que Robert Kennedy dijo en esa cita. +El PIB lo cuenta todo, desde la contaminacin ambiental hasta la destruccin de nuestras secuoyas. +Pero en realidad no cuenta la salud de nuestros hijos ni la integridad de nuestros funcionarios pblicos. +Cuando miran estas dos columnas de aqu, no les da la sensacin de que es hora de empezar a imaginar una nueva manera de contar, una nueva forma de concebir qu es lo importante en nuestras vidas? +Ciertamente, Robert Kennedy sugiri al final del discurso exactamente eso. +Dijo que el PIB "lo mide todo en una palabra, salvo lo que hace que la vida valga la pena". +Guau! +Entonces, cmo lo hacemos? +Permtanme decirles una cosa que podemos intentar en los prximos 10 aos, al menos en este pas. +Por qu diablos en EE.UU. hacemos un censo en 2010? +Nos hemos gastado 10 mil millones de dlares en hacer el censo. +Hacemos 10 preguntas muy simples... eso es ingenuidad. +Todas esas preguntas son tangibles. +Son sobre demografa. +Son cosas como dnde vivimos, con cunta gente vivimos, y si somos propietarios de nuestra casa o no. +Eso es todo. +No estamos preguntando por medidores significativos. +No formulamos preguntas importantes. +No preguntamos nada intangible. +Abe Maslow dijo hace mucho algo que han escuchado antes, pero no saban que era de l. +Dijo: "Si la nica herramienta que uno tiene es un martillo, todo empezar a parecerse a un clavo". +Nuestra herramienta nos ha engaado. +Perdonen la expresin. +Nuestra herramienta nos ha engaado. +El PIB ha sido nuestro martillo +y nuestro clavo ha sido el modelo de xito de la era industrial de los siglos XIX y XX. +Y, sin embargo, el 64 % del PIB mundial de hoy est en esa industria intangible que llamamos servicios, la industria de los servicios, la industria en la que yo estoy. +Y slo el 36 % est en las industrias tangibles, en la industria y en la agricultura. +As que tal vez sea hora de conseguir una caja de herramientas ms grande, no? +Quiz sea hora de conseguir una caja de herramientas que no slo cuente lo fcil de contar, lo tangible de la vida, sino que en realidad cuente lo que ms valoramos, las cosas que son intangibles. +Supongo que soy un director general curioso. +Fui tambin un economista peculiar cuando era estudiante. +Y aprend que los economistas miden todo en unidades tangibles de produccin y consumo como si todas esas unidades tangibles fueran exactamente iguales. +Pero no son iguales. +De hecho, como lderes, lo que tenemos que aprender es que podemos influir realmente en la calidad de esa unidad de produccin creando las condiciones para que nuestros empleados sigan su vocacin. +De hecho, en el caso de Vivian su unidad de produccin no son las horas tangibles que trabaja. Es la diferencia intangible que produce durante una hora de trabajo. +ste es Dave Arringdale. Ha sido cliente en el motel de Vivian mucho tiempo. +Se ha quedado all un centenar de veces en los ltimos 20 aos. Es fiel a la casa debido a la relacin que Vivian y sus compaeros han entablado con l. +Han creado un hbitat de felicidad para Dave. +Me cuenta que siempre puede contar con que Vivian y el personal de all lo harn sentir siempre como en casa. +Por qu ser que los lderes empresariales e inversores con mucha frecuencia no ven la conexin entre crear el intangible de la felicidad del empleado y crear el tangible de los beneficios financieros en sus negocios? +No tenemos que elegir entre empleados inspirados y beneficios considerables. Podemos tener ambos. +De hecho, est claro que los empleados inspirados ayudan muy a menudo a obtener beneficios considerables. +Por eso lo que el mundo necesita ahora, en mi opinin, son lderes empresariales y polticos que sepan qu contar. +Contamos nmeros. +Contamos con gente. +Lo que en realidad cuenta es cuando usamos realmente nuestros nmeros para tener en cuenta verdaderamente a nuestra gente. +Aprend eso de la camarera de un motel y del rey de un pas. +Qu pueden empezar a contar ustedes hoy? +Qu cosa pueden empezar a contar hoy que realmente tenga sentido en sus vidas, ya sea en su vida laboral o en la empresarial? +Muchsimas gracias. +Voy a comenzar recitando un poema. +"Oh, querido dentista: Tus dedos de goma en mi boca... +tu voz tan suave y apagada... +bjate la mscara querido dentista, bjate la mscara". +Bueno, en esta presentacin, voy a estar sometiendo el lado derecho de sus cerebros a un entrenamiento bastante estricto. +Van a ver un montn de imgenes no siempre relacionadas con lo que est diciendo. As que necesito que dividan sus cerebros en dos mitades, dejen que las imgenes fluyan por un lado y escuchenme a m por el otro. +As que soy una de esas personas con una historia personal de transformacin. +Hace 6 aos luego de 20 aos dentro del campo del diseo grfico y la tipografa, cambi mi modo de trabajo y el de la mayora de los diseadores grficos para darle a mi trabajo un enfoque ms personal, con slo la humilde pretensin de, simplemente, ganarme la vida haciendo lo que me gustaba. +Pero algo extrao sucedi. +Inesperadamente me volv famosa. +Mi trabajo actual parece repercutir en la gente en una forma que me ha tomado muy de sorpresa y que an me hace preguntarme con frecuencia qu diablos est pasando. +Y poco a poco voy entendiendo que el atractivo de lo que hago tiene que ver con el porqu lo hago. +Actualmente me autodenomino artista grfica. +Mientras mi trabajo como diseadora grfica consista en seguir una estrategia, mi trabajo de ahora consiste en seguir a mi corazn y a mis intereses con la gua de mi ego para realizar un trabajo que sea tan beneficioso para m como para el cliente. +Ahora bien, esto es una hereja en el mundo del diseo. +Se supone que el ego no debe inmiscuirse en el diseo grfico. +Pero me parece que en mi caso, sin excepcin, cuanto ms tomo el trabajo como algo propio, como algo personal, ms exitoso es como algo convincente, interesante y sostenible. +De modo que estoy, en cierto modo, moviendome fuera de la corriente de los patrones del diseo. +Donde otros pudieran ver resultados cuantificables, yo tiendo a estar interesada en cualidades ms etreas cosas como, producir esto alegra? +reflejar un sentido de asombro? +provocar curiosidad? +Este es un diagrama cientfico, por cierto. +No tengo tiempo para explicarlo pero tiene que ver con el ADN y el ARN. +As que tengo un enfoque particular e imaginativo del trabajo visual. +Las cosas que me interesan cuando estoy trabajando son la estructura visual, la sorpresa, y todo lo que requiera imaginarse cosas. +Por esta razn, me siento particularmente atrada por sistemas y patrones. +Les voy a dar un par de ejemplos de la forma en que funciona mi cerebro. +Esta es una pieza que hice para el peridico "The Guardian" del R.U. +Ellos tienen una revista llamada G2. +Y sta es para su especial de acertijos de 2007. +Y es sorprendente. +Empec creando una serie de celdas. +Y las dise especficamente para que contengan fragmentos de letras en sus figuras de manera que luego pueda unir esas piezas para crear letras y luego palabras dentro de los patrones abstractos. +Pero luego tambin tuve la oportunidad de darlas vuelta, de rotarlas, y combinarlas de diferentes maneras para crear, bien patrones regulares o patrones abstractos. +He aqu la palabra "puzzle" +Y aqu est con un marco abstracto. +Y, como pueden ver, es extremadamente difcil de leer. +Pero todo lo que tengo que hacer es rellenar ciertas reas de estos fragmentos de letras y puedo destacar esas palabras del patrn de fondo. +Pero quizs eso es demasiado obvio. +Tambin me interesa trabajar con materiales inusuales y materiales comunes de formas inusuales. +Esto requiere encontrar la forma de sacar el mximo partido de las propiedades innatas de algo y tambin cmo someterlas a mi voluntad. +En ltima instancia mi meta es crear algo inesperado. +Pensando en esto, he trabajado con azcar para Stefan Sagmeister, tres veces orador de TED. +Y este proyecto comenz, bsicamente, en la mesa de mi cocina. +Yo he comido cereal para el desayuno toda mi vida. +Y todo ese tiempo he estado derramando azcar en la mesa y jugando, en cierta forma, con ella entre mis dedos. +Y, con el tiempo, he empleado esta tcnica para crear una obra de arte. +Y luego la us otra vez para crear seis piezas para el libro de Stefan "Things in My Life I've Learned So Far" (Cosas que he aprendido en mi vida hasta ahora) +Y estas fueron creadas sin bocetos, a mano alzada, poniendo el azcar sobre una superficie blanca manipulndola luego para obtener las palabras y los diseos. +Hace poco hice tambin algunos impresionantes bordes barrocos, con pasta comn y corriente. +Y esto es para un captulo que estoy haciendo en un libro. El captulo es sobre el honor. +As que es un poquito inesperado pero, en cierto modo, se refiere al arte de macarrones que los nios hacen para sus padres, o lo hacen en la escuela y se los dan a los padres, que es en s una forma del honor. +Esto es lo que se puede hacer con papel de aluminio casero. +Bueno, es lo que yo puedo hacer con papel de aluminio casero. +Estoy muy interesada en el asombro, en el diseo como mpetu para indagar. +Decir que me da curiosidad es decir que cuestiono, que pregunto. +Y experimentar asombro es sentir admiracin. +Por eso actualmente estoy trabajando en un libro que juega con ambas palabras (pregunta, asombro) mientras exploro algunas de mis propias ideas y preguntas en un despliegue visual ms bien del tipo pavo real. +El mundo est lleno de asombro. +Pero el mundo del diseo grfico en su mayor parte, no lo est. +As que estoy usando mis propios escritos como una suerte de campo de ensayo para un libro que tiene una interdependencia entre palabra e imagen, como una suerte de fuerza seductora. +Pienso que una de las cosas que las religiones entendieron bien fue usar la maravilla visual para transmitir un mensaje. +Creo que el matrimonio real entre el arte y la informacin lamentablemente es muy poco utilizado en la literatura de adultos. Y estoy perpleja en cuanto a por qu la riqueza visual no se usa con ms frecuencia para realzar la riqueza intelectual. +Cuando miramos trabajos como este tendemos a asociarlo con la literatura infantil. +Hay una inferencia que supone que los grficos ornamentales van en detrimento de la seriedad del contenido. +Pero espero realmente tener la oportunidad de cambiar esa percepcin. +Este libro me est llevando mucho tiempo. Pero ya casi termino. +Por alguna razn pens que sera buena idea poner un intermedio en mi charla. +Y eso es todo... slo para darles y darme un momento para ponernos al da. +As que hago estas tarjetas de San Valentn. +He estado enviando tarjetas de San Valentn en una escala bastante grande desde 2005. +Estas son mis tarjetas de San Valentn de 2005 y 2006. +Y empec haciendo una imagen simple como esta y envindosela a cada persona. +Pero en 2007 tuve la idea descabellada de dibujar a mano cada tarjeta para cada persona en mi lista de correo. +Reduje mi lista de correo a 150 personas. +Y le dibuj a cada persona una tarjeta personalizada y le puse su nombre la enumer, la firm y se la envi. +Crase o no, vi esto como una manera de ahorrar tiempo. +Estaba muy ocupada al comienzo de ese ao y no saba cundo iba a encontrar tiempo para disear e imprimir las tarjetas. +Y pens que podra hacerlo gradualmente mientras viajaba. +No se dio exactamente de esa manera. +La historia es un poco ms larga pero logr terminarlas a tiempo y fueron muy bien recibidas. +Tuve un promedio de respuesta de casi un 100%. +Y los que no respondieron no volvern a recibir nada de mi parte otra vez. +El ao pasado le di un enfoque ms conceptual para las tarjetas. +Tuve esta idea de que la gente recibiera una especie de carta de amor misteriosa como una nota encontrada en el buzn. +Quera que fuera algo que no fuera dirigido a ellos o firmado por m algo que les sembrara la duda, sobre qu diablos era esta cosa. +Y escrib especficamente cuatro pginas inconexas. +Haba cuatro versiones distintas. +Y las escrib de manera que comenzaran a mitad de una frase, y que terminaran a mitad de otra. +Y son por un lado universales por eso evit nombres especficos o lugares pero por otro lado, son personales. +Quera que la gente realmente sintiera que haban recibido algo que podra haber sido una carta de amor para ellos. +Y les voy a leer una de ellas. +"Nunca se puede estar seguro de esto pero puedo asegurarte que este capricho del que eres tan consciente es intensamente entraable. +Slo acepta, por favor, que esta parte de ti se escapa con tu sonrisa, y los que la notamos estamos felices de captarla a la pasada. +El tiempo que paso contigo es como perseguir y atrapar pequeos pjaros, pero sin los araazos ni el estircol". +"Es decir, tus pensamientos revolotean y se precipitan, desconcertantemente esquivos a veces, pero si los atrapo y examino Ah, qu maravilla! Qu recompensa deliciosa! +El tiempo no pasa contigo, slo atesorar -- atesorar los momentos, con la esperanza de guardarlos y, al mismo tiempo liberarlos +Imposible? No lo creo. +S que esto te avergenza. +Con seguridad puedo verte sonrojar. +Pero te lo tengo que decir porque a veces te escucho dudar y es tan abrumador pensar que puedes no saber realmente lo maravilloso que eres, cuan inspirador y encantador y en realidad, verdaderamente el ms..." +El da de San Valentn se aproxima en un par de das. Y stas estn llegando actualmente a buzones en todo el mundo. +Este ao lo que en realidad tengo que decir, es una idea bastante brillante, cortar con lser, cortar con lser mis tarjetas utilizando tarjetas navideas usadas. +As que le ped a mis amigos que me enven sus tarjetas navideas viejas. E hice 500 de stas. +Cada una de ellas es totalmente diferente. +Estoy muy, muy contenta con ellas. +No tengo mucho ms que aadir. Pero quedaron muy bonitas. +Le dedico un montn de tiempo a mi trabajo. +Y una de las cosas que he estado pensando recientemente es, qu es lo que vale la pena. +En qu es eso que vale la pena que dedique mi tiempo y mi vida de esta manera? +Trabajar en el mundo comercial es algo con lo que tengo que lidiar a veces. +Y, s, a veces el dinero influye. +Pero, en ltima instancia, no lo veo como un objetivo encomiable. +Lo que hace que algo valga la pena para m es la gente con la que trabajo las condiciones bajo las que trabajo y la audiencia a la que soy capaz de llegar. +Podra preguntar: Para quin es? +Qu dice eso? +Y qu hace eso? +Saben, debo decirles que es realmente difcil para alguien como yo subir al escenario en esta conferencia con estas mentes increblemente brillantes, que estn pensando estas ideas y tecnologas realmente abarcadoras que cambian el mundo y las vidas. +Y es muy, muy comn para los diseadores y la gente de las artes visuales sentir que nosotros no contribuimos lo suficiente. O peor, que todo lo que hacemos es contribuir al vertedero. +Aqu estoy yo mostrndoles algunos efectos visuales bonitos y hablando de esttica. +Pero he llegado a creer que el trabajo visual verdaderamente imaginativo es extremadamente importante para la sociedad. +Del mismo modo en que me inspiro en los libros y revistas de todo tipo, en conversaciones que tengo, en pelculas, as tambin pienso cuando expongo mi trabajo visual en los medios, trabajos interesantes, inusuales, intrigantes, trabajos que quiz despierten ese sentido de inquietud en la mente, pienso que estoy fomentando la imaginacin de la poblacin. +Y uno nunca sabe quin va a tomar algo de eso y convertirlo en otra cosa. Porque la inspiracin es como la polinizacin cruzada. +As que una obra ma puede inspirar a un dramaturgo a un novelista o a un cientfico y eso a su vez puede ser la semilla que inspire a un mdico a un filntropo o a una niera. +Y esto no es algo que uno pueda cuantificar, rastrear, o medir. Y en la sociedad tendemos a subestimar las cosas que no podemos medir. +Pero creo realmente que una sociedad rica, que funcione a plenitud, necesita semillas de todas direcciones y de todas las disciplinas para mantener los engranajes de la inspiracin y la imaginacin fluyendo, circulando y creciendo. +Y realmente siento que vale la pena dedicar mi valioso y limitado tiempo en esta tierra de este modo. +Y les agradezco que me permitan mostrrselo. +Es un gran placer estar aqu. +Es un gran placer hablar despus de Brian Cox del CERN. +Creo que el CERN es el hogar del Gran Colisionador de Hadrones. +Qu pas con el Pequeo Colisionador de Hadrones? +Dnde est el Pequeo Colisionador de Hadrones? +Porque el Pequeo Colisionador de Hadrones una vez fue la gran cosa. +Ahora, el Pequeo Colisionador de Hadrones est en un armario, desatendido y se lo pasa por alto. +Ya saben, cuando el Gran Colisionador de Hadrones no funcion, la gente se preguntaba por qu, era el equipo del Pequeo Colisionador de Hadrones que lo sabote porque estaban celosos. +Toda la familia del Colisionador de Hadrones necesita abrirse. +La leccin de la presentacin de Brian, en cierto modo, todas esas fotos fantsticas, es en realidad que: que el punto de vista determina todo lo que uno ve. +Lo que Brian estaba diciendo era que la ciencia ha abierto sucesivamente diferentes puntos de vista desde los que podemos vernos a nosotros mismos. Y por eso es tan valiosa. +As que el punto de vista que uno adopta determina prcticamente todo lo que uno ver. +La pregunta que uno se haga determina en gran medida la respuesta que uno obtiene. +Y as si uno se hace esta pregunta: Dnde mirara para ver el futuro de la educacin? +La respuesta que tradicionalmente recibimos es muy directa, al menos en los ltimos 20 aos. Vaya a Finlandia. +Finlandia es el mejor lugar del mundo para ver sistemas educativos. +Los finlandeses podrn ser un poquito aburridos, depresivos y tener altas tasas de suicidio, pero caramba que estn cualificados. +Y, absolutamente, tienen increbles sistemas educativos. +Y marchamos en contingentes a Finlandia y nos maravillamos del milagro socialdemcrata finlands y de su homogeneidad cultural y de todo eso, y entonces nos cuesta imaginar cmo podramos aprender lecciones de eso. +Bueno, durante el ao pasado, con la ayuda de Cisco que me auspicia, por alguna loca razn para hacer esto, he estado mirando en otra parte. +Porque en realidad la innovacin radical a veces viene de los mejores, pero a menudo viene de lugares con grandes necesidades insatisfechas, con demanda latente, sin suficientes recursos para que funcionen las soluciones tradicionales, las soluciones tradicionales de alto costo que dependen de profesionales donde estn las escuelas y los hospitales. +As que termin en lugares como este. +Este lugar se llama Morro dos Macacos. +Es una de las cientos de favelas de Rio. +La mayor parte del crecimiento de las poblaciones de los prximos 50 aos estar en las ciudades. +Tendremos 6 ciudades con crecimientos de 12 millones de personas anuales en los prximos 30 aos. +Casi todo ese crecimiento se dar en el mundo desarrollado. +Casi todo ese crecimiento se dar en lugares como el Morro dos Macacos. +Es all donde encontraremos el crecimiento ms rpido de poblaciones jvenes en el mundo. +As que si uno quiere recetas para trabajar en casi cualquier cosa: salud, educacin, polticas de gobierno y educacin, uno tiene que ir a estos lugares. +Y si uno va a estos lugares conoce gente como esta. +Este es un tipo llamado Juanderson. +A los 14 aos como muchos jvenes de 14 aos del sistema educativo brasileo l abandon la escuela. +Era aburrida. +Y Juanderson, en cambio, fue hacia lo que le brindaba oportunidad y esperanza en el lugar que le toc vivir, que era el trfico de drogas. +Y para los 16 aos, en un ascenso rpido, administraba el trfico de drogas en 10 favelas. +Mova 200.000 dlares por semana. +Empleaba a 200 personas. +Para los 25 aos iba a estar muerto. +Por suerte conoci a este tipo que es Rodrigo Baggio, el dueo de la primera laptop que apareci en Brasil. +En 1994 Rodrigo comenz algo llamado CDI que tomaba computadoras donadas por las empresas las pona en centros comunitarios de las favelas y creaba lugares como este. +Lo que cambi a Juanderson fue la tecnologa para el aprendizaje que haca del aprendizaje algo divertido y accesible. +O uno puede ir a lugares como este. +Es Kibera, el barrio pobre ms grande de frica oriental. +Aqu viven millones de personas a lo largo de muchos kilmetros. +Y es all que conoc a estos dos Azra a la izquierda, Maureen a la derecha. +Acaban de recibir su certificado keniano de educacin secundaria. +Ese nombre debera indicar que el sistema educativo de Kenia toma casi todo de Gran Bretaa, alrededor de 1950, pero se las ingeni para ser an peor. +As que hay escuelas en barrios pobres como este. +Son lugares como este. +Ah es donde Maureen fue a la escuela. +Son escuelas privadas. No hay escuelas pblicas en los barrios pobres. +Y la educacin que reciban era lamentable. +Fue en lugares como este. Esta escuela fue creada por algunas monjas en otro barrio pobre llamado Nakuru. +La mitad de los nios de estas aulas no tienen padres porque han muerto de SIDA. +La otra mitad tiene un padre porque el otro padre ha muerto de SIDA. +As que los desafos de la educacin en este tipo de lugares no son aprender los reyes y reinas de Kenya o Gran Bretaa. +Son permanecer con vida, ganarse la vida, no volverse un VIH positivo. +La tecnologa presente en ricos y pobres en lugares como este no tiene que ver con la tecnologa industrial. +No tiene que ver con la electricidad o el agua. +Es el telfono celular. +Si uno desea disear desde cero prcticamente todos los servicios de frica, uno comenzara ahora con el telfono celular. +O uno podra ir a lugares como este. +Este es un lugar llamado asentamiento Madanguiri que es un barrio pobre muy desarrollado a unos 25 minutos fuera de Nueva Delhi, donde conoc a estos personajes que me llevaron a recorrer todo el da. +Lo notable de estas muchachas, y el signo del tipo de revolucin social que se est dando en el mundo en desarrollo es que estas muchachas no estn casadas. +Hace 10 aos, seguramente se habran casado. +Ahora no estn casadas, y quieren continuar estudiando ms, hacer una carrera. +Han sido educados por madres analfabetas, que nunca jams han hecho los deberes. +En todo el mundo en desarrollo hay millones de padres, decenas, cientos de millones, que por primera vez estn con los nios haciendo los ejercicios y exmenes. +Y la razn por la que continan estudiando no es porque fueron a una escuela como esta. +Esta es una escuela privada. +Esta es una escuela gratuita. Esta es una buena escuela. +Esto es lo mejor que uno puede conseguir en Hyderabad, en la educacin india. +La razn por la que continuaron estudiando fue esta. +Esta es una computadora instalada en la entrada de su barrio pobre por una empresaria social revolucionaria llamada Sugata Mitra que adopt los experimentos ms radicales, mostrando que los nios, en las condiciones correctas, pueden aprender por su cuenta con la ayuda de computadoras. +Esas chicas nunca han tocado Google. +No saben nada de Wikipedia. +Imaginen como seran sus vidas si uno pudiera conseguirles eso. +As que si miran, como yo, a travs de este recorrido, y al mirar alrededor de cien casos de estudio de diferentes emprendedores sociales que trabajan en estas condiciones extremas, miren las recetas que se encontraron para el aprendizaje, no se parecen en nada a la escuela. +A qu se parecen? +Bueno, la educacin es una religin mundial. +Y la educacin, ms tecnologa, es una gran fuente de esperanza. +Uno puede ir a lugares como este. +Esta es una escuela a 3 horas en las afueras de So Paulo. +La mayora de esos nios tienen padres analfabetos. +Muchos no tienen electricidad en casa. +Pero les resulta completamente obvio usar computadoras, sitios web, hacer videos, etc., etc. +Cuando uno va a lugares como este lo que uno ve es que la educacin en estos escenarios funcionan tirando, no empujando. +La mayor parte de nuestro sistema educativo consiste en empujar. +Yo fui literalmente empujado a la escuela. +Al llegar a la escuela, las cosas nos son empujadas, el conocimiento, los exmenes, los sistemas, los horarios. +Si uno quiere atraer gente como Juanderson que podra, por ejemplo, comprar armas, lucir joyas, andar en moto y conseguir chicas en el trfico de drogas y uno quiere atraerlo a la educacin tener un plan de estudios obligatorio en realidad no tiene sentido. +Eso no lo va a atraer. +Uno necesita tirar de l. +Por eso la educacin tiene que funcionar tirando, no empujando. +Y as la idea de un plan de estudios es totalmente irrelevante en un escenario como este. +Uno tiene que empezar la educacin con cosas que marcan una diferencia para ellos en su escenario. +Qu significa eso? +Bueno, la clave es la motivacin, y hay dos aspectos de la misma. +Uno es entregar motivacin extrnseca. La educacin tiene una recompensa. +Nuestros sistemas educativos funcionan bajo el principio que hay una recompensa pero uno tiene que esperar mucho tiempo. +Eso es demasiado largo si uno es pobre. +Esperar 10 aos para la recompensa educativa es demasiado si uno necesita cubrir las necesidades diarias cuando uno tiene hermanos que cuidar o un negocio al que ayudar. +Uno necesita que la educacin sea relevante y ayude a la gente a ganarse la vida en el aqu y el ahora, a menudo. +Y tambin necesitamos que sea intrnsecamente interesante. +As una y otra vez, he encontrado gente como esta. +Este es un tipo increble, Sebastio Rocha, de Belo Horizonte, la tercera ciudad ms grande de Brasil. +l ha inventado ms de 200 juegos para ensear casi cualquier tema posible. +En las escuelas y las comunidades en que trabaja Taio el da comienza siempre en un crculo y siempre parte de una pregunta. +Imaginen un sistema educativo que parte de preguntas, no de conocimientos que se imparten, o que parte del juego, no de las lecciones, o que parte de la premisa que uno primero tiene que atraer a las personas antes de que podamos ensearles. +En nuestros sistemas educativos uno hace todas estas tareas despus, si tiene suerte, deporte, teatro, msica. +Ellos ensean mediante estas cosas. +Atraen a la gente a aprender porque en realidad es un proyecto de danza o un proyecto de circo o, el mejor ejemplo de todos, El Sistema en Venezuela, es un proyecto musical. +Y as uno atrae a la gente mediante eso al aprendizaje no agregndolo despus ya ha concluido el aprendizaje y uno ha comido las verduras cognitivas. +As, El Sistema en Venezuela usa un violn como tecnologa de aprendizaje. +Taio Rocha usa la fabricacin de jabn como tencologa de aprendizaje. +Y lo que uno encuentra cuando va a estos esquemas es que usan a la gente y a los lugares de maneras increblemente creativas. +Masas de aprendizaje de a pares. +Cmo se llega a las personas que aprenden... ...cuando no hay profesores... ...cuando los maestros no quieren venir, cuando no se les puede pagar... ...e incluso si consigues los maestros... ...lo que ensean no es relevante para las comunidades que sirven? +Bueno, uno crea sus propios profesores. +Uno crea el aprendizaje de a pares o crea para-maestros, o aporta habilidades especializadas. +Pero uno encuentra maneras de obtener aprendizaje relevante para la gente mediante tecnologa, gente y lugares que son diferentes. +As que esto es una escuela en un bus en una obra en Pune, la ciudad de ms rpido crecimiento en Asia. +Pune tiene 5.000 sitios de construccin. +Cuenta con 30.000 nios en esos sitios de construccin. +Esa es una ciudad. +Imaginen esa explosin urbana que va a tener lugar en todo el mundo en desarrollo y cuntos miles de nios pasarn sus aos escolares en los sitios de construccin. +Bueno, este es un esquema muy simple de hacer llegar el aprendizaje mediante un bus. +Y todos tratan el aprendizaje, no como una actividad acadmica, de anlisis, sino como algo productivo, algo que uno hace algo que uno puede hacer, y quiz ganarse la vida con eso. +As conoc a este personaje, Steven. +Haba pasado tres aos en Nairobi viviendo en la calle porque sus padres haban muerto de SIDA. +Y lo llevaron finalmente de vuelta a la escuela, no por la oferta de certificados de secundaria, sino por la oferta de aprendizaje de cmo ser carpintero, una habilidad manual prctica. +Las escuelas que marcan tendencia en el mundo High Tech High y otras, defienden una filosofa del aprendizaje como actividad productiva. +Aqu, no hay realmente una opcin. +El aprendizaje ha de ser productivo para que tenga sentido. +Y, por ltimo, tienen un modelo diferente de escala. Es un modelo de crecimiento de restaurante chino. +Y aprend esto de este tipo que es un personaje asombroso. +Es probablemente el emprendedor social ms notable en la educacin en el mundo. +Su nombre es Madhav Chavan, y cre algo llamado Pratham. +Y Pratham dirige grupos de juego de edad preescolar para, ahora, 21 millones de nios en la India. +Es la ONG educativa ms importante del mundo. +Y tambin apoya a los nios de clase trabajadora a ingresar a las escuelas indias. +Es todo un revolucionario. +Tiene en realidad antecedentes como lder sindical. Es as como desarroll las habilidades para construir su organizacin. +Cuando llegaron a una cierta etapa, Pratham se hizo lo suficientemente grande para atraer algo de apoyo ad honorem de McKinsey. +McKinsey se present y mir su modelo y dijo: "Sabes lo que debe hacer con esto Madhav? +Deberas convertirlo en McDonald's. +Y lo que uno hace cuando va a cualquier sitio nuevo es desplegar una franquicia. +Y es la misma donde quiera que vaya. +Es confiable y la gente sabe exactamente dnde estn. +Y no hay errores". +Y Madhav dijo: "Por qu tenemos que hacerlo de esa manera? +Por qu no podemos hacerlo ms como los restaurantes chinos? " +Hay restaurantes chinos en todas partes, pero no hay ninguna cadena de restaurantes chinos. +Sin embargo, todo el mundo sabe lo que es un restaurante chino. +Ellos saben qu esperar, a pesar de que habr sutiles diferencias y los colores sern diferentes y el nombre ser diferente. +Uno reconoce un restaurante chino cuando lo ve. +Estas personas trabajan con el modelo de restaurante chino. Los mismos principios, distintas aplicaciones y configuraciones diferentes. No es el modelo de McDonald's. +El modelo de McDonald's crece. +El modelo de restaurantes chinos se extiende. +La educacin de masas comenz con el emprendimiento social en el siglo XIX. +Y eso es lo que necesitamos desesperadamente otra vez a escala mundial. +Y qu podemos aprender de todo eso? +Bueno, podemos aprender mucho porque nuestros sistemas educativos estn fallando desesperadamente de varias maneras. +No son capaces de llegar a las personas que ms necesitan atender. +A menudo dan en el blanco, pero se equivocan. +La mejora es cada vez ms difcil de organizar. Nuestra fe en estos sistemas, est llena de tensin. +Y esto es slo una forma muy sencilla de comprender qu tipo de innovacin, qu tipo de diseo diferente necesitamos. +Hay dos tipos bsicos de innovacin. +Est la innovacin sostenible que servir de apoyo a una institucin existente o a una organizacin, y la innovacin disruptiva que romper con l, crear una manera distinta de hacerlo. +Estos son establecimientos formales; escuelas, colegios, hospitales, lugares en los que puede darse la innovacin, e informales: comunidades familias, redes sociales. +Casi todo nuestro esfuerzo va en esta casilla, apoyar la innovacin en el mbito formal, conseguir una mejor versin del sistema escolar bsicamente bismarckiano que se desarroll en el siglo XIX. +Y como dije, el problema con esto es que, en el mundo en desarrollo sencillamente no hay profesores que hagan funcionar este modelo. +Se necesita millones y millones de profesores en China, India, Nigeria y en el resto del mundo en desarrollo para cubrir las necesidades. +Y en nuestro sistema, sabemos que hacer ms de lo mismo no va a zanjar las profundas desigualdades educativas, especialmente en las ciudades del interior y las zonas donde hubo industrias. +Es por eso que necesitamos tres clases ms de innovacin. +Necesitamos ms reinvencin. +Y en todo el mundo cada vez ms escuelas se estn reinventando a s mismas. +Son escuelas reconocibles, pero su apariencia es diferente. +Hay escuelas Big Picture (Panorama General) en EE.UU. y Australia. +Hay escuelas Kunscap Skolan (Escuela de Conocimiento) en Suecia. +De 14 de ellas slo 2 estn en escuelas. +La mayora estn en otros edificios no diseados como escuelas. +Hay una escuela increble en el norte de Queensland llamada Jaringan. +Y todas tienen el mismo tipo de caractersticas: alto grado de colaboracin, muy personalizadas, a menudo con tecnologa omnipresente. Aprendizaje que parte de preguntas problemas y proyectos no de conocimiento y planes de estudio. +De modo que necesitamos ms de eso. +Pero debido a que muchos de los problemas educativos precisamente no estn en la escuela ellos estn en la familia y la comunidad, lo que tambin es necesario, en definitiva, est ms del lado derecho. +Se necesitan esfuerzos para complementar a las escuelas. +El caso ms famoso es el de Reggio Emilia en Italia, el sistema familiar de aprendizaje para apoyar y animar a la gente en las escuelas. +El ms emocionante es el Harlem Children's Zone, que por ms de 10 aos, conducido por Geoffrey Canada, mediante una mezcla de escolaridad y proyectos familiares y comunitarios ha intentado transformar no slo la educacin en las escuelas sino toda la cultura y la aspiracin de cerca de 10.000 familias de Harlem. +Necesitamos ms de esto una forma de pensar completamente nueva y radical. +Uno puede ir a lugares a una hora de aqu, o menos, aqu cerca, que necesitan eso, que necesitan cambios radicales del tipo que ni imaginamos. +Y, por ltimo, se necesita innovacin transformativa que pueda imaginar la inclusin de personas al aprendizaje de maneras completamente nuevas y diferentes. +As que estamos a punto, en 2015, de un logro asombroso, la escolarizacin del mundo. +Todos los nios hasta los 15 aos que quieran un lugar en la escuela sern capaces de tener uno en 2015. +Es algo asombroso. +Se reconoce el siglo XIX en sus races. +Y, por supuesto que es un gran logro. +Y por supuesto, traer grandes cosas. +Se aportarn habilidades, aprendizaje y lectura. +Pero tambin se arrasar la imaginacin. +Arrasar el apetito. Arrasar la confianza social. +Estratificar la sociedad tanto como la liberar. +Y estamos legando al mundo en desarrollo sistemas escolares que ahora pasarn un siglo tratando de reformar. +Es por eso que necesitamos un pensamiento radical y dado que el pensamiento radical es ahora ms posible y ms necesario que nunca en la manera de aprender. +Gracias. +Cuando tena 10 aos de edad, un primo mo me llev a visitar su escuela de medicina. +Y como regalo especial me llev al laboratorio de patologa y tom un cerebro humano real de un frasco y lo puso en mis manos. +Y ah estaba yo, el asiento de la conciencia humana, el centro de poder del cuerpo humano, puesto en mis manos. +Y ese da supe que cuando creciera, me iba a convertir en doctora del cerebro, o cientfica, uno u otro. +Aos despus, cuando finalmente crec, mi sueo se hizo realidad. +Y fue mientras estaba haciendo mi doctorado +sobre las causas neurolgicas de dislexia en nios que me encontr con un hecho asombroso que me gustara compartir con todos ustedes el da de hoy. +Se estima que uno de cada 6 nios, esto es uno de cada seis nios, padece algn trastorno de desarrollo. +ste es un trastorno que retrasa el desarrollo mental del nio y causa discapacidades mentales permanentes. +Lo que significa que todos y cada uno de ustedes hoy conocen por lo menos a un nio que padece un trastorno de desarrollo. +Pero aqu viene lo que realmente me dej perpleja. +A pesar del hecho de que todos y cada uno de estos trastornos se originan en el cerebro, la mayora de stos son diagnosticados nicamente sobre la base de la conducta observable. +Pero diagnosticar un trastorno cerebral sin de hecho ver el cerebro es equivalente a tratar a un paciente con un problema cardiaco basndose en los sntomas fsicos, sin siquiera hacerle un ECG o una radiografa de trax para ver el corazn. +Me pareca tan intuitivo. +Para diagnosticar y tratar un trastorno mental con precisin, sera necesario observar directamente en el cerebro. +Al observar solamente la conducta se puede perder una pieza vital del rompecabezas y proporcionar una incompleta, o hasta equvoca, imagen de los problemas del nio. +Sin embargo, a pesar de todos los avances en tecnologa mdica, el diagnstico de trastornos del cerebro en uno de cada seis nios an permaneca sumamente limitado. +Y entonces me top con un equipo en la Universidad de Harvard que haba tomado una de estas tecnologas mdicas avanzadas y finalmente la haba aplicado, en lugar de a la investigacin del cerebro, al diagnstico de trastornos cerebrales en nios. +Su innovadora tecnologa registra la EEG o la actividad elctrica del cerebro en tiempo real, permitindonos observar el cerebro mientras realiza varias funciones para entonces detectar hasta la ms sutil anomala en cualquiera de estas funciones, visin, atencin, lenguaje, audicin. +Un programa llamado Cartografa de Actividad Elctrica del Cerebro triangula entonces la fuente de esa anomala en el cerebro. +Y otro programa llamado Cartografa de Probabilidad Estadstica realiza entonces clculos matemticos para determinar si cualquiera de estas anomalas es clnicamente significativa, permitindonos proporcionar un mucho ms preciso diagnstico neurolgico de los sntomas del nio. +Y entonces me convert en la jefa de neurofisiologa del brazo clnico de este equipo. Y finalmente podemos usar esta tecnologa para ayudar de hecho a nios con problemas cerebrales. +Y me alegra decir que estoy en el proceso de establecer esta tecnologa aqu en la India. +Quisiera contarles a ustedes acerca de un nio de este tipo, cuya historia tambin fue cubierta por la cadena de noticias ABC. +Justin Senigar, de siete aos de edad lleg a nuestra clnica con un diagnstico de autismo muy severo. +Como muchos nios autistas su mente estaba encerrada dentro de su cuerpo. +Haba momentos en que de hecho su mente se ausentaba por algunos segundos a la vez. +Y los doctores le dijeron a sus padres que nunca podra comunicarse o interactuar socialmente, y que probablemente nunca tendra mucho lenguaje. +Cuando utilizamos esta innovadora tecnologa EEG para ver efectivamente el cerebro de Justin, los resultados fueron asombrosos. +Result que Justin casi no era ciertamente autista. +Estaba padeciendo de convulsiones cerebrales que eran imposibles de observar a simple vista, pero que de hecho le estaban causando sntomas que imitaban a los del autismo. +Despus de que Justin recibi medicamento anticonvulsivo, el cambio en l fue impresionante. +Dentro de un periodo de 60 das, su vocabulario pas de dos o tres palabras a 300 palabras. +Y su interaccin comunicativa y social mejor tan dramticamente, que lo inscribieron en la escuela regular e incluso se convirti en un supercampen de karate. +Las investigaciones muestran que el 50 por ciento de los nios, casi 50 por ciento de los nios diagnosticados con autismo en realidad sufren de convulsiones cerebrales ocultas. +stas son las caras de los nios que yo he examinado con historias exactamente como las de Justin. +Todos estos nios llegaron a nuestra clnica con un diagnstico de autismo, trastorno de dficit de atencin, retraso mental, problemas de lenguaje. +En su lugar, nuestros escners EEG revelaron problemas muy especficos ocultos dentro de sus cerebros que no podran haber sido detectados mediante valoraciones conductuales. +As es que estos escners EEG nos permitieron proporcionar a estos nios un diagnstico neurolgico mucho ms preciso y un tratamiento mucho ms dirigido. +Por demasiado tiempo ya, nios con trastornos de desarrollo han sufrido por diagnsticos equivocados mientras que sus problemas reales no han sido detectados y han permanecido para empeorar. +Y por demasiado tiempo ya, estos nios y sus padres han padecido frustracin y desesperacin indebida. +Pero estamos ahora en una nueva era de neurociencia, en la que finalmente podemos ver directamente la funcin del cerebro en tiempo real sin riesgos y sin efectos colaterales, de manera no invasiva, y encontrar la verdadera fuente de tantas incapacidades infantiles. +As es que si pudiera inspirar apenas a una fraccin de ustedes en el pblico hoy para que compartan este enfoque de diagnstico con aunque sea un padre cuyo hijo est padeciendo un trastorno de desarrollo, entonces quizs un enigma ms en un cerebro ms ser resuelto. +Una mente ms ser desbloqueada. +Y un nio ms que ha sido diagnosticado equvocamente, o incluso no diagnosticado por el sistema, reconocer finalmente su potencial real mientras todava haya tiempo para que su cerebro se recupere. +Y todo esto, simplemente, por medio de la observacin de las ondas cerebrales del nio. +Gracias. +Entonces, esta es la Edad Media. +La Edad Media es el tiempo entre que uno guard los Lego por ltima vez, de nios, y decide, como adulto, que est bien jugar con juguetes de nios. +Comenz con mi hijo, en ese entonces, de 4 aos. "Oh, debera comprarle al nio algn Lego. +Eso es algo divertido". +Entr a la tienda de Lego. +Le compr ste. +Es totalmente apropiado para un nio de 4 aos. +Creo que en la caja dice, veamos aqu, de "8 a 12" aos. +Me dirijo a mi esposa y le digo: "Para quin es esto?" +Y me dice: "Para nosotros". Y le digo: "Bien, est bien". +Muy pronto todo sali fuera de control. +El comedor se vea as. +Caminas por all y te duele. +As que tomamos una habitacin en el stano que se ha usado como una especie de anexo de Abu Ghraib. +La tortura, muy divertido. +Guau! Son ustedes geniales. +Tomamos esas baldosas. Y luego cheque en eBay y compr 70 kg de Lego que es una locura. +Mi hija -el da que los traje, la estaba arropando- y le dije: "Cario, eres mi tesoro". +Y ella dijo: "No, los Lego son el tesoro". +Y despus dijo: "Papi, somos ricos en Lego". +Y le dije: "S. +Supongo que s". +Entonces luego que uno hace esto uno se pregunta: "Oh, rayos. Dnde voy a poner todo esto?" +As que uno va a The Container Store y gasta muchsimo dinero. Y luego uno empieza ese proceso de clasificacin loca que nunca... es una locura. +Como sea. +Y despus uno se da cuenta que estn esas convenciones. +Y cuando uno va a esas convenciones, hay algn tipo que construy el Titanic. +Y uno dice: "Santo cielo! +Tuvo que venir con un camin, un semirremolque, con esa cosa". +Y luego construy sta... esta es la Torre Smith de Seattle. +Hermosa. +Y hay un tipo que vende estas armas como accesorio para Lego porque Lego, la danesa, ellos no venden armas. +Y los estadounidenses? Bueno, haremos algunas armas para Lego, no hay problema. +Y en un momento dado uno mira alrededor y se dice: "Guau! Esta gente es muy nerd". +Y quiero decir que este es un grupo oo, pero est un par de niveles por encima de los "furros". +Los nerds de aqu, tienen relaciones... salvo la seora de los condones en el bolsillo, y uno se pregunta en algn momento: "Soy parte de este grupo? Estoy en esto? +Y yo me deca: "S, supongo que s. +Estoy saliendo. +Estoy en esto y voy a dejar de avergonzarme". +Y es entonces que uno se mete de lleno en esto. Y uno dice: "Bueno, la gente de Lego en Dinamarca tiene todo este software para que uno construya su propia virtualidad. +Y este es un programa tipo CAD en el cual lo construyes. +Y entonces sin importar lo que uno disee virtualmente uno da clic en el botn y aparece en su puerta una semana ms tarde. +Y despus estn los diseos que la gente hace y que ellos venden en la tienda. +Es raro, pero la gente de Lego no paga regalas por eso. Pero algn usuario lo hace y luego lo vende. +Y es bastante asombroso. +Tengo que detenerme un momento. +Me encanta este tipo que est como huyendo con sus crampones, sus ganchos. +Bien. Como sea. +Hay todo un lenguaje de programacin y una herramienta robtica. As que si quieren ensear a alguien a programar, nios, adultos, a quien sea. +El tipo que hizo esto hizo una mquina tragamonedas de Lego. +Y no estoy diciendo que hizo algo con Lego que se pareca a una mquina tragamonedas. Quiero decir que hizo una mquina tragamonedas de Lego. +El interior era de Lego. +Hay gente que se empacha de Lego. Y uno tiene que terminar la cosa antes de vomitar. +Hay todo un mercado gris de Lego, miles de negocios hogareos. +Y algunas personas financiarn su hbito de Lego mediante la venta a los pequeos. Pero hay casos en los que no hay gente en las naves. +A continuacin, slo algunos ejemplos. Estas cosas son realmente esculturas. +Es asombroso lo que se puede hacer. +Y no se engaen; algunos detalles arquitectnicos, increbles formas orgnicas es slo, otra vez, naturaleza hecha de pequeos bloques. +Esta es mi casa. +Y esta es mi casa. +Tena miedo de que un auto la aplastara mientras le sacaba una foto para ustedes +Como sea, estoy sin tiempo. +Pero muy rpidamente... vamos a ver si puedo hacer esto rpido. +Porque no hay suficientes logos de TED por aqu. +Vamos a ver aqu. +Est bien. +Ta-tan! +La historia comienza en Kenia en diciembre de 2007, cuando hubo una eleccin presidencial reida. E inmediatamente despus de esa eleccin, se produjo una oleada de violencia tnica. +Y haba una abogada de Nairobi, Ory Okolloh, a quien quiz algunos conozcan por tu charla TED, ella comenz a publicar al respecto en su blog, Kenyan Pundit (Keniatas Expertos) +Y poco despus de las elecciones y de la oleada de violencia, el gobierno impuso de repente una importante censura de medios. +Y as los blogs pasaron de ser solamente comentarios que eran parte del paisaje meditico a ser una parte fundamental del paisaje meditico para tratar de entender dnde estaba la violencia. +As Okolloh le solicit a sus comentaristas ms informacin sobre lo que estaba sucediendo. +Y los comentarios comenzaron a surgir a borbotones. Y Okolloh los cotejara. Los publicara +Y se apresur a decir: "Esto es demasiado. +Podra dedicarme a esto todo el da y an as no terminarlo. +Hay ms informacin de lo que sucede en Kenia ahora mismo de la que una sola persona puede manejar. +Si al menos hubiera una manera de automatizar esto". +Y dos programadores que leyeron su blog levantaron sus manos y dijeron: "Podemos hacerlo". Y en 72 horas lanzaron Ushahidi. +Ushahidi, el nombre significa "testigo" o "testimonio" en swahili, es una manera muy simple de tomar informes de campo, ya sea de la web o, en momentos crticos, mediante mviles y SMS, agregndola y ponindola en un mapa. +Y esa maniobra, llamada "mapeo de la crisis", fue lanzada en Kenia en enero de 2008. +Y bastante gente la vio, encontrndola tan valiosa que los programadores que crearon Ushahidi decidieron que lo iban a hacer de cdigo libre y convertirlo en una plataforma. +Desde entonces se emple en Mxico para seguir el fraude electoral. +En Washington D.C. para seguir la limpieza de nieve. +Y ms clebremente se us en Hait a raz del terremoto. +Y si uno mira el mapa, ahora disponible en la pgina principal de Ushahidi, se puede ver que la cantidad de despliegues en Ushahidi se ha vuelto mundial, de acuerdo? +Pas de una idea simple y una implementacin simple en frica Oriental a principios de 2008 a un despliegue mundial en menos de tres aos. +Ahora bien, lo que hizo Okolloh no hubiera sido posible sin la tecnologa digital. +Lo que hizo Okolloh no hubiera sido posible sin la generosidad humana. +Y lo interesante del momento actual, la cantidad de entornos donde el desafo de diseo social, recae en que ambas cosas se cumplan. +Ese es el recurso al que me refiero. +Yo lo llamo "excedente cognitivo". +Y ste representa la capacidad de la poblacin mundial de ser voluntario, contribuir y colaborar en grandes proyectos, a veces mundiales. +El excedente cognitivo se compone de dos cosas. +La primera, obviamente, es el tiempo y talento libre del mundo. +El mundo cuenta con ms de un billn de horas al ao de tiempo libre para comprometerse con proyectos compartidos. +Ahora bien, ese tiempo libre exista en el siglo XX pero no tenamos Ushahidi en el siglo XX. +Esa es la segunda mitad del excedente cognitivo. +El paisaje meditico del siglo XX fue muy bueno en ayudar a la gente a consumir. Y, como resultado, tenemos muy buen consumo. +Pero ahora que contamos con herramientas mediticas Internet, equipos mviles, que nos permiten hacer ms que consumir lo que estamos viendo es que la gente no era adicta a la T.V. porque le gustara. +ramos adictos a la T.V. porque esa era la nica oportunidad que nos daban. +Todava nos gusta consumir, claro. +Pero resulta que tambin nos gusta crear, y nos gusta compartir. +Y son esas dos cosas juntas, la motivacin humana ancestral y las herramientas modernas que permiten que esa motivacin se una a esfuerzos en gran escala, que son el nuevo recurso de diseo. +Y al usar los excedentes cognitivos estamos empezando a ver experimentos realmente increbles en esfuerzos cientficos, literarios, artsticos y polticos. +De diseo. +Tambin estamos recibiendo, por supuesto, un montn de LOLcats. +Los LOLcats son imgenes lindas de gatos que se hacen ms lindas con leyendas lindas. +Y tambin son parte del abundante paisaje meditico actual. +ste es uno de los modelos uno de los modelos participativos que vemos surgir junto con Ushahidi. +Ahora quiero estipular, como dicen los abogados, que los LOLcats son el acto creativo ms estpido posible. +Hay otros candidatos, por supuesto, pero los LOLcats servirn como caso general. +Pero ah est lo interesante. El acto creativo ms estpido posible sigue siendo un acto creativo. +Alguien capaz de hacer algo como esto, aunque sea mediocre y desechable, ha intentado algo, ha propuesto algo hacia el pblico. +Y una vez que lo han hecho, pueden hacerlo nuevamente. Y podran mejorarlo. +Existe un espectro entre el trabajo mediocre y el trabajo bueno. Y como cualquiera que haya trabajado como artista o creador sabe que es un espectro en que uno est constantemente luchando para estar en la cima. +La brecha est entre hacer algo y no hacer nada. +Y alguien que hace un LOLcat ya ha cruzado esa brecha. +Ahora, es tentador querer tener Ushahidis sin los LOLcats, no? tener la parte seria sin el material descartable. +Pero la abundancia de medios nunca funciona as. +La libertad para experimentar significa libertad para experimentar todo. +Incluso en la sagrada prensa escrita tuvimos novelas erticas 150 aos antes de tener revistas cientficas. +As que antes de hablar de lo que creo que son las diferencias fundamentales entre los LOLcats y Ushahidi, quiero hablar de su fuente compartida. +Y esa fuente es el diseo de la generosidad. +Este grfico de un peridico de Uri Gneezy y Alfredo Rusticini, quien tena por objeto determinar, a principios de esta dcada, lo que llamaron la "teora de la disuasin". +Y la teora de la disuasin es una teora muy simple del comportamiento humano. Si quiere que alguien haga menos de algo, agregue un castigo y ellos harn menos de eso. +Simple, directo, con sentido comn, y sin mucho sustento. +Por eso fueron a estudiar 10 guarderas de Haifa, Israel. +Estudiaron esas guarderas en los momentos de mayor tensin que es el momento de recoleccin. +En ese momento los maestros que han estado con nuestros hijos todo el da, quisieran que uno est all a la hora sealada para retirar a los hijos. +Mientras tanto los padres, quiz algo ocupados en el trabajo, con retraso, haciendo encargos -- quieren un poco de margen para buscar los nios ms tarde. +As, Gneezy y Rusticini dijeron: "Cuntos casos de demoras hay en estas 10 guarderas?". +Lo que vieron, y esto es lo que muestra el grfico, sta es la cantidad de semanas y sta la cantidad de llegadas tarde, que ocurran entre 6 y 10 casos de llegadas tarde en promedio en estas 10 guarderas. +As que dividieron las guarderas en dos grupos. +El grupo blanco es el grupo de control; no cambiaron nada. +Pero en el grupo de guarderas representado por la lnea negra, dijeron: "Estamos cambiando este trato a partir de ahora. +Si viene a buscar a su nio ms de 10 minutos tarde, le vamos a sumar 10 shekel de multa a su cuenta. +Bum! Sin condiciones, ni peros". +Y desde el momento en que lo hicieron cambi el comportamiento en esas guarderas. +Aumentaron las llegadas tarde cada semana, durante las siguientes 4 semanas hasta que lleg al triple del promedio pre-multa, y luego fluctuaron entre el doble y el triple del promedio pre-multa mientras dur la multa. +Y pueden ver de inmediato lo que sucedi, si? +La multa rompi la cultura de la guardera. +Al agregar una multa lo que hicieron fue comunicarle a los padres que toda la deuda con los maestros se haba saldado con el pago de 10 shekels y que no quedaba vestigio de culpa o preocupacin social de los padres hacia los maestros. +Y as los padres, con bastante sensatez, dijeron: "10 shekels por buscar tarde a mi hijo? +Qu tiene de malo?" +La explicacin del comportamiento humano que heredamos en el siglo XX era que todos somos actores racionales, auto-maximizadores. Y en esa explicacin -- la guardera no tena contrato -- debera haber estado operando sin restricciones. +Pero eso no es correcto. +Ellos estaban operando con las restricciones sociales ms que con las contractuales. +Y, fundamentalmente, las restricciones sociales crearon una cultura ms generosa que la que crearon las restricciones contractuales. +Gneezy y Rustichini realizaron este experimento durante 12 semanas -- pusieron la multa 12 semanas -- y luego dijeron: "Bueno, eso es todo. Quitamos la multa". +Y luego sucedi algo muy interesante. Nada cambi. +La cultura corrompida por la multa sigui corrompida cuando se quit la multa. +No slo son las motivaciones econmicas e intrnsecas incompatibles, sino que esa incompatibilidad puede persistir por largos perodos. +As que el truco de disear este tipo de situaciones es entender dnde uno est contando con la parte econmica de un trato, como cuando los padres pagan a los maestros, y cuando uno est contando con la parte social del trato, cuando uno est realmente diseando la generosidad. +Esto me lleva nuevamente a los LOLcats y a Ushahidi. +Es este, creo, el rango que importa. +Ambos se basan en el excedente cognitivo. +Ambos disean suponiendo que a la gente le gusta crear y que queremos compartir. +Esta es la diferencia fundamental entre ambas. Los LOLcats tienen valor comunal. +Es un valor creado por los participantes de unos a otros. +El valor comunal en las redes que tenemos est en todos lados. Siempre que uno ve ingentes cantidades de datos pblicamente agregados y disponibles, ya sean fotos en Flickr videos en Youtube, o lo que sea. +Esto es bueno. Me gustan los LOLcats tanto como a cualquiera, quiz un poquito ms, incluso. Pero este es tambin un problema en gran medida resuelto. +Me resulta difcil vislumbrar un futuro en el que alguien diga: "Dnde, oh dnde, puedo encontrar una imagen de un lindo gato?" +Ushahidi, en cambio, tiene valor cvico. +Es un valor creado por los participantes, pero disfrutado por la sociedad en su conjunto. +Las metas de Ushahidi no son slo facilitarle la vida a los participantes, sino mejorar la vida de todos en la sociedad en la que opera Ushahidi. +Y ese tipo de valor cvico no es slo un efecto secundario de la apertura a la motivacin humana. +En realidad va a ser un efecto secundario de lo que, colectivamente, hagamos con este tipo de esfuerzos. +Hay un billn de horas al ao de valor de participacin a disposicin. +Eso se cumplir ao tras ao. +Lo que va a marcar la diferencia aqu es lo que dijo Dean Kamen, el inventor y el emprendedor. +Kamen dijo: "Las culturas libres consiguen lo que celebran". +Tenemos una opcin delante nuestro. +Tenemos este billn de horas al ao. +Podemos usarlas para potenciarnos mutuamente, y lo vamos a hacer. +Eso, lo obtenemos gratis. +Pero podemos tambin celebrar y apoyar y recompensar a las personas que tratan de usar el excedente cognitivo para crear valor cvico. +Y en el grado en que lo vamos a hacer, en el grado en que podamos hacerlo, podremos cambiar la sociedad. +Muchsimas gracias. +En los ltimos 50 aos, hemos estado construyendo los suburbios con un montn de consecuencias no deseadas. +Voy a hablar de algunas de esas consecuencias y simplemente presentar algunos proyectos muy interesantes que pienso que nos dan muy buenas razones para ser muy optimistas en que el gran proyecto de diseo y desarrollo de los prximos 50 aos va a ser la remodelacin de los suburbios. +Y en el proceso, esto nos permitir encauzar ms de nuestro crecimiento hacia las comunidades existentes que necesiten impulso, y tengan la infraestructura, en vez de continuar talando rboles y reduciendo los espacios verdes. +Por qu es importante? +Creo que hay muchas razones. Y no voy a entrar en detalles, sino que voy a mencionar algunas. +Slo desde la perspectiva del cambio climtico el habitante urbano medio de EE.UU. +tiene cerca de 1/3 de la huella de carbono del habitante suburbano medio, sobretodo porque la gente de los suburbios conduce mucho ms y vive en edificios separados, hay mucha ms superficie exterior por donde se escapa la energa. +As que, estrictamente desde una perspectiva del cambio climtico, las ciudades ya son relativamente verdes. +La gran oportunidad para reducir emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero est, de hecho, en la urbanizacin de los suburbios. +Todos esos viajes en auto hechos en los suburbios, hemos duplicado la cantidad de kilmetros que conducimos. +Ha incrementado nuestra dependencia del petrleo extranjero a pesar del progreso en materia de eficiencia. +Estamos conduciendo mucho ms y la tecnologa no ha avanzado a la par. +La salud pblica es otra razn para pensar en remodelar. +Los investigadores del CDC, entre otros, vinculan cada vez ms fuertemente los patrones de desarrollo suburbano con estilos de vida sedentarios. +Y a su vez esto se vincula con un crecimiento alarmante de las tasas de obesidad, mostradas en estos mapas; y esa obesidad ha disparado adems grandes aumentos en enfermedades cardacas y diabetes al punto que un nio que nace hoy tiene una probabilidad de 1 en 3 de desarrollar diabetes. +Y esta tasa ha crecido en la misma proporcin que los nios que no caminan a la escuela, otra vez, debido a nuestros patrones de desarrollo. +Y finalmente, est la cuestin del costo de vida. +Quiero decir, cun asequible es continuar viviendo en los suburbios con los combustibles en alza? +La expansin suburbana a tierras baratas, en los ltimos 50 aos, ya saben, las tierras baratas en las afueras, ha ayudado a generaciones de familias a disfrutar del sueo americano. +Pero, cada vez ms, los ahorros que prometa el "conduce hasta que encuentres un precio asequible", que es bsicamente nuestro modelo, esos ahorros desaparecen si uno considera los costos del transporte. +Por ejemplo, aqu en Atlanta, cerca de la mitad de los hogares tienen ingresos entre 20.000 y 50.000 al ao. Y gastan 29% de sus ingresos en vivienda y 32% en transporte. +Estas son cifras de 2005. +Esto era antes de tener el galn (3.78 litros) a 4 dlares. +Ya saben, nadie de veras calcula los costos de transporte. Y no van a bajar en el corto plazo. +Ya sea que uno ame la intimidad del verde de los suburbios o que odie sus centros comerciales sin alma, hay razones para emprender la remodelacin. +Pero, es prctico? +Creo que s. +June Williamson y yo hemos estado investigando este tema desde hace ms de una dcada. Y encontramos ms de 80 proyectos diferentes. +Pero todos responden a la demanda del mercado. Lo que mueve al mercado en particular es: en primer lugar es el mayor desplazamiento demogrfico. +Todos tendemos a pensar los suburbios como ese lugar sumamente familiar. Pero eso en realidad ya no es as. +Desde el 2000 2/3 de los hogares de los suburbios ya no tienen nios. +Pero simplemente no hemos asimilado esta nueva realidad. +Las razones de esto tienen mucho que ver con el predominio de dos grandes grupos demogrficos: los Baby Boomers jubilados, y hay una brecha, La Generacin X, que es una generacin pequea. +que sigue teniendo hijos. Pero la Generacin Y todava ni llega a la edad de ser padres. +Ellos son la otra gran generacin. +Y como resultado de eso los demgrafos predicen que para el 2025 del 75% al 85% de los nuevos hogares no tendrn hijos. +Y las investigaciones de mercado, de consumidores, preguntando a los Boomers y a la Generacin Y qu les gustara, a dnde les gustara vivir, nos dicen que va a haber una gran demanda, y ya lo estamos viendo, de estilos de vida ms urbanos en los suburbios. +Que, bsicamente, los Boomers quieren envejecer en "casa", y la Generacin Y quisiera vivir un estilo de vida urbano, pero la mayora de los empleos continuarn estando fuera, en los suburbios. +La otra gran dinmica de cambio es simplemente el rendimiento del asfalto sub-utilizado. +Siempre he pensado que sera un gran nombre para una banda de rock alternativo. Pero los constructores lo usan generalmente para referirse a estacionamientos en desuso. Y los suburbios tienen muchos. +Cuando se construyeron los suburbios de posguerra en las tierras econmicas lejos del centro, tena sentido construir estacionamientos de superficie. +Pero estos sitios ahora han sido dejados de lado una y otra vez a medida que continuamos extendindonos. Y hoy tienen una ubicacin relativamente cntrica. +Ya no tiene sentido. +Esa tierra tiene ms valor que el de simple estacionamiento. +Hoy tiene ms sentido volver atrs poner un entarimado y construir en esos sitios. +Entonces, qu hacer con un centro comercial muerto o las oficinas vacas? +Todo tipo de cosas. +En una economa lenta como la nuestra volver a habitar es una de las estrategias ms populares. +Esto es un centro comercial muerto en St. Louis que ha sido transformado en espacio de arte. +Ahora es el hogar de talleres de artistas, grupos teatrales y compaas de danza. +Ya no tributa tantos impuestos como antes. Pero est al servicio a su comunidad. +Mantiene las luces encendidas. +Se est volviendo, creo, una gran institucin. +Otros centros comerciales se han transformado en asilos de ancianos, en universidades, y en todo tipo de espacios de oficinas. +Tambin encontramos muchos ejemplos de grandes tiendas comerciales abandonadas que se han convertido en todo tipo de servicios a la comunidad tambin... muchas escuelas, iglesias, y muchas bibliotecas como sta. +Esta era una pequea tienda de comestibles, una tienda Food Lion que ahora es una biblioteca pblica. +Adems, creo, mediante una hermosa reutilizacin adaptativa desmantelaron una parte del estacionamiento instalaron biofiltros para juntar y depurar el desage e hicieron muchas ms aceras para conectar el vecindario. +Y han convertido lo que era una simple tienda en una zona comercial en un espacio de reunin de la comunidad. +Este es un pequeo centro comercial en forma de L en Phoenix, Arizona. +En realidad todo lo que hicieron fue darle una buena mano de pintura, una tienda de comestibles gourmet y un restaurant en la antigua oficina de correos. +Nunca subestimen el poder de la comida para cambiar un lugar y convertirlo en un destino. +Ha tenido tanto xito que ahora tomaron el frente de la calle. +Y la publicidad inmobiliaria del barrio menta con orgullo: "A pocos pasos de Le Grande Orange", porque eso le da a sus vecinos lo que a los socilogos les gusta llamar "un tercer lugar". +Si la casa es el primer lugar y el trabajo el segundo, el tercer lugar es donde uno va a pasar el rato y hacer comunidad. +Y, en especial, a medida que los suburbios se vuelven menos centrados en la familia y los hogares, hay una gran voracidad por ms terceros lugares. +Las remodelaciones ms espectaculares son en realidad las de la prxima categora la prxima estrategia, volver a construir. +Bien, durante el auge haba varios proyectos de reconstruccin muy radicales en los que el edificio original era arrasado y se reconstrua todo el sitio con una densidad mucho ms grande una suerte de compactos barrios urbanos de a pie. +Pero algunos han pasado por etapas. +Este es Mashpee Commons, la remodelacin ms antigua que encontramos. +Y han ido, a lo largo de 20 aos, construyendo urbanizaciones sobre sus estacionamientos. +As, la foto en blanco y negro muestra el centro comercial en los aos 60. +Y luego los mapas de arriba muestran su transformacin gradual en un pueblito ms compacto y multiuso, en Nueva Inglaterra, y hay planos que ya han sido aprobados para conectarlo con los barrios residenciales a travs de las arterias y hacia el otro lado. +As, a veces por etapas. +A veces es todo de una vez. +Aqu hay otro proyecto de construccin en estacionamientos, un conjunto de oficinas en las afueras de Washington D.C. +Cuando Metrorail expandi el trnsito a los suburbios y abri una estacin en las cercanas de este sitio los propietarios decidieron construir un nuevo estacionamiento y por encima del terreno una nueva calle principal, varios apartamentos, y condominios a la vez que mantuvieron las oficinas existentes. +Este es el sitio en 1940. Era slo una pequea granja el pueblo de Hyattsville. +Para 1980 haba sido subdividida en un gran centro comercial de un lado y el conjunto de oficinas al otro. Y luego un espacio intermedio para una biblioteca y una iglesia en el extremo derecho. +Hoy, el trnsito, la calle principal y las nuevas casas todo ha sido construido. +Finalmente, espero que las calles se extiendan en una reconstruccin del centro comercial. +Ya se han anunciado planes para la construccin de esos apartamentos sobre el centro comercial que ser remodelado. +El trnsito es un gran conductor de la remodelacin. +As es como se ver. +Pueden verse los nuevos condominios en medio de las oficinas, el espacio pblico y la calle principal. +Este es uno de mis favoritos: Belmar. +Creo que han construido un lugar atractivo aqu y han empleado solo construccin ecolgica. +Hay paneles fotovoltaicos en los tejados as como turbinas de viento. +Este era un centro comercial muy grande Ahora son 22 bloques urbanos transitables con calles pblicas, 2 parques pblicos, 8 lneas de bus y varios tipos de vivienda. Y le ha dado realmente a Lakewood, Colorado, el centro que este suburbio nunca tuvo. +Aqu estaba el centro comercial en su apogeo. +Los bailes de fin de ao eran en el centro comercial. Les encantaba el lugar. +Este es el sitio en 1975 con el centro comercial. +Para 1995 el centro comercial haba muerto. +La tienda por departamentos se mantuvo. Y lo hemos visto en muchos casos. +Las tiendas por departamentos tienen varios pisos; estn mejor construidos. +Son fciles de reacondicionar. +Pero los de un piso... +son historia. +Este es el proyecto de construccin. +Este proyecto, creo, est muy bien integrado con los barrios existentes. +Provee 1.500 viviendas con la opcin de un estilo de vida ms urbano. +Hay construidos unos 2/3 ahora. +As es como se ve la calle principal. +Tiene mucho xito. Y ha hecho que 8 de los 13 centros comerciales regionales de Denver tengan ahora, o anuncien planes de remodelacin. +pero es importante observar que toda esta remodelacin no est ocurriendo... no vienen las topadoras y arrasan la ciudad. +No, hay lugares para caminar en lugares donde hay propiedades sub-utilizadas. +Y as la gente tiene ms opciones. Pero no se quitan alternativas. +Pero adems no alcanza con crear zonas para caminar. +Se quiere lograr adems una transformacin ms sistemtica. +Necesitamos remodelar los corredores propiamente dichos. +Este es uno que ha sido remodelado en California. +Tomaron la franja comercial que aparece en las imgenes en blanco y negro de abajo y construyeron un boulevard que se ha vuelto la calle principal de ese pueblo. +Y pas de ser una zona fea, insegura e indeseable para volverse hermosa, atractiva y tener cierto prestigio. +Esperamos comenzar a verlo... Ya construyeron la municipalidad, atrajeron a dos hoteles. +Me puedo imaginar viviendas hermosas en esa zona sin talar otro rbol. +As que hay muchas cosas geniales. Pero me encantara ver ms corredores remodelados. +Pero el aumento de densidad no va a funcionar en todos lados. +A veces volver al verde es realmente la mejor respuesta. +Hay mucho que aprender de casos exitosos de financiamiento agrcola en ciudades como Flint en Michigan. +Hay, adems, un movimiento creciente de agricultura suburbana... una suerte de encuentro entre los jardines de la victoria e internet. +Pero quiz uno de los aspectos ms importantes del reverdecimiento sea la oportunidad de restaurar la ecologa local; como en este ejemplo en las afueras de Minneapolis. +Cuando muri el centro comercial la ciudad recuper los humedales propios de la regin; creando terrenos con vista al lago que luego atrajeron inversin privada, la primera inversin privada en este barrio de bajos ingresos en ms de 40 aos. +Se las ingeniaron para recuperar, al mismo tiempo, la ecologa y la economa local. +Este es otro ejemplo de regreso a lo verde. +Funciona tambin en mercados muy fuertes. +Este es en Seattle est en el estacionamiento de un centro comercial adyacente a una nueva parada de transporte. +Y la lnea ondulante es un sendero que bordea un riachuelo, que ahora est a cielo abierto. +El riachuelo estaba canalizado bajo el estacionamiento. +Pero volver a poner los riachuelos al aire libre mejora mucho la calidad de sus aguas y contribuye al hbitat. +Les he mostrado algunos casos de la primera generacin de remodelaciones. +Qu viene ahora? +Creo que tenemos tres desafos para el futuro. +El primero es planear la remodelacin de manera mucho ms sistemtica a escala metropolitana. +Tenemos que poder identificar las reas verdes que necesitan ser recuperadas. +Dnde deberamos remodelar? +Y dnde deberamos promover se habite de nuevo? +Esta diapositiva muestra dos imgenes de un proyecto ms grande que estamos tratando de hacer para Atlanta. +Dirig un equipo al que se le pidi imaginar Atlanta dentro de 100 aos. +Y decidimos tratar de invertir la espiral con tres movimientos simples... costosos, pero simples. +Primero, en 100 aos, trnsito en las principales vas frreas y calles. +Segundo, en 100 aos, 300 metros de separadores en todos las vas de flujo. +Es un tanto extremo pero tenemos un pequeo problema con el agua. +En 100 aos las subdivisiones que terminen muy cerca del agua o muy lejos del trnsito no sern viables. +Por eso creamos la "transferencia de acre ecolgico" para transferir derechos de desarrollo a las vas de trnsito y permitir reverdecer esas subdivisiones previas para la produccin de alimentos y energa, +As, el segundo desafo es mejorar la calidad del diseo arquitectnico de las remodelaciones. +Y termino con esta imagen de democracia en accin. Esta protesta tiene lugar en una remodelacin en Silver Springs, Maryland, sobre pasto artificial. +Ahora bien, a menudo se tilda a las remodelaciones de ser ejemplos de centros artificiales; de urbanismo instantneo. Y no sin razn; hay pocas cosas menos autnticas que pasto artificial. +Tengo que decir que son lugares muy hbridos. +Son nuevos, pero intentan parecer antiguos. +Tienen paisajes urbanos pero estacionamientos suburbanos. +Sus poblaciones son ms diversas que en los suburbios tpicos, pero son menos diversos que las ciudades. +Y son lugares pblicos, pero administrados por compaas privadas. +Y ya su mera apariencia como en el caso del pasto artificial, me hace estremecer. +Ya saben, quiero decir, estoy feliz de que el urbanismo haga su trabajo. +El hecho de que surjan protestas significa en realidad que la planificacin de manzanas, calles y espacios pblicos, con sus imperfecciones, son todava un asunto importante. +Pero tenemos que mejorar la arquitectura. +El desafo final es para cada uno de Uds. +Quiero que se unan a la protesta y comiencen a exigir ms espacios sustentables suburbanos... ms lugares sustentables, y punto. +Pero culturalmente tendemos a pensar que las ciudades deberan ser dinmicas, y esperamos eso. +Pero parece que asumimos que los suburbios deberan permanecer congelados cualquiera sea la forma adolescente que adoptaron al nacer. +Es tiempo de hacerlos crecer. Por eso quiero que Uds. apoyen los cambios de planeamiento la disminucin vial, las mejoras de infraestructura y las remodelaciones que llegarn pronto en un barrio cerca suyo. +Gracias. +El ocano puede ser una cosa muy complicada. +Y podria ser una cosa muy complicada lo que la salud humana es. +Y unirlas, podra ser una tarea desalentadora. Lo que voy a tratar de decir es que an en esa complejidad, existen temas sencillos que si los entendemos, podemos continuar. +Esos temas sencillos no son realmente temas acerca de la complejidad de lo que est sucediendo, sino de cosas que todos sabemos. +Y voy a comezar con sta. Si mam no est contenta, nadie lo est. +lo sabemos, verdad? Lo hemos experimentado. +Si partimos de esa nocin y seguimos desde ah, podemos dar el siguiente paso, que es que si el ocano no est contento, nadie lo est. +Ese es el tema de mi charla. +Y estamos haciendo al ocano infeliz de diferentes formas. +Esta es una foto de Cannery Row en 1932. +Cannery Row, en ese momento, tena la industria de enlatados ms grande de la costa oeste. +Acumulamos grandes cantidades de contaminantes en el aire y en el agua. +Rolf Bolin, quien fue profesor en la estacin marina Hopkin donde trabajo, escribi en 1940 que "los gases provenientes de la mugre que flota en las entradas de la baha eran tan dainos que tieron de negro las pinturas a base de plomo. +La gente que trabajaba en estas fbricas difcilmente podan permanecer all todo el da debido al olor. Saben lo que decan cuando salan? +Decan, "Sabes a qu hueles? +Hueles a dinero". +La contaminacin era dinero para esa comunidad. Toda esa gente lidi con la contaminacin y la absorbieron en su piel y cuerpo por que necesitaban el dinero. +Hicimos al ocano infeliz; hicimos a las personas infelices, y los hicimos enfermar. +La relacin entre la salud del ocano y la salud humana est realmente basada en un par de refranes. Y lo quiero llamar "pellizca a un pececito y estars hiriendo a una ballena" +En la pirmide de la vida marina... +Ahora ...cuando un ecologista ve el ocano, tengo que decirles, vemos el ocano de una forma diferente, y vemos cosas diferentes a lo que las personas normales ven en el ocano. por que cuando un ecologista mira el ocano, vemos todas las interconexiones. +Vemos la base de la cadena alimenticia, el plancton, las cosas pequeas, y vemos como esos animales son el alimento de los animales de la mitad en la piramide, y as sucesivamente a medida que subimos por el diagrama. +Y ese flujo, ese flujo de vida, desde la base hasta lo ms alto, es el flujo que los ecologistas ven. +Y eso es lo que tratamos de conservar cuando decimos, "Salva el ocano. Sana el ocano" +Es esa piramide. +Qu tiene que ver con la salud humana? +Cuando metemos cosas en la base de la piramide que no deberan estar ah, empiezan a ocurrir cosas desagradables. +Contaminantes, algunos contaminantes los hemos creado, molculas como PCBs que no pueden ser asimiladas por nuestro organismo. +Se van a la base de la pirmide, y se mueven hacia arriba, van pasando hacia arriba de esa manera a los depredadores y luego a los depredadores mayores. Y al hacerlo, se acumulan. +Ahora , para llevarlas a casa, pens en inventarme un juego. +no tenemos que realmente jugarlo. Podemos tan solo pensarlo aqui. +Es el juego del poliestireno y el chocolate. +Imaginen que cuando subimos a este bote, se nos entrega dos bolitas de poliestireno. +no puedes hacer mucho con ellas, asi que las pones en tu bolsillo. +por que las reglas son: cada vez que le ofrezcas una bebida a alguien, le das una bebida, y le das tus bolitas de poliestireno tambien. +Lo que suceder es que las bolitas de poliestireno se movern atravs de toda la sociedad aqui. y se acumularan en las personas mas borrachinas. +No existe un mecanismo en este juego para que terminen mas que en un cumulo grande de bolitas de poliestireno indigeribles. +Eso es exactamente lo que sucede con los PDBs en sta cadena alimenticia. Se acumulan en la punta de ella. +Ahora supongan que en lugar de bolitas de poliestireno, tomamos estos pequeos y adorables chocolates y los usamos en lugar de las bolitas. +Bien, algunos de nosotros nos comeriamos los chocolates en lugar de pasarlos alrededor. y en lugar de acumularlos, pasaran entre este grupito aqui y no se acumularian en ningun otro grupo. Porque son absorvidos por nosotros. +Esa es la diferencia entre PCB y digamos, algo natural como el omega-3, algo que queremos fuera de la cadena alimenticia marina. +los PCB se acumulan. +Desafortunadamente, tenemos grandes ejemplos de eso. +Los PCB se acumulan en los delfines de la bahia de Sarasota, en Texas, en Carolina del Norte. +Llegan a la cadena alimenticia. +Los delfines comen los peces que tienen PCB del plancton, y esos PCBs, siendo grasas solubles, se acumulan en esos delfines, +Ahora, un delfin, mama delfin, cualquier delfin - existe solo una manera de que el PCB salga del delfin +y cual es ? +En la leche materna. +Este es un diagrama de una carga de PCB en un delfin de la bahia de Saratosa. +Machos adultos, una carga grande. +Juveniles, una carga grande. +en las hembras, despus de que la primera cria es destetada, la carga es pequea. +Estas hembras no estn tratando, +stas hembras estn transmitiendo el PCB en la grasa de la leche materna a sus cras. sus cras no sobrevivirn. +el porcentaje de muertes en estos delfines, en la primera cria de estas hembras es del 60% a 80%. +Estas hembras inyectan a su primera cria con ste contaminante. y la mayora mueren. +La madre puede reproducirse, pero es un precio muy alto el que paga debido a la acumulacin de este contaminante en estos animales- la muerte de su primera cria. +Existe otro predador en el ocano, resulta +que el predador mas alto, somos nosotros. +y nosotros tambien estamos consumiendo carne que provienen de esos mismos lugares. +Esta es carne de ballena que fotografi en una tienda de abarrotes en Tokyo - o no lo es ? +de hecho, lo que hicimos hace unos aos atrs, fue aprender a escondernos en un laboratorio de biologa molecular en Tokyo y usarlo para testear genticamente el DNA de ejemplos de carne de ballena e identificar lo que realmente eran. +Algunos de esos ejemplos s eran carne de ballena. +y algunos de los ejemplos eran carne de ballena ilegal, por cierto +esa es otra historia. +algunos no eran carne de ballena. +aunque estaba marcada como carne de ballena, era carne de delfin. +algunos eran higado de delfin. algunos eran grasa de delfin. +y esas partes de los delfines tienen grandes cantidades de PCB, dioxinas y metales pesados. +y esas cargas se estaban transmitiendo a las personas que consumian esa carne. +Result que muchos de los delfines se vendian como carne de ballena en el mercado a nivel mundial. +Esa fu una tragedia para esa poblacin. Tambien fu una tragedia para las personas que lo consumian porque no sabian que era carne contaminada. +Tuvimos estos datos hace unos aos atras. +Recuerdo estar sentado en mi escritorio siendo la unica persona en el mundo que sabia que esa carne de ballena que se vendia en el mercado era realmente carne de delfin y que era toxica. +Tenia dos, tres o 400 veces la carga toxica permitida por la EPA. +Y recuerdo estar sentado en mi escritorio pensando, "Bien, s esto. Es un gran descubrimiento cientfico" pero es tan terrible. +Por primera vez en mi carrera cientifica quebr el protocolo cientifico, el cual es, que tomas tus datos y los publicas en una revista cientifica, y luego hablas acerca de ello. +Enviamos una carta muy corts al ministro de salud en Japn y simplemente sealamos que era una situacin intolerable, no por nosotros, si no por la gente en Japn. Porque las madres que estaban amamantando, quienes tenian hijos pequeos, estaban comprando algo que creian era saludable, pero realmente era toxico. +Esto conllevo a varias campaas en Japn. Y me siento orgulloso de decir que en este momento, es muy difcil comprar algo en Japn que est marcado incorrectamente, aunque esten vendiendo carne de ballena, lo cual creo no deberian, +al menos est marcada correctamente, no estars comprando carne de delfin contaminada. +No solo sucede alli, tambien en dietas naturales de algunas comunidades en el artico canadiense y el de los EUA y en el artico europeo, una dieta natural de leones marinos y ballenas conlleva a la acumulacin de PCB que han acarreado de todas partes del mundo y terminan en stas mujeres. +Estas mujeres tienen leche materna contaminada. +No pueden alimentar a sus descendientes, sus hijos, con su leche materna debido a la acumulacin de stos contaminantes en la cadena alimenticia, de la piramide ocanica de su parte en el mundo. +Eso significa que sus sistemas inmunolgicos estn comprometidos. +significa que el desarrollo de sus hijos puede estar comprometido. +La atencin del mundo en sto durante la ultima decada ha reducido el problema para estas mujeres, no cambiando la piramide, si no cambiando lo que ellos particularmente comen de ella. +Los hemos sacado de su piramide natural para resolver el problema. +Es una buena cosa para este grave problema en particular, pero no hace nada para resolver el problema de la piramide. +Existen otras formas de quebrar la piramide +La piramide, si ponemos cosas en la base, se puede rebosar, tal como cuando una alcantarilla se atora. +si ponemos nutrientes, aguas residuales, fertilizantes en la base de la piramide, se puede rebosar atravs de toda. +y terminamos con cosas de las que hemos escuchado antes: mareas rojas por ejemplo, que son cumulos de algas toxicas flotando en los ocanos causando daos neurolgicos. +tambien tenemos cumulos de bacterias cumulos de viruses en el ocano, +Estas son dos fotos de una marea roja que llega a la playa y una bacteria en el genero vibrio, el cual incluye el genero al que pertenece el Clera. +Cuantas personas han visto el letrero " Playa Cerrada" ? +Por que pasa ? +Sucede porque hemos arruinado tanto la base de la piaramide natural del ocano que esa bacteria se obstruye y se riega en nuestras playas. +Usualmente lo que se rebosa son las aguas residuales. +Cuantos de ustedes han ido a un parque estatal o nacional donde hay un letrero que dice, " Cerrado por exceso de aguas residuales humanas en este parque que no puede ser usado" ? +No usualmente. No lo tolerariamos. +No tolerariamos que nuestros parques sean inundados de aguas residuales humanas. Sin embargo, nuestras playas son cerradas en nuestro pais. +Se estn cerrando mas y mas alrededor del mundo por la misma razn. Y creo no deberiamos tolerarlo. +No es cuestion de limpieza. Es cuestion de como esos organismos se convierten en enfermedades humanas. +Estos vibrios, estas bacterias, pueden realmente infectar personas. +Pueden ir a tu piel y crear infeccion. +Esta es una grafica de la iniciativa NOAA en salud marina y humana, donde muestra el incremento de las infecciones por vibrio en las personas durante los ultimos aos. +Surfistas, por ejemplo, lo saben. +y pueden ver en algunos sitios de surfeo, de hecho, no solo ven como son las olas o el clima, sino que en algunos sitios de surfeo, ven una luz de alerta. +que significa que la playa puede tener grandes olas, pero es un sitio muy peligroso para estar porque las acarrean, aun despues de un gran dia de surfeo, estas infecciones puede tomar mucho tiempo en sanar +algunas de estas infecciones llevan genes resistentes a antibioticos. y eso lo hace an mas dificil. +Estas mismas infecciones crean colonias de algas dainas. +Estas colonias generan otro tipo de quimicos. +Esta es un lista sencilla de algunos tipos de envenenamientos que se generan en estas colonias de algas: intoxicacion de mariscos, peces ciguatera, mariscos diarreicos - no querrian saber acerca de eso - mariscos neurotoxicos, mariscos paraliticos, +estas son cosas que estn en en nuestra cadena alimenticia debido a estas colonias. +Rita Calwell famosamente siguio un historia interesante de colera en las comunidades humanas traidas, no por una causa normal humana sino por un factor marino, ste copepoda. +Los copepodos son crustceos pequeos. +son del tamao de una pequea fraccion de una pulgada. y puden llevar en sus pequeas piernas algo de la bacteria del clera la que conlleva a enfermedades humanas. +Eso ha acarreado epidemias de clera en los puertos del mundo y ha llevadao a mayor atencin en asegurase que las cargas no lleven estos vectores de clera por el mundo. +Qu hacer? +Tenemos problemas grandes en el flujo del ecosistema que la piramide no funciona bien, fluyen desde la base hasta arriba est siendo bloqueada y atorada. +Qu hacer cuando se tiene este tipo de flujo trastornado? +Bien, hay varias cosa que podrias hacer +Podra llamar a Joe el plomero, por ejemplo. +y podria venir y arreglar el flujo. +De hecho, si miran en el mundo, no solo existen lugares de esperanza desde donde podramos arreglar los problemas, existen sitios donde se han arreglado los problemas, donde las personas han tomado la situacin y empezaron a cambiarla. +Monterey es uno de esos. +Empece mostrandoles cuanto hemos destruido el ecosistema de la Bahia de Monterey con contaminantes y la industria enlatadora y los problemas adyacentes. +En 1932 se veia asi. +en el 2009 se ve dramaticamente diferente. +Las enlatadoras ya no estn. La contaminacin se ha disminuido. +Existe una gran sensacin aqui de que, lo que las comunidades necesitan es un ecosistema que funcione. +Necesitan una piramide que funcione desde la base hasta el tope. +y esa piramide en Monterey, en este momento, debido a los esfurezos de diferentes personas, est funcionando mejor de lo que ha funcionado por los ultimos 150 aos. +No sucedi por accidente, +Sucedi por que mucha gente puso tiempo, esfuerzo y su espiritu aventurero en esto. +En la izquierda, Julia Paltt, la alcaldesa de mi pequeo pueblo en Pacific Grove. +A los 74 aos se convirti en alcaldesa porque algo tenia que hacerse para proteger el ocano. +En 1931 creo en California el primer rea marina protegida por una comunidad justo al lado de la enlatadora ms contaminante, porque Julia sabia que cuando las enlatadoras se acabaran, el ocano necesitaria un sitio desde cual renacer, el ocano necesitaria un sitio desde el cual florecer, y ella queria proveer esa semilla, +otras personas como David Packard y Julie Packard, quienes fueron instrumentos en la creacion del Acuario de Monterey para que la nocion de la gente de que el ocano y la salud del ocano eran tan importantes en la economia del area como comerse el ecosistema. +El cambio de pensamiento ha llevado a un cambio dramatico no solo en las riquezas de la bahia de monterey sino en otros sitios del mundo. +Bien, quiero dejarlos con el pensamiento que lo que estamos tratando de hacer aqui es proteger la piramide del ocano. y que la piramide ocanica se conecta con la piramide de la vida. +Es un planeta ocanico, y pensamos que somos una especie terrestre. Pero la pirmide de la vida ocenica y nuestras vidas en la tierra estn concetadas intrinsicamente. +Y es solamente a travs de un ocano saludable que podemos mantenernos saludables. +Muchas gracias. +Hoy es un gran honor compartir con Uds. El Universo Digital, que fue creado para que la Humanidad vea realmente dnde estamos en el Universo. +Y as que creo que podemos pasar el vdeo que tenemos. +[El Himalaya.] Carter Emmart: El horizonte plano con el que hemos crecido ha sido una metfora de recursos infinitos, ilimitados, y de capacidad inagotable para la eliminacin de desechos. +No fue sino hasta que en realidad dejamos la Tierra pasamos la atmsfera y vimos el horizonte doblarse sobre s mismo cuando pudimos entender que nuestro planeta tiene limitaciones. +El Altas del Universo Digital fue construido en el Museo Estadounidense de Historia Natural en los ltimos 12 aos. +Sostenemos eso, recopilarlo como proyecto para cartografiar el Universo a todas las escalas. +Lo que vemos aqu son satlites orbitando la Tierra y la Tierra en su posicin correcta con respecto al Universo, como vemos. +La NASA apoy este trabajo hace 12 aos como parte de la reconstruccin del Planetario Hayden para que pudiramos compartirlo con el mundo. +El Universo Digital es la base de la produccin de espectculos del espacio que hacemos, de nuestro espectculo principal en la cpula. +Pero lo que ven aqu es en realidad el resultado de prcticas que ofrecimos junto a la Universidad de Linkping en Suecia. +He tenido a 12 estudiantes trabajando en esto para su trabajo de posgrado. Y el resultado ha sido este software llamado Uniview y una empresa llamada SCISS en Suecia. +Este software permite el uso interactivo. As que esta trayectoria de vuelo real y la pelcula que vemos aqu sucedieron en vivo. +Lo captur en vivo con mi porttil en un caf llamado Earth Matters (La Tierra Importa) en el Lower East Side de Manhattan, donde vivo. Esto se hizo como proyecto colaborativo con el Museo Rubin de Arte Himalaya para una exposicin sobre cosmologa comparada. +Y as, a medida que nos alejamos vemos de forma continua, desde nuestro planeta, todo el camino hacia el reino de las galaxias como vemos aqu viajando a la velocidad de la luz, lo que nos da una idea de lo lejos que estamos. +a medida que nos alejamos la luz de estas galaxias distantes tarda tanto tiempo en llegar que, bsicamente, nos remontamos al pasado. +Nos remontamos tan lejos que finalmente vemos una envoltura a nuestro alrededor; el resplandor del Big Bang. +Este es el fondo de microondas WMAP que vemos. +Volaremos fuera de l, slo para ver este tipo de envoltura. +Si estuviramos fuera de esto casi no tendra sentido, en el sentido que sera antes del tiempo. +Pero esto es nuestra envoltura del universo visible. +Sabemos que el universo es ms grande de lo que podemos ver. +Volviendo rpidamente, vemos aqu la radisfera que saltamos al principio. Pero estas son las posiciones, las ltimas posiciones de los exoplanetas que hemos registrado. Y aqu nuestro sol, obviamente con nuestro propio sistema solar. +Lo que van a ver... van a tener que saltar aqu bastante rpidamente varios rdenes de magnitud para llegar a ver el sistema solar. Estos son los caminos de la Voyager 1, Voyager 2, Pioneer 11 y Pioneer 10, las cuatro primeras naves espaciales que han salido del sistema solar. +Acercndonos hacia la Tierra. Orbitamos la Luna y vemos la Tierra. +Este mapa puede ser actualizado. Y podemos agregar informacin. +S que la Dra. Carolyn Porco es la lder de cmaras +de la misin Cassini. +Pero aqu vemos la trayectoria compleja de la misin Cassini distintos colores para las diferentes fases de la misin desarrollado ingeniosamente de modo que 45 encuentros con la luna ms grande, Titn, que es ms grande que el planeta Mercurio, desva la rbita en las diferentes partes de las fases de la misin. +Este software nos permite acercarnos y mirar las partes de esto. +Este software tambin puede conectarse entre cpulas. +Tenemos un creciente grupo de usuarios de esto. Y conectamos cpulas. +Y podemos conectar cpulas y aulas. +En realidad estamos compartiendo viajes por el Universo con el primer planetario sub-sahariano en Ghana as como nuevas bibliotecas construidas en los guetos en Columbia y una escuela secundaria en Camboya. +Y los camboyanos han controlado el Planetario Hayden desde sus escuelas. +Esta es una imagen del sbado, fotografiado por el satlite Aqua, pero a travs del software UniView. +Estn viendo el contorno de la Tierra. +Esto es Nepal. +Esto es, de hecho, justo aqu est el valle de Lhasa, justo aqu en el Tibet. +Pero podemos ver el humo de los incendios y cosas as del valle del Ganges all en India. +Esto es Nepal y el Tbet. +Porque nuestro hogar es el Universo y nosotros somos el Universo, bsicamente. +Lo llevamos en nuestro interior. +Y ser capaces de ver nuestro contexto en el sentido ms general a todas las escalas nos ayuda, creo, a entender dnde estamos y quines somos en el Universo. +Gracias. +Por qu cultivar hogares? Porque podemos. +En este momento, EE.UU. est en un estado constante de trauma. +Y hay un motivo para eso, muy bien. +Tenemos McGente, McAutos, McCasas. +Como arquitecto, tengo que enfrentar algo as. +Entonces, qu tecnologa nos permitir hacer casas enormes? +Bueno, ha estado rondando durante 2.500 aos. +Es el pleaching, o injertar rboles entre s o injertar materia por anastomosis en un sistema vascular continuo. +Y hacemos algo diferente de lo que hicimos en el pasado. Le agregamos un mnimo de inteligencia a eso. +Usamos CNC para el andamiaje para amoldar la materia semi-epittica, las pantas, en una geometra especfica que conforme un hogar al que llamamos Fab Tree Hab. +Se adapta al medio ambiente. Es el medio ambiente. +Es el paisaje, correcto? +Y se puede tener cien millones de estos hogares. Y es genial porque absorben carbono. +Son perfectas. +Se puede tener 100 millones de familias, o sacar cosas de los suburbios, porque se trata de viviendas que son una parte del medio ambiente. +Imaginen pre-cultivar un pueblo; lleva de 7 a 10 aos, y es todo verde. +As que hemos estado haciendo esto por un par de aos, y ese es nuestro laboratorio. +Y lo que hacemos es cultivar matriz extracelular de cerdos. +Usamos una impresora de inyeccin de tinta modificada. E imprimimos geometra. +Imprimimos geometra donde podemos hacer diseo industrial como, ya saben, zapatos, cinturones de cuero, bolsos de mano, etc., donde no hay criaturas sensibles perjudicadas. +Es sin vctimas. Es carne de tubo de ensayo. +Por eso nuestra teora es que con el tiempo deberamos estar haciendo esto con las viviendas. +He aqu un tpico muro de carga y la construccin arquitectnica. Y esta es una seccin de nuestra propuesta para una casa de carne donde se puede ver que utilizamos clulas grasas como aislamiento, cilios para tratar las cargas de viento y msculos del esfnter para puertas y ventanas. +Y sabemos que es muy feo. +Podra haber sido un tudor ingls o un colonial espaol, pero como que elegimos esta forma. +Y all hay una especie de cultivo, al menos una seccin particular del mismo. +Tuvimos un gran espectculo en Praga. Y decidimos ponerlo delante de la catedral para que la religin pudiera confrontar la casa de carne. +Por eso cultivamos casas. Muchas gracias. +Muchas gracias. +Disculpen que me siente, soy un hombre viejo. +Bien, el tema que voy a tratar es de algn modo muy peculiar porque es muy antiguo. +La fracturacin es parte de la vida humana eternamente. Escritores de la antigedad han escrito acerca de ello. +Era prcticamente incontrolable. Y de alguna manera, pareca ser la complejidad extrema, un desorden, un caos. +Hay varios tipos de desrdenes. +Bien, por una total casualidad, incursion muchos aos atrs en el estudio de esta forma de complejidad. Y para mi total asombro, Encontr vestigios, vestigios muy concretos, debo decir de orden en esa fracturacin. +Por eso hoy quiero presentarles algunos ejemplos de lo que esto representa. +Prefiero la palabra "fracturacin" a "irregularidad" porque "irregularidad" para alguien que estudi latn como yo en mi lejana juventud significa lo contrario de "regularidad". +Pero no es as. +Regularidad es lo contrario de fracturacin porque en el mundo, bsicamente, hay fracturacin. +Les mostrar varios objetos. +Algunos son artificiales. +Otros, en cierto sentido, son muy reales. +Este es real: es una coliflor. +Ahora, por qu les muestro una coliflor, un vegetal antiguo y comn? +Porque si bien es antiguo y comn, es tambin muy complicado y muy simple al mismo tiempo. +Es muy fcil de pesar. Y al comerlo, el peso importa. Pero si intentamos medir su superficie. +Bueno, es muy interesante. +Si cortamos con un cuchillo un cogollito de una coliflor y lo observamos por separado, tenemos una coliflor entera, pero ms pequea, +Y si la cortamos nuevamente, y otra vez, y otra, y otra, y otra, siguen apareciendo coliflores pequeitas. +Es que la experiencia de la humanidad siempre ha presentado formas con esta peculiar caracterstica, en donde cada parte es similar al todo, pero ms pequeo. +Y qu hizo la humanidad con eso? +Muy, muy poco. +Entonces yo analic este problema, y encontr algo asombroso. +Que es que se puede medir la fracturacin mediante un nmero, 2,3; 1,2 y a veces mucho mayor. +Un da, un amigo mo, para bromear, me mostr un dibujo y dijo: -Cul es la fracturacin de esta curva? +Yo le respond: -Bueno, apenas casi 1,5. +La respuesta era 1,48. +Me llev un instante. +Haba estado observando estas cosas por aos. +As que estos nmeros determinan la fracturacin de estas superficies. +Me apuro a decir que estas superficies son completamente artificiales. +Generadas por computadora con slo ingresar un nmero. Y que ese nmero representa la fracturacin. +Aqu a la izquierda, utilic un valor copiado de varios paisajes. +A la derecha, utilic una mayor fracturacin. +Para que luego el ojo pueda distinguir estas dos correctamente. +La humanidad debi aprender sobre medicin de la fracturacin. +Muy fracturado, bastante liso, o perfectamente liso. +Muy pocas cosas son perfectamente lisas. +As que si intentamos preguntarnos -Cul es la superficie de una coliflor? +Bueno, hay que medir, medir y medir. +Resulta ms grande cuanto ms nos acercamos, hasta distancias muy, muy pequeas. +Qu longitud tienen las costas de estos lagos? +Cuanto ms de cerca medimos, ms longitud tienen. +El concepto de longitud costera, que parece algo tan natural porque aparece con frecuencia como dato, es, en realidad, una mentira; no existe. +Debemos calcularla de otra manera. +En qu nos beneficia saber estas cosas? +Bueno, por sorprendente que parezca, en muchos aspectos. +Para empezar, los paisajes artificiales, que yo, de alguna manera, invent, se usan en pelculas constantemente. +Vemos montaas distantes. +Podran ser montaas reales, o podran ser tambin frmulas. +Ahora es muy sencillo de lograr. +Sola llevar tiempo y esfuerzo, pero hoy no es nada. +Observen esto: es un pulmn real. +El pulmn es un rgano muy extrao. +Si tomamos un pulmn, notaremos que pesa muy poco. +Tiene un volumen muy pequeo. Pero y su rea? +Los anatomistas han discutido mucho sobre el tema. +Algunos dicen que un pulmn de un varn normal tiene un rea interna similar al de una pelota de bsquet. +Y otros dicen: no, de cinco pelotas. +Desacuerdo total. +Y por qu? Porque, por cierto, el rea de un pulmn no ha sido definida con certeza. +Los bronquios se ramifican hasta alcanzar un lmite no por una cuestin de principios, sino por razones fsicas: como la mucosa en los pulmones. +Entonces sucede que, de esa manera, tenemos un pulmn ms grande, pero si se ramifica, hasta distancias similares en una ballena, en un hombre y en un pequeo roedor, +bien, qu se gana con eso? +Porque nos sorprender saber, que los anatomistas, hasta hace muy poco, conocan la estructura del pulmn muy vagamente. +Y yo pienso que mi matemtica, por asombroso que parezca, ha servido de gran ayuda a los cirujanos que estudian enfermedades pulmonares y renales. Para estas ramificaciones no exista una geometra. +As que yo, en otras palabras, me encotr construyendo una geometra, para aquellas cosas que carecan de una. +Y lo asombroso de esto es que, con frecuencia, las leyes de esta geometra son extremadamente exiguas. +Tenemos largas frmulas +que aplicamos varias veces +algunas las repetimos una y otra vez. La misma repeticin. +Y al final obtenemos cosas como sta. +Esta nube es completamente, 100 por ciento, artificial. +Bueno... 99,9 por ciento. +La nica parte que es natural es un nmero, la fracturacin de la nube, tomada de la naturaleza. +Algo tan complicado como una nube, tan inestable, tan variable, debera seguir una ley simple. +Bien, esta ley simple no es una explicacin de las nubes. +El observador de nubes tuvo que tener esto en cuenta. +No s cun avanzadas son estas imgenes son antiguas. +Yo estaba muy involucrado en esto, pero luego me dediqu a otros fenmenos. +Aqu hay otra cosa bastante interesante. +Uno de los eventos demoledores en la historia de la matemtica y que muchos subestiman, ocurri hace unos 130 aos, 145 aos atrs. +Los matemticos comenzaron a crear formas que no existan. +Y empezaron a auto-halagarse hasta niveles asombrosos dada la capacidad del hombre para inventar cosas desconocidas por la naturaleza. +Ms concretamente cosas como una curva que cubre un plano. +Una curva es una curva, un plano es un plano, no se mezclan. +Bueno, s se mezclan. +Un hombre de nombre Peano, defini esas curvas, que enseguida generaron gran inters. +Fue muy importante, pero por sobre todo, interesante porque fue una especie de quiebre, una ruptura entre la matemtica derivada de la realidad y la nueva, proveniente puramente de la mente. +No me fue agradable clarificar que la mente humana pura en realidad ha visto, de una vez por todas, lo que ya haba sido visto por aos. +As que aqu les presento esto: el conjunto de ros de una curva que cubre a un plano. +Y bien es una historia en s misma. +As que de 1875 a 1925 tenemos un perodo extraordinario en el que la matemtica se preparar para asaltar al mundo. +Y los objetos que se utilizaron como ejemplos cuando yo era un nio y un estudiante como ejemplos de la ruputura entre la matemtica y la realidad visible, a esos objetos yo les d un giro completamente nuevo: +los utilic para describir ciertos aspectos de la complejidad de la naturaleza. +Bien, en 1919 un hombre llamado Hausdorff present un nmero que era un mero chiste matemtico. Y yo descubr que ese nmero representaba la medida de la fracturacin. +Cuando les coment esto a mis amigos matemticos me dijeron: -No seas tonto, eso es una tontera. +Bien, yo en realidad no era tonto. +El gran pintor Hokusai lo saba muy bien. +Lo que aparece en el suelo son algas. +El no conoca su matemtica, no exista an. +Y siendo japons, no tena contacto con Occidente. +Pero la pintura, por mucho tiempo, tuvo su lado fractal. +Puedo hablar de eso por largo tiempo. +La torre Eiffel tiene un costado fractal. +Yo le el libro de Eiffel acerca de su torre. Y es verdaderamente impresionante todo lo que l entenda. +Esto es un desorden, el lazo browniano. +Un da decid que, (durante mi carrera muchas cosas me distrajeron de mi trabajo) decid auto-evaluarme. +Podra yo, al observar algo que todos haban observado durante mucho tiempo podra encontrar algo decididamente nuevo? +Bien, entonces observ esto que se llama movimiento browniano, que se desplaza. +Jugu con l por un rato, y lo hice regresar a su posicin original. +Y le dije a mi asistente: -No encuentro nada, puedes pintarlo? +Y el lo pint lo rellen todo por dentro. Y dijo: -Mira lo que result- y yo dije: -detnte, detnte! +Puedo verlo, es una isla. +Sorprendente. +As que el movimiento browniano con un ndice de fracturacin igual a dos, se desplaza. +1,33; yo lo med. +Una y otra y otra vez. +Grandes medidas, movimientos brownianos grandes. 1,33. +Un problema matemtico, cmo verificarlo? +A mis compaeros les llev 20 aos. +Tres de ellos obtuvieron pruebas incompletas. +Se presentaron juntos y lo verificaron. +Y as obtuvieron la gran medalla en matemtica, una de las tres medallas que se pueden obtener por verificar cosas que yo he visto sin ser capaz de verificar. +Todo el mundo me ha preguntado: -Cmo comenz todo? +-Por qu se dedic usted a algo tan extrao? +Y qu hizo que yo deviniera al mismo tiempo ingeniero mecnico, gegrafo, matemtico, etc, fsico. +Bueno, por extrao que parezca comenc estudiando el mercado de valores. +As que desarroll una teora y escrib libros contndola: el incremento de precios. +A la izquierda se ven valores a lo largo de un perodo. +Arriba a la derecha, una teora muy elegante. +Fue fcil, se pueden escribir rpidamente muchos libros sobre ella. +Hay miles de libros sobre el tema. +Ahora, comparemos eso con el incremento de precios real. +Dnde est el incremento de precios real? +Bien, estas otras lneas representan el incremento real y tambin ficticio, hecho por m. +Entonces la idea consista en que uno puede cmo decirlo? modelar la variacin en el precio. +Y hace 50 aos funcion muy bien. +Durante 50 aos la gente desde mi teora porque podan hacerlo mucho ms fcil. +Pero al menos me escuchaban. +Estas dos curvas representan promedios. Standard & Poor, la azul. Y la roja es Standard & Poor's, de donde se obtienen las cinco mayores discontinuidades. +Por cierto las discontinuidades son un incordio. Por eso en muchos anlisis de precios son dejadas de lado. +Se las considera "caso fortuito". +Y lo que queda no tiene sentido. +Los casos fortuitos en esta imagen... importan tanto cinco casos fortuitos como cualquier otra cosa. +En otras palabras, no son los casos fortuitos lo que debemos dejar de lado. +Ellos son la esencia, el problema. +Si podemos dominarlos, dominamos el precio. Y si no, podemos intentar con las fluctuaciones, lo mejor posible, pero no tienen tanta importancia. +Bien, estas curvas lo muestran. +Una ltima cosa: el conjunto que lleva mi nombre +en cierta manera es la historia de mi vida. +Durante mi adolescencia Francia estaba bajo la ocupacin alemana. +Y yo, creyendo que desaparecera de un da para el otro, tena grandes sueos. +Y despus de la guerra me reencontr con un to mo +que era un prominente matemtico, y l me dijo: -Mira, hay un problema que yo no pude resolver hace 25 aos y que nadie puede resolver. +Es una construccin de un hombre llamado Gaston Julia y un hombre llamado Pierre Fatou. +Si t puedes encontrar algo nuevo, cualquier cosa, tu carrera estar hecha. +As de simple. +Entonces observ y al igual que mis predecesores, no encontr nada. +Pero luego vinieron las computadoras. As que decid usarlas no para resolver nuevos problemas matemticos como este serpenteo, eso es nuevo. Sino antiguos problemas. +Partiendo de lo que denominamos nmeros reales, que son puntos en una lnea, hasta nmeros imaginarios, complejos, que son puntos en un plano, que es lo que debemos hacer aqu. Y result esta forma +que tiene una complejidad extraordinaria. +La ecuacin est oculta ah: z se transforma en z al cuadrado, ms c. +Tan simple, tan cortante. +Tan aburrido. +Pero si damos una vuelta de tuerca, o dos vueltas, aparecen maravillas. +Quiero decir, aparece esto. +No voy a explicar estas cosas. +Aparece esto. +Formas tan complicadas, tan armoniosas, tan hermosas. +Aparece esto una y otra vez +Y se fue uno de mis ms grandes descubrimientos, descubrir que estas islas son prcticamente idnticas al todo que las engloba. +Y el resultado son estos firuletes barrocos, extraordinarios, por doquier. +Todo eso a partir de esta formulita, que tiene apenas cinco smbolos. +Y luego sta. +Aparecen en colores por dos razones: +primero, porque estas formas son tan complicadas que es imposible entender los nmeros. +Y si vamos a utilizarlas, necesitamos un mtodo. +As que mi premisa fue presentar las formas de diferentes colores porque cada color destaca algo diferente. +Es tan complicado. +En 1990 yo estaba en el Reino Unido +para recibir un premio de la Universidad de Cambridge. Y tres das ms tarde un piloto sobrevol un campo y encontr esto. +Y de dnde sali esto? +Extraterrestres, obviamente. +Bien, entonces el diario de Cambridge public un artculo sobre ese "descubrimiento" y al da siguiente recibi 5.000 cartas que decan: -Se trata simplemente del conjunto de Mandelbrot. +Bien, permtanme terminar. +Esta figura que ven aqu proviene de un ejercicio de matemtica pura. +De las leyes ms simples nacen infinitas maravillas que se repiten indefinidamente. +Muchas gracias. +Soy Ellen y estoy completamente obsesionada con la comida. +Pero no empec a obsesionarme con la comida. +Empec a obsesionarme con polticas globales de seguridad porque viva en New York cuando lo del 11 de septiembre y eso obviamente impacta. +Luego pas de la seguridad global a los alimentos porque me di cuenta de que cuando tengo hambre, realmente soy insoportable. Y supongo que el resto del mundo tambin. +Especialmente si tienes hambre y tus hijos tambin y los hijos de tu vecinos y toda la comunidad tiene hambre, eso enoja muchsimo. +Y en realidad, sin darnos cuenta, parece que las reas del mundo que estn con hambre son tambin las reas del mundo con ms inseguridad. +Por lo tanto, asum un trabajo de NNUU en el Programa Mundial de Alimentos como una forma de vehicular estos temas de seguridad a travs de temas de seguridad alimenticia. +Y mientras estuve ah, me cruc con lo que creo es el ms sobresaliente de sus programas. +Se llama Alimentacin Escolar, y es realmente una idea simple de penetrar en el crculo de la pobreza y del hambre que afecta a mucha gente alrededor del mundo, y detenerlo. +Dando una racin alimenticia a los escolares, los atrae a la escuela, es decir, a la educacin, el primer paso para salir de la pobreza. Pero tambin les aporta los micro y macronutrientes que necesitan para desarrollarse fsica y mentalmente. +Mientras estuve trabajando en NNUU, conoc a Lauren Bush. +Y ella tuvo esta brillante idea de vender la bolsa llamada "Bolsa Alimenticia" lo que es hermosamente irnico pues usted se puede unir a la "Bolsa Alimenticia". +Cada bolsa que vendemos provee alimentacin a un nio durante un ao. +Es tan simple... Y pensamos que cuesta entre 20 y 50 dlares proveer alimentacin a un escolar al ao. +Podemos vender estas bolsas y juntar mucho dinero y despertar conciencias a favor del Programa Mundial de Alimentos. +Pero por supuesto, ustedes conocen NNUU, a veces va lenta, y ellos definitivamente dijeron que no. +Entonces pensamos, Dios mo, esta idea es tan buena y juntaremos mucho dinero. +Y dijimos, al diablo, y empezamos nuestra propia compaa hace tres aos. +As fue el sueo inicial de empezar esta compaa llamada FEED. Y aqu est en pantalla nuestro sitio web. +Hicimos esta bolsa para Hait y la presentamos justo un mes despus del terremoto para entregar alimentacin escolar a los nios de Hait. +FEED no lo est haciendo nada mal. Hemos entregado ya 55 millones de raciones alimenticias a nios de todo el mundo vendiendo hasta ahora 555.000 de bolsas, una tonelada de bolsas, muchas bolsas. +Usualmente -- cuando se piensa acerca de la hambruna, es difcil ya que tendemos a pensar en comer. +Pienso mucho en comer, y realmente me encanta. +Y lo que es un poco extrao acerca del hambre internacional y hablar acerca de temas internacionales es que la mayora de la gente quiere saber qu est haciendo EEUU. +Que se est haciendo por los nios de EEUU? +Definitivamente hay hambre en EEUU, 49 millones de personas y casi 16,7 millones de nios. +Creo que es dramtico para nuestro pas. +Hambre definitivamente significa algo muy diferente en EEUU que en otros lugares, pero es realmente importante que nos refiramos al hambre en nuestro pas. +Pero obviamente el mayor problema que todos conocemos es la obesidad y es dramtico. +An ms dramtico es la suma de hambre y obesidad que ha ido en aumento en los ltimos 30 aos. +Desafortunadamente, la obesidad no es slo problema de EEUU. +Se ha ido expandiendo a travs de todo el mundo y principalmente a travs del tipo de alimentos que exportamos. +Las cifras son muy preocupantes. +Hay mil millones de persona obesa o con sobrepeso y mil millones de personas con hambre. +Entonces parecen dos problemas opuestos, pero he empezado a pensar acerca de qu es obesidad y hambre. De qu tratan ambas cosas? +Bueno, ambas se refieren a alimentos. +Y cuando se piensa en alimentos, la base fundamental en ambos casos radica en la problemtica de la agricultura. +Y de la agricultura provienen los alimentos. +Bueno, la agricultura en EEUU es muy interesante. +Est muy consolidada. Y los alimentos que se producen llevan a los alimentos que ingerimos. +Bueno, los alimentos que se producen son ms o menos, maz, soja y trigo. +Como pueden ver, eso son las tres cuartas partes de los alimentos que consumimos, y en su mayora alimentos procesados y comida rpida. +Desafortunadamente, en nuestro sistema de agricultura, no lo hemos hecho muy bin en las ltimas tres dcadas al exportar esas tecnologas alrededor del mundo. +Por lo tanto la agricultura de frica, el lugar con ms hambre en el mundo, ha decrecido precipitadamente mientras que el hambre ha aumentado. +Entonces, de algn modo no estamos estableciendo la conexin al exportar un buen sistema de agricultura que ayude a alimentar a la poblacin del mundo. +Quin les cultiva? Eso es lo que me preguntaba. +Y entonces me fui y me detuve en un gran silo en mitad del Oeste. Pero eso no me ayud a entender los cultivos, pero creo que obtuve una imagen realmente fresca. +Y saben, esa es la realidad de los agricultores de EEUU, quienes verdaderamente, cuando paso un tiempo en mitad del Oeste, son muy grandes en general, +y sus haciendas son muy grandes tambin. +Mientras que los agricultores en el resto del mundo son muy delgados, y eso es porque tienen hambre. +La mayora de la gente con hambre en el mundo son agricultores de supervivencia. +Y la mayora de esas personas son mujeres, tema totalmente diferente, que no abordar ahora, pero que me gustara hacer desde el punto de vista feminista. +Creo que es muy interesante mirar la agricultura desde estos dos lados. +Existe esta gran agricultura consolidada que lidera lo que comemos en EEUU. y ha sido en realidad desde 1980, despus de la crisis del petroleo, durante la consolidacin masiva, esto es, el xodo masivo de pequeos agricultores en este pas. +Y entonces en el mismo perodo, como que hemos dejado a los agricultores de frica hacer lo propio. +Desafortunadamente, comemos lo que se cultiva. +Y en EEUU mucho de lo que comemos nos ha llevado a la obesidad y hacia un cambio real de nuestra dieta en los ltimos 30 aos. +Es una locura. +un quinto de los nios menores de dos aos beben refrescos. +Atencin. No pongan refrescos en los biberones. +Pero la gente lo hace porque es barato. Y as nuestro sistema completo de alimentacin en los ltimos 30 aos de verdad ha cambiado. +Creo, que no slo en nuestro propio pas, sino que en realidad estamos exportando el sistema a todo el mundo. Y cuando se analizan los datos de pases menos desarrollados, especialmente en ciudades, que estn creciendo rpidamente, las personas comen alimentos procesados estadounidenses. +Y en una generacin, ellos van desde el hambre, y todo su efecto perjudicial en la salud, hasta la obesidad pasando por enfermedades vinculadas con la diabetes y enfermedades cardacas en una sola generacin. +As el problemtico sistema de alimentacin est afectando al hambre y a la obesidad. +Vuelvo a insistir en lo mismo, pero esto es un tema de alimentacin global donde hay mil millones de personas con hambre y mil millones de personas obesas. +Creo que es la nica manera de verlo. +Y en vez de tomar estas dos cosas como problemas separados que en realidad estn separados, es muy importante verlos como un sistema. +Muchos de nuestros alimentos los obtenemos de otras partes del mundo. Y de otras partes del mundo importan nuestro sistema de alimentos. Por lo que es bastante relevante empezar a verlo de otra manera. +Lo que he aprendido (de los tecnlogos aqu presentes, a los cuales yo obviamente no pertenezco) que aparentemente se necesitan 30 aos para que algunas tecnologas se conviertan endmicas para nosotros, como el ratn, internet y Windows. +Saben? existen ciclos de 30 aos. +Creo que el 2010 puede ser realmente un ao interesante. Porque es el fin del ciclo de 30 aos. Y es el cumpleaos del sistema global de alimentacin. +Por eso ese es el primer cumpleaos del que quiero hablar. +Saben, creo que si realmente pensamos eso esto es algo que ha sucedido en los ltimos 30 aos, hay esperanza. +Es el trigsimo aniversario de la cosecha del Organismo Genticamente Modificado y del Big Culp, Chicken Mc Nuggets, jarabe de maz alto en fructosa, la crisis agrcola en EEUU y de los cambios en la forma de dirigir la agricultura internacionalmente. +Por lo tanto hay muchas razones para tomar este perodo de 30 aos como la creacin del nuevo sistema de alimentos. +No soy la nica que esta obsesionada con esto de los 30 aos. +Los iconos como Michael Pollan y en el deseo TED de Jamie Oliver ambos se refirieron a estas ltimas tres dcadas como increiblemente relevante cambiar el sistema de alimentos. +Bueno, en realidad me importa desde 1980 porque es tambin mi trigsimo aniversario este ao. +Y por lo tanto mi vida entera, mucho de lo que ha pasado en el mundo y siendo una persona obsesionada con la comida -- mucho de esto ha cambiado. +As que mi segundo sueo es que creo que podemos mirar los prximos 30 aos como un tiempo para cambiar el sistema de comida nuevamente. +Y sabemos lo que pas en el pasado, as que si empezamos ahora y miramos la tecnologas y adelantos del sistema de alimentos a largo plazo, seremos capaces de simular el sistema de alimentos. Por eso, cuando d mi prxima charla y tenga 60 aos de edad, Ser capaz de decir que ha sido un xito. +Por lo tanto anuncio hoy el comienzo de una nueva organizacin, o un nuevo fondo dentro de la fundacin FEED, llamada el Proyecto 30. +Y el Proyecto 30 en realidad est enfocado en estas ideas a largo plazo para el cambio al sistema de alimentos. +Y creo que alineando defensores internacionales que se ocupen del hambre y defensores locales que se ocupen de la obesidad, podremos verdaderamente buscar soluciones a largo plazo. que mejorar el sistema de alimentos para todos. +Tendemos a pensar que estos sistemas son muy diferentes. y la gente discute si lo orgnico puede o no alimentar al mundo. Pero si tomamos una perspectiva a 30 aos, hay ms esperanza en ideas colaborativas. +Entonces, espero que conectando organizaciones diferentes como la campaa ONE y Slow Food, las que no parecen ahora tener mucho en comn, podemos hablar de un largo plazo holstico, soluciones sistmicas que mejorarn la alimentacin para todos. +Algunas ideas que he tenido, es como, mira, la realidad es que, los nios en el Sur del Bronx necesitan manzanas y zanahorias y tambin los nios de Botswana. +Y cmo les conseguiremos esas comidas nutritivas? +Otra cosa que ha llegado a ser increiblemente global es la produccin de carne y pescado. +Entendiendo cmo producir protena en una forma que sea sana para el medioambiente y para las personas ser muy importante mencionar temas como el cambio climtico y cmo usar fertilizantes petroqumicos. +Y saben, estos son temas muy relevantes a largo plazo e importantes para los pequeos agricultores de frica y para las personas de EEUU que son agricultores y consumidores. +Y tambin creo que pensar en alimentos procesados en una forma nueva, donde paguemos las consecuencias negativas como los petroqumicos o los derrames de fertilizantes en el precio de una bolsa de papas fritas. +Y si esa bolsa de papas fritas llega a ser despus ms cara que una manzana, entonces ha llegado la hora para algo diferente en cuanto a la responsabilidad personal en la eleccin del alimento porque las elecciones son verdaderas elecciones en vez de tres cuarto de los productos hechos de maz, soja y trigo. +Ya se ha presentado el 30Proyect.org y he juntado una coalicin de algunas organizaciones para empezar. +E ir creciendo en los prximos meses. +Realmente espero que todos pensemos de una forma que puedan mirar a largo plazo temas como el sistema de alimentos y hacer cambios. +Los rboles simbolizan el estancamiento. +Los rboles echan races en el suelo en un lugar por muchas generaciones humanas. Pero si cambiamos nuestra perspectiva del tronco a las ramas, los rboles se vuelven entes muy dinmicos, movindose y creciendo. +Decid explorar ese movimiento convirtiendo a los rboles en artistas. +Simplemente at una brocha a una rama. +Sosteniendo una tela, esper a que soplara el viento. Y eso produjo arte. +La pieza de arte que veis a vuestra izquierda est pintada por un cedro rojo del oeste y se a la derecha, por un abeto de Douglas. Y aprend que las diferentes especies tienen diferentes firmas, como un Picasso contra un Monet. +Pero tambin me interesaba el movimiento de los rboles y cmo este arte podra capturarlo y cuantificarlo. As que para medir la distancia que un rbol de arce de vid, el cual produjo esta pintura, se haba movido en slo un ao, simplemente med y sum cada una de esas lneas. +Y las multipliqu por el nmero de ramitas por ramal y el nmero de ramales por rbol y lo divid por el nmero de minutos por ao. +Y as pude calcular cunto se mova un solo rbol cada ao. +Puede que tengis alguna idea. +La respuesta es de hecho 300.207 kilmetros, o siete veces la vuelta al mundo. +As que simplemente moviendo nuestra perspectiva desde un solo tronco hasta las muchas y dinmicas ramitas, vemos que los rboles no son simples entes estticos, sino extremadamente dinmicos. +Y comenc a analizar maneras de aplicar esta leccin de los rboles, en otras entidades estticas y detenidas, que piden a gritos cambio y dinamismo. Y una de ellas son nuestras crceles. +En donde aquellos que violan la ley quedan detenidos, confinados detrs de barrotes. +Y nuestro sistema carcelario en s est detenido. +Estados Unidos tiene unos 2,3 millones de hombres y mujeres encarcelados. +Y ese nmero est subiendo. +De cada cien encarcelados que son liberados, 60 volvern a prisin. +Fondos para educacin, capacitacin y rehabilitacin estn cayendo. Y as contina el ciclo de encarcelacin. +Decid as investigar si la leccin que yo haba aprendido de los rboles y los artistas podra aplicarse a instituciones estticas como nuestras crceles. Y creo que la respuesta es "s". +En 2007 me un en sociedad con el Departamento Correccional del estado de Washington. +A cuatro crceles estatales les acercamos proyectos de conservacin, prcticas sostenibles, la ciencia y los cientficos. +Ofrecimos charlas sobre ciencia. Y los presos prefieren venir a nuestras charlas de ciencia a mirar TV o hacer pesas. +Eso, yo creo, es movimiento. +Nos asociamos con "The Nature Conservancy" para que los internos del Correccional de Stafford Creek cultiven especies de plantas de pradera en riesgo y trabajen en la restauracin de praderas en el estado de Washington. +Eso, yo creo, es movimiento. +Con el Departamento de Pesca y Vida Silvestre del estado de Washington criamos especies de ranas en riesgo, la rana a pintitas de Oregon para introducirla en pantanos protegidos. +Eso, yo creo, es movimiento. +Y recientemente, comenzamos a trabajar con aquellos hombres segregados en lo que llamamos las instalaciones "Supermax". +Han cometido delitos de violencia y sido violentos con los guardacrceles y con otros presos. +Se los encierra en celdas vacas como sta durante 23 horas por da. +Cuando se renen con los profesionales en salud mental deben permanecer inmviles en cabinas como sta. +Durante una hora diaria acuden a reas deportivas lgubres. +Y si bien no podemos traerles rboles, plantas de pradera o ranas, les traemos a estas reas deportivas imgenes de la naturaleza, y las exhibimos en las paredes, para que al menos tengan contacto con imgenes de la Naturaleza. +Este es el Sr. Lpez, quien ha estado confinado por 18 meses. l colabora sugiriendo ejemplos de imgenes que l cree pueden ayudar a los presos a sentirse ms calmos, ms serenos, y menos proclives a la violencia. +Esto demuestra, yo creo, que pequeas iniciativas de cambio grupales tal vez puedan movilizar una entidad tal como nuestro sistema carcelario en la direccin de la esperanza. +Sabemos que los rboles son entidades estticas con slo mirar sus troncos. +Pero si los rboles pueden crear arte, si pueden dar la vuelta al mundo siete veces en un ao. si los presos pueden plantar y criar ranas, entonces tal vez existan otras entidades estticas dentro de nosotros mismos como el duelo, las addicciones, el racismo, que tambin pueden cambiar. +Muchas gracias. +An recuerdo aquel da en la escuela cuando nuestra maestra nos dijo que la poblacin mundial haba llegado a los 3.000 millones de habitantes. Y eso fue en 1960. +Y ahora les voy a hablar de los cambios que tuvo la poblacin desde ese ao y que tendr en el futuro. Pero no usar tecnologa digital como lo hice en mis primeras cinco charlas en TED. +He progresado. Y hoy estoy lanzando una nueva tecnologa de enseanza analgica que consegu en Ikea: esta caja. +Esta caja contiene 1.000 millones de personas. +Y nuestra maestra nos dijo que en 1960, en el mundo industrializado vivan 1.000 millones de personas. +Y que en el mundo en desarrollo Vivan 2.000 millones. +Cada uno haciendo su vida. +Haba una gran brecha entre los 1.000 millones del mundo industrializado y los 2.000 millones del mundo en desarrollo. +En el mundo industrializado, las personas gozaban de salud, educacin, riqueza, y tenan familias pequeas. +Y su aspiracin era comprar un auto. +En 1960, todos los suecos ahorraban para poder comprar un Volvo como ste. +Este era el nivel econmico en el que estaba Suecia. +Pero en contraste con esto, en el lejano mundo en desarrollo, la aspiracin de una familia media era obtener la comida del da. +Y ellos ahorraban para poder comprar un par de zapatos. +Haba una enorme brecha en el mundo durante mi infancia. +Y esta brecha entre Occidente y el resto ha creado una perspectiva del mundo que lingsticamente an usamos cuando hablamos sobre "Occidente" y "el mundo en desarrollo." +Pero el mundo ha cambiado, y se debera haber actualizado esa perspectiva y esa taxonoma del mundo, y haberlo entendido. +Y es eso lo que les voy a mostrar. Porque desde 1960, hasta el 2010 lo que ha sucedido en el mundo es que la asombrosa cifra de 4.000 millones de personas se sum a la poblacin mundial. +Fjense qu cantidad! +La poblacin mundial se ha duplicado desde el tiempo en que yo iba a la escuela. +Y por supuesto, hubo crecimiento econmico en Occidente. +Muchas empresas han ayudado en el crecimiento de la economa, por lo tanto la poblacin occidental se movi hacia aqu. +Y ahora su aspiracin no es slo tener un auto. +Ahora quieren tener vacaciones en lugares muy alejados y quieren volar. +As que es aqu en donde ellos estn hoy. +Y los pases en desarrollo ms exitosos estn aqu, se han desplazado. Y se convirtieron en lo que llamamos economas emergentes. +Y ahora compran coches. +Y pas que hace un mes la empresa china Geely, adquiri la compaa Volvo. Y fue finalmente entonces que los suecos entendieron que un gran cambio haba sucedido en el mundo. +Asi que ah estn. +Y lo trgico es que los 2.000 millones de aqu que estn luchando por comida y zapatos, an son casi tan pobres como lo eran hace 50 aos. +Lo nuevo es que la mayor cantidad est aqu, los 3.000 millones, que tambin se estn convirtiendo en economas emergentes, porque son bastante saludables, relativamente bien educados, y ya tienen dos o tres nios por mujer. +Y por supuesto que ahora su aspiracin es comprar una bicicleta, y ms tarde les gustara tener tambin una moto. +Pero este es el mundo que tenemos hoy. Ya no hay brecha alguna. +Pero la distancia de los ms pobres de aqu, hacia los ms ricos de aqu, es ms amplia que nunca. +Hay un mundo continuo de caminar, andar en bicicletas, conducir, volar, con gente en todos los niveles. Y la mayora se encuentra en algn lugar en el medio. +Este es el nuevo mundo que tenemos en el 2010. +Y qu pasar en el futuro? +Bien, vamos a proyectarnos hacia el 2050. +Recientemente estuve en Shanghai. Y escuch lo que est pasando en China. Y es casi seguro que van a alcanzar el nivel, tal cual lo hizo Japn. +Todas las proyecciones: este crecer de uno a dos o tres por ciento. +Y este crece en siete, ocho. Y entoncs llegarn aqu. +Comenzarn a volar. +Y estos pases de ingresos ms bajos o medios, las economas emergentes, tambin avanzarn econmicamente. +Y si, y slo si, invertimos en la correcta tecnologa verde, de manera de evitar severos cambios climticos, y la energa contina siendo relativamente barata, entonces ellos avanzarn todo el camino hacia aqu. +Y comenzarn a comprar autos elctricos. +Esto es lo que ah encontraremos. +Y qu pasa con los 2.000 millones ms pobres? +Los 2.000 millones de aqu. +Avanzarn? +Aqu viene el tema poblacional, porque ah ya tenemos dos o tres nios por mujer, la planificacin familiar es usada ampliamente, y el crecimiento poblacional est llegando a su fin. +Aqu, la poblacin est creciendo. +En las prximas dcadas, estos 2.000 millones se incrementarn a 3.000 millones. Y posteriormente a 4.000 millones. +No hay nada, excepto una guerra nuclear sin precedentes, que pueda evitar que esto suceda. +Porque esto ya est en curso. +Pero si, y slo si, ellos pueden salir de la pobreza, recibir educacin, mejorar las esperanzas de vida de sus nios, comprar una bicicleta, un celular, y venir aqu, entonces el crecimiento poblacional en el 2050 se detendr all. +No podemos tener gente en este nivel buscando comida y zapatos, porque entonces tendremos un continuo crecimiento poblacional. +Y djenme mostrarles el porqu, volviendo a la vieja tecnologa digital. +Aqu en la pantalla tengo estas burbujas. +Cada burbuja es un pas. El tamao es la poblacin. +El color indica el continente. +El amarillo son las Amricas; el azul oscuro es frica; el marrn es Europa; el verde es Medio Oriente; y el celeste es el Sudeste Asitico. +Aquella es India y sta es China. El tamao es la poblacin. +Esta columna indica nios por mujer, dos, cuatro, seis, ocho nios; familias grandes, familias pequeas. +El ao es 1960. +Y aqu abajo, la esperanza de vida infantil, el porcentaje de nios que sobreviven hasta llegar a la escuela. 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, y casi 100% , tal como tenemos hoy en los pases ms ricos. +Este es el mundo del cual me hablaba mi maestra en 1960. Aqu, 1.000 millones del mundo Occidental, mortalidad infantil baja, y familias pequeas. Y todos los dems, el arcoiris de pases en desarrollo, con familias muy grandes y alta mortalidad infantil. +Qu sucedi? Corren los aos, ah vamos. +Pueden ver que a medida que pasan los aos decrece la mortalidad infantil? +Acceden a jabn, higiene, educacin, vacunacin y penicilina. Y luego la planificacin familiar. El tamao de las familias disminuye. +La supervivencia infantil llega a un 90%, entonces las familias disminuyen. Y la mayora de los pases rabes de Medio Oriente aqu estn bajando. +Miren, Bangladesh alcanzando a India. +Todo el conjunto de economas emergentes se une al mundo occidental con buena esperanza de vida infantil y familias pequeas. Pero todava tenemos 1.000 millones de los ms pobres. +Pueden verlos en las cajas que tengo aqu? +Todava estn aqu. +Y su supervivencia infantil es an de 70 a 80%, lo que significa que si tienes seis hijos, al menos cuatro sobrevivirn en la siguiente generacin. +Y en una generacin la poblacin se duplicar. +Por eso la nica forma de detener realmente el crecimiento poblacional es llevar la supervivencia infantil a un 90%. +Es por eso que las inversiones, de la Fundacin Gates, UNICEF y las organizaciones de ayuda junto con los gobiernos nacionales de los pases ms pobres, son tan importantes. Porque en realidad, nos estn ayudando a alcanzar un tamao poblacional sostenible para el mundo. +Si hacemos lo correcto, podremos detenernos en los 9.000 millones. +El nuevo sueo es la supervivencia infantil. +Slo la supervivencia infantil detendr el crecimiento poblacional. +Ser posible? +Bueno, no soy un optimista, pero tampoco un pesimista. +Muy seriamente, soy un "posibilista." +Es una nueva categora, donde dejamos de lado las emociones, y trabajamos analticamente con el mundo. +Es posible. +Podemos tener un mundo mucho ms justo. +Con tecnologa verde, inversiones para reducir la pobreza y administracin global, el mundo se puede convertir en esto. +Y miren la posicin del antiguo Occidente. +Se acuerdan cuando esta caja azul estaba sola, liderando el mundo, viviendo su propia vida? +Esto no suceder. +El rol del antiguo Occidente en el nuevo mundo es convertirse en los cimientos del mundo moderno; nada ms ni nada menos. +Pero es un rol muy importante. +Hazlo bien y acostmbrate a ello. +Muchas gracias. +Este es el ocano como yo lo conoca +Y me parece que dado que he estado en el Golfo un par de veces, estoy como traumatizado porque, cada vez que miro al ocano ahora, no importa donde est, incluso donde s que no ha llegado petrleo veo como manchas. I estoy encontrando que me persigue. +Pero de lo que quiero hablar hoy es un montn de cosas que intentan poner todo esto en contexto, no slo acerca de la erupcin de petrleo sino lo que significa y por qu ha ocurrido. +Primero, algo acerca de m. +Soy bsicamente un tipo al que le gusta pescar desde que era un nio. Y por ello, acab estudiando pjaros marinos para quedarme en los hbitats costeros que tanto amaba. +Y hoy principalmente escribo libros acerca de cmo el ocano est cambiando. Y el ocano ciertamente cambia muy rpido. +Hemos visto este grfico antes. Que realmente vivimos en una canica dura que tiene un poco de humedad por encima. +Es como si mojases una canica en agua. +Y lo mismo con la atmsfera. Si cogieses toda la atmsfera y la hicieses una bola, conseguiras esa pequea esfera de gas a la derecha. +De ese modo vivimos en la ms frgil, pequea burbuja de jabn que te puedas imaginar, una burbuja de jabn sagrada, pero una que es muy muy fcil de afectar. +Y todo el consumo de petrleo y carbn y gas, todos los combustibles fsiles, han cambiando mucho la atmsfera. +El nivel de dixido de carbono ha subido y subido y subido. +Estamos calentando el clima. +De ese modo el derrame en el Golfo es slo una pequea pieza de un problema mucho mayor que tenemos con la energa que usamos para impulsar nuestra civilizacin. +Ms all del calentamiento, tenemos el problema de que los ocanos se estn acidificando. Y ya se puede medir, y est afectando a los animales. +Ahora en un laboratorio, si tomas una almeja y la pones en un pH que es -- no 8,1, que es el pH normal del agua marina -- sino 7,5, se disuelve en tres das. +Si tomas una larva de erizo de mar de 8,1, lo pones en un pH de 7,7 -- no es un gran cambio -- se deforma y muere. +Y ya, las larvas de ostras comerciales se estn muriendo a gran escala en algunos sitios. +Los corales crecen ms despacio en algunos sitios por este problema. +De modo que esto realmente importa. +Ahora tomemos un pequeo viaje alrededor del Golfo. +Una de las cosas que realmente me impresiona de las personas del Golfo, es que son realmente, realmente personas de agua. +Y pueden manejar el agua. +Pueden manejar un huracn que va y viene. +Cuando baja el agua, saben lo que deben de hacer. +Pero cuando es algo que no es agua, y su hbitat acutico cambia, no tienen muchas opciones. +De hecho, estas comunidades enteras no tienen muchas opciones. +No tiene otra cosa que pueden hacer. +No pueden ir y trabajar en el negocio de hostelera local porque no hay una en su comunidad. +Si vas al Golfo y miras alrededor, ves mucho petrleo. +Ves mucho petrleo en el ocano. +Ves mucho petrleo en la costa. +Si vas al sitio de la explosin, Parece increble. +Parece que acabes de vaciar el crter de aceite de tu coche, y acabes de tirarlo en el ocano. +Y una de las cosas ms increibles, pienso, es que no hay nadie ah fuera intentando recogerlo en el sitio donde es ms denso. +Las partes del ocano ah parecen simplemente absolutamente apocalpticas +Vas a lo largo de la costa, y lo puedes encontrar en todas partes. +Est totalmente sucio. +Si vas a los sitios donde acaba de llegar, Como la parte este del Golfo, en Alabama. todava hay personas usando la playa al mismo tiempo que hay personas limpiando la playa. +Y tienen una forma muy extraa de limpiar la playa. +No est permitido poner ms de 10 libras de arena en una bolsa de plstico de 50 galones +Tienen miles y miles de bolsas de plstico. +No s qu van a hacer con todo eso. +Mientras tanto, todava ha personas intentando utilizar la playa. +No ven la pequea, diminuta seal que dice: "Qudese fuera del agua". +Sus nios estn en el agua; tienen alquitrn por toda la ropa y las sandalias. Es una mugrero. +Si vas a un sitio donde el petrleo ha estado un tiempo, es un desastre an mayor. +Y ya no hay nadie all, unas pocas personas estn intentando seguir usndola. +Se ve gente que est realmente afectada. +Son personas que trabajan duro. +Todo lo que saben de la vida es que se levantan por la maana, y si su motor funciona, van al trabajo. +Siempre pensaron que podra confiar en la seguridad que la naturaleza les traa a travs del ecosistema del Golfo. +Y estn encontrando que su mundo se est colapsando. +Y se puede ver, literalmente, las seales de su asombro, las seales de su indignacin, las seales de su enfado, y las seales de su dolor. +Estas son las cosas que se ven. +Hay mucho que no se puede ver, tambin, bajo el agua. +Qu pasa bajo el agua? +Bueno, hay personas que dicen que hay columnas de petrleo. +Algunas personas dicen que no hay columnas de petrleo. +Y el congresista Markey pregunta, saben, "Va a ser necesario un paseo en submarino para ver si hay realmente columnas de petrleo?" +Pero yo no poda dar un paseo en submarino -- especialmente en el tiempo entre que supe que vena y hoy -- as que tuve que hacer un pequeo experimento yo mismo para ver si haba petrleo en el Golfo de Mxico. +As que este es el Golfo de Mxico. un sitio brillante lleno de peces. +Y yo cre un pequeo derrame de aceite en el Golfo de Mxico. +I aprend -- de hecho confirm la hiptesis que aceite y agua no se mezclan a menos que aadas un dispersante. Y entonces empiezan a mezclarse. +Si aades un poco de energa del viento y las olas. Y consigues una gran porquera, una gran porquera que es imposible de limpiar, no puedes tocar, no puedes extraer y, yo pienso que lo ms importante -- esto es lo que pienso -- no lo puedes ver. +Creo que est siendo ocultado a propsito. +Esto es una tal catstrofe y tal porquera, que un montn de cosas se estn sabiendo en los bordes del flujo de informacin. +pero como mucha gente ha dicho, hay un gran intento de suprimir lo que pasa. +Personalmente, pienso que los dispersantes son una gran estrategia para ocultar el cuerpo, porque hemos puesto al asesino a cargo de la escena del crimen +Pero lo puedes ver. +Puedes ver dnde el petrleo se ha concentrado en la superficie, y entonces es atacado, porque no quieren la evidencia, en mi opinin. +O.K. +Hemos odo que las bacterias comen petrleo? +Tambin lo hacen las tortugas de mar. +Cuando se rompe, tiene un largo camino hasta que llega a las bacterias. +Las tortugas lo comen. Se mete en las agallas de los peces. +Estos tipos tienen que nadar alrededor de l. +He odo la historia ms increble hoy cuando estaba en un tren viniendo hacia aqu. +Un escritor llamado Ted Williams me llam. Y me estaba haciendo un par de preguntas acerca de lo que vi, porque est escribiendo un artculo para la revista Audubon. +Dijo que haba estado en el Golfo hace poco -- como hace una semana -- y un tipo que haba sido un gua de pesca recreativa le llev para ensearle lo que pasaba. +Todo el calendario anual de esa gua est llena de reservas canceladas. +No le queda ninguna reserva. +Todo el mundo quera su depsito de vuelta. Todo el mundo huye. +Esa es la historia de miles de personas. +Pero le cont a Ted que el ltimo da que sali, un delfn apareci repentinamente cerca del barco. Y estaba escupiendo petrleo por su espirculo. +Y se alej porque era su ltimo viaje de pesca, y saba que los delfines asustan a los peces. +As que se alej de l. Se di la vuelta unos pocos minutos despus, y estaba al lado del barco otra vez, +Dijo que en 30 aos de pesca nunca haba visto a un delfn hacer eso. +Y sinti que -- Sinti que vena a pedir ayuda. Lo siento. +En el derrame del Exxon Valdez, alrededor de un 30 por ciento de las ballenas asesinas se murieron en los primeros meses. +Y su nmero nunca se recuper. +As que la tasa de recuperacin de todo esto va a ser variable. +Tomar ms tiempo para algunas cosas. +Y algunas cosas, pienso, probablemente volvern ms rpido. +La otra cosa acerca del Golfo que es importante es que hay muchos animales que se concentran en el Golfo en ciertas partes del ao. +As que el Golfo es una parte de agua muy importante -- ms importante que un volumen similar de agua en el Ocano Atlntico. +Estos atunes nadan todo el ocano. +Entran en la corriente del Golfo. Se van hasta Europa. +Cuando llega la hora de desovar, entran. Y estos dos atunes que fueron marcados, pueden verlos en sus territorios de desove precisamente en medio del rea de la mancha. +Probablemente estn teniendo, como mnimo, una sesin catastrfica de desove este ao. +Espero que quiz los adultos estn evitando esa agua sucia. +Normalmente no les gusta entrar en el agua que est muy turbia de todos modos. +Pero estos son realmente animales atlticos de alta capacidad. +No s qu har este tipo de sustancia en sus agallas. +No s si afectar a los adultos. +Si no, ciertamente est afectando a sus huevos y larvas, pensara yo. +Pero si miras al grfico que baja y baja y baja, eso es lo que le hemos hecho a esta especie por la sobrepesca durante muchos decenios. +As que mientras el derrame de petrleo, la fuga, la erupcin, es una catstrofe, pienso que es importante tener en mente que hemos hecho mucho para afectar lo que hay en el ocano durante mucho, mucho tiempo. +No es como si hemos empezado con algo que antes estaba bien. +Estamos empezando con algo que ya ha tenido muchos ataques y muchos problemas para empezar. +Si miras alrededor a los pjaros, hay muchos pjaros en el Golfo que se concentran en el Golfo en ciertas pocas del ao, pero luego se van. +Y pueblan reas mucho ms grandes. +Por ejemplo, la mayor parte de las aves de esta foto son migratorias. +Todas estaban en el Golfo en mayo, cuando el petrleo estaba empezando a llegar a la costa en algunos sitios. +Ah a la izquierda abajo hay vuelvepiedras y playeritos blancos. +Se reproducen el alto rtico, y pasan el invierno en la parte sur de Sudamrica. +Pero se concentran en el Golfo y luego se dispersan a travs de todo el rtico. +He visto pjaros que se reproducen en Groenlandia en el Golfo. De modo que esta es una cuestin hemisfrica. +Los efectos econmicos son nacionales de muchas maneras. +Los efectos biolgicos son tambin hemisfricos. +Pienso que este es uno de los ms absolutamente alucinantes ejemplos de total falta de preparacin que podemos imaginar. +Incluso cuando los japoneses bombardearon Pearl Harbor, al menos les replicaban. +Y simplemente parecemos incapaces de averiguar qu hacer. +No haba nada preparado. Y se puede ver, sabes, por lo que estn haciendo. +Principalmente lo que estn usando son barreras y dispersantes. +Las barreras no estn hechas en absoluto para mar abierto. +Ni siquiera intentan acorralar el petrleo donde est ms concentrado. +Llegan cerca de la costa. Mira estos dos barcos. +Ese de la derecha se llama Pescador Loco. +Y creo que, ya sabes, es un gran nombre para barcos que no van a hacer nada para hacer mella en esto arrastrando una barrera entre ellos, cuando hay literalmente cientos de miles de kilmetros cuadrados en el Golfo en este momento con petrleo en superficie. +Los dispersantes hacen que el petrleo pase directamente bajo las barreras. +Las barreras slo tienen unas 13 pulgadas de dimetro. +As que es una locura total. +stos son los barcos camaroneros empleados. +Hay cientos de barcos camaroneros empleados para arrastrar barreras en lugar de redes. +Aqu estn trabajando. +Se puede ver fcilmente que toda el agua aceitosa se va por la trasera de la barrera. +Todo lo que hacen es agitarla. +Es simplemente ridculo. +Adems, para toda la costa que tiene barreras -- cientos y cientos de kilmetros de costa -- toda la costa que tiene barreras, hay costa adyacente que no tiene ninguna barrera. +Hay una gran oportunidad para que el petrleo y el agua sucia se cuelen por detrs. +Y esa foto inferior, es una colonia de aves que ha pasado la barrera. +Todo el mundo est intentando proteger las colonias de aves. +Bueno, como un ornitlogo, Os puedo decir que las aves vuelan, y que -- Y que una colonia de aves en expansin no lo hace, no lo hace. +Estas aves se ganan la vida al sumergindose en el agua. +De hecho, realmente lo que pienso que deberan hacer, en todo caso -- estn intentando tan duramente proteger a los nidos -- en realidad, si destruyesen cada nido algunos de los pjaros se iran, y sera mejor para ellos este ao. +En cuanto a su limpieza, No quiero atacar a las personas limpiando pjaros. +Es muy, muy importante que expresamos nuestra compasin. +Creo que es lo ms importante que la gente tiene, la compasin. +Es muy importante conseguir esas imgenes y mostrarlas. +Pero realmente, a dnde van a liberar esos pjaros? +Es como tomar a alguien de un edificio en llamas, tratarlos por inhalacin de humo y enviarlos de vuelta al edificio, porque el petrleo est todava saliendo. +Me niego a reconocer esto como algo parecido a un accidente. +Creo que este es el resultado de una negligencia grave. +No slo B.P. +B.P. ha operado muy descuidada y temerariamente porque podan hacerlo. +Y se les permiti hacerlo debido a la falta absoluta de supervisin del gobierno que se supone que es nuestro gobierno, que nos protege. +Resulta que -- se ve esta seal en cada navo comercial en los Estados Unidos -- ya sabes, si derramas un par de galones de petrleo, estars en graves problemas. +Y tienes que preguntarte realmente para quin se hacen las leyes, y quin ha llegado por encima de las leyes. +Ahora bien, hay cosas que podemos hacer en el futuro. +Podramos tener la clase de equipo que realmente se necesita. +No se necesitara una gran cantidad para anticipar que despus de hacer 30.000 agujeros en el fondo marino del Golfo de Mxico en busca de petrleo, el petrleo podra comenzar a salir de uno de ellos. +Y tendras alguna idea de qu hacer. +Eso es sin duda una de las cosas que tenemos que hacer. +Pero creo que tenemos que entender dnde se origin esta fuga de verdad. +En realidad comenz a partir de la destruccin de la idea de que el gobierno est ah porque es nuestro gobierno, destinado a proteger los intereses del pblico. +As que creo que la fuga de petrleo, el rescate bancario, la crisis hipotecaria y todas estas cosas son absolutamente sntomas de la misma causa. +Todava parecemos entender que al menos necesitamos la polica para protegernos de unos pocos malos. +Y a pesar de que la polica puede ser un poco molesta a veces -- ponindonos multas y todo eso -- nadie dice que deberamos deshacernos de ellos. +Pero para todo el resto del gobierno en este momento y desde hace al menos 30 aos, ha habido una cultura de desregulacin que ha sido causada directamente por las personas que de las que nos tenemos que proteger, que han comprado el gobierno bajo nuestras narices. +Ahora bien, esto ha sido un problema durante mucho, mucho tiempo. +Se puede ver que las empresas eran ilegales cuando se fund Amrica. E incluso Thomas Jefferson se quej de que ya eran capaces de desafiar las leyes de nuestro pas. +Bueno, la gente que dice que son conservadores, si realmente quisieran ser muy conservadores y patriticos de verdad, le diran a estas corporaciones que se fueran al infierno. +Eso es lo que realmente significara ser conservador. +As que lo que realmente necesitamos hacer es recuperar la idea de que nuestro gobierno salvaguarde nuestros intereses y recuperar un sentido de unidad y solidaridad en nuestro pas que realmente se ha perdido. +Creo que hay signos de esperanza. +Parece que estamos despertando un poco. +La Ley Glass-Steagall -- que en realidad era para protegernos de esta clase de cosa que provoc la recesin, y la crisis bancaria y todas esas cosas que requirieron los rescates -- que se puso en vigor en 1933, fue destruida de forma sistemtica. +Ahora hay un estado de nimo para poner algunas de esas cosas en su lugar otra vez. Pero los grupos de presin, estn todos ah tratando de debilitar las regulaciones despus de que la legislacin haya pasado. +As que es una lucha permanente. +Es un momento histrico ahora. +As que o bien vamos a tener una catstrofe absoluta sin paliativos de esta fuga de petrleo en el Golfo, o bien tomaremos el momento que necesitamos de esto, como muchos han sealado hoy. +Ciertamente hay un tema comn sobre la necesidad de tomar momento con esto. +Hemos pasado por esto antes con otras maneras de perforacin en alta mar. +Los primeros pozos de alta mar fueron llamados ballenas. +Las primeras torres de perforacin de alta mar se llamaban arpones. +Vaciamos el ocano de ballenas en aquel momento. +Ahora nos tenemos que conformar con esto? +Desde que vivamos en cuevas, cada vez que queramos cualquier energa quembamos algo, y es lo que seguimos haciendo. +Todava estamos quemando algo cada vez que queremos energa. +Y la gente dice que no podemos tener energa limpia porque es demasiado caro. +Quin dice que es demasiado caro? +Las personas que nos venden combustibles fsiles. +Hemos pasado por esto antes con la energa, y la gente diciendo que la economa no puede soportar un cambio, porque la energa ms barata era la esclavitud. +La energa es siempre una cuestin moral. +Es un tema que es moral ahora. +Es una cuestin del bien y del mal. +Muchas gracias. +Cuando yo era estudiante aqu en Oxford en la dcada de 1970, el futuro del mundo era desolador. +La explosin demogrfica era imparable. +La hambruna mundial era inevitable. +Una epidemia de cncer causada por los qumicos en el ambiente iba a acortar nuestras vidas. +La lluvia cida estaba cayendo sobre los bosques. +El desierto estaba avanzando cada ao una o dos millas. +El petrleo se estaba acabando. Y un invierno nuclear nos iba a rematar. +No sucedi nada de eso. Y, sorprendentemente, si te fijas en lo que de verdad sucedi durante mi vida, el ingreso promedio per cpita de la persona promedio del planeta, en trminos reales, ajustados por inflacin, se ha triplicado. +La esperanza de vida ha aumentado un 30 por ciento. +La mortalidad infantil se ha reducido en dos tercios. +La produccin de alimentos ha aumentado en un tercio per cpita. +Y todo esto en un perodo en que la poblacin se ha duplicado. +Cmo lo conseguimos (independiente de si pienses que es bueno o no)? +Cmo lo logramos? +Cmo nos convertimos en la nica especie que se vuelve ms prspera a medida que crece en cantidad? +El tamao del rea en este grfico representa el tamao de la poblacin. Y el eje vertical representa el PIB per cpita. +Creo que para responder a esta pregunta necesitan comprender cmo los seres humanos unen sus cerebros y permiten que sus ideas se combinen y recombinen, se encuentren e, incluso, se apareen. +En otras palabras, necesitan entender cmo las ideas tienen relaciones sexuales. +Quiero que se imaginen cmo pasamos de hacer objetos como este a hacer objetos como este. +Ambos son objetos reales. +Uno de ellos es un hacha de mano de hace medio milln de aos del tipo hecho por Homo erectus. +El otro es, obviamente, un mouse de computador. +Los dos son exactamente del mismo tamao y forma, asombrosamente similares. +He tratado de descubrir cul es ms grande y es casi imposible. +Y eso es porque ambos estn diseados para adaptarse a la mano. +Ambos son tecnologas. Al final, su parecido no es tan interesante. +Simplemente indica que fueron diseados para adaptarse a una mano. +Las diferencias son las que me interesan. Ya que el de la izquierda se hizo con un diseo bastante invariante por cerca de un milln de aos; desde hace un milln y medio de aos hasta hace medio milln de aos. +Homo erectus hizo la misma herramienta por 30.000 generaciones. +Por supuesto que hubo algunos cambios, pero en esos tiempos las herramientas cambiaban menos que los esqueletos. +No haba avances, no haba innovacin. +Es un fenmeno extraordinario, pero es verdadero. +Mientras que el objeto de la derecha queda obsoleto en cinco aos. +Y tambin hay otra diferencia, que es que el objeto de la izquierda est hecho de un material. +El objeto de la derecha se hace de una confeccin de distintos materiales, desde silicio y metal y plstico, y etc. +Y ms que eso, es una unin de ideas diferentes, la idea del plstico, la idea de un lser, la idea de los transistores. +Todas ellas han sido unidas en esta tecnologa. +Y es esta combinacin, esta tecnologa acumulada, la cual me intriga. Porque creo que es el secreto para comprender lo que est pasando en el mundo. +Mi cuerpo tambin es una acumulacin de ideas, la idea de las clulas de la piel, de las clulas cerebrales, de las clulas hepticas. +Se han unido. +Cmo puede la evolucin hacer cosas acumuladas, combinatorias? +Bueno, utiliza la reproduccin sexual. +En una especie asexuada, si tienes dos mutaciones distintas en criaturas distintas, una verde y una roja, entonces una tiene que ser mejor que la otra. +Una debe extinguirse para que la otra sobreviva. +Pero si tienes una especie sexuada, es posible que un individuo herede ambas mutaciones de sus diferentes ascendencias. +As que lo que el sexo hace es que permite que el individuo disponga de las innovaciones genticas de la especie completa. +No est confinado a su propia ascendencia. +Cul es el proceso que est teniendo el mismo efecto en la evolucin cultural que el sexo tiene en la evolucin biolgica? +Y creo que la respuesta es el intercambio, el hbito de intercambiar una cosa por otra. +Es una caracterstica humana nica. +Ningn otro animal lo hace. +Puede ensearles en el laboratorio a intercambiar un poco. Y de hecho existe la reciprocidad en otros animales. Pero no existe el intercambio de un objeto por otro. +Como dijo Adam Smith: "Nadie ha visto un perro intercambiar igualitariamente un hueso con otro perro. " +Puede haber cultura sin intercambio. +Puedes tener, por as decirlo, una cultura asexuada. +Los chimpancs, orcas, este tipo de criaturas, poseen cultura. +Se ensean el uno al otro las tradiciones transmitidas de padres a hijos. +En este caso, los chimpancs se ensean cmo romper las nueces con piedras. +Pero la diferencia es que estas culturas nunca se expanden, nunca crecen, nunca acumulan, nunca se combinan. Y la razn es porque no hay sexo, por as decirlo, no hay intercambio de ideas. +Los grupos de chimpancs tienen culturas diferentes en diferentes grupos. +No hay intercambio de ideas entre ellos. +Y por qu el intercambio aumenta los niveles de vida? +Bueno, la respuesta vino de David Ricardo en 1817. +Y esta es una versin de la edad de piedra de su historia, aunque l lo dijo en trminos de comercio entre los pases. +Adam toma cuatro horas para hacer una lanza y tres horas para hacer un hacha. +Oz toma una hora para hacer una lanza y dos horas para hacer un hacha. +As que Oz es mejor que Adam tanto en lanzas como en hachas. +No necesita a Adam. +l puede hacer sus propias lanzas y hachas. +Bueno, no, porque si lo piensas, si Oz hace dos lanzas y Adam hace dos hachas, y luego intercambian sus productos, entonces cada uno se habr ahorrado una hora de trabajo. +Y cuanto ms hagan esto, ms cierto ser. Ya que cuanto ms lo hacen, Adam hace mejor sus hachas y Oz hace mejor sus lanzas. +As que los beneficios del intercambio slo aumentarn. +Y esta es una de las bellezas del intercambio, es lo que en definitiva crea el impulso para mayor especializacin, lo que a su vez crea el impulso para ms intercambio y as sucesivamente. +Adam y Oz ambos ahorran una hora de su tiempo. +Esto es prosperidad, el ahorro de tiempo en la satisfaccin de tus necesidades. +Pregntense cunto tiempo tendran que trabajar para proveerse a s mismos una hora de luz para poder leer un libro esta tarde. +Si tuvieran que empezar de cero, digamos que salen al campo. +Encuentran una oveja. La matan. Le sacan su grasa. +La purifican. Hacen una vela, etc., etc. +Cunto tiempo va a tomar? Bastante tiempo. +Cunto tiempo debes trabajar para obtener una hora de luz de lectura si ganas el salario promedio en Gran Bretaa hoy en da? +Y la respuesta es aproximadamente medio segundo. +En 1950, habran tenido que trabajar durante ocho segundos por el salario promedio para adquirir esa cantidad de luz. +Y esos son siete segundos y medio de prosperidad que han ganado. Desde 1950, por as decirlo. Porque esos son siete segundos y medio en que pueden hacer otra cosa. O en que pueden adquirir otro bien o servicio. +Y volviendo a 1880, habran sido 15 minutos para obtener esa cantidad de luz con el salario promedio. +En 1800, habran tenido que trabajar seis horas para obtener una vela que se pudiera quemar por una hora. +En otras palabras, la persona promedio con el salario promedio no poda pagar una vela en 1800. +Volvamos a esta imagen del hacha y del mouse, y pregntense: "Quin los hizo y para quin?" +El hacha fue hecha por alguien para s mismo. +Era auto-suficiencia. +Ahora llamamos a esto pobreza. +Pero el objeto de la derecha fue fabricado para m por otras personas. +Cuntas personas? +Decenas? Cientos? Miles? +Saben, creo que probablemente son millones de personas. +Dado que se debe incluir al hombre que cultiv el caf, el cual fue preparado para el hombre que estaba en la plataforma petrolera, quien estaba extrayendo el petrleo, que se iba a convertir en plstico, etc. +Todos estaban trabajando para m, para hacerme un mouse a m. +Y esa es la manera como la sociedad funciona. +Eso es lo que hemos logrado como especie. +En las pocas antiguas, si eran ricos, literalmente tenan personas trabajando para ustedes. +Eso era ser rico; tener estas personas empleadas. +Luis XIV tena un montn de gente trabajando para l. +Ellos hacan sus trajes tontos, como ste. Y le hacan sus peinados tontos, o lo que fuese. +Tena a 498 personas que le preparaban la comida cada noche. +Sin embargo, un turista que hoy recorre el palacio de Versalles y que va mirando las pinturas de Luis XIV, tambin tiene 498 personas haciendo su comida esta noche. +Estn en bares y cafs y restaurantes y tiendas por todo Pars. Y todos estn listos para servirte en una hora una riqusima comida que probablemente tiene mejor calidad que la que se serva Luis XIV. +Y eso es lo que hemos hecho, porque todos estamos trabajando el uno para el otro. +Somos capaces de recurrir a la especializacin y al intercambio para aumentar el nivel de vida de cada uno. +Ahora, existen otros animales que tambin trabajan para los dems. +Las hormigas son un ejemplo clsico, las trabajadores trabajan para las reinas y vice versa. +Pero hay una gran diferencia, y es que slo se produce dentro de la colonia. +No se trabaja para otros de fuera de la colonia. +Y la razn de esto es porque hay una divisin reproductiva del trabajo. +Es decir, se especializan con respecto a la reproduccin. +La reina lo hace todo. +En nuestra especie, no nos gusta hacer eso. +La nica cosa que insistimos en hacer por nosotros mismos es la reproduccin. +Incluso en Inglaterra, no le dejamos la reproduccin a la reina. +Entonces cuando comenz esta costumbre? +Y cunto tiempo ha estado sucediendo?Y qu significa? +Bueno, creo que, probablemente, la ms versin antigua de esto es la divisin sexual del trabajo. +Pero no tengo evidencia de que esto sea as. +Simplemente parece que lo primero que hicimos fue que el hombre trabajara para la mujer y la mujer para el hombre. +En todas las sociedades cazadoras-recolectoras de hoy, hay una divisin de trabajo de bsqueda de alimento entre los hombres cazadores y las mujeres recolectoras. +No siempre es as de sencillo. Pero hay una divisin de funciones especializadas entre hombres y mujeres. +Y la belleza de este sistema es que beneficia a ambas partes. +La mujer sabe que, en caso de que los Hadzas aqu -sacando races para compartir con los hombres a cambio de carne- ella sabe que todo lo que debe hacer para tener acceso a protenas es excavar algunas races ms e intercambiarlas por la carne. +Y ella no tiene que ir a cazar y agotarse tratando de matar a un jabal. +Y el hombre sabe que no tiene que recolectar nada para recibir las races. +Lo que tiene que hacer es asegurarse de que, al matar un jabal, sea lo suficientemente grande como para compartirlo. +Y as ambas partes aumentan el nivel de vida del otro a travs de la divisin sexual del trabajo. +Cundo ocurri esto? No lo sabemos, pero es posible que los neandertales no lo hicieran. +Eran una especie muy cooperativa. +Eran una especie muy inteligente. +Sus cerebros al final eran, en promedio, ms grandes que los nuestros aqu y ahora en esta sala. +Eran imaginativos. Enterraban a sus muertos. +Probablemente tenan lenguaje, ya que sabemos que posean el gen FOXP2 al igual que nosotros, el cual fue descubierto aqu en Oxford. +Y parece que probablemente tenan habilidades lingsticas. +Eran gente brillante. No intento insultar a los neandertales. +Pero no hay pruebas de una divisin sexual del trabajo. +No hay evidencia de comportamiento de recoleccin femenino. +Al parecer las mujeres cooperaban con los hombres en la caza. +Y la otra cosa para la cual no hay evidencia es para el intercambio entre los grupos. Ya que los objetos que encuentras entre los restos de los neandertales, las herramientas que hacan, siempre fueron hechas con materiales locales. +Por ejemplo, en el Cucaso hay un sitio donde se encuentran herramientas de los neandertales locales. +Siempre estn hechas de piedra local. +En el mismo valle hay restos humanos modernos de alrededor de la misma poca, hace 30 mil aos. Y algunos de esos son de la misma piedra local, pero ms; muchos ms de ellos estn hechos de obsidiana de muy lejos. +Y cuando los seres humanos comenzaron a mover objetos como estos por distintas partes, fue evidencia de que estaban intercambiando entre grupos. +El comercio es 10 veces ms antiguo que la agricultura. +La gente lo olvida. La gente piensa que el comercio es algo moderno. +El intercambio entre grupos ha estado sucediendo por cien mil aos. +Y las primeras evidencias de esto surgen entre 80 y 120 mil aos atrs en frica, cuando se ve obsidiana, jaspe y otras cosas recorriendo largas distancias a travs de Etiopa. +Tambin vemos conchas marinas -tal como fueron descubiertas por un equipo de aqu de Oxford- movindose 125 millas hacia tierra adentro desde el Mediterrneo en Argelia. +Y eso pone en evidencia que las personas haban comenzado el intercambio entre grupos. +Y eso condujo a la especializacin. +Cmo sabemos que los movimientos de larga distancia son por intercambios y no por migracin? +Bueno, miramos a cazadores-recolectores modernos como los aborgenes, que obtuvieron piedras para sus hachas en un lugar llamado Monte Isa, que era una cantera de propiedad de la tribu Kalkadoon. +Ellos las intercambiaban con sus vecinos para cosas como las pas de mantarraya. Y la consecuencia fue que las hachas de piedra terminaron estando en gran parte de Australia. +As que el movimiento de herramientas por distancias extensas demuestra comercio, en vez de migracin. +Qu le sucede a la gente cuando les eliminas los intercambios, les eliminas la capacidad de intercambiar y especializarse? +Y la respuesta es que, no slo les hace ms lento el progreso tecnolgico, sino que en vez lo puedes revertir. +Un ejemplo es Tasmania. +Cuando el nivel del mar subi y Tasmania se convirti en una isla hace 10 mil aos, sus habitantes no slo experimentaron un avance ms lento que la gente del continente, sino que en efecto experimentaron una regresin. +Renunciaron a la capacidad de fabricar herramientas de hueso y equipos de pesca y ropas porque la poblacin de alrededor de 4 mil personas simplemente no era lo suficientemente grande para mantener los conocimientos especializados necesarios para mantener la tecnologa que posean. +Es como si todos en esta sala fueran botados en una isla desierta. +Cuntas de las cosas que tenemos en el bolsillo podramos seguir haciendo despus de 10 mil aos? +No sucedi en Tierra del Fuego; isla similar, pueblos similares. +La razn es que Tierra del Fuego est separada de Amrica del Sur por un estrecho mucho ms pequeo. Y se mantuvo el intercambio a travs de ese estrecho durante 10 mil aos. +Los tasmanios quedaron aislados. +Volvamos nuevamente a esta imagen y pregntense no slo quin lo hizo y para quin, sino adems quin saba como hacerlo. +En el caso del hacha, el hombre que la hizo saba cmo hacerla. +Pero, quin sabe cmo hacer que un mouse de computador? +Nadie, literalmente nadie. +No hay nadie en el planeta que sepa cmo hacer un mouse de computador. +Y digo esto muy en serio. +El presidente de la compaa fabricante del mouse no lo sabe. +l slo sabe cmo dirigir una empresa. +La persona en la lnea de montaje no sabe porque l no sabe cmo perforar un pozo de petrleo para conseguir el petrleo para hacer el plstico, y as sucesivamente. +Todos sabemos pedacitos, pero ninguno de nosotros sabe todo. +Y lo que hemos hecho en la sociedad humana, a travs del intercambio y la especializacin, es que hemos creado la capacidad de hacer cosas que ni siquiera entendemos. +No es lo mismo con el lenguaje. +Con el lenguaje tenemos que transferirle al otro ideas que nosotros comprendemos. +Pero con la tecnologa, podemos realmente hacer cosas que estn fuera de nuestras capacidades. +Hemos rebasado la capacidad de la mente humana llegando a un nivel extraordinario. +Y, por cierto, esa es una de las razones que no me interesa la discusin sobre coeficiente intelectual, acerca de si algunos grupos tienen un C.I. ms alto que otros. +Es completamente irrelevante. +Lo que es relevante para una sociedad es cun bien estn las personas comunicando sus ideas, y cun bien estn cooperando, y no cun inteligente son sus individuos. +As que hemos creado algo llamado el cerebro colectivo. +Slo somos los nodos de la red. +Somos las neuronas de este cerebro. +Es el intercambio de ideas, el encuentro y apareamiento de ideas entre estas, que est causando el progreso tecnolgico, gradualmente, poco a poco, +an cuando suceden cosas malas. +Y en el futuro, a medida que avancemos, obviamente, experimentaremos cosas terrible. +Habrn guerras, habrn depresiones; y habrn desastres naturales. +Estoy seguro que habrn acontecimientos terribles durante este siglo. +Pero tambin estoy seguro que, dado las conexiones que se estn haciendo, y a la capacidad de las ideas para reunirse y para aparearse como nunca antes, tambin estoy seguro de que la tecnologa avanzar, y dado eso los estndares de vida tambin avanzarn. +Porque con la nube virtual, con la informacin de la multitud, con el mundo construido desde abajo que hemos creado, donde no slo las lites, sino que todo el mundo tiene la capacidad de tener ideas y hacerlas conocerse y aparearse, sin duda que estamos acelerando el ritmo de la innovacin. +Gracias. +Soy estadounidense, que generalmente significa, que ignoro el ftbol al menos que involucre a tipos de mi tamao, o del tamao de Bruno corriendo uno contra otro a velocidades extremadamente altas. +Dicho esto, realmente ha sido muy difcil ignorar al ftbol en el ltimo par de semanas. +Entro a Twitter, y veo todas esas palabras extraas, que nunca antes escuch: FIFA, vuvuzela, chistes extraos sobre los pulpos. +Pero lo que realmente me confundi, y no he podido entender, es esta frase "Cala a boca, Galvao." +Si en las ltimas semanas pasaron por Twitter, probablemente han visto esto. +Ha sido un tema de moda. +Obviamente que siendo monolinge, no se lo que significa esta frase. +As que entr a Twitter, y le pregunt a algunas personas si podan explicarme "Cala a boca, Galvao." +Y afortunadamente, mis amigos brasileos estaban muy predispuestos a ayudar. +Explicaron que el ave Galvao, es una extraa especie de loro y en peligro de extincin, un gran peligro. +De hecho, les dejar que les cuenten ms sobre esto. +Narrador: una palabra sobre el Galvao, una especie de ave muy extraa y originaria de Brasil. +Cada ao, ms de 300.000 loros Galvao son muertos durante los desfiles de carnaval. +Ethan Zuckerman: Obviamente que esta es una situacin trgica, y en realidad est empeorando. +Resulta que el loro Galvao no slo es muy atractivo y til para los peinados, tambin tiene ciertas propiedades alucingenas, lo que significa que hay un gran problema con el abuso del Galvan. +Algunas personas enfermas y retorcidas, se encuentran a si mismas aspirando Galvan. +Estn en gran peligro de extincin. +La buena noticia, es que la comunidad global -- me dijeron mis amigos brasileos -- est comenzando a ayudar. +Resulta que Lady Gaga ha lanzado un nuevo single -- en realidad 5 o 6 singles nuevos, es todo lo que puedo decir -- llamado "Cala a boca, Galvao." +Y mis amigos brasileos me dijeron que si envas un tweet con la frase "Cala a boca, Galvao," se darn 10 centavos a una campaa global para salvar a esta hermosa y rara especie de ave. +La mayora de ustedes se han dado cuenta que se trataba de una broma, y de una muy, muy buena. +"Cala a boca, Galvao" en realidad significa algo muy diferente. +En Portugus, significa "Cierra la boca, Galvao". +Y se refiere explcitamente a este hombre, Galvao Bueno, quien es el principal relator de ftbol de la Red Globo. +Y lo que entiendo de mis amigos brasileos es que este hombre es una mquina de clich. +Puede arruinar el partido ms interesante soltando clich una y otra vz. +As que los brasileos fueron a su primer partido contra Corea del Norte levantaron esta pancarta, comenzaron una campaa en Twitter y nos trataron de convencer de enviar un tweet con la frase: "Cala a boca, Galvao." +Y de hecho, fueron tan exitosos que por dos semanas encabez Twitter. +Ahora, hay un par de lecciones que se pueden tomar de esto. +Y la primera leccin, la cual considero valiosa, es que no te puede ir mal pidiendo a la gente que sea activa online, siempre y cuando el activismo slo sea retweeting una frase. +Mientras el activismo sea as de simple, es muy fcil involucrarse. +La otra leccin que se puede tomar, es que en Twitter hay muchos brasileos. +Hay ms de 5 millones. +En cuanto a representacin nacional, el 11% de los usuarios brasileos de internet estn en Twitter. +Es una cifra mucho ms alta que en EEUU o el Reino Unido +Junto a Japn, en poblacin es el segundo ms representado. +Si estas usando Twitter u otras redes sociales, y no te diste cuenta que haba muchos brasileos, eres como la mayora de nosotros. +Porque lo que sucede en una red social es que interactas con gente que t has elegido para relacionarte. +Y si eres como yo, un estadounidense grande, geeky y blanco, tiendes a relacionarte con muchos otros estadounidenses geekys y blancos. +Y seguramente no tendrs idea de que Twitter es un espacio lleno de brasileos. +Tambin es extremadamente sorprendente para muchos estadounidenses, que es un espacio muy afro-americano. +Recientemente Twitter hizo una investigacin. +Observaron su poblacin local. +Creen que el 24% de los usuarios de Twitter estadounidenses, son afro-americanos. +Eso es aproximadamente el doble de representacin que los afro-americanos tienen en la poblacin. +Y de nuevo, eso fue impactante para muchos usuarios de Twitter, pero no debera serlo. +Y la razn por la que no debera serlo es que cualquier da puedes entrar a un tema de moda +y tiendes a encontrar temas que son casi en su totalidad conversaciones afro-americana. +Esta es una visualizacin realizada por Fernando Viegas y Martn Wattenberg, dos extraordinarios diseadores de infogrficos, quienes observaron el trfico de un fin de semana de Twitter y fundamentalmente encontraron que muchos de estos temas de moda eran bsicamente conversaciones de segregados -- y de una forma que no se lo esperaran. +Resulta que el derrame de petrleo es, en su mayora, una conversacin de blancos, que cookout (picnic playero) es en su mayora una conversacin de negros. +Y lo disparatado de esto es que si te queras involucrar con quienes veas en Twitter, lo hacas en el acto, literalmente con un clic. +Si entras a la etiqueta cookout, ves una conversacin totalmente diferente con diferentes personas participando. +Pero en general hablando de un forma que muchos de nosotros no lo hara. +Terminamos dentro de estas burbujas de filtros, como les llama mi amiga Eli Pariser, donde vemos la gente que ya conocemos y las personas que son similares a la gente que ya conocemos. +Y no tendemos a ver la imagen en su totalidad. +En lo personal, esto me sorprende, porque esto no fue, como se supuso que Internet sea. +Si retrocedes a los primeros tiempos de internet, cuando los utpicos cibernticos como Nick Negroponte escriban grandes libros como "Ser Digital," la prediccin era que internet iba a ser una fuerza increiblemente poderosa para resolver las diferencias culturales, para llevarnos a todos, de una u otra manera, a un espacio comn. +Negroponte comenz su libro con una historia sobre lo difcil que es construir conexiones en el mundo de los tomos. +Est en una conferencia de tecnologa en Florida. +Y est viendo algo verdaderamente absurdo, botellas de agua Evian sobre la mesa. +Y Negroponte dice que esto es una locura. +Esta es la vieja economa. +Es la economa de trasladar a estos tomos pesados y lentos por distancias largas, muy difcil de hacer. +Nos dirigimos hacia el futuro de los bits, donde todo es rpido e ingrvido. +Puede estar en cualquier parte del mundo, en cualquier momento. +Y va a cambiar el mundo tal como lo conocemos. +Negroponte ha tenido razn en muchas cosas. +Acerca de sta, se equivoca totalmente. +Resulta que en muchos casos los tomos son mucho ms mviles que los bits. +Si entro en una tienda en los EEUU, es muy, muy fcil para m comprar agua que es embotellada en Fiyi, y enviada, a un alto costo, a los EEUU. +Pero me es sumamente difcil ver una pelcula de Fiyi. +Me es realmente difcil escuchar msica de Fiyi. +Es extremadamente difcil para m para obtener noticias de Fiyi, lo cual es extrao, porque en realidad hay una gran cantidad de cosas pasando ah. +Hubo un golpe de Estado. Hay un gobierno militar. +Hay ofensivas contra la prensa. +En realidad es un lugar al que probablemente deberamos estar prestando atencin en este momento. +Esto es lo que creo que est pasando. +Creo que tendemos a mirar la infraestructura de la globalizacin. +Nos fijamos en el marco que hace posible vivir en un mundo conectado. +Y es un marco que incluye cosas como las rutas areas. +Cosas como el cable de internet. +Vemos un mapa como ste, y pareciera que todo el mundo es plano porque todo est a un paso o dos de distancia. +Puedes tomar un vuelo en Londres, y al final del da llegar a Bangalore. +Dos pasos, ests en Suva, la capital de Fiyi. +Est bien all. +Cuando se empieza a observar lo que realmente fluye por encima de estas redes, se obtiene una imagen muy diferente. +Empiezas a ver cmo se mueven los vuelos a nivel global, y de repente descubrimos que el mundo no est ni siquiera cerca de ser plano. +Es extremadamente desigual. +Hay partes del mundo muy bien conectadas. +Bsicamente hay una gran pista en el cielo entre Londres y Nueva York. +pero miren este mapa, y podrn observar esto por 2 o 3 minutos. +No vern muchos vuelos desde Sudamrica a frica. +Y descubrirn que hay partes del mundo que estn sistemticamente aisladas. +Cuando dejamos de mirar a la infraestructura que hace posible la conexin, y nos fijamos en lo que realmente sucede, empezamos a darnos cuenta que el mundo no funciona de la forma que nosotros creemos. +As que ste es el problema en que he estado interesado alrededor de la ltima dcada. +De hecho, el mundo es cada vez ms global. +Est cada vez ms conectado. +Hay ms problemas de alcance global. +La economa es ms global. +Y nuestros medios de comunicacin son menos globales. +Si vieron una transmisin televisiva en los Estados Unidos en la dcada de 1970, se poda encontrar de un 35% a 40% de noticias internacionales en cada nueva transmisin nocturna. +Eso se redujo a un 12% o 15%. +Y esto tiende a darnos una visin muy distorsionada del mundo. +Esta es una diapositiva que Alisa Miller mostr en una conversacin previa de TED. +Alisa es la presidente de Public Radio International. +Y ella hizo un cartograma, que es esencialmente un mapa distorsionado basado en lo que las noticias de televisin estadounidense transmiten la observacin fue durante un mes. +Y se observa que cuando se distorsiona un mapa basado en la atencin, el mundo en las noticias de televisin estadounidense se reducen bsicamente a este gigante e inflado EEUU +y un par de otros pases que hemos invadido. +Y bsicamente de eso se tratan nuestros medios. +Y antes que concluyan que esto slo pasa en las noticias televisivas de EEUU -- lo cual es terrible, y estoy de acuerdo con esto -- Estuve mapeando los medios de elites como el New York Times, y obtuve los mismos resultados. +Cuando nos fijamos en el New York Times, vemos otros medios de elite, lo que se obtiene en gran medida, son imgenes de naciones muy ricas y de naciones que hemos invadido. +Resulta que los nuevos medios no necesariamente nos estn ayudando mucho. +Este es un mapa hecho por Mark Graham quien trabaja en el Oxford Internet Institute. +Es un mapa de artculos de Wikipedia codificados geogrficamente. +Y se darn cuenta que hay un sesgo muy fuerte hacia Norteamrica y Europa Occidental. +Incluso dentro de Enciclopedias donde estamos creando su propio contenido en lnea, hay un fuerte sesgo hacia el lugar donde viven muchos de los autores de Wikipedia, y no del resto del mundo. +En el Reino Unido podemos levantar. Puedes tomar tu computadora cuando sales de esta sesin. Puedes leer un peridico de la India o de Australia, de Canad, Dios no lo quiera de los EE.UU. +Probablemente no podrs. +Si nos fijamos en el consumo de medios online -- en este caso, entre los 10 primeros usuarios de Internet -- ms del 95 por ciento de los lectores de noticias se encuentra en sitios de noticias nacionales. +Es uno de esos raros casos en los que EE.UU. es en realidad un poco mejor que Canad porque de hecho nos gusta leer sus medios de comunicacin, y no al revs. +As que todo esto me llev a pensar que estamos en un estado al que me refiero como cosmopolitismo imaginario. +Miramos internet. +Creemos que tenemos esta amplia visin del mundo. +De vez en cuando nos encontramos con una pgina en Chino, y decidimos que de hecho tenemos la mayor tecnologa jams construida para conectarnos con el resto del mundo. +Y nos olvidamos que la mayor parte del tiempo estamos revisando los resultados de los Boston Red Sox. +As que este es un problema real -- no slo porque los Red Sox estn teniendo un ao malo -- sino que es un problema real porque, tal como estuvimos discutiendo aqu en TED, los problemas reales del mundo los problemas interesantes para resolver son globales en escala y alcance, requieren de conversaciones globales para llegar a soluciones globales. +Este es un problema que tenemos que resolver. +Por eso, stas son las buenas noticias. +Durante seis aos, he estado en contacto con estos chicos. +Este es un grupo llamado Voces Globales. +Este es un equipo de bloggers de todo el mundo. +Nuestra misin era arreglar los medios de comunicacin del mundo. +Comenzamos en el 2004. +Pueden haber notado, que hasta ahora, no hemos hecho todo bien. +Tampoco creo que por nosotros mismos, vamos a resolver el problema. +Pero cuanto ms pienso en ello, ms creo que algunas cosas que hemos aprendido en el camino son lecciones interesantes sobre cmo nos reconectaramos si queremos utilizar la web para tener un mundo ms amplio. +Lo primero que tienen que considerar es que hay partes del mundo que son sitios oscuros en trminos de atencin. +En este caso, el mapa de la Nasa "the world at night" -- su oscuridad es literalmente por la falta de electricidad. +Y sola pensar que un punto negro en este mapa, bsicamente significa que no vas a tener comunicacin desde ah, porque hay necesidades ms bsicas. +Lo que estoy comenzando a entender es que se puede obtener comunicacin, es slo una enorme cantidad de trabajo y se necesita una enorme cantidad de estmulo. +Uno de esos puntos oscuros es Madagascar, un pas que es mejor conocido por los films de Dreamworks que por la gente maravillosa que vive ah. +Y entonces la gente que fund el club Foko en Madagascar no estaban realmente preocupados en tratar de cambiar la imagen de su pas. +Estaban haciendo algo mucho ms simple. +Era un club para aprender ingls, computacin e internet. +Pero pas que Madagascar sufri un violento golpe de Estado. +La mayora de medios de comunicacin independientes fueron cerrados. +Y los estudiantes de la escuela media que estaban aprendiendo en el club Foko a postear en blogs se encontraron de repente hablando con una audiencia internacional sobre las manifestaciones, la violencia, todo lo que estaba sucediendo en el pas. +Entonces un programa muy pequeo diseado para atraer gente a las computadoras, publicando sus propios pensamientos, noticias independientes, terminaron teniendo un enorme impacto en lo que sabemos de este pas. +Supongo que el truco con esto es que muchos de los presentes no hablan malgache. +Tambin supongo que muchos de ustedes ni siquiera hablan chino -- lo cual si lo piensan es un poco triste, ya que actualmente es la lengua ms representada en Internet. +Afortunadamente hay gente tratando de pensar cmo solucionar este problema. +Si usan Chrome de Google y van a un sitio de lengua china, observan este cuadro muy lindo en la parte superior, que automticamente detecta que la pgina est en chino y muy rpidamente, con un clic le dar una traduccin de la pgina. +Desafortunadamente, es una traduccin automtica de la pgina. +Y si bien Google es muy bueno con algunas lenguas, con el chino es en realidad bastante malo. +Y los resultados pueden ser bastante cmicos. +Lo que realmente ustedes quieren, lo que yo quiero, es tener la posibilidad de presionar un botn y tener esto pendiente para que una persona pueda traducirlo. +Y si piensan que esto es absurdo, no lo es. +Actualmente hay un grupo en China llamado Yeeyan. +Yeeyan es un grupo de 150.000 voluntarios quienes se conectan cada da. +Buscan el contenido ms interesante en idioma Ingls. +Traducen alrededor de 100 artculos al da de los principales peridicos y sitios web. +Lo suben online con acceso libre. +Es el projecto de un joven llamado Zhang Lei, quien estuvo viviendo en EEUU durante los disturbios de Lhasa y quien no poda creer la cobertura sesgada que daban los medios de comunicacin estadounidenses. +Y dijo: "Si hay una cosa que puedo hacer, puedo empezar a traducir, para que la gente entre estos pases empiecen a entenderse un poco mejor unos a otros." +Y yo les pregunto: Si Yeeyan puede alinear 150.000 personas para traducir al chino, los sitios web en ingls, Donde est el Yeeyan del idioma ingls? +Quin est siguiendo al chino, que ahora tiene 400 millones de usuarios de internet? +Me imagino que al menos uno de ellos tiene algo interesante para decir. +As que aun cuando encontremos la forma de traducir del chino, no hay garanta de que lo encontremos. +Cuando buscamos informacin online, bsicamente tenemos dos estrategias. +Hacemos mucha bsqueda. +Y la bsqueda es genial si sabes lo que ests buscando. +Pero si ests buscando descubrir algo por casualidad, si quieres llegar a algo que no sabias que necesitabas, nuestra filosofa es buscar en las redes sociales, buscar en nuestros amigos. +Qu estn mirando ellos? Tal vez deberamos mirar lo mismo. +El problema con esto es que luego de un tiempo terminas teniendo la sabidura de la manada. +Terminas en una manada de gente quienes probablemente son similares que tu, con intereses similares. +Y es muy difcil obtener informacin de otras manadas, de otras partes del mundo donde la gente se rene y habla de sus propios intereses. +Para hacer esto, en cierto momento, necesitas alguien que te saque de tu manada y te lleve a otra manada. +Necesitas un gua. +Esto es Amira Al Hussaini. Ella es la editora de Voces Globales en Medio Oriente. +Tiene uno de los trabajos ms difciles del mundo. +No slo tiene que mantener a nuestros colaboradores Israeles y Palestinos de matarse unos a otros, sino que tiene que averiguar lo que va a interesarles sobre Medio Oriente. +Y en ese camino de tratar de sacarlos de su rbita normal, e intentar que presten atencin a la historia de alguien que deja de fumar durante el mes del Ramadn, ella necesita saber algo sobre la audiencia global. +Tiene que saber algo sobre qu historias estn disponibles. +Bsicamente ella es un deejay. +Ella es una curadora humana calificada quin sabe qu material est disponible para ella, que sabe escuchar a la audiencia, y que es capaz de hacer una seleccin y hacer avanzar a la gente de una u otra manera. +No creo que esto sea necesariamente un proceso matemtico. +Creo que lo fantstico de Internet es que en realidad les facilita a los deejays alcanzar una audiencia ms amplia. +Conozco a Amira. +Puedo preguntarle qu leer. +Pero con Internet, ella est en una posicin donde puede decirle a muchas personas qu leer. +Y ustedes tambin la pueden escuchar, si esta es la forma en que estn interesados en ampliar su red. +As que una vez que empiecen a ampliarse de este modo, a iluminar las voces de los lugares oscuros, que empiecen a traducir, a guiar, se llega lugares realmente extraos. +Esta es la imagen de uno de mis blogs favoritos, es AfriGadget. +Y AfriGadget es un blog que analiza la tecnologa en el contexto africano. +Y en particular, analiza a un herrero en kibera, Nairobi, quien est convirtiendo el eje de un Landrover en un cincel fro. +Y cuando miren esta imagen, quizs se pregunten, "Por qu me importara esto?" +Y lo cierto es que este hombre probablemente pueda explicrtelo. +Se trata de Erik Hersman. Quizs lo hayan visto alrededor de la conferencia. +Le llaman el africano blanco. +Es tanto un geek estadounidense muy conocido, como as tambin un keniano; Naci en Sudan y creci en Kenia. +Es una figura puente. +Es alguien que, literalmente, tiene los pies en ambos mundos -- un pie en el mundo de la comunidad tecnolgica de frica, y el otro pie en el mundo de la comunidad tecnolgica estadounidense. +Y por eso nos puede contar una historia sobre este herrero de Kibera y convertirla en una historia sobre la reutilizacin de tecnologa, de innovar a partir de las limitaciones, de buscar inspiracin en la reutilizacin de los materiales. +l conoce un mundo, y busca la forma de comunicarlo con el otro mundo, teniendo con ambos profundas conexiones. +Estoy muy convencido, de que estas figuras puente, son el futuro de como tratamos de ampliar el mundo a travs del uso de internet. +Pero en ltima instancia, el truco con los puentes, es que se necesita alguien para cruzarlos. +Y es ah donde empezamos a hablar de xenofilos. +As que si me encuentro a mi mismo en la NFL (National Football League) Me imagino que pasara la temporada baja curando mis heridas, disfrutando de mi casa, etc, etc -- posiblemente grabando un album de hip-hop. +Dhani Jones, quien es el linebacker central de los Cincinnati Bengals, tiene un enfoque ligeramente diferente para la temporada baja. +Dhani tiene un show televisivo. +Se llama "Dhani Tackles the Globe." +Y para el show, cada semana, Dhani viaja a un pas diferente del mundo. +Se encuentra con un equipo deportivo local. +Durante una semana se entrena con ellos, y juegan un partido. +Y su razn para esto no es slo perfeccionar su boxeo Muay Tai. +Es porque para l, el deporte es el idioma que le permite encontrar toda la amplitud y maravilla del mundo. +Para algunos de nosotros podra ser la msica, para otros podra ser la comida. +Para muchos de nosotros podra ser la literatura o la escritura. +Sin embargo, hay todas estas diferentes tcnicas que le permiten salir y mirar el mundo y encontrar su lugar en l. +Mi objetivo con esta charla no es persuadir a los presentes en este saln que abracen la xenoflia. +Me imagino- ya que estn en una conferencia llamada TEDGlobal -- que la mayora de ustedes son xenfilos, sean que usen o no esa palabra. +En cambio mi desafo es este. +No es suficiente tomar la decisin personal de querer un mundo ms amplio. +Tenemos que encontrar la forma de reconectar los sistemas que tenemos. +Tenemos que mejorar nuestros medios de comunicacin. +Tenemos que mejorar Internet. Tenemos que mejorar nuestra educacin. +Tenemos que mejorar nuestra poltica de inmigracin. +Necesitamos buscar formas de crear serendipia, de generalizar las traducciones, y necesitamos encontrar la forma de abrazar y celebrar estas figuras puente. +Y necesitamos encontrar la forma de cultivar la xenofilia. +Eso es lo que estoy tratando de hacer. Necesito su ayuda. +Soy una cuentista. +Es lo que hago en la vida -- contar cuentos, escribir novelas. Y hoy me gustara contarles algunas historias acerca del arte de contar cuentos y tambin de unas criaturas sobrenaturales llamadas djinni. +Pero antes de tocar ese tema, por favor permtanme compartir con ustedes retazos de mi historia personal. +Lo har con la ayuda de palabras, por supuesto, pero tambin con una figura geomtrica, el crculo. As que durante toda mi historia, se encontrarn con varios crculos. +Nac en Estrasburgo, Francia de padres turcos. +Poco despus, mis padres se separaron, y vine a Turqua con mi madre. +De ah en adelante, fui criada como hija nica por una madre soltera. +Ahora bien, a principio de los 1970, en Ankara, eso era un poco inusual. +Nuestro vecindario estaba lleno de familias grandes, donde los padres eran los jefes de las familias. As que crec viendo a mi madre como una divorciada en un ambiente patriarcal. +De hecho, crec observando dos tipos diferentes de mujer. +Por un lado estaba mi madre, una mujer educada, secular, moderna, occidentalizada y Turca. +Por el otro lado estaba mi abuela, quien tambin cuid de mi y era ms espiritual, menos educada y definitivamente menos racional. +Esta era una mujer que lea la borra de caf para ver el futuro y derreta plomo en figuras misteriosas para repeler el mal de ojo. +Mucha gente visitaba a mi abuela, personas con acn severo en sus caras o verrugas en sus manos. +Cada vez, mi abuela pronunciaba algunas palabras en rabe, tomaba una manzana roja y la apualaba con tantas espinas de rosas como el nmero de verrugas que quera remover. +Y entonces una por una, ella rodeaba las espinas con tinta oscura. +Una semana despus, el paciente volva para un examen de seguimiento. +Bien, estoy consciente de que no debera estar diciendo estas cosas frente a una audiencia de acadmicos y cientficos, pero la verdad es que, de toda la gente que visitaba a mi abuela por sus condiciones en la piel, no vi a ninguno volver triste o sin estar curado. +Le pregunt cmo lo haca. Era el poder de la oracin? +En respuesta ella dijo, "Si, orar es efectivo. Pero tambin ten cuidado del poder de los crculos." +De ella, aprend, adems de muchas otras cosas, una leccin muy valiosa. Que si quieres destruir algo en esta vida, ya sea acn, una mancha o el alma humana, todo lo que necesitas hacer es rodearlo con paredes gruesas. +Se secar por dentro. +Ahora todos vivimos en una especie de crculo social y cultural. +Todos lo hacemos. +Nacemos en una determinada familia, nacin, clase. +Pero si no tenemos relacin alguna con los mundos ms all del que damos por sentado, entocnes tambin corremos el riesgo de secarnos por dentro. +Nuestra imaginacin podra reducirse. Nuestros corazones podran desaparecer. Y nuestra humanidad podra marchitarse si nos quedamos por mucho tiempo dentro de nuestros capullos culturales. +Nuestros amigos, vecinos, colegas, familia -- si todas las personas dentro de nuestro crculo intimo se parecen a nosotros, significa que estamos rodeados con nuestro reflejo. +Otra cosa que mujeres como mi abuela hacen en Turqua es cubrir los espejos con terciopleo o colgarlos en las paredes de espalda hacia afuera. +Es una vieja tradicin oriental basada en el conocimiento de que no es saludable para un ser humano pasar mucho tiempo mirndose en su propio reflejo. +Irnicamente, [vivir en] comunidades con ideas afines es uno de los peligros ms grandes del mundo globalizado de hoy. +Y est pasando en todas partes, entre liberales y conservadores, agnosticos y creyentes, el rico y el pobre, Oriente y Occidente por igual. +Tendemos a formar grupos basados en similitudes, y luego producimos estereotipos de otro grupo de personas. +En mi opinin, una manera de trascender estos guetos culturales es a travs del arte de contar cuentos. +Los cuentos no pueden demoler fronteras, pero pueden hacer agujeros en nuestras paredes mentales. +Y a travs de estos agujeros, podemos tener una imagen del otro, e incluso a veces gustarnos lo que vemos. +Empec a escribir ficcin a la edad de ocho aos. +Mi madre vino a casa un da con una libreta turquesa y me pregunt si me interesara mantener un diario personal. +En retrospectiva, creo que ella estaba un poco preocupada acerca de mi salud mental. +Constantemente contaba cuentos en casa, lo cual era bueno, excepto que se los contaba a amigos imaginarios alrededor mo, lo cual no era tan bueno. +Era una nia introvertida al punto de comunicarme con lpices de colores y disculparme con los objetos cuando me tropezaba con ellos. As que mi madre pens que me hara bien escribir mis experiencias del da a da y emociones. +Lo que ella no saba es que yo pensaba que mi vida era terriblemente aburrida, y que lo ltimo que quera hacer era escribir sobre mi. +En vez, empec a escribir acerca de otras personas y cosas que nunca pasaban. +Y as comenz mi pasin de toda la vida por escribir ficcin. +As que desde el principio, la ficcin para mi era menos una manifestacin autobiogrfica que un viaje trascendental hacia otras vidas, otras posibilidades. +Y por favor, tengan paciencia conmigo, Dibujar un crculo y volver a este punto. +Otra cosa pas aproximadamente al mismo tiempo. +Mi madre se convirti en diplomtica. +As que de este pequeo, supersticioso, vecindario de clase media de mi abuela, fui proyectada hacia esta elegante, escuela internacional, (en Madrid) donde yo era la nica Turca. +Aqu fue donde tuve mi primer encuentro con lo que llamo el "representante extranjero." +En nuestro saln, haba nios de todas las nacionalidades. Sin embargo, esta diversidad no necesariamente nos lleva a una cosmopolita, igualitaria democracia de saln de clases. +Al contrario, generaba una atmsfera en la cual cada nio era visto, no como un individuo como tal, sino como el representante de algo ms grande. +Eramos como unas Naciones Unidas miniatura, lo cual era divertido, excepto cuando algo negativo con respecto a una nacin o religin ocurra. +El nio que lo representaba era burlado, ridiculizado y acosado sin fin. +Y debera saberlo, porque durante el tiempo que asist a esa escuela, un golpe militar tuvo lugar en mi pas, un pistolero de mi nacionalidad casi mat al Papa, y Turqua obtuvo cero puntos en el Festival de la Cancin de Eurovisin. +Faltaba frecuentemente a la escuela y soaba con ser marinera durante esos das. +Tambin tuve mi primer contacto con estereotipos culturales all. +Los otros nios me preguntaban acerca de la pelcula "Midnight Express", la cual no haba visto. Preguntaban cuntos cigarrillos me fumaba al da, porque crean que todos los turcos eran grandes fumadores Y se preguntaban a qu edad comenzara a cubrir mi cabello. +Luego aprend que estos eran los tres principales estereotipos de mi pas, polticas, cigarrillos y el velo. +Despus de Espaa nos fuimos a Jordania, Alemania y otra vez a Ankara. +A donde quiera que iba me senta como si mi imaginacin fuera el nico equipaje que poda llevar conmigo. +Los cuentos me daban un sentido de centro, continuidad y coherencia, las tres grandes C de las cuales careca. +A mis veintitantos aos, me mud a Estambul la ciudad que adoro. +Viva en un vecindario vibrante y diverso donde escrib varias de mis novelas. +Estaba en Estambul cuando sucedi el terremoto en 1999. +Cuando sal corriendo del edificio a las tres de la maana, vi algo que me detuvo. +All estaba el almacenero local -- un viejo grun, que no venda alcohol y no hablaba con los marginales. +Estaba sentado al lado de un travesti con una larga peluca negra y con mascara corrindole por las mejillas. +Vi al hombre abrir un paquete de cigarrillos con manos temblorosas y ofrecerle uno a ella. Y esa es la imagen de la noche del terremoto que tengo grabada en mi mente hasta el da de hoy - un vendedor conservador y un travesti llorando fumando juntos en la acera. +En la cara de la muerte y destruccin todas las diferencias mundanas evaporadas, y todos nos convertimos en uno incluso por unas horas. +Pero siempre he credo que los cuentos tambin tienen un efecto similar en nosotros. +No estoy diciendo que la ficcin tiene la magnitud de un terremoto. Pero cuando estamos leyendo una buena novela, dejamos nuestros pequeos y acogedores apartamentos atrs, salimos en la noche y comenzamos a conocer personas que nunca antes habamos visto y que tal vez habamos estado en contra por prejuicios. +Poco despus, fui a un colegio de mujeres en Boston luego en Michigan. +Experiment esto, no tanto como un desplazamiento geogrfico, sino como uno de lingstica. +Empec a escribir ficcin en Ingls. +No soy una inmigrante, refugiada o exiliada. Me preguntan que por qu lo hago. Pero el conmutar entre los idiomas me da la oportunidad de recrearme a m misma. +Me encanta escribir en turco, el cual para mi es muy potico y muy emocional. Y me encanta escribir en ingls, el cual para mi es muy matemtico y cerebral. +As que me siento conectada con cada idioma en una manera diferente. +Para mi, como para millones de personas alrededor del mundo hoy en da, el ingls es un idioma adquirido. +Cuando llegas rezagado a un idioma, lo que pasa es que te quedas all con una continua y perpetua frustracin. +Como rezagados,siempre queremos decir ms, t sabes, hacer mejores chistes, decir mejores cosas. Pero terminamos diciendo menos porque hay una brecha entre la mente y la lengua. +Y la brecha es muy intimidante. +Pero si logramos no tenerle miedo, es hasta estimulante. +Y esto es lo que descubr en Boston -- esa frustracin era muy estimulante. +En este punto, mi abuela, quien estuvo viendo el curso de la vida con una creciente ansiedad, empez a incluir en sus oraciones diarias que me casara rpido para que pudiera sentar cabeza de una vez por todas. +Y ya que Dios la ama, si me cas. +Pero en vez de sentar cabeza, me fui a Arizona. +Y ya que mi esposo est en Estambul, empec a viajar entre Arizona y Estambul. Los dos lugares en la superficie de la tierra que no podran ser ms diferentes. +Creo que una parte de mi siempre ha sido nmada, fsica y espiritualmente. +Los cuentos me acompaan, manteniendo mis partes y memorios juntas, como un pegamento existencial. +Sin embargo, por ms que ame los cuentos, recientemente, empec a pensar que estas pierden su magia siempre y cuando un cuento sea visto como ms que un cuento. +Y este es un tema que me gustara que pensaramos juntos. +Cuando mi primera novela escrita en ingls sali en Amrica, escuch un interesante comentario de un crtico literario. +"Me gust tu libro", dijo, "pero deseara que lo hubieras escrito diferente." +Le pregunt qu quera decir con eso. +l dijo, "Bueno, mralo. Hay demasiados personajes espaoles, americanos e hispanos en l, pero solo hay un personaje turco y es un hombre." +Ahora bien, la novela se desarrollaba en un campus de una universidad en Boston. As que para m, era algo normal que hubieran ms personajes internacionales que personajes turcos en ella. Pero entend lo que el crtico buscaba. +Y tambin entend que seguira decepcionndolo. +El quera ver la manifestacin de mi identidad. +Buscaba una mujer turca en el libro porque eso es lo que soy. +Con frecuencia hablamos de cmo los cuentos cambian el mundo. Pero deberamos ver cmo el mundo de las polticas de identidad afectan la manera en que los cuentos han sido distribudos, ledos y revisados. +Muchos autores sienten esta presin, pero los no occidentales la sienten an ms. +Si eres una escritora del mundo musulman, como yo, entonces se espera que escribas historias de mujeres musulmanas y, preferiblemente, historias tristes de mujeres musulmanas infelices. +Se espera que escribas historias informativas, conmovedoras y caractersticas y dejes lo experimental y vanguardista a tus colegas occidentales. +Lo que experiment cuando nia en esa escuela en Madrid, esta pasando en el mundo literario en el da de hoy. +Los escritores no son vistos como indiviruos creativos, sino como los representantes de sus respectivas culturas. Unos cuantos autores de China, unos cuantos de Turqua, unos cuantos de Nigeria. +Todos estamos supuestos a tener algo muy distintivo, si no peculiar. +El escritor y viajero, James Baldwin, dio una entrevista en 1984 en la cual le preguntaban repetidamente su homosexualidad. +Cuando el entrevistador trat de encasillarlo como un escritor gay, Baldwin se detuvo y dijo, "Pero no lo ves? No hay nada en mi que no haya en otras personas, y no hay nada en otras personas que no haya en mi." +Cuando las polticas de identidad tratan de etiquetarnos, es nuestra libertad de imaginacin la que est en peligro. +Hay una confusa categora llamada literatura multicultural en la cual los autores de fuera del mundo occidental son puestos juntos. +Nunca olvido mi primera lectura multicultural, en Harvard Square hace como 10 aos. +Eramos tres escritores, uno de Filipinas, otro de Turqua y otro de Indonesia -- como una broma, ustedes saben. +Y la razn por la cual nos juntaron no fue porque compartamos un estilo artstico o un gusto literario. +Fue solo por nuestros pasaportes. +Se espera que los escritores multiculturales cuenten historias reales, no imaginarias. +Se le atribuye una funcin a la ficcin +de esta manera, no solo los mismos escritores, sino tambin sus personajes ficticios. se vuelven los representantes de algo mas grande. +Pero debo agregar rpidamente que esta tendencia de ver un cuento como ms que un cuento no solamente viene de Occidente. +Viene de todos lados. +Y experiment esto la primera vez cuando me enjuiciaron en 2005 por las palabras que decan mis personajes de ficcin en una novela. +Tena la intencin de escribir una novela constructiva, de mltiples capas sobre una familia de Armenia y otra Turca desde los ojos de las mujeres. +Mi micro cuento se convirti en algo macro cuando fui procesada. +Algunas personas me criticaron, otras me elogiaron por escribir sobre el conflicto entre Turqua y Armenia. +Pero hubo momentos en los que quera recordarles a ambos lados que esto era ficcin. +Era solo un cuento. +Y cuando dije, " solo un cuento", No estoy tratando de minimizar mi trabajo. +Quiero amar y celebrar la ficcin por lo que es, no como un medio para un fin. +Los escritores tienen derecho a sus opiniones polticas, y hay muchas novelas polticas en el mercado, pero el idioma de la ficcin no es el idioma de la poltica cotidiana. +Chekhov dijo, "La solucin a un problema y la manera correcta de plantear la cuestin son dos cosas completamente separadas. +Y solo la ltima es responsabilidad de un artista." +Las polticas de identidad nos dividen. La ficcin nos conecta. +Una est interesada en barrer con las generalizaciones. +La otra, en matices. +Una dibuja lmites. +La otra no reconoce fronteras. +Las polticas de identidad estn hechas de ladrillo macizo. +La ficcin es agua que fluye. +En los tiempos Otomanos, haba narradores ambulantes llamados "meddah" +Iban a los caf, donde contaban un cuento frente a una audiencia, casi siempre improvisando. +Con cada nueva persona en el cuento, los meddah cambiaban sus voces, personificando a ese personaje. +Todos podan ir y escuchar, ustedes saben- gente comn, hasta los sultanes, musulmanes y no-musulmanes. +Los cuentos rompen todos los lmites. Como "The Tales of Nasreddin Hodja", el cual era muy popular en el Medio Oriente, Norte de frica, los Balcanes y Asia. +Hoy, los cuentos siguen trascendiendo las fronteras. +Cuando los polticos palestinos e israelies hablan, usualmente no se escuchan el uno al otro. Pero un lector palestino todava lee una novela de un autor Judo y vice versa, conectndose y en empata con el narrador. +La literatura nos tiene que llevar ms all. +Si no puede llevarnos all, no es buena literatura. +Los libros han guardado la introvertida, y tmida nia que fui -- que fui una vez. +Pero tambin estoy atenta al peligro Cuando el poeta y mstico, Rumi, conoci a su compaera espiritual, Shams-i-Tabriz, una de las primeras cosas que este ltimo hizo fue tirar el libro de Rumi en agua y ver como se disolvan las letras. +El Sufi dijo, "El conocimiento que no te lleva ms all de ti mismo es mucho peor que la ignorancia". +El problema con los guetos culturales de hoy no es la falta de conocimiento. Sabemos mucho el uno del otro, o eso pensamos. Pero el conocimiento que no nos lleva ms all de nosotros mismos, nos vuelve elitistas, distantes y desconectados. +Hay una metfora que me encanta: viviendo como un comps de dibujo. +Como saben, una aguja del comps es esttica, fijada en un lugar. +Mientras que, la otra aguja dibuja un amplio crculo, movindose constantemente. +As mismo, mi ficcin. +Una parte de ella est en Estambul con fuertes races turcas. Pero la otra parte viaja por el mundo, conectndose con diferentes culturas. +En ese sentido, me gusta pensar en mi ficcin como local y universal, ambas de aqi y de cualquier lugar. +Ahora, aquellos de ustedes que han estado en Estambul probablemente han visto el Palacio Topkapi, el cual era la residencia de los sultanes Otomanos por ms de 400 aos. +En el palacio, justo afuera de las habitaciones de los concubinas favoritas, hay un lugar llamado El Lugar de Reunin de Djinn. +Est entre edificios. +Estoy intrigada por este concepto. +Usualmente desconfiamos de esas reas que estn ubicadas entre objetos. +Los vemos como el dominio de criaturas sobrenaturales como el djinn, que estn hechos de fuego sin humo y son smbolo de elusividad. +Pero mi punto es que tal vez ese espacio elusivo es lo que los escritores y artistas ms necesitan. +Cuando escribo ficcin aprecio la elusividad y mutabilidad. +Me gusta no saber qu pasar en las prximas 10 pginas. +Me gusta cuando mis personajes me sorprenden. +Puede que escriba sobre una mujer musulmana en una novela. Y tal vez sea un cuento muy feliz. Y en mi prximo libro, puede que escriba sobre un hermoso, profesor gay en Noruega. +Siempre y cuando salga de nuestros corazones, podemos escribir acerca de cualquier cosa. +Audre Lorde dijo una vez, "Los padres blancos nos ensearon a decir, 'Pienso, luego existo"". Ella sugiri, "Siento, luego soy libre". +Pienso que fue un maravilloso cambio de paradigma. +Y sin embargo, por qu es que, en los cursos de escritura creativa de hoy, lo primero que le enseamos a los estudiantes es escribir acerca de lo que conocen? +Tal vez esa no sea la mejor manera de empezar. +La literatura imaginativa no es necesariamente acerca de escribir de quines somos o qu sabemos o de nuestra identidad. +Debemos ensear a los jvenes y a nosotros mismos a expandir nuestros corazones y escribir lo que podemos sentir. +Deberamos salir de nuestro gueto cultural e ir a visitar el prximo y el prximo. +En fin, los cuentos se mueven como remolinos de derviches, dibujando crculos ms all de los crculos. +Conectan toda la humanidad, a pesar de las polticas de identidad. Y esas son buenas noticias. +Y me gustara terminar con un viejo poema Suf. "Ven, seamos amigos de una buena vez; facilitmonos la vida; seamos los que aman y los amados; la tierra no le quedar a nadie". +Gracias. +Chris Anderson: Bienvenido, Julian. +Se ha informado de que WikiLeaks, tu beb, en los ltimos aos ha publicado ms documentos confidenciales que todos los medios de comunicacin del mundo juntos. +Puede ser cierto? +Julian Assange: S, puede ser cierto? +Es inquietante, no?, que los medios de comunicacin del mundo estn realizando un trabajo tan malo que un pequeo grupo de activistas sea capaz de publicar ms informacin de ese tipo que el resto de la prensa mundial junta. +CA: Cmo funciona? +Cmo publica la gente los documentos? +Y cmo protegis su privacidad? +JA: Son, por lo que podemos decir, los clsicos informantes Y tenemos distintas formas para que nos hagan llegar la informacin. +Usamos slo tecnologa punta de codificacin para hacer circular la informacin, ocultar rastros, filtrarla por jurisdicciones legales como Suecia y Blgica para adoptar esas protecciones legales. +Obtenemos informacin en el correo, el correo postal normal, codificado o no, la examinamos igual que una organizacin de noticias, la formateamos, lo que a veces resulta un tanto difcil, cuando hablamos de bases de datos de informacin enormes, la hacemos pblica y despus nos defendemos de los ataques polticos y legales inevitables. +CA: Es decir, os esforzis en aseguraros de que los documentos sean legtimos. Pero en realidad casi nunca conocis la identidad de la fuente. +JA: Exacto, s. Muy pocas veces la conocemos. Y si nos enteramos en algn momento destruimos la informacin lo ms rpidamente posible. +(Llamada de telfono) Maldita sea. +CA: Creo que es la CIA preguntando por el cdigo para hacerse miembro de TED. +Bien, tomemos el ejemplo. +Esto es algo que filtrasteis hace unos aos. +Si podemos mostrar este documento... +Se trata de una historia de hace unos aos en Kenia. +Puedes contarnos qu filtrasteis y qu ocurri? +JA: Este es el informe Kroll. +Se trata de un informe secreto de inteligencia encargado por el gobierno keniata tras su eleccin en 2004. +Antes de 2004, Kenia estuvo gobernada por Daniel arap Moi por unos 18 aos. +Fue un dictador blando de Kenia. +Y cuando Kibaki lleg al poder, a travs de una coalicin de fuerzas que intentaban limpiar la corrupcin en Kenia, encargaron este informe, se gastaron unos dos millones de libras en l y en un informe relacionado. +Despus el gobierno lo ocult y lo us como palanca poltica contra Moi, que era el hombre ms rico, todava es el hombre ms rico, de Kenia. +Es el Santo Grial del periodismo keniata. +As que fui all en 2007, y conseguimos hacernos con l justo antes de las elecciones, las elecciones nacionales del 28 de diciembre. +Cuando publicamos ese reportaje, lo hicimos tres das despus de que el nuevo presidente, Kibaki, hubiera decidido congraciarse con el hombre que pensaba desplumar: Daniel arap Moi. De modo que este reportaje se convirti en un lastre para el presidente Kibaki. +CA: Y... es decir, en pocas palabras, se lleg a filtrar la informacin en Kenia, no desde los medios oficiales, sino indirectamente. Y en tu opinin esto influy en las elecciones. +JA: S. Fue portada de The Guardian y despus se public en todos los pases alrededor de Kenia, en la prensa tanzana y sudafricana. +Lleg desde fuera. +Y eso, despus de un par de das, hizo que la prensa keniata se sintiera segura para hablar. +Sali en la TV keniata durante 20 noches seguidas, modific un 10 por ciento el sentido del voto, segn un informe de inteligencia keniata, que cambi el resultado de las elecciones. +CA: Vaya!, o sea que vuestra filtracin cambi sustancialmente el mundo? +JA: Sip. +CA: Aqui est, vamos a mostrar un breve fragmento de este vdeo del ataque areo en Bagdad. +El vdeo dura ms tiempo. Pero aqu tenemos un breve fragmento. +Es... es material intenso, se lo advierto. +Radio: ...gilipolleces, cuando ests encima de ellos, revintalos. +Veo tu tropa, eh, tengo unos cuatro Humvees, eh, cerca... +Tienes va libre. De acuerdo. Abriendo fuego. +Avsame cuando los tengas. Disparemos. +Prndeles fuego a todos. +Venga, fuego! +(Fuego de ametralladora) Sigue disparando. Sigue disparando. +(Fuego de ametralladora) Sigue disparando. +Hotel... Bushmaster Dos-Seis, Bushmaster Dos-Seis, tenemos que movernos, ahora mismo! +De acuerdo, acabamos de atacar a los ocho individuos. +S, vemos dos pjaros y todava estamos disparando. +Recibido. Los tengo. +Dos-Seis, aqu Dos-Seis, somos una unidad mvil. +Uy!, perdn. Qu estaba pasando? +Maldita sea, Kyle. Vale, jajaja. Les he dado. +CA: Entonces, cul fue el impacto de esto? +JA: El impacto sobre la gente que trabaj en l fue muy fuerte. +Terminamos enviando a dos personas a Bagdad para que investigaran en profundidad esta historia. +Es decir, ste es slo el primero de los tres ataques que tuvieron lugar all. +CA: Es decir, murieron 11 personas en ese ataque, verdad, incluyendo a dos empleados de Reuters? +JA: S. Dos empleados de Reuters, dos nios pequeos fueron heridos. +En total haba entre 18 y 26 personas asesinadas. +CA: Y su publicacin provoc una indignacin generalizada. +Cul fu la clave para que provocara la indignacin, crees t? +JA: No s, supongo que la gente puede ver la enorme disparidad de fuerzas. +Unos tipos van caminando relajadamente por la calle, y entonces un helicptero Apache aparece por una esquina empieza a disparar proyectiles de 30 milmetros a todo el mundo... buscando cualquier excusa para hacerlo... y matando a las personas que rescatan a lo heridos. +Haba dos periodistas implicados que claramente no eran insurgentes porque es su trabajo a tiempo completo. +CA: Quiero decir, ha habido un analista de inteligencia de EE.UU., Bradley Manning, que ha sido detenido. Se sostiene que confes en un chat que os haba filtrado este vdeo, junto con 280.000 cables clasificados de la embajada de EE. UU. +Me refiero a que... lo hizo? +JA: Bueno, hemos negado que recibiramos esos cables. +Ha sido acusado, hace unos cinco das, de haberse hecho con 150.000 cables y haber publicado 50. +Bien, habamos publicado a principios de ao un cable de la embajada de EE. UU. en Reikiavik. Pero no est relacionado necesariamente. +Es decir, era un visitante asiduo de esa embajada. +CA: Es decir, si recibierais miles de cables diplomticos de la embajada de EE. UU... +JA: Los habramos publicado. (CA: En serio?) JA: S. (CA: Porque...?) JA: Bueno, porque estas cosas revelan cul es la verdadera situacin de, digamos, los gobiernos rabes, las violaciones de los derechos humanos de esos gobiernos. +Si observamos los cables desclasificados, ese clase de material est ah. +CA: Hablemos de esto en trminos ms generales. +Es decir, en general, cul es vuestra filosofa? +Por qu est bien promover la filtracin de informacin secreta? +JA: Hay una cuestin sobre qu informacin es importante en el mundo, qu tipo de informacin puede lograr cambios. +Y hay mucha informacin. +Esa informacin que las organizaciones estn invirtiendo un esfuerzo econmico en ocultar, es una muy buena seal de que cuando la informacin salga, haya una esperanza de hacer algn bien. Porque las organizacines que la conocen mejor, que la conocen a la perfeccin, se estn esforzando en ocultarla. +Es lo que hemos encontrado en la prctica. Es la historia del periodismo. +CA: Pero existen riesgos bien para los individuos implicados o para la sociedad en general, de que la fitracin pueda en realidad tener consecuencias imprevistas? +JA: No que hayamos visto con lo que hemos publicado. +Es decir, aplicamos una poltica de inmunizacin frente al dao. +Tenemos una forma de abordar la informacin que contiene algn tipo de... informacin personal. +Sin embargo existen secretos legtimos... tu historial mdico; es un secreto legtimo. Tratamos con informantes que estn muy motivados. +CA: Entonces estn muy motivados. +Y qu le diras, por ejemplo, a los padres de alguien... cuyo hijo est fuera sirviendo al ejrcito de EE. UU., y dice, "Saben qu? presentan esto porque alguien tuvo un incentivo para publicarlo. +Muestra un soldado de EE. UU. rindose de gente moribunda. +Da la impresin... ha dado la impresin a millones de personas de todo el mundo de que los soldados de EE. UU. son inhumanos. +Y no es as. Mi hijo no es as. Cmo se atreven? +Qu responderas a eso? +JA: S, nos llegan muchas cosas as. +Pero recordad, la gente de Bagdad, de Iraq, de Afganistn... no necesitan ver el vdeo; lo ven todos los das. +Por lo tanto no va a cambiar su opinin. No va a cambiar su percepcin. +Es lo que ven todos los das. +Cambiar la percepcin y la opinin de la gente que paga por ello. Y esa es nuestra esperanza. +CA: Encontrasteis una forma de arrojar luz sobre lo que consideris secretos oscuros de las empresas y de los gobiernos. +La luz es buena. +Pero ves alguna irona en el hecho de que, para que arrojis esa luz, tienes que, t mismo, rodear de secretismo a tus fuentes? +JA: La verdad es que no, no tenemos an ningn disidente de WikiLeaks. +No tenemos fuentes que sean disidentes de otras fuentes. +Si abandonaran su anonimato, sera una situacin delicada para nosotros. Pero se supone que estamos actuando de manera que la gente se sienta moralmente obligada a continuar nuestra misin, no a arruinarla. +CA: Me interesara, basado en lo que hemos odo hasta ahora... Siento curiosidad por conocer la opinin de la audiencia. +Podra haber un par de puntos de vista sobre WikiLeaks y sobre Julian. +El hroe, el hroe del pueblo, que trae esta luz importante. +El alborotador peligroso. +Quin lo ve como el hroe? +Quin lo ve como el alborotador peligroso? +JA: Ah, venga. Debe haber algunos. +CA: Es una multitud maleable, Julian. +Tenemos que hacerlo mejor. Vamos a mostrarles otro ejemplo. +Aqu tenemos algo que no habis filtrado an, pero creo que para TED s. +Se trata de una historia intrigante que acaba de suceder verdad? +Qu es? +JA: Es una muestra de lo que hacemos casi todos los das. +A finales del ao pasado, en noviembre, hubo una serie de explosiones en pozos en Albania como la explosin del pozo en Golfo de Mxico, pero no tan grande. +Y conseguimos un informe... un anlisis tcnico de lo que ocurri... que deca que, de hecho, los guardias de seguridad de varias empresas petrolferas rivales haban aparcado unos camiones all y los haban explotado. +Y parte del gobierno albano estaba implicado, etc., etc. +El informe tcnico no tena ttulo. As que nos result un documeto muy difcil. +No pudimos comprobarlo porque no sabamos quin lo escribi y sabamos de qu iba. +Tenamos ciertas dudas acerca de que una empresa petrolera rival estuviera exagerando el asunto. +Partiendo de ese hecho, lo publicamos y dijimos, "Mirad, somos escpticos sobre esto. +No lo sabemos, pero qu podemos hacer? +El material parece bueno, parece correcto, pero no podemos comprobarlo". +Y despus recibimos una carta esta misma semana de la empresa que lo escribi, que deseaba localizar la fuente... decan, "Oigan, deseamos localizar la fuente". +Y nosotros, "Ah, cuntennos ms. +De qu documento, en concreto, estn hablando? +Pueden demostrar que tenan la autoriad legal sobre ese documento? +Es de verdad suyo?" +As que nos enviaron esta captura de pantalla con el autor en la id. de Microsoft Word. +S. +Eso ha ocurrido con bastante frecuencia. +Es como uno de nuestros mtodos de identificacin y comprobacin de material, intentar conseguir que estos tipos escriban cartas. +CA: S. Habis recibido informacin de dentro de BP? +JA: S, tenemos mucha, pero, en este momento, estamos llevando a cabo un gran esfuerzo econmico y tcnico. +As que nuestra frecuencia de publicacin en los ltimos meses ha disminuido mientras reestructuramos nuestros sistemas de apoyo para hacer frente a este inters pblico espectacular. +Es un problema. +Es decir, como cualquier organizacin emprendedora en crecimiento, estamos un poco abrumados por nuestro crecimiento. Eso significa que estamos recibiendo muchsimas revelaciones de informantes de muy alto calibre, pero no disponemos de gente suficiente para procesar y analizar esa informacin. +CA: Ah est el verdadero cuello de botella, basicamente periodistas voluntarios y/o financiacin de salarios? +JA: Sip. S, y gente de confianza. +Es decir, somos una organizacin a la que le resulta difcil crecer rpidamente debido al material que tratamos. Tenemos que reestructurarnos para disponer de gente que trate material de la ms alta seguridad nacional, y casos de seguridad de nivel ms bajo. +CA: Aydanos a comprenderte mejor y cmo llegaste a hacer esto. +Creo que cuando eras un nio fuiste a 37 escuelas distintas, +Es cierto? +JA: Mis padres pasaron de estar en la industria del cine a huir de una secta, as que la combinacin de las dos... +CA: Un psiclogo podra decir que es una receta para desarrollar una paranoia. +JA: Qu, la industria del cine? +CA: Y tambin fuiste... bueno, fuiste tambin un hacker desde muy joven y te topaste con las autoridades poco despus. +JA: Bueno, era periodista. +Fui un periodista activista desde muy joven. +Escrib una revista, fui procesado por ello cuando era un adolescente. +Entonces tienes que tener cuidado con "hacker". +Quiero decir que hay como... un mtodo del que se puede hacer uso para varias cosas. +Desgraciadamente, en este momento, la mafia rusa hace uso de l para robar las cuentas de tu abuela en el banco. +As que esta expresin no... no es tan agradable como era antes. +CA: S, la verdad es que no creo que ests robando la cuenta de la abuela de nadie. Pero qu me dices de tus valores fundamentales? +Puedes darnos una idea de cules son y tal vez algn incidente en tu vida que ayud a perfilarlos? +JA: No estoy seguro sobre el incidente. +Pero los valores fundamentales: bueno, los hombres generosos y capaces no crean vctimas; cuidan de las vctimas. +Es algo que aprend de mi padre y de otros hombres generosos y capaces que han estado en mi vida. +CA: Los hombres generosos y capaces no crean vctimas; cuidan de las vctimas? +JA: S. Ya sabes, soy una persona combativa, as que no se me da bien lo de cuidar. Pero de alguna forma... Hay otra manera de cuidar a las vctimas, que es vigilar a los responsables criminales. +Y eso es algo que llevo en mi forma de ser desde hace mucho tiempo. +CA: Cuntanos, muy rpidamente, la historia: Qu ocurri en Islandia? +En principio publicaste algo all, tuviste problemas con un banco, despus la agencia de noticias recibi una orden judicial para detener la historia. +En su lugar, hicieron pblica tu versin. +Eso te coloc en un lugar prominente en Islandia. Qu pas despus? +JA: S, fue un gran caso. +Islandia atravesaba por esta crisis financiera. +Fue el golpe ms duro de cualquier pas del mundo. +Su sector bancario era 10 veces el PIB del resto de la economa. +En fin, publicamos este reportaje en julio del ao pasado. +Y el canal de la TV nacional recibi otra orden judicial cinco minutos antes de que saliera al aire. Como si fuera una pelcula, la orden aterriz sobre la redaccin, y el presentador estaba como, "Esto no ha ocurrido nunca. Qu hacemos?" +Mostramos slo el sitio web en su lugar, durante ese tiempo, para rellenar. Nos hicimos muy famosos en Islandia, fuimos all y hablamos sobre este tema. +Islandia es un pas nrdico y, como Noruega, es capaz de aprovecharse del sistema. +Hace slo un mes, fu aprobado unnimemente por el parlamento islands. +CA: Vaya. +ltima pregunta, Julian. +Cuando piensas en el futuro, crees ms probable que haya un Gran Hermano ejerciendo ms control, ms secretismo, o que nosotros vigilemos al Gran Hermano, o est todo por decidirse? +JA: No estoy seguro de qu camino tomar. +Es decir, hay unas presiones enormes para armonizar la legislacin sobre libertad de expresin y la legislacin sobre transparencia en todo el mundo... dentro de la U.E., entre China y los Estados Unidos. +Qu camino va a tomar? Es difcil de prever. +Por eso resulta un momento muy interesante. Porque con slo un poco de esfuerzo podemos cambiarlo de una forma o de otra. +CA: Da la impresin de que reflejo la opinin de la audiencia al decir, Julian, ten cuidado y que te vaya muy bien. +JA: Gracias, Chris. (CA: Gracias.) +En Octubre del 2010, La Saln de la Justicia har equipo con "Los 99". +conos como Batman, Superman, la Mujer Maravilla y sus colegas harn equipo con Jabbar, Noora, Jami y sus colegas. +Es una historia de intersecciones culturales. Y que mejor grupo para tener esta conversacin que aquellos que crecieron en contra del fascismo es sus respectivas historias y geografas. +Cuando el fascismo tom Europa en 1930, Norte Amrica reaccion inesperadamente. +As como cambi la iconografa cristiana y las esvsticas nacieron a partir de los crucifijos, Batman y Superman fueron creados por jvenes judos en los Estados Unidos y Canad a partir de la Biblia. +Consideren esto: tal como los profetas, todos los superhroes no tienen padres. +El pap de Superman muri en Krypton antes del ao. +Bruce Wayne, quien se convertira en Batman, perdi sus padres a los 6 aos en Ciudad Gtica. +El Hombre Araa fue criado por sus tos. +Y todos ellos, tal como los profetas recibieron sus mensajes de Dios a travs de Gabriel, recibieron sus mensajes de arriba. +Peter Parker est en una biblioteca de Manhattan cuando una araa desciende y le da un mensaje mediante una mordida. +Bruce Wayne est en su cuarto cuando un murcilago grande vuela sobre su cabeza, lo ve como un augurio y se convierte en Batman. +Superman no slo fue enviado a la Tierra desde el cielo, o Krypton, sino que fue enviado en un cascarn, tal como Moiss en el Nilo. +Y escuchas la voz de su padre, Jor-El, diciendo a la Tierra: "Te he enviado mi nico hijo". +Estos son claramente arquetipos bblicos, y la idea bsica fue crear historias positivas con repercusin mundial que se pudieran asociar a las mismas cosas de las que las personas sacan mensajes. Porque las personas que usan la religin con propsitos errados, se convierten en malas personas con malos mensajes. +Solo con pensamientos positivos se puede eliminar la negatividad. +Este fue el tipo de pensamiento que se dio durante la creacin de Los 99. +Los 99 se refiere a los 99 atributos de Al en el Corn, cosas como generosidad, misericordia, anticipacin y sabidura y docenas de otras a las que nadie se opondra, +sin importar la religin. An si uno fuera ateo, no criara a sus hijos dicindoles, saben, asegrense de mentir tres veces al da. +Estos son valores humanos bsicos. +Y la historia atrs de Los 99 ocurre en 1258, donde la historia dice que los mongoles invadieron Bagdad y la destruyeron. +Todos los libros de la biblioteca Bait al-Hikma, la biblioteca ms famosa en ese tiempo, fueron tirados al ro Tigris, y el Tigris cambia de color con la tinta. +Esta historia pas de generacin en generacin. +Yo reescrib esa historia. En mi versin, los bibliotecarios se enteran de lo que suceder, y aqu hago un parntesis: si quieren que un cmic sea bueno, hagan que los bibliotecarios sean los hroes. Siempre funciona. +As que los bibliotecarios se dan cuenta y entre todos consiguen un lquido especial, una solucin qumica llamada El Agua del Rey, que cuando se mezcla con 99 piedras es capaz de salvar toda la cultura e historia contenida en los libros. +Pero los mongoles llegan primero. +Los libros y el lquido son tirados al rio Tigris. +Algunos bibliotecarios escapan y, despus de das y semanas, sumergen las piedras en el Tigris y absorben la sabidura colectiva que pensamos se haba perdido. +Esas piedras se han encubierto como tres rosarios de 33 piedras cada uno desde Arabia hasta Andaluca en Espaa, donde estuvieron seguras por 200 aos. +Pero en 1492, dos cosas importantes sucedieron. +La primera fue la cada de Granada, el ltimo territorio musulmn en Europa. +La segunda es que Coln finalmente consigui patrocinio para ir a la India, pero se perdi. +As, 33 de esas piedras entran de contrabando en la Nia, la Pinta y la Santa Mara y estn rodando por el mundo. +33 fueron por la Ruta de la Seda a China, sur y sureste de Asia. +Y 33 se reparten entre Europa, Medio Oriente y frica. +y estamos en el 2010, y hay 99 hroes de 99 pases diferentes. +Ahora bien, es fcil suponer que esos libros, que eran de una biblioteca llamada Al-Hikma eran libros musulmanes, sin embrago no es el caso porque el califa que construy la biblioteca, su nombre era Al-Ma'mun era el hijo de Harun al-Rashid. +Le haba dicho a sus consejeros: "Consganme todos los estudiantes para que traduzcan al rabe todo libro que llegue a sus manos, y les pagar su peso en oro". +Despus de un tiempo sus consejeros se quejaron. +Decian: "Su Seoria, los estudiantes estn haciendo trampa. +Estn escribiendo en letra grande para poder ganar ms oro". +A lo que dijo: "Djennlos, porque lo que nos dan vale ms que lo que les estamos pagando". +As que la idea de una arquitectura abierta, conocimiento abierto, no es nuevo. +El concepto est centrado en algo llamado piedras Noor. +Noor en rabe es luz. +As que stas 99 piedras, unas cuantas reglas en este juego: Nmero uno, uno no escoge las piedras; ellas lo escogen a uno. +Hay un elemento del Rey Arturo en la historia. +Nmero dos, en Los 99 cuando adquieren una piedra, abusan de ella; la usan para su propio beneficio. +Hay un mensaje fuerte all, cuando abusas de tu piedra toman ventaja de ti las personas que quieren aprovecharse de sus poderes. +Numero tres, las 99 piedras llevan dentro de s un mecanismo que se auto-actualiza. +Existen dos grupos en el mundo musulmn. +Todos piensan que el Corn aplica todo el tiempo y a todos los lugares. +Algunos creen que eso significa que la interpretacin original de hace un par de miles de aos atrs es relevante hoy. +No pertenezco a ese grupo. +Y hay otro grupo que creen que el Corn es un documento que respira y vive. Y yo he capturado esa idea dentro de las piedras que se auto-actualizan. +El personaje principal malo, Rughal, no quiere que las piedras se actualicen. As que trata de detener su actualizacin. +No las puede usar, pero las puede detener. +Y al detenerlas, tiene una agenda tipo fascista, cuando tiene alguno de Los 99 trabajando para l. Todos usan el mismo color de uniforme, parecen cortados con la misma tijera. No se les permite expresar individualmente qu son y quines son. +Los controla desde arriba. No importa si trabajan para el otro lado, finalmente, cuando se enteran de que no es la persona indicada, han sido manipuladas, ellos realmente, cada uno tiene un tipo de vestimenta muy colorida. +Y el ltimo punto sobre las piedras Noor de Los 99 es ste: +Los 99 funcionan en triadas. +Por qu tres? Por un par de razones. +Primero, tenemos un cosa en el Islam y es que no dejas a un chico y una chica solos, porque la tercera persona es la tentacin o diablo, verdad? +Existe en todas las culturas, verdad? +Pero no tiene que ver con religin, no tiene que ver con proselitismo. +Existe un fuerte mensaje social que necesita llegar a lo ms profundo de la intolerancia. Y la nica manera de llegar ah es jugando el juego. +Asi que as es como lo hago. +Trabajan en tradas; dos chicos y una chica, dos chicas y un chico. tres chicos, tres chicas, no hay problema. +Y el psicoanalista suizo Carl Jung habl de la importancia del nmero tres en todas las culturas, as que me imagino estoy cubierto. +Bien... +he sido acusado en algunos blogs de ser enviado del Papa para predicar la Santsima Trinidad y el catolicismo en Medio Oriente, Asi que Uds... Uds crean lo que quieran... les dar la versin de mi historia. +Estos son algunos personajes que tenemos. +Mujiba, de Malasia, su principal poder es que ella puede responder cualquier pregunta. +Ella es la reina del juego Trivial Pursuit, si as lo quieren llamar. Pero cuando recibe el poder por primera vez, ella empieza mostrndose y haciendo dinero. +Tenemos a Jabbar de Arabia quien comienza quebrando cosas cuando tiene el poder. +Ahora, Mumita fue divertido nombrarlo. Mumita es el destructor. +Los 99 atributos de Al tienen el yin y el yan. Existe el poderoso, el dominante, el fuerte. y existe tambin el amable, el generoso. +Como que todas las chicas son amables y misericordiosas y todos los chicos son fuertes. +Como que, saben qu?, he conocido unas pocas chicas que fueron destructoras en mi vida, as que... +Tenemos a Jami de Hungra, que empez fabricando armas. Es el sabio de la tecnologa. +Musawwira de Ghana, Hadya de Pakistn, Jaleel de Irn que usa el fuego. +Y este es uno de mis favoritas: Al-Batina de Yemen. +Al-Batina es la oculta. +Al-Batina est oculta, pero es una superhroe. +Llegue a casa y le dije a mi esposa: "he creado un personaje a partir de ti". +Mi esposa es saudita de origen yemen. +Y me dijo "mustramela". Y le mostr esto. +Ella dijo, "Esa no soy yo". +Dije, " mira los ojos. Esos son tus ojos". +Asi que le promet a los inversores que no iba ser otra produccin del quinto mundo. +Este iba a ser Superman, o no vala mi tiempo ni su dinero. +Desde el primer da, las personas involucradas en este proyecto, abajo en la izquierda es Fabian Nicieza, autor de X-men y Power Ranger. +a su lado Dan Panosian, uno de los creadores del personaje en el actual X-men. +Autor principal, Stuart Moore, autor de Iron Man. +A su lado esta John McCrea, quien fue el que colore el Hombre Araa. +y entramos a la conciencia occidental con el titul: "En el prximo Ramadn, el mundo tendr nuevos hroes" en el 2005. +Fui a Dubai, a la conferencia Arab Thought Foundation, y esperaba al lado del caf por el periodista perfecto. +No tena el producto, pero tena energa. +Encontr alguien del New York Times. Lo acorral y le ca encima. +Creo lo asust. porque bsicamente me prometi - no tenamos el producto... pero dijo: "Te daremos un prrafo en la seccin de Arte si me dejas en paz" +As que dije, "grandioso". Le llam unas cuantas semanas despus. +Dije, "Hola Hesa". Me dijo: "Hola". Le dije: "Feliz Ao Nuevo". +l dijo: "Gracias. Tuvimos un beb". Le dije: "Felicitaciones". +Como si me importara, verdad? +"asi que cundo se publicar el articulo?" +Dijo: "Naif, Islam y dibujos animados? +No es el momento. +Sabes, quiz la prxima semana, el mes que viene, el ao prximo se publicar". +As que despus de unos das, qu sucede? +La oontroversia mundial de los cmics de Dinamarca. +Me hice a tiempo. +Recib torrentes de llamadas y correos electrnicos del New York Times. +Lo siguiente es, hay una pgina completa cubrindonos positivamente. Enero 22 del 2006, cambi nuestras vidas para siempre. porque cualquiera buscando en Google sobre Islam y cmics adivinen qu encontraban; me encontraban a m. +Y Los 99 eran como superhroes voladores que conocan lo que sucedia en el mundo. +y eso conllev a muchas cosas, desde estar en los planes de estudio de universidades y escuelas; una de mis fotos favoritas del sur de Asia es una pareja de hombres con barba larga y muchas chicas usando el velo - parece una escuela. +Las buenas noticias es que estn sosteniendo copias de Los 99 sonriendo, y consiguieron que les firmara la foto. +Las malas noticias es que eran fotocopias, as que no ganamos ni un centavo en regalas. +Hemos logrado autorizar los cmics de Los 99 en ocho idiomas hasta ahora: chino, indonesio, hindi, urd, turco. +Abrir un parque temtico con una licencia en Kuwait hace un ao y medio llamado parque temtico Villa de los 99, 28.000 m2, 20 juegos, todo con nuestros personajes. un par de licencias de regreso al colegio en Espaa y Turqua. +Pero lo ms grandioso que hemos hecho hasta ahora, lo cual es simplemente maravilloso, es que hemos hecho 26 episodios de series animadas, hecho para audiencias globales, de hecho, ya estamos llegando a los Estados Unidos y Turqua, lo sabemos. +Es 3D CGI, va ser de muy buena calidad, hecho por los escritores de "Ben 10" "El Hombre Araa", "La Guerra de las Galaxias: La Guerra de los Clones". +En este clip les mostrar algo indito, hay un problema. +Dos de los personajes, Jabbar, el de los msculos, y Noora, el que puede usar la luz, realmente estn usando ese uniforme gris fascista porque estn siendo manipulados. +No lo saben. y estn tratando de que otro miembro de Los 99 se una a ellos. +As que hay una lucha dentro del equipo. +Las luces... +["Los 99"] Jabbar: Dana, no puedo ver de donde agarrarme. +Necesito ms luz. +Qu est sucediendo? +Dana: Hay mucha oscuridad. +Rughal: Debe haber algo que podamos hacer. +Hombre: No enviar ms comandos hasta que sepamos que es seguro. +Rughal: Es tiempo de partir, Miklos. +Miklos: Debo bajar el contenido de los archivos. +No puedo olvidar a la ta. +Jabbar: No puedo hacer esto sin ti. +Dana: No puedo ayudar. +Jabbar: Si puedes. An si no crees en ti ahora mismo. +Yo creo en ti. +Eres Noora la Luz. +Dana: No. +No lo merezco, no merezco nada. +Jabbar: nosotros entonces qu? +No merecemos ser salvados? No lo merezco? +dime entonces cual camino tomar. +Dana: Ese camino. +Alarma: peligro inminente. +Jabbar: Aaaahhh! +Miklos: Aljate de m. +Jabbar: Estamos aqu para ayudarte. +Dr. Razem: No los escuches. +Dana: Miklos, ese hombre no es tu amigo. +Miklos: No. l me dio acceso, y quieres reiniciar (poco claro). No ms (poco claro). +["Los 99"] Gracias. +As que "Los 99" es tecnologa, es entretenimiento; es diseo. +Pero esa es slo la mitad de la historia. +Como padre de cinco hijos, me preocupa quines sern sus modelos. +Me preocupa porque alrededor mo, an en mi familia lejana, veo que la religin est siendo manipulada. +Como psiclogo, me preocupa el mundo en general, me preocupo acerca de como las personas se perciben a s mismas en mi mundo. +Soy psiclogo clnico. Tengo licencia del estado de Nueva York. +Me entren en el Hospital Bellevue en el programa de sobrevivientes de tortura poltica. y escuch muchas historias de personas que crecieron idealizando su liderazgo, para terminar ser torturados por sus hroes. +La tortura como tal es una cosa terrible, pero cuando es hecha por tu hroe, te desmorona de muchas maneras. +Dej Bellevue, comenc la escuela de negocios y empec esto. +Le quit el nombre del autor. Quit todo, excepto los hechos. +El primero, era sobre un grupo llamado The Party of God, que quera prohibir el da de San Valentn. El rojo era ilegal. +Cualquier chico o chica que estuviera coqueteando se casara inmediatamente. +El segundo era sobre una mujer que se quejaba porque pararon 3 minivans con 6 hombres con barba y comenzaron a interrogarla all mismo porque estaba hablando con un hombre que no era pariente. +Le pregunt a los estudiantes de Kuwait dnde pensaban que haban ocurrido estos incidentes. +El primero dijo Arabia Saudita. No hubo discusin. +En el segundo caso la opinin se dividi entre Arabia y Afganistn. +Lo que les sorprendi es que el primero ocurri en India, fue la parte del dios Hindu. +El segundo ocurri en Nueva York. +En una comunidad juda ortodoxa. +Lo que me parte el corazn, lo alarmante, es que en esas dos entrevistas las personas circundantes, que fueron entrevistadas tambin, se refirieron a ese comportamiento como talibanizacin. +En otras palabras, los dioses hindus y judos no actan de esa manera. +Es la influencia del Islam en el hinduismo y judaismo. +pero qu dijeron los estudiantes en Kuwait? Dijeron somos nosotros. Y esto es peligroso. +Es peligroso cuando un grupo se identifica a s mismo como extremo. +Este es uno de mis hijos, Rayan, que es adicto a Scooby Doo. +Pueden verlo por los vasos all. +Me llam nio chismoso el otro da. +Voy a tomar una leccin que aprend de l. +El verano pasado cuando estbamos en nuestra casa de Nueva York, l estaba en el patio jugando en su casa de juegos y yo estaba en mi oficina trabajando, vino a m, "Baba, quiero que vengas conmigo. Quiero mi juguete". +"Si, Rayan, vete". Olvid su Scooby Doo en su casa. +Le djie: "Vete, estoy trabajando. Estoy ocupado". +Y Rayan se sent alli, at su pie al piso, tena tres aos y medio, me mir y dijo: "Baba, quiero que vengas conmigo a mi oficina en mi casa. +Tengo trabajo que hacer. +Rayan transform la situacin se igual a m. +y con Los 99 eso es lo que intentamos hacer +Pienso que hay un gran paralelo entre doblar el crucifijo y crear esvsticas. +Pienso... Pienso que Los 99 pueden y lograrn su misin. +Como estudiante de la Universidad de Tufts, estbamos regalando falafel un da y saben, era el da de Medio Oriente o algo asi. +Las personas llegaban, recogan la imagen culturalmente resonante del falafel, lo coman, hablaban y se iban. +y no habia desacuerdo sobre el significado de la palabra gratis . Ni sobre el significado de falafel. Detrs nuestro deca: "Falafel libre". +Eso pensamos, hasta que una mujer lleg corriendo atravesando el campus dej su bolsa en el piso, seal el letrero y dijo, "Quin es falafel?" +De verdad. +Ella realmente estaba saliendo de una reunin de Amnista Internacional. +Hoy, D.C Comics anunci la cubierta de nuestra siguiente portada. +En ella van a ver a Batman, Superman, y a la Mujer Maravilla totalmente vestida con nuestro miembro saudita de Los 99, nuestro miembro de Emiratos y el libans. +El 26 de abril de 2010 el presidente Barack Obama dijo que de todas la iniciativas desde su ahora famoso discurso en el Cairo, en el que se acerc al mundo islmico, lo ms innovador es que Los 99 llegaron al Saln de la Justicia. +Vivimos en un mundo en el cual hasta los smbolos culturales ms inocuos como el falafel, pueden ser malentendidos debido los prejuicios, y donde la religin puede ser tergiversada y manipulada por otros donde no debera ser as. +En un mundo as, siempre habr trabajo para Superman y Los 99. +Muchas gracias. +Sin duda tengo mucha, mucha suerte. +Mi charla esencialmente la escribieron tres acontecimientos histricos que ocurrieron en un intervalo de unos das en los tlimos dos meses... aparentemente sin relacin, pero como vern, tenan mucho que ver con la historia que quiero contarles hoy. +La primera fue un funeral... para ser ms precisos, un segundo funeral. +El 22 de mayo hubo un segundo funeral de un hroe en Frombork, Polonia del astrnomo del s. XVI que cambi el mundo. +Lo hizo, literalmente, sustituyendo la Tierra por el Sol en el centro del Sistema Solar. Y con este simple acto de observacin, puso en marcha una revolucin cientfica y tecnolgica que muchos llaman la Revolucin Copernicana. +As fue como, irnica y muy apropiadamente, encontramos su sepultura. +Como era costumbre por aquel entonces, Coprnico fue enterrado en una fosa comn junto con 14 personas ms en esa catedral. +Esa coincidencia era inequvoca. +El ADN coincida. Sabemos que se trataba sin duda de Nicols Coprnico. +La conexin entre la biologa y el ADN y la vida es muy tentadora a la hora de hablar de Coprnico porque, incluso entonces, sus seguidores rpidamente dieron el paso lgico y preguntaron: si la Tierra es un planeta, qu ocurre con los planetas alrededor de otras estrellas? +Y la idea de la pluralidad de los mundos, de la vida en otros planetas? +De hecho, lo estoy tomando de uno de los libros ms populares de la poca. +Y en aquella poca, la gente responda a la pregunta con un "s". +Pero no haba evidencia. +Aqu comienzan los 400 aos de frustracin, sueos sin cumplir... los sueos de Galileo, Giordano Bruno, muchos otros, que nunca llevaron a la respuesta de esas preguntas tan bsicas que la humanidad se ha hecho desde siempre. +Qu es la vida? Cul es el origen de la vida? +Estamos solos? +Ha ocurrido sobre todo en los ltimos 10 aos, a finales del siglo XX, cuando los hermosos desarrollos gracias a la biologa molecular, la comprensin del cdigo de la vida, el ADN, todo eso pareca situarnos, no ms cerca, sino ms lejos de responder esas preguntas bsicas. +Ahora, las buenas noticias. +Han ocurrido muchas cosas en los ltimos aos. Comencemos con los planetas. +Comencemos con la antigua pregunta copernicana: Existen tierras alrededor de otras estrellas? +Como ya sabemos, hay un forma en la que intentamos poder responder a esa pregunta. +Es con un nuevo telescopio. +Nuestro equipo, pienso que apropiadamente, le puso el nombre de uno de esos soadores de la poca copernicana, Johannes Kepler. El nico objetivo de ese telescopio es salir, encontrar los planetas que orbitan alrededor de otras estrellas en nuestra galaxia, y decirnos con qu frecuencia se da la existencia de planetas como la Tierra. +El telescopio est construido de manera similar al, que ustedes conocen bien, Telescopio Espacial Hubble, excepto que posee una lente adicional... una lente gran angular, como la llamara un fotgrafo. +Si, en los prximos meses, salen a dar un paseo al anochecer y miran hacia arriba y colocan la palma de la mano as, estar contemplando el campo del cielo donde este telescopio busca planetas da y noche, sin interrupcin, durante los prximos cuatro aos. +Lo hacemos con un mtodo que llamamos el mtodo de trnsito. +Son mini eclipses que ocurren cuando un planeta pasa delante de su estrella. +No todos los planetas estarn orientados con tanta fortuna como para que podamos hacer eso, pero si se tiene un milln de estrellas, se encontrarn suficientes planetas. +Como ven en esta animacin, lo que Kepler va a detectar es el oscurecimiento de la luz de la estrella. +No vamos a ver la imagen de la estrella y el planeta as. +Todas las estrellas son slo puntos de luz para Kepler. +Aprendemos muchas cosas, no slo sobre la existencia de un planeta, sino de su tamao tambin. +La cantidad de luz que se oscurece depende del tamao del planeta. +Aprendemos sobre su rbita, el periodo de su rbita y dems. +Bien, qu hemos aprendido? +Permtanme guiarles por lo que vemos para que comprendan la noticia por la que estoy hoy aqu. +Lo que Kepler hace es descubrir muchos candidatos, a los que hacemos seguimiento y valoracin, y confirmamos como planetas. +Bsicamente nos dice que sta es la distribucin de planetas por tamao. +Existen planetas pequeos, ms grandes y grandes, de acuerdo. +Contamos muchos, muchos planetas as, y son de distintos tamaos. +Hacemos eso en nuestro sistema solar. +De hecho, en la Antigedad el Sistema Solar en ese sentido apareca en un diagrama as. +Estarn los planetas ms pequeos y los planetas grandes, incluso en la poca de Epicuro y despus con Coprnico y sus seguidores. +Hasta hace poco, se era el Sistema Solar... cuatro planetas de radio pequeo similares a la Tierra, unas dos veces ms pequeo que el tamao de la Tierra. Y se era por supuesto Mercurio, Venus, Marte, y por supuesto la Tierra, y despus los dos planetas gigantes. +La Revolucin Copernicana introdujo los telescopios. Por supuesto se descubrieron tres planetas ms. +El nmero total de planetas en nuestro sistema solar era nueve. +Los pequeos planetas dominaban, y exista una cierta armona en ello que a Coprnico le alegr observar, y a Kepler eregirse en defensor. +Tenemos a Plutn que se une al nmero de planetas pequeos. +Pero hasta hace, exactamente, 15 aos, esto era lo nico que sabamos sobre los planetas. +Ah estaba la frustracin. +El sueo copernicano no se haba cumplido. +Finalmente, hace 15 aos, la tecnologa lleg al punto en el que podamos descubrir un planeta alrededor de otra estrella, y lo hicimos bastante bien. +En los prximos 15 aos, se descubrieron casi 500 planetas que orbitaban alrededor de otras estrellas, con diferentes mtodos. +Desgraciadamente, como ven, la imagen era muy diferente. +Haba por supuesto una explicacin. Slo vemos los planetas grandes. Por eso la mayora de ellos estn en la categora de "similar a Jpiter". +Pero ven, no hemos llegado muy lejos. +Todava nos encontrbamos donde estaba Coprnico. +No tenamos ninguna evidencia sobre la existencia de planetas similares a la Tierra. +S que nos preocupan los planetas similares a la Tierra porque hasta ahora entendamos que la vida como sistema qumico necesita un planeta menor con agua y rocas y con mucha complejidad qumica para originar, emerger y sobrevivivr. +Y no tenamos esa evidencia. +As que hoy estoy aqu para ofrecerles una primera pincelada de lo que el nuevo telescopio, Kepler, ha podido contarnos en las ltimas semanas. Y quin lo iba a decir!, volvemos a la armona y a cumplir los sueos de Coprnico. +Aqu pueden ver, los planetas pequeos dominan la imagen. +Los planetas marcados con "similar a la Tierra", sin duda son ms que cualquier otro planeta que veamos. +Por primera vez podemos decirlo. +Tenemos mucho trabajo por hacer con esto. +La mayora de ellos son candidatos. +En los prximos aos los confirmaremos. +Pero el resultado estadstico es alto y claro. +El resultado estadstico es que los planetas similares a la Tierra existen. +Nuestra Va Lctea es rica en esta clase de planetas. +La pregunta es: qu hacemos ahora? +Lo primero, podemos estudiarlos ahora que sabemos dnde estn. +Podemos encontrar aquellos que llamaramos habitables, es decir, que poseen condiciones similares a aquellas que experimentamos aqu en la Tierra y en donde tiene lugar mucha complejidad qumica. +Podemos incluso numerar cuntos de esos planetas suponemos que alberga nuestra galaxia de la Va Lctea. +Y el nmero, como supondrn, es bastante asombroso. +Alrededor de 100 millones de planetas. +Una gran noticia. Por qu? +Porque con nuestro pequeo telescopio en los prximos aos, podremos identificar al menos 60 de ellos. +Es fantstico porque as podemos estudiarlos... desde lejos, por supuesto... con todas las tcnicas que ya hemos probado en los ltimos cinco aos. +Podemos averiguar de qu estn hechos, si sus atmsferas tendran agua, dixido de carbono, metano. +Sabemos y confiamos en que veremos eso. +Es fantstico pero no es la nica noticia. +No es por eso por lo que estoy aqu. +Estoy aqu para decirles que el prximo paso es la parte emocionante. +La que este paso nos permite hacer viene a continuacin. +Y aqu entra la biologa... la biologa, con su pregunta bsica, que permanece sin responder, que esencialmente es: "Si hay vida en otros planetas, esperamos que sea como la vida de la Tierra?" +Djenme decirles ahora mismo que, cuando digo vida, no me refiero a "la dolce vita", la buena vida, la vida humana. +Me refiero a la vida en la Tierra, pasado y presente, desde los microbios hasta nosotros los humanos en su rica diversidad molecular la forma en que entendemos la vida en la Tierra como la existencia de un conjunto de molculas y reacciones qumicas... lo llamamos, en conjunto, bioqumica, la vida como un proceso qumico, como un fenmeno qumico. +La pregunta es: es ese fenmeno qumico universal, o es algo que depende del planeta? +Es como la gravedad, que es igual en todas las partes del universo, o habra todo tipo de bioqumicas diferentes all donde las encontremos? +Tenemos que saber qu estamos buscando cuando intentamos hacer eso. +Es una pregunta muy bsica a la que no sabemos responder, pero que podemos intentar... y lo estamos haciendo... responder en el laboratorio. +No tenemos que ir al espacio para responder a esa pregunta. +Es lo que estamos intentando hacer. +Y lo que mucha gente ahora est intentando hacer. +Muchas de las buenas noticias proceden de esa parte del puente que estamos intentando construir tambin. +ste es un ejemplo que deseo mostrarles. +Cuando pensamos en lo que se necesita para el fenmeno que llamamos vida, pensamos en la compartimentacin, el mantenimiento de las molculas importantes para la vida en una membrana, aislada del resto del entorno, pero al mismo tiempo, en un entorno en el que puedan originarse juntas. +Pero esas burbujas tienen membranas muy parecidas a las de cualquier clula de cualquie ser vivo de la Tierra. Como sta. +Ayudan a que las molculas, como los cidos nucleicos, el ARN y el ADN, permanezcan dentro, se desarrollen, cambien, se dividan y realicen algunos de los procesos que llamamos vida. +Es slo un ejemplo para contarles el camino por el que intentamos responder a esa gran pregunta sobre la universalidad del fenmeno. +En cierto sentido, pueden pensar en ese trabajo que la gente est empezando a hacer ahora en todo el mundo como la construccin de un puente, construir un puente desde las dos orillas del ro. +Por un lado, en la margen izquierda del ro, estn las personas que como yo estudian esos planetas e intentan definir los entornos. +No queremos volvernos ciegos porque hay demasiadas posibilidades, y no demasiados laboratorios, ni demasiado tiempo humano para llevar a cabo todos los experimentos. +Eso es lo que estamos construyendo desde la orilla izquierda. +En la margen derecha del ro estn los experimentos en el laboratorio que les he mostrado, en donde lo hemos intentado, y se evala en ambas direcciones, y esperamos encontranos en el medio algn da. +Por qu iba a preocuparles todo esto? +Por qu estoy intentando venderles un puente a medio construir? +Soy tan encantador? +Existen muchas razones, y han odo algunas de ellas en esta breve charla de hoy. +Esta percepcin de la qumica puede ayudarnos en nuestras vidas cotidianas. +Pero hay algo ms hondo, algo ms profundo. +Ese punto ms profundo y esencial es que la ciencia est en el proceso de redifinir la vida tal y como la conocemos. +Eso va a cambiar nuestra cosmovisin de una manera intensa... no diferente a como hace 400 aos, lo hizo Coprnico, al cambiar la forma en que percibimos el espacio y el tiempo. +Ahora se trata de otra cosa pero igualmente profundo. +La mitad del tiempo, lo que ha ocurrido es que est relacionado esta especie de sentido de la insignificancia con la humanidad, con la Tierra, en un espacio mayor. +Cuanto ms aprendemos, ms se refuerza. +Todos han aprendido eso en la escuela... lo pequea que es la Tierra comparada con el universo inmenso. +Y cuanto ms grande sea el telescopio, ms grande se har el universo. +Observen esta imagen de un punto azul y diminuto. +Este pixel es la Tierra. +La Tierra como la conocemos. +Vista desde, en este caso, desde fuera de la rbita de Saturno. +Pero es diminuta. +Lo sabemos. +Pensemos en la vida como en ese planeta entero porque, en cierto sentido, lo es. +La biosfera es del tamao de la Tierra. +La vida en la Tierra es del tamao de la Tierra. +Comparmoslo con el resto del mundo en trminos espaciales. +Qu ocurrira si la insignificancia copernicana en realidad fuera un error? +Nos hara eso ms responsables de lo que ocurre hoy? +Intentmoslo de verdad. +En el espacio, la Tierra es muy pequea. +Pueden imaginarse lo pequea que es? +Djenme intentarlo. +De acuerdo, digamos que ste es el tamao del universo observable, con todas la galaxias, con todas las estrellas, de acuerdo, desde aqu a aqu. +Saben cul ser el tamao de la vida en esta corbata? +Ser del tamao de un nico y pequeo tomo. +No se puede imaginar lo pequeo que es. +No podemos. +Es decir, pueden ver la corbata, pero ni siquiera pueden imaginarse el tamao de un tomo pequeito. +Pero no es la historia completa. +El universo y la vida estn tanto en el espacio como en el tiempo. +Si fuera la era del universo, sta es la era de la vida en la Tierra. +Piensen en las formas ms antiguas de vida en la Tierra, pero en una proporcin csmica. +No es insignificante. +Es muy significativo. +La vida podra ser insignificante en cuanto al tamao, pero no insignificante respecto al tiempo. +La vida y el universo comparados como si fueran hijo y padre, padres y descendencia. +Qu nos dice esto? +Nos dice que el paradigma de la insignificancia que de alguna forma aprendimos del principio copernicano, es un error. +Existe un inmenso y poderoso potencial de vida en este universo... sobre todo ahora que sabemos que son comunes los lugares como la Tierra. +Y ese potencial, ese poderoso potencial, es tambin nuestro, de ustedes y mio. +Si vamos a administrar nuestro planeta Tierra y su biosfera, es mejor que comprendamos el significado csmico y que hagamos algo al respecto. +La buena noticia es que podemos de verdad hacerlo. +Hagmoslo. +Comencemos esta nueva revolucin desde el final de la antigua, con la biologa sinttica como la forma de transformar tanto nuestro medio ambiente como nuestro futuro. +Esperemos que podamos construir ese puente entre todos y encontrarnos en el medio. +Muchsimas gracias. +Hasta ahora, la comunicacin con las mquinas ha estado limitada a formas conscientes y directas. +Ya sea algo simple como un interruptor de luz o complejos como la programacin robtica. Siempre hemos tenido que ingresar comandos mediante uno o varios pasos para que una computadora ejecutara alguna tarea. +Por otro lado, la comunicacin humana es mucho ms compleja y ms interesante porque tiene en cuenta mucho ms de lo expresado explcitamente. +Mediante las expresiones y el lenguaje del cuerpo podemos intuir emociones que son parte de nuestro dilogo. +Esto juega un importante rol en nuestra manera de tomar decisiones. +Hoy nuestro objetivo es introducir este nuevo campo de interaccin humana en la interaccin entre el hombre y las computadoras para que stas puedan comprender no slo los comandos que les ordenamos sino que tambin puedan responder a nuestras expresiones faciales y nuestras emociones. +Y qu mejor manera de lograr esto que mediante la interpretacin de seales emitidas naturalmente por el cerebro? Que es nuestro centro de control. +Bien, parece una buena idea pero, como bien dijo Bruno, no es tarea fcil, por dos razones principales: primero, los algoritmos de deteccin. +El cerebro esta conformado por miles de millones de neuronas activas cuyos axones, combinados, alcanzan una longitud de 170.000 km. +Cuando las neuronas interactan la reaccin qumica emite un impulso elctrico el cual puede medirse. +La mayor parte de nuestro cerebro funcional se encuentra distribuido en la capa externa del cerebro. Y para lograr mayor superficie con capacidad mental la superficie cerebral est densamente plegada. +Bien, los pliegues de esta corteza presentan un desafo no menor para interpretar impulsos elctricos superficiales. +La corteza de cada individuo est plegada de manera diferente, a la manera de huellas digitales. +Por eso, si bien una seal puede provenir de la misma parte funcional del cerebro, la particular estructura de los pliegues hace que la posicin fsica de esta seal vare de individuo a individuo incluso entre hermanos gemelos. +Ya no existe coherencia en la seales superficiales. +Nuestro descubrimiento fue la creacin de un algoritmo que despliega la corteza de tal manera que las seales pueden localizarse cerca de su origen para poder aplicarse a la poblacin en general. +El segundo desafo reside en el dispositivo para observar ondas cerebrales. +La electroencefalografa requiere de una red de sensores alrededor de la cabeza como la que se ve en esta foto. +Un tcnico coloca los electrodos sobre el cuero cabelludo mediante un gel conductor o pasta habiendo antes preparado el cuero cabelludo con abrasivos suaves. +Pero esto lleva bastante tiempo y no es un mtodo muy agradable. +Y, adems, estos sistemas cuestan decenas de miles de dlares. +Por eso, quiero invitar a la tarima a Evan Grant, quien fuera conferencista el ao pasado, y que muy amablemente ha aceptado ayudarme a demostrar sto que desarrollamos. +Este disposivo es un aparato de electroencefalografa de 14 canales y alta fidelidad. +No requiere de preparacin del cuero cabelludo ni geles ni pastas. +Se coloca en unos pocos minutos y se espera a que aparezcan las seales. +Tambin es inalmbrico por lo que permite que nos movamos. +Y en comparacin con las decenas de miles de dlares de los sistemas de electroencefalografa tradicionales este casco slo cuesta unos pocos cientos de dlares. +Ahora, los algoritmos de deteccin. +Las expresiones faciales, como lo mencion antes mediante emociones, estn diseadas para funcionar fuera de la caja con algunos ajustes sensoriales disponibles para personalizacin. +Pero como no tenemos mucho tiempo les quiero mostrar el conjunto cognitivo que es, bsicamente, la capacidad de mover objetos virtuales con la mente. +Bien, esta es la primera vez para Evan, as que lo primero que tenemos que hacer es crear un nuevo perfil para l. +Obviamente no es Joanne, por lo que selecciono "agregar usuario". +Evan. Bien. +As que lo primero que tenemos que hacer con el conjunto cognitivo es ejercitar una seal neutral. +De esta manera, no hay nada en particular que Evan tenga que hacer. +Slo relajarse. +Y la idea es establecer un punto de partida o estado normal de su cerebro, porque cada cerebro es diferente. +Esto lleva ocho segundos. Ya est listo, podemos seleccionar una accin, un movimiento. +Evan, debes elegir algo que puedas visualizar claramente en tu mente. +Evan Grant: de acuerdo, "atraer". +Tan Le: Bien. Elijo entonces "atraer". +As que la idea aqu es que Evan debe imaginar que el objeto se mueve hacia nosotros dentro de la pantalla. Una barra en la pantalla indica el progreso mientras l se concentra. +La primera vez, nada va a suceder, porque el sistema no tiene idea de como l imagina "atraer". +Pero intenta mantener esa idea durante los ocho segundos. +Uno, dos, tres, cuatro, vamos. +Bien. +Al seleccionar "aceptar" el cubo se mueve. +Veamos si Evan puede imaginar "atraer". +Ah, muy bien! +Sorprendente! +An tenemos un poquito de tiempo as que le voy a pedir a Evan que realice una tarea realmente complicada. +Y digo complicada porque se trata de visualizar algo que no existe en el mundo fsico. +Esto es "desaparecer". +Las acciones de movimiento son muy comunes, y es fcil visualizarlas. +Pero para "desaparecer" no existen analogas. As que, Evan, lo que tienes que hacer es imaginar el cubo esfumndose lentamente. +Tal cual como antes. Uno, dos, tres, vamos. +Bien, intentemos eso. +Oh, cielos! Qu bien lo hace! +Intentemos otra vez. +EG: Estoy perdiendo la concentracin. +TL: Pero vemos que funciona aunque slo puedas mantenerlo por un tiempo corto. +Como deca, imaginar sto es un proceso complicado. +Y lo grandioso de esto es que slo le indicamos al sistema una nica vez cmo Evan piensa en "desaparecer". +Ya que la mquina tiene un algoritmo de aprendizaje...--- Muchas gracias. +Muy bien, buen trabajo. +Muchas gracias, Evan, eres un maravilloso ejemplo de la tecnologa. +As que como pueden ver hay un progreso por niveles incorporado a este software por lo que mientras Evan, u otro usuario, se familiariza con el sistema, puede agregar ms y ms detecciones que permiten al sistema diferenciar entre distintos pensamientos. +Y una vez que se han entrenado las detecciones estos pensamientos pueden ser asignados o a cualquier sistema operativo, aplicacin o dispositivo. +As que quisiera mostarles algunos ejemplos de las muchas aplicaciones para esta nueva interfaz. +En juegos y el mundo virtual, por ejemplo, nuestras expresiones faciales pueden ser utilizadas intuitivamente para controlar un avatar o personaje virtual. +Podemos experimentar la fantasa de la magia y controlar el mundo con nuestra mente. +Y tambin los colores, las luces, los sonidos y efectos pueden responder a nuestras emociones de manera dinmica para resaltar nuestras experiencias en tiempo real. +Quiero mostrarles algunas aplicaciones desarrolladas por ingenieros en todo el mundo, con robots y mquinas simples como que un helicptero de juguete pueda volar con slo pensar en "elevacin". +Pero esta tecnologa tambin puede aplicarse a escenarios de la vida real. En este ejemplo, una casa inteligente. +Desde de para correr cortinas y luego cerrarlas. +Y, por supuesto, para la iluminacin: encender las luces o apagarlas. +Y finalmente, aplicaciones para calidad de vida como controlar una silla de ruedas. +En este ejemplo las expresiones faciales controlan los movimientos. +Voz: Guia el ojo derecho para girar a la derecha. +Ahora el izquierdo para girar a la izquierda. +Ahora sonre para avanzar. +TL: Estamos... muchas gracias. +Estamos apenas comenzando a explorar las posibilidades. Y con la contribucin de la sociedad y el aporte de los ingenieros e investigadores de todo el mundo esperamos poder darle forma al nuevo rumbo de la tecnologa. Muchas gracias. +Permtanme empezar con mi historia. +me desgarr el cartlago del menisco de la articulacin de la rodilla. jugando soccer en la escuela. +Luego me romp un ligamento en la rodilla, el LCA, y luego desarroll artritis en la rodilla. +Seguro que a muchos de ustedes les ha ocurrido lo mismo. Por cierto, me cas con una mujer con exactamente la misma historia. +Esto me motiv a ser cirujano ortopdico para concentrarme en soluciones a esos problemas que me mantuvieran activo en los deportes, y no me limitaran. +As que permtanme mostrarles rpidamente un video para presentarles lo que intento explicar. +Narrador: Todos conocemos el riesgo del cncer. pero hay otro mal que afecta a un mayor nmero de personas: la artritis. +El cncer puede matar, pero al observar los nmeros, la artritis arruina ms vidas. +Si uno vive una vida larga, tiene un 50% de posibilidades de desarollar artritis. +Y la vejez no es la causa de la artritis. +Las lesiones comunes pueden producir dolor durante dcadas hasta que nuestras articulaciones literalmente dejan de funcionar. +Desesperados por una solucin, recurrimos a la ingeniera para disear componentes artificiales que remplacen las partes gastadas de nuestro cuerpo. Pero en medio del rumor moderno que promete un cuerpo binico, no deberamos preguntarnos si existe una manera mejor y ms natural? +Consideremos un camino alternativo: +Que pasara si las prtesis que nuestro cuerpo necesita ya existieran en la naturaleza, o en nuestras propias clulas madre? +Este es el campo del reemplazo biolgicos de partes gastadas con nuevas, naturales. +Kevin Stone: Y as la misin es: cmo tratar estas cosas biolgicamente? +Y hablemos de lo que hice por mi esposa y por cientos de otros pacientes. +Primero lo que hice por mi esposa, y lo ms comn que escucho de mis pacientes, particularmente entre 40 y 80 aos de edad; 70 aos de edad, que me dicen: -Oiga, no podra implantarme un absorbente de impactos en la rodilla? +No estoy listo para un reemplazo en la articulacin.- +As que a ella le implant un menisco mediante un alotrasplante en la articulacin de la rodilla. +Mediante el alotransplante se reemplaza el menisco faltante. +Y luego para el ligamento inestable, se implanta el ligamento de un donante para estabilizar la rodilla. +Y luego para la artritis daada en la superficie, se procedi a injertar clulas madre, una tcnica que diseamos en 1991, para regenerar la superficie articular del cartlago y devolverle suavidad a la superficie. +Aqu a la izquierda se ve la rodilla de mi esposa, y aqu ella haciendo caminatas cuatro meses despus en Aspen. +Esto funciona para mi esposa y, por cierto, para otros pacientes. +La nia en el video, Jen Hudak, gan la Superpipa en Aspen slo nueve meses depus de haberse destruido la rodilla, como se ve en la otra imagen y de haber recibido un empaste en esa rodilla. +As que se pueden regenerar estas superficies biolgicamente. +As que con todo este xito, se preguntarn, por qu no resulta del todo efectivo? +Bueno, la razn es que no hay suficientes ciclos de donantes. +No hay suficientes personas jvenes y saludables cayndose de sus motocicletas y donndonos ese tejido a nosotros. +Y el tejido es muy costoso. +As que esa solucin no va a poder convertir al tejido biolgico en algo mundial. +Pero la solucin es el tejido animal porque es abundante, y es barato. Se puede obtener de tejidos jvenes y saludables, pero la barrera es la inmunologa. +Y la barrera especfica es un particular eptopo llamado el galactosil , o eptopo "gal". +As que si vamos a transplantar tejido animal a las personas, debemos idear una manera de eliminar ese eptopo. +As que mi historia trabajando con tejidos animales empieza en 1984. +Y yo empec primero con el tendn de Aquiles de una vaca, extraamos el tendn de Aquiles de vaca, el cual es un colgeno tipo-I, le quitbamos los antgenos, degradndolo con un lavado con cido y detergente y formndolo en una plantilla de regeneracin. +Y luego esa plantilla de regeneracin la insertbamos dentro del cartlago del menisco faltante para regenerarla en la rodilla del paciente. +Hemos realizado ese procedimiento, en ms de 4.000 casos en todo el mundo, por lo cual es un mtodo de regeneracin de meniscos aceptado mundialmente y aprobado por la FDA. +Bien, si se puede degradar el tejido no hay problema. +Pero qu pasa cuando se necesita un ligamento intacto? +No se puede moler en una licuadora. +As que en ese caso, hace falta disear -y hemos diseado con Uri Galili y Tom Turek- un lavado de enzimas para lavar, o despojar, esos eptopos galactosil con una enzima especfica. +Y a eso lo llamamos la tcnica de "despojo gal" +lo que hacemos es humanizar el tejido. +Es por medio del despojo gal en el tejido que lo humanizamos, y entonces podemos ponerlo nuevamente en de la rodilla del paciente. +Eso hicimos. Luego tomamos un ligamento de cerdo, tejido grande, joven y saludable, y lo pusimos en 10 pacientes en un ensayo aprobado por la FDA y uno de esos pacientes obtuvo tres campeonatos Canadienses de Maestros de Descenso de Montaa con su "cerdo-lig" como le dice l. As que sabemos que funciona. +Y para este tejido est pendiente un amplio ensayo clnico. +As que, cul es el paso siguiente? +Qu tal obtener un reemplazo de rodilla biolgico total, no slo las partes? +Cmo vamos a revolucionar el reemplazo artificial de articulacin? +Bueno, les dir como vamos a hacerlo. +Vamos a tomar un cartlago articular de un cerdo joven y saludable, despojarlo de sus antgenos, cargarlo con las clulas madre, luego ponerlo nuevamente en esta superficie artrtica en la rodilla, darle unos puntos, que sane bien la superficie y luego crear una nueva superficie biolgica para la rodilla. +Es se nuestro enfoque biolgico. +Vamos a reconstruir la rodilla con las partes. +Vamos a recubrirla con una superficie completamente nueva. +Pero tenemos otras ventajas del reino animal. +Est el beneficio de 400 millones de aos de deambular. +Podemos utilizar ese beneficio. +Podemos usar mejores tejidos, ms gruesos y ms jvenes que los de sus rodillas ahora lastimadas o que los tejios que tendrn a los 40, 50 60. +Podemos hacerlo sin internacin. +Podemos despojar el tejido muy econmicamente. Y as lograr que el reemplazo de rodilla biolgico se convierta en algo global. +As que bienvenidos a la sper-biologa! +No es hardware. +No es software. +es "bioware". +Es la versin 2.0 de ustedes mismos. +Y estar pronto... ... estar pronto llegando a la sala operatoria de su barrio, creo yo. +Muchas gracias. +Hoy voy a llevarlos alrededor del mundo en 18 minutos. +Mi base de operaciones est en los EE.UU. pero empecemos al otro lado del mapa en Kyoto, Japn, donde yo viva con una familia japonesa mientras haca parte de la investigacin para mi tesis hace 15 aos. +An en ese entonces saba que encontrara diferencias culturales y malentendidos, pero surgieron cuando menos lo esperaba. +En mi primer da, fui a un restaurante y ped una taza de t verde con azcar. +Despus de una pausa, el mesero dijo, "No se le pone azcar al t verde." +"Lo s", contest. "Conozco esta costumbre." +"Pero me encanta que mi t est dulce." +En respuesta, me dio una versin an ms corts de la misma explicacin. +"No se le pone azcar al t verde." +"Entiendo", respond, "que los japoneses no le ponen azcar al t verde." "Pero a m me gustara ponerle un poco de azcar a mi t verde." +Sorprendido por mi insistencia, el mesero llev el asunto con el gerente. +Muy pronto, una larga discusin iniciaba, y finalmente el gerente se me acerc y dijo: "Lo siento mucho, no tenemos azcar." +Bueno, ya que no pude tomar mi t como quera, ped una taza de caf, la cual el mesero me trajo inmediatamente. +Descansando sobre el plato haba dos bolsitas de azcar. +Mi fracaso en obtener una taza de t verde dulce no se debi a un simple malentendido. +Se debi a una diferencia fundamental en nuestras ideas sobre lo que es elegir. +Desde mi perspectiva estadounidense, cuando un cliente que est pagando hace una peticin razonable basado en sus preferencias, tiene todo el derecho de que tal peticin sea cumplida. +El estilo Americano, para citar a Burger King, es tenerlo "como t quieras", porque, tal como Starbucks dice, "la felicidad est en tus elecciones." +Pero desde la perspectiva japonesa, es su deber proteger a los que no tienen ni idea... en este caso, el ignorante gaijin, de hacer una eleccin equivocada. +Enfrentmoslo: La forma en que quera mi t era inapropiada de acuerdo a estndares culturales, y estaban haciendo lo que podan para que yo no quedara en ridculo. +Los estadounidenses tienden a creer que han alcanzado cierto tipo de cumbre en la forma en la que eligen. +Piensan que la eleccin vista a la manera estadounidense es la que mejor satisface un anhelo innato y universal de opciones presente en todos los seres humanos. +Desafortunadamente, esas creencias se basan en suposiciones que no siempre resultan verdaderas en muchos pases, en muchas culturas. +A veces ni siquiera resultan ciertas dentro de las mismas fronteras de los EE.UU. +Me gustara discutir algunas de esas suposiciones y los problemas asociados con ellas. +Mientras lo hago, espero que empiecen a pensar en algunas de sus propias suposiciones y en cmo fueron moldeadas por su formacin. +Primera suposicin: Si una eleccin te afecta, entonces t debes ser el que la realice. +Esta es la nica forma de asegurar que tus preferencias e intereses sern tomados en cuenta ms completamente. +Esto es esencial para tener xito. +En EE.UU. el principal foco de la eleccin es el individuo. +Las personas deben elegir por s mismas, a veces mantenerse en sus trece, a pesar de lo que otras personas quieran o recomienden. +Es llamado "ser fiel a ti mismo". +Pero, todos los individuos se benefician de enfocar al acto de elegir desde tal perspectiva? +Mark Lipper y yo hicimos una serie de estudios en los que buscamos la respuesta a precisamente esta pregunta. +En un estudio, el cual realizamos en Japantown, San Francisco, trajimos nios entre siete y nueve aos de ascendencia asitica y estadounidense al laboratorio, y los dividimos en 3 grupos. +El primer grupo entr, y fueron saludados por la seorita Smith, quien les mostr seis grandes montones de rompecabezas tipo anagrama. +Los nios podan elegir cul montn de anagramas queran hacer. E incluso podan elegir con cul rotulador escribiran sus respuestas. +Cuando el segundo grupo de nios entr, fueron llevados al mismo saln, se les mostr los mismos anagramas pero ahora la seorita Smith les dijo cules anagramas hacer y con cules rotuladores escribir sus respuestas. +Ahora, cuando el tercer grupo entr se les dijo que sus anagramas y sus rotuladores haban sido elegidos por sus madres. +En realidad, a esos nios a los que se les dijo qu hacer, ya fuera por la seorita Smith o sus madres, en realidad se les asignaba exactamente la misma actividad que sus contrapartes del primer grupo haban elegido libremente. +Con este procedimiento, fuimos capaces de asegurar que todos los nios de los tres grupos hicieran la misma actividad, facilitndonos el comparar su rendimiento. +Diferencias tan pequeas en la forma en la que administramos la actividad produjeron diferencias sorprendentes en qu tan bien la realizaron. +Los de ascendencia estadounidense hicieron dos y media veces ms anagramas cuando pudieron elegirlos, comparado a cuando fueron elegidos en su lugar por la seorita Smith o sus madres. +No import quien eligiera, si la tarea era impuesta por otro, su rendimiento era afectado. +De hecho, algunos de los nios se avergonzaban visiblemente cuando se les deca que se haba consultado con sus madres. +Una nia llamada Mary dijo: "Le preguntaron a mi madre?" +En contraste, los nios de ascendencia asitica tenan su mejor rendimiento cuando crean que sus madres haban elegido, el segundo mejor cuando elegan por s mismos, y el peor cuando la seorita Smith haba elegido. +Una chica llamada Natsumi incluso se acerc a la seorita Smith cuando sala del cuarto le jal de su falda y le pidi: "Podra decirle a mi mamita que lo hice tal y como ella dijo?". +Los nios de la primera generacin estaban fuertemente influenciados por el enfoque que sus padres inmigrantes tenan al elegir. +Para ellos, elegir no era slo una forma de definir y afirmar su individualidad, sino una forma de crear sentido de comunidad y armona adhirindose a las elecciones de personas en quienes confiaban y respetaban. +Si hubieran tenido un concepto de ser fieles a su propio ser, entonces este ser, muy probablemente, se compondra, no de un individuo, sino de una colectividad. +El xito consisti tanto en complacer a personas clave como en satisfacer las propias preferencias. +O, se podra decir que las preferencias individuales fueron moldeadas por las preferencias de especficos otros. +La suposicin de que lo hacemos mejor cuando el ser individual elige solo es cierto cuando ese ser est claramente separado de los otros. +Cuando por el contrario, dos o ms individuos ven sus elecciones y sus consecuencias de una manera ntimamente relacionadas, entonces pueden amplificar el xito de ambos haciendo que la eleccin sea un acto colectivo. +Insistir en que elijan independientemente puede en realidad poner en peligro tanto su rendimiento como sus relaciones. +Y sin embargo esto es exactamente lo que el paradigma estadounidense exige. +Deja poco espacio a la interdependencia o al reconocimiento de la falibilidad individual. +Requiere que todos traten al acto de elegir como un acto privado y autodefinitorio. +Las personas que han crecido en tal paradigma podran encontrar esto motivante. Pero es un error suponer que todos prosperan bajo la presin de hacer elecciones solo. +La segunda suposicin que delata a la perspectiva estadounidense sobre elegir dice ms o menos as: +Entre ms opciones tengas, es ms probable que hagas la mejor eleccin. +As que adelante Walmart con 100,000 productos diferentes, Amazon con 27 millones de libros y Match.com con... qu es eso?... 15 millones de parejas potenciales. +Sin duda encontrars la pareja perfecta. +Pongamos a prueba esta suposicin yendo a Europa Oriental. +Aqu entrevist a personas que vivieron en pases anteriormente comunistas, todos ellos encararon el reto de pasar a una sociedad ms democrtica y capitalista. +Uno de los ms interesantes descubrimientos provino no de la respuesta a una pregunta, sino de un simple gesto de hospitalidad. +Cuando los participantes llegaban a su entrevista yo les ofreca un conjunto de bebidas, Coca Cola, Coca Light, Sprite... siete, para ser exactos. +Durante la primera sesin, la cual fue realizada en Rusia, uno de los participantes hizo un comentario que francamente me tom desprevenida. +"Oh, me da igual". +"Todos son refrescos. Es slo una opcin". +Qued tan sorprendida que a partir de entonces empec a ofrecer a todos los participantes esos siete refrescos. Y les preguntaba: "Cuntas opciones hay?" +Y una y otra vez, perciban esos siete diferentes refrescos, no como siete opciones, sino como una: refresco o no refresco. +Cuando saqu jugo y agua adems de esos siete refrescos, ahora ellos lo percibieron como slo 3 opciones: jugo, agua y refresco. +Comparen esto con la obstinada devocin de muchos estadounidenses, no slo a un cierto sabor de refresco, sino a una marca en particular. +Bueno, investigaciones muestran repetidamente que no podemos distinguir realmente entre Coca Cola y Pepsi. +Por supuesto, ustedes y yo sabemos que Coca Cola es la mejor opcin. +Para los estadounidenses contemporneos que estn expuestos a ms opciones y a ms publicidad asociada con opciones que nadie ms en el mundo, elegir tiene tanto que ver con su identidad como con el producto mismo. +Combinen esto con la suposicin de que ms opciones siempre es mejor, y tienes a un grupo de personas para quienes cada pequea diferencia importa y por lo tanto cada eleccin importa. +Pero para personas de Europa del este, la repentina disponibilidad de todos esos productos de consumo en el mercado fue como un diluvio. +Fueron inundados con elecciones antes de que pudieran quejarse de que no saban nadar. +Al preguntarle: "Qu palabras e imgenes asocias con elegir?" +Gregors de Varsovia dijo: "Ah, para m es miedo." +"Hay algunos dilemas vers". +"Estoy acostumbrado a no elegir". +Boudin de Kiev dijo, en respuesta a cmo se senta sobre el nuevo mercado de consumo: "Es demasiado." +"No necesitamos todo lo que hay ah." +Un socilogo de la Warsaw Survey Agency explic: "La generacin ms antigua salt de tener nada a estar rodeados de opciones". +"Nunca se les dio la oportunidad de aprender a cmo reaccionar". +Y Thomas, un joven polaco dijo: "No necesito veinte tipos de gomas de mascar." +"No quiero decir que quiero no poder elegir, pero muchas de esas elecciones son muy artificiales." +En realidad, muchas elecciones son entre cosas que no son tan diferentes. +El valor de la eleccin depende de nuestra habilidad en percibir las diferencias entre las opciones. +Los estadounidenses entrenan toda su vida para poder jugar a "encuentra las diferencias". +Practican esto desde una edad tan temprana que llegan a creer que todos deben nacer con esta habilidad. +De hecho, aunque todos los seres humanos comparten una necesidad y deseo bsico por elegir, no todos vemos elecciones en los mismos lugares o en la misma medida. +Cuando alguien no puede ver en qu una eleccin es diferente a otra, o cuando hay demasiadas opciones que comparar y contrastar, el proceso de elegir puede ser confuso y frustrante. +En lugar de hacer mejores elecciones, nos abrumamos al elegir, e incluso a veces le tememos. +Elegir ya no nos ofrece oportunidades, sino que impone restricciones. +No es un indicador de liberacin, sino de asfixia por minucias sin sentido. +En otras palabras, elegir puede convertirse en precisamente lo opuesto de todo lo que representa en Estados Unidos cuando es impuesto en aquellos que no estn suficientemente preparados para ello. +Pero no son slo otras personas en otros lugares las que estn sintiendo la presin de elecciones siempre en aumento. +Los mismos estadounidenses estn descubriendo que elegir sin restricciones es ms atractivo en teora que en la prctica. +Todos tenemos limitaciones fsicas, mentales y emocionales que nos hacen imposible procesar cada una de las elecciones que encontramos, incluso en el supermercado, ya no digamos en el curso de todas nuestras vidas. +Varios de mis estudios han mostrado que cuando le das a las personas 10 o ms opciones cuando hacen una eleccin, toman peores decisiones, ya sea en atencin mdica, inversiones, y otras reas crticas. +Sin embargo, muchos creemos que debemos hacer nuestras propias elecciones e incluso buscar ms elecciones. +Esto me lleva a la tercera, y quizs ms problemtica de las suposiciones: "Nunca debes negarte a elegir." +Para examinarla, regresemos a los EE. UU. +y luego brinquemos al charco hacia Francia. +A las afueras de Chicago, una joven pareja, Susan y Daniel Mitchell, estaban a punto de tener a su primer beb. +Ya haban elegido un nombre para ella, Brbara, por su abuela. +Una noche, cuando Susan tena siete meses de embarazo, empez a experimentar contracciones y fue llevada rpidamente a la sala de emergencias. +El beb naci por cesrea, pero Barbara sufra de anoxia cerebral una falta de oxgeno en el cerebro. +Incapaz de respirar por s misma, fue puesta en un respirador artificial. +Dos das despus, los doctores le dieron a los padres una eleccin. Podan retirar a Barbara del soporte vital, en cuyo caso morira en cuestin de horas o podan mantenerla en dicho soporte, caso en el cual an podra morir en cuestin de das. +Si sobreviva, permanecera en un estado vegetativo permanente incapaz nunca de caminar, hablar o de interactuar con otros. +Qu hicieron ellos? +Qu es lo que hara cualquier padre? +En un estudio que realic con Simona Botti y Kristina Orfali, padres estadounidenses y franceses fueron entrevistados. +Todos ellos sufrieron la misma tragedia. +En todos los casos, el soporte vital fue retirado y los bebs haban muerto. +Pero hubo una gran diferencia. +En Francia, los doctores decidieron si y cundo el soporte vital sera retirado, mientras que en los Estados Unidos, la decisin final se dej en los padres. +Nos preguntbamos: Tiene esto que ver en cmo los padres sobrellevaban la prdida de su ser querido? +Descubrimos que s. +Incluso hasta un ao despus, los padres estadounidenses tenan ms probabilidades de expresar emociones negativas, comparados con los franceses. +Era ms probable que los padres franceses dijeran cosas como: "Noah estuvo aqu por tan poco tiempo pero nos ense tanto." +"Nos dio una nueva perspectiva de la vida." +Era ms probable que los padres estadounidenses dijeran cosas como: "Y si...? Y si...?" +Otro padre se quejaba: "Siento como si me hubieran torturado deliberadamente." +"Cmo pudieron hacerme hacer eso?" +Y otro padre dijo: "Siento como si hubiera tomado parte en una ejecucin." +Pero cuando se les pregunt a los padres estadounidenses si ellos hubieran preferido que los doctores tomaran la decisin, todos ellos dijeron: "No". +Ellos no pudieron imaginarse delegando esa eleccin en otra persona incluso aunque el tomar esa eleccin los hiciera sentirse atrapados, culpables, enojados. +En varios casos incluso se deprimieron clnicamente. +Estos padres no pudieron considerar el renunciar a elegir, porque hacerlo habra ido en contra de todo lo que les haba sido enseado y todo lo que haban llegado a creer sobre el poder y el propsito de elegir. +En su ensayo: "El lbum Blanco", Joan Didion escribe: "Nos contamos historias a nosotros mismos para poder vivir." +"Interpretamos lo que vemos, seleccionamos la ms factible entre mltiples opciones." +"Vivimos completamente bajo la imposicin de una lnea narrativa sobre imgenes dispares, por las ideas con las cuales hemos aprendido a congelar la cambiante fantasmagora que es nuestra autntica experiencia." +La historia que los estadounidenses se cuentan, la historia de la cual depende el sueo Americano es la historia de las elecciones ilimitadas. +Esta narrativa promete tanto: libertad, felicidad, xito. +Pone el mundo a tus pies y dice: "Puedes tener cualquier cosa, todas las cosas." +Es una historia sensacional, y es entendible porqu seran reacios a modificarla. +Pero cuando la observas con cuidado, empiezas a ver los puntos dbiles, y empiezas a notar que la historia puede ser contada de muchas otras maneras. +Los estadounidenses han intentado muy frecuentemente de diseminar sus ideas sobre elegir, creyendo que stas sern, o deben ser recibidas con corazones y mentes abiertos. +Pero los libros de historia y las noticias cotidianas nos dicen que no siempre resulta de esa manera. +La fantasmagora, la autntica experiencia que intentamos entender y organizar mediante narrativas, vara de lugar en lugar. +Ninguna narrativa por s misma cubre las necesidades de todos en todas partes. +Ms an, los mismos estadounidenses podran beneficiarse de incorporar nuevas perspectiva a su propia narrativa, la cual ha estado manejando sus elecciones durante tanto tiempo. +Robert Frost dijo una vez que, "Es poesa lo que se pierde en la traduccin." +Esto sugiere que cualquier cosa bella y conmovedora, cualquier cosa que nos d una nueva forma de ver, no puede ser comunicada a aquellos que hablen un idioma diferente. +Pero Joseph Brodsky dijo: "Es poesa lo que se gana en la traduccin", sugiriendo que la traduccin puede ser un acto creativo, transformativo. +En lo que se refiere a elegir, tenemos mucho ms que ganar que perder al involucrarnos en las numerosas traducciones de las narrativas. +En lugar de reemplazar una historia con otra, podemos aprender de, y deleitarnos en, las muchas versiones que existen y las muchas que an estn por escribirse. +No importa de donde vengamos ni cul sea tu narrativa, todos tenemos una responsabilidad de abrirnos a una variedad ms amplia de lo que elegir puede hacer, y de lo que puede representar. +Y esto no conduce a un relativismo moral paralizante. +En cambio, nos ensea cundo y cmo actuar. +Nos acerca mucho ms a darnos cuenta de todo el potencial del elegir, para inspirar la esperanza y alcanzar la libertad que el elegir promete pero que no siempre cumple. +Si aprendemos a comunicarnos, aunque sea mediante la traduccin, entonces podemos ver al acto de elegir en toda su rareza, complejidad e irresistible belleza. +Gracias. +Bruno Giussani: Gracias a ti. +Sheena, hay un detalle en tu biografa que no hemos escrito en el programa. +Pero que ahora es evidente a todos en la sala. Eres ciega. +Y supongo que una de las preguntas que todos se hacen es: Cmo influencia eso tu estudio de la eleccin?, porque esa es una actividad que para la mayora est asociada con la percepcin visual como la esttica y el color y dems. +Sheena Iyengar: Bueno, es curioso que preguntes eso, porque una de las cosas interesantes de ser ciego es que realmente tienes un diferente punto de ventaja cuando observas la forma en que las personas videntes eligen. +Y tal como mencionaste, hay muchsimas opciones all afuera que son muy visuales hoy en da. +S, yo, como se esperara, quedo muy frustrada por las opciones como cul esmalte de uas usar, porque tengo que depender de lo que otras personas sugieren. +Y no puedo decidir. +Y as una vez estaba en un saln de belleza, e intentaba decidir entre dos tonos muy ligeros de rosa. +Y uno se llamaba "Bailarina". +Y el otro era "Adorable". +As que les pregunt a dos damas. Y una me dijo: "Bueno, definitivamente debes usar 'Bailarina'". "Cmo se ve?" +"Bueno, es un tono de rosa muy elegante." +"OK, perfecto". +La otra me dijo que usara "Adorable". +"Cmo se ve?" +"Es un tono de rosa glamoroso". +As que les pregunt: "Bueno, cmo los distingo?" +"Qu tienen de diferente?" +Y ellas dijeron: "Bueno, uno es elegante, el otro es glamoroso." +OK, ya entendimos. +Y la nica cosa en la que estaban de acuerdo: Bueno, si yo pudiera verlos, sera capaz de distinguirlos claramente. +Y lo que yo me preguntaba era si acaso estaban siendo influenciadas por el nombre o por la esencia del color. As que decid hacer un pequeo experimento. +Traje esos dos barnices de uas al laboratorio, y les quit las etiquetas. +Traje mujeres al laboratorio y les pregunt: "Cul escogeras t?" +El 50 por ciento de las mujeres me acusaron de estar haciendo un truco, de poner barniz de uas del mismo color en ambas botellas. +En cuyo momento te empiezas a preguntar a quin le estn haciendo el truco. +Ahora las mujeres que podan distinguirlos, cuando no tenan etiquetas, elegan "Adorable", y cuando tenan las etiquetas elegan "Bailarina". +As que hasta donde puedo decir, una rosa con otro nombre probablemente se ve diferente y quizs incluso huela diferente. +BG: Gracias. Sheena Iyengar. Gracias Sheena. +Quisiera por un momento proyectar algo en la pantalla de su imaginacin. +Es el s.XVII, estamos en Japn en la costa oeste, en donde un monje pequeo y arrugado se apronta a medianoche hacia la cima de una colina. +Alcanza finalmente la cima chorreando agua. +Se queda inmvil y mira hacia la isla Sado. +Estudia el ocano todo, dirige la vista al cielo +y se dice en un murmullo: -[Mar agitado] [Extiende hasta Sado] [La Va Lctea]- +Basho era un hombre brillante. +Capaz de decir ms con menos como ningn otro ser humano del que yo haya sabido. +Basho, en 17 slabas yuxtapuso un ocano turbulento sacudido por una tormenta pasada, y captur la casi imposible belleza de nuestra galaxia con millones de estrellas, y probablemente cientos de planetas, tal vez incluso un ocano al que quiz llamaremos Sylvia. +Hacia el final de su vida sus discpulos y seguidores no dejaban de preguntarle: -Cul es el secreto? +Cmo puedes crear tan rpidamente poemas haiku tan bellos?- +Y hacia su fin, el dijo: -Si pudieras conocer el pino, ve hacia l.- +Nada ms. +Sylvia nos dice que empleemos todas nuestras facultades para conocer los ocanos. +Si pudiramos conocer los ocanos, debemos de ir a los ocanos. +Y de lo quiero hablar un poco hoy es de transformar la relacin, o la interaccin entre seres humanos y ocanos con una nueva facultad que an no es cotidiana. +Espero que algn da lo sea. +Hay un par de puntos clave, +uno es que los ocanos son esenciales para la calidad de la vida en la Tierra. +Otro es que existen nuevas maneras de estudiar los ocanos que an no hemos aprovechado bien. +Y la ltima de estas nuevas maneras que estamos investigando como comunidad va a transformar nuestra visin de nuestro planeta y nuestros ocanos, y probablemente hasta la manera en que conducimos al planeta en todos sus aspectos. +Entonces los cientficos inicialmente comienzan con el sistema. +Definen qu es el sistema. +No es la Baha de Chesapeake, +no es el Arco de Caro, ni siquiera el vasto Pacfico. +Es el planeta entero, continentes y ocanos juntos. +Ese es el sistema. +Y bsicamente nuestro desafo es optimizar los beneficios y mitigar los riesgos de vivir en un planeta dirigido por dos nicos procesos, dos fuentes de energa, una es solar, que genera los vientos, las olas, las nubes, las tormentas y la fotosntesis. +La otra es energa interna. +Y las dos estn en conflicto casi permanentemente. +Cadenas montaosas, placas tectnicas, que desplazan los continentes, forman depsitos de mena. +Los volcanes erupcionan. +Ese el es planeta en el que vivimos. +Es inmensamente complejo. +Sin pretender que se fijen en todos los detalles quiero que ustedes vean que esto es un 10 por ciento de los procesos que operan dentro de los ocanos casi continuamente, desde hace 4.000 millones de aos. +Hace mucho que este sistema viene operando. +Y han co-evolucionado. +Qu quiero decir con eso? +Interactan entre ellos constantemente. +Todos interactan con todos. +As que la complejidad de este sistema, la parte dirigida por el sol, sobretodo la parte superior, y la parte inferior es en parte conducida por el influjo de calor desde abajo y por otros procesos. +Esto es muy, muy importante porque este es el sistema, es el crisol de donde proviene la vida en el planeta. Y es hora de que lo entendamos. +Debemos entenderlo. +Ese es uno de los temas que Sylvia nos recuerda: entender ste, nuestro ocano, el sistema vital bsico, el sistema vital dominante en el planeta. +Miren esta complejidad aqu. +Esta es slo una variable. +Si ustedes pueden ver la complejidad podrn ver cmo diminutos remolinos y grandes remolinos y el movimiento... y esto es slo la temperatura de la superficie del mar pero es inmensamente complicado. +Ahora vemos una capa ms adentro, los otros dos o trescientos procesos que interactan. en parte en funcin de la temperatura o en funcin de todos los otros factores, y nos encontramos con un sistema realmente complejo. +Nuestro desafo es comprender el sistema de una nueva y fenomenal manera. +Y de manera urgente. +Y digo urgente porque unas 1.000 millones de personas en este planeta hoy padecen hambre y desnutricin. +Y parte del asunto es por Cody, quin est por aqu. Tiene 16 aos, y tengo permiso para mencionar este nmero. +Cuando en 40 aos Cody tenga la edad de Nancy Brown en este planeta vivirn otros 2.500 millones de personas. +No podemos resolver todos los problemas con slo observar los ocanos, pero si no comprendemos el sistema vital fundamental de este planeta ms profundamente de lo que lo comprendemos hoy, entonces sufriremos enorme estrs, y Cody tambin, e incluso Nancy, que tendr 98, ser muy difcil para todos. +Bien, hablemos de otro aspecto de la importancia de los ocanos. +Este diagrama muestra aguas templadas en rojo, aguas fras en azul, y lo que se ve verde en los continentes indica el crecimiento de vegetacin, y en verde oliva, el deterioro de vegetacin. +Y abajo a la izquierda hay un reloj que va de 1982 a 1998 de manera cclica. +Vern ustedes que el ritmo del crecimiento de la vegetacin, del cual la comida en los continentes es un subconjunto, est directamente vinculado al ritmo de la temperatura de la superficie de los ocanos. +Los ocanos controlan, o al menos influyen en gran medida, se co-relacionan con los patrones de crecimiento de vegetacin y de las sequas y con los patrones de lluvias en los continentes. +Por eso la gente en Kansas, en un campo de trigo, debe entender que los ocanos son primordiales tambin para ellos. +Otra complejidad: esta es la era de los ocanos. +Sobre esta imagen voy a superponer las placas tectnicas. +La era de los ocanos, placas tectnicas, generan un fenmeno totalmente nuevo del que ya hemos odo en esta conferencia. +Y les muestro un video de muy alta definicin que produjimos en tiempo real. +Apenas segundos luego de su filmacin gente en Pekn, en Sydney, en Amsterdam, en Washington, ya estaban mirando este video. +Habrn odo ustedes acerca de fuentes hidrotermales. Pero el otro descubrimiento es que bajo el suelo marino, existe una vasta reserva de actividad microbiana que hemos descubierto apenas recientemente y que casi no tenemos manera de analizar. +Algunas personas han estimado que la biomasa contenida en estos microbios que viven en las grietas del suelo marino y an ms abajo es mayor que la cantidad total de biomasa que vive en la superficie del planeta. +Conocer esto es asombroso, y slo recientemente lo hemos descubierto. +Esto es muy, muy apasionante. +Puede ser la prxima jungla para crear medicinas. +Sabemos muy poquito acerca de ella. +Bien, Marcel Proust ha maravillosamente dicho que "El verdadero viaje de descubrimiento no consiste en buscar nuevos caminos, sino en tener nuevos ojos." Nuevas maneras de mirar las cosas, una nueva perspectiva. +Muchos de ustedes recordarn los comienzos de la oceanografa cuando debamos utilizar lo que haba a nuestro alcance. +Y no era sencillo en aquel tiempo. +Algunos de ustedes lo recordarn, estoy seguro. +Y ahora tenemos un juego enorme de herramientas que son realmente poderosas: barcos, satlites, amarraderos. +Pero no nos otorgan lo que buscamos. +Y el programa del que yo quera hablarles ha sido financiado e incluye vehculos autnomos como el que se ve avanzando en la base de esta imagen. +A la derecha vemos una compleja maqueta virtual +A la izquierda, un tipo nuevo de amarradero que les mostrar enseguida. +Y en la base de varios puntos los ocanos son complejos, y primordiales para la vida en la Tierra. +Cambian rpidamente, pero de manera impredecible. +Y las maquetas que se necesitan para predecir el futuro no poseen informacin suficiente para perfeccionarlos. +El poder de la computacin es sorprendente. +Pero sin informacin, estas maquetas no podrn jams ser predichas. +Y eso es lo que realmente necesitamos. +Son peligrosos, por varias razones, pero creemos que la OOI, esta Iniciativa de Observacin Ocenica. que la Fundacin Nacional de Ciencia ya ha comenzado a financiar, tiene la capacidad de transformar cosas. +Y el objetivo del programa es lanzar una era de descubrimiento cientfico y comprensin a travs y dentro de las cuencas ocenicas utilizando telepresencia interactiva fcilmente accesible. +Es un universo nuevo. +Podremos estar presentes en cada rincn del volumen del ocano, a voluntad, y comunicarnos en tiempo real. +Y esto es lo que el sistema comprende, un nmero de sitios en el hemisferio sur como se ven en esos crculos. +Y en el hemisferio norte, cuatro sitios. +No vamos a discutirlos aqu hoy. Pero el de la costa oeste, en este cuadrito, es el llamado "nodos de escala regional", +antiguamente "Neptuno". +Y les mostrar de qu se trata: +Fibra ptica, la comunicacin de la nueva generacin. +Se pueden ver los extremos de cobre que tienen. +Se puede transmitir energa pero el ancho de banda en esos hilitos diminutos ms finos que un cabello... +Y este conjunto aqu puede transmitir unos tres a cinco terabits por segundo. +Un ancho de banda increble. +Y este es el aspecto del planeta. +Ya est todo cableado Como si fuera un cors de fibra ptica. +As luce. +Los cables van de continente a continente. +Un sistema de largo alcance que permite la mayor parte de nuestra comunicacin. +Entonces a este sistema me refiero, sobre la costa oeste, coincide con la placa tectnica Juan de Fuca. +Y va a ofrecer gran cantidad de energa y un ancho de banda sin precedentes a travs de todo el volumen del ocano que lo cubre, sobre el suelo marino y debajo de l. +Ancho de banda y energa y una amplia variedad de procesos en operacin. +Este es el aspecto de uno de esos nodos primarios. Como una sub-estacin con energa y ancho de banda que puede cubrir una rea del tamao de Seattle. +Y el tipo de ciencia que se practicar lo determinarn una variedad de cientficos que quieren colaborar y aportar instrumentacin +que conectarn al sistema. +De algn modo ser como tiempo en un telescopio excepto que cada uno tendr su propio puerto. +Cambio climtico, acidificacin ocenica, oxgeno disuelto, ciclos de carbono, flujos de agua, dinmicas de pesca; el espectro completo de ciencia terrestre y marina en el mismo volumen, simultneamente. +Entonces cualquier persona accediendo simplemente a la base de datos puede obtener la informacin que necesita acerca de cualquier evento que haya tenido lugar. +Y este es slo el primero. +Esto lo armamos junto con nuestros colegas canadienses. +Ahora quiero mostrarles la caldera. +A la izquierda vemos un gran volcn llamado Axial Seamount. +Y vamos a incursionar en Axial Seamount mediante una animacin. +El sistema va a tener un aspecto as ya ha sido financiado para ser construido. +Muy potente. +Eso es un elevador que sube y baja constantemente controlado en tierra por los responsables de su operacin. +Los que tambin pueden delegar su control a alguien en India o China que puede reemplazarlos por un rato. Porque todo va a estar conectado va internet. +Se podr enviar una enorme cantidad de informacin a tierra, para todo aquel a quien le interese usarla. +Esto va a tener mucho ms alcance que si tuviramos un barco aislado en una determinada posicin y luego en una nueva posicin. +Atravesamos el suelo de la caldera. +Hay unos cuantos sistemas robotizados, +hay cmaras que pueden activarse a voluntad, segn lo requieran nuestros experimentos. +Los sistemas que habr all abajo, los instrumentos que habr en el suelo marino consisten en, si alcanzan a leer hay cmaras, sensores de presin, fluormetros, sismmetros. +Un amplio espectro de herramientas. +Bien, ese montculo all en realidad tiene este aspecto. +As luce. +Y este es el tipo de actividad que podemos ver con video de alta definicin. Porque el ancho de banda de estos cables es tan grande que podemos tener de cinco a diez sistemas de alta definicin en estreo operando ininterrumpidamente y, otra vez, dirigidos por tecnologa robtica desde tierra. +Muy, muy poderoso. +Y estas son las cosas que hoy han sido financiadas. +Entonces qu haremos maana? +Estamos a punto de surfear la ola de la oportunidad tecnolgica. +Existen tecnologas emergentes en disciplinas cercanas a la oceanografa, que incorporaremos a la oceanografa; y a travs de esa convergencia transformaremos la oceanografa en algo an ms mgico. +Hoy la robtica es increble, absolutamente increble. +Y estaremos incorporando toda clase de robtica a los ocanos. +Nanotecnologa: vean este generador. +Ms pequeo que un sello postal, puede generar energa tan slo abrochado a la ropa, mientras caminamos. +Al movernos, genera energa. +Hay muchas cosas que pueden utilizarse en el ocano, continuamente. +Imgenes: muchos de ustedes saben mucho ms que yo sobre esto. Pero imgenes en estreo con cuatro veces la definicin de un sistema de alta definicin HD dentro de cinco aos ser lo usual. +Y ste es realmente mgico: +gracias al genoma humano nos encontramos con que de ciertos eventos que tienen lugar en el ocano, como un volcn en erupcin o algo as, se puede obtener una muestra. +Extraemos lquido mediante uno de estos sistemas, presionamos un botn, y obtenemos el anlisis de su genoma. +Y la informacin se transmite inmediatamente a tierra. +As que del volumen ocenico, no slo conoceremos la fsica y la qumca, sino que la base de la cadena alimenticia no ocultar secretos recibiremos informacin permanentemente. +El poder de la computacin distribuida va a ser extraordinario. +Pronto estaremos usando computacin distribuida para hacer prcticamente todo, ajustar informacin y todo lo relacionado con la informacin. +La energa se generar en el ocano mismo. +Y la fibra de prxima generacin ser simplemente mgica. +Mucho ms avanzada de la que tenemos hoy. +As que la presencia de la energa y el ancho de banda permitirn que todas estas nuevas tecnologas converjan de una manera sin precedentes. +Por eso en cinco o siete aos puedo vislumbrar la capacidad de estar completamente presente a lo largo y ancho del ocano y que todo est conectado a internet, para que la comunicacin sea total. +Implementar la energa y el ancho de banda en el ocano acelerar la adaptacin de manera espectacular. +Les doy un ejemplo: +cuando sucede un terremoto enorme cantidad de nuevos microbios emergen del suelo marino. +Tenemos una manera de tratar eso, una nueva manera. +De la actividad ssmica que se ve aqu hemos determinado que ese volcn est en erupcin, entonces desplegamos las tropas. +Qu tropas? Las de vehculos autnomos, por supuesto. +Y vuelan hacia el volcn +Obtienen una muestra de los fluidos emanando del suelo marino durante una erupcin, que contiene microbios que nunca antes haban salido a la superficie del planeta. +Los eyectan a la superficie, y flotan, y son recogidos por un avin autnomo y transportados de vuelta al laboratorio dentro de las 24 horas desde la erupcin. +Esto es factible. Las piezas estn ah. +Un laboratorio. Ustedes se habrn enterado de lo que sucedi el 7 de septiembre. +Ciertos mdicos en Nueva York le extrajeron la vescula a una paciente en Francia. +Podemos realizar trabajos impresionantes en el suelo marino. Y transmitirlo por TV en vivo, si tenemos cosas interesantes para mostrar. +Podemos ofrecer al mundo telepresencia en todo el ocano. +Esto, les he mostrado el suelo marino. Pero el objetivo aqu es interaccin con los ocanos desde cualquier parte y en tiempo real. +Ser increble. +Y ahora les mostrar lo que podemos traer al aula, y como si fuera poco, a su bolsillo. +Muchos de ustedes an no han pensado en esto pero el ocano estar en su bolsillo. +No falta mucho tiempo. +Voy a despedirme con unas palabras de otro poeta, si me lo permiten. +En 1943 T.S. Eliot escribi "Cuatro cuartetos". +Obtuvo el Premio Nobel de Literatura en 1948. +En la fuente del ro ms largo La voz de la oculta cascada La voz no conocida porque nadie la busca Pero escuchada, o semiescuchada en la inmovilidad del mar entre dos olas." +Muchas gracias. +Quisiera iniciar mi charla hoy, con dos observaciones sobre la especie humana. +La primera observacin tal vez piensen que es bastante obvia. Y es que nuestra especie, Homo sapiens, es realmente muy, muy inteligente- ridculamente inteligente hacemos cosas que ninguna otra especie en el planteta hace. +y esta, por supuesto, no ser la primera vez que se den cuenta de esto. +Por supuesto, adems inteligentes, somos una especie extremadamente vanidosa. +Nos encanta sealar el hecho de que somos inteligentes. +Podra recurrir a cualquier sabio, de Shakespeare a Stephen Colbert para sealar hechos como que somos nobles de razn e infinitos en facultades y lo ms impresionante en este planeta cuando de lo cerebral se trata. +Pero, por supuesto, hay una segunda observacin sobre la especie humana sobre la que quiero enfocarme un poco ms, y es el hecho de que a pesar de que somos realmente inteligentes, a veces incomparablemente inteligentes, tambin podemos ser increblemente tontos cuando se trata de tomar de decisiones. +Veo muchas sonrisas de suficiencia entre ustedes. +Pero no se preocupen, no voy a sealar a nadie en particular respecto de sus propios errores. +Pero, por supuesto, en los dos ltimos aos hemos visto estos ejemplos sin precedente de ineptitud humana. +Hemos visto como las herramientas que slo nosotros producimos para extraer recursos de nuestro medio ambiente han explotado justo en nuestros rostros. +Hemos visto los mercados financieros que hemos creado --mercados que se supona eran a prueba de tontos-- los hemos visto colapsar frente a nuestros ojos. +Pero, estos dos ejemplos tan embarazosos, creo, no resaltan lo que creo es ms embarazoso de los errores que los humanos cometemos, que creo es que nos gusta pensar que los errores que cometemos son en realidad el resultado de un par de manzanas podridas o unas decisiones fallidas dignas de mencin en algn Blog. +Pero sucede que los cientficos sociales estn aprendiendo que la mayora de nosotros, puestos en ciertos contextos, de hecho cometeremos errores muy especficos. +Los errores que cometemos son realmente predecibles. +Los cometemos una y otra vez. +Y son realmente inmunes al cmulo de evidencia. +An cuando obtenemos un resultado negativo, la prxima vez que nos enfrentamos a cierto contexto, tendemos a cometer los mismos errores. +Y esto ha sido un verdadero rompecabezas para m siendo una estudiosa de la naturaleza humana. +Lo que me produce ms curiosidad es, Cmo una especie tan inteligente como la nuestra puede cometer consistentemente errores tan graves una y otra vez? +Es decir, somos los ms inteligentes, cmo no podemos resolverlo? +En algn sentido, De dnde vienen nuestro errores realmente? +Y habindolo pensado un poco, veo un par posibilidades +Una posibilidad es, que de alguna manera, no sea culpa nuestra. +Como somos una especie inteligente, podemos crear todo tipos de entornos. que son super, super complicados, a veces demasiado complicados para que los entendamos a pesar de que nosotros mismos los hemos creado. +Creamos mercados financieros que son super complejos. +Creamos trminos hipotecarios que no podemos manejar. +Y por supuesto, si nos ponen en entornos que no podemos manejar, de alguna manera, tiene sentido que de hecho compliquemos las cosas. +Si ste fuese el caso, tendramos una solucin realmente sencilla al problema del error humano. +Simplemente diramos, OK, averigemos qu tecnologas no podemos manejar, qu tipos de entornos son malos, deshagmonos de ellos, diseemos mejor las cosas, y deberemos ser la noble especie que esperamos ser. +Pero hay otra posibilidad que encuentro un poco ms preocupante, tal vez no son nuestros entornos los que estn mal +Tal vez somos nosotros los que estamos mal diseados. +Es una corazonada que tuve observando los modos que los cientficos sociales han aprendido sobre el error humano. +Y lo que vemos es que la gente tiende a continuar cometiendo errores exactamente de la misma manera, una y otra vez. +Parecera que estamos construidos para cometer errores de determinada manera. +Esta es una posibilidad que me preocupa un poco ms, porque si somos nosotros los que estamos mal, no queda realmente claro como podremos solucionarlo. +Tal vez debamos aceptar que de hecho somos propensos al error y tratar de disear las cosas en consecuencia. +Esta es la cuestin a la que mis alumno y yo queramos llegar. +Cmo podemos diferenciar entre la posibilidad uno y la posibilidad dos? +Lo que necesitbamos era una poblacin que sea bsicamente inteligente, pueda tomar decisiones, pero que no tenga acceso a ninguno de los sistemas que nosotros tenemos, ninguna de las cosas con las que nos complicamos. nada de tecnologa humana, cultura humana, tal vez ni siquiera lenguaje humano. +Y es por eso que nos volcamos a estos sujetos. +Estos son algunos de los muchachos con los que trabajo. Este es un mono capuchino marrn. +Estos muchacos son primates del Nuevo Mundo, lo que significa que se desprendieron de la rama humana ms o menos 35 millones de aos atrs. +Esto significa que su ttara, ttara, ttara, --ms o menos cinco millones de "ttaras"-- abuela, fue probablemente la misma ttara, ttara, ttara, ttara abuela con cinco millones de "ttaras" que la de Holly. +Pueden consolarse con el hecho de que esta muchacha es una pariente, si bien evolucionaria, muy, muy lejana. +La buena noticia sobre Holly es que ella no tiene realmente los mismos tipos de tecnologas que nosotros tenemos. +Ustedes saben, ella es inteligente, muy simptica, un primate tambin, pero carece de todo lo que creemos que nos complica a nosotros. +Entonces ella es el sujeto perfecto para la prueba. +Qu pasa si ponemos a Holly en el mismo contexto que a los humanos? +Cometer ella los mismos errores que nosotros? +No aprender de estos? Y as. +Y este es el tipo de cosa que decidimos hacer. +Mis alumnos y yo estbamos muy entusiasmados por esto hace unos aos. +Dijimos, bueno, dmosle unos problemas a Holly, a ver si complica las cosas. +El primer problema fue justamente: y bien, dnde comenzamos? +Porque, saben, aunque es fantstico para nosotros, y malo para los humanos. +Cometemos un montn de errores en un montn de contextos diferentes. +Dnde vamos a comenzar realmente? +Y como comenzamos este trabajo alrededor del momento del colapso financiero, cuando las ejecuciones hipotecarias eran las noticias del da, dijimos, um, tal vez deberamos comenzar en el campo financiero. +Tal vez, deberamos mirar las decisiones econmicas de los monos y tratar de ver si ellos hacen las mismas tonteras que nosotros. +Por supesto, aqu tropezamos con un segundo problema --un poco ms metodolgico-- que es que, tal vez no lo sepan, pero los monos no usan dinero. Ya lo s, no los han conocido. +Pero es por ello que no los ven haciendo cola detrs suyo en la tienda o en el cajero automtico --ya saben, no hacen esas cosas. +As que nos enfrentabamos a un pequeo problema. +Cmo vamos a preguntarle a los monos sobre el dinero si ellos en verdad no lo usan? +Dijimos entonces, bien, deberamos manejarlo y ensear a los monos cmo usar dinero. +Y eso fue lo que hicimos. +Lo que ven aqu es de hecho la primera unidad que yo conozca de de moneda no humana. +No eramos muy creativos al momento de iniciar estos estudios, as que smplemente la llamamos "ficha". +Esta es la unidad monetaria que les enseamos a nuestros monos en Yale para de veras utilizar con los humanos, para de veras comprar diferentes tipos de comida. +No parece ser mucho --de hecho no es mucho. +Como casi todo nuestro dinero, es slo un pedazo de metal. +Como cuando ustedes se llevan dinero a casa luego de un viaje, una vez que llegan a casa, es bastante intil. +Era bastante intil para los monos al principio antes de que se dieran cuenta de qu podan hacer con ellas. +Cuando se las dimos por primera vez en sus recintos, las levantaron, las miraron. +Eran estos objetos extraos, +Pero muy pronto, los monos se percataron de que podan entregar estas fichas a diferentes humanos en el laboratorio a cambio de comida. +Y aqu ven a uno de nuestros monos, Mayday, hacindolo. +En A y B son situaciones donde ella est un poco curiosa sobre estos objetos --no los conoce. +Est la mano del experimentador esperando, y Mayday enseguida se da cuenta que, aparentemente el humano la quiere. +La entrega, y entonces recibe algo de comida. +Resulta que no slo Mayday, sino todos nuestros monos aprenden a comerciar con fichas con los vendedores humanos. +Aqu tienen un video de como es esto. +Esta es Mayday. Va a cambiar su ficha por comida. y espera feliz y obtiene su comida. +Este es Felix, creo. Es nuestro macho alfa, alguien importante. +Pero l tambin espera pacientemente, consige su comida y contina. +Los monos se vuelven realmente buenos en esto. +Son sorprendentemente buenos con muy poco entrenamiento. +Les dejamos que aprendan por ellos mismos. +La pregunta es: se parece al dinero humano? +Es sto en definitiva un mercado, o solo es un raro truco psicolgico que logra que los monos hagan algo, que parece inteligente, pero sin ser realmente inteligentes? +Y entonces dijimos: bien, Qu haran los monos espontneamente si sta fuese realmente su moneda, si estuviesen realmente usndola como moneda? +Bien, pueden realmente imaginrselos haciendo toda la clase de cosas inteligentes que los humanos hacen cuando comienzan a intercambiar dinero unos con otros. +Pueden verlos comenzar a prestar atencin al precio, prestar atencin a cunto compran --llevando una especie de registro de sus mono-fichas. +Hacen algo as los monos? +Y as naci nuestro mercado de monos +La forma en que funciona es que nuestros monos normalmente viven en un ambiente social de un zoolgico grande. +Cuando comienzan a pedir golosinas, les permitimos salir a un ambiente ms pequeo donde podan entrar al mercado. +Los vendedors ean estudiantes de mi laborarorio. +Se vestan diferente; eran dos personas diferentes. +Y cada vez, ellos hacan bsicamente lo mismo as los monos podan aprender quin venda qu a qu precio --ustedes saben, quin era de fiar, quin no lo era, y as. +Y pueden ver que cada experimentador, sostiene un pequeo plato amarillo con comida. +y eso es lo que el mono puede obtener por una ficha. +Todo cuesta una ficha. pero como pueden ver, algunas fichas compran ms que otras, algunas veces ms uvas que otras. +Les mostrar un video de cmo se ve realmente este mercado, +desde es el punto de vista de un mono. Los monos son ms bajos, as que este es un poco bajo. +Aqu est Honey. +Est esperando un tanto impaciente a que el mercado abra. +De pronto el mercado abre. Aqu esta su opocin: una uva o dos uvas. +Pueden ver a Honey, muy buena economista de mercado, va con quien le d ms. Podra ensearle +a nuestros asesores financieros una o dos cositas. +Pero, no slo Honey, la mayora de los monos fue con quien tena ms. +La mayora de los monos fue con quien tena mejor comida. +Cuando introdujimos las ventas, vimos que los monos prestaban atencin a eso. +Realmente se preocupaben por su mono-dinero. +Lo ms sorprendente fue que cuando colaboramos con economistas, para evaluar los datos de los monos usando herramientas econmicas, stas coincidan bsicamente, no slo cualitativa, sino cuantitativamente con lo que vimos hacer a los humanos en el mercado real. +Tanto es as que, si vieran los nmeros de los monos, no podran precisar cules vienen de los monos y cules de los humanos en el mismo mercado. +Y lo que pensamos que hemos hecho es que hemos introducido algo que, al menos para los monos y para nosotros, funciona como moneda financiera real. +La pregunta es: los monos complican las cosas de la misma manera que lo hacemos nosotros? +Bien, ya vimos anecdticamente un par de signos de que tal vez s. +Una cosa que nunca vimos en el mercado de monos fue alguna evidencia de ahorro --como en nuestra propia especie. +Los monos entraban al mercado, gastaban su presupuesto entero y luego volvan con los dems. +La otra cosa que tambin vimos espontneamente, bastante vergonzoza, es evidencia espontnea de latrocinio. +Los monos se arrebatan las fichas unos a otros en cada oportunidad posible, incluso a nosotros, cosas que, no necesariamente pensamos que estabamos introduciendo, sino que espontneamente vimos. +Entonces dijimos, esto se ve mal. +Podemos ver si realmente los monos estn haciendo exactamente las mismas tonteras que los humanos? +Una posibilidad es que dejemos que el sistema financiero de los monos colpase, y ver si en unos aos nos llaman para sacarlos del apuro. +Como estbamos un tanto impacientes queramos acelerar un poco las cosas. +Dijimos, demos a los monos el mismo tipo de problemas que los humanos suelen malinterpretar en ciertos desafos econmicos, o ciertos experimentos econmicos. +Y como, la mejor manera de ver como la gente se equivoca es hacerlo uno mismo, voy a darles a ustedes un experimento rpido para que vean sus propias intuiciones financieras en accin. +Imagnense que en este momento Les entregara a cada uno de ustedes mil dlares americanos --10 crujientes billetes de cien dlares. +Tmenlos, pnganlos en sus carteras y piensen por un segundo sobre qu harn. +Porque es suyo ahora, pueden comprar lo que quieran. +Donarlo, llevarselo, y as. Suena genial, +pero tienen la opcin de ganar un poquito ms. +Y este es su opcin: pueden ser arriesgados, en ese caso voy a lanzar una de estas mono-fichas al aire. +Si sale cara, recibirn mil dlares ms. +Si sale seca, no reciben nada. +Es una oportunidad de obtener ms, pero es bastante arriesgado. +Su otra opcin es un poco ms segura. Van a tener un poco ms de dinero con seguridad. +Les voy a dar 500 dlares. +Los pueden guardar en sus billeteras y usarlos inmediatamente. +Vean cul es su intuicin aqu. +La mayora de la gente va por la opcin segura. +La mayora de las personas dice: para qu arriesgarme si puedo obtener 1,500 con seguridad? +Esta parece una buena apuesta. Voy a por ella. +Puede que digan, eh, eso realmente no es irracional. +La gente es un poco contraria al riesgo. Y qu? +Bueno, el "y qu" aparece cuando comenzamos a pensar el mismo problema planteado con una pequea diferencia. +Imaginen ahora que les doy a cada uno de ustedes 2000 dlares --20 crujientes billetes de cien dlares. +Ahora, pueden comprar el doble que antes. +Piensen como se sienten guardando el dinero en sus billeteras. +Y ahora, imaginen que les doy otra eleccin. Pero esta vez, es un poco para peor. +Ahora, van a decidir cmo perdern dinero. pero van a tener la misma eleccin. +Pueden optar por una prdida riesgosa, en cuyo caso al arrojar una moneda. Si sale cara, van a perder realmente mucho. +Si sale seca, no pierden nada, todo bien, mantienen todo-- o pueden ir a lo seguro, deben buscar en su billetera y darme cinco de esos billetes de $100. +Y veo muchas cejas fruncidas aqu. +Entonces tal vez estn teniendo la misma intuicin. que los sujetos testeados, que es, cuando se presentan estas opciones, las personas no eligen ir a lo seguro. +De hecho tienden a correr un pequeo riesgo. +La razn de que esto es irracional es que les hemos dado en ambas situaciones la misma opcin. +Es una posibilidad de 50/50 de mil o 2 mil, o simplemente, 1,500 con certeza. +Pero, la intuicin de la gente sobre cunto riesgo correr, vara dependiendo de dnde comenzaron. +Entonces, qu est ocurriendo? +Bueno, sucede que ese parece ser el resultado de al menos dos tendencias que tenemos a nivel psicolgico. +Una es que tenemos gran dificultad para pensar en trminos absolutos. +Uno debe esforzarse para resolverlo, bien, una opcin es mil o 2 mil; la otra es 1,500. +En cambio, nos es muy fcil pensar en trminos relativos como si las opciones cambiaran de una vez a la otra. +Entonces pensamos cosas como: "oh, voy a conseguir ms" o "oh, voy a conseguir menos". +Esto est bien y es bueno, excepto que cambia en direcciones diferentes realmente afecta si pensamos o no si las opciones son buenas o no. +Y esto nos lleva a la segunda tendencia, que los economistas han llamado aversin a la prdida. +La idea es que realmente odiamos cuando las cosas caen en rojo. +Realmente odiamos cuando tenemos que perder algo de dinero. +Y esto significa que algunas veces cambiemos nuestras preferencias para evitar esto. +Lo que vieron en el ltimo escenario es que los sujetos se vuelven arriesgados pues prefieren la opcin que ofrece menos prdida. +Eso signifca que cuando estamos en una mentalidad de riesgo- perdn, cuando estamos en una mentalidad de prdida, nos volvemos ms arriesgados, lo que puede ser realmente preocupante. +Este tipo de cosas afecta de maneras muy negativas en los humanos. +Por esto los inversores se aferran a las acciones a la baja por ms tiempo pues las estn evaluando en trminos relativos. +Por esto la gente en el mercado de propiedades se negaba a vender sus casas pues no quieren vender a prdida. +La cuestin que nos interesaba era saber si los monos mostraban las mismas tendencias. +si les presentaramos esos mismos escenarios en nuestro pequeo mercado de monos, haran las mismas cosas que la gente? +Y eso es lo que hicimos, les dimos opciones a los monos entre sujetos que eran confiables --que hacan lo mismo cada vez-- o con sujetos que eran un riesgo --que hacan las cosas de modo diferente la mitad de las veces. +Les dimos opciones con bonificacin --como a ustedes en el primer escenario-- y tenan una opcin ms, o situaciones donde experimentaban prdidas --pensaban que obtendran ms de lo que realmente obtuvieron. +Y asi es como se ve. +Les presentamos a los monos dos nuevos vendedores. +Ambos, el de la izquierda y el de la derecha comienzan con una uva. todo se ve bastante bien. +Pero les van a dar bonificaciones. +El de la izquierda es una bonificacin segura. +Todo el tiempo aade una, dndole 2 al mono. +El de la derecha es una bonificacin riesgosa. +Algunas veces los monos no reciben ninguna bonificacin --bonificacin cero. +Algunas veces los monos reciben 2 adicionales. +Una gran bonificacin, y reciben 3. +Pero esta es la misma eleccin que ustedes acaban de enfrentar. +Quieren los monos realmente ir a lo seguro e ir con quien va a hacer lo mismo en cada intento, o quieren ser arriesgados y tratar de obtener un bonificacin riesgosa pero mayor, pero arriesgando la posibilidad de no obtener ninguna bonificacin? +La gente aqu fue a lo seguro. +Resulta que los monos tambin fueron a lo seguro. +Cualitativamente y cuantitativamente, eligieron exactamente de la misma manera que la gente, al ser testeados. +Podran decir, bien, tal vez a los monos no les gusta el riesgo. +Tal vez deberamos ver como les va con las prdidas. +Entonces hicimos una segunda versin. +Ahora, se les presentan dos sujetos a los monos que no les dan bonificaciones; de hecho les dan menos de lo que esperan. +Parece que comienzan con una gran cantidad. +Son tres uvas; los monos estn preparados para esto. +Pero ahora saben que estos sujetos les van a dar menos de lo que esperan. +El sujeto de la izquierda es una prdida segura. +Cada vez sacar una de estas y le dar a los monos solo dos. +El de la derecha es una prdida riesgosa. +Algunas veces no da prdida, los monos estn mentalizados, pero algunas veces en verdad da grandes prdidas, sacando dos y dndole a los monos slo una. +Y entonces, Qu hacen los monos? +Nuevamente, la misma opcin, pueden ir a lo seguro para obtener dos uvas cada vez, o tomar una apuesta riesgosa y elegir entre una y tres. +Lo ms llamativo para nosotros es que, cuando le damos la posibilidad a los monos, ellos hacen irracionalmente lo mismo que hace la gente. +Se vuelven ms arriesgados dependiendo de dnde comenzaron los experimentadores. +Esto es una locura porque sugiere que los monos tambin estn evaluando las cosas en trminos relativos. y estn tratando las prdidas diferente de como tratan las ganancias. +Qu significa todo esto? +Bien, lo que hemos mostrado es que, primero, podemos darles a los monos moneda corriente, y harn cosas bastante similares con ella. +Harn algunas de las cosas inteligentes que hacemos nosotros, algunas de las cosas no tan lindas que nosotros hacemos, como robar y otras. +Pero tambin algunas de las cosas irracionales que nosotros hacemos. +Sistemticamente se equivocan y en la misma manera que lo hacemos nosotros. +Este es el primer mensaje para llevarse de esta charla, y es que si ustedes vieron el comienzo y pensaron, oh, cuando me vaya a casa voy a conseguir un mono capuchino como asesor financiero +Son mucho ms bonitos que el que tenemos en... ustedes saben No lo hagan; probablemente sern tan zonzos como el humano que ya tienen. +Entonces, ya saben, malo --Perdn, perdn, perdn. +Malo para los inversores monos. +Por supesto, la razn por la que se estn riendo es mala para los humanos tambin. +Porque hemos respondido la pregunta del comienzo. +Queramos saber de dnde venan este tipo de errores. +Y comenzamos con la esperanza de que tal vez podemos corregir nuestras instituciones financieras, corregir nuestras tecnologas para hacernos mejores a nosotros mismos. +Pero lo que hemos aprendido es que estas predisposiciones pueden ser una parte ms profunda de nosotros. +De hecho, pueden deberse a la misma naturaleza de nuestra historia evolutiva. +Ustedes saben, tal vez no son slo los humanos de este lado de la cadena los simplones. +tal vez es simplona la cadena entera. +Y sto, si creemos en los resultados del mono capuchino, significa que estas estrategias simplonas pueden tener 35 millones de aos. +Eso es mucho tiempo para que una estrategia pueda ser cambiada --es muy, muy vieja. +Qu sabemos de otras estrategias tan viejas como sta? +Bien, una cosa que sabemos es que tienden a ser muy difciles de superar. +Ya saben, piensen en nuestra predileccin por comer cosas dulces, cosas grasosas como los cheescake +No se puede simplemente cortarlo. No puedes simplemente +mirar al carrito de postres y decir, "No, no, no. Me parece desagradable". +Estamos construidos de forma diferente +Vamos a percibirlo como algo que es bueno de obtener. +Mi conjetura es que lo mismo va a ser verdad cuando los humanos estn percibiendo diferentes decisiones financieras. +Cuando ests viendo tus acciones caer en picada al rojo, cuando ests viendo el precio de tu casa desmoronarse, no sers capaz de verlo. sino en viejos terminos evolucionarios. +Esto significa que las predisposiciones que guan a los inversores a equivocarse, que llev a la crisis de las ejecuciones inmobiliarias van a ser muy dificiles de superar. +Esa es la mala noticia. La pregunta es: Hay alguna buena noticia? +Se supone que estoy aqu para darles buenas noticias. +Bien, la buena noticia, creo, es con lo que comenc esta charla, que los humanos no slo somos inteligentes, nuestra inteligencia inspira al resto del reino biolgico. +Somos tan buenos para sobreponernos a nuestras limitaciones biolgicas --ya saben, vol en un avion para llegar aqu +y no tuve que tratar de aletear mis alas. +Estoy usando lentes de contacto para poder verlos, +y no necesito confiar en mi miopa. +Tenemos todos estos casos en que superamos nuestras limitaciones biolgicas a travs de de la tecnologa y otros medios, al parecer con bastante facilidad. +Pero debemos reconocer que tenemos esas limitaciones. +Y aqu est el problema. +Fue Camus quien dijo: "El hombre es la nica especie que se niega a ser lo que realmente es". +Pero la irona es que, slo reconociendo nuestras limitaciones podremos superarlas realmente. +La esperanza es que puedan pensar sobre sus limitaciones, no como algo necesariamente insuperable, sino reconocindolas, aceptndolas y entonces usando el mundo del diseo para comprenderlas. +Esa puede ser la nica manera en la que seremos capaces de lograr nuestro potencial humano y ser de veras la noble especie que esperamos ser. +Gracias. +Cuando estuve aqu el ao pasado, les habl del nado que hice de atravesar el Polo Norte. +Y mientras ese nado fue hace 3 aos, lo recuerdo como si fuera ayer. +Recuerdo estar parado al borde del hielo, listo para lanzarme al agua, y pensando que nunca, pero nunca haba visto un lugar en la Tierra que sea tan aterrador. +El agua es completamente negra. +La temperatura es 1.7 C bajo cero, o 29 grados Fahrenheit. +S que haca un fro espantoso en aquella agua. +Y luego me vino un pensamiento: si las cosas no van bien en este nado, cunto demorar para que mi cuerpo congelado se hunda los 4 km y medio hasta el fondo del mar? +Y luego me dije, hay que quitar esta idea de mi cabeza lo antes posible. +Y ese nado me tom 18 minutos y 50 segundos, y pareci como 18 das. +Y me recuerdo saliendo del agua y sintiendo mis manos tan doloridas y mirando hacia mis dedos, y mis dedos eran, literalmente, del tamao de las salchichas porque -- estamos hechos en parte de agua -- cuando el agua se congela se expande, y entonces las clulas en mis dedos se haban congelado y expandido y reventaron. +Y el primer pensamiento que tuve al salir del agua fue el siguiente: Nunca ms en mi vida, vuelvo a nadar en aguas fras. +En fin, el ao pasado, escuch sobre el Himalayas y el derretimiento de los -- y el derretimiento de los glaciares por el cambio climtico. +Escuch sobre este lago, el lago Imja. +Este lago se ha formado en los ltimos 2 aos por el derretimiento del glaciar. +El glaciar desapareci a todo lo largo, hasta la montaa y en su lugar dej este inmenso lago. +Y creo con certeza que lo que estamos viendo en el Himalayas es el prximo gran campo de batalla en la Tierra. +Casi 2 mil millones de personas -- osea, 1 de cada 3 personas en la Tierra -- dependen del agua proveniente del Himalayas. +Y con una poblacin en rpido crecimiento, y con el suministro de agua de esos glaciares -- por el cambio climtico -- disminuyendo tanto, creo que tenemos un riesgo serio de inestabilidad. +Al norte, est China; al sur, India, Paquistn, Bangladesh, todos esos pases. +Entonces me decid a subir el monte Everest, la montaa ms alta de la Tierra, ir y hacer una nado simblico por debajo de la cumbre del monte Everest. +No s si alguno de ustedes tuvo la oportunidad de ir al monte Everest, pero es bastante traumtico llegar hasta all. +28 yaks grandes y poderosos subiendo todo el equipo a esta montaa -- no llevo solamente mi Speedo. Sino que hay un gran equipo de filmacin que luego envan las imgenes por todo el mundo. +Lo que tambin fue muy desafiante de este nado no es slo la altura. +Quera nadar a los 5.300m sobre el nivel del mar. +As que ests ah arriba, en los cielos. +Es muy, muy difcil respirar. Te genera "mal de altura". +Sientes como si tuvieras detrs un hombre con un martillo pegndote en la cabeza constantemente. +Esa no es la peor parte. +La peor parte fue que este ao decidieron hacer una gran operacin de limpieza en el monte Everest. +Muchsimas personas han muerto en el monte Everest, y ste fue el ao que decidieron ir a rescatar todos los cadveres de los montaistas y bajarlos de la montaa. +Y caminamos por este sendero, todo el camino hacia arriba. +Y a nuestra derecha estaba este inmenso glaciar Khumbu. +Y a todo lo largo del glaciar vimos estos grandes charcos de hielo derritindose. +Luego llegamos a este pequeo lago. por debajo de la cumbre del monte Everest, y me prepar, de la misma manera como siempre me preparo, para este nado que iba a ser tan difcil. +Me puse mi iPod, escuch algo de msica, Me puse tan agresivo como pude -- pero era una agresin controlada -- Y luego me arroj en esa agua. +En los primeros 100m nad lo ms rpido que pude, y luego me di cuenta, muy rpidamente, que me tena un gran problema. +Apenas poda respirar. +Respiraba jadeando. +Luego empec a ahogarme, y luego muy pronto me hizo vomitar en el agua. +Y todo pas tan rpidamente que luego -- no s cmo pas -- pero me fui por debajo del agua. +Y afortunadamente, era poco profundo, y pude impulsarme contra el fondo del lago para subir y tomar otra bocanada de aire. +Y luego me dije, sigue. Sigue. Sigue. +Segu unas 5 o 6 brazadas ms, luego me qued sin nada en mi cuerpo, y baj hasta el fondo del lago. +Y no s de dnde lo saqu, pero de alguna manera logr subir y tan pronto como pude alcanzar la orilla del lago. +He odo decir que el ahogarse es la muerte ms pacfica que hay. +Nunca he odo semejante tonteras! +Es la sensacin ms escalofriante y de pnico que se puede tener. +Logr llegar a la orilla del lago. +Mi equipo me agarr, y luego caminemos tan rpido como pudimos bajando -- por los escombros -- hasta nuestro campamento. +Y ah, nos sentamos, y analizamos lo que haba salido mal all en el monte Everest. +Y mi equipo me habl francamente. +Me dijeron, Lewis, necesitas un cambio radical de tctica si es que quieres hacer este nado. +Todas las cosas que has aprendido en los pasados 23 aos de natacin, debes olvidarlas. +Todas las cosas que has aprendido cuando estabas sirviendo en el ejrcito britnico, sobre velocidad y agresin, debes dejarlo de lado. +Queremos que subas la montaa dentro de 2 das. +Tmate un tiempo para descansar y pensar. +Queremos que subas la montaa dentro de 2 das. y en vez de nadar rpido, nada tan lentamente como te sea posible. +En vez de nadar a crol, nade pecho. +Y recuerda, nunca pero nunca nades con agresin. +Este es el momento de nadar con sincera humildad. +Entonces volvimos a subir a la montaa 2 das despus. +Y me par al borde del lago, y mir haca el monte Everest -- y ella es una de las montaas ms bellas de la Tierra -- y me dije, slo hazlo lentamente. +Y nad a travs del lago. +Y ni siquiera puedo decirte lo bien que me sent al llegar al otro lado. +Pero aprend dos lecciones muy, muy importantes all en el monte Everest. Y agradezco a mi equipo de sherpas quienes me ensearon stos. +Lo primero es que slo porque algo haya funcionado muy bien en el pasado, no quiere decir que vaya a funcionar bien en el futuro. +Y de manera similar, ahora, antes de hacer cualquier cosa, me pregunto qu clase de mentalidad necesito para tener xito en el proyecto. +Todas las seales de alarma estn all. +Cuando nac, la poblacin del mundo era de 3.5 mil millones de personas. +Ahora somos 6.8 mil millones, y se espera que seamos 9 mil millones para el 2050. +Y luego la segunda leccin, el cambio radical de tctica. +Y hoy he venido aqu para preguntarles: Qu cambio radical de tctica puedes hacer en t relacin con el medioambiente, que vaya a asegurar que nuestros hijos y nietos vivan en un mundo seguro y a salvo, y lo ms importante, en un mundo sostenible? +Y les pido, por favor, que se vayan de aqu y piensen sobre ese cambio radical de tctica que puedes hacer, que har esa gran diferencia, y luego comprometerse 100% a hacerlo. +Hablen sobre ellos, posteen en blogs, enven tweets, y compromtanse 100%. Porque muy, muy pocas cosas son imposibles de lograr si realmente enfocamos toda nuestra mente en ellos. +Entonces muchsimas gracias. +Me cri en una pequea granja de Misuri. +Vivimos con menos de un dlar al da durante unos 15 aos. +Consegu una beca y fui a la universidad. Estudi Agricultura Internacional y Antropologa, y decid que devolvera lo que me haban dado. +Pensaba trabajar con los propietarios de pequeas granjas, +para ayudarlos a salir de la pobreza. +Pensaba trabajar en desarrollo internacional. Pero mi vida dio un giro y termin aqu. +Aunque bien, no todo el mundo que se saca un doctorado y decide no dar clases acaba en un lugar como ste. +Es una opcin. Pero podras terminar conduciendo un taxi +en Nueva York. +Lo que encontr fue que empec a trabajar con refugiados y vctimas de hambrunas, todos o casi todos propietarios de pequeas granjas que haban sido expropiados y desplazados. +Lo que yo saba hacer era investigaciones cientficas sobre dichas personas. +As que eso fue lo que hice: hall cuntas de estas mujeres haban sido violadas en el traslado a los campos de refugiados. +Hall cuntas personas haban sido encarceladas, cuntos miembros de la familia haban sido asesinados. +Estim cunto tiempo estaran all y cunto costara alimentarlos. +Y me volv bastante bueno en predecir cuntas bolsas se necesitaran para los cadveres de los que falleceran en estos campos. +Pero eso es ms bien tarea de Dios y no ma. +No es el tipo de trabajo que quiero hacer. +En 1988, estaba en una selva tropical, en un concierto benfico de los Grateful Dead. +All conoc a alguien, el hombre de la izquierda. +Se llamaba Ben. +Y me pregunt: "Qu puedo hacer para salvar la selva tropical?". +Y le dije: "Bueno, Ben, t a qu te dedicas?". +"Hago helado". +As que le contest: "Pues tienes que hacer un helado del bosque. +Y necesitas usar nueces de la selva para mostrar que stas valen ms como bosques tropicales que como pastos para el ganado". +Y me dijo: "De acuerdo". +Al cabo de un ao, el helado "Rainforest Crunch" estaba en las tiendas. +Fue un gran xito. +Conseguimos nuestro primer milln de dlares en transacciones comprando nuestros materiales a 30 das y vendindolos a 21. +Eso te sube la adrenalina. +Despus conseguimos una lnea de crdito de 4,5 millones de dlares porque en ese momento ya merecamos la confianza de los bancos. +Controlbamos el 15% o el 20%, tal vez el 22% del mercado global de nueces de Brasil. +Pagbamos de dos a tres veces ms que cualquier otro y +todo el mundo empez a pagar ms a los recolectores de nueces de Brasil, porque si no nos las venderan a nosotros. +Fue un gran xito. +Firmamos con 50 compaas y sacamos al mercado 200 productos que generaron 100 millones en ventas. +Pero fracas. +Por qu fracas? +Porque la gente que recolectaba las nueces de Brasil no era la misma que estaba arrasando la selva tropical. +La gente que ganaba dinero con las nueces de Brasil no era la misma que ganaba dinero con la tala del bosque. +Nos equivocamos de blanco. +Necesitbamos trabajar con la carne, +necesitbamos trabajar con la madera, +necesitbamos trabajar con la soja; cosas por las que no nos habamos preocupado. +Pero volvamos a Sudn. +Normalmente hablo con los refugiados: "Por qu el mundo occidental no se da cuenta de que las hambrunas las causan los burcratas y las polticas y no el clima?". +Y un da un granjero me respondi con una verdad trascendental: +"No hay peor sordo que el que no quiere or". +Bien, sigamos. +Vivimos en un planeta y +nos tenemos que acostumbrar al hecho de que solamente tenemos uno, de que es un planeta finito. +Conocemos los lmites de los recursos que tenemos. +Podemos usarlos de diferentes maneras. +Podemos poner en prctica ideas innovadoras, +pero al fin y al cabo, es lo que es. +No hay ms. +Hay una ecuacin bsica que no podemos ignorar: +la poblacin y su consumo han de tener algn tipo de relacin con el planeta, y ahora mismo es totalmente asimtrica. +Nuestra investigacin muestra que vivimos en un planeta y un tercio. +En 1990 dejamos de tener una relacin sostenible con nuestro planeta. +Ahora consumimos 1,3 planetas. +Si furamos granjeros nos estaramos comiendo las semillas. +Si furamos banqueros, estaramos viviendo del capital, no de los intereses. +Esa es la situacin actual. +Mucha gente prefiere pensar que la causa del problema est en otro sitio: +el crecimiento de la poblacin. +El crecimiento de la poblacin es importante, pero tambin lo es la cantidad que consume cada persona. +En un mundo en el que el estadounidense medio consume 43 veces ms que el africano medio, nos tenemos que dar cuenta de que tenemos un problema: el consumo. +No es slo la poblacin, y tampoco es un problema de "ellos": nos concierne a nosotros. +Por eso no es solamente la cantidad de gente, sino su estilo de vida. +Hay bastantes pruebas-- quiz no tengamos la mejor metodologa, contrastada y a prueba de balas-- pero hay suficientes pruebas que indican que el gato medio europeo tiene un mayor impacto ecolgico durante su vida que el africano medio. +No creen que pueda ir a peor? +No tendramos que preguntarnos cmo deberamos usar los recursos de la Tierra? +Volvamos a revisar la ecuacin. +En el ao 2000, ramos seis mil millones de personas. +Consuman lo que consuman, digamos una unidad de consumo cada una. +Lo que da seis mil millones de unidades de consumo. +En 2050 seremos nueve mil millones: todos los cientficos estn de acuerdo. +Tambin estn de acuerdo en el hecho de que consumiremos el doble de lo que consumimos ahora. Porque los ingresos en los pases en va de desarrollo van a multiplicarse por cinco, aunque la media mundial estar sobre el 2,9. +As que en total habr 18 mil millones de unidades de consumo. +Quin ha estado diciendo ltimamente que necesitamos triplicar la produccin de bienes y servicios? +Eso es lo que dicen las matemticas, +pero no lo vamos a lograr. +Podemos mejorar la productividad, +podemos mejorar la eficiencia, +pero tambin debemos reducir el consumo. +Necesitamos producir ms con menos. +Necesitamos producir lo mismo con menos recursos +y tambin consumir mucho menos. +Todos estos factores forman parte de la misma ecuacin, +la cual nos lleva a la siguiente pregunta clave: deberan los consumidores poder elegir la sostenibilidad, los productos sostenibles? +Deberamos poder comprar tanto productos sostenibles como otros que no lo son? O todos los productos deberan ser sostenibles? +En un planeta finito puede que todo debiera ser sostenible, pero, cmo lo conseguimos? +El consumidor estndar estadounidense compra en 1,8 segundos. +Bueno, seamos ms generosos, +digamos que en Europa la media ronda los 3,5 segundos. +Cmo puede un consumidor evaluar un producto cuando la informacin cientfica cambia cada semana o incluso cada da? +Logramos informarnos? +No, no lo hacemos. +Les voy a hacer algunas preguntas. +Un cordero criado en el Reino Unido, incrementa ms o menos el efecto invernadero +que otro criado en Nueva Zelanda, congelado y luego transportado al Reino Unido? +Para el ganado vacuno, es mejor la ganadera intensiva o la extensiva? +Las patatas orgnicas, usan en realidad menos productos qumicos txicos que las patatas convencionales? +En todos estos casos la respuesta es: "depende". +En cada caso, y en muchos otros, depende de +quin lo produjo y cmo. +Puede un consumidor desenvolverse en este campo de minas? +No, no puede. +Puede tener muchas opiniones al respecto, pero nunca estar lo suficientemente informado. +La sostenibilidad ha de resolverse antes de la competencia. +Tiene que convertirse en algo que nos preocupe a todos. +Y para eso necesitamos una colusin. +Necesitamos que trabajen juntos grupos que nunca lo han hecho. +Necesitamos que Cargill y Bunge trabajen juntos, +que Coca-Cola y Pepsi trabajen juntos. +Que tambin lo hagan Oxford y Cambridge, +Greenpeace y el WWF. +Todos tenemos que trabajar juntos: tambin China y los EEUU. +Necesitamos administrar este planeta como si la vida nos fuera en ello, porque nos va, nos estamos jugando la vida. +Pero no podemos abarcarlo todo. +Incluso si conseguimos que todo el mundo participe, tenemos que tener una estrategia. +Necesitamos centrarnos en el dnde, el qu y el quin. +El lugar: hemos identificado 35 lugares en todo el mundo. +Estos lugares son los ms ricos en biodiversidad y los ms importantes desde el punto de vista de la dinmica entre ecosistemas. +Tenemos que trabajar en estos lugares, +tenemos que salvarlos si queremos tener al menos una posibilidad de conservar la biodiversidad tal y como la conocemos. +Despus identificamos las amenazas. +stas son las 15 materias primas que representan el mayor riesgo para estos lugares. Bien debido a la deforestacin, la degradacin de los suelos, el uso del agua, el uso de pesticidas, la sobrepesca, etc. +Hemos localizado 35 lugares, hemos identificado 15 materias primas, con quin podemos trabajar para cambiar el modo de produccin de estas materias primas? +Podemos trabajar con los 6900 millones de consumidores? +Veamos, unas 7000 lenguas en total, de las cuales 350 principales... muchsimo trabajo, no? +No creo que nadie sea capaz de hacerlo de manera eficaz. +Podemos trabajar con 1500 millones de productores? +De nuevo, una tarea inabarcable. +Debe haber otra forma. +Unas 300 o 500 empresas controlan el 70% o ms del mercado de cada una de las 15 materias primas que identificamos como las ms significativas. +Si trabajamos con ellas y logramos cambiar su manera de hacer negocios, el resto vendr solo. +Revisamos las 15 materias primas, +aqu pueden ver nueve de ellas. +Las pusimos en una tabla junto con los nombres de las compaas que trabajan en su comercio. +Si uno revisa las 25 30 primeros compaas de cada materia prima empieza a darse cuenta de que Dios mo!, Cargill por aqu, Cargill por ah, Cargill est en todos lados. +De hecho, ciertos nombres aparecen una y otra vez, +as que volvimos a analizar los datos de otra manera. +Tomamos las 100 principales compaas y calculamos el porcentaje de las 15 materias primas que acaparaban, ya fuera en ventas o compras. +Y vimos que era el 25%. +Slo 100 compaas controlan el 25% del comercio de las 15 materias primeras ms significativas del planeta. +Podemos abarcar cien empresas, +con cien compaas s que podemos trabajar. +Por qu es importante este 25%? +Porque si todas estas empresas exigieran productos sostenibles transformaran el 40% 50% de la produccin. +Las empresas pueden apremiar a los productores mucho ms rpido que los consumidores. +Si las empresas lo exigen conseguiremos cambiar el modo de produccin mucho antes que si esperamos a que lo hagan los consumidores. +Despus de 40 aos, el movimiento ecologista ha logrado acaparar el 0,7% del mercado alimentario. +No podemos esperar tanto. +No tenemos tanto tiempo. +Necesitamos un cambio que acelere el proceso. Tampoco vamos a conseguirlo si +trabajamos con las empresas de manera individual. Necesitamos empezar a trabajar con toda la industria, +as que hemos empezado con meses redondas en las que reunimos a toda la cadena productiva. Desde los productores hasta las marcas y los minoristas. +Reunimos a la sociedad civil, las ONG, tambin traemos a cientficos e investigadores para tener un debate bien documentado. A veces se convierte en una batalla campal, en la que intentamos identificar los impactos ms importantes de estos productos, cules son los puntos de referencia globales, qu impactos son aceptables, y a partir de todo esto desarrollamos nuestros criterios. +No es tan divertido como pueda parecer. +Comenzamos una mesa redonda sobre la acuicultura del salmn har unos seis aos, +en la que reunimos a ocho entidades. +Creo que reunimos al 60% de la produccin y al 25% de la demanda en esa mesa redonda. +3 de las 8 entidades estaban en pleitos entre ellas, +e incluso as, a la semana siguiente conseguimos poner en marcha unos estndares de calidad comunes, revisados y certificados, para la acuicultura del salmn. +Es posible. +Qu es lo que empuja a las diferentes entidades a participar en estas mesas redondas? +Es el riesgo y la demanda. +Para las grandes empresas, est en juego su reputacin. Pero es que adems no les importa el precio de las materias primas. +Sin materias primas, no hay negocio. +Les preocupa la disponibilidad, ya que su mayor peligro es quedarse sin producto que vender. +Respecto a los productores, quieren saber si los compradores quieren un producto producido de una manera determinada, por eso vienen a las mesas redondas. +Es la demanda lo que los trae. +Y ahora las buenas noticias. Hace dos aos identificamos 100 empresas clave. +En los ltimos 18 meses hemos firmado acuerdos con 40 de esas 100 empresas, para trabajar con ellas en su cadena de suministro. +En los prximos 18 meses, firmaremos acuerdos con otras 40 empresas con las que tambin empezaremos a trabajar. +Estamos poniendo toda la carne en el asador. +Estamos usando todos los trucos inimaginables para que vengan. +Una de las compaas que acaba de empezar (aunque sean sus primeros pasitos) su viaje hacia la sostenibilidad es Cargill. +Han patrocinado una investigacin que demuestra, plantando rboles en suelo degradado, solamente en la isla de Borneo, podramos duplicar la produccin mundial de aceite de palma en los prximos 20 aos. +Este estudio demuestra que la mayor rentabilidad del aceite de palma se consigue en suelo degradado. +Tambin estn estudiando la manera de que sus proveedores de aceite de palma consigan un certificado de calidad, y qu necesitaran cambiar para conseguir que una entidad externa las certificara. +Por qu es importante Cargill? +Porque Cargill controla del 20% al 25% del aceite de palma. +Si Cargill cambiara, toda la industria del aceite de palma se transformara, o al menos el 40% 50%, +que no es un porcentaje insignificante. +An ms, Cargill, junto con otra empresa, exportan el 50% del aceite de palma que entra en China. +Si conseguimos que Cargill exporte aceite de palma sostenible a China, no necesitamos cambiar la produccin de las empresas chinas. +Es una cuestin anterior a la competencia. +Todo este aceite de palma es bueno: +compradlo. +Mars va por el mismo camino. +Mucha gente cree equivocadamente que Mars slo se dedica al chocolate, pero de hecho se ha comprometido a comprar solamente pescado sostenible y certificado. +Y resulta que Mars, debido a su comida para animales, compra ms pescado que Walmart. +Pero adems estn haciendo cosas muy interesantes con el chocolate, ya que, simplemente, quieren seguir ganando dinero en el futuro. +Y se han dado cuenta de que necesitan mejorar la produccin de chocolate. +En una plantacin cualquiera, el 20% de los rboles producen el 80% de la cosecha, por lo que Mars est analizando su genoma, est secuenciando el genoma del rbol del cacao. +Trabajan junto con IBM y el Dpto. de Agricultura de EEUU y lo hacen pblico, porque quieren que todos tengamos acceso a esta informacin, porque quieren que todo el mundo los ayude a hacer el cacao ms productivo y sostenible. +Se han dado cuenta de que si identifican los rasgos fenotpicos de la productividad y la tolerancia a la segua, podran producir un 320% ms cacao con el 40% de la tierra. +El resto de la tierra podra utilizarse para otra cosa. +Es conseguir ms con menos: +as debe ser el futuro. Y hacerlo pblico es algo inteligente. +No quieren dedicarse a la Propiedad Intelectual, sino al chocolate. Quieren dedicarse al chocolate para siempre. +Mucha gente se queja del precio de la comida, pero en realidad el precio de los alimentos est bajando, aunque suene raro. Y eso sucede porque los consumidores no pagan su verdadero coste. +Por ejemplo, el agua. Si analizamos cuatro productos comunes, vemos que si comparamos lo que le cost al granjero producir esos productos, es decir, qu cantidad de agua invirti, y cunto se le pag al granjero... +Si dividimos la cantidad de agua invertida por lo que se le pag al granjero, ste no podra haber comprado esa cantidad de agua para ninguno de estos productos. +sa es la definicin de externalidad: +el agua es la subvencin de la Naturaleza. +Coca-Cola, por ejemplo, ha trabajado mucho en el tema del agua. Ahora mismo han firmado unos contratos por 17 aos con agricultores en Turqua para venderle zumo a Europa. Lo hacen porque quieren conseguir un producto ms cercano al mercado europeo. +Pero no slo compran el zumo, sino tambin los rboles que procesan el dixido de carbono que se necesita para transportar el producto hasta Europa, y de esta manera compensan su impacto medioambiental. +Se compra dixido de carbono con el azcar, con el caf, con la carne de vacuno. +A esto lo llaman "bundling" [asociacin de gastos]. Y as consiguen incorporar el coste de las externalidades al precio del producto. +Debemos usar todo lo que hemos aprendido de las mejores empresas privadas del mundo para lograr implementar una poltica gubernamental que cambie la curva del rendimiento. +No podemos quedarnos en encontrar al mejor: debemos cambiar al resto. +El problema no es en qu pensamos, sino cmo pensamos. +Estas empresas ya han empezado a pensar diferente. +Han comenzado un viaje sin vuelta atrs +y nosotros estamos en el mismo barco. +Debemos cambiar por completo nuestra manera de pensar el mundo. +Lo que ha sido sostenible en un planeta de 6 mil millones no lo ser en uno de 9 mil millones. +Gracias. +El desafo mundial del que quiero hablarles hoy rara vez ocupa las primeras pginas. +Sin embargo es enorme tanto en escala como en importancia. +Vean, todos Uds viajan mucho; despus de todo esto es TEDGlobal. +Pero espero llevarlos a algunos lugares a los que no han ido antes. +Empecemos en China. +Esta foto fue tomada hace dos semanas. +En realidad, un indicio es que ese niito en los hombros de mi marido se gradu de la secundaria. +Esa es la Plaza de Tiananmen. +Muchos de Uds han estado all. Pero no es la verdadera China. +Djenme llevarlos a la verdadera China. +Esto es en las montaas Dabian en una parte lejana de la provincia de Hubei en China central. +Dai Manju tiene 13 aos cuando esta historia comienza. +Ella vive con sus padres, sus dos hermanos y su ta abuela. +Tienen una choza sin electricidad, ni agua potable, no tienen reloj de pulsera, ni bicicleta, +y comparten esta majestuosidad con un cerdo muy grande. +Dai Manju estaba en sexto grado cuando sus padres le dijeron "Te vamos a sacar de la escuela porque los 13 dlares de la cuota escolar son mucho para nosotros. +Vas a pasar el resto de tu vida en los arrozales. +Por qu malgastaramos el dinero en ti?" +Esto es lo que sucede con las nias en zonas lejanas. +Resuta que Dai Manju era la mejor alumna de su grado. +Ella todava hace la caminata de dos horas a la escuela y trataba de captar toda la informacin que se filtraba por las puertas. +Escribimos sobre ella en el New York Times. +Recibimos gran cantidad de donaciones en su mayora cheques de 13 dlares, porque los lectores del New York Times son muy generosos en pequeas sumas. Pero luego tuvimos una transferencia de $ 10.000, un hombre muy agradable. +Le entregamos el dinero al hombre de all, el director de la escuela. +l estaba encantado. +Pens: "Puedo renovar la escuela. +Puedo dar becas a todas las nias". Si trabajan mucho y permanecen en la escuela. +As que Dai Manju bsicamente termin la escuela media. +Fue a la secundaria. +Fue a la escuela profesional de contabilidad. +Busc trabajo en la provincia de Guangdong en el sur. +Encontr un empleo, busc trabajo para sus compaeras de clase y amigas. +Le envi dinero a su familia. +Construy una casa nueva, esta vez con agua potable, electricidad, una bicicleta, sin un cerdo. +Lo que vimos fue un experimento natural. +No es usual conseguir una inversin externa para la educacin de las nias. +Con el correr de los aos, siguiendo a Dai Manju, pudimos ver que ella pudo pasar de un ciclo vicioso a un ciclo virtuoso. +No slo cambi su propia dinmica, cambi su casa, su familia, su aldea. +La aldea se volvi un verdadero soporte de salida. +Claro que por el momento toda China estaba prosperando, pero fueron capaces de hacer construir una va para conectarse con el resto de China. +Lo que me lleva a los dos primeros y grandes principios de "Half the Sky". +Y eso es que el desafo moral fundamental de este siglo es la desigualdad de gnero. +En el siglo XIX fue la esclavitud. +En el siglo XX fue el totalitarismo. +La causa de nuestro tiempo es la brutalidad que tantas personas enfrentan en el mundo por cuestiones de gnero. +Por lo que algunos de Uds pueden pensar, "Caramba, eso es una exageracin. +Ella est exagerando". +Bien, djenme preguntarles esto. +Cuntos piensan que hay ms hombres y cuntos ms mujeres en el mundo? +Permtanme encuestarlos. Cuntos piensan que hay ms hombres en el mundo? +Levanten las manos, por favor. +Cantos piensan... pocos... cuntos piensan que hay ms mujeres en el mundo? +De acuerdo, la mayora. +Bien, este ltimo grupo est equivocado. +Hay, es cierto, en Europa y Occidente cuando las mujeres y los hombres tienen igual acceso a la comida y al cuidado de la salud hay ms mujeres, vivimos ms. +Pero en la mayora del resto del mundo eso no es as. +De hecho, los demgrafos han mostrado que hay entre 60 millones y 100 millones menos mujeres en la poblacin actual. +Y eso sucede por diversas razones. +Por ejemplo, en el medio siglo pasado, ms nias fueron discriminadas a muerte que todas las personas asesinadas en los campos de batalla en el siglo XX. +A veces es tambin por la ecografa. +Las nias son abortadas incluso antes de nacer cuando hay escacez de recursos. +Esta nia de aqu, por ejemplo, se encuentra en un centro de alimentacin en Etiopa. +Todo el centro est lleno de nias como ella. +Lo notable es que sus hermanos, en la misma familia, estaban completamente bien. +En India, en el primer ao de vida, de cero a uno, nios y nias sobreviven bsicamente en la misma proporcin porque dependen del seno y el seno no tiene preferencias por el hijo. +De uno a cinco las nias mueren a una tasa 50% ms alta que los nios, en toda India. +El segundo principio de "Half the Sky" es que, dejemos de lado la moralidad de lo correcto y lo incorrecto de esto. Y slo a un nivel prctico, pensamos que una de las mejores maneras de luchar contra la pobreza y el terrorismo es educar a las nias e incorporar mujeres a la fuerza de trabajo formal. +La pobreza, por ejemplo. +Hay tres razones por las que este es el caso. +La primera, la superpoblacin es una de las constantes causas de pobreza. +Y, ya saben, cuando uno educa a un nio su familia tiende a tener menos nios pero slo levemente. +Cuando uno educa a una nia ella tiende a tener significativamente menos hijos. +La segunda razn tiene que ver con el gasto. +Es algo as como el secretito sucio de la pobreza, que es que la gente pobre no slo tiene ingresos muy bajos sino que tambin los ingresos que reciben no los gastan de manera muy inteligente. Y, desafortunadamente, la mayora de ese gasto lo hacen los hombres. +As, la investigacin muestra, si uno mira la gente que vive con menos de dos dlares diarios, una mtrica de pobreza 2% de ese ingreso va a la canasta de aqu, en educacin. +20% va a una canasta que es una combinacin de alcohol, tabaco, bebidas azucaradas, prostitucin y fiestas. +Si uno toma 4 puntos porcentuales y los pone en esta canasta, tendra un efecto transformador. +La ltima razn tiene que ver con mujeres que son parte de la solucin, no del problema. +Uno necesita usar los recursos escasos. +Es un derroche de recursos si uno no usa alguen como Dai Manju. +Bill Gats lo dijo muy bien cuando estaba viajando por Arabia Saudita. +Estaba hablando ante una audiencia parecida a Uds. +Sin embargo, a dos tercios del camino haba una barrera. +En este lado estaban los hombres, luego la barrera, y de este lado las mujeres. +Y alguien de este lado de la sala se levant y dijo, "Sr. Gates, aqu tenemos el objetivo en Arabia Saudita en ser uno de los 10 pases principales en trminos de tecnologa. +Piensa que podremos lograrlo?" +Y Bill Gates, mientras miraba fijamente a la audiencia, dijo: "Si no utilizan a pleno la mitad de los recursos de su pas, no hay manera en que puedan llegar a los 10 principales". +Por eso aqu est Bill de Arabia. +Entonces, a qu se pareceran alguno de los desafos especficos? +Yo dira, en el tope de la agenda est el trfico sexual. +Y voy a decir slo dos cosas al respecto. +La esclavitud en la cima de la trata de esclavos en la dcada de 1780: haba unos 80.000 esclavos transportados de frica al Nuevo Mundo. +Hoy, la esclavitud moderna: segn las estadsticas aproximadas del Departamento de Estado hay cerca de 800.000, 10 veces la cantidad, que se trafica por las fronteras internacionales. +Y eso ni siquiera incluye los que son traficados dentro de las fronteras del pas, que es una parte importante. +Y si uno mira otro factor, otro contraste, un esclavo vala entonces unos $40.000 en dinero de hoy. +Hoy, uno puede comprar una nia de trata por unos cientos de dlares, lo que significa que en realidad es ms desechable. +Pero se ven progresos en lugares como Camboya y Tailandia. +No tenemos que esperar un mundo en el que las nias son compradas, vendidas o asesinadas. +El segundo punto del programa es la moralidad materna. +El nacimiento de los nios en esta parte del mundo es un acontecimiento maravilloso. +En Nigeria, 1 de cada 7 mujeres se espera que muera durante el parto. +En todo el mundo muere una mujer por minuto y medio despus del parto. +No es que no tengamos la solucin tcnolgica sino que estas mujeres tienen tres golpes en contra: son pobres, son de zonas rurales, y son mujeres. +Por cada mujer que muere, hay 20 que sobreviven pero terminan con lesiones. +Y la lesin ms devastadora es la fstula obsttrica. +Se trata de un desgarro durante el parto obstruido que deja a una mujer incontinente. +Djenme contarles sobre Mahabuba. +Ella vive en Etiopa. +Se cas contra su voluntad a los 13 aos. +Qued embarazada, corri al campo a tener el beb pero, ya saben, su cuerpo era muy inmaduro, y termin teniendo un trabajo de parto obstruido. +El beb muri y ella termin con una fstula. +Lo que significa que qued incontinente; no poda controlar sus desechos. +En una palabra, apestaba. +Los aldeanos pensaron que estaba maldecida; no saban que hacer con ella. +As que finalmente la dejaron al borde de la aldea en una choza. +Le arrancaron la puerta para que las hienas pudieran atacarla por la noche. +Esa noche haba un palo en la choza. +Ella luch con las hienas con ese palo. +Y a la maana siguiente, saba que si poda llegar a una aldea cercana donde hubiese un misionero extranjero, se salvara. +Dado que tena algn dao muscular, se arrastr todo el camino, 50 kms, hasta esa puerta, medio muerta. +El misionero extranjero abri la puerta, saba exactamente lo que haba sucedido, la llev a un hospital cercano en Addis Abeba, y ella fue atendida con una operacin de 350 dlares. +Los doctores y enfermeras observaron que no slo era una sobreviviente era realmente inteligente, y la convirtieron en enfermera. +As que ahora Mahabuba est salvando las vidas de cientos, miles de mujeres. +Se ha vuelto parte de la solucin, no del problema. +Pas de un ciclo vicioso a un ciclo virtuoso. +He hablado de algunos de los desafos, djenme hablarles de algunas de las soluciones y hay soluciones predecibles. +Las he indicado: educacin y tambin oportunidad econmica. +As, por supuesto, cuando uno educa una nia, ella tiende a casarse ms tarde en su vida, tiende a tener hijos ms tarde en la vida, tiende a tener menos hijos, y esos hijos que ella tiene, son educadas de una manera mucho ms culta. +Con oportunidades econmicas puede ser transformador. +Djenme contarles sobre Saima. +Ella vive en una pequea aldea en las afueras de Lahore, Pakistn. +En ese momento, ella era infeliz. +Era golpeada todos los das por su marido, que estaba desempleado. +l era del tipo jugador, y por lo tanto desempleado, y proyectaba sus frustraciones en ella. +Bien, cuando tuvo su segunda hija, su suegra le dijo a su hijo: "Creo que sera mejor que tuvieras una segunda esposa. +Saima no va a darte un hijo". +Esto es cuando ella tuvo su segunda hija. +En ese momento, haba un grupo de microcrdito en la aldea que le dio un prstamo de 65 dlares. +Saima tom ese dinero y emprendi un negocio de bordado. +Los comerciantes apreciaban sus bordados; se vendan bien, y comenzaron a pedirle ms. +Y cuando no pudo producir lo suficiente contrat a otras mujeres de la aldea. +Pronto tena 30 mujeres de la aldea trabajando en su negocio de bordado. +Y luego cuando tuvo que transportar todos los bordados desde la aldea hasta el mercado, necesitaba alguien que la ayude con el transporte, as que contrat a su marido. +Por lo que ahora trabajan en eso juntos. +l hace el transporte y la distribucin y ella la produccin y el abastecimiento. +Y ahora tienen una tercera hija, y las hijas, todas ellas, estn siendo instruidas en educacin porque Saima sabe qu importa realmente. +Lo que me lleva al elemento final, que es la educacin. +Larry Summers, cuando fue jefe economista del Banco Mundial, una vez dijo que "Es muy posible que el mayor retorno de la inversin en el mundo en desarrollo sea la educacin de las nias". +Djenme contarles acerca de Beatrice Biira. +Beatrice viva en Uganda cerca de la frontera con el Congo y, como Dai Manju, no iba a la escuela. +En realidad, nunca haba ido a la escuela ni un poquito, jams. +Sus padres, otra vez, decan: "Por qu habramos de gastar dinero en ella? +Se pasar gran parte de su vida acarreando agua de un lado a otro". +Bien, da la casualidad que en ese entonces haba un grupo en Connecticut llamado Niantic Community Church Group, en Connecticut. +Ellos donaron a una organizacin con sede en Arkansas llamada Heifer International. +Heifer envi dos cabras a frica. +Una de ellas acab en lo de los padres de Beatrice. Y esa cabra tuvo mellizas. +Las mellizas comenzaron a producir leche. +Vendieron la leche por dinero. +El dinero comenz a acumularse, y muy pronto los padres dijeron: "Ya saben, tenemos suficiente dinero. Enviemos a Beatrice a la escuela". +As que a los nueve aos Beatrice comenz primer grado, despus de todo, ella nunca haba ido a la escuela, con nios de 6 aos. +No importaba, ella estaba encantada de ir a la escuela. +Ella lleg a la cima de su clase. +Permaneci en la cima de su clase en la primaria, en la escuela intermedia, y luego en la secundaria, sac notas excelentes a nivel nacional por lo que fue la primera en su aldea, en venir a los Estados Unidos con una beca escolar. +Hace dos aos se gradu en la universidad de Connecticut. +El da de su graduacin dijo: "Soy la chica con vida ms afortunada gracias a una cabra". +Y esa cabra cost $120. +As que vean lo transformadora que puede ser una pequea ayuda. +Pero quiero darles un bao de realidad. +Miren: ayuda de EE.UU., ayudar a la gente no es fcil. Y ha habido libros que criticaron la ayuda de EE.UU. +Est el libro de Bill Easterly. +Hay un libro llamado "Dead Aid". +Ya saben, la crtica es bastante; no es fcil. +La gente dice cmo la mitad de los proyectos de pozos de agua, un ao despus, fracasaron. +Cuando estuve en Zimbabwe, estbamos recorriendo un lugar con el jefe de la aldea, quera recaudar dinero para una escuela secundaria, y haba una construccin a pocos metros de distancia y yo le dije: "Qu es eso?" +l en cierto modo murmur. +Resulta que es un proyecto de irrigacin fallido. +A pocos metros de all haba una cooperativa avcola fallida. +Un ao, todos los pollos murieron, y nadie quera poner los pollos all. +Es cierto, pero pensamos que uno no baa el beb con el agua del bao; uno en realidad mejora. +Uno aprende de los errores y mejora constantemente. +Pensamos que los individuos pueden marcar una diferencia, y deberan hacerlo, porque los individuos juntos podemos ayudar a crear un movimiento. +Y movimientos de hombres y mujeres es lo que se necesita para producir cambios sociales, cambios que se ocuparn de este gran desafo moral. +Entonces, pregunto: cmo se ven en esto? +Probablemente se estn preguntando eso: por qu debera importarme? +Yo slo les digo dos cosas. +Una de ellas es que la investigacin muestra que una vez que han cubierto todas las necesidades materiales muchos de nosotros, todos nosotros en esta sala, la investigacin muestra que hay muy pocas cosas en la vida que pueden elevar nuestro nivel de felicidad. +Una de esas cosas es contribuir a una causa ms grande que uno mismo. +Y la segunda cosa. Es una ancdota que les dejo. +Y es la historia de una trabajadora humanitaria en Darfur. +Esta es una mujer que trabajaba en Darfur y vea cosas que ningn humano debera ver. +Durante su estancia all ella fue fuerte, ella se mantuvo firme. +Nunca se venci. +Y luego regres a Estados Unidos y estaba de vacaciones, vacaciones de Navidad. +Estaba en el patio trasero de su abuela, y vio algo que la hizo romper en llanto. +Lo que vio fue un comedero para pjaros. +Y se dio cuenta que tuvo la gran suerte de haber nacido en un pas en el que damos por sentada la seguridad en el que no slo podemos alimentarnos, vestirnos y tener casa para nostros mismos sino que adems se la damos a los pjaros silvestres para que no pasen hambre en el invierno. +Y se dio cuenta que con esa gran suerte viene una gran responsabilidad. +Y as, como ella, Uds, yo, todos hemos ganado la lotera de la vida. +Y entonces la pregunta se convierte en: cmo cumplimos con esa responsabilidad? +Por lo tanto, aqu est la causa. +nanse al movimiento. +Sintanse ms felices y ayuden a salvar el mundo. +Muchas gracias. +De este modo hace un ao, exhib esto en una exposicin de ocio digital llamada E3. +Se trataba de un dispositivo tecnolgico a travs del cual una persona llamada Claire interactuaba con este nio. +Hubo una enorme discusin en lnea sobre, "Oye, no puede ser verdad". +He esperado hasta ahora para tener la demo de la tecnologa real. +Esta tecnologa incorpora tres grandes elementos. +Les ser sincero y dir que la mayor parte es slo un truco, pero un truco que funciona. +Por qu no lo analizamos y vemos la demo. +l es Dimitri. +Dimitri, mueve el brazo. +Observan que est sentado. +No hay controladores, ni teclados, ni ratones, ni joysticks, ni controladores para juegos. +Slo va a usar su mano, su cuerpo y su voz, tal y como interactan los humanos con sus manos, su cuerpo y su voz. +Avancemos. +Van a conocer a Milo. +Tenamos que darle un problema, porque cuando creamos a Milo, nos dimos cuenta de que nos sali un mocoso para serles sincero. +Era un sabelotodo, y quera hacer rer. +De modo que el problema que le presentamos fue ste: se acaba de mudar de casa. +Se ha mudado de Londres a Nueva Inglaterra, all en EE.UU. +Sus padres estn demasiado ocupados para escuchar sus problemas, y entonces es cuando empieza a encantarte. +Aqu lo tenemos caminando por la hierba. +Pueden interactuar con l tambin. +Lo mejor es que lo que hacemos es cambiar la opinin de Milo constantemente. +Eso significa que no hay dos Milos iguales. +Estn dando forma a un ser humano. +Est descubriendo el jardn. +Le estn ayudando a descubrir el jardn al sealar a esos caracoles. +Muy sencillo al principio. +Por cierto, si uno es un chico, son caracoles; si es una chica, mariposas, porque hemos averiguado que a las chicas no les gustan los caracoles. +Recuerden, lo acaban de conocer, y queremos atraerles y despertar su curiosidad. +Su rostro, por cierto, est totalmente controlado por IA. +Tenemos un control absoluto sobre sus reacciones de sonrojo, el dimetro de las ventanas de su nariz para denotar estrs. +Hacemos algo que se llama correspondencia corporal. +Si uno se inclina hacia delante, l intentar cambiar ligeramente la naturaleza neurolingstica de su cara, porque partimos de esta idea equivocada: cmo podemos hacerles creer que algo es real? +Hemos usado la mano. +Y tambin el cuerpo. +Por qu, en lugar de empujar hacia la izquierda y la derecha con un ratn o con un controlador para juegos, por qu no usar su cuerpo para inclinarse en la silla, otra vez, relajados? +Pueden reclinarse, pero la cmara cambiar la perspectiva dependiendo de la direccin en la que miren. +Dimitri va a usar... ha usado su mano; ha usado su cuerpo. +Va a usar otra cosa que es esencial, y es su voz. +La cuestin sobre la voz es, nuestra experiencia con el reconocimiento de voz es bastante mala. +Nunca funciona. +Encargas un pasaje de avin y acabas en Tombuct. +Hemos tratado ese problema y hemos dado con una solucin que vern en un momento. +Milo: Podra aplastarlo. +Peter Molyneux: Qu vas a hacer, Dimitri? +Voz femenina: Aplastar a un caracol no parecer importante, pero recuerden, incluso esta eleccin afectar a la evolucin de Milo. +Quieren que Milo lo aplaste? +Cuando vean el micrfono, digan... (PM: Aplastar.)... s para decidir. +Dimitri: Vamos, Milo. Aplstalo. +PM: No. Esa es la decisin equivocada. +Observen su respuesta. +Dijo: "Vamos, Milo. Aplstalo". +Lo que usamos ah es, usamos una tecnologa llamada Tell Me. +Es una compaa que adquiri Microsoft hace unos aos. +Disponemos de una base de datos de palabras que reconocemos. +Las seleccionamos. +Tambin la documentamos con la base de datos tonal que construimos a partir de la voz de Dimitri o la voz del usuario. +Necesitamos tener una mayor implicacin. Y de nuevo, lo que hacemos es observar el cuerpo. +Lo haremos en un momento. +Milo: Me pregunto qu profundidad tiene. +Profundo. +PM: Bien. O sea, lo que vamos a hacer es ensear a Milo a hacer patitos. +Ya le estamos enseando. +Resulta muy interesante que los hombres, ms que las mujeres, suelen ser en esto ms competitivos. +Se sienten cmodos ensendole a lanzar piedras, pero despus quieren vencer a Milo, mientras que las mujeres, son ms protectoras en este aspecto. +Bien, esto es hacer patitos. +Cmo lo haces? +Te pones en pie, y rozas la superficie con la piedra. +As de simple. +Reconociendo el cuerpo, reconociendo sus movimientos, la tecnologa, comprendiendo que se ha pasado de estar sentado a estar de pie. +De nuevo, todo esto se hace como nosotros los humanos lo hacemos, y eso es sumamente importante si queremos que Milo parezca real. +Voz femenina: A ver si puedes animarle a hacerlo mejor. +Prueba a darle al barco. +Milo: Ahhh. Por poco. +PM: El lado ms competitivo de Dimitri. +Ha ganado a un nio de 11 aos. Bien hecho. +Milo: Bien. +PM: A Milo lo reclaman sus padres, as tenemos tiempo para estar solos y ayudarle. +Bsicamente... lo que no vimos al principio... sus padres le haban pedido que ordenara su habitacin. +Y ahora le vamos a ayudar. +Pero va a ser una presentacin y tiene que ver con la psicologa profunda que aplicamos. +Intentamos presentarles lo que creo que es la parte ms maravillosa, que ustedes puedan hablarle a Milo con su voz natural. +Para hacerlo, necesitamos una simulacin, como el truco de un mago. +Y lo que hicimos fue, tenamos que dar a Milo este problema. +Mientras que Dimitri empieza a limpiar, pueden or de fondo una conversacin que tiene Milo con sus padres. +Madre: Hay salsa por todo el suelo. (Milo: Fue sin querer!) Madre de Milo: Esa alfombra es nueva. +PM: Se le ha cado un plato de salchichas al suelo, a la alfombra nueva. +Todos lo hemos hecho como padres; todos lo hemos hecho como hijos. +Ahora Dimistri tiene la oportunidad de tranquilizar y calmar a Milo. +Ha sido demasiado para l. +Se acaba de mudar de casa. No tiene amigos. +Ahora es el momento en el que abrimos ese portal y les permitimos hablar con Milo. +Voz femenina: Por qu no intentas decir algo que anime a Milo. +Dimitri: Venga, Milo. Ya sabes cmo son los padres. +Siempre estn estresados. +Milo: Para qu quieren venirse aqu? +No conocemos a nadie. +Dimitri: Tienes una nueva escuela. +Vas a conocer muchos amigos nuevos que molan. +Milo: Echo de menos mi antigua casa, eso es todo. +Dimitri: sta es una casa bastante bonita, Milo. +Tienes un jardn genial para jugar y un estanque. +Milo: Me gustaba hacer ranitas. +Es bonito. +Ordenaste mi habitacin. +Gracias. +PM: Despus de tres cuartos de hora, l les reconoce. +Se lo prometo, si estn sentados delante de esta pantalla, es un momento verdaderamente maravilloso. +Estamos listos para contar una historia sobre su infancia y su vida, y contina, y tiene muchas aventuras. +Algunas de ellas son un poco tristes o estn en el lado ms oscuro. +Otras son maravillosamente esperanzadoras... tiene que ir a la escuela. +Lo mejor es que nosotros lo hacemos tambin: al interactuar con l, pueden poner objetos en su mundo y l los reconoce. +Su mente est localizada en una nube. +Eso significa que la mente de Milo, tal y como millones de personas la usamos, se har ms inteligente y ms lista. +Reconocer ms objetos y as comprender ms palabras. +Pero por lo que a m respecta, es una oportunidad maravillosa con la que la tecnologa, por fin, puede relacionarse, en la que no me limita ya el dedo que levanto en mi mano... en lo que respecta a un juego de PC... o la experiencia inspida carente de reconocimiento de ver una pelcula o un libro. +Me encantan estas revoluciones y me encanta el futuro que trae Milo. +Muchsimas gracias. +Esta charla va de reescribir nuestros errores. +No, no es un error de audio... escribir errores correctamente. +Oriente Medio es enorme y an con todos nuestros problemas, algo es seguro: nos encanta rer. +Creo que el humor es una gran forma de celebrar nuestras diferencias. +Tenemos que tomarnos nuestras responsabilidades con seriedad, pero no a nosotros mismos. +No me malinterpreten: no es que no hagamos comedia en Oriente Medio. +Crec en un momento en el que los actores de culto de Kuwait, de Siria, de Egipto, usaban la risa para unir a la regiones igual que lo hace el ftbol. +ste es el momento de rernos de nosotros mismos antes de que otros se ran de nosotros. +sta es la historia de cmo surgen y crecen los monlogos humorsticos en Oriente Medio... la rebelin de los monlogos, si prefieren. +Cuando trabajaba en Londres como productor y escritor de TV me di cuenta muy pronto de que la comedia conecta a las audiencias. +Ahora, el mejor caldo de cultivo de los buenos textos humorsticos es el circuito de los monlogos donde se suele decir que uno "mata" si lo hace bien y que uno "arroja una bomba" si lo hace mal. +Una coincidencia desafortunada para nosotros tal vez, pero eso me recuerda que nos gustara darle las gracias a un hombre que, durante la ltima dcada, trabaj incansablemente en apoyo de los cmicos de todo el mundo, y en especial de los cmicos con alguna relacin con Oriente Medio. +Como mis buenos amigos, Dean y Maysoon, en la parte baja de la pantalla, que dos aos despus del 11-S lanzaron un festival para cambiar la manera en que se percibe a la gente de Oriente Medio en el mundo. +Todava es difcil. Con lo que nos ayuda la prensa. +Adems, hace aos, tres tipos que trabajaban en Los ngeles: un iran, un palestino y un egipcio crearon un espectculo cmico al que acertadamente llamaron la comedia del Eje del Mal. +Y donde quiera que fueran arrasaban. +Como ven, yo no comenc este fuego, pero s que puse ms gasolina. +Me mud a Dubai como jefe de nuevos contenidos para una cadena de TV occidental. +Mi tarea consista en conectar su cadena con la audiencia de Oriente Medio. +El jefe estadounidense de la programacin quera una nueva comedia rabe local. +Con un marcado acento rabe, mi cerebro dijo: "Berfecto". +Tengo amigos en Estados Unidos +que han comenzado con xito una nueva tribu. +Yo tena toda la intencin de llevarlos desde anonimato en Oriente Medio hasta la cima del xito. +Como con toda idea nueva, eso no fue fcil. +Divid este plan en cuatro fases. +Primero, tendramos que comprar un programa occidental y emitirlo. +Luego traeramos a mis amigos y les mostraramos a los aficionados locales cmo se hace. +Lo filmaramos y lo emitiramos para luego seguir trabajando con otros aficionados locales y escribir nuevas comedias. +De manera entusiasta le presente esto al gran jefe y su reaccin fue: "Mmm, no lo entiendo". +As que me reclu en mi caverna y continu apoyando y produciendo comedias, ofreciendo asesoramiento a mis amigos como centro de operaciones regional. +Avanzo rpido 2 aos, hasta principios de 2007. +La Tierra gir, al igual que nuestra gestin. Y como por intervencin divina las cosas convergieron para dar forma a esta revolucin. +As es como todo conect. +Primero, los muchachos del Eje grabaron un programa especial para el Comedy Central que se emite en EE. UU. y tuvieron mucha repercusin en YouTube. +Nuestro nuevo director general francs cree en el poder de las relaciones pblicas positivas... +y en las ideas del "bon march". +Simplemente tengamos en cuenta la relacin calidad-precio. +Produje en Dubai un espectculo para Ahmed Ahmed para que presentara su nuevo especial del Eje en una sala atestada. +Invit a nuestro nuevo director general y tan pronto como se dio cuenta que tenamos una sala atestada de infieles que se rean, su reaccin fue muy simple: "Hagmoslo realidad. +Y una cosa ms: no lo echen a perder". +As que rpidamente me puse a trabajar rodeado de un gran equipo. +Por casualidad encontr un tipo gracioso para presentarlo en rabe que es de origen coreano, alguien perfecto para el Eje del Mal. +Todo esto es verdad. +Mientras nos preparbamos para la gira tuve que recordarle a los muchachos que fueran culturalmente correctos. +Les record las "tres B" prohibidas en los espectculos cmicos, como las llamamos en Oriente Medio -- la pornografa ("blue content"), que sea limpio; las creencias , nada de religin; y la tercera B, la "boltica". +Mantente alejando de la "boltica" en Oriente Medio. +Claro, uno podra pensar, qu nos queda si quitamos la "boltica", el sexo y la religin? Cmo hacer rer? +Y les dije: ved cualquier comedia de situacin familiar, bien escrita, de Occidente y tendrn la respuesta. +Tuvo xito el Eje del Mal? +Estuvimos en cinco pases en menos de un mes, miles de fanticos fans vinieron a verlos en vivo. +Millones los vieron por TV y en tambin en las noticias. +En Jordania vino Su Majestad el Rey a verlos. +De hecho, tuvieron tanto xito que uno poda comprar una copia pirata de su DVD dondequiera que uno fuera incluso antes de que saliera en Oriente Medio. +As que en todos los lugares a los que bamos hacamos castings para aficionados. +Filmamos ese proceso y emitimos un documental. +Lo llam "Tres tipos y Wonho". +se es su verdadero nombre. +Y toda esta publicidad en la televisin y en Internet atrajo a una gran cantidad de reclutas a nuestra causa. +En Dubai este ao, acabamos de tener el primer stand-up de cosecha propia, slo de mujeres. +Y observen que dos llevan pauelos en la cabeza y, s, incluso as pueden rerse. +Dubai, para m, es como un amigo que ayuda a cualquiera que quiere hacer que algo funcione. +Hace 20 aos, nadie haba odo hablar de Dubai. +Mrenlo ahora. +Con un lder inspirador, creo que este ao, la inauguracin de la torre ms alta del mundo es como agregarle un dedo a esa mano que apunta a todos aqullos que difunden ideas falaces sobre nosotros. +Ahora, en tres cortos aos, hemos recorrido un largo camino con stand-ups incluso en Arabia Saudita. +Estos cmicos han logrado ir al festival de Nueva York. +Y este libans, un libans brillante, Nemr Abou Nassar, que apareci en nuestra primera gira, ha estado actuando en clubes de comedia legendarios de Los ngeles. +Est claro que desde adentro estamos haciendo lo mejor posible para cambiar nuestra imagen y esto est explotando. +Para quienes lo ven desde afuera vean el informe de la CNN sobre el segundo Festival de la Comedia de Ammn. +La reportera hizo un gran trabajo, y se lo agradec, pero alguien olvid enviar el correo de relaciones pblicas positivas a la persona que opera la barra de noticias automtica que aparece abajo. +Por ejemplo, cuando habla Dean, la barra dice: "EE. UU.: el sospechoso proporcion informacin til". +Bueno, si uno suele escuchar a los comediantes entonces no me sorprende. +Lamentablemente, esto me lleva a otras tres B, que representan la manera en la que los medios de comunicacin occidentales hablan de nosotros: hombres-bomba, billonarios y bailarinas de danza del vientre. +Es suficiente. +No todos somos fanticos enojados que quieren matar a los infieles. +Tenemos una buena historia que contar y una imagen que ofrecer [...la Miss de origen libans...]. +De hecho, una cosa es seguro, en mi experiencia nos encanta morirnos de risa. +stas son las tres cuestiones que me gusta usar para probar la fidelidad con la que nos representan en cualquier medio de comunicacin. +Uno: Se est mostrando el Oriente Medio en la poca actual y en el contexto adecuado? +Dos: Se ren o sonren los personajes de Oriente Medio sin mostrar el blanco de sus ojos? +Tres: El personaje de Oriente Medio, lo representa alguien de Oriente Medio? +Est claro que hay errores que deben corregirse. +Nosotros hemos comenzado en nuestra regin. +Mi desafo para el resto del mundo es, por favor, que empiecen a usar imgenes positivas del Oriente Medio en sus historias. +Busquen inspiracin en cualquiera de nuestros festivales busquen en Internet, consltennos. +Cambiemos juntos la historia y empecemos a reescribir nuestros errores. +Quisiera terminar, antes de volverme a Oriente Medio, con una cita de uno de los ms grandes jeques para terminar con buen sabor de boca. +Como a mi padre le gustaba llamarlo: "Asheikh Azubare", como dira mi madre: "Shakespeare". +"Ahora iremos contentos no al destierro, sino a la libertad". +Gracias. +Fui uno de los miembros fundadores de la Gira de la Comedia del Eje del Mal. +Entre los otros miembros fundadores est Ahmed Ahmed, que es egipcio-estadounidense y tuvo, en realidad, la idea de ir a Medio Oriente y probarlo. +Antes de salir juntos en gira l primero sali en solitario. +Luego estaba Aron Kaden, que era el palestino-estadounidense. +Y luego yo, el irano-estadounidense del grupo. +Ahora, ser irano-estadounidense como saben, tiene sus problemas. +Esos dos pases no se llevan bien por estos das. +Esto me produce mucho conflicto interno, ya saben, como que una parte de m me quiere, y otra me odia. +Una parte de m piensa que debera tener un programa nuclear, la otra parte piensa que eso no es de fiar. +Estos son dilemas que tengo todos los das. +Pero nac en Irn, ahora soy ciudadano de EE.UU. lo que significa que tengo el pasaporte de EE.UU. lo que significa que puedo viajar. +Porque si uno slo tiene el pasaporte iran uno tiene un poco limitado los pases a los que puede ir con los brazos abiertos, ya saben, Siria, Venezuela, Corea del Norte. +Cualquiera que haya sacado el pasaporte en EE.UU. les dir, cuando uno saca el pasaporte, todava figura el pas de nacimiento. +As, recuerdo dar mi pasaporte estadounidense. +Yo estaba como: "Iuujuu! Voy a viajar". +Y lo abr, deca "Nacido en Irn". Y yo pensaba "Oh, vamos, hombre". +"Estoy intentando visitar lugares". +Pero lo interesante es que nunca tuve problemas para viajar a otro pas occidental con mi pasaporte de EE.UU. aunque dice "Nacido en Irn". Ningn problema. +Donde he tenido problemas es en algunos pases rabes, porque supongo que algunos pases rabes no tienen buenas relaciones con Irn tampoco. +As, estuve en Kuwait recientemente haciendo una comedia con algunos comediantes de EE.UU. +Todos pasaron y luego la patrulla fronteriza vio mi pasaporte de EE.UU. +"Aj, estadounidense, genial". +Luego lo abri. "Nacido en Irn? Espera". +Y comenz a hacerme preguntas. +Dijo: "Cul es el nombre de tu padre?" +Dije: "Bueno, el falleci, pero su nombre era Khosro". +Continu: "Cul es el nombre de tu abuelo?" +Le dije: "falleci hace mucho tiempo. +Su nombre era Jabbar". +Dice: "Espera. Ya regreso", y se fue. +Y yo empec a alucinar porque no s en qu clase de mierda andaba mi abuelo. +Aunque el tipo iba a volver y decirme: "Te hemos estado buscando durante 200 aos". +"Tu abuelo tiene una multa de estacionamiento. Est muy vencida. +Nos debes 2 mil millones de dlares". +Pero, como pueden notar cuando hablo, hablo con acento estadounidense y Uds pensarn que como actor irano-estadounidense debera poder representar cualquier papel, de bueno, de malo, lo que sea. +Pero muchas veces en Hollywood cuando los directores de casting descubren mi descendencia de Medio Oriente dicen: "Eres iran. Genial. +Puedes decir: "Te matar en el nombre de Al?" "Podra decir eso pero qu tal si dijera 'Hola, soy tu doctor'? Y dicen: "Genial. Y luego secuestras el hospital". +Me parece que estn perdiendo el foco. +No me malinterpreten, no me molesta hacer de malo. +Quiero hacer de malo. Quiero robar un banco. +Quiero robar un banco en una pelcula. Quiero robar un banco en una pelcula, pero hacerlo con un arma, con un arma, no con una bomba en mi cintura, s? +Porque imagino al director: "Maz, creo que tu personaje robara el banco con una bomba en la cintura". +Por qu habra de hacerlo? +Si quiero el dinero, "por qu me suicidara?" +Bien. +"Dame todo el dinero o me vuelo" +"Bueno, entonces vulate. +Slo que hazlo afuera, por favor". +Pero el hecho es que hay gente buena en todos lados. +Eso es lo que trato de mostrar en mi espectculo. Hay gente buena en todos lados. +Slo hace falta una persona para echarlo a perder. +Como hace un par de meses atrs en Times Square, en Nueva York, estaba este musulmn pakistan que intent explotar un coche bomba. +Por casualidad, yo estaba en Times Square esa noche haciendo una comedia. +Y unos meses antes de eso, un tipo blanco estadounidense, en Austin, Texas, estrell su avin contra el edificio del IRS y, por casualidad, yo estaba en Austin ese da haciendo una comedia. +Ahora les digo, como hombre de Medio Oriente, cuando uno se muestra mucho en este tipo de acontecimientos uno empieza a sentirse culpable en cierto punto. +Estaba viendo las noticias y me dije: "Yo estoy metido en esta mierda?" +"No entend la nota. Qu est pasando?" +Pero lo interesante fue que el musulmn pakistan... le da una mala reputacin a los musulmanes a la gente de Medio Oriente y Pakistn de todo el mundo. +Y algo que pas all fue que adems los talibanes de Pakistn se atribuyeron el atentado fallido. +Mi pregunta es: por qu uno habra de adjudicarse un atentado fallido? +"Slo queremos decir que lo intentamos". +"Y, adems, lo que cuenta es haberlo pensado". +"En conclusin: a veces se gana, a veces se pierde". +Lo que pas, cuando el tipo blanco estrell el avin contra el edificio s que todos mis amigos de Medio Oriente y musulmanes en EE.UU. estaban mirando TV, diciendo: "Por favor, que no sean de Medio Oriente". +"Que no sea Hassan. Que no sea Hussein". +"Y el nombre result Jack. Yo hice: 'Guuuu!'" +"No es de los nuestros". +Pero me qued mirando las noticias por si acaso decan algo as como: "Antes de hacerlo l se convirti al Islam". +"Maldicin! Por qu Jack? Por qu?" +Pero el hecho es que he tenido suerte de tener la oportunidad de actuar en todo el mundo e hice espectculos en Medio Oriente. +Hice una gira en solitario por siete pases. +Estuve en Omn y en Arabia Saudita. +Estuve en Dubai. +Y es genial, hay buena gente en todos lados. +Y uno aprende grandes cosas sobre estos lugares. +Siempre aliento a las personas a que visiten estos lugares. +Por ejemplo, Dubai. Un lugar cool. +Estn obsesionados por tener lo ms grande, lo ms alto, lo ms largo, como sabemos. +Tienen un centro comercial all, el Dubai Mall. +Es tan grande que tienen taxis dentro del centro comercial. +Estaba hablando y escucho "Bip, bip". +Y les digo: "Qu hacen aqu?" +l dice: "Voy a la tienda Zara. Est a unos 5 kms. +Fuera de mi camino. Fuera de mi camino. Fuera de mi camino". +Y lo loco es que hay una recesin en curso, incluso en Dubai, pero uno no lo nota si mira los precios. +En el Dubai Mall venden helado de yogurt por gramo. +Es como el trfico de drogas. +Yo iba caminando y el tipo me dice: "Psst. Habibi, amigo mio". +"Quieres un poco de helado de yogurt?" +Ven aqu. Ven aqu. Ven aqu. +Tengo 1 gramo, 5 gramos, 10 gramos. Cunto quieres? +Compr 5 gramos. 10 dlares. 10 dlares! Dije: "Qu contiene? +l dijo: "Muy buena, hombre. Colombiana. De lo mejor. De lo mejor" +Otra cosa que uno aprende a veces cuando uno viaja a estos pases en Medio Oriente, a veces en pases de Amrica Latina, los pases sudamericanos... muchas veces cuando construyen cosas no tienen reglas ni regulaciones. +Por ejemplo, llev a mi hijo de 2 aos al patio de recreo de Dubai Mall. +Y he llevado a mi hijo de 2 aos a patios de recreo por todo Estados Unidos. +Y cuando uno pone a su hijo de 2 aos en un tobogn en EE.UU. se pone algo en el tobogn para desacelerar al nio a medida que baja por el tobogn. +No en Medio Oriente. +Puse a mi hijo de 2 aos en el tobogn; hizo frrmrmm! Despeg. +Baj y dije: "Dnde est mi hijo?" +"En el tercer piso, seor. En el tercer piso". +"Toma un taxi. Va a Zara. Gira a la izquierda". +"Pruebe el yogur. Es muy bueno. Poco caro". +Pero una de las cosas que trato de hacer con mi espectculo es romper los estereotipos. +Y he sido presa de los estereotipos tambin. +Estaba en Dubai. Y hay un montn de indios que trabajan en Dubai. +Y no les pagan muy bien. +Y tengo en mi mente que todos los indios deben ser trabajadores. +Y olvid que, obviamente, hay indios exitosos en Dubai tambin. +Yo estaba haciendo un espectculo y dijeron: "Vamos a enviar a un chofer a recogerlo". +As que baj al vestbulo y vi a este tipo indio. +Dije: "Tiene que ser mi chofer". +Porque estaba all de pie con un traje barato, bigote fino, mirndome fijamente. +As que fui: "Disculpe, seor, es Ud mi chofer?" +Me dice: "No, seor. Soy el dueo del hotel". +Le digo: "Lo siento. Entonces por qu mi miraba fijamente?" +Me dice: "Pens que Ud. era mi chofer". +Gente, les dejo este mensaje: intento, con mi comedia, romper estereotipos, presentar a la gente de Medio Oriente de modo positivo, a los musulmanes de modo positivo, y espero que en los aos venideros salgan de Hollywood ms pelculas y programas de TV que nos presenten de manera positiva. +Quien sabe, quiz un da tendremos incluso nuestro propio James Bond, no? +"Mi nombre es Bond, Jamal Bond". +Hasta entonces seguir haciendo chistes. Espero que Uds sigan riendo. +Que tengan un buen da. Gracias. +Mi nombre es Seth Priebatsch. Soy el jefe ninja de SCVNGR. +Soy un orgulloso desertor de Princeton. +Tambin orgulloso de haber sido trasladado aqu a Boston donde crec en realidad. +S, Boston. +Triunfos fciles. Debera nombrar los pases que tenemos por aqu. +Estoy bastante decidido a tratar de construir una capa de juego por encima del mundo. +Y esta es una suerte de concepto nuevo y es realmente importante. +Y por eso digo que quiero construir una capa de juego por encima del mundo pero eso no es del todo cierto porque todava est en construccin; todava est sucediendo. +Y eso parece ahora mismo. +Parece como que la web vuelve a 1997, verdad? +No es muy buena. Es desordenada. +Est llena de un montn de cosas diferentes que, en breve, no son tan divertidas. +Hay planes de tarjetas de crdito y programas de millas de aerolneas y tarjetas de descuento y todos estos programas de fidelizacin que realmente usan dinmica de juego y en realidad estn construyendo la capa de juego; apestan. +No estn muy bien diseados, verdad? +Eso es lamentable. +Pero por suerte, como dice mi hroe de accin favorito, Bob el Constructor: "Podemos hacerlo mejor. Podemos hacerlo mejor". +Y las herramientas, los recursos que usamos para construir la capa de juego son dinmicas de juego en s mismas. +Y por eso el quid de esta presentacin va a pasar por cuatro dinmicas de juego realmente importantes, cosas realmente importantes, que, si se las usa conscientemente, se las puede usar para influir en el comportamiento tanto para bien, para mal o algo intermedio. +Esperemos que para bien. +Pero estas son una suerte de etapas importantes en las que se construirn esos marcos y ahora queremos pensar en eso conscientemente. +Pero antes de pasar a eso hay una especie de pregunta que es: por qu es importante? +Estoy haciendo esta afirmacin de que existe una capa de juego por encima del mundo y que es importante que la construyamos correctamente. +La razn por la cual es importante es que en la ltima dcada lo hemos visto, ha sido la construccin de la capa social, ha sido este marco de conexiones y la construccin sobre esa capa termin, finaliz. +Todava hay mucho por explorar. +Todava hay un montn de gente tratando de imaginarse lo social y cmo apalancarlo y cmo usarlo pero el marco de trabajo en s est terminado y se llama Facebook. +Y eso est bien, no? Mucha gente est muy contenta con Facebook. +Me gusta mucho. +Han creado esta cosa llamada Grafo Abierto (Open Graph) y poseen todas nuestras conexiones. +Poseen 500 millones de personas. +Y cuando uno quiere construir sobre la capa social el marco de trabajo est decidido; es la API Open Graph. +Y si uno est feliz con eso, fantstico. +Si no lo est, muy mal. No hay nada que se pueda hacer. +Pero la prxima dcada... y eso es algo real. +Quiero decir, queremos construir marcos de trabajo de un modo que sea aceptable que lo haga, ya saben, productivo sobre la marcha. +As, la capa social se trata de estas conexiones. +La capa de juego se trata de la influencia. +No se trata de agregar una trama social a la Web y conectarse con otra gente dondequiera que uno est y dondequiera que uno vaya. +Se trata en realidad de usar la dinmica, usar las fuerzas, para influir en el comportamiento de dnde uno est, qu hace uno, cmo lo hace. +Eso es muy, muy poderoso, y va a ser ms importante que la capa social. +Va a afectar nuestras vidas mucho ms profundamente y quiz de manera ms invisible. +Y es extremadamente crtico que en este momento, mientras se est construyendo, mientras los marcos de trabajo como Facebook, como Open Graph, han sido creados para el equivalente de la capa de juego, que pensamos en ello muy conscientemente, y que lo hagamos de manera abierta, que est disponible y que puede ser aprovechado para bien. +Y eso es a lo que me refiero con eso de dinmica de juego porque la construccin recin comienza y cuanto ms conscientemente podamos pensar en esto mejor seremos capaces de usarlo para lo que queramos. +As que, como dije, la manera en que uno experimenta y construye la capa de juego no es con vidrio, acero y cemento. +Y los recursos que usamos no es esta franja bidimensional de tierra que tenemos. +Los recursos son comunitarios y las herramientas, las materias primas, son estas dinmicas de juego. +Con eso, ya saben, un par de dinmicas de juego de las que voy hablar. +Cuatro. De vuelta en SCVNGR, nos gusta bromear que con siete dinmicas de juego uno puede hacer que cualquiera haga cualquier cosa. +Y por eso hoy les voy a mostrar cuatro porque espero tener todava una ventaja competitiva al final de esto. +La primera es una dinmica de juego muy simple. +Se llama "dinmica de cita". +Y esta es una dinmica que para tener xito los jugadores tienen que hacer algo en un tiempo predefinido, generalmente en un lugar predefinido. +Y estas dinmicas son un poco espeluznantes a veces, porque uno piensa, ya saben, otras personas pueden estar usando fuerzas que manipularn cmo interacto, qu hago, dnde lo hago, cundo lo hago. +Entonces, la primera... la dinmica de cita ms famosa del mundo... es algo llamado "happy hour". +Acababa de abandonar Princeton y termin en realidad por primera vez en un bar y vi estas happy hour por todas partes, no? +Y esto es simplemente una dinmica de cita. +Vengan a determinada hora y lleven los tragos a mitad de precio. +Para ganar todo lo que uno tiene que hacer es presentarse en el lugar correcto en el momento apropiado. +Esta dinmica de juego es tan poderosa que no slo influencia nuestro comportamiento sino que influencia toda nuestra cultura. +Ese es realmente un pensamiento aterrador: que una dinmica de juego pueda cambiar cosas de manera tan poderosa. +Tambin existe en formas de juego ms convencionales. +Estoy seguro que ya han odo de Farmville. +Si no lo han hecho, les recomiendo que lo jueguen. +No harn otra cosa en el resto del da. +Farmville tiene ms usuarios activos que Twitter. +Es extremadamente poderoso y tiene esta dinmica en la que uno tiene que regresar a cierta hora para regar sus cultivos, cultivos falsos, o se marchitan. +Y es tan poderoso que, cuando ellos ajustan sus estadsticas, cuando dicen que los cultivos se marchitan en 8 horas, o en 6 horas, o en 24 horas, eso cambia el ciclo de vida de 70 millones de personas en el da. +Ellos regresarn como un reloj en diferentes momentos. +As que si quisieran que el mundo termine, si quisieran que la productividad se detenga, podran hacer de esto un ciclo de 30 minutos y nadie podra hacer nada ms. +Eso es un poco aterrador. +Pero esto podra usarse tambin para bien. +Esta es una compaa local llamada Vitality, y ellos han creado un producto para ayudar a la gente a tomar su medicina a horario. +Eso es una cita. +Es algo que la gente no hace muy bien. +Y ellos tienen estos GlowCaps que, ya saben, avisan y mandan emails y hacen todo tipo de cosas cool para recordarnos tomar la medicina. +Esta es una que no es un juego todava pero debera serlo. +Uno debera obtener puntos por hacerlo a horario. +Uno debera perder puntos por no hacerlo a horario. +Ellos deberan reconocer conscientemente que han construido una dinmica de cita y apalancar los juegos. +Y luego uno puede realmente lograr el bien de maneras interesantes. +Vamos a saltar al prximo, tal vez. S. +"Influencia y estatus". +Esta es una de las dinmicas de juego ms famosas. +Se usa en todos lados. +Se usa en sus billeteras, en este momento. +Todos queremos esa tarjeta de crdito en el extremo izquierdo porque es negra. +Y uno ve alguien en CVS o... no CVS... en Christian Dior o algo as, y entonces... +No s. No tengo una tarjeta negra; tengo tarjeta de dbito. +Ellos sacan la tarjeta y uno los ve, tienen esa tarjeta negra. +La quiero porque eso significa que son ms cool que yo y la necesito. +Y esto se usa en juegos tambin. +"Modern Warfare", uno de los juegos de mejor venta de todos los tiempos. +Slo soy nivel 4 pero quiero desesperadamente ser nivel 10 porque a ellos les dan esa placa roja muy cool y eso significa que yo soy en algo mejor que todos los dems. +Y eso es muy poderoso para m. El estatus es un muy buen motivador. +Tambin se usa en entornos ms convencionales y se puede usar ms conscientemente en entornos convencionales. +La escuela... recuerdo, pas un ao, as que creo que estoy calificado para hablar de la escuela es un juego, slo que no es un juego tan bien diseado, cierto? +Hay niveles. Hay C. Hay B. Hay A. +Hay estatus. Quiero decir, qu es el mejor estudiante sino estatus? +Si llamamos mejor estudiante a "caballero blanco paladn nivel 20", pienso que la gente probablemente trabajara mucho ms. +As que la escuela es un juego y ha habido muchos experimentos sobre cmo hacer esto correctamente. +Pero usmoslo conscientemente. Por qu tener juegos que uno puede perder? +Por qu pasar de A a F o de B a C? +Eso apesta. Por qu no subir de nivel? +Y en Princeton han experimentado esto en realidad en cuestionarios en los que uno gana puntos de experiencia y uno sube de B a A. +Y es muy poderoso. +Puede usarse de maneras interesantes. +La tercera de la que quiero hablar rpidamente es la "dinmica de progresin" en la que uno tiene que hacer progresos; uno tiene que atravesar diferentes pasos de manera muy granular. +Esto se usa en todos lados, incluso en LinkedIn, donde uno es un individuo incompleto. +Yo estoy al 85% completo en LinkedIn, y eso me molesta. +Y esto est tan arraigado en nuestra psique que cuando nos presentan una barra de progreso y es presentada con pasos fciles y granulares a tomar para tratar de completar la barra de progreso, lo haremos. +Encontraremos la manera de mover esa lnea azul por toda la pantalla hasta el borde derecho. +Esto se usa en los juegos convencionales tambin. +Quiero decir, uno ve que este es un paladn nivel 10, y ese es un paladn nivel 20, y si uno fuera a pelear, ya saben, los orcos en los campos de Mordor contra Raz al Ghul, uno probablemente querra ser el ms grande, no? +Yo querra. +Y as la gente trabaja mucho para subir niveles. +"World of Warcraft" es uno de los juegos ms exitosos de todos los tiempos. +El jugador promedio pasa algo as como 6, 6 horas y media al da con eso. +Los jugadores ms dedicados tienen como un empleo de tiempo completo. +Es una locura. Y uno tiene estos sistemas en los que puede subir niveles. +Y eso es algo muy poderoso. La progresin es algo poderoso. +Puede usarse de maneras muy convincentes para bien. +Una de las cosas en las que trabajamos en SCVNGR es cmo se pueden usar juegos para dirigir el trfico y los negocios hacia negocios locales, para algo que es crucial para la economa. +Y aqu tenemos un juego que juega la gente. +Ellos viajan, tienen desafos, ganan puntos. +Y hemos introducido una dinmica de progresin en eso por la cual yendo al mismo lugar una y otra vez realizando desafos, comprometindose con el negocio, uno mueve una barra verde desde el ngulo izquierdo hacia el ngulo derecho de la pantalla y, finalmente, uno obtiene recompensas. +Y esto es lo suficientemente poderoso que podemos ver que se engancha gente en estas dinmicas, las empuja de nuevo a los mismos negocios locales crea gran fidelidad, crea compromiso, y es capaz de producir ganancias significativas y diversin y compromiso con el negocio. +Estas dinmicas de progresin son poderosas y pueden usarse en el mundo real. +La ltima de la que quiero hablar, y es una grande para finalizar, es el concepto de "descubrimiento comunitario", una dinmica en la que todos tienen que trabajar juntos para lograr algo. +Y el descubrimiento comunitario es poderoso porque aprovecha la red que es la sociedad para resolver problemas. +Esto se usa en algunas tiendas web famosas como Digg, de la que estoy seguro todos han odo. +Digg es una dinmica comunitaria para tratar de ser la fuente de las mejores noticias; de las historias ms interesantes. +Y, en un principio, hicieron esto en un juego. +Tenan una tabla de lderes en la que si uno recomendaba las mejores historias uno obtena puntos. +Y eso realmente motivaba a la gente a encontrar las mejores historias. +Pero se volvi tan poderoso que haba en realidad una conspiracin, un grupo de personas, los siete principales de la tabla de lderes, que trabajaran juntos para asegurarse de mantenerse en esa posicin. +Y ellos recomendaran las historias de otras personas. Y el juego se volvi ms poderoso que el objetivo. +Y en realidad tuvieron que acabar cerrando la tabla de lderes porque, si bien era efectiva, era tan efectiva que dej de proveer las mejores historias y empez a haber gente que trabajaba para mantener su liderazgo. +Por eso tuvimos que usar esta dinmica con cuidado. +Tambin se usa en cosas como el Monopoly de McDonald's, donde el juego no es el Monopoly que uno est jugando sino la suerte de industrias artesanales que forman para tratar de encontrar Boardwalk, no? +Y ahora slo buscan una pequea etiqueta que dice "Boardwalk". +Pero tambin puede usarse para encontrar cosas reales. +Este es el desafo del globo DARPA en el que escondan un par de globos en todo Estados Unidos y decan: "Usen redes. +Traten de encontrar estos globos ms rpido y el ganador recibir $40.000". +Y el ganador fue en realidad un grupo del MIT, que cre una especie de esquema piramidal, una red, donde la primera persona en recomendar la ubicacin de un globo obtena $2.000 y cualquier otro que propagaba esa recomendacin hacia arriba tambin obtena una parte de eso. +Y en 12 horas, fueron capaces de encontrar todos estos globos, por todo el pas, correcto? +Una dinmica muy poderosa. +Me quedan unos 20 segundos, por lo que si les voy a dejar algo es que la ltima dcada fue la dcada de lo social. +Esta prxima dcada es la dcada de los juegos. +Usamos la dinmica de juegos para construirlo. Construimos con trabajo comunitario. +Podemos influir en el comportamiento. +Es algo muy poderoso. Es muy emocionante. +Construymoslo todos juntos, hagmoslo bien y divirtmonos jugando. +Parece que todos sufrimos la sobrecarga de informacin o el exceso de datos. +Lo bueno es que puede que haya una solucin fcil para eso, simplemente usando ms los ojos. +Es decir, visualizando la informacin para que podamos ver los patrones y conexiones importantes y luego diseando esa informacin para que tenga ms sentido, o para que explique una historia, o para que nos permita centrarnos nicamente en la informacin relevante. +De no ser as, la informacin visualizada puede ser realmente fra. +Veamos. +Aqu tenemos el diagrama de los mil millones. Y esto surgi de la frustracin que tuve al tener que escribir un artculo sobre cifras, sobre miles de millones de dlares. +Es decir, que carecen de cualquier significado sin contexto. 500 mil millones para el oleoducto. 20 mil millones para esta guerra. +As no tiene ningn sentido, la nica manera de entenderlo es visualizndolo y relativizndolo. +As es que, escarb en un montn de cifras publicadas en diversos medios de comunicacin y luego adapt las casillas a las cantidades. +Y los colores que representan la motivacin existente tras el dinero. +As prpura significa combate, rojo significa donaciones y verde especulacin. +Y lo que se percibe de inmediato es que se comienza a establecer una relacin diferente con los nmeros. +Literalmente se pueden ver. +Pero lo ms importante es que se comienzan a ver patrones y conexiones entre los nmeros que de otro modo encontraramos diseminados en mltiples artculos de prensa. +Permtanme sealar algunos que me gustan. +Estos son los ingresos de la OPEP, la caja verde de aqu, 780 mil millones al ao. +Y este pequeo pixel en la esquina de tres mil millones son los fondos para el cambio climtico. +Los estadounidenses, personas increblemente generosas, donaron ms de 300 mil millones de dlares a la beneficencia como cada ao, comparado con la suma de la ayuda exterior donada por los 17 pases ms industrializados de 120 mil millones de dlares. +Y, por supuesto, la guerra de Irak, cuyos costes previstos eran de apenas 60 mil millones en el 2003. +Y que se ha multiplicado ligeramente. Afganistn asciende ahora a a 3 billones de dlares. +As que es estupendo porque ahora tenemos este entorno donde podemos aadir tambin nmeros. +As que podemos decir, un nuevo nmero sale... vamos a ver la deuda africana. +Cunto de este diagrama creen que podra condonarse de la deuda que frica debe a Occidente? +Echemos un vistazo. +Ah est. 227 mil millones es lo que frica debe. +Y la reciente crisis financiera, cunto de este diagrama podra alcanzar esta cantidad? +Qu costara esto al mundo? Vamos a ver. +Guauuuuu! Creo que es el efecto de sonido apropiado para esa cantidad de dinero. 11,9 billones. +As, mediante la visualizacin de esta informacin, se convierte en un escenario explorable con los ojos, una especie de mapa en realidad, una especie de mapa de informacin. +Y cuando uno est perdido en informacin, el mapa de la informacin es una ayuda. +Ahora quiero mostrar otro escenario. +Tenemos que imaginarnos lo que sera un escenario de los miedos del mundo. +Echemos un vistazo. +Son montaas, una cordillera de colinas, un cronograma del pnico global transmitido en los medios. +Lo etiquetar para Uds en un segundo. +Quisiera sealar que la altura significa la intensidad de ciertos miedos segn se informa en los medios de comunicacin. +Se los mostrar. +Esto en rosa es la gripe porcina. +La gripe aviar. +Epidemia del SARS, la marrn. Se acuerdan de esa? +El error del milenio, desastre terrible. +Estos picos pequeos verdes son las colisiones de asteroides. +Y en verano, aqu, avispas asesinas. +As que estos son los que parecen ser nuestros miedos en el transcurso del tiempo en nuestros medios de comunicacin. +Pero lo que me encanta, soy periodista, es encontrar patrones ocultos, me encanta ser un detective de datos. +Y existe un patrn muy interesante y extrao oculto en estos datos que slo se puede ver al visualizarlos. +Permtanme que los resalte. +Observen esta lnea. Es un mapa relativo a videojuegos violentos. +Como ven, hay una especie de patrn extrao, constante en los datos, picos idnticos cada ao. +Si observamos con detalle, vemos que los picos se repiten en el mismo mes cada ao. +Por qu? +En noviembre se lanzan los videojuegos para la campaa de Navidad y puede que haya una mayor preocupacin por su contenido. +Pero abril no es un mes particularmente relevante para los videojuegos. +Por qu abril? +En abril de 1999 fue la masacre de Columbine, y desde entonces, aquel miedo ha sido recordado por los medios de comunicacin y resuena en las mentes de algunos durante el ao. +Contamos con retrospectivas, aniversarios, casos judiciales, incluso con simulaciones de tiroteos, todo alimentando el miedo como tema del da. +Y hay otro patrn aqu. Lo ven? +Ven ese vaco? Hay una espacio, y repercute en el resto de las noticias. +Por qu hay un vaco ah? +Ven cundo empieza? Septiembre de 2001, cuando tuvimos algo muy real a lo que temer. +He trabajado como periodista de datos alrededor de un ao, y sigo oyendo una frase todo el tiempo, esto es: "Los datos son el nuevo petrleo". +Y los datos son un recurso omnipresente a los que podemos dar forma para innovar y generar nuevos conocimientos, y todo est a nuestro alcance y puede extraerse fcilmente. +Es una metfora poco feliz en estos tiempos, especialmente si viven en el Golfo de Mxico, Por eso adaptara esta metfora un poco, y yo dira que la informacin es la nueva tierra. +Porque para m, es un medio frtil y creativo. +A lo largo de los aos, en lnea, hemos depositado una enorme cantidad de informacin y datos, que hacemos florecer con redes y conectividad, y ha sido elaborado y cultivado por trabajadores no remunerados y por gobiernos. +Y, bueno, deseara ordear la metfora un poco ms. +Pero se trata de un material muy frtil, y parece como si las visualizaciones, la infografa, las visualizaciones de datos fuesen flores que crecen en este medio. +Pero si lo observamos de forma lineal se trata slo de un montn de nmeros y hechos inconexos. +Pero si empiezas a trabajar y jugar con ellos de otra manera, surgen cosas interesantes que revelan diferentes patrones. +Ahora les mostrar esto. +Adivinan lo que dice esta informacin? +Lo que sube dos veces al ao, una vez en Semana Santa y luego dos semanas antes de Navidad, y que tiene un mini pico todos los lunes y luego se aplana durante el verano. +A ver, sus respuestas, +(Pblico: Chocolate) David McCandless: Chocolate. +Puede que tambin desee un poco de chocolate +Alguna idea? +(Pblico: Compras) DM: Compras. +S, la terapia de ir de compras podra ayudar. +(Pblico: baja por enfermedad) DM: Baja por enfermedad. S, seguro que querran unos das libres. +Lo vemos? +Quin hara eso? +Por tanto existe una cantidad titnica de datos, sin precedentes. +Pero si formulan el tipo de pregunta adecuada, o lo abordan de la forma adecuada pueden surgir cosas interesantes. +As que la informacin es preciosa. Los datos son preciosos. +Me pregunto si yo podra hacer mi vida tan bonita. +Aqu est mi CV visual. +No estoy muy seguro de haberlo logrado. +Bastante cuadriculado. Los colores tampoco son tan maravillosos. +Pero quera transmitirles algo. +Empec como programador, y luego trabaj de redactor durante muchos aos, unos 20 aos, en prensa, Internet y luego en publicidad y hace poco que he comenzado a disear. +Y nunca he ido a la escuela de diseo. +Nunca he estudiado arte ni nada de eso. +Soy un autodidacta que aprende mediante la prctica. +Y cuando comenc a disear, Descubr una cosa extraa sobre m. +Yo ya saba cmo disear, pero no en el sentido de ser muy brillante, sino ms bien de tener la sensibilidad de los conceptos de grilla y espacio as como de alineacin y tipografa. +Es como si haber estado expuesto a todo esto en los medios de comunicacin durante aos me hubiese inculcado una especie de alfabetizacin en diseo. +Y no me siento nico. +Creo que todos los das, todos nosotros ahora estamos tocados por el diseo de la informacin. +Se ha diseminado ante nuestros ojos a travs de la Web, y todos somos ahora visualizadores; todos exigimos un rasgo visual a la informacin. +Y hay algo casi mgico sobre la informacin visual. +No cuesta esfuerzo, sino que mana. +Y si se navega en una jungla densa de informacin, toparse con una grfica hermosa o una visualizacin hermosa de datos, alivia, es como toparse con un claro en la selva. +Y esto me despertaba curiosidad, lo que me llev a la obra de un fsico dans, Tor Norretranders, l renombr el ancho de banda de los sentidos en trminos informticos. +As que all vamos. Estos son los sentidos invirtiendo ms en ellos cada segundo. +El sentido de la vista es el ms rpido. +Tiene el mismo ancho de banda que una red informtica. +Adems contamos con el tacto, con la velocidad aproximada de una llave USB. +En cuanto al odo y el olfato, stos tiene el rendimiento de un disco duro. +Y por ltimo el gusto, pobre y antiguo, cuyo rendimiento apenas equivale al de una calculadora. +Y este cuadrado pequeo en la esquina, un 0,7%, esa es la cantidad de la que en realidad somos conscientes. +As que una gran parte de la percepcin la mayor parte de ella es visual y sigue aumentando. +Es inconsciente. +El ojo es muy sensible a los patrones de variaciones de color, forma y patrn. +Al ojo le encantan y los considera hermosos. +Es el lenguaje visual. +Y si se combina ese lenguaje visual con el lenguaje mental, que versa sobre palabras, nmeros y conceptos, se empieza a hablar dos idiomas simultneamente, uno mejorando al otro. +As, primero es el ojo y luego ocurren los conceptos +Y todo esto son dos lenguas trabajando al mismo tiempo. +As que podramos usar este nuevo tipo de lenguaje, si se quiere, para modificar nuestra perspectiva o cambiar nuestras opiniones +Djenme hacerles una pregunta sencilla con una respuesta muy simple. Quin tiene el mayor presupuesto militar? +Seguro que EEUU no? +Enorme. 609 mil millones en 2008, 607 mil, ms bien. +Tan enorme, que puede abarcar la suma de todo el resto de los presupuestos militares del mundo. +Engullir, engullir, engullir. +Ahora, podemos ver la deuda total de frica y el dficit presupuestario del Reino Unido para comparar. +De modo que bien podra sintonizar con su opinin de que los EEUU es una especie de maquinaria militar blica preparada para dominar el mundo con su enorme aparato industrial y militar. +Pero es cierto que EEUU tiene el mayor presupuesto militar? +Porque s que es un pas increblemente rico. +De hecho, es tan sumamente rico que puede contener las cuatro economas de las naciones ms industrializadas. As es de inmensamente rico. +Por ello est obligado a tener un presupuesto militar enorme. +As que, para ser justos y modificar nuestra perspectiva, tenemos que compararlo con otro conjunto de datos, y ese conjunto de datos es el PBI, o los ingresos del pas. +Quin tiene el mayor presupuesto en proporcin al PBI? +Veamos. +Esto cambia considerablemente el panorama. +Otros pases que, tal vez, no se consideraban, saltan a la vista y EEUU desciende al octavo puesto. +Ahora tambin lo hacemos con los soldados. +Quin tiene el mayor nmero de soldados? Seguro que China. +Por supuesto, 2,1 millones. +Una vez ms, coincide con su opinin de que China es un rgimen militarizado listo para movilizar cuantiosas fuerzas armadas. +Pero, China tiene una poblacin enorme. +As que si hacemos lo mismo, vemos una imagen radicalmente distinta. +China desciende al puesto 124. +En realidad, tiene un pequeo ejrcito cuando se toma en cuenta otros datos. +Por lo tanto, las cifras absolutas, al igual que el presupuesto militar, en un mundo conectado, no proporciona la visin completa. +No es pues tan cierto como podra ser. +Necesitamos cifras relativas que se conecten con otros datos para que podamos ver un panorama ms completo, y que nos lleve a cambiar nuestra perspectiva. +Como Hans Rosling, el maestro, mi maestro, deca: "Dejemos que los datos cambien la forma de pensar". +Y si se puede hacer, tal vez tambin se puede cambiar la conducta. +Veamos este. +Soy un poco fantico de la salud. +Me gusta tomar suplementos vitamnicos y estar en forma, pero no entiendo lo que pasa en cuestiones de evidencia. +Siempre hay pruebas contradictorias. +Debo tomar vitamina C? Debera comer trigo candeal? +Esta es una visualizacin de las pruebas relacionadas con los suplementos nutricionales. +Este tipo de diagrama que se denomina carrera de globos. +As que cuanto ms alta est la imagen, mayor son las pruebas existentes para cada suplemento. +Y las burbujas corresponden a la popularidad en relacin a los hits en Google. +As que se puede aprehender de forma inmediata la relacin entre eficacia y popularidad, pero tambin puede, si se clasifican las pruebas, evaluarlas en lnea en funcin de si valen la pena. +Y as, los suplementos por encima de esta lnea merecen ser investigados, pero slo segn las condiciones listadas a continuacin. Y a continuacin, los suplementos por debajo del umbral quizs, no vale la pena que se investiguen. +Ahora bien, esto supone una enorme cantidad de trabajo. +Hemos rastreado unos 1.000 estudios de PubMed, la base de datos biomdicas, y los hemos compilado y clasificado. +Y fue muy frustrante para m porque tena 250 visualizaciones pendientes para mi libro, me pas un mes haciendo esto, y slo escrib dos pginas. +Pero a lo que apunta es que la informacin visualizada as es una forma de compresin de conocimiento. +Es una manera de exprimir una cantidad enorme de informacin y comprensin en un espacio pequeo. +Y una vez seleccionados los datos y una vez limpios esos datos, y una vez que estn listos, se pueden hacer cosas interesantes. +As que convert esto en una aplicacin interactiva, de manera que ahora puede generar estas solicitudes por Internet; esta es la visualizacin en lnea. Y puedo decir: "S, fantstico". +Ya que ella misma produce. +Y puedo pedir: "Mustrame las cosas que afectan la salud del corazn". +As que vamos a filtrar. +As que selecciono el corazn, si es eso lo que me interesa. +Creo que, "No, no. No quiero tomar nada sinttico. Slo quiero ver las plantas y slo quiero ver las hierbas y plantas. Quiero todos los ingredientes naturales". +Y esta aplicacin es la genera la respuesta a partir de los datos. +Los datos se almacenan en un documento de Google, que se genera a partir de esos datos. +As, la informacin ahora est viva, es una imagen viva, y puedo actualizarla en un segundo. +Se genera nueva evidencia. Slo he cambiado una fila en una hoja de clculo. +Guau! Una vez ms, la imagen se auto-genera. +Esto es genial. +Es una especie de vida. +Una especie con la que se puede ir ms all, y puede ir ms all de los nmeros. +Y me gusta aplicar la informacin de visualizacin a las ideas y conceptos. +Esta es una visualizacin del espectro poltico, en un intento para intentar comprender cmo funciona y cmo las ideas se infiltran desde el gobierno en la sociedad y la cultura, en las familias, en los individuos, en sus creencias y de nuevo en torno a un ciclo. +Lo que me gusta de esta imagen es que est formada por conceptos, explora nuestra visin del mundo y nos ayuda, a m me ayuda en cualquier caso, a ver lo que otros piensan, para ver de dnde vienen. +Sintindose uno increblemente genial al hacerlo. +Y lo ms emocionante para m al disearlo, fue que, cuando estaba diseando esta imagen, quera desesperadamente que este lado, el lado izquierdo, fuera mejor que el derecho, al ser un periodista con orientaciones de izquierdas, pero no era posible, porque habra creado un diagrama desequilibrado y tendencioso. +As, con el fin de crear realmente una imagen completa, tuve que aceptar los puntos de vista del lado derecho y al mismo tiempo fue incmodo reconocer cuntas de esas cualidades eran tambin realmente mas, lo que result ser muy molesto e incmodo. +Pero no demasiado incmodo, porque no representa una amenaza el ver una perspectiva poltica, en contra de forzarle a decir o a escuchar a uno. +En realidad, se es capaz de sostener puntos de vista conflictivos con alegra, cuando se pueden ver. +Es incluso divertido involucrarse en ellos porque es visual. +Y eso es lo que me entusiasma, ver cmo los datos pueden cambiar mi punto de vista y modificar mi forma de pensar, datos hermosos y preciosos. +As es que para recapitular, quera decir que para m el diseo se dedica a solucionar problemas y ofrecer soluciones elegantes. Y el diseo de la informacin trata de resolver problemas de informacin. +Y parece que tenemos un montn de problemas de informacin actualmente en nuestra sociedad, desde la sobrecarga y saturacin hasta la ruptura de la confianza y la fiabilidad as como el escepticismo galopante y la falta de transparencia, o incluso slo la "interesancia". +Esto es, puedo encontrar informacin demasiado interesante. +Esta tiene una calidad magntica que me atrae. +Por lo tanto, visualizar informacin nos puede dar una solucin muy rpida a este tipo de problemas. +Y aun cuando la informacin sea terrible, lo visual puede ser muy hermoso. +Y a menudo logramos una mayor claridad o la respuesta a una pregunta simple muy rpidamente, como sta, el reciente volcn islands... +Cul emiti ms CO2? +Los aviones o el volcn, los aviones en tierra o el volcn? +Veamos. +Nos fijamos en los datos y vemos que s, el volcn emiti 150.000 toneladas; los aviones podran haber emitido 345.000 si hubieran despegado. +As que, en principio, fue nuestro primer volcn neutral de carbono. +Y esto es bello. Gracias. +Acompenme a la parte ms austral del mundo, la Antrtida, la zona ms alta, seca, ventosa, y, s, la ms fra de la Tierra... Ms rida que el Sahara y, en partes, ms fra que Marte. +El hielo antrtico brilla con una luz tan deslumbrante que ciega los ojos sin proteccin. +Los primeros exploradores se frotaban cocana en los ojos para calmar el dolor. +El peso del hielo es tal que todo el continente se hunde bajo el nivel del mar, bajo su propio peso. +Sin embargo, el hielo antrtico es un calendario del cambio climtico. +Registra el aumento y el descenso anuales de gases de efecto invernadero y de temperaturas anteriores al inicio de la ltima edad de hielo. +Ningn otro lugar de la Tierra nos ofrece un registro tan perfecto. +Y aqu, los cientficos estn perforando el pasado de nuestro planeta para encontrar pistas sobre el futuro del cambio climtico. +En enero pasado viaj a un lugar llamado WAIS Divide a unos 960 kms del Polo Sur. +Muchos dicen que es el mejor lugar del planeta para estudiar la historia del cambio climtico. +All, unos 45 cientficos de la Universidad de Wisconsin, el Instituto de Investigacin del Desierto de Nevada y otros han estado trabajando para responder una pregunta esencial respecto del calentamiento global. +Cul es la relacin exacta entre los niveles de gases de efecto invernadero y las temperaturas del planeta? +Es un trabajo urgente. Sabemos que las temperaturas estn aumentando. +El pasado mayo fue el ms caluroso de la historia en todo el mundo. +Y sabemos que los niveles de gases de efecto invernadero van en aumento tambin. +Lo que no sabemos es el impacto exacto, preciso, e inmediato de estos cambios en los patrones climticos naturales... vientos, corrientes ocenicas, tasas de precipitacin, formacin de nubes, cosas que influyen en la salud y el bienestar de miles de millones de personas. +Todo el campamento, todo el equipamiento, fue transportado 1400 kms desde la estacin McMurdo, la principal base de suministro de EE. UU. en la costa antrtica. +No obstante, WAIS Divide en s es un crculo de tiendas de campaa en la nieve. +En las ventiscas de nieve el equipo cuelga cuerdas entre las tiendas para que la gente pueda ir a salvo hasta la casa de hielo ms cercana y hasta la dependencia ms cercana. +Nieva tan copiosamente all que las instalaciones quedan enterradas casi de inmediato. +De hecho, los investigadores eligieron este sitio porque el hielo y la nieve se acumulan aqu 10 veces ms rpido que en cualquier otro lugar de la Antrtida. +Deben cavar para salir todos los das, +lo que se convierte en una extica y glida rutina. +Pero bajo la superficie, hay un hervidero de actividad industrial en torno a un montaje de perforacin de 8 millones de dlares. +Peridicamente, esta perforadora, como una aguja de biopsia, se hunde a miles de metros de profundidad en el hielo para extraer una seleccin de gases e istopos para su anlisis. +10 veces al da extraen el cilindro de 3 metros de largo de cristales de hielo comprimido que contienen aire puro y trazas qumicas que deja la nieve, estacin tras estacin desde hace miles de aos. +Es realmente una mquina del tiempo. +En el pico de actividad a principios de este ao, los investigadores bajaron la perforadora unos 30 metros ms profundo en el hielo cada da y otros 365 aos ms profundo en el pasado. +Peridicamente, retiran un cilindro de hielo, como guardabosques que quitan un cartucho de escopeta usado del tambor de una perforadora. +Lo inspeccionan en busca de grietas daos de perforacin, astillas, esquirlas. +Ms importante an, lo preparan para su inspeccin y anlisis en 27 laboratorios independientes en Estados Unidos y Europa que examinarn 40 trazas qumicas diferentes relacionadas con el clima, algunas en partes en 1000 billones. +S, lo dije con B, billones. +Cortan los cilindros en secciones de 90 cms para facilitar el manejo y envo a estos laboratorios, a unos 13.000 kms del sitio de perforacin. +Cada cilindro es un "helado" de tiempo. +Este hielo se form como nieve hace 15.800 aos cuando nuestros antepasados se estaban embadurnando con pintura y analizando la tecnologa radicalmente nueva del alfabeto. +Baado en luz polarizada y cortado en seccin transversal, este hielo ancestral se revela como un mosaico de colores. Cada uno muestra cmo las condiciones de profundidad en el hielo han afectado al material a profundidades donde la presin puede llegar a 1,6 Kg por mm2. +Cada ao, comienza con un copo de nieve, y cavando en la nieve fresca, podemos ver cmo este proceso est en curso hoy en da. +Este muro de nieve virgen, a la luz del sol, muestra las estras de nieve de invierno y verano, capa sobre capa. +Cada tormenta recorre la atmsfera, limpiando el polvo, el holln, y las trazas qumicas, depositndolos en la capa de nieve ao tras ao, milenio tras milenio, creando una suerte de tabla peridica de los elementos que en este momento tiene un espesor de ms de 3 kms. +A partir de esto podemos detectar una cantidad extraordinaria de cosas. +Podemos ver calcio de los desiertos del mundo, holln de incendios lejanos, metano como un indicador de un monzn del Pacfico, todos acarreados por los vientos desde latitudes ms clidas hasta este remoto y glido lugar. +Ms importante an, estos cilindros y esta nieve atrapan aire. +Cada cilindro contiene cerca del 10% de aire ancestral, es una cpsula de tiempo prstino de gases de efecto invernadero... dixido de carbono, metano, xido nitroso... todo inalterado desde el da en que se form la nieve y cay por primera vez. +Y este es el objeto de su estudio. +Pero, no sabemos ya lo necesario sobre los gases de efecto invernadero? +Por qu tenemos que seguir estudiando esto? +No sabemos ya cmo afectan a las temperaturas? +No conocemos ya las consecuencias del cambio climtico en nuestra civilizacin estable? +La verdad es que solo se conocen las lneas generales, y lo que no se entiende completamente no se puede arreglar como corresponde. +De hecho, corremos el riesgo de empeorar las cosas. +Pensemos en el esfuerzo ambiental internacional ms exitoso del siglo XX, el Protocolo de Montreal, en el que las naciones del mundo se unieron para proteger al planeta de los efectos nocivos de los qumicos que destruyen el ozono que se usaban en ese momento en acondicionadores de aire, refrigeradores y otros aparatos de refrigeracin. +Prohibimos esos qumicos, y los reemplazamos, sin saberlo, por otras sustancias que, molcula por molcula, son cien veces ms potentes como gases de efecto invernadero que atrapan calor que el dixido de carbono. +Este proceso requiere precauciones extraordinarias. +Los cientficos deben asegurarse de que el hielo no est contaminado. +Adems, en este viaje de 13.000 kms, tienen que asegurarse de que este hielo no se derrita. +Imaginen malabares con bolas de nieve a travs de los trpicos. +De hecho, tienen que asegurarse de que este hielo nunca se caliente a ms de unos 20 grados bajo cero, de lo contrario, los gases clave contenidos en l se disiparan. +As, en el lugar ms fro de la Tierra, trabajan dentro de un refrigerador. +Mientras manipulan el hielo, de hecho, dejan calentando un par de guantes en un horno as cuando sus guantes de trabajo se congelan y sus dedos se ponen rgidos pueden ponerse un par nuevo. +Trabajan contrarreloj y contra el termmetro. +Hasta el momento han empacado unos 1.300 metros de ncleos de hielo para enviar a Estados Unidos. +La temporada pasada, los transportaron a mano por el hielo a las aeronaves en espera. +La Antrtida fue la ltima zona virgen de este planeta... el ngulo muerto en nuestra visin expansionista del mundo. +Los primeros exploradores navegaron por el borde del mapa, y encontraron un lugar donde las leyes normales de tiempo y temperatura parecen suspenderse. +Aqu, el hielo parece una presencia viva. +El viento que roza contra l le da voz. +Es la voz de la experiencia. +Es la voz que deberamos atender. +Gracias. +Las tiras cmicas son, bsicamente, historias breves. +He buscado una que no tuviese muchas palabras. +No todas tienen finales felices. +Cmo comenc con las tiras? +Garabateaba mucho de nio y si uno pasa demasiado tiempo haciendo garabatos tarde o temprano pasa algo: se acaban todas tus opciones de carrera. +As que uno tiene que ganarse la vida dibujando. +En realidad me enamor del ocano de nio, cuando tena unos 8 9 aos. +Y, en especial, me fascinaban los tiburones. +ste es uno de mis primeros trabajos. +Al final, mi mam me quit el lapicero rojo, as que fue... [poco claro]. +Antes de ese da, as es como vea el ocano. +Como una gran superficie azul. +Y es as como hemos visto el ocano desde el principio de los tiempos. +Es un misterio. +Se han tejido muchas historias en torno al ocano, en su mayora negativas. +Y eso llev a la gente a trazar mapas como ste, con fantsticos detalles de la tierra pero cuando se llega a la orilla del mar el ocano parece un charco gigante de pintura azul. +Y as es como yo vea el ocano en la escuela... como si dijramos: "Todas las lecciones de geografa y ciencias terminan en la orilla del mar. +sta parte no entra en el examen". +Pero ese da volaba a baja altura sobre las islas... era un viaje familiar al Caribe, y volaba en un avioncito a baja altura sobre las islas. +Esto es lo que vea. Vi colinas y valles. +Vi bosques y prados. +Vi grutas y jardines secretos y lugares en los que me hubiese encantado esconderme de nio de haber podido respirar bajo el agua. +Y lo mejor de todo es que vi a los animales. +Vi una manta raya tan grande como el avin en el que estaba volando. +Y vol sobre una laguna que tena un tiburn en su interior y se fue el da en que naci mi historieta del tiburn. +As que desde ese da fui un nio comn y corriente que caminaba en tierra firme pero mi cabeza estaba all abajo, bajo el agua. +Hasta ese da, stos eran los animales ms comunes en mi vida. +stos eran los que me gustaba dibujar: todas las variantes de cuatro patas con pelo. +Pero cuando uno iba al ocano la imaginacin no poda hacerle la competencia a la naturaleza. +Cada vez que se me ocurra un personaje loco en la tabla de dibujo encontraba una criatura en el ocano que era an ms loca. +Y las diferencias de escala entre este dragoncito marino y esta enorme ballena jorobada era algo como salido de una pelcula de ciencia ficcin. +Siempre que le hablo a los nios, me gusta decirles que el animal ms grande que jams haya existido todava est vivo. +No es un dinosaurio, es una ballena, animales tan grandes como edificios de oficina que todava nadan all en el ocano. +Y hablando de dinosaurios, los tiburones bsicamente son los mismos peces que existieron hace 300 millones de aos. +As que si alguna vez fantasean con regresar al pasado para ver a qu se parece un dinosaurio, un dinosaurio se parece a sto. +As que uno tiene dinosaurios vivos y extraterrestres, animales que evolucionaron en gravedad cero en condiciones difciles. +Sencillamente increble. Ningn diseador de Hollywood podra idear algo ms interesante que esto. +O este pez abisal. Las partculas del agua hacen que parezca que est flotando en el espacio exterior. +Se imaginan si mirsemos con el telescopio Hubble y visemos esto? +Eso dara lugar a una carrera espacial totalmente nueva. +Pero, en cambio, fijamos una cmara en las profundidades del ocano y vemos un pez y eso no atrapa nuestra imaginacin como sociedad. +Nos decimos interiormente: "A lo mejor podemos hacer palitos de pescado con eso o algo as". +Por lo tanto, lo que me gustara hacer ahora es tratar de dibujar un poco. +Voy a tratar de dibujar este pez abisal. +Me encanta dibujar peces de aguas profundas porque son tan feos y a la vez hermosos a su manera. +Tal vez podemos darle un poco de bioluminiscencia aqu... ponerle un faro, o quiz una luz de freno, o intermitentes de direccin. +Pero es fcil darse cuenta de por qu estos animales dan lugar a grandes personajes: por sus formas y tamaos. +Algunos de ellos realmente parecen tener poderes como los superhroes de un cmic. +Por ejemplo, tomen estas tortugas marinas. +Tienen una suerte de sexto sentido como la visin de rayos X de Superman. +Pueden detectar los campos magnticos de la Tierra. +Y pueden usar esa habilidad para navegar cientos de millas en ocano abierto. +A mi tortuga le pongo manos para que sea un personaje ms fcil de trabajar. +O aprovechar este pepino de mar. +No es un animal del que hagamos caricaturas, ni siquiera lo dibujamos. +Es como un Hombre Araa subacutico. +Dispara redes pegajosas para enredar a su enemigo. +Por supuesto, los pepinos marinos las lanzan con sus partes traseras que, en mi opinin, los hace superhroes mucho ms interesantes. +No puede tejer una red en cualquier momento; tiene que bajarse los pantalones primero. +O el pez globo. +El pez globo es como el Increble Hulk. +Puede convertirse en un pez grande, intimidante, en cuestin de segundos. +Voy a dibujar este pez globo desinflado. +Y luego voy a intentar animarlo aqu en pantalla. +Veamos. +Tratemos de inflarlo. +"Me hablan a m?" Vean, l puede auto inflarse cuando quiere ser intimidante. +O tomar este pez espada. +Podran imaginarse haber nacido con una nariz-herramienta? +Piensan que l se despierta por la maana, se mira al espejo y dice: "Alguien va a ser apualado hoy"? +O este pez len, por ejemplo. +Imaginen tratar de hacer amigos cubierto de afiladas pas venenosas. +No es algo que uno pondra en su pgina de Facebook, no? +Mis personajes son... mi personaje principal es un tiburn llamado Sherman. +Es un tiburn blanco. +Y creo que romp el molde con Sherman, +porque no quera dar la imagen de predador despiadado. +Est ah, simplemente ganndose la vida. +Es como un Homero Simpson con aletas. +Y su compaero es una tortuga marina, como dije antes, llamado Filmore. +Usa sus habilidades maravillosas de navegacin para vagar por los ocanos en busca de pareja. +Y se las ingenia para encontrarlas, pero a pesar de sus grandes habilidades de navegacin, sus resultados son fatales. +Nunca parece comprometerse con una chica en particular. +Tengo un cangrejo ermitao llamado Hawthorne, a quien no respetan mucho como cangrejo ermitao, as que en cierta forma desea ser un gran tiburn blanco. +Y luego voy a presentarles a otro personaje: este tipo, Ernest, que, bsicamente, es un delincuente juvenil en un cuerpo de pez. +As, con personajes, uno puede hacer historias. +A veces hacer una historia es tan fcil como poner dos personajes en una sala y ver qu pasa. +Imaginen un gran tiburn blanco y un calamar gigante en el mismo cuarto de bao. +O, a veces, los llevo a lugares de los que la gente nunca ha odo porque estn bajo el agua. +Por ejemplo, los llev a esquiar a la Cordillera del Atlntico Medio que es una cadena montaosa en medio del Atlntico. +Los he llevado al mar de Japn, donde conocieron a medusas gigantes. +Los he llevado a acampar en los bosques de algas marinas de California. +Con ste de aqu hice una historia sobre el censo de la vida marina. +Y eso fue muy divertido porque, como muchos saben, es un proyecto real del que hemos odo hablar. +Pero fue una oportunidad para m de presentar a los lectores un montn de locos personajes subacuticos. +As, comenzamos la historia con Ernest, que se ofrece como empadronador voluntario. +Se sumerge y conoce a este famoso rape. +Luego conoce al cangrejo yeti, al famoso calamar vampiro, escurridizo y difcil de encontrar, y al pulpo Dumbo, que se parece tanto a una caricatura en la vida real que en realidad no tuve que cambiar ni un pice cuando lo dibuj. +Escrib otra historia sobre desechos marinos. +Estuve hablando con muchos de mis amigos del mbito de la conservacin y ellos... y les pregunt: "de qu tema les gustara que se supiera ms?" +Y dijeron... este amigo mo dijo: "Tengo una palabra para ti: plstico". +Y le respond; "Bueno, necesito algo un poco ms sexy que eso. +El plstico no va a lograrlo". +Y entonces empezamos a elaborar la idea. +l quera que yo usara palabras como cloruro de polivinilo, que no funciona muy bien en los bocadillos de las historietas. +No los poda encajar. +As que lo que hice fue hacer una tira de aventuras. +Bsicamente, esta botella recorre un largo camino. +Lo que intento decirle a los lectores es que el plstico en realidad no desaparece; slo contina arrastrndose corriente abajo, +y mucho de eso termina arrastrado hacia el ocano; que es una gran historia si uno le agrega un par de personajes. En especial si ellos no se soportan entre s, como estos dos. +As que los mand a Boise, Idaho, donde cay una botella de plstico en el sistema de alcantarillado de Boise. +As que esta era bsicamente una historia de amigos con una botella de plstico viajera. +Mucha gente recuerda slo la botella de plstico, pero en realidad hablamos de todo tipo de plsticos y desechos marinos a lo largo de la historia. +La tercera historia que hice hace un ao y medio probablemente fue la ms difcil. +Fue sobre la caza de aletas de tiburones, y este tema me impact. +Y me pareci que, dado que mi protagonista es un tiburn, la historieta era un vehculo perfecto para hablarle al pblico sobre este tema. +Ahora bien, la caza de aletas es el acto de tomar un tiburn, cortarle sus valiosas aletas y arrojar al animal vivo de vuelta al agua. +Es cruel y es un desperdicio. +No hay nada gracioso o entretenido en eso, pero yo realmente quera abordar este tema. +Tena que matar a mi personaje principal, que es un tiburn. +Empezamos con Sherman en un restaurante chino en el que una galleta de la fortuna le dice que ser capturado por un barco de arrastre, cosa que sucede. +Y luego muere. +Le cortan las aletas y luego lo arrojan por la borda. +Aparentemente, est muerto. +Y as mat a un personaje que ha estado en el peridico durante 15 aos. +As que los lectores hicieron muchos comentarios al respecto. +Mientras tanto, los otros personajes estn hablando de la sopa de aleta de tiburn. +HIce tres o cuatro tiras despus de esa en las que exploramos el tema de las aletas y de la sopa de aleta de tiburn. +Sherman est en el cielo de los tiburones. +Esto es lo que me encanta de los cmics, ya saben. +Uno no tiene que preocuparse de que la audiencia suspenda su sensacin de incredulidad porque, si uno empieza con un tiburn que habla, los lectores ms o menos ya dejan su incredulidad de lado. +Uno puede hacer casi cualquier cosa. +Se convierte en una experiencia cercana a la muerte para Sherman. +Mientras tanto, Ernest encuentra sus aletas en Internet. +Haba un sitio web real con sede en China que venda aletas de tiburn as que lo puse al descubierto. +Hace clic en el botn "comprar ahora" +y voil! Al da siguiente aparecen y se las colocan de nuevo quirrgicamente. +Termin esa serie con una especie de peticin por correo que animaba a nuestro Servicio Nacional de Pesca Marina a forzar a otros pases a tener una postura ms firme con la gestin de tiburones. +Gracias. +Me gustara terminar con una pequea metfora aqu. +He estado pensando en una metfora que represente a Mission Blue y esto es lo que se me ocurri. +Imaginen que estn en una sala enorme tan oscura como una cueva. +Y que pueden tener cualquier cosa en esa sala, lo que quieran, pero no pueden ver nada. +Les han dado una herramienta, un martillo. +As que deambulan en la oscuridad y se topan con algo y parece que est hecho de piedra. +Es grande, pesado, no lo pueden transportar. Entonces golpean con su martillo y parten un trozo. +Y llevan el trozo a la luz del da, +y ven que tienen un hermoso trozo de alabastro blanco. +Entonces piensan: "Bueno, eso es algo que vale la pena". +As que vuelven a la sala y parten esta cosa en pedazos y se la llevan a rastras. +Y encuentran otras cosas y las rompen y se las llevan tambin. +Y consiguen todo tipo de cosas geniales. +Y escuchan a otras personas hacer lo mismo. +Entonces tienen esta sensacin de urgencia de encontrar tantas cosas como sea posible lo antes posible. +Y luego alguien grita: "Paren!". +Y encienden las luces. +Y uno se da cuenta de dnde est: en el Louvre. +Y uno ha tomado toda esa complejidad y belleza, y la ha transformado en una mercanca barata. +Y eso es lo que estamos haciendo con el ocano. +Y Mission Blue trata en parte de gritar "Paren!", +para que cada uno de nosotros, sea explorador, cientfico, dibujante, cantante o chef, pueda encender las luces a su manera. +Y eso es lo que espero que mi cmic haga a pequea escala. +Por eso me gusta lo que hago. +Gracias por escuchar. +Les voy hablar de la qumica poltica de los derrames de petrleo por qu es importante este verano largo, pegajoso, ardiente, por qu necesitamos estar atentos y no distraernos. +Pero antes de hablar de la qumica poltica, necesito hablar de la qumica del petrleo. +Esta es una foto de cuando visit la baha Prudhoe en Alaska en el 2002 para ver el Departamento de Administracin de Minerales, probar su habilidad para quemar derrames de petrleo en el hielo. +Lo que ven aqu es un poco de petrleo crudo, ven algunos cubos de hielo, y dos bolsas de sndwich de napalm. +El napalm se est quemando bien. +Y la cosa es que el petrleo es abstracto para nosotros los consumidores de EE.UU. +Somos el 4% de la poblacin mundial; utilizamos el 25% de la produccin mundial de petrleo. +Y no entendemos qu es el petrleo, hasta que chequeamos sus molculas; y no lo entendemos hasta que lo vemos arder. +Esto es lo que sucede mientras est ardiendo. +Se va; desaparece. +Les recomiendo que alguna vez vean quemar petrleo crudo. Porque nunca ms necesitarn escuchar una charla poli-cientfica sobre la geopoltica del petrleo. +Quemar sus retinas. +As que ah est, las retinas se estn quemando. +Permtanme decirles algo acerca de esta qumica del petrleo. +El petrleo es un cocido de molculas de hidrocarburo. +Comienza con las ms pequeas, que son un carbono, cuatro hidrgenos, eso es metano... se esfuma. +Luego estn las de tipo intermedio con cantidades medias de carbono. +Probablemente han escuchado de los anillos de benceno; son cancergenos. +y van desde estos grandes, gruesos y torpes que tienen cientos de carbonos, tienen miles de hidrgenos, tienen vanadio, metales pesados, sulfuro y todo tipo de cosas colgando a sus lados. +Esos son llamados asfaltenos; son los ingredientes del asfalto. +Son muy importantes en los derrames de petrleo. +Permtanme hablarles un poco de la qumica del petrleo en el agua. +Es la qumica que hace que el petrleo sea desastroso. +El petrleo no se hunde, flota. +Si se hundiera, en cuanto a los derrames, sera una historia diferente. +Lo otro es que se esparce en cuanto toca el agua. +Se esparce como una capa muy delgada, hacindola muy difcil de acorralar. +Lo siguiente que sucede es que lo liviano se evapora, y algunos de los contaminantes flotan en la columna de agua matando huevos de peces, peces pequeos, camarones y cosas por el estilo. +Y luego los asfaltenos, y esto es crucial, los asfaltenos son agitados por las olas convirtindose en una emulsin cremosa como la mayonesa. +Eso triplica la cantidad de residuos de grasa en el agua, y la hace muy difcil de manejar. +Tambin la hace muy viscosa. +Cuando el Prestige se hundi en la costa espaola, hubo grandes manchas flotantes del tamao de almohadones de sofs de petrleo emulsificado, con la consistencia o viscosidad de la goma de mascar. +Es increblemente difcil de limpiar. +Todos los petrleos son diferentes cuando tocan el agua. +Cuando la qumica del petrleo y el agua toca la poltica, es absolutamente explosiva. +Por primera vez, los consumidores de EE.UU. se vern frente a la cadena de suministro de petrleo. +Tendremos un momento "eureka!", cuando repentinamente entendamos el petrleo en un contexto diferente. +As que les voy hablar un poco de los comienzos de estas polticas, porque es realmente crucial entender por qu este verano es muy importante, por qu necesitamos estar enfocados. +Nadie se levanta en la maana pensando: "Guau! Voy a comprar de 3 a 12 molculas de carbono para poner en el tanque y conducir feliz a mi trabajo". +No, pensamos "Uh! Tengo que comprar combustible. +Eso me molesta. Las compaas de petrleo me estn arruinando. +Ellos fijan el precio, y ni siquiera me entero. +Estoy indefenso". +Y esto es lo que nos sucede en un surtidor. Realmente, los surtidores estn diseados especficamente para disipar esa rabia. +Pueden notar que muchos surtidores, incluyendo ste, estn diseados como cajeros automticos. +He hablado con ingenieros. Estn para disipar nuestra rabia, porque supuestamente nos sentimos bien con los cajeros automticos. +Eso demuestra lo malo que es. +Quiero decir, ese sentimiento de impotencia viene porque muchos estadounidenses sienten que el precio del petrleo se debe a una conspiracin. Y no a las vicisitudes del mercado petrolero. +Y eso es realmente perverso. +Bien. Existe otra forma perversa en cmo compramos el combustible: preferiramos estar haciendo algo diferente. +Esta es la estacin de Gasolina de BP en el centro de Los ngeles. +Es verde. Es el santuario de lo verde. +Pensarn: "por qu algo tan burdo funciona con gente tan inteligente?" +Bien, la razn es que cuando estamos comprando combustible estamos metidos en esta disonancia cognitiva. +Estamos molestos con esto y querramos estar haciendo otra cosa. +No queremos estar comprando combustible; queremos estar haciendo algo bueno por el medioambiente. +Y quedamos atrapados en nuestras contradicciones. +Quiero decir, es chistoso. Se ve divertido. +Por eso funcion el eslogan "ms all del petrleo". +Pero es una parte inherente de nuestra poltica energtica, en la cual no hablamos de reducir la cantidad de petrleo que usamos. +Hablamos de independencia energtica; de autos a hidrgeno; +de combustibles biolgicos que no han sido inventados. +Y por tanto, la disonancia cognitiva es parte de la forma en que lidiamos con el petrleo. Es muy importante que lidiemos con este derrame de petrleo. +Bien, la poltica petrolera es muy moral en Estados Unidos. +La industria del petrleo es como un pulpo gigantesco de economa e ingeniera y todo lo dems, pero realmente lo vemos en trminos morales. +Esta es una fotografa vieja. Pueden ver que tenemos estos torrentes. +Los primeros periodistas vieron estos derrames, y dijeron: "esta es una industria sucia". +Pero tambin vieron en ella que la gente se enriqueca sin hacer nada. +No eran agricultores, se enriquecan de lo que sala de la tierra. +Beverly Ricos, Rsticos en Dinerolandia. +Pero en un principio fue visto como un problema tico antes de que se convirtiera en algo divertido. +Y entonces, por supuesto, ah est John D. Rockefeller. +Y la cosa con John D. es que se meti en esta salvaje industria del petrleo y la racionaliz en una compaa vertical integrada y multinacional. +Fue aterrador. Creen que hoy Wal-Mart es un modelo de negocio de temer? Imagnense como era en 1860 1870. +Tambin es el inicio de cmo vemos el petrleo como conspiracin. +Lo que realmente es asombroso es que Ida Tarbell, la periodista, investig y puso al descubierto a Rockefeller y realmente logr poner en su lugar la leyes antimonoplicas. +Pero en muchos sentidos, an permanece la imagen de la conspiracin. +Esta es una de las cosas que dijo Ida Tarbell: "Tiene una nariz delgada como una espina. +No tiene labios. +Tiene bolsas debajo de sus ojitos sin gracia; con arrugas que salen de ellos". +Bien. Ese hombre todava existe. +Quiero decir, es muy dominante... esto es parte de nuestro ADN. +Y adems este tipo... +as que uno se pregunta por qu cada vez que sube el precio del petrleo o hay derrames llamamos a estos ejecutivos a Washington y los bombardeamos con preguntas pblicas y tratamos de avergonzarlos. +Es algo que hemos estado haciendo desde 1974 cuando por primera vez les preguntamos: por qu existen estas ganancias grotescas?" +Y casi que personalizamos la industria petrolera en estos ejecutivos. +Lo tomamos como que lo miramos en el nivel tico, ms que en el nivel econmico y legal. +Quiero decir esto es una distraccin +es muy bueno para una obra de teatro, y es muy catrtico, como probablemente lo vieron la semana pasada. +La cuestin de los derrames de petrleo en el agua es que son impulsados polticamente. +Quiero decir, estas fotos son del derrame de Santa Brbara. +Tienen estas fotos de pjaros. +Realmente influyen en las personas. +Cuando ocurri el derrame de Santa Brbara en 1969 dio lugar al movimiento medioambiental en su forma actual. +Naci el Da de la Tierra. +Tambin naci la ley de poltica nacional medioambiental, la ley de aire puro, la ley de agua limpia. +Todo lo que pedimos se dio. +Pienso que es importante que miremos estas fotos de los pjaros y entendamos lo que nos sucede. +Aqu estamos normalmente; parados en el surtidor, sintindonos indefensos. +vemos estas fotos, y entendemos por primera vez nuestro rol en esta cadena. +Unimos eslabones en la cadena. +Y tenemos este tipo de... como votantes, tenemos un momento eureka. +Es por eso que estos momentos de derrames son tan importantes. +Igualmente es muy importante que no nos distraigamos con el teatro o la tica. +Necesitamos continuar trabajando en las races del problema. +Una de las cosas que sucedieron con los dos derrames anteriores fue que realmente trabajamos en algunos de los sntomas. +Reaccionamos, en lugar de ser ms proactivos con lo que sucedi. +Y lo que realmente hicimos fue hacer ms pausas en las excavaciones de las costas este y oeste. +Dejamos de excavar en el refugio rtico pero no redujimos la cantidad de petrleo que consumimos. +De hecho, continu aumentando. +Lo nico que puede reducir la cantidad de petrleo que consumimos es el aumento de precios. +Como pueden ver, nuestra produccin ha cado al tiempo que nuestras reservas se envejecen y se hace ms costoso excavar. +Slo tenemos el 2% de las reservas petroleras mundiales. El 65% de ellas estn en el Golfo Prsico. +Una de las cosas que sucedieron a causa de esto es que desde 1969, Nigeria, o la parte de Nigeria que saca petrleo, el delta, de dos veces el tamao de Maryland, ha tenido miles de derrames al ao. +Quiero decir, esencialmente hemos exportado derrames de petrleo cuando importamos petrleo de otros lugares sin regulaciones medioambientales rgidas. +Es el equivalente al derrame de Exxon Valdez cada ao desde 1969. +Podemos hacer la vista gorda a los derrames porque eso es lo que vemos aqu, pero de hecho, estos hombres realmente viven en zona de guerra. +Existen miles de muertes al ao relacionadas con las guerras en esta zona de dos veces el tamao de Maryland, y todo est relacionado con el petrleo. +Y estos hombres, si estuvieran en EE.UU. puede que estuviesen en esta sala. +Tienen ttulos en ciencias polticas, en negocios. Son emprendedores. No quieren realmente hacer lo que estn haciendo. +Y es uno de los otros grupos de personas que pagan el precio por nosotros. +La otra cosa que hemos hecho, al tiempo que incrementamos la demanda, es jugar a esconder los costos. +Uno de los lugares en los que hay un gran proyecto petrolero es en Chad, con la Exxon. +Los contribuyentes de EE.UU. lo pagan. el Banco Mundial, Exxon lo paga. +Lo pospusimos. Existi un problema grande de vandalismo. +Estuve all en el 2003. +Conducamos por este camino oscuro, y sali un tipo de verde y yo pens: "Ahhh, esto es el fin!" +Y sali el hombre con el uniforme de Exxon, y nos dimos cuenta que todo estaba bien. +Tienen su propio ejrcito privado alrededor de los campos petroleros. +Pero al mismo tiempo Chad se ha vuelto muy inestable y no pagamos en el surtidor ese precio. +Lo pagamos cuando pagamos los impuestos el 15 de abril. +Hacemos lo mismo con el costo de vigilar el Golfo Prsico para mantener las lneas de envo abiertas. +Esto es en 1988. Bombardeamos dos plataformas iranes ese ao. +Ese fue el inicio de la incursin de EE.UU. all; no pagamos por eso en el surtidor. +Lo pagamos el 15 de abril. Ni siquiera podemos calcular el costo de la incursin. +Otro sitio que est sosteniendo nuestra dependencia del petrleo y nuestro mayor consumo es el Golfo de Mxico, que no fue parte de las moratorias. +Lo que ha pasado con el Golfo de Mxico, como ven, este es el diagrama de Administracin de Minerales de pozos de gas y petrleo. +Se ha convertido en una zona altamente industrializada. +No tiene la misma resonancia en nosotros como la tiene el Refugio de Fauna Silvestre Nacional rtico, debera... es un santuario de aves. +Tambin, cada vez que uno compra combustible en Estados Unidos, la mitad est siendo refinada en la costa, porque el Golfo tiene cerca del 50% de la capacidad de refinacin y muchas de nuestras terminales marinas tambin. +As que, en realidad, la gente del Golfo ha estado subsidindonos a travs de un medioambiente no muy limpio. +Y finalmente, las familias de EE.UU. tambin estn pagando el precio del petrleo. +Si observan a las personas que ganan $50.000 al ao, tienen 2 hijos, probablemente tienen 3 trabajos o ms, y tienen que desplazarse de trabajo en trabajo. +Estn realmente gastando ms en sus coches y combustible que lo que pagan en impuestos o salud. +Lo mismo le sucede al 50% de los de $80.000. +El costo del combustible es un gasto tremendo en la economa de EE.UU., y tambin un gasto en las familias, es terrible pensar en lo que suceder cuando los precios aumenten. +As que de lo que les voy hablar ahora es: qu tenemos que hacer ahora? +Cules son las leyes? Qu tenemos que hacer para mantenernos en foco? +Una cosa es que tenemos que alejarnos del teatro. +Necesitamos alejarnos de las moratorias. +Necesitamos centrarnos de nuevo en las molculas. +Las moratorias estn bien, pero necesitamos enfocarnos en las molculas de petrleo. +Otra coas que necesitamos hacer es, no engaarnos en pensar que podemos tener un mundo verde, sin disminuir la cantidad de petrleo que consumimos. +Necesitamos concentrarnos en disminuir el petrleo. +Lo que ven en este dibujo es un esquema del uso de petrleo en la economa de EE.UU. +Las cosas tiles estn de color gris oscuro. y las intiles, la energa rechazada, el desperdicio, va en la parte superior. +Pueden ver como el desperdicio es ms grande que la parte til. +Y una de las cosas que tenemos que hacer es no slo incrementar el uso eficiente del combustible en nuestros autos y hacerlos ms eficientes, sino tambin arreglar la economa en general. +Necesitamos eliminar los incentivos perversos para usar ms combustible. +Por ejemplo, tenemos un sistema de seguros en el que las personas que conducen 30.000 kms por ao pagan igual que una persona que conduce 5.000 kms. +En realidad incentivamos a que las personas conduzcan ms. +Tenemos polticas que incentivan la expansin urbana. Tenemos todo tipo de polticas. +Necesitamos tener ms alternativas de transporte. +Tenemos que hacer que los precios del combustible reflejen el costo real del petrleo. +Tenemos que cambiar los subsidios de la industria petrolera, que son al menos 10 mil millones de dlares al ao, por algo que permita que la clase media encuentre mejores formas de desplazarse. +Ya sea consiguiendo un coche ms eficiente o creando mercados para nuevos autos y nuevos combustibles, es all adonde necesitamos llegar. +Necesitamos racionalizar todo esto, y pueden buscar ms acerca de esta poltica. +Se llama STRONG, por sus siglas en ingls "Secure Transportation Reducing Oil Needs Gradually", y la idea es, en lugar de sentirnos impotentes, necesitamos ser ms fuertes. +Estn en newamerica.net +Lo importante en esto es tratar de pasar del sentimiento de impotencia frente al surtidor, a estar realmente activos y pensar quines somos, tomarnos ese momento para atar cabos frente al surtidor. +Supuestamente los impuestos al combustible son el tercer riel de la poltica de EE.UU., la zona de No vuelo, +Djenme mostrarles algo de cmo funcionaria esto. +Este es un recibo de combustible, hipotticamente hablando, en un ao +La primera cosa que tiene es el impuesto, uno tiene un impuesto por unos EE.UU. ms fuertes, 33 cvos. +As que no est impotente frente al surtidor. +La siguiente cosa que uno tiene una seal de alerta. Muy similar a la que encuentra en un paquete de cigarros. +Y lo que dice es: "la Academia Nacional de Ciencias estima que cada galn de combustible que usas en tu coche crea 29 cvos en costos sanitarios". +Eso es un montn. +Y en esto pueden ver que estn pagando considerablemente menos que los impuestos en salud. +Y tambin, la esperanza es que uno empiece a conectarse con el sistema ms grande. +Y, al mismo tiempo, uno tiene un nmero al cual llamar para conseguir ms informacin sobre formas de desplazamiento, o sobre prstamo a bajo inters para un coche diferente, o lo que sea que vaya a necesitar para reducir la dependencia al combustible. +Con todo este tipo de polticas, podramos reducir en consumo de combustible, nuestro consumo de petrleo, en un 20% para el 2020. +3 millones de barriles al da. +Pero para hacer esto necesitamos recordar que somos la gente del hidrocarburo. +Necesitamos tener en mente las molculas y no distraernos con el teatro, no distraernos con la disonancia cognitiva de las posibilidades medioambientales que hay afuera. +Necesitamos ir al meollo y hacer el trabajo valiente de reducir nuestra dependencia de este combustible y esas molculas. +Gracias. +Trabajo en mercadotecnia y me encanta pero mi pasin era la fsica; una pasin que me infundi un profesor maravilloso cuando tena algunas canas menos. +l me ense que la fsica es algo genial porque nos ensea mucho del mundo que nos rodea. +Y en los prximos minutos voy a tratar de convencerlos de que la fsica puede ensearnos algo sobre mercadotecnia. +Hagamos un sondeo rpido... quines estudiaron algo de mercadotecnia en la universidad? +quines estudiaron algo de fsica en la universidad? +Oh, muy bien. Y en la escuela? +Muy bien, muchos de Uds. +Entonces espero que esto le traiga recuerdos felices, o quiz algunos recuerdos un tanto inquietantes. +Entonces, fsica y mercadotecnia: +empezaremos con algo muy simple, la ley de Newton: "la fuerza es igual a la masa por la aceleracin". +Esto es algo que quiz Turkish Airlines debera haber estudiado un poco ms cuidadosamente antes de lanzar esta campaa. +Pero si reorganizamos rpidamente esta frmula obtenemos que la aceleracin es la fuerza sobre la masa lo que significa que para una partcula ms grande, una masa ms grande, se necesita ms fuerza para cambiar su direccin. +Sucede lo mismo con las marcas. Canto ms masiva es una marca, cuanto ms bagaje tiene, ms fuerza se necesita para cambiar su posicionamiento. +Y esa fue una de las razones por las que Arthur Andersen decidi lanzar Accenture en lugar de tratar de convencer al mundo de que Andersen podra representar algo ms que contabilidad. +Eso explica por qu a Hoover le result muy difcil convencer al mundo de que eran ms que aspiradoras, y por qu compaas como Unilever y P&G mantienen marcas separadas como Oreo, Pringle y Dove en vez de tener una marca matriz gigante. +As que la fsica dice que cuanto mayor sea la masa de un objeto ms fuerza se necesita para cambiar su direccin. +Y en mercadotecnia, cuanto ms grande es la marca ms difcil es reposicionarla. +Piensen en una cartera de marcas o quiz en nuevas marcas para nuevas empresas. +Ahora bien, quin recuerda el principio de incertidumbre de Heisenberg? +Ahora se pone un poco ms tcnico. +El principio dice que es imposible, por definicin, medir con exactitud el estado, o sea, la posicin, y la cantidad de movimiento de una partcula porque medirla, por definicin, la cambia. +Por tanto, para explicarlo... si uno tiene una partcula elemental y arroja luz sobre ella, entonces el fotn de luz tiene un momento lineal que golpea la partcula, por lo que uno no sabe dnde estaba antes de que la mirase. +Al medirla, el acto de medirla, la cambia. +El acto de observacin la cambia. +Lo mismo sucede en mercadotecnia. +El acto de observar a los consumidores cambia su comportamiento. +Piensen en el grupo de mams que estn hablando de sus maravillosos hijos en un grupo focal, y casi no compra mucha comida chatarra. +Y, sin embargo, McDonald's vende cientos de millones de hamburguesas al ao. +Piensen en las personas que hacen compras con supervisin en supermercados que llenan sus carros repletos de verduras frescas y frutas, pero no compran as el resto de los das. +Y si uno piensa en la cantidad de gente que dice en las encuestas buscar porno en la Web con asiduidad es muy poca. +Sin embargo, en Google, sabemos que es la categora nmero uno en bsquedas. +As que, por suerte, la ciencia... no, perdn... la mercadotecnia es cada vez ms fcil. +Por suerte, ahora con mejor seguimiento del punto de venta con ms consumo de medios digitales, uno puede medir ms lo que hacen realmente los consumidores en vez de lo que dicen que hacen. +Entonces, la fsica dice que uno nunca puede medir una partcula con precisin exacta porque la observacin la cambia. +En mercadotecnia... el mensaje de la mercadotecnia es tratar de medir lo que realmente hacen los consumidores en vez de medir lo que dicen que van a hacer o de anticipar lo que van a hacer. +A continuacin, el mtodo cientfico, un axioma de la fsica, de todas las ciencias, dice que uno no puede probar una hiptesis mediante la observacin. Slo se la puede refutar. +Esto quiere decir que uno puede juntar ms y ms datos en torno a una hiptesis o posicionamiento y lo va a reforzar, pero no lo va a probar de manera concluyente. +Y basta con un solo dato en contrario para dar por tierra con toda la teora. +As que si tomamos un ejemplo... Tolomeo tena decenas de datos para sustentar su teora de que los planetas rotaban alrededor de la Tierra. +Bast con una sola observacin slida de Coprnico para dar por tierra con esa idea. +Y hay un paralelismo para la mercadotecnia. Uno puede invertir mucho tiempo en una marca, pero una sola observacin en contrario de ese posicionamiento va a destruir la creencia de los consumidores. +Tomen BP. Gastaron millones de libras durante muchos aos construyendo sus credenciales como marca amigable con el ambiente pero luego un pequeo accidente... +Piensen en Toyota. +Durante mucho tiempo fue reverenciado como el ms confiable de los autos y luego tuvieron el tan mentado incidente. +Y Tiger Wood, durante mucho tiempo el embajador de marca perfecto. +Bueno, ya conocen la historia. +Entonces, la fsica dice que uno no puede probar una hiptesis pero es fcil refutarla. Cualquier hiptesis es inestable. +Y la mercadotecnia dice que no importa cunto se ha invertido en su marca una semana mala puede socavar dcadas de buen trabajo. +As que tengan cuidado de evitar los giros inesperados que pueden socavar su marca. +Y por ltimo, para el mundo un poco oscuro de la entropa, la segunda ley de la termodinmica. +sta dice que la entropa, que es la medida del desorden de un sistema, siempre va en aumento. +Lo mismo puede decirse de la mercadotecnia. +Si retrocedemos 20 aos un mensaje ms o menos controlado por un gerente de mercadotecnia podra muy bien definir una marca. +Pero en el estado actual las cosas han cambiado. +Uno puede tener una imagen de marca fuerte o un mensaje fuerte y proclamarlo por all como hizo el Partido Conservador a principios de este ao con su cartel electoral. +Pero luego uno pierde control del mismo. +Con el tipo de creacin de comentarios digitales y herramientas de distribucin disponibles ahora para todos los consumidores, es imposible controlar a dnde va. +Su marca empieza a ser dispersa. Se vuelve ms catica. +Se va de control. +De hecho, lo vi hablar. Hizo un buen trabajo. +Pero si bien esto puede ser inquietante para los vendedores, es en realidad algo bueno. +Esta distribucin de energa de marca acerca su marca a la gente, est ms con la gente. +Esta distribucin de la energa es una fuerza democratizadora, que es, en ltima instancia, algo bueno para la marca. +Por lo tanto, la leccin de la fsica es que la entropa siempre aumenta, es una ley fundamental. +El mensaje de la mercadotecnia es que su marca es ms dispersa. +No se puede luchar contra eso, hay que aferrarse a eso y encontrar una manera de trabajar con eso. +Para terminar mi profesor, el Sr. Vutter, me dijo que la fsica es genial y tengo la esperanza de haberlos convencido de que la fsica nos puede ensear, incluso en el mundo de la mercadotecnia, algo especial. +Gracias. +Martin Luther King no dijo: "tengo una pesadilla", al inspirar los movimientos de derechos civiles. +Dijo: "tengo un sueo". +Y yo tengo un sueo. +Sueo con que dejemos de pensar que el futuro ser una pesadilla; y esto es un desafo porque si uno piensa en las pelculas principales de los ltimos tiempos, casi todas ven la Humanidad de forma apocalptica. +Creo que la pelcula "The Road" (La carretera)es representativa de los tiempos modernos. +Es una bella obra cinematogrfica, pero todo est desolado, todo est muerto. +Slo el padre y el hijo tratando de sobrevivir, caminando por la carretera. +Y creo que el movimiento ecologista, del cual formo parte, ha sido cmplice en la creacin de esta visin del futuro. +Durante demasiado tiempo hemos difundido una visin catastrfica de lo que iba a suceder. +Nos hemos centrado en el peor de los casos. +En los problemas. +Y no hemos pensado lo suficiente en las soluciones. +Hemos utilizado el miedo, si se quiere, para captar la atencin de la gente. +Y cualquier psiclogo les dir que el miedo en el organismo est vinculado al mecanismo de vuelo. +Es parte del mecanismo de lucha y vuelo que cuando un animal est asustado... piensen en un ciervo. +Un ciervo se queda muy, muy quieto, a punto de salir corriendo. +Y creo que eso es lo que hacemos cuando pedimos a la gente que siga nuestro plan en torno a la degradacin ambiental y el cambio climtico. +La gente se paraliza y sale corriendo porque usamos el miedo. +Y creo que el movimiento ecologista tiene que madurar y empezar a pensar qu es el progreso. +Qu tal si mejorsemos la condicin humana? +Esto es, en cierto modo, apelar a la codicia humana en lugar del miedo... de que ms es mejor. +Vamos. En el mundo occidental ya tenemos suficiente. +Quiz en otras partes del mundo no, pero nosotros tenemos suficiente. +Y sabemos desde hace mucho que esta no es una buena medida de bienestar de las naciones. +De hecho, el arquitecto de nuestro sistema contable nacional, Simon Kuznets, en la dcada de 1930, dijo que "El bienestar de una nacin apenas puede inferirse de su ingreso nacional". +Pero hemos creado un sistema contable nacional firmemente basado en la produccin, en la produccin de bienes. +Y, en efecto, esto es probablemente histrico, y tuvo su momento. +En la Segunda Guerra Mundial tenamos que producir muchas cosas. +Y, de hecho, tuvimos tanto xito produciendo determinado tipo de cosas que destruimos gran parte de Europa y luego tuvimos que reconstruirla. +Por lo que nuestro sistema contable nacional qued fijo en lo que podemos producir. +Pero ya en 1968 este hombre visionario, Robert Kennedy, al inicio de su fallida campaa presidencial, dio la deconstruccin ms elocuente del producto interior bruto que jams se ha dado. +Y termin su discurso con la frase: "El producto interior bruto mide todo menos eso que hace que la vida valga la pena". +Qu locura es esa, que nuestra medida de progreso, nuestra medida dominante de progreso en la sociedad, consiste en medir todo menos eso que hace que la vida valga la pena? +Creo que, si hoy Kennedy viviera, le pedira a los estadsticos como yo salir y averiguar qu es lo que hace que la vida valga la pena. +Nos estara pidiendo que rediseemos nuestro sistema contable nacional para basarlo en cosas tan importantes como la justicia social, la sustentabilidad, y el bienestar de las personas. +Y, de hecho, los cientficos sociales ya han empezado a preguntar esto en todo el mundo. +Esto es de una encuesta mundial. +Se le pregunta a la gente qu quieren. +Y, como era de esperar, la gente de todo el mundo dice que lo que quiere es la felicidad para ellos, para sus familias, sus hijos, sus comunidades. +Bien, creen que el dinero es algo importante. +Est ah, pero no es tan importante como la felicidad, y no es tan importante como el amor. +Todos necesitamos amar y ser amados en la vida. +No es tan importante como la salud. +Queremos tener salud y vivir una vida plena. +Estas parecen ser aspiraciones humanas naturales. +Por qu no miden esto los estadsticos? +Por qu no estamos pensando el progreso de las naciones en estos trminos en lugar de medir slo la cantidad de cosas que tenemos? +Y realmente, esto es lo que he hecho en mi vida adulta... pensar cmo medimos la felicidad, cmo medimos el bienestar, cmo podemos hacerlo dentro de los lmites ambientales. +Y creamos, en la organizacin en la que trabajo, la New Economics Foundation (Fundacin Nueva Economa), algo llamado Happy Planet Index (ndice de Planeta Feliz) porque creemos que la gente debera ser feliz y el planeta tambin. +Por qu no crear un indicador de progreso que muestre eso? +Y lo que hacemos es decir que el resultado final de una nacin es lo exitosa que es para crear una vida feliz y saludable para sus ciudadanos. +Ese debera ser el objetivo de las naciones del planeta. +Pero tenemos que recordar que hay un insumo fundamental para eso que es cuntos recursos del planeta usamos. +Tenemos un solo planeta. Tenemos que compartirlo. +Es el recurso escaso de ltima instancia, el planeta que compartimos. +Y la economa se interesa mucho en la escasez. +Cuando se tiene un recurso escaso que quiere convertir en un resultado deseable, se valora en trminos de eficiencia. +En trminos de cunto provecho sacamos a nuestro dinero. +Y este es un indicador de cunto bienestar obtenemos al usar los recursos del planeta. +Es una medida de eficiencia. +Y, probablemente, la manera ms fcil de verlo es mostrndoles este grfico. +En el eje horizontal, en la grfica, vemos la "huella ecolgica", que se refiere a los recursos que usamos y de la presin que ejercemos sobre el planeta. +Ms es malo. +Hacia arriba, en vertical, hay una mtrica llamada "aos de vida feliz". +Tiene que ver con el bienestar de las naciones. +Es como una expectativa de vida ajustada a la felicidad. +Es una especie de calidad y cantidad de vida en las naciones. +Y el punto amarillo que ven es el promedio mundial. +Hay un gran grupo de naciones en torno al promedio mundial. +Hacia la parte superior derecha de la grfica, estn los pases a los que les va razonablemente bien y producen bienestar pero estn usando muchos recursos para lograrlo. +Son los EE.UU. otros pases occidentales en esos tringulos y algunos estados del Golfo. +Por el contrario, en la parte inferior izquierda de la grfica, estn los pases que no producen mucho bienestar... por lo general, el frica subsahariana. +En trminos de Hobbes, all la vida es corta y brutal. +La esperanza media de vida en muchos de estos pases es de slo 40 aos. +La malaria, el VIH/SIDA, mata a muchas personas en estas regiones del mundo. +Pero ahora las buenas noticias. +Hay algunos pases, en los tringulos amarillos, a los que les va mejor que a la media, que se dirigen hacia la parte superior izquierda del grfico. +Este es un grfico aspiracional. +Queremos estar arriba a la izquierda, donde vivir bien no es a costa del planeta. +Son de Amrica Latina. +El pas de la parte superior es un lugar en el que no he estado. +Quiz algunos de Uds s. +Costa Rica. +Costa Rica... la esperanza media de vida es de 78 aos y medio. +Eso es ms que en los EE.UU. +Es, segn la encuesta mundial ms reciente de Gallup, el pas ms feliz del planeta ms que nadie; ms que Suiza y Dinamarca. +Son el lugar ms feliz. +Lo logran con un cuarto de los recursos usados generalmente en el mundo occidental... un cuarto de los recursos. +Qu est pasando? +Qu est pasando en Costa Rica? +Podemos ver algunos de los datos. +El 99% de su electricidad proviene de recursos renovables. +Su gobierno es uno de los primeros en cumplir para ser neutro en carbono para el ao 2021. +Se aboli el ejrcito en 1949, 1949. +E invirtieron en programas sociales... Salud y educacin. +Tienen una de las tasas de alfabetizacin ms altas en Amrica Latina y del mundo. +Y tienen ese toque latino, no es as? +Tienen ese "don" social. +El desafo es que, posiblemente, y lo tendremos que pensar... es que el futuro podra no ser Amrica del Norte, podra no ser Europa occidental. +Podra ser Amrica Latina. +Y el desafo, en realidad, es llevar la media mundial hasta aqu. +Eso es lo que tenemos que hacer. +Y si lo vamos a hacer Debemos tirar de los pases de la parte inferior y de los pases de la derecha de la grfica. +Y entonces comenzaremos a crear un planeta feliz. +Esa es una manera de verlo. +Otra es observar las tendencias temporales. +No tenemos buenos datos histricos de todos los pases del mundo pero s de algunos de los pases ms ricos, el grupo de la OCDE. +Y esta es una tendencia en el bienestar durante ese tiempo, un pequeo aumento, pero esta es la tendencia de la huella ecolgica. +Y, as, en estricta metodologa de planeta feliz, nos hemos vuelto menos eficientes para convertir el recurso escaso en el resultado que queremos. +Y la idea es en realidad, creo, probablemente que todos en esta sala deseamos que la sociedad llegue al 2050 sin que suceda algo apocalptico. +En realidad no falta mucho. +Estamos a media vida humana de distancia. +Un nio que entra hoy a la escuela tendr mi edad en el 2050. +Este no es un futuro muy lejano. +As se ve el objetivo del gobierno britnico sobre el carbono y las emisiones de efecto invernadero. +Y mantengo que no es un tema como cualquier otro. +Eso est cambiando nuestras actividades. +Est cambiando la manera como creamos nuestras organizaciones, como hacemos poltica de gobierno y como vivimos nuestras vidas. +Y la idea es que tenemos que seguir incrementando el bienestar. +Nadie puede ir a las urnas y decir que la calidad de vida se reducir. +Nadie, creo, quiere que se detenga el progreso humano. +Creo que queremos que contine. +Creo que deseamos que la condicin humana siga mejorando. +Y creo que aqu es donde entran en juego los escpticos y negadores del cambio climtico. +Creo que esto es lo que quieren. Quieren que siga aumentando la calidad de vida. +Quieren conservar lo que tienen. +Y si queremos implicarlos creo que es lo que tenemos que hacer. +Y eso significa que tenemos que aumentar la eficiencia un poco ms. +Es muy fcil dibujar grficos y cosas similares, pero la idea es que tenemos que revertir esas curvas. +Y en este punto es donde creo que podemos aprovechar ideas de la teora de sistemas, de los ingenieros de sistemas; ellos crean bucles de retroalimentacin, ponen la informacin correcta en el momento exacto. +Los seres humanos estamos motivados por el "ahora". +Uno pone un medidor inteligente en casa y ve cunta electricidad est usando ahora mismo cunto le est costando a uno, los nios van y apagan las luces de inmediato. +Cmo se proyecta eso en la sociedad? +Por qu ser que en las noticias de la radio en la tarde oigo el FTSE 100, el Dow Jones, la relacin de libras a dlares... ni siquiera s en qu punto la libra en dlares es una buena noticia. +Y por qu oigo eso? +Por qu no oigo cunta energa us Gran Bretaa ayer, o cunta usaron en EE.UU. ayer? +Cumplimos nuestro objetivo anual del 3% de reduccin de emisiones de carbono? +As es como se crea un objetivo colectivo. +Se lo instala en los medios de comunicacin y se empieza a pensar en ello. +Y necesitamos ciclos de retroalimentacin positiva para aumentar el bienestar. A nivel gubernamental tienen que contabilizar el bienestar. +A nivel empresarial se puede mirar el bienestar de los empleados, que sabemos est estrechamente vinculado a la creatividad, a la innovacin, y necesitaremos mucha innovacin para hacer frente a los problemas ambientales. +A nivel personal, tambin necesitamos estos empujones. +Quiz no tanto los datos, pero s necesitamos recordatorios. +En el R.U. tenemos un fuerte mensaje de salud pblica de 5 frutas y verduras al da y la cantidad de ejercicio que debemos hacer... jams fue mi fuerte. +Cul es el equivalente para la felicidad? +Cules son las 5 cosas que uno debera hacer todos los das para ser ms feliz? +Hicimos un proyecto para la Oficina Gubernamental de la Ciencia hace un par de aos, un gran programa llamado Foresight muchas personas, muchos expertos involucrados, todo basado en pruebas... un gran libro. +Pero un trabajo fue sobre 5 acciones positivas que se pueden hacer para mejorar el bienestar en la vida de uno. +Y la idea de esto es que hay, no del todo, secretos de la felicidad, pero hay cosas, creo, de las que fluir la felicidad. +Y la primera de estas es "conectarse", es que las relaciones sociales son los pilares fundamentales de la vida. +Inviertes el tiempo en tus seres queridos, el tiempo y la energa necesarios? +Sigue construyendo el vnculo. +La segunda es "estar activo". +La manera ms eficaz contra el mal humor es salir, ir a caminar, encender la radio y bailar. +Estar activo es ideal para un estado de nimo positivo. +La tercera es "tomar nota". +Cun al tanto ests de las cosas que suceden en el mundo del cambio de estaciones, de las personas que te rodean? +Sientes eso que llevas dentro y que intenta salir? +Basado en un montn de evidencia pro-atencin, y terapia cognitivo-conductual, ambas son decisivas en nuestro bienestar. +La cuarta es "seguir aprendiendo" y es importante seguir... aprendiendo durante toda la vida. +Las personas mayores que siguen aprendiendo y son curiosas tienen mucho mejores resultados que aquellos que empiezan a cerrarse. +Pero no tiene por qu ser un aprendizaje formal; no se basa en el conocimiento. +Es ms la curiosidad. +Puede consistir en aprender a preparar un nuevo plato, retomar un instrumento que se dej en la niez. +Seguir aprendiendo. +Y la ltima es la ms anti-econmica de las actividades: "dar". +Nuestra generosidad, nuestro altruismo, nuestra compasin, todas estn relacionadas con el mecanismo de recompensa del cerebro. +Nos sentimos bien si damos. +Se puede hacer un experimento en el que uno da a dos grupos de personas 100 dlares en la maana. +Se le pide a unos que se lo gasten en ellos mismos y a los otros en otra gente. +Al medir la felicidad al final del da; los que gastaron en otras personas son mucho ms felices que los que gastaron en s mismos. +Y estas 5 maneras, que ponemos en estas postales yo dira, no tienen que costar la Tierra. +No tienen ningn contenido de carbono. +No necesitan gran cantidad de bienes materiales para cumplirse. +Por lo que creo que es realmente bastante factible que la felicidad no cueste la Tierra. +Ahora bien, Martin Luther King, en la vspera de su muerte, dio un discurso increble. +Dijo: "S que hay desafos por delante, puede haber problemas ms adelante, pero no temo a nadie. No me importa. +He estado en la cima de la montaa, y he visto la Tierra Prometida". +Y no slo eso, tenemos que crear una gran transicin para llegar all y tenemos que preparar muy bien esa transicin con cosas buenas. +Los seres humanos queremos ser felices. +Pavimentemos con las 5 maneras. +Y tenemos que tener seales indicadoras que renan a la gente y apunten a ellos, algo como el ndice de Planeta Feliz. +Y entonces, creo, que todos podemos crear un mundo deseado en el que la felicidad no cueste la Tierra. +Vivimos en un planeta dominado por humanos, que ejercen una presin sin precedentes en los sistemas terrestres. +Estas son malas noticias, y quiz les sorprenda, en parte son tambin buenas noticias. +Somos la primer generacin, gracias a la ciencia, que sabe que podramos estar socavando la estabilidad y la capacidad del planeta Tierra para sostener el desarrollo humano como lo conocemos. +Tambin es una buena noticia, porque los riesgos planetarios que estamos enfrentando son tan grandes, que el negocio habitual no es una opcin. +De hecho, estamos en una fase en la que es necesario un cambio transformador que abra la ventana a la innovacin, a nuevas ideas y paradigmas. +Se trata de un viaje cientfico sobre los desafos que enfrenta la Humanidad en la fase mundial de la sostenibilidad. +En este viaje me gustara llevar, aparte de Uds, a una buena amiga una de las partes, siempre ausente cuando se trata de las negociaciones de cuestiones ambientales, una de las partes que se niega al compromiso... la Tierra. +As que pens traerla conmigo hoy, al escenario, de contar con ella como testigo de un viaje extraordinario que nos recuerde humildemente el perodo de gracia que hemos tenido en los ltimos 10.000 aos. +Estas son las condiciones de vida en el planeta durante los ltimos 100.000 aos. +Es un perodo muy importante. Esa es, ms o menos, la mitad del tiempo que hemos sido humanos modernos en el planeta. +Hemos tenido, a grandes rasgos, las mismas habilidades que dieron lugar a las civilizaciones como las conocemos. +Estas son las condiciones ambientales en el planeta. +Aqu se usa como referencia la variabilidad de temperatura. +Mil aos en este perodo y abandonamos los patrones cazadores-recolectores. +Pasamos de ser un par de millones de personas a los 7.000 millones de hoy. +La cultura mesopotmica: inventamos la agricultura, domesticamos a los animales y las plantas. +Tenemos a los romanos, los griegos y la historia como la conocemos. +El nico lugar, como lo conocemos, que puede sostener a la Humanidad. +El problema es que estamos exprimiendo a este pobre planeta; una explotacin que, como presin principal, tiene al crecimiento demogrfico, claro. +Pero esto no se trata slo de nmeros. No se trata slo de que somos 7.000 millones de personas en vas de ser 9.000 millones, tambin es una cuestin de equidad. +La mayora de los impactos ambientales en el planeta han sido provocados por la minora rica; el 20% que se subi al tren industrial a mediados del siglo XVIII. +La mayor parte del planeta, que aspira al desarrollo, que tiene derecho al desarrollo, aspira con ansias un estilo de vida insostenible, una presin trascendental. +Uno quisiera que la presin climtica encontrara un planeta fuerte, un planeta resistente, pero desafortunadamente la tercera presin es el deterioro del ecosistema. +Nunca hemos visto, en los ltimos 50 aos, un deterioro tan pronunciado de funciones y servicios del ecosistema planetario, siendo una de ellas la capacidad de regular el clima a largo plazo, en nuestros bosques, en la tierra y la biodiversidad. +La cuarta presin es la sorpresa, la nocin y la evidencia de que tenemos que abandonar el viejo paradigma en que los ecosistemas se comportan linealmente, predeciblemente, de manera controlada en, por as decirlo, sistemas lineales, y que, de hecho, la sorpresa es universal, a medida que los sistemas vuelcan rpidamente, abruptamente, y a menudo de forma irreversible. +Esto, estimados amigos, representa una presin humana sobre el planeta de escala trascendental. +Podramos, de hecho, haber entrado en una nueva era geolgica, el Antropoceno en el que los humanos son el motor predominante del cambio a nivel planetario. +Ahora, como cientfico, cul es la evidencia de esto? +Bueno, la evidencia es, por desgracia, amplia. +No es slo dixido de carbono que sigue este patrn de palo de hockey de cambio acelerado. +Uno puede tomar casi cualquier parmetro que importe para el bienestar humano... el xido nitroso, el metano, la deforestacin, la sobrepesca, la degradacin de las tierras, la prdida de especies... todos muestran el mismo patrn en los ltimos 200 aos. +Al mismo tiempo, se ramifican a mediados de los aos 50, 10 aos despus de la segunda guerra mundial, mostrando muy claramente que la gran aceleracin de la actividad humana comienza a mediados de los aos 50. +Se ve, por primera vez, una huella a nivel mundial. +Ahora bien, el sistema gradualmente... bajo la presin del cambio climtico, la erosin, la prdida de biodiversidad... pierde la profundidad de la cuenca, la capacidad de recuperacin, pero parece estar saludable y, de repente, bajo un umbral parece volcarse. Puff! +Lo siento. Cambia el estado y, literalmente, acaba en una situacin no deseada en la que entra en accin una nueva lgica biofsica; nuevas especies toman el poder, el sistema se bloquea. +Tenemos evidencia de esto? S, los arrecifes de coral. +Biodiversos, bajos en nutrientes, los sistemas de coral fuertes bajo mltiples presiones de la sobrepesca, del turismo no sostenible, del cambio climtico. +Un disparador y el sistema vuelca, pierde su capacidad de recuperacin, toman el control los corales blandos y tenemos sistemas no deseados que no pueden sostener el desarrollo econmico y social. +El rtico, un sistema maravilloso, un bioma de regulacin a nivel planetario, recibiendo golpe tras golpe del cambio climtico, que parece estar en buen estado. +Ningn cientfico pudo predecir que en 2007, de repente, se podra cruzar el umbral. +El sistema, de pronto, de manera muy sorprendente, pierde de 30% a 40% de su capa de hielo estival. +Y el drama es, por supuesto, que cuando el sistema se comporta as, la lgica puede cambiar. +Puede quedar bloqueado en un estado no deseado, porque cambia de color, absorbe ms energa, y el sistema puede quedar atorado. +Para m, la mayor alerta roja para la Humanidad es que estamos en una situacin precaria. +Al margen, saben que la nica bandera roja que apareci aqu fue un submarino de un pas sin nombre que plant una bandera roja en la parte inferior del rtico para poder controlar los recursos petrolferos. +Ahora bien, si tenemos pruebas, cosa que ahora tenemos, los humedales, los bosques, [poco claro], las selvas tropicales, se comportan de esta forma no lineal. +Unos 30 cientficos de todo el mundo se reunieron y se preguntaron por primera vez, "Tenemos que enviar al planeta al traste?" +Por eso tenemos que preguntarnos: estamos amenazando este extraordinario estado de Holoceno estable? +Estamos, de hecho, ponindonos en una situacin dnde nos acercamos demasiado a umbrales que podran conducir a cambios nocivos y no deseados, por no decir catastrficos, para el desarrollo humano? +Ya saben, uno no quiere estar all. +De hecho, ni siquiera se permite estar donde est este seor, en las aguas espumosas, resbaladizas, del umbral. +De hecho, hay una cerca bastante corriente arriba de este umbral ms all del cual uno est en zona de peligro. +Y este es el nuevo paradigma al que arribamos hace dos, tres aos, reconociendo que el viejo paradigma de tan solo analizar, empujar y predecir parmetros en el futuro, para reducir impactos ambientales, es algo del pasado. +Ahora tenemos que preguntarnos: cules son los procesos ambientales ms grandes que tenemos que administrar para mantenernos a salvo en el Holoceno? +Podramos, incluso, gracias a los importantes avances en la ciencia de los sistemas terrestres, identificar los umbrales, los puntos donde podemos esperar un cambio no lineal? +Podramos definir, incluso, un lmite planetario, una cerca, en el cual tener entonces un espacio operativo seguro para la Humanidad? +Este trabajo, publicado en "Nature" a fines de 2009, despus de varios aos de anlisis, condujo a la propuesta final, de que slo podemos encontrar 9 lmites planetarios con los que, bajo administracin activa, nos permitiran tener un espacio operativo seguro. +Estos incluyen, por supuesto, al clima. +Quiz pueda sorprenderlos que no se trata slo del clima. +Pero eso demuestra que estamos interconectados, entre muchos sistemas en el planeta, con los tres grandes sistemas: el cambio climtico, el agotamiento del ozono estratosfrico y la acidificacin de los ocanos; estando los tres grandes sistemas con pruebas cientficas de umbrales a gran escala en el paleo-registro de la historia del planeta. +Y luego tenemos dos parmetros que no hemos sido capaces de cuantificar... la contaminacin del aire, incluyendo los gases causantes del calentamiento, y los sulfatos y nitratos contaminantes pero tambin la contaminacin qumica. +Juntos forman un todo integrado para guiar al desarrollo humano por el Antropoceno, comprendiendo que el planeta es un sistema complejo auto-regulado. +De hecho, la mayora de la evidencia indica que estos 9 se pueden comportar como 3 mosqueteros: "Uno para todos y todos para uno". +Si uno degrada los bosques, sobrepasa los lmites de la tierra, socava la capacidad del sistema climtico para permanecer estable. +El drama es que aqu, de hecho, puede mostrar que el desafo climtico es el ms fcil si uno considera el conjunto del desafo del desarrollo sostenible. +Esto es el equivalente del Big Bang para el desarrollo humano dentro del espacio operativo seguro de los lmites planetarios. +Lo que se ve aqu en la lnea negra es el espacio operativo seguro, los lmites cuantitativos, segn lo sugerido por este anlisis. +El punto amarillo de aqu en el medio es nuestro punto de partida, el punto pre-industrial, en el que estamos muy seguros en el espacio operativo seguro. +En los aos 50 comenzamos la ramificacin. +En los aos 60, ya con la revolucin verde y el proceso de Haber-Bosch de fijar el nitrgeno de la atmsfera... ya saben, los humanos hoy tomamos ms nitrgeno de la atmsfera que lo que toda la bisfera hace naturalmente en su conjunto. +No rebasamos el lmite climtico hasta los aos 90, en realidad, justo despus de Rio. +Y hoy estamos en la situacin en la que estimamos que hemos rebasado 3 lmites, la tasa de prdida de biodiversidad, que es el sexto perodo de extincin en la historia de la Humanidad, siendo una de ellas la extincin de los dinosaurios... el nitrgeno y el cambio climtico. +Pero an tenemos algunos grados de libertad en los otros, pero estamos acercndonos rpidamente en tierra, agua, fsforo y los ocanos. +Pero esto da un nuevo paradigma para guiar a la Humanidad para iluminar, hasta ahora, a vehculos industriales sobrealimentados que funcionan como si estuvisemos en una carretera oscura y recta. +Ahora la pregunta entonces es: cun pesimista es esto? +Es entonces una utopa el desarrollo sostenible? +Bueno, no hay ninguna ciencia que sugerir. +De hecho, hay una amplia ciencia que indica que podemos hacer este cambio transformador, que tenemos la capacidad para avanzar ahora hacia un nuevo e innovador engranaje de transformacin a travs de las escalas. +El drama es, por supuesto, que 200 pases del planeta tienen que moverse en simultaneo en la misma direccin. +Tenemos que invertir en la persistencia, en la capacidad de los sistemas sociales y ecolgicos para resistir los choques y permanecer en la cuenca deseada. +Tenemos que invertir en la capacidad de transformacin, pasando de la crisis a la innovacin, y en la capacidad de levantarse despus de una crisis, y, por supuesto, de adaptarse al cambio inevitable. +Este es un paradigma nuevo. +No lo estamos haciendo en cualquier escala de gobernanza. +Pero est sucediendo en cualquier lugar? +Tenemos ejemplos de xito de este cambio mental aplicado a nivel local? +Bueno, s, de hecho los tenemos y la lista puede comenzar a ser cada vez ms larga. +La Gran Barrera de Coral de Australia es otro caso de xito. +Con la comprensin de los operadores tursticos, los pescadores, la autoridad australiana de la Gran Barrera y los cientficos de que la Gran Barrera de Coral est condenada bajo el rgimen de gobierno actual. +El cambio global, la cultura de embellecimiento [poco claro] la sobrepesca y el turismo no sostenible, todo junto, poniendo a este sistema en la consecucin de una crisis. +Pero la ventana de oportunidad fue la innovacin y la nueva mentalidad, que hoy ha dado lugar a una estrategia de gobierno completamente nueva para aumentar la capacidad de recuperacin, reconocer la redundancia e invertir en el sistema entero como un todo integrado, y luego permitir mucha ms redundancia en el sistema. +Suecia, el pas del que procedo, tiene otros ejemplos, donde los humedales en el sur de Suecia eran vistos como... como en muchos pases... molestias contaminadas propensas a inundaciones en las regiones periurbanas. +Pero una vez ms, una crisis, nuevas asociaciones, actores a nivel local, transformando estas regiones en un componente clave de la planificacin urbana sostenible. +As, las crisis propician oportunidades. +Ahora, qu hay del futuro? +Bueno, el futuro, por supuesto, tiene un enorme reto, que es alimentar a un mundo de 9.000 millones de personas. +Necesitamos nada menos que una nueva revolucin verde, y los lmites del planeta muestran que la agricultura tiene que ir de una fuente de gases de efecto invernadero a un lavadero. +Tiene que hacer esto bsicamente en la tierra actual. +Ya no podemos expandirnos ms porque eso erosiona los lmites planetarios. +No podemos continuar consumiendo agua como lo hacemos hoy con el 25% de los ros del mundo que ni siquiera llegan al ocano. +Y necesitamos una transformacin. +Pero incluso en el rea de poltica dura tenemos innovaciones. +Sabemos que tenemos que pasar de nuestra dependencia de fsiles muy rpidamente a una economa de bajas emisiones de carbono en tiempo rcord. +Y qu haremos? +Todo el mundo habla de impuestos sobre el carbono, no va a funcionar, los esquemas de emisin, pero por ejemplo, una medida poltica, primas en las tarifas en el sistema energtico, que ya se aplican desde China con los sistemas de energa elica marina, hasta los EE.UU. +donde dan precio garantizado para la inversin en energas renovables, pero se puede subsidiar la electricidad a los pobres. +Se saca a la gente de la pobreza. +Se resuelve el tema del clima con respecto al sector energtico, y al mismo tiempo se estimula la innovacin, ejemplos de cosas que se pueden escalar rpidamente a nivel planetario. +As que, sin duda, hay oportunidad aqu, y podemos enumerar muchsimos ejemplos de oportunidades de transformacin de todo el planeta. +La clave en cualquier caso, la lnea roja, es el cambio de mentalidad, pasando de una situacin en la que simplemente nos estamos empujando hacia un futuro oscuro en la que en vez de [poco claro] nuestro futuro decimos: "Cul es el campo de juego en el planeta? +Cules son los lmites planetarios dentro de los que se puede operar con seguridad?" +Y luego regenerar innovaciones dentro de ellos. +Pero, por supuesto, el drama es que eso muestra claramente que el cambio incremental no es una opcin. +Hay evidencia cientfica. +Nos dan noticias duras que nos enfrentamos al mayor desarrollo transformador desde la industrializacin. +De hecho, lo que tenemos que hacer en los prximos 40 aos es mucho ms espectacular y ms emocionante de lo que hicimos para pasar a la situacin que estamos hoy. +La ciencia indica que s, podemos lograr un futuro prspero dentro del espacio operativo seguro si nos movemos de forma simultnea, colaborando a nivel mundial, desde la escala local a la mundial en opciones de transformacin, que aumenten la resiliencia en un planeta finito. +Gracias. +Tyler Dewar: en este momento siento que todos los dems oradores han dicho exactamente lo que yo quera decir. +Y parece que lo nico que me queda por decir es gracias a todos por su amabilidad. +TD: Pero quiz en tren de apreciar la bondad de todos Uds, podra compartir con Uds una pequea historia sobre m mismo. +TD: Desde muy joven, en adelante, asum muchas responsabilidades diferentes, y siempre me pareci, de joven, que todo estaba planteado antes de m. +Ya estaban hechos todos los planes para m. +Me dieron la ropa que tena que usar y me dijeron donde tena que estar me dieron estos atuendos preciosos y sagrados para vestir con el entendimiento de que era algo sagrado o importante. +TD: Pero antes de ese estilo de vida yo viva con mi familia en el este del Tbet. +Y a los 7 aos, de repente, lleg a mi casa un grupo de bsqueda. +Buscaban al prximo Karmapa, y me di cuenta de que estaban hablando con mam y pap, y me lleg la noticia que me deca que yo era el Karmapa. +Y en estos das la gente me preguntaba mucho qu se siente. +Qu se siente al haber sido llevado tan abruptamente y al cambiar de estilo de vida por completo? +Y lo que yo digo principalmente es que, en ese momento, era una idea bastante interesante para m. +Pens que las cosas seran bastante divertidas y que habra ms cosas con las que jugar. +TD: Pero no result ser tan gracioso y entretenido como pensaba que sera. +Me colocaron en un entorno estrictamente controlado. +Y, de inmediato, me cayeron encima un montn de responsabilidades en trminos de educacin y cosas por el estilo. +Estaba separado, en gran parte, de mi familia incluso de mi madre y de mi padre. +No tena que tener muchos amigos personales con los que pasar el tiempo pero se esperaba que realice estas tareas prescritas. +Y result que mi fantasa de una vida divertida al ser el Karmapa no iba a hacerse realidad. +Para m era como si me trataran como a una estatua y me sentaran en un lugar como a una estatua. +TD: No obstante, senta que a pesar de estar separado de mis seres queridos y, por supuesto, ahora estoy an ms lejos... +A los 14 aos escap del Tbet y me alej an ms de mi madre y de mi padre, de mis parientes, de mis amigos, y de mi patria. +Pero, no obstante, no hay sentido real de separacin en mi corazn, en trminos del amor que siento por estas personas. +Todava siento una conexin muy fuerte de amor con todas estas personas y con la tierra. +TD: Y todava quiero mantenerme en contacto con mi madre y mi padre, aunque sea espordicamente. +Hablo con mi madre por telfono cada muerte de obispo. +Y, en mi experiencia, cuando hablo con ella con cada segundo que pasa durante la conversacin el sentimiento de amor que nos une nos acerca cada vez ms. +TD: Entonces, esas fueron slo algunas observaciones sobre mi bagaje personal. +Y entre las cosas que quera compartir con Uds, en trminos de ideas, creo que lo maravilloso de situaciones como esta es que muchas personas de distintos orgenes y lugares se renen a intercambiar ideas y establecer relaciones de amistad unos con otros. +Y pienso que eso es un smbolo de lo que estamos viendo en el mundo en general: que el mundo se est volviendo cada vez ms chico y que todas las personas del mundo disfrutan de ms oportunidades de conexin. +Eso es maravilloso pero tambin deberamos recordar que debera suceder un proceso similar dentro de cada uno. +Junto con el desarrollo hacia afuera y el aumento de oportunidades debera haber un desarrollo hacia adentro y una profundizacin de las conexiones del corazn al igual que nuestras conexiones hacia el exterior. +Hemos hablado y odo sobre diseo esta semana. +Creo que es importante que recordemos que necesitamos seguir bregando en procura del diseo del corazn. +Hemos odo mucho sobre tecnologa esta semana y es importante que recordemos invertir gran cantidad de nuestra energa en mejorar la tecnologa del corazn. +TD: Y aunque estoy en cierto modo feliz por los desarrollos maravillosos que estn ocurriendo en el mundo, an siento un impedimento, cuando se trata de la capacidad que tenemos para conectarnos a nivel de corazn a corazn, o de mente a mente. +Siento que hay algunas cosas que se interponen en el camino. +All hay una paradoja interesante en juego. +Una vez tuve una experiencia realmente conmovedora cuando un grupo de Afganistn vino a visitarme y tuvimos una conversacin realmente interesante. +TD: Terminamos hablando de los Budas de Bamiyn, que, como saben, fueron destruidos hace algunos aos en Afganistn. +Pero la base de nuestra conversacin fue el enfoque diferente a la espiritualidad por parte de las tradiciones musulmanas y budistas. +Claro, en los musulmanes, debido a las enseanzas en torno al concepto de la idolatra, uno no encuentra tantas representaciones fsicas de la divinidad o de la liberacin espiritual como s hay en la tradicin budista, donde, por supuesto, hay muchas estatuas de Buda que son muy reverenciadas. +Por lo tanto, estbamos hablando de las diferencias entre las tradiciones y de lo que mucha gente perciba como la tragedia de la destruccin de los Budas de Bamiyn, pero yo suger que quiz podramos mirarlo de manera positiva. +Lo que vimos en la destruccin de los Budas de Bamiyn fue la reduccin de la materia, algo de sustancia slida cayendo y desintegrndose. +Quiz podramos verlo como algo ms similar a la cada del Muro de Berln en el que la divisin que haba mantenido separadas a dos tipos de personas se haba derrumbado y abierto una puerta para la comunicacin ulterior. +As que pienso que, de este modo, siempre es posible sacar algo positivo que nos ayude a entendernos mejor mutuamente. +TD: As que con respecto al desarrollo del que hemos estado hablando aqu en esta conferencia realmente siento que el desarrollo que producimos no debera suponer una carga adicional para nosotros como humanos, sino que debera usarse para mejorar nuestro estilo de vida fundamental de cmo vivimos en el mundo. +As, a medida que vamos subiendo al rbol, algunas de las cosas que estamos haciendo a fin de trepar por el rbol es socavar la raz del mismo. +Y entonces creo que todo se reduce a que es una cuestin de, no slo tener informacin de lo que est pasando, sino de prestar atencin y dejar que eso cambie nuestra motivacin para volvernos ms sinceros y autnticamente positivos. +Hemos odo esta semana de los sufrimientos horribles, por ejemplo, que tantas mujeres del mundo estn pasando da tras da. +Tenemos esa informacin pero lo que nos sucede a menudo es que, en realidad, optamos por no prestarle atencin. +Optamos por no permitir que eso provoque un cambio en nuestros corazones. +As que creo que el camino a seguir para el mundo, uno que pondr al camino de desarrollo externo en harmona con la raz real de la felicidad, es que permitamos que la informacin que tenemos realmente produzca un cambio en nuestros corazones. +TD: Por tanto, creo que la motivacin sincera es muy importante para nuestro bienestar futuro, o para el sentido profundo de bienestar como humanos, y creo que eso significa involucrarse en lo que sea que estemos haciendo ahora. +Cualquier trabajo que uno est tratando de hacer en beneficio del mundo, meterse en eso, hacerse una idea completa de ello. +TD: As, desde que hemos estado aqu esta semana, hemos respirando millones de veces, de manera colectiva, y quiz no hemos presenciado ningn cambio en nuestras vidas pero a menudo nos perdemos los cambios muy sutiles. +Y pienso que a veces desarrollamos grandes conceptos de lo que podra ser la felicidad para nosotros pero, si prestamos atencin, podemos ver que hay pequeos smbolos de felicidad en cada respiracin. +Su Santidad el Karmapa: Maana es mi charla. +TD: Lakshmi ha trabajado muchsimo, incluso al invitarme, por no hablar de todo lo que ella ha hecho para que esto suceda, y por momentos me resista un poco, y esta semana estuve muy nervioso. +Me senta mal, con mareos, etc. y la gente me preguntaba: por qu. +Yo les deca: "Es porque tengo que hablar maana". +Y as Lakshmi tena que aguantarme todo esto, pero aprecio mucho la oportunidad que ella me ha dado de estar aqu. +Y a todos Uds, muchas gracias. +HH: Muchas gracias. +Todos, por favor, piensen en su mayor meta personal. +En serio. Pueden tomarse un segundo. Tienen que sentirlo para aprender. +Tmense unos segundos y piensen en su meta personal ms grande, s? +Imaginen que deciden ahora mismo que van a realizarla. +Imaginen que le cuentan a alguien que conocieron hoy lo que van a hacer. +Imaginen sus felicitaciones y la gran imagen que se hace de Uds. +No se siente uno bien de gritarlo a los cuatro vientos? +No se siente uno un paso ms cerca ya, como si ya fuese parte de nuestra identidad? +Bueno, malas noticias: deberan haber cerrado su boca porque esa buena sensacin har que ahora sea menos probable hacerlo. +Las repetidas pruebas psicolgicas han demostrado que contarle a alguien nuestras metas hace menos probable que sucedan. +Cada vez que uno tiene una meta hay algunos pasos que deben darse, cierto trabajo a realizar para lograrla. +Idealmente, uno no debera estar satisfecho hasta que realmente el trabajo se haya hecho +pero cuando uno le cuenta una meta a alguien, y esa persona toma nota, los psiclogos han descubierto que eso se llama una realidad social. +La mente en cierto modo siente que eso ya se ha logrado. +Y entonces, dado que uno ya experiment esa satisfaccin, uno est menos motivado para hacer el difcil trabajo real que se necesita. +As que esto va en contra del saber popular que dice que deberamos contarle a los amigos las metas, no? +para comprometernos con ellas, s? +Echemos un vistazo a la prueba. +En 1926, Kurt Lewin, fundador de la psicologa social lo llam "sustitucin". +En 1933, Wera Mahler hall que cuando esto era reconocido por los dems, pareca real en la mente. +En 1982, Peter Gollwitzer escribi un libro entero sobre esto y en 2009 hizo nuevas pruebas que fueron publicadas. +Dice as: 163 personas en cuatro pruebas por separado... +todos escribieron su objetivo personal, +luego la mitad de ellos anunci su compromiso con este objetivo a la sala, y la otra mitad no. +Y despus a todos se les dio 45 minutos de trabajo que los llevara directamente hacia su meta, pero se les dijo que podan parar en cualquier momento. +Ahora bien, los que mantuvieron cerrada la boca trabajaron los 45 minutos, en promedio, y cuando se les pregunt despus, dijeron que sentan que todava tenan un largo camino por recorrer para lograr su objetivo. +Pero los que lo haban anunciado abandonaron a los 33 minutos, en promedio, y cuando se les pregunt despus dijeron que se sentan mucho ms cerca de lograr su objetivo. +As, si esto es verdad, qu podemos hacer? +Bueno, uno puede resistir la tentacin de anunciar su objetivo. +Uno puede retrasar la gratificacin que da el reconocimiento social. Y entender que la mente confunde el decir con el hacer. +Pero si uno necesita hablar sobre algo puede decirlo de manera que no le de satisfaccin como "Realmente quiero correr esta maratn por eso necesito entrenar 5 veces por semana y patame el trasero si no lo hago, s?" +As, audiencia, la prxima vez que se sientan tentados a contarle a alguien sus metas que van a decir? +Exactamente. Bien hecho. +Esta planta de aspecto extrao se llama yareta. +Lo que se ve como musgo que cubre las piedras en realidad es un arbusto compuesto por miles de ramas, y cada una contiene racimos de hojitas verdes en las puntas tan densamente empaquetadas que uno podra pararse encima. +Este individuo vive en el desierto de Atacama en Chile, y resulta que tiene 3.000 aos. +Tambin resulta ser un pariente del perejil. +Durante los ltimos 5 aos he estado investigando, trabajando con los bilogos y viajando por todo el mundo para encontrar organismos vivientes de 2.000 aos o ms. +El proyecto es en parte arte y en parte ciencia. +Hay un componente ambiental. +Y tambin estoy tratando de crear un medio para salirnos de la experiencia cotidiana del tiempo y empezar a considerar una escala de tiempo ms profunda. +Seleccion 2.000 aos como edad mnima porque quera empezar por lo que consideramos el ao cero y trabajar hacia atrs desde all. +Lo que estamos viendo ahora es un rbol llamado jomon sugi, que vive en la remota isla de Yakushima. +El rbol era en parte un catalizador para el proyecto. +Haba estado de viaje en Japn sin otra agenda mas que la fotografa, y luego me enter de este rbol que tiene 2.180 aos y supe que tena que ir a visitarlo. +No fue hasta ms tarde, cuando regres a Nueva York que se me ocurri la idea del proyecto. +As que fue un proceso lento, si se quiere. +Creo que era mi deseo desde hace mucho tiempo reunir mi inters por el arte, la ciencia y la filosofa lo que me permiti estar lista cuando se encendi la luz proverbial. +As que me puse a investigar, y para mi sorpresa, este proyecto nunca se haba hecho antes en las artes o las ciencias. +Y, quiz ingenuamente, me sorprendi no encontrar ni siquiera un espacio en las ciencias que se ocupe de esta idea de la longevidad de las especies del mundo. +Lo que estamos viendo aqu es el rhizocarpon geographicum, o liquen geogrfico, y tiene cerca de 3.000 aos y vive en Groenlandia, que es un largo camino para ir a ver lquenes. +Visitar Groenlandia fue ms viajar en el tiempo que viajar muy lejos hacia el norte. +Fue algo muy primitivo y ms remoto que cualquier otra cosa experimentada antes. +Y esto se ve intensificado por un par de experiencias particulares. +Una de ellas fue cuando me llevaron en barco hasta un fiordo remoto, slo para encontrar que los arquelogos que deba conocer no estaban por ningn lado. +Y no es que uno poda enviarles un texto o un correo electrnico, as que me dejaron, literalmente, a mi suerte. +Pero por suerte, todo sali bien, obviamente. Pero fue una leccin de humildad sentirse tan desconectada. +Y entonces unos das ms tarde, tuvimos la oportunidad de ir a pescar en un arroyo glacial cerca de nuestro campamento, donde los peces eran tan abundantes que uno poda literalmente meterse en la corriente, y agarrar una trucha de 30 cm con la mano. +Fue como visitar una poca ms inocente del planeta. +Y luego, por supuesto, estn los lquenes. +Estos lquenes slo crecen un centmetro cada 100 aos. +Eso pone a la duracin de la vida humana en una perspectiva diferente. +Y lo que estamos viendo aqu es una foto area tomada al este de Oregon. +Y si el ttulo "Buscando los anillos de la muerte de la armillaria" suena siniestro, lo es. +La armillaria es en realidad un hongo depredador, que mata determinadas especies de rboles en el bosque. +Tambin es conocida ms benignamente como "seta de miel" u "hongo gigantesco" porque resulta ser tambin uno de los organismos ms grandes del mundo. +As que con la ayuda de algunos bilogos que estudian el hongo, consegu algunos mapas y coordenadas de GPS y alquil un avin y empec a buscar los anillos de la muerte, los patrones circulares con los que el hongo mata a los rboles. +No estoy segura si hay alguno en esta foto, pero s s que el hongo est ah abajo. +Luego volvemos al suelo y vemos que el hongo en realidad est invadiendo a este rbol. +As que el material blanco que ven entre la corteza y la madera es el fieltro del micelio del hongo y lo que est haciendo... en realidad es estrangular lentamente al rbol impidiendo el paso de agua y nutrientes. +Esta estrategia le ha funcionado bastante bien. Tiene 2.400 aos. +Y luego desde el subsuelo a lo subacutico. +Este es el coral cerebriforme que vive en Tobago que tiene cerca de 2.000 aos. +Y tuve que superar mi miedo al agua profunda para encontrarlo. +ste est a unos 60 pies 18 metros de profundidad. +Y van a ver que hay un dao en la superficie del coral, +provocado por un banco de peces loro que comenzaron a comerlo aunque, por suerte, perdieron el inters antes de matarlo. +Por suerte parece estar a salvo del reciente derrame de petrleo. +Pero dicho esto, con la misma facilidad podramos haber perdido uno de los seres vivos ms antiguos del planeta, y el impacto de ese desastre todava est por verse. +Esto es algo que creo es uno de los seres discretos ms resilientes del planeta. +Es la colonia clonal de lamos temblones, que viven en Utah, que tiene, literalmente, 80.000 aos. +Lo que parece un bosque en realidad es slo un rbol. +Imaginen que es un sistema de races gigantes y cada rbol es un tallo que surge de ese sistema. +Lo que tenemos es un individuo gigante, interconectado, genticamente idntico, que ha estado viviendo durante 80.000 aos. +Y resulta ser de sexo masculino y, en teora, inmortal. +Este tambin es un rbol clonal. +Este es el abeto gran picea, que a los 9.550 aos, no es ms que un beb en el bosque. +La ubicacin de este rbol se mantiene en secreto para su propia proteccin. +Habl con el bilogo que descubri este rbol, y me dijo que el crecimiento que se ve ah en el centro es probablemente producto del cambio climtico. +Como actualmente se ha vuelto ms clido en la cima de la montaa, la zona de vegetacin est cambiando. +As que ni siquiera tenemos que tener contacto directo con estos organismos para provocar un impacto real sobre ellos. +Este es el tejo de Fortingall. No, estoy bromeando. Este es el tejo de Fortingall. +Pero puse esa diapositiva all porque a menudo me preguntan si no hay animales en el proyecto. +Y aparte del coral, la respuesta es no. +Alguien sabe la edad de la tortuga ms vieja? Alguna conjetura? +(Audiencia: 300) Rachel Sussman: 300? No, 175 es la tortuga viviente ms vieja, Cerca del ao 2.000. +Entonces, pueden haber odo de esta almeja gigante descubierta frente a las costas del norte de Islandia que lleg a los 405 aos. +Sin embargo, muri en el laboratorio mientras determinaban su edad. +El descubrimiento reciente ms interesante, creo yo, es la, as llamada, medusa inmortal que se ha observado efectivamente en el laboratorio que es capaz de volver al estado de plipo despus de alcanzar su plena madurez. +As que dicho esto, es muy poco probable que cualquier medusa pueda sobrevivir tanto tiempo en la Naturaleza. +Y aqu volvemos al tejo. +Como pueden ver est en un cementerio de iglesia. Est en Escocia. Est detrs de un muro de proteccin. +Y en realidad hay varios tejos ancestrales en cementerios de todo el R.U., pero si hacen la cuenta recordarn que en realidad los tejos estaban primero, despus vinieron las iglesias. +Y ahora vamos a otra parte del mundo. +Tuve la oportunidad de viajar por la provincia de Limpopo en Sudfrica con un experto en rboles baobab. +Y vimos varios de ellos y ste es probablemente el ms antiguo. +Tiene cerca de 2.000 aos y se llama sagole baobab. +Ya saben, pienso en todos estos organismos como palimpsestos. +Contienen miles de aos de sus propias historias dentro de s mismos, y tambin contienen registros de acontecimientos naturales y humanos. +Y los baobabs, en particular, son un gran ejemplo de esto. +Pueden ver que ste tiene nombres grabados en su tronco, pero tambin algunos fenmenos naturales. +As que los baobabs, a medida que envejecen, tienden a ponerse carnosos en el centro y a ahuecarse. +Y esto puede crear grandes refugios naturales para los animales, pero tambin han sido apropiados para algunos usos humanos bastante dudosos, como un bar, una prisin, e incluso un bao dentro de un rbol. +Y esto me lleva a otra de mis favoritas... creo, debido a que es tan inusual. +Esta planta se llama welwitschia, y vive slo en algunas zonas de la costa de Namibia y Angola donde se adapt excepcionalmente para recoger la humedad de la niebla que viene del mar. +Y, es ms, en realidad es un rbol. +Es una confera primitiva. +Se van a dar cuenta que tiene conos en el centro. +Y lo que parecen ser dos grandes montones de hojas, son en realidad dos hojas individuales hechas jirones por las duras condiciones del desierto en el tiempo. +Y en realidad nunca arroja las hojas, por lo que tambin ostenta la distincin de tener las hojas ms largas del reino vegetal. +As que l pensaba que las inundaciones en el norte de frica derribaron estas conferas hace decenas de miles de aos, y de eso result esta adaptacin sorprendente a este ambiente nico del desierto. +Este es, creo, el ms potico de los seres vivientes ancestrales. +Esto es algo que se llama selva subterrnea. +Habl con un botnico en el Jardn Botnico de Pretoria, que me explic que ciertas especies de rboles se han adaptado a esta regin. +De ese modo, cuando se desata un incendio, eso equivale a tener las cejas chamuscadas. +El rbol puede recuperarse fcilmente. +Estos tambin tienden a crecer por clonacin; el ms antiguo tiene 13.000 aos. +De vuelta en EE.UU., hay un par de plantas de edad similar. +Este es el arbusto de la creosota que tiene cerca de 12.000 aos. +Si han estado en el oeste de EE.UU. saben que el arbusto de la creosota est por todos lados pero dicho esto ven que ste tiene esta forma circular nica. +Y lo que pasa es que se est expandiendo lentamente hacia el exterior desde esa forma original. +Y es un... de nuevo, ese sistema de raz interconectado que lo hace un individuo genticamente idntico. +Adems tiene una amiga en las cercanas... bueno, creo que son amigos. +Es la yuca clonal de Mojave, est a 1,6 km de distancia, y tiene un poco ms de 12.000 aos. +Y puede verse que tiene esa forma circular similar. +Y hay algunos clones ms jvenes salpicando el paisaje por detrs. +Y ambos, la yuca y el arbusto de la creosota, viven en tierras de la Oficina de Manejo de Tierras y eso es muy diferente de estar protegidas en un parque nacional. +De hecho, esta tierra ha sido designada para uso recreativo de vehculos todo terreno. +As que, ahora quiero mostrar lo que muy bien podra ser el ser viviente ms antiguo del planeta. +Esta es la actinobacteria siberiana que tiene entre 400.000 y 600.000 aos. +Esta bacteria fue descubierta hace varios aos por un equipo de bilogos planetarios que esperaban encontrar rastros de vida en otros planetas observando una de las ms severas condiciones del nuestro. +Y lo que encontraron, investigando el permafrost, fue esta bacteria. +Pero lo extraordinario de eso es que est reparando el ADN por debajo de cero. +Y eso significa que no est latente. Ha estado viviendo y creciendo durante medio milln de aos. +Es tambin, probablemente, uno de los seres vivientes ancestrales ms vulnerables porque, si se derrite el permafrost, no va a sobrevivir. +Este es un mapa en que he juntado los seres vivos ms antiguos, as que pueden hacerse una idea de dnde estn; como ven, estn en todo el mundo. +Las banderas azules representan cosas que ya he fotografiado, y las rojas son los lugares a los que todava estoy tratando de llegar. +Vern tambin que hay una bandera en la Antrtida. +Estoy tratando de viajar hasta all para encontrar musgo de 5.000 aos que vive en la Pennsula Antrtica. +As que probablemente me quedan unos 2 aos ms en este proyecto... en esta fase del proyecto pero luego de 5 aos realmente siento que conozco lo que est en el centro de este trabajo. +Los seres vivientes ms antiguos del mundo son un registro y una celebracin de nuestro pasado, una llamada a la accin en el presente y un barmetro de nuestro futuro. +Han sobrevivido durante miles de aos en el desierto, en el permafrost, en la cima de las montaas y en el lecho del ocano. +Han resistido indecibles peligros naturales y usurpaciones humanas, pero ahora algunos estn en peligro, y no pueden levantarse y salir del camino. +Espero que, al ir a encontrar estos organismos, pueda ayudar a llamar la atencin de su notable capacidad de recuperacin y ayudar a desempear un papel asegurando su longevidad continua en el futuro inmediato. +Gracias. +Bueno, all arriba hay una declaracin obvia. +Empec con esa frase hace unos 12 aos, y empec en el contexto de los pases en desarrollo pero Uds. vienen de todos los rincones del planeta. +As que si piensan en el mapa de sus pases creo que se darn cuenta que para cada pas del mundo se pueden dibujar pequeos crculos que digan: "Estos son lugares donde los buenos maestros no llegan". +Adems de eso, esos son los lugares donde se generan los problemas. +As que tenemos un problema irnico. Los buenos maestros no quieren ir justamente a los lugares donde ms se les necesita. +Empec en 1999 a tratar de abordar este problema con un experimento, un experimento muy simple en Nueva Delhi. +Bsicamente incrust una computadora en una pared de un barrio pobre de Nueva Delhi. +Los nios apenas iban a la escuela. No saban nada de ingls. Nunca antes haban visto una computadora y no saban qu era internet. +La conect a internet de alta velocidad -est a un metro del suelo-, la encend y la dej all. +Despus de esto, observamos un par de cosas interesantes, que ya van a ver. +Repet esto por toda India y luego en gran parte del mundo y observ que los nios aprendern a hacer lo que quieren aprender a hacer. +Este es el primer experimento que hicimos: un nio de 8 aos a la derecha ensendole a su alumna, de 6 aos, le estaba enseando a navegar. +Este nio en medio de India central... esto es en un pueblo de Rajastn, donde los nios grabaron su propia msica y luego la tocan unos a otros, y, durante el proceso, ellos mismos han disfrutado a fondo. +Hicieron todo esto en 4 horas despus de ver la computadora por primera vez. +En otro pueblo al sur de India estos nios armaron una cmara de video y estaban tratando de sacarle una foto a un abejorro. +Lo descargaron de disney.com o uno de estos sitios web, 14 das despus de poner la computadora en su pueblo. +As que al final de eso concluimos que los grupos de nios pueden aprender a usar computadoras e internet por su cuenta independientemente de quines sean o dnde se encuentren. +En ese momento, me volv un poco ms ambicioso y decid ver qu otra cosa podan hacer los nios con una computadora. +Empezamos con un experimento en Hyderabad, India, donde le di a un grupo de nios... hablaban ingls con un acento telugu muy fuerte... +les di una computadora con una interfaz de voz a texto que, ya saben, ahora viene gratis con Windows y les ped que le hablaran. +As, cuando le hablaban la computadora escriba cualquier cosa, y entonces decan: "Bueno, no entiende nada de lo que decimos". +Yo dije: "S, se las voy a dejar durante 2 meses. +Hganse entender por la computadora". +Los nios dijeron: "Cmo hacemos eso?" +Y les dije: "En realidad, no lo s". +Y me fui. +Dos meses despus, y esto est documentado ahora en el peridico Information Technology for International Development, que cambi el acento y se parece mucho al acento britnico neutral con el que haba entrenado al sintetizador de voz a texto. +En otras palabras, todos estaban hablando como James Tooley. +As que pudieron hacer eso por su cuenta. +Despus de eso comenc a experimentar con varias otras cosas que podran aprender a hacer por su cuenta. +Recib una llamada telefnica interesante desde Colombo del finado Arthur C. Clarke, que deca "quiero ver qu est sucediendo". +Y l no poda viajar as que fui hasta all. +l dijo dos cosas interesantes: "Un maestro que puede ser reemplazado por una mquina debera serlo". +La segunda cosa que dijo fue que "Si un nio tiene inters entonces ocurre la educacin". +Y yo estaba haciendo eso en el campo as que cada vez que lo miraba pensaba en l. +Arthur C. Clarke: Y definitivamente pueden ayudar a la gente porque los nios rpidamente aprenden a navegar y entrar y encontrar lo que les interesan. +Y si uno tiene inters, entonces tiene educacin. +Sugata Mitra: llev el experimento a Sudfrica. +Este es un muchacho de 15 aos. +Muchacho: ...me gustan los juegos los animales, y escuchar msica. +SM: Y le pregunt: "Envas mensajes de correo?" +Y l dijo: "S, y saltan a travs del ocano". +Esto es en Camboya, la Camboya rural, un juego aritmtico bastante tonto, que ningn nio jugara en clases o en la casa. +Ellos, ya saben, se lo arrojaran de vuelta. +Diran: "Esto es muy aburrido". +Si lo dejas en el piso, y si todos los adultos se van, ellos alardearn unos con otros sobre lo que pueden hacer. +Esto es lo que estos nios estn haciendo. +Estn tratando de multiplicar, creo. +Y por toda India, al cabo de unos 2 aos, los nios estaban comenzando a googlear sus tareas. +En consecuencia los maestros informaron enormes mejoras en sus ingls... una mejora rpida y toda clase de cosas. +Decan: "Se han vuelto grandes pensadores" y cosas por el estilo. +Y, de hecho, lo eran. +Digo, si hay algo en Google, para qu lo quiere uno en la cabeza? +As, al cabo de los siguientes 4 aos decid que los grupos de nios podan navegar internet para lograr objetivos educativos por su cuenta. +En ese momento ingres gran cantidad de dinero a la Universidad de Newcastle para mejorar la educacin en India. +Me llamaron de Newcastle y les dije: "Lo voy a hacer desde Delhi". +Dijeron: "No hay manera de que manejes un milln de libras de la Universidad sentado en Delhi". +As que en 2006 me compr un abrigo pesado y me mud a Newcastle. +Quera probar los lmites del sistema. +El primer experimento que hice desde Newcastle en realidad fue en India. +Y me fij un objetivo imposible: pueden los nios de 12 aos que hablan tamil en una aldea del sur de India ser autodidactas en biotecnologa, en ingls y por su cuenta? +Y pens: les tomar un examen y sacarn un cero. Les dar los materiales. Regresar y los evaluar. Sacarn otro cero. Regresar y les dir: "S, necesitamos maestros para ciertas cosas". +Llam a 26 nios. +Vinieron todos y les dije que haba algo muy difcil en esta computadora. +No me sorprendera que no entendieran nada. +Todo est en ingls y me estoy yendo. +As que los dej con eso. +Volv luego de dos meses los 26 entraron muy, muy silenciosos. +Les dije: "Bueno, miraron algo del material?" +Respondieron: "S, lo hicimos". +"Entendieron algo?" "No, nada". +Entonces dije: "Bueno, cunto practicaron antes de decidir que no entendieron nada?" +Me dijeron: "Lo miramos todos los das". +Y dije: "Durante dos meses estuvieron mirando algo que no entendan?" +Entonces una nia de 12 aos levanta la mano y dice literalmente, "Aparte del hecho que la replicacin indebida de la molcula de ADN provoca enfermedad gentica no hemos entendido nada ms". +Me llev 3 aos publicar eso. +Acaba de publicarse en el British Journal of Educational Technology. +Uno de los evaluadores que revis el artculo dijo: "Es demasiado bueno para ser verdad", lo que no era muy agradable. +Bueno, una de las nias se auto-ense como convertirse en la maestra. +Y all est ella. +Recuerden, ellos no estudian ingls. +Edit la ltima parte en la que pregunt: "Dnde est la neurona?" +y ella dijo: "La neurona? la neurona?" Y luego mir e hizo esto. +Cualquiera fuese la expresin, no era muy agradable. +As, sus resultados haban pasado de 0% a 30% lo cual es una imposibilidad educativa en esas circunstancias. +Pero 30% no alcanza para pasar. +Descubr que tenan una amiga una contadora local, una muchacha, y jugaban ftbol con ella. +Le pregunt a la muchacha: "Les ensearas biotecnologa para que aprueben?" +Y dijo: "Cmo lo voy a hacer? No conozco el tema". +Le dije: "No, usa el mtodo de la abuela". +Ella dijo: "Qu es eso?" +Le dije: "Bueno, lo que tienes que hacer es pararte frente a ellos y admirarlos todo el tiempo. +Slo diles: "Eso es genial. Eso es fantstico. +Qu es eso? Puedes hacerlo de nuevo? Puedes mostrarme un poco ms?" Ella hizo eso durante dos meses. +Las notas subieron a 50% que es lo que las escuelas elegantes de Nueva Delhi, con un profesor de biotecnologa entrenado, estaban consiguiendo. +As que volv a Newcastle con estos resultados y decid que estaba pasando algo aqu que sin duda era muy importante. +As, despus de haber experimentado en todo tipo de lugares remotos, Llegu al lugar ms remoto que se me pudo ocurrir. +A unos 8.000 kms. de Nueva Delhi est el pueblito de Gateshead. +En Gateshead tom 32 nios y empec a refinar el mtodo. +Los puse en grupos de 4. +Les dije: "Formen sus propios grupos de 4. +Cada grupo de 4 puede usar 1 computadora y no 4 computadoras". +Recuerden, igual que el Agujero en la Pared. +"Pueden cambiar de grupo. +Pueden pasarse a otro grupo si no les gusta su grupo, etc. +Pueden ir a otro grupo, mirar sobre sus hombros, ver qu estn haciendo, regresar a su propio grupo y considerarlo su propio trabajo". +Y les expliqu que, ya saben, que mucha investigacin cientfica se hace con ese mtodo. +Los nios vinieron entusiasmados y me dijeron: "Qu quiere que hagamos?" +Les di 6 preguntas de secundario. +El primer grupo, el mejor, resolvi todo en 20 minutos. +El peor, en 45. +Usaron todo lo que saban... foros, Google, Wikipedia, Ask Jeeves, etc. +Los maestros decan: "Es esto aprendizaje profundo?" +Les dije: "Bueno, probemos. +Regresar en dos meses. +Les daremos un examen... sin computadoras, nadie habla con nadie, etc". +La nota promedio cuando lo haba hecho con la computadora y en grupo era de 76%. +Cuando hice el experimento, cuando tom la prueba, despus de 2 meses, la nota fue de 76%. +Hubo recuerdo fotogrfico en los nios, sospecho porque estaban discutindolo entre s. +Un nio solo frente a una computadora no har eso. +Tengo otros resultados, que son casi increbles, de puntuaciones que aumentan con el tiempo. +Porque los profesores dicen que despus de terminada la clase los nios siguen googleando ms cosas. +Aqu en Gran Bretaa hice un llamado a las abuelas britnicas luego de mi experimento. +Bueno, ya saben, son gente muy vigorosa, las abuelas britnicas. +200 se ofrecieron de inmediato. +El trato era que me daran una hora de banda ancha sentadas en sus casas un da por semana. +Y as hicieron. Y durante los ltimos dos aos se han impartido ms de 600 horas de instruccin a travs de Skype, usando lo que mis estudiantes llaman la "nube de abuelas". +La nube de abuelas se sienta all. +Puedo transmitirla a la escuela lo que quiero. +Maestra: No puedes atraparme. +Dganlo ustedes. +No puedes atraparme. +Nios: No puedes atraparme. +Maestra: soy el hombre de pan de jengibre. +Nios: soy el hombre de pan de jengibre. +Maestra: Bien hecho, muy bien... +SM: De vuelta en Gateshead, una nia de 10 aos se mete en el corazn del hinduismo en 15 minutos. +Cosas que incluso yo no conozco. +Dos nios miran una charla TEDTalk. +Antes queran ser futbolistas. +Luego de ver 8 charlas TEDTalks l quiere ser Leonardo da Vinci. +Es algo bastante simple. +Esto es lo que estoy construyendo ahora. SOLES, acrnimo en ingls de Entornos de Aprendizaje Auto-Organizado. +El mobiliario est diseado para que los nios se pueden sentar frente a pantalla grandes, poderosas, con grandes conexiones de banda ancha, pero en grupos. +Si quieren pueden llamar a la nube de abuelas. +Este es el SOLE en Newcastle. +El mediador es de India. +Hasta dnde podemos ir? Una ltima cosa y me detendr. +Fui a Turn en mayo. +Alej a todos los maestros de mi grupo de estudiantes de 10 aos. +Hablo slo ingls, ellos hablan slo italiano, as que no tenamos manera de comunicarnos. +Empec escribiendo preguntas en ingls en el pizarrn. +Los nios miraron y dijeron: "Qu?" +Yo dije: "Bueno, hganlo". +Lo escribieron en Google, lo tradujeron en italiano, volvieron al Google en italiano. +15 minutos despus... Siguiente pregunta: Dnde est Calcuta? +Esta les llev slo 10 minutos. +Luego prob con una bien difcil. +Quin fue "Pythagoras" y qu hizo? +Hubo silencio por un momento y dijeron: "Lo escribi de modo incorrecto. +Es Pitgoras". +Y luego, en 20 minutos, comenzaron a aparecer en pantalla los tringulos rectngulos. +Esta escena me dio escalofros. +Estos nios tienen 10 aos. +[En otros 30 minutos llegaran a la Teora de la Relatividad. Y luego qu?] +SM: Saben lo que ha pasado? +Creo que hemos tropezado con un sistema auto-organizado. +Un sistema auto-organizado es aquel en el que aparece una estructura sin intervencin explcita del exterior. +Los sistemas auto-organizados siempre revelan surgimiento, lo cual significa que el sistema empieza a hacer cosas para las que nunca fue diseado. +Esa es la razn por la que Uds. reaccionan as porque parece algo imposible. +Creo que puedo arriesgar una conjetura. La educacin es un sistema auto-organizado en el que el aprendizaje es un fenmeno emergente. +Va a llevar unos aos demostrarlo empricamente pero lo voy a intentar. +Mientras tanto hay un mtodo disponible. +Mil millones de nios, necesitamos 100 millones de mediadores, hay muchos ms en el planeta, 10 millones de SOLEs, 180 mil millones de dlares y 10 aos. +Podramos cambiarlo todo. +Gracias. +En cuanto digo "escuela" vuelven a m muchos recuerdos. +Suceda despus de los exmenes, cuando sala, el profesor preguntaba: "Oye, ven. +Cmo te fue?" +Y con una gran sonrisa yo deca: "Definitivamente aprobar". +Y no entenda por qu por un lado decan "Di la verdad"; y por otro lado, cuando uno deca la verdad, lo odiaban. +Eso sigui as y no saba dnde ms hallarme. +As que recuerdo esas noches en que sola ir a dormir pidiendo ayuda a lo Desconocido porque, por alguna razn, no poda creer en lo que mi padre y mi madre colgaban en la sala de puja como un dios, porque en la familia de mis amigos tenan otra cosa como dios. +Entonces pens: "Supongo que rezar a lo Desconocido y pedir ayuda". Y comenc a recibir ayuda de todas partes, de cada rincn de mi vida en ese momento. +Mis hermanos empezaron a darme algunos consejos de dibujo y pintura. +Luego, cuando tena una edad [poco claro] cerca de 13 aos, comenc a trabajar a tiempo parcial para un artista grfico llamado Putu. +Y luego empezaron a apoyarme en la escuela. +"Oh! Es malo estudiando pero envimoslo a los concursos de dibujo". +As que fue bueno sobrevivir con esa pequea herramienta que hall para buscar mi propio lugar en la escuela. +Y en uno de esos concursos gan una pequea radio de transistores Philips. +Y no tuve la paciencia para esperar a llegar a casa. +As que la encend en el tren, con volumen alto. +Si uno viaja en los trenes indios puede ver a la gente escuchando la radio ya saben, incluso desde sus celulares. +As que en ese momento, tena 13 aos, y estaba escuchando la radio y alguien se sent junto a m, como estas tres personas estn sentadas aqu. +Ya saben, justo al lado mo. +l empez a preguntarme: "Dnde compraste la radio? Cunto cuesta?" +Le dije: "Es un premio de un concurso de arte". +Y me dijo: "Oh! Yo enseo en un colegio de arte. +Creo que deberas estudiar en una escuela de arte. +Deja la escuela y ve all". +As, mientras estoy contando esto, quiz, ya saben, quien se sienta a tu lado puede cambiar tu vida entera. Es posible. +Tenemos que ser abiertos y ponernos a punto. +Eso fue lo que hizo que entre al colegio de arte despus de tres intentos y segu preguntndome qu quera hacer realmente con las obras de arte, o con el arte, y, finalmente, aqu estoy frente a Uds. +Cuando miro hacia atrs sobre lo que pas entre ese momento y ahora, ya saben, aqu, los ltimos 10, 15 aos, puedo ver que la mayora de las obras gira en torno a tres temas, pero no fue intencional. +Y simplemente pens en un rastro, porque estaba pensando "De qu estamos hechos?". Es en realidad el pasado lo que constituye una persona. +As, estaba pensando, pero cuando uno mira el pasado, la manera de entenderlo es slo mediante los rastros que hay, porque no podemos volver al pasado. +Pueden ser ruinas, o msica, o puede ser una pintura, un dibujo, un escrito, lo que sea. +Pero es simplemente un rastro de ese momento. +Y eso me fascina, explorar ese territorio. +As, estaba trabajando en la lnea, pero luego en los rastros, empec a capturar rastros. +As que aqu estn algunas de las obras que me gustara mostrarles. +Esto se llama "Self In Progress" (Uno mismo en curso). +Es slo un rastro de estar en este cuerpo. +As que aqu, lo que sucedi entonces, el cuerpo disfrutaba mucho de los moldes, es como que esta escultura no es ms que un rastro de m mismo. +Es casi una fotografa 3D. +Hay un elemento actoral, y un elemento escultrico, y hay un elemento de sentir el propio ser, tan cercano a uno mismo. +Son casi como fsiles para el futuro. +Y luego pas lentamente a explorar otras posibilidades de captura de rastros. +Esto es la captura del rastro de una huella digital porque, sabindolo o no, hagamos lo que hagamos, ya saben, dejamos nuestras huellas. +As que pens, voy a capturar huellas digitales, pisadas, o cualquier huella que dejemos como humanos. +Este es el rastro del fuego. Este es el rastro del sol. +Porque cuando estaba capturando rastros siempre me vena este pensamiento, ya saben, "uno se va y el objeto toca la cosa y eso deja un rastro, o hay otras maneras de capturarlo?" +As que esta obra no es otra cosa que... debido a la distancia focal de la lente, muestra lo que est del otro lado. +As que puse el papel a la distancia focal, era un grabado al agua fuerte, y luego obtuve el retrato del sol a la luz del da. +Este se llama "Dawn to Dawn" ("De amanecer a amanecer") +Lo que hice aqu fue poner como 3 metros de papel, luego una cuerda de coco y la encend. +Llev unas 24 horas conseguir esta lnea. +As dondequiera que el fuego consuma el papel, eso es lo que se convierte en la obra. Detalle. +A pesar de que tenemos rastros, cuando tratamos de entenderlos, la percepcin y el contexto juegan un papel importante. +Entonces, realmente entendemos qu es o tratamos de entender lo que creemos que es? +Luego pas a cuestionar la percepcin porque, aunque hay rastros, cuando uno trata de entenderlos desempea un papel principal. +Vamos a decir, incluso un simple acto. +Cuntos vieron una vaca cruzando en la India mientras venan de Bangalore a Mysore? +Pueden levantar la mano? +Si uno pide una opinin de cmo lo interpreta cada uno +una maestra de escuela dir simplemente: "Para llegar al otro lado". +Por qu la vaca cruzaba la calle? +La respuesta puede ser muy diferente en boca de Potter. +l dira: "Por el bien mayor". +Martin Luther King dira: "Imagino un mundo donde todas las vacas sern libres de cruzar la calle sin que se pongan en tela de juicio sus motivos". +Imaginen ahora que viene Moiss y ve a la misma vaca caminando por la calle. +Definitivamente dira: "Y Dios baj del cielo y le dijo a la vaca: 'Cruzars la calle'. Y la vaca cruz la calle y hubo un gran regocijo con la vaca sagrada". +Freud dira: "El solo hecho de que esto te preocupe revela tu inseguridad sexual subyacente". +Si le preguntramos a Einstein dira: "Que la vaca cruce la calle o que la calle se mueva bajo la vaca, depende de tu sistema de referencia". +O Buda, si viera la misma vaca, dira: "Plantearte esta pregunta niega tu propia naturaleza de vaca". +Entonces, lo que vemos, a menudo, es slo lo que pensamos y, la mayora de las veces, no vemos lo que es. +Todo depende de la propia percepcin. +Y el contexto, qu es en realidad el contexto? +Ya saben, podra mostrarles slo este pedacito de papel. +Porque siempre pienso que el significado no existe en realidad. +El significado de lo que creamos en este mundo no existe. +Simplemente es creado por la mente. +Si uno mira este papel, este es el ancho y esto se llama largo. +Esto es lo que nos ensean en la escuela. +Pero si uno lo rasga por el medio... no toqu este ancho pero, sin embargo, el significado de esto cambia. +As que lo que concebimos como significado no siempre est all: est del otro lado aun si decimos oscuro, claro, bueno, malo, alto, bajo... ningn significado existe en realidad. +Es que, como humanos, el modo en que percibimos la realidad crea este significado. +As, el trabajo de este perodo en su mayora... esta obra es "Light Makes Dark" (La luz hace la oscuridad) +Fue capturada de una lmpara. +La lmpara no est solo dando luz, tambin est dando oscuridad. +Esta es una obra de arte que slo intenta explorar eso. +Esta se llama "Limit Out" +Muestra los lmites de la vista, el odo o el tacto... Vemos realmente? +Se trata de un negativo exacto. +Son unos 15 cms de profundidad en la pared, pero parece como si estuviera saliendo de la pared. +La pared es casi como... esta es la primera capa, esta es la segunda, esta la tercera, y cada una crea un significado. +Y estamos tirando de la pared de la galera. +"Inwards Out" (Hacia adentro y hacia afuera) +Es un moldeado de mi cuerpo entero. +Tiene unos 20 cms de profundidad. +Mientras lo haca, dado que trabajaba con creadores, me preguntaba... y ahora, ya saben, he pasado a cuestionar la percepcin... siempre que veo a un pjaro volando en el cielo, ya saben, me pregunto: hay algo detrs, hay algn rastro all arriba, que como humanos, ya saben, no vemos? +Hay algn modo de transformar el pensamiento en arte visual? +No lo pude encontrar. +Pero lleg una solucin despus de estar tranquilo y no trabajar durante unos 6 7 meses, en un restaurant, cuando estaba cambiando el ambientador, que pasa de sustancia slida a vapor. +Se llama Odonil. +Esta es la obra que hice con este material. +El proceso para llegar a hacer la escultura fue interesante, porque escrib a Balsara, que produce ese ambientador llamado Odonil, diciendo: "Estimado Sr, soy artista. Este es mi catlogo. +Me ayudara a hacer esta escultura?" +Nunca me respondieron. +Entonces pens: "Voy a ir a las pequeas industrias [poco claro] a pedir ayuda". +As que les dije: "Me gustara montar una empresa de ambientadores". +Dijeron: "Por supuesto. +Este es el arancel para el informe del proyecto, y le daremos todos los detalles", y me los dieron. +Al final, volv y les dije: "No es para montar la empresa, es slo para hacer mi propia obra. +Por favor, vengan a la exposicin". +Y lo hicieron. +Y esta obra est en la Fundacin [poco claro] en Delhi. +En India nadie habla en realidad de obras de arte. Siempre se habla de la apreciacin del arte. +Uno compra esto en 3.000 rupias, valdr 30.000 en dos meses. +Esta es la cuestin, pero hay unos pocos coleccionistas que tambin coleccionan arte que puede depreciarse. +Y esta fue coleccionada por Anapum... es como que, al final, no tendr nada, porque se va a evaporar. +Esto es despus de unas semanas. Esto es despus de unos meses. +Se trata de cuestionar las ideas preconcebidas. +As, si alguien dice: "Oh! Veo el retrato" puede no ser el retrato en unos meses. +Y si dicen que es slido no ser slido, se evaporar. +Y si dicen que es inasible, eso tampoco es verdad porque est en el aire. +Est en la misma galera o en el mismo museo. +As que lo respiran pero no son conscientes de ello. +Mientras estaba haciendo esta obra mam y pap estaban mirando y decan: "Por qu tratas temas negativos todo el tiempo?" +Y yo deca: "Qu quieren decir?" +"Luz que hace oscuridad y ahora clulas que se evaporan. +No crees que hay una reminiscencia de la muerte?", decan. +"Claro que no. Para m", pienso, "est contenido en pequeos slidos, pero en el momento en que se evapora, se mezcla con el todo". +Pero ella dice: "No. An as, no me gusta. +Puedes hacer algo de la nada como un escultor? +Le dije: "No, ma. No se puede. +Porque podemos crear una escultura a partir del polvo, o podemos romper la escultura y hacerla polvo, pero no hay manera de crear polvo en el Universo". +As que hice esta obra para ella. +Se llama "Emerging Angel" (ngel emergente) +Este es el primer da. Simplemente pareciera que uno se est convirtiendo en el otro. +La misma escultura despus de unos das. +Esto es despus de 15 20 das. +A travs de esa pequea hendidura entre la caja de cristal y la madera, el aire pasa por debajo de la escultura y crea la otra. +Esto me dio una fe mayor. +Esa escultura en evaporacin me dio una gran fe de que a lo mejor hay muchas ms posibilidades de capturar lo invisible. +Lo que vemos ahora es "Shadow Foreshadow" (Presagio en la sombra) +Y lo que me gustara decirles es que no vemos la sombra, ni vemos la luz tampoco. Vemos la fuente lumnica. +Vemos donde rebota, pero no vemos que existe. +Por eso en el cielo nocturno, vemos el cielo tan oscuro, pero est lleno de luz todo el tiempo. +Cuando rebota en la luna, la vemos. +Lo mismo en la oscuridad. +De nuevo, la pequea partcula de polvo reflejar la luz y advertiremos la existencia de la luz. +No vemos la oscuridad, no vemos la luz, no vemos la gravedad, no vemos la electricidad. +Entonces, empec a hacer esta obra para indagar ms sobre cmo esculpir el espacio entre este objeto y ese lugar. +Porque, en el arte visual, si estoy viendo esto, y estoy viendo aquello, cmo esculpirlo? +Si lo esculpo, esto tiene dos puntos de referencia. +La piel de esto tambin representa esto. +Y la piel en el otro extremo tambin representa el suelo. +Hice esto como un experimento para moldear la sombra. +Es una caja de cartn corrugado y su sombra. +Luego en la segunda... en el momento en que hacemos visible algo invisible tendr todas las caractersticas de la existencia visible. +Eso produce una sombra. +Entonces pens, bueno, djenme esculpir eso. +Luego, de nuevo, se convierte en un objeto. +De nuevo arrojo luz. Luego la tercera. +Lo que uno ve no es ms que la sombra de una sombra de una sombra. +Y luego, otra vez, en ese punto no hay sombra. +Pens: "Oh!, qu bueno. Termin el trabajo". +Pueden ver el detalle. +Este se llama "Gravedad". +Se llama "Respiracin". Son slo dos agujeros en la pared de la galera. +Es una falsa pared que contiene unos 3 metros cbicos. +As que ese agujero en realidad hace que el aire entre y salga. +Podemos ver dnde est sucediendo, pero lo que est sucediendo permanecer invisible. +Esto es de la exposicin llamada "Invisible" en la Galera Talwar. +Esto se llama [poco claro] +Detalle. +Y lo que me gustara contarles, ya saben, es que los sentidos son tan limitados... no podemos tenerlo todo, no podemos verlo todo. +No sentimos: "estoy tocando el aire", pero si la brisa es un poquito ms fuerte, podemos sentirlo. +Toda nuestra construccin de la realidad es a travs de estos sentidos limitados. +Entonces, el recurso es: Hay alguna forma de usar todo esto como un smbolo o una seal? +Y para ir directo al grano deberamos ir ms all ir al otro lado de la pared, como en lgica, como si fuera invisible. +Porque cuando vemos a alguien caminar, vemos las pisadas. +Pero si extraemos esas pisadas del conjunto y tratamos de analizarlas, no vamos a ir al grano porque el verdadero viaje sucede entre esas pisadas, y las pisadas no son ms que el paso del tiempo. +Gracias. +Mi historia trata un poco sobre la guerra. +Trata de desilusin. +Trata de la muerte. +Y trata de redescubrir el idealismo entre todos esos escombros. +Y quiz tambin, hay una leccin acerca de cmo lidiar con nuestro enredado, fragmentante y peligroso mundo del siglo 21. +No creo en relatos sencillos. +No creo en una vida o historia escrita en que la decisin A tuvo la consecuencia B que a la vez llev a la consecuencia C; estas historias ordenadas que nos presentan, y que tal vez alentamos unos a otros. +Creo en el azar, y una de las razones por las que creo eso es que termin siendo un diplomtico por el azar. +Soy daltnico. +Nac incapaz de ver casi todos los colores. +Por eso casi siempre me visto de gris y negro, y tengo que llevar a mi esposa conmigo para elegir ropa. +Y siempre quise ser un piloto de combate cuando era nio. +Me encantaba ver los aviones volar rpido sobre nuestra casa de vacaciones en el campo. +Y mi sueo de infancia era ser piloto de combate. +E hice las pruebas en la Royal Air Force para convertirme en piloto y, como era de esperar, no pas. +No pude ver todas las distintas luces parpadeando y no puedo distinguir entre los colores. +As que tuve que elegir otra carrera y esto era en realidad relativamente fcil para m, porque tuve una pasin duradera durante toda mi infancia, que eran las relaciones internacionales. +Cuando era nio lea el peridico a fondo. +Me fascinaba la Guerra Fra, las negociaciones de tratados INF sobre los misiles nucleares de alcance intermedio, la guerra de poder entre la Unin Sovitica y EE.UU. +en Angola o Afganistn. +Estas cosas realmente me interesaban. +As que decid a una edad bastante temprana que quera ser un diplomtico. +Y yo, un da, le anunci a mis padres -y mi padre niega esta historia hasta hoy- le dije: "Pap, quiero ser diplomtico". +Y se dio vuelta hacia m y dijo, "Carne, tienes que ser muy inteligente para ser un diplomtico." +Y mi ambicin qued sellada. +En 1989, entr en el Servicio de Relaciones Exteriores britnico. +Ese ao, 5 mil personas postularon para ser diplomticos, y 20 de nosotros lo logramos. +Y como los nmeros sugieren, me instalaron en un fascinante y estimulante mundo de lite. +Ser un diplomtico, en ese entonces y ahora, es un trabajo increble y am cada minuto. Disfrut el status del trabajo. +Me compr un buen traje y usaba zapatos con suela de cuero y me deleitaba con este acceso increble que tena para acontecimientos mundiales. +Viaj a la Franja de Gaza. +Dirig el equipo del proceso de paz de medio oriente en el Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores britnico. +Escriba los discursos para el Secretario de Relaciones Exteriores britnico. +Conoc a Yasser Arafat. +Negoci con los diplomticos de Saddam en la ONU. +Posteriormente, viaj a Kabul y trabaj en Afganistn tras la cada de los talibanes. +Y yo viajaba en un transporte C-130 y visitaba a los jefes guerrilleros en refugios de montaa y negociaba con ellos acerca de cmo bamos a erradicar a Al Qaeda de Afganistn, rodeado de mi escolta de Fuerzas Especiales, quienes, a la vez, tenan que tener un pelotn de escoltas de Royal Marines, dado que era tan peligroso. +Y eso fue emocionante. Eso fue divertido. +Fue verdaderamente interesante. +Y es un grandioso grupo de personas, una comunidad increblemente unida de personas. +Y, al final, el pinculo de mi carrera fue cuando me enviaron a Nueva York. +Haba estado ya en Alemania, Noruega, en varios otros lugares, pero me enviaron a Nueva York para formar parte de la delegacin britnica del Consejo de Seguridad de la ONU. +Y mi responsabilidad era el Medio Oriente, lo cual era mi especialidad. +Y all, tuve que lidiar con cosas como el proceso de paz en Medio Oriente, el problema de la bomba del Lockerbie -podemos hablar de eso despus si quieren- pero sobre todo, mi responsabilidad era Irak y sus armas de destruccin masiva y las sanciones impuestas a Irak las cuales los obligaban a desechar estas armas. +Yo era el negociador britnico en jefe en esta rea, as que estaba profundamente informado del tema. +Y, de todos modos, mi asignacin; era como una poca muy emocionante. +Quiero decir que era diplomacia muy dramtica. +Pasamos por varias guerras durante mi estada en Nueva York. +Negoci por mi pas la resolucin en el Consejo de Seguridad del 12 de septiembre del 2001 condenando los atentados del da anterior que nos eran, por supuesto, profundamente impactantes para nosotros que vivamos en Nueva York en ese momento. +As que fue una experiencia tipo el mejor de los tiempos, el peor de los tiempos. Yo viva la buena vida. +A pesar de que trabajaba largas horas, viva en un penthouse en Union Square. +Era un diplomtico britnico soltero en Nueva York; pueden imaginarse cmo lo pasaba. +Lo pas bien. +Pero en 2002, cuando mi estada lleg a su fin, decid que no iba a volver al trabajo que me esperaba en Londres. +De hecho, decid tomar un ao sabtico en la New School en Bruce. +De alguna manera incipiente, incapaz de expresar, me di cuenta que algo andaba mal con mi trabajo, conmigo. +Estaba agotado y tambin estaba desilusionado de alguna manera que no poda identificar. +Y decid tomarme un tiempo libre del trabajo. +El Ministerio de RR. EE. fue muy generoso. +Podas tomar unos permisos especiales sin sueldo, como los llamaban, y seguir siendo parte del servicio diplomtico, pero sin trabajar. +Era agradable. +Y finalmente, decid tomar una comisin de servicio para unirme a la ONU en Kosovo, que en ese momento estaba bajo la administracin de la ONU. +Y dos cosas sucedieron en Kosovo, que como que, nuevamente, muestran la aleatoriedad de la vida, porque estas cosas resultaron ser dos de los puntos de inflexin de mi vida que me ayudaron a estar listo para la siguiente fase. +Pero fueron cosas al azar. +Una fue que, en el verano de 2004, el gobierno britnico, un poco en contra de su voluntad, decidi realizar una investigacin oficial acerca del uso de la inteligencia sobre armas de destruccin masiva en el perodo previo a la guerra de Irak, un tema muy acotado. +Y yo testifiqu en secreto para esa investigacin. +Haba estado versado en la inteligencia sobre Irak y sobre sus armas de destruccin masiva, y mi testimonio a la comisin estableci tres cosas: que el gobierno exager la inteligencia, la cual haba sido clarsima durante todo el tiempo que la haba visto. +Y, en efecto, nuestra evaluacin interna haba sido muy clara que las armas de destruccin masiva de Irak no representaban una amenaza para sus vecinos, y mucho menos para nosotros. +Segundo, el gobierno haba ignorado todas las posibles alternativas a la guerra, que en cierto modo fue algo an ms vergonzoso. +No voy a entrar en lo tercero que dije. +Pero de todos modos, di ese testimonio, y eso me llev a una crisis. +Qu iba a hacer? +El testimonio criticaba duramente a mis colegas, a mis ministros, quienes haban, en mi opinin, haban perpetrado una guerra basados en una falsedad. +Y, entonces, estaba en crisis. +Y no era algo bonito. +Habl mucho al respecto, dud, le habl hasta el cansancio a mi sufrida esposa, y, finalmente, decid renunciar al Servicio de RR. EE. britnico. +Sent; hay una escena en la pelcula "El Informante" de Al Pacino que pueden conocer, donde vuelve al canal CBS despus de que lo han defraudado con lo del tipo de tabaco, y dice, "Saben, yo no puedo seguir con esto. Algo se ha quebrado." +Y fue as para m. Me encanta esa pelcula. +Senta que algo se haba quebrado. +Realmente no poda sentarme de nuevo con mi ministro de RR. EE. o con mi primer ministro con una sonrisa en la cara y hacer lo que sola hacer para ellos con gusto. +As que di un salto metafrico y me tir sobre el borde de un precipicio. +Y fue una sensacin muy, muy incmoda y desagradable. +Y comenc a caer. +Y hasta hoy esta cada no ha parado; todava sigo cayendo. +Pero, de cierto modo, me he acostumbrado a la sensacin. +Y, de cierto modo, como que me gusta esta sensacin mucho ms que estar parado encima del acantilado, preguntndome qu hacer. +Una segunda cosa que ocurri en Kosovo, que como que; perdonen, necesito un poco agua. +Una segunda cosa que ocurri en Kosovo, que como que me entreg la respuesta, que yo mismo no poda responder, que era, "Qu hago con mi vida?" +Me encanta la diplomacia. Ya no tengo carrera. Esperaba que mi vida entera fuera ser diplomtico, servir a mi pas. +Quera llegar a embajador, como mis mentores, mis hroes, las personas que llegaron al tope de mi profesin, y aqu lo estaba tirando todo por la borda. +Muchos de mis amigos seguan dentro. +Mi pensin estaba dentro. +Y lo dej. +Y qu iba a hacer? +Y ese ao, en Kosovo, esta cosa terrible, terrible sucedi, y yo la vi. +En marzo de 2004, hubo unas protestas terribles por toda la provincia -como se conoca entonces- de Kosovo. +18 personas murieron. +Era anarqua total. +Y es horrible ver a la anarqua, saber que la polica y los militares -haban montones de tropas all- en realidad no pueden parar la turba avasalladora que viene acercndose por la calle. +Y la nica manera de que esa turba se detenga es cuando ellos decidan detenerse y cuando ya hayan quemado y matado suficiente. +Y eso no es una sensacin muy agradable de ver, y yo lo vi. +Y estuve dentro de ello. Pas por las turbas. +Y con mis amigos albaneses, tratamos de detenerlo, pero fracasamos. +Y esos disturbios me ensearon algo, que no es inmediatamente obvio y es una historia un poco complicada. +Pero una de las razones que esos disturbios sucedieron -esas manifestaciones, que duraron varios das, sucedieron- fue porque la gente de Kosovo fue privada de participar en las decisiones sobre su propio futuro. +Haban negociaciones diplomticas sobre el futuro de Kosovo sucediendo en ese momento, y ni el gobierno de Kosovo, ni mucho menos el pueblo de Kosovo, estaban en realidad participando en esas conversaciones. +Estaba todo este rimbombante sistema diplomtico, este proceso de negociacin sobre el futuro de Kosovo, y los kosovares no formaban parte de l. +Y, curiosamente, estaban frustrados por eso. +Y parte de como manifestaron esa frustracin fueron esos disturbios. +No fue la nica razn, y la vida no se forma de narrativas simples, de slo una razn. +Fue una cuestin complicada, y no digo que fuera ms sencillo de lo que efectivamente fue. +Pero esa fue una de las razones. +Y eso como que me dio la inspiracin; o mejor dicho, para ser preciso, le dio a mi esposa la inspiracin. +Ella dijo: "Por qu no asesoras a los kosovares? +Por qu no asesoras a su gobierno con su diplomacia?" +Y a los kosovares no se les permita un servicio diplomtico. +No se les permita tener diplomticos. +No se les permita una oficina de RR. EE. para ayudarlos a lidiar con este proceso sumamente complicado, que se conoci como el Proceso de Estatuto Final de Kosovo. +As que esa era la idea. +Ese fue el origen de lo que se convirti en Independent Diplomat ("Diplomtico Independiente" en espaol), el primer grupo asesor diplomtico y, an mejor, una organizacin sin fines de lucro. +Y comenz cuando vol de regreso desde Londres despus de mi servicio con la ONU en Kosovo. +Viaje devuelta y cen con el Primer Ministro de Kosovo y le dije: "Mire, le propongo venir y asesorarle sobre diplomacia. +Yo conozco sobre esto. Es lo que hago. Por qu no vengo y le ayudo?" +Y l levant su copa de raki y me dijo: "S, Carne. Ven." +Y llegu a Kosovo y aconsej al Gobierno de Kosovo. +Diplomtico Independiente termin asesorando a tres sucesivos primer ministros de Kosovo y al equipo de negociacin multipartidista de Kosovo. +Y Kosovo se independiz. +Diplomtico Independiente se ha establecido en cinco centros diplomticos en todo el mundo, y estamos asesorando a siete u ocho pases diferentes, o grupos polticos, dependiendo de como desees definirlos; algo que a m no me interesa tanto. +Estamos asesorando a los chipriotas del Norte sobre la forma de reunificar la isla. +Estamos asesorando a la oposicin birmana, al gobierno de Sudn del Sur, que -lo oyeron aqu primero- ser un nuevo pas dentro de los prximos aos. +Estamos asesorando al Frente Polisario del Sahara occidental, quienes estn luchando para recuperar su pas de la ocupacin marroqu despus de 34 aos de no tener nacin. +Estamos asesorando a las naciones islas en las negociaciones sobre el cambio climtico, lo cual se supone que debe culminar en Copenhague. +Hay un poco de aleatoriedad aqu tambin porque, cuando yo estaba empezando Diplomtico Independiente, fui a un evento en la Cmara de los Lores, que es un lugar ridculo, pero yo llevaba mi copa as, y me tropec con este tipo que estaba parado detrs mo. +Y empezamos a hablar, y me dijo que... le cont lo que estaba haciendo, y yo le dije grandiosamente que iba a establecer Diplomtico Independiente en Nueva York. +En ese momento slo estaba yo, y con mi esposa nos estbamos devolviendo a Nueva York. +Y l dijo: "Por qu no visitas a mis colegas en Nueva York?" +Y result que l trabajaba para una empresa de innovacin llamada "?What If!" (Qu pasa s!?), que algunos de ustedes probablemente conozcan. +Y una cosa llev a la otra, y termin con un escritorio en ?What If! en Nueva York, cuando comenc con Diplomtico Independiente. +Y viendo a ?What If! +desarrollar nuevos sabores de goma de mascar Wrigley o nuevos sabores para Coca-Cola me ayud de verdad a innovar nuevas estrategias para los kosovares y para los saharauis del Sahara Occidental. +Y Diplomtico Independiente, hoy, trata de incorporar algunas de las cosas que aprend en ?What If! +Nos sentamos todos en una oficina y le gritamos al que est al otro lado. +Trabajamos en mini notebooks y reorganizamos la sala para cambiar cmo pensamos. +Y utilizamos expertos ingenuos que pueden no saber nada acerca de los pases involucrados, pero pueden saber algo de otra cosa para tratar de aportar ideas nuevas para solucionar los problemas que estamos tratamos de solucionar para nuestros clientes. +No es fcil, ya que nuestros clientes, por definicin, estn pasando por un momento diplomticamente complejo. +Se pueden obtener, no s, algunas lecciones de todo esto, personal- y polticamente; y, de cierto modo, son la misma cosa. +La leccin personal es que caer por un precipicio es en realidad algo bueno, y lo recomiendo. +Y es algo que deberan hacer al menos una vez en la vida, slo romper todo lo conocido y saltar. +Lo segundo es una leccin ms importante sobre el mundo actual. +Diplomtico Independiente es parte de una tendencia que est surgiendo y se puede observar por todo el mundo, que es que el mundo se est fragmentando. +Los estados tienen menor importancia que antes, y el poder del Estado est disminuyendo. +Eso significa que el poder de otras cosas est aumentando. +Esas otras cosas se denominan agentes no gubernamentales. +Pueden ser las empresas, pueden ser mafiosos, pueden ser ONGs buenas, pueden ser cualquier cosa, un montn de cosas. +Estamos viviendo en un mundo ms complejo y fragmentado. +Si los gobiernos son menos capaces de afectar a los problemas que nos afectan en el mundo, entonces eso quiere decir: Quin queda para preocuparse de ellos?, Quin tiene que asumir una mayor responsabilidad para resolverlos? +Nosotros. +Si ellos no pueden hacerlo, quin queda para resolverlo? +No tenemos ms remedio que aceptar esa realidad. +Lo que esto significa es que ya no es suficiente decir que las relaciones internacionales, o los asuntos mundiales, o el caos en Somalia, o lo que est pasando en Birmania no tiene que ver contigo, y que los gobiernos se encargarn de eso. +Puedo conectar a cualquiera de ustedes por seis grados de separacin con la milicia Al-Shabaab de Somalia. +Pregntenme cmo despus pero, curiosamente, si consumen pescado... pero esa conexin existe. +Todos estamos conectados muy cercanamente. +Y no es slo lo que dice Tom Friedman, de verdad se puede demostrar en caso tras caso tras caso. +Lo que eso significa; en vez de pedirles a sus polticos que hagan algo, deben mirarse a s mismos para hacer lo necesario. +Y Diplomtico Independiente es una especie de ejemplo de esto de una manera medio extraa. +No son ejemplos perfectos, pero uno de ellos es el siguiente: la forma en que el mundo est cambiando se demuestra en lo que est pasando en el lugar que trabajaba, el Consejo de Seguridad de la ONU. +La ONU se estableci en 1945. +Su carta fundamental fue diseada bsicamente para detener los conflictos entre estados; conflictos entre naciones. +Hoy en da, el 80 por ciento de la agenda del Consejo de Seguridad de la ONU trata acerca de los conflictos dentro de los estados, que involucran participantes no-naciones; guerrillas, separatistas, terroristas, si quieren llamarlos as, gente que no son gobiernos estndar, que no son estados normales. +Ese es el estado del mundo hoy en da. +Se debe hacer algo al respecto. +As que empec de manera tradicional. +Mis colegas de Diplomtico Independiente y yo visitamos al Consejo de Seguridad de la ONU. +Visitamos alrededor de 70 estados miembros de la ONU -los kazakos, los etopes, los israeles- al que se imaginen, fuimos a verlos; el secretario general, todos ellos, y dijimos: "Esto est equivocado. +Es terrible que no incluyan a quienes les afecta realmente. +Hay que institucionalizar un sistema en donde en verdad se incluya a los kosovares para que vengan y digan lo que piensan. +Esto permitir que me digan; que les puedan decir lo que piensan. +Va a ser excelente. Puede ser un intercambio. +Pueden incorporar las opiniones de estas personas en sus decisiones, logrando que sus decisiones sean ms efectivas y duraderas." +Pensaran que esto es super-lgico. +Quiero decir, increblemente lgico. Tan obvio que cualquiera entendera. +Y, por supuesto, todos entendieron. Todos dijeron: "S, por supuesto, de acuerdo. +Vuelvan a vernos en al menos seis meses ms." +Y por supuesto, no pas nada. Nadie hizo nada. +El Consejo de Seguridad realiza sus funciones exactamente de la misma manera que la haca hace X aos atrs, cuando yo estaba all hace 10 aos. +Y entonces observamos este, esencialmente, fracaso y pens, qu podemos hacer al respecto? +Y pens, ni muerto voy a pasar el resto de mi vida haciendo lobby para estos gobiernos mediocres para hacer lo que se necesita hacer. +Entonces, lo que vamos a hacer es que nosotros mismos vamos a fijar estas reuniones. +As que ahora, Diplomtico Independiente est en el proceso de fijar reuniones entre el Consejo de Seguridad de la ONU y los participantes en los conflictos que estn en la agenda del Consejo de Seguridad. +As que vamos a traer a los grupos rebeldes de Darfur, los chipriotas del norte y los chipriotas del sur, los rebeldes de Aceh, y un listado terriblemente largo de conflictos caticos por todo el mundo. +Y vamos a tratar de llevar a todos a Nueva York para que se sienten en una habitacin tranquila donde tengan privacidad, sin prensa, y que le expliquen lo que en realidad desean a los miembros del Consejo de Seguridad de la ONU, y que los miembros del Consejo de Seguridad les expliquen lo que ellos deseen. +Para que realmente se produzca una conversacin, lo que nunca ha sucedido antes. +Y por supuesto, al describir todo esto, el que sepa de poltica pensar que esto es increblemente complejo, y yo estar totalmente de acuerdo. +Las probabilidades de fracaso son muy altas, pero tengan por seguro que no va a suceder si no tratamos de lograr que suceda. +Y mi visin poltica ha cambiado de manera fundamental desde cuando yo era un diplomtico hasta hoy, ya que creo que los resultados importan, no el proceso, y, francamente, tampoco importa mucho la tecnologa. +Predquenle de tecnologa a todos los manifestantes de Irn que usaron Twitter y que ahora son prisioneros polticos en Tehern, donde Ahmadinejad continua gobernando. +La tecnologa no ha logrado un cambio poltico en Irn. +Tienes que mirar los resultados y decirte a ti mismo: "Qu puedo hacer para lograr ese resultado especfico?" +Esa es la poltica del siglo 21. Y, de cierto modo, Diplomtico Independiente encarna esa fragmentacin, ese cambio, que nos est sucediendo a todos nosotros. +Esa es mi historia. Gracias. +Soy un omnvoro cultural cuyo viaje diario al trabajo es posible gracias a un iPod, un iPod donde tengo a Wagner y a Mozart, a la diva del pop Christina Aguilera, al cantante de country Josh Turner, al artista de gangsta rap Kirk Franklin, conciertos, sinfonas y mucho ms. +Soy un vido lector que lee desde Ian McEwan hasta Stephanie Meyer. +Le la tetraloga "Twilight" +Alguien que vive para su cine en casa en el que devoro DVDs, video bajo demanda, y mucha televisin. +Miro "La ley y el orden: UVE", Tine Fey y "30 Rock", y la "Jueza Judy": "Gente real. Casos reales. Fallos definitivos". +Francamente es un sector que muchos en esta actividad tememos que est en peligro y posiblemente sea desmantelado por la tecnologa. +A pesar de que al principio se proclamaba a Internet como un mecanismo de mercadeo excepcional que iba a resolver todos nuestros problemas ahora nos damos cuenta que Internet es, en todo caso, demasiado eficaz en ese sentido. +Depende a quin uno lea, las organizaciones artsticas, o los artistas que tratan de llamar la atencin de un espectador potencial ahora compiten con entre 3.000 y 5.000 mensajes de mercadeo distintos, que una persona comn ve todos los das. +Sabemos, de hecho, que la tecnologa es nuestra gran competidora por el tiempo libre. +Hace 5 aos la Generacin X pas 20,7 horas en lnea y mirando TV, la mayora en la TV. +La Generacin Y pas an ms... 23,8 horas, la mayora en lnea. +Ahora, un estudiante tpico que comienza estudios superioes llega a la universidad habiendo ya pasado 20.000 horas en lnea y otras 10.000 horas adicionales con videojuegos; un recordatorio de que nos movemos en un contexto cultural en el que los videojuegos venden ms que las grabaciones de msica y las pelculas juntas. +Por otra parte, tememos que la tecnologa haya alterado nuestros supuestos sobre el consumo cultural. +Gracias a Internet creemos que podemos tener lo que queramos cuando lo queramos en la puerta de nuestra casa. +Podemos comprar a las 3 de la maana o las 8 de la noche, pidiendo vaqueros hechos a medida para nuestros cuerpos nicos. +Son expectativas de personalizacin y adaptacin que las artes escnicas... que tienen horas fijas de cada de teln, recintos fijos, los inconvenientes para los asistentes del viaje, el estacionamiento, etc... simplemente no pueden satisfacer. +Y todos somos muy conscientes: qu va a significar en el futuro pedirle a alguien que pague 100 dlares por una entrada de pera, sinfona o ballet si ese consumidor cultural suele descargar todo de internet, 24 horas al da, por 99 cvos la cancin, o gratis? +Estas son preguntas enormes para los que nos dedicamos a esto. +Pero por mucho que nos parezcan propias, sabemos que no estamos solos. +Estamos inmersos en una realineacin ssmica, fundamental, de la cultura y las comunicaciones, un reajuste que sacude y est diezmando a la industria de la prensa, las revistas, el libro, la industria editorial, y mucho ms. +muchos nos estremecimos tras la cada de Tower Records y nos preguntamos: "somos los siguientes?" +Cualquiera que consulte en las artes escnicas se hace eco de las palabras de Adrienne Rich, quien en "El sueo de un lenguaje comn" escribi: "Estamos en un pas que no tiene lenguaje ni leyes. +Todo lo que hagamos juntos es pura invencin. +Los mapas que nos dieron, caducaron hace aos". +Y para aquellos de ustedes que amen las artes, no se alegran de haberme invitado aqu para alegrar su da? +En lugar de decir que estamos al borde de la aniquilacin prefiero creer que estamos inmersos en una reforma fundamental, una reforma como la Reforma religiosa del siglo XVI. +La reforma de las artes, como la Reforma religiosa, es impulsada, en parte, por la tecnologa; de hecho, la Imprenta lider el cambio de la Reforma religiosa. +Ambas reformas se basaban en discusiones facciosas, en la inseguridad interna, y en el realineamiento masivo de anticuados modelos de negocio. +En el fondo, creo, ambas reformas planteaban las preguntas: quin tiene derecho a la prctica? +Cmo se tiene derecho a la prctica? +Y, de hecho, necesitamos a alguien que interceda por nosotros para tener una experiencia con la divinidad superior? +Chris Anderson, a quien creo que conocen, editor en jefe de la revista Wired y autor de "La larga cola", fue el primero, para m, en comprender mucho de esto. +Escribi hace mucho tiempo que gracias a la invencin de Internet, la tecnologa web, las mini cmaras, etc., los medios de produccin artstica se han democratizado por primera vez en la historia de la Humanidad. +En los aos 30, si alguien quera hacer una pelcula tena que trabajar para Warner Bros o RKO quin poda permitirse un set de filmacin, equipos de iluminacin y edicin, partituras, etc.? +Y hoy en esta sala quin no conoce a alguien de 14 aos que est trabajando arduamente en su 2a, 3a, o 4a pelcula? +Del mismo modo, los medios de distribucin artstica se han democratizado por primera vez en la historia. +En los aos 30 Warner Bros y RKO se encargaban de eso. +Ahora uno va a YouTube, Facebook; y tiene distribucin mundial sin abandonar la intimidad del propio dormitorio. +Este doble impacto ocasiona una redefinicin masiva del mercado cultural; un momento en el que cualquiera es un autor en potencia. +Francamente, lo que estamos viendo ahora en este entorno es un momento masivo en el que el mundo entero est cambiando a medida que la cantidad de espectadores se est desplomando. +Pero la cantidad de artistas, gente que escribe poesa, que canta canciones, que canta en el coro de la iglesia, est explotando ms all de lo que podamos imaginar. +Estos "profesionales aficionados" son artistas aficionados que trabajan a nivel profesional. +Se los ve en YouTube, en concursos de baile, en festivales de cine, etc. +Estn expandiendo de manera radical nuestras nociones del potencial de un vocabulario esttico al tiempo que desafan y socavan la autonoma cultural y las instituciones tradicionales. +En definitiva, vivimos en un mundo definido, no por el consumo, sino por la participacin. +Pero quiero ser claro: as como la Reforma religiosa no signific el fin de la Iglesia formal o del sacerdocio, creo que nuestras instituciones artsticas continuarn teniendo importancia. +Actualmente representan la mejor oportunidad para los artistas de tener una vida de dignidad econmica no de opulencia, de dignidad. +Y son los lugares en que los artistas que merecen y quieren trabajar en una cierta escala de recursos encontrarn un hogar. +Pero verlos como pares de la totalidad de la comunidad artstica es demasiado corto de miras. +Los artistas de hoy, como Rhodessa Jones, trabajan en las crceles de mujeres para ayudar a las reclusas a expresar el dolor del encarcelamiento, los dramaturgos y directores de hoy trabajan con pandillas juveniles para hallar canales alternativos a la violencia y ms y ms y ms. +Y, de hecho, creo que en lugar de ser aniquiladas, las artes escnicas estn en el umbral de una poca en que vamos a ser ms importantes que nunca antes. +Hemos dicho durante mucho tiempo que somos vitales para la salud de las comunidades econmicas de la ciudad. +Absolutamente. Espero que sepan que cada dlar gastado en artes escnicas en una comunidad genera de 5 a 7 dlares adicionales para la economa local; dlares que se gastan en restaurantes o estacionamientos, en las tiendas donde se compra la tela para los trajes, en el afinador de piano que afina el instrumento, etc. +Pero el arte va a ser ms importante para la economa a medida que avancemos, especialmente en sectores que an no podemos siquiera imaginar, tal como lo han sido para la industria del iPod y de los juegos de computadora que pocos, si acaso alguien, podran haber previsto hace 10 15 aos. +El liderazgo empresarial depender cada vez ms de la inteligencia emocional, de la capacidad de escuchar con atencin, de tener empata, de articular el cambio, de motivar a otros; las mismas capacidades que el arte cultiva en cada encuentro. +Especialmente ahora cuando tenemos que enfrentar la falacia de una orientacin mercantilista, desinformados por la conciencia social, debemos tomar y celebrar el poder de las artes para dar forma a nuestro carcter individual y nacional, y, sobre todo, al carcter de los jvenes que con demasiada frecuencia son objeto de bombardeos de sensaciones y no de experiencias digeridas. +Las artes, hagan lo que hagan, siempre que nos llaman a unirnos, nos invitan a mirar a nuestro prjimo con generosidad y curiosidad. +Dios sabe que si alguna vez necesitamos esa capacidad en la historia de la humanidad es ahora. +Estamos unidos no por la tecnologa, el entretenimiento ni el diseo, sino por una causa comn. +Trabajamos para promover sociedades sanas y vibrantes, para aliviar el sufrimiento humano, para promover un orden mundial ms reflexivo, sustancial y emptico. +Los saludo como activistas en esa bsqueda y les insto a abrazar y sostener al arte en sus trabajos, cualquiera sea la finalidad. +Les prometo que la mano de la Fundacin Benfica Doris Duke est extendida en amistad ahora y lo estar en los aos por venir. +Y le doy las gracias por su amabilidad y paciencia para escucharme esta tarde. +Gracias y buena suerte. +Si quieren entender realmente el problema que enfrentamos con los ocanos tienen que pensar en la biologa adems de pensar en la fsica. +No podemos resolver los problemas a menos que empecemos a estudiar el ocano de manera mucho ms interdisciplinaria. +As que voy a demostrar eso discutiendo algunas cosas del cambio climtico que suceden en el ocano. +Vamos a ver el nivel del mar. +Vamos a ver el calentamiento del ocano. +Y luego lo ltimo de esa lista, la acidificacin del ocano, si me preguntaran "Qu te preocupa ms?" +"Qu te asusta?" +Para m, es la acidificacin del ocano. +Y esto ha llegado al escenario recientemente. +De eso hablar un poquito al final. +Estuve en Copenhague en diciembre como alguno de Uds que estn en la sala. +Y creo que nos pareci una experiencia a la vez sorprendente y muy frustrante. +Me sent en esta gran sala de negociacin en un momento, durante 3 4 horas, sin escuchar la palabra "ocano" ni una vez. +Realmente no estaba en la pantalla del radar. +Las naciones que lo sacaron a relucir en los discursos de los lderes nacionales... eran lderes de pequeos estados insulares estados insulares de poco peso. +Y por este extraa coincidencia del orden alfabtico de las naciones, muchos de los estados de poco peso como Kiribati y Nauru estaban sentados al final de estas filas inmensamente largas. +Fueron marginados en la sala de negociacin. +Uno de los problemas es encontrar el objetivo correcto. +No est claro cul debera ser el objetivo. +Y cmo puede encontrarse la manera de arreglar algo si no se tiene el objetivo claro? +Han odo de los "dos grados": que debera limitarse el aumento de temperatura a no ms de 2 grados. +Pero no hay mucho fundamento cientfico tras ese nmero. +Tambin hemos hablado de concentraciones de dixido de carbono en la atmsfera. +450 ppm? 400 ppm? +No hay mucho fundamento cientfico tras ese nmero tampoco. +La ciencia que se encuentra tras estos nmeros, estos objetivos potenciales, se basa en estudios en el terreno. +Y yo le dira a las personas que trabajan en el ocano y piensan cules deberan ser los objetivos que pensamos que deben ser mucho ms bajos. +Desde una perspectiva ocenica, 450 ppm es demasiado alto. +Ahora hay evidencia convincente de que tiene que ser de 350 ppm. +Ahora mismo estamos en 390 partes por milln de CO2 en la atmsfera. +No vamos a clavar los frenos a tiempo para parar en 450 ppm as que tenemos que aceptar que nos vamos a exceder y la discusin a medida que avancemos tiene que centrarse en cunto nos vamos a pasar y en cmo volver a las 350 ppm. +Ahora, por qu es tan complicado? +Por qu no conocemos un poquito mejor alguna de estas cosas? +Bueno, el problema es que tenemos fuerzas muy complicadas en el sistema climtico. +Hay todo tipo de causas naturales del cambio climtico. +Hay interacciones aire-mar. +Aqu en Galpagos estamos afectados por El Nio y La Nia. +Todo el planeta se calienta si hay un gran fenmeno de El Nio. +Los volcanes arrojan aerosoles a la atmsfera. +Eso cambia nuestro clima. +El ocano contiene la mayor parte del intercambio de calor del planeta. +Todo lo que influye en el modo en que la superficie ocenica se mezcla con el agua profunda cambia los ocanos del planeta. +Y sabemos que la radiacin solar no es constante en el tiempo. +Todas esas son causas naturales del cambio climtico. +Y luego tenemos la causas de origen humano del cambio climtico tambin. +Estamos cambiando las caractersticas de la superficie terrestre la reflectividad. +Inyectamos nuestros propios aerosoles en la atmsfera... tenemos gases de traza, no slo dixido de carbono, es el metano, el ozono, xidos de azufre y nitrgeno. +Esa es la cosa. Parece una pregunta simple: +Provoca el CO2 producido por la actividad humana que el planeta se caliente? +Pero para responder esa pregunta, para implicar claramente al dixido de carbono uno tiene que saber algo sobre todos estos agentes de cambio. +Pero el hecho es que conocemos mucho sobre todas estas cosas. +Miles de cientficos han estado trabajando para entender todas estas causas de origen humano y las causas naturales. +Y lo tenemos resuelto, podemos decir: "S, el CO2 es la causa del calentamiento del planeta". +Ahora, tenemos muchas maneras de estudiar la variabilidad natural. +Ahora les voy a mostrar unos ejemplos de esto. +Este es el barco en el que he pasado los ltimos 3 meses en la Antrtida. +Es un buque de perforacin cientfica. +Salimos durante meses a perforar el lecho marino para recuperar sedimentos que nos cuenten historias del cambio climtico. +Como que una de las maneras de entender nuestro futuro de efecto invernadero es indagar en el tiempo hasta el ltimo perodo en el que el CO2 duplic la marca actual. +Eso es lo que hemos hecho con este barco. +Esto era... esto est al sur del Crculo Polar Antrtico. +Parece francamente tropical all. +Un da que tenamos mar calmo y sol, razn por la cual pude salir del barco. +La mayora de las veces era as. +Tuvimos unas olas de hasta 15 metros +y vientos que promediaban los 40 nudos durante la mayor parte del viaje y llegaban a 70 u 80 nudos. +El viaje acaba de terminar y no puedo mostrar demasiados resultados de eso ahora mismo pero vamos a retroceder un ao ms a otra expedicin de perforacin en la que he participado. +Esta fue dirigida por Ross Powell y Tim Naish. +Es el proyecto ANDRILL. +E hicimos el primer orificio en la plataforma flotante de hielo ms grande del planeta. +Esto es una locura, este gran equipo de perforacin envuelto en una manta para mantener a todos calientes perforando a temperaturas de -40C. +Y perforados en el Mar de Ross. +A la derecha est la plataforma de hielo del Mar de Ross. +Esta plataforma enorme de hielo flotante del tamao de Alaska proviene de la Antrtida Occidental. +La Antrtida Occidental es la parte del continente en la que el hielo permanece en el fondo del mar hasta a 2.000 metros de profundidad. +Esa capa de hielo en parte est flotando expuesta al ocano, al calor del ocano. +Esta es la parte de la Antrtida que nos preocupa. +Dado que en parte est flotando uno puede imaginar que si el nivel aumenta un poquito el hielo se eleva del lecho, puede desprenderse y flotar hacia el norte. +Si el hielo se derrite, el nivel del mar sube 6 metros. +Por eso perforamos el pasado para ver la frecuencia con que suceda, y la velocidad con que puede derretirse. +Hay una caricatura a la izquierda. +Perforamos un centenar de metros de la plataforma de hielo flotante luego 900 metros de agua y luego 1.300 metros en el fondo marino. +Es el orificio de perforacin geolgica ms profundo de la historia. +Organizar este proyecto llev unos 10 aos. +Y esto fue lo que hallamos. +Ahora hay 40 cientficos trabajando en este proyecto y se estn haciendo todo tipo de anlisis realmente complicados y costosos. +Pero resulta que lo que contaba la mejor historia era descripcin visual simple. +Lo vimos en las muestras de ncleo a medida que sala. +Vimos estas alteraciones entre los sedimentos que se parecen a esto... hay grava y cantos rodados all y un montn de arena. +Ese es el tipo de material de las profundidades marinas. +Slo puede llegar all si lo lleva el hielo. +Sabemos que hay una sobrecarga de la plataforma de hielo. +Y alterna con un sedimento que se parce a esto. +Esto es algo absolutamente maravilloso. +Este sedimento est 100% compuesto por las conchas de plantas microscpicas. +Y estas plantas necesitan luz solar as que sabemos al encontrar ese sedimento que no hay sobrecarga de hielo. +Y vimos unas 35 alteraciones entre el agua abierta y el agua cubierta por el hielo entre las gravas y estos sedimentos de plantas. +As, lo que esto significa, lo que nos dice es que la regin del Mar de Ross, esta plataforma de hielo, se derriti y volvi a formar unas 35 veces. +Y esto es en los ltimos 4 millones de aos. +Fue completamente inesperado. +Nadie imagin que la Plataforma de Hielo Antrtica Occidental era tan dinmica. +De hecho, la tradicin de muchos aos ha sido: "El hielo se form varias decenas de millones de aos atrs y ha estado all desde entonces". +Y ahora sabemos que en el pasado reciente se derriti y volvi a formarse y que el nivel del mar subi y baj, 6 metros cada vez. +Qu lo caus? +Bueno, estamos bastante seguros que fueron cambios muy pequeos en la cantidad de luz solar que llegaba a la Antrtida provocada por cambios naturales en la rbita terrestre. +Pero he aqu el factor clave: la otra cosa que hallamos es que la capa de hielo super un umbral que calent al planeta lo suficiente... la cifra ronda de 1C a 1,5C el planeta se calent tanto que se volvi... +esa capa de hielo se volvi muy dinmica y se derreta fcilmente. +Y saben qu? +Hemos cambiado la temperatura en el siglo pasado la cantidad justa. +Por eso muchos estamos convencidos de que la Capa de Hielo Antrtica Occidental se est derritiendo. +Esperamos ver un aumento en el nivel del mar del orden de 1 2 metros para finales de este siglo. +Y podra ser ms que eso. +Esta es una consecuencia seria para naciones como Kiribati en las que la elevacin promedio est levemente por encima del metro sobre el nivel del mar. +Bueno, la segunda historia ocurre aqu en Galpagos. +Este es un coral blanqueado, un coral que muri durante El Nio de 1982, 1983. +Este es de la isla Champion. +Se trata de una colonia pavona clavus de un metro de altura. +Est cubierta de algas. Eso es lo que sucede. +Cuando stas mueren de inmediato vienen organismos se incrustan y viven en esa superficie muerta. +As, cuando muere una colonia a causa del fenmeno de El Nio deja este registro increble. +Uno puede ir y estudiar los corales e averiguar cun a menudo puede ver esto. +As que una de las cosas que se pens en los aos 80 fue en volver y tomar muestras de cabezas de coral en las Galpagos y averiguar con qu frecuencia se produjo un fenmeno devastador. +Y en 1982, 1983, El Nio mat el 95% de los corales de las Galpagos. +Luego hubo una mortalidad similar en el 97-98. +Y lo que hallamos despus de escarbar en el pasado 400 aos fue que estos fueron eventos nicos. +No vimos otros eventos de mortalidad en masa. +As que estos eventos en el pasado reciente son nicos. +Ya sean fenmenos monstruosos de El Nio o sean fenmenos El Nio muy fuertes se produjeron en un contexto de calentamiento global. +En cualquier caso son malas noticias para los corales de las Islas Galpagos. +As es como muestreamos los corales. +Esta es la Isla de Pascua. Miren ese monstruo. +Este coral mide 8 metros de alto. +Y ha estado creciendo durante unos 600 aos. +Sylvia Earle me indujo a estudiar este mismo coral. +Y ella estaba buceando aqu con John Lauret. Creo que fue en 1994... recogi una pequea pepita y me la envi. +Y comenzamos a trabajar en esto y nos dimos cuenta que podamos calcular la temperatura del ocano antiguo analizando un coral como este. +Tenemos una fresa de diamante. +No estamos matando la colonia; estamos tomando una muestra pequea de la parte superior. +sta aparece en forma de tubo cilndrico de piedra caliza. +Luego llevamos ese material al laboratorio para analizarlo. +Ah a la derecha pueden ver algunos ncleos de coral. +Lo hemos hecho en todo el Pacfico Oriental. +Lo estamos empezando a hacer tambin el Pacfico Occidental. +Los llevar de vuelta a las Islas Galpagos. +Y hemos estado trabajando en esta elevacin aqu en Baha Urbina. +El lugar donde durante el terremoto de 1954 esta terraza marina se elev del ocano muy rpidamente se levant cerca de 6 a 7 metros. +Y ahora uno puede caminar a travs de un arrecife de coral sin mojarse. +Si uno va a la terraza de all, se ve as, y este es el coral "grandaddy". +Mide 11 metros de dimetro y sabemos que empez a crecer en 1584. +Imaginen eso. +Y ese coral creci felizmente en esas aguas poco profundas hasta 1954 cuando sucedi el terremoto. +La razn por la que sabemos que es de 1584 es que estos corales tienen bandas de crecimiento. +Si uno los corta, rebana los ncleos a la mitad y los radiografa ve estas bandas claras y oscuras. +Cada una representa un ao. +Sabemos que estos corales crecen cerca de 1,5 cm al ao. +Y simplemente contamos hasta el fondo. +Luego, su otro atributo es que tienen esta gran qumica. +Podemos analizar el carbonato que constituye el coral y hay muchas cosas que podemos hacer. +Pero en este caso medimos los distintos istopos de oxgeno. +Su proporcin nos dice la temperatura del agua. +En este ejemplo hemos monitoreado este arrecife en las Galpagos con registradores de temperatura as sabemos la temperatura del agua en la que crece el coral. +Luego de cosechar un coral, medimos esta proporcin, y ahora pueden ver que estas curvas coinciden perfectamente. +En este caso, en estas islas, ya saben, los corales son registros de calidad instrumental del cambio en el agua. +Y, por supuesto, nuestros termmetros slo nos remontan a unos 50 aos aqu. +El coral nos puede llevar cientos y miles de aos. +Lo que hicimos fue combinamos gran cantidad de datos. +No es slo mi grupo, quiz hay 30 grupos en todo el mundo haciendo esto. +Obtenemos estos registros de calidad instrumental o casi instrumental del cambio de temperatura que se remonta cientos de aos y los ponemos juntos. +Aqu hay una sntesis. +Hay toda una familia de curvas de aqu. +Pero lo que est pasando es que estamos viendo los ltimos mil aos de la temperatura en el planeta. +Y hay 5 6 diferentes compilaciones all. Cada una de estas compilaciones refleja la entrada de cientos de este tipo de registros de corales. +Hacemos algo similar con los ncleos de hielo. +Trabajamos con anillos de rboles. +Y es as como descubrimos lo autnticamente natural y cun diferente es el ltimo siglo, s? +Y eleg este porque se ve complicado y desordenado. +Este es muy desordenado. +Pueden verse algunas seales aqu. +Alguno de los registros muestran temperaturas ms bajas que otros. +Algunos muestran una mayor variabilidad. +Pero todos nos indican cul es la variabilidad natural. +Algunos son del Hemisferio Norte; algunos son de todo el mundo. +Pero esto es lo que podemos decir: lo natural en los ltimos mil aos era que el planeta se estaba enfriando. +Se estaba enfriando hasta 1900 aproximadamente. +Y hay una variabilidad natural provocada por el sol y El Nio. +Escala de siglos, variabilidad por dcadas, y conocemos la magnitud; es de 2/10 a 4/10 de grado centgrado. +Pero bien al final es donde tenemos el registro instrumental en negro. +Y ah est la temperatura all arriba, en 2009. +Hemos calentado el planeta Cerca de 1C en el ltimo siglo y no hay nada en la parte natural de ese registro que se asemeje a lo visto en el ltimo siglo. +Esa es la fuerza de nuestro argumento que estamos haciendo algo realmente diferente. +As que voy a cerrar con una breve discusin de la acidificacin del ocano. +Me gusta hablar de eso como componente del cambio global porque incluso si son muy escpticos del calentamiento global, y hablo a esa comunidad con bastante frecuencia, no pueden negar la fsica simple del CO2 que se disuelve en el ocano. +Estamos bombeando grandes cantidades de CO2 a la atmsfera de combustibles fsiles, de la produccin de cemento. +Ahora mismo, cerca de 1/3 del dixido de carbono se disuelve directamente en el mar, s? +Y al hacerlo hace que el ocano sea ms cido. +No se puede discutir eso. +Eso es lo que est sucediendo ahora mismo y es un tema muy diferente del tema del calentamiento global. +Tiene muchas consecuencias. +Hay consecuencias para los organismos de carbonato. +Hay muchos organismos que construyen sus conchas de carbonato de calcio... tanto plantas como animales. +El material principal de los arrecifes de coral es el carbonato de calcio. +Ese material es ms soluble en el lquido cido. +As que una de las cosas que vemos es que los organismos tienen que gastar ms energa metablica para construir y mantener sus conchas. +En cierto momento, si esta transitoriedad, si contina esta absorcin ocenica de CO2, ese material va a empezar a disolverse. +Y en los arrecifes de coral en los que algunos organismos principales desaparezcan vamos a ver prdidas mayores de biodiversidad marina. +Pero no son slo los productores de carbonato los que se ven afectados. +Hay muchos procesos fisiolgicos influenciados por la acidez del ocano. +Muchas de las reacciones que involucran enzimas y protenas son sensibles al contenido cido del ocano. +Todas estas cosas: una mayor demanda metablica, baja del xito reproductivo, cambios en la respiracin y el metabolismo... +estas son cosas de las que tenemos buenas razones fisiolgicas para verlas afectadas por esta transitoriedad. +As que nos dimos cuenta de algunos aspectos muy interesantes para controlar los niveles de CO2 en la atmsfera, remontndonos millones de aos. +Solamos hacerlo slo con los ncleos de hielo, pero en este caso nos remontamos 20 millones de aos. +Y tomamos muestras del sedimento y nos dice el nivel de CO2 del ocano y por lo tanto del nivel de CO2 de la atmsfera. +Y he aqu el hallazgo: uno tiene que remontarse unos 15 millones de aos para encontrar niveles de CO2 similares a los de hoy en da. +Hay que remontarse unos 30 millones de aos para encontrar niveles de CO2 del doble de lo que tenemos hoy. +Lo que eso significa es que todos los organismos que viven en el mar han evolucionado en este ocano quimiosttico, con niveles de CO2 inferiores a los actuales. +Por eso no son capaces de responder o de adaptarse a esta rpida acidificacin que est ocurriendo ahora mismo. +As, Charlie Veron apareci el ao pasado con esta consigna: "La perspectiva de la acidificacin de los ocanos bien puede ser la ms grave de todos los resultados previstos de la liberacin de CO2 antropognico". +Y creo que puede muy bien ser verdad, as que con esto voy a terminar. +Necesitamos las reas protegidas, absolutamente, pero por el bien de los ocanos, tenemos que limitar las emisiones de CO2 lo antes posible. +Muchas gracias. +Como mnimo he descubierto por lo que hacemos pasar a nuestros oradores: palmas sudorosas, noches en vela, una aversin a los relojes. +Es decir, es bastante cruel. +Y tambin estoy un poco preocupado por esto: +hay 9.000 millones de humanos en nuestro camino. +Los sueos ms optimistas pueden verse afectados por la perspectiva de gente que saquea el planeta. +Sin embargo, recientemente me intrig una forma diferente de pensar las grandes multitudes, porque hay circunstancias donde estas pueden hacer cosas geniales. +Creo que es un fenmeno que cualquier organizacin o individuo puede aprovechar. +Sin duda, impact en la forma en que pensamos el futuro de TED, y tal vez, el futuro del mundo en general. +As que exploremos. +La historia comienza simplemente con una sola persona, un nio que se comporta un poco extrao. +Este chico es conocido online como Lil Demon. +Aqu est haciendo trucos, trucos de baile, que probablemente ningn nio de 6 aos haya hecho antes. +Cmo los aprendi? +Y que lo llev a pasar las cientos de horas de prctica que esto debe haber llevado? +Aqu hay una pista. +Lil Demon: Mejora tu juego. Oh. Oh. Mejora tu juego. Oh. Oh. Chris Anderson: eso me lo envi este hombre, Jonathan Chu, un cineasta, quien me dijo que en ese momento se dio cuenta que Internet estaba motivando la evolucin del baile. +Esto es lo que l dijo en TED en febrero. +En esencia, los bailarines se desafan en lnea unos a otros para ser mejores, inventaron nuevas secuencias de baile; hasta los nios de 6 aos se sumaron. +Parece una revolucin. +Y entonces Jon tuvo una idea brillante: sali a reclutar a los mejores bailarines de YouTube para crear este grupo de danza: La Liga de Bailarines Extraordinarios, los LXD. +Es decir, estos chicos aprendieron por la web, pero eran tan buenos que bailaron en los Oscars de este ao. +Y aqu en TED en febrero, su pasin y excelencia nos quit el aliento. +Entonces, esta historia de la evolucin del baile parece extraamente familiar. +Poco despus que las TEDTalks comenzaron a tener xito, notamos que los oradores empezaron a dedicar ms tiempo a la preparacin. +Resultando en nuevas charlas increbles, como estas dos... +...meses de preparacin resumidos en 18 minutos, elevando el nivel para la prxima generacin de oradores, con los efectos que vimos esta semana. +J.J y Jill no terminaron sus charlas diciendo: "mejora tu juego", pero podran haberlo hecho. +En estos dos casos, existen estos ciclos de mejora, aparentemente motivados por gente que mira videos en la web. +Qu est pasando aqu? +Creo que es la ltima iteracin de un fenmeno que podemos llamar "innovacin acelerada por la multitud". +Y slo se necesitan 3 cosas para poner esto en marcha. +Se lo puede pensar como 3 diales en una rueda gigante. +Uno gira el dial y la rueda comienza a girar. +Y lo primero que se necesita es... una multitud, un grupo de personas que compartan un inters comn. +Cuanto mayor sea la multitud, ms son los potenciales innovadores. +Eso es importante, pero en realidad la mayora de la gente ocupa estos otros roles. +Estn creando el ecosistema del cual emerge la innovacin. +Lo segundo que se necesita es luz. +Se necesita una visibilidad clara y abierta de lo que son capaces las mejores personas de esa multitud, porque es as como uno emprende a calificar para participar. +Y lo tercero es el deseo. +La innovacin es un trabajo arduo. +Se basa en cientos de horas de investigacin, de prctica. +Si falta el deseo, no sucede [la innovacin]. +Este es un ejemplo, pre-Internet, de esta mquina en accin. +Bailarines en una esquina... Es una multitud, pequea, pero, obviamente, todos pueden ver lo que hace cada uno. +Y supongo que la parte del deseo viene, del estatus social, verdad? +Los mejores bailarines caminan erguidos, tienen la mejor cita. +Probablemente aqu habr innovacin. +Pero en la web los 3 diales estn ampliados. +La comunidad de bailarines ahora es global. +Son millones los conectados. +Y, de forma sorprendente, an se puede ver lo que hace el mejor, porque la propia multitud los alumbra, ya sea directamente a travs de comentarios, valoraciones, emails, Facebook, Twitter, o, indirectamente, a travs del nmero de visitas, a travs de enlaces de Google. +Lo bueno es fcil de encontrar y, cuando uno lo encuentra, lo puede ver en primer plano varias veces y leer lo que escribieron cientos de personas sobre eso. +Eso es mucha luz. +Pero el elemento del deseo es muy importante. +Uno puede ser slo un nio con una webcam, pero, si puede hacer algo que se vuelva viral, llegar a ser visto por el equivalente de un estadio deportivo abarrotado de gente. +Habr cientos de extraos entusiastas escribiendo sobre uno. +Y aunque no sea tan elocuente, y no lo es, realmente puede alegrarnos el da. +Esta posibilidad de un reconocimiento global, creo que est motivando gran cantidad de esfuerzo. +Y es importante remarcar que no slo se benefician las estrellas: porque puede verse lo mejor, y todos pueden aprender. +El sistema tambin se auto-abastece. +Es la multitud la que proyecta la luz y alimenta el deseo, pero la luz y el deseo son una combinacin uno-dos letal, que atrae nuevas personas a la multitud. +Este es un modelo que casi cualquier organizacin puede usar para tratar de alimentar su propio ciclo de innovacin acelerada por la multitud. +Inviten a la gente, ilumnenla, estimulen el deseo. +Y probablemente la parte ms difcil es la luz, porque significa que uno tiene que abrirse, tiene que mostrar sus cosas al mundo. +Es revelando lo que uno considera el secreto ms profundo que millones de personas son facultadas para ayudar a mejorarlo. +Y, felizmente, hay una clase de personas que realmente no pueden hacer uso de esta herramienta. +El lado oscuro de la web es alrgico a la luz. +No creo que, por ejemplo, vayamos a ver terroristas publicando online sus planes y diciendo al mundo: "Nos podran ayudar, por favor, a que esta vez funcione?" +Pero uno puede publicar online sus cosas. +Y si pueden hacer girar esa rueda, cuidado. +En TED, nos volvimos un poco obsesivos con esta idea de apertura. +De hecho, mi colega June Cohen la llama "apertura radical" porque siempre nos funciona. +Abrimos nuestras charlas al mundo y de repente hay millones de personas ah fuera ayudando a difundir las ideas de nuestros oradores, y, por lo tanto, facilitndonos reclutar y motivar a la siguiente generacin de oradores. +Al abrir nuestro programa de traduccin, miles de heroicos voluntarios, algunos de ellos mirando ahora mismo online, gracias! han traducido nuestras charlas a ms de 70 idiomas lo que triplica nuestra audiencia en los pases de habla no-inglesa. +Al permitir el uso de nuestra marca TEDx, de repente tenemos ms de 1.000 experimentos en vivo del arte de difundir ideas. +Y estos organizadores, se ven entre ellos, aprenden entre ellos. +Nosotros aprendemos de ellos. +Nos envan charlas fantsticas. +La rueda est girando. +Volvamos atrs un minuto. +Realmente no es noticia que yo les diga que la innovacin emerge de los grupos. +Esta semana escuchamos eso... esta idea romntica del genio solitario con su momento "eureka" que cambia el mundo es errnea. +Incluso l lo dijo, y lo sabra. +Somos una especie social. +Nos potenciamos unos a otros. +Tampoco es noticia decir que Internet ha acelerado la innovacin. +En los ltimos 15 aos, comunidades poderosas se conectaron online potencindose unas a otras. +Si tomamos los programadores todo el movimiento de software libre es un ejemplo fantstico de innovacin acelerada por la multitud. +Pero lo clave aqu es que la razn por la cual a estos grupos les fue posible conectarse es porque el resultado de su trabajo es de una clase que es fcil de compartir digitalmente: una imagen, un archivo de msica, software. +Y es por eso que estoy entusiasmado y lo que creo que est subestimado es el significado del crecimiento de los videos online. +Esta es la tecnologa que permitir compartir digitalmente los talentos del resto del mundo abriendo as todo un nuevo ciclo de innovacin acelerada por la multitud. +Los primeros aos de la web fueron sin videos por esta razn los archivos eran enormes, la web no los poda manejar. +Pero en los ltimos 10 aos la banda ancha se increment 100%. +De pronto aqu estamos. +Cada da la humanidad mira en YouTube 80 millones de horas. +En realidad Cisco calcula que en 4 aos ms del 90% de los datos de la web ser de video. +Si todo es cachorros, porno y piratera, estamos condenados. +Creo que no ser as. +Los videos ocupan mucho ancho de banda por una razn. +Contienen ingentes cantidades de datos que nuestros cerebros decodifican como nadie. +Aqu, permtanme presentarles a Sam Haber. +l es monociclista. +Antes de YouTube no haba forma de que l descubra el verdadero potencial de su deporte porque no se puede comunicar estas cosas con palabras, verdad? +Pero al mirar los video clips posteados por otros se le abri un mundo de posibilidades. +De repente, empieza a imitar y luego a innovar. +Y se forma una comunidad online de monociclistas; se auto-infunden grandeza. +Y hay miles de otros ejemplos como estos... de evolucin de habilidades a travs del video, que van desde lo fsico a lo artstico. +Y debo decirles, como ex-editor de revistas de aficionados, me parece curiosamente bello. +Es decir, hay mucha pasin aqu, en esta pantalla. +Pero si las mquinas de Rube Goldberg y la poesa del video no son muy de su agrado, qu tal esto? +Jove es un sitio web fundado para alentar a los cientficos a publicar sus investigaciones revisadas en video. +Hay un problema con el artculo cientfico tradicional. +Le puede llevar meses a un cientfico de otro laboratorio encontrar la manera de replicar los experimentos que se describen en el artculo. +Este es uno de esos cientficos frustrados, Moshe Pritsker, el fundador de Jove. +Me dijo que el mundo est gastando miles de millones de dlares en esto. +Pero miren este video. +Es decir, miren, si pueden mostrar en vez de slo describir ese problema desaparece. +As que no es exagerado decir que, en algn momento, el video online acelerar enormemente el avance cientfico. +Aqu hay otro ejemplo que es muy cercano a TED, donde el video es a veces ms poderoso que la impresin: compartir una idea. +Por qu le gusta a la gente mirar las TEDTalks? +Todas esas ideas ya estn impresas, ah fuera. +En realidad es ms rpido leer que ver. +Por qu alguien se tomara la molestia? +Hay una componente visual adems del relato. +Pero incluso dejando de lado la pantalla, es mucho ms que slo palabras lo que se est transmitiendo. +Y en esa parte no verbal hay algo de magia. +En algn lugar oculto en los gestos fsicos, la cadencia de la voz, las expresiones faciales, el contacto visual, la pasin, el estilo poco delicado del lenguaje corporal britnico, la forma en que reacciona el pblico, hay cientos de indicios subconscientes que contribuyen a la comprensin y marcan si es que inspirar luz, si se quiere, y deseo. +Increblemente, todo esto se puede comunicar en slo unos pocos centmetros cuadrados de pantalla. +En realidad, la lectura y la escritura son invenciones relativamente recientes. +La comunicacin cara a cara ha sido perfeccionada por millones de aos de evolucin. +Es eso lo que la volvi misteriosa y poderosa, tal cual es. +Cuando alguien habla hay resonancia en todos estos cerebros receptores, todo el grupo acta en conjunto. +Este es el tejido conectivo del superorganismo humano en accin. +Probablemente, ha impulsado nuestra cultura por milenios. +Hace 500 aos se encontr con un competidor con una ventaja letal. +Est aqu. +La impresin a escala. +Influyentes e innovadores ambiciosos del mundo ahora podan difundir sus ideas por todas partes y, de esta forma, el arte de la palabra hablada qued bastante abandonado. +Pero ahora, en un abrir y cerrar de ojos, el juego ha cambiado nuevamente. +No es exagerado decir que Gutenberg hizo por la escritura lo que el video online hace ahora por la comunicacin cara a cara. +Que ese medio primordial, para el que el cerebro est maravillosamente preparado, +se ha vuelto global. +Esto es grandioso. +Quizs haya que reinventar una antigua forma de arte. +Es decir, una persona hablando hoy puede ser vista por millones, arrojando mucha luz sobre ideas potenciales, creando intenso deseo de aprender y responder... y en su caso, intenso deseo de rer. +Por primera vez en la historia de la humanidad, estudiantes talentosos no tienen que ver su potencial y sueos eliminados de la historia por malos maestros. +Ellos pueden sentarse a medio metro de los mejores del mundo. +TED es una parte pequea de todo esto. +Las universidades del mundo estn abriendo sus planes de estudio. +Miles de individuos y organizaciones estn compartiendo online sus datos y conocimientos. +Miles de personas estn pensando nuevas formas de aprender y, sobre todo, responder, completando el ciclo. +Y as, como hemos pensado en esto, nosotros tenemos claro cmo tiene que ser la prxima etapa de la evolucin de TED. +Las TEDTalks no pueden ser un proceso unidireccional, de uno a muchos. +Nuestro futuro es de muchos a muchos. +Por eso estamos imaginando formas que les facilite a Uds, la comunidad global de TED, responder a los oradores, contribuir con sus ideas, incluso quizs con sus propias TEDTalks, y ayudar a arrojar luz sobre lo mejor que hay. +Porque si podemos hacer surgir lo mejor de un grupo mucho ms grande, esta rueda gira. +Es posible imaginar un proceso similar a este, en la educacin mundial en general? +Quiero decir, tiene que ser este proceso doloroso, de arriba hacia abajo? +Por qu no un ciclo auto-abastecido donde todos podamos participar? +Es la era de la participacin, verdad? +Las escuelas no pueden ser silos. +No podemos dejar de aprender a los 21 aos. +Y si, en la prxima multitud de 9 mil millones... +Y si esa multitud puede aprender lo suficiente como para ser contribuyentes netos, en lugar de saqueadores netos? +Eso cambia todo, no? +Eso requerira ms maestros de los que jams hemos tenido. +Pero la buena noticia es que ellos ya estn. +Estn en la multitud y la multitud est encendiendo las luces, y, por primera vez, los podemos ver no como una masa indiferenciada de extraos, sino como individuos de quienes podemos aprender. +Quin es el maestro? +T eres el maestro. +Eres parte de la multitud que puede estar a punto de lanzar el mayor ciclo de aprendizaje en la historia de la humanidad, un ciclo capaz de llevarnos a todos a un lugar ms inteligente, sabio y hermoso. +Aqu hay un grupo de nios en una aldea de Pakistn, cerca de donde crec. +En 5 aos cada uno de estos nios va a tener acceso a un telfono mvil con capacidad para ver videos web y de subir videos a la web. +Es una locura pensar que esta chica, atrs, a la derecha, en 15 aos pueda estar compartiendo para tus nietos la idea que mantenga hermoso al mundo? +No es una locura, en realidad ahora mismo est pasando. +Les quiero presentar un buen amigo de TED quien vive en el barrio marginal ms grande de frica. +Chrstopher Makau: Hola, mi nombre es Christopher Makau. +Soy uno de los organizadores de TEDxKibera. +Hay tantas cosas buenas que estn sucediendo aqu mismo, en Kibera. +Hay un grupo de autoayuda. +Convirtieron un basural en un jardn. +El mismo lugar era un lugar del crimen donde a la gente le robaban. +Usaron la misma basura para hacer abono verde. +El mismo basural est alimentando a ms de 30 familias. +Tenemos nuestra propia escuela de cine. +Estn usando cmaras Flip para grabar, editar, e informar a su propio canal: Kibera TV. +Debido a la escasez de tierras, estamos utilizando bolsas para cultivar hortalizas y tambin podemos ahorrar en el costo de vida. +El cambio sucede cuando vemos las cosas de una manera diferente. +Hoy en da veo a Kibera de una manera diferente. +Mi mensaje para TEDGlobal y para todo el mundo es: Kibera es un semillero de innovacin e ideas. +CA: Saben qu? +Apuesto a que Chris ha sido siempre un hombre inspirador. +Lo que es nuevo, y es enorme, es que, por primera vez, lo podemos ver y l nos puede ver a nosotros. +Ahora mismo, Chris y Kevin y Dennis y Dickson y sus amigos nos estn mirando en Nairobi, en este momento. +Chicos, hoy hemos aprendido de Uds. +Gracias. +Y gracias. +Empecemos por el da y la noche. +La Vida evolucion en condiciones de luz y oscuridad; luz y luego oscuridad. +Luego las plantas y los animales desarrollaron sus propios relojes internos para ajustarse a estos cambios de iluminacin. +Son relojes qumicos y estn en todos los seres conocidos que tienen 2 o ms clulas y en algunos unicelulares. +Har esto durante semanas hasta que, poco a poco, pierda el hilo. +Es increble de ver pero no sucede nada psquico o paranormal; simplemente estos cangrejos tienen ciclos internos que se condicen, por lo general, con lo que sucede a su alrededor. +Nosotros tambin tenemos esa capacidad. +En los humanos lo llamamos reloj corporal. +Esto puede verse ms claramente sacndole a alguien el reloj y encerrndolo en un bunker, bajo tierra, durante un par de meses. Las personas se ofrecen para esto y por lo general salen desvariando sobre su productividad en el agujero. +As, sin importar lo atpico de la situacin todos muestran lo mismo. +Se levantan un poquito ms tarde todos los das, unos 15 minutos, y se desvan de su ciclo biolgico durante semanas. +De esta manera, sabemos que se guan por sus relojes internos, en lugar de experimentar el da exterior. +Bien, tenemos un reloj corporal y resulta que es sumamente importante en nuestras vidas. +Es un gran motor de la cultura, y creo que es la fuerza ms subestimada del comportamiento. +Evolucionamos como especie cerca del Ecuador, por eso estamos bien equipados para hacer frente a 12 horas de luz y 12 horas de oscuridad. +Pero, claro, nos hemos esparcido por todo el planeta y en el rtico canadiense, donde vivo, tenemos luz perpetua en verano y 24 horas de oscuridad en invierno. +As que la cultura, la cultura aborigen del norte, tradicionalmente ha sido muy estacional. +En invierno se duerme mucho. Uno disfruta, adentro, de la vida en familia. +Y en verano hay gran cacera y actividad laboral durante muchas horas algo muy activo. +Cmo sera nuestro ritmo natural? +Cules seran los patrones de sueo en un sentido ideal? +Bueno, resulta que cuando las personas viven sin luz artificial de ningn tipo, duermen el doble por la noche. +Se van a dormir cerca de las 20 hs +hasta la medianoche y luego duermen otra vez desde las 2 hasta el amanecer. +Y, entre medio, tienen un par de horas de tranquila meditacin en la cama. +Y durante este tiempo hay un aumento de la prolactina, algo que no vemos hoy en da. +La gente en estos estudios informa que se siente tan despierta durante el da que se da cuenta que vivieron una vigilia verdadera por primera vez en su vida. +De vuelta a la actualidad. +Vivimos en la cultura del "jet lag", de viajes por el mundo, de negocios las 24 horas, del trabajo por turnos. +Nuestras formas modernas de hacer las cosas tienen sus ventajas pero creo que deberamos entender los costos. +Gracias. +Durante los ltimos 10 aos he tratado de dar con la forma y la razn por la que los seres humanos se congregan en redes sociales. +Y el tipo de red social de la que hablo no es la reciente variedad virtual sino ms bien del tipo de redes sociales en las que los humanos nos hemos congregado durante cientos y miles de aos desde que aparecimos en la sabana africana. +As, entablo amistades y relaciones laborales, y relaciones fraternales y de parentesco con otra gente, quienes a su vez tienen relaciones con otras personas. +Y esto se extiende indefinidamente en la distancia. +Y se tiene una red que se parece a esto. +Cada punto es una persona. +Cada lnea entre puntos es una relacin entre dos personas... distintos tipos de relaciones. +As se obtiene esta suerte de tejido de humanidad en el que todos estamos inmersos. +Con mi colega James Fowler hemos estado estudiando durante bastante tiempo las reglas matemticas, sociales, biolgicas y psicolgicas que gobiernan la forma de ensamblaje de estas redes y las reglas similares que gobiernan la forma en que operan, en que afectan nuestras vidas. +Y hace poco nos preguntbamos si sera posible sacar ventaja de este conocimiento para encontrar maneras de mejorar el mundo, de hacer algo mejor, para solucionar las cosas y no slo para entenderlas. +Uno de los primeros temas que pensamos abordar era la forma de predecir epidemias. +Y la tcnica actual para predecir epidemias -en el CDC o algn otro organismo nacional- es sentarse en el lugar que uno est y recolectar datos de mdicos y laboratorios en el terreno que informen de la prevalencia o la incidencia de ciertas condiciones. +Pacientes as, as y as han sido diagnosticados [por aqu] u otros pacientes lo han sido [por all] y todos estos datos van a un repositorio central con cierta demora. +Y si todo va bien, en una o dos semanas, uno sabr en qu estado estaba hoy la epidemia. +En realidad hace cosa de un ao se hizo conocida esta nocin de tendencia gripal en Google, en relacin a la gripe, segn la cual mirando el comportamiento de bsqueda hoy podamos saber de la gripe... el estado actual de la epidemia, la prevalecencia actual de la epidemia. +Pero lo que hoy quiero mostrarles es un medio por el cual podramos tener no slo alertas rpidas de una epidemia sino tambin deteccin temprana de la misma. +Y, de hecho, esta idea puede usarse no slo para predecir epidemias de grmenes sino tambin para predecir epidemias de todo tipo. +Una especie de difusin de la innovacin podra ser entendida y predicha con el mecanismo que ahora voy a mostrarles. +As, como todos probablemente saben, la manera clsica de pensar en esto es la "difusin de la innovacin" o "curva de adopcin". +Aqu en el eje Y tenemos el porcentaje de personas afectadas y en el eje X tenemos el tiempo. +Al principio no hay demasiadas personas afectadas, y se tiene esta curva sigmoidea clsica o curva en forma de S. +La razn de esta forma es que muy al principio digamos que una o dos personas estn afectadas o infectadas y luego ellos afectan, o infectan, a dos personas que a su vez afectan a 4, 8, 16, etc., y se obtiene la fase de crecimiento de la epidemia en la curva. +Y, finalmente, se satura la poblacin. +Hay cada vez menos personas que todava pueden ser infectadas y entonces se tiene la meseta de la curva, y se obtiene esta curva sigmoidea clsica. +Y esto vale para grmenes, ideas, adopcin de productos, comportamientos y similares. +Pero las cosas no se difunden aleatoriamente en las poblaciones humanas. +Se difunden en redes. +Porque, como dije, vivimos nuestras vidas en redes y estas redes tienen un tipo particular de estructura. +Ahora, si vemos una red como sta... sta tiene 105 personas. +Y las lneas representan... los puntos son las personas y las lneas las relaciones de amistad. +Puede verse que las personas ocupan distintas ubicaciones en la red. +Y hay distintos tipos de relaciones entre las personas. +Pueden darse relaciones de amistad, relaciones fraternales, relaciones maritales, relaciones laborales, relaciones vecinales, etc. +Y distintos tipos de cosas se difunden por diferentes tipos de lazos. +Por ejemplo, las enfermedades de transmisin sexual se esparcirn por los vnculos sexuales. +O, por ejemplo, el hbito de fumar podra ser influencia de los amigos. +O el altruismo y las donaciones caritativas podran estar influenciados por los compaeros de trabajo, o por los vecinos. +Pero no todas las ubicaciones de la red son iguales. +As, si miran esto van a captar de inmediato que diferentes personas tienen distinta cantidad de conexiones. +Algunas personas tienen 1 conexin, algunas tienen 2, algunas tienen 6, algunas tienen 10. +Y esto se llama el "grado" de un nodo o la cantidad de conexiones que tiene un nodo. +Pero hay algo ms. +Si uno mira los nodos A y B, ambos tienen 6 conexiones. +Pero si uno mira esta imagen [de la red] a vista de pjaro, puede apreciar que hay algo muy diferente entre los nodos A y B. +Djenme preguntarles esto, puedo fomentar esta intuicin haciendo una pregunta: Quin les gustara ser si un germen se esparciera por la red, A o B? +(Audiencia: B) Nicholas Christakis: B, obviamente. +B est ubicado al borde de la red. +Ahora, quin les gustara ser si se propagara por la red un chisme jugoso? +A. Y uno tiene una apreciacin inmediata de que va a ser ms probable que A d primero con lo que se est propagando en virtud de su ubicacin estructural dentro de la red. +A, de hecho, es ms central y esto se puede formalizar matemticamente. +As, si los viramos contraer un germen o una informacin uno sabra, muy pronto, que todos estn por contraer el germen o por enterarse de esa informacin. +Y esto sera mucho mejor que monitorear a 6 personas elegidas al azar sin hacer referencia a la estructura de la poblacin. +Y, de hecho, si uno pudiera hacer eso lo que vera sera algo como esto. +De nuevo, en el panel de la izquierda tenemos la curva de adopcin en forma de S. +En la lnea roja punteada mostramos cmo sera la adopcin en las personas elegidas al azar y en la lnea de la izquierda, desplazada a la izquierda, mostramos cmo sera la adopcin en los individuos del centro de la red. +En el eje Y estn las instancias acumulativas de contagio y en el eje X est el tiempo. +Y a la derecha, mostramos los mismos datos, pero aqu con incidencia diaria. +Y lo que aqu mostramos, como en este caso, es que hay pocas personas afectadas, cada vez ms y ms hasta llegar aqu, y aqu es el pico de la epidemia. +Pero desplazado a la izquierda se ve lo que ocurre +con los individuos del centro. Y esta diferencia en tiempo entre los dos es la deteccin temprana, la alerta temprana que se dispara sobre una epidemia inminente en la poblacin humana. +El problema, sin embargo, es que el mapeo de redes sociales humanas no siempre es posible. +Puede que sea caro, [muy difcil], antitico, o, francamente, imposible de realizar. +Entonces: cmo podemos averiguar cules son las personas centrales de una red sin, de hecho, mapear la red? +Y surgi la idea de explotar un hecho muy antiguo o un hecho conocido de las redes sociales que dice as: sabas que tus amigos tienen ms amigos que t? +Tus amigos tienen ms amigos que t. Y esto se conoce como la paradoja de la amistad. +Imaginen una persona muy popular en la red social -como un anfitrin de una fiesta con cientos de amigos- y un misntropo que tiene un solo amigo; si uno toma una persona al azar, es mucho ms probable que conozca al anfitrin. +Y si seala al anfitrin como amigo, ese anfitrin tiene cientos de amigos, por lo tanto tiene ms amigos que uno. +Y esto, en esencia, es lo que se conoce como la paradoja de la amistad. +Los amigos de las personas elegidas al azar tienen ms alto grado y estn ms al centro que la propia gente elegida al azar. +Y uno puede hacerse una idea intuitiva de esto si piensa en la gente del permetro de la red. +Si uno elige a esta persona el nico amigo que tendr para elegir es esta persona, quien, por construccin, debe tener al menos dos o, normalmente, ms amigos. +Y eso sucede en cada nodo perifrico. +De hecho, sucede en toda la red conforme uno se desplaza, cualquiera que elijamos, cuando nomine alguien al azar... cuando una persona al azar nomina a un amigo uno se mueve ms cerca del centro de la red. +As, pensamos en explotar esta idea para estudiar si podamos predecir fenmenos dentro de las redes. +Porque ahora, con esta idea, podemos tomar una muestra aleatoria de gente, hacer que elijan a sus amigos, y esos amigos estarn ms al centro, y podramos hacer eso sin tener que mapear la red. +Hemos probado esta idea con un brote de la gripe H1N1 en la universidad de Harvard en el otoo y el invierno de 2009, hace apenas unos meses. +Tomamos 1.300 estudiantes seleccionados al azar, hicimos que elijan a sus amigos y seguimos a los estudiantes elegidos al azar y a sus amigos diariamente para ver si tenan o no la epidemia de gripe. +Y lo hicimos pasivamente observando si haban ido a los servicios de salud universitarios. +Les pedimos tambin que nos enven un correo un par de veces por semana. +Y sucedi exactamente lo que predijimos. +El grupo aleatorio est en la lnea roja. +La epidemia en el grupo de amigos se desplaz a la izquierda, por aqu. +Y la diferencia entre los dos es de 16 das. +Monitoreando el grupo de amigos pudimos tener una alerta 16 das antes de una epidemia inminente en esta poblacin humana. +Ahora, adems de eso, si uno fuese un analista que trata de estudiar una epidemia o de predecir la adopcin de un producto, por ejemplo, lo que podra hacer es tomar una muestra aleatoria de la poblacin, pedirle que elijan a sus amigos y seguir a los amigos, y seguir tanto a los aleatorios como a los amigos. +Entre los amigos, la primera evidencia de un salto sobre cero en la adopcin de innovacin, por ejemplo, sera la evidencia de una epidemia inminente. +O uno podra ver la primera vez que divergen las dos curvas, como se muestra a la izquierda. +Cundo los aleatorios... cundo despegaron los amigos y dejaron a los aleatorios y su curva empez a desplazarse? +Y eso, como indica la lnea blanca, se produjo 46 das antes del pico de la epidemia. +As que esta sera una tcnica mediante la cual se podra alertar ms de un mes y medio antes la epidemia de gripe en una poblacin en particular. +Debo decir que la antelacin con la que puede conocerse una noticia depende de una serie de factores. +Podra depender de la naturaleza del patgeno, distintos patgenos, usando esta tcnica, se obtienen distintas alertas, u otros fenmenos que se estn extendiendo o, francamente, de la estructura de la red humana. +En nuestro caso, aunque no era necesario, pudimos, de hecho, mapear la red de estudiantes. +Este es un mapeo de 714 estudiantes y sus vnculos de amistad. +Y en un minuto voy a poner este mapeo en movimiento. +Vamos a tomar cortes diarios de la red durante 120 das. +Los puntos rojos van a ser casos de gripe y los puntos amarillos van a ser amigos de las personas con gripe. +Y el tamao de los puntos va a ser proporcional a la cantidad de amigos con gripe. +As, puntos ms grandes significan ms amigos con gripe. +Y si miran esta imagen, aqu estamos en el 13 de septiembre, van a ver algunos casos iluminados. +Van a ver una especie de florecimiento de la gripe en el medio. +Aqu estamos el 19 de octubre. La pendiente de la curva +de la epidemia se est acercando ahora, en noviembre. +Bang, bang, bang, bang, van a ver un gran florecimiento en el medio, y luego van a ver una especie de nivelacin, cada vez menos casos hasta fines de diciembre. +Y este tipo de visualizacin puede mostrar que las epidemias como stas echan races y afectan primero a los individuos del centro antes de afectar a otros. +Ahora, como he estado sugiriendo, este mtodo no se limita a los grmenes, sino, en realidad, a cualquier cosa que se propague en la poblacin. +La informacin se propaga en la poblacin. Las normas se propagan en la poblacin. Los comportamientos pueden propagarse en la poblacin. +Y comportamiento puede significar comportamiento criminal o electoral, o del cuidado de la salud como el tabaco o las vacunas, o la adopcin de productos u otro tipo de comportamiento relacionado con la influencia interpersonal. +Si soy capaz de hacer algo que afecta a los dems a mi alrededor, esta tcnica puede proporcionar una alerta o deteccin temprana sobre la adopcin en la poblacin. +La clave es que, para que funcione, tiene que haber influencia interpersonal. +No puede deberse a un mecanismo de difusin que afecte a todos por igual. +Ahora, los mismos conocimientos de las redes pueden ser explotados tambin de otras maneras por ejemplo, para seleccionar personas especficas para intervenciones. +Muchos de Uds. estn familiarizados probablemente con la nocin de inmunidad de grupo. +As, si tenemos una poblacin de mil personas y queremos hacer que la poblacin sea inmune a un patgeno no tenemos que inmunizar a todos. +Si inmunizamos a 960 de ellos es como si hubiramos inmunizado al 100% de ellos. +Porque incluso si una o dos de las personas no inmunes se infectan, no hay nadie a quien puedan infectar. +Estn rodeados de personas inmunizadas. +As que el 96% es tan bueno como el 100%. +Bueno, algunos cientficos han estimado qu pasara si se toma una muestra aleatoria del 30% y de estas 1.000 personas se inmuniza a 300. +Se obtendra alguna inmunidad a nivel poblacional? +Y la respuesta es no. +Y pueden usarse ideas similares, por ejemplo, para enfocar la distribucion de cosas como mosquiteros en el mundo en desarrollo. +Si pudisemos identificar la estructura de las redes en los pueblos podramos elegir a quin darle las intervenciones para fomentar este tipo de propagacin. +O bien, francamente, para publicitar todo tipo de productos. +Si pudiramos entender cmo seleccionar, eso podra afectar la eficiencia de lo que estamos tratando de lograr. +Y, de hecho, podemos usar datos de todo tipo de fuentes hoy en da [para hacerlo]. +Este es un mapeo de 8 millones de usuarios de telfono en un pas europeo. +Cada punto es una persona, y cada lnea representa un volumen de llamadas entre personas. +Y podemos usar estos datos obtenidos de manera pasiva para mapear estos pases enteros y comprender dnde se ubica cada quien en la red. +Sin tener que interrogarlos en absoluto podemos obtener este tipo de conocimiento estructural. +Y otras fuentes de informacin, que Uds. sin duda conocen, estn disponibles a partir de las interacciones de correo electrnico, interacciones en lnea, redes sociales virtuales, etc. +Y, de hecho, estamos en la era de lo que llamara esfuerzos de recoleccin de datos "masivo-pasivos". +Hay todo tipo de maneras de recolectar datos en forma masiva para crear redes de sensores para seguir a la poblacin y comprender lo que sucede en la poblacin e intervenir en la poblacin para mejor. +Porque estas nuevas tecnologas nos dicen no slo quin habla con quin sino dnde est cada uno y lo que estn pensando en base a lo que estn subiendo a internet, y lo que estn consumiendo en base a sus compras. +Y todos estos datos administrativos pueden juntarse y ser procesados para comprender el comportamiento humano en modos nunca antes posibles. +Por ejemplo: podramos usar las compras de combustible de transportistas. +Los transportistas hacen lo suyo y compran combustible. +Vemos una suba en la compra de combustible de los transportistas y sabemos que una recesin est por terminar. +O podemos analizar la velocidad a la que se mueve la gente con sus celulares en la autopista y la compaa telefnica puede ver, conforme la velocidad disminuye, que hay un atasco de trfico. +Y se puede enviar esa informacin a los clientes, pero slo a los clientes que estn en esa misma autopista ubicados detrs del atasco. +O podemos monitorear diagnsticos mdicos, de forma pasiva, y ver la difusin de innovacin en productos farmacuticos en las redes de mdicos. +O, de vuelta, podemos seguir los hbitos de compra de la gente y observar cmo estos tipos de fenmenos pueden difundirse en las poblaciones humanas. +Y creo que hay tres maneras en que pueden usarse estos datos masivo-pasivos. +Una es totalmente pasiva como acabo de describir. Por ejemplo, el caso de los transportistas en el que no se interviene en la poblacin de ningn modo. +Otro es casi activo, como el ejemplo que di de la gripe, en el que pedimos a la gente que elija a sus amigos, y luego controlamos pasivamente a sus amigos: tienen la gripe o no? Y luego la advertencia. +Y otro ejemplo sera si uno es una compaa telefnica, averigua quines son el centro de la red, y le pregunta a esa gente: "Podras mandarnos un sms +con tu temperatura todos los das? +Y uno junta ingentes cantidades de informacin de la temperatura de la gente pero de los individuos del centro. +Y se es capaz, a gran escala, de monitorear una epidemia inminente con una participacin mnima de la gente. +O podra ser algo completamente activo, s que los prximos oradores tambin hablarn de esto hoy, donde la gente participar globalmente en wikis o fotografiando, o siguiendo elecciones, y subiendo informacin de modo que pueda consolidarse para comprender los procesos sociales y los fenmenos sociales. +De hecho, la disponibilidad de estos datos, creo, anuncian una nueva era de lo que tanto yo como otros daramos en llamar "ciencias sociales de cmputo". +Es como cuando Galileo invent -o no invent- utiliz un telescopio y pudo ver el firmamento de otra manera; o cuando Leeuwenhoek conoci el microscopio -o en realidad lo invent- y pudo ver la biologa de manera nueva. +Pero ahora tenemos acceso a estos datos que nos permiten entender los procesos sociales y los fenmenos sociales de una forma totalmente nueva que nunca antes fue posible. +Y con esa ciencia podemos entender exactamente cmo el todo viene a ser ms grande que la suma de las partes. +Y, en realidad, podemos usar estos conocimientos para mejorar la sociedad y el bienestar del hombre. +Gracias. +Ya que estamos en TEDGlobal quin puede decirme cmo se llama esto en francs? +Veo que estn interesados en la historia del "hurdy-gurdy". "Vielle roue". +En espaol es "zanfona". +Y en italiano, "ghironda", s? +Es la zanfona, o "viola de rueda". +Las hay de diferentes clases y formas. +La zanfona es el nico instrumento musical que usa una manivela para girar una rueda que frota las cuerdas, como el arco de un violn, para producir msica. +Tiene tres tipos diferentes de cuerdas. +El primer tipo son los bordones que emiten un sonido continuo como el de las gaitas. +El segundo tipo son las cuerdas meldicas que se ejecutan con un teclado de madera afinado como un piano. +El tercer tipo es bastante innovador. +Es tambin el nico instrumento [actual] que usa esta tcnica. +Activa lo que se llama el puente de zumbido, o perro. +Cuando doy vuelta a la manivela y ejerzo presin hace un sonido como de ladrido de perro, s? +Todo esto es bastante innovador teniendo en cuenta que la zanfona apareci hace unos mil aos y se necesitaban dos personas para tocarla: una para girar la manivela y otra para ejecutar la meloda presionando unas grandes teclas de madera. +Por suerte, todo esto cambi un par de siglos ms tarde. +As, una persona realmente puede tocar y casi... esta es bastante pesada... portar la zanfona. +La zanfona se ha utilizado, histricamente, a travs de los siglos sobre todo en la msica de baile debido a la singularidad de su meloda combinada con este equipo acstico. +Y hoy, la zanfona se usa en todo tipo de msica: en la msica popular tradicional, la contempornea, en la danza y en la msica del mundo en el R.U., en Francia, en Espaa y en Italia. +Hacer este tipo de zanfona lleva de 3 a 5 aos. +La hacen luthieres especializados, tambin en Europa. +Y es muy difcil de afinar. +Entonces, sin ms prembulos, les gustara orla? +(Audiencia: S) Caroline Phillips: No los oigo. Les gustara orla? (Audiencia: S) CP: Bien. +Ah voy. +Bueno, me gustara cantar en vasco, que es el idioma del Pas Vasco, donde vivo, una regin de Francia y Espaa. +[canta Oihan, en vasco] Gracias. +Esta es una cancin que escrib basada en ritmos tradicionales vascos. +Y esta es una cancin que tiene un cierto toque celta. +Gracias. +Hola. Me gustara empezar mi charla con dos preguntas; la primera es: Cuntas personas aqu comen carne de cerdo? +Por favor, levanten la mano. Oh, son muchos! +Y cuntas personas han visto realmente un cerdo vivo productor de carne? +En el ltimo ao? +En los Pases Bajos, de donde provengo, uno nunca ve un cerdo; es algo extrao porque, en una poblacin de 16 millones de personas, tenemos 12 millones de cerdos. +Y, claro, los holandeses no podemos comer todos estos cerdos. +Se come cerca de 1/3, y el resto se exporta a toda Europa y al resto del mundo. +Mucho va para el R.U., Alemania. +Y lo que me daba curiosidad... porque antes el cerdo entero se usaba por completo... nada se desperdiciaba... tena curiosidad por saber si esto segua siendo as. +Me llev cerca de 3 aos de investigacin. +Segu a este cerdo con el nmero "05049" toda la cadena hasta el final, hasta los productos elaborados. +Y en estos aos conoc a todo tipo de gente como, por ejemplo, granjeros y carniceros, algo que suena lgico. +Pero tambin a fabricantes de moldes de aluminio, productores de municiones y todo tipo de gente. +Y lo sorprendente para m es que los granjeros no tenan ni idea de lo que hicieron con sus cerdos y los consumidores, como nosotros, tampoco tenan idea de que los cerdos estaban en todos estos productos. +Entonces lo que hice... reun toda esta investigacin... hice bsicamente un catlogo de productos de este cerdo y puse un duplicado de su etiqueta de seguimiento en el lomo del libro. +Consta de siete captulos. A saber: la piel, los huesos, la carne, los rganos internos, la sangre, la grasa y otros. +En total pesaba 103,7 kilogramos. +Y para mostrarles cun a menudo uno encuentra partes de cerdo en un da normal quiero mostrarles algunas imgenes del libro. +Probablemente comienzan el da con una ducha. +As, en el jabn, los cidos grasos, hechos de grasa de hueso porcina en ebullicin, se usan como agente endurecedor, pero tambin para darle un efecto perlado. +Y si miran a su alrededor en el bao ven muchos productos como champ, acondicionador, crema antiarrugas, locin corporal, y tambin pasta de dientes. +As que antes del desayuno ya encontramos al cerdo muchas veces. +Luego en el desayuno sigue el cerdo: el pelo de cerdo, o las protenas del pelo de cerdo, se usan como mejorador de masa. +Bueno, eso es lo que dice el productor: la "mejora". Pero, claro, +la manteca baja en grasa, o muchos productos bajos en grasa, cuando uno les quita la grasa, en realidad le quita el gusto y la textura. +Por eso lo que se hace es ponerle gelatina a fin de conservar la textura. +Cuando uno sale a trabajar, en la calle o en los edificios que ve, muy bien podra haber hormign celular, un tipo de hormign muy liviano que en el interior tiene protena de los huesos y es totalmente reutilizable. +En los frenos de tren, al menos en los frenos alemanes, hay una parte del freno hecha de ceniza de hueso. +Y en el pastel de queso y todo tipo de postres, como mousse de chocolate, tiramis, flan de vainilla, todo lo que se vende frio en el supermercado, tiene gelatina para que se vea bien. +La porcelana fina de hueso: este es un verdadero clsico. +Por supuesto, el hueso en la porcelana le da la translucidez y tambin la fuerza a fin de crear formas magnficas como la de este venado. +En decoracin de interiores el cerdo est bastante presente. +Se usa en pintura para dar textura, pero tambin para dar brillo. +En el papel de lija, el pegamento de hueso es lo que une a la arena y el papel. +Y luego, en los pinceles, las cerdas se utilizan porque, al parecer, son muy convenientes para hacer pinceles debido a su naturaleza resistente. +No pensaba mostrarles la carne porque, claro, la mitad del libro tiene carne y probablemente todos conocemos qu es la carne. +Pero no quiero que se pierdan esto; se llaman "cortes de carne de porcin controlada". +y, en realidad, se vende en el rea de congelados del supermercado. +Y en realidad es carne. +Y esto tambin sucede con el atn y las vieiras. +Y con la carne es posible que uno beba una cerveza. +En la elaboracin de cerveza hay muchos elementos que la enturbian y para deshacerse de estos elementos algunas compaas vierten la cerveza a travs de un tamiz de gelatina para deshacerse de esa turbiedad. +De hecho, esto tambin va para el vino y los jugos de frutas. +Hay una empresa en Grecia que produce estos cigarrillos que contienen hemoglobina de cerdo en el filtro. +Y, segn ellos, esto crea un pulmn artificial en el filtro. +Y por eso este es un cigarrillo saludable. +Colgeno inyectable... o, desde los aos 70, el colgeno de cerdo se ha usado para inyectar en las arrugas. +Y la razn es que los cerdos son muy cercanos a los seres humanos y el colgeno tambin lo es. +Bueno, esto debe ser lo ms extrao que he encontrado. +Es una bala de una compaa de municiones de EE.UU. +Y mientras escriba el libro me puse en contacto con todos los productores porque quera que me enven muestras reales y ejemplares reales. +Mand un correo electrnico a esta empresa diciendo: "Hola, soy Christien; estoy investigando esto. +Podran mandarme una bala?" +No esperaba siquiera que contestaran mi correo. +Pero lo hicieron y me decan: "Por qu? Gracias por su correo. Qu historia interesante. +Est relacionada de alguna manera con el gobierno holands?" +Pens que era algo muy raro como si el gobierno holands mandara correos a alguien. +Lo ms hermoso que encontr, al menos creo que lo ms hermoso del libro es la vlvula de corazn. +Es un producto de muy baja tecnologa y de muy alta tecnologa al mismo tiempo. +La parte de baja tecnologa es que es una vlvula de cerdo montada en la alta tecnologa de una carcasa de metal con memoria. +Y esto puede ser implantado en un corazn humano, sin ciruga a corazn abierto. +Y una vez que est en el lugar adecuado, quitan la cscara externa, y la vlvula cardaca adquiere esta forma, y en ese momento comienza a latir de forma instantnea. +Es como un momento mgico. +Esta es una empresa holandesa. Los llam y les pregunt: "Me prestan una vlvula cardaca?" +Los fabricantes estaban muy entusiasmados. +Me dijeron: "Bueno, vamos a ponerlo en un frasco con formol y puede llevarlo en prstamo". +Genial. Luego no supe de ellos durante semanas, as que llam y les pregunt: "Qu est pasando con la vlvula cardaca? +Y me dijeron: "Bueno, el director de la empresa decidi no permitir que le prestemos esta vlvula porque no quera que su producto sea asociado con los cerdos". +Bueno, el ltimo producto del libro que estoy mostrando es la energa renovable; en realidad, para mostrar que mi primera pregunta, de si los cerdos se usan por completo, todava era verdad. +Bueno, lo es, porque todo lo que no se puede usar para otra cosa se convierte en un combustible que puede usarse como fuente de energa renovable. +En total encontr 185 productos. +Y lo que esto me mostr en primer lugar, es algo cuanto menos extrao: que no tratemos a los cerdos como reyes y reinas absolutos. +En segundo lugar: que en realidad no tenemos ni idea de los componentes de los productos que nos rodean. +Y van a pensar que me gustan mucho los cerdos pero en realidad, bueno, me gustan un poco, pero soy ms aficionada a las materias primas en general. +Y creo que, a fin de prestar ms atencin a lo que subyace a los productos: el ganado, los cultivos, las plantas, los materiales no renovables, pero tambin a las personas que producen estos productos, en realidad el primer paso sera saber que estn ah. +Muchas gracias. +Hace unos minutos tom esta fotografa como a 10 cuadras de aqu. +Es el Grand Caf aqu en Oxford. +La tom porque resulta que fue el primer caf de Inglaterra; es de 1650. +Los cafs jugaron un rol muy importante en el inicio de la Ilustracin, en parte por lo que la gente beba all. +Porque antes de la expansin del caf y el t en la cultura inglesa, lo que la gente beba, la elite y el comn, da a da desde el amanecer hasta el anochecer era alcohol. +El alcohol era la bebida diaria por eleccin. +Se beba un poco de cerveza en el desayuno y un poco de vino en el almuerzo, un poco de ginebra, particularmente alrededor de 1650, al final del da, adems de un poco de cerveza y vino. +Esa era la opcin saludable porque el agua no era apta para beber. +Y as fue hasta que surgieron los cafs. Toda una poblacin estaba embriagada todo el da. +Imaginen cmo sera en sus propias vidas; s que esto puede estar pasndole a algunos de Uds. Si bebieran todo el da y pasaran de una vida depresiva a una ms estimulante, tendran mejores ideas. +Estaran ms atentos y alertas. +No fue por accidente que sucedi este florecimiento de innovacin cuando Inglaterra cambi por el caf y el t. +Lo otro que hizo que los cafs fueran importantes, es la arquitectura del espacio. +Fue un lugar donde las personas de diferentes procedencias, diferentes campos de experiencia se reunan a compartir. +Fue un espacio, como dice Matt Ridley, donde las ideas podan tener sexo. +De alguna forma, era la cama conyugal. Las ideas se reunan aqu. +Y asombrosamente muchas innovaciones de ese periodo tienen un caf en alguna parte de sus historias. +He pasado mucho tiempo pensando en los cafs durante los ltimos 5 aos, porque he estado en esta bsqueda investigando de dnde provienen las buenas ideas. +Cul es el entorno que propicia niveles inusuales de innovacin, niveles inusuales de creatividad? +Cul es el tipo de ambiente, cul el espacio de creatividad? +Existen patrones recurrentes de los que podamos aprender, que podamos tomar y casi que aplicarlos a nuestras vidas, o en nuestras organizaciones, o en nuestro medioambiente para hacerlas ms creativos e innovadores? +Y creo que he encontrado algunos. +Pero para que esto tenga sentido y poder entender los principios, tienen que hacer a un lado las metforas y el lenguaje convencional y dirigirse hacia ciertos conceptos de idea-creacin. +Tenemos un vocabulario rico para describir momentos de inspiracin. +Tenemos momentos de entendimiento, golpes de suerte, revelaciones, momentos "eureka!", momentos en los que nos iluminamos, s? +Todos estos conceptos, tan retricos como son, comparten la misma suposicin bsica de que una idea es una cosa aislada, algo que sucede a menudo en un momento de iluminacin. +Pero, de hecho, voy argumentar que tenemos que empezar con el concepto de que una idea es una red en el nivel ms elemental. +Quiero decir, esto es lo que sucede en el cerebro. +Una idea, una idea nueva, es una red de neuronas nuevas movindose en sincrona unas con otras dentro del cerebro. +Es una configuracin nueva que no se haba formado antes. +Y la pregunta es: Cmo se mete el cerebro en ambientes donde este tipo de redes son propensas a formarse? +De hecho, resulta que los patrones de redes del mundo exterior son similares a muchos patrones de redes del mundo interior del cerebro humano. +As que la metfora que me gusta, la puedo tomar de la historia de una gran idea, que es ms bien reciente; mucho ms reciente que las de 1650. +Un hombre maravilloso llamado Timothy Prestero tena una compaa llamada Design that Matters (Diseo que Cuenta). +En la compaa decidieron abordar el problema urgente de los ndices de mortalidad infantil en los pases en desarrollo. +Una de las cosas frustrantes de esto es que sabemos que consiguiendo incubadoras neonatales modernas en cualquier contexto, si mantenemos los bebs prematuros calentitos, es muy sencillo, podemos disminuir a la mitad los ndices de mortalidad. +As que la tecnologa est. +Esto es comn en todos los pases industrializados. +As uno termina gastando dinero para conseguir ayuda y electrnica de avanzada para esos pases, y finalmente termina siendo inservible. +Prestero y su equipo decidieron observar alrededor y ver cules eran los recursos abundantes en estos pases en desarrollo. +Notaron que no tenan muchos aparatos de video, no tenan microondas, pero pareca que hacan un muy buen trabajo manteniendo sus coches en funcionamiento. +Existe el Toyota Forerunner en las calles de estos lugares. +Parece ser que tienen la experiencia para mantener los coches funcionando. +As que comenzaron a pensar: "Podramos construir una incubadora neonatal con las partes de un coche?" +Y este fue el resultado. +Se llama NeoNurture. +Desde afuera se ve como algo normal que uno encuentra en un hospital moderno. +Por dentro, son todas partes de coches. +Tiene ventilador, tiene luces para calentar, tiene alarmas en sus puertas. Funciona con batera de coche. +Lo nico que se necesita son repuestos de Toyota y la habilidad para componer una lmpara de luz, para componer esta cosa. +Es una idea fabulosa, es una gran metfora de cmo suceden las ideas. +Nos gusta pensar que nuestras grandiosas ideas son como esa incubadora de $ 40.000, totalmente nueva, lo ltimo en tecnologa, pero usualmente son un conjunto de partes que siempre estuvieron all. +Tomamos ideas de otras personas, de personas de las cuales hemos aprendido, que nos encontramos en los cafs, las entretejemos en nuevas formas y creamos algo nuevo. +All es cuando sucede realmente la innovacin. +Y eso significa que tenemos que cambiar algunos modelos de cmo luce la innovacin y el pensamiento profundo, s? +Quiero decir, esta es una manera de verlo. +Otra es Newton y la manzana, cuando Newton estaba en Cambridge. +Esta es una estatua en Oxford. +Est all sentado pensando profundamente, la manzana se cae del rbol y, de repente, surge la teora de la gravedad. +De hecho, los espacios que histricamente han llevado a la innovacin se parecen a esto, verdad? +Esta es la famosa pintura de Hogarth de una cena poltica en una taberna; as se vean los cafs en esa poca. +Este es el ambiente catico que propiciaba la conjuncin de ideas donde las personas estaban predispuestas a confluencias nuevas, interesantes e impredecibles; personas de distintas procedencias. +As, si estamos intentando crear organizaciones ms innovadoras debemos crear espacios que, suena extrao, se parezcan a esto. +As debera verse una oficina, es parte de mi mensaje. +Uno de los problemas con esto es que las personas, cuando uno investiga este campo, las personas son notoriamente inconsistentes, cuando tratan de informar de dnde obtuvieron sus buenas ideas, o la historia de sus mejores ideas. +Hace unos aos un gran investigador llamado Kevin Dunbar decidi salir a ver y adoptar un enfoque del tipo Gran Hermano para descubrir de dnde provenan las buenas ideas. +Visit muchos laboratorios cientficos de todo el mundo y grab a cada uno mientras hacan cada cosa en su trabajo. +Grab cuando se sentaban en frente del microscopio, cuando hablaban con sus colegas cerca del surtidor de agua y todas esas cosas. +Grab todas esas conversaciones y trat de adivinar de dnde provenan las ideas ms importantes; dnde sucedieron. +Y cuando pensamos en la imagen clsica de un cientfico de laboratorio, tenemos esa imagen: estn encima de un microscopio, viendo una muestra de tejido. +y "oh, eureka!" tuvieron una idea. +Lo que realmente sucedi cuando Dunbar vio los videos es que, de hecho, casi todas las ideas innovadoras no sucedieron por s solas en el laboratorio frente al microscopio. +Sucedieron en la mesa de conferencias en la reunin semanal de laboratorio, cuando todos se reunan a compartir sus ltimos datos y descubrimientos, muchas veces cuando las personas compartan los errores que haban cometido, el error, el ruido en la seal que estaban descubriendo. +Tiene que ver con el ambiente y lo he comenzado a llamar la "red lquida", donde confluyen muchas ideas diferentes distintas procedencias, distintos intereses, que se empujan y rebotan mutuamente; ese ambiente es, de hecho, el caldo de cultivo de la innovacin. +El otro problema que tienen las personas es que les gusta resumir sus historias de innovacin en trminos de tiempo. +Quieren contar la historia del momento "eureka!". +Dicen: "estaba all parado y de repente todo se aclar en mi mente". +pero de hecho, si uno mira atrs, resulta que muchas de las ideas importantes han tenido largos periodos de incubacin. Lo llamo "corazonada a paso lento" +Hemos escuchado recientemente de las corazonadas e instintos y esas chispas rpidas de claridad, sin embargo muchas de las grandes ideas han persistido, algunas durante dcadas, en la mente de las personas. +Tienen el presentimiento de que existe un problema interesante, pero an no tienen las herramientas para descubrirlo. +Pasan todo el tiempo trabajando en ciertos problemas, pero hay otra cosa que persiste all que estn interesados, pero an no lo resuelven. +Darwin es un gran ejemplo de esto. +Darwin mismo, en su autobiografa, cuenta la historia del descubrimiento de la idea de la seleccin natural como un momento eureka clsico. +En su estudio, esto es octubre de 1838, est leyendo a Malthus, concretamente acerca de poblaciones. +Y, de repente, se le ocurre el algoritmo bsico de seleccin natural y dice: "finalmente consegu una teora en la cual trabajar". +Est en su autobiografa. +Hace unos 10 20 aos, un estudiante maravilloso llamado Howard Gruber vio los apuntes de Darwin de ese periodo. +Darwin guardaba estos apuntes donde escriba la ms pequea idea que tuviera, la ms pequea corazonada. +Y Gruber encontr que Darwin tuvo toda la teora de la seleccin natural desde haca muchos meses antes de su presunta revelacin, leyendo a Malthus en octubre de 1838. +Hay captulos que pueden leer, y pensar que estn leyendo un libro de Darwin, de ese periodo antes de que tuviera su revelacin. +As, lo que uno se da cuenta es que Darwin, en algn sentido, tena la idea, tena el concepto, pero no haba podido desarrollarlo an. +As es como se generan las grandes ideas, son borrosas a la vista durante largos periodos de tiempo. +El desafo para todos nosotros es: cmo crear ambientes que permitan mantener ideas latentes mucho tiempo? +Es difcil ir a decirle al jefe: "Tengo una idea excelente para nuestra compaa. +Ser muy til en el 2020. +Podra darme algo de tiempo para desarrollarla?" +Bien, un par de compaas, como Google, disponen de 20% de tiempo libre para innovacin, son mecanismos para cultivar corazonadas en la organizacin. +Eso es clave. +La otra cosa es permitirle a esas corazonadas conectarse con las corazonadas de otros; eso es lo que sucede a menudo. +Alguien tiene la mitad de la idea y otro tiene la otra mitad, y si uno est en el ambiente correcto, se vuelven algo ms grande que la suma de las partes. +As, de alguna manera, generalmente hablamos del valor de proteger la propiedad intelectual construyendo barricadas, teniendo laboratorios secretos de desarrollo e investigacin, patentando todo, de tal manera que esas ideas mantengan su valor, y la gente sea incentivada a tener ms ideas, y la cultura sea ms innovadora. +Pero pienso que deberamos pasar el mismo tiempo, si no ms, valorando el principio de la conexin de ideas y no slo protegindolas. +Y les quiero dejar esta historia que captura muchos de estos valores; es una historia maravillosa acerca de innovar y como sucedi de manera inusual. +Es octubre de 1957 y se acaba de lanzar el Sputnik; estamos en Laurel, Maryland, en el laboratorio de fsica aplicada en conjunto con la Universidad Johns Hopkins. +Es lunes a la maana y las noticias dicen que el satlite est girando alrededor del planeta. +Y por supuesto, esto es el cielo de los nerds, cierto? +Todos estos locos de la fsica estn pensando: "Dios mo! Es increble. No puedo creer que est pasando". +Y dos de ellos, dos investigadores veinteaeros del laboratorio de fsica aplicada estn en la mesa de la cafetera conversando informalmente con varios colegas. +Estos dos hombres son Guier y Weffenbach. +Empiezan a hablar y uno de ellos dice: "alguien ha tratado de escuchar esa cosa? +Hay un satlite artificial en el espacio enviando seales de algn tipo. +Probablemente podramos orlas si las sintonizamos". +As que preguntan entre los colegas y todos dicen: "No, no lo haba pensado. +Es una idea interesante". +Y resulta que Weiffenbach es un experto en la recepcin de microondas, y tena una pequea antena con un amplificador en su oficina. +Guier y Weiffenbach van a la oficina de Weiffenbach y empiezan a buscar por todos lados; hoy diramos a "piratear". +Despus de un par de horas comienzan a recibir la seal porque los soviticos hicieron el Sputnik muy fcil de rastrear. +Estaba en los 20 MHz, as que se lo poda encontrar fcilmente, bsicamente porque teman que la gente pensara que era una farsa. +As que lo hicieron fcil de ubicar. +Por eso este par de hombres estn sentados escuchando la seal y la gente empieza a llegar a la oficina diciendo: "Es genial. Puedo escucharlo. Es grandioso". +Y pronto piensan: "Esto es histrico. +Tal vez seamos los primeros en Estados Unidos en estar escuchando esto. +Deberamos registrarlo". +As que traen esta grabadora gigante y anticuada, y comienzan a grabar esos pequeos pitidos. +Empiezan a escribir la fecha y la hora de cada pequeo pitido que graban. +Empiezan a pensar: "estamos notando pequeas variaciones en la frecuencia. +Probablemente podramos calcular la velocidad a la que se mueve el satlite con un poco de matemtica elemental usando el efecto Doppler. +Y jugaron un poco ms con esto, hablaron con un par de colegas de otras especialidades. +Y dijeron: podramos mirar con detenimiento la pendiente del efecto Doppler para dar con los puntos en los que el satlite est ms cerca de nuestra antena. y los puntos en los que est ms distante. +Es genial". +Y, eventualmente, tuvieron el permiso... esto es un proyecto al margen que no es parte de su trabajo. +Tuvieron acceso a un computador UNIVAC del tamao de la sala que tenan en el laboratorio de fsica aplicada. +Calcularon algunos nmeros ms y en 3 4 semanas haban rastreado la trayectoria exacta de este satlite alrededor de la Tierra, slo escuchando la seal, y siguiendo la corazonada de lo que les interes hacer un da en el almuerzo. +Un par de semanas ms tarde su jefe, Frank McClure, los llam al saln y les dijo: "tengo que preguntarles algo sobre ese proyecto en el que estn trabajando. +Han encontrado la forma de saber la ubicacin desconocida del satlite que est girando alrededor del planeta desde un sitio conocido en la superficie terrestre. +Podra hacerse al revs? +Podran ubicar algo en la superficie terrestre si supieran la ubicacin del satlite?" +Lo pensaron y dijeron: "quiz se pueda. Permtanos calcular unos nmeros". +As que se fueron a pensarlo +y regresaron diciendo: "realmente ser ms fcil". +Y l les dijo: "Oh, es grandioso. +porque, vern, tengo estos nuevos submarinos nucleares que estoy construyendo, +y es muy difcil saber cmo hacer que los misiles lleguen a Mosc si no sabemos dnde estn los submarinos en medio del Ocano Pacfico. +Pensamos que podramos enviar unos cuantos satlites y usarlos para ubicar los submarinos y conocer as su ubicacin en medio del ocano. +Podran trabajar en ese problema? +Y as fue como naci el GPS +30 aos ms tarde. Ronald Reagan fue quien realmente abri la plataforma para que cualquiera pudiera construir sobre ella y cualquiera pudiera sumarse y crear nueva tecnologa que creara e innovara sobre esta plataforma. La dej abierta a cualquiera para que hicieran lo que quisieran. +Y ahora, les garantizo que la mitad de esta sala, si no ms, tiene un aparato en sus bolsillos ahora mismo que se comunica con los satlites del espacio exterior. +Y les apuesto que uno de Uds, si no ms, ha usado el sistema de dicho aparato y dicho satlite para localizar el caf ms cercano ayer o la semana pasada, no? +y eso, pienso, es un gran ejemplo, una gran leccin, del poder, de lo maravilloso, de algo no planeado emergente, del poder impredecible, de los sistemas innovadores abiertos. +Cuando se construyen bien, pueden llevarnos en direcciones completamente nuevas a las cuales los creadores ni siquiera lo haban soado. +Quiero decir, uno tiene estos hombres que pensaron que estaban siguiendo una corazonada, esa pequea pasin que desarrollaron y pensaron que estaban peleando en la Guerra Fra, y result que estaban ayudando a descubrir el caf con leche de soja. +As es como se produce la innovacin. +Las oportunidades favorecen a la mentes conectadas. +Muchas gracias. +Quiero que hagan un viaje conmigo. +Imaginen que conducen por un caminito en frica, y a medida que lo hacen miran hacia afuera y esto es lo que ven: ven un campo de tumbas. +Y se detienen, bajan del auto, y toman una foto. +Entran al pueblo, preguntan: "qu est pasando aqu?" +y la gente al principio es renuente a hablar. +Luego alguien dice: "Estas son las muertes recientes de SIDA en nuestra comunidad". +El VIH no es como las otras enfermedades; es estigmatizante. +La gente se rehsa a hablar de eso. Hay un temor asociado a eso. +Hoy voy a hablar del VIH, de las muertes, del estigma. +Es una historia mdica, pero sobre todo, es una historia social. +Este mapa representa la distribucin mundial del VIH. +Y como pueden ver frica tiene una parte desproporcionada de la infeccin. +Hay 33 millones de personas que viven con el VIH hoy en el mundo. +De stos, dos tercios, 22 millones, viven en el frica subsahariana. +Hay 1,4 milln de embarazadas en pases de bajos y medianos ingresos que viven con el VIH, y de ellos, el 90% est en el frica subsahariana. +Hablamos en trminos relativos. +Y voy a hablar de los embarazos anuales y de las madres seropositivas. +En Estados Unidos, un pas extenso, cada ao 7.000 madres con VIH dan a luz. +Pero uno va a Ruanda, un pas muy chico, y hay 8.000 madres con VIH embarazadas. +Y luego uno va al Hospital Baragwanath en las afueras de Johannesburgo en Sudfrica y hay 8.000 embarazadas seropositivas dando a luz... en un hospital lo mismo que en un pas. +Y para darse cuenta de que esto es slo la punta de un iceberg, que, cuando uno compara todo esto con Sudfrica, todo queda opacado porque en Sudfrica cada ao hay 300.000 madres con VIH que dan a luz. +Hablamos de la PTMH: la transmisin materno-infantil, Prevencin de la Transmisin de Madre a Hijo. +Creo que hay un supuesto en la mayora del pblico que dice que si la madre es seropositiva va a infectar al hijo. +La realidad es muy diferente. +En los pases ricos, con los tests y tratamientos que tenemos actualmente, menos del 2% de los bebs nacen con VIH. El 98% de los bebs nace seronegativo. +Y, sin embargo, la realidad en los pases pobres a falta de tests y tratamientos el 40%, se infecta el 40% de los nios, el 40% contra el 2%, una diferencia abismal. +As que estos programas... me voy a referir a la PTMH durante la charla, estos programas de prevencin son llanamente los tests y los medicamentos que le damos a las madres para evitar que infecten a sus bebs y tambin las medicinas que le damos a las madres para que estn sanas y vivas para criar a sus hijos. +Es el test que reciben cuando vienen. +Son las medicinas que reciben para proteger al beb dentro del tero y durante el parto. +Es la orientacin que reciben sobre nutricin infantil y sexo seguro. +Es un paquete completo de servicios, y funciona. +En Estados Unidos desde el inicio del tratamiento a mediados de los 90s ha habido un descenso del 80% en la cifra de nios infectados con VIH. +Nacen menos de 100 bebs con VIH al ao en Estados Unidos y, sin embargo, todava nacen ms de 400.000 nios al ao con VIH en el mundo. +Esto qu quiere decir? +Quiere decir 1.100 nios infectados diariamente, 1.100 nios cada da, infectados con VIH. +Y de dnde vienen? +Bien, de Estados Unidos viene menos de uno. +Uno, en promedio, viene de Europa. +100 vienen de Asia y el Pacfico. +Y cada da nacen 1000 bebs, 1000 bebs cada da con VIH en frica. +De nuevo, miro al mundo aqu y el porcentaje de VIH es desproporcionado en frica. +Miremos otro mapa. +Aqu, otra vez, vemos que frica tiene una cantidad desproporcionada de mdicos. +Esa franja delgada que se ve aqu, eso es frica. +Y lo mismo pasa con las enfermeras. +La verdad es que el frica subsahariana tiene el 24% de la carga mundial de la enfermedad, y, no obstante, el 3% de los trabajadores de la salud del mundo. +Eso significa que los mdicos y enfermeras simplemente no tienen tiempo para cuidar de los pacientes. +Una enfermera en una clnica ajetreada ver 50-100 pacientes por da, lo que da slo unos minutos por paciente, minutos por paciente. +Entonces, cuando vemos estos programas PTMH, qu significa? +Por suerte, desde 2001, tenemos nuevos tratamientos, nuevos tests, y tenemos mucho ms xito pero no tenemos ms enfermeras. +Y estas son los tests que una enfermera tiene que hacer en esos mismos minutos. +No es posible. No funciona. +Por eso necesitamos encontrar mejores maneras de brindar atencin. +Esta es una foto de una clnica de salud materna en frica... madres que vienen, embarazadas y con sus hijos. +Estn aqu en busca de cuidados pero sabemos que el test solo, la medicina sola, no alcanzan. +Mdico y atencin mdica no es lo mismo. +Los mdicos y enfermeras, francamente, no tienen el tiempo ni las habilidades para decirle a la gente qu hacer en trminos que entiendan. +Soy mdico. Le digo a las personas qu hacer y espero que sigan mi consejo porque soy mdico; fui a Harvard... pero la realidad es que si le digo a la paciente: "Debe tener sexo seguro. +Debe usar siempre preservativo", y en su relacin no tiene poder de decisin qu va a pasar? +Si le digo que tome la medicina todos los das pero nadie en la familia sabe de su enfermedad sencillamente no va a funcionar. +Por eso tenemos que hacer ms, tenemos que hacerlo en forma diferente, de manera que sea asequible y accesible y que pueda expandirse es decir, que pueda hacerse en todos lados. +Quiero contarles una historia. Quiero llevarlos de paseo. +Imaginen, si pueden, que son una mujer joven de frica, que va al hospital o la clnica. +Va a hacerse un test y descubre que est embarazada, y est encantada. +Luego les hacen otro test y le dicen que es seropositiva, y est desolada. +Una enfermera la lleva a una sala y le cuenta de los tests del VIH y las medicinas que puede tomar y cmo cuidarse a s misma y al beb y no oye nada de eso. +Todo lo que escucha es: "voy a morir, y mi beb va a morir". +Y luego sale a la calle y no sabe a dnde ir. +No sabe con quin hablar porque la verdad es que el VIH es tan estigmatizante que si le cuenta a la pareja, a la familia, a alguien en casa, es probable que sea arrojada a la calle sin medios de subsistencia. +Y esta es la cara y la historia del VIH en frica hoy. +Pero estamos aqu para hablar de soluciones posibles y de buenas noticias. +Y quiero cambiar la historia un poquito. +Tomen la misma madre, y la enfermera, luego de realizarle el test la lleva a la sala. +Se abre la puerta y hay una sala llena de madres, madres con bebs, estn sentadas, hablan y escuchan. +Estn tomando t, comiendo sndwiches. +Ella entra y se le acerca una mujer y le dice: "Bienvenida a mothers2mothers. +Toma asiento. Aqu ests a salvo. +Somos todas seropositivas. +Vas a estar bien. Vas a vivir. +Tu beb va a ser seronegativo". +Vemos a las madres como el recurso ms importante de una comunidad. +Las madres cuidan a sus hijos, se encargan del hogar. +Muchas veces los hombres se van. +Estn trabajando, o no son parte del hogar. +Nuestra organizacin, mothers2mothers, recluta a mujeres con VIH como proveedoras de atencin. +Traemos a las madres, que tienen VIH, que han pasado por estos programas de PTMH, a las mismsimas instalaciones, para que vengan a trabajar codo a codo con mdicos y enfermeras como parte del equipo de atencin de salud. +A estas madres las llamamos madres mentoras son capaces de alentar a las mujeres que, como ellas mismas, embarazadas y con hijos han descubierto que son seropositivas y necesitan apoyo y educacin. +Y les brindan ayuda sobre el diagnstico y las educan sobre cmo tomar las medicinas, como cuidarse a s mismas, y cmo cuidar a sus bebs. +Recuerden: si uno necesita ciruga, querra el mejor cirujano posible, cierto? +Pero si uno quisiera entender cmo afecta esa ciruga su vida le gustara conversar con alguien que haya pasado por eso. +Los pacientes son expertos en su propia experiencia y puedan compartir esa experiencia con los dems. +Este es el cuidado mdico que va ms all de la simple medicina. +Por eso las madres que trabajan con nosotros provienen de las comunidades en las que trabajan. +Son contratadas. Se les paga como miembros profesionales del equipo de salud, como a los mdicos y enfermeras. +Y abrimos cuentas bancarias para ellas y se les paga directamente en las cuentas porque cuentan con proteccin econmica; los hombres no pueden quitarles el dinero. +Pasan de dos a tres semanas de entrenamiento riguroso basado en un plan de estudios. +Ahora, mdicos y enfermeras tambin son entrenados. +Pero a menudo son entrenados slo una vez por eso no estn al tanto de las nuevas medicinas y los nuevos lineamientos disponibles. +Las madres mentoras se entrenan todos los aos y se vuelven a entrenar. +Por eso mdicos y enfermeras las consideran expertas. +Imaginen eso: una mujer, ex-paciente, que es capaz de educar a su mdico por primera vez y de educar a otras pacientes a las que cuida. +Nuestra organizacin tiene tres objetivos. +El primero: prevenir la transmisin materno-infantil. +El segundo: mantener a las madres sanas y con vida. Mantener a los hijos con vida. Basta de hurfanos. +Y la tercera, y tal vez la ms importante: encontrar la manera de dar poder a las mujeres, permitirles luchar contra el estigma y llevar una vida positiva y productiva con el VIH. +Cmo lo hacemos? +Bueno, tal vez el compromiso ms importante es el uno a uno, ver pacientes una a una, educarlas, apoyarlas, explicarles cmo cuidarse a s mismas. +Vamos ms all de eso. Tratamos de traer a los maridos, las parejas. +En frica, es muy, muy difcil involucrar a los hombres. +Los hombres no suelen formar parte de la atencin del embarazo. +Sin embargo, en Ruanda, en un pas, tienen una poltica que una mujer no puede buscar cuidado a menos que traiga al padre del beb con ella. Esa es la regla. +As, el padre y la madre, en conjunto, pasan por el asesoramiento y el test. +El padre y la madre, juntos, reciben los resultados. +Y esto es muy importante para romper el estigma. +La divulgacin es central a la prevencin. +Cmo tener sexo ms seguro, cmo usar un condn con regularidad si no hay divulgacin? +La divulgacin es importante para el tratamiento porque, de nuevo, la gente necesita el apoyo de familiares y amigos para tomar su medicacin con regularidad. +Tambin trabajamos en grupos. +Ahora, los grupos, yo no doy conferencias, sino que las mujeres, ellas se renen, en el marco del apoyo y la orientacin de las madres mentoras, se renen y comparten sus experiencias personales. +Y es mediante el intercambio que la gente recibe tcticas de cmo cuidarse, cmo divulgar, cmo tomar las medicinas. +Y luego est la extensin a la comunidad, involucrar a las mujeres en sus comunidades. +Si podemos cambiar el modo de actuar y pensar de los hogares podemos cambiar el modo de actuar y pensar de la comunidad. +Y si podemos cambiar suficientes comunidades, podemos cambiar actitudes nacionales. +Podemos cambiar actitudes nacionales hacia las mujeres y actitudes nacionales hacia el VIH. +La barrera ms difcil es la de reduccin del estigma. +Tenemos las medicinas, tenemos los tests. Pero, cmo se reduce el estigma? +La divulgacin es importante. +Hace un par de aos, una de las madres mentoras vino y me cont una historia. +Uno de las clientas le haba pedido que la acompae a la casa, porque la clienta quera decirle a su madre, a sus hermanos y hermanas de su estatus de VIH y tena miedo de ir sola. +As que la madre mentora fue con ella. +Y la paciente entr a la casa y le dijo a su madre y hermanos: "Tengo algo que decirles. Soy seropositiva". +Todo el mundo estaba en silencio. +Y luego su hermano mayor se puso de pie y dijo: "Yo tambin tengo algo que decirles. +Soy seropositivo. +Tena miedo de decirle a todo el mundo". +Y luego esta hermana mayor se puso de pie y dijo: "Yo tambin estoy viviendo con el virus, y he sentido vergenza". +Y despus se par su hermano menor y dijo: "Yo tambin soy positivo. +Pens que me iban a expulsar de la familia". +Ya ven dnde va esto. +La ltima hermana se levant y dijo: "Yo tambin soy positiva. +Pens que me iban a odiar". +Y all estaban, todos juntos por primera vez pudiendo compartir esta experiencia por primera vez, para apoyarse mutuamente por primera vez. +Narradora: Las mujeres vienen a nosotros, llorando asustadas. +Les cuento mi historia, que soy seropositiva, pero mi hijo es seronegativo. +Les digo: "lo vas a lograr, vas a criar a un beb sano". +Yo soy la prueba de que hay esperanza. +Mitchell Besser: Recuerden las imgenes que les mostr de los pocos mdicos y enfermeras que hay en frica. +Hay una crisis en los sistemas de atencin de salud. +Incluso con ms tests y medicinas no llegamos a la gente; no tenemos suficientes proveedores. +Hablamos en trminos del llamado "desplazamiento de tareas". +El desplazamiento de tareas es cuando uno toma los servicios de salud de un proveedor y hace que otro proveedor lo d. +Por lo general, es un mdico que da un trabajo a una enfermera. +Y el problema en frica es que hay menos enfermeras, realmente, que mdicos, y tenemos que encontrar nuevos paradigmas para el cuidado de la salud. +Cmo construir un mejor sistema de salud? +Hemos optado por redefinir el sistema de salud como un mdico, una enfermera y una madre mentora. +Entonces las enfermeras le piden a las madres mentoras que expliquen cmo tomar las medicinas, los efectos secundarios. +Delegan la educacin sobre nutricin infantil, planificacin familiar, sexo seguro, acciones para las que las enfermeras simplemente no tienen tiempo. +Volvemos a la prevencin materno-infantil. +El mundo est viendo cada vez ms estos programas como puente a la salud integral materno-infantil. +Y nuestra organizacin ayuda a las mujeres a cruzar ese puente. +La atencin no cesa cuando nace el beb. Nos ocupamos de la salud actual de la madre y el beb, velando por una vida saludable, por vidas exitosas. +Nuestra organizacin trabaja en tres niveles. +El primero, a nivel del paciente, las madres evitan que los bebs contraigan VIH, manteniendo madres sanas para criarlos. +El segundo, las comunidades... dando poder a las mujeres. +Se convierten en lderes comunitarias. +Cambian la forma de pensamiento de la comunidad. Tenemos que cambiar las actitudes hacia el VIH. +Tenemos que cambiar las actitudes hacia las mujeres en frica. +Tenemos que hacerlo. +Y luego reelaborar el nivel de los sistemas de salud, construyendo sistemas ms fuertes. +Nuestros sistemas de atencin de la salud estn rotos. +De la manera en que estn diseados no van a funcionar. +Los mdicos y enfermeras que tienen que tratar de cambiar los comportamientos de las personas no tienen las habilidades ni el tiempo. Las madres mentoras, s. +Redefiniendo los equipos de salud, permitiendo que entren las madres mentoras, podemos hacerlo. +Empec el programa en Ciudad del Cabo, Sudfrica en el 2001. +En ese momento era slo un atisbo de idea. +En relacin al discurso encantador de Steven Johnson de ayer, sobre de dnde vienen las ideas, yo estaba en la ducha en ese momento. Estaba solo. +El programa est funcionando ahora en nueve pases. Tenemos 670 sitios del programa. Estamos viendo unas 230.000 mujeres al mes. Estamos empleando a 1.600 madres mentoras. Y el ao pasado reclutaron a 300.000 embarazadas y madres seropositivas. +Eso es el 20% de las embarazadas seropositivas del mundo, 20% de todo el mundo. +Lo extraordinario es lo sencilla que es la premisa. +Las madres con VIH cuidan a otras madres con VIH. +Pacientes al cuidado de ex-pacientes. +Y el poder que da el empleo... reduce el estigma. +Narradora: Hay esperanza, esperanza de que un da ganaremos esta pelea contra el VIH y el SIDA. +Cada persona debe conocer su estatus de VIH. +Los seronegativos deben saber cmo permanecer negativos. +Y los infectadas por el VIH deben saber cmo cuidarse. +Las embarazadas seropositivas deben recibir servicios PTMH para tener bebs seronegativos. +Todo esto es posible si todos contribuimos a esta lucha. +MB: soluciones simples a problemas complejos. +Las madres al cuidado de las madres. +Es transformador. +Gracias. +Voy a compartir con Uds la historia de hasta dnde me he convertido en activista del VIH/SIDA. +Mi campaa se llama Campaa SING +En noviembre de 2003 me invitaron a participar de la inauguracin de la Fundacin 46664, de Nelson Mandela. Esa es su fundacin de VIH/SIDA. +Y 46664 es el nmero que tena Mandela cuando fue encarcelado en Robben Island. +Y esa soy yo con Youssou N'Dour, en el escenario; el mejor momento de mi vida. +Al da siguiente invitaron a todos los artistas a ir con Mandela a Robben Island donde l iba a dar una conferencia a la prensa mundial de pie delante de su antigua celda. +All se pueden ver las barras de la ventana. +Fue una ocasin memorable para todos. +En ese momento Mandela dijo ante la prensa del mundo que ocurri un genocidio encubierto en su pas, despus del apartheid, en la Nacin del Arco Iris miles moran a diario y las vctimas de la lnea de fuego, las ms vulnerables de todas, eran las mujeres y los nios. +Eso produjo en m un gran impacto, porque soy mujer y madre, y no me haba dado cuenta de que la pandemia del VIH/SIDA afectaba directamente a las mujeres de esa forma. +Y me compromet, cuando dej Sudfrica, cuando sal de Ciudad del Cabo, me dije: "esto va a ser algo de lo que tengo que hablar. +Tengo que servir". +Y posteriormente particip en todos los eventos 46664 que pude y d conferencias de prensa, entrevistas, hablando y usando mi plataforma como cantante con mi compromiso hacia Mandela por respeto al tremendo e increble trabajo que realiz. +Todo el mundo respeta a Nelson Mandela. Todo el mundo adora a Nelson Mandela. +Pero, conocen todos lo sucedido en Sudfrica, su pas, el pas con una de las tasas ms altas de transmisin del virus? +Creo que si saliera a la calle ahora y le contara a la gente lo que estaba pasando all se sorprendera. +Tuve mucha suerte, un par de aos despus, de conocer a Zackie Achmat, el fundador de la Campaa de Accin pro Tratamiento, gran luchador y activista; +lo conoc en el evento 46664. +Llevaba una camiseta como la que tengo ahora. +Es una herramienta que dice que soy solidaria con la gente que tiene VIH, gente que vive con el VIH. +En cierto modo, debido al estigma, al usar esta camiseta digo: "s, podemos hablar del tema. +No tiene por qu ser un tab". +Me hice miembro de la Campaa de Accin pro Tratamiento, y estoy orgullosa de ser miembro de esta organizacin increble. +Es una campaa de base con el 80% de los miembros femeninos la mayora son VIH positivo. +Trabajan en el campo. +Tienen gran llegada a las personas que viven directamente con los efectos del virus. +Tienen programas educativos. +Ponen en evidencia los problemas del estigma. +Es extraordinario lo que hacen. +Y, s, mi Campaa SING apoy a la Campaa de Accin pro Tratamiento, tratando de crear conciencia y de recaudar fondos. +Mucho de lo que he recaudado ha ido directamente a la Campaa de Accin pro Tratamiento, y a la obra increble que hacen, y todava continan haciendo en Sudfrica. +Esta es mi Campaa SING. +Bsicamente, la Campaa SING soy yo y unas 3 4 personas maravillosas que me apoyan. +He viajado por todo el mundo en los ltimos dos aos y medio. He ido a unos 12 pases diferentes. +Aqu estoy en Oslo, Noruega, recibiendo un gran cheque; cantando en Hong Kong, tratando de que la gente recaude dinero. +Aaron Motsoaledi, el ministro de salud actual, asisti a ese concierto y tuve la oportunidad de reunirme con l y me dio su compromiso absoluto de que va a tratar de producir un cambio, absolutamente necesario. +Esto es en el Parlamento escocs. +Luego me convert en enviada para Escocia del VIH. +Y les estaba mostrando mis experiencias tratando, una vez ms, de crear conciencia. +Y una vez ms, en Edimburgo, con el maravilloso Coro de Nios Africanos que me encanta. +Son nios como este, muchos de los cuales han quedado hurfanos porque sus familias estn afectadas por el virus del SIDA. +Aqu estoy sentada en Nueva York, con Michel Sidibe. l es el director de UNAIDS. +Y me siento honrada de que Michel me invitara hace unos meses a ser embajadora de UNAIDS. +Y de esta manera he ido fortaleciendo mi plataforma y ampliando mi alcance. +El mensaje de UNAIDS para el mundo es que nos gustara ver la casi erradicacin de la transmisin del virus de madre a hijo para el 2015. +Es un objetivo muy ambicioso pero creemos que puede lograrse con voluntad poltica. +Es algo posible. +Y aqu estoy con una embarazada que es VIH positiva y estamos sonriendo, ambas estamos sonriendo, porque confiamos, porque sabemos que las mujeres jvenes reciben tratamiento y as pueden extender su vida para cuidar al beb que est a punto de dar a luz. +Y su beb recibir PTMH, que quiere decir que ese beb puede nacer libre del virus. +Eso es prevencin en el comienzo mismo de la vida. +Es una manera de empezar a buscar la intervencin de la pandemia del SIDA. +Me gustara terminar contndoles la pequea historia de Avelile. +Esta es Avelile. Ella va conmigo dondequiera que vaya. +Le cuento su historia a todo el mundo porque ella representa uno de los millones de hurfanos del VIH/SIDA. +La madre de Avelile tena el virus VIH. Muri de una enfermedad relacionada con el SIDA. +Avelile tena el virus. Naci con el virus. +Y aqu est a los 7 aos con el peso de un beb de un ao. +En este momento de su vida tena el SIDA completamente desarrollado y tena neumona. +La conocimos en un hospital de la Provincia Oriental del Cabo y pasamos toda una tarde con ella; una nia adorable. +Los mdicos y las enfermeras eran fenomenales. +Le dieron una dieta nutritiva muy especial y la cuidaron mucho. +Y no sabamos cuando nos fuimos del hospital, porque filmamos la historia, no sabamos si iba a sobrevivir. +Obviamente era un encuentro muy emotivo y nos dej muy conmovidos con esta experiencia directa, esta nia, ya saben, esa historia. +Cinco meses despus volvimos a Sudfrica a ver a Avelile de nuevo. +Y se me ponen... los pelos de punta... no s si pueden ver los pelos de mis brazos. +Se pusieron de punta porque s lo que les voy a mostrar. +Esta es la transformacin que ocurri. +No es extraordinario? +Esa ronda de aplausos es en realidad para los mdicos y las enfermeras del hospital que cuidaron a Avelile. +Y considero que aprecian este tipo de transformacin. +Creo que es justo decir que es casi todo el mundo en la sala. +Muchas gracias. +Soy estudiante de doctorado y eso significa que tengo una pregunta: cmo hacer aprehensible el contenido digital? +Porque ya ven por un lado est el mundo digital y en l, sin duda, estn sucediendo muchas cosas. +Y para nosotros no es tan material, no est all de verdad. Es virtual. +Por otro lado, los humanos vivimos en un mundo fsico. +Es rico, tiene buen sabor, agrada al tacto, huele bien. +Entonces la pregunta es: cmo pasamos de lo digital a lo fsico? +Esa es mi pregunta. +Si vemos el iPhone y sus "toques" y la Wii con su "actividad corporal" se puede ver la tendencia; es algo cada vez ms fsico. +La pregunta es: qu sigue? +Tengo tres opciones que quisiera mostrarles. +La primera es la masa. +Como humanos sentimos dnde pesa un objeto en la mano. +Podemos usar eso en los mviles? +Djenme mostrarles el mvil de peso desplazable. +Es una caja con forma de mvil que tiene dentro un contrapeso que podemos mover. Y uno siente dnde est el peso. +Le cambiamos el centro de gravedad. +Por ejemplo, podemos aumentar el contenido digital con masa fsica. +As, uno recorre el contenido en la pantalla pero adems se puede sentir dnde est a partir del peso del dispositivo. +Tambin es bueno para la navegacin. Puede guiarnos en una ciudad. +Puede decirnos con su peso: "Gira a la derecha. Camina hacia adelante. Gira a la izquierda". +Y lo bueno es que uno no tiene que mirar el dispositivo todo el tiempo; uno tiene los ojos libres para ver la ciudad. +La masa es la primer cosa. La segunda cosa es la forma. +Tambin sentimos la forma de los objetos que tenemos en las manos. +As, si descargo un libro electrnico de 20 pginas el mvil podra ser delgado; pero si tiene 500 pginas quiero sentir que ese "Harry Potter" es grueso. Permtanme mostrarles el mvil que cambia de forma. +Es una caja con forma de mvil. Y esta puede cambiar su forma. +Podemos jugar con la forma misma. +Por ejemplo, puede ser delgada en el bolsillo, que por supuesto es lo que queremos, pero una vez en la mano puede inclinarse, ser gruesa. +Tiene un declive hacia abajo. +Al cambiarlo de posicin puede auto-ajustarse. +Tambin es til si uno quiere ponerlo en la mesa de luz para ver una pelcula o usarlo como un reloj despertador, se levanta. +Es bastante simple. +Otra cosa es que a veces miramos cosas en el mvil que son ms grandes que el telfono en s. +En ese caso, como aqu, hay una aplicacin ms grande que la pantalla del telfono; la forma del telfono podra decirnos: "fuera de la pantalla por aqu hay ms contenido. +No puede verse, pero est all". +Y podemos palparlo porque es ms grueso en el borde. +La forma es la segunda cosa. +La tercer cosa opera a otro nivel. +Como humanos somos sociales, sentimos empata, y eso es genial. +No sera esa una manera de hacer a los mviles ms intuitivos? +Imaginen un hmster en el bolsillo. +Bueno, puedo sentirlo. Todo est bien, no tengo que verificarlo. +Permtanme que les muestre el mvil viviente. +Otra vez, la caja con forma de mvil. Pero esta respira, tiene pulsaciones, es muy orgnico. +Y se nota que ahora est muy relajado. +Ahora, llamada perdida, nueva llamada, nueva novia tal vez. Muy excitado. Cmo lo calmamos? +Le damos una palmada detrs de las orejas y todo vuelve a la normalidad. +Es muy intuitivo y eso es lo que queremos. +So, what we have seen are three ways Hemos visto tres maneras para hacer aprehensible lo digital. +Y creo que convertirlo en algo fsico es una buena manera de hacerlo. +Detrs de esto hay un postulado; se dice que los humanos deberan ser mucho ms tcnicos en el futuro. En vez de eso la tecnologa debera ser ms humana. +Los hindes dicen: "nada brahma", una traduccin de: "el mundo es sonido". +Y, de algn modo, es cierto, porque todo est vibrando. +De hecho, todo en Uds al estar sentados aqu est vibrando. +Cada parte de su cuerpo vibra a una frecuencia diferente. +De hecho, Uds son, un acorde, cada uno es un acorde individual. +Una definicin de salud puede ser que ese acorde est en completa armona. +Los odos no pueden or ese acorde. En realidad pueden or cosas asombrosas. Los odos pueden or 10 octavas. +Por cierto, vemos slo una octava. +Los odos funcionan siempre. No hay "prpados" para odos. +Funcionan incluso cuando dormimos. +El mnimo sonido que pueden percibir mueve el tmpano 4 dimetros atmicos. +El sonido audible ms fuerte es un billn de veces ms potente que eso. +Las orejas no estn hechas para or sino para escuchar. +Escuchar es una habilidad activa. Mientras or es algo pasivo, escuchar es algo en lo que tenemos que trabajar. Es una relacin con el sonido. +Y, sin embargo, es una habilidad que no se nos ensea. +Por ejemplo, alguna vez han pensado que hay posiciones para escuchar, lugares desde donde poder escuchar? +He aqu dos de ellos. +La escucha reductiva es escuchar "para". +Reduce todo a lo que es relevante y descarta todo lo que no es relevante. +Los hombres suelen escuchan de forma reductiva. +l est diciendo: "Tengo este problema". +l contesta: "Aqu est tu solucin. Muchas gracias. Siguiente". +As es como hablamos, no muchachos? +La escucha expansiva, por otro lado, consiste en escuchar "con", no "para". +No persigue un fin. Se trata slo de disfrutar del viaje. +Las mujeres suelen escuchar expansivamente. +Si miran a estas dos, contacto visual, frente a frente, posiblemente las dos hablando al mismo tiempo. +Hombres, aunque no recuerden otra cosa de esta charla, practiquen la escucha expansiva y podrn transformar sus relaciones. +El problema de escuchar es que gran parte de lo que omos es ruido, que nos rodea todo el tiempo. +El ruido de este tipo, de acuerdo con la Unin Europea, est reduciendo la salud y la calidad de vida del 25% de la poblacin de Europa. +El 2% de la poblacin de Europa, 16 millones de personas, ven su sueo asolado por ruido como ese. +El ruido mata a 200.000 personas al ao en Europa. +Realmente es un gran problema. +De nios, si haba ruido y no queramos orlo, nos tapbamos los odos con los dedos y cantbamos. +Hoy en da, se puede hacer algo similar, pero un poco ms guay. +Se parece un poco a esto. +El problema con el uso generalizado de auriculares es que trae aparejado tres grandes problemas de salud. +El primer gran problema de salud es una palabra que acu Murray Schafer: la "esquizofonia". +Es una disociacin entre lo que se ve y lo que se oye. +As, estamos invitando a nuestras vidas a voces de personas que no estn presentes con nosotros. +Creo que hay algo profundamente enfermizo en vivir todo el tiempo en esquizofonia. +El segundo problema que conlleva el abuso de los auriculares es la compresin. +Aplastamos la msica para que quepa en el bolsillo y eso trae un costo aparejado. +Escuchen esto. Esto es msica sin comprimir. +Y ahora la misma msica con el 98% menos de datos. +Espero que al menos alguien pueda or la diferencia entre las dos. +Hay un costo de compresin. +Inventar todos esos datos nos cansa y nos pone irritables. +Hay que imaginar lo que falta. +No es bueno para uno a largo plazo. +El tercer problema con los auriculares es este: la sordera: trastornos auditivos a causa del ruido. +Por una u otra razn 10 millones de estadounidenses ya la padecen; lo realmente preocupante: el 16%, aproximadamente uno de cada seis adolescentes de EE.UU. padece trastornos auditivos a causa del ruido por uso indebido de auriculares. +Un estudio de una universidad de EE.UU. encontr que el 61% de los estudiantes de primer ao tenan dao auditivo por abusar de los auriculares. +Quiz estemos gestando una generacin entera de sordos. +Es un problema realmente serio. +Les voy a dar tres consejos para proteger los odos y, por favor, transmtanselo a sus hijos: +los protectores auditivos son geniales; yo los uso todo el tiempo. +Si van a usar auriculares, compren los mejores que puedan pagar porque calidad significa que no tendrn que ponerlos tan alto. +Si no pueden escuchar a alguien que les habla en voz alta est demasiado fuerte. +Y tercero, si estn en un lugar ruidoso, est bien taparse los odos o sencillamente irse de all. +Protejan sus odos de ese modo. +Marchmonos de los lugares ruidosos y miremos algunos amigos que les insto a buscar. +VAA: Viento, Agua, Aves... sonidos naturales estocsticos compuestos de muchas eventos aleatorios individuales, todos muy sanos, sonidos con los que evolucionamos a lo largo de los aos. +Busquen esos sonidos; son buenos para Uds, como lo es ste. +El silencio es hermoso. +Los Isabelinos llamaban al lenguaje el silencio decorado. +Les insto a alejarse por voluntad propia del silencio y a disear paisajes sonoros como obras de arte. +Tengan un primer plano, un fondo, todo en buena proporcin. +Es divertido adentrarse en el diseo de sonido. +Si no pueden hacerlo solos, busquen un profesional que se los haga. +El diseo de sonido es el futuro y creo que as vamos a cambiar la forma en que suena el mundo. +Voy a recorrer rpidamente 8 modalidades, 8 maneras en que el sonido puede mejorar la salud. +Primero el ultrasonido: nos resulta muy familiar por la terapia fsica. Ahora se usa tambin para tratar el cncer. +La litotripsia, al ao salva a miles de personas del bistur pulverizando piedras con sonido de alta intensidad. +La curacin con sonido es una modalidad maravillosa. +Existe desde hace miles de aos. +Les insto a que la exploren. +Se estn haciendo grandes cosas, tratando ahora el autismo, la demencia y otras enfermedades. +Y la msica, por supuesto. Slo escuchar msica ya es algo bueno si es msica hecha con buenas intenciones hecha con amor, por lo general. +La msica religiosa es buena. Mozart, es bueno. +Existen todo tipo de msicas que son muy saludables. +Cuatro modalidades en las que hay que tomar alguna accin y participar. +En primer lugar, escuchar conscientemente. +Espero que despus de esta charla lo hagan. +Esta es una dimensin completamente nueva en su vida, y es bueno tener esa dimensin. +En segundo lugar, pnganse a crear sonido. Creen sonido. +La voz es el instrumento que todos usamos y cuntos entrenamos la voz? Entrenmosla. Aprendamos a cantar y a tocar un instrumento. +Los msicos tienen cerebros ms grandes; es verdad. +Tambin pueden hacerlo en grupo. +Es un antdoto fantstico contra la esquizofonia: crear msica y sonidos en grupo cualquiera sea el estilo que nos guste. +Y asumamos un papel activo con los sonidos que nos rodean. +Proteger los odos? S, absolutamente. +Diseen hermosos paisajes sonoros a su alrededor, en casa y en el trabajo. +Y empecemos a alzar la voz cuando nos ataquen con ruidos como los que puse al principio. +Les voy a dejar con 7 cosas que pueden hacer ahora mismo para mejorar su salud con sonido. +Mi visin es la de un mundo que suene esplndido y si todos empezamos a hacer estas cosas daremos un gran paso en esa direccin. +Por lo tanto les insto a seguir ese camino. +Les dejo un poco ms de canto de pjaros, algo muy bueno. +Les deseo salud auditiva. +Me levant esta maana a las 6:10 +despus de acostarme a las 12:45. +Me despert una vez durante la noche. +El ritmo cardaco era de 61 latidos por minuto. La presin arterial de 13/8. +Ayer no hice ejercicio por eso no se calcul la frecuencia cardaca mxima. +Tena unos 600 miligramos de cafena, y 00 de alcohol. +Y mi ndice de Narcisismo Personal o INP-16 es un tranquilizador 0,31. +Sabemos que los nmeros son tiles para hacer publicidad, gestionar, gobernar, buscar. +Voy a hablar de lo tiles que son para reflexionar, aprender, recordar, y para mejorar. +Hace unos aos mi socio Kevin Kelly y yo notamos que la gente se auto-someta a regmenes de medicin cuantitativos y de auto-seguimiento que iban mucho ms all de los hbitos familiares comunes como hacer "step" en una escalera cada da. +Las personas controlan su alimentacin va Twitter y los paales de sus hijos en el iPhone. +Llevaban un registro detallado de sus consumos, humores, sntomas y tratamientos. +Ahora conocemos algunos de los hechos tecnolgicos que estn impulsando este cambio en nuestro estilo de vida: la adquisicin y distribucin de dispositivos mviles, la mejora exponencial en el almacenamiento y procesamiento de datos y la mejora notable en los sensores biomtricos humanos. +Ese puntito negro es un acelermetro 3D. +Rastrea el movimiento en el espacio. +Es, como pueden ver, muy pequeo y econmico. +Ahora estn muy por debajo de un dlar la unidad y van en todo tipo de dispositivos. +Pero lo interesante es la informacin detallada increble que proporciona uno solo de esos sensores. +Este tipo de sensor est en "el" dispositivo biomtrico... de los primeros en adoptarlo por ahora, el Fitbit. +Sigue nuestra actividad y tambin el sueo. +Dentro tiene ese sensor. +Probablemente estn familiarizados con el sistema Nike+. +Lo presento porque ese puntito azul es el sensor. +En realidad es un sensor de presin como el que hay en un timbre. +Y Nike sabe cmo obtener el ritmo y la distancia con ese sensor. +Esa es la correa que la gente usa para transmitir el ritmo cardaco al sistema Nike+. +Este es un nuevo dispositivo, hermoso, que brinda un seguimiento detallado del sueo no slo de si uno est despierto o dormido, sino tambin de la fase del sueo, en sueo profundo, ligero, REM. +El sensor es slo una tirita de metal que se coloca en la cabeza. +El resto va en la consola de la mesa de luz. Para dar una idea, este es el sistema de rastreo del sueo de hace unos aos, quiero decir, hasta ahora. +Y este es el sistema de rastreo del sueo actual. +Acaba de presentarse en una conferencia de salud en el D.C. +Mucho de lo que ven ah es un inhalador para el asma, pero la parte superior es un pequeo GPS que da la fecha y el lugar de un incidente de asma lo que da una nueva dimensin de la vulnerabilidad en relacin al tiempo y a los factores ambientales. +Sabemos que esas nuevas herramientas estn cambiando nuestro sentido del yo en el mundo; sensores diminutos recogen datos en el medio natural; la computacin omnipresente permite la comprensin y el uso de esos datos; y, por supuesto, las redes sociales permiten que la gente colabore y contribuya. +Vemos estas herramientas apuntar hacia afuera, como ventanas, y yo quiero invitarlos a verlas girando hacia adentro y transformndose en espejos. +As que cuando los veamos generando alguna mejora sistemtica pensemos tambin cmo pueden ayudarnos en la auto-mejora el auto-descubrimiento, la auto-conciencia y el auto-conocimiento. +Este es un dispositivo biomtrico: un par de auriculares de Apple. +El ao pasado Apple present patentes para medir oxgeno en sangre ritmo cardaco y temperatura corporal por los auriculares. +Para qu es esto? +Para qu debera ser? +Habr quien diga que es para seguridad biomtrica. +Otros dirn que es para investigacin en salud pblica. +O que se trata de un estudio pionero de mercado. +Me gustara decirles que tambin es para el auto-conocimiento. +Y el yo no es lo nico; ni siquiera es la mayora de las cosas. +El yo es el centro de operaciones, la conciencia, la brjula moral. +As que si queremos actuar ms eficazmente en el mundo tenemos que conocernos mejor. +Gracias. +Vivimos en un tiempo notable: la era de la genmica. +El genoma es toda la secuencia del ADN. +Tu secuencia y la ma son levemente diferentes. +Por eso tenemos aspectos diferentes. +Yo tengo ojos marrones. Ustedes quiz azules o grises. +Pero no es slo superficial. +Los titulares nos dicen que los genes pueden provocar enfermedades espantosas, y quiz modelar nuestra personalidad o provocarnos trastornos mentales. +Nuestros genes parecen tener un poder impresionante en nuestro destino. +Y, sin embargo, me gustara pensar que soy ms que mis genes. +Qu piensan muchachos? +Son Uds ms que sus genes? +(Audiencia: S) S? +Creo que algunas personas estn de acuerdo conmigo. +Creo que deberamos hacer una declaracin. +Creo que debemos decirlo todos juntos. +Muy bien: "Soy ms que mis genes", todos juntos. +Todo el mundo: soy ms que mis genes. +Sebastian Seung: Qu soy? +Soy mi conectoma. +Ahora, como son realmente geniales, pueden seguirme la corriente y decirlo todos juntos tambin. +Bien. Ahora todos juntos. +Todo el mundo: soy mi conectoma. +SS: eso estuvo genial. +Gente, son fabulosos, ni siquiera saben qu es un conectoma pero estn dispuestos a jugar conmigo. +Ya me puedo dar por satisfecho. +Hasta ahora se conoce un solo conectoma: el de este gusano minsculo. +Su modesto sistema nervioso consta de slo 300 neuronas. +Y en las dcadas del 70 y 80 un equipo cientfico traz el mapa de sus 7.000 conexiones interneuronales. +En este diagrama cada nodo es una neurona y cada lnea una conexin. +Este es el conectoma del gusano C. elegans. +Nuestro conectoma es mucho ms complejo porque nuestro cerebro tiene ms de 100 mil millones de neuronas y 10 mil veces ms conexiones. +Hay un diagrama como este para nuestro cerebro pero no hay manera de que quepa en esta diapositiva. +Nuestro conectoma tiene un milln de veces ms conexiones que letras en todo nuestro genoma. +Eso es mucha informacin. +Qu hay en esa informacin? +No lo sabemos con seguridad pero hay teoras. +Desde el siglo XIX los neurocientficos han especulado que quiz los recuerdos, la informacin que te define -- quiz tus recuerdos, estn almacenados en las conexiones interneuronales. +Y tal vez otros aspectos de la identidad personal, quiz tu personalidad, tu intelecto, tal vez estn tambin codificados en las conexiones interneuronales. +Ahora pueden ver por qu les propuse esta hiptesis: soy mi conectoma. +No les ped que lo canten porque sea cierto, slo quiero que lo recuerden. +Y, de hecho, no sabemos si esta hiptesis es correcta porque nunca hemos tenido tecnologas tan potentes como para demostrarla. +Hallar el conectoma de ese gusano llev una docena de aos de tedioso trabajo. +Y para encontrar conectomas de cerebros como los nuestros necesitamos tecnologas ms sofisticadas, automatizadas, que aceleren el proceso de bsqueda de conectomas. +En los prximos minutos les voy a contar de alguna de estas tecnologas que se encuentran actualmente en desarrollo en mi laboratorio y en el de mis colaboradores. +Probablemente ya hayan visto imgenes de neuronas. +Pueden reconocerlas instantneamente por sus formas fantsticas. +Tienen largas y delicadas ramificaciones; en pocas palabras: parecen rboles. +Pero esto es una sola neurona. +Para encontrar conectomas tenemos que ver todas las neuronas al mismo tiempo. +Vamos a conocer a Bobby Kasthuri del laboratorio de Jeff Lichtman de la Universidad de Harvard. +Bobby tiene all rebanadas muy delgadas de un cerebro de ratn. +Y lo estamos aumentando 100.000 veces para tener la resolucin que nos permita ver las ramas de neuronas todas al mismo tiempo. +Salvo que todava no pueden reconocerlas y por eso tenemos que trabajar en tres dimensiones. +Si tomamos muchas imgenes de muchas rebanadas del cerebro y las apilamos obtenemos una imagen tridimensional. +Todava no pueden ver las ramas. +As que empezamos por arriba y coloreamos de rojo la seccin transversal de una rama, y hacemos lo mismo con la rebanada siguiente y con la prxima. +Y seguimos as, rebanada tras rebanada. +Si continuamos con toda la pila podemos reconstruir la figura tridimensional de un pequeo fragmento de la rama de una neurona. +Y podemos hacerlo con otra neurona en verde. +Y puede verse que la neurona verde toca a la neurona roja en dos partes, y eso es lo que se llama sinapsis. +Acerqumonos a una sinapsis. Mantengamos la vista en el interior de la neurona verde. +Deberan ver unos circulitos. Se llaman vesculas. +Contienen una molcula conocida como neurotransmisor. +Y as, cuando la neurona verde quiere comunicarse, cuando quiere enviar un mensaje a la neurona roja, escupe un neurotransmisor. +En la sinapsis las dos neuronas se dice que estn conectadas como dos amigas que hablan por telfono. +Ya ven cmo encontrar una sinapsis. +Cmo podemos encontrar un conectoma? +Bueno, tomamos esta pila de imgenes tridimensionales y la procesamos como si fuese un libro para colorear en 3D. +Pintamos cada neurona con un color diferente y luego miramos en todas las imgenes, encontramos las sinapsis y anotamos los colores de las dos neuronas involucradas en cada sinapsis. +Si pudiramos hacer esto con todas las imgenes encontraramos un conectoma. +Hasta ahora han aprendido lo bsico sobre neuronas y sinapsis. +Por eso creo que estn listos para abordar uno de los temas ms importantes de la neurociencia: en qu difieren los cerebros de hombres y mujeres? +Segn este libro de auto-ayuda el cerebro masculino es como un gofre; mantienen su vida dividida en secciones. +El cerebro femenino es como los espaguetis: todo en su vida est relacionado con todo lo dems. +Ustedes se ren, pero este libro cambi mi vida. +En serio, cul es el error en esto? +Ya saben lo suficiente como para responder cul es el error en esta afirmacin. +No importa si uno es hombre o mujer todos los cerebros son como espaguetis. +O tal vez son capellini delgadsimos con ramificaciones. +As como un espagueti toca a muchos otros en el plato, una neurona toca a muchas otras mediante sus ramas enredadas. +Una neurona puede estar conectada con muchas otras, porque puede haber sinapsis en estos puntos de contacto. +A estas alturas es posible que hayan perdido la perspectiva del tamao real de este cubo de tejido cerebral. +Veamos una serie de comparaciones. +Les voy a mostrar. Esto es muy diminuto. Tiene 6 micrones de lado. +Aqu est comparado con una neurona entera. +Y se nota que en realidad slo los fragmentos ms pequeos de las ramas estn contenidos dentro de este cubo. +Y una neurona es ms pequea que el cerebro. +Ese es el cerebro de un ratn. Es mucho ms pequeo que el humano. +Por eso cuando le muestro esto a mis amigos a veces me han dicho: "Sabes Sebastian, deberas darte por vencido. +La neurociencia es imposible". +Porque si uno mira al cerebro a simple vista no ve realmente lo complejo que es pero si usamos un microscopio finalmente se revela su oculta complejidad. +En el siglo XVII el matemtico y filsofo Blaise Pascal, escribi sobre su temor al infinito, su sensacin de insignificancia al contemplar las vastas extensiones del espacio exterior. +Y, como cientfico, no se supone que deba hablar de mis sensaciones. Demasiada informacin, profesor. +Pero, puedo? +Siento curiosidad, y siento asombro, pero a veces, tambin desesperacin. +Por qu eleg estudiar este rgano tan asombroso en su complejidad que bien podra ser infinito? +Es absurdo. +Cmo nos atrevemos siquiera a pensar que alguna vez podremos entender esto? +Y, sin embargo, persisto en este empeo quijotesco. +De hecho, actualmente abrigo nuevas esperanzas. +Algn da una flota de microscopios capturar cada neurona y cada sinapsis en una gran base de datos de imgenes. +Y algn da supercomputadoras con inteligencia artificial analizarn las imgenes sin supervisin humana para sintetizarlas en un conectoma. +No lo s, pero espero vivir para ver ese da. Porque hallar un conectoma humano entero es uno de los desafos tecnolgicos ms grandes de todos los tiempos. +El xito demandar el trabajo de generaciones. +En la actualidad, mis colaboradores y yo, estamos buscando algo mucho ms modesto, slo encontrar conectomas parciales de pequeos trozos de cerebro de ratones y humanos. +Pero incluso eso ser suficiente para las primeras pruebas de esta hiptesis de que soy un conectoma. +Permtanme que intente convencerlos de la plausibilidad de esta hiptesis, que vale la pena tomar en serio. +A medida que crecemos en la infancia y envejecemos en la adultez nuestra identidad cambia lentamente. +Del mismo modo cada conectoma cambia con el tiempo. +Qu tipo de cambios ocurren? +Bueno, las neuronas, como los rboles, pueden tener nuevas ramas y perder otras. +Se pueden crear sinapsis y se pueden eliminar otras. +Y las sinapsis pueden aumentar de tamao, y pueden disminuir de tamao. +Segunda pregunta: qu provoca estos cambios? +Bueno, es verdad. +Hasta cierto punto estn programados por los genes. +Pero esa no es la historia completa porque hay seales, seales elctricas, que viajan por las ramas de las neuronas y seales qumicas que saltan de rama en rama. +Estas seales se llaman actividad neuronal. +Y hay mucha evidencia de que la actividad neuronal codifica el pensamiento, los sentimientos y las percepciones, nuestras experiencias mentales. +Y hay mucha evidencia de que la actividad neuronal puede hacer que cambien nuestras conexiones. +Y si se unen estos dos hechos esto significa que nuestras experiencias pueden cambiar nuestro conectoma. +Por eso cada conectoma es nico, incluso los de gemelos genticamente idnticos. +El conectoma es la confluencia de naturaleza y crianza. +Y podra ser cierto que el mero acto de pensar puede cambiar nuestro conectoma; una idea que puede resultar poderosa. +Qu hay en esta imagen? +Una corriente de agua fra y refrescante, dicen. +Qu ms hay en esta imagen? +No se olviden del surco de la Tierra llamado lecho del arroyo. +Sin l el agua no sabra en qu direccin fluir. +Y con el arroyo me gustara proponer una metfora de la relacin entre la actividad neuronal y la conectividad. +La actividad neuronal cambia constantemente. +Es como el agua del arroyo; nunca se queda quieta. +Las conexiones de la red neuronal del cerebro determinan las vas por las que fluye la actividad neuronal. +Entonces el conectoma es como el lecho del arroyo. Pero la metfora es ms rica. Porque es verdad que el lecho del arroyo gua al flujo de agua pero, con el tiempo, el agua tambin da forma al lecho del arroyo. +Y como acabo de decirles la actividad neuronal puede cambiar al conectoma. +Y si me permiten elevar el nivel de la metfora les recordar que la actividad neuronal es la base fsica, eso dicen los neurocientficos, de los pensamientos, los sentimientos y las percepciones. +Por eso podramos hablar de de un torrente de conciencia. +La actividad neuronal es el agua y el conectoma el lecho del torrente. +Volvamos de la metfora y retomemos la ciencia. +Supongamos que las tecnologas para hallar conectomas funcionan. +Cmo vamos a probar la hiptesis "soy mi conectoma"? +Bueno, propongo una prueba directa: +tratemos de leer recuerdos de los conectomas. +Piensen en la memoria de largas secuencias temporales de movimientos como las de un pianista que toca una sonata de Beethoven. +Segn la teora que data del siglo XIX tales recuerdos estn almacenados como cadenas de conexiones sinpticas en el cerebro. +Porque si se activan las primeras neuronas de la cadena mediante sus sinapsis envan mensajes a las otras neuronas, que se activan, y as sucesivamente siguiendo un efecto domin. +Y esta secuencia de activacin neuronal se presume que es la base neuronal de esa secuencia de movimientos. +As que una manera de tratar de probar la teora es buscar esas cadenas dentro de los conectomas. +Pero no va a ser fcil porque no van a tener este aspecto. +Van a estar cifradas. +Tendremos que usar nuestras computadoras para tratar de descifrar la cadena. +Y si podemos hacer eso la secuencia de neuronas que recuperemos al descifrar [la cadena] ser una prediccin del patrn de actividad neuronal que se reproduce en el cerebro en la recuperacin de memoria. +Y si eso funcionara sera el primer ejemplo de lectura de memoria de un conectoma. +Qu lo! Alguna vez han tratado de conectar un sistema tan complejo como ese? +Espero que no. +Pero si lo han hecho sabrn que es muy fcil cometer un error. +Las ramas neuronales son como los cables del cerebro. +Alguien puede adivinar cul es la longitud total de cables del cerebro? +Les dar una pista. Es un nmero grande. +Estimo millones de kilmetros. Todo dentro del crneo. +Y si uno entiende ese nmero puede ver fcilmente que hay un enorme potencial de un mal cableado cerebral. +De hecho a la prensa popular le encantan los titulares como: "Los cerebros anorxicos tienen un cableado diferente", o "Los cerebros autistas tienen un cableado diferente". +Estas son afirmaciones plausibles, pero en verdad, no podemos ver el cableado cerebral tan claramente como para saber si son realmente ciertas. +Las tecnologas de visualizacin de conectomas nos permitirn finalmente leer el mal cableado del cerebro para ver desrdenes mentales en los conectomas. +A veces la mejor manera de probar una hiptesis es considerar sus consecuencias ms extremas. +Los filsofos conocen muy bien este juego. +Si uno cree que soy mi conectoma tiene tambin que aceptar la idea de que la muerte es la destruccin del conectoma. +Menciono esto porque hay profetas hoy en da que afirman que la tecnologa alterar fundamentalmente la condicin humana y tal vez incluso transforme la especie humana. +Uno de sus sueos ms preciados es engaar a la muerte mediante la prctica de la criogenia. +Si uno paga 100.000 dlares puede arreglar para que congelen el cuerpo despus de muerto y lo almacenen en nitrgeno lquido en uno de estos tanques en un depsito de Arizona, a la espera de una futura civilizacin avanzada que lo resucite. +Debemos ridiculizar a los buscadores modernos de la inmortalidad llamndolos locos? +O algn da se reirn sobre nuestras tumbas? +No lo s. Yo prefiero poner a prueba sus creencias, cientficamente. +Propongo que tratemos de encontrar un conectoma en un cerebro congelado. +Sabemos que se produce un dao cerebral despus de la muerte y durante el congelamiento. +La pregunta es: elimina ese dao al conectoma? +Si lo hace, no hay manera de que una civilizacin futura sea capaz de recuperar los recuerdos de esos cerebros congelados. +Podran resucitar el cuerpo con xito pero no la mente. +Por otro lado, si el conectoma todava est intacto, no se puede ridiculizar a la criognesis tan fcilmente. +He descrito la bsqueda que se inicia en el mundo de lo muy pequeo y nos impulsa hacia el mundo del futuro lejano. +Los conectomas marcarn un punto de inflexin en la historia humana. +A medida que evolucionamos de nuestros antepasados simiescos en la sabana africana lo que nos distingui fue el cerebro ms grande. +Hemos usado el cerebro para elaborar tecnologas cada vez ms asombrosas. +Con el tiempo estas tecnologas se volvern tan poderosas que las usaremos para conocernos a nosotros mismos desarmando y reconstruyendo nuestros propios cerebros. +Creo que ese viaje de auto-descubrimiento no slo es para los cientficos sino para todos nosotros. +Y estoy agradecido por la oportunidad de compartir este viaje hoy con ustedes. +Gracias. +Soy una psicoanalista junguiana y fui a Afganistn en enero de 2004 por casualidad en una misin de Medica Mondiale. +Jung en Afganistn... ah tienen la imagen. +Afganistn es uno de los pases ms pobres del mundo, y el 70% de la poblacin es analfabeta. +La guerra y la desnutricin matan a la gente y a las esperanzas. +Pueden enterarse esto en los medios. Pero lo que quiz no sepan es que la edad media de los afganos es de 17 aos lo que significa que crecen en un entorno de y repito para m, 30 aos de guerra. +Esto se traduce en violencia diaria, intereses extranjeros, soborno, drogas, conflictos tnicos, mala salud, vergenza, miedo, y experiencias traumticas acumuladas. +Las fuerzas armadas locales y extranjeras se supone que construan la paz junto a los donantes y a las organizaciones gubernamentales y no gubernamentales. +Y las personas tenan esperanza, s, hasta que se dieron cuenta que su situacin empeoraba cada da a causa de los asesinatos o porque, de alguna forma, son ms pobres que hace ocho aos. +Una cifra en ese sentido: 54% de los nios menores de 5 aos padecen malnutricin. +Sin embargo hay esperanza. +Un da un hombre me dijo: "Mi futuro no se ve brillante, pero quiero un futuro brillante para mi hijo". +Esta es una foto que saqu en 2005 caminando un viernes por las colinas de Kabul. Y para m es una foto simblica de un futuro abierto a una generacin joven. +Los mdicos recetan medicamentos. +Y los donantes se supone que traen paz construyendo escuelas y caminos. +Los militares juntan armas y la depresin sigue intacta. +Por qu? +Porque la gente no tiene herramientas para hacerle frente, para superarlo. +Poco despus de mi llegada confirm algo que ya saba: que mis instrumentos provienen del corazn de la Europa moderna, s. +Sin embargo, lo que puede herirnos, y nuestra reaccin a las heridas, son universales. +Y el gran reto fue comprender el significado del sntoma en este contexto cultural especfico. +Despus de una sesin de orientacin una mujer me dijo: "Gracias a que me sentiste, yo puedo volver a sentirme, y quiero participar nuevamente en mi vida familiar". +Esto fue muy importante porque la familia es central en el sistema social afgano. +Nadie puede sobrevivir solo. +Y si las personas se sienten usadas, sin valor y con vergenza, porque les ha sucedido algo horrible, entonces se retiran y caen en el aislamiento social y no se atreven a contar este mal a otras personas o a sus seres queridos, porque no desean ser una carga para ellos. +Y muy a menudo la violencia es una forma de enfrentarlo. +Las personas traumatizadas pierden fcilmente el control, los sntomas son hiper-excitacin y retrospectivas de la memoria, las personas viven en temor constante de que esos sentimientos horribles de ese evento traumtico vuelvan de forma inesperada, de repente, y no pueden controlarlo. +Para compensar esta prdida de control interno tratan de controlar lo externo, comprensiblemente, generalmente a la familia; por desgracia, esto encaja muy bien con el lado tradicional el lado regresivo, represivo, el lado restrictivo del contexto cultural. +As, los esposos empiezan a golpear a las mujeres, las madres y padres a sus hijos, y despus se sienten fatal. +No queran hacer esto. Simplemente sucedi. Pierden el control. +Intentan desesperadamente restaurar el orden y la normalidad y si no logramos cortar este crculo de violencia se transferira a la siguiente generacin, sin lugar a dudas. +Y en parte esto ya est sucediendo. +Todos necesitan un sentido para el futuro. Y el sentido afgano del futuro est hecho aicos. +Pero permtanme repetir las palabras de la mujer: +"Gracias a que me sentiste, puedo volver a sentirme". +La clave aqu es la empata. +Alguien tiene que ser testigo de lo que te sucedi. +Alguien tiene que sentir lo que sentiste. +Y alguien tiene que verte y escucharte. +Todo el mundo tiene que saber que lo que sufriste fue real. Y esto slo pasa con otra persona. +As, todo el mundo debe poder decir: "me sucedi eso y me provoc esto, pero puedo vivir con esto, hacerle frente, y aprender de eso. +Y quiero comprometerme con el futuro brillante de mis hijos y de los hijos de mis hijos y no voy a casar a mi hija de 13 aos", algo que sucede a menudo en Afganistn. +Algo se puede hacer incluso en entornos tan extremos como Afganistn. +Y empec a pensar en un programa de orientacin. +Pero, claro, necesitaba ayuda y financiacin. +Y una tarde estaba sentada junto a un caballero muy agradable en Kabul y me pregunt que pensaba yo que sera bueno para Afganistn. +Le expliqu rpidamente que me gustara capacitar a asesores psicosociales, que abrira centros, y le expliqu por qu lo hara. +Este hombre me dio su informacin de contacto al final de la tarde y me dijo: "si quieres hacerlo, llmame". +En ese momento era la responsable de Caritas Alemania. +Pude lanzar un proyecto de tres aos con Caritas Alemania entrenamos a 30 mujeres y hombres afganos y abrimos 15 centros de asesoramiento en Kabul. +Este era nuestro cartel; pintado a mano. Tenamos 45 por todo Kabul. +Vinieron 11.000 personas... o ms. +Y el 70% recuper su vida. +Fue un momento muy emocionante el desarrollar esto con mi maravilloso equipo afgano. +Y estn trabajando conmigo hasta hoy. +Desarrollamos un enfoque de orientacin psicosocial con sensibilidad cultural. +As, a partir de 2008 hasta hoy, se ha venido dando un cambio sustancial y un paso adelante. +La delegacin de la Unin Europea en Kabul vino y me contrat para trabajar en el Ministerio de Salud Pblica para impulsar este enfoque. Tuvimos xito. +Revisamos el componente de salud mental de los servicios de atencin primaria de salud sumando atencin psicosocial y consejeros psicosociales al sistema. +Esto significa volver a entrenar a todo el personal de salud. +Pero para eso ya tenemos los manuales de formacin aprobados por el Ministerio, y por otra parte, este enfoque ahora es parte de la estrategia afgana de salud mental. +Ya lo hemos implementado en algunas clnicas seleccionadas en tres provincias, y Uds son los primeros en ver los resultados. +Queramos saber si lo que se hace es efectivo. +Y aqu pueden ver que todos los pacientes tenan sntomas de depresin, moderada o severa. +Como de costumbre, la lnea roja es el tratamiento, el medicamento con un mdico. +Y todos los sntomas se mantuvieron igual o incluso empeoraron. +Y la lnea verde es un tratamiento con asesoramiento psicosocial solamente, sin medicacin. +Y puede verse que los sntomas casi desaparecieron por completo y el estrs psicosocial se ha reducido significativamente, algo explicable porque no se puede quitar el estrs psicosocial pero se puede aprender a sobrellevarlo. +Esto nos alegra mucho porque ahora tenemos evidencia de que funciona. +Aqu ven este es un centro de salud en el norte de Afganistn, y cada maana se ve as por todas partes. +Los mdicos tienen entre 3 y 6 minutos por paciente. Pero ahora esto va a cambiar. +Ellos van a las clnicas porque quieren curar sus sntomas inmediatos y van a encontrar a alguien con quien hablar y discutir estos temas y hablar de sus pesares y encontrar soluciones, desarrollar sus recursos, buscar herramientas para resolver conflictos familiares y recobrar algo de confianza en el futuro. +Y me gustara compartir una historia corta. +Un hazara le dijo a su consejero pastn: "Si nos hubiramos conocido hace unos aos nos hubiramos matado mutuamente. +Y ahora me ests ayudando a recobrar confianza en el futuro". +Y otro consejero me dijo despus de la capacitacin: "Sabes, nunca supe por qu sobreviv a las matanzas de mi aldea pero ahora s que es porque soy parte del ncleo de una sociedad pacfica en Afganistn". +Creo que esto me mantiene en marcha. +Y esto es una contribucin realmente emancipadora y poltica a la paz y a la reconciliacin. +Y creo adems que sin terapia psicosocial y sin tener en cuenta esto en todos los proyectos humanitarios no podemos construir las sociedades civiles. +Pens que era una idea que vale la pena difundir, y creo que debe serlo, puede ser, podra ser replicada en otros lugares. +Les agradezco su atencin. +Bienvenidos a Tailandia. +Cuando yo era joven, hace 40 aos, el pas era muy, muy pobre y mucha, mucha, mucha gente viva en la pobreza. +Decidimos hacer algo al respecto pero no empezamos con un programa de bienestar o de reduccin de la pobreza. +Empezamos con un programa de planificacin familiar despus de varias actividades en salud materno infantil muy exitosas. +Bsicamente, nadie aceptara la planificacin familiar si sus hijos no sobrevivieran. +El primer paso fue llegar a los nios, llegar a las madres, y luego seguir con la planificacin familiar. +No slo la mortalidad infantil; se necesita tambin la planificacin familiar. +Djenme regresar a la razn por la que lo hicimos. +En mi pas esa era el caso en 1974. +Siete hijos por familia. Un crecimiento tremendo del 3,3%. +No haba futuro. +Tenamos que reducir la tasa de crecimiento de la poblacin. +As que dijimos: "Hagmoslo". +Las mujeres dijeron: "De acuerdo, usaremos pldoras, pero necesitamos un mdico que recete las pldoras". Y tenamos muy pocos mdicos. +No aceptamos un no como respuesta; adoptamos un no como pregunta. +Fuimos a ver a las enfermeras y parteras, tambin mujeres, e hicimos un trabajo fantstico explicndoles cmo usar la pldora. +Era algo maravilloso pero cubra slo un 20% del pas. +Pero, qu hacamos con el otro 80%? los dejbamos a su suerte por falta de personal? +No, decidimos hacer algo ms. +Fuimos a ver a la gente comn que vean. +Debajo de ese cartel amarillo, me gustara que no lo hubiesen borrado, porque deca "Coca-Cola". +ramos mucho ms grandes que Coca-Cola en esos das. +No haba diferencia, ellos elegan la misma gente que nosotros. +Ellos eran bien conocidos en la comunidad; saban que los clientes siempre tenan la razn, eran fabulosos y practicaban la planificacin familiar por s mismos. +Ellos podan suministrar pldoras y condones por todo el pas, en cada pueblo del pas. +All estamos, viendo como la gente tildada como causa del problema era la solucin. +Dondequiera que hubiera gente y pueden ver los botes con mujeres vendiendo cosas, en el mercado flotante, vendiendo pltanos y cangrejos y tambin anticonceptivos; donde hay personas, hay anticonceptivos en Tailandia. +Y luego decidimos apelar a la religin porque en Filipinas la Iglesia Catlica era muy fuerte y los tailandeses eran budistas. +Fuimos a verlos y decan: "podran ayudarnos?" +Yo estoy all, soy el de azul no el de amarillo, sosteniendo una taza con agua bendita para que el monje roce agua bendita sobre pldoras y condones por la santidad de la familia. +Y esta imagen recorri el pas. +As, algunos de los monjes en las aldeas hacan lo mismo por su cuenta. +Y las mujeres decan: "no es de extraar que no tenga efectos secundarios. +Estn bendecidos". +Esa era su percepcin. +Y luego con los profesores. +Se necesita de todo el mundo para tratar de dar lo que sea que haga de la Humanidad un mundo mejor. +Fuimos a ver a los profesores. +A ms de 1/4 de milln se le ense sobre planificacin familiar con un nuevo alfabeto: A y B - nacimiento, C - condn, I - DIU, V - vasectoma. +Y luego tenamos el juego de serpientes y escaleras; uno arroja el dado; +si cae en algo pro planificacin familiar, avanza. +Algo como: "mam toma la pldora todas las noches. +Muy bien mam. Avanzar. +El to compra un condn. Muy bien to. Avanzar. +El to se emborracha, no usa condn. Regresar, empezar de nuevo". +De nuevo: educacin, entretenimiento en clase. +Y los nios lo hacen en la escuela tambin. +Tenamos carreras de relevos con condones. Tenamos el campeonato de inflado de condones. +Y en poco tiempo el condn es el mejor amigo de las chicas. +En Tailandia, para los pobres, los diamantes no son opcin. As, el condn es el mejor amigo de las chicas. +En 1975 presentamos el primer programa de microcrditos y las mujeres que lo organizaron dijeron: "Slo queremos prestar a las mujeres que practican la planificacin familiar. +Si est embarazada, cuide de su embarazo. +Si no lo est, puede tomar un prstamo nuestro". +Fue dirigido por ellas. +Y luego de 35 o 36 aos todava est en curso. +Es parte del Banco de Desarrollo Rural. No es un banco real, pero es un fondo... microcrdito. +No requeramos gran organizacin para dirigirlo. Lo dirigan los propios aldeanos. +Y difcilmente encontrramos un hombre tailands all. Siempre las mujeres, las mujeres, las mujeres... +Luego pensamos que nos ayudara EE.UU. porque EE.UU. ayuda a todos, lo necesiten o no. +Esto es el 4 de julio. +Decidimos brindar la vasectoma a todos los hombres; en particular, los estadounidenses al frente de la fila hasta la residencia del embajador durante su [poco claro]. +Y el hotel nos dio el saln de baile. Una sala muy apropiada. +Y ya que estaba cerca la hora del almuerzo dijeron: "Muy bien, les daremos algo de comer. +Claro, con bebida cola de EE.UU. +Hay dos marcas: Coca y Pepsi. +Y para comer hamburguesas o salchichas". +Yo pens que una salchicha era algo ms simblico. +Y aqu est este joven llamado Willy Bohm que trabajaba para la USAID. +Obviamente, le hicieron la vasectoma porque su salchicha est a medio comer y est muy feliz. +Fue noticia en EE.UU. y enfureci a algunos tambin. +Yo les dije: "No se preocupen. Vengan que para Uds tambin hay". +Y qu sucedi? +En todo esto, de 7 hijos a 1,5 hijo. La tasa de crecimiento de 3,3 a 0,5. +Podran llamarlo enfoque Coca-Cola, si quieren. Era exactamente lo mismo. +No estoy seguro de si Coca-Cola nos sigui, o nosotros seguimos a Coca-Cola pero somos buenos amigos. +Y ese es el caso de todos lo que se sumaron. +No tenamos un gobierno fuerte. No tenamos muchos mdicos. +Pero es tarea de todos el cambio de actitud y comportamiento. +Luego vino el SIDA y golpe a Tailandia y tuvimos que dejar de hacer un montn de cosas buenas para combatir el SIDA. +Desafortunadamente el gobierno tena una negacin, una negacin. +Nuestro trabajo no se vio afectado. +Yo pens: "Bien, si no podemos ir al gobierno, vayamos a los militares". +As, fui a los militares y les ped 300 estaciones de radio. +Tenan ms que el gobierno, y ms armas que el gobierno. +As que les pregunt: podran ayudarnos en la lucha contra el VIH? +Y luego les proporcion estadsticas. Dijeron: "S. Est bien. Puede utilizar todas las emisoras de radio y canales de TV". +Y as nos metimos en las ondas radiales. +Y poco despus tuvimos un nuevo primer ministro +que me dijo: "Mechai, podras sumarte? +Pidi que participe porque le gustaba mucho mi mujer. +Le dije: "Bueno". +Se convirti en presidente de la Comisin Nacional del SIDA e increment el presupuesto en 50 veces. +Cada ministerio, incluso el judicial, tena que educar sobre el SIDA. Todo el mundo. El pblico, las instituciones, las instituciones religiosas, las escuelas, todos estaban involucrados. +Aqu, todo el personal de los medios tena que ser entrenado en VIH. +Le dimos a cada estacin medio minuto extra para publicidad, para ganar ms dinero. +As que estaban felices con eso. +Y luego la educacin sobre SIDA en las escuelas, comenzando por la universidad. +Estos son alumnos de secundaria ensendole a otros alumnos. +Las mejores profesoras eran las muchachas, no los chicos. Eran fabulosas. +Estas chicas que iban formando en el sexo seguro y el VIH eran conocidas como Madre Teresa. +Y luego dimos un paso ms. +Estos son nios de primaria, de tercero, cuarto grado, yendo a cada casa de la aldea, a cada casa en toda Tailandia, brindando informacin sobre SIDA y un condn en cada casa, entregado por estos jvenes. +Y los padres no se opusieron porque estbamos tratando de salvar vidas y esto era un salvavidas. +Dijimos: "Todos tienen que involucrarse". +Tenamos que hacer que las compaas entiendan que el personal enfermo no trabaja, y los clientes muertos no compran. +Por eso todos capacitaban. +Y luego estaba el Capitn Condn, con su MBA de Harvard, yendo a escuelas y centros nocturnos. +Lo amaban. Los smbolos son necesarios. +En cada pas, cada programa, se necesita un smbolo, y esto es probablemente lo mejor que haya hecho con su MBA. +Y luego repartimos condones por todas partes en la calle, por todos lados, en todos lados. +En los taxis, condones. +Y tambin en el trfico: los policas te dan condones; es el programa "poli y condones". +Se imaginan a los policas Nueva York repartiendo condones? +Yo claro que s. Y lo disfrutaran muchsimo. Los veo caminado por ah ahora, en todos lados. +Imaginen si tuvieran condones para darle a todo tipo de personas. +Y luego, nuevo cambio: diademas, prendas de vestir, y el condn para el mvil para la temporada de lluvia. +Presentamos estos condones. +Uno dice: "arma de proteccin masiva". +La encontramos. Alguien aqu buscaba el arma de destruccin masiva, pues nosotros encontramos el arma de proteccin masiva: el condn. +Y aqu dice, con la bandera de EE.UU.: "No salgas de casa sin l". +Tengo algunos para repartir despus. +Pero son de tamao tailands, as que tengan cuidado. +Como pueden ver los condones pueden hacer varias cosas. +Miren este. Le di este a Al Gore y tambin a Bill Senior. +Para el calentamiento global: usa condones. +Y esta es la foto que les mencion: el arma de proteccin masiva. +Y permitamos a los Juegos Olmpicos salvar vidas. +Por qu slo correr? +Y, finalmente, en Tailandia somos budistas, no tenemos un Dios, por eso decimos: "En el condn confiamos". +como pueden ver, hemos sumado todo a nuestro esfuerzo para hacerle la vida mejor a la gente. +Tenamos condones en todos los refrigeradores de los hoteles y escuelas, porque el alcohol afecta el juicio. +Y qu sucedi despus? +Despus de todo este tiempo se sumaron todos. +Segn la ONU, los nuevos casos de VIH disminuyeron en un 90%. Y para el Banco Mundial se salvaron 7,7 millones de vidas. +De lo contrario hoy muchos tailandeses no estaran por ah. +Esto nos muestra que uno podra hacer algo al respecto. +El 90% del financiamiento vino de Tailandia. +Haba compromiso poltico, algo de compromiso financiero, y todo el mundo se sum a la lucha. +No le dejemos esta tarea a los especialistas, mdicos y enfermeras. +Todos tenemos que ayudar. +Despus decidimos ayudar a la gente a salir de la pobreza ahora que de alguna manera paleamos el SIDA, esta vez, no slo con el gobierno sino en cooperacin con la comunidad empresarial. +Porque los pobres son empresarios sin habilidades comerciales ni acceso al crdito. +Esas son las cosas que debe proporcionar a la comunidad empresarial. +Estamos tratando de convertirlos en "emprendedores de a pie" pequeos empresarios. +La nica manera de salir de la pobreza es con empresas comerciales. +Eso se hizo. +El dinero fue de la empresa al poblado va la plantacin de rboles. +No es un regalo. +Ellos plantan los rboles, y el dinero entra en su fondo de microcrditos, al que llamamos Banco de Desarrollo Rural. +Todos participan y sienten que son dueos del banco porque han puesto el dinero all. +Y antes de pedir el dinero uno debe recibir entrenamiento. +Y creemos que, si uno quiere ayudar a los pobres, a los que viven en la pobreza, el acceso al crdito debe ser un derecho humano. +El acceso al crdito debe ser un derecho humano. +De otro modo nunca saldrn de la pobreza. +Y antes de conseguir un crdito, uno tiene que ser entrenado. +Esto es lo que llamamos un "MBA de a pie" que le ensea a la gente cmo hacer negocios para que cuando pidan dinero tengan xito con el negocio. +Estos son algunos de los negocios: hongos, cangrejos, verduras, rboles, frutas, y esto es muy interesante: helados y galletas Nike. Esta es una aldea auspiciada por Nike. +Ellos dicen: "Deberan dejar de hacer zapatos y ropa. +Mejor hagan esto, porque podemos pagarlos". +Y luego tenemos la seda tailandesa. +Ahora estamos haciendo tartanes escoceses, como se ve a la izquierda, para venderle a la gente con antepasados escoceses. +A quienes estn sentados mirando TV contctense conmigo. +Y esta es la respuesta tailandesa a Starbucks: "Caf y Condones". +Starbucks te despierta, nosotros te mantenemos despierto y con vida. +Esa es la diferencia. +Se imaginan si en cada Starbucks se consiguieran condones? +Podramos pedir los condones con el capuchino. +Y ahora, finalmente, la educacin: queremos convertir a la escuela, que est sub-utilizada, en un centro de aprendizaje permanente para todos. +Lo llamamos Desarrollo Rural Integrado en torno a la Escuela. +Y es un centro, de coordinacin, para el desarrollo econmico y social. +Re hacer la escuela, ponerla al servicio de la comunidad. +Y aqu hay un edificio de bamb. Todos son de bamb. +Es una cpula geodsica de bamb. +Y estoy seguro que Buckminster Fuller estara muy, muy orgulloso de ver una cpula geodsica de bamb. +Y usamos verduras del terreno de la escuela, as que cultivan sus propias verduras. +Y, para terminar, creo firmemente si queremos que los ODM funcionen, los Objetivos de Desarrollo del Milenio, tenemos que agregarles la planificacin familiar. +Claro, primero la mortalidad infantil y luego la planificacin familiar. Todos necesitan servicios de planificacin familiar. Se utiliza poco. +Hemos encontrado el arma de proteccin masiva. +Y le pedimos a los prximos Juegos Olmpicos que se involucren en salvar vidas. +Y, finalmente, esa es nuestra red. +Y estos son los tulipanes tailandeses. +Thank you very much indeed. Muchas gracias. +Gente, me gustara pasar unos minutos con Uds imaginando la forma de nuestro planeta en mil aos. +Pero antes de hacerlo tengo que hablarles de materiales sintticos como los plsticos cuya creacin consume grandes cantidades de energa y debido a los problemas de su eliminacin estn contaminando lentamente el planeta. +Tambin quiero contarles y compartir con Uds cmo mi equipo y yo hemos estado usando los hongos en los ltimos 3 aos. +No de ese modo. Los estamos usando para crear materiales completamente nuevos que rinden en gran medida como los plsticos pero se hacen con desechos de cultivos y son totalmente biodegradables al final de sus vidas. +Pero primero tengo que hablarles de lo que considero es uno de los culpables ms flagrantes en la categora plsticos desechables. +Es un material conocido: la espuma de poliestireno, pero me gusta verla como una sustancia blanca txica. +En 33 cm3 de este material, como el envase de una computadora o un televisor grande, existe el mismo contenido de energa: cerca de un litro y medio de petrleo. +Sin embargo, en unas semanas de uso uno tira este material a la basura. +Esto no se encuentra slo en los envases. +Se producen 20.000 millones de dlares de este material por ao en todo, desde materiales de construccin, tablas de surf, tazas de caf, hasta mesas. +Pero no es el nico lugar donde se encuentra. +La agencia ambiental de EE.UU. estima que por volumen este material ocupa el 25% de los vertederos. +Peor an cuando se hace camino en nuestro medio ambiente natural al lado de la carretera, o de un ro. +Si no es recogido por un ser humano, como Uds y yo, va a permanecer all durante miles y miles de aos. +Quiz, incluso peor, si se hace camino por los ocanos, como el gran remolino de basura, donde estos materiales se parten mecnicamente en trozos cada vez ms pequeos pero no desaparecen. +No son biolgicamente compatibles. +Estn echando a perder los sistemas respiratorio y circulatorio terrestres. +Y debido a que estos materiales son tan prolficos, porque se encuentran en tantos lugares, hay otro lugar donde encontrarn este material, el estireno, hecho de bencina, un conocido carcingeno. +Lo van a encontrar dentro de Uds. +As, por todas estas razones, creo que necesitamos mejores materiales y hay tres principios clave que podemos usar para encontrarlos. +El primero es la materia prima. +Hoy usamos un solo insumo, el petrleo, para calentar hogares, propulsar autos, y construir los materiales que vemos a nuestro alrededor. +Reconocemos que este es un recurso finito, y hacer esto es simplemente una locura, tirar un litro y medio de gasolina a la basura cada vez que recibimos un paquete. +El segundo principio: deberamos usar mucha menos energa en la creacin de estos materiales. +Digo mucho menos porque el 10% no se va a recortar. +Deberamos estar hablando de la mitad, un cuarto, una dcima parte del contenido energtico. +Y finalmente, quiz el principio ms importante: deberamos crear materiales que se ajusten a lo que yo llamo sistema de reciclaje natural. +Este sistema de reciclaje ha estado en vigor durante mil millones de aos. +Yo me ajusto a eso, Uds se ajustan a eso, y como mximo en 100 aos mi cuerpo puede volver a la Tierra sin preprocesamiento. +Mientras que el envase que vino ayer con el correo va a durar miles de aos. +Es una locura. +Pero la Naturaleza nos ofrece un modelo muy bueno. +Cuando un rbol termina de usar sus hojas, sus colectores solares, estos dispositivos asombrosos de captura de fotones, al final de una estacin no las empaquetan, ni las envan al centro de reprocesamiento de hojas para derretirlas y formar as nuevas hojas. +Sencillamente las dejan caer, la distancia ms corta posible, al suelo del bosque, formando as la superficie del suelo del prximo ao. +Y esto nos lleva de vuelta a los hongos. +Porque en la Naturaleza los hongos son el sistema de reciclaje. +Y hemos descubierto que usando una parte del hongo que probablemente nunca han visto, anloga a la estructura de la raz (se llama micelio) podemos cultivar materiales con muchas de las propiedades de los materiales sintticos convencionales. +El micelio es un material increble porque es auto-ensamblable. +Toma cosas que consideraramos residuos, como cscaras de semillas o biomasa leosa y las puede transformar en un polmero de quitina que puede modelarse de casi cualquier forma. +En nuestro proceso lo usamos bsicamente como pegamento. +Y al usar el micelio como pegamento pueden moldearse cosas del mismo modo que en la industria del plstico y se pueden crear materiales con propiedades muy diferentes, materiales aislantes, ignfugos, materiales que pueden absorber impactos, absorber impactos acsticos. +Pero estos materiales se producen a partir de subproductos agrcolas, sin petrleo. +Y dado que estn hechos de materiales naturales, pueden biodegradarse 100% en sus patios traseros. +As que me gustara compartir con Uds los 4 pasos bsicos necesarios para hacer estos materiales. +El primero es la seleccin de la materia prima, de preferencia algo regional, que est en sus reas, s? fabricacin local. +Lo siguiente es tomar esa materia prima y ponerla en una herramienta llenar algo fsicamente, un molde, en cualquier forma que quieran obtener. +Luego cultivan el micelio a travs de estas partculas, y ah es que ocurre la magia, porque es el organismo el que est haciendo el trabajo, no el equipamiento. +El paso final es el producto, por supuesto, ya sea un material de envasado, una mesa, o un bloque de construccin. +Nuestra visin es la fabricacin local, como el movimiento local de alimentos, en la produccin. +Para ello hemos creado formulaciones para todo el mundo con subproductos regionales. +En China se podra usar la cscara de arroz o la semilla de algodn. +En el norte de Europa o de Amrica las cscaras de alforfn o de avena. +Luego procesamos estas cscaras con un equipamiento bsico. +Y quiero compartir con Uds un breve video de nuestras instalaciones que les va a dar una idea de cmo se ve esto a gran escala. +Aqu estamos viendo cascos de algodn de Texas, en este caso. +Es un producto de desecho. +Lo que hacen en estos equipos es pasar por un sistema continuo que limpia, cocina, enfra y pasteuriza estos materiales, al tiempo que se los inocula con nuestro micelio. +Esto nos da un flujo continuo de material que podemos modelar de casi cualquier forma. Hoy estamos haciendo esquineros. +Y es cuando esto entra en la pieza que comienza la magia. +Porque el proceso de fabricacin es nuestro organismo. +Va a comenzar a digerir estos residuos y en los prximos cinco das los va a ensamblar en biocompuestos. +Toda la instalacin est compuesta de miles y miles de estas herramientas ubicadas en el interior, a oscuras, auto-ensamblando materiales en silencio para construir materiales como, en este caso, esquineros para embalaje. +Como he dicho en varias oportunidades, cultivamos materiales. +Y es difcil imaginar cmo sucede esto. +Por eso mi equipo ha condensado 5 das, un ciclo tpico de crecimiento, en un lapso de 15 segundos. +Y quiero que observen detenidamente estos puntitos blancos en la pantalla porque, en 5 das, se expanden por el material usando la energa contenida en estas cscaras para construir esta matriz de polmero quitinoso. +Esta matriz se auto-ensambla, crece a travs y alrededor de las partculas, creando millones y millones de minsculas fibras. +Y las partes de la cscara que no se digieren forman parte del compuesto fsico final. +Frente a sus ojos tienen la pieza auto-ensamblada. +En realidad tarda un poco ms. Tarda 5 das. +Pero es mucho ms rpido que el cultivo convencional. +El ltimo paso, claro, es la aplicacin. +En este caso cultivamos un esquinero. +Un importante fabricante de muebles usa estos esquineros para proteger sus mesas en los envos. +Solan usar envases de plstico pero pudimos darles exactamente el mismo rendimiento fsico con nuestro material cultivado. +Lo mejor de todo es que cuando va al cliente, no es basura. +Pueden poner esto en su ecosistema natural, sin transformacin, y va a mejorar el suelo local. +Por qu el micelio? +La primera razn es la materia prima local. +Uno quiere disponibilidad en todo el mundo sin preocuparse por aumentos de precios de las cscaras usadas, porque hay muchas opciones. +Otra razn es el auto-ensamblado, porque el organismo hace la mayor parte del trabajo en este proceso. +No se requiere mucho equipamiento para poner una planta de produccin. +Uno puede tener un montn de instalaciones pequeas dispersas por el mundo. +La produccin biolgica es muy importante. +Y dado que el 100% de lo que ponemos en la herramienta se convierte en producto final, incluso las partes que no se digieren forman parte de la estructura, conseguimos tasas de rendimiento increbles. +Los polmeros naturales, bueno... creo que eso es lo ms importante, estos polmeros han sido probados en el ecosistema durante mil millones de aos en todo, desde hongos hasta crustceos. +No van a atascar los ecosistemas terrestres. Funcionan muy bien. +Y mientras que hoy podemos prcticamente garantizar que el embalaje de ayer va a estar aqu dentro de 10.000 aos, lo que les garantizo es que en 10.000 aos nuestros descendentes, los hijos de nuestros hijos, van a vivir felices y en harmona en un planeta sano. +Y creo que esa puede ser una noticia muy buena. +Gracias. +Hoy quiero hablarles de prosperidad, de nuestras esperanzas en una prosperidad compartida y duradera. +Y no slo para nosotros sino para los dos mil millones de personas en el mundo que todava padecen desnutricin crnica. +Y de hecho la esperanza est en el centro de esto. +De hecho, la palabra en latn para esperanza est en el centro de la palabra prosperidad. +"Pro-speras", "speras", esperanza: de acuerdo con nuestras esperanzas y expectativas. +La irona, sin embargo es que hemos intercambiado la prosperidad casi literalmente en trminos de dinero y de crecimiento econmico. +Y la recesin, por supuesto, tampoco es precisamente algo esperanzador, tal y como ahora estamos descubriendo. +As que estamos en una especie de trampa. +Es un dilema, el dilema del crecimiento. +No podemos vivir con l, no podemos vivir sin l. +Desecha el sistema o destroza el planeta. Es una eleccin difcil. No hay mucho para elegir. +Y nuestra mejor ruta de escape es de hecho cierto tipo de fe ciega en nuestra propia inteligencia, tecnologa, rendimiento y en hacer las cosas ms eficientemente. +No es que yo tenga nada en contra de la eficiencia. +Y creo que a veces somos una especie inteligente. +Pero creo que tambin deberamos revisar las cifras, enfrentar la realidad en este momento. +As que quiero que imaginen un mundo en el 2050, de alrededor nueve mil millones de personas, todas aspirando a ingresos occidentales, estilos de vida occidentales. +Y quiero hacer una pregunta... ...y que tengan tambin ese aumento anual del dos por ciento en sus salarios porque creemos en el crecimiento. +Y quiero hacer la pregunta: Qu tan lejos y que tan rpido tendramos que movernos? +Qu tan inteligentes tendramos que ser? +Cunta tecnologa necesitaramos en este mundo para alcanzar nuestras metas de carbono? +Y aqu, en mi grfica, a la izquierda es en donde estamos ahora. +Esta es la intensidad de carbono de crecimiento econmico en la economa en este momento. +Est alrededor de los 770 gramos de carbono. +En el mundo que les describo, tendramos que estar justo aqu al lado derecho en los seis gramos de carbono. +Es una mejora 130 veces superior y eso es 10 veces ms lejos y ms rpido que cualquier cosa que jams se haya logrado en la historia industrial. +Quizs podemos hacerlo, tal vez es posible, quin sabe? +Quizs lleguemos ms lejos incluso y obtengamos una economa que extrae el carbono de la atmsfera, que es lo que necesitaremos estar haciendo a finales de siglo. +Pero, no deberamos revisar primero si el sistema econmico que tenemos es remotamente capaz de ofrecer este tipo de mejora? +As que quiero invertir un par de minutos en dinmica de sistemas. +Es un poco complejo, y me disculpo por eso. +Lo que intentar hacer es tratar de parafrasearlo en trminos humanos. +As que es algo como esto. +Las empresas producen bienes para los hogares, nosotros, y nos brindan ingresos, y eso es mejor, porque podemos gastar esos ingresos en ms bienes y servicios. +A eso se le llama el flujo circular econmico. +Parece bastante inofensivo. +Slo quiero resaltar una caracterstica clave de este sistema: el papel de la inversin. +Bueno, las inversiones constituyen tan slo un quinto del ingreso nacional en la mayora de las economas modernas, pero juegan un papel absolutamente vital. +Y lo que hacen esencialmente es estimular un mayor crecimiento del consumo. +Esto lo logran de dos maneras. Persiguiendo la productividad, lo que baja los precios y nos anima a comprar ms cosas. +Pero quiero concentrarme en el papel de las inversiones en la bsqueda de lo novedoso, la produccin y el consumo de lo novedoso. +Joseph Schumpeter llam a esto "el proceso de la destruccin creativa". +Es un proceso de produccin y reproduccin de lo novedoso, que persigue continuamente expandir los mercados de consumo, bienes de consumo, nuevos bienes de consumo. +Y aqu, aqu es donde se pone interesante porque resulta que los seres humanos tienen cierta atraccin por lo novedoso. +Nos encanta lo nuevo, nuevas cosas materiales obviamente pero tambin nuevas ideas, nuevas aventuras, nuevas experiencias. +Pero lo material importa tambin. Porque, en cada sociedad que los antroplogos han examinado, las cosas materiales funcionan como un tipo de lenguaje, un lenguaje de bienes un lenguaje simblico que utilizamos para contarnos historias... Historias, por ejemplo sobre qu tan importantes somos. +El consumo ostensible, impulsado por el estatus prospera gracias al lenguaje de lo novedoso. +Y aqu, repentinamente tenemos a un sistema que conjunta una estructura econmica con lgica social.... las instituciones econmicas, y quines somos como personas, conjuntados para impulsar un motor de crecimiento. +Y este motor no es slo de valor econmico; va moviendo recursos materiales implacablemente a travs del sistema, impulsado por nuestros propios apetitos insaciables, conducido, de hecho, por un sentimiento de ansiedad. +Hace 200 aos, Adam Smith habl sobre nuestra aspiracin a una vida sin vergenza. +Una vida sin vergenza: en esa poca, eso significaba camisas de lino, y actualmente, bueno, necesitas la camisa todava pero tambin necesitas el auto hbrido, la HDTV, dos vacaciones al ao en el sol, la netbook y el iPad, la lista sigue... un suministro casi inextinguible de bienes impulsados por esta ansiedad. +E incluso aunque no los queramos necesitamos comprarlos, porque si no los compramos, el sistema colapsa. +Y para evitar que colapse durante las ltimas dos o tres dcadas hemos ampliado el suministro de dinero, expandido el crdito y el endeudamiento para que la gente siga comprando cosas. +Y por supuesto, esa expansin contribuy enormemente a la crisis. +Pero esto... quiero mostrarles algunos datos. +Es as como se ve, en esencia el sistema de crdito y dbito, slo para el Reino Unido. +Estos son los 15 aos anteriores al colapso. Como pueden ver ah, la deuda privada aument estrepitosamente. +Estuvo por encima del PIB durante tres aos consecutivos justo antes de la crisis. +Y mientras tanto, el ahorro personal se desplom completamente. +La proporcin de ahorros, ahorros netos, fueron inferiores a cero a mediados de 2008 justo antes del colapso. +Estas son personas incrementando sus deudas, agotando sus ahorros slo para permanecer en el juego. +Esta es una historia extraa, bastante perversa para ponerlo en trminos muy sencillos: +es la historia de cmo nos persuaden, a la gente, de gastar dinero que no tenemos en cosas que no necesitamos para crear impresiones efmeras en personas que no nos importan. +Pero antes de entregarnos a la desesperacin quizs deberamos regresar y preguntarnos: "Lo estamos haciendo bien?" +"De verdad es as la gente?" +"De verdad as se comportan los economistas?" +Y casi de inmediato nos topamos con un par de anomalas. +La primera es la propia crisis. +Durante la crisis, durante la recesin, qu quiere hacer la gente? +Quieren agazaparse. Quieren pensar en el futuro. +Quieren gastar menos y ahorrar ms. +Pero ahorrar es precisamente la respuesta equivocada desde el punto de vista del sistema. +Keynes llam a esto "la paradoja del ahorro": los ahorros desaceleran la recuperacin. +Y los polticos nos instan continuamente a adquirir ms deudas, a reducir an ms nuestros propios ahorros slo para que siga la funcin y mantener funcionando a esta economa basada en el crecimiento. +Es una anomala, un punto en el que el sistema est reido de hecho con lo que somos como personas. +Este es otro, uno completamente diferente: por qu no hacemos las cosas evidentemente obvias que deberamos hacer para combatir al cambio climtico, cosas muy, muy sencillas como comprar dispositivos de bajo consumo, instalar lmparas de bajo consumo, apagndolas ocasionalmente, aislar nuestras casas? +Estas cosas ahorran carbono, ahorran energa nos ahorran dinero. +As que aunque tienen mucho sentido econmico no las hacemos. +Bueno, hace algunos aos yo tuve mi propia revelacin personal sobre esto. +Fue una noche de domingo, una tarde de domingo, y fue un poco despus... bueno, para ser honesto, bastante despus... de que nos mudramos a una nueva casa. +Y haba finalmente conseguido hacer un sellado trmico, instalando aislamiento alrededor de las ventanas y las puertas para evitar que entrara el aire fro. ["drafts", NT] +Y mi hija, de cinco aos en aquel entonces, me ayudaba tal y como hacen los nios de cinco aos. +Y ya llevbamos un rato haciendo esto cuando se volte hacia m de forma muy solemne y dijo: "De verdad as no entrarn las jirafas?" ["girafes", NT] +["girafes" "drafts", NT] "Las jirafas estn aqu". +Es la fantasa de una mente de cinco aos. +Estas, por cierto, estn a 640 kilmetros al norte de aqu en las afueras de Barrow-in-Furness en Cumbria. +Slo Dios sabe qu le han hecho al clima de Lake District. +Pero de hecho esta distorsin infantil se me qued grabada, porque de repente vi con claridad por qu no hacemos las cosas evidentemente obvias. +Cul es el objetivo? +"Cul es el objetivo del consumidor?" +preguntaba Mary Douglas en un ensayo sobre la pobreza escrito hace 35 aos. +Y dijo: "Consiste en ayudar a crear el mundo social y encontrar un lugar creble en l". +Esa es una visin profundamente humanizante de nuestras vidas, y es una visin totalmente diferente de la que se ubica en el centro de este modelo econmico. +Entonces, quines somos? +Quines son esas personas? +Somos esos individuos egostas, buscadores de novedades y hedonistas? +O quizs en realidad seamos ocasionalmente un poco como el desinteresado altruista representado aqu en este encantador boceto de Rembrandt? +Bueno, la psicologa de hecho nos dice que existe un conflicto, una tensin entre comportamientos basados en el inters propio y comportamientos basados en el inters ajeno. +Y esos conflictos tienen profundas races evolutivas. Tal comportamiento egosta es adaptativo bajo ciertas circunstancias: luchar o huir. +Pero los comportamientos que toman en cuenta a los dems son esenciales para nuestra evolucin como seres sociales. +Y quizs lo ms interesante desde nuestro punto de vista, hay otra tensin entre comportamientos que buscan lo novedoso y la tradicin o conservacin. +Lo novedoso es adaptativo cuando las cosas estn cambiando y necesitas adaptarte t mismo. +La tradicin es esencial para brindar estabilidad para formar familias y grupos sociales cohesivos. +Entonces aqu, repentinamente, estamos viendo un mapa del corazn humano. +Y nos revela de repente el quid del asunto. +Hemos creado economas. +Hemos creado sistemas que sistemticamente privilegian, alientan, una parte pequea del alma humana y deja a los otros ignorados. +Y al mismo tiempo, la solucin se vuelve clara, porque, dado lo anterior, esto no se trata de cambiar la naturaleza humana. +No se trata, de hecho, de restringir posibilidades. +Se trata de abrirlas. +Se trata de permitirnos a nosotros mismos la libertad de volvernos completamente humanos reconociendo la profundidad y la amplitud de la psique humana y construir instituciones para proteger al frgil altruista de Rembrandt interior. +Qu significa todo esto en economa? +Cmo seran las economas si tomramos esa visin de la naturaleza humana en su esencia y las desplegramos a lo largo de esas dimensiones ortogonales de la psique humana? +Bueno, quizs se parecera un poquito a las 4.000 empresas de inters comunitario que han surgido en el Reino Unido durante los ltimos cinco aos con un aumento similar en compaas B en los Estados Unidos, empresas que tienen metas ecolgicas y sociales escritas en sus estatutos en su corazn, compaas, de hecho, como sta, Ecosia. +Y slo quiero, muy rpidamente, mostrarles esto. +Ecosia es un motor de bsquedas por Internet. +Los motores de bsquedas en Internet funcionan gracias a los ingresos producidos por los enlaces patrocinados que aparecen cuando haces una bsqueda. +Y el sistema de Ecosia funciona prcticamente igual. +Podemos hacer eso aqu. Podemos introducir un pequeo trmino de bsqueda. +Ah lo tienen, Oxford, es donde estamos. Vean lo que sale. +Pero la diferencia con Ecosia es que, en el caso de Ecosia, obtiene del mismo modo sus ingresos, pero destina el 80% de esos ingresos a un proyecto de proteccin de selvas tropicales en el Amazonas. +Y vamos a hacerlo. +Vamos a hacer clic en Naturejobs.uk +En caso de que alguien por ah est buscando trabajo durante la recesin, sta es la pgina a la que hay que ir. +Y lo que ocurri fue que el patrocinador le dio ingresos a Ecosia y Ecosia le est dando el 80% de ellos a un proyecto de reforestacin de selvas. +Est tomando ganancias de un lugar y asignndolas a la proteccin de recursos ecolgicos. +Es un tipo diferente de empresa para una nueva economa. +Es una forma, si as quieren llamarle, de altruismo ecolgico... Quizs algo cercano a eso. Tal vez es eso. +Lo que sea que fuere, lo que sea que es sta nueva economa, lo que necesitamos que la economa haga, de hecho, es invertir nuevamente en el corazn del modelo, re-imaginar qu es invertir. +Slo que ahora invertir no va a tratarse de la bsqueda incesante y absurda del incremento en el consumo. +Invertir tiene que ser algo distinto. +Invertir tiene que ser, en la nueva economa, proteger y nutrir los activos ecolgicos de los que depende nuestro futuro. +Tiene que tratarse de transicin. +Tiene que ser invertir en tecnologas e infraestructuras bajas en carbono. +Tenemos que invertir, de hecho, en la idea de la prosperidad con sentido, ofreciendo capacidades para que las personas florezcan. +Y por supuesto, esta tarea tiene dimensiones materiales. +Sera un absurdo hablar de que las personas florezcan cuando no tienen comida, vestido y vivienda. +Pero tambin est claro que prosperidad es ms que esto. +Tiene objetivos sociales y psicolgicos... familia, amigos, compromisos, sociedad, participar en la vida de tal sociedad. +Y esto tambin requiere inversin, inversin, por ejemplo, en lugares lugares donde podamos relacionarnos, lugares donde podamos participar, lugares compartidos, salas de concierto, jardines, parques pblicos, bibliotecas, museos, centros de reposo, lugares de alegra y celebracin, lugares de tranquilidad y contemplacin, lugares para "el cultivo de una ciudadana comn" en la encantadora frase de Michael Sandel. +Una inversin... invertir despus de todo, es un concepto econmico tan bsico, no es nada ms ni nada menos que una relacin entre el presente y el futuro, un presente compartido y un futuro comn. +Y necesitamos esa relacin para reflejar, para recuperar la esperanza. +As que permtanme regresar, con este significado de la esperanza, a los dos mil millones de personas que an intentan vivir cada da con menos que lo que cuesta un caf con leche de la cafetera de al lado. +Qu podemos ofrecerles a estas personas? +Es claro que tenemos una responsabilidad de ayudarlos a salir de la pobreza. +Es claro que tenemos una responsabilidad de dejar espacio para el crecimiento en donde crecer realmente importa en esas naciones ms pobres. +Y tambin es claro que nunca conseguiremos eso a menos que seamos capaces de redefinir un sentido profundo de prosperidad en las naciones ms ricas, una prosperidad que tenga ms sentido y sea menos materialista que el modelo fundamentado en el crecimiento. +As que esto no es slo una fantasa occidental post-materialista. +De hecho, un filsofo africano me escribi cuando fue publicado el libro "Prosperidad sin crecimiento", sealando las semejanzas entre esta visin de la prosperidad y el concepto tradicional africano de ubuntu. +Ubuntu dice: "Yo soy porque nosotros somos". +La prosperidad es un esfuerzo compartido. +Sus races son largas y profundas. Sus fundamentos, he intentado mostrar, ya existen dentro de cada uno de nosotros. +As que no se trata de obstaculizar al desarrollo. +No se trata de derrocar al capitalismo. +No se trata de cambiar la naturaleza humana. +Lo que estamos haciendo aqu es dar unos pasos sencillos hacia una economa que abarque el sentido humano. +Y en el centro de esa economa, instalamos una visin ms creble, ms robusta y ms realista de lo que significa ser un ser humano. +Muchsimas gracias. +Chris Anderson: Mientras retiran el podio, una pregunta rpida. +Primero que nada, no se supone que los economistas sean inspiradores, as que quizs necesitas trabajar un poco en el tono. +Puedes imaginarte a los polticos aceptando esto alguna vez? +Es decir, puedes imaginarte a un poltico en Gran Bretaa ponerse de pie y decir: "Este ao el PIB cay 2%. Qu bien!" +"Todos somos ms felices, el pas es ms hermoso y nuestras vidas son mejores". +Tim Jackson: Bueno, claramente eso no es lo que haras. +No son noticia las cosas que estn cayendo. +Vuelves noticia a las cosas que te dicen que estamos floreciendo. +Puedo imaginarme a los polticos haciendo eso? +De hecho, ya estoy viendo algo de eso. +Cuando comenzamos con este tipo de trabajo, los polticos se ponan de pie, el vocero de Hacienda se pona de pie y nos acusaba de querer regresar a vivir en cuevas. +Y de hecho en este tiempo en el que hemos estado trabajando los ltimos 18 aos, en parte a causa de la crisis financiera y a un poco de humildad en la profesin de la economa, las personas realmente se estn involucrando en este tema en todo tipo de pases de todo el mundo. +CA: Pero sern principalmente los polticos los que tendrn que organizarse, o ser sobre todo la sociedad civil y las empresas? +TJ: Tienen que estar las empresas. Tiene que estar la sociedad civil. +Pero tiene que haber liderazgo poltico. +Este es una clase de agenda, en la cual de hecho los polticos mismo estn como atrapados en ese dilema, porque ellos mismos estn enganchados al modelo de crecimiento. +Pero de hecho, abrir oportunidades para pensar en diferentes formas de gobernar, en diferentes formas de hacer poltica, y abrir oportunidades para que la sociedad civil y los negocios funcionen de forma diferente, es absolutamente vital. +CA: Y si alguien pudiera convencerte de que realmente podemos alcanzar cunto era?, esa mejora de 130 veces en la eficiencia en la reduccin de la huella de carbono, entonces, te gustara esa imagen del crecimiento econmico convirtindose en ms bienes basados en el conocimiento? +TJ: Yo an querra saber que puedes hacer eso y llegar a cifras negativas a finales del siglo, en trminos de retirar carbono de la atmsfera, y solucionar el problema de la biodiversidad y reducir el impacto en el uso de la tierra y hacer algo respecto a la erosin de la capa arable y la calidad del agua. +Si puedes convencerme de que podemos hacer todo eso, entonces s, aceptara el 2%. +CA: Tim, gracias por una charla muy importante. Gracias. +Toda la vida me fascin la belleza, la forma y la funcin del atn rojo gigante. +Es de sangre caliente como nosotros. +Es el ms grande de los atunes; el segundo pez ms grande del mar... con espinas. +En realidad es un pez endotrmico: se propulsa por el ocano con msculos calientes como un mamfero. +Ese es un atn rojo en el Acuario de la Baha de Monterrey. +Pueden ver en su forma y en su diseo aerodinmico que est equipado para nadar en el ocano. +Vuela por el ocano con sus aletas pectorales, se eleva, realza sus movimientos con la cola semilunar. +Tiene la piel al descubierto en casi todo el cuerpo para reducir la friccin con el agua. Por eso... +es una de las mquinas ms fantsticas de la Naturaleza. +El atn rojo fue venerado por el Hombre en toda la historia humana. +Durante 4.000 aos pescamos este animal de manera sostenible y hay evidencia de eso en el arte que vemos de hace miles de aos. +El atn rojo en pinturas rupestres de Francia. +Estn en monedas que datan de hace 3.000 aos. +Este pez fue venerado por la Humanidad. +Se pescaba de modo sostenible, en todas las pocas, salvo en nuestra generacin. +El atn rojo es perseguido dondequiera que vaya. Hay una fiebre del oro en el planeta, una fiebre del oro por el atn rojo. +Haba trampas que pescaban de manera sostenible hasta hace poco. +Y, sin embargo, el tipo de pesca de hoy en da, con rediles, con estacas enormes, est aniquilando ecolgicamente al atn rojo del planeta. +En general, el atn rojo va a un lugar: Japn. +Alguno de Uds. pueden ser culpables de haber contribuido a la desaparicin del atn rojo. +Tienen msculos deliciosos ricos en grasa... con un sabor absolutamente delicioso. +Y ese es su problema: los estamos comiendo hasta la extincin. +En el Atlntico la historia es bastante simple. +Hay dos poblaciones de atn rojo: una grande y una pequea. +La poblacin norteamericana se pesca a unas 2.000 toneladas. +La poblacin europea y norafricana, el atn rojo oriental, se pesca a niveles tremendos: 50.000 toneladas en la ltima dcada casi todos los aos. +El resultado es que si uno mira las poblaciones de atn, en Occidente o en Oriente, ha habido una tremenda cada en ambos lados hasta del 90% si nos remontamos a la lnea base de 1950. +Por eso, al atn rojo se le ha dado el estatus equivalente a los tigres, leones, a ciertos elefantes africanos, y a los pandas. +Estos peces han sido propuestos como especie en peligro de extincin en los ltimos dos meses. +Se vot y fueron rechazados hace apenas dos semanas a pesar de la marcada evidencia que muestra a partir de dos comits que esta especie cumple los criterios de la CITES I. +Si se trata de atunes y no les importa, quiz s podra interesarles saber que las largas lneas de pesca internacionales persiguiendo al atn capturan sin querer animales como tortugas lad, tiburones, marlines, albatros. +La desaparicin de estos animales se produce en los caladeros de atn. +El desafo que enfrentamos es que sabemos muy poco sobre el atn, y todos en la sala sabemos cmo es cuando un len africano atrapa su presa. +Dudo que alguien haya visto alimentarse al atn rojo. +Este atn simboliza el problema que todos tenemos en esta sala. +Estamos en el siglo XXI, pero en realidad recin empezamos a estudiar realmente los ocanos en profundidad. +La tecnologa ha evolucionado; eso nos permite ver la Tierra desde el espacio y sumergirnos en los mares de forma remota. +Tenemos que emplear estas tecnologas de manera inmediata para entender mejor cmo funciona el reino marino. +La mayora desde un barco, incluso yo, miramos el mar y lo vemos homogneo. +No sabemos dnde est la estructura. +No se nota donde estn los "espejos de agua" como en la planicie africana. +No podemos ver los corredores, y tampoco qu es lo que congrega al atn la tortuga lad y el albatros. +Recin estamos empezando a entender como la oceanografa fsica y la oceanografa biolgica se unen para crear una fuerza estacional que provoque el afloramiento para convertir una zona conflictiva en un "rea de esperanza". +Estos desafos son grandes porque hacerse a la mar es algo tcnicamente difcil. +Es difcil estudiar al atn rojo en su territorio: toda la regin del Pacfico. +Es muy difcil conocer de cerca y en persona a un tiburn marrajo y tratar de ponerle una etiqueta. +Imaginen ser parte del equipo de Bruce Mate de OSU, acercndose a una ballena azul y ponindole una etiqueta que perdure, un desafo de ingeniera que todava tenemos que superar. +La historia de nuestro equipo, un equipo dedicado, es de pescados y chips. +Bsicamente estamos tomando las componentes de un telfono satelital o de una computadora, los chips. +Las estamos ensamblando de formas inusuales y esto nos est acercando el reino marino como nunca antes. +Y por primera vez podemos ver el viaje de un atn bajo el ocano usando luz y fotones para medir la salida y la puesta del sol. +He estado trabajando con los atunes durante 15 aos. +Tengo el privilegio de ser socia del Acuario de la Baha de Monterrey. +De hecho, hemos tomado una franja del ocano, la pusimos detrs de un vidrio, y juntos hemos puesto en exhibicin al atn rojo y al rabil. +Cuando se levanta el velo de burbujas cada maana, podemos ver una comunidad del ocano marino uno de los pocos lugares del planeta donde se puede ver nadando al atn rojo gigante. +Se lo puede ver en su belleza de forma y funcin, en su actividad incesante. +Vuelan por su espacio, el espacio marino. +Y podemos poner a dos millones de personas al ao en contacto con este pez y mostrarles su belleza. +entre bambalinas hay un laboratorio de la Universidad de Stanford asociado con el Acuario de la Baha de Monterrey. +Aqu, durante 14 15 aos, hemos implantado en cautiverio al atn rojo y al rabil. +Hemos estado estudiando estos peces. Pero primero tuvimos que aprender a criarlos. +Qu les gusta comer? +Qu los hace felices? +Nos metemos en los tanques con el atn. Tocamos su piel desnuda. Es bastante sorprendente; maravilloso al tacto. +Jeff y Jason son cientficos que van a poner un atn en el equivalente de una cinta, de un canal de flujo. +Y ese atn piensa que va a Japn, pero se queda en el lugar. +En realidad estamos midiendo su consumo de oxgeno, su consumo de energa. +Estamos tomando estos datos para crear mejores modelos. +Y al ver ese atn, esta es mi vista favorita, empiezo a preguntarme: cmo resolvi este pez el problema de la longitud antes que nosotros? +Miren ese animal. +Probablemente es lo ms cerca que jams estarn. +Las actividades del laboratorio nos han enseado cmo salir al ocano abierto. +As, en el programa Tag-A-Giant (marca un gigante) hemos ido de Irlanda a Canad, de Crcega a Espaa. +Hemos pescado con muchas naciones en todo el mundo en un esfuerzo para, bsicamente, meter computadoras electrnicas en atunes gigantes. +Hemos etiquetado 1.100 atunes. +Les voy a mostrar tres clips porque etiquet 1.100 atunes. +Es un proceso muy duro, pero es un ballet. +Sacamos el atn. Lo medimos. +Un equipo de pescadores, capitanes, cientficos y tcnicos trabajan en conjunto para sacar a este animal del ocano unos 4 5 minutos. +Ponemos agua sobre sus branquias, le damos oxgeno. +Y luego, con mucho esfuerzo, luego de etiquetarlo de ingresarlo en la computadora, asegurndonos que la estaca est aferrada y detecte el ambiente, enviamos este pez de nuevo al mar. +Y cuando se va siempre estamos felices. +Vemos un golpe seco de la cola. +Y a partir de los datos obtenidos cuando esa etiqueta regresa, porque los pescadores la devuelven a cambio de una recompensa de mil dlares, podemos obtener pistas submarinas de hasta cinco aos, en un animal vertebrado. +A veces los atunes son muy grandes, como este pez de la costa de Nantucket. +Pero eso es la mitad del tamao de los ms grandes que hemos marcado. +Se necesita un esfuerzo humano, de equipo, para sacar el pez. +En este caso vamos a colocar en el atn una etiqueta satelital desplegable. +Se monta en el atn, detecta el ambiente que rodea al atn y, de hecho, se va a desprender del pez se va a separar, flotar en la superficie, y enviar a los satlites geoestacionarios la ubicacin calculada con la etiqueta, la presin y la temperatura. +Y entonces con la etiqueta satelital desplegable nos evitamos la interaccin humana para recuperar la etiqueta. +Las dos etiquetas electrnicas de las que hablo son caras. +Estas etiquetas han sido diseadas por varios equipos en Amrica del Norte. +Son uno de nuestros mejores instrumentos, nuestra nueva tecnologa en el ocano de hoy +Una comunidad, en general, nos ha ayudado ms que cualquier otra. +Y son los caladeros frente a las costas de Carolina del Norte. +Hay dos pueblos, Harris y Morehead City, cada invierno desde hace ms de una dcada, celebra la fiesta Tag-A-Giant (marca un gigante) y juntos con los pescadores marcamos de 800 a 900 peces. +En este caso, vamos a medir el pez. +Vamos a hacer algo que comenzamos en aos recientes: tomar muestras de mucosa. +Miren lo brillante de la piel; pueden ver mi reflejo all. +Con esa mucosa obtenemos perfiles genticos. Podemos obtener informacin de gnero, verificamos una vez ms la etiqueta desplegable y luego lo devolvemos al ocano. +Y esta es mi favorita. +Con ayuda de mi ex-post-doctorado, Gareth Lawson, esta es una imagen magnfica de un atn. +Este atn se mueve en un ocano numrico. +Lo caliente es la Corriente del Golfo, lo fro all arriba es el Golfo de Maine. +Ah es donde el atn quiere ir. Quiere buscar en los bancos de arenques. Pero no puede llegar. Hace demasiado fro. +Pero luego se calienta y aparece el atn, consigue algunos peces, quiz regrese a la base, va de nuevo y luego vuelve a pasar el invierno en Carolina del Norte y luego sigue a las Bahamas. +Y mi escena favorita: tres atunes entran en el Golfo de Mxico. +Tres atunes marcados. +Calculamos las posiciones desde el espacio. +Vienen juntos. Podra tratarse de sexo de atunes. Y ah est. +Ah es donde desova el atn. +As, a partir de datos de este tipo ahora podemos construir el mapa; y en este mapa ven miles de posiciones generadas en una dcada y media de marcado. +Y ahora estamos demostrando que los atunes en el lado occidental van a la parte oriental. +Hay dos poblaciones de atunes. Est la poblacin del Golfo, que podemos marcar... van al Golfo de Mxico, les mostr eso, y una segunda poblacin +que vive entre nuestros atunes, los de Amrica del Norte, son atunes europeos que regresan al Mediterrneo. +En las zonas conflictivas, las "reas de esperanza", hay poblaciones mixtas. +Y as lo hemos hecho con la evidencia cientfica es mostrarle a la Comisin Internacional nuevos modelos; mostrarle que el modelo de dos reservas separadas (que hoy se usa para rechazar el tratado de la CITES) no es el modelo correcto. +Este modelo, un modelo de superposicin, es la manera de avanzar. +Luego podemos predecir dnde ubicar los lugares de manejo. +Lugares como el Golfo de Mxico y el Mediterrneo son lugares donde las especies individuales, cada poblacin puede ser capturada. +Estos se convierten directamente en lugares a proteger. +El centro del Atlntico, donde se da la mezcla, imagino una poltica que permita la pesca a Canad y EE.UU., porque gestionan bien sus caladeros, estn haciendo un buen trabajo. +Pero en el mbito internacional, donde la pesca y la sobrepesca ha ido realmente salvajes, son estos lugares donde tenemos que hacer "reas de esperanza". +Ese es el tamao que tienen que tener para proteger al atn rojo. +En un segundo proyecto llamado Censo de Pelgicos del Pacfico tomamos el planeta como un equipo aquellos de nosotros en el Censo de Vida Marina. +Y, financiados principalmente a travs de la Fundacin Sloan y otros, hemos podido avanzar con el proyecto, somos uno de los 17 programas y empezamos a marcar un gran nmero de depredadores, no slo el atn. +Esa etiqueta satelital har que el tiburn llame a casa y enve un mensaje. +Y ese tiburn que salta all, si se fijan bien, tiene una antena. +Es un tiburn que nada libremente con una etiqueta satelital, salta sobre el salmn, y enva informacin a casa. +Los tiburones salmn no son los nicos que marcamos. +All van los tiburones salmn con esta resolucin de metros de nivel sobre un ocano trmico... los colores clidos son ms clidos. +Los tiburones salmn bajan a los trpicos a tener cra y entran en Monterrey. +Justo al lado de Monterrey, y hasta los Farallones, hay un equipo del tiburn blanco dirigido por Scott Anderson y Sal Jorgensen. +Pueden arrojar una carnada, es una alfombra con forma de foca; y llegar un tiburn blanco, una criatura curiosa; llegar hasta nuestro barco de 16 pies. +Es un animal de cientos de kilos. +Y levantaremos la carnada. +Y le pondremos una etiqueta acstica que dice: "OMSHARK 10165", o algo as, con un sonido. +Y luego le pondremos una etiqueta satelital que nos dar los viajes de larga distancia con los algoritmos de geolocalizacin fotosensibles resueltos en el equipo que est en el pez. +En este caso, Sal est mirando dos etiquetas. Y ah estn, los tiburones blancos de California, yendo al caf de tiburones blancos y regresando. +Tambin marcamos marrajos con nuestros colegas de la NOAA, tiburones azules. +Y ahora, juntos, lo que podemos ver en este ocano de color que representan distintas temperaturas podemos ver "gusanos" de 10 das de marrajos y tiburones salmn. +Tenemos tiburones blancos y azules. +Por primera vez un eco-paisaje de escala ocenica que muestra el destino de los tiburones. +El equipo de atunes de TOPP ha hecho lo impensable: tres equipos han marcado 1.700 atunes: rojo, rabil y blanco, todos al mismo tiempo, programas de marcado ensayados con cuidado en los que salimos, recogemos atunes jvenes, les ponemos las etiquetas con los sensores, se las aferramos y los dejamos ir. +Y regresan, y cuando lo hacen, aqu en un ocano numrico de la NASA puede verse al atn rojo, en azul, atravesar su corredor regresando al Pacfico Occidental. +Nuestro equipo de la UCSC ha marcado elefantes marinos con etiquetas adheridas a sus cabezas que se desprenden cuando mudan la piel. +Estos elefantes marinos cubren medio ocano, toman datos de hasta 550 metros, datos sorprendentes. +Y luego est Scott Shaffer y nuestras pardelas con marcas para atn, etiquetas fotosensibles, que ahora nos llevarn desde Nueva Zelanda a Monterrey y viceversa, viajes de 35.000 millas nuticas nunca antes vistos. +Pero ahora, con etiquetas de geolocalizacin fotosensibles, muy pequeas, se pueden ver estos viajes. +Lo mismo con los albatros de Laysan que viajan todo un ocano en un viaje, a veces, hasta la misma zona que los atunes utilizan. +Pueden ver por qu podran ser capturados. +Luego est George Schillinger y nuestro equipo de tortugas lad en Playa Grande, marcndolas, que pasan por donde estamos. +Y el equipo de Scott Benson que mostr que la tortuga lad va desde Indonesia hasta Monterrey. +Lo que vemos en este ocano en movimiento es la posicin de los predadores. +De hecho, podemos ver cmo usan eco-espacios grandes como ocanos. +Y con esta informacin podemos empezar a trazar las "reas de esperanza". +Aqu hay slo tres aos de datos. Y hay una dcada de estos datos. +Vemos el pulso y las actividades estacionales que realizan estos animales. +Entonces, qu podemos hacer con esta informacin? es reducirla a zonas conflictivas, 4.000 implementaciones, una tarea herclea, 2.000 etiquetas en un rea, que se muestra aqu por primera vez, frente a la costa de California, que parece ser un lugar de reunin. +Y luego, en una especie de repeticin de estos animales, nos estn ayudando. +Llevan instrumentos que estn obteniendo datos a 2.000 metros de profundidad. +Estn tomando informacin de nuestro planeta en lugares muy crticos, como la Antrtida y los polos. +Esas son focas de muchos pases liberadas que toman muestras bajo las capas de hielo y nos dan datos de temperatura de calidad oceanogrfica de ambos polos. +Visualizar estos datos es algo cautivante. +Todava no hemos descubierto la mejor forma de visualizar los datos. +Y a medida que estos animales nadan y nos brindan esta informacin tan importante para temas del clima pensamos que tambin es crtico divulgar la informacin al pblico para involucrarlo en este tipo de datos. +Lo hicimos con la Gran Carrera de Tortugas, tortugas marcadas, ingresaron 4 millones de visitas. +Y ahora con los Ocanos de Google, podemos poner realmente un tiburn blanco en ese ocano. +Y cuando lo hacemos y nada vemos esta magnfica batimetra que el tiburn sabe que est en su camino al avanzar desde California hasta Hawaii. +Pero quiz la Misin Azul pueda llenar ese ocano que no vemos. +Tenemos la capacidad, la NASA tiene el ocano. +Slo tenemos que unir ambas cosas. +En conclusin, sabemos que es Yellowstone para Amrica del Norte; est en frente a nuestra costa. +Tenemos la tecnologa que nos muestra dnde est. +Lo que tenemos que pensar quiz en la Misin Azul es en incrementar la capacidad de bio-registro. +Cmo se puede realmente medir este tipo de actividad en otro lugar? +Y finalmente, para llevar el mensaje a casa, quiz usar vnculos vivientes de animales como ballenas azules y tiburones blancos. +Hacer aplicaciones innovadoras, si se quiere. +Muchas personas estn entusiasmadas cuando pasaron los tiburones bajo el Puente Golden Gate. +Conectemos al pblico con esta actividad a travs de sus iPhones. +Acabemos as algunos mitos de internet. +As podemos salvar al atn rojo. +Podemos salvar al tiburn blanco. +Tenemos la ciencia y la tecnologa. +Aqu hay esperanza. S podemos. +Slo tenemos que aplicar esta capacidad ms adentro en los ocanos. +Gracias. +Hoy estamos aqu porque Naciones Unidas ha definido objetivos para el progreso de los pases. +Son los Objetivos de Desarrollo del Milenio. +Y la razn por la que me gustan es que son 8. +Y al especificar 8 objetivos diferentes Naciones Unidas ha dicho que hay muchas cosas que cambiar en un pas para mejorar la vida de las personas. +Hay que ocuparse de la pobreza, la educacin, la igualdad de gnero, la salud materno-infantil, el control de infecciones, proteger el ambiente y una colaboracin mundial entre todas las naciones en todo sentido desde ayuda hasta comercio. +Hay otra razn por la que me gustan los objetivos del milenio y es que todos y cada uno son cuantificables. +Por ejemplo: la mortalidad infantil. El objetivo es reducir la mortalidad infantil en dos tercios desde 1990 hasta 2015. +Eso es un 4% de reduccin anual. Y esto con mtricas. +Eso marca la diferencia entre la charlatanera poltica y el hecho de ir realmente al grano y hacer lo mejor para las personas. +Y lo que me pone ms feliz de todo esto es que ya tenemos documentado que hay muchos pases en Asia, en Medio Oriente, en Amrica Latina y Europa Oriental que estn reduciendo esta tasa. +Incluso el poderoso Brasil est reduciendo la tasa un 5% al ao y Turqua un 7% al ao. +Son buenas noticias. +Pero hay personas que dicen: "No hay progresos en frica. +Ni siquiera hay estadsticas en frica para saber lo que pasa". +Voy a demostrar que se equivocan en ambas cosas. +Acompenme al fabuloso mundo de las estadsticas. +Esta es la pgina web childmortality.org donde pueden consultar la mortalidad infantil en menores de 5 aos de todos los pases. Est hecha por especialistas de la ONU. +Voy a tomar a Kenia como ejemplo. +Aqu ven los datos. +No se asusten, no se asusten. Los voy a guiar. +Parece algo horrible, como en la universidad cuando detestaban la estadstica. +Cuando vean puntos como ste ante todo tienen que preguntarse: De dnde vienen los datos? +Cul es el origen de los datos? +Existen mdicos en Kenia y otros especialistas que escriban certificados de defuncin cuando muere un nio y que luego los enven a la oficina de estadsticas? +No. En los pases de bajos ingresos como Kenia todava no tienen ese nivel de organizacin. +Existe, pero no es completo, porque muchas de las muertes ocurren en el hogar, en el seno familiar y no quedan registradas. +Dependemos de un sistema incompleto. +Contamos con entrevistas y encuestas. +Es algo muy profesional: hay entrevistadoras que se sientan una hora con cada mujer y le preguntan por sus partos. +Cuntos hijos tuviste? +Estn vivos? +Si murieron, a qu edad, y en qu ao. +Se toma una muestra representativa de miles de mujeres del pas que se compila en lo que se sola llamar informe de Encuesta Demogrfica de Salud. +Estas encuestas son costosas por lo que slo se pueden hacer cada 3 5 aos. +Pero son de buena calidad. +Esta es una limitante. +Todas estas lneas de colores son resultados; cada color es una encuesta. +Pero es demasiado complicado para explicarlo hoy, as que lo voy a simplificar y les voy a dar un punto promedio por cada encuesta. +Esto fue 1977, 1988 1992, 1997 y 2002. +Cuando los expertos de la ONU +cargan las encuestas en su base de datos usan frmulas matemticas avanzadas para calcular una tendencia que tiene este aspecto. +Miren, es la mejor aproximacin posible de este punto. +Pero atencin: continan la lnea ms all del ltimo punto hacia la nada. +Y estimaron que en 2008 Kenia tena una mortalidad infantil de 128. +Eso me puso mal porque pudimos ver ese retroceso en Kenia con un aumento de la mortalidad infantil en los aos 90. +Fue una tragedia. +Pero en junio recib un correo con la Encuesta Demogrfica de Salud y traa buenas noticias de Kenia. +Me puse muy feliz. +Era la estimacin de la nueva encuesta. +Luego le llev otros 3 meses a la ONU poner los datos en el sitio y el viernes tuvimos la nueva tendencia. Desciende hasta aqu. +Fantstico, no? +Estaba el viernes sentado frente a la computadora y vi caer la tasa de mortalidad de 128 a 84, en una maana. +As que festejamos. +Pero ahora, con esta tendencia, cmo medimos el progreso? +Ahora voy a entrar en detalles porque la ONU lo hace de esta manera. +Empiezan en 1990 y miden hasta 2009. +Dicen: "0,9% no es progreso". +Eso es injusto. +Como profesor creo que tengo derecho a proponer algo diferente. +Dira que al menos hagan esto: 10 aos es suficiente para seguir la tendencia. +Hay 2 encuestas y puede verse lo que est sucediendo ahora. +Tienen un 2,4%. +De haber estado en el Ministerio de Salud de Kenia habra unido estos 2 puntos. +Lo que quiero decirles es que conocemos la mortalidad infantil. +Tenemos una tendencia decente. +Se incurre en algunas triquiuelas al medir los objetivos del milenio. +Y sobre todo es importante evidenciarlo en frica porque la del 90 fue una dcada mala no slo en Kenia sino en toda frica. +Hubo un pico en la epidemia de VIH. +Hubo resistencia a las viejas medicinas de la malaria hasta que llegaron las nuevas. +Luego lleg el mosquitero. +Y haba problemas socio-econmicos que ahora se estn resolviendo a escala mucho mayor. +Miren el promedio aqu. Este es el promedio para toda frica subsahariana. +La ONU dice que la reduccin media es del 1,8% +Esto suena un poco terico pero no es teora. +Ustedes saben, los economistas aman el dinero y quieren cada vez ms, quieren que se multiplique. +Por eso calculan la tasa porcentual de crecimiento anual de la economa. +Y en salud pblica detestamos la mortalidad infantil as que queremos ver cada vez menos mortalidad infantil +y es por eso que calculamos la reduccin porcentual anual. Pero en cierto sentido es el mismo porcentaje. +Si la economa crece un 4% uno debera reducir la mortalidad infantil un 4% si el crecimiento se usa bien y la gente se involucra y puede disponer de los recursos de la manera que lo desee. +Entonces, es justo medir la reduccin en 19 aos? +Un economista jams hara eso. +Yo lo divid en 2 perodos. +En los aos 90 slo el 1,2%. +Y ahora, en segunda marcha, es como si frica hubiera estado en primera y ahora pasara a segunda. +Pero incluso esto no es una representacin justa de frica porque es un promedio es una velocidad promedio de reduccin en frica. +Ahora los llevo a mi grfico de burbujas. Miren. +Todava aqu el eje Y mide la mortalidad infantil en miles. +El eje X mide los aos. +Aqu vemos un panorama ms amplio que en los objetivos del milenio. +Empiezo hace 50 aos cuando gran parte de los pases africanos celebraban la independencia. +Les muestro Congo, que estaba alto, Ghana, ms bajo, y Kenia an ms bajo. +Y qu ha sucedido desde entonces? Aqu vamos. +Vean cmo con la independencia mejora la alfabetizacin, comienza la vacunacin, se erradica la viruela, mejoran la higiene y las cosas en general. +Pero fjense lo que pasa en los aos 80. +Congo entra en guerra civil y se queda estancado. +Ghana mejora muy rpidamente. +Una reaccin violenta en Kenia y Ghana la supera pero luego Kenia y Ghana bajan juntas; sigue Congo en punto muerto. +As estamos hoy. +Como ven, no tiene sentido hacer un promedio de esta mejora cero con esta mejora tan rpida. +Lleg la hora de dejar de pensar en frica subsahariana como un solo lugar. +Sus pases son muy diferentes y su especificidad amerita ser reconocida as como no hablamos de Europa como un solo lugar. +Se nota que la economa griega es diferente de la sueca. Todo el mundo lo sabe. +Cada pas es juzgado por su desempeo. +Voy a mostrarles el panorama ms amplio. +Mi pas, Suecia: en 1800 estbamos all arriba. +Debemos tener un desorden de personalidad para contar los nios tan meticulosamente a pesar de la alta tasa de mortalidad. +Es muy raro. Da un poco de vergenza. +Pero tenamos el hbito en Suecia de contabilizar la mortalidad infantil an cuando no hacamos nada al respecto. +Y luego, como ven, estos fueron aos de hambruna. +Fueron aos malos y la gente se hasti de Suecia. +Mis antepasados se mudaron a Estados Unidos. +Y en poco tiempo les empez a ir cada vez mejor. +Y aqu ya tenamos mejor educacin y servicios de salud y se redujo la mortalidad infantil. +Nunca tuvimos una guerra; Suecia estuvo en paz todo este tiempo. +Pero miren, la disminucin de la tasa en Suecia no fue rpida. +Suecia logr una mortalidad infantil baja porque empezamos temprano. +La escolarizacin primaria empez en 1842. +Y luego se vieron los frutos con la alfabetizacin femenina en la siguiente generacin. +Tienen que darse cuenta de que la inversin en progreso es a largo plazo. +No es una inversin de 5 aos. Es una inversin a largo plazo. +Suecia nunca alcanz la tasa del objetivo de desarrollo del milenio: 3,1% era cuando la calcul. +Suecia est fuera de los parmetros. +Pero no hablamos mucho de eso. +Queremos que otros sean mejores que nosotros. De hecho, hay otros que lo han sido. +Veamos el caso de Tailandia y su xito extraordinario en la dcada de 1960; vean cmo baj la mortalidad hasta alcanzar el mismo nivel que Suecia. +Y veamos otro caso, Egipto, el xito ms oculto y glorioso en salud pblica. +Egipto estaba aqu arriba en 1960, ms arriba que Congo. +El Delta del Nilo era una desdicha para los nios con diarrea y malaria y muchos otros problemas. +Despus lleg la Presa de Asun y la electricidad a los hogares. Aument el nivel educativo. Y recibieron atencin primaria de salud. +Como ven, las tasas descendieron. +Luego lleg el agua potable y la erradicacin de la malaria. +No es un caso de xito? +La tasa de mortalidad infantil de los objetivos del milenio es totalmente posible. +Y lo bueno es que Ghana hoy en da va a la misma tasa que Egipto en su mejor momento. +Kenia est acelerando. +Aqu tenemos un problema. +Tenemos un problema grave en los pases que estn en punto muerto. +Voy a mostrarles ahora una perspectiva ms amplia de la mortalidad infantil. +Les voy a mostrar la relacin entre la mortalidad infantil medida en este eje y el tamao familiar en este otro eje. +Esta es la relacin entre mortalidad infantil y tamao familiar. +1, 2, 3, 4 hijos por mujer. 6, 7, 8 hijos por mujer. +Aqu estamos de nuevo en 1960 hace 50 aos. +Cada burbuja es un pas. El color indica el continente. +El azul aqu es frica subsahariana. +Y el tamao de la burbuja es la poblacin. +Y estos son los llamados pases "en desarrollo". +Tienen una mortalidad infantil alta, o muy alta, y tamao familiar de 6, 7, 8. +Y los de all son los llamados pases occidentales. +Tenan mortalidad infantil baja y familias pequeas. +Qu ha sucedido? +Quiero que miren con sus propios ojos la relacin entre la cada en la mortalidad infantil y la disminucin del tamao de la familia. +No quiero que quepa lugar a duda. Tienen que verlo con sus propios ojos. +Esto es lo que sucedi. Ahora "enciendo" el mundo. +Las tasas se reducen con la erradicacin de la viruela, con mejor educacin, y servicio de salud. +La mortalidad disminuye; China entra a la caja de Occidente. +Y aqu est Brasil en la caja de Occidente. +India se acerca. Ingresan los primeros pases africanos a la caja de Occidente. Tenemos muchos nuevos vecinos. +Bienvenidos a una vida decente. +Vamos. Queremos que venga todo el mundo. +Esta es la visin que tenemos, no? +Y, miren, ahora ingresan los primeros pases africanos. +Hoy estamos aqu. +No existe la divisin entre "mundo occidental" y "mundo en desarrollo". +Este es el informe de la ONU que sali el viernes. +Es muy bueno -"Niveles y tendencias en mortalidad infantil"- salvo esta pgina. +Esta pgina es psima. Es una clasificacin de pases +donde etiqueta "pases en desarrollo" -leo de la lista- pases en desarrollo: Repblica de Corea del Sur. +Eh? +Tienen a Samsung, cmo pueden ser pas en desarrollo? +Luego est Singapur, +con la mortalidad infantil ms baja del mundo. +Superaron a Suecia hace 5 aos y son etiquetados como pas en desarrollo. +Despus est Qatar. +Es el pas ms rico del mundo y tiene a Al Jazeera. +Cmo diablos puede ser un pas en desarrollo? +Es una idiotez. +El resto es bueno, el resto es bueno. +Tenemos que tener un concepto moderno que se ajuste a los datos. +Y tenemos que darnos cuenta que todos nos estamos dirigiendo hacia abajo. +Cul es la importancia de la relacin? +Miren. Si miramos slo en frica estos son los pases africanos. +Puede verse claramente la relacin entre la cada en la mortalidad infantil y la disminucin en el tamao familiar incluso en frica. +Est muy claro que esto es lo que sucede. +Y el viernes sali una investigacin muy importante del Instituto de Evaluacin y Mtricas de Salud de Seattle que muestra que casi el 50% de la cada en la mortalidad infantil puede atribuirse a la educacin femenina. +Es decir, cuando las nias van a la escuela observamos un impacto 15 20 aos despus y es una tendencia regular muy fuerte. +Por eso tenemos que tener esa perspectiva de largo plazo pero debemos medir el impacto cada 10 aos. +Es totalmente posible bajar la mortalidad infantil en todos estos pases y llevarlos a la caja en la que nos gustara vivir juntos. +Y, por supuesto, reducir la mortalidad infantil es una cuestin de importancia capital desde lo humanitario. +Estamos hablando de una vida decente para los nios. Pero es tambin una inversin estratgica para el futuro de la Humanidad porque se trata del medio ambiente. +No vamos a poder manejar el medio ambiente y evitar la crisis terrible del clima si no estabilizamos la poblacin mundial. +Seamos claros en eso. +Y la manera de lograrlo es reduciendo la mortalidad infantil, dando acceso a la planificacin familiar y tras todo esto promoviendo la educacin femenina. +Y es algo totalmente posible. Hagmoslo. +Muchas gracias. +Piensen, si lo desean, en un regalo. +Me gustara que lo imaginen en sus mentes. +No es demasiado grande... es del tamao de una pelota de golf. +Concbanlo todo envuelto. +Pero antes de mostrarles el contenido les dir que va a hacer cosas increbles por ustedes. +Va a unir a toda la familia. +Se van a sentir amados y apreciados como nunca antes, entrarn en contacto con amigos y conocidos que no vean desde hace aos. +Van a ser abrumados por adoracin y admiracin. +Pondr en su lugar las cosas ms importantes de la vida. +Va a redefinir el sentido de la espiritualidad y la fe. +Van a tener un nuevo entendimiento y confianza en sus cuerpos. +Van a tener vitalidad y energa sin igual. +Van a ampliar su vocabulario, van a conocer gente nueva, y van a llevar una vida ms sana. +Y piensen que van a tener vacaciones de 8 semanas de no hacer absolutamente nada. +Van a comer innumerables comidas gourmet. +Van a recibir camionadas de flores. +La gente les va a decir: "Te ves muy bien. Te hiciste algo?" +Y van a tener un suministro de por vida de "buenas" medicinas. +Van a ser desafiados, inspirados, motivados y estarn agradecidos. +Sus vidas tendrn un nuevo significado: +paz, salud, serenidad, felicidad, nirvana. +El precio? +$55.000. Y es una oferta increble. +S que se mueren por saber qu es y dnde pueden conseguir uno. +Se consigue en Amazon? +Tiene el logotipo de Apple? +Hay una lista de espera? +Probablemente no. +Este regalo me lleg hace unos cinco meses. +Se vea as cuando estaba todo envuelto... no tan bonito. +Y as. Y luego as. +Era una gema rara, un tumor cerebral, hemangioblastoma, el regalo que sigo recibiendo. +Y si bien ahora estoy bien, no les deseo este regalo. +No estoy segura que lo quieran. +Pero yo no cambiara mi experiencia. +Esto alter profundamente mi vida de maneras que no esperaba de las maneras que acabo de compartir con Uds. +As que la prxima vez que enfrenten algo inesperado, no deseado e incierto, consideren que podra ser un regalo. +A veces ojeando las pginas de una revista muy vieja +miraba este juego sobre la historia del Arca. +El artista que lo dibuj cometi algunos errores, algunas equivocaciones. Hay ms o menos 12 imprecisiones. +Algunas son muy obvias: +hay una chimenea, una parte area, una lmpara y una cuerda de reloj en el Arca. +Algunas tienen que ver con la cantidad de animales. +Pero hay un error mucho ms grave en esta historia del Arca que aqu no se informa. +Y el problema es: dnde estn las plantas? +Entonces est Dios que va a sumergir a la Tierra de forma permanente, o al menos durante un largo perodo, y nadie se ocupa de las plantas. +No tena que llevar dos aves de cada clase, de cada especie animal, de cada tipo de ser que se mueva, pero no se menciona a las plantas. +Por qu? +En otra parte de la misma historia todos los seres vivos son solo criaturas vivientes que bajaron del Arca: aves, ganado, animales silvestres. +Las plantas no son criaturas vivientes. Esa es la idea. +Esa es la idea que no surge de la Biblia, pero es algo que siempre ha acompaado a la Humanidad. +Echemos un vistazo a este bello cdigo de un libro renacentista. +Aqu tenemos la descripcin del orden natural. +Es una bella descripcin porque empieza a la izquierda... con las piedras... inmediatamente despus de las piedras, las plantas, que son capaces de vivir. +Tenemos a los animales, que son capaces de vivir y de sentir, y, en la cima de la pirmide, est el Hombre. +Este no es el hombre comn. +Es el "homo studiosus", u hombre estudioso. +Esto es muy reconfortante para personas como yo, soy profesor, estar all en la cima de la creacin. +Pero es algo totalmente equivocado. +Lo saben bien respecto de los profesores. +Pero es errneo tambin respecto de las plantas porque las plantas no slo pueden vivir; pueden sentir. +Tienen una capacidad perceptiva mucho ms sofisticada que los animales. +Slo a modo de ejemplo: cada pice de la raz puede detectar y monitorear de forma concurrente y continua al menos 15 qumicos y parmetros fsicos diferentes. +Y puede mostrar y revelar un comportamiento tan maravilloso y complejo que slo puede describir el trmino "inteligencia". +Bien, pero esto es algo... esta subestimacin de las plantas es algo innato en nosotros. +Ahora veamos esta pelcula corta. +Tenemos a David Attenborough. +David Attenborough es un amante de las plantas. l ha realizado las pelculas ms bellas sobre el comportamiento de las plantas. +Cuando l habla de las plantas todo es correcto. +Cuando habla de los animales, tiende a eliminar el hecho de que existen las plantas. +La ballena azul, la criatura ms grande del planeta. Eso est mal, completamente mal. +La ballena azul es un gnomo comparado con la verdadera criatura ms grande que existe en el planeta que es esta maravillosa, magnfica "sequoiadendron giganteum". +Y este es un organismo vivo que tiene una masa de al menos 2.000 toneladas. +Ahora, la historia de que las plantas son organismos de bajo nivel fue formalizada hace muchos aos por Aristteles que, en "De Anima", un libro muy influyente para la civilizacin occidental, escribi que las plantas estn en el lmite de lo viviente y lo no viviente. +Tienen una especie de alma de muy bajo nivel. +Se denomina alma vegetativa, porque es inanimada y, por ende, no necesita sentir. +Veamos. +Bueno, algunos de los movimientos de las plantas son muy bien conocidos. +Este es un movimiento muy rpido. +Esta es una "dionaea", una Venus atrapamoscas, cazando caracoles. Lo siento por el caracol. +Esto ha sido algo negado durante siglos, a pesar de la evidencia. +Nadie podra decir que las plantas pueden comer un animal, porque eso ira en contra del orden natural. +Pero las plantas son capaces de realizar muchos movimientos. +Algunos son muy conocidos, como la floracin. +Es slo cuestin de usar algunas tcnicas como la aceleracin de fotogramas. +Otros son ms sofisticados. +Miren a este brote joven que se mueve para atrapar la luz en cada momento. +Realmente es muy elegante. Parece la danza de un ngel. +Tambin son capaces de jugar. Realmente estn jugando. +Estos son jvenes girasoles y lo que estn haciendo no puede describirse con otro trmino que no sea "jugando". +Se estn auto-entrenando, como muchos animales jvenes, para la vida adulta, donde sern llamados a seguir al sol todo el da. +Son capaces de responder a la gravedad, por supuesto, por eso los brotes crecen contra el vector de la gravedad y las races hacia el vector de la gravedad. +Pero tambin son capaces de dormir. +Esta es una "mimosa pdica". +As, durante la noche, enrosca las hojas y reduce el movimiento y durante el da abre las hojas, hay mucho ms movimiento. +Esto es interesante porque esta maquinaria del sueo se conserva perfectamente. +Es la misma en plantas, insectos, y animales. +Y si uno tiene que estudiar un problema del sueo es mucho ms fcil estudiarlo en las plantas, por ejemplo, que en los animales; y es mucho ms fcil incluso ticamente. +Es una suerte de experimento vegetariano. +Las plantas hasta son capaces de comunicarse. Son comunicadoras extraordinarias. +Se comunican con otras plantas. +Pueden distinguir a familiares de no familiares. +Se comunican con plantas y otras especies y se comunican con animales produciendo qumicos voltiles, por ejemplo, durante la polinizacin. +Ahora bien, la polinizacin es un tema muy serio para las plantas, porque mueven el polen de una flor a otra, pero no pueden moverse de una flor a otra. +Por eso necesitan un vector y este vector por lo general es un animal. +Las plantas han usado muchos insectos como vectores para el transporte del polen, pero no slo insectos; incluso aves, reptiles, y mamferos como ratas y murcilagos se usan habitualmente para el transporte del polen. +Este es un asunto serio. +Tenemos las plantas que le dan a los animales una especie de sustancia dulce muy energizante y reciben a cambio el transporte del polen. +Sin embargo, algunas plantas manipulan a los animales, como es el caso de las orqudeas que prometen sexo y nctar y no dan nada a cambio por el transporte del polen. +Ahora, hay un gran problema detrs de todo este comportamiento que hemos visto. +Cmo es posible hacer esto sin un cerebro? +Tenemos que esperar hasta 1880, cuando este gran hombre, Charles Darwin, publica un libro maravilloso, sorprendente, que inicia una revolucin. +Se titula "El poder del movimiento en las plantas". +A nadie se le permiti hablar del movimiento en las plantas antes de Charles Darwin. +En su libro, asistido por su hijo Francis, que fue el primer profesor de fisiologa de las plantas en el mundo, en Cambridge, tomaron en consideracin cada movimiento en 500 pginas. +Y el ltimo prrafo del libro es una especie de marca de estilo porque normalmente Charles Darwin pone en el ltimo prrafo de un libro el mensaje ms importante. +All escribi: "No es exagerado decir que la punta de la radcula acta como el cerebro de uno de los animales inferiores". +Esto no es una metfora. +l le escribi unas cartas muy interesantes a uno de sus amigos, J.D. Hooker, en ese momento presidente de la Sociedad Real, por ende la mxima autoridad cientfica de Gran Bretaa, hablndole del cerebro de las plantas. +Este es un pice de la raz que crece en contra de una pendiente. +Pueden reconocer este tipo de movimiento; es el mismo movimiento de gusanos y serpientes, que todo animal que se mueve por el piso sin patas pone de manifiesto. +Y no es un movimiento fcil porque para realizarlo hay que mover distintas partes de la raz y sincronizar esas partes sin contar con un cerebro. +As, estudiamos el pice de la raz y encontramos que hay una regin especfica que est aqu, pintada de azul, que se denomina "zona de transicin". +Esta regin es muy pequea. Mide menos de un milmetro. +Y en esta pequea regin se produce el mayor consumo de oxgeno en las plantas y, ms importante, existen estas seales de aqu. +Las seales que estamos viendo aqu son potencial de accin, son las mismas seales que las neuronas de mi cerebro, de nuestro cerebro, usan para intercambiar informacin. +Sabemos que el pice de la raz tiene slo unos cientos de clulas que presentan esta funcionalidad, y conocemos el tamao del pice de la raz de una planta pequea como el centeno. +Tenemos casi 14 millones de races. +Tenemos casi 11,5 millones de pices de raz y una longitud total de 600 kms o ms y un rea superficial muy alta. +Ahora, imaginemos que cada pice de la raz trabaja en red con todos los dems. +Aqu, a la izquierda, tenemos Internet y, a la derecha, el aparato de la raz. +Trabajan de la misma manera. +Son una red de pequeas computadoras trabajando en red. +Y por qu son tan similares? +Porque evolucionaron por la misma razn: para sobrevivir a la depredacin. +Trabajan de la misma manera. +As, uno elimina el 90% del aparato de la raz y las plantas siguen funcionando. +Uno elimina el 90% de Internet y sigue funcionando. +Por eso, una sugerencia para las personas que trabajan con redes: las plantas pueden darles buenas sugerencias de cmo evolucionar redes. +Y otra posibilidad es una posibilidad tcnica. +Imaginemos que podemos construir robots inspirndonos en las plantas. +Hasta ahora el Hombre se inspir en el Hombre o en los animales para producir robots. +Tenemos animaloides, robots inspirados en los animales, insectoides, etc. +Tenemos los androides que se inspiran en el Hombre. +Pero, por qu no hay plantoides? +Bien, si uno quiere volar, est bien mirar a las aves, inspirarse en las aves. +Pero si uno desea explorar los suelos o si quiere colonizar nuevos territorios lo mejor es inspirarse en las plantas que son maestras en hacer esto. +Tenemos otra posibilidad en la que estamos trabajando en el laboratorio que es construir hbridos. +Es mucho ms fcil construir hbridos. +Hbrido quiere decir algo que es mitad viviente y mitad mquina. +Es mucho ms fcil trabajar con plantas que con animales. +Tienen poder computacional. Tienen seales elctricas. +La conexin con la mquina es mucho ms fcil incluso ticamente es mucho ms factible. +Y estas son tres posibilidades en las que estamos trabajando para construir hbridos impulsados por algas o por las hojas al final, por las partes ms poderosas de las plantas: por las races. +Bueno, gracias por su atencin. +Y antes de terminar me gustara asegurarles que ningn caracol result daado preparando esta presentacin. +Gracias. +Una de las cosas favoritas de mi trabajo en la Fundacin Gates es que tengo que viajar a los pases en desarrollo, y lo hago con bastante regularidad. +Y cuando me encuentro con las madres en muchos de estos lugares remotos, realmente me sorprendo de las cosas que tenemos en comn. +Ellas quieren lo mismo que nosotros para nuestros hijos, que sus hijos crezcan bien, con salud, y tengan una vida plena. +Pero tambin veo mucha pobreza, y es bastante discordante, tanto en escala como en alcance. +En mi primer viaje a India estaba en una casa donde tenan pisos de tierra, sin agua corriente, ni electricidad, y eso es realmente lo que veo en todo el mundo. +As, en resumen, estoy alarmada por todas las cosas que no tienen. +Pero tambin sorprendida por algo que s tienen: Coca-Cola. +Coca est en todos lados. +De hecho, cuando viajo por el mundo en desarrollo Coca parece omnipresente. +Y cuando vuelvo de estos viajes, pensando sobre el desarrollo, de regreso a casa pienso: "Estamos tratando de entregar preservativos y vacunas a la gente"; el xito de Coca nos hace parar y preguntarnos: cmo hacen para llevar Coca a estos lugares distantes? +Si ellos pueden hacerlo por qu no pueden las ONGs y los gobiernos? +No soy la primer persona en hacerse la pregunta. +Pero pienso que, como comunidad, todava tenemos mucho por aprender. +Es sorprendente si uno piensa en Coca-Cola. +Ellos venden 1.500 millones de unidades cada da. +Es como si cada hombre, mujer y nio del planeta recibiera una Coca por semana. +Por qu esto es importante? +Bueno, si vamos a acelerar el progreso e ir an ms rpido en los Objetivos de Desarrollo del Milenio que nos hemos fijado mundialmente, tenemos que aprender de los innovadores, y esos innovadores vienen de todos los sectores. +Creo que si podemos entender lo que hace omnipresente a Coca-Cola luego podemos aplicar esas lecciones para el bien pblico. +El xito de Coca es importante porque si podemos analizarlo, aprender de l, luego podemos salvar vidas. +Por eso me tom algo de tiempo para estudiar a Coca. +Y pienso que realmente hay tres cosas que podemos aprender de Coca-Cola. +Ellos toman datos en tiempo real e inmediatamente los incorporan al producto. +Aprovechan el talento emprendedor local. Y hacen una mercadotecnia increble. +Empecemos con los datos. +Coca tiene metas financieras muy claras. Ellos informan a los accionistas. Deben obtener un beneficio. +Por eso toman los datos y los usan para medir el avance. +Tienen este ciclo de retroalimentacin continua. +Aprenden algo, lo ponen en el producto, y lo ponen de vuelta en el mercado. +Tienen un equipo entero llamado "Conocimiento e Ideas". +Es muy parecido a otras empresas de consumo. +As, si uno administra Coca-Cola en Namibia y tiene 107 zonas uno sabe dnde se vendi cada lata vs botella de Sprite, Fanta o Coca, sea el almacn de la esquina, un supermercado o un vendedor ambulante. +As, si las ventas empiezan a caer la persona puede identificar el problema y abordar la cuestin. +Comparemos esto por un minuto con el desarrollo. +En el desarrollo la evaluacin viene muy al final del proyecto. +Asist a muchas reuniones de este tipo. Y para entonces es demasiado tarde para usar los datos. +Alguien en una ONG una vez me lo describi como ir de bolos en la oscuridad. +Decan: "Arrojas la bola y escuchas caer algunos pinos. +Est oscuro, no puede verse cul cae hasta que se enciende la luz y uno puede ver el impacto". +Los datos de tiempo real encienden la luz. +Entonces, lo segundo en lo que Coca es buena +es en aprovechar ese talento emprendedor local. +Coca ha estado en frica desde 1928 pero casi nunca podan llegar a los mercados distantes, debido a un sistema similar al del mundo desarrollado: un camin grande que va por la calle. +Y en los lugares remotos de frica es difcil encontrar buenos caminos. +Pero Coca not algo. Not que la gente local compraba el producto al por mayor y luego lo revenda en esos lugares inhspitos. +As que se tomaron un tiempito para analizar eso. +Y, en 1990, decidieron comenzar a entrenar a los emprendedores locales dndoles pequeos prstamos. +Erigieron lo que se dio en llamar centros de micro-distribucin. Y esos emprendedores locales luego contrataron gente que salan en bicicletas, carritos y carretillas a vender el producto. +Ahora hay unos 3.000 de estos centros que emplean cerca de 15.000 personas en frica. +En Tanzania y Uganda representan el 90% de las ventas de Coca. +Veamos la parte del desarrollo. +Qu es lo que gobiernos y ONGs pueden aprender de Coca? +Los gobiernos y las ONGs tambin deben aprovechar el talento emprendedor local porque los lugareos saben cmo llegar a los lugares de difcil acceso, a sus vecinos, y saben lo que les motiva a realizar el cambio. +Y creo que un gran ejemplo de esto es el nuevo programa etope de extensin de la salud. +El gobierno etope se dio cuenta que mucha gente estaba tan lejos de una clnica que estaban a ms de un da de viaje de distancia. +As, si se est en una situacin de emergencia, o embarazada a punto de dar a luz, olvdense de llegar a un centro sanitario. +Decidieron que eso no era satisfactorio y fueron a India a estudiar el caso del estado indio de Kerala que tiene un sistema similar y lo adaptaron para Etiopa. +Y en el 2003 el gobierno de Etiopa puso en marcha este nuevo sistema en su propio pas. +Entrenaron a 35.000 trabajadores de la salud para proporcionar atencin directa a la gente. +En apenas 5 aos la relacin pas de 1 trabajador cada 30.000 personas a 1 trabajador cada 2.500 personas. +Ahora piensen como esto puede cambiar la vida de la gente. +Los trabajadores de salud pueden ayudar con muchas cosas, sea la planificacin familiar, cuidado prenatal, vacunas para los nios, y orientar a la mujer para llegar a las instalaciones para un parto a tiempo. +Eso est produciendo un impacto real en un pas como Etiopa, y es por eso que sus nmeros de mortalidad infantil estn bajando un 25% del 2000 al 2008. +En Etiopa hay cientos de miles de nios que viven gracias a este programa de salud. +Cul es el prximo paso para Etiopa? +Bueno, ya estn comenzando a hablar de esto. +Estn comenzando a plantear: "Cmo hacer que los trabajadores comunitarios de salud generen sus propias ideas? +Cmo incentivarlos en base al impacto producido en estos pueblos remotos? +As se aprovecha el talento emprendedor local y se libera el potencial de las personas. +El tercer componente en el xito de Coca es la mercadotecnia. +En definitiva, el xito de Coca depende de un hecho crucial: que la gente quiera una Coca-Cola. +La razn por la cual estos micro-emprendedores pueden vender y tener ganancias es que tienen que vender cada una de las botellas en su carrito o carretilla. +Por eso confan en Coca-Cola en trminos de comercializacin. Cul es el secreto de su mercadotecnia? +Bueno, que es aspiracional. +Asocia ese producto con el tipo de vida que la gente quiere llevar. +Entonces, si bien es una compaa global, adopta un enfoque muy local. +El lema de la campaa mundial de Coca es "Destapa la Felicidad". +Pero lo hacen local. +Y no es que se imaginan qu hace feliz a la gente, sino que van a lugares como Amrica Latina y se dan cuenta que la felicidad all est asociada a la vida en familia. +Y en Sudfrica asocian la felicidad con el respeto por la comunidad. +Eso qued plasmado en la campaa de la Copa del Mundo. +Escuchemos esta cancin que Coca cre para el evento: "Wavin' Flag" por un artista de hip hop somal. +Bien, no se detuvo all. Lo personalizaron en 18 idiomas. +Y se convirti en nmero uno del ranking en 17 pases. +Me recuerda a una cancin que recuerdo de mi infancia, "Me Gustara Ensear Al Mundo A Cantar" que tambin estuvo primera en el ranking. +Ambas canciones tienen algo en comn: el mismo atractivo de celebracin y unidad. +Cmo se comercializa la salud y el desarrollo? +Bueno, se basa en la evasin, no en aspiraciones. +Estoy segura de que han escuchado algunos de estos mensajes. +"Usa un condn, no contraigas SIDA". +"Lvate las manos para no tener diarrea". +No me parece que suene como "Wavin' Flag". +Y creo que cometimos un error fundamental al suponer que si las personas necesitan algo no hace falta hacer que lo deseen. +Y creo que eso es un error. +Y hay algunos indicios en el mundo de que esto est empezando a cambiar. +Un ejemplo es la higiene. +Sabemos que un milln y medio de nios mueren de diarrea al ao y, en gran medida, por defecacin al aire libre. +Pero hay una solucin: construir sanitarios. +Pero lo que estamos encontrando en todo el mundo, una y otra vez, es que si uno construye un inodoro y lo deja all, no se usa. +La gente lo reutiliza como losa para su hogar. +A veces almacenan granos en ellos. +Incluso he visto que se usa como gallinero. +Pero, qu hara de la comercializacin una solucin sanitaria frente a la diarrea? +Bueno, uno trabaja con la comunidad. +Uno empieza hablando de la defecacin al aire libre como algo que no debera ocurrir en el pueblo y ellos estn de acuerdo. +Luego posicionamos el inodoro como una comodidad moderna y a la moda. +Un estado en el norte de India ha ido ms lejos y vincul los inodoros al cortejo. +Y funciona. Miren estos titulares. +No bromeo. +Las mujeres rechazan casarse con hombres sin inodoros. +No hay retrete, "no quiero". +Ahora, no es slo un ttulo divertido. Es innovador. Es una campaa innovadora. +Pero ms importante que eso: salva vidas. +Observen esto. Esta sala llena de hombres jvenes y mi esposo, Bill. +Adivinan qu estn esperando estos hombres jvenes? +Estn esperando para ser circuncidados. +Pueden creerlo? +Sabemos que la circuncisin reduce la infeccin de VIH en un 60% en los hombres. +Cuando escuchamos por primera vez este resultado dentro de la Fundacin, tengo que admitir, Bill y yo no sabamos muy bien qu hacer y decamos: "Quin se va a ofrecer como voluntario para esto? +Pero, de hecho, fueron los hombres porque sus novias les han dicho que lo prefieren y los hombres creen tambin que mejora sus vidas sexuales. +As, si podemos empezar a entender lo que la gente quiere en salud y desarrollo, podemos cambiar las comunidades y tambin pases enteros. +Entonces, por qu esto es tan importante? +Hablemos de lo que sucede cuando juntamos todo esto, cuando tenemos las tres cosas juntas. +Creo que la polio es uno de los ejemplos ms importantes. +Hemos visto una reduccin del 99% de la polio en 20 aos. +Si nos remontamos a 1988 hay unos 350.000 casos de polio en el planeta ese ao. +En 2009, baj a 1.600 casos. +Cmo sucedi eso? +Echemos un vistazo a un pas como India. +Hay ms de mil millones de personas en este pas, pero tienen 35.000 mdicos que informan parlisis, y clnicos, un sistema enorme de reportes farmacuticos. +Tienen dos millones y medio de vacunadores. +Pero voy a hacer la historia un poco ms concreta. +Les voy a contar la historia de Shriram un nio de 18 meses de Bihar, un estado del norte de India. +El 8 de agosto de este ao experiment una parlisis y el 13 sus padres lo llevaron al mdico. +El 14 y 15 de agosto tomaron una muestra de heces, y para el 25 de agosto se confirm que tena el poliovirus de tipo 1. +El 30 de agosto se realiz una prueba gentica y supimos qu cepa de polio tena Shriram. +Ahora bien, podra haber venido de uno de dos lugares: +de Nepal, al norte, cruzando la frontera; o de Jharkhand, un estado al sur. +Por suerte, las pruebas genticas demostraron que, de hecho, esta cepa vino del norte porque, de haber venido del sur, habra producido un impacto mayor en trminos de transmisin. +As que muchas ms personas se habran visto afectadas. +Cul es el final? +El 4 de septiembre hubo una gran campaa de erradicacin masiva, que es lo que se hace con la polio. +Fueron a donde vive Shriram, y vacunaron a dos millones de personas. +As, en menos de un mes, pasamos de un caso de parlisis a un programa de vacunacin selectiva. +Y me complace decir que slo una persona ms en esta regin contrajo polio. +As es como se evita la propagacin de una enorme epidemia y esto muestra lo que sucede cuando la gente de la zona tiene informacin a mano; pueden salvar vidas. +Uno de los desafos de la polio, todava, es el mercadeo, pero podra no ser lo que piensan. +No es la comercializacin en el terreno. +No se trata de decirle a los padres "Si ven parlisis, lleven a sus hijos al mdico o hganlos vacunar". +Tenemos un problema de comercializacin en la comunidad de donantes. +Las naciones del G8 han sido muy generosas en temas de polio, en los ltimos 20 aos pero estamos empezando a tener algo llamado fatiga de la polio; es decir, las naciones donantes no estn dispuestas a financiar la polio por ms tiempo. +As, vemos que para el prximo verano nos quedaremos sin financiamiento. +Estamos a un 99% de nuestra meta a punto de quedarnos sin dinero. +Y creo que si la comercializacin fuera ms aspiracional, si pudiramos centrarnos en la comunidad, en lo lejos que hemos llegado, y en lo fantstico que sera erradicar esta enfermedad, podramos dejar atrs la fatiga y la polio. +Y si pudiramos hacer eso podramos dejar de vacunar a todos, en todo el mundo, en todos los pases, contra la polio. +Y sera la segunda enfermedad erradicada de la faz del planeta. +Y estamos muy cerca. +Esta victoria es muy posible. +Si los vendedores de Coca viniesen y me pidiesen que defina la felicidad dira que para m la felicidad es una madre sosteniendo en sus brazos un beb sano. +Para m, eso es la felicidad plena. +Entonces, si podemos aprender de los innovadores de todos los sectores, en el futuro que construimos juntos esa felicidad puede estar tan omnipresente como Coca-Cola. +Gracias. +Me enter del terremoto de Hait a travs de Skype. +Mi esposa me envi un mensaje: "Terremoto!" y luego desapareci durante 25 minutos. +Fueron 25 minutos de absoluto terror el que sintieron miles de personas en EE.UU. +Yo tena miedo de un tsunami. Lo que no me di cuenta era que haba un terror mayor en Hait: el desplome de los edificios. +Todos hemos visto fotos de edificios derrumbados en Hait. +Estas son fotos que tom mi esposa un par de das despus del sismo mientras yo iba camino al pas por Repblica Dominicana. +Este es el Palacio Nacional, el equivalente de la Casa Blanca. +Este es el supermercado ms grande del Caribe en el momento de mayor venta. +Este es un colegio de enfermera. Hay 300 enfermeras estudiando. +Al lado, el Hospital General intacto en gran parte. +Este es el Ministerio de Economa y Finanzas. +Todos hemos escuchado de la tremenda prdida de vidas humanas en el terremoto de Hait. Pero no lo suficiente sobre la causa de esa prdida. +No hemos odo de las causas de la falla edilicia. +Despus de todo, fueron los edificios, no el terremoto, lo que mat a 220.000 personas, lo que hiri a 330.000, lo que desplaz a 1,3 millones de personas, lo que dej sin comida, agua y suministros a una nacin entera. +Este es el mayor desastre de rea metropolitana en dcadas. Y no fue un desastre natural. Fue un desastre de ingeniera. +AIDG ha trabajado en Hait desde 2007, brindando apoyo en ingeniera y negocios a las pequeas empresas. +Despus del sismo comenzamos a llevar ingenieros en terremotos para averiguar las causas de los derrumbes para examinar lo que estaba a salvo y lo que no. +Trabajando con la MINUSTAH, la misin de la ONU en Hait, con el Ministerio de Obras Pblicas, con distintas ONG's, inspeccionamos ms de 1.500 edificios. +Inspeccionamos escuelas y residencias privadas. +Inspeccionamos centros mdicos y almacenes de alimentos. +Inspeccionamos edificios gubernamentales. +Este es el Ministerio de Justicia. +Detrs de esa puerta est el Archivo Nacional de la Magistratura. +El compaero de la puerta, Andre Filitrault, es director del Centro para la Investigacin Interdisciplinaria en Ingeniera Ssmica de la Universidad de Buffalo; estaba examinando para ver si era seguro recuperar los archivos. +Andr me cont luego de ver estas fallas edilicias una y otra vez de la misma manera que aqu no hay nada nuevo. +No hay nada que no sepamos. +Ahora bien, hay solucin para estos problemas. +Sabemos construir correctamente. +Prueba de esto es lo sucedido en Chile apenas un mes despus cuando un sismo de magnitud 8,8 afect a Chile. +Eso es 500 veces la potencia de 7,0 que afect a Puerto Prncipe; 500 veces la potencia, no obstante, produjo menos de mil vctimas. +Ajustado a la densidad de poblacin, eso es menos del 1% del impacto del sismo haitiano. +Cul fue la diferencia entre Chile y Hait? +Normas anti-ssmicas y mampostera confinada en la que el edificio acta como un todo; paredes, columnas, techos y losas amarrados para apoyarse mutuamente, en vez de quebrarse en partes separadas y caer. +Si miran este edificio de Chile est partido al medio pero no se redujo a escombros. +Los chilenos han construido con mampostera confinada durante dcadas. +En este momento, AIDG est trabajando con KPFF Ingenieros Consultores, Arquitectura para la Humanidad, para capacitar ms en mampostera confinada en Hait. +Este es Daniel Xantus. Es albail, un trabajador de la construccin, no un capataz, que recibi una capacitacin. +En su ltimo empleo l estaba trabajando con su jefe y comenzaron a construir mal las columnas. +Llev a un lado a su jefe y le mostr los materiales de mampostera confinada. +Le mostr: "No tenemos por qu hacerlo mal. +No nos va a costar ms hacerlo bien". +Y reconstruyeron el edificio. +Pusieron bien las barras de refuerzo. Construyeron bien las columnas. Y ese edificio ser seguro. +Y cada edificio que construyan en adelante ser seguro. +La seguridad de estos edificios no va a implicar poltica; va a requerir una llegada a los albailes en el terreno y ayudarles a aprender tcnicas adecuadas. +Ahora hay muchos grupos haciendo esto. +Y el compaero del chaleco, Craig Toten, ha propuesto documentar el trabajo de los grupos que estn haciendo esto. +Mediante Hait Rewired, Build Change, Arquitectura para la Humanidad, AIDG, existe la posibilidad de llegar a 30.000 40.000 albailes en todo el pas y crear un movimiento de buenas construcciones. +Si se tiene llegada a la gente en el terreno de esta manera colaborativa es muy asequible. +De los miles de millones gastados en la reconstruccin, se puede capacitar a los albailes por unos dlares en cada casa y terminarn construyendo as toda la vida. +En definitiva, hay dos maneras de reconstruir Hait: la manera de arriba es como se ha hecho durante dcadas. +La manera de arriba es un edificio mal construido que va a fracasar. +La manera de abajo es la construccin con mampostera confinada, donde las paredes estn amarradas entre s, el edificio es simtrico, y har frente a un terremoto. +En los casos de desastre hay una oportunidad de construir mejores casas para la siguiente generacin, para que cuando venga el prximo terremoto sea un desastre pero no una tragedia. +Me enter de esta especie de poco original y comn idea de que las nuevas tecnologas son una oportunidad para la transformacin social. Que es lo que me motiv entonces, y todava hoy, es la creencia me motiva ahora. +Quera contarles lo que he estado haciendo desde entonces -- pero sigue siendo la misma cancin -- y presentarles mi laboratorio y mi trabajo actual, que es la Clnica de Salud Medioambiental que llevo en la NYU (Universidad de Nueva York). +Lo que es -- es un giro en la salud. +Porque, realmente, lo que intento hacer ahora es redefinir lo que se considera salud. +Es una clnica como cualquier otra en cualquier otra universidad, excepto que la gente viene a la clnica con preocupaciones de salud medioambiental, y se van con recetas de cosas que ellos pueden hacer para mejorar la salud medioambiental, a diferencia de venir a la clnica con preocupaciones mdicas y salir con recetas para frmacos. +Hay una cita que ayuda, de Hipcrates del juramento hipocrtico que dice, "La mayor parte del alma est fuera del cuerpo, tratar lo interno requiere tratar lo externo." +Pero esto sugiere la cuestin a la que estoy intentando llegar aqu, que nosotros tenemos una oportunidad para redefinir qu es salud. +Porque esta idea de que la salud es interna, y atomizada e individual y farmacutica es en gran parte un error. +Y usara este estudio, un reciente estudio de Philip Landrigan, para impulsar una visin diferente de la salud, en el cual fue a la mayora de los pediatras de Manhattan y del rea de Nueva York y document en qu usaban sus horas de pacientes. +El 80 a 90 por ciento de su tiempo se reparta en cinco cosas. +Nmero uno era asma, nmero dos era retrasos en el desarrollo, nmero tres era el crecimiento en 400 veces de cnceres raros en la niez entre los ltimos ocho a 10,15 aos. +Nmero cuatro y cinco era obesidad infantil y cuestiones relacionadas con la diabetes. +As que de todos esos -- qu es comn a todos esos? +El medio ambiente est implicado, radicalmente implicado, s. +Esto no es los grmenes que los mdicos fueron formados para tratar; esta es una definicin diferente de salud, salud que tiene una gran ventaja porque es externa, es compartida, podemos hacer algo al respecto, a diferencia de la interna, genticamente predeterminada, o individualizada. +La gente que viene a la clnica son llamados, no pacientes, sino impacientes, porque son demasiado impacientes para esperar cambios legislativos que se ocupen de temas de salud locales y medioambientales. +Y los conozco en la universidad, tambin tengo algunas mesas informativas que instal en varios sitios que proporcionan una inmersin en algunos de los retos medioambientales a enfrentar. +Me gusta este de una mesa informativa belga, en la que nos reunimos en una rotonda, precisamente porque las rotondas representaban el movimiento social sin cabeza que informa mucho sobre la transformacin social, a diferencia del control descendente de la luz roja del semforo en las intersecciones. +En este caso, por supuesto, la rotonda con esas micro-decisiones tomadas in situ por gente a la que no se le dice qu hacer. +Pero, por supuesto, permite un mayor rendimiento, menos accidentes, y un modelo interesante de movimiento social. +Algunas de las cosas que los protocolos de monitorizacin han desarrollado: ste es el protocolo del renacuajo burcrata, o manteniendo etiquetas, si prefieren. +Lo que son es un agregado de renacuajos que son bautizados con el nombre de algn burcrata local cuyas decisiones afectan la calidad de tu agua. +As que un impaciente preocupado por la calidad del agua cria a un renacuajo burcrata en una muestra del agua sobre la que estn interesados. +Y les damos algunas cosas para que hagan esto, para ayudarlos a hacer dispositivos para animales de compaa mientras estn con su blog o con su email. +Este es un paseador de renacuajos para sacar a pasear a tu renacuajo a la noche. +Y la cosa interesante que sucede -- porque estamos usando renacuajos, claro, porque tienen biosentidos mucho ms exquisitos que nosotros, muchas miles de veces ms sensibles que algunos de nuestros sentidos para sentir, respondiendo de una manera biolgicamente sensible, a toda esa clase de contaminantes industriales que llamamos disruptores endcrinos o emuladores hormonales. +Pero al llevar a tu renacuajo de paseo por la noche -- hay algunas fotos -- tus vecinos seguramente dirn: "Qu ests haciendo?" +Y entonces tienes que presentarles a tu renacuajo y a quien le di el nombre. +Tienes que explicar lo que haces y cmo los sucesos en el desarrollo del renacuajo son, claro, muy observables y que usan las mismas hormonas mediadas por T3 que nosotros. +Y as, la prxima vez que tu vecino te ve dir, "Cmo anda ese renacuajo?" +Y puedes dejarlo interactuar en la red social con tu renacuajo, porque la Clnica de Salud Medioambiental tiene una red social online para, no slo los impacientes, humanos, sino tambin para no-humanos, networking para humanos y no-humanos. +Y por supuesto, estos disruptores endcrinos son cosas implicadas en la epidemia de cncer de mama, la epidemia de obesidad, la cada en 2.5 aos de la edad promedio del comienzo de la pubertad en nias y otras cosas relacionadas. +La culminacin de esto es, si has criado exitosamente a tu renacuajo, observando la conducta y los sucesos en el desarrollo, que irs y le presentars tu renacuajo a su tocayo y hablarn de la evidencia que has encontrado. +Otro protocolo rpido -- y voy a ir con estos rpido, slo como para darles ejemplos concretos de qu hacemos aqu - es, en vez de pedirte muestras de orina, te pedir una muestra de ratn. +Alguien aqu afortunado de contarnos, que conviva con un ratn -- una asociacin domstica con ratones? +Muy afortunado. +Los ratones, por supuesto, son el perfecto organismo modelo. +Son an mejores modelos de salud medioambiental, porque no slo tienen la misma biologa mamfera, sino que comparten tambien tu dieta, en gran medida. +Comparten tus estresores ambientales, los niveles de amianto y de plomo, todo a lo que t ests expuesto. +Y estn geogrficamente ms limitados que t, porque no sabemos su has estado expuesto persistentemente a contaminantes orgnicos en tu casa o en tu ocupacin o cuando eras nio. +Los ratones son una muy buena representacin. +As que comienza con construir una mejor trampa, claro. +Esta es una de ellas. +Soportar los estresores ambientales es complicado. +Hay alguien aqu que tome antidepresivos? +Un montn de gente en Manhattan toma. +Y estamos testeando si los ratones tambin se autoadministraran ISRS (Inhibidores de la recaptacin de serotonina). +As que esto era Prozac, esto era Zoloft, esto era una gelatina negra y esto era un relajante muscular, todos ellos eran la medicacin que el impaciente estaba tomando. +As que, creen ustedes que los ratones se autoadministraron antidepresivos? +Cul es el -- (Audiencia: Seguro. S) Cmo saban? S, lo hicieron. +Esto era vodka y solucin, gin y solucin. +A este hombre tambin le gustaba el agua corriente y el relajante muscular. +Cul es nuestra observacin? +Vodka, gin -- (Audiencia: [incierta]) S, s. Conocen a sus ratones muy bien. +S, tomaron. +As que tomaron tanto vodka como el agua que tomaron, lo cual es interesante. +Luego, claro, va al aparato de entrampado. +Hay un viejo celular ah -- un buen uso para viejos celulares -- que llama a la clnica, vamos y nos llevamos al ratn. +Tomamos una muestra de sangre y hacemos el estudio de la sangre y el pelo del ratn. +Y quiero remarcar la gran ventaja de considerar a la salud de esta forma externa. +Pero tenemos muy pocos productos para recetar de esta manera. +Es muy distinto al modelo mdico. +Cualquier cosa que hagas para mejorar la calidad del agua o del aire, o para entenderlo o para cambiarlo, los beneficios son disfrutados por todos aquellos con los que compartes la calidad de tu agua y de tu aire. +Y ese efecto de agregacin, ese efecto de la accin colectiva, es verdaderamente algo que podemos usar en nuestro beneficio. +Quiero mostrarles un producto que se receta en la clnica llamado "No Estacione". +Esta es una receta para mejorar la calidad del agua. +Muchos impacientes estn muy preocupados con la calidad del agua y del aire. +Lo que hacemos es tomar un hidrante, un espacio "no estacionar" asociado al hidrante, y recetamos la remocin del asfalto para crear un micro paisaje de ingeniera, para crear una oportunidad de infiltracin. +Eso no hace mucho bien. +Hay pocas oportunidades de interceptar a esos contaminantes antes de que entren en el puerto, y son propiciadas por impacientes en varias calles de maneras muy interesantes. +Quiero mencionar que es un especie de regla general, que hay dos o tres hidrantes en cada cuadra. +Creando estos micro espacios de ingeniera para infiltrarlos, no obstaculizamos su utilizacin como estacionamiento par vehculos de emergencia, porque, por supuesto, un camin de bomberos puede aparcar ah. +Aplastan una plantas. No es gran problema, se regenerarn. +Pero si hiciramos esto en cada uno -- en cada hidrante podramos redefinir la emergencia. +Ese 99 porciento del tiempo que un camnin de bomberos no est aparcado ah, est infiltrando contaminantes. +Est tambin incrementanto el equilibrio de CO2, captando algunos de los contaminantes voltiles. +Y todos sumados, estas pequeas intercepciones podran infiltrar toda la contaminacin callejera que ahora decanta en nuestro sistema estuario, hasta una lluvia de 18 milmetros, hasta una tormenta de 100 aos. +As que stas son pequeas acciones que pueden sumar a un efecto significativo para mejorar la salud ambiental local. +Este es uno de los ms ambiciosos. +Los que la crisis climtica nos ha revelado es una crisis secundaria, ms subrepticia y ms generalizada, que es la crisis de agencia, que es: qu hacer. +De alguna manera, comprar lechuga local, cambiar un foco, conducir a la velocidad permitida, cambiar tus neumticos regularmente, no parece ser suficiente frente a la crisis climtica. +Y este es un interesante ejemplo que sucedi -- recordarn estos: refugios antiatmicos. +Cul es el refugio antiatmico para la crisis climtica? +Esto fue una movilizacin civil. +Iglesias, grupos escolares, hospitales, residentes particulares -- cada uno construy uno de estos en cuestin de meses. +Y todava estn all como conos de la respuesta civil de cara a una amenzaza colectiva incierta y compartida. +Un refugio antiatmico para la crisis climtica dira, se parece a algo as, o as, lo que es una instalacin de agricultura intensiva urbana que est pendiente de estar en mi laboratorio en la NYU. +No se puede construir mucho en un techo, no estn diseados para eso. +As que tiene patas, para focalizar todo el peso en la mampostera y en las columnas. +Se construye como un "galpn de construccin colectiva", usando software de cdigo abierto. +Este es el prototipo a escala que estaba funcionando en Espaa. +As es como debera haber sido, crucemos los dedos, si la NYU acepta. +Y lo que quiero mostrarles es -- ste es uno de los componentes del mismo, que estuvimos testeando -- que es una chimenea solar -- tenemos 17 de ellas puestas por todo NY ahora -- que pasivamente sube el aire hacia arriba. +Entienden lo que es una chimenea solar. +El aire caliente sube. +Pones un poco de plstico negro en un lado de un edificio, se calentar, y tendrs una corriente de aire pasiva. +Los que hacemos es, a decir verdad, poner un filtro HVAC stndard en la cima de eso. +Que remueve como el 95 porciento del carbn negro, esa cosa que, junto con el ozono. es responsable por casi la mitad de los efectos del calentamiento global., porque cambia, se asienta en la nieve, cambia los reflectores, cambia las propiedades de transmisin de la atmsfera. +El cabrn negro es ese holln que si no se aloja en tus hermosos y rosados pulmones, y est asociado con... +No es nada bueno, y es una forma de combustin ineficiente, no de la combustin misma. +Cuando lo hacemos pasar por nuestra chimenea, removemos algo del 95 porciento de eso. +Y luego lo intercambiamos con los estudiantes y re-lanzamos ese carbn negro. +Y hacemos lpices cuya langitud mide el holln que extrajimos del aire. +Este es uno de los que tenemos ahora. +Aqu estn quienes los hacen y que son vidos usuarios de lpices. +Okey, as que quiero mostrarles slo dos interfaces ms, porque creo que uno de nuestros ms grandes desafos es re-imaginar nuestra relacin con los sistemas naturales, no slo a travs de este modelo de cambio personalizado de la salud, sino a travs de animales con los que convivimos. +No estamos solos, los animales se estn integrando. +De hecho, la migracin urbana ahora describe el movimiento de animales otrora conocidos como salvajes hacia centros urbanos. +Ya saben, un coyote en Central Park, una ballena en el Canal Gowanus, alce en Westchester County. +Est ocurriendo en todo el mundo desarrollado, probablemente por prdida de hbitat, pero tambin porque nuestras ciudades son un poquito ms vivibles de lo que eran. +Y cada espacio verde que creamos es una invitacin a los no-humanos para convivir con nosotros. +Pero como que no hemos tenido la imaginacin sobre cmo poder hacer esto bien o de forma interesante. +Y quiero mostrarles algunas de las interfaces tecnolgicas que han sido desarrolladas bajo el nombre de OOZ -- que es "zoo" al revs y sin jaulas -- para tratar de reformar esa relacin. +Esto es tecnologa de comunicacin para pjaros. Yo me veo as. +Cuando un pjaro aterriza en l, disparan un archivo de sonido. +Esta es en el Whitney Museum, en donde hay 6 de elllos, cada uno tiene un argumento diferente en s, un archivo de sonido diferente. +Han dicho cosas como sta. +Voz grabada: Esto es lo que debes hacer. +Ve y compra unas de esas barras de cereal saludables, esas que llamas comida para aves, y trela aqu y desparrmala. +He aqu una buena persona. +Natalie Jeremijenko: Okay. As que haba varios de stos. +Los pjaros podan saltar de uno a otro. +Son tus simples palomas urbanas. +Y un test anterior cuyo argumento evocaba comportamiento cooperativo de la gente de abajo -- alrededor de cien a uno dijo que ste era el argumento que tena el mejor efecto en nosotros. +Voz grabada: Tick, tick, tick. +Ese es el sonido de mutaciones genticas de la gripe aviar convirtindose en una gripe humana mortal. +Sabes qu es lo que detiene esto? +Sub-poblaciones de aves sanas, incrementando la biodiversidad en general. +Es de tu conveniencia que yo est sano, feliz, bien alimentado. +Por lo tanto, podras compartir algunos de tus recursos nutricionales en vez de monopolizarlos. +Esto es, comparte tu almuerzo. +NJ: Funcion, y es cierto. +El ltimo proyecto que quisiera mostrarles es una nueva interface para peces que recin ha sido lanzada -- es, en verdad, lanzada oficialmente la prxima semana -- con un servicio maravilloso de la Liga de Arquitectura. +Quizs ustedes siquiera sepan que necesitan comunicarse con los peces, pero existe ahora un dispositivo para que puedan hacerlo. +Es algo as: boyas que flotan en el agua, proyectan 1 metro hacia arriba, 1 metro hacia abajo. +Cuando un pez nada por debajo, una luz se enciende. +As es como se ve. +As que hay otra funcin encendida aqu. +Esta luz de arriba es -- perdn si los estoy mareando -- esta luz es en verdad un monitor de calidad del agua que cambia de rojo, cuando el oxgeno disuelto es bajo, a un azul/verde, cuando el oxgeno disuelto es alto. +Y luego, puedes tambin "textear" al pez. +Entonces, hay tarjetas ah debajo que te darn datos de contacto. +Y te responden el texto. +Cuando las boyas reciben tu sms, te guian 2 veces para decir: recibimos tu mensaje. +Pero quizs el ms popular ha sido que pusimos otra cadena de stos en el Ro Bronx, donde el primer castor -- loco como es -- de haberse mudado y construido un hogar en New York en 250 aos, vive. +As que, noticias de un castor. +Puedes suscribirte a las noticias de l. Puedes hablarle. +Y lo que me gusta pensar es que esta es una interface que reescribe cmo interactuamos con sistemas naturales, especficamente al cambiar quin tiene informacin, dnde la tienen, quin puede darle sentido a esa informacin, y qu podemos hacer con ella. +En vez de hacer eso, desarrollamos unos palitos para peces con los que puedes alimentar a los peces +Son deliciosos. +Son deliciosos inter-especies, digo, deliciosos para humanos y no-humanos. +Pero tambin contienen un agente qumico. +Son nutricionalmente apropiados, no como los Doritos. +Y entonces cada vez ese deseo de interactuar con los animales, que es al menos tan presente como el cartel: "No alimente a los animales". +Y hay unos 3 de ellos en cada parque en New York. +Y en el parque nacional de Yellowstone, hay ms carteles: "no alimente a los animales" que animales a los que desees alimentar. +El cambio del lugar no es la forma de tratar los problemas ambientales. +Y ese es el tpico paradigma bajo el que hemos operado. +Al tomar la oportunidad que las nuevas tecnologas, nuevas tecnologas interactivas, nos presentan para reescribir nuestras interacciones, para escribirlas, no ya como interacciones aisladas, individualizadas, sino como acciones colectivas conjuntas que pueden sumar a algo, podemos realmente comenzar a solucionar algunos de nuestros desafos ambientateles ms importantes. +Gracias. +Toda presentacin debe tener esta diapositiva. +Es bonita, verdad? +Ven? +Todos los puntos, todas las lneas. Es increble. +Es la red. Y en mi caso, la red ha sido importante en los medios, porque me permite conectarme con la gente. +No es asombroso? +A travs de eso, me conecto con la gente. +Y lo estuve haciendo de maneras diferentes. +Por ejemplo, consegu que la gente vista sus aspiradoras. +Organic proyectos como Sndwich de la Tierra, donde le pido a la gente que ubique de forma simultnea 2 rebanadas de pan en lados perfectamente opuestos de la Tierra. +Y la gente comenz a poner pan en homenaje, y finalmente un equipo fue capaz de hacerlo entre Nueva Zelanda y Espaa. +Es bastante increble. El video est en lnea. +Conectando a la gente en proyectos como por ejemplo, YoungMeNowMe. +En YoungMeNowMe se le pidi a la audiencia que encuentre una fotografa propia, de la infancia, y que la re-escenifiquen como adultos. +Esta es la misma persona -- la foto de arriba, James, la foto de abajo, Julia. +Fuerte. +Este fue un regalo del Da de la Madre. +Da miedo. +Mi foto favorita, no la pude encontrar, es la imagen de una mujer de unos 30 aos con un beb en su regazo, y la siguiente foto es un hombre de 100 kg con una diminuta viejita que mira sobre sus hombros. +Pero este proyecto cambi mi forma de pensar la conexin con la gente. +Este proyecto se llama Ray. +Y lo que ocurri fue que me enviaron este audio y no tena idea de quin lo haba hecho. +Alguien dijo: "Tienes que escuchar esto". +Y esto es lo que escuch. +Grabacin: Hola, mi nombre es Ray, y ayer mi hija me llam porque estaba estresada por cosas que pasaban en su trabajo que ella senta eran muy injustas. +Estando tan perturbada, llam para ser tranquilizada, pero realmente no saba qu decirle, porque tenemos que enfrentar tanto desorden en nuestra sociedad. +As que me puse a escribir esta cancin slo para ella, slo para darle nimo mientras lidiaba con el estrs y las presiones en su trabajo. +Y pens que la pondra en Internet para todos los empleados estresados para ayudarle a lidiar mejor con lo que pasan en tu trabajo. +Esto dice la cancin. +Y dejen que eso les d fuerza para continuar el trabajo. +Bien. Fuerza. Paz. +Ze Frank: Entonces --S. +No, no, silencio! Tiene que ser rpido. +Esto me conmovi mucho. Esto es increble. Esto fue conectarse. +Esto fue comprender, a la distancia, que alguien senta algo, y quera darle afecto de alguna manera, usando los medios, ponindolo en lnea y comprendiendo que haba un impacto mayor. +Esto fue increble. Esto es lo que quera hacer. +Lo primero que pens es que debamos agradecerle. +Y le ped a mi audiencia, dije: "Escuchen este audio. +Necesitamos una nueva versin. l tiene una gran voz. +En realidad en clave de si bemol. +Tenemos que hacer algo con esto". +Me llegaron cientos de versiones -- muchos intentos diferentes. +En particular, se destac uno +de un joven llamado Goose. +Esa cancin -- Gracias. +Alguien me dijo que pasaron esa cancin en un partido de bisbol en la ciudad de Kansas. +Al final, fue una de las ms bajadas de un montn de msicas transmitidas. +Entonces dije, "Compilmoslo en un lbum". +Y la audiencia se uni, y disearon la tapa del lbum. +Y dije: "Si compilamos todo, se lo entregar a l, si pueden descubrir quin es esta persona", porque todo lo que tena era su nombre, Ray, y este audio y el hecho de que su hija estaba perturbada. +Lo encontraron en 2 semanas. +Recib un email que deca: "Hola, Soy Ray. +Escuch que me estabas buscando". +Y yo le dije: "S, Ray. +Han sido 2 semanas interesantes". +Y vol a St. Louis y conoc a Ray. Es pastor. Entre otras cosas. +De cualquier forma, este es el punto, me recuerda a esto, que es una seal que se ve en cada esquina de las calles de msterdam. +Y para m es una especie de metfora del mundo virtual. +Miro esta foto, y l parece realmente interesado en lo que pasa con ese botn, y no parece muy interesado en cruzar la calle. +Y me hace pensar en esto. +En las esquinas de todas partes, la gente mira sus telfonos celulares, y es fcil desestimar esto como una mala tendencia en la cultura humana. +Pero la verdad es que, la vida se est viviendo ah. +Cuando sonren -- justo cuando uno ve a la gente pararse -- de repente, la vida se est viviendo ah, en alguna parte de esa extraa y densa red. +Y de esto se trata, de sentir y ser sentido. +Es la fuerza fundamental que todos buscamos. +Podemos construir todo tipo de ambientes para hacerlo un poco ms fcil, pero al final, lo que estamos tratando de hacer es conectarnos realmente con otra persona. +Y eso no siempre va a suceder en los espacios fsicos. +Ahora va a suceder en los espacios virtuales, y tenemos que entenderlo mejor. +Creo que, de las personas que construyen toda esta tecnologa en la red, muchos de ellos no son muy buenos conectndose con la gente. +Esto se parece a algo que yo sola hacer en tercer grado. +Esta es una serie de proyectos de los ltimos aos donde mi inspiracin fue tratar de averiguar cmo facilitar realmente una relacin estrecha. +A veces son cosas muy simples. +Una Caminata de la Infancia, es un proyecto donde le pido a la gente que recuerde una caminata que sola hacer con frecuencia, de nio, sin mucho significado, como ser hacia la parada de autobs, a la casa de un vecino, y subirlo a Google Streetview. +Y les aseguro que si subes ese paseo a Google Streetview, llega un momento en el que algo vuelve y te golpea en la cara. +Recog esos momentos -- las fotos de Google Streetview y, especficamente, los recuerdos. +"Nuestra conversacin empez conmigo diciendo: 'estoy aburrido' y su respuesta: 'Cuando me aburro, como pretzels'. Recuerdo esto claramente porque pasaba mucho". +"Justo despus de decirnos a m y a mi hermano que se iba a separar de mi mam, recuerdo caminar hacia una tienda y comprar un refresco de cereza". +"Ellos usaron algunas tomas mrbidas de artista, un primer plano de los zapatos de Chad en medio de la carretera. +Creo que se le salieron los zapatos cuando fue golpeado. +Una vez durmi en mi casa, y dej su almohada. +Tena escrito 'Chad' con marcador. +l muri mucho despus de dejar la almohada en mi casa, pero nunca fuimos a devolverla". +A veces son un poco ms abstractas. +Esto es Pain Pack. +El ao pasado, justo despus del 11 de septiembre, Estaba pensando en el dolor y en la manera de disiparlo, la manera de eliminarlo de nuestros cuerpos. +As que abr una lnea directa, donde la gente pudiera dejar mensajes expresando su dolor, no necesariamente relacionados con ese evento. +Y la gente llam y dej mensajes como ste. +Grabacin: Bien, es algo. +No estoy sola, y soy amada. +Soy muy afortunada. +Pero a veces me siento realmente sola. +Y cuando me siento as hasta el gesto de bondad ms pequeo me hace llorar. +Como cuando la gente de la tienda dice: "Que tengas un buen da", cuando accidentalmente me miran a los ojos. +ZF: Entonces tom esos mensajes, y con su permiso, los pas a formato MP3 y los distribu a editores de sonido quienes crearon piezas cortas usando dichos mensajes. +Y luego los distribu a DJs quienes crearon cientos de canciones usando ese material como fuente. +No tenemos tiempo para escuchar mucho. +Pueden verlas en lnea. +"De 52 a 48 con amor" fue un proyecto de las ltimas elecciones, donde tanto McCain como Obama, luego de la eleccin, hablaron de reconciliacin en sus discursos, y me preguntaba, "A qu demonios se parece eso?" +Y pens, "Bien, intentmoslo. +Hagamos que la gente muestre seales de reconciliacin". +Y nos llegaron algunas cosas muy bonitas. +"Vot azul. Vot rojo. +Juntos por nuestro futuro". +Estas son pequeas cosas muy, muy lindas. +Algunas vinieron del partido ganador. +"Querido 48, prometo escucharte, luchar por ti, respetarte siempre". +Algunos venan del partido que acababa de perder. +"De un 48 a un 52, puede que el liderazgo de su partido sea tan elegante como usted, pero lo dudo". +Pero lo cierto es que cuando comenz a volverse popular, un par de blogs de derecha y algunos tablones de anuncios al parecer lo encontraron un poco condescendiente, algo que tambin yo pude ver. +Y as empec a recibir muchsimos correos con insultos, inclusive amenazas de muerte. +Y, en particular, un hombre, continu escribindome estos mensajes horribles, y estaba disfrazado de Batman. +Y deca, "Me visto como Batman para ocultar mi identidad". +Por si acaso yo pensaba que el verdadero Batman me persegua. Lo que en realidad me hizo sentir un poco mejor. Como, "Uf, no es l". +As que lo que hice -- lamentablemente estaba albergando dentro mo todo este dolor y esas experiencias horribles, y eso comenzaba a carcomer mi mente. +Y me di cuenta que estaba protegiendo al proyecto de esto. Lo estaba protegiendo. No quera que este pequeo grupo de fotografas fuera de alguna forma mancillado. +Tom todos esos emails, y los junt en algo llamado Iragami , que era una plantilla de origami hecha con esos mensajes de ira. +Y le ped a la gente que me enviara cosas bonitas hechas de Iragami. +Pero este fue el momento emotivo. +El to de uno de mis espectadores muri un da dado, y l eligi una pieza de odio para conmemorarlo. +Es asombroso. +Lo ltimo que les contar es sobre una serie de proyectos llamado Canciones que ya conoces, donde la idea era, yo estaba tratando de averiguar cmo hacer frente a determinados tipos de emociones con proyectos grupales. +As que uno de ellos era bastante sencillo. +Un hombre dijo que su hija se asustaba por la noche y me peda que escribiera una cancin para ella. +Y dije, claro, tratar de escribir un mantra que ella cante para s misma y que le ayude a dormir. +Y esto fue "Asustado". +Lo bueno fue que lleg un momento en que l pasaba por la habitacin de su hija, y ella estaba cantando esa cancin para s misma. +As que yo deca: "Impresionante. Esto es genial". +Y luego recib este correo electrnico. Esto tiene un poco de trasfondo. +Y no tengo mucho tiempo. +Pero la idea fue que en un momento hice un proyecto llamado FacebookMeEqualsYou, donde yo quera experimentar cmo era vivir como otra persona. +As que ped que me enviaran nombres de usuario y contraseas. +Y me llegaron muchos, unos 30 en media hora. +Ah cerr esa parte. +Y eleg ser dos personas, y les ped que me enviaran descripciones de cmo actuar como ellos en Facebook. +Alguien me envi una descripcin muy detallada. La otra persona no. +Y la que no lo hizo result que justo se haba mudado a una nueva ciudad con un nuevo trabajo. +As que la gente me escriba diciendo, "Cmo es tu nuevo trabajo?" +Y yo deca: "No lo s. +No saba que tena uno nuevo". +De todos modos esta misma persona, Laura, termin envindome un correo electrnico poco despus de ese proyecto. +Y me senta mal por no haber hecho un buen trabajo. +Y dijo: "Realmente estoy ansiosa, recin mudada a una nueva ciudad, con trabajo nuevo, y estoy muy ansiosa". +As que ella haba visto la cancin "Asustado" y se preguntaba si yo poda hacer algo. +Le pregunt: "Qu se siente cuando ests as?" +Y ella escribi una especie de descripcin de lo que se siente al tener esta ansiedad. +Y lo que decid hacer... +Dije: "Bien, lo voy a pensar". +As, en silencio y por lo bajo, empec a mandar esto a la gente. + Oye T ests bien T estars bien As que le ped a la gente si tenan equipo bsico de audio, para que pudiera cantar la cancin con los auriculares puestos, y yo pudiera tener de vuelta sus voces. +Y este es el tipo de cosas que me llegaron. +Grabacin: Oye T ests bien T estars bien ZF: Realmente, ese es uno de los mejores. +Pero lo increble es, como empec a recibir ms y ms y ms, y de repente tena 30, 40 voces de todo el mundo. +Y cuando las pones todas juntas, sucede algo mgico, sucede algo absolutamente increble, y, de repente, tuve un coro planetario. +Y lo realmente genial, es que estaba juntando todo este trabajo de fondo, y Laura me envi un correo electrnico porque haba tenido un buen mes. +Y deca: "S que te has olvidado de m. +Slo quera agradecerte por haberlo considerado". +Y luego, unos das despus le mand esto. +Las historias que nos contamos unos a otros son muy importantes. +Las historias que contamos sobre nustras propias vidas son importantes. +Y creo que, sobre todo, la manera en que participamos en las historias de los dems es de gran importancia. +Tena seis aos cuando, por primera vez, escuch historias sobre los pobres. +Pero no las escuch de los pobres mismos, las escuch de mi maestra de catequesis y de Jess, a travs de mi maestra de catequesis. +Recuerdo que aprend que la gente pobre necesitaba algo material -alimento, ropa, albergue- que no tena. +Y tambin me ensearon, junto con eso, que, aparentemente, mi trabajo nuestro trabajo -de esta clase llena nios de 5 y 6 aos- era ayudar. +Eso era lo que Jess nos peda. +Y luego deca: Lo que haces por el menor de ellos, lo haces por m. +Ahora estaba bastante mentalizada. +Estaba ansiosa por ser til en el mundo. Creo que todos tenemos ese sentimiento. +Y tambin, me resultaba interesante que Dios necesitara ayuda. +Eso era nuevo para m, y pareca ser muy importante involucrarse. +Pero tambin aprend, poco tiempo despus, que Jess tambin deca -y estoy parafraseando- que los pobres siempre estarin con nososotros. +Esto me frustraba y me confunda. Senta que acababan de darme una tarea que deba realizar, y estaba entusismada por hacerlo, pero que sin importar lo que hiciera, terminara fallando. +Me senta confundida, un poco frustrada y enojada; quizs yo haba malinterpretado algo. +Me senta abrumada. +Y por primera vez, empec a temerle a este grupo de personas y a tener sentimientos negativos hacia todo un grupo de personas. +Me imaginaba una especie de fila larga de individuos que nunca desapareceran, que siempre estaran con nosotros. +Siempre me pediran que los ayudara y que les diera cosas, lo cual me entusiasmaba, pero no saba como iba a resultar. +Y no saba qu pasara cuando me quedara sin cosas para dar, sobre todo si el problema nunca iba a desaparecer. +Durante los aos siguientes, las dems historias que escuchaba sobre los pobres no eran ms positivas. +Por ejemplo, vea fotografas e imgenes generalmente de tristeza y sufrimiento. +Oa hablar sobre cosas que andaban mal en la vida de los pobres. +Oa hablar de enfermedades. Oa hablar de guerra. Siempre parecan estar relacionadas. +Y en general, tena esta suerte de idea de que los pobres del mundo vivan vidas forjadas por el sufrimiento y la tristeza, por la devastacin y la desesperanza. +Y luego de un tiempo, desarroll esta respuesta previsible -que creo que muchos de nosotros desarrollamos- donde cada vez que oa hablar de ellos comenzaba a sentirme mal. +Comenc a sentirme culpable por mi relativo bienestar, porque, aparentemente, no estaba haciendo ms para mejorar las cosas. +E incluso sent vergenza por eso. +Y entonces, naturalmente, empec a distanciarme. +Dej de escuchar sus historias tan atentamente como antes. +Y dej de esperar que las cosas cambiaran en verdad. +Segu dando. De lejos pareca que segua bastante involucrada. +Daba mi tiempo y mi dinero. Daba cuando las soluciones estaban en oferta. +El valor de una taza de caf puede salvar la vida de un nio. +Quiero decir, quin puede discutir con eso? +Daba cuando me encontraba acorralada, cuando era difcil evitarlo, y daba, generalmente, cuando los sentimientos negativos se acumulaban tanto que daba para aliviar mi propio sufrimiento, no el de alguien ms. +A decir verdad, esa era mi postura cuando daba, no un genuino sentimiento de generosidad y de esperanza y entusiasmo por ayudar. +Se volvi para m una transaccin, una especie de intercambio. +Estaba comprando algo. Estaba comprando mi derecho a seguir con mi da y no molestarme por estas malas noticias. +Y creo que la manera en que manejamos eso puede, en primer lugar, despersonalizar a un grupo de personas, individuos en el mundo. +Y puede, adems, transformarse en una mercanca, lo cual resulta pavoroso. +As cuando haca esto -y creo que muchos lo hacemos- estamos comprando nuestra distancia, estamos comprando nuestro derecho a seguir con nuestro da. +Creo que ese intercambio puede interferir con aquello que realmente queremos. +Puede interferir con nuestro deseo de realmente ser significativos y tiles en la vida de alguien ms y de, en una palabra, amar. +Afortunadamente, hace algunos aos, las cosas cambiaron para m porque escuch hablar a este caballero, el Dr. Muhammad Yunus. +Probablemente muchos aqu saben exactamente quin es, pero esta es la versin corta para aquellos que no lo han escuchado hablar, el Dr. Yunus gan el premio Nobel de la Paz hace unos aos por su trabajo pionero en microfinanza moderna. +Fue tres aos antes de eso que lo escuch hablar. +Bsicamente, microfinanza -si esto tambin es nuevo para ustedes- piensen en ello como servicios financieros para los pobres. +Piensen en todas las cosas que obtienen en su banco e imaginen esos productos y servicios adaptados a las necesidades de alguien que vive con unos pocos dolares por da. +El Dr. Yunus comparti su historia, que explicaba qu era eso y qu haba hecho l con su Banco Grameen. +Tambin habl, en particular, sobre microprstamos, que son pequeos prstamos que pueden ayudar a alguien a montar un negocio o hacerlo crecer. +Cuando lo escuch hablar me result fascinante por varias razones. +Primero y principal, porque aprend sobre este nuevo mtodo de cambio en el mundo que, de una vez por todas, me mostraba una posible forma de relacionarme con alguien y de dar, de compartir recursos de una forma que no me resultaba extraa y que no me haca sentir mal. Eso era fascinante. +Pero, ms importante an, contaba historias sobre los pobres diferentes a todas las historias que haba escuchado antes. +Hablaba de individuos que eran pobres, pero el ser pobre era una nota al margen. +Hablaba de emprendedores fuertes, inteligentes y trabajadores que se levantaban cada da y hacan cosas para mejorar sus vidas y las de sus familias. +Lo nico que necesitaba para poder hacerlo mejor y ms rpido era un poco de capital. +Fue una sorprendente revelacin para m. +Y, de hecho, me estremeci mucho, es difcil ahora expresar cunto me afect, pero me estremeci tanto que renunci a mi trabajo unas semanas despus y me mud a frica Oriental para tratar de ver con mis propios ojos de qu se trataba esto. +Por primera vez en mucho tiempo quera conocer a esos individuos, quera conocer a estos emprendedores, y ver con mis propios ojos cmo eran sus vidas. +Entonces pas tres meses en Kenya, Uganda y Tanzania entrevistando a emprendedores que haban recibido 100 dlares para montar o para hacer crecer un negocio. +Y, de hecho, a travs de estas interacciones comenc, por primera vez, a hacerme amiga de algunas de estas personas de ese gran grupo amorfo que pareca estar muy lejos. +Comenc a hacer amigos y a conocer sus historias personales. +Y una y otra vez, mientras los entrevistaba y pasaba mis das con ellos, escuch historias de transformacin y sorprendentes detalles de cambio. +Escuch sobre pastores de cabras que haban usado el dinero que haban recibido para comprar algunas cabras ms. +La trayectoria de su negocio cambiara. +Ganaran un poco ms de dinero. Su calidad de vida mejorara. Y podran hacer pequeos e interesantes +cambios en sus vidas, como mandar a sus hijos al colegio. +Podran comprar mosquiteros. +Quizs podran comprar una cerradura para su puerta y sentirse seguros. +Quizs, simplemente, podran poner azcar en el t y ofrecrmela cuando fuera de visita y eso los hara sentir orgullosos. Y eran estos hermosos detalles, +incluso si hablaba con 20 pastores seguidos -y algunos das pasaba eso- estos hermosos detalles de transformacin eran lo ms valioso para ellos. +Eso fue lo que me emocion. +Era una leccin de humildad ver por primera vez, y entender realmente que, incluso si hubiera podido tomar una varita mgica y arreglar todo, probablemente habra errado bastante. +Porque para una persona la mejor manera de cambiar su propia vida es tener el control y hacerlo de la forma que crean ms conveniente para ellos. +Ver eso fue una leccin de humildad. +Otra cosa interesante ocurri mientras estaba all. +Ni una sola vez me pidieron una donacin, lo cual haba sido mi modalidad. +Hay pobreza y uno da dinero para ayudar. Pero nadie me pidi una donacin. +De hecho, nadie quera que sintiera pena por ellos. +Solo queran poder hacer ms de lo que ya venan haciendo y crecer con sus propias habilidades. +Lo que s oa, de vez en cuando, era que la gente quera un prstamo... Eso me pareca muy razonable y emocionante. +A propsito, estudi filosofa y poesa en la universidad, as que no saba la diferencia entre ganancias e ingresos cuando fui a frica Oriental. +Solo tena la impresin de que el dinero servira. +Y mi iniciacin a los negocios fue con estas pequeas infusiones de capital de 100 dlares. +Y aprend sobre ganancias e ingresos, sobre apalancamiento, y todo tipo de cosas, de granjeros, de costureras, de pastores de cabras. +Y as, la idea de que estas nuevas historias de negocios y esperanza pudieran ser compartidas con mi familia y amigos, y de esa forma pudieramos conseguir parte del dinero que necesitaban como prstamos para poder continuar con sus negocios, esa es la pequea idea que se convirti en Kiva. +Unos meses despus, regres a Uganda con una cmara digital y un sitio web bsico que mi compaero Matthew y yo habamos construdo, y tom fotos de siete de mis nuevos amigos, publiqu sus historias en el sitio web, estas historias de emprendimientos, las envi a mi familia y amigos y les dije: "Pensamos que estos es legal. +An no hemos tenido respuesta de la SEC sobre los detalles, pero, Les interesara participar en esto? Aportar el dinero que necesitan?" +El dinero lleg de la noche a la maana. +Lo enviamos a Uganda. +Y a lo largo de los seis meses siguientes, algo hermosos ocurri: los emprendedores recibieron el dinero, se les pag, y, de hecho, sus negocios crecieron, y fueron capaces de mantenerse a ellos mismos y cambiar la trayectoria de sus vidas. +En octubre de 2005, luego de que esos siete prstamos fueron pagados, Matt y yo sacamos la frase "versin de prueba" del sitio. +Dijimos: "Nuestro pequeo experimento ha sido un xito. +Llevmoslo a la realidad". Ese fue nuestro lanzamiento oficial. +Y ese primer ao, de octubre de 2005 a 2006, Kiva facilit $500,000 dlares en prstamos. +El segundo ao, fue un total de 15 millones. +El tercer ao, el total fue de cerca de 40 millones. +El cuarto ao, un poco menos de 100 millones. +Y hoy, con menos de cinco aos, Kiva ha facilitado ms de 150 millones de dlares, en pequeas sumas de 25 dlares cada una, entre prestamistas y emprendedores... ms de un milln de ellos, conjuntamente en 200 pases. +As est Kiva hoy en da, para traerlos al presente. +Y aunque esos nmeros y esas estadsticas son divertidas de contar y son interesantes, para m, Kiva se trata de las historias. +Se trata de volver a contar la historia de los pobres, y de darnos a nosotros mismos una oportunidad de involucrarnos que valide su dignidad, que valide una relacin de colaboracin, y no una relacin basada en la tradicional extraeza que ocurre entre donante y beneficiario. +Sino en cambio, una relacin que pueda promover el respeto y la esperanza y este optimismo de que juntos podemos avanzar. +Espero que Kiva pueda atenuar esas lneas. +Porque, mientras eso ocurra, creo que podremos sentirnos libres de interactuar de una manera ms abierta, ms justa y ms creativa, de comprometernos y de ayudarnos el uno al otro. +Piensen en cmo se sienten cuando ven a alguien mendigando en la calle y estn a punto de acercrsele. +Piensen en cmo se sienten. Y luego imaginen la diferencia de ver a alguien que tiene una historia de emprendimiento y de trabajo duro que quiere contarles sobre su negocio. +Quizs est sonriendo, y quiera contarles sobre lo que ha hecho. +Imagina si pudieras or una historia inesperada de alguien que se levanta cada da y trabaja muy pero muy duro para hacer su vida mejor. +Estas historias pueden cambiar la manera en que pensamos en los dems. +Y si pudiramos convencer a una entusiasta comunidad de acercarse a estos individuos y de participar en sus historias prestndoles un poquito de dinero, creo que eso podra cambiar la forma en que creemos en los dems y en el potencial de los dems. +Para m, Kiva es solo el comienzo. +Y cuando miro hacia adelante, me resulta til reflexionar sobre las cosas que he aprendido hasta aqu. La primera de ellas es, +como dije, la idea de emprendimiento que era nueva para m. +Los prestatarios de Kiva, a medida que fui entrevistndolos y conocindolos, me han enseado lo que es un emprendimiento. +Y creo que, en el fondo, es querer cambiar tu vida para mejor. +Ver una oportunidad y decidir qu vas a hacer para tratar de aprovecharla. +En pocas palabras, es decidir que maana puede ser mejor que hoy, y luchar por ello. +La segunda cosa que aprend es que los prstamos +son una herramienta muy interesante para la conectividad. +No son una donacin. Quizs no parezca muy distinto. +Pero, de hecho, cuando damos algo a alguien y dice "gracias", y nos hace saber cmo van las cosas, eso es una cosa. +Cuando les prestas dinero, y de a poco van devolvindotelo con el tiempo, tienes esta excusa para matener un dilogo constante. +Esta atencin continua, esta atencin constante, es muy importante para construir distintos tipos de relaciones entre nosotros. +Y en tercer lugar, a partir de lo que he escuchado de los emprendedores que he conocido, a iguales condiciones, teniendo la opcin de elegir entre solo el dinero para hacer lo que necesitan o el dinero sumado al soporte y el estmulo de una comunidad global, la gente elije la comunidad sumada al dinero. +Esa es una combinacin mucho ms significativa, mucho ms poderosa. +Con eso en mente, ese episodio particular me ha llevado a trabajar en lo que estoy haciendo ahora. +Ahora que estoy compenetrada con esto veo emprendedores en todos lados. +Y una cosa que he visto es que ya existen muchas comunidades de apoyo en el mundo. +Con las redes sociales, es una forma increble de aumentar rpidamente el nmero de personas que tenemos a nuestro alrededor en nuestras comunidades de apoyo. +As, al pensar en ello, me he estado preguntando: cmo podemos comprometer a estas comunidades de apoyo a catalizar ms ideas emprendedoras y a ayudarnos a nosotros a hacer que maana sea mejor que hoy? +Al estudiar lo que sucede en Estados Unidos, he encontrado datos interesantes. +Por un lado, como podemos esperar, muchos negocios pequeos en E.E. U.U. y en todo el mundo todava necesitan dinero para crecer y para hacer ms de lo que quieren hacer, o puede que necesiten dinero durante un mes difcil. +Pero siempre hay una necesidad de recursos en algn lugar cercano. +Por otro lado, resulta que esos recursos no siempre vienen de donde uno esperara -bancos, inversionistas de riesgo, u otras organizaciones y estructuras de apoyo- vienen de amigos o familiares. +Algunas estadsticas sealan que ms del 85% del financiamiento para pequeos negocios proviene de familiares o amigos. +Son alrededor de 130 mil millones de dolares al ao. Es mucho. +Y en tercer lugar, cuando la gente est llevando a cabo esta colecta de fondos entre familiares y amigos, les resulta incmodo, no saben exactamente qu pedir, cmo pedirlo, qu prometer a cambio, aunque tengan las mejores intenciones y quieran agradecer a esas personas que los estn apoyando. +Y son inversiones, ya no donaciones ni prstamos, sino inversiones que tienen un retorno dinmico. +As, su participacin en la historia fluye con las alzas y bajas. +En pocas palabras, es una herramienta de "hgalo usted mismo" para que pequeos negocios puedan recaudar sus fondos. +Y lo que uno puede hacer es entrar al sitio, crear un perfil, crear plazos de inversin de manera muy fcil. +Es muy muy simple, tanto para m como para cualquiera que quiera usar el sitio. +Y permitimos que los emprendedores compartan un porcentaje de sus ingresos. +Pueden recaudar hasta un milln de dlares de un nmero ilimitado de inversores no acreditados ni sofisticados -gente comn- y pueden compartir sus ganancias a lo largo del tiempo bajo los trminos que decidan. +Conforme los inversionistas deciden involucrarse bajo esos trminos, pueden cambiar sus ganancias por efectivo, o pueden donar esas ganancias a una organizacin sin fines de lucro. +As, pueden ser inversionistas en efectivo o en una causa. +En eso estoy trabajando ahora. +Y para terminar, me gustara decir que estas son herramientas. +En este momento, Profounder est recin comenzando, y es muy tangible, est claro para m que es solo un canal, solo una herramienta. +Lo que necesitamos es que la gente se interese, que lo utilice, as como se interesaron en utilizar Kiva para hacer esas conexiones. +Pero la buena noticia es que no necesito pararme aqu y convencerlos de que les importe. Ni siquiera voy a intentarlo. +Aunque a menudo omos las razones ticas y las razones morales, las razones religiosas, "Estas son las razones por las que involucrarte y dar te har feliz". +As que lo que puedo hacer hoy, lo mejor que puedo darles... les he dado mi historia, que es lo mejor que puedo hacer. +Y puedo recordarles que a todos nos interesa. +Creo que todos ya sabemos eso. +Y sabemos que el amor es lo suficientemente fuerte como para salir e intentarlo. +Un momento, por favor. +Gracias. +Gracias. +En mi opinin, la mejor maneja de inspirarnos para intentarlo es detenernos a escuchar la historia de alguien ms. +Y estoy agradecida de haber podido lograr eso aqu en TED. +Y estoy agradecida porque siempre que hago eso, les garantizo, me siento inspirada, me siento inspirada por la persona a la que estoy escuchando. +Y cada vez que escucho creo ms en el potencial de esa persona para hacer grandes cosas en el mundo y en mi propio potencial para ayudar. +Y eso... olvdense de las herramientas, olvdense del flujo de recursos, eso es fcil. +Creer en nosotros, estar seguros cuando llegue el momento de que cada uno de nosotros puede hacer cosas asombrosas en el mundo, eso es lo que puede transformar nuestras historias en historias de amor y nuestra historia colectiva en una historia que perpeta la esperanza y lo bueno para nosotros. +Este creer en los dems, sin dudarlo, y practicndolo cada da en todo lo que hacemos, eso es lo que yo creo que va a cambiar el mundo y va a hacer que maana sea mejor que hoy. +Gracias. +Esta tecnologa nos ha marcado mucho. +Cambi el desarrollo de nuestra historia. +Pero es una tecnologa tan omnipresente, tan invisible, que durante mucho tiempo olvidamos tenerla en cuenta al hablar de la evolucin humana. +Pero continuamente vemos los resultados. +As que vamos a hacer una pequea prueba. +Cada uno gire hacia su vecino, por favor. +Gire y mire a su vecino. +Por favor, tambin en el balcn. +Sonran. Sonran. Abran la boca. +Sonran amigablemente. +Ven... Ven algn diente canino? +Hay dientes de Conde Drcula en las bocas de sus vecinos? +Claro que no. +Porque nuestra anatoma dental no est hecha para desgarrar carne de los huesos o masticar fibras de hojas durante horas. +Est hecha para una dieta suave, blanda, baja en fibras, muy fcil de masticar y de digerir. +Como la comida rpida, no? +Es para alimentos cocinados. +Llevamos en la cara la prueba de que la cocina, la transformacin de alimentos, nos hizo lo que somos. +Entonces yo sugerira cambiar la forma en que nos clasificamos. +Nos definimos como omnvoros. +Pero yo dira que debemos llamarnos "coctvoros". De "coquere", cocinar. +Somos animales que comen alimentos cocinados. +No, no, no, no. Mejor an... que viven de alimentos cocinados. +As que cocinar es una tecnologa muy importante. +Es la tecnologa. +No s qu les parece, pero a m me gusta cocinar por diversin. +Se necesita algo de diseo para tener xito. +Cocinar es una tecnologa muy importante porque nos permiti adquirir lo que nos trajo a todos aqu: el gran cerebro; esa maravillosa corteza cerebral que tenemos. +Dado que los cerebros son tan costosos +ahora tenemos que pagar la cuota de inscripcin. +Pero incluso, metablicamente hablando, el cerebro es caro. +El cerebro es slo el 2% el 3% de la masa corporal, pero usa un 25% de la energa total que consumimos. +Es muy costoso. +De dnde viene la energa? Por supuesto de la comida. +Si comemos alimentos crudos no podemos liberar realmente la energa. +El ingenio de nuestros ancestros invent esta tecnologa maravillosa. +Invisible... todos lo hacemos a diario, por as decirlo. +Cocinar hizo posible que las mutaciones, las selecciones naturales, nuestro ambiente, puedan desarrollarnos. +Entonces, si pensamos que esta liberacin del potencial humano fue posible gracias a la cocina y a la comida, por qu hablamos tan mal de la comida? +Por qu siempre es lo que s y lo que no, lo que es bueno o lo que no lo es? +La buena noticia, para m, sera que pudisemos volver atrs y hablar de la liberacin, de continuar la liberacin del potencial humano. +Cocinar nos ha permitido tambin convertirnos en una especie migrante. +Salimos de frica dos veces. +Poblamos todas las geografas. +Si uno puede cocinar, nada le puede pasar, porque todo lo que encuentre uno tratar de transformarlo. +Mantiene tambin el cerebro en funcionamiento. +Esta tecnologa, muy fcil y simple, que se desarroll sigue esta frmula. +Tomemos algo que se parezca a un alimento, transformmoslo, y obtendremos buena energa, muy fcil y accesible. +Esta tecnologa afect a dos rganos: al cerebro y al intestino, que realmente fue afectado. +El cerebro crecera mientras que el intestino se encogera. +Bueno, no es obvio para ser honesto. +Pero la masa corporal se encogi un 60% respecto del primate. +Gracias a la comida cocinada es ms fcil la digestin. +Ahora bien, tener un gran cerebro, como saben, es una gran ventaja porque uno puede influir en el ambiente. +Uno puede influir en la propia tecnologa que ha inventado. +Uno puede continuar innovando e inventando. +El gran cerebro le hizo esto tambin a la cocina. +Cmo mont este espectculo? +Cmo interfiri realmente? +Qu criterio utiliz? +Aqu tenemos el sabor, la recompensa y la energa. +Saben que tenemos cinco sabores; tres de ellos nos sostienen. +Dulce -- energa. +Umami -- es un sabor a carne. +Uno necesita protenas para los msculos y la recuperacin. +Salado, porque se necesita sal, de lo contrario el cuerpo elctrico no funcionara. +Y dos sabores que nos protegen: amargo y cido, que nos previenen de materiales venenosos o podridos. +Por supuesto, estn pre-fijados, pero los usamos todava de manera sofisticada. +Piensen en el chocolate agridulce. O en la maravillosa acidez del yogurt mezclada con frutillas. +Podemos hacer mezclas de todas estas cosas porque sabemos que en la cocina podemos darles forma. +Recompensa: esta es una forma ms compleja y, especialmente, ms integradora con varios elementos diferentes como los estados externos e internos, cmo nos sentimos, etc. +Y quiz algo que no les guste pero tienen tanta hambre que realmente les satisface comer. +As, la satisfaccin fue una parte muy importante. +Y, como digo, la energa era necesaria. +Cmo particip el intestino en este desarrollo? +El intestino es una voz silenciosa. Va ms por las sensaciones. +Yo uso el eufemismo "comodidad digestiva". En realidad es la "incomodidad digestiva" lo que atae al intestino. +Si uno tiene dolor de estmago, si est un poco hinchado, no era la comida adecuada, no se manipul correctamente la comida, o quiz sali mal otra cosa. +Esta es una historia de dos cerebros, porque quiz les sorprenda saber que el intestino tiene un cerebro completo. +Todos los gerentes presentes dicen "Eso no es novedad porque conocemos el sentimiento visceral. +Esto es lo que estamos usando". +Y realmente lo usan y es verdaderamente til, +porque el intestino est conectado con el sistema lmbico emocional. Entre ellos hablan y toman decisiones. +Pero tener un cerebro all no slo el gran cerebro tiene que hablar con la comida, la comida tiene que hablar con el cerebro, porque tenemos que aprender a hablarle a los cerebros. +Ahora, si hay un cerebro intestinal, tambin hay que aprender a hablar con este cerebro. +Hace 150 aos, los anatomistas describieron minuciosamente... este es un modelo de la pared intestinal. +Tom los tres elementos: estmago, intestino delgado y colon. +Y, dentro de esta estructura, se ven estas dos capas rosadas, que en realidad son el msculo. +Y dentro del msculo encontraron tejidos nerviosos, muchos tejidos nerviosos, que penetran en realidad el msculo, penetran la submucosa, donde estn los elementos del sistema inmunolgico. +El intestino es el sistema inmunolgico ms grande que defiende al cuerpo. +Penetra la mucosa. +Esta es la capa que en realidad toca la comida que uno traga y digiere, que es el lumen. +Si pensamos en el intestino, si pudiramos estirarlo seran 40 metros, la longitud de una cancha de tenis. +Si pudiramos desenrollarlo, quitar todos los pliegues, etc, tendra 400 m2 de superficie. +Este cerebro se ocupa ms de esto, de moverse con los msculos y de defender la superficie y, por supuesto, de digerir la comida que cocinamos. +Para darles una especificacin este cerebro, que es autnomo, tiene 500 millones de clulas nerviosas, 100 millones de neuronas, como el tamao de un cerebro de gato... entonces all duerme un gatito... piensa por s mismo, optimiza todo lo que digiere. +Tiene 20 tipos de neuronas diferentes. +Tiene la misma diversidad que se encuentra en un cerebro de cerdo con 100 mil millones de neuronas. +Tiene microcircuitos autnomos... tiene estos programas que ejecuta. +Detecta la comida, sabe exactamente qu hacer. +La detecta por medios qumicos y, muy importante, por medios mecnicos porque tiene que mover la comida, tiene que mezclar los distintos elementos necesarios para la digestin. +Este control muscular es muy, muy importante, porque, ya saben, puede haber reflejos. +Si no les gusta una comida, en especial de nios, uno hace arcadas. +Es este cerebro el que produce este reflejo. +Y, finalmente, tambin controla la secrecin de esta maquinaria molecular, que digiere el alimento que cocinamos. +Cmo trabajan mutuamente los cerebros en conjunto? +Tom aqu un modelo de la robtica. Se llama la Arquitectura de Subsuncin. +Lo que significa que tenemos un sistema de control en capas. +La capa inferior, nuestro cerebro intestinal, tiene sus propios objetivos: la defensa de la digestin; y tenemos el cerebro superior con el objetivo de la integracin y generacin de comportamientos. +Ambos miran, estas son las flechas azules, ambos miran la misma comida, que est en el lumen, en la zona del intestino. +El gran cerebro integra las seales procedentes de los programas en ejecucin del cerebro inferior. Pero subsuncin significa que el cerebro superior puede interferir al inferior. +Puede reemplazar o inhibir, en realidad, las seales. +As, si tenemos dos tipos de seal, una seal de hambre, por ejemplo, +si uno tiene el estmago vaco, el estmago produce una hormona llamada grelina. +Es una seal muy grande. La enva al cerebro y le dice: "ve y come". +Hay seales de parada. Tenemos hasta ocho seales de parada, +que al menos en mi caso, no son escuchadas. +Entonces, qu pasa si el gran cerebro en la integracin reemplaza la seal? +Si uno reemplaza la seal de hambre puede tener un desorden llamado anorexia. +En vez de generar una seal de hambre saludable el gran cerebro la ignora y activa distintos programas en el intestino. +El caso ms habitual es comer en exceso. +En realidad, toma la seal y la cambia y continuamos incluso si nuestras ocho seales dijeran "Alto. Suficiente. +Hemos transferido suficiente energa". +Lo interesante es que a lo largo de esta capa inferior, de este intestino, la seal sera cada vez ms fuerte si ingresara material no digerido pero digerible. +Esto lo hallamos en la ciruga baritrica, +que entonces la seal sera muy, muy alta. +Volvamos de nuevo al tema de la cocina y volvamos al diseo. +Hemos aprendido a hablarle al gran cerebro... el sabor y la recompensa, como ya saben. +Cul sera el idioma a hablar con el cerebro intestinal para que sus seales sean tan fuertes que el gran cerebro no pueda ignorarlas? +Luego generaramos algo, que a todos nos gustara tener, un equilibrio entre el hambre y la saciedad. +Les voy a dar, de nuestra investigacin, una mirada muy breve. +Esta es la digestin de la grasa. +A la izquierda tienen una gota de aceite de oliva, que es atacada por las enzimas. +Este es un experimento in vitro. +Es muy difcil trabajar en el intestino. +Todo el mundo esperara que cuando sucede la degradacin del aceite, se liberen los componentes, desaparezcan, se vayan, por absorcin. +Pero, en realidad, aparece una estructura muy compleja. +Y espero que puedan ver que hay algunas estructuras en forma de anillo en la imagen del medio, que es agua. +El sistema en conjunto genera una gran superficie que permite a ms enzimas atacar el resto del aceite. +Y, finalmente, a la derecha, ven aparecer una estructura burbujeante, con forma de clula, con el que el organismo absorber la grasa. +Si pudisemos tomar este lenguaje, este lenguaje de las estructuras, y hacerlo ms duradero; que pueda atravesar el paso por el intestino, generara seales ms fuertes. +Nuestra investigacin, y creo que tambin la investigacin en las universidades, ahora se fija en estos puntos: cmo podemos en realidad... ahora esto puede resultarles trivial... cmo podemos cambiar la cocina? +Cmo podemos cocinar para desarrollar este lenguaje? +Por eso en realidad no tenemos un dilema omnvoro. +Tenemos una "oportunidad de coctvoro", porque en los ltimos dos millones de aos hemos aprendido el sabor y la recompensa, algo bastante sofisticado de cocinar, para gratificarnos, para satisfacernos. +Si le agregamos la matriz, y el lenguaje de estructuras que tenemos que aprender, cuando lo aprendamos podemos ponerlas de nuevo, y con esa energa, podramos generar un equilibrio que surja de esa operacin primordial que es cocinar. +As, para hacer del cocinar un elemento verdaderamente importante, dira que incluso los filsofos tienen que cambiar y reconocer finalmente que somos lo que comemos. +As que yo dira: "coquo ergo sum", cocino, luego existo. +Muchas gracias. +Soy una artista visual, y co-fundadora de Plastic Pollution Coalition (Coalicin de la Contaminacin Plstica) +He trabajado con bolsas de plstico, cortndolas y cosindolas como materia prima de mis obras de arte, durante los ltimos 20 aos. +Las transformo en objetos de dos y tres dimensiones, y en esculturas e instalaciones. +Al trabajar con plstico, despus de los primeros 8 aos, algunas obras comenzaron a agrietarse y a reducirse a pequeos pedazos de plstico. +Y pens: "Genial. +Es efmero, como nosotros". +Al documentarme un poco ms sobre plsticos me di cuenta que, en realidad, era algo malo. +Es malo que el plstico se descomponga en pedazos pequeos porque siempre sigue siendo plstico. +Y estamos encontrando que en gran parte termina en el entorno marino. +Luego, en los ltimos aos, me enter de la basura del remolino del Pacfico. +Y mi reaccin inicial, creo que es la primera reaccin de mucha gente cuando se entera de eso, fue: "Dios mo! +Tenemos que ir ah y limpiar esa cosa". +De hecho, elabor una propuesta para salir con un buque de carga y dos barcos de pesca fuera de servicio, una gra, una trituradora, y una mquina de moldeo en fro. +Y mi intencin era ir al remolino de basura, crear conciencia del problema, y comenzar a recoger el plstico, triturarlo y, con los trocitos, moldear ladrillos en fro que pudieran ser utilizados como materiales de construccin de comunidades subdesarrolladas. +Y el panorama general es que tenemos que encontrar la manera de cerrar el grifo. +Tenemos que cortar el chorro del plstico de slo un uso, que ingresa al medio marino todos los das a escala mundial. +As, al considerar esto, tambin me di cuenta que estaba muy enojada. +No me preocupaba slo el plstico, que ustedes estn tratando de imaginar en medio del Ocano Pacfico, del que me he enterado que hay ahora 11 posibles remolinos de plstico en los cinco grandes ocanos del mundo. +No es slo el remolino del Pacfico lo que me preocupa, sino el remolino de plstico del supermercado. +Si voy al supermercado, todo los alimentos son envasados en plstico. +Todas las bebidas son envasadas en plstico, incluso en las tiendas naturistas. +Tambin me preocupa el plstico del refrigerador me preocupa el plstico y las toxinas que emanan del l e ingresan a nuestros cuerpos. +As que volv con un grupo de personas interesadas en esta cuestin y creamos la Coalicin de la Contaminacin Plstica. +Estamos trabajando en muchas iniciativas, y algunas son muy bsicas. +Una es que del 80% al 90% de lo que encontramos en el ocano, de los desechos marinos que estamos encontrando en el ocano, es plstico; entonces por qu no lo llamamos por su nombre? +Es contaminacin con plstico. +Reciclaje. Todo el mundo termina su libro de sostenibilidad y ecologa con la idea de reciclaje. +Uno pone algo en un cesto de basura y ya puede olvidarse de eso. +Qu pasa con eso en realidad? +En Estados Unidos menos del 7% del plstico es reciclado. +Y si lo analizamos de cerca, en particular cuando se trata de botellas de plstico, mucho es reciclado con baja calidad o incinerado, o enviado a China. +Se recicla con baja calidad en cosas ms chicas; mientras que una botella de vidrio puede ser otra botella de vidrio, o usarse otra vez, una botella de plstico nunca puede volver a ser otra botella. +Este es un gran problema para nosotros. +Otra cosa que observamos y por eso le pedimos a la gente que reflexione es en agregar una cuarta R al principio de las tres R: Reducir, Reusar, Reciclar y es Rechazar. +Siempre que se pueda, "rechazar" el descarte de plstico de un solo uso. +Existen alternativas. Algunas son de la vieja escuela. +Yo misma junto estos contenedores "cool" de Pyrex y los uso en lugar de los de Glad y Tupperware para almacenar alimentos. +Y s que me estoy haciendo un favor y tambin a mi familia. +Es muy fcil llevar una botella de acero inoxidable, o una de vidrio, si uno est de viaje y olvid llevar la de acero inoxidable y llenarla con agua, o agua de filtro, en lugar de comprar agua en botellas de plstico. +Supongo que lo que quiero decir a los presentes, y s que ustedes saben mucho de este tema, es que este es un gran problema en los ocanos, pero es un problema que hemos creado como consumidores y podemos resolverlo. +Podemos resolverlo creando conciencia sobre el tema y ensendole a la gente a elegir alternativas. +As, de ser posible, elegir alternativas a los plsticos descartables. +Podemos parar... detener esta marea en nuestros ocanos, y, al hacerlo, salvar nuestros ocanos, salvar nuestro planeta, salvarnos a nosotros mismos. +Gracias. +Pues s, soy un caricaturista de peridicos caricaturista poltico. +No s si han odo de ello peridicos? +Es un tipo de lector con base de papel. +Es ms ligero que un iPod. Es un poco ms barato. +Saben lo que se dice? +Dicen que los medios impresos estn muriendo. Quin dice esto? Bueno, los medios. +Pero esto no es noticia, cierto? +Ya han ledo ustedes acerca de ello. +Damas y caballeros, el mundo se ha hecho ms pequeo. +Yo s que es un clich, pero vean, vean qu pequeo, qu chiquito se ha hecho. +Y ustedes conocen la razn, por supuesto. +Esto es debido a la tecnologa. S. +Hay algunos diseadores de computadoras en la sala? +S bueno, ustedes estn haciendo mi vida miserable, porque los track pads solan ser redondos, de forma agradablemente redonda. +Eso crea una buena caricatura. +Pero qu vas a hacer con un track pad plano, esas cosas cuadradas? +No hay nada que pueda yo hacer como caricaturista. +Bueno, yo s que el mundo ahora es plano. +Eso es cierto. +Y el Internet ha alcanzado cada rincn del mundo, los lugares ms pobres, ms remotos. +Cada aldea en frica tiene ahora un cibercaf. +No vayan a pedir un Frapuccino ah. +As que estamos conectando la divisin digital. +El Tercer Mundo est conectado. Estamos conectados. +Y qu pasa despus? +Bueno, te llega correo. +S. +Bueno, el Internet nos ha investido de poder. +te ha investido de poder a ti, me ha investido de poder a m, y ha investido de poder a algunos otros tipos tambin. +Ustedes saben, estas dos ltimas caricaturas, Las hice en vivo durante un congreso en Hanoi. +Y no estn acostumbrados a eso en el Vietnam comunista 2.0. +As es que estaba yo caricaturizando en vivo sobre una pantalla ancha -- era toda una sensacin -- y entonces este tipo se me acerc. +Me estaba tomando fotos a m y a mis bocetos. y pens, "Esto es genial, un aficionado vietnamita." +Y al verlo llegar al da siguiente, Pens, "Guau, se es realmente un amante de las caricaturas." +Al tercer da, finalmente entend, el tipo de hecho estaba trabajando. +As que ahora, debe haber cien fotografas mas sonriendo con mis bocetos en los archivos de la polica vietnamita. +No, pero es cierto: el Internet ha cambiado al mundo. +Ha sacudido a la industria de la msica. Ha cambiado la manera en que consumimos msica. +Para aqullos entre ustedes en edad suficiente para recordarlo, solamos tener que ir a la tienda a robarla. +Y ha cambiado la manera en que tu futuro empleador leer tu solicitud. +As es que ten cuidado con esa cuenta de Facebook. Te lo dijo tu mam, ten cuidado. +Y la tecnologa nos ha liberado. Esto es WiFi gratuito. +pero s, lo ha hecho. Nos ha liberado del escritorio de la oficina. +sta es tu vida. Disfrtala. +En resumen, la tecnologa, el Internet, han cambiado nuestro estilo de vida. +Un gur tecnolgico, como este hombre -- que una revista alemana llam el filsofo del siglo 21 -- estn dando forma a la manera en que hacemos las cosas. +Estn dando forma a la manera en que consumimos. +Estn dando forma a nuestros mismos deseos. +No les va a gustar. +Y la tecnologa ha cambiado incluso nuestra relacin con Dios. +Ahora... no debera meterme en esto. +Caricaturas de religin y de poltica, como ustedes probablemente han escuchado, hacen una pareja difcil, desde ese da en 2005, cuando un montn de caricaturistas en Dinamarca dibujaron caricaturas que tuvieron repercusiones alrededor de todo el mundo, manifestaciones, fatwa. Provocaron violencia. La gente muri en la violencia. +Esto fue tan repugnante. La gente muri debido a las caricaturas. +Quiero decir -- tena la sensacin en ese tiempo de que las caricaturas haban sido usadas por ambos bandos, de hecho. +Fueron usadas primero por un peridico dans, que quera dar su punto de vista sobre el Islam. +Un caricaturista dans me dijo que l era uno de los 24 a quien asignaron la tarea de dibujar al profeta. 12 de ellos se rehusaron. Saban ustedes? +l me dijo, "Nadie tiene que decirme lo que debo dibujar. +As no es como funciona." +Y entonces, por supuesto, fueron usadas por extremistas y polticos del otro lado. +Ellos queran despertar controversia. +Ya se saben la historia. +Sabemos que las caricaturas pueden ser usadas como armas. +La Historia nos lo dice, han sido usadas por los nazis para atacar a los judos. +Y aqu estamos ahora. +En las Naciones Unidas, la mitad del mundo est presionando para penalizar la ofensa a la religin -- la llaman la difamacin de la religin -- mientras que la otra mitad del mundo est contestando la lucha en defensa de la libertad de expresin. +As que el choque entre civilizaciones est aqu, y las caricaturas estn en medio de todo ello? +Esto me puso a pensar. +Ahora ustedes me ven pensando en la mesa de mi cocina. Y ya que estn ustedes en mi cocina, les presento a mi esposa. +En 2006, unos meses ms tarde, fui a Costa de Marfil -- frica Occidental. +Ahora, hablando de un lugar dividido. El pas estaba partido en dos. +Tenas una rebelin en el norte, el gobierno en el sur -- la capital, Abiyn -- y en medio, el ejrcito francs. +Esto se parece a una hamburguesa gigante. +No quisieras ser el jamn en el centro. +Yo estaba ah para reportar esa historia en caricaturas. +He estado haciendo esto durante los ltimos 15 aos. Es mi trabajo extra, si as lo quieren. +As es que como ven, el estilo es diferente. +Esto es ms serio quizs que las caricaturas editoriales. +Fui a lugares como Gaza durante la guerra en 2009. +As es que esto es realmente periodismo en caricaturas. +Escucharn hablar de esto ms y ms cada vez. +ste es el futuro del periodismo, me parece. +Y por supuesto, fui a ver a los rebeldes en el norte. +sos eran unos pobres tipos luchando por sus derechos. +Una parte del conflicto era de corte tnico como es frecuente en frica. +Y fui a ver a los Dozo. +Los Dozo, ellos son los cazadores tradicionales del frica Occidental. +La gente les teme. Ellos ayudan mucho a la rebelin. +Se cree que tienen poderes mgicos. +Pueden desaparecer y escapar de las balas. +Fui a ver a un jefe Dozo. Me habl de sus poderes mgicos. +Dijo, "Puedo cortarte la cabeza de inmediato y revivirte de regreso." +Le dije, "Bueno, a lo mejor no tenemos tiempo para esto ahora mismo." +"En otra ocasin." +As que de regreso en Abiyn, tuve la oportunidad de dirigir un taller con caricaturistas locales ah, y pens, s, en un contexto como ste, las caricaturas pueden realmente ser usadas como armas contra el otro bando. +Quiero decir, la prensa en Costa de Marfil estaba dividida amargamente. Era comparada con los medios en Ruanda antes del genocidio. As que imagnense. +Y qu puede hacer un caricaturista? +A veces los editores les decan a sus caricaturistas que dibujaran lo que ellos queran ver, y el tipo tiene que alimentar a su familia, cierto? +As es que la idea era muy simple. +Juntamos a caricaturistas de todas partes en Costa de Marfil. +Los alejamos de sus peridicos por tres das. +Y yo les ped que hicieran un proyecto en conjunto, haciendo frente a problemas que afectan a su pas en caricaturas, s, en caricaturas. +Mostrar el poder positivo de las caricaturas. +Es una gran herramienta de comunicacin para mal o para bien. +Y las caricaturas pueden cruzar fronteras, como ustedes han visto. +Y el humor es una buena forma, yo creo, de abordar asuntos serios. +Y estoy muy orgulloso de lo que hicieron. +Quiero decir, ellos no estuvieron de acuerdo entre s -- sa no era la intencin. +Y yo no les ped que hicieran caricaturas agradables. +El primer da, incluso se gritaban unos a otros. +Pero acabaron sacando un libro, que comprende desde 13 aos atrs de crisis poltica en Costa de Marfil. +As es que la idea estaba ah. +Y he estado haciendo proyectos como ste, en 2009 en el Lbano, este ao, en Kenia, en enero. +En el Lbano no fue un libro. +La idea era tener -- el mismo principio, un pas dividido -- tomar caricaturistas de todos los bandos y permitir que hagan algo juntos. +As que en el Lbano, involucramos a los editores de los peridicos, y logramos que ellos publicaran a ocho caricaturistas de todos los bandos juntos en la misma pgina, abordando el asunto que afecta al Lbano, como la religin en la poltica y en la vida diaria. +Y funcion. +Por tres das, casi todos los peridicos de Beirut publicaron a todos esos caricaturistas juntos -- antigobierno, pro gobierno, cristianos, musulmanes, por supuesto, angloparlantes, en fin, los que te imagines. +As es que fue un gran proyecto. +Y entonces, en Kenia, lo que hicimos fue abordar el asunto de la etnicidad, que es un veneno en mucho lugares del frica. +E hicimos video clips. Pueden verlos si entran a Youtube/KenyaTunes. +As que, predicar la libertad de expresin es fcil aqu, pero como ustedes han visto en contextos de represin o divisin, de nuevo, qu puede hacer un caricaturista? +Tiene que conservar su trabajo. +Bueno, yo creo que en cualquier contexto en cualquier parte, siempre tiene la opcin por lo menos de no hacer una caricatura que alimente el odio. +Y se es el mensaje que trato de comunicarles a ellos. +Yo creo que todos tenemos siempre la eleccin al final de no hacer lo malo. +Pero necesitamos apoyar estas voces [incomprensible], crticas, responsables en frica, en el Lbano, en su peridico local, en la tienda Apple. +Hoy, las compaas de tecnologa son los editores ms grandes del mundo. +Ellos deciden lo que es demasiado ofensivo o demasiado provocativo para tu vista. +As es que realmente, no es acerca de la libertad de los caricaturistas; es acerca de las libertades de ustedes. +Y para los dictadores alrededor de todo el mundo, las buenas noticias son cuando los caricaturistas, periodistas y activistas se callan. +Gracias. +La gran diferencia siempre radica en la calidad y el precio. +Siempre tratamos de obtener calidad por un precio. +Pero lo que no buscamos es calidad para muchos al generar calidad por un precio. +Nos preocupan esos 4000 millones de personas que ganan menos de 2 dlares al da? Que pertenecen a la llamada base de la pirmide. +Cules son los desafos de obtener calidad por un precio y a la vez calidad para muchos? +Aqu lo hemos descrito en trminos de rendimiento y precio. +Si uno tiene dinero, puede conseguir calidad, por supuesto. +Puede comprar un Mercedes por mucho dinero, y obtener un alto rendimiento. +Pero si uno no tiene dinero, qu sucede? +Bueno, uno tiene que ir en bicicleta, llevando su propio peso y alguno extra para ganarse el pan del da. +Bueno, los pobres dejan de ser pobres; se convierten en clase media-baja. +Y, si lo hacen, entonces, por supuesto, las condiciones mejoran y empiezan a ir en motos. +Pero el desafo es, de nuevo, que no reciben mucha calidad porque no pueden pagar ms que la moto. +La cuestin es, por ese precio, se les puede ofrecer ms calidad? +Mucha calidad, en cuanto a su capacidad para viajar en coche, para alcanzar ese estatus y esa seguridad, parece prcticamente imposible, no es as? +Pues bien, eso es algo que vemos en las calles de India todo el tiempo. +Pero mucha gente ve la misma cosa y piensa cosas diferentes. Uno de ellos est aqu, es Ratan Tata. +Lo mejor de nuestros lderes es que, no slo tienen la pasin en sus estmagos, algo que casi todos tienen, sino tambin son muy innovadores. +Un innovador es aquel que no conoce lo imposible. +Ellos creen que las cosas pueden hacerse. +Pero los grandes lderes como Ratan tienen compasin. +Y lo que decas, Lakshmi, es absolutamente cierto: no es slo Ratan Tata, ha sido la casa TATA a lo largo de los aos. +Permtanme confirmar lo que dijo. +S, anduve descalzo hasta los 12 aos. +Luch hasta el da [...] Fue un gran problema. +Y cuando termin el undcimo curso ramos 125.000 estudiantes. +Pero estuve a punto de dejar la escuela porque mi pobre madre no poda pagarla. +Y fue Tata Trust el que me dio seis rupias al mes, casi un dlar al mes, durante 6 aos. +Gracias a eso estoy frente a Uds. +Esa es la casa TATA. +Innovacin, compasin y pasin. +Ellos combinan todo eso. +Entonces pens: "Bien, tenemos que hacer un coche que puedan pagar, un coche de 2.000 dlares". +Claro, tan pronto como uno dice algo as la gente dice que es imposible. Y eso fue lo que dijo Suzuki. +Dijo que probablemente iran a construir un vehculo de tres ruedas. +Y aqu pueden ver el dibujo. +Bueno, no construyeron eso. Construyeron un buen vehculo. El Nano. +Fjense que yo mido 1,85 m, Ratan es ms alto que yo, y tenemos amplitud delante y amplitud detrs, en este coche en particular. +Un coche increble. +Y, por supuesto, nada tiene tanto xito como el xito; los cnicos cambiaron de parecer y, uno tras otro, dijeron: "S, tambin queremos hacer un coche como el Nano. +Vamos a fabricar un coche como el Nano". +Cmo sigue esta gran historia... ...de la fabricacin de Nano? +Les voy a contar un poco sobre ello. +Por ejemplo, como empezamos: Ratan empez con tan slo 5 ingenieros, gente joven de unos 25 aos. +Y les dijo: "No les voy a definir el vehculo, sino que les voy a definir el coste. +100.000 rupias, 2000 dlares, y tienen que hacerlo con eso". +Y les dijo: "Cuestinense lo incuestionable. +Estiren el lmite". +Y en un momento dado se involucr tanto en el desafo que l mismo form parte del equipo. +Pueden creerlo? +Todava me cuentan esta historia del diseo del limpiaparabrisas en el que particip. +Estuvo pensando hasta medianoche; +por la maana temprano volvi con soluciones. +Pero, quin era el lder del equipo? +El lder del equipo era Girish Wagh, un muchacho de 34 aos. +Y el promedio de edad del equipo del Nano era slo de 27 aos. +Innovaron en diseo y en ms que eso. +Por primera vez rompieron las normas convencionales. +Por ejemplo, se us un motor de gasolina de dos cilindros en un coche con un slo eje de equilibrio. +Los adhesivos reemplazaron los remaches. +Hubo colaboracin, una enorme colaboracin con vendedores y proveedores. +Todas las ideas eran bienvenidas. +100 vendedores estaban ubicados cerca de la planta y se desarrollaron modelos de negocio innovadores para los concesionarios. +Imaginen que un compaero que vende ropa, por ejemplo, va a vender Nanos. +Quiero decir, era una innovacin increble. +Buscar soluciones para sectores no automovilsticos. +Fue una innovacin abierta, eran bienvenidas ideas de todos lados. +De hecho, se us el mecanismo de asientos y ventanas de helicpteros as como un salpicadero inspirado en vehculos de dos ruedas. +El tubo de alimentacin y las luces, como los de los vehculos de dos ruedas. +Y el quid de la cuestin era, sin embargo, hacer ms con menos. +Todo el tiempo uno tena impuesto un lmite. +Uno no poda cruzar el lmite de las 100.000 rupias, 2.000 dlares. +Por lo tanto cada componente tena que cumplir una doble funcin. +El elevador del asiento, por ejemplo, acta como base para el asiento y a la vez como estructura de la rigidez funcional. +El Nano tiene la mitad de las partes que cualquier turismo. +De hecho, la longitud es un 8% menor. +Pero aun siendo un 8% ms pequeo tiene, en comparacin con los coches econmicos actuales, un 21% ms de espacio interior. +Y lo que sucedi fue que, del ms por menos, pudo verse cunto ms por cunto menos. +Cuando se lanz el Modelo T y aqu todas las cifras, por cierto, se ajustaron a precios en dlares de 2007, el Modelo T de Ford costaba 19.700 dlares. +Volkswagen costaba 11.333. +Y British Motor, unos 11.000. +Y el Nano, exactamente, 2.000 dlares. +Por eso comenz un nuevo cambio de paradigma, en el que la misma gente que no poda soar con sentarse en un coche, que acarreaba a su familia entera en una motocicleta, comenz a soar con un coche. +Y estos sueos se estn haciendo realidad. +Esta es una fotografa de una casa, un conductor y un coche cerca de mi casa. +El nombre del conductor es Naran. +l se compr su propio Nano. +Y pueden verlo, hay espacio fsico suficiente que se ha creado para l. Estaciona ese coche, junto con el del propietario, pero an ms importante, han creado un espacio en sus mentes para: "S, mi chfer va a venir en su propio coche y lo va a aparcar". +Por eso la llamo innovacin transformadora. +No es slo tecnolgica, es innovacin social de lo que hablamos. +Y es aqu donde, damas y caballeros, esta insigne idea de hacer ms con menos para ms gente cobra importancia. +Recuerdo haber hablado de esto por primera vez en Australia, hace cerca de un ao y medio, cuando su academia me condecor con una distincin. +Increblemente, en 40 aos, fui el primer indio en recibir esa condecoracin. +Y di a mi charla el ttulo de "Innovacin india desde Gandhi a la ingeniera gandhiana". +Y defin esto de "ms por menos para cada vez ms gente" como "ingeniera gandhiana". +Y la ingeniera gandhiana, a mi juicio, es la que va a hacer avanzar al mundo, va a marcar una diferencia, no slo para unos pocos, sino para todos. +Djenme pasar de la movilidad en un coche a la movilidad individual para aquellos desafortunados que han perdido sus piernas. +Aqu tenemos un ciudadano estadounidense y su hijo Tiene un pie ortopdico. +Qu precio tiene? 20.000 dlares. +Por supuesto, estos pies estn diseados para caminar slo en carreteras o pavimentos perfectos. +Por desgracia, ese no es el caso en India. +Uno puede verlo caminar descalzo en un terreno horrible, a veces pantanoso, o incluso peor. +Ms importante an, no slo caminan para ir al trabajo o van en bicicleta al trabajo, sino que trabajan en bicicleta, como ven aqu. +Ellos escalan como parte del trabajo. +Uno tiene que disear pies ortopdicos para tales condiciones. +Un desafo, desde luego. +4.000 millones de personas con ingresos inferiores a 2 dlares al da. +Y si hablamos de un calzado de unos 20.000 dlares, hablamos del ingreso de unos 10.000 das. +Es imposible. +Por lo tanto hay que buscar alternativas. +As fue que se cre Jaipur Foot en la India. +Tena un sistema revolucionario de montaje de prtesis y de suministro, componentes modulares de moldura rpida para extremidades a medida y en el acto. +Los puede tener en una hora, por cierto, mientras que otros pies equivalentes llevan como un da.. +El exterior realizado con conductos de calefaccin en polietileno de alta densidad, en lugar de usar lminas calientes. +Un diseo nico de tobillo, de apariencia, flexin y funcin humanas. +Me gusta ensear cmo es y cmo funciona. +Miren, salta. Se ve la tensin que debe soportar. +(Texto: ...cualquiera con una extremidad podra hacer esto. +...por encima de la extremidad, s, sera difcil... +"Doli?" +"No... para nada". +...l puede correr 1 km en 4 minutos y 30 segundos...) 1 km en 4 minutos y 30 segundos. +Eso es de lo que se trata. +Por eso Time prest atencin a este pie de 28 dlares. +Una historia increble. +Pasemos a otra cosa. +He estado hablando de hacer ms con menos para ms gente. +Pasemos a la salud. +Ya hemos hablado de la movilidad. Hablemos ahora de la salud. +Qu sucede en al rea de la salud? +Ya saben, hay nuevas enfermedades que requieren nuevas medicinas. +Y si vemos el desarrollo de medicinas hace 10 aos y ahora qu ha sucedido? +Hace 10 aos sola costar unos 250 millones. +Hoy cuesta 1.500 millones de dlares. +El tiempo requerido para poner una molcula en el mercado despus de todas las pruebas en humanos y animales, era de 10 aos, ahora es de 15 aos. +Se estn obteniendo ms medicinas con ms tiempo y dinero? +No, lo siento. +Solamos obtener 40, ahora han bajado a 30. +Entonces, estamos haciendo menos con ms para cada vez menos gente. +Por qu cada vez menos gente? Porque es demasiado caro por eso, bsicamente, muy pocos podrn pagarlo. +Veamos slo un ejemplo. +La psoriasis es una enfermedad terrible de la piel. +El coste del tratamiento es de 20.000 dlares. +Inyecciones subcutneas de anticuerpos de mil dlares, 20 en total. +Tiempo de desarrollo: unos 10 aos, y 700 millones de dlares. +Empecemos con el espritu de ms por menos y ms para ms gente y empecemos a poner algunas metas. +Por ejemplo, no queremos 20.000 dlares, no los tenemos. +Podemos hacerla por 100 dlares. +Tiempo de desarrollo: menos de 10 aos. +Tenemos prisa. Cinco aos. +Coste del desarrollo: 300 millones de dlares. +Lo siento. No puedo gastar ms de 10 millones. +Parece un total atrevimiento.. +Totalmente ridculo. +Saben algo? Esto se ha logrado en India. +Estas metas se han logrado en India. +Y cmo se han logrado? +El Sr. Francis Bacon dijo una vez:: "Cuando uno desea obtener resultados nunca antes obtenidos, es una fantasa insensata pensar que pueden obtenerse con mtodos usados con anterioridad". +Por lo tanto, el proceso estndar en el que se desarrolla una molcula y se aplica a ratones y a humanos, no est dando resultado con los miles de millones que se han gastado. +El ingenio indio us su conocimiento tradicional validndolo cientficamente, y haciendo ese viaje de hombres - ratones - hombres, no de molculas a ratones y hombres. +De ah viene la diferencia. +Y puede verse esta mezcla de medicina tradicional, medicina moderna y ciencia moderna. +Yo present un gran programa [...] en CSIR hace cerca de 9 aos. +No slo se aplica a la psoriasis sino al cncer y toda una serie de cosas, cambiando todo el paradigma. +Y pueden ver que este avance indio en psoriasis se ha obtenido a partir de la inversin en farmacologa, haciendo las cosas de manera diferente. +Puede verse antes y despus del tratamiento. +Se est haciendo ms con menos para cada vez ms personas porque ahora son tratamientos asequibles. +Permtanme recordarles lo que dijo Mahatma Gandhi. +"La Tierra proporciona lo suficiente para satisfacer la necesidad de cada hombre, pero no la codicia de cada hombre". +Entonces el mensaje que nos dejaba era el de hacer ms con cada vez menos para poder compartirlo con cada vez ms personas, no slo con la generacin actual, sino con las futuras generaciones. +Tambin dijo: "Premiara a toda invencin de la ciencia que beneficie a todos". +De modo que manifestaba que tenemos que hacerlo para cada vez ms personas, no para unos pocos. +Por eso, damas y caballeros, esta es la cuestin, hacer ms con menos para ms gente. +Y fjense que no es hacer un poquito ms con un poquito menos. +No se trata de un coste bajo. +Se trata de un coste muy bajo. +No se puede decir que es simplemente un tratamiento de 10.000 dlares, pero como Ud es pobre se lo dejo en 9.000 dlares. +Lo siento, eso no funciona. Hay que hacerlo con 100 200 dlares. +Es posible? Yo lo he hecho posible, de hecho, por varias razones. +De manera que no hablamos de precios bajos sino muy bajos. +No hablamos de asequibilidad, sino de asequibilidad extrema. +Porque hay 4.000 millones de personas cuyo ingreso es menor a 2 dlares al da. +No hablamos de innovacin exclusiva, +sino de innovacin inclusiva. +Y, por ende, no hablamos de innovacin incremental sino de innovacin disruptiva. +Las ideas tienen que ser tales que uno piense en trminos totalmente diferentes. +Y agregara que, no slo hay que hacer ms con menos para ms gente, sino por cada vez ms gente, todo el mundo trabajando para ello. +Me emocion mucho al ver un gran adelanto el otro da. +Incubadoras para bebs, por ejemplo. +No estn disponibles en frica. +No estn disponibles en las aldeas de India. +Y los bebs mueren. +Las incubadoras cuestan 2.000 dlares. +Y hay unas incubadoras de 25 dlares dando el mismo rendimiento. +Y quin las hace? +Pues jvenes estudiantes de la Universidad de Stanford en un proyecto de extrema asequibilidad que ellos tienen, bsicamente. +Sus corazones estn en el lugar correcto, como el de Ratan Tata. +No se trata slo de innovacin, compasin y pasin. Compasin en el corazn y en el estmago la pasin. +Ese es el nuevo mundo que queremos crear. +Y por eso el mensaje es el de la ingeniera gandhiana. +Damas y caballeros, me gustara terminar antes de tiempo. +Tambin tena miedo de esos 18 minutos. +Todava me queda un minuto y medio. +El mensaje final es este: India le dio un gran regalo al mundo. +Cul fue? +En el siglo XX le dimos a Gandhi al mundo. +El regalo del siglo XXI, algo muy, muy importante para todo el mundo, sea ante la crisis econmica mundial, sea ante el cambio climtico, o ante cualquier problema que sea, es hacer ms con menos para cada vez ms gente, no slo para la generacin actual sino para las generaciones futuras. +Y eso slo puede venir de la ingeniera gandhiana. +As que, damas y caballeros, estoy feliz de presentar este regalo del siglo XXI, de India para el mundo: la ingeniera gandhiana. +Lakshmi Pratury: Gracias Dr. Mashelkar. (R.A. Mashelkar: Muchas gracias) LP: Una pregunta rpida para Ud. +Cuando era un nio en esta escuela, Qu pensaba? Qu pensaba que sera de mayor? +Qu lo llev a hacer lo que hizo? +Tuvo alguna visin? Qu es lo que lo llev a esto? +RAM: Les voy a contar una historia que cambi mi vida. +Recuerdo que iba a una escuela pobre porque mi madre no poda conseguir las 21 rupias, ese medio dlar, que haca falta en el plazo estipulado. +Era en la secundaria. +Sin embargo, era una escuela pobre con profesores ricos. +Y uno de ellos nos enseaba fsica. +Un da nos llev bajo el sol e intentaba mostrarnos cmo hallar la distancia focal de una lente convexa. +La lente estaba aqu. El papel all. l la mova hacia arriba y abajo. +Y haba un punto brillante all. +Y luego dijo: "Esta es la distancia focal". +Pero luego lo sostuvo un momento, Lakshmi. +Y el papel se quem. +Cuando el papel se quem, por alguna razn se gir hacia m, y me dijo: "Mashelkar, como esto, si no disipas tu energa, si concentras tu energa, puedes lograr cualquier cosa en el mundo". +Eso me dio un gran mensaje: concntrate y lo logrars. +Me dije: "Guau!, la ciencia es maravillosa, tengo que ser cientfico". +Pero ms importante que eso, concntrate y lo logrars. +Y ese mensaje, francamente, es valioso para la sociedad de hoy da. +Qu hace la distancia focal? +Tiene lneas paralelas, los rayos del sol. +Y la propiedad de las lneas paralelas es que nunca se tocan. +Qu hace esa lente convexa? +Hace que esas lneas se crucen. +Este es el liderato de la lente convexa. +Saben lo que hace el liderato de hoy? Una lente cncava. +Separa las lneas. +De all aprend la leccin del liderato de la lente convexa. +Y cuando estaba en el Laboratorio nacional de qumica [...] +cuando estaba en el Consejo de Investigacin cientfica industrial 40 laboratorios... cuando dos laboratorios no hablaban entre s, yo los una. +Actualmente soy presidente de la Alianza global de investigacin. 60.000 cientficos en 9 pases, desde India hasta EE.UU. +Intento crear un equipo global que se encargue de los grandes desafos a los que se enfrenta el mundo. +Esa fue la leccin. Ese fue el momento de inspiracin. +LP: Muchas gracias. (RAM: Gracias) +Voy a hablarles del poder en este siglo XXI. +Y, bsicamente, lo que me gustara contarles es que el poder est cambiando y hay dos tipos de cambios que quiero tratar. +Uno es la transicin de poder, que es el cambio de poder entre estados. +Y la versin simple del mensaje es que se mueve de Occidente a Oriente. +El otro es la difusin de poder, la forma en que el poder pasa de los estados, de Occidente u Oriente, a los actores no estatales. +Esas dos cosas son los dos grandes cambios del poder de nuestro siglo. +Y quiero contarles cada uno por separado y luego cmo interactan y por qu, al final, puede haber buenas noticias. +Cuando hablamos de transicin de poder a menudo hablamos del crecimiento de Asia. +Debera llamarse en verdad la recuperacin, o el retorno, de Asia. +Si mirsemos el mundo de 1800, encontraramos que ms de la mitad de la poblacin mundial viva en Asia y tena ms de la mitad de la produccin mundial. +Avancemos rpido a 1900: la mitad de la poblacin del planeta, ms de la mitad, todava vive en Asia, pero tiene slo un quinto de la produccin mundial. +Qu sucedi? La Revolucin Industrial. Que signific que, de repente, Europa y EE.UU. se volvieron el centro financiero del mundo. +Lo que vamos a ver en el siglo XXI es a Asia volviendo gradualmente a representar ms de la mitad de la poblacin del mundo y a tener ms de la mitad de la produccin mundial. +Eso es importante, es un cambio importante. +Pero djenme que les cuente un poquito del otro cambio del que estoy hablando, la difusin de poder. +Para entender la difusin de poder piensen en lo siguiente: los costos de informtica y comunicaciones han cado a una milsima parte de su valor entre 1970 y el comienzo de este siglo. +Esto es un nmero grande y abstracto, +pero hagmoslo comprensible: si el precio de un automvil hubiese cado tan rpidamente como el de la potencia de clculo, hoy se podra comprar un auto por 5 dlares. +Cuando el precio de una tecnologa cae tan estrepitosamente, bajan las barreras de entrada; +todos pueden entrar en el juego. +As, en 1970, si uno quera comunicarse de Oxford a Johanesburgo, o a Nueva Delhi, o a Brasilia, o a cualquier lado simultneamente, se poda, +exista la tecnologa. +Pero para poder hacerlo haba que ser muy rico: un gobierno, una empresa multinacional, quiz la Iglesia Catlica, pero uno tena que ser muy rico. +Ahora todos pueden hacer lo que previamente estaba restringido por precio a unos pocos actores, +si tienen el precio de entrada a un cibercaf; la ltima vez que mir costaba algo as como una libra la hora... y si uno tiene Skype, es gratis. +De modo que cosas que antes estaban restringidas, ahora estn disponibles para todos. +Y eso no significa que se haya acabado la era del Estado. +El Estado todava importa. +Pero el escenario est colmado. +El Estado no est solo. Hay muchos, muchos actores. +Algunos son buenos. Oxfam, un gran actor no gubernamental. +Algunos son malos. Al Qaeda, otro actor no gubernamental. +Pero pensemos cmo cambia eso nuestros trminos y conceptos tradicionales. +Pensamos en trminos de guerra y de guerra entre estados. +Y remontndonos a 1941, cuando el Gobierno de Japn atac a EE.UU. en Pearl Harbor. +Vale la pena destacar que un actor no estatal que atac a EE.UU. en 2001 mat a ms estadounidenses que el Gobierno de Japn en 1941. +Podra entenderse esto como la privatizacin de la guerra. +Estamos viendo un gran cambio en trminos de difusin de poder. +Ahora, el problema es que no estamos pensando en esto de formas innovadoras. +Por eso djenme volver y preguntar: qu es el poder? +El poder es sencillamente la capacidad de afectar a otros para obtener los resultados que queremos y se puede hacer de tres maneras. +Se puede hacer con amenazas, coercin... palos, se puede hacer con pagos... zanahorias, o se puede hacer que otros quieran lo mismo que uno. +Y esa capacidad de hacer que otros quieran lo mismo que uno para obtener los resultados deseados, sin coercin ni pagos, es lo que llamo el "poder blando". +Y se ha descuidado mucho este poder blando, ha sido muy malentendido. Y es tremendamente importante. +De hecho, si aprendiramos a usar ms poder blando, se podra ahorrar mucho en zanahorias y palos. +Tradicionalmente la gente pensaba en el poder principalmente en trminos de poder militar. +Por ejemplo, el gran historiador de Oxford que ense en esta universidad, A.J.P. Taylor, defini como gran potencia al pas capaz de imponerse en la guerra. +Pero necesitamos una nueva narrativa para entender el poder en el siglo XXI. +No es slo imponerse en la guerra, aunque la guerra todava persiste. +No es slo qu ejrcito gana; es tambin qu historia gana. +Y tenemos que pensar mucho ms en trminos de narrativas y qu narrativa va a ser ms eficaz. +Ahora djenme volver a la cuestin de la transicin de poder entre estados y qu est pasando ah. +Las narrativas actuales tienden a contar el ascenso y cada de las grandes potencias. +Y toda la narrativa actual es sobre el crecimiento de China y la cada de Estados Unidos. +De hecho, con la crisis financiera de 2008, mucha gente dijo que esto era el comienzo del fin del podero estadounidense. +Se estaban desplazando las placas tectnicas de la poltica mundial. +Y el presidente Medvdev de Rusia, por ejemplo, marc en 2008 que este era el comienzo del fin del podero de EE.UU. +Pero, de hecho, esta metfora de la cada suele ser muy engaosa. +Si miramos la historia, la historia reciente, veremos que los ciclos de creencia en la cada estadounidense van y vienen cada 10 15 aos ms o menos. +En 1958, despus de que los soviticos lanzaran el Sputnik, era "el fin de Estados Unidos". +En 1973, con el embargo petrolero y el cierre de la ventana del oro, era el fin de Estados Unidos. +En la dcada de 1980, cuando EE.UU. atravesaba una transicin, en el perodo de Reagan, de la economa "cinturn de xido" del Medio Oeste a la de Silicon Valley en California, ese era el fin de EE.UU. +Pero, de hecho, lo que hemos visto es que nada de eso era cierto. +De hecho, la gente estaba demasiado entusiasmada en la dcada del 2000, pensando que EE.UU. podra hacer algo que nos llevara a alguna aventura desastrosa de poltica exterior, y de vuelta al cuento de la cada. +La moraleja de esta historia es que estas narrativas de ascenso, cada y decadencia nos hablan ms de psicologa que de la realidad. +Si tratamos de centrarnos en la realidad, entonces tenemos que focalizarnos en lo que pasa realmente en trminos de China y Estados Unidos. +Goldman Sachs ha proyectado que China, la economa china, superar a la de EE.UU. +en 2027. +As que tenemos 17 aos ms aproximadamente antes de que China sea ms grande. +Algn da, con 1.300 millones de personas cada vez ms ricas, va a ser ms grandes que Estados Unidos. +Pero sean muy cautelosos con proyecciones como estas, como las de Goldman Sachs, si quieren hacerse una imagen precisa de la transicin de poder en este siglo. +Permtanme mencionar 3 razones por las que es demasiado simple. +En primer lugar, es una proyeccin lineal. +Ya saben, todos dicen: esta es la tasa de crecimiento de China, esta la de EE.UU., aqu van... lnea recta. +La historia no es lineal. +A menudo hay baches en la carretera, accidentes en el camino. +La segunda cosa es que la economa china sobrepase a la estadounidense, digamos en 2030, que puede ser, considerando el tamao de la economa total, pero no el ingreso per cpita... no indicar la composicin de la economa. +China todava tiene grandes reas de subdesarrollo. Y el ingreso per cpita es una mejor medida de la sofisticacin de la economa. +Los chinos no lograrn alcanzar o pasar a los estadounidenses hasta finales... despus de 2050, de este siglo. +El otro punto que vale la pena destacar es lo unidimensional de esta proyeccin. +Mira el poder econmico medido por el PIB. +No dice mucho sobre el poder militar, no dice mucho sobre el poder blando. +Todo es en una sola dimensin. +Y, tambin, cuando pensamos en el crecimiento de Asia, o el retorno de Asia, como lo llam un poco antes, vale la pena recordar que Asia no es una sola cosa. +Si uno est en Japn, o en Nueva Delhi, o en Hanoi, el punto de vista del ascenso de China es un poco diferente que si uno est en Pekn. +De hecho, una de las ventajas que tendrn los estadounidenses en trminos de poder en Asia es que todos esos pases querrn una poltica de seguros de EE.UU. contra el crecimiento de China. +Es como si Mxico y Canad fueran vecinos hostiles de Estados Unidos, cosa que no son. +Por eso estas proyecciones simples del tipo de las de Goldman Sachs no nos dicen lo que tenemos que saber sobre la transicin de poder. +Pero pueden preguntarse, bueno y con eso qu? +Por qu importa? A quin le importa? +Es acaso un juego de diplomticos y acadmicos? +La respuesta es que importa mucho. +Porque si uno cree en la cada y le dan las respuestas incorrectas, los hechos, no los mitos, uno puede adoptar polticas muy peligrosas. +Djenme darles un ejemplo de la historia. +La Guerra del Peloponeso fue el gran conflicto en el que se desintegr el sistema griego de ciudad-estado hace 2.500 aos. +Qu lo caus? +Tucdides, el gran historiador de la Guerra del Peloponeso, dijo que fue el aumento de poder de Atenas y el temor que cre en Esparta. +Observen las dos mitades de esa explicacin. +Muchas personas argumentan que el siglo XXI va a repetir el siglo XX: la Primera Guerra Mundial, la gran conflagracin, en la que el sistema estatal europeo se desintegr y destruy su centralidad en el mundo, y que eso fue causado por el aumento de poder de Alemania y el temor que eso cre en Gran Bretaa. +Hay gente que nos est diciendo que esto se va a reproducir hoy en da, que vamos a ver esto mismo en este siglo. +No. Pienso que eso es un error. +Es una mala lectura. +Por un lado, Alemania haba superado a Gran Bretaa en podero industrial en 1900. +Y, como dije antes, China no ha superado a Estados Unidos. +Pero tambin, si uno cree eso y eso genera una sensacin de miedo, eso lleva a una reaccin exagerada. +Y el mayor peligro que tenemos al manejar esta transicin de poder del desplazamiento hacia Oriente, es el miedo. +Parafraseando a Franklin Roosevelt, de un contexto diferente, a lo nico que debemos temer es al miedo mismo. +No tenemos que temer al crecimiento de China o al retorno de Asia. +Y si tenemos polticas, si adoptamos polticas con esa perspectiva histrica ms amplia, vamos a ser capaces de manejar este proceso. +Permtanme decir unas palabras ahora sobre la distribucin de poder y cmo se relaciona con la difusin de poder para luego unir ambos conceptos. +Si uno quiere saber cmo se distribuye el poder en el mundo de hoy, se distribuye como un ajedrez tridimensional. +En el tablero superior: el poder militar entre los estados. +Estados Unidos es la nica superpotencia y es probable que se mantenga de esa manera durante 2 3 dcadas. +China no va a sustituir a EE.UU. en ese tablero militar. +El tablero medio de este ajedrez tridimensional: el poder econmico entre los estados. +El poder es multipolar. +Hay equilibradores. EE.UU., Europa, China, Japn, pueden equilibrarse mutuamente. +El tablero inferior del ajedrez tridimensional: el tablero de las relaciones transnacionales, cosas que cruzan las fronteras fuera del control de los gobiernos: el cambio climtico, el comercio de drogas, los flujos financieros, las pandemias, todas estas cosas que trascienden las fronteras fuera del control de los gobiernos, ah nadie est a cargo. +No tiene sentido llamar a esto unipolar o multipolar. +El poder est distribuido caticamente. +La nica manera de resolver estos problemas -y aqu entran muchos de los desafos ms grandes de este siglo- es mediante la cooperacin, gracias al trabajo conjunto. Es decir, que el poder blando se torne ms importante, esa capacidad para organizar redes para hacer frente a este tipo de problemas y poder lograr la cooperacin. +Otra forma de decirlo es que al pensar en el poder en el siglo XXI, queremos alejarnos de la idea de que el poder es siempre de suma cero: mi ganancia es tu prdida y viceversa. +El poder tambin puede ser de suma positiva, donde tu ganancia puede ser mi ganancia. +Si China desarrolla una mayor seguridad energtica y una mayor capacidad para hacer frente a sus problemas de emisiones de carbono, es tan bueno para nosotros como para China y tambin para todos los dems. +As que dar poder a China para enfrentar sus propios problemas de carbono es bueno para todos, y no es una suma cero: yo gano, t pierdes. +Es una suma en la que todos podemos ganar. +As que cuando pensamos en el poder en este siglo, queremos abandonar este punto de vista que es todo "yo gano, t pierdes". +No quiero decir que haya que ser ultra optimista. +Las guerras persisten. El poder persiste. +El poder militar es importante. +Mantener el equilibrio es importante. +Todo esto an persiste. +El poder duro est ah, y seguir estando. +Pero a menos que uno aprenda a combinar poder duro con poder blando en estrategias que yo llamo de "poder inteligente", no se podr hacer frente a los nuevos tipos de problemas que enfrentamos. +La pregunta clave que tenemos que hacernos al mirar esto es: es, cmo podemos trabajar juntos para producir bienes pblicos globales, cosas de las que todos nos podamos beneficiar? +Cmo definir nuestros intereses nacionales de modo que no sean de suma cero, sino de suma positiva? +En ese sentido, si definimos nuestros intereses, por ejemplo, para los Estados Unidos, la forma en que Gran Bretaa los defini en el siglo XIX, manteniendo un sistema comercial abierto, una estabilidad monetaria, la libertad de los mares, eso era bueno para Gran Bretaa, y tambin para los dems. +Y en el siglo XXI hay que hacer un paralelismo. +Cmo producimos bienes pblicos globales que sean buenos para nosotros pero buenos para todos al mismo tiempo? +Y esa va a ser la dimensin de buenas noticias de lo que tenemos que considerar al pensar el poder en el siglo XXI. +Hay maneras de definir nuestros intereses en las que, mientras nos protegemos con poder duro, podemos organizarnos con otros en redes para producir no slo bienes pblicos sino maneras de mejorar nuestro poder blando. +As que si uno mira las declaraciones que se han hecho al respecto. Me impresion cuando Hillary Clinton describi la poltica exterior de la Administracin Obama; dijo que la poltica exterior de la Administracin Obama iba a usar el poder inteligente, segn sus palabras: "la amplia gama de herramientas disponibles en poltica exterior". +Y esa es la buena noticia que tengo. Podemos hacerlo. +Muchas gracias. +La sostenibilidad representa el qu, el dnde y el cmo de lo que se captura. +A m me importa el quin y el porqu. +Quiero conocer a la gente que decide mis opciones de cena. +Quiero saber cmo les influyo . +Y quiero saber cmo me influyen a mi. +Quiero saber por qu pescan. +Quiero conocer la forma en que confan en la generosidad del agua para ganarse la vida. +Entender todo esto nos permite cambiar nuestra percepcin de la vida marina, pasar de verla como una mercanca a percibirla como una oportunidad de restaurar nuestro ecosistema. +Nos permite disfrutar el pescado que tenemos la suerte de comer. +Qu nombre le damos entonces? +Creo que lo llamamos "pescado de recuperacin". +Mientras la sostenibilidad es la capacidad de sustentar y mantener, la recuperacin es la habilidad de reponer y avanzar. +El "pescado de recuperacin" permite un sistema dinmico, en evolucin, y reconoce nuestra relacin con el ocano como recurso, lo que sugiere que nos comprometamos a reponer el ocano y a fomentar su capacidad de recuperacin. +Es una forma ms optimista, ms humana, y ms til de entender nuestro entorno. +Las guas de bolsillo, comunes en el mundo de la conservacin marina, son muy tiles, son una herramienta maravillosa. +Listas verdes, amarillas y rojas de especies marinas. +La relacin es muy fcil: comprar lo verde, no comprar lo rojo, pensar dos veces antes de comprar lo amarillo. +Pero para m en realidad no es suficiente comer slo lo de la lista verde. +No podemos sostener esto sin medir el xito que tendr cambiar el destino de las especies de las listas amarilla y roja. +Pero, y si slo comemos lo de la lista verde? +Aqu dice que la pesca de rabil viene de poblaciones sostenibles. +Es pesca, no captura incidental. +Ideal para los pescadores. Mucho dinero. Apoyo a las economas locales. +Pero es un len del mar. Es un depredador superior. +Cul es el contexto de esta comida? +Estoy en un asador comiendo una porcin de 450 gramos? +Lo hago tres veces por semana? +Puedo estar eligiendo de la lista verde pero no me estoy haciendo ningn favor, ni a Uds, ni a los ocanos. +La idea es que tiene que haber un contexto, una pauta de accin en todo esto. +Por ejemplo: he odo que el vino tinto es muy bueno para la salud; antioxidantes y minerales... corazn sano. +Es genial! Me encanta el vino tinto! +Voy a beber tanto vino y voy a ser tan sano...! +Bueno, cuntas botellas debo beber para que me digan que tengo un problema? +Bien, amigos, tenemos un problema de protenas. +Hemos perdido esta nocin cuando se trata de la comida, y estamos pagando un precio. +El problema es que estamos ocultando ese precio bajo las olas. +Estamos ocultando ese precio con la aceptacin social que tiene el ensanchamiento de caderas. +Estamos ocultando ese precio con ganancias monstruosas. +As que lo principal de la idea del "pescado de recuperacin" es que tiene en cuenta nuestras necesidades. +Algo ms acorde con el "pescado de recuperacin" que Tiburn, Flipper, o el Pescador de Gorton, sera el Gigante Verde. +Las verduras podran salvar los ocanos. +A Sylvia le gusta decir que el azul es el nuevo verde. +Bueno,a m me gustara decir, con todo el respeto, que el brcoli verde podra ser entonces el nuevo azul. +En todo caso, debemos continuar comiendo el mejor pescado posible. +Pero tambin hay que comerlo con muchas verduras. +La mejor parte del "pescado de recuperacin" es que viene con media concha, una botella de Tabasco y rodajas de limn. +Viene en una porcin de 140 gramos de tilapia empanada, con mostaza, picatostes crujientes y una pila humeante de pilaf con pacana, quinua, y brcoli asado; bien suave, dulce, ahumado y dorado por fuera con una pizca de cayena picante. +Genial! +Esta es una venta fcil. +Y lo mejor es que todos estos ingredientes se venden en el supermercado ms cercano. +Jamie Oliver est haciendo campaa para salvar a EE.UU de la manera de comer. +Y Sylvia hace campaa para salvar a los ocanos de la manera de comer. +Aqu hay un patrn. +Olvdese del holocausto nuclear; es el tenedor de lo que hay que preocuparse. +Hemos hecho estragos en el planeta y luego hemos usado la comida que producimos para perjudicarnos en ms de un sentido. +As que pienso que estamos comiendo mal +y que es hora de cambiar la expectativa que tenemos de los alimentos. +La sostenibilidad es complicada pero la cena es una realidad que entendemos muy bien, +empecemos por ah. +Se ha hablado mucho de "ecologizar" nuestros sistemas alimentarios. +Dan Barber y Alice Waters lideran con entusiasmo la revolucin de la comida orgnica. +Pero la comida orgnica representa a menudo una manera de evadir nuestra responsabilidad como consumidores. +El hecho de que provenga de una fuente orgnica no significa que se lo pueda tratar despreocupadamente en el plato. +Hay camarones ecolgicos. +Podemos producirlos; tenemos la tecnologa. +Pero nunca vamos a poder tener un buffet libre de camarones ecolgicos. +No funciona. +La dieta para un corazn sano es una parte muy importante del "pescado de recuperacin". +Mientras nosotros tratamos de frenar la cada de las poblaciones marinas, los medios recomiendan aumentar el consumo de pescado. +Los estudios apuntan que decenas de miles de abuelas, abuelos, madres y padres de EE.UU. podran celebrar un cumpleaos ms si consumiramos ms pescado. +Esa es una oportunidad que no estoy dispuesto a dejar pasar. +Pero el pescado no lo es todo. +Se trata de la forma en que miramos nuestros platos. +Como chef, me di cuenta de que la manera ms fcil era reducir la racin de mis platos. +Han pasado un par de cosas. +Gan ms dinero. +La gente empez a pedir aperitivos y ensaladas, porque saba que no quedara satisfecha con un solo plato. +La gente invirti ms tiempo en sus comidas y se relacionaron entre ellos, gracias a sus comidas. +La gente se llev, en definitiva, ms de lo que vino a buscar, aun cuando haban consumido menos protenas. +Consumieron ms caloras gracias a una comida variada. +Ellos estn ms sanos. Yo gan ms dinero. +Esto es genial. +La consideracin ambiental se sirvi en cada plato, pero al mismo tiempo se sirvi una gran consideracin por los intereses humanos. +Otra de las cosas que hicimos fue empezar a ampliar la oferta: peces de plata, anchoas, caballa, sardinas, +mariscos, mejillones, ostras, almejas, tilapias... estas eran las especies comunes. +Dirigamos los gustos hacia opciones ms flexibles, ms "restauradoras". +Esto es lo que tenemos que favorecer. +Esto es lo que dice la lista verde. +Pero es tambin la forma en que podemos empezar a restaurar el medio ambiente. +Pero, qu pasa con esos grandes depredadores, esas especies de moda, esos atunes de la lista verde que les comentaba antes? +Bueno, si es necesario, tengo una receta para Uds. +Ms o menos funciona con cualquier pescado, as que all vamos. +Comiencen con una porcin de 450 gramos. +Tomen un cuchillo. Corten el pescado en cuatro. +Colquenlo en 4 platos. +Colmen esos 4 platos con verduras, y luego abran la mejor botella de Borgoa que tengan, enciendan las velas y a celebrarlo. +Celebren la ocasin de comer esto. +Inviten a sus amigos y vecinos y repitan esto una vez al ao, tal vez. +Yo espero mucho de la comida. +Espero salud, alegra, familia y comunidad. +Espero que producir ingredientes, preparar platos y comer alimentos sea parte de la comunin de intereses humanos. +Tuve suerte de que mi padre fuera un cocinero fantstico. +Y me ense desde muy pequeo el privilegio que representa comer. +Recuerdo muy bien las comidas de mi niez. +Eran porciones razonables de protenas servidas con abundante cantidad de verduras y pequeas cantidades de almidn, generalmente arroz. +Sigo comiendo as la mayora de las veces. +Me pongo enfermo cuando voy a algn asador. +La carne me hace sudar. +Es como una resaca de protenas. +Es repugnante. +Pero de todas las malas noticias que van a oir y que han odo del estado de nuestros ocanos, yo tengo lamentablemente la responsablidad de deciros la peor de todas, y es que durante todo este tiempo sus madres han tenido razn. +Cmanse las verduras! +Es bastante sencillo. +Qu buscamos en una comida entonces? +Que sea buena para la salud, ingredientes saludables que sean buenos para el cuerpo. +Por placer, busco mantequilla y sal, y esas cosas que hacen que la comida no sea una penitencia. +Para la familia, busco recetas que reverencien mis propias historias personales. +Para la comunidad, sin embargo, empezamos desde el principio. +No se puede obviar el hecho de que todo lo que comemos tiene una repercusin global. +As que traten de entender lo mejor que puedan cul es la repercusin y luego den el primer paso para minimizarla. +Hemos visto una imagen de nuestro planeta azul, nuestro banco mundial. +Pero es ms que una simple reposicin de nuestros recursos; es, adems, la geografa mundial de esa comunin que llamamos cena. +Por eso, si usamos slo lo que necesitamos, podemos empezar a compartir el resto, podemos empezar a celebrar, podemos empezar a restaurar. +Tenemos que saborear las verduras. +Tenemos que saborear raciones ms pequeas de pescado. +Y tenemos que ahorrar cena. +Gracias. +Soy un amante de los bichos. No desde la infancia, por cierto, sino de ms grande. +Cuando me gradu en zoologa en la Universidad de Tel Aviv, me enamor de los bichos. +Y luego, dentro de la zoologa, hice el curso, o la disciplina, de entomologa: la ciencia de los insectos. +Y luego me pregunt: cmo puedo ser prctico o de ayuda en la ciencia de la entomologa? +Y luego pas al mundo de los fitosanitarios, a proteger a las plantas de los insectos, de los malos bichos. +Y dentro de los fitosanitarios entr en la disciplina del control biolgico de plagas, que definimos como el uso de organismos vivos para reducir las poblaciones de plagas nocivas de las plantas. +Es toda una disciplina fitosanitaria cuyo objetivo es la reduccin de productos qumicos. +El control biolgico de plagas, estos bichos buenos de los que hablamos, existen en el mundo desde hace miles y miles de aos, durante mucho, mucho tiempo. +Pero slo en los ltimos 120 aos la gente empez a conocer cada vez ms cmo explotar, o cmo usar, este fenmeno del control biolgico, este fenmeno del control natural, para sus propias necesidades. +Porque al control biolgico se lo puede ver en el patio de atrs. +Alcanza con una lupa. Ven lo que tengo aqu? +Es una lupa de 10 aumentos. +S, de 10 aumentos. +Slo hay que abrirla. +Uno vuelve las hojas y ve un mundo enteramente nuevo de insectos diminutos, araitas de 1 mm, 1,5 mm o de 2 mm de largo, y puede distinguir las buenas de las malas. +Este fenmeno del control natural est, literalmente, en todas partes. +Incluso aqu, delante de este edificio. Estoy seguro. +Slo miren las plantas. +Estn por todos lados y tenemos que saber cmo explotarlos. +Bueno, vayamos paso a paso y veamos algunos ejemplos. +Qu es una plaga? +Qu dao le causa realmente a la planta? +Cul es el enemigo natural, el agente de control biolgico, el bicho bueno del que estamos hablando? +En general, voy a hablar de insectos y araas, o tambin vamos a llamarlos caros. +Los insectos: esos organismos de 6 patas. Las araas o los caros: los organismos de 8 patas. +Vamos a echar un vistazo a esto. +Aqu hay una plaga devastadora, la araa roja, una araa tejedora. +Se ve a la madre en el medio y, probablemente, dos hijas a izquierda y derecha y un huevo ms a la derecha. +Y entonces uno ve qu tipo de dao puede ocasionar. +A la derecha hay una hoja de pepino, en el medio una de algodn y a la izquierda una de tomate. +Pueden pasar literalmente de verde a blanco debido a la succin, a la perforacin, producida por estas araas. +Pero aqu viene la Naturaleza y nos proporciona una araa buena. +Este es un caro depredador, tan pequeo como una araa roja, de hecho, 1 mm, 2 mm de largo, no ms de eso, que corre, caza y persigue a la araa roja. +Aqu pueden ver a esta seora en accin, extrayendo los fluidos corporales del otro caro. +En 5 minutos, esto es lo que queda: un tpico cadver seco, succionando, el cadver de la araa roja, y junto a ella dos individuos satisfechos, dos caros predadores, una madre a la izquierda y una ninfa joven a la derecha. +Por cierto, comen en 24 h unas 5 araas rojas, los caros malos, o de 15 a 20 huevos de los caros plaga. +Por cierto, siempre tienen hambre. +Y hay otro ejemplo: los fidos. +Por cierto, ahora es primavera en Israel +y la temperatura aumenta considerablemente. Pueden ver a los malos, los fidos, en toda las plantas, en hibiscos y lantanas, en el follaje joven y fresco de la llamada primera primavera. +De hecho, los fidos son todas hembras; son como amazonas. +Hembras que engendran hembras, que a su vez engendran otras hembras. +No hay machos en absoluto. +Se denomina partenognesis. +Y, aparentemente, son muy felices as. +Aqu se puede ver el dao. +Los fidos secretan un lquido pegajoso azucarado llamado melaza que cubre la parte superior de la planta. +Aqu se ve una hoja tpica de pepino que pas del verde al negro debido a un hongo negro, la fumagina, que lo cubre. +Y aqu viene la salvacin con esta avispa parsita. +Aqu no estamos hablando de un depredador. +Aqu estamos hablando de un parsito, no uno de 2 patas, sino uno de 6 patas, por supuesto. +Esta es una avispa parsita, de nuevo, de 2 mm de largo, delgada, una viajera aguda y muy veloz. +Y aqu se puede ver a este parsito en accin, como en una maniobra acrobtica. +Se para cara a cara en frente de la vctima de la derecha, inclina su abdomen y deposita un solo huevo, un solo huevo en los fluidos corporales del fido. +Por cierto, el fido trata de escapar: +patea, pica y secreta distintos lquidos, pero, de hecho, no lo va a lograr. +Simplemente el parsito deposita el huevo en el fluido corporal del fido. +Despus de unos das, dependiendo de la temperatura, los huevos van a eclosionar y la larva de este parasitoide se comer al fido desde adentro. +Y todo esto es natural. Todo es natural. +Esto no es ficcin, para nada. +De verdad, ocurre en vuestros jardines, en vuestros propios jardines. +Este es el resultado final. +Este es el resultado final: momias... M-O-M-I-A. +Este es el resultado visual de un fido muerto. Veamos el interior. De hecho, hay un parasitoide en desarrollo que en unos minutos va a salir. +Ya casi termina el nacimiento. +Se lo puede ver en distintas pelculas, etc. Es cuestin de pocos minutos. +Y, si es una hembra, de inmediato se va a aparear con un macho y se va, porque el tiempo es muy corto. +Esta hembra slo vive de 3 a 4 das y tiene que poner unos 400 huevos. +Eso significa que tiene que poner huevos en el fluido corporal de 400 fidos malos. +Y, por supuesto, esto no es el final. +Hay gran abundancia de otros enemigos naturales. Esto es el ltimo ejemplo. +Una vez ms, vamos a empezar primero con la plaga: los trips. +Por cierto, todos estos nombres raros... no los quiero molestar con los nombres cientficos de estos bichos, slo menciono los nombres vulgares. +Esta es una linda plaga, delicada y muy mala. +Si pueden verlo, es un pimiento dulce. +No es slo un pimiento dulce extico, ornamental, +es un pimiento dulce que no puede comerse porque sufre una enfermedad viral transmitida por esos trips adultos. +Y aqu viene el enemigo natural, los antocridos, que son ms bien pequeos. +Aqu puede verse al adulto, negro, con dos jvenes. +Y nuevamente, en accin. +Este adulto perfora al trips, lo succiona en unos minutos, y pasa a otra presa, continuando por todo el lugar. +Y si propagamos esos antocridos, los buenos, por ejemplo en una parcela de pimiento morrn, se van a las flores. +Y, miren, esta flor est llena de bichos predadores, de los buenos, despus de eliminar a los malos, los trips. +Esta es una situacin muy positiva, por cierto. +No se daa ni el desarrollo de la fruta ni a la fruta misma. +Todo est muy bien en estas circunstancias. +Pero, de nuevo, la cuestin es que aqu los vemos en una relacin uno a uno con la plaga, el enemigo natural. +Esto es en realidad lo que hacemos. +En el noreste de Israel, en el kibutz Sde Eliyahu, hay una instalacin que produce enemigos naturales en masa. +En otras palabras, lo que hacemos all, es amplificar el control natural, el fenmeno de control biolgico. +Y en 35.000 m2 de invernaderos de ltima generacin estamos produciendo caros predadores en masa, esos antocridos, esas avispas parsitas, etc., etc., +en muchas partes diferentes. +Por cierto, es un paisaje muy bonito. A un lado se ven las montaas jordanas y al otro el valle de Jordania, y un buen invierno, apacible, y un verano agradable, clido, que es una condicin excelente para producir masivamente esas criaturas. +Y, por cierto, la produccin masiva no es manipulacin gentica. +No hay OMG, organismos modificados genticamente, en absoluto. +Los tomamos de la naturaleza, y lo nico que hacemos es darles las condiciones ptimas, en invernaderos o salas climatizadas para que proliferen, se multipliquen y se reproduzcan. +Y eso es lo que obtenemos, de hecho. +Visto bajo el microscopio. +En la esquina superior izquierda se ve un caro depredador. +Y este es un grupo de caros predadores. +Vean esta muestra. +Aqu tengo un gramo de caros predadores. +Un gramo son 80.000 individuos. 80.000 individuos son suficientes para controlar un acre, 4.000 m2, de una parcela de frutillas o fresas contra la araa roja toda la temporada de casi un ao. +Y a partir de esto, cranme, podemos producir decenas de kilos al ao. +As que esto es lo que llamo amplificacin del fenmeno. +Y no, no rompemos el equilibrio. +Por el contrario, los llevamos a cada parcela agrcola donde el equilibrio ya est comprometido por los productos qumicos. +All vamos con los enemigos naturales a fin de invertir un poco la espiral y lograr un equilibrio ms natural con la reduccin de productos qumicos en la parcela agrcola. +Esa es la idea. +Y cul es el impacto? +En esta tabla puede verse el impacto de un control biolgico exitoso mediante bichos buenos. +Por ejemplo, en Israel, donde empleamos ms de 1.000 hectreas, en trminos israeles, 10.000 dunams, de plagas biolgicas que controlan el aj dulce bajo proteccin, se redujo el 75% de los pesticidas. +Y en las fresas de Israel, an ms, se redujo el 80% el uso de pesticidas, en especial los dirigidos a los caros plaga de la frutilla o fresa. +As que el impacto es muy fuerte. +Y ah va la pregunta, en especial si uno le pregunta a productores y a agricultores: Por qu el control biolgico? +Por qu los bichos buenos? +Se obtienen tantas respuestas como personas sean consultadas. +Pero si vamos a este lugar, por ejemplo, al sureste de Israel, la zona de Arava en el Gran Valle del Rift, donde se encuentra el mximo exponente, la perla de la agricultura israel, especialmente en invernaderos o en condiciones de malla, si uno va a Eilat ve esto, justo en el medio del desierto. +Y si uno se acerca, definitivamente puede ver esto: abuelos con sus nietos esparciendo enemigos naturales, bichos buenos, en lugar de estar con ropa especial y mscaras de gas aplicando productos qumicos. +La respuesta que obtenemos con ms frecuencia al porqu del control biolgico es la seguridad en su aplicacin. +Nmero dos, muchos productores de hecho estn petrificados por la idea de la resistencia, que las plagas se vuelvan resistentes a los productos qumicos. En nuestro caso que la difteria se vuelva resistente a los antibiticos. +Es lo mismo, y puede ocurrir muy rpidamente. +Afortunadamente, en el control biolgico o incluso en el control natural, la resistencia es extremadamente rara. +Difcilmente sucede. +Porque esto es evolucin; esta es la razn natural, a diferencia de la resistencia, que ocurre en el caso de los productos qumicos. +Y tercero, la demanda del pblico. +Demanda pblica: cuanto ms demanda el pblico la reduccin de productos qumicos, ms conscientes son los productores del hecho de que deberan, en la medida de lo posible, reemplazar el control qumico por un control biolgico. +Incluso aqu hay una productora, la ven, muy interesada en los bichos, en los malos y en los buenos, con una lupa en la cabeza, caminando con seguridad por su cultivo. +Por ltimo, quiero llegar en realidad a mi visin, o, de hecho, a mi sueo. +Porque esta es la realidad. +Miren la brecha. +Si tomamos la cifra de negocios global de la industria del biocontrol en el mundo, es de 250 millones de dlares. +Y miren la industria de los pesticidas en general en todos los cultivos del mundo. +Creo que es 100 veces superior o algo as: +25.000 millones. +Hay una brecha enorme por cubrir. +Cmo podemos hacerlo? +Cmo podemos llenar o, digamos, acortar esta brecha en el curso de los aos? +Primero, tenemos que encontrar soluciones biolgicas ms robustas, buenas y confiables, ms bichos buenos que podamos producir en masa o conservar en el campo. +Segundo, crear an ms demanda pblica intensiva y estricta para reducir los productos qumicos en los productos agrcolas frescos. +Tercero, tambin aumentar la conciencia de los productores sobre el potencial de esta industria. +Y esta brecha se estrecha. +Paso a paso, se estrecha. +Por eso creo que mi ltima diapositiva es: Todo lo que decimos podemos cantarlo, dmosle una oportunidad a la Naturaleza. +Digo esto en nombre de todos los involucrados en el control biolgico de Israel y del extranjero, dmosle una oportunidad a la Naturaleza. +Gracias. +Miwa Matreyek! +Me encantan los videojuegos. +Estoy un poco subyugado por ellos. +Me asombra su poder en trminos de imaginacin, de tecnologa, de concepto. +Pero creo que, sobre todo, me asombra su poder de motivarnos, de movilizarnos, de paralizarnos, ms que cualquier otra cosa que hayamos inventado o hecho con anterioridad. +Y creo que podemos aprender cosas bastante sorprendentes observando cmo jugamos. +Y, en particular, creo que podemos aprender cosas sobre el aprendizaje. +La industria de los videojuegos es, con mucho, la de mayor crecimiento de todos los medios modernos. +De unos 10.000 millones en 1990, hoy vale 50.000 millones de dlares a nivel mundial y no muestra signos de desaceleracin. +Dentro de 4 aos se estima que va a valer ms de 80.000 millones de dlares. +Eso es cerca de tres veces la industria discogrfica. +Es bastante imponente pero no creo que sea la estadstica ms reveladora de todas. +Lo que realmente me sorprende es que hoy en da la gente gasta cerca de 8.000 millones de dlares reales al ao comprando objetos virtuales que existen slo dentro de los videojuegos. +Esta es una pantalla del juego virtual Entropia Universe. +A principios de este ao, se vendi un asteroide virtual del juego en 330.000 dlares reales. +Y esta es una nave Titan del juego espacial EVE Online. +Este objeto virtual requiere 200 personas fsicas y cerca de 56 das reales de construccin adems de miles y miles de horas de esfuerzo previo. +Y, sin embargo, se construyen muchas. +En el otro extremo de la escala el juego Farmville, que seguro han escuchado nombrar, tiene 70 millones de jugadores en todo el mundo, y la mayora de ellos lo juegan casi todos los das. +Todo esto puede sonar realmente muy inquietante para alguna gente, un ndice de algo preocupante, algo que est mal en la sociedad. +Pero estamos para dar buenas noticias y la buena noticia es que creo que podemos analizar la causa de este gran esfuerzo humano, de esta generacin de valor tan intensa. +Y al responder esa pregunta creo que podemos sacar de eso algo extremadamente poderoso. +Y me parece que la forma ms interesante de pensar cmo sucede todo esto es en trminos de recompensa. +Y, especficamente, en trminos de recompensas emocionales muy intensas que la gente obtiene con los videojuegos tanto a nivel individual como colectivo. +Ahora, si miramos lo que sucede en la mente de alguien cuando est absorto en el juego vemos dos procesos bastante diferentes. +Por un lado est el proceso del deseo. +Es un poco de ambicin y motivacin: voy a hacerlo, voy a trabajar arduamente. +Por otro lado est el proceso de los gustos: la diversin, el afecto, y el deleite... y una enorme bestia voladora con un orco en la espalda. +Es una imagen muy buena. Es bastante cool. +Es del juego World of Warcraft con ms de 10 millones de jugadores a nivel mundial, yo soy uno de ellos, mi esposa es otra. +Y esta clase de mundo, el paseo en esta gran bestia voladora, nos muestra por qu los juegos son tan buenos tanto para el deseo como para los gustos. +Porque es muy potente. Es bastante impresionante. +Le da a uno grandes poderes. +Se satisface la ambicin; es muy hermoso. +Es un gran placer dar ese paseo. +Y esto se combina para lograr un compromiso emocional muy intenso. +Pero esto no es lo que interesa en realidad. +Lo interesante de la virtualidad es lo que se puede medir con ella. +Porque en la virtualidad se puede medir todo. +Puede medirse cada una de las cosas de cada persona que haya participado en un juego. +Los juegos ms grandes del mundo hoy estn midiendo ms de 1.000 millones de registros de sus jugadores, sobre lo que hacen todos... mucho ms detalle del que se ha obtenido jams en un sitio web. +Y esto hace que suceda algo muy especial en los juegos. +Algo denominado programa de recompensa. +Y con esto quiero decir que buscan lo que han hecho millones y millones de personas ajustando con mucho cuidado la tasa, la naturaleza, el tipo y la intensidad de las recompensas en los juegos para mantenerlos enganchados con ingentes cantidades de tiempo y esfuerzo. +Para tratar de explicar esto en trminos reales quiero hablar de un tipo de tarea comn a muchos juegos. +Vayan a buscar cierta cantidad de un elemento X. +Digamos, a fines del argumento, mi misin es conseguir 15 tortas, y para hacerlo hay que matar a estos monstruitos adorables. +Una misin simple. +Esto puede pensarse, si se quiere, como un problema de cajas. +Tengo que seguir abriendo cajas. +No s lo que tienen dentro hasta que las abro. +Y voy abriendo caja tras caja hasta que consigo 15 tortas. +Si uno toma un juego como el Warcraft se lo puede pensar, si se quiere, como un gran esfuerzo de apertura de cajas. +El juego est tratando de hacer que la gente abra un milln de cajas poniendo cada vez mejores cosas en ellas. +Esto suena sumamente aburrido pero los juegos pueden hacer de este proceso algo extremadamente llevadero. +Y lo hacen mediante una combinacin de probabilidad y datos. +Pensemos en la probabilidad. +Si queremos involucrar a una persona en la apertura de cajas para tratar de encontrar tortas queremos asegurarnos que no sea demasiado fcil ni demasiado difcil encontrar una torta. +Entonces, qu hacer? Bueno, miramos un milln de personas... no, 100 millones de personas, de abridores de cajas, y se calcula, si uno pone la tasa de tortas en un 25% eso no es ni demasiado frustrante, ni demasiado fcil; +mantiene a la gente enganchada +pero, claro, eso no es todo lo que se hace... hay 15 tortas. +Yo podra hacer un juego llamado Tortacraft en el que hay que conseguir un milln de tortas o mil tortas. +Eso sera muy aburrido. +15 es un nmero bastante ptimo. +Uno encuentra que entre 5 y 20 es el nmero justo para mantener a la gente enganchada. +Pero no slo hay tortas en las cajas. +Hay un 100% all. +Y lo que nos aseguramos es que cada vez que se abre una caja haya algo dentro, una pequea recompensa, eso mantiene a la gente progresando y motivada. +En la mayora de los juegos de aventura hay un poco de dinero del juego, un poco de experiencia, +pero no slo hacemos eso tampoco. +Tambin decimos va a haber un montn de otros artculos de diferentes calidades y niveles de emocin. +Va a haber un 10% de probabilidad de que consigas algo bastante bueno. +Va a haber una probabilidad de 0,1% de conseguir algo totalmente impresionante. +Y cada uno de estos premios es ajustado minuciosamente para el artculo. +Y tambin decimos: 'Bien, cuntos monstruos? Debera tener todo el mundo lleno con mil millones de monstruos? +No, queremos uno o dos monstruos en pantalla en un momento dado. +As seguimos. No es demasiado fcil, ni demasiado difcil. +Todo esto es muy potente. +Pero esto es algo virtual; no son cajas de verdad. +Por eso podemos hacer cosas sorprendentes. +Observamos al mirar a la gente que abre cajas que cuando van consiguiendo unas 13 de las 15 tortas cambia su percepcin y empiezan a aburrirse un poco, a fastidiarse. +No piensan en las probabilidades. +Piensan que el juego es injusto. +No me va a dar las ltimas dos tortas. Me voy a dar por vencido. +Si fueran cajas reales no hay mucho que hacer pero en un juego podemos decir "Correcto, bien", +al obtener 13 tortas, tienes 75% de probabilidad de conseguir otra torta. +Sigue enganchado. Miren lo que hacen... modifican el mundo para satisfacer sus expectativas. +Nuestros juegos no siempre hacen eso. +Y algo que seguro hacen en el momento, si uno consigui una recompensa de las buenas, es asegurarse que no aparezca otra igual durante bastante tiempo para mantener el valor, y que sea especial. +Y la idea es en verdad que evolucionamos para que el mundo nos satisfaga de maneras particulares. +Durante decenas y cientos de miles de aos evolucionamos para encontrar estimulantes ciertas cosas y como seres inteligentes y civilizados nos estimula mucho la resolucin de problemas y el aprendizaje. +Ahora podemos hacer ingeniera inversa y construir mundos que dispongan expresamente nuestras cajas evolucionarias. +Qu significa todo esto en la prctica? +Bueno, se me ocurren siete cosas que creo que muestran como aprender estas lecciones de los juegos y usarlas fuera de ellos. +La primera es muy simple: barras de experiencia que midan el progreso... algo desarrollado de forma brillante por gente como Jesse Schell a principios de ao. +Ya se ha abordado en la Universidad de Indiana, EE.UU., entre otros lugares, +Es la sencilla idea de, en vez de puntuar a la gente de manera incremental, de a pequeos incrementos, se les da un avatar para el perfil que est constantemente en un progreso de incrementos muy pero muy pequeitos; avatar que creen son ellos mismos. +Y todo va en esa direccin, lo ven deslizarse lentamente y se identifican con eso sobre la marcha. +La segunda leccin: objetivos de corto y largo plazo; 5.000 tortas es aburrido, 15 tortas es interesante. +Se le da a las personas muchsimas tareas diferentes. +Uno dice, se trata de hacer 10 preguntas pero otra tarea sube eso a 20 clases a tiempo, pero otra tarea consiste en colaborar con otra gente, otra tarea es mostrar tu trabajo cinco veces, otra tarea est afectando este objetivo en particular. +Uno descompone las cosas en estas partes calibradas que la gente puede elegir hacer en paralelo para que sigan enganchados y que uno puede usar para dirigirlos hacia actividades beneficiosas a nivel individual. +Tercera leccin: se recompensa el esfuerzo. +Es el factor del 100%. Los juegos son brillantes en eso. +Cada vez que uno hace algo es reconocido, uno es reconocido por intentar. +No se castiga el error; se recompensa el ms mnimo esfuerzo... un pedacito de oro, un poquito de reconocimiento... hiciste 20 preguntas... anotar. +Son todos pequeos reconocimientos. +Cuarta leccin: feedback. +Esto es absolutamente crucial, y lo virtual descolla en la entrega de feedback. +Si miramos algunos de los problemas ms difciles del mundo de hoy de lo que hemos escuchado cosas maravillosas, es muy, muy difcil para la gente aprender si no se puede vincular consecuencias con acciones. +La contaminacin, el calentamiento global, esas cosas, las consecuencias estn distantes en tiempo y espacio. +Es muy difcil aprender realmente una leccin +pero si se puede modelar las cosas para la gente, si uno le da cosas a la gente para que manipule y juegue, cuando vuelve el feedback pueden aprender una leccin, pueden ver, pueden avanzar, pueden comprender. +Quinta leccin: el factor incertidumbre. +Esta es una mina de oro neurolgica, si se quiere, porque una recompensa conocida apasiona a las personas pero lo que realmente los motiva es la recompensa incierta, la recompensa con el grado justo de incertidumbre, que no saben muy bien si la van a conseguir o no. +El 25%, eso ilumina el cerebro. +Y si piensan usar esto en exmenes, si piensan agregar elementos de aleatoriedad en exmenes y capacitaciones, pueden transformar los niveles de compromiso de la gente aprovechando este potente mecanismo evolutivo. +Cuando no podemos predecir algo a la perfeccin nos sentimos muy excitados con eso. +Queremos volver atrs e ir por ms. +Como probablemente ya sepan, el neurotransmisor asociado al aprendizaje se denomina dopamina. +Est asociado con la bsqueda de recompensa. +Y est empezando a pasar algo muy emocionante en lugares como la Universidad de Bristol, en el R.U., donde estamos empezando a poder modelar en forma matemtica los niveles de dopamina del cerebro. +Esto significa que podemos predecir el aprendizaje, podemos predecir aumentos de participacin, estas ventanas, estas ventanas de tiempo, en las que se produce el aprendizaje en un nivel elevado. +Y de esto se derivan dos cosas. +La primera tiene que ver con la memoria, que podemos encontrar esos momentos +en los que alguien es ms propenso a recordar podemos darle algo valioso en ese momento. +La segunda cosa es la confianza; podemos ver que las estructuras de juego y recompensa envalentonan a la gente, la predispone a asumir riesgos, a asumir dificultades, es ms difcil disuadir. +Todo esto puede parecer muy siniestro. +Una especie de "Manipulan nuestros cerebros, somos todos adictos". +La palabra adiccin est presente. +Hay una preocupacin real por eso. +Pero el detonante neurolgico ms grande de las personas son otras personas. +Esto es lo que realmente nos excita. +En trminos de recompensa, no es el dinero, no es el efectivo -que es bueno- es hacer algo con nuestros pares, mirarnos, colaborar mutuamente. +Y quiero contarles una breve historia de 1999, de un videojuego llamado Everquest. +En este videojuego haba dos grandes dragones y haba que formar un equipo para matarlos, 42 personas... hasta 42 personas para matar a estos dragones. +Era un problema porque haban puesto dos o tres dragones. +As que los jugadores abordaron el problema apareciendo espontneamente con un sistema de motivacin mutua, justo y transparente. +Se pagaban unos a otros con una moneda virtual que denominaron puntos mata-dragn. +Y cada vez que a uno le tocaba ir a una misin se le pagaba en puntos mata-dragn. +Hacan este seguimiento en un sitio web aparte. +Hacan el seguimiento de su propio dinero y luego los jugadores podan ofertar por algo "cool" que quisieran... todo organizado por los mismos jugadores. +Lo asombroso del sistema es que no slo funcion con Everquest sino que hoy, una dcada despus, cada videojuego del mundo que tiene este tipo de tarea usa una versin de este sistema... decenas de millones de personas. +Y la tasa de xito es cercana al 100%. +Esto es desarrollado por jugadores, auto impuesto, una moneda voluntaria, y es un comportamiento de usuario muy sofisticado. +Y quiero terminar sugiriendo algunas maneras en las que estos principios podran divulgarse en el mundo. +Voy a empezar por los negocios. +Estamos empezando a ver algunos grandes problemas en torno a los negocios de reciclaje y conservacin de energa. +Empezamos a ver el surgimiento de tecnologas maravillosas como medidores de energa en tiempo real. +En materia educativa quiz lo ms obvio de todo sea transformar la manera de involucrar a la gente. +Podemos ofrecerle a la gente la gran continuidad entre experiencia e inversin personal. +Podemos partir las cosas en tareas pequeas muy calibradas. +Podemos usar aleatoriedad calculada. +Podemos premiar el esfuerzo de manera consistente si se cumple todo junto. +Y podemos usar ese comportamiento grupal que vemos aparecer cuando la gente juega junta, estos mecanismos cooperativos muy complejos que no tienen precedentes. +En el gobierno, algo que me viene a la mente es que el gobierno de EE.UU., entre otros, est empezando a pagarle a la gente para que adelgace. +Estamos diciendo que se usa una recompensa econmica para abordar el gran problema de la obesidad. +Pero, de nuevo, esas recompensas podran calibrarse con precisin si usramos la vasta experiencia de los videojuegos para aumentar ese atractivo, para tomar los datos, las observaciones, de millones de horas hombre e invertir ese feedback en el aumento del compromiso. +Y al final es esta palabra, el compromiso, la que quiero dejarles. +Se trata de cmo transformar la participacin individual mediante las lecciones psicolgicas y neurolgicas que podemos aprender mirando a la gente jugar videojuegos. +Pero tambin se trata de compromiso colectivo y de un laboratorio sin precedentes para observar qu mueve a las personas a trabajar, jugar y comprometerse a gran escala en los juegos. +Y si podemos ver estas cosas y aprender de ellas y ver cmo podemos articularlas, creo que realmente tenemos algo muy revolucionario en nuestras manos. +Muchas gracias. +Hay pocas cosas que nos unen tanto como unas elecciones. +Acudimos a las elecciones, votamos, las seguimos atentamente. +Nuestras democracias se basan en las elecciones. +Todos entendemos por qu tenemos elecciones, y todos salimos de casa el mismo da para ir a votar. +Apreciamos la oportunidad de dar nuestra opinin para ayudar a decidir el futuro del pas. +La idea fundamental es que a los polticos se les concede el mandato para hablar por nosotros, para tomar decisiones en nuestro nombre que nos afectan a todos. +Sin ese mandato, seran corruptos. +Bueno, lamentablemente, el poder corrompe por eso la gente hace muchas cosas para llegar al poder y mantenerlo, incluso cosas malas en las elecciones. +Ya ven, aunque la idea de la eleccin es perfecta, una eleccin nacional es un proyecto grande, y los proyectos grandes son complicados. +Cada vez que hay una eleccin, parece que algo siempre sale mal, alguien trata de hacer trampa, o algo se tuerce por accidente -- se pierde una urna por aqu, boletas controvertidas por all. +Para asegurarnos que salga mal lo menos posible, tenemos todos estos procedimientos en torno a las elecciones. +Por ejemplo: llegamos a la mesa electoral, y el presidente de mesa nos pide la identificacin antes de entregarnos el sobre y pedirnos que pasemos a la sala de votacin para sufragar. +Cuando uno regresa coloca el voto en la urna donde se mezcla con todos los otros votos de modo que nadie ms sepa nuestro voto. +Bueno, lo que quiero que pensemos un momento es lo que sucede despus, despus de colocar el voto en la urna. +La mayora volver a casa sintindose seguro de que su voto fue contado porque confa que el sistema electoral funciona. +Confa en que las autoridades de mesa y los fiscales hagan bien su trabajo. +Las urnas van a los lugares de escrutinio. +Se les quita el precinto, se extraen los votos, y se cuentan laboriosamente. +La mayora tenemos que confiar en que nuestro voto sea contabilizado correctamente, y tenemos que confiar que lo mismo suceda con todos los votos de la eleccin. +Tenemos que confiar en mucha gente +y en muchos procedimientos. +Y a veces tenemos que confiar en los ordenadores. +Imaginen cientos de millones de votantes emitiendo cientos de millones de votos, todos para ser contados correctamente y todo lo que puede salir mal generando todos esos titulares negativos. Y no se podemos evitar sentirnos agobiados por la idea de tratar de mejorar las elecciones. +Bueno, de cara a todas estos titulares negativos los investigadores han recapacitado sobre cmo hacer las elecciones de manera diferente. +Han tomado distancias para tener una visin global. +Y la visin global es sta: las elecciones deberan ser verificables. +Los votantes deberan poder verificar que sus votos fueron contados correctamente, sin violar el secreto electoral, que es tan importante. +Y esa es la parte difcil. +Cmo hacer un sistema electoral totalmente verificable y al mismo tiempo mantener los votos en absoluto secreto? +Bien, la forma que hemos ideado utiliza ordenadores pero no depende de ellos. +Y el secreto es el formulario de votacin. +Si los miran de cerca se darn cuenta de que la lista de candidatos est en un orden diferente en cada caso. +Y eso significa que, si uno marca sus opciones en una de ellas y luego elimina la lista de candidatos la parte que queda no revelar para quin fue el voto. +Y en cada formulario de votacin existe este valor cifrado en forma de cdigo de barras 2D a la derecha. +Se usa un poco de criptografa, y es complicada, pero lo que no es complicado es votar con uno de estos formularios. +Podemos dejar la criptografa a los ordenadores, y luego usar el papel como comprobante. +As es como se vota. +Uno recibe un formulario de votacin al azar, y luego entra en la sala de votacin, marca sus preferencias, y corta por el troquelado. +Y destruye la lista de candidatos. +Y la parte que queda, la que tiene las marcas, es el voto encriptado. +La autoridad de la mesa escanea el voto encriptado. +Y como est encriptado puede ser enviado, almacenado, y contado de forma centralizada y mostrado en un sitio web para que todos lo vean, incluyendo Ud. +As que uno se lleva el voto cifrado a casa como recibo. +Y tras el cierre de las elecciones, uno puede verificar que su voto fue contado comparando el recibo con el voto del sitio web. +Y recuerden que el voto est encriptado desde el momento en que abandonaron la sala de votacin entonces, si una autoridad electoral quiere averiguar cmo votaron no podr hacerlo. +Si el gobierno quiere descubrir cmo votaron no va a poder. +Ningn hacker puede descifrarlo y descubrir cmo votaron. +Ningn hacker puede descifrarlo y cambiar su voto porque entonces no coincidir con el recibo. +Los votos no pueden perderse porque de ser as no los encontraran cuando los buscaran. +Pero la magia de las elecciones no se detiene ah. +En su lugar, queremos hacer todo el proceso tan transparente que los medios de comunicacin y los observadores internacionales y cualquier persona que lo desee puede descargar todos los datos y contarlos ellos mismos. +Pueden comprobar que todos los votos fueron contados correctamente. +Pueden comprobar que los resultados anunciados de las elecciones son los correctos. +Y stas son elecciones de la gente, para la gente, +por lo que el siguiente paso para nuestras democracias es que sean transparentes y verificables. +Gracias. +Supongo que tengo que empezar retrocediendo a los aos 60, cuando tena 7 u 8 aos, y vea documentales de Jacques Cousteau en la sala de estar con mis gafas y aletas puestas. +Despus de cada episodio suba al bao a nadar en la baera y a ver el desage, porque eso era todo lo que haba para ver. +Y cuando cumpl 16, me dediqu a la ciencia marina a explorar, a bucear, y viv en hbitats submarinos como este de los Cayos de Florida, un total de 30 das. +Brian Skerry sac esta foto. Gracias, Brian. +He buceado en sumergibles de aguas profundas en todo el mundo +y este es uno de los submarinos que mayor profundidad puede alcanzar en el mundo manejado por el gobierno japons. +Sylvia Earle y yo hicimos una expedicin en este submarino hace 20 aos en Japn. +En mi buceo baj a los 5.400 metros, a un rea que pens sera silvestre y prstina en el fondo del mar. +Pero cuando llegu all encontr muchos restos de plstico y otros desechos. +Y fue realmente un punto de inflexin en mi vida, cuando empec a darme cuenta de que no poda ir solo a divertirme haciendo ciencia y exploracin; +tena que ponerlo en contexto. +Tena que ir hacia objetivos de conservacin. +Por eso empec a trabajar con la National Geographic Society y con otros y dirigimos expediciones a la Antrtida. +Dirig tres expediciones de buceo a la Antrtida. +Hace 10 aos fue un viaje muy importante: exploramos ese gran iceberg, B-15, el mayor iceberg de la historia, que rompi la barrera de hielo de Ross. +Desarrollamos tcnicas para bucear dentro y debajo del iceberg como bolsas de agua caliente en los riones con una batera que nos colocbamos de modo que cuando la sangre flua por los riones se calentaba un poquito antes de volver al cuerpo. +Pero despus de 3 viajes a la Antrtida decid que sera ms agradable trabajar en aguas ms clidas. +Y ese mismo ao, hace 10 aos, me fui al norte de las Islas Fnix. +Y les voy a contar esa historia en un momento. +Pero antes quiero que reflexionis un instante sobre este grfico. +Puede que hayis visto esto de otras formas pero la lnea principal es la cantidad de rea protegida de tierra, a nivel mundial, y es del 12% aproximadamente. +Y pueden ver que sube como un palo de hockey en la dcada de los 60 y 70. Y est en una trayectoria buena en este momento. +Y probablemente esto se deba a que todos tomamos conciencia sobre el medio ambiente y el Da de la Tierra y todo lo que sucedi en los aos 60 con los hippies y eso tuvo un gran impacto, creo, en la conciencia mundial +Pero las reas protegidas del ocano eran bsicamente una lnea recta hasta hace poco... que parece estar aumentando. +Y creo que estamos en el punto "palo de hockey" del rea protegida del ocano +Creo que habramos llegado mucho antes a este punto si hubisemos podido ver lo que sucede en el ocano como vemos lo que sucede en la tierra. +Pero, por desgracia, el ocano es opaco y no podemos ver lo que est pasando. +Y, por lo tanto, estamos muy por detrs en la proteccin +Pero el buceo, los sumergibles, y todo el trabajo que estamos preparando aqu ayudar a corregir eso. +Dnde estn las Islas Fnix? +Eran las reas marinas protegidas ms grandes del mundo, hasta la semana pasada que pas a ser el archipilago de Chagos. +Est en medio del Pacfico, a 5 das de cualquier otro lugar cercano +Si uno quiere llegar a las Islas Fnix, est a 5 das de Fiji, est a 5 das de Hawaii, est a 5 das de Samoa. +Est en el medio del Pacfico, en torno al Ecuador. +Nunca haba odo hablar de las islas hace 10 aos, ni de Kiribati, el pas que las posee, hasta que dos amigos mos que dirigen un barco de buceo en Fiji me dijeron: "Greg, dirigiras una expedicin cientfica en estas islas? +Nadie lo ha hecho antes". +Y le dije: "S. +Pero dime dnde estn y a qu pas pertenecen". +Ah fue que o por primera vez de las islas y no tena idea de en qu me estaba metiendo. +Pero estaba en la aventura. +Djeme que les cuente de esta zona protegida de las Islas Fnix. +Son aguas muy profundas de nuestro planeta. +La profundidad promedio es de unos 3.600 mts. +Hay muchas montaas marinas en las Islas Fnix, que son especficamente parte del rea protegida. +Las montaas submarinas son importantes para la biodiversidad. +En realidad hay ms montaas en el ocano de las que hay en tierra. +Es algo interesante. +Y las Islas Fnix son muy ricas en montaas marinas. +Es un espacio profundo... pinsenlo como un gran espacio tridimensional un espacio tridimensional muy profundo con cardmenes de atn, ballenas, todo tipo de vida marina de alta mar, como hemos visto aqu antes. +Ese es el barco que llevamos hasta all para estos estudios, desde el principio, y as es como se ven las islas; pueden verlo en el fondo. +Estn muy a nivel del mar, todas estn deshabitadas, excepto una que tiene unos 35 cuidadores. +Y han estado deshabitadas gran parte del tiempo porque incluso antao estas islas estaban demasiado lejos de las brillantes luces de Fiji, Hawaii y Tahit para los antiguos navegantes polinesios que atravesaban el Pacfico tan ampliamente. +Pero llegamos hasta all, y tuve la oportunidad cientfica nica y maravillosa, la oportunidad personal, de llegar a un lugar donde nadie haba buceado, de llegar a una isla y decir: "Bien, dnde vamos a bucear? +Intentemos all", y luego arrojarme al agua. +Cambi tanto mi vida personal y como la profesional. +De repente vi un mundo nunca antes visto en el ocano... bancos de peces que, de tan densos, entorpecan el pasaje de luz de la superficie; arrecifes de coral interminables, slidos y coloridos, peces grandes en todas partes, manta rayas. +Era un ecosistema... un pez loro desovando. Son 5.000 peces loro de nariz larga desovando a la entrada de una de las Islas Fnix. +Pueden ver a los peces amontonados y una zona medio nublada por ah en la que intercambian huevos y esperma para la reproduccin. Eventos que se supone ocurren en el ocano pero ahora no tanto en algunos lugares a causa de la actividad humana. +Las Islas Fnix y las zonas ecuatoriales del planeta son muy importantes para la pesca del atn; especialmente este rabil que ven aqu. +Las Islas Fnix son un lugar de tnidos. +Y haba tiburones en nuestras primeras inmersiones, hasta 150 tiburones a la vez, lo que indica un sistema muy, muy saludable, muy fuerte. +As que pens que las escenas silvestres interminables continuaran eternamente pero eventualmente llegaron a su fin. +Y tambin exploramos la superficie de las islas... un sitio importante de anidacin; uno de los lugares ms importantes de anidacin de aves en el Pacfico, en el mundo. +Y terminamos nuestro viaje. +Esa es la zona, de nuevo. +Pueden ver las islas, hay 8 islas, que sobresalen del agua. +Los picos que no salen del agua son las montaas marinas. +Recuerden, una montaa marina se convierte en isla cuando toca la superficie. +Cul es el contexto de las Islas Fnix? +En dnde estn? +Bueno, estn en la Repblica de Kiribati, y Kiribati est ubicada en el Pacfico Central en tres grupos de islas. +Al oeste tenemos las Islas Gilbert. +En el centro estn las Islas Fnix, que es el tema del que estoy hablando. +Y ms al este estn las Islas de la Lnea. +Es la nacin atoln ms grande del mundo. +Y tienen unos 110.000 habitantes distribuidos en 33 islas. +Controlan 13,8 millones de kms cbicos de ocano, y eso es entre 1% y 2% de toda el agua ocenica del planeta. +Y hace 10 aos, cuando fui el primero en ir all, apenas conoca el nombre de este pas; la gente me preguntaba: "Por qu vas a este lugar llamado Kiribati?" +Y eso me recordaba el viejo chiste del ladrn de bancos que sale de la corte esposado y el reportero le grita: "Oye, Willy! Por qu robas bancos?" +Y l le dice: "Porque ah es donde est todo el dinero". +Y yo les deca: "Por qu voy a Kiribati?" +Porque all est todo el ocano". +Son una nacin que controla casi todas las aguas ecuatoriales del ocano Pacfico Central. +Tambin son un pas que est en grave peligro. +El nivel del mar va en aumento y Kiribati, junto con otras 42 naciones del mundo, estar bajo el agua dentro de 50 100 aos por el cambio climtico, el aumento del nivel del mar asociado a la expansin trmica, y el derretimiento de agua dulce en el ocano. +Las islas se elevan slo 1 2 metros sobre la superficie. +Algunas islas ya han desaparecido bajo el agua. +Y estas naciones enfrentan un problema real. +Nosotros, como planeta, enfrentamos un problema. +Qu hacemos con los compaeros desplazados... ...que ya no tienen hogar en el planeta? +El presidente de las Maldivas hizo un simulacro de reunin de gabinete bajo el agua para poner de relieve la situacin desesperada de estos pases. +Por eso es algo que tenemos que atender. +Pero volvamos a las Islas Fnix, que son el tema de esta charla. +Cuando regres dije: "bien, es increble lo que encontramos". +Me gustara regresar y compartirlo con el gobierno de Kiribati que est en Tarawa en el grupo ms occidental. +Empec a contactarlos, porque en realidad me haban dado un permiso para hacerlo, y dije: "Quiero ir a contarles lo que encontramos". +Y por alguna razn no queran que fuese o era difcil encontrar un momento y un lugar, y se demor un tiempo, y finalmente dijeron: "Bueno, puede venir. +Pero si viene, tiene que comprar almuerzo para todos los que vengan al seminario". +Dije: "Bueno, estoy feliz de comprar el almuerzo. +De conseguir lo que todos quieren". +As que con David Obura, un bilogo de arrecifes, fuimos a Tarawa y disertamos durante dos horas sobre los hallazgos sorprendentes de las Islas Fnix. +El pas no lo saba. No tenan datos de esta zona. +No tenan informacin sobre las Islas Fnix. +Despus de la charla el ministro de pesca se acerc a m y dijo: "Greg, te diste cuenta... ...que eres el primer cientfico... ...que ha vuelto... ...a contarnos lo que hizo?" +Dijo: "A menudo damos estos permisos de investigacin en nuestras aguas pero, por lo general, nos dan una nota 2 3 aos despus o una reimpresin. +Pero t eres el primero que ha regresado a contarnos lo que hizo. +Y de verdad lo apreciamos. Hoy te vamos a pagar el almuerzo. +Y, ests libre para la cena?" +Y yo estaba libre para la cena y sal a cenar con el ministro de pesca de Kiribati. +Y en el transcurso de la cena me enter que la principal fuente de ingresos de Kiribati, que es un pas muy pobre, pero obtiene ingresos vendiendo el acceso a pases extranjeros para que pesquen en sus aguas porque Kiribati no tiene la capacidad de pescar por su cuenta. +Y el trato que cierran dice que el pas que pesca le da a Kiribati el 5% del valor de la pesca. +As, si Estados Unidos extrae langostas de un arrecife por valor de un milln de dlares, Kiribati recibe $50.000. +Eso no me parece que sea un buen trato. +Le pregunt al ministro durante la cena "Considerara una situacin... ...en la que se siga pagando, hacemos la cuenta y determinamos el valor del recurso, pero dejando a los peces, tiburones, y camarones en el agua?" +Me detuvo y dijo: "S, nos gustara hacer eso enfrentar nuestro problema de sobrepesca, y creo que lo llamaramos "licencia inversa de pesca". +l acu el trmino "licencia inversa de pesca". +Y le dije: "S, una licencia inversa de pesca". As que volvimos de esa cena sin saber realmente a dnde ir en ese momento. +Yo volv a Estados Unidos y empec a mirar alrededor para ver si poda encontrar ejemplos donde se hubieran emitido licencias inversas de pesca. Y result que no haba. +No haba tratados ocenicos que compensaran a los pases por no pescar. +Haba ocurrido en tierra, en las selvas de Amrica del Sur y frica, donde se le pag a los dueos de tierras para que no talen rboles. +Y Conservacin Internacional haba cerrado algunos de estos tratos. +As que fui a Conservacin Internacional y los present como socios y encaramos el proceso de tasacin de los recursos ictcolas para decidir la compensacin para Kiribati, el rango de los peces, present muchos otros socios: el gobierno de Australia, el gobierno de Nueva Zelanda, el Banco Mundial. +La Fundacin Oak y National Geographic han sido grandes financiadores de esto tambin. +Y financiamos el parque bsicamente con la idea de donacin equivalente a lo que se pierde en concepto de regalas de pesca para que este pequeo pas mantenga la zona intacta. +A mitad de proceso conoc al Presidente de Kiribati, el Presidente Anote Tong, +es un lder realmente importante, un hombre muy visionario, con visin de futuro, y me dijo dos cosas cuando me acerqu a l. +Dijo: "Greg, hay dos cosas que me gustara hacer. +Una es, recuerda que soy poltico, tienes que ir y trabajar con mis ministros y convencer al pueblo de Kiribati de que esta es una buena idea. +La segunda, me gustara que crees principios que trasciendan mi propia presidencia. +No quiero hacer algo como esto si va a desaparecer cuando me vaya del poder". +Hubo un liderazgo muy fuerte, una muy buena visin, y mucha ciencia, muchos abogados involucrados. +Se dieron muchos pasos para sacar esto adelante. +Y fue sobre todo porque Kiribati se dio cuenta de que esto era de su propio inters. +Se dieron cuenta de que era una causa comn la que haban encontrado con la comunidad de la conservacin. +Luego, en 2002, cuando todo iba viento en popa ocurri un blanqueamiento de corales en las Islas Fnix. +Este es el recurso que estamos tratando de salvar y se produce el acontecimiento ms caliente de la historia. +El ocano se calent como lo hace a veces, y el epicentro se form y qued justo sobre las Islas Fnix durante 6 meses. +Estuvo a ms de 32C durante 6 meses. Bsicamente mat al 60% del coral. +As que, de repente, tenamos esta zona que protegamos pero ahora pareca muerta, al menos la zona de corales. +Por supuesto, las zonas de alta mar y las de mar abierto estaban bien, pero el coral, que todos quieren mirar, estaba en problemas. +Bueno, la buena noticia es que se recuper y muy rpido, ms rpido que cualquier otro coral. +Esta foto fue sacada por Brian Skerry hace pocos meses cuando regresamos a las Islas Fnix y descubrimos que, dado que es una zona protegida y que tiene poblaciones saludables de peces que mantienen a las algas al ras y al resto del arrecife con salud, el coral est en auge, est en auge de nuevo. +Es casi como una persona: con muchas enfermedades, es difcil sanarse, uno puede morir; pero si tiene una enfermedad sola que sortear, uno puede mejorar. +Y lo mismo con el calentamiento del clima. +Es la nica amenaza, la nica enfermedad que tena que enfrentar el arrecife. +No hubo pesca, ni contaminacin, ni desarrollo inmobiliario costero, y el arrecife est en franca recuperacin. +Ahora recuerdo esa cena que tuvimos con el ministro de pesca hace 10 aos cuando surgi esto y qued bastante entusiasmado durante la cena y dije: "Bueno, creo que la comunidad de la conservacin puede adoptar la idea, ministro". +Hizo una pausa, junt las manos y dijo: "S, Greg, pero el diablo estar en los detalles". +Y vaya si lo estuvo. +Los ltimos 10 aos han sido detalle tras detalle, pasando desde crear legislacin, a varias expediciones de investigacin, a planes de comunicacin, como dije, equipos de abogados, memorandos, creacin del Fideicomiso Islas Fnix. +Y ahora estamos en vas de recaudar donaciones. +Kiribati ha congelado las actividades de extraccin en su estado actual, mientras recaudamos la donacin. +Acabamos de tener nuestra primera junta fiduciaria PIPAC hace 3 semanas. +Es una entidad totalmente operativa y en marcha que negocia las licencias invertidas de pesca con el pas. +La junta fiduciaria PIPAC mantiene esa licencia y le paga al pas por esto. +Es algo muy slido, muy bien pensado, un sistema bien conectado a tierra. Y fue un sistema de abajo hacia arriba y eso fue muy importante en este trabajo, de abajo hacia arriba para asegurar esto. +Aqu estn las condiciones para el xito. +Pueden leerlas por su cuenta. +Pero yo dira que la ms importante para m fue trabajar dentro de las fuerzas del mercado de la situacin. +Y eso asegur que pudiramos sacar esto adelante y tanto el propio inters de Kiribati como el de la comunidad internacional. +Y los dejo con una diapositiva final que es: cmo lo expandimos? +Cmo cumplir el sueo de Sylvia? +Hacia dnde llevamos esto? +Este es el Pacfico con grandes reas protegidas y grandes zonas de conservacin. +Y como pueden ver tenemos un mosaico a travs de este ocano. +Acabo de describir una historia de esa zona rectangular del medio, las Islas Fnix, pero cada parche verde de esos tiene su propia historia. +Lo que tenemos que hacer ahora es mirar al Ocano Pacfico en su totalidad y hacer una red de reas protegidas a travs del Pacfico para que nuestro ocano ms grande est protegido y sea autosuficiente en el tiempo. +Muchas gracias. +Tengo un doble. +El Dr. Gero es un cientfico brillante pero un poco loco de la "Saga Androids" de Dragon Ball Z. +Si miran con cuidado, se ve que su crneo ha sido sustituido por una cpula transparente de plexigls as que el funcionamiento de su cerebro se puede observar y controlar con luz. +Eso es exactamente lo que hago... control ptico de la mente. +Pero a diferencia de mi gemelo malvado, que quiere dominar el mundo, mis motivos no son siniestros. +Yo controlo el cerebro para entender cmo funciona. +Y Uds dirn: espere un minuto, cmo puede controlar el cerebro... ...sin entenderlo primero? +No es poner el carro delante del caballo? +Muchos neurocientficos piensan lo mismo, que la comprensin vendr de una observacin y un anlisis ms detallados. +Dicen: "Si pudiramos registrar la actividad neuronal... ...entenderamos al cerebro". +Pero piensen un momento lo que eso significa. +An si pudiramos medir lo hace cada clula en todo momento, todava tendra que darle sentido a los patrones de actividad registrados y eso es muy difcil; lo ms probable es que entendamos tan poco estos patrones como al cerebro que los produce. +Miren cmo se vera la actividad cerebral. +En esta simulacin, cada punto negro es una clula nerviosa. +El punto es visible cada vez que una clula dispara un impulso elctrico. +Hay 10.000 neuronas aqu. +Estamos mirando cerca de un 1% del cerebro de una cucaracha. +Nuestros cerebros son unos 100 millones de veces ms complicados. +En algn punto es un patrn como este, eres t, tus percepciones, tus emociones, tus recuerdos, tus planes para el futuro. +Pero no sabemos dnde, dado que no conocemos cmo leer el patrn. +No entendemos el cdigo que usa el cerebro. +Para avanzar tenemos que descifrar el cdigo. +Pero, cmo? +Un desencriptador con experiencia les dir que para descubrir qu significan los smbolos de un cdigo es esencial poder jugar con ellos, reacomodarlos a voluntad. +As que en esta situacin tambin, para decodificar la informacin contenida en los patrones de este tipo, con slo mirar no basta; +tenemos que reacomodar el patrn. +En otras palabras, en vez de grabar la actividad neuronal tenemos que controlarla. +No es esencial que podamos controlar la actividad de todas las neuronas del cerebro, slo algunas. +Cuanto ms orientadas nuestras intervenciones, mejor. +En un momento les voy a mostrar cmo alcanzar la precisin necesaria. +Y como soy realista, ms que ambicioso, no afirmo que la capacidad de controlar la funcin del sistema nervioso desentrae de una vez todos sus misterios. +Pero sin duda vamos a aprender mucho. +Ahora, de ninguna manera soy la primera persona en darse cuenta qu herramienta poderosa es la intervencin. +La historia de los intentos de jugar con la funcin del sistema nervioso es larga e ilustre. +Su origen se remonta al menos 200 aos, a los famosos experimentos de Galvani de fines del siglo XVIII y ms all. +Galvani demostr que las patas de una rana se movan cuando l conectaba el nervio lumbar a una fuente de corriente elctrica. +Este experimento revel la primera, y tal vez fundamental, pista del cdigo neuronal: que la informacin est escrita en forma de impulsos elctricos. +El enfoque de Galvani, de sondear el sistema nervioso con electrodos, sigue siendo la norma hoy en da, a pesar de una serie de inconvenientes. +Poner cables en el cerebro obviamente es ms bien tosco. +Es difcil de hacer en animales en movimiento y hay un lmite fsico de la cantidad de cables que se pueden insertar de forma simultnea. +As que a fines del siglo pasado, empec a pensar que sera maravilloso tomar esta lgica y poder revertirla. +As, en vez de insertar un cable en un solo lugar del cerebro, mejor redisear el propio cerebro para que algunos de sus elementos neurales sean sensibles a seales de transmisin difusa, como un destello de luz. +Un enfoque tal superara, en un destello de luz, muchos de los obstculos para el descubrimiento. +En primer lugar, es claramente una forma de comunicacin inalmbrica, no invasiva. +En segundo lugar, como en un programa de radio, uno puede comunicarse con muchos receptores a la vez. +No es necesario saber dnde estn estos receptores. Y no importa si estos receptores se mueven; basta pensar en el estreo del coche. +Se pone an mejor, pues resulta que podemos fabricar los receptores a partir de materiales codificados en el ADN. +As, cada clula nerviosa con la estructura gentica correcta producir de forma espontnea un receptor que nos permitir controlar su funcin. +Espero que aprecien la hermosa sencillez de este concepto. +Aqu no hay artilugios de alta tecnologa, slo biologa revelada con biologa. +Ahora miremos de cerca a estos receptores milagrosos. +A medida que nos acercamos a estas neuronas prpura vemos que su membrana exterior est salpicada de poros microscpicos. +Poros como estos conducen la corriente elctrica y son responsables de toda la comunicacin en el sistema nervioso. +Pero estos poros de aqu son especiales. +Estn acoplados a receptores de luz similares a los de los ojos. +Cada vez que un rayo de luz incide en el receptor, se abre el poro, se enciende la corriente elctrica, y la neurona dispara impulsos elctricos. +Debido a que el poro est codificado en el ADN, podemos lograr una precisin increble. +Esto se debe a que, aunque cada clula de nuestro cuerpo contiene el mismo conjunto de genes, se activan y desactivan distintas combinaciones de genes en clulas diferentes. +Esto se puede aprovechar para asegurarse de que slo algunas neuronas contengan poros fotosensibles y otras no. +En esta lmina la clula blanco-azulada de la esquina superior izquierda no responde a la luz porque carece de poros fotosensibles. +El mtodo funciona tan bien que se puede escribir mensajes puramente artificiales directamente en el cerebro. +En este ejemplo cada impuso elctrico, cada desviacin de la traza, es causado por un breve pulso de luz. +Y el enfoque tambin funciona en animales en movimiento. +Este es el primer experimento en su tipo, una especie de equivalente ptico del de Galvani. +Fue hecho hace 6 7 aos por mi, en ese entonces, estudiante de posgrado Susana Lima. +Susana dise la mosca de la fruta de la izquierda para que slo 2 de las 200.000 clulas del cerebro expresaran el poro fotosensible. +Uds conocen bien estas clulas porque son las que los frustran cuando intentan aplastar la mosca. +Entrenan el reflejo de escape que las hace saltar por el aire y volar cada vez que uno mueve la mano de su direccin. +Y aqu pueden ver que el destello de luz tiene exactamente el mismo efecto. +El animal salta, despliega sus alas, las hace vibrar, pero no puede despegar porque la mosca est atrapada entre dos placas de vidrio. +Para asegurarnos de que no se trataba de la reaccin de la mosca a un destello que poda ver Susana realiz un experimento simple pero brutalmente eficaz. +Decapit a sus moscas. +Estos cuerpos decapitados pueden vivir un da, pero no hacen mucho. +Slo se pasean y se pavonean en exceso. +Parece que el nico rasgo que sobrevive a la decapitacin es la vanidad. +De todos modos, como veremos en un momento, Susana pudo encender el motor de vuelo del equivalente de la columna vertebral de estas moscas y hacer que algunos cuerpos decapitados realmente despegaran y volaran. +No llegaron muy lejos, obviamente. +Desde que dimos estos primeros pasos el campo de la opto gentica se ha disparado. +Ahora hay cientos de laboratorios que usan estos enfoques. +Y hemos recorrido un largo camino desde los primeros xitos de Galvani y Susana en hacer mover a los animales. +Ahora podemos interferir con su psicologa de maneras ms profundas como les mostrar en mi ltimo ejemplo, que apunta a una cuestin familiar. +La vida es una serie de opciones que crean una presin constante para decidir qu hacer a continuacin. +Hacemos frente a esa presin con el cerebro y dentro del cerebro, con los centros de toma de decisiones que aqu he llamado el Actor. +El Actor implementa una poltica que tiene en cuenta el estado del entorno y el contexto en el que operamos. +Nuestras acciones cambian al medio ambiente o contexto, y estos cambios retroalimentan luego el circuito de decisin. +Para poner un poco de carne neurobiolgica en este modelo abstracto, construimos un mundo simple unidimensional para nuestro sujeto favorito, la mosca de la fruta. +Cada cmara en estas dos pilas verticales contiene una mosca. +La mitad izquierda y la derecha de la cmara se llenan con dos olores diferentes, y una cmara de seguridad mira cmo las moscas se pasean entre ellas. +Aqu hay algunas tomas del CCTV. +Cada vez que una mosca llega al medio de la cmara donde se juntan los dos olores tiene que tomar una decisin. +Tiene que decidir si dar la vuelta y quedarse en el mismo olor, o si cruzar la lnea del medio y probar algo nuevo. +Estas decisiones son claramente un reflejo de la poltica del Actor. +Para un ser inteligente como nuestra mosca, esta poltica no es algo rgido, sino que cambia a medida que el animal aprende de la experiencia. +Podemos incorporar un elemento tal de inteligencia de adaptacin al modelo suponiendo que el cerebro de la mosca contiene no slo un Actor, sino un grupo diferente de clulas, una Crtica, que ofrece comentarios continuos sobre la eleccin del Actor. +Puede pensarse esta voz interior incesante como un equivalente cerebral de la Iglesia Catlica para un austraco como yo, o del superego para los freudianos, o de la madre para los judos. +Ahora, obviamente, la Crtica es un ingrediente clave de lo que nos hace inteligentes. +As, nos propusimos identificar las clulas del cerebro de la mosca que desempeaban el papel de la Crtica. +Y la lgica de nuestro experimento era sencilla. +Si podamos usar nuestro control remoto ptico para activar las clulas de la Crtica, podramos, artificialmente, fastidiar al Actor para que cambie su poltica. +En otras palabras, la mosca debera aprender de los errores que pensara que haba cometido, pero que en realidad no cometi. +As que criamos moscas cuyos cerebros fueron salpicados ms o menos al azar con clulas direccionables por la luz. +Y luego tomamos estas moscas y les permitimos tomar decisiones. +Y cada vez que elegan una de las dos opciones, elegan un olor, en este caso el azul sobre el naranja, encendamos las luces. +Si la Crtica estaba entre las clulas pticamente activas, el resultado de esta intervencin deba ser un cambio de poltica. +La mosca deba aprender a evitar el olor pticamente reforzado. +Esto es lo que sucedi en dos casos. Estamos comparando dos cepas de moscas, cada una con unas 100 clulas direccionables en sus cerebros, mostradas aqu en verde a izquierda y derecha. +Lo comn entre estos grupos de clulas es que todas producen el neurotransmisor dopamina. +Pero la identidad de las neuronas individuales productoras de dopamina son muy diferentes a la izquierda y a la derecha. +La activacin ptica de estas cientos de clulas en dos cepas de moscas, tienen consecuencias radicalmente diferentes. +Si miran primero el comportamiento de la mosca de la derecha se puede ver que cada vez que llega al medio de la cmara donde se encuentran los dos olores, sigue derecho como lo haca antes. +Su comportamiento no cambia. +Pero el comportamiento de la mosca de la izquierda es muy diferente. +Cada vez que llega al medio, se detiene analiza con cuidado la interfaz de olor, como si estuviera olfateando su entorno, y luego da la vuelta. +Esto significa que la poltica que implementa el Actor ahora incluye una instruccin para evitar el olor que est en la mitad derecha de la cmara. +Esto significa que la Crtica debe haber hablado a ese animal, y que la Crtica debe estar contenida entre las neuronas productoras de dopamina de la izquierda, pero no en las productoras de dopamina de la derecha. +A travs de muchos experimentos, pudimos reducir la identidad de la Crtica a slo 12 clulas. +Estas 12 clulas, como mostramos en verde, envan el resultado a una estructura cerebral llamada cuerpo de hongo que est aqu en gris. +Sabemos por nuestro modelo formal que la estructura del cerebro en el extremo receptor de los comentarios de la Crtica es el Actor. +Esta anatoma sugiere que los cuerpos de hongos tienen algo que ver con la eleccin de la accin. +En base a todo lo que sabemos sobre los cuerpos de hongos, esto tiene mucho sentido. +De hecho, tiene tanto sentido que podemos construir un circuito electrnico de juguete que simule el comportamiento de la mosca. +En este circuito electrnico de juguete las neuronas del cuerpo de hongo son simbolizadas por la hilera vertical de LED azul del centro del tablero. +Estos LEDs estn conectados a sensores que detectan la presencia de molculas de olor en el aire. +Cada olor activa una combinacin diferente de sensores, que a su vez activa un detector de olores diferente en el cuerpo de hongo. +As que el piloto en la cabina de la mosca, el Actor, puede decir qu olor est presente simplemente mirando qu luz del LED azul est encendida. +Lo que hace el actor con esta informacin depende de su poltica que se almacena en los puntos fuertes de la conexin, entre los detectores de olores y los motores que alimentan las acciones evasivas de la mosca. +Si la conexin es dbil, los motores se quedarn apagados y la mosca seguir derecho en su curso. +Si la conexin es fuerte, los motores se encendern y la mosca iniciar un giro. +Consideren ahora una situacin con los motores apagados, la mosca sigue su camino y sufre una consecuencia dolorosa cercana a la muerte. +En una situacin como esa esperaramos que la Crtica se expida y le diga al Actor que cambie de poltica. +Hemos creado tal situacin de manera artificial activando la Crtica con un destello de luz. +Eso provoc un refuerzo de las conexiones entre el detector de olores activo actual y los motores. +As, la prxima vez que la mosca se encuentra ante el mismo olor de nuevo, la conexin es lo suficientemente fuerte como para encender los motores y disparar una maniobra evasiva. +No se ustedes pero a m me resulta emocionante ver cmo nociones psicolgicas vagas se evaporan y dan lugar a una comprensin fsica, mecnica, de la mente incluso si es la mente de una mosca. +Esta es una buena noticia. +La otra buena noticia, al menos para un cientfico, es que an queda mucho por descubrir. +En los experimentos que les cont hemos revelado la identidad de la Crtica, pero todava no tenemos idea de cmo hace su trabajo la Crtica. +Si lo pensamos, saber cundo uno se equivoca sin un maestro, o una madre que nos lo diga, es un problema muy difcil. +Hay algunas ideas en ciencias de la computacin y en la inteligencia artificial de cmo podra hacerse pero todava no hemos resuelto un ejemplo simple de cmo el comportamiento inteligente surge de las interacciones fsicas en la materia viva. +Creo que lo haremos en un futuro no muy lejano. +Gracias. +Bueno, hay mucho de qu hablar pero creo que voy a comenzar cantando. +Hoy quera hacer algo especial. +Quiero estrenar una cancin en la que he estado trabajando en los ltimos 5 6 meses. +Y hay pocas cosas ms emocionantes que tocar una cancin por primera vez frente a una audiencia, especialmente si est a medio terminar. +Espero que las conversaciones aqu en TED me ayuden a terminarla. +Porque incursiona en todo tipo de locuras. +Esta es bsicamente una cancin sobre los ciclos, pero no el tipo de ciclos que invento aqu. +Son bucles de retroalimentacin o acoples. +Y, en el mundo del audio, es cuando el micrfono se acerca demasiado a su fuente de sonido, y entra en este bucle autodestructivo que crea un sonido muy desagradable. +Se los voy a demostrar. +Nos les voy a hacer dao. No se preocupen. +Y he estado pensando cmo aplicar eso en un espectro ms amplio, por ejemplo, en ecologa. +Parece haber una regla en la Naturaleza que si uno se acerca demasiado a la fuente de procedencia lo arruina. +Ejemplos: No se puede alimentar a las vacas con su propio cerebro, porque tendramos la enfermedad de la vaca loca, Otors como endogamia e incesto y, veamos, qu ms? +Biolgicas... hay enfermedades autoinmunes, el cuerpo se ataca a s mismo con demasiado celo y destruye al anfitrin, a la persona. +Y entonces, bueno, aqu es donde llegamos a la cancin que de alguna manera enlaza con lo emocional. +Porque aunque he usado trminos cientficos en las canciones es muy difcil a veces hacerlas poticas. +Hay algunas cosas que no es necesario tener en las canciones. +Estoy tratando de hacer la conexin entre esta idea y la meloda. +Y no s si esto les ha pasado alguna vez pero a veces cuando cierro los ojos y trato de dormir no puedo dejar de pensar en mis propios ojos. +Y es como si los ojos se esforzaran para verse a s mismos. +Eso es lo que yo siento. +No es agradable. +Lo siento si les transmit esa idea. +Es imposible, claro, que sus ojos puedan verse a s mismos, pero parece que lo intentan. +Se est acercando a una experiencia personal. +O que los odos se oigan a s mismos... simplemente es imposible; +esa es la cosa. +He estado trabajando en esta cancin que habla de estas cosas y luego tambin imagino a una persona a la que le fue tan bien defendindose de un desengao amoroso que est por auto engaarse, si eso es posible. +Y eso es lo que pide la cancin. +Muy bien. +Todava no tiene nombre. +Muy bien. +Es casi increble. Los compositores como que podemos salir ilesos de un crimen. +Uno puede lanzar teoras locas y no se necesita respaldarlas con datos ni grficos, ni investigacin. +Pero, saben, creo que hoy el mundo necesita una curiosidad sin lmites, slo un poquito. +Voy a terminar con una cancin ma llamada "Sistemas Meteorolgicos". +Esta es una historia de un lugar que ahora considero mi hogar. +Es una historia de la educacin pblica y las comunidades rurales y de lo que el diseo puede hacer para mejorar ambas. +Este es el condado de Bertie, en Carolina del Norte, EE.UU. +Para darles una idea del lugar, esta es Carolina del Norte, y si nos acercamos, el condado de Bertie est al este del estado. +Est a unas 2 horas al este de Raleigh. +Y es muy plano, muy pantanoso. +En su mayora son tierras cultivadas. +En todo el condado hay slo 20.000 personas distribuidas de manera muy dispersa. +As que hay slo 27 personas por milla cuadrada, lo que equivale a unas 10 personas por kilmetro cuadrado. +El condado de Bertie es un buen ejemplo de la desaparicin de los EE.UU. rurales. +Hemos visto esta historia en todo el pas e incluso ms all de las fronteras de EE.UU. +Conocemos los sntomas. +Es el vaciamiento de los pueblos pequeos. +Los centros convertidos en pueblos fantasmas... +la fuga de cerebros, los ms instruidos y calificados se van para nunca ms volver. +Es la dependencia de los subsidios agrcolas, son las escuelas de bajo rendimiento y hay mayores tasas de pobreza en las zonas rurales que en las urbanas. +El condado de Bertie no es la excepcin. +Quiz su flagelo ms grande, al igual que el de muchas comunidades similares, es que no hay inversin colectiva, compartida, en el futuro de las comunidades rurales. +Hoy en da, slo el 6,8% de las donaciones filantrpicas de EE.UU. beneficia a las comunidades rurales, y, sin embargo, all vive el 20% de la poblacin. +As que el condado de Bertie no slo es muy rural, sino increblemente pobre. +Es el condado ms pobre del estado. +Uno de cada tres de sus hijos vive en la pobreza. Y es lo que se conoce como un gueto rural. +La economa es principalmente agrcola. +Los mayores cultivos son el algodn y el tabaco, y estamos muy orgullosos de nuestro man en Bertie. +El mayor empleador es la planta Purdue de procesamiento de pollo. +La sede del condado es Windsor. +Lo que ven ahora es como el Times Square de Windsor. +Alberga slo 2.000 personas, y como muchos otros pueblitos se ha ido quedando vaco con los aos. +Hay ms edificios que estn vacos o en mal estado que ocupados y en uso. +Los restaurantes del condado se pueden contar con los dedos de una mano... Barbacoa Bunn es mi favorito. +Pero en todo el condado no hay cafetera, no hay cibercaf, no hay cine, no hay librera. +No hay ni siquiera un Walmart. +Racialmente, el condado tiene 60% de afro-estadounidenses, pero lo que sucede en las escuelas pblicas es que la mayora de los nios blancos privilegiados van a la academia privada Lawrence. +Los estudiantes de la escuela pblica son en un 86% de afro-estadounidenses. +Y esto es un suplemento del peridico local de la clase que se gradu recientemente, y se puede ver que la diferencia es bastante cruda. +Decir que el sistema de educacin pblica del condado est en la lucha, sera una gran subestimacin. +Bsicamente no hay maestros calificados. Y slo el 8% de las personas del condado tienen un titulo de grado o superior. +As que no hay un gran legado educativo. +De hecho, hace dos aos, slo el 27% de los alumnos de 3 a 8 grado aprobaban el examen estatal en ingls y matemticas. +Suena como si estuviera pintando un cuadro muy sombro de este lugar, pero les prometo que hay buenas noticias. +El activo ms grande, en mi opinin, uno de los mayores activos del condado en este momento es este hombre. Es el Dr. Chip Zullinger, cariosamente, Dr. Z. +En octubre de 2007 lo designaron como nuevo superintendente para arreglar este sistema escolar estropeado. +Antes haba sido superintendente en Charleston, Carolina del Sur, y despus en Denver, Colorado. +Inaugur algunas de las primeras escuelas autnomas del pas a fines de los aos 80 en EE.UU. +Y es un renegado y visionario absoluto, y esa es la razn por la que ahora vivo y trabajo all. +As, en febrero de 2009, el Dr. Zullinger nos invit, al Proyecto H Design, una empresa de diseo sin fines de lucro que fund, a venir a Bertie y asociarnos con l en la reparacin de este distrito escolar y aportar una perspectiva de diseo a la reparacin del distrito escolar. +Y nos invit, en particular, porque nosotros tenemos un proceso de diseo muy especfico que da lugar a soluciones de diseo adecuadas en lugares que normalmente no tienen acceso al diseo de servicios o al capital creativo. +Especficamente, usamos estas 6 directivas de diseo y quiz la nmero 2 sea la ms importante: diseamos "con", no "para" porque, cuando hacemos diseo centrado en lo humano ya no se trata de disear para clientes; +se trata de disear "con" las personas, permitiendo que emerjan soluciones desde el interior. +En el momento que nos invitaron a ir all tenamos sede en San Francisco. As que fuimos de un lado a otro durante el resto de 2009, pasando la mitad del tiempo en el condado de Bertie. +I Cuando hablo en plural, me refiero al Proyecto H, pero ms especficamente a mi pareja, Matthew Miller, y a m. Matthew es arquitecto y una especie de MacGyver. +Avanzamos rpidamente y hoy vivimos all. +En esta foto cort estratgicamente la cabeza de Matt porque me matara si supiera que la estoy usando, debido a su sudadera. +Este es nuestro porche. All vivimos. +Ahora este es nuestro hogar. +Durante este ao que pasamos volando de un lado al otro nos dimos cuenta que nos enamoramos del lugar. +Nos enamoramos del lugar y de las personas y del trabajo que podemos hacer en un lugar rural como Bertie; que, como diseadores y constructores, podemos hacer lo que sea. +Hay espacio para experimentar, para soldar y probar cosas. +Tenemos un defensor impresionante en el Dr. Zullinger. +Hay una nobleza en el trabajo real, prctico, en ensuciarse las manos. +Pero ms all de las razones personales de querer estar all hay una gran necesidad. +Hay un vaco total de capital creativo en Bertie. +No hay un solo arquitecto con licencia en todo el condado. +Por eso vemos una oportunidad en llevar el diseo como herramienta intacta, algo que de otro modo Bertie no tendra y ser como esa herramienta... esa herramienta nueva en su caja de trabajo. +El objetivo inicial era usar el diseo en el sistema educativo pblico en colaboracin con el Dr. Zullinger; por eso estbamos all. +Pero ms all de eso nos dimos cuenta que Bertie como comunidad necesitaba imperiosamente una perspectiva fresca de orgullo, de conexin, y de capital creativo, que haca mucha falta. +As que el objetivo pas a ser el diseo en la educacin, pero luego descubrir cmo hacer de la educacin un gran vehculo para el desarrollo comunitario. +As que para hacer esto empleamos tres enfoques diferentes en la interseccin del diseo y la educacin. +Y debo decir que son tres cosas que hemos hecho en Bertie, pero estoy bastante segura de que podra funcionar en muchas otras comunidades rurales de EE.UU. y tal vez incluso ms all. +El primer enfoque es disear para la educacin. +Esta es la interseccin ms directa, obvia, de las dos cosas. +Es la construccin fsica de mejores espacios, materiales y experiencias para maestros y alumnos. +Esto en respuesta a los remolques mviles horribles, a los libros obsoletos y los materiales terribles con los que construimos las escuelas hoy en da. +Esto jug en nosotros de maneras diferentes. +Primero fue una serie de renovaciones en los laboratorios de computacin. +Tradicionalmente los laboratorios, en particular en una escuela de bajo rendimiento como en Bertie, donde tienen una prueba semana por medio, el laboratorio es una instalacin para "adiestrar y matar". +Uno entra, mirando a la pared, toma el examen y se va. +Queramos cambiar la forma en que los alumnos se acercan a la tecnologa para crear un espacio ms social y agradable que sea ms motivador, ms accesible. Y tambin para aumentar la capacidad de los maestros de usar estos espacios de enseanza basada en la tecnologa. +Este es el laboratorio de la secundaria. Y el rector est enamorado de esta sala. +Siempre que tiene visitas es el primer lugar al que los lleva. +Y esto tambin signific la co-creacin con algunos maestros de este sistema de juegos educativos llamado paisaje educativo. +Le permite a los alumnos de primaria aprender materias bsicas a travs de juegos y actividades, y correr, y gritar y del ser nios. +Este juego que los nios estn jugando aqu... en este caso estn aprendiendo multiplicacin bsica mediante un juego llamado Match Me. +En Match Me, uno tiene una clase, la divide en dos equipos, un equipo de cada lado del patio, la maestra tiene una tiza y escribe un nmero en cada neumtico. +Luego dice en voz alta un problema de matemtica, digamos 4 por 4, y un alumno de cada equipo tiene que competir para calcular que 4 por 4 es 16, encontrar el neumtico que dice 16 y sentarse en l. +El objetivo es que todos los compaeros se sienten en los neumticos y entonces gana el equipo de uno. +El impacto del paisaje educativo ha sido bastante sorprendente y asombroso. +En el diseo "para" la educacin creo que lo ms importante es tener una propiedad compartida de las soluciones con los maestros, para que tengan el incentivo y el deseo de usarlas. +Este es el Sr. Perry, el asistente del superintendente. +Apareci un da al entrenamiento de maestros y gan como cinco vueltas de Match Me consecutivas y estaba orgulloso de eso. +El segundo enfoque es el rediseo de la educacin misma. +Este es el ms complejo. +Es un vistazo a nivel sistemas de cmo se administra la educacin qu se ofrece y a quin. +En muchos casos no se trata tanto de hacer cambios como s de crear las condiciones en las que el cambio es posible, y de incentivar el querer hacer el cambio; que en las comunidades rurales es ms fcil decirlo que hacerlo, al interior de los sistemas educativos de las comunidades rurales. +Para nosotros esto era una campaa grfica llamada Conecta a Bertie. +Hay miles de estos puntos azules en todo el condado. +Y esto era para un fondo que el distrito escolar tena para poner una computadora de escritorio y una conexin de banda ancha en cada hogar que tuviese un nio en el sistema escolar pblico. +En este momento debo decir, slo hay un 10% de las casas que tiene conexin a Internet en el hogar. +Y los nicos lugares con wifi son los edificios escolares, o en la esquina de Bojangles Fried Chicken donde a menudo me encuentro afuera en cuclillas. +La gente aparte de, ya saben, entusiasmarse y de preguntarse qu diablos son estos puntos azules que hay en todos lados le pidi al sistema escolar que imagine cmo se podra convertir en catalizador para una comunidad ms conectada. +Le pidi que traspasen las paredes de la escuela y que piensen cmo podran desempear un papel en el desarrollo de la comunidad. +A fines del verano estamos instalando el primer lote de computadoras y ayudando al Dr. Zullinger a desarrollar estrategias para poder conectar el aula y el hogar y extender el aprendizaje ms all del da escolar. +Y el tercer enfoque, el que ms me entusiasma, en lo que estamos ahora, es el diseo como educacin. +El diseo como educacin significa que podramos ensear diseo en las escuelas pblicas y no aprendizaje basado en diseo... no decir aprendamos fsica construyendo cohetes, sino aprendamos diseo a la par de la construccin real y de las capacidades de fabricacin en funcin de un propsito comunitario. +Tambin significa que los diseadores ya no son consultores, sino maestros a cargo del crecimiento del capital creativo de la prxima generacin. +Y lo que ofrece el diseo como marco educativo es un antdoto contra la instruccin aburrida, rgida, verbal, de la que estn plagados muchos de estos distritos educativos. +Es prctico, es presencial, requiere una participacin activa, y le permite a los nios aplicar las materias bsicas de manera real. +As, empezamos a pensar sobre el legado de la clase de taller y cmo el taller, el de madera y metales en particular, ha sido algo histricamente destinado a los nios que no van a ir a la universidad. +Es un camino de formacin vocacional. +Es la clase trabajadora, los obreros. +Los proyectos son del tipo hagamos una pajarera para mam para Navidad. +Y en las ltimas dcadas la financiacin de clases de taller ha desaparecido por completo. +Qu tal si se pudieran recuperar las clases de taller, pero esta vez orientadas hacia cosas que la comunidad necesite y le infundiramos a los talleres un proceso de diseo de pensamiento ms crtico y creativo. +As que tomamos esta idea nebulosa y trabajamos muy estrechamente con el Dr. Zullinger el ao pasado para plasmarlo en un plan de estudios de un ao que se ofrece en la escuela secundaria a los futuros egresados. +Esto empieza en 4 semanas, a fines del verano. Mi pareja y yo, Matthew y yo, pasamos por el proceso arduo y muy complicado de obtener la certificacin como maestros de secundaria para ejecutarlo. +Y as se ve. +A lo largo de dos semestres, otoo y primavera, los estudiantes pasan tres horas al da todos los das en nuestros 400 m2 de taller. +Y luego, durante el verano, se les ofrece un trabajo. +Se les paga como empleados del Proyecto H para integrarse a nuestro equipo de construccin y construir estos proyectos en la comunidad. +El prximo proyecto que vamos a construir el verano que viene es el mercado agrcola al aire libre en el pueblo luego, paradas de autobuses para el sistema de transporte escolar el 2 ao y mejoras en el hogar de ancianos en el 3 ao. +Estos son proyectos visibles que con suerte los estudiantes pueden sealar y decir: "Yo constru eso y estoy orgulloso". +Quiero que conozcan a tres de nuestros estudiantes. +Esta es Ryan. +Ella tiene 15 aos. +Le encanta la agricultura y quiere ser profesora de secundaria. +Quiere ir a la universidad pero luego volver a Bertie porque de ah es su familia, este es su hogar, y realmente quiere devolverle a este lugar lo que ha tenido la suerte de recibir. +Lo que Studio H puede ofrecerle es desarrollar habilidades para que pueda devolverlas de la manera ms significativa. +Este es Eric. Juega en el equipo de ftbol. +Participa en carreras de cross, y quiere ser arquitecto. +Para l Studio H le ofrece una manera de desarrollar habilidades que va a necesitar como arquitecto desde los borradores, hasta la construccin en madera y metal, y cmo hacer la investigacin para un cliente. +Y este es Anthony. +Tiene 16 aos, le encanta cazar, pescar y estar al aire libre y hacer tareas manuales. Para l Studio H representa el nexo educativo mediante esa motivacin prctica. +Le interesa el sector forestal, pero no est seguro, as que si acaba no yendo a la universidad habr desarrollado habilidades para esa industria. +El diseo y la construccin le ofrecen a la educacin pblica un tipo de aula diferente. +Este edificio del centro que puede muy bien convertirse en el futuro mercado agrcola ahora es el aula. +Y salir a la comunidad a entrevistar a los vecinos sobre qu tipo de alimentos que compran y a dnde y por qu, esa es una tarea para el hogar. +Y la ceremonia de corte de cinta al final del verano cuando hayan construido el mercado agrcola y est abierto al pblico, ese es el examen final. +Y, para la comunidad, lo que ofrece el diseo y la construccin es progreso real, visible. +Es un proyecto por ao. Y hace de los jvenes el mayor activo y el mayor recurso sin explotar para imaginar un nuevo futuro. +Reconocemos que Studio H, especialmente en su primer ao, es una historia pequea... 13 alumnos, 2 profesores, es un proyecto en un solo lugar. +Pero sentimos que esto podra funcionar en otros lugares. +Creo firmemente en el poder de las pequeas historias, porque es muy difcil hacer trabajo humanitario a escala mundial. +Porque cuando uno se aleja tanto pierde la capacidad de ver a las personas como humanos. +En definitiva, el diseo en s es un proceso de educacin permanente para las personas con/para las que trabajamos y para nosotros como diseadores. +Diseadores, seamos sinceros: tenemos que reinventarnos. +Tenemos que volver a educarnos en torno a las cosas importantes, tenemos que trabajar ms fuera de nuestras zona de comodidad y tenemos que ser mejores ciudadanos en nuestro propio patio de atrs. +As, si bien esta es una historia muy pequea esperamos que represente un paso en la direccin correcta para el futuro de las comunidades rurales y para el futuro de la educacin pblica y espero que tambin para el futuro del diseo. +Gracias. +Hoy quiero hablarles sobre conflictos blicos y guerras civiles. +Normalmente no son de los temas ms alegres ni generan, por lo general, las buenas noticias que conforman esta conferencia. +Se destacan tres cosas: el liderazgo, la diplomacia y el diseo institucional. +Pero empecemos por el principio. +Las guerras civiles han ocupado titulares durante muchas dcadas y los conflictos tnicos en particular han tenido presencia casi constante como una amenaza a la seguridad internacional. +Desde hace casi dos dcadas las noticias han sido malas y las imgenes inquietantes. +En Georgia, despus de aos de estancamiento, vimos un resurgimiento masivo de la violencia en agosto del 2008. +Esto escal rpidamente a una guerra de 5 das entre Rusia y Georgia, dejando a Georgia an ms dividida. +En Kenia, las elecciones presidenciales de 2007 impugnadas -acabamos de escuchar sobre ellas- llevaron rpidamente a niveles altos de violencia inter-tnica y al asesinato y desplazamiento de miles de personas. +En Sri Lanka, una guerra civil de dcadas entre la minora tamil y la mayora cingalesa llev a un clmax sangriento en 2009, despus de que hasta cien mil personas murieran desde 1983. +En Kirguistn, en las ltimas semanas, ocurrieron niveles de violencia sin precedentes entre los kirgues tnicos y los uzbecos tnicos. +Cientos han sido asesinados y ms de cien mil desplazados incluyendo muchos uzbecos tnicos que huyeron a la vecina Uzbekistn. +En Medio Oriente continan sin cesar los conflictos entre israeles y palestinos y se torna cada vez ms difcil ver cmo, slo cmo, se podra lograr una solucin posible y duradera. +Darfur puede haber escapado de los titulares pero all continan los asesinatos y el desplazamiento y la enorme miseria humana que eso crea es muy difcil de comprender. +Y, por ltimo, en Irak la violencia est en aumento otra vez y el pas todava debe formar un gobierno despus de cuatro meses de las ltimas elecciones parlamentarias. +Pero, esperen, esta charla tiene que dar buenas noticias. +Son estas imgenes del pasado? +Bueno, a pesar de las imgenes sombras de Medio Oriente, Darfur, Irak, y otros lugares hay una tendencia de largo plazo que s representa buenas noticias. +En las dos dcadas que han pasado desde el fin de la Guerra Fra ha habido una disminucin general de la cantidad de guerras civiles. +Desde el mximo de principios de los aos 90, con unas 50 guerras civiles, hoy tenemos 30% menos de tales conflictos. +La cantidad de gente asesinada en guerras civiles tambin es mucho menor hoy de lo que era hace 1 2 dcadas. +Pero esta tendencia es menos clara. +El nivel ms alto de muertes en el campo de batalla se registr entre 1998 y 2001 con cerca de 80 mil soldados, policas y rebeldes asesinados cada ao. +El menor nmero de vctimas combatientes ocurri en 2003 con slo 20 mil muertes. +A pesar de los altibajos desde entonces la tendencia general -y esto es lo importante- apunta claramente a la baja durante las ltimas dos dcadas. +Las noticias sobre bajas civiles tambin es menos mala que lo que sola ser. +De ms de 12 mil civiles asesinados a propsito en guerras civiles en 1997 y 1998, una dcada despus esta cifra se sita en 4.000. +Es una disminucin de 2/3. +Esta disminucin sera an ms evidente si aislsemos el genocidio de Ruanda de 1994. +Por ese entonces 800 mil civiles fueron asesinados en cuestin de pocos meses. +Esto sin duda es un umbral que nunca deber ser sobrepasado. +Es importante notar tambin que estas cifras slo cuentan parte de la historia. +Deja afuera a las personas que murieron como consecuencia de la guerra civil, de hambre o por enfermedad, por ejemplo. +Y tampoco dan cuenta apropiadamente del sufrimiento de los civiles en general. +La tortura, la violacin y la limpieza tnica se han vuelto armas altamente efectivas, y a menudo no letales, de la guerra civil. +Por decirlo de otra manera, para los civiles que sufren las consecuencias de los conflictos tnicos y la guerra civil, no hay guerra buena ni paz mala. +As, a pesar de que los civiles asesinados, mutilados, violados, torturados, son demasiados el hecho de que la cantidad de vctimas civiles hoy es claramente menor que hace una dcada, es una buena noticia. +As que hoy tenemos menos conflictos y muere menos gente. +Y la gran pregunta, por supuesto, es por qu. +En algunos casos hay una victoria militar de un lado. +Esta es una especie de solucin pero rara vez viene sin costo humano o consecuencias humanitarias. +La derrota de los Tigres Tamiles en Sri Lanka es quiz el ejemplo ms reciente de esto, pero hemos visto supuestas soluciones militares similares en los Balcanes, en el Cucaso Sur y en la mayor parte de frica. +A veces se complementan con acuerdos negociados o, al menos, con acuerdos de alto el fuego, y se envan fuerzas de paz. +Pero esto casi nunca representa un xito rotundo; Bosnia y Herzegovina tal vez ms que Georgia. +Sin embargo, en muchas partes de frica, un colega una vez lo expres de esta manera: "El alto al fuego del martes en la noche se logr justo a tiempo para que el genocidio comenzara el mircoles en la maana". +Pero concentrmonos en las buenas noticias. +Si no hay solucin en el campo de batalla, tres razones pueden explicar la prevencin de conflictos tnicos y guerras civiles, o paz duradera posterior: el liderazgo, la diplomacia, y el diseo institucional. +Tomemos el ejemplo de Irlanda del Norte. +A pesar de siglos de animosidad, dcadas de violencia, y miles de personas muertas, en 1998 se cerr un acuerdo histrico. +Su versin inicial fue mediada hbilmente por el senador George Mitchell. +Fue crucial para el xito a largo plazo del proceso de paz en Irlanda del Norte que se impusieron condiciones muy claras para la participacin y la negociacin. +La ms importante fue un compromiso total con los medios pacficos. +Las revisiones posteriores del acuerdo fueron facilitadas por los gobiernos britnico e irlands, que nunca vacilaron en su determinacin para llevar paz y estabilidad a Irlanda del Norte. +Las instituciones clave que se pusieron en marcha en 1998 y las modificaciones de 2006 y 2008 fueron realmente innovadoras y permitieron que todas las partes en conflicto viesen canalizadas sus demandas y resueltas sus preocupaciones. +El tratado combina un acuerdo para compartir el poder en Irlanda del Norte con instituciones transfronterizas que enlazan a Belfast y Dubln y reconocen as la llamada "dimensin irlandesa del conflicto". +Y, de manera significativa, tambin hay un claro enfoque tanto en los derechos individuales como en los comunitarios. +Lo dispuesto en el acuerdo puede ser complejo, pero tambin lo es el conflicto subyacente. +Quiz ms importante que eso, los lderes locales muchas veces estuvieron a la altura del compromiso, no siempre rpido y no siempre con entusiasmo, pero al final lo hicieron. +Quin podra haber imaginado a Ian Paisley y Martin McGuinness gobernando juntos en Irlanda del Norte como primer ministro y jefe de gobierno? +Pero, es Irlanda del Norte un ejemplo aislado o este tipo de explicacin se da ms ampliamente en pases democrticos que en pases en desarrollo? +De ninguna manera. +El trmino de la interminable guerra civil de Liberia en 2003 ilustra la importancia del liderazgo, la diplomacia, y el diseo institucional; tanto como la prevencin exitosa de una guerra civil a gran escala en Macedonia en 2001; o el trmino exitoso del conflicto en Aceh en Indonesia en 2005. +En los tres casos los lderes locales estaban dispuestos y podan lograr la paz, la comunidad internacional estuvo lista para ayudarles a negociar e implementar un acuerdo, y las instituciones han estado a la altura de la promesa que hicieron el da del acuerdo. +Centrarse en el liderazgo, la diplomacia y el diseo institucional ayuda tambin a explicar los intentos de paz que fracasan, o que no perduran. +Las esperanzas forjadas en los Acuerdos de Oslo no condujeron al fin del conflicto israel-palestino. +No todos los problemas que deban resolverse fueron efectivamente tratados en los acuerdos. +En cambio, los lderes locales se comprometieron a revisarlos ms adelante. +Y en vez de aprovechar esta oportunidad los lderes locales e internacionales se desligaron pronto y se distrajeron con la segunda Intifada, los acontecimientos del 11-S y las guerras de Afganistn e Irak. +El acuerdo general de paz para Sudn firmado en 2005 result ser menos amplio que lo previsto, y sus disposiciones an podran engendrar un retorno a gran escala de la guerra entre el norte y el sur. +Los cambios y las deficiencias en el liderazgo, ms fuera que dentro de la diplomacia internacional y los fracasos institucionales explican esto en medidas casi iguales. +Problemas de lmites no resueltos, disputas por ingresos petroleros, el actual conflicto en Darfur, la escalada de violencia tribal en el sur y, en general, una dbil capacidad del Estado en todo Sudn completan un cuadro muy deprimente del estado de cosas en el pas ms extenso de frica. +Un ejemplo final: Kosovo. +El fracaso para lograr una solucin negociada en Kosovo y la violencia, la tensin, y la divisin de facto que result de este proceso tienen sus razones en una infinidad de factores diferentes. +Hay tres entre los principales. +Primero: la intransigencia de los lderes locales que no se conformaban con menos que sus exigencias totales. +Segundo, un esfuerzo diplomtico internacional obstaculizado desde el principio por el apoyo occidental a la independencia de Kosovo. +Y tercero, una falta de imaginacin a la hora de disear instituciones que pudieran responder a las preocupaciones de serbios y albaneses por igual. +As que incluso en situaciones en las que los resultados no son ptimos, los lderes locales y los internacionales tienen una opcin, y pueden marcar una diferencia para mejor. +Una guerra fra no es tan buena como una paz fra, pero an una paz fra es mejor que una guerra caliente. +Las buenas noticias tratan tambin de aprender la leccin correcta. +Entonces, qu diferencia hay entre el conflicto israel-palestino y el de Irlanda del Norte o entre la guerra civil de Sudn y la de Liberia? +Ambos xitos y fracasos nos ensean varias cosas de importancia capital que tenemos que tener en mente si queremos que continen las buenas noticias. +Primero, el liderazgo. +As como el conflicto tnico y la guerra civil no son desastres naturales, sino desastres artificiales, su prevencin y solucin tampoco suceden automticamente. +El liderazgo tiene que ser capaz, decidido y visionario en su compromiso con la paz. +Los lderes tienen que conectarse mutuamente y con sus seguidores y tienen que conducirlos en lo que a menudo es un arduo camino hacia un futuro de paz. +Segundo, la diplomacia. +La diplomacia debe estar bien dotada de recursos, sostenida en el tiempo, y aplicar la combinacin correcta de incentivos y presiones a lderes y seguidores. +Tiene que ayudarles a alcanzar un compromiso equitativo, y a asegurar que una amplia coalicin de partidarios locales regionales e internacionales les ayuden a implementar el acuerdo. +Tercero, el diseo institucional. +El diseo institucional requiere un enfoque profundo en los problemas, pensamiento innovador, y una implementacin flexible y bien financiada. +Las partes en conflicto deben abandonar sus exigencias mximas y adoptar un compromiso que reconozca las necesidades del otro. +Y tienen que pensar en la esencia de los acuerdos mucho ms que en las etiquetas que quieren adosarles. +Las partes en conflicto tambin deben estar preparadas para volver a la mesa de negociacin si se estanca la implementacin del acuerdo. +Para m, en lo personal, la leccin ms importante de todas es sta: el compromiso local con la paz es lo ms importante, pero a menudo no es suficiente para prevenir o poner fin a la violencia. +Sin embargo, ni la diplomacia ni el diseo institucional pueden compensar los fracasos locales y las consecuencias que provocan. +Por ende, debemos invertir en la formacin de lderes que tengan las habilidades, la visin y la determinacin para lograr la paz. +Lderes, en otras palabras, en los que la gente confiar y querr seguir incluso si eso significa tomar decisiones difciles. +Un pensamiento final: poner fin a las guerras civiles es un proceso plagado de peligros, frustraciones y dificultades. +Muchas veces requiere de una generacin para alcanzarlo pero tambin que nosotros, la generacin actual, asumamos la responsabilidad y aprendamos las lecciones correctas sobre liderazgo, diplomacia, y diseo institucional para que los nios soldados de hoy puedan llegar a ser los nios del maana. +Gracias. +Hoy estoy aqu para mostrar mis fotografas de los lakota. +Muchos de Uds. habrn odo hablar de los lakota, o al menos del grupo ms grande de tribus llamado sioux. +Los lakota son una de tantas tribus desplazadas de sus tierras a campos de prisioneros de guerra ahora llamados reservas. +La reserva de Pine Ridge, el tema de la presentacin de hoy, se encuentra a unos 120 Km al SE de las [montaas] Black Hills en Dakota del Sur. +A veces refieren a l como al Campo de Prisioneros de Guerra Nmero 334, lugar donde viven ahora los lakota. +Si alguno de Uds. ha odo hablar del AIM, el Movimiento Indgena de EE.UU., o de Russell Means, o de Leonard Peltier, o de la disputa en Oglala, entonces sabe que Pine Ridge es el centro de las cuestiones indgenas en EE.UU. +Me han pedido que hable un poco hoy de mi relacin con los lakota, y eso es muy difcil para m. +Porque, si no han notado mi color de piel, soy blanco, y esa es una gran barrera en una reserva indgena. +Hoy van a ver muchas personas en mis fotografas, he logrado una relacin estrecha con ellos; soy como de la familia. +Me han llamado hermano y to y me han invitado una y otra vez durante 5 aos. +Pero en Pine Ridge, siempre ser un wasichu. Wasichu es la palabra lakota que significa "no indgena". Pero otra acepcin de esta palabra es "el que toma la mejor carne para s mismo." +Y eso es en lo que quiero centrarme... el que toma la mejor parte de la carne. +Significa codicioso. +Miremos alrededor, en este auditorio. +Estamos en una universidad privada del oeste de EE.UU., sentados en sillas de terciopelo rojo con dinero en los bolsillos. +Si miramos nuestras vidas, de hecho, nos ha tocado la mejor parte de la carne. +Veamos hoy un conjunto de fotografas de personas que perdieron para que nosotros pudiramos ganar y sepan, cuando ven la cara de estas personas, que no son slo imgenes de los lakota, que representan a todos los pueblos indgenas. +En este papel est la historia como la he aprendido de mi familia y amigos lakota. +La siguiente es una cronologa de tratados celebrados, tratados rotos, y de masacres disfrazadas de batallas. +Empezar en 1824. +"Lo que se conoce como Oficina de Asuntos Indgenas fue creada en el Departamento de Guerra, estableciendo un tono temprano de agresin en nuestro trato a los aborgenes de EE.UU. +1851: el primer tratado de Fort Laramie marca claramente los lmites de la Nacin Lakota. +De acuerdo con el tratado esas tierras son una nacin soberana. +Si los lmites de este tratado se mantuviesen, y hay sustento legal para que as fuera, as se veran hoy los EE.UU. +10 aos ms tarde la Ley Homestead, firmada por el Presidente Lincoln, desat una oleada de colonos blancos en las tierras indgenas. +1863: Un levantamiento de los sioux Santee en Minnesota termina con el ahorcamiento de 38 sioux, la mayor ejecucin masiva en la historia de EE.UU. +La ejecucin fue ordenada por el presidente Lincoln slo dos das despus de firmar la Proclamacin de Emancipacin. +1866: el inicio del ferrocarril transcontinental... una nueva era. +Nos apropiamos de tierras para que caminos y trenes tomen atajos por el corazn de la Nacin Lakota. +Los tratados quedaron sin efecto. +En respuesta, tres tribus encabezadas por el jefe lakota Nube Roja atacaron y derrotaron al ejrcito de EE.UU. muchas veces. +Quiero repetir esa parte. +Los lakota derrotaron al ejrcito de EE.UU. +1868: el segundo tratado de Fort Laramie garantiza claramente la soberana de la Gran Nacin Sioux y la propiedad lakota de las sagradas Black Hills. +El gobierno tambin promete derechos de tierra y caza en los estados circundantes. +Prometemos que el territorio del ro Powder en adelante estar cerrado a los blancos. +El tratado pareca ser una victoria total para Nube Roja y los sioux. +De hecho, es la nica guerra en la historia de EE.UU. en la que el gobierno negoci una paz concediendo todo lo exigido por el enemigo. +1869: se finaliz el ferrocarril transcontinental. +Empez a transportar, entre otras cosas, gran cantidad de cazadores quienes comenzaron la caza indiscriminada de bfalos eliminando una fuente de alimentos, vestimenta y abrigo de los sioux. +1871: La Ley de Apropiacin Indgena pone a los indgenas en tutela del gobierno federal. +Adems, los militares impartieron rdenes prohibiendo a los indgenas occidentales abandonar las reservas. +Todos los indgenas del oeste en ese momento eran prisioneros de guerra. +Tambin en 1871 terminamos con los tratados. +El problema de los tratados es que permiten a las tribus existir como naciones soberanas, y no podemos permitir eso; +tenamos planes. +1874: El general George Custer anunci el descubrimiento de oro en el territorio lakota, especficamente en Black Hills. +La noticia del oro crea una entrada masiva de colonos blancos en la Nacin Lakota. +Custer recomienda al Congreso encontrar un modo de terminar los tratados con los lakota lo antes posible. +1875: comienza la Guerra Lakota por la violacin del tratado de Fort Laramie. +1876: el 26 de julio, de camino a atacar una aldea lakota, fue aplastada la Sptima Caballera de Custer en la batalla de Little Big Horn. +1877: el gran guerrero y jefe lakota Caballo Loco se rindi en Fort Robinson. +Fue asesinado ms tarde durante su detencin. +En 1877 tambin se encontr la forma de librarse de los tratados de Fort Laramie. +Se present un nuevo tratado a los jefes sioux y a sus principales hombres en una campaa conocida como "vender o morir de hambre". Firmen el papel o no hay comida para su tribu. +Slo firm el 10% de los hombres adultos. +El tratado de Fort Laramie llama a por lo menos 3/4 partes de la tribu a renunciar a las tierras. +Esa clusula fue obviamente ignorada. +1887: la Ley Dawes. +Termina la propiedad comunal de las tierras de reserva. +Las reservas se dividen en lotes de 65 hectreas distribuidas a cada indgena por separado deshacindose del sobrante. +Las tribus perdieron millones de hectreas. +El sueo estadounidense de propiedad privada de la tierra result ser una manera muy inteligente de dividir la reserva hasta que no qued nada. +La movida destruy a las reservas facilitando la subdivisin y venta con cada generacin que pasaba. +La mayora de las tierras sobrantes y muchas de las parcelas dentro de los lmites de las reservas estn en manos de ganaderos blancos. +Otra vez, lo mejor de la tierra va a los wasichu. +1890: una fecha que, creo, es la ms importante de esta presentacin. +El ao de la masacre de Wounded Knee. +El 29 de diciembre las tropas de EE.UU. rodearon un campamento sioux en Wounded Knee Creek y masacraron al jefe Pie Grande, y a 300 prisioneros de guerra, usando una nueva arma de fuego que disparaba proyectiles explosivos llamada can Hotchkiss. +Por esta supuesta batalla la Sptima de Caballera recibi 20 Medallas de Honor del Congreso por su valor. +Hasta hoy es la mayor cantidad de Medallas de Honor otorgadas por una sola batalla. +Ms Medallas de Honor otorgadas por la masacre indiscriminada de mujeres y nios que por cualquier batalla de la Primera Guerra Mundial, la Segunda Guerra Mundial, Corea, Vietnam, Irak o Afganistn. +La masacre de Wounded Knee se considera el final de las guerras indgenas. +Cada vez que visito el sitio de la fosa comn de Wounded Knee, no slo veo una tumba de los lakota o los sioux, sino una tumba de todos los pueblos indgenas. +El hombre santo, Alce Negro, dijo: "Yo no saba entonces cunto se terminaba. +Ahora cuando miro hacia atrs, desde la alta colina de mi vejez, todava puedo ver a mujeres y nios masacrados, en pilas y dispersos a lo largo del sinuoso barranco, tan claro como cuando los vi con mis ojos an jvenes. +Y puedo ver que algo ms muri all en el fango sangriento y fue enterrado en la tormenta de nieve. All muri un sueo de la gente, y era un sueo hermoso." +Este evento marca una nueva era en la historia de los indgenas de EE.UU. +Todo se puede medir antes y despus de Wounded Knee. +Porque fue en este momento con los dedos en el gatillo de los caones Hotchkiss que el gobierno de EE.UU. declar abiertamente su posicin en derechos aborgenes. +Estaban cansados de tratados. +Estaban cansados de colinas sagradas. +Estaban cansados de danzas fantasmas. +Y estaban cansados de los inconvenientes con los sioux. +Por eso revelaron sus cnones. +"Quieres ser indgena ahora?", decan con el dedo en el gatillo. +1900: la poblacin aborigen de EE.UU. alcanza su punto ms bajo... menos de 250,000 personas, comparado con un estimado de 8 millones en 1492. +Avance rpido. +1980: El caso judicial ms largo de la historia de EE.UU. La Nacin Sioux vs. Estados Unidos, en un fallo de la Corte Suprema de EE.UU., +la corte determin que cuando los sioux fueron reasentados en reservas, y casi 3 millones de hectreas de sus tierras se pusieron a disposicin de exploradores y colonos, se violaron los trminos del segundo tratado de Fort Laramie. +La corte declar que las Black Hills fueron tomadas ilegalmente y que deba pagarse a la Nacin Sioux el precio de la oferta inicial ms intereses. +Como pago por las Black Hills la corte otorg slo 106 millones de dlares a la Nacin Sioux. +Los sioux rechazaron el dinero con el grito de guerra: "Las Black Hills no estn en venta". +2010: Las estadsticas de la poblacin aborigen hoy, a ms de un siglo de la masacre de Wounded Knee, revelan el legado de la colonizacin, la migracin forzada y la violacin de tratados. +El desempleo en la reserva aborigen de Pine Ridge flucta entre el 85% y el 90%. +La oficina de vivienda no crea nuevas estructuras, y las existentes se estn desmoronando. +Muchos no tienen hogar, y los que lo tienen se hacinan en edificios en descomposicin con hasta 5 familias. +El 39% de los hogares de Pine Ridge no tienen electricidad. +Al menos el 60% de los hogares de la reserva estn infestadas de moho negro. +Ms del 90% de la poblacin vive bajo la lnea de pobreza federal. +La tasa de tuberculosis de Pine Ridge es unas ocho veces ms alta que la media nacional de EE.UU. +La tasa de mortalidad infantil es la ms alta del continente y es unas tres veces ms alta que la media nacional de EE.UU. +La tasa de cncer cervical es 5 veces ms alta que la media nacional de EE.UU. +La tasa de desercin escolar llega al 70%. +La rotacin de maestros es 8 veces ms alta que la media nacional de EE.UU. +Con frecuencia, los abuelos cran a sus nietos porque los padres, por el alcoholismo la violencia domstica y la apata general, no pueden criarlos. +El 50% de la poblacin con ms de 40 aos tiene diabetes. +La expectativa de vida de los hombres est entre 46 y 48 aos, casi lo mismo que en Afganistn y Somalia. +El ltimo captulo en cualquier genocidio exitoso es aquel en el cual el opresor puede lavarse las manos y decir: "Dios mo! Qu est haciendo esta gente? +Se estn matando unos a otros. +Se estn matando ellos mismos mientras nosotros los vemos morir". +De esa forma llegamos a poseer estos Estados Unidos. +Este es el legado del destino manifiesto. +Todava nacen prisioneros en campos de prisioneros de guerra mucho despus de que se han ido los guardias. +Estos son los huesos remanentes despus de llevarse la mejor carne. +Hace mucho tiempo una serie de eventos fueron desencadenados por personas como yo, los wasichu, ansiosos de tomar la tierra y el agua y el oro de las colinas. +Esos eventos produjeron un efecto domin que an no termina. +Con lo distantes que podemos sentirnos como sociedad dominante de la masacre de 1890 o de una serie de tratados rotos hace 150 aos, todava tengo que hacerles la pregunta: cmo deben sentirse con las estadsticas de hoy? +Cul es la relacin... ...entre estas imgenes de sufrimiento... ...y la historia que les acabo de leer? +Cunto de esta historia... ...acaso les pertenece? +Sienten responsabilidad por todo esto hoy? +Me han dicho que debe haber algo que podamos hacer. +Debe haber alguna llamada a la accin. +Porque durante mucho tiempo he estado al margen, contento de ser un testigo, slo tomando fotografas. +Porque la solucin parece tan lejana en el pasado, que necesitaba nada menos que una mquina del tiempo para llegar a ella. +El sufrimiento de los pueblos indgenas no es un tema sencillo de solucionar. +No es algo en lo que todos puedan colaborar de la forma en que se colabor con Hait, o para acabar con el SIDA, o una hambruna. +La solucin, como se dice, puede ser mucho ms difcil para la sociedad dominante que, digamos, un cheque de 50 dlares o ir con la iglesia a pintar algunas casas cubiertas de graffiti, o una familia suburbana donando una caja de ropa que ni siquiera ya quieren. +Entonces, dnde nos deja esto? +Encogindonos de hombros en la oscuridad? +Estados Unidos sigue todos los das violando los trminos de los tratados de 1851 y 1868 de Fort Laramie con los lakota. +El llamado a la accin que propongo hoy, mi TED Wish, es el siguiente: Honrar los tratados. +Devolver las Black Hills. +No es asunto de Uds. lo que hagan con ellas. +Este telfono mvil comenz su camino en una mina artesanal al Este de Congo. +Es explotada por bandas armadas que emplean nios esclavos. El Consejo de Seguridad de la ONU los llama "minerales de sangre", que luego viajan en forma de componente y terminan en alguna fbrica de Shinjin en China. +En esa fbrica ya se han suicidado ms de 12 empleados este ao. +Un hombre muri despus de trabajar un turno de 36 hs. +A todos nos gusta el chocolate. +Se lo compramos a nuestros hijos. +El 80% del cacao proviene de Costa de Marfil y Ghana y es cosechado por nios. +En Costa de Marfil tenemos un gran problema de esclavitud infantil. +Se trafica con nios que vienen de otras zonas a trabajar en las plantaciones de caf. +La heparina -anticoagulante, un producto farmacutico- comienza en talleres artesanales como este de China, porque el principio activo se extrae del intestino porcino. +Los diamantes: quiz todos hemos odo hablar de la pelcula "Diamante de sangre". +Esta es una mina de Zimbabwe en este momento. +Algodn: Uzbekistn es el segundo mayor exportador de algodn en el mundo. +Cada ao, cuando llega la cosecha de algodn, el gobierno cierra las escuelas, coloca a los nios en autobuses y los enva al campo a cosechar algodn durante tres semanas. +Es trabajo infantil forzado a nivel institucional. +Y todos estos productos probablemente terminen sus vidas en un vertedero como este de Manila. +Estos lugares, estos orgenes, representan vacos de gobernabilidad. +Esa es la descripcin ms corts que se me ocurre. +Estos son los lugares oscuros donde comienzan las cadenas de suministro; las cadenas mundiales de suministro que nos proveen los productos de marca favoritos. +Algunas de estas lagunas de gobierno ocurren en estados hostiles. +Algunos ya ni siquiera son estados; +son estados fallidos. +Algunos son slo pases que creen que la desregulacin o la falta de regulacin es la mejor manera de atraer inversiones, de fomentar el comercio. +Como sea, nos plantean un gran dilema moral y tico. +S que ninguno de nosotros quiere ser parte, luego de los hechos de abusos de Derechos Humanos, de una cadena de suministro mundial. +Pero en este momento la mayor parte de las empresas involucradas en estas cadenas de suministro no tienen manera de asegurarnos que nadie tuvo que hipotecar su futuro, que nadie tuvo que sacrificar sus derechos, para ofrecernos los productos de marca favoritos. +Pero no he venido aqu para deprimirlos con el estado de la cadena de suministro mundial. +Necesitamos un bao de realidad. +Necesitamos reconocer el grave dficit de derechos que tenemos. +Esta es una repblica independiente, probablemente un estado fallido. +Definitivamente no es un estado democrtico. +Y ahora mismo, esa repblica independiente, la de la cadena de suministro, no es gobernada de una manera que nos satisfaga, de modo que podamos participar en un comercio o un consumo ticos. +Pero esto no es novedad. +Uds ya han visto documentales de los talleres de confeccin de prendas en todo el mundo, incluso en los pases desarrollados. +Si quieren ver un taller de explotacin clsico vengan conmigo a Madison Square Garden, y los voy a llevar a un taller chino de explotacin. +Tomemos el ejemplo de la heparina. +Es un producto farmacutico. +Uno espera que la cadena de suministro que la lleva al hospital sea absolutamente limpia. +El problema es que el principio activo, como dije antes, viene del cerdo. +El principal fabricante de EE.UU. de ese principio activo decidi hace unos aos trasladarse a China porque ese es el proveedor de cerdos ms grande del mundo. +Pero su fbrica de China -que probablemente sea bastante limpia- consigue todos los ingredientes de los mataderos del patio trasero donde las familias matan a los cerdos y extraen el ingrediente. +As, hace un par de aos tuvimos un escndalo en el que murieron unas 80 personas en todo el mundo, debido a los contaminantes que se colaron en la cadena de suministro de la heparina. +Peor an: alguno de los proveedores se dieron cuenta de que podan sustituir un producto que imitaba a la heparina en las pruebas. +Este sustituto costaba 20 dlares el kilo, mientras que la heparina real, el ingrediente real, cuesta $2.000 el kilo. +Una obviedad. +El problema era que mataba ms personas. +Y se estarn preguntando: "Cmo permiti el ente de Alimentos y Medicinas de EE.UU. que esto sucediera? +Cmo permiti la agencia estatal china de alimentos y medicinas que esto sucediera?" +Y la respuesta es bastante simple: los chinos definieron estas instalaciones como instalaciones qumicas, no farmacuticas, por eso no las auditaban. +Y el ente de EE.UU. tiene un problema de jurisdiccin. +Est en el exterior. +En realidad realizan algunas investigaciones en el exterior... unas 12 al ao; quiz 20 en un buen ao. +Hay 500 de estas instalaciones que producen principios activos slo en China. +De hecho, un 80% de los principios activos de la medicina actual viene del exterior; en particular de China e India. Y no tenemos un sistema de gobierno, +no tenemos un sistema regulatorio, capaz de garantizar que esa produccin sea segura. +No tenemos un sistema que garantice esos Derechos Humanos, esa dignidad bsica. +As que a nivel nacional trabajamos en unos 60 pases; a nivel nacional tenemos una falla grave en la capacidad de los gobiernos para regular la produccin en su propio suelo. +Y el problema real con la cadena mundial de suministro es que es supranacional. +Entonces los gobiernos que fracasan, los que pierden la pelota a nivel nacional, son an ms incapaces de poner manos a la obra sobre el problema a nivel internacional. +Y basta con mirar los titulares. +Miren Copenhague el ao pasado: fracaso total de los gobiernos para hacer lo correcto de cara a un reto internacional. +O la reunin del G-20 hace un par de semanas: dio marcha atrs a los compromisos de hace apenas unos meses. +Y pueden tomar cualquiera de los principales retos mundiales que abordamos esta semana y preguntarse dnde est el liderazgo de los gobiernos para avanzar y encontrar soluciones, respuestas, a estos problemas internacionales? +Y la respuesta simple es que no pueden, que son nacionales. +Sus votantes son locales. +Tienen intereses estrechos de miras. +No pueden subordinar esos intereses al bien pblico ms general. +As que si vamos a garantizar la entrega del bien pblico clave a nivel internacional -en este caso, en la cadena mundial de suministro- tenemos que encontrar un mecanismo diferente. +Necesitamos una mquina diferente. +Por suerte tenemos algunos ejemplos. +En los aos 90 hubo una serie de escndalos relativos a la produccin de bienes de marca en los EE.UU. -trabajo infantil, trabajo forzado, abusos graves de salud y seguridad- +y, finalmente, el Presidente Clinton en 1996 convoc a una reunin en la Casa Blanca -invit a la industria, a ONGs de DD.HH., a los sindicatos, al Departamento de Trabajo- los reuni a todos en una sala y les dijo: "Miren, no quiero que la globalizacin sea una carrera a la baja +No s cmo impedir eso pero al menos voy a usar mis buenos oficios para reunirlos a Uds, muchachos, y as llegar a una respuesta". +As formaron una comisin de la Casa Blanca, y pasaron cerca de tres aos discutiendo sobre quin asuma qu responsabilidades en la cadena mundial de suministro. +Las empresas no crean que fuese su responsabilidad. +Ellos no poseen esas instalaciones. +No emplean a esos trabajadores. +No son legalmente responsables. +El resto de la mesa dijo: "Amigos, que no se corte. +Tienen el deber de custodia, de velar por ese producto para que llegue a la tienda desde donde sea, para que podamos consumirlo sin temer por nuestra seguridad, o sin tener que sacrificar nuestra conciencia para consumir ese producto". +Se pusieron de acuerdo: "Bien. Estamos de acuerdo en un conjunto comn de normas, en un cdigo de conducta. +Vamos a aplicarlo en toda la cadena mundial de suministro sin importar la propiedad o el control. +Haremos que sea parte del contrato". +Y eso fue un golpe absolutamente magistral porque aprovecharon el poder del contrato, el poder privado, para entregar bienes pblicos. +Y seamos sinceros, el contrato de una marca multinacional con un proveedor en India o China tiene mucho ms valor de persuasin que la legislacin laboral local, que las regulaciones ambientales locales, que las normas de DD.HH. locales. +Esas fbricas probablemente nunca ven a un inspector. +Y si viniera el inspector sera sorprendente que pudieran resistir el soborno. +Incluso si hicieran su trabajo, e inspeccionaran las instalaciones por sus violaciones, la multa sera irrisoria. +Pero se pierde el contrato de una marca importante, esa es la diferencia entre permanecer en el negocio o ir a la quiebra. +Eso marca una diferencia. +As, lo que hemos podido hacer... hemos sabido aprovechar el poder y la influencia de la nica institucin verdaderamente transnacional de la cadena mundial de suministro, el poder de una compaa multinacional, y hacer que hagan lo correcto, hacer que usen ese poder para bien, para entregar bienes pblicos clave. +Ahora, por supuesto, esto no es algo natural para las multinacionales. +No fueron creadas para esto, sino para hacer dinero. +Pero son organizaciones muy eficientes. +Tienen recursos, y si podemos agregarle voluntad y compromiso saben cmo entregar ese producto. +Ahora bien, llegar no es fcil. +Esas cadenas de suministro que present antes no estn all. +Se necesita un espacio seguro. +Se necesita un lugar donde la gente pueda reunirse, sentarse sin temor al juicio, sin recriminaciones, para enfrentar realmente el problema, ponerse de acuerdo y encontrar soluciones. +Podemos hacerlo; las soluciones tcnicas existen. +El problema es la falta de confianza, de seguridad, la falta de colaboracin entre ONGs, grupos de campaa, organizaciones de la sociedad civil y empresas multinacionales. +Si podemos unir ambas cosas en un espacio seguro, hacer que trabajen juntas, podemos entregar bienes pblicos al instante o en un plazo muy corto. +Es una locura; +las multinacionales protegiendo los Derechos Humanos. +S que va a suscitar incredulidad. +Dirn: "Cmo podemos confiar en ellos?" +Bueno, no lo hagan. +Es la vieja frase del control de armas: "Confa, pero verifica". +Por eso auditemos. +Tomamos su cadena de suministro, tomamos los nombres de las fbricas, hacemos una muestra aleatoria, enviamos inspectores sin previo aviso para inspeccionar las instalaciones, y luego publicamos los resultados. +La transparencia es absolutamente fundamental para esto. +Uno puede decirse responsable pero la responsabilidad sin rendicin de cuentas a menudo no funciona. +As que no slo estamos reclutando a las multinacionales, les estamos dando las herramientas para entregar este bien pblico, el respeto por los Derechos Humanos, y lo estamos verificando. +No hace falta que me crean. No deberan creerme. +Vayan al sitio web. Vean los resultados de las auditoras. +Pregntense: se comporta esta compaa de manera socialmente responsable? +Puedo comprar ese producto sin poner en riesgo mi tica? +As es como funciona el sistema. +Detesto la idea de que los gobiernos no respeten los Derechos Humanos en el mundo. +Detesto la idea de que los gobiernos hayan perdido esa pelota. Y no me puedo hacer a la idea de que no logremos que hagan su trabajo. +He estado en esto durante 30 aos y en ese tiempo he visto la capacidad, el compromiso, la voluntad del gobierno de hacer que esto disminuya y no veo un resurgimiento en este momento. +Por eso empezamos a pensar que esto era una medida provisional. +De hecho, ahora pensamos que esto probablemente es el inicio de una nueva forma de regular y abordar los retos internacionales. +Llmenlo gobernanza de la red, llmenlo como quieran, +los actores privados, las empresas y ONGs van a tener que unirse para enfrentar los retos principales que vamos a encontrar. +Basta mirar las pandemias: la gripe porcina, la gripe aviar, el H1N1. +Miren los sistemas de salud en tantos y tantos pases. +Tienen los recursos para enfrentar una pandemia grave? +No. +Podran el sector privado y las ONG unirse y dar una respuesta? +Por supuesto. +Les falta ese espacio de seguridad para reunirse, ponerse de acuerdo y pasar a la accin. +Eso es lo que estamos tratando de ofrecer. +S tambin que a menudo supone un gran nivel de responsabilidad para las personas. +"Quieres que respete los Derechos Humanos en la cadena mundial de suministro. +Hay miles de proveedores en la cadena. +Parece demasiado desalentador, muy peligroso, de asumir para cualquier empresa. +Pero hay empresas. +Tenemos 4.000 empresas que son miembros. +Algunas son empresas muy, muy grandes. +La industria de artculos deportivos, en particular, asumi la responsabilidad y ya lo hizo. +El ejemplo, el modelo a seguir, est ah. +Siempre que discutimos uno de estos problemas que tenemos que abordar... el trabajo infantil en las granjas de algodn de India, este ao vamos a monitorear 50.000 granjas de algodn en India. +Parece abrumador. +Los nmeros slo dan ganas de salir corriendo. +Pero si lo descomponemos en realidades bsicas, +los Derechos Humanos se reducen a una proposicin muy simple: puedo devolverle la dignidad a esta persona? +Son personas pobres, personas cuyos Derechos Humanos han sido violados; el quid de la cuestin es la prdida de dignidad, la falta de dignidad. +Lo primero es devolverle la dignidad a las personas. +Yo estaba en un barrio bajo en las afueras de Gurgaon justo al lado de Delhi, una de las nuevas ciudades ms llamativas y brillantes que surgen en India en este momento y estaba hablando a los trabajadores de las fbricas de ropa de la zona. Les pregunt qu mensaje les gustara que le lleve a las marcas. +Ellos no dijeron dinero; +dijeron: "Las personas que nos dan empleo nos tratan como a infrahumanos, como si no existiramos. +Por favor pdeles que nos traten como seres humanos". +Eso es lo que yo entiendo por Derechos Humanos. +Esa es mi propuesta sencilla para Uds, mi pedido para quienes toman decisiones, los aqu presentes y los de afuera. +Todos podemos tomar la decisin de reunirnos de recoger y correr con las pelotas que los gobiernos han dejado caer. +Si no lo hacemos estamos abandonando la esperanza, estamos abandonando nuestra humanidad esencial, y s que no es eso lo que queremos, no tenemos que llegar a eso. +Por eso los exhorto +a sumarse, a entrar en ese espacio seguro, y empecemos a hacer que suceda. +Muchas gracias. +Se sienten a veces completamente abrumados... ...frente a un problema complejo? +Bueno, espero cambiar eso en menos de 3 minutos. +Espero convencerlos de que lo complejo no siempre es complicado. +Para m una baguette bien hecha, recin salida del horno, es compleja, pero un pan de curry, cebolla, aceitunas verdes, semillas de amapola y queso es complicado. +Soy ecologista y estudio la complejidad. Amo la complejidad. +La estudio en el mundo natural, en la interconexin de las especies. +Esta es una red alimentaria, o un mapa de los vnculos alimentarios entre especies que viven en los lagos alpinos de las montaas de California. +Y esto es lo que pasa con esa red alimentaria si est repleta de peces no nativos, que nunca vivieron all antes. +Van a desaparecer todas las especies en gris. +Algunas realmente estn al borde de la extincin. +Y los lagos con peces tienen ms mosquitos, a pesar de que los comen. +Todos estos efectos fueron imprevistos y sin embargo estamos descubriendo que son predecibles. +As que quiero compartir con Uds un par de ideas clave sobre la complejidad, que estamos aprendiendo de la Naturaleza que quiz sean aplicables a otros problemas. +La primera es el poder de las herramientas de visualizacin para ayudar a reducir la complejidad y para animarlos a preguntarse cosas que no haban pensando antes. +Por ejemplo: podran graficar el flujo de carbono de las cadenas de suministro en un ecosistema empresarial, o las interconexiones de las parcelas del hbitat de las especies en extincin del Parque Yosemite. +Y mediante nuestra investigacin estamos descubriendo que a menudo se restringe al nodo que nos interesa digamos, uno o dos grados. +As, cuanto ms se reflexiona y se acepta la complejidad, mayor posibilidad hay de encontrar respuestas sencillas, y a menudo es distinta de la respuesta simple con la que uno empez. +Cambiemos de marcha y veamos un problema realmente complejo, cortesa del gobierno de EE.UU.: +el diagrama de la estrategia de contrainsurgencia de EE.UU. en Afganistn. +Fue portada del New York Times hace un par de meses, +inmediatamente ridiculizado por los medios por ser en extremo complicado. +Y el objetivo era aumentar el apoyo popular para el gobierno afgano. +Claramente un problema complejo, pero, es complicado? +Bueno, cuando vi esto en la portada del Times pens: "Genial. Al fin algo con lo que me identifico. +Puedo hincarle el diente a esto". +Hagmoslo. Aqu vamos, por primera vez, estreno mundial, de una visualizacin del diagrama espagueti en forma de red ordenada. +El nodo marcado es el que estamos tratando de influenciar, apoyo popular al gobierno. +Entonces podemos ver un grado, dos grados, tres grados a partir de ese nodo y eliminar tres cuartos del diagrama que queda fuera de esa esfera de influencia. +Dentro de esa esfera la mayora de los nodos no son modificables, como la dureza del terreno, y una pequea minora son acciones militares. +La mayora no son violentas y se dividen en dos grandes categoras: compromiso activo con las rivalidades tnicas y las creencias religiosas y desarrollo econmico y provisin de servicios justos y transparentes. +No s de esto, pero es lo que puedo descifrar a partir de este diagrama en 24 segundos. +Cuando vean un diagrama como este no quiero que tengan miedo. +Quiero que se entusiasmen. Quiero que se alivien. +Porque pueden surgir respuestas simples. +Descubrimos en la Naturaleza que la simplicidad a menudo est al otro lado de la complejidad. +Ante cualquier problema, cuanto ms puedan alejarse y aceptar la complejidad ms oportunidades tendrn de acercarse a los detalles ms importantes. +Gracias. +Tenemos un problema real con actual formacin en matemticas. +Bsicamente, nadie est muy contento. +Los que aprenden creen que es algo aislado difcil y sin inters. +Los que tratan de aplicarla creen que no saben lo suficiente. +Los gobiernos se dan cuenta que algo bueno para la economa pero no saben cmo adecuarla. +Y los maestros tambin estn frustrados. +Sin embargo la matemtica es ahora an ms importante para el mundo que en cualquier otro momento de la historia. +Por un lado tenemos el inters decreciente por la educacin matemtica y por el otro un mundo ms matemtico, un mundo ms cuantitativo de lo que nunca antes tuvimos. +Entonces, cul es el problema? por qu este abismo? qu podemos hacer para resolverlo? +En realidad, creo que la respuesta est delante de nuestros ojos. Usar computadoras. +Creo que el uso correcto de computadoras es la solucin infalible para hacer que funcione la educacin matemtica. +Para explicar eso, en primer lugar, quisiera hablar un poco de las matemticas en el mundo real y de su aspecto en la educacin. +Vean, en el mundo real la matemtica no es exclusiva de los matemticos. +La usan gelogos, ingenieros, bilogos, todo tipo de personas diferentes... en modelos y simulacin. +Realmente es muy popular. +Pero en la educacin es muy diferente... problemas idiotizados, mucho clculo... sobre todo a mano. +Muchas cosas que parecen simples y no difciles como en el mundo real, salvo si se las aprende. +Y algo ms sobre la matemtica: a veces se parece a s misma, como en este ejemplo, y a veces no, como en "estoy borracho?" +Y uno recibe una respuesta cuantitativa del mundo moderno. +No hubiramos esperado esto hace unos aos. +Pero ahora uno puede encontrar de todo-- por desgracia, mi peso es ms alto que eso-- de todo lo que sucede. +Pero alejmonos un poco y preguntemos por qu enseamos matemtica? +Cul es la idea de ensear matemtica? +Y, en particular, por qu enseamos matemtica en general? +Por qu es una parte tan importante de la educacin, esa suerte de asignatura obligatoria? +Con los aos hemos hecho mucho en la sociedad para procesar y pensar de manera lgica; es parte de la sociedad humana. +Es muy importante aprender eso. La matemtica es buena para eso. +Entonces hagmonos otra pregunta. +Qu es la matemtica? +Qu queremos decir cuando decimos que hacemos matemtica... ...o que enseamos matemtica? +A grandes rasgos, creo que se trata de cuatro pasos empezando por plantear la pregunta correcta. +Qu queremos preguntar? Qu estamos tratando de encontrar aqu? +Y esto es lo ms complicado del mundo exterior, ms que cualquier otro aspecto de la matemtica. +La gente hace la pregunta equivocada y, claro, obtiene la respuesta equivocada por esa razn, o por otras. +Lo siguiente es tomar ese problema y transformarlo de algo del mundo real en algo matemtico. +Esa es la fase dos. +Una vez hecho eso, luego sigue el paso computacional. +Transformar eso en una respuesta con forma matemtica. +Y, por supuesto, la matemtica es muy potente para eso. +Y luego, finalmente, devolver eso al mundo real. +Responde la pregunta? +Y tambin lo comprueba... paso crucial. +Y eso es lo loco ahora. +En matemtica quiz pasamos cerca del 80% del tiempo enseando a hacer el paso 3 a mano. +Pero eso es algo que las computadoras pueden hacer mejor que cualquier humano despus de aos de prctica. +En su lugar deberamos estar usando computadoras para hacer el paso 3 y que los estudiantes se esfuercen ms en aprender a hacer los pasos 1, 2 y 4... conceptualizando problemas, aplicando los pasos, haciendo que los profesores les digan cmo hacerlo. +Vean algo crucial aqu: la matemtica no es el clculo. +La matemtica es algo mucho ms amplio que el clculo. +Aunque es comprensible que todo esto se haya entrelazado durante cientos de aos. +Slo haba una manera de hacer el clculo y era a mano. +Pero en las ltimas dcadas eso cambi por completo. +Experimentamos la mayor transformacin de cualquier tema antiguo que se pueda imaginar con las computadoras. +El clculo era tpicamente el paso limitante, y ahora a menudo no lo es. +Pienso que la matemtica se ha liberado del clculo. +Pero esa liberacin matemtica todava no lleg a la educacin. +Vean, pienso el clculo, en cierto sentido, como la maquinaria de la matemtica. +Es la tarea pesada. +Es eso que nos gustara evitar si pudiramos; lo que le dejaramos a una mquina. +Es un medio hacia un fin, no un fin en s mismo. Y la automatizacin nos permite tener esa maquinaria. +Las computadoras nos permiten eso. Y esto no es un problema menor en modo alguno. +Estim que hoy en todo el mundo pasamos unas 106 vidas en promedio enseando a calcular a mano. +Es una cantidad increble de actividad humana. +As que mejor que estemos seguros... y, por cierto, la mayora no se divierte hacindolo. As que mejor que estemos seguros de saber por qu lo estamos haciendo y que tiene un propsito real. +Creo que deberamos dejar que las computadoras hagan el clculo y slo hacer clculo a mano cuando tenga sentido ensearle a la gente a hacerlo. +Creo que hay algunos casos. +Por ejemplo: la aritmtica mental. +Yo la uso mucho, sobre todo para estimar. +La gente dice tal y tal es verdad, +y yo digo que no estoy seguro. Voy a pensarlo a groso modo. +Todava es ms rpido hacerlo y es ms prctico. +Los aspectos prcticos son, creo, donde vale la pena ensear a mano. +Y luego hay ciertas aspectos conceptuales que pueden beneficiarse del clculo a mano pero creo que son relativamente pocos. +Algo que pregunto a menudo es sobre el griego antiguo y cmo se relaciona. +Vean, lo que estamos haciendo ahora es forzar a la gente a aprender matemticas. +Es un tema importante. +No estoy sugiriendo, ni remotamente, que si la gente quiere calcular a mano o seguir sus propios intereses en cualquier tema por extrao que sea... debera hacerlo. +Eso es absolutamente correcto, que la gente siga su propio inters. +Estoy algo interesado en la antigua Grecia pero no creo que deberamos forzar a toda la poblacin a aprender un tema como antigua Grecia. +No creo que se justifique. +Por eso hago la distincin entre lo que le pedimos a la gente que haga, el tema predominante y el tema que, en cierto sentido, la gente podra elegir porque le interesa y quiz enriquecerse al hacerlo. +Qu le objeta la gente a esto? +Bueno, dicen que uno primero tiene que aprender lo bsico. +No deberamos usar la mquina hasta no aprender lo bsico del tema. +Mi pregunta habitual es: qu significa lo bsico? +Lo bsico de qu? +Aprender lo bsico de conducir un coche ayuda para repararlo? se lo disea para tal fin? +Los fundamentos de la escritura, sirven para afilar la pluma? +No lo creo. +Creo que hay que separar los fundamentos de lo que tratamos de hacer del cmo se hace y de la maquinaria del cmo se hace. Y la automatizacin permite hacer esa separacin. +Hace cien aos es cierto que para conducir un coche haca falta saber mucho sobre la mecnica del coche y cmo funcionaba el tiempo de encendido y todo tipo de cosas. +Pero la automatizacin en los coches permiti separar eso, por eso ahora conducir es un tema bastante separado, por as decirlo, de la ingeniera del automvil o de aprender a repararlo. +La automatizacin permite esta separacin y tambin, en el caso de la conduccin, y creo tambin en el caso futuro de las matemticas, una manera de hacer que se democratice. +Se puede difundir a un nmero mucho mayor de personas que realmente puede trabajar con eso. +Los fundamentos traen aparejada otra cosa. +La gente confunde, en mi opinin, el orden de la invencin de las herramientas con el orden en que deberan usarlas para la enseanza. +Slo porque el papel se invent antes que las computadoras no necesariamente significa que uno entiende mejor lo bsico del tema usando papel en vez de computadoras para ensear matemticas. +Tengo una ancdota bastante buena de mi hija sobre esto. +Ella disfruta haciendo lo que llama porttiles de papel. +Un da le dije: "Sabes, cuando tena tu edad, no haca esos dibujos. +Por qu crees que lo haca?" +Y despus de pensar seriamente uno o dos segundos dijo: "No haba papel?" +Si uno naci despus de las computadoras y del papel, en realidad no importa el orden en que nos ensean con ellos, uno slo quiere tener la mejor herramienta. +Se dice tambin que las "computadoras embrutecen la matemtica". +Que, en cierta forma, usar computadoras es presionar botones sin sentido, pero hacerlo a mano es usar el intelecto. +Debo decir que esto me irrita. +Realmente creemos... ...que la matemtica que la mayora hace en la escuela... ...en la prctica hoy... ...es ms que aplicar procedimientos... ...a problemas que no comprenden, por razones que no entienden? +No lo creo. +Y lo peor es que lo que estn aprendiendo ya no es til en la prctica. +Quiz lo era hace 50 aos, pero ya no lo es. +Fuera del sistema educativo lo hacen en una computadora. +Para ser claro, creo que las computadoras pueden ayudar en este problema, pueden hacerlo ms conceptual. +Claro, como cualquier gran herramienta puede ser usada sin sentido, como convertir todo en un espectculo multimedia, como el ejemplo que mostr de resolver una ecuacin a mano, con la computadora como maestra... mostrndole a los estudiantes cmo resolverlo a mano. +Eso es una locura. +Por qu usar computadoras para ensearle a los estudiantes a resolver problemas a mano que el equipo debe hacer de todos modos? +Todo al revs. +Djenme mostrarles que tambin se pueden hacer problemas ms difciles de calcular. +Vean, normalmente en la escuela uno resuelve ecuaciones de segundo grado. +Pero con una computadora uno puede sustituir cosas. +Hacerla de cuarto grado; hacerla ms difcil, en trminos de clculo. +Se aplican los mismos principios... a clculos ms difciles. +Y los problemas del mundo real son raros y horribles como este. +Tienen pelos por todos lados. +No son las cosas simples, simplificadas, que vemos en la matemtica de la escuela. +Piensen en el mundo exterior. +Realmente creemos que la ingeniera, la biologa... ...y todas estas otras disciplinas... ...que se beneficiaron con las computadoras y la matemtica... ...se reducen conceptualmente por el uso de computadoras? +No lo creo; todo lo contrario. +El problema de la educacin matemtica no es que las computadoras la degraden sino que ahora tenemos problemas degradados. +Otro tema que menciona la gente es que el procedimiento de clculo a mano ensea a comprender. +As, si uno ve muchos ejemplos puede entender la respuesta... uno puede entender mejor los fundamentos del sistema. +Creo que hay una cosa muy vlida aqu y es que los procedimientos y procesos de aprendizaje son importantes. +Pero hay una manera fantstica de hacerlo en el mundo moderno. +Se llama programacin. +La programacin es la forma de escribir la mayora de los procesos y procedimientos de hoy y es una gran manera de involucrar mucho ms a los estudiantes y de verificar que hayan entendido realmente. +Si realmente quieren verificar que entienden algo escriban un programa que lo haga. +La programacin es la manera en que creo deberamos hacerlo. +Para ser claro, lo que estoy sugiriendo aqu es que tenemos una oportunidad nica de hacer la matemtica ms prctica y conceptual, a la vez. +No se me ocurre otro tema donde esto haya sido posible recientemente. +Por lo general es una eleccin entre lo vocacional y lo intelectual. +Pero creo que podemos hacer ambas a la vez aqu. +Y abrimos muchas ms oportunidades. +Se pueden resolver muchos ms problemas. +Creo que con esto los estudiantes ganan en intuicin y experiencia en mucho mayores cantidades que nunca antes. +Experiencia de problemas ms difciles... poder jugar con la matemtica, interactuar con ella, sentirla. +Queremos que la gente pueda sentir la matemtica instintivamente. +Eso es lo que nos permiten las computadoras. +Otra cosa que nos permiten es ordenar el plan de estudios. +Tradicionalmente se ha ordenado por grado de dificultad de clculo pero ahora podemos reordenarlo por el grado de dificultad para entender los conceptos, por difcil que sea el clculo. +Tradicionalmente el clculo se enseaba muy tarde. +Por qu? +Bueno, es bien difcil hacer los clculos, ese es el problema. +Pero en realidad muchos de los conceptos son adecuados para grupos mucho ms jvenes. +Este es un ejemplo que prepar para mi hija. +Es muy, muy simple. +Estbamos hablando de lo que sucede si uno aumenta la cantidad de lados de un polgono a un nmero muy grande. +Por supuesto, se transforma en crculo. +Y, por cierto, ella insisti mucho en poder cambiar el color, algo importante para esta demostracin. +Pueden ver que este es un paso muy temprano en el tema lmites y clculo diferencial; y lo que sucede si uno lleva las cosas a un extremo... una gran cantidad de lados muy pequeos. +Un ejemplo muy simple. +Es una visin del mundo que no solemos darle a la gente sino hasta muchos, muchos aos despus. +Y, s, es una visin prctica del mundo realmente importante. +Por eso uno de los obstculos para llevar este programa adelante son los exmenes. +Al final, si se toma examen a mano a todo el mundo es medio difcil cambiar el plan de estudios para que puedan usar computadoras durante el semestre. +Es una de las razones por las que es tan importante... por eso son muy importantes las computadoras en los exmenes. +Porque podemos hacer preguntas, preguntas reales, preguntas como: cul es la mejor pliza de seguro de vida? Preguntas reales que la gente se hace en la vida cotidiana. +Y ven que este no es un modelo tonto. +Es un modelo real al que podemos refinar para optimizar lo que sucede. +Cuntos aos de cobertura necesito? +Cmo impacta eso al pago y a las tasas de inters, etc.? +No estoy siquiera sugiriendo que esta sea la nica clase de preguntas que deberamos hacer en los exmenes pero creo que es un tipo de pregunta que en este momento se ignora por completo y es fundamental para que la gente realmente entienda. +Por eso creo que debemos hacer una reforma fundamental en matemtica informatizada. +Tenemos que asegurarnos de poder impulsar nuestras economas, y tambin nuestras sociedades, basados en la idea de que la gente pueda sentir las matemticas. +Esto no es algo opcional. +El pas que lo haga primero en mi opinin, aventajar a los otros con una nueva economa e, incluso, con una economa mejorada, con mejores perspectivas. +De hecho, hablo incluso de pasar de lo que llamamos a menudo economa del conocimiento a lo que podramos llamar economa del conocimiento computacional, en la que la matemtica de alto nivel est integrada a todo del mismo modo que lo est hoy el conocimiento. +Con esto podemos atraer a muchos ms estudiantes y al hacerlo pueden pasarla mejor. +Y, entendmoslo, este no es un cambio de tipo incremental. +Estamos tratando de cruzar el abismo que separa a la matemtica escolar de la del mundo real. +Y saben que si caminamos por una grieta terminamos peor que si no lo hubiramos hecho en absoluto... un gran desastre. +No, lo que estoy sugiriendo es que debemos saltar, deberamos aumentar la velocidad porque es alto y debemos saltar de un lado e ir al otro... por supuesto, tras calcular la ecuacin diferencial con mucho cuidado. +Por eso quiero ver un plan de estudios matemticos totalmente renovado, construido desde cero, basado en que las computadoras estn all, en computadoras ahora casi omnipresentes. +Las mquinas de clculo estn por doquier y estarn absolutamente en todas partes en pocos aos. +Ahora, yo no estoy seguro si deberamos llamarla matemtica pero de lo que s estoy seguro es que se trata de la asignatura principal del futuro. +Vamos por ella. Y mientras lo hacemos divirtmonos un poco, nosotros, los estudiantes y TED. +Gracias. +Encantado de estar aqu y hablarles de un tema que es muy querido para m, que es la belleza. +Practico la filosofa del arte, de la esttica, de hecho, para ganarme la vida. +Trato de entender intelectualmente, filosficamente, psicolgicamente, qu es la experiencia de la belleza qu puede decirse sensatamente de ella, y cmo la gente se descarrila tratando de entenderla. +Ahora, ste es un tema extremadamente complicado, en parte porque las cosas que llamamos hermosas son tan diferentes. +Esta breve lista incluye humanos, accidentes geogrfico naturales, obras de arte y acciones humanas especializadas. +Una cuenta que explique la presencia de belleza en todo de esta lista no ser sencillo. +Puedo, sin embargo, hacer que al menos saboreen algo de lo que considero como la ms poderosa teora de la belleza que tenemos. +Y nos proviene, no de un filsofo de arte, no de un terico del arte postmoderno o de un pomposo crtico de arte. +No, esta teora proviene de un experto en percebes y gusanos y crianza de palomas. Y saben de quin hablo -- Charles Darwin. +Por supuesto, mucha gente cree que ya saben la respuesta correcta a la pregunta, qu es la belleza? +Est en el ojo del observador. +Es todo aquello que te conmueve personalmente. +O, como algunas personas -- en especial los acadmicos -- prefieren, La belleza est en el culturalmente-condicionado ojo del observador. +La gente est de acuerdo que las pinturas, las pelculas o la msica son hermosas porque sus culturas determinan una uniformidad de gusto esttico. +El gusto por la belleza natural y por las artes atraviesa las culturas con gran facilidad. +Beethoven es adorado en Japn. +Los peruanos aman las impresiones con sellos de madera japonesas. +Las esculturas incas son consideradas como tesoros en los museos britnicos, mientras que Shakespiare es traducido a cada idioma grande del planeta. +O slo piensen en el jazz estadounidense o las pelculas estadounidenses-- llegan a todas partes. +Hay muchas diferencias entre las artes, pero tambin existen universales, interculturales placeres estticos y valores. +Cmo podemos explicar esta universalidad? +La mejor respuesta se encuentra en tratar de reconstruir una historia Darwiniana de la evolucin de nuestros gustos artsticos y estticos. +Necesitamos someter a ingeniera inversa nuestros gustos y preferencias artsticas presentes y explicar cmo llegaron a grabarse en nuestras mentes. Por las acciones de ambos: nuestros prehistricos medioambientes del pleistoceno, donde nos volvimos completamente humanos, y tambin por las situaciones sociales en las que evolucionamos. +Esta ingeniera inversa puede tambin asistirse del registro humano preservado en la prehistoria. +Digo, fsiles, pinturas en cavernas y dems. +Y debe tomar en cuenta lo que sabenos sobre los intereses estticos de grupos aislados de cazadores-recolectores que sobrevivieron hasta los siglos XIX y XX. +Ahora, yo personalmente no tengo ninguna duda de que la experiencia de la belleza, con su intensidad emocional y placer, pertenece a nuestra psicologa humana evolucionada. +La experiencia de la belleza es un componente en toda una serie de adaptaciones darwinianas. +La belleza es un efecto adaptativo, que extendemos e intensificamos en la creacin y disfrute de obras de arte y entretenimiento. +Como muchos de ustedes sabrn, la evolucin opera a travs de dos mecanismos primarios. +El primero de estos es la seleccin natural -- que es mutacin azarosa y retencin selectiva -- junto con nuestra anatoma y psicologa bsicas -- la evolucin del pancreas o del ojo o de las uas. +La seleccin natural tambin explica muchas repugnancias bsicas, como el horroroso olor de la carne podrida, o miedos, como el miedo a las serpientes o a pararse cerca del borde de un precipicio. +La seleccin natural tambin explica los placeres -- el placer sexual, nuestro gusto por lo dulce, la grasa y las protenas, lo que explica muchas comidas populares, desde frutas maduras a malteadas de chocolate, y costillas asadas. +El otro gran principio de la evolucin es la seleccin sexual, y opera de manera muy distinta. +La cola magnfica del pavo real es el ejemplo ms famoso de esto. +No evolucion para su supervivencia natural. +De hecho, va en contra de su supervivencia natural. +No, la cola del pavo real reuslta de las elecciones de apareamiento hecha por las pavas reales. +Es una historia bastante familiar. +Son las mujeres las que empujan la historia hacia delante. +Darwin mismo, dicho sea de paso, no tena dudas de que la cola del pavo real era hermosa en los ojos de la pava real. +De hecho, us esa palabra. +Ahora, teniendo esas ideas firmes en mente, podemos decir que la experiencia de la belleza es una de las formas que la evolucin tiene para despertar y sostener el inters o la fascinacin, incluso la obsesin, con el fin de alentarnos a tomar las decisiones ms adaptativas para la supervivencia y la reproduccin. +La belleza es la manera de la naturaleza de actuar a distancia, por decirlo de alguna manera. +Digo, no pods esperar comerte un paisaje adaptativamente benfico. +Tampoco funcionara con tu beb o tu pareja. +Entonces, el truco de la evolucin es hacerlos hermosos, hacer que ejerzan una especie de magnetismo para darte el placer de simplemente mirarlos. +Consideren brevemente una fuente importante de placer esttico, la magntica atraccin de los bellos paisajes. +La gente de muy diversas culturas alrededor del mundo tiende a gustar de un tipo de paisaje particular, un paisaje que resulta ser similar a las sabanas del pleistoceno en donde evolucionamos. +El paisaje aparece hoy en calendarios, postales, en el diseo de las canchas de golf y los parques pblicos y en imgenes enmarcadas en dorado que cuelgan en los livings de Nueva York a Nueva Zelanda. +Es un paisaje del tipo de la Escuela del Ro Hudson que muestra espacios abiertos de pastos bajos entreverados con bosquecillos. +Los rboles, dicho sea de paso, siempre se prefieren si se horquillan cerca del suelo, es decir, si son rboles a los que pudieses treparte si estuvieras en apretos. +El paisaje muestra la presencia de agua directamente a la vista, o evidencia de agua a una azulada distancia, indicadores de vida animal o aves as como diverso follaje, y finalmente -- presten atencin -- un camino o una ruta, quizs una ribera o una costa, que se extiende hacia la distancia, casi invitndonos a seguirla. +Este tipo de paisaje es considerado hermoso, incluso por gente de pases en donde no lo tienen. +El paisaje ideal de sabana es uno de los ms claros ejemplos en el que humanos en todas partes encuentran belleza en una experiencia visual similar. +Pero, algunos quizs argumenten, eso es belleza natural. +Qu sucede con la belleza artstica? +No es exhaustivamente cultural? +No, no creo que lo sea. +Y nuevamente, quisiera volver a la prehistoria para decir algo sobre esto. +Es aceptado ampliamente que las obras de arte humanas tempranas son las estupendas pinturas de las cavernas que todos conocemos de Lascaux y Chauvet. +Las cuevas de Chauvet tienen algo de 32,000 mil aos, junto con unas pocas, pequeas esculturas realistas de mujeres y animales del mismo perodo. +Pero las habilidades artsticas y decorativas son en verdad mucho ms antiguas que eso. +Hermosos collares de caracoles que se parecen a lo que podran ver en una feria de artesanas, as como pintura ocre para el cuerpo, ha sido encontrada de hace unos 100,000 aos atrs. +Pero los ms intrigantes objetos prehistricos son an ms antiguos que esto. +Tengo en mente las llamadas hachas de mano Achalenses. +Las ms viejas herramientas de piedra son hachas de la Garganta de Olduvai en Africa del Este. +Datan de hace unos dos millones y medio de aos atrs. +Estas herramientas rudimentarias estuvieron presentes por miles de siglos, hasta hace ms o menos 1.4 millones de aos, cuando el Homo erectus comenz a realizar hojas de piedra finas, solas, a veces valos redondeados, pero en muchos casos, lo que para nuestros ojos es una llamativa, forma simtrica de hoja en punta o de lgrima. +Estas hachas de mano Achelenses -- son as llamadas por Saint-Acheul en Francia, donde se hicieron descubrimientos en el siglo XIX -- han sido desenterradas en sus miles, desparramadas a lo largo de Asia, Europa y Africa, casi por todos lados donde el Homo erectus y el Homo ergarster vag. +Ahora, el nmero total de estas hachas de mano muestra que no pueden haber sido hechas para matar animales. +Y se complica an ms cuando uno se da cuenta de que, contrario a otras herramientas del pleistoceno, las hachas de mano suelen exhibir ninguna evidencia de desgaste en los bordes de sus delicados filos. +Y algunas, en cuaquier caso, son muy grandes para ser usadas para carnear. +Su simetra, sus materiales atractivos y, sobre todo, su meticulosa manufactura son sencillamente muy hermosas a nuestros ojos, an hoy. +Entonces, para qu eran estos antiguos -- quiero decir: son antiguos, son extraos, pero son al mismo tiempo algo familiares -- +para qu estaban hechos estos objetos? +La mejor respuesta disponible es que que eran, literalmente, las obras de arte conocidas ms tempranas, herramientas prcticas transformadas en objetos estticos cautivantes, contempladas por sus formas elegantes y su trabajo como artesana virtuosa. +Las hachas de mano marcan un avance evolutivo en la historia humana -- herramientas hechas para funcionar como lo que los darwinistas llaman signos de aptitud -- es decir, representaciones que son actuaciones como la cola del pavo real, excepto que, en vez de pelo y plumas, las hachas de mano son concientemente realizadas de manera inteligente. +Hachas de mano hechas competentemente indicaban cualidades de la personalidad deseadas -- inteligencia, contol de coordinacin, habilidad para planificar, diligencia y a veces, acceso a materiales raros. +A lo largo de miles de generaciones, dichas habilidades incrementaron el estatus de aquellos que las presentaban y ganaron una ventaja reproductiva sobre los menos capaces. +Saben, es una vieja lnea, pero ha demostrado funcionar -- "Por qu no vienes a mi cueva, as puedo mostrarte mis hachas de mano?" +Excepto, por supuesto, lo que es interesante de esto es que no podemos estar seguros de cmo se transmita esa idea, porque el Homo erectus que hizo estos objetos no tena lenguaje. +Es difcil de comprender, pero es un hecho increble. +Este objeto fue hecho por un ancestro homnido -- Homo erectus u Homo ergaster -- entre 50 y 100 mil aos antes del lenguaje. +Estirndolo a un milln de aos, la tradicin del hacha de mano es la tradicin artstica ms larga en la historia de los humanos y proto-humanos. +Hacia el final del la epopeya del hacha de mano, el Homo sapiens -- como fueron finalmente llamados -- sin duda estaban encontrado nuevas formas de divertir y sorprenderse unos a otros por medio de, quien sabe, contar chistes, contar historias, bailar o hacerse peinados. +S, hacerse peinados -- insisto en ello. +Para nosotros, modernos, la tcnica virtuosa es usada para crear mundos imaginarios en ficcin y en pelculas, para expresar emociones intensas a travs la msica, la pintura y la danza. +Pero an as, un rasgo fundamental de nuestra personalidad ancestral persiste en nuestras antojos estticos: la belleza que encontramos en el desempeo calificado. +Desde el Lascaux al Louvre, al Carnegie Hall, los humanos tenemos un gusto innato permanente por representaciones virtuosas en las artes. +Encontramos belleza en algo bien hecho. +As que, cuando pasen por la vidriera de una joyera que exhibe una piedra hermosamente cortada con forma de lgrima, no estn tan seguros de que es slo su cultura indicndoles que esa joya centelleante es hermosa. +Sus ancestros lejanos amaban esa figura y encontraron belleza en la destreza necesaria para confeccionarla, an antes de que pudieran poner su amor en palabras. +Est la belleza en el ojo del observador? +No, est en lo profundo de nuestras mentes. +Es una virtud, nos es dada por las capacidades inteligentes y las ricas vidas emocionales de nuestros ancestros ms antiguos. +Nuestra poderosa reaccin a las imgenes, a la expresin de emocin en el arte, a la belleza de la msica, al cielo de noche, estar con nosotros y nuestros descendientes mientras exista la raza humana. +Gracias. +El ciclismo de montaa en Israel es algo que practico con gran placer y compromiso. +Cuando estoy en mi bicicleta siento que conecto con la belleza profunda de Israel, y siento que estoy unido a la historia de este pas y a la ley bblica. +Y para m tambin ir en bicicleta es una cuestin de poder. +Cuando alcanzo la cima de una montaa empinada en medio de la nada, me siento joven, invencible, eterno. +Es como si conectara con algn legado, o con alguna energa mucho ms grande que yo. +Pueden ver a los compaeros ciclistas al fondo de la foto, mirndome con cierta preocupacin. +Y aqu hay otra foto de ellos. +Por desgracia, no puedo mostrar sus caras, ni revelar sus verdaderos nombres, porque mis compaeros ciclistas son reclusos menores de edad, delincuentes, que estn en un correccional a unos 20 minutos de aqu. Bueno, como todo en Israel. +He estado pedalendo con estos nios una vez por semana, todos los martes, llueva o haga sol, durante los ltimos 4 aos. Y ahora, se han vuelto una parte muy importante de mi vida. +Este historia empieza hace 4 aos. +El correccional donde estn encerrados est justo en medio de uno de mis recorridos habituales, rodeado de alambres de pas, de puertas elctricas y guardias armados. +As que uno de estos recorridos, habl para entrar al recinto y fui a ver al director. +Y le dije al director que quera crear un club de ciclismo de montaa en este lugar y que, bsicamente, quera llevar a los nios desde aqu hasta all. +Y le dije: "Encontremos una manera en la que pueda sacar a 10 nios una vez por semana a andar en bici por el pas en verano". +Esto le caus mucha gracia y me dijo que pensaba que yo estaba loco. Me dijo: "Esto es un correccional. Estos chicos son delincuentes graves. +Se supone que tienen que estar encerrados. +Se supone que no deben estar fuera". +Sin embargo, comenzamos a hablar del tema y una cosa llev a la otra. +Y no me veo yendo a una prisin de Nueva Jersey a hacer tal proposicin, pero siendo esto Israel, el director de alguna forma lo hizo posible. +As, dos meses despus nos encontramos al aire libre... yo mismo, 10 jvenes reclusos y un hombre maravilloso llamado Russ, que se convirti en un muy buen amigo y mi socio en este proyecto. +A pesar de todo este esplendor el principio fue muy frustrante. +Cada pequeo obstculo, cada leve cuesta, haca que estos compaeros se detuvieran y se dieran por vencidos. +As que esto nos pas bastante. +Descubr que lo pasaban muy mal enfrentndose a la frustracin y las dificultades, no porque no estuviesen en forma. +Pero esa era una razn por la que terminaron donde estaban. +Y me pona cada vez ms nervioso porque estaba all no slo para estar con ellos sino tambin para pedalear y formar un equipo. Y no saba qu hacer. +Djenme que les d un ejemplo. +Vamos cuesta abajo en un terreno pedregoso, y la rueda delantera de Alex queda atrapada en una de estas grietas. +As que se estrella, y queda levemente herido, pero esto no le impide saltar y empezar a saltar sobre su bicicleta y maldecir violentamente. +Luego arroja su casco por el aire. +Su mochila sale disparada en alguna otra direccin. +Y despus corre hasta el rbol ms cercano y empieza a romper ramas y tirar piedras y a maldecir como nunca haba odo. +Yo estoy all parado mirando la escena con una total incredulidad, sin saber qu hacer. +Estoy acostumbrado a los algoritmos y a las estructuras de datos y a estudiantes sper motivados pero nada en mi pasado me prepar para enfrentarme a un adolescente furioso y violento en medio de la nada. +Y hay que darse cuenta de que estos incidentes no suceden en lugares convenientes. +Suceden en lugares como este en el Desierto de Judea, a 20 km de la carretera ms cercana. +Y lo que no ven en esta foto es que en algn lugar entre estos ciclistas, hay un adolescente sentado en una roca, diciendo: "No me muevo de aqu. Olvdenlo. +Ya tuve demasiado". +Bueno, eso es un problema porque de una u otra forma hay que hacer que este chico se mueva dado que pronto oscurecer y ser peligroso. +Pasaron varios de estos incidentes hasta que me di cuenta qu tena que hacer. +Al principio era un desastre. +Intent con palabras duras y amenazas y no llegu a ningn lado. +Eso es lo que tuvieron todas sus vidas. +Y en algn momento descubr que cuando a un nio de estos le da un ataque, lo mejor que uno puede hacer es quedarse lo ms cerca posible del nio, algo difcil, porque uno realmente quiere irse de ah. +Pero eso es lo que haba tenido toda su vida gente que se iba de su lado. +As que uno tiene que quedarse cerca, tratar de llegar, acariciar su hombro o darle chocolate. +Yo le deca: "Alex, s que es terriblemente difcil. +Por qu no descansas unos minutos y despus sigues?" +Y l: "Vete loco, psicpata. +Por qu nos traes a este maldito lugar?" +Y yo: "Clmate, Alex. +Aqu tienes chocolate". +Y Alex lo devoraba. +Porque tienen que entender que en estos paseos tenemos hambre constantemente y despus de los paseos tambin. +Y quin es este chico, Alex, para empezar? +l tiene 17 aos. +A los 8 aos alguien lo puso en un bote en Odessa y lo envi a Israel a su suerte. +Y termin en el sur de Tel Aviv y no tuvo la buena suerte de ser auxiliado por [poco claro] y vag por las calles y se convirti en un pandillero destacado. +Y pas los ltimos 10 aos de su vida en dos lugares slo... los barrios bajos y la prisin estatal, donde pas los ltimos 2 aos antes de terminar sentado en esa piedra de all. +As que este nio fue probablemente abusado, abandonado, ignorado, traicionado, por casi todos los adultos en su camino. +Para un nio as cuando un adulto a quien aprende a respetar se queda a su lado y no se aleja de l en cualquier situacin, sin importar cmo se comporte, es una experiencia de sanacin tremenda. +Es un acto de aceptacin incondicional, algo que l nunca tuvo. +Quiero decir algunas palabras sobre la visin. +Cuando cre este programa hace 4 aos, tuve este plan original de crear un equipo de desvalidos triunfantes. +Tena la imagen de Lance Armstrong en mi mente. +Y me llev exactamente 2 meses de total frustracin darme cuenta de que esta visin estaba fuera de lugar, y que haba otra visin mucho ms importante y disponible ms fcilmente. +Repentinamente ca en la cuenta en este proyecto que el propsito de estos paseos debera ser en realidad exponer a los nios a una sola cosa: el amor, +amor al pas, a las subidas y a las bajadas, a todas las criaturas increbles que nos rodean... los animales, las plantas, los insectos; amor y respeto a los otros compaeros del equipo, del equipo de ciclismo, y, ms importante an, amor y respeto a uno mismo, algo que a ellos les hace mucha falta. +Junto con los nios yo tambin experiment una transformacin notable. +Vengo de un mundo encarnizado de ciencia y alta tecnologa. +Yo sola pensar que la razn y la lgica y el vigor implacable eran la nica manera de hacer que las cosas sucedan. +Todo lo que hay que hacer es jugar con ella, hacer unos cambios, y llegar a algo que ayude, que funcione. +As que ahora siento que estos son mis principios, y si no les gustan, tengo otros. +Y uno de estos principios es el enfoque. +Antes de cada paseo nos sentamos con los nios y les damos una palabra para pensar durante el paseo. +Uno tiene que centrar su atencin en algo porque suceden muchas cosas. +Son palabras como trabajo en equipo o resistencia o incluso conceptos complicados como asignacin de recursos o perspectiva, palabra que no comprenden. +La perspectiva es una de esas estrategias de crucial importancia en la vida que el ciclismo de montaa puede ensearnos. +Le digo a los nios cuando luchan cuesta arriba, y sienten que no dan ms, que ayuda mucho hacer caso omiso de los obstculos inmediatos y levantar la cabeza y mirar alrededor y ver cmo crece la vista alrededor. +Eso literalmente te empuja hacia arriba. +De eso trata la perspectiva. +O uno puede retroceder en el tiempo y darse cuenta que ya conquist montaas ms empinadas antes. +De ese modo desarrollan la autoestima. +Djenme que les d un ejemplo de su funcionamiento. +Uno est con su bicicleta a principios de febrero. +Hace mucho fro, y es uno de esos das de lluvia, est lloviznando, hace fro y uno est en, digamos, Yokneam. +Uno mira al cielo, a travs de las nubes, y ve el monasterio en la parte superior de la Muhraka... ah es donde se supone que tenemos que subir ahora y dice: "No hay manera de que pueda llegar all". +Y, sin embargo, 2 horas ms tarde uno se encuentra de pie en el techo de este monasterio, manchado de barro, sangre y sudor. +Y mira hacia abajo en Yokneam, todo es tan pequeo y diminuto. +Y dice: 'Oye Alex, mira el estacionamiento donde empezamos. +Es tan grande. +No puedo creer que lo hice. +Y ese es el momento en que uno empieza a quererse a s mismo. +Y as hablamos de estas palabras especiales que enseamos. +Al final de cada recorrido nos sentamos a compartir momentos en los que surgen estas palabras especiales del da y marcan una diferencia. Estas discusiones pueden ser muy inspiradoras. +En una de ellas uno de los nios dijo: "Cuando estbamos recorriendo esta montaa con vista al Mar Muerto, y l hablaba de este lugar de aqu, record el da en que dej mi aldea en Etiopa y me fui junto con mi hermano. +Caminamos 120 km hasta que llegamos a Sudn. +Este fue el primer lugar donde tuvimos un poco de agua y suministros". +Y contina hablando y todos lo miran como un hroe, quiz por primera vez en su vida. +Y dice... porque tengo tambin voluntarios que me acompaan, adultos, que se sientan all y lo escuchan. Y dice: "Y esto fue slo el comienzo de nuestro calvario hasta que terminamos en Israel. +"Y slo ahora", dice, "empiezo a entender dnde estoy y realmente me gusta". +Recuerdo que cuando lo dijo sent escalofros en mi cuerpo, porque lo dijo mirando a las montaas de Moab, ah en el fondo. +Ah es donde descendi Josu y cruz el Jordn y condujo al pueblo de Israel a la tierra de Canan, hace 3.000 aos en el tramo final del periplo africano. +Por eso la perspectiva, el contexto y la historia juegan un papel clave en la forma en que planeo mis viajes con los nios. +Visitamos Kibutzim, establecido por supervivientes del Holocausto. +Exploramos ruinas de aldeas palestinas, y discutimos cmo se convirtieron en ruinas. +Y pasamos por una serie de restos de asentamientos judos, asentamientos nabticos, asentamientos canaaneos, de 3, 4 5 mil aos. +Y mediante este tapiz, que es la historia de este pas, los nios adquieren el que quiz sea el valor ms importante de la educacin y es el hecho de entender que la vida es compleja y que no hay blanco y negro. +Y al apreciar la complejidad, se vuelven ms tolerantes, y la tolerancia conduce a la esperanza. +Pedaleo con estos nios una vez por semana, cada martes. +Aqu hay una foto que tom el martes pasado, hace menos de una semana, y maana salimos tambin. +En cada uno de estos paseos siempre termino en alguno de estos lugares increbles capturando este paisaje increble que me rodea. Y me siento dichoso y afortunado de estar vivo y de sentir cada fibra de mi cuerpo dolorido. +Y me siento dichoso y afortunado de, hace 15 aos, haber tenido el valor de renunciar a la titularidad en la Universidad de NY y regresar a mi patria en la que puedo hacer estos paseos increbles con este grupo de nios con problemas que vienen de Etiopa Marruecos y Rusia. +Y me siento dichoso y afortunado de que cada semana, cada martes, y en verdad cada viernes tambin, puedo celebrar una vez ms desde lo ms profundo de mi ser la esencia misma de vivir al lmite en Israel. +Gracias. +Yo crec en un pueblo pequeo de Canad, y soy un dislxico no diagnosticado. +Lo pas muy mal en la escuela. +De hecho, mi madre una vez me cont que yo era ese niito del pueblo que siempre lloraba de camino a la escuela. +Me alej de all. +A los 25 aos me fui a Bali. Y all conoc a mi increble esposa, Cynthia, y juntos, a lo largo de 20 aos, dirigimos un precioso negocio de joyera. +Fue un cuento de hadas, y despus nos retiramos. +Cierto da, ella me llev a ver una pelcula que yo ni siquiera quera ver. +Destroz mi vida... Era: "Una verdad incmoda", del seor Gore. +Tengo cuatro hijos y aunque parte de lo que l dice es cierto, ellos no van a tener la vida que yo tuve. +Y decid, en aquel momento que pasara el resto de mi vida haciendo todo lo que pudiera para mejorar sus posibilidades. +As que aqu esta el mundo, y aqu estamos nosotros, en Bali. +Es una pequea isla, de 100 por 150 kilmetros, +donde la cultura hind sigue intacta. +Cynthia y yo estabamos all. +Tenamos una vida maravillosa y decidimos hacer algo poco comn. +Decidimos hacer algo por la comunidad local. +Y aqu est: la llamamos la Escuela Verde. +S que no parece una escuela, pero es algo que decidimos hacer, y es extremadamente, extremadamente verde. +Las aulas no tienen paredes. +El maestro escribe en un pizarrn de bamb. +Los pupitres no son cuadrados. +En la Escuela Verde los nios sonren, algo raro en las escuelas, sobre todo para m. +Y practicamos el holismo. +Y para m, la idea es simple: si esta pequea nia es educada como una persona ntegra, hay ms oportunidades de que demande un mundo ms ntegro, un mundo ms ntegro, en dnde vivir. +Nuestros hijos pasan 181 das en una escuela cerrada como una caja. +Las personas que construyeron mi escuela, construyeron la prisin y el sanatorio mental con esos mismos materiales. +As que, si este caballero hubiera tenido una educacin holista Estara ah sentado? +Habra tenido ms alternativas en su vida? +Las aulas tienen luz natural. +Son hermosas. Son de bamb. +La brisa pasa a travs de ellas. +Y cuando la brisa natural no es suficiente, los nios hacen burbujas, pero no esas burbujas que ustedes conocen. +Estas burbujas estn hechas de algodn natural y de hule del rbol del caucho. +Y as transformamos la caja en una burbuja. +Y estos nios saben que un sistema de climatizacin fcil no necesariamente formar parte de su futuro. +Pagamos la factura al final del mes, pero quienes de verdad pagarn la factura sern nuestros nietos. +Debemos ensear a los nios que el mundo no es indestructible. +Estos nios rayaron un poco sus pupitres, y luego se inscribieron en dos cursos extra. +El primero fue de lijado, y el segundo fue de pulido y encerado. +Pero desde entonces, son propietarios de esos pupitres. +Ellos saben que pueden controlar su mundo. +Usamos la tecnologa, no estamos orgullosos de ello, +pero una gran compaa de energa alternativa de Pars nos ayuda a no depender de ella, con energa solar. +Y esta es la segunda turbina de vrtice del mundo, en una cada de dos metros y medio de un ro. +Cuando la turbina entre en funcionamiento, producir 8.000 vatios de electricidad, durante da y noche. +Y esto ya saben lo que son. +No tenemos un sistema de evacuacin, +y si cada vez que vamos al bao sumamos a los residuos grandes cantidades de agua, ustedes son inteligentes, hagan las cuentas. +Tantas personas multiplicado por tanta agua. +No hay agua suficiente. +Estos son baos composteros. Y nadie en la escuela quera saber de ellos, especialmente el director. +Y funcionan, la gente los usa. Y todo va bien. +Es algo que ustedes deberan plantearse. +No fueron muchas cosas las que nos fallaron. +Los hermosos toldos y los tragaluces de caucho se echaron a perder por el sol en seis meses. +Tuvimos que reemplazarlos con plstico reciclable. +Los maestros trajeron pizarrones gigantes de PVC a las aulas, +as que tuvimos algunas buenas ideas. Tomamos los parabrisas de viejos automviles y pusimos papel tras ellos y creamos nuestra primera alternativa al pizarrn. +La Escuela Verde est al sur de Bali. y tiene una extensin de 20 hectreas de jardines. +Hay un hermoso ro que atraviesa el terreno, y aqu pueden ver lo que hicimos para cruzar el ro. +El otro da, vino un padre un poco alterado. +Le dije: "Bienvenido a la Escuela Verde." +Y me respondi: "Llevo 24 horas en un avin". +Y le pregunt: "Por qu?" +Y replic: "Yo soaba con una escuela verde, y entonces v una foto de esta escuela, y tom un avin. +El prximo agosto traer aqu a mis hijos". +Fue fantstico. +Pero an mejor: estn haciendo casas verdes alrededor de la escuela, para que los nios puedan llegar por las veredas. +Y estn trayendo sus industrias ecolgicas, y ojal que tambin sus restaurantes ecolgicos, a la Escuela Verde. +Se est convirtiendo en una comunidad. +Se est convirtiendo en un modelo verde. +Tuvimos que pensar en todo. +No usamos petroqumicos en el pavimento. +No hay asfalto. +Esto son piedras volcnicas colocadas a mano. +No hay aceras. +Son de grava y se inundan cuando llueve, pero son verdes. +Este es el bfalo de la escuela. +Esta planeando cenarse la cerca. +Todas las cercas en la Escuela Verde son verdes. +Y cuando los nios del jardn de infancia cambiaron la puerta, descubrieron que la cerca era de tapioca. +Se llevaron las races de tapioca a la cocina, las cortaron en rebanadas delgadas e hicieron deliciosas hojuelas. +La jardinera. +Nos las ingeniamos para respetar el jardn que all haba. y que alcanza los bordes de las aulas. +Lo dejamos crecer. +Hicimos espacio para estos amigos: los ltimos cerdos negros de Bali. +Y la vaca de la escuela hace todo lo posible para reemplazar a la cortadora de csped del campo de juego. +Estas jovencitas viven en una cultura del arroz pero saben algo que poca gente conoce en la cultura del arroz +Saben cmo sembrar arroz orgnico, saben cmo cuidarlo. saben cmo cultivarlo y cocinarlo. +Son parte del ciclo del arroz y estas habilidades sern de utilidad para su futuro. +Este joven recoge vegetales orgnicos. +Damos de comer a 400 personas todos los das Y no es una comida normal, ya que no hay gas. +Las mujeres de Bali cocinan en hornos de serrn usando secretos que slo conocen sus abuelas. +La comida es increble. +La Escuela Verde es un lugar para pioneros, locales y globales. +Es como un micro-cosmos del mundo globalizado. +Tenemos nios de 25 pases. +Y cuando los veo juntos, s que estan aprendiendo cmo vivir en el futuro. +La Escuela Verde va a cumplir ya tres aos y tiene 160 nios. +Es una escuela donde aprendes a leer, una de las cosas que ms me gustan, a escribir, yo era malo en eso, aritmtica... +Pero tambin aprendes otras cosas. +Aprendes a hacer construcciones con bamb. +Practicas antiguas artes de Bali. +Esta lucha es en el lodo de los campos de arroz. +A los nios les encanta. +A las madres no les encanta tanto. +y decidimos que fuera "local". Qu significa? +"Local" significa que el 20% de los nios de la escuela deben de ser de Bali. Y este fue un gran compromiso. +E hicimos lo correcto. +Y hay gente que hace aportaciones desde cualquier parte del mundo para apoyar el Fondo de Becas de Bali, Estos nios sern los prximos lderes verdes de Bali. +Los maestros son tan multiculturales como los nios. Y lo ms sorprendente es que aparecen voluntarios por todas partes +Un hombre vino de Java con un nuevo tipo de agricultura orgnica. +Una mujer vino de frica con msica. +Y todos estos voluntarios y maestros estn comprometidos a educar una nueva generacin de lderes verdes globales. +El efecto de la Escuela Verde, an no lo conocemos. +Necesitamos que alguien venga a estudiarlo. +A los nios con diferencias de aprendizaje, dislxicos, les hemos puesto prolxicos, y les va bien en estas hermosas aulas. +Todos los nios estn haciendo progresos. +Y, cmo hicimos todo esto? +Con nuestra magnfica planta. +Con bamb. +Sale del suelo con la fuerza de un tren. +Crece tan alto como un cocotero en dos meses. Y en tres aos puede cortarse para hacer construcciones como esta. +Es tan fuerte y macizo como la madera de teca. Y puede soportar cualquier techo. +Al venir los arquitectos, trajeron estas cosas, y probablemente hayan visto algo como eso. +La caja amarilla era el "complejo administrativo". +La aplastamos, la reinventamos, pero principalmente le cambiamos el nombre, el "Corazn de la Escuela". Y eso lo cambi todo para siempre. +Es una dble hlice, +donde se encuentra el equipo administrativo y muchas, muchas ms cosas. +Tuvimos problemas al construir, cuando los trabajadores balineses vieron todos esos planos se miraron entre s y dijeron: "qu es eso?" +As que construimos grandes maquetas. +Hicimos que las disearan los ingenieros. +Y los carpinteros de Bali, como este los midieron con sus reglas de bamb, eligieron el bamb y levantaron las construcciones usando tcnicas ancestrales, principalmente a mano. +Fue un caos. +Y los carpinteros de Bali, que quieren ser tan modernos como nosotros, usaron andamios metlicos para construir los edificios de bamb. Y cuando quitaron los andamios, nos dimos cuenta de que tenamos una catedral, una catedral verde, una catedral de la educacin verde. +El Corazn de la Escuela esta formado de siete kilmetros de bamb. +Una vez terminados los cimientos, en slo tres meses tuvimos los techos y los pisos. +Tal vez no sea el mayor edificio de bamb del mundo, pero mucha gente piensa que es el ms hermoso. +Se puede hacer algo as en sus comunidades? +Creemos que s. +La Escuela Verde es un modelo para el mundo. +Es un modelo que hicimos para Bali. +Y slo hay que seguir estas reglas sencillas: mantente local, deja que el medio ambiente mande y piensa de qu manera podran construirlo tus nietos. +As que, seor Gore, mil gracias. +Arruin mi vida, pero me di un increble futuro. +Y si les interesa involucrarse en terminar la Escuela Verde y construir las siguientes 50 alrededor del mundo, por favor, vengan a vernos. +Gracias. +Hoy los voy a llevar en un viaje a un lugar tan profundo, tan oscuro, tan inexplorado, que sabemos menos sobre ello que lo que sabemos del lado oscuro de la luna. +Es un lugar de mito y leyenda. +Es un lugar marcado en mapas antiguos como "Aqu hay monstruos". +Es un lugar donde cada nuevo viaje de exploracin trae nuevos descubrimientos de criaturas tan maravillosas y extraas que nuestros antepasados las hubiesen considerado monstruos de verdad. +En vez de eso, me hace palidecer de envidia que mis colegas de la UICN pudieran ir en este viaje al sur de los montes marinos de Madagascar a realmente tomar fotografas y ver estas maravillosas criaturas de las profundidades. +Estamos hablando sobre alta mar. +El 'alta mar' es un trmino legal, que, de hecho, cubre el 50% del planeta. +Con una profundidad media de los ocanos de 4.000 metros, el alta mar cubre y provee cerca del 90% del hbitat para la vida en la Tierra. +Son, en teora, los bienes comunes que nos pertenecen a todos. +Pero en realidad, es gestionado por y para quienes cuentan con los recursos para ir y explotarlos. +As que hoy voy a llevarlos en un viaje para echar luz sobre algunos mitos obsoletos, leyendas y asunciones que nos han mantenido a nosotros -los verdaderamente interesados en el alta mar- en la oscuridad. +Vamos a viajar a algunos de estos lugares especiales que hemos estado descubriendo en los ltimos aos para mostrar por qu realmente necesitamos preocuparnos. +Y entonces finalmente vamos a tratar de desarrollar y promover una nueva perspectiva sobre la gobernanza en alta mar que est arraigada en la conservacin del ocano en toda la cuenca, pero enmarcada en un escenario de normas mundiales de precaucin y respeto. +Esta es una foto del alta mar como se ve desde arriba; ese rea en azul ms oscuro. +Para m, como abogada internacional, esto me asust mucho ms que cualquier criatura o monstruo que podamos haber visto, porque desmiente la nocin de que en realidad se puede proteger el ocano, el ocano mundial, que nos proporciona a todos con el almacenamiento del carbono, el almacenamiento del calor, de oxgeno, si tan solo pudieras proteger el 36%. +Este es el verdadero corazn del planeta. +Uno de los problemas que tenemos que enfrentar es que las leyes internacionales vigentes -por ejemplo, la de transporte martimo- proporcionan ms proteccin en las reas cercanas a la costa. +Por ejemplo, la descarga de basura, algo que pensaras simplemente desaparece, pero las leyes que regulan la descarga de basura de los buques se debilitan cuanto ms lejos se est de la orilla. +Como resultado, tenemos parches de basura del doble del tamao de Texas. +Es increble. +Solamos pensar que la solucin a la contaminacin era la dilucin pero se ha demostrado que ese ya no es el caso. +As que lo que hemos aprendido de cientficos sociales y economistas como Elinor Ostrom, que estn estudiando el fenmeno de la gestin de los bienes comunes a escala local, es que hay ciertos pre-requisitos que puedes poner en vigor que te habilitan a manejar y acceder a espacios abiertos para el bien de todos y cada uno. +Y estos incluyen un sentido de responsabilidad compartida, normas comunes que unan a las personas como una comunidad. +Acceso condicional: se puede invitar a la gente pero tienen que ser capaces de cumplir las reglas. +Y, por supuesto, si uno quiere que la gente cumpla las reglas se necesita un sistema eficaz de control y ejecucin, porque hemos descubierto que se puede confiar pero tambin hay que verificar. +Lo que tambin me gustara transmitir es que no todo es derrota y letargo en lo que vemos del alta mar. +Dado que un grupo de individuos muy dedicados -cientficos, conservacionistas, fotgrafos y estados- fueron capaces de cambiar una trayectoria trgica que estaba destruyendo paisajes frgiles, como este jardn de coral que ven frente a ustedes. +Es decir, somos capaces de salvarlo de un destino de pesca de arrastre en mar profundo. +Y cmo hacemos esto? +Bueno como ya he dicho, tuvimos un grupo de fotgrafos que iban a bordo de buques y fotografiaban las actividades en curso. +Pero tambin pasamos muchas horas en los stanos de Naciones Unidas, tratando de trabajar con los gobiernos para hacerles entender lo que estaba pasando tan lejos de tierra firme que pocos de nosotros habamos siquiera imaginado que existan estas criaturas. +As que en tres aos, de 2003 a 2006, pudimos poner en marcha la norma que realmente cambi el paradigma de pesca, de los pescadores en el lecho marino. +En vez de ir a cualquier parte y hacer lo que sea que te plazca, nosotros, de hecho, creamos un rgimen que requera una evaluacin previa del lugar de pesca y la obligacin de prevenir daos significativos. +En 2009 cuando la ONU revis los progresos, descubrieron que casi 100 millones de kilmetros del fondo marino haban sido protegidos. +Esto no significa que sta sea la solucin final, o que incluso ofrezca una proteccin permanente, +pero lo que s quiere decir es que un grupo de individuos pueden formar una comunidad para en realidad dar forma al modo en que se gobierna el alta mar, para crear un nuevo rgimen. +Busco optimismo en estas oportunidades para crear una verdadera perspectiva azul para este hermoso planeta. +Hoy slo vamos a viajar a una pequea muestra de algunas de estas reas especiales solo para darles una idea del tipo de riquezas y maravillas que contienen. +El Mar de los Sargazos, por ejemplo, no es un mar delimitado por lneas costeras, pero lo est por corrientes ocenicas que contienen y envuelven esta riqueza de sargazo que crece y se congrega all. +Se la conoce tambin como zona de desove de anguilas por los ros del Norte de Europa y Amrica del Norte donde ahora ha mermado tanto la cantidad que en realidad han dejado de verse en Estocolmo. Hace poco se vieron 5 en el Reino Unido. +Pero el Mar de los Sargazos, de la misma manera que congrega hierba de sargazos est atrayendo el plstico de toda la regin. +Esta foto no muestra exactamente los plsticos que me gustara que muestre porque no he estado all en persona. +Pero hay un estudio que se public en febrero que muestra que hay 200.000 piezas de plstico por kilmetro cuadrado flotando en la superficie del Mar de los Sargazos, y eso est afectando el hbitat de las muchas especies en etapa juvenil que vienen al Mar de los Sargazos en busca de proteccin y alimento. +El Mar de los Sargazos es un lugar maravilloso por la congregacin de estas especies nicas que se han desarrollado para imitar el hbitat del sargazo. +Tambin proporciona un hbitat especial para que estos peces voladores depositen sus huevos. +Pero lo que me gustara extraer de esta imagen es que nosotros verdaderamente tenemos una oportunidad para poner en marcha una iniciativa mundial de proteccin. +El gobierno de las Bermudas ha reconocido esta necesidad y su responsabilidad de tener parte del Mar de los Sargazos en su jurisdiccin nacional -pero la vasta mayora est ms all- para ayudar a difundir un movimiento para lograr la proteccin de esta zona vital. +Rotando a un lugar un poco ms fro que ste ahora mismo: el Mar de Ross en el Ocano Sur. +En realidad es una baha. +Se considera alta mar, porque el continente ha quedado fuera de los lmites de reclamo territorial +as que cualquier cosa en el agua es tratado como si fuese alta mar. +Pero lo que hace al Mar de Ross importante es el vasto mar de banco de hielo que en primavera y verano ofrece gran cantidad de fitoplancton y kril el cual sustenta lo que, hasta hace poco, ha sido un virtualmente intacto ecosistema costero +Pero, por desgracia, CAMLAR, la comisin regional a cargo de conservar y manejar las reservas de peces y otros recursos marinos vivos, comienza, desafortunadamente, a ceder ante los intereses pesqueros y ha autorizado la ampliacin de la pesca de la merluza negra en la regin. +El capitn de un barco neozelands, que justo estaba all, informa una merma significativa en la cantidad de orcas del Mar de Ross, que dependen directamente de la merluza negra antrtica como principal fuente de alimento. +Acercndonos hasta aqu, el Domo de Costa Rica -un rea descubierta hace poco- es potencialmente hbitat durante todo el ao de ballenas azules. +All hay comida suficiente para que pasen el verano y el invierno. +Pero lo inusual del Domo de Costa Rica es que, de hecho, no es un lugar permanente. +Es un fenmeno oceanogrfico que se desplaza en tiempo y espacio por temporadas. +Por eso no est permanentemente en alta mar. +No est permanentemente en las zonas econmicas exclusivas de estos cinco pases de Amrica Central, sino que cambia con las estaciones. +Como tal, supone un reto de proteccin, pero tambin tenemos un reto protegiendo las especies que se desplazan con sta. +Podemos usar las mismas tecnologas que usan los pescadores para identificar dnde estn las especies y cercar el rea cuando sea ms vulnerable; lo cual podra ser, en algunos casos, todo el ao. +Acercndonos a la costa, donde estamos, de hecho, esta foto es de las Islas Galpagos, +muchas especies se dirigen a esta zona, razn por la cual se presta mucha atencin puesta en la conservacin del Corredor Marino del Pacfico Tropical. +Esta es la iniciativa que est siendo coordinada por Conservation International con una variedad socios y gobiernos para tratar de traer un rgimen de gestin integrada a travs del rea. +Esto provee un ejemplo maravilloso de lo que puede lograrse con una verdadera iniciativa regional. +Es la proteccin de 5 sitios del Patrimonio Mundial. +Lamentablemente la Convencin del Patrimonio Mundial no reconoce la necesidad de proteger las zonas fuera de la jurisdiccin nacional, por el momento. +As, un lugar como el Domo de Costa Rica tcnicamente no podra calificar desde el momento que est en alta mar. +Por eso hemos sugerido modificar la Convencin del Patrimonio Mundial, para que pueda abarcar a estos sitios e instar a la proteccin universal del patrimonio mundial, o necesitaramos cambiarle el nombre y llamarle Convencin del Patrimonio "Semi" Mundial. +Pero tambin sabemos que especies como estas tortugas marinas no se quedan en el Corredor Marino del Pacfico Tropical. +Da la casualidad que bajan a un vasto giro del Pacfico Sur, donde pasan la mayor parte del tiempo y a veces terminan enganchadas de este modo o por captura incidental. +As que lo que realmente me gustara sugerir es que necesitamos aumentar la escala. +Tenemos que trabajar a nivel local, pero tambin en toda la cuenca del ocano. +Hoy tenemos las herramientas y tecnologas que nos permiten plantear una iniciativa ms amplia en toda la cuenca ocenica. +Hemos odo del Censo de los Predadores del Pacfico uno de los 17 proyectos del Censo de la Vida Marina. +Nos ha proporcionado datos como este, de pequeas pardelas que hacen de toda la cuenca del ocano su hogar. +Vuelan 65.000 km en menos de un ao. +El Censo de la Vida Marina nos brinda herramientas invaluables. +Y es un ao decisivo; que va a ser lanzado en octubre. +As que mantnganse en sintona para ms informacin. +Lo que me parece apasionante es que el Censo de la Vida Marina abarque ms que el Censo de los Predadores del Pacfico, tambin contempla las aguas medias, algo que no se ha explorado, donde criaturas como ste pepino de mar volador se han encontrado. +Afortunadamente, como parte de la UICN, pudimos colaborar con el Censo de la Vida Marina y con muchos de los cientficos que all trabajan para tratar de traducir mucha de esta informacin a los responsables polticos. +Ahora contamos con el apoyo de los gobiernos. +Hemos estado difundiendo esta informacin mediante talleres tcnicos. +Y lo interesante es que tenemos suficiente informacin para avanzar en la proteccin de estos sitios de esperanza, estos puntos lgidos. +Al mismo tiempo estamos diciendo: "S, necesitamos ms. Tenemos que seguir adelante". +Pero muchos de Uds han dicho, si tienen estas reas marinas protegidas, o un rgimen razonable de gestin de pesca de alta mar en el lugar, cmo van a hacer que se cumpla? +Esto me lleva a mi segunda pasin, adems de las ciencias del mar, que es la tecnologa espacial. +Yo quera ser astronauta as que eh constantemente seguido cuales son las herramientas disponibles para monitorear la Tierra desde el espacio exterior... y tenemos herramientas increbles, como hemos estado aprendiendo, para poder hacer un seguimiento de especies marcadas a lo largo de su ciclo de vida en el ocano abierto. +Tambin podemos etiquetar y rastrear a los buques pesqueros. +Muchos ya tienen transpondedores a bordo que nos permiten saber dnde estn e incluso qu estn haciendo. +Pero no todos los buques lo tienen hoy en da. +No hace falta ser demasiado genio para tratar de crear nuevas leyes que lo regulen; si vas a tener el privilegio de acceder a nuestros recursos de alta mar tenemos que saber, alguien tiene que saberlo, dnde ests y qu ests haciendo. +El mensaje que quiero que se lleven a casa es que podemos evitar una tragedia de los recursos compartidos. +Podemos detener el curso de la colisin del 50% del planeta con el alta mar. +Pero tenemos que pensar a gran escala, a nivel mundial. +Tenemos que cambiar la forma de gestionar estos recursos. +Tenemos que implantar el nuevo paradigma de precaucin y respeto. +Y, en tercer lugar, tenemos que gestionar los ocanos en toda la cuenca. +Nuestras especies estn en todo el ocano. +Muchas de las comunidades de aguas profundas tienen una distribucin gentica que abarca toda la cuenca ocenica. +Tenemos que comprender, pero tambin que comenzar a gestionar y proteger. +Y para hacerlo se necesitan regmenes de gestin de la cuenca ocenica. +Es decir, hay regmenes regionales de manejo dentro de la zona econmica exclusiva, pero tenemos que expandirlo, tenemos que crear la capacidad para hacer como en el Ocano Sur donde organizan tanto los caladeros como la conservacin. +Dicho eso, me gustara agradecer sinceramente y honrar a Sylvia Earle por su deseo, porque nos est ayudando a ponerle una cara al alta mar y a las aguas profundas fuera de la jurisdiccin nacional. +Eso ayuda a congregar a un grupo increble de gente talentosa para tratar de resolver realmente estos problemas que nos han obstaculizado la gestin y el uso racional de esta zona que una vez fue tan lejana y remota. +Espero en este recorrido haber facilitado una nueva perspectiva del alta mar: que tambin es nuestro hogar y que tenemos que trabajar juntos si vamos a hacer de ste un futuro sostenible de los ocanos para todos. +Gracias. +Me sucedi algo curioso de camino a convertirme en una brillante neuropsicloga a nivel mundial: Tuve un beb. +Y con eso no quiero decir que alguna vez llegara a ser una brillante neuropsicloga a nivel mundial. +Lo siento, TED. +Pero llegu a ser una aprensiva muy astuta posiblemente a nivel mundial. +Una amiga de la universidad, Marie, me dijo: "Kim, ya s lo que pasa". +"No eres ms neurtica que los dems, simplemente, eres ms honesta acerca de lo neurtica que eres". +As que, con intencin de admitirlo todo, he trado algunas fotos para compartir. +Ohhh! +Slo dir: es julio. +Cierrrrre de seguridad. +Flotadores... para 2,5 cm de agua. +Y finalmente, vestido para la ocasin, para un viaje de 90 min. a Copper Mountain. +As que podrn hacerse una idea de esto. +Mi beb, Vander, ahora tiene ocho aos, +y a pesar de haber sido maldecido con mi incapacidad para el deporte, juega al ftbol. +Le interesa jugar al ftbol. +Quiere aprender a montar en monociclo. +Por qu me preocupo? +Porque es lo que hago. Es lo que enseo. +Es lo que estudio. Es a lo que me dedico. +Los nios sufren conmociones cada ao. +Ms de 4 millones de personas las sufren, y estos datos son de menores de 14 aos atendidos en urgencias. +Cuando los nios sufren una conmocin, decimos que tuvieron una "leve conmocin", pero, de qu estamos hablando realmente? +Echemos un vistazo. +Correcto. "Starsky y Hutch", sin duda. S. +Un accidente de coche. +A 64 km/h contra una valla de proteccin... 35 G. +Un peso pesado del boxeo te golpea directamente en la cara. 58 G. +Por si se lo han perdido, va de nuevo. +Ahora miren a la derecha de la pantalla. +Qu diran? +Qu cantidad de G? +Cerca. +72. +Casi mejor no saberlo. 103 G. +El promedio del impacto de la conmocin es de 95 G. +Cuando el chico de la derecha no se levanta, sabemos que sufri una conmocin cerebral. +Pero, qu pasa con el chico de la izquierda o con el atleta que deja el campo de juego? +Cmo sabemos si ha sufrido una conmocin cerebral? +Cmo sabemos qu criterio aplicar para requerir que abandonen el juego o permitir que sigan jugando? +La definicin de conmocin cerebral no siempre implica prdida de conciencia, +slo implica una alteracin de la conciencia, que puede estar entre uno o varios sntomas, incluyendo: confusin, sensacin de mareo, zumbidos en los odos, y ser ms impulsivo u hostil de lo habitual. +As que, dado esto y lo neurtica que soy, cmo puedo conciliar el sueo? +Porque s que nuestros cerebros son resistentes. +Estn diseados para recuperarse de una lesin. +Si, Dios no lo quiera, algunos de nosotros, al salir esta noche, sufriramos una conmocin, la mayora nos recuperaramos por completo en un plazo de dos horas a dos semanas. +Pero los nios son ms vulnerables a la lesin cerebral. +Es tres veces ms probable que deportistas de secundaria sufran lesiones de consecuencias graves, respecto a sus compaeros universitarios, y tardan ms tiempo en dejar de sufrir los sntomas. +Tras una primera lesin, el riesgo de una segunda es exponencialmente mayor. +A partir de ah, el riesgo de una tercera es an mayor, etc. +Y aqu est la parte realmente alarmante: no acabamos de conocer el impacto a largo plazo de lesiones mltiples. +Amigos, quiz conozcan la investigacin realizada a la National Football League . +En pocas palabras, esta investigacin sugiere que entre los jugadores retirados de la NFL con tres conmociones o ms a en su carrera, los episodios de demencia precoz son mayores que en la poblacin general. +Todos lo habrn visto en el New York Times. +Pero quiz no estn al tanto de que esta investigacin la propiciaron esposas de jugadores de la NFL, que decan: "No es raro que mi marido de 46 aos... ...siempre pierda las llaves?" +"No es raro que mi marido de 47 aos... ...siempre pierda el coche?" +"No es raro que mi marido de 48 aos... ...siempre se pierda con el coche... ...de camino a casa por la carretera?" +Quiz olvid mencionar que mi hijo es hijo nico. +As que es muy importante que pueda llevarme en coche algn da. +cmo garantizar la seguridad de los nios? +Cmo podemos garantizar al 100% la seguridad de nuestros hijos? +Djenme contarles lo que pienso hacer. +Ojal. +Mi pequeo est ah, diciendo: "No bromea +no est bromeando en absoluto". +As que, con toda seriedad: Debera mi hijo jugar al ftbol? +Y los suyos? No lo s. +Pero hay tres cosas que pueden hacer. +La primera es estudiar. +Tienen que familiarizarse con el tema de hoy. +Hay muy buenos recursos. +El CDC tiene un programa: "Heads Up", +en la web "www.cdc.gov". +"Heads Up" se centra en conmocin en nios. +De lo segundo estoy personalmente orgullosa. +Lo lanzamos hace un par de meses... "CO Kids With Brain Injury". +Es buen recurso para estudiantes deportistas, profesores, padres, profesionales, deportistas y entrenadores. +Es un buen lugar para empezar si uno tiene dudas. +La segundo que hay que hacer es hablar. +Hace slo dos semanas, un proyecto de ley del Senador Kefalas, que habra exigido a deportistas y nios, menores de 18 llevar casco mientras van en bicicleta, no prosper en la comisin. +No prosper en gran medida por falta de aceptacin de los electores, y falta de actuacin de los interesados. +No estoy aqu para decirles qu leyes deberan apoyar o no, pero voy a decirles que, si les importa, sus legisladores tienen que saberlo. +Hablen tambin con los entrenadores. +Pregunten qu equipos de proteccin hay. +Cul es el presupuesto para los mismos? +Cul es la antigedad de los mismos? +Ofrzcanse para un evento y recaudar fondos para comprar una equipacin nueva. Esto nos lleva a la indumentaria. +Usen casco. +La nica manera de prevenir algo malo es evitar que ocurra el primer dao. +Hace poco, mi alumno de la universidad, Tom, me dijo: "Kim, voy a usar casco con la bicicleta para venir a clase". +Tom sabe que la poca gomaespuma del casco reduce a la mitad la fuerza G de impacto. +Y yo pens que aquella revelacin de Tom se debi a mi cruzada, totalmente convincente, a favor del uso del casco. +Pero Tom pens que un casco de 20 dlares protegera bien 100 mil dlares en educacin. +Entonces: debera Vander jugar al ftbol? +No puedo decir que no. Pero puedo asegurar que cada vez que sale de casa ese nio lleva puesto un casco. ya sea en el coche, o en la escuela. +Ya sea deportista, estudiante, nio sobreprotegido, con mam neurtica o lo que sea. Ah est mi beb, Vander, recordndoles cuidar la materia. +Gracias. +Me despert en medio de la noche con el sonido de una fuerte explosin. +Era entrada la noche. +No recuerdo qu hora. +Slo recuerdo que el sonido era muy fuerte y muy impactante. +Tembl todo en la habitacin: mi corazn, las ventanas, mi cama... todo. +Mir por la ventana y vi una explosin que formaba un semicrculo completo. +Pens que era como en las pelculas pero en las pelculas no se vean imgenes tan conmovedoras como esas; plenas de rojo brillante de naranja y gris, y todo un crculo de explosiones. +Y me qued mirando eso hasta que desapareci. +Regres a la cama y rec, e internamente di gracias a Dios de que ese misil no cayera en mi hogar, de que no matara a mi familia esa noche. +Han pasado 30 aos y todava me siento culpable por esa oracin porque al da siguiente supe que ese misil cay en la casa de un amigo de mi hermano y lo mat y a su padre, pero no mat a su madre ni a su hermana. +Su madre se apareci a la semana siguiente en el aula de mi hermano y les rog a nios de 7 aos que compartan con ella cualquier foto que pudieran tener de su hijo porque lo haba perdido todo. +Esta no es una historia de sobrevivientes de guerra o refugiados desconocidos cuyas imgenes estereotipadas vemos en los peridicos o en la TV con la ropa hecha jirones, la cara sucia y los ojos asustados. +Esta no es la historia de un desconocido que vivi una guerra de quien no conocemos sus esperanzas, sus sueos, sus logros, sus familias, sus creencias, sus valores. +Esta es mi historia. +Yo era esa chica. +Yo soy otra imagen, otra visin, de otro sobreviviente de guerra. +Soy esa refugiada, y soy esa chica. +Como ven crec en una Irak devastada por la guerra y creo que las guerras tienen dos lados y slo hemos visto un lado. +Slo hablamos de un lado. +Pero hay otro lado del que he sido testigo por haberlo vivido y ser alguien que termin trabajando en eso. +Crec con los colores de la guerra: con el rojo del fuego y la sangre, con el marrn de la tierra explotando en nuestras caras y el plateado penetrante del estallido de un misil, tan brillante que nada puede proteger los ojos contra eso. +Crec con los sonidos de la guerra: los sonidos entrecortados de los disparos, los estruendos desgarradores de las explosiones, los zumbidos siniestros del sobrevuelo de aviones y el lamento de las alertas de las sirenas. +Son los sonidos que cabe esperar pero son adems los sonidos de conciertos disonantes de una bandada de pjaros chirriando en la noche, son el llanto agudo y sincero de los nios y el silencio estruendoso e insoportable. +"Guerra!", dijo un amigo, "No se trata de sonido. +En realidad, se trata del silencio, del silencio de la Humanidad". +Fue entonces que dej Irak y fund un grupo llamado Women for Women International que termina trabajando con mujeres sobrevivientes de guerra. +En mis viajes y mi trabajo desde Congo hasta Afganistn, desde Sudn hasta Ruanda, entend no slo que los colores y los sonidos de la guerra son los mismos sino que los miedos de la guerra son iguales. +Existe el temor de morir; no le crean a las pelculas donde el hroe no tiene miedo. +Es muy aterrador sentir eso de "estoy a punto de morir" o "podra morir en una explosin". +Adems est el miedo a perder seres queridos; creo que eso es lo peor. +Es muy doloroso; uno no quiere ni pensarlo. +Pero creo que el peor temor es el que me dijo una vez Samia, una mujer bosnia que sobrevivi los 4 aos del sitio a Sarajevo. Dijo: "Es el temor de perder mi yo interior, el temor de perder mi yo interior". +Eso es lo que mi madre en Irak sola decirme. +Es como morir por dentro. +Una mujer palestina me dijo una vez: "No es el miedo a una muerte", dijo, "a veces siento que muero 10 veces en un da", al tiempo que describa la marcha de soldados y el sonido de sus balas. +Y dijo: "Pero no es justo, porque hay slo una vida, y debera haber slo una muerte". +Hemos estado viendo slo un lado de la guerra. +Slo hemos estado discutiendo, enfrascados en preocupaciones de alto nivel sobre niveles de tropas, calendarios de retirada, intervenciones quirrgicas y emboscadas, cuando deberamos haber analizado en detalle la desintegracin del tejido social, el modo en que la comunidad improvis, sobrevivi y mostr capacidad de recuperacin y un coraje increble para continuar con la vida cotidiana. +Hemos estado inmersos en discusiones aparentemente objetivas de poltica, tctica, armas, dlares y bajas. +Es la expresin de lo ftil. +Cmo hablar a la ligera de bajas en el marco de este tema? +As, entonces, pensamos a las violaciones y las bajas como inevitables. +El 80% de los refugiados en todo el mundo son mujeres y nios. Oh! +El 90% de las vctimas en las guerras modernas son civiles +y el 75% de ellos son mujeres y nios. +Qu interesante! +Oh, medio milln de mujeres en Ruanda son violadas en 100 das. +O, mientras hablamos, cientos de miles de mujeres congolesas son violadas y mutiladas. +Qu interesante! +Todo se convierte en nmeros de los que hablamos. +En el frente de guerra hay cada vez ms ojos artificiales vigilando a los supuestos enemigos desde el espacio, guiando misiles hacia blancos invisibles, mientras que la conducta humana de la orquesta de relaciones mediticas, en este caso del ataque teledirigido en particular, ataca a un aldeano en vez de a un extremista. +Es un ajedrez. +Se aprende a jugar en una escuela de relaciones internacionales en la carrera hacia el liderazgo nacional e internacional. +Jaque mate. +Nos estamos perdiendo un lado completamente diferente de las guerras. +Nos perdemos la historia de mi madre que se asegur en cada sirena, en cada ataque, en cada corte de electricidad, de entretenernos con tteres, a mi hermano y a m, para que no nos asustsemos con el sonido de las explosiones. +Esa fue su lucha. +Esa fue su resistencia. +Nos perdemos la historia de Nehia, una mujer palestina de Gaza quien en el momento en que hubo un alto el fuego el ao pasado sali de la casa recolect toda la harina y horne pan para todos los vecinos por si acaso no haba alto el fuego al da siguiente. +Nos perdemos las historias de Violet que luego de sobrevivir al genocidio de la masacre de la iglesia sigui adelante enterrando cuerpos, limpiando casas y calles. +Nos perdemos las historias de las mujeres que, literalmente, sostienen la vida en medio de las guerras. +Saban... saban que las personas se enamoran en la guerra, que van a la escuela, a las fbricas, a los hospitales; que se divorcian, que van a bailar y a jugar; que tienen una vida? +Y las que hacen posible esa vida son las mujeres. +Hay dos lados de la guerra. +Est el lado que lucha y el que mantiene abiertas las escuelas las fbricas y los hospitales. +Hay un lado que se ocupa de ganar batallas, y otro que se ocupa de ganar vida. +Hay un lado que dirige la discusin de la primera lnea y hay otro lado que dirige la discusin de la retaguardia. +Hay un lado que piensa que la paz es el fin de los combates y hay otro lado que piensa que la paz es la llegada de las escuelas y los empleos. +Hay un lado liderado por los hombres, y hay otro lado liderado por las mujeres. +Y para que podamos entender cmo construir una paz duradera debemos entender la guerra y la paz de ambos lados. +Debemos tener una visin completa de lo que eso significa. +Para que podamos entender qu es la paz [en realidad] tenemos que entender, como dijo una vez una mujer sudanesa: "La paz es cuando las uas de los pies crecen otra vez". +Ella creci en Sudn, en el sur de Sudn, donde, en 20 aos de guerra, murieron un milln de personas y hubo cinco millones de refugiados. +Muchas mujeres fueron esclavizadas por rebeldes y soldados; eran esclavas obligadas a llevar las municiones, el agua y la comida para los soldados. +Las mujeres caminaron durante 20 aos para no volver a ser secuestradas. +Y slo cuando hubo cierto grado de paz las uas de sus pies volvieron a crecer. +Tenemos que entender la paz desde la perspectiva de las uas. +Tenemos que entender que en realidad no podemos negociar el fin de la guerra o la paz sin una inclusin total de la mujer en la mesa de negociacin. +Me parece increble que el nico grupo de personas que no lucha, ni mata, que no saquea, ni quema, ni viola, el grupo de personas que en su mayora, aunque no exclusivamente, mantiene la vida en medio de la guerra, no est presente en la mesa de negociacin. +Y sostengo que las mujeres llevan la discusin de la retaguardia, pero tambin hay hombres excluidos de esa discusin. +Los mdicos que no estn luchando, los artistas, los estudiantes, los hombres que se niegan a reanudar el fuego, ellos tambin estn excluidos de las mesas de negociacin. +No hay manera de hablar de una paz duradera de construir democracia, economas sostenibles, de cualquier tipo de estabilidad, si no incluimos plenamente a la mujer en la mesa de negociacin. +Y no el 1% sino el 50%. +No hay manera de que podamos hablar de construir estabilidad si no empezamos a invertir en las mujeres y las chicas. +Saban que un ao de gastos militares del mundo equivale a 700 aos del presupuesto de la ONU, y a 2.928 aos del presupuesto de la ONU asignado a las mujeres? +Con slo revertir esa distribucin de fondos tal vez podramos tener una paz ms duradera en este mundo. +Y por ltimo pero no menos importante, tenemos que invertir en la paz y en las mujeres, no slo porque es lo correcto, no slo porque corresponde que todos construyamos hoy una paz sostenible y duradera, sino que es por el futuro. +Una mujer congolesa que me estaba contando cmo sus hijos que vieron morir a su padre enfrente de ellos y vieron cmo la violaban a ella y cmo la mutilaban en frente a ellos; que vieron morir a su hermano de 9 aos frente a ellos, cmo ahora estn bien. +Entr al programa Women for Women International. +Ahora tiene una red de contencin. +Aprendi sus derechos. +La capacitamos profesional y comercialmente. Le ayudamos a conseguir un empleo. +Ella estaba ganando $450. Le iba bien. +Enviaba a los nios a la escuela; tena un huevo hogar. +Dijo: "Pero lo que ms me preocupa no es nada de eso. +Me preocupa que mis hijos tienen odio en sus corazones y cuando crezcan quieren volver a combatir a los asesinos de su padre y de su hermano". +Tenemos que invertir en las mujeres porque es nuestra nica oportunidad de asegurar que no haya ms guerras en el futuro. +La madre tiene ms oportunidades de sanar a sus hijos que cualquier tratado de paz. +Hay buenas noticias? Claro que hay buenas noticias. Hay montones de buenas noticias. +Para empezar, estas mujeres de las que les habl bailan y cantan todos los das, y si ellas pueden quines somos nosotros para no bailar? +Esa chica de la que les cont termin fundando Women for Women International Group que hizo que un milln de personas enviaran 80 millones de dlares y empec esto desde cero, nothing, nada, rien. +Son mujeres que siguen de pie a pesar de sus circunstancias, no gracias a ellas. +Piensen cmo el mundo puede ser un lugar mucho mejor si, para variar, tenemos una mayor igualdad, tenemos igualdad, tenemos representacin y comprendemos la guerra tanto desde el frente como desde la retaguardia. +Rumi, un poeta suf del siglo XIII, dice: "Ms all de los mundos de las buenas y las malas acciones hay un campo. +Los encontrar all. +Cuando el alma yace en esa hierba, el mundo est demasiado ocupado para hablar. +Las ideas, el lenguaje, incluso la frase "unos a otros" ya no tiene ningn sentido". +Humildemente agrego, humildemente, que ms all de las palabras guerra y paz hay un campo y hay muchas mujeres y hombres reunidos all. +Hagamos de ese campo un lugar mucho ms grande. +Encontrmonos todos en ese campo. +Gracias. +Voy a hablar sobre el trabajo, y, especficamente, de por qu la gente no puede hacer su trabajo en el trabajo, que es un problema comn a todos. +Pero empecemos por el principio. +Existen compaas, ONGs y organizaciones benficas y todos esos grupos que tienen empleados o voluntarios de algn tipo. +Y esperan que estas personas que trabajan para ellos hagan un gran trabajo; al menos yo lo esperara. +Por lo menos se espera un buen trabajo, al menos que sea bueno y, con suerte, que sea un gran trabajo. +Y lo que suelen hacer, por lo general, es juntar a todas esas personas en un mismo lugar para que hagan ese trabajo. +As, en una empresa, una organizacin benfica o de otro tipo, por lo general -a menos que tengamos la suerte de estar en frica- la mayora de la gente va a la oficina cada da. +As que estas empresas construyen oficinas. +Van y compran un edificio, o lo alquilan, o arriendan un lugar, y llenan el espacio con cosas. +Lo ocupan con mesas, escritorios, sillas, equipos informticos, software, acceso a internet, quiz un refrigerador, tal vez otras cosas, y esperan que sus empleados, o sus voluntarios, vayan a ese lugar todos los das a hacer un gran trabajo. +Parece perfectamente razonable pedir eso. +Pero si uno habla realmente con la gente o se lo cuestiona uno mismo, y te preguntas, dnde quieres ir cuando realmente necesitas terminar algo? +Vern que las personas no dicen lo que las empresas piensan que dirn. +Si uno hace la pregunta: dnde ir realmente cuando se necesita terminar algo? +Por lo general hay tres tipos de respuestas. +Una es algn tipo de lugar, ubicacin o sala. +Otra es un objeto en movimiento. Y la tercera es algn momento. +Aqu hay algunos ejemplos. +Cuando le pregunto a las personas -y he estado hacindolo durante unos 10 aos- les pregunto: "A dnde vas cuando tienes que terminar algo?" +Escucho cosas como, el porche, la terraza, la cocina. +Escucho cosas como una habitacin extra en la casa, el stano, la cafetera, la biblioteca. +Y despus escucho cosas como en el tren, en el avin o en el auto; de camino al trabajo. +Y tambin escucho a la gente decir: "Bueno, en realidad no importa dnde est mientras que sea muy temprano por la maana, o muy tarde por la noche, o el fin de semana". +Casi nunca se oye a alguien decir en la oficina. +Pero las empresas gastan todo este dinero en ese lugar llamado oficina y hacen que la gente vaya all todo el tiempo. Sin embargo, la gente no hace el trabajo en la oficina. +De qu se trata? +Por qu pasa? Por qu sucede eso? +Y lo que uno encuentra, si hurga un poco, encuentra que las personas -esto es lo que sucede- las personas van al trabajo y bsicamente sustituyen su jornada laboral por una serie de momentos de trabajo. Eso es lo que sucede en la oficina. +Ya no hay jornada laboral; lo que hay son momentos de trabajo. +luego uno tiene 15 minutos, y alguien lo interrumpe con una pregunta. Y sin darnos cuenta se hicieron las cinco de la tarde y uno repasa el da y se da cuenta que no termin nada. +Quiero decir, todos hemos pasado por esto. +Quiz nos pas ayer, +o anteayer, o el da anterior a ese. Repasas el da y te dices, hoy no he terminado de hacer nada. +Fui a trabajar. Me sent en mi escritorio. Us mi costoso equipo +y el software que me dijeron que usara. +Asist a las reuniones a las que me pidieron que fuese. +Hice todas esas llamadas. Hice todo eso. +Pero en realidad no hice nada. +Slo hice tareas. +En realidad no hice un trabajo relevante. +Y lo que uno descubre, sobre todo con gente creativa -diseadores, programadores, escritores, ingenieros, pensadores- es que esa gente realmente necesita largos perodos de tiempo sin interrupciones para hacer algo. No se le puede pedir a alguien que sea creativo en 15 minutos y pueda pensar realmente en un problema. +Uno puede hacerse una idea rpida pero para pensar con profundidad en un problema y analizarlo detenidamente se necesitan largos periodos de tiempo sin interrupciones. +Y an cuando la jornada laboral tpica es de ocho horas cuntos de los presentes han tenido ocho horas para s mismos en la oficina? +Y siete horas? +Seis? Cinco? Cuatro? +Cundo fue la ltima vez que tuvieron tres horas para s en la oficina? +Dos horas? Una, tal vez. +Realmente muy poca gente dispone de largos perodos de tiempo sin interrupciones en una oficina. +Bueno, hay diferentes tipos de distracciones, pero no son las distracciones realmente malas de las que voy a hablar en un momento. +Y este tipo de fenmeno de tener arranques cortos de tiempo para hacer las cosas me recuerda otra cosa que no funciona cuando a uno lo interrumpen, y es el sueo. +Creo que el sueo y el trabajo estn estrechamente relacionados. Y no es que uno pueda trabajar mientras duerme o dormir mientras trabaja. +No es eso a lo que me refiero. +Estoy hablando especficamente del hecho de que el sueo y el trabajo tienen fases o eventos en etapas. +Dormir es una cuestin de fases o etapas; algunas personas las llaman de maneras diferentes. +Hay cinco etapas y para llegar a las fases realmente profundas, a las ms significativas, hay que pasar por las etapas tempranas. +Y si nos interrumpen mientras estamos en las etapas tempranas, si alguien nos golpea en la cama, o si hay un sonido, o pasa algo, no lo podemos retomar donde habamos quedado. +Si nos interrumpen y nos despertamos hay que empezar de nuevo. +As que se retrocede unas fases y se empieza de nuevo. +Y lo que termina pasando -a veces uno tiene das como estos, en los que a las 8 de la maana, o a las 7 de la maana, o cuando nos levantemos, uno piensa, vaya, realmente no dorm muy bien. +Cumpl el ritual del sueo: fui a la cama, me acost, pero realmente no dorm. +Las personas dicen voy a dormir pero en realidad no van a dormir, van a intentar dormir. +Lleva un tiempo; hay que pasar por estas fases y esas cosas. Y si nos interrumpen no dormimos bien. +Cmo esperamos...? De los presentes, alguien espera dormir bien si lo interrumpen toda la noche? +No creo que alguien diga que s. +Por qu esperar que la gente trabaje bien si se la interrumpe todo el da en la oficina? +Cmo podemos esperar que la gente haga su trabajo si van a la oficina a ser interrumpidos? +Para m eso no parece tener mucho sentido. +Qu interrupciones ocurren en la oficina pero no en otros lugares? +Porque en otros lugares hay interrupciones como la televisin, o salir a caminar, o un refrigerador en la parte de abajo, o el propio sof, o lo que sea que queramos hacer. +Y si uno habla con algunos gerentes, dicen que no quieren que sus empleados trabajen desde la casa debido a estas distracciones. +Tambin dirn, a veces tambin dirn: "Bueno, si no puedo ver a la persona, cmo s que est trabajando?" +Algo ridculo, por supuesto, pero esa es una de las excusas de los gerentes. +Y yo soy uno de esos gerentes. Yo lo entiendo, s de qu va esto. +Todos tenemos que mejorar en este tipo de cosas. +A menudo mencionan distracciones: "No puedo dejar que trabajen desde la casa. +Van a ver la televisin. Van a hacer esta otra cosa". +Pero en realidad resulta que no son esas cosas las que distraen. Porque esas son distracciones voluntarias. +Uno decide cuando quiere distraerse con la TV. Uno decide cuando quiere encender algo. Uno decide cuando quiere bajar a dar un paseo. +En la oficina la mayora de las interrupciones y distracciones que hacen que la gente realmente no termine el trabajo son involuntarias. +Repasemos algunas de ellas. +Los gerentes y los jefes querrn que pensemos que las distracciones reales del trabajo son cosas como Facebook, Twitter, Youtube y otros sitios web. De hecho, van a ir ms lejos y prohibirn estos sitios en el trabajo. +Algunos de Uds quiz trabajen en lugares en los que no pueden acceder a ciertos sitios. +Yo digo, estamos en China? Qu demonios est pasando? +No se puede acceder a un sitio web en el trabajo, +Es ese el problema? Por eso las personas no terminan su trabajo? Porque estn entrando a Facebook o a Twitter? +Eso es algo ridculo. Es una trampa total. +Los Facebook, Twitter y Youtube son las pausas para fumar de hoy en da. +A nadie le importaba permitirle a la gente 15 minutos para fumar hace 10 aos, por qu molesta que alguien entre a Facebook cada tanto, o a Twitter, o a Youtube cada tanto? +Esos no son los problemas reales de la oficina. +Los problemas reales son lo que me gusta llamar M&M gerentes y reuniones (Managers&Meetings, NT) +Esos son los problemas reales de las oficinas modernas. +Y por esto las cosas no se terminan en el trabajo, por culpa de los M&M. +Ahora bien, lo interesante si escuchamos todos los lugares donde la gente dice hacer su trabajo - como la casa, el auto, el avin, tarde por la noche, temprano por la maana- es que no hay gerentes ni reuniones; +hay muchas otras distracciones, pero no hay gerentes ni reuniones. +Estas son las cosas que no hay en otros lugares, salvo en la oficina. +Y los gerentes bsicamente son personas cuyo trabajo consiste en interrumpir a la gente. +Para eso, ms o menos, estn los gerentes; para interrumpir a la gente. +En realidad, no hacen el trabajo por eso tienen que asegurarse que otro lo haga, y eso es una interrupcin. +Hoy hay un montn de gerentes en el mundo. Y hoy hay un montn de gente en el mundo. Hay muchas interrupciones en el mundo debido a estos gerentes. +Tienen que verificar: "Oye, cmo va? +Mustrame que hay de nuevo", y esas cosas. +Y siguen interrumpiendo en el momento inoportuno en que uno est tratando de hacer algo por lo que le estn pagando, tienden a interrumpir. +Eso est mal. +Pero an peor es algo que hacen los gerentes, sobre todo, algo llamado reuniones. +Las reuniones son txicas, son cosas terribles, venenosas, en la jornada laboral. +Todos sabemos que esto es cierto. Jams van a ver una reunin espontnea convocada por los empleados; +no es as como funciona. +El gerente convoca una reunin, se renen todos los empleados, y es algo muy perjudicial para la gente decirles: "Oigan, vamos a juntar 10 personas ahora mismo y tener una reunin. +No me importa lo que estn haciendo. Slo dejen de hacer lo que estn haciendo para que podamos tener esta reunin". +Quiero decir, qu posibilidad hay de que las 10 personas puedan parar? +Qu pasa si estn pensando algo importante? Qu pasa si estn haciendo un trabajo importante? +De repente se les est diciendo que dejen de hacer eso para hacer otra cosa. +Van a una sala de reuniones, se renen, y por lo general hablan de cosas realmente sin importancia. +Porque las reuniones no son trabajo. +Las reuniones son lugares para ir a hablar de cosas que se supone se harn ms tarde. +Las reuniones tambin se reproducen. +Una reunin lleva a otra reunin y esa a su vez lleva a otra reunin. +A menudo hay demasiada gente en las reuniones y eso es muy, muy costoso para la organizacin. +Las empresas creen que una reunin de una hora es de una hora pero eso no es verdad, a menos que haya slo una persona en esa reunin. +Si hay 10 personas en la reunin, es una reunin de 10 horas, no una reunin de una hora. +Son 10 horas de productividad que se le quitan al resto de la organizacin para tener esta reunin de una hora a la que tal vez deberan haber ido dos o tres personas a hablar unos minutos. +Pero en cambio se programa una reunin larga porque las reuniones se programan en funcin del software, que se maneja en incrementos de 15 minutos, 30 minutos, o una hora. +No se programa una reunin de 8 horas con Outlook. No se puede. Ni siquiera s si se puede. +Puede ponerse 15 minutos, 30 minutos, 45 minutos, o una hora. +As que tendemos a llenar esos tiempos cuando las cosas deberan resolverse ms rpidamente. +As que las reuniones y los gerentes son dos problemas importantes hoy en las empresas, sobre todo en las oficinas. +Son cosas que no existen fuera de la oficina. +Por eso tengo algunas sugerencias para remediar la situacin. +Qu pueden hacer los gerentes -los iluminados, esperemos- qu pueden hacer para que la oficina sea un mejor lugar de trabajo, para que no sea el ltimo recurso, sino la primera instancia? Que las personas empiecen a decir: "Cuando quiero terminar algo voy a la oficina". +Porque las oficinas estn bien equipadas, all debe haber de todo para que puedan terminar su trabajo, +pero en este momento no quieren ir all, cmo se revierte eso? +Tengo tres sugerencias para compartir con Uds. +Me quedan unos tres minutos; creo que alcanzar perfecto. +Todos hemos odo hablar del "viernes casual". +No s si la gente lo hace todava. +Pero qu tal un "jueves sin hablar"? +Qu tal si... elegimos un jueves al mes partimos ese da a la mitad y dejamos la tarde -se lo voy a hacer realmente fcil- +slo la tarde de un jueves, +el primer jueves del mes -slo por la tarde- nadie en la oficina puede hablar con otro. +Slo silencio, eso es todo. +Van a descubrir que se hace una tremenda cantidad de trabajo cuando nadie habla con nadie. +Ah es cuando la gente logra terminar las cosas, cuando nadie les molesta, cuando nadie les interrumpe. +Se les puede dar... darle a alguien 4 horas ininterrumpidas es el mejor regalo que se le puede dar a alguien en el trabajo. +Es mejor que una computadora. Es mejor que un monitor nuevo. Es mejor que un programa nuevo, o lo que la gente suela utilizar. +Darles 4 horas de calma en la oficina va a ser algo muy valioso. +Y si lo prueban creo que van a estar de acuerdo. Y, tal vez, es de esperar que lo hagan ms a menudo. +Quiz sea cada dos semanas o cada semana, una vez por semana, por la tarde no se puede hablar con otros. +Eso es algo que van a ver que realmente funciona muy bien. +Otra cosa que pueden probar es pasar de una comunicacin y una colaboracin activa -como un cara a cara, tocar el hombro, saludar, tener reuniones- a modelos ms pasivos de comunicacin usando correo electrnico y mensajera instantnea o productos de colaboracin y cosas como esas. +Hay quienes pueden decir que el correo electrnico distrae o que distrae la mensajera instantnea y que otras cosas realmente distraen pero lo hacen en un momento de eleccin propia; nosotros elegimos. +Uno puede cerrar el correo, pero no puede cerrar al jefe. +Se puede cerrar el chat pero no minimizar al gerente. +Se pueden apartar estas cosas y luego ser interrumpidos siguiendo un plan propio, un horario propio, cundo estemos disponibles, cundo estemos listos para seguir. +Porque el trabajo, como el sueo, sucede en fases. +Uno va y hace un trabajo y despus termina ese trabajo y tal vez es el momento de mirar el correo electrnico, o el chat. +Y hay realmente muy pocas cosas tan urgentes que tengan que ser respondidas en este preciso instante. +Si eres gerente empieza a incentivar a la gente para que use el chat y el correo electrnico y otras cosas que se puedan dejar de lado y luego volver a ellas segn el propio plan de trabajo. +Y la ltima sugerencia que tengo es que, si tienen planeada una reunin, y pueden hacerlo, +sencillamente la cancelen, cancelen esa prxima reunin. +Hoy es viernes. La gente por lo general se rene los lunes. +Simplemente no lo hagan. +Y no digo que la pospongan, digo que la eliminen de la memoria; se fue. +Y van a ver que todo va a salir bien. +Todas esas discusiones y decisiones que pensaban que tenan que tomar a las 9 de la maana del lunes olvdense de eso, y las cosas saldrn bien. +La gente va a tener una maana mejor, van a poder pensar de verdad, +y van a ver que quiz todas esas cosas que pensaban que tenan que hacer en realidad no eran necesarias. +Esas eran tres sugerencias rpidas que quera transmitirles para que lo piensen. +Y espero que algunas de estas ideas sean lo suficientemente provocadoras para que gerentes, jefes, dueos de empresas, organizadores y gente que tenga a cargo otra gente, piensen en dejarlos un poco en paz y dar a la gente ms tiempo para que terminen su trabajo. +Y creo que al final todo dar su fruto. +Gracias por escucharme. +Muchas gracias. +Aqu tengo algunas fotos. Les contar un poco sobre cmo soy capaz de hacer lo que hago. +Todas estas casas estn hechas de un 70% u 80% de materiales reciclados que iban a ser quemados, desechados o hechos virutas. +No servan para nada. +sta es la primera que constru. +Esta puerta doble tiene un montante de tres luces que iba para el vertedero. +Tiene un pequeo torren +y esos botones de ah en las mnsulas, +los que estn justo ah, son nueces de nogal. +Y estos de aqu son huevos de pollo. +Por supuesto primero desayunas y luego los rellenas con masilla, los pintas y los cierras, y consigues un botn arquitectnico en un momento. +Ahore miren el interior. +Pueden ver el montante de tres luces encima de las ventanas de medio punto que son ya una antigedad en arquitectura, y que iba para el vertedero. +El juego de cerrojos puede valer unos 200$. +Tambin rescat todo lo de la cocina: +una hornilla O'Keefe & Merritt de 1952, por si te gusta cocinar, es buensimo. +Por ah se llega al pequeo torren. +Esa escalera me cost 20$ con gastos de transporte incluidos. +Si observamos el interior del torren, vemos bultos, curvas, salientes y muchas irregularidades. +Bueno, si no puedes soportarlo, no deberas vivir en esa casa. +Esto es una trampilla para la ropa sucia y eso una horma para zapatos. +Y esas, piezas de hierro fundido de las que hay en los anticuarios. +Compr una de esas y fabriqu un pequeo artilugio. Si pisas la horma de zapato, se abre la trampilla y puedes tirar la ropa sucia. +Y si eres listo, caer en una cesta justo encima de la lavadora. +Si no lo eres, caer en el retrete. +Eso es una baera hecha por m con piezas de 2,5 por 10 cm. +Empec con una carcasa y fui pegando las piezas y colocndolas en la superficie, por capas y volteadas hasta terminar por esta parte. +Es una baera para dos. +No es slo una cuestin de higiene, sino que ofrece la oportunidad de recrearse. +Y este grifo de aqu es una pieza de naranjo de Osage. +Es un poco flica, pero bueno, es un cuarto de bao. +Esta casa est inspirada en una lata de cerveza Budweiser. +No se parece a una lata de cerveza, pero la inspiracin en el diseo es inconfundible +El diseo en forma de lpulos de cebada llega hasta los aleros y la moldura dentada se inspira en el rojo, blanco, azul y plateado de la lata. +Estas mnsulas que suben hasta los aleros son parecidas al diseo de la lata. +Lo puse en una fotocopiadora y lo aument hasta el tamao deseado. +En la lata dice: "Esta es la conocida cerveza Budweiser, la incomparable, bla bla bla". +Lo cambiamos y pusimos: "Esta es la conocida casa Budweiser... +...la incomparable..." etc, etc. +Esto es un cerrojo de seguridad. Es un seguro de un torno de 1930, una mquina muy potente para trabajar madera. +Me dieron el seguro, pero no me dieron el torno, as que hicimos un cerrojo. +Os aseguro que eso puede parar a un elefante. +Y de hecho, todava no hemos tenido problemas con ningn elefante. +La ducha simula un vaso de cerveza. +Tenemos burbujas subiendo y azulejos con grumos para la espuma arriba. +Dnde se compran los azulejos con grumos?Obviamente, no hay. +Pero consigo muchos inodoros, se destrozan a martillazos, y se obtienen los azulejos con grumos. +Y este grifo de aqu es un tirador de cerveza. +Luego esta vidriera, es la misma vidriera que tienen en la puerta de entrada todas las familias de clase media de EEUU. +Estamos cansados de ella. Ya es como un clich. +Si la pones en la puerta delantera, te cargas el diseo. +As que no la pongas en esa puerta, ponla en otro sitio. +Es una vidriera bonita, +pero si la pones en la puerta delantera, te dirn: "Oh, ests intentando imitar a otros y no lo consigues". +As que no la pongas ah. +ste es el cuarto de bao de arriba. +Esta misma lmpara est en todos los vestbulos de clase media de EEUU. +No lo pongas en el vestbulo, +ponla en la ducha, o en el armario, pero no en el vestbulo. +Alguien me regal un bid, as que puse un bid. +Y en esta pequea casa de aqu, esas ramas estn hechas de madera de arco o naranjo de Osage. Y esas fotos seguirn pasando mientras yo hablo un poco. +Para hacer lo que yo hago, primero hay que comprender qu produce los desechos en la construccin. +Nuestras viviendas se han convertido en mercanca, y de eso hablar despus. +La primera razn se encuentra probablemente en nuestro ADN. +Los seres humanos necesitan mantener la regularidad para poder apercibir el conjunto. +Qu significa esto? +Significa que cada percepcin que recibimos necesita cuadrar con la anterior, o perderemos la continuidad y nos desorientaremos un poco. +Por ejemplo, les puedo mostrar algo que nunca han visto. +Ah!, es un telfono mvil. +Sin embargo, este no lo han visto nunca. +Lo que estn haciendo es analizar sus rasgos estructurales y despus buscar en su banco de datos. Brrrrrr: telfono mvil. +Ah!, es un telfono mvil. +Si me como un trozo, diran: "Un momento... +...eso no es un mvil". +Es uno de esos mviles nuevos de chocolate". +Y tendran que crear una nueva categora entre los mviles y el chocolate. +As es como procesamos la informacin. +Trasladmoslo a la industria de la construccin. Si tenemos una ventana con cristales y un cristal est roto, decimos: "Dios mo, est roto. Vamos a quitarlo... +... vamos a tirarlo para que nadie lo coja y ponemos uno nuevo". +Porque eso es lo que se hace con un cristal roto. +Da igual que no nos afecte en nada, +simplemente estropea el patrn y la unidad de las caractersticas estructurales. +Sin embargo, si cogiramos un martillo y agrietramos todos los dems cristales, entonces tendramos un patrn. +Para la psicologa Gestalt el reconocimiento del patrn en su conjunto es ms importante que el reconocimiento de sus partes. +"Oh, qu bonito". +Utilizo esa idea todos los das. +Las repeticiones crean motivos. +Si tengo cien de stos y cien de aqullos, da igual lo que sean stos y aqullos. +Si puedo utilizar algo repetidamente, puedo crear un patrn; utilizando desde nueces, huevos o trozos de vidrio, hasta ramas. +Da igual. +Eso genera muchos desechos en la industria de la construccin. +En segundo lugar, Nietzsche escribi un libro en 1885 titulado "El nacimiento de la tragedia". +Y en l deca que las culturas tienden a oscilar entre dos perspectivas diferentes. +Por un lado, la perspectiva apolnea, concisa, premeditada, intelectualizada, y perfecta. +Por otro lado, tenemos la perspectiva dionisaca, dada a las pasiones y a la intuicin, tolerante con la textura orgnica y el gesto humano. +La personalidad apolnea cuelga las fotos de la siguiente manera: saca un teodolito, un nivel lser y un micrmetro... +"As, cario. Slo un nanmetro a la izquierda. +Ah es donde debe estar la foto. Perfecto". +Medida con una plomada, nivelada y centrada. +La personalidad dionisaca toma la foto y hace... +sa es la diferencia. +Yo muestro la imperfeccin. +Yo muestro un proceso orgnico, +como el imparcial y prctico John Dewey. +La mentalidad apolnea crea toneladas de desechos. +Si algo no es perfecto, si no cuadra con el modelo planeado, a la basura. +"Uy, no sirve, a la basura". +"Uy, esto o aquello. Al vertedero. Todo a la basura". +Lo tercero podra decirse que es... La Revolucin Industrial empez con el Renacimiento, con el desarrollo del humanismo, luego arrancaron con la Revolucin Francesa. +A mediados del XIX, estaba en su mximo apogeo, +y tenamos miles de aparatitos y cacharritos, artilugios y artefactos que podan hacer todo lo que hasta ese momento haba que hacer a mano. +As llegamos a la estandarizacin de los materiales. +Los rboles no crecen en bloques de 5 cm x 10 cm, 2, 4 y 8 metros de alto. +Producimos toneladas de desperdicios. +Si algo no es estndar: "Uy, que est combado, al contenedor". +Si compras una tabla de madera y no est recta, puedes devolverla. +"Lo siento, seor. Le daremos una que est recta". +Bueno, yo utilizo todas esas cosas imperfectas porque la repeticin crea el patrn, y lo hago desde la perspectiva dionisiaca. +Cuarto punto: la mano de obra es muchsimo ms cara que los materiales. +Eso es slo un mito. +Aqu va una historia sobre Jim Tulles, un chico al que yo ense. Le digo: "Jim, vamos... +...te consegu un trabajo como capataz de unos carpinteros. Venga". +"Dan, no me siento preparado". +"Venga, Jim. T nos guas". +As que salimos. +All estaba con su cinta mtrica, escudriando en la basura, buscando materiales para los dinteles, la parte superior del marco de una puerta, y pensando que impresionara a su jefe. As lo hemos enseado. +Y el encargado lo ve y le pregunta: "Qu ests haciendo?". +"Ah, buscando algo para los dinteles", contesta, esperando su reconocimiento. +"No, no te estoy pagando para que rebusques en la basura. Venga a trabajar". +Y tuvo el coraje de responderle: "Si me estuviera pagando 300 dlares por hora, entendera que me dijera eso, pero as le estoy ahorrando 5$ por minuto. +Calclelo". +"Bien dicho, Tulles. A partir de ahora buscis en la basura antes de nada". +Lo gracioso es que el chico no era bueno en matemticas. +Pero de vez en cuando logramos acceder a los mandos y entonces puedes manipular los botones de control. +Eso es lo que pas en este caso. +El quinto punto es que, probablemente despus de 2500 aos, Platn se siga saliendo con la suya respecto a su nocin de las ideas. +Deca que todos tenemos en la cabeza la idea perfecta de lo que queremos y que forzamos los recursos naturales para satisfacernos. +Todos tenemos en nuestra mente la casa perfecta, el sueo americano: una casa... ...la casa de tus sueos. +El problema es que no podemos permitrnosla, +pero s el sustituto del sueo americano: la casa mvil. +Hoy da tenemos una gran plaga: +las hipotecas mobiliarias, tal y como los muebles o los coches. +Firmas el cheque y automticamente pierde el 30% de su valor. +Despus de un ao no puedes asegurar todo lo que contiene, slo el 70%. +Normalmente llevan un cable de calibre 14, +que no es nada malo, a menos que le exijas el rendimiento de un cable del 12. Y eso es lo que sucede. +Desgasifican tanto metanal que existe una ley federal que obliga a advertir a los compradores del peligro de un exceso de metanal en el aire. +Somos unos tontos insensatos? +Las paredes son as de gruesas. +Esas casas tienen el valor estructural del maz. +"Pensaba que el pueblo de Palm Harbor quedaba ah". +"No, qu va. Anoche hizo mucho viento +y se lo llev todo". +Y cuando se estropean, qu hacemos con ellas? +Pues bien, todo esto, el modelo apolneo, el platnico, es en lo que se basa la industria de la construccin, y un cierto nmero de cosas lo agravan an ms. +En primer lugar los expertos: todos los comerciantes, los vendedores, los inspectores, los ingenieros y los arquitectos, todos piensan igual. +Y de esta manera la idea llega hasta el consumidor que demanda el mismo modelo. +Es una profeca autosatisfactoria. Es imposible escaparse. +Y aqu llegan los agentes comerciales y los publicistas: +"Guau, guau guauuu". +Compramos cosas que ni sabamos que necesitbamos. +Lo nico que tenemos que hacer es lo que una empresa hizo con un zumo de ciruelas pasas con gas. +Qu asqueroso. +Saben qu hicieron? Lo convirtieron en una metfora y dijeron: "Bebo Dr Pepper...". +Y rpidamente empezamos a beber enormes cantidades, miles de millones de litros. +Y ni siquiera tiene ciruelas, y tampoco te hace ir bien al bao. +Dios mo, eso lo empeora. +Y nos dejamos atrapar tan fcilmente! +Un tipo llamado Jean-Paul Sartre escribi un libro titulado "El ser y la nada". +Se lee rpida y fcilmente. +Te lo puedes acabar en unos dos aos si lees ocho horas al da. +En l hablaba del yo dividido: +los seres humanos no actuamos de igual manera cuando estamos solos y cuando estamos acompaados. +Cuando como espaguetis y s que estoy solo, puedo comer como un cerdo. +Me puedo limpiar con la manga y dejar la servilleta en la mesa, masticar con la boca abierta, hacer ruiditos, rascarme donde quiera. +Pero en cuanto alguien aparece: "Oh, tengo un poco de salsa aqu". +La servilleta en mi regazo, mastico bien con la boca cerrada y sin rascarme. +Lo que hago as es cumplir con las expectativas que ustedes tienen sobre cmo he de vivir yo mi vida. +Noto esas expectativas y me amoldo a ellas, y vivo mi vida de acuerdo a lo que ustedes esperan de m. +Eso tambin ocurre en la industria de la construccin. +Por eso todas las parcelas son iguales. +Incluso algunas veces, existen expectativas culturales formalizadas. +Seguro que vuestros zapatos hacen juego. +En efecto, todos los compramos as. Y en las comunidades cerradas, las asociaciones de vecinos tambin cuentan con su expectativa formalizada. +A veces parecen nazis, dios mo! +Eso agrava la repeticin del mismo modelo. +Por ltimo: nuestro carcter gregario. +El ser humano es un animal social. +Nos gusta divertirnos en grupo, como a los us o a los leones. +Los us no se divierten con los leones porque los leones comen us. +Los humanos igual. +Hacemos lo que el grupo con el que nos queremos identificar hace. +Y esto se ve en los jvenes muy a menudo. +Esos chavales, que trabajan todo el verano, se matan trabajando para poder comprarse unos vaqueros de marca. +Y cuando llega septiembre, entran presumiendo: "Hoy soy importante... +...oye, no toques mis vaqueros de marca... +...uy!, veo que t no tienes unos... +...t no eres uno de nosotros... +...Yo s estoy entre los elegidos, ves mis vaqueros?". +Razn suficiente para que lleven uniformes. +Y eso tambin pasa en la industria de la construccin. +Hemos entendido mal la jerarqua de necesidades de Maslow, slo un poco. +En el nivel ms bajo estn las necesidades bsicas: cobijo, ropa, comida, agua, apareamiento y dems. +Despus, la seguridad. Despus, las relaciones. +En el cuarto nivel, estatus, autoestima... cosas vanas. +Y estamos poniendo la vanidad en el primer escaln. +Y terminamos tomando decisiones vanas y al final no podemos ni pagar la hipoteca. +Terminamos comiendo slo alubias. +Esto es, nuestras casas se han convertido en mercancas. +Cuesta lo suyo adentrarse en nuestras partes ms primarias y aterradoras para tomar nuestras propias decisiones, y no hacer de nuestras casas mercancas, sino algo que surge de nuestras fuentes primarias. +Eso cuesta, y caray!, a veces por poco no lo conseguimos. +Pero est bien. +Si el fracaso te destruye, entonces no vales para esto. +Yo fracaso todos los das, y a veces de manera escandalosa, de verdad. Fracasos enormes, en pblico, humillantes y vergonzosos, +por los que todos te sealan y se ren, y dicen: "Es la quinta vez que lo intenta y no lo consigue... +...qu imbcil!". +Al principio, los contratistas me decan: "Dan, eres un encantador renacuajo, pero ya sabes, esto no va a funcionar... +...por qu no haces esto?, por qu no pruebas aquello?". +Y tu instinto te impulsa a contestar: "Por qu no te vas a frer esprragos!". +Pero no dices nada porque ellos son tu objetivo. +De esta manera, con lo que hemos hecho, y no slo en la construccin, +sino tambin con la ropa y la comida, y con el transporte y la energa, hemos crecido un poco ms. +Y cuando leo la prensa, veo que personas de todo el mundo se preocupan. +Aunque nosotros hayamos inventado el exceso, el problema de los residuos es de todo el mundo. +Estamos en apuros. +No llevo un cinturn de municiones en el pecho, ni un pauelo rojo, pero estamos en peligro. +Y lo que tenemos que hacer es reconectar con aquellas partes primarias nuestras y tomar algunas decisiones, por ejemplo: "Creo que me gustaran... ... algunos CD en la pared... +...qu te parece, cario?". +Y si no funciona, se quitan. +Tenemos que reconectar con nuestro verdadero yo, que, de hecho, es realmente emocionante. +Muchas gracias. +Hola. Mi nombre es Birke Baehr y tengo 11 aos. +He venido aqu hoy para hablar de lo que est mal en el sistema alimentario. +En primer lugar quisiera decir que me sorprende lo fcil que resulta convencer a los nios con la comercializacin y la publicidad en la TV, en las escuelas pblicas y casi en cualquier parte que miremos. +Me parece que las empresas siempre tratan de que los nios como yo hagan que sus padres compren cosas que no son buenas ni para nosotros ni para el planeta. +A los nios pequeos, sobre todo, les atraen los envoltorios coloridos y los juguetes de plstico. +Debo admitir que yo sola ser as. +Sola pensar que todos los alimentos provenan de estas granjitas felices, con cerdos en el barro y vacas pastando en la hierba todo el da. +Pero descubr que esto no es cierto. +Empec a consultar estas cosas en la web, en libros y documentales, en mis viajes con la familia. +Descubr el lado oscuro del sistema alimentario industrial. +Primero estn los organismos y semillas genticamente modificados. +Es decir, cuando se manipula una semilla en un laboratorio para hacer algo no previsto por la Naturaleza -como tomar el ADN de un pez y ponerlo en el ADN de un tomate- qu asco! +No me malinterpreten, me gustan el pescado y los tomates, pero esto es horrible. +Se plantan las semillas y luego crecen. +Y producen alimentos que, se ha demostrado en animales de laboratorio, que provocan cncer y otros problemas. La gente ha estado comiendo alimentos producidos as desde los aos 90. +Y la mayora ni siquiera sabe que existen. +Saban que las ratas que comieron maz genticamente modificado presentaron sntomas de toxicidad heptica y renal? +Entre otras: inflamacin y lesiones renales, y aumento de peso de los riones. +Casi todos los granos que comemos son alterados genticamente en alguna medida. +Y djenme decirles, hay cereales en todo. +Y ni siquiera me refiero a las operaciones concentradas de alimentacin animal. llamadas CAFOS, en ingls. +Los agricultores tpicos usan fertilizantes qumicos hechos de combustibles fsiles que mezclan con la tierra para hacer crecer las plantas. +Lo hacen porque han despojado al suelo de todos los nutrientes cultivando lo mismo una y otra vez. +Despus se fumigan frutas y vegetales con qumicos nocivos, como pesticidas y herbicidas, para matar malezas e insectos. +Cuando llueve estos productos qumicos se filtran en la tierra, o se escurren por las vas fluviales, envenenando el agua tambin. +Luego se irradian los alimentos, tratando de hacer que duren ms tiempo, para que puedan viajar miles de kilmetros desde los cultivos hasta los supermercados. +As que me pregunto: cmo puedo cambiar? Cmo cambiar estas cosas? +Esto es lo que me enter. +Descubr que hay un movimiento para hacer mejor las cosas. +Hace un tiempo yo quera ser jugador de ftbol profesional. +Pero decid que mejor voy a ser agricultor orgnico. +Gracias. +De esa manera puedo lograr un mayor impacto en el mundo. +A este hombre, Joel Salatin, lo llaman granjero loco porque cultiva en contra del sistema. +Como estudio en casa un da fui a orle hablar. +Este hombre, este granjero loco, no usa pesticidas ni herbicidas, ni semillas genticamente modificadas. +Y por eso el sistema lo considera un loco. +Quiero que sepan que todos podemos marcar una diferencia, tomar decisiones diferentes, comprando alimentos directamente a los agricultores locales, o a nuestros vecinos que conocemos desde siempre. +Algunos dicen que los alimentos orgnicos o locales son ms caros pero, es verdad? +Con todo lo que he estado aprendiendo sobre el sistema alimentario me parece que, o le pagamos al agricultor, o le pagamos al hospital. +Yo definitivamente s qu elegira. +Quiero que sepan que hay granjas por all -como la granja Sequachie Cove de Bill Keener en Tennessee- donde las vacas comen hierba y los cerdos se revuelcan en el lodo, como yo pensaba. +A veces voy a la granja de Bill como voluntario para ver de cerca y en persona de dnde viene la carne que como. +Quiero que sepan que creo que los nios van a comer vegetales frescos y buena comida si saben ms sobre esto y de dnde viene realmente. +Quiero que sepan que hay mercados agrcolas en todas las comunidades, cada vez ms. +Quiero que sepan que a mi hermano, a mi hermana y a m nos gusta la col verde al horno. +Trato de compartir esto donde quiera que vaya. +No hace mucho tiempo, mi to dice que le ofreci cereal a mi primo de 6 aos. +Le pregunt si quera los orgnicos tostados o los recubiertos de azcar --los que tienen el personaje a rayas en la tapa. +Mi primito le dijo a su padre que prefera comer el cereal orgnico tostado porque Birke dijo que no debera comer cereales brillantes. +Y as, mis amigos, es cmo podemos marcar la diferencia: de a un nio a la vez. +As que la prxima vez que hagan las compras piensen local elijan lo orgnico, conozcan al agricultor, conozcan el alimento. +Gracias. +Bueno, el tema de la dificultad en las negociaciones me recuerda una de mis historias favoritas de Oriente Medio. La de un hombre que le dej 17 camellos a sus 3 hijos. +Al primer hijo le dej la mitad de los camellos; al segundo le dej un tercio de los camellos; y al ms joven le dej un noveno de los camellos. +Bueno, los tres hijos comenzaron a negociar. 17 no es divisible por 2. +No es divisible por 3. +No es divisible por 9. +Los nimos fraternales comenzaron a caldearse. +Por ltimo, en la desesperacin, fueron a consultar a una anciana sabia. +La sabia anciana pens durante mucho tiempo hasta que finalmente regres y dijo: "Bueno, no s si puedo ayudarles pero al menos, si lo desean, les ofrezco mi camello". +De ese modo tenan 18 camellos. +El primer hijo tom la mitad; la mitad de 18 es 9. +El segundo hijo tom su tercio; el tercio de 18 es 6. +Y el ms joven tom su noveno; un noveno de 18 es 2. +Eso daba 17. +Sobraba un camello. +Se lo devolvieron a la sabia anciana. +Si piensan un momento en esta historia creo que se parece mucho a las negociaciones difciles en las que participamos. +Empiezan con 17 camellos; no hay manera de resolverlo. +En cierta manera necesitamos apartarnos de la situacin, como lo hizo la sabia anciana, encarar el problema con una mirada fresca y proponer lo del camello 18. +Encontrar ese camello 18 en los conflictos mundiales ha sido la pasin de mi vida. +En esencia, veo a la Humanidad como a estos tres hermanos; +somos todos una familia. +Sabemos eso cientficamente; gracias a la revolucin de las comunicaciones todas las tribus del planeta, las 15.000 tribus, estn en contacto unas con otras. +Y hay una gran reunin familiar. +Y como en toda reunin familiar no es todo paz y amor. +Hay un montn de conflictos. Y la pregunta es: Cmo resolver nuestras diferencias? +Cmo resolver nuestras diferencias ms profundas dada la propensin humana a los conflictos y del ingenio humano para pergear armas de destruccin? +Esa es la cuestin. +He pasado tres dcadas largas, casi cuatro, viajando por el mundo tratando de trabajar, de involucrarme en conflictos que van desde Yugoslavia a Oriente Medio a Chechenia, a Venezuela, en algunos de los conflictos ms difciles sobre la faz de la Tierra me he planteado esa cuestin. +Y creo que he encontrado, de algn modo, el secreto de la paz. +En realidad es sorprendentemente simple. +No es fcil, pero es simple. +Ni siquiera es algo nuevo. +Es quiz una de nuestras herencias humanas ms antiguas. +El secreto de la paz somos nosotros. +Somos nosotros, como comunidad circundante en torno a los conflictos, quienes podemos desempear un papel constructivo. +Les voy a contar una historia, un ejemplo. +Hace 20 aos yo estaba en Sudfrica trabajando con las partes en conflicto y tena un mes adicional as que pas un tiempo viviendo con varios grupos bosquimanos. +Senta curiosidad sobre ellos y sobre su modo de resolver conflictos. +Porque, despus de todo, que se recuerde, ellos eran cazadores y recolectores que vivan ms o menos como nuestros antepasados durante quiz el 99% de la historia humana. +Todos los hombres tenan flechas envenenadas para la caza; absolutamente fatal. +Entonces, cmo resolvan sus diferencias? +Bueno, por lo que supe, cuando los nimos se caldean en esas comunidades, alguien va y esconde las flechas envenenadas en el monte y entonces todos se sientan en crculo, se sientan a hablar y hablan. +Puede llevar 2 das, 3 das, 4 das, pero no descansan hasta que encuentran una resolucin o, mejor an, una reconciliacin. +Y si los nimos siguen crispados entonces envan a alguien a visitar algn pariente para bajar la tensin. +Bueno, ese sistema creo, probablemente sea el que nos ha mantenido vivos hasta ahora habida cuenta de las tendencias humanas. +Llamo a ese sistema el "tercer lado". +Porque si lo pensamos por lo general, si pensamos en un conflicto, al describirlo, siempre hay dos lados. Son rabes contra israeles, trabajo contra gerencia, esposo contra esposa, republicanos contra demcratas, +pero lo que no vemos a menudo es que siempre hay un tercer lado. Y el tercer lado del conflicto somos nosotros, es la comunidad circundante, son los amigos, los aliados, la familia, los vecinos. +Y podemos desempear un papel muy constructivo. +Tal vez la manera fundamental en que puede ayudar el tercer lado es recordar a las partes qu es lo que se encuentra en juego. +Por el bien de los nios, por el bien de la familia, por el bien de la comunidad, en aras del futuro, paremos de luchar un momento y empecemos a hablar. +Porque la cosa es que cuando estamos en medio del conflicto es muy fcil perder la perspectiva. +Es muy fcil reaccionar. +Los seres humanos somos mquinas de reaccionar. +Y como dice el dicho: habla enojado y hars el mejor discurso que tengas que lamentar Por eso el tercer lado nos recuerda esto. +El tercer lado nos ayuda a ir al balcn, como metfora de un lugar con perspectiva, para fijar la mirada en el premio. +Ahora les voy a contar una historia breve de mi experiencia en negociacin. +Hace unos aos particip como facilitador en algunas conversaciones muy duras entre los lderes de Rusia y los lderes de Chechenia. +Como saben, haba una guerra en curso. +Y nos reunimos en La Haya, en el Palacio de la Paz, en la misma sala del Tribunal Penal Internacional donde se trataba la guerra de Yugoslavia. +Y las conversaciones tuvieron un comienzo difcil con el vicepresidente de Chechenia sealando a los rusos mientras deca: "Deberan permanecer aqu, en sus asientos, porque van a ser juzgados por crmenes de guerra". +Y luego continu, gir hacia m y me dijo: "Ud. es estadounidense. +Mire lo que los estadounidenses estn haciendo en Puerto Rico". +Y empec a pensar: "Puerto Rico, qu s sobre Puerto Rico?" +Empec a reaccionar +pero luego intent recordar volver al balcn. +Estamos aqu para ver si podemos encontrar una forma de detener el sufrimiento y el derramamiento de sangre en Chechenia". +La conversacin volvi a su carril. +Ese es el papel del tercer lado: ayudar a las partes a ir al balcn. +Y ahora los llevar un momento a lo que se considera ampliamente el conflicto ms difcil del mundo o el conflicto ms imposible, el de Oriente Medio. +La pregunta es: dnde est el tercer lugar all? +Cmo podemos ir al balcn? +Bueno, no pretendo tener una respuesta al conflicto de Oriente Medio pero creo que tengo un primer paso, literalmente un primer paso, algo que cualquiera podra hacer desde un tercer lugar. +Pero primero djenme hacerles una pregunta. +Cuntos de Uds en los ltimos aos se han preocupado alguna vez por Oriente Medio y se han preguntado qu se podra hacer? +Slo por curiosidad, cuntos de Uds? +Bueno, la gran mayora. +Y aqu estamos muy lejos. +Por qu prestar tanta atencin a este conflicto? +Por la cantidad de muertes? +Hay cientos de veces ms gente que muere en conflictos en frica que en Oriente Medio. +No, es por la historia, porque nos sentimos identificados en lo personal con esa historia. +Seamos cristianos, musulmanes o judos, religiosos o no, sentimos que tenemos un inters en eso. +Las historias importan. Como antroplogo, lo s. +Transmitimos conocimiento mediante las historias. +Las historias le dan sentido a nuestras vidas. +Eso hacemos aqu en TED: contamos historias. +Las historias son la clave. +Por eso la cuestin es s, tratemos de resolver la poltica all en Oriente Medio pero tambin revisemos la historia. +Tratemos de llegar al meollo de la cuestin. +Veamos si se le puede aplicar el tercer lado. +Eso qu significa? Cul es la historia all? +Como antroplogos sabemos que cada cultura tiene una historia de origen. +Cul es la historia de origen de Oriente Medio? +En una frase: hace 4.000 aos un hombre y su familia atraves Oriente Medio y el mundo nunca ha sido el mismo desde entonces. +Ese hombre, por supuesto, fue Abraham. +l representaba la unidad, la unidad de la familia. l es el padre de todos nosotros. +Pero no se trata slo de lo que representaba, sino de su mensaje. +Su mensaje esencial tambin era la unidad la interconexin de todos y la unidad de todos. +Su valor esencial era el respeto, la amabilidad hacia el desconocido. +Era conocido por eso, por su hospitalidad. +As que, en ese sentido, l es un tercer lugar simblico de Oriente Medio. +l es quien nos recuerda que somos parte de un todo ms grande. +Ahora, cmo... piensen en eso un momento. +Hoy enfrentamos el flagelo del terrorismo. +Qu es el terrorismo? +El terrorismo es bsicamente tomar un desconocido inocente y tratarlo como a un enemigo a quien se puede matar +para infundir temor. Qu es lo contrario del terrorismo? +Es tomar un desconocido inocente y tratarlo como a un amigo a quien recibimos en casa para crear y fomentar entendimiento, o respeto, o amor. +Entonces qu pasara si tomamos la historia de Abraham, que es una historia del tercer lugar, qu pasara si, dado que Abraham representa la hospitalidad, qu tal si eso fuera un antdoto contra el terrorismo? +Qu tal si pudiera ser una vacuna contra la intolerancia religiosa? +Cmo darle vida a esa historia? +No es suficiente con contar una historia, +eso es impactante, +pero las personas necesitan experimentar la historia. +Tienen que poder vivir la historia. Cmo haramos eso? +Este fue el razonamiento que yo hice al respecto. +Eso es lo que aparece en primer lugar aqu. +Porque la manera simple de hacerlo es yendo a caminar. +Uno va a caminar siguiendo los pasos de Abraham. +Seguimos las huellas de Abraham. +Porque caminar tiene un poder real. +Como antroplogo s que caminar es lo que nos hizo humanos. +Es curioso, cuando uno camina, camina lado a lado, en la misma direccin comn. +Si yo viniera y me pongo cara a cara as cerca se sentiran amenazados. +Pero si camino hombro con hombro, aunque toquemos los hombros, no hay problema. +Quin pelea mientras camina? +Por eso a menudo en las negociaciones, cuando las cosas se complican, la gente va a caminar al bosque. +As, se me ocurri la idea de lo inspirador que puede ser un camino, una ruta -piensen en la Ruta de la Seda, el Sendero de los Apalaches- que siga los pasos de Abraham. +La gente dijo: "Es una locura. No se puede. +No se puede seguir la huella de Abraham. Es demasiado inseguro. Hay que cruzar todas esas fronteras. Pasa por 10 pases diferentes de Oriente Medio porque los une a todos". +Entonces estudiamos la idea en Harvard. +Trabajamos arduamente. +Hace unos aos, un grupo de nosotros, unos 25 de 10 pases diferentes decidimos ver si podamos desandar los pasos de Abraham partiendo de su lugar de nacimiento en la ciudad de Urfa al sur de Turqua, norte de la Mesopotamia. +Y luego tomamos un autobs y caminamos y fuimos a Harran donde, en la Biblia, l inicia su recorrido. +Despus cruzamos la frontera a Siria, fuimos a Aleppo, que toma su nombre de Abraham. +Fuimos a Damasco que tiene una larga historia asociada con Abraham. +Despus fuimos al norte de Jordania, a Jerusaln, donde todo tiene que ver con Abraham, a Beln, y finalmente al lugar donde est enterrado en Hebrn. +As que, efectivamente, fuimos desde el vientre a la tumba. +Demostramos que se poda hacer. Fue un viaje asombroso. +Djenme hacerles una pregunta. +Cuntos han pasado por la experiencia de estar en un barrio extrao, o una tierra extraa, y un total desconocido, un perfecto desconocido, se acerc a Uds y mostr signos de amabilidad, y los invit quiz a su casa, les dio un trago, les ofreci caf, o una comida? +Cuntos han experimentado eso alguna vez? +Esa es la esencia del camino de Abraham. +Eso es lo que uno descubre, es ir a estas aldeas de Oriente Medio, esperar hostilidad, y obtener la ms asombrosa hospitalidad, todo relacionado con Abraham. "En nombre del padre Abraham, djame ofrecerte algo de comida". +Descubrimos que para esas personas Abraham no es slo una figura de los libros; que est vivo, que es una presencia viva. +Y para abreviar la historia, desde hace un par de aos miles de personas han empezado a recorrer partes del camino de Abraham en Oriente Medio, disfrutando la hospitalidad de la gente de all. +Han empezado a caminar en Israel y en Palestina, en Jordania, en Turqua, en Siria. +Es una experiencia increble. +Hombres, mujeres, jvenes, ancianos... ms mujeres que hombres, en realidad, es interesante. +Para los que no pueden caminar, para los que no pueden llegar all ahora, se estn empezando a organizar caminatas en las ciudades, en sus comunidades. +En Cincinnati, por ejemplo, se organiz una caminata desde un templo, a una mezquita, a una sinagoga y todos juntos compartieron una comida. +Era el da del camino de Abraham. +En So Paulo, Brasil, se ha convertido en un evento anual para miles de personas correr en un camino virtual de Abraham uniendo las diferentes comunidades. +A los medios les encanta, realmente lo adoran. +Le prodigan atencin porque es algo visual y difunde la idea, esta idea de hospitalidad de Abraham, de amabilidad hacia los extraos. +Y hace un par de semanas hubo un programa en la radio al respecto. +El mes pasado sali un artculo en el Guardian en el Manchester Guardian sobre eso. Dos pginas enteras. +Y citaban a un aldeano que deca: "Esta caminata nos conecta con el mundo". +Deca que era como una luz que se encendi en nuestras vidas. Nos trajo esperanza. +Y de eso se trata. +Pero no slo se trata de psicologa, se trata de economa, +porque a medida que la gente camina gasta dinero. +Y esta mujer de aqu, Um Ahmad, es una mujer que vive en un camino en el norte de Jordania. +Es extremadamente pobre. +Es parcialmente ciega, su marido no puede trabajar, tiene siete hijos. +Pero puede cocinar. +As que empez a cocinar para unos grupos de caminantes que venan a la aldea y coman en su casa. +Se sentaban en el piso. Ella ni siquiera tiene mantel. +Prepara la comida ms deliciosa con las hierbas frescas de los campos de los alrededores. +Y as vinieron cada vez ms caminantes. Y ltimamente ha empezado a ganar un ingreso para mantener a su familia. +Y le dijo a nuestro equipo de all: "Uds me han hecho visible en una aldea en la que antes la gente se avergonzaba al verme". +Esa es la importancia del camino de Abraham. +Hay literalmente cientos de ese tipo de comunidades en todo Oriente Medio, en todo el camino. +El potencial es bsicamente el cambio de juego. +Y para cambiar el juego hay que cambiar el marco de referencia, el modo de ver las cosas, para cambiar el marco de la hostilidad a la hospitalidad, del terrorismo al turismo. +Y, en ese sentido, el camino de Abraham es lo que cambia el juego. +Djenme mostrarles algo. +Aqu tengo una pequea bellota que recolect durante el recorrido en el camino a principios de ao. +La bellota est relacionada con el roble, por supuesto, crece en el roble, que est asociado con Abraham. +El camino, ahora mismo, es como una bellota; todava est en una fase inicial. +Cmo ser el roble? +Bueno pienso en mi infancia, buena parte de la cual la pas, despus de nacer aqu en Chicago, la pas en Europa. +Si estuvieran en las ruinas de, digamos, Londres de 1945, o Berln, y dijeran: "Dentro de 60 aos este va a ser el lugar ms pacfico y prspero del planeta". las personas hubiesen pensado que estaban rematadamente locos. +Pero lo lograron gracias a una identidad comn, Europa, y a una economa comn. +Entonces, mi pregunta es: Si se pudo en Europa por qu no en Oriente Medio? +Por qu no, gracias a una identidad en comn, la historia de Abraham, y gracias a una economa en comn que podra basarse en buena parte en el turismo. +Djenme terminar entonces diciendo que en los ltimos 35 aos he trabajado en algunos de los conflictos ms peligrosos, difciles e intrincados del planeta y todava veo un conflicto que senta que no se poda transformar. +No es fcil, por supuesto, +pero es posible. +Se logr en Sudfrica. +Se logr en Irlanda del Norte. +Se puede lograr en cualquier lado. +Slo depende de nosotros. +Depende de que tomemos el tercer lugar. +As que djenme invitarlos a que consideren adoptar el tercer lugar aunque sea un pequeo paso. +Estamos a punto de tomar un descanso en un momento. +Elijan a alguien de una cultura diferente, de un pas diferente, de un grupo tnico diferente, con alguna diferencia, y conversen; escchenlos. +Eso es un acto del tercer lugar. +Eso es recorrer el camino de Abraham. +Despus de una TEDTalk por qu no una caminata TED? +Les dejo tres cosas. +Una, el secreto de la paz es el tercer lugar. +El tercer lugar somos nosotros, +cada uno, con un paso simple puede poner al mundo, correrlo, un paso ms cerca de la paz. +Hay un viejo dicho africano que dice: "Cuando se unen las telaraas pueden detener incluso al len". +Si somos capaces de unirnos nuestras redes de paz del tercer lugar pueden detener incluso al len de la guerra. +Muchas gracias. +Bueno, voy a mostrar de nuevo algo de nuestra dieta. +Me gustara conocer ms de la audiencia: Quin de ustedes ha comido insectos alguna vez? +Son muchos. +Pero an as no son representativos sobre toda la poblacin del planeta. +Porque existe un 80% que s come insectos. +Esto es bastante bueno. +Por qu no comer insectos? Pero antes, qu son? +Los insectos son animales que caminan en 6 patas. +Aqu ven slo una seleccin. +Hay 6 millones de especies de insectos en el planeta, 6 millones de especies. +Hay unos cientos de mamferos... y 6 millones de especies de insectos. +S contamos toda la poblacin llegamos a un nmero mucho mayor. +De hecho, de todos los animales, de todas las especies animales, el 80% camina en 6 patas. +Si tomramos toda la poblacin de insectos y pudiramos calcular un peso promedio nos dara entre 200 y 2.000 Kg para cada habitante de la Tierra. +Eso significa que en trminos de biomasa los insectos son ms abundantes que nosotros. Y que no estamos en un planeta de humanos sino en un planta de insectos. +Los insectos no slo estn en la Naturaleza sino que tambin estn presentes en la economa, por lo general sin que lo sepamos. +Hace un par de aos se estim, fue una estimacin conservadora, que la economa de EE.UU. se beneficiaba en 57 mil millones de dlares al ao. +Es una suma muy grande, una contribucin a la economa de EE.UU. de forma gratuita. +Y estaba mirando lo que se destin a la guerra en Irak en el mismo ao. +Fueron 80 mil millones de dlares. +Bueno, sabemos que esa no fue una guerra barata. +Y los insectos, en forma gratuita, contribuyeron a la economa de Estados Unidos en cerca del mismo orden de magnitud en forma gratuita y sin que nadie lo sepa. +Y no slo pasa en EE.UU. sino en cualquier pas, en cualquier economa. +Qu hacen? +Quitan el estircol, polinizan los cultivos. +Un tercio de las frutas que comemos son el resultado del cuidado que los insectos ponen en la reproduccin de las plantas. +Controlan las plagas. Son alimento para otros animales. +Estn al inicio de la cadena alimentaria. +Los animales pequeos comen insectos. +Incluso los animales ms grandes comen insectos. +Pero los animales insectvoros pequeos sirven de alimento para animales ms grandes, para animales an ms grandes. +Y, al final de la cadena alimentaria, nosotros tambin los comemos. +Hay mucha gente que est comiendo insectos. +Y aqu me ven en un pueblito provinciano de China, Lijiang, de unos 2 millones de habitantes. +Si uno sale a cenar, a comer pescado por ejemplo, en la misma carta de pescados hay para elegir una variedad de insectos. +Y los preparan de una forma maravillosa. +Y aqu me ven disfrutando de una comida con orugas, langostas, abejas y otros manjares. +Y cada da se puede comer algo nuevo. Se comen en todo el mundo +ms de 1.000 especies de insectos. Es bastante ms que los pocos mamferos que comemos como vacas o cerdos y ovejas. +Ms de 1.000 especies; una variedad enorme. +Y pueden pensar, bueno, lo hacen en este pueblito provinciano de China, pero nosotros no. +Bien, hemos visto que ya unos cuantos de ustedes comen insectos quiz de vez en cuando. Pero puedo asegurarles que todos estn comiendo insectos; todos sin excepcin. +Estn comiendo al menos 500 gramos por ao. +Qu estn comiendo? +Sopa de tomate, manteca de man, chocolate, fideos, cualquier alimento procesado que comen contiene insectos porque los insectos estn en todo lo que nos rodea y cuando estn en la Naturaleza estn en nuestros cultivos. +Algunas frutas tienen picaduras de insectos. +Si tienen picaduras y se trata de tomates, van a parar a la sopa de tomates. +Y si no tienen daos, van a parar al supermercado. +Esa es la imagen que tienen del tomate. +Pero hay tomates que terminan en una sopa. Y siempre que cumplan los requisitos del ente alimentario, puede haber todo tipo de cosas all, no hay problema. +De hecho, por qu ponemos esas bolas en la sopa? no hay carne all de todos modos? +De hecho, toda la comida procesada contiene ms protenas de las que sabemos. +As que hoy cualquier cosa es fuente de protenas. +Entonces podran decir: "Bueno, estamos comiendo 500 gramos por accidente". +Pero lo estamos haciendo adrede +en un montn de alimentos que ingerimos. En la diapositiva puse slo dos ejemplos: polvorones rosas y bastones de surimi o, si prefieren, Campari. Muchos productos alimenticios, que son de color rojo, se tien con un colorante natural. +Los bastones de surimi son de carne de cangrejo, o se venden como carne de cangrejo, pero es pescado blanco teido con cochinilla. +La cochinilla es un producto de un insecto que vive en los cactus. +Se produce en grandes cantidades, de 150 a 180 toneladas al ao, en las Islas Canarias y en Per; es un gran negocio. +Un gramo de cochinilla cuesta unos 30 euros. +Un gramo de oro cuesta 30 euros. +Por eso es algo muy preciado que se usa para teir alimentos. +Pero ahora la situacin en el mundo va a cambiar, para ustedes, para m y para los habitantes del planeta. +La poblacin humana crece muy rpidamente, crece de manera exponencial. +Mientras que ahora la poblacin es de entre 6 y 7 mil millones de personas, va a crecer a unos 9 mil millones para el 2050. +Eso significa que tendremos muchas ms bocas que alimentar. Y eso es algo que preocupa a cada vez ms personas. +En octubre pasado hubo una conferencia de la FAO ntegramente dedicada a este tema. +Cmo vamos a alimentar al mundo? +Si ven las cifras de all dice que tenemos un tercio ms de bocas para alimentar pero necesitamos que aumente la produccin agrcola en un 70%. +Y eso debido a que la poblacin del mundo va en aumento y lo hace no slo cuantitativamente sino que se est volviendo ms rica y cualquiera que se vuelve rico empieza a comer ms y tambin empieza a comer ms carne. +Y, de hecho, la carne es algo que cuesta gran parte de la produccin agrcola. +Nuestra dieta se compone de una parte de protenas animales y por ahora, la mayora de los presentes la obtiene de la ganadera, de la pesca, de la caza. +Y comemos mucho de eso. +En el mundo desarrollado, en promedio, se consumen 80 Kg, por persona por ao que ascienden a 120 Kg en Estados Unidos y un poquito menos en algunos otros pases pero, en promedio, 80 Kg por persona al ao. +En el mundo en desarrollo es mucho menor. +Son 25 Kg por persona al ao. +Pero tiene un crecimiento enorme. +En China, en los ltimos 20 aos, ha aumentado de 20 Kg a 50 Kg y sigue en aumento. +As, si un tercio de la poblacin mundial va a aumentar su consumo de carne de 25 Kg a 80 Kg, en promedio, y un tercio de la poblacin mundial vive en China e India, hay una demanda enorme de carne. +Y, por supuesto, no se puede decir que es slo para nosotros, no para ellos. +Les toca la misma parte que a nosotros. +Ahora bien, para empezar dira que estamos comiendo demasiada carne en el mundo occidental. +Podramos vivir con mucho, mucho menos; lo s porque he sido vegetariano durante mucho tiempo. Uno puede vivir sin nada de carne. +Las protenas se pueden obtener de otro tipo de alimentos. +Hay un montn de problemas asociados a la produccin de carne y cada vez nos ocurren esas cosas ms a menudo. +El primer problema que enfrentamos es la salud humana. +Los cerdos se nos parecen mucho. +Se usan como modelos en medicina. Incluso podemos trasplantar rganos de un cerdo a un humano. +Eso significa que los cerdos comparten enfermedades con nosotros. +Y una enfermedad porcina, un virus porcino, un virus humano... ambos pueden proliferar. Y debido a la manera de reproducirse es que pueden combinarse y producir nuevos virus. +Esto sucedi en los Pases Bajos en la dcada del 90 durante el clebre brote de gripe porcina. +Contraemos una nueva enfermedad que puede ser mortal. +Si comemos insectos, que son tan distantes de nosotros, eso no sucede. +Ese es 1 punto para los insectos. +Y est el factor de conversin. +Con 10 Kg de alimento se obtiene 1 Kg de carne pero pueden obtenerse 9 Kg de carne de langosta. +Si uno fuera empresario qu elegira? +Con 10 Kg de entrada se pueden conseguir 1 Kg 9 Kg de salida. +Hasta ahora elegimos la salida de 1 a 5 Kg. +Todava no aprovechamos la ventaja. +Todava no elegimos los 9 Kg de rendimiento. +Ya van 2 puntos para los insectos. +Y tenemos el medio ambiente. +Si tomamos 10 Kg de alimento y da como resultado 1 Kg de carne los otros 9 Kg son desperdicio, y mucho de eso es estircol. +Si uno produce insectos, hay menos estircol por kilo de carne producido. +Menos desperdicio. +Adems, por cada kilo de estircol hay mucho, mucho menos amonaco y menos gases de efecto invernadero en el estircol de insecto que en el estircol de vaca. +Hay menos desperdicio, y el que hay no es tan perjudicial para el medio ambiente como el estircol de vaca. +Van entonces 3 puntos para los insectos. +Por supuesto que hay una gran duda y es s los insectos producen carne de buena calidad. +Se ha hecho todo tipo de anlisis y en trminos de protenas, grasas o vitaminas, es muy buena. +De hecho, es comparable a cualquier producto crnico del momento. +E incluso, en trminos de caloras, es muy buena. +Un kilo de saltamontes tiene la mismas caloras que 10 salchichas o 6 hamburguesas. +Tenemos 4 puntos para los insectos. +Puedo seguir y podra anotar muchos ms puntos a favor de los insectos pero no hay tiempo. +Entonces, la pregunta es: y si comemos insectos? +Les he dado al menos 4 argumentos a favor. +Lo haremos. +Aunque no queramos tendremos que acostumbrarnos a esto. Porque en este momento se usa el 70% de las tierras agrcolas para producir ganado. +Y no es slo la tierra donde el ganado camina y se alimenta sino tambin otras reas donde se produce y transporta el alimento. +Podemos aumentarlas un poco a expensas de las selvas tropicales, pero pronto tenemos otro lmite. +Y si recordamos que tenemos que aumentar la produccin agrcola un 70% no lo vamos a poder lograr de ese modo. +Podemos pasar mejor de la carne, la carne de res, a los insectos. +Ya el 80% del mundo come insectos as que somos una minora en un pas como el R.U., EE.UU., los Pases Bajos, donde sea. +A la izquierda se ve un mercado en Laos en el que hay una presencia abundante de todo tipo de insectos que uno elige para la cena. +A la derecha se ve un saltamontes. +Y la gente de la zona los come no porque no haya otra cosa sino porque los consideran una delicia. +Es un alimento muy bueno. +Hay mucha variedad. +Trae muchos beneficios. +De hecho, tenemos exquisiteces muy parecidas a este saltamontes: camarones, un manjar que se vende a precios altos. +A quin no le gustara comer un camarn? +A poca gente no le gusta el camarn pero los camarones, los cangrejos, y los cangrejo de ro estn muy estrechamente relacionados. +Son exquisiteces. +De hecho, la langosta es un camarn de tierra y sera muy buena para nuestra dieta. +Entonces por qu no comemos insectos? +Bueno, es slo una cuestin de mentalidad. +No estamos acostumbrados, y vemos a los insectos como organismos muy diferentes a nosotros. +Es por eso que estamos cambiando la percepcin de los insectos. +Estoy trabajando arduamente con mi colega Arnold van Huis para contarle a la gente que los insectos son algo maravilloso, y de la tarea magnfica que hacen en la Naturaleza. +Y, de hecho, sin insectos no estaramos aqu en esta sala. Porque si los insectos murieran, pronto moriramos tambin. +Pero si nosotros morimos, los insectos seguiran felices. +Por eso tenemos que acostumbrarnos a la idea de comer insectos. +Alguno podr pensar que todava no se encuentran disponibles. +Bueno, lo estn. +Hay emprendedores en los Pases Bajos que los producen, y uno de ellos est aqu en la audiencia, es quien aparece en la foto: Marian Peeters. +Mi prediccin es que para fin de ao estarn en los supermercados; invisibles pero como protena animal en los alimentos. +Y quiz en el 2020 lo van a comprar sabiendo que es un insecto l que se van a comer. +Y se los prepara de las formas ms maravillosas. +Un fabricante de chocolate holands. +Tienen mucho diseo. +Bueno, en los Pases Bajos tenemos una ministra de agricultura innovadora y ha puesto a los insectos en el men del restaurante de su ministerio. +Y cuando vinieron los ministros de agricultura de la U.E. +hace poco a La Haya, los llev a un restaurante distinguido y all comieron insectos todos juntos. +Esto no es un pasatiempo mo. +Es algo que ha despegado. +Por qu no comer insectos? +Deberan probarlos. +Hace un par de aos congregamos a 1.750 personas en una plaza de Wageningen y comieron insectos todos a la vez y esto es todava una muy buena noticia. +Creo que pronto no va a ser gran noticia que comamos insectos porque va a ser algo normal. +As que hoy pueden probar y, yo dira, disfruten. +Le voy a convidar a Bruno para que pruebe y pueda saborear el primer bocado. +Bruno Giussani: miren primero, miren primero. +Marcel Dicke: es todo protena. +BG: En verdad, son los mismos que vimos en el video. +Y se ven deliciosos. +Los hacen con nueces o algo as. +MD: Gracias. +Hoy estoy aqu para compartir un viaje extraordinario; en realidad, un viaje sumamente gratificante que me llev a entrenar ratas para salvar vidas humanas detectando minas terrestres y tuberculosis. +De nio tena dos pasiones. +Una de ellas era por los roedores. +Tuve todo tipo de ratas, ratones, hmsteres, jerbos, ardillas. +Les daba nombres, los reproduca, y los venda en las tiendas de mascotas. +Tambin tena pasin por frica. +Crec en un ambiente multicultural. En casa tenamos estudiantes africanos y aprend de sus historias, de orgenes tan diferentes, con una dependencia de conocimiento, bienes, y servicios importados y una diversidad cultural exuberante. +Para m frica era realmente fascinante. +Me convert en ingeniero industrial, ingeniero en desarrollo de producto, y me dediqu a las tecnologas de deteccin, en realidad las primeras tecnologas adecuadas para los pases en desarrollo. +Comenc trabajando en la industria, pero no estaba muy feliz contribuyendo a una sociedad que consume materiales en forma lineal, extractiva y manufacturera. +Dej mi trabajo para atender un problema concreto: las minas terrestres. +Estamos hablando del ao 95. +La princesa Diana anuncia en la TV que las minas terrestres forman una barrera estructural a cualquier desarrollo, lo cual es cierto. +Mientras estos dispositivos estn ah, o hay sospecha de minas terrestres, realmente no se puede entrar al terreno. +En realidad, se hizo un llamamiento a nivel mundial por nuevos detectores, en ambientes sostenibles, donde son necesarios, que es principalmente en el mundo en desarrollo. +Nosotros elegimos las ratas. +Por qu las ratas? +Porque, no son bichos? +Bien, en realidad las ratas son, contrariamente a lo que la mayora piensa de ellas, las ratas son criaturas muy sociables. +Y en realidad, nuestro producto... lo que ven aqu... +En algn lugar de aqu hay un objetivo. +Ven un operador, un africano entrenado con sus ratas en el frente que, de hecho, est a la izquierda y a la derecha. +Ah el animal encuentra una mina. +Rasgua en el suelo. +Y regresa por comida, como premio. +Muy, muy simple. +Muy sostenible en este ambiente. +Aqu el animal tiene su premio de comida. +Y es as como funciona. +Muy, muy simple. +Ahora por qu usaran las ratas? +Desde los aos 50 del siglo pasado se han usado ratas en todo tipo de experimentos. +Las ratas tienen ms material gentico en el olfato que cualquier otra especie de mamferos. +Son extremadamente sensibles a los olores. +Adems, tienen mecanismos para mapear todos estos olores y comunicar sobre ellos. +Cmo nos comunicamos con las ratas? +No hablamos con las ratas, pero tenemos un control, un mtodo estndar para el adiestramiento de animales, que ven ah. +Un control que hace un sonido especial con el que se pueden reforzar comportamientos particulares. +En primer lugar, asociamos el sonido del clic con un premio de comida, que es pur mezclado de banana y man en un jeringa. +Una vez que el animal sabe esto, hacemos la tarea un poco ms difcil. +Aprende cmo encontrar el aroma-objetivo en una jaula con muchos agujeros, de hasta 10. +Luego el animal aprende a caminar con una correa al aire libre y encontrar los objetivos. +En la siguiente etapa, los animales aprenden a encontrar minas reales en campos minados. +Son evaluados y certificados de acuerdo a las normas internacionales de accin contra las minas, y, al igual que los perros, tienen que pasar una prueba. +Consiste en 400 m2. +Hay una cantidad de minas colocadas a ciegas. Y el equipo de entrenadores y sus ratas tienen que encontrar todos los objetivos. +Si el animal lo logra, obtiene una licencia de animal autorizado para operar en campo; por cierto, al igual que los perros. +Tal vez una ligera diferencia: podemos entrenar a las ratas con una quinta parte del precio del entrenamiento canino. +Este es nuestro equipo en Mozambique. Un entrenador de Tanzania, quien transmite sus habilidades a estos 3 compaeros de Mozambique. +Y hay que ver el orgullo en los ojos de esta gente. +Tienen una habilidad, que los hace menos dependientes de la ayuda externa. +Adems de este equipo pequeo se necesitan vehculos pesados y el seguimiento de la remocin manual de minas. +Pero con esta pequea inversin en ratas, hemos demostrado en Mozambique que podemos reducir el costo por metro cuadrado hasta un 60% del precio de lo que hoy es normal: de 2 dlares el m2 pasamos a $ 1,18 y todava podemos bajar ese precio. +Cuestin de escala. +Si traen ms ratas, podemos lograr una produccin mayor. +Tenemos un sitio de muestra en Mozambique. +11 gobiernos africanos han visto que se pueden volver menos dependientes usando esta tecnologa. +Han firmado el pacto de paz y el tratado de la regin de los Grandes Lagos. Y aprobaron que las ratas hroes sacaran las minas terrestres de sus fronteras comunes. +Pero permtanme pasar a un problema muy diferente. +Hay unas 6 mil personas que el ltimo ao pisaron minas terrestres, -a nivel mundial, el ao pasado- y casi 1,9 millones murieron de tuberculosis como primera causa de infeccin. +Sobre todo en frica donde la tuberculosis y el VIH estn muy relacionadas, hay un enorme problema comn. +El microscopio, el procedimiento normal de la OMS, tiene de un 40% a un 60% de confiabilidad. +En Tanzania, los nmeros no mienten, el 45% de la gente -pacientes con tuberculosis- son diagnosticados antes de morir. +Esto significa que si tienen tuberculosis es ms probable que no sea detectada, simplemente mueren de infecciones a raz de la tuberculosis, etc. +Sin embargo, si se detecta la enfermedad desde sus inicios, se puede empezar un tratamiento. Incluso tiene sentido en los casos seropositivos. +En realidad se puede curar la tuberculosis, an en los casos seropositivos. +En nuestra lengua comn, el holands, la palabra para tuberculosis +es "tering" que, etimolgicamente, se refiere al olor del alquitrn. +Ya los antiguos chinos y los griegos, Hipcrates haba publicado, documentado, que se poda diagnosticar la tuberculosis en base a la efervescencia que emanaba de los pacientes. +As que recogimos algunas muestras para probar en los hospitales, entrenamos las ratas en ellos y vimos si funcionaba, y nos dijimos: bueno, podemos llegar a un 89% de sensibilidad, un 86% de especificidad, usando varias ratas en fila. +As es como funciona. Y en realidad, se trata de una tecnologa genrica. +Ahora estamos hablando de explosivos, de tuberculosis, pero pueden imaginarse, que en realidad pueden poner cualquier cosa ah. +Entonces, cmo funciona? +Hay una cinta con 10 muestras. +Se colocan las 10 muestras a la vez en la jaula. +Un animal slo necesita de 2 centsimas de segundo para discriminar el olor, as que va muy rpido. +Aqu ya est en la tercera muestra. +Es una muestra positiva. +Escucha el clic y viene por el premio de comida. +Y al hacerlo as, muy rpido, podemos tener como una opinin de segunda lnea para ver qu pacientes son positivos, y cules son negativos. +Para que tengan una idea, mientras el microscopio puede procesar 40 muestras al da, una rata puede procesar la misma cantidad de muestras en slo 7 minutos. +Una jaula como esta... Una jaula como esta... siempre que haya ratas, y actualmente tenemos 25 ratas para tuberculosis... una jaula como esta trabajando todo el da puede procesar 1.680 muestras. +Se imaginan los casos de aplicacin potenciales? Deteccin medioambiental, de contaminantes en suelos, aplicaciones a medida, deteccin de mercancas ilcitas en contenedores, etc. +Pero sigamos primero con la tuberculosis. +Brevemente quiero destacar, las barras de color azul son slo el resultado del microscopio en 5 clnicas en Dar es Salaam sobre una poblacin de 500 mil personas, donde 15 mil informaron haberse hecho una prueba. +Microscopa para 1.800 pacientes. +Y con slo presentar una vez ms las muestras a las ratas y enlazar de nuevo esos resultados, pudimos aumentar las tasas de deteccin de casos en ms de un 30% +A lo largo del ao pasado, dependiendo de los intervalos que se tomen, constantemente hemos estado incrementando las tasas de deteccin de casos en 5 hospitales en Dar es Salaam entre un 30% y un 40%. +As que esto es realmente considerable. +Sabiendo que un paciente no detectado por microscopa infecta a 15 personas -gente sana- por ao, pueden estar seguros que hemos salvado muchas vidas. +Al menos nuestras ratas hroes han salvado muchas vidas. +Lo que tenemos ahora por delante es estandarizar esta tecnologa. +Y hay cosas simples como, por ejemplo, tenemos un pequeo lser en el agujero a olfatear donde el animal tiene que quedarse 5 segundos. +Para estandarizar esto. +Tambin para estandarizar la dosis, el premio de comida, y hacerlo semi-automtico con el fin de replicarlo en una escala mucho ms grande y cambiarle la vida a muchas ms personas. +Para concluir, tambin hay otras aplicaciones en el horizonte. +Este es el primer prototipo de nuestra rata cmara, que es una rata con una mochila y una cmara que puede ir bajo los escombros para detectar vctimas despus de un terremoto, etc. +Se encuentra en experimentacin. +An no tenemos aqu un sistema en ejecucin. +Para terminar, me gustara decirles, que quiz piensen que estos proyectos son sobre ratas, pero al final esto se trata de personas. +Se trata de darle poder a las comunidades vulnerables para hacer frente a tareas de deteccin humanitarias difciles, costosas y peligrosas, y hacerlas con recursos locales de gran disponibilidad. +Algo completamente diferente, es seguir muy atentos a los recursos que los rodean, sean del medioambiente, tecnolgicos, animales o humanos. +Y armonizar respetuosamente con ellos a fin de fomentar un trabajo sostenible. +Muchas gracias. +Los restaurantes y la gastronoma en general son una de las industrias donde ms se derrocha en todo el mundo. +Por cada calora alimenticia consumida hoy en Gran Bretaa se necesitan 10 caloras para su produccin. +Es mucho. +Pero quiero tocar un tema ms bien humilde. +Hoy encontr esto en el mercado agrcola. Si alguien quiere llevrsela a casa y hacerla pur ms tarde, bienvenido. +La humilde papa. He pasado mucho tiempo, 25 aos, preparndolas. +A lo largo de su vida adopta unas ocho formas diferentes. +En primer lugar, se planta y eso requiere energa. +Crece y se nutre. +Luego se cosecha. +Despus se distribuye y la distribucin es un problema enorme. +Luego se vende y se compra, para despus llegar a m. +Yo bsicamente la tomo, la preparo, y luego la gente la consume y, con suerte, la disfruta. +La ltima etapa son en esencia los desperdicios. Y esto es algo que casi todos omiten. +Hay distintos tipos de desperdicios. +Hay desperdicio de tiempo, desperdicio de espacio, desperdicio de energa, y hay desperdicio de desechos. +Y en cada negocio en que he trabajado en los ltimos cinco aos, estoy tratando de disminuir cada uno de estos elementos. +Muy bien. Se preguntarn cmo es un restaurante sostenible. +Bsicamente es como cualquier otro restaurante. +Este es el restaurante Acorn House. +Adelante y atrs. +Ahora repasar algunas ideas. +El piso: es sostenible y reciclable. +Las sillas: recicladas y reciclables. +Las mesas: Comisin Forestal. +Es madera de la Comisin Forestal Noruega. +Este banco, a pesar de que era incmodo para mi madre... no le gustaba sentarse en l, por lo que fue y compr estos almohadones en un mercado local reutilizando, un bastante buen trabajo. +Detesto el derroche, en especial de las paredes. +Si no son funcionales hay que ponerles estantes, cosa que hice. As le muestro mis productos a los clientes. +Todo el negocio funciona con energa sostenible. +Esto funciona con energa elica. Son todas luces de da. +La pintura es de bajo contenido qumico, lo cual es muy importante si se trabaja en el saln todo el tiempo. +Estuve experimentando con estos -no s si pueden verlo- pero ah hay una superficie de trabajo. +Es un polmero plstico. +Yo pensaba, trataba de pensar en lo natural, lo natural, lo natural. +Pero pens, no, no, experimenta con resinas, experimenta con polmeros. +Van a sobrevivirme? Probablemente. +Bien, aqu hay una mquina de caf reacondicionada. +En realidad se ve mejor que una nueva... se ve bien all. +La reutilizacin es vital. +Filtramos nuestra propia agua. +La ponemos en botellas, las enfriamos, y luego reutilizamos esas botellas una y otra y otra vez. +He aqu un pequeo gran ejemplo. +Si ven ese naranjo, en realidad est creciendo en un neumtico, que est volteado de adentro hacia afuera y cosido. +Dentro tiene mi compost, en el que crece un naranjo, lo cual es genial. +Esta es la cocina, que est en la misma sala. +Bsicamente, cre un men que le permita a la gente elegir la cantidad y el volumen de comida que queran consumir. +En vez de ser yo quien sirviera el plato, se les permita a ellos servirse tanto o tan poco como quisieran. +Bueno, es una cocina pequea. Mide unos 5 m2. +Atiende 220 personas al da. +Generamos un montn de basura. +Esta es la sala de residuos. +No podemos librarnos de los residuos. +Pero no se trata de eliminarlos sino de minimizar su cantidad. +Hay desechos orgnicos y cajas que son inevitables. +Pero diseco los desechos orgnicos en este macerador de deshidratacin que los transforma en un material inerte que puedo almacenar y hacer compost despus. +Hago compost en el jardn. +Toda la tierra que ven all es bsicamente la comida que genera el restaurante y est siendo producida en estas tinas que hice de rboles derribados por tormentas, de barricas de vino y todo tipo de cosas. +Hay tres contenedores de compost por los que pasan unos 70 kilos de desecho orgnico por semana; muy bueno, produce un compost excepcional. +Hay all un par de lombricarios tambin. +En realidad uno de los lombricarios era bien grande; tena un montn de lombrices. +Y entonces prob arrojando los desechos orgnicos a las lombrices, diciendo "aqu tienen la cena". +Era una especie de basura vegetal y murieron todas. +No s cuantas lombrices haba all pero cargo con un karma pesado, se los digo. +Lo que estamos viendo aqu es un sistema de filtracin de agua. +Esto toma el agua del restaurante, corre por este lecho de piedras -en ese lugar va a haber menta- y en cierta forma riego el jardn con eso. +Y, en definitiva, quiero reciclar el agua para su uso en los sanitarios para lavarse las manos quiz, no lo s. +El agua es un aspecto muy importante. +Empec a reflexionar al respecto y cre el restaurante Waterhouse. +Si pudiera lograr que fuese un restaurante sin emisiones de carbono, que no consuma gas para empezar, eso sera genial... +y me las ingeni para hacerlo. +Este restaurante se ve un poco como Acorn House las mismas sillas, las mismas mesas. +Son bien inglesas y un poco ms sostenibles. +Pero este es un restaurante elctrico. +Todo es elctrico: el restaurante y la cocina. +Funciona con energa hidroelctrica, as que pas del aire al agua. +Ahora bien, es importante entender que este saln se refrigera y calefacciona con agua, filtra su propia agua, y obtiene su energa del agua. +Literalmente es una Waterhouse (casa de agua, NT). +El sistema de tratamiento de aire; quit el aire acondicionado porque pensaba que haba demasiado consumo. +Esto es bsicamente tratamiento de aire. +Estoy tomando la temperatura del canal exterior, la inyecto en el mecanismo de intercambio de calor, gira por estas velas increbles del techo, y eso, a su vez, est cayendo suavemente sobre la gente en el restaurante refrigerando o calefaccionando, segn la ocasin. +Y esto es un difusor de aire hecho de sauce ingls. que mueve suavemente esa corriente de aire por el saln. +Muy de avanzada, sin aire acondicionado; me encanta. +En el canal, que est justo fuera del restaurante, hay cientos de metros de tuberas en espiral. +que toman la temperatura del canal y la transforman en este intercambio de calor de 4 grados. +No tengo idea de su funcionamiento pero pagu mucho dinero por esto. +Y lo genial es que uno de los cocineros del restaurante vive en este bote -no est en la red elctrica, genera su propia energa- +cultiva su propia fruta y eso es fantstico. +Los nombres de los restaurantes no son casuales. +Acorn House es el elemento madera, Waterhouse es el elmento agua, y estoy pensando que voy a construir cinco restaurantes en base a las cinco especialidades de la acupuntura medicinal china. +Tengo agua y madera. Estoy por hacer el fuego. +Y estn por venir metal y tierra. +As que tienen que guardarse un lugar para ellos. +Bien. Este es mi prximo proyecto. +Tiene cinco semanas, es mi beb, y est doliendo mucho. +El Supermercado Popular. +Los restaurantes slo llegaban a la gente que crea en lo que yo estaba haciendo. +Lo que necesitaba era llevar alimentos a un espectro ms amplio de gente. +Tal vez personas de la clase trabajadora o personas que creen realmente en una cooperativa. +Esta es una empresa social, un supermercado sin fines de lucro. +Se trata de la desconexin social entre los alimentos, las comunidades del medio urbano y su relacin con los productores rurales, conectando las comunidades de Londres con los productores rurales. +Realmente importante. +As que estoy comprometido con las papas y la leche, con el puerro y el brcoli... todas cosas muy importantes. +He mantenido las baldosas, los pisos, las instalaciones; tengo algunos refrigeradores reciclados, algunas cajas registradoras y carritos de compra reciclados. +Quiero decir, todo es sper sostenible. +De hecho estoy intentando y voy a hacer de este el supermercado ms sostenible de todo el mundo. +Sin desperdicio de comida. +Y nadie est haciendo eso por ahora. +De hecho, Sainsbury's, si ests mirando, intntalo. +Yo voy a lograrlo antes que t. +La Naturaleza no genera residuos; no genera residuos como tales. +Todo en la Naturaleza se utiliza en un ciclo cerrado continuo siendo el residuo el fin del principio. Y eso es algo de lo que me he estado nutriendo desde hace tiempo. Es algo importante de entender. +Si no nos paramos a marcar una diferencia y pensamos en comida sostenible, si no pensamos en su naturaleza sostenible, podramos fracasar. +Pero yo quera levantarme y mostrarles que podemos hacerlo si somos ms responsables. +Las empresas con conciencia ambiental son factibles. +Estn aqu. Han visto que he hecho tres hasta ahora; Tengo en mente algunas ms. +La idea es embrionaria. +Creo que es importante. +Creo que si Reducimos, Reusamos, Rechazamos y Reciclamos... all justo al final. El Reciclaje es el ltimo punto que quiero tratar. Pero son las cuatro R, en vez de ser tres R. Entonces creo que vamos a estar en camino. +Estas tres no son perfectas... son ideas. +Creo que hay muchos problemas por venir, pero con ayuda estoy seguro de que voy a encontrar soluciones. +Y espero que todos participen. +Muchas gracias. +Sola ser mucho ms fcil ser islandesa, porque hasta hace un par de aos la gente no saba casi nada sobre nosotros, entonces yo poda venir aqu y contarles slo cosas buenas. +Pero en los ltimos dos aos nos hemos hecho conocidos por un par de cosas. +Primero, claro, por la crisis econmica. +La cosa estuvo tan mala que hasta pusieron a nuestro pas en venta en eBay. +La base era de 99 centavos y sin reserva. +Luego fue lo del volcn que interrumpi los planes de viaje de casi todos Uds y de muchos de sus amigos, incluyendo al presidente Obama. +Por cierto, se pronuncia "eiiafiaklaiokuk". +Ninguno de sus medios lo dijo bien. +Pero no vine exactamente a hablar de estas dos cosas; +estoy aqu para contarles la historia de Auur Capital, una firma financiera fundada por Kristin, a quien ven en la foto, y por m en la primavera de 2007, poco ms de un ao antes del impacto de la crisis econmica. +Por qu dos mujeres... ...dejaran carreras exitosas en la banca de inversin... ...del sector empresarial... ...para fundar una firma de servicios financieros? +Bueno quiz baste decir que estbamos un poco saturadas de testosterona. +Y no vine a decir que los hombres son culpables de la crisis y de lo que sucedi en mi pas. +Pero puedo asegurarles que en mi pas, al igual que en Wall Street, Londres y otros lugares los hombres encabezaban el juego del sector financiero. Y esa falta de diversidad, esa uniformidad, lleva a problemas desastrosos. +As que decidimos, un poco hastiadas de este mundo y con la fuerte sensacin en el estmago de que esto no era sostenible, fundar una firma de servicios financieros basada en nuestros valores. Y decidimos incorporar valores femeninos al mundo de las finanzas. +Despert algo de recelo en Islandia. +Hasta ese entonces no nos conocan en Islandia como a tpicas mujeres mujeres. +As que fue casi como salir del armario y hablar realmente del hecho de ser mujeres y de que creamos tener unos valores y una forma de hacer negocios que seran ms sostenibles que lo que habamos vivido hasta ese entonces. +Se nos sum un gran grupo de personas, personas de principios, con gran capacidad, e inversores con una visin y valores como los nuestros. +Y juntos capeamos el temporal, el ojo de la tormenta financiera islandesa, sin prdidas directas de nuestro capital o de los fondos de nuestros clientes. +Y aunque quiero agradecer por ello a la talentosa gente de nuestra empresa primero que nada, y tambin hay un factor de suerte y de actuar oportunamente, estamos absolutamente convencidas de que logramos esto gracias a nuestros valores. +Por eso voy a compartirlos con Uds. +Creemos en la conciencia del riesgo. +Qu significa eso? +Creemos que siempre se deben entender los riesgos que se estn tomando, y no vamos a invertir en cosas que no entendemos. +No es algo complicado. +Pero en 2007, en la cumbre de las hipotecas de alto riesgo y de las estructuras financieras complejas, era todo lo contrario: se corra imprudentemente mucho riesgo; eso veamos en el mercado. +Y si bien trabajamos en el sector financiero, donde el Excel es rey, creemos en el capital emocional. +Y creemos que hacer la debida diligencia emocional es tan importante como hacer la debida diligencia financiera. +En realidad son personas las que ganan y pierden dinero, no planillas de Excel. +Por ltimo, pero no menos importante, creemos en las ganancias con principios; +nos preocupa cmo obtenemos la ganancia. +Por eso si bien queremos una ganancia para nosotros y para nuestros clientes, estamos dispuestos a hacerlo con una visin de largo plazo. Y nos gusta tener una definicin ms amplia de las ganancias que slo el beneficio econmico del prximo trimestre. +Por eso nos gusta ver ganancias ms beneficios sociales y ambientales positivos cuando invertimos. +Pero no se trataba slo de los valores, aunque estamos convencidos de su importancia. +Tambin se trataba de una oportunidad comercial. +La tendencia femenina y la tendencia de sostenibilidad van a constituir una de las oportunidades de inversin ms interesantes en los prximos aos. +La cuestin de la tendencia femenina no es que las mujeres sean mejores que los hombres sino que se trata de que las mujeres son diferentes de los hombres, de que aportan valores y formas diferentes a la mesa. +Qu aportan? Aportan mejor toma de decisiones. Y menos comportamiento de rebao. Y ambas cosas golpean la lnea de fondo con resultados muy positivos. +Pero uno tiene que preguntarse, ahora que tuvimos esta crisis en el sector financiero islands... y a propsito, ahora Europa se ve bastante mal. Y muchos diran que Estados Unidos se encamina a algunos problemas ms tambin. +Ahora que hemos pasado por todo eso y tenemos todos estos datos por ah que nos dicen que es mucho mejor la diversidad en torno a las mesas de decisin, veremos un cambio en los negocios y las finanzas? +Cambiar el gobierno? +Bueno voy a darles mi versin franca sobre esto. +Hay das en los que creo, pero hay das en los que estoy llena de dudas. +Han visto la increble prisa por reconstruir las mismas cosas que nos fallaron? +Einstein dijo que esta era la definicin de locura: hacer las mismas cosas una y otra vez esperando un resultado diferente. +As que supongo que el mundo est loco, porque veo mucho el hecho de hacer las mismas cosas una y otra vez, esperando que esta vez no se derrumbe sobre nosotros. +Quiero ver ms pensamiento revolucionario. Y sigo optimista. +Como TED, creo en las personas. +Y s que los consumidores son cada vez ms conscientes y que van a empezar a votar con sus billeteras y le van a cambiar la cara a los negocios y a las finanzas desde afuera si no lo hacen desde adentro. +Yo soy ms bien revolucionaria, como debe ser; soy islandesa. +Tenemos una historia larga de mujeres fuertes, valientes e independientes desde la poca de los vikingos. +Y quiero contarles cundo me di cuenta por primera vez que las mujeres importan en la economa y en la sociedad. Yo tena 7 aos, justo era el cumpleaos de mi madre, 24 de octubre de 1975. +Las mujeres islandesas se tomaron el da libre. +En el trabajo y en la casa se tomaron el da libre y nada funcion en Islandia. +Manifestaron en el centro de Reykjavik, y pusieron los temas de la mujer en la agenda. +Y algunos dicen que fue el inicio de un movimiento global. +Para m fue el comienzo de un largo viaje pero decid que ese da importara. +Cinco aos despus Islandia eligi a Vigds Finnbogadttir como presidenta, primera mujer en ser jefe de Estado, madre soltera, sobreviviente de cncer de mama, a quin se le tuvo que extirpar un seno. +Y en una de las etapas de la campaa, uno de sus contendientes masculinos aludi al hecho de que no poda ser presidente por ser mujer, e incluso media mujer. +Esa noche gan las elecciones, porque le respondi, no slo por ese comportamiento ruin, sino que ella respondi y dijo: "Bueno, en realidad no voy a amamantar a la nacin islandesa, la voy a liderar". +As que he tenido muchos ejemplos femeninos que han influido en quin soy y dnde estoy hoy en da. +Pero a pesar de eso pas por los primeros 10 o 15 aos de mi carrera casi negando mi condicin de mujer. +Empec en el mundo corporativo de EE.UU. y estaba absolutamente convencida de que todo dependa del individuo, que mujeres y hombres tendran las mismas oportunidades. +Pero ltimamente llegu a la conclusin de que no es as. +No somos iguales. Y eso es genial; gracias a nuestras diferencias creamos y sostenemos la vida. +As que deberamos abrazar las diferencias y buscar el desafo. +La idea final que quiero dejarles es que estoy harta de esta tirana de las opciones excluyentes en la vida: son los hombres o son las mujeres. +Tenemos que empezar a apreciar la belleza del equilibrio. +Dejemos entonces de pensar en los negocios por un lado y la filantropa por otro y empecemos a pensar en hacer buenos negocios. +As vamos a cambiar el mundo. Es el nico futuro sostenible. +Gracias. +Crec en Nueva York entre Harlem y el Bronx. +Ms tarde me enter que eso era la socializacin colectiva de los hombres ms conocida como "kit de masculinidad". +Este kit contiene todos los ingredientes de lo que definimos que es ser hombre. +Tambin quiero decir que, sin lugar a dudas, hay algo maravilloso, maravilloso, absolutamente maravilloso, en ser hombres. +Pero al mismo tiempo hay algunas cosas que se han ido de cauce. Y realmente tenemos que empezar, ponernos a ver eso y realmente llegar a deconstruir, a redefinir, nuestra idea de masculinidad. +Estos son mis dos hijos: Kendall y Jay. +Tienen 11 y 12 aos. +Kendall tiene 15 meses ms que Jay. +Hubo un perodo en que mi esposa, Tammie, y yo estbamos muy ocupados y entre una cosa y otra: Kendall y Jay. +Y cuando tenan unos 5 y 6 aos, 4 y 5 aos, Jay se me acercara a m, vendra llorando. +No importaba el motivo por el que lloraba ella se sentaba en mi rodilla, moqueaba en mi manga, lloraba, lloraba con ganas. +Pap est aqu. Eso es lo que importa. +Y Kendall por otro lado, como dije, l tiene slo 15 meses ms que ella, tambin vena llorando y tan pronto como lo escuchaba llorar se me activaba un cronmetro interno. +Le daba al nio quiz unos 30 segundos, el tiempo que tardaba en venir a m, y ya le estaba diciendo algo como: "Por qu lloras? +Levanta la cabeza. Mrame. +Explcame cul es el problema. +Cul es el problema. No logro entenderte. +Por qu ests llorando?" +Y preso de mi propia frustracin, de mi rol y responsabilidad para educarlo como a un hombre, para encajar en estas reglas y estas estructuras que definen el ser hombre me encontr a m mismo diciendo cosas como: "Ve a tu habitacin. +Sigue all, qudate en tu cuarto. +Sintate hasta que se te pase, y luego ven a contarme cuando puedas hablar como un..." Qu? +(Audiencia: Hombre) "como un hombre". +Y tena slo 5 aos. +Con el tiempo en la vida llegu a preguntarme "Dios mo, qu me pasa? +Qu estoy haciendo? Por qu lo hago?" +Y me acord. +Me acord de mi padre. +Hubo una poca en mi vida en la que tuvimos una experiencia familiar traumtica. +Mi hermano, Henry, muri trgicamente cuando ramos adolescentes. +Vivamos en Nueva York, como dije. +En ese momento vivamos en el Bronx. El entierro fue en un lugar llamado Long Island, a unas 2 horas de distancia. +Y mientras nos preparbamos para regresar del entierro los coches se detuvieron en un bao para dejar que la gente fuese antes de emprender el largo viaje de regreso. +La limusina qued vaca. +Bajaron mi madre, mi hermana, mi ta, todos. Pero quedamos mi padre y yo. Y tan pronto como se bajaron las mujeres l empez a llorar. +No quera llorar delante de m. Pero saba que no lo iba a hacer en el camino de regreso y era mejor que lo viera yo que permitirse expresar estos sentimientos y emociones delante de las mujeres. +Y este era un hombre que haca 10 minutos haba enterrado a su hijo adolescente; algo que yo ni siquiera puedo imaginar. +Lo que ms se me qued fueron sus disculpas por llorar delante de m. Y al mismo tiempo, me felicitaba, me alababa, por no llorar. +Ahora llego a ver esto como ese miedo que tenemos los hombres, ese temor que nos paraliza, que nos hace rehenes de este kit masculino. +Recuerdo haber hablado con un nio de 12 aos, jugador de ftbol, y le pregunt, le dije: "Cmo te sentiras si... ...delante del equipo... ...el entrenador te dijera que jugaste como una nia?" +Yo esperaba que me dijera algo como que estara triste, furioso, enojado o algo as. +No, el nio me dijo... el nio me dijo: "Me destruira". +Y pens para mis adentros: "Dios, si lo destruira que lo llamen nia, qu le estamos enseando... ...sobre las nias?" +Y esto me remonta a una poca en que yo tendra unos 12 aos. +Crec en un edificio modesto del ncleo urbano pobre. +En ese entonces vivamos en el Bronx. Y en el edificio al lado de donde viva haba un chico llamado Johnny. +Tena unos 16 aos, y todos nosotros tenamos unos 12 aos, chicos jvenes. +Y l pasaba el rato con nosotros. +Y este muchacho no andaba en cosas buenas. +Era el tipo de muchacho que los padres preguntaran: "Qu hace este muchacho de 16 aos con estos chicos de 12? +Y pasaba mucho tiempo en cosas no muy buenas. +Era un chico con problemas. +Su madre haba muerto por sobredosis de herona. +Haba sido criado por su abuela. +Su padre estaba ausente. +Su abuela tena dos empleos. +l pasaba mucho tiempo solo en casa. +Pero tengo que decirles, los jvenes admirbamos a este chico. +Era genial. Era magnfico. +Era lo que las hermanas decan: "Es magnfico". +Tena relaciones sexuales. +Todos lo admirbamos. +As que un da yo estaba en frente de su casa haciendo algo jugando, haciendo algo, no s qu. +l mir por la ventana, me pidi que subiera; dijo: "Hola Anthony". +Me llamaban Anthony de nio. +"Hola Anthony, vamos arriba". +Johnny llamaba y uno iba. +Sub corriendo las escaleras. +Al abrir la puerta me dice: "Quieres?" +Y de inmediato supe a qu se refera. +Porque para m en ese momento, relacionndonos en ese entorno de masculinidad "querer" significaba una de dos cosas: sexo o droga; y no andbamos en las drogas. +Mi kit, mi credencial, mi credencial de masculinidad estaba en peligro inminente. +Dos cosas: una, nunca haba tenido sexo; +pero un hombre nunca cuenta eso. +Uno le contaba al amigo ms querido y cercano, bajo juramento secreto, la primera vez que tena sexo. +Para los dems bamos por ah como si hubisemos tenido sexo desde los 2 aos. +No haba primera vez. +La otra cosa que no le poda contar es que yo no quera. +Eso era peor an. Se supona que siempre estbamos al acecho. +Las mujeres son objetos, sobre todo objetos sexuales. +Como sea, no poda contarle nada de eso. +As que, como dira mi madre, para hacerla corta, yo simplemete le dije "s" a Johnny. +l me pidi que entrase en su habitacin. +Entr a su habitacin. En su cama haba una chica del barrio llamada Sheila. +Tena 16 aos. +Estaba desnuda. +Era lo que hoy se conoce como enferma mental; ms lcida algunas veces que otras. +Tenamos un amplio abanico de nombres inadecuados para ella. +Como sea, Johnny acababa de tener sexo con ella. +Bueno, en realidad la haba violado pero l deca que haban tenido sexo. +Porque mientras Sheila nunca deca que no, tampoco deca que s. +Por eso me estaba ofreciendo la oportunidad de hacer lo mismo. +Cuando entr al cuarto, cerr la puerta. +Amigos, estaba petrificado. +Estaba de espaldas a la puerta para que Johnny no pudiera irrumpir en el cuarto y ver que no estaba haciendo nada. Y permanec all el tiempo suficiente como para que hubiera pasado algo. +As que ahora no estaba tratando de imaginar qu hacer sino de pensar cmo iba a salir de esta habitacin. +As que con mis 12 aos de sabidura baj el cierre del pantaln y sal de la habitacin. Y para mi sorpresa, mientras yo estaba en el cuarto con Sheila, Johnny regres a la ventana y trajo a los muchachos. +As que ahora la sala de estar estaba llena. +Era como la sala de espera del consultorio mdico. +Y me preguntaron cmo estuvo. Y yo les dije "Estuvo bien". Y sub el cierre del pantaln frente a ellos y me dirig hacia la puerta. +Ahora digo esto con remordimiento, y senta un tremendo remordimiento en ese momento, pero estaba en conflicto porque, aunque senta remordimiento, me emocion porque no me descubrieron; +pero saba que me senta mal por lo sucedido. +Este temor de salirme de la norma de masculinidad me envolvi por completo. +Eran mucho ms importantes para m mis credenciales de masculinidad que lo de Sheila y lo que le estaba sucediendo. +Visto colectivamente, como hombres, se nos ensea a menospreciar a las mujeres, a verlas como propiedad y objeto de los hombres. +Es como una ecuacin que equivale a la violencia contra la mujer. +Como hombres, buenos hombres, la gran mayora de los hombres, operamos en base a esta socializacin colectiva. +Es como que nos vemos separados, pero somos una parte muy importante de eso. +Como ven, tenemos que llegar a entender que el menosprecio, la propiedad y la cosificacin son la base y la violencia no puede ocurrir sin eso. +Por eso somos gran parte de la solucin as como del problema. +El Centro de Control de Enfermedades dice que la violencia masculina contra las mujeres ya es epidmica; es el problema de salud principal de las mujeres, en el pas y en el extranjero. +Rpidamente, me gustara decir solamente que este es el amor de mi vida, mi hija Jay. +El mundo que imagino para ella: Cmo me gustara que acten y se comporten los hombres? +Te necesito a bordo. Te necesito conmigo. +Y me dijo: "Sera libre". +Gracias a todos. +Voy a contarles una historia. +Es una historia india sobre una mujer india y su viaje. +Djenme empezar por mis padres. +Soy producto de una madre y un padre con visin de futuro. +Hace muchos aos, cuando nac en los 50, los 50 y 60 no eran aos para nias en India. +Eran aos para varones. +Para varones que se sumaran a los negocios y heredaran los negocios de los padres. Y las nias se engalanaran para casarse. +Mi familia, en mi ciudad, y casi en el pas, fue nica. +ramos cuatro, no una, y por suerte no haba nios. +ramos cuatro nias y ningn nio. +Mis padres pertenecan a una familia terrateniente. +Mi padre desafi a su propio abuelo casi hasta el punto de ser desheredado, porque decidi educarnos a las cuatro. +Nos mand a una de las mejores escuelas de la ciudad y nos dio la mejor educacin. +Como he dicho, cuando nacemos no elegimos a nuestros padres. y cuando vamos al colegio, tampoco lo elegimos. +Los chicos no eligen un colegio, +slo van al que sus padres eligen por ellos. +As que esta fue la formacin que recib. +As fui criada y de igual modo, mis otras tres hermanas. +Y mi padre sola decir entonces: "Voy a repartir a mis cuatro hijas en cuatro esquinas del planeta". +No s si realmente pretenda eso, pero as sucedi. +Soy la nica que se ha quedado en India. +Una est en Gran Bretaa, otra en EE.UU. y la otra en Canad. +Las cuatro estamos en cuatro esquinas del planeta. +Y como he dicho son mis modelos a imitar. Segu dos cosas que mi padre y mi madre me decan. +Una, que la vida es una pendiente; +o subes, o bajas. +Y la segunda, la que siempre he conservado, la que se convirti en mi filosofa de vida, la que ha marcado la diferencia, es que cien cosas te pasan en la vida, buenas o malas. +De esas 100, 90 son creacin propia. +Son buenas. Son tu creacin. Disfrtalas. +Si son malas, son tu creacin. Aprende de ellas. +10 son producto de la naturaleza y no se puede hacer nada. +Como la muerte de un familiar, o un cicln, o un huracn, o un terremoto. +No puedes hacer nada al respecto. +Slo tienes que responder a la situacin. +Pero esa respuesta sale de esos 90 puntos. +Dado que soy producto de esta filosofa del 90/10, y que la vida es una pendiente, esa es la forma en la que crec, valorando lo que tengo. +Soy producto de las oportunidades, oportunidades poco comunes en los aos 50 y 60, que las nias no reciban. Y yo era consciente del hecho de que lo que mis padres me estaban dando era algo nico. +Porque mis mejores amigas de la escuela estaban siendo ataviadas para casarse con mucha dote, y ah estaba yo con una raqueta de tenis yendo a la escuela, y haciendo todo tipo de actividades extraescolares. +Pens que deba contarles esto, +porque como dije, estos son los antecedentes. +Lo que viene a continuacin es esto: +Ingres en el Servicio de Polica de la India como una mujer dura, una mujer con energa inagotable porque sola correr por mis campeonatos de tenis, etc. +Pero ingres en el Servicio de Polica de la India. Y entonces apareci un nuevo modelo de polica. +Para m la polica significaba poder para corregir, poder para prevenir y para detectar. +Esto es una definicin totalmente nueva para la polica india: el poder para prevenir. +Porque por lo general siempre se haba dicho "poder para detectar" y eso era todo, o "poder para castigar". +Pero yo decid que no, que es un poder para prevenir porque eso es lo que aprend de nia: +cmo prevenir el 10 y que nunca sea ms de 10? +As es como ingres en el servicio y se diferenci del modelo de los hombres. +No quise diferenciarlo del de los hombres, pero fue diferente, porque mi manera de ser era diferente. +Y redefin los conceptos policiales en India. +Los voy a llevar a dar dos viajes: uno policial y otro carcelario. +Si miran el ttulo dice: "Detenido el coche del primer ministro". +Era la primera vez que un primer ministro de India reciba una multa de estacionamiento. +Era la primera vez en India y puedo asegurarles que fue la ltima vez que se oy de eso. +Nunca volvi a suceder en India, porque fue de una vez y para siempre. +Establec la regla porque yo era permeable, compasiva, muy sensible a la justicia, muy a favor de la justicia. +Esa es la razn por la que, como mujer, ingres en la polica india. +Tena otras opciones, pero no las eleg. +As que voy a continuar. +Se trata de una polica dura, de una polica igualitaria. +Ahora se saba que aqu haba una mujer que no iba a escuchar. +As que me enviaron a todos los destinos indiscriminadamente; destinos a los que otros diran que no. +Hice trabajo penitenciario como oficial de polica. +Normalmente, los policas no quieren ir a las crceles. +Me enviaron a la crcel para encerrarme, pensando que ahora no habra coches ni gente importante a quien multar. +Encerrmosla. +As que recib un trabajo penitenciario. +Era un trabajo penitenciario en una guarida de malvivientes. +Evidentemente lo era. +Eran 10.000 personas, de las cuales 400 eran mujeres, de 10.000, y unos 9.600 eran hombres. +Terroristas, violadores, ladrones, mafiosos... A algunos los haba encarcelado yo como oficial de polica en la calle. +Y entonces, cmo lidi con ellos? +El primer da cuando entr yo no saba cmo mirarlos. +Les dije: "Rezan?" Cuando mir al grupo, les pregunt: "Rezan ustedes?" +Me vean una mujer joven, baja, vestida con un traje color canela. +Les pregunt: "Rezan?" +Y ellos no contestaron nada. +Yo les deca "Rezan? Quieren rezar?" +Contestaron: "S". Y yo: "Muy bien, recemos". +Rec por ellos y las cosas empezaron a cambiar. +Esta es una diapositiva de la educacin dentro de la prisin. +Amigos, esto nunca haba sucedido: todo el mundo estudiando en la prisin. +Empec esto con el apoyo de la comunidad. +El gobierno no tena presupuesto. +Fue uno de los mejores voluntariados y ms grandes de cualquier prisin del mundo. +Esto comenz en la prisin de Delhi. +Pueden ver un ejemplo de un prisionero dando una clase. +Hay cientos de clases. +De 9 a 11 todos los prisioneros asistan al programa educativo en la misma guarida en la que pensaron que me pondran tras las rejas y todo se olvidara. +Convertimos esto en un ashram. De prisin a ashram gracias a la educacin. +Creo que es el cambio ms grande. +Fue el comienzo de un cambio. +Los maestros eran prisioneros. Los maestros eran voluntarios. +Nos donaron los libros. +Nos donaron la papelera. +Todo nos lo donaron, porque no haba presupuesto educativo para la prisin. +Ahora, si yo no lo hubiese hecho, eso habra sido un infierno. +Ese es el segundo punto destacado. +Quiero mostrarles algunos momentos de mi viaje, que probablemente nunca vern en cualquier otra parte del mundo. +Primero, nmeros que nunca van a ver. +Segundo, este concepto. +Este fue un programa de meditacin dentro de la prisin de ms de mil reclusos: +1.000 reclusos sentados meditando. +Este fue uno de los pasos ms valientes que di como directora de la prisin. +Y esto es lo que permiti la transformacin. +Si quieren saber ms acerca de esto vayan a ver la pelcula "Doing Time, Doing Vipassana". +Van a ver eso y les va a encantar. +Y escrbanme a kiranbedi.com, que yo les responder. +Djenme ensearle la prxima diapositiva. +Emple el mismo concepto de meditacin. Por qu llev la meditacin a la prisin india? +Porque el crimen es producto de una mente distorsionada. +Hay una distorsin mental que deber tratarse, +no con sermones, ni con cuentos, ni con lecturas, sino abordando la mente. +Llev el mismo concepto a la polica porque la polica, de igual manera, era prisionera de su mente. Sentan como si hubiese un "nosotros" y un "ellos" y que las personas no cooperan. +Esto funcion. +Esta es una caja de comentarios, llamada caja de pedidos. +Este es un concepto que introduje para escuchar los reclamos, las quejas. +Fue una caja mgica. +Es una caja con sensibilidad. +As es como dibuj un prisionero qu sentan en la prisin. +Si ven a alguien de azul -s, este tipo- era un recluso, y era maestro. +Y ya ven, todo el mundo est ocupado, no hay tiempo que perder. +Djenme concluir. +Actualmente, estoy en los movimientos, los movimientos educativos de nios que no tienen atencin suficiente; son miles... en India todo es de a miles. +El segundo, es el movimiento anticorrupcin de India. +Es un gran procedimiento... nosotros, como pequeo grupo de activistas, hemos elaborado un proyecto de ley a favor de un defensor del pueblo de India. +Amigos, van a escuchar mucho al respecto. +Ese el movimiento que estoy impulsando actualmente y ese es el movimiento y la ambicin de mi vida. +Muchas gracias. +Gracias. Muchas gracias. Gracias. +Gracias. Gracias. Gracias. +Ahora estamos pasando por un momento increble y sin precedentes en el que la dinmica de poder entre hombres y mujeres est cambiando muy rpidamente. Y en muchos lugares donde este fenmeno se nota ms las mujeres estn tomando el control de todo. +Mi madre, en su poca, no fue a la universidad. +No muchas mujeres iban. +Y hoy por cada 2 hombres que se gradan en la universidad hay 3 mujeres que hacen lo mismo. +Las mujeres, por primera vez este ao, son mayora en la fuerza laboral de EE.UU. +Y estn empezando a dominar muchas profesiones: medicina, abogaca, contabilidad, la banca. +Hoy en da, en el sector gerencial, hay ms del 50% de mujeres. Y en las 15 profesiones con proyeccin de mayor crecimiento de la prxima dcada todas menos 2 estn dominadas por mujeres. +As que la economa mundial se est volviendo un lugar de mujeres ms exitosas que los hombres crase o no, y estos cambios econmicos empiezan a afectar ms rpidamente a la cultura: el aspecto de las comedias romnticas, el de nuestros matrimonios, el de nuestras citas, y el de los nuevos superhroes. +Durante mucho tiempo domin esta imagen de virilidad estadounidense: duro y fuerte, con el control de su propio entorno. +Hace unos aos, se retir el hombre Marlboro y fue reemplazado por este ejemplar mucho menos impresionante, una parodia de la hombra estadounidense. Y eso es lo que tenemos hoy en las publicidades. +La frase hijo primognito est arraigada tan profundamente en nuestra mente que ya esta estadstica sola me impact: +en las clnicas de fertilidad de EE.UU. el 75% de las parejas piden nias y no nios. +Y en lugares impensados como Corea del Sur, India y China, las sociedades patriarcales muy estrictas empiezan a resquebrajarse y las familias ya no prefieren tanto a los primognitos. +Si piensan en esto, si abren los ojos a esta posibilidad y empiezan a atar cabos van a ver la evidencia en todos lados. +Puede verse en los patrones de graduacin universitaria, en las proyecciones laborales, en las estadsticas maritales, puede verse en las elecciones islandesas, algo que van a or luego, y en las encuestas de Corea del Sur sobre la preferencia de los hijos que est pasando algo sorprendente y sin precedentes con las mujeres. +Claro que no es la primera vez que progresan las mujeres. +Tambin vienen a la mente los aos 20 y 60. +Pero la diferencia radica en que entonces fue impulsado por un movimiento feminista muy apasionado que trataba de proyectar sus propios deseos mientras que ahora no se trata de pasin ni de cierto tipo de movimiento. +Se trata sencillamente de hechos de este momento econmico en que vivimos. +Los 200.000 aos de los hombres "manda-ms" estn llegando a su fin, crase o no, y por eso hablo del fin de los hombres. +Ahora, a los hombres les digo, este no es el momento de apagarse o de arrojar tomates, porque la idea es que esto nos sucede a todos. +Yo misma tengo un marido y un padre y dos hijos a quienes amo profundamente. +Es por eso quiero hablar de esto; porque si no lo reconocemos la transicin va a ser bastante dolorosa. +Pero si lo tenemos en cuenta entonces creo que todo va a fluir mucho ms. +Empec a pensar en esto har un ao y medio. +Estaba leyendo titulares sobre la recesin, como cualquier persona, y empec a notar un patrn distinto: que la recesin estaba afectando a los hombres mucho ms profundamente que a las mujeres. +Y me acord de que hace unos 10 aos le un libro de Susan Faludi, titulado "Stiffed: The Betrayal of the American Man", en el que ella describa lo dura que fue la recesin con los hombres. Y empec a pensar si habra sido peor esta vez con esta recesin. +Y me di cuenta que esta vez haba 2 cosas diferentes. +La primera era que ya no eran impactos temporarios de la recesin para con los hombres; que esto estaba reflejando un desplazamiento subyacente ms profundo en la economa mundial. +La segunda cosa era que la historia no era ya la crisis de los hombres sino que era tambin lo que le pasaba a las mujeres. +Ahora miren esta segunda tanda de diapositivas. +Estos son titulares de lo que ha estado pasando con las mujeres en los ltimos aos. +Son cosas que no podramos haber imaginado hace unos aos. +Las mujeres, mayora de la fuerza de trabajo. +Y las estadsticas laborales: las mujeres ocupan ms puestos de gestin. +Este segundo grupo de titulares: pueden ver que las familias y los matrimonios empiezan a cambiar. +Y miren el ltimo titular: las jvenes ganan ms que los jvenes. +Ese ttulo en particular me lleg de una firma de investigacin de mercado. +Uno de sus clientes le consult quin iba a comprar casas en ese barrio en el futuro. +Y esperaban que fuesen las familias jvenes o los hombres jvenes como siempre ha sido. +Pero, de hecho, hallaron algo sorprendente. +Eran las mujeres jvenes, solteras, las mayores compradoras de casas en el barrio. +As que decidieron, debido a que el hallazgo les intrigaba, hacer una encuesta nacional. +Distribuyeron los datos del censo y hallaron, el tipo me lo describa como una sorpresa, que en 1997 en 2.000 comunidades las mujeres jvenes ganaban ms que los hombres jvenes. +Aqu hay una generacin de mujeres jvenes que crecieron pensndose como asalariadas ms poderosas que sus contrapartes masculinos. +Bueno, acabo de plantearles un panorama pero quiero explicarles por qu est sucediendo esto. +Dentro de un momento les voy a mostrar un grfico y lo que van a ver en ese grfico comienza en 1973 justo antes de que las mujeres empezaran a inundar la fuerza laboral y sigue hasta hoy. +Bsicamente lo que van a ver es lo que los economistas llaman la polarizacin de la economa. +Qu quiere decir eso? +Quiere decir que la economa se divide en empleos especializados con sueldos altos y empleos genricos con sueldos bajos y que los empleos medios, de instruccin media, los de medianos ingresos estn empezando a abandonar la economa. +Esto ha continuado as durante 40 aos. +Pero este proceso afecta a los hombres de manera muy diferente que a las mujeres. +Van a ver a las mujeres en rojo y a los hombres en azul. +Van a ver que ambos abandonan la clase media pero vean lo que pasa con las mujeres y lo que pasa con los hombres. +Ah vamos. +Miren eso: ambos abandonan la clase media. +Miren lo que pasa con las mujeres. Miren lo que pasa con los hombres. +Los hombres como que se estancan mientras que las mujeres toman los empleos especializados. +Entonces, qu es eso? +Parece un aumento de potencia de las mujeres en un videojuego o que se col un pcima secreta en las pldoras anticonceptivas que les permite escaparse. +Por supuesto que no se trata de eso. +Sucede que la economa a cambiado mucho. +Solamos tener una economa de manufactura, que consista en construir bienes y productos y ahora tenemos una economa de servicios una economa de la informacin, creativa. +Esas dos economas requieren habilidades muy diferentes. Y, como suele suceder, las mujeres han adquirido mejor que los hombres las nuevas habilidades. +Sola pasar que si uno era un tipo que haba ido a la secundaria que no tena un ttulo universitario pero s contaba con habilidades especficas, con la ayuda de un sindicato uno poda granjearse una vida de clase media bastante buena. +Pero eso hoy no corre ms. +Esta nueva economa es bastante indiferente al tamao y la fuerza, algo que ayud a los hombres todos estos aos. +Hoy la economa requiere unas habilidades totalmente diferentes. +Bsicamente se necesita inteligencia, capacidad de quedarse quieto y concentrarse, de comunicarse abiertamente, de ser capaz de escuchar a la gente y de moverse en un entorno laboral mucho ms fluido de lo que sola ser. Y esas son cosas que las mujeres hacen muy bien, como estamos viendo. +Si vemos lo que sola ser el lder ideal en la teora de gestin, era alguien como el general Patton, s? +Alguien que impartiera rdenes desde arriba. +Alguien muy jerrquico, +que le dijera a todo el mundo qu hacer. +Pero esa no es la idea de lder ideal hoy en da. +Si leen los libros de gestin de hoy un lder es alguien que fomenta la creatividad es el que logra que los empleados -vean, todava digo "el"- que puede lograr que los empleados se comuniquen entre s quien puede, bsicamente, armar equipos y hacer que sean creativos. +Y todas esas son cosas que las mujeres hacen muy bien. +Y, por si fuera poco, eso crea una especie de efecto cascada. +Las mujeres entran a la cima del mercado laboral y luego en la clase obrera todos los puestos nuevos que se crean son el tipo de trabajo que las esposas hacen gratis en la casa: +cuidar a los nios, cuidar ancianos, preparar la comida. +Son todos trabajos que estn creciendo, y son trabajos que las mujeres tienden a hacer. +Puede llegar el da en que las madres contraten a un tipo retirado, de mediana edad, ex-siderrgico para que le cuide a los hijos en casa y eso sera bueno para los hombres pero todava no ha sucedido mucho. +Para ver lo que va a suceder no se puede mirar slo la fuerza laboral actual hay que mirar la fuerza laboral futura. +Y aqu la historia es bastante simple. +Las mujeres reciben ttulos universitarios a un ritmo ms rpido que los hombres. +Por qu? Esto es un misterio. +Se le ha preguntado a los hombres por qu no vuelven a la universidad a la de la comunidad, digamos, y capacitarse, adquirir nuevas habilidades. +Bueno, resulta que eso los pone muy incmodos. +Estn acostumbrados a pensarse como proveedores y parece que no pueden construir las redes sociales que les permitan terminar la universidad. +As que por alguna razn los hombres terminan no volviendo a la universidad. +Y, lo ms preocupante, es lo que pasa con los muchachos jvenes. +Hay casi una dcada de investigacin acerca de lo que la gente llama la crisis de los nios. +Esta crisis sostiene que a los nios muy pequeos, por la razn que sea, les va peor en la escuela que a las nias muy pequeas. Y hay teoras al respecto. +Se debe a que tenemos un plan de estudios muy verbal y las nias pequeas son mejores en eso que los nios pequeos? +O que les pedimos demasiado que se queden quietos y los nios al principio se sienten fracasados? +Algunas personas dicen que es porque en 9 grado los nios empiezan a abandonar la escuela. +Estoy escribiendo un libro sobre todo esto, todava estoy analizando el tema, as que no tengo la respuesta. +Pero mientras tanto voy a llamar a una experta mundial en educacin, mi hija Noah de 10 aos, para que les cuente por qu los nios de su clase son peores. +Noah: Las nias obviamente son ms inteligentes. +Quiero decir, tienen mucho ms vocabulario. +Aprenden mucho ms rpido. +Son ms controladas. +Hoy en al pizarra, para perder el recreo de maana, solo se ven nombres de nios. +Hanna Rosin: Y por qu pasa eso? +Noah: Por qu? No atienden en clase, mientras que las nias lo hacen muy bien. +HR: As que ah tienen. +Toda esta teora realmente vino a casa cuando fui a visitar una universidad en Kansas, una de clase trabajadora. +Ciertamente, cuando yo estaba en la universidad tena ciertas expectativas: que mi marido y yo trabajaramos y que criaramos a los hijos. +Pero estas muchachas universitarias tenan una visin muy distinta de su futuro. +Bsicamente lo que me dijeron es que trabajaran 18 horas al da, que sus maridos quiz tuvieran un empleo, pero que principalmente estaran en la casa cuidando de los gatos. +Y eso para m fue una sorpresa. +Y esta es mi frase favorita de una de las muchachas: "Los hombres son la nueva atadura". +Ahora se ren pero bien punzante que es esa frase, no? +Y creo que la razn se debe a que miles de aos de historia no se revierten sin antes mucho dolor. Y por eso hablo de pasar por esto juntos. +La noche despus de hablar con estas chicas universitarias, fui a hablar con un grupo de hombres de Kansas. Eran todos exactamente del tipo de vctimas de la economa de manufactura que mencion antes. +Eran hombres que haban sido contratistas, o que haban construido casas, y que haban perdido el empleo despus del boom inmobiliario y estaban en este grupo porque no podan pagar la manutencin de los hijos. +Y el instructor estaba all en la clase explicndoles todas las maneras en las que haban perdido su identidad en esta nueva era. +Les estaba diciendo que ya no tenan autoridad moral, que ya nadie los necesitaba como apoyo emocional y que ya no eran realmente proveedores. +Entonces, quines eran? +Y esto fue muy desalentador para ellos. +Lo que hizo fue escribir en la pizarra $85.000, y dijo: "Ese es salario de ella". Y luego escribi $12.000. +"Ese es el salario de Uds. +"Quin es el hombre ahora?", pregunt. +"Quin es el maldito hombre?" +Ella es el hombre ahora". +Eso hizo estremecer a la sala. +Y en parte es por eso que me gustaba hablar de esto porque creo que puede ser bastante doloroso y que tenemos que trabajarlo. +Y otra razn por la que es medio urgente es porque no slo pasa en EE.UU. +Est pasando en todo el mundo. +En India las mujeres pobres aprenden ingls ms rpido que sus contrapartes masculinos para trabajar en los nuevos centros de atencin que proliferan en el pas. +En China se inauguran muchas empresas privadas porque las mujeres estn abriendo negocios, pequeos negocios, ms rpido que los hombres. +Y este es mi ejemplo favorito: el de Corea del Sur. +Durante muchas dcadas Corea del Sur construy una de las sociedades ms patriarcales que conocemos. +Bsicamente, consagraron el estatus de segunda clase de las mujeres en el cdigo civil. +Y si no daban a luz varones bsicamente eran tratadas como empleadas domsticas. +Y a veces la familia le rezaba a los espritus para matar a una nia y as poder tener un varn. +Pero en los aos 70 y 80 el gobierno sudcoreano decidi que quera industrializarse rpidamente y entonces lo que hicieron fue empezar a meter a las mujeres en el mercado laboral. +Y han hecho esta pregunta desde 1985: "Hasta qu punto prefiere un primognito varn?" +Y ahora miren el grfico. +Esto va de 1985 a 2003. +Hasta qu punto prefiere un primognito varn? +As que pueden ver que estos cambios econmicos realmente tienen un fuerte efecto en la cultura. +Dado que no hemos asimilado esta informacin, como que est regresando mediante la cultura pop de maneras extraas y exageradas en las que puede verse que los estereotipos estn cambiando. +As, tenemos entre los hombres, lo que a una de mis colegas le gusta llamar el surgimiento de "machos omega" que son machos perdedores con dificultades de romanticismo que no encuentran empleo. +Y vienen en infinidad de formas diferentes. +Est el adolescente perpetuo. +Est el misntropo sin encanto. +Despus est el tipo Bud Light que es un teleadicto feliz. +Y aqu hay una sorpresa: incluso el hombre vivo ms sexy de EE.UU., el hombre vivo ms sexy, hoy en da hace de romntico en una pelcula. +Y entre las mujeres se tiene lo opuesto. Estn estas superhroes locas. +Est Lady Gaga. +Tenemos a la nueva James Bond: Angelina Jolie. +Y no son slo las jvenes, s? +Hoy en da incluso Helen Mirren porta un arma. +Parece como que tuvisemos que pasar de este lugar, de estas imgenes ultra-exageradas, a algo que parezca ms normal. +Durante mucho tiempo en la esfera econmica vivimos con el trmino techo de cristal. +Nunca me gust ese trmino. +Porque coloca a los hombres y a las mujeres en una relacin mutuamente antagnica porque los hombres son estos timadores retorcidos que pusieron este techo de cristal. +Y las mujeres siempre estamos bajo el techo de cristal. +Y tenemos mucha habilidad y experiencia pero es una trampa as que cmo se supone que hay que prepararse para traspasar ese techo de cristal. +Y tambin, romper el techo de cristal es una frase terrible. +Qu persona trasnochada dara la cabeza contra un techo de cristal? +Por eso la imagen que me gusta pensar en vez de techo de cristal es la de puente elevado. +Es muy aterrador situarse al pie de un puente elevado pero es tambin bastante estimulante porque es hermoso all arriba, y uno tiene una vista hermosa. +Y lo mejor es que no hay trampa, como con el techo de cristal. +No hay hombre o mujer que se interponga para cortar los cables. +No hay ningn hoyo en el medio en el que podamos caer. +Y lo genial es que uno puede llevar a quien quiera consigo. +Se puede llevar al marido. +Se puede llevar a los amigos, o a los colegas, o a quien cuida a los nios a caminar con uno. +Los maridos pueden arrastrar a sus mujeres si ellas no se sienten listas. +Pero la idea de los puentes elevados es que uno tiene que tener la confianza de saber que merece estar en ese puente; que uno tiene las capacidades y la experiencia necesaria para caminar por el puente elevado, pero hay que tomar la decisin, de dar el primer paso y hacerlo. +Muchas gracias. +He estado enseando durante mucho tiempo y, al hacerlo, he adquirido un conocimiento sobre los nios y el aprendizaje y me gustara realmente que ms gente comprendiera el potencial de los estudiantes. +En 1931 mi abuela -abajo a la izquierda- egres de 8 grado. +Ella iba a la escuela para instruirse porque all yaca la informacin. +Estaba en los libros, en la mente de la maestra; tena que ir all para obtener informacin porque uno aprenda de ese modo. +Avanzamos una generacin: esta es la escuela monoambiente, Oak Grove, la escuela con un aula sola a la que iba mi padre. +De nuevo, l tena que viajar a la escuela para conseguir informacin de los profesores, almacenarla en la nica memoria porttil que tena, su propia cabeza, y llevrsela, porque as se transportaba la informacin: de maestros a alumnos y luego se usaba en el mundo. +De nia en casa tenamos unas enciclopedias. +Las compraron el ao en que yo nac y fue extraordinario porque no tuve que esperar a ir a la biblioteca a buscar la informacin; +la informacin estaba dentro de casa y eso era impresionante. +Era diferente de lo experimentado por las generaciones anteriores y eso cambi mi forma de interactuar con la informacin, aunque a pequea escala. +Pero la informacin estaba ms cerca de m. +Tuve acceso a ella. +En el tiempo transcurrido entre mi perodo de escuela secundaria y el momento de empezar a ensear vimos surgir el fenmeno de Internet. +Ms o menos al mismo tiempo que Internet se volva una herramienta educativa yo me iba de Wisconsin a Kansas, a un pueblito de Kansas, donde se me dio una oportunidad para ensear en un pueblito encantador, en un distrito escolar rural de Kansas donde enseaba mi asignatura favorita: gobierno estadounidense. +Mi primer ao -sper entusiasmada- iba a ensear gobierno estadounidense; me encantaba el sistema poltico. +Los nios de 12 grado: no precisamente tan entusiasmados con el sistema de gobierno estadounidense. +Segundo ao: aprend algunas cosas; tuve que cambiar de tctica. +Los enfrent a una experiencia autntica para que aprendan por s mismos. +No les dije qu hacer o cmo hacerlo. +Les plante un problema que consista en poner un foro electoral en su propia comunidad. +Hicieron volantes, llamaron a las oficinas, +comprobaron horarios, se reunieron con los secretarios, +realizaron un folleto del foro electoral para que todo el pueblo supiera ms de sus candidatos. +Invitaron a todo el mundo a la escuela para conversar sobre gobierno y poltica y ver si las calles estaban bien hechas o no y recibieron as un aprendizaje emprico robusto. +Las maestras mayores, ms experimentadas, me miraban y decan: "Oh, mrenla! Es tan linda. Ella est tratando de lograrlo". +"No sabe lo que le espera". +Pero yo saba que los nios apareceran. Y lo crea. Y les dije cada semana lo que esperaba de ellos. +Y esa noche, los 90 nios, vestidos de forma apropiada, haciendo su tarea, aduendose; +Yo slo me sent a ver. +Fue de ellos. Fue una experiencia autntica. +Signific algo para ellos. +Y ellos lo van a difundir. +De Kansas me mud a la adorada Arizona, y all ense en Flagstaff durante unos aos esta vez a estudiantes de escuela media. +Por suerte no tuve que ensearles gobierno estadounidense. +Pude ensearles geografa, una asignatura ms apasionante. +De nuevo, encantada de aprender. +Pero lo interesante de esa postura que adopt en Arizona fue que tena este grupo realmente extraordinario de nios para trabajar en una escuela autnticamente pblica. Y se presentaron esos momentos en los que uno aprovecha oportunidades. +Una de esas oportunidades fue ir al encuentro de Paul Rusesabagina, ese caballero en quien se bas la pelcula "Hotel Ruanda". +l iba a hablar en la escuela secundaria de al lado. +Podamos ir caminando; ni siquiera tenamos que pagar los buses. +No supona gasto alguno. La excursin perfecta. +El problema luego pasa a ser como hablar del genocidio a alumnos de 7 y 8 grado y abordar el tema de modo responsable y respetuoso de modo que sepan qu hacer con eso. +Por eso optamos por mirar a Paul Rusesabagina como ejemplo de un caballero singular que utiliz su vida para hacer algo positivo. +Luego desafi a los nios a que identifiquen a alguien en su propia vida, o en su propia historia, o en su propio mundo, con quien pudieran reconocer que hizo algo similar a eso. +Les ped que prepararan un corto sobre el tema. +Era la primera vez que lo hacamos. +Nadie saba realmente cmo hacer cortos con la computadora. Pero se pusieron a hacerlo. Y les ped que le pongan su propia voz. +El momento de la revelacin ms impresionante se da cuando uno le pide a los nios que usen su propia voz para hablar por s mismos y uno ve lo que desean con ansias compartir. +La ltima pregunta de la tarea es: cmo piensas usar tu vida para cambiar positivamente la de otros? +Las cosas que los nios responden cuando uno pregunta dispuesto a escuchar son extraordinarias. +Pasamos rpido a Pennsylvania donde me encuentro actualmente. +Enseo en la Academia de Ciencias de Liderazgo, que es una sociedad educativa entre el Instituto Franklin y el distrito escolar de Filadelfia. +Somos una escuela pblica que abre de 9 a 12 pero educamos de manera muy diferente. +Entonces, qu hacer cuando la informacin es omnipresente? +Por qu mandar a los nios a la escuela si ya no es necesario que vayan a buscar informacin? +En Filadelfia tenemos un programa de una laptop por alumno, o sea que cada uno se lleva su laptop todos los das, se la lleva a casa para acceder a la informacin. +Y algo importante con lo que uno tiene que sentirse cmodo cuando se le da la herramienta de acceso informativo a los estudiantes es sentirse cmodo con la idea de permitirle a los nios equivocarse como parte del proceso de aprendizaje. +Hoy en da lidiamos en el paisaje educativo con un entusiasmo por la cultura de la respuesta correcta nica que puede desprenderse de las pruebas comunes de opcin mltiple, y estoy aqu para compartirlo con Uds: eso no es aprender. +Es lo peor que podemos hacer: pedirle a los nios que nunca se equivoquen. +Pedirle que siempre den la respuesta correcta; eso no les permite aprender. +As que ideamos este proyecto y este es uno de los entregables. +Casi nunca presumo con esto debido a la idea de fracaso. +Mis estudiantes hicieron esta infografa como resultado de una unidad que decidimos hacer al final del ao en respuesta al derrame de petrleo. +Les ped que tomaran los ejemplos que estuvimos viendo de las infografas existentes en muchos medios de comunicacin y que observaran cules eran los componentes interesantes y que hicieran una propia a partir de desastres artificiales de la historia de EE.UU. +Y tenan determinados criterios para hacerlo. +Les resultaba un poco incmodo porque nunca lo habamos hecho antes y no saban cmo hacerlo exactamente. +Saben hablar, son muy suaves; saben escribir muy, muy bien, pero pedirles que comuniquen ideas de manera diferente les result un poco incmodo. +Pero les di el espacio para que lo hagan. +Que creen. Que se lo imaginen. +Veamos que podemos hacer. +Y el estudiante que continuamente present el mejor producto visual no defraud. +Hicieron este en dos o tres das. +Y este es el trabajo del estudiante que hizo la tarea completa. +Y cuando sent a los estudiantes y les dije: "Quin hizo el mejor" +De inmediato dijeron: "Es ese". +No leyeron nada. "Es ese". +Y les dije: "Qu lo hace genial?" +Y como que decan: "Bueno, tiene buen diseo, usa buenos colores. +y tiene algo..." Y fuimos repasando en voz alta todo eso. +Y les dije: "Vayan a leerlo". +Y dijeron: "Bueno, no es tan impresionante". +Y luego pasamos a otra infografa; no era muy vistosa pero tena muy buena informacin y pasamos una hora hablando del proceso de aprendizaje porque no se trataba de si era o no perfecta o si se trataba o no de algo que uno hara; +tenan que crear por s mismos. Y les permita equivocarse, procesar, aprender de eso. +Y cuando lo repetimos en mi clase este ao lo hicieron mejor esta vez. Porque el aprendizaje requiere de una dosis de fracasos; porque al equivocarse uno aprende en el proceso. +Plantenles preguntas bien interesantes +y ellos no defraudarn. +Pdanles que visiten lugares para ver las cosas por s mismos, para experimentar realmente el aprendizaje, para jugar y preguntar. +Esta es una de mis fotos favoritas porque fue tomada el martes cuando le ped a los estudiantes ir a la votacin. +Este es Robbie y esta fue su primera eleccin y l quera compartir eso con todo el mundo y hacerlo. +Pero esto tambin es aprendizaje porque les pedimos que salgan a espacios reales. +La idea principal es esa, si seguimos viendo a la educacin como si se tratara de ir a la escuela en busca de informacin y no como un aprendizaje emprico que potencia la voz del estudiante y acepta el fracaso, nos estamos equivocando. +Y todo lo que todo el mundo est hablando hoy no sera posible si seguimos con un sistema educativo que no valore estas cualidades porque no lo vamos a lograr con pruebas estandarizadas y tampoco con una cultura de respuestas correctas nicas. +Sabemos cmo hacerlo mejor y es hora de hacerlo mejor. +Alisa Volkman: Esta historia empieza con el nacimiento espectacular de nuestro primognito, Declan. +Obviamente fue momento muy profundo que cambi nuestras vidas en varios aspectos. +Cambi nuestras vidas de formas inesperadas; formas inesperadas que ms tarde consideramos Cuando juntos emprendimos nuestro propio negocio y, un ao despus, lanzamos Babble: un sitio web para padres. +Rufus Griscom: Creo que nuestra historia empieza unos aos antes. (AV: Es verdad) +RG: Quiz recuerden que estbamos locamente enamorados. +AV: As es. +RG: En ese momento administrbamos un sitio web muy diferente. +Era un sitio web llamado nerve.com cuyo lema era "literate smut" (suciedad ilustrada, NT). +Fue en teora, y es de esperar que en la prctica, una revista web inteligente sobre sexo y cultura. +AV: Eso dio lugar a un sitio de citas. +Se imaginarn los chistes que nos hacan: el sexo engendra bebs. +Uno sigue las instrucciones de Nerve y termina en Babble, y as fue. +El tercero podra ser un sitio geritrico. Veremos. +RG: Para nosotros, la continuidad entre Nerve y Babble no fueron slo las etapas de la vida que, por supuesto, son importantes sino que en realidad fue nuestro deseo de hablar honestamente de cosas que a las personas les cuesta hablar en serio. +Nos parece que cuando la gente disimula, cuando empieza a mentir sobre algo, ah se pone realmente interesante, +ese es un tema que queremos profundizar. +Y nos sorprendi encontrar, como padres jvenes, que casi hay ms tabes en torno a la crianza de los hijos que en torno al sexo. +AV: Es verdad. Como dijimos, los primeros aos fueron maravillosos pero a la vez muy difciles. +Y nos parece que, en parte, esa dificultad se debe a la falsa publicidad sobre la crianza de los hijos. +Nos suscribimos a muchas revistas, hicimos la tarea, pero estbamos rodeados por doquier de imgenes como esta. +Y encaramos la crianza esperando una vida as. +Con sol siempre radiante y los hijos que nunca lloran. +Yo siempre bien peinada y descansada. Pero, de hecho, no fue as en absoluto. +RG: Al mirar esta revista sobre crianza, al ver estas imgenes esplndidas y luego ver la escena real en nuestra sala de estar, se pareca un poco ms a esto. +Estos son nuestros 3 hijos. +Y, claro, no siempre estn llorando y gritando. Pero con 3 nios, hay una probabilidad respetable de que al menos uno de ellos no se comporte como se supone que debera. +AV: S, pueden ver lo desconectados que estbamos. +Sentamos que nuestras expectativas no tenan nada que ver con lo que nos estaba pasando. Y entonces decidimos hablarle a los padres francamente. +Realmente queramos que entendieran la realidad de la crianza con honestidad. +RG: Por eso hoy nos encantara compartir con Uds los 4 tabes sobre la crianza. +Por supuesto, hay mucho ms que 4 cosas que uno no dira sobre la crianza. Pero nos gustara compartir hoy con Uds 4 cosas que nos importan especialmente en lo personal. +Primero, el tab nmero uno: no se puede decir que uno no se enamor de su beb desde el primer instante. +Recuerdo ntidamente que estaba sentado en el hospital. +Nosotros estbamos por dar a luz a nuestro primer hijo. +AV: Nosotros o yo? +RG: Lo siento. +Mal uso del pronombre. +Alisa estaba, muy generosamente, por dar a luz a nuestro primer nio... (AV: Gracias) ...y yo estaba all con un guante de catcher. +All estaba yo con los brazos abiertos. +As que me estaba preparando para el momento. +El beb estaba por llegar y yo estaba preparado para esta avalancha de amor que me iba a estremecer. +Y, en cambio, cuando pusieron el beb en mis manos fue un momento extraordinario. +Esta foto fue tomada literalmente unos segundos despus de que colocaron el beb en mis manos, que me lo trajeron. +Y pueden ver que nuestros ojos brillan. +Me sent abrumado de amor y afecto por mi esposa con una gratitud muy profunda de tener lo que pareca ser un nio saludable. +Por supuesto que fue algo surrealista. +Digo, tuve que comprobar las etiquetas para asegurarme. +Fui incrdulo: "Estn seguros que es mi hijo?" +Todo esto era algo muy notable. +Lo que senta hacia el nio en ese momento era un afecto profundo pero nada que ver con lo que siento ahora, 5 aos despus. +As que aqu tenemos una hereja. +Hemos graficado el amor por los hijos en el tiempo. +Esto, como saben, es una hereja. +No est permitido graficar el amor. +Y la razn por la que no podemos hacerlo es porque pensamos en el amor como algo binario. +O ests enamorado o no lo ests. +Uno ama o no ama. +Y yo creo que en realidad el amor es un proceso. Y que el problema de pensar el amor como algo binario es que nos hace preocuparnos en exceso por un amor fraudulento, o inadecuado, o lo que sea. +Y, obviamente, creo que estoy hablando de la experiencia del padre. +Pero creo que muchos hombres sienten esto en los primeros meses, quiz en el primer ao, que su respuesta emocional en cierta forma es inadecuada. +AV: Bueno, me gusta que Rufus traiga esto a colacin porque pueden ver que cae en los primeros aos en los que creo yo haca la mayor parte del trabajo. +Pero nos gusta bromear con que, en los primeros meses de las vidas de nuestros hijos, este es el To Rufus. +RG: Soy un to muy afectuoso, un to muy afectuoso. +AV: S, a veces bromeo con Rufus cuando llega a casa que no estoy segura de que l pudiera reconocer a los nios en una rueda de identificacin de bebs. +Por eso prepar un examen sorpresa para Rufus. +RG: Oh, no! +AV: No quiero avergonzarlo demasiado. Pero voy a darle 3 segundos. +RG: No es justo. Es una pregunta con trampa. l no est ah, verdad? +AV: Nuestro hijo de 8 semanas est ah en algn lugar. Y quiero ver si Rufus puede identificarlo rpidamente. +RG: En el extremo izquierdo. (AV: No!) +RG: Es cruel. +AV: No hay nada ms que decir. +Voy a pasar al tab nmero dos. +No se puede hablar de lo solitario que puede ser tener un beb. +Disfrut estar embarazada; me encantaba. +Me sent muy conectada con la comunidad circundante. +Senta que todos estaban participando en mi embarazo, todos a mi alrededor, en la cuenta regresiva hasta el parto. +Me senta como el arca del futuro de la Humanidad. +Eso sigui en el hospital; fue algo muy emocionante. +Me llenaron de regalos, flores y visitas. +Fue una experiencia maravillosa. Pero cuando llegu a casa de repente me sent muy desconectada y, de pronto, encerrada y excluida. Realmente me sorprendan esos sentimientos. +Esperaba que fuera diferente: noches de insomnio, amamantar constantemente, pero no esperaba sentir el aislamiento y la soledad por los que pas. Me sorprendi mucho que nadie me hubiese dicho que me iba a sentir as. +Y llam a mi hermana con quien estoy muy unida -y tiene 3 hijos- y le pregunt: "Por qu no me dijiste que me iba a sentir as, que iba a sentir este aislamiento increble?" +Y me respondi -nunca lo voy a olvidar- "No es algo para decirle a una madre primeriza". +RG: Y por supuesto que creemos que es algo que uno, precisamente, debera contarle a las madres primerizas. +Claro, uno de nuestros temas es que pensamos que la sinceridad y la honestidad brutal son vitales para ser, entre todos, padres geniales. +Y es difcil no pensar que parte de lo que nos lleva a sentir ese aislamiento es el mundo moderno. +La experiencia de Alisa no es algo aislado. +El 58% de las madres encuestadas informaron sentir soledad. +Y, de ellas, el 67% se sienten ms solas cuando sus hijos tienen de 0 a 5 aos; quiz de 0 a 2. +Mientras preparbamos esta presentacin mirbamos cmo enfrentan este perodo otras culturas del mundo porque aqu en el mundo occidental menos del 50% vive cerca de sus familiares y por eso creo que este es un perodo tan difcil. +As que para dar un ejemplo entre tantos: al sur de India hay una prctica conocida como jholabihari en la que la mujer a los 7 u 8 meses del embarazo se muda con su madre y pasa por varios rituales y ceremonias da a luz y regresa a su ncleo familiar varios meses despus del nacimiento. +Esa es una de tantas maneras en que, creemos, otras culturas compensan este tipo de soledad. +AV: El tab nmero tres: no se puede hablar del aborto natural; pero hoy voy a hablar del mo. +Despus de tener a Declan como que modificamos nuestras expectativas. +Pensbamos que podramos pasar por esto otra vez y que sabamos a qu nos atenamos. +Y estbamos agradecidos de que pude quedar embarazada. Pronto supe que bamos a tener un nio. Entonces en el quinto mes de gestacin nos enteramos de que habamos perdido a nuestro hijo. +Esta es la ltima imagen que tenemos de l. +Obviamente, fue un momento muy difcil, muy doloroso. +Cuando estaba en el duelo me sorprendi el hecho de no querer ver a nadie. +Tena muchas ganas de meterme en un agujero. Realmente no saba cmo iba a regresar a la comunidad que me rodeaba. +Y me di cuenta, creo, que lo que me pasaba era algo muy visceral; senta mucha vergenza, francamente vergenza, de no haber podido, en cierta forma, entregar lo que genticamente estoy preparada para dar. +Y claro que me cuestion si iba a ser capaz de tener otro beb, qu significara eso para mi matrimonio, y para m como mujer. +Fue un momento muy difcil. +A medida que fui pensando ms en eso empec a salir de ese agujero y a hablar con otras personas. +Estaba muy sorprendida por las historias que empezaron a aparecer. +Personas que trataba a diario en el trabajo, amigos, familiares que no vea desde haca mucho tiempo que nunca me haban contado su propia historia. +Y recuerdo sentir que esas historias salan de la nada. Y me sent parte de esta sociedad secreta de mujeres que se daban fuerza y se preocupaban de verdad. +Creo que el aborto natural es una prdida invisible. +No hay mucho apoyo comunitario en torno al tema. +Realmente no hay ceremonias, rituales, ni ritos. +Pienso que ante una muerte uno tiene un funeral, uno celebra la vida, y hay mucho apoyo comunitario. Eso es algo que las mujeres no tienen con el aborto natural. +RG: Algo que es muy malo porque, claro, es una experiencia muy comn y a la vez muy traumtica. +Del 15% al 20% de los embarazos terminan en aborto natural. Esto me parece asombroso. +En una encuesta el 74% de las mujeres dijeron que sentan que el aborto natural era en parte su culpa, algo horrible. +Y, asombrosamente, el 22% dijo que ocultara un aborto natural a su esposo. +El tab nmero cuatro: no se puede decir que la felicidad promedio decay luego de tener un hijo. +El mandato social dice que cada aspecto de la vida va a mejorar ostensiblemente luego de participar en el milagro del parto y la familia. +Nunca voy a olvidar, lo recuerdo ntidamente hasta hoy, nuestro primognito, Declan, tena 9 meses y yo estaba sentado en el sof leyendo el libro maravilloso de Daniel Gilbert, "Tropezando con la Felicidad". +Haba ledo dos tercios del libro y vi un grfico en el lado derecho -en la pgina de la derecha- que aqu hemos titulado "El grfico ms aterrador imaginable para un padre primerizo". +Este grfico consta de 4 estudios totalmente independientes. +Bsicamente, hay una cada en picada de la satisfaccin marital que est estrechamente vinculada, como saben, con una mayor felicidad que no vuelve a repuntar hasta que los hijos van a la universidad. +As que aqu estoy sentado mirando las prximas 2 dcadas de mi vida, este abismo de felicidad al que estaramos entrando de cabeza. +Estbamos desanimados. +AV: As que imaginen, de nuevo, los primeros meses fueron difciles pero nos sobrepusimos; nos sorprendi mucho ver este estudio. +Queramos realmente darle una mirada ms profunda con la esperanza de encontrar un resquicio de esperanza. +RG: Y es ah donde es genial administrar un sitio web para padres porque tenemos a esta reportera increble que va a entrevistar a todos los cientficos que realizaron estos 4 estudios. +Dijimos: aqu hay algo mal. +Hay algo que falta en estos estudios. +No puede ser algo tan malo. +Liz Mitchell hizo un trabajo maravilloso. Entrevist a los 4 cientficos y tambin a Daniel Gilbert. Y, efectivamente, encontramos un resquicio de esperanza. +Esta es nuestra hiptesis del aspecto que podra decirse que tiene la lnea base de felicidad de la vida. +La felicidad promedio es insuficiente, claro, porque no dice nada de la experiencia momento a momento. Y as se ve la lnea de felicidad si le agregamos la experiencia momento a momento. +Todos recordamos que de nios la ms pequea cosita -lo vemos en los rostros de nuestros hijos- la cosita ms pequea puede catapultarlos a las alturas del xtasis absoluto y luego la cosa ms insignificante puede hacerlos hundirse en la desesperacin ms extrema. +Es algo extraordinario de ver y lo recordamos nosotros mismos. +Y luego, claro, a medida que envejecemos es como si la edad fuese una especie de droga estabilizante. +A medida que envejecemos nos volvemos ms estables. +Y parte de lo que sucede, creo, a los 20 30 aos es que uno empieza a aprender a regular la felicidad. +Uno empieza a darse cuenta que "Oye, podra ir a este evento de msica en vivo y vivir una experiencia transformadora que me ponga la piel de gallina pero es ms probable que sienta claustrofobia y que no pueda tomar ni una cerveza. +As que no voy a ir. +Tengo un buen estreo en casa. No voy a ir". +As, la felicidad media aumenta pero uno se pierde esos momentos trascendentes. +AV: S, y luego uno tiene su primer hijo. Y entonces uno empieza a experimentar estos altibajos siendo los altos los primeros pasos, la primer sonrisa, que tu hijo lea por primera vez, y los bajos: nuestra casa de 6 a 7 de la tarde. +Pero uno se da cuenta que vuelve a perder el control de manera maravillosa, lo cual creemos que le da mucho significado a nuestras vidas y es muy gratificante. +RG: Y as, en efecto, negociamos felicidad promedio. +Cambiamos la proteccin y seguridad de un cierto nivel de satisfaccin por estos momentos trascendentes. +A dnde nos lleva esto a nosotros dos con una familia con 3 hijos en medio de todo esto? +En nuestro caso hay otro factor. +Hemos violado otro tab en nuestras vidas. Y este es un tab extra. +AV: Un tab extra es que no deberamos estar trabajando juntos -sobre todo con 3 hijos- y lo hacemos. +RG: Y hubo reservas sobre esto desde el principio. +Todo el mundo sabe que no debe trabajar con la esposa. +De hecho, cuando fuimos por primera vez a recaudar fondos para Babble, los capitalistas de riesgo dijeron: "Categricamente no invertimos en empresas fundadas por maridos y mujeres porque hay un punto extra de fracaso. +Es una mala idea. No lo hagan". +Y obviamente seguimos adelante. Lo hicimos. +Recaudamos el dinero, estamos encantados de haberlo hecho, porque en esta etapa de la vida el recurso extremadamente escaso es el tiempo. +Y si uno siente pasin por lo que hace cada da, como en nuestro caso, y uno siente pasin por la relacin, esta es la nica forma en que sabemos hacerlo. +Y la pregunta final que haramos sera: Podemos subir entre todos la curva de felicidad? +Es genial que tengamos estos momentos trascendentes de alegra pero a veces son bastante breves. +Y qu hay de esa lnea base promedio de felicidad? +Podemos subirla un poquito? +AV: Sentimos que la brecha de felicidad de la que hablamos es el resultado de transitar la crianza -y de hecho cualquier sociedad de largo plazo- con falsas expectativas. +Si uno tiene las expectativas correctas y las maneja bien creemos que va a ser una experiencia bastante gratificante. +RG: Por eso es que... Pensamos que muchos padres, al llegar all, al menos en nuestro caso, uno prepara las maletas para un viaje a Europa y est muy entusiasmado. +Sale del avin y resulta que est de trekking en Nepal. +Ir de trekking a Nepal es una experiencia extraordinaria sobre todo si uno prepar la maleta adecuadamente y sabe para qu est ah y est mentalizado. +As que la idea nuestra hoy no es la honestidad por la honestidad misma sino la esperanza de que al ser ms francos y honestos sobre estas experiencias entre todos podamos subir un poquito esa lnea base de felicidad. +RG y AV: Gracias. +Hoy les voy a hablar del crecimiento del consumo colaborativo. +Voy a explicarles qu es y a tratar de convencerles, en slo 15 minutos, de que no es una idea endeble ni una tendencia a corto plazo, sino una fuerza cultural y econmica que reinventa no slo lo que consumimos sino la forma en que consumimos. +Voy a empezar con un ejemplo de simplicidad engaosa. +Levanten la mano los que tienen libros, CD, DVD o videos dando vueltas por la casa que quiz ya no vuelvan a usar ms pero de los que se sienten incapaces de desprenderse. +No puedo ver bien las manos, pero parece que a todos les pasa. +En las repisas en casa, tenemos una caja de DVD de la serie "24"; la temporada 6 para ms detalles. +Creo que fue un regalo navideo de hace unos 3 aos. +Ahora a mi marido Chris y a m nos encanta el programa. +Pero, seamos sinceros, despus de verlo 1 o quiz 2 veces ya no queremos volverlos a ver porque ya sabemos cmo Jack Bauer va a derrotar a los terroristas. +Entonces, all quedan en las repisas, intiles para nosotros, pero con un valor latente para alguien ms. +Y antes de continuar, tengo que confesarles algo. +Viv en Nueva York durante 10 aos, y soy una gran fan de "Sexo en Nueva York". +Ahora me encantara ver la primera pelcula de nuevo como precalentamiento para la secuela que sale la semana que viene. +Entonces, cmo intercambiar una copia que no me interesa de "24" por una que s de "Sexo en Nueva York"? +Se habrn dado cuenta de que est emergiendo una nueva modalidad llamada trueque. +La analoga ms directa del trueque es un servicio de citas web para los artculos que ya no queremos. +Consiste en usar internet para crear un mercado infinito donde confluye lo que tiene A con lo que quiere C, sea lo que fuere. +La otra semana en una de esas webs bien llamada Swaptree (rbol de trueque, NT) Haba ms de 59.300 artculos para intercambiar al instante por mi copia de "24". +He aqu que en Reseda , estaba rondoron con ganas de cambiar su copia "como nueva" de "Sexo en Nueva York" por mi copia de "24". +En otras palabras, lo que sucede aqu es que Swaptree resuelve la sobrecarga de mi empresa de transporte, problema que los economistas llaman "coincidencia de deseos", en aproximadamente 60 segundos. +An ms asombroso es que imprimir una etiqueta del producto en el acto, porque conoce el peso del artculo. +Hay todo un repertorio de maravillas tcnicas detrs de sitios webs como Swaptree, pero eso no es lo que me incumbe ni tampoco lo es el trueque en s. +Mi pasin y el motivo de mi investigacin de los ltimos aos son los comportamientos colaborativos y el mecanismo de confianza inherentes a estos sistemas. +Si lo pensamos un poco habra parecido una locura, incluso hace unos aos, intercambiar cosas con un total desconocido cuyo nombre real desconoca y sin intercambio de dinero tangible. +An as el 99% de los intercambios en Swaptree terminan con xito. Y el 1% que recibe una calificacin negativa se debe a razones relativamente menores como que el artculo no lleg a tiempo. +Qu est pasando aqu? +Est en juego una dinmica extremadamente poderosa que tiene enorme impacto comercial y cultural. +Es decir, la tecnologa posibilita la confianza entre extraos. +Ahora vivimos en una aldea global donde se pueden imitar los relaciones que tenan lugar cara a cara, pero a una escala y de forma que nunca antes haba sido posible. +Lo que sucede, en realidad, es que las redes sociales y las tecnologas de tiempo real nos estn llevando al pasado. +Hacer trueque, comerciar, intercambiar, compartir, pero reinventados en formas dinmicas y atractivas. +Lo que me parece fascinante es que hemos cableado al mundo para compartir ya sea nuestro barrio, la escuela, la oficina, o nuestra red de Facebook. Y eso est creando una economa donde lo mo es tuyo. +Yo lo llamo consumo colaborativo de fondo. +Antes de profundizar en los distintos sistemas de consumo colaborativo, quiero tratar de responder la pregunta que todo autor se hace, y con razn, y es: de dnde surgi esta idea? +Me gustara decir que me despert una maana y dije: "voy a escribir sobre consumo colaborativo". Pero en realidad fue una red complicada de ideas aparentemente inconexas. +En el prximo minuto van a ver una especie de fuegos artificiales conceptuales de todos los cabos sueltos de mi cabeza. +Lo primero que empec a notar: cuntas grandes ideas surgieron, desde el saber popular hasta las multitudes activas, debido a lo fcil que resulta formar grupos para un propsito. +Hay ejemplos en todo el mundo relacionados con esta mana popular, desde una eleccin presidencial hasta la clebre Wikipedia, y todo lo que hay entre ambos, sobre lo cual, el poder popular podra influir. +Saben cuando aprendes una palabra y luego empiezas a verla en todos lados? +Eso fue lo que me pas cuando me di cuenta de que estamos pasando de ser consumidores pasivos a creadores, a colaboradores muy activos. +Lo que est pasando es que Internet est eliminando a los intermediarios y as desde un diseador de moda hasta una tejedora pueden ganarse la vida vendiendo de igual a igual. +Y la fuerza omnipresente de esta revolucin de igual a igual significa que el intercambio tiene ndices espectaculares. +O sea, es increble pensar que en cada minuto de esta charla se han subido 25 horas de video a YouTube. +Lo que es fascinante de estos ejemplos es el modo en que despiertan nuestros instintos primates. +Quiero decir, somos monos, nacimos y nos criaron para compartir y cooperar. +Y lo hemos estado haciendo desde hace milenios, ya sea cuando cazbamos en manadas o cribamos ganado en cooperativas antes que viniera el gran sistema llamado hperconsumo y construyramos vallas para crear nuestros propios mini-feudos. +Pero las cosas estn cambiando y una de las razones son los nativos digitales, o generacin Y. +Estn creciendo con intercambio de archivos, videojuegos, de conocimiento; +es natural para ellos. +De manera que nosotros, los milenarios -yo slo soy una milenaria- somos como soldados de a pie que pasamos de la cultura del yo a la de nosotros. +La razn por la que sucede tan de prisa es gracias a la colaboracin mvil. +Ahora vivimos en una era conectada, ubicamos a cualquiera, en cualquier lugar, en tiempo real, desde un pequeo dispositivo en nuestras manos. +Todo eso se me pasaba por la cabeza hacia finales de 2008, cuando, por supuesto, sucedi la gran crisis financiera. +Thomas Friedman es uno de mis columnistas favoritos de New York Times, e hizo un comentario conmovedor: en 2008 nos topamos con un muro, y la madre naturaleza y el mercado dijeron: "Ya basta". +Ahora sabemos racionalmente que una economa basada en el hperconsumo es un esquema de Ponzi, es un castillo de naipes. +An as nos resulta difcil saber qu hacer individualmente. +Hay mucho "Twitteo" en todo esto, no? +Bueno, hubo mucho ruido y complejidad en mi mente, hasta que me di cuenta en realidad que suceda debido a 4 factores clave. +Uno, una fe renovada en la importancia de la comunidad y una gran redefinicin del significado de amigo y vecino. +Un torrente de redes sociales de igual a igual y tecnologas de tiempo real, que cambian radicalmente nuestro comportamiento. +Tres, urgentes preocupaciones no resueltas sobre el medio. +Y cuatro, una recesin mundial que ha impactado sobre el comportamiento de los consumidores. +Estos 4 factores se estn fusionando para crear el gran cambio, lejos del hperconsumo del siglo XX, hacia el consumo colaborativo del siglo XXI. +Creo que, en general, estamos en un punto de inflexin en el que comportamientos de intercambio virtual en webs como Flickr y Twitter, que se est haciendo algo comn en la web, se estn aplicando a realidades de la vida cotidiana. +Desde el viaje al trabajo, hasta el diseo de moda, y la manera de cultivar alimentos, estamos consumiendo y colaborando una vez ms. +Roo Rogers, mi coautor y yo, hemos reunido miles de ejemplos de consumo colaborativo de todo el mundo. +Y aunque difieren enormemente en escala, madurez y propsito, cuando los analizamos de lleno nos dimos cuenta que podan organizarse en 3 claros sistemas. +El primero es los mercados de redistribucin. +Los mercados de redistribucin, como Swaptree, se dan cuando se toma un artculo usado, que tena dueo, y pasa de un lugar donde no es necesario a otro lugar, o a alguien, donde s lo es. +Se conocen cada vez ms como las cinco 'R': reducir, reusar, reciclar, reparar, y redistribuir; porque estiran el ciclo de vida de un producto y por ende reducen el derroche. +El segundo, es el estilo de vida colaborativo. +Es decir, el intercambio de recursos como dinero, habilidades y tiempo. +Apuesto que en un par de aos expresiones como "coworking" "couchsurfing" y "bancos del tiempo" van a formar parte del lenguaje cotidiano. +Uno de mis ejemplos favoritos de estilo de vida colaborativo se llama Landshare. +Es un plan del R.U +que une al Sr. Jones, que tiene espacio de sobra en su jardn de atrs, con la Sra. Smith, futura agricultora. +Juntos cultivarn su propia comida. +Es una de esas ideas tan simples, pero tan brillantes que te preguntas por qu no se ha hecho antes. +El tercer sistema es el de servicio de producto. +Esto es cuando pagas por el beneficio del producto, por lo que ste hace por ti, sin necesidad de poseer el producto directamente. +Esta idea es de especial importancia en cosas que tienen alta capacidad para entrener. +Y puede abarcar desde artculos para bebs, artculos de moda, etc. Cuntos de ustedes tienen un taladro elctrico? Tienen taladro elctrico? Bien. +Van a usar ese taladro elctrico unos 12 13 minutos en toda su vida. +Es un poco ridculo, no? +Porque lo que necesitan es el agujero, no el taladro. +Entonces, por qu no alquilar el taladro? o, an mejor, por qu no alquilar el propio taladro a otros y hacer dinero con eso? +Estos 3 sistemas vienen juntos, y permiten a la gente compartir recursos sin sacrificar sus estilos de vida o sus preciadas libertades personales. +No pido que la gente comparta sin problemas en el arenero. +Quiero darles slo un ejemplo de lo poderoso que puede ser el consumo colaborativo para cambiar comportamientos. +Mantener un coche comn cuesta 8.000$ al ao. +An as, ese coche est sin usar 23 horas al da. +Si consideramos estos 2 hechos empieza a cobrar un poco menos sentido tener uno propio todo el tiempo. +Ah es donde entran las empresas que comparten autos como Zipcar y GoGet. +En 2009, Zipcar tom 250 participantes de 13 ciudades, ellos se consideran adictos a los autos y novatos compartiendo coches, y tuvieron que entregar sus llaves durante un mes. +En su lugar, tenan que caminar, ir en bici, tomar el tren, u otras formas de transporte pblico. +Slo podan usar su membresa Zipcar de ser totalmente necesario. +El resultado del desafo, pasado un mes, fue asombroso. +Bajaron 187 kilos gracias al ejercicio, gracias al ejercicio extra. +Pero mi estadstica favorita es que 100 de los 250 participantes no quisieron de vuelta sus llaves. +En otras palabras, los adictos a los coches perdieron su impulso a la propiedad. +Los sistemas de servicio de producto han existido desde hace aos. +Piensen en las bibliotecas y las lavanderas. +Pero creo que estn entrando en una nueva era porque la tecnologa hace que compartir sea divertido y no cause desavenencias. +Hay una gran cita que se escribi en el New York Times que deca: "Compartir es a la propiedad lo que el iPod al cartucho de 8 pistas, lo que la energa solar a la mina de carbn". +Tambin creo que en nuestra generacin, nuestras relaciones para satisfacer lo que queremos son mucho menos tangibles que las de otras generaciones previas. +No quiero el DVD, quiero la pelcula que contiene. +No quiero un torpe contestador automtico, quiero el mensaje que graba. +No quiero un CD, sino la msica que reproduce. +En otras palabras: no quiero cosas, quiero las necesidades o experiencias que satisface. +Esto est generando un cambio masivo donde el uso se impone a los bienes o, como dice el editor de la revista Wired, Kevin Kelly: "donde el acceso es mejor que la propiedad". +A medida que los bienes desaparecen en la nube, aparece una lnea borrosa entre lo mo, lo tuyo, y lo nuestro. +Quiero darles un ejemplo que muestra lo rpido que sucede esta evolucin. +Esto representa un perodo de 8 aos. +Pasamos de la propiedad de coches tradicional a empresas que los hacen compartir, como Zipcar y GoGet, para montar plataformas de intercambio que coinciden con nuevas entradas, como el alquiler de coches de igual a igual, donde puede hacerse dinero alquilando al vecino el coche que est sin usar 23 horas al da. +Todos estos sistemas requieren un grado de confianza y la piedra angular de este trabajo es la reputacin. +En el antiguo sistema de consumo la reputacin no importaba mucho, porque era ms importante el historial crediticio y cualquier tipo de revisin de igual a igual. +Pero ahora con la web dejamos rastro, +con cada spam que eliminamos, con cada idea que posteamos, comentario que compartimos, estamos indicando lo bien que colaboramos y si se puede o no confiar en nosotros. +Volvamos a mi primer ejemplo: Swaptree. +Puedo ver que rondoron termin 553 transacciones con un 100% de xito. +En otras palabras, es alguien confiable. +Recuerden mis palabras: es slo cuestin de tiempo hasta que podamos realizar bsquedas tipo Google para ver una imagen completa de nuestra reputacin. +Y esta reputacin va a determinar el acceso al consumo colaborativo. +Es una nueva moneda social, por as decirlo, que podra llegar a ser tan poderosa como la evaluacin crediticia. +Para terminar, creo que estamos en un perodo en el que estamos despertando de una resaca gigantesca de vaco y derroche y estamos dando un salto para crear un sistema ms sostenible nacido para cubrir nuestras necesidades innatas de una identidad individual y comunitaria. +Creo que se la va a conocer como una revolucin, por as decirlo, cuando la sociedad de cara a los grandes desafos haga un cambio radical del consumo y el gasto individual hacia un redescubrimiento del bien colectivo. +Mi misin es poner de moda el compartir. +Mi misin es hacer que compartir sea hip, moderno. +Porque creo realmente que puede trastocar los modelos de negocio anticuados, ayudarnos a dejar atrs el derroche del hperconsumo y ensearnos cuando suficiente es realmente suficiente. +Muchas gracias. +Beverly Joubert: Somos unos apasionados por la vida silvestre africana y por la proteccin de esta. Y por esta razn nos hemos dedicado a sus conos felinos. +Y s que a la luz del sufrimiento humano y de la pobreza e incluso del cambio climtico podramos preguntarnos: por qu preocuparse por unos felinos? +Bueno, hoy estamos aqu para compartir con Uds. un mensaje que recibimos de un personaje muy importante y especial: este leopardo. +Dereck Joubert: Nuestras vidas han sido bsicamente como un episodio sper largo de "CSI"; algo as como de 28 aos. +Esencialmente hemos estudiado la ciencia, hemos observado el comportamiento, hemos visto a estos animales increbles matar ms de 2.000 presas. +Pero algo en lo que la ciencia nos defrauda es acerca de esa personalidad, de esa personalidad individual que tienen estos animales. +Aqu tenemos el primer ejemplo. +Hallamos este leopardo en un rbol baobab africano de dos mil aos, el mismo rbol en el que encontramos a su madre y a su abuela. +Y ella nos llev por una travesa que nos permiti descubrir algo muy especial: a su propia hija de 8 das. +Y desde el instante en que hallamos este leopardo nos dimos cuenta de que tenamos que estar ah. Por eso nos quedamos con este leopardo bsicamente por los siguientes cuatro aos y medio siguiendo su vida cotidiana, conocindola gradualmente, conociendo su personalidad individual, llegando a conocerla ntimamente. +Estoy destinado a pasar mucho tiempo con personajes femeninos muy, muy especiales, individualistas, y con frecuencia seductores. +Beverly es claramente uno de ellos y esta pequea leopardo, Legadema, tambin y ella cambi nuestras vidas. +BJ: Bueno, desde luego, pasamos mucho tiempo con ella, de hecho, incluso ms tiempo que su madre. +Cuando su madre sala a cazar nos quedbamos a filmar. +Cuando era pequea, un rayo cay en un rbol a 20 pasos de nosotros. +Fue aterrador. Y nos llovieron hojas y haba un olor penetrante. +Y, claro, quedamos parados por un momento, pero cuando nos recompusimos vimos eso y dijimos: "Dios mo: qu va a pasar con esa cachorrita? +Probablemente nos va a asociar para siempre con ese estruendo ensordecedor". +Bueno, no deberamos habernos preocupado. +Sali corriendo de la espesura directo hacia nosotros, se sent al lado nuestro, temblando, de espaldas a Dereck, mirando hacia afuera. +Y de hecho desde ese da se ha sentido a gusto con nosotros. +Por eso sentimos que ese da fue el da en que se gan su nombre. +La llamamos Legadema que significa "luz del cielo". +DJ: Ahora bien, hemos encontrado individualidades en todo tipo de animales, en particular en los felinos. +Este se llama Eetwidomayloh: "el que saluda con fuego". Y pueden ver de lo que hablo, ya saben, de su carcter. +Pero slo acercndonos a estos animales y pasando tiempo con ellos podemos efectivamente llegar a desentraar este carcter singular que tienen. +BJ: Nuestra investigacin nos lleva a los lugares ms salvajes de frica. +Y ahora estamos en el delta del Okavango en Botsuana. +S, es pantano. Vivimos en el pantano en una tienda de campaa. Pero debo admitir que cada da es emocionante. +Pero tambin que tenemos el corazn en la boca gran parte del tiempo porque conducimos a travs del agua y es un territorio desconocido. +Pero estamos all tratando de buscar y filmar a los conos felinos. +DJ: Algo muy importante, por supuesto, es que todos saben que los felinos detestan el agua. As que esto fue una verdadera revelacin para nosotros. +Y slo pudimos averiguar esto autoexigindonos, yendo a lugares a los que nadie cuerdamente ira -no sin alicientes, por cierto, de Beverly- y desafiando los lmites saliendo al ruedo, exigiendo al vehculo y a nosotros mismos. +Pero llegamos a descubrir que estos leones son un 15% ms grandes que cualquier otro y que se especializan en la caza de bfalos en el agua. +BJ: Y despus, claro, el desafo es saber cundo dar la vuelta. +Y no siempre nos damos cuenta. Este da especfico subestimamos gravemente la profundidad. +Nos hundamos cada vez ms hasta que lleg al pecho de Dereck. +Nos topamos con un hoyo profundo y el vehculo qued muy sumergido. +Nos las ingeniamos para ahogar cmaras que totalizaban 2 millones de dlares. +Ahogamos nuestro orgullo, debo admitirles, algo realmente grave, y destruimos el motor. +DJ: Y, por supuesto, una de las reglas que tenemos en el vehculo es que al que le pasa esto tiene que nadar con los cocodrilos. +Notarn tambin que todas estas imgenes de aqu fueron tomadas por Beverly desde arriba; desde el ngulo superior seco, por cierto. +Pero todos los lugares en que quedamos atrapados tienen muy buenas vistas. +Y en un momento estos leones regresaron hacia nosotros y Beverly pudo tomar una gran foto. +BJ: Pero realmente pasamos da y noche tratando de conseguir tomas nicas. +Y hace 20 aos hicimos una pelcula, "Enemigos Eternos", en la que logramos capturar este comportamiento inusual e inquietante entre especies; hienas y leones. Y sorprendentemente +se convirti en una pelcula de culto. +Y pensamos que eso se dio porque la gente trazaba paralelos entre el lado brutal de la naturaleza y la guerra de pandillas. +DJ: Fue increble, porque puede verse que este len est haciendo precisamente lo que su nombre, Eetwidomayloh, representa. +Est concentrado en esta hiena y la va a atrapar. +(Aullidos, Rugidos) Pero creo que de eso se trata; de que estos individuos tienen personalidad y carcter. +Y para poder descubrir eso, no slo nos autoexigimos, sino que nos pusimos ciertas reglas, es decir, que no podemos interferir. +Este tipo de comportamiento ha estado pasando durante 3, 4, 5 millones de aos y no podemos intervenir diciendo: "Eso est mal y eso est bien". +No siempre nos resulta fcil. +BJ: Por eso, como dice Dereck, tenemos que trabajar en situaciones extremas: temperaturas extremas; autoexigirnos de noche; +la falta de sueo es extrema. +Estamos al lmite durante gran parte del tiempo. +Durante 10 aos tratamos de fotografiar leones y elefantes juntos y nunca lo habamos logrado hasta esta noche especfica. +Y tengo que decir que fue una noche inquietante para m. +Rodaron lgrimas por mis mejillas. +Estaba temblando de ansiedad. Pero saba que tena que capturar algo nunca antes visto, nunca antes documentado. +Y creo que deberan acompaarnos en esto. +DJ: Lo ms sorprendente de estos momentos -este quiz haya sido un hito en nuestra carrera- es que uno nunca sabe cmo va a terminar. +De hecho, mucha gente cree que la muerte empieza en los ojos, no en el corazn, ni en los pulmones. Sucede cuando la gente pierde la esperanza o cuando cualquier forma de vida la pierde. +Y aqu pueden ver el comienzo de eso. +Este elefante, contra la adversidad, pierde la esperanza. +Pero del mismo modo uno puede recobrarla de nuevo. +Cuando uno piensa que todo se acab algo ms sucede, se enciende una chispa interior, una suerte de voluntad de lucha, esa voluntad de acero que todos tenemos; que tiene este elefante que tienen la conservacin y esos grandes felinos. +Todos tienen la voluntad de sobrevivir, de luchar, de derribar esa barrera mental y de salir adelante. +Y para nosotros, de cierta forma, este elefante se ha transformado en un smbolo de inspiracin, un smbolo de esa esperanza mientras avanzamos en el trabajo. +Ahora, volviendo al leopardo. +Pasbamos tanto tiempo con esta leopardo tratando de entender su individualidad, su carcter personal, que quiz estbamos yendo demasiado lejos. +Quiz estbamos dndola por sentado y tal vez a ella eso no le gustaba mucho. +Esto es sobre parejas que trabajan juntas y tengo que decir que dentro del vehculo cada uno de nosotros tiene un territorio sper definido. +Beverly se sienta a un lado con todo su equipo de cmaras y yo estoy del otro lado en mi espacio. +Valoramos mucho esto, estas divisiones. +BJ: Pero cuando esta cachorrita vio que haba abandonado mi asiento e ido para atrs a buscar algn aparato, ella vino como una gata curiosa a ver y a investigar. +Fue fenomenal, y nos sentimos agradecidos de que confiara en nosotros hasta ese punto. +Pero al mismo tiempo nos preocupaba que si desarrollaba este hbito y saltaba al auto de cualquiera podra no resultar as de bien; podran dispararle por hacer eso. +Por eso sabamos que haba que reaccionar rpido. +Y la nica manera que se nos ocurri sin asustarla fue tratar de simular el gruido de su madre; un silbido y un sonido. +As que Dereck encendi el ventilador del auto; muy innovador. +DJ: Fue la nica manera que tuve de salvar el matrimonio porque Beverly senta que era reemplazada, ya ven. +Pero, de verdad, as es como esta pequea leopardo mostraba su personalidad individual. +Pero nada nos prepar para lo que sucedera despus en nuestra relacin con ella una vez que empezara a cazar. +BJ: En esta primera cacera estbamos muy emocionados. +Para m era como ver una ceremonia de graduacin. +Nos sentimos como si furamos padres sustitutos. +Y, claro, ahora sabamos que ella iba a sobrevivir. +Pero slo cuando vimos al pequeo beb babuino aferrarse a la piel de la madre nos dimos cuenta de que aqu estaba pasando algo muy singular con Legadema. +Por supuesto, el beb babuino era tan inocente que no pens en escapar. +As que lo que vimos durante el siguiente par de horas fue algo nico. +Fue absolutamente increble cuando lo llev a un lugar seguro para protegerlo de la hiena. +Y en las siguientes 5 horas ella se encarg de l. +Nos dimos cuenta de que no lo sabemos todo y que la naturaleza es tan impredecible que hay que estar atentos todo el tiempo. +DJ: Bueno, ella fue un poco bruta. +Pero, de hecho, lo que estuvimos viendo aqu fue interesante. +Porque es una cachorra que quiere jugar pero al mismo tiempo un depredador que tiene que matar y eso entra en conflicto en cierta forma porque estaba emergiendo en ella la maternidad. +Tena este instinto maternal como el de una joven que va rumbo a la feminidad. As que esto nos permiti comprender esa personalidad mucho ms profundamente. +BJ: Y, por supuesto, pasaron esa noche juntos. +Y terminaron durmiendo durante horas. +Pero tengo que decirles... siempre nos preguntan: "Qu pas con el beb babuino?" +Muri. Y sospechamos que fue debido a las noches heladas de invierno. +DJ: En ese momento, creo, habamos llegado a ideas muy precisas de lo que significa la conservacin. +Tenamos que lidiar con estas personalidades individuales. +Tenamos que hacerlo con respeto y celebrndolas. +Por eso, junto a National Geographic, formamos la Iniciativa Grandes Felinos para avanzar hacia la conservacin cuidando a los grandes felinos que amamos y luego tuvimos la oportunidad de mirar atrs los ltimos 50 aos y ver cmo lo hemos estado haciendo todos nosotros. +Cuando Beverly y yo nacimos haba 450 mil leones y hoy hay 20 mil. +A los tigres no les ha ido mucho mejor: de 45 mil bajaron quiz a 3 mil. +BJ: Y los guepardos se han derrumbado hasta llegar a los 12 mil. +Los leopardos se desplomaron de 700 mil cayendo a slo 50 mil. +Ahora bien, durante la poca fabulosa en que trabajamos con Legadema, durante ese perodo de cinco aos, se cazaron legalmente en los safaris 10 mil leopardos. +Y esos no son los nicos leopardos cazados durante ese perodo. +Tambin hubo una inmensa cantidad de caza furtiva. Posiblemente la misma cantidad. +Simplemente no es sostenible. +Les admiramos y les tememos. Y como hombres queremos aduearnos de su poder. +Sola haber pocas en la que slo los reyes vestan piel de leopardo pero hoy en muchos rituales y ceremonias tambin las llevan curanderos y ministros. +Y, por supuesto, mirando esta garra de len que ha sido desollada me recuerda con inquietud la mano del Hombre. Es irnico dado que su destino est en nuestras manos. +DJ: Hay un floreciente comercio de huesos. +Sudfrica acaba de liberar algunos huesos de len en el mercado. +Los huesos de len y de tigre se ven exactamente iguales, y as, de un plumazo, la industria de huesos de len va a acabar con todos los tigres. +As que tenemos un verdadero problema, no ms que los leones, los leones machos. +Y la cifra de 20 mil leones que acaban de ver en realidad es una cortina de humo porque puede haber de 3 a 4 mil leones machos y todos en realidad padecen la misma infeccin. +Yo la llamo complacencia; nuestra complacencia. +Porque hay un deporte, hay una actividad en curso de la que somos conscientes, a la que toleramos. +Y eso es probablemente porque no lo hemos visto como lo hacemos hoy. +BJ: Y tienen que saber que cuando muere un len macho perturba a toda la manada. +Viene un nuevo macho a la zona y se hace cargo de la manada y, por supuesto, primero mata a todos los cachorros y tal vez a algunas hembras que defienden a sus cachorros. +Hemos estimado que mueren de 20 a 30 leones por cada uno que est colgando en una pared en algn lugar remoto. +DJ: Nuestras investigaciones han demostrado que estos leones son esenciales. +Son esenciales para el hbitat. +Si desaparecen desaparecern ecosistemas completos en frica. +por concepto de eco-turismo en frica. +No se trata slo de una preocupacin por los leones sino tambin de una preocupacin por las comunidades africanas. +Si desaparecen todo eso desaparece. +Pero lo que ms me preocupa en muchos aspectos es que a medida que nos desvinculamos de la naturaleza, que nos desvinculamos espiritualmente de estos animales, perdemos la esperanza, perdemos esa conexin espiritual, nuestra dignidad, eso que llevamos dentro que nos mantiene conectados al planeta. +BJ: Por eso tienen que saber que mirar a los ojos a leones y leopardos hoy en da es una cuestin de conciencia crtica. +Y lo que estamos haciendo en febrero, estamos estrenando una pelcula llamada "El ltimo len". "El ltimo len" es exactamente lo que est pasando ahora mismo. +Esa es la situacin en la que estamos: los ltimos leones. +Es decir, si no nos movilizamos y hacemos algo estas planicies no tendrn ningn felino grande y entonces, a su vez, todo lo dems va a desaparecer. +Y es simple: si no podemos protegerlos tambin nos va a costar protegernos a nosotros mismos. +DJ: De hecho, esa cosa original de la que hablamos, con la cual diseamos nuestras vidas, esa conservacin es cuestin de respeto y celebracin; quiz sea verdad; es realmente lo que se necesita. +Lo necesitamos. Nos respetamos y celebramos mutuamente como hombre y mujer, como comunidad, y como parte de este planeta, y tenemos que seguir as. +Y Legadema? +Bueno, podemos informar que de hecho somos abuelos. +BJ/DJ: Muchas gracias. +A las mujeres de la sala les digo, empecemos admitiendo que tenemos suerte. +No vivimos en el mundo en que vivan nuestras madres y abuelas donde las opciones de carrera eran muy limitadas. +Y si hoy estamos en esta sala, es porque la mayora hemos crecido en un mundo con derechos civiles bsicos. Y, sorprendentemente, todava vivimos en un mundo en el que algunas mujeres no los tienen. +Pero, aparte de eso, an tenemos un problema, un problema real. +Y el problema es que las mujeres no estn alcanzando la cima de sus profesiones en ningn lugar del mundo. +Los nmeros son bastante elocuentes: +de 190 jefas y jefes de estado 9 son mujeres. +Y del personal parlamentario del mundo el 13% son mujeres. +En el sector empresarial las mujeres que estn en la cima en la alta direccin, en la junta directiva, encabezan con un 15%, 16%. +Los nmeros no se han movido desde 2002 y van en la direccin incorrecta. +E incluso en instituciones sin fines de lucro, un mundo que a veces suponemos gobernado por mujeres, las mujeres de la cima son el 20%. +Tambin tenemos otro problema y es que las mujeres enfrentan opciones ms difciles entre el xito profesional y la realizacin personal. +Un estudio reciente de EE.UU. mostr, al analizar los puestos de la gerencia, que 2/3 de los hombres casados tenan hijos mientras que slo 1/3 de las mujeres casadas tenan hijos. +Hace un par de aos yo estaba en Nueva York cerrando un acuerdo y estaba en una de esas oficinas privadas elegantes de Nueva York que pueden imaginar. +Estoy en la reunin, una reunin de unas 3 horas, pasaron 2 horas y ya necesitbamos una pausa para ir al bao; todo el mundo se para y el anfitrin de la reunin empieza a mirar muy avergonzado. +Me di cuenta que no saba dnde estaba el bao de mujeres en la oficina. +As que empec a buscar por los escritorios, pensando que los habran puesto all, pero no vi nada. +Y pregunt: "Acaban de mudarse a la oficina?" +Y l me dijo: "No, hace cerca de un ao que estamos aqu". +Y le dije: "Me ests diciendo que soy la nica mujer en cerrar un trato en esta oficina en un ao?" +Me mira y me dice: "S. O quiz eres la nica que quiso ir al bao". +La pregunta es: cmo vamos a resolver esto? +Cmo cambiamos estos nmeros de arriba? +Cmo hacemos que sea diferente? +Quiero empezar diciendo que hablo de esto, de mantener a las mujeres en la fuerza laboral, porque pienso realmente que esa es la respuesta. +En la parte de altos ingresos de la fuerza laboral entre la gente que termina en la cima los CEO de la Fortune 500 o equivalentes de otras reas el problema, estoy convencida, es que las mujeres estn abandonando. +La gente habla mucho de esto y de cosas como flexibilidad horaria y asesora, programas en los que las empresas deberan entrenar a las mujeres. +Hoy no quiero hablar de nada de eso aunque todo eso sea realmente importante. +Hoy quiero centrarme en lo que podemos hacer como individuos. +Qu mensajes tenemos que darnos a nosotras mismas? +Qu mensaje tenemos que darle a las mujeres que trabajan con y para nosotros? +Qu mensaje le damos a nuestras hijas? +Quiero ser clara desde el principio: no voy a emitir juicio de valor en esta charla. +No tengo la respuesta correcta; +ni siquiera la tengo para m misma. +Dej San Francisco, donde vivo, el lunes y me iba a tomar el avin para venir a esta conferencia. +Y mi hija de 3 aos cuando la fui a dejar en el preescolar hizo la escena de abrazarse mi pierna y llorar diciendo: "Mami, no tomes el avin". +Es difcil. A veces me siento culpable. +No conozco ninguna mujer, ama de casa o que trabaje afuera, que no se sienta as de vez en cuando. +No estoy diciendo que trabajar afuera sea lo correcto para todo el mundo. +Mi charla de hoy se trata de los mensajes a dar si quieren permanecer en el mercado laboral. Y creo que hay tres. +Uno, sintense a la mesa. +Dos, hagan de su pareja un verdadero compaero. +Y tres -miren esto- no se den por vencidas antes de abandonar el trabajo. +Nmero uno: sintese a la mesa. +Hace apenas un par de semanas en Facebook recibimos a un funcionario gubernamental de muy alto nivel que vena a reunirse con altos ejecutivos de Silicon Valley. +Y todos se sentaron a la mesa. +Y haba 2 mujeres que viajaban con ellos que tenan posiciones importantes en sus ministerios. Y yo les dije: "Sintense a la mesa. Vamos, sintense a la mesa". Y se sentaron a un lado de la sala. +Cuando estaba en el ltimo ao de la universidad hice un curso de Historia Intelectual Europea. +No les encantan esas cosas de la universidad? +Me gustara poder hacerlo ahora. +Hice ese curso con mi compaera de cuarto, Carrie, que en ese entonces era una estudiante brillante de literatura y luego lleg a ser una erudita de la literatura y mi hermano tipo inteligente, jugador de water polo, estudiante de segundo ao. +Hacamos el curso los 3 juntos. +Carrie se ley todos los libros -las versiones originales en griego y latn; iba a todas las clases. +Yo le todos los libros en ingls y asist a casi todas las clases. +Mi hermano estaba medio ocupado; +ley 1 de los 12 libros y fue a un par de clases, vino a nuestra habitacin un par de das antes del examen para que le expliquemos. +Fuimos los 3 a dar el examen. +Estuvimos all durante 3 horas... con nuestras libretas azules... s, as de vieja soy. +Y salimos del aula, nos miramos y preguntamos: "Cmo te fue?" +Y Carrie dice: "Caramba, siento que no pude ir directamente al grano de la dialctica hegeliana". +Y yo dije: "Dios, me hubiese gustado poder conectar la teora de la propiedad de John Locke con los filsofos sucesivos". +Y mi hermano dijo: "Tengo la calificacin ms alta de la clase". +"Tienes la calificacin ms alta de la clase? +Pero si no sabes nada!" +El problema de estas historias es que concuerdan con lo que muestran los datos: las mujeres subestiman sistemticamente su capacidad. +Si uno examina a hombres y mujeres y se les pregunta algo totalmente objetivo como el promedio de calificaciones los hombres se equivocan sobrestimando y las mujeres se equivocan subestimando. +Las mujeres no negocian por s mismas en el trabajo. +Un estudio de los ltimos 2 aos de personas que ingresan al mercado laboral desde la universidad mostr que el 57% de los muchachos que ingresaban -supongo que eran hombres- negociaban su primer salario y slo el 7% de las mujeres. +Y an ms importante: los hombres se atribuyeron el xito a s mismos y las mujeres lo atribuyeron a factores externos. +Si uno le pregunta a un hombre por qu hizo un buen trabajo dir: "Porque soy genial. +Es obvio. Acaso lo dudas?" +Si uno le pregunta lo mismo a una mujer dir que alguien le ayud, que tuvo suerte, que trabaj realmente mucho. +Por qu importa este tema? +Caramba, importa y mucho +porque nadie consigue una oficina importante sentndose a un lado y no en la mesa de negociacin. Y nadie consigue un ascenso si no piensa que se merece el xito o si al menos no reconoce su propio xito. +Me gustara que la respuesta fuera fcil. +Ojal pudiera ir a decirles a las jvenes mujeres para las que trabajo, a todas esas mujeres fabulosas: "Crean en Uds mismas y negocien por Uds mismas. +Sean dueas de su propio xito". +Ojal pudiera decirle eso a mi hija. +Pero no es tan simple. +Porque los datos muestran sobre todo una cosa y es que el xito y la simpata tienen correlacin positiva para los hombres y correlacin negativa para las mujeres. +Y todas estn asintiendo porque sabemos que es verdad. +Hay un estudio muy bueno que muestra esto muy bien. +Es un estudio famoso de la Escuela de Negocios de Harvard sobre una mujer llamada Heidi Roizen. +Es una emprendedora de una empresa de Silicon Valley y usa sus contactos para convertirse en una inversora de capital de riesgo exitosa. +En 2002, no hace tanto, un profesor que estaba entonces en la U. de Columbia toma el caso de Heidi Roizen y lo modifica. +Distribuye ambos casos a dos grupos de estudiantes. +Cambia solo una palabra: Heidi por Howard. +Pero esa palabra marca una gran diferencia. +Luego encuesta a los estudiantes. Lo bueno es que tanto los estudiantes hombres como las mujeres pensaban que Heidi y Howard eran ambos competentes y eso es bueno. +Pero lo malo fue que a todo el mundo le gustaba Howard. +l es un gran tipo, uno quiere trabajar con l, +uno quiere pasar el da pescando con l. +Y Heidi? No lo s. +Es egocntrica y tiene un sesgo poltico. +Uno no puede estar seguro de trabajar para ella. +Esta es la complicacin. +Debemos decirles a nuestra hija y a las colegas que tenemos que creernos que tenemos la calificacin mxima para alcanzar la promocin, para sentarnos a la mesa. Y tenemos que hacerlo en un mundo en el que, para lograrlo, debern enfrentar sacrificios, sacrificios que sus hermanos varones no conocern. +La parte ms triste de todo esto es que es algo muy difcil de recordar. +Les voy a contar una historia, realmente embarazosa para m, pero que creo es importante. +Di esta charla en Facebook no hace mucho ante unos 100 empleados. Y un par de horas despus haba una muchacha que trabaja all sentada fuera de mi pequeo escritorio y quera hablar conmigo. +Le dije que bueno, se sent, y hablamos. +Me dijo: "Hoy aprend algo. +Aprend que tengo que mantener mi mano en alto". +Le dije: "Qu quieres decir?" +Me dijo: "Bueno, Ud. estaba dando la charla y dijo que iba a recibir 2 preguntas ms. +Yo, al igual que muchas otras personas, tena mi mano levantada y Ud recibi 2 preguntas ms. +Yo baj la mano y observ que todas las mujeres bajaron la mano y luego Ud acept ms preguntas slo de los hombres". +Tenemos que lograr que las mujeres se sienten a la mesa. +Mensaje nmero dos: hagan de su pareja un verdadero compaero. +Estoy convencida de que hemos progresado ms en el trabajo que en nuestros hogares. +Los datos lo muestran con elocuencia. +Si una mujer y un hombre trabajan a tiempo completo y tienen un hijo la mujer hace el doble de trabajo en la casa que el hombre y la mujer dedica 3 veces ms tiempo a cuidar al hijo que el hombre. +De modo que ella tiene 3 empleos, 2, y l tiene 1. +Quin creen que abandona si alguien tiene que estar ms en casa? +Las causas de esto son muy complicadas y no tengo tiempo de entrar en detalles. +Y no creo que el ftbol del domingo o la pereza en general sean la causa. +Pienso que la causa es ms complicada. +Creo que, como sociedad, ejercemos ms presin a nuestros hijos para que tengan xito que a nuestras hijas. +Conozco hombres que se quedan en casa y trabajan en la casa para ayudar a sus esposas con sus carreras y es difcil. +Cuando voy a las reuniones de madres y veo al padre all observo que las otras madres no interactan con l. +Y eso es un problema porque tenemos que dignificar la tarea porque es lo ms difcil del mundo, hacer las tareas domsticas para personas de ambos sexos, si queremos que la cosa se empareje y las mujeres trabajen afuera. +Los estudios muestran que los hogares con salarios parejos e iguales responsabilidades tienen tambin la mitad de divorcios. +Y por si eso no fuera suficiente motivacin para Uds estas parejas tienen ms... cmo decirlo en el escenario? +estas parejas se conocen ms mutuamente en el sentido bblico tambin. +Mensaje nmero tres: no se vayan antes de irse. +Creo que es una gran irona que las mujeres tomen acciones -veo esto todo el tiempo- con el objetivo de seguir trabajando y eso en realidad las lleva a dejar el trabajo. +Esto es lo que sucede: estamos todos ocupados; todo el mundo; una mujer est ocupada. +La mujer empieza a pensar en tener un beb. Y desde el momento en que empieza a pensar en tener un beb empieza a pensar en hacer espacio para ese beb. +"Cmo voy a compaginar esto con todo lo otro que hago?" +Y, literalmente, desde ese momento ya no vuelve a levantar la mano; ya no busca un ascenso; ya no toma el nuevo proyecto; ya no dice: "Yo quiero hacer eso". +Empieza a echarse atrs. +Una vez una mujer vino a hablarme de esto +y la mir pensando que pareca un poco joven. +Le dije: "As que estn pensando con tu marido en tener un beb?" +Y me dijo: "Que va, no estoy casada". +Ni siquiera tena novio. +Le dije: "Ests pensando en esto muy apresuradamente". +Pero la cosa es: qu pasa cuando uno empieza a retirarse silenciosamente? +Todas las que han pasado por esto y doy fe de esto, una vez que tienen un hijo en casa ms vale que el trabajo valga la pena porque es muy difcil dejar a ese cro en casa; +el trabajo tiene que ser desafiante. +Debe dar satisfacciones. +Una tiene que sentir que marca la diferencia. +Y si pasaron 2 aos y no tuviste un ascenso y algn tipo cerca tuyo lo tuvo; si hace 3 aos dejaste de buscar nuevas oportunidades te vas a aburrir porque deberas haber dejado el pie en el acelerador. +No se vayan antes de irse. +Qudense. +Mantengan el pie en el acelerador hasta el da en que necesiten irse a hacer un pausa para tener un hijo y recin entonces tomen sus decisiones. +No tomen decisiones demasiado anticipadas sobre todo las que ni siquiera saben que estn tomando. +Mi generacin en realidad, tristemente, no va a cambiar los nmeros de la cima. +No se van a mover. +No vamos a llegar a que el 50% de la poblacin... en mi generacin no va a haber un 50% de personas en al cima de ningn sector. +Pero cifro mis esperanzas en las generaciones futuras. +Creo que un mundo gobernado en la mitad de los pases y en la mitad de las empresas por mujeres sera un mundo mejor. +Y no slo porque la gente sabra dnde estn los baos de mujeres, aunque eso sera de gran ayuda. +Creo que sera un mundo mejor. +Tengo dos hijos. +Tengo un hijo de 5 aos y una hija de 2 aos. +Quiero que mi hijo tenga la posibilidad de contribuir plenamente al mundo laboral o al domstico y quiero que mi hija tenga la posibilidad de elegir no slo de superarse sino de ser querida por sus logros. +Gracias. +Hoy les hablar de algunas personas que no salieron de sus barrios. +Una de ellas vive aqu, en Chicago. +Brenda Palms-Farber fue contratada para ayudar a los ex-presidiarios a reinsertarse en la sociedad y evitar que regresen a prisin. +En la actualidad, los contribuyentes gastan unos $60.000 por ao para enviar a alguien a la crcel. +Sabemos que dos tercios de ellos van a regresar. +Sin embargo me parece interesante que por cada dlar invertido en la educacin infantil, como en Head Start, ahorramos $17 en cosas como futuro encarcelamiento. +O piensen en esto, $60.000 es ms de lo que cuesta enviar a alguien a Harvard. +Pero Brenda, sin sentirse amedrentada, vio su desafo y encontr una solucin no tan obvia: crear una empresa que fabrica de la miel, productos para el cuidado de la piel. +Para algunos puede ser obvio; no lo fue para m. +Es la base para el desarrollo de una forma de innovacin social de gran potencial. +Contrat a hombres y mujeres desempleados para cuidar las abejas, cosechar la miel y elaborar productos con valor agregado que ellos mismos comercializan, y que son luego vendidos en Whole Foods. +Ella combin experiencia laboral y capacitacin con las habilidades que ellos necesitaban, como la gestin de conflictos y el trabajo en equipo, y tambin hablar con futuros empleadores sobre el modo en que sus experiencias demostraban las lecciones aprendidas y su afn de aprender ms. +Menos del 4% de la gente que pas por su programa volvi a la crcel. +Estos jvenes aprendieron a prepararse para el trabajo y otras habilidades a travs de la apicultura y, en el proceso, se volvieron ciudadanos productivos. +Esto habla de un buen comienzo. +Ahora pasemos a Los ngeles. Mucha gente sabe que L.A. tiene sus problemas. +Pero ahora voy a hablar del agua de L.A. +Hay escasez de agua casi todos los das y demasiada cuando llueve, y es difcil de manejar. +Actualmente, el 20% del consumo energtico de California se utiliza para bombear agua sobre todo en el sur de California. +Gastan fortunas para canalizar el agua de lluvia hacia el mar cuando llueve y hay inundaciones. +Andy Lipkis trabaja para ayudar a reducir los costos de infraestructura en L.A. asociadas a la gestin del agua y el calor urbano de la isla uniendo los rboles, las personas y la tecnologa para crear una ciudad ms habitable. +En realidad todas esas cosas verdes, absorben naturalmente el agua de lluvia, y tambin ayudan a refrescar nuestras ciudades. +Porque piensen en lo siguiente: Quieren realmente aire acondicionado o una habitacin ms fresca? +Cmo conseguirlo no debera importar tanto. +Entonces, hace unos aos, el condado de L.A. decidi invertir 2.500 millones de dlares para reparar las escuelas de la ciudad. +Y Andy y su equipo descubrieron que se necesitaban 200 millones de esos dlares para cubrir con asfalto las propias escuelas. +Y mediante un fuerte argumento econmico, convencieron al gobierno de L.A. para reemplazar ese asfalto con rboles y otras plantas, as las escuelas le ahorraran al sistema ms en energa que lo que ellos gastan en infraestructura de horticultura. +Finalmente se reemplaz o evit usar casi 2 km2 de asfalto y se redujo el consumo de electricidad por aire acondicionado, mientras que aument el empleo de la gente que mantiene esos terrenos, resultando en un ahorro neto para el sistema, en estudiantes ms sanos, igualmente para los empleados de la escuela. +Ahora bien, Judy Bonds es la hija de un minero del carbn. +Su familia lleva 8 generaciones en una ciudad llamada Whitesville, en Virginia Occidental. +Y si alguien debiera aferrarse a la antigua gloria de la historia de la minera del carbn, y de la ciudad, esa debera ser Judy. +Pero la forma en que ahora se extrae carbn es diferente de la minera profunda que su padre y su abuelo practicaban y que daba empleo a miles y miles de trabajadores. +Ahora, 2 docenas de hombres pueden derribar una montaa en varios meses, y slo por unos pocos aos de carbn. +Ese tipo de tecnologa se llama de remocin de cumbres. +Puede hacer que una montaa pase de esto a esto en unos pocos meses. +Imaginen el aire que rodea estos lugares -lleno de restos de explosivos y carbn. +Cuando la visitamos, a algunas de las personas con quienes estbamos les dio una tos extraa luego de estar unas pocas horas -no slo a los mineros, sino a todos. +Y Judy vio la destruccin de su paisaje y su agua envenenada. +Y luego de vaciar las montaas las compaas simplemente se van dejando a su paso an ms desempleo. +Pero ella tambin vio el potencial diferenciador de la energa elica en una montaa intacta, y que se redujo en elevacin en ms de 185 metros. +3 aos de energa sucia sin muchos empleos, o siglos de energa limpia con el potencial para el desarrollo de competencias y mejoras en la eficiencia basado en habilidades tcnicas y desarrollando conocimiento local sobre cmo obtener lo mximo de esa regin de vientos. +Ella calcul el costo por adelantado y el retorno de la inversin en el tiempo, y es una ventaja neta en muchos aspectos para la economa local, nacional y global. +Da ms rdito que la remocin de cumbres, pero en realidad la energa elica da ganancias sostenidas. +La remocin de cumbres redita muy poco a los locales, y les trae mucha miseria. +El agua se convierte en sustancia viscosa. +La mayora de la gente sigue desempleada, y eso genera los mismos problemas sociales que los que sufren los desempleados de las ciudades del interior: abuso de drogas y alcohol, violencia domstica, embarazo adolescente y tambin salud deficiente. +Judy y yo -debo decir- estamos muy relacionadas. +Una alianza bastante obvia. +Quiero decir, literalmente, su ciudad natal se llama Whitesville, en Virginia Occidental. +Es decir, no lo son -no estn compitiendo por ser la cuna del hip hop o algo as. +Pero la parte de atrs de mi camiseta, la que ella me dio, dice: "Salve a los montaeses en peligro de extincin". +As que las chicas del pueblo y los montaeses nos unimos y entendemos perfectamente que de esto se trata todo. +Sin embargo, hace apenas unos meses, Judy fue diagnosticada con un cncer de pulmn grado 3. +S. +Y desde entonces se extendi a sus huesos y a su cerebro. +Y encontr esto tan extrao que ella est sufriendo de lo mismo por lo que tanto trat de proteger a la gente. +Pero su sueo de la montaa de carbn elica es su legado. +Y quizs ella no llegue a ver esa cima de montaa. +Pero en vez de escribir algn manifiesto o algo por el estilo, ella est detrs de un plan de negocio para concretarlo. +Eso es lo que la chica de mi pueblo est haciendo. +Y estoy muy orgullosa de eso. +Pero estas 3 personas no se conocen entre s, si bien tienen muchas cosas en comn: +solucionan problemas, y son slo algunos de muchos ejemplos que tengo el privilegio de ver, encontrar y aprender en los ejemplos del trabajo que ahora hago. +Tuve mucha suerte de tener como invitados en mi programa de radio Corporacin para la Radio Pblica a ThePromiseLand.org +Son todos visionarios prcticos. +Ellos ven las demandas que andan por ah -productos de belleza, escuelas saludables, electricidad- y cmo fluye el dinero para satisfacer esas demandas; +porque cuando la solucin ms barata implica reduccin de empleos uno queda con desempleados y esa gente no es barata. +De hecho, forman parte de lo que yo llamo los ciudadanos ms caros, entre los que hay veteranos de una generacin empobrecida, traumatizados, de regreso de Medio Oriente, gente que sale de la crcel. +Y en el caso particular de los veteranos, la Asoc. de Veteranos dijo que se multiplic por 6 la medicacin psicotrpica a los veteranos desde el ao 2003. +Creo que es muy probable que ese nmero contine creciendo. +No son el mayor nmero de personas, pero son de los ms caros. Y en cuanto a la probabilidad de abuso domstico de drogas y alcohol, pobre rendimiento escolar de sus nios y tambin salud precaria a causa del estrs. +Entonces ellos 3 entienden cmo canalizar los dlares de manera productiva a travs de nuestras economas locales para satisfacer demandas existentes del mercado, reducir los problemas sociales que tenemos ahora y prevenir en el futuro nuevos problemas. +Y hay muchos otros ejemplos como ese. +Uno de los problemas: el manejo de residuos y el desempleo. +Incluso cuando pensamos o hablamos del reciclaje, muchas cosas reciclables terminan siendo incineradas o en vertederos abandonando muchos municipios, con tasas de desvo, dejando mucho para reciclar. +Y dnde se maneja este tipo de residuos? Por lo general, en las comunidades pobres. +Y sabemos que las empresas eco-industriales, este tipo de modelos de negocio -hay un modelo en Europa llamado parque eco-industrial, donde los residuos de una empresa son la materia prima para otra, o se usa material reciclado para hacer bienes, para usar y vender. +Podemos crear estos mercados locales e incentivar el uso de material reciclado como materia prima en las fbricas. +Y en mi ciudad, en realidad tratamos de hacer uno de estos en el Bronx, pero nuestro alcalde decidi que en ese lugar quera una crcel. +Por suerte, puesto que queramos crear cientos de puestos de trabajo, luego de muchos aos de querer construir una crcel en la ciudad +gracias a Dios han abandonado ese proyecto. +Otro problema: los sistemas alimentarios poco saludables y el desempleo. +La clase trabajadora y los pobres de la ciudad no se estn beneficiando econmicamente del actual sistema alimentario. +Este depende demasiado del transporte, de la fertilizacin qumica, de mucho uso de agua y de refrigeracin tambin. +Las mega explotaciones agrcolas son con frecuencia responsables de la intoxicacin del agua y la tierra, y eso produce este producto tan insalubre que nos cuesta miles de millones en salud y pierde productividad. +Y sabemos que la agricultura urbana es un gran tema de moda en esta poca del ao, pero en su mayor parte es jardinera, que tiene algo de valor en la construccin de la comunidad -mucho- pero no en trminos de creacin de empleos o para la produccin de comida. +Los nmeros simplemente no estn all. +Esto puede ayudar a los agricultores de estacin alrededor de las reas urbanas quienes estn perdiendo porque realmente no pueden satisfacer la demanda anual de productos. +No es una competencia con las granjas rurales, en realidad es un refuerzo. +Se complementan en un sistema alimentario realmente positivo y econmicamente viable. +El objetivo es satisfacer las demandas institucionales de las ciudades para los hospitales, centros para ancianos, escuelas, guarderas, y producir tambin, una red regional de puestos de trabajo. +Esto es una infraestructura inteligente. +Y la forma en que gestionamos la construccin de nuestro medioambiente afecta la salud y el bienestar de las personas todos los das. +Nuestros municipios, rurales y urbanos, manejan el curso operativo de la infraestructura -ya sea la eliminacin de los residuos, la demanda de energa, como as tambin los costos sociales del desempleo, las tasas de desercin escolar, las tasas de encarcelamiento y los impactos de los diversos gastos de salud pblica. +Las infraestructuras inteligentes pueden proporcionar a las municipalidades formas eficientes de manejar tanto la infraestructura como las necesidades sociales. +Y queremos cambiar los sistemas que le permiten a las personas que antes eran cargas fiscales volverse parte de la base imponible. +E imaginar un modelo de negocio nacional que cree empleos locales e infraestructura inteligente para mejorar la estabilidad econmica local. +As que espero que puedan ver un poco el tema aqu. +Estos ejemplos indican una tendencia. +No lo he inventado yo, ni pasa por accidente. +Veo que est sucediendo en todo el pas, y la buena noticia es que va en aumento. +Y todos tenemos que ser parte de esto. +Es un pilar esencial para la recuperacin de este pas. +Y lo llamo seguridad interior. +La recesin nos tiene tambaleantes y temerosos, y hay algo en el aire en estos das que es tambin muy poderoso. +Es la comprensin de que nosotros somos la clave de nuestra propia recuperacin. +Ahora es el momento de actuar en nuestras propias comunidades donde pensamos y actuamos localmente. +Y, al hacerlo, nuestros vecinos -sean de al lado, o de otro estado, o de otro pas- estarn bien. +La suma de lo local es lo global. +La seguridad interior significa la reconstruccin de nuestras defensas naturales, darle trabajo a la gente, restaurando nuestros sistemas naturales. +La seguridad interior significa crear riqueza aqu, en casa, en vez de destruirla en el extranjero, +Enfrentar los problemas sociales y ambientales al mismo tiempo, con las mismas soluciones producir grandes rendimientos generar salud y seguridad nacional. +En todo EE.UU se crearon grandes soluciones, inspiradoras. +Ahora, el desafo para nosotros es identificar y apoyar muchsimas ms. +La seguridad interior es cuidar de uno mismo, pero no como dice el viejo refrn que la caridad comienza por casa. +Hace poco le el libro "Love Leadership" de John Hope Bryant. +Y es sobre el liderazgo en un mundo que realmente parecer estar operando en base al temor. +Y la lectura de ese libro me hizo reconsiderar esa teora porque tengo que explicar lo que quiero decir con eso. +Mi pap fue un gran hombre, en muchos sentidos. +Creci en el Sur de la segregacin, escap del linchamiento y todo eso en tiempos realmente muy difciles, y nos dio un hogar realmente estable a mis hermanos y a m y a un montn de otras personas que pasaban momentos difciles. +Pero, como todos, tena algunos problemas. +Jugaba compulsivamente. +Para l, esa frase de "la caridad empieza por casa" significaba que mi da de pago -o el de otra persona- coincida con su da de suerte. +As que tenas que ayudarlo. +Y a veces yo le prestaba dinero de los trabajos que haca luego de la escuela, o en verano, y l siempre tena la mejor intencin de pagarme con intereses, por supuesto, despus de que ganara el gran premio. +Y lo hizo a veces, crase o no, en una carrera, en Los ngeles -una razn para amar a Los ngeles- all por los aos 40. +Gan $15.000 en efectivo y compr la casa en la que crec. +As que no me siento tan infeliz por eso. +Pero me senta obligada hacia l y luego crec. +Ahora soy una mujer adulta. Y, en el camino, he aprendido algunas cosas. +Para m la caridad con frecuencia se trata slo de dar porque es lo que se supone o porque es lo que uno ha hecho siempre o se trata de dar hasta que duela. +Estoy proporcionando los medios para construir algo que va a crecer y multiplicar la inversin original y no slo requiere dar ms el prximo ao No estoy tratando de fomentar un hbito. +Pas algunos aos viendo cmo las buenas intenciones de dar poder a la comunidad, que se supona eran para apoyar a la comunidad y dotarla de medios, en realidad dej a la gente en la misma posicin, o an peor, de la que estaban antes. +Y en los ltimos 20 aos la filantropa ha gastado cantidades rcord de dlares en problemas sociales y sin embargo los resultados educativos, la desnutricin, el encarcelamiento, la obesidad, la diabetes, la disparidad de ingresos, todo se ha incrementado, con algunas excepciones, en particular, la mortalidad infantil entre los pobres -pero tambin los estamos trayendo a un mundo extraordinario. +Y conozco algo sobre estos temas porque durante varios aos pas mucho tiempo en el complejo industrial sin fines de lucro. Soy directora ejecutiva en recuperacin, llevo 2 aos limpia. +Pero en ese tiempo, me di cuenta de que eran los proyectos y su desarrollo a nivel local lo que iba a ayudar realmente a nuestras comunidades. +Realmente luch por el apoyo financiero. +Cuanto mayor es nuestro xito, menos dinero llega de las fundaciones. +Y les digo que estar en el escenario de TED y ganar la beca MacArthur en el mismo ao les dio a todos la impresin de que lo haba logrado. +Y cuando termin en realidad estaba cubriendo un tercio del dficit presupuestario de mi agencia con honorarios de charla. +Y francamente creo que es porque en su inicio mis programas estaban un poco adelantados a su tiempo. +Pero desde entonces el parque que era un basurero y fue presentado en una TEDTalk en 2006 se convirti en esto. +Pero de hecho me cas en este lugar. +Aqu. +Ah va mi perro que en mi boda me llev al parque. +El South Bronx Greenway tambin era slo un bosquejo en mi charla de 2006. +Desde entonces obtuvimos cerca de 50 millones de dlares en paquete de estmulo para venir y llegar hasta aqu. +Y nos encanta esto, porque ahora me encanta la construccin, porque vemos que estas cosas realmente suceden. +Por eso quisiera que todos entiendan la importancia crtica de pasar de la caridad a lo empresarial. +Empec mi empresa para ayudar a las comunidades de todo el pas a que conozcan su propio potencial para mejorar todo lo relacionado con la calidad de vida de su gente. +La seguridad interior es la siguiente tarea de mi lista. +Lo que necesitamos son personas que vean el valor de invertir en este tipo de empresas locales, que se asociarn con gente como yo para identificar las tendencias de crecimiento y adaptacin al cambio climtico y para entender los crecientes costos sociales de los negocios actuales. +Tenemos que trabajar juntos para abrazar y reparar nuestra tierra, reparar nuestros sistemas energticos y repararnos nosotros mismos. +Es hora de dejar de construir centros comerciales, crceles, estadios y otros tributos a nuestros fracasos colectivos. +Es hora de que empecemos a construir monumentos vivientes de esperanza y posibilidad. +Muchas gracias. +Empezar... Hace un par de aos, una organizadora de eventos me llam porque yo iba a dar una conferencia; +me llam y dijo: "Intento la manera de describirte en el folleto". +"Y, cul es la dificultad?" +Y ella: "fundamentalmente te escuch hablar. Iba a llamarte investigadora, pero pens que si lo haca, nadie vendra porque pensaran que seras aburrida e irrelevante". +Y yo "OK". Y ella: +"Lo que me gust de tu conferencia es que cuentas historias. +As que te llamar cuentacuentos". +Y mi parte acadmica e insegura pens: "Me llamars qu?" +Y ella: "Te llamar cuentacuentos". Y yo: +"Y por qu no hada mgica?" +Y dije: "Djame pensarlo un segundo". +Entonces intent apelar a mi valenta. +Y pens: soy cuentacuentos +y tambin investigadora cualitativa. +Colecciono historias, eso hago. +Y tal vez las historias sean solamente datos con alma. +Quiz sea slo una cuentacuentos. +As que dije: "Sabes qu? +Por qu no escribes que soy una investigadora que narro cuentos?" +Y ella: "Ja, ja, ja! Eso no existe". +As, soy una investigadora que cuenta cuentos. Y les hablar hoy de la percepcin ampliada. Quiero contarles algo sobre mi investigacin que fundamentalmente ampli mi percepcin y que realmente cambi la manera en que vivo, amo, trabajo y soy madre. +Y as empieza mi historia: +Cuando era una joven investigadora y estudiante de doctorado, durante mi primer ao tuve un profesor que nos dijo: "Esto es as, si no lo puedes medir, no existe". +Y yo pens que solamente me adulaba, +y dije:"De verdad?" Y l: "Por supuesto". +Entiendan que tengo una licenciatura y una maestra en trabajo social y me doctoraba en lo mismo. Esto es que durante toda mi carrera acadmica estuve rodeada de gente que pensaba: "la vida es desordenada, disfrtala". +Y yo ms bien pienso: "la vida es desordenada, ordnala, organzala y clasificala en una caja". +Y as pensaba que haba encontrado mi camino, mi profesin y eso me lleva a... como se dice en trabajo social, "entrar en la incomodidad del trabajo". +Y soy ms de "saca de la cabeza con un golpe la disconformidad y saca buenas notas. +Ese fue mi mantra. +Estaba muy emocionada +y pens, esta es mi profesin porque me interesan algunos temas confusos +para ordenarlos. +Quiero entenderlos. Quiero llegar hasta el fondo de ellos +porque s que son importantes y para develar para todos el cdigo. +As que empec con la nocin de conexin +Porque cuando eres trabajadora social durante diez aos, te das cuenta que si estamos aqu es por la conexin. +Es lo que nos da sentido y finalidad a nuestras vidas. +De eso se trata. +No importa si hablas con gente que trabaja en justicia social o en salud mental, abuso o negligencia. Esa conexin, la habilidad de sentirnos conectados, es nuestra programacin neurolgica. Por esto estamos aqu. +Y pens, "Comenzar con la conexin". +Bien, conocen esa situacin donde su jefa los evala... y dice las 37 cosas que estn haciendo realmente bien y una que, ya saben, en que tienes una "oportunidad para crecer"? +Y slo piensas en esa "oportunidad para crecer," verdad? +Pues, aparentemente as se desarroll mi trabajo tambin. Porque al preguntar a las personas sobre el amor te hablan de desilusin amorosa. +Al preguntar sobre pertenencia, te contarn experiencias muy dolorosas de exclusin. +Y al preguntar sobre la conexin me contaron historias de desconexin. +Rpidamente (a unas 6 semanas de empezar a investigar), me top ante esta cosa innombrada que descifr por completo la conexin. De un modo que no entenda y nunca haba visto. +Di marcha atrs la investigacin y me dije: "debo averiguar qu pasa". +Y result ser la vergenza. +Result que -y la vergenza se entiende fcilmente como el miedo a la desconexin- Existe algo en m que si otros lo saben o ven, no ser digna de conexin? +Lo que les puedo decir es esto: es universal, todos lo sentimos. +Las nicas personas que no sienten vergenza son las incapaces de sentir empata o conexin humana. +Nadie quiere hablar de ello y cuanto menos lo hablas, ms lo sientes. +Lo que refuerza esta vergenza es: "no soy suficiente bueno". Todos conocemos este sentimiento, el "no soy suficiente _, no soy suficiente delgado, suficiente rico o suficiente brillante, +o no me han ascendido lo suficiente"... Lo que lo corrobora es esta vulnerabilidad insoportable. +Esta idea de "para que exista conexin debemos dejarnos ver", que nos vean de verdad. +Y saben lo que opino respecto a la vulnerabilidad, la ODIO. +Y as pens que esta sera mi oportunidad de eliminarla con mi vara de medir. +Lo har. Lo resolver. Pasar un ao con esto. Desarmar por completo la vergenza. Entender cmo funciona la vulnerabilidad y la derrotar con astucia. +Estaba lista y realmente emocionada! +Como se pueden imaginar, esto no iba a terminar bien. +Uds. ya lo saben. +Podra explicarles mucho sobre la vergenza pero consumira el tiempo de todos los dems. +Pero puedo decirles que ocurre. Y esto tal vez sea una de las cosas ms importantes que he aprendido en la dcada que llevo con esta investigacin. +Mi ao se convirti en seis, miles de historias, cientos de entrevistas largas, grupos focales, +a veces la gente me enviaba pginas de sus diarios, sus historias... miles de datos en seis aos. +Y casi lo llegu a entender. +Entend lo que es la vergenza y cmo funciona. +Haba slo una variable que los separaba de las personas con un sentido fuerte de amor y pertenencia. Las personas con un sentido fuerte +de amor y pertenencia, pensaban que eran dignas de amor y pertenencia. +Es todo. +Crean que valan la pena. +Y para m, la parte difcil de eso que nos mantiene desconectados es nuestro miedo a no ser dignos de conexin. Era algo que personal y profesionalmente sent que necesitaba entender. +As que tom todas las entrevistas donde vi dignidad, busqu la gente que viva de ese modo, y slo los observ a ellos. +Qu tiene esta gente en comn? +Tengo una ligera adiccin a los artculos de oficina... esa es otra historia. +As que tom una carpeta y un marcador y pens: "Cmo nombrar esta investigacin?" +Y la primera palabra que se me vino a la mente fue "genuinas". +Son un tipo de personas entusiastas y sinceras que viven desde un sentido profundo de dignidad. +Lo escrib en la parte superior de la carpeta y empec a estudiar los datos. +Al principio de este anlisis intenso de cuatro das, cuando repas y rescat las entrevistas e historias, preguntando +-"Cul es el tema? Cul es el patrn?" +Mi esposo y mis hijos se fueron de la ciudad porque yo entraba en esta locura, estilo Jackson Pollock, donde slo escribo y activo el modo "investigadora". +Y esto es lo que descubr... +Lo que tenan en comn era un sentido de coraje. +Y quiero diferenciar entre coraje y valenta por un momento. +Coraje, cuando se integr a la lengua inglesa, viene de la palabra latina "cor" que significa corazn, originalmente significaba explicar la historia de quin eres con todo tu corazn. As que estas personas, +sencillamente, tenan el coraje de ser imperfectas. +Tenan la compasin para ser amables con ellas mismas primero y luego con otros, pues no podemos tener compasin de otros si no podemos tratarnos a nosotros mismos con amabilidad. +Y por ltimo, tenan conexin, y esta era la parte difcil, como resultado de su autenticidad. Eran capaces de renunciar a quienes pensaban que deban ser para ser lo que eran, que es absolutamente lo que se tiene que hacer para conectar. +Otra cosa en comn era que ellos aceptaban por completo la vulnerabilidad. +Crean que lo que los haca vulnerables los haca hermosos. +No hablaban de vulnerabilidad como algo incmodo o doloroso, como yo haba escuchado antes en las entrevistas sobre la vergenza. +Simplemente mencionaban que era necesaria. +Hablaban de la buena voluntad para decir "te amo" primero. +La buena voluntad de hacer algo donde no haba garantas. +La disposicin de respirar calmadamente mientras esperaban al mdico despus de su mamografa. +La voluntad de invertir en una relacin que pueda o no salir bien. +Pensaban que esto era fundamental. +Yo personalmente pens que esto era una traicin. +No poda creer que me haba aliado con este tipo de investigacin, cuando en nuestro trabajo la definicin de investigacin es controlar y predecir. Estudiar fenmenos por la razn explcita de controlar y predecir. +Y ahora mi misin de controlar y predecir haba dado por respuesta que la manera de vivir es con vulnerabilidad. Y dejar de controlar y predecir. +Esto me llev a un pequeo ataque de nervios de hecho se vea ms bien as. +Y esto me llev +a lo que yo llamo un ataque de nervios y mi terapeuta llama un "despertar espiritual". +Despertar espiritual suena bien pero les aseguro que fue un ataque de nervios. +Tuve que guardar mis datos e ir a buscar un terapeuta. +Y t sabes quien eres cuando llamas a tus amigos y les dices: "Creo que necesito ayuda. +Alguna recomendacin?" +Pues casi cinco de mis amigos dijeron: "Uy, no quisiera ser tu terapeuta". +"Y eso?" +"Ya sabes, solo digo +que no lleves tu vara de medir". +"Bueno". +Finalmente encontr una terapeuta. +Y en mi primera cita con Diana, llev mi lista de cmo viven los genuinos. +Ella se sent y pregunt: "Cmo ests?" +Y le contest: "Estoy bien, genial". +Y ella dijo: "bien, qu ocurre?" +Es una terapeuta especializada en terapeutas, los necesitamos porque son los mas aptos para detectar mentiras. +Le dije: "pasa esto, estoy en lucha". +Y ella dijo: "contra qu?" +Dije: "Tengo un problema con la vulnerabilidad". +S que la vulnerabilidad es el ncleo de la vergenza y el miedo y de nuestra lucha por la dignidad. Pero tambin es donde nace la dicha, la creatividad, la pertenencia, el amor. +Y creo que tengo un problema y necesito un poco de ayuda". +"Pero, no quiero hablar de problemas familiares ni traumas infantiles. +Slo necesito algunas estrategias". +Gracias. +Y ella hace as. +"Est mal verdad?" +Y ella: "ni bien, ni mal". +Solamente es lo que es. +Y yo: "Dios mo, esto va a ser pattico!" +Y lo fue y no. +Me llev aproximadamente un ao. +Y saben cmo es la gente al darse cuenta que la vulnerabilidad y la ternura son importantes? +A) Yo no soy as y B) Tampoco paso tiempo con gente as. +Para m fue una lucha callejera que dur un ao. +Fue una contienda. +La vulnerabilidad avanzaba, yo la haca retroceder. +Perd la pelea pero recuper mi vida. +Entonces retom la investigacin y pas los siguientes aos intentando entender realmente a los "genuinos", las decisiones que tomaban y qu es lo que hacemos con la vulnerabilidad? +Por qu luchamos tanto contra ella? +Lucho solo contra la vulnerabilidad? +No. +Y esto es lo que aprend... +insensibilizamos la vulnerabilidad. Cuando esperamos a que nos atiendan, al esperar... +Saben, es gracioso, el mircoles publiqu algo en Twitter y Facebook que deca: "como definiras la vulnerabilidad, +qu te hace sentir vulnerable?" +En hora y media tena 150 respuestas. +Porque yo quera saber... qu hay all afuera. +"Tener que pedir ayuda a mi marido porque estoy enferma y somos recin casados". "Tomar la iniciativa en el sexo con mi esposa". "Tomar la iniciativa en el sexo con mi marido". "Ser rechazado". "Invitar a alguien a salir". "Esperar la llamada del mdico". "Ser despedido". "Despedir a la gente". +Este es el mundo en el que vivimos. +Vivimos en un mundo vulnerable. +Y una manera de enfrentarlo es insensibilizando la vulnerabilidad. +Y creo que existe la evidencia. Y no es la nica razn para que exista esta evidencia, pero es una gran causa. Somos los adultos ms endeudados, +obesos, +adictos y medicados en la historia de EE.UU. +Por qu? El problema es, y lo descubr en esta investigacin... es que no se puede insensibilizar selectivamente una emocin. +No puedes decir, "aqu est todo lo malo: +la vulnerabilidad, la pena, la vergenza, el miedo, la decepcin; +no quiero sentir esto. +Me voy a tomar unas cervezas y un panecillo de banano y nueces. +No quiero sentir eso! +Esas risas son conocedoras; +estudio sus vidas para ganarme la vida. As es, "ja,ja,ja, +Ay Dios!" +No puedes insensibilizar los malos sentimientos sin insensibilizar otros afectos. +No puedes insensibilizar selectivamente. +No se puede insensibilizar lo malo sin anular la dicha. sin insensibilizar lo lindo. Insensibilizamos tambin la gratidud, la felicidad. +Y luego nos sentimos miserables y vamos buscando finalidad y sentido y luego nos sentimos vulnerables y nos tomamos un par de cervezas y un panecillo de pltano. +Y se convierte en un ciclo peligroso. +Algo sobre lo que pienso necesario reflexionar es por qu y cmo insensibilizamos. +Y no tiene slo que ser una adiccin. +Otra cosa que hacemos es convertir todo lo incierto en cierto. +La religin ha pasado de ser de una creencia a fe y de misterio a una certeza. +"Tengo razn, t te equivocas. Cllate". +As es. +Slo certezas. +Mientras ms miedo tengamos, ms vulnerables somos, y ms miedo tenemos. +Miren a los polticos de hoy. +Ya no hay discurso, +ni conversacin. +Slo se culpan. +Saben cmo describimos la culpa en nuestra investigacin? +"una forma de eliminar el dolor y la incomodidad". +Perfeccionamos. +Djenme decirles, si hay alguien que quisiera que su vida fuese as, esa sera yo. Pero no funciona. +Porque nos quitamos la grasa del trasero y nos la ponemos en las mejillas. +Y esto no funciona! Espero que de aqu a 100 aos la gente mire atrs y diga, "Guau". +Y ms peligrosamente, tratamos de perfeccionar +a nuestros hijos. Brevemente, permtanme explicarles esto... +Los nios vienen ya adaptados para luchar. +Cuando sostenemos en las manos esos bebs perfectos, nuestra tarea no es decir: "Mira, qu perfecto". +"Mi tarea es que siga as y asegurar que sea parte del equipo de tenis en 5 y aceptado en Yale en el 7". +No es nuestra tarea, +nuestra tarea es verlo y decir, "Eres imperfecto y ests hecho para luchar pero eres digno de amor y pertenencia". +Esa es nuestra tarea. +Mustrenme una generacin de chicos que crezcan as y acabaremos con los problemas que tenemos hoy. +Nos engaamos pensando que lo que hacemos no tiene efecto en otras personas. +Lo hacemos en nuestra vida personal +o colectiva, ya sea con una fianza o un derrame de petrleo +una retirada. +Fingimos que lo que hacemos no tiene un gran impacto sobre otras personas. +Yo les dira a las empresas: "No somos ingenuos". +Slo queremos que sean autnticos y reales +y que digan "lo sentimos, lo arreglaremos". +Pero existe otra manera... y me despido con esto. +He descubierto, que tenemos que dejarnos ver, que nos vean vulnerables. +Hay que amar con todo el corazn aunque no haya garantas. Y esto es muy difcil, y puedo decirlo como madre, esto puede ser extremadamente difcil. Ejercer la gratitud y la dicha en esos momentos de terror cuando nos preguntamos "Puedo amarte tanto? +Puedo creer en esto tan apasionadamente? +Puedo enojarme tanto por esto?" +Me puedo detener y en lugar de ser catastrfico decir: "Simplemente estoy muy agradecido". "Porque estoy vivo, porque sentirse vulnerable significa que estar vivo". +Y por ltimo, creo que es ms importante creer que somos suficientes. +Porque cuando funcionamos desde la perspectiva "Soy suficiente" entonces +dejamos de gritar y empezamos a escuchar. Somos ms amables con las personas que nos rodean y ms amables y considerados con nosotros mismos. +Eso es todo. Gracias. +En primer lugar quiero agradecerles a todos Uds. +En segundo lugar quiero presentarles a mi co-autor estimado amigo y co-profesor. +Ken y yo hemos estado trabajando juntos durante casi 40 aos. +Les presento a Ken Sharpe. +En muchas personas entre las que desde luego, me encuentro yo y mucha gente con la que hablo, hay una especie de insatisfaccin colectiva con el funcionamiento de las cosas, con el modo de operar de las instituciones. +Los maestros parecen estar defraudando a nuestros hijos. +Los mdicos no saben quines diablos somos y no tienen tiempo suficiente para nosotros. +Est claro que no podemos confiar en los banqueros y desde luego que tampoco en los corredores de bolsa +pues casi hacen colapsar al sistema financiero. +E incluso nosotros en nuestros trabajos muy a menudo nos vemos obligados a elegir entre hacer lo que pensamos que es correcto y hacer lo que se espera, o lo que es necesario, o lo ms provechoso. +Por lo tanto, miremos donde miremos, prcticamente en todos los mbitos, nos preocupa que las personas de las que dependemos no defiendan nuestros intereses con el corazn. +O si defienden nuestros intereses con el corazn nos preocupa que no nos conozcan lo suficientemente bien como para saber qu tienen que hacer para permitirnos garantizar esos intereses. +No nos entienden. +No tienen tiempo para llegar a conocernos. +Hay dos tipos de respuestas que damos a esta suerte de insatisfaccin general. +Si las cosas no salen bien la primera respuesta es: hagamos ms reglas, establezcamos unos procedimientos detallados para asegurarnos que la gente haga lo correcto. +Dmosle guas a los maestros para que sigan en clase de modo que si no saben lo que estn haciendo y no les importa el bienestar de nuestros hijos, siempre y cuando sigan las guas, nuestros hijos logran educarse. +Dmosle a los jueces una lista de sentencias obligatorias para impartir ante los crmenes y as no tener que depender del criterio de los jueces. +En vez de eso todo lo que tienen que hacer es buscar en la lista qu sentencias corresponden a qu delitos. +Pongamos lmites a los intereses que pueden cobrar las tarjetas de crdito y a las tasas por servicios. +Cada vez ms normas para protegernos de unas instituciones indiferentes e insensibles con las que tenemos que lidiar. +Por eso le damos bonos a los maestros si sus alumnos aprueban los exmenes de las grandes evaluaciones que suelen hacerse para medir la calidad del sistema educativo. +Normas e incentivos: garrotes y zanahorias. +Aprobamos muchas normas para regular el sector financiero en respuesta al reciente colapso. +Est la Ley Dodd-Frank, est la nueva Agencia de Proteccin Financiera del Consumidor que provisoriamente es encabezada por detrs por Elizabeth Warren. +Quiz estas normas mejoren realmente el comportamiento de estas empresas de servicios financieros. +Ya veremos. +Adems, estamos luchando por encontrar alguna manera de crear incentivos para la gente del sector de servicios financieros, para hacer que se interesen ms por los intereses de largo plazo, ms an que por los de sus empresas, en vez de asegurar beneficios a corto plazo. +As que si encontramos los incentivos correctos harn lo correcto, como dije, de manera egosta y si encontramos las normas y las regulaciones correctas no nos van a empujar a todos al precipicio. +Ken [Sharpe] y yo sabemos, desde luego, que uno tiene que imponerse a los banqueros. +Si hay algo que hemos aprendido de la crisis financiera es eso. +Pero creemos, y lo sostenemos en el libro, que no existen normas no importa en qu nivel de detalle, ni su especificidad, ni lo minucioso que seamos en el monitoreo y en su cumplimiento, no existen normas que nos den lo que necesitamos. +Por qu? Porque los banqueros son inteligentes. +Y, como el agua, van a encontrar las grietas en cualquier norma. +Uno disea unas normas que aseguran que no van a ocurrir otra vez las causas particulares que hicieron que el sistema casi colapse. +Es de una ingenuidad pasmosa pensar que por bloquear esta fuente de colapso financiero uno ha bloqueado todas las posibles causas. +As que es slo cuestin de esperar a la siguiente y despus sorprendernos de lo tontos que fuimos al no protegernos contra eso. +Necesitamos desesperadamente, ms all, o adems, de mejores normas y de incentivos razonablemente inteligentes, necesitamos virtud, +necesitamos carcter, +necesitamos gente que desee hacer lo correcto. +Y, en particular, la virtud que ms nos hace falta es lo que Aristteles llam la sabidura prctica. +La sabidura prctica es la voluntad moral de hacer lo correcto y la habilidad moral de discernir qu es lo correcto. +Aristteles estaba muy interesado en ver cmo trabajaban los artesanos a su alrededor. +Y qued impresionado por la forma en que improvisaban nuevas soluciones a nuevos problemas; problemas que no haban previsto. +Un ejemplo es que observa a los canteros que trabajaban en la isla de Lesbos, y tenan que medir columnas redondas. +Bueno, si lo piensan, es muy difcil medir columnas redondas con una regla. +Entonces, qu hacen? +Elaboraron una nueva solucin al problema. +Crearon una regla que se dobla lo que hoy llamaramos una cinta mtrica, una regla flexible, una regla que se dobla. +Y Aristteles dijo: Ah, se dieron cuenta que a veces para disear columnas redondas uno tiene que doblar la regla. +Y Aristteles dijo: a menudo al tratar con otras personas tenemos que doblar las reglas. +Tratar con otras personas exige un tipo de flexibilidad que ninguna regla puede contemplar. +Las personas sabias saben cundo y cmo doblar las reglas. +Las personas sabias saben improvisar. +Mi co-autor Ken y yo nos referimos a eso como a una especie de msico de jazz; +las reglas son como las notas de la pgina con las que uno empieza pero luego uno baila en torno a las notas de la pgina, dando con la combinacin justa para ese momento en particular, con esos compaeros msicos en particular. +As que para Aristteles ese tipo de flexibilizacin, de excepcin a la regla e improvisacin que se observa en los artesanos consumados, es justo lo que se necesita para ser artesano de la habilidad moral. +Y, en la interaccin con la gente, casi siempre, se requiere este tipo de flexibilidad. +Una persona sabia sabe cundo torcer las reglas. +Una persona sabia sabe cundo improvisar. +Y, ms importante, una persona sabia improvisa y hace excepciones al servicio de los objetivos correctos. +Si se tuercen las reglas y se improvisa en beneficio propio estamos frente a una manipulacin despiadada de otra gente. +Por eso es importante poner estas prcticas sabias al servicio de los dems y no en beneficio propio. +Y entonces la voluntad de hacer lo correcto es tan importante como la habilidad moral para improvisar y hacer la excepcin adecuada. +Juntas constituyen la sabidura prctica que Aristteles pensaba era la virtud principal. +As que voy a dar un ejemplo de sabidura prctica en accin. +Es el caso de Michael. +Michael es un chico joven. +Tena un trabajo bastante mal pago. +Era el sustento de su esposa y de un nio, y el nio estaba yendo a la escuela parroquial. +Luego l perdi su empleo. +Entr en pnico al pensar que no podra mantener a su familia. +Una noche, bebi un poco de ms y le rob a un taxista; rob $50. +Rob a punta de pistola. +Era una de juguete. +Lo atraparon, lo procesaron, +y condenaron. +Las directrices de condena de Pennsylvania prevn una sentencia mnima para un delito como este de 2 aos, 24 meses. +La jueza del caso, Lois Forer, pens que esto no tena sentido. +El muchacho no haba cometido un crimen antes. +Era un padre y esposo responsable. +Haba tenido que hacer frente a una situacin desesperada. +Todo esto hara destruir una familia. +As que improvis una sentencia de 11 meses. Y no slo eso sino que lo liber cada da para ir al trabajo. +Pasaba la noche en la crcel y de da tena trabajo. +s lo hizo. Cumpli su sentencia. +Hizo la restitucin y se consigui un nuevo empleo. +La familia se volvi a unir. +Y pareca encaminada a una vida digna; un final feliz para una historia con improvisacin inteligente de una jueza sabia. +Pero result que el fiscal no estaba contento con que la jueza Forer ignorara las pautas de sentencia e inventara las suyas propias y por eso apel. +Pidi la sentencia mnima obligatoria para el robo a mano armada. +Despus de todo l tena un arma de juguete. +La sentencia mnima obligatoria para el robo a mano armada es de 5 aos. +Gan la apelacin. +Michael fue sentenciado a 5 aos de prisin. +La jueza Forer tuvo que obedecer la ley. +Y, por cierto, esta apelacin ocurri despus de que l terminara de cumplir su condena, as que estaba en libertad con un empleo, cuidando de su familia, y tuvo que regresar a la crcel. +La jueza Forer hizo lo que le pidieron que haga y luego renunci al cargo. +Y Michael desapareci. +As que esto es un ejemplo tanto de sabidura prctica como de subversin de la sabidura por normas que tienen por objeto, por supuesto, mejorar las cosas. +Pensemos ahora en la Sra. Dewey. +La Sra. Dewey es maestra de primaria en Texas. +Un da se encontraba escuchando a un consultor que trataba de ayudar a las maestras a mejorar las puntuaciones de los nios, para que la escuela alcanzara la categora de lite en porcentaje de nios que aprobaran los grandes exmenes. +Todas estas escuelas texanas compiten entre s para alcanzar estos hitos y hay bonos y otros varios regalos que reciben si le ganan a otras escuelas. +Este era el consejo del consultor: primero, no pierdan tiempo con los nios que van a aprobar el examen sin importar lo que hagan. +Segundo, no pierdan tiempo en los nios que no aprobarn sin importar lo que hagan. +Tercero, no pierdan tiempo en los nios que se mudan de distrito demasiado tarde para contabilizar sus puntuaciones. +Concentren todo su tiempo y atencin en los nios que estn en la burbuja, los llamados nios de la burbuja, los nios que con su intervencin ustedes puedan hacer que crucen la lnea del fracaso a la aprobacin. +Al or esto la Sra. Dewey negaba con su cabeza con desesperacin mientras sus colegas maestros se daban nimo unos a otros y asentan con la cabeza. +Era como si estuvieran por jugar un partido de ftbol. +Para la Sra. Dewey no era para eso que decidi ser maestra. +Ahora bien, Ken y yo no somos ingenuos y entendemos que uno necesita tener reglas. +Uno necesita tener incentivos. +Las personas tienen que ganarse la vida. +Pero el problema en depender de reglas e incentivos es que stos desmoralizan la actividad profesional. Y desmoralizan la actividad profesional en dos sentidos. +En primer lugar, desmoralizan a la gente involucrada en la actividad. +La jueza Forer renuncia y la Sra. Dewey queda descorazonada. +En segundo lugar desmoralizan a la propia actividad. +La propia prctica se desmoraliza y tambin los profesionales de la prctica. +Produce personas, cuando uno maneja incentivos para hacer que la gente haga lo correcto, produce personas adictas a los incentivos. +Es decir, eso produce personas que slo hacen cosas a cambio de incentivos. +Ahora bien, lo sorprendente de esto es que los psiclogos ya saben esto hace 30 aos. +Los psiclogos ya conocen las consecuencias negativas de incentivarlo todo desde hace 30 aos. +Sabemos que si uno recompensa a los nios por hacer dibujos dejan de preocuparse por el dibujo y se preocupan slo por la recompensa. +Si uno recompensa a los nios por leer libros dejan de preocuparse por el contenido de los libros y se preocupan slo por su longitud. +Si uno recompensa a los maestros por las puntuaciones de los nios dejan de preocuparse por la educacin y slo se preocupan por los exmenes. +Si uno premiara a los mdicos por hacer ms tratamientos como en el sistema actual, haran ms. +Si, por el contrario, uno premia a los mdicos por atender menos atendern menos. +Lo que queremos, por supuesto, es que los mdicos atiendan la cantidad justa de casos; que atiendan la cantidad justa por la razn correcta es decir, que contribuyan al bienestar de sus pacientes. +Los psiclogos ya lo saben desde hace dcadas y es hora de que las autoridades empiecen a prestar atencin y escuchen un poco ms a los psiclogos en vez de a los economistas. +No tiene por qu ser de este modo. +Ken y yo pensamos que existen fuentes reales de esperanza. +Identificamos un grupo de personas en todas estas prcticas que denominamos "proscritos astutos". +Son personas que al ser forzadas a operar en sistemas que demandan cumplimiento de la ley y que brindan incentivos, eluden las reglas, encuentran la manera de subvertir las reglas. +As, hay profesores que siguen estas guas y saben que si lo hacen los nios no van a aprender nada. +Por eso lo que hacen es seguir la gua pero siguen la gua a paso redoblado y reservan algo de tiempo extra para ensear de la manera en que saben que es efectiva. +Son hroes cotidianos, comunes, y son increblemente admirables, pero no hay manera de que puedan mantener este tipo de actividad de cara a un sistema que o bien los arranca de raz o bien los oprime. +Por eso los "proscritos astutos" son mejor que nada pero es difcil de imaginar proscritos astutos sosteniendo eso durante un tiempo indefinido. +Ms prometedores son los llamados "cambia sistema". +Son personas que estn buscando no esquivar las normas y regulaciones del sistema sino transformar el sistema, y hay varios. +Uno en particular es el juez Robert Russell. +Este juez un da se enfrent con el caso de Gary Pettengill. +Pettengill era un veterano de 23 aos que haba planeado hacer una carrera en el ejrcito pero luego, en Irak, sufri una lesin severa en la espalda que lo oblig a pedir un alta mdica. +Estaba casado, vena el tercer hijo en camino, sufra trastorno de estrs postraumtico, adems de la espalda, y de pesadillas recurrentes y haba empezado a fumar marihuana para aliviar algunos de los sntomas. +Por lo de la espalda tuvo que buscar un trabajo de tiempo parcial y por ende no le alcanzaba para llevar el pan a la mesa y cuidar de su familia. +As que empez a vender marihuana. +Fue arrestado en una redada de drogas. +Expulsaron a su familia de su hogar y Bienestar Social amenazaba con quitarle a sus hijos. +Siguiendo los procedimientos normales de sentencia el juez Russell no habra podido ms que condenar a Pettengill a pasar mucho tiempo en la crcel por crmenes de droga. +Pero el juez Russell tena una alternativa. +Y eso porque estaba en un tribunal especial. +Estaba en un una corte llamada Tribunal de Veteranos. +El Tribunal de Veteranos era el primero en su tipo en Estados Unidos. +El juez Russell cre el Tribunal de Veteranos. +Era un tribunal exclusivo para veteranos que haban violado la ley. +Y lo haba creado exactamente porque las leyes de sentencia obligatoria estaban desvirtuando los juicios. +Nadie quera que delincuentes no violentos y, sobre todo que delincuentes no violentos que eran veteranos, fueran arrojados a la crcel. +Queran hacer algo respecto de lo que todos conocemos, a saber, la puerta giratoria del sistema de justicia penal. +El Tribunal de Veteranos trat a cada criminal como a un individuo, intent entender sus problemas intent elaborar respuestas para sus delitos que les ayudaran a rehabilitarse, y que no los olvidaran una vez que el juicio tuviera lugar. +Permanecer junto a ellos, seguirlos, garantizar que se adhirieran al plan que se desarrollara en conjunto para sortear la dificultad. +Ya hay 22 ciudades que tienen un Tribunal de Veteranos como ste. +Por qu se propag la idea? +Bien, una razn es que por el tribunal del juez Russell han pasado 108 veteranos a febrero de este ao, y de esos 108 veteranos adivinen cuntos han vuelto a prisin por la puerta giratoria de la Justicia. +Ninguno. Nadie. +Cualquiera se aferrara a un sistema de justicia penal que tuviera este tipo de resultados. +Tenemos aqu un "cambia sistema" que parece ser contagioso. +Hay un banquero que cre un banco comunitario con fines de lucro que alent a los banqueros -s que esto es difcil de creer- alent a los banqueros que trabajaban all a hacer el bien haciendo el bien a sus clientes de bajos ingresos. +El banco ayud a financiar la reconstruccin de lo que de otra manera sera una comunidad moribunda. +Aunque los destinatarios de sus prstamos eran de alto riesgo segn las normas comunes, la tasa de morosidad fue muy baja. +El banco fue rentable. +Los banqueros se quedaron con los receptores de los prstamos. +No hacan prstamos para luego venderlos. +Ellos administraban los prstamos. +Se aseguraron de que los beneficiarios de sus prstamos efectuaran sus pagos. +La banca no ha sido siempre como hoy la pintan los peridicos. +Incluso Goldman Sachs sola estar al servicio de sus clientes antes de pasar a ser una institucin al servicio de s misma. +La banca no ha sido siempre as y no tiene que ser de este modo. +Hay ejemplos como ste en la medicina: mdicos de Harvard que estn tratando de transformar la educacin mdica, para que no se produzca esa suerte de erosin tica y falta de empata que caracteriza a la mayora de los estudiantes de medicina en el transcurso de su formacin mdica. +Y lo hacen dndole a los estudiantes de tercer ao pacientes a los que deben seguir todo un ao. +As, los pacientes no son sistemas de rganos, ni enfermedades; son personas, personas que tienen vidas. +Y para ser un mdico eficaz es necesario tratar personas que tienen vidas y no slo enfermedades. +Adems hay una enorme cantidad de idas y vueltas, tutora de un estudiante por otro, de todos los estudiantes por los mdicos, y el resultado, esperamos, ser una generacin de mdicos que tenga tiempo para las personas que atienden. +Ya veremos. +Hay muchos ejemplos como este del que hablamos. +Todos muestran que es posible construir y forjar el carcter y mantener una profesin fiel a su propia misin; lo que Aristteles llamara el propio "telos" +Ken y yo creemos que esto es lo que realmente quieren los profesionales. +Las personas quieren que les permitan ser virtuosos. +Quieren tener permiso para hacer lo correcto. +No quieren sentirse como que necesitan una ducha para quitarse la mugre moral del cuerpo cada da cuando regresan a sus casas del trabajo. +Aristteles pensaba que la sabidura prctica era la clave de la felicidad y tena razn. +Hoy en da hay mucha investigacin en psicologa sobre los factores de la felicidad y las dos cosas que saltan en todos los estudios -s que va a ser como un balde de agua fra para Uds- las dos cosas que ms importan para la felicidad son el amor y el trabajo. +Amor: manejar con xito las relaciones con las personas cercanas y con las comunidades de las que uno forma parte. +Trabajo: participar en actividades significativas y gratificantes. +Si uno tiene eso, relaciones estrechas con otras personas y un trabajo significativo y gratificante, prcticamente no necesita nada ms. +Bueno, para amar bien y trabajar bien se necesita sabidura. +Las normas y los incentivos no nos dicen cmo ser buenos amigos, cmo ser buenos padres, cmo ser buen cnyuge o cmo ser buen doctor o buen abogado o buen maestro. +Las normas y los incentivos no son sustitutos de la sabidura. +De hecho, sostenemos, no hay sustituto para la sabidura. +Por eso la sabidura prctica no requiere actos heroicos de abnegacin por parte de los profesionales. +Al darnos la voluntad y la habilidad de hacer lo correcto -para hacer el bien a otros- la sabidura prctica nos da tambin la voluntad y la habilidad de hacernos bien a nosotros mismos. +Gracias. +Mi gran idea es una idea muy, muy pequea, que puede liberar millones de grandes ideas que hoy estn latentes dentro de nosotros. +La pequea idea que lo har posible es el sueo. +Esta es una sala de mujeres de clase A. +Esta es una sala de mujeres con dficit de sueo. +Y aprend en carne propia el valor del sueo. +Hace dos aos y medio me desmay de cansancio. +Di con la cabeza en el escritorio y me fractur el mentn. Tengo cinco puntos de sutura en el ojo derecho. +As empec el viaje para redescubrir el valor del sueo. +Y durante ese viaje estudi, visit mdicos, cientficos, y estoy aqu para contarles que el camino hacia una vida ms productiva, inspirada y alegre es dormir bien. +Y las mujeres vamos a dar el primer paso en esta nueva revolucin, en este nuevo asunto feminista. +Llegaremos a la cima, literalmente durmiendo ms. +Porque, por desgracia, para los hombres dormir poco se ha vuelto un smbolo de virilidad. +Hace poco estaba cenando con un tipo que se jactaba de haber dormido slo cuatro horas la noche anterior. +Y yo tena ganas de decirle, pero no se lo dije, tena ganas de decirle: "sabes qu?" +Si hubieses dormido cinco horas esta cena habra sido mucho ms interesante". +Hay una suerte de competencia basada en la falta de sueo. +Sobre todo aqu en Washington, si uno dice de reunirse a desayunar, si uno dice "Qu les parece a las ocho?" +Es probable que respondan: "A las ocho es muy tarde para m pero est bien, puedo jugar un partido de tenis hacer un par de llamadas y reunirme contigo a las ocho". +Y piensan que eso quiere decir que estn tremendamente ocupados y son muy productivos pero la verdad es que no lo son porque en la actualidad hemos tenido lderes brillantes en los negocios, las finanzas y la poltica que tomaron decisiones terribles. +Tener alto coeficiente intelectual +no implica ser un buen lder porque la esencia del liderazgo es ser capaz de ver el tmpano antes de chocar con el Titanic. +Y hemos tenido demasiados tmpanos impactando Titanics. +De hecho, me da la sensacin de que si Lehman Brothers (hermanos, NT) fuesen Lehman Brothers and Sisters (hermanos y hermanas, NT) habran sobrevivido. +Mientras los hermanos estaban ocupados, hper-conectados 24x7, quiz la hermana habra notado el tmpano porque luego de dormir 7 u 8 horas habra despertado en condiciones de ver el panorama general. +As a medida que enfrentamos las crisis mltiples del mundo actual, lo que es bueno a nivel personal, lo que nos va a dar ms alegra, gratitud, y eficacia a nuestras vidas, lo mejor para nuestras propias carreras, es tambin lo mejor para el mundo. +Por eso les pido que cierren los ojos y descubran las grandes ideas que se encuentran dentro de nosotros, que apaguen los motores y descubran el poder del sueo. +Gracias. +Tal vez han escuchado que el concepto de paraso del Corn son 72 vrgenes. Les prometo que volveremos al tema de las vrgenes. +Pero de hecho, aqu ene el noroeste, vivimos muy cerca del concepto cornico del paraso, definido en 36 ocasiones como "jardines regados por corrientes de agua". +Ya que yo vivo en un bote en la corriente del Lago Union, para m tiene perfecto sentido. +Pero el caso es: por qu nadie sabe esto? +Conozco a muchos no-musulmanes bienintencionados que han empezado a leer el Corn, pero se dieron por vencidos, desconcertados por su otredad. +El historiador Thomas Carlyle consideraba a Mahoma uno de los ms grandes hroes del mundo e incluso llam al Corn "la lectura ms dura que jams inici, una tediosa y confusa maraa". +El hecho de que tan poca gente lee de verdad el Corn explica por qu es tan sencillo citarlo, es decir, citarlo errneamente. +Tomar frases y fragmentos fuera de contexto de lo que yo llamo la versin subrayada, que es la favorita tanto de los fundamentalistas musulmanes como de los islamfobos antimusulmanes. +As que esta primavera, conforme me preparaba para comenzar a escribir una biografa de Mahoma, me di cuenta de que necesitaba leer adecuadamente el Corn, quiero decir, tan adecuadamente como pudiera. +Mi rabe se limita por el momento al uso de un diccionario, as que tom cuatro traducciones reconocidas y me decid a leerlas una al lado de la otra, versculo por versculo junto con una transcripcin y el original rabe del siglo VII. +Yo contaba con una ventaja. +Mi ltimo libro fue sobre la divisin entre sunes y chies y para ello estudi las historias iniciales del Islam. As que conoca los eventos a los que se refiere constantemente el Corn, el marco de referencia. +Saba lo suficiente para darme cuenta de que sera una turista del Corn; una bien informada, tal vez hasta experimentada, pero todava una forastera: una juda agnstica leyendo el libro sagrado de otra persona. +As que le lentamente. +Me reserv tres semanas para este proyecto, y eso es lo que yo llamo arrogancia. Porque result llevarme tres meses. +Resist a la tentacin de saltarme todo para llegar a los captulos ms claramente msticos. +Pero cada vez que crea que comenzaba a entender el Corn, que pensaba "Ya capto la idea", ese entendimiento se desvaneca durante la noche. Y volva a la tarea en la maana preguntndome si me habra perdido en tierras extraas. Aun cuando el territorio era muy familiar. +El Corn establece que viene a renovar el mensaje de la Tor y los Evangelios. +As que la tercera parte trata acerca de personajes bblicos como Abraham, Moiss, Jos, Mara, Jess. +El mismsimo Dios me era muy familiar, desde sus primeras manifestaciones como Yav, insistiendo celosamente en ser el nico dios. +La presencia de camellos, montaas, oasis y jardines me llev en el tiempo al ao que pas viajando por el desierto del Sina. +Y adems estaba el idioma y su ritmo musical, lo que me recordaba las tardes que pas escuchando a los ancianos beduinos recitar poemas durante horas totalmente de memoria. +Y empec a entender por qu dicen que el Corn es verdaderamente el Corn cuando est en rabe. +Por ejemplo la fatiha, el captulo inicial de siete lneas que es la combinacin del padrenuestro y del Shem Israel. +Son tan solo 29 palabras rabes, que se convierten en entre 65 y 72 al traducirlas. +De hecho, cuanto ms agregas, ms parece que se pierde el significado. +El rabe tiene un encantamiento de una calidad casi hipntica, que pide ser escuchado en lugar de ser leido, sentido ms que analizado. +Quiere ser cantado en voz alta, para hacer sentir su msica en los odos y en los labios. +As que el Corn en otro idioma es una sombra de s mismo, o como Arthur Arberry llam a su traduccin: "una interpretacin". +Pero no todo se pierde en la traduccin. +De acuerdo con la promesa del Corn, la paciencia es recompensada, y hay an muchas sorpresas... Por ejemplo, un grado de conciencia ambiental que ve a los humanos como administradores de la creacin de Dios y que no tiene equivalente en la Biblia. +Y mientras la Biblia est dirigida exclusivamente a los hombres, usando solo pronombres masculinos, el Corn incluye a las mujeres, hablando por ejemplo de hombres y mujeres creyentes, hombres y mujeres honorables. +O por ejemplo el tristemente famoso fragmento acerca de matar a los no creyentes. +S, eso dice exactamente, pero en un contexto muy especfico: cuando prevean la conquista de la ciudad santa de la Meca, donde normalmente se prohiban los combates. Y el permiso vino entonces limitado con restricciones: +No, no debes asesinar a los infieles en la Meca, aunque puedes hacerlo, te est permitido, pero solo cuando haya terminado el periodo de gracia, y solo si no hay otro tratado en vigor, y solo si tratan de impedirte llegar a la Kaaba, y solo si te atacan a ti primero. +Y an as, Dios es misericordioso, el perdn es supremo, as que, bsicamente, mejor si no lo haces. +Esta fue tal vez mi mayor sorpresa: ver la flexibilidad del Corn, por lo menos en las mentes de aquellos que no son fundamentalmente inflexibles. +"Algunos de estos parrafos tienen significados definidos" dice, "y otros son ambiguos. +El de corazn perverso buscar los trminos confusos y tratar de crear divisin seleccionando aquello que le convenga. +Solo Dios conoce el verdadero significado". +La frase "Dios es sutil" aparece una y otra vez. Y de hecho, todo el Corn es mucho ms sutil que lo que nos han hecho creer a muchos de nosotros. +Por ponerles un ejemplo, esa idea de las vrgenes y el paraso. +La ancestral cultura oriental entra en juego aqu. +La palabra que se usa en cuatro ocasiones es "Houris", que se traduce como doncellas de ojos negros con voluptuosos pechos o simplemente vrgenes voluptuosas. +Sin embargo, todo lo que se lee en el rabe original es solo esa palabra: "Houris". +Nada de senos voluptuosos ni cosa parecida. +Ahora, esto puede ser una manera de decir seres puros, como ngeles, o tal vez como el kurs griego o el kor, la eterna juventud. +Pero lo cierto es que nadie sabe realmente y ese es el quid. +Porque el Corn es muy claro cuando dice que se sufrir "una nueva creacin en el paraso" y que seremos "recreados en una forma desconocida para nosotros", lo que a m me parece mucho ms lgico que una virgen. +Y el nmero 72 no aparece nunca. +No hay tales 72 vrgenes en el Corn. +La idea lleg 300 aos despus y la mayor parte de los estudiosos del Islam la consideran el equivalente a las personas aladas sentadas en las nubes tocando sus arpas. +El paraso es en realidad lo opuesto. +No es virginidad, es fecundidad, +es plenitud, +son jardines regados por arroyos en constante flujo. +Gracias. +Soy un cirujano que estudia la creatividad y nunca he tenido un paciente que me haya dicho "Quiero que sea creativo durante la ciruga". Entonces supongo que hay algo de irona en eso. +Debo decir, sin embargo, que haber hecho muchas cirugas es, de algn modo, similar a tocar un instrumento musical. +Para m, esta especie de profunda y eterna fascinacin por el sonido es lo que me llev a ser cirujano y a la vez a estudiar la ciencia del sonido; en particular la msica. +Por eso en los prximos minutos voy a tratar de hablarles sobre mi carrera en trminos de mi capacidad para intentar estudiar msica y de esforzarme realmente por abordar estas capacidades creativas del cerebro. +Realic mucho de este trabajo en la Universidad Johns Hopkins pero tambin en el Instituto Nacional de Salud , donde estuve antes. +Voy a repasar algunos experimentos cientficos y a tratar de discutir 3 experimentos musicales. +Voy a empezar reproduciendo un video. +Es un video de Keith Jarrett, conocido por sus improvisaciones de jazz y probablemente el ejemplo emblemtico, el ms conocido, de alguien que lleva la improvisacin a niveles altsimos. +Es capaz de improvisar conciertos enteros, as de repente, y jams repetirlo exactamente de la misma manera. Por eso, como forma de intensa creatividad, creo que es un gran ejemplo. +Entonces, por qu mejor no vemos el video? +Lo que pasa ah es realmente notable, una cosa impresionante. +Siempre que como oyente, como seguidor, escucho eso me quedo asombrado. +Pienso: cmo puede ser posible? +Cmo puede el cerebro generar tanta informacin, tanta msica, de forma espontnea? +As que sostengo esta idea, de manera cientfica, de que la creatividad artstica es mgica, pero no es magia. Lo que significa que es un producto del cerebro. +No hay muchas personas con muerte cerebral que creen arte. +Por eso con esta nocin de que la creatividad artstica en realidad es un producto neurolgico, sostuve la tesis de que podramos estudiarlo del mismo modo que cualquier otro proceso neurolgico complejo. +Y ah puse algunas sub-preguntas: +Puede estudiarse realmente la creatividad cientfica? +Creo que esa es una buena pregunta. +Y les dir que la mayora de los estudios cientficos de la msica son muy densos. Y cuando uno los analiza es muy difcil reconocer la msica en ellos. +De hecho, no parecen ser para nada musicales y pierden toda nocin de msica. +Y eso nos lleva a la segunda pregunta: Por qu los cientficos deberan estudiar la creatividad? +Quiz no seamos las personas correctas para hacerlo. +Bueno, puede ser, pero he de decir que desde un punto de vista cientfico hoy hablamos mucho de la innovacin, de la ciencia de la innovacin, lo que comprendemos sobre la capacidad del cerebro para innovar est en paales. En verdad, sabemos muy poco sobre nuestra capacidad creativa. +As que creo que vamos a ver, en los prximos 10, 20, 30 aos, vamos a ver brotar y florecer una ciencia real de la creatividad. +Porque ahora tenemos nuevos mtodos que nos pueden permitir tomar procesos como esta improvisacin compleja de jazz y estudiarla con rigor. +As que ahora metmonos con en el cerebro. +Todos tenemos un cerebro notable que conocemos muy poco, por no decir otra cosa. +Creo que los neurocientficos tienen muchas ms preguntas que respuestas. Y yo mismo no voy a darles hoy muchas respuestas sino que voy a hacer muchas preguntas. +Fundamentalmente es esto lo que hago en mi laboratorio. +Preguntarme cosas como qu est haciendo este cerebro para permitirnos hacer esto. +Este es mi mtodo principal, conocido como resonancia magntica funcional. +Si han estado en un equipo de resonancia magntica, es muy parecido, pero este est equipado de manera especial para que no solo tome fotos del cerebro sino que tambin tome fotos de las zonas activas del cerebro. +La manera de hacerlo es la siguiente: +hay algo que se llama tcnica BOLD que muestra el nivel de oxgeno en sangre. +Cuando uno est en un escner de resonancia magntica est en un gran imn que alinea nuestras molculas en ciertas zonas. +Cuando una zona del cerebro est activa, es decir, una zona neuronal est activa, se desva el flujo de sangre a esa zona. +Ese flujo sanguneo causa un aumento de sangre local en esa zona con un cambio en la concentracin de desoxihemoglobina. +La resonancia magntica detecta la desoxihemoglobina pero no la oxihemoglobina. +As que mediante este mtodo de inferencia medimos el flujo sanguneo, no la actividad neuronal. Decimos que una zona del cerebro que est recibiendo ms sangre estuvo activa durante una tarea en particular. Ese es el quid de la resonancia magntica funcional. +Y se ha usado desde los aos 90 para estudiar procesos muy complejos. +Ahora voy a repasar un estudio que hice del jazz en el escner de resonancia. +Hice esto en colaboracin con un colega, Alan Braun, en el INS. +Este es un video corto de cmo surgi este proyecto. +Charles Limb: Este es un teclado MIDI de plstico que usamos para los experimentos de jazz. +Es un teclado de 35 teclas diseado para adaptarse al interior del escner; est libre de magnetismo, produce mnima interferencia en cualquiera de los artefactos y tiene este almohadn para colocarlo en las piernas del pianista mientras se encuentra acostado en el escner, tocando boca arriba. +Y funciona as: en realidad no produce ningn sonido. +Enva lo que se llama una seal MIDI, una interfaz digital de instrumentos musicales, a travs de estos cables hacia la caja y de ah a la computadora para luego emitir msica de alta calidad como esta. +CL: Bueno, funciona. +As que con este teclado de piano tenemos un medio para estudiar un proceso musical. +Entonces, qu hacemos ahora que tenemos este genial teclado? +Uno no puede decir simplemente "Perfecto, tenemos el teclado". +Hay que proponer un experimento cientfico. +As que el experimento realmente se basa en lo siguiente: Qu sucede en el cerebro con algo memorizado que se ha practicado mucho y qu sucede en el cerebro con algo generado espontneamente, o improvisado, que se ensambla mecnicamente en trminos de la motricidad sensorial de bajo nivel? +He aqu lo que llamamos los paradigmas. +Hay un paradigma de escala, que consiste en tocar una escala de arriba abajo, memorizada. +Y luego est la improvisacin en la escala -negras, con metrnomo, a la derecha- cientficamente muy segura, pero musicalmente muy aburrida. +Y luego est el de abajo, que se llama el paradigma de jazz. +Lo que hicimos fue llevar msicos profesionales del jazz al INS y les pedimos que memorizaran esta pieza musical de la parte inferior izquierda -que es la que me oyeron tocar- y luego que improvisaran exactamente la misma progresin armnica. +Y si hacemos clic en el cono de sonido de la derecha escuchamos un ejemplo de lo que se registr en el escner. +As que al final no es el medio ms natural pero pueden tocar msica real. +He escuchado ese solo 200 veces y todava me gusta. +Y los msicos al final se sintieron cmodos. +Entonces, primero medimos la cantidad de notas. +Tocaban muchas ms notas cuando improvisaban? +No era eso lo que estaba pasando. +Despus miramos la actividad cerebral. +Voy a tratar de resumirles esto. +Estos son mapas de contraste que muestran sustracciones entre lo que cambia cuando uno improvisa y lo que uno hace cuando memoriza. +En rojo est la zona que se activa en la corteza prefrontal, el lbulo frontal del cerebro. Y en azul est la zona que se desactiva. +Y tuvimos este foco de actividad llamado corteza prefrontal media que registr mucha actividad. +Tuvimos esta otra amplia zona llamada corteza prefrontal lateral que registr muy poca actividad, y aqu se lo voy a resumir. +Se trata de zonas multifuncionales del cerebro. +Como me gusta decir, estas no son las zonas de jazz del cerebro. +Hacen un montn de cosas que tienen que ver con la auto-reflexin, la introspeccin, la memoria de trabajo, etc. +En realidad la conciencia se asienta en el lbulo frontal. +Pero tenemos esta combinacin de una zona que se cree que participa en el autocontrol que se apaga, y esta zona que se cree que es autobiogrfica o autoexpresiva, que se enciende. +Y pensamos, al menos en este estudio preliminar... Es un estudio. Probablemente est equivocado. Pero es un estudio. Pensamos que es al menos una hiptesis razonable que para ser creativos tengamos que tener esta rara disociacin en el lbulo frontal. +Una zona que se encienda y otra gran zona que se apague para no estar inhibido, para estar dispuesto a cometer errores, para no estar constantemente rechazando todos estos nuevos impulsos generativos. +Ahora mucha gente sabe que la msica no es siempre una actividad en solitario; a veces se hace comunicativamente. +Entonces la siguiente pregunta era: Qu sucede en un experimento de jazz cuando los msicos se ponen a intercambiar secuencias musicales en algo llamado "intercambio de 4 compases", algo que hacen habitualmente? +Este es un blues de 12 compases. +Aqu lo he dividido en grupos de 4 compases para que sepan cmo se intercambian. +Lo que hicimos fue meter a un msico en el escner, igual que antes, le pedimos que memorizara esta meloda y luego pusimos a otro msico en la sala de control para que intercambiaran recprocamente, de manera interactiva. +Este es el msico Mike Pope, uno de los mejores bajistas del mundo y un pianista excepcional. +Ahora est tocando la pieza que ya vimos, un poco mejor de lo que yo la escrib. +CL: Mike, entra. (Hombre: Que la fuerza te acompae). +Enfermera: No hay nada en los bolsillos, cierto Mike? +Mike Pope: No, no hay nada en mis bolsillos. (Enfermera: Bien). +CL: Hay que tener la actitud correcta para acceder a esto. +Realmente es divertido. +Entonces, ahora nos estamos respondiendo el uno al otro. +Ah est. Pueden ver sus piernas all. +Y luego estoy yo en la sala de control respondindole. +Mike Pope: Es una representacin bastante buena de lo que realmente es. +Lo bueno es que no es demasiado rpido. +El hecho de repetirlo una y otra vez te permite aclimatarte al entorno. +Lo ms difcil para m fue lo kinestsico, mirar mis manos a travs de 2 espejos, acostado boca arriba, sin poder mover nada salvo mi mano. +Fue un desafo. +Pero, de nuevo, hubo momentos, claro, hubo momentos de interaccin real, como Dios manda, claro. +CL: En este punto voy a tomarme un momento. +Lo que estn viendo aqu -y estoy cometiendo un pecado capital de la ciencia- son datos preliminares. +Son datos de un sujeto. +De hecho, son datos de Mike Pope. +Qu les estoy mostrando? +Cuando estbamos intercambiando compases, improvisado versus memorizado, se iluminaron las zonas del lenguaje, su rea de Broca, que es la circunvolucin inferior frontal de la izquierda. +Pasaba lo mismo con su homlogo de la derecha. +Se cree que esta zona participa en la comunicacin expresiva. +Toda esta nocin de que la msica es un lenguaje despus de todo quiz haya una base neurolgica de esto, y podemos verlo cuando dos msicos mantienen una conversacin musical. +Hasta ahora lo hemos hecho en ocho sujetos y estamos reuniendo todos los datos. As que espero que tengamos algo significativo que decir. +Ahora, pensando en la improvisacin y en el lenguaje, qu sigue? +El rap, por supuesto, el rap de estilo libre. +Siempre me ha fascinado el estilo libre. +Continuemos reproduciendo este video. +De hecho hay mucha correlacin entre los dos estilos musicales aunque en diferentes perodos de tiempo. +Desde varios ngulos, el rap cumple la misma funcin social que sola tener el jazz. +Cmo estudiar el rap de manera cientfica? +Mis colegas piensan que estoy loco pero yo creo que es muy viable. +Lo que hacemos es lo siguiente: les pedimos a unos artistas de estilo libre que vengan y memoricen un rap que les escribimos y que nunca han odo antes, y luego les pedimos que canten libremente. +Dije en mi laboratorio que iba a rapear para TED y me dijeron: No, no lo hars. +Y luego pens... Esta es la idea: +con esta pantalla gigante todos pueden rapear conmigo, s? +As que lo que les pedimos fue que memorizaran este cono de sonido de la izquierda. +Esta es la condicin de control. Esto es lo que memorizaron. +Lo bueno de estos raperos de estilo libre es que se les dan distintas palabras. +No saben lo que va a venir, van a escuchar algo sacado de la manga. +Continuemos haciendo clic en el cono derecho. +Van a escuchar estas 3 palabras encuadradas: 'como', 'no' y 'cabeza'. +No saben lo que va a venir. +Se est haciendo algo neurolgicamente notable. +Que les guste esta msica o no es irrelevante. +Desde el ngulo creativo es algo fenomenal. +Este es un video breve de cmo trabajamos con el escner. +[Resonancia del hip hop] CL: Aqu estamos con Emmanuel. +CL: Por cierto, esto fue grabado en el escner. +CL: All est Emmanuel en el escner. +Memoriz una rima para nosotros. +Bueno, son 4 cerebros de raperos en realidad. +Lo que vemos son zonas del lenguaje que se encienden pero luego, ojos cerrados, cuando comparamos improvisacin y memorizacin, se ve que se encienden grandes reas visuales. +Hay mayor actividad del cerebelo implicada en la coordinacin motora. +Hay ms actividad cerebral cuando se trata de tareas anlogas que cuando una tarea es creativa y la otra es de memorizacin. +Es muy preliminar pero creo que es genial. +Para terminar, tenemos muchas preguntas que hacernos. Y como dije antes, vamos a plantear preguntas, no a responderlas. +Pero queremos llegar a la raz del genio creativo en trminos neurolgicos. Y creo que con estos mtodos nos estamos acercando a eso. +Y creo que con suerte en los prximos 10, 20 aos, vamos a ver casos reales, estudios significativos diciendo que la ciencia tiene que ponerse al da con el arte y tal vez eso est comenzando ahora. +Quiero darle las gracias por su tiempo. Se lo agradezco. +Hay dos grupos de mujeres cuando se trata de imagenologa mamaria: estn aquellas a las que les fue muy bien, y eso salv miles de vidas, y a las que no les dio ningn resultado. +Saben en qu grupo se encuentran? +Si no lo saben, no son las nicas. +Porque las mamas se han vuelto rganos muy polticos. +La verdad se ha perdido en toda esa retrica de la prensa, de los polticos, de los radilogos y de las empresas de diagnstico por imgenes. +Esta maana voy a hacer todo lo posible para contarles lo que creo que es la verdad. +Pero primero, mis revelaciones. +No soy sobreviviente de cncer de mama. +No soy radiloga. +No tengo ninguna patente ni he recibido jams dinero de una empresa de diagnstico por imgenes. No estoy buscando que me voten. +Lo que s soy es una doctora en medicina interna que se apasion por este tema hace unos 10 aos cuando una paciente me hizo una consulta. +Vino a verme despus de descubrir un bulto en la mama. +A su hermana le haban diagnosticado cncer de mama a los 40 aos. +Ambas tenamos embarazos avanzados en ese momento, y mi corazn sufra por ella al imaginar lo asustada que estara. +Por suerte, el bulto result ser benigno. +Pero ella me pregunt: qu seguridad tena yo de que detectara a tiempo un tumor en su mamografa si desarrollaba alguno? +As que estudi su mamografa y consult la literatura de radiologa, y me impact descubrir que, en su caso, la probabilidad de deteccin temprana en una mamografa era menor que ganar a cara o cruz. +Quiz recuerden hace un ao cuando se desat el vendaval despus de que la comisin de servicios preventivos de EE.UU. revisara la literatura mundial de imagenologa mamaria y emitiera directrices en contra del uso de mamografas en mujeres que ronden los 40 aos. +Todo el mundo sali a criticar a la comisin, aunque la mayora de ellos no estaba familiarizado con los estudios mamogrficos. +Al Senado le llev slo 17 das prohibir el uso de las directrices. para determinar la cobertura del seguro. +Los radilogos se indignaron con las directrices. +El conocido mamgrafo de Estados Unidos dijo lo siguiente en el Washington Post: +"Se critica a los radilogos... ...por proteger sus intereses econmicos". +Pero para m, los radilogos son hroes. +Hay escasez de radilogos capacitados para leer mamografas, y esto se debe a que las mamografas son uno de los estudios ms complejos de interpretar y a que los radilogos son demandados con mayor frecuencia por cnceres de mama no detectados que por cualquier otra causa. +Pero ese preciso hecho es revelador. +Si hay todo este humo legal quiz sea porque hay algo de fuego. +El factor decisivo en este fuego es la densidad de la mama. +La densidad de la mama es la cantidad relativa de grasa -que aqu se ve en amarillo- en relacin al tejido conectivo y epitelial -que se ve en rosa-. +Y esa proporcin en principio est determinada genticamente. +Dos tercios de las mujeres que rondan los 40 tienen un tejido mamario denso, razn por la cual la mamografa no funciona en esos casos. +Y aunque la densidad mamaria generalmente disminuye con la edad, un tercio de las mujeres mantienen un tejido mamario denso durante aos despus de la menopausia. +Cmo saber la densidad de sus mamas? +Bueno, hay que leer los detalles del informe mamogrfico. +Los radilogos clasifican la densidad mamaria en 4 categoras en base a la apariencia del tejido en la mamografa. +Si las mamas tienen una densidad menor al 25% se le llama reemplazo de grasa. +La prxima categora es la densidad fibroglandular dispersa, y sigue la heterognea densa y la extremamente densa. +Las mamas de estas dos ltimas categoras se consideran densas. +El problema de la densidad mamaria es que es un lobo con piel de cordero. +Tanto los tumores como el tejido mamario denso aparecen en blanco en la mamografa y no se pueden distinguir normalmente con rayos X. +Por eso es fcil ver este tumor en la parte superior de esta mama grasa. +Pero imagnense lo difcil que sera encontrar ese tumor en esta mama densa. +Es por eso que las mamografas detectan el 80% de los tumores en mamas grasas pero menos del 40% en mamas extremadamente densas. +Es algo muy negativo que la densidad mamaria dificulte la deteccin del cncer, pero resulta que tambin pronostica en gran medida el riesgo de contraer cncer de mama. +Es un factor de riesgo ms alto que el hecho de tener una madre o hermana con cncer de mama. +Cuando mi paciente me plante esa duda, la densidad mamaria era un tema oscuro en la literatura radiolgica y muy pocas de las mujeres que se hacan mamografas o los mdicos que pedan mamografas, saban de esto. +Pero qu ms poda ofrecerle a ella? +Las mamografas han existido desde los aos 60. Y han cambiado muy poco. +Sorprendentement, han habido muy pocas innovaciones hasta que se aprob la mamografa digital en el 2000. +La mamografa digital todava se hace con rayos X, pero las imgenes pueden ser almacenadas y manipuladas digitalmente, del mismo modo que con una cmara digital. +EE.UU. ha invertido 4 mil millones de dlares en equipos de mamografa digital. Y qu hemos ganado con esa inversin? +En un estudio financiado con ms de 25 millones de dlares de los contribuyentes, se descubri que la mamografa digital no es mejor que la mamografa tradicional. Y, de hecho, result peor para las mujeres mayores. +Pero era mejor para un grupo, el grupo de las mujeres menores de 50 pre-menopusicas que tenan mamas densas. Para esas mujeres la mamografa digital detect dos veces ms cnceres, pero an as slo detect el 60%. +As que la mamografa digital ha sido un gran salto hacia adelante para los fabricantes de equipos de mamografa digital pero ha sido muy pequeo para el sexo femenino. +Y el ultrasonido? +El ultrasonido genera ms biopsias que son innecesarias usando otras tecnologas, por eso su uso no est muy extendido. +La resonancia magntica es muy sensible para detectar tumores, pero tambin es muy costosa. +Si pensamos en tecnologas disruptivas vemos un patrn casi omnipresente de tecnologa cada vez ms pequea y menos costosa. +Piensen en los iPods comparados con los estreos. +Pero en el cuidado de la salud ocurre totalmente lo contrario. +Las mquinas se vuelven cada vez ms grandes y cada vez ms costosas. +Escanear a la mayora de las mujeres jvenes con un tomgrafo es como ir de compras en un Hummer. +Es demasiado equipo. +Una tomografa cuesta 10 veces ms que una mamografa digital. +Y tarde o temprano vamos a tener que aceptar que la innovacin en salud no siempre va a poder hacerse a costa de precios ms altos. +Malcolm Gladwell escribi un artculo en el New Yorker sobre innovacin y planteaba el tema de que los descubrimientos cientficos raramente son producto de la inventiva de un solo individuo. +Por el contrario, las grandes ideas se orquestan simplemente reuniendo en una misma sala a personas con distintas perspectivas y pidindoles que hablen de cosas de las que no hablan habitualmente. +Es como la esencia de TED. +Y cita a un innovador que dice: "El nico momento en que un mdico y un fsico se renen es cuando el fsico se enferma". +Esto no tiene sentido, porque los mdicos tienen todo tipo de problemas para cosas que no se dan cuenta que tienen soluciones. +Y los fsicos tienen todo tipo de soluciones para cosas que no se dan cuenta que son problemas. +Ahora, miren esta caricatura que acompaa el artculo de Gladwell y dganme si ven algo preocupante en esta representacin del pensamiento innovador. +Si me permiten una licencia creativa les voy a contar la historia de la colisin fortuita del problema de mi paciente con la solucin de un fsico. +Poco despus de la visita de la paciente, me presentaron a un fsico nuclear de la clnica Mayo, Michael O'Conner, especialista en imagenologa cardaca, algo con lo que yo no tena nada que ver. +Y, de casualidad, me cuenta sobre una conferencia de la que acababa de regresar de Israel, en la que estuvieron hablando de un nuevo tipo de detector de rayos gamma. +La imagenologa de rayos gamma existe desde hace mucho tiempo para estudios de corazn y se trat de usar incluso en el estudios de mamas. +Pero el problema era que los detectores de rayos gamma eran tubos grandes y voluminosos, repletos de estos cristales centelleantes que es imposible colocar lo suficientemente cerca de la mama para detectar tumores pequeos. +Pero la principal ventaja era que para los rayos gamma, a diferencia de para los X, la densidad mamaria no era un problema. +Pero esta tecnologa no poda detectar tumores pequeos. Y detectar tumores pequeos es crucial para la supervivencia. +Si uno puede detectar un tumor cuando mide menos de un centmetro la supervivencia supera el 90% y cae rpidamente a medida que aumenta el tamao del tumor. +Pero Michael me cont de un nuevo tipo de detector de rayos gamma que haba visto, y aqu est. +Est conformado no por un tubo voluminoso sino por una capa delgada de material semiconductor que acta de detector de rayos gamma. +Empec a contarle este problema de la densidad mamaria y nos dimos cuenta de que quiz podramos colocar este detector bien cerca de la mama para detectar pequeos tumores. +As que despus de ensamblar estos cubos con cinta adhesiva... ...Michael consigui la placa de rayos X de un mamgrafo que estaba a punto de ser tirada. Le aadimos el nuevo detector y decidimos llamar a esta mquina Imagenologa Molecular de Mamas, o IMM. +Esta imagen es de nuestra primer paciente. +Y como pueden ver, usando la vieja tecnologa, slo se vea ruido. +Pero con el nuevo detector pudimos empezar a ver el contorno de un tumor. +As que all estbamos, un fsico nuclear, un internista, pronto se sum Carrie Hruska, ingeniera biomdica, y dos radilogos, y todos estbamos tratando de irrumpir en el entramado mundo de la mamografa con una mquina pegada con cinta adhesiva. +Decir que nos enfrentamos a altas dosis de escepticismo en los primeros aos es sencillamente una gran subestimacin. Pero estbamos tan convencidos de que lo lograramos que hicimos ajustes enormes al sistema. +Este es nuestro detector actual. +Y como ven su aspecto es muy diferente. +Desapareci la cinta adhesiva y agregamos un segundo detector encima de la mama, que ha mejorando la deteccin de tumores. +Entonces, cmo funciona? +El paciente recibe la inyeccin de un trazador que es captado por las clulas tumorales que proliferan rpidamente, pero no por las clulas normales. Y esta es la diferencia clave de la mamografa. +La mamografa se basa en las diferencias de apariencia del tumor con el tejido de fondo y hemos visto que estas diferencias quedan ocultas en una mama densa. +Pero la IMM explota la diferencia de comportamiento molecular de los tumores y, por ende, es impermeable a la densidad de la mama. +Despus de la inyeccin, la mama de la paciente se coloca entre los detectores. +Y si se han hecho una mamografa, si tienen la edad para haberse hecho mamografas, ya saben que es lo que sigue: dolor. +Quiz les sorprenda saber que la mamografa es el nico estudio radiolgico regulado por la ley federal y que la ley exige que durante el estudio caiga sobre las mamas el equivalente a una batera de auto de 18 kilos. +Pero con la IMM usamos una compresin leve, indolora. +Y el detector transmite luego la imagen al ordenador. +As que aqu hay un ejemplo. +A la derecha pueden ver una mamografa donde se ve un tumor tenue, cuyos bordes se confunden con el tejido denso. +Pero con la imagen IMM se ve ese tumor mucho ms claramente, as como un segundo tumor que influye mucho en las opciones quirrgicas de la paciente. +En este ejemplo, aunque la mamografa detect un tumor, hemos podido detectar 3 tumores pequeos, y uno de ellos de apenas 3 mm. +Nuestra gran oportunidad lleg en 2004. +Despus de que demostrsemos que podamos detectar tumores pequeos, usamos estas imgenes para pedir una beca a la Fundacin Susan G. Komen. +Y estbamos eufricos de que nos dieran la oportunidad, a un grupo de investigadores completamente desconocidos, de ser financiados para estudiar 1.000 mujeres con mamas densas y comparar sus mamografas con IMM. +De los tumores que nosotros habamos descubierto, las mamografas detectaron slo el 25%. +La IMM detect un 83%. +Este es un ejemplo de ese anlisis con imgenes. +En la mamografa digital se analiza como de costumbre y se ve mucho tejido denso, pero con la IMM se ve una zona de lesin intensa que se corresponde con un tumor de 2 cm. +En este caso es un tumor de 1 cm. +Y en este caso, una secretaria mdica de 45 aos de la clnica Mayo que haba perdido a su madre por cncer de mama cuando era muy joven quera participar en nuestro estudio. +Su mamografa mostraba una zona de tejido muy denso pero en su IMM se ve una zona con una lesin preocupante y podemos verlo tambin en una imagen en colores. +Se corresponda con un tumor del tamao de una pelota de golf. +Pero por suerte fue extirpado antes de que se extendiera a los ganglios linfticos. +As que ahora que sabamos que esta tecnologa poda detectar 3 veces ms tumores en una mama densa tenamos que resolver un problema muy importante. +Tenamos que descubrir la forma de bajar la dosis de radiacin. Y hemos pasado los ltimos 3 aos haciendo ajustes a cada aspecto del sistema para lograrlo. +Y con satisfaccin les digo que ahora usamos una dosis de radiacin equivalente a la dosis efectiva de una mamografa digital. +Y con esta dosis baja continuamos el estudio de deteccin. Esta imagen es de hace 3 semanas, de una mujer de 67 aos que presenta una mamografa digital normal pero en una imagen IMM se ve la lesin y result ser un cncer grande. +Por eso aqu no slo se estn beneficiando las mujeres jvenes, +sino adems las mujeres mayores con tejidos densos. +Y ahora estamos usando 1/5 parte de la dosis de radiacin que se emplea en cualquier otra tecnologa gamma. +La IMM genera 4 imgenes por mama. +La tomografa genera ms de mil. +A un radilogo le lleva aos el entrenamiento especializado para llegar a diferenciar como experto los detalles anatmicos normales de una deteccin preocupante. +Pero sospecho que hasta los no radilogos de la sala pueden encontrar el tumor en la imagen IMM. +Es por eso que la IMM es potencialmente tan disruptiva. Es tan segura como una tomografa; es mucho ms fcil de interpretar, y cuesta muchsimo menos. +Pero podrn comprender por qu puede haber resistencia del sector de la imagenologa mamaria que prefiere el status quo. +Despus de lograr lo que sentimos eran resultados notables 4 revistas rechazaron nuestro manuscrito. +Despus del cuarto rechazo solicitamos que reconsideraran el manuscrito porque tenamos grandes sospechas de que uno de los revisores que lo haba rechazado tena un conflicto de inters financiero con una tecnologa competidora. +Fue entonces cuando aprobaron el manuscrito, y ser publicado a finales de este mes en la revista Radiology. +Todava tenemos que terminar el estudio de deteccin con dosis bajas, y luego los hallazgos tendrn que ser replicados en otras instituciones. Y esto podra llevar 5 aos o ms. +Si se extiende el uso de esta tecnologa, yo no me voy a beneficiar econmicamente en absoluto. Y eso es muy importante para m, porque me permite seguir contndoles la verdad. +Pero reconozco... ...reconozco que la adopcin de esta tecnologa depender tanto de factores econmicos y polticos, como de la solidez de la ciencia. +La unidad IMM ha sido aprobada por la FDA, pero no es de amplia difusin. +Por eso hasta que est disponible para mujeres con mamas densas hay algunas cosas que deberan saber para protegerse. +Primero, conozcan su densidad. +El 90% de las mujeres no la conoce y el 95% de las mujeres no sabe que eso aumenta el riesgo de cncer de mama. +Connecticut se convirti en el primer y nico estado que obliga a informar a las mujeres de su densidad mamaria despus de una mamografa. +Estuve en una conferencia de imagenologa mamaria de 60 mil personas la semana pasada en Chicago. Y me sorprendi que haba un intenso debate sobre si deberamos decirle a las mujeres cul es su densidad mamaria. +Por supuesto que s! +Y si no la saben, por favor pregunten al mdico o lean los detalles del informe mamogrfico. +Segundo, si estn en la pre-menopausia, traten de concertar la mamografa en las primeras 2 semanas del ciclo menstrual, cuando la densidad mamaria es relativamente menor. +Tercero, si notan un cambio persistente en sus mamas soliciten estudios adicionales. +Y cuarto y ms importante, el debate sobre la mamografa ser intenso pero creo que todas las mujeres de 40 aos o ms deberan hacerse una mamografa anual. +La mamografa no es algo perfecto pero es el nico examen que ha resultado efectivo en la reduccin de la mortalidad por cncer de mama. +Pero esta bandera contra la mortalidad es la verdadera espada que esgrimen los defensores acrrimos de la mamografa para desaconsejar la innovacin. +Algunas mujeres con cncer de mama murieron de esto muchos aos despus. Y muchas mujeres, por suerte, sobrevivieron. +Lleva 10 aos o ms demostrar que un mtodo de deteccin reduce la mortalidad por cncer de mama. +La mamografa es lo nico que ha existido el tiempo suficiente para poder atribuirse ese logro. +Ya es momento de que aceptemos tanto los xitos extraordinarios de la mamografa como las limitaciones. +Tenemos que individualizar la deteccin basada en la densidad. +Para mujeres sin mamas densas la mamografa es la mejor opcin. +Pero para las mujeres con mamas densas no deberamos abandonar por completo la deteccin, tenemos que ofrecer algo mejor. +Los bebs que esperbamos la paciente que primero me consult y yo, ambos estn en la secundaria y la respuesta se ha demorado mucho en venir. +Ella me autoriz a compartir esta historia. +Despus de someterse a biopsias que aumentaron an ms su riesgo de cncer y despus de perder a su hermana por cncer, ella tom la difcil decisin de hacerse una mastectoma profilctica. +Podemos y debemos hacerlo mejor, no slo a tiempo para sus nietas y para mis hijas, sino a tiempo para ustedes. +Gracias. +La historia alucinante comienza hace 40 aos cuando mam y pap llegaron a Canad. +Mam se fue de Nairobi, Kenia. +Y pap de un pueblito de las afueras de Amritsar, en India. +Llegaron aqu a finales de los aos 60. +Se instalaron en los suburbios a una hora al este de Toronto. Hicieron una vida nueva. +Fueron al dentista por primera vez, comieron su primera hamburguesa y tuvieron a sus primeros hijos. +Mi hermana y yo crecimos aqu y tuvimos una infancia tranquila y feliz. +Tuvimos una familia unida, buenos amigos, una calle tranquila. +Crecimos dando por sentadas muchas cosas que nuestros padres no tuvieron mientras crecan... cosas como tener siempre energa elctrica en nuestra casa; cosas como escuelas al cruzar la calle, hospitales cerca, y palitos helados en el patio de atrs. +Crecimos, y hemos crecido un poco ms. +Fui a la secundaria. +Me recib. +Me mud de casa, consegu un empleo, encontr una chica, me establec... y me doy cuenta de que parece una mala telenovela o una cancin de Cat Stevens. Pero la vida era bastante buena. +La vida era bastante buena. +2006 fue un gran ao. +Bajo el cielo azul de julio, en la regin vitivincola de Ontario, me cas rodeado de 150 familiares y amigos. +2007 fue un gran ao. +Termin la escuela y nos fuimos de viaje con dos de mis amigos ms cercanos. +Esta es una foto con mi amigo Chris en la costa del Ocano Pacfico. +Vimos focas desde la ventana del auto y nos detuvimos a tomar una foto rpida de ellas pero despus las tapamos con nuestras cabezotas. +Por eso no pueden verlas pero fue algo impresionante cranme. +El 2008 y 2009 fueron un poco ms duros. +S que lo fueron para mucha gente, no slo para m. +En primer lugar, las noticias eran muy pesadas. +El 2008 y 2009 fueron aos difciles para m tambin por otra razn. +Estaba pasando por un montn de problemas personales en ese momento. +Mi matrimonio no iba bien y nos bamos distanciando cada vez ms. +Un da mi mujer lleg a casa del trabajo, tom coraje, y con lgrimas en los ojos me pidi que conversramos francamente. +Me dijo: "Ya no te amo". Fue una de las cosas ms dolorosas que haba escuchado y desde luego lo ms desolador que haba escuchado hasta apenas un mes ms tarde cuando me enter de algo an ms desolador. +Mi amigo Chris, de quien acabo de mostrarles una foto, sufra una enfermedad mental desde haca un tiempo. +Y para quienes hayan estado en contacto con enfermedades mentales saben lo difcil que puede llegar a ser. +Habl con l por telfono a las 22:30 +de un domingo. +Hablamos del programa de TV que miramos esa noche. +Y el lunes por la maana me enter de que desapareci. +Lamentablemente se quit la vida. +Fue un momento realmente difcil. +Y a medida que estas nubes oscuras pasaban por mi mente, me resultaba realmente muy difcil pensar en algo bueno, me dije que necesitaba encontrar la manera para, de algn modo, centrarme en lo positivo. +As que una noche volv a casa del trabajo me conect a la computadora y cre un pequeo sitio web llamado 1000awesomethings.com (mil cosas alucinantes, NT) +Y lentamente con el tiempo empec a ponerme de mejor humor. +Quiero decir, cada da se inician 50.000 blogs. Mi blog era apenas uno de esos 50.000. +Nadie lo lea salvo mi mam. +Aunque debo decir que mi trfico se dispar y subi un 100% cuando ella se lo pas a mi pap. +Y luego me entusiasm cuando empez a recibir decenas de visitas. Y luego empec a entusiasmarme cuando empez a recibir docenas y luego cientos y miles y luego millones. +Empez a hacerse cada vez ms grande. +Y entonces recib una llamada y la voz del otro lado de la lnea dijo: "Ganaste el premio al mejor blog del mundo". +Pens que sonaba como a broma. +A qu pas africano quieres que transfiera todo mi dinero? +Pero resulta que me met en un avin y termin caminando en la alfombra roja entre Sarah Silverman, Jimmy Fallon y Martha Stewart. +Y sub al escenario para recibir un premio Webby al mejor blog. +Pero la sorpresa y lo alucinante de eso slo fue eclipsado por mi regreso a Toronto, cuando en mi buzn haba 10 agentes literarios que me esperaban para hablar de volcar esto en un libro. +Avancemos al ao siguiente y "The Book of Awesome" ha sido nmero uno en ventas durante 20 semanas consecutivas. +Pero miren, yo dije que hoy quera hacer tres cosas con Uds. +Les dije que quera contarles la historia alucinante quera compartir con Uds las tres A de alucinante y quera dejarles un pensamiento final. +As que hablemos de esas tres A. +En los ltimos aos en realidad no he tenido mucho tiempo para pensar. +Pero ltimamente he podido detenerme y preguntarme: Qu es lo que en los ltimos aos me ha ayudado a expandir mi sitio web y a m mismo? +Y lo he resumido en estas cosas, para m en lo personal, como tres A. +Son la actitud, estar atentos, y la autenticidad. +Me encantara hablar brevemente sobre cada una. +La actitud: miren, todos vamos a tener obstculos y tambin contratiempos. +Nadie puede predecir el futuro, pero algo s sabemos y es que no va a salir de acuerdo a los planes. +Todos tendremos dias fantsticos, grandes das y momentos sublimes de sonrisas el da de la graduacin, bailes padre-hija el da de la boda y bebs saludables chillando en la sala de partos pero entre esos das fantsticos, tambin podramos tener obstculos y contratiempos. +Es triste, y no es agradable hablar de esto, pero tu esposo podra dejarte, tu novia podra engaarte, tus dolores de cabeza podran ser algo ms serio de lo que pensabas, o tu perro podra ser atropellado por un coche en la calle. +No es una idea feliz, pero tus hijos podran meterse en bandas criminales o cosas malas. +Tu mam podra contraer cncer, o tu pap podra convertirse en mala persona. +Hay momentos en la vida en los que uno va a caer en el pozo tambin con retorcijones de estmago y heridas en el corazn. Y cuando lluevan las malas noticias y hayan absorbido el dolor que los empapa espero realmente que sientan que siempre tienen dos opciones. +Una, que pueden sumergirse en la melancola y la fatalidad o dos, que pueden llorar y luego afrontar el futuro con una mirada nueva. +Tener una gran actitud es elegir la opcin nmero dos optar, sin importar lo difcil que sea, sin importar el dolor que los aqueje, optar por seguir adelante y avanzar dando pequeos pasos hacia el futuro. +La segunda A es estar atento. +Me encanta salir con nios de tres aos. +Me encanta la forma en que ven el mundo porque lo estn haciendo por primera vez. +Me encanta ver la manera en que miran a un bicho cruzar la acera. +Me encanta la forma en que van a mirar con la boca abierta su primer partido de bisbol con los ojos bien abiertos y un guante en la mano sumergindose en el golpe del bate, en el crujido de los manes y en el aroma de las salchichas. +Me encanta la forma en que pasan horas recogiendo dientes de len en el patio de atrs y los ponen en un lindo centro de mesa para la cena de Accin de Gracias. +Me encanta la forma en que ven el mundo porque estn viendo el mundo por primera vez. +Estar atentos consiste simplemente en aferrarse al nio interior de tres aos. +Porque todos solamos ser nios de tres aos. +Ese nio de tres aos todava es parte de Uds. +Esa nia de tres aos todava es parte de Uds. +Estn all. +Estar atentos es simplemente recordar que alguna vez fue la primer a vez que vimos todo lo que hemos visto. Hubo una vez que fue la primera vez que nos toc una serie de semforos en verde por el camino a casa desde el trabajo. +Hubo una primera vez que pasamos por la puerta abierta de una panadera y sentimos el aroma, o la primera vez que sacamos un billete de 20 dlares de una chaqueta vieja y dijimos: "Encontr dinero". +La ltima A es la de autenticidad. +Y para esta quiero contarles una historia breve. +Remontmonos hasta 1932 cuando, en una granja de man en Georgia, naci un niito llamado Roosevelt Grier. +Roosevelt Grier, o Rosey Grier como la gente sola llamarlo, creci y creci hasta convertirse en un defensa de la NFL de 136 kilos y 1,95 m. +Tiene el nmero 76 en la foto. +Aqu est la foto con el "cuarteto temible". +Estos eran cuatro muchachos de los Rams de LA en los aos 60 a quienes uno no querra contradecir. +Eran futbolistas fuertes haciendo lo que amaban que era aplastar cabezas y dislocar hombros en el campo de ftbol. +Pero Rosey Grier tambin tena otra pasin. +En lo ms profundo de s le encantaba el encaje de aguja. Le encantaba tejer. +Deca que eso lo calmaba, que lo relajaba, que eso le quit el miedo a volar y le ayud a conocer chicas. +Eso era lo que deca. +Eso le gustaba tanto que despus de retirarse de la NFL se hizo socio de clubes. +E incluso escribi un libro llamado "Encaje de aguja para hombres de Rosey Grier". +Es una gran portada. +Si se fijan hizo un encaje de aguja de su propio rostro. +Por eso lo que me encanta de esta historia de Rosey Grier es que se trata de una persona muy autntica. Y de eso se trata la autenticidad. +Se trata simplemente de ser uno mismo y estar bien con eso. +Y creo que cuando uno es autntico termina siguiendo a su corazn y se pone en lugares, situaciones y conversaciones que le encantan y que disfruta. +Uno conoce gente con la que le gusta hablar. +Uno va a lugares con los que so. +Y uno termina siguiendo a su corazn, sintindose muy realizado. +As que esas son las tres A. +Para terminar quiero que nos remontemos a la llegada de mis padres a Canad. +No s qu se habra sentido llegar a un nuevo pas a los 20 aos. +No lo s porque nunca lo hice. Pero supongo que se necesita una gran actitud. +Imagino que uno tendra que estar muy atento a lo que lo rodea y apreciar las pequeas maravillas que uno empieza a ver en su nuevo mundo. +Y creo que uno tendra que ser muy autntico, muy fiel a s mismo, para poder sortear las dificultades que se presentaran. +Me gustara detener mi TEDTalk unos 10 segundos porque uno no tiene muchas oportunidades en la vida para hacer algo como esto y mis padres estn sentados en la primera fila. +As que quera pedirles, si no es molestia, que se paren. +Slo quera decirles gracias. +Cuando yo era nio a mi padre le encantaba contar la historia de su primer da en Canad. +Es una gran historia porque lo que sucedi fue que se baj del avin en el aeropuerto de Toronto y fue recibido por un grupo sin fines de lucro que seguramente estara a cargo de alguien de esta sala. +Este grupo sin fines de lucro dio un gran almuerzo de bienvenida a todos los nuevos inmigrantes a Canad. +Y pap dice que baj del avin y fue a este almuerzo y haba gran variedad de alimentos. +Haba pan, haba de esos pepinillos bien pequeos, haba aceitunas, cebollas blancas en conserva. +Haba arrollado fro de pavo, arrollado de jamn y embutidos de carne asada y queso en cubos pequeos. +Haba sndwiches de ensalada de atn y de ensalada de huevo y de ensalada de salmn. +Haba lasaa, haba cazuelas, haba brownies, tartas dulces, y haba tortas, montones y montones de tortas. +Y cuando pap cuenta la historia dice: "Lo ms loco de todo es que yo nunca haba visto nada de eso antes, salvo el pan". +Yo no saba lo que era la carne, o +qu significaba ser vegetariano; +Coma aceitunas con torta". "Simplemente no poda creer la cantidad de cosas que uno puede conseguir aqu". +Cuando tena 5 aos pap sola llevarme de compras. Y se quedaba mirando con asombro las etiquetas de las frutas y verduras. +Me deca: "Mira, puedes creer que este mango viene de Mxico? +Tienen aqu una manzana de Sudfrica. +Puedes creer que tienen dtiles de Marruecos?" +Me deca: "Sabes siquiera dnde queda Marruecos? +Y yo le deca: "Tengo 5 aos. Ni siquiera s dnde estoy yo. +Esto es A&P?" (NT, tienda de comestibles) +Y me deca: "yo tampoco s dnde queda Marruecos, pero averigmoslo". +As que comprbamos los dtiles y volvamos a casa, +sacbamos un atlas de la estantera y buscbamos hasta encontrar ese misterioso pas. +Y yo le deca: "No puedo creerlo". +Y l me deca: "Yo tampoco. +Las cosas son increbles. Hay tantas cosas para ser feliz". +Y cuando me detengo a pensarlo l tiene toda la razn; +hay tantas cosas para ser feliz. +Somos la nica especie en la nica roca con vida en todo el Universo que hemos podido ver, ser capaces de experimentar, muchas de estas cosas. +Quiero decir, somos los nicos que tenemos arquitectura y agricultura. +Somos los nicos que tenemos joyera y democracia. +Tenemos aviones, autopistas, diseo de interiores y signos del horscopo. +Tenemos revistas de moda, fiestas en las casas. +Uno puede mirar pelculas de terror con monstruos. +Uno puede ir a un concierto y or el rugido de las guitarras. +Tenemos libros, cafeteras y ondas de radio, novias y vueltas en montaa rusa. +Podemos dormir en sbanas limpias. +Podemos ir al cine y conseguir buenos asientos. +Sentir el aroma del pan, caminar bajo la lluvia con en el pelo mojado, hacer burbujas o hacer la siesta sin permiso. +Tenemos todo eso pero slo hay 100 aos para disfrutarlo. +Y eso es lo triste. +La vida es tan grande y tenemos tan poco tiempo para experimentar y disfrutar esos pequeos momentos que la hacen tan dulce. +Y ese momento es ahora mismo y esos momentos van en cuenta regresiva y esos momentos son siempre, siempre, siempre fugaces. +Uno nunca va a ser tan joven como lo es ahora. +Gracias. +Estoy aqu para desafiar a la gente. +S que ya se han planteado muchos desafos. +Pero el que propongo estriba en que lleg la hora de recuperar el significado real de la paz. +La paz no es "Kumbay, Seor!". +La paz no es la paloma y el arco iris -por ms adorables que sean. +Cuando veo los smbolos del arco iris y de la paloma pienso en la serenidad personal. +Pienso en la meditacin. +No pienso en lo que considero que es la paz, que es la paz sostenible con justicia e igualdad. +Es una paz sostenible en la que la mayora de la poblacin del planeta tiene acceso a recursos suficientes para vivir con dignidad, en la que hay acceso a la educacin y a la atencin mdica para vivir sin necesidades y sin temores. +Esto se denomina seguridad humana. +No soy una pacifista absoluta como algunos de mis amigos defensores a ultranza de la no violencia como Mairead McGuire. +Entiendo que los seres humanos estemos muy perdidos, por no usar una expresin deagradable, le promet a mi mam no decir palabrotas en pblico. +Intento con ahnco no hacerlo. +Mam, lo estoy intentando. +Necesitamos unos cuantos policas, necesitamos un poco de ejrcito, pero para la defensa. +Tenemos que redefinir lo que nos hace sentir seguros en este mundo. +No se trata de armar nuestro pas hasta los dientes. +Ni de hacer que otros pases se armen hasta los dientes con las armas que nosotros producimos y les vendemos. +Se trata de usar ese dinero de manera ms racional para que haya ms seguridad en el mundo, para que la poblacin mundial est ms segura. +Estaba pensando en los debates recientes del Congreso en los que el presidente ofrece 8.400 millones de dlares para conseguir la aprobacin del tratado START. +Desde luego que apoyo la adopcin del tratado. +Pero ofrece 84.000 millones para modernizar las armas nucleares. +Saben que la cifra de la que habla Naciones Unidas para cumplir los Objetivos de Desarrollo del Milenio es de 80.000 millones? +Slo esa pequea suma de dinero que para m -ojal la tuviera en mi cuenta bancaria- no es, en fin... +...a nivel mundial se trata de muy poco dinero. +Pero est destinado a modernizar armas que no necesitamos de las que no nos libraremos en toda la vida a menos que nos levantemos +y tomemos medidas para que ocurra; a menos que empecemos a creer que todo lo que hemos escuchado en estos ltimos dos das son elementos que deben combinarse para lograr la seguridad humana. +Se trata de salvar a los tigres. +Se trata de detener la explotacin de arenas bituminosas. +Se trata del acceso a equipo mdico que pueda detectar a las personas con cncer. +Son todas estas cosas. +Se trata de usar nuestro dinero para todo esto. +Se trata de la accin. +Estuve en Hiroshima hace un par de semanas nos sentamos frente a miles de personas en la ciudad, y entre los presentes haba unos ocho premios Nobel. +Y l era como un chico travieso en el templo. +Mirbamos atentamente a todos, esperando nuestro turno para hablar, y entonces se inclin hacia m y me dijo: "Jody, soy un monje budista". +Le dije: "S, Su Santidad. +Su tnica lo delata". +Me dijo: "Ya sabes que me gusta meditar y rezo". +Le dije: "Eso es bueno. Eso es bueno. +Eso hace falta en el mundo. +No lo practico, pero es genial". +Y me dice: "Pero me he vuelto escptico. +No creo que la meditacin y la oracin vayan a cambiar al mundo. +Creo que lo que necesitamos es accin". +Su Santidad, con su tnica, es mi nuevo hroe de accin. +Habl con Aung Sun Suu Kyi hace un par de das. +Como muchos saben es una herona de la democracia en su pas, Birmania. +Quiz sepan tambin que ha pasado 15 de los ltimos 20 aos encarcelada por su lucha en favor de la democracia. +La dejaron en libertad hace apenas unas semanas y es una situacin que no sabemos cunto va a durar porque que ya est en las calles de Rangn movilizando para el cambio. +Est en las calles, trabajando con el partido para tratar de reconstruirlo. +Habl con ella una serie de cuestiones. +Pero hay algo que quiero mencionar porque es similar a lo que dijo Su Santidad. +Dijo: "Sabes, hay un largo camino por recorrer hasta alcanzar la democracia en mi pas. +Pero no creo en la esperanza sin esfuerzo. +No creo en la esperanza de cambio a menos que hagamos algo para que suceda". +H aqu otra de mis heronas. +Es mi amiga, la Dra. Shirin Ebadi, la primera musulmana que recibi un Premio Nobel de la Paz. +Ha estado exiliada durante el ltimo ao y medio. +Si se le pregunta dnde vive, dnde vive en el exilio, +ella responde que en los aeropuertos del mundo. +Est viajando porque estaba fuera del pas en el momento de las elecciones. +Y en vez de ir a casa habl con las otras mujeres con las que trabajaba y stas le dijeron: "Qudate afuera. Te necesitamos fuera. +Tenemos que poder hablar contigo all afuera para que puedas transmitir el mensaje de lo que sucede aqu". +Un ao y medio despus ella est hablando en nombre de las otras mujeres de su pas. +Wangari Maathai... Nobel de la Paz en 2004. +La llaman la mujer de los rboles pero ella es mucho ms que eso. +Trabajar por la paz es algo muy creativo. +Es un arduo trabajo diario. +Cuando estaba plantando los rboles no creo que la mayora de la poblacin entendiera que, al mismo tiempo, estaba empleando la accin de reunir a la gente a plantar rboles para hablar de la manera de derrotar al gobierno autoritario de su pas. +La gente no poda reunirse sin ser arrestada y llevada a la crcel. +Pero si se reunan a plantar rboles por el medio ambiente eso estaba bien... eso es creatividad. +Pero no se trata slo de conos femeninos como Shirin, como Aung Sun Suu Kyi, como Wangari Maathai; hay otras mujeres en el mundo luchando juntas para cambiar el mundo. +La Liga de Mujeres de Birmania: 11 organizaciones de mujeres birmanas se reunieron para unir sus fuerzas. +El trabajo mancomunado es lo que cambia al mundo. +La Campaa del Milln de Firmas de las mujeres en Birmania trabajando juntas para cambiar los derechos humanos, para llevar la democracia al pas. +Cuando arrestan a una y la llevan a prisin viene otra y se suma al movimiento reconociendo que si trabajan unidas al final van a producir el cambio en su propio pas. +Mairead McGuire, en el medio, Betty Williams a la derecha, lograron la paz en Irlanda del Norte. +Les voy a contar la historia breve. +Un conductor del IRA fue asesinado y su coche choc contra la gente que estaba en la vereda. +Haba una madre y sus tres hijos. +Los nios murieron en el acto. +Era la hermana de Mairead. +En lugar de ceder al dolor, la depresin y la derrota, de cara a esa violencia Mairead se contact con Betty -una fiel protestante y una fiel catlica- y salieron a las calles a decir: "Basta de violencia". +Y lograron congregar a decenas de miles de, en principio, mujeres -haba algunos hombres- en las calles para efectuar el cambio. +Y han sido parte de lo que devolvi la paz a Irlanda del Norte y todava estn trabajando en eso porque an hay mucho por hacer. +Esta es Rigoberta Menchu Tum. +Ella tambin recibi el Nobel de la Paz. +Ahora es candidata a la presidencia. +Est educando a la poblacin indgena de su pas en el significado de la democracia, en la manera de lograr la democracia en el pas, en ensear la forma de votar pero tambin que la democracia no se trata slo de votar sino de ser un ciudadano activo. +Esta actividad me mantuvo absorta: la campaa de las minas terrestres. +Una de las cosas que hizo que esa campaa funcione es el hecho de que crecimos de dos ONG's a miles en 90 pases en todo el mundo trabajando juntos por la causa comn de prohibir las minas terrestres. +Alguna de la gente que trabaj en nuestra campaa poda trabajar tal vez una hora al mes. +Quiz podan ser voluntarios en esa medida. +Haba otros, como es mi caso, que estbamos a tiempo completo. +Pero fueron las acciones mancomunadas las que produjeron el cambio. +En mi opinin, lo que hoy necesitamos es gente que se levante y tome medidas para recuperar el significado de la paz. +No es una mala palabra. +Es un arduo trabajo diario. +Y si cada uno de nosotros a los que nos preocupan tantas cosas diferentes levantramos el trasero y ofreciramos el tiempo que pudiramos cambiaramos el mundo, salvaramos al mundo. +No podemos esperar que otro lo haga; tenemos que hacerlo nosotros mismos. +Gracias. +Me gustara decirles a todos ustedes que son unos ciborgs pero no del tipo que imaginan. +No son ni Robocop ni son Terminator sino que son ciborgs cada vez que miran un monitor o usan algn dispositivo mvil. +Cul sera una buena definicin de ciborg? +La definicin tradicional dice que es un organismo "al cual se le han agregado elementos exgenos con el fin de adaptarse a nuevos entornos". +El trmino se acu en un documento de 1960 sobre viajes espaciales. Porque, si lo piensan bien, el espacio es bastante incmodo; +se supone que la gente no debe estar all. +Pero los humanos somos curiosos y nos gusta agregarnos cosas al cuerpo para poder ir a los Alpes un da y ser como un pez en el mar al siguiente. +Veamos el concepto de la antropologa tradicional. +Alguien va a otro pas y dice: "Que fascinante es esta gente, que interesante son sus herramientas, y que curiosa su cultura". +Y luego escriben un artculo, que otros antroplogos quiz lean, y creemos que es algo muy extico. +Bien, lo que sucede es que de repente hemos encontrado una nueva especie. +Yo, como antroploga ciborg, de pronto me dije: "Vaya! Somos una nueva forma de homo sapiens. Mira estas culturas fascinantes. Mira estos rituales curiosos de toda esta gente en torno a esta tecnologa. +Hacen clic en unas cosas y luego miran fijamente las pantallas". +Pero hay una razn por la que estudio esto en vez de la antropologa tradicional. +Y la razn es que el uso de herramientas en los principios, durante miles y miles de aos, implic una modificacin fsica del ser. +Nos ayud a extender nuestro yo fsico, a ir ms rpido, a golpear cosas ms fuerte, y eso tuvo un lmite. +Pero ahora lo que observamos no es una extensin fsica del yo sino una extensin del yo mental. Y por eso es que podemos viajar ms rpido y comunicarnos de manera diferente. +Y la otra cosa que sucede es que todos llevamos a cuestas tecnologas del tipo Mary Poppins. +Podemos agregarle lo que queramos y no por eso pesar ms y luego podemos quitarle lo que sea. +Cmo es el interior de una computadora? +Bueno, si lo imprimisemos se vera como unos 450 kilos de material que van con nosotros todo el tiempo. +Y si perdemos esa informacin eso implica que de repente se nos hace una laguna mental y sentimos de pronto como que algo falta pero no sabemos qu y entonces es una sensacin extraa. +La otra cosa que sucede es que uno tiene un segundo yo. +Nos guste o no estamos empezando a aparecer en lnea y las personas estn interactuando con nuestro segundo yo cuando no estamos all. +Por eso tenemos que ser cuidadosos al exponer nuestro jardn delantero que, bsicamente, es el muro de Facebook para que las personas no escriban all en medio de la noche porque se produce como el mismo efecto. +Y, de pronto, tenemos que empezar a mantener nuestro segundo yo. +Uno tiene que presentarse en la vida digital de forma similar a como lo hara en la vida analgica. +As que del mismo modo que uno cada da se levanta, se ducha y se viste, se tiene que aprender a hacer eso para el yo digital. +Y el problema es que mucha gente hoy en da, sobre todo los adolescentes, tienen que atravesar dos adolescencias. +Tienen que pasar por la primera, y eso ya es algo incmodo, y despus tienen que pasar por la adolescencia de su segundo yo. Y eso es an ms incmodo porque hay un historial real de su actividad digital. +Todos los que entran a una nueva tecnologa son adolescentes digitales hoy en da. Por eso es muy incmodo y les resulta muy difcil hacer esas cosas. +Cuando era nia pap me sentaba para hablarme y me deca: "Te voy a ensear sobre el tiempo y el espacio en el futuro". +Yo le deca: "Genial!" +Y un da me dijo: "Cul es la distancia ms corta entre dos puntos?" +Le respond: "Bueno, es la lnea recta. Eso me dijiste ayer. +Yo pensaba que era muy inteligente". +l me dijo: "No, no, no. Hay una manera mejor". +Tom un trozo de papel y dibuj A y B, una de cada lado, y lo dobl de manera que A y B se tocaran. +Y dijo: "Esa es la distancia ms corta entre dos puntos". +Le dije: "Papi, papi, papi, cmo se hace?" +Me dijo: "Bueno, slo hay que doblar el tiempo y el espacio, eso toma una gran cantidad de energa, y as es como se hace". +Y le dije: "Quiero hacer eso". +Me respondi: "Bueno, est bien". +Y as, cada noche por los siguientes 10 20 aos pensaba cuando me acostaba: "Quiero ser la primera persona en crear un agujero de gusano para hacer que las cosas aceleren ms rpido. +Y quiero hacer una mquina del tiempo". +Siempre estaba mandando mensajes a mi yo futuro usando grabadoras. +Pero luego me di cuenta en la universidad que la tecnologa no se adopta slo porque funciona; +se adopta porque la gente la usa y porque est hecha para humanos. +As que empec a estudiar antropologa. +Y cuando estaba escribiendo mi tesis sobre telfonos celulares me di cuenta que todo el mundo llevaba agujeros de gusano en los bolsillos. +No los llevaban consigo fsicamente pero s en la mente. +Ellos con un clic en un botn se conectaban de inmediato como A con B. +Y pens: "Guau, lo encontr, esto es genial!" +Con el tiempo, el tiempo y el espacio se han comprimido gracias a esto. +Uno puede estar en una punta del mundo susurrar algo y ser escuchado en la otra punta. +Otra de las ideas que andan dando vueltas es que uno tiene distintos tipos de tiempo en cada uno de los dispositivos que usa. +Cada pestaa del navegador nos da un tipo de tiempo diferente. +Y debido a esto uno empieza a escarbar buscando las memorias externas... dnde las dejaste? +As que ahora somos todos paleontlogos escarbando en busca de cosas perdidas en nuestros cerebros externos que llevamos en los bolsillos. +Y esto provoca una suerte de arquitectura del pnico. Oh, no! Dnde lo puse? +Somos todos como "Yo amo a Lucy" en una gran lnea de produccin de informacin y no podemos mantener el ritmo. +Y lo que termina pasando cuando llevamos todo eso al espacio social es que miramos el telfono todo el tiempo. +Tenemos algo llamado intimidad ambiente. +No se trata de estar siempre conectado con todos sino que en cualquier momento podemos conectarnos con cualquiera. +Y si pudiramos imprimir todos los contactos de telfono la sala estara abarrotada de gente. +Estas son las personas a las que uno tiene acceso ahora mismo, en general, todas estas personas, todos los amigos y familiares que uno puede contactar. +Hay algunos efectos psicolgicos derivados de esto. +Uno que me preocupa mucho es que las personas ya no se toman el tiempo para reflexionar y que no se estn frenando ni parando, al estar cerca de todas esas personas de la sala que todo el tiempo estn tratando de competir por su atencin en las distintas interfaces concurrentes; paleontologa y arquitectura del pnico. +No slo estn sentados all. +Y, realmente, cuando uno no tiene impulsos externos; en ese momento es que se produce la creacin del yo, en el que uno puede hacer planes de largo plazo, en el que uno puede tratar de averiguar quin es en realidad. +Y luego, una vez que lo hacemos, podemos pensar cmo presentar el segundo yo de manera legtima en vez de lidiar con todo as tal como viene y estar: "oh, tengo que hacer esto, y esto, y esto otro". +Por eso esto es muy importante. +Me preocupa mucho que, sobre todo los nios de hoy, no van a experimentar este tiempo de inactividad ya que tienen una cultura del clic instantneo y que todo viene a ellos; eso les entusiasma mucho y les genera dependencia. +As que, si lo piensan bien, el mundo tampoco se ha detenido. +Tiene sus propias prtesis externas y estos dispositivos nos ayudan a todos a comunicarnos e interactuar unos con otros. +Pero cuando lo visualizamos realmente, todas las conexiones que tenemos ahora mismo -esta es una imagen de la interconexin de Internet- no parece muy tecnolgico; +parece ms bien algo orgnico. +Esta es la primera vez en toda la historia de la Humanidad que nos conectamos de esta forma. +Y no es que las mquinas estn tomando el control; +sino que nos estn ayudando a ser ms humanos, nos estn ayudando a conectarnos mutuamente. +La tecnologa ms exitosa se hace a un lado y nos ayuda a vivir nuestras vidas. +Y, en realidad, termina siendo algo ms humano que tecnolgico porque nos estamos co-creando unos a otros todo el tiempo. +Y este es el punto importante que me gustara estudiar: que las cosas son hermosas, que todava existe una conexin humana; slo que se realiza de un modo diferente. +Estamos aumentando nuestra humanidad y nuestra capacidad de conectarnos unos a otros a pesar de la geografa. +Es por eso que estudio antropologa ciborg. +Gracias. +Si miramos a nuestro alrededor, mucho de lo que nos rodea al principio existi en forma de piedras y lodo que cubran el suelo en distintas partes del mundo. +Obviamente, ahora no tienen la apariencia de piedras y lodo, +sino de cmaras de TV, monitores, y molestos micrfonos. +Y por eso con mi proyecto, que se hizo clebre como Proyecto Tostadora, yo buscaba mostrar esta transformacin mgica. +Inspirado en esta frase de Douglas Adams que describe la parte en que el protagonista del libro -un hombre del siglo XX- se encuentra a s mismo solo en un planeta extrao habitado por gente de una tecnologa primitiva. +Pero l no tena Wikipedia. +As que pens, bueno, voy a tratar de hacer una tostadora elctrica desde cero. +Yo no tena toda la vida para dedicarle al proyecto; +tena, como mucho, 9 meses. +Entonces pens, bueno, voy a empezar +con cinco: acero, mica, plstico, cobre y nquel. +Empecemos con el acero: cmo se hace el acero? +Fui a golpear la puerta del director del Centro de Extraccin Mineral Avanzada de Ro Tinto, en la Escuela Real de Minas y le dije: "Cmo se hace el acero?" +Y el profesor Cilliers fue muy amable y me explic el proceso. +De mis recuerdos vagos de ciencias de la secundaria saba que el acero proviene del hierro as que llam a una mina de hierro y les dije: +"Hola, estoy tratando de hacer una tostadora ['toaster', NT]. +Puedo ir a buscar algo de hierro?" +Por desgracia, cuando llegu all, apareci Ray. +l me haba odo mal y pens que yo estaba por hacer un pster [rima con 'toaster', NT] y no estaba preparado para llevarme a la mina. +Pero luego de insistir un poco, lo convenc. +Ray: era una cantera de caliza producto de criaturas marinas que hace 350 millones de aos vivan en una atmsfera soleada agradable y clida. +Cuando uno estudia geologa puede ver lo que suceda en el pasado. Y se han producido cambios increbles. +Thomas Thwaites: Como pueden ver haba decoraciones navideas. +Y, por supuesto, ya no era una mina activa porque, aunque Ray era minero, la mina haba cerrado y volvi a abrir como atraccin turstica porque, obviamente, no puede competir con la magnitud de las actividades que tienen lugar en Amrica del Sur, Australia, etc. +De todas formas, consegu mi maleta de mineral de hierro y la arrastr hasta Londres en tren para luego enfrentarme al problema: bueno, cmo transformo esta piedra en componentes de una tostadora? +As que volv con el profesor Cilliers y me dijo: "Ve a la biblioteca". +Y as hice, fui a hojear los textos de metalurgia completamente intiles para lo que estaba tratando de hacer. +Porque, por supuesto, no dicen realmente cmo se hace si uno quiere hacerlo por su cuenta y no dispone de una planta de fundicin. +As que termin yendo a la Biblioteca de la Historia de la Ciencia, y encontr este libro. +Este es el primer libro sobre metalurgia, al menos, el primero escrito en Occidente. +All puede verse ese grabado en madera que, al final, es lo que termin haciendo. +Pero en lugar de un fuelle yo tena un soplador de hojas. +Y eso fue una constante en el proyecto: cuanto menor era la escala en que quera trabajar ms deba remontarme en el tiempo. +Y esto es despus de un da y casi media noche de fundir este hierro. +Quit esta cosa y no haba hierro. +Pero por suerte encontr en lnea una patente para hornos industriales que usan microondas. Despus de 30 minutos a plena potencia pude completar el proceso. +As, lo siguiente... El siguiente paso fue obtener cobre. +De nuevo, alguna vez esta fue la mina de cobre ms grande del mundo. +Ya no lo es. Pero encontr un profesor de geologa jubilado que me llev all. Y me dijo: "Bueno, te dejo llevar agua de la mina". +La razn de mi inters por el agua es que la que fluye por las minas se vuelve cida y empieza a absorber, a disolver los minerales de la mina. +Un claro ejemplo es el Ro Tinto, en Portugal. +Como pueden ver, contiene grandes cantidades de minerales. +Tantos que ahora es caldo de cultivo de bacterias que viven en condiciones cidas, txicas. +De todos modos, el agua que traje de la isla de Anglesey, donde estaba la mina, contena suficiente cobre as que pude moldear las clavijas de mi enchufe metlico. +El siguiente paso fue ir a Escocia a buscar mica. +La mica es un mineral muy aislante, muy bueno para aislar electricidad. +Ah estoy consiguiendo mica. +Y el ltimo material del que voy a hablar es el plstico. Y, claro, mi tostadora tena que tener una cubierta de plstico. +El plstico es lo que caracteriza a los aparatos elctricos baratos. +Como el plstico proviene del petrleo, llam a British Petroleum y pas una buena media hora tratando de convencer a la oficina de RRPP de BP de que sera fantstico para ellos si me llevaban a una plataforma petrolera y me dejaban traer una jarra de petrleo. +Hoy en da, obviamente, BP tiene otros problemas en mente. +Pero incluso entonces no estaban convencidos y dijeron: "Bueno, te volveremos a llamar"; cosa que nunca hicieron. +As que busqu otras maneras de hacer plstico. +Y uno puede hacer plstico, obviamente, de aceites vegetales, pero tambin de almidn. +Aqu estoy tratando de hacer plstico de almidn de papa. +Y por un momento pareci resultar realmente bien. +Lo vert en el molde que pueden ver all, que hice con un tronco de rbol. +Y por un momento pareci resultar bien pero lo dej afuera, porque hay que dejarlo afuera a secar, y, por desgracia, cuando regres haba caracoles comiendo los trozos de papa deshidrolizados. +As que en un arrebato de desesperacin decid pensar lateralmente. +En realidad los gelogos han bautizado -bueno, estn discutiendo si hacerlo- a la era en que vivimos como la Era del Hombre, e incluso estn debatiendo la posibilidad de que sea una nueva poca geolgica llamada Antropoceno. +Y eso debido a que los gelogos del futuro vern un cambio marcado en los estratos de roca que estamos dejando ahora. +De repente, se volvern radiactivos a causa de Chernbil y de las cerca de 2.000 bombas nucleares detonadas desde 1945. +Y habr tambin una extincin y los fsiles desaparecern de repente. +Y entonces pens que tambin habra polmeros sintticos, plsticos contenidos en la roca. +As que busqu plstico... decid que poda extraerlo de alguna de estas rocas de hoy. +Y me fui a Manchester de visita a un lugar llamado Axion Recycling. +Ellos estn en el frente de lo que se llama WEEE, que es la directiva europea sobre residuos elctricos y electrnicos. +Y que entr en vigor para tratar de hacer frente a la montaa de cosas que se estn produciendo y acumulando temporalmente en nuestros hogares para luego ir al relleno sanitario. +Pero eso es todo. +Ah tienen una imagen de mi tostadora. +Ah est sin la cubierta. +Y ah est en la estantera. +Gracias. +Bruno Giussani: Me contaron que la enchufaste una vez. +TT: S, la enchuf. +No s si pueden verlo pero nunca pude aislar los cables. +En Kew Gardens fueron reticentes al hecho de que yo fuera a cortar el rbol de caucho. +As que los cables estaban sin aislar. +Por eso haba 240 voltios en esos cables caseros de cobre con enchufe casero. +Durante unos cinco segundos la tostadora tost, pero luego, por desgracia, el aparato se derriti. +Pero lo considero un xito parcial, para ser honesto. +BG: Thomas Thwaites. (TT: Gracias) +Este recinto parecera albergar a 600 personas, pero hay realmente muchas ms, porque dentro de cada uno de nosotros existe una multitud de personalidades. +Yo tengo dos personalidades principales que han estado en conflicto y conversacin dentro de m desde que era una nia pequea. +Las llamo "el mstico" y "el guerrero". +Nac en una familia de activistas polticos, intelectuales ateos. +Exista esta ecuacin en mi familia que era ms o menos as: Si eres inteligente, entonces no eres espiritual. +Yo era la rara de la familia. +Yo era esta pequea nia extraa que quera tener charlas profundas sobre los mundos que podran existir ms all de los que percibimos con nuestros sentidos. +Quera saber si lo que los humanos vemos y omos y pensamos is un retrato preciso y completo de la realidad. +As que, buscando respuestas, Fui a la misa catlica; +segu a mis vecinos. +Le a Sartre y a Scrates. +Y luego una cosa maravillosa sucedi cuando estaba en la secundara: Gurs de Oriente comenzaron a aparecer en las costas de Amrica. +Y me dije, "Quiero hacerme con uno de ellos". +Y desde ese momento, he estado transitando el camino mstico, tratando de mirar ms all de lo que Albert Einstein llam, "la ilusin optica de la conciencia cotidiana". +Y qu quera l decir? Les mostrar. +Respiren ahora mismo el aire puro de este recinto. +Ahora, ven esta cosa extraa, submarina, que parece un arrecife de coral? +Es en realidad la trquea de una persona. Y esos glbulos de colores son microbios que estn nadando dentro de este recinto ahora mismo, alrededor de nosotros. +Si estamos ciegos a esta simple biologa, imagnense lo que nos estamos perdiendo ahora mismo en la ms pequea escala subatmica y en los ms grandes niveles csmicos. +Mis aos como mstica me han hecho cuestionar casi todos mis supuestos. +Me han vuelto una orgullosa sabelo-no-todo. +Ahora, cuando mi parte mstica parlotea sin parar como ahora, el guerrero pone los ojos en blanco. +le preocupa lo que est pasando en este mundo ahora mismo. +Est preocupado +Dice, "Perdn, estoy enojado, y s algunas cosas, y es mejor que nos pongamos manos a la obra ahora". +Pas mi vida como un guerrero, trabajando por problemas de mujeres, trabajando en campanas polticas, siendo una activista del medioambiente. +Y puede ser un poco enloquecedor, albergar a ambos, el mstico y el guerrero en un mismo cuerpo. +Siempre me sent atrada por esa gente rara que poda vivir con eso, que dedicaban su vida a la humanidad con la garra del guerrero y la gracia del mstico -- gente como Martin Luther King Jr. que escribi, "Nunca podr ser lo que debo ser, hasta que ustedes sean lo que deben ser. +Esta," escribi, "es la estructura interrelacionada de la realidad." +Luego la Madre Teresa, otra guerrera mstica, quien dijo, "El problema con el mundo es que trazamos el crculo de nuestra familia demasiado pequeno". +Y Nelson Mandela, que vive bajo el precepto africano de ubuntu, que significa: te necesito para poder ser yo, y t me necesitas para poder ser t. +Ahora, a todos nos encanta sacar a relucir a estos tres guerreros msticos como si hubieran nacido con el gen del santo. +Pero ciertamente todos tenemos la misma capacidad que ellos tienen, y tenemos que hacer su trabajo ahora. +Estoy profundamente molesta con las formas en las que todas nuestras culturas estn demonizando al Otro con la voz que le estamos dando a los ms divisivos entre nosotros. +Escuchen estos ttulos de algunos de los libros ms vendidos de ambos lados de la divisin poltica aqu en los Estados Unidos. +"El liberalismo es una enfermedad mental", "Rush Limbaugh es un gordo idiota", "Estpidos y patriotas", "Discutiendo con idiotas" +Son supuestamente irnicos, pero en verdad son peligrosos. +Ahora, hay un ttulo que puede sonar familiar, pero que cuyo autor puede que los sorprenda: "Cuatro aos y medio de lucha contra las mentiras, la estupidez y la cobarda". +Quin escribi eso? +Ese fue el primer ttulo de Adolf Hitler para "Mein Kampf" - " Mi Lucha" - el libro que lanz al partido Nazi. +Las peores pocas en la historia de la humanidad, ya sea en Camboya o Alemania o Ruanda, empiezan as, considerando al Otro negativamente. +Y luego se transforman en extremismo violento. +Es por esto que estoy lanzando una nueva iniciativa. +Y es ayudar a todos nosotros, yo incluida, a combatir esta tendencia a separarnos del otro. +Y s que todos somos personas opcupadas, no se preocupen, pueden hacer esto en la hora del almuerzo. +Llamo a mi iniciativa, "Lleva al Otro a almorzar". +Si eres un republicano, puedes llevar a un demcrata a almorzar, o si eres un demcrata, piensa en llevar a un republicano a almorzar. +Ahora, si la idea de llevar a cualquiera de estas personas a almorzar les hace perder el apetito, sugiero que empiecen ms localmente, porque no hay escasez de Otros ah mismo en su vecindario. +Quizs esa persona que reza en la mezquita, o en la iglesia o en la sinagoga, en la misma calle; +o alquien del otro lado del conflicto sobre el aborto; +o quizs tu cuado que no cree en el calentamiento global - +cualquiera cuyo estilo de vida te asuste, o cuyo punto de vista te haga salir humo de las orejas. +Hace un par de semanas, lleve a una mujer del conservador Tea Party a almorzar. +Sobre el papel, ella pasaba mi prueba de echar humo por las orejas. +Ella es una activista de la derecha, y yo soy una activista de la izquierda. +Y usamos unas directrices para mantener nuestra conversacin elevada, y que ustedes pueden usar tambin, porque s que todos van a llevar a Otro a almorzar. +As que antes de nada, decidan sobre un objetivo: conocer a una persona de un grupo que han estereotipado negativamente. +Y luego, antes de que se junten, acuerden algunas reglas. +Mi compaera de almuerzo del Tea Party y yo llegamos a estas: No traten de persuadir, defenderse o interrumpir. +Sean curiosos, sean conversadores, sean autnticos. +Y escuchen. +Desde ese punto, nos sumergimos +Y usamos estas preguntas: Comparte algunas de tus experiencias vitales conmigo. +Qu problemas te preocupan profundamente? +Y qu es lo que siempre has querido preguntarle a alguien del otro lado? +Mi compaera y yo llegamos a algunas reflexiones realmente importantes, y voy a compartir slo una de ellas con ustedes. +Creo que tiene relevancia para cualquier problema entre la gente, en cualquier lugar. +Le pregunt por qu su lado hace esas declaraciones escandalosas y miente sobre mi lado. +"Cmo qu?" quera saber. +"Como que somos un montn de elitistas, moralmente corruptos, amantes del terrorismo." +Bueno, ella se sorprendi. +Ella pensaba que mi lado golpeaba a su lado mucho ms, que los llambamos descerebrados, racistas armados. Y ambas nos asombramos de las etiquetas que no cuadran con ninguna de las personas que realmente conocemos. +Y tras haber establecido algo de confianza, cremos en la sinceridad de la otra. +Acordamos que hablaramos en nuestras comunidades cuando fueramos testigos de la clase de charla separadora del Otro que puede herir y puede degenerar en paranoia y luego ser usada por aquellos en los extremos como aliento. +Al final de la charla, reconocimos mutuamente nuestra apertura. +Ninguno de las dos trat de cambiar a la otra. +Pero tampoco habamos simulado que nuestras diferencias simplemente se iban a desvanecer tras el almuerzo. +En cambio, dimos los primeros pasos juntas, ms all de nuestras reacciones reflejas, hacia el lugar ubuntu, que es el nico lugar donde las soluciones a nuestros problemas aparentemente ms difciles se encontrarn. +A quin deberan invitar a almorzar? +La prxima vez que se descubran en el acto de separarse del Otro, esa ser la clave. +Y qu podra pasar en el almuerzo? +Se abrirn los cielos y sonar la msica de "We are the World" en el restaurante? +Probablemente no. +Porque el trabajo ubuntu es lento, y es difcil. +Son dos personas abandonando sus intentos de ser sabelotodos. +Son dos personas, dos guerreros, dejando caer sus armas y saliendo al encuentro con el otro. +As es como el gran poeta persa Rumi, lo expres: "Ms all de las ideas sobre qu est bien y qu est mal, hay un campo. +Te encontrar all." +Estoy aqu para contarles que tenemos un problema con los nios y se trata de un problema grave. +Y es que su cultura no encaja en las escuelas. Voy a compartir con Uds algunas maneras posibles de solucionar el problema. +Primero quiero empezar diciendo que este es un nio y esta una nia. Quiz sea un estereotipo de lo que entienden como un nio y una nia. +Si hago una simplificacin del tema de gnero, Uds van a infravalorar lo que tengo que decir. +Por eso no voy a hacerlo, no me interesa hacer eso. +Estos son nios y nias diferentes. +La idea aqu es que no todos los nios se enmarcan estrictamente en los lmites de lo que concebimos como nios y nias. Y no todas las nias se enmarcan en esos lmites de lo que concebimos como nias. +Pero, de hecho, la mayora de los nios tienden a ser de cierta manera y la mayora de las nias tienden a ser de cierta manera. +Y la idea es que, para los nios, la manera en que son y la cultura a la que se aferran no encajan en las escuelas de hoy. +Cmo sabemos eso? +El "Proyecto 100 Nias" nos revela muy buenas estadsticas. +Por ejemplo, por cada 100 nias que dejan el colegio, hay 250 nios en la misma situacin. +Por cada 100 nias expulsadas de la escuela, hay 335 nios en la misma situacin. +Por cada 100 nias que reciben educacin especial, hay 217 nios en igual situacin. +Por cada 100 nias con dificultades de aprendizaje, hay 276 nios en igual situacin. +Por cada 100 nias con diagnstico de trastorno emocional, hay 324 nios en igual situacin. +Y, por cierto, todos estas cifras son bastante mayores en la poblacin negra, o entre los pobres, o en colegios con un gran nmero de alumnos. +En los nios es 4 veces ms probable diagnosticar TDAH: Trastorno por Dficit de Atencin con Hiperactividad. +Pero hay otra cara de esta moneda. +Es importante que reconozcamos que las mujeres an necesitan ayuda en la escuela, que los salarios son significativamente inferiores, incluso para un mismo tipo de empleos, y que las nias han continuado a duras penas con matemtica y ciencia durante aos +Todo eso es verdad. +Pero nada de eso nos impide prestar atencin a las necesidades de alfabetizacin de los nios con edades entre los 3 y 13 aos. +Por eso deberamos hacerlo. +De hecho, debemos seguir el ejemplo de sus libros didcticos, porque las iniciativas y programas puestos en marcha para las mujeres en ciencia, ingeniera y matemticas son fantsticos. +Han hecho mucho bien a las nias que pasaban por esa situacin. Y debemos pensar la manera de hacer lo mismo con los nios desde una edad temprana. +Incluso en edades ms avanzadas encontramos que persiste un problema. +Si miramos en las universidades, el 60% de los graduados son mujeres; es un cambio significativo. +Y, de hecho, a las autoridades universitarias les incomoda un poco la idea de que podramos estar acercndonos al 70% de poblacin femenina en las universidades. +Esto pone muy nerviosas a las autoridades universitarias porque las nias no quieren ir a escuelas que no tienen nios. +Por eso estamos empezando a ver el establecimiento de centros y estudios masculinos para pensar maneras de involucrar a los hombres en sus experiencias universitarias. +Si uno habla de esto en las facultades podran decirnos: "Ahh. S, bueno, pasan el tiempo con los videojuegos y los juegos de azar en lnea toda la noche; estn jugando al World of Warcraft. Y eso est afectando a sus xitos acadmicos". +Saben qu? +Los videojuegos no son la causa. +Los videojuegos son un sntoma. +Los nios ya estaban distanciados mucho antes de llegar a ese punto. +Hablemos del porqu de ese distanciamiento que se produce entre los 3 y los 13 aos. +Creo que hay 3 razones por las que los nios se desconectan de la cultura educativa de hoy. +La primera es la tolerancia cero. +S que a la maestra de guardera su hijo le entreg todos los juguetes, la maestra los revis y le quit las pequeas armas de plstico. +No puede haber cuchillos, espadas, hachas de plstico ni todo ese tipo de cosas en el aula del jardn de infancia. +Cul es el miedo? Qu pensamos que va a hacer este jovencito con esa pistola? +Lo digo en serio. +Pero hoy se adopta una postura frrea en contra de los juegos violentos en el patio. +No estoy abogando por los matones. +No estoy sugiriendo que tenemos que permitir armas y cuchillos en la escuela. +Pero cuando decimos que un Eagle Scout de un aula de secundaria que tiene un coche en el aparcamiento y dentro del coche tiene una navaja, tiene que ser expulsado de la escuela, creo que estamos yendo demasiado lejos con la tolerancia cero. +Otro caso de la tolerancia cero es con la escritura de los nios. +En muchas aulas de hoy en da no se permite escribir nada que sea violento. +No se permite escribir nada que tenga que ver con los videojuegos; esos temas estn prohibidos. +El nio llega a casa de la escuela y dice: "odio escribir". +"Por qu odias escribir hijo? Qu tiene de malo escribir?" +"Ahora tengo que escribir lo que ella me pide". +"Bueno, y qu te pide que escribas?" +"Poemas. Tengo que escribir poemas. +Y pequeos momentos de mi vida. +No quiero escribir eso". +"Muy bien. Qu quieres escribir? Sobre qu quieres escribir?" +"Quiero escribir sobre los videojuegos, sobre la manera de pasar niveles. +Quiero escribir sobre este mundo tan interesante. +Quiero escribir sobre un tornado que entr en nuestra casa y despus de arrancar todas las ventanas arruin todos los muebles y mat a todos". +"Muy bien. Bien". +Dganle eso a una maestra y les va a preguntar, con toda seriedad, "Deberamos mandar a este chico al psiclogo?" +Y la respuesta es "no, es slo un nio". +Es tan slo un nio. +No est bien escribir este tipo de cosas en las aulas hoy en da. +As que esa es la primera razn: las polticas de tolerancia cero y la forma en que se exteriorizan. +Otra razn por la que la cultura de los nios est desfasada de la cultura escolar es que hay pocos maestros. +Si tienen menos de 15 aos no saben qu es un maestro porque en los ltimos 10 aos la cantidad de maestros en las aulas de primaria se redujo a la mitad. +Pasamos del 14% al 7%. +Eso significa que el 93% de quienes ensean a nuestros nios en las aulas de primaria son mujeres. +Y cul es el problema con eso? +Las mujeres son geniales. S, absolutamente. +Pero los modelos masculinos para los nios que les digan que est bien ser inteligente -tienen paps, tienen pastores, tienen lderes Cub Scout, pero en ltima instancia, 6 horas al da, 5 das por semana, estn en el aula. Y en la mayora de esas aulas no hay hombres. +Y entonces piensan que ese no es un lugar para nios. +Que es un lugar para nias. +No soy muy bueno para esto as que supongo mejor ser jugar a los videojuegos o hacer deporte o algo as, porque es obvio que esto no es lo mo. +Esto no es para hombres, eso es bastante obvio. +Esa quiz sea una manera muy directa en la que vemos lo que sucede. +Pero algo no tan directo, -la falta de la presencia masculina en la cultura- tenemos un saln de profesores, y estn teniendo una conversacin sobre Joey y Johnny que se estaban pegando en el patio. +"Qu vamos a hacer con estos nios?" +La respuesta a esa pregunta depende de quin est sentado en torno a esa mesa. +Hay hombres en la mesa? +Hay mams que han criado nios en esa mesa? +Van a ver que la conversacin cambia en funcin de quin est sentado a la mesa. +La tercera razn por la que los nios hoy se distancian de la escuela es que el jardn de infancia es el antiguo segundo curso, amigos. +Hemos condensado peligrosamente el plan de estudios. +A los 3 aos mejor que uno sepa escribir el nombre de manera legible porque sino vamos a considerar que hay un retraso en el desarrollo. +Cuando llegues a primer curso deberas poder leer prrafos de texto que quiz tenga una imagen, o no, en un libro de unas 25 30 pginas. +De no hacerlo probablemente te van a poner en un programa especial de lectura. +Y si les preguntamos a las maestras del programa nos dirn: hay 4 5 nios por cada nia que se encuentra en el programa en los grados de primaria. +Y esto es un problema porque el mensaje que reciben los nios es: "tienes que hacer todo el tiempo lo que la maestra te pide". +El salario docente depende del xito en los programas gubernamentales, de la rendicin de cuentas, de las evaluaciones y de todas esas cosas. +As que la maestra tiene que encontrar la forma de que todos estos nios pasen el plan de estudios y las nias tambin. +Este plan de estudios comprimido es malo para los nios activos. +Y lo que termina pasando es que dice: "Por favor, sentaos, estad quietos, haced lo que os pido, seguid las reglas, administraos el tiempo, concentros, sed nias". +Eso es lo que ella les pide. +De manera indirecta eso es lo que les pide. +Por eso es un problema grave. De dnde viene esto? +Viene de nosotros. +Queremos que nuestros bebs lean a los 6 meses de edad. +Han visto los anuncios? +Queremos vivir en el lago Wobegon donde los nios son superiores a la media. Pero las consecuencias de esto sobre los nios no son saludables. +No es apropiado para su desarrollo y, sobre todo, es malo para los nios. +Entonces, qu hacemos? +Tenemos que ir a su encuentro, donde estn. +Tenemos que sumergirnos en la cultura del nio. +Tenemos que cambiar la mentalidad y aceptar a los nios en la escuela primaria. +Concretamente, podemos hacer algunas cosas muy especficas. +Podemos disear mejores juegos. +La mayora de los juegos educativos que hay hoy en da son tarjetas didcticas. +Son ejercicios y prcticas glorificadas. +No tienen esa narrativa profunda y rica que tienen los videojuegos que realmente atrapan, esa que le interesa a los nios. +Por eso tenemos que disear mejores juegos. +Tenemos que hablar con padres y docentes, con las juntas escolares y los polticos. +Debemos asegurarnos de que la gente ve que se necesitan hombres en las aulas. +Tenemos que analizar con cuidado las polticas de tolerancia cero. +Tienen sentido? +Tenemos que pensar la manera de descomprimir el plan de estudios, si es posible, tratando de devolver a los nios un espacio que les resulte cmodo. +Tienen que darse todas esas conversaciones. +Hay algunos grandes ejemplos de escuelas... hace poco el New York times habl de una escuela: +un diseador de juegos de la Nueva Escuela organiz una escuela maravillosa con videojuegos. +Pero slo comprende a unos pocos nios. Pero esto no es muy deseable. +Tenemos que cambiar la cultura y los sentimientos de polticos, miembros de la junta escolar, y de los padres. Qu y de qu manera aceptamos hoy en nuestras escuelas. +Tenemos que encontrar ms dinero para el diseo de juegos. +Porque los buenos juegos, los muy buenos, cuestan dinero y World of Warcraft tiene bastante presupuesto. +La mayora de los juegos educativos no lo tienen. +Por dnde empezamos? Mis colegas Mike Petner, Shawn Vashaw y yo comenzamos tratando de analizar las actitudes docentes y averiguar qu opinan de los juegos, qu dicen al respecto. +Y descubrimos que hablan de los nios de la escuela a los que les gusta jugar de manera bastante denigrante. +Dicen: "Oh, s. Siempre estn hablando de eso. +Estn hablando de los puntos de sus pequeas acciones, de sus pequeos logros o insignias al mrito, o lo que sea que ganan. +Y siempre estn hablando de eso". +Y dicen estas cosas como si estuviera bien. +Pero si fuera nuestra cultura piensen cmo nos sentiramos. +Es muy incmodo estar del lado receptor de ese tipo de lenguaje. +Se ponen nerviosos con todo lo que tenga algo que ver con la violencia debido a las polticas de tolerancia cero. +Estn seguros que los padres y las autoridades nunca van a aceptar nada. +Por eso tenemos que pensar en analizar las actitudes docentes y encontrar maneras de cambiarlas, para que los docentes sean mucho ms abiertos y acepten las culturas de los nios en sus aulas. +Porque, en ltima instancia, si no lo hacemos vamos a tener nios que dejen la escuela primaria diciendo: "Bueno, supongo que eso era un lugar slo para nias; +no era para m, +por eso tengo que jugar o hacer deporte". +Si cambiamos estas cosas, si prestamos atencin a estas cosas, y volvemos a cautivar a los nios en su aprendizaje van a dejar la primaria diciendo: "soy inteligente". +Gracias. +Acabo de hacer algo que nunca antes haba hecho. +Pas una semana en alta mar en un barco de investigacin. +No soy cientfica, pero estaba acompaando a un magnfico grupo de investigadores de la Universidad del Sur de Florida que ha seguido el recorrido del petrleo de la BP en el Golfo de Mxico. +A propsito, este es el barco en que estbamos. +Los cientficos a quienes acompa no estudiaban los efectos del petrleo, y los productos para dispersarlo, en cosas grandes; los pjaros, las tortugas, los delfines, lo glamoroso. +Estaban interesados en cuerpos realmente pequeos que son ingeridos por otros no tan pequeos y que eventualmente son tomados por otros mayores. +Y lo que estn encontrando es que incluso pequesimas cantidades de petrleo y de productos para dispersin pueden ser muy txicos para el fitoplancton, lo cual es muy mala noticia, porque bastante vida depende de ello +Contra lo que hemos odo en los ltimos meses como el 75 por ciento de ese petrleo, como por arte de magia, desapareci y no habra que preocuparse por ello. El desastre todava est en creciendo, +metindose en la cadena alimenticia. +Pero esto no debera sorprendernos. +Rachel Carson-- La madrina del ambientalismo moderno nos lo advirti. en 1962 +Seal que los encargados del control, as los llamaba, que han fumigado ciudades y campos con insecticidas txicos como el DDT, slo estaban tratando de matar pequeos organismos, insectos, no a los pjaros. +Pero se les olvid algo: que los pjaros se alimentan de gusanos, que los petirrojos comen muchos gusanos ahora saturados con DDT. +As, los huevos de los petirrojos no llegaron a empollar, los pjaros cantores moran masivamente, y las ciudades se volvieron silenciosas. +De ah, el ttulo La Primavera Silenciosa. +He tratado de puntualizar qu es lo que me hace regresar al Golfo de Mxico. Porque como canadiense que soy, no puedo establecer lazos ancestrales. +Me parece que lo que sucede es que tal vez no hemos llegado a trminos con lo que significa este desastre, con lo que significa presenciar un agujero desgarrado en nuestro mundo, con lo que significa observar cmo el contenido de la Tierra se derrama, en televisin, en vivo, 24 horas al da, por meses. +Pero an ms sorprendente que la ferocidad que emana de ese pozo, es la negligencia con la que se liber toda esa energa - el descuido y la falta de planificacin, que caracteriz toda la operacin; desde la perforacin, hasta las actividades de limpieza. +Si hay algo que la acuosa norma para mejorar de la BP, ha dejado en claro, es que, como cultura, hemos llegado demasiado lejos al arriesgar cosas tan valiosas e irremplazables, y lo hacemos sin un plan para de retorno, sin una estrategia de escape. +Y la de BP no fue la primera experiencia en esta materia, en aos recientes. +Nuestros lderes, en caones de guerra, se cuentan a ellos mismos historias felices de nimiedades y desfiles de bienvenida, +y luego son aos para controlar los daos mortales, como Frankestein en asedios y resurgimientos, y en contrainsurgencias, y nuevamente, sin ningun plan de salida, +Nuestros magos financieros siempre caen vctimas de esa autoconfianza; para convencerse de que la ltima burbuja es un nueva clase de mercado; que nunca desciende. +Y cuando inevitablemente baja, el mejor y ms brillante acceso al equivalente financiero del disparo de basura - en este caso, es arrojar grandes cantidades de los escasos dineros pblicos por un agujero diferente. +En el caso de la BP, el agujero se tapona, al menos temporalmente, pero no sin antes haber costado un precio enorme. +Tenemos que descubrir por qu seguimos dejando que esto pase; porque estamos en el medio de lo que puede ser nuestra mayor apuesta de todas: hay que decidir qu hacer, o dejar de hacer, sobre el cambio climtico. +Ahora, como ustedes saben, se pasa mucho tiempo en este pas y en el mundo entero, en la discusin sobre el clima. Sobre la pregunta, Qu tal que los cientficos del IPC estn totalmente euivocados? +O mejor, otra pregunta ms pertinente; como dice la fsica de MIT, Evelyn Fox Keller, Qu tal que esos cientficos tengan razn? +Es mejor errar por precaucin. +Ms claramente, la carga de la prueba de si una prctica es segura, no debera colocarse en el pblico que saldra perjudicado, sino en la industria que busca su beneficio. +Pero las polticas en el mundo capitalista, si es que existen - no se basan en la precaucin, sino en el anlisis de costo-beneficio, buscando las decisiones que, segn los economistas, tengan el menor impacto en el producto interno bruto. +As que en lugar de preguntar, como aconseja la prudencia, qu ser lo que hay que hacer, en el menor tiempo posible, para evitar una posible catstrofe?, hacemos otras preguntas extraas como estas: Hasta cundo podremos esperar antes de comenzar seriamente a reducir las emisiones? +Podemos dejar esto para el 2020, para el 2030, o el 2050? +O nos preguntamos, Cunto ms podremos dejar que se caliente el planeta y an sobrevivir? +Podremos ir hasta dos grados, tres grados, o a donde actualmente nos dirigimos, cuatro grados centgrados? +viene de los economistas que imponen sus ideas de tipo mecnico en la ciencia. +Lo que sucede es que simplemente no sabemos en qu momento, el calentamiento que estamos produciendo se volver completamente aplastante por efecto de los rizos de retroalimentacin. +As que, nuevamente, por qu tomamos estos riesgos irracionales con algo tan valioso? +Una cantidad de explicaciones pueden surgir ahora en la mente, como la codicia. +Esta es una explicacin muy comn, con mucho de verdad. Porque, como sabemos, si se asumen grandes riesgos, se puede ganar mucho dinero. +Otra explicacin que se oye con frecuencia sobre la negligencia, es por arrogancia. +Y la codicia y la arrogancia estn ntimamente relacionadas con la negligencia. +Por ejemplo, si se trata de un banquero de 35 aos de edad que gana 100 veces ms que un cirujano de cerebro, se necesita una explicacin, se necesita un razonamiento que haga aparecer bien esa disparidad. +Y en realidad no hay muchas opciones. +O se trata de un estafador increblemente hbil, que se est saliendo con la suya que engaa al sistema o a lo mejor es un nio prodigio nunca antes visto en el mundo. +Y las dos opciones el nio prodigio y el estafador producen demasiada auto confianza y por tanto, lo hacen ms propenso a tomar mayores riesgos en el futuro. +Y a propsito, Tony Hayward, el anterior ejecutivo jefe de la BP, tena una placa en su escritorio con esta frase como inspiracin: Qu trataras de hacer si supieras que no puedes fallar? +Esta es una placa bastante comn, y como ustedes son un grupo de gente exitosa podra yo apostar que varios de los presentes tienen esa misma placa. +No les de pena. +Bueno, tenemos la codicia, tenemos el exceso de confianza y la arrogancia, pero como estamos aqu entre TEDwomen, consideremos otro factor que puede estar contribuyendo aunque de manera pequea a esta negligencia social. +No me voy a detener mucho en este punto pero varios estudios indican que, como inversionistas, las mujeres somos menos propensas que los hombres, a tomar riesgos innecesarios, precisamente porque, como ya hemos odo, tenemos menor tendencia a sufrir de exceso de confianza que los hombres. +Por consiguiente el ser menos bien pagadas y menos elogiadas tiene sus aspectos positivos al menos para la sociedad. +La otra cara de esta moneda es que si constantemente se le dice a alguien que es talentoso, que es el elegido, y que naci para dirigir, esto es claramente malo para la sociedad. +Y este problema llammoslo el riesgo del privilegio pienso que nos acerca a la raz de la negligencia colectiva. +Porque ninguno de nosotros al menos en el hemisferio Norte ni hombres ni mujeres, estamos completamente exentos de este mensaje. +Esto es de lo que quiero decir. +Ya sea que activamente creamos en ello o que concientemente lo rechacemos, nuestra cultura permanece adherida a ciertas formas de arquetipos sobre nuestra supremaca por encima de los dems y de la naturaleza. El cuento de la recin descubierta frontera y de los pioneros conquistadores, el cuento del destino sealado, el cuento del apocalipsis y la salvacin. +Y ya cuando uno piensa que estas ideas se estn desvaneciendo en la historia y que ya han sido superadas, reaparecen en los lugares ms extraos. +Por ejemplo, me encontr este anuncio en el exterior del bao de mujeres en el aeropuerto de Kansas City. +Es sobre el nuevo celular resistente de Motorota, y s, de verdad dice, Dale una cachetada a la madre naturaleza +Y no lo traigo simplemente para molestar a Motorota es solo una gratificacin. +Lo traigo porque no son patrocinadores, verdad? porque a su manera, es un versin burda de nuestra historia. +Cacheteamos a la madre naturaleza y ganamos. Y siempre ganamos, porque nuestro destino es dominar a la naturaleza. +Y este no es el nico cuento de hadas que nos decimos a nosotros mismos, respecto a la naturaleza. +Hay otro, igualmente importante, sobre cmo esa misma madre naturaleza es tan cuidadosa y tan resistente que no podremos nunca hacerle ninguna mella en su inmensidad. +Oigamos de nuevo a Tony Hayward. +El Golfo de Mexico es uno ocano muy grande. +La cantidad de petrleo y de agentes dispersantes que le hemos aadido es mnima comparada con el volumen total de agua. +En otras palabras, el ocano es tan grande; que puede aceptarlo. +Esta suposicin de lo ilimitado es lo que hace posible que tomemos con tanta negligencia los riesgos actuales. +Porque este es el principal argumento: No importa lo mucho que daemos, siempre habr ms ms agua, ms tierra, ms recursos por explotar. +Una nueva burbuja reemplazar la anterior. +Vendrn nuevas tecnologas para arreglar los daos que causamos con la anterior. +En cierta forma, esta es la historia de la colonizacin de las Americas, de la frontera supuestamente inagotable a donde escaparon los europeos. +Y es tambin la historia del capitalismo moderno. Porque fue la riqueza de estas tierras lo que dio origen a nuestro sistema econmico, el cual no puede sobrevivir sin un crecimiento perpetuo y un reabastecimiento sin lmites en las nuevas fronteras. +Ahora, el problema es que este cuento siempre fue una mentira. +La Tierra siempre ha tenido lmites, +simplemente estaban ms all de nuestra vista. +Y ahora ya estamos golpeando esos lmites en muchos frentes. +Creo que lo sabemos bien, aunque nos encontramos atrapados en una forma de rizo narrativo. +No solo seguimos diciendo y repitiendo los mismos fbulas desgastadas, solo que ahora lo hacemos con tal frenes y tal furia que, francamente, estamos llegando al lmite. +De qu otra manera se puede uno explicar el espacio cultural ocupado por Sarah Palin. +Por una parte, nos exhorta a perforar y perforar porque si Dios puso esos recursos en el suelo es para que los aprovechemos, y por otra parte, glorifica la vida silvestre de la belleza inalterada de Alaska, en su exitoso programa de telerrealidad. +El mensaje gemelo es tan reconfortante como demencial. +Ignore esos temores sigilosos de que finalmente hemos llegado al fondo. +Sigue siendo cierto que no hay lmites. +Siempre habr otra frontera. +As que, deje de preocuparse y siga comprando. +Ojal esto fuera solo de Sarah Palin y su programa de telerrealidad. +En crculos ambientales a menudo omos que, en lugar de pasarse a renovables, continuamos con lo mismo. +Desafortunadamente, esta afirmacin es demasiado optimista. +La verdad es que ya hemos agotado tanto de los fsiles combustibles de fcil acceso que hemos llegado a una fase mucho ms arriesgada, la de la energa extrema. +O sea que se perfora en busca de petrleo bajo las aguas ms profundas hasta en el helado Ocano rtico en donde una operacin de limpieza puede ser imposible. +Significa fraccionamiento hidrulico en gran escala para gas y minera masiva a cielo abierto para carbn, cuyos resultados todava no conocemos. +Y para mayor controversia, implica arenas de alquitrn +Siempre me sorprende lo poco que la gente de fuera de Canad sabe sobre las arenas de alquitrn de Alberta, que este ao van a llegar a ser la fuente nmero uno de petrleo importado para los Estados Unidos. +Vale la pena tomarnos un momento para entender esta prctica, porque creo que habla de la negligencia y del camino por donde vamos como si fuera poca cosa. +Aqu es donde reposan las arenas de alquitrn bajo uno de los ltimos esplendorosos bosques boreales. +El crudo no es un lquido; +no se puede simplemente perforar un agujero y extraerlo bombeando. +La arena de alquitrn es slida, mezclada con el suelo. +As que para llegarle primero hay que deshacerse de los rboles +Luego se arranca la capa superior del suelo para llegar a la arena con petrleo. +El proceso requiere una gran cantidad de agua, que ms tarde se bombea a grandes pozos llenos de txicos. +Estas son muy malas noticias para los indgenas locales que viven aguas abajo y que reportan tasas de cncer, aterradoramente elevadas. +Ahora, al mirar estas imgenes, no es fcil comprender la magnitud de esta operacin, que ya se puede ver desde el espacio y que puede llegar a crecer a un rea del tamao de Inglaterra. +Me parece que se facilita, si se observan los camiones de descarga que mueven la tierra, los ms grandes jams fabricados. +Eso es una persona junto a la rueda. +Quiero aclarar que esto no es perforacin para petrleo, +ni siquiera es minera. +Es desollar la tierra. +Enormes, paisajes frtiles estn siendo destrudos dejndolos de un gris monocromtico. +Debo admitir que lo que me preocupa ya sera abominable an si no se emitiera ni una sola partcula de carbn. +Pero la verdad es que, en promedio, para convertir esa porquera en petrleo crudo se produce como el triple de gases contaminantes que lo que se hara con petrleo convencional en Canad. +De qu otra manera se puede describir esto, sino como una forma de demencia masiva? +Ahora que ya sabemos que necesitamos aprender a vivir en la superficie del planeta, de la energa del sol, del viento y de las olas, estamos cavando frenticamente para llegar al material ms sucio y ms contaminante que se pueda imaginar. +El cuento del crecimiento ilimitado, nos ha traido hasta aqu, a este agujero negro en el centro de mi pas un lugar de tanto dolor planetario que, como el derrame de la BP, solo se puede soportar mirarlo un momento. +Como han demostrado Jared Diamond y otros, as es como las civilizaciones se suicidan, apretando el pie sobre el acelerador en el momento exacto en que deberan estar aplicando los frenos. +El problema es que nuestro cuentista tambin tiene una repuesta para esto. +En el ltimo momento, seremos salvados tal como en las pelculas de Hollywood, igual que en "Rapture". +Y claro, nuestra religin secular es la tecnologa. +Ustedes probablemente han visto ms y ms titulares como estos. +La idea que respalda esta forma de geoingeniera, como se le llama, es que, a medida que el planeta se calienta, podremos disparar sulfatos y partculas de aluminio a la estratosfera para reflejar parte de los rayos solares de regreso hacia el espacio y as, enfriar el planeta. +El plan ms irracional y no lo estoy inventando yo sera poner, lo que es esencialmente una manguera de jardn a 30 kilmetros de altura, en el cielo, suspendida por globos, para arrojar dixido de azufre. +O sea, resolver el problema de la contaminacin, con ms contaminacin. +Pinsenlo, como el ltimo disparo de basura. +Los cientficos serios que participan en este estudio todos insisten en que estas tcnicas nunca han sido ensayadas. +No se sabe si funcionarn, y no tienen ni idea qu clase de aterradores efectos secundarios pueden desatar. +Sin embargo, la simple mencin de la geoingeniera es bien recibida en ciertos crculos particularmente, en los medios de comunicacin con alivio entintado de euforia. +Se ha alcanzado una clave de escape. +Se ha hallado una nueva frontera. +Ms importante an, despus de todo, no tendramos que cambiar nuestro estilo de vida. +Se ve que para algunas personas, el salvador es un tipo de tnica ondulante. +Para otros, es alguien con una manguera de jardn. +Necesitamos urgentemente otros razonamientos. +Necesitamos historias que reemplacen esos cuentos lineales de crecimiento ilimitado con argumentos circulares que nos recuerden que lo que se va, regresa, +que esta es nuestra nica vivienda; +que no hay clave de escape. +Llmesele karma, o llamenlo fsica o accin y reaccin, pueden llamarlo cautela: el principio que nos recuerde que la vida es demasiado valiosa para arriesgarla por ninguna ganancia. +Gracias. +Es probable que ustedes no lo sepan pero estn celebrando un aniversario conmigo. +No estoy casada, pero hace un ao hoy despert de un largo coma de un mes despus de un trasplante doble de pulmn. +Es una locura, lo s. +Gracias. +Seis aos antes de eso, yo estaba empezando mi carrera como cantante de pera en Europa; cuando me diagnosticaron hipertensin pulmonar idioptica. conocida tambin como HP. +Esto ocurre cuando las venas pulmonares se engruesan provocando que el lado derecho del corazn trabaje tiempo extra y ocasionando lo que yo llamo el efecto Grinch invertido. +Mi corazn era tres veces y media ms grande. +La actividad fsica se hace ms difcil para las personas con esta condicin y con frecuencia despus de dos o cinco aos mueren. +Acud a una especialista, alguien de primer nivel en el rea y me dijo que tena que dejar de cantar. +Me dijo: "Esas notas altas te van a matar". +Aunque no tena pruebas mdicas que respaldaran su afirmacin de que haba una relacin entre las arias opersticas y la hipertensin pulmonar, ella estaba rotundamente convencida de que estaba cantando mi propio obituario. +Estaba muy limitada por mi condicin, fsicamente, +pero no estaba limitada cuando cantaba. Cuando el aire sala de mis pulmones, atravesaba mis cuerdas vocales y pasaba por mis labios como sonido... es lo ms cercano que he experimentado a la transcendencia. +Y slo por una corazonada de otra persona yo no iba a renunciar. +Afortunadamente conoc a Reda Girgis, parco y seco como un pan tostado, pero l y su equipo en John Hopkins no slo queran que sobreviviera sino que queran que tuviera una vida significativa, +lo cual implica hacer concesiones. +Yo soy de Colorado, +a ms de mil metros de altitud, ah crec con 10 hermanos y hermanas y dos padres adorables. +Y la altitud exacerbaba mis sntomas, +entonces me mud a Baltimore para estar cerca de mis mdicos y me inscrib en un conservatorio cercano. +No poda caminar tanto como sola, por lo que opt por tacones de 13 cm. +Dej la sal, me hice vegetariana y comenc a tomar grandes dosis de sildenafil, tambin conocido como Viagra. +Mi padre y mi abuelo siempre estaban buscando lo ms novedoso en terapias tradicionales o alternativas para la HP, pero despus de seis meses no poda recorrer un monte, no poda subir unos escalones, +apenas poda mantenerme en pie sin sentir que estaba por desmayarme. +Me hicieron una cateterizacin cardiaca para medir la presin pulmonar arterial interna que se supone debe estar entre 15 y 20: +la ma estaba en 146. +Me gusta hacer las cosas a lo grande y esto significaba otra cosa: existe un tratamiento de caballo para la hipertensin pulmonar llamado Flolan, que no slo es una droga, sino una forma de vida. +Los mdicos insertan un catter en el pecho que est conectado a una bomba que pesa cerca de unos dos kilos. +Todos los das, las 24 horas, la bomba est a tu lado administrando medicina directa al corazn No es una medicina particularmente deseada en muchos sentidos, +esta es una lista de sus efectos secundarios: si comes demasiada sal, como un sndwich de crema de cacahuate y mermelada, probablemente termines en cuidados intensivos. +Si pasas por un detector de metales, es probable que mueras. +Si la medicina tiene una burbuja, (porque la tienes que mezclar cada maana) y se queda ah, es probable que mueras. +Si se te acaba la medicina, definitivamente mueres. +Nadie quiere usar el Flolan, +pero cuando lo necesit, fue un regalo de dios. +En unos das, pude volver a caminar, +en unas semanas, estaba actuando; en unos meses, debut en el Centro Kennedy. +La bomba era un poco estorbosa cuando actuaba, por lo que la sujetaba en mi muslo interno con la ayuda de una faja y vendas. +Literalmente hice cientos de viajes sola en el elevador metiendo la bomba en mis medias, deseando que las puertas no se abrieran repentinamente +y que el tubo no se saliera de mi pecho. Era una pesadilla para los diseadores de vestuario. +Me gradu en el 2006 y obtuve una beca para regresar a Europa. +Unos das despus de llegar conoc a un maravilloso y viejo director que empez a darme muchos papeles. +En poco tiempo, me estaba desplazando entre Budapest, Miln y Florencia. +Aunque estaba atada a esta fea e indeseada mascota mecnica de alto mantenimiento, mi vida era como la parte feliz de una pera muy complicada pero en el buen sentido. +Entonces en febrero de 2008, mi abuelo pas a mejor vida. +Fue una figura importante en nuestras vidas y lo quisimos muchsimo. +Ciertamente eso no me prepar para lo que vendra +siete semanas despus. Recib una llamada de mi familia, +mi padre haba tenido un catastrfico accidente en auto y haba muerto. +A los 24, mi muerte no hubiera sido una sorpresa, +pero la suya bueno, la nica forma de expresar lo que sent es decir que precipit el deterioro de mi salud. +Contra el deseo de mis mdicos y familiares, yo necesitaba ir al funeral, +tena que decir adis de alguna forma o manera. +Y pronto mostr seales de fallas en el corazn y tuve que regresar al nivel del mar sabiendo que al hacerlo probablemente nunca vera mi hogar de nuevo. +Cancel casi todos mis compromisos de ese verano excepto uno en Tel Aviv al que fui. +Despus de una funcin apenas poda arrastrarme del teatro al taxi. +Me sent y sent la sangre bajar por mi cara y en el calor del desierto, me estaba congelando. +Mis dedos empezaron a ponerse azules y estaba como qu est pasando aqu? +Oa el golpeteo de las vlvulas de mi corazn al abrir y cerrarse. +El taxi se par, levant mi cuerpo sintiendo cada gramo de mi peso conforme caminaba hacia el elevador, +entr en mi departamento cayndome, me arrastr hacia el bao en donde encontr el problema: haba olvidado mezclar la parte ms importante de mi medicina. +Me estaba muriendo. Y si no haca la mezcla pronto no saldra del departamento viva. +Empec a mezclar y sent como si todo fuera a caer de un hoyo a otro, pero segu mezclando. +Finalmente, cuando mezcl la ultima botella y la ltima burbuja hubo salido, conect la bomba al tubo y me qued tirada esperando que entrara lo suficientemente rpido, +si no, vera a mi padre ms rpido de lo esperado. +Por fortuna en unos minutos vi aparecer el distintivo sarpullido en mis piernas, que es un efecto secundario del medicamento, y supe que estaba bien. +En mi familia no somos nada miedosos, pero estaba espantada. +Regres a los Estados Unidos pensando que volvera a Europa, pero en una cateterizacin cardiaca encontraron que no ira a ningn lado ms all de un viaje por mi vida al hospital John Hopkins. +Haba actuado aqu y all, pero conforme mi condicin se deterioraba tambin lo haca mi voz. +Mi mdico quiso que me apuntara en la lista para un trasplante de pulmn +Yo no quera. +Dos amigos mos haban fallecido recientemente meses despus de tener cirugas importantes, +aunque tambin conoc a un joven con HP que muri mientras esperaba un trasplante. +Quera vivir, +pensaba que las clulas madres eran una buena opcin, pero no estaban desarrolladas al punto en que pudiera beneficiarme de ellas todava. +Tom una pausa oficial en el canto y acud a la clnica Cleveland para una reevaluacin, por tercera vez en cinco aos, para un trasplante. +Estaba sentada sin mucho entusiasmo hablando con el cirujano principal de trasplantes y le pregunt que si necesitaba un trasplante qu poda hacer para prepararme. +Me dijo: "Ser feliz. +Una paciente feliz es una paciente sana". +Fue como que con un solo golpe verbal haba penetrado mis pensamientos sobre la vida, la medicina y Confucio. +Todava no quera un trasplante pero al mes estaba de vuelta en el hospital con enormes [no claro] patas de elefante... muy atractivo. +Era una falla del corazn derecho. +Finalmente decid que era hora de hacerle caso a mi doctor. +Era mi hora de ir a Cleveland y empezar la agonizante espera de una donacin compatible. +Pero a la maana siguiente, mientras estaba en el hospital, recib una llamada. +Era mi mdica de Cleveland, Marie Budev, +tenan los pulmones, +eran de Texas... +y eran compatibles. +Todo el mundo estaba feliz por m excepto yo. +Porque a pesar de sus problemas, me haba pasado toda mi vida entrenando mis pulmones y no estaba particularmente entusiasmada por renunciar a ellos. +Vol a Cleveland y mi familia se apur para llegar con la esperanza de verme para decir lo que sabamos podra ser el adis final. +Pero los rganos no esperan y entr a ciruga antes de poder decir adis. +Lo ltimo que recuerdo fue que estaba acostada en una sbana blanca dicindole a mi cirujana que necesitaba ver a mi mam otra vez y que por favor intentara salvar mi voz. +Ca en un mundo de sueos apocalpticos. +Durante una ciruga de trece horas y media me fui en dos ocasiones, me transfundieron casi 40 litros de sangre. +Mi cirujana me dijo que este haba sido uno de los trasplantes ms difciles que haba realizado en sus 20 aos de carrera. +Dejaron mi pecho abierto dos semanas. +Se poda ver mi gigantesco corazn palpitando. +Una docena de mquinas me mantenan viva. +Una infeccin atac mi piel. +Yo esperaba que mi voz se hubiera salvado pero mis mdicos saban que los tubos de respiracin que bajaban por mi garganta quiz ya la haban destrozado. +Si permanecan ah, no habra forma de que volviera a cantar. +Entonces mi mdica busc al "ENT", al mejor mdico en la clnica y lo trajo para que me operara y quitara los tubos de mis cuerdas vocales, +pero el tipo dijo que eso me matara. +Entonces mi propia cirujana realiz la operacin, en un ltimo intento desesperado por salvar mi voz. +Aunque mi mami no pudo decirme adis antes de la operacin nunca dejo de estar a mi lado en los meses de recuperacin que siguieron. +Y si quieren un ejemplo de perseverancia, entereza y fuerza en un hermoso paquetito, lo encontrarn en ella. +Hace un ao en este mismo da despert. +Pesaba unos 40 kilos, +docenas de tubos entraban y salan de mi cuerpo, +no poda caminar ni hablar, ni comer ni moverme, y evidentemente no poda cantar. No poda respirar inclusive pero cuando alc la mirada y vi a mi madre no pude ms que sonrer. +Ya sea por una camioneta o una falla cardiaca o pulmones defectuosos, la muerte ocurre. +Pero la vida no es simplemente evitar la muerte cierto? +Se trata de de vivir. +Las condiciones mdicas no niegan la condicin humana +y cuando se le permite a la gente seguir sus pasiones, los mdicos encontrarn que tienen mejores pacientes, ms felices y ms sanos. +Mis padres estaban totalmente angustiados por mi ir y venir en audiciones, viajes, funciones por todos lados, pero saban que era mucho mejor para m hacer eso que preocuparme de mi propia mortalidad todo el tiempo, +y estoy tan agradecida por eso. +Este verano pasado cuando estaba corriendo, cantando, bailando y jugando con mis sobrinas y sobrinos, mis hermanas y hermanos y mi madre y mi abuela en las Rocosas del Colorado, no poda ms que pensar en aquella doctora que me dijo que no poda cantar. +Le quisiera decir a ella y les digo a ustedes que debemos dejar de permitir que las enfermedades nos divorcien de nuestros sueos. +Cuando lo hagamos encontraremos pacientes que no slo sobrevivirn sino que prosperarn. +Y algunos de nosotros incluso cantaremos. +[Cantando en francs] Gracias. +Gracias. +Y quisiera darle las gracias a mi pianista, Monica Lee. +Muchas gracias. +Gracias. +Me honra estar aqu y poder hablarles de este tema, que considero de capital importancia. +Hemos hablado mucho del impacto tan horrible que tiene el plstico sobre el planeta y otras especies, adems de sobre las personas y sobre todo entre los pobres. +Y tanto en la produccin de plstico como en su consumo y eliminacin son los pobres quienes pagan el pato. +La gente se enoj mucho, y con buenas razones, cuando lo del derrame de petrleo de la BP. La gente pensaba: "Oh, Dios mo, +esto es terrible. El petrleo en el agua +va a destruir todos los ecosistemas acuticos. +Tambin las personas van a sufrir. +Es algo horrible que el petrleo vaya a daar a la gente del Golfo". +Pero nadie piensa en qu hubiera pasado si el petrleo no se hubiera derramado. +Y si hubiera llegado a donde deba llegar? +Hubiera terminado quemndose en los motores y agravando el calentamiento global. Pero adems existe un lugar llamado el "callejn del cncer". Se llama as porque la industria petroqumica transforma el petrleo en plstico y durante el proceso mata a personas. +Acorta las vidas de quienes viven en el Golfo. +El petrleo y sus derivados no solo causan problemas cuando hay un derrame, tambin cuando no lo hay. +Y a menudo no apreciamos el precio que los pobres han de pagar para que nosotros tengamos productos desechables. +Otra cosa que no tenemos en cuenta es que los pobres no solo sufren en la fase de produccin, +tambin sufren en la fase de consumo. +Quienes tenemos un cierto nivel econmico disfrutamos de algo llamado "eleccin". +No queremos ser pobres ni estar arruinados, queremos tener un trabajo para as tener libertad de eleccin econmica. +Podemos decidir no utilizar productos que contengan plstico venenoso o peligroso. +Pero los pobres no pueden elegir. +La gente de bajos ingresos es la que normalmente les compra a sus hijos productos que contienen sustancias qumicas peligrosas. +La misma gente que acaba usando e ingiriendo una cantidad desproporcionada de plstico venenoso. +Y otros dicen: "Bueno, pues que compren otros productos". +El problema de ser pobre es que no tienes esa opcin. +A menudo solo puedes comprar los ms baratos, +y los productos ms baratos suelen ser los ms peligrosos. +Y como si eso fuera poco, no solo en la fase de produccin el plstico causa cncer, como en el "callejn del cncer", y acorta vidas, tambin perjudica a los nios en la fase de consumo. Y en la fase de eliminacin, de nuevo, son los pobres los que pagan el pato. +A menudo pensamos que hacemos algo bueno: +ests en la oficina bebindote una botella de agua o lo que sea y piensas "Voy a tirar esto. +No, voy a hacerlo bien y +voy a tirarla en los residuos inorgnicos". +Piensas "La tir en la de los inorgnicos". Y entonces miras a tu colega y le dices: "Cretino, la tiraste +en los residuos orgnicos". +Y no es ms que un divertimento moral. +Nos sentimos muy bien: +quiz seamos autoindulgentes. +Quizs Uds. no, a m s me pasa. +Y tenemos ese momento de gran satisfaccin moral. +Creo que la idea mental que tenemos es la de alguien tomando esa botella y dicindole: "Ay, botellita! +Nos alegra tanto verte, botellita". +"Has hecho muy bien tu trabajo". +Recibe un pequeo masaje y una medalla para botellas. +Y le preguntan: "Qu te gustara hacer ahora?". +Y ella responde "Es que no lo s". +Pero eso no es lo que ocurre. +La botella termina incinerada. +Reciclar plstico en muchos pases en desarrollo significa incinerarlo, quemarlo, y eso libera cantidades enormes de productos qumicos txicos que, de nuevo, matan a personas. +As que son los pobres los que fabrican estos productos en centrales petroqumicas como el "callejn del cncer". Son los pobres los que ms consumen estos productos. Y son los pobres los que incluso al final, en el reciclado, terminan perjudicados. Nuestra adiccin a todo lo desechable acorta sus vidas. +Y ahora estarn pensando (porque s cmo son): "Todo esto es terrible para esta pobre gente. +Es espantoso lo que les est pasando. +Espero que alguien haga algo por ellos". +Pero lo que no entendemos es que... Aqu estamos en Los ngeles. +Trabajamos mucho para reducir el esmog de la ciudad de Los ngeles. +Adivinan qu ha pasado? +En Asia producen de manera muy contaminante porque las leyes medioambientales no protegen a la poblacin. Y entonces, todo el aire limpio de txicos que hemos conseguido aqu en California ha sido arruinado por el aire sucio que llega desde Asia. +As que nos afecta a todos. A todos nos concierne. +Solo que los pobres sufren primero y ms. +Pero la produccin contaminante, la quema de toxinas, la falta de leyes medioambientales en Asia... Todo esto est creando tanta polucin en el aire que cruza todo el ocano y arruina lo que habamos conseguido en California. +Estamos donde estbamos en los 70. +Todos compartimos un mismo planeta y debemos encontrar la raz de estos problemas. +En mi opinin, la raz de este problema es la idea misma de lo desechable. +Si logramos entender la relacin entre lo que le hacemos al planeta, envenenndolo y contaminndolo, y lo que les estamos haciendo a los pobres, podemos llegar a una nueva comprensin, inquietante pero tambin muy interesante. Si destrozamos el planeta, tambin destrozamos a la gente. +Pero si creamos un planeta en el que se respete a la gente, no podremos destrozar el planeta. +Es el momento de reconciliar la idea de la justicia social con la idea de la ecologa, y veremos que, al fin y al cabo, son la misma idea. +Y esa idea es la de que nada es desechable. +No tenemos recursos desechables. +No existen especies desechables. +Y tampoco existen personas desechables. +No tenemos un planeta de usar y tirar ni tampoco nios de usar y tirar. Todos somos valiosos. +Y tal y como empezamos a comprender esta idea bsica, surgen nuevas posibilidades de actuacin. +La biommesis, una ciencia emergente, ha llegado a ser una idea sobre la justicia social muy importante. +Para quienes oigan el trmino por primera vez, biommesis significa respetar la sabidura de todas las especies. +La democracia significa respetar la sabidura de todas las personas (ya profundizaremos). +Biommesis significa respetar la sabidura de todas las especies. +Parece ser que nuestra especie es bastante inteligente, +Nuestra gran corteza cerebral nos hace sentirnos orgullosos. +Pero si queremos crear algo duro pensamos: "Ya s, voy a crear una sustancia dura. +Utilizar bombas de vaco y hornos, extraer materiales de la tierra, calentar y envenenar cosas y contaminar, pero lograr crear algo duro. +Qu hbil soy!". Y si miras tras de ti, todo es destruccin. +Pero sabes qu? Sers muy inteligente, pero no tanto como una almeja. +Su caparazn es dura. +Sin bombas de vaco ni altos hornos, +sin polucin ni contaminacin. +Nos damos cuenta de que otra especie aprendi hace mucho tiempo a crear muchas de las cosas que nosotros necesitamos, pero usando procesos biolgicos que la naturaleza domina. +Lo que la biommesis nos ensea, lo que los cientficos por fin han visto es que podemos aprender mucho de otras especies. +No me refiero a hacer experimentos con ratas. +No me refiero a abusar de otras especies ms pequeas. +Quiero decir respetndolas, respetando lo que han conseguido. +Eso se llama biommesis, y nos puede ensear cmo producir sin desperdicios, sin contaminacin, de forma que podamos disfrutar de una alta calidad y un alto nivel de vida sin destrozar el planeta. +Esta idea de la biommesis, respetar la sabidura de todas las especies, combinada con la idea de la democracia y de la justicia social, respetar la sabidura y el valor de todas las personas, podra cambiar la sociedad. +Tendramos una economa diferente. +Tendramos una sociedad ecolgica de la que M. L. King estara orgulloso. +Ese debera ser nuestro objetivo. +Lo primero que tenemos que hacer es reconocer que producir tantas cosas desechables daa a las especies que mencionamos pero tambin corrompe nuestra sociedad. +Nos sentimos tan orgullosos en California. +Acabamos de votar y todo el mundo piensa "No, en nuestro estado no. +No s que habrn hecho los otros estados". +Tan orgullosos. +Y bueno, yo tambin. +Pero California no solo da ejemplo al mundo en lo ecolgico, tambin, desgraciadamente, damos muy mal ejemplo en otras cosas. +Tenemos uno de los ndices ms altos de encarcelamiento de Estados Unidos. +Es un reto moral para nosotros. +Nos apasiona rescatar desechos de los vertederos, pero a veces no nos apasiona tanto rescatar seres vivos, seres humanos. +Dira que vivimos en un pas... con el 5% de la poblacin mundial, y el 25% de los gases de efecto invernadero, pero tambin el 25% de los prisioneros del mundo. +Una de cada cuatro personas encarceladas en el mundo est encarcelada aqu en EE.UU. +Y eso concuerda con la idea que tenemos de que lo desechable est bien. +Pero todava, como movimiento que quiere ampliar su circunscripcin, que quiere crecer, que quiere incluir a personas de fuera de su entorno... Este movimiento, que intenta eliminar el plstico y cambiar la economa, se encuentra con la traba del recelo de los dems. +Gente que pregunta: "Cmo pueden sentir tanta pasin?". +Este movimiento, cmo puede sentir tanta pasin por que no existan productos ni materiales desechables, si acepta que existan vidas o comunidades desechables como la del "callejn del cncer"? +Ahora tenemos la oportunidad de sentirnos de verdad orgullosos. +Cuando discutimos temas como este, nos recuerda que tenemos que conectar con otros movimientos, ser ms inclusivos para as crecer. Y por fin salir de este dilema que nos vuelve locos. +Uds. son personas buenas y de buen corazn. +Cuando eran jvenes se preocupaban por el mundo y en algn momento alguien les dijo que deban elegir un problema y limitarse a ese. +Uno no puede amar al mundo entero: o trabaja con rboles o trabaja con inmigrantes. +Uno debe elegir y limitarse a un problema. +Se nos llega a decir: "Prefieres abrazar a un rbol o a un nio? Elige! +Prefieres abrazar a un rbol o a un nio? Elige!". +Cuando uno trabaja en asuntos como el del plstico se da cuenta de que todo est conectado y, afortunadamente, casi todos tenemos dos brazos. +Podemos abrazar ambos. +Muchas gracias. +Voy a empezar con un pequeo desafo, el desafo del tratamiento de datos de los datos que procesamos en cuestiones mdicas. +Realmente es un desafo enorme. +Y este es nuestro caballo de batalla: el escner de tomografas, el tomgrafo computado. +Es un dispositivo excepcional. +Usa rayos X, haces de rayos X, que giran muy rpido por todo el cuerpo humano. +Tarda unos 30 segundos en pasar por toda la mquina y genera como salida del proceso ingentes cantidades de informacin. +Por eso es una mquina excepcional que puede usarse para mejorar la asistencia sanitaria. Pero, como dije, tambin representa un desafo. +Y en esta imagen de aqu puede verse bien el desafo. +Se trata de la explosin de datos mdicos de hoy en da. +Tenemos este problema. +Retrocedamos en el tiempo. +Remontmonos unos aos en el tiempo y veamos qu suceda entonces. +Estas mquinas que salieron -empezaron a aparecer en los aos 70- escaneaban cuerpos humanos generando unas 100 imgenes del cuerpo. +Me he tomado la libertad, por una cuestin de claridad, de traducir eso a magnitudes de datos. +Eso correspondera a unos 50 Mb de datos, algo pequeo si pensamos en los datos que podemos manejar hoy en nuestros dispositivos mviles. +Si lo comparamos con las guas telefnicas es como una pila de un metro de guas telefnicas. +Viendo lo que estamos haciendo hoy con estas mquinas que tenemos podemos, en pocos segundos, obtener 24.000 imgenes de un cuerpo. Y eso equivaldra a unos 20 Gb de datos u 800 guas telefnicas. La pila de guas telefnicas sera de 200 metros. +Lo que est por suceder -lo estamos viendo, est empezando- es una tendencia tecnolgica que observamos ahora: se est comenzando a observar tambin la dimensin tiempo. +As, estamos capturando tambin la dinmica del cuerpo. +Supongamos que vamos a recolectar datos durante 5 segundos y eso corresponde a 1 terabyte de datos. Equivale a 800.000 guas, a una pila de 16 Km de guas, +para un solo paciente, un conjunto de datos. +A esto es a lo que nos enfrentamos. +Este es el desafo enorme que tenemos. +Y ya hoy en da esto representa 25.000 imgenes. +Imaginen esos das en los que los radilogos hacan la tarea. +Colocaban 25.000 imgenes hacan algo as como 25 mil veces "bien, bien, +ah est el problema!" +Ya no pueden hacer eso; resulta imposible. +Entonces tenemos que hacer algo un poquito ms inteligente. +Lo que hacemos es consolidar todos estos cortes. +Imaginen que hacen cortes del cuerpo en todas estas direcciones y luego tratan de consolidar los cortes en una pila de datos, en un bloque de datos. +Esto es lo que estamos haciendo. +Colocamos este gibabyte o terabyte de datos en este bloque. +Pero, claro, el bloque de datos contiene los rayos X absorbidos por todos los puntos del cuerpo humano. +Tenemos que encontrar una manera de ver las cosas que queremos ver y hacer transparentes las cosas que no queremos ver. +Hay que transformar los datos en algo que se parezca a esto. +Y esto es un desafo. +Lograr esto es un desafo enorme. +El uso de computadoras, si bien son cada vez ms rpidas y mejores, es un desafo tratar con gigabytes de datos, terabytes de datos, y extraer la informacin relevante. +Quiero ver el corazn, +quiero ver los vasos sanguneos, quiero ver el hgado, +incluso quiz encontrar un tumor en algunos casos. +Y es ah donde entra en juego mi pequea. +Esta es mi hija. +Esto es de las 9 de esta maana. +Est jugando con un videojuego, +con tan slo dos aos est en la gloria. +Ella es la fuerza motriz que impulsa el desarrollo de unidades de procesamiento grfico. +A medida que los nios juegan a los videojuegos los grficos se vuelven cada vez mejores. +As que, por favor, vuelvan a casa y dganle a los nios que jueguen ms porque eso es lo que necesito. +Lo que est dentro de esta mquina me permite hacer las cosas que hago con los datos mdicos. +En realidad estoy usando estos dispositivos, extraordinarios y pequeos. +Y, ya saben, me retrotraigo quiz 10 aos en el tiempo a cuando consegu los fondos para comprar mi primer equipo grfico. Era una mquina enorme. +Haba gabinetes de procesadores, almacenamiento, etc. +Pagu cerca de un milln de dlares por esa mquina. +Esa mquina hoy es tan rpida como mi iPhone. +Todos los meses salen nuevas tarjetas grficas. Estas son algunas de las ltimas versiones: NVIDIA, ATI, Intel est por ah tambin. +Y, ya saben, por unos cientos de dlares se consiguen componentes para el equipo informtico, y pueden hacerse cosas extraordinarias con estas tarjetas grficas. +Esto es lo que nos est permitiendo manejar la explosin de datos mdicos; esto y un trabajo muy ingenioso en materia de algoritmos, compresin de datos, y de extraccin de informacin relevante para las investigaciones en curso. +Ahora les voy a mostrar unos ejemplos de lo que puede hacerse. +Estos son datos capturados con un tomgrafo. +Pueden ver que se trata de datos completos. +Es una mujer. Se ve el cabello +y las estructuras individuales de la mujer. +Pueden ver que hay dispersin de rayos X en los dientes, en el metal de los dientes. +De all vienen todos estos artefactos. +De forma totalmente interactiva, con tarjetas grficas comunes, en un equipo normal, puedo hacer un plano de video. +Y como, por supuesto, tiene todos los datos puedo rotarlo, verlo desde distintos ngulos, y ver que esta mujer tena un problema. +Tena una hemorragia cerebral que se haba solucionado con un pequeo stent una espiral de metal que est sujetando el vaso. +Y con slo cambiar las funciones puedo decidir qu cosa va a ser transparente y qu es lo que se va a ver. +Puedo ver la estructura del crneo y que, bueno, este es el lugar donde abrieron el crneo de la mujer y all es donde intervinieron. +Son imgenes extraordinarias. +Son realmente de alta resolucin y nos muestran lo que podemos hacer hoy en da con las tarjetas grficas comunes. +Hemos hecho un uso intensivo de esto tratando de introducir gran cantidad de datos en el sistema. +Y una de las aplicaciones en las que hemos trabajado -esto atrajo la atencin del mundo entero- es la aplicacin de autopsias virtuales. +As que, de nuevo, analizando ingentes cantidades de datos pueden verse esos barridos de cuerpo entero. +Pasamos todo el cuerpo por este tomgrafo y en unos segundos obtenemos un conjunto de datos de todo el cuerpo. +Esto es de una autopsia virtual. +Pueden ver que gradualmente quito capas de piel. +Primero se vio la bolsa que cubra el cuerpo despus, al quitar la piel, se ven los msculos y finalmente puede verse la estructura sea de la mujer. +En este momento me gustara hacer hincapi en que, con el mayor de los respetos por las personas que van a ver, voy a mostrarles unos casos de autopsias virtuales as que con gran respeto por las personas que han muerto en circunstancias violentas voy a mostrarles estas imgenes. +En el caso forense ha habido aproximadamente 400 casos hasta el momento slo en la parte de Suecia de la que provengo, que ha sido objeto de autopsias virtuales durante los ltimos 4 aos. +La dinmica tpica de trabajo es as: +la polica decide -en la tarde, cuando llega un caso- decide, bueno, este es un caso que requiere autopsia. +Por la maana, entre las 6 y las 7 de la maana, se transporta el cuerpo en la bolsa de plstico hasta nuestro centro y se pasa por uno de los tomgrafos. +Luego el radilogo, junto con el patlogo y a veces con el cientfico forense, analizan los datos de salida y tienen una sesin conjunta. +Y entonces deciden qu hacer en la autopsia fsica real posterior. +Mirando algunos casos este es uno de los primeros casos que tuvimos. +Pueden ver los detalles del conjunto de datos; +tiene resolucin muy alta. Y gracias a nuestros algoritmos podemos analizar todos los detalles. +Y, de nuevo, es totalmente interactivo as que puede rotarse para analizar cosas en tiempo real en estos sistemas de aqu. +Sin revelar mucho sobre este caso, se trata de un accidente de trfico, un conductor ebrio que atropell a una mujer. +Y es muy, muy fcil de ver los daos en la estructura sea. +La causa de la muerte es la fractura del cuello. +Esta mujer termin debajo del auto as que sufri un fuerte impacto en esta lesin. +Aqu hay otro caso: un apualamiento. +De nuevo, nos est mostrando qu hacer. +Es muy fcil detectar artefactos metlicos dentro del cuerpo. +Pueden verse algunos de los artefactos de los dientes -en realidad, el relleno de los dientes- dado que configur la funcin que me muestra metales haciendo transparente todo lo dems. +Este es otro caso violento. Esto no mat realmente a la persona. +La persona muri a causa de las pualadas en el corazn pero dejaron el cuchillo atravesado en los globos oculares. +Aqu hay otro caso. +Nos resulta muy interesante poder llegar a ver cosas como las pualadas. +Aqu puede verse que el cuchillo atraves el corazn. +Se ve muy fcilmente cmo el aire se haba estado filtrando de un lado al otro, algo difcil de lograr en una autopsia fsica normal, comn. +As que es de gran ayuda en la investigacin criminal para establecer la causa de la muerte y en algunos casos tambin dirige la investigacin en la direccin correcta para descubrir la autora del crimen. +Este es otro caso que creo es interesante. +Aqu pueden ver la bala alojada bien cerca de la columna vertebral de esta persona. +Y lo que hicimos fue transformar la bala en una fuente lumnica para que realmente brillara y esto facilit la identificacin de los fragmentos. +En una autopsia fsica si uno tiene que escarbar en el cuerpo en busca de estos fragmentos es algo muy difcil de hacer. +Una de las cosas que realmente me complace mucho poder mostrarles aqu hoy es nuestra mesa de autopsias virtuales. +Es un dispositivo tctil que hemos desarrollado en base a estos algoritmos que usan tarjetas grficas comunes. +Esta es su apariencia, simplemente para darles una idea de su aspecto. +Funciona igual que un iPhone gigante. +Hemos implementado todos los gestos que pueden hacerse sobre la mesa y puede concebirse como una interfaz tctil enorme. +As que si estaban pensando en comprar un iPad olvdenlo; lo que desean es esto. +Steve, espero que ests escuchando esto, correcto. +Es un pequeo dispositivo muy lindo. +As que si tienen la oportunidad, por favor, prubenlo. +Es realmente una experiencia prctica. +Ha suscitado mucha atencin y estamos tratando de desarrollarlo y de usarlo con fines educativos pero tambin, quiz en el futuro, en un contexto ms clnico. +Hay un video en YouTube que pueden bajar y mirar si quieren transmitir la informacin a otras personas sobre las autopsias virtuales. +Bueno, ya que estamos hablando de cosas tctiles, pasemos a datos que tocan, que conmueven. +Esto por el momento es ciencia ficcin as que nos transportamos al futuro. +Esto no es algo que los mdicos estn usando ahora mismo pero espero que suceda en el futuro. +Lo que ven a la izquierda es un dispositivo tctil. +Es un lapicito mecnico que tiene dentro motores muy, muy veloces. +As puedo generar una reaccin hptica . +De modo que cuando toco virtualmente los datos se generan fuerzas tctiles en el lpiz y as obtengo una respuesta. +En este caso particular se trata del barrido de una persona viva. +Tengo este lpiz, analizo los datos, muevo el lpiz hacia la cabeza y de repente siento una resistencia. +As puedo sentir la piel. +Si presiono un poquito ms voy a atravesar la piel y a sentir la estructura sea del interior. +Si presiono an ms fuerte voy a atravesar la estructura sea sobre todo cerca del odo donde el hueso es muy blando. +Y luego puedo sentir el interior del cerebro, como si fuera algo fangoso . +As que est muy bien. +Y para ir incluso ms lejos, esto es un corazn. +Y esto es posible tambin gracias a estos nuevos escneres excepcionales que en apenas 0,3 segundo escanean todo el corazn con la secuencia de tiempo incluida. +As que analizando este corazn aqu puedo reproducir un video. +Este es Karljohan, uno de mis estudiantes de posgrado que est trabajando en el proyecto. +Est sentado frente al dispositivo hptico, al sistema de respuesta hptica, est moviendo su lpiz hacia el corazn y ahora el corazn est latiendo frente a l as que puede ver cmo late el corazn. +l toma el lpiz, lo mueve hacia el corazn, lo coloca sobre el corazn, y luego siente los latidos del paciente vivo real. +Luego puede examinar cmo se mueve el corazn. +Puede entrar, presionar dentro del corazn y sentir realmente cmo se mueven las vlvulas. +Creo que este es el futuro de los cardilogos. +Quiero decir, probablemente sea una fantasa para un cardilogo poder meterse en el corazn del paciente antes de practicar la ciruga y hacerlo con datos de resolucin de alta calidad. +As que es realmente algo genial. +Ahora vamos an ms lejos en la ciencia ficcin. +Hemos odo hablar de la resonancia magntica funcional. +Este es un proyecto realmente interesante. +La resonancia usa campos magnticos y frecuencias de radio para escanear el cerebro, o cualquier parte del cuerpo. +Lo que obtenemos de esto es informacin sobre la estructura del cerebro pero tambin podemos medir la diferencia entre las propiedades magnticas de la sangre oxigenada y las de la sangre con poco oxgeno. +Eso significa que es posible trazar un mapa de la actividad cerebral. +Es algo en lo que hemos estado trabajando. +Acaban de ver all a Motts, el ingeniero de investigacin, entrando al sistema de resonancia magntica y llevaba gafas. +Poda ver con las gafas. +As que le pude mostrar cosas mientras estaba en el aparato. +Y esto es un poco raro porque all Motts est viendo +su propio cerebro. +Motts est haciendo algo, probablemente est haciendo as con la mano derecha, porque se activ el lado izquierdo en la corteza motora. +Y al mismo tiempo puede verlo. +Estas visualizaciones son completamente nuevas. +Es algo que hemos estado investigando durante mucho tiempo. +Esta es otra secuencia del cerebro de Motts. +Aqu le pedimos que cuente desde 100 hacia atrs. +As que empez "100, 97, 94" +y luego va hacia atrs. +Pueden ver cmo trabaja el pequeo procesador matemtico aqu arriba en su cerebro e ilumina todo el cerebro. +Bueno, esto es fantstico. Podemos hacerlo en tiempo real. +Podemos investigar cosas. Podemos pedirle hacer cosas. +Pueden ver tambin que su corteza visual est activa en la parte posterior de la cabeza, porque es ah donde est viendo, viendo su propio cerebro. +Y tambin est escuchando nuestras instrucciones cuando le pedimos que haga cosas. +La seal tambin es muy profunda dentro del cerebro pero brilla todo porque todos los datos estn dentro de este volumen. +Y en un segundo van a ver... Motts, ahora mueve el pie izquierdo. +l hace as. +Durante 20 segundos est haciendo as y de pronto se ilumina aqu arriba. +Se produce una activacin de la corteza motora all arriba. +Es genial. Creo que es una gran herramienta. +Y relacionndolo con la charla previa esto es algo que podramos usar como herramienta para entender realmente el funcionamiento de las neuronas y del cerebro y podemos hacerlo con una calidad visual muy alta y con una resolucin muy rpida. +En el centro tambin nos divertimos un poco. +Esta es una TAC, tomografa asistida por computadora. +Esta es una leona del zoolgico local de las afueras de Norrkping en Kolmarden, Elsa. +Elsa vino al centro y la sedaron para meterla en el escner. +Luego, claro, obtuve todo el conjunto de datos de la leona. +Y puedo hacer imgenes muy lindas como esta. +Puedo quitar las capas de la leona. +Puedo ver dentro de ella. +Hemos estado experimentando con esto. +Creo que es una gran aplicacin para el futuro de esta tecnologa. Porque se sabe muy poco de la anatoma animal. +Lo que conocen los veterinarios es informacin muy elemental. +Nosotros podemos escanear todo tipo de cosas, todo tipo de animales. +El nico problema es meterlos en la mquina. +Aqu hay un oso. +Es un poco complicado meterlo all. +El oso es un animal tierno y amistoso. +Y aqu est. He aqu el hocico del oso. +Es posible que quisieran abrazarlo hasta que yo cambie la funcin y vean esto. +As que tengan cuidado con el oso. +Para terminar quisiera agradecer a todas las personas que me han ayudado a generar estas imgenes. +Esto ha demandado un gran esfuerzo, recopilar los datos y desarrollar los algoritmos, codificar todo el software. +Son personas con mucho talento. +Mi lema es que siempre contrato personas ms inteligentes que yo y la mayora de ellos son ms inteligente que yo. +As que muchas gracias. +Algunas de las ms grandes innovaciones y desarrollos del mundo ocurren con frecuencia en la interseccin entre dos disciplinas. +Esta noche quiero hablarles de la interseccin que me apasiona en este instante: entretenimiento y robtica. +Si estamos tratando de fabricar robots que sean ms expresivos y que puedan relacionarse mejor con nosotros socialmente quiz deberamos ver a algunos de los profesionales de la emocin y la personalidad artificiales que se encuentran en las artes dramticas. +Estoy interesada en crear nuevas tecnologas para el arte y atraer a las personas a la ciencia y a la tecnologa. +Algunas personas en las ltimas dos dcadas comenzaron a crear animaciones con tecnologa. +En mi nueva aventura, Marilyn Monrobot, me gustara usar el arte para crear tecnologa. +Tenemos sede en Nueva York. +Si eres actor y deseas colaborar con un adorable robot o si tienes un robot que necesita un representante, hablen conmigo, soy agente de robots. +El robot, nuestra estrella en ascenso, ya tiene su propia cuenta en Twitter: @robotinthewild. +Me gustara presentarles a uno de los primeros: Data. +Se llama como el personaje de Star Trek. +Creo que va a ser sper famoso. +Tenemos al robot... en su cabeza tiene una base de datos con miles de chistes. +Cada uno de esos chistes tiene ciertos atributos. +El robot sabe ciertas cosas swobre el tema, conoce la longitud del chiste. +Sabe qu tanto estimula al pblico. +El robot va a ver su respuesta. +No tengo idea de lo que mi robot va a hacer hoy. +As que aprender tambin de ustedes sobre la calidad de sus chistes y traer cosas, algo as como en Netflix, en el largo plazo para diferentes comunidades o audiencias: nios vs adultos, diferentes culturas. +Ustedes pueden aprender del robot algo sobre la comunidad en la que se encuentran. +Yo tambin puedo usar a cada uno de ustedes como un maestro de actuacin para nuestros futuros compaeros robots. +Algunos de ustedes en la seccin del medio. Tienen unas raquetas verdes y rojas. +Si les gusta lo que est sucediendo, muestren la parte verde. +Si no les gusta el acto o el tema pueden levantar la parte roja. +Un favor: no sean tmidos, +es slo un robot; +no tiene sentimientos... todava. +Y para el resto: ustedes tambin cuentan, tambin importan. +Tambin tenemos un micrfono que escucha el conjunto de risas y aplausos y tambin, aunque espero que no haya, abucheos, para ayudarle a tomar algunas de sus decisiones siguientes. +Listo. Que comience el acto del robot. +Data: Hola TEDWomen. +Estoy honrado de estar aqu. +Se ven bien! +Estn listos para algunos chistes? +Audiencia: Si! +Este es el primero. +Aqu vamos, un mdico le dice a su paciente: "Tengo malas y peores noticias. +La mala es que le quedan 24 horas de vida". +"Eso es terrible!" le responde el paciente. +"Qu podra ser peor?" +"Le he estado buscando desde ayer!". +Los suizos tienen un ejrcito interesante. Llevan 500 aos sin guerra. +Heather Knight: Est hablando de los suizos. +Data: Han corrido con suerte. +Han visto esas pequeas navajas suizas con las que tienen que luchar? +"Acrcate amigo, aqu tengo mi cortaas. +Si acaso acabas conmigo el que viene detrs trae una cuchara". +HK: Es un robot francs. +Data: Un par de cazadores en Nueva Jersey estn en el bosque. +Uno de ellos cae al suelo. +Parece que no respira. +El otro saca su telfono celular y llama a emergencias. +Le dice a la operadora: "Mi amigo est muerto. +Qu hago?" +La operadora responde: "Tmelo con calma. +Yo puedo ayudarle. +Primero vamos a asegurarnos de que est muerto". +Se escucha un silencio y de pronto la operadora escucha un disparo. +La voz del hombre se escucha nuevamente: "Listo! Ahora qu?" +Pregunta: Por qu le dicen "medio" a la televisin? +Nadie? +Pues porque no est ni cruda ni bien hecha. +Pero para serles franco, me gusta la televisin. +A ninguno le gusta la televisin? (Audiencia: S.) +La encuentro increblemente instructiva. +De hecho, tan pronto como alguien la prende, me voy a otra habitacin a leer. +Eso es todo por hoy. +Me fue bien para ser mi primera vez? +Son un pblico increble. +Gracias! +HK: Muy bien! +Esta es la primera vez en las que tenemos una audiencia de verdad en una presentacin. +As que gracias por ser parte de ello. +Habr ms cosas en el futuro. +Y esperamos aprender mucho acerca de la expresin de los robots. +Mil gracias. +El mundo est cambiando a una velocidad realmente notable. +Si miran el grfico de arriba van a ver que en 2025 estas proyecciones de Goldman Sachs sugieren que la economa china va a ser casi tan grande como la de EE.UU. +Y si miran el grfico en 2050 se calcula que la economa china va a tener el doble del tamao de la de EE.UU., y la economa india va a tener casi el mismo tamao que la de EE.UU. +Y aqu hay que tener en cuenta que estas proyecciones se realizaron antes de la crisis financiera occidental. +Hace un par de semanas, estaba mirando en la ltima proyeccin del BNP Paribas cundo China va a tener una economa ms grande que Estados Unidos. +Goldman Sachs previ que ser en 2027. +da 2020. +Estamos apenas a una dcada. +China va a cambiar al mundo en dos aspectos fundamentales. +En primer lugar, se trata de un pas gigante en desarrollo con una poblacin de 1.300 millones, que ha estado creciendo durante ms de 30 aos en torno al 10% anual. +Y en una dcada va a tener la economa ms grande del mundo. +Nunca antes en la era moderna la economa ms grande del mundo ha sido la de un pas en desarrollo, en vez de la de un pas desarrollado. +En segundo lugar, por primera vez en la era moderna, el pas que va a dominar el mundo -que es lo que creo que China ser- no ser de Occidente y tendr races de civilizacin muy, muy diferentes. +S que hay una creencia muy arraigada en Occidente, que a medida que los pases se modernizan, tambin se occidentalizan. +Esto es una ilusin. +Es una creencia de que la modernidad es un simple producto de la competencia, los mercados y la tecnologa. +No lo es; tambin se forma igualmente por la historia y la cultura. +China no es como Occidente y no se va a parecer a Occidente. +Seguir siendo en aspectos muy fundamentales muy diferente. +Ahora la gran pregunta aqu es, obviamente, cmo hacernos una idea de China? +Cmo hacemos para entender qu es China? +Y el problema que tenemos ahora en Occidente en general es que al enfoque convencional lo planteamos realmente en trminos occidentales, con ideas occidentales. +No podemos. +Ahora quiero ofrecerles tres pilares para tratar de entender qu es China como para empezar. +El primero es ste, que China no es realmente un estado-nacin. +Bueno, se ha autodenominado estado-nacin durante los ltimos cien aos. Pero cualquiera que conozca algo de China sabe que tiene mucha ms historia que eso. +As se vea China con la victoria de la Dinasta Qin en el 221 A.C. al final del perodo de guerra; el nacimiento de la China moderna. +Y ah pueden verlo contra los lmites de la China moderna. +O inmediatamente despus, la Dinasta Han, an, hace 2.000 aos. +Y pueden vers que ya ocupa la mayor parte de lo que se conoce hoy como China Oriental, lugar donde viva entonces la gran mayora de los chinos y donde viven hoy. +Y lo extraordinario de esto es que lo que le da a China su razn de ser, lo que le da a los chinos el sentido de lo que significa ser chino, no viene de los ltimos cien aos, no viene del perodo estado-nacin, que es lo que sucedi en Occidente, sino del perodo, si se quiere, del estado-civilizacin. +Estoy pensando, por ejemplo, en costumbres como la adoracin de ancestros, de una nocin muy particular de estado, asimismo, una nocin muy particular de familia, relaciones sociales como el guanxi, los valores confucianos, etc. +Todas estas cosas vienen del perodo del estado-civilizacin. +O sea, China a diferencia de Occidente y de la mayora de los pases del mundo, est signada por su sentido de la civilizacin, por su existencia como estado-civilizacin ms que como estado-nacin. +Y hay algo ms para agregar a esto, y es que: por supuesto, sabemos que China es enorme, demogrfica y geogrficamente: con una poblacin de 1.300 millones. +Lo que a menudo no tenemos en cuenta es el hecho de que China es extremadamente diversa y muy plural, y en muchos aspectos muy descentralizada. +No se puede gobernar un lugar de estas dimensiones slo desde Beijing, an cuando pensemos que este es el caso. +Nunca ha sido as. +Entonces, esto es China, un estado-civilizacin, en lugar de un estado-nacin. +Y eso qu quiere decir? +Bien, creo que tiene consecuencias profundas. +Rpidamente mencionar dos. +La primera es que el valor poltico ms importante para los chinos es la unidad, es el mantenimiento de la civilizacin china. +Ya saben, hace 2.000 aos, Europa: la ruptura, la fragmentacin del Sacro Imperio Romano. +Se divide y queda dividido desde entonces. +China, en el mismo perodo, fue exactamente en la direccin opuesta, manteniendo a duras penas esta civilizacin enorme, uniendo al estado-civilizacin. +La segunda quiz sea ms terrenal y es Hong Kong. +Se acuerdan del traspaso de Hong Kong de Gran Bretaa a China en 1997? +Recordarn cul fue la propuesta constitucional china: +un pas, dos sistemas. +Hice una apuesta de que casi nadie en Occidente les creera. +"Papel pintado. +Cuando Hong Kong est en manos de China, eso no va a ser as". +13 aos despus, el sistema poltico y legal de Hong Kong es tan diferente como lo era en 1997. +Nos equivocamos. Pero, por qu? +Nos equivocamos porque pensamos, como es natural, como estado-nacin. +Piensen en la unificacin alemana de 1990. +Qu sucedi? +Bueno, bsicamente la parte occidental trag a la oriental. +Una nacin, un sistema. +Esa es la mentalidad estado-nacin. +Pero no se puede gobernar un pas como China, un estado-civilizacin, con la premisa "una civilizacin, un sistema". +No funciona. +As que en realidad la respuesta de China a la cuestin de Hong Kong -y ser igual en la cuestin de Taiwn- fue una respuesta natural: una civilizacin, muchos sistemas. +Ahora les voy a dar otro elemento para tratar de entender a China, y quiz no sea tan agradable. +Los chinos tienen una muy, muy diferente concepcin de la raza a casi el resto de los pases. +Saben que de los 1.300 millones de chinos ms del 90% de ellos cree que pertenece a la misma raza, los 'han'? +Esto es completamente diferente de los otros pases ms poblados del planeta. +India, Estados Unidos, Indonesia, Brasil, todos son multirraciales. +Los chinos no se sienten as. +China slo es multirracial en los mrgenes. +Y la pregunta es, por qu? +Bueno, la razn, creo, en esencia remite, otra vez, al estado-civilizacin. +Una historia de al menos 2.000 aos, una historia de conquista, ocupacin, absorcin, asimilacin, etc, condujo a un proceso por el cual con el tiempo surgi la nocin de 'Han' alimentada, por supuesto, por un sentido cada vez mayor y muy potente de identidad cultural. +Ahora, la gran ventaja de esta experiencia histrica ha sido que, sin los 'Han', China nunca habra podido mantenerse unida. +La identidad 'Han' ha sido el cemento que ha mantenido unido a este pas. +La gran desventaja de eso es que los 'Han' tienen una concepcin muy dbil de la diferencia cultural. +Ellos creen realmente en su propia superioridad, y son irrespetuosos con quienes no lo son. +De ah su actitud, por ejemplo, hacia los uigures y los tibetanos. +O dejnme darles mi tercer pilar: el Estado chino. +La relacin entre estado y sociedad en China es muy diferente a la occidental. +En Occidente la abrumadora mayora parece pensar, en estos das al menos, que la autoridad y la legitimidad del Estado es una funcin de la democracia. +El problema con esta afirmacin es que el Estado chino goza de mayor legitimidad y ms autoridad entre los chinos que lo que sucede en cualquier pas de Occidente. +Y la razn de esto se debe... bueno, creo que obedece a dos razones. +Obviamente no tiene nada que ver con la democracia, porque desde nuestra perspectiva los chinos claramente no tienen una democracia. +Y la razn de ser de esto es, primero, porque al Estado en China se le otorga una muy especial... goza de una trascendencia muy especial como representante, portador y guardin, de la civilizacin china, del estado-civilizacin. +Esto es lo que ms cerca est China de cumplir una suerte de rol espiritual. +Y la segunda razn es que, mientras en Europa y Amrica del Norte se desafa continuamente al poder del Estado -quiero decir, en la tradicin europea, histricamente contra la Iglesia, contra otros sectores de la aristocracia, contra los comerciantes, etc- durante 1.000 aos el poder del Estado chino no ha sido desafiado. +No ha tenido grandes rivales. +Como pueden ver la construccin de poder en China ha sido muy diferente a lo que hemos experimentado en la historia de Occidente. +El resultado, por cierto, es que los chinos tienen una visin muy diferente del Estado. +Mientras que nosotros tendemos a verlo como un intruso, un extrao, sin duda como un rgano cuyos poderes tienen que recortarse o definirse y limitarse, los chinos no ven al Estado de ese modo, en absoluto. +Los chinos ven al Estado como a un miembro -tan ntimo en realidad, como a un miembro de la familia- de hecho no slo como a un miembro de la familia sino como a la cabeza de la familia; es el patriarca de la familia. +As ven los chinos al Estado - muy, muy diferente a nosotros. +Est incrustado en la sociedad de manera muy diferente a lo que sucede en Occidente. +Y me permito sugerirles que en realidad lo que estamos viendo aqu, en el contexto chino, es un nuevo tipo de paradigma, diferente a todo lo que hayamos pensado en el pasado. +Sepan que China cree en el mercado y el Estado. +Digo, Adam Smith, dej escrito ya en el siglo XVIII: "El mercado chino es ms grande, ms desarrollado, y ms sofisticado que cualquiera de Europa". +Y, salvo en la poca de Mao, eso se ha mantenido ms o menos as desde entonces. +Pero esto se combina con un estado extremadamente fuerte y omnipresente. +El Estado est en todas partes en China. +Quiero decir, es lder empresarial, muchas empresas son de propiedad pblica. +Las empresas privadas, grandes como son -como Lenovo-, dependen mucho del patrocinio del Estado. +Objetivos econmicos y dems son establecidos por el estado. +Y el Estado, claro, ejerce autoridad en muchas otras reas como ya sabemos, en cuestiones como la planificacin un-hijo-por-familia. +Ms aun, sta es una tradicin estatal muy antigua, una tradicin muy antigua del arte de gobernar. +Digo, si quieren un ejemplo de esto, tienen la Gran Muralla. +Pero este es otro ejemplo: el Gran Canal, que comenz a construirse en el siglo V A.C. +y se termin finalmente en el siglo VII D.C. +Recorre 1800 Km, conectando Beijing con Hangzhou y Shanghai. +As que hay una larga historia de proyectos de infraestructura estatales extraordinarios en China, que supongo nos ayudan a explicar lo que vemos hoy, algo as como la Represa de las Tres Gargantas y muchas otras expresiones de competencia estatal dentro de China. +As que all tenemos tres pilares para tratar de entender la diferencia que es China: el estado-civilizacin, la nocin de raza y la naturaleza del Estado y su relacin con la sociedad. +Y todava seguimos insistiendo, en general, en la idea de que podemos entender a China basndonos en la experiencia occidental, con una mirada occidental, con conceptos occidentales. +Si quieren saber por qu indefectiblemente entendemos mal a China, por qu son incorrectas nuestras predicciones de lo que va a suceder en China, sta es la razn. +Creo que, lamentablemente, tengo que decir que me parece que la actitud respecto de China tiene un tinte ligeramente occidental. +Es un poco arrogante. +Arrogante en el sentido de que pensamos que somos mejores, y por ende tenemos el patrn universal de medida. +Y, segundo, es ignorante. +Nos negamos a abordar realmente la cuestin de la diferencia. +Hay un fragmento muy interesante en un libro de Paul Cohen -historiador estadounidense. +Paul Cohen sostiene que Occidente se ve a s mismo tal vez como la ms cosmopolita de las culturas. +Pero no lo es. +En muchos sentidos, es la de miras ms estrechas porque durante 200 aos, Occidente ha sido tan dominante en el mundo que no hizo falta en realidad entender a las otras culturas, a otras civilizaciones. +Porque, en ltima instancia, de ser necesario poda salirse con las suyas. +Mientras que esas culturas -prcticamente el resto del mundo, de hecho- que han estado en una posicin mucho ms dbil, frente a Occidente, han tenido que entender a Occidente obligadamente debido a la presencia de Occidente en esas sociedades. +Y, por lo tanto, son en consecuencia ms cosmopolitas en muchos sentidos que Occidente. +Digo, tomemos el caso de Asia Oriental. +Asia Oriental: Japn, Corea, China, etc. All vive un tercio de la poblacin mundial, +hoy, la mayor regin econmica del mundo. +Y les digo algo: que los asiticos orientales, saben mucho ms de Occidente de lo que Occidente sabe de Asia Oriental. +Me temo que este punto es muy germano, hasta el presente. +Porque, qu est sucediendo? Volvamos al grfico del principio. El grfico de Goldman Sachs. +Lo que est sucediendo es que, muy rpidamente en trminos histricos, el mundo est siendo conducido y modelado, no por los viejos pasese desarrollados, sino por el mundo en desarrollo. +Hemos visto esto en trminos del G-20 usurpando muy rpidamente el lugar del G-7, o del G-8. +Y de esto se desprenden dos consecuencias. +Primero, Occidente est perdiendo rpidamente su influencia mundial. +Hubo un ejemplo dramtico de esto hace un ao - Copenhague, la conferencia sobre el cambio climtico. +Europa no estuvo en la mesa final de negociaciones. +En qu momento sucedi? +Apuesto a que fue probablemente hace unos 200 aos. +Y eso es lo que va a pasar en el futuro. +Y la segunda consecuencia es que el mundo, inevitablemente, como consecuencia se nos volver cada vez menos familiar, porque va a ser modelado por culturas, experiencias e historias con las que no estamos familiarizados, o en conversacin. +Y por ltimo, me temo -tomemos Europa, EE.UU. es levemente diferente- que los europeos en general, tengo que decirlo, ignoran, no son conscientes de la forma en la que el mundo est cambiando. +Algunas personas, tengo un amigo ingls en China y me dijo: "El continente camina sonmbulo hacia el olvido". +Bueno, tal vez sea verdad, o tal vez una exageracin. +Pero esto trae aparejado otro problema: que Europa est cada vez ms alejada del mundo y eso es una especie de prdida del sentido de futuro. +Digo, por supuesto, Europa una vez tuvo el dominio del futuro en s misma. +Tomemos el siglo XIX por ejemplo. +Pero esto, desgraciadamente, ya no es as. +Si quieren sentir el futuro, si quieren probar el futuro, vayan a China; ah tienen al viejo Confucio. +Esta es una estacin de trenes de las que nunca han visto en su vida. +Ni siquiera parece una estacin de trenes. +Es la nueva estacin de trenes de Guangzhou para los trenes de alta velocidad. +China ya cuenta con una red ms grande que cualquier otro pas del mundo y pronto van a tener una ms grande que la del resto del mundo junto. +O tomen esto: ahora, esto es una idea pero pronto ser una realidad en un suburbio de Beijing. +Este es un megabus; en el piso superior lleva a unas 2.000 personas. +Va sobre rieles por una calle suburbana, y los coches pasan por debajo. +Y alcanza velocidades de hasta 160 kilmetros por hora. +Ahora, sta es la direccin en que las cosas van a moverse porque China tiene un problema muy especfico, diferente a Europa y distinto a los Estados Unidos. China tiene un gran nmero de personas y no tiene espacio. +Y sta es una solucin a una situacin en donde China va a tener muchas, muchas, muchas ciudades de ms de 20 millones de habitantes. +Muy bien, cmo me gustara terminar? +Bueno, cul debera ser nuestra actitud hacia este mundo que vemos que se desarrolla muy rpidamente ante nosotros? +Creo que habr cosas buenas y cosas malas. +Pero quiero plantear, sobre todo, un panorama positivo para este mundo. +Durante 200 aos el mundo estuvo gobernado esencialmente por un fragmento de la poblacin humana. +Eso es lo que representa Europa y Amrica del Norte. +La llegada de pases como China e India -entre ambas el 38% de la poblacin mundial- y otros pases como Indonesia, Brasil, etc, representa el acto ms importante de democratizacin de los ltimos 200 aos. +Civilizaciones y culturas, que haban sido ignoradas, que no tenan voz, que no fueron escuchadas, de las que no se hablaba, van a tener un tipo diferente de representacin en el mundo. +Como humanistas, debemos sin duda, recibir bien esta transformacin. Y vamos a tener que aprender sobre estas civilizaciones. +Esta gran embarcacin fue la empleada por Zheng He a principios del siglo XV en sus grandes viajes por el Mar de China Meridional, por el Mar de China Oriental, y por todo el Ocano ndico hasta frica Oriental. +El botecito de enfrente fue el que, 80 aos despus, us Cristbal Coln para cruzar el Atlntico. +O, miren atentamente en este rollo de seda hecho en Zhuzhou en 1368. +Me parece que estn jugando al golf. +Dios, los chinos tambin inventaron el golf! +Bienvenidos al futuro. Gracias. +Les voy a hablar acerca de como podemos acceder a un recurso realmente poco utilizado en el cuidado de la salud, el cual es el paciente, o -- como prefiero el trmino cientfico -- personas. +Como todos somos pacientes, todos somos personas. +Incluso los doctores son pacientes en algn momento. +As que me gustara hablar de eso como una oportunidad a la que no nos hemos comprometido muy bien en este pais y, de hecho, en el mundo. +Si quieres llegar a la mayora -- me refiero al nivel de la salud pblica, en donde me entren -- ves problemas de comportamiento, +ves que se le da informacin a la gente, y no la siguen. +Es un problema que se manifiesta en diabetes, obesidad, muchas formas de problemas del corazn, inclusive algunas formas de cancer -- en lo que se refiere a fumar. +Todos son comportamientos donde las personas saben que es lo que deben de hacer. +Saben que es lo que se supone que deben de estar haciendo, pero no lo hacen. +Ahora, un cambio de comportamiento es algo que ha sido un viejo problema en la medicina. +Se remonta a Aristoteles +Y los doctores lo odian, cierto?. +Se quejan de eso todo el tiempo. +Hablamos de ello en terminos de compromiso, o incumplimiento, +cuando las personas no toman sus pastillas, cuando las personas no siguen las indicaciones del doctor. Estos son problemas de comportamiento. +Pero aunque muchos en la medicina clnica agonizan por el cambio de comportamiento, no hay mucho trabajo hecho en trminos de tratar de arreglar ese problema. +As que la cuestin est en este concepto de la toma de decisiones -- dar la informacin a las personas en una forma que no slo los eduque, o los informe, pero que en realidad los lleve a tomar mejores decisiones, mejores opciones en sus vidas. +Sin embargo, una parte de la medicina a enfrentado el problema del cambio de comportamiento bastante bien, y esta es odontologa. +La odontologa puede parecer -- y yo creo que lo es -- muchos dentistas tendrn que reconocer que es la parte estancada de la medicina. +No hay nada divertido o sexy ocurriendo en la odontologa. +Pero en realidad han tomado este problema de cambio de comportamiento, y lo han resuelto. +Es el gran xito de la medicina preventiva que tenemos en nuestro sistema de salud. +La gente usa el cepillo de dientes y el hilo dental. +No lo hacen tanto como deberan, pero lo hacen. +As que hablar acerca de un experimento que algunos dentistas en Connecticut idearon hace unos 30 aos. +As que es un experimento viejo, pero uno verdaderamente bueno, por que era muy sencillo entonces es una historia fcil de contar. +Estos dentistas de Connecticut decidieron que queran hacer que la gente utilizara ms el cepillo de dientes. E iban a utilizar una sola variable: los iban a asustar. +Les diran que tan malo sera si no se cepillan los dientes. +Tenan una gran poblacin de pacientes. +Los dividieron en dos grupos. +Tenan la poblacin de poco miedo, a la que basicamente le dieron una presentacin de 13 minutos, todo basado en la ciencia, pero les dijeron que, si no se cepillaban lo dientes, les podra dar gingivitis. Si te da gingivitis, perderan sus dientes, pero les pondrn dentaduras, y no ser tan malo. +As que ese era el grupo de poco miedo. +En el grupo de alto miedo, realmente exageraron. +Les mostraron encas sangrientas, +les mostraron pus saliendo entre los dientes, +les dijeron que sus dientes se les iban a caer, +y que podran tener infecciones que se esparciran de sus mandbulas a otras partes del cuerpo, y al final, si, perderan los dientes. +Usaran dentaduras, y si usas dentadura, no eres capaz de comer una mazorca, no eres capaz de comer manzanas, no eres capaz de comer un filete; +comeras papilla por el resto de tu vida. +As que ve y cepllate tus dientes y usa hilo dental. +Ese fue el mensaje; ese fue el experimento. +Ahora, midieron otra variable. +Queran capturar una variable ms, que era el sentido de eficacia del paciente. +Este es el concepto de si los pacientes sentan que realmente se cepillaran los dientes o no. +Les preguntaron esto al principio, "Piensas que realmente sers capaz de seguir con este programa?" +Y las personas que dijeron, "Si, si. Soy bastante bueno en eso", fueron calificados como altamente eficaces, y las personas que dijeron, "Eh, nunca logro usar el cepillo de dientes tanto como debera", fueron calificados como poco eficaces. +Y el resultado fue este. +El resultado de este experimento fue que el miedo no es realmente un motivador principal del comportamiento en absoluto. +Las personas que usaban el cepillo de dientes no eran necesariamente las personas que tenan miedo de lo que pasara -- eran las personas que simplemente sentan que tenan la capacidad de cambiar su comportamiento. +As que el miedo resulto no ser el motivador; +era el sentido de eficacia. +Entonces quiero aislar esto, por que es una gran observacin -- hace 30 aos, verdad?, hace 30 aos -- y es una que no ha sido explotada en investigacin. +Es la idea que realmente sali del trabajo de Albert Bandura que estudi si las personas pueden sentirse ms capaces o no. +El concepto de eficacia basicamente se reduce a si alguien cree que tiene la capacidad de cambiar su comportamiento o no. +En trminos del cuidado de la salud, uno debe de interpretar esto como si alguien siente que puede ver el camino hacia una mejor salud o no, si pueden ver una manera de obtener una mejor salud, o no. Y ese es un concepto muy importante. +Es un concepto increble. +Sin embargo, realmente no sabemos como manipularlo tan bien. +Aunque, quizs si lo sabemos. +Entonces el miedo no funciona, verdad?, el miedo no funciona. +Y este es un gran ejemplo de como no hemos aprendido esa leccin ni un poco. +Esta es una campaa para la Asociacin Americana de Diabetes. +Esta es la forma en que estamos comunicando los mensajes de salud todava. +Ayer le mostr esta diapositiva a mi hijo de tres aos, y el dijo, "Papa, por qu hay una ambulancia en la casa de estas personas?". +Tuve que explicar, "Estn tratando de asustar a la gente." +Y no se si funciona. +Ahora, aqu esta lo que s funciona, informacin personalizada funciona. +De nuevo, Bandura reconoci esto hace aos, hace dcadas. +Cuando le das informacin especfica a las personas acerca de su salud, donde se encuentran, y a donde quieren llegar, a donde podran llegar, el camino, la idea de un camino, esto tiende a funcionar para cambiar comportamientos. +As que permtanme profundizar un poco. +Empiezas con datos personalizados, informacin personalizada, que viene de un individuo, y que luego conectas a sus vidas. +Es necesario conectarla a sus vidas, no de una manera basada en el miedo, pero si una que puedan entender. +Bien, ahora s donde estoy. Yo se donde me encuentro. +Y eso no slo funciona para m en trminos de nmeros abstractos, esta sobrecarga de informacin de la salud que nos inunda, +si no que realmente llega a uno. +No solamente nos pega en la cabeza, nos pega en el corazn. +Hay una conexin emocional a la informacin por que es de nosotros. +Despus, esa informacin necesita ser conectada a las alternativas, necesita ser conectada a un rango de opciones, direcciones a las que nos podemos dirigir -- sacrificios, beneficios. +Finalmente, es necesario que se nos presente un punto claro de accin. +Necesitamos conectar siempre la informacin con la accin, y luego esa accin retroalimenta una informacin diferente, y crea, por supuesto, un ciclo de retroalimentacin. +Este es un concepto muy bien observado y bien establecido para cambios de comportamiento. +Pero el problema es que las cosas de la esquina superior derecha ah, informacin personalizada, son muy difciles de obtener. +Es un producto difcil y costoso, hasta ahora. +Les voy a dar un ejemplo, un ejemplo muy simple de como funciona esto. +Todos hemos visto uno de estos. Son las seales de "esta es tu velocidad". +Los vemos por todos lados, en especial ahora que los radares son ms baratos. +Y as es como funciona el ciclo de retroalimentacin aqu. +Empiezas con la informacin personalizada donde el limite de velocidad de donde te encuentras en ese momento es 25, y, por supuesto, ests yendo ms rpido que eso. +Siempre lo hacemos. Siempre vamos a exceso de velocidad. +Las opciones en este caso son muy sencillas. +O seguimos yendo rpido, o bajamos la velocidad. +Probablemente deberamos de bajar la velocidad, y el momento de actuar es probablemente ahora. +Debemos de quitar el pie del pedal en este momento. Y generalmente lo hacemos; se ha visto que estas seales son bastante efectivas en hacer que la gente disminuya su velocidad. +Reducen la velocidad en alrededor de cinco a 10 por ciento. +Duran por 5 millas, y despus ponemos de vuelta el pie en el pedal. +pero funciona, y tiene algunas repercusiones en la salud. +Tu presin sangunea puede caer un poco. +Tal vez hay menos accidentes, que genera beneficios en la salud pblica. +En gran medida, este es un ciclo de retroalimentacin que es raro e ingenioso +Por que en el cuidado de la salud, en su mayora, la informacin esta muy alejada de la accin. +Es muy difcil de alinear las cosas tan hbilmente. +Pero tenemos una oportunidad. +As que les quiero hablar, quiero cambiar ahora a pensar como entregamos la informacin de salud en este pas, como recibimos esta informacin. +Este es un anuncio farmacutico. +De hecho, es una parodia, no es un anuncio real. +Nadie ha tenido la brillante idea de llamar su medicina "Tenlotodo" todava. +Pero se ve justo como debe ser. +Esta es la manera exacta en que recibimos informacin farmacutica y de salud, y suena perfecto. +Y luego le damos la vuelta a la pagina de la revista, y vemos esto, verdad?, vemos esto. Esta es la pagina que la FDA obliga a las compaas farmacuticas a colocar en sus anuncios, o en la siguiente pgina. Y para m, este es uno de los mas cnicos ejercicios en la medicina. +Por que sabemos. +Quin de nosotros puede decir que la gente lee esto? +Y Quin de nosotros puede decir que la gente que si trata de leer esto realmente obtiene algo de la lectura? +Este es un esfuerzo intil para comunicar la informacin de salud. +No hay una buena intencin en esto. +As que este es un enfoque diferente. +Este es un enfoque que ha sido desarrollado por un par de investigadores en el Darmouth Medical School, Lisa Schwartz y Steven Woloshin. +Y ellos crearon esto llamado la tabla de datos medicos. +Se inspiraron en, sobre todo, El cereal Cap'n Crunch. +Se fijaron en la tabla de informacin nutricional y vieron que lo que funciona en el cereal, lo que funciona en la comida, en realidad ayuda a la gente a entender que hay en la comida. +Dios no quiera que usemos ese mismo estandard que hacemos seguir a Cap'n Crunch y traerlo a las compaas farmacuticas. +Se los describir rapidamente. +Dice claramente para que es la medicina, para quien es buena especificamente, por lo que puedes empezar a personalizar tu entendimiento de si esta informacin es relevante para ti o si la medicina es relevante para ti. +Puedes entender exactamente cuales son los beneficios. +No es una promesa vaga de que funcionar sin lugar a dudas, tambin lleva las estadsticas de que tan efectivo es. +Y finalmente, uno entiende cuales son sus alternativas. +Puedes empezar a revelar las alternativas involucradas por los efectos secundarios. +Siempre que tomas una medicina, existe un posible efecto secundario. +Describe estos en trminos muy claros. Y funciona. +Me encanta la tabla de datos mdicos. +Y estuve pensando acerca de, qu oportunidad tengo para ayudar a la gente a entender la informacin? +Cul es otra informacin que hay ah que la gente no est realmente usando? +Y as llegue a los resultados de pruebas de laboratorio. +Los exmenes de sangre son una gran fuente de informacin. +Estn llenos de informacin. +Solamente que no son para nosotros, para gente; no son para pacientes. +Se van directo a los doctores. +Y creo que muchos doctores, si se les preguntara, tampoco entienden realmente todo esto. +Esta es la informacin peor presentada. +Pregunten a Tufte, y el dir, "S, esta es la peor presentacin posible de la informacin." +Lo que hicimos en Wired fue hacer que nuestro departamento de diseo grfico re-imaginara estos reportes de laboratorio. +Y eso es lo que les quiero explicar. +Este es el "antes" de un examen de la sangre, y este es el "despus", esto es a lo que llegamos. +El "despus" toma lo que eran 4 pginas -- la diapositiva anterior en realidad era la primera de 4 paginas de informacin que es el examen de sangre general. +Sigue y sigue, con todos esos valores, y todos esos nmeros que no entiendes. +Este es nuestro resumen de una pgina. +Usamos la idea del color. +Es una idea increble que el color pueda ser usado. +En la parte superior tenemos los resultados generales, las cosas que sobresalen de las letras chicas. +Luego puedes bajar y entender como pusimos tu nivel en contexto, y usamos color para ilustrar exactamente donde cae tu valor. +En este caso, el paciente es levemente propenso a diabetes debido a su nivel de glucosa. +De igual manera, puedes ver tus lipidos y, de nuevo, entender cual es tu nivel de colesterol general y luego dividirlo a HDL y LDL, si as lo deseas. +De nuevo, siempre aplicando color y proximidad personalizada a esa informacin. +Y todos los dems valores, todas las pginas y pginas de valores vacos, las resumimos. +Te diremos que ests bien, eres normal. +Pero no lo tienes que leer todo. No tienes que pasar por toda la basura. +Y luego hacemos 2 cosas muy importantes que ayudan a llenar este ciclo de retroalimentacin. Ayudamos a la gente a entender en ms detalle que son estos valores y que pueden indicar. +Y damos un paso ms adelante: les decimos que pueden hacer. +Les damos un mayor entendimiento de las opciones que pueden tomar, las acciones que pueden elegir. +As que ese es nuestro examen de sangre general. +Luego fuimos a la prueba CRP. +En este caso, pecado por omisin. +Tienen una gran cantidad de espacio, y no lo usan para nada, as que lo aprovechamos. +La prueba CRP es generalmente hecha siguiendo la prueba del colesterol o junto con esta. +As que dimos el audaz paso de poner la informacin del colesterol en la misma pagina, que es la forma en que el doctor la evaluar. +Pensamos que el paciente tambin querr saber el contexto. +Es una proteina que sobresale cuando tus venas pueden estar inflamadas, que puede ser un riesgo para problemas del corazn. +Lo que en realidad estamos midiendo es descrito en un lenguaje claro. +Luego usamos esa informacin que ya esta en el reporte. +Usamos la edad y genero de la persona y llenamos los riesgos personalizados. +Usamos la informacin que tenemos para hacer un calculo muy sencillo que est en todo tipo de calculadoras online para entender cual es el verdadero riesgo. +El ltimo que mostrare es el examen PSA. +Aqu est el "antes", y el "despus". +Gran parte de nuestro esfuerzo en este -- como muchos de ustedes saben, un examen PSA es muy controversial. +Es usado para encontrar cncer de prstata, pero hay todo tipo de razones por las cuales la prstata este dilatada. +Pasamos una buena parte de nuestro tiempo indicando eso. +De nuevo, riesgo personalizado. +Nuestro paciente est en sus 50's, por lo que le podemos dar un estimado muy preciso de cual es su riesgo de cncer de prstata. +En este caso es de alrededor de 25%, basado en eso. +Y otra vez, las acciones de seguimiento. +Nuestro costo para esto es de menos de $10,000. +Es lo que Wired Magazine se gasto en esto. +Por qu Wired Magazine est haciendo esto? +Quest Diagnostics y LabCorp, las 2 compaas de exmenes de laboratorios ms grandes: El ao pasado, tuvieron ganancias de ms de 700 millones de dlares y ms de 500 millones de dlares respectivamente. +Este no es un problema de recursos, es un problema de incentivos. +Tenemos que reconocer que el objetivo de esta informacin no debe de ser el doctor, no debe de ser la compaa de seguros; +debe de ser el paciente. +Es la persona que en realidad, al final, tendr que cambiar su vida y adoptar nuevos comportamientos. +Esta es informacin que es increblemente poderosa. +Es un catalizador muy poderoso para el cambio. +Pero no lo usamos; solo esta sentado ahi. +Se esta perdiendo. +Quiero ofrecer cuatro preguntas que todo paciente debe de preguntar, por que en realidad no espero que se empiece a desarrollar estos reportes. +Pero tu puedes crear tu propio ciclo de retroalimentacin. +Cualquiera puede crear sus ciclos preguntando estas simpre preguntas: Puedo obtener mis resultados? +Y la unica respuesta aceptable es -- (Pblico: Si.) -- si. +Qu significa esto? Aydeme a entender esta informacin. +Cules son mis opciones? Qu alternativas tengo? +y despus, qu sigue? +Cmo integro esta informacin en el curso de mi vida? +Quiero terminar mostrandoles que la gente tiene la capacidad de entender esta informacin. +Esto no esta fuera del alcance de la gente comn. +No tienes que tener el nivel de educacin de las personas de este recinto. +Personas comunes son capaces de entender esta informacin, si hacemos el esfuerzo de presentarsela en una forma que se puedan comprometer. +Y el compromiso es esencial aqui por que no es slo darles informacin, es darles una oportunidad de actuar. +Eso es lo que compromiso es; es diferente de conformidad. +Funciona de manera diferente de como hablamos de comportamiento en medicina el da de hoy. +Y esta informacin esta all afuera. +He hablado hoy de la informacin latente, toda esta informacin que existe en el sistema que no estamos utilizando. +Pero hay todo tipo de contenidos de informacin que estn saliendo en lnea. Y necesitamos reconocer la capacidad de esta informacin de atraer a la gente, de ayudarla y de cambiar el curso de sus vidas. +Muchas gracias. +Tena miedo a la feminidad. +No que ahora no tenga, pero he aprendido a fingir. +He aprendido a ser flexible. +De hecho, he desarrollado algunas herramientas interesantes para ayudarme a lidiar con este miedo. +Permtanme explicarles. +En los aos 50 y 60, cuando estaba creciendo, se supona que las nias eran amables y consideradas y bonitas y gentiles y suaves. Y se supona que encajbamos en roles que eran poco claros. Realmente no estaba claro qu se supona que debamos ser. +Haba muchos ejemplos a nuestro alrededor. +Tenamos a nuestras madres, tas, primas, hermanas y, desde luego, los medios siempre presentes, bombardendonos con imgenes y palabras, dicindonos cmo ser. +Bueno, mi madre era dferente. +Era ama de casa, pero ella y yo no salamos a hacer cosas de chicas juntas. Y no me compraba conjuntos rosas. +En cambio, saba lo que yo necesitaba y me compr un libro de caricaturas. +Y yo lo devor. +Dibuj y dibuj y dado que saba que el humor era aceptable en mi familia, poda dibujar, hacer lo que quera hacer, y no tener que acutar, no tena que hablar. Era muy tmida... y aun as poda obtener aprobacin. +Me lanc como caricaturista. +Ahora, cuando eres joven no siempre sabes... Sabemos que hay reglas all afuera, pero no siempre sabemos... No las cumplimos correctamente, a pesar de ser estampadas al nacer con esas cosas, y se nos dice cul es el color ms importante del mundo. +Se nos dice qu figura debemos tener. +Se nos dice qu vestir... y cmo arreglarnos el pelo... y cmo comportarnos. +Ahora, las reglas de las que hablo son constantemente controladas por la cultura. +Se nos corrige. Y las principales policas son mujeres, porque somos las portadoras de la tradicin. +Y la pasamos de generacin en generacin. +No nicamente tenemos siempre esta vaga idea de que se espera algo de nosotras. +Sino que encima todas esas reglas cambian continuamente. +No sabemos qu est pasando la mitad del tiempo, as que nos pone en una situacin delicada. +Ahora, si no te gustan esas reglas, y a muchas de nosotras no nos gustan... Yo s que no me gustaban y todava no me gustan, a pesar de que las sigo la mitad del tiempo, sin ser consciente de que las estoy siguiendo, qu mejor manera de cambiarlas que con humor? +El humor se basa en las tradiciones de una sociedad. +Toma lo que sabemos y lo tuerce. +Toma los cdigos de conducta y los cdigos de vestir y los convierte en lo inesperado, y eso es lo que provoca la risa. +Ahora, qu pasa si juntas mujeres y humor? +Pienso que obtienes cambio. +Porque las mujeres estn al principio y conocemos las tradiciones tan bien, que podemos traer una voz diferente a la mesa. +Ahora, comenc a dibujar envuelta en mucho caos. +Crec no lejos de aqu, en Washington D. C., +durante el movimiento de Derechos Civiles, los asesinatos, el juicio de Watergate y entonces el movimiento feminista. Y creo que dibujaba tratando de entender qu pasaba. +Mi familia tambin estaba en caos en ese entonces. Y dibuj para tratar de mantener unida a mi familia... Ttrataba de unir a mi familia con risa. +No funcion. +Mis padres se divorciaron y a mi hermana la arrestaron. +Pero encontr mi lugar. +Descubr que no tena que usar tacones, que no tena que vestirme de rosa, y poda sentir que encajaba. +Cuando fui un poco mayor, en mis 20, me di cuenta de que haba muchas mujeres dibujantes. +Y pens: "Quiz pueda romper el pequeo techo de cristal". Y as lo hice; me convert en dibujante. +Y entonces pens, a los 40 comenc a pensar: "Bueno, por qu no hago yo algo? +Siempr am la caricatura poltica, as que por qu no hacer algo con el contenido de mis caricaturas para hacer pensar a la gente sobre las estpidas reglas que seguimos y tambin para hacerlas rer?". +Bien, mi perspectiva es particularmente... Mi perspectiva es particularmente estadounidense. +No puedo evitarlo, vivo aqu. +Aun cuando he viajado mucho, todava pienso como una mujer estadounidense. +Pero creo que las reglas de las que hablo son universales, desde luego que cada cultura tiene diferentes cdigos de conducta y vestido y tradiciones, y cada mujer tiene que lidiar con esas mismas cosas que hacemos aqu en EE. UU. +Por consiguiente, tenemos que... +Las mujeres, porque estn al inicio, conocemos la tradicin, +tenemos asombrosas antenas. +Bien, mi ltimo trabajo ha sido colaborar con caricaturistas internacionales, de lo cual disfruto mucho. Y me ha aportado una mayor comprensin del poder de la caricatura para llegar a la verdad, para exponer esas cuestiones rpida y sucintamente. +Y no slo eso: pueden llegar al lector no slo a travs del intelecto, tambin a travs del corazn. +Mi trabajo tambin me ha permitido colaborar con mujeres caricaturistas de todo el mundo: pases como Arabia Saudita, Irn, Turqua, Argentina, Francia... y nos hemos sentado juntas y redo y hablado y compartido nuestras dificultades. +Y esas mujeres estn trabajando duro para hacer escuchar sus voces en circunstancias muy difciles. +Pero me siento bendecida por poder trabajar con ellas. +Y hablamos de cmo las mujeres tienen tan fuertes percepciones debido a nuestra dbil posicin y a nuestro rol como guardianas de la tradicin, pero tambin tenemos el gran potencial para ser los agentes del cambio. +Y pienso, realmente creo, que podemos cambiar esto, risa a risa. +Gracias. +Esta historia comenz a mis 4 aos cuando mi familia se mud a un nuevo barrio en nuestra ciudad de Savannah, Georgia. +Corran los aos 60 y en ese entonces todas las calles del barrio llevaban nombres de generales de la Confederacin, +vivamos en el bulevar Robert E. Lee. +Cuando tena 5 aos mis padres me compraron una bici chopera naranja, +tena un asiento banana y esos manubrios brazo de mono que hacan que uno pareciera un orangutn. +Por eso se los llamaba manubrios brazo de mono. +Estaban diseados con base en las motos choperas de los aos 60 que estoy seguro que mi mam no conoca. +Y un da yo estaba estudiando este callejn sin salida escondido a unas calles de distancia. +Volv y quera dar la vuelta y tratar de volver a esa calle con mayor velocidad, as que decid dar la vuelta por esta gran calle que atravesaba el barrio y zas! me atropell un coche que pasaba. +Mi cuerpo mutilado vol en una direccin, y mi bici destrozada vol en la otra. +Qued tendido en el pavimento sobre la lnea amarilla y una de mis vecinas se acerc corriendo. +"Andy, Andy, cmo ests?" -- dijo -- usando el nombre de mi hermano mayor. +"Soy Bruce", le dije, y pronto me desvanec. +Ese da me quebr el fmur izquierdo -- el hueso ms grande del cuerpo -- y pas los siguientes 2 meses enyesado desde el mentn hasta la punta del pie y en la rodilla derecha, con una barra de acero que iba de la rodilla derecha hasta mi tobillo izquierdo. +Y durante los siguientes 38 aos ese accidente fue el nico episodio mdico interesante que me haba pasado. +De hecho, me gan la vida caminando, +viaj por el mundo, incursion en diferentes culturas, escrib una serie de libros de viaje entre ellos "Caminando la Biblia". +Tena un programa de TV con ese nombre en la TV pblica. +Yo era, en todo el mundo, el caminante. +Hasta que, en mayo de 2008, en una visita de rutina al mdico un examen de sangre rutinario arroj evidencia en forma de indicador de fosfatasa alcalina de que algo podra andar mal en mis huesos. +Mi mdico, por capricho, me mand a hacer un estudio seo completo que mostr que haba un cierto crecimiento en mi pierna izquierda. +Por eso me hicieron rayos X y luego una resonancia. +Y una tarde me llam mi mdico: +"El tumor en tu pierna no se condice con un tumor benigno". +Dej de caminar. Mi mente tard unos segundos en convertir ese doble negativo en un negativo mucho ms horroroso. +Tengo cncer. +Y pensar que el tumor estaba en el mismo hueso en el mismo lugar de mi cuerpo que el accidente de hace 38 aos pareca mucho ms que una coincidencia. +As que esa tarde volv a mi casa y mis hijas gemelas de 3 aos, Eden y Tybee Feiler, vinieron corriendo a mi encuentro. +Haban cumplido los 3 aos, y tenan todas esas cosas rosas y moradas. +De hecho, las llambamos Rosaliciosa y Moradiciosa aunque debo decir que nuestro apodo favorito apareci en sus cumpleaos, el 15 de abril. +Cuando nacieron a las 6:14 y 6:46 el 15 de abril de 2005 el mdico, adusto y sin sentido del humor mir su reloj y dijo: "Mmm, 15 de abril... da de los impuestos. +Archivadora temprana y tarda". +Al da siguiente fui a verlo y le dije: "Doctor, qu buen chiste". +Y l me dijo: "T eres el escritor, chico". +Como sea, acababan de cumplir 3 aos y vinieron haciendo ese baile que haban inventado; venan girando cada vez ms rpido hasta que caan al suelo riendo con toda la alegra del mundo. +Sucumb. +Me imaginaba todos los paseos que no podramos hacer juntos; los trabajos de arte que no podra arruinar; los novios a los que no podra fruncir el ceo; los altares a los que no las acompaara. +Se preguntaran quin era yo, pens. +Anhelaran mi aprobacin, mi amor, mi voz? +A los pocos das me despert con una idea de cmo podra darles esa voz. +Me comuniqu con 6 hombres de distintas etapas de mi vida y les ped que estuvieran presentes en los pasajes de la vida de mis hijas. +"Creo que mis nias van a tener un montn de oportunidades en la vida", escrib a estos hombres. +"Van a tener una familia amorosa y hogares cordiales, pero puede que no me tengan a m. +Puede que no tengan a su pap. +Me ayudarn a ser su pap?" +Y me dije para mis adentros que llamara a este grupo de hombre el Consejo de Paps +Pero tan pronto como tuve esta idea supe que no se lo dira a mi mujer. Bien. +Ella es muy optimista alguien con energa natural. +Est instalada en la cultura esta idea -- no tengo que explicarles -- de que uno tiene que enfrentar los problemas con alegra. +Deberamos pensar en lo positivo. +Mi mujer, como dije, creci en las afueras de Boston. +Tiene una gran sonrisa. Tiene una gran personalidad. +Tiene pelo largo. Aunque hace poco me dijo que no puedo decir que tiene el pelo largo, porque si lo digo la gente va a pensar que es de Texas. +Y, al parecer, est bien casarse con un chico de Georgia pero no tener pelo de Texas. +Y, de hecho, en su defensa, si ella estuviera aqu ahora, recordara que, cuando nos casamos en Georgia, hubo 3 preguntas en la licencia del certificado de matrimonio, la tercera de las cuales fue: "estn emparentados?" +Le dije: "Mira, en Georgia por lo menos queremos saberlo, +en Arkansas ni siquiera preguntan". +Lo que no le dije es que si deca "s" uno poda saltar. +No son necesarios los 30 das de espera. +Porque uno no necesita el conocimiento previo en ese momento. +As que no iba a contarle esta idea pero al da siguiente no pude evitarlo y se lo dije. +Y le encant la idea pero de inmediato empez a rechazar a los nominados. +Deca: "Bueno, me encanta, pero nunca le pedira un consejo". +As que result que el Consejo de Paps fue una forma muy eficiente de descubrir qu pensaba mi mujer de mis amigos. +As que decidimos que necesitbamos unas reglas y se nos ocurrieron algunas. +La primera fue no a la familia, slo amigos. +Pensbamos que la familia ya estara all. +Segundo: slo hombres. +Estbamos tratando de llenar el espacio paterno en la vida de las nias. +Y tercero: un padre por cada aspecto mo. +Repasamos mi personalidad y tratamos de encontrar un pap que representara cada aspecto. +Lo que sucedi fue que escrib una carta a cada uno de estos hombres. +Y en vez de envirselas decid lerselas en persona. +Linda, mi esposa, bromeaba diciendo que era como tener 6 propuestas de matrimonio diferentes. +Fue como un matrimonio de amistad con cada uno. +El primero de los muchachos fue Jeff Schumlin. +Jeff condujo este viaje que hice a Europa cuando me gradu de la secundaria en la dcada del 80. +Ese primer da estuvimos en el albergue juvenil de un castillo. +Y fui atrs. Haba un foso, una cerca y un campo con vacas. +Jeff se acerc a mi lado y dijo: "Alguna vez empujaste a una vaca?" +Y le dije: "Empujar vacas? +l me dijo: "S, las vacas duermen de pie. +As que si te acercas a ellas por detrs, a favor del viento, puedes empujarlas y se dan un golpe en el lodo". +As que antes de poder determinar si era correcto o no, ya habamos saltado el foso, pasamos la valla, en puntas de pie sobre el excremento nos acercamos a alguna pobre vaca que estaba dormitando. +Un par de semanas despus del diagnstico nos fuimos a Vermont y decid que Jeff fuera el primero en el Consejo de Paps. +Fuimos a este huerto de manzanas y le le esta carta. +"Me ayudars a ser su pap?" +Y llegu hasta el final -- l estaba llorando y yo tambin -- y luego me mir y me dijo: "S". +Yo dije: "S?" +Como que haba olvidado que haba una pregunta en mi carta. +Y, francamente, aunque segua preguntando esto nunca se me ocurri que alguien rechazara la propuesta dadas las circunstancias. +Y luego le hice una pregunta que termin preguntndoles a todos los paps y que finalmente me anim a volcar esta historia en un libro. +La pregunta era: "Qu consejo le daras a mis hijas?" +Y el consejo de Jeff fue: "S una viajera, no una turista. +Bjate del bus. Busca lo diferente. +Acrcate a la vaca". +"Estamos a 10 aos del presente", le dije, "y mis hijas estn por hacer su primer viaje al exterior, y yo no estoy aqu. +Qu les diras?" +l dijo: "Me gustara abordar este viaje del mismo modo que un pequeo a un charco de lodo, +donde uno puede agacharse y mirar el reflejo en el espejo y tal vez hacer una onda en el espejo o saltar y agitarse y ver qu se siente, cmo huele". +Y mientras hablaba tena ese fulgor en los ojos que vi por primera vez en Holanda; el fulgor que dice: "Vamos a empujar vacas", a pesar de que nunca lo hicimos, de que nadie empuja vacas, y las vacas no duermen paradas. +l dijo: "Nias, quiero que vuelvan al final de la experiencia cubiertas de lodo". +Dos semanas despus de mi diagnstico una biopsia confirm que tena un osteosarcoma de 18 cm en el fmur izquierdo. +600 estadounidenses al ao tienen osteosarcoma. +El 85% tiene menos de 21 aos. +Slo una centena de adultos al ao tiene una de estas enfermedades. +Hace 20 aos los mdicos me hubieran amputado la pierna; haba un 15% de supervivencia. +En la dcada del 80 determinaron que un cctel especial de quimio podra ser efectiva. Y en cuestin de semanas haba empezado ese rgimen. +Y ya que estamos en una sala mdica, pas cuatro meses y medio de quimio. +En realidad me dieron cisplatino, doxorubicina y muy altas dosis de metotrexato. +Luego tuve una ciruga de 15 horas en la que mi cirujano, el Dr. John Healey en el Hospital Memorial Sloan-Kettering de Nueva York me quit el fmur izquierdo y lo reemplaz con titanio. +Si vieron el programa especial de Sanjay vieron estos tornillos enormes que me pusieron en la pelvis. +Luego tom el peron de mi pantorrilla, lo recort y luego lo traslad al muslo, donde est ahora. +Lo que hizo en realidad fue desvascularizarlo de mi pantorrilla y volver a vascularizarlo en el muslo para luego conectarlo a las partes buenas de mi rodilla y la cadera. +Luego me extrajo un tercio del msculo cudriceps. +Es una ciruga tan rara que slo dos seres humanos han sobrevivido antes que yo. +Y mi recompensa por sobrevivir fue volver a quimio otros cuatro meses ms. +Fue, como decimos en casa, un ao perdido. +Porque en esas semanas libres todos tenamos pesadillas. +Y una noche so que caminaba por mi casa me sentaba en mi escritorio a mirar fotos de los hijos de otra persona sentado en mi escritorio. +Y recuerdo sobre todo una noche en la que, cuando me cont esa historia -- no s donde est Dr. Nuland -- de William Sloane Coffin me hizo pensar en ello. +Porque estaba en el hospital, creo que era mi cuarta ronda de quimio cuando estaba en cero, y bsicamente no tena sistema inmune. +Me pusieron en una sala de enfermedades infecciosas en el hospital. +Todos los que venan a verme tenan que cubrirse con una mscara cubrirse todas las partes externas del cuerpo. +Y una noche recib una llamada de mi suegra diciendo que mis hijas, en ese momento de 3 aos y medio, me extraaban y sentan mi ausencia. +Colgu el telfono, coloqu la cara entre mis manos, y pegu un grito silencioso. +Y lo que Ud. me dijo Dr. Nuland -- no s dnde se encuentra -- me hizo pensar en esto hoy. +Porque el pensamiento que me vino a la mente era que esa sensacin que tena era como un grito primario. +Y lo impactante -- uno de los mensajes que hoy quiero dejarles -- es la experiencia. +A medida que me volva cada vez menos humano en ese momento de mi vida, quiz pesaba 13 kilos menos que ahora. +Por supuesto, no tena pelo ni sistema inmune. +Me estaban haciendo transfusiones de sangre. +En ese momento era cada vez menos humano y, al mismo tiempo, era tambin quiz lo ms humano que he sido jams. +Y lo conmovedor de ese momento era que en vez de rechazar a la gente en realidad estaba demostrando ser un imn para la gente. +La gente se senta atrada. +Cuando mi esposa y yo tuvimos hijos pensamos que todos nos daran una mano. +En vez de eso, todos nos dieron la espalda. +Y cuando tuve cncer pensamos que todo el mundo nos dara la espalda. +En vez de eso, todos nos dieron una mano. +y cuando me venan a ver en vez de consternarse por lo que vean -- yo era como un fantasma viviente -- se sentan muy conmovidos a hablar de lo que les estaba pasando en sus propias vidas. +Descubr que el cncer es un pasaporte a la intimidad. +Es una invitacin, quiz un mandato, para entrar en los espacios ms vitales de la vida humana, a los ms sensibles y a los ms temibles, esos a los que nunca queremos aventurarnos pero que cuando lo hacemos sentimos una transformacin increble. +Y esto tambin le pas a mis nias, ya que comenzaron a ver, y, pensamos, tal vez se volvieron una pizca ms compasivas. +Un da mi hija Tybee vino hacia m y me dijo: "tengo tanto amor para ti en mi cuerpo, papi, que no puedo parar de abrazarte y besarte. +Y cuando ya no me queda ms amor, tomo leche, porque es de ah que viene el amor". +Y una noche vino a verme mi hija Eden. +Y como yo dejaba mi pierna fuera de la cama lleg hasta mis muletas y me las alcanz. +De hecho, si me aferrara a un recuerdo de este ao, sera caminar por un pasillo oscuro con cinco dedos regordetes que me tomaban de la mano desde abajo. +Ya no necesitaba ms las muletas; estaba caminando en el aire. +Una de las cosas profundas que me sucedieron fue esa conexin con toda esta gente. +Y me hizo pensar -- y lo voy a marcar para que quede grabado -- una palabra que he escuchando slo una vez -- ayer cuando estbamos haciendo yoga de Tony Robbins -- la palabra que no se ha mencionado en este seminario en realidad es la palabra amigo. +De todo lo que hemos estado hablando -- obediencia, adiccin, o prdida de peso -- ahora sabemos que la comunidad es importante y sin embargo es algo que en realidad no decimos. +Y fue algo muy profundo, sentarme con mis amigos ms cercanos y decirles cunto significaban para m. +Y una de las cosas que aprend es que con el tiempo sobre todo los hombres, que suelen no ser comunicativos, se estn volviendo cada vez ms comunicativos. +Y eso en particular me pas con el Consejo de Paps, Linda deca que lo que estbamos hablando era el tipo de cosas que las mams hablan a la salida de la escuela. +Para m, nadie capta esta virilidad moderna mejor que David Black. +David es mi agente literario. +Mide cerca de 1,60 m en un buen da, parndose erguido con botas de vaquero, +detrs de una fachada muy masculina, contesta el telfono -- supongo que puedo decir esto porque lo han dicho antes -- l contesta cosas como: "Hola, hijo de perra", +da sermones aburridos sobre botellas de vino; para los 50 aos se compr un auto deportivo convertible. Aunque, como muchos hombres, es impaciente y se lo compr a los 49. +Pero como muchos hombres modernos, abraza, cocina, sale temprano del trabajo para entrenar a las ligas inferiores. +Alguien me pregunt si llor cuando le ped que estuviese en el Consejo de Paps. +Y yo le dije: "David llora cuando lo invitas a dar una paseo". +Es agente literario o sea, es un corredor de sueos en un mundo en que muchos sueos no se hacen realidad. +Y esto es lo queramos que capturara: lo que significa tener contratiempos y aspiraciones. +Y le dije: "Qu es lo ms valioso que puedes darle a un soador?" +Y me dijo: "La autoconfianza". +"Pero cuando vine a verte", le dije, "yo no crea en m mismo. +Estaba contra un muro". +Me dijo: "No veo el muro", y yo les digo lo mismo, no veo el muro. +Uno puede encontrar un muro cada tanto pero uno tiene que encontrar la manera de pasarlo por encima, rodearlo o atravesarlo +Sin importar lo que uno haga, no hay que sucumbir, +no rendirse ante el muro. +Mi casa no est lejos del puente de Brooklyn, y durante el ao y medio que anduve en muletas, se volvi una suerte de smbolo para m. +As que un da cerca del final de mi periplo dije: "Nias, salgamos a caminar por el puente de Brooklyn". +Salimos con las muletas. +Yo andaba en muletas, mi mujer iba junto a m, mis hijas iban haciendo poses de artistas de rock +Y dado que caminar era lo primero que perd pas la mayor parte de ese ao pensando en ste de los ms elementales actos humanos. +Caminar erguidos, nos dijeron, es el umbral de lo que nos hizo humanos. +Y durante cuatro millones de aos los humanos hemos caminado erguidos, el acto en esencia no ha cambiado. +Como le gusta decir a mi fisioterapeuta: "Cada paso es una tragedia anunciada". +Uno est por caer en una pierna cuando con la otra se sostiene +Y la gran consecuencia de caminar con muletas -- cosa que hice durante un ao y medio -- es que uno camina ms lento. +Uno se apura. Uno llega a donde va pero llega solo. +Uno va lento, llega a donde va, pero llega all con esta comunidad que construy a lo largo del camino. +So riesgo de admisin, nunca fui tan amable como en el ao en que estuve en muletas. +Hace 200 aos apareci un nuevo tipo de peatn en Pars. +Era el flneur, aquel que vaga por las arcadas. +Y estos paseantes tenan por costumbre mostrar que eran hombres de ocio sacando una tortuga a pasear y permitiendo que el reptil marcara el paso. +Y me encanta esta oda a la lentitud. +Y se ha convertido en mi propio lema para mis hijas. +Saquen a pasear a una tortuga. +Contemplen el mundo en pausa. +Y esta idea de hacer una pausa sea quiz la leccin ms grande de mi periplo. +Hay una cita de Moiss a un lado de la Campana de la Libertad de un pasaje del libro de Levtico que cada 7 aos hay que dejar la tierra en barbecho. +Y cada 7 perodos de 7 aos dejar descansar la tierra un ao tiempo durante el cual las familias se renen y las personas se rodean de los seres queridos. +Ese ao 50 es llamado el ao jubilar y ese es el origen del trmino. +Y aunque tengo casi 50 eso refleja mi propia experiencia. +Mi ao perdido fue mi ao jubilar. +Al dejarlo en barbecho plant las semillas para un futuro ms saludable y me reun con mis seres queridos. +A un ao de mi periplo fui a ver a mi cirujano el Dr. John Healey. Por cierto, Healey es un nombre adecuado para un mdico [heal=curar]. +Es el presidente de la Sociedad Internacional de Recuperacin de Extremidades, el menos eufemstico de los trminos que haya escuchado +Le dije: "Dr. Healey, si mis hijas vienen a verlo un da y le preguntan: "qu podemos aprender de la historia de pap? qu les dira?" +Me dijo: "Les dira lo que s: que todos morimos pero que no todos vivimos. +Quiero que Uds. vivan". +Le escrib una carta a mis hijas que aparece al final de mi libro, "El Consejo de Paps", e hice una lista con estas lecciones algunas de las cuales escucharon hoy aqu: acrquense a la vaca, lleven chancletas, no miren el muro, dejen las preguntas, cosechen milagros. +Mientras repasaba la lista -- era para m algo as como un libro de salmos de la vida -- me di cuenta que aunque hicimos esto por las nias en realidad nos cambi a nosotros. +Y ese es el secreto del Consejo de Paps que mi mujer y yo lo hicimos en un intento por ayudar a nuestras hijas pero realmente nos cambi. +Por eso estoy parado hoy como ven, caminando sin muletas ni bastn. +Y la semana pasada tuve mi anlisis de los 18 meses. +Y como todos saben todo el que tiene cncer se hace revisiones +En mi caso es trimestral. +Y todas las mentes colectivas de esta sala, me atrevo a decir, nunca encontrarn la solucin a la ansiedad pre-revisin. +A medida que iba hacia all me preguntaba qu dira dependiendo de lo que pasara aqu. +Ese da tuve buenas noticias y estoy aqu hoy libre de cncer, caminando sin ayuda y cojeando hacia adelante. +Y ella me dijo anoche que en los 3 meses que llevamos hemos recibido 300 personas que han contribuido a este programa. +Y los epidemilogos presentes les dirn que esa es la mitad de la gente que tiene la enfermedad por ao en Estados Unidos. +As que si van a 23andMe o si van a councilofdads.com, pueden hacer clic en un enlace. +Invitamos a todos a unirse a este esfuerzo. +Pero voy a cerrar lo que he estado diciendo con este mensaje: busquen una excusa para reencontrar un amigo perdido hace tiempo, o a ese compaero de la universidad, o a alguna persona de la que han estado distanciados. +Espero que encuentren un charco en algn lugar o la manera de pasar por encima, alrededor, o a travs de los muros que se interponen entre Uds. y uno de sus sueos. +Y de vez en cuando encuentren un amigo, encuentren una tortuga, y den un largo y lento paseo. +Muchas gracias. +Me apasiona el paisaje americano y la manera como la forma fsica de la tierra, desde el valle central de California hasta el lecho de roca de Manhattan, han en efecto moldeado nuestra historia y carcter. +Una cosa es clara: +en solamente los ltimos 100 aos nuestro pas -- este es un mapa extendido de los Estados Unidos -- nuestro pas ha sistemticamente aplanado y homogenizado el paisaje al punto de que hemos olvidado nuestra relacin con las plantas y animales que viven a nuestro lado y con la tierra bajo nuestros pies. +Por eso veo mi trabajo como una contribucin que trata literalmente de volver a imaginar estas conexiones y de reconstruirlas fsicamente. +Esta grfica representa lo que hoy enfrentamos en el ambiente construido. +Es en realidad una confluencia de la creciente poblacin urbana, la biodiversidad en picada y tambin, por supuesto, los niveles del mar elevndose y el cambio climtico. +Por eso cuando pienso en diseo tambin pienso en intentar arreglar y reacoplar las lneas de la grfica en una forma ms productiva. +Aqu pueden ver la flecha que indica donde estamos. Mi intencin es tratar de fundir y combinar estos dos campos tan divergentes: urbanismo y ecologa, de una manera nueva y fascinante. +Ya pas la era de las grandes infraestructuras, +Es decir, esas soluciones jerrquicas, monofuncionales y de grandes capitales ya no van a funcionar. +Requerimos ahora nuevas herramientas y nuevos enfoques; +de forma similar, la idea de la arquitectura como esta clase de objeto en el campo, fuera de contexto, en realidad no es perdn pero es bastante descarado... Este no es el enfoque que necesitamos tomar. +Necesitamos nuevas historias, nuevos hroes y nuevas herramientas. +Ahora, quiero presentarles a mi nuevo hroe en la guerra del cambio climtico global. Es el ostin del Atlntico. +Aunque es una criatura muy pequea y muy modesta, es increble, porque puede aglomerarse en enormes arrecifes estructurales, +que pueden crecer, que podemos hacer crecer, y se me olvidaba decir, es muy delicioso. +As que el ostin fue la base para un proyecto piloto de diseo urbano, que hice en la baha de Nueva York, proyecto llamado ostin-tructura. +La ideal central de la ostin-tructura es aprovechar la fuerza biolgica de mejillones, zosteras y ostiones, especies que habitan en la baha y al mismo tiempo canalizar la energa de la gente que vive en la comunidad para hacer el cambio ya. +Aqu tienen un mapa de mi ciudad, Nueva York, que muestra en rojo inundaciones, +y el sitio en el crculo es del que voy a hablar, el Canal de Gowanus y la Isla del Gobernador. +Si miran aqu en el mapa todo lo de azul est fuera del agua y todo lo de amarillo es tierra alta. +Podrn ver e incluso intuir del mapa que la baha ha sido dragada y aplanada y pas de ser un rico mosaico tridimensional a un lodazal plano en slo cuestin de aos. +Otra serie de vistas del mismo canal de Gowanus +el cual es particularmente apestoso... debo admitir. +Hay problemas de sobre-flujo de aguas negras y contaminacin, pero tambin se puede decir que casi cualquier ciudad tiene el mismo problema, que todos tenemos que afrontar. +Aqu hay un mapa de esta condicin que muestra los contaminantes en amarillo y verde exacerbados por el nuevo flujo de mareas de tempestad y elevacin del nivel del mar. +En verdad haba mucho que manejar. +Cuando empezamos este proyecto una de las ideas centrales fue revisar la historia y tratar de entender qu haba ah. +Como pueden ver en el mapa existe una distintiva e increble geografa con una serie de islas que estaban en la baha, un paisaje de cinagas salinas y playas que fungan como atenuantes naturales de las olas para los asentamientos en tierra. +Tambin aprendimos que en esa poca uno se poda comer un ostin del tamao de un plato en el canal Gowanus mismo. +Nuestro concepto es uno de regreso al futuro que aprovecha la inteligencia del patrn de asentamientos en tierra. +La idea tiene dos etapas centrales: +Una, es el desarrollo de una nueva ecologa artificial, un arrecife en la baha, que proteja a los nuevos asentamientos en tierra y en el Gowanus. +Porque si tienes agua ms limpia que corra ms lento, puedes imaginar una nueva forma de vida con esa agua. +El proyecto entonces se dirige a estos temas centrales en una forma nueva y fascinante, yo creo. +Aqu estamos de vuelta con nuestro hroe el ostin +y otra vez, es este increble y fascinante animal +que acepta algas y residuos en un extremo y mediante una hermosa y glamorosa serie de rganos estomacales arroja agua limpia al otro lado. +Un solo ostin puede filtrar casi 200 litros de agua al da. +Los arrecifes de ostiones cubran cerca de un cuarto de la zona y podan filtrar el agua de la baha en cuestin de das. +Fueron clave en nuestra cultura y economa, +En el fondo, Nueva York se erigi sobre los hombros de ostricultores y nuestras calles fueron literalmente construidas sobre conchas de ostin. +Esta es una imagen de una carretilla de ostiones, que era tan ubicuo como hoy lo es hoy la carretilla de perros calientes; +as que de nuevo, nos toc la peor parte en el trato. +Por ltimo, los ostiones pueden atenuar [olas] al aglomerarse entre ellos y y formar estas asombrosas estructuras de arrecifes naturales. +En efecto, se convierten en atenuadores de olas naturales, +y conforman el lecho rocoso de cualquier ecosistema de baha. +Muchas, muchas especies dependen de ellos, +por eso el ostin fue nuestra inspiracin y yo estaba admirada por su ciclo de vida. +Pasa de un huevo fertilizado a una semilla de ostra que es cuando flota en agua y cuando est lista, se pega a otro ostin adulto, sea macho o hembra todo en unas semanas. +Reinterpretamos este ciclo de vida en una escala a nuestra vista y tomamos el Gowanus como un criadero gigante de ostiones donde estos creceran para luego desfilar en su etapa de semilla para finalmente asentarse en el arrecife de Baybridge. +Entonces la idea central aqu era oprimir el botn de reinicio y regresar a una ecologa que con el tiempo fuera regenerativa, limpia y productiva. +Cmo funciona el arrecife? Bueno es muy simple. +Un concepto esencial aqu es que con el cambio climtico no es que las respuestas vengan de la Luna, +ni tengan un precio de 20 mil millones de dlares, Debemos simplemente empezar a trabajar con lo que tenemos hoy frente a nosotros. +Esta imagen slo muestra un campo de pilotes marinos interconectados con una cueda tejida en rizos. +Se preguntarn, qu es una cuerda rizada? +Es slo eso, algo que no es caro, prcticamente disponible en cualquier ferretera, por muy poco. +Incluso nos imaginamos que en realidad podramos organizar una venta de pasteles para arrancar nuestro proyecto. +As, en el taller, en lugar de dibujar, empezamos por aprender a tejer, +ya que la ideaa era tejer estas cuerdas y desarrollar esta nueva infraestructura suave en donde crecieran los ostiones. +En el diagrama pueden ver cmo crece con el tiempo de una infraestructura a un nuevo espacio urbano pblico, +que con el tiempo se desarrolla dinmicamente con la amenaza del cambio climtico. +Esto tambin crea algo que me parece increblemente interesante; un nuevo espacio pblico anfibio, donde se puede uno imaginar trabajando y divirtindose, de manera novedosa. +Al final, nos dimos cuenta que estbamos creando un nuevo parque acutico azul-verdoso para el prximo siglo con agua; un parque anfibio, si quieren. +Entonces pnganse sus botas. +Se pueden imaginar buceando aqu. +Esta es una imagen de estudiantes de preparatoria, buzos que trabajan con nuestro equipo. +Imaginen una nueva forma de vivir, una nueva relacin con el agua y tambin un programa hbrido cientfico y recreacional con funciones de monitoreo. +Una nueva palabra para el mundo feliz: la palabra es "flupsy", acrnimo de sistema de brotacin flotante. +Este glorioso dispositivo de uso inmediato es, en principio, una balsa que abajo tiene un criadero de ostiones. +As,el agua atraviesa la balsa. +Se pueden ver las ocho cmaras a los lados, que albergan ostiones bebs alimentados a la fuerza. +As que en lugar de tener 10 ostiones tenemos 10,000 mil +cuyas semillas se asientan luego. +Aqu est el futuro de Gowanus con las balsas de ostiones por las costas la "flupisicacin de Gowanus". +Palabra nueva. +Se ven los cultivos de ostiones para la comunidad a lo largo de las orillas. +Por ltimo, qu divertido sera ver el desfile flupsy y vitorear a las semillas de ostiones en su paso hacia al arrecife. +Me han hecho dos preguntas sobre este proyecto: +una es, por qu no est sucediendo ya? +y la segunda cundo podremos comer los ostiones? +La respuesta es, todava no, estamos trabajando, +pero creemos, con base en nuestros clculos que para el 2050 podran hincar sus colmillos en un ostin de Gowanus. +Para concluir, esta es slo una seccin de una parte de la ciudad; pero mi sueo, mi esperanza es que cuando ustedes vuelvan a sus ciudades podamos empezar a trabajar juntos y colaborar en rehacer, en reformar un nuevo paisaje urbano hacia un futuro ms sostenible, ms habitable y mucho ms delicioso. +Gracias +Voy a contarles una idea bastante simple una y otra vez hasta que logre que la crean y es que todos somos hacedores. +Realmente lo creo. +Todos somos hacedores. +Nacimos hacedores. +Tenemos esta habilidad de hacer cosas, de agarrar las cosas con nuestras manos. +Usamos metforas como "agarrar" para indicar que entendemos algo. +No slo vivimos, sino que hacemos; +creamos cosas. +Voy a mostrarles un grupo de hacedores de Maker Faire y varios lugares. +No sale muy bien, pero es una bicicleta particularmente alta. +Es una bicicleta modificada, se llama... de Oakland. +Y este es un escter ms bien pequeo para un caballero de este tamao. +Y lo est tratando de propulsar, o motorizar, con un taladro. +Y la pregunta que se hizo fue: "Puedo hacerlo? Se puede hacer?" +Aparentemente se puede. +Los hacedores son entusiastas, son novatos, son personas que aman hacer lo que hacen. +No siempre saben siquiera por qu lo estn haciendo. +Hemos empezado a organizar hacedores en nuestra Maker Faire. +Se realiz una en Detroit el verano pasado, y se realizar otra vez el verano que viene, en el Henry Ford. +Pero las hicimos en San Francisco... ...y en Nueva York. +Es un evento fabuloso para conocer y hablar con esta gente que hace cosas y estn ah para enserselas y hablarles de ellas y tener una buena conversacin. +Hombre: Yo quizs compre uno de esos. +Dale Dougherty: Esos son panecillos elctricos. +Hombre: Dnde los conseguiste? +Panecillo: Se deslizar con nosotros? (Hombre: No.) DD: Ford tiene vehculos elctricos que saldrn pronto. +Lo hicimos primero. +Mujer: Se deslizar con nosotros? +DD: Esto es algo que llamo columpiando bajo la lluvia. +Y apenas puede verse: arriba hay un controlador que regula la cada del agua antes y despus de que uno pase por debajo del arco. +Imaginen un nio: Voy a mojarme? Voy a mojarme? +No. No me moj. Voy a mojarme? Voy a mojarme? +Esa es la experiencia de un paseo inteligente. +Y por supuesto tenemos moda. +La gente est reinventando en la moda. +No s si esto es un sujetador de cesta pero debe ser algo as. +Hay estudiantes de arte que se agrupan; con partes de radiadores viejos en una colada de hierro hacen algo nuevo. +Lo hicieron en verano y fue muy caluroso. +Ahora este requiere un poco de explicacin. +Saben lo que son, cierto? +Billy-Bob, o Billy Bass, o algo as. +En el fondo est el hombre que lo hizo: un fsico. +Y aqu va a explicar un poco el funcionamiento. +Richard Carter: Soy Richard Carter, y este es el Coro del Tabernculo Sashimi. +Coro: Cuando me sostienes en tus brazos RC: Esto est todo controlado por computadora en un viejo Volvo. +Coro: Estoy enganchado en un sentimiento Estoy creyendo fuertemente Que ests enamorada de m DD: As que Richard vino de Houston el ao pasado a visitarnos a Detroit y mostr el maravilloso Coro del Tabernculo Sashimi. +As que, son hacedores? +Cuntas personas aqui diran que son hacedores, si levantan la mano? +Eso est muy bien. Pero hay algunos ah que no admitiran que son hacedores. +Y de nuevo, pinsenlo. +Son hacedores de alimento, de refugio, son hacedores de muchas cosas diferentes. Y en parte lo que me interesa hoy, es que ustedes son hacedores de su propio mundo, y particulamente del rol que tiene la tecnologa en sus vidas. +Son conductores o pasajeros? -para usar una frase de Volkswagen. +Los hacedores tienen el control. +Eso es lo que les fascina; por eso hacen lo que hacen. +Quieren descubrir cmo funcionan las cosas quieren tener acceso a eso, y quieren controlarlo; +quieren usarlo a conveniencia. +Los hacedores hoy, en cierto sentido, son marginales. +No son convencionales. +Son un poco radicales. +Son un poco subversivos en lo que hacen. +Pero a la vez, era bastante comn pensarse uno como hacedor. +No era algo que uno resaltara. +Y encontr este viejo video. +Y les dir ms, pero slo... +Narrador: en EE.UU. somos hacedores. +Con nuestras fuerzas, mentes y espritus ensamblamos, modelamos e ideamos; +somos hacedores, modeladores y ensambladores. +DD: Y contina enseando personas que hacen cosas en madera, un abuelo que hace un barco en una botella, una mujer hace un pastel... el plato del da. +Pero haba orgullo por hacer cosas; hicimos el mundo que nos rodea. +Simplemente no exista; +lo hicimos y nos conectamos con l de esa manera. +Y creo que eso es tremendamente importante. +Ahora voy a contarles algo gracioso. +Este carrete singular es un video industrial que se proyect en los autocines en 1961 en el rea de Detroit se proyect antes que "Psicosis" de Alfred Hitchcock. +Me gustara pensar que estaba pasando algo en la nueva generacin de hacedores de la poca de "Psicosis". +Este es Andrew Archer. +Conoc a Andrew en una reunin de la comunidad organizando Maker Faire. +Andrew se haba mudado a Detroit desde Duluth, Minesota. +Y habl con su mam, y termin escribiendo una historia sobre l para una revista llamada Kidrobot. +l es solo un nio que creci jugando con herramientas en vez de juguetes. +A l le gustaba separar las cosas. +Su madre le dio una parte del garaje, l junt cosas usadas e hizo inventos. +Y entonces, no le gustaba mucho la escuela, pero se involucr en competiciones de robots, y se dio cuenta de que tena talento, y, ms importante, que tena pasin verdadera por eso. +Y empez construyendo robots. +Y cuando me sent a su lado me cont de la compaa que form y que estaba construyendo robots para las fbricas de autos para mover las cosas en el piso de la fbrica. +Y por eso es que se mud a Michigan. +Pero tambin se mud aqu para conocer otra gente que hiciera lo mismo. +Y esto nos lleva a la idea importante de hoy. +Aqu estn Jeff y Bilal y muchos otros en un espacio de hackers. +Hay 3 espacios de hackers en Detroit. +Y probablemente haya algunos nuevos desde la ltima vez que estuve. +Son como clubes que comparten herramientas, espacio, y experiencia sobre qu hacer. +As que es un fenmeno muy interesante en todo el mundo. +Pero sobre todo son personas que juegan con la tecnologa. +Y repito: juegan. +No necesariamente saben qu estn haciendo o por qu lo estn haciendo. +Estn jugando a descubrir qu puede hacer la tecnologa y quiz a descubrir qu pueden hacer ellos mismos, cules son sus propias capacidades. +Ahora la otra cosa que creo que est de moda, otra razn por la cual hacer est de moda hoy, es que hay innovaciones geniales. +No puede verse muy bien en pantalla pero Arduino es una plataforma de hardware de cdigo abierto. +Es un micro-controlador. +Para los que no saben, es como el cerebro. +Son los cerebros de los proyectos Maker. Y aqu hay un ejemplo de uno. +No s si pueden verlo tan bien pero eso es un buzn, un buzn comn y un Arduino. +As uno descubre cmo programarlo y lo pone en su buzn. +Y cuando alguien abra su buzn reciben una notificacin, un mensaje de alerta en el iPhone. +Podra ser una puerta para el perro, podra usarse para impedir que alguien vaya donde no debe, como un hermano pequeo a la habitacin de su hermanita. +Hay toda clase de cosas diferentes que pueden imaginar. +Ahora aqu hay algo: una impresora 3D. +Esa es otra herramienta que ha tenido xito... muy, muy interesante. +Es Makerbot. +Y hay versiones industriales de unos $ 20 000. +Estos chicos sacaron una versin en kit por $ 750. Y puede usarse en pasatiempos y en otras actividades como empezar a jugar con impresoras 3D. +No saben qu quieren hacer con eso, pero lo van a descubrir. +Lo van a descubrir manos a la obra, jugando con eso. +Algo genial es que Makerbot envi una actualizacin, unos nuevos soportes para la caja. +Bueno, uno imprima los soportes y reemplazaba los viejos con los nuevos. +No es genial? +As los hacedores cosechan la tecnologa de nuestro alrededor. +Este es un detector de velocidad desarrollado a partir de un juguete de Hotwheels. +Y hacen cosas interesantes. +Realmente estn creando y explorando nuevas reas inimaginables: el ejrcito hace aviones no tripulados. Bueno, hay toda una comunidad de personas que construye aviones autonmos, o vehculos... algo que uno puede programar para que vuele por s solo, sin un soporte, para descubrir qu camino tomar. +Estn haciendo un trabajo fascinante. +Acaba de suceder algo en la exploracin espacial exploracin domstica del espacio. +Tal vez sea el mejor momento en la historia de la Humanidad para amar el espacio. +Uno puede construir su propio satlite y ponerlo en el espacio por unos $ 8 000. +Piensen cunto dinero y cuntos aos le llev a la NASA poner satlites en el espacio. +De hecho, estos chicos actualmente trabajan para la NASA, y estn tratando de ser pioneros en el uso de componentes genricos artculos baratos, no especializados, que se pueden combinar y enviar al espacio. +Los hacedores son una fuente de innovacin, y pienso que se asemeja al nacimiento de la industria de las computadoras personales. +Este es Steve Wozniak. Dnde aprende sobre computadoras? +Es el club de computacin Homebrew, una especie de espacio de hackers. +Y el dice: "Yo podra ir ah todo el da y hablar con la gente y compartir ideas gratuitamente". +Bueno, l lo hizo un poco mejor que gratis. +Pero es importante entender que mucho de los orgenes de nuestras industrias, incluso la de Henry Ford, vienen de esta idea de jugar y descubrir cosas en grupos. +Bueno, si no los he convencido de que son hacedores, espero poder convencerlos de que la prxima generacin debera serlo, que los nios estn muy interesados en esto, en esta habilidad de controlar el mundo fsico y poder usar cosas como micro-controladores y construir robots. +Y tenemos que introducir esto en escuelas o comunidades de varias maneras... la habilidad de tocar, de dar forma una y otra vez al mundo que nos rodea. +Hoy hay una gran oportunidad y es por eso que realmente me importa ms... +la respuesta a la pregunta: Qu har EE.UU.? +Y es: ms hacedores. +Muchas gracias. +Hoy voy a plantear una idea que puede parecer un tanto loca: los medios sociales y el fin del gnero. +Djenme que les explique. +Hoy voy a plantear que las aplicaciones sociales que todos conocemos y amamos, amamos u odiamos, nos van a ayudar a liberarnos de algunas hiptesis absurdas que como sociedad tenemos en cuestiones de gnero. +Creo que los medios sociales nos van a ayudar realmente a desmantelar algunos estereotipos tontos y degradantes que se ven en los medios y en la publicidad en cuestiones de gnero. +Por si no lo han notado el clima meditico por lo general nos brinda una imagen muy distorsionada de nuestras vidas y de nuestro gnero. Y creo que eso va a cambiar. +Hoy la mayora de las empresas de medios -la TV, la radio, la grfica, los juegos, etc.- usan mtodos de segmentacin muy rgidos para entender a sus audiencias. +Usan demografa de la vieja escuela. +Vienen a encasillarnos en esas etiquetas muy restrictivas. +Ahora lo loco es que las empresas de medios creen que si uno cae en determinada categora demogrfica se vuelve en cierta forma predecible. Que uno prefiere ciertas cosas, que le gustan determinadas cosas. +Y esto da como extrao resultado que gran parte de nuestra cultura popular se base en realidad en estas presunciones demogrficas. +Demografa por edad: la demo de 18 a 49 ha tenido gran impacto en la programacin de medios del pas desde los aos 60 cuando los "baby boomers" todava eran jvenes. +Ahora ya no entran en ese segmento pero sigue siendo vlido que las encuestadoras de audiencia como Nielson ni siquiera tienen en cuenta a los televidentes de ms de 54 aos. +Para nuestro ambiente meditico es como si no existieran. +Ahora bien, si miran "Mad Men" como yo -un programa de TV popular en EE.UU.- La Dra. Faye Miller hace algo que se llama psicografa, que surgi en los aos 60 y consiste en crear perfiles psicolgicos complejos de los consumidores. +Pero la psicografa en realidad nunca tuvo gran impacto en los medios. +Ha sido slo demografa elemental. +Por eso en el Centro Norman Lear de la USC hemos investigado mucho en los ltimos 7 u 8 aos sobre la demografa y su impacto en los medios y el entretenimiento en el pas y en el exterior. +Y en los ltimos 3 aos hemos estado observando en especial a los medios sociales para ver los cambios. Y hemos descubierto algunas cosas muy interesantes. +Todas las personas que participan en redes sociales pertenecen a las mismas categoras demogrficas vetustas que las empresas de medios y los anunciantes han usado para entenderlas. +Pero esas categoras hoy significan mucho menos que antes. Porque con las herramientas de redes en lnea hoy nos resulta mucho ms fcil salirnos de nuestras restricciones demogrficas. +Podemos conectarnos con las personas mucho ms libremente y redefinirnos en lnea. +Y podemos mentir la edad con mucha facilidad. +Tambin podemos conectarnos con personas en base a intereses muy especficos. +No necesitamos una empresa de medios que nos ayude a hacer esto. +Por eso las empresas de medios tradicionales, claro, estn prestando mucha atencin a estas comunidades en lnea. +Saben que son las audiencias del futuro. Tienen que hacerse una idea. +Pero les est costando mucho hacerlo porque todava tratan de usar la demografa para entenderlas porque es as como se fijan las pautas publicitarias. +Cuando monitorean nuestros clics -y uno sabe que lo hacen- les cuesta muchsimo hacerse una idea de nuestra edad, gnero, ingresos. +Pueden hacer algunas conjeturas. +Pero obtienen mucha ms informacin de lo que uno hace en lnea de lo que nos gusta y lo que nos interesa. +Eso les resulta ms fcil de descubrir que quin es uno. +Y a pesar de que sigue siendo escalofriante, hay un lado positivo de que a uno le monitoreen los gustos. +De pronto se respeta nuestro gusto de maneras nunca antes vistas. +Antes se supona. +Cuando uno ve en lnea la forma en que la gente se congrega no se congrega por edad, gnero e ingresos. +Se congrega en torno a las cosas que ama a las cosas que le gusta. Y si lo piensan, los intereses y valores compartidos son agrupadores ms potentes de seres humanos que las categoras demogrficas. +Prefiero saber si te gusta "Buffy, la cazavampiros" antes que tu edad. +Eso me va a decir algo mucho ms importante sobre ti. +Pero hay algo ms que hemos descubierto sobre los medios sociales que es bastante sorprendente. +Resulta que las mujeres estn a la cabeza de la revolucin de medios sociales. +Si uno mira las estadsticas -son estadsticas mundiales- en cada una de las categoras etarias las mujeres superan en nmero a los hombres en el uso de tecnologas de redes sociales. +Y luego si uno mira la cantidad de tiempo que pasan en estos sitios verdaderamente dominan el espacio meditico social que es el espacio que est ejerciendo un gran impacto sobre los viejos medios. +La pregunta es, qu tipo de impacto va a producir esto en nuestra cultura y qu va a significar eso para las mujeres? +Si el caso es que los medios sociales se imponen a los viejos medios y las mujeres dominan los medios sociales significa eso entonces que las mujeres van a apoderarse de los medios mundiales? +Vamos a ver de repente aparecer un montn de personajes femeninos en las caricaturas en los juegos y en los programas de TV? +Ser la prxima superproduccin exitosa una pelcula para chicas? +Ser posible que de pronto el paisaje meditico se transforme en un paisaje feminista? +Bueno, en realidad no creo que eso vaya a suceder. +Creo que las empresas de medios van a contratar muchas ms mujeres porque se dan cuenta que es importante para sus negocios. Y creo que las mujeres tambin van a continuar dominando la esfera meditica social. +Pero creo que las mujeres van a ser -irnicamente- las responsables de ponerle fin a las categoras obvias de gnero como las pelculas para chicas y todas esas otras categoras de gnero que suponen que a ciertos grupos demogrficos les gustan determinadas cosas; que a los hispanos les gustan ciertas cosas; que a los jvenes le gustan tales otras. +Eso es demasiado simplista. +Los medios de entretenimiento del futuro que vamos a ver se van a guiar mucho por los datos y se van a basar mucho en la informacin de los gustos que sacaremos de las comunidades en lnea donde las mujeres estn comandando la accin. +Se preguntarn, por qu es importante saber lo qu entretiene a las personas? +Por qu debera saberlo? +Por supuesto, las viejas empresas de medios y los anunciantes necesitan saberlo. +Pero mi planteo es que si uno quiere entender la aldea global probablemente sea una buena idea descubrir qu apasiona a las personas, qu los divierte, qu hacen en el tiempo libre. +Eso es algo muy importante para saber de las personas. +He pasado la mayor parte de mi vida profesional investigando los medios y el entretenimiento y su impacto sobre la vida de las personas. +Y lo hago no slo porque es divertido -aunque en realidad es muy divertido- sino tambin porque nuestra investigacin ha demostrado una y otra vez que el entretenimiento y el juego tienen un impacto enorme en la vida de las personas por ejemplo, en sus creencias polticas y en su salud. +As que si uno tiene algn inters en entender el mundo mirar la manera en que la gente se divierte es una muy buena manera de empezar. +Imaginen una atmsfera meditica que no est dominada por estereotipos obvios sobre gnero y otras caractersticas demogrficas. +Pueden imaginar cmo sera? +Estoy ansiosa por descubrir cmo ser. +Muchas gracias. +Derecha, izquierda, derecha, izquierda... eso es correr, no? +Hemos estado corriendo los ltimos dos millones de aos, as que sera arrogante por mi parte pensar que tengo algo que decir que no se haya dicho ya, o que puedo explicarlo mejor. +Lo interesante de correr es que cuando lo hacemos siempre ocurren cosas raras. +Un caso: hace dos meses, si vieron el maratn de Nueva York, les aseguro que vieron algo jams visto. +Una etope llamada Derartu Tulu ha ido a participar. +Tiene 37 aos, no ha ganado ningn tipo de maratn en 8 aos, y hace solo unos meses estuvo a punto de morir al dar a luz. +Derartu Tulu estaba a punto de retirarse del deporte, pero decidi intentarlo y jugrselo todo en un ltimo intento: la prueba de referencia, el maratn de la ciudad de Nueva York. +Malas noticias para Derartu Tulu: no fue la nica en tener esa idea. Tambin acudieron la medalla de oro olmpica y Paula Radcliffe, un monstruo, la maratoniana ms rpida de la historia, +a solo 10 minutos del rcord masculino. Paula Radcliffe es bsicamente invencible. +Ese es su deporte. +Dan la salida, Derartu no est en la cola, +est todava ms atrs. +Pero en la cola de la cola aguanta. Y en el km 35 de una carrera de 40 km, ah est Derartu Tulu, con el grupo en cabeza. +Aqu es donde ocurre algo raro. +Paula Radcliffe, la que seguro le va a quitar el premio de las manos a Derartu Tulu, el caballo perdedor, de pronto se agarra la pierna y retrocede. +Todos sabemos qu hacer en esa situacin, no? +Le das un codazo en la boca y sales corriendo hacia la lnea de meta. +Derartu Tulu no sigue el guion. +En vez de acelerar, retrocede, agarra a Paula Radcliffe y le dice: "Venga, vamos. Puedes hacerlo". +Y Paula Radcliffe, por desgracia, lo hace. +Alcanza al grupo que va en cabeza y aprieta el ritmo hacia la meta. +Pero vuelve a retroceder. +Esta vez Derartu Tulu la agarra y tira de ella, pero en ese momento +Paula Radcliffe le dice: "Estoy fuera. Vete". +Es una historia fantstica y todos sabemos cmo acaba: +ha perdido el premio pero se vuelve a casa con algo ms valioso. +Pero Derartu Tulu vuelve a desobedecer el guion. En vez de perder, acelera y sobrepasa al grupo en cabeza, y gana el maratn de Nueva York, y se lleva a casa el gran premio. +Es una historia reconfortante, pero si intentamos profundizar hemos de preguntarnos qu demonios ocurri exactamente. +Dos valores atpicos en un mismo organismo no son una coincidencia. +Cuando alguien es el ms competitivo y el ms compasivo en una carrera, tampoco es una coincidencia. +Si veo una criatura palmpeda y con branquias, s que hay agua por alguna parte. +Alguien con un corazn as... debe haber algn tipo de conexin. +Y creo que podemos encontrar la respuesta en las Barrancas del Cobre en Mxico, donde vive una tribu solitaria, los tarahumara. +Los tarahumara son excepcionales por tres cosas. +La primera es haber vivido sin grandes cambios durante los ltimos 400 aos. +Cuando los conquistadores llegaron a Norteamrica haba dos opciones: luchar contra ellos o quitarse de en medio. +Los mayas y los aztecas lucharon, por eso quedan tan pocos. +Los tarahumara siguieron una estrategia diferente. +Se fueron y se escondieron en las Barrancas del Cobre, una red laberntica de caones parecida a una telaraa. Y all han estado desde el siglo XVII, prcticamente sin grandes cambios. +La segunda proeza de los tarahumara es que con 70 u 80 aos no corren maratones, sino megamaratones! +No andan 40 km, sino 120 km o 200 km en un da, sin ninguna lesin ni problema. +Son libres, no sufren ninguno de estos achaques modernos. +Cul es la conexin? +De nuevo, los valores atpicos. Debe haber alguna relacin causa-efecto aqu. +Hay algunos equipos cientficos de las universidades de Harvard y Utah que se exprimen el cerebro tratando de entender lo que los tarahumara han sabido siempre. +Intentan resolver los mismos misterios. +De nuevo, un misterio dentro de otro misterio. Quiz la clave para entender a Derartu Tulu y a los tarahumara se encuentra en estos otros tres misterios... Bueno, si tenis la respuesta subid aqu arriba y hablad, porque nadie ms en el mundo la tiene. +As que si la tenis, sois los ms listos del planeta. +Primer misterio: hace dos millones de aos, el tamao del cerebro humano creci desproporcionadamente. +Los australopitecus tenan un cerebrito, +de pronto aparecen los humanos (el homo erectus) con un cerebrn. +Para mantener un cerebro de ese tamao, se necesita una fuente de energa calrica concentrada. +En otras palabras: comamos animales muertos. No es una hiptesis, es un hecho. +El nico problema es que las primeras armas afiladas aparecieron hace 200 000 aos. +De alguna forma estuvimos matando animales durante dos millones de aos sin armas. +Pero no usbamos la fuerza porque ramos las mariquitas de la jungla. +Cualquier otro animal es ms fuerte que nosotros. Tienen colmillos, garras, son giles, son veloces. +Creemos que Usain Bolt es rpido, cuando cualquier ardilla le ganara. +No somos rpidos. +El prximo evento olmpico podra consistir en atrapar una ardilla. Quien la atrape, consigue la medalla de oro. +As que sin armas ni velocidad ni fuerza ni colmillos ni garras, cmo los matbamos? Ese es el misterio nmero uno. +Misterio nmero dos: las mujeres llevan ya unos aos en los Juegos Olmpicos, pero algo sorprendente es que todas las velocistas son horribles, son malsimas. +No hay ninguna mujer rpida en el mundo ni nunca la ha habido. +La mujer ms rpida hizo una milla en 4,15 seg. [2,59 seg/Km] +En una secundaria, podra elegir un chico al azar y tardara menos de 4,15. +Por alguna razn las chicas sois muy lentas. +Pero si hablamos, como antes, del maratn... Solo habis podido correrlo los ltimos 20 aos, +porque antes de los 80 la medicina deca que si una mujer corra 40 km, saben lo que les ocurrira si intentaran correr 40 km? Por qu se les prohiba correr los maratones antes de los 80? +(Un asistente: se les desgarrara el tero). S, se les desgarrara el tero. +S, vuestros rganos reproductivos se desgarraran. +El tero se desprendera y se saldra literalmente de vuestro cuerpo. +Yo he estado en muchos maratones y todava no he visto ninguno. +Solo hace 20 aos que participis en los maratones y en +ese periodo de aprendizaje tan corto habis ido desde los rganos desgarrados hasta el hecho de estar a solo 10 minutos del rcord masculino. +Si vamos ms all de los 40 km, distancias que segn la medicina eran mortales para los humanos (recuerden que Filpides muri despus de correr 40 km), los maratones de 80 km o 160 km son pruebas totalmente diferentes. +Si ponemos a una corredora como Ann Trason, Nikki Kimball o Jenn Shelton en una carrera de 80 km o 160 km contra cualquier otra persona en el mundo, Les pondr un ejemplo. +Hace un par de aos, Emily Baer se apunt a una carrera llamada Hardrock 100 [160 km], cuyo nombre nos dice todo lo que hace falta saber. +Para terminar esta carrera tienes 48 horas. +De 500 corredores, Emily Baer lleg en octavo lugar, entre los 10 primeros, aun habiendo parado en los puestos de abastecimiento para amamantar a su beb. Aun as, venci a 492 personas. +ltimo misterio: por qu las mujeres se hacen ms fuertes a medida que las distancias crecen? +Misterio nmero tres: en la Universidad de Utah empezaron a estudiar los tiempos de algunos maratonianos. +Lo que descubrieron fue que si empiezas a correr maratones a los 19 te irs haciendo ms rpido ao tras ao hasta alcanzar a los 27 tu marca mxima. +Despus de eso, sucumbes a los rigores de la edad +y te vas haciendo ms lento hasta que vuelves a tener la misma marca que tenas a los 19. +As que son 7 u 8 aos para alcanzar tu rcord y despus vas hacindote ms lento hasta que llegas a donde empezaste. +Podramos pensar que nos llevara otros 8 aos volver a la misma marca, o quiz 10, pero no: nos lleva 45 aos. +Los hombres y mujeres de 60 aos corren tan rpido como cuando tenan 19. +Les desafo a que encuentren cualquier otra actividad fsica (por favor, el golf no vale, algo que sea difcil de verdad) en la que los ancianos lo hagan igual de bien que los adolescentes. +As que existen estos tres misterios. +Existir una pieza en el rompecabezas que los conecte a los tres? +Deben ser muy precavidos cuando alguien les d una respuesta global para algn misterio de la prehistoria, porque sobre la prehistoria cualquiera puede decir cualquier cosa y salirse con la suya. +Pero les propongo algo: si ponemos una pieza en el medio de este rompecabezas todo empieza a cobrar sentido. +Quiz evolucionamos como una manada de cazadores. +Porque la ventaja que tenemos en el mundo silvestre no son ni los colmillos ni las garras ni la velocidad, lo nico que hacemos realmente bien es sudar. +Sudamos muy bien. +Sudamos estupendamente, mejor que cualquier otro animal en la tierra. +Pero la ventaja de esa pequea traba social es el hecho de que corremos largas distancias bajo un calor abrasador estupendamente. Somos los mejores. +Tomen un caballo en un da caluroso y despus de 8 o 10 km el caballo tiene que elegir: +o respira o transpira y se enfra, pero no ambas. Nosotros s podemos. +Y si evolucionamos como una manada de cazadores? +Y si nuestra nica ventaja biolgica fuera el hecho de que podemos, en grupo, salir a la savana africana, elegir un antlope y perseguirlo en grupo hasta que se muera? +Eso es lo que podamos hacer: +correr mucho un da de calor. +Si eso fuera cierto, tambin lo seran otro par de cosas. +La clave de ser una manada de cazadores es la manada. +Si salen ustedes solos y tratan de cazar un antlope, les aseguro que al final tendremos dos cadveres en la savana. +La manada sirve para aunar esfuerzos. +Necesitamos a los de 65 aos, que llevan haciendo esto mucho tiempo, para saber qu antlope hemos de perseguir. +La manada se disgrega y se vuelve a reunificar. +Los expertos tienen que ser parte de la manada, +no pueden estar a 15 km. +Tambin deben estar las mujeres y los adolescentes, porque son los adolescentes y las madres en poca de lactancia los que ms se benefician de las protenas de origen animal. +No nos vale matar al antlope y que la gente que se lo quiere comer est a 80 km de distancia. +Necesitan formar parte de la manada. +Necesitamos tambin a los sementales de 27 aos en su plenitud, para que lo cacen y los adolescentes deben estar ah para aprender cmo se hace. +La manada no se separa. +Otra condicin que ha de cumplirse: la manada no puede ser materialista. +No pueden cargar con todas sus cosas y tratar de cazar el antlope. +No puede ser una manada con rencillas y mal humor: "Yo no cazo el antlope de ese. +No lo soporto. Qu se cace l su propio antlope!". +La manada debe tragarse su ego, ser cooperativa y aunar esfuerzos. +El resultado es, en resumen, una cultura sorprendentemente similar a la de los tarahumara, una tribu que no ha cambiado desde la Edad de Piedra. +Resulta convincente pensar que quiz los tarahumara solo hacen lo que nosotros hicimos durante dos millones de aos. Que somos nosotros los que nos hemos salido del camino. +Saben, pensamos que correr es algo extrao y ajeno, un castigo por haber comido demasiada pizza la noche anterior. +Pero quiz sea algo diferente. +Quiz hemos tomado esta ventaja natural que siempre hemos tenido y la hemos estropeado. +Cmo? Bueno, cmo se estropea cualquier cosa? +Tratamos de sacar tajada, +intentamos empaquetarla y mejorarla y vendrsela a la gente. +Lo que pas es que empezamos a fabricar ciertos objetos amortiguadores que mejoran la carrera: las zapatillas para correr. +Lo que de verdad me enoja de las zapatillas de correr es que aunque me compr millones seguan hacindome dao. +Creo que, si alguien de la sala corre... Recin tuve una conversacin de dos minutos con Carol entre bastidores y me hablaba de la fascitis plantar. +Si conversan con un corredor, les garantizo que en 30 seg estarn hablando sobre lesiones. +Si evolucionamos como corredores, si esa es nuestra ventaja natural, por qu lo hacemos tan mal? Por qu nos hacemos dao? +Lo curioso de las lesiones de corredores es que son nuevas, son de nuestra poca. +Si leen algo de folclore o de mitologa, cualquier tipo de mito o historia fantstica, los corredores siempre se asocian a la libertad, la vitalidad, la juventud y el vigor eterno. +Solo en nuestra poca se asocian con el miedo y el dolor. +Gernimo sola decir: "Mis piernas son mi nico amigo. Solo confo en ellas". +Por eso los triatlones apaches solan consistir en correr 80 km por el desierto, meterse en una pelea cuerpo a cuerpo, robar unos caballos y volver corriendo a casa. +Gernimo nunca deca: "Sabes qu? El taln de Aquiles me duele. Necesito tomarme una semana de descanso", o "Necesito alternar. +No hice yoga, as que no estoy listo". +Los humanos corremos todo el tiempo. +Estamos hoy aqu, con nuestra tecnologa digital. +Toda nuestra ciencia se debe a que nuestros antepasados hacan algo extraordinario cada da: confiaban en sus piernas y pies descalzos para correr grandes distancias. +Cmo volvemos a eso? +Bueno, aqu va mi primer consejo: deshganse de todo lo superfluo, del marketing. +Deshganse de sus apestosas zapatillas. +Dejen de obcecarse con las maratones urbanas: si tardas 4 horas eres una mierda, +pero si tardas 3:59:59 eres genial porque te clasificas para la siguiente carrera. +Necesitamos recuperar la sensacin de alegra y entusiasmo e, incluso, la desnudez que hizo a los tarahumara una de las culturas ms serenas y sanas de nuestra era. +Pero dnde est el beneficio?, dirn. +Quemar las caloras del helado de la noche anterior? +Bueno, quiz haya algn otro beneficio. +Quiz haya algn estadio intermedio entre lo que somos hoy da y lo que los tarahumara siempre han sido. +No estoy diciendo que volvamos a las Barrancas del Cobre y vivamos solo con maz, que es la dieta preferida de los tarahumara; pero quiz haya algo intermedio. +Y si lo encontramos, quiz nos est esperando un gigantesco premio Nobel. +Porque si alguien encontrara la manera de recuperar nuestra habilidad natural, de la que hemos disfrutado casi toda nuestra existencia, hasta los aos 70 ms o menos, sus beneficios, fsicos y sociales, polticos y mentales, podran ser prodigiosos. +Lo que veo hoy da es una subcultura cada vez ms grande de corredores descalzos que se han deshecho de sus zapatillas. +Y lo que todos han descubierto es que cuando te deshaces de los zapatos, tambin se va el estrs, se van las lesiones y las molestias. +Y descubres lo que los tarahumara han sabido siempre: que correr puede ser muy divertido. +Yo mismo lo he vivido. +Siempre estaba lesionado hasta que con cuarenta aos tir mis zapatillas y con ellos se fueron todas mis molestias de corredor. +Con suerte es algo que todos podemos disfrutar. +Gracias por escuchar mi historia. Muchas gracias. +"Lo que har" No voy a bailar al son de tu tambor de guerra. +No voy a dar mi alma ni mis huesos a tu tambor de guerra. +No voy a bailar ese ritmo. +Lo conozco. +No tiene vida. +Conozco ntimamente esa piel que golpeas. +Una vez estuvo viva, fue cazada, robada, estirada. +No voy a bailar la guerra que intentas dar. +No voy a saltar, girar, parar por ti. +No voy a odiar por ti, ni voy a odiarte. +No voy a matar por ti. +Sobre todo no voy a morir por ti. +No voy a llorar a los muertos con asesinatos ni suicidios. +No me pondr de tu parte o bailar con las bombas porque todos estn bailando. +Todos pueden estar equivocados. +La vida es un derecho, no algo colateral o casual. +No voy a olvidar de dnde vengo. +Voy a confeccionar mi propio tambor. +Reunir a mis seres queridos y nuestro canto ser baile. +Nuestro zumbido ser repique de tambor. +No ser tu instrumento. +No voy a dar mi nombre ni mi ritmo a tu tamborileo. +Voy a bailar y resistir y bailar y persistir y bailar. +Este latido es ms fuerte que la muerte. +Tu tambor de guerra no es ms fuerte que esta respiracin: haaa. +Qu pasa TED? Quiero or algo de ruido. +Un grupo de pacifistas. +Confundidos, aspirantes a pacifistas. +Entiendo. +Me he equivocado mucho ltimamente. +Bastante. +Por eso no poda imaginar qu leer hoy. +Quiero decir, dije que me estuve preparando. +Estuve preparando mi vestimenta, preparando opciones, tratando de imaginar qu es lo que persigo, a qu me enfrento. +La poesa hace eso. +Te prepara. Te gua. +Por eso voy a leer un poema que acabo de elegir. +Pero necesito que ustedes se sienten 10 minutos abracen a una mujer que no est aqu. +Abrcenla ahora. +No hace falta que digan su nombre en voz alta, slo que la abracen. +La estn abrazando? +Esto se llama "Ruptura en Racimo". +Prohibida la historia sagrada. +Libros no escritos predijeron el futuro, proyectaron el pasado. +Pero desenvuelvo mi cabeza de lo que parece ilimitado: la violencia creadora del hombre. +Hijo de quin ser? +Qu nio perecer un nuevo da? +Las muertes de nuestros nios impulsan. +Apreciamos los cadveres. +Lloramos a las mujeres, con problemas. +Las putas reciben golpes a diario. +Se hacen profetas, se ignoran profetas. +La guerra y los dientes esmaltados salan infancias de limn. +Los colores corren, nadie es slido. +No busquen sombra tras de m. La llevo dentro. +Vivo ciclos de luz y oscuridad. +El ritmo es mitad silencio. +Ahora veo, nunca fui ni una ni otra. +Enfermedad, salud, violencia tierna. +Ahora creo que nunca fui pura. +Antes que forma fui tormenta, ciega, ignorante -todava lo soy. +El humano se auto contrae ciego, maligno. +Nunca fui pura. +Nia consentida antes de madurar. +El lenguaje no me acota. +Experimento de manera exponencial. +Todo es todo. +Una mujer pierde 15, tal vez 20, miembros de su familia. +Una mujer pierde 6. +Una mujer pierde su cabeza. +Una mujer busca en los escombros. Una se alimenta de la basura. +Una mujer se dispara en la cara. Una mujer dispara a su marido. +Una mujer se ata con correas. +Una mujer da a luz un beb. +Una mujer da a luz a las fronteras. +Una mujer ya no cree que el amor la encontrar. +Una mujer nunca lo crey. +A dnde van los corazones de los refugiados? +Rotos, insultados, puestos donde no van, no quieren que se los pase por alto. +Ante la ausencia +lloramos a cada uno o no significamos nada en absoluto. +Mi columna se curva en espiral. +Precipicio que corre hacia y desde los seres humanos. +Las bombas de racimo quedan atrs. +Minas de facto. +Un ardiente dolor. +Cosecha tabaco contaminado. +Cosecha bombas. +Cosecha dientes de leche. +Cosecha palmas, humo. +Cosecha testigo, humo. +Resoluciones, humo. +Salvacin, humo. +Redencin, humo. +Respira. +No temas a lo que ha estallado. +Si has de hacerlo teme a lo que no explot. +Gracias. +Lo que pensaba hacer era empezar pidindoles algo simple. +Me gustara que Uds paren un momento malditos dbiles y hagan un balance de sus existencias miserables. +Ese fue el consejo que San Benito le dio a sus atnitos seguidores en el siglo V. +Fue el consejo que decid seguir yo mismo al cumplir 40 aos. +Hasta ese momento yo haba sido un guerrero empresarial csico: coma demasiado, beba demasiado, trabajaba muy arduamente y estaba descuidando a la familia. +Y decid que intentara cambiar mi vida. +En particular decid que intentara abordar el espinoso tema del equilibrio entre vida y trabajo. +Me retir del mercado laboral y pas un ao en casa con mi mujer y mis cuatro hijos. +Pero todo lo que aprend del equilibrio vida-trabajo en ese ao fue que me pareci bastante fcil equilibrar el trabajo y la vida cuando no tena trabajo. +Esto no es muy til sobre todo cuando se termina el dinero. +As que volv a trabajar y he pasado estos ltimos 7 aos lidiando con eso, estudiando y escribiendo sobre el equilibrio vida-trabajo. +Y tengo 4 observaciones que me gustara compartir hoy. +La primera es que si la sociedad quiere avanzar en esta cuestin hace falta un debate honesto. +Pero el problema es que mucha gente habla mucha basura sobre el equilibrio vida-trabajo. +Las discusiones sobre el horario flexible, los viernes de vestimenta informal, o el permiso de paternidad slo sirven para enmascarar el tema principal que es que ciertos empleos y opciones de carrera son fundamentalmente incompatibles con un compromiso significativo en el da a da con una familia joven. +Ahora, el primer paso para resolver un problema es reconocer la realidad de la situacin en la que estamos. +Y la realidad de la sociedad en la que estamos es que hay miles y miles de personas por ah dando gritos ahogados de desesperacin en sus vidas trabajando duras e interminables horas en empleos que odian para poder comprar cosas que no necesitan e impresionar a personas que no quieren. +Yo opino que ir a trabajar los viernes con ropa informal no es ir al meollo de la cuestin. +La segunda observacin que me gustara hacer es que tenemos que enfrentar la verdad de que los gobiernos y las empresas no van a resolver el problema por nosotros. +Tenemos que dejar de mirar para otro lado; +depende de nosotros como individuos tomar el control y la responsabilidad del tipo de vida que queremos llevar. +Si uno no piensa su vida alguien lo har por uno y puede que a uno no le guste la idea de equilibrio del otro. +Es de particular importancia -esto no sale en Internet, no? Si no me van a despedir- es de particular importancia nunca poner la calidad de vida en manos de una empresa. +Y no estoy hablando de las malas empresas los mataderos del alma humana como yo las llamo. +Estoy hablando de todas las empresas. +Porque las empresas estn pensadas en esencia para conseguir lo mximo que puedan de nosotros. +Est en su naturaleza, en su ADN, es lo que hacen incluso las empresas buenas, bien intencionadas. +Por un lado, poner guarderas infantiles en el trabajo es maravilloso, es genial. +Por otro lado, es una pesadilla; slo significa que uno pasa ms tiempo en la maldita oficina. +Tenemos que ser responsables de establecer y hacer cumplir los lmites que queremos en nuestra vida. +La tercera observacin es que tenemos que tener cuidado con la ventana de tiempo que elegimos para evaluar el equilibrio. +Antes de volver a trabajar luego de mi ao en casa me sent y escrib una descripcin detallada, paso a paso del da de equilibrio ideal al que aspiraba. +Y deca algo as: despertar bien descansado luego de un sueo reparador. +Tener sexo. +Pasear al perro. +Tomar el desayuno con mi mujer e hijos. +Tener sexo otra vez. +Llevar a los nios a la escuela de camino a la oficina. +Trabajar 3 horas. +Hacer deporte con un amigo en el almuerzo. +Trabajar otras 3 horas. +Reunirme con compaeros en el pub a tomar algo a la tarde. +Volver a casa para la cena con mi mujer e hijos. +Meditar media hora. +Tener sexo. +Pasear el perro. Tener sexo otra vez. +Ir a dormir. +Con qu frecuencia creen que tengo das as? +Tenemos que ser realistas. +No se puede hacer todo en un da. +Un da es muy poco y cuando me jubile es demasiado. +Tiene que haber un punto medio. +Una cuarta observacin: Tenemos que abordar el equilibrio con equilibrio. +El ao pasado vino a verme una amiga -a ella no le importa que lo cuente- vino a verme una amiga el ao pasado y me dijo: "Nigel, le tu libro +y me di cuenta que mi vida est completamente desequilibrada. +Est totalmente dominada por el trabajo. +Trabajo 10 horas al da, viajo 2 horas por da. +Todas mis relaciones fracasaron. +No hay nada en mi vida aparte del trabajo. +Por eso decid tomar el control y hacer algo. +Me anot en el gimnasio". +No quiero burlarme pero ser una rata de oficina en forma no es ms equilibrado, es estar ms en forma. +Por ms adorable que sea el ejercicio fsico la vida es mucho ms que eso. Hay un lado intelectual, hay un lado emocional, hay un lado espiritual. +Para estar equilibrado creo que tenemos que atender todas esas reas y no slo hacer 50 abdominales. +Eso puede ser desalentador. +Porque la gente dice: "Maldito amigo, yo no tengo tiempo para ponerme en forma; +quieres que vaya a misa y llame a mi madre". +Y lo entiendo. +De verdad entiendo que puede ser desalentador. +Pero un incidente que ocurri hace un par de aos me dio una nueva perspectiva. +Mi mujer, que est en algn lugar entre la audiencia, me llam a la oficina y me dijo: "Nigel, tienes que pasar a buscar a nuestro hijo menor" Harry "por la escuela". +Porque ella tena que ir a algn otro lado con los otros 3 nios esa tarde. +As que me fui del trabajo una hora ms temprano esa tarde y pas a buscar a Harry por la escuela. +Caminamos hasta el parque local, lo pasamos en la hamaca, jugando a tonteras, +despus caminamos colina arriba hasta el caf local y compartimos la pizza para el t luego caminamos colina abajo hasta casa y le di su bao y le puse su pijama de Batman. +para despus leerle un captulo de "James and the Giant Peach", de Roald Dahl. +Luego lo acost, lo arrop, le di un beso en la frente y le dije: "Buenos noches, amigo", y sal de su dormitorio. +Cuando estaba saliendo de su habitacin me dijo: "Papi? Dije: "S, amigo?" +Me dijo: "Papi, este ha sido el mejor da de toda mi vida". +Yo no haba hecho nada no lo haba llevado a Disney ni le haba comprado una Playstation. +La idea es que las pequeas cosas cuentan. +Tener ms equilibrio no significa cambios dramticos en la vida. +Con pequeas inversiones en los lugares correctos uno puede transformar radicalmente la calidad de sus relaciones y la propia calidad de vida. +Por otra parte, creo que eso puede transformar la sociedad. +Porque si hay suficiente gente que lo haga podemos cambiar la definicin social de xito de esa nocin estpidamente simplista que dice que la persona con ms dinero al morir, gana, a una definicin ms reflexiva y equilibrada del aspecto de una vida bien vivida. +Y eso, creo, es una idea que vale la pena difundir. +Desde nia, viendo por primera vez la "Guerra de las Galaxias", qued fascinada con la idea de los robots personales. +Y como nia, me encantaba la idea de un robot que interactuara con nosotros como un secuaz servicial en quien confiar... algo que disfrutramos y enriqueciera nuestras vidas y nos ayudara a salvar una o dos galaxias. +Yo saba que robots como esos realmente no existan, pero saba que quera construirlos. +Pasaron 20 aos... soy estudiante de postgrado en el MIT y estudio inteligencia artificial, es el ao 1997, y acaba de descender el primer robot de la NASA en Marte. +Pero, irnicamente, los robots an no estn en nuestra casa. +Y recuerdo que pens en todas las razones por las que era as. +Pero una me llam la atencin. +La robtica se haba ocupado de la interaccin con las cosas, no con las personas; no en una forma social que nos resultara natural y ayudara a la gente a aceptar a los robots en sus vidas diarias. +Para m, eso era una incgnita, algo que los robots no podan hacer todava. +Y entonces ese ao comenc a construir este robot, Kismet, el primer robot social del mundo. +As que tres aos ms tarde... y mucha programacin mediante, trabajando en el laboratorio con otros estudiantes de posgrado Kismet estaba listo para empezar a interactuar con la gente. +Cientfico: Quiero mostrarte algo. +Kismet: (Sin sentido). Cientfico: Este es un reloj que me dio mi novia. +Kismet: (Sin sentido). Cientfico: S, mira, tambin tiene una lucecita azul. +Casi lo perd esta semana. +Cynthia Breazeal: As Kismet interactu con la gente como un nio que no habla o que todava no habla, que supongo era apropiado, porque en realidad era el primero de su tipo. +No hablaba el idioma, pero no importaba. +Este pequeo robot poda de alguna forma calar hondo en nuestro ser social. Y era la promesa de una forma totalmente nueva de interaccin con los robots. +As que en los ltimos aos continu explorando esta dimensin interpersonal de los robots, ahora en el Media Lab [MIT] con mi propio equipo de estudiantes muy talentosos. +Uno de mis robots favoritos es Leonardo. +Hemos desarrollado a Leonardo en colaboracin con Stan Winston Studio. +Y quiero mostrarles un momento especial para m de Leo. +Este es Matt Berlin interactuando con Leo, presentndole a Leo un nuevo objeto. +Y, como es nuevo, Leo no sabe qu hacer realmente con l. +Pero, al igual que nosotros, puede aprender mirando la reaccin de Matt. +Matt Berlin: Hola Leo. +Leo, este es Cookie Monster. +Puedes encontrar a Cookie Monster? +Leo, Cookie Monster es muy malo. +Es muy malo, Leo. +Cookie Monster es muy, muy malo. +Es un monstruo aterrador. +Quiere tus galletas. +CB: Muy bien, Leo y Cookie pueden haber tenido un comienzo difcil pero ahora se llevan muy bien. +Lo que aprend al desarrollar estos sistemas es que los robots en realidad son una tecnologa social fascinante donde su capacidad real para accionar nuestros resortes sociales e interactuar con nosotros como socio es una parte central de su funcionalidad. +Y, con ese cambio de mentalidad, ahora podemos imaginar nuevos interrogantes, nuevas posibilidades para los robots que de otra forma no habramos pensado. +Pero, qu quiero decir con "accionar los resortes sociales"? +Bien, una de las cosas que he aprendido es que, si diseamos estos robots para comunicarse con nosotros usando el mismo tipo de lenguaje, el mismo tipo de seales no verbales que usa la gente -como Nexi, nuestro robot humanoide lo hace aqu- vemos que la gente responde a los robots muy similar a como responde a otras personas. +La gente usa estas seales para determinar cosas como cun persuasivo es alguien, cun simptico, cun participativo, cun confiable. +Resulta que es lo mismo para los robots. +Ahora est resultando que los robots se estn convirtiendo en una nueva herramienta cientfica muy interesante para entender el comportamiento humano. +Para responder a preguntas como: cmo es que, a partir de un breve encuentro, somos capaces de estimar cun confiable es otra persona? +Se cree que la imitacin juega un papel, pero cmo? +Es la imitacin de gestos especficos lo que importa? +Resulta que es muy difcil aprender o entender esto de mirar a las personas porque cuando nos comunicamos hacemos todas estas seales de forma automtica. +No podemos controlarlas en detalle porque para nosotros son subconscientes. +Pero con un robot se puede. +Y as en este video... este es un video del laboratorio de David DeSteno en la Universidad de Northeastern. +l es un psiclogo con quien hemos estado colaborando. +Hay un control cientfico cuidadoso de las seales de Nexi para poder estudiar estas preguntas. +Y la conclusin es -la razn por la que esto funciona es- porque resulta que la gente se comporta como gente an interactuando con un robot. +Considerando esta idea clave, ahora podemos empezar a imaginar nuevos tipos de aplicaciones para los robots. +Por ejemplo, si los robots responden a nuestras seales no verbales, quiz esa sera una nueva tecnologa de comunicacin. +Imaginen esto: Qu tal un accesorio robot para el mvil? +Uno llama a una amiga, ella pone su auricular en un robot, y chan! uno es MeBot; se puede hacer contacto visual, hablar con los amigos, moverte, hacer gestos... tal vez lo ms parecido a estar realmente all, o no? +Para explorar este interrogante mi estudiante, Siggy Adalgeirsson, hizo un estudio donde trajimos participantes humanos, gente, a nuestro laboratorio para hacer una tarea colaborativa con un colaborador a distancia. +La tarea implic cosas como mirar un conjunto de objetos sobre una mesa, analizarlos en trminos de su importancia y pertinencia para realizar una determinada tarea -esto termin siendo una tarea de supervivencia- y luego clasificarlos en trminos de cun valioso e importante pensaban que eran. +El colaborador a distancia fue un experimentador de nuestro grupo donde se us una de las tres tecnologas diferentes para interactuar con los participantes. +As que lo primero fue slo la pantalla. +Esto es como la videoconferencia de hoy. +Lo siguiente fue agregarle movilidad: la pantalla sobre una base mvil. +Si estn familiarizados con algunos de los robots telepresenciales de hoy, esto es como un reflejo de esa situacin. +Y luego MeBot completamente expresivo. +Luego de la interaccin le pedimos a la gente que calificara su calidad de interaccin con la tecnologa, con el colaborador a distancia, a travs de esta tecnologa en diferentes formas. +Observamos la participacin psicolgica: Cunta empata sentiste por la otra persona? +Observamos la participacin general. +Observamos sus deseos de colaborar. +Y esto es lo que vemos cuando slo usan la pantalla. +Resulta que cuando se agrega movilidad -la capacidad de rodar por la mesa- se logra un poco ms de estmulo. +Y an ms si se agrega expresividad completa. +Pareciera como que esta personificacin fsica social realmente marca una diferencia. +Ahora tratemos de darle a esto un poco de contexto. +Sabemos que las familias de hoy viven cada vez ms separadas y definitivamente eso tiene un gran impacto en las relaciones y en los lazos familiares en la distancia. +En mi caso, tengo 3 nios pequeos y quiero que tengan una relacin muy buena con sus abuelos. +Pero mis padres viven a miles de kilmetros de distancia, por lo tanto no se ven con mucha frecuencia. +Intentamos con Skype, con el telfono, pero mis nios son pequeos; realmente no quieren hablar, quieren jugar. +Les encanta la idea de pensar en los robots como un nueva tecnologa para jugar a la distancia. +As que imagino un tiempo no muy lejano... mi madre va a su computadora, abre un navegador y se conecta con un pequeo robot. +Y como abuela-robot, ahora puede jugar, realmente jugar, con mis hijos, con sus nietos, en el mundo real, con sus juguetes reales. +Imagino a las abuelas pudiendo jugar con sus nietas, con sus amigos, y pudiendo compartir todo tipo de actividades en la casa, como compartir un cuento antes de dormir. +Y a travs de esta tecnologa participar activamente en las vidas de sus nietos de una forma que hoy no es posible. +Pensemos en algunos otros mbitos como ser la salud. +Hoy en EEUU ms del 65% de las personas tienen sobrepeso o son obesos, y tambin tenemos un gran problema con los nios. +Y sabemos que a medida que uno envejece en la vida, si de joven fue obeso, puede tener enfermedades crnicas que no slo disminuyen la calidad de vida sino que son una enorme carga econmica para el sistema de salud. +Pero si los robots pueden ser interesantes, si nos gusta colaborar con los robots, si los robots son convincentes, tal vez un robot puede ayudar a mantener un programa de dieta y ejercicios, tal vez puede ayudar a controlar el peso. +Una especie de Pepito Grillo digital, como el muy conocido cuento de hadas, un sostn amigable que siempre est ah para ayudar a tomar la decisin correcta de la forma correcta, en el momento adecuado, para ayudar a formar hbitos saludables. +As que exploramos esta idea en nuestro laboratorio. +Este es un robot, Autom. +Cory Kidd desarroll este robot para su trabajo de doctorado. +Y fue diseado para ser un consejero de dieta y ejercicios. +Poda realizar un par de habilidades no verbales simples. +Poda hacer contacto visual. +Poda compartir informacin mirando a una pantalla. +Uno usaba una interfaz de pantalla para ingreso de datos, como la cantidad de caloras consumidas ese da, y la cantidad de ejercicio realizado. +Y entonces poda ayudar en el seguimiento. +Y el robot hablaba con voz sinttica para entablar un dilogo de consejero modelado a partir de entrenadores, pacientes, etc. +Y construa una alianza de trabajo con uno mediante ese dilogo. +Poda ayudar a fijar objetivos y hacer el seguimiento del progreso, y serva de motivacin. +Una pregunta interesante es: La encarnacin social es tan importante? Importa que sea un robot? +Es la calidad del asesoramiento y la informacin lo que realmente importa? +Para responder esa pregunta hicimos un estudio en el rea de Boston donde pusimos una de tres intervenciones en los hogares durante varias semanas. +Uno de los casos fue el robot que vieron ah, Autom. +Otro fue una computadora que ejecut la misma interfaz de pantalla tctil, ejecut exactamente los mismos dilogos. +La calidad del asesoramiento fue idntico. +Y el tercero fue un bolgrafo y un anotador, porque ese es el material tpico utilizado al empezar la dieta y el ejercicio. +As que una de las cosas que realmente queramos ver no era cunto adelgazaba la gente, sino cunto interactuaban con el robot. +Porque el desafo no es adelgazar sino mantenerse. +Y cuanto ms interaccin haya con el material ms probable es el xito a largo plazo. +Entonces lo primero que quiero observar es cunto tiempo interactuaba la gente con estos sistemas. +Resulta que la gente interactuaba con el robot mucho ms, an cuando la calidad del asesoramiento era idntico al de la computadora. +Cuando se pidi a la gente que calificara la calidad de la colaboracin, el robot tuvo mayor calificacin y confiaban ms en l. +Y si miramos la integracin emocional fue completamente diferente. +La gente le da nombre a los robots. +Los visten. +Incluso cuando pasbamos a recoger los robots al final del estudio, nos acompaaban al auto y les decan adis a los robots. +No hacan esto con una computadora. +Por ltimo quiero hablar del futuro de los medios para nios. +Sabemos que hoy los nios pasan mucho tiempo detrs de las pantallas, sean de televisin, o de videojuegos, etc. +Mis hijos adoran la pantalla. Les encanta. +Pero quiero que jueguen, como madre quiero que ellos jueguen juegos del mundo real. +Esta es la primera exploracin de esta idea en la que los personajes pueden ser fsicos o virtuales, y el contenido digital literalmente puede salir de la pantalla al mundo real y volver. +Me gusta pensarlo como el Atari Pong de este juego de realidad hbrida. +Pero podemos llevar esta idea ms lejos. +Qu tal si... Nathan: Aqu viene. S! +CB: ...el personaje mismo puede entrar a tu mundo? +Resulta que a las nios les encanta cuando el personaje se vuelve real y entra en su mundo. +Y cuando est en su mundo, se pueden relacionar y jugar de una forma totalmente diferente a como juegan en la pantalla. +Tambin es importante esta idea de la persistencia del personaje a travs de las realidades. +As que los cambios que los nios hacen en el mundo real deben trasladarse al mundo virtual. +Aqu, Nathan ha cambiado la letra A por el nmero 2. +Imaginen que quizs estos smbolos le dan al personaje poderes especiales cuando entra al mundo virtual. +As que ahora estn enviando de vuelta al personaje a ese mundo. +Y ahora tiene poder de nmero. +Y, finalmente, aqu estoy tratando de crear una experiencia realmente inmersiva para los nios, donde de verdad se sientan parte de esa historia, parte de esa experiencia. +Y realmente quiero despertar su imaginacin as como "La Guerra de las Galaxias" despert mi imaginacin. +Pero quiero hacer ms que eso. +De hecho, quiero que ellos creen esas experiencias. +Quiero que sean capaces de construir su imaginacin con estas experiencias y que las hagan propias. +Para ello hemos estado explorando un montn de ideas en telepresencia y realidad hbrida para posibilitarles a los nios proyectar sus ideas en este espacio donde puedan interactuar con otros nios y construir sobre ello. +Quiero llegar a nuevas formas de medios para nios que fomenten la creatividad, el aprendizaje y la innovacin. +Creo que eso es muy, muy importante. +As que este es un nuevo proyecto. +Hemos invitado a muchos nios a este espacio, y ellos piensan que est muy bueno. +Pero debo decirles que lo que ms les gusta es el robot. +Lo que les importa es el robot. +Los robots nos tocan una fibra humana ntima. +Y ya sea que nos estn ayudando a ser ms creativos e innovadores, o que nos ayuden a sentirnos ms conectados a pesar de la distancia, o que sean los secuaces en quien confiar que nos ayudan a lograr nuestras metas personales para dar lo mejor de nosotros mismos, para m hablar de robots es hablar de personas. +Gracias. +Hawa Abdi: Mucha gente durante 20 aos estuvo luchando en Somalia. +No haba trabajo ni comida, +gran parte de los nios -- como ste -- estaban muy desnutridos. +Deqo Mohamed: Como saben en una guerra civil los ms afectados siempre son las mujeres y los nios. +As que nuestros pacientes son mujeres y nios, +que estn en nuestro patio de atrs. +Es nuestra casa; les damos la bienvenida. +Ese es el campamento que tenemos ahora con 90 000 personas, de las cuales el 75% son mujeres y nios. +Pat Mitchell: Y este es el hospital. As es por dentro. +HA: Hacemos cesreas y diferentes operaciones porque la gente necesita ayuda. +No hay gobierno que los proteja. +DM: Cada maana tenemos cerca de 400 pacientes, quiz, ms o menos. +Pero a veces somos slo 5 mdicos y 16 enfermeros y atender a todos nos deja fsicamente agotados. +Por eso atendemos los casos ms graves y reprogramamos los otros para el da siguiente. +Es muy difcil. +Y como pueden ver, son las mujeres las que llevan a los nios, son las mujeres quienes entran en los hospitales, son las mujeres quienes construyeron las casas. +Esa es su casa. +Y tenemos una escuela. Esta es nuestra brillante... en los ltimos dos aos abrimos una escuela primaria en la que tenemos 850 nios y la mayora son mujeres y nios. +PM: Y los mdicos tienen algunas reglas primordiales sobre quin puede ser atendido en la clnica. +Podran explicar las reglas de admisin? +HA: Damos la bienvenida a todas las personas que vienen. +Compartimos con ellos todo lo que tenemos. +Pero hay slo dos reglas. +La primera: no hay clanes con privilegios ni divisin poltica en la sociedad somal. +Expulsamos a quien sea que infrinja la regla +La segunda: ningn hombre puede golpear a su mujer. +Si la golpea lo pondremos en la crcel y vamos a llamar a la gente mayor, +hasta que identifiquen el caso no lo vamos a liberar. +Esas son nuestras dos reglas. +Otra cosa que hemos observado es que la mujer es la persona ms fuerte del mundo +porque en los ltimos 20 aos la mujer somal se ha mantenido en pie. +Ellas eran las lderes, y nosotras somos las lderes de nuestra comunidad y la esperanza de nuestras futuras generaciones. +No somos slo las desamparadas vctimas de la guerra civil, +podemos conciliar ambas cosas. +Podemos hacerlo todo. +DM: Como dijo mi madre, somos la esperanza futura y los hombres slo estn matando en Somalia. +Se nos ocurrieron estas dos reglas. +En un campamento de 90 000 personas, uno tiene que contar con algunas reglas o de lo contrario va a haber peleas. +As que no hay divisin de clanes y ningn hombre puede golpear a su mujer. +Y tenemos un pequeo depsito que hemos convertido en crcel. +Si golpeas a tu mujer vas a terminar all. +As, damos poder y oportunidades a las mujeres; estamos all para ellas, no estn solas en esto. +PM: Uds. administran una clnica mdica. +Ofrecen atencin mdica de lo ms necesaria a personas que no la conseguiran. +Tambin administran una sociedad civil. +Han creado sus propias reglas en las que mujeres y nios encuentran un sentido diferente de seguridad. +Cunteme de su decisin, Dra. Abdi, y de su decisin, Dra. Mohamed, de trabajar juntas para llegar a ser mdica y trabajar con su madre en estas circunstancias. +HA: Mi edad -- nac en 1947 -- en ese entonces tenamos gobierno, ley y orden. +Pero un da fui al hospital -- mi madre estaba enferma -- y vi el hospital, cmo trataban los mdicos el compromiso con el que ayudaban a los enfermos. +Los admiraba y decid ser mdica. +Mi madre muri, por desgracia, cuando yo tena 12 aos. +Luego mi padre me permiti continuar con mi esperanza. +Mi madre muri por una complicacin ginecolgica por eso decid ser especialista en ginecologa. +Por eso me hice mdica. +La Dra. Deqo tiene algo que explicar. +DM: En mi caso, mi madre me preparaba de nia para ser mdica, pero en realidad yo no quera. +Quiz debera ser historiadora, o tal vez reportera. +Me encantaba, pero no pudo ser. +Cuando estall la guerra, la guerra civil, vi cmo mi madre estaba ayudando y la falta que le haca la ayuda, lo esencial que es el cuidado a la mujer para ser mdica en Somalia y ayudar a mujeres y nios. +Y pens, quiz puedo ser reportera y ginecloga. +As que fui a Rusia, y mi madre tambin, en tiempos de la Unin Sovitica. +Entonces algo de nuestro carcter quiz regresamos con una fuerte formacin sovitica. +Por eso decid hacer lo mismo. +Mi hermana era diferente. +Ella est aqu. Tambin es mdica. +Se gradu en Rusia tambin +para regresar a trabajar con nuestra madre -- es lo que vimos en la guerra civil -- yo tena 16 aos y mi hermana tena 11 cuando estall la guerra civil. +Fueron la necesidad y las personas que vimos a principios de los 90 lo que nos hizo regresar a trabajar para ellos. +PM: Cul es el desafo ms grande de trabajar, madre e hija, en situaciones tan peligrosas y a veces temerarias? +HA: S, estaba trabajando en una situacin difcil muy peligrosa. +Y cuando vi que las personas me necesitaban me qued con ellos para ayudarles porque poda hacer algo por ellos. +La mayora se fue al exterior. +Pero yo me qued con esas personas tratando de hacer algo... por pequeo que pudiera ser. +Triunf en mi lugar. +Ahora mi lugar tiene 90 000 personas que se respetan mutuamente y no estn luchando. +Pero tratamos de ponernos de pie, de hacer algo, pequeas cosas, lo que podemos por nuestra gente. +Y estoy agradecida porque +mis hijas vinieron a ayudarme a tratar a estas personas, a ayudarles, +a hacer de todo por ellos. +Han hecho lo que deseaba para ellos +PM: Cul es la mejor parte de trabajar con tu madre y el mayor desafo para ti? +DM: Ella es muy severa, es un gran desafo. +Ella siempre espera que hagamos ms +Y cuando de verdad piensas que no vas a poder ella va a insistir hasta que puedas. +Esa es la mejor parte. +Ella nos entrena en cmo hacerlo y en cmo ser mejores personas y cmo enfrentar muchas horas de ciruga: 300 pacientes por da, 10 20 cirugas, y todava hay que administrar el campamento, as es como nos entrena. +No hay all oficinas hermosas de 20 pacientes y ya ests cansada. +Atendemos 300 pacientes, 20 cirugas, y 90 000 personas a cargo. +PM: Pero lo hacen por buenas razones. +Esperen. Esperen. +HA: Gracias. +DM: Gracias. +HA: Muchas gracias. (DM: Muchas gracias). +Me gustara empezar con un par de ejemplos rpidos. +Esta es la glndula hiladora del abdomen de una araa. +Produce 6 tipos diferentes de seda que se hilan en una fibra ms resistente que cualquiera jams construida por el ser humano. +Lo ms cercano que hemos llegado es a la fibra de aramida. +Y para lograrlo se necesitan temperaturas extremas presiones extremas y mucha contaminacin. +Y sin embargo la araa se las ingenia para hacerlo a temperatura y presin ambiente con moscas muertas y agua como materia prima. +Eso indica que todava tenemos un poco para aprender. +Este escarabajo puede detectar un incendio forestal a 80 km. +Eso es unas 10.000 veces el rango de los detectores de incendio artificiales. +Y, es ms, este muchacho no necesita un cable hasta una estacin de energa que quema combustibles fsiles. +Estos 2 ejemplos nos dan una idea del potencial de la biommesis. +Si pudiramos aprender a hacer cosas como lo hace la Naturaleza podramos lograr un factor de ahorro de 10, 100, quiz 1000 veces en el uso de recursos y energa. +Y si queremos avanzar en la revolucin de la sostenibilidad creo que hay 3 cambios realmente grandes que tenemos que lograr. +Primero, un aumento radical en la eficiencia de los recursos. +Segundo, pasar de un uso de los recursos en forma lineal, con derroche y polucin a un modelo de circuito cerrado. +Y tercero, pasar de una economa de combustibles fsiles a una economa solar. +Y para las tres, creo, la biommesis tiene muchas soluciones que vamos a necesitar. +Puede verse a la Naturaleza como un catlogo de productos que se ha visto beneficiado por un perodo de I+D de 3.800 millones de aos. +Y dado ese nivel de inversin, tiene sentido usarlo. +Por eso voy a hablar de algunos proyectos que han explorado estas ideas. +Empecemos con los aumentos radicales en la eficiencia de los recursos. +Cuando estbamos trabajando en el Proyecto Edn tuvimos que crear un invernadero muy grande en un sitio que no slo era irregular sino que estaba en constante cambio debido a que funcionaba como cantera. +El desafo fue un infierno y en realidad fueron los ejemplos de la biologa los que nos dieron muchas pistas. +As, por ejemplo, fueron las pompas de jabn las que nos ayudaron a crear una estructura que funcionara independientemente del nivel del suelo final. +El estudio de granos de polen radiolarios y molculas de carbono nos ayudaron a disear la solucin estructural ms eficiente mediante hexgonos y pentgonos. +El siguiente paso fue que queramos maximizar el tamao de esos hexgonos. +Y para hacerlo tenamos que encontrar una alternativa al vidrio que es muy limitado en trminos de sus tamaos. +Y en la Naturaleza hay muchos ejemplos de estructuras muy eficientes basado en las membranas a presin. +Empezamos a explorar este material denominado ETFE. +Es un polmero de alta resistencia. +Se lo coloca en 3 capas se suelda por el borde y luego se infla. +Y lo bueno de estas cosas es que se lo puede hacer en unidades unas 7 veces ms grandes que las de vidrio. Y pesaba slo el 1% respecto del doble acristalamiento. +Represent un factor de ahorro de 100 veces. +Y hallamos que nos metamos en un ciclo positivo en el cual un gran avance daba lugar a otro. +As que con almohadas grandes, de peso ligero, empleamos mucho menos acero. +Con menos acero recibimos ms luz solar y entonces no necesitamos tanto calor extra en invierno. +Y con menos peso total de la superestructura hubo un gran ahorro en los cimientos. +Y al final del proyecto calculamos que el peso de esa superestructura en realidad era menor que el peso del aire contenido en el edificio. +Por eso creo que el Proyecto Edn es un muy buen ejemplo de cmo las ideas de la biologa pueden llevar a aumentos radicales en la eficiencia del uso de recursos: cumplir la misma funcin pero con una fraccin de los recursos. +Y hay muchos ejemplos en la Naturaleza a los que se podra recurrir en busca de soluciones similares. +Por ejemplo, se podran desarrollar estructuras de techo sper-eficientes en base a los nenfares gigantes del Amazonas, edificios enteros inspirados en el caparazn del abuln, puentes sper-ligeros inspirados en las clulas vegetales. +Hay aqu un mundo de belleza y eficiencia para explorar con la Naturaleza como herramienta de diseo. +Ahora quiero hablar del modelo de circuito cerrado. +La tendencia de uso de los recursos consiste en extraerlos transformarlos en productos de corta duracin y descartarlos. +La Naturaleza funciona de manera muy distinta. +En los ecosistemas los residuos de un organismo son los nutrientes de otro organismo de ese sistema. +Y existen ejemplos de proyectos que han tratado de imitar intencionalmente a los ecosistemas. +Y uno de mis favoritos se llama Proyecto del Cartn al Caviar de Graham Wiles. +En esa zona haba muchas tiendas y restaurantes que generaban muchos residuos de comida, cartn y plstico +que terminaban en los rellenos sanitarios. +Con los residuos de cartn hicieron algo realmente inteligente. +Y se los voy a contar con esta animacin. +Se les pagaba para recolectarlo en los restaurantes. +Luego trozaban el cartn y lo vendan a los centros ecuestres como sustrato para caballos. +Cuando eso se ensuciaba se les pagaba de nuevo para recolectarlo. +Lo usaban en lumbricarios de compost lo que produca muchas lombrices con las que alimentaban al esturin siberiano que produca caviar, que a su vez vendan a los restaurantes. +Transformando as un proceso lineal en un modelo de circuito cerrado y creaba ms valor en el proceso. +Graham Wiles ha seguido agregando cada vez ms elementos transformando los flujos de residuos en cadenas de valor. +Y as como los sistemas naturales tienden a aumentar la diversidad y resistencia con el tiempo hay una sensacin real en este proyecto de que la cantidad de posibilidades sigue en aumento. +Y s que es un ejemplo peculiar pero creo que las consecuencias son bastante radicales porque sugieren que en realidad podramos transformar un gran problema, los residuos, en una gran oportunidad. +Y sobre todo en las ciudades; podramos mirar el metabolismo completo de las ciudades y verlo como oportunidad. +Y eso es lo que estamos haciendo en el prximo proyecto del que voy a hablar: el Proyecto Moebio en el que estamos tratando de reunir una serie de actividades todas en un mismo edificio de modo que los residuos de un contenedor sean el nutriente de otro. +El tipo de elemento del que estoy hablando se encuentra en un restaurante dentro de un invernadero de produccin un poco como este de msterdam llamado De Kas. +Luego tendremos un digestor anaerbico capaz de hacer frente a todos los residuos biodegradables de la zona de transformarlo en calor para el invernadero y electricidad para retroalimentar la red. +Tendramos un sistema de tratamiento de agua para transformar aguas residuales en agua potable y generar energa a partir de los slidos por medio de plantas y microorganismos. +Tendramos un criadero de peces alimentados con residuos de la cocina y con lombrices del compost suministraramos peces de nuevo al restaurante. +Y tambin tendra una cafetera y los residuos de granos podran usarse como sustrato para el cultivo de hongos. +As que pueden ver que estamos reuniendo ciclos de alimentos, energa, agua y residuos todo bajo el mismo techo. +Slo por diversin hemos propuesto esto para una rotonda del centro de Londres que en este momento es una monstruosidad total. +Algunos quiz lo reconocen. +Con un poco de planificacin podramos transformar un espacio dominado por el trfico en uno abierto para la gente que vuelva a conectarla con los alimentos y transforme los residuos en oportunidades de circuito cerrado. +El ltimo proyecto del que quiero hablar es el Proyecto Bosque del Sahara en el que estamos trabajando ahora. +Puede resultar una sorpresa para algunos de Uds saber que vastas zonas de lo que actualmente es desierto estaban cubiertas por bosques hace relativamente poco. +Por ejemplo, cuando Julio Csar lleg al norte de frica enormes zonas del territorio estaban cubiertas por bosques de cedros y cipreses. +Y durante la evolucin de la vida en el planeta ocurri la colonizacin de la Tierra por las plantas lo que ayud a crear el clima benigno que disfrutamos hoy. +Lo contrario tambin es cierto. +Cuanto ms vegetacin perdemos ms probabilidad hay de agravar el cambio climtico y contribuir a ms desertificacin. +Y esta animacin muestra la actividad fotosinttica a lo largo de varios aos. Y lo que puede observarse es que los lmites de esos desiertos se desplazaron mucho. Y eso plantea la cuestin de si podemos intervenir en las condiciones de contorno para detener, o incluso revertir, la desertificacin. +Y si nos fijamos en algunos de los organismos que han evolucionado para vivir en los desiertos hay ejemplos sorprendentes de adaptaciones a la escasez de agua. +Este es el escarabajo atrapaniebla de Namibia que ha desarrollado una forma propia de recolectar agua dulce en el desierto. +Lo que hace es salir por las noches se arrastra hasta la cima de una duna y dado que tiene un caparazn negro mate puede irradiar calor hacia el cielo nocturno y tornarse levemente ms fro que sus alrededores. +As que cuando sopla el viento hmedo desde el mar se forman estas gotas en el caparazn del escarabajo. +Justo antes del amanecer levanta su caparazn, el agua baja hacia su boca, toma un buen trago y se va a ocultar por el resto del da. +Y el ingenio, si se lo puede llamar as, va ms all. +Porque si uno se fija bien en el caparazn del escarabajo hay montones de bolitas en ese caparazn. +Y esas bolitas son hidroflicas: atraen el agua. +Entre ellas hay un acabado de cera que repele el agua. +Y esto da como resultado que a medida que se forman las gotas en las bolitas quedan gotas compactas, esfricas, o sea que son mucho ms mviles de lo que seran de ser una pelcula de agua en todo el caparazn del escarabajo. +De modo que an cuando slo hay poca humedad en el aire de todos modos puede recolectarla de manera muy eficiente y canalizarla hasta la boca. +Es un ejemplo impresionante de adaptacin a un entorno con recursos muy limitados y en ese sentido es muy importante para el tipo de desafos que vamos a estar enfrentando en los prximos aos, en las prximas dcadas. +Estamos trabajando con el tipo que invent el Invernadero de Agua Marina. +Es un invernadero diseado para las regiones costeras ridas y funciona con esta pared completa de parrillas de evaporacin. Se coloca agua de mar sobre ellas para que el viento sople y arrastre gran cantidad de humedad y se enfre en el proceso. +As, por dentro es fro y hmedo y por ende las plantas necesitan menos agua para crecer. +Y luego en la parte de atrs del invernadero se condensa mucha de esa humedad en forma de agua dulce en un proceso realmente idntico al del escarabajo. +Y lo que hallaron con el primer Invernadero de Agua Marina fue que produca levemente ms agua dulce que la que necesitan las plantas del interior. +As que se dispersa por la tierra de los alrededores. Eso junto a la elevada humedad produjo un efecto rotundo a nivel local. +Esta fotografa se tom el da de la inauguracin y apenas un ao despus se vea as. +Fue como una mancha de tinta verde esparcindose fuera del edificio convirtiendo la tierra yerma en tierra biolgicamente productiva y en ese sentido va ms all del diseo sostenible para lograr un diseo restaurador. +Tenamos ganas de extender esto y aplicar las ideas biomimticas para maximizar los beneficios. +Y cuando pensamos en la Naturaleza a menudo pensamos en eso como si todo fuera competencia. +Pero en realidad en los ecosistemas maduros es muy probable encontrar ejemplos de relaciones simbiticas. +As que un principio importante de la biommesis es encontrar formas de aunar tecnologas en grupos simbiticos. +Y la tecnologa que elegimos como socia ideal para el Invernadero de Agua Marina es la energa solar concentrada que usa espejos solares de seguimiento para concentrar el calor y crear electricidad. +Y para darnos una idea del potencial de esta energa solar consideremos que recibimos 10.000 veces ms energa solar cada ao de la que usamos en todas las otras formas; 10.000 veces ms. +As que nuestros problemas de energa no son insolubles. +Es un desafo para nuestro ingenio. +Y el tipo de sinergias del que hablo primero, son tecnologas que funcionan muy bien en desiertos calientes y soleados. +La energa solar requiere suministro de agua dulce desmineralizada. +Es exactamente lo que produce el Invernadero de Agua Marina. +La energa solar produce mucho calor residual. +Lo vamos a poder usar para evaporar ms agua marina y aumentar los beneficios restauradores. +Y, por ltimo, a la sombra de los espejos es posible realizar todo tipo de cultivos que no crecen bajo la luz solar directa. +As se vera este sistema. +La idea es crear este seto vivo de invernaderos de cara al viento. +Hemos concentrado plantas de energa solar a intervalos a lo largo del camino. +Algunos se estarn preguntando qu podramos hacer con todas las sales. +En biommesis si uno tiene un recurso subutilizado no piensa "Cmo voy a deshacerme de esto?" +Uno piensa: "Qu puedo agregar al sistema para crear ms valor?" +Y resulta que las distintas cosas cristalizan en etapas diferentes. +Cuando se evapora agua marina lo primero que cristaliza es el carbonato de calcio. +Y eso se acumula en los evaporadores -lo que se ve en la imagen de la izquierda- poco a poco se incrusta el carbonato de calcio. +As que despus de un tiempo podramos quitar eso y usarlo como elemento liviano de construccin. +Y si se piensa en el carbono saldra de la atmsfera hacia el mar y luego sera encerrado en un elemento de construccin. +Lo siguiente es el cloruro de sodio. +Tambin se puede comprimir en bloques de construccin como se hizo aqu. +Este es un hotel en Bolivia. +Y despus de eso, hay todo tipo de compuestos y elementos que se pueden extraer como los fosfatos, que tenemos que devolver a la tierra del desierto para fertilizarla. +Estn casi todos los elementos de la tabla peridica en el agua marina. +De modo que debera ser posible extraer elementos valiosos como el litio para las bateras de alto rendimiento. +Y en algunas partes del Golfo Prsico el agua de mar, la salinidad aumenta constantemente debido a la descarga de salmuera de residuos de las plantas de desalinizacin. +Y empujan al ecosistema al borde del colapso. +Tenemos que poder usar todos esos residuos de salmuera. +Podemos evaporarlos para mejorar los beneficios restauradores y capturar las sales transformando un problema de residuos urgente en una gran oportunidad. +En verdad el Proyecto Bosque del Sahara es un modelo de creacin de alimentos sin emisin de carbono de abundante energa renovable en uno de los lugares con ms estrs hdrico del planeta as como de reversin de la desertificacin en algunas zonas. +Volviendo a los grandes desafos que mencionaba al principio: aumento radical en la eficiencia de los recursos, circuitos cerrados y economa solar. +No slo son posibles, son algo vital. +Y creo firmemente que estudiar el modo en que la Naturaleza resuelve los problemas proporcionar gran cantidad de soluciones. +Quiz, ms que cualquier otra cosa, lo que este pensamiento provee es una manera muy positiva de hablar de diseo sostenible. +Gran parte de la narrativa sobre el ambiente utiliza un lenguaje muy negativo. +Pero aqu se trata de sinergias, abundancia y optimizacin. +Y esta es una idea importante. +Antoine de Saint-Exupry dijo una vez: "Si quieres construir una flotilla de buques, no te sientes a hablar de carpintera. +No, tienes que enardecer las almas de las personas con visiones de la exploracin de tierras lejanas". +Eso es lo que tenemos que hacer, as que seamos positivos y avancemos en lo que podra ser el perodo ms emocionante de innovacin que hayamos visto. +Gracias. +Gracias. +Muchas gracias. +Ese es mi silbido. +Estoy intentando hacerlo en Ingls. +Qu hace este holands regordete, de pelo rizado ...por qu est silbando? +Bien, empec a silbar cuando tena 4 aos... alrededor de los 4. +Mi padre siempre estaba silbando por la casa, y pens que eso formaba parte de la comunicacin de mi familia +as que yo silbaba con l. +En realidad, hasta los 34 aos, La gente que silbaba me molestaba e irritaba, porque, para ser sincero, mi silbido es una especie de comportamiento anormal. +Silbaba estando solo, en clase, +cuando iba en bici... silbaba en todas partes. +Tambin he silbado en Nochebuena, con mi familia poltica. +En mi opinin, tenan una msica de navidad horrible, +y cuando escucho msica que no me gusta trato de mejorarla. +Lo hice con el villancico "Rodolfo, el reno de la nariz roja"...lo conocen? +Tambin puede sonar as. +En Nochebuena, en concreto durante la cena, esto es muy molesto. +Mi cuada me pidi varias veces que dejara de silbar, +pero yo no poda. +Llegu a decirle -he de admitir que ya haba bebido vino...-: "Si hubiese un concurso, me apuntara". +Y dos semanas despus recib un mensaje: "Te vas a EE.UU." +Vale, me voy a EE.UU, +me encantara, pero por qu? +Por supuesto, la llam inmediatamente. +Ella haba buscado en internet y haba encontrado un campeonato mundial de silbidos en EE.UU, por supuesto. +No se esperaba que ira. +Y yo habra perdido la cara... +...no s si se dice as en Ingls... +... pero los holandeses saben a lo que me refiero. +Perd la cara. +Ella pens que yo nunca ira. +Pero lo hice. +Viaj a Louisburg, Carolina del Norte, en el sureste de EE.UU Y entr en el mundo del silbido. +Tambin me inscrib en el campeonato mundial y gan en 2004. +Eso fue... Fue muy divertido, claro que s. +Para defender mi ttulo, tal y como lo hace la gente y los deportistas, pens: "Bueno, volvamos en 2005". Volv y gan de nuevo. +Despus, durante unos aos no pude participar, +pero en 2008 particip de nuevo en Japn, Tokyo, y gan otra vez. +Ahora me encuentro aqu, en Rotterdam, en esta bonita ciudad, en un gran escenario, hablando sobre silbidos. +Y de hecho, actualmente me gano la vida silbando, +por lo que he dejado mi trabajo como enfermero. +Trato de hacer mi sueo realidad... ...bueno, nunca fue mi sueo, pero suena tan bien... +En fin, no soy el nico que silba aqu. +Y Uds. dirn: Cmo?qu quieres decir? +Pues bien, Uds. van a silbar conmigo, +y ahora pasa lo de siempre: todos se miran unos a los otros y piensan: "Dios mio" +"Por qu? puedo salir corriendo?" +No, no pueden. +El tema que voy a silvar +es muy fcil, se llama "Fte de la Belle". +Dura unos 80 minutos. +No, no, no. Dura 4 minutos. +Primero, quiero ensayar sus silbidos. +Les doy el tono. +Perdn, se me olvidaba algo. +Deben silbar el mismo tono que yo. +Oigo varios tonos. +Esto promete. +Esto promete. +Pido a los tcnicos que pongan la msica, +y si empieza, les indico dnde deben silbar, y veremos lo que pasa. +Oh, ajam. +Lo siento mucho, tcnicos. +Estoy muy acostumbrado a esto. +La pongo yo mismo. +Bien, ah est. +Bien. +Es fcil, verdad? +Ahora viene el solo. Lo hago yo, vale?. +Max Westerman: Geert Chatrou, el campen del mundo de silbido. +Geert Chatrou: Gracias, gracias. +Estamos aqu para celebrar la compasin. +Pero la compasin, desde mi punto de vista, tiene un problema. +As de esencial como es en nuestras tradiciones, tan real como muchos de nosotros sabemos que es en la vida personal la palabra "compasin" en nuestra cultura est vaca y en mi campo, el periodismo, es sospechosa. +Se la ve como algo blando kumbaya. O como algo potencialmente deprimente. +Karen Armstrong relat, creo, una historia emblemtica de un discurso en Holanda en el que la palabra "compasin" se tradujo como lstima. +Ahora bien, cuando la compasin entra en las noticias muy a menudo lo hace en forma de artculos sobre bienestar personal o de barras laterales de gente heroica a las que nunca podremos parecernos o de finales felices o de ejemplos de auto-sacrificio que parecen demasiado buenos para ser verdad la mayor parte del tiempo. +Nuestro imaginario cultural sobre la compasin ha sido atenuado por imgenes idealizadas. +Por eso esta maana quiero durante los minutos siguientes realizar una resurreccin lingstica. +Y espero que me acompaen en mi premisa bsica de que las palabras importan, de que modelan la manera en que nos entendemos, la manera en que interpretamos el mundo y la manera en que tratamos a los otros. +Cuando este pas encontr por primera vez la diversidad real en los aos 60 adoptamos la tolerancia como virtud cvica central con la que enfocar eso. +Hoy la palabra "tolerancia" si se fijan en el diccionario connota permitir, consentir y soportar. +En el contexto mdico del cual proviene significa probar los lmites del crecimiento en un medio desfavorable. +La tolerancia no es una virtud vivida; es ms un ascenso cerebral. +Y es demasiado cerebral hacer de tripas corazn y darse nimos cuando las cosas se ponen difciles. +Y el camino ahora mismo es bastante duro. +Creo que tal vez, sin ser capaces de darle un nombre, estamos experimentando colectivamente que hemos llegado tan lejos como nos fue posible con la tolerancia como nica virtud gua. +La compasin es un digno sucesor. +Es orgnica y atraviesa tradiciones religiosas, espirituales y ticas e incluso las trasciende. +La compasin es un vocablo que puede cambiarnos si realmente le damos cabida en las normas con las que nos regimos y regimos a otros tanto en nuestro fuero ntimo como en el espacio pblico. +Qu es en el da a da? +De qu est compuesta? +Qu hay en su universo de virtudes relacionadas? +Para empezar, simplemente quiero decir que la compasin es amable. +Y la amabilidad puede sonar muy apacible y propensa a sus tantos clichs. +Pero es un subproducto cotidiano de todas las grandes virtudes. +Y es una forma ms edificante de gratificacin instantnea. +La compasin tambin es curiosa. +La compasin cultiva y practica la curiosidad. +Me encanta una frase de dos mujeres jvenes, innovadoras interreligiosas de Los ngeles, Aziza Hasan y Malka Fenyvesi. +Estn trabajando en la creacin de un nuevo imaginario sobre la vida compartida entre jvenes judos y musulmanes. Y mientras lo hacen cultivan lo que denominan curiosidad sin supuestos. +Bueno, eso va a ser un caldo de cultivo para la compasin. +La compasin puede ser sinnimo de empata. +Se la puede asociar con el trabajo ms arduo del perdn y la reconciliacin pero tambin puede expresarse con un simple acto de presencia. +Est vinculada a virtudes prcticas como la generosidad y la hospitalidad y a slo estar all, a slo aparecer. +Pienso que a la compasin se la vincula a menudo con la belleza -con esto quiero decir la voluntad de ver la belleza en el otro- y no slo con el tema en cuestin, como la necesidad de ayuda. +Me encanta que mis compaeros de conversacin musulmanes a menudo hablen de la belleza como valor moral bsico. +Y en ese sentido, para los religiosos, la compasin tambin nos lleva al terreno del misterio: nos anima a ver no slo la belleza sino quiz tambin a mirar la cara de Dios en el momento del sufrimiento, en la cara de un extrao, de cara al vibrante otro religioso. +No estoy segura de poder mostrarles el aspecto de la tolerancia pero puedo mostrarles el aspecto de la compasin porque es algo visible. +La reconocemos cuando la vemos y cambia la forma de pensar lo factible, lo posible. +Es muy importante cuando estamos comunicando grandes ideas -pero sobre todo una gran idea espiritual como la compasin- cmo la presentamos a los dems para que quede -en espacio y tiempo, en carne y hueso- el color y la complejidad de la vida. +Y la compasin tiene por objeto lo fsico. +Empec a aprender esto ms claramente de Matthew Sanford. +Y no creo que se den cuenta al mirar esta fotografa pero l es parapljico. +Tiene una parlisis desde la cintura para abajo desde los 13 aos producto de un accidente de coche que mat a su padre y hermana. +Las piernas de Matthew no responden y no va a volver a caminar y -l lo vive como un 'y' en vez de un 'pero'- y l mismo lo vive como una sanacin. +Y como maestro de yoga transmite esa experiencia a los otros en el espectro de la capacidad y la discapacidad la salud, la enfermedad y el envejecimiento. +l dice que es slo una de las puntas del espectro en el que estamos todos. +Actualmente est haciendo un gran trabajo con veteranos que regresan de Irak y Afganistn. +Y Matthew ha hecho esta observacin notable que voy a ofrecerles y luego dejar decantar. +No puedo explicarlo por completo y l tampoco. +Pero dice que todava tiene que experimentar el volverse ms consciente de su cuerpo en toda su fragilidad y su gracia sin, al mismo tiempo, volverse ms compasivo hacia toda la vida. +La compasin tiene tambin este aspecto. +Este es Jean Vanier. +Jean Vanier ayud a fundar las comunidades L'Arche que ahora podemos encontrar en todo el mundo; comunidades en torno a la vida con personas con discapacidad mental -sobre todo sndrome de Down. +Las comunidades que fund Jean Vanier, como el propio Jean Vanier, destilan ternura. +"Ternura" es otra palabra que me encantara dedicar un momento a resucitarla. +Pasamos tanto tiempo en esta cultura siendo impulsivos y agresivos pasamos un montn de tiempo actuando de ese modo. +La compasin puede tener tambin esas cualidades. +Pero una y otra vez, la compasin vivida nos lleva de nuevo a la sabidura de la ternura. +Jean Vanier dice que su trabajo -y el de otra gente como su querida gran amiga y difunta Madre Teresa- nunca se trata en primera instancia de salvar al mundo; en primera instancia se trata de salvarnos a nosotros mismos. +Dice que lo que hacen con L'Arche no es una solucin sino un signo. +La compasin rara vez es una solucin pero siempre es un signo de una realidad ms profunda de posibilidades humanas ms profundas. +Y la compasin se desata en crculos cada vez ms amplios mediante signos e historias nunca por estadsticas y estrategias. +Necesitamos de eso tambin pero tambin estamos chocando contra sus lmites. +Y al mismo tiempo que lo estamos haciendo creo que estamos redescubriendo el poder de la historia -que como seres humanos necesitamos historias para sobrevivir, florecer, para cambiar. +Siempre ha estado presente en las tradiciones y es por eso que siempre han cultivado las historias en el corazn y las conservaron en el tiempo para nosotros. +Por supuesto que hay una historia detrs del anhelo moral clave y de los mandamientos del judasmo para reparar el mundo -tikkun olam. +Y nunca voy a olvidar la historia de la Dra. Rachel Naomi Remen, que me la cont tal como su abuelo se la cont a ella: que ocurri algo en el comienzo de la Creacin y que la luz original del Universo se rompi en mil pedazos. +Se la presenta en fragmentos dentro de cada aspecto de la Creacin. +Y que la mayor vocacin humana es buscar esta luz, apuntar a ella cuando la vemos, recolectarla y al hacerlo, reparar el mundo. +Esto puede sonar como un cuento de fantasa. +Algunos de mis colegas periodistas podran interpretarlo de ese modo. +Rachel Naomi Remen dice que esta es una historia importante que da poder para nuestro tiempo porque esta historia insiste en que todos y cada uno de nosotros, frgiles e imperfectos como somos, incapaces como podemos sentirnos, tiene exactamente lo que necesita para ayudar a reparar la parte del mundo que podemos ver y tocar. +Historias como esta, signos como este, son herramientas prcticas en un mundo que anhela la compasin para tantas imgenes de sufrimiento que de otro modo pueden abrumarnos. +Rachel Naomi Remen est devolviendo la compasin de nuevo a su justo lugar junto a la ciencia, en su campo de la medicina, entrenando a nuevos mdicos. +Creo que esto va a cambiar a la ciencia y va a cambiar a la religin. +Pero he aqu una cara de la ciencia del siglo XX que puede sorprender en una discusin sobre compasin. +Todos sabemos que Albert Einstein lleg a la frmula E = mc2. +Pero no se escucha tanto que Einstein invit a la cantante de pera afro-estadounidense Marian Anderson a quedarse en su casa cuando fue a cantar a Princeton dado que el mejor hotel del lugar segregaba y no poda alojarla. +No se sabe del Einstein que us su fama para abogar por los presos polticos europeos o por los chicos de Scottsboro del Sur de EE.UU. +Einstein crea profundamente que la ciencia debera trascender las fronteras nacionales y ticas. +Pero vio cmo fsicos y qumicos se volvieron proveedores de armas de destruccin masiva a principios del siglo XX. +Una vez dijo que la ciencia en su generacin se haba vuelto como una navaja en las manos de un nio de 3 aos. +Y Einstein predijo que a medida que nos modernizamos y avanza la tecnologa necesitamos ms -no menos- las virtudes legadas con el tiempo por nuestras tradiciones. +Le gustaba hablar de los genios espirituales ancestrales. +Algunos de sus favoritos eran Moiss Jess, Buda, San Francisco de Ass, Gandhi -adoraba a su contemporneo de Gandhi. +Y Einstein dijo -creo que es una cita, de nuevo, que no se ha transmitido con su legado- que "este tipo de personas son genios en el arte de vivir ms necesarios para la dignidad, la seguridad y el gozo de la Humanidad que los descubridores del conocimiento objetivo". +Pero invocar a Einstein no parece la mejor manera de bajar la compasin a tierra y hacer que parezca al alcance de todos nosotros, pero lo es. +Quiero mostrarles el resto de esta fotografa porque en ella sucede lo mismo que hacemos con la palabra "compasin" en nuestra cultura: la vaciamos, disminuimos su profundidad y su relacin con la vida; algo complicado. +Por eso en esta foto se ve una mente que mira por la ventana algo que podra ser una catedral -no lo es. +Esta es la foto completa y se ve un hombre de mediana edad con una chaqueta de cuero, fumando un cigarrillo. +Y a juzgar por esa panza no ha estado haciendo mucho yoga. +Pusimos estas 2 fotografas lado a lado en nuestro sitio web, y alguien dijo: "Cuando miro la primera foto me pregunto qu estaba pensando +y cuando miro la segunda me pregunto qu tipo de persona era. Qu clase de hombre es este?" +Bueno, fue alguien complicado. +Fue increblemente compasivo en alguna de sus relaciones y despiadado en otras. +A menudo es mucho ms difcil ser compasivo con la gente ms cercana que es otra cualidad del universo de la compasin, de su lado oscuro, que merece nuestra atencin e iluminacin. +Gandhi tambin fue un ser humano imperfecto. +Y tambin lo fue Martin Luther King Jr. y Dorothy Day. +Lo fue la Madre Teresa. +Lo somos todos. +Y quiero decir que es algo liberador darse cuenta que eso no es obstculo para la compasin -siguiendo lo que dice Fred Luskin- que estos errores simplemente nos hacen humanos. +Nuestra cultura est obsesionada con la perfeccin y con ocultar los problemas. +Pero qu liberador es darse cuenta que nuestros problemas, de hecho, sean quiz la fuente ms rica para cultivar esta virtud mxima que es la compasin, para llevar la compasin hacia el sufrimiento y el gozo de los otros. +Rachel Naomi Remen es mejor mdica debido a su batalla de toda la vida con la enfermedad de Crohn. +Einstein luch por la justicia social no como parte de su conocimiento exquisito del espacio, el tiempo y la materia sino por ser judo en una Alemania que se tornaba fascista. +Y Karen Armstrong, creo que tambin dira que fue una de las experiencias hirientes en una vida religiosa con un zig-zag que tuvo lugar en el Charter for Compassion. +La compasin no puede reducirse a la santidad ni puede reducirse a la piedad. +Y quiero proponer una definicin final de compasin -es Einstein con Paul Robeson por cierto- y para nosotros sera llamarla tecnologa espiritual. +Nuestras tradiciones contienen una enorme sabidura al respecto y necesitamos recurrir a eso ahora. +Pero la compasin resulta familiar tanto en lo laico como en lo religioso. +As que voy a cerrar parafraseando a Einstein y decir que la Humanidad, el futuro de la Humanidad, necesita esta tecnologa tanto como necesita a las otras que ahora nos conectan y nos brindan la posibilidad terrible y maravillosa de convertirnos en una sola raza humana. +Gracias. +Quiero que observen a esta beb. +Nos sentimos atrados por sus ojos y por esa piel que quisiramos tocar. +Pero hoy voy a hablarles de algo que no aparece a simple vista y es lo que est sucediendo en su pequeo cerebro. +Las herramientas modernas de la neurociencia nos estn demostrando que lo que sucede en su cerebro es de verdad extremadamente complejo. +Y lo que hemos aprendido va a esclarecer un poco lo que poetas y escritores romnticos describieron como la "apertura celestial" de la mente infantil. +Lo que vemos aqu es una madre en India que est hablando en koro, un idioma recin descubierto. +Le est hablando a su beb. +Lo que esta madre -y las 800 personas que hablan koro en el mundo- entiende es que, para preservar este idioma, tienen que hablrselo a sus bebs. +Y ah yace un enigma central. +Por qu no se puede preservar un idioma hablndolo entre nosotros, entre adultos? +Bueno, tiene que ver con el cerebro. +Lo que vemos aqu es que el idioma tiene un perodo crtico de aprendizaje. +Para leer la diapositiva tienen que buscar su edad en el eje horizontal. +Y en el eje vertical van a ver su capacidad para incorporar un segundo idioma. +Los bebs y los nios son genios hasta los 7 aos y luego hay una disminucin sistemtica. +Despus de la pubertad nos salimos del mapa. +Ningn cientfico duda de esta curva pero laboratorios por todo el mundo intentan descubrir por qu sucede esto. +En mi laboratorio nos centramos en el primer perodo crtico del desarrollo, es decir el perodo en el cual los bebs aprenden a dominar los sonidos usados en su idioma. +Pensamos que estudiando el aprendizaje de los sonidos hallaremos un modelo del resto del idioma y tal vez de los perodos crticos que podran existir en la niez para el desarrollo social, emocional y cognitivo. +As que hemos estado estudiando a los bebs mediante una tcnica que empleamos en todo el mundo y los sonidos de todos los idiomas. +La beb se sienta en el regazo de su madre y la entrenamos para que gire su cabeza cuando cambia un sonido como de "ah" a "ih". +Si lo hacen en el momento correcto se enciende la caja negra y un oso panda toca un tambor. +Una beb de 6 meses adora la tarea. +Qu hemos aprendido? +Bueno, los bebs de todo el mundo son lo que me gusta denominar "ciudadanos del mundo"; +pueden discriminar todos los sonidos de todos los idiomas sin importar el pas que en que estemos ni el idioma que estemos usando. Y es algo notable porque ni Uds. ni yo podemos hacer eso. +Somos oyentes cultura-dependientes. +Podemos discriminar los sonidos de nuestro propio idioma pero no los de idiomas extranjeros. +Entonces la pregunta que surge es en qu momento estos ciudadanos del mundo se vuelven los oyentes cultura-dependientes que somos? +Y la respuesta es antes de su primer cumpleaos. +Lo que se ve aqu es el rendimiento en el giro de cabezas de bebs examinados en Tokio y Estados Unidos, aqu en Seattle, cuando escuchan "ra" y "la"; sonidos importantes en ingls pero no en japons. +As, de los 6 a los 8 meses los bebs son totalmente equivalentes. +Dos meses despus ocurre algo increble. +Los bebs en Estados Unidos estn mejorando mucho y los bebs en Japn van de mal en peor, pero ambos grupos de bebs se estn preparando para el idioma preciso que van a aprender. +La pregunta es: qu est sucediendo durante este perodo crtico de 2 meses? +Es el perodo del desarrollo de sonidos pero, qu est pasando all? +Estn pasando dos cosas. +La primera es que los bebs nos estn escuchando atentamente tomando estadsticas a medida que nos escuchan hablar, estn calculando estadsticas. +Escuchemos a dos madres hablando maternalmente -el idioma universal que usamos al hablarle a los nios- primero en ingls y luego en japons. +Madre de EE.UU.: [Ah, I love your big blue eyes so pretty and nice] +Madre japonesa: [waa kina chairoi o me-me soshite kireina kuroi kami] Patricia Kuhl: Durante la produccin del habla cuando los bebs escuchan estn tomando estadsticas del lenguaje que escuchan. +Y esas distribuciones crecen. +Y lo que hemos aprendido es que los bebs son sensibles a las estadsticas y las estadsticas del japons y del ingls son muy, muy diferentes. +El ingls tiene muchas R y L +segn muestra la distribucin. +Y la distribucin del japons es totalmente diferente donde vemos un grupo de sonidos intermedios que se conocen como la R japonesa. +Los bebs absorben las estadsticas del idioma y eso cambia sus cerebros; eso los transforma de ciudadanos del mundo en los oyentes cultura-dependientes que somos. +Pero nosotros, como adultos, ya no absorbemos esas estadsticas. +Estamos gobernados por las representaciones mentales que se formaron tempranamente en nuestro desarrollo. +Lo que estamos viendo aqu est cambiando nuestros modelos del perodo crtico. +Sostenemos desde un punto de vista matemtico que el aprendizaje de material lingstico se hace ms lento cuando nuestras distribuciones se estabilizan. +Eso genera muchas preguntas respecto de las personas bilinges. +Los bilinges deben tener en mente dos grupos de estadsticas a la vez y alternar entre ellos, uno tras otro, dependiendo de con quin estn hablando. +Entonces nos preguntamos pueden los bebs sacar estadsticas de un idioma totalmente nuevo? +Y lo probamos exponiendo a bebs estadounidenses, que nunca antes haban odo un segundo idioma, al mandarn por primera vez durante el perodo crtico. +Cuando hicimos la prueba en monolinges en Taipei y Seattle con los sonidos del mandarn mostraron el mismo patrn. +A los 6, 8 meses, son totalmente equivalentes. +Dos meses despus sucede algo increble. +Los bebs taiwaneses van progresando, no as los bebs estadounidenses. +Expusimos a los bebs estadounidenses durante este perodo al mandarn. +Era como hacer que los parientes chinos vinieran de visita un mes y se quedaran en vuestra casa y hablaran con los bebs por 12 sesiones. +As se vea en el laboratorio. +[en mandarn] PK: Qu le hicimos a sus pequeos cerebros? +Tenamos un grupo de control para asegurarnos que slo por venir al laboratorio no se mejoraba el conocimiento del mandarn. +As que un grupo de bebs vena a escuchar ingls. +Y podemos ver en el grfico que la exposicin al ingls no mejor su mandarn. +Pero miren lo que le sucedi a los bebs expuestos al mandarn por 12 sesiones. +Quedaron igualmente buenos a los bebs de Taiwn expuestos al mandarn durante 10 meses y medio. +Lo que esto demostr fue que los bebs toman estadsticas sobre un nuevo idioma. +Toman estadsticas de lo que sea que les pongamos en frente. +Pero nos preguntamos qu papel representa el ser humano en este ejercicio de aprendizaje. +Por eso a otro grupo de bebs le suministramos la misma dosis, las mismas 12 sesiones, pero frente a un televisor y a otro grupo de bebs slo los expusimos al audio con un oso de peluche en la pantalla. +Qu le hicimos a sus cerebros? +Aqu ven el resultado del audio -no hubo ningn aprendizaje- y el del video -tampoco hubo aprendizaje-. +Se necesita un ser humano para que los bebs saquen estadsticas. +El cerebro social controla los momentos cuando los bebs toman sus estadsticas. +Queramos meternos en el cerebro y ver qu sucede cuando los bebs estn frente al televisor versus cuando estn frente a seres humanos. +Afortunadamente tenemos una nueva mquina, el magnetoencefalgrafo, que nos permite estudiar esto. +Parece un secador de pelo marciano. +Pero es completamente seguro, absolutamente no invasivo y silencioso. +Estamos viendo una precisin milimtrica en lo espacial y tambin de milisegundos usando 306 SQUIDs -dispositivos superconductores de interferencia cuntica- para detectar campos magnticos que cambian a medida que pensamos. +Somos los primeros en el mundo en registrar a los bebs con estas mquinas mientras estn aprendiendo. +Esta es la pequea Emma. +Tiene 6 meses. +Y est escuchando varios idiomas en los audfonos que tiene puestos. +Pueden ver que puede moverse. +Seguimos su cabeza con unas bolitas en la gorra de modo que pueda moverse con absoluta libertad. +Es una maravilla tecnolgica. +Qu estamos viendo? +Estamos viendo el cerebro del beb. +A medida que el beb oye palabras en su idioma las reas auditivas se encienden y posteriormente las reas circundantes -que pensamos estn relacionadas con la coherencia, encargada de coordinar el cerebro con sus diferentes reas- y la causalidad; una zona del cerebro que provoca la activacin de otra. +Nos estamos embarcando hacia una grandiosa edad dorada del conocimiento en el desarrollo del cerebro infantil. +Vamos a poder ver el cerebro infantil a medida que experimenten emociones, a medida que aprendan a hablar, leer, que resuelvan problemas matemticos y que tengan una idea. +Y vamos a poder inventar intervenciones quirrgicas cerebrales para nios con dificultades de aprendizaje. +Como lo describieron poetas y escritores vamos a poder ver, creo, esa apertura maravillosa, total y absoluta apertura de la mente infantil. +Investigando el cerebro infantil vamos a descubrir verdades profundas de qu significa ser humano y en el proceso quiz podamos ayudar a mantener nuestras mentes abiertas al aprendizaje durante todas nuestras vidas. +Gracias. +He pasado mucho tiempo viajando por el mundo en estos das hablando con grupos de estudiantes y profesionales. Y en todas partes oigo cosas similares. +Por un lado la gente dice: "Ahora es el tiempo del cambio". +Quieren ser parte de eso. +Dicen querer vivir vidas de propsito y de mayor significado. +Pero por otro lado oigo a la gente hablar del miedo, de un sentimiento de aversin al riesgo. +Dicen: "Tengo muchas ganas de llevar una vida con sentido pero no s por dnde empezar. +No quiero decepcionar a mi familia ni a mis amigos". +Yo trabajo en temas de pobreza mundial +y ellos dicen: "Quiero trabajar en temas de pobreza mundial pero qu va a pasar con mi carrera? +Me van a marginar? +Voy a ganar suficiente dinero? +Me voy a casar alguna vez y tener hijos?" +Y como mujer que no se cas hasta ser bastante mayor -- y me alegro de haber esperado... ...y que no tiene hijos -- miro a estos jvenes y les digo: "tu tarea no es ser perfecto. +Es slo ser humano. +Y en la vida no pasa nada importante sin un coste". +Estas conversaciones reflejan realmente lo que est pasando a nivel nacional e internacional. +Nuestros lderes y nosotros mismos queremos todo, pero no hablamos del coste, +no hablamos del sacrificio. +Una de mis citas favoritas de la literatura pertenece a Tillie Olsen la gran escritora del sur de EE.UU. +En una historia breve titulada "Oh S" habla de una mujer blanca de los aos 50 que tiene una hija que se hace amiga de una nia afroamericana. Y mira a su hija con orgullo pero a la vez se pregunta: qu precio va a pagar? +"Mejor la inmersin que vivir sin contacto". +Pero la pregunta verdadera es: cul es el coste de no animarse? +cul es el coste de no intentarlo? +En mi vida he tenido el privilegio de conocer lderes extraordinarios que han elegido vivir vidas de inmersin. +Conoc a una mujer que era miembro de un programa que yo diriga en la Fundacin Rockefeller, de nombre Ingrid Washinawatok. +Ella era una lder de la tribu Menominee, un pueblo aborigen de EE.UU. +Y cuando nos reunimos como miembros ella nos hizo pensar en la forma en que las antiguas culturas aborgenes de EE.UU. tomaban decisiones. +Y deca que visualizaban literalmente los rostros de los nios 7 generaciones en el futuro mirndolos desde la Tierra. Y los vean como asistentes para el futuro. +Ingrid entenda que estamos conectados mutuamente, no slo entre seres humanos, sino con cada ser vivo del planeta. +Y trgicamente en 1999 cuando estaba en Colombia trabajando con el pueblo U'wa en la preservacin de su cultura e idioma, ella junto a dos colegas fueron secuestrados, torturados y asesinados por las FARC. +Despus de eso, donde quiera que nos reuniramos los miembros dejbamos una silla vaca para su espritu. +Y ms de una dcada despus cuando hablo con compaeros de ONGs ya sea en Trenton, Nueva Jersey, o en la oficina de la Casa Blanca y hablamos de Ingrid todos dicen que estn tratando de integrar su sabidura y su espritu y de construir a partir del trabajo inconcluso de la misin de su vida. +Y cuando pensamos en el legado no puedo pensar en nada ms poderoso, a pesar de lo corta que fue su vida. +Y me he conmovido con las mujeres de Camboya, hermosas mujeres, mujeres que conservaron la tradicin de la danza clsica camboyana. +Las conoc a principios de los aos 90. +En los aos 70, bajo el rgimen de Pol Pot, los jemeres rojos mataron a ms de un milln de personas. Identificaron a las lites y a los intelectuales, a los artistas y a las bailarinas. +Y al final de la guerra slo quedaban 30 de estas bailarinas con vida. +Y la mujer que tuve el privilegio de conocer cuando haba 3 supervivientes, nos cont estas historias de catres y campos de refugiados. +Dijeron haber hecho un gran esfuerzo para recordar fragmentos de las danzas con la esperanza de que otras estuvieran vivas haciendo lo mismo. +Y una de las mujeres se par con este porte perfecto, con sus manos a los lados, y habl de la reunin de las 30 despus de la guerra y de lo extraordinario que fue. +Y corrieron lgrimas por sus mejillas pero nunca alz sus manos para quitarlas. +Y la mujer decidi que iban a entrenar no a la siguiente generacin de nias porque ya haban crecido demasiado sino a la otra generacin. +Y me sent en el estudio observando a estas mujeres aplaudir ritmos hermosos mientras las pequeas hadas danzaban a su alrededor luciendo sedas de colores hermosos. +Y pens, despus de toda esta atrocidad, as es como oran los seres humanos. +Porque se centran en honrar a lo ms hermoso del pasado construyendo con eso la promesa de nuestro futuro. +Y lo que estas mujeres entendieron es que a veces las cosas ms importante que hacemos, a las que les dedicamos ms tiempo, son cosas que no podemos medir. +Tambin me ha conmovido el lado oscuro del poder y el liderazgo. +Y he aprendido que el poder, en particular en su forma absoluta, provee igualdad de oportunidades. +En 1986 me mud a Ruanda y trabaj con un grupo reducido de mujeres ruandesas para iniciar el banco de microfinanzas del pas. +Y una de las mujeres era Agnes -en el extremo izquierdo- fue una de las 3 primeras mujeres parlamentarias de Ruanda y su legado debera haber sido ser una de las madres de Ruanda. +Construimos esta institucin basada en la justicia social, la igualdad de gnero; esta idea de dar poder a la mujer. +Pero Agnes estaba tan interesada en las trampas del poder que empez por el final. +Fue declarada culpable de crmenes de genocidio de primera categora. +Y no existe grupo ms vulnerable a esos tipos de manipulaciones que los hombres jvenes. +He odo decir que el animal ms peligroso del planeta es el adolescente varn. +Y que cuando se sientan en las esquinas y todo el futuro en el que pueden pensar es la falta de trabajo y educacin, la falta de posibilidades, bueno, as es fcil de entender por qu la mayor fuente de estatus puede venir de un uniforme y un arma. +A veces una inversin muy pequea puede liberar un potencial enorme, infinito, que existe en nuestro interior. +Uno de los miembros Acumen Fund de mi organizacin, Suraj Sudhakar, tiene lo que denominamos imaginacin moral: la capacidad de ponerse en los zapatos del otro y conducir desde esa perspectiva. +l ha estado trabajando con este grupo de muchachos que vienen del barrio marginal ms grande del mundo, Kibera. +Y son muchachos increbles. +Juntos inauguraron un club de lectura para 100 personas en el barrio marginal y estn leyendo muchos autores de TED y les gusta. +Luego crearon un concurso de planes de negocio. +Y despus decidieron hacer un evento TEDx. +He aprendido mucho de Chris, Kevin, Alex y Herbert y todos esos muchachos. +Alex, de algn modo, lo dijo mejor. +Dijo: "Solamos sentir que no ramos nadie, y ahora sentimos que somos 'alguien'". +Y creo que nos equivocamos al pensar que el dinero es el vnculo. +Lo que realmente anhelamos como seres humanos es ser visibles unos a los otros. +Y la razn por la cual estos muchachos me dijeron que estn haciendo estos TEDx es porque estaban cansados de que los nicos talleres que iban al barrio eran los relacionados al VIH o, como mucho, a las microfinanzas. +Y ellos queran celebrar lo hermoso de Kibera y Mathare -los fotoperiodistas y los creativos, los grafiteros, los profesores y los emprendedores. +Y lo estn haciendo. +Y me saco el sombrero ante Kibera. +Mi propio trabajo se centra en hacer ms eficaz a la filantropa y ms inclusivo al capitalismo. +En Acumen Fund recibimos recursos filantrpicos y los invertimos en lo que llamamos capital paciente, dinero que invertiremos en emprendedores que ven a los pobres no como receptores pasivos de caridad sino como agentes completos de cambio que quieren resolver sus propios problemas y tomar sus propias decisiones. +Dejamos el dinero durante 10 15 aos y cuando lo recuperamos invertimos en otras innovaciones que se centren en el cambio. +S que funciona. +Hemos invertido ms de 50 millones de dlares en 50 empresas. Y esas empresas han generado otros 200 millones de dlares en esos mercados olvidados. +Slo este ao han entregado 40 millones de servicios como cuidado de salud materna y vivienda, servicios de emergencia, energa solar, para que la gente pueda tener ms dignidad en la solucin de sus problemas. +El capital paciente no es cmodo para las personas que buscan soluciones simples, categoras simples, porque no vemos la ganancia como instrumento directo. +Sino que buscamos esos emprendedores que ponen a la gente y al planeta delante de la ganancia. +En ltima instancia queremos ser parte de un movimiento que mida el impacto, que mida qu es lo ms importante para nosotros. +Y mi sueo es que un da tengamos un mundo en el que no slo rindamos honores a quien con el dinero hace ms y ms dinero sino que encontremos a esos individuos que convierten nuestros recursos en un cambio para el mundo de la manera ms positiva. +Y slo cuando les rindamos honores, les demos notoriedad y estatus, ser cuando el mundo realmente cambiar. +El mayo pasado tuve este perodo extraordinario de 24 horas en el que vi 2 visiones del mundo viviendo lado a lado: una basada en la violencia y la otra en la trascendencia. +De casualidad estaba en Lahore, Pakistn, el da del ataque a 2 mezquitas por terroristas suicidas. +Y la razn por las que atacaron estas mezquitas era debido a que la gente que oraba dentro era de una secta particular del Islam que los fundamentalistas no creen que sea totalmente musulmana. +Y esos atacantes suicidas no slo se cobraron una centena de vidas sino que hicieron ms porque sembraron ms odio, ms rabia, ms miedo y, sin duda, desesperacin. +Pero menos de 24 horas despus yo estaba a 20 km de esas mezquitas visitando a uno de nuestros inversores de Acumen un hombre increble, Jawad Aslam, que se atreve a vivir una vida de inmersin. +Nacido y criado en Baltimore curs estudios en bienes races, trabaj en inmobiliarias, y despus del 11-S decidi mudarse a Pakistn a marcar una diferencia. +Durante 2 aos apenas hizo algo de dinero, un pequeo estipendio, pero aprendi con esta desarrolladora increble de viviendas llamada Tasneem Saddiqui. +Y tuvo el sueo de construir una comunidad de viviendas en este pedazo de tierra yerma usando capital paciente pero sigui pagando un precio. +Se plant en terreno moral y se neg a pagar sobornos. +Le llev casi 2 aos el registro de la tierra. +Pero vi cmo el nivel de la norma moral puede elevarse con la accin de una sola persona. +Hoy 2.000 personas viven en 300 casas en esta hermosa comunidad. +Y hay escuelas, clnicas y comercios. +Pero hay slo una mezquita. +Y le pregunt a Jawad "Cmo se manejan? Esta es una comunidad muy diversa. +Quin usa la mezquita los viernes?" +l dijo: "Es una historia larga. +Fue difcil, fue un camino difcil, pero al final se reunieron los lderes comunitarios y se dieron cuenta que slo nos tenemos unos a otros. +Y decidimos que bamos a elegir a los 3 imanes ms respetados y esos imanes se turnaran para decir la oracin de los viernes. +Pero toda la comunidad, las diferentes sectas, incluidos chies y sunes, se sentarn juntos a orar". +Hace falta este tipo de liderazgo y coraje moral en nuestro mundo. +Como planeta enfrentamos grandes problemas: la crisis financiera, el calentamiento global, y esta sensacin creciente de miedo y alteridad. +Y cada da tenemos una eleccin. +Podemos tomar el camino fcil, el camino ms cnico, que es un camino en base a veces a sueos de un pasado que nunca existi, con miedo de unos a otros, de distanciamiento y culpa, +o podemos tomar el camino mucho ms difcil de transformacin, trascendencia, compasin y amor pero rindiendo cuentas y con justicia. +Tuve el gran honor de trabajar con el Dr. Robert Coles, psiclogo infantil que defendi el cambio durante el Movimiento de Derechos Civiles de EE.UU. +l contaba esta historia increble de haber trabajando con esta nia de 6 aos llamada Ruby Bridges, primer caso de eliminacin de segregacin en las escuelas del Sur, en este caso en Nueva Orleans. +Y l deca que cada da esta nia de 6 aos, con su hermoso vestido, caminaba con verdadera gracia en medio de una falange de blancos que le gritaban airadamente, llamndola monstruo, la amenazaban con envenenarla y desfigurarle la cara. +Y l la vea cada da y le pareca que ella estaba hablando. +Entonces le pregunt: "Ruby, qu ests diciendo?" +Y ella dijo: "No estoy hablando". +Hasta que le dijo: "Ruby, veo que ests hablando. +Qu ests diciendo?" +Y ella dijo: "Dr. Coles, no estoy hablando; Estoy orando". +l pregunt: "Bueno, qu ests pidiendo?" +Y respondi: "Estoy pidiendo, Padre perdnalos porque no saben lo que hacen". A los 6 aos esta nia estaba viviendo una vida de inmersin y su familia pag un precio por ello. +Pero ella se volvi parte de la historia e instaur esta idea de que todos deberamos tener acceso a la educacin. +Mi ltima historia trata sobre un hombre joven, hermoso, llamado Josephat Byaruhanga; otro miembro de Acumen Fund, oriundo de una comunidad agrcola de Uganda. +Y lo ubicamos en una empresa en al oeste de Kenia, a unos 320 km. +Y l me dijo al final de su ao "Jacqueline, fue un ejercicio de humildad porque pens que como agricultor y como africano entendera cmo trascender la cultura. +Pero sobre todo al hablar con las mujeres africanas a veces comet errores... fue muy difcil para m aprender a escuchar". +Y dijo: "As que conclu que, en muchos aspectos, el liderazgo es como una pancula de arroz. +Porque en el pico de estacin, en la cima de su poder, es hermosa, es verde, nutre al mundo, llega al cielo". +Y agreg: "Pero apenas despus de la cosecha se arquea con gran gratitud y humildad para tocar la tierra de la que proviene". +Necesitamos lderes. +Nosotros mismos tenemos que liderar desde la audacia para creer que podemos ampliar el supuesto fundamental que todos los hombres son creados iguales a cada hombre, mujer y nio del planeta. +Y tenemos que tener la humildad de reconocer que no podemos hacerlo solos. +Robert Kennedy dijo una vez "Pocos tienen la grandeza para doblar el curso de la historia pero todos podemos trabajar para cambiar una pequea parte de los acontecimientos. +Y es la suma de todos esos actos la que escribir la historia de esta generacin". +Nuestras vidas son muy cortas, nuestro tiempo en el planeta es muy precioso, y slo nos tenemos unos a otros. +Cada uno de ustedes puede vivir una vida de inmersin. +No ser necesariamente una vida fcil pero al final es lo que nos va a sostener. +Gracias. +Les hablar de lo que yo llamo la "malla". +Esencialmente es un cambio fundamental en nuestra relacin con las cosas en nuestra vida. +Y se refiere a que, no siempre y no en todos los casos, pero en determinados puntos en el tiempo, el acceso a determinado tipo de servicios y bienes ser ms importante que poseerlos fsicamente. +Compartimos la ambicin +de un futuro con mejores cosas. Siempre hemos compartido. +Hemos compartido el transporte. +Hemos compartido vinos y comida y otro tipo de fantsticas experiencias en las cafeteras de Amsterdam. +Hemos compartido otro tipo de divertimento: estadios deportivos, parques pblicos, salones de conciertos, bibliotecas, universidades. +Todos estos lugares son plataformas para compartir, pero compartir en realidad comienza y termina con lo que yo considero la madre de todas las plataformas del compartir. +Y cuando pienso en la malla y en lo que la hace posible, me pregunto por qu es que sucede ahora, Creo que hay una cantidad de factores que quiero presentar como base. +Uno es la recesin, la cual nos ha obligado a re-pensar nuestra relacion con las cosas en nuestra vida, a relacionar el valor con el costo real. +Segundo, el crecimiento poblacional y la densidad de las ciudades. +Ms gente, espacios ms reducidos, menos cosas. +Cambio climtico. Intentamos reducir el estrs en nuestra vida personal y nuestra comunidad y en el planeta. +Tambin, ha surgido esta reciente desconfianza en las grandes empresas globales dentro de varias industrias. Y eso ha creado una apertura. +La investigacin seala que aqu, en los EEUU, y en Canad y en Europa occidental, muchos de nosotros aceptamos empresas locales, o marcas que no nos suenan familiares. +Mientras en el pasado, seguamos a las grandes marcas que nos inspiraban la mayor confianza. +Y por ltimo ahora estamos mucho ms conectados con la gente del planeta que nunca antes, a menos que esa persona ya estaba sentada a tu lado. +Lo otro que quiero mencionar es que hemos hecho una gran inversin a lo largo de dcadas en la que hemos puesto decenas de miles de millones de dlares, que hoy son nuestra herencia. +Es la infraestructura fsica la que nos permite ir de A a B y transportar cosas. +Son tambin la web y la comunicacin mvil las que nos permiten estar conectados y crear toda forma de plataformas y sistemas. Y la inversin en esa tecnologa y esa infraestructura constituye verdaderamente nuestra herencia. +Nos permite ser partcipes de maneras nuevas e interesantes. +Y por eso, para m, una empresa "malla" clsica junta estas tres cosas: nuestra habilidad para conectarnos entre nosotros, la mayora de nosotros llevamos aparatos mviles que tienen GPS o acceso a internet, que nos permiten ubicar al otro y localizar cosas en tiempo y espacio. +Y eso permite que el acceso a los bienes y servicios sea ms conveniente y ms econmico que el poseerlos. +Por ejemplo, yo quiero usar un Zipcar. +Cuntos aqu han alguna vez compartido coches o bicicletas? +Oh, muy bien! Gracias. +Bsicamente Zipcar es la compaa para compartir coches ms grande del mundo. +No son los inventores del servicio. +El compartir coches se invent en Europa. +Uno de los fundadores fue a Suiza, lo vio implementado por ah y pens "Qu maravillosa idea! +Creo que funcionara en Cambridge." Entonces la trajo a Cambridge y as comenz. Dos mujeres: Robin Chase se llamaba la otra persona. +Zipcar le acert en varios puntos. +Primero, entendi muy bien que la marca es la voz y el producto es el souvenir. +Y as implement el compartir movilidad de una manera muy inteligente. +De manera sexy, novedosa. +Con aspiraciones. +Cuando usted se regristra como miembro del club pasa a ser un Zipster. +Los autos de la empresa no parecan viejos coches policiales reciclados. +Eran autos sexies. +Se promocionaron en las universidades. +Asegurndose de que el pblico y los coches hicieran una buena combinacin. +Fue una muy bonita experiencia. Y los autos estaban limpios y no se rompan, y todo funcionaba. +As que desde el punto de vista de la marca, le acertaron. +Y tambin entendieron que no eran una mera compaa de coches. +Sino tambipen una compaa de informacin. +Porque cuando compramos un coche vamos a la concesionaria, conversamos, y enseguida nos devoran, cuanto antes, mejor. +Pero cuando compartes uno puedes usar un coche elctrico para viajar todos los das, y elejir un camin para un proyecto especial. +Para buscar a tu ta al aeropuerto, elijes un sedn. +Y si vas a esquiar, elijes el que tenga todos los accesorios para que acomode tus esques. +Entretanto, estas personas coleccionan informacin acerca de tus costumbres y cmo utilizas el servicio. +As que no es slo una opcin para ellos, sino que, en mi opinin, para que Zipcar y otras compaas "malla" nos sorprendan deben ser como un servicio de conserjera. +Porque les damos toda esta informacin, para que conozcan cmo nos movemos, +as pueden anticipar qu es lo que vamos a solicitarles despus. +As que qu porcentaje de su da pasa una persona promedio en el auto? +Qu porcentaje de su tiempo? +Alguien se anima a decir? +Muy bien. +Al principio yo pens que era como el 20 por ciento. +En los EEUU y Europa occidental es el 8 por ciento. +As que incluso aunque creyramos que es el 10 por ciento, el 90 por ciento del tiempo algo que nos ha costado mucho dinero y por lo que hemos re-organizado las ciudades y otras cosas, el 90 por ciento del tiempo, est estacionado. +As que por eso, creo que otro aspecto de la malla es esencialmente que si nos fijamos bien en las cosas que hemos descartado, podemos ver mucho valor en ellas. +Zipcar comenz en el ao 2000. +En 2010 se abrieron dos compas de coches, una en el Reino Unido, llamada WhipCar, otra en los EEUU, RelayRides. +Ambas ofrecen servicios cara-a-cara para compartir coches. en donde dos aspectos son fundamentales: uno, el coche tiene que estar disponible, y dos: debe estar cerca, a unas pocas cuadras de tu lugar de partida. +Bien, el coche que est a pocas cuadras de tu casa u oficina es probablemente el coche de tu vecino, y probablemente est disponible. +Es as como surgi esta idea. +Zipcar comenz una dcada antes, en el ao 2000. +Les llev seis aos habilitar 1.000 autos para el servicio. +a WhipCar, que comenz en abril del ao pasado, habilitar la misma cantidad de autos le llev seis meses. +Interesante. +La gente gana entre 200 y 700 dlares por mes por dejar a sus vecinos usar sus coches cuando no los necestian. +Es como una empresa de alquiler de autos para turistas. +Ya que estoy aqu y espero que haya gente entre la audiencia que est en el negocio de coches pienso que, desde el costado tecnolgico de las cosas, tenemos TV por cable, y computadoras con WiFi, sera fantstico si en unos pocos das tuviramos coches para compartir con la misma facilidad, +Porque creara ms flexibilidad. +ofrecera a los dueos de coches ms opciones. +Creo que estamos encaminados. +En nuestra vida alguna vez hemos experimentado la necesidad de compartir. +Cmo hacer que suceda ms seguido, y a mayor escala? +Tambin sabemos, porque estamos conectados socilamente, que es sencillo crear placer en un espacio reducido. +Es contagioso porque estamos todos conectados. +As que si me pasa algo maravilloso y se lo cuento a mi compaero o mado un Tweet, la noticia viaja. +Lo opuesto, como sabemos, tambin es cierto, mucho ms cierto. +Tenemos LudoTruck, que est en Los ngeles, transportando comida gourmet, y les ha ido muy bien. +En general, es tal vez porque soy un entrepeneur, miro las cosas como plataformas. +Las plataformas nos invitan. +As que la creacin de Craiglist o la red de desarrollo de iTunes y iPhone, y otras redes, como Facebook, +estas plataformas invitan a toda clase de desarrollistas y gente en general a traer sus ideas y sus oportunidades para crear una aplicacin que sirva a un determinado pblico. +Y, honestamente, habr cantidad de sorpresas. +Porque no creo que nadie en esta sala pueda haber predicho el tipo de aplicaciones como Facebook y similares, por ejemplo, dos aos atrs, cuando Mark anunci que presentaran una plataforma. +Por eso creo que las ciudades son plataformas, Detroit, por cierto, es una plataforma. +La invitacin atrae hacedores, artistas, entrepeneurs, y contribuye a estimular esta enorme creatividad y ayuda a una ciuidad a prosperar. +Invita a participar. Y las cuidades, histricamente, han invitado a la participacin. +Ahora decimos que hay otras opciones tambin. +As por ejemplo, los departamente de las cuidades pueden ofrecer informacin "transit". +Google hizo posible la informacin "transit" API. +Y as tenemos unas siete u ocho ciudades en los EEUU +que han proporcionado informacin "transit" con la que los desarrollistas estn construyendo aplicaciones. +Yo estaba tomando un caf en Portland y mientras lo tomaba una pequea pantalla en el caf de pronto anunci que el prximo bus vendra en tres minutos y el tren, en 16 minutos. +Es informacin real, confiable, frente a mis ojos, en mi cara, para que yo pueda terminar mi caf. +En los EEUU tenemos esta fabulosa oportunidad: un 21 por ciento, aproximadamente, de espacio comercial e industrial disponible. +Ese espacio no es vital. +Carece de vitalidad, no nos invita, no brilla. +Cuntos de ustedes han odo acerca de tiendas "pop-up"? +Oh, bien, me gusta. +Es algo bien al estilo "malla". +Esencialmente hay toda clase de restaurantes en Oakland, cerca de mi casa. +Hay una tienda "pop-up" cada tres semanas, y el trabajo que realizan es genial, producen un verdadero evento social para fanticos de la comida. +Muy divertido, van pasando de barrio en barrio. +Adems, ahora que ya lleva aproximadamente un ao, ha comenzado a expandirse. +Un rea antes considerada artstica o "de borde" ahora se ha puesto mucho ms de moda y atrae a ms gente. +As que he aqu un ejemplo. +Hay una mujer a quien llaman la "zorra artesanal" que organiza ferias artesanales "pop-up" en Londres. +Este tipo de cosas suceden entre ambientes muy diferentes. +Para m, una de los efectos de las tiendas "pop-up" es que crean caducidad y urgencia. +Dan lugar a la palabra favorita del hombre de negocios: "vendido". +Y la oportunidad de promover la atencin y la confianza es algo maravilloso. +As que mucho de lo que vemos en la malla, y mucho de lo que tenemos en nuestra plataforma nos permite definir, perfeccionar y dar escala. +Nos permite, como entrepeneurs, probar ideas, lanzarlas al mercado, entrar en conversacin con gente, escuchar, perfeccionar algo y regresar. +La relacin costo-beneficio es buena y sigue la tesitura de la malla. +Eso lo permite la infraestructura. +Para terminar, tambin quiero incitarlos... porque tambin quiero compartir mis fracasos, aunque no desde esta tarima. +Slo quiero agregar que una de las cosas ms importantes que vemos en el desperdicio y notamos cuando buscamos la manera de ser generosos y ayudarnos los unos a los otros, y a la vez crear una situacin econmica y medioambiental ms favorable, es compartir nuestros fracasos. +Un ejemplo rpido: en 2007 en Pars naci la empresa Vlib'. con una propuesta muy seria, un servicio para compartir bicicletas, una empresa grande. +Cometieron muchos errores. +Y tambin tuvieron gran xito. +Pero actuaron con transparencia, o tal vez no tuvieron opcin, en la manera en que mostraron qu funcion y qu, no. +E igualmente B.C. en Barcelona y B-cycle, y Boris Bikes en Londres. Nadie ha tenido que repetir sus errores "versin 1.0" y sufrir los onerosos desaciertos de Vlib' en Pars. +As que al estar conectados, tambin compartimos fracasos, no slo xitos. +Estamos frente al comienzo de algo de lo que somos testigos, y la manera en que las empresas malla estn apareciendo nos invita a participar, pero es muy temprano an. +Mi sitio web es una lista que comenz con unas 1.200 empresas y en los ltimos dos meses y medio ha alcanzado unas 3.300. +Y crece da a da de manera regular. +Pero est en sus comienzos. +As que quiero invitarlos a participar. +Y darles las "muchas gracias". +Pat Mitchell: Cul es la historia de este pin? +Madeleine Albright: Es sobre romper el techo de cristal. +PM: Oh. +Dira que fue una buena eleccin para TEDWomen. +MA: Cuando me levanto a la maana paso gran parte del tiempo tratando de imaginar qu va a suceder ese da. +Y ninguno de estos pines habra sido posible de no ser por Saddam Hussein. +Le voy a contar lo que sucedi. +Fui a Naciones Unidas como embajadora despus de la Guerra del Golfo. Y llegu con instrucciones. +El alto el fuego se haba traducido en una serie de resoluciones de sancin y mis instrucciones consistan en decir constantemente cosas terribles sobre Saddam Hussein que se lo mereca dado que haba invadido otro pas. +Y de repente aparece un poema en la prensa de Bagdad comparndome con muchas cosas pero entre tantas con una serpiente sin precedentes. +As empec a usar un pin de serpiente. +Me lo pona cuando hablbamos de Irak. +Y cuando fui al encuentro de la prensa se centraron en: "Por qu lleva puesto ese pin de serpiente?" +Les dije: "Porque Saddam Hussein me compar con una serpiente sin precedentes". +Y entonces pens que era algo divertido. +As que sal a comprar muchos pines que, de hecho, reflejaran lo que yo pensaba que furamos a hacer ese da. +As es como empez todo. +PM: Y cun grande es la coleccin? +MA: Bastante grande. +Ahora est de viaje. +En este momento est en Indianpolis pero estuvo en el Smithsonian. +Y va acompaada de un libro que dice: "Lee mis pines". +PM: Es una buena idea. +Recuerdo cuando Ud era la primera mujer Secretaria de Estado; siempre se hablaba mucho de lo que se pona, sobre su aspecto, algo que le pasa a muchas mujeres sobre todo si son primeras en un puesto. +Qu siente respecto de eso en general? MA: Bueno, realmente es bastante irritante porque nunca nadie describe lo que usa un hombre. +Pero las personas prestaban atencin a lo que yo me pona. +Lo interesante fue que antes de irme a Nueva York como embajadora ante la ONU habl con Jeane Kirkpatrick, que haba sido embajadora antes que yo, y me dijo: "Tienes que deshacerte de esa vestimenta de profesora. +Sal y vstete como una diplomtica". +Eso me dio muchas oportunidades para ir de compras. +Pero an as hubo todo tipo de preguntas de si me puse un sobrero o si mi falda era corta +y una de las cosas si recuerdan fue que Condolezza Rice fue con botas a un evento y la criticaron por ese motivo. +A ningn hombre se lo cuestiona. Pero eso es lo de menos. +PM: Para todos nosotros, hombre y mujeres, se trata de encontrar la forma de definir nuestro papel de manera que marque una diferencia en el mundo y dar forma al futuro. +Cmo manejaba ese equilibrio entre ser la diplomtica dura, la voz fuerte de este pas para el resto del mundo, cmo se senta consigo misma como madre y abuela? +Cmo manejaba eso? +MA: Bueno lo interesante fue que me preguntaron qu senta de ser la primer mujer Secretaria de Estado, unos minutos despus de ser designada. +Y dije: "Bueno, he sido mujer durante 60 aos pero Secretaria de Estado slo unos minutos". +As que ha ido cambiando. +Pero bsicamente me encanta ser mujer. +Y lo que sucedi fue -y creo que va a haber algunas personas en la audiencia que van a sentirse identificadas con esto- que fui a mi primera reunin en la ONU y es ah donde empez todo porque esa es una organizacin muy masculina. +Y yo estaba all sentada -hay 15 miembros en el Consejo de Seguridad- 14 hombres sentados mirndome y pens -bueno ya saben cmo es esto- +uno quiere captar la sensacin del recinto le gusto a la gente? +voy a decir algo realmente inteligente? +Y de repente pens, bueno, espera un minuto. +Y eso volvi a suceder en varias ocasiones pero creo que en muchos aspectos ser mujer fue una gran ventaja. +Creo que somos mucho mejores en las relaciones personales y luego, obviamente, somos capaces de decir las cosas como son de ser necesario. +Pero tengo que decir que mi nieta ms pequea cuando cumpli 7 aos el ao pasado le dijo a su madre, mi hija, "Cul es el problema de que la abuela Maddie sea Secretaria de Estado? +Slo las nias son Secretarias de Estado". +PM: Porque en su vida... (MA: Eso ha sido as) +PM: Qu cambio! +A medida que viaja por el mundo, cosa que hace con frecuencia, cmo evala esta narrativa global en torno a la historia de mujeres y nias? +Dnde estamos? +MA: Creo que de a poco estamos cambiando pero obviamente hay grandes sectores en los pases donde nada ha cambiado. +Y por lo tanto significa que tenemos que recordar que si bien muchas de nosotras hemos tenido grandes oportunidades y, Pat, Ud ha sido una verdadera lder en su campo, existen muchas mujeres que no pueden preocuparse y cuidar de s mismas y entender que las mujeres tienen que ayudar a otras mujeres. +As que creo que nos corresponde a aquellas que vivimos en varios pases donde tenemos voz poltica y econmica ayudar a otras mujeres. +Y de verdad me dediqu a eso tanto en la ONU como en la Secretara de Estado. +PM: Y hubo reacciones por hacer de eso un tema central de la poltica exterior? +MA: De algunas personas, s. +Creo que pensaron que era un tema menor. +La conclusin a la que llegu fue que los problemas de gnero son las cuestiones ms difciles porque tienen que ver con la vida y la muerte en muchos aspectos y porque, como dije, es algo central para la manera en que pensamos las cosas. +Por ejemplo algunas de las guerras ocurridas cuando yo estaba en ejercicio en muchas de ellas las mujeres fueron las vctimas principales. +Por ejemplo, cuando empec haba guerra en los Balcanes. +Estaban violando a las mujeres en Bosnia. +Luego logramos establecer un tribunal de crmenes para tratar especficamente ese tipo de temas. +Y, por cierto, una de las cosas que hice en ese momento, acababa de llegar a la ONU, cuando llegu haba 183 pases en la ONU; +ahora hay 192. +Era una de las primeras veces que no tena que preparar el almuerzo yo misma +as que le dije a mi asistente: "Invita a las otras mujeres representantes permanentes". +Y pens que cuando llegara a mi residencia habra un montn de mujeres all. +Llegu y encontr 6 mujeres, de 183 miembros. +Los pases que tenan representantes mujeres eran Canad, Kazajstn, Filipinas, Trinidad y Tobago, Jamaica, Lichtenstein y EE.UU. +As que siendo yo estadounidense decid formar un comit. +Y as lo hicimos y nos autodenominamos el G7. +PM: Por Girl 7? (MA: Girl 7) [Girl=Chica] +MA: Y peticionamos en nombre de las mujeres. +As conseguimos dos juezas para este tribunal de crmenes de guerra. +Y entonces lo que sucedi fue que declararon a la violacin como arma de guerra en contra de la Humanidad. +Ud estuvo en esas mesas de negociacin en las que no haba, en las que tal vez estaba Ud una voz, quiz una o dos ms. +Cree que es posible un cambio significativo, y si es posible por qu, en cosas como la violencia la paz, los conflictos y su resolucin sobre una base sostenible? +MA: Bueno, lo que creo es que cuando hay ms mujeres cambia el tono de la conversacin y tambin los objetivos de la conversacin. +Pero eso no significa que el mundo entero estara mucho mejor si fuera gobernado por mujeres. +Si piensan eso se estn olvidando de la secundaria. +Pero el fondo de la cuestin es que existe una manera, cuando hay ms mujeres en la mesa, existe un intento por llegar a algn entendimiento. +Por ejemplo, lo que hice cuando fui a Burundi fue juntar a mujeres tutsis y hutus para que hablen de alguno de los problemas ocurridos en Ruanda. +Y creo en la capacidad de las mujeres para ponerse... creo que somos mejores para ponernos en el lugar del otro y tener ms empata. +Creo que ayuda en trminos de apoyo que haya otras mujeres en la sala. +Cuando era Secretaria de Estado slo haba otras 13 mujeres ministras de relaciones exteriores. +As que era muy bueno cuando una de ellas apareca. +Por ejemplo, actualmente es la presidenta de Finlandia pero Tarja Halonen era ministra de exteriores de Finlandia y, en cierto momento, la cabeza de la Unin Europea. +Y fue realmente genial. +Porque una de las cosas que creo que van a entender +es que bamos a una reunin y los hombres de mi delegacin cuando yo deca "Bueno, siento que deberamos hacer algo al respecto" me decan "Qu quieres decir con eso de 'siento'?" +Y Tarja estaba sentada frente de m en la mesa. +De repente estbamos hablando del control de armamento y ella dijo: "Bueno siento que deberamos hacer esto". +Y mis colegas masculinos como que de pronto lo entendieron. +Pero creo que es de gran ayuda contar con una masa crtica de mujeres en varios puestos de poltica exterior. +Otra cosa que creo que es muy importante: mucha de la poltica de seguridad nacional no se trata slo de poltica exterior sino de presupuestos, presupuesto militar y cmo evoluciona la deuda de los pases. +As que si uno tiene mujeres en varios puestos de poltica exterior pueden darse apoyo mutuo cuando se toman decisiones presupuestarias en sus propios pases. +PM: Cmo lograr este equilibrio que buscamos para ellas en el mundo? +Cmo lograr ms voces femeninas en la mesa? +Cmo lograr que ms hombres crean que el equilibrio es mejor? +MA: Bueno, creo que una de las cosas, soy presidenta de la junta directiva de una organizacin llamada Instituto Nacional Democrtico que trabaja para apoyar a las mujeres candidatas. +Creo que tenemos que ayudar en otros pases a capacitar mujeres para cargos polticos para ver cmo se puede, de hecho, desarrollar voces polticas. +Creo que tambin tenemos que apoyar la creacin de empresas y asegurarnos que las mujeres se ayuden entre s. +Ahora tengo un dicho que realmente me llega a lo profundo porque tengo una cierta edad en la que, cuando empec en mi carrera, crase o no otras mujeres me criticaban: "Por qu no ests en la lnea de transporte?" +o "No sufren tus hijos porque no ests all todo el tiempo?" +Y creo que tenemos por costumbre hacernos sentir culpables mutuamente. +De hecho, creo que "Culpa" es el segundo nombre de toda mujer. +Entonces creo que nos tenemos que ayudar unas a otras. +Y mi lema es que existe un lugar reservado en el infierno para las mujeres que no se ayudan mutuamente. +PM: Bueno, Secretaria Albright, supongo que Ud. va a ir al cielo. +Gracias por acompaarnos hoy. +MA: Gracias a todos. Gracias Pat. +Es lunes por la maana. +En Washington el presidente de los Estados Unidos est sentado en el despacho oval evaluando si ataca o no a Al Qaeda en Yemen. +En el nmero 10 de Downing Street David Cameron est tratando de decidir si recorta ms empleos en el sector pblico para evitar una fuerte recada en la recesin. +En Madrid, Mara Gonzlez est parada en la puerta escuchando como su beb llora sin parar tratando de decidir si dejarlo llorar hasta que se duerma o alzarlo en brazos. +Enfrentamos decisiones trascendentales con consecuencias importantes a lo largo de la vida. Y seguimos estrategias para hacer frente a estas decisiones. +Hablamos de las cosas con los amigos, buscamos en Internet, buscamos en los libros. +Pero an incluso en esta era de Google, TripAdvisor y recomendaciones de Amazon sigue habiendo expertos en los que confiamos ms sobre todo cuando hay mucho en juego y la decisin es muy importante. +Porque en el mundo de aluvin de informacin y la complejidad extrema creemos que los expertos son ms capaces que nosotros para procesar informacin; que ellos pueden arribar a mejores conclusiones que nosotros por nuestros medios. +Y en una poca que en ocasiones ahora resulta aterradora o confusa nos sentimos tranquilos por la autoridad casi paternalista de los expertos que nos dicen claramente qu s, qu podemos hacer y qu no. +Pero creo que este es un gran problema un problema de consecuencias potencialmente peligrosas para nosotros como sociedad, como cultura, y como individuos. +No es que los expertos no hayan contribuido en enorme medida al mundo claro que lo han hecho; +el problema est en nosotros, nos hemos vuelto adictos a los expertos. +Nos hemos vuelto adictos a sus certezas, a su aplomo, a su carcter resuelto, y en el proceso, hemos cedido nuestra responsabilidad, reemplazado nuestro intelecto y nuestra inteligencia por esos supuestos consejos sabios. +Hemos entregado nuestro poder, condescendido nuestra incomodidad con la incerteza por la ilusin de certeza que ellos nos proveen. +Esto no es una exageracin. +En un experimento reciente, a un grupo de adultos les realizaron escneres cerebrales con un tomgrafo mientras escuchaban el discurso de expertos. +Los resultados fueron bastante extraordinarios. +Cuando escuchaban la voces de los expertos las partes del cerebro en la toma de decisiones independientes se apagaban. +Literalmente una lnea plana. +Escuchaban lo que decan los expertos y seguan su consejo fuese correcto o incorrecto. +Pero los expertos se llegan a equivocar. +Saban que hay estudios que muestran que los mdicos diagnostican mal cuatro de cada 10 veces? +Saban que si Uds. mismos presentan su declaracin de ingresos estadsticamente es ms probable que hagan una presentacin correcta que si le piden a un asesor fiscal que lo haga por Uds.? +Y luego, claro, est el ejemplo que todos conocemos: los expertos financieros se equivocaron tanto que ahora estamos viviendo la peor recesin desde 1930. +Por el bien de nuestra salud, de nuestra riqueza, de nuestra seguridad colectiva es imperativo que mantengamos encendidas las partes del cerebro que toman decisiones independientes. +Por eso para ayudarles a entender de dnde vengo djenme que les muestre mi mundo, el mundo de los expertos. +Hay excepciones, por supuesto; excepciones maravillosas que enaltecen la civilizacin. +Pero mi investigacin ha mostrado que los expertos tienden en general a formar campos muy rgidos y que dentro de estos campos surge una perspectiva dominante que a menudo silencia a la oposicin; que los expertos se mueven para donde va el viento; a menudo rinden culto a sus propios gurs. +Por ej., las proclamas de Alan Greenspan de que los aos de crecimiento econmico continuaran y continuaran sin ser impugnadas por sus pares hasta despus de la crisis, por supuesto. +Ya ven tambin aprendimos que los expertos estn acotados, se rigen por las normas socioculturales de su poca, ya sean los mdicos de la Inglaterra victoriana que mandaban a las mujeres al manicomio por expresar deseo sexual, o los psiquiatras de Estados Unidos que hasta 1973 todava clasificaban a la homosexualidad como enfermedad mental. +Los estudios muestran que las empresas de alimentos exageran por lo general siete veces ms que un estudio independiente. +Y tambin tenemos que ser conscientes de que los expertos, por supuesto, tambin se equivocan. +Cometen errores todos los das... errores producto del descuido. +Un estudio reciente de la revista Archives of Surgery inform de cirujanos que eliminaron ovarios sanos, que operaron el lado equivocado del cerebro, que realizaron intervenciones en la mano equivocada, codo, ojos, pies, y tambin errores producto de pensamientos equivocados +Un pensamiento errneo comn es que los radilogos, por ejemplo cuando analizan las tomografas, estn excesivamente influenciados por lo que les dijo el mdico de referencia sobre lo que sospecha que el paciente pueda tener. +As, si el radilogo est analizando la tomografa de un paciente con sospecha de neumona, digamos, lo que sucede es que ve ms evidencia de neumona en la tomografa -- literalmente deja de buscar -- omitiendo as notar el tumor que est 8 cm abajo en los pulmones del paciente. +Hasta el momento he compartido con Uds. algunas ideas sobre el mundo de los expertos. +Por supuesto que no son las nicas ideas que podra compartir pero espero al menos que les d una perspectiva clara del porqu tenemos que dejar de reverenciarlos del porqu tenemos que rebelarnos, del porqu tenemos que encender nuestra capacidad de toma de decisiones independientes. +Pero cmo hacerlo? +Bien, por cuestiones de tiempo quiero centrarme slo en tres estrategias. +Primero, tenemos que estar listos y dispuestos a dejar de considerar a los expertos como apstoles modernos. +Esto no significa tener que hacer un doctorado +en todas las reas; qudense tranquilos por eso. +Pero significa ser persistentes de cara a la molestia inevitable cuando, por ejemplo, queremos que nos expliquen algo en un lenguaje que podamos entender. +Por qu, por ejemplo, cuando tuve una operacin mi doctor me dijo "Cuidado, Sra. Hertz, con la hipertermia", cuando poda simplemente haber dicho cuidado con la fiebre alta? +Estar listos para tomar experiencia de los expertos es tambin estar dispuestos a indagar en sus grficos en sus ecuaciones, en sus pronsticos, en sus profecas, y estar provistos de las preguntas para lograrlo; preguntas como: Cules son las hiptesis que sustentan esto? +En qu evidencia se basa? +En qu centr su investigacin? +Qu cosa ha ignorado? +Hace poco sali publicado que los expertos que prueban medicamentos antes de su salida al mercado por lo general prueban primero en animales machos y luego principalmente en hombres. +Parece que han pasado por alto el hecho de que ms de la mitad de la poblacin mundial son mujeres. +A las mujeres les toc la peor parte porque ahora resulta que muchos de los medicamentos no funcionan tan bien en las mujeres como en los hombres y que los que funcionan bien lo hacen tan bien que su ingesta es muy perjudicial para las mujeres. +Ser rebelde es reconocer que los supuestos de los expertos y sus metodologas pueden fcilmente tener fallas. +Segundo, tenemos que crear el espacio para lo que llamo disenso controlado. +toda la investigacin nos muestra que eso nos hace ms inteligentes. +Fomentar el disenso es una nocin rebelde porque va en contra de nuestros propios instintos que nos llevan a rodearnos de opiniones y consejos en los que ya creemos o que queremos que sean verdad. +Y es por eso que hablo de la necesidad de controlar de manera activa el disenso. +El CEO de Google, Eric Schmidt, es un practicante de esta filosofa. +En las reuniones se fija en las personas de la sala de brazos cruzados que se ven un poco abstrados y los conduce a participar en la discusin tratando de ver si efectivamente alguien opina diferente de modo que haya disenso dentro de la sala. +La gestin del disenso es reconocer el valor del desacuerdo, de la discordia, y la diferencia. +Pero hay que ir ms all. +Tenemos que redefinir radicalmente quines son los expertos. +La nocin convencional dice que los expertos son personas con educacin avanzada, con ttulos y diplomas llamativos, con libros ms vendidos, personas de alto estatus. +Pero imaginen si eliminramos esta nocin de expertos como una especie de cuadro de elite y en vez de eso abrazramos la idea de la experiencia democratizada en donde la experiencia no fuera slo el coto de cirujanos y CEOs sino tambin del personal de la tienda. +Apalancando y abrazando la experiencia dentro de la empresa, Best Buy pudo descubrir, por ejemplo, que la tienda que estaba por abrir en China -- su enorme tienda -- no iba a poder abrir a tiempo. +Porque cuando se le pidi al personal, a todo el personal que hiciera sus apuestas de si iban a poder abrir a tiempo la tienda o no un grupo del departamento financiero puso todas sus fichas a que no iba a suceder. +Result que ellos estaban al tanto -- y eran los nicos en la empresa que lo saban -- de un bache tecnolgico que ni los expertos en pronsticos, ni los expertos en el terreno en China, siquiera haban notado. +Las estrategias que he presentado esta tarde: abrazar el disenso, tomar experiencia de expertos, democratizar la experiencia; las estrategias rebeldes son estrategias que creo nos van a ser de mucha utilidad para tratar de sortear los desafos de estos tiempos tan confusos complejos y difciles. +Ahora, ms que nunca, no es tiempo de seguir a ciegas, de aceptar a ciegas, de confiar a ciegas. +Es momento de enfrentar el mundo con ojos bien abiertos s, empleando expertos que nos ayuden a desentraar cosas, claro, no quiero hacer yo todo el trabajo pero s ser conscientes de sus limitaciones y, por supuesto, tambin de las nuestras. +Gracias. +Nuestro rostro es de gran importancia porque es la parte visual externa que todo el mundo ve. +No olvidemos que es una entidad funcional. +Tenemos huesos fuertes en el crneo que protegen al rgano ms importante del cuerpo: el cerebro. +All estn nuestros sentidos ms especiales: la vista, el habla, el odo, el olfato, el gusto. +Y este hueso, como puede verse en el trasluz del crneo, est salpicado de cavidades y sinuosidades que calientan y humedecen el aire que respiramos. +Pero imaginen que si estuvieran rellenas de hueso slido la cabeza sera un peso muerto y no podramos mantenerla erguida; no podramos mirar el mundo que nos rodea. +Esta mujer est muriendo lentamente porque los tumores benignos de sus huesos faciales han destruido completamente su boca y nariz, por lo que no puede respirar ni comer. +Junto a los huesos faciales que definen la estructura facial estn los msculos que producen la expresin facial nuestro lenguaje universal de expresin nuestro sistema social de seas. +Y cubriendo esto hay una capa de piel que es una estructura tridimensional muy compleja con curvas en ngulo recto aqu y all con zonas delgadas como los prpados, zonas gruesas como las mejillas, de diferentes colores. +Y luego tenemos el factor sensual de la cara. +Dnde nos gusta besar a las personas? +En los labios. Mordisquear las orejas tal vez. +Es el rostro lo que nos atrae con eso. +Pero no olvidemos el cabello. +A su izquierda estn viendo la imagen de mi hijo con sus pestaas. +Miren lo raro que se ve sin ellas. +Hay una diferencia indudable. +Imaginen si le brotara pelo desde la mitad de la nariz se vera ms extrao an. +La dismorfofobia es una versin extrema del hecho de no vernos como nos ven los dems. +Es una verdad impactante: slo vemos imgenes en espejo de nosotros mismos y slo nos vemos en imgenes fotogrficas fijas que capturan una fraccin nimia del tiempo que vivimos. +La dismorfofobia es una tergiversacin de esto en la que la gente que quiz es bien parecida se ve a s misma como horriblemente fea y est en constante bsqueda de la ciruga para corregir su apariencia facial. +No necesitan eso, necesitan ayuda psiquitrica. +Max me ha donado amablemente su fotografa. +No tiene dismorfofobia, pero estoy usando su fotografa para ilustrar el hecho de que l se ve exactamente como un dismorfofbico. +En otras palabras, se ve completamente normal. +La edad es otro factor cuando cambia nuestra actitud hacia nuestra apariencia. +Los nios se auto juzgan, aprenden a auto juzgarse por el comportamiento de los adultos que los rodean. +Ejemplo clsico: Rebbecca tiene un tumor benigno en los vasos sanguneos que est creciendo en su crneo, ha arrasado su nariz, y tiene dificultades de visin. +Como pueden ver, est obstruyendo su visin. +Adems corre peligro, cuando se lastima all, de sangrar profusamente. +Nuestra investigacin muestra que los padres y seres queridos de estos nios los adoran. +Se han acostumbrado a su rostro y piensan que son especiales. +En realidad, a veces los padres discuten si debera eliminarse la lesin de estos nios. +Y en ocasiones sufren reacciones de intenso dolor porque el nio que han aprendido a amar ha cambiado tanto que no lo reconocen. +Pero otros adultos dicen cosas dolorossimas. +Dicen: "Cmo se atreven a sacar a este nio de la casa y atemorizar a otra gente? +No deberan hacer algo al respecto? Por qu no se lo han hecho quitar?" +Y otros nios por curiosidad vienen y tocan la lesin por una curiosidad natural. +Y eso obviamente alerta a los nios de su carcter inusual. +Despus de la ciruga todo se normaliza. +Los adultos se comportan de forma ms natural y los nios juegan ms fcilmente con otros nios. +De adolescentes -slo piensen en su adolescencia- experimentamos un cambio muy dramtico y a menudo desproporcionado de nuestra apariencia facial. +Estamos tratando de encontrar nuestra identidad. +Anhelamos la aprobacin de nuestros pares. +Por eso nuestra apariencia facial es vital dado que tratamos de proyectarnos al mundo. +Slo recuerden esa manchita de acn que nos paralizaba durante das. +Cunto tiempo pasaban mirndose al espejo cada da, practicando la mirada sardnica o la mirada seria tratando de verse como Sean Connery, como haca yo, tratando de levantar una ceja. +Es un momento agobiante. +He elegido mostrar este perfil de Sue porque muestra su mandbula inferior que sobresale y con ella lo hace su labio inferior. +Me gustara que todos en la audiencia empujaran la mandbula inferior hacia adelante, +giren hacia la persona que tienen al lado, empujen la mandbula inferior hacia adelante, miren al lado, mrense, parecen unos infelices. +Eso es exactamente lo que solan decirle a Sue. +Ella no era infeliz en absoluto. +Pero la gente sola decirle: "Por qu eres tan infeliz?" +Las personas se equivocaban constantemente sobre su estado de nimo. +Profesores y compaeros la subestimaban y era objeto de burlas en la escuela. +Por eso eligi hacerse una ciruga facial. +Luego de la ciruga dijo: "ahora mi cara refleja mi personalidad. +Ahora la gente sabe que soy entusiasta, que soy una persona feliz". +Ese es el cambio que puede lograrse en adolescentes. +Pero este cambio es algo real o es producto de la imaginacin de los propios pacientes? +Bueno, estudiamos las actitudes adolescentes hacia fotografas de pacientes con cirugas faciales correctivas. +Y hallamos que, an mezclando las fotografas para que no pudieran reconocer el antes y el despus, hallamos que los pacientes fueron considerados ms atractivos despus de la ciruga. +Bueno, no sorprende. Pero tambin les pedimos que los juzguen en honestidad, inteligencia, amistad, violencia. +La percepcin fue que eran menos de lo normal en todas las caractersticas: ms violentos, etc., antes de la ciruga. +Despus de la ciruga eran percibidos como ms inteligentes, ms amistosos, ms honestos, menos violentos y sin embargo no se haba operado su intelecto o su carcter. +Cuando las personas envejecen no necesariamente optan por este tipo de ciruga. +Su presencia en la sala de consulta es el resultado de las adversidades de la vida. +Lo que les sucede es que puede que hayan sufrido cncer o trauma. +Esta es una foto de Henry dos semanas despus que le quitaron un cncer maligno del lado izquierdo del rostro, del pmulo, manidbula superior, cuenca ocular. +En esta etapa se lo ve bastante bien +pero en el transcurso de los 15 das siguientes tuvo 14 operaciones ms a medida que la enfermedad avanzaba destruyendo mi reconstruccin con regularidad. +Aprend mucho de Henry. +Henry me ense que uno puede seguir trabajando. +Trabajaba como abogado. Continu jugando al crquet. +Disfrutaba la vida al mximo. Y esto se deba quiz a que tena un trabajo exitoso, gratificante, una familia que lo contena y poda participar socialmente. +Mantuvo una indiferencia calma. +No digo que lo super; no lo super. +Fue algo ms que eso. Lo ignor. +Hizo caso omiso a la desfiguracin de ocurra en su vida y continu ajeno a ella. +Y eso es lo que puede hacer esta gente. +Henriapi ilustra este fenmeno tambin. +Este es un hombre de unos 20 aos que vino de Nigeria a la primer consulta con este cncer maligno; haba venido al Reino Unido a operarse. +Fue mi operacin ms larga. +Me llev 23 horas. La realic con mi neurocirujano. +Quitamos todos los huesos del lado derecho del rostro ojos, nariz, huesos del crneo, piel de la cara, y lo reconstruimos con tejido de la espalda. +Continu trabajando como enfermero psiquitrico. +Se cas. Tuvo un hijo llamado Jeremiah. +Y, otra vez, dijo: "Esta pintura con mi hijo Jeremas me muestra como el hombre exitoso que siento que soy". +Su desfiguracin facial no lo afect porque tena el apoyo de su familia, tena un trabajo exitoso, gratificante. +Hemos visto que podemos cambiar la cara de las personas. +Pero al cambiar las caras estamos cambiando su identidad para mejor o para peor? +Por ejemplo, hay dos tipos diferentes de ciruga facial. +Podemos categorizarlas as: +podemos decir que hay pacientes que eligen hacerse una ciruga facial como Sue. +Cuando se hacen la ciruga sienten que sus vidas cambian porque otras personas los perciben como mejores personas. +No se sienten diferente. +Sienten que en realidad han ganado lo que nunca tuvieron, que ahora sus caras reflejan sus personalidades. +Y esa probablemente es la diferencia entre la ciruga esttica y este tipo de ciruga. +Podra decir: "Bueno, este tipo de ciruga podra considerarse como esttica". +En las cirugas estticas los pacientes a menudo son menos felices. +Intentan lograr diferencias en sus vidas. +Sue no intentaba lograr diferencias en su vida +sino que estaba tratando de lograr el rostro que concuerde con su personalidad. +Pero luego tenemos otras personas que no eligen hacerse un ciruga facial. +Son personas que han recibido impactos en la cara. +La voy a quitar y pondr una diapositiva en blanco para quienes sean aprensivos entre Uds. +Estn obligadas a hacerlo. +Otra vez, como les dije, con una familia que los contenga y buena vida laboral pueden llevar vidas normales y plenas. +Sus identidades no cambian. +Es este asunto de la apariencia y de la preocupacin por eso un fenmeno occidental? +La familia de Muzetta desmiente esto. +Esta es una nia banglades del extremo este de Londres que tena un tumor maligno enorme en el lado derecho del rostro que casi la ha dejado ciega que estaba creciendo rpidamente y la iba a matar en breve. +Luego de la ciruga para quitar el tumor sus padres le pusieron este hermoso vestido de terciopelo verde una cinta rosa en el cabello y quisieron que la pintura sea exhibida en el mundo a pesar de que eran musulmanes ortodoxos y la madre llevaba burka integral. +As que no es un fenmeno simplemente occidental. +Emitimos juicios acerca de los rostros todo el tiempo. +Ha estado sucediendo desde Lombrosso y su manera de definir los rostros criminales. +l deca que uno podra identificar criminales con slo observar fotografas donde aparecen. +La gente de buen aspecto es siempre considerada como ms amistosa. +Si miramos a O.J. es un tipo bien parecido. +Nos gustara pasar tiempo con l. Se ve amigable. +Ahora sabemos que fue condenado por golpear a su mujer y que en realidad no es un buen tipo. +La belleza no es igual a la bondad y ciertamente no equivale a la felicidad. +Hemos hablado del rostro esttico y de emitir juicios sobre l, pero en realidad nos sentimos ms cmodos juzgando los rostros en movimiento. +Creemos que podemos juzgar a las personas por sus expresiones. +Los jurados del sistema judicial del Reino Unido gustan de ver un testigo en vivo para ver si pueden detectar seales indicadoras de mendicidad: el parpadeo, la vacilacin. +Por eso quieren ver el testimonio vivo. +Todorov nos dice que, en una dcima de segundo, podemos emitir un juicio acerca de la cara de alguien. +Estamos incmodos con esta imagen? S lo estamos. +Estaramos felices si la cara a nuestro mdico, o de nuestro abogado, o asesor financiero estuviera cubierta? +Estaramos bastante incmodos. +Pero, somos buenos emitiendo juicios sobre la apariencia facial y los movimientos? +La realidad es que hay una regla de cinco minutos no de una dcima de segundo como la de Todorov, sino de cinco minutos. +Si uno pasa cinco minutos con alguien empieza a ver debajo de la apariencia facial y las personas que inicialmente nos atraan pueden resultar aburridas o no tan interesantes y las personas a las que uno no buscara de inmediato por no encontrarlas especialmente atractivas se vuelven atractivas por su personalidad. +Bueno, hemos hablado mucho de apariencia facial. +Ahora quiero compartir un poco de las cirugas que hacemos dnde estamos y hacia dnde vamos. +Esta es una foto de Ann a quien se le ha quitado su mandbula derecha y la base del crneo. +Y pueden ver en las fotos siguientes que hemos logrado reconstruirla con xito. +Pero eso no es suficiente. +Lo que Ann quiere es salir con el kayak, salir a escalar montaas. +Y eso es lo logr, y eso es a lo que tenemos que llegar. +Esta es una imagen horrible, por eso estoy avisando ahora. +Esta es una fotografa de Adi, un gerente de banco nigeriano que recibi un disparo en el rostro en un robo a mano armada. +Y perdi la mandbula inferior, el labio, la barbilla, la mandbula superior y los dientes. +Y la barrera que nos puso fue: +"Quiero tener este aspecto. As era yo era antes". +As que con la tecnologa moderna, usamos computadoras para modelar. +Hicimos un modelo de la mandbula sin huesos. +Luego doblamos una placa con la forma. +La pusimos en el lugar para saber que era la posicin adecuada. +Luego colocamos hueso y tejido de la espalda. +Aqu pueden ver la placa que lo sostiene y pueden verse los implantes colocados de modo que en una operacin logramos esto y esto. +La vida del paciente se restableci. +Esa es la buena noticia. +Sin embargo la piel de la barbilla no tiene el mismo aspecto que tena antes. +Es piel de su espalda. +Es ms gruesa, ms oscura, ms spera, no tiene los contornos. +Ah es donde estamos fallando. Es entonces cuando necesitamos el transplante de rostro. +El transplante de rostro entra en juego quiz en pacientes con quemaduras para reemplazar piel. +Podemos reemplazar la estructura sea subyacente pero todava no somos buenos en el reemplazo de piel del rostro. +As que sera muy valioso tener esa herramienta en nuestro arsenal. +Pero los pacientes van a tener que tomar medicamentos para suprimir el sistema inmune por el resto de sus vidas. +Qu significa eso? +Mayor riesgo de infeccin, aumento del riesgo de malignidad. +Tampoco sabemos qu sienten respecto del reconocimiento y la identidad. +Bernard Devauchelle y Sylvie Testelin que hicieron la primera operacin estn estudiando eso. +Hay pocos donantes porque cunta gente quiere que a su ser querido le quiten el rostro al morir? +Por eso va a haber problemas con los transplantes de rostro. +La mejor noticia es que el futuro est casi aqu y es la ingeniera de tejidos. +Slo imaginen que pudiera hacer un molde biodegradable. +Podra colocarlo en el lugar donde se supone que ir. +Podra rociar unas clulas, clulas madre de la cadera del propio paciente, algunas protenas modificadas genticamente y, oh sorpresa, lo dejamos cuatro meses y se cultiva el rostro. +Es como una receta de Julia Child. +Pero todava quedan problemas. +Tenemos que resolver el cncer de boca. +Todava no estamos curando suficientes pacientes; es el cncer ms desfigurador. +Tampoco estamos haciendo buenas reconstrucciones de eso. +En el R.U. tenemos una epidemia de lesiones en la cara de los jvenes. +Todava no podemos eliminar las cicatrices. +Tenemos que investigar. +Y la mejor noticia de todas es que los cirujanos saben que tenemos que investigar. +Y hemos creado organizaciones benficas que nos van a ayudar a financiar la investigacin clnica para determinar las mejores prcticas de tratamiento ahora y los mejores tratamientos para el futuro por eso no tenemos que dormirnos en los laureles y decir: "Estamos bien. +Vamos a dejarlo como est". +De verdad muchas gracias. +De nia fui criada por ancianas nativas de Hawai; por tres ancianas que me cuidaban mientras mis padres trabajaban. +Corra el ao 1963. +Estamos en el ocano +al anochecer. +Estamos viendo salir las estrellas y el cambio de las mareas. +Es un tramo de playa que conocemos tan bien... +Los cantos rodados en la arena nos resultan familiares. +Si vieran a estas mujeres por la calle con sus ropas desteidas, quiz las tacharan de pobres y humildes. +Eso sera un error. +Estas mujeres son descendientes de navegantes polinesios, educadas a la vieja usanza por sus mayores. Y ahora me estn pasando el legado. +Me ensean los nombres de los vientos y las lluvias, de la astronoma, segn una genealoga de las estrellas. +Hay luna nueva en el horizonte. +Los hawaianos dicen que hace buena noche para pescar. +Empiezan a cantar. +[Canto hawaiano] Cuando terminan, se sientan en crculo y me piden que me una a ellos. +Quieren ensearme mi destino. +Yo pensaba que todas las nias de 7 aos pasaban por esto. +"Nia, algn da el mundo estar en apuros. +Las personas olvidarn su sabidura. +Ser necesario recurrir a los ancianos de los lugares ms recnditos del planeta para que el mundo recupere el equilibrio. +Vas a ir muy lejos. +A veces va a ser un camino solitario. +Nosotras no vamos a estar all. +Pero vas a ver en los ojos de supuestos extraos y vas a reconocer a tu ohana, a tu familia. +Y va a requerir de todos Uds. +Va a requerir de todos Uds". +Me aferr a estas palabras toda mi vida, +porque la idea de hacerlo sola me asusta. +Corre el ao 2007. +Me encuentro en una isla remota de Micronesia. +Satawal tiene 800 m de largo por 1.600 m de ancho. +Es la casa de mi mentor. +Su nombre es Po Piailug. +Mau es un palu, un sacerdote navegante. +Se le considera tambin el mayor buscador de olas del mundo. +Son contados con los dedos de una mano los palu que quedan en la isla. +Su tradicin es tan extraordinaria que estos marineros navegaron 7.700.000 km por todo el Pacfico sin el uso de instrumentos. +Pudieron sintetizar los patrones de la naturaleza usando la salida y la puesta de las estrellas, la secuencia y direccin de las olas, el vuelo de ciertas aves. +Incluso el ms mnimo toque de color en la parte baja de las nubes les dara informacin y les sera de ayuda para navegar con precisin exacta. +Cuando los cientficos occidentales fueron en canoa con Mau y lo vieron entrar en el casco, les pareci que el anciano iba a descansar. +De hecho, el casco de la canoa es el vientre de la nave. +Es el lugar ms indicado para sentir el ritmo, la secuencia, y la direccin de las olas. +De hecho, Mau estaba reuniendo datos explcitos por medio de su cuerpo. +Para eso haba sido formado desde los 5 aos. +La ciencia puede que prescinda de esta metodologa, pero los navegantes polinesios la usan actualmente porque les permite determinar con precisin el ngulo y la direccin de su barco. +Los palu tienen tambin una capacidad extraordinaria para prever las condiciones meteorolgicas con das de antelacin. +A veces estaba con Mau en una noche cubierta de nubes, nos sentbamos en la costa oriental de la isla, echaba un vistazo y luego deca: "Bien, vamos". +Vio el primer destello de luz y supo cmo iba a ser el tiempo en los prximos 3 das. +Sus logros, intelectuales y cientficos, son extraordinarios y a la vez muy importantes para los tiempos que corren, en los que estamos capeando el temporal. +Estamos en un momento muy crtico de nuestra historia colectiva. +Se los ha comparado con los astronautas a estos viejos navegantes que surcan los ocanos abiertos en canoas de doble casco, haciendo miles de kilmetros desde una pequea isla. +Sus canoas, nuestros cohetes, su mar, nuestro espacio. +La sabidura de estos mayores no es una mera coleccin de historias de gente mayor de algn lugar remoto. +Esto es parte de nuestra narrativa colectiva. +Es el ADN de la humanidad. +No podemos darnos el lujo de perderlo. +Corre el ao 2010. +Como predijo la mujer que me cri en Hawai, el mundo est en problemas. +Vivimos en una sociedad repleta de datos pero hambrienta de sabidura. +Estamos conectados las 24 horas, pero la ansiedad, el miedo, la depresin y la soledad nos asolan como nunca. +Debemos corregir el curso. +Un chamn africano dijo: "Tu sociedad adora al bufn mientras que el rey viste de burgus". +El vnculo entre el pasado y el futuro es frgil. +Esto lo s de primera mano porque a medida que viajo por el mundo escuchando y grabando estas historias, yo lucho. +Me atormenta el hecho de que olvidar los nombres de los vientos y las lluvias. +Mau falleci hace 5 meses, pero sus lecciones y su legado continan. +Y recuerdo que en todo el mundo hay culturas plagadas de conocimiento, tan potentes como la de los navegantes micronesios que pasan por alto que este es un testamento de ciencia, tecnologa, y sabidura muy, pero que muy brillante, que se desvanece rpidamente. +Porque cuando un anciano muere se quema con l una biblioteca. Y hay bibliotecas en llamas por todo el mundo. +Estoy muy agradecida por haber tenido un mentor como Mau que me ense a navegar. +Y me doy cuenta mediante una leccin que l comparta que seguimos buscando la salida. +Esto es lo que l dijo: "La isla es la canoa; y la canoa, la isla". +Con eso quiso decir que si uno est viajando muy lejos de casa, la propia supervivencia depende de que todos estn a bordo. +No se puede hacer el viaje solo; no era esa la idea. +Esta nocin del slvese quien pueda es completamente insostenible. +Siempre lo fue. +As que para concluir me gustara decir que el planeta es nuestra canoa y nosotros somos los viajeros. +La verdadera navegacin empieza en el corazn humano. +Es el mapa ms importante de todos. +Juntos, tal vez tengamos un buen viaje. +Admito que estoy un poco nervioso porque voy a decir algunas cosas radicales sobre cmo deberamos pensar diferente sobre el cncer a una audiencia que contiene mucha gente que sabe mucho ms del cncer que yo. +Pero tambin argumentar que no estoy tan nervioso como debera estarlo porque estoy bastante seguro de tener razn sobre esto. +Y que sta, en efecto, ser la forma en que trataremos el cncer en el futuro. +Para poder hablar del cncer, en realidad tendr que -- djenme poner estas diapositivas. +Primero, voy a tratar de darles una perspectiva diferente de la genmica. +Quiero ponerla en perspectiva de la imagen ms grande, de todas las otras cosas que estn sucediendo, y luego hablar de algo de lo que que no han odo hablar demasiado, la protemica. +Habiendo explicado ambos, eso preparar para lo que creo ser una idea diferente sobre cmo ir tratando el cncer. +Djenme comenzar con la genmica. +Es el tema del momento. +Es el lugar donde ms estamos aprendiendo. +Esta es la gran frontera. +Pero tiene sus limitaciones. +Y en particular, probablemente todos han odo la analoga de que el genoma es como la copia del plano del cuerpo. Y si tan solo eso fuera cierto, sera grandioso pero no lo es. +Es como el listado de partes de tu cuerpo. +No dice cmo las cosas se conectan, qu causa qu, y dems. +Si puedo hacer una analoga, digamos que estuvieran tratando de encontrar la diferencia entre un buen restaurant, un restaurant saludable, y un restaurant enfermo, y lo nico que tuviesen fuera la lista de ingredientes que tienen en la alacena. +As podra ser que, si fueran a un restaurant francs y observaran entre sus cosas y encontrasen que solamente tienen margarina y no manteca, podran decir, "Ah, ya s lo que tienen mal. +Puedo hacerlos sanos." +Y probablemente haya casos especiales de eso. +Definitivamente podran saber la diferencia entre un restaurant chino y un restaurant francs por lo que tienen en la alacena. +As que la lista de ingredientes s te dice algo, y a veces te dice que algo est mal. +Si tienen montones de sal, podras adivinar que estn usando mucha sal, o algo por el estilo. +Pero es limitado, porque para realmente saber si es un restaurant saludable, tienes que probar la comida, tienes que saber qu sucede en la cocina, necesitas el producto de todos esos ingredientes. +As, si miro a una persona y miro el genoma de esa persona, es lo mismo. +La parte del genoma que podemos leer es la lista de ingredientes. +Y de hecho, hay veces que podemos encontrar ingredientes que son malos. +La fibrosis qustica es un ejemplo de enfermedad en la que tienes un mal ingrediente y tienes una enfermedad, y realmente podemos establecer una relacin directa entre el ingrediente y la enfermedad. +Pero mayormente, tienes que saber qu est sucediendo en la cocina, porque, en su mayora, la gente enferma sola ser gente sana; tienen en mismo genoma. +As que el genoma realmente te dice mucho acerca de predisposicin. +Entonces lo que puedes decir es que puedes decir la diferencia entre una persona asitica y una europea mirando su lista de ingredientes. +Pero en realidad no puedes diferenciar mayormente entre una persona sana y una enferma, excepto en alguno de estos casos especiales. +Entonces por qu todo el furor con la gentica? +Bueno, primero que nada, es porque podemos leerla, lo que es fantstico. +Es muy til en ciertas circunstancias. +Tambin es un gran triunfo terico de la biologa. +Es la principal teora en la que los bilogos alguna vez acertaron. +Es fundamental para Darwin y Mendel y varios ms. +As que es el caso por excelencia en el que predijeron un concepto terico. +Es decir, Mendel tena su idea sobre el gen como algo abstracto. Y Darwin construy una teora entera que dependa de que ellos exsistieran. Y luego Watson y Crick finalmente buscaron y encontraron uno. +Esto pasa en la fsica todo el tiempo. +Predices un agujero negro, miras por el telescopio y ah est, tal como habas dicho. +Pero rara vez sucede en biologa. +As que este gran triunfo -- es tan grande, que es casi una experiencia religiosa en la biologa. +Y la evolucin darwiniana es realmente la teora base. +Y la otra razn por la que es tan popular es porque podemos medirla, es digital. +Y de hecho, gracias a Kary Mullis, puedes bsicamente analizar tu genoma en la cocina con un par de ingredientes extra. +Por ejemplo, estudiando el genoma, hemos aprendido mucho sobre cmo estamos emparentados con otros animales por la cercana de nuestro genoma, o cmo estamos relacionados entre nosotros; el rbol familiar, o el rbol de la vida. +Hay una enorme cantidad de inforamcin sobre gentica simplemente por comparar la similitud gentica. +Ahora, por supuesto, su aplicacin mdica es muy til porque es el mismo tipo de informacin que la que el mdico obtine de tu historial mdico familiar, excepto probablemente, que tu genoma sabe mucho ms de tu historial mdico que t. +Y as leyendo el genoma, podemos descubrir mucho ms sobre tu familia que lo que t probablemente sepas. +Y as podemos descubrir cosas que probablemente podras haber descubierto observando a suficientes de tus parientes, pero stas pueden ser sorprendentes. +Hice esa cosa de 23andMe y me sorprendi descubrir que soy gordo y calvo. +Pero a veces puedes aprender cosas mucho ms tiles sobre eso. +Pero ms que nada, lo que necesitas saber para descubrir si ests enfermo no son tus predisposiciones, sino lo que est sucediendo en tu cuerpo ahora mismo. +Entonces para ello, lo que tienes que hacer, es observar las cosas que los genes estn produciendo y lo que est sucediendo despus de la gentica. Y de eso se trata la protemica. +As como el genoma mezcla el estudio de todos los genes, la protemica es el estudio de todas las protenas. +Y las protenas son todas esas cosas pequeas en tu cuerpo que emiten seales entre las clulas; en realidad las mquinas que estn operando. Ah es donde est la accin. +Bsicamente, un cuerpo humano es una conversacin en transcurso, tanto dentro de las clulas como entre las clulas, y se estn ordenando las unas a las otras crecer y morir. Y cuando ests enfermo, algo ha ido mal con esa conversacin. +Entonces el problema es que, lamentablemente, no tenemos una manera fcil de analizarlas como podemos analizar el genoma. +El problema es ese anlisis, si tratas de evaluar todas las protenas, es un proceso muy elaborado. +Requiere cientos de pasos, y toma un largo, largo tiempo. +Tambin importa cunto de la protena es. +Podra ser muy significativo que una protena cambie en un 10%, as que no es una bella cosa digital como el ADN. +Y bsicamente nuestro problema es que si alguien en el medio de este tan largo proceso, se pausa por slo un momento, y deja ingresar algo, una enzima, por un segundo, de repente todas las mediciones de ah en adelante no sirven. +Y as, la gente obtiene resultados muy incosistentes cuando lo hacen de esta manera. +La gente ha tratado muy duramente de hacer esto. +Yo lo intent varias veces y v este problema y lo dej de intentar. +Reciba constantemente llamadas de este onclogo llamado David Agus. +Y Applied Minds recibe montones de llamadas de gente que quiere ayuda con sus problemas, y no pensaba que sta fuera una con probabilidades de ser contestada, as que continuaba ponindolo en la lista de espera. +Y luego un da, recibo una llamada de John Doerr, Bill Berkman y Al Gore en el mismo da diciendo "devulvele la llamada a David Agus". +As que pens, "Okey, este tipo por lo menos tiene recursos". +As que empezamos a hablar, y dijo, "Realmente necesito una mejor manera de evaluar las protenas." +Le dije, "Ya me fij en eso. Estuve ah. +No va a ser fcil." +Y l dice, "No, no. Lo nececito de verdad. +Quiero decir, veo pacientes muriendo todos los das porque no sabemos qu est sucediendo dentro de ellos. +Necesitamos tener una ventana hacia adentro de esto." +Y me llev a travs de ejemplos especficos de cundo realmente lo necesitaba. +Y me di cuenta, wau, esto realmente hara una gran diferencia, si pudiramos hacerlo. Entonces dije, "Bien, echmosle un vistazo." +Applied Minds tiene suficiente dinero como para simplemente ir y trabajar en algo sin recibir fondos ni permiso de nadie ni nada por el estilo. +As que empezamos a jugar con esto. +Y as nos dimos cuenta de que ste era bsicamente el problema, el tomar ese sorbo de caf; que haba humanos haciendo este complicado proceso y que, lo que en realidad necesitaba hacerse, era automatizar el proceso como una lnea de montaje y construir robots que midieran la protemica. +Y eso hicimos. Y trabajando con David, finalmente hicimos una pequea compaa llamada Applied Proteomics ("Protemica Aplicada" N. del T.) que hace esta lnea de montaje robtica, la que, en una manera muy consistente, evala las protenas. +Y les mostrar cmo se ve la medicin de protenas. +Bsicamente, lo que hacemos es tomar una gota de sangre de un paciente, y ordenamos las protenas en la gota de sangre de acuerdo a cunto pesan, qu tan resbalosas son, y las ordenamos en una imagen. +Y as podemos observar literalmente cientos de miles de funciones de una vez a partir de esa gota de sangre. +Y podemos tomar una distinta maana, y vers que tus protenas sern diferentes maana, sern diferentes luego de que comas o que duermas. +Realmente nos muestran qu est sucediendo. +As que esta imagen, que se ve como un gran manchn para ustedes, es en realidad lo que me entusiasm tanto sobre esto y me hizo sentir que estbamos en el camino correcto. +Y si hago zoom en esa imagen, puedo mostrarles lo que significa. +Ordenamos las protenas; de izquierda a derecha est el peso de los fragmentos que estamos viendo. Y de arriba hacia abajo cun resbalosos son. +Estamos haciendo zoom slo para mostrarles un poquito de eso. +Y cada una de estas lneas representa una seal que estamos obteniendo de un trozo de una protena. +Y pueden ver cmo las lneas se presentan en estos pequeos grupos de baches, baches, baches, baches, baches. +Y eso es porque estamos midiendo su peso tan precisamente que -- el carbono viene en diferentes istopos, entonces si uno tiene un neutrn extra, podemos identificarlo como un qumico diferente. +As, estamos identificando cada istopo como uno diferente. +As que eso les da una idea de qu tan exquisitamente sensible es. +As que ver esta imagen es como imagimarte ser Galileo mirando a las estrellas y mirar por el telescopio por primera vez, y de pronto dices: "Wau, es mucho ms complicado de lo que pensamos que era." +Pero podemos ver esa cosa de ah y realmente ver caractersticas de ella. +As que ste es el distintivo del cual estamos intentando obtener patrones. +As que lo que hacemos con esto es, por ejemplo observar a dos pacientes, uno que respondi a una droga y uno que no respondi a una droga, y preguntar, "Qu sucede de manera diferente dentro de ellos?" +Y as podemos hacer estas mediciones de manera tan precisa que podemos superponer dos pacientes y observar sus diferencias. +Entonces aqu tenemos a Alice en verde y a Bob en rojo. +Los superponemos. Estos son datos reales. +Como pueden ver, mayormente se superpone y es amarillo, pero hay algunas cosas que slo Alice tiene y algunas otras que slo Bob tiene. +Y si encontramos el patrn de cosas de los que responden a la droga, vemos que en la sangre, ellos tienen la condicin que los habilita a responder a esta droga. +Tal vez ni siquiera sepamos qu protena es sta, pero podemos ver que es un condicionante para la respuesta a la enfermedad. +As que esto ya es, creo, tremendamente til en todas las ramas de la medicina. +Pero creo que esto es en realidad slo el comienzo de cmo vamos a tratar el cncer. +As que djenme pasar al cncer. +El tema con el cncer -- cuando me met en esto, realmente no saba nada sobre el tema, pero trabajando con David Agus, empec a ver cmo el cncer estaba siendo tratado y fui a operaciones en las que se lo extirpaba. +Y a mi manera de ver, no tena sentido cmo estbamos encarando el cncer. Y para ver el sentido de ello, tuve que aprender de dnde vena esto. +Estamos tratando el cncer casi como si fuera una enfermedad infecciosa. +Lo estamos tratando como algo que se meti adentro tuyo y tenemos que matar. +As que ste es el gran paradigma. +ste es otro caso en el que un paradigma terico en biologa realmente funcion -- fue la Teora microbiana de la enfermedad. +Para lo que los mdicos estn principalmente entrenados es diagnosticar; eso es ponerte dentro de una categora, y aplicar un tratamiento probado cientficamente para ese diagnstico. Y eso funciona estupendamente para enfermedades infecciosas. +As que si te ponenos en la categora de "t tienes sfilis", podemos darte penicilina. +Sabemos que eso funciona. +Si tienes malaria, podemos darte quinina, o algn derivado de ella. +Y eso es lo bsico que los mdicos estn entrenados para hacer. Y es milagroso, en el caso de las enfermedades infecciosas, lo bien que funciona. +Y mucha gente de esta audiencia pobablemente no estara viva si los mdicos no hicieran esto. +Pero ahora apliquemos eso a enfermedades sistmicas como el cncer. +El problema es que, en el cncer, no es algo de ms que est dentro tuyo. +Eres t, t te has roto. +Esa conversacin adentro tuyo se ha desordenado de alguna manera. +As que cmo diagnosticamos esa conversacin? +Ahora lo que estamos haciendo es dividirla por parte del cuerpo, ya saben, dnde apareci, y te ponemos en diferentes categoras de acuerdo con la parte del cuerpo. +Y luego hacemos un ensayo clnico para una droga para el cncer de pulmn y una para el cncer de prstata y una para el cncer de mama, y los tratamos como si fuesen enfermedades diferentes y como si esta forma de dividirlas tuviese algo que ver con lo que en realidad sali mal. +Y por supuesto, en realidad no tiene tanto que ver con lo que sali mal. Porque el cncer es una falla del sistema. +Y de hecho, creo que estamos incluso equivocados cuando hablamos del cncer como una cosa. +Creo que ste es el gran error. +Creo que el cncer no debera ser un sustantivo. +Deberamos hablar de "cancerar" como algo que hacemos, no algo que tenemos. +Y entonces los tumores, sos son sntomas del cncer. +Y tu cuerpo probablemente est cancerando todo el tiempo. Pero hay muchos sistemas en tu cuerpo que lo mantienen bajo control. +Para darles una idea de una analoga de lo que quiero decir al pensar el cancerar como un verbo, imaginen que no supiramos nada sobre plomera, y la manera en que hablamos de ella; llegaramos a casa y encontraramos una gotera en la cocina y diramos, "Oh, mi casa tiene agua." +Podramos dividirlo; el plomero dira, "Bien, dnde est el agua"? +"Bien, est en la cocina." "Oh, debes tener agua de cocina." +Ese es ms o menos el nivel al que est. +"Agua de cocina?" Bien, primero que nada, iremos y trapearemos un montn de ella. +Y luego nos enteramos que si rociamos un producto qumico en la cocina, eso ayuda. +Mientras que para el agua de living, es mejor el alquitrn en el techo. +Y suena tonto, pero eso es bsicamente lo que hacemos. +Y no estoy diciendo que no deberan trapear el agua si tuvieran cncer. Pero estoy diciendo que se no es el problema, se es el sntoma del problema. +A donde realmente debemos llegar es al proceso que est sucediendo, y eso est sucediendo al nivel de las acciones proteonmicas, sucediendo al nivel de por qu tu cuerpo no se est curando a s mismo en la manera en que normalmente lo hace. +Porque normalmente tu cuerpo est lidiando con este problema todo el tiempo. +O sea que tu casa est lidiando con las goteras todo el tiempo. Pero las est reparando. Las est drenando una y otra vez. +Lo que necesitamos es tener un modelo causativo de lo que en realidad est sucediendo. Y la protemica realmente nos brinda la posibilidad de construir un modelo como ese. +David consigui que me invitaran a dar una charla al Instituto Nacional del Cncer y Anna Barker estaba all. +As que di esta charla y pregunt, "Por qu no hacen esto?" +Y Anna me dijo, "Porque nadie involucrado con el cncer lo mirara de esta manera. +Pero lo que haremos, es crear un programa para que gente fuera del mbito del cncer se junte con mdicos que realmente sepan del cncer y trabajen en diferentes programas de investigacin." +Lo estamos haciendo en ratones primero. Y vamos a matar un montn de ratones en el proceso de hacerlo, pero morirn por una buena causa. +Y en efecto trataremos de llegar al punto en el que tengamos un modelo predictivo en el que podamos entender cundo sucede el cncer, qu est pasando realmente ah dentro y qu tratamiento actuar en ese cncer. +As que djenme terminar dndoles una pequea visin de cmo creo que ser el tratamiento del cncer en el futuro. +Pienso que eventualmente, una vez que tengamos uno de estos modelos para personas, el que eventualmente tendremos; quiero decir, nuestro grupo no recorrer todo el camino hasta all, pero eventualmente tendremos un muy buen modelo computarizado, algo como un modelo climtico global en el caso del clima. +Tiene muchsima informacin diferente sobre cul es el proceso en curso en esta conversacin protemica en muchas escalas diferentes. +Y as vamos a simular en ese modelo para tu cncer en particular -- y esto tambin servir para la ELA (Esclerosis Lateral Amitrfica), o cualquier tipo de enfermedades neurodegenerativas, cosas por el estilo -- te simularemos especficamente a ti, no una persona genrica, sino lo que realmente est sucediendo dentro tuyo. +Y en esa simulacion, lo que podramos hacer es disear especficamente para ti una secuencia de tratamientos, y podran ser tratamientos muy suaves, cantidades de droga muy pequeas. +Podran ser cosas como no comer ese da, o darles un poco de quimioterapia, tal vez un poco de radiacin. +Por supuesto, haremos ciruga a veces, y cosas por el estilo. +Pero disear un programa de tratamientos especficamente para ti y ayudar a tu cuerpo a guiarse de regreso a la salud; guiar a tu cuerpo de regreso a la salud. +Porque tu cuerpo har la mayor parte del arreglo si tan solo le brindamos un poco de apoyo en los procesos que estn mal. +Ponemos el equivalente de una frula. +Tu cuerpo bsicamente tiene montones y montones de mecanismos para arreglar el cncer, y nosotros simplemente tenemos que encaminarlos en la forma correcta y lograr que ellos hagan el trabajo. +As que creo que sta ser la forma en que el cncer ser tratado en el futuro. +Va a requerir mucho trabajo, mucha investigacin. +Habr muchos equipos como nuestro equipo que trabajen en esto. +Creo que alguna vez, disearemos para todo el mundo un tratamiento personalizado del cncer. +As que muchas gracias. +Angella Ahn: Gracias. +Muchas gracias. +Es un gran honor estar aqu en TEDWomen compartiendo nuestra msica con Uds. +Qu evento ms emocionante e inspirador! +Lo que acaban de escuchar es "Skylife", de David Balakrishnan. +Ahora queremos presentarles otra seleccin. +Es de Astor Piazzolla, un compositor argentino. +Y hablamos de ideas diferentes... l tena esta idea pensaba que la msica debera venir del corazn. +Esto era a mediados del siglo XX cuando la msica del corazn, msica maravillosa, no era lo ms popular en el mundo de la msica clsica. +Era ms atonal y dodecafnica. +Pero l insista en la belleza de la msica. +Esto es "Oblivion" de Astor Piazzolla. +Gracias. +Hace 10 aos, exactamente, yo estaba en Afganistn. +Estaba cubriendo la guerra y fui testigo, como reportero de Al Jazeera, del sufrimiento y la destruccin que produce una guerra como esa. +Luego, dos aos despus, cubra otra guerra, la de Irak. +Yo estaba en medio de esa guerra cubriendo lo que suceda en el norte de Irak. +Y la guerra termin con un cambio de rgimen como el de Afganistn. +Y ese rgimen del que nos deshicimos en realidad era una dictadura, un rgimen autoritario, que durante dcadas gener una gran parlisis en la nacin y en las propias personas. +Sin embargo, el cambio provocado por la intervencin extranjera gener circunstancias an peores para la gente y profundiz el sentimiento de parlisis e inferioridad en esa parte del mundo. +Durante dcadas hemos vivido bajo regmenes autoritarios en el mundo rabe, en Medio Oriente. +Estos regmenes generaron algo dentro nuestro en este perodo. +Ahora tengo 43 aos +y en los ltimos 40 he visto casi los mismos rostros en los reyes y presidentes que nos gobiernan: son viejos, ancianos, autoritarios, vi actos de corrupcin... en los regmenes que nos rodeaban. +Y por un momento me preguntaba si viviramos para ver un cambio real en el terreno, un cambio que no viniera de la intervencin extranjera, mediante la miseria de la ocupacin, producto de la invasin a nuestra tierra; esa que agudizara el sentimiento de inferioridad. +Los iraques, s, se deshicieron de Saddam Hussein pero al ver su tierra ocupada por fuerzas extranjeras se sintieron muy mal; sintieron que se resenta su dignidad. +Y por eso se rebelaron +y no lo aceptaron. +Y otros regmenes le dijeron a sus ciudadanos: "Quieren repetir la situacin de Irak? +Quieren una guerra civil y asesinatos sectarios? +Quieren la destruccin? +Quieren ver tropas extranjeras en su tierra?" +Y las personas pensaron para sus adentros: "Quiz deberamos permitir estas situaciones autoritarias y no vernos inmersos en un escenario como ese". +Esa fue una de las peores pesadillas que hemos visto. +Durante 10 aos por desgracia tuvimos que dar cuenta de imgenes de destruccin, de asesinatos, de conflictos sectarios, imgenes de violencia en una tierra magnfica, una regin que alguna vez fue cuna de civilizaciones, arte y cultura, durante miles de aos. +Ahora he venido a decirles que el futuro que estbamos soando finalmente ha llegado. +Una nueva generacin bien educada, conectada, inspirada en valores universales y en una comprensin global nos ha generado una nueva realidad. +Hemos encontrado otra manera de expresar los sentimientos y los sueos. Estos jvenes que han devuelto la auto confianza a nuestras naciones en esa parte del mundo, que nos han dado un nuevo significado de libertad y el poder para salir a las calles. +No pas nada. No hubo violencia. Nada. +Fue solo salir de la casa y en voz alta decir: "Nos gustara ver el final del rgimen". +Esto es lo que sucedi en Tnez. +En cuestin de das el rgimen tunecino que invirti miles de millones de dlares en organismos de seguridad miles de millones para mantener -intentar mantener- sus prisiones, colaps, desapareci, gracias a las voces del pblico. +Personas que inspiradas salieron a las calles a hacer escuchar sus voces arriesgando sus vidas. +Los organismos de inteligencia quisieron arrestar a la gente. +Encontraron algo llamado Facebook. +Y algo llamado Twitter. +Disgregaban estos temas +diciendo: "Estos chicos estn descarriados". +Por eso le pedan a sus padres que salieran a las calles a buscarlos para llevarlos de nuevo a casa. +Eso era lo que decan. Esta era su propaganda: +"Lleven a estos chicos a casa porque estn descarriados". +Pero s, estos jvenes que han sido inspirados en valores universales que son lo suficientemente idealistas para imaginar un futuro magnfico y, al mismo tiempo, lo suficientemente realistas como para equilibrar esta imaginacin con el proceso que conduce a eso sin usar la violencia sin intentar crear caos. Estos jvenes no se fueron a casa. +Los padres salieron a las calles a apoyarlos. +As fue como se gest al revolucin en Tnez. +Al Jazeera estuvo prohibida en Tnez durante aos y el gobierno no permiti periodistas de Al Jazeera en el lugar. +Pero encontramos que esta gente en las calles, son todos periodistas nuestros, llenan nuestra redaccin con fotos, videos y noticias. +Y de repente esa redaccin de Doha se volvi el centro receptor de todo este material de gente comn, de gente que est conectada, que tiene ambiciones, y que se ha liberado del sentimiento de inferioridad. +Y entonces tomamos la decisin de cubrir la noticia. +Vamos a ser la voz de los que no tienen voz. +Vamos a difundir el mensaje. +S, algunos de estos jvenes estn conectados a Internet pero la conectividad en el mundo rabe es muy limitada, muy pequea, debido a los tantos problemas que padecemos. +Pero Al Jazeera tom la voz de estas personas y la amplific. +La pusimos en cada sala de estar del mundo rabe e internacionalmente, a nivel mundial, por nuestro canal en ingls. +Y entonces la gente empez a sentir que estaba pasando algo nuevo. +Y luego Zine al-Abidine Ben Ali decidi partir. +Y luego comenz Egipto y Hosni Mubarak decidi partir. +Y ahora, como ven, es Libia. +Y luego est Yemen. +Y hay muchos otros pases intentando ver y redescubrir ese sentimiento de "Cmo imaginamos un futuro magnfico, en paz y tolerancia?" +Quiero contarles algo y es que Internet y la conectividad han creado un cambio de mentalidad. +Pero este modo de pensar ha seguido siendo fiel al suelo y a la tierra que lo vio nacer. +Y si bien esta es una gran diferencia respecto de muchas iniciativas previas de crear un cambio, antes pensbamos -los gobiernos nos decan y a veces era verdad- que nos haban impuesto los cambios y que la gente rechazaba eso porque lo consideraba ajeno a su cultura, +siempre cremos que el cambio iba a surgir del interior, que el cambio deba ser una reconciliacin con la cultura, con la diversidad cultural, con la fe en nuestra tradicin y en nuestra historia pero al mismo tiempo deba estar abierto a valores universales, conectado al mundo, tolerante con el afuera. +Y eso es lo que est sucediendo ahora mismo en el mundo rabe. +En este preciso instante, en este momento actual, vemos converger todos estos significados y luego el inicio de esta era magnfica que va a surgir de la regin. +Cmo se lo tom la lite, la denominada lite poltica? +De cara a Facebook llevaron los camellos a la Plaza Tahrir. +De cara a Al Jazeera empezaron a crear el tribalismo. +Y cuando no les result empezaron a hablar de conspiraciones emanadas de Tel Aviv para dividir al mundo rabe. +Empezaron a decirle a Occidente: "Atencin con Al-Qaeda. +Al-Qaeda se est apoderando de nuestros territorios. +Son islamistas que intentan crear imaras. +Atencin con esta gente que viene a arruinar nuestra gran civilizacin. +Por suerte la gente ya no se deja engaar. +Porque la lite corrupta de esa regin ha perdido hasta el poder de engao. +No podan, y no pueden, imaginar cmo hacer frente a esta realidad. +Han perdido... +se han distanciado de sus pueblos, de las masas, y ahora vemos como se desploman una tras otra. +Al Jazeera no es instrumento de revolucin. +No creamos revoluciones. +No obstante cuando sucede algo de esa magnitud estamos en el centro de la cobertura. +Nos prohibieron en Egipto y nuestros corresponsales, algunos fueron arrestados. +Pero muchos de nuestros camargrafos y periodistas pasaron a la clandestinidad en Egipto, voluntariamente, para informar de lo sucedido en la Plaza Tahrir. +Durante 18 das nuestras cmaras transmitieron en vivo las voces de la gente de la Plaza Tahrir. +Recuerdo que una noche alguien me llam al celular, una persona comn que no conozco, desde la Plaza Tahrir. +Me dijo: "Le solicitamos que no apague las cmaras. +Si apaga las cmaras esta noche va a haber un genocidio. +Ud nos est protegiendo al mostrar lo que sucede en la Plaza Tahrir". +Sent la responsabilidad de llamar a nuestros corresponsales y a la sala de redaccin y de decirles "Hagan lo posible para no apagar las cmaras esta noche porque los muchachos de la plaza sienten confianza si alguien cubre la noticia; as se sienten protegidos". +As que tenemos la oportunidad de crear un nuevo futuro en esa parte del mundo. +Tenemos la oportunidad de ir y pensar el futuro como algo abierto al mundo. +No repitamos los errores de Irn de la revolucin... +Dejemos -sobre todo en Occidente- de pensar en esa parte del mundo en base al petrleo o interesados en la ilusin de estabilidad y seguridad. +La estabilidad y la seguridad de los regmenes autoritarios no pueden crear ms que terrorismo, violencia y destruccin. +Aceptemos la eleccin de la gente. +No pongamos a dedo a quien nos gustara que gobierne su futuro. +El futuro debera estar en manos de la propia gente incluso si son, como ahora, voces que puedan asustarnos. +Apoyemos a estas personas. +Dmosles una mano +y renunciemos a nuestro egosmo corto de miras para abrazar el cambio y festejar con la gente de esa regin un gran futuro, la paz y la esperanza. +El futuro ha llegado, el futuro es ahora. +Les agradezco mucho. +Muchas gracias. +Chris Anderson: slo tengo un par de preguntas. +Gracias por venir. +Cmo describiras la importancia histrica de lo sucedido? +Es la historia del ao, la historia de la dcada, o es algo ms? +Wadah Khanfar: En realidad es la historia ms importante que hayamos cubierto. +Hemos estado en muchas guerras. +Hemos cubierto muchas tragedias, muchos problemas, muchas zonas de conflicto, muchos conflictos en la regin, porque estbamos en medio de eso. +Pero en este caso es una gran historia; es hermosa. +No es algo que uno tiene que cubrir porque as lo hace siempre con los grandes sucesos. +Uno est presenciando un cambio histrico. +Est presenciando el nacimiento de una era. +De eso se trata esta historia. +CA: Muchas personas en Occidente todava son escpticos o piensan que puede tratarse de un perodo intermedio antes de un caos mucho ms alarmante. +Crees realmente que si ahora hay elecciones democrticas en Egipto pueda surgir un gobierno que propugne algunos de los valores tan inspiradores de los que has hablado? +Opino que estas personas son mucho ms sabias no slo que la lite poltica sino que la lite intelectual y que los lderes opositores incluyendo a los partidos polticos. +En este momento la juventud del mundo rabe es mucho ms sabia y capaz de crear el cambio que los viejos -incluyendo al viejo rgimen poltico cultural e ideolgico. +CA: No vamos a entrometernos polticamente ni interferir en ese sentido. +Qu debera hacer la gente en TED, aqu en Occidente, si quisiera conectarse para marcar una diferencia si creen en lo que est pasando aqu? +WK: creo que hemos descubierto algo muy importante en el mundo rabe: que a la gente le importa esta gran transformacin. +Mohamed Nanabhay que est entre nosotros, el jefe de aljazeera.net, me dijo que se increment 2500% el acceso a nuestro sitio desde varias partes del mundo. +El 50% del total viene de EE.UU. +Descubrimos que a la gente le importa, la gente quiere saber, estn recibiendo la seal por Internet. +Desafortunadamente en EE.UU. en este momento slo estamos en Washington D.C. para Al Jazeera en ingls. +Pero puedo decirles que es el momento de festejar conectndonos con esas personas en la calle, es momento de expresarles nuestro apoyo y ese sentimiento universal de apoyo al dbil y al oprimido para crear un futuro mucho mejor para todos. +CA: Bien Wadah, un grupo de miembros de la comunidad de TED, TEDxCairo, estn reunidos mientras hablamos. +Tuvieron algunos oradores all. +Creo que han escuchado tu charla. +Gracias por ser de inspiracin para ellos y para nosotros. +Muchas gracias. +Hace dos semanas estaba en mi estudio en Pars, son el telfono y o: "Oye, JR, ganaste el TED Prize 2011. +Tienes que pedir un deseo para salvar al mundo". +Estaba perdido. +No poda salvar al mundo; nadie puede. +El mundo est jodido. +Vamos, que hay dictadores gobernando en el mundo, la poblacin que crece de a millones, ya no quedan peces en el mar, el Polo Norte se derrite, y como dijo el ltimo ganador del TED Prize: todos estamos engordando. +Salvo quiz los franceses. +Como sea. +Por eso la llam y le dije: "Mira Amy dile a la gente de TED que no me voy a presentar. +No puedo hacer nada para salvar al mundo". +Y ella dijo: "JR, tu deseo no es salvar el mundo sino cambiarlo". +"Oh, est bien". +"Eso es genial". +Digo, la tecnologa, los polticos, los negocios cambian el mundo... no siempre para bien, pero lo hacen. +Y qu hay del arte? +Puede el arte cambiar el mundo? +Empec a los 15 aos. +Y en ese momento no pensaba en cambiar el mundo; +haca graffiti con mi nombre en todos lados y la ciudad como lienzo. +Andaba en los tneles de Pars y en los tejados con mis amigos. +Cada viaje era una excursin, era una aventura. +Era como dejar nuestra marca en la sociedad, como decir: "Estuve aqu" en el techo del edificio. +Y cuando encontr una cmara barata en el metro empec a documentar esas aventuras con mis amigos y se las devolva en forma de fotocopias fotos muy pequeas de este tamao. +As fue que, a los 17 aos, empec a pegarlas. +Hice mi primera expo de rue, que significa galera en la calle. +Y la enmarqu con color para que no se confunda con publicidad. +La ciudad es la mejor galera que podamos imaginar. +Nunca tena que hacer un catlogo y presentarlo a una galera para que ellos decidan si mi obra era suficientemente buena para exponer. +Eso lo manejaba yo directamente con el pblico en las calles. +Eso es Paris. +Yo cambiaba -dependiendo de los lugares a los que iba- el ttulo de la exposicin. +Esa es en los Campos Elseos. +Estaba muy orgulloso de esa +porque tena 18 aos y estaba all en lo alto de los Campos Elseos. +Cuando desapareci la foto el marco an segua all. +Noviembre de 2005: las calles arden. +Una gran ola de disturbios irrumpe en los primeros proyectos de Pars. +Todos estaban pegados a la TV mirando los disturbios, eran imgenes aterradoras tomadas desde la frontera del barrio. +Digo, estos nios descontrolados que arrojaban ccteles molotov, que atacaban a policas y bomberos, que saqueaban todo lo que podan de las tiendas. +Eran criminales, ladrones peligrosos productos de su propio entorno. +Y entonces lo vi -sera posible?- mi foto en una pared revelada por un auto en llamas -una pegada de carteles que haba hecho el ao anterior, una pegada ilegal, an estaba all. +Digo, estas eran las caras de mis amigos. +Conozco a estos muchachos. +Ninguno es un ngel pero tampoco son monstruos. +Fue un poco raro ver esas imgenes y esos ojos que me devolvan la mirada por la televisin. +As que regres con una lente de 28 mm. +Era la nica que tena en ese momento. +Pero con esa lente uno tiene que estar a unos 25 centmetros de la persona. +Por eso slo puede hacerse con su confianza. +As que hice 4 retratos de personas de Le Bosquet. +Ponan cara de miedo para interpretar su propia caricatura. +Y luego pegu carteles enormes por todas partes en las zonas burguesas de Pars con el nombre, edad, incluso el nmero de edificio de estos muchachos. +Un ao despus la exposicin se exhibe frente de la alcalda de Pars. +Y pasaron de las imgenes robadas y distorsionadas por los medios de comunicacin a hacerse cargo orgullosamente de su propia imagen. +Ah es donde me di cuenta del poder del papel y el pegamento. +Puede entonces el arte cambiar el mundo? +Un ao ms tarde estaba escuchando todo el ruido sobre el conflicto de Medio Oriente. +En ese momento, cranme, lo nico de lo que se hablaba era del conflicto israel-palestino. +Por eso con mi amigo Marco decidimos ir all a ver quines eran los palestinos reales y los israeles reales. +Son tan diferentes? +Cuando llegamos all salimos a la calle empezamos a hablar con la gente en todos lados y nos dimos cuenta que las cosas eran un tanto diferentes de la retrica que escuchbamos en los medios. +As que decidimos hacer retratos de palestinos e israeles haciendo el mismo trabajo: taxistas, abogados, cocineros. +Les pedimos que hicieran caras en tren de compromiso. +No una sonrisa... eso no dice mucho sobre quin es uno o qu siente. +Todos aceptaron ser pegados lado a lado. +Decid hacer las pegadas en 8 ciudades israeles y palestinas y a ambos lados del muro. +Lanzamos la mayor exposicin de arte ilegal de todos los tiempos. +La llamamos Cara a Cara. +Los expertos dijeron: "Imposible. +La gente no lo va a aceptar. +El ejrcito les va a disparar y Hamas los va a secuestrar". +Dijimos: "Bueno, tratemos de ir lo ms lejos que podamos". +Me encanta cuando me preguntan: "Cun grande va a ser mi foto?" +"Va a ser tan grande como tu casa". +Cuando hicimos la pared, hicimos la parte palestina. +Llegamos slo con nuestras escaleras y nos dimos cuenta que no eran lo suficientemente altas. +Y el muchacho palestino dijo: "Tranquilos. No, esperen. Voy a encontrar una solucin". +Fue a la Iglesia de la Natividad y trajo una antigua escalera tan vieja que pudo haber visto el nacimiento de Jess. +Hicimos Cara a Cara con slo 6 amigos, 2 escaleras, 2 brochas, un auto alquilado, una cmara y 1.800 m2 de papel. +Recibimos todo tipo de ayuda de todos los mbitos de la vida. +Por ejemplo eso es Palestina. +Estamos en Ramallah en este momento. +Estamos pegando retratos... ambos retratos en las calles de un mercado atestado. +La gente vena a vernos y preguntaba: "Qu estn haciendo aqu?" +"Oh, estamos haciendo un proyecto artstico y estamos poniendo a un israel y a un palestino haciendo el mismo trabajo. +Y esos en particular son en realidad 2 taxistas". +Y luego siempre vena el silencio. +"O sea que ests pegando un rostro israel que est haciendo una mueca?" +"Bien, s, s, eso es parte del proyecto". +Y yo siempre sala de ese momento preguntndoles: "Puedes decirme quin es quin?" +Y la mayora no saba decirlo. +Hicimos pegadas en las torres militares israeles y no pas nada. +Cuando uno pega una imagen es slo papel y pegamento. +La gente puede romperlo, escribirlo, u orinar en l -algunos estn un poco alto para eso, de acuerdo- pero las personas en la calle son los curadores. +La lluvia y el viento los quitar de todos modos. +No estn pensados para perdurar. +Pero exactamente 4 aos despus las fotos, la mayora de ellas todava estn all. +Cara a Cara demostr que lo que pensbamos imposible era posible. Y saben qu? Tambin era fcil. +No corrimos el lmite, slo mostramos que somos ms de lo que cualquiera pensaba. +En Medio Oriente experiment mi trabajo en lugares sin [muchos] museos. +Lo que suceda en las calles era interesante. +As que decid ir ms lejos en esta direccin e ir a lugares donde no haya museos. +Cuando uno va a estas sociedades en desarrollo las mujeres son los pilares de su comunidad pero los hombres son quienes toman las calles. +Eso nos inspir para crear un proyecto en el que los hombres rindan homenaje a las mujeres publicando sus fotos. +Llam a ese proyecto Mujeres Heronas. +Al escuchar las historias dondequiera que iba en los continentes no siempre poda comprender las circunstancias complicadas de los conflictos +que observaba. +A veces no haba palabras, ni frases, slo lgrimas. +Slo tom sus fotos y las pegu. +Mujeres Heronas me llev por el mundo. +A muchos de los lugares que fui decid hacerlo porque supe de ellos por los medios. +Por ejemplo, en junio de 2008, estaba mirando TV en Pars y me enter de esa atrocidad que estaba pasando en Ro de Janeiro. En la primera favela de Brasil, llamada Providencia, +tres nios -tres estudiantes- fueron detenidos por el ejrcito porque no llevaban sus papeles. +Y el ejrcito los llev, en vez de llevarlos a la estacin de polica, los llev a una favela enemiga donde fueron despedazados. +Me impact. +Todo Brasil qued impactado. +Escuch que era una de las favelas ms violentas porque la controla el mayor cartel de drogas. +Decid ir all. +Cuando llegu... no tena ningn contacto con ninguna ONG. +Nadie me esperaba -ni agente de turismo, ni ONG, ni nada- no haba testigos. +Salimos a caminar y conocimos a una mujer y le mostr mi libro. +Y ella me dijo: "Sabes qu? +Tenemos hambre de cultura. +Necesitamos la cultura". +As que sal y empec con los nios. +Tom algunas fotos de los nios y al da siguiente volv con los carteles y los pegamos. +Al otro da regres y ya tenan rasguos. +Pero eso est bien! +Yo quera que sientan que ese arte les perteneca. +Entonces al otro da hice una reunin en la plaza principal y vinieron algunas mujeres. +Todas estaban relacionadas con los tres nios asesinados. +Estaba la madre, la abuela y la mejor amiga. Todas queran gritar la historia. +Despus de ese da todos en la favela me dieron luz verde. +Tom ms fotos y empezamos el proyecto. +Los seores de la droga estaban preocupados de que filmramos en el lugar as que les dije: "Saben qu? +No me interesa filmar la violencia ni las armas. +Ya hay demasiado en los medios. +Lo que quiero mostrar es la vida increble. +Algo que he estado viendo a mi alrededor en los ltimos das". +Esa es una pegada muy simblica porque es la primera que hicimos que no se poda ver desde la ciudad. +All arrestaron a los tres nios y esa es la abuela de uno de ellos. +En esas escaleras siempre estn los traficantes y hay un gran intercambio de fuego. +Todos en el lugar comprendieron el proyecto. +Y luego hicimos pegadas por todos lados... en todo el morro. +Lo interesante es que los medios no podan entrar. +Digo, deberan verlo. +Tenan que filmarnos desde largas distancias en helicptero con lentes muy largas y nos veamos en la TV haciendo las pegadas. +Y publicaban nmeros: "Por favor llamen a este nmero si saben qu est sucediendo en Providencia". +Simplemente hicimos un proyecto y nos fuimos pero los medios no lo saban. +Cmo enterarse del proyecto? +Tuvieron que ir a buscar a las mujeres para que les expliquen. +De ese modo uno crea un puente entre los medios y las mujeres annimas. +Seguimos viajando. +Fuimos a frica, Sudn, Sierra Leona, Liberia, Kenia. +En lugares asolados por la guerra como Monrovia las personas vienen directamente a uno. +Quieren saber qu es lo que uno est haciendo. +Me preguntaban: "Cul es el objetivo de tu proyecto? +Son de una ONG? Son de los medios?" +Arte. Slo hacemos arte. +Alguna gente pregunta: "Por qu en blanco y negro? +No hay colores en Francia?" +O dicen: "Es que esta gente est muerta?" +Alguno que entenda el proyecto se lo explicaba a los otros. +Y para un hombre que no entenda, escuch a alguien decir: "Sabes, he estado aqu un par de horas tratando de entender, discutiendo con tus compaeros. +Durante ese tiempo no hemos pensado en qu vamos a comer maana. +Eso es el arte". +Creo que es la curiosidad de las personas la que los motiva a entrar en los proyectos. +Y luego se convierte en mucho ms. +Se vuelve deseo, necesidad, cantidad. +En este puente de Monrovia un ex-soldado rebelde nos ayud a pegar el retrato de una mujer que podra haber sido violada durante la guerra. +Las mujeres siempre son las ms perjudicadas durante el conflicto. +Esto es Kibera, Kenia, uno de barrios pobres ms grandes de frica. +Es posible que hayan visto imgenes de la violencia post-electoral acontecida en 2008. +Esta vez cubrimos los techos de las casas pero no usamos papel porque el papel no impide que la lluvia se filtre en las casas... s el vinilo. +Entonces el arte se vuelve til +y la gente se lo queda. +Lo que me encanta, por ejemplo, es que cuando uno ve all el ojo ms grande hay muchas casas dentro. +Y me fui all hace unos meses... las fotos an estn all... pero faltaba una parte del ojo. +As que le pregunt a la gente qu pas. +"Oh, ese tipo se mud". +Cuando los techos estaban cubiertos, una mujer dijo en broma: "Ahora Dios me puede ver". +Cuando uno mira ahora a Kibera, Kibera devuelve la mirada. +Bueno, India. +Antes de empezar, para que lo sepan, cada vez que vamos a un lugar no contamos con un agente de turismo as que nos instalamos como comandos... somos un grupo de amigos que llegan al lugar a tratar de hacer pegatinas en las paredes. +Pero hay lugares donde uno no puede pegar en una pared. +En la India era imposible pegar. +O que cultural y legalmente nos arrestaran ante el primer intento. +Por eso decidimos pegar blanco, blanco en las paredes. +Imaginen a unos tipos blancos pegando papeles blancos. +La gente vena y nos preguntaba: "Oigan, qu estn haciendo?" +"Oh, ya saben, haciendo arte". "Arte?" +Claro, estaban confundidos. +Pero ya saben que India tiene mucho polvo en las calles y cuanto ms polvo hay disperso por el aire... en el papel en blanco casi no puede verse pero hay una parte pegajosa como en el revs de una calcomana. +Cuanto ms polvo hay ms se va a revelar la foto. +As que simplemente caminamos por la calle los das siguientes y las fotos se revelaron por s mismas. +Gracias. +As que no nos atraparon esta vez. +Para cada proyecto... este es un corto de Mujeres Heronas. +Bien. +Para cada proyecto hacemos un corto. +La mayora de lo que ven es un trailer de "Mujeres Heronas" -sus imgenes, fotografa, tomadas una tras otra. +Y la foto sigui viajando incluso sin nosotros. +Con suerte pueden encontrar la pelcula y entender el alcance del proyecto y lo que sinti la gente al ver esas fotos. +Porque eso es gran parte del proceso. Hay capas detrs de cada foto. +Hay una historia detrs de cada imagen. +Mujeres Heronas cre una dinmica nueva en cada comunidad y las mujeres continuaron con la dinmica cuando nos fuimos. +Por ejemplo: hicimos libros -no para la venta- que toda la comunidad reciba. +Pero para conseguirlo se lo tena que firmar una de las mujeres. +Hicimos eso en la mayora de los lugares. +Volvemos frecuentemente. +En Providencia, por ejemplo, en la favela, tenemos un centro controlado. +En Kibera cada ao cubrimos ms techos. +Porque, claro, cuando nos vamos la gente que quedaba en el borde del proyecto deca: "Oigan, y mi techo?" +As que decidimos volver al ao siguiente y continuar con el proyecto. +Un punto muy importante para m es que no uso marca ni patrocinadores empresariales. +Por eso no tengo responsabilidad con nadie ms que conmigo mismo y con los sujetos. +Y eso para m es una de las cosas ms importantes en la obra. +Creo que hoy tan importante como el resultado es el modo de hacer las cosas. +Y eso ha sido siempre una parte importante de la obra. +Lo interesante es esa delgada lnea que tengo entre imgenes y publicidad. +Acabamos de hacer algunas pegadas en Los ngeles en otro proyecto en las ltimas semanas. +Y me invitaron incluso a cubrir el museo MOCA. +Pero ayer la ciudad los llam y les dijo: "Miren, vamos a tener que destruirlo +porque puede ser usado para publicidad y porque por ley tiene que ser destruido". +Pero dganme publicidad para qu? +Las personas que fotografi estaban orgullosas de participar en el proyecto y de tener su foto en la comunidad. +Pero me pidieron que les prometa algo. +Me pidieron: "Por favor, haz que nuestra historia viaje contigo". +Y as hice. Eso es en Pars. +Eso es Ro. +En cada lugar construimos exhibiciones con una historia, y la historia viajaba. +Ahora entienden el alcance del proyecto. +Eso es Londres, +Nueva York. +Y hoy estn con Uds en Long Beach. +Muy bien, hace poco empec un proyecto de arte pblico en el que ya no uso mi obra. +Uso la obra de Man Ray, Helen Levitt, Giacomelli, la obra de otra gente. +Hoy no importa si es tu foto o no. +Lo que importa es lo que uno hace con las imgenes; lo que generan cuando son pegadas. +As, por ejemplo, pegu la foto del alminar en Suiza unas semanas despus que votaron la ley que prohbe los alminares en el pas. +Esta imagen de tres hombres con mscaras de gas fue tomada originalmente en Chernbil y la pegu en el sur de Italia donde la mafia a veces entierra la basura bajo tierra. +De alguna manera, el arte puede cambiar el mundo. +No se supone que el arte cambie el mundo, que cambie cosas prcticas, pero s que cambie las percepciones. +El arte puede cambiar la forma en que vemos el mundo. +El arte puede crear una analoga. +El hecho de que el arte no puede cambiar las cosas lo hace un lugar neutral para intercambios y discusiones y entonces permite cambiar el mundo. +Cuando hago mi trabajo recibo dos tipos de reacciones. +La gente dice: "Oh, por qu no van a Irak o Afganistn? +Sera realmente til". +O, "Cmo podemos ayudar?" +Supongo que pertenecen a la segunda categora y eso es bueno porque para ese proyecto les voy a pedir que tomen las fotos y las peguen. +As que ahora mi deseo es: (simula redoble de tambor) Deseo que defiendan algo que les preocupe participando en un proyecto de arte mundial y juntos vamos a poner el mundo al revs. +Y esto empieza ahora mismo. +S, a los presentes en la sala. +A todos los que miran. +Quera que ese deseo comience ahora. +As, un proyecto que les apasione, una persona de la que quieran contar la historia, o incluso sus propias fotos; cuntenme qu defienden. +Tomen las fotos, los retratos, sbanlas -les dar todos los detalles- y les enviar el cartel de regreso. Smense en grupos y revelen cosas al mundo. +Los datos completos estn en la pgina web: insideoutproject.net que se est lanzando hoy. +Lo que vemos cambia quienes somos. +Si actuamos juntos el todo es mucho ms que la suma de las partes. +Por eso espero que, juntos, creemos algo que el mundo recuerde. +y esto comienza ahora mismo y depende de Uds. +Gracias. +Gracias. +Esta es la revolucin 2.0. +No hubo un hroe, no lo hubo. +Porque todos fueron hroes. +Cada uno hizo algo. +Todos usamos Wikipedia. +Si piensan en el concepto de Wikipedia donde todos colaboran en el contenido y al final se construye la enciclopedia ms grande del mundo. +A partir de una idea que pareca loca, se obtiene la enciclopedia ms grande del mundo. +Y en la revolucin egipcia, la revolucin 2.0, todos hemos contribuido en algo -en mayor o menor medida, todos contribuimos- para darnos una de las historias ms inspiradoras de la historia de la Humanidad en materia de revoluciones. +Realmente fue muy inspirador ver el cambio en todos esos egipcios. +Si miran el panorama, Egipto durante 30 aos ha ido cuesta abajo, ha ido cuesta abajo. +Todo iba mal. +Todo estaba saliendo mal. +Slo nos destacbamos en lo referente a la pobreza, a la corrupcin, a la falta de libertad de expresin y de activismo poltico. +Esos fueron los logros de nuestro gran rgimen. +Pero no pasaba nada. +Y no porque la gente estuviera feliz o no sintiera frustracin. +De hecho, la gente estaba muy frustrada. +Pero la razn por la que todos se callaban es lo que llamo la barrera psicolgica del miedo. +Todos tenan miedo. +No todos. En realidad haba un puado de egipcios valientes a quienes tengo que agradecer su valenta que participaban en protestas de un par de cientos y eran golpeados y detenidos. +Pero, de hecho, la mayora tena miedo. +En verdad nadie quera meterse en problemas. +Un dictador no puede vivir sin la fuerza. +Quieren que la gente viva con miedo. +Y esa barrera psicolgica del miedo funcion durante muchos aos y aqu entra en juego Internet la tecnologa, el BlackBerry y el SMS +que nos ayudan a conectarnos. +Plataformas como YouTube, Twitter y Facebook nos ayudaron mucho, porque nos daban bsicamente la impresin de que "no estamos solos; +hay mucha gente frustrada". +Hay muchas personas frustradas. +Hay muchas personas que comparten el mismo sueo. +A mucha gente a la que le importa su libertad. +Probablemente tienen la mejor vida del mundo. +Viven felices. Viven en sus casas residenciales. +Son felices; no tienen problemas. +Pero an as sienten dolor por los egipcios. +Muchos de nosotros, no estamos felices cuando vemos el video de un egipcio que come de la basura mientras otros roban miles de millones de libras egipcias de la riqueza del pas. +Internet ha jugado un papel importante facilitando que esta gente exprese sus ideas, para colaborar y empezar a pensar juntos. +Fue una campaa educativa. +Khaled Saeed fue asesinado en junio de 2010. +Todava recuerdo la foto. +An recuerdo cada simple detalle de esa foto. +La foto era horrible. +Fue torturado brutalmente hasta la muerte. +Y, cul fue la respuesta del rgimen? +Fue una sobredosis de hachs. Esa fue su respuesta: "Es un criminal. +Alguien que escap de estos malos hbitos". +Pero la gente no se identific con esto. +La gente no crey esto. +Gracias a Internet prevaleci la verdad y todos supieron la verdad. +Y todos empezaron a pensar: "este muchacho podra ser mi hermano". +Era un chico de clase media. +Todos recordamos su foto. +Se cre una pgina. +Un administrador annimo invitaba a la gente a unirse a la pgina y no haba plan alguno. +"Qu vamos a hacer?" "No lo s". +En pocos das decenas de miles de personas, egipcios enojados, quienes le estaban diciendo al Ministerio del Interior "Suficiente. +Detengan a los asesinos del muchacho +y llvenlos ante la justicia". +Pero, claro, no escucharon. +Fue una historia asombrosa -- cmo todos empezaron a sentirse dueos. +Todos eran dueos en esta pgina. +Las personas empezaron a aportar ideas. +De hecho, una de las ideas ms ridculas fue organizar una marcha del silencio. +Hagamos que la gente salga a la calle de cara al mar, de espaldas a la calle, vestida de negro, de pie, en silencio durante una hora, sin hacer nada y luego abandonar el lugar de vuelta a casa. +Algunas personas decan: "Guau, una marcha del silencio. +Y la prxima vez vienen las vibraciones". +Las personas se burlaban de la idea. +Pero cuando las personas salieron a la calle -la primera vez haba miles de personas en Alejandra- fue como... fue increble. Algo genial. Porque conect a las personas virtuales y las puso en el plano real compartiendo el mismo sueo, la misma frustracin, la misma rabia, el mismo deseo de libertad. +Y estaban todos en esto. +Pero aprendi algo el rgimen? En verdad no. +Los atacaron. +Abusaron de ellos a pesar de lo pacficos que eran estos muchachos; ni siquiera protestaban. +Los acontecimientos se sucedieron, hasta la revolucin tunecina. +Toda esta pgina era, de nuevo, administrada por la gente. +En s, el trabajo del administrador anmino consista en reunir ideas, ayudar a la gente a votarlas y en contarles lo que estaban haciendo. +Las personas hacan tomas y fotos; informaban violaciones a los Derechos Humanos en Egipto; sugeran ideas; en realidad votaban ideas y luego las ejecutaban; las personas hacan videos. +Todo se haca de la gente para la gente y ese es el poder de Internet. +No haba lder. +El lder era cada miembro de la pgina. +El experimento tunecino, como deca Amir, nos inspir a todos, nos mostr que hay un camino. +S podemos. Nosotros podemos. +Tenemos los mismos problemas y podemos salir a las calles. +Y cuando vi la calle el da 25, regres y dije: "El Egipto previo al 25 nunca va a ser igual al Egipto posterior al 25. +La revolucin est en curso. +Este no es el fin, es el comienzo del fin". +Yo fui detenido la noche del 27. +Gracias a Dios anunci el lugar y todo. +Pero me detuvieron. +Y no voy a hablar de mi experiencia porque esto no se trata de m. +Estuve 12 das detenido, con los ojos vendados, esposado. +Y realmente no escuchaba nada. No saba nada. +No me permitan hablar con nadie. +Y sal. +Al da siguiente fui a Tahrir. +En serio, con todo el cambio que haba notado en la plaza pens que eran 12 aos. +Nunca se me cruz por la cabeza ver a estos egipcios, estos egipcios sorprendentes. +El miedo ya no era miedo. +Era fortaleza, poder. +La gente adquiri tanto poder. +Era sorprendente ver como todos se sentan fuertes y ahora reclamaban por sus derechos. +Todo lo contrario. +El extremismo se volvi tolerancia. +Quin lo hubiera imaginado antes del 25, si les deca que cientos de miles de cristianos iban a orar y decenas de miles de musulmanes iban a protegerlos y que luego cientos de miles de musulmanes iban a orar y decenas de miles de cristianos iban a protegerlos -- Es increble. +Todos los estereotipos que el rgimen trataba de instalar con su propaganda o con los medios masivos estaban equivocados. +Toda esta revolucin nos mostr lo desagradable que era este rgimen y cun grande y sorprendente son en hombre y la mujer egipcios, lo simple y sorprendente que son cuando tienen un sueo. +Cuando vi eso regres y escrib en Facebook. +Y eso era una creencia personal, independientemente de lo sucedido, independientemente de los detalles. +Y dije: "Vamos a ganar. +Vamos a ganar porque no entendemos la poltica. +Vamos a ganar porque no entramos en sus juegos sucios. +Vamos a ganar porque no tenemos una agenda poltica. +Vamos a ganar porque las lgrimas de nuestros ojos vienen en realidad del corazn. +Vamos a ganar porque tenemos sueos. +Vamos a ganar porque estamos dispuestos a luchar por nuestros sueos". +Y eso fue lo que pas. Ganamos. +Y no fue por otra cosa que por creer en nuestro sueo. +El resultado ganador no est en los detalles de lo que va a suceder en la escena poltica. +Est en el triunfo de la dignidad de cada uno de los egipcios. +Un taxista me dijo: "Oye, hoy respiro libertad. +Siento que tengo la dignidad que haba perdido hace muchos aos". +Para m eso es ganar independientemente de los detalles. +Mis palabras finales son algo que creo que los egipcios han demostrado que es verdad: el poder de la gente es mucho ms fuerte que la gente del poder. +Muchas gracias. +Bien, esto se trata de presupuesto estatal. +Probablemente sea el tema ms aburrido de toda la maana. +Pero quiero decirles que creo que es un tema importante del que tenemos que ocuparnos. +Los presupuestos estatales son grandes sumas de dinero -les voy a mostrar los nmeros- sujetas a muy poco control. +Se entiende poco. +Gran parte de los involucrados tienen intereses especiales o de corto plazo que les impiden pensar en las consecuencias de las tendencias. +Y estos presupuestos son la clave de nuestro futuro; son la clave de nuestros nios. +Gran parte de la financiacin educativa desde la infantil hasta los 12 aos o la de grandes universidades o de la comunidad universitaria, la mayora del dinero destinado a estas cosas sale de estos presupuestos estatales. +Pero tenemos un problema. +Este es el cuadro general. +La economa de EE.UU. es grande: 14.700 billones de dlares. +Ahora, de esa torta el gobierno gasta 36%. +Esta es la combinacin de lo federal, que es lo ms grande, lo estatal y lo local. +Y es realmente de esta manera combinada que se obtiene una idea general de lo que est pasando, porque hay muchas cosas complejas como el dinero de salud pblica e investigacin que fluye entre esos lmites. +Pero estamos gastando el 36%. +Bien cunto se recauda? +Simple cuestin de negocios. +La respuesta es 26%. +Eso nos da un 10% de dficit. Un nmero increble. +Y algo de eso, de hecho, se debe a que hemos sufrido una recesin econmica. +Baja la recaudacin, suben algunos programas de gastos, pero la mayor parte no se debe a eso. +La mayor parte se debe a las formas en que se construyen los pasivos y las tendencias y eso crea un desafo enorme. +De hecho, esta es la imagen del pronstico. +Hay varias cosas aqu, podra decir que se podra recaudar ms ingresos, o que la innovacin mdica har que el gasto sea an mayor. +Se trata de un cuadro cada vez ms difcil, incluso suponiendo que la economa vaya muy bien probablemente mejor que lo que ir. +Esto es lo que se ve a este nivel global. +Ahora, cmo llegamos aqu? +Cmo se puede tener un problema como ste? +Despus de todo, al menos en papel, existe la idea de que estos presupuestos estatales estn equilibrados. +Slo un estado dice que no tiene que equilibrar el presupuesto. +Pero lo que en realidad esto significa es que hay un pretexto. +No hay un equilibrio real y verdadero. Y en cierto sentido, los juegos usados para ocultarlo en realidad oscurecen tanto el tema que la gente no ve las cosas que en realidad son retos bastante directos. +Cuando fue elegido Jerry Brown ste fue el desafo que enfrent. +Es decir, a travs de diversos trucos, el denominado presupuesto equilibrado lo haba llevado a perder 25 mil millones de los 76 mil millones del gasto propuesto. +Ahora at algunos cabos: va a recortar cerca de la mitad, la otra mitad quiz en un conjunto muy complejo de medidas, se aprobarn impuestos. +Pero an as a medida que pasan los aos varios costos de pensiones, costos de salud, aumentan, pero los ingresos no suben lo suficiente. +Entonces se produce un ajuste. +Qu cosas nos permitieron esconder esto? +Bueno, algunas triquiuelas. +Y stas fueron advertidas en parte. +El diario deca: "No est realmente equilibrado". +"Tiene agujeros". +"Perpeta el gasto deficitario". +"Est lleno de trucos". +Y realmente si lo analizamos, los muchachos de Enron jams hubieran hecho esto. +Es muy evidente, muy extremo. +Hay alguien que preste atencin a lo que hacen estos muchachos? +Piden dinero. +Se supone que no pueden, pero encuentran la manera. +Te hacen pagar ms en retenciones slo para contribuir al flujo de caja. +Liquidan los activos. +Difieren los pagos. +Liquidan los ingresos del tabaco. +Y California no es un caso nico. +De hecho, hay unos cinco estados que estn peor y slo cuatro estados que no enfrentan este gran desafo. +As que es sistmico en todo el pas. +En realidad viene del hecho de que determinadas obligaciones de largo plazo - atencin de salud encarecida por la innovacin, jubilacin anticipada y pensiones, donde empeora para uno la estructura de edad y la simple generosidad - de que estas cosas mal contabilizadas permiten revelar en el tiempo que uno tiene un problema. +Estos son los beneficios del cuidado de salud para jubilados: +3 millones dejados de lado, 62 mil millones de dlares de pasivo mucho peor que el de las automotrices. +Y todos miran eso y saben que va camino a un gran problema. +El pronstico slo para la parte mdica es pasar del 26% del presupuesto al 42%. +Bueno, qu hay que sacrificar? +Para corregir eso habra que recortar el gasto educativo a la mitad. +Es realmente esto de los jvenes vs los viejos, en cierto punto. +Si no cambiamos ese cuadro de ingresos si no resolvemos lo que estamos haciendo en cuidado de salud vamos a desinvertir en los jvenes. +El gran sistema universitario de la Universidad de California las grandes cosas que han pasado, no van a suceder. +Hasta el momento ha significado despidos y aumento del tamao de las clases. +Dentro de la comunidad educativa existe la discusin: "Deberan ser slo los profesores jvenes despedidos, o los profesores menos buenos?" +Y hay una discusin: si uno va a aumentar el tamao de las clases, dnde hacerlo? Qu efecto produce eso? +Por desgracia, a medida que la gente se adentra en el tema se confunde y piensa: "Bueno, quiz Ud cree que eso est bien". +De hecho, no, el gasto en educacin no debe recortarse. +Hay maneras, si es temporal, de minimizar el impacto pero es un problema. +Y es un problema para la direccin que debemos tomar. +La tecnologa debe cumplir un papel. +Necesitamos dinero para experimentar con eso, para llevar esas herramientas all. +Est la idea de pagarle a los profesores por su efectividad medirlos, darles una devolucin, filmarlos en el aula. +Eso es algo que creo es muy, pero muy importante. +Hay que asignar dlares para ese sistema y para ese pago de incentivos. +En una situacin de crecimiento uno pone el dinero nuevo en esto +o incluso si uno est estancado, puede reasignar dinero. +Pero con el tipo de recortes de los que hablamos va a ser mucho ms difcil conseguir estos incentivos a la excelencia o pasar a usar la tecnologa de esta manera novedosa. +Entonces, qu est pasando? +Quin es el consejero que se est equivocando? +Bueno, en realidad no hay consejero. +Son un poco los votantes, nosotros apareciendo. +Slo miren este gasto. +California va a gastar ms de 100 mil millones Microsoft, 38, Google, cerca de 19. +El coeficiente intelectual en buen anlisis numrico -tanto de Google como de Microsoft y fuera, con analistas y personas de varias opiniones deberan haber gastado en eso? +No, perdieron su dinero en esto. Qu pasa con esto? - realmente es fenomenal. +Todo el mundo tiene una opinin. +Hay una gran respuesta. +Y los nmeros se usan para tomar decisiones. +Si se excede el gasto en educacin y el gasto en salud -sobre todo en las tendencias de largo plazo- no se consigue ese tipo de participacin en un nmero que es ms importante en trminos de patrimonio, en trminos de aprendizaje. +Entonces, qu debemos hacer? +Necesitamos mejores herramientas. +Podemos obtener algunas cosas de Internet. +Voy a usar mi sitio web para proponer algunas cosas que darn la idea bsica. +Se necesita mucho ms. +Hay algunos libros buenos, uno sobre el gasto escolar y de dnde viene el dinero cmo ha cambiado eso con el tiempo y el desafo. +Necesitamos una mejor contabilidad. +Tenemos que asumir el hecho de que los empleados actuales, las obligaciones futuras que crean, deberan salir del presupuesto actual. +Tenemos que entender por qu han hecho la contabilidad previsional de ese modo. +Debera ser ms como la contabilidad privada. +Es el patrn oro. +Y, por ltimo, tenemos que recompensar a los polticos. +Cuando dicen que existen estos problemas de largo plazo no podemos decir: "Oh, eres portador de malas noticias? +Te elimino". +De hecho, hay algunos como Erskine Bowles, Alan Simpson y otros que han hecho propuestas para el problema del gasto total federal en salud a nivel estatal. +Pero su trabajo fue hecho a un lado. +De hecho, a la semana siguiente se aplicaron recortes de impuestos que empeoraron an ms la situacin de lo que l supona. +Por eso necesitamos esas piezas. +Creo que el problema tiene solucin. +Este es un gran pas con mucha gente. +Pero tenemos que involucrar a la gente porque se trata de la educacin. +Miren lo que pas con las matrculas en la Universidad de California y hagan la proyeccin por otros 3, 4, 5 aos. Es inasequible. +Y ese es el tipo de cosas -la inversin en los jvenes- que nos hace grandes y nos permite contribuir. +Nos permite hacer arte, biotecnologa, software, y todas esas cosas mgicas. +Por eso la conclusin es: tenemos que ocuparnos de los presupuestos estatales porque son crticos para nuestros nios y para el futuro. +Gracias. +Hoy en da hay una crisis de salud importante en cuanto a la escasez de rganos. +El hecho es que estamos viviendo ms tiempo. +La medicina ha hecho un gran trabajo y ahora vivimos ms. Pero el problema es que al envejecer los rganos tienden a fallar. Por eso actualmente no hay suficientes rganos. +De hecho, en la ltima dcada, se ha duplicado la cantidad de pacientes que necesitan rganos y en el mismo tiempo la cantidad real de trasplantes slo aument ligeramente. +Y ahora hay una crisis de la salud pblica. +Ah es donde entra en juego este campo que llamamos medicina regenerativa. +En realidad abarca muchas reas diferentes. +Se pueden usar matrices biomateriales que son como el material de una blusa o camisa pero diseados especficamente para implantes en pacientes; funcionan bien y ayudan a la regeneracin. +O se puede usar clulas solas ya sean las de uno mismo o distintas poblaciones de clulas madre. +O se puede usar ambas; +en realidad se puede usar biomateriales junto con clulas. +Ese es el estado de situacin hoy. +Pero no es un campo nuevo. +Curiosamente, este es un libro publicado en 1938. +Se titula "La cultura de los rganos". +El primer autor, Alexis Carrel, es ganador del Premio Nobel. +En realidad ide algunas de las mismas tecnologas usadas hoy para suturar vasos sanguneos. Y algunos de los grficos de vasos sanguinos actuales fueron diseados por Alexis. +Pero quiero que se fijen en el co-autor: Charles Lindbergh. +Es el mismo Charles Lindbergh que pas el resto de su vida trabajando con Alexis en el Instituto Rockefeller de Nueva York en la cultura de rganos. +Y si el campo ha existido durante tanto tiempo: por qu hubo tan pocos avances clnicos? +Tiene que ver con muchos desafos diferentes. +Pero si tuviera que enumerar tres el primero sera el diseo de materiales que pueden entrar al cuerpo con buen desempeo en el tiempo. +Ahora hay muchos avances que pueden lograrse con bastante facilidad. +El segundo desafo seran las clulas. +No podamos hacer crecer la cantidad suficiente de clulas fuera del cuerpo. +En los ltimos 20 aos bsicamente hemos abordado el tema. +Muchos cientficos ahora pueden cultivar distintos tipos de clulas +y adems tenemos clulas madre. +Pero incluso hoy, 2011, todava hay ciertas clulas que no podemos cultivar a partir de pacientes: +clulas hepticas, nerviosas, pancreticas; todava hoy no podemos cultivarlas. +Y el tercer desafo sera la vascularizacin, el suministro real de sangre que le permita a rganos o tejidos sobrevivir una vez regenerados. +Ahora podemos usar biomateriales. +Esto en realidad es un biomaterial. +Podemos tejerlo, tricotarlo, o darle la forma que ven aqu. +Esto es como una mquina de copos de azcar. +Se ve la pulverizacin +que como las fibras de los copos de azcar crean la estructura, esta estructura tubular, que es un biomaterial que luego puede usarse para ayudar en la regeneracin del cuerpo usando las propias clulas para hacerlo. +Y eso es exactamente lo que hicimos aqu. +Este es un paciente que presentaba un rgano muerto y entonces creamos uno de estos biomateriales inteligentes y luego usamos ese biomaterial inteligente para reemplazar y reparar la estructura de ese paciente. +En realidad usamos el biomaterial como un puente para que las clulas del rgano pudieran cruzar ese puente, si se quiere, y ayudar a cerrar la brecha para regenerar ese tejido. +Y ah se ve a ese paciente ahora 6 meses despus en una radiografa que muestra el tejido regenerado, que se ha regenerado por completo si lo analizamos bajo el microscopio. +Tambin podemos usar clulas solas. +Estas son clulas que obtuvimos. +Son clulas madre que creamos a partir de fuentes especficas y podemos llevarlas a convertirse en clulas de corazn. Y empiezan a latir por cultura. +Ellas saben qu hacer. +Las clulas saben genticamente que hacer y empiezan a latir al unsono. +Hoy muchos ensayos clnicos estn usando diferentes tipos de clulas madre para la enfermedad cardaca. +As que ya se encuentra en los pacientes. +O, si vamos a usar estructuras ms grandes, para reemplazar estructuras ms grandes, podemos entonces usar las propias clulas del paciente o una poblacin de clulas junto con biomateriales, matrices extracelulares. +El concepto aqu es: si hay un rgano enfermo o lesionado, tomamos una pequea porcin de ese tejido de menos de la mitad del tamao de una estampilla postal. +Luego ponemos las clulas aparte, cultivamos las clulas fuera del cuerpo. +Luego tomamos una malla, un biomaterial, de nuevo, se parece mucho a un trozo de blusa o camisa. Luego modelamos ese material y usamos esas clulas para codificar el material de a una capa a la vez como si fuera una milhojas, si se quiere. +Luego lo colocamos en una especie de horno y as podemos crear esa estructura y llevarla a cabo. +Esta es una vlvula cardaca que hemos diseado. Y como pueden ver aqu, tenemos la estructura de la vlvula cardaca y hemos sembrado clulas en ella y luego la ejercitamos. +Y ah ven las hojas que se abren y cierran de esta vlvula cardaca que se est usando de forma experimental para tratar de llegar a nuevos estudios. +Otra tecnologa que hemos usado en pacientes tiene que ver con la vejiga. +Se toma un pedazo muy pequeo de la vejiga del paciente; menos de la mitad del tamao de una estampilla postal. +Luego cultivamos las clulas fuera del cuerpo, tomamos la matriz, cubrimos la malla con clulas, las propias clulas del paciente, dos tipos distintos de clulas. +Luego las colocamos en esta especie de horno. +Tiene las mismas condiciones que el cuerpo humano: 35C, 95% de oxgeno. +Unas semanas despus tenemos nuestro rgano de diseo que podemos implantar nuevamente en el paciente. +Para estos pacientes especficos suturamos estos materiales. +Empleamos imagenologa tridimensional pero creamos estos biomateriales a mano. +Ahora tenemos mejores maneras de crear estas estructuras con clulas. +Usamos un tipo de tecnologa para rganos slidos, por ejemplo, como el hgado en la que usamos hgados descartables. +Como saben, se descartan muchos rganos, no se usan. +Entonces podemos tomar estas estructuras de hgado que no se van a usar y las colocamos en una especie de lavadora que va a permitir lavar las clulas. +Dos semanas despus se tiene algo que se parece a un hgado. +Se lo puede sostener como a un hgado pero no tiene clulas; es slo el esqueleto de un hgado. +Y entonces podemos volver a inundar el hgado de clulas preservando el rbol de vasos sanguneos. +As que primero inundamos el rbol de vasos sanguneos con las propias clulas del vaso sanguneo del paciente y luego infiltramos la parnquima con las clulas del hgado. +Y ahora estamos en condiciones de mostrarles la creacin de tejido heptico humano de apenas el mes pasado usando esta tecnologa. +Otra tecnologa que hemos usado es la impresin. +Esto es una impresora de inyeccin de tinta pero en vez de tinta usa clulas. +Aqu puede verse el cabezal de impresin que pasa e imprime esta estructura; lleva unos 40 minutos imprimir esta estructura. +Y hay un ascensor 3D que va bajando de a una capa a la vez cada vez que pasa el cabezal de impresin. +Finalmente llegamos a obtener la estructura. +Se puede sacar la estructura de la impresora e implantarla. +Y aqu tenemos un trozo de hueso que les voy a mostrar en esta diapositiva que fue creado con una impresora de escritorio e implantado como ven aqu. +Eso era todo hueso nuevo que se implant usando estas tcnicas. +Otra tecnologa ms avanzada que estamos viendo en este momento, nuestra prxima generacin de tecnologas, son las impresoras ms sofisticados. +Esta impresora particular que estamos diseando ahora imprime directamente sobre el paciente. +Lo que ven aqu, s que suena gracioso, pero es as como funciona. +Porque en realidad lo que se quiere hacer es tener al paciente en la cama con la herida y un escner, un escner de superficie plana. +Eso es lo que ven aqu en el lado derecho; +ven una tecnologa de escner que primero explora la herida del paciente y luego regresa con los cabezales de impresin imprimiendo las capas necesarias sobre los propios pacientes. +As es como funciona. +Aqu tenemos el escner explorando la herida. +Una vez explorada, enva la informacin de las capas correctas de clulas donde deben estar. +Y ahora estn por ver aqu una demo donde se est reparando en una herida representativa. +Y lo hacemos con un gel para que se pueda levantar el material del gel. +As una vez que esas clulas estn en el paciente se van a pegar en donde sean necesarias. +En realidad es una nueva tecnologa todava en desarrollo. +Tambin estamos trabajando en impresoras ms sofisticadas. +Porque, en realidad, el desafo ms grande son los rganos slidos. +No s si se dan cuenta de esto pero el 90% de los pacientes en lista de trasplante espera un rin. +Los pacientes se mueren a diario porque no tenemos suficientes rganos para todos. +As que esto es ms difcil; rgano grandes, vasculares, gran suministro de vasos sanguneos, muchas clulas presentes. +Entonces la estrategia es -esto es una tomografa, una radiografa- ir capa por capa usando anlisis computarizado de imgenes morfomtricas y reconstruir en 3D para obtener exactamente los riones del paciente. +Despus podemos analizar las imgenes, hacer rotacin de 360 para analizar el rin en sus caractersticas volumtricas completas, y luego podemos tomar esta informacin y explorarla en forma de impresin computarizada. +Vamos capa por capa a travs del rgano, analizando cada capa a medida que recorremos el rgano. Y luego podemos enviar esa informacin, como ven aqu, a la computadora y disear el rgano para el paciente. +En realidad esto muestra la impresora real. +Y esto muestra esa impresin. +De hecho, tenemos la impresora aqu mismo. +As, mientras hablbamos hoy pueden ver la impresora all entre bastidores. +Esa es la impresora real ahora mismo y ha estado imprimiendo esta estructura de rin que ven aqu. +Lleva unas 7 horas imprimir un rin y en este ya van unas 3 horas. +El Dr. Kang va a entrar al escenario ahora y vamos a mostrarles uno de estos riones que imprimimos hoy hace un rato. +Me pongo un par de guantes. +Gracias. +Voy hacia atrs. +Estos guantes son un poco pequeos para m pero aqu est. +Pueden ver el rin tal como fue impreso ms temprano. +Tiene algo de consistencia. +Este es el Dr. Kang que ha estado trabajando con nosotros en el proyecto y es parte de nuestro equipo. +Gracias Dr. Kang. Se lo agradezco. +Esta es una nueva generacin. +Es la impresora que ven aqu en el escenario. +Es una nueva tecnologa en la que estamos trabajando ahora. +En realidad tenemos una larga historia haciendo esto. +Voy a compartir con Uds un clip respecto de la tecnologa empleada en pacientes desde hace un tiempo. +Es un clip muy breve -slo unos 30 segundos- de un paciente que recibi un rgano. +Luke Massella: Yo estaba realmente enfermo. Apenas poda levantarme de la cama. +Faltaba a la escuela. Era bastante infeliz. +No poda salir y jugar bsquet en el recreo sin sentir que me iba a desmayar cuando volviera adentro. +Me senta muy enfermo. +Me enfrentaba bsicamente a una vida de dilisis y no quiero ni pensar lo que sera mi vida de pasar por eso. +Despus de la ciruga mi vida mejor mucho. +Pude hacer ms cosas. +Tuve la oportunidad de luchar en la secundaria. +Llegu a ser capitn del equipo y eso fue genial. +Pude ser un chico normal con mis amigos. +Y dado que usaron mis propias clulas para construir esta vejiga va a estar conmigo. +La tengo de por vida as que estoy listo. +Juan Enriquez: Estos experimentos a veces funcionan y es genial cuando sucede. +Luke, ven por favor. +Lucas, antes de ayer por la noche, Cundo fue la ltima vez que viste a Tony? +LM: hace 10 aos, cuando me oper y es muy bueno verlo. +JE: Cuntanos un poco qu ests haciendo. +LM: Bueno, ahora mismo estudio en la Universidad de Connecticut; +estoy en segundo ao; estudio comunicaciones, TV y medios masivos. Bsicamente, trato de vivir la vida como un chico normal algo que siempre quise. +Pero era difcil hacerlo habiendo nacido con espina bfida y sin que funcionaran mis riones y vejiga. +Pas por unas 16 operaciones y pareca imposible de hacer. Tuve insuficiencia renal a los 10 aos. +Y vino esta ciruga y bsicamente me hizo quien soy hoy en da y me salv la vida. +JE: Y Tony hace cientos de estas? +LM: S que est trabajando muy arduamente en su laboratorio y viene con cosas locas. +S que fui una de las primeras 10 personas en recibir esta ciruga. +Y a los 10 aos no saba lo increble que era. +Era un nio y deca: "S, me van a operar. Me van a hacer esa ciruga". +Todo lo que yo quera era mejorarme y no me di cuenta lo increble que era hasta ahora que crec y veo las cosas increbles que est haciendo. +JE: Cuando recib esta llamada de la nada -Tony es muy tmido y me cost mucho convencer a alguien tan modesto como l de que nos permita traer a Luke. +As que Luke, fuiste a pedirle a tus profesores -ests estudiando comunicaciones- fuiste a pedirles permiso para venir a TED, que tiene algo que ver con las comunicaciones, cul fue su reaccin? +LM: La mayora de los profesores estuvo a favor y dijeron: "Trae fotos, mustrame los clips en lnea" y "me alegro por ti". +Hubo un par un poco testarudos pero tuve que hablar con ellos. +Habl con ellos aparte. +JE: Bueno, es un honor y un privilegio conocerte. +Muchas gracias. (LM: Muchas gracias.) JE: Gracias Tony. +Yo nac en el ltimo da del ltimo ao de los setentas. +Crec con la idea de "La libertad de ser uno mismo"-- hip hop -- parece que no les gusta tanto el hip hop. +Gracias. Gracias por el hip hop - y Anita Hill. +Mis padres eran radicales - que se convirtieron, bueno digamos que crecieron. +Mi pap dice burlonamente, "Queramos salvar al mundo, y en lugar de eso nos hicimos ricos." +En realidad solo somos una familia de clase media en Colorado Springs, Colorado, pero ustedes captan la idea. +Fui educada con un fuerte sentido de legado incompleto. +Con la madurez de mis 30 aos, he estado pensando en lo que significa crecer en esta poca horrible y hermosa. Y decid que, para m, ha sido una verdadera aventura y una paradoja. +La primer paradoja es que crecer se trata de rechazar el pasado y subitamente asumirlo como propio. +Yo crec en las aguas del feminismo. +Cuando era slo una nia, mi mam fund lo que ahora es el festival femenino que ms ha durado en el mundo. +As que mientras otros nios estaban viendo caricaturas y comedias, yo estaba viendo documentales muy esotricos hechos por y sobre las mujeres. +Se pueden dar cuenta de como esto tuvo una influencia. +Pero mi mam no era la nica feminista en la casa. +Mi pap de hecho renunci a ser miembro del club de hombres de negocios de la ciudad porque deca que nunca formara parte de una organizacin que algn da dara la bienvenida a su hijo, pero no a su hija. +De hecho l esta aqu hoy. +Lo divertido es que mi hermano se convirti en poeta experimental, y no en hombre de negocios, pero la intencin es lo que cuenta. +En todo caso, yo no me llamaba a mi misma feminista, an cuando estaba en todo lo que me rodeaba, porque lo asociaba a los grupos feministas de mi mam, sus faldas de olanes y hombreras, nada relacionado con la moda de los pasillos de la Escuela Secundaria Palmer donde yo quera ser popular. +Pero sospechaba que haba algo realmente importante acerca de todo esto del feminismo, as que empec a hurgar en los estantes de mi mam tomando algunos libros y leyndolos, aunque sin admitir que lo estaba haciendo. +De hecho nunca me puse la etiqueta de feminista hasta que fui a la Universidad Barnard y escuch por primera vez una charla de Amy Richards y Jennifer Baumgardner. +Ellas son las autoras de un libro llamado "Manifiesta." +Podran preguntarse entonces qu profunda epifana fue responsable de mi momento de iluminacin feminista? +Fueron las medias. +Jennifer Baumgardner estaba usndolas. +Yo pensaba que se veian muy bien. +Y entonces decid que estaba bien. Podia llamarme feminista. +Les digo esto-- con el riesgo de avergonzarme ante ustedes, porque creo que parte del trabajo del feminismo es admitir que la esttica, la belleza, la diversin, si importan. +Hay cientos de movimientos polticos modernos que han crecido en una buena medida porque se adaptan a la moda cultural. +Por ejemplo han escuchado de estos dos hombres? +As que debo gran parte de mi feminismo a mi madre, pero el mo es algo diferente. +Mi mam dice: "Patriarcado." +Yo digo, "no discriminacin." +La raza, la clase, el gnero, la habilidad, todas se integran en nuestra experiencia de lo que significa ser mujer. +Igualdad de salarios? Claro, es un tema totalmente feminista. +Pero para m la inmigracin tambin lo es. Gracias. +Mi mam dice, "Marchas de protesta." +Y yo digo, "Organizacin en linea." +Soy co-editora, junto con un colectivo de mujeres inteligentes y sorprendentes, de un portal llamado Feministing.com. +Somos la publicacin ms leda sobre feminismo. Y dejenme decirles esto porque creo que es realmente importante darse cuenta que hay un continuo. +Los blogs feministas son fundamentalmente la nueva versin de crear conciencia. +Pero tambin tenemos un gran impacto poltico. +Feministing ha logrado quitar mercancas ofensivas de los anaqueles de Walmart. +Logramos que despidieran a un funcionario que nos mandaba correos intimidantes de una universidad prestigiosa. +Y uno de nuestros ms grandes xitos es que recibimos mensajes de nias adolescentes en el centro de Iowa que dicen, "Buscaba a Jessica Simpson y llegu a su pgina. +Y me di cuenta que el feminismo no es acerca de odiar a los hombres." +As que hemos sido capaces de halar a la siguiente generacin de una forma totalmente nueva. +Mi mam dice, "Gloria Steinem." +Yo digo, "Samhita Mukhopadhyay, Miriam Prez, Ann Friedman, Jessica Valenti, Vanessa Valenti, y as cientos de mujeres." +No queremos una sola herona +No queremos un slo cono. +No queremos un solo rostro. +Somos miles de mujeres y hombres en todo el pas que escribimos en linea y organizmos comunidades, cambiamos instituciones de dentro hacia afuera, y todo esto es la extensin del increble trabajo que nuestras madres y abuelas iniciaron. +Gracias. +Lo que me lleva a la segunda paradoja: adquirir una verdadera perspectiva sobre nuestra pequeez y mantener la f en nuestra grandeza, todo al mismo tiempo. +Muchas personas de mi generacin, gracias a padres bien intencionados y a nuestra educacin en autoestima-- fuimos educados para creer que eramos unos especiales copos de nieve, que iban a salir y "salvar el mundo". +Estas son tres palabras con las que muchos de nosotros fuimos educados. +Pasamos por la etapa de graduacin, con unas altas expectativas del futuro, y cuando volvemos a poner los pies en el suelo, nos damos cuenta que no sabemos que significa eso de "salvar el mundo". +Los medios de comunicacion frecuentemente catalogan mi generacin como aptica. Y yo creo que es mucho ms preciso decir que estamos profundamente agobiados. +Y para ser justos, hay muchas razones para sentirse agobiados-- una crisis ambiental, la inequidad de las riquezas en este pas como no hemos visto desde 1928, tambin en el mundo, existe una inequidad inmoral y continua de las riquezas. +La xenofobia est en aumento, el trfico de mujeres y nias. +Todo eso es suficiente para sentirse agobiado. +Yo experiment esta sensacin de primera mano cuando me gradu de la Universidad Barnard en el 2002. +Estaba entusiasmada y lista para hacer la diferencia. +Sal y entr a trabajar en una asociacin sin fines de lucro, hice una maestra, estuve en servicio a clientes, protest, fui voluntaria, y nada de eso pareca importar. +Y una noche particularmente oscura de diciembre del 2004, me sent con mi familia, y les dije que estaba muy desilusionada. +Les confes que haba tenido una fantasa, algo como un sueo oscuro, de escribir una carta acerca de todo lo que estaba mal en el mundo y despus prenderme fuego en las escaleras de la Casa Blanca. +Mi mam tom un sorbo de su tradicional bebida, sus ojos se llenaron de lgrimas, y se volte a verme y me dijo, "No voy a tolerar tu desesperacin." +Me dijo, "Eres ms lista, ms creativa, y ms resistente que eso." +Lo que me lleva a mi tercera paradoja. +Crecer se trata de buscar un xito brillante y sentirse satisfecho cuando fracasas rotundamente. +Hay un escritor que ha tenido gran influencia en m, Parker Palmer, el escribe que nosotros muchas veces oscilamos "entre una sobre estimacin arrogante de nosotros mismos y el menosprecio servil de nosotros mismos." +Debern saber a estas alturas, que no me prend fuego. +Hice lo que s hacer en la desperacin, escribir. +Escrib el libro que necesitaba leer. +Escrb un libro acerca de ocho personas increbles a lo largo de este pas que hacen trabajo social. +Escrib sobre Nia Martin-Robinson, la hija de Detroit y dos activistas de los derechos civiles, que dedica su vida a la justicia ambiental. +Escrib acerca de Emily Apt que comenz llevando casos para el sistema de apoyo social porque pens que era lo ms noble que poda hacer, pero pronto aprendi, no solo que no le gustaba el trabajo, sino que tampoco era buena hacindolo. +En lugar de eso, lo que ella realmente quera hacer era filmar pelculas. +As que hizo una pelcula del sistema de apoyo social y tuvo un gran impacto. +Escrib acerca de Maricela Guzmn, la hija de inmigrantes mexicanos, que se uni al ejercito para poder pagar la universidad. +Pero fue violada en el campamento de induccin y comenz un grupo de apoyo llamado "Red de Accin de Mujeres en Servicio." +Lo que aprend de estas personas y de otras es que no poda juzgarlas basndome en su fracaso de alcanzar sus ambiciosas metas. +Muchas de ellas estn trabajando en sistemas profundamente complejos, el ejrcito, el congreso, el sistema educativo, etc. +Pero lo que han conseguido hacer dentro de esos sistemas es convertirse en una fuerza humanizadora. +Y a fin de cuentas, que podra ser mas importante que eso. +Cornel West deca, "Por supuesto que es un fracaso. +Pero Qu tan buen fracaso es?" +Esto no significa que olvidemos nuestros sueos ms grandes y ambiciosos. +Quiere decir que funcionamos en dos niveles. +En uno, tratamos de arreglar estos sistemas de los que formamos parte. +Pero en el otro, tenemos las races de nuestra autoestima en las acciones diarias de intentar hacer la vida de alguien ms amable, ms justa, etc. +Cuando era nia, tena un par de hbitos extraos. +Uno de ellos era que me tiraba en el piso de la cocina de la casa, y me succionaba el pulgar de mi mano izquierda y agarraba los frios dedos de los pies de mi mam con la derecha. +Escuchaba a mi mm hablar por telfono, lo cual haca con frecuencia. +Hablaba acerca de juntas de consejo, estaba fundando organizaciones pacifistas, coordinaba rondas en auto, consolaba amigos-- todos esos actos de cuidado y creatividad. +Y por supuesto que a los tres o cuatro aos de edad, estaba escuchando el suave sonido de su voz. Pero pienso que tambin estaba tomando mi primera leccin como activista. +Los activistas que entrevist literalmente no tenan nada en comn, excepto una cosa, todos nombraron a sus madres como la ms poderosa e importante influencia en su activismo. +Con frecuencia, particularmente en edades tempranas, miramos a lo lejos para encontrar ejemplos que den significado a nuestras vidas, y muchas veces estan en nuestra propia cocina, hablando por telfono, haciendonos la cena, haciendo todas las cosas que mantienen al mundo vivo. +Mi madre y muchas mujeres como ella me ensearon que la vida no se trata de gloria, certeza o seguridad. +Se trata de asumir la paradoja. +De actuar a pesar de estar agobiados. +Y amar a los dems de verdad. +Y a fin de cuentas, estas pequeas cosas construyen una vida de retos y recompensas. +Gracias. +La Khan Academy (o Academia Khan) es conocida principalmente por su coleccin de videos, as que antes que nada, permtanme mostrarles un pequeo montaje. +Salman Khan: As que la hipotenusa va a ser cinco. +Estos fsiles de animales slo se encuentran en esta zona de Sudamrica, una banda muy clara aqu, y en esta parte de frica. +Podemos integrar sobre la superficie, y la notacin usualmente es una sigma mayscula. +Asamblea Nacional: Ellos crean al Comit de Seguridad Pblica, el cual suena como un comit muy agradable. +Tengan presente, esto es un aldehdo y tambin es un alcohol. +Empiezan a diferenciarse en un efector y clulas de memoria. +Una galaxia. Oye, aqu hay otra galaxia. Oh mira, all hay otra galaxia. +Y en dlares, son sus 30 millones ms los 20 millones de dlares del fabricante estadounidense. +Si esto no te maravilla, entonces no tienes emociones. +SK: En este momento tenemos alrededor de 2.200 videos abarcando todo desde aritmtica bsica y llegando hasta clculo vectorial adems de algunas de las cosas que vieron ah. +Tenemos un milln de estudiantes al mes utilizando el sitio viendo alrededor de 100 a 200 mil videos diariamente. +Pero de lo que vamos a hablar aqu es de cmo vamos a llegar al siguiente nivel. +Pero antes de hacerlo quiero hablar un poco acerca de cmo empec. +Y quizs algunos de ustedes lo sepan, hace unos cinco aos era analista en un fondo de inversiones. Y estaba en Boston y les daba tutoras remotas a mis primos en Nueva Orleans. +Y empec a subir los primeros videos a YouTube ms que nada como algo bueno de tener, por si les serva a mis primos; algo que quizs les sirviera de repaso o algo as. +Y en el momento que sub esos primeros videos a YouTube ocurri algo interesante; +de hecho ocurrieron un montn de cosas interesantes. +La primera fue la reaccin de mis primos. +Me dijeron que me preferan a m en YouTube que en persona. +Y una vez que te sobrepones a la ambigedad de eso, te das cuenta que ah en realidad hay algo muy profundo. +Me estaban diciendo que preferan la versin automatizada de su primo a su primo. +A primera vista, es muy poco intuitivo, pero cuando lo analizas desde su punto de vista, tiene muchsimo sentido. +Tienes esta situacin en la que ahora pueden pausar y repetir a su primo, sin sentir que estn hacindome perder el tiempo. +Si necesitan repasar algo que deban haber aprendido hace dos semanas, o quizs hace dos aos, no tienen que avergonzarse y preguntarle a su primo. +Slo tienen que ver esos videos. Si se aburren pueden saltar adelante. +Pueden verlos cuando quieran, a su propio ritmo. +Y lo que es quizs el aspecto menos apreciado de esto es la nocin de que la primera vez, la primersima vez que ests tratando de comprender un nuevo concepto, lo ltimo que necesitas es a otro ser humano diciendo: "Entiendes esto?" +Y eso era lo que ocurra antes en la interaccin con mis primos. Y ahora ellos pueden simplemente hacerlo en la intimidad de su propia habitacin. +La otra cosa que ocurri fue que los puse en YouTube slo... no tena razones para mantenerlos privados as que permit que otras personas los vieran. Y entonces la gente empez a encontrrselos. Y empec a recibir algunos comentarios y cartas y todo tipo de reacciones de gente de todas partes del mundo. +Y stas son algunas. +sta de hecho es de uno de los videos de clculo originales. +Y alguien escribi en YouTube, era un comentario en YouTube. "Primera vez que sonro haciendo una derivada." +Y hagamos aqu una pausa: +Esta persona hizo una derivada y luego sonri. +Y luego en respuesta a ese comentario, esto est en la conversacin. Pueden ir a YouTube y ver estos comentarios; otra persona escribi: "A m me pas lo mismo." +"De hecho estuve eufrico y de buen humor por el resto del da." "Recuerdo haber visto todo este texto como salido de la Matriz en clases y ahora me siento como: 'Ya s Kung Fu'". Y tenemos montones de reacciones de ese tipo. +Claramente esto estaba ayudando a las personas. +Pero entonces, conforme la audiencia creca y creca, empec a recibir cartas de la gente, y empez a volverse claro que en realidad era ms que algo bueno que tener. +ste es slo un fragmento de una de esas cartas: "Mi hijo de 12 aos tiene autismo y le han costado mucho las matemticas." +"Hemos intentado de todo, visto de todo, comprado de todo." +"Nos cruzamos con tu video sobre decimales y lo entendi." +"Entonces fuimos con las temibles fracciones. De nuevo, lo comprendi." +"No podamos creerlo." +"Est tan emocionado." +Y como pueden imaginarse, he aqu yo, un analista en un fondo de inversin. Era muy extrao para m hacer algo con valor social. +Pero estaba emocionado, as que continu. +Y entonces empec a darme cuenta de otras cosas. Que, no slo poda ayudar a mis primos ahora, o a esas personas que enviaban cartas, sino que este material nunca pasara de moda, que podra ayudar a sus hijos o a sus nietos. +Si Isaac Newton hubiera puesto videos de clculo en YouTube, yo no tendra que hacerlos. +Suponiendo que l fuera bueno. No sabemos. +La otra cosa que sucedi... E incluso en ese momento, me dije: "OK, quizs es un buen complemento." "Es bueno para estudiantes motivados." +"Quizs sea bueno para los que aprenden desde casa." +Pero no cre que sera algo que de alguna manera penetrara al saln de clases. +Pero entonces empec a recibir cartas de profesores. Y los profesores me escriban diciendo: "Usamos tus videos para invertir la sala de clases." +"T ya has dado las clases, as que ahora lo que nosotros hacemos..." y esto podra ocurrir maana en cada saln de clases en Estados Unidos, "...lo que nosotros hacemos es dejar los videos como deberes." "Y lo que solan ser deberes o tareas, es lo que ahora los estudiantes hacen en el saln." +Y quiero hacer una pausa aqu para... Quiero detenerme aqu por un momento, porque hay un par de cosas interesantes. +Primero, cuando los profesores hacen eso, est el beneficio evidente, el beneficio de que ahora sus estudiantes pueden disfrutar de los videos tal como lo hicieron mis primos. Pueden poner pausa, repetir a su propio ritmo, cuando ellos quieran. +para humanizar al saln de clases. Han llevado una experiencia fundamentalmente deshumanizante... 30 nios que tienen prohibido hablar, que tienen prohibido interactuar entre s. +Un profesor, no importa lo bueno que sea, tiene que dar esta clase genrica unitalla a los 30 estudiantes... rostros perplejos, ligeramente hostiles... y ahora es una experiencia humana. Ahora estn realmente interactuando entre ellos mismos. +As que una vez que la Khan Academy... Renunci a mi trabajo y nos convertimos en una organizacin de verdad, en una sin fines de lucro; la pregunta es: Cmo llevamos esto al siguiente nivel? +Cmo llevamos lo que esos profesores estn haciendo a su conclusin natural? +Y as lo que les estoy mostrando aqu son ejercicios reales que empec escribiendo para mis primos. +Los primeros que hice eran mucho ms primitivos. +Esta es una versin ms competente de ellos. +Pero aqu el paradigma es: Vamos a generar tantas preguntas como necesites, hasta que entiendas ese concepto, hasta que hagas 10 seguidas. +Y ah estn los videos de la Khan Academy. +Tienes las pistas, los pasos reales para ese problema, si es que no sabes cmo hacerlo. +Pero aqu el paradigma, parece una cosa muy simple: 10 seguidos y avanzas. Pero es fundamentalmente diferente a lo que ocurre en el saln de clases hoy. +En un saln de clases tradicional, tienes un par de deberes, deberes, clase, deberes, clase y luego tienes un examen en un momento puntual. +Y con ese examen, sea que saques 70 por ciento, 80 por ciento, 90 por ciento o 95 por ciento, la clase avanza al tema siguiente. +E incluso para ese estudiante del 95 por ciento: Cul fue el 5 por ciento que no supo? +Quizs no supieron lo que ocurre cuando elevas algo a la potencia cero. +Y despus vas a construir encima de eso en el concepto siguiente. +Eso es anlogo a... Imaginen estar aprendiendo a andar en bicicleta +y quizs te doy una clase por adelantado, y te doy la bicicleta por dos semanas. Y regreso despus de las dos semanas, y te digo: "Bueno, vamos a ver. Tienes problemas al girar a la izquierda." +"Todava no puedes detenerte bien." "Eres un ciclista al 80 por ciento." +As que te pongo en la frente un enorme 8 y luego te digo: "Aqu tienes un uniciclo." +Pero an con lo ridculo que parece eso, es exactamente lo que ocurre en nuestros salones de clases en este momento. +Y la cuestin es que si nos adelantamos en el tiempo y los buenos estudiantes empiezan a reprobar lgebra de repente, y empiezan a reprobar clculo de repente, a pesar de ser inteligentes, a pesar de tener buenos profesores. Y eso es usualmente porque tienen estas lagunas tipo queso suizo que siguieron formndose mientras aprendan lo bsico. +As que nuestro modelo es aprender matemticas de la forma en que aprendes cualquier cosa, tal como aprenderas a andar en bicicleta. +Sbete a la bicicleta. Cete de la bicicleta. +Hazlo por el tiempo que sea necesario hasta dominarlo. +El modelo tradicional te castiga por experimentar y por fracasar, pero no te exige que lo domines. +Nosotros te animamos a experimentar. Te animamos a fracasar. +Pero s que esperamos que lo domines. +Este es otro de los mdulos. +Este es trigonometra. +Esto es trasladar y reflejar funciones. +Y todos estn conectados entre ellos. +En este momento tenemos alrededor de 90 de estos. +Y pueden ir al sitio ahora mismo. Todo es gratis. No intento venderles nada. +Pero la idea bsica es que todos estn conectados en este mapa de conocimiento. +El nodo de ms arriba, ese trata literalmente de sumas de un solo dgito. Es algo as como uno ms uno es igual a dos. +Y el paradigma es que, una vez que pasas 10 seguidos en se, te sigue haciendo avanzar a mdulos cada vez ms avanzados. +As que mientras ms vas bajando por el mapa de conocimiento, vamos entrando a aritmtica ms avanzada. +Ms abajo, empiezas a entrar a pre-lgebra y lgebra temprana. +Ms abajo, empiezas a meterte en lgebra uno, lgebra dos, un poquito de pre-clculo. +Y la idea es que a partir de esto podemos ensear literalmente cualquier cosa... Bueno, todo lo que puede ser enseado con este tipo de estructura. +As que pueden imaginarse -y esto es en lo que estamos trabajando- es que a partir de este mapa de conocimiento tienes lgica, programacin de computadoras, tienes gramtica, gentica, todo basado en esta idea bsica de que si sabes esto y aquello, ahora ests listo para este siguiente concepto. +Ahora, eso puede funcionar bien para un estudiante especfico, y los animo: Uno, a que lo hagan con sus hijos, pero tambin invito a todos en el pblico a hacerlo ustedes mismos. +Transformar lo que ocurre a la hora de comida. +Pero lo que queremos hacer es utilizar la conclusin natural de esa inversin en el saln de clases que los profesores me describieron al principio. +Y ahora lo que les estoy mostrando aqu, estos son datos reales de un piloto en la escuela distrital de Los Altos donde se tomaron dos grupos de quinto grado y dos grupos de sptimo grado y eliminaron completamente su antiguo plan de estudios de matemticas. +Esos nios no estn utilizando libros de texto, no estn recibiendo clases genricas. +Estn siguiendo la Khan Academy, a travs de ese software, durante casi la mitad de su clase de matemticas. +Y quiero aclarar que no consideramos esto como un curso completo de matemticas. +Y as el paradigma es que el profesor entra cada da, cada nio trabaja a su propio ritmo, -y este es un panel en vivo desde la escuela distrital de Los Altos- y ellos ven este panel. +Cada fila es un estudiante. +Cada columna es uno de esos conceptos. +Verde significa que el estudiante ya es competente. +Azul significa que estn avanzando en ello, no hay que preocuparse. +Rojo significa que estn atascados. +Y lo que el profesor literalmente hace es decir: "Voy a intervenir en los nios de rojo." +O mejor an: "Voy a conseguir uno de los nios de verde que ya son competentes en ese concepto para que sean la primera ofensiva y asesoren de verdad a su compaero." +Ahora, yo provengo de una realidad centrada en los datos, as que no queremos ni siquiera que el profesor vaya e intervenga y le tenga que hacer al nio preguntas embarazosas: "Qu es lo que no entiendes?" o "Qu es lo que s entiendes?" y todo lo dems. +As que nuestro paradigma es darles a los profesores toda la informacin posible, datos que, en casi cualquier otro campo, son esperados, si ests en finanzas o en marketing o en fabricacin. Y as los profesores pueden diagnosticar qu pasa en realidad con los estudiantes y as pueden hacer que su interaccin sea lo ms productiva posible. +As que ahora los profesores saben exactamente qu han estado haciendo los estudiantes, cunto tiempo han estado dedicndole cada da, cules videos han estado viendo, cundo pausan los videos, cundo dejan de verlos, qu ejercicios estn utilizando, en qu se han estado concentrando. +El crculo exterior muestra en cules ejercicios se enfocaron. +El crculo interior muestra los videos que estn viendo. +Y los datos llegan a ser bastante detallados y puedes ver exactamente qu ejercicio resolvi o err el estudiante. +Rojo es incorrecto, azul es correcto. +La pregunta de ms a la izquierda es la que el estudiante intent hacer primero. +En esa parte de all vieron el video. +Y luego puedes ver que, finalmente, fueron capaces de pasar 10 seguidas. +Es casi como si pudieras verlos aprendiendo durante esos 10 ltimos problemas. +Tambin se vuelven ms rpidos. La altura es cunto tiempo les llev. +As que cuando se habla de aprendizaje al ritmo personal, tiene sentido para todos, en trminos educativos: Aprendizaje diferenciado, pero es bien loco cuando lo ves en un saln de clases. +Porque cada vez que hemos hecho esto, en cada saln de clases en que lo hemos hecho, una y otra vez, cuando llevas cinco das en ello hay un grupo de nios que se han adelantado y hay un grupo de nios que son un poco ms lentos. +Y en un modelo tradicional, si aplicaste una evaluacin puntual diras: "Esos son los nios superdotados, esos son los nios lentos." +"Quizs se les deba evaluar de forma diferente." +"Quizs deberamos ponerlos en clases diferentes." +Pero cuando dejas a cada estudiante trabajar a su propio ritmo -y esto lo vemos una y otra y otra vez- ves que los estudiantes a quienes les tom un poquito de tiempo extra en un concepto o en otro, pero una vez que pasaron ese concepto, simplemente se adelantan. +Y esos mismos nios que pensaste hace seis semanas que eran lentos, ahora pensaras que son superdotados. +Y nos pasa una y otra y otra vez. +Y eso te hace preguntarte realmente cuntas de esas etiquetas con que quizs muchos de nosotros fuimos beneficiados se debieron realmente slo a una coincidencia del tiempo. +Ahora bien, tan valioso como es esto en un distrito como Los Altos, nuestro objetivo es utilizar la tecnologa para humanizar, no slo en Los Altos, sino que a escala mundial, lo que ocurre en la educacin. +Y de hecho, eso como que nos lleva a un punto interesante. +Mucho del esfuerzo en humanizar el saln de clases est enfocado en la proporcin profesor-alumnos. +Desde nuestra perspectiva, la mtrica relevante es la proporcin estudiante-tiempo-humano-valioso- con-el-profesor. +As que en un modelo tradicional, la mayora del tiempo del profesor es utilizado en dar clases, calificar y dems. +Pasa quizs 5 por ciento de su tiempo realmente sentado junto a estudiantes y de verdad trabajando con ellos. +Ahora el 100 por ciento de su tiempo lo pasa as. +As que una vez ms, al utilizar tecnologa, no slo inviertes el saln de clases sino que ests humanizndolo, y yo dira que por un factor de cinco o 10. +Y tan valioso como es eso en Los Altos, imaginen lo que hace por el estudiante adulto al que le avergenza regresar y aprender cosas que debi haber aprendido antes, antes de ir a la universidad. +Imaginen lo que hace por un nio de la calle en Calcuta que tiene que ayudar a su familia durante el da, y esa es la razn por la que l o ella no puede ir a la escuela. +Ahora puede dedicarle dos horas diarias y compensar, o ponerse al corriente y no sentirse avergonzado sobre lo que sabe o no sabe. +Ahora imaginen lo que ocurre donde... Hemos mencionado los estudiantes ensendose entre s dentro de un saln de clases. +Pero esto es todo un sistema. +No hay razn por la cual no puedas tener esos pares guiando al otro fuera de ese saln de clases. +Imaginen qu ocurre si ese estudiante en Calcuta de repente puede guiar a tu hijo, o que tu hijo pueda guiar a ese nio en Calcuta. +Y yo creo que lo que vern emerger es el concepto de un saln de clases mundial. +Y eso es en esencia lo que estamos tratando de construir. +Gracias. +Bill Gates: He visto algunas de las cosas que estn haciendo en el sistema que tienen que ver con motivacin y retroalimentacin: Puntos de energa, medallas al mrito. +Cuntame en qu estn pensando ah? +SK: Oh s. No, tenemos a un equipo asombroso trabajando en ello. +Y tengo que dejarlo en claro, ya no se trata slo de m. +Yo todava sigo haciendo todos los videos, pero tenemos a un equipo estelar haciendo este software. +S, le hemos metido un montn de mecnica de juegos ah donde obtienes esas insignias, vamos a empezar a tener lderes de tableros por rea, y ganas puntos. +Ha sido muy interesante en verdad. +Simplemente la redaccin de frases al ganar insignias o cuntos puntos obtienes al hacer algo, lo vemos a travs de todo el sistema, como decenas de miles de alumnos de quinto o sexto grado se mueven en una direccin o en otra dependiendo de la insignia que les des. +BG: Y la colaboracin que estn llevando a cabo en Los Altos, cmo fue que surgi? +SK: Los Altos, fue un poco loco. +Nuevamente, no esperaba que fuera a usarse en salones de clases. +Alguien de su consejo vino y me dijo: "Qu haras si tuvieras total libertad en un saln de clases?" +Y respond: "Bueno, simplemente cada estudiante trabajara a su propio ritmo en algo como esto y les daramos un panel de control." +Y contestaron: "Bueno, esto es un poco radical. Tenemos que pensarlo." +Y todos los del equipo dijimos: "Nunca van a querer hacer esto." +Pero literalmente al da siguiente dijeron: "Pueden empezar en dos semanas?" +BG: Entonces es en quinto grado donde estn en este momento? +SK: Son dos grupos de quinto grado y dos grupos de sptimo. +Y lo estn haciendo a nivel distrital. +Creo que lo que les entusiasma es que ahora pueden hacerle seguimiento a estos nios. No slo ven lo que pasa en la escuela. Y hemos visto, incluso en Navidad, que algunos de los nios lo usaban. +Y podemos hacerle seguimiento a cualquier cosa. As que de hecho pueden seguirles la pista por todo el distrito. +Durante los veranos, cuando van de un profesor a otro, tienes esta continuidad en los datos que incluso pueden ver a nivel distrital. +BG: Algunas de esas pantallas que vimos eran para que el profesor entrara y le diera seguimiento a cmo van esos nios. +Entonces tienen feedback de los profesores para ver lo que ellos creen que significan? +SK: Oh s. La mayora de ellas fueron solicitadas por los profesores. +Hicimos algunas para que los estudiantes pudieran ver sus datos pero tenemos un ciclo de diseo muy cercano con los profesores. +Y ellos dicen literalmente: "Oye, esto est bueno, pero..." Como la grfica de enfoque, un montn de profesores nos dijeron, "Siento que muchos de los nios se la pasan saltando de una cosa a la otra y no se concentran en un tema." +As que hicimos ese diagrama de enfoque. +As que todo ha sido guiado por los profesores. Ha sido algo muy loco. +BG: Y est esto listo para usarse como herramienta masiva? +Crees que muchos grupos del prximo ciclo escolar deberan probarlo? +SK: S, est listo. +Ya tenemos a un milln de personas en el sitio, as que podemos manejar unos cuantos ms. +No, no hay razn por la que no pueda llegar a cada saln de clases de Estados Unidos el da de maana. +BG: Y la visin de las tutoras. +La idea aqu es, si es que estoy confundido en un tema, de algn modo ah mismo en la interfaz del usuario encontrara personas que voluntariamente se ofrezcan, quizs vea su reputacin, y podra conectarme y agendar algo con esas personas. +SK: Desde luego. Y esto es algo que recomiendo que hagan a todos los del pblico. +Puedes entrar ahora mismo a esos paneles que tienen los profesores, y bsicamente puedes convertirte en un profesor particular para tus hijos, o sobrinos o primos, y quizs de algunos nios en el Club Boys and Girls. +Y s, puedes empezar a convertirte en un mentor, un tutor de inmediato. +Pero s, ah est todo. +BG: Bueno, esto es asombroso. +Creo que acaban de vislumbrar el futuro de la educacin. +Gracias. (SK: Gracias.) +A Mark Zuckerberg un periodista le pregunt sobre la redifusin de contenidos web. +La pregunta era: por qu es tan importante? +Y Zuckerberg le contest: "Saber que una ardilla se muere en tu jardn puede ser ms relevante en este momento para tus intereses que saber que muere gente en frica". +Quiero hablar de cmo sera la Red si se basara en esa idea de relevancia. +Crec en una zona rural de Maine y entonces, para m, Internet era algo muy distinto. +Era una conexin con el mundo. +Era algo que nos conectaba a todos. +Y estaba seguro de que sera genial para la democracia y para nuestra sociedad. +Pero ha cambiado la manera en la que circula la informacin en la red y este cambio es imperceptible. +Y si no prestamos atencin puede convertirse en un problema grave. +Not el cambio por primera vez en una pgina en la que paso mucho tiempo: Facebook. +En poltica soy progresista (vaya sorpresa!) pero siempre estoy abierto a las ideas de los conservadores. +Me gusta escuchar sus ideas; me gusta ver los enlaces que comparten; me gusta enterarme de algunas cosas. +Por eso me sorprendi darme cuenta un da de que los conservadores haban desaparecido de las novedades de Facebook. +Lo que haba pasado era que Facebook estaba controlando en qu enlaces haca clic y que se haba dado cuenta de que, realmente, hacia clic con ms frecuencia en los enlaces de mis amigos progresistas que en los de mis amigos conservadores. +Y sin consultarme excluy a los ltimos. +Desaparecieron. +Pero Facebook no es la nica pgina que hace esta edicin invisible y algortmica de la Red. +Google tambin lo hace. +Si yo realizo una bsqueda y ustedes realizan una bsqueda, incluso si lo hacemos al mismo tiempo, podramos obtener resultados de bsqueda muy diferentes. +Un ingeniero me cont que, incluso sin estar conectado, hay 57 indicios que Google tiene en cuenta -desde el tipo de computadora y explorador que se est usando, hasta la ubicacin- para personalizar los resultados. +Pinsenlo durante un segundo, ya no existe un Google estndar. +Y saben qu? Lo ms gracioso es que es difcil de ver. +Uno no puede ver lo diferentes que son sus bsquedas de las de los dems. +Pero hace un par de semanas le ped a un puado de amigos que googlearan "Egipto" y que me enviaran capturas de pantalla de los resultados. +Esta es la captura de pantalla de mi amigo Scott. +Y esta la de mi amigo Daniel. +Si las ponemos lado a lado ni siquiera tenemos que leer los enlaces para ver lo diferentes que son. +Pero si leemos los enlaces es muy notable. +A Daniel no le aparece nada de las protestas en Egipto en su portada de resultados de Google. +En los resultados de Scott aparece mucho. +Y esa era la historia del da en ese momento. +As de diferentes se estn volviendo los resultados. +Y no se trata slo de Google y Facebook. +Esto est arrasando la Red. +Hay toda una serie de empresas que estn haciendo este tipo de personalizacin. +Yahoo News, el sitio ms grande de noticias de Internet, ahora es personalizado; distintas personas obtienen distintas cosas. +Huffington Post, Washington Post, New York Times todos coquetean con algn tipo de personalizacin. +Y esto marcha muy rpido hacia un mundo en el cual Internet nos va a mostrar lo que piense que queremos ver y no necesariamente lo que tenemos que ver. +Como dijo Eric Schmidt: "Va a ser muy difcil que las personas miren o consuman algo que en alguna medida no haya sido hecho a medida para ellas". +Creo que esto es un problema. +Si uno junta todos estos filtros, todos estos algoritmos, obtiene lo que llamo la burbuja de filtros. +La burbuja de filtros es el universo propio, personal, nico, de informacin que uno vive en la red. +Y lo que haya en la burbuja de filtros depende de quin uno es, y de lo que uno hace. +Pero la cosa es que uno no decide que es lo que entra. +Y, ms importante an, no vemos qu es lo que se elimina. +detectaron problemas con la burbuja de filtros. +Estaban mirando las listas de Netflix y notaron algo gracioso, que a muchos seguro nos ha pasado, y es que algunas pelculas aparecen y desaparecen de nuestras listas. +Entran a la lista y desaparecen enseguida. +"Iron Man" desaparece y "Esperando a Sperman" puede quedar mucho tiempo. +Lo que descubrieron es que en nuestras listas de Netflix ocurren estas batallas picas entre nuestras aspiraciones futuras y nuestro yo impulsivo del momento. +Ya saben, a todos nos gustara haber visto "Rashmon" pero en este momento queremos ver "Ace Ventura" por cuarta vez. +Por eso la mejor edicin nos da lo mejor de ambas cosas. +Nos da un poco de Justin Bieber y un poco de Afganistn. +Nos da algunos vegetales informativos y nos da algunos postres informativos. +El desafo de estos filtros algortmicos, de estos filtros personalizados, es que al basarse principalmente en lo que uno cliquea primero pueden alterar ese equilibrio. +Y en vez de tener una dieta informativa balanceada uno termine rodeado de comida chatarra informativa. +Esto sugiere que quiz hemos interpretado mal la historia de Internet. +En una sociedad de la difusin -eso dice el mito fundador- en una sociedad de la difusin estaban estos porteros, los editores, que controlaban el flujo de la informacin. +Y luego aparece Internet y arrasa con ellos y nos permite a todos nosotros conectarnos unos a otros, y eso fue genial. +Pero eso no es lo que est sucediendo ahora. +Lo que estamos viendo se parece ms a un pasaje de antorcha entre los porteros humanos y los algortmicos. +Y el problema es que los algoritmos todava no tienen incorporados los principios ticos que tenan los editores. +Entonces, si los algoritmos nos van a seleccionar el contenido, si van a decidir qu veremos y qu no, entonces tenemos que asegurarnos de que no slo se guan por la relevancia. +Tenemos que asegurarnos de que tambin nos muestran cosas incmodas, estimulantes o importantes -eso hace TED- otros puntos de vista. +El punto es que hemos pasado por esto antes como sociedad. +No es que en 1915 los peridicos se preocuparan mucho por sus responsabilidades cvicas. +Despus, la gente se dio cuenta de que servan para algo muy importante. +Que, de hecho, no se puede tener una democracia que funcione si los ciudadanos no acceden a un buen flujo de informacin. Que los peridicos eran crticos porque actuaban de filtro y entonces nace la tica periodstica. +No era perfecta pero con eso pudimos atravesar el siglo pasado. +Y ahora es como que estamos en el 1915 de la Red. +Y necesitamos que los nuevos porteros incluyan este tipo de responsabilidad en el cdigo que estn escribiendo. +S que entre los presentes hay gente de Facebook y Google -Larry y Sergey- personas que han ayudado a construir la Red tal como es y les agradezco eso. +Pero realmente necesitamos que nos aseguren que estos algoritmos contienen un sentido de la vida pblica, un sentido de responsabilidad cvica. +Necesitamos que nos aseguren que son suficientemente transparentes, que podemos ver cules son las reglas que determinan lo que pasa por nuestros filtros. +Y necesitamos que nos den algn control para poder decidir qu pasa y que no pasa. +Porque creo que realmente necesitamos que Internet sea eso que todos soamos que fuera. +Necesitamos que nos conecte a todos. +Necesitamos que nos presente nuevas ideas, nuevas personas y distintas perspectivas. +Y esto no va a ser posible si nos asla en una Red unipersonal. +Gracias. +Imaginen que pudieran registrar sus vidas... todo lo que dijeron, todo que hicieron, al alcance de la mano en una mediateca perfecta para poder volver a buscar momentos memorables y revivirlos o examinar trazas de tiempo y descubrir patrones en sus propias vidas que antes pasaron inadvertidos. +Bien, ese es exactamente el viaje que emprendi mi familia hace 5 aos y medio. +Esta es Rupal, mi esposa y colaboradora. +Y en este da, en este momento, entramos en la casa con nuestro primer hijo, nuestro hermoso beb. +Y entramos en una casa con un sistema de grabacin de video muy especial. +Hombre: Muy bien. +Deb Roy: Este momento, y miles de otros momentos especiales para nosotros, fueron capturados en casa porque en todas las habitaciones de la casa, si levantaran la vista veran una cmara y un micrfono, y si miraran hacia abajo, tendran esta vista de pjaro de la habitacin. +Esta es la sala de estar, la habitacin del beb, la cocina, el comedor y el resto de la casa. +Y todo esto alimenta un conjunto de discos diseados para una captura continua. +Aqu sobrevolamos un da en nuestra casa desde el sol de la maana hasta un crepsculo incandescente y, al final, el da termina sin luces. +En el transcurso de 3 aos, registramos de 8 a 10 horas por da, acumulando un cuarto de milln de horas de audio y video multi-pista. +As que estn viendo un fragmento de lo que es, por lejos, la coleccin de video hogareo jams realizada. +Y lo que estos datos representan para nuestra familia a nivel personal, el impacto ya es inmenso, y an estamos aprendiendo su valor. +Innumerables momentos de acontecimientos naturales, espontneos, quedaron capturados y estamos empezando a aprender a descubrirlos y encontrarlos. +Pero hay adems una razn cientfica que motiv el proyecto que fue usar estos datos naturales longitudinales para entender el proceso de aprendizaje del lenguaje en nios, siendo el nio mi hijo. +As, tomando muchos recaudos de privacidad para proteger a todos los involucrados en los datos disponibilizamos los datos a mi equipo de investigacin de confianza del MIT para comenzar a desentraar los patrones en este enorme conjunto de datos, tratando de comprender la influencia de los entornos sociales en la adquisicin del lenguaje. +Aqu estamos viendo una de las primeras cosas que empezamos a hacer. +Aqu estamos con mi esposa preparando el desayuno en la cocina. Y a medida que nos movemos en espacio y tiempo, un patrn cotidiano de la vida en la cocina. +Para convertir estas 9.000 horas de video opaco en algo que pudiramos empezar a ver; usamos anlisis de movimiento para extraer, a medida que nos movamos en espacio y tiempo, lo que llamamos gusanos espacio-temporales. +Con esa tecnologa, con esos datos, y la posibilidad, gracias a la mquina, de transcribir el habla, hemos transcripto ms de 7 millones de palabras de conversaciones domsticas. +Y dicho esto les voy a mostrar un primer recorrido por los datos. +Estoy seguro que todos han visto videos acelerados en los que florece una flor en tiempo acelerado. +Ahora me gustara que experimenten el florecimiento de una forma hablada. +Mi hijo, poco despus de su primer ao, dira "gaga" queriendo decir agua. +Y en el transcurso del siguiente medio ao lentamente empez a aproximarse a la forma adulta correcta "agua". +As que vamos a recorrer medio ao en unos 40 segundos. +Aqu no hay video para que puedan centrarse en el sonido, en la acstica, de un nuevo tipo de trayectoria: de "gaga" a "water" [agua]. +Beb: Gagagagagaga Gaga gaga gaga guga guga guga wada gaga gaga guga gaga wader guga guga water water water water water water water water water. +DR: Dio en la tecla, no? +Y no slo aprendi a decir "water" [agua]. +En el transcurso de 24 meses, los primeros 2 aos en los que nos centramos, este es un mapa de todas las palabras que aprendi en orden cronolgico. +Y dado que tenemos transcripciones completas identificamos cada una de las 503 palabras que aprendi a decir antes de sus 2 aos. +Fue un conversador precoz. +Y empezamos a analizar el porqu. +Por qu nacieron algunas palabras antes que otras? +Este es uno de los primeros resultados que surgi de nuestro estudio hace poco ms de un ao que realmente nos sorprendi. +La manera de interpretar este grfico de apariencia simple es ver en la vertical una indicacin de la complejidad de la expresin de los adultos cercanos en base a la longitud de las palabras. +Y el eje horizontal es el tiempo. +Y los datos fueron alineados en funcin de la siguiente idea: cada vez que mi hijo pronunciaba una palabra rastrearamos hacia atrs todo el lenguaje que escuch que contuviese esa palabra. +Y graficaramos la longitud relativa de las palabras. +Y observamos este fenmeno curioso: el discurso de los adultos se reduca sistemticamente al mnimo, haciendo el lenguaje lo ms sencillo posible, y luego lentamente retomaba su complejidad inicial. +Y lo sorprendente fue que ese rebote, esa reduccin, se alineaba casi exactamente con el surgimiento de cada palabra; palabra tras palabra, sistemticamente. +Parece que los 3 adultos a cargo -mi esposa, la niera y yo- creo que sistemtica y subconscientemente fuimos reestructurando nuestro lenguaje para acercarlo al nacimiento de una palabra y llevarlo dulcemente hacia un lenguaje ms complejo. +Y la consecuencia de esto -hay muchas, pero hay una que quiero sealar- es que debe haber asombrosos ciclos de respuesta. +Claro, mi hijo est aprendiendo de su entorno lingstico pero el entorno est aprendiendo de l. +Ese entorno, la gente, est en estos apretados ciclos de respuesta creando una suerte de andamiaje que no se haba observado hasta ahora. +Pero eso es observar el contexto hablado. +Qu pasa con el contexto visual? +No estamos mirando... hagan un corte de casa de muecas de nuestra casa. +Hemos tomado las cmaras de ojo de pez y les aplicamos una correccin ptica, para luego transformarlo en un modelo tridimensional. +As que bienvenidos a casa. +Este es un momento capturado a travs de mltiples cmaras. +Hicimos esto para crear una mquina de memoria definitiva en la que se pueda volver atrs y, de manera interactiva, insuflar el hlito del video en el sistema. +Lo que voy a hacer es mostrarles 30 minutos en video acelerado, de nuevo, de la vida en la sala de estar. +All estamos mi hijo y yo en el piso. +Y mediante anlisis de vdeo se sigue nuestros movimientos. +Mi hijo deja una tinta roja, yo dejo tinta verde. +Ahora estamos en el sof mirando por la ventana a los coches que pasaban. +Y, finalmente, mi hijo caminando por s mismo con un juguete. +Ahora congelamos la accin, 30 minutos, giramos el tiempo hacia el eje vertical y abrimos una vista de estas trazas de interaccin que hemos dejado atrs. +Y vemos estas estructuras asombrosas: a estos hilos de puntitos de 2 colores los llamamos zonas sociales. +Al hilo en espiral lo llamamos zona en solitario. +Y pensamos que stas afectan la manera de aprender el lenguaje. +Lo que queremos hacer es empezar a entender la interaccin entre estos patrones y el lenguaje al que est expuesto mi hijo para ver si podemos predecir la manera en que la estructura de palabras escuchadas afecta a las palabras aprendidas o, en otras palabras, la relacin entre las palabras y su lugar en el mundo. +Esta es la manera en que lo estamos abordando. +En este video, de nuevo, se hace una seguimiento de mi hijo. +Est dejando tinta roja a su paso. +Y la niera est junto a la puerta. +Niera: Quieres agua? (Beb: Aaaa) Niera: Muy bien. (Beb: Aaaa) DR: Ella le ofrece agua y all van los 2 gusanos [espacio-temporales, NT] a la cocina en busca de agua. +Usamos la palabra "agua" para etiquetar el momento, esa actividad. +Y tenemos el poder de los datos para ver cada vez que mi hijo escuch la palabra "agua" y el contexto en el que la vio y usamos eso para penetrar el video y encontrar cada traza de actividad que sucedi en simultneo con una ocurrencia de "agua". +Y lo que estos datos dejan a su paso es un paisaje. +Los llamamos paisajes expresivos. [wordscapes, NT] +Este es el paisaje expresivo para la palabra "agua" y pueden ver que gran parte de la accin se da en la cocina. +Es donde estn esos grandes picos all a la izquierda. +Y para contrastar, podemos hacerlo con cualquier palabra. +Podemos tomar la palabra "adis". +Y ahora enfocamos la entrada de la casa. +Miramos, y encontramos, como es de esperar, un contraste en el paisaje en el que la palabra "adis" ocurre de manera mucho ms estructurada. +Estamos usando estas estructuras para empezar a predecir el orden de adquisicin del lenguaje y ese es un trabajo en curso. +En mi laboratorio, que estamos viendo ahora, en el MIT esto es en el Media Lab. +Esta se ha vuelto mi manera favorita de videografiar casi cualquier espacio. +Aqu, 3 de las personas clave en este proyecto: Philip DeCamp, Rony Kubat y Brandon Roy. +Philip ha sido un estrecho colaborador en las visualizaciones que estn viendo. +Y as nuestro esfuerzo dio un giro inesperado. +Piensen en los medios proporcionado un punto comn y tendrn la receta para llevar esta idea a un lugar completamente nuevo. +Empezamos a analizar el contenido televisivo usando los mismos principios -analizando la estructura de eventos de la seal de TV- episodios de programas, publicidad, todos los componentes que constituyen la estructura de eventos. +Y ahora, con antenas parablicas, tomamos y analizamos buena parte de la TV que se mira en Estados Unidos. +Y ya no hay que ir a poner micrfonos en la sala de estar para conseguir conversaciones de la gente; slo hay que sintonizar los medios sociales de dominio pblico. +Por eso estamos tomando unos 3 millones de comentarios al mes. Y luego se produce la magia. +Y hora se puede construir la misma idea. +Obtenemos este paisaje expresivo slo que ahora las palabras no se ensamblan en mi sala de estar. +En vez de eso, el contexto, las actividades de un punto comn, son el contenido televisivo que gua las conversaciones. +Y lo que vemos aqu, estos rascacielos, son comentarios en relacin al contenido televisivo. +El mismo concepto pero mirando la dinmica comunicacional en un mbito muy diferente. +Fundamentalmente en vez de, por ejemplo, medir el contenido en funcin de la cantidad de personas que miran, esto nos da los datos bsicos para observar la atraccin del contenido. +Y as como podemos mirar ciclos de respuesta y dinmicas en una familia ahora podemos abrir los mismos conceptos y mirar grupos de personas muchos ms grandes. +Este es un subconjunto de datos de nuestra base -slo 50 000 de varios millones- y el grafo social que los conecta mediante fuentes de dominio pblico. +Y si los ponemos a todos en un plano, un segundo plano es donde vive el contenido. +Tenemos los programas, los eventos deportivos, las publicidades y todas las estructuras que los unen conforman el grafo de contenido. +Y luego tenemos la tercera, importante, dimensin. +Cada enlace que ven graficado aqu es una conexin real entre algo que alguien dijo y un contenido. +Y hay, de nuevo, decenas de millones de estos enlaces que nos dan el tejido conectivo de los grafos sociales y cmo se relacionan con el contenido. +Y ahora podemos empezar a probar la estructura de maneras interesantes. +Si, por ejemplo, trazamos el camino de un contenido que lleva a alguien a comentarlo y luego seguimos a dnde va ese comentario y despus miramos todo el grafo social que se activa y despus volvemos para ver la relacin entre ese grafo social y el contenido se revela una estructura muy interesante. +Lo llamamos crculo de co-expectacin una sala de estar virtual, si se quiere. +Y hay una dinmica fascinante en juego. +No es unidireccional. +Un contenido o un evento hacen que alguien hable de eso. +Ellos hablan con otras personas. +Eso produce ms encendido en los medios de comunicacin y se obtienen estos ciclos que guan el comportamiento general. +Otro ejemplo, muy diferente, otra persona real de nuestra base de datos, y estamos encontrando al menos cientos, si no miles de ellos. +A esta persona le hemos dado un nombre. +Es un crtico de medios pro-amateur, o pro-am, que tiene esta alta tasa de exposicin. +Entonces, muchas personas siguen a esta persona - muy influyente- y tienen una propensin a hablar de lo que pasa en la TV. +Esta persona es un vnculo clave para conectar a los medios de comunicacin con los medios sociales. +Un ltimo ejemplo de estos datos: a veces lo especial es el contenido. +Si vemos este contenido es el discurso del presidente Obama sobre el Estado de la Unin de hace apenas unas semanas y miramos lo que encontramos en estos mismos datos, en la misma escala, la atraccin de este contenido es verdaderamente notable. +Una nacin explota de conversacin en tiempo real en respuesta a lo que se est emitiendo. +Y, por supuesto, en todas estas lneas fluye lenguaje no estructurado. +Podemos radiografiar y obtener el pulso de una nacin en tiempo real, sentido en tiempo real, de las reacciones sociales en los diferentes circuitos del grafo social que se activan por los contenidos. +As, para resumir, la idea es sta: a medida que nuestro mundo se vuelve cada vez ms instrumentado y tenemos la capacidad para reunir y conectar los puntos entre lo que dicen las personas y el contexto en el que lo estn diciendo, est surgiendo una capacidad para ver nuevas estructuras y dinmicas sociales que antes no se vean. +Es como construir un microscopio o un telescopio y revelar nuevas estructuras sobre nuestro comportamiento en torno a la comunicacin. +Y pienso que las consecuencias aqu son profundas ya sea para la ciencia, para el comercio, para el gobierno, o quiz, sobre todo, para nosotros como individuos. +Y para volver al tema de mi hijo cuando estaba preparando esta charla, l miraba por encima de mi hombro, y le mostr los videos que iba a presentar hoy, le ped permiso; me lo concedi. +Se qued callado un momento. +Y pens: "Qu estoy pensando? +Tiene 5 aos. No va a entender esto". +Y mientras pensaba eso l me mir y dijo: "As que cuando crezca, puedo mostrarle esto a mis hijos?" +Y pens: "esto es algo muy potente!" +Quiero despedirme con un ltimo momento memorable de nuestra familia. +Este es la primera vez que nuestro hijo dio ms de 2 pasos seguidos, capturado en la pelcula. +Y quiero que se centren en algo a medida que les muestre. +Es un ambiente desordenado, es la vida natural. +Mi madre est en la cocina, cocinando, y de todos los lugares, en el pasillo, me doy cuenta que est por hacerlo, por dar ms de 2 pasos. +Por eso me oyen dndole nimo al darme cuenta lo que est sucediendo y luego se produce la magia. +Escuchen muy atentamente. +Al dar unos 3 pasos l se da cuenta que est pasando algo mgico. Y entra en accin el ciclo de respuesta ms asombroso: l toma un respiro, y susurra "guau!" e instintivamente yo hago lo mismo. +Retrocedamos en el tiempo hasta ese momento memorable. +DR: Oye. +Ven aqu. +Puedes hacerlo? +Oh, muchacho. +Puedes hacerlo? +Beb: S. +DR: Ma, est caminando. +DR: Gracias. +Este es un ro. +Este es un arroyo. +Este es un ro. +Esto est pasando en todo el pas. +Hay decenas de miles de kilmetros de arroyos secos en Estados Unidos. +En este mapa, las zonas coloreadas representan conflictos acuferos. +Hay problemas similares en el Este tambin. +Las razones varan de estado a estado, pero sobre todo en los detalles. +Hay 6.400 km de arroyos secos slo en Montana. +Normalmente albergaran peces y otra vida silvestre. +Son las venas del ecosistema y a menudo estn vacas. +Quiero contarles la historia de uno de estos arroyos porque es el arquetipo de una historia ms grande. +Este es Prickly Pear Creek. +Pasa por una zona poblada desde East Helena hasta Lake Helena. +Alberga peces silvestres como la trucha degollada, la marrn, y la arco iris. +Casi todos los aos desde hace ms de 100 aos se ha visto as en verano. +Cmo llegamos a esto? +Bueno, comenz a finales del 1800 cuando empezaron a llegar pobladores a lugares como Montana. +En resumen, haba mucha agua y no muchas personas. +Pero a medida que se presentaba ms gente buscando agua la gente que lleg primero se preocup un poco y en 1865 Montana aprob su primera Ley de Aguas. +Bsicamente deca: quien est cerca del arroyo puede compartirlo. +Curiosamente, muchos aparecieron queriendo compartir el arroyo y la gente que lleg primero se preocup tanto que trajo a sus abogados. +Hubo pleitos que sentaron precedentes en 1870 y 1872, ambos ataan a Prickly Pear Creek. +Y en 1921 la Corte Suprema de Montana fall en un caso de Prickly Pear; deca que la gente que lleg primero tena derechos primarios, o superiores, sobre el agua. +Estos derechos superiores son la clave. +El problema es que hoy todo el Oeste tiene este aspecto. +Algunos de estos arroyos tienen pedidos de 50 a 100 veces ms agua que la del caudal del arroyo. +Y los titulares de derechos superiores si no hacen uso de su derecho al agua corren el riesgo de perderlo con el valor econmico que eso implica. +Entonces no tienen incentivo para conservar. +No se trata slo de la cantidad de personas; el sistema mismo desincentiva la conservacin porque uno puede perder el derecho al agua si no lo usa. +As, luego de dcadas de demandas y 140 aos de experiencia todava tenemos esto. +Es un sistema roto. +Se desincentiva la conservacin porque si uno no usa el derecho al agua puede perderlo. +Y estoy seguro que todos saben, esto ha creado grandes conflictos entre las comunidades agrcolas y los ambientalistas. +Bueno, aqu voy a cambiar de marcha. +A muchos de Uds les agradar saber que el resto de la presentacin es gratis. Y alguno se alegrar al saber que hay cerveza de por medio. +Hay algo ms que est sucediendo en el pas y es que las empresas estn empezando a ocuparse de su huella hdrica. +Les preocupa asegurar un suministro adecuado de agua, estn tratando de usar de manera muy eficiente el agua y les preocupa saber cmo afecta su uso del agua a la imagen de sus marcas. +Bueno, es un problema nacional, pero les voy a contar otra historia de Montana que trata de la cerveza. +Apuesto a que no saban que lleva 5 pintas de agua hacer 1 pinta de cerveza. +Si se incluye todo el drenaje, lleva ms de 100 pintas de agua hacer 1 pinta de cerveza. +Ahora bien, los cerveceros de Montana ya han hecho un montn para reducir su consumo de agua pero todava usan millones de litros. +Digo, hay agua en la cerveza. +Qu pueden hacer ellos con esta huella hdrica remanente que puede afectar seriamente al ecosistema? +Estos ecosistemas son muy importantes para los cerveceros de Montana y sus clientes. +Despus de todo hay una correlacin fuerte entre el agua y la pesca. Y, para algunos, hay una correlacin fuerte entre la pesca y la cerveza. +Por eso los cerveceros de Montana y sus clientes estn preocupados y estn buscando alguna manera de abordar el problema. +Cmo pueden abordar esta huella hdrica remanente? +Recuerden Prickly Pear. +Hasta ahora, la administracin comercial del agua se ha limitado a medir y reducir y estamos sugiriendo que el prximo paso sea restaurar. +Recuerden Prickly Pear. +Es un sistema roto. +Hay desincentivo para la conservacin porque si uno no usa el derecho al agua, se arriesga a perderlo. +Bueno, nosotros decidimos conectar ambos mundos: el mundo empresarial con su huella hdrica y el mundo de los granjeros con sus derechos superiores sobre estos arroyos. +En algunos estados los titulares de derechos superiores pueden dejar su agua en la corriente gozando de proteccin legal sobre otros y manteniendo su derecho al agua. +Despus de todo es su derecho al agua y si quieren usar ese derecho para promover la cra de peces en el arroyo tienen el derecho a hacerlo. +Pero no tienen incentivos para hacerlo. +Trabajando con los fideicomisos locales de agua creamos un incentivo para hacerlo. +Les pagamos para que dejen el agua en el arroyo. +Eso es lo que est sucediendo aqu. +Este individuo ha tomado la decisin de cerrar esta compuerta de agua dejando el agua en el arroyo. +l no pierde su derecho al agua, slo elige aplicar ese derecho o una parte de l al arroyo, en vez de aplicarlo a la tierra. +Dado que es titular del derecho superior puede proteger el agua de otros usuarios del arroyo. +De acuerdo? +Se le paga para que deje el agua en el arroyo. +Este tipo est midiendo el agua que deja en el sistema. +Luego tomamos el agua medida, la dividimos en incrementos de miles de litros. +Cada incremento obtiene un nmero de serie y un certificado y luego los cerveceros y otros compran esos certificados como forma de devolver el agua a esos ecosistemas degradados. +Los cerveceros pagan para restaurar el agua del arroyo. +Eso provee una manera simple, econmica, y medible de devolver el agua a estos ecosistemas degradados al tiempo que les da a los granjeros una opcin econmica y a las empresas preocupadas por su huella hdrica una manera fcil de lidiar con ellos. +Tras 140 aos de conflicto, y 100 aos de arroyos secos, una circunstancia que el litigio y la regulacin no han resuelto, nosotros elaboramos una solucin de mercado, de compradores y vendedores dispuestos; una solucin que no requiere litigios. +Se trata de dar a las personas preocupadas por su huella hdrica una oportunidad real de poner agua donde se la necesita con urgencia, en estos ecosistemas degradados, mientras al mismo tiempo se le propone a los granjeros una opcin econmica significativa sobre el uso de su agua. +Estas transacciones crean aliados, no enemigos. +Conectan a las personas en lugar de dividirlas. +Y proveen el apoyo econmico necesario para las comunidades rurales. +Y lo ms importante es que funciona. +Hemos regresado ms de 15 mil millones de litros de agua a los ecosistemas degradados. +Hemos conectado a los titulares de derechos con cerveceros de Montana, con hoteles y empresas de t de Oregon y con empresas de tecnologa que usan mucha agua en el Sudoeste. +Y cuando establecemos estas conexiones, podemos y lo hacemos, transformar esto en esto. +Muchas gracias. +Cuando llegu a mi trabajo actual me dieron un buen consejo que fue entrevistar a 3 polticos cada da. +Y de tanto contacto con polticos puedo decirles que todos son, de una u otra manera, fanticos emocionales. +Adolecen de lo que llamo demencia logorrea, es decir, que de tanto hablar se vuelven locos. +Pero tienen una habilidad social increble. +Cuando los conocemos, se meten en nosotros, nos miran a los ojos, invaden nuestro espacio personal, nos masajean la parte posterior de la cabeza. +Hace varios meses cen con un senador republicano que mantuvo su mano en mi muslo interno durante toda la comida, apretndolo. +Una vez, esto fue hace aos, vi a Ted Kennedy y Dan Quayle reunidos en el podio del Senado. +Y eran amigos y se abrazaban y se rean y sus caras estaban as de cerca. +Y se movan, se apretaban, movan sus brazos hacia arriba y abajo mutuamente. +Y yo pensaba: "Vayan a una habitacin. No quiero ver esto". +O sea, tienen habilidades sociales. +Otro caso: ciclo electoral pasado, yo estaba siguiendo a Mitt Romney por Nueva Hampshire y l estaba en campaa con sus 5 hijos perfectos: Bip, Chip, Rip, Zip, Lip y Dip. +Y va a una cafetera. +Entra a la cafetera, se presenta ante una familia y dice: "de qu pueblo de Nueva Hampshire son Uds? +Y luego describe la casa que l tena en ese pueblo. +Y as va por el saln y a medida que va abandonando el lugar llama por el nombre a todos los que conoci. +Yo pensaba: "Bien, eso es habilidad social". +Pero la paradoja es que cuando muchas de estas personas pasan a "hacer poltica" esa conciencia social desaparece y empiezan a hablar como contadores. +As que a lo largo de mi carrera he cubierto una serie de fracasos. +Enviamos economistas a la Unin Sovitica, cuando se disolvi, con planes de privatizacin y lo que en realidad necesitaban era confianza social. +Invadimos Irak con un ejrcito ajeno a las realidades culturales y psicolgicos. +Tuvimos un rgimen de regulacin financiera en base al supuesto de que los corredores burstiles eran criaturas racionales que no haran algo estpido. +Durante 30 aos he estado cubriendo la reforma escolar y bsicamente hemos reorganizado los cuadros burocrticos -escuelas pblicas, privadas, cheques escolares- pero hemos tenido resultados decepcionantes ao tras ao. +Y el hecho es que la gente aprende de la gente que ama. +Y si no hablamos de la relacin individual entre profesor y alumno no estamos hablando de esa realidad, +pero esa realidad es excluida del proceso poltico. +Y eso me hace cuestionar lo siguiente: Por qu las personas ms sociales del planeta se deshumanizan de tal forma cuando piensan en poltica? +Y llegu a la conclusin de que esto es un sntoma de un problema mayor. +Que, durante siglos, hemos heredado una visin de la naturaleza humana basada en la nocin de que somos seres divididos, de que la razn est separada de las emociones y que la sociedad progresa en la medida en que la razn pueda reprimir las pasiones. +Y eso nos lleva a ver a la naturaleza humana como individuos racionales que responden de manera directa a los incentivos. Y nos lleva a formas de ver el mundo en las que la gente trata de usar supuestos fsicos para medir el comportamiento humano. +Y eso ha producido una gran amputacin, una visin superficial de la naturaleza humana. +Somos muy buenos para hablar de cosas materiales pero somos muy malos para hablar de emociones. +Somos muy buenos para hablar de habilidades, de seguridad y salud, pero somos muy malos para hablar de carcter. +Alasdair MacIntyre, el famoso filsofo, dijo que "tenemos los conceptos de la moral antigua, de la virtud, el honor, la bondad, pero ya no tenemos un sistema con el que conectarlos". +Y eso nos ha llevado a un camino superficial en la poltica pero tambin en toda una gama de actividades humanas. +Puede verse en la manera de criar a nuestros hijos pequeos. +Uno va a una escuela primaria a las 3 de la tarde y ve a los nios salir y llevan esas mochilas de 35 kilos. +Si el viento los hace caer quedan como escarabajos atascados en el suelo. +Uno ve estos autos -por lo general Saab, Audi y Volvo- porque en algunos barrios es socialmente aceptable tener un coche de lujo siempre y cuando venga de un pas hostil a la poltica exterior de EE.UU., eso est bien. +Los van a buscar estas criaturas que denomino sper mams, mujeres de carrera de gran xito, que se han tomado un tiempo para asegurarse que todos sus hijos entren a Harvard. +Y se nota quien es una sper mam porque realmente pesan menos que sus propios hijos. +As, al momento de la concepcin, estn haciendo ejercicios de glteos. +Los bebs salen y le muestran tarjetas didcticas en mandarn a las cosas. +Vuelven a casa y quieren que sean iluminados as que los llevan a la heladera Ben & Jerry con su propia poltica exterior. +En uno de mis libros yo bromeaba con que Ben & Jerry haga un dentfrico pacifista que no mate grmenes sino que les pida que se vayan. +Sera un xito de ventas. +Y van a Whole Foods para obtener su frmula para bebs. Whole Foods es una de esas tiendas progresistas de comestibles en la que los cajeros parecen estar a prstamo de Amnista Internacional. +All compran esos bocadillos a base de algas llamados Veggie Booty con col rizada, que son para nios que llegan a casa y dicen: "Mami, mami, quiero un bocadillo que ayude a prevenir el cncer colon-rectal". +Los nios se cran de una cierta manera, sumando logros de cosas que podemos medir: preparacin para el SAT, oboe, ftbol. +Ingresan a universidades competitivas, consiguen buenos empleos y, a veces, tienen xito de manera superficial y ganan muchsimo dinero. +Y, a veces, se las puede ver en lugares de vacaciones como Jackson Hole o Aspen. +Y se han vuelto elegantes y delgadas -realmente no tienen muslos; tienen unas pantorrillas elegantes sobre otras. +Tienen hijos por su cuenta y han logrado un milagro gentico al casarse con gente guapa por lo que sus abuelas parecen Gertrude Stein y sus hijas Halle Berry -no s cmo lo han hecho. +Llegan all y se dan cuenta que est de moda tener perros de un tercio de la altura del techo +as que consiguen esos perros peludos de 70 kilos que parecen velociraptores, todos con nombres de personajes de Jane Austen. +Y luego, cuando llegan a viejos, no han desarrollado una filosofa de vida pero lo han decidido: "He tenido xito en todo, no voy a morir". +As que contratan entrenadores personales y toman sildenafilo como mentas para el aliento. +Se les ve en las montaas all arriba. +Hacen esqu de fondo en la montaa con estas expresiones sombras que hacen que Dick Cheney parezca Jerry Lewis. +Y le pasan zumbando a uno como si lo pasara un Raisinet de hierro que sube la colina. +Y esto es parte de la vida, pero no es toda la vida. +Y en los ltimos aos creo que hemos tenido una visin ms profunda de la naturaleza humana y una visin ms profunda de lo que somos. +Y no se basa en la teologa o la filosofa sino en el estudio de la mente en todas estas esferas de investigacin desde neurociencia hasta cientficos cognitivos, economistas del comportamiento, psiclogos, sociologa; estamos desarrollando una revolucin en la conciencia. +Y cuando sintetizamos todo nos est dando una nueva visin de la naturaleza humana. +Y lejos de ser una fra visin materialista de la naturaleza es un nuevo humanismo, un nuevo encanto. +Y creo que al hacer una sntesis de la investigacin uno empieza con 3 ideas clave. +La primera idea es que mientras la mente consciente escribe la autobiografa de nuestra especie la mente inconsciente hace la mayor parte del trabajo. +Por eso una manera de formularlo es que la mente humana puede recibir millones de informaciones por minuto, de las cuales puede ser consciente de unas 40. +Y esto conduce a cosas raras. +Una de mis favoritas es que los Dennis tienden inexorablemente a ser dentistas, y que los Lawrence tienden a ser abogados porque inconscientemente decantan las cosas que suenan familiares, razn por la cual yo llam a mi hija Presidenta de EE.UU. Brooks. +Otro hallazgo es que el inconsciente lejos de ser tonto y sexual es bastante inteligente. +Una de las cosas ms exigentes cognitivamente que hacemos es comprar muebles. +Es muy difcil imaginar cmo va a quedar un sof en la casa. +Y la manera en que uno debe hacerlo es estudiar el mueble dejar que la idea madure en la cabeza, distraerse, y luego unos das despus seguir el instinto porque inconscientemente uno se lo ha imaginado. +El segundo hallazgo es que las emociones estn en el centro de nuestro pensamiento. +Las personas con golpes y lesiones en las partes que procesan las emociones en el cerebro no son sper inteligentes, en realidad a veces se sienten impotentes. +Y el gigante en este campo est en la sala esta noche y va a hablar maana por la maana: Antonio Damasio. +Y una de las cosas que l realmente nos muestra es que las emociones no estn separadas de la razn sino que son el fundamento de la razn porque nos dicen qu valorar. +Por eso leer y educar las emociones es una de las actividades centrales de la sabidura. +Soy un hombre de mediana edad; +no estoy muy cmodo con las emociones. +Una de mis historias favoritas del cerebro describe a estos tipos de mediana edad. +Los pusieron en un escner cerebral -por cierto, la historia es apcrifa pero no importa- y les hicieron ver una pelcula de terror. Luego tenan que contarle lo que sintieron a sus esposas. +Y los escaneos cerebrales fueron idnticos en ambos casos. +Era terror puro. +As que yo hablando de la emocin es como Gandhi hablando de la gula, pero eso es el proceso de organizacin central de la manera que pensamos. +Nos dice qu imprimir. +El cerebro es el registro de los sentimientos de una vida. +Y el tercer hallazgo es que no somos individuos eminentemente autnomos. +Somos animales sociales, no animales racionales. +Salimos de relaciones, y estamos muy compenetrados unos con otros. +Y as, cuando vemos a otras personas volvemos a representarnos en la mente lo que vemos en sus mentes. +Cuando vemos una persecucin en coche en una pelcula, es casi como si estuviramos sutilmente en una persecucin. +Cuando miramos pornografa es un poco como tener relaciones sexuales, aunque quiz no sea tan bueno. +Y vemos esto cuando los amantes caminan por la calle, cuando una multitud en Egipto o Tnez se ve atrapada en un contagio emocional, la compenetracin profunda. +Y esta revolucin en lo que somos nos da una manera diferente de ver, creo, la poltica, una manera diferente -esto es ms importante- de ver el capital humano. +Somos hijos de la Ilustracin francesa. +Creemos que la razn es la ms alta de las facultades. +Pero creo que esta investigacin muestra que la Ilustracin britnica, o la Ilustracin escocesa, con David Hume, Adam Smith, tena un mejor manejo de quines somos: que la razn a menudo es dbil y nuestros sentimientos fuertes y que los sentimientos a menudo son dignos de confianza. +Este trabajo corrige el sesgo de nuestra cultura, ese sesgo de profunda humanizacin. +Nos da un sentido ms profundo de lo que significa realmente prosperar en esta vida. +Cuando pensamos en el capital humano pensamos en las cosas que podemos medir fcilmente; como ttulos, pruebas de aptitud, grados, cantidad de aos de escolaridad. +Que nos vaya bien, tener una vida con sentido, son cosas ms profundas, cosas que ni siquiera sabemos nombrar. +As que djenme enumerar un par de cosas que creo que esta investigacin nos seala para tratar de entender. +El primer don, o talento, es la visin mental: la capacidad de entrar en la mente de otras personas y aprender lo que tienen para ofrecer. +Los bebs vienen con esta capacidad. +Meltzoff, de la Universidad de Washington, se inclin sobre una beb de 43 minutos de edad. +Le hizo una mueca con la lengua +y la beb hizo lo mismo con su lengua. +Los bebs nacen para compenetrarse con la mente de la mam y para descargar lo que encuentran; sus modelos de cmo entender la realidad. +En Estados Unidos el 55% de los bebs tienen una conversacin bidireccional con la mam y aprenden modelos de cmo relacionarse con otras personas. +Y esas personas que tienen modelos de cmo relacionarse tienen una ventaja enorme en la vida. +Cientficos en la Universidad de Minnesota realizaron un estudio en el que podan predecir con una precisin del 77%, a los 18 meses de edad, quines iban a terminar la secundaria a partir de quines tenan buen apego con la mam. +El 20% de los nios no tiene esas relaciones. +Tienen lo que llamamos apego evitativo. +Tienen problemas para relacionarse con otras personas. +Van por la vida como veleros a la deriva que quieren acercarse a la gente pero no tienen los modelos para hacerlo. +Por eso esta es una habilidad como tomar conocimientos unos de otros. +La segunda habilidad es el aplomo equitativo. La capacidad de tener la serenidad para leer los sesgos y errores de la propia mente. +Por ejemplo: somos mquinas de confianza excesiva. +El 95% de nuestros profesores informa que estn por encima del promedio. +El 96% de los universitarios dicen tener habilidades sociales mayor a la media. +La revista Time pregunta a los estadounidenses: "Ests en el 1% de los asalariados de mayores ingresos?" +El 19% de los estadounidenses est en el 1% de los asalariados de mayores ingresos. +Este es un rasgo vinculado al gnero, por cierto. +Los hombres se ahogan 2 veces ms que las mujeres porque piensan que pueden cruzar ese lago a nado. +Pero algunas personas tienen la capacidad y la conciencia de ver sus prejuicios, sus excesos de confianza. +Tienen modestia epistemolgica. +Tienen actitud abierta frente a la ambigedad. +Pueden ajustar la fuerza de las conclusiones a la fuerza de sus evidencias. +Son curiosos. +Y estos rasgos a menudo son independientes y no guardan relacin con el CI. +El tercer rasgo es el medes, lo que llamaramos sabidura de la calle; es una palabra griega. +Es una sensibilidad al entorno fsico, la capacidad de detectar patrones en un entorno, de captar la esencia. +Uno de mis colegas del Times escribi una gran historia de soldados en Irak que al mirar una calle podan detectar de algn modo si haba un artefacto explosivo, una mina terrestre, en la calle. +No podan decir cmo lo saban pero podan sentir fro, sentan una frialdad, y casi siempre tenan razn. +El tercero es lo que podramos llamar empata la capacidad de trabajar en grupo. +Y eso resulta en extremo til porque los grupos son ms inteligentes que los individuos +y los grupos cara a cara son mucho ms inteligentes que los grupos que se comunican electrnicamente porque el 90% de la comunicacin es no verbal. +Y la efectividad de un grupo no est determinada por el CI del grupo est determinada por su comunicacin, por la frecuencia con que se alternan en la conversacin. +Luego se podra hablar de un rasgo como la mezcla. +Cualquier nio dice: "Soy un tigre" y finge ser un tigre. +Parece algo elemental +pero, de hecho, es extraordinariamente complicado tomar un concepto como "yo" y otro como "tigre" y mezclar ambas cosas. +Pero esta es la fuente de la innovacin. +Lo que hizo Picasso, por ejemplo, fue tomar el concepto de arte occidental y el concepto de mscara africana y fusionarlos -no slo la geometra sino los sistemas morales que conllevan. +Y estas habilidades, de nuevo, no se pueden contar ni medir. +Y lo ltimo que voy a mencionar es algo que podra denominarse limerencia. +Y esto no es una capacidad, es una gua y una motivacin. +La mente consciente tiene hambre de xito y prestigio. +La mente inconsciente tiene hambre de momentos de trascendencia, cuando la dimensin craneal desaparece y nos perdemos en un desafo o en una tarea, cuando un artesano se funde con su oficio, cuando un naturalista se siente uno con la Naturaleza, cuando el creyente se siente uno con el amor de Dios. +Eso es lo que ansa la mente inconsciente. +Y muchos de nosotros sentimos el amor cuando los amantes se funden mutuamente. +Y una de las descripciones ms preciosas que he encontrado en esta investigacin de la compenetracin mental fue escrita por un gran terico y cientfico llamado Douglas Hofstadter de la Universidad de Indiana. +l se cas con una mujer llamada Carol y ellos tenan una relacin maravillosa. +Cuando sus hijos tenan 5 y 2 aos Carol tuvo un derrame y un tumor cerebral y muri repentinamente. +Y Hofstadter escribi un libro titulado "Soy un ciclo extrao". +En el transcurso del libro describe un momento -meses despus de la muerte de Carol- en que se encuentra con su foto en la repisa de la chimenea o en una oficina en su habitacin. +Y esto es lo que escribi: "Mir su cara, y mir tan profundamente que sent que estaba detrs de sus ojos. +Me di cuenta de que, a pesar de que Carol haba muerto, esa parte central de ella no haba muerto en absoluto sino que viva muy decididamente en mi cerebro". +Los griegos dicen que sufrimos nuestro camino a la sabidura. +A travs de su sufrimiento Hofstadter entendi lo profundamente compenetrados que estamos. +Con los fracasos polticos de los ltimos 30 aos hemos llegado a reconocer, creo, lo superficial que ha sido nuestra visin de la naturaleza humana. +Y ahora cuando enfrentamos esa superficialidad y los fracasos derivados de nuestra incapacidad de llegar a la profundidad de quines somos viene esta revolucin en la conciencia -estas personas en tantos campos que exploran la profundidad de nuestra naturaleza y salen con este nuevo humanismo encantado. +Y cuando Freud descubri su sentido de lo inconsciente, tuvo un efecto enorme en el clima de su tiempo. +Ahora estamos descubriendo una visin ms precisa del inconsciente; de lo que somos en el interior. Y va a tener un efecto maravilloso, profundo y humanizante en nuestra cultura. +Gracias. +Quiero pedirles que consideren por un segundo el hecho muy simple de que, por lejos, gran parte de lo que sabemos del Universo proviene de la luz. +Podemos estar en la Tierra y mirar el cielo nocturno y ver las estrellas a simple vista. +El Sol quema nuestra visin perifrica; +vemos la luz reflejada por la Luna +y desde que Galileo apunt ese telescopio rudimentario a los cuerpos celestes el universo conocido viene a nosotros por la luz en vastas eras de la historia csmica. +Y con los telescopios modernos hemos podido captar esta imponente pelcula muda del Universo; esta serie de fotos que va hasta el Big Bang. +Y, sin embargo, el Universo no es una pelcula muda, porque no es silencioso. +Me gustara convencerlos de que el Universo tiene una banda sonora que suena en el propio espacio. Porque el espacio puede redoblar como un tambor. +Puede hacer sonar una suerte de grabacin a travs del Universo de los eventos ms espectaculares a medida que van sucediendo. +Ahora nos gustara poder agregarle a la gloriosa composicin visual que tenemos del Universo una composicin sonora. +Y aunque nunca he odo los sonidos del espacio, deberamos en los prximos aos empezar a subir el volumen de lo que est sucediendo afuera. +As, en esta ambicin por captar canciones del Universo dirigimos nuestra atencin a los agujeros negros y a la promesa que representan; porque los agujeros negros pueden golpear el espacio-tiempo como mazas sobre un tambor y producir una cancin muy caracterstica. Me gustara reproducirles algunas de nuestras predicciones de cmo sera esa cancin. +Los agujeros negros son oscuros en el cielo negro. +No los podemos ver directamente. +No los vemos gracias a la luz, al menos no directamente. +Podemos verlos indirectamente porque los agujeros negros hacen estragos en su entorno. +Destruyen las estrellas de su alrededor. +Agitan los desechos de sus alrededores. +Pero no se nos hacen presentes a travs de la luz. +Puede que un da veamos una sombra, un agujero negro puede tejer un fondo muy brillante, pero todava no pudimos. +Y los agujeros negros se pueden or an cuando no se los vea y eso gracias a que golpean al espacio-tiempo como a un tambor. +Le debemos la idea de que el espacio puede sonar como un tambor a Albert Einstein, a quien le debemos mucho. +Einstein se dio cuenta de que si el espacio fuera vaco, si el Universo estuviera vaco, sera como esta imagen, excepto quiz, por la grilla de ayuda dibujada sobre ella. +Pero si furamos en cada libre por el espacio, incluso sin esta grilla de ayuda, podramos pintarla nosotros mismos, porque notaramos que viajamos en lneas rectas, caminos rectos sin desvos, por el Universo. +Einstein tambin se dio cuenta -este es el verdadero meollo de la cuestin- de que si uno pone energa o masa en el Universo curvara el espacio. Y un objeto en cada libre pasara, digamos, el Sol y se desviara por las curvas naturales del espacio. +Es la gran Teora General de la Relatividad de Einstein. +Incluso la luz se doblar por esos caminos. +Y se puede doblar tanto y quedar atrapado en rbita alrededor del Sol como la Tierra, o la Luna alrededor de la Tierra. +Estas son las curvas naturales del espacio. +No fue Einstein quien se dio cuenta de esto sino Karl Schwarzchild, un judo alemn en la Primera Guerra Mundial que se alist en el ejrcito alemn ya siendo un cientfico avezado, trabajando en el frente ruso. +Me gusta imaginar a Schwarzchild en guerra en las trincheras calculando trayectorias balsticas de fuego de can y luego, en el medio, calculando las ecuaciones de Einstein... como se hace en las trincheras. +Y l estaba leyendo la recientemente publicada Teora General de la Relatividad y qued muy impresionado por esta teora. +Y rpidamente conjetur una solucin matemtica exacta que describa algo muy extraordinario: curvas tan fuertes que el espacio llovera en ellas, el espacio mismo se curvara como una cascada que fluira por la garganta de un hoyo. +Y ni la luz podra escapar de esta corriente. +La luz sera arrastrada dentro del hoyo, como todo lo dems, y todo lo que quedara sera una sombra. +Y le escribi a Einstein y le dijo: "Como va a ver, la guerra ha sido lo suficientemente amable +a pesar del intenso tiroteo. He podido escapar de todo y recorrer la tierra de sus ideas". +Einstein qued muy impresionado con su solucin exacta y cabra esperar tambin que fuera por la dedicacin del cientfico. +Esto es el cientfico tenaz bajo condiciones muy duras. +Y llev la idea de Schwarzschild a la Academia Prusiana de Ciencias a la semana siguiente. +Pero Einstein siempre pens que los agujeros negros eran una rareza matemtica. +No crea que existieran en la Naturaleza. +Pens que la Naturaleza nos protegera de su formacin. +Pasaron dcadas antes de acuar el trmino agujero negro y que la gente se diera cuenta de que los agujeros negros son objetos astrofsicos reales -de hecho, representan la muerte de estrellas muy masivas que colapsan catastrficamente al final de su vida. +Pero nuestro Sol no colapsar en un agujero negro. +No tiene la suficiente masa. +Pero si hiciramos un pequeo experimento mental de los que les gustaba hacer a Einstein podramos imaginar comprimir el Sol en 6 kilmetros y ponerle una pequea Tierra en rbita quiz a 30 km del Sol agujero negro. +Y sera auto-iluminada, dado que no habra Sol, no tendramos otra fuente de luz, as que hagamos nuestra pequea Tierra auto-iluminada. +Y nos daramos cuenta que podamos poner la Tierra en una rbita feliz hasta 30 km por fuera de este agujero negro comprimido. +Este agujero negro comprimido entrara en Manhattan, ms o menos. +Podra derramarse un poco en el ro Hudson antes de destruir la Tierra. +Pero bsicamente estamos hablando de eso. +Estamos hablando de un objeto que uno pueda comprimir a la mitad de la superficie cuadrada de Manhattan. +As, movemos esta Tierra muy cerca -a 30 km- y observamos que orbita perfectamente bien alrededor del agujero negro. +Hay una especie de mito de que los agujeros negros devoran todo en el Universo pero hay que estar realmente muy cerca para caer. +Pero, lo muy impresionante desde nuestro punto de vista, es que siempre podemos ver la Tierra. +No puede esconderse detrs del agujero negro. +La luz de la Tierra, algo de su luz cae en l, pero otra parte escapa y llega hasta nosotros. +As que no se puede esconder nada tras un agujero negro. +Si esto fuera Battlestar Galactica y estuvieran combatiendo a los Cyclons no se escondan tras el agujero negro. +Pueden verlos. +Pero nuestro Sol no colapsar en un agujero negro; no tiene la masa suficiente, pero hay decenas de miles de agujeros negros en nuestra galaxia. +Y si uno eclipsara la Va Lctea, tendra este aspecto. +Veramos una sombra de ese agujero negro contra los cientos de miles de millones de estrellas en la Va Lctea y sus franjas de polvo luminoso. +Y si furamos a caer hacia este agujero negro veramos toda esa luz a su alrededor e incluso podramos empezar a cruzar esa sombra sin notar que haba pasado algo espectacular. +Sera malo si intentramos encender nuestros cohetes para salir de all porque no podramos; ni la luz puede escapar. +Pero si bien el agujero negro es oscuro por fuera, no es oscuro por dentro, porque toda la luz de la galaxia puede caer tras de nosotros. +Y an as, debido a un efecto relativista conocido como dilatacin del tiempo, nuestros relojes pareceran retrasarse en relacin con el tiempo galctico, se vera como si la evolucin de la galaxia se hubiera acelerado y nos hubiera disparado justo antes de morir aplastados por el agujero negro. +Sera como una experiencia cercana a la muerte en la que veramos la luz al final del tnel, pero sera una muerte total. +Y no hay manera de contarle a nadie de esa luz al final del tnel. +Nunca hemos visto una sombra como sta de un agujero negro, pero los agujeros negros pueden orse an cuando no puedan verse. +Imaginen ahora una situacin astrofsica realista: imaginen dos agujeros negros que han vivido una larga vida juntos. +Quiz empezaron como estrellas y colapsaron en dos agujeros negros... cada uno de 10 veces la masa del Sol. +Ahora los vamos a comprimir a una distancia de 60 km. +Pueden girar cientos de veces por segundo. +Al final de sus vidas van a ir uno en torno al otro a muy cerca de la velocidad de la luz. +As que estn atravesando miles de kilmetros en una fraccin de segundo. Y, al hacerlo, no slo curvan el espacio sino que dejan a su paso un zumbido espacial, una onda real en el espacio-tiempo. +El espacio se contrae y se estira mientras emana de estos agujeros negros que golpean en el Universo. +Y viajan por el cosmos a la velocidad de la luz. +Esta simulacin por computadora pertenece a un grupo de relatividad de NASA Goddard. +Llev casi 30 aos hasta que alguien pudo resolver este problema. +Este fue uno de los grupos. +Muestra dos agujeros negros orbitando uno sobre el otro; de nuevo, con estas curvas pintadas como ayuda. +Y si pueden ver -es un poco dbil- pero si pueden ver las ondas rojas que emanan, esas son las ondas gravitatorias. +Son, literalmente, los sonidos del espacio y saldrn de estos agujeros negros a la velocidad de la luz a medida que suenan y se funden en un agujero negro silencioso que gira al final del da. +Si estuviramos lo suficientemente cerca, sus odos resonaran con las contracciones y expansiones del espacio. +Oiramos literalmente el sonido. +Ahora, por supuesto, la cabeza se comprimira y estirara intilmente, y eso podra dificultar la comprensin de qu est pasando. +Pero me gustara reproducirles el sonido que predecimos. +Esto es de mi grupo... un modelo por computadora un poco menos glamoroso. +Imaginen un agujero negro ms liviano que cae dentro de un agujero negro muy pesado. +El sonido que estn escuchando es el agujero liviano golpeando el espacio cada vez que se acerca. +Si se aleja mucho es bien silencioso. +Pero entra como una maza y, literalmente, raja el espacio redoblando como un tambor. +Y podemos predecir cul va a ser el sonido. +Sabemos que, a medida que cae, se va cada vez ms rpido y ms fuerte. +Y, finalmente, vamos a or al pequeo caer dentro del ms grande. +Luego, se ha ido. +Nunca lo he odo tan fuerte... en realidad es ms espectacular. +En casa suena un poco decepcionante. +Hace din, din, din. +Este es otro sonido de mi grupo. +No les estoy mostrando imgenes porque los agujeros negros no dejan detrs tiles caminos de tinta, el espacio no queda pintado para evidenciar las curvas. +Pero si estuvieran flotando por el espacio en vacaciones y oyeran esto querran ponerse en movimiento. +Querran alejarse del sonido. +Ambos agujeros negros estn movindose. +Ambos agujeros negros se estn acercando uno a otro. +En este caso ambos estn bambolendose mucho. +Y se van a fusionar. +Se ha ido. +Ese chirrido es muy caracterstico de la fusin de agujeros negros... que haga un chirrido al final. +Esa es nuestra prediccin de lo que vamos a ver. +Por suerte estamos a una distancia segura en Long Beach, California. +Y seguramente en algn lugar del Universo se han fusionado dos agujeros negros. +Y, sin duda, el espacio circundante est sonando luego de viajar quiz un milln de aos luz, o un milln de aos, a la velocidad de la luz hasta nosotros. +Pero el sonido es demasiado leve para que lo oigamos. +Hay experimentos muy laboriosos desarrollndose en la Tierra -uno se llama LIGO- que va a detectar desviaciones en la contraccin y expansin del espacio en menos de una fraccin del ncleo de un tomo a ms de 4 kilmetros. +Es un experimento muy ambicioso y va a tener una sensibilidad avanzada en los prximos aos... para detectar esto. +Tambin hay una misin propuesta para el espacio que esperemos se lance en los prximos 10 aos, llamada LISA. +Y LISA podr ver agujeros negros sper masivos, agujeros negros con millones o miles de millones de veces el tamao del Sol. +En esta imagen del Hubble vemos dos galaxias. +Se ven como si se estuvieran congeladas en un abrazo. +Y cada una probablemente alberga un agujero negro sper masivo en su centro. +Pero no estn congelados, se estn fusionando. +Estos dos agujeros negros estn colisionando y se fusionarn en una escala de mil millones de aos. +Est ms all de nuestra percepcin humana registrar un sonido de esa duracin. +Pero LISA podra ver las etapas finales de dos agujeros negros sper masivos anteriores en la historia del Universo; los ltimos 15 minutos antes de que colisionaran. +Y no son slo los agujeros negros sino tambin cualquier gran perturbacin del Universo; la ms grande de todas es el Big Bang. +Cuando se acu esa expresin fue en tono de burla como: "Oh, quin podra creer en un Big Bang?" +Pero ahora podra considerarse tcnicamente ms preciso porque podra hacer "bang"; +podra hacer un sonido. +Esta animacin de mis amigos de Proton Studios muestra el Bing Bang visto desde afuera. +En realidad no queremos hacer eso; queremos estar dentro del Universo, porque no existe cosa tal como estar fuera del Universo. +As que imaginen estar dentro del Big Bang. +Est en todas partes, a nuestro alrededor, y el espacio se tambalea en forma catica. +Pasan 14 mil millones de aos y esta cancin sigue sonando a nuestro alrededor. +Las galaxias se forman y se forman generaciones de estrellas en esas galaxias. Y alrededor de una estrella al menos una estrella es un planeta habitable. +Y aqu estamos construyendo frenticamente estos experimentos haciendo estos clculos, escribiendo este cdigo informtico. +Imaginen que hace mil millones de aos colisionaron dos agujeros negros. +Esa cancin ha estado sonando en el espacio todo ese tiempo. +Nosotros ni estbamos aqu. +Se acerca cada vez ms... hace 40 000 aos todava estamos haciendo pinturas rupestres. +De prisa, construimos los instrumentos. +Se acerca cada vez ms, y en el ao 20XX +cualquiera sea el ao cuando nuestros detectores tengan sensibilidad avanzada los construiremos, encenderemos las mquinas y, bang, la atraparemos... la primera cancin del espacio. +Si fuera el Big Bang lo que captramos sonara de este modo. +Es un sonido terrible. +Literalmente es la definicin del ruido. +Es el ruido blanco, es un sonido catico. +Pero, presumiblemente, nos rodea por doquier si no ha desaparecido a causa de otro proceso del Universo. +Y si lo detectamos, ser msica para nuestros odos, porque va a ser el eco tranquilo de ese momento de nuestra creacin, de nuestro universo observable. +As, en los prximos aos vamos a poder subir un poco el volumen de la banda sonora representar el audio del Universo. +Pero si detectamos esos primeros momentos eso nos va a acercar mucho ms a una comprensin del Bing Bang, nos va a acercar mucho ms a plantearnos algunas de las cuestiones ms difciles, ms esquivas. +Si pasamos la pelcula del Universo al revs sabemos que hubo un Big Bang en nuestro pasado y podramos incluso escuchar su sonido cacofnico pero, nuestro Big Bang fue el nico Big Bang? +Digo, tenemos que preguntarnos, sucedi antes? +Suceder de nuevo? +Digo, con la idea de aumentar el desafo de TED de reavivar el asombro podemos hacer preguntas, al menos en este ltimo minuto, que, honestamente, podran evadirnos por siempre. +Pero tenemos que preguntarnos: Es posible que nuestro Universo sea el penacho de una historia ms grande? +As que tenemos que preguntarnos, si hay un multiverso, en algn otro parche de ese multiverso hay criaturas? +Estas son las criaturas de mi multiverso. +Existen otras criaturas en el multiverso que se pregunten por nosotros y por sus propios orgenes? +Y si existen puedo imaginarlos como nosotros: calculando, escribiendo cdigo informtico, construyendo instrumentos, tratando de detectar el ms leve sonido de sus orgenes y preguntndose quin ms est ah afuera. +Gracias. Gracias. +Hay una hermosa declaracin en la pantalla que dice: "La luz crea ambiente, la luz da un sentido de espacio, y es tambin la expresin de la estructura". +Bueno, esto no lo digo yo. +Esto lo dijo, claro, Le Corbusier el famoso arquitecto. +Y aqu pueden ver lo que quera decir en uno de sus hermosos edificios la capilla de Notre-Dame du Haut de Ronchamp donde puede crear esta luz slo gracias a que tambin hay oscuridad. +Y creo que esa es la quintaesencia de esta charla de 18 minutos: no existe buena iluminacin, que sea saludable y nos d bienestar, sin una adecuada oscuridad. +As iluminamos por lo general nuestras oficinas. +Tenemos cdigos y normas que nos dicen que la luz tiene que tener tantos lux y gran uniformidad. +De ese modo creamos iluminacin uniforme de una pared a la otra en una cuadrcula regular de lmparas. +Es algo muy diferente de lo que acabo de mostrarles de Le Corbusier. +Si aplicramos estos cdigos y normas al Panten de Roma nunca se hubiera visto as porque este hermoso rasgo lumnico que deambula por ah con entidad propia slo puede aparecer porque hay tambin oscuridad en ese mismo edificio. +Y es ms o menos lo mismo que dijo Santiago Calatrava con eso de: "la luz es algo que pongo en mis edificios para mayor comodidad". +Y no se refera a la comodidad de una cena de cinco platos en lugar de una comida de un solo plato sino realmente a la comodidad de la calidad de la construccin para la gente. +Quera decir que uno pueda ver el cielo y experimentar el sol. +Y cre estos edificios magnficos donde puede verse el cielo y experimentar el sol y eso nos da una vida mejor en el entorno construido simplemente por la importancia de la luz en sus brillos y en sus sombras. +Todo se reduce, por supuesto, al sol. +Y esta imagen del sol puede sugerir que es algo malo y agresivo. Pero no deberamos olvidar que toda la energa del planeta en realidad viene del sol. Y la luz es slo una manifestacin de esa energa. +El sol es para la dinmica, para los cambios de color, +As que indirectamente puede verse el sol. +Y para eso crearon un elemento edilicio integral para mejorar la calidad del espacio que rodea a los visitantes del museo. +Crearon esta sombra que pueden ver aqu que en realidad cubre el sol pero se abre de par en par a la luz del cielo. +Y aqu pueden ver cmo idearon un hermoso proceso de diseo con modelos fsicos con mtodos tanto cuantitativos como cualitativos para llegar a una solucin final verdaderamente integrada y completamente holstica a la arquitectura. +Y se permitieron algunos errores en el trayecto. +Como pueden ver aqu hay partes de iluminacin directa en el piso pero es fcil adivinar de dnde viene. +Y le permiten a la gente de ese edificio disfrutar realmente del sol, de la parte buena del sol. +Y disfrutar del sol puede hacerse de muchas maneras, claro. +Puede ser de este modo o quiz as, un modo bastante peculiar, pero esto es en 1963: el avistaje de un eclipse solar en Estados Unidos. +Y est un poco brillante all as que estas personas han encontrado una solucin muy interesante. +Creo que esta es una imagen muy ilustrativa de lo que trato de decir: que la hermosa dinmica del sol al incorporar esto a la construccin crea una calidad en nuestro entorno construido que de verdad mejora nuestras vidas. +Y se trata tanto de oscuridad como de iluminacin, por supuesto, porque, de lo contrario, no se ven estas dinmicas. +A diferencia de la primera oficina que mostr al principio de la charla esta es una oficina muy conocida, del White Group. +Hacen consultora en energa ecolgica, o algo as. +Y realmente ponen en prctica lo que predican porque esta oficina no tiene ningn tipo de iluminacin elctrica. +Tienen por un lado este gran ventanal para permitir que la luz solar penetre en el espacio y cree all una hermosa calidad y un gran rango dinmico. +As puede que sea muy tenue por all, y uno hace su trabajo, y que sea muy brillante por all, y uno hace su trabajo. +Pero en realidad el ojo humano resulta ser notablemente adaptable a todas estas diferentes condiciones de iluminacin que juntas crean un ambiente que nunca es aburrido y nunca es apagado y, por lo tanto, nos ayudan a mejorar nuestras vidas. +Debo presentarles brevemente a este hombre. +Es Richard Kelly; naci hace 100 aos, razn por la cual lo saco a relucir dado que es un ao de aniversario. +En la dcada de 1930 Richard Kelly fue la primera persona en describir realmente una metodologa del diseo moderno de iluminacin. +Y l acu 3 trminos que son: "resplandor focal", "luminiscencia ambiente" y "juego de brillantes" mediante ideas bien diferenciadas sobre la luz en la arquitectura y todas juntas componen esta hermosa experiencia. +Empecemos con el resplandor focal. +l quera decir algo como esto... donde la luz da direccin al espacio y nos ayuda a movernos. +O algo como esto, que es el diseo de iluminacin que hizo para General Motors y su exposicin de autos. +Uno entra a ese espacio y se sorprende: "Es tan impresionante!" precisamente por este punto focal, por esta enorme fuente de luz del centro. +Para m es algo del teatro y voy a volver a esto un poco ms adelante. +Es el reflector sobre el artista que nos ayuda a concentrarnos. +Podra ser tambin la luz solar colndose entre las nubes que ilumina una parcela de tierra resaltndola del entorno mortecino. +O en el comercio minorista, en el entorno de las ventas... y creando los acentos que nos ayudan a desplazarnos. +La luminiscencia ambiente es algo muy diferente. +Richard Kelly la vea como algo infinito, algo sin foco, algo en lo que todo detalle se disuelve en el infinito. +Y yo la veo como un tipo de luz muy cmodo que nos ayuda a relajarnos y a contemplar. +Y podra ser tambin algo como esto: el Museo Nacional de Ciencias de Londres donde este azul abraza todas las exhibiciones y galeras en un gesto enorme. +Y, finalmente, la actitud del juego de brillantes de Kelly. Ese juego del perfil de la ciudad de Hong Kong, o quiz de la araa del teatro de la pera, o en este teatro que es una decoracin, la guinda de la torta, algo ldico, algo que es slo una adicin al entorno arquitectnico, yo dira. +Estos 3 elementos distintos juntos crean un entorno de iluminacin que nos ayuda a sentirnos mejor. +Y slo podemos crearlos a partir de la oscuridad. +Voy a explicarlo en detalle. +Supongo que es algo que Richard Kelly, aqu a la izquierda, estaba explicndole a Ludwig Mies Van der Rohe. +Y detrs de ellos est el Edificio Seagram que posteriormente se volvi un cono del diseo moderno de iluminacin. +En esos tiempos ya hubo algunos intentos +tempranos de fototerapia. Aqu puede verse una foto de la Biblioteca de Medicina de Estados Unidos de personas expuestas al sol para que se mejoren. +La historia hoy es un poco diferente; este aspecto sanitario de la luz del que les estoy contando hoy. +En la medicina moderna de hoy hay una comprensin real de la luz de una forma casi bioqumica. +Y existe la idea de que cuando miramos las cosas es la luz amarilla la que ms nos ayuda, a la que somos ms sensibles. +Pero nuestros ritmos circadianos, los ritmos que nos ayudan a despertar, dormir, estar alertas y relajarnos, etc., etc., son muchos ms activos bajo la luz azul. +Y modelando la cantidad de azul en nuestro entorno podemos ayudar a la gente a relajarse, a estar alerta, a conciliar el sueo o a permanecer despierta. +Y, de ese modo, quiz en el futuro cercano, la luz puede ayudar a los hospitales a que los pacientes se mejoren antes, a que se recuperen ms rpido. +Quiz en los aviones podamos superar un jet lag como ese. +Tal vez en la escuela podamos ayudar a los nios a aprender mejor porque se concentran ms en su tarea. +Y pueden imaginar muchas ms aplicaciones. +Pero me gustara hablar ms sobre la combinacin de luz y oscuridad como calidad de vida. +As que la luz, por supuesto, sirve para la interaccin social, para crear relaciones con las caractersticas que nos rodean. +Est en el lugar en el que nos reunimos cuando tenemos que decir algo a alguien. +Y todo tiene que ver con el planeta. +Pero si miramos el planeta de noche, se ve as. +Y creo que esta es la imagen ms impactante en mi charla de hoy. +Porque toda esta luz de aqu sube hasta el cielo. +Nunca llega a la tierra para donde estaba pensada. +Nunca es en beneficio de las personas. +Slo estropea la oscuridad. +A escala mundial se ve as. +Quiero decir, es muy sorprendente lo que se ve aqu... la cantidad de luz que sube al cielo y nunca llega a la tierra. +Porque si mirramos a la Tierra como debera ser, sera algo como esta imagen tan inspiradora con la oscuridad al servicio de la inspiracin y de la contemplacin y para ayudar a identificarnos con todo. +Sin embargo, el mundo est cambiando y la urbanizacin es un gran impulsor de todo. +Tom esta foto hace 2 semanas en Guangzhou y me di cuenta que hace 10 aos no estaban estos edificios. +Era una ciudad mucho ms pequea y el ritmo de urbanizacin es increble y enorme. +Tenemos que entender estas preguntas principales: Cmo se mueve la gente por estos nuevos espacios urbanos? +Cmo comparten su cultura? +Cmo abordar cosas como la movilidad? +Y, cmo puede ayudar la luz en eso? +Porque las nuevas tecnologas parecen estar en una posicin realmente interesante para contribuir a las soluciones de urbanizacin y proporcionarnos mejores entornos. +No hace tanto tiempo nuestra iluminacin se haca con este tipo de lmparas. +Por supuesto, tenamos lmparas fluorescentes y de halogenuros metlicos y cosas por el estilo. +Ahora hay LEDs y aqu se ve la ltima en su tipo y se ve lo increblemente pequeas que son. +Esto es exactamente lo que nos ofrece una oportunidad nica porque este tamao tan pequeo nos permite poner la luz en donde realmente se la necesita. +Y podemos quitarla realmente de donde no se la necesita para nada donde podemos preservar la oscuridad. +As que es una propuesta muy interesante, creo, y una nueva manera de iluminar el entorno arquitectnico con nuestro bienestar en mente. +El problema es que quiero explicarles el funcionamiento de esto... puedo tener 4 de stos en el dedo pero ustedes no podran verlos. +As que le ped a nuestro laboratorio que haga algo al respecto y dijeron: "Bueno, podemos hacer algo". +Crearon para m el LED ms grande del mundo especialmente para TEDxAmsterdam. +As que aqu est. +Es lo mismo que pueden ver all slo que 200 veces ms grande. +Y voy a mostrarles muy rpidamente su funcionamiento. +Slo a fines ilustrativos: +todos los LEDs que se fabrican actualmente dan luz azul. +Esto no es muy agradable ni cmodo. +Por esa razn cubrimos el LED con una tapa de fsforo. +El fsforo se excita con el azul y produce una luz blanca, clida y agradable. +Y luego cuando a eso le agregamos la lente podemos empaquetar la luz y enviarla a donde se la necesite sin necesidad de derramar luz hacia el cielo o a cualquier otro lado. +Se puede preservar la oscuridad y hacer la luz. +Slo quera mostrarles eso +para que entendieran el funcionamiento. Gracias. +Podemos ir ms lejos. +Por eso tenemos que repensar la manera de iluminar nuestras ciudades. +Tenemos que volver a pensar en la luz como solucin predeterminada. +Por qu estn las autopistas iluminadas permanentemente? +Es realmente necesario? +Se puede quiz ser mucho ms selectivo y crear mejores entornos que se beneficien tambin de la oscuridad? +Podemos ser ms sutiles con la luz? +Como aqu... este es un nivel de luz muy bajo. +Podemos atraer ms a la gente en los proyectos de iluminacin que creamos para que quieran conectarse con eso, como aqu? +O, simplemente, podemos crear ms esculturas muy inspiradoras para estar dentro y alrededor? +Y, podemos preservar la oscuridad? +Porque encontrar un lugar como este hoy en la Tierra es realmente muy, muy difcil. +Y encontrar un cielo estrellado como este es an ms difcil. +Incluso en los ocanos estamos creando mucha luz que podramos prohibir en favor de la vida animal para tener mucho mayor bienestar. +Se sabe que las aves migratorias, por ejemplo, se desorientan mucho con estas plataformas de alta mar. +Y descubrimos que, cuando ponemos all luces verdes, las aves van en la direccin correcta. +Ya no se trastornan. +Y resulta una vez ms que la sensibilidad espectral es muy importante aqu. +En todos estos ejemplos, creo, deberamos empezar a hacer luz de la oscuridad y a usar la oscuridad como lienzo... como hacen los artistas visuales, como Edward Hopper en esta pintura. +Creo que hay mucho suspenso en esta pintura. +Cuando la veo, pienso, empiezo a pensar: quin es esa gente? +De dnde han venido? Hacia dnde estn yendo? +Qu acaba de pasar? Qu va a pasar en los prximos 5 minutos? +Y eso slo encarna todas estas historias y toda esta intriga producto de la oscuridad y de la luz. +Edward Hopper fue un verdadero maestro en la creacin de la narracin trabajando con la luz y la oscuridad. +Y podemos aprender de eso y crear entornos arquitectnicos ms interesantes e inspiradores. +Podemos hacerlo en espacios comerciales como este. +Y tambin se puede salir y disfrutar del mayor espectculo del Universo que, por supuesto, es el Universo mismo. +Por eso les presento esta maravillosa e informativa imagen del cielo que va desde el centro de la ciudad, donde puede verse una o dos estrellas y nada ms, hasta llegar a los entornos rurales donde puede disfrutarse esta gran actuacin, magnfica y esplndida, de las constelaciones y las estrellas. +En la arquitectura funciona de la misma manera. +Al apreciar la oscuridad en el diseo de la luz uno crea entornos mucho ms interesantes que realmente mejoran nuestras vidas. +Este es el ejemplo ms conocido: la Iglesia de la Luz, de Tadao Ando. +Pero pienso tambin en el spa de Peter Zumthor en Vals donde la luz y la oscuridad, en combinaciones muy suaves, se alteran mutuamente para definir el espacio. +O la estacin de metro del sur de Londres de Richard McCormack donde realmente puede verse el cielo a pesar de estar bajo tierra. +Y por ltimo quiero sealar que mucha de esta inspiracin viene del teatro. +Y creo que es fantstico que estemos viviendo hoy TEDx en el teatro por primera vez, porque creo que realmente le debemos un gran agradecimiento al teatro. +No hubiera sido una escenografa tan inspiradora sin el teatro. +Y creo que el teatro es un lugar donde de verdad mejoramos la vida con la luz. +Muchas gracias. +Si tuviera una hija, en vez de mam, me llamara Punto B, porque de esa manera sabe que no importa lo que pase, al menos, siempre puede encontrar su camino hacia m. +Y voy a pintar los sistemas solares en las palmas de sus manos, para que tenga que aprender todo el universo antes que pueda decir, "Oh, conozco eso como la palma de mi mano". +Y ella va a aprender que esta vida te golpear duro en la cara, esperar que te repongas slo para patearte el estmago. +Pero quedarte sin aire es la nica forma de recordarle a tus pulmones lo mucho que les gusta el sabor del aire. +Aqu hay heridas que no pueden curarse con curitas o poesa. +Entonces cuando ella comprenda que la Mujer Maravilla no vendr, me asegurar que sepa que no tiene que llevar la capa ella sola Porque no importa cuan ancho extiendas tus dedos, tus manos siempre sern muy pequeas para abarcar todo el dolor que quieres sanar. +Cranme, lo he intentado. +"Y, cario", voy a decirle, no lleves la nariz levantada en el aire. +Conozco ese truco; lo hice millones de veces. +Slo ests oliendo el humo para poder seguir el camino de regreso a una casa en llamas, para poder encontrar al chico que perdi todo en el fuego para ver si puedes salvarlo. +O bien encontrar al chico que comenz el incendio, para ver si puedes cambiarlo" +Pero se que ella lo har de todos modos, por eso siempre tendr cerca una racin extra de chocolate y botas de lluvia, porque no hay angustia que el chocolate no pueda curar. +Bueno, hay algunas angustias que el chocolate no puede curar. +Pero para eso estn las botas de lluvia. Porque si la dejas, la lluvia se lleva todo. +Quiero que ella mire el mundo a travs del fondo de vidrio de un barco, que a travs de un microscopio mire las galaxias que existen en ese puntito que es la mente humana porque esa es la forma en que mi mam me ense +Que habr das como este. + Habr das como este, mi mam dijo. +Cuando abres tus manos para atrapar y terminas slo con moretones y ampollas; Cuando sales de la cabina telefnica y tratas de volar y las mismas personas que quieres salvar son los que estn pisando tu capa; cuando tus botas se llenarn de agua, y estars desilusionada hasta las rodillas +Y son precisamente esos das en que tienes ms razones para decir gracias. +Porque no hay nada ms hermoso que la forma en que el ocano se niega a dejar de besar la costa, No importa cuntas veces se aleja. +Pondrs el viento en ganar algo, perder algo. +Pondrs la estrella en comenzar una y otra vez. +Y no importa cuntas minas estallen en un minuto, asegrate que tu mente aterrize en la belleza de este raro lugar llamado vida. +Y si, en una escala de uno a exceso de confianza, soy bastante ingenua. +Pero quiero que ella sepa que este mundo est hecho de azcar. +Puede derrumbarse fcilmente, pero no tengas miedo de sacar la lengua y saborearlo. +"Cario", voy a decirle, "recuerda que tu mam se preocupa y tu pap es un luchador, y t eres la nia con manos pequeas y ojos grandes quien nunca se cansa de pedir ms". +Recuerda que las cosas buenas vienen de a tres, y las cosas malas tambin. +Y siempre disclpate cuando hayas hecho algo mal. Pero nunca te disculpes por la forma en que tus ojos se niegan dejar de brillar. +Tu voz es pequea, pero nunca dejes de cantar. +Y cuando finalmente la tristeza te embargue, cuando el odio y la guerra se deslicen bajo tu puerta y te ofrezcan folletos en las esquinas de cinismo y derrota, les dices que realmente deberan conocer a tu madre. +Gracias. Gracias. +Gracias. +Gracias. +Gracias. +Bien, ahora quiero que se tomen un momento, y piensen en tres cosas que saben que son ciertas. +Puede ser acerca de lo que quieran -- tecnologa, entretenimiento, diseo, su familia, lo que desayunaron. +La nica regla es no pensar demasiado. +Bien, listos? Vamos. +Bien. +Aqu van las tres cosas que yo s que son verdad. +S que Jean-Luc Godard tena razn cuando dijo que, "una buena historia tiene un comienzo, un desarrollo y un final, aunque no necesariamente en ese orden". +S que estoy muy nerviosa y emocionada de estar aqu, lo cual est inhibiendo mi habilidad para mantenerme tranquila. +Y s que estuve esperando toda la semana para contarles este chiste. +Por qu el espantapjaros fue invitado a TED? +Porque sobresali en su campo. +Lo siento. +Bien, entonces hay 3 cosas que s que son ciertas. +Pero hay un montn de cosas que tengo problemas para entender. +As que escribo poemas, para entender las cosas. +A veces la nica forma en que s cmo manejar algo es escribiendo un poema. +Y a veces llego al final del poema y lo leo y digo, "Ah, de eso se trata todo esto". Y a veces llego al final del poema y no he resuelto nada, pero al menos hago de esto un nuevo poema. +La poesa "Spoken Word" es el arte de la poesa representada. +Le digo a la gente que implica crear poesa que no sea slo para quedarse en el papel, que algo de esto exige que se escuche en voz alta o sea presenciada en persona. +Cuando cursaba el primer ao de la escuela secundaria, yo era un manojo de nervios. +Y estaba poco desarrollada y facilmente irritable. +Y a pesar de mi temor de que me observasen por mucho tiempo, estaba fascinada con la idea de la poesa spoken word. +Sent que mis dos amores secretos, la poesa y el teatro, se unieron, tuvieron un bebe, un bebe que necesitaba conocer. +Asi que decid darle una oportunidad. +Mi primer poema spoken word, lleno de toda la sabidura de los 14 aos, fue acerca de la injusticia deser vista como poco femenina. +El poema era de mucha indignacin y principalmente exagerado, pero la nica poesa spoken word que haba visto hasta entonces era principalmente de indignacin asi que pens que era eso lo que se esperaba de mi. +La primera vez que hice la representacin la audiencia de adolescentes clamaron y gritaron su simpata, y cuando sal del escenario, estaba temblando. +Sent que tocaron mi hombro, me d vuelta para ver salir de la multitud esta chica gigante de buzo con capucha. +Quizs meda ms de 2 metros y pareca que poda darme una paliza con una mano, pero en cambio, slo asinti con su cabeza y dijo, "Hey, realmente lo sent. Gracias". +Y me cay un rayo. +Me enganch. +Descubr este bar en el Lower East Side de Manhattan que semanalmente ofreca poesa con micrfono abierto, y mis padres desconcertados, pero incondicionales, me llevaron para empaparme de cada tomo de spoken word que poda. +Yo era al menos una dcada ms joven que el resto pero de alguna forma, a los poetas del Club de poesa Bowery no pareca molestarles que alguien de 14 aos anduviera por ah +de hecho, me recibieron bien. +Y fue aqu, escuchando a estos poetas compartir sus historias que aprend que la poesa spoken word no tena que estar llena indignacin poda ser divertida o triste o seria o tonta. +El Club de Poesa Bowery se convirti en mi saln de clases y en mi hogar. Y los poetas que representaban me alentaban a compartir tambin mis historias. +No importaba el hecho de que tuviese 14 aos -- +me dijeron, "Escribe sobre tener 14 aos". +As lo hice y me sorprenda cada semana cuando estos brillantes poetas adultos se rean conmigo y simpatizaban y aplaudindome me decan, "Hey, yo tambin siento eso". +Puedo dividir mi camino a travs del spoken word en 3 pasos. +El primer paso, fue el momento en que dije, "Yo puedo. Puedo hacer esto". +Y eso fue gracias a la chica del buzo con capucha. +El segundo paso, fue el momento en que dije, "Lo har. Continuar. +Me encanta el spoken word. Continuar volviendo cada semana". +Y el tercer paso comenz cuando comprend que no tena que escribir poemas que fueran de enojo si eso no es lo que yo era. +Haba cosas que eran especficas para m, y cuanto ms me enfocaba en esas cosas, ms extraa se volva mi poesa, pero ms la senta como ma. +No es slo el adagio de "escribe lo que sabes", +se trata de reunir todos los conocimientos y la experiencia que recogiste hasta el momento que te ayudan a sumergirte en las cosas que no sabes. +Utilizo la poesa para lidiar con las cosas que no entiendo, pero con cada nueva poesa aparezco con una mochila llena de todos los lugares en los que he estado. +Cuando entr a la universidad, me encontr con un compaero poeta quien comparta mi creencia en la magia de la poesa spoken word. +Y en realidad, Phil Kaye y yo coincidentemente tambin compartimos el mismo apellido. +Cuando estaba en la escuela secundaria haba creado el Proyecto V.O.I.C.E. +como una forma de alentar a mis amigos a que hagan conmigo spoken word. +Pero Phil y yo decidimos reinventar el proyecto V.O.I.C.E. -- esta vez cambiando la misin para usar la poesa spoken word como una forma de entretener, educar e inspirar. +ramos estudiantes de tiempo completo, pero en el medio viajbamos, actuando y enseando a nios desde 9 aos hasta candidatos en Master en Bellas Artes, desde California hasta Indiana, y hasta India, hasta en una escuela secundaria pblica, en la misma calle del campus. +Y veamos una y otra vez la forma en que la poesa spoken word entreabra las cerraduras. +Pero result que a veces, la poesa puede ser realmente aterradora. +Result que a veces, tienes que engaar a los adolescentes para que escriban poesa. +As que se me ocurrieron las listas. Todo el mundo puede escribir listas. +Y la primera lista que asigno es la de "10 cosas que s que son ciertas". +Y esto es lo que sucede, y esto es lo que ustedes descubriran tambin si todos empezamos a compartir nuestras listas en voz alta. +En cierto punto, se daran cuenta que alguien tiene exactamente lo mismo o una cosa muy parecida, a algo de tu lista. +Y luego alguien ms tiene algo totalmente opuesto a las tuyas. +Un tercero tiene algo que nunca antes has odo hablar. +Y un cuarto tiene algo de lo que t pensabas que sabas todo, pero ellos introdujeron una nueva perspectiva para analizarlo. +Y le digo a la gente que es aqu donde las grandes historias empiezan -- en estas 4 intersecciones en lo que te apasiona y de lo que otros podran emplear. +Y la mayora de la gente responde muy bien a este ejercicio. +Pero una de mis estudiantes, de primer ao llamada Charlotte, no estaba convencida. +Charlotte era muy buena escribiendo listas, pero se negaba a escribir poemas. +"Seorita", me dira, "Simplemente no soy interesante +No tengo nada interesante para decir". +As que le asignaba lista tras lista, y un da le asign la lista "10 Cosas que ya deberamos haber aprendido". +El tercer punto de la lista de Charlotte deca, "Debera haber aprendido a no enamorarme de chicos que me triplican en edad". +Le pregunt qu significaba eso, y me dijo, "Seorita, es una larga historia". +Y le dije, "Charlotte, para m suena muy interesante". +Y entonces ella escribi su primer poema, un poema de amor diferente a cualquier otro que yo hubiese escuchado antes. +Y el poema comenzaba, "Anderson Cooper es un hombre magnfico". +Lo vieron en 60 Minutos, compitiendo con Michael Phelps en una piscina -- slo con un traje de bao -- buceando en el agua, decidido a vencer a este campen de natacin? +Luego de la carrera, sacudi su platinado y mojado cabello y dijo, "Eres un dios". No, Anderson, t eres el dios": +Ahora, s que la regla nmero uno para ser interesante es parecer imperturbable, no admitir nunca que algo te atemoriza o te impresiona o te entusiasma. +Una vez alguien me dijo es como caminar por la vida as. +Te proteges a t mismo de todas las miserias y dolores inesperados que puedan aparecer. +Pero yo intento caminar por la vida as. +Y s, eso significa agarrar todas esas miserias y dolores, pero tambin significa que cuando las cosas hermosas y maravillosas caen del cielo, estoy lista para tomarlas. +Uso spoken word para ayudar a mis alumnos a redescubrir las maravillas, a luchar contra sus instintos de ser esquivos e imperturbables y, en cambio, buscar activamente estar comprometidos con lo que sucede a su alrededor, para que pueden reinterpretar y crear algo de eso. +No es que yo piense que la poesa spoken word sea la forma de arte ideal. +Siempre estoy tratando de encontrar la mejor forma de contar cada historia. +Escribo musicales, hago cortometrajes junto con mis poemas. +Pero enseo poesa spoken word porque es accesible. +No todo el mundo puede leer msica o tener una cmara, pero todos pueden comunicarse de alguna forma, y todos tienen historias de la cuales el resto de nosotros podemos aprender. +Adems, la poesa spoken work facilita la conexin inmediata. +No es extrao que las personas sientan que estn solas o que nadie las entiende, pero la poesa spoken word ensea que si tienes la habilidad para expresarte y la valenta para mostrar esas historias y opiniones, puedes ser recompensado con una sala llena de compaeros, o de la comunidad, que te escucharn. +Y quizs hasta una chica gigante de buzo con capucha se conectar con lo que compartiste. +Y lograr ese descubrimiento es increible, en especial cuando tienes 14 aos. +Adems, ahora con YouTube, esa conexin no se limita a la sala en la que estamos. +Soy tan afortunada de que haya archivos de actuaciones que puedo compartir con mis alumnos. +Les permite tener ms oportunidades de encontrar un poeta o una poesa para conectarse. +Es tentador - una vez que se hayan dado cuenta de esto - es tentador seguir escribiendo el mismo poema, o seguir contando la misma historia, una y otra vez, una vez que descubriste que vas a ser aplaudido. +No basta con ensear que puedes expresarte; +tienes que crecer y explorar y arriesgarte y desafiarte a t mismo. +Y ese es el tercer paso: inculcar en el trabajo que ests haciendo con las cosas especficas que te hacen quien eres incluso cuando las cosas estn siempre cambiando. +Porque el tercer paso nunca termina. +Pero no llegas a comenzar el tercer paso, si primero no tomas el primero: Yo puedo. +Mientras enseo viajo mucho, y no siempre llego a ver a todos mis estudiantes alcanzar su tercer paso, pero fu muy afortunada con Charlotte, que llegu a ver desarrollar su camino de la forma en que lo hizo. +La vi descubrir que al poner las cosas que sabe que son ciertas en el trabajo que est haciendo, puede crear poesas que slo Charlotte puede escribir -- sobre los globos oculares y los ascensores y Dora la Exploradora. +Y estoy tratando de contar historias que slo yo puedo contar -- como esta historia. +Pas mucho tiempo pensando en la mejor forma de contar esta historia, y me pregunt si la mejor forma era un PowerPoint o un cortometraje -- y dnde estaban exactamente el comienzo o el desarrollo o el final? +Y me preguntaba si llegara al final de esta charla y, finalmente, lo habra descubierto todo, o no. +Y siempre pens que mi comienzo fue en el Club de Poesa Bowery, pero es posible que haya sido mucho antes. +Mientras me preparaba para TED, descubr esta pgina en un diario antiguo. +Creo que el 54 de diciembre, probablemente fuese 24 de diciembre. +Es evidente que cuando yo era una nia, definitivamente caminaba por la vida as. +Creo que todos lo hicimos. +Me gustara ayudar a que otros redescubran esa maravilla que quieran comprometerse con esto y aprender, y compartir lo que aprendieron, lo que descubren que es cierto y lo que todava estn tratando de entender. +As que me gustara terminar con este poema. +Cuando bombardearon Hiroshima, la explosin form una pequea supernova, y entonces cada ser vivo, humano o planta que recibi contacto directo de los rayos de ese sol inmediatamente se convirti en cenizas. +Y lo mismo pas con lo que quedaba en la ciudad. +El dao duradero de la radiacin nuclear a una ciudad entera y su poblacin. +Mi mam me cont que cuando nac yo miraba todo a mi alrededor en la habitacin del hospital con una mirada que deca: "Esto? Yo hice esto antes". +Ella dice que yo tengo ojos de vejez. +Cuando mi abuelo Genji muri, yo slo tena 5 aos, pero tom de la mano a mi mam y le dije, "No te preocupes, l volver como un bebe". +Y, sin embargo, para alguien que al parecer ya haba hecho esto, Todava no he entendido nada. +Mis rodillas siguen aflojndose cada vez que subo al escenario. +Mi autoconfianza puede ser medida con cucharaditas mezcladas en mi poesa, y an as, siempre tiene un sabor raro en mi boca. +Pero en Hiroshima, algunas personas fueron borradas, dejando slo un reloj de pulsera o una pgina de diario. +As que no importa que yo tenga inhibiciones para llenar todos mis bolsillos, contino intentando, esperando que algn da escriba un poema del que est orgullosa que se exhiba en un museo como la nica prueba de que he existido. +Mis padres me llamaron Sarah, que es un nombre bblico. +En la historia original Dios le dijo a Sara que poda hacer algo imposible y ella se ech a rer, porque la primera Sarah, no saba qu hacer con lo imposible. +Y yo? Bueno, tampoco lo s, pero veo lo imposible todos los das +Imposible es tratar de conectarse en este mundo, tratando de sostener a los dems, mientras que todo a tu alrededor estalla sabiendo que mientras ests hablando, no estn a la espera de su turno para hablar -- te escuchan. +Sienten exctamente lo que t sientes en el mismo momento en que t lo sientes. +Es lo que me esfuerzo por lograr cada vez que abro mi boca - esa conexin imposible. +Existe un parte de pared en Hiroshima que qued negra, quemada completamente por la radiacin. +Pero una persona que estaba sentada en la escalera del frente evit que los rayos llegaran a la piedra. +Lo nico que queda ahora es una sombra permanente, de luz positiva. +Luego de la bomba A, los especialistas dijeron que llevara 75 aos para que en el suelo de la ciudad de Hiroshima daado por la radiacin volviera a crecer algo. +Pero esa primavera, hubo nuevos brotes surgiendo de la tierra. +Cuando te conozco, en ese momento, ya no soy parte de tu futuro. +Rpidamente comienzo a convertirme en parte de tu pasado. +Pero en ese instante, llego a compartir tu presente. +Y t compartes el mo. +Y de todos, ese es el mejor presente. +As que si me dices que yo puedo hacer lo imposible, probablemente me ra de t. +Todava no s si puedo cambiar el mundo, porque no s mucho sobre esto -- y tampoco s mucho sobre la reencarnacin, pero si me haces reir lo suficiente, a veces me olvido en qu siglo estoy. +Esta no es mi primera vez aqu. Esta no es mi ltima vez aqu. +Estas no son las ltimas palabras que compartir. +Pero por si acaso, hago mi mayor esfuerzo por hacerlo bien esta vez. +Gracias. +Gracias. +Gracias. +Yo tena solo cuatro aos cuando v a mi madre llenar una lavadora de ropa por primera vez en su vida. +Fue un gran dia para mi madre. +Ella y mi padre haban ahorrado durante aos para poder comprar esa lavadora. Y el da que iban a usarla, invitaron hasta a mi abuela a ver la lavadora. +Y mi abuela estaba ms emocionada an. +Durante su vida siempre tuvo que calentar agua con lea, y lavar la ropa a mano para siete hijos. +Y ahora iba a presenciar cmo la electricidad haca ese trabajo. +Mi madre abri la puerta con cuidado, luego meti la ropa en la lavadora, as. +Y entonces, cuando cerr la puerta, Mi abuela dijo: "No, no, no, no... +...djame a m, djame presionar el botn." +Y ella presion el botn, y dijo: "Oh, es fantstico... +...Quiero ver esto. Dame una silla... +...Dame una silla. Quiero verlo." Y se sent frente a la lavadora, y observ todo el proceso de lavado. +Estaba embelesada. +Para mi abuela, la lavadora era un milagro. +Hoy, en Suecia y en otros pases ricos, la gente usa mquinas muy diferentes. +Miren, los hogares estn llenos de aparatos. +Ni siquiera s cmo se llaman todos. +Y adems, cuando quieren viajar, usan mquinas voladoras que los llevan a destinos remotos. +Y an hay mucha gente en el mundo, que debe calentar agua en el fuego, y cocinar sus alimentos en la hoguera. +A veces no tienen suficiente comida. Viven bajo el umbral de la pobreza. +Hay dos mil millones de personas que viven con menos de dos dlares al da. +Y la gente rica de aqu, que suman mil millones de personas, viven por encima de lo que llamo el umbral del cielo, porque gastan ms de 80 dlares diarios en consumo. +Pero estos son slo 1, 2, 3 mil millones de personas, y obviamente hay 7 mil millones en el mundo, as que debe haber 1, 2, 3, 4 mil millones ms, que viven entre el umbral de la pobreza y el del cielo. +Ellos tienen electricidad, pero la cuestin es, cuntos tienen lavadoras? +He analizado los datos de mercado, y he encontrado que, de hecho, la lavadora ha bajado del umbral del cielo, y que hoy en da hay mil millones de personas ms que viven sobre el umbral del lavado. +Y ellos consumen ms de 40 dlares al da. +As que dos mil millones de personas tienen acceso a lavadoras. +Y los cinco mil restantes, cmo lavan la ropa? +O, para ser ms precisos, cmo lavan la ropa la mayora de las mujeres en el mundo? +Porque sigue siendo un trabajo duro para las mujeres. +Ellas lavan as, a mano. +Es un trabajo duro, cansado, que deben hacer durante horas cada semana. +Y a veces tambin deben traer agua desde lejos para lavar en casa. O deben llevar la ropa lejos, hasta una corriente de agua. +Ellas quieren una lavadora. +No quieren perder tanto tiempo de sus vidas haciendo este duro trabajo tan poco productivo. +Y su deseo no es para nada diferente del que tena mi abuela. +Miren aqu, hace dos generaciones en Suecia estaban cogiendo agua del rio, calentndola en lea y lavando as. +De igual modo, ellas quieren una lavadora. +Pero cuando lo propongo a estudiantes ambientalistas, me dicen: "No, todo el mundo no puede tener coches y lavadoras." +Cmo podemos decirles a estas mujeres que nunca van a tener una lavadora? +Entonces pregunto a mis estudiantes... Les he preguntado, durante los ltimos dos aos: "Cuantos de ustedes no utilizan el coche?" +Y algunos levantan sus manos orgullosos y dicen: "Yo no uso el coche." +Y luego les hago la pregunta difcil: "Cuntos de ustedes lavan a mano sus pantalones y sus sbanas?" +Nadie levanta la mano. +Hasta los acrrimos en el movimiento verde usan lavadoras. +As que, cmo es que esto es algo que todo el mundo usa y que nadie dejar de hacerlo?, qu tiene de especial? +Debo hacer un anlisis sobre la energa que se consume en el mundo. +All vamos. +Aqu ven los siete mil millones de personas: la gente del aire, la gente del lavado, la gente de las bombillas y la gente del fuego. +Una unidad de estas es una parte de combustible fsil: pertrleo, carbn o gas. +Esto es lo que son la electricidad y la energa en el mundo. +En todo el mundo se usan 12 partes, y los mil millones ms ricos usan seis de ellas. +La mitad de la energa la usa la sptima parte de la poblacin mundial. +Y estos que tienen lavadoras, pero no una casa llena de otros aparatos, utilizan dos. +Este grupo usa tres, una cada uno. +Y ellos tambin tienen electricidad. +Y por aqu ni siquiera usan una cada uno. +Eso suma las 12 partes. +Pero la principal preocupacin de los estudiantes ambientalistas, y tienen razn, es el futuro. +Cules son las tendencias? Si prolongamos las tendencias, sin ningn anlisis avanzado hasta 2050, hay dos cosas que pueden aumentar el uso de energa. +Primero, el crecimiento de la poblacin. +Segundo, el crecimiento econmico. +El crecimiento demogrfico se producir entre la gente pobre de aqu, porque tienen altas tasas de mortalidad infantil y tienen muchos nios por mujer. +Y as tendremos dos ms, pero eso no cambiar mucho el uso de la energa. +Lo que pasar es el crecimiento econmico. +El mayor aqu en las economas emergentes. Yo los llamo el Nuevo Oriente. Saltarn el umbral del cielo. +Dirn: "Wop!". +Y comenzarn a usar tanto como el Viejo Occidente. +Y esta gente quiere lavadoras. +Se lo dije: Ellos irn all. +Y duplicar la cantidad de energa que utilizan. +Esperamos que la gente pobre empiece a usar la luz elctrica, +y que tengan familias de dos hijos sin detener el crecimiento demogrfico. +Pero el consumo total de energa aumentar a 22 unidades. +Y de esas 22 unidades los ms ricos an usarn la mayora. +As que, qu se debe hacer? +Porque el riesgo, la gran probabilidad de cambio climtico es real. +Es real. +Por supuesto debern ser ms eficientes energticamente. +Deben cambiar su comportamiento de alguna manera. +Tambin debern comenzar a producir energa verde, mucha ms energa verde. +Pero hasta que tengan el mismo consumo de energa por persona, no deberan decir a los dems qu hacer y qu no. +Aqu podemos obtener energa verde por todas partes. +Es lo que deseamos que pase. +Es un verdadero reto en el futuro. +Pero puedo asegurarles que esta mujer de una favela de Rio desea una lavadora. +Ella est muy contenta con su ministra de energa que les dio electricidad a todos, est contenta por haberla votado. +Ella se convirti en Dilma Rousseff, la presidenta electa de una de las democracias ms grandes del mundo. Pas de ministra de energa a presidente. +Si hay democracia, la gente votar por lavadoras. +Las aman. +Y cul es la magia de las lavadoras? +Mi madre me explic esa magia el primer da. +Me dijo: "Ahora, Hans, metemos la ropa, +y la lavadora har el trabajo. +Y nosotros podemos ir a la biblioteca." +Porque esta es la magia: uno carga la ropa, y qu sale de la lavadora? +De la lavadora salen libros, libros para nios. +Y mi madre tuvo tiempo de leer para mi. +A ella le encantaba. Tuve el "ABC" All comenc mi carrera de profesor, cuando mi madre tuvo tiempo de leer para mi. +Y tambin consigui libros para ella. +Se las arregl para estudiar Ingls y aprender una lengua extranjera. +Y ley muchas novelas, muchas novelas diferentes. +Nosotros realmente ambamos esta mquina. +Y lo que dijimos mi madre y yo fue: "Gracias, industrializacin. +Gracias fbrica de acero. +Gracias estacin de energa. +Y gracias industria qumica por darnos tiempo para leer libros." +Muchas gracias. +Hoy quiero hablar de diseo pero no del diseo como solemos pensarlo. +Quiero hablar de lo que est sucediendo ahora en nuestra cultura cientfica y biotecnolgica en la que, por primera vez en la historia, tenemos el poder para disear cuerpos, para disear cuerpos de animales, para disear cuerpos humanos. +En la historia de nuestro planeta han habido tres grandes olas de evolucin. +La primera ola de evolucin es lo que pensamos como evolucin darwiniana. +As, como saben, las especies vivan en nichos ecolgicos particulares, en entornos particulares, y las presiones de dichos entornos seleccionaban qu cambios, mediante mutaciones aleatorias de especies, iban a ser preservados. +Los seres humanos se apartaron del flujo darwiniano de la historia evolutiva y crearon la segunda gran ola de evolucin que consisti en cambiar el entorno en el que evolucionamos. +Alteramos nuestro nicho ecolgico creando la civilizacin. +Y ese ha sido el segundo gran flujo -hace un par de cientos de milenios, 150 000 aos- de nuestra evolucin. +Al cambiar nuestro entorno pusimos nuevas presiones a nuestros cuerpos en evolucin. +Ya sea por medio del establecimiento de comunidades agrcolas o por todo el espectro hasta la medicina moderna, pero hemos cambiado nuestra propia evolucin. +Ahora estamos entrando en una tercera gran ola de la historia evolutiva que ha sido llamada de muchas maneras: evolucin intencional, evolucin de diseo -muy distinto del diseo inteligente- por el cual estamos actualmente diseando y alterando intencionalmente las formas fsiolgicas que habitan el planeta. +Recorramos ahora esto en una especie de viaje vertiginoso para luego, al final, ver un poco algunas de las consecuencias para nosotros y para nuestras especies, as como para nuestras culturas, debidas a este cambio. +Hemos estado haciendo eso durante mucho tiempo. +Empezamos con la cra selectiva de animales hace muchos, muchos miles de aos. +Y si se piensa en los perros, por ejemplo, los perros son criaturas diseadas intencionalmente. +No existe un perro en el planeta que sea una criatura natural. +Los perros son el resultado de los rasgos de cra selectiva que nos gustan. +Pero tuvimos que hacerlo de la manera difcil en los viejos tiempos eligiendo la descendencia que tena un aspecto particular y luego crindolos. +Ya no tenemos que hacerlo de ese modo. +Este es un bfalo. +Un bfalo, hbrido de bfalo y res. +Ahora se los est criando y algn da, tal vez muy pronto, habr hamburguesas de bfalo en los supermercados locales. +Esta es una cabreja un hbrido cabra-oveja. +Los cientficos que hicieron esta linda criaturita terminaron carnendola y luego se la comieron. +Creo que dijeron que saba a pollo. +Este es un cama. +Un cama es un hbrido camello-llama creado para conseguir la resistencia de un camello con algunos rasgos de la personalidad de una llama. +Y ahora lo estn usando en ciertas culturas. +Luego est el ligre. +Este es el felino ms grande del mundo, el hbrido len-tigre. +Es ms grande que un tigre. +Y, en el caso del ligre, se han encontrado uno o dos en la Naturaleza. +Pero estos fueron creados por cientficos mediante cra selectiva y tecnologa gentica. +Y, finalmente, el favorito de todos: el cebrallo. +A nada de esto se le aplic Photoshop; estas son criaturas reales. +Y, as, una de las cosas que hemos estado haciendo es utilizar mejoramiento gentico, o manipulacin gentica, de cra selectiva normal impulsada un poco por la gentica. +Y an si eso fuera todo ya sera interesante. +Pero algo mucho, mucho ms poderoso est sucediendo. +Estas son clulas de un mamfero normal modificadas genticamente con un gen bioluminiscente que se extrae de las medusas de alta mar. +Sabemos que algunas criaturas de alta mar, brillan. +Bueno, ahora han tomado ese gen, el gen bioluminiscente, para ponerlo en las clulas de mamferos. +Estas son clulas normales. +Y lo que se ve aqu son estas clulas que brillan en la oscuridad bajo ciertas longitudes de onda. +Una vez que pudieron hacerlo con las clulas, lo hicieron con los organismos. +As lo hicieron con cras de ratn, y gatitos. +Y, por cierto, la razn por la que esos gatitos son naranjas y estos son verdes se debe a que ese es un gen bioluminiscente del coral y este es de la medusa. +Lo hicieron en cerdos, +lo hicieron en cachorros, +y, de hecho, lo hicieron en monos. +Y si pueden hacerlo en monos -aunque el gran salto para manipular genticamente es en realidad entre monos y simios- si pueden hacerlo en monos probablemente pueden encontrar cmo hacerlo en simios lo que significa que pueden hacerlo en seres humanos. +En otras palabras, en teora es posible que en poco tiempo seamos capaces, biotecnolgicamente, de crear seres humanos que brillen en la oscuridad, +ms fciles de ubicar de noche. +Y, de hecho, ahora mismo en muchos estados uno puede ir a comprar mascotas bioluminiscentes. +Estos son peces cebra. Normalmente son negros y plateados. +Estos son peces cebras modificados genticamente para ser amarillos, verdes, rojos, y en realidad estn disponibles ahora en algunos estados. +En otros estados han sido prohibidos. +Nadie sabe qu hacer con estos tipos de criaturas. +No hay ente de control del gobierno que regule las mascotas modificadas genticamente. +Y, as, algunos estados han decidido permitirlas y otros han decidido prohibirlas. +Algunos quiz hayan ledo la consideracin de la Adm. de Drogas y Alimentos sobre el salmn genticamente modificado. +El salmn de arriba es un salmn chinook genticamente modificado con un gen de estos salmones y de otro pescado que comemos para hacerlo crecer mucho ms rpido con mucho menos alimento. +Ahora la Adm. de Drogas y Alimentos est llegando a una decisin sobre si, dentro de poco, podremos comer este pez; se va a vender en los comercios. +Antes de que se preocupen demasiado, aqu en Estados Unidos, la mayora de los alimentos que compramos en el supermercado ya tienen componentes genticamente modificados. +As, aunque nos preocupemos por eso, lo hemos permitido en este pas -muy diferente en Europa- sin regulacin alguna e incluso sin identificacin alguna en el paquete. +Estos son los primeros animales clonados en su tipo. +En realidad fue la primera persona en clonar un perro, algo muy difcil de hacer, porque los genomas del perro son muy plsticos. +Este es Prometeo, el primer caballo clonado. +Es un caballo haflinger clonado en Italia, una verdadera joya de la clonacin, porque hay muchos caballos que ganan carreras importantes por estar castrados. +En otras palabras, lo que los hace sementales ha sido eliminado. +Pero si podemos clonar ese caballo se puede tener la ventaja de un caballo castrado para las carreras y su duplicado gentico idntico ser utilizado como semental. +Estos fueron los primeros terneros clonados, los primeros lobos grises clonados. Y luego, finalmente, los primeros lechones clonados: Alexis, Chista, Carrel, Janie y Puntocom. +Adems, empezamos a usar la tecnologa de clonacin para tratar de salvar especies en peligro. +Este es el uso de animales para crear drogas y otras cosas en sus cuerpos que queremos producir. +As que con la antitrombina en la cabra -esa cabra ha sido genticamente modificada para que las molculas de su leche contengan las molculas de antitrombina que GTC Genetics quiere crear. +Estas son dos criaturas que fueron creadas para salvar las especies en peligro. +El guar es un ungulado del sureste asitico, en peligro de extincin. +Una clula somtica, una clula del organismo, fue sacada de su cuerpo, gestada en el vulo de una vaca, y luego esa vaca dio a luz a un guar. +Lo mismo sucedi con el mufln una especie ovina en peligro de extincin. +Se gest en un cuerpo comn de oveja, lo cual plantea un problema biolgico interesante. +Tenemos dos tipos de ADN en nuestros cuerpos. +Tenemos el ADN nucleico, que todo el mundo piensa como nuestro ADN, pero tambin tenemos el ADN mitocondrial, que son los paquetes de energa de la clula. +Ese ADN se transmite por va materna. +Por eso, en realidad, terminamos no con un guar ni con un mufln, sino con un guar con mitocondrias vacunas y por ende un ADN mitocondrial vacuno, y un mufln con ADN mitocondrial de otra especie ovina. +Estos en verdad son hbridos, no animales puros. +Y eso plantea la cuestin de cmo vamos a definir las especies animales en la era de la biotecnologa -una cuestin que todava no estamos seguros cmo resolver. +Esta criatura encantadora es una cucaracha asitica. +Y lo que han hecho aqu es poner electrodos en sus ganglios y en su cerebro y un transmisor en la parte superior, y est sobre una gran bola de seguimiento por computador. +Y, con un joystick, pueden enviar a esta criatura por el laboratorio y controlar si va a la izquierda o a la derecha, hacia delante o hacia atrs. +Han creado una especie de insecto robot, o bichobot. +Pero hay algo peor que eso -o tal vez mejor que eso. +Este es uno de los proyectos ms importantes de DARPA -DARPA es la Agencia de Investigacin de Defensa- uno de sus proyectos. +Estos escarabajos goliat tienen las alas cableadas. +Tienen un chip atado a sus espaldas y pueden hacer volar estas criaturas por el laboratorio. +Pueden mandarlos a izquierda y derecha. Pueden hacerlos despegar. +En verdad no pueden hacerlos aterrizar. +Los traen a unos 2,5 cm del suelo y luego apagan todo y hacen puf! +Pero es lo ms cercano a un aterrizaje que pueden lograr. +Y, de hecho, esta tecnologa se ha desarrollado tanto que esta criatura... esta es una polilla. Esta es la polilla en su etapa de pupa y es entonces cuando le ponen los cables y le ponen la tecnologa informtica. De modo que cuando la pupa se hace polilla ya est precableada. +Los cables ya estn en su cuerpo y slo hay que conectar su tecnologa y ahora estn estos bichobots que pueden enviarse a vigilar. +Pueden ponerles pequeas cmaras y tal vez algn da ofrecer otro tipo de artillera para zonas de guerra. +No se trata slo de insectos. +Esta es la ratabot, o robo-rata de Sanjiv Talwar, de SUNY Downstate. +De nuevo, tiene tecnologa, tiene electrodos en sus hemisferios izquierdo y derecho, tiene una cmara en la cabeza. +Los cientficos pueden hacer que esta criatura vaya a izquierda y derecha. +La hacen correr en laberintos, controlando hacia dnde est yendo. +Ahora han creado un robot orgnico. +Los estudiantes de postgrado del laboratorio de Sanjiv Talwar dijeron: "Esto es tico?" +Le hemos quitado la autonoma a este animal". +Voy a volver a eso en un minuto. +Tambin ha habido trabajo en monos. +Este es Miguel Nicolelis, de Duke. +Tom una mona bho, la cable para poder monitorear su cerebro mientras se mova, y, sobre todo, para ver el movimiento de su brazo derecho. +La computadora aprendi lo que haca el cerebro de la mona en varios movimientos del brazo. +Luego conectaron el equipo a un brazo ortopdico que ven aqu en la imagen y pusieron el brazo en otra habitacin. +Muy pronto la computadora aprendi, leyendo las ondas cerebrales de la mona, a hacer que el brazo de la otra habitacin hiciera lo mismo que el brazo de la mona. +Luego pusieron un monitor en la jaula de la mona que le mostraba este brazo ortopdico y la mona qued fascinada. +Se dio cuenta que lo que fuera que hiciese con su brazo sera emulado por este brazo ortopdico. +Hasta que al final lo estaba moviendo y moviendo y en un momento dej de mover su brazo derecho y, mirando la pantalla, pudo mover el brazo ortopdico de la otra habitacin slo con sus ondas cerebrales lo que significa que la mona se convirti en la primera primate en la historia mundial en tener tres brazos funcionales independientes. +Y no se trata slo de la tecnologa que estamos poniendo en animales. +Este es Thomas DeMarse, de la Universidad de Florida. +l tom 20 000 y luego 60 000 neuronas de rata desagregadas -es decir, neuronas de rata individuales- y las coloc en un chip. +Estas se auto-aglutinaron en una red, transformndose en un chip integrado. +Y l us eso como componente de TI de un mecanismo que ejecut un simulador de vuelo. +As que ahora tenemos chips orgnicos hechos de neuronas vivientes auto-aglutinadas. +Por ltimo, Mussa-Ivaldi, de la Northwestern tom el cerebro completamente intacto e independiente de una lamprea. +Este es el cerebro de una lamprea. +Es fotoflico. +As que ahora tenemos un cerebro de lamprea totalmente vivo. +Est el pensamiento de la lamprea all en ese medio nutritivo? +No lo s, pero de verdad es un cerebro vivo que hemos logrado mantener as para que haga la tarea. +Ahora estamos en la etapa en la que creamos criaturas para nuestros propios fines. +Este es un ratn creado por Charles Vacanti de la Universidad de Massachusetts. +l modific este ratn, que fue diseado genticamente, para obtener una piel menos inmunorreactiva a la piel humana, le puso bajo la piel un molde de polmero de una oreja y cre una oreja que luego pudo ser extrada del ratn y trasplantada en un ser humano. +Es ingeniera gentica ms fisiotecnologa de polmeros, ms xenotrasplantes. +Aqu es donde estamos en este proceso. +Por ltimo, no hace mucho, Craig Venter cre la primera clula artificial, donde tom una clula y un sintetizador de ADN, -una mquina- cre un genoma artificial lo puso en una clula diferente -el genoma no era de la clula en la que lo puso- y luego esa clula se reprodujo como si fuera la otra. +En otras palabras, esa fue la primera criatura en la historia mundial que tuvo a una computadora como madre, no tuvo padres orgnicos. +Por eso The Economist titula: "El primer organismo artificial y sus consecuencias". +Ustedes quiz pensaban que la creacin de la vida iba a ser algo parecido a eso. +Pero no es as como se ve el laboratorio de Frankenstein. +Este es el aspecto del laboratorio de Frankenstein. +Este es un sintetizador de ADN y aqu en la parte inferior hay frascos de A, T, C y G -los cuatro qumicos que componen nuestra cadena de ADN. +As que tenemos que plantearnos algunas preguntas. +Por primera vez en la historia del planeta podemos disear organismos directamente. +Podemos manipular los plasmas de la vida con un poder sin precedentes. Y eso nos confiere una responsabilidad. +Todo est permitido? +Se puede manipular y crear cualquier criatura que queramos? +Tenemos rienda suelta para disear animales? +Vamos a ir algn da a la tienda de mascotas a decir: "Mire, quiero un perro. +Quiero que tenga la cabeza de un dachshund, el cuerpo de un retriever, quiz algo de piel rosa y que brille en la oscuridad". +Llegar la industria a crear criaturas que, en su leche, en su sangre, en su saliva y en otros fluidos corporales creen los frmacos y molculas industriales que queremos para luego almacenarlos como mquinas de fabricacin orgnica? +Llegaremos a crear robots orgnicos quitndole la autonoma a estos animales para transformarlos en juguetes nuestros? +Y luego, el paso final de esto, una vez que perfeccionemos estas tecnologas en animales y empecemos a usarlas en seres humanos cules son los lineamientos ticos que emplearemos entonces? +Ya est sucediendo; no es ciencia ficcin. +Ya no estamos usando estas cosas slo en animales, algunas de ellas ya estamos empezando a usarlas en nuestros propios cuerpos. +Estamos tomando el control de nuestra propia evolucin. +Estamos diseando directamente el futuro de las especies del planeta. +Eso nos confiere una responsabilidad enorme que no es slo responsabilidad de los cientficos y especialistas en tica que estn pensando y escribiendo sobre eso. +Es responsabilidad de todos porque eso va a determinar qu tipo de planeta y qu tipo de cuerpos vamos a tener en el futuro. +Gracias. +Presentador: Amigos, acaban de conocer a Claron McFadden +Ella es una soprano de talla mundial que estudi en Rochester, New York. +Sus aclamados papeles en la pera son numerosos y variados. +en agosto de 2007, Claron recibi el galardn "Amsterdam Prize for the Arts", con elogios por su brilllantez, su extraordinario y extenso repertorio y su vvida personalidad escnica. +Por favor, denle una bienvenida a Claron McFadden. +Claron McFadden. La voz humana: misteriosa, espontnea, +natural. Para m, la voz humana es la nave en la que viajan todas las emociones - con excepcin, quizs, de los celos. +Y la respiracin, la respiracin es el capitn de esa nave. +Nace un nio, toma su primer aliento - y contemplamos la maravillosa belleza de la expresin vocal - misteriosa, espotnea y natural. +Hace unos aos, tom un retiro de meditacin en Tailandia. +Buscaba un lugar donde tuviera total silencio y total soledad. +Estuve dos semanas en este retiro en mi pequea cabaa - sin msica, sin nada, slo sonidos de la naturaleza - tratando de encontrar la esencia de la concentracin, de fijarme en en el momento. +El ltimo da, la seora encargada de ese lugar, vino y hablamos un minuto, y me dijo, "Me cantas algo?" +Y yo pens que siendo este un lugar de tranquilidad y silencio total, +no podra hacer ruido. +Ella dijo, "Por favor, cntame". +Entonces, cerr los ojos, tom aliento y lo primero que se vino y que sali fue "Summertime" de "Porgy and Bess". + El verano y la vida son fciles + los peces saltan y el algodn ha crecido + Ah, tu padre es rico y tu madre es hermosa + por eso clmate pequeo No llores +Y abr los ojos, y vi que ella tambin tena los ojos cerrados. +Despus de un momento, los abri, me mir y dijo, "Es como meditacin". +En ese momento comprend que todo lo que haba ido a buscar a Tailandia, a explorar, lo tena en mi canto - la calma, la viveza, la concentracin, la conciencia el estar completamente en cada momento. +Cuando estamos totalmente en cada momento cuando estoy en el momento, la nave de expresin est abierta. +Las emociones pueden fluir de m hacia ustedes y de regreso. +Una experiencia en extremo profunda +Hay una pieza de un compositor, un compositor norteamericano llamado John Cage. +Se llama "Aria". +La escribi para una maravillosa cantante llamada Cathy Berberian. +Y lo que es tan especial de esta pieza - pueden verlo detrs de m - no tiene ninguna clase de notas. +No hay notas, ni bemoles, ni sostenidos, +Slo tiene una forma de estructura, +y el cantante, en esa estructura, tiene total libertad de ser creativo, espontneo. +Por ejemplo, hay diferentes colores y cada uno es para una clase de canto diferente - pop, country, western, pera, jazz - y hay que ser consistente con cada color. +Fjense que hay varias lneas; +y uno escoge su propio ritmo a su manera siguiendo la lnea, pero hay que respetarla, ms o menos, +Y estos punticos, representan un tipo de sonido que no es vocal, sin letra para expresar con la voz. +Usando el cuerpo - podra ser estornudando, podra ser tosiendo, podran ser animales - exactamente - palmoteos, lo que sea. +Y hay textos diferentes. +Hay armenio, ruso, francs, ingls, italiano. +As, dentro de esta estructura uno tiene libertad. +Para m, esta pieza es una oda a la voz por lo misteriosa - como se puede ver - +es bien espontnea. +y natural. +As que me gustara compartir esta pieza con ustedes. Es "Aria" de John Cage. + No hay otra manera en el espacio, para ayudar Para obtener los frutos +S lo que estn pensando. +Creen que me he perdido, que alguien va a subir al escenario para devolverme a mi sitio amablemente. +Siempre me pasa lo mismo en Dubi. +"De vacaciones, seora?". +"Vino a visitar a sus hijos? +Cunto tiempo se quedar?". +De hecho, creo que todava un poco ms. +He vivido y trabajado en el Golfo durante ms de 30 aos. +Durante este tiempo, he visto muchos cambios. +Esa cifra es impactante. Hoy quiero hablarles de la desaparicin de lenguas y de la globalizacin del ingls. +Quiero hablarles de mi amiga, profesora de ingls para adultos en Abu Dabi. +Un buen da, decidi llevarlos al jardn para ensearles vocabulario. +Pero fue ella la que termin aprendiendo todas los trminos rabes para las plantas locales, as como sus usos: mdicos, cosmticos, gastronmicos, paramdicos... +Cmo saban todo eso sus alumnos? +Lo haban aprendido de sus abuelos o incluso de sus bisabuelos. +No hace falta que les diga lo importante que es la comunicacin intergeneracional. +Sin embargo, hoy da las lenguas estn desapareciendo ms rpido que nunca. +Cada 14 das desaparece una lengua; +y, simultneamente, el ingls es la lengua mundial por excelencia. +Podra haber alguna conexin? +Realmente no lo s. +Pero s que he presenciado muchos cambios. +Cuando llegu al Golfo, vine a Kuwait, cuando todava era un lugar inhspito. +No hace tanto de eso. +Bueno, de eso s que hace mucho. +No obstante, el British Council me contrat junto a otros 25 profesores. +Fuimos los primeros no-musulmanes que dimos clases en los colegios pblicos de Kuwait. +Nos llamaron para ensear ingls porque el gobierno quera modernizar el pas y darle poder a sus ciudadanos a travs de la educacin. +Y, por supuesto, Reino Unido sacaba provecho de su magnfica riqueza petrolera. +Bien. +El mayor cambio que he presenciado... cmo la enseanza del ingls ha pasado de ser una prctica beneficiosa para ambos a convertirse en el enorme negocio internacional que es hoy. +Nunca ms una lengua extranjera ms en el plan de estudios, ni el dominio exclusivo de la madre patria inglesa. Y todas las naciones angloparlantes se han subido al carro. +Y por qu no? +Despus de todo, segn el ltimo ranking mundial de universidades, las mejores se encuentran en Reino Unido y EE. UU. +Y por eso todos quieren una educacin en ingls. +Pero si no eres nativo tendrs que pasar un examen. +Es correcto rechazar a un estudiante solo por su conocimiento lingstico? +Quiz hay un ingeniero informtico que es un genio. +Necesita el mismo conocimiento lingstico que un abogado? +No lo creo. +Los profesores de ingls los rechazamos cada dos por tres. +Les decimos "stop" y paramos su futuro. +Ya no podrn perseguir su sueo hasta que aprendan ingls. +Djenme ponerles un ejemplo: si yo conociera a un holands que tuviera la cura para el cncer, le impedira entrar en mi universidad britnica? +No lo creo. +Pero eso es exactamente lo que hacemos. +Los profesores de ingls somos los porteros. +Si no nos satisfaces, es que tu ingls no es lo suficientemente bueno. +[Control de muchachas]. Darle tanto poder a unos pocos puede ser muy peligroso. +Los lmites podran ser demasiado universales... +Bueno, +"Y qu pasa con la investigacin?" +os preguntaris. "Est toda en ingls". +Los libros estn en ingls, las revistas cientficas tambin... pero eso es una profeca autocumplida. +Cumple los requisitos lingsticos +y se perpeta. +Qu ha pasado con la traduccin? +En el Renacimiento islmico se traduca muchsimo. +Traducan del latn y el griego al rabe y al farsi, y de esas a las lenguas germnicas y romances de Europa. +Y as iluminaron la Edad Media europea. +No me entendis mal: profesores de ingls, no estoy en contra de lo que enseis. +Me encanta que tengamos una lengua mundial. +Hoy la necesitamos ms que nunca. +Pero no debe ser un obstculo. +De verdad queremos quedarnos con 600 lenguas y que la principal sea el ingls o el chino? +Necesitamos mucho ms. Dnde poner los lmites? +Nuestro sistema equipara inteligencia con saber ingls, algo completamente arbitrario. +Me gustara recordarles que los gigantes en los que se apoya la intelectualidad actual para avanzar no tenan que pasar un examen, ni siquiera tenan que saber ingls. +Un claro ejemplo: Einstein. +De hecho, reciba clases de refuerzo en el colegio porque era dislxico. +Afortunadamente para el mundo, no tuvo que aprobar un examen de ingls, +porque el TOEFL, el examen de ingls estadounidense, no exista antes de 1964. +Ahora se han disparado +y hay cientos de exmenes de ingls. +Millones y millones de estudiantes se examinan todos los aos. +Podramos pensar que la matrcula no es demasiado cara, pero es prohibitiva para millones de personas pobres. +Los estamos rechazando de entrada. +Eso me recuerda un titular reciente: "La educacin: la gran brecha". +Ahora lo entiendo, entiendo por qu a tantos les interesa el ingls. +Quieren darle a sus hijos la mejor preparacin, +y para eso necesitan una educacin occidental. +Porque, por supuesto, los mejores trabajos son para aquellos que estudian en universidades occidentales. +Es un crculo vicioso. +Bien, +djenme contarles una historia sobre dos cientficos ingleses. +Estaban llevando a cabo un experimento gentico sobre los miembros anteriores y posteriores de animales, +pero no conseguan los resultados deseados. +No saban qu hacer, hasta que lleg un cientfico alemn que se dio cuenta de que utilizaban dos palabras diferentes, miembro posterior y anterior, mientras que la gentica no los distingue, al igual que el alemn. +Bingo! Problema resuelto. +Si no puedes elaborar un pensamiento, ests bloqueado. +Pero si otra lengua puede hacerlo, entonces, as, cooperando, podemos aprender y conseguir mucho ms. +Mi hija llego a Inglaterra desde Kuwait. +Haba estudiado ciencias y matemticas en rabe +en la escuela media. +Tena que traducirlo al ingls en su escuela primaria, +y era la mejor de la clase en esas asignaturas; +lo que nos muestra que no reconocemos lo suficiente lo que los estudiantes extranjeros saben en su propia lengua. +Cuando una lengua muere, no sabemos lo que se pierde con ella. +No s si habrn visto una noticia reciente: la CNN le dio su premio a los Hroes a un joven pastor keniata. No poda estudiar por la noche como el resto de los chicos porque la linterna de queroseno suelta humo y le daaba los ojos; +y, de todas formas, nunca tena suficiente queroseno... qu representa para ustedes un dlar al da? +As que invent una linterna solar que no gasta. +Y ahora todos lo nios de su aldea pueden sacar las mismas notas que aquellos que tienen electricidad en casa. +Cuando recibi el premio, hizo una declaracin enternecedora: "Los jvenes de frica, un continente oscuro, pueden llenarla de luz". +Una idea sencilla que puede tener consecuencias de gran alcance. +Aquellos que no tienen luz, ya sea fsica o metafrica, no pueden aprobar nuestros exmenes, y nunca sabremos todo lo que saben. +No nos quedemos todos, ellos y nosotros, en la oscuridad. +Celebremos la diversidad. +Cuiden su lengua, +utilcenla para compartir ideas. +Muchas gracias. +Adrian Kohler: Bueno, hoy estamos aqu para contarles la evolucin de una marioneta de caballo. +Basil Jones: Pero, en realidad, vamos a comenzar esta evolucin con una hiena. +AK: El antepasado del caballo. +Bueno, vamos a hacer algo con esto. +Esta hiena es el antepasado del caballo porque fue parte de una produccin llamada "Fausto en frica", una produccin de Handspring de 1995 en la que tena que jugar a las damas con Helena de Troya. +Esta produccin fue dirigida por el artista sudafricano y director de teatro William Kentridge. +Por eso necesitaba una garra delantera muy articulada. +Pero, como toda marioneta, tiene otros atributos. +BJ: Uno es la respiracin, una cierta respiracin. +AK: (Respiracin de hiena). +BJ: La respiracin es muy importante para nosotros. +Es un movimiento original de nuestras marionetas en escena. +Es lo que distingue a la marioneta... AK: Epa! +BJ: ...del actor. +Las marionetas siempre tienen que tratar de estar vivas. +Esta es su historia en escena: su deseo intenso de vivir. +AK: S, como pueden ven, en esencia es un objeto muerto y slo vive porque uno lo hace vivir. +Un actor lucha a muerte en escena, pero una marioneta lucha por vivir. +Y, en cierta forma, es una metfora de la vida. +BJ: As, cada instante que est en escena, est dando la batalla. +Por eso decimos que es una ingeniera emocional que usa lo ltimo de lo ltimo en tecnologa del siglo XVII para transformar cosas en verbos. +AK: Bueno, en realidad prefiero decir que es un objeto construido con madera y tela que tiene el movimiento incorporado para persuadirlos de que est viva. +BJ: Muy bien. +AK: Tiene orejas que se mueven pasivamente cuando se mueve la cabeza. +BJ: Y tiene dos torres de contrachapado cubiertas de tela... curiosamente similares, de hecho, a las canoas de contrachapado que el padre de Adrian sola hacer en su taller cuando era pequeo. +AK: En Port Elizabeth, el pueblo en las afueras de Port Elizabeth, en Sudfrica. +BJ: Su madre era titiritera, +y cuando nos conocimos en la escuela de arte, y nos enamoramos en 1971, yo odiaba los tteres. +Realmente pensaba que era muy poco para m. +Yo quera llegar a ser un artista de vanguardia y Punch y Judy no era realmente donde quera terminar. +De hecho, nos llev unos 10 aos descubrir las marionetas bamaro bambano de Mali, en frica occidental, donde hay una tradicin fabulosa de tteres para renovar el respeto, o aprender a respetar, esta forma de arte. +AK: En 1981 convenc a Basil y a algunos de mis amigos para formar una compaa de tteres. +Y 20 aos despus, milagrosamente, colaboramos con una empresa de Mali, la compaa de marionetas Sogolon de Bamako, para la que hicimos una pieza del alto de una jirafa. +Se llam "Caballo Alto" y era del tamao de una jirafa. +BJ: Y aqu, de nuevo, ven la misma estructura. +Las torres se han convertido en aros de caa, pero, a fin de cuentas, es la misma estructura. +Dos personas en su interior sobre zancos le dan el alto y alguien al frente usa una especie de volante para mover esa cabeza. +AK: La persona de las patas traseras tambin controla la cola, un poco como en la hiena, el mismo mecanismo pero un poco ms grande. +Y l est controlando el movimiento de las orejas. +BJ: A esta produccin la vio Tom Morris, del Teatro Nacional de Londres. +Casi al mismo tiempo, su madre le haba dicho: "Has visto este libro de Michael Morpurgo llamado 'Caballo de Guerra'? +AK: Se trata de un chico que se enamora de un caballo. +Al caballo lo venden para la Primera Guerra Mundial, y l se alista para encontrar a su caballo". +BJ: As que Tom nos llam y nos dijo: "Creen que podrn construir un caballo para el espectculo del Teatro Nacional?". +AK: Pareca una idea maravillosa. +BJ: Pero tena que poder montarse. Tena que llevar un jinete. +AK: Tena que llevar un jinete y participar en cargas de caballera. +Una obra sobre la labranza a principios del siglo XX y cargas de caballera era un reto para el departamento contable del Teatro Nacional de Londres. +Pero estuvieron de acuerdo en continuar durante un tiempo. +As que empezamos con una prueba. +BJ: Estos son Adrian y Thys Stander que continuaron con el diseo de un sistema de caas para el caballo y nuestra vecina de al lado, Katherine, montada en una escalera. +Soportar el peso es bastante complicado cuando est por encima de la cabeza. +AK: Y, una vez que pusimos a Katherine en ese aparato del infierno, supimos que podramos hacer un caballo que pudiera montarse. +As que hicimos un modelo. +Este es un modelo de cartn un poco ms pequeo que la hiena. +Van a notar que las piernas son de contrachapado y que sigue presente la estructura de canoa. +BJ: Y los dos titiriteros estn dentro. +Pero no nos dimos cuenta en ese momento de que en realidad haca falta un tercer titiritero, porque no podamos manejar el cuello desde adentro y hacer caminar al caballo al mismo tiempo. +AK: Empezamos a trabajar en el prototipo despus de que el modelo fuera aprobado y el prototipo nos llev un poco ms de lo que esperbamos. +Tuvimos que tirar las piernas de contrachapado y hacer unas nuevas de caa. +Y le hicimos una caja. +Tenamos que enviarlo a Londres. +bamos a ir a probarlo en la calle frente a nuestra casa en Ciudad del Cabo, y lleg la medianoche y todava no lo habamos hecho. +BJ: Tomamos una cmara y posamos la marioneta en diversas posturas de galope. +Y las enviamos al Teatro Nacional con la esperanza de que creyeran que habamos creado algo que funcionaba. +AK: Un mes despus estbamos en Londres con una gran caja y un estudio lleno de gente dispuesta a trabajar con nosotros. +BJ: Unas 40 personas. +AK: Estbamos aterrados. +Abrimos la caja, sacamos el caballo, y funcion; caminaba y estaba listo para ser montado. +Aqu tengo un clip de 18 segundos de la primera caminata del prototipo. +Esto es en el estudio del Teatro Nacional, el lugar donde se fraguan nuevas ideas. +De ninguna manera tena luz verde todava. +El coregrafo, Toby Sedgwick, invent una secuencia hermosa en la que el potrillo, hecho de palos y pedazos de ramas, se converta en un caballo adulto. +Y Nick Starr, el director del Teatro Nacional, vio ese momento particular -estaba de pie a mi lado- y casi se hace pip. +Y entonces se le dio luz verde al espectculo. +Y regresamos a Ciudad del Cabo y rediseamos el caballo por completo. +Este es el plano. +Y esta es nuestra fbrica en Ciudad del Cabo donde hacemos caballos. +Se puede ver un buen montn de esqueletos all en el fondo. +Los caballos estn completamente hechos a mano. +Tienen muy poca tecnologa del siglo XX. +Hicimos algunos cortes con lser en el contrachapado y en algunas piezas de aluminio. +Pero, dado que tienen que ser livianas y flexibles y cada una es diferente, no pueden producirse en masa, por desgracia. +Aqu hay algunos caballos a medio terminar listos para ser ajustados en Londres. +Y ahora nos gustara presentarles a Joey. +Joey, muchacho, ests ah? +Joey! +Joey. +Joey, ven aqu. +No, no, no tengo. +l tiene en su bolsillo. +BJ: Joey! +AK: Joey, Joey, Joey, Joey. +Ven aqu. Prate aqu donde la gente pueda verte. +Muvete, vamos. +Me gustara describir... -no quiero hablar muy fuerte, podra irritarse- +...aqu Craig est controlando la cabeza. +Tiene cables de freno de bicicleta que van hasta el control de la cabeza en su mano. +Cada uno opera una oreja por separado o la cabeza, arriba y abajo. +Pero tambin controla la cabeza directamente con su mano. +Las orejas son, obviamente, un indicador emocional importante del caballo. +Cuando apuntan hacia atrs, el caballo tiene miedo o est enojado, dependiendo de lo que est pasando frente a l o a su alrededor. +O, cuando est ms relajado, baja la cabeza y las orejas a ambos lados escuchando. +El odo de los caballos es muy importante. +Es casi ms importante que la vista. +Por aqu, Tommy tiene lo que se llama la posicin del corazn. +Controla la pata. +La cuerda del tendn de la hiena, la pata delantera de la hiena, automticamente tira del aro hacia arriba. +Los caballos son tan impredecibles! +El modo en que aparecen los cascos del caballo da la sensacin, de inmediato, de que se trata de una accin convincente. +Las patas traseras tienen la misma capacidad. +BJ: Y Mikey tiene tambin en sus dedos la posibilidad de mover la cola de izquierda a derecha, y de arriba abajo con la otra mano. +Y juntos ofrecen bastantes posibilidades a la expresin de la cola. +AK: Quieres contar algo sobre la respiracin? +BJ: La respiracin fue un gran desafo. +Adrian pens que iba a tener que dividir el pecho de la marioneta en dos y hacer que respirara de este modo, porque es as como respira un caballo, con el pecho expandido. +Pero se dio cuenta de que, si eso fuera a suceder as, el pblico no podra ver la respiracin. +As que hizo un canal por aqu y el pecho se mueve hacia arriba y abajo en ese canal. +Realmente es anti-natural, el movimiento hacia arriba y abajo, pero da la sensacin de respiracin. +Y es muy, muy simple porque lo que sucede es que el titiritero respira con las rodillas. +AK: Otro tema emocional. +Si yo tocara al caballo por aqu, en su piel, el titiritero del corazn puede sacudir el cuerpo desde dentro y hacer que tiemble la piel. +Van a notar, por supuesto, que la marioneta est hecha de caas. +Y me gustara que creyesen que fue una eleccin esttica, que yo hice un dibujo tridimensional de un caballo que se mueve por el espacio. +Pero, claro, la caa es liviana, flexible, duradera y maleable. +As que la hicimos de caa por una razn muy prctica. +La piel misma est hecha de una malla de nailon traslcida que, si la diseadora de la iluminacin quiere, el caballo casi desaparece. Puede iluminar el fondo y el caballo se torna fantasmal. +Se ve la estructura del esqueleto. +O, si se lo ilumina desde arriba, se vuelve ms slido. +De nuevo, esa fue una consideracin prctica. +Los chicos del interior del caballo tienen que poder ver. +Tienen que poder actuar junto con sus compaeros actores en la produccin. +Y, en gran medida, estn inmersos en una actividad del momento. +Son tres cabezas haciendo un personaje. +Ahora nos gustara que Joey diera un paseo. +Y que se plante. +Gracias. +Y ahora slo... Desde la soleada California tenemos a Zem Joaquin, que va a montar el caballo para nosotros. +As que nos gustara hacer hincapi en que la actuacin que ven del caballo es de tres chicos que han estudiado el comportamiento equino muy a fondo. +BJ: No pueden hablar unos con otros cuando estn en escena porque tienen micrfonos. +El sonido que hace el gran pecho del caballo, los relinchos, las vacilaciones y todo, comienza con uno de estos intrpretes, contina con la segunda persona y termina con la tercera. +AK: Mikey Brett, de Leicestershire. +Mikey Brett, Craig, Leo, Zem Joaquin, Basil y yo. +Gracias. Gracias. +De nio me encantaban los coches. +Cuando cumpl 18 aos perd a mi mejor amigo a un accidente de coche, +en un tris. +Y entonces decid que dedicara mi vida a salvar a un milln de personas cada ao. +No hemos tenido xito, as que esto es slo un informe de avance, pero estoy aqu para contarles un poco sobre los coches auto-conducidos. +Vi el primer concepto en los Grandes Desafos de DARPA en los que el gobierno de EE.UU. otorga un premio para construir un coche auto-conducido capaz de andar por el desierto. +Y aunque all haba un centenar de equipos estos autos no llegaron a ninguna parte. +As que en Stanford decidimos construir un coche auto-conducido diferente. +Construimos el hardware y el software. +Hicimos que aprendan de nosotros y los liberamos en el desierto. +Y sucedi algo inimaginable: se convirti en el primer coche en regresar de un Gran Desafo DARPA -ganado Stanford 2 millones de dlares. +No obstante, no he salvado una sola vida +dado que nuestro trabajo se centr en la construccin de coches auto-conducidos, que pueden manejarse en cualquier lugar por s mismos en cualquier calle de California. +Conducimos 224 mil kilmetros. +Nuestros coches tienen sensores con los cuales mgicamente pueden ver todo a su alrededor y tomar decisiones sobre cada aspecto de la conduccin. +Es el mecanismo de conduccin perfecto. +Hemos conducido en ciudades como San Francisco. +Hemos conducido desde San Francisco a Los ngeles por la autopista 1. +Hemos encontrado corredores, autopistas atestadas, cabinas de peaje, y esto sin intervencin de persona alguna; el coche se conduce solo. +De hecho, recorrimos 224 mil kilmetros y la gente ni se dio cuenta. +Caminos de montaa, da y noche, incluso la sinuosa Lombard Street de San Francisco. +A veces nuestros coches se vuelven tan locos que hacen algunas piruetas. +Hombre: Oh, Dios mo! +Qu? +Segundo Hombre: Se conduce solo. +Sebastian Thrun: si bien no puedo revivir a mi amigo Harold, puedo hacer algo por toda la gente que muri. +Saben que los accidentes de auto son la causa principal de muertes en jvenes? +Y se dan cuenta de que casi todos se deben a errores humanos y no a errores mecnicos y que por ende pueden ser evitados por las mquinas? +Se dan cuenta que Uds, usuarios de TED, pasan un promedio de 52 minutos al da en el trfico perdiendo el tiempo en sus viajes diarios? +Podran recuperar ese tiempo. +Son 4 mil millones de horas desperdiciadas slo en este pas. +Y son 9 mil millones de litros de gasolina desperdiciados. +Creo que aqu hay una visin, una nueva tecnologa, y realmente espero con ansias el momento en que las generaciones venideras nos miren y se digan lo ridculo que era que los humanos condujeran coches. +Gracias. +Yo quera ser estrella de rock. +Soaba con eso; era todo lo que soaba. +Para ser ms exacto, quera ser estrella del pop. +Esto era a fines de los aos 80. +Y, sobre todo, quera ser el quinto miembro de Depeche Mode o Duran Duran. +Pero no me llamaron. +Yo no lea msica, pero usaba sintetizadores y cajas de ritmos. +Y crec en este pequeo pueblo agrcola del norte de Nevada. +Estaba seguro que dedicara mi vida a eso. +Pero cuando llegu a la Universidad de Nevada, Las Vegas, a los 18 aos, encontr con asombro que no haba "Estrella pop elemental" o un programa de grado para ese menester. +El director del coro saba que yo cantaba y me invit a ir, a sumarme al coro. +Y le dije: "S, me encantara. Suena genial". +Y sal de la habitacin diciendo: "De ninguna manera". +Los del coro de mi escuela secundaria eran muy obsesivos; no haba manera en que pudiese tener algo que ver con esa gente. +Una semana despus un amigo vino y me dijo: "Oye, tienes que entrar al coro. +Al final del semestre vamos a hacer un viaje a Mxico con todos los gastos pagos. +Y la seccin de sopranos est llena de chicas ardientes". +Entonces pens que por Mxico y chicas poda hacer casi cualquier cosa. +Mi primer da en el coro, me sent con los bajos, y como que miraba hacia atrs para ver qu estaban haciendo. +Abrieron sus partituras, el director les dio la seal y, zaz, se lanzaron al Kyrie del "Requiem" de Mozart. +Durante toda mi vida haba visto en blanco y negro y de repente todo estaba en un tecnicolor impactante. +La experiencia ms transformadora hasta entonces. En ese instante, escuch la disonancia y la armona la gente cantando, todos juntos, la visin compartida. +Sent por primera vez en mi vida que era parte de algo ms grande que yo. +Y result que haba muchas chicas lindas en la seccin de sopranos. +Decid escribir una obra para coro, un par de aos ms tarde, como regalo para este director que haba cambiado mi vida. +Ya haba aprendido a leer msica, o estaba aprendiendo poco a poco. +Y se public esa obra y luego escrib otra y tambin se public. +Y despus empec a dirigir y termin haciendo mi maestra en la Juilliard School. +Ahora me encuentro en la posicin inverosmil de estar frente a ustedes como compositor y director profesional clsico. +Bueno, hace un par de aos un amigo me escribi un correo con un enlace de YouTube y me deca: "Tienes que ver esto". +Era de esta joven que haba publicado un video como admiradora ma cantando la parte de soprano de una obra ma llamada "Sleep" [Dormir, NT]. +Britlin Losee: Hola Sr. Eric Whitacre. +Soy Britlin Losee, y este es un video que me gustara hacer para Ud. +As canto "Sleep". +Quiero que sepa que estoy un poco nerviosa. + Si hay ruidos en la noche Eric Whitacre: yo estaba estupefacto. +Britlin era tan inocente y tan dulce, y su voz tan pura. +Hasta me encant lo que vi detrs de ella. Pude ver el oso de peluche sentado en el piano detrs de ella en su habitacin. +Un video muy ntimo. +Y se me ocurri que si poda reunir a 50 personas, y que todos hicieran lo mismo: cantar su parte -soprano, alto, tenor y bajo- donde quiera que estuvieran en el mundo, que publicaran sus videos en YouTube, podramos editarlos a todos juntos y crear un coro virtual. +As que escrib en mi blog: "Dios mo Dios mo". +De verdad, escrib: "Dios mo" esperemos que por ltima vez en pblico. +Y envi esta convocatoria a los cantantes. +Liber la descarga de la msica de una obra que haba escrito en el ao 2000 llamada "Lux Aurumque", que significa "luz y oro". +Y he aqu que las personas empezaron a subir sus videos. +Debo decir, antes de eso, que lo que hice fue publicar una pista de director de m mismo dirigiendo. +Estaba en completo silencio cuando la film dado que slo escuchaba la msica en mi cabeza imaginando el coro que un da poda llegar a ser. +Despus, toqu una pista de piano de fondo para que los cantantes tuviesen algo que escuchar. +Y luego a medida que comenzaron a llegar los videos... +Esta es Cheryl Ang de Singapur. +Esta es Evangelina Etienne de Massachusetts. +Stephen Hanson de Suecia. +Este es Jamal Walker de Dallas, Texas. +Haba incluso un pequeo solo de soprano en la obra y entonces hice audiciones. +Algunas sopranos subieron sus partes. +Despus me enter, por los muchos cantantes que participaron en esto, que a veces grabaron 50 60 tomas diferentes hasta conseguir la correcta, que luego subieron. +Esta es la ganadora del solo de soprano. +Es Melanie Myers, de Tennessee. +Me encanta la sonrisa que hace justo en la nota ms alta como diciendo: "no hay problema, todo est bien". +Y de la multitud, surgi este joven: Scott Haines. +Y dijo: "Oigan, este es el proyecto que estuve buscando toda mi vida. +Me gustara ser la persona que edite todo esto". +Le dije: "Gracias Scott. Me alegra tanto que me hayas encontrado". +Y Scott consolid todos los videos, +filtr el audio, +se asegur que todo estuviera correcto. +Y luego publicamos este video en YouTube hace cerca de un ao y medio. +Esto es "Lux Aurumque" cantada por el Coro Virtual. +Voy a detenerlo ah, en aras del tiempo. +Gracias. Gracias. +Gracias. +Hay ms. Hay ms. +Muchas gracias. +Yo tuve la misma reaccin que Uds. +Me conmovi hasta las lgrimas cuando lo vi por primera vez. +No poda creerlo, toda esa poesa, todas estas almas en su propia isla desierta envindose mensajes electrnicos en botellas unos a otros. +Y el video se torn viral. +Recibimos un milln de visitas el primer mes y eso suscit mucha atencin. +Y por ese motivo luego muchos cantantes empezaron a decir: "Muy bien, y cul ser el Coro Virtual 2.0?" +As que decid que para el Coro Virtual 2.0 iba a elegir la misma pieza que cantaba Britlin, "Sleep", que es otra obra que escrib en el ao 2000 -poesa de mi querido amigo Charles Anthony Silvestri. +Y, otra vez, publiqu un video gua y empezamos a aceptar propuestas. +Esta vez tenamos miembros ms maduros. +Y algunos ms jvenes. +Soprano: Sobre mi almohada a salvo en la cama EW: All est Georgie, de Inglaterra. Tiene slo 9 aos. +No es lo ms dulce que han visto en la vida? +Alguien hizo ocho videos -un bajo cantando incluso las partes de soprano. +Este es Beau Awtin. +Beau Awtin: a salvo en la cama EW: y nuestro objetivo -una especie de objetivo arbitrario- haba un video de MTV en el que todos cantaron "Lollipop" hicieron que personas de todo el mundo cantaran esa pequea meloda. +Y participaron 900 personas. +Les dije a los cantantes: "Ese es su objetivo. +Ese es el nmero que tenemos que superar". +Y acabamos de cerrar las presentaciones el 10 de enero y nuestro resultado final fue de 2.051 videos de 58 pases diferentes. +Gracias. +De Malta, Madagascar, Tailandia, Vietnam, Jordania, Egipto, Israel, tan al norte como Alaska y tan al sur como Nueva Zelanda. +Y tambin pusimos una pgina en Facebook para que los cantantes subieran sus testimonios lo que representaba para ellos, su experiencia cantando. +Y aqu he elegido slo algunos de ellos. +"Mi hermana y yo solamos cantar en coros constantemente. +Ahora ella es aviadora de la Fuerza Area y viaja constantemente. +Es tan maravilloso cantar juntas de nuevo!" +Me encanta la idea de que ella est cantando con su hermana. +"Aparte de la msica hermosa, es muy bueno sentirme parte de una comunidad mundial de personas que ni conoca antes pero que de todos modos estamos conectadas". +Y mi favorita personal: "Cuando le dije a mi marido que iba a ser parte de esto me dijo que yo no tena voz para eso". +S, estoy seguro de que muchos de Uds han odo eso tambin. +Yo tambin. +"Me doli mucho, y rodaron algunas lgrimas, pero algo dentro de m quera hacer esto a pesar de sus palabras. +Ser parte de este coro es un sueo hecho realidad, dado que nunca haba sido parte de uno. +Cuando coloqu un marcador en el mapa de Google Earth, tuve que ir a la ciudad ms cercana que est a unos 640 km de donde vivo. +Estoy en el Gran Monte de Alaska, me comunico con el mundo por satlite". +As que de esto me impresionaron dos cosas profundamente. +La primera es que los seres humanos recorrern cualquier distancia necesaria con tal de conectarse unos con otros. +No importa la tecnologa. +Y la segunda es que la gente parece estar experimentando una conexin real. +No es un coro virtual. +Hay personas ahora en lnea que son amigos; ni se conocan. +Pero, yo mismo siento este espritu virtual de cuerpo, si se quiere, con todos ellos. +Siento una cercana a este coro... casi como con mi familia. +Hoy me gustara cerrar con la primera presentacin de "Sleep" del Coro Virtual 2.0. +Hoy ser un da de estreno. +No hemos terminado con el vdeo an. +Se imaginarn que para sincronizar 2.000 videos de YouTube el tiempo de render es atroz. +Pero tenemos los primeros tres minutos. +Y es un gran honor para m poder mostrrselos en primicia. +Uds son los primeros en ver esto. +Esto es "Sleep" del Coro Virtual. +Muchas gracias. Gracias. Gracias. +Soy una gran partidaria de la educacin prctica. +Pero se necesitan las herramientas adecuadas. +Si voy a ensearle electrnica a mi hija, no le voy a dar un soldador. +De la misma manera, para ella, los tableros de prototipos le resultan realmente frustrantes, para sus manitas. +Por eso, con mi magnfico alumno, Sam, decidimos buscar la cosa ms tangible posible; plastilina. +As, pasamos todo el verano explorando diferentes recetas de plastilina +Probablemente estas recetas son conocidas para aquellos que hayan preparado plastilina casera -- ingredientes normales que hay en la cocina. +Tenemos dos recetas favoritas -- la primera tiene estos ingredientes y la segunda tiene azcar en vez de sal. +Son geniales. Se pueden hacer pequeas esculturas muy buenas. +Verdaderamente genial es que si las juntamos, +se ve que la plastilina salada, +bueno, conduce electricidad. +Nada nuevo. +Es que la plastilina que se consigue en las tiendas, conduce electricidad. Los profesores de fsica escolar la han usado por aos. +Pero nuestra plastilina casera, en realidad, tiene la mitad de la resistencia de la comercial. +Y la dulce? +Bueno, tiene una resistencia 150 veces mayor que la salada. +Y esto qu quiere decir? +Pues que si se las une, en ese momento se obtienen circuitos -- circuitos que las manitas ms creativas pueden armar por s mismas. +As, quiero hacerles una pequea demostracin. +Si tomo esta plastilina salada -- como la que ustedes preparaban de nios -- y la enchufo -- este es un paquete de bateras con dos contactos, que se consigue en las tiendas especializadas por todas partes -- se puede, entonces encender la luz. +Si alguno de ustedes estudi ingeniera elctrica, sabe que se puede formar un corto circuito. +Si los uno, la luz se apaga, +As es. La corriente prefiere pasar por la plastilina y no por el LED. +Si los separo, nuevamente tendremos luz. +Ahora tomamos la plastilina dulce, que no quiere conducir electricidad. +Es como un muro para la electricidad. +Si la coloco en medio, ahora toda la plastilina est en contacto. Y si le introduzco la luz de nuevo, tendremos luz. +Inclusive, puedo agregarle algo de movimiento a mis esculturas. +Si quiero una cola que gire, tomo un motor, le pongo una porcin de plastilina, lo introduzco y ya est girando. +Una vez que se tiene lo bsico, se puede hacer un circuito un poco ms complicado. +Lo llamamos el circuito de sushi; muy popular entre los chicos. +Lo conecto para darle energa. +Y ahora ya puedo comenzar a hablar de circuitos en paralelo y en serie. +Y puedo colocarle muchas luces. +Y podemos hablar de algunas cosas como carga elctrica. +Qu pasa si le pongo muchas luces y luego le aado un motor? +Se baja la luz. +Podemos, inclusive, agregarle microprocesadores y tener esto como una entrada y entonces crear un sonido musical mullido, como lo hemos hecho. +Se pueden armar circuitos en paralelo y en serie para los chicos que usan esto. +Y todo esto en la cocina de la casa. +Hemos tratado de convertirla en un laboratorio de ingeniera elctrica. +Tenemos una pgina web. Ah est todo. Estas son las recetas caseras. +Tenemos algunos videos. Ustedes mismos pueden hacerlo. +Ha sido bien divertido armar esto y observar hasta dnde puede ir. +Una madre en Utah los ha usado con sus chicos, un investigador en el Reino Unido, en el desarrollo curricular de Hawi. +Quiero invitarlos a tomar algo de plastilina, algo de sal, algo de azcar y comenzar a jugar. +Normalmente no pensamos en la cocina como un laboratorio de ingeniera elctrica, o en los chicos como diseadores de circuitos, pero quiz deberamos. +Divirtanse. Gracias. +Hace 10 aos, un martes por la maana, dirig un salto en paracadas en el Fuerte Bragg, Carolina del Norte. +Era un salto rutinario de entrenamiento como muchos otros que haba hecho desde que me convert en paracaidista 27 aos antes. +Fuimos temprano al campo de aviacin porque sto es la Armada y siempre vas temprano. +Haces algn entrenamiento de repaso de rutina, y despus vas a ponerte tu paracadas con la ayuda de un compaero. +Y te pones un paracadas T10. +Y tienes mucho cuidado cmo te colocas las correas, particularmente las correas que van entre tus piernas. +Y luego te pones tu reserva, y despus tu pesada mochila. +Y luego un maestro de salto viene, y es un oficial experto en operaciones de paracadas. +Te revisa, toma tus correas, y ajusta todo presionando tu pecho, apretando tus hombros, y, claro, lo ajusta de manera que tu voz sube un par de octavas tambin. +Despus tomas asiento y esperas un poco, porque esto es la Armada. +Despus cargas el avin, y luego te pones de pie y te subes, y avanzas pesadamente de esta forma --en una fila-- y te sientas en cualquiera de los lados del avin. +Y esperas un poco ms, porque sta es la Fuerza Area ensendole a la Armada cmo esperar. +Entonces despegas. +Y para entonces ya es bastante doloroso --y creo que es diseado de esta manera-- es lo suficientemente doloroso como para que desees saltar. +Realmente no quieres saltar, pero quieres que acabe. +As que ests en el avin, vas volando, y a los 20 minutos los maestros de salto empiezan a darte rdenes. +Dicen 20 minutos --esa es una advertencia de tiempo. +Sigues sentado, bien. +Luego dicen 10 minutos. +Y por supuesto, respondes a todas estas. +Y eso es para elevar la confianza de todos, para mostrar que no tienes miedo. +Luego te dicen: "Preprense." +Y luego: "Personal de salida, de pie." +Si eres personal de salida, te levantas. +Si eres personal de interior, te levantas. +Y luego te sujetas, y enganchas tu lnea esttica. +En ese momento piensas: "Oye, adivina qu. +Probablemente voy a saltar. +No hay cmo salirse de esta en este punto". +Pasas por algunas revisiones adicionales, y luego abren la puerta. +Y esto fue ese martes por la maana en septiembre, y estaba muy agradable afuera. +Tan agradable que el aire entraba. +El maestro de salto empieza a revisar la puerta. +Y cuando es hora de salir, se prende una luz verde y el maestro de salto dice: "Vamos". +El primero sale, y tu estas en la fila, y avanzas pesadamente hacia la puerta. +Saltar es un trmino equivocado; tu caes. +Caes fuera de la puerta, ests atrapado en la corriente. +Lo primero que haces es bloquear tu cuerpo en una posicin cerrada: cabeza pegada al pecho, tus brazos extendidos, colocas por encima tu paracadas de reserva. +Haces eso porque, hace 27 aos, un sargento del aire me ense a hacer eso. +No tengo idea si sirve de algo, pero pareca tener sentido, y no pretenda probar la hiptesis de que estuviera equivocado. +Y despus esperas el golpe de apertura cuando se abre tu paracadas. +Si no recibes un golpe de apertura, no recibes un paracadas -- por lo que tienes toda una nueva serie de problemas. +Pero normalmente se abre. +Y claro, si tus correas de las piernas no estn bien colocadas, en ese momento recibes otro pequeo estremecimiento. +Bum. +Entonces miras a tu alrededor, ests diciendo: "Esto es bueno". +Ahora te preparas para lo inevitable. +Vas a llegar al suelo. +No puedes retrasarlo mucho. +Y en realidad no puedes elegir mucho dnde aterrizars, porque ellos pretenden que puedas maniobrar, pero ests siendo entregado. +As que miras alrededor, donde vas a aterrizar, tratas de prepararte. +Y conforme te acercas, pones tu mochila debajo de ti, para que no est encima de ti cuando aterrices, y te preparas para hacer una cada de aterrizaje en paracadas. +La Armada te ensea a hacer cinco pasos: los dedos de tus pies, tus pantorrillas, tus caderas, tus glteos y tus msculos superiores. +Es ese elegante aterriza, gira y rueda. +Y as no doler. +En 30 y tantos aos de saltar, jams hice uno. +Siempre aterric como una sanda lanzada desde un tercer piso. +Y tan pronto como aterrizaba, lo primero que haca era ver si haba roto algo que necesitaba. +Sacuda mi cabeza, y me haca la pregunta de siempre: "Por qu no me hice banquero?" +Y miraba a mi alrededor, y vea a otro paracaidista, un muchacho o muchacha joven, y ya haban sacado su fusil M-4 y estaban recogiendo su equipo. +Estaban haciendo todo lo que les habamos enseado. +Y comprend que si tuvieran que entrar en combate, haran lo que les habamos enseado y seguiran a los lderes. +Y comprend que si salan del combate, sera porque los guiamos bien. +Y me enganch de nuevo en la importancia de lo que haca. +Y ahora hago ese salto de martes por la maana, pero no es cualquier salto: era 11 de septiembre de 2001. +Y cuando despegamos del campo de aviacin, Amrica estaba en paz. +Cuando aterrizamos en la zona de cada todo haba cambiado +Y lo que pensbamos sobre la posibilidad de esos soldados jvenes entrando en combate de manera terica era ahora muy, muy real, y el liderazgo pareca importante. +Pero las cosas haban cambiado: Yo era un general brigadier de 46 aos. +Haba sido exitoso, pero las cosas haban cambiado tanto que iba a tener que hacer cambios significativos --y esa maana no lo saba. +Fui criado con historias tradicionales sobre liderazgo: Robert E. Lee, John Buford en Gettysburg. +Y tambin fu criado con ejemplos personales de liderazgo. +Este es mi padre en Vietnam. +Y fui criado para creer que los soldados eran fuertes y sabios, valiente y fieles; no mentan, no hacan trampa, no robaban ni abandonaban a sus camaradas. +Y an creo que los verdaderos lderes son as. +Pero en mis primeros 25 aos de carrera, tuve un montn de experiencias diferentes. +Uno de mis primeros comandantes de batalln, trabaj en su batalln 18 meses y la nica conversacin que tuvo con el teniente McChrystal fue en la milla 18 en una marcha de 25 millas, y me reprendi durante 40 segundos. +Y no s si eso fue una verdadera interaccin. +Pero un par de aos despus, cuando yo era comandante de compaa, sal al centro nacional de entrenamiento. +E hicimos una operacin, y mi compaa realiz un ataque al amanecer --ya saben, el clsico ataque al amanecer: te preparas toda la noche, avanzas a la lnea de partida. +Y tena una organizacin blindada en ese punto. +Avanzamos y nos hicieron pedazos --quiero decir, nos hicieron pedazos inmediatamente. +El enemigo no tuvo el menor contratiempo. +Y despus de la batalla, traen una pelcula mvil y hacen lo que llaman "revisin despus de la accin" para ensearte dnde te equivocaste. +Algo as como liderazgo por humillacin. +Montan una pantalla grande y repasan todo. "...Y luego no hiciste esto, y no hiciste aquello, etc." +Sal sintindome tan bajo como una cucaracha. +Y mir a mi comandante del batalln, ya que lo haba decepcionado. +Y me acerqu para disculparme, y me dijo, "Stanley, estuviste grandioso." +y en un enunciado, me levanto y me puso nuevamente de pie, y me ense que los lderes pueden permitirte fallar y sin embargo no permitirte ser un fracaso. +Cuando el 11 de septiembre lleg, el general brigadier McChrystal vio todo un mundo nuevo. +Primero, las cosas obvias, con las que ests familiarizado: el medio cambi --la rapidez, el control, la sensibilidad de todo es ahora tan rpida, algunas veces evoluciona ms rpido de lo que la gente alcanza a asimilar. +Pero todo lo que hacemos est en un contexto distinto. +Lo que es ms importante, la fuerza bajo mi mando estaba distribuida en ms de 20 pases. +Y en vez de poder tener en una sala a todos los lderes claves para una decisin, mirarlos a los ojos y fortalecer su confianza y obtener confianza de ellos, ahora estoy dirigiendo una fuerza dispersa, y tengo que usar otras tcnicas. +Debo usar teleconferencias, debo usar chat, debo usar e-mail, llamadas telefnicas; debo usar todo lo que pueda, no solo para la comunicacin, sino tambin para el liderazgo. +Un individuo de 22 aos operando solo a miles de millas de distancia de m debe comunicarse conmigo con confianza. +Debo confiar en ellos y viceversa. +Y tambin debo construir su f. +Y ese es un nuevo tipo de liderazgo para m. +Tuvimos una operacin que tuvimos que coordinar desde diferentes locaciones. +Y una oportunidad surgi --no hubo tiempo de reunir a todos. +As que debimos reunir inteligencia compleja, tuvimos que delinear la habilidad para actuar. +Era delicado, debimos ascender en la cadena de mando, convencerlos de que era la accin correcta, y hacer todo esto por vas electrnicas. +Fallamos. +La misin no funcion. +Y ahora lo que tenamos que hacer, era que yo tena que tratar de reconstruir la fe de esa fuerza, reconstruir su confianza --yo en ellos y ellos en m y nuestros superiores en nosotros como una fuerza-- todo sin la posibilidad de poner una mano en el hombro. +Un requerimiento totalmente nuevo. +Tambin, la gente haba cambiado. +Quiz ustedes crean que la fuerza que diriga eran super comandos equipados con armas exticas. +En realidad, gran parte de la fuerza que diriga era exactamente como ustedes. +Eran hombres, mujeres, jvenes, viejos --no solo del ejrcito; de diferentes organizaciones, muchos de ellos sin conocerlos bien. +As que en vez de dar rdenes, ahora construyes consenso y construyes un sentido de propsito compartido. +Probablemente el cambio ms grande fue entender que la diferencia generacional, las edades, haba cambiado tanto. +Estuve con un pelotn de los Rangers en una operacin en Afganistn, y en esa operacin, un sargento en el pelotn perdi casi la mitad de su brazo arrojando una granada Talibn de regreso al anemigo luego de que cayera entre sus compaeros. +Hablamos sobre la operacin, y al final hice lo que a menudo hago con una fuerza como esa. +Pregunte: "Dnde estaban el 11 de septiembre? +Y un joven Ranger al fondo --su cabello revuelto y su cara roja e irritada de estar en combate en el viento fro afgano-- dijo: "Seor, yo estaba en sexto grado." +Y me hizo recordar que operamos una fuerza que debe tener un propsito compartido una conciencia compartida, y sin embargo tiene diferentes experiencias, en muchos casos un vocabulario distinto, un conjunto muy diferente de habilidades en cuanto a medios digitales a los que yo y muchos de los otros altos mandos tenemos. +Y an as debemos tener ese sentido compartido. +Tambin produjo algo que yo llamo inversin de experiencia, ya que tenamos tantos cambios en los niveles inferiores en tecnologa y tcticas y dems, que de repente las cosas que crecimos haciendo ya no eran las que la fuerza estaba haciendo. +Entonces, Cmo un lder se mantiene creble y legtimo cuando no ha hecho lo que la gente a quin dirige est haciendo? +Y esto es un reto de liderazgo completamente nuevo. +Y me oblig a ser mucho ms transparente, a escuchar con mayor disposicin, mucho ms dispuesto a ser educado desde abajo. +Y sin embargo, una vez ms, no estamos todos en la misma sala. +Y algo ms. +Hay un efecto en ti y en tus lderes. +Hay un impacto, es acumulativo. +No reinicias ni recargas tu batera en cada ocasin. +Estaba frente a una pantalla una noche en Irak junto a uno de mis oficiales de alto rango y observbamos un tiroteo de uno de nuestros cuerpos de combate. +Y record que su hijo estaba en nuestra fuerza. +Le dije: "John, dnde est tu hijo? Cmo est l?". +Y me dijo: "Est bien, seor. Gracias por preguntar". +Le pregunt: "Dnde est ahora?". +Y seal la pantalla y dijo: "Est en ese tiroteo". +Imagina ver a tu hermano, padre, hija, hijo, esposa en un tiroteo en tiempo real y no poder hacer nada al respecto. +Imagina tener esa nocin a travs del tiempo. +Y es una nueva presin acumulativa en los lderes. +Y tienen que observar y cuidar el uno del otro. +Probablemente aprend ms que nada sobre relaciones. +Aprend que son el tendn que mantiene unida a la fuerza. +Crec principalmente en el regimiento de los Rangers. +Y todas las maanas, cada Ranger --y hay ms de 2.000-- dice un credo de seis estrofas. +Quiz conozcan una frase del credo que dice: "Nunca dejar a un camarada abatido caer en las manos del enemigo". +Y no es un mantra sin sentido, y no es un poema. +Es una promesa. +Todo Ranger promete a todos los dems Rangers, sin importar lo que suceda, sin importar lo que me cueste, si me necesitas, ah estar. +Y cada Ranger recibe la misma promesa de cada uno de los otros Rangers. +Piensen en ello. Es extraordinariamente poderoso. +Es quizs ms poderoso que los votos matrimoniales. +Y lo han cumplido, lo cual le da un poder especial. +As que la relacin organizacional que los une es increble. +Y aprend que las relaciones personales son ms importantes que nunca. +Y tener ese tipo de relaciones, para m, fue crtico en muchos puntos de mi carrera. +Y aprend que tienes que dar eso en este medio, porque es duro. +Ese fue mi viaje. +Espero que an no termine. +Ahora creo que un lder no es bueno porque tenga razn; es bueno porque est dispuesto a aprender y a confiar. +Esto no es fcil. +No es como esa mquina electrnica para abdominales con la que con 15 minutos al mes obtienes abdominales de acero. +Y no siempre es justo. +Te pueden tumbar, y duele y deja cicatrices. +Pero si eres un lder, la gente con la que has contado te levantar. +Y si eres un lder, la gente que cuenta contigo te necesita de pie. +Gracias. +A quin se parece el hombre ms feliz del mundo? +Seguramente no se parece a m. +Se parece a l. +Se llama Matthew Ricard. +Pero, cmo se llega a ser el hombre ms feliz del mundo? +Bueno, resulta que hay una manera de medir la felicidad en el cerebro +y eso se logra midiendo la activacin relativa de la corteza prefrontal izquierda en el tomgrafo en comparacin con la corteza prefrontal derecha. +Y la medida de felicidad de Matthew es algo fuera de serie. +Es por mucho el hombre ms feliz que haya registrado la ciencia. +Lo que nos lleva a preguntarnos: en qu estaba pensando cuando lo estaban examinando? +Quiz en alguna travesura. +En realidad estaba meditando sobre la compasin. +La propia experiencia de Matthew es que la compasin es el estado ms feliz de todos. +Leer sobre Matthew fue uno de los momentos cruciales de mi vida. +Mi sueo es crear las condiciones para la paz mundial durante mi vida y hacerlo creando las condiciones para la paz interior y la compasin a escala global. +Y aprender sobre Matthew me dio una nueva perspectiva sobre mi trabajo. +El escaneo cerebral de Matthew muestra que la compasin no es una tarea pesada. +Es algo que da felicidad. +La compasin es diversin. +Y esa visin alucinante cambia todo el juego. +Porque si fuese una faena pesada nadie la experimentara, salvo quiz el Dalai Lama o alguien as. +Pero si la compasin fuera diversin todo el mundo querra sentirla. +Por ende, para crear las condiciones para la compasin mundial todo lo que tenemos que hacer es replantearnos la compasin como algo divertido. +Pero la diversin no es suficiente. +Qu tal si la compasin adems es rentable? +Qu tal si la compasin es algo bueno para los negocios? +Entonces, todos los jefes y gerentes del mundo van a querer tener compasin como en este caso. +Eso creara las condiciones para la paz mundial. +As que empec a prestar atencin al aspecto de la compasin en un entorno de negocios. +Por suerte no tuve que mirar muy lejos +porque lo que estaba buscando estaba justo en frente de mis ojos, en Google, mi empresa. +S que hay otras empresas compasivas en el mundo pero Google es el lugar que me resulta familiar porque he estado all durante 10 aos, por eso voy a usar a Google como caso de estudio. +Google es una empresa que naci del idealismo. +Es una empresa que prospera en el idealismo +y quiz debido a ello la compasin es orgnica y est esparcida por toda la empresa. +En Google las expresiones de compasin corporativa casi siempre siguen el mismo patrn. +Es un patrn divertido +que empieza con un pequeo grupo de empleados que toman la iniciativa de hacer algo. +Y, por lo general, no piden permiso; simplemente lo llevan a cabo, y se le suman otros empleados y eso se hace cada vez ms grande. +Y a veces se hace tan grande que se vuelve oficial. +En otras palabras: casi siempre empieza de abajo hacia arriba. +Y permtanme darles algunos ejemplos. +El primer ejemplo es el evento comunitario ms grande del ao, donde los empleados de todo el mundo donan su trabajo para sus comunidades locales; ste se origin y fue organizado por tres empleados antes de que se tornara oficial debido a que se volvi algo enorme. +Otro ejemplo: tres empleados un cocinero, un ingeniero y, lo ms divertido, un masajista; tres empleados que se enteraron de una regin de India en la que viven 200 000 personas que no contaban con servicios mdicos. +Entonces, qu hacen? +Siguen adelante y empiezan a recaudar fondos. +Y recaudan el dinero suficiente para construir este hospital, el primer hospital en su tipo para 200 000 personas. +Durante el terremoto de Hait una cantidad de ingenieros y gerentes de producto se reunieron de manera espontnea y se quedaron toda la noche para hacer una herramienta que permitiera que las vctimas del terremoto encontraran a sus seres queridos. +Y las expresiones de compasin tambin pueden encontrarse en las oficinas internacionales. +En China, por ejemplo, un empleado de nivel medio inici la mayor competencia de accin social en China con la participacin de ms de mil escuelas chinas que trabajan en temas como educacin, pobreza, atencin de salud y medio ambiente. +Hay tanta accin social orgnica en todo Google que la empresa decidi formar un equipo de responsabilidad social para apoyar estos esfuerzos. +Y esta idea, de nuevo, vino desde las bases, de dos empleados que escribieron las descripciones de sus puestos y se ofrecieron como voluntarios para el trabajo. +Y hall fascinante que el equipo de responsabilidad social no se formara como una gran estrategia corporativa +Naci de dos personas que dijeron: "hagamos esto", y la empresa dijo: "S". +As que resulta que Google es una empresa compasiva porque los empleados ven que la compasin es diversin. +Pero, de nuevo, la diversin no basta. +Tambin hay beneficios reales de negocio. +Entonces, cules son? +El primer beneficio de la compasin es que crea lderes de negocios altamente efectivos. +Eso qu significa? +Hay tres componentes de la compasin. +Est el componente afectivo que es "yo siento por ti". +Est el componente cognitivo que es "yo te entiendo". +Y est el componente de motivacin que es "yo quiero ayudarte". +Entonces, qu tiene que ver esto con el liderazgo empresarial? +De acuerdo con un estudio muy completo dirigido por Jim Collins y documentado en el libro "Empresas que sobresalen" hace falta un tipo de lder muy especial para llevar a una empresa de algo bueno a algo grande. +Y los llama "lderes de nivel 5". +Estos son lderes que, adems de estar altamente capacitados, poseen dos cualidades importantes, que son: humildad y ambicin. +Estos son lderes altamente ambiciosos en busca del bien comn. +Y dado que ansan el bien comn no sienten la necesidad de inflar sus propios egos. +Y, de acuerdo con la investigacin, constituyen los mejores lderes de negocios. +Y si analizamos estas cualidades en el contexto de la compasin hallamos que los componentes cognitivos y afectivos de la compasin -- comprender y sentir empata por las personas -- inhibe, atena, lo que llamo esa auto-obsesin que llevamos dentro creando por lo tanto las condiciones para la humildad. +El componente de motivacin de la compasin crea la ambicin por el bien comn. +En otras palabras: la compasin es la manera de crear lderes de nivel 5. +Y este es el primer beneficio de negocio convincente. +El segundo beneficio convincente de la compasin consiste en crear mano de obra inspirada. +Los empleados se inspiran mutuamente hacia el bien comn. +Eso crea una comunidad vibrante, con energa, en la que las personas se admiran y respetan. +Digo, uno llega al trabajo en la maana, y trabaja con tres tipos que de pronto deciden construir un hospital en India. +Cmo no vamos a sentirnos inspirados por estas personas! los propios compaeros! +Esta inspiracin mutua promueve la colaboracin, la iniciativa y la creatividad. +Nos vuelve una empresa altamente efectiva. +As, dicho todo esto, cul es la frmula secreta para fraguar la compasin en un entorno empresarial? +En nuestra experiencia hay tres ingredientes. +El primer ingrediente es crear una cultura de cometido apasionado por el bien comn. +Es pensar siempre en cmo tu empresa y tu empleo contribuyen al bien comn. +O, cmo puedo contribuir ms al bien comn? +La conciencia de contribuir al bien comn es muy auto-inspiradora y crea un terreno frtil para fomentar la compasin. +Ese es uno. +El segundo ingrediente es la autonoma. +Por eso en Google hay mucha autonoma. +Y uno de nuestros gerentes ms populares bromea con que, esto es lo que l ve: Google es un lugar donde los internos dirigen el manicomio." +Y l se considera a s mismo un interno. +Si uno ya tiene una cultura de la compasin y del idealismo y le permite a las personas rondar en libertad, ellos harn lo correcto del modo ms compasivo. +El tercer ingrediente es centrarse en el desarrollo interior y en el crecimiento personal. +La capacitacin para el liderazgo en Google, por ejemplo, hace mucho hincapi en las cualidades interiores como conciencia de uno mismo, auto-dominio, empata y compasin, porque creemos que el liderazgo empieza con el carcter. +Incluso creamos un plan de estudios de siete semanas en inteligencia emocional que llamamos en broma "Buscar dentro de ti mismo". +Esto es menos pcaro de lo que parece. +Soy ingeniero de formacin pero soy uno de los creadores e instructores de este curso, algo que encuentro divertido porque esta es una empresa que confa en un ingeniero para ensear inteligencia emocional. +Qu empresa! +Buscar dentro de ti mismo, qu quiere decir? +Se trabaja en tres pasos. +El primer paso es el entrenamiento de la atencin. +La atencin es la base de todas las capacidades cognitivas y emocionales superiores. +As, cualquier plan de estudios para entrenar la inteligencia emocional tiene que empezar con el entrenamiento de la atencin. +La idea aqu es entrenar la atencin para crear una calidad mental que sea calmada y clara al mismo tiempo. +Y esto crea las bases para la inteligencia emocional. +El segundo paso sigue al primero. +El segundo paso es desarrollar el auto-conocimiento y el auto-dominio. +As, usando la atencin supercargada del paso uno, creamos una percepcin de alta resolucin en los procesos cognitivos y emocionales. +Qu significa eso? +Significa ser capaces de observar nuestro flujo de pensamiento y el proceso de la emocin con mucha claridad objetividad, y desde una perspectiva en tercera persona. +Y una vez que uno logra eso crea esa especie de auto-conocimiento que nos permite el auto-dominio. +El tercer paso, que sigue al segundo, es crear nuevos hbitos mentales. +Qu significa eso? Imaginen esto. +Imaginen que cuando conocen a otra persona, se encuentran con su persona, su primer pensamiento instintivo, habitual es: "Quiero que seas feliz. +Quiero que seas feliz". +Imaginen que hacen esto. +Tener este hbito, este hbito mental, cambia todo en el trabajo. +Porque esta buena voluntad inconscientemente es tomada por otras personas y eso genera confianza y la confianza genera muchas relaciones que funcionan bien. +Y esto crea tambin las condiciones para la compasin en el lugar de trabajo. +Algn da esperamos abrir los cdigos de "Buscar dentro de ti mismo" de modo que todos en el mundo empresarial puedan usarlo al menos como referencia. +Y, para concluir, quiero terminar en el mismo lugar que empec: con la felicidad. +Quiero citar a este tipo -- el de la sotana, no el otro -- el Dalai Lama, que dijo: "Si quieres que otros sean felices practica la compasin. +Si quieres ser feliz, practica la compasin". +He hallado que esto es cierto, tanto a nivel individual como a nivel corporativo. +Y espero que la compasin sea a la vez divertida y rentable para Uds. tambin. +Gracias. +Algunos de ustedes pueden recordar lo que queran ser cuando tenan 17 aos? +Saben lo que yo quera ser? +Quera ser una motociclista. +Quera correr autos, y quera ser vaquera, y quera ser Mowgli de "El libro de la Selva". +Porque todo consista en ser libre -- el viento en tu cabello -- slo ser libre. +Y cuando cumpl 17 aos, mis padres, conociendo cuanto me encantaba la velocidad, me regalaron una clase de conduccin para mi cumpleaos. +No es que nos pudiramos permitir que yo condujera, pero me dieron el sueo de conducir. +Y en mi 17 cumpleaos, acompa a mi hermanita completamente inocente, como lo hice toda mi vida -- mi hermana con discapacidad visual -- a ir a ver a un oftalmlogo. +Porque se espera que las hermanas mayores siempre apoyen a las hermanas menores. +Y mi hermanita quera ser piloto -- Dios la ayude. +Sola hacerme exmenes visuales slo por diversin. +Y en mi 17 cumpleaos, luego de mi fingido examen visual, el oftalmlogo se dio cuenta que era mi cumpleaos. +Y dijo, "qu vas a hacer para celebrar?" +Y tom esa clase de conduccin, y dije: "voy a aprender cmo conducir". +Y entonces hubo un silencio -- uno de esos silencios horribles de cuando sabes que algo anda mal. +Y se volvi a mi madre, y le dijo: "an no se lo has dicho?" +En mi 17 cumpleaos, como Janis Ian muy bien lo dira, a los 17 conoc la verdad: +soy, y lo he sido desde que nac, legalmente ciega. +Y ya saben, Cmo es que llegu a los 17 sin saber eso? +Bueno si alguien dice que la msica country no es de gran alcance, djenme contarles esto: Llegu ah por la pasin de mi padre por Johnny Cash y una cancin "A Boy Named Sue" (Un chico llamado Sue). +Soy la mayor de 3. Nac en 1971. +Y poco despus de mi nacimiento, mis padres descubrieron que tena una enfermedad llamada albinismo ocular. +Y qu diablos significa eso para ustedes? +As que slo permtanme decirles, qu es lo mejor de todo esto? +No puedo ver este reloj y no puedo ver el tiempo, as que Santo Dios, woohoo! Debera comprar algo de tiempo. +Incluso ms importante, permtanme decirles -- Voy a llegar muy cerca de aqu. No te asustes, Pat. +Oigan. +Ven esta mano? +Ms all de esta mano hay un mundo de Vaselina. +Cada hombre en esta sala, incluido t, Steve, es George Clooney. +Y cada mujer, son tan hermosas. +Y cuando quiero verme hermosa, me alejo a 3 pasos del espejo, y no tengo que ver estas lneas marcadas en mi cara por cada vez que entrecerr los ojos de las luces oscuras durante toda mi vida. +La parte realmente extraa es que, a los 3 aos y medio, justo antes de comenzar la escuela, mis padres tomaron una decisin rara, inusual y extraordinariamente valiente. +Nada de escuelas para necesidades especiales. +Nada de etiquetas. +Nada de limitaciones. +Mi capacidad y mi potencial. +Y decidieron decirme que yo poda ver. +As que al igual que Sue, de Johnny Cash un joven que le dieron nombre de mujer, Crecera y aprendera de la experiencia cmo ser fuerte y cmo sobrevivir cuando ellos ya no estn para protegerme, o simplemente llevrselo todo. +Pero incluso ms significativo, es que me dieron la habilidad para creer, para creer absolutamente en que yo poda. +Entonces cuando escuch a ese oftalmlogo decirme todas las cosas, un gran "no", todos se imaginaban que estaba devastada. +Y no me malinterpreten, porque cuando al principio escuch eso -- adems de pensar que estaba loco -- Tuve ese golpe en mi pecho -- ese "qu?". +Pero muy rpidamente me recuper. As fue. +Lo primero que pens fue en mi mam que estaba llorando a mi lado. +Y juro a Dios que sal de su oficina, "Conducir, Conducir. +Ests loco. Yo conducir. S que puedo conducir". +Y con la misma obstinacin que mi padre me cri desde que era una nia -- me ense cmo navegar, sabiendo que nunca podra ver a dnde iba, que nunca podra ver la costa, y que no podra ver las velas, y que no podra ver el destino. +Pero me dijo que creyera y sintiera el viento en mi cara. +Y ese viento en mi cara me hizo creer que l estaba loco y que yo conducira. +Y por los siguientes 11 aos, Jur que nunca nadie se enterara de que yo no poda ver, porque yo no quera ser una fracasada, y no quera ser dbil. +Y yo crea que poda hacerlo. +As que embest a la vida como slo un Casey puede hacerlo. +Y fui una arqueloga, y luego romp las cosas. +Y luego administr un restaurante, y luego me resbal sobre las cosas. +Y luego fui masajista. Y luego jardinera +Y luego ingres a la escuela de negocios. +Y las personas con discapacidad son sumamente educadas. +Y luego me fui y consegu un trabajo de consultora global en Accenture. +Y ni siquiera saban. +Y es extraordinario cun lejos te puede llevar tu confianza +En 1999, con dos aos y medio en ese trabajo, algo pas -- +maravillosamente, mis ojos dijeron, suficiente. +Y de forma temporal, inesperadamente, se bajaron. +Y estoy en uno de los ambientes ms competitivos del mundo, donde trabajas duro, juegas duro, tienes que ser el mejor, tienes que ser el mejor. +Y en 2 aos ah, realmente poda ver muy poco. +Y me encontr delante del gerente de recursos humanos en 1999 diciendo lo que nunca me imaginaba que dira. +Tena 28 aos. +Haba construido un personaje en torno a lo que poda y no poda hacer. +Y simplemente dije, "Lo siento. +No puedo ver, y necesito ayuda". +Pedir ayuda puede ser increblemente difcil. +Y todos ustedes saben lo que es, no es necesario tener una discapacidad para saberlo. +Todos sabemos lo difcil que es admitir la debilidad y el fracaso. +Y es aterrador, no? +Pero toda esa confianza me haba alimentado tanto tiempo. +Y puedo decirles, manejarse en el mundo de los videntes cuando uno no puede ver, es bastante difcil -- realmente lo es. +Puedo decirles que los aeropuertos son un desastre. +Oh, por el amor de Dios. +Y por favor, algn diseador ah. +Por favor, diseadores levanten la mano, aunque no los pueda ver. +Siempre termino en el bao de hombres. +Y no hay nada mal con mi sentido del olfato. +Pero slo puedo decirles, la pequea seal para el bao de damas o caballeros est determinada por un tringulo. +Alguna vez trataron de ver eso si tienen vaselina delante de sus ojos? +Es algo tan pequeo, verdad? +Y saben lo agotador que puede ser tratar de ser perfecto cuando no lo eres, o ser alguien que no eres? +Y as, despus de admitir ante recursos humanos que no poda ver, me enviaron a un oftalmlogo. +Y no tena idea de que este hombre iba a cambiar mi vida. +Pero antes de ir a verlo, me senta tan perdida. +Ya no tena idea de quin era yo. +Y ese oftalmlogo, no se molest en examinar mis ojos. +No Dios, fue terapia. +Y me hizo varias preguntas, de las cuales muchas fueron, "Por qu?" +Por qu luchas tan fuertemente para no ser t misma? +Caroline, amas lo que haces? +Y ya saben que cuando uno entra a una firma de consultora global, te ponen un chip en la cabeza, y ests como, "Me encanta Accenture, Me encanta Accenture. Amo mi trabajo. Amo Accenture. +Amo Accenture. Amo mi trabajo. Amo Accenture". Irse sera un fracaso. +Y l dijo, "lo amas?" +Ni siquiera poda hablar, estaba tan anonadada. +Me senta tan - cmo le digo? +Y entonces l me dijo: "Qu queras ser cuando eras pequea?" +Claro, no iba a decirle, "Bueno, yo quera correr autos y motos". +No era realmente apropiado en ese momento. +De todos modos, pensaba que yo estaba loca. +Y cuando sal de su oficina, me llam de nuevo y dijo, "Creo que es tiempo. +Creo que es tiempo de dejar de luchar y hacer algo diferente". +Y esa puerta se cerr. +Y ese silencio, fuera del consultorio, que muchos de nosotros conocemos. +Y me dola el pecho. +Y no tena idea de a dnde iba. No tena ni idea. +Pero yo saba que el juego haba terminado. +Y me fui a casa, y, porque el dolor en el pecho me dola tanto, Pens: "Voy a salir a correr". +Realmente no era algo muy sensato. +Y me fui corriendo en una ruta que conozco muy bien. +Conozco esta ruta tan bien, como la palma de mi mano. +Y siempre la corro perfectamente bien. +Cuento los pasos y los postes de luz y todas esas cosas que las personas con impedimentos visuales tienden a encontrarse con frecuencia. +Y haba una piedra que siempre le erraba. +Y nunca me haba cado en ella, nunca. +Y ah estaba llorando y zas, me golpeo con mi piedra. +Quebrada, cada sobre esta piedra a mediados de marzo de 2000 -- un mircoles, con un tpico tiempo irlands -- gris, mocos, lgrimas en todas partes -- ridculamente auto-compasiva. +Y estaba tirada, y quebrada, y enojada. +Y no saba qu hacer. +Y me sent all por bastante tiempo, "Cmo puedo dejar atrs esta piedra y volver a casa? +Porque quin voy a ser? +Qu voy a ser?" +Y pens en mi pap, y pens, "Dios, Dios, ahora no soy Sue". +Y me qued pensando una y otra vez, Qu haba sucedido? dnde surgi el error? por qu no entend? +Y ya saben la parte extraordinaria de esto es que simplemente no tena respuestas; +haba perdido mi confianza. +Miren a donde me haba llevado mi confianza. +Y ahora la haba perdido. Y ahora realmente no poda ver. +Estaba devastada. +Y luego recuerdo pensar en ese oftalmlogo preguntndome, "Qu quieres ser? Qu quieres ser?" +Qu queras ser cuando eras pequea? Amas lo que haces? +Haz algo diferente. Qu quieres ser? +Haz algo diferente. Qu quieres ser?" +Y realmente, muy lentamente, sucedi. +Y pas de este modo. +Y entonces lleg el minuto en que estall en mi cabeza y peg en mi corazn algo diferente, +"Bien, qu tal Mowgli, de "El libro de la selva?" +no puedes ser ms diferente que eso". +Y el momento, es decir el momento, el momento que me toc, juro por Dios, fue como un woohoo!, ya saben -- algo en qu creer. +Y nadie me puede decir no. +S, pueden decir que no puedo ser arqueloga. +Pero no me pueden decir que no puedo ser Mowgli, porque adivinen? +Nadie lo hizo antes, as que voy a hacerlo. +Y no importa si soy chico o chica, simplemente me ir. +Y entonces me libr de esa roca, y, mi Dios, s que corr a casa. +Y corr a casa, y sin caerme ni chocarme. +Y sub corriendo las escaleras, y all estaba uno de mis libros favoritos de todos los tiempos, "La reina de los elefantes" de Mark Shand --No se si alguno de ustedes lo conocen. +Y tom ese libro, y sentada en el sof viendo, "S lo que voy a hacer. +S cmo ser Mowgli. +Voy a atravesar India sobre el lomo de un elefante. +Voy a ser un jinete de elefante". +Y no tena idea cmo iba a ser un jinete de elefante. +De consultora en gestin global a jinete de elefante. +No tena idea cmo. De cmo contratar a un elefante, conseguir un elefante. +No hablaba hindi. Nunca haba estado en India - no tena idea. +Pero saba que podra. +Porque cuando tomas una decisin en el momento indicado y el lugar indicado, Dios, ese universo lo hace posible. +9 meses despus de ese da en la roca con mocos, tuve la nica cita a ciegas de mi vida con un elefante de ms de 2 metros, llamado Kanchi. +Y juntos recorreramos miles de kilmetros a travs de India. +Lo ms impactante de todo, no es que lo logr antes de eso -- Oh mi Dios, lo hice. +Pero saben, estaba creyendo en lo equivocado. +Porque no estaba creyendo en m -- realmente yo, todo mi ser -- cada parte de todo nuestro ser. +Ustedes saben cuntos de nosotros pretendemos ser alguien que no somos? +Y saben qu, cuando realmente creen en ustedes mismos y todo sobre ustedes, lo que sucede es extraordinario. +Y saben qu, ese viaje de miles de kilmetros, recaud suficiente dinero para hacer 6.000 operaciones de cataratas. +gracias a esto 6.000 personas pueden ver. +Cuando baj del elefante, saben cul fue la parte ms maravillosa? +Abandon mi trabajo en Accenture. +Lo dej y me convert en una emprendedora social, y comenc una organizacin con Mark Shand llamada Elephant Family, que trabaja por la conservacin de los elefantes en Asia. +Y la llam Kanchi porque mi organizacin siempre ser llamada como mi elefante, porque la discapacidad es como el elefante en una habitacin. +Y quera que lo vieran desde una perspectiva positiva -- sin caridad, sin lstima. +Pero yo quera trabajar slo y verdaderamente con el liderazgo empresarial y de los medios de comunicacin para replantear totalmente la discapacidad de una manera que fuese emocionante y posible. +Fue extraordinario. +Eso es lo que yo quera hacer. +Y nunca ms pens en eso, o en que no poda ver, o en cuestiones imposibles. +Slo me pareca que era posible. +Y saben que lo ms extrao de esto, cuando estaba viajando hacia aqu, a TED, ser honesta, estaba petrificada. +Y dije, pero este es un pblico increble, y qu estoy haciendo aqu? +Pero estaba viajando aqu, estarn muy felices de saber, us mi bastn blanco (para ciegos), porque es muy bueno evitar las filas en el aeropuerto. +Y tom mi camino hacia aqu felizmente orgullosa de no poder ver. +Y la nica cosa es que, un buen amigo mo, me envi un mensaje en el camino, sabiendo que yo estaba asustada. +Aunque aparentaba seguridad, tena miedo. +l dijo, "s t misma". +Y entonces aqu estoy, +esta soy yo, toda yo. +Y he aprendido, saben qu, los autos, las motos y los elefantes, eso no es libertad. +Ser absolutamente fiel a ti mismo, eso es la libertad. +Y nunca necesit ojos para ver -- nunca. +Simplemente necesit visin y confianza. +Y si verdaderamente creen -- y quiero decir creer desde lo ms profundo de su corazn -- pueden lograr que los cambios sucedan. +Y necesitamos hacer que sucedan, porque cada uno de nosotros - mujeres, hombres, homosexuales, heterosexuales, discapacitados, perfectos, normal, lo que sea -- cada uno de nosotros debe ser lo mejor de nosotros mismos. +No quiero que nadie sea invisible. +Todos debemos ser incluidos. +Y terminar con las etiquetas, la limitacin - +perder las etiquetas. Porque no somos botes de mermelada; +porque somos seres extraordinarios, diferentes y maravillosos. +Gracias. +Gracias. +Primero, un video. +S, es un huevo revuelto. +Espero que al verlo empiecen a sentirse apenas levemente incmodos. +Dado que puede verse que lo que realmente est sucediendo es una reversin del revuelto. +Y ahora van a ver que la yema se separa de la clara. +Y ahora que van a ser vertidas nuevamente en el huevo. +Sabemos desde lo ms profundo del corazn que no es as como son las cosas. +Un huevo revuelto es una mezcla sabrosa, pero es una mezcla. +Un huevo es algo maravilloso y sofisticado que puede crear algo an ms sofisticado como los pollos. +Y sabemos desde lo ms profundo del corazn que el Universo no va del desorden a la complejidad. +De hecho, esta corazonada se ve reflejada en una de las leyes fundamentales de la fsica: la segunda ley de la termodinmica, o ley de entropa, +que dice, en esencia, que la tendencia general del Universo es ir del orden y la estructura a la falta de orden, la falta de estructura de hecho, al desorden. +Y por eso ese video se ve un poco extrao. +Incluso miren alrededor. +Vemos a nuestro alrededor una complejidad pasmosa. +Eric Beinhocker estima que slo en Nueva York se negocian unos 10 mil millones de SKU, o artculos comerciales distintos. +Eso es cientos de veces la cantidad de especies vivas que existen en el planeta. +Y estn siendo comercializados por una especie de casi 7 mil millones de individuos vinculados por el comercio, los viajes e Internet en un sistema mundial de una complejidad estupenda. +Este es un gran enigma: en un Universo gobernado por la segunda ley de la termodinmica cmo es posible generar la complejidad que he descrito, esa complejidad que representamos ustedes y yo y el centro de convenciones? +Bueno, la respuesta parece ser que el Universo puede crear complejidad, pero con gran dificultad. +Aparece lo que podemos llamar condiciones de habitabilidad; ni muy caliente, ni muy fro; lo justo para crear la complejidad. +As aparecen cosas levemente ms complejas. +Y si hay cosas ligeramente ms complejas se obtienen cosas un poco ms complejas. +Y de esta manera se construye la complejidad paso a paso. +Cada etapa es mgica porque da la impresin de algo totalmente nuevo que aparece casi de la nada en el Universo. +En la Historia Grande nos referimos a estos momentos como hitos de umbral. +Y en cada umbral las cosas se hacen ms difciles. +Las cosas complejas se vuelven ms frgiles, ms vulnerables, las condiciones de habitabilidad se hacen ms estrictas y es ms difcil crear complejidad. +Nosotros, como criaturas extremadamente complejas, necesitamos desesperadamente conocer esta historia de cmo el Universo crea la complejidad a pesar de la segunda ley y por qu la complejidad significa vulnerabilidad y fragilidad. +Y eso es lo que contamos en la Historia Grande. +Pero para ello, hay que hacer algo que, a primera vista, podra parecer totalmente imposible. +Hay que estudiar toda la historia del Universo. +As que hagmoslo. +Empecemos rebobinando la lnea de tiempo 13.700 millones de aos hasta el comienzo del tiempo. +No hay nada alrededor. +No existe ni el tiempo ni el espacio. +Imaginen lo ms oscuro y ms vaco posible, eleven eso al cubo muchsimas veces y ah es donde estamos. +Y luego, de repente, bang! Aparece el Universo, el Universo entero. +Hemos cruzado el primer umbral. +El Universo es diminuto; es ms pequeo que un tomo. +Es extremadamente caliente. +Contiene todo lo que hay en el Universo actual as que imaginen, est que estalla +y se expande a una velocidad increble. +Al principio es algo borroso pero muy rpidamente empiezan a distinguirse cosas en esa neblina. +En el primer segundo la energa misma se hace aicos en distintas fuerzas como el electromagnetismo y la gravedad. +Y la energa hace algo ms, muy mgico: se congela para formar materia; quarks que van a crear protones, y leptones que incluyen electrones. +Y todo eso sucede en el primer segundo. +Ahora avanzamos 380 mil aos. +Eso es el doble de lo que hemos vivido los humanos en el planeta. +Ahora aparecen los tomos simples de hidrgeno y helio. +Quiero detenerme un momento, 380 mil aos despus del origen del Universo, porque en realidad conocemos bastante sobre el Universo en esta etapa. +Sobre todo sabemos que era extremadamente simple. +Haba enormes nubes de tomos de hidrgeno y helio, nubes sin estructura. +Realmente, como un revuelto csmico. +Pero eso no es totalmente cierto. +Estudios recientes de satlites como el WMAP nos han mostrado que, de hecho, hay pequeas diferencias en ese fondo. +Lo ven aqu; las zonas azules son una milsima de grado ms fras que las zonas rojas. +Son diferencias diminutas pero fueron suficientes para que el Universo pasara a la siguiente etapa de creacin de complejidad. +Y as es como funciona. +La gravedad es ms poderosa donde hay ms materia. +Por eso en las zonas levemente ms densas la gravedad empieza a compactar nubes de tomos de hidrgeno y helio. +As, podemos imaginar el Universo temprano separndose +Nacen las primeras estrellas. +Unos 200 millones de aos despus del Big Bang empiezan a aparecer estrellas por todo el Universo miles de millones de ellas. +Y ahora el Universo es mucho ms interesante y ms complejo. +Las estrellas van a crear las condiciones de habitabilidad para pasar dos nuevos umbrales. +Cuando mueren las estrellas muy grandes producen temperaturas tan altas que los protones empiezan a fusionarse en combinaciones muy exticas para formar todos los elementos de la tabla peridica. +Si, como yo, usted lleva puesto un anillo de oro, ese oro se forj en una explosin de supernova. +Por eso el Universo ahora es qumicamente ms complejo. +Y en un Universo qumicamente ms complejo es posible hacer ms cosas. +Y lo que empieza a suceder es que, alrededor de soles jvenes, estrellas jvenes, se combinan estos elementos, se arremolinan, la energa de la estrella los agita hasta que se forman partculas, copos de nieve, pequeas motas de polvo, rocas, asteroides, y, finalmente, se forman planetas y lunas. +De ese modo se form nuestro sistema solar hace 4.500 millones de aos. +Los planetas rocosos como la Tierra son mucho ms complejos que las estrellas porque contienen una diversidad mucho ms grande de materiales. +As, cruzamos el cuarto umbral de complejidad. +Ahora, la marcha se hace ms difcil. +La prxima etapa presenta entidades mucho ms frgiles, mucho ms vulnerables, pero tambin mucho ms creativas y mucho ms capaces de generar ms complejidad. +Estoy hablando, claro, de los organismos vivos. +Los organismos vivos se crean por la qumica. +Somos enormes paquetes de productos qumicos. +La qumica est dominada por la fuerza electromagntica +que opera a escalas mucho ms pequeas que la gravedad lo que explica por qu Uds y yo somos ms pequeos que las estrellas y los planetas. +Pero, cules son las condiciones ideales para la qumica? +Cules son las condiciones de habitabilidad? +Bueno, primero hace falta energa pero no demasiada. +En el centro de una estrella hay tanta energa que cualquier tomo que se combinara sera separado de nuevo. +Tampoco tan poca. +En el espacio intergalctico hay tan poca energa que los tomos no pueden combinarse. +Lo que uno quiere es la cantidad precisa y resulta que los planetas son adecuados porque estn cerca de las estrellas pero no demasiado. +Adems hace falta una gran diversidad de elementos qumicos y lquidos como el agua. +Por qu? +Bueno, en los gases los tomos se pasan tan rpido unos a otros que no pueden engancharse. +En los slidos los tomos se pegan tanto que no pueden moverse. +En los lquidos, pueden cruzarse y abrazarse y se unen para formar molculas. +Dnde encontrar tales condiciones de habitabilidad? +Bueno, los planetas son geniales y nuestra Tierra temprana era casi perfecta. +Estaba a la distancia perfecta de su estrella para contener ocanos enormes de aguas abiertas. +Y en lo profundo de esos ocanos en las grietas de la corteza terrestre se filtra el calor del interior de la Tierra y hay una gran diversidad de elementos. +As, en esos respiraderos ocenicos profundos empez a suceder una qumica fantstica y los tomos se combinaron de maneras muy exticas. +Pero, por supuesto, la vida es ms que slo qumica extica. +Cmo se estabilizan esas molculas enormes que parecen viables? +Bueno, aqu es cuando la vida presenta una triquiuela totalmente nueva. +No se estabiliza al individuo; se estabiliza al molde, eso que transporta la informacin, y le permite al molde auto-copiarse. +Y el ADN, claro, es la molcula hermosa que contiene esa informacin. +Estarn familiarizados con la doble hlice del ADN. +Cada peldao contiene informacin. +El ADN contiene informacin de cmo hacer organismos vivientes. +Y el ADN se auto-copia. +Se copia a s mismo y esparce los moldes por el ocano. +As se esparce la informacin. +Noten que la informacin se torn parte de nuestra historia. +La verdadera belleza del ADN, no obstante, est en sus imperfecciones. +Mientras se auto-replica, una vez cada mil millones de peldaos suele haber un error. +Y eso significa que el ADN, en efecto, est aprendiendo. +Est acumulando nuevas formas de hacer organismos vivientes porque algunos de esos errores funcionan. +As, el ADN est aprendiendo y construyendo una diversidad y una complejidad ms grandes. +Y podemos ver que esto ha sucedido en los ltimos 4 mil millones de aos. +Durante la mayor parte de ese tiempo de vida en la Tierra los organismos vivos han sido relativamente simples, clulas simples. +Pero tenan gran diversidad y, por dentro, gran complejidad. +Luego, hace unos 600 a 800 millones de aos aparecieron los organismos multicelulares. +Los hongos, los peces, las plantas, los anfibios, los reptiles, y luego, por supuesto, los dinosaurios. +Y en ocasiones hay desastres. +Hace 65 millones de aos impact la Tierra un asteroide cerca de la Pennsula de Yucatn creando condiciones equivalentes a las de una guerra nuclear y los dinosaurios fueron exterminados. +Noticias terribles para los dinosaurios. Pero grandes noticias para nuestros ancestros mamferos que florecieron en los nichos que dejaron vacos los dinosaurios. +Y nosotros los seres humanos formamos parte de ese pulso creativo-evolutivo que empez hace 65 millones de aos con el impacto de un asteroide. +Los humanos aparecen hace 200 mil aos. +Y creo que contamos como un umbral en esta gran historia. +Les voy a explicar por qu. +Hemos visto que el ADN aprende en un sentido, acumula informacin. +Pero es demasiado lento. +El ADN acumula informacin mediante errores aleatorios que de casualidad funcionan. +Pero el ADN ha generado en realidad una manera ms rpida de aprender; ha producido organismos con cerebros y esos organismos pueden aprender en tiempo real +Acumulan informacin, aprenden. +Lo triste es que cuando mueren, la informacin muere con ellos. +Pero lo que hace diferentes a los humanos es el lenguaje. +Estamos bendecidos por el lenguaje, por un sistema de comunicacin, tan poderoso y tan preciso que podemos compartir lo que hemos aprendido con tanta precisin que puede acumularse en la memoria colectiva. +Y eso significa que puede sobrevivir a los individuos que aprendieron esa informacin y puede acumularse de generacin en generacin. +Por eso, como especie, somos tan creativos y tan poderosos y por eso tenemos una historia. +Parece que somos la nica especie en 4 mil millones de aos en tener este don. +Yo denomino a esta capacidad aprendizaje colectivo. +Es lo que nos hace diferentes. +Podemos verlo en funcionamiento en las etapas tempranas de la historia humana. +Evolucionamos como especie en la sabana africana pero luego vemos humanos que migran a nuevos entornos: a los desiertos, a las junglas, a la tundra siberiana de la glaciacin; entornos duros, duros, en Amrica, en Australasia. +Cada migracin implic aprendizaje: aprender nuevas formas de explotar el ambiente nuevas formas de tratar con sus alrededores. +Luego hace 10 mil aos explotando un cambio repentino en el clima mundial a fines de la ltima glaciacin, los humanos aprendieron a cultivar. +La agricultura fue una bonanza de energa. +Y al explotar esa energa las poblaciones humanas se multiplicaron. +Las sociedades humanas se hicieron ms grandes, ms densas, ms interconectadas. +Y luego desde hace unos 500 aos los humanos comenzaron a vincularse mundialmente mediante barcos, trenes, mediante el telgrafo e Internet hasta hoy que parecemos ser parte de un cerebro mundial de casi 7 mil millones de individuos. +Y ese cerebro est aprendiendo a gran velocidad. +Y en los ltimos 200 aos ha sucedido algo ms: +hemos tropezado con otra bonanza de energa en combustibles fsiles. +Los combustibles fsiles junto al aprendizaje colectivo explican la complejidad asombrosa +que vemos a nuestro alrededor. Estamos aqu de nuevo en el centro de convenciones. +Hemos estado en un viaje, un viaje de retorno, de 13.700 millones de aos. +Espero que estn de acuerdo en que es una historia potente. +Y es una historia en la que los humanos juegan un papel sorprendente y creativo. +Pero tambin contiene advertencias. +El aprendizaje colectivo es una fuerza muy, muy potente y no est claro que los humanos lo tengan bajo control. +Recuerdo muy vvidamente crecer de nio en Inglaterra con la crisis de los misiles cubanos. +Durante unos das toda la biosfera pareca estar al borde de la destruccin. +Y las mismas armas todava estn aqu, todava estamos armados. +Si bien evitamos esa trampa otras nos estn esperando. +Estamos quemando combustibles fsiles a un ritmo tal que parecemos estar socavando las condiciones de habitabilidad que posibilitaron que las civilizaciones humanas florecieran en los ltimos 10.000 aos. +La Historia Grande puede mostrarnos la naturaleza de nuestra complejidad y fragilidad y los peligros que enfrentamos pero tambin puede mostrarnos el poder de nuestro aprendizaje colectivo. +Y ahora, finalmente, esto es lo que quiero. +Quiero que mi nieto Daniel, sus amigos y su generacin en todo el mundo, conozca el relato de nuestra Historia Grande y que la conozcan tan bien que comprendan tanto los desafos que enfrentamos como las oportunidades. +Y es por eso que con un grupo construimos un plan de estudios gratis en lnea sobre la Historia Grande para estudiantes de secundaria de todo el mundo. +Creemos que la Historia Grande va a ser una herramienta intelectual vital para ellos a medida que Daniel y su generacin enfrenten los enormes desafos y tambin las enormes oportunidades presentes ante ellos en este momento de cambio en la historia de nuestro hermoso planeta. +Le doy las gracias por su atencin. +Con qu frecuencia se oye que a la gente no le importa nada? +Cuntas veces les han dicho que el cambio real, sustancial, no es posible porque la mayora de la gente es demasiado egosta, demasiado estpida o perezosa, para tratar influir y mejorar su comunidad? +Hoy vengo a proponerles que la apata como la conocemos en realidad no existe sino que a la gente s se preocupa pero que vivimos en un mundo que desalienta la participacin activa constantemente poniendo obstculos y barreras en nuestro camino. +Y les voy a poner un ejemplo de lo que quiero decir. +Empecemos con la municipalidad. +Han visto uno de estos antes? +Es un anuncio del peridico. +Es la noticia de la relocalizacin de un edificio de oficinas para que el barrio sepa qu est sucediendo. +Como pueden ver es imposible de leer. +Hay que ir hasta la mitad para enterarse de qu direccin estn hablando y luego ms abajo, en una diminuta letra de 10 puntos, averiguar cmo involucrarse. +Imagnense si el sector privado se anunciara de la misma forma; si Nike quisiera vender un par de zapatos y publicara un anuncio como este. +Eso no va a suceder. +No van a ver un anuncio como ese, porque Nike s que quiere que compren sus zapatos. +Mientras que la ciudad de Toronto claramente no quiere que se involucren en la planificacin urbana, de lo contrario, sus anuncios se veran as... con toda la informacin presentada en forma clara. +En la medida en que la ciudad ponga noticias como esta para tratar de incentivar a la gente, por supuesto que la gente no se va a involucrar. +Pero eso no es apata; eso es exclusin intencional. +Espacio pblico. +La manera en que maltratamos nuestros espacios pblicos es un gran obstculo para todo tipo de cambio poltico progresista. Porque, en esencia, ya hemos puesto un precio a la libertad de expresin. +Quien tenga ms dinero tendr la voz de mando para dominar el entorno visual y mental. +El problema de este modelo es que hay algunos mensajes muy importantes que no se comunican porque que no son rentables. +Por eso nunca los vamos a ver en una cartelera. +Los medios juegan un papel importante en el desarrollo de nuestra relacin con los cambios polticos, sobre todo cuando ignoran la poltica y se centran en las celebridades y los escndalos. Pero incluso cuando hablan de cuestiones polticas importantes, lo hacen de un modo que desalienta la participacin. +Y les voy a poner un ejemplo: la revista Now de la semana pasada... un semanario progresista del centro de Toronto. +Esta es la historia de portada. +Es un artculo sobre una obra de teatro y empieza con informacin bsica de su ubicacin, en caso de que uno realmente quiera ir a verla despus de leer el artculo: direccin, horario, sitio web. +Lo mismo con esto: una resea de cine, una resea de arte, la resea de un libro... dnde est la lectura en caso de querer ir. +Un restaurante: quiz no slo queramos leer el artculo, tal vez incluso queramos ir al restaurante. +Por eso nos dice dnde est, los precios, la direccin, el nmero de telfono, etc. +Luego uno pasa a los artculos polticos. +Aqu hay un gran artculo sobre una campaa electoral importante en curso. +Habla de los candidatos (muy bien escrito), pero sin informacin, sin seguimiento, ni sitios web de las campaas, ni informacin de cundo son los debates o dnde estn los comits de campaa. +Aqu hay otro buen artculo sobre una nueva campaa de oposicin a la privatizacin del trnsito automovilstico, pero sin informacin de contacto para la campaa. +El mensaje parece ser que los lectores son propensos a querer comer, quiz a leer un libro o ver una pelcula, pero no a involucrarse en su comunidad. +Y podran pensar que esto es una nimiedad pero creo que es importante porque establece una dinmica y refuerza la peligrosa idea de que la poltica es un deporte para espectadores. +Hroes: Cmo vemos el liderazgo? +Miren estas 10 pelculas. Qu tienen en comn? +Alguien? +Todos tienen hroes que fueron elegidos. +Alguien vino y les dijo: "T eres el elegido. +Lo dice la profeca: tienes que salvar al mundo". +Y entonces alguien va y salva al mundo porque le dijeron que lo hiciera y se engancha poca gente. +Esto me ayuda a entender por qu a muchas personas les cuesta verse como lderes. Porque se envan mensajes errneos sobre el significado del liderazgo. +En primer lugar, un esfuerzo heroico es un esfuerzo colectivo. +En segundo lugar, es imperfecto; no es muy glamoroso; y no empieza y termina repentinamente. +Es un proceso que dura toda la vida. +Pero an ms importante: es voluntario. +Es voluntario. +Si le enseamos a nuestros nios que el herosmo empieza cuando alguien te marca la frente o alguien te dice que eres parte de una profeca, se estn perdiendo la parte ms importante del liderazgo, que es que viene desde adentro. +Se trata de seguir tus propios sueos -sin que te inviten- y luego trabajar con otros para hacer esos sueos realidad. +Los partidos polticos, claro. +Los particos polticos podran y deberan ser uno de los puntos de entrada bsicos para que la gente se involucre en poltica. +En cambio se han convertido, tristemente, en organizaciones aburridas, poco creativas, que dependen fuertemente de estudios de mercado, encuestas y grupos focales y que terminan todas diciendo lo mismo, regurgitando ms o menos lo que queremos escuchar a expensas de la presentacin de ideas audaces y creativas. +Y la gente puede olerlo, y eso alimenta el cinismo. +Condicin de la beneficencia. Los grupos de beneficencia en Canad no pueden promocionarse. +Esto es un problema enorme y un gran obstculo para el cambio, porque significa que algunas de las voces ms apasionadas y fundamentadas son silenciadas por completo, sobre todo en poca de elecciones. +Lo que nos lleva a lo ltimo, que son nuestras elecciones. +Como pueden haber notado, las elecciones en Canad son una broma. +Usamos sistemas obsoletos que son injustos y dan resultados aleatorios. +Canad est gobernada hoy por un partido que la mayora de los canadienses no queran. +Cmo podemos honesta y genuinamente animar a ms gente a votar si los votos no cuentan en Canad? +Se junta todo esto y, por supuesto, que la gente est aptica. +Es como chocarse contra una pared de ladrillos. +No trato de ser negativo poniendo todos estos obstculos y explicando lo que bloquea nuestro camino. +Todo lo contrario: en realidad creo que las personas son increbles e inteligentes y que les importamos. +Pero que, como dije, vivimos en este entorno en el que se nos interponen todos estos obstculos. +En la medida en que creemos que esa gente, nuestros propios vecinos, son egostas, estpidos o perezosos, entonces no hay esperanza. +Pero podemos cambiar todas las cosas que mencion. +Podemos abrir la municipalidad. +Podemos reformar los sistemas electorales. +Podemos democratizar nuestros espacios pblicos. +Mi mensaje principal es que si podemos redefinir la apata no como una especie de sndrome interno, sino como una compleja red de barreras culturales que refuerza la falta de compromiso y si podemos definir e identificar con claridad cules son esos obstculos y si podemos trabajar juntos, colectivamente, para desmantelar esos obstculos, entonces todo es posible. +Gracias. +Soy la hija de un falsificador. No cualquier falsificador. +Al or la palabra "falsificador", a menudo se entiende como "mercenario", +"dinero falso" o "pinturas falsas". +Mi padre no es de esos. +Durante 30 aos de su vida, falsific documentos. No para s mismo, siempre para los dems, y para ayudar a los perseguidos y oprimidos. +Permtanme presentarlo. +Este es mi padre a los 19 aos. +De hecho, todo comenz durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial, cuando a los 17 aos se encontr en un laboratorio de documentos falsos. +Rpidamente se convirti en el experto en documentos falsos de la resistencia. +Y esta no es una historia trivial, despus de la liberacin, continu falsificando documentos, incluso hasta los aos 70. +Y yo, de nia, no saba nada de esto, por supuesto. +Esa soy yo, en el medio, haciendo muecas. +Crec en los suburbios de Pars, y era la menor de 3 hijos. +Y tuve un pap "normal, como todos los dems, excepto por el hecho de que era 30 aos mayor que +en fin, tena edad como para ser mi abuelo. +Era fotgrafo, educador de calle, y siempre nos ense a obedecer las leyes con rigor. +Y de su vida pasada, cuando era un falsificador, por supuesto, nunca nos habl. +Sin embargo, hubo un incidente, del que les voy a hablar, que pudo haberme hecho sospechar algo. +Estaba en la escuela secundaria y tuve una mala nota, lo que ocurra muy rara vez, pero de todos modos, haba decidido esconderla de mis padres. +Y para lograrlo, pens en falsificar su firma. +Me dediqu entonces a hacer la firma de mi madre, porque la de mi padre es absolutamente infalsificable. +As que, me puse a trabajar. Tom unas hojas de borrador, y practiqu, practiqu y practiqu hasta adquirir destreza con la mano y falsifiqu la firma. +Ms tarde, mientras revisaba mi maletn, mi madre encontr la prueba, y de inmediato vio la firma falsa. +Y me rega como nunca lo haba hecho. +Fui a esconderme en mi habitacin, debajo de la manta, y esper a que mi padre llegara a casa de trabajar, y podra decir, que con mucho temor. +Lo o llegar. +Me qued bajo la manta, l entr en mi habitacin, se sent en la esquina de la cama, y se qued en silencio, as que saqu la cabeza de la manta, y cuando me vio se ech a rer. +Se rea tanto, que no poda detenerse, mientras sostena mi prueba en la mano, +me dijo: "Pero Sarah, pudiste haberte esforzado, no ves que es demasiado pequea?" +De hecho, es realmente pequea. +Nac en Argelia. +All o decir que mi padre era un "muyahidn" que significa combatiente. +Ms tarde, en Francia, me encantaba parar la oreja para escuchar las conversaciones de los grandes, y o todo tipo de cosas sobre el pasado de mi padre, y me enter de que haba "estado" en la Segunda Guerra Mundial, de que haba "estado" en la guerra de Argelia. +Y en mi cabeza "estar" en la guerra era ser un soldado. +Y conociendo a mi padre, que no paraba de decir que era pacifista y no violento, se me haca muy difcil imaginarlo con un casco y un fusil. +Y efectivamente, estaba muy lejos de lo que pasaba. +Un da, mientras mi padre preparaba la documentacin para que todos obtuvisemos la nacionalidad francesa, vi unos documentos que llamaron mi atencin. +Eran reales! +Y eran mos, nac argentina. +Pero, el documento que vi y que nos iba a ayudar en la tramitacin era uno que provena de los militares en el que se agradeca a mi padre el trabajo para los servicios secretos. +Y luego, de repente me dije: "Vaya!" +Mi padre, un agente secreto? +Era muy James Bond, en definitiva... +Y quise hacerle preguntas, pero l no respondi. +Y despus pens que, de todos modos, un da iba a tener que hacerle preguntas. +Luego me convert en madre y tuve un nio, y me dije que ya era tiempo, era imperioso que l nos hablara. +Acababa de ser madre, y l cumpla 77 aos, y de repente tuve mucho, mucho miedo. +Tem que se me fuera y que llevara consigo su silencio, sus secretos. +Y logr convencerle de que era importante para nosotros, pero quiz tambin para otros, que tena que compartir su historia. +l se decidi a contrmela y yo hice un libro, del cual les leer unos pasajes ms adelante. +He aqu su historia. Mi padre naci en Argentina. +Sus padres eran de origen ruso. +Y toda la familia se estableci en Francia en los aos 30. +Sus padres eran judos, rusos y sobre todo muy pobres. +As que a los 14 aos, mi padre tuvo que trabajar. +Y con su nico diploma, su certificado de primaria, logr que lo contrataran en una tintorera. +Y all descubri algo absolutamente mgico para l, y cuando l habla de eso, es fascinante; es la magia de la coloracin qumica. +Ese era el tiempo de la guerra y su madre fue asesinada cuando l tena 15 aos. +Esto coincidi con el momento en que se dedic en cuerpo y alma a la qumica porque era el nico consuelo para su tristeza. +Todos los das haca muchas preguntas a su jefe para aprender, para acumular ms y ms conocimiento, y por la noche, cuando nadie lo vea, pona en prctica toda su experiencia. +Tena un especial inters en la decoloracin de tintas. +Todo esto para decirles que si mi padre se convirti en un falsificador, en verdad, fue casi por casualidad. +Su familia era juda y, por lo tanto, eran perseguidos. +Finalmente, todos fueron arrestados y llevados al campo de Drancy y lograron salir en el ltimo minuto gracias a sus documentos argentinos. +Pero, aunque estaban fuera, estaban siempre en peligro. Tenan el gran sello "judo" en sus papeles. +Fue su padre quien decidi hacerse de documentos falsos. +Mi padre tena tal respeto por la ley que aun perseguido, no se le ocurra pensar en documentos falsos. +Pero fue l quien se reuni con el hombre de la resistencia. +En esa poca los documentos eran de cartn, escritos a mano, e incluan la profesin. +Le era necesario trabajar para sobrevivir. Le pidi al hombre que escribiera "tintorero". +Y de repente, el hombre pareci muy interesado en l. +"Como tintorero, sabes quitar manchas de tinta?" +Por supuesto que lo saba. +Y de pronto, el hombre le explic que, de hecho, toda la resistencia tena un gran problema: aun los expertos de mayor renombre no podan borrar la tinta llamada "indeleble", la tinta azul "Waterman". +Y mi padre respondi al instante que saba exactamente cmo eliminarla. +As que, obviamente, el hombre estaba muy impresionado con este joven de 17 aos, que le haba dado la frmula al instante, indudablemente lo reclut. +Y de hecho, sin saberlo, mi padre haba inventado algo que est ahora en los kits de todos los escolares, llamado: "corrector". +Pero eso fue solo el comienzo. +All est mi padre. +Desde su llegada al laboratorio, pese a que era el ms joven, vio de inmediato que haba un problema en la fabricacin de documentos falsos. +Todas las ejecuciones se limitaban a falsificar. +Pero la demanda era cada vez mayor y era difcil alterar los documentos existentes. +l se dijo que tena que fabricarlos. +Comenz a imprimir. Puso en marcha el fotograbado. +Se dedic a fabricar sellos. +Comenz a inventar todo tipo de cosas con materiales diversos. Invent una centrfuga con una rueda de bicicleta. +En definitiva, l tena que hacerlo porque estaba completamente obsesionado con el rendimiento. +l haba hecho un clculo simple: poda hacer 30 documentos falsos en 1 hora. +Si dorma 1 hora, 30 personas moran. +De tal manera que, ese sentimiento de responsabilidad por las vidas de los dems, cuando solo tena 17 aos, y tambin de culpabilidad por ser un sobreviviente, ya que haba salido del campo mientras que sus amigos seguan all; lo acompa durante toda su vida. +Y esto quiz explica por qu durante 30 aos no dej de hacer documentos falsos y a costa de cualquier sacrificio. +Quisiera hablar de esos sacrificios, porque hubo varios. +Obviamente, hubo sacrificios financieros: porque l siempre se neg a cobrar. +Debido a que si se le pagaba, eso significaba ser mercenario. +Porque si aceptaba la paga, ya no poda decir "s" o "no" dependiendo de si la causa le pareca justa o no. +As que fue fotgrafo de da y falsificador de noche, durante 30 aos. +Y estaba en la ruina todo el tiempo. +Luego, estaba el sacrificio sentimental: cmo vivir con una mujer teniendo tantos secretos? +Cmo explicar lo que haca en la noche en el laboratorio, y todas las noches? +Por supuesto, hubo otro tipo de sacrificio, de tipo familiar, que comprend mucho ms tarde. +Un da, mi padre me present a mi hermana. +Y adems, me dijo que tambin tena un hermano, y la primera vez que los vi, yo deba tener unos 3 o 4 aos y ellos me llevaban como 30 aos. +Hoy ambos tienen ms de 60 aos. +Con el propsito de escribir el libro, fui a hacer preguntas a mi hermana. Quera saber quin era mi padre, quin era el padre que ella haba conocido. +Me explic que ese padre que ella haba tenido, les deca que vendra a verlos el domingo para dar un paseo. +Ellos se preparaban y lo esperaban, pero l casi nunca iba. +Les deca: "Voy a llamarlos". Y no lo haca. +Y tampoco iba a verlos. +Y luego un da simplemente desapareci. +Pasaba el tiempo, y primero pensaron que los haba olvidado, seguramente. +Y luego, al pasar el tiempo, despus de casi dos aos, dijeron: "Por ltimo, tal vez nuestro padre muri". +Entonces comprend que hacerle tantas preguntas a mi padre remova todo un pasado del cual tal vez no quera hablar porque era doloroso. +Y mientras mis medio hermanos se crean abandonados o hurfanos, mi padre falsificaba documentos. +Y si no se los dijo, fue sin duda para protegerlos. +Despus de la liberacin falsific documentos para que los sobrevivientes de los campos de concentracin emigraran a Palestina antes de la creacin de Israel. +Y como era un anticolonialista convencido, falsific documentos para argelinos durante la guerra de Argelia. +Y luego, despus de la guerra de Argelia, su nombre se hizo conocido en los movimientos de resistencia internacional. Y el mundo entero vino a llamar a su puerta. +En frica, haba pases que luchaban por la independencia: Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Angola. +Y luego mi padre se ali al partido antiapartheid de Nelson Mandela. +Falsificaba documentos para los sudafricanos negros perseguidos. +Tambin estaba Amrica Latina. +Mi padre ayud a los que se resistan a las dictaduras en Santo Domingo, Hait, y luego fue el turno de Brasil, Argentina, Venezuela, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Colombia, Per, Uruguay, Chile y Mxico. +Y tambin estaba la guerra de Vietnam. +Mi padre falsific documentos para los desertores estadounidenses que no queran tomar las armas contra los vietnamitas. +Europa no fue la excepcin. +Mi padre falsific documentos para los disidentes del franquismo en Espaa, contra Salazar en Portugal, tambin contra la dictadura militar en Grecia, e incluso en Francia. +All, sucedi una vez, en mayo del 68. +Mi padre mir con simpata, por supuesto, las manifestaciones de mayo, pero su corazn estaba en otra parte, y tambin su tiempo porque tena que servir a ms de 15 pases. +Una vez, sin embargo, acept falsificar documentos para alguien que Uds. tal vez reconozcan. +Era mucho ms joven entonces, y mi padre acept falsificar los documentos que permitiran a esta persona volver a hablar en pblico. +Y me dijo que esos documentos falsos fueron los ms mediatizados y los menos tiles que haba hecho en toda su vida. +Pero que si l acepto hacerlos, pese a que la vida de Daniel Cohn-Bendit no estaba en peligro, fue porque era una gran oportunidad para burlarse de las autoridades, y mostrarles que no hay nada ms permeable que una frontera y que las ideas no tienen fronteras. +Durante toda mi infancia, mientras que los padres de mis compaeros les narraban cuentos de Grimm, mi padre me contaba historias de hroes discretos con utopas inquebrantables que fueron capaces de hacer milagros. +Y estos hroes no necesitaban un ejrcito. +Adems, nadie los hubiese seguido, excepto un puado de hombres y mujeres de conviccin y valor. +Y me di cuenta ms tarde de que en realidad era su propia historia la que me contaba para hacerme dormir. +Le pregunt si, teniendo en cuenta los sacrificios que haba hecho, se arrepenta de algo. +Me dijo que no, +me dijo que, en todo caso, era incapaz de ver o sufrir las injusticias y no hacer nada. +Y que estaba convencido, y an lo est, de que otro mundo es posible, un mundo donde nadie necesite un falsificador. +l sigue soando con eso. +Mi padre est ahora en la sala. +Se llama Adolfo Kaminsky y voy a pedirle que se levante. +Gracias. +Estas son palabras mas pero no es mi voz. +Este es Alex, la mejor voz de computador que he encontrado, parte del equipo corriente de cualquier Macintosh. +En toda mi vida jams me haba detenido a pensar en mi habilidad de hablar. +Era como respirar. +En esos das yo viva en la ignorancia bendita. +Despus que las cirugas de cncer me dejaron sin posibilidad de hablar, comer o beber, me vi obligado a entrar a este mundo virtual en el que un computador hace parte de mis funciones vitales. +Durante varios das hemos disfrutado oyendo a conferencistas brillantes y elocuentes, aqu en TED. +Yo sola hablar as. +Tal vez no era tan inteligente, pero al menos igual de locuaz. +Quiero dedicar esta charla a la accin misma de hablar y a cmo el hablar o no hablar est tan unido inevitablemente a la propia identidad como para forzar el nacimiento de una nueva persona cuando se la quitan. +Pero he visto que escuchar la voz computarizada durante algn tiempo, puede ser montono. +As que he decidido reclutar a algunos de mis amigos de TED para que lean en voz alta, mis palabras. +Empiezo con mi esposa, Chaz, +Chaz Ebert: "Fue Chaz quien estuvo a mi lado en todos esos intentos por reconstruir mi mandbula y restituir mi habilidad de hablar. +Al entrar a la primera ciruga por una recurrencia de cncer salival en 2006, yo esperaba salir del hospital a tiempo para mi programa de crtica de cine, "Ebert y Roper van al cine". Haba pregrabado suficientes episodios que lo sostuvieran seis semanas, para la ciruga y la recuperacin. +Los doctores tomaron parte del peron de la pierna y algo de tejido de la espalda para armar una nueva mandbula. +La lengua, la laringe y las cuerdas vocales estaban bien, no haban sido afectadas". +"Era optimista, todo andaba bien. +La primera ciruga fue un xito. +Me mir al espejo y me vea muy bien. +Dos semanas despus, estaba listo para regresar a casa. +Estaba usando el iPod, sonaba la cancin de Leonard Cohen "Soy Tu Hombre" dedicada a mis mdicos y enfermeras. +De pronto empec a sangrar descontroladamente. +Se haba roto la arteria cartida. +Gracias a Dios todava estaba en la habitacin del hospital y los doctores estaban ah mismo. +Chaz me dijo que si la cancin no hubiese durado tanto, podra haber estado en el auto, en camino a casa, y habra muerto ah mismo. +As que, gracias, Leonard Cohen, por salvarme la vida". +"Hubo una segunda ciruga -- que resisti 5 o 6 das y luego se deshizo. +Luego un tercer intento que me recompuso bastante bien, hasta que fall. +Un mdico brasileo me dijo que nunca haba visto a nadie sobrevivir una ruptura de cartida. +Cuando sal del hospital, despus de un ao de hospitalizacin, haba tenido 7 roturas de la arteria cartida. +No hubo un da en especial en que alguien me hubiera dicho que nunca volvera a hablar; era ms o menos obvio. +La palabra humana es una ingeniosa manipulacin de la respiracin dentro de la cmara de sonido que es la boca, con el sistema respiratorio. +Se necesita poder contener y manipular la respiracin para conformar sonidos. +Por tanto, el sistema debe ser esencialmente hermtico a fin de capturar el aire. +Como haba perdido la mandbula, ya no poda sellarla, y por tanto la lengua y todo el resto del aparato vocal haba quedado inutilizable". +Dean Ornish: "Al principio y por un buen tiempo, escriba mensajes en libretas. +Despus ensay la escritura de palabras en el porttil usando la voz que traa. +Esto era ms rpido y as nadie tendra que leer mi escritura. +Ensay varias voces de computador, que hay en lnea, y varios meses tuve acento britnico que Chaz llamaba, su Seora Lawrence". +"Era lo ms claro que encontr. +Entonces Apple lanz la voz 'Alex' que era la mejor que haba escuchado. +Saba cosas como la diferencia entre una exclamacin y una interrogacin. +Cuando vea un punto, saba cmo hacer que la frase sonara como terminada, en lugar de quedarse por all arriba. +Existen toda clase de programas html que se pueden usar para controlar el ritmo y la inflexin de las voces computarizadas, y los he probado. +Para m, todos tienen un problema fundamental: son muy lentos. +Si me encuentro en medio de una conversacin, necesito digitar rpido y llegar al momento preciso. +La gente no tiene tiempo o paciencia para esperar que toque esas teclas para cada palabra o cada frase. +Qu valor le damos a nuestra propia voz? +Cmo nos afecta lo que somos como personas? +Si la gente oye a Alex pronunciar mis palabras, sienten una desconexin? +Se crea as una separacin o distancia entre las personas? +Cmo me senta sin poder hablar? +Me senta, y todava lo siento as, muy apartado de la corriente humana. +Me siento muy incmodo cuando no tengo el porttil. +An as me doy cuenta que la gente tiene muy poca paciencia con mis dificultades al hablar. +Entonces Chaz sugiri buscar un compaa que hiciera una voz a mi medida usando mi voz del programa de TV de 30 aos. +Al principio me opuse. +Pensaba que sera horrible or mi propia voz saliendo de un computador. +Siempre haba algo reconfortante con una voz que no era la ma. +Pero al fin decid ensayarlo. +As, contactamos una empresa en Escocia que creaba voces de computador personalizadas. +Nunca antes haban hecho una a partir de material pregrabado +Todas sus voces eran hechas por un locutor que grababa palabras en una cabina. +Pero aceptaron ensayarlo. +Les envi entonces muchas horas de grabacin de mi voz, incluyendo varias pistas sonoras de comentarios que yo haba hecho para pelculas en DVD. +Y sonaba como si fuera yo. De verdad. +Haba una razn para ello; era yo. +Pero no era tan sencillo. +Las cintas de mi programa de TV no resultaron muy tiles porque haba muchas otras clases de audio involucradas -- como bandas sonoras de pelculas, o Gene Siskel discutiendo conmigo". "Y mis palabras a menudo tenan un nfasis especial que no se ajustaba bien en una frase. +Ahora oirn un ejemplo de esa voz. +Son unos pocos comentarios que grab para usar cuando con Chaz aparecimos en el programa de Oprah Winfrey. +Y ah est la voz que llamamos Roger junior +o Roger 2.0" +Roger 2.0: "Oprah, no puedo expresar lo maravilloso que es estar de nuevo en tu programa. +Hemos hablado por largo tiempo, y ahora aqu estamos de nuevo. +Esta es la primera versin de mi voz computarizada. +Todava hay que mejorarla, pero al menos suena como si fuera ma y no como HAL 9000. +Cuando la o por primera vez, sent que la columna se me helaba. +Al escribir cualquier cosa, la voz dir lo que yo haya escrito. +Si leo algo, lo leer con mi voz. +Estas palabras las escrib con anticipacin, pues pens que no sera muy emocionante sentarse ah para verme escribir. +La voz fue creada por una compaa en Escocia llamada CereProc. +Me hace sentir bien que muchas de las palabras que estn oyendo fueron pronunciadas cuando comentaba 'Casablanca' y 'Ciudadano Kane'. +Es la primera voz creada por ellos para una persona. +Hay muchas voces, muy buenas, disponibles para computadores, pero todas suenan como ajenas, mientras que sta suena como ma. +Me propongo usarla en TV, radio y en internet. +Las personas que necesitan una voz, deben saber que la mayora de los computadores vienen con sistemas de voz incorporados. +Muchos ciegos los usan para leer pginas de la red. +Debo decir que desde primer curso, me decan que yo hablaba mucho y todava puedo hacerlo". +Roger Ebert: "Como pueden or, suena como si fuera yo pero las palabras saltan. +No es un flujo natural. +Esa buena gente en Escocia est tratando de mejorar mi voz y soy optimista. +Pero hasta ahora, la voz Alex de Apple es lo mejor que he odo. +Abr un blog para esto y lleg un comentario del actor que hizo la voz de Alex. +Deca que ha grabado interminables horas con varias entonaciones para usarlas con esa voz. +Se necesita una muestra bien grande. +John Hunter: "Toda mi vida fui una mquina parlante. +Ahora ya dije mis ltimas palabras, y ni siquiera me acuerdo bien cules fueron. +Me siento como el hroe de la historia de Harlan Ellison Titulada 'No tengo boca y debo gritar'. +El mircoles, David Christian nos explicaba que la raza humana representa un breve instante en la vida del Universo. +Durante la mayor parte de sus millones y miles de millones de aos no hubo ninguna vida en la Tierra. +La mayor parte del tiempo en que ha habido vida en la Tierra, no haba vida inteligente. +Slo despus que aprendimos a pasar el conocimiento de una generacin a la siguiente, la civilizacin se hizo posible. +En trminos cosmolgicos, eso ocurri hace 10 minutos. +Finalmente lleg la herramienta ms avanzada y misteriosa de la Humanidad, el computador. +Eso sucedi prcticamente durante mi vida. +Algunos de los famosos primeros computadores se construyeron en mi pueblo, Urbana, el lugar de nacimiento de HAL 9000. +Cuando o la extraordinaria charla de Salman Khan, el mircoles, sobre la pgina de la Academia Khan que le ensea cientos de materias a estudiantes de todo el mundo, tuve una retrospeccin. +Era como 1960. +Como reportero de un diario local, todava en la escuela secundaria, me enviaron al laboratorio de computacin de la Universidad de Illinois para entrevistar a los creadores de algo llamado PLATO. +Por sus iniciales en ingls, Lgica Programada para Operaciones Automticas de Enseanza. +Era un sistema de instruccin asistido por computador, que en esa poca se corra en un computador llamado ILLIAC. +Los programadores decan que poda ayudar a los estudiantes en su aprendizaje. +Dudo que entonces, hace 50 aos, soaran acaso lo que ha logrado Salman Khan. +Pero ese no es el punto. +El punto es que PLATO apareci hace 50 aos, un instante en el tiempo. +Continu evolucionando y funcionando de una forma u otra en computadores cada vez ms sofisticados hasta hace solo cinco aos. +Aprend en Wikipedia que, comenzando con su humilde origen, PLATO se crearon foros, carteleras de mensajes, pruebas en lnea correos electrnicos, salas de chat, lenguajes grficos, mensajera instantnea, pantallas compartidas y juegos con varios participantes. +"Como el primer buscador de la red tambin fue desarrollado en Urbana, parece que mi pueblo en el sur de Illinois, vio nacer buena parte del universo virtual en lnea que hoy ocupamos. +Pero a m no me mand aqu la Cmara de Comercio" +"Estoy aqu para comunicar. +Todo esto ha sucedido durante mi vida. +Comenc a escribir en el computador en los aos 70 cuando se instal el primer sistema Atech en el Chicago Sun Times. +Hice cola en Radio Shack para comprar uno de los primeros Modelo 100. +Y cuando le dije a la gente de la sala de prensa de los premios de la Academia que deban instalar lneas telefnicas para conectarse a Internet, no saban de qu les estaba hablando. +Cuando compr mi primer porttil, era un Rainbow de DEC. +Alguien los recuerda? +"El Sun Times me envi al festival de cine de Cannes con un computador porttil del tamao de una maleta se llamaba 'Porteram Telebubble'. +Me un a Compuserve cuando tenan menos afiliados que los seguidores que hoy tengo en Twitter". +CE: "Todo esto sucedi en un parpadeo. +No podemos imaginar lo que suceder ahora. +Soy increblemente afortunado por vivir en este momento de la historia. +En verdad, soy afortunado por vivir en esta historia, simplemente, porque sin inteligencia y sin memoria no habra historia. +Por miles de millones de aos, el Universo ha evolucionado sin anunciarlo, en absoluto. +Ahora vivimos en la era de Internet, que parece estar creando una nueva forma de conciencia. +Y por esto, puedo comunicarme mejor que nunca. +Nacimos en una caja del tiempo y del espacio. +Utilizamos palabras y comunicaciones para salir de ella y llegar a los dems. +Para m, Internet comenz como una herramienta til y ahora dependo de ella para mi existencia diaria real. +No puedo hablar, sino solo escribir rpido. +Las voces computarizadas a veces no son muy sofisticadas. pero con mi computador puedo comunicarme ms ampliamente que nunca antes. +Siento como si mi blog, mi correo electrnico, Twitter y Facebook me sirvieran de sustituto para las conversaciones cotidianas. +No son mejores pero s son lo mejor a mi alcance. +Me permiten hablar. +No todos tienen la paciencia de mi esposa Chaz. +Pero en lnea todo el mundo habla a la misma velocidad. +Toda esta aventura ha sido una experiencia de aprendizaje. +Cada vez que fallaba una ciruga quedaba con menos carne y menos hueso. +Ahora no queda nada de mi mandbula. +Al extraer tejidos de la espalda, de ambos lados, las cirugas me dejaron con dolor de espalda y redujeron mi capacidad de caminar fcilmente. +Irnicamente, mis piernas estn bien y es la espalda la que me dificulta caminar. +Ustedes me ven hoy; parezco como el Fantasma de la pera". +No seor. +"Es muy humano que al ver a alguien como yo supongan que he perdido parte de mis encantos. +La gente --" "La gente me habla fuertemente --" Lo siento. +Disclpenme. +"La gente me habla fuerte y lentamente. +A veces suponen que soy sordo. +Algunas personas no quieren hacer contacto visual". +Cranme, no quiso decir eso -- Bueno, me limitar a leer. +Nunca pongan a sus esposas a leer algo as. +"Es humano apartar la vista de las enfermedades. +No disfrutamos recordar nuestra frgil mortalidad. +Por eso es que escribir en Internet se ha convertido en mi salvavidas. +Mis capacidades de pensar y escribir no han sido afectadas. +Y en la red, encuentro expresin con mi voz verdadera. +He conocido muchas personas discapacitadas que se comunican de esta manera. +Uno de mis amigos de Twitter solo puede digitar con los pies. +Uno de los blogs ms cmicos de la red lo escribe un amigo mo es 'Sabihondo Lisiado [Smartass Cripple, NT]. +"Bsquenlo en Google y les har rer. +Todos ellos nos estn diciendo, de una forma u otra, que hay ms de lo que ves a simple vista. +Pero no he venido aqu a quejarme. +Tengo mucho para sentirme aliviado y feliz. +Por ahora parece que ya no tengo cncer. +Escribo mejor que nunca. +Soy productivo. +Si estuviera en esta misma condicin en cualquier otro momento unos pocos instantes cosmolgicos antes, estara aislado como un ermitao. +Estara atrapado en mi propia cabeza. +Por el mpetu del conocimiento humano, gracias a la revolucin digital, tengo una voz, y no necesito gritar". +RE: "Un momento. Tengo algo que aadir. +Un tipo va al psiquiatra. +ste le dice, 'Usted est loco'. +El tipo le contesta, 'Quisiera una segunda opinin'. +El psiquiatra aade, 'Bien, usted es horrible'. +Ustedes conocen la prueba de la inteligencia artificial -- el test de Turing. +Un rbitro humano tiene una conversacin con otro humano y con un computador. +Si el rbitro no puede diferenciar entre uno y otro, la mquina ha pasado la prueba. +Ahora propongo una prueba para voces de computador -- el Test de Ebert. +Si el computador puede contar un chiste bien con el mismo ritmo y entrega de Henry Youngman, esa es la voz que yo quisiera. +Hola, me llamo Marcin soy agricultor, tecnlogo +Nac en Polonia, ahora en EE.UU. +inici un grupo llamado Open Source Ecology. +Hemos identificado las 50 mquinas ms importantes que creemos hacen falta para que exista la vida moderna; cosas como tractores, hornos de pan, constructores de circuitos. +Entonces nos propusimos crear una versin de cdigo abierta, de bricolaje casero, que cualquiera pueda construir y mantener por una fraccin del costo. +Lo llamamos el Kit de Construccin de la Aldea Global. +Les voy a contar una historia. +Termin mis ventipico con un doctorado en energa de fusin y descubr que yo era intil. +No tena habilidades prcticas. +El mundo me present opciones y yo las tom. +Supongo que podemos llamarlo estilo de vida de consumo. +Empec una granja en Missouri y aprend economa agrcola. +Me compr un tractor... luego se rompi. +Pagu para que lo reparen... luego se arruin otra vez. +Y pronto yo tambin estaba en la ruina. +Me di cuenta que las herramientas adecuadas, econmicas, que necesitaba para empezar una granja y un establecimiento sostenibles simplemente no existan. +Yo necesitaba herramientas robustas, modulares, altamente eficientes y optimizadas, de bajo costo. hechas de materiales locales y reciclados que duren toda la vida, no las diseadas para la obsolescencia. +Me di cuenta de que tendra que crearlas yo mismo. +As que hice precisamente eso. +Y las prob. +Y hall que la productividad industrial puede lograrse a pequea escala. +As que publiqu los diseos 3D, los planos, videos de instruccin y presupuestos en una wiki. +Luego empezaron a aparecer colaboradores de todo el mundo con prototipos de mquinas nuevas en visitas dedicadas a proyectos. +Hasta ahora tenemos 8 prototipos de un total de 50 mquinas. +Y ahora el proyecto est empezando a crecer por s mismo. +Sabemos que el cdigo abierto tuvo xito en herramientas de gestin de conocimiento y creatividad. +Y lo mismo est empezando a suceder con el hardware. +Nos estamos centrando en el hardware porque es el hardware el que puede cambiar la vida de las personas de maneras realmente palpables. +Reduciendo las barreras a la agricultura, la construccin, la fabricacin, podemos liberar muchsimo potencial humano. +Y no slo en el mundo en vas de desarrollo. +Nuestras herramientas se hacen para granjeros, constructores, emprendedores, creadores de EE.UU. +Hemos visto mucho entusiasmo en estas personas, que ahora pueden empezar en el ramo de la construccin, en fabricacin de piezas, en agricultura comunitaria orgnica, o simplemente venderle energa a la red. +Nuestro objetivo es un depsito de diseos publicados tan claros y completos que una simple copia de DVD sea un kit para iniciar una civilizacin. +He plantado cien rboles en un da. +He moldeado 5 000 ladrillos en un da con la tierra bajo mis pies. y constru un tractor en 6 das. +Por lo que hemos visto, esto es slo el principio. +Si esta idea es realmente buena entonces las implicancias son significativas. +Una mayor distribucin de los medios de produccin, cadenas de suministros que respetan el ambiente, y un renacer de la cultura de hacerlo uno mismo ojal superen la escasez artificial. +Estamos explorando los lmites de lo que todos podemos hacer por un mundo mejor con la tecnologa de hardware abierto. +Gracias. +Tuve el privilegio de entrenarme en trasplantes con dos grandes pioneros de la ciruga: Thomas Starzl, que realiz el primer trasplante de hgado con xito en 1967, y Sir Roy Calne, que realiz el primer trasplante heptico en el Reino Unido +al ao siguiente. +Regres a Singapur y, en 1990, realic el primer trasplante heptico exitoso de Asia tomado de un cadver pero contra todo pronstico. +Ahora, cuando miro hacia atrs, el trasplante fue en realidad la parte ms fcil. +Lo siguiente, recaudar el dinero para realizar el procedimiento. +Pero quiz la parte ms difcil era convencer a los reguladores -una cuestin que se debati en el Parlamento- que una joven cirujana pudiera tener la oportunidad de ser pionera en su pas. +Pero 20 aos despus mi paciente, Surinder, es la sobreviviente ms longeva de Asia para un trasplante heptico cadavrico hasta la fecha. +Y quiz ms importante: soy la orgullosa madrina de su hijo de 14 aos. +Pero no todos los pacientes de la lista de espera de trasplantes son tan afortunados. +La verdad es que sencillamente no hay suficientes donantes de rganos para todos. +A medida que aumenta la demanda de donantes de rganos en gran medida debido al envejecimiento de la poblacin la oferta ha permanecido relativamente constante. +Slo en Estados Unidos 100 mil hombres, mujeres y nios estn en lista de espera de donantes de rganos y muere ms de una docena al da por falta de donantes de rganos. +La comunidad de trasplante ha realizado campaas de donacin de rganos. +Y el don de la vida ha sido extendido de donantes por muerte cerebral a donantes vivos relacionados, parientes que pueden donar rganos o partes de rganos, como un injerto heptico dividido para un pariente o ser querido. +Pero como todava haba una gran escasez de donantes de rganos el don de la vida se extendi luego de donantes vivos, relacionados, a donantes vivos no relacionados. +Y esto ha dado lugar a una inesperada controversia moral sin precedentes. +Cmo distinguir una donacin voluntaria y altruista de una forzada o bajo coaccin de, por ejemplo, un esposo sumiso, un pariente poltico, un siervo, un esclavo, un empleado? +Dnde y cmo trazar la lnea divisoria? +En mi parte del mundo demasiadas personas viven por debajo del umbral de la pobreza. +Y en algunas zonas la donacin comercial de rganos a cambio de una recompensa monetaria ha dado lugar a un comercio floreciente de donantes vivos no relacionados. +Poco despus de realizar el primer trasplante de hgado, recib mi prximo trabajo y fue ir a las prisiones a recolectar rganos de prisioneros ejecutados. +En ese momento yo estaba embarazada. +Se supone que los embarazos son momentos felices y gratificantes en la vida de una mujer. +Pero mi dulce espera se vio opacada por pensamientos amargos y mrbidos, surgidos de caminar por el corredor de la muerte de la prisin, ya que ste era el nico camino que me llevaba a la sala de operaciones improvisada. +Y en cada momento senta la mirada fra de los ojos de los condenados que me seguan. +Sin duda, se me informaba el consentimiento del donante. +Pero en mi vida esa destreza gratificante que tena ahora invocaba sentimientos de conflicto; conflictos que van de la tristeza extrema y la duda al amanecer a la alegra festiva de injertar el don de la vida al atardecer. +En mi equipo las vidas de uno o dos de mis colegas fueron marcadas por esta experiencia. +Algunos pudimos haberlo sublimado pero nadie sigui siendo el mismo. +Me preocupaba que la extraccin de rganos de presos ejecutados era al menos tan controvertida moralmente como la recoleccin de clulas madre de embriones humanos. +Y en mi mente me di cuenta como pionera quirrgica que el propsito de mi posicin de influencia era sin duda hablar en nombre de quienes no tienen influencia. +Me hizo preguntarme si habra una mejor forma una forma de evitar la muerte pero an entregar el regalo de la vida que pudiera impactar exponencialmente en millones de pacientes del mundo. +Y justo en ese momento la prctica de la ciruga evolucion de lo grande a lo pequeo, de grandes incisiones abiertas a intervenciones de cerradura, pequeas incisiones. +Y en el trasplante, los conceptos han cambiado de rganos completos a clulas. +En 1998, en la Universidad de Minnesota, particip en una serie corta de trasplantes completos de pncreas. +Fui testigo de la dificultad tcnica. +Y esto inspir en mi mente un cambio desde el trasplante de rganos enteros a quiz trasplantar clulas. +Pens para mis adentros por qu no tomar clulas individuales del pncreas -las clulas que secretan insulina para curar la diabetes- y trasplantar estas clulas; tcnicamente una intervencin mucho ms simple que tener que lidiar con las complejidades de trasplantar el rgano entero. +Y en ese momento la investigacin con clulas madre haba ganado impulso tras el aislamiento de las primeras clulas madre embrionarias humanas del mundo en la dcada de 1990. +La observacin de que las clulas madre, como clulas maestras, podran dar lugar a una variedad de diferentes tipos de clulas -clulas del corazn, del hgado, clulas de los islotes pancreticos- captur la atencin de los medios y la imaginacin del pblico. +Yo tambin qued fascinada por esta novedosa tecnologa celular y eso inspir un cambio en mi manera de pensar del trasplante de rganos enteros al trasplante de clulas. +Y centr mi investigacin en las clulas madre como fuente posible de trasplante de clulas. +Hoy nos damos cuenta que hay muchos tipos diferentes de clulas madre. +Las clulas madre embrionarias han ocupado el centro del escenario principalmente debido a su pluripotencia -es decir su facilidad de diferenciacin en una variedad de tipos celulares diferentes. +Pero la controversia moral en torno a las clulas madre embrionarias -el hecho de que estas clulas se derivan de embriones humanos de 5 das- ha fomentado la investigacin en otros tipos de clulas madre. +Ahora, para burla de mis colegas inspir mi laboratorio centrado en lo que pens era la fuente de clulas madre menos controvertida -el tejido adiposo, o grasa, s grasa; hoy en da disponible en abundancia- Uds y yo, creo, estaramos muy felices de deshacernos de ella. +Clulas madre derivadas de la grasa son clulas madre adultas. +Y las clulas madre adultas se encuentran en Uds y en m -en la sangre, en la mdula sea, en la grasa, en la piel y otros rganos. +Y resulta que la grasa es una de las mejores fuentes de clulas madre adultas. +Pero las clulas madre adultas no son clulas madre embrionarias. +Y aqu est la limitacin: las clulas madre adultas son clulas maduras, y, como los seres humanos maduros, estas clulas estn ms restringidas en su pensamiento y en su comportamiento y son incapaces de dar a luz a la gran variedad de tipos de clulas especializadas como las clulas madre embrionarias. +Pero en 2007 dos individuos notables Shinya Yamanaka, de Japn, y Jamie Thompson, de Estados Unidos, hicieron un descubrimiento asombroso. +Descubrieron que las clulas adultas, tomadas de Uds y de m, podan reprogramarse como clulas embrionarias que denominaron clulas IPS, o clulas madre pluripotentes inducidas. +Y adivinen qu, los cientficos de todo el mundo en los laboratorios corren para convertir clulas adultas envejecidas -clulas adultas envejecidas de Uds y de m- estn corriendo para reprogramar estas clulas en clulas ms tiles, IPS. +Y en nuestro laboratorio nos hemos centrado en tomar grasa y reprogramarla; montculos de grasa en fuentes de clulas jvenes -clulas que podemos usar para luego formar otras clulas ms especializadas que algn da pueden usarse como clulas de trasplante. +Si esta investigacin tiene xito podra reducir la necesidad de investigar y sacrificar embriones humanos. +De hecho, hay mucha bulla pero tambin esperanza que la promesa de las clulas madre un da provea la cura para una serie de enfermedades. +Enfermedades del corazn, derrame cerebral, diabetes, lesin de la mdula espinal, distrofia muscular, enfermedades de la retina; alguna de estas enfermedades es importante para ustedes? +En mayo de 2006 me sucedi algo horrible. +Estaba a punto de iniciar una operacin robtica, pero saliendo del ascensor bajo la luz brillante y deslumbrante de la sala de operaciones me di cuenta que mi campo visual izquierdo estaba cayendo en la oscuridad. +A principios de esa semana me haba dado un golpe bastante fuerte esquiando a fines de la primavera, s, me ca. +Y empec a ver flotadores y estrellas que ignor sin preocuparme como producto de la exposicin al sol de alta montaa. +Lo que me sucedi pudo haber sido una catstrofe de no haber sido que contaba con buen acceso quirrgico. +Y logr recuperar la visin pero no antes de un largo perodo de convalecencia -tres meses- estuve cabeza abajo. +Esta experiencia me ense a identificarme ms con mis pacientes y, en especial, con enfermedades de retina. +37 millones de personas en el mundo son ciegos y 127 millones ms sufren de problemas de visin. +Los trasplantes retinales derivados de clulas madre ahora en fase de investigacin algn da podran restaurar la visin o parte de la visin de millones de pacientes con enfermedades retinales en el mundo. +De hecho, vivimos tiempos desafiantes y de entusiasmo. +A medida que envejece la poblacin mundial los cientficos se apuran a descubrir nuevas formas de mejorar el poder del cuerpo para auto-curarse con clulas madre. +Es un hecho que cuando los rganos o los tejidos se lesionan nuestra mdula sea libera clulas madre a la circulacin. +Y estas clulas madre luego fluyen por el torrente sanguneo y se depositan en los rganos daados para liberar factores de crecimiento para reparar los tejidos daados. +Las clulas madre podran usarse como bloques de construccin para reparar estructuras daadas en el cuerpo o para proveer nuevas clulas hepticas para reparar el hgado daado. +En estos momentos hay unos 117 ensayos clnicos investigando el uso de clulas madre en enfermedades hepticas. +Qu depara el futuro? +La enfermedad del corazn es la principal causa de muerte en el mundo. +1,1 milln de estadounidenses sufren ataques al corazn cada ao. +4,8 millones sufren insuficiencia cardaca. +Las clulas madre se pueden utilizar para entregar factores de crecimiento para reparar el msculo cardaco daado o diferenciarse en clulas del msculo cardaco para restaurar la funcin del corazn. +Hay 170 ensayos clnicos investigando el papel de las clulas madre en enfermedades del corazn. +Aunque todava en fase de investigacin, las clulas madre podran algn da anunciar un salto cualitativo en el mbito de la cardiologa. +Las clulas madre proveen esperanza para nuevos comienzos -pasos pequeos, incrementales, clulas en vez de rganos, reparacin en vez de reemplazo. +Las terapias con clulas madre algn da podran reducir la necesidad de donantes de rganos. +Las nuevas y potentes tecnologas siempre presentan enigmas. +Mientras hablamos, el primer ensayo clnico del mundo con clulas madre embrionarias en la mdula espinal est en curso tras la aprobacin de la FDA. +Y en el Reino Unido se est investigando en fase de ensayo con clulas madre neuronales en el tratamiento de apoplejas. +El xito de la investigacin que hoy celebramos ha sido posible gracias a la curiosidad, contribucin y compromiso de cientficos y pioneros mdicos. +Cada uno tiene su historia. +Mi historia ha sido sobre mi viaje de los rganos a las clulas -un viaje por la controversia, inspirando por la esperanza- esperanza de que, al envejecer, Uds y yo podamos algn da celebrar la longevidad con una calidad de vida mejorada. +Gracias. +Con frecuencia mis estudiantes me preguntan: "Qu es la sociologa?". +Y les respondo: "Es la ciencia que estudia la manera en la que las personas estn influidas por cosas que no ven". +Y me dicen: "Entonces cmo puedo llegar a ser socilogo? +Cmo puedo entender esas fuerzas invisibles?". +Y les contesto: "Con la empata. +Comiencen con la empata. +Todo comienza por la empata. +Slganse de sus zapatos, pnganse en los del otro". +Les pongo un ejemplo. +Me imagino mi vida como si hace cien aos China fuese el pas ms poderoso del mundo y vinieran a los Estados Unidos en busca de carbn, y lo encontraran, y hallaran grandes cantidades aqu. +Y rpidamente comenzaran a embarcar todo ese carbn, tonelada a tonelada, vagn a vagn, barco a barco, envindolo hacia China y otras partes del mundo. +Y al hacerlo se enriquecieran fabulosamente. +Y construyeran bellas ciudades energizadas con ese carbn. +Y aqu en Estados Unidos, quedramos en la penuria econmica, con privaciones. +Esto es lo que vera. +Vera gente luchando por sobrevivir, sin saber cmo era la cosa ni qu vendra despus. +Y yo me hara una pregunta: +"Cmo es posible que seamos tan pobres aqu en Estados Unidos, siendo el carbn un recurso tan valioso, que de tanto dinero? +Y me dara cuenta de que los chinos se congraciaron con una pequea clase dirigente aqu en Estados Unidos que se rob todo ese dinero, toda esa riqueza solo para ellos. +Y el resto de nosotros, la gran mayora, luchando por sobrevivir. +Y los chinos le dieron a esa pequea clase dirigente grandes cantidades de armas y tecnologa sofisitcada para asegurarse de que la gente como yo no hablara en contra de esa relacin. +Suena esto conocido? +E hicieran cosas como entrenar a los estadounidenses para que ayudaran a proteger el carbn. +Y por todas partes habra smbolos chinos; por todas partes recordatorios constantes. +Y all en China, qu diran en China? +Nada. No hablaran de nosotros. No se mencionara el carbn. +Si se les preguntara, diran: "Bueno, como sabes, necesitamos el carbn. +Mejor dicho, yo no voy ha bajar mi termostato. +Ni lo piensen". +Entonces, me molestara, me enfurecera, igual que mucha gente del comn. +Lucharamos y la cosa se pondra realmente fea. +Y los chinos responderan de forma muy ruda. +Y en cualquier momento mandaran sus tanques y luego sus tropas y mucha gente morira. Una situacin muy, muy difcil. +Pueden ustedes imaginarse lo que sentiran si estuviesen en mis zapatos? +Pueden imaginarse que a la salida de este edificio vieran un tanque ah o un camin lleno de soldados? +Piensen lo que sentiran. +Porque sabran por qu estn ah y qu estn haciendo. +Sentiran indignacin y miedo. +Si pueden, eso es empata; eso es la empata. +Han dejado sus zapatos y se han metido en los mos. +Hay que sentirlo. +Bien, esto es slo el principio. +Slo la iniciacin. +Ahora vamos a hacer el experimento verdaderamente radical. +Para lo que queda de esta charla, lo que quiero que hagan es ponerse en los zapatos de un rabe musulmn comn que vive en Oriente Prximo; en particular, en Irak. +Y para ayudarles, quizs usted es miembro de esta familia de clase media en Bagdad y desea lo mejor para sus hijos. +Quiere que sus nios tengan una vida mejor. +Y mira los noticieros, les pone atencin, lee los diarios, va a la cafetera con sus amigos, y mira los peridicos de todo el mundo. +E inclusive, a veces ve por satlite a CNN de Estados Unidos. +Y oye lo que piensan los estadounidenses. +Pero en realidad slo quiere una vida mejor para usted. +Eso es lo que desea. +Usted es un rabe musulmn que vive en Irak +que solo quiere una vida mejor para usted. +Ahora voy a ayudarles. +Les ayudar con algo que pueden estar pensando. +En primer lugar, est intromisin en su tierra en los ltimos 20 aos, y aun antes, la razn por la cual alguien se interesa en su tierra, o sea, los Estados Unidos, es el petrleo. +Todo por el crudo. Usted lo sabe. Todos lo saben. +Aqu en Estados Unidos se sabe que es por el petrleo. +Es porque otros tienen un plan para este recurso natural. +Pero es suyo, no es de nadie ms. +Es su tierra, su recurso. +Otros tienen un plan para usarlo. +Sabe usted por qu tienen ese plan? +Sabe por qu tienen sus ojos puestos ah? +Porque tienen todo un sistema econmico que depende del petrleo, del petrleo extranjero, petrleo de otras partes del mundo que no les pertenece. +Y que ms piensa usted de esta gente? +Que son ricos. +Que viven en casas grandes, tienen autos grandes, todos tienen pelo rubio, ojos azules, son felices. +Usted piensa as. Claro, no es cierto, pero ese es el mensaje de los medios, lo que se capta. +Tienen grandes ciudades. Y esas ciudades dependen del petrleo. +Y en su pas, qu se ve? +Pobreza, desesperacin, luchas. +Mire, usted no vive en un pas rico. +Esto es Irak. +Esto es lo que se ve. +Se ve a la gente luchando por sobrevivir. +Es decir, no es fcil; se ve mucha pobreza. +Y usted siente algo al respecto. +Esa gente tiene planes para su recurso y es esto lo que se ve? +Tambin se ve otra cosa, y se comenta. Los estadounidenses no hablan de eso, pero usted s. +Es la militarizacin del mundo, centrada en los Estados Unidos. +Y este pas es responsable de casi la mitad del gasto militar de todo el mundo: 4% de la poblacin mundial. +Se siente, se ve cada da. +Es parte de su vida. +Y lo comenta con sus amigos. +Lo lee. +Cuando Sadam Husein estaba en el poder, a los estadounidenses no les importaban sus crmenes. +Cuando gaseaba a los kurdos y a Irn, no les importaba. +Pero cuando el asunto era el petrleo, de alguna manera, de pronto se interesaron. +Y tambin ve otra cosa cosa: los Estados Unidos, el centro de la democracia del mundo, no parecen estar realmente apoyando a los pases democrticos. +Hay muchos pases productores de petrleo, que no son muy democrticos, pero que reciben apoyo de los Estados Unidos. +Raro. +Ah, estas incursiones, estas dos guerras, los 10 aos de sanciones, los 8 de ocupacin, la insurgencia desatada entre su gente, los cientos de miles de muertos civiles, todo por causa del petrleo. +Aunque no lo quiera, lo piensa. +Habla de ello. +Es siempre el centro de sus pensamientos. +Usted se pregunta: "Cmo es posible?". +Esta persona, puede ser cualquiera: su abuelo, su to, su padre, su hijo, su vecino, su profesor, su estudiante... +Antes la vida era de gozo y felicidad, y de pronto se volvi de dolor y tristeza. +Todos en su pas han sido afectados por la violencia, el derramamiento de sangre, el dolor, el horror... todo el mundo. +No hay nadie en su pas que no se haya visto afectado. +Pero hay algo ms. +Hay algo ms respecto a esa gente, sobre esos estadounidenses. +Hay algo ms sobre ellos que usted ve, pero que ellos no ven. +Y qu es lo que ve? Que son cristianos. +Son cristianos. +Adoran al Dios de los cristianos, tienen cruces, portan biblias. +Sus biblias llevan una pequea insignia que dice "Ejrcito de EE. UU.". +Y sus lderes, sus lderes; antes de enviar a sus hijos e hijas a la guerra en su pas (y usted sabe por qu) antes de enviarlos, van a una iglesia cristiana y le rezan a su Dios y le piden gua y proteccin. +Por qu? +Bueno, claro, cuando la gente muere en la guerra, son musulmanes, son iraques... no son estadounidenses. +No quieren que mueran los estadounidenses. Protegen a sus tropas. +Y usted siente algo al respecto. Claro que lo siente. +Hacen cosas maravillosas. +Se lee, se oye. +Estn ah para construir escuelas y ayudar a la gente. Eso es lo que quieren hacer. +Hacen cosas magnficas. Pero tambin hacen cosas horribles, y no se puede diferenciar. +Un tipo como el Tte. Gen. William Boykin, +un seor que dice que el dios de usted es falso. +Que su Dios es un dolo. Y el de l es el verdadero Dios. +La solucin al problema de Oriente Prximo, segn l, es convertirlos al cristianismo, deshacerse de su religin. +Los estadounidenses no han ledo nada sobre este tipo. +No saben nada de l, pero usted s. +Usted lo cuenta. Se lo dice a todo el mundo. +Es que esto es muy serio. +l era uno de los principales comandantes de la segunda invasin de Irak. +Y usted piensa: "Dios mo, si este dice eso, todos los soldados deben estar repitindolo". +Y esa palabra... George Bush la llamaba una cruzada. +Hombre, los estadounidenses son as: "Ah, una cruzada. +Lo que sea. Qu ms da". +Usted sabe lo que eso quiere decir. +Es una guerra santa contra los musulmanes. +Mirar, invadir, subyugar, tomar sus recursos. +Si no se someten, matarlos. +De eso es de lo que se trata. +Y usted piensa: "Dios mo, estos cristianos vienen a matarnos". +Aterrador. +Siente temor. Claro que siente miedo. +Este hombre, Terry Jones. Aqu hay un tipo que quiere quemar ejemplares del Corn. +Y sus compatriotas dicen: "Ah, es un cabeza hueca. +Era administrador de un hotel, tiene una iglesia de tres docenas de feligreses". +Se ren de l. Pero a usted no le da risa, +porque en todo este contexto, todas las piezas encajan. +Pues as es como los estadounidenses se lo toman, por lo que la gente de Oriente Prximo, no solo de su pas, protesta. +"Quiere quemar el Corn, nuestro libro sagrado. +Quines son esos cristianos? +Son tan malvados, tan crueles... As son". +Esto es lo que usted piensa como rabe musulmn, como iraqu. +Claro que va a pensar as. +Y luego su pariente le dice "Oye primo, mira esta pgina. +Tienes que verlo: Campo de la Biblia en Uniforme. +Estos cristianos estn locos. +Entrenan a sus pequeos a ser soldados de Jess. +Y los llevan por todas esas cosas y hasta les ensean a decir 'Seor, s seor'. Y cosas como lanzamiento de granadas y cuidado y mantenimiento de armas. +Ve a esa pgna, +Ah mismo dice "Ejrcito de los EE. UU.". +Esos cristianos s que estn locos. Cmo pueden hacerle eso a sus pequeos?". +Y usted lo lee en la pgina web. +Y naturalmente, los cristianos en EE. UU., o cualquier otro lugar, dicen: "Bueno, es solo una iglesita por all perdida". +Usted no lo sabe. +Para usted, es como si fueran todos los cristianos. +Est por todas partes en Internet, Campo de la Biblia en Uniforme. +Y miren esto: les ensean.. los entrenan de la misma manera que a los infantes de marina. +No es interesante? +Usted se asusta, est aterrado. +Usted ve a estos tipos. +Vea, yo, Sam Richards, s quines son. +Son mis estudiantes, mis amigos. +S lo que piensan: "No entienden". +Al verlos, son diferentes, bien diferentes. +Eso es lo que son para usted. +No los vemos as en EE. UU., pero usted s los ve as. +En esto, +naturalmente, est equivocado. +Est generalizando. As no es. +Usted no entiende a los estadounidenses. +No es una invasin cristiana. +No estamos all por el petrleo; hay otras razones. +Usted est confundido, no lo entiende. +Y claro, la mayora de ustedes rechaza la insurgencia; no acepta que maten estadounidenses; no acepta a los terroristas. +Claro que no. Muy poca gente los apoya. +Pero algunos de ustedes s. +Y esto es una perspectiva. +Bueno, vean lo que vamos a hacer. +Slganse de esos zapatos en donde estn ahora y vuelvan a los suyos, a los normales. +Todos estn ahora en esta sala, muy bien. +Aqu viene el experimento radical. +Volvemos a casa. +Esta foto, esta seora, la conozco, +la siento. +Es mi hermana, mi esposa, mi prima, mi vecina... +Puede ser muchas cosas para m. +Estas personas de ah, todos en la foto... Oigan, yo siento esta foto. +Veamos lo que quiero que hagan. +Volvamos a mi primer ejemplo de los chinos. +Quiero que vayan all. +La cosa es con el carbn y los chinos aqu en EE. UU. +Y lo que quiero es que se la imaginen como si fuera una china recibiendo la bandera china. porque alguien cercano ha muerto en EE. UU. en los levantamientos por el carbn. +Los soldados son tambin chinos, todos son chinos. +Como estadounidense, cmo se siente al ver esa foto? +Qu piensa de esa escena? +Bueno, intntenlo. Regresen de nuevo. +Aqu est la escena. +Es una estadounidense y los soldados tambin. Una estadounidense que perdi a alguien cercano en Oriente Prximo, en Irak o en Afganistn. +Ahora pnganse en los zapatos, otra vez en los zapatos de un rabe musulmn que vive en Irak. +Qu siente, qu piensa al ver la foto? Y al ver a esta seora? +Bien. Ahora, sganme, porque voy a arriesgarme mucho. +Voy a invitarlos a ustedes a asumir ese riesgo conmigo. +Estos caballeros de aqu, son insurgentes. +Los encontraron unos soldados estadounidenses tratando de matar a unos compatriotas. +Quiz lo lograron. Quiz lo hicieron. +Pnganse en sus zapatos, los de los estadounidenses que los capturaron. +Puede sentir la rabia? +Sienten que lo que quieren hacer con estos tipos es agarrarlos y torcerles el pescuezo? +Pueden ir all? +No debe de ser tan difcil. +Y ustedes... caray, qu rabia! +Ahora pnganse en sus zapatos. +Son asesinos brutales o defensores de su patria? +Cul de los dos? +Sienten su ira, sus temores, su rabia por lo que ha sucedido en su pas? +Se imaginan que posiblemente uno de ellos, por la maana se agach, abraz a su nio y le dijo: "Querido, volver ms tarde. +Salgo a defender tu libertad, tu vida. +Salgo a cuidar de nosotros, el futuro de nuestra patria". +Pueden imaginrselo? +Lo ven diciendo eso? +Pueden ir all? +Qu piensan de lo que ellos sienten? +Ven? Eso es empata. +Tambin es comprensin. +Ahora ustedes podran preguntarme: "Bueno, Sam, por qu haces esto? +Por qu usas este ejemplo, de entre todos los posibles?". +Yo les respondo: porque... porque s. +A ustedes se les permite odiar a esa gente. +Pueden sencillamente detestarlos con todas sus fuerzas. +Y si logro que ustedes se pongan en sus zapatos y caminen un pasito, unos centmetros, y que luego piensen en el tipo de anlisis sociolgico que pueden hacer para todos los dems aspectos de la vida? +Pueden caminar un kilmetro si se trata de entender por qu una persona maneja a 60 km por hora en la calzada de adelantar, tal vez su hijo adolescente, o su vecino que lo ignora y corta el csped los domingos por la maana. +Lo que sea. Se puede ir bien lejos. +Y esto es lo que les digo a mis estudiantes: slganse de su pequeo mundillo. +Mtanse en el del otro. +Y hganlo, una y otra y otra vez. +Y de pronto, todos esos pequeos mundos se acercan en esta red tan complicada. +Y construyen un mundo bien complejo. +Y de pronto, sin darse cuenta, el mundo se ve distinto. +Todo ha cambiado. +Todo cambia en su vida. +Y, naturalmente, de eso es de lo que se trata. +De contemplar las vidas de los dems, otras visiones. +De escuchar a los dems, de iluminarnos a nosotros mismos. +No quiero decir que yo apoye a los terroristas de Irak, pero como socilogo, lo que estoy diciendo es que los comprendo. +Y ahora, quizs, posiblemente, ustedes tambin. +Gracias. +Corre 1995, estoy en la universidad, y junto con una amiga vamos en viaje desde Providence, Rhode Island, hacia Portland, Oregon. +Ya saben, somos jvenes desempleadas as que vamos por caminos secundarios por parques estatales y bosques nacionales... bsicamente la ruta ms larga que podemos tomar. +Y en algn lugar del centro de Dakota del Sur, me dirijo a mi amiga y le hago una pregunta que me ha estado molestando durante 3200 kms: +"Qu pasa con el caracter chino que sigo viendo al costado del camino?" +Mi amiga me mira sin terminar de comprender. +De hecho, hay un caballero en la primera fila que est haciendo una imitacin perfecta de su mirada. +Y le digo: "Ya sabes, esas seales que seguimos viendo que tienen caracteres chinos". +Ella me mira fijamente por un momento y luego se mata de la risa porque se da cuenta de qu estoy hablando. +Y estoy hablando de esto. +Correcto, el famoso caracter chino de zona de picnic. +He pasado los ltimos 5 aos de mi vida pensando en situaciones exactamente como esta: por qu es que a veces no entendemos las seales que nos rodean y cmo nos comportamos cuando eso pasa y qu nos puede decir todo eso de la naturaleza humana. +En otras palabras, como oyeron que dijo Chris, he pasado los ltimos 5 aos pensando en estar equivocados. +Puede sonarles como una decisin extraa de carrera pero en realidad tiene una gran ventaja: no hay competencia laboral. +De hecho, la mayora de nosotros hace todo lo posible para evitar pensar en que est equivocado o al menos para evitar pensar en la posibilidad de que nosotros mismos estemos equivocados. +Lo dejamos en lo abstracto. +Sabemos que todos los presentes cometemos errores. +La especie humana, en general, es falible; est bien. +Pero cuando se trata de m, ahora mismo, de todas mis creencias, aqu en el tiempo presente, de pronto toda esta apreciacin abstracta de la falibilidad se va por la ventana y no puedo pensar realmente en algo en lo que est equivocada. +Y la cosa es que vivimos en el tiempo presente. +Vamos a reuniones en el tiempo presente; vamos de vacaciones familiares en el tiempo presente; vamos a las urnas y votamos en el tiempo presente. +As, en efecto, es como que acabamos viajando por la vida atrapados en esta pequea burbuja de sentirnos muy bien respecto de todo. +Creo que ese es el problema. +Creo que ese es un problema para cada uno como individuo en nuestra vida personal y profesional y creo que es un problema para todos colectivamente como cultura. +Por eso hoy quiero ante todo hablar de por qu nos obstinamos en tener razn. +Segundo, por qu es un problema? +Y, por ltimo, quiero convencerlos de que es posible apartarse de esa sensacin y que, de hacerlo, ese es el salto moral, intelectual, y creativo ms grande que uno puede dar. +Entonces, por qu nos obstinamos en tener razn? +Una de las razones tiene que ver con la sensacin de estar equivocado. +As que permtanme hacerles una pregunta; permtanme preguntarles algo ya que estn justo aqu: Qu se siente, emocionalmente, qu se siente estar equivocado? +Terrible. Pulgares para abajo. +Vergonzoso. Bueno, maravilloso, bueno. +Terrible, pulgares para abajo, vergonzoso... gracias, estas son grandes respuestas, pero son respuestas a otra pregunta. +Me estn respondiendo esta pregunta: Qu se siente al darse cuenta de estar equivocado? +Darse cuenta que uno est equivocado puede dar esas sensaciones y muchas otras, no? +Quiero decir, puede ser devastador, revelador, de hecho puede ser muy divertido, como mi error tonto del caracter chino. +Pero no se siente nada al estar equivocado. +Les voy a dar una analoga. +Recuerdan los dibujos animados de Loony Tunes donde est este coyote pattico que siempre persigue pero nunca atrapa al correcaminos? +En casi todos los episodios de esta caricatura hay un momento en el que el coyote persigue al correcaminos y el correcaminos salta de un acantilado lo cual est bien, es un ave, puede volar. +Pero la cosa es que el coyote salta el acantilado tras l. +Y lo gracioso, al menos si uno tiene 6 aos, es que lo del coyote est bien tambin. +l sigue corriendo... justo hasta el momento en que mira hacia abajo y se da cuenta que est en el aire. +Es entonces cuando cae. +Cuando nos equivocamos en algo -no cuando nos damos cuenta, sino antes de eso- somos como ese coyote despus que salt del acantilado y antes de mirar hacia abajo. +Ya saben, ya estamos equivocados, ya estamos en problemas, pero tenemos la sensacin de estar en tierra firme. +Debera corregir algo que dije hace un momento. +Si se siente algo cuando se est equivocado; se siente como tener razn. +Esta es una razn, una razn estructural, por la que nos obstinamos en que tenemos razn. +Yo lo llamo ceguera de error. +La mayor parte del tiempo, no tenemos el menor indicio interno que nos haga saber que nos equivocamos en algo hasta que es demasiado tarde. +Pero tambin hay una segunda razn por la que quedamos aferrados a esta sensacin y es cultural. +Retrocedamos por un momento a la escuela primaria. +Estn all sentados en clase y la maestra est devolviendo los exmenes y uno de ellos se parece a ste; +esto no es mo, por cierto. +Estamos all en la escuela primaria y sabemos exactamente qu pensar del nio que hizo ese trabajo. +Es el tonto, el alborotador, el que nunca hace la tarea. +As es como a los 9 aos ya hemos aprendido, ante todo, que las personas a las que les va mal son perezosos, imbciles irresponsables y en segundo lugar que la manera de triunfar en la vida es nunca cometer errores. +Aprendemos estas psimas lecciones muy bien. +Y muchos de nosotros, sospecho, en especial muchos en esta sala, lidiamos con eso volvindonos alumnitos perfectos con buenas calificaciones, perfeccionistas, superadores de objetivos. +No es as Sr. director financiero, astrofsico, ultra maratonista? +Resulta que son todos directores financieros, astrofsicos, ultra maratonistas. +Bueno, est bien. +Salvo que nos aterra la posibilidad de equivocarnos en algo. +Porque, de acuerdo con esto, equivocarse en algo significa que hay algo mal en nosotros. +Es por eso que insistimos en tener razn porque nos hace sentir inteligentes y responsables virtuosos y seguros. +Voy a contarles una historia. +Hace un par de aos viene una mujer al centro mdico Beth Israel Deaconess para una ciruga. +El Beth Israel est en Boston. +Es la clnica universitaria de la U. de Harvard uno de los mejores hospitales del pas. +As que viene esta mujer y la llevan al quirfano. +La anestesian, el cirujano hace su trabajo... le pone los puntos y la manda a la sala de recuperacin. +Todo parece haber salido bien. +Y ella se despierta, se mira y dice: "Por qu estoy vendada del lado equivocado del cuerpo?" +Bueno, las vendas estn en el lado equivocado del cuerpo porque el mdico realiz una ciruga mayor en su pierna izquierda en vez de la derecha. +Cuando el vicepresidente de calidad asistencial del Beth Israel habl de este incidente dijo algo muy interesante. +Dijo: "Por alguna razn el cirujano sencillamente sinti que estaba en el lado correcto de la paciente". +La moraleja de esta historia es que confiar demasiado en la sensacin de estar en el lado correcto de algo puede ser muy peligroso. +Esa sensacin interna de estar en lo cierto que todos tenemos a menudo no es una gua confiable de lo que est sucediendo realmente en el mundo exterior. +Y cuando actuamos como si lo fuera y dejamos de evaluar la posibilidad de estar equivocados bueno es entonces cuando terminamos haciendo cosas como verter 760 millones de litros de petrleo en el Golfo de Mxico o torpedear la economa mundial. +Por eso es un problema prctico enorme. +Pero tambin es un problema social enorme. +Piensen por un momento qu significa sentirse bien. +Significa que uno piensa que sus creencias reflejan perfectamente la realidad. +Y cuando nos sentimos as tenemos un problema que resolver y es cmo vamos a explicarles a todas esas personas que no estn de acuerdo con nosotros? +Resulta que la mayora de nosotros explica a esa gente de la misma manera recurriendo a una serie de suposiciones desafortunadas. +Lo primero que hacemos por lo general si alguien no est de acuerdo con nosotros es suponer que son ignorantes. +Ellos no tienen acceso a la misma informacin que nosotros y cuando compartamos generosamente esa informacin con ellos se van a iluminar y se van a sumar a nuestro equipo. +Cuando eso no funciona cuando resulta que esa gente tiene los mismos hechos que nosotros y sigue en desacuerdo entonces pasamos a una segunda suposicin y es que son todos unos idiotas. +Tienen todas las piezas del rompecabezas pero son demasiado imbciles como para armarlo correctamente. +Y cuando eso no funciona cuando resulta que la gente que est en desacuerdo tiene los mismos hechos que nosotros y realmente son bastante inteligentes entonces pasamos a una tercera suposicin: saben la verdad y la distorsionan deliberadamente para sus propios fines perversos. +As que esto es una catstrofe. +Este apego a la razn propia nos impide evitar errores cuando es algo absolutamente necesario hacerlo y nos hace tratarnos unos a otros muy mal. +Pero, para m, lo ms desconcertante y lo ms trgico de esto es que se pierde toda la idea de ser humano. +Es como que queremos imaginar que nuestras mentes son ventanas perfectamente traslcidas y miramos fijamente hacia afuera y describimos el mundo tal como se revela. +Y queremos que todo el mundo mire por la misma ventana y vea exactamente lo mismo. +Eso no es verdad y, si lo fuera, la vida sera increblemente aburrida. +El milagro de la mente, no es que uno pueda ver el mundo tal cual es, +sino que uno puede ver el mundo como no es. +Podemos recordar el pasado y podemos pensar en el futuro y podemos imaginar cmo sera ser alguna otra persona en algn otro lugar. +Y todos lo hacemos de un modo un poco diferente y es por eso que todos podemos mirar el mismo cielo nocturno y ver esto y tambin esto y tambin esto. +Y, s, es por eso tambin que nos equivocamos. +1.200 aos antes que Descartes dijera su cita famosa "Pienso, luego existo" San Agustn se sent y escribi "Fallor ergo sum"; "Me equivoco, luego existo". +San Agustn entenda que nuestra capacidad de meter la pata no es un defecto vergonzoso del sistema humano, algo que podemos erradicar o superar. +Es algo inherente a nuestro ser. +Porque, a diferencia de Dios, no sabemos realmente lo que est pasando afuera. +Y a diferencia del resto de los animales estamos obsesionados en tratar de resolverlo. +Para m esta obsesin es la raz de toda nuestra productividad y creatividad. +El ao pasado, por distintas razones, me encontr escuchando muchos episodios del programa de la radio pblica This American Life. +As que estaba escuchando y escuchando y en un momento empiezo a sentir que todas las historias eran sobre estar equivocados. +Lo primero que pens fue: "Perd la razn. +Me he vuelto la seora loca de la equivocacin +Y lo veo en todas partes", que haba sucedido. +Pero un par de meses despus tuve la oportunidad de entrevistar a Ira Glass, el presentador del programa. +Y le mencion esto y l me dijo: "No, en realidad es verdad. +De hecho", dijo, "como equipo bromeamos con que cada episodio de nuestro programa encierra el mismo mensaje. +Y ese mensaje cifrado es: 'Pensaba que iba a suceder esto pero en cambio sucedi otra cosa'. Y la cosa es", dice Ira Glass, "que lo necesitamos. +Necesitamos estos momentos de sorpresa, de algo inesperado y errneo para que estas historias funcionen". +Y para el resto de nosotros, como audiencia, como oyentes, como lectores, es lo que ms consumimos. +Nos encantan los giros de la trama las pistas falsas y los finales sorpresa. +Cuando se trata de nuestras historias nos encanta equivocarnos. +Pero, ya saben, nuestras historias son as porque nuestras vidas son de ese modo. +Pensamos que eso va a suceder pero sucede otra cosa. +George Bush pens que iba a invadir Irak, encontrar un montn de armas de destruccin masiva, liberar al pueblo y llevar la democracia a Oriente Medio. +Pero sucedi otra cosa. +Y Hosni Mubarak pens que iba a ser dictador de Egipto el resto de su vida hasta que se hiciera muy viejo o se enfermara y pudiera pasarle las riendas del poder a su hijo. +Pero sucedi otra cosa. +Y tal vez uno pens que iba a crecer y se casara con ese amor de la secundaria y regresara al pueblo natal y criara a un montn de nios juntos. +Pero sucedi otra cosa. +Y tengo que decirles que yo pensaba que estara escribiendo un libro muy nerd sobre un tema que todo el mundo odia para una audiencia que nunca se materializara. +Y sucedi otra cosa. +Digo, esto es la vida. +Para bien o para mal generamos estas historias increbles sobre el mundo que nos rodea y entonces el mundo se da vuelta y nos asombra. +Sin ofender, pero toda esta conferencia es un monumento increble a nuestra capacidad de equivocarnos. +Pasamos toda una semana hablando de innovaciones, de avances, y mejoras pero saben por qu necesitamos todas esas innovaciones, avances y mejoras? +Porque la mitad de las cosas ms alucinantes que iban a cambiar el mundo... TED 1998... eh... +no funcionaron de esa manera, no? +Dnde est mi jetpack, Chris? +As que aqu estamos de nuevo. +Y as es como sigue. +Se nos ocurre otra idea. +Contamos otra historia. +Llevamos a cabo otra conferencia. +El tema de sta, como han escuchado siete millones de veces, es redescubrir la maravilla. +Y, para m, si uno realmente quiere redescubrir la maravilla tiene que apartarse de ese pequeo y aterrado espacio de razn y mirar alrededor, unos a otros, y mirar la inmensidad, la complejidad y el misterio del Universo y poder decir: "Qu s yo! +Quiz me equivoco". +Gracias. +Gracias gente. +Tengo mucha suerte de estar aqu. +Me siento muy afortunado. +Han sido tan buenos conmigo! +Telefone a mi mujer, Leslie, y le dije: "Sabes? Hay tanta gente buena aqu tratando de mejorar tantas cosas. +Esto es como una colonia de ngeles". +Eso es lo que siento. +Pero me he de centrar, porque el tiempo vuela. +Soy un maestro de la Educacin Pblica y me gustara contarles algo sobre mi superintendente. +Se llama Pam Moran y es del condado de Albemarle, en Virginia, de las faldas de las montaas Blue Ridge. +Es una superintendente muy aficionada a la tecnologa. +Utiliza pizarras interactivas, tiene un blog, usa el Twitter y el Facebook: utiliza todas las nuevas tecnologas. +Es la primera en tecnologa y en educacin, +pero en su oficina hay una vieja mesa de cocina, de madera, desgastada; con su pintura verde descascarada, muy desvencijada. +Le dije: "Pam, eres una persona muy moderna, vanguardista, +qu hace aqu esa mesa tan vieja?". +Y me respondi: "Crec en el suroeste de Virginia, en la parte rural, entre las minas de carbn y los cultivos. Esta mesa perteneca a la cocina de mi abuelo. +Cuando volvamos de jugar, l vena de arar la tierra, y nos sentbamos en esa mesa todas las noches. +Durante mi infancia, presenci tanta agudeza, tanta perspicacia, tanta sabidura alrededor de esta mesa, que comenc a llamarla la mesa de la sabidura. +Cuando mi abuelo falleci, tom esta mesa y me la traje a mi oficina. Me recuerda a l. +Me recuerda lo que a veces sucede alrededor de un espacio vaco". +El proyecto del que les voy a hablar se llama el juego de la paz mundial, y bsicamente tambin es un espacio vaco. +Me gustara pensar que es como la mesa de la sabidura del siglo XXI. +Todo empez en 1977. +Yo era joven y haba dejado la universidad varias veces. +Mis padres tenan mucha paciencia. Haba hecho algunos viajes intermitentes a la India en una bsqueda espiritual. +Recuerdo que la ltima vez que volv de la India con mi tnica blanca vaporosa y mi tupida barba y mis gafas a lo John Lennon, le dije a mi padre: "Pap, creo que acabo de encontrar la iluminacin espiritual". +Y me contest: "Bien, pero necesitas encontrar algo ms". +"El qu, pap?". "Un trabajo". +Me pidieron que estudiara algo, +as que me gradu, y lo hice en educacin. +Era un programa sobre educacin experimental. +Podra haber sido odontologa, pero tena que ser "experimental". Pero yo eleg la educacin. +Supongo que les costaba encontrar profesores, porque Anna Aro, la supervisora, me dio un puesto para ensear a nios superdotados. +Me qued tan impresionado, tan asombrado... Muchas gracias, pero... qu debo hacer? les pregunt. +La educacin para superdotados no estaba muy desarrollada, +no haba muchos materiales preparados. +As que le pregunt: "Qu hago?". +Y su respuesta me dej helado. +Su respuesta puso los cimientos de lo que sera toda mi carrera profesional. +Me contest: "Qu quieres hacer?". +Y esa respuesta me dej mucho margen. +No haba un programa a seguir, ni un manual, ni todava criterios de calidad en la enseanza de superdotados. +Y me dej tanto margen que desde entonces me esfuerzo en hacer lo mismo con mis alumnos, en darles libertad para que puedan crear y comprender, encontrar sus propias respuestas. +Esto ocurri en 1978; muchos aos despus segua siendo maestro y un amigo me present a un joven director de cine. +Se llamaba Chris Farina. +Chris Farina est hoy aqu por sus propios medios. +Chris, puedes levantarte para que te vean? Un director joven, un visionario, que ha hecho... +...la pelcula "World Peace and Other 4th Grade Achievements". +Me propuso la pelcula... s, es un ttulo muy bueno. +Me propuso la pelcula y le contest: "S, quiz la pongan en un canal local y podamos saludar a nuestros amigos". +Pero ha llegado muy lejos. +Todava no la han rentabilizado, pero Chris ha conseguido con su sacrificio sacarla adelante. +Hicimos la pelcula y ha resultado ser mucho ms que mi historia, o que la historia de un solo maestro. +Es un testamento para los maestros y la educacin, +y eso es algo precioso. +Lo raro es que, cuando la veo, siento algo espeluznante: literalmente me veo desaparecer. +Veo a mis profesores a travs de m. +Veo al seor Rucell, mi profesor de geometra en la secundaria, su irnica sonrisa tras su bigote manubrio. +Mi sonrisa es su sonrisa. +Veo los ojos centelleantes de Jan Polo. +Y no centelleaban de furia, sino llenos de amor, de un amor intenso por sus alumnos. +Yo tengo esos destellos a veces. +Veo a la seorita Ethel J. Banks, que siempre iba al colegio con tacones y un collar de perlas. +Y tena esa mirada de las maestras de toda la vida... +se acuerdan? +"E incluso puedo ver a los que estn detrs, porque tengo ojos en la espalda". +Se acuerdan? +No uso esa mirada muy a menudo, pero la incluyo en mi repertorio. +Y la seorita Banks fue una gran mentora para m. +Y tambin reconozco a mis propios padres, mis primeros maestros. +Mi padre: muy inventivo, un pensador espacial. +A la derecha est mi hermano Malcolm. +Y mi madre, que me dio clases con 9 aos en los colegios segregados de Virginia ella me inspir. +Y, de verdad, cuando veo la pelcula, siento como si... hago los mismos gestos que ella, as. Me siento como la continuacin de su gesto, +o como si fuera uno de sus gestos de docente. +Y algo maravilloso fue que yo tambin le di clases en primaria a mi hija Madeline. +Y de esta forma, el gesto de mi madre se perpeta a travs de las generaciones. +Ser parte de ese linaje es una sensacin sobrecogedora. +As que yo me apoyo en los hombros de muchas personas, +no estoy aqu solo. +Hay mucha gente aqu hoy conmigo en el escenario. +Me gustara hablarles del Juego de la Paz Mundial (World Peace Game). +Empez con una plancha de contrachapado de 1,20 m por 1,50 m en un colegio de un barrio marginal, en 1978. +Estaba preparando una clase sobre frica. +Pusimos todos los problemas del mundo en la plancha y pens: "Que los resuelvan ellos". +No quera dictarles apuntes ni leer un libro, +quera que se sumergieran y sintieran, que aprendieran a travs de las sensaciones de su cuerpo. +Pens: "Les gustan los juegos, as que +preparar algo" (no dije "interactivo" porque ese trmino todava no exista en 1978 pero era algo interactivo). +Hicimos el juego y desde entonces ha evolucionado a una estructura de plexigls de 1,20 m por 1,20 m +con cuatro capas: +una es el espacio exterior, con agujeros negros y satlites, satlites de reconocimiento y asteroides minados. +Hay una capa area con nubes hechas de algodn que movemos de un lado a otro, espacios areos nacionales y fuerzas areas. Una capa terrestre y martima con miles de piezas, e incluso un nivel subacutico, con submarinos y hasta minas submarinas. +Hay cuatro pases en los paneles. +Los nios se inventan los nombres. Algunos son pobres y otros ricos. +Tienen diferentes recursos, comerciales y militares. +Cada pas tiene un consejo de ministros: +un primer ministro, un ministro de asuntos exteriores y otro de defensa, y uno de economa, o interventor. +Para elegir al primer ministro me baso en mi relacin con ellos. +Les ofrezco el puesto, que pueden rechazar, y entonces ellos eligen su propio gabinete. +Hay un Banco Mundial, traficantes de armas y la ONU. +Tambin tenemos una diosa del clima, que controla el tiempo y la bolsa, que son impredecibles. +Eso no es todo. +Tambin hay un protocolo de emergencia de 13 pginas con 50 problemas interconectados. +De manera que, si uno cambia, todo lo dems vara. +Los lanzo en esta matriz tan compleja y ellos confan en m porque tenemos una relacin profunda y segura. +Y con todas estas crisis... a ver, tenemos tensiones tnicas y de minoras, derrames qumicos y nucleares, proliferacin nuclear. +Hay derrames de petrleo, desastres ambientales, disputas por el agua, repblicas separatistas, hambre, especies en peligro, calentamiento global. +Si Al Gore est aqu, le voy a mandar a mis alumnos de 9 aos de los colegios Agnor-Hurt y Venable, porque resolvieron el calentamiento global en una semana. +Y lo han hecho muchas veces. +Tambin hay en el juego un saboteador: un nio o una nia, de los que suelen alborotar, hace este papel. Y los aprovechamos bien, porque los alborotadores estn aparentemente tratando de salvarse a ellos mismos y al mundo en el juego, +pero tambin tratan de socavar todo y a todos en el juego, +y lo hacen en secreto, desinformando, diciendo ambigedades y cosas irrelevantes, haciendo que todos reflexionen ms profundamente. +El saboteador participa. Tambin leemos "El arte de la guerra" de Sun Tzu. +Los nios de 9 y 10 aos lo entienden y lo usan para comprender los caminos hacia el poder y la destruccin, hacia la guerra (aunque al principio los siguen). +Aprenden a ignorar las reacciones imprudentes y a evitar la impulsividad. A pensar a largo plazo, de una forma ms consecuente. +Stewart Bran est aqu, y una de las ideas de este juego la tom de l, de un artculo de Coevolution Quarterly sobre una liga por la paz. +En el juego, los alumnos a veces forman una liga por la paz. +Yo solo los observo, +les clarifico cosas. Solo soy un mediador. +Los alumnos controlan el juego. +Una vez que empieza el juego, yo no puedo introducir ninguna poltica. +Me gustara compartir esto con ustedes. +Nio: El Juego de la Paz Mundial es algo serio. +Te estn enseando algo parecido a cmo cuidar el mundo. +El seor Hunter lo hace porque dice que su generacin ha echado a perder muchas cosas y nos intenta ensear cmo arreglar esos problemas. +John Hunter: Les ofrec un... De hecho, no puedo decirles nada, porque no s la solucin. +Y les digo directamente: no s la solucin. +Y como no la conozco, ellos tienen que encontrarla. +Tambin me disculpo ante ellos. +Les digo: "Lo siento mucho, chicos y chicas, pero la verdad es que, tristemente, os hemos dejado el mundo en tan mal estado, que solo esperamos que lo podis arreglar. Quiz este juego os ayude a aprender cmo hacerlo". +Es una disculpa sincera y ellos se la toman muy en serio. +Quiz se estn preguntando cmo es todo este juego tan complejo. +Cuando el juego empieza, esto es lo que se ve. +JH: Bueno, ahora vienen las negociaciones, en marcha! +JH: Lo que yo me pregunto es quin est al mando de la clase? +Es una pregunta seria: quin est al mando? +A lo largo de los aos, he aprendido a ceder el control de la clase a los alumnos. +Hay confianza y comprensin, dedicacin a un ideal, de manera que no tengo que hacer lo que pens que tendra que hacer cuando empec a ensear: controlar todas las conversaciones y movimientos en la clase. +Es imposible. Su sabidura colectiva es muy superior a la ma, lo reconozco ante ellos abiertamente. +Rpidamente, compartir con ustedes algunas de las cosas mgicas que nos han sucedido. +Haba una nia en esta partida que era la Ministro de Defensa del pas ms pobre. +Como Ministro de Defensa controlaba los tanques, las fuerzas areas y todo eso. +Y su pas lindaba con un vecino productor de petrleo muy rico. +Sin que mediara provocacin alguna, atac de repente los yacimientos petrolferos del pas vecino, en contra de las rdenes del Primer Ministro. +Rode los yacimientos, los invadi y, sin un solo disparo, tom posesin de ellos y asegur su posicin. +Su vecino no poda responder militarmente porque sus reservas de petrleo eran inaccesibles. +Estbamos todos muy enfadados: "Por qu has hecho eso? +Esto es el Juego de la Paz Mundial. Qu te pasa?". +Era solo una nia, y con nueve aos fue capaz de mantener la calma y contestar: "S lo que estoy haciendo". +Se lo dijo a sus amigas. +Eso era una infraccin. +Aprendimos que nadie se las quiere ver con los tanques de una nia de nueve aos. +Son los rivales ms duros. +Estbamos muy molestos. +Yo pensaba que haba fracasado como maestro. Por qu haba hecho eso? +Pero descubr, en las sesiones de negociacin entre equipos algunos das despus... Hay un periodo de negociacin con cada equipo, los equipos se van turnando, y vuelven a negociar, por turnos, y cada turno es una sesin del juego. +Despus de algunas sesiones sali a la luz que este pas tan poderoso estaba planeando un ataque militar para dominar el mundo. +Si hubieran tenido sus reservas de petrleo, lo hubieran hecho. +Ella fue capaz de ver los vectores, las pautas y las intenciones mucho antes que nosotros, y as supo lo que iba a pasar y tuvo que tomar una decisin filosfica: atacar en un juego sobre la paz. +Con un pequea guerra evit otra mayor. Paramos el juego y tuvimos una conversacin muy interesante sobre si eso era correcto, correcto supeditado o incorrecto. +Este es el tipo de situaciones y razonamientos a los que se tienen que enfrentar. +No podra haber diseado una leccin as. +Sucedi espontneamente, gracias a su sabidura colectiva. +Otro ejemplo. Ocurri algo maravilloso. +Lemos una carta en el juego. +Si eres lder militar, empiezas una guerra y pierdes tropas (los juguetitos de plstico que las representan), te toca escribir una carta. +Debes escribir una carta a los padres, a los hipotticos padres de tus hipotticas tropas, explicndoles lo que sucedi y dndoles el psame, +para que te lo pienses mejor cuando enves tropas a la guerra. +Esto nos pas el verano pasado, en el colegio Agnor-Hurt del condado de Albemarle. Uno de los comandantes iba a leer la carta cuando otro nio me pregunt: "Seor Hunter, hay una madre ah, pidmosle que la lea". +Haba una madre visitndonos ese da, sentada al fondo de la sala. +"Pidmosle que lea la carta, +s ser ms realista". +Y eso hicimos, y ella se ofreci a participar en el juego. +"Por supuesto", dijo, y empez a leer: la primera frase, +la segunda... +En la tercera frase ya estaba llorando. +Yo estaba llorando. +Todos comprendimos que cuando perdemos a alguien, los ganadores no estn contentos. +Todos perdemos. +Fue una idea extraordinaria y fue sorprendente lo que aprendimos. +Les mostrar lo que dice mi amigo David al respecto. +Ha estado en muchas batallas. +David: Hemos tenido demasiados enfrentamientos. +Quiero decir, bueno, hemos tenido suerte casi siempre, +pero ahora me siento un poco raro, porque estoy viviendo lo que Sun Tzu dijo un da. +Un da dijo: "Aquellos que luchen y ganen, querrn volver a luchar; y aquellos que luchen y pierdan, querrn volver para ganar". +As que como he ganado algunas batallas, me meto en ms y ms batallas. +Y es como raro estar viviendo lo que Sun Tzu dijo. +JH: Se me pone la piel de gallina cada vez que lo escucho. +Ese es el tipo de compromiso que uno quiere ver. +Y eso no puedo planearlo, no puedo prepararlo, no puedo ni siquiera evaluarlo. +Pero la nota es obviamente buena. +Sabemos que eso es de verdad una prueba del aprendizaje. +Tenemos muchos datos, pero a veces la realidad de la experiencia sobrepasa los datos que tenemos. +Les contar por ltimo una historia +sobre mi amigo Brennan. +Durante unas siete semanas, jugamos todos los das a este juego despus de clase y bsicamente resolvimos las 50 crisis interconectadas. +Para ganar el juego hay que resolver estos 50 problemas y todos los pases deben disponer de ms activos que al principio. +Algunos son pobres, otros ricos. Hay miles de millones en juego. +El presidente del Banco Mundial qued en tercer lugar una vez. +Deca: "Cuntos ceros hay en un billn? Lo voy a calcular!". +Pero en ese juego l estaba aplicando una poltica fiscal para los chicos de secundaria que jugaban con l. +As que el pas ms pobre se haba vuelto todava ms pobre; +por lo que no podan ganar. +Eran cerca de las 4, que era cuando terminaba el juego, y solo nos quedaba un minuto. La desesperacin reinaba entre nosotros, +yo pens que haba fallado como profesor. +Debera haberles ayudado para que pudieran ganar, +no deberan fracasar as. +Les haba fallado. +Me senta muy triste y abatido +cuando, de pronto, Brennan se acerc a m y tom la campana que uso para indicar un cambio o convocar una reunin entre gabinetes se volvi a su sitio y la toc. +Todos fueron hacia l gritando, chillando, agitando papeles en el aire, +todos sus expedientes llenos de documentos secretos. +Gesticulaban... corran. +Yo no saba qu estaba pasando. Haba perdido el control de la clase. +Si el director lo hubiera visto, me habra despedido. +Los padres nos observaban por la ventana. +Brennan vuelve a su sitio y todos los dems tambin. +Vuelve a tocar la campana y dice: (solo quedaban 12 segundos) "Todas las naciones hemos logrado reunir +un fondo de 600.000 millones de dlares +y se lo vamos a ofrecer al pas pobre. +Si lo acepta, eso aumentara sus activos y ganaramos el juego. +Lo aceptis?". +Solo quedaban tres segundos... +Todo el mundo estaba mirando al Primer Ministro de ese pas, quien dijo: "S". +Y ganaron el juego. +Un acto espontneo de compasin que no podra haberse planeado, que fue inesperado e impredecible. +Cada partida de este juego es diferente. +Algunas son ms sobre problemas sociales, otras sobre asuntos econmicos +y otras sobre disputas militares. +No les oculto esos aspectos de la realidad humana. +Les permito probar y, a travs de su propia experiencia, y sin derramamiento de sangre, aprenden a evitar lo que creen que est mal. +Y descubren lo que es bueno para ellos, a su manera. +Se pueden aprender muchas cosas en este juego, pero dira que si solo aprendieran a pensar de manera crtica, o de manera creativa, si consiguieran mejorar el mundo aunque fuera solo un poco, nos salvaran a todos. +Con solo un poco... +De parte de todos mis profesores sobre cuyos hombros me apoyo, gracias. Muchas gracias. +Hoy me gustara hablar de lo que creo es una de las ms grandes aventuras emprendidas por los seres humanos: tratar de entender el Universo y nuestro lugar en el mismo. +Mi inters y mi pasin por esto empez ms bien por accidente. +Yo haba comprado una copia de este libro: "El Universo y el Dr. Einstein"; un libro en rstica, usado, de una librera de segunda mano de Seattle. +Pocos aos despus, en Bangalore, una noche me resultaba difcil conciliar el sueo y tom este libro, pensando que me dormira en 10 minutos. +Pero en realidad lo le de corrido entre la medianoche y las 5 de la maana. +Y me dej una sensacin intensa de asombro y euforia hacia el Universo y hacia nuestra capacidad de entender todo lo que conocemos. +Y ese sentimiento an no me ha abandonado. +Ese sentimiento fue el detonante que me hizo cambiar de carrera, de ingeniero de sistemas a escritor cientfico, para participar de la alegra de la ciencia y tambin de la alegra de comunicarla a otros. +Esa sensacin me llev en una especie de peregrinacin, literalmente, a los confines del planeta para ver telescopios, detectores, instrumentos que las personas construyen, o han construido, para sondear el cosmos, cada vez con ms detalle. +Me llev de lugares como Chile (el desierto de Atacama en Chile) a Siberia, a minas subterrneas, desde los Alpes Japoneses, desde Amrica del Norte, hasta la Antrtida e incluso al Polo Sur. +Hoy me gustara compartir con Uds. algunas imgenes, algunas historias de estos viajes. +He dedicado los ltimos aos, bsicamente, a documentar los esfuerzos de algunos hombres y mujeres muy intrpidos que a veces estn literalmente arriesgando sus vidas, trabajando en algunos lugares muy remotos y hostiles, para captar las seales ms dbiles del cosmos que nos han de ayudar a entender el Universo. +Quisiera empezar con un grfico circular. Prometo que es el nico de toda la presentacin. Pero refleja el conocimiento existente sobre el cosmos. +Todas las teoras fsicas existentes explican correctamente lo que se llama "materia corriente" -la materia de la que estamos hechos- que representa el 4% del Universo. +Los astrnomos, cosmlogos y fsicos piensan que hay algo llamado "materia oscura" que constituye el 23% del Universo y algo llamado "energa oscura" que impregna el tejido del espacio-tiempo, y constituye otro 73%. +En este grfico se ve que el 96% del Universo, en este momento de la exploracin, no se conoce o no se entiende bien. +La mayora de los experimentos, los telescopios que fui a ver, de alguna manera estn abordando el tema de estos dos misterios gemelos de la "materia oscura" y la "energa oscura". +Primero los voy a llevar a una mina subterrnea del norte de Minnesota donde estn buscando la llamada "materia oscura". +La idea aqu es que estn buscando seales de materia oscura que impacte en uno de sus detectores. +Por eso van al interior de las minas en busca de una suerte de silencio ambiental que les permita or la partcula de materia oscura cuando impacte en el detector. +Fui a ver uno de estos experimentos... en realidad esto es... apenas puede verse, esto se debe a que all est todo oscuro. Es una caverna de mineros abandonada que dejaron esta mina en 1960. +Y luego llegaron los fsicos y empezaron a usarla a mediados de los aos 80. +Los mineros, a principios del siglo pasado, trabajaban literalmente a la luz de las velas. +Hoy esto es lo que se ve dentro de la mina a 800 metros bajo tierra. +Este es uno de los laboratorios subterrneos ms grande del mundo. +Y, entre otras cosas, estn buscando materia oscura. +Hay otra manera de buscarla y es indirectamente. +Si hay materia oscura en el Universo, en nuestra galaxia, entonces estas partculas deberan colisionar y producir otras partculas que sean conocidas... como los neutrinos. +Y los neutrinos pueden detectarse por la estela que dejan cuando impactan en las molculas de agua. +Cuando un neutrino golpea una molcula de agua emite una especie de luz azul, un destello azul. Buscando esta luz bsicamente se puede entender algo del neutrino y luego, en forma indirecta, algo de la materia oscura que pudo haber creado ese neutrino. +Pero se necesitan grandes volmenes de agua para lograrlo. +Hacen falta decenas de megatones de agua, casi un gigatn de agua, para poder atrapar al neutrino. +En qu lugar del mundo se puede encontrar tanta agua? +Bueno, los rusos tienen una cisterna en su patio de atrs. +Este es el lago Baikal. +Es el lago ms grande del mundo. Mide 800 km de largo. +Tiene unos 40 50 km de ancho en casi todos lados y de 1 a 2 km de profundidad. +Los rusos estn construyendo detectores que sumergen a un kilmetro bajo la superficie del lago para poder ver los destellos de luz azul. +Esta es la escena que me recibi cuando aterric all. +Este es el lago Baikal en pleno invierno siberiano. +El lago est completamente helado. +Y la lnea de puntos negros que ven en el fondo es el campamento sobre el hielo donde trabajan los fsicos. +La razn por la que trabajan en invierno es que no tienen el dinero para trabajar en verano y primavera y, si lo tuvieran, necesitaran barcos y sumergibles para hacer el trabajo. +Por eso esperan hasta el invierno, cuando el lago est completamente helado, y usan este hielo de un metro de espesor para establecer el campamento y hacer su trabajo. +Estos son los rusos trabajando en el hielo, en pleno invierno siberiano. +Tienen que perforar hoyos en el hielo, sumergirse en el agua helada; agua muy, muy fra, para recuperar los detectores, llevarlos a la superficie, hacerle las reparaciones y mantenimiento necesarios, volverlos a colocar y marcharse antes que el hielo se derrita. +Porque esta fase de hielo slido dura 2 meses y est llena de grietas. +Tienen que pensar que hay un lago similar a un mar que se mueve debajo. +Todava no entiendo a este ruso que trabaja con el torso desnudo; eso nos dice lo arduo que es su trabajo. +Estas personas, un puado de personas, han estado trabajando 20 aos en busca de partculas que pueden existir o no. +Y le han dedicado sus vidas a esto. +Y slo para darles una idea han gastando 20 millones en 20 aos. +Son condiciones muy difciles. +Trabajan con un presupuesto mnimo. +Los baos son literalmente hoyos en el suelo dentro de una cabaa de madera. +Es muy rudimentario pero lo hacen cada ao. +Pasemos de Siberia al desierto de Atacama en Chile para ver el denominado "Telescopio Muy Grande". +El Telescopio Muy Grande; as son los astrnomos, llaman a sus telescopios con nombres poco creativos. +Puedo asegurarles que al prximo que estn planeando lo llamarn "Telescopio Extremadamente Grande". +Y no lo van a creer pero al que le sigue a ese le van a llamar "Telescopio Abrumadoramente Grande". +Pero, no obstante, se trata de una pieza extraordinaria de ingeniera, +Son 4 telescopios de 8,2 metros. +Estos telescopios, entre otras cosas, se estn usando para estudiar cmo cambia la expansin del Universo con el tiempo. +Y cuanto ms entendamos eso mejor entenderemos de qu se trata esta energa oscura que constituye el Universo. +Y, antes de pasar a otro telescopio, quisiera mostrarles otra maravilla de la ingeniera: el espejo. +Ese es el tipo de pulido de estos espejos. +Es un conjunto extraordinario de telescopios. +Esta es otra vista de lo mismo. +La razn por la que hay que construir estos telescopios en lugares como el desierto de Atacama se debe a la gran altitud del desierto. +El aire seco es muy bueno para los telescopios y el nivel de las nubes est por debajo de la cima de esta montaa por lo que el telescopio tiene unos 300 das de cielo despejado. +Para terminar quiero llevarlos a la Antrtida. +Yo quisiera pasar la mayor parte del tiempo en esta parte del mundo. +Esta es la ltima frontera de la cosmologa. +Algunos de los experimentos ms asombrosos, de los experimentos ms extremos, tienen lugar en la Antrtida. +Fui all para ver algo llamado "vuelo de globo de larga duracin" que, bsicamente, transporta telescopios e instrumentos hasta la capa superior de la atmsfera, la estratsfera superior, a 40 km del suelo. +All realizan los experimentos y luego el globo con su carga, vuelve a tierra. +All estamos nosotros aterrizando en la barrera de Ross en la Antrtida. +Ese es un avin de carga C-17, de EE.UU., que nos transport desde Nueva Zelanda hasta McMurdo en la Antrtida. +Aqu estamos a punto de subir al autobs. +No s si pueden leer las inscripciones pero dice: "Ivn el Terribs". +Y en eso nos vamos a McMurdo. +Esta es la escena que nos recibe en McMurdo. +Apenas puede entenderse el porqu de esta cabaa ah. +La cabaa fue construida por Robert Falcon Scott y sus hombres cuando llegaron por primera vez a la Antrtida en su primera expedicin al Polo Sur. +Debido al fro que hace todo en la cabaa qued como ellos lo dejaron con los restos de la ltima comida que cocinaron. +Es un lugar extraordinario. +Esta es McMurdo. Unas mil personas trabajan aqu en verano y cerca de 200 en invierno cuando est completamente oscuro durante 6 meses. +Estuve aqu para ver el lanzamiento de este tipo particular de instrumento. +Es un experimento de rayos csmicos lanzado hacia la estratsfera superior a una altitud de 40 km. +Quiero que piensen que esto pesa 2 toneladas. +O sea, se usa un globo para llevar algo que pesa 2 toneladas hasta una altitud de 40 km. +Los ingenieros, los tcnicos, los fsicos, han tenido que montar todo sobre la barrera de Ross porque la Antrtida (no voy a entrar en detalles) es uno de los mejores lugares para lanzar este tipo de globos, salvo por el clima. +El clima, como pueden imaginar... eso es en verano y hay 60 metros de hielo. +Hay un volcn atrs que tiene glaciares en la cima. +Y lo que tienen que hacer es montar todo el globo -la tela, el paracadas, todo- sobre el hielo y luego inflarlo con helio. +Ese proceso lleva unas 2 horas. +El clima puede cambiar en medio del ensamblaje. +Por ejemplo, aqu estn extendiendo el globo que ms tarde va a ser llenado de helio. +Esos dos camiones que ven al fondo transportan 12 tanques de helio comprimido. +Ahora bien, si el clima cambia antes del lanzamiento tienen que volver a poner todo en las cajas y llevarlo de nuevo a la base McMurdo. +Este globo en particular, dado que tiene que cargar con 2 toneladas de peso, es extremadamente grande. +La tela sola pesa 2 toneladas. +Para minimizar el peso es muy fina, tan fina como una bolsa de sndwich. +Y si tienen que volverla a guardar hay que ponerla en cajas y saltarle encima para que vuelva a entrar en la caja (salvo que la primera vez donde lo hicieron fue en Texas). +Aqu, no pueden hacerlo con los zapatos que llevan puestos as que se los tienen que quitar y entrar descalzos a las cajas con ese fro paa hacer ese tipo de trabajo. +Eso muestra la dedicacin de estas personas. +Aqu vemos el globo mientras se llena de helio y pueden ver que es algo muy hermoso. +Esta es la escena que nos muestra el globo y la carga de punta a punta. +A la izquierda se est llenando el globo con helio y la tela llega hasta el medio donde se encuentran la electrnica y los explosivos conectados a un paracadas el cual est conectado a la carga. +Recuerden que toda esa instalacin la hacen estas personas en un fro extremo, a temperaturas bajo cero. +Llevan puesto unos 15 kilos de ropa y materiales pero para hacer eso tienen que quitarse los guantes. +Quisiera compartir con Uds. un lanzamiento. +Radio: Bueno, lancen el globo, lancen el globo, lancen el globo. +Anil Ananthaswamy: Quisiera terminar con dos imgenes. +Este es un observatorio en el Himalaya, en Ladakh, India. +Lo que quiero que vean aqu es el telescopio de la derecha. +En el extremo izquierdo hay un monasterio budista de 400 aos. +Este es un primer plano del monasterio budista. +Me impresion la yuxtaposicin de estas dos enormes disciplinas de la Humanidad. +Una explora el cosmos desde el exterior y la otra explora nuestro ser interior. +Ambas necesitan algn tipo de silencio. +Lo que me impresion fue que a cada lugar al que fui a ver estos telescopios los astrnomos y cosmlogos buscan cierto tipo de silencio, sea silencio de contaminacin de radio o de luz, o lo que sea. +Es muy obvio que si destruimos estos lugares de la Tierra nos quedaremos con un planeta que no podr mirar hacia el exterior porque no vamos a poder entender las seales provenientes del espacio. +Gracias. +La seguridad es dos cosas diferentes: es una sensacin, y es una realidad. +Y son diferentes. +Podran sentirse seguros aun cuando no lo estn. +Y pueden estar seguros aun cuando no se sientan seguros. +En realidad, tenemos dos conceptos distintos asignados a la misma palabra. +Y lo que quiero hacer en esta charla es separar el uno del otro y darnos cuenta de cundo divergen y de cmo convergen. +Y en realidad el lenguaje es un problema para esto. +No hay muchas palabras tiles para los conceptos que vamos a describir. +As que si miran la seguridad del punto de vista econmico, se trata de intercambiar una cosa por otra. +Cada vez que obtienen un poco de seguridad, siempre estn intercambindola por otra cosa. +Sea esta es una decisin personal -si van a instalar una alarma antirrobo en su hogar- o una decisin nacional -si van a invadir otro pas- van a sacrificar algo, ya sea dinero o tiempo, comodidad, capacidad, quizs libertades fundamentales. +Y lo que deben preguntarse cuando miran algo de seguridad no es si esto nos hace ms seguros, sino que si vale la pena el sacrificio. +Han escuchado durante los ltimos aos que el mundo es ms seguro porque Saddam Hussein no gobierna Irak. +Eso puede ser cierto, pero no es terriblemente relevante. +La pregunta es: Vali la pena? +Y pueden tomar su propia decisin y con eso decidir si la invasin vali la pena. +As se piensa acerca de la seguridad; en trminos de decidirse por algo en desmedro de otra cosa. +A menudo no hay buenas o malas decisiones en esto. +Algunos de nosotros tenemos alarmas antirrobo en la casa y otros no lo tenemos. +Y depender de donde vivimos, si es que vivimos solos o tenemos familia, la cantidad de cosas preciadas que tengamos, cunto riesgo de robo estemos dispuestos a aceptar. +En la poltica tambin hay diferentes opiniones. +Muchas veces, estos sacrificios son sobre ms que slo seguridad, y creo que eso es muy importante. +Ahora, la gente tiene una intuicin natural sobre estos sacrificios. +Los hacemos todos los das; anoche en mi habitacin de hotel, cuando decid cerrar la puerta con doble llave, o cuando ustedes conducan para ac en su automvil, cuando vamos a almorzar y decidimos que la comida no tiene veneno y la comemos. +Tomamos estas decisiones una y otra vez muchas veces al da. +A menudo ni siquiera nos damos cuenta. +Son parte de estar vivo, todos lo hacemos. +Todas las especies lo hacen. +Imaginen un conejo en un campo, comiendo pasto, y el conejo repentinamente ve un zorro. +Ese conejo tomar una decisin para su seguridad: "Debo quedarme o debo huir?" +Y si lo piensan, los conejos que toman la decisin apropiada tienden a vivir y reproducirse, y los conejos que no lo hacen bien son comidos o se mueren de hambre. +As que uno pensara que nosotros, como una especie exitosa en el planeta -ustedes, yo, todos nosotros- seramos muy buenos para elegir una cosa en vez de otra. +Y sin embargo observamos que, una y otra vez, somos irremediablemente malos para esto. +Y creo que eso es una pregunta fundamentalmente interesante. +Les dar la respuesta corta. +La respuesta es que respondemos a la sensacin de seguridad y no a la realidad. +Ahora, la mayora de las veces, eso funciona. +La mayor parte del tiempo la sensacin y la realidad son iguales. +Sin duda eso es cierto para casi toda la prehistoria humana. +Hemos desarrollado esta habilidad porque obedece la lgica evolutiva. +Una manera de pensarlo es que estamos altamente optimizados para tomar decisiones sobre riesgos endmicos a los que viven en pequeos grupos familiares en las tierras altas de frica oriental 100 mil aos a. C., +y no tanto para Nueva York el 2010. +Ahora bien, hay varios sesgos en la percepcin del riesgo. +Hay muchos experimentos buenos sobre esto. +Y pueden ver ciertos sesgos que surgen una y otra vez. +Y les voy a dar cuatro. +Tendemos a exagerar los riesgos espectaculares e inusuales y minimizar los riesgos comunes; por eso la diferencia entre volar y manejar. +Lo desconocido es percibido como ms riesgoso que lo familiar. +Un ejemplo sera que la gente teme ser secuestrada por desconocidos y los datos muestran que ser secuestrado por familiares es mucho ms comn. +Esto se aplica para nios. +En tercer lugar, los riesgos personificados son percibidos como mayores que los riesgos annimos; por eso Bin Laden da ms miedo porque tiene nombre. +Y el cuarto es que la gente subestima los riesgos en situaciones donde tienen el control y los sobreestiman en situaciones que no controlan. +As que cuando practicas paracaidismo o fumas minimizas los riesgos de estos. +Si te fuerzan a aceptar un riesgo -el terrorismo es un buen ejemplo- lo exagerars, porque no sientes como si lo controlaras. +Hay un montn de sesgos ms, de estos sesgos cognitivos, que afectan nuestras decisiones sobre riesgos. +Est la heurstica de disponibilidad, que significa bsicamente que estimamos la probabilidad de cualquier cosa por lo fcil que es pensar en instancias de esto. +Y se pueden imaginar cmo funciona eso. +Si escuchas mucho sobre ataques de tigre deben haber muchos tigres alrededor. +No escuchas hablar de ataques de len as que no hay muchos leones alrededor. +Esto funciona hasta que inventas los peridicos. +Porque lo que los peridicos hacen es repetir una y otra vez los riesgos inusuales. +Le digo a la gente: "si est en las noticias, no te preocupes por eso". +Porque, por definicin, las noticias son algo que casi nunca sucede. +Cuando algo es tan comn que deja de ser noticia (accidentes automovilsticos, violencia familiar); esos son los riesgos que hay que tener presentes. +Tambin somos una especie que contamos historias. +Respondemos ante las historias ms que a los datos. +Y tenemos algo de incapacidad aritmtica bsica. +Es decir, el chiste de "Uno, dos, tres, muchos" no se equivoca mucho. +Somos muy buenos para los nmeros pequeos. +Un mango, dos mangos, tres mangos; diez mil mangos, cien mil mangos: son ms mangos de los que puedas comer antes que se pudran. +As que la mitad, un cuarto, un quinto; somos buenos para eso. +Uno en un milln, uno en un billn; los dos son casi nunca. +As que tenemos problemas con los riesgos que no son muy frecuentes. +Y lo que estos sesgos cognitivos hacen es que actan como filtros entre nosotros y la realidad. +Y el resultado es que la sensacin y la realidad se desequilibran, se tornan diferentes. +As que puedes tener la sensacin; sentirte ms seguro de lo que ests. +Hay una sensacin irreal de seguridad. +O al contrario, y esa es una sensacin irreal de inseguridad. +Escribo mucho sobre "teatro de seguridad", que son productos que hacen que la gente se sienta segura pero que en realidad no hacen nada. +No hay una palabra apropiada para cosas que nos den seguridad, pero que no nos hagan sentir seguros. +Quizs esto es lo que se supone que la CIA debera lograr. +Y volvamos a la economa. +Si la economa, si el mercado, son lo que impulsan a la seguridad y si la gente hace concesiones basadas en su sensacin de seguridad, entonces lo ms inteligente que las empresas pueden hacer por sus propios incentivos econmicos es lograr la gente se sienta segura. +Y hay dos maneras de hacer esto. +Uno, pueden hacer que la gente realmente est segura y esperar que se den cuenta. +O dos, pueden hacer que la gente se sienta segura y esperar que no se den cuenta. +Entonces, qu hace que la gente se d cuenta? +Bueno, un par de cosas: entender qu es la seguridad, los riesgos, las amenazas, las medidas previas, cmo funcionan. +Pero si sabes esas cosas, es ms probable que tus sensaciones calcen con la realidad. +Ayuda tener suficientes ejemplos del mundo real. +Ahora todos sabemos la tasa de crmenes en nuestro vecindario, porque vivimos all y tenemos una sensacin al respecto que esencialmente calza con la realidad. +El teatro de seguridad queda expuesto cuando es obvio que no est funcionando correctamente. +Y entonces, qu hace que la gente no se d cuenta? +Bueno, una mala comprensin. +Si no entiendes los riesgos, no entiendes los costos, es probable que tomes una mala decisin, y que tu sensacin no corresponda con la realidad. +Ejemplos insuficientes: +Hay un problema intrnseco con eventos de baja probabilidad. +Si, por ejemplo, casi nunca hay actos terroristas, es muy difcil medir cuan eficientes son las medidas en la lucha contra el terrorismo. +Por eso sigues sacrificando vrgenes, y la razn que tus defensas de unicornio estn funcionando de maravilla. +No hay suficientes ejemplos de fracasos. +Adems, las sensaciones que nublan los temas; los sesgos cognitivos que mencion antes, los miedos, las creencias populares, son bsicamente un modelo inadecuado de la realidad. +Y djenme complicar las cosas. +Est la sensacin y la realidad. +Quiero aadir un tercer elemento. Quiero aadir el modelo. +Sensacin y modelo dentro de nuestra cabeza, la realidad es el mundo exterior. +No cambia, es real. +Y la sensacin se basa en la intuicin. +El modelamiento se basa en la razn. +Eso es bsicamente la diferencia. +En un mundo primitivo y simple, no hay ninguna razn real para un modelo. Porque la sensacin es muy similar a la realidad. +No necesitas un modelo. +Pero en un mundo moderno y complejo, necesitas modelos para comprender muchos de los riesgos que enfrentamos. +Los grmenes no nos generan una sensacin. +Se necesita un modelo para entenderlos. +As que este modelo es una representacin inteligente de la realidad. +Est, por supuesto, limitado por la ciencia, por la tecnologa. +No podramos tener una teora de los grmenes en enfermedades antes de que inventramos el microscopio para verlos. +Est limitado por nuestros prejuicios cognitivos. +Pero tiene la capacidad de imponerse por sobre nuestras sensaciones. +De dnde obtenemos estos modelos? De los dems. +Los obtenemos de la religin, de la cultura, de los profesores, de los mayores. +Hace un par de aos estaba de safari en Sudfrica. +El gua con que estaba haba crecido en el Parque Nacional Kruger. +Tena unos modelos de supervivencia muy complejos. +Y dependa de si habas sido atacado por un len o un leopardo o un rinoceronte o un elefante -y cuando tenas que huir, y cuando tenas que subirte a un rbol, cuando no podas en ningn caso subirte a un rbol-. +Me habra muerto en un da pero l naci all y entenda cmo sobrevivir. +Yo nac en Nueva York. +Lo podra haber llevado a Nueva York y l se habra muerto en un da. +Porque tenamos modelos diferentes basados en nuestras experiencias diferentes. +Los modelos pueden provenir de los medios, de nuestros polticos electos. +Piensen en los modelos de terrorismo, de secuestro infantil, de seguridad area, seguridad de los vehculos. +Los modelos pueden provenir de la industria. +Los dos que estoy siguiendo son las cmaras de vigilancia y las tarjetas de identificacin, muchos de nuestros modelos de seguridad informtica vienen de esto. +Muchos de los modelos provienen de la ciencia. +Un muy buen ejemplo son los modelos de salud. +Piensen en cncer, en gripe aviar, en gripe porcina, en SARS. +Todas nuestras sensaciones de seguridad acerca de esas enfermedades provienen, en realidad, de los modelos entregados a nosotros por la ciencia filtrada a travs de los medios. +Y los modelos pueden cambiar. +Los modelos no son estticos. +A medida que nos sentimos ms cmodos en nuestros ambientes, nuestro modelo se va acercando a nuestra sensacin. +As que un ejemplo podra ser, si nos remontamos 100 aos atrs cuando la electricidad se tornaba cada vez ms comn, haba un montn de temores con respecto a esta. +Quiero decir, haba personas que tenan miedo de presionar un timbre ya que haba electricidad dentro de l y eso era peligroso. +Para nosotros no hay problemas cerca de la electricidad. +Cambiamos las ampolletas sin siquiera pensar en ello. +Nuestro modelo de seguridad con respecto a la electricidad es algo con lo cual nacemos. +No ha cambiado mientras hemos ido creciendo. +Y somos buenos para manejarlo. +O piensen en los riesgos con respecto a Internet entre generaciones; cmo sus padres determinan la seguridad en Internet frente a cmo lo hacen ustedes frente a cmo lo harn nuestros hijos. +Con el tiempo los modelos se van al inconsciente. +Intuitivo es slo otra palabra para familiar. +As que cuando el modelo se acerca a la realidad y converge con las sensaciones, a menudo no te das cuenta que est ah. +Y un buen ejemplo de esto apareci el ao pasado con la gripe porcina. +Cuando la gripe porcina apareci por primera vez la noticia inicial caus una reaccin muy exagerada. +Ahora tena un nombre, lo que la haca ms atemorizante que la gripe comn, a pesar de que era ms letal. +Y la gente pens que los mdicos deban ser capaces de manejarla. +As que estaba esa sensacin de falta de control. +Y esas dos cosas hacan que el riesgo pareciera ms de lo que era. +Mientras fue desapareciendo la novedad y pasando los meses, hubo una cantidad de tolerancia, la gente se acostumbr. +No hubo datos nuevos, pero haba menos temor. +Para la llegada del otoo, la gente pensaba que los mdicos ya deberan haberlo resuelto. +Y hay una especie de bifurcacin; la gente tuvo que elegir entre el miedo y la aceptacin -en realidad entre el miedo y la indiferencia- y como que en realidad quedaron sospechosos. +Y cuando el invierno pasado apareci la vacuna hubo una gran cantidad de personas -un nmero sorprendente- que se neg a ponrsela; un buen ejemplo de cmo cambian las sensaciones de seguridad, cmo cambian sus modelos, un poco descontrolados sin nueva informacin, sin nuevos inputs. +Este tipo de cosas sucede frecuentemente. +Les voy a dar una complicacin ms. +Tenemos la sensacin, el modelo, la realidad. +Tengo una visin muy relativista de la seguridad. +Creo que depende del observador. +Y la mayora de las decisiones sobre seguridad involucran a varias personas. +Y las partes interesadas, cada una con beneficios y perdidas propias, tratarn de influenciar la decisin. +Yo llamo a eso su agenda. +Y se pueden ver las agendas -en el marketing, en la poltica- tratando de convencerlos de elegir un modelo en vez de otro, tratando de convencerlos de ignorar un modelo y de confiar en sus sensaciones, dejando de lado a las personas con modelos que no les gustan. +Esto es bastante frecuente. +Un ejemplo, un gran ejemplo, es el riesgo de fumar. +Durante los ltimos 50 aos, el riesgo de fumar muestra cmo va cambiando un modelo y tambin muestra cmo una industria pelea contra un modelo que no le gusta. +Comparen esto con el debate del humo de segunda mano; el mismo caso probablemente 20 aos antes. +Piensen acerca de los cinturones de seguridad. +Cuando yo era nio, nadie se pona el cinturn de seguridad. +Hoy en da, ningn nio te permite manejar si no lo llevas puesto. +Comparen esto con el debate del airbag; probablemente como 30 aos atrasado. +Todos son ejemplos de modelos que van cambiando. +Lo que aprendemos es que cambiar los modelos es difcil. +Los modelos son difciles de desalojar. +Si estos son iguales a sus sensaciones, ni siquiera se darn cuenta que tienen un modelo. +Y hay otro sesgo cognitivo que llamar sesgo de confirmacin, donde tendemos a aceptar los datos que confirman nuestras creencias y rechazar los datos que las contradicen. +Y es probable que ignoremos la evidencia en contra de nuestro modelo, incluso si es convincente. +Debe ser sper convincente antes de que le prestemos atencin. +An ms complejos son los nuevos modelos que se extendern por mucho tiempo. +El calentamiento global es un gran ejemplo. +Somos terribles para modelos que abarcan 80 aos. +Podemos modelar la prxima cosecha. +De repente podemos modelar hasta que nuestros hijos crezcan. +Pero simplemente no somos buenos para 80 aos. +Y entonces es un modelo muy difcil de aceptar. +Podemos tener ambos modelos en nuestra cabeza al mismo tiempo, ese tipo de problema donde tenemos ambas creencias al mismo tiempo; la disonancia cognitiva. +Con el tiempo, el nuevo modelo reemplazar al antiguo. +Las sensaciones fuertes pueden crear un modelo. +El 11 de septiembre cre un modelo de seguridad en las mentes de mucha gente. +Tambin se pueden crear a travs de experiencias personales con crmenes, a travs de sustos de salud personales, de problemas de salud en las noticias. +Vern estos eventos llamados "flash de luz" por los psiquiatras. +Pueden crear un modelo de forma instantnea, porque son muy emotivos. +Y en el mundo tecnolgico no tenemos experiencia para elegir los modelos. +Y dependemos de otros. Dependemos de representantes. +Quiero decir, esto funciona mientras sea para corregir a otros. +Dependemos de los organismos gubernamentales para que nos digan qu medicamentos son seguros. +Vol ayer para ac. +No revis el avin. +Confi en algn otro grupo para determinar si mi avin era seguro para volar. +Estamos aqu, nadie teme que el techo se vaya a caer sobre nosotros, no porque lo comprobamos, sino porque tenemos bastante confianza que los cdigos de construccin son buenos. +Es un modelo que simplemente aceptamos slo por fe. +Y eso est bien. +Ahora, lo que queremos es que la gente se familiarice lo suficiente con modelos buenos -y que se reflejen en lo que sienten- para que puedan tomar buenas decisiones de seguridad. +Y entonces cuando estos se desalinean se tienen dos opciones. +Una es arreglar las sensaciones de la gente, apelar directamente a las sensaciones y sentimientos. +Es manipulativo, pero puede funcionar. +La segunda manera, que es ms honesta, es realmente solucionar el modelo. +El cambio se produce lentamente. +El debate del cigarrillo tom 40 aos, y ese era uno simple. +Algunos de estos son difciles. +Quiero decir, sin embargo, que la informacin parece ser nuestra mejor esperanza. +Y les ment. +Recuerdan cuando dije lo de la sensacin, el modelo, la realidad. Dije que la realidad no cambia. Pero en verdad s cambia. +Vivimos en un mundo tecnolgico; la realidad cambia todo el tiempo. +As que podramos tener -por primera vez para nuestra especie- la sensacin persiguiendo al modelo, el modelo persiguiendo la realidad, la realidad va cambiando; y puede que jams se vayan a alcanzar. +No lo sabemos. +Pero en el largo plazo, tanto la sensacin como la realidad son importantes. +Y quiero cerrar con dos historias rpidas para ilustrar esto. +En 1982 -no s si la gente recordar esto- hubo una epidemia de corta duracin de envenenamientos con Tylenol en los Estados Unidos. +Es una historia horrible. Alguien tom una botella de Tylenol, puso veneno en ella, la cerr y volvi a ponerla en el estante. +Otra persona la compr y muri. +Esto aterroriz a todo el mundo. +Hubo un par de ataques que imitaron esto. +No haba riesgo real, pero la gente estaba asustada. +Y as es como se invent la industria farmacutica a prueba de manipulaciones. +Esas tapas difciles de abrir surgieron de esto. +Es totalmente teatro de seguridad. +Como tarea para la casa piensen en 10 maneras de vulnerarlas. +Les dar una; una jeringa. +Sin embargo hizo que la gente se sintiera mejor. +Hizo que su sensacin de seguridad se pareciera ms a la realidad. +ltima historia; hace unos aos una amiga ma dio a luz. +La visit en el hospital. +Resulta que ahora cuando un beb nace le ponen al beb una pulsera RFID, le ponen una pulsera relacionada a la madre y si otra persona retira al beb de la sala de maternidad suena una alarma. +Me dije: "Bueno, eso est bien bueno. +Me pregunto cun comunes son los robos de beb desde los hospitales." +Me voy a casa y lo busco. +Bsicamente no sucede jams. +Pero si lo piensas, si eres un hospital y tienes que alejar al beb de su madre, fuera de la pieza para tomar algunos exmenes, mejor que tengas un buen teatro de seguridad o te va a arrancar el brazo entero. +As que es importante para nosotros, aquellos de nosotros que diseamos seguridad, que observamos las polticas de seguridad, o incluso miramos a las polticas pblicas y las maneras que estas afectan a la seguridad. +No es slo la realidad, es sensacin y la realidad. +Lo que es importante es que sean ms o menos iguales. +Es importante que -si nuestras sensaciones calzan con la realidad- tomemos mejores decisiones de seguridad. +Gracias. +Voy a platicar un poco acerca del modo en que la naturaleza crea materiales. +Traje una concha de abuln. +Esta concha de abuln es un material bio-compuesto y el 98% de su masa es carbonato de calcio, el otro 2% es protena. +Con todo ello, es 3,000 veces ms duro que su contraparte geolgica. +Y mucha gente podra usar estructuras como las conchas de abuln. como tiza. +Estoy fascinada por la manera en la que la naturaleza hace materiales y hay mucha secuencia en cmo hacen un trabajo tan exquisito. +Parte de ello es que estos materiales son macroscpicos en su estructura. pero se forman en una nano-escala +Se construyen a nano-escala, y usan protenas que estn codificadas a nivel gentico. que les permiten construir estas exquisitas estructuras. +Hay algo que encuentro verdaderamente fascinante y es: Qu pasara si pudieras dar vida a estructuras no vivas, como bateras y celdas solares? +Qu tal si tuvieran algunas de las mismas capacidades que la concha de abuln? Es decir Podran ser capaces de construir estructuras exquisitas a presin y temperatura ambiente, usando materiales no txicos y sin emitir compuestos txicos al medio ambiente? +Esa es la visin que tengo en mente. +Qu tal si pudiramos hacer crecer una batera en una caja de petri? +O, Qu tal si pudiramos darle informacin gentica a una batera que pudiera mejorar su desempeo como funcin del tiempo, y de forma ambientalmente amigable? +Volvamos a la concha de abuln, adems de tener una nano-estructura otra cosa que es fascinante, es que cuando el abuln macho y la hembra se juntan, pasan su informacin gentica que dice: "Esta es la manera de hacer un material exquisito. +Aqu dice como hacerlo a temperatura y presin ambientales, usando materiales no txicos." +Igual con las diatomeas, que se muestran aqu y que tienen estructuras vidriadas. +Cada vez que la diatomea se replica, lleva consigo la informacin gentica que dice, "He aqu cmo construir vidrio en el ocano que es una perfecta nano-estructura. +Y puedes hacer lo mismo una y otra vez." +Qu tal si pudiramos hacer lo mismo con una celda solar o una batera? +Me gusta decir que mi biomaterial favorito es mi hijo de cuatro aos. +Pero cualquiera que haya tenido o conozca a nios pequeos sabe que son organismos increblemente complejos. +Y que si quieres convencerlos de hacer algo que no quieren, es sper difcil. +As que cuando pensamos acerca de futuras tecnologas, pensamos en usar bacterias y virus, organismos simples. +Pueden ustedes convencerlos que trabajen con nuevas herramientas, de manera que puedan construir una estructura que sea importante para m? +Tambin pensamos acerca de tecnologas del futuro. Comencemos con el inicio de la Tierra. +Bsicamente le tom un millardo de aos generar vida en el planeta. +Y de manera muy rpida se convirti en multicelular, que poda replicarse y poda usar fotosntesis para conseguir su propia energa. +Pero no fue sino hasta hace 500 millones de aos durante la era geolgica del Cmbrico que los organismos del ocano empezaron a hacer materiales duros. +Antes de eso todo era suave, estructuras esponjosas. +Y fue durante ese tiempo que hubo un incremento de calcio, hierro y silicio en el ambiente. Y los organismos aprendieron cmo hacer materiales duros. +As que eso es lo que me gustara hacer, convencer a los seres vivos para que trabajen con el resto de la tabla peridica. +Ahora que miremos a la vida, hay muchas estructuras como el DNA y los anticuerpos y protenas y ribosomas de los que ustedes han odo hablar ellos son de hecho nano-estructuras. +La naturaleza nos da de manera natural estructuras exquisitas a nivel de nano-escala. +Qu tal si pudiramos domesticarlas y convencerlas de no ser un anticuerpo que hace algo como el HIV? +Pero qu tal su pudiramos convencerlas de construir una celda solar para nosotros? +Aqu hay algunos ejemplos: Estas son algunas conchas naturales. +Estos son materiales biolgicos naturales. +La concha de abuln aqu, y si acaso la rompes, puedes ver el hecho de que es una nano-estructura. +Estas son diatomeas, hechas de SIO2, y estas son bacterias magneto-tcticas que hacen pequeos imanes permanentes usados para navegacin. +Lo que todas ellas tienen en comn es que estos materiales tienen estructuras a nivel de nano-escala, y que tienen una secuencia de ADN que codifica una secuencia proteica, as que eso les da el bosquejo para que puedan construir estas maravillosas estructuras. +Ahora, volviendo a la concha de abuln, el abuln hace esta concha teniendo consigo estas protenas. +Estas protenas tienen cargas muy negativas. +Y podran sacar calcio del medio ambiente, poner una capa de calcio y despus carbonato, calcio y carbonato. +Tiene la secuencia qumica de amino-cidos que dice, "As es como se arma la estructura. +Aqu viene la secuencia de DNA, aqu la secuencia de protenas para armar todo." +Aqu esta la tabla peridica. +Yo amo la tabla peridica. +Cada ao doy una clase a los recin llegados al MIT, Y les regalo una tabla peridica que dice, "Bienvenidos al MIT. Ahora estn en su elemento." +Si le dan la vuelta, encontrarn los amino-cidos con el pH en el que presentan diferentes cargas. +Le regalo esta tabla a miles de personas. +Ya s que dice MIT y estamos en Caltech, pero tengo unas que me sobran si acaso las quieren. +Y fui realmente afortunada de recibir al Presidente Obama en mi laboratorio este ao en su visita al MIT, y de verdad que tena ganas de regalarle una tabla peridica. +As que en una noche de insomnio le dije a mi esposo, "Cmo le podra dar una tabla peridica al Presidente Obama?" +Que tal si me contesta, 'Ah! Ya tengo una,' o, 'Ya me la s de memoria'?" Y finalmente lleg a mi laboratorio y mir alrededor -fue una gran visita. +Y despus le dije "Seor, quisiera darle una tabla peridica en caso de que algn da este en problemas y necesite calcular un peso molecular." +Pens que peso molecular sonaba mucho menos extrao que masa molecular. +As que la vio, y dijo, "Gracias. La voy a ver peridicamente." +Y despus en una presentacin que l dio sobre energa limpia, sac su tabla y dijo, "Y hay gente en el MIT que regala tablas peridicas." +As que bsicamente, lo que no les he dicho es que hace 500 millones de aos, los organismos empezaron a fabricar materiales, pero les tom 50 millones de aos ser buenos en eso. +Les tom 50 millones de aos aprender como perfeccionar el proceso de fabricacin de la concha de abuln. +Y eso es algo difcil de venderle a un estudiante de posgrado. "Tengo este gran proyecto -50 millones de aos." +As que tuvimos que desarrollar un mtodo para tratar de hacer esto ms rpido. +Utilizamos un virus, un virus no txico, llamado bacterifago M13 cuyo trabajo es infectar una bacteria. +Su DNA tiene una estructura simple y le puedes simplemente cortar y pegar secuencias adicionales de DNA. +Y al hacer esto, permites que el virus exprese secuencias aleatorias de protenas. +Y esta es una biotecnologa sencilla. +Y es posible hacer esto mil millones de veces. +Y puedes ir y tener mil millones de virus diferentes que sean genticamente idnticos, pero que sean diferentes unos de otros por sus terminaciones en una secuencia que codifica una protena. +Ahora, si tomamos mil millones de virus, y los ponemos en una gota de lquido, podemos forzarlos a interactuar con cualquier cosa en la tabla peridica. +Y a travs del proceso de seleccin-evolucin, podemos obtener uno en mil millones que haga algo que nos gustara que hiciera, como fabricar una batera o una celda solar. +Para que los virus puedan replicarse necesitan un husped. +Una vez que encontramos ese uno en mil millones, infectamos una bacteria, y hacemos miles de millones de copias de esa secuencia en particular. +La otra cosa maravillosa de la biologa es que la biologa nos da exquisitas estructuras con verdadera armona. +Estos virus son largos y delgados, y podemos hacer que expresen la habilidad de fabricar algo como semiconductores o materiales para bateras. +Esta es una batera de alta potencia que fabricamos en mi laboratorio. +Fabricamos un virus que utilizaba nanotubos de carbn. +Una parte del virus agarraba un nanotubo de carbn. +La otra parte del virus tiene una secuencia que puede generar material para el electrodo de una batera. +Y despus se conecta a s mismo con el colector de corriente. +Y a travs del proceso de seleccin-evolucin, vamos desde un virus que fabrica una batera sencilla hasta un virus que hace una buena batera y hasta un virus que hace una batera de alta potencia capaz de romper records hecha totalmente a temperatura ambiente, bsicamente en la mesa del laboratorio. +Y esa batera viaj hasta la Casa Blanca para una conferencia de prensa. +La traje conmigo. +Pueden ver en este caso, que mantiene esta lmpara encendida. +Si pudiramos escalar esto, podramos usarlo para hacer rodar a su auto, ese es mi sueo, poder manejar un auto alimentado por virus. +El proceso es bsicamente -- que puedas sacar uno de mil millones. +Poder hacer muchas copias del mismo. +Bsicamente podramos hacer una amplificacin en el laboratorio. Y despus hacer que se auto-ensamble para dar la estructura de una batera. +Podemos hacer esto con catalizadores. +En este ejemplo de un separador cataltico de agua. +Y eso es lo que hemos podido hacer modificar el virus para que absorba molculas de tinta y ponerlas alineadas en la superficie del virus as que acta como antena. y obtenemos una transferencia de energa a travs del virus. +Y entonces le damos un segundo gen para utilizar un material inorgnico que pueda usarse para separar agua en hidrgeno y oxgeno, que puede usarse como combustible limpio. +Hoy traje conmigo este ejemplo. +Mis alumnos me prometieron que funcionara. +Estos son nano-cables ensamblados por virus. +Cuando les echamos la luz, pueden ver que hay un burbujeo. +En este caso, estn observando burbujas de oxgeno salir. +Fundamentalmente, mediante el control de los genes, podemos controlar mltiples materiales y mejorar el desempeo de sus equipos. +El ltimo ejemplo son las celdas solares. +Podemos hacer esto con celdas solares. +Hemos diseado virus que pueden tomar nanotubos de carbono y depositar una capa de dixido de titanio a su alrededor -- y usarlos para atrapar a los electrones en el aparato. +Lo que encontramos es que a travs de la ingeniera gentica, podemos, de hecho, aumentar la eficiencia de estas celdas solares hasta nmeros rcord para estos tipos de sistemas de celdas . +Traje conmigo tambin uno de estos con el que pueden jugar una vez que termine la sesin. +Esta es una celda solar generada por virus. +A travs de la evolucin y la seleccin, llevamos la celda desde una eficiencia del 8% hasta una eficiencia de 11% +Espero haberles convencido de que hay miles de cosas interesantes por aprender acerca de cmo la naturaleza fabrica materiales -- y llevarlo un paso ms adelante para aprender cmo manejar, o cmo aprovechar la manera en la que la naturaleza fabrica materiales. para crear cosas que la naturaleza ni siquiera ha soado. +Gracias. +Durante el ltimo ao y medio mi equipo de Push Pop Press con Charlie Melcher y Melcher Media hemos estado trabajando para crear el primer libro interactivo en versin integral. +Se titula "Our Choice" y el autor es Al Gore. +Es la secuela de "Una verdad incmoda" y analiza todas las soluciones para resolver la crisis climtica. +El libro comienza as. Esta es la portada. +Mientras el mundo gira podemos ver nuestra ubicacin. Entonces podemos abrir el libro y recorrer los captulos para explorar el libro. +O podemos pasar las pginas en la parte inferior. +Y si queremos ampliar la pgina simplemente la abrimos. +Y cualquier cosa que se ve en el libro puede tomarse con dos dedos, despegarlo de la pgina, y abrirlo. +Y si uno quiere ir para atrs y volver a leer el libro se le hace un pliego y se lo vuelve a poner en la pgina. +Y esto funciona de la misma manera; lo despegamos y abrimos. +Al Gore: Me considero entre la mayora que ve los molinos de viento y siente que son un complemento hermoso del paisaje. +Mike Matas: Y, as, por todo el libro, Al Gore nos va a guiar y a explicar las fotos. +Esta foto puede verse incluso en un mapa interactivo. +Agrndenla y vean dnde fue tomada. +Y por todo el libro hay ms de una hora de metraje documental y animaciones interactivas. +Probemos abrir esta. +AG: La mayor parte de los programas elicos hoy... +MM: Arranca inmediatamente. +Y durante la reproduccin podemos hacerla a un lado y volver a la pgina y la pelcula sigue reproduciendo. +O podemos ir al ndice de contenidos y el video sigue reproduciendo. +Pero una de las cosas ms geniales de este libro son las infografas interactivas. +Esta muestra el potencial elico en todo Estados Unidos. +Pero en vez de limitarse a mostrar la informacin nos permite explorar con el dedo y ver, estado por estado, cunto potencial elico hay en el lugar. +Podemos hacer lo mismo con la energa geotrmica y la energa solar. +Esta es una de mis favoritas. +Muestra... +Cuando sopla el viento toda la energa excedente que viene del molino se transfiere a la batera. +Y a medida que el viento se calma todo el excedente de energa se transfiere a la casa las luces nunca se apagan. +Y, todo el libro, no es slo para iPad +sino tambin para iPhone. +O se puede empezar a leer en el iPad en la sala de estar y luego continuar desde donde dejamos, en el iPhone. +Y funciona exactamente igual. +Podemos entrar en cualquier pgina +y abrirla. +Este es el primer ttulo de Push Pop Press "Our Choice", de Al Gore. +Gracias. +Chris Anderson: Espectacular. +Quieres ser editor, o conceder licencias tecnolgicas? +Cul es el negocio aqu? +Es algo que pueda hacer otra gente? +MM: S, estamos construyendo una herramienta que le facilite a los editores la construccin de este contenido. +El equipo de Melcher Media est en la costa Este y nosotros en la costa Oeste, construyendo el software... con nuestra herramienta todos los das ponen imgenes y texto. +CA: Entonces quieren licenciar este software para editores para hacer hermosos libros como esos? (MM: S) Muy bien. Mike, muchas gracias. +MM: Gracias. (CA: Buena suerte) +Mi nombre es Arvind Gupta y soy fabricante de juguetes. +Hace 30 aos que construyo juguetes. +En los aos 70 estaba en la universidad. +Eran tiempos bastante revolucionarios. +Podemos decir que haba un fermento poltico; los estudiantes, en las calles de Paris, se revelaban contra la autoridad. +Estados Unidos estaba sacudido por el movimiento contra Vietnam y el de los Derechos Civiles. +En la India tenamos el movimiento naxalita, el movimiento campesino. +Como sabemos, cuando la sociedad se agita polticamente, se libera mucha energa. +El movimiento nacionalista en la India es un buen testimonio. +Muchas personas renunciaron a sus puestos bien pagados y se lanzaron al movimiento nacionalista. +A principios de los 70 uno de los principales programas en la India era la revitalizacin de las ciencias en las escuelas rurales. +Hubo un personaje; Anil Sadgopal que obtuvo su doctorado en Caltech y regres como biloga molecular al instituto de investigacin de vanguardia de la India, TIFR. +A los 31, ella no poda relacionar sus investigaciones con la vida de la gente comn. +Entonces hizo unos diseos e inici un programa rural de ciencias. +Muchos se inspiraron en esto. +El tema a principios de los 70 era "Ve hacia la gente, +vive con ellos, malos. +Arranca con lo que saben. Parte de lo que tienen". +Esta idea era como una definicin. +A m me llev un ao. +Fui a trabajar a Telco, muy cerca de Pune. Fabricaba camiones Tata. +All estuve dos aos, hasta que me di cuenta que no haba nacido para hacer camiones. +A menudo uno no sabe lo que desea hacer, pero s es suficiente saber lo que no se quiere hacer. +As fue como me tom un ao libre y me fui a este programa rural de ciencias. +Fue un momento crucial. +Era un pueblo muy pequeo, con mercado semanal, en el que la gente, una vez a la semana, ponan todo a la vista. +Me dije: "Voy a quedarme aqu un ao". +Me puse a comprar una muestra de cada cosa que se venda en los andenes. +Algo que encontr fue este caucho negro. +Se llama vlvula de cmara de bicicleta. +Para inyectar aire en una bicicleta, se usa una de stas. +Y en algunos modelos, se toma una vlvula de cmara de bicicleta, le insertan dos fsforos y tenemos una unin flexible. +Una unin de tubitos. Se comienza por ensear sobre ngulos; el agudo, el recto, el obtuso, el plano. +Basta con unirlas. +Si hay tres, se las puede enlazar se forma un tringulo. +Con cuatro se hace un cuadrado, se puede hacer un pentgono o un hexgono; toda clase de polgonos +con algunas propiedades maravillosas. +Por ejemplo, al mirar un hexgono se ve como una ameba que cambia de forma constantemente. +Se puede tirar de aqu y se convierte en un rectngulo. +Si le da un empujn, se vuelve un paralelogramo. +Pero est tembloroso. +Por ejemplo, miren el pentgono. Si tiran de l, se convierte en un bote en forma de trapecio. +Si lo empujan, toma la forma de una casa. +Se convierte en un tringulo issceles, de nuevo muy tembloroso. +Este puede verse bien cuadrado y arreglado, +se le da un pequeo empujn y se vuelve un rombo. +O de forma de cometa. +Pero si le damos un tringulo a un nio, no puede hacer nada +Por qu usar tringulos? +Porque los tringulos son las nicas estructuras rgidas. +No se puede hacer un puente con cuadrados porque vendra el tren y lo sacudira. +La gente comn lo sabe; si usted va a una aldea en la India, puede que ellos no hayan ido a la universidad, pero nadie construye el techo as. +Es que si le ponen tejas encima, simplemente se derrumba. +Siempre hacen los techos triangulares. +Esto es ciencia popular. +Si se perfora un agujero aqu y se le pone un fsforo, se obtiene una unin en T. +Y si se colocan otros tres lados en los tres vrtices del tringulo, tendremos un tetraedro. +As se hacen figuras en 3D. +Se hace un tetraedro como ste. +Y ya hecho se hace una casita. +Le ponen esto encima. +Se puede hacer una unin de cuatro. O de seis. +Se necesitan cantidades. +Ahora esto. Se hace una unin de seis y queda un icosaedro. +Se puede jugar con esto. +As se hace un igl. +Esto era en 1978. +Yo era un joven ingeniero de 24 aos +cuando pens que esto era mucho mejor que hacer camiones. +Y si ahora se le meten cuatro bolitas se tiene una simulacin de la estructura del metano, CH4. +Cuatro tomos de hidrgeno en las 4 puntas del tetraedro y en el centro uno de carbono. +Desde entonces pienso que he sido realmente afortunado por ir a 2.000 escuelas de mi pas; escuelas rurales, oficiales, municipales, exclusivas. Me han invitado a la mayora. +Cada vez que voy a una escuela, veo el brillo en los ojos de los nios. +Veo esperanza. Veo felicidad en sus caritas. +A los nios les gusta hacer cosas, quieren construir. +Ahora, hacemos cantidades de bombas. +Esta es una bomba pequea con la que se puede inflar un globo. +Es de verdad. Se puede reventar el globo. +Y tenemos un lema: "lo mejor que un nio puede hacer con un juguete, es romperlo". +As, todo lo que hacemos, es una afirmacin muy provocativa, esta cmara de bicicleta y este pico de plstico, Pongo el pico en una vieja cmara de bicicleta. +Y as se hace una vlvula. +Se le pone un poco de cinta adhesiva +Es de una sola va. +Se pueden hacer muchsimas bombas. +Y esta es otra; se toma un pitillo, se le mete un palito, se hacen dos medios cortes. +Esto es lo que hay que hacer... se doblan ambos lados para formar un tringulo y se cubre alrededor con cinta. +Esta es la bomba. +Ahora, si tenemos esta bomba; es como un rociador bien grande. +Como una centrfuga. +Si se hace girar algo, tiende a salir volando. +Es decir, si est [confuso]. se hace esto con una hoja de palma. +Muchos de los juguetes tradicionales se basan en principios cientficos. +Si hago girar algo, tiende a salir volando. +Si lo hago con las dos manos; esto es divertido, Seor Volador. +Correcto. +Este es un juguete hecho de papel. Sorprendente. +Hay cuatro dibujos. +Se ven insectos. Se ven ranas, culebras, guilas, mariposas, ranas, culebras, guilas. +Un papel que se puede [confuso], diseado por un matemtico de Harvard, en 1928. Arthur Stone, mencionado por Martin Gardner en varios de sus libros. +Esto es divertido para las nios. +Ellos aprenden sobre la cadena alimenticia. +Las ranas se comen a los insectos, las culebras se comen a las ranas, las guilas se comen a las culebras. +Esto puede ser... si se tiene papel de fotocopias, papel tamao A4, podemos estar en una escuela municipal o del gobierno... un papel, una bscula y un lpiz. No se necesita pegamento ni tijeras. +En tres minutos, simplemente lo dobla. +Y los usos solo estn limitados por la imaginacin. +Si el papel es pequeo, se obtiene un flexgono pequeo. +Si es ms grande, se obtiene uno mayor. +Ahora, este es un lpiz con unas pocas ranuras. +Se le coloca un pequeo ventilador. +Este es un juguete de ms de cien aos. +Ha habido seis artculos de investigacin importantes, sobre esto. +Hay unas ranuras aqu, se pueden ver. +Si tomo una lengeta y la froto, sucede algo sorprendente. +Seis artculos de investigacin, importantes. +En verdad, Feynman de nio, estaba fascinado con esto. +Escribi un artculo al respecto. +No se necesita un Colisionador de Hadrones de tres mil millones para hacerlo. Ah est para todos los nios, todos pueden disfrutarlo. +Si le ponemos un disco coloreado, los siete colores se funden. +De esto hablaba Newton hace 400 aos, que la luz blanca est compuesta de siete colores... simplemente la hacemos girar. +Este es un pitillo. +Lo que hice fue sellar los dos extremos con cinta, y cortar en la esquina derecha y en la inferior izquierda. Quedaron agujeros en las esquinas opuestas. Hay otro huequito aqu... +Esto es como un pitillo para soplar. +Si le meto esto... +Hay un hueco aqu, y lo cierro. +Hacerlo cuesta muy poco. Bien divertido que los chicos lo hagan. +Lo que hacemos es un motor elctrico bien sencillo. +Bueno, este es el motor ms sencillo del mundo. +Lo que ms cuesta es la batera interna. +Si ya se tiene la batera, cuesta cinco centavos hacerlo. +Esta es una vieja cmara de bicicleta, que nos da una banda elstica ancha, dos ganchos imperdibles. +Este es un imn permanente. +Si la corriente fluye por la bobina, se convierte en un electroimn. +La interaccin entre estos dos imanes es lo que hace girar al motor. +Hicimos 30 mil. +Los maestros vienen enseando esto desde siempre, simplemente memorizan la definicin y la repiten. +Si los maestros lo hacen, los nios lo hacen. +Puede verse el brillo en sus ojos. +Se emocionan sobre lo que es la ciencia. +Y esta ciencia no es un juego de ricos. +En un pas democrtico la ciencia tiene que llegarle a los ms oprimidos, a los chicos ms marginados. +El programa comenz en 16 escuelas y se difundi a 1.500 escuelas oficiales. +Ms de 100 mil nios aprenden ciencias as. +Y solo estamos explorando posibilidades. +Miren, esto es un tetrapak; materiales horribles desde el punto de vista ambiental. +Son seis capas -tres de plstico, aluminio- selladas entre s. +Se han fundido para que no se puedan separar. +Ahora podemos hacer una pequea red y los doblamos y empalmamos y tenemos un icosaedro. +As, algo que es basura, algo que atraganta a las aves marinas, puede reciclarse en una cosa muy, muy divertida. Los slidos de Platn pueden armarse con objetos como stos. +Esto es un pitillo, ahora le cortamos las esquinas as, y se convierte en la boca de un beb cocodrilo. +Si se lo pone en la boca y sopla... +Como dicen, "delicias de los chicos, envidias de los maestros". +No se puede ver como se produce el sonido, porque lo que vibra est dentro de mi boca. +Voy a dejarlo afuera, para soplar. Voy a aspirar aire. +As, nadie necesita simular la produccin del sonido con vibraciones de alambres. +Slo sigue soplando, sigue haciendo sonido, y sigue cortando. +Y sucede algo muy lindo. +Y si tienen uno muy pequeo. Estas son cosas que nos ensean los chicos. Tambin se puede hacer esto. +Pero antes de continuar, esto es algo que hay que compartir. +Esta es una tableta tctil para nios ciegos. +Y estas son tiras de velcro. Aqu, mi tableta para dibujar, y mi pluma, que es bsicamente una caja de pelcula, +esencialmente, como una tanza de pescador, una lnea de pescar. +Y esto aqu, es lana. +Si giro la manivela, toda la lana se introduce. +Y lo que un nio ciego puede hacer es simplemente dibujar as. +La lana se pega al velcro. +Hay 12 millones de nios ciegos en mi pas que viven en completa oscuridad. +Y esto les ha sido de gran ayuda. +Hay un fbrica all, que hace que los nios ciegos... no los puede alimentar, no les puede dar vitamina A... +Pero esto es una gran ayuda para ellos. +No hay patentes. Cualquiera puede hacerlo. +Es muy, muy sencillo. +Vean esto; es un generador. Un generador a manivela. +Tiene dos imanes. +Aqu hay una polea grande, hecha de caucho entre dos CD. +Una pequea polea y dos imanes bien fuertes. +Esta fibra hace girar el alambre, unido a un LED. +Si hago girar esta polea, la pequea va a moverse ms rpido. +Se crea un campo magntico rotatorio. +Obviamente, se cortan las lneas y se genera la fuerza. +Y se puede ver que se enciende el LED. +As, este es un generador a manivela. +Bueno, aqu, de nuevo, Este es solo un anillo de acero, con tuercas de acero. +Lo que podemos hacer simplemente, se le dan unas vueltas y contina girando. +Imagnense un grupo de chicos en crculo esperando a pasarse el anillo de acero. +Estarn absolutamente felices con este juego. +Para terminar, lo que podemos hacer es usar unos cuantos peridicos para hacer gorros. +Esto es digno de Sachin Tendulkar. +Es un buen gorro para crquet Si se acuerdan de Nehru... y de Gandhi... este es el gorro de Nehru, simplemente medio peridico. +Hacemos cantidades de juguetes con peridico y este es solo uno de ellos. +Esto es, como pueden ver, un pjaro aleteando. +Todos los peridicos viejos, los cortamos en cuadritos. +Y si Ud. tiene una de estas aves... Los nios japoneses las hacen desde hace muchsimo tiempo. +Como pueden ver, este es un pjaro fantail. +Bueno, para terminar, voy a contarles un cuento. +Se llama "La historia del sombreo del capitn". +Haba un capitn de barco en el mar. +Era bastante lento. +En el barco iban muchos pasajeros, que estaban aburridos, por lo que el capitn los invit a la cubierta. +"Vstanse con ropas coloridas, canten y bailen y yo les brindar de comer y de beber". +El capitn se pona un gorro cada da y se una a la fiesta. +El primer da fue con un gran sombrero de paraguas, como gorro del capitn. +Esa noche, cuando los pasajeros dorman, le hizo un doblez ms, y el segundo da tena un gorro de bombero, con una aleta de sombrero de marca para protegerse la columna. +La segunda noche, tom el mismo gorro y le hizo otro doblez. +Y el tercer da us un sombreo de safari, como casco de explorador. +La tercera noche le hizo dos dobleces ms, este es un gorro muy, muy famoso, +como se ha visto en ciertos de nuestros films de Bollywood... el que usa el polica; se llama el gorro zapalu, +que se ha lanzado a las glorias internacionales. +No hay que olvidar que l era el capitn del barco. +Y aqu est el barco. +Y ya como final, todos estaban disfrutando mucho el viaje; +cantaban y bailaban. +De pronto hubo una tormenta y olas enormes. +El barco no poda hacer nada ms que bailar con las olas. +Lleg una ola inmensa y le dio en la punta y se la tumb. +Luego lleg otra y lo golpe por la parte de atrs y se la arranc. +Y una tercera por ac +que se devor el puente y lo derrib. +Y el barco se fue a pique. Y el capitn lo perdi todo, menos un chaleco salvavidas. +Muchas gracias. +Phyllis Rodriguez: Estamos aqu hoy debido a algo que la mayora de la gente considera como una amistad inusual. +Y lo es. +Y, sin embargo, para nosotras ahora es natural. +Primero me enter que mi hijo haba estado en el World Trade Center la maana del 11 de septiembre de 2001. +No supimos todava si haba perecido sino hasta 36 horas despus. +Al mismo tiempo supimos que era algo poltico. +Temamos por lo que hara nuestro gobierno en nombre de nuestro hijo -mi esposo, Orlando, nuestra familia y yo. +Y cuando lo vi an ante el impacto, el impacto terrible, y la terrible explosin en nuestras vidas, literalmente, no queramos venganza. +Y un par de semanas despus cuando Zacharias Moussaoui fue acusado de 6 cargos de conspiracin para cometer actos de terrorismo ante el pedido de pena de muerte del gobierno de EE.UU. para l, de ser culpable, mi esposo y yo hicimos pblica nuestra oposicin a eso. +A travs de eso, y de grupos de Derechos Humanos, nos pusimos en contacto con varias familias de otras vctimas. +Cuand vi a Aicha en los medios cuando su hijo fue acusado pens: "Qu mujer valiente! +Algn da, cuando est ms fuerte, quiero conocer a esa mujer". +Todava senta un profundo dolor; saba que no tena las fuerzas. +Saba que la encontrara algn da, o que nos encontraramos. +Porque cuando las personas supieron que mi hijo era una vctima de inmediato recib solidaridad. +Pero cuando supieron de lo que se acusaba a su hijo ella no tuvo esa solidaridad. +Pero su sufrimiento es igual al mo. +Nos conocimos en noviembre de 2002. Y Aicha les va a contar ahora la forma en que sucedi. +Aicha el-Wafi: Buenas tardes, seoras y seores. +Soy la madre de Zacaras Moussaoui. +Y le ped a la organizacin de Derechos Humanos que me pusiera en contacto con los padres de las vctimas. +Ellos me presentaron a 5 familias. +Vi a Phyllis; yo la miraba. +Ella era la nica madre del grupo. +Los otros eran hermanos, hermanas. +Y vi en sus ojos que ella era una madre, como yo. +Como madre sufr mucho. +Me cas a los 14 aos. +Perd un hijo a los 15 aos y un segundo hijo a los 16 aos. +Por eso la historia de Zacharias era demasiado, realmente. +Y todava sufro porque mi hijo es como si estuviera enterrado vivo. +S que ella realmente llora por su hijo. +Pero ella sabe dnde est l. +Mi hijo, no s dnde est. +No s si est vivo. No s si lo torturaron. +No s qu pas con l. +Por eso decid contar mi historia para que mi sufrimiento sirva positivamente a otras mujeres. +Todas las mujeres, las madres al dar vida, podemos devolver, podemos cambiar. +Depende de nosotras, porque somos mujeres, porque amamos a nuestros hijos. +Tenemos que estar mano a mano y hacer algo todas juntas. +No es contra las mujeres es por nosotras, mujeres, por nuestros hijos. +Yo hablo contra de la violencia, contra el terrorismo. +Voy a las escuelas a hablarles a las chicas jvenes musulmanas para que no acepten casarse muy jvenes contra su voluntad. +Si puedo salvar a una de las chicas jvenes y evitar que se case y sufra lo que yo sufr bueno, eso est bien. +Es por eso que estoy frente a Uds. +Pero estbamos todos muy nerviosos. +Por qu nos quera conocer? +Ella estaba nerviosa. +Por qu queramos conocerla? +Qu queramos los unos de los otros? +Antes de conocer nuestros nombres, o cualquier cosa, nos abrazamos y lloramos. +Luego nos sentamos en crculo con asistencia, con ayuda, con gente experimentada en este tipo de reconciliaciones. +Y Aicha empez diciendo: "No s si mi hijo es culpable o inocente, pero quiero decirles cunto siento lo que les ha pasado a sus familias. +Yo s lo que es sufrir y siento que, si hay un crimen, alguien debera tener un juicio justo y ser castigado". +Se acerc a nosotros de esa manera. Lo logr, debo decir, logr romper el hielo. +Lo que sucedi fue que cada uno cont su historia y todos nos conectamos como seres humanos. +Para el final de la tarde -unas tres horas despus del almuerzo- era como si nos conociramos desde siempre. +Y aprend de ella que es una mujer, no slo que puede ser tan generosa bajo las circunstancias actuales y las de entonces, y lo que le ocurri a su hijo, sino la vida que ha tenido. +Nunca haba conocido a alguien con una vida tan difcil de una cultura y un entorno tan diferentes a los mos. +Y siento que tenemos una conexin especial que aprecio mucho. +Y creo que todo se trata de temer al otro pero dar ese paso y darse cuenta: "Oye, esto no era tan difcil. +A quin ms puedo conocer que no conozco o que sea tan diferente de m?" +Entonces, Aicha, tienes algunas palabras para concluir? +Porque se nos acaba el tiempo. +AW: Quera decir que tenemos que tratar de conocer a otra gente, al otro. +Uno tiene que ser generoso, tener el corazn generoso, la mente generosa. +Uno debe ser tolerante. +Uno tiene que luchar contra la violencia. +Y espero que algn da vivamos todos juntos en paz y respetndonos unos a otros. +Eso es lo que quera decir. +Como diseadora de moda siempre sola pensar los materiales de este modo, o as, o tal vez as. +Pero despus conoc a un bilogo y ahora pienso los materiales de este modo: t verde, azcar, algunos microbios y un poco de tiempo. +Bsicamente, uso una receta a base de kombucha que es una simbiosis de bacterias, levadura y otros microorganismos que producen celulosa en un proceso de fermentacin. +Con el tiempo, estos diminutos filamentos forman capas en el lquido y producen una capa en la superficie. +Empiezo preparando el t. +Preparo unos 30 litros a la vez, y mientras an est caliente, aado un par de kilos de azcar. +Revolvemos hasta que est completamente disuelta y luego lo vertemos en una tina de cultivo. +Tenemos que verificar que la temperatura est por debajo de los 30C. +En ese punto podemos agregar los organismos vivos. +Y junto con eso, algo de cido actico. +Y una vez que el proceso est en rgimen puede reciclarse el lquido fermentado previamente. +Tenemos que mantener una temperatura ptima para el crecimiento. +Yo uso una manta trmica debajo de la tina y un termostato para regular la temperatura. +En realidad, en agua caliente, se puede hacer todo en el exterior. +Esta es mi mini fbrica de tejido. +En unos 3 das aparecern las burbujas en la superficie del lquido. +Esto nos indica que la fermentacin va a toda marcha. +Y que las bacterias se estn nutriendo de los azcares del lquido. +Estn produciendo diminutas nano fibras de celulosa pura. +Y se estn aglutinando, formando capas, produciendo una lmina en la superficie. +Luego de unas 2 3 semanas tenemos una capa de unos 3 cms de espesor. +A la izquierda se ve una tina despus de 5 das y a la derecha, despus de 10. +Es un cultivo esttico. +No hay que hacerle nada; slo hay que verlo crecer. +No necesita luz. +Y cuando est listo para la cosecha, se lo saca de la tina y se lo lava con agua fra y jabn. +En este momento es muy pesada. +Tiene ms de un 90% de agua, que hay que evaporar. +Por eso la extiendo en una tabla de madera. +De nuevo, pueden hacerlo afuera y dejarla secar al aire libre. +A medida que se seca, se comprime por eso lo que queda, segn la receta, es algo que o bien se parece a un papel transparente, muy liviano, o bien a algo mucho ms parecido a un cuero vegetal flexible. +Y luego se la puede cortar y coser como de costumbre o se puede usar el material hmedo para modelarlo en forma tridimensional. +Y mientras se evapora se va entretejiendo hasta formar costuras. +El color en esta chaqueta viene exclusivamente del t verde. +Supongo que tambin se parece un poco a la piel humana; algo intrigante. +Dado que es orgnica me interesa mucho tratar de minimizar el agregado de qumicos. +Puedo cambiarle el color sin usar tinturas con un proceso de oxidacin ferrosa. +Usando una coloracin de frutas y vegetales pueden crearse motivos naturales. +Y usando el ail la hacemos anti-microbiana. +De hecho, para lograr un color as de oscuro hay que sumergir el algodn 18 veces en ail. +Gracias a la sper absorcin de este tipo de celulosa con slo una exposicin muy breve es suficiente. +Lo que todava no logro es hacerla impermeable. +As, si hoy me fuera a caminar bajo la lluvia con este vestido de inmediato comenzara a absorber enorme cantidad de agua. +El vestido se tornara muy pesado y al final las costuras probablemente se rasgaran dejndome prcticamente desnuda. +Quiz sea una buena performance artstica pero, seguro, no va a ser algo para todos los das. +Lo que yo busco es una manera de darle al material las cualidades que necesito. +Quiero decirle a un futuro microbio: "Hlame un filamento. +Alinalo en esta direccin. +Hazlo hidrfobo. +Y ya que ests en eso moldalo en torno a esta forma 3D". +La celulosa bacteriana en realidad ya se est usando en la cicatrizacin de heridas, y posiblemente en el futuro en vasos sanguneos biocompatibles e incluso tal vez en tejido seo de reemplazo. +Con la biologa sinttica en realidad podemos pensar la manipulacin de esta bacteria para producir algo que nos d calidad cantidad y forma del material que deseamos. +Obviamente, como diseadora, es muy emocionante. Porque entonces empiezo a pensar que podramos imaginar el cultivo de productos de consumo. +Y lo que me entusiasma de usar microbios es su eficiencia. +Cultivamos slo lo que necesitamos. +No hay desperdicio. +De hecho, podramos hacerlo todo con desechos; por ejemplo con desechos de azcar de una planta de procesamiento de alimentos. +Y al final, una vez usados, podramos biodegradarlos naturalmente junto con las cscaras de vegetales. +No estoy sugiriendo que la celulosa microbiana vaya a reemplazar al algodn, el cuero u otros materiales textiles. +Pero s creo que podra ser un complemento muy inteligente y sostenible para nuestros recursos naturales cada vez ms preciados. +Al final, quiz ni siquiera sea la moda el lugar destacado de estos microbios. +Podramos, por ejemplo, imaginar el cultivo de una lmpara, una silla, un auto o hasta una casa. +Entonces lo que quiero preguntarles es: en el futuro, qu decidiran cultivar? +Muchas gracias. +Bruno Giussani: Suzanne, brevemente, Lo que llevas puesto no es casualidad. (Suzanne Lee: No) Es una de las chaquetas que cultivaste? +SL: S, as es. +Probablemente es parte del proyecto en curso porque sta en realidad se est biodegradando frente a Uds. +Est absorbiendo mi sudor, se est alimentando con eso. +BG: Bueno, te dejar ir a salvarlo, a que lo rescates. +Suzanne Lee. (SL: Gracias) +El Universo es realmente grande. +Vivimos en una galaxia, la Va Lctea. +Hay unas cien mil millones de estrellas en la Va Lctea. +Y si toman sus cmaras y las enfocan hacia cualquier parte del firmamento y dejan el obturador abierto, siempre que la cmara est atada al Telescopio espacial Hubble, se ver algo como esto. +Cada una de estas pequeas gotas es una galaxia aproximadamente del mismo tamao de la Va Lctea; cien mil millones de estrellas en cada una de esas gotas. +Hay unas cien mil millones de galaxias en el Universo observable. +Cien mil millones es el nico nmero que hay que saber. +La edad del Universo, desde el Big Bang hasta ahora, es como cien mil millones de aos caninos. +Esto nos dice algo sobre nuestro lugar en el Universo. +Algo que podemos hacer con una foto como sta, es simplemente admirarla. +Es en extremo hermosa. +A menudo me pregunto, cul sera la presin evolutiva que hizo que nuestros antepasados en las praderas africanas se adaptaran y evolucionaran hasta llegar a disfrutar las fotos de las galaxias cuando an no tenan ninguna? +Nos encantara entenderlo. +Como cosmlogo, quisiera preguntar por qu el Universo es como es? +Un gran indicio que tenemos es que con el tiempo, el Universo ha ido cambiando. +Si miramos una de estas galaxias y medimos su velocidad, vemos que se aleja de nosotros. +Y si miramos otra galaxia ms lejana an, se ve moverse ms rpido. +As, decimos que el Universo est un expansin. +Esto quiere decir, desde luego, que en el pasado, las cosas estaban ms cerca. +En el pasado, el Universo era ms denso y tambin ms caliente. +Si las cosas se comprimen, se eleva la temperatura. +Eso tiene sentido. +Lo que no parece tener tanto sentido es que el Universo, en su inicio, cerca al Big Bang, era tambin muy, muy homogneo. +Podra pensarse que esto no es sorpresivo. +El aire en esta sala es bien homogneo. +Podra decirse, "bueno, quiz las cosas se homogeneizaron solas". +Pero las condiciones cercanas al Big Bang eran muy, muy diferentes de las del aire de esta sala. +En especial, todo era mucho ms denso. +La fuerza de la gravedad era mucho ms fuerte cerca al Big Bang. +Lo que hay que pensar es que tenemos un Universo con cien mil millones de galaxias, de cien mil millones de estrellas cada una. +En el principio esas cien mil millones de galaxias estaban concentradas en una regin de este tamao, literalmente, en los tiempos iniciales. +Imagnense Uds produciendo esa compactacin, sin imperfecciones, sin ningn punto con unos pocos tomos de ms que en otros lugares. +Porque si lo hubiera habido, habra colapsado por la fuerza gravitatoria para volverse un enorme agujero negro. +Conservar el Universo bien homogneo en etapas tempranas, no es fcil; es un arreglo delicado. +Es un indicio de que el Universo primitivo no se elige al azar. +Hay algo que lo hizo as. +Quisiramos saber qu fue. +En parte lo que sabemos sobre esto se lo debemos a Ludwig Boltzmann, un fsico austraco del siglo XIX. +Boltzmann ayud a entender la entropa. +Habrn odo de la entropa. +Es la aleatoridad, el desorden, el caos de un sistema. +Boltzmann nos dio una frmula, ahora grabada en su tumba, que cuantifica la entropa. +Bsicamente, es como decir que la entropa es la cantidad de formas en que pueden organizarse las partes de un sistema, sin que se note, o sea, que macroscpicamente se vea igual. +En el aire de este saln, no se nota cada tomo en forma individual. +Una configuracin de baja entropa es aquella que tiene pocas maneras de lograrlo. +Una configuracin de alta entropa es aquella en la que hay muchas maneras de hacerlo. +Esta es una idea muy importante, porque nos ayuda a entender la segunda ley de la termodinmica; la que dice que la entropa aumenta en el Universo o en partes aisladas del Universo. +La razn por la que aumenta la entropa es simplemente porque hay muchas ms formas de tener alta entropa, que de tenerla baja. +Una idea estupenda. pero deja algo por fuera. +A propsito, esta idea de que la entropa crece, es el fundamento de lo que llamamos la flecha del tiempo, la diferencia entre el pasado y el futuro. +Todas las diferencias que hay entre el pasado y el futuro se deben al aumento de la entropa; lo cual hace que podamos recordar el pasado, pero no el futuro. +Que nacemos, luego vivimos y despus morimos, siempre en ese orden, se debe a que la entropa va en aumento. +Boltzmann explicaba que si se empieza con baja entropa, es muy natural que sta aumente, porque hay ms maneras de tener alta entropa. +Lo que l nunca dijo es, por qu la entropa era tan baja al principio. +Que la entropa del Universo fuese baja es otra manera de decir que el Universo era muy, muy homogneo. +Nos gustara entender esto. +Esa es nuestra tarea como cosmlogos. +Desafortunadamente, este no es un problema al que le hayamos dedicado suficiente atencin. +No es una de las primeras respuestas que contestara un cosmlogo moderno, a la pregunta: "Cules son los problemas que estn abordando?" +Uno de los que s entendi que ah haba un problema fue Richard Feynman. +Hace 50 aos que dio unas cuantas conferencias. +Dict las conocidas charlas denominadas "El carcter de la ley fsica". +Dio clases a los estudiantes de pregrado de Caltech que luego se llamaron "Clases de fsica de Feynman". +Dict clases a los estudiantes graduados de Caltech que se volvieron "Clases de gravitacin de Feynman". +En todos sus libros, en todas esas series, l haca hincapi en el enigma: por qu el Universo temprano tena tan baja entropa? +El deca (no voy a imitar su acento) "Por alguna razn el Universo en ese tiempo, tena baja entropa para su contenido de energa y desde entonces la entropa ha venido creciendo. +No es posible entender completamente la flecha del tiempo sin antes descubrir el misterio del comienzo del Universo, avanzando de la especulacin a la comprensin". +Y ese es nuestro trabajo. +Queremos conocerlo --esto fue hace 50 aos, "S, claro", pensarn Uds. "pensbamos que estaba resuelto" +Pero no es cierto que ya est resuelto. +La razn por la que el problema se ha complicado, en lugar de mejorarse, es porque en 1998 se descubri algo crucial sobre el Universo, que antes no se saba. +Se supo que est acelerndose. +El Universo no slo se est expandiendo. +Si miramos una galaxia, se est alejando. +Y si volvemos a mirar mil millones de aos despus, la veremos moverse ms rpido. +Las galaxias, individualmente, se aceleran alejndose cada vez ms rpido. Por eso decimos que el Universo se est acelerando. +A diferencia de la baja entropa del Universo temprano, aunque no sabemos la respuesta, al menos tenemos una buena teora para explicarlo, esperemos sea la correcta, es la teora de la energa oscura. +Es la idea que dice que el espacio vaco tiene energa. +En cada pequeo centmetro cbico de espacio, haya o no algo ah, haya o no partculas, materia, radiacin o lo que sea, de todas formas hay energa en el espacio mismo. +Y, segn Einstein, esta energa ejerce presin sobre el Universo. +Un impulso perpetuo que hace alejar las galaxias, unas de otras. +Porque la energa oscura, a diferencia de la materia o la radiacin, no se diluye con la expansin del Universo. +La cantidad de energa en cada centmetro cbico permanece igual, aunque el Universo se haga cada vez ms grande. +Esto tiene unas implicaciones cruciales en el futuro del Universo. +En primer lugar, el Universo siempre continuar expandindose. +Cuando yo tena la edad de ustedes, no sabamos lo que iba a pasar con el Universo. +Algunos pensaban que en el futuro volvera a colapsar. +Einstein crea eso. +Pero si existe la energa oscura y sta no desaparece, el Universo continuar expandindose eternamente. +14 mil millones de aos en el pasado, 100 mil millones de aos caninos, una cantidad infinita de aos hacia el futuro. +Entre tanto, desde todo punto de vista, vemos el espacio como finito. +Puede ser finito o infinito, pero como el Universo se est acelerando, hay partes que no podemos ver y nunca veremos. +Hay una regin finita del espacio a la cual podemos acceder, limitada por un horizonte. +As, aunque el tiempo contine para siempre, el espacio, para nosotros, es limitado. +Finalmente, el espacio vaco tiene una temperatura. +En la dcada del 70, Stephen Hawking dijo que un agujero negro, aunque se crea que es negro, en realidad emite radiacin, de acuerdo con la mecnica cuntica. +La curvatura del espacio-tiempo cerca de un agujero negro hace realidad las fluctuaciones mecnico-cunticas, y el agujero negro emite radiacin. +Unos clculos similares, muy precisos, de Hawking y Gary Gibbons, demostraron que si se tiene energa oscura en el espacio vaco, el Universo entero emite radiacin. +La energa del espacio vaco hace realidad las fluctuaciones cunticas. +Y aunque el Universo dure eternamente y la materia comn y la radiacin se diluyan, siempre habr algo de radiacin, algunas fluctuaciones trmicas, an en el espacio vaco. +Lo que quiero decir es que el Universo es como una caja llena de gas que durar eternamente. +Y eso qu consecuencia tiene? +Boltzmann estudi la consecuencia en el siglo XIX. +l dijo que la entropa aumenta porque hay muchas ms formas que el Universo tenga alta entropa, a que la tenga baja. +Pero esta es una afirmacin probabilstica. +Se espera que siga aumentando con una probabilidad enormemente grande. +No hay por qu preocuparse porque el aire en esta sala se concentre en una pequea parte y nos asfixiemos. +Es muy, muy poco probable. +Salvo que cerraran las puertas y nos mantuvieran aqu, literalmente para siempre, as s podra suceder. +Todo lo que es permitido, toda configuracin permitida para las molculas en este saln, eventualmente podra ocurrir. +Boltzmann dice que podramos comenzar con un Universo en equilibrio trmico. +l no saba nada del Big Bang, ni de la expansin del Universo. +l pensaba que el espacio y el tiempo, como lo explic Isaac Newton, eran absolutos y que as continuaran eternamente. +Su idea de un Universo natural era tal que las molculas de aire se esparcan uniformemente por todas partes, molculas de todo. +Pero si usted fuera Boltzmann, sabra que si espera lo suficiente, las fluctuaciones aleatorias de esas molculas eventualmente las llevarn a configuraciones de entropa menor. +Y entonces, en el curso natural de las cosas, se expandirn nuevamente. +O sea, no es que la entropa siempre aumente; pueden tenerse fluctuaciones de menor entropa, situaciones ms organizadas. +Y si esto es cierto, Boltzmann habra inventado dos ideas que hoy suenan muy modernas; el multiverso y el principio antrpico. +l deca que el problema del equilibrio trmico es que no podemos vivir en l. +Recuerden que la vida misma depende de la flecha del tiempo. +No podramos procesar informacin, metabolizar, caminar o hablar si viviramos en equilibrio trmico. +Imagnense ahora un Universo muy, muy grande, infinitamente grande, con partculas que se chocan al azar; ocasionalmente habr pequeas fluctuaciones con estados de baja entropa para luego volver al estado de distensin. +Pero tambin habr grandes fluctuaciones. +Ocasionalmente surgir un planeta o una estrella, o una galaxia, o cien mil millones de galaxias. +Y Boltzmann dice que solamente viviremos en esta parte del multiverso, en esta parte del conjunto infinitamente grande de partculas que fluctan, donde es posible la vida. +Esa es la regin de baja entropa. +Puede que nuestro Universo sea una de esas cosas que suceden cada tanto. +Ahora viene la tarea para Uds.; hay que pensar en esto, pensar qu significa. +Carl Sagan dijo una vez: "para hacer un pastel de manzana, primero hay que inventar el Universo". +Pero no es correcto. +En el escenario de Boltzmann, si quieres hacer un pastel de manzana, slo hay que esperar a que los movimientos aleatorios de los tomos te hagan el pastel. +Eso suceder con frecuencia mucho mayor a que los movimientos aleatorios de los tomos generen una huerta de manzanos azcar, un horno y luego hagan el pastel de manzana. +Este escenario hace predicciones. +Y esas predicciones dicen que las fluctuaciones que nos generan a nosotros, son mnimas. +La buena noticia es que, como consecuencia, ese escenario no se da; no es correcto. +El escenario predice que somos una mnima fluctuacin. +Aunque dejramos por fuera nuestra galaxia, no llegaramos a tener cien mil millones de otras galaxias. +Y Feynman tambin entenda esto. +l dijo: "Por la hiptesis de que el mundo es una fluctuacin, las predicciones dicen que si miramos una parte del mundo que nunca antes habamos visto, la encontraremos toda revuelta, ms que cualquiera que vimos antes; con mayor entropa. +Si nuestro orden se debe a una fluctuacin, no podemos esperar orden en todas partes, slo en donde lo acabamos de encontrar. +Por consiguiente, concluimos que el Universo no es una fluctuacin". +Eso est bien. La pregunta es entonces: Cul ser la respuesta? +Si el Universo no es una fluctuacin, por qu razn el Universo temprano tiene baja entropa? +Me encantara poder darles la respuesta, pero se me est acabando el tiempo. +Aqu est el Universo del que hablbamos, frente al que existe en realidad. +Ya les haba mostrado esta grfica. +El Universo se viene expandiendo desde hace unos 10 mil millones de aos. +Se viene enfriando. +Pero ahora sabemos lo suficiente sobre el futuro del Universo, dicho ambiciosamente. +Si la energa oscura permanece a nuestro alrededor, las estrellas que nos rodean usarn todo su combustible nuclear y dejarn de alumbrar. +Se reducirn a agujeros negros. +Viviremos en un Universo sin nada, slo agujeros negros. +Ese Universo habr de durar 10 elevado a la 100 aos; mucho ms de lo que ha vivido hasta ahora. +El futuro es mucho ms largo que el pasado. +Pero an los agujeros negros no duran para siempre. +Se evaporan y quedaremos sin nada, slo espacio vaco. +Ese espacio vaco, esencialmente ha de durar eternamente. +Sin embargo, fjense que como ese espacio vaco emite radiacin, habr fluctuaciones trmicas y se reciclarn las distintas combinaciones posibles de los grados de libertad que existan en el espacio vaco. +As que aunque el Universo ha de durar para siempre, slo habr un nmero finito de cosas que pueden suceder en l. +Y todas ellas han de suceder en un perodo de tiempo igual a 10 elevado a la 10, elevado a la 120, aos. +Y ahora hay dos preguntas para ustedes. +La primera: Si el Universo durar 10 elevado a la 10, elevado a la 120, aos, por qu razn nacimos en los primeros 14 mil millones de aos, pasado el Big Bang, en un momento clido y confortable, +Por qu no estamos en el espacio vaco? +Dirn ustedes, "es que no hay nada ah para vivir". Pero eso no es correcto. +Podramos ser una fluctuacin aleatoria de esa nada. +Por qu no lo somos? +Otra tarea para el hogar. +Cmo ya dije: no s la respuesta. +Pero voy a darles mi escenario favorito. +Puede que as sea. Pero no hay explicacin. +Son datos fros sobre el Universo que toca aceptar sin hacer preguntas. +Puede ser que el Big Bang no sea el principio del Universo. +Un huevo sin abrir es una configuracin de baja entropa y an as, al abrir el refrigerador no decimos, "Aj!, qu sorpresa encontrar esta configuracin de baja entropa en mi refrigerador". +Esto es porque el huevo no es un sistema cerrado; viene de una gallina. +Es posible que el Universo venga de una gallina universal. +Puede ser que exista algo que, de manera natural, segn el desarrollo de las leyes de la fsica, le d origen a un Universo como el nuestro, con una configuracin de baja entropa. +Si es as, esto habra de suceder ms de una vez; seramos parte de un multiverso mucho ms grande. +Este es mi escenario favorito. +Pero los organizadores me pidieron que terminara con una especulacin atrevida. +Mi especulacin audaz es que la historia me dar la razn totalmente. +Y dentro de 50 aos, todas mis ideas extravagantes sern aceptadas como verdaderas por la comunidad cientfica y por todo el mundo. +Todos aceptaremos que nuestro pequeo Universo es slo una pequea parte de un multiverso mucho mayor. +Y an mejor, entenderemos lo que sucedi en el Big Bang en funcin de una teora que podremos comparar con observaciones. +Esta es mi prediccin. Puedo estar equivocado. +Pero la especie humana ha venido pensando por muchos, muchos aos, sobre cmo es el Universo y por qu surgi de esta forma. +Es emocionante pensar que finalmente podemos conocer la respuesta. +Gracias. +Es fantstico estar aqu en TED. +Creo que muchas presentaciones me podran venir a la cabeza, no obstante, los conceptos ms asombrosos son los que me pasan exactamente por debajo de los pies. +Las pequeas cosas de la vida, de las que a veces nos olvidamos, y que damos por sentado como la polinizacin. +Y no se puede explicar la historia de los polinizadores - las abejas, murcilagos, colibres, mariposas - sin contar la historia de la invencin de las flores y como fueron coevolucionado durante ms de 50 millones de aos. +He filmado flores en periodos de 24 horas al da, 7 das a la semana, durante ms de 35 aos. +Para observar su movimiento es un baile del que nunca me cansar. +Esto me llena de asombro y me abre el corazn. +La belleza y la seduccin, creo, son herramientas de la naturaleza para la supervivencia, porque protegemos aquello de lo que nos enamoramos. +Esas relaciones componen una historia de amor que alimenta a la Tierra. +Esto nos recuerda que somos una parte de la naturaleza, y no estamos al margen de ella. +Enterarme de la desaparicin de las abejas, conocido como problema de colapso de colonias, me llev a tomar medidas. +Dependemos de los polinizadores en el caso de ms de un tercio de las frutas y verduras que comemos. +Y muchos cientficos creen que se trata del problema ms grave al que se enfrenta la Humanidad. +Es como el canario en la mina de carbn. +Si desaparecen, nosotros tambin. +Esto nos recuerda que somos una parte de la naturaleza y tenemos que cuidar de ella. +Lo que me motiv para filmar su comportamiento era algo que pregunt a mis asesores cientficos: Qu motiva a los polinizadores? +Bueno, su respuesta fue: "Todo gira en torno al riesgo y la recompensa". +Como un nio sorprendidsimo dije: "Pero por qu es as?" +Y dijeron: "Pues, porque quieren sobrevivir". +Y prosegu " Pero, por qu?" +"Bueno, con el fin de reproducirse". +"Ya, pero por qu?" +Y pens que probablemente dira: "Es que todo se mueve en torno al sexo". +Y Chip Taylor, nuestro experto en la mariposa monarca, contest: "Nada es eterno. +Todo en el universo llega a agotarse". +Y eso me dej alucinado. +Porque me di cuenta que la naturaleza haba inventado la reproduccin como mecanismo para la propia vida con el fin de perpetuarse, como una fuerza vital que nos atraviesa y nos convierte en un eslabn ms en la evolucin de la vida. +Rara vez se ve a simple vista, la interseccin entre el mundo animal y el mundo vegetal. Es realmente un momento mgico. +Es el momento mstico donde la vida se regenera, una y otra vez. +As que aqu les muestro algo de nctar de mi pelcula. +Espero que beban, pen y planten algunas semillas para polinizar un jardn agradable. +Y siempre tmense tiempo para oler las flores, y djense impregnar de belleza, y redescubran el sentido de lo maravilloso. +Aqu muestro algunas imgenes de la pelcula. +Gracias. +Muchas gracias. +Gracias. +Mi travesa para volverme especialista en polos, fotografiando, especializandome en regiones polares, comenz a mis 4 aos cuando mi familia se mud del sur de Canad al norte de la isla de Baffin, cerca de Groenlandia. +All vivamos con los inuit . En la diminuta comunidad inuit de 200 personas ramos una de las tres familias no inuit. +En esta comunidad no tenamos televisin; no tenamos computadoras, obviamente, ni radio. +Ni siquiera tenamos telfono. +Pasaba todo mi tiempo afuera con los inuit, jugando. +La nieve y el hielo eran mi arenero y los inuit eran mis maestros. +Y all fue que me obsesion realmente con las cuestiones del polo. +Y supe que algn da hara algo que tuviese que ver con la difusin de eso con su proteccin. +Me gustara compartir con Uds, slo 2 minutos, algunas imgenes, una muestra de mi trabajo, acompaado por la msica de Brandi Carlile: "Have you ever" (Alguna vez...). +No s por qu National Geographic hizo esto, nunca lo han hecho antes, me han permitido mostrarles unas imgenes de un reportaje que acabo de terminar que an no se ha publicado. +National Geographic no suele hacer esto, as que estoy muy entusiasmado de poder compartirlas. +Estas imgenes son... las van a ver al principio de la presentacin (hay slo 4 imgenes) de un osito de 'La selva del Gran Oso' (norte de Canad). +Es todo blanco, pero no es un oso polar. +Es un oso de espritu u oso Kermode. +Slo quedan 200 de estos osos. +Son menos frecuentes que el oso panda. +Me pas 2 meses a la vera del ro sin ver ni siquiera uno. +Pens que era el fin de mi carrera. +Yo le propuse esta tonta idea a National Geographic. +En qu diantres estaba pensado? +As que pas 2 meses all sentado imaginando distintas cosas para hacer en mi prxima vida al dejar la fotografa, porque me iban a despedir. +Porque National Geographic es una revista; nos lo recuerdan todo el tiempo: publican fotos, no excusas. +Y despus de 2 meses de espera... un da, pensando que todo haba terminado, apareci este gran macho blanco justo a mi lado, a un metro de distancia, atrap un pez y se fue a la selva a comrselo. +Y despus pas todo el da cumpliendo mi sueo de la infancia de caminar con este oso por el bosque. +Atraves este antiguo bosque, se sent al lado de este rbol de 400 aos, modificado culturalmente, y se durmi. +Y yo, de verdad, dorm a un metro del oso en pleno bosque, y lo fotografi. +Por eso estoy muy entusiasmado de poder mostrarles estas imgenes y una muestra de mi trabajo realizado en los polos. +Que lo disfruten! +El tiempo corre. Bueno, paremos. +Muchas gracias. Lo agradezco. +Nos inundan de noticias todo el tiempo con que el hielo desaparece del mar y que est en su nivel ms bajo. +Y de hecho, los cientficos decan al principio que el hielo del mar iba a desaparecer en los prximos 100 aos, luego dijeron 50 aos. +Ahora dicen que el hielo del mar del rtico, por la extensin del verano, va a desaparecer en 4 a 10 aos. +Y eso qu significa? +Despus de un tiempo de leerlo, se vuelve una noticia ms. +No le prestamos atencin. +Lo que trato de hacer con mi trabajo es materializarlo. +Quiero que la gente entienda y se haga a la idea: si perdemos el hielo perderemos un ecosistema entero. +Hay proyecciones que indican que los osos polares pueden extinguirse en los prximos 50 a 100 aos. +Y no hay otra especie de megafauna mejor, ms sensual y carismtica para usar como smbolo en mi campaa. +Los osos polares son cazadores increbles. +Este es un oso con el que me sent un tiempo en la rivera. +No haba hielo alrededor +slo un trozo de hielo en el agua con una foca encima. +Y este oso nad hasta la foca -una foca de 360 kilos- la atrap, la trajo nadando y se la comi. +Y estaba tan lleno, tan feliz y tan orondo comindose esa foca que, a medida que me acercaba a unos 6 metros para tomar la foto su nica defensa fue seguir comindose la foca. +Y mientras coma estaba tan lleno -probablemente tena unos 90 kilos en la barriga- que por un lado de la boca coma y por el otro regurgitaba. +Entonces, mientras los osos tengan hielo van a sobrevivir pero el hielo est desapareciendo. +Cada vez encontramos ms osos muertos en el rtico. +Cuando trabajaba como bilogo con osos polares hace 20 aos nunca encontrbamos osos muertos. +En los ltimos 4 5 aos estamos encontrando osos muertos por todos lados. +Los estamos viendo en el mar de Beaufort flotando en el ocano donde el hielo se ha derretido. +El ao pasado encontr un par en Noruega. Los vemos en el hielo. +Estos osos ya estn dando signos de estrs por la desaparicin del hielo. +Esta es una madre con su cra de 2 aos; bamos en un barco a unas 100 millas nuticas mar adentro en el medio de la nada y ellos estaban en ese trozo de hielo glacial que para ellos es grande; estn seguros as. +No se van a morir de hipotermia. +Van a llegar a tierra. +Pero, lamentablemente, el 95% de los glaciares del rtico est mermando en este momento al punto de que el hielo termina en la tierra sin inyectar hielo nuevamente al ecosistema. +Estas focas anillares son las "golosinas" del rtico. +Estos pequeos trozos de grasa, 70 kilos de grasa, son el sustento del oso polar. +Y no son como las focas del puerto que tenemos aqu. +Estas focas tienen todo su ciclo de vida asociado y conectado al hielo marino. +Tienen sus cras en el hielo, y se alimentan con el bacalao rtico que vive bajo el hielo. +Esta es una foto de hielo enfermo. +Es un fragmento multiestrato de 12 aos de antigedad. +Los cientficos no predijeron que, a medida que se derrite el hielo, se forman grandes bolsones de agua negra que absorben la energa solar y aceleran as el derretimiento. +Y aqu nos sumergimos en el mar de Beaufort. +Con 180 mts de visibilidad; tenemos las cuerdas de seguridad; el hielo se mueve por todos lados. +Deseara poder pasar media hora contndoles la forma en que casi morimos en esta inmersin. +Pero lo importante de esta foto es que tenemos un fragmento de hielo multiestrato, ese gran trozo de hielo de la esquina. +En ese simple trozo de hielo hay 300 especies de microorganismos. +Y en primavera, cuando el sol regresa al hielo, se forma el fitoplancton que crece bajo el hielo y luego estratos ms grandes de algas y despus el zooplancton que se alimenta de toda esa vida. +As el hielo hace las veces de jardn. +Funciona como el suelo en un jardn. Es un jardn al revs. +Perder ese hielo es como perder el suelo en un jardn. +Aqu estoy en mi oficina. +Espero que valoren la de Uds. +Despus de una hora bajo el hielo +no siento los labios; la cara est congelada; No siento las manos; no siento los pies. +Y sub y todo lo que quera era salir del agua. +Despus de una hora en esas condiciones es todo tan extremo que cuando bajo casi siempre vomito en mi regulador porque el cuerpo no soporta semejante fro en la espalda. +Y me pone muy feliz que termine la inmersin. +Tengo que pasarle la cmara a mi asistente lo miro y le digo "Woo. Woo. Woo". +Lo que significa: "Toma mi cmara". +Y l piensa que digo: "Tmame una foto". +Y es cuando tenemos ese problemita de comunicacin. +Pero vale la pena. +Les voy a mostrar unas fotos de ballenas de beluga, ballenas de Groenlandia, narvales, osos polares y leopardos marinos; pero esta foto de aqu significa mucho ms para m que las otras. +Me met en ese hoyo de hielo, el que acaban de ver, y mir desde abajo la superficie del hielo, y me senta mal; tena vrtigo. +Me puse muy nervioso -- no tena cuerda de seguridad, y todo el mundo se mova a mi alrededor- entonces pens: "Estoy en problemas". +Pero result que debajo del hielo haba miles de millones de anfpodos y coppodos que se movan y alimentaban bajo el hielo procreando y viviendo toda su vida all. +Esta es la base de toda la cadena alimenticia del rtico, justo aqu. +Y cuando disminuye la produccin de hielo merma la poblacin de coppodos. +Esta es una ballena de Groenlandia. +Aparentemente la ciencia dice que podra ser el animal vivo ms antiguo de la tierra. +Esta ballena de aqu podra tener ms de 250 aos. +Podra haber nacido cerca del principio de la Revolucin Industrial. +Pudo haber sobrevivido a 150 aos de caceras. +Y ahora su mayor amenaza es la desaparicin del hielo en el norte debido al estilo de vida que llevamos en el sur. +Estos majestuosos narvales con sus colmillos de marfil de 2,5 m no tienen que estar aqu; podran estar en el mar abierto. +Pero se estn auto-obligando a entrar en esos diminutos hoyos de hielo donde pueden respirar, tomar un suspiro, porque justo debajo del hielo estn los cardmenes de bacalao. +Y el bacalao est all porque se alimenta de coppodos y anfpodos. +Muy bien, mi parte favorita. +Cuando est en mi lecho de muerte voy a recordar una historia por sobre las otras. +Si bien la experiencia con ese oso de espritu fue emocionante no creo que vaya a tener otra experiencia como la vivida con estos leopardos marinos. +Los leopardos marinos, desde la poca de Shackleton, han tenido mala reputacin. +Tienen esa sonrisa irnica. +Tienen esos ojos negros siniestros y esas manchas en el cuerpo. +Tienen aspecto prehistrico y dan un poco de miedo. +Y, trgicamente, en 2004 capturaron a una cientfica, se ahog y se la comieron los leopardos marinos. +Y la gente deca: "Sabamos que eran feroces. Lo sabamos". +A la gente le gusta hacerse opiniones. +Y ah fue que se me ocurri la idea: quiero ir a la Antrtida, meterme en el agua con tantos leopardos marinos como sea posible y darles una oportunidad... descubrir si son animales feroces o si es que no los comprenden. +Esta es esa historia. +Ah, tambin suelen comer El Pingino. +Como especie, como humanos, nos gusta decir que los pinginos son adorables por ende si los leopardos marinos comen pinginos, entonces son feos y malos. +No es as como funcionan las cosas. +El pingino no sabe que es adorable. Y el leopardo marino no sabe que es grande y monstruoso. +Es la cadena alimentaria en accin. +Tambin son grandes. +No son estas foquitas del puerto. +Miden 3,5 m y pesan 450 kilos. +Y son curiosamente agresivas. +Pongamos 12 turistas en un Zodiac que flota en estas aguas heladas y aparecer un leopardo marino que morder el gomn. +El gomn se va a empezar a hundir y los leopardos se precipitarn y la gente volver a casa contando historias del ataque. +Todo lo que el leopardo marino haca... era morder un globo. +Ven un gran globo en el ocano - no tienen manos - le van a dar un mordisquito, el bote se pincha, y all van. +Despus de 5 das de travesa por el Pasaje de Drake no es hermoso? Despus de 5 das de travesa por el Pasaje de Drake finalmente llegamos a la Antrtida. +Estoy con mi asistente y gua sueco. +Su nombre es Goran Ehlme, de Suecia. Goran. +Tiene mucha experiencia con leopardos marinos. Yo nunca he visto uno. +Arribamos a la ensenada con nuestro gomoncito y estaba este monstruoso leopardo marino. +E incluso con su voz, dice: "Es una tremenda foca, s". +Y esta foca est tomando al pingino por la cabeza llevndolo de un lado a otro. +Est tratando de obtener el revs del pingino para separar la carne de los huesos y luego se va y consigue otro. +Y luego atrapa otro pingino viene por debajo del bote, el Zodiac, empieza a golpear el casco del bote. +Y nosotros tratamos de no caernos al agua. +Nos sentamos, y fue cuando Goran me dijo: "Definitivamente, es una buena foca. +Es hora de que te metas al agua". +Y mir a Goran y le dije: "Olvdalo". +Aunque creo ms bien que lo que le dije fue una palabra grosera. +Pero tena razn. +Me rega y dijo: "Para eso estamos aqu. +Fuiste t quien le propuso esta tonta historia a National Geographic. +Ahora tienes que cumplir. +No puedes publicar excusas". +Yo tena la boca seca - tal vez no tanto como ahora - pero tena la boca muy, muy seca. +Me temblaban las piernas. No poda sentir mis piernas. +Me puse las aletas. Apenas poda abrir los labios. +Me puse el snorkel en la boca y me zambull al agua por uno de los lados del Zodiac. +Y esto es lo primero que ella hizo. +Vino corriendo hacia m, se trago toda mi cmara - sus dientes estn aqu y aqu - pero Goran, antes de entrar al agua me haba dado un consejo genial. +Dijo: "Si te asustas, cierra los ojos y ella se ir". +Eso era todo lo que tena que hacer en ese momento. +Pero empec a tomar estas fotos. +Ella continu con esta amenaza durante unos minutos y luego ocurri algo asombroso: se relaj por completo. +Se fue a atrapar un pingino. +Se detuvo a unos 3 metros de m y all se qued con el pingino, que aleteaba, y lo dej ir. +El pingino escap nadando hacia m. +Ella atrap otro. Lo hizo una y otra vez. +Al final me di cuenta de que trataba de alimentarme con un pingino. +Por qu otra razn arrojara pinginos hacia m? +Y despus de hacer esto 4 5 veces nad a mi lado con esta mirada abatida en su rostro. +No quiero ser demasiado antropomrfico, pero juro que me mir como diciendo: "Este depredador intil va a morir de hambre en mi ocano". +Entonces, viendo que yo no poda atrapar pinginos en movimiento tom estos otros pinginos y me los acerc lentamente sacudindolos, as, y soltndolos. +Esto no funcion. +Me rea tanto y estaba tan emocionado que mi mscara estaba empapada porque yo lloraba bajo el agua porque esto era algo asombroso. +Y eso no funcion. +As que tom otro pingino e intent con una danza sensual deslizndose bajo el tmpano. Los llevaba hacia m, me los ofreca. +Esto sigui as durante 4 das. +No pas slo un par de veces. +Entonces que se dio cuenta de que yo no poda atraparlos vivos as que me trajo pinginos muertos. +Ahora tena 4 5 pinginos flotando sobre mi cabeza y me quedaba all tomando fotos. +A menudo se detena con esta mirada abatida en su rostro como diciendo: "Es en serio?" +Ella no poda creer que yo no poda comer este pingino. +Porque en su mundo o te apareas o te alimentas y yo no me estoy apareando. +Y eso no fue todo; empez a mover los pinginos sobre mi cabeza. +Trataba de alimentarme a la fuerza. Me presionaba para que lo hiciera. +Trataba de alimentar a mi cmara por la fuerza que es el sueo de todo fotgrafo. +Se frustraba y me arrojaba burbujas en la cara. +Creo que quera decirme que me iba a morir de hambre. +Pero no se detuvo ah. +No dejara de intentar alimentarme con pinginos. +Y en el ltimo da con esta hembra pens que la haba llevado demasiado lejos me puse nervioso porque se acerc a m, gir sobre su espalda e hizo un sonido profundo y gutural de martillo neumtico, este gokgokgokgok. +Y pens que estaba a punto de morder. +Est por demostrarme que est muy frustrada por mi culpa. +Lo que haba sucedido era que otra foca se haba colado por mi espalda por eso hizo esa demostracin de poder. +Persigui a esa gran foca y fue a buscar otro pingino y me lo trajo. +Esa no fue la nica foca con la que me encontr. +Estuve en el agua con otros 30 leopardos marinos y jams tuve un encuentro aterrador. +Son los animales ms notables con los que he trabajado y lo mismo digo de los osos polares. +Y al igual que los osos polares estos animales dependen del ambiente glacial. +Me emociono. Perdn. +Es una historia que llevo en lo profundo del corazn y estoy orgulloso de compartirla con Uds. +Me apasiona tanto esto. +Alguien quiere venir conmigo a la Antrtida o al rtico, los llevo, vamos. +Ahora tenemos que difundir la historia. Muchas gracias. +Gracias. +Gracias. +Gracias. Muchas gracias. +Gracias. +Gracias. +Estoy encantado de estar aqu. +Voy a hablar sobre un material viejo y a la vez nuevo que nos sigue asombrando y que podra tener un impacto en la manera en que pensamos sobre la ciencia de los materiales, la alta tecnologa y, a lo mejor, en el proceso, hacer algo para la medicina y la salud mundial y ayudar con la reforestacin. +Esa es una declaracin audaz. +Les voy a contar un poco ms. +Este material tiene, en realidad, algunas propiedades que parecen demasiado buenas para ser ciertas. +Es sustentable; es un material sustentable que es procesado en agua y a temperatura ambiente y es biodegradable con degradacin programada, de modo que pueden observarlo disolverse instantneamente en un vaso de agua o mantenerlo estable durante aos. +Es comestible; es implantable en el cuerpo humano sin causar ninguna reaccin inmunolgica. +En rigor, se reintegra en el cuerpo. +Y es tecnolgico de manera que puede usarse en microelectrnica y tal vez en fotnica. +Y el material se parece a algo as. +De hecho, este material que ven es claro y transparente. +Los elementos de este material son simplemente agua y protena. +Este material es seda. +Pero es diferente a lo que solemos pensar como seda. +La pregunta, entonces, es cmo se reinventa algo que ha existido durante cinco milenios? +Por lo general, el proceso de descubrimiento se inspira en la Naturaleza. +As, nos asombramos ante los gusanos de seda - el gusano de seda que ven aqu hilando su fibra. +El gusano de seda hace algo notable: usa estos dos ingredientes, protena y agua, que se encuentran en sus glndulas, para fabricar un material que es excepcionalmente resistente como proteccin -- comparable a fibras tcnicas como el kevlar. +As, en el proceso de ingeniera inversa que conocemos, y que nos resulta familiar, para la industria textil, la industria textil deshila el capullo y luego teje cosas glamorosos. +Queremos saber cmo se va del agua y la protena a este kevlar lquido, este kevlar natural. +El secreto est en cmo se lleva a cabo el proceso de ingeniera inversa para ir desde el capullo hasta la glndula y conseguir agua y protena que constituyen el material inicial. +Este descubrimiento tuvo lugar hace dos dcadas por una persona con quien tengo la fortuna de trabajar, David Kaplan. +As, tenemos este material inicial +que constituye el bloque de construccin bsica. +Y luego lo usamos para hacer una variedad de cosas diferentes como, por ejemplo, film plstico +Y aprovechamos algo que es muy simple. +La receta para hacer esos films consiste en aprovechar el hecho de que las protenas son extremadamente inteligentes en lo que hacen. +Encuentran la manera de autoagruparse. +De modo que la receta es simple: se toma la solucin de seda, se la vierte, y se espera a que las protenas se autoagrupen. +Y luego se separa la protena y se obtiene este film, mientras las protenas se agrupan entre s a medida que el agua se evapora. +Pero tambin mencion que el film es tecnolgico. +Qu significa eso? +Significa que se lo puede conectar con algunas de las cosas que son tpicas de la tecnologa, como la microelectrnica y la nanotecnologa. +Y la imagen en el DVD aqu es simplemente para demostrar que la seda imita las sutilezas de las topografas de la superficie, lo cual significa que puede reproducir caractersticas en nanoescala. +De modo que podra reproducir la informacin que est en el DVD. +Y podemos guardar informacin que es film con agua y protena. +As, hicimos una prueba y escribimos un mensaje en un pedazo de seda, que est aqu mismo, y el mensaje est all. +Y al igual que en el DVD, se lo puede leer pticamente. +Esto requiere de una mano firme y por eso decid hacerlo sobre el escenario frente a mil personas. +Djenme ver. +As, como ven, el film transparente por all, y luego ... +Y lo ms sorprendente de esta hazaa es que mi mano se mantuvo firme el tiempo suficiente como para hacer eso. +De modo que una vez que se tienen estos atributos de este material, se pueden hacer muchas cosas. +No est limitado a los films. +El material puede adoptar muchas formas. +Y uno se vuelve un poco loco y se hacen varios componentes pticos o se hacen matrices de micro prismas, como la cinta reflectiva que tienen en sus zapatillas para correr. +O pueden hacer cosas lindsimas si pueden ser capturadas por la cmara. +Pueden agregarle una tercera dimensin al film. +Y si el ngulo es correcto, pueden ver un holograma en el film de seda. +Pero pueden hacer otras cosas. +Pueden imaginarse que se podra usar una protena pura para impulsar el transporte de luz, y, as, hemos fabricado fibras pticas. +Pero la seda es verstil y va ms all de la ptica. +Pueden pensar en diferentes formatos, +y si, por ejemplo, estn asustados de ir al doctor y que les aplique una inyeccin, hacemos matrices de micro-agujas. +Lo que ven en la pantalla es un cabello humano superpuesto sobre la aguja hecha de seda -- para darles una idea del tamao. +Pueden fabricarse cosas ms grandes. +Pueden fabricarse engranajes, tuercas y tornillos -- que pueden comprar en Whole Foods. +Y los engranajes funcionan en el agua. +De modo que si piensan en partes mecnicas alternativas +a lo mejor sera posible utilizar ese kevlar lquido si se necesita algo resistente para reemplazar venas perifricas, por ejemplo, o quiz un hueso entero. +Aqu tienen un ejemplo de un pequeo crneo de lo que llamamos un mini Yorick +Pero pueden fabricarse cosas como vasos, por ejemplo, y, as, si agregan un poco de oro y agregan un poco de semiconductores pueden fabricarse sensores que se adhieren a la superficie de los alimentos. +Pueden fabricarse piezas electrnicas que se pliegan y enrollan. +O si quieren estar de moda, algn tatuaje de seda de 'diodo' +Como pueden ver, hay versatilidad en los formatos que puede adoptar la seda. +Pero hay ciertas caractersticas nicas. +Es decir, por qu querramos hacer todas estas cosas en realidad? +Lo mencion brevemente al comienzo; la protena es biodegradable y biocompatible. +Aqu ven la imagen de un sector de tejido. +Y qu significa que sea biodegradable y biocompatible? +Se puede implantar en el cuerpo sin necesidad de recuperar lo implantado. +Lo cual significa que todos los dispositivos que han visto anteriormente y todos los formatos, en principio, pueden ser implantados y desaparecer. +Lo que ven all en ese sector de tejido, es, de hecho, una cinta reflectora. +De modo que, as como pueden ser vistos por conductores a la noche, la idea es que pueda verse, si se ilumina el tejido, puedan verse partes ms profundas de tejido gracias a esa cinta reflectora que est hecha de seda. +Y como ven all, queda reintegrado en el tejido. +Y la reinsercin en el cuerpo humano no es lo nico. La reinsercin en el medio ambiente es importante. +As, tienen un reloj, tienen protena, y ahora un vaso de seda como este puede ser descartado sin culpa. A diferencia de los vasos de poliestireno que desafortunadamente cubren nuestros vertederos diariamente. +Es comestible, de manera que pueden fabricarse envases inteligentes para alimentos que se puedan cocinar con la comida. +No tiene buen sabor, de modo que voy a necesitar un poco de ayuda con eso. +Pero probablemente lo ms notable es que se vuelve al punto de partida. +La seda, durante su proceso de autoagrupacin, acta como un capullo para material biolgico. +Y si se cambia la receta, y se agregan cosas al verter -- se agregan cosas a la solucin lquida de seda -- ya sean enzimas o anticuerpos o vacunas, el proceso de autoagrupacin preserva la funcin biolgica de estos dopantes. +De manera que convierte a los materiales en ambientalmente activos e interactivos. +De modo que ese tornillo que vieron con anterioridad puede, actualmente, ser usado para soldar un hueso fracturado y para administrar frmacos al mismo tiempo, mientras el hueso se repara, por ejemplo. +O podran poner los medicamentos en sus billeteras en lugar de la heladera. +Y para ello fabricamos una tarjeta de seda que contiene penicilina. +Y guardamos la penicilina a 60C, es decir a 140F, durante dos meses sin ninguna prdida de la eficacia de la penicilina. +De modo que eso podra ser --- eso podra ser potencialmente una buena alternativa a la refrigeracin alimentada por paneles solares para el transporte en camellos. Y, desde luego, no tiene sentido guardarlo si no se lo puede usar. +As, este material tiene otro rasgo nico y es que su degradacin es programable. +De modo que lo que ven all es la diferencia. +Arriba, tienen un film que ha sido programado para no degradarse, y abajo, tienen un film que ha sido programado para degradarse en agua. +Y lo que ven es que el film de abajo libera lo que tiene adentro. +Y as permite recuperar lo que habamos almacenado antes. +Y esto permite una administracin controlada de frmacos y permite la reintegracin con el medioambiente en todos los formatos que han visto. +De modo que el hilo de descubrimiento que tenemos es, en rigor, un hilo. +Gracias. +De nio siempre quise ser un superhroe. +Yo quera salvar al mundo y luego hacer feliz a todos. +Pero saba que iba a necesitar superpoderes para hacer realidad mis sueos. +As que sola embarcarme en viajes imaginarios para encontrar objetos intergalctico del planeta Krypton; algo muy divertido pero que no me dio muchos resultados. +Al crecer me di cuenta que la ciencia-ficcin no era una buena fuente de superpoderes; en vez de eso decid embarcarme en un viaje de verdadera ciencia para encontrar una verdad ms til. +Mi viaje empez en California con un estudio de 30 aos de la Universidad de Berkley que examinaba las fotos de los estudiantes de un viejo anuario tratando de medir el xito y el bienestar a lo largo de sus vidas. +Al medir las sonrisas de los estudiantes los investigadores pudieron predecir cuan gratificantes y duraderos seran sus matrimonios, cuntos puntos obtendra ella en las evaluaciones de bienestar y cunto inspirara a otros. +En otro anuario me top con una foto de Barry Obama. +Cuando vi la foto por primera vez pens que estos superpoderes procedan de su sper cuello. +Pero ahora s que se deba a su sonrisa. +Otra revelacin surge de una investigacin en 2010 de la Univ. Wayne State que examin tarjetas de bisbol de antes de 1950 de jugadores profesionales. +Los investigadores hallaron que la amplitud de la sonrisa poda predecir su longevidad. +Los jugadores que no sonrean en las fotos vivieron un promedio de slo 72,9 aos mientras que los jugadores con sonrisas radiantes vivieron una media de casi 80 aos. +La buena noticia es que en realidad nacemos sonriendo. +Usando tecnologa ultrasnica 3D ahora podemos ver que los bebs en formacin parecen sonrer incluso en el tero. +Al nacer los bebs siguen sonriendo... al principio, sobre todo mientras duermen. +E incluso los bebs ciegos sonren ante el sonido de la voz humana. +La sonrisa es una de las expresiones humanas ms bsicas y uniformes en trminos biolgicos. +En estudios realizados en Papa Nueva Guinea, Paul Ekman, el investigador de expresiones faciales ms reconocido del mundo, hall que hasta los miembros de la tribu fore, completamente desconectados de la cultura occidental, tambin conocidos por sus rituales poco comunes de canibalismo atribuan sonrisas a descripciones de situaciones de la misma forma que haran Uds. y yo. +Desde Papa Nueva Guinea hasta Hollywood pasando por el arte moderno de Pekn sonremos a menudo y lo hacemos para expresar alegra y satisfaccin. +Cuntas personas aqu en la sala sonren ms de 20 veces por da? +Levanten la mano los que s. Ah, bien. +Fuera de esta sala ms de un tercio de nosotros sonre ms de 20 veces por da mientras que menos del 14% sonre menos de 5 veces. +De hecho, quienes tienen los superpoderes ms sorprendentes son los nios: sonren 400 veces al da. +Alguna vez se han preguntado por qu estar rodeado de nios que sonren constantemente hace que Uds sonran ms a menudo? +Un estudio reciente de la universidad sueca de Uppsala hall que es muy difcil fruncir el ceo al mirar a alguien que sonre. +Se preguntarn por qu. +Porque sonrer es contagioso a nivel evolutivo y elimina el control que normalmente tenemos sobre los msculos faciales. +Imitar una sonrisa y experimentarla fsicamente nos ayuda a entender si es verdadera o falsa y as podemos entender el estado emocional de quien sonre. +En un estudio reciente sobre imitacin en la Universidad Clermont-Ferrand de Francia se le pregunt a los individuos si una sonrisa era verdadera o falsa mientras sostenan un lpiz en la boca para reprimir los msculos de la sonrisa. +Sin el lpiz, los individuos fueron unos jueces excelentes. Pero con el lpiz en la boca al no poder imitar la sonrisa que vean su juicio estaba limitado. +Adems de teorizar sobre evolucin en "El Origen de las Especies" Charles Darwin tambin escribi la teora de la respuesta facial. +Su teora dice que el acto mismo de sonrer realmente nos hace sentir mejor, en vez de considerar la sonrisa como un mero resultado de sentirse bien. +En su estudio Darwin cita en realidad al neurlogo francs Guillaume Duchenne que usaba descargas elctricas en los msculos faciales para inducir y estimular sonrisas. +Por favor, no intenten esto en sus casas. +En un estudio alemn relacionado los investigadores usaron resonancia magntica para medir la actividad cerebral antes y despus de inyectar Botox para suprimir los msculos de la sonrisa. +Los hallazgos respaldaron la teora de Darwin mostrando que esa respuesta facial modifica el procesamiento neural del contenido emocional del cerebro de una forma que nos ayuda a sentirnos mejor al sonrer. +La sonrisa estimula el sistema de recompensa del cerebro en formas que ni el chocolate -un inductor de placer muy conocido- puede igualar. +Los investigadores britnicos hallaron que una sonrisa puede generar el mismo nivel de estimulacin cerebral que 2.000 barras de chocolate. +Esperen. El mismo estudio hall que la sonrisa es tan estimulante como recibir 16.000 libras esterlinas en efectivo. +Unos 25.000 dlares la sonrisa. +No est mal. +Pinsenlo de esta manera: 25.000 por 400... muchos nios por ah se sienten como Mark Zuckerberg cada da. +Y a diferencia del exceso de chocolate el exceso de sonrisas nos hace ms saludables. +Sonrer puede ayudarnos a reducir el nivel de las hormonas que aumentan el estrs como el cortisol, la adrenalina y la dopamina; aumentar el nivel de hormonas que levantan el nimo como la endorfina y reducir la presin sangunea. +Y como si eso fuera poco sonrer est bien visto ante los ojos de los dems. +Un estudio reciente de la Univ. Penn State hall que cuando uno sonre no slo parece ms apacible y corts sino que parece ms competente. +Cuando me pidieron que hiciera esto, decid que quera hablar sobre Richard Feynman, mi amigo. +Fui uno de los pocos afortunados que realmente logr conocerlo y disfrutar de su compaa. +Voy a contarles sobre el Richard Feynman que conoc. +Estoy seguro de que aqu hay otras personas que podran hablar sobre l, de cmo lo conocieron y probablemente resultara otra persona distinta. +Richard Feynman era una persona bien compleja. +Era un hombre de muchsimas facetas. +Por encima de todo era, desde luego, un gran, gran, gran cientfico. +Era actor. Ustedes lo vieron actuar. +Tambin tuve la fortuna de estar en esas charlas, all arriba en el palco. +Eran fantsticas. +Era un filsofo, tocaba los bongos, era un maestro por excelencia. +Richard Feynman tambin era un comediante, todo un espectculo. +Era irreverente, todo un macho; un macho superlativo. +Amaba las batallas intelectuales. +Tena un ego descomunal. +Pero tena, de alguna manera, mucho espacio en el fondo. +Lo que quiero decir es que tena un gran espacio, en mi caso, no puedo hablar por nadie ms, pero en mi caso, un gran espacio para otro gran ego. +Bueno, no tan grande como el suyo, pero bastante grande. +Siempre me sent a gusto con Dick Feynman. +Siempre era divertido estar con l. +Me haca sentir muy listo. +Cmo puede alguien as hacerte sentir listo? +De alguna manera, l lo lograba. +Me haca sentir inteligente y pensar que l era inteligente. +Me haca pensar que los dos eramos listos y que juntos podamos resolver cualquier problema. +Y en realidad algunas veces trabajamos juntos en fsica. +Aunque nunca hicimos ninguna publicacin juntos, s que nos divertimos mucho. +Le encantaba ganar. +En sus espordicos pequeos juegos de machista, que no solo jugaba conmigo, sino que lo haca con toda clase de gente; casi siempre ganaba. +Y cuando no ganaba, cuando perda, se rea y pareca gozar igual que si hubiera ganado. +Recuerdo que alguna vez me cont una historia sobre una broma que le hicieron sus estudiantes. +Lo llevaron, creo que era para su cumpleaos, lo invitaron a almorzar. +Lo invitaron a almorzar a un local de emparedados en Pasadena. +Quizs existe todava; no lo s. +La cosa era con emparedados de famosos. +Poda uno comprar un emparedado Marilyn Monroe. +O uno Humphrey Bogart. +Los estudiantes se adelantaron y acordaron que todos pediran emparedados Feynman. +Uno tras otro, llegaron y ordenaron emparedados Feynman. +A l le encantaba esta ancdota. +Me la cont rindose muy feliz.. +Cuando termin, le dije: "Dick, me pregunto cul sera la diferencia entre un emparedado Feynman y uno Susskind". +Y sin titubear en absoluto, dijo: "Bueno, tal vez son la misma cosa. +La nica diferencia es que el emparedado Susskind debe tener mucho ms jamn". Aunque un jamn es un mal actor. +Bueno, pues yo estaba ese da muy rpido. y le dije: "S, pero mucho menos mortadela payasa". +La verdad es que el emparedado Feynman tena mucho jamn y nada de mortadela, en absoluto. +Lo que Feynman odiaba ms que nada era la presuncin intelectual, la falsedad, la falsa sofisticacin, la jerga. +Recuerdo que en los 80, a mediados de dcada, Dick, Sidney Coleman y yo nos reunimos algunas veces en San Francisco en casa de un tipo muy rico para cenar. +La ltima vez que nos invit tambin haba invitado a dos filsofos. +Eran filsofos de la mente. +Su especialidad era la filosofa de la conciencia. +Estaban llenos de toda clase de jergas. +Trato de recordar sus palabras; "monismo", "dualismo", toda clase de categoras. +Yo no saba lo que significaban esas cosas, lo mismo que Dick ni tampoco Sydney. +Y de qu hablamos? +Bueno, de qu habla uno cuando se trata de la mente? +Es obvio de lo que haba que hablar: podr una mquina convertirse en una mente? +Podr construirse una mquina que piense como un ser humano?, que tenga conciencia? +En la mesa hablamos de esto. Y claro, nunca lo resolvimos. +Pero el problema con los filsofos era que estaban filosofando cuando deberan haber estado "cienciando". +Al fin y al cabo, era un tema cientfico. +Algo muy, muy peligroso frente a Dick Feynman. +l dej que recibieran todo el golpe, justo en medio de los dos ojos. +Fue bestial. Fue muy cmico. S, muy chistoso. +Pero verdaderamente brutal. +Les revent sus globos. +Pero lo maravilloso fue que Feynman tuvo que salir temprano. +No se senta muy bien, as que se retir temprano. +Y Sydney y yo nos quedamos con los dos filsofos. +Lo extraordinario es que los dos estaban en las nubes. +Estaban muy felices. +Haban conocido a ese gran hombre; l les haba enseado algo; haban tenido una gran alegra siendo su objeto de burla. Fue algo bien especial. +Me di cuenta de que haba algo de extraordinario en Feynman, hiciera lo que hiciera. +Dick (yo lo llamaba as) era mi amigo. +l y yo tenamos una buena relacin. +Pienso que era un entendimiento muy especial el que tenamos. +Nos entendamos muy bien y nos gustaban las mismas cosas. +A mi tambin me gustaban las disputas en broma. +Ocasionalmente yo ganaba, pero la mayora de las veces l era el ganador, pero a ambos nos divertan. +Y Dick en cierto momento se convenci de que tenamos personalidades similares. +No creo que tuviera razn. +Creo que en lo nico que nos parecamos era en que a ambos nos gustaba hablar de nosotros mismos. +Pero l estaba convencido, +y era bien curioso. +Era increblemente curioso. +Y quera entender cmo y por qu exista esta extraa conexin. +Un da en Francia bamos caminando, +estbamos en La Souche, +en las montaas, en 1976. +All en las montaas me dijo: "Leonardo". +La razn por la que me llamaba Leonardo era por estar en Europa y porque estaba practicando su francs. +Me dijo: "Leonardo, estabas ms cerca de tu madre o de tu padre cuando eras nio?". +Le constest: "Pues mi verdadero hroe era mi padre. +Era un hombre trabajador que haba ido a la escuela hasta quinto grado. +Era un buen mecnico y me ense a usar las herramientas. +Me ense toda clase de cosas relacionadas con objetos mecnicos. +Hasta me ense el teorema de Pitgoras. +Pero no hablaba de la hipotenusa, le deca 'el camino corto' ". +Los ojos de Feynman se abrieron. +Se prendi como un foco de luz +y me dijo que l haba tenido exactamente la misma experiencia con su padre. +Por eso estaba convencido de que para ser un buen fsico era muy importante haber tenido ese tipo de relacin con su padre. +Me disculpo aqu por el tono machista de esta conversacin, pero fue as como sucedi en realidad. +Me dijo que estaba absolutamente seguro de que esto era necesario; que esto era indispensable para crecer como un joven fsico. +Siendo Dick como era, naturalmente quera verificarlo. +Quera salir y hacer un experimento. +As que lo hizo. +Se fue a hacer su experimento. +Le pregunt a todos los amigos que consideraba buenos fsicos: "fue tu madre o tu padre quien influy ms en ti?". +Y estos seores, todos hombres, ellos, todos ellos dijeron: "Mi madre". +Ah se fue su teora, al bote de basura de la historia. +Pero l estaba fascinado con haber encontrado finalmente a alguien que hubiera tenido la misma experiencia con su padre como la que l haba tenido. +Y por un tiempo estuvo convencido de que esta era la razn por la que nos entendamos tan bien. +No s, quizs. Quin sabe? +Ahora permtanme que les cuente algo sobre Feynman como fsico. +Su estilo; no, estilo no es la palabra correcta. +Estilo hace pensar en la corbata de lazo que llevaba o en el traje que usaba. +Hay algo ms profundo que eso, pero no puedo pensar en otra palabra. +El estilo cientfico de Feynman consista en buscar lo ms sencillo, la solucin ms elemental posible para cada problema. +Y si no era posible, haba que ensayar algo ms elegante. +Pero sin duda, una buena parte estaba en su gusto y su placer por demostrarle a la gente que l poda pensar con ms sencillez que los dems. +Pero tambin crea profunda y verdaderamente que si uno no puede explicar algo sencillamente es porque no lo entiende. +En los 50, la gente estaba tratando de entender cmo funcionaba el helio superfluido. +Haba una teora +debida a un fsico y matemtico ruso, una teora bien complicada. +Les dir cul era esa teora en un momento. +Era tremendamente compleja, llena de integrales y frmulas difciles y matemticas y todo eso. +Y en parte funcionaba, pero no muy bien. +Solamente funcionaba cuando los tomos de helio estaban muy, muy apartados. +Los tomos tenan que estar bien alejados. +Pero desafortunadamente los tomos en el helio lquido estn unos encima de otros. +Feynman decidi, como fsico de helio aficionado, tratar de entenderlo. +Tena una idea; una idea bien clara. +Tratara de resolver cmo era la funcin de onda cuntica de esa enorme cantidad de tomos. +Tena que tratar de visualizarla guiado por un pequeo nmero de principios sencillos. +Eran unos principios verdaderamente sencillos. +El primero era que cuando los tomos de helio se tocan, se repelen. +La consecuencia de esto es que la funcin de onda se hace cero, tiene que anularse cuando los tomos entran en contacto. +El otro punto era que en el estado fundamental, el de menor energa de un sistema cuntico, la funcin de onda es siempre muy suave, con el mnimo nmero de curvas. +Entonces se puso, supongo que no tena nada ms que una hoja de papel y un lpiz, y trat de escribir, y de hecho escribi, la funcin ms sencilla que pudo imaginar que cumpliera con las condiciones de frontera, que se anulara cuando las cosas se tocaran y que fuera suave en el interior. +Escribi algo bien simple. +Tan sencillo que pienso que un estudiante de secundaria bien listo, aunque no hubiera visto clculo, podra entender lo que l escribi. +El resultado fue que eso tan sencillo que escribi explicaba todo lo que haba que saber en la poca, sobre el helio lquido y algo ms. +Siempre he pensado cmo los profesionales, los verdaderos fsicos profesionales del helio, debieron haberse apenado por esto. +Tenan un mtodo superpoderoso y no lo lograron. +A propsito, les dir cul era ese mtodo superpoderoso: +era el mtodo de los diagramas de Feynman. +En 1968 lo volvi a hacer. +En 1968 en mi propia universidad (yo no estaba ah en esa poca), pero en 1968 estaban explorando la estructura del protn. +El protn est obviamente compuesto de unas cuantas partculas pequeitas. +Esto ya se saba, ms o menos. +Y la manera de analizarlo era con diagramas de Feynman. +Es para eso que se inventaron, para entender las partculas. +Se hicieron algunos experimentos bien sencillos. +Simplemente se toma un protn y se golpea fuertemente con un electrn. +Para eso son los diagramas de Feynman. +El nico problema es que son complicados. +Integrales bien difciles. +Si logras resolverlos, tienes una teora muy precisa. +Pero no era posible; eran muy complicados. +Muchos trataban de resolverlos. +Se puede hacer un diagrama de un bucle. No hay problema con un bucle. +Un bucle, dos bucles; quizs puedes resolver uno de tres bucles, pero ms all no se puede hacer nada. +Feynman dijo: "Olvdense de todo eso. +Slo piensen en el protn, en un ensamble de pequeas partculas; una cantidad de partculas". +Las llamaba partones, as las llamaba. +Dijo: "Piensen simplemente en un enjambre de partones que se mueven bien rpido". +Como van tan veloces, la relatividad dice que sus movimientos internos son muy lentos. +Un electrn lo golpea sbitamente. +Es como tomar una instantnea del protn. +Qu se ve? +Se vern unos cuantos partones +que no se mueven; y como estn inmviles durante el experimento, no hay que preocuparse por la forma en que se mueven. +No hay que pensar en las fuerzas entre ellos. +Solo hay que imaginarlos como una agrupacin de partones congelados. +Esta result ser la clave para analizar esos experimentos. +Efectiva en extremo, verdaderamente. Alguien dijo que revolucin es una mala palabra. +(Supongo que lo es, por eso no la voy a decir). Pero s produjo una evolucin muy, muy profunda en lo que entendamos del protn y de las dems partculas. +Bueno, tena ms que decirles sobre mi relacin con Feynman; sobre cmo era l en realidad, pero veo que solo me queda un minuto. +As que voy a terminar diciendo que realmente pienso que a l no le habra gustado este evento. +Me imagino que habra dicho: "No lo necesito". +Pero cmo vamos a honrar su memoria? +Cmo vamos a honrarlo, en realidad? +Pienso que debemos rendirle homenaje poniendo tanta mortadela como sea posible en nuestros emparedados. +Gracias. +Piensen en su da por un segundo. +Se despertaron, sintieron el aire fresco en la cara cuando salieron por la puerta se encontraron nuevos colegas y tuvieron grandiosas discusiones y se sintieron asombrados si descubrieron algo nuevo. +Pero apuesto a que hay algo en lo que no pensaron hoy algo tan cercano a casa que ni siquiera piensan en ello muy a menudo. +Y estas son todas las sensaciones, sentimientos, decisiones y acciones que son mediadas por la computadora de tu cabeza llamada cerebro. +Ahora, el cerebro puede no parecer mucho desde fuera un kilogramo de carne de color gris rosceo, amorfo, pero los ultimos cien aos de neurociencia nos ha permitido adentrarnos en el cerebro y ver lo imbrincado de lo que yace dentro de l +Y se nos ha dicho que este cerebro es un circuito increiblemente complicado compuesto de cientos de miles de millones de clulas llamadas neuronas. +Ahora, a diferencia de una computadora diseada por humanos donde hay un nmero bastante reducido de piezas diferentes sabemos cmo funcionan, porque las diseamos nosotros, el cerebro est compuesto de miles de tipos diferentes de clulas, quiz decenas de miles. +Son de diferentes formas; estn compuestas por distintas molculas; +y ellas se proyectan y conectan hacia distintas regiones del cerebro. Y cambian de distintas maneras en diferentes estados de las enfermedades. +Ms concretamente. +Hay una clase de clulas una clula muy pequea, una clula inhibidora, que silencia a sus vecinas. +Es una de las clulas que parece atrofiarse en trastornos como la esquizofrenia. +Se llama la clula canasta; +Y esta celula es una de los miles de tipos de clulas acerca de las cuales estamos aprendiendo. +Se descubren nuevos tipos todos los das. +Asi como... solo un segundo ejemplo: estas clulas piramidales, grandes clulas, pueden abarcar una parte importante del cerebro. +Son excitadoras. +Y estas son algunas de las clulas que podran estar hiperactivas en trastornos como la epilepsia. +Cada una de estas clulas es un dispositivo elctrico increble. +Reciben seales de miles de compaeras de la parte superior y calculan sus propias respuestas elctricas que luego, si pasan un determinado umbral, iran a parar a miles de compaeras de la parte inferior. +Y este proceso que demora solo un milisegundo ms o menos sucede miles de veces por minuto en cada una de tus 100 mil millones de clulas mientras vivas, y pienses y sientas. +Asi que Cmo vamos a dilucidar qu hace este circuito? +Idealmente, podriamos ir atraves del circuito y encender y apagar los distintos tipos de clulas y ver si podemos dilucidar cules contribuyen a determinadas funciones y cules funcionan mal en ciertas patologas. +Si pudiramos activar clulas podramos ver qu potencial pueden liberar, qu pueden iniciar y mantener. +Si pudiramos apagarlas entonces podramos intentar y dilucidar para qu son necesarias. +Y esa es una historia que les voy a contar hoy. +Y, honestamente, por donde hemos pasado, en los ltimos 11 aos en pos de encontrar maneras de encender y apagar circuitos y clulas y rutas del cerebro tanto para entender la ciencia, como para confrontar algunos de los problemas que se nos enfrentan a todos nosotros como humanos. +Pero antes de hablarles acerca de la tecnologa la mala noticia es que una fraccion significativa de nosotros en esta sala, si logramos vivir lo suficiente, vamos a sufrir, quiz, un trastorno cerebral. +Ya mil millones de personas han tenido algn tipo de trastorno cerebral que las incapacita. Y, no obstante, estas cifras no le hacen justicia. +Estos trastornos -la esquizofrenia, el Alzheimer, la depresin, la adiccin- no slo roban nuestro tiempo de vida, sino que cambian nuestro ser; +nos quitan la identidad, cambian nuestras emociones y lo que nos constituye como personas. +Ahora bien, en el siglo XX se gener algo de esperanza mediante el desarrollo de frmacos para el tratamiento de trastornos cerebrales. Y si bien se desarrollaron muchas medicinas que pueden aliviar los sntomas de los trastornos cerebrales en la prctica ninguna puede considerarse curable. +En parte porque estamos inundando el cerebro con qumicos. +Este circuito elaborado compuesto de miles de tipos diferentes de clulas est siendo baando con una sustancia. +Esa es la razn por la que gran parte de las medicinas del mercado, sino todas, puede presentar tambien algn tipo de efecto secundario. +Ahora, algunas personas han recibido algn consuelo de estimuladores elctricos que se implantan en el cerebro. +Y para el mal de Parkinson, los implantes cocleares, stos realmente han podido llevar algn tipo de remedio a personas con ciertos tipos de trastornos. +Pero la electricidad tambin saldr en todas direcciones por el camino de menor resistencia, que es, en parte, el origen de la frase. +Y esto afectar tanto a los circuitos normales como a los anormales que queremos corregir. +De nuevo, volvemos a la idea del control ultra-preciso. +Podemos direccionar la informacin hacia donde queremos que vaya? +Cuando empec con la neurociencia hace 11 aos me haba capacitado en ingeniera elctrica y fsica y lo primero que pens fue si estas neuronas son dispositivos elctricos todo lo que hace falta es encontrar la manera de manejar estos cambios elctricos a distancia. +Si pudiramos encender la electricidad de una clula, pero no la de sus vecinas, eso nos dara la herramienta que hace falta para activar y apagar las distintas clulas, para averiguar qu hacen y cmo contribuyen a las redes en las que estn insertas. +Y eso tambin nos permitira contar con una herramienta de control ultra-precisa para corregir los clculos del circuito que estuvieran mal. +Cmo vamos a hacer eso? +En la Naturaleza hay muchas molculas capaces de convertir la luz en electricidad. +Se las puede pensar como pequeas protenas que son como celdas solares. +Si de algn modo podemos instalar estas molculas en estas neuronas entonces estas neuronas podran manipularse elctricamente con la luz. +Y sus vecinas, que no tienen la molcula, no. +Hay otro pase de magia que hacer para que todo esto funcione y es la capacidad de meter luz en el cerebro. +Y para lograrlo -el cerebro no siente dolor- se puede sacar provecho del esfuerzo invertido en Internet y comunicaciones, etc. -fibra ptica conectada a lsers que puede usarse para activar (por ejemplo, en modelos con animales, en estudios pre-clnicos) estas neuronas y ver qu hacen. +Cmo lo hacemos? +Alrededor de 2004, en colaboracin con Gerhard Nagel y Karl Deisseroth esta visin se hizo realidad. +Hay un alga determinada que nada en el mundo silvestre y tiene que navegar hacia la luz para hacer la fotosntesis de manera ptima. +Y detecta la luz con un pequeo ocelo que funciona no muy distinto que nuestros ojos. +En su membrana, o su borde, contiene pequeas protenas que pueden convertir luz en electricidad. +Estas molculas se denominan canalrodopsinas. +Y cada una de estas protenas acta como esa celda solar de la que les habl. +Ante la presencia de luz azul, abre un pequeo hoyo y permite el ingreso de partculas cargadas al ocelo. Eso le permite a este ocelo tener una seal elctrica al igual que una celda solar que carga una batera. +Entonces lo que hay que hacer es tomar estas molculas y de algn modo ponerlas en las neuronas. +Y dado que es una protena est codificada en el ADN de este organismo. +As que todo lo que hay que hacer es tomar ese ADN, colocarlo en un vector de terapia gnica, como un virus, y ponerlo en las neuronas. +Result ser un momento muy productivo de la terapia gnica y empezaron a aparecer muchos virus. +As que fue algo muy simple de hacer. +Y temprano por la maana un da de verano de 2004 lo intentamos y funcion al primer intento. +Tomamos este ADN y lo colocamos en una neurona. +La neurona usa su mecanismo natural de protenas para fabricar estas pequeas protenas fotosensibles y las coloca en toda la clula; es como poner paneles solares en el techo. Y lo siguiente que uno sabe es que tiene una neurona que puede activarse con la luz. +Por eso es muy poderoso. +Un truco que hay que saber hacer es darse cuenta cmo entregar estos genes a las clulas que uno quiere y no a todas sus otras vecinas. +Y puede hacerse; se puede ajustar el virus para que impacte en algunas clulas y no en otras. +Y hay otros trucos genticos a los que recurrir para obtener clulas foto-activadas. +Ese campo se ha dado en llamar optogentica. +Y, a modo de ejemplo de las cosas que se pueden hacer, puede tomarse una red compleja y usar uno de estos virus para entregar el gen a un solo tipo de clula en esta densa red. +Y luego cuando uno ilumine toda la red slo se activar ese tipo de clula. +Por ejemplo, consideremos esa clula en cesta que les mencion antes, la que se atrofia en la esquizofrenia y que es inhibitoria. +Si podemos llevar ese gen a esas clulas -y no se ver alterada por la expresin de ese gen, por supuesto- y luego iluminamos de azul toda la red cerebral slo sern dirigidas estas clulas. +Y cuando se apague la luz estas clulas vuelven a la normalidad por lo que no parece haber aversin a eso. +No solo puede usarse para estudiar el funcionamiento celular, su poder de cmputo dentro del cerebro, sino que puede usarse para tratar de averiguar... bueno, quiz podramos avivar la actividad de estas clulas si realmente estn atrofiadas. +Ahora quiero contarles un par de historias breves sobre el uso que hacemos de esto a nivel cientfico, clnico y pre-clnico. +Una de las preguntas que hemos enfrentado es: Cules son las seales involucradas en la sensacin de recompensa? +Porque si se las puede encontrar seran algunas de las seales que podran guiar el aprendizaje. +El cerebro va a hacer ms de eso que obtuvo la recompensa. +y tambin son seales que funcionan mal en trastornos como las adicciones. +As, si pudiramos darnos cuenta qu clulas son quiz podramos encontrar nuevos objetivos para el diseo y empleo de medicamentos o quiz lugares en los que podramos colocar electrodos para personas con discapacidades muy severas. +Para esto se nos ocurri un paradigma muy simple en colaboracin con el grupo Fiorella, en el que en un lado de esta pequea caja si el animal va all, recibe un pulso de luz para hacer foto-sensibles a distintas clulas del cerebro. +As, si estas clulas participan en la recompensa el animal debera ir all cada vez ms. +Y eso es lo que sucede. +Este animal va a ir a la derecha a meter la nariz por ah, y cada vez que lo hace recibe un destello de luz azul. +Y har lo mismo cientos y cientos de veces. +Estas son las neuronas dopaminas que alguno habr odo que forman parte de los centros de placer del cerebro. +Nosotros hemos demostrado que una breve activacin de stas es suficiente para guiar el aprendizaje. +Ahora podemos generalizar la idea. +En vez de un punto del cerebro podemos disear dispositivos que abarquen el cerebro, que puedan llevar luz en patrones tridimensionales -matrices de fibra ptica, cada una con su propia mini-fuente lumnica independiente. +Y luego podemos tratar de hacer cosas en vivo que hasta hoy se han hecho slo en un plato como la visualizacin de alto rendimiento de todo el cerebro para las seales que pueden hacer que sucedan ciertas cosas. +O podran ser buenos objetivos clnicos para el tratamiento de trastornos cerebrales. +Y una historia que quiero contarles es cmo podemos encontrar objetivos para el tratamiento del trastorno de estrs post-traumtico, una forma de ansiedad y miedo descontrolados. +Y para esto adoptamos un modelo muy clsico del miedo. +Se remonta a los das pavlovianos. +Se denomina miedo condicionado pavloviano en el que un tono termina con una breve descarga. +La descarga no duele pero molesta un poco. +Y con el tiempo, en este caso un ratn, que es un buen modelo animal y se usa comnmente en estos experimentos, el animal aprende a temerle al tono. +El animal reaccionar paralizndose como un ciervo ante los faros. +Ahora, la pregunta es: Qu objetivos podemos encontrar en el cerebro que nos permitan superar ese temor? +Para eso reproducimos ese tono nuevamente despus que ha sido asociado con el miedo. +Pero activamos objetivos en el cerebro, otros diferentes, usando esa matriz de fibra ptica que les dije en la diapositiva anterior para tratar de averiguar qu objetivos hacen que el cerebro supere esa memoria del miedo. +Este breve video muestra uno de estos objetivos en los que trabajamos ahora. +Es un rea de la corteza prefrontal, una regin en la que se puede usar el conocimiento para superar estados emocionales de aversin. +El animal va a or un tono y se produce un destello luminoso. +No hay audio pero pueden ver que el animal se paraliza. +Este tono sola significar malas noticias. +Y hay un pequeo reloj en la esquina inferior izquierda para que puedan ver que el animal queda as unos 2 minutos. +Y ahora el siguiente video es de slo 8 minutos despus. +Se va a reproducir el mismo tono y se va a disparar otra vez la luz. +Bien, ah va. Ahora mismo. +Y ahora pueden ver, en slo 10 minutos de experimento, que hemos equipado al cerebro foto-activando esta zona para superar la expresin de esta memoria del miedo. +Durante los ltimos dos aos hemos vuelto al rbol de la vida porque queramos encontrar maneras de apagar los circuitos del cerebro. +Si pudiramos hacerlo sera algo muy poderoso. +Si puedes eliminar clulas por unos milisegundos o segundos puedes darte cuenta del papel que desempean dentro de los circuitos en los que estn insertas. +Y ahora hemos investigado organismos de todo el rbol de la vida de cada reino de la vida salvo el animal, que vemos levemente diferente. +Y hallamos todo tipo de molculas, que se llaman halorodopsinas o arqueorodopsinas, que responden a la luz verde y amarilla. +Y hacen lo opuesto de la molcula que les cont antes, la del activador de luz azul, la canalrodopsina. +Veamos un ejemplo de hacia dnde pensamos que va esto. +Consideren, por ejemplo, una condicin como la epilepsia en la que el cerebro es hiperactivo. +Ahora si fallan los medicamentos en el tratamiento de epilepsia, una de las estrategias es eliminar parte del cerebro. +Pero eso, obviamente, es irreversible y podra tener efectos secundarios. +Qu pasara si pudiramos apagar ese cerebro por un breve instante hasta que el ataque se disipe y hacer que el cerebro vuelva a su estado inicial? Algo as como engatusar a un sistema dinmico hacia un estado estable. +Asi que esta animacin solo trata de explicar este concepto: donde hicimos que estas clulas fotosensibles se apaguen con la luz, encendimos la luz, y solo durante el tiempo que tarda en terminar el ataque esperamos que se pueda apagar. +No tenemos datos para mostrarles en este frente pero estamos muy entusiasmados con esto. +Ahora yo quiero cerrar con una historia que creemos es otra posibilidad y es que estas molculas, tal vez, si se puede lograr un control ultra-preciso, puedan usarse en el cerebro mismo para hacer un nuevo tipo de prtesis, una prtesis ptica. +Ya les dije que los estimuladores elctricos son ahora comunes. +Hay 75 mil personas con implantes de estimuladores cerebrales para el Parkinson. +Quiz 100 mil personas con implantes cocleares que les permiten or. +Otro tema es que hay que llevar estos genes a las clulas. +Y ha surgido una nueva esperanza en terapia gnica debido a un virus como el virus adeno-asociado que probablemente la mayora de los presentes tiene y no presenta sntomas; se ha usado en cientos de pacientes para transportar genes al cerebro o al cuerpo. +Y hasta ahora no ha habido efectos adversos graves asociados con el virus. +Hay un ltimo elefante en la habitacin, las propias protenas, procedentes de algas, bacterias y hongos, presentes en todo el rbol de la vida. +Muchos de nosotros no tenemos hongos ni algas en el cerebro as que, qu va a hacer el cerebro si le colocamos eso? +Las clulas lo van a tolerar? Reaccionar el sistema inmunolgico? +Est en fase preliminar, todava no se ha probado en humanos, pero estamos trabajando en varios estudios tratando de examinarlo. Y hasta el momento no hemos visto reacciones de alguna severidad a estas molculas o a la iluminacin del cerebro con luz. +Para ser franco, estamos en una etapa preliminar pero estamos emocionados al respecto +Quiero terminar con una historia que creemos podra potencialmente ser una aplicacin clnica. +Ahora hay muchas formas de ceguera en la que los fotorreceptores, los sensores de luz que estan en el fondo del ojo, se han perdido +Y la retina, por supuesto, es una estructura compleja. +Ahora bien, ampliemos un poco para verlo con ms detalle. +Las clulas fotorreceptoras se muestras aqu arriba y las seales que son detectadas por los fotorreceptores son transformadas por varios clculos hasta que al final esa capa de clulas de abajo, las clulas ganglionares, transmite la informacin al cerebro, donde vemos eso como percepcin. +En muchas formas de ceguera, como la a retinitis pigmentosa, o la degeneracin macular, las clulas fotorreceptoras estn atrofiadas o destruidas. +Ahora Cmo puedes reparar esto? +Ni siquiera est claro que una medicina pueda hacer que esto se reestablezca porque no hay nada a donde se ligue el medicamento. +Por otro lado, la luz an puede entrar al ojo. +El ojo todava es todava transparente y la luz puede entrar. +Asi que Que tal si pudiramos solo tomar estas canalrodopsinas y otras molculas e instalarlas en alguna de estas otras clulas libres y convertirlas en pequeas cmaras? +Y dado que hay muchas de estas clulas en el ojo podran llegar a ser cmaras de muy alta definicin. +Asi que esto es algo eel trabajo que estamos realizando. +Est siendo dirigido por uno de nuestros colaboradores, Alan Horsager en la USC, y se procura que sea comercializado por una empresa nueva, Eos Neuroscience, financiada por el NIH. +Y aqu vemos un ratn tratando de salir del laberinto. +Es un laberinto de 6 brazos. Y tiene un poco de agua para motivar al ratn a moverse, o se quedara all sentado. +El objetivo del laberinto, por supuesto, es salir del agua e ir a una pequea plataforma que est en el puerto superior iluminada. +Ahora, los ratones son inteligentes, asi que este ratn al final sale del laberinto pero hace una bsqueda por fuerza bruta. +Nada por todas las vas hasta que finalmente llega a la plataforma. +Asi que no est usando la visin para lograrlo. +Estos ratones son mutaciones diferentes que semejan distintos tipos de ceguera que afectan a los humanos. +Por eso somos cuidadosos en tratar de observar los distintos modelos asi que llegamos a un enfoque generalizado. +Asi que Cmo vamos a resolver esto? +Vamos a hacer exactamente lo que esbozamos en la diapositiva anterior. +Vamos a tomar estos fotosensores de luz azul y los vamos a instalar en una capa de clulas en el medio de la retina en la parte posterior del ojo para convertirlo en una cmara. Es como instalar celdas solares en esas neuronas para hacerlas sensibles a la luz. +En ellos la luz se convierte en electricidad. +Asi que este ratn era ciego un par de semanas antes de este experimento y recibi una dosis de esta molcula fotosensible en un virus. +Ahora pueden ver, el animal puede de hecho evitar paredes e ir a esta pequea plataforma y hacer un uso cognitivo de sus ojos nuevamente. +Y para destacar el poder que tiene esto: estos animales son capaces de llegar a esa plataforma justo tan rpido como los animales que han visto toda la vida. +Por eso creo que este estudio pre-clnico es un buen presagio para el tipo de cosas que esperamos hacer en el futuro. +Para terminar, quiero sealar que tambin estamos explorando nuevos modelos de negocio para este nuevo campo de la neurotecnologa. +Estamos desarrollando estas herramientas pero las compartimos en forma gratuita con cientos de grupos de todo el mundo de tal manera que la gente pueda estudiar y tratar diferentes trastornos. +Y esperamos que al entender los circuitos cerebrales a un nivel de abstraccin tal que nos permita repararlos y disearlos podamos tomar alguno de estos trastornos intratables que les mencion antes, que prcticamente no tienen cura, y hacer que en el siglo XXI sean historia. +Gracias. +Juan Enriquez: Algunas de las cosas son un poco densas. +Pero las consecuencias de poder controlar las convulsiones o la epilepsia con luz en vez de medicamentos y poder identificar eso especficamente es un primer paso. +Otra cosa que creo haber odo es que ahora tu puedes controlar el cerebro con dos colores. Como un interruptor encendido/apagado. +Ed Boyden: Correcto. +JE: Lo que hace de todo impulso que va al cerebro un cdigo binario. +EB: Correcto, s. +Con la luz azul podemos conducir la informacin, en forma de uno. +Y atenundola, sera como un cero. +As esperamos, al final, construir coprocesadores del cerebro que funcionen con ste para poder aumentar las funciones de las personas con discapacidad. +JE: Y, en teora, eso significa que la forma en que el ratn siente, huele, oye, toca, tu puedes modelar eso como una cadena de unos y ceros. +EB: S, claro. Esperamos usar esto como una manera de probar qu cdigos neurales guan determinados comportamientos, determinados pensamientos y sentimientos, y usar eso para entender ms al cerebro. +JE: Significa eso que algn da se podrn descargar memorias y quiz cargar memorias? +EB: Bueno, eso es algo en lo que estamos empezando a trabajar arduamente. +Ahora estamos trabajando en un trabajo para revestir el cerebro con elementos que registren tambien. +As, podemos grabar informacin y luego recuperarla; es como calcular qu necesita el cerebro para aumentar su procesamiento de informacin. +JE: Bueno, eso podra cambiar un par de cosas. Gracias. (EB: Gracias). +Hola, mi nombre es Thomas Heatherwick. +Tengo un estudio en Londres que tiene un enfoque particular sobre el diseo de edificios. +Mientras creca conoc el trabajo manual, el arte, los materiales y la invencin a pequea escala. +Y miraba la gran escala de los edificios y hallaba que los que me rodeaban y los que se estaban diseando y que estaban en las publicaciones de la poca parecan fros y sin alma. +Y en la escala ms pequea, en la escala de un pendiente, o de una vasija de cermica, o de un instrumento musical, haba materialidad y sentimiento. +Y eso me marc. +Hace 20 aos constru mi primer edificio. +Y, desde entonces en los ltimos 20 aos, instal un estudio en Londres. +Por cierto, esta era mi madre en su tienda de accesorios en Londres. +Yo pas mucho tiempo contando cuentas y cosas por el estilo. +Slo les voy a mostrar, para quienes no conocen el trabajo de mi estudio, algunos proyectos en los que trabajamos. +Este es el edificio de un hospital. +Esta es una tienda de bolsos. +Estos son estudios de artistas. +Esta es una escultura hecha de 900 km de alambre y 150 000 cuentas de vidrio del tamao de una pelota de golf. +Y esto es un escaparate. +Y este es un par de torres de refrigeracin de una subestacin elctrica cercana a la catedral St. Paul de Londres. +Y este es un templo en Japn para un monje budista. +Y este es un caf al lado del mar en Gran Bretaa. +Y, muy brevemente, algo en lo que estuve trabajando hace poco, un encargo del alcalde de Londres para disear un nuevo autobs que le devuelva a los pasajeros la libertad perdida. +Porque el Routemaster original que a algunos de Uds les resulta familiar -tena esta plataforma abierta atrs- de hecho, creo que todos nuestros Routemasters ahora estn aqu en California. +Pero no estn en Londres. +Por eso uno se apretuja en el autobs. +Y si est por parar y estamos a 2 metros de la parada quedamos prisioneros. +Pero el alcalde de Londres quera reinsertar estos buses con plataformas abiertas. +As que estuvimos trabajando con Transportes de Londres; esa organizacin no ha tenido a su cargo, como cliente, nuevos autobuses en 50 aos. +As que hemos tenido mucha suerte de tener esta oportunidad. +En resumen, el autobs debera usar 40% menos de energa. +Tiene propulsin hbrida. +Hemos estado trabajando para tratar de mejorar todo: desde el tejido hasta el formato, la estructura y la esttica. +Iba a mostrarles 4 proyectos principales. +Este es el proyecto de un puente. +Nos encargaron un diseo de un puente que se abriera. +Y la apertura pareca... todos aman la apertura de puentes; es algo bastante elemental +que todos nos paramos a mirar. +Pero los puentes que vimos que se abran y cerraban -soy un poco aprensivo- pero una vez vi una foto de un futbolista que iba en busca de la pelota. +Y mientras lo haca alguien le golpe la rodilla y se la quebr de este modo. +Y cuando miramos este tipo de puentes no podemos dejar de sentir que es algo hermoso que se ha quebrado. +Y esto es en Paddington, en Londres. +Como ven, es un puente muy aburrido. +Es slo acero y madera. +Pero hicimos hincapi, en vez de eso, en su funcionamiento. +Nos gustaba la idea de que los dos extremos del puente acabaran besndose. +Tuvimos que reducir a la mitad su velocidad, porque todos se asustaban mucho al principio. +Esto es una vista acelerada. +Un proyecto en el que estuvimos trabajando hace poco es el diseo de una central elctrica de biomasa; es decir, una central elctrica que usa desechos orgnicos. +En las noticias el tema del futuro aprovisionamiento de agua y del aprovisionamiento de energa est en todos los peridicos todo el tiempo. +Y solamos estar muy orgullosos de la manera de generar energa. +Pero desde hace poco los informes anuales de las empresas elctricas no tienen plantas de energa. +Hay nios corriendo por el campo o cosas por el estilo. +Y cuando vino un consorcio de ingenieros y nos propuso trabajar con ellos en esta central elctrica pusimos la condicin de que trabajaramos con ellos y que, sin importar qu hiciramos, seguro no bamos a decorar una central elctrica normal. +Y en su lugar, tuvimos que aprender; les obligamos a ensearnos. +As, pasamos algo de tiempo viajando con ellos y aprendiendo sobre los distintos elementos y descubriendo que haba muchas ineficiencias, que se estaba desaprovechando mucho; +que tomar un campo y ponerle todas esas cosas no necesariamente es la manera ms eficiente de trabajar. +As que vimos la manera de acomodar todos los elementos -en vez de slo basura, de crear una composicin. +Y hallamos que esta es la zona ms pobre de Gran Bretaa. +Fue votado como el peor lugar para vivir en Gran Bretaa. +Y se construyen 2.000 nuevos hogares cerca de esta central elctrica. +Se perciba la dimensin social de esto. +Tiene una importancia simblica. +Y deberamos estar orgullosos de nuestras fuentes de energa en vez de tener que necesariamente avergonzarnos de ellas. +Por eso buscamos la manera de construir una central elctrica que, en vez de expulsar a la gente y poner una gran cerca exterior, pudiera ser un lugar que atraiga. +Y tiene que ser -estoy tratando- de 60 m de alto. +Creemos posible tratar de hacer un parque energtico que de verdad incluya a toda la zona y aproveche el suelo sin uso que est en el sitio; tambin podramos hacer una central elctrica silenciosa. +Porque justo ese suelo podra significar la diferencia acstica. +Y tambin hallamos que podramos hacer una estructura ms eficiente y encontrar una manera efectiva de construir dicha estructura. +El proyecto terminado fue diseado para que sea ms que una estacin de energa. +Tiene un espacio donde puede hacerse un bar mitzvah en la parte superior. +Y es un parque energtico. +As que la gente puede venir y experimentarlo y tambin echar un vistazo a la zona y usar esa altura que tenemos para su funcin. +En Shanghai, nos invitaron a construir -bueno, no nos invitaron; qu estoy diciendo! +Ganamos el concurso y fue difcil llegar all. +Ganamos el concurso para construir el pabelln del R.U. +Una expo es algo muy loco. +Hay 250 pabellones. +Es la exposicin mundial ms grande de toda la historia. +Por eso haba all hasta un milln de personas por da. +250 pases en competencia. +Y el gobierno britnico dijo: "Tienes que estar entre los 5 primeros". +As que ese se volvi el objetivo de gobierno: cmo sobresalir en este caos que es una expo de estmulos? +Sentimos que tenamos que hacer una sola cosa, una y solo una cosa, en vez de tratar de hacer de todo. +Y otra cosa que sentimos era que no podamos hacer una publicidad barata de Gran Bretaa. +Pero lo cierto era que la expo era sobre el futuro de las ciudades y en particular los victorianos fueron pioneros en integrar la Naturaleza con las ciudades. +Y el primer parque pblico del mundo de los tiempos modernos estuvo en Gran Bretaa. +Y la primer institucin botnica del mundo est en Londres. Y tienen este proyecto extraordinario en el que han estado recolectando 25% de las especies de plantas del planeta. +De repente nos dimos cuenta que exista esto. +Y todos concuerdan en que los rboles son hermosos. Nunca he odo a nadie decir: "No me gustan los rboles". +Y pasa lo mismo con las flores. +Nunca he odo a nadie decir: "No me gustan las flores". +Pero nos dimos cuenta que las semillas -existe este proyecto muy serio pero esas semillas... en estos jardines botnicos importantes las semillas no se muestran. +Pero uno va a un centro de jardinera y all estn en sobres de papel. +Pero existe este proyecto fenomenal. +Nos dimos cuenta que tenamos que hacer un proyecto con semillas, una especie de Catedral de Semillas. +Pero, cmo mostrar estas cosas tan diminutas? +Nos ayud la pelcula "Parque Jursico". +Porque el ADN del dinosaurio atrapado en el mbar nos dio alguna pista de que estas cosas diminutas podan quedar atrapadas para hacerlas algo precioso en vez de que parezcan nueces. +As que el desafo fue: cmo transportar luz y exponer estas cosas? +No queramos hacer un edificio separado y tener contenido separado. +Por eso tratbamos de pensar cmo hacer surgir una cosa completa. +Por cierto, tenamos la mitad del presupuesto que el resto de los pases de Occidente. +As que eso tambin estaba en el mix con el sitio del tamao de un campo de ftbol. +Y un juguete en particular nos dio una pista. +Locutor: la nueva tienda del juego de masa capilar. +Cancin: Tenemos la masa capilar, la masa capilar Slo gira la silla y la masa capilar crece Es la masa capilar Thomas Heatherwick: Bien, se entiende la idea. +La idea era tomar esas 66 mil semillas que estaban de acuerdo en darnos, tomar cada semilla y atraparla en este precioso cabello ptico y hacerlo crecer en este contenedor, un elemento contenedor muy simple, y con eso hacer un edificio que se mueva con el viento. +Y as todo se puede mover suavemente al comps del viento. +Y, dentro, la luz del da -cada uno es una ptica y permite el ingreso de luz hacia el centro. +Y de noche emana una luz artificial de cada uno y sale hacia el exterior. +Y para que el proyecto fuera econmico concentramos nuestra energa. +En vez de construir un edificio grande como un campo de ftbol nos centramos en este nico elemento. +Y el gobierno estuvo de acuerdo en eso y en no hacer otra cosa y que centremos la energa en eso. +Por eso el resto del sitio era un espacio pblico. +Y con un milln de personas all cada da era como ofrecer algo de espacio pblico. +Trabajamos con un fabricante de Astro Turf para desarrollar una versin en miniatura de la Catedral de Semillas para que, incluso para gente con visin reducida, fuese crujiente y suave la parte del paisaje que vieran all. +Y luego, ya saben, como cuando hay que operar a una mascota y hay que afeitarle una parte y quitarle un poco de piel... para que se pudiera entrar a la Catedral de Semillas en efecto, la afeitamos. +Y dentro no hay nada; no est la voz de una actor famoso; no hay proyecciones; no hay televisin; no hay colores que cambian; +slo hay silencio y temperatura fresca. +Y si pasa una nube puede verse una nube en las puntas por donde se cuela la luz. +Este es el nico proyecto que hemos hecho en el que el producto terminado parece ms una representacin que nuestras representaciones. +Un factor clave fue la interaccin con la gente. +Digo, de modo que era lo ms serio que se poda hacer en la expo. +Y slo quera mostrarles. +El gobierno britnico -cualquier gobierno es, en potencia, el peor cliente del mundo que uno quisiera tener en la vida. +Hubo momentos de mucho terror. +Pero hubo un apoyo subyacente. +Y hubo un momento en el que de repente... en realidad, lo que viene. +Esta es la direccin de Comercio e Inversin del R.U. que fue nuestro cliente con los nios chinos, usando el paisaje. +Nios: Uno, dos, tres, vamos. +TH: Lo siento por mi voz tonta. +Al final, la textura cuenta. +En los proyectos en los que trabajamos estos edificios logrados, tal vez con formas elaboradas, pero donde la materialidad se siente lo mismo, es algo que realmente hemos tratado de investigar y de explorar alternativas. +Y el proyecto que estamos construyendo en Malasia es un edificio de apartamentos de un promotor inmobiliario. +Y se encuentra en un terreno que es ese sitio. +Y el alcalde de Kuala Lumpur dijo que, si este promotor le devuelve algo a la ciudad, ellos le daran ms superficie bruta construible. +As que haba un incentivo para el promotor para que tratara de pensar en lo mejor para la ciudad. +Lo controvertido de los edificios de apartamentos en esta parte del mundo es que tienes tu torre, aprietas unos rboles en los bordes y ves los coches estacionados. +En verdad, uno experimenta el primer par de pisos y el resto es slo para las postales. +El valor ms bajo est en la parte inferior de una torre como sta. +As que si pudiramos quitar eso y darle a la construccin una base pequea podramos quitar ese pedazo y ponerlo arriba donde est el valor comercial ms alto para un promotor inmobiliario. +Y uniendo estas cosas podramos tener el 90% del sitio como selva tropical en vez de tener slo el 10% de rboles apretujados y calles entre edificios. +As que estamos construyendo estos edificios. +En realidad son idnticos, por lo que es muy rentable. +Estn recortados a diferentes alturas. +Pero el factor clave es tratar de devolver un paisaje extraordinario en vez de devorarlo. +Y esa es mi ltima diapositiva. +Gracias. +Gracias. +June Cohen: Gracias. Gracias, Thomas. Eres una delicia. +Puesto que tenemos un minuto ms pens que quiz podras contarlos un poquito ms sobre estas semillas que quiz provengan de la parte quitada al edificio. +TH: Estas provienen de las pruebas que hicimos al construir la estructura. +Haba 66 mil de estas. +Esta ptica tena 6 metros de largo. +Entonces entraba la luz del da -era capturada afuera de la caja y entraba para iluminar cada semilla. +La impermeabilizacin del edificio fue un poco loca. +Porque es muy difcil impermeabilizar edificios de todos modos pero si le haces 66 mil hoyos lleva mucho tiempo. +Hubo una persona entre los contratistas que tena el tamao adecuado -y no era un nio- que pudo calzarlas para la prueba final de impermeabilizacin. +JC: Gracias, Thomas. +Soy pediatra y anestesilogo, as que me gano la vida durmiendo nios. +Y soy acadmico, as que duermo gratuitamente al pblico. +Pero sobre todo trabajo con el manejo del dolor en el Packard Children's Hospital de Stanford en Palo Alto. +Y con la experiencia ganada en 20 25 aos de hacer esto esta maana quiero contarles que el dolor es una enfermedad. +Ahora, la mayora de las veces se piensa que el dolor es el sntoma de una enfermedad. Y la mayora de las veces es cierto. +Es el sntoma de un tumor, o de una infeccin o de una inflamacin, o de una operacin. +Pero cerca del 10% de las veces, despus que el paciente se ha recuperado de uno de esos casos, el dolor persiste. +Persiste por meses y muchas veces durante aos. Y cuando eso ocurre, esa es su propia enfermedad. +Y antes de contarles qu creemos que sucede y qu podemos hacer en este caso, quiero mostrarles qu sienten mis pacientes. +Imagnense, si quieren, que estoy acaricindoles el brazo con esta pluma, como estoy acariciando el mo en este momento. +Ahora quiero que imaginen que lo estoy acariciando con esto. +Por favor, qudense en sus puestos. +Una sensacin muy diferente. +Ahora, qu tiene que ver esto con el dolor crnico? +Imagnense, si quieren, estas dos ideas juntas. +Imagnense cmo seran sus vidas si fueran acariciados con esta pluma, pero sus cerebros les dijeran que esto es lo que estn sintiendo - y esa es la experiencia de mis pacientes con el dolor crnico. +De hecho, imagnense algo todava peor. +Imagnense que estuviera acariciando el brazo de sus nios con esta pluma y su cerebro les dijera que lo sintieran como una antorcha caliente. +Esa fue la experiencia de mi paciente Chandler, que pueden ver en esta fotografa. +Como pueden ver, es una hermosa joven. +Cuando la conoc el ao pasado tena 16 aos y aspiraba a ser una bailarina profesional. +Y durante el curso de uno de sus ensayos de baile, cay sobre su brazo extendido y se torci la mueca. +Probablemente ahora imaginarn lo mismo que pens ella, que un esguince de mueca es un caso trivial en la vida de una persona. +Se lo envuelve con una venda, Se toma ibuprofeno por 1 2 semanas y caso resuelto. +Pero en el caso de Chandler, ese fue el inicio de la historia. +As le qued el brazo cuando vino a mi clnica unos tres meses despus del esguince. +Observen que el brazo tiene una decoloracin prpura. +Era fro como si estuviera muerto. +Los msculos estaban helados, paralizados - distnicos como decimos. +El dolor se haba extendido de la mueca a sus manos, a las yemas de los dedos, desde la mueca hasta el codo, casi llegndole hasta el hombro. +Pero lo peor no era el dolor espontneo que senta 24 horas al da. +Lo peor era que tena alodinia, un trmino mdico usado para el fenmeno que acab de explicar con la pluma y la antorcha. +El menor roce en el brazo - el roce con una mano, incluso el contacto de una manga, de una prenda al ponrsela - le causaba un dolor insoportable, mucho ardor. +Cmo puede el sistema nervioso equivocarse as? +Cmo puede el sistema nervioso malinterpretar una sensacin inocente como el roce de una mano y convertirla en una sensacin tan maligna como el contacto con el fuego? +Bien, probablemente imaginarn que el sistema nervioso es como el cableado de su casa. +En su casa los cables pasan por la pared desde el interruptor de la luz a una caja de conexiones en el techo y desde la caja de conexiones a la bombilla. +Y cuando se enciende el interruptor, la luz se enciende. +Y cuando se apaga el interruptor, la luz se apaga. +La gente se imagina que el sistema nervioso funciona as. +Si se golpea el pulgar con un martillo, estos cables del brazo - que obviamente nosotros llamamos nervios - transmiten la informacin a la caja de conexiones en la mdula espinal donde los cables nuevos, los nervios nuevos, llevan la informacin hasta el cerebro cuando se da cuenta que su pulgar se ha lesionado. +Pero por supuesto la situacin en el cuerpo humano es mucho ms complicada. +Estas clulas, llamadas clulas gliales, antes se pensaba que eran elementos estructurales sin importancia en la mdula espinal que slo cumplan la funcin de mantener unidas todas las cosas importantes como los nervios. +Pero la verdad es que las clulas gliales juegan un papel vital en la modulacin, amplificacin y, en el caso del dolor, la distorsin de las experiencias sensoriales. +Estas clulas gliales se activan. +Su ADN comienza a sintetizar protenas nuevas, que se derraman e interactan con los nervios adyacentes. Y empiezan a liberar sus neurotransmisores. Y estos neurotransmisores se derraman y activan clulas gliales adyacentes y as sucesivamente, hasta que haya una retroalimentacin positiva. +Es casi como si alguien fuera a su casa y cambiara el cableado de sus paredes, de modo que la prxima vez que encendiera el interruptor de luz, se tirara la cadena del bao, su lavavajillas se encendiera o se apagara el monitor de su computadora. +Eso es una locura, pero de hecho, eso es lo que sucede con el dolor crnico. +Y es por eso que el dolor se convierte en su propia enfermedad. +El sistema nervioso tiene plasticidad. +Cambia y se transforma en respuesta a los estmulos. +Bueno, qu hacemos al respecto? +Qu podemos hacer en un caso como el de Chandler? +Actualmente tratamos a estos pacientes de forma ms cruda. +Los tratamos con frmacos modificadores de los sntomas - analgsicos - que francamente no soy muy eficaces para este tipo de dolor. +Tomamos los nervios que son ruidosos y activos que deberan estar en silencio, y los ponemos a dormir con analgsicos locales. +Y lo ms importante que hacemos es usar un riguroso, y a menudo, incmodo proceso de terapia fsica y terapia ocupacional para reeducar los nervios en el sistema nervioso para que respondan de forma normal a las actividades y experiencias sensoriales que forman parte de la vida cotidiana. +Y apoyamos a todo aquel que con un programa de psicoterapia intensiva hace frente al desnimo, la desesperacin y la depresin que acompaa siempre el dolor crnico severo. +Es exitoso, como se puede ver en este vdeo de Chandler, que, dos meses despus de conocerla, ahora est haciendo una voltereta. +Y ayer almorc con ella porque es estudiante universitaria de danza aqu en Long Beach. Y le est yendo muy bien. +Pero el futuro es incluso ms brillante. +De esta manera ojal que en el futuro se cumplan las palabras profticas de George Carlin que deca: "Mi filosofa: No hay dolor, no hay dolor". +Muchas gracias. +Quiero llevarlos de viaje a un mundo extrao. +No es un viaje que implique recorridos de aos luz pero s ir a un lugar definido por la luz. +Es un hecho poco conocido que la mayora de los animales del ocano producen luz. +Pas la mayor parte de mi carrera estudiando este fenmeno llamado bioluminiscencia. +Y lo estudio porque creo que entenderlo es fundamental para entender la vida en el ocano donde es ms frecuente la bioluminiscencia. +Tambin lo uso como herramienta de visualizacin y seguimiento de la contaminacin. +Pero sobre todo porque me fascina. +Desde mi primera inmersin en sumergible en aguas profundas, cuando baj y apagu la luz y vi los fuegos artificiales, me hice adicta a la bioluminiscencia. +Pero volva de esas inmersiones y trataba de compartir la experiencia con palabras que resultaban totalmente inadecuadas para tal fin. +Tena que poder compartir la experiencia en directo. +La primera vez que comprend cmo hacerlo fue en este pequeo sumergible unipersonal llamado Deep Rover. +En el siguiente video clip van a ver cmo estimulamos la bioluminiscencia. +Lo primero que van a ver es una pantalla transecto de alrededor de un metro de ancho. +Narrador: Frente al sumergible una criba de malla entra en contacto con los invertebrados del mar profundo. +Con las luces del sumergible apagadas es posible ver su bioluminiscencia (la luz producida cuando chocan contra la retcula). +Esta es la primera vez que se registra. +Edith Widder: lo grab con una cmara de video intensificada que tiene casi la sensibilidad del ojo humano totalmente adaptado a la oscuridad. +Quiere decir que realmente es lo que veramos de hacer una inmersin en sumergible. +Pero slo para tratar de demostrrselos traje plancton bioluminiscente en lo que es, sin dudas, un intento temerario en una demostracin en vivo. +As que si podemos bajar las luces para que quede lo ms oscuro posible... tengo un frasco con plancton bioluminiscente. +Y notarn que no emite luz en este momento o bien porque est muerto o porque tengo que revolverlo de algn modo para que vean cmo es la bioluminiscencia. +Uy! Lo siento. +Trabajo la mayor parte del tiempo en la oscuridad; estoy acostumbrada. +Bueno. +Esa luz fue generada por un dinoflagelado bioluminiscente, un alga unicelular. +Para qu un alga unicelular necesitara producir luz? +Bueno, para defenderse de sus predadores. +El destello es como un grito de ayuda. +Es lo que se conoce como alarma bioluminiscente antirrobo. Al igual que la alarma del auto o de la casa est diseada para llamar la atencin sobre el intruso para, de ese modo, llevarlo a la captura o ahuyentarlo. +Hay muchos animales que usan esa truco; por ejemplo, este pez dragn negro. +Tiene un rgano lumnico bajo sus ojos. +Tiene una barbilla. +Tiene muchos otros rganos que no pueden ver pero que van a ver en un minuto. +Tuvimos que perseguirlo con el sumergible durante bastante tiempo porque la velocidad mxima de este pez es de un nudo, igual que la velocidad mxima del sumergible. +Pero vali la pena porque lo atrapamos en un dispositivo especial. Lo llevamos al laboratorio del barco y entonces se ilumin todo el pez. +Es increble. +Los rganos lumnicos centellean debajo de los ojos. +La barbilla centellea. +Hay rganos lumnicos en el vientre que parpadean, luces en las aletas. +Es un grito de ayuda; intenta llamar la atencin. +Es fenomenal. +Y normalmente no se llega a ver esto porque cuando los traemos con redes agotamos su luminiscencia. +Hay otras maneras de defenderse con la luz. +Por ejemplo, este camarn libera sus qumicos bioluminiscentes al agua tal y como un calamar o un pulpo podran liberar una nube de tinta. +Esto enceguece o distrae al predador. +Este pequeo calamar se denomina disparador de fuego porque tiene esa capacidad. +Puede parecer un bocado sabroso, o la cabeza de un cerdo con alas... ...pero si se lo ataca interpone una barrera de luz; de hecho, una barrera de torpedos de fotones. +Apenas llegu a apagar las luces a tiempo para que pudieran ver esos picos de luz impactar en la pantalla transecto y luego simplemente brillar. +Es fenomenal. +Hay una gran cantidad de animales en el ocano y la mayora produce luz. +Y tenemos una idea bastante buena de por qu lo hace la mayora. +Lo usan para encontrar alimentos, para atraer parejas, para defenderse de los predadores. +Pero cuando descendemos al fondo del ocano ah es donde las cosas se ponen muy raras. +Y alguno de estos animales quiz sea la inspiracin de muchas de las cosas de "Avatar" pero no hay que viajar a Pandora para verlas. +Son cosas como sta. +Este es un coral dorado, un arbusto. +Crece muy lentamente. +De hecho, se cree que algunos de estos tienen 3.000 aos de antigedad, una de las razones por las que no debera permitirse la pesca de arrastre. +La otra razn es que este arbusto asombroso brilla. +Si uno lo roza, en cualquier lugar que uno lo roce, produce esta luz azul verdosa centelleante que es simplemente impresionante. +Y se ven cosas como sta. +Esto parece salido de un libro de Dr. Seuss; todo tipo de criaturas en toda esta cosa. +Y estas son anmonas atrapamoscas. +Si se las toca, cierran sus tentculos. +Pero si se las sigue tocando empiezan a producir luz. +Y terminan parecindose a una galaxia. +Producen estas cadenas de luz presumiblemente como forma de defensa. +Hay estrellas de mar que producen luz. +Y hay otras que producen bandas de luz que danzan por sus brazos. +Esta parece una planta pero en realidad es un animal. +Y se ancla a la arena inflando un globo al final de su tronco. +As, puede mantenerse en las corrientes muy fuertes como ven aqu. +Pero si la recolectamos muy suavemente y la llevamos al laboratorio y slo la apretamos en la base del tronco produce esta luz que se propaga desde la raz hasta la pluma cambiando de color en el trayecto de verde a azul. +El color y los efectos de sonido se agregaron para que lo disfruten. +Pero no tenemos idea de por qu lo hace. +Aqu hay otra. Es tambin una pluma de mar. +Lleva a una estrella de mar como pasajera. +Es un sable verde de luz. +Y, como la que acaban de ver, puede producir estas bandas de luz. +As que, si aprieto la base, las bandas van de la base a la punta. +Y, si aprieto la punta, van de la punta a la base. +Y qu creen que pasa si aprieto en el medio? +Me interesara mucho conocer sus teoras de lo que sucede. +Entonces, hay un lenguaje de luz en el ocano profundo y recin estamos empezando a entenderlo. Y una manera de hacerlo es imitando muchas de estas exhibiciones. +Este es un seuelo ptico que us. +Lo llamamos medusa electrnica. +Son 16 LEDs azules que podemos programar para diferentes tipos de pantallas. +Y vemos con un sistema de cmaras que desarroll llamado Ojo Marino que, como usa luz infrarroja invisible para la mayora de los animales, pasa desapercibida. +Quiero mostrarles algunas de las respuestas suscitadas en los animales del mar profundo. +La cmara es en blanco y negro. +No tiene alta definicin. +Y lo que ven aqu es una caja de carnada con un puado de una suerte de cucarachas del ocano; hay ispodos por todas partes. +Y justo al frente est la medusa electrnica. +Y cuando empieza a centellear... uno de los LEDs parpadea muy rpido. +Pero tan pronto como empieza a brillar -y se va a ver grande porque florece en cmara- Quiero que miren aqu. +Hay algo pequeo all que responde. +Estamos hablando con algo. +Parece una pequea cadena de perlas, bsicamente, de hecho, tres cadenas de perlas. +Y esto fue muy consistente. +Esto fue en las Bahamas a unos 600 metros. +Bsicamente aqu tenemos una sala de chat porque una vez que empieza, todos hablan. +Y creo que este es un camarn que est liberando sus qumicos bioluminiscentes al agua. +Pero lo genial es que estamos hablando con l. +No s lo que estamos diciendo. +Personalmente, creo que es algo sensual. +Y, finalmente, quiero mostrarles algunas respuestas que grabamos con la primera webcam de alta mar del mundo que instalamos el ao pasado en el Can de Monterrey. +Recin empezamos a analizar todos estos datos. +Primero viene la fuente brillante, que es como una bacteria bioluminiscente. +Y es una seal ptica de que hay carroa en el fondo del ocano. +As que entra este carroero que es un tiburn gigante sixgill. +Y no puedo decir con seguridad que lo atrajo la fuente ptica porque all hay una carnada. +Pero si hubiera estado siguiendo la estela de olor habra llegado desde otra direccin. +Y en realidad parece estar tratando de comer la medusa electrnica. +Es un tiburn sixgill gigante de casi 4 mts. +Bueno, el prximo es de la webcam, y va a ser de la pantalla molinete. +Es una alarma antirrobo. +Era un calamar de Humboldt, un joven calamar de Humboldt de un metro de largo. +Esto es a 900 metros en el Can de Monterrey. +Pero si se trata de una alarma antirrobo, no cabra esperar que ataque directamente a la medusa. +Se supone que atacara a lo que est atacando a la medusa. +Pero vimos muchas respuestas como esta. +Este tipo es un poco ms contemplativo. +"Oye, espera un minuto. +Se supone que all hay algo ms". +Lo est pensando. +Pero es insistente. +Sigue regresando. +Luego se va por unos segundos a pensarlo un poco ms y dice: "Tal vez si entro por otro lado". +No. +Estamos empezando a hacernos una idea, pero apenas comenzamos. +Necesitamos ms ojos en el proceso. +As que si alguno tiene la oportunidad de viajar en sumergible, le pido encarecidamente que suba y se d un chapuzn. +Esto es algo que debera estar en la lista de pendientes de todos porque vivimos en un planeta ocano. +Ms del 90%, del 99%, del espacio de vida del planeta es ocano. +Es un lugar mgico lleno de luces impresionantes y criaturas extraas y maravillosas, raras formas de vida que pueden verse sin viajar a otros planetas. +Pero si se dan el chapuzn por favor recuerden apagar la luz. +Pero les advierto: es adictivo. +Gracias. +Suelo considerar a la audiencia de TED como una maravillosa coleccin de algunas de las personas ms eficaces, inteligentes, intelectuales, conocedoras, experimentadas e innovadoras del mundo. +Y creo que eso es cierto. +Sin embargo, tambin tengo razones para creer que muchos, si no es la mayora, de ustedes estn atando sus zapatos mal. +Bueno, s que eso parece ridculo. +S que parece ridculo. +Y cranme, he vivido esa misma vida triste hasta hace unos 3 aos. +Y lo que me pas fue que compr un par de zapatos, que para m eran muy caros. +Pero esos zapatos vinieron con cordones de nylon redondo, y no poda mantenerlos atados. +As que regres a la zapatera y le dije al vendedor, "Me encantan los zapatos, pero detesto los cordones". +Les dio una mirada y dijo: "Oh, los est atando mal". +Hasta ese momento, yo hubiese pensando que, a los 50 aos, una de las tareas diarias que realmente dominaba era atarme los zapatos. +Pero no era as djenme mostrarles +Esta es la forma en que la mayora de nosotros aprendi a atarse los zapatos. +Ahora bien, como result gracias. +Esperen, hay ms. +Como result, este nudo tiene una forma fuerte y otra dbil, y nos ensearon la forma dbil. +Y as es cmo se distinguen. +Si jalan la trenza desde la base del nudo, vern que el lazo se orienta hacia abajo a lo largo del eje del zapato. +Esta es la forma dbil del nudo. +Pero no se preocupen. +Si empezamos de nuevo y simplemente vamos en la otra direccin alrededor del lazo, tenemos esto, la forma fuerte del nudo. +y si jalamos el cordn debajo del nudo, veremos que el lazo se orienta a lo largo del eje transversal del zapato. +Este es un nudo ms fuerte. Se desatar con menos frecuencia. +Se agacharn menos. +Y no solo eso, tambin se ve mejor. +Lo vamos a hacer una vez ms. +Comencemos como siempre, hagamos la lazada de manera inversa. +Es un poco difcil para los nios, pero creo que ustedes pueden hacerlo. +Jalen el nudo. +Ah est: la forma fuerte de anudar los zapatos. +Ahora, siguiendo el tema de hoy, Me gustara sealar y algo que ya saben que a veces una pequea ventaja en algn momento en la vida puede dar grandes resultados en otro lugar. +Vivan una vida larga y prspera. +Creo que los datos realmente nos pueden hacer ms humanos. +Estamos creando y guardando muchsimos datos acerca de cmo vivimos nuestras vidas y esto nos est permitiendo contar algunas historias increbles. +Hace poco un sagaz terico de los medios twite: "La cultura del siglo 19 fue definida por la novela, la cultura del siglo 20 fue definida por el cine, y la cultura del siglo 21 ser definida por la interfaz." +Y creo que esto va a terminar resultando cierto. +Nuestras vidas estn siendo gobernadas por los datos, y la presentacin de esos datos nos da la oportunidad de hacer unas interfaces increbles que cuenten grandes historias. +As que les voy a mostrar algunos de los proyectos en los que he estado trabajando durante los ltimos dos aos que reflexionan sobre nuestras vidas y nuestros sistemas. +Este es un proyecto llamado Patrones de Vuelo. +Lo que estamos viendo es el trfico de aviones sobre Amrica del Norte durante un perodo de 24 horas. +Como pueden ver, todo comienza a oscurecer y pueden ver a la gente yndose a dormir. +Pueden ver despus de eso en la costa oeste a los aviones movindose a la costa este, los vuelos nocturnos. +Y vern a todos despertndose en la costa este, seguidos por los vuelos europeos llegando en la esquina superior derecha. +Todo el mundo se mueve de la costa este a la costa oeste. +Pueden ver a San Francisco y a Los ngeles empezar a hacer sus viajes hacia Hawi, en la esquina inferior izquierda. +Creo que es una cosa decir que en cada momento hay 140 mil aviones siendo monitoreados por el gobierno federal, y otra cosa es ver ese sistema mientras va fluyendo de lado a lado. +Esta es una imagen del lapso de tiempo de esos mismos datos, pero le he puesto color a cada tipo, para que puedan ver todos los distintos aviones que estn en los cielos encima de nosotros. +Y empec a hacer estos y los puse en Google Maps y pueden hacerles zoom y ver aeropuertos especficos y los patrones que se estn produciendo all. +Y aqu podemos ver como el blanco representa altitudes bajas y el azul representa altitudes superiores. +Y puedes acercarte. Aqu estamos viendo a Atlanta. +Pueden ver que este es un aeropuerto de carga muy importante, y hay muchas cosas distintas pasando. +Tambin se puede ir mirando la altitud cambindo entre modelos y fabricantes. +Vean de nuevo la diversidad. +Y pueden moverse alrededor y ver algunos de los diferentes aeropuertos y los diferentes patrones que muestran. +Aqu nos movemos hacia arriba por la costa este. +Pueden ver un poco del caos que tienen en Nueva York porque los controladores de trnsito areo tienen que lidiar con todos esos aeropuertos importantes muy cercanos. +Y salindonos rpidamente vemos, de nuevo los EE.UU.; pueden ver a Florida en la esquina derecha. +Movindose por la costa oeste, pueden ver a San Francisco y a Los ngeles; grandes zonas de bajo trfico a lo largo de Nevada y Arizona. +Y nosotros estamos ah abajo en Los ngeles y Long Beach en el borde inferior. +Tambin empec a mirar diferentes parmetros, porque pueden elegir qu quieren obtener de los datos. +Aqu estamos mirando vuelos ascendentes versus descendentes. +Y pueden ver, con el tiempo, cmo cambian los aeropuertos. +Pueden ver los ciclos de espera que se comienzan a desarrollar en la parte inferior de la pantalla. +Y pueden ver que despus de un tiempo se invierte la direccin del aeropuerto. +Y este es otro proyecto en el que trabaj con el Laboratorio de Ciudades Sensibles del MIT. +Aqu estamos visualizando las comunicaciones internacionales. +Y es como Nueva York se comunica con otras ciudades internacionales. +Y lo pusimos como un globo terrqueo en vivo en el Museo de Arte Moderna para la exhibicin de "Diseo y la Mente Elstica". +Y tena una transmisin en vivo con 24 horas de retardo, por lo que se poda ver la relacin cambiante y algo de informacin demogrfica que iba revelndose a travs de los datos que enviaba AT&T. +Este es otro proyecto en el que trabaj con el Laboratorio de Ciudades Sensibles y CurrentCity.org. +Y es la visualizacin de mensajes SMS enviados en la ciudad de msterdam. +As que estn viendo el flujo de como las personas envan mensajes SMS desde diferentes partes de la ciudad, hasta que nos acercamos a la vspera de Ao Nuevo, donde todos dicen: "Feliz Ao Nuevo!" hasta que nos acercamos a la vspera de Ao Nuevo, donde todos dicen: "Feliz Ao Nuevo!" +Y esta es una herramienta interactiva donde puedes moverte y ver distintas partes de la ciudad. +Aqu estamos viendo otro evento, llamado el Da de la Reina. +As que de nuevo, se observa este flujo variable diario de personas que envan mensajes SMS desde diferentes partes de la ciudad. +Y luego vamos a ver a la gente empezando a congregarse en el centro de la ciudad para celebrar la noche anterior, lo que se ve justo aqu. +Y despus se puede ver a la gente celebrando el da siguiente. +Y puedes poner pausa y retrocederlo o adelantarlo y ver las diferentes fases. +Entonces ahora cambimonos a algo totalmente diferente. +Algunos de ustedes podrn reconocer esto. +Esta es la mquina mecnica del barn Wolfgang von Kempelen que juega ajedrez. +Y es un robot increble que juega ajedrez muy muy bien, excepto por una cosa: en realidad no es un robot. +De hecho, hay un hombre sin piernas que se sienta en esa caja y controla a este jugador de ajedrez. +Esa fue la inspiracin para un servicio web de Amazon llamado Mechanical Turk (o Turco Mecnico) en honor a este tipo. +Y se basa en la premisa de que hay ciertas cosas que son fciles para la gente, pero muy difciles para las computadoras. +Por lo que hicieron este servicio web y dijeron: "Cualquier programador puede escribir un programa y tener disponibles las mentes de miles de personas." +Mi lado nerd pens: "Wow, esto es increble. +Tendr disponibles las mentes de miles de personas." +Y mi otro lado nerd pens: "Esto es horrible. Esto es demasiado extrao. +Qu significa esto para el futuro de la humanidad, donde todos estaremos conectados a esta cosa gigantesca?" +Probablemente estaba siendo un poco extremo. +Pero qu significa cuando no conocemos el contexto para lo que estamos haciendo, y slo estamos haciendo estos pequeos trabajos? +As que cre esta herramienta de dibujo. +Le ped a la gente que dibujara una oveja mirando hacia la izquierda. +Y les dije: "Te pagar dos centavos por lo que me des." +Y empec a recolectar ovejas. +Y recib muchas, muchas ovejas diferentes. +Un montn de ovejas. +Tom las primeras 10 mil ovejas recibidas y las puse en un sitio web llamado TheSheepMarket.com donde se pueden comprar colecciones de 20 ovejas. +No pueden elegir ovejas especficas, pero pueden comprar un bloque de estampillas para tenerlas. +Y yuxtapuesto sobre esta grilla se ve en realidad, cuando pasas sobre cada oveja, la humanidad detrs de este proceso sumamente mecnico. +Creo que hay algo realmente interesante al ver a la gente a medida que avanzan a travs de este trabajo creativo; algo que todos podemos comprender, este proceso creativo de tratar de obtener algo partiendo de nada. +Creo que fue muy interesante yuxtaponer esta humanidad con esta enorme red distribuida. +Es un poco asombroso lo que hicieron algunas personas. +Y aqu hay algunas estadsticas del proyecto. +La tasa de recepcin aproximada fue de 11 ovejas por hora lo que resultara en un salario de 69 centavos de dlar por hora. +Hubo 662 ovejas rechazadas que no cumplieron los criterios "ovejunos" y fueron expulsadas de la manada. +El tiempo tomado para producir el dibujo vari de cuatro segundos a 46 minutos. +Eso te da una idea de los diferentes grados de motivacin y dedicacin. +Hubieron 7.599 personas que contribuyeron al proyecto o que al menos fueron direcciones IP nicas; entonces fue alrededor de esa cantidad. +Pero slo uno de ellos, de los 7.599, dijo esto: +Por qu? Por qu haces esto? Lo cual me sorprendi mucho. +Esperaba que la gente se preguntara: "Por qu dibuj una oveja?" +Y creo que es una pregunta bastante vlida. +Y hay muchas razones por las que eleg ovejas. +Las ovejas fueron los primeros animales que fueron criados con subproductos procesados mecnicamente, los primeros en ser selectivamente criados para caractersticas productivas, el primer animal en ser clonado. +Obviamente, pensamos en ovejas como seguidoras. +Y est esta conexin a "Le Petit Prince" (El Principito) donde el narrador le pide al prncipe que dibuje una oveja. +l dibuja oveja tras oveja. +El narrador slo queda satisfecho cuando dibuja una caja. +Y l dice: "No se trata de una representacin cientfica de una oveja. +Se trata de tu propia interpretacin y de hacer algo diferente." +Y eso me gusta. +Y este es un clip de "Tiempos modernos" de Charlie Chaplin. +Muestra a Charlie Chaplin enfrentndose a algunos de los cambios principales de la Revolucin Industrial. +En ese entonces, ya no eran fabricantes de zapatos, sino que ahora haban personas pegando suelas en los zapatos de la gente. +Y la idea de la relacin entre una persona y su trabajo cambi mucho. +As que pens que era un clip interesante para dividir en 16 pedazos y meter en el Turco Mecnico con una herramienta de dibujo. +Bsicamente, esto permiti: lo que se ve en el lado izquierdo es el original, y en el lado derecho se ve la imagen interpretada por 16 personas que no tienen idea de qu es lo que estn haciendo. +Y esta fue la inspiracin para un proyecto en el cual trabaj con mi amigo Takashi Kawashima. +Decidimos utilizar el Turco Mecnico para su propsito original, el cual es generar dinero. +As que tomamos un billete de 100 dlares y lo dividimos en 10 mil trozos pequesimos y los metimos al Turco Mecnico. +Le pedimos a la gente que dibujara lo que vean. +Pero aqu no hay criterios ovejunos. +Si la gente dibujaba una persona a rayas o una carita sonriente, quedaba efectivamente metida en el billete. +As que lo que vemos es en realidad una representacin de cuan bien la gente hizo lo que se le pidi que hiciera. +As que tomamos estos billetes de cien dlares y los pusimos en un sitio web llamado TenThousandsCents.com, donde pueden ir y navegar por todas las distintas contribuciones. +Y tambin pueden cambiar billetes reales de 100 dlares por estos billetes falsos y hacer una donacin al Proyecto de Laptops de Cien Dlares, que ahora se conoce como Un Computador Por Nio. +Nuevamente, aqu se ven todos los distintos aportes. +Pueden ver que algunos hicieron hermosas versiones con punteado, como esta ac arriba; pasaron mucho tiempo haciendo versiones realistas. +Y otras personas que dibujaron personas a rayas o caritas sonrientes. +Aqu en el lado derecho al medio vern que un tipo escribi: "$0.01!!! En serio? +Es todo lo que me pagarn por esto?" +Y el ltimo proyecto del Turco Mecnico del que les voy a hablar se llama Bicicleta Construida para 2000. +Esta es una colaboracin con mi amigo Daniel Massey. +Puede que reconozcan a estos dos tipos. +Son Max Mathews y John Kelly de los Laboratorios Bell en los aos 60, donde crearon la cancin "Daisy Bell", que fue la primera cancin cantada por un computador. +Quizs puedan reconocerla de "2001: Una odisea del espacio". +Cuando HAL est muriendo al final de la pelcula empieza a cantar esta cancin, referenciando cuando los computadores se hicieron humanos. +As que re-sintetizamos esta cancin. +Y as es como termino sonando. +Dividimos todas las notas y tambin los fonemas en el canto. +Daisy Bell: Daisy, Daisy... Aaron Koblin: Y tomamos todos los trozos independientes y los metimos en otra peticin para el Turco Mecnico. +As se vera si ustedes fueran al sitio. +Le escriben su cdigo pero primero deben probar su micrfono. +Se les entregara un simple clip de audio. +Y despus trataran de repetir eso lo ms parecido posible con sus propias voces. +Despus de escucharlo y confirmar que es efectivamente lo que grabaron podran entregarlo al Turco Mecnico, sin ms contexto que eso. +Y esto es lo que obtuvimos del primer grupo de grabaciones entregadas. +Queramos ver cmo aplicaba esto a la colaboracin, a la creacin distribuida de msica, donde nadie tena idea de en qu estaban trabajando. +As que si van a la pgina BicycleBuiltforTwoThousand.com pueden escuchar como suena realmente todo esto junto. +Me disculpo por esto. +Y estaba escribiendo software para visualizar escneres lser. +Bsicamente escaneando movimiento en espacio 3D. +Y esto fue visto por un director en Los ngeles llamado James Frost quien dijo: "Esperen un minuto. +Esto significa que podemos filmar un videoclip sin utilizar nada de video?" +As que hicimos precisamente eso. +Hicimos un videoclip para una de mis bandas favoritas, Radiohead. +Y creo que una de mis partes favoritas de este proyecto no fue slo grabar un video con rayos lser, sino que tambin abrimos su cdigo al pblico y lo dejamos como un proyecto Google Code donde la gente poda descargar el cdigo fuente y muchos datos para construir sus propias versiones del clip. +E hicieron algunas cosas increbles. +Aqu tenemos dos de mis favoritos: el Thom Yorke de agujas y el Thom Yorke de LEGO. +Un canal de YouTube completo en el que personas suban contenido realmente interesante. +Hace poco, alguien incluso imprimi la cabeza de Thom Yorke en 3D lo cual es un poco raro, pero bien cool. +Y con todo el mundo haciendo tantas cosas increbles y comprendiendo de verdad qu era lo que hacan, realmente me interes tratar de hacer un proyecto colaborativo donde las personas pudieran trabajar en conjunto para construir algo. +Y me junt con un director de video clips llamado Chris Milk. +Y empezamos a lanzarnos ideas para hacer un proyecto de video clips colaborativos. +Pero sabamos que necesitbamos la persona precisa a quien le pudiramos construir algo que valiera la pena. +As que dejamos la idea en un segundo plano por unos meses. +Y l termin hablando con Rick Rubin quien estaba terminando el ltimo lbum de Johnny Cash llamado "Ain't No Grave" ("No hay tumba"). +La letra de la cancin inicial es "No hay tumba que pueda mantener mi cuerpo sepultado." +As que pensamos que este era el proyecto perfecto para construir un memorial colaborativo y una resurreccin virtual para Johnny Cash. +As que me junt con mi buen amigo Ricardo Cabello, tambin conocido como Sr. Doob, quien es un programador mucho mejor que yo, y l hizo esta asombrosa herramienta de dibujo en Flash. +Como ustedes saben, una animacin es una serie de imgenes. +As que lo que hicimos fue juntar muchos videos de archivo de Johnny Cash, y en ocho cuadros por segundo dejamos que cada persona dibujara uno de esos cuadros que se unira a este entramado de este video musical que cambia dinmicamente. +No me alcanza el tiempo para mostrrselos entero pero les quiero mostrar dos breves clips. +Uno de ellos es el principio del video. +Y eso va a ser seguido por un breve clip de personas que ya han contribuido al proyecto hablando brevemente sobre el video. +Colaborador: Me sent muy triste cuando muri. +Y slo pens que sera maravilloso, que sera muy bueno aportar algo a su memoria. +Colaborador Dos: Logra realmente que su ltima grabacin se vuelva un memorial vivo, que respire. +Colaborador Tres: Por todos los cuadros que dibujan y dibujarn sus fans, cada cuadro especfico conlleva un sentimiento muy poderoso. +Colaborador Cuatro: He visto a todo el mundo desde Japn, Venezuela, a Estados Unidos, a Knoxville, Tennessee. +Colaborador Cinco: Por mucho que sea diferente de cuadro a cuadro, es realmente personal. +Colaborador Seis: Viendo el video en mi habitacin notaba que al principio me costaba entenderlo. +Y slo trabaj y fui solucionando los problemas, hasta que todas las pequeas batallas que luchaba dentro de la imagen comenzaron a resolverse por s solas. +Y pueden ver el momento cuando s lo que estoy haciendo y le llega mucha luz y oscuridad. +Y, de una manera extraa, al mismo tiempo es lo que me gusta de la msica de Johnny Cash. +Es la suma total de su vida, todo lo que haba sucedido; las cosas malas y las cosas buenas. +Estn escuchando la vida de una persona. +AK: As que si van a la pgina web JohnnyCashProject.com, lo que vern en la parte superior es el vdeo. +Y debajo de l estn todos los cuadros individuales que la gente ha estado enviando al proyecto. +As que esto no est para nada terminado, es un proyecto que an sigue en el que la gente puede seguir colaborando. +Si pasas encima de cualquiera de los cuadros se puede ver a la persona que dibujo esa imagen y donde estaba situado. +Y si encuentran uno que les interesa, puede hacer clic sobre l y desplegar un panel de informacin donde puede ponerle una nota a ese cuadro, lo que lo ayuda a ir subiendo en el ranking. +Y tambin pueden ver la forma en la que se dibuj. +Nuevamente, pueden ver el video y la contribucin de la persona. +Adems de eso, se lista el nombre del artista, la ubicacin, el tiempo que pas dibujndolo. +Y pueden elegir un estilo. Este fue etiquetado como "Abstracto". +Pero hay un montn de estilos diferentes. +Y pueden ordenar los videos de varias maneras diferentes. +Pueden decir: "Quiero ver la versin puntillista o la versin trazada o la versin realista". +Y entonces esto es, de nuevo, la versin abstracta, que termina ponindose media loca. +Y el ltimo proyecto que quera mostrarles es otra colaboracin con Chris Milk. +Y esto se llama "El Centro de la Ciudad Silvestre." +Es un video de msica en lnea de la banda The Arcade Fire. +Chris y yo estbamos muy sorprendidos por el potencial actual de los navegadores web, donde tienen audio y video de HTML5 y el poder de JavaScript para cargarlo increblemente rpido. +Y queramos impulsar la idea de un video musical hecho para la Web ms all de la ventana de 4:3 o 16:9 y tratar de que corriera fuera de esta y se coreografiara por toda la pantalla. +Pero lo ms importante, creo, es que queramos crear una experiencia distinta a la del proyecto de Johnny Cash, donde haba un pequeo grupo de personas que pasaron mucho tiempo contribuyendo algo para muchos. +Qu pasara si hubiera algo que necesitara un aporte mnimo que al mismo tiempo entregara algo nico e individual para cada persona que contribuyera? +Y entonces el proyecto comienza pidindoles que ingresen la direccin del hogar donde se criaron. +Y cuando escribes la direccin, lo que hace es crear un video musical especficamente para ti, agregando los mapas de Google y las imgenes de Streetview a la experiencia misma. +Y deberan ver esto en sus casas ingresndole sus propias direcciones pero les voy a dar una pequea muestra de lo que podran esperar. +Y a medida que recolectamos ms y ms datos personales y socialmente relevantes tenemos una oportunidad, y tal vez incluso la obligacin, de preservar su humanidad y contar unas historias increbles mientras exploramos y colaboramos juntos. +Muchas gracias. +Durante los prximos 18 minutos, me gustara compartir con ustedes una idea increble, +una idea verdaderamente extraordinaria. +Pero para empezar, quiero pedirles que cierren los ojos un par de segundos y traten de pensar en algn invento cientfico o tecnolgico que crean que ha cambiado al mundo. +Estoy seguro de que (en este pblico) estarn pensando en tecnologas inimaginables, cosas de las que ni siquiera habr odo hablar. Me apuesto lo que sea. +Pero tambin estoy convencido de que nadie ha pensado en esto. +Esto es una vacuna contra la polio. +Y es algo realmente maravilloso que aqu nadie haya tenido que pensar en ella, porque eso significa que la damos por hecho. +Es una gran tecnologa +y la damos por sentado. +Pero no siempre fue as. +Incluso aqu, en California, tan solo algunos aos atrs la historia era completamente diferente. +A la gente la aterraba esta enfermedad. +La polio los aterraba y poda incluso causar pnico social, +debido a imgenes como esta. +En esta escena, vemos gente viviendo en pulmones de acero, +personas que estaban completamente sanas un par de das antes y, en dos das, ya no pueden respirar. El virus de la polio no solo ha paralizado sus brazos y sus piernas, sino tambin sus msculos respiratorios. +Y bsicamente van a pasar aqu el resto de sus vidas, en estos pulmones de acero que respiran por ellas. +Esta enfermedad era terrorfica: +no haba cura y tampoco haba vacuna. +Esta enfermedad era tan aterradora que el presidente de los EE. UU. puso en marcha un gran esfuerzo nacional para encontrar la forma de pararla. +Veinte aos despus, triunfaron y consiguieron desarrollar la vacuna. +A finales de los 50, fue aclamada como un milagro cientfico. +Por fin una vacuna que poda detener esta horrible afeccin. Aqu en los EE. UU. su impacto fue sorprendente. +Como ven, el virus fue detenido muy, muy rpidamente. +Pero no fue igual en el resto del mundo. +Ocurri todo tan rpido en los EE. UU., que Jon Stewart dijo lo siguiente el mes pasado: Jon Stewart: Dnde hay todava polio? +Porque yo crea que se haba erradicado, igual que la viruela. +Bruce Aylward: Huy. Jon, la polio casi se ha erradicado, +pero en realidad todava existe. +Hemos elaborado este mapa para mostrarle a Jon dnde pervive la polio. +Este es el panorama. +No queda en muchos lugares en el mundo. +La razn de eso es que el esfuerzo comn entre entidades pblicas y privadas ha sido enorme. Personas casi ocultas tras los bastidores que seguramente ninguno de ustedes conoce. +Llevamos 20 aos tratando de erradicar esta enfermedad. Y hemos conseguido reducirla a estos pocos pases que ven en el mapa. +Pero el ao pasado, sufrimos una terrible conmocin: nos dimos cuenta de que quiz lo que hacamos no era suficiente contra la polio. +Esta es la razn: en dos pases que llevaban ms de una dcada sin esta enfermedad, en extremos opuestos del mundo, surgieron de pronto brotes de polio graves. +Cientos de personas se quedaron paralizadas, +otras tantas murieron, tanto nios como adultos... +Y en ambos casos pudimos usar la secuenciacin gentica para analizar los virus y descubrir que no eran originarios de esos pases. +Estos virus haban viajado miles de kilmetros. +En un caso incluso, haba llegado de otro continente. +Y eso no es todo; cuando llegaron a estos pases, en los aviones de pasajeros siguieron viajando a otros lugares, como Rusia, donde por primera vez despus de ms de una dcada, hubo nios que quedaron lisiados o paralizados a causa de un virus que nadie haba visto en aos. +Todos estos brotes que acabo de ensearles estn ya bajo control, y parece que sern detenidos muy pronto. +Pero el mensaje fue muy claro: +la polio es todava una enfermedad devastadora; +solo que afecta a otra parte del mundo. +Nuestra gran idea es que el milagro cientfico de esta dcada debera ser la erradicacin de la poliomielitis. +As que les quiero hablar sobre lo que la Polio Partnership est tratando de conseguir. +No tratamos de controlar la polio, +no intentamos reducirla a unos cuantos casos, porque esta enfermedad es como un fuego latente, puede volver a resurgir si no apagas todas las cenizas. +Lo que estamos buscando es una solucin definitiva. +Queremos un mundo en el que todos los nios, igual que Uds., puedan dar por hecho Ahora buscamos una solucin definitiva. Y estamos de suerte, porque +la polio es uno de los pocos virus en el mundo que tiene tantos puntos dbiles que podemos de verdad intentar hacer algo extraordinario. +Este virus solo sobrevive en las personas +y no vive mucho tiempo en ellas. +No puede sobrevivir prcticamente en el ambiente +y tenemos buenas vacunas, como les mostr. +As que estamos intentando erradicarla para siempre. +El programa para la erradicacin de la polio trata de eliminar el propio virus que causa la enfermedad en todo el mundo. +Sin embargo, no hemos tenido muy buenos resultados en el pasado con esto de erradicar enfermedades. +Lo intentamos seis veces el siglo pasado y solo lo conseguimos una vez, +porque la erradicacin de enfermedades todava un capital-riesgo para la sanidad pblica. +Los peligros son numerosos, pero la recompensa (econmica, humanitaria, motivacional) es incalculable. +Un congresista estadounidense cree que la inversin total de los EE. UU. en la erradicacin de la viruela se recupera cada 26 das con los costes de los tratamientos y las vacunas que se evitan. +Si pudiramos erradicar la polio, los pases ms pobres del mundo se ahorraran 50.000 millones de dlares tan solo en los prximos 25 aos. +Este tipo de cosas son las que estn en juego. +La erradicacin de la viruela fue complicada, muy, muy complicada. +Y la de la polio, en muchos sentidos, es todava peor, por algunas razones. +La primera es que cuando empezamos a tratar de erradicarla hace como 20 aos, ms del doble de pases estaban contagiados de polio que cuando lo hicimos con la viruela. +Y en ellos haba diez veces ms poblacin. +Fue un esfuerzo gigantesco. +El segundo reto que afrontamos fue que, comparada con la viruela (cuya vacuna era muy estable y una sola dosis te protega de por vida), la vacuna de la polio es supremamente delicada. +Se deteriora tan rpido en los trpicos que tuvimos que colocar un testigo especial en cada frasquito, que cambie rpidamente cuando hayan sido expuestos a demasiado calor, y as podamos saber que no debemos usar esa vacuna con ningn nio, porque ya no funcionara, no podra protegerlos. +Pero incluso as, los nios necesitan varias dosis de la vacuna. +El tercer reto que tenemos (y quiz el mayor de ellos) es que, a diferencia la viruela, con la que siempre se vea al enemigo, ya que casi todas las personas infectadas presentaban estas erupciones tan reveladoras. +De esta forma se poda localizar la enfermedad, vacunar a todas las personas cercanas y as detenerla. +La polio es completamente diferente. +La mayora de las personas infectadas no muestra ningn sntoma, en absoluto, +o sea que normalmente no vemos al enemigo. Por eso, hemos tenido que abordar esta enfermedad de manera diferente a como lo hicimos con la viruela. +Hemos tenido que crear uno de los movimientos sociales ms grandes de la historia. +Ms de 10 millones de personas, probablemente 20 millones, casi todos voluntarios, llevan trabajando los ltimos 20 aos en lo que ha sido calificado como la mayor operacin coordinada internacionalmente en tiempos de paz. +Estos 20 millones de personas vacunan a ms de 500 millones de nios cada ao, varias veces, en el momento lgido de la operacin. +Dispensar la vacuna de la polio es sencillo. +Son tan solo dos gotas, as. +Pero llegar a 500 millones de personas es mucho ms complicado. +Estos vacunadores, estos voluntarios, se han tenido que aventurar en algunos de los suburbios urbanos ms duros y densos del mundo. +Han tenido que caminar bajo soles abrasadores hasta llegar a algunas de las zonas ms remotas de la Tierra. +Tambin han tenido que esquivar balas, porque tambin hay que trabajar durante dudosas treguas y altos el fuego, tratando de vacunar a los nios en zonas afectadas por conflictos blicos. +Un reportero vio nuestro programa en Somalia hace cinco aos... Lugar en el que la polio ha sido erradicada no una vez, sino dos, porque reapareci. +Estaba sentado al borde de la carretera, viendo cmo se desplegaba una de nuestras campaas y meses despus escribi: "Esto es ayuda internacional en su forma ms heroica". +Estos hroes vienen de todo tipo de ambientes, de vidas totalmente diferentes. +Uno de los ms extraordinarios es el Club Rotario Internacional, +una asociacin cuyo poderoso ejrcito de un milln de voluntarios lleva trabajando por la erradicacin de la polio ms de 20 aos. +Estn en todo el meollo del asunto. +Les llev aos montar la infraestructura para erradicar la polio, ms de 15 aos, ms de lo que debera haberles llevado... Pero una vez montada, los resultados fueron sorprendentes. +En solo un par de aos, todos los pases que empezaron a luchar contra la polio, erradicaron los tres tipos de virus, excepto estos cuatro pases que ven aqu. +Y en estos pases, solo quedaba en algunas partes. +En 1999, uno de los tres virus de la polio contra los que estbamos luchando fue eliminado por completo de la faz de la tierra, lo cual fue demostrado cientficamente. +Hoy da hemos reducido en un 99%, (en ms de 99%), el nmero de nios que se quedaran paralizados por esta horrible afeccin. +Cuando empezamos, hace ms de 20 aos, este virus paralizaba a mil nios cada da. Mientras que el ao pasado +solo fueron mil en todo el ao. +Pero adems, el programa para la erradicacin de la polio ha intentado mejorar muchos otros problemas, +como ayudando en el control de la gripe pandmica o en el del SRAS. +Tambin se han hecho otras cosas para salvar a los nios durante algunas de estas campaas; como darles vitamina A, o la vacuna del sarampin, o darles mosquiteras para prevenir la malaria. +Pero lo mejor que este programa ha hecho es forzarnos, a nosotros, a la comunidad internacional, a llegar a cualquier nio de cualquier parte del mundo, a las comunidades ms vulnerables del planeta, llevndoles los servicios sanitarios ms bsicos sin tener en cuenta el lugar, la pobreza, la cultura ni la guerra. +Todo pareca muy bien hasta cuando, hace unos cinco aos, el virus, este antiguo virus, comenz a contraatacar. +El primer problema que nos encontramos fue que en estos ltimos cuatro pases, los baluartes del virus, no pareca que pudiramos erradicarlo. +Y para complicarlo todo, el virus empez a extenderse fuera de estos cuatro lugares, sobre todo desde el norte de la India y la Nigeria septentrional hacia el resto de frica, Asia e incluso Europa, causando brotes catastrficos en lugares que llevaban dcadas sin ver la polio. +Y entonces, en uno de los enclaves ms importantes y resistentes del virus de la polio en el mundo, nos dimos cuenta de que nuestra vacuna no estaba funcionando tan bien como debera. +En condiciones como estas, la vacuna simplemente, no poda sobrevivir lo suficiente en los intestinos de estos nios para protegerlos como debiera. +En esa poca, pueden imaginarse la gran frustracin, llammosla as, que comenz a apoderarse de nosotros, cada vez ms rpido. +Y de pronto, algunas autoridades en el mundo de la salud pblica comenzaron a decir: "Un momento, +deberamos abandonar esta idea de la erradicacin. +Busquemos tan solo el control, con eso es suficiente". +Pero la verdad, aunque la idea suene tentadora, es una falsa premisa. +La cruda realidad es que si no logramos, o no queremos, o no tenemos el dinero suficiente, para salvar a estos nios, los ms vulnerables del mundo, con algo tan simple como una vacuna oral para la polio, muy pronto, ms de 200.000 nios al ao van a quedar paralizados por la polio, 200.000 cada ao. +No cabe la menor duda. +Estos son nios como Umar. +Umar tiene siete aos y vive en la Nigeria septentrional, +en su casa con sus ocho hermanos. +Umar tambin tiene polio +y ha quedado paralizado de por vida. +Se le paraliz la pierna derecha en 2004. +Esta pierna, la derecha, le da problemas a menudo; prcticamente se tiene que arrastrar, porque as puede moverse ms rpido para mantener el ritmo de sus amigos y sus hermanos, que usando muletas. +Pero Umar es muy buen estudiante, es un chico increble. +Probablemente no alcanzan a ver lo que dice ah, pero esas son sus notas. Tiene notas perfectas, +ha sacado el 100% en todo lo importante, como en Canciones Infantiles. +Saben qu? Me encantara poder decirles que Umar es el tpico chico con polio hoy en da, pero esa no es la verdad. +Umar es una excepcin en circunstancias excepcionales. +La verdad es que la polio es algo muy diferente hoy da. +La polio azota a las comunidades ms pobres del mundo, +deja paralizados a sus hijos y arrastra a las familias a una pobreza todava ms grave, porque no paran de buscar desesperadamente alguna solucin y se gastan sus pocos ahorros en tratar, en vano, de encontrar una cura para sus hijos. +Los nios se merecen algo mejor. +As que cuando todo iba tan mal en el programa para la erradicacin de la polio, hace unos dos aos, Cuando la gente deca "Deberamos dejarlo", la Polio Partnership decidi volverse a poner manos a la obra y trat de encontrar nuevas soluciones innovadoras, nuevas formas de salvar a los nios que se nos estaban yendo ms y ms. +En el norte de la India, empezamos a cartografiar los casos usando imgenes por satlite como estas, para poder orientar mejor nuestra inversin y nuestros refugios a fin de llegar a los millones de nios de la cuenca del ro Kosi, en la que no hay ningn otro servicio sanitario. +En la Nigeria septentrional, tanto los lderes polticos como los lderes musulmanes tradicionales se implicaron directamente en el programa y nos ayudaron con algunos problemas logsticos y de confianza con las comunidades. +E incluso han empezado a utilizar estos dispositivos (tecnologa bien chvere), estos aparatitos, rastreadores SIG como este, que ponen en las vacunas que llevan sus vacunadores, +para seguirles el rastro y al final del da, ver si lograron visitar todas las casas de todas las calles. +Esta es la clase de compromiso que tenemos para logar llegar a los nios que habamos perdido. +En Afganistn tambin estamos probando cosas nuevas, como los negociadores de acceso. +Trabajamos codo con codo con el Comit Internacional de la Cruz Roja para asegurarnos de llegar a todos los nios. +Pero mientras probbamos estas ideas extraordinarias, mientras algunos se esforzaban en reelaborar las tcticas de trabajo, nosotros revisamos la vacuna, que tena ya 50 aos. Pensamos que podramos mejorarla, de manera que cuando llegara a los nios fuera mucho ms rentable que antes. +As empez una colaboracin intensa con la industria. En solo seis meses, hace unos dos aos, estbamos probando la nueva vacuna, que estaba dirigida contra los dos tipos de polio que todava existen. +El nueve de junio de 2009, obtuvimos los resultados de la primera prueba de la vacuna; cambi todo el panorama. +Esta nueva vacuna result ser el doble de efectiva con estos virus comparada con la antigua, e inmediatamente comenzamos a usarla. +En un par de meses tenamos que producirla, +llevarla de las lneas de distribucin hasta las bocas de los nios de todo el mundo. +Y no empezamos por los sitios ms fciles. +El primer lugar en el que la utilizamos fue en el sur de Afganistn, porque son sitios como este en los que los nios pueden beneficiarse ms de este tipo de tecnologas. +En TED, durante el ltimo par de das, he visto a varias personas desafiando al pblico una y otra vez a creer en lo imposible. +Esta maana a las 7 decid sacar de quicio a Chris y a todo el equipo de produccin, pidindoles que descargaran de nuevo todos los datos sobre la India, para que ustedes pudieran ver algo totalmente nuevo que demuestra que lo imposible es posible. +Hace tan solo 2 aos, la gente deca que esto era imposible. +Recuerden que el norte de la India es el lugar ideal para la polio. +Ms de 500.000 nios nacen en los dos estados en los que siempre ha habido polio (Uttar Pradesh y Bihar). 500.000 nios al mes. +La higiene es horrible y nuestra antigua vacuna tena una eficacia reducida a la mitad. +Y, sin embargo, el imposible est ocurriendo. +Hoy hace exactamente seis meses que por primera vez en la historia, ningn nio ha quedado paralizado en Uttar Pradesh o en Bihar. +La India no es la excepcin. +En el pas de Umar, en Nigeria, se redujo un 95% el nmero de nios paralizados por la polio el ao pasado. +Y en los ltimos seis meses, es el parodo en toda la historia que menos lugares se han reinfectado de polio. +Seoras y seores; gracias a la combinacin de gente inteligente con buena tecnologa y sabias inversiones, podemos ahora erradicar la polio en cualquier parte. +Como pueden imaginar, todava nos quedan grandes retos para terminar este trabajo, pero tambin han visto que es posible. Tambin hay grandes beneficios secundarios; la erradicacin de la polio es toda una ganga. +Mientras algn nio en el mundo se quede paralizado por este virus, es un recordatorio de que, como sociedad, estamos fallndole a estos nios, negndoles los servicios ms bsicos. +Por esta razn, la erradicacin de la polio es lo ms fundamental en equidad, lo ms importante en justicia social. +El enorme movimiento social que se ha involucrado en la erradicacin de la polio est preparado para hacer mucho ms por los nios; +llevarles mosquiteras, cualquier otra cosa. +Para acabar el trabajo que empezaron hace 20 aos, hemos de sacar provecho de su entusiasmo, de su energa. +Erradicar la polio es algo inteligente, es lo correcto. +Es verdad que la situacin econmica es difcil, +pero como el britnico David Cameron dijo hace un mes hablando sobre la polio: "Nunca es un mal momento para hacer lo correcto". +Terminar la erradicacin de la polio es lo correcto. +Y ahora estamos en la encrucijada de este gran esfuerzo de los ltimos 20 aos. +Tenemos una nueva vacuna, tenemos una nueva resolucin y tambin una tctica nueva. +Tenemos la oportunidad de escribir un nuevo captulo sin polio en la historia de la humanidad. +Pero si dudamos ahora, perderemos para siempre la oportunidad de erradicar esta vieja enfermedad. +Esta es la idea que quiero compartir: erradiquemos ya la polio. +Aydennos a compartir esta idea, +aydennos a ganar fuerza, para que muy pronto, todos los nios, todos los padres, en todo el mundo puedan dar por sentado, para siempre, una vida sin polio. +Gracias. +Bill Gates: Bueno Bruce, cules crees que sern los lugares ms difciles? +Dnde crees que deberamos estar ms atentos? +BA: En los cuatro lugares donde hemos visto que nunca ha parado... Nigeria septentrional, el norte de la India, la esquina sur de Afganistn y las reas fronterizas de Pakistn, esas van a ser las peores. +Pero lo ms interesante de esas zonas... La India va bastante bien, ya vieron los datos. +Y Afganistn... bueno, creemos que la polio ha desaparecido en varias ocasiones, +pero siguen reinfectndose. +As que las peores van a ser la Nigeria septentrional y Pakistn. +Estas van a ser las ms difciles. +BG: Y el dinero? +Danos una idea de cunto cuesta un ao de campaa. +Y, es fcil recaudar el dinero? +Y qu ocurrir en el prximo par de aos? +BA: Eso es interesante. +Ahora mismo gastamos de 750 a 800 millones de dlares al ao. +Eso es lo que cuesta vacunar a 500 millones de nios. +Parece mucho dinero, es mucho dinero... +pero cuando tratas a 500 millones de nios ms de una vez, 20 o 30 cntimos por nio, eso no es mucho dinero. +Pero ahora mismo no tenemos suficiente. +Nos falta dinero, as que recortamos los bordes. Pero cada vez que lo hacemos, hay sitios que se infectan y que no deberan, y eso nos retrasa. +Ese ahorro al final nos sale caro. +BG: Ojal logremos difundir el mensaje y los gobiernos sean cada vez ms generosos. +Buena suerte. Estamos todos contigo en esto. +Gracias. (BA: Gracias). +La historia que quiero compartir con Uds. hoy es mi desafo como artista iran, como mujer artista iran como mujer y artista de Irn que vive en el exilio. +Tiene sus ms y sus menos. +Del lado oscuro, la poltica no parece apartarse de personas como yo. +Toda mujer artista iran, de una u otra forma, es poltica. +La poltica ha definido nuestras vidas. +Si uno vive en Irn, debe afrontar la censura, el hostigamiento, el arresto, las torturas y... en ocasiones, la ejecucin. +Si vive fuera, como yo, tiene que afrontar la vida en el exilio; el dolor de la nostalgia y la separacin de los seres queridos y de la familia. +Por eso no encontramos el espacio moral, emocional, psicolgico y poltico para distanciarnos de la verdadera responsabilidad social. +Extraamente, una artista como yo se encuentra tambin en la posicin de servir de vocera, de hablar en nombre del pueblo aunque no tenga, en realidad, acceso a mi propio pas. +Adems, las personas como yo, estamos luchando estas batallas en varios campos diferentes. +Somos crticos con Occidente, con la percepcin que se tiene en Occidente sobre nuestra identidad; la imagen fabricada sobre nosotros, sobre nuestras mujeres, sobre nuestra poltica, sobre nuestra religin. +Aqu estamos para, orgullosamente, insistir en el respeto. +Y al mismo tiempo, estamos luchando otra batalla: +contra nuestro rgimen; este Gobierno, este atroz Gobierno, que ha cometido toda clase de crmenes para mantenerse en el poder. +Nuestros artistas estn arriesgndose. +Estamos en una situacin de peligro. +Afrontamos una amenaza ordenada por el Gobierno. +Pero, irnicamente, esta situacin nos ha empoderado a todos, porque somos considerados, como artistas, medulares para el discurso cultural, poltico y social en Irn. +Estamos ah para inspirar, provocar, movilizar y para llevar esperanza a nuestra gente. +Somos reporteros de nuestros compatriotas y comunicadores para el mundo exterior. +El arte es nuestra arma. +La cultura es nuestra forma de resistencia. +En ocasiones envidio a los artistas de Occidente por su libertad de expresin, +por poderse distanciar de la cuestin poltica, +porque ellos solo tienen que servir a una audiencia, bsicamente a la cultura occidental. +Pero tambin me preocupo por Occidente, porque a menudo, en este pas, en este mundo occidental nuestro, la cultura est en riesgo de volverse una forma de entretenimiento. +Nuestra gente depende de sus artistas y la cultura est ms all de la comunicacin. +Mi periplo como artista comenz en un lugar muy, muy personal. +No me inici haciendo comentarios sociales sobre mi pas. +La primera que ven es en realidad cuando regres a Irn despus de una separacin de 12 largos aos. +Fue despus de la Revolucin Islmica de 1979. +Mientras estaba ausente, haba llegado la Revolucin Islmica y haba transformado completamente el pas, que haba pasado de la cultura persa a la islmica. +Volv principalmente para reunirme con mi familia y para volver a conectarme, de tal forma que encontrara mi lugar en la sociedad. +Pero en cambio, encontr un pas totalmente adoctrinado que no pude reconocer. +Adems, me interes mucho... (mientras afrontaba mis propios dilemas e interrogantes personales), y llegu hasta consumirme en el estudio de la Revolucin Islmica; cmo es que haba transformado tan increblemente la vida de las mujeres iranes. +Descubr que el tema de las mujeres iranes era enormemente interesante por cuanto las mujeres de Irn, histricamente, parecen personificar la transformacin poltica. +As que, de cierta manera, al estudiar a la mujer, se puede ver la estructura y la ideologa del Estado. +Entonces form un grupo de trabajo que de inmediato asumi mis propios interrogantes vitales, y tambin me llev a un discurso mayor; al asunto del martirio; el problema de aquellos que voluntariamente se colocan en la interseccin del amor a Dios y la fe y a la vez, de la violencia, el crimen y la crueldad. +Esto se volvi increblemente importante para m. +Y a la vez asum una posicin inusual al respecto. +Yo era una extraa que haba regresado a Irn para encontrar mi lugar, pero no estaba capacitada para criticar al Gobierno ni a la ideologa de la Revolucin Islmica. +Esto cambi gradualmente mientras encontraba mi forma de expresin y descubra ciertas cosas que no esperaba ver. +As, mi arte se hizo ligeramente ms crtico. +Mi cuchillo se afil un tanto. +Y ca a una vida en el exilio. +Soy una artista nmada. +Trabajo en Marruecos, en Turqua, en Mxico. +Voy a todas partes pretendiendo que estoy en Irn. +Ahora estoy haciendo cine. +El ao pasado termin una pelcula llamada "Mujeres sin hombres". +"Mujeres sin hombres" regresa a la historia, pero a otra parte de nuestra historia. +En 1953, cuando la CIA estadounidense llev a cabo un golpe y derroc a un lder elegido democrticamente, al Dr. Mosadeq. +El libro lo escribi una mujer iran, Shahrnush Parsipur. +Es una novela de realismo mgico +que est prohibida. Ella estuvo 5 aos en prisin. +Hice esta pelcula porque crea que era importante hablarle a los occidentales sobre nuestra historia como Estado. +Porque todos ustedes parecen tener una idea de Irn posterior a la Revolucin Islmica. +Pero Irn era antes una sociedad secular, tenamos una democracia y esa democracia nos fue robada por el gobierno de los Estados Unidos y por el Gobierno britnico. +La pelcula tambin habla de la gente iran, al pedirles que regresen a su historia y que se vean cmo eran antes de ser islamizados; cmo nos veamos, cmo tocbamos msica, cmo era nuestra vida intelectual; +y principalmente, cmo luchbamos por la democracia. +Estos son unas tomas directamente de la pelcula. +Y estas, algunas imgenes del golpe. +Se film en Casablanca, reproduciendo todas las escenas. +La pelcula trata de encontrar equilibrio entre el relato poltico y el feminista. +Como artista visual, en realidad, estoy principalmente interesada en hacer arte, en hacer que el arte trascienda la poltica, la religin, el feminismo, que se vuelva importante ms all del tiempo y que se haga universal. +El desafo que tengo es cmo hacer eso; +cmo contar un relato histrico por medio de una alegora; +cmo emocionar al pblico con sus propios sentimientos, y a la vez poner a trabajar sus mentes. +Estas son algunas de las imgenes y los personajes de la pelcula. +Ahora viene el movimiento verde; en el verano de 2009, cuando se estren la pelcula, comenzaron los levantamientos en las calles de Tehern. +Lo increblemente irnico es que en el momento en que tratbamos de mostrar la pelcula, el grito por la democracia y la justicia social se estaba repitiendo de nuevo en Tehern. +El movimiento verde inspiraba al mundo considerablemente. +Atrajo mucha atencin hacia todos esos iranes que creen en los derechos humanos bsicos y luchan por la democracia. +Lo ms interesante para m fue, una vez ms, la presencia de las mujeres. +Ellas me inspiran enormemente. +Si en la Revolucin Islmica, las imgenes mostraban a las mujeres como sometidas, sin voz propia, ahora vemos una nueva forma de feminismo en las calles de Tehern: mujeres con educacin, progresistas, no tradicionales, abiertas sexualmente, audaces y seriamente feministas. +Estas mujeres y estos hombres han logrado unir a los iranes en todo el mundo, en el pas y fuera. +Descubr entonces por qu me iluminan tanto las mujeres iranes. +Es porque bajo toda circunstancia, ellas han ampliado sus fronteras. +Han confrontado a la autoridad. +Han quebrado todas las reglas en lo ms pequeo y en lo ms grande. +Y, nuevamente, se han probado a ellas mismas. +Y aqu estoy yo para decir que las mujeres iranes han encontrado una nueva vocera, y que su voz me sirve para encontrar la ma. +Es un gran honor ser una mujer iran, una artista iran, aunque por ahora tenga que trabajar solo en Occidente. +Muchas gracias. +Hace unas semanas tuve la oportunidad de ir a Arabia Saudita. +Lo primero que quera hacer, como musulmn, era ir a La Meca y visitar la Ka'bah, el lugar ms sagrado del Islam. +Y lo hice: me puse el atuendo ritual, fui a la mezquita sagrada, or, y cumpl todos los rituales. +Mientras tanto, aparte de toda la espiritualidad, haba un detalle trivial en la Ka'bah que me interes en particular. +No haba separacin de sexos. +En otras palabras, hombres y mujeres oraban juntos. +Iban juntos haciendo el tawaf, el recorrido circular alrededor de la Ka'bah. +Estaban juntos mientras rezaban. +Si se preguntan qu hay de interesante en eso tendran que ver el resto de Arabia Saudita porque es un pas con divisiones muy marcadas entre los sexos. +En otras palabras, como hombres, uno simplemente no puede compartir el mismo espacio fsico con las mujeres. +Y lo he notado de una manera muy extraa. +Dej la Ka'bah para comer algo en el centro de La Meca. +Me diriga al Burger King ms cercano. +Fui hacia all... not que haba una seccin masculina, bien diferenciada de la seccin femenina. +Y tuve que hacer el pedido, pagar y comer en la seccin masculina. +"Es extrao", pens para mis adentros, "se puede socializar con el sexo opuesto en la Ka'bah sagrada, pero no en Burger King". +Bastante irnico. +Irnico y a la vez muy revelador +porque la Ka'bah y sus rituales son reliquias de la primera fase del Islam, la del profeta Mahoma. +De haber sido importante en ese momento la separacin de hombres y mujeres habran habido rituales en torno a la Ka'bah acordes con eso. +Pero parece que en esa poca esto no importaba. +Por eso los rituales eran as. +Creo que eso tambin se confirma con el hecho de que la exclusin de la mujer en una sociedad dividida es algo que no se encuentra en el Corn, el corazn mismo del Islam, el ncleo divino del Islam, en el que los musulmanes -y me incluyo- creemos. +Creo que no es un accidente que no encontremos esta idea en el origen mismo del Islam. +Porque muchos eruditos que estudian la historia del pensamiento islmico -eruditos occidentales o musulmanes- piensan que la prctica de separar fsicamente a hombres de mujeres viene de un desarrollo posterior del Islam, fruto de la adopcin musulmana de culturas y tradiciones preexistentes de Oriente Medio. +La exclusin de la mujer era, en realidad, una prctica bizantina y persa; los musulmanes la adoptaron, hacindola parte de su religin. +Y, en realidad, esto es slo un ejemplo de un fenmeno mucho ms grande. +Lo que hoy llamamos Ley Islmica, y en particular cultura islmica. Pero hay muchas culturas islmicas. La cultura de Arabia Saudita es muy diferente a la de mi ciudad, Estambul, en Turqua. +Pero an as, si vamos a hablar de una cultura musulmana, sta tiene un ncleo, un mensaje divino, que dio inicio a la religin y luego, sobre eso, se agregaron muchas tradiciones, percepciones y prcticas. +Eran tradiciones de Oriente Medio, tradiciones medievales. +Y hay dos mensajes importantes, o dos lecciones, a aprender de esa realidad. +En primer lugar, los musulmanes piadosos, conservadores, creyentes que quieren ser leales a su religin no deberan aferrarse a todo lo de su cultura pensando que es mandato divino. +Quiz haya tradiciones malas que deberan cambiarse. +Por otro lado, los occidentales que miran la cultura islmica y ven aspectos problemticos no debera concluir tan rpidamente que lo ordena el Islam. +Quiz es una cultura de Oriente Medio que se confundi con el Islam. +Hay una prctica llamada circuncisin femenina. +Es algo terrible, horrible. +Bsicamente, es una operacin para privar a las mujeres del placer sexual. +Y los occidentales, de Europa o EE.UU., que no conocan esta prctica se enfrentaron con eso en el seno de las comunidades musulmanas que migraron del norte de frica. +Y pensaron: "Qu religin tan horrible ordena algo como eso?" +Pero si miramos la circuncisin femenina, vemos que no tiene nada que ver con el Islam sino que es slo una prctica del norte de frica anterior al Islam. +Estuvo all durante miles de aos. +Y, efectivamente, algunos musulmanes la practican. +Los musulmanes del norte de frica, no en otros lugares. +Pero tambin las comunidades no musulmanas del norte de frica -animistas, incluso algunos cristianos, e incluso una tribu juda del norte de frica- se sabe que practican la circuncisin femenina. +As, lo que aparenta ser un problema dentro de la fe islmica podra llegar a ser una tradicin adoptada por los musulmanes. +Lo mismo puede decirse de los crmenes de honor, un tema recurrente en los medios occidentales que es, claro, una tradicin horrible. +Esa tradicin se ve muy arraigada en algunas comunidades musulmanas. +Pero en las comunidades no musulmanas de Oriente Medio, como algunas comunidades cristianas y orientales, se ve la misma prctica. +Tuvimos un caso trgico de crimen de honor en la comunidad armenia de Turqua hace pocos meses. +Si bien estas son cosas de cultura general, me interesa mucho la cultura poltica y si se valora la libertad y la democracia o si hay una cultura poltica autoritaria en la que el Estado se supone que impone cosas a los ciudadanos. +Y no es un secreto que muchos movimientos islmicos de Medio Oriente tienen tendencias autoritarias y algunos de los denominados "regmenes islmicos" como Arabia Saudita, Irn, y el peor caso fue el de los talibanes de Afganistn, son bastante autoritarios, no cabe duda. +Por ejemplo, en Arabia Saudita hay un fenmeno llamado polica religiosa. +La polica religiosa impone la supuesta forma de vida islmica a todo ciudadano, por la fuerza, -como las mujeres obligadas a cubrirse la cabeza- a llevar el hiyab, o velo islmico. +Eso es bastante autoritario y yo soy muy crtico de eso. +Pero cuando me di cuenta de que los no musulmanes, o los actores no islmicos de las mismas geografas, a veces se comportan de manera similar me di cuenta que el problema quiz reside en la cultura poltica de toda la regin, no slo del Islam. +Les doy un ejemplo: en Turqua, de donde provengo, una repblica hper-secular, hasta hace muy poco solamos tener lo que llamo la polica secular que vigilaba en las universidades a las estudiantes con velo. +En otras palabras, forzaban a las estudiantes a descubrirse las cabezas. Y pienso que forzar a las personas a descubrirse la cabeza es tan tirnico como forzarlas a que se la cubran. +Debera ser una decisin individual. +Pero al ver eso me dije: "Quiz el problema sea sencillamente una cultura autoritaria en la regin que ha influido a algunos musulmanes". +Las personas con mentalidad secular pueden ser influenciadas por eso. +Quiz es un problema de la cultura poltica y tenemos que pensar cmo cambiar esa cultura poltica. +Estas son algunas de las preguntas que tena en mente hace unos aos cuando comenc escribir un libro. +Dije: "Bueno, voy a investigar cmo el Islam lleg a ser lo que es hoy; qu caminos se siguieron y cules podran haberse tomado". +Es "Islam sin extremos: un caso musulmn en favor de la libertad". +Y como sugiere el subttulo analic la tradicin islmica y la historia del pensamiento islmico desde la perspectiva de la libertad individual; trat de identificar las fortalezas respecto de la libertad individual. +Y hay puntos fuertes en la tradicin islmica. +El Islam, como religin monotesta, que define al hombre como un agente responsable de s mismo, cre la idea de individuo en Oriente Medio y la resguard del comunitarismo, del colectivismo de la tribu. +De ah pueden desprenderse muchas ideas. +Pero aparte de eso, tambin veo problemas dentro de la tradicin islmica. +Pero haba algo curioso: muchos de estos problemas resultaron ser problemas que surgieron ms tarde y no de la esencia divina del Islam, el Corn, sino, otra vez, de las tradiciones y miradas o interpretaciones del Corn de los musulmanes de la Edad Media. +El Corn, por ejemplo, no aprueba la lapidacin. +No hay castigo por apostasa. +No hay castigo por cosas personales como beber. +Estas cosas que constituyen la Ley Islmica, los aspectos problemticos de la Ley Islmica, surgieron en interpretaciones sucesivas del Islam. +Eso quiere decir que los musulmanes pueden, hoy, mirar esas cosas y decir: "Bueno, el centro de nuestra religin est aqu para quedarse con nosotros. +Es nuestra fe y vamos a ser leales a ella". +Pero podemos cambiar la interpretacin porque fue interpretada siguiendo el tiempo y la atmsfera medieval. +Ahora estamos viviendo en un mundo diferente con valores diferentes y sistemas polticos diferentes. +Esa interpretacin es posible y factible. +Ahora, si yo fuera la nica persona que piensa as, estaramos en problemas. +Pero no es ese el caso en absoluto. +En realidad, desde el siglo XIX en adelante, hay toda una tradicin revisionista, reformista, o como se la quiera llamar; una tendencia del pensamiento islmico. +Fueron intelectuales o estadistas del siglo XIX y luego del siglo XX que bsicamente miraban a Europa y vean all muchas cosas para admirar como la ciencia y la tecnologa. +Pero no slo eso: tambin la democracia, el parlamento, la idea de representacin, la idea de igualdad de los ciudadanos. +Estos pensadores, intelectuales y estadistas musulmanes del siglo XIX miraban a Europa y vean estas cosas. +Decan: "Por qu no tenemos estas cosas?" +Revisaron la tradicin islmica y vieron que haba aspectos problemticos que no formaban parte del ncleo de la religin, o quiz podan reinterpretarse, se poda volver a leer el Corn en el mundo moderno. +Esa tendencia se suele llamar modernismo islmico y fue propuesta por intelectuales y estadistas, no slo como idea intelectual sino como un programa poltico. +Y es por eso que en el siglo XIX el Imperio Otomano, que luego ocup todo Medio Oriente, hizo reformas muy importantes: reformas como darle a cristianos y judos igualdad ciudadana, aceptar una constitucin, aceptar un parlamento representativo, proponer la idea de libertad religiosa. +Esa fue la razn por la que el Imperio Otomano en su ltima dcada se volvi una proto-democracia, una monarqua constitucional. La libertad era un valor poltico muy importante en la poca. +De manera similar, en el mundo rabe, haba lo que el gran historiador rabe, Albert Hourani, define como Era Liberal. +Tiene un libro: "El pensamiento rabe en la Era Liberal 1798-1939". Define la Era Liberal como el siglo XIX y principios del siglo XX. +Cabe destacar que esta fue la tendencia dominante a principios del siglo XX entre pensadores, estadistas y telogos islmicos. +Pero se da un patrn muy curioso en el resto del siglo XX porque vemos una fuerte disminucin de esta lnea modernista islmica. +Y, en su lugar, sucede que el Islam emerge como una ideologa autoritaria, muy exaltada, bastante anti-occidental, que quiere moldear la sociedad basada en una visin utpica. +El islamismo es la idea conflictiva que provoc muchos problemas en el mundo islmico del siglo XX. +Incluso las formas extremas de islamismo llevaron al terrorismo en nombre del Islam; esto en realidad es una prctica que creo va en contra del Islam pero, obviamente, algunos extremistas no piensan as. +Y aparece una pregunta curiosa: si el modernismo islmico era tan popular en los siglos XIX y XX por qu se hace popular el islamismo en el resto del siglo XX? +Y esta es una pregunta, creo, que hay que discutir con cuidado. +En mi libro abordo esta pregunta tambin. +Y no hace falta ser muy inteligente para entenderlo. +Con slo mirar la historia poltica del siglo XX se ve que las cosas cambiaron mucho. +Cambi el contexto. +En el siglo XIX cuando los musulmanes vean a Europa como ejemplo eran independientes, estaban seguros de s mismos. +A principios del siglo XX, con la cada del Imperio Otomano, todo Oriente Medio fue colonizado. +Y si hay colonizacin, qu ms hay? +Hay anti-colonizacin. +Entonces Europa ya no es un ejemplo a imitar, es un enemigo a combatir y resistir. +As que hay una disminucin muy fuerte de las ideas liberales en el mundo musulmn y se ve una corriente ms defensiva, rgida y revolucionaria, que lleva al socialismo rabe, al nacionalismo rabe, y, en ltima instancia, a la ideologa islamista. +Y cuando termin el perodo colonial lo que qued en su lugar por lo general fueron dictadores seculares que decan ser un pas pero que no llevaban democracia al pas y establecieron sus propias dictaduras. +Y pienso que Occidente, al menos algunas potencias de Occidente, en particular Estados Unidos, cometieron el error de apoyar a estos dictadores seculares pensando que eran ms funcionales a sus intereses. +Pero el hecho de que esos dictadores suprimieran la democracia en sus pases y reprimieran a los grupos islmicos en realidad exalt mucho ms a los islamistas. +As, en el siglo XX, vemos este crculo vicioso en el mundo rabe en el que la dictadura reprime a su propia gente, incluso a los devotos islmicos que actan de manera reaccionaria. +Sin embargo hubo un pas que pudo escapar, alejarse, de ese crculo vicioso. +Y ese es mi pas de origen, Turqua. +Turqua nunca fue colonizada de modo que sigui como nacin independiente despus de la cada del Imperio Otomano. +Eso es algo para recordar. +Ellos no comparten la misma propaganda anti-colonial que puede encontrarse en otros pases de la regin. +En segundo lugar, y ms importante, Turqua se democratiz antes que cualquiera de los pases que estamos mencionando. +En 1950 Turqua tuvo las primeras elecciones libres y justas que pusieron fin al rgimen secular existente, ms autocrtico, y fue el comienzo de Turqua. +Los devotos musulmanes de Turqua vieron que podan cambiar el sistema poltico con el voto. +Y se dieron cuenta que la democracia es compatible con el Islam, compatible con sus valores, y han apoyado a la democracia. +Esa es una experiencia que no todas las naciones musulmanas de Medio Oriente tuvieron hasta hace poco. +En segundo lugar, en las ltimas dos dcadas, gracias a la globalizacin, gracias a la economa de mercado, gracias al surgimiento de la clase media, vemos en Turqua lo que defino como el renacimiento del modernismo islmico. +Ahora, hay devotos musulmanes urbanos de clase media que, de nuevo, revisan su tradicin y ven que hay problemas en ella. Entienden que hay que hacer cambios, cuestionamientos y reformas. +Miran a Europa y, de nuevo, ven un ejemplo a seguir. +Ven un ejemplo, al menos, en el cual inspirarse. +Es por eso que el proceso de la U.E., el esfuerzo turco por unirse a la U.E., ha tenido apoyo dentro de Turqua de los devotos islmicos mientras que algunas naciones seculares se oponen a eso. +Bueno, ese proceso se ha desdibujado un poco por el hecho de que no todos los europeos son muy receptivos... pero esa es otra discusin. +Pero el sentimiento pro-U.E. en Turqua en la dcada pasada se volv casi una causa islmica apoyada tanto por liberales islmicos como por liberales seculares, por supuesto. +Y gracias a eso Turqua ha podido crear de manera razonable una historia de xito en la que el Islam y las interpretaciones ms devotas del Islam se han vuelto parte del juego democrtico e incluso contribuyen al avance democrtico y econmico del pas. +Y hoy este ha sido un ejemplo inspirador para algunos movimientos islmicos o para algunos pases del mundo rabe. +Todos habrn visto la primavera rabe que comenz en Tnez y en Egipto. +Las masas rabes rebeladas contra sus dictadores. +Estaban pidiendo democracia, estaban pidiendo libertad. +Y resultaron no ser los monstruos islamistas que los dictadores siempre usaban para justificar sus regmenes. +Reclamaban "queremos libertad, queremos democracia. +Somos musulmanes creyentes, pero queremos vivir como personas libres en sociedades libres". +Claro, este es un largo camino. +La democracia no se logra de la noche a la maana; es un proceso. +Pero es una era prometedora en el mundo musulmn. +Y creo que el modernismo islmico que empez en el siglo XIX, pero que tuvo un retroceso en el siglo XX debido a los problemas polticos del mundo musulmn, est renaciendo. +Y pienso que el mensaje que podemos rescatar de eso sera que el Islam, a pesar de algunos escpticos occidentales, tiene el potencial en s mismo para generar su propia democracia, abrirse paso hacia el liberalismo, y crear su propio camino hacia la libertad. +Se les debera permitir trabajar en eso. +Muchas gracias. +Muchos piensan que conducir es una actividad reservada exclusivamente para los que pueden ver. +Que un ciego manejara un vehculo con seguridad y con independencia era considerado imposible, hasta ahora. +Hola, mi nombre es Dennis Hong y le estamos trayendo libertad e independencia a los ciegos con un vehculo para discapacitados visuales. +Pero antes de hablar de esto, permtanme referirme a otro proyecto en el que estuve trabajando llamado Desafo Urbano DARPA. +Era para hacer un auto robtico que se maneja por s mismo. +Se oprime el botn de encendido, nadie toca nada, y llega a su destino de manera totalmente autnoma. +En 2007, nuestro grupo se gan un milln de dlares por el tercer puesto en esta competencia. +Por ese tiempo, la Federacin Nacional de Ciegos, NFB, propuso un reto al comit de investigacin, para quien desarrollara un automvil que un ciego pudiera manejar con seguridad e independencia. +Decidimos intentarlo, pensando: "Qu tan difcil puede ser?" +Ya tenamos un vehculo autnomo. +Slo se pone ah un ciego, y listo! no? +No podamos estar ms equivocados. +Lo que quera la NFB no era un vehculo que pudiera llevar a un ciego a cualquier parte, sino uno en el que un ciego pudiera tomar sus propias decisiones, y conducirlo. +As que tuvimos que arrojar todo por la ventana y empezar todo de nuevo. +Para ensayar esta loca idea, desarrollamos un prototipo de carrito para arena y as probar la factibilidad. +En el verano de 2009, invitamos a docenas de jvenes ciegos de todas partes del pas y los dejamos dar una vuelta con ese prototipo. +Fue una experiencia maravillosa. +Pero el problema con este modelo, era que fue diseado slo para un ambiente controlado, en un espacio cerrado, hasta con calzadas definidas con conos de trfico. +Con este logro, decidimos dar el siguiente paso y desarrollar un coche de verdad que pudiera ser conducido por carreteras de verdad. +Y cmo funciona? +Bueno, es un sistema bastante complejo, pero voy a tratar de explicarlo de manera simple. +Tenemos tres etapas: +percepcin, computacin e interfaces no visuales +Obviamente, como el conductor no puede ver, el sistema tiene que percibir el ambiente y transmitirle la informacin. +Para eso usamos una unidad inicial +que mide la aceleracin, la aceleracin angular, igual que el odo humano, el odo interno. +Esa informacin se combina con la del GPS para calcular la localizacin del auto. +Se usan tambin dos cmaras para detectar las lneas del pavimento. +Y tambin tres medidores de distancia lser; +con los que se examina el ambiente en busca de obstculos: otro coche que se aproxima de frente o por detrs, o posibles obstculos que aparecen en el camino; cualquier inconveniente en los alrededores del auto. +Toda esta cantidad de informacin se lleva al computador que puede hacer dos cosas. +La primera es, ante todo, procesar la informacin para entender el ambiente; dnde estn las lneas del camino, dnde hay obstculos, y transmitirla al conductor. +El sistema es suficientemente inteligente como para definir cul es la forma ms segura de manejar. +As que tambin puede generar instrucciones para operar los controles. +El problema es: Cmo se puede transmitir esta informacin y estas instrucciones a una persona que no puede ver con suficiente precisin y rapidez, para que pueda conducir? +Para esto diseamos varias interfaces diferentes de tecnologa no visual. +Comenzando con un sistema de sonido tridimensional de campanas, un chaleco vibrador, una rueda con comando por voz, una cinta para la pierna y hasta un zapato que aplica presin al pie. +Hoy vamos a hablar de tres de estas interfaces no visuales. +La primera se llama DriveGrip (control de conduccin). +Son un par de guantes, con elementos vibradores en la seccin de los nudillos, que transmiten informacin sobre el control de la direccin y su intensidad. +Otro dispositivo es la llamada SpeedStrip (cinta de velocidad). +Es un silln; un silln para masajes. +Lo abrimos y acondicionamos los elementos vibradores. Hicimos que transmitieran informacin sobre la velocidad as como instrucciones sobre el manejo del acelerador y el freno. +Aqu se puede ver cmo es que el computador comprende el ambiente. Y como no se puede ver la vibracin, pusimos LEDs sobre el conductor, para ver lo que est pasando. +Estos son los datos sensoriales que se transfieren a los aparatos a travs del computador. +Los dos dispositivos, el control de conduccin y la cinta de velocidad, son muy efectivos. +Pero el problema es que se trata de dispositivos de localizacin. +Y esto no da total libertad, no? +El computador te dice cmo conducir; gire a la izquierda, a la derecha, acelere o frene. +A esto lo llamamos el problema del pasajero que hace de conductor. +Dejamos los medios de localizacin y nos concentramos ms en dispositivos de informacin. +Un buen ejemplo de interfaz de informacin no visual es el llamado AirPix (fotos de aire). +Imaginen un monitor para ciegos. +Una pequea tableta con mucho agujeros por donde sale aire comprimido, en la que se puede dibujar. +As, un ciego puede colocar su mano encima y ver las lneas del camino y los obstculos. +Es posible inclusive variar la frecuencia del aire al salir as como la temperatura. +Es en realidad una interfaz multi-dimensional. +Aqu se pueden ver las cmaras izquierda y derecha del vehculo y la forma cmo el computador procesa la informacin y la enva a los chorros de aire. +Se muestra con un simulador a un ciego conduciendo con este aparato. +El simulador ha sido muy til para entrenar a los conductores invidentes y tambin para ensayar diferentes ideas para varios tipos distintos de interfaces no visuales. +En esencia, as es cmo funciona. +Hace slo un mes, el 29 de enero, pusimos el vehculo en exhibicin, por primera vez ante el pblico en la famosa pista de carreras de Daytona, en el evento Rolex 24. +Tuvimos algunas sorpresas. Veamos. +Anunciador: Este es un da histrico [confuso]. +Aqu viene a la tribuna, amigos espectadores. +Aqu est ahora en la tribuna. +Est [confuso] siguiendo la camioneta que va al frente. +Y aqu viene la primera caja. +Veamos si Mark la evita. +Lo hace. Pasa por la derecha. +Pasa la tercera caja. Y pasa la cuarta. +Y ah va andando entre las dos. +Se acerca a la camioneta para pasar. +Bueno, as fue esta exhibicin dinmica de audacia e ingenio. +Se aproxima al fin del recorrido y sortea los barriles que estn ah colocados. +[xito!] Dennis Hong: Estoy muy feliz con Uds. +Voy a regresar al hotel, con Mark como chofer. +Mark Riccobono: S. +DH: Es muy bueno haber trabajado en este proyecto. Recibimos centenares de cartas, mensajes de internet y llamadas telefnicas de personas de todo el mundo. +Cartas agradecidas, pero tambin algunas cartas con humor como sta: "Ahora entiendo por qu hay instrucciones en Braille en ciertos cajeros automticos para conductores". +Pero algunas veces Pero algunas veces tambin me llegan; no las llamara cartas con odio, pero cartas preocupantes: "Dr. Hong: Est Ud. chiflado tratando de poner ciegos al volante? +Debe estar loco". +Este vehculo es un prototipo que no va a ir a las carreteras hasta que sea tan seguro, o ms, que cualquier otro auto actual. +Estoy convencido que as puede ser. +Pero an as; aceptar la sociedad esta idea tan radical? +Cmo se van a manejar los seguros? +Cmo se van a expedir licencias de conduccin? +Existen muchsimos obstculos, adems de los problemas tcnicos que hay que resolver, antes de que sea una realidad. +Desde luego, el principal objetivo del proyecto es desarrollar un auto para ciegos. +Pero ms importante que esto es el inmenso valor de los subproductos tecnolgicos que se han logrado. +Los sensores que se usan, pueden ver en la oscuridad, en la niebla y bajo la lluvia. +Y con estas nuevas interfaces, podemos usar estas tecnologas para aplicarlas en coches para videntes que sean ms seguros. +O para ciegos, en aparatos cotidianos del hogar, en establecimientos educativos, en oficinas. +Piensen en un maestro que escribe en la pizarra y un estudiante ciego que puede ver lo que se ha escrito usando estas interfaces no visuales. +Esto no tiene precio. +Por ahora, lo que les he mostrado hoy, es slo el comienzo. +Muchas gracias. +Pas la mejor parte del ao pasado trabajando en un documental sobre mi propia felicidad, tratando de ver si puedo llegar a entrenar mi mente de una forma particular, al igual que puedo entrenar mi cuerpo, de manera que pueda tener una mejor sensacin de bienestar general. +Luego, en enero de este ao, falleci mi madre, y trabajar en una pelcula como esa pareca ser lo que menos me interesaba. +As que de una manera muy tpica, de un tonto diseador de moda, luego de aos de trabajo, prcticamente lo nico que tengo para mostrar son los ttulos de la pelcula. +An estaban siendo hechos cuando estaba con mi compaa en Indonesia, en un ao sabtico. +Podemos ver aqu la primera parte que fue diseada por cerdos. +Pero no se vea muy bien, y queramos un punto de vista ms femenino as que usamos un pato que lo hizo de una forma mucho ms adecuada, a la moda. +Mi estudio en Bali estaba a solo 10 minutos de un bosque de monos. Y por supuesto, se cree, que los monos son los animales ms felices. +As que los entrenamos para que pudieran formar 3 palabras por separado, y disponerlas adecuadamente. +Pueden ver all, que an hay un problema de legibilidad. +Las letras no estn bien trazadas. +As que, por supuesto, lo que uno mismo no puede hacer bien nunca se considera realmente hecho. +Aqu estamos subiendo a unos rboles y colgando esto en el valle Sayan en Indonesia. +En ese ao, lo que s hice mucho fue leer todo tipo de informes, observando muchos datos sobre este tema. +Y result que hombres y mujeres presentaron niveles de felicidad muy, muy similares. +Este es un rpido resumen de todos los estudios que he visto. +El clima no influye. +Ya sea que vivan en el mejor clima, en San Diego en EEUU, o en un clima jodido, en Bfalo, Nueva York, van a ser igualmente felices en cualquier lugar. +Si ganan ms de 50 mil dlares al ao en EEUU, cualquier incremento salarial que tengan tendr una influencia muy pequea en su bienestar general. +Negros y blancos son igualmente felices. +Si son viejos o jvenes eso no hace realmente la diferencia. +Si son feos o si son muy guapos de verdad no hay diferencia alguna. +Se adaptarn y se acostumbrarn. +Si tienen problemas de salud manejables realmente no importa. +Ahora, esto es lo que s importa. +La mujer de la derecha es realmente mucho ms feliz que el hombre de la izquierda, eso significa que si tienen muchos amigos, y tienen amistades valiosas, eso s hace mucha diferencia. +Adems, al estar casados es probable que sean mucho ms felices que si estuviesen solteros. +A Jonathan Haidt, un compaero orador de TED, se le ocurri esta linda analoga entre el consciente y el inconsciente. +Dice que el consciente es este pequeo jinete en este elefante gigante, el inconsciente. +Y el jinete piensa que le puede decir qu hacer al elefante, pero el elefante realmente tiene sus propias ideas. +Si observo mi propia vida, nac en Austria, en 1962, +Por supuesto que yo, y todos nosotros, somos responsables de estas grandes decisiones en nuestras vidas. +Vivimos donde queremos estar, al menos en Occidente. +Somos lo que realmente queremos ser. +Elegimos nuestra propia profesin, y nuestra propia pareja. +Y por eso es muy extrao que muchos de nosotros dejemos que el inconsciente influya en esas decisiones de tal manera que ni siquiera nos damos cuenta. +Si se fijan en las estadsticas y ven a ese tipo llamado George, cuando decide dnde quiere vivir en Florida o en Dakota del Norte? se va a vivir a Georgia. +Y si se fijan en un tipo llamado Dennis, cuando decide lo que quiere ser en la vida abogado, mdico o maestro? lo ms probable es que quiera ser dentista. +Y si Paula tiene que decidir si debe casarse con Joe o Jack, de alguna manera, Paul parece ser el ms interesante. +Y as, an cuando tomamos esas decisiones tan importantes por razones muy tontas, sigue siendo cierto segn las estadsticas que hay ms Georges viviendo en Georgia y hay ms dentistas llamados Dennis y hay ms Paulas casadas con un Paul que lo viable segn las estadsticas. +Por supuesto que pens bueno, esta informacin es de EEUU. Y pens, bueno, esos estadounidenses tontos. +Se dejan influenciar por cosas sin darse cuenta. +Esto es completamente ridculo. +Luego, por supuesto, me fij en mi mam y mi pap, Karolina y Karl, y en mi abuela y abuelo, Josefine y Josef. +As que todava estoy buscando una Stephanie. +Ya me las arreglar. +Me gusta hacer listas, as que hice esta. +Uno de los puntos es pensar sin presin. +Este es un proyecto en el que ahora estamos trabajando con un plazo muy razonable. +Es un libro sobre la cultura, y, como pueden ver, la cultura anda rpidamente, sin rumbo. +Hacer cosas como las que estoy haciendo en este momento viajar a Cannes. +El ejemplo que tengo aqu es una silla que sali del ao en Bali claramente influenciada por la fabricacin y la cultura locales, no quedar atrapado detrs de una pantalla de computadora todo el da y estar aqu y all. +Disear proyectos de manera consciente, que necesiten una gran variedad de tcnicas, bsicamente para luchar. Adaptacin directa. +Estar cerca del contenido, es decir, que el contenido est realmente cerca del corazn. +Este es un autobs o vehculo, para una organizacin benfica, una ONG que quiere duplicar el presupuesto de educacin en EEUU, diseado cuidadosamente, por 5 cm todava pasa por los puentes de autopistas. +Conseguir resultados cosas que regresan bien de la imprenta, como esta tarjetita comercial para una compaa de animacin llamada Sideshow en hojas lenticulares. +Trabajar en proyectos que tengan un impacto visible real, como un libro para un artista alemn fallecido cuya viuda vino a nosotros con el pedido de que hiciramos famoso a su difunto marido. +Acaba de salir, hace 6 meses, y est en la actualidad con una fuerza increble en Alemania. +Y creo que su viuda va a tener mucho xito en su bsqueda. +Y finalmente, participar en proyectos en los que conozca alrededor del 50% de la tcnica que utilizan y que el otro 50% sea nuevo. +En este caso, se trata de una proyeccin exterior para Singapur en estas pantallas gigantes al estilo del Times Square. +Y por supuesto, como diseador, saba de tipografa, aunque no hemos tenido mucho xito en el trabajo con esas cosas. +Pero no saba mucho sobre movimiento o pelculas. +Y desde ese punto de vista se convirti en un lindo proyecto. +Pero tambin porque el contenido era muy cercano. +En este caso: llevar un diario fortalece el desarrollo personal. He llevado un diario desde que tena 12 aos. +Y descubr que eso influy en mi vida y en mi trabajo de una manera muy interesante. +En este caso porque tambin es parte de uno de los muchos sentimientos sobre los que construimos toda la serie, que todos los sentimientos se originaron del diario. +Muchas gracias. +Poder. +Esa es la palabra que viene a la mente. +Somos los nuevos tecnlogos. +Tenemos gran cantidad de informacin, as que tenemos mucho poder. +Cunto poder tenemos? +Escena de la pelcula: "Apocalipsis Now" -- excelente pelcula. +Tenemos que llevar a nuestro hroe, el capitn Willard, a la desembocadura del ro Nung para que pueda perseguir al coronel Kurtz. +Para esto, lo vamos a transportar volando y lo dejamos en el lugar. +En esta escena el cielo est repleto de helicpteros que lo llevan. +Hay de fondo una msica fuerte y emocionante, una msica desenfrenada. + Dum da ta da dum Dum da ta da dum Da ta da da Hay mucha potencia. +La clase de potencia que siento en esta sala. +Es el poder que nos da toda la informacin que tenemos. +Pongamos un ejemplo: +Qu podemos hacer con la informacin de una sola persona? +Qu podemos hacer con la informacin de ese seor? +Puedo mirar sus registros financieros. +Puedo decir si paga sus cuentas puntualmente. +S si rene las condiciones para que le den un prstamo. +Puedo ver su historia clnica, puedo ver si an late su corazn; ver si est bien para que le ofrezcan un seguro. +Puedo observar sus hbitos en Internet. +Cuando viene a mi sitio web, en realidad ya s lo que va a hacer, porque lo he visto visitar millones de sitios web antes. +Y lamento decirlo, eres como un jugador de pquer, tienes esa mana. +Analizando datos puedo decir lo que vas a hacer an antes que lo hagas. +S lo que te gusta. S quin eres. Incluso antes de mirar tu correo o tu telfono. +Ese es el tipo de cosas que podemos hacer con los datos que tenemos. +Pero en realidad no estoy aqu para hablar de lo que podemos hacer. +Estoy aqu para hablar de lo que debemos hacer. +Cul es la accin correcta? +Veo algunas miradas desconcertadas como diciendo, "Por qu nos preguntas qu es lo correcto? +Nosotros hacemos. Son otros los que la usan". +Es cierto. +Pero esto me lleva al pasado. +Pienso en la Segunda Guerra Mundial -- algunos de nuestros grandes tecnlogos de entonces, algunos de los grandes fsicos, estudiaban la fisin y la fusin nuclear -- cuestiones nucleares. +Reunimos a estos fsicos en Los lamos para ver que construan. +Queremos que la gente que desarrolla tecnologa piense qu deberamos hacer nosotros con ella. +Entonces, qu deberamos hacer con los datos de ese seor? +Deberamos recolectar, reunir los datos, para mejorar su experiencia en lnea? +Para ganar dinero? +Para protegernos nosotros mismos si no se comporta bien? +O deberamos respetar su privacidad, proteger su dignidad y dejarlo en paz? +Qu hacemos? +Cmo debemos decidir? +Ya s: colaboracin pblica. Vamos a resolver esto juntos. +Para entrar en calor, comencemos con una pregunta fcil -- algo sobre lo que estoy seguro que todos aqu tienen una opinin: iPhone versus Android. +Levanten las manos por el iPhone. +Aj. +Android. +Uno pensara que un grupo de gente inteligente o sucumbira tan fcil ante unos lindos telfonos. +Siguiente pregunta, un poco ms difcil. +Deberamos recolectar toda los datos de ese hombre para ofrecerle una mejor experiencia y para protegernos en caso de que trame algo malo? +O deberamos dejarlo en paz? +Recolectar sus datos. +Dejarlo en paz. +Ests a salvo. Est bien. +Bien, ltima pregunta -- ms difcil -- Al tratar de evaluar lo que deberamos hacer en este caso, deberamos usar un sistema moral deontolgico kantiano, o un sistema consecuencionalista milliano? +Kant. +Mill. +No hay tantos votos. +S, ese es un resultado aterrador. +Es aterrador porque tenemos opiniones ms firmes sobre nuestros aparatos porttiles que sobre el sistema moral que debera guiar nuestras decisiones. +Cmo sabemos qu hacer con todo el poder que tenemos si no tenemos un sistema moral? +Sabemos ms sobre los sistemas operativos mviles, pero lo que realmente necesitamos es un sistema operativo moral. +Qu es un sistema operativo moral? +Todos sabemos lo que es correcto e incorrecto. +Te sientes bien cuando haces algo correcto, te sientes mal cuando haces algo incorrecto. +Nuestros padres nos ensean que se alaba lo bueno y se regaa lo malo. +Pero, cmo podemos averiguar qu es lo correcto y lo incorrecto? +Y, da a da, tenemos las tcnicas que utilizamos. +Tal vez solo seguimos nuestro instinto. +Tal vez votamos --consultamos la opinin pblica. +O tal vez apostamos -- preguntamos al departamento legal, vemos lo que dicen. +En otras palabras, es un poco aleatorio, improvisamos, la forma de averiguar lo que debemos hacer. +Y, tal vez, si queremos sentirnos ms seguros, lo que realmente queremos es un sistema moral que nos oriente, que nos diga en primer lugar que tipo de cosas estn bien y mal, y cmo sabemos qu hacer en una situacin dada. +Entonces tengamos un sistema moral. +Somos seres que trabajamos con nmeros, vivimos por los nmeros. +Cmo podemos usar los nmeros como base para un sistema moral? +Conozco a un hombre que hizo exactamente eso, +Un hombre brillante -- muri hace 2500 aos. +Platn, exacto. +Lo recuerdan? un viejo filsofo? +Se durmieron durante esa clase. +Y Platn se plante muchas de estas preocupaciones que tenemos. +Se preocupaba por lo correcto y lo incorrecto. +Quera saber qu era lo justo. +Pero le preocupaba que todo lo que parecamos hacer era intercambiar opiniones sobre el tema. +l dice que algo es lo justo. Ella dice que otra cosa es lo justo. +Ambos suenan convincentes. +Vamos y volvemos sin llegar a ningn lado. +No quiero opiniones, quiero conocimiento. +Quiero saber la verdad sobre la justicia -- tal como tenemos verdades en matemticas. +En matemticas conocemos los hechos objetivos. +Tomen un nmero, cualquier nmero -- el 2. +Mi nmero favorito. Me encanta ese nmero. +Hay verdades sobre el 2. +Si tienen 2 de algo, y agregan 2 ms, tienen 4. +Eso es verdad sin importar qu estn hablando. +Es una verdad objetiva sobre la forma del 2, la forma abstracta. +Cuando se tiene 2 de cualquier cosa - 2 ojos, 2 odos, 2 narices, 2 protuberancias -- todos ellos participan de la forma del 2. +Todos participan de las verdades del 2. +Todos tienen la dualidad. +Y por lo tanto, no es una cuestin de opinin. +Platn pensaba: y si la tica fuese como la matemtica? +Y si hubiera una forma pura de justicia? +Y si hay verdades acerca de la justicia, y si pudiramos mirar el mundo y ver las cosas que la componen, que forman parte de la justicia? +Entonces podra saberse lo que realmente es justo y lo que no. +No sera una cuestin de simple opinin o apariencias. +Esa es una visin asombrosa. +Quiero decir, pinsenlo. Es magnfico y ambicioso. +Tan ambicioso como nosotros. +l quiere resolver la tica. +Quiere verdades objetivas. +Si piensas de esa forma, tienes un sistema moral platnico. +Si no piensas de esa forma, bien, tienes mucha compaa en la historia de la filosofa occidental, porque, ya saben, esta linda idea fue criticada. +Aristteles, en particular, no la comparta. +Le resultaba poco prctico. +Aristteles dijo: "En cada asunto solo debemos buscar el nivel de precisin que ese asunto permite". +Aristteles pensaba que la tica no era como la matemtica. +l pensaba que la tica es una cuestin de tomar decisiones aqu y ahora usando nuestro mejor juicio para encontrar el camino correcto. +Si piensan eso, Platn no es la persona a seguir. +Pero no se rindan. +Tal vez hay otra manera de usar los nmeros como base de nuestro sistema moral. +Qu tal si ante cada situacin simplemente pudieran calcular, mirar las opciones, medir cul es mejor y saber qu hacer? +Les suena familiar? +Ese es un sistema moral utilitarista. +John Stuart Mill fue un gran defensor de esto -- adems de un tipo genial -- y muri hace solo 200 aos. +As, la base del utilitarismo -- Seguro que al menos estn familiarizados. +Las 3 personas que votaron por Mill antes estn familiarizados con esto. +Esto es as: +Qu pasa si la moral, lo que hace que algo sea moral, es solo una cuestin de maximizar el placer y minimizar el dolor? +Se trata de algo intrnseco al acto. +No se trata de una relacin con alguna forma abstracta. +Es slo una cuestin de consecuencias. +Buscamos slo en las consecuencias y vemos si en el todo, son positivas o negativas. +Eso sera simple. Entonces sabramos que hacer. +Pongamos un ejemplo. +Supongamos que voy y digo, "Voy a tomar tu telfono". +No slo porque son antes, sino que lo voy a tomar porque hice un pequeo clculo. +Pens, ese tipo parece sospechoso. +Y qu tal si ha estado enviando mensajes a la guarida de Bin Laden -- o quien haya reemplazado a Bin Laden - Y en realidad es un terrorista, una clula latente. +Voy a averiguarlo, y cuando lo descubra, voy a evitar el enorme dao que podra causar. +Eso va a ser muy til para evitar ese dao. +Y comparado con el pequeo dolor que va a causar -- porque va a ser vergonzoso cuando vea su telfono mvil y vea que tiene un problema con Farmville y todo lo dems - eso es minimizado por el valor de mirar su telfono. +Si consideran ese camino, esa es una opcin utilitarista. +Pero tal vez tampoco consideren esa opcin. +Tal vez piensen, es su telfono. +No est bien tomar su telfono, porque l es una persona y tiene derechos y dignidad, y simplemente no podemos interferir en eso. +l tiene autonoma. +No importa cules sean los clculos. +Hay cosas que intrnsecamente estn mal -- como mentir est mal. torturar a nios inocentes est mal. +Kant era muy bueno en este punto, y planteaba esto un poco mejor de lo que yo lo har. +Deca que deberamos usar nuestro razonamiento para decidir las reglas que deberan guiar nuestra conducta. Y luego es nuestro deber seguir esas reglas. +No es una cuestin de clculos. +As que detengmonos. +Estamos justo en el centro de esta maraa filosfica. +Esto continu durante miles de aos, porque son preguntas difciles, y solo tengo 15 minutos. +Por lo tanto, vamos directo al grano. +Cmo debemos tomar nuestras decisiones? +De acuerdo a Platn, a Aristteles, a Kant, a Mill? +Qu debemos hacer? Cul es la respuesta? +Cul es la frmula que podemos usar en cualquier situacin para determinar qu debemos hacer, sea que debamos o no usar la informacin de ese hombre? +Cul es la frmula? +No hay frmula. +No hay una respuesta simple. +La tica es algo difcil. +Requiere reflexin. +Y eso es incmodo. +Lo s; pas gran parte de mi carrera en inteligencia artificial, tratando de construir mquinas que pudiesen pensar algunas de estas cuestiones por nosotros, que pudiesen darnos respuestas. +Pero ellas no pueden. +No se puede tomar el pensamiento humano y ponerlo dentro de una mquina. +Somos nosotros quienes debemos hacerlo. +Felizmente, no somos mquinas y podemos hacerlo. +Y no slo podemos pensar, debemos hacerlo. +Hannah Arendt dijo: "La triste verdad es que el mayor dao hecho en este mundo no lo causan las personas que eligen ser malas. +Surge de la falta de pensamiento". +Es lo que ella llamaba la "banalidad del mal". +Y la respuesta a eso es que demandamos el ejercicio del pensamiento de cada persona sana. +As que hagmoslo. Pensemos. +De hecho, empecemos ahora mismo. +Cada persona de esta sala haga esto: piensen en la ltima vez que tuvieron que tomar una decisin donde estuvieron preocupados por hacer lo correcto, donde se preguntaron, "Qu debo hacer?" +Recuerden ese momento. Y ahora reflexionen en eso y digan: "Cmo llegu a esa decisin? +Qu hice? Segu mi intuicin? +Ped la votacin de alguien? Ped opinin legal?" +O, ahora, tenemos algunas opciones ms. +"Evalu cul sera el mayor de los placeres como lo hara Mill? +O al igual que Kant, us la razn para decidir qu era intrnsecamente correcto?" +Piensen en esto. Recuerden. Esto es importante. +Es tan importante que vamos a usar 30 segundos del valioso tiempo de TED nada ms que para pensar en esto. +Estn listos? Vamos. +Paren. Buen trabajo. +Lo que acaban de hacer, es el primer paso en el sentido de asumir responsabilidad por lo que debemos hacer con todo nuestro poder. +Ahora el siguiente paso -- prueben esto. +Busquen un amigo y explquenle cmo tomaron esa decisin. +Ahora no. Esperen el final de la charla. +Durante el almuerzo. +Y no lo hagan con otro amigo tecnlogo; encuentren alguien diferente a ustedes. +Encuentren un artista o un escritor -- o, Dios nos libre, encuentren un filsofo y hablen con ellos. +De hecho, encuentren alguien de las humanidades. +Por qu? Porque ellos piensan en los problemas de forma diferente a como lo hacemos los tecnlogos. +Hace unos das, aqu en frente, al otro lado de la calle, haba cientos de personas reunidas. +Eran tecnlogos y humanistas en una conferencias sobre Bibliotecas Tecnolgicas. +Y ellos se reunieron porque los tecnlogos queran aprender cmo era pensar desde una perspectiva humanista. +Hay alguien de Google hablando con alguien que hace literatura comparada. +Estn pensando sobre la relevancia del teatro francs del siglo XVII -- cmo se relaciona eso con el capital de riesgo? +Bien eso es interesante. Es una forma de pensar diferente. +Y cuando piensan de esa forma, se vuelven ms sensibles a las cuestionas humanas, lo cual es crucial para tomar decisiones ticas. +Entonces, imaginen que ahora mismo van y encuentran a su amigo msico. +Y le cuentan lo que estuvimos hablando, sobre la revolucin de la informacin y todo eso -- incluso tarareando algunas partes de nuestro tema: + Dum ta da da dum dum ta da da dum Bueno, su amigo msico los detendr y dir: "Sabes, la msica de fondo para tu revolucin de la informacin, es una pera, es Wagner. +Se basa en la mitologa nrdica. +Son dioses y criaturas mticas luchando por joyas mgicas". +Eso es interesante. +Tambin es una pera hermosa. Y esa pera nos emociona. +Nos emociona porque es sobre la lucha entre el bien y el mal, sobre lo correcto y lo incorrecto. +Y nos importa lo que lo correcto y lo incorrecto. +Nos importa lo que pasa en la pera. +Nos importa lo que pasa en "Apocalipsis Now". +Y sin duda que nos importa lo que pasa con nuestras tecnologas. +Hoy tenemos mucho poder, depende de nosotros decidir qu hacer. Y esa es la buena noticia. +Somos nosotros los que escribimos esta pera. +Es nuestra pelcula. +Nosotros decidimos lo que pasar con esta tecnologa. +Nosotros determinamos cmo terminar todo esto. +Gracias. +De nio en Montana, yo tena dos sueos. +Quera ser paleontlogo, paleontlogo de dinosaurios, y tener un dinosaurio como mascota. +Y por ese sueo he luchado toda mi vida. +Tuve mucha suerte bien temprano en mi carrera. +Tuve la suerte de encontrar cosas. +No era muy bueno para leer cosas. +De hecho, no leo mucho de nada. +Tengo mucha dislexia y por eso me cuesta tanto leer. +Pero, en cambio, salgo y encuentro cosas. +Luego las recolecto. +Bsicamente practico para encontrar dinero en la calle. +Y recorro las colinas. As descubr algunas cosas. +He tenido la suerte de encontrar los primeros huevos del hemisferio occidental y los primeros bebs dinosaurio en sus nidos, los primeros embriones de dinosaurio y acumulaciones masivas de huesos. +Y esto sucedi en un momento en el que la gente recin empezaba a darse cuenta de que los dinosaurios no eran esos grandes reptiles verdes y tontos que se haba pensado durante aos. +La gente comenzaba a hacerse una idea de que los dinosaurios eran especiales. +Por eso, en ese momento, pude arriesgar algunas hiptesis interesantes junto con mis colegas. +Estbamos en condiciones de afirmar que los dinosaurios -con la evidencia que tenamos- que los dinosaurios hacan nidos y vivan en colonias cuidando a sus cras, alimentando a sus bebs, y que viajaban en manadas gigantes. +Por eso fue algo bastante interesante. +Fui ms all y descubr ms cosas, como que los dinosaurios eran en verdad muy sociales. +Hemos encontrado mucha evidencia de cambio en los dinosaurios de la etapa juvenil a la etapa adulta. +Que su aspecto habra sido diferente... algo presente en todos los animales sociales. +En los grupos sociales de animales, los jvenes siempre tienen un aspecto diferente de los adultos. +Los adultos pueden reconocer a los jvenes y los jvenes a los adultos. +Eso nos da una mejor idea del aspecto de los dinosaurios; +que no se limitaban a perseguir jeeps por ah. +Pero este aspecto social es lo que, supongo, atrajo a Michael Crichton. +En su libro habl de los animales sociales. +Luego Steven Spielberg, claro, retrata estos dinosaurios como criaturas muy sociales. +El tema de esta historia es "Creando un dinosaurio..." y as llegamos a esa parte de "Parque Jursico". +Michael Crichton fue uno de los primeros en hablar de resucitar dinosaurios. +Todos conocen la historia, no? +Digo, supongo que todos los presentes vieron "Parque Jursico". +Uno lleva el ADN al laboratorio y lo clona. +Y supongo que lo inyecta, quiz en un huevo de avestruz o algo por el estilo. Hay que esperar y, he aqu que aparece un pequeo dinosaurio beb. +Y todo mundo contento. +Contentos una y otra vez. +Siguen hacindolo; siguen creando estas cosas. +Y siguen y siguen +los dinosaurios, seres sociales, dejan de lado su sociabilidad. Y se juntan a conspirar. +Claro, eso es lo que le da base a la pelcula de Steven Spielberg. Los dinosaurios conspiran persiguiendo a la gente. +Supongo que todos saben que si uno tuviera una pieza de mbar con un insecto dentro y la perfora y le saca algo al insecto y lo clona y lo repite una y otra vez obtendra una sala llena de mosquitos. +Y probablemente un puado de rboles tambin. +Pero si uno quiere ADN de dinosaurio yo digo vayan a los dinosaurios. +Y eso es lo que hemos hecho. +En 1993 cuando se estren la pelcula conseguimos recursos de la Fundacin Nacional de Ciencias para tratar de extraer ADN de un dinosaurio. Elegimos el dinosaurio de la izquierda un tiranosaurio rex, que era un ejemplar muy bueno. +Y una de mis ex estudiantes de doctorado la Dra. Mary Schweitzer, tena los antecedentes para hacer algo as. +Analiz un hueso de este T-rex, uno de los huesos del muslo, y encontr all unas estructuras muy interesantes. +Hallaron estos objetos rojos de apariencia circular que ante la mirada de todo el mundo parecan glbulos rojos. +Y estn en lo que parecen ser canales sanguneos que van a travs del hueso. +Entonces pens, bueno, qu diablos. +Y tom una muestra del material. +No era ADN; no encontr ADN. +Pero s encontr hemo, que es la base biolgica de la hemoglobina. +Eso fue algo genial. +Fue interesante. +Aqu tenemos hemo de 65 millones de aos. +Bueno, tratamos una y otra vez pero no pudimos extraer nada ms. +Pasaron unos aos y comenzamos el Proyecto Hell Creek. +El proyecto consisti en un emprendimiento masivo para conseguir tantos dinosaurios como fuera posible con la esperanza de encontrar algunos que contuviesen ms material. +Al este de Montana hay mucho espacio, gran cantidad de tierras baldas, y no mucha gente. As que all pueden encontrarse muchas cosas. +Y encontramos muchas cosas. +Encontramos muchos tiranosaurios pero hallamos uno en especial al que llamamos B-rex. +Encontramos a B-rex bajo cientos de metros cbicos de roca. +No era un T-rex muy completo ni muy grande, pero era un B-rex muy especial. +Y con mis colegas lo seccionamos y pudimos determinar, al observar sus lneas de crecimiento detenido, lneas internas, que el B-rex haba muerto a los 16 aos. +No sabemos cunto vivan los dinosaurios porque todava no hemos encontrado al ms longevo. +Pero este muri a los 16 aos. +Le dimos muestras a Mary Schweitzer, y ella pudo determinar que el B-rex era hembra con base en el tejido medular hallado en el interior del hueso. +El tejido medular es la acumulacin de calcio, el almacenamiento de calcio bsicamente, presente en la preez del animal, cuando un ave est preada. +Y aqu estaba la carcterstica que una aves y dinosaurios. +Pero Mary fue ms lejos. +Tom el hueso y lo puso en cido. +Todos sabemos que los huesos estn fosilizados y, por ende, si uno lo pone en cido no debera quedar nada. +Pero qued algo. +Quedaron vasos sanguneos. +Haba vasos sanguneos flexibles, distinguibles. +Ah estaba el primer tejido blando de un dinosaurio. +Fue algo extraordinario. +Ella tambin encontr osteocitos que son las clulas que dejan los huesos. +Intentando mucho no pudimos hallar ADN pero ella s encontr evidencia de protenas. +Pero pensamos... bueno, pensamos que quiz el material se iba a descomponer una vez desenterrado. +Pensamos que tal vez se iba a deteriorar muy rpido. +Por eso construimos un laboratorio en la parte de atrs de un remolque de 18 ruedas, y llevamos el laboratorio al campo para obtener mejores muestras. +Y lo logramos. Conseguimos mejor material. +El aspecto de las clulas mejor. +Los vasos se vean mejor. +Luego el colgeno. +Digo, fue algo maravilloso. +Pero no es ADN de dinosaurio. +As que descubrimos que el ADN de dinosaurio, y el ADN de todo, se descompone muy rpido. +Que no lograramos hacer lo que hicieron en "Parque Jursico". +No vamos a poder crear un dinosaurio a partir de un dinosaurio. +Pero las aves son dinosaurios. +Las aves son dinosaurios vivientes. +De hecho, las clasificamos como dinosaurios. +Ahora las llamamos dinosaurios no aviares y dinosaurios aviares. +Los dinosaurios no aviares son los grandes y torpes que se extinguieron. +Los dinosaurios aviares son nuestras aves modernas. +As que no tenemos que hacer un dinosaurio; porque ya los tenemos. +Ya s, Uds son tan malos como los nios de sexto grado. +Ellos al ver esto dicen: "No". +"Puedes llamarlo dinosaurio, pero mira el velociraptor: el velociraptor es genial". +"El pollo no". +Este es el problema, como podrn imaginar. +El pollo es un dinosaurio. +Quiero decir, lo es. +No pueden discutir eso porque somos nosotros quienes clasificamos, y lo hicimos de ese modo. +Pero los nios de sexto grado lo piden. +"Mejoren el pollo". +Por eso estoy aqu para contarles eso, cmo vamos a mejorar al pollo. +Hay varias maneras de mejorar al pollo. +Porque la evolucin funciona y tenemos herramientas evolutivas. +Las vamos a llamar herramientas de modificacin biolgica. +Hay seleccin natural. +Sabemos que la seleccin funciona. +Comenzamos con una criatura parecida al lobo y terminamos con un malts. +Quiero decir... eso definitivamente es modificacin gentica. +O cualquiera de los otros tipos de perritos graciosos. +Tambin tenemos transgnesis. +La transgnesis es genial tambin. +Consiste en sacar un gen de un animal y ponrselo a otro. +As se hace un GloFish (pez flo). +Se saca un gen fluorescente de un coral o una medusa y se lo coloca en un pez cebra y, ya, resplandece. +Eso es bastante genial. +Obviamente, se hace mucho dinero con esto. +Ahora se estn haciendo conejos flo y todo tipo de cosas flo. +Supongo que podramos hacer un pollo flo. +Pero creo que eso tampoco satisfar a los nios de sexto grado. +Pero hay otra cosa. +Est lo que llamamos activacin de atavismo. +La activacin de atavismo bsicamente es... un atavismo es un rasgo ancestral. +Habrn odo que a veces los pollos nacen con cola y eso se debe a que es un rasgo ancestral. +Pueden ocurrir varios atavismos. +Las serpientes a veces nacen con patas. +Este es un ejemplo. +Este es un pollo con dientes. +Un compaero llamado Matthew Harris de la Universidad de Wisconsin, en Madison, descubri una manera de estimular el gen de los dientes y pudo activar el gen de los dientes y producir pollos con dientes. +Ese es un buen rasgo. +Podemos recuperarlo. +Sabemos cmo usarlo. +Podemos hacer un pollo con dientes. +Eso se acerca ms. +Es mejor que un pollo flo. +Un amigo mo, un colega mo, el Dr. Hans Larsson de la Universidad McGill est estudiando los atavismos. +Su anlisis consiste en mirar la gnesis del embrin de las aves y mirar su desarrollo. Le interesa determinar cmo fue que las aves perdieron la cola. +Tambin le interesa la transformacin del brazo, la mano en el ala. +Tambin est buscando esos genes. +Como dije: "Bueno, si puedes hallarlos puedo revertirlos y hacer lo que necesito para los nios de sexto grado". +l estuvo de acuerdo. +Estamos en eso. +Si uno mira las manos de los dinosaurios, un velociraptor tiene esa mano genial con sus garras. +El archaeopteryx, un ave primitiva, todava tiene esa mano muy primitiva. +Pero como pueden ver, la paloma, o el pollo o cualquier otra ave tiene una mano medio rara, porque la mano es un ala. +Pero lo genial es que si uno mira el embrin durante su gestacin la mano se parece, en realidad, bastante a la mano del archaeopteryx. +Tiene los tres dedos, las tres yemas. +Pero hay un gen que al activarse los une. +Y por eso estamos buscando ese gen. +Queremos detener a ese gen, evitar que fusione esas manos, para conseguir un pollo con una mano de tres dedos como el archaeopteryx. +Y pasa lo mismo con las colas. +Las aves tienen bsicamente colas rudimentarias. +Y sabemos que en el embrin durante la gestacin del animal, tiene una cola relativamente larga. +Pero aparece un gen y la cola se reabsorbe, se elimina. +Ese es otro gen que estamos buscando. +Queremos detener la reabsorcin de la cola. +En realidad estamos tratando de tomar un pollo, modificarlo, y hacer el pollosaurus +Es un pollo de aspecto ms moderno. +Pero eso es solo lo ms bsico. +Eso es lo que estamos haciendo. +Y la gente siempre dice: Por qu lo hacen? +Por qu hacer esto? +De qu sirve?" +Bueno, es una buena pregunta. +Creo que es una gran forma de ensear a los nios biologa evolutiva, biologa del desarrollo y todo tipo de cosas. +Francamente, creo que si el Coronel Sanders [de Kentucky Fried Chicken, NT] fuese cuidadoso en la forma de anunciarlo podra ofrecer una presa extra. +Como sea... cuando nuestro dino-pollo rompa el cascarn, ser, obviamente, el polluelo de tapa o la chica de tapa [chica = chick = polluelo, NT] de tecnologa, entretenimiento y diseo [TED, NT]. +Gracias. +Esta historia es sobre tomar con seriedad la imaginacin. +Hace 14 aos, encontr este material comn, red para pescar, que se viene usando de la misma forma, por siglos. +Hoy lo utilizo para crear formas permanentes, ondulantes, voluptuosas a la escala de edificios de formas duras, en varias ciudades del mundo. +Yo no era la persona ms adecuada para esto. +Nunca estudi escultura, ni ingeniera, ni arquitectura. +Despus de graduarme present solicitudes en 7 escuelas de arte y todas me rechazaron. +Entonces segu como artista por mi cuenta e hice pinturas durante 10 aos, hasta que me ofrecieron una beca Fulbright para la India. +Propuse hacer exposiciones de mis pinturas, las embarqu y me fui a Mahabalipuram. +Lleg el da de la apertura; pero mis pinturas no llegaron. +Tena que hacer algo. +Esta aldea de pescadores era famosa por sus esculturas. +As que ensay con bronce fundido. +Pero las formas grandes resultaban demasiado pesadas y muy costosas. +Fui a caminar por la playa, observando cmo los pescadores anidaban sus redes sobre promontorios de arena. +Lo haba visto todos los das, pero esta vez not algo diferente; un nuevo enfoque para la escultura; una nueva manera de hacer formas volumtricas sin necesidad de materiales slidos pesados. +Mi primera escultura satisfactoria fue elaborada en colaboracin con los pescadores. +Es un autorretrato que llam "Caderona". +Las levantamos en postes para fotografiarlas. +Y descubr esas superficies suaves que reflejaban cada soplo del viento en formas cambiantes todo el tiempo. +Qued hipnotizada. +Segu estudiando las tradiciones artesanales colaborando con los trabajadores, ahora en Lituania con tejedores de encaje. +Me atrajo el detalle tan fino que esto le daba a mi trabajo, pero quera hacerlos ms grandes; pasar de un objeto al que se le puede mirar a algo en lo que uno puede perderse. +Volv a la India para trabajar con esos mismos pescadores y tejimos una red de milln y medio de nudos, a mano. La instal temporalmente en Madrid. +La vieron miles de personas; uno de ellos fue el urbanista Manuel de Sol Morales que estaba remodelando la zona de la playa en Oporto, Portugal. +Me pregunt si podra construirla como algo permanente en esa ciudad. +Yo no saba si podra hacerlo sin alterar mi arte. +Durable, bien diseado y permanente, son conceptos que se oponen a peculiar, delicado y efmero. +Durante dos aos estuve buscando una fibra que pudiera resistir la radiacin ultravioleta, la sal, el aire y la contaminacin y que pudiera mantenerse suficientemente suave para moverse fluidamente con el viento. +Necesitbamos algo que sostuviera la red en lo alto sobre la rotonda. +Tuvimos que elevar este anillo de acero de 20 toneladas. +Tuvimos que disearlo de modo que se moviera con la brisas normales y a la vez resistiera vientos huracanados. +Pero no existe software en ingeniera para disear estructuras porosas y que se mueven. +Entonces encontr a un ingeniero aeronutico brillante que diseaba velas para los yates de carreras de la Copa de Estados Unidos, llamado Peter Heppel. +l me ayud a abordar el problema doble; una forma precisa con movimientos suaves. +No poda hacerlo de la manera que conoca porque los nudos hechos a mano no podran sobrevivir a un huracn. +Entonces, entabl una relacin con una fbrica de redes para pescar, aprend los parmetros de sus mquinas, y encontr la manera de hacer encaje. +No haba un lenguaje para traducir esta tradicin manual tan antigua y tan peculiar en instrucciones de produccin para los operadores de las mquinas. +As que tuvimos que inventarlo. +Tres aos y dos nios ms tarde, levantamos esta red de cintas de 4600 m2. +Difcil de creer que lo que me haba imaginado estaba ahora construido, permanente, sin perder nada en la traduccin. +La interseccin no tena antes carcter ni nombre. +Ahora tena identidad propia. +Pas por debajo por primera vez +escuchando la coreografa del viento y me sent protegida y al mismo tiempo conectada con el inmenso cielo. +Mi vida ya no sera la misma. +Quiero crear estos oasis de escultura en varios espacios de ciudades de todo el mundo. +Quiero compartir estas dos direcciones nuevas en mi trabajo. +La alcalda de la Filadelfia histrica, su plaza. Pens que necesitaba un material para esta escultura ms liviano que las redes. +Entonces ensayamos pequeas gotitas, partculas, de agua para formar una bruma seca que tomara la forma del viento. Haciendo varios intentos, descubr que la gente puede darle forma al interactuar y moverse en su interior, sin mojarse. +Estoy usando este material escultrico para trazar en la superficie, las rutas del metro, en tiempo real, como una radiografa viva del sistema circulatorio de la ciudad. +El siguiente desafo fue la Bienal de las Amricas, en Denver, que me pidi si podra representar las 35 naciones del hemisferio occidental y sus interconexiones, en una escultura. +No saba por dnde comenzar, pero dije que s. +Haba ledo sobre el reciente terremoto de Chile y el tsunami que sacudi todo el Ocano Pacfico. +Con l se movieron las placas tectnicas terrestres, se aceler la rotacin del planeta y, literalmente, se acort la duracin del da. +Decid contactar a la NOAA (Administracin Nacional Ocenica y Atmosfrica), ped que me dejaran ver la informacin sobre el tsunami y lo traduje a esto. +Su ttulo es "1,26" que indica la cantidad de microsegundos en que se acort el da terrestre. +No poda construirlo con un anillo de acero, como ya saba hacerlo. +Ahora la forma era muy complicada. +As que remplac la armadura metlica con una malla suave y fina de una fibra 15 veces ms fuerte que el acero. +Ahora la escultura sera completamente suave y result tan liviana que se poda atar a los edificios existentes; volvindose parte del tejido de la ciudad, literalmente. +No haba software que pudiera conformar estas complicadas redes y modelarlas con la gravedad. +Tuvimos que producirlo. +Entonces recib una llamada de la ciudad de Nueva York pidindome que adaptara estos conceptos a Times Square o la Highline. +Este nuevo mtodo para estructuras blandas me permite modelar y construir estas esculturas a la escala de rascacielos. +Todava no se tienen los fondos pero sueo con traerlas a varias ciudades del mundo, en donde ms se necesitan. +Hace 14 aos yo estaba buscando belleza en cosas tradicionales, en formas artesanales. +Ahora las combino con materiales de alta tecnologa e ingeniera para crear formas voluptuosas y ondulantes a la escala de edificios. +Mis horizontes artsticos siguen creciendo. +Voy a dejarlos con esta historia. +Recib una llamada de una amiga de Phoenix. +Una abogada de oficina que nunca se haba interesado en el arte, nunca haba visitado un museo de arte; sac a todos los que pudo del edificio y los llev afuera a acostarse bajo la escultura. +Ah estaban, vestidos formalmente, acostados sobre la grama, notando las formas cambiantes del viento con personas que no conocan, compartiendo este descubrimiento maravilloso. +Gracias. +Gracias. Gracias. +Gracias. +Gracias. Gracias. +Visto desde fuera, John tena todo a su favor. +Acababa de firmar el contrato de venta de su apartamento de Nueva York con una ganancia de seis cifras, del que haba sido propietario tan solo 5 aos. +La universidad donde obtuvo su posgrado le acababa de ofrecer un puesto de profesor, lo que significaba no solo un salario, sino beneficios por primera vez en mucho tiempo. +Y, sin embargo, a pesar de irle todo muy bien a John, l estaba luchando contra la adiccin y contra una depresin agobiante. +La noche del 11 de junio de 2003, subi hasta el borde de la barandilla del puente de Manhattan y salt a las aguas traicioneras que fluan bajo el puente. +Sorprendentemente, no, milagrosamente, sobrevivi. +Ah empieza realmente nuestra historia. +Porque una vez que John se comprometi a recomponer su vida, fsica, emocional y espiritualmente, descubri que haba muy pocos recursos disponibles para alguien que ha intentado poner fin a su vida, como era su caso. +La investigacin muestra que 19 de cada 20 personas que intentan suicidarse fallarn. +Pero quienes fallan tienen 37 veces ms probabilidades de conseguirlo la segunda vez. +Esta es realmente una poblacin en riesgo con muy pocos recursos de apoyo. +Y lo que sucede es que cuando las personas tratan de retomar sus vidas, debido a los tabes en torno al suicidio, no estamos seguros de qu decir, as que muchas veces no decimos nada. +Y eso fomenta el aislamiento en el que se encuentran las personas como John. +Conozco muy bien la historia de John porque yo soy John. +Y esta vez, hoy, por primera vez, de manera pblica, reconozco el periplo que he vivido. +Como dice el Proyecto Trevor, la cosa mejora. +Mejora mucho. +Y hoy elijo salir de un armario totalmente diferente para alentarles, para instarles a hablar si es que habis pensado o intentado suicidaros, o conocis a alguien en esa situacin habladlo, buscad ayuda. +Es una conversacin que vale la pena entablar y una idea que vale la pena difundir. +Gracias. +Hace un par de aos cuando asist a una TED Conference en Long Beach, conoc a Harriet. +Ya nos habamos conocido en lnea... no de la forma en que estn pensando. +Nos presentaron porque ambos conocamos a Linda Avey, una de las fundadoras de las primeras compaas de genmica personal en lnea. +Y dado que compartimos nuestra informacin gentica con Linda ella pudo ver que Harriet y yo tenamos un tipo muy raro de ADN mitocondrial -el haplotipo K1a1b1a- lo que significaba que ramos parientes lejanos. +En realidad compartimos la misma genealoga con Ozzie el hombre del hielo. +Ozzie, Harriet y yo. +Y viviendo en los tiempos que corren, claro, creamos un grupo de Facebook +al que todos bienvenidos. +Cuando conoc a Harriet en persona al ao siguiente en una TED Conference ella vino con camisetas de feliz haplotipo que compr en lnea. +Por qu les estoy contando esto y qu tiene que ver con el futuro de la salud? +Bueno, la forma en que conoc a Harriet es un ejemplo de cmo aprovechar la multidisciplinariedad; el crecimiento exponencial de la tecnologa est afectando el futuro de nuestra salud y bienestar: desde el anlisis de los genes a precios bajos; a la capacidad de hacer bioinformtica muy potente; y la conexin de Internet y las redes sociales. +Hoy me gustara hablarles de comprender estas tecnologas exponenciales. +A menudo pensamos linealmente. +Pero si lo piensan, si tienen una hoja de nenfar y se multiplica todos los das 2, 4, 8, 16... en 15 das tienen 32.000. +Cuntas creen que tienen en un mes? Unos mil millones. +As, si empezamos a pensar exponencialmente podemos ver cmo est empezando a afectar a las tecnologas que nos rodean. +Y una de las cosas ms importantes que podemos hacer, es de lo que hemos hablado un poco hoy, que es mover la curva hacia la izquierda. +Gastamos la mayora del dinero en el ltimo 20% de la vida. +Y si pudiramos gastar e incentivar las posiciones en el sistema de atencin de salud y en nosotros mismos para mover la curva hacia la izquierda y mejorar nuestra salud aprovechando la tecnologa tambin? +Mi ejemplo favorito de tecnologa exponencial es la que todos llevamos en el bolsillo. +Si lo piensan bien, estn mejorando notablemente. +Digo, este es un iPhone 4. +Imaginen lo que va a poder hacer el iPhone 8. +Estuve pensando en esto. +He impulsado la parte mdica de una nueva institucin llamada Singularity University con sede en Silicon Valley. +Reunimos all a unos 100 estudiantes muy talentosos de todo el mundo. +Analizamos estas tecnologas exponenciales como medicina, biotecnologa, inteligencia artificial, robtica, nanotecnologa, espacio, y vemos la forma de establecer el vnculo y aprovecharlas para satisfacer importantes objetivos no cumplidos. +Tambin tenemos programas ejecutivos de 7 das. +Y el mes que viene sale Future Med un programa para interconectar y aprovechar las tecnologas en la medicina. +Mencion el telfono. +Estos mviles tienen a su disposicin ms de 20.000 aplicaciones diferentes y se llega al extremo de que existe una del R.U. +en la que uno puede orinar en un pequeo chip conectado al iPhone y hacer un anlisis de enfermedad sexual. +No s si la probara an, pero est disponible. +Hay todo tipo de otras aplicaciones que mezclan el mvil y los diagnsticos, por ejemplo, para medir la glucosa en sangre con el iPhone y enviarle eso, potencialmente, al mdico para que tanto l como uno mismo pueda entender mejor su azcar en sangre como diabetico +Veamos cmo estas tecnologas exponenciales elevan la atencin de salud. +Empecemos con las ms rpidas. +Bueno, no es ningn secreto que las computadoras, mediante la ley de Moore, son cada vez ms rpidas. +Podemos hacer cosas mucho ms potentes con ellas. +Se estn acercando y en muchos casos estn sobrepasando la capacidad de la mente humana. +Pero creo que la velocidad de clculo es ms aplicable a la imagenologa. +La capacidad actual de mirar el cuerpo por dentro en tiempo real con muy alta resolucin se est volviendo realmente increble. +Se emplean tomografas por emisin de positrones y otras computarizadas, diagnsticos moleculares, para tratar de encontrar cosas en distintos niveles. +Vamos a ver la resonancia magntica de muy alta definicin de hoy en da reconstruda por Marc Hodosh, curador de TEDMED. +Y ahora podemos ver dentro del cerebro con una resolucin y capacidad como nunca antes haba estado disponible y, sobre todo, aprender a reconstruir y quiz hacer reingeniera o ingeniera inversa del cerebro para entender mejor patologas, enfermedades y terapias. +Podemos ver el interior con fMRI en tiempo real; en el cerebro en tiempo real. +Y comprendiendo estos procesos y conexiones vamos a entender los efectos de la medicacin o la meditacin y personalizar mejor o hacer efectiva, por ejemplo, las drogas psicoactivas. +Los escneres son cada vez ms pequeos, menos costosos y ms portables. +Y la especie de explosin de datos que genera esto se est volviendo casi un desafo. +El escaneo de hoy en da ocupa alrededor de 800 libros, o 20 gigabytes. +Y en un par de aos ser de un terabyte, u 800.000 libros. +Cmo aprovechar esa informacin? +Vamos a lo personal. No voy a preguntar aqu quin se ha hecho una colonoscopia, pero si tienen ms de 50 aos, es momento de una colonoscopia. +Cmo les gustara evitar el extremo puntiagudo del bastn? +Bueno, bsicamente ahora hay una colonoscopa virtual. +Comparen estas dos imgenes, y ahora como radilogo, uno puede sobrevolar el colon de su paciente y aumentndolo con inteligencia artificial identifican potencialmente, como ven aqu, una lesin. +Oh, podramos haberlo pasado por alto, pero con la IA sobre la radiologa podemos encontrar lesiones que antes se pasaban por alto. +Y tal vez esto anime a la gente a hacerse colonoscopias que no hara de otro modo. +Este es un ejemplo del cambio de paradigma. +Estamos pasando a esta integracin de biomedicina, tecnologa de la informacin, lo inalmbrico, dira, los mviles... a esta era de la medicina digital. +Incluso mi estetoscopio ahora es digital. +Y, claro, hay una aplicacin para eso. +Estamos pasando, obviamente, a la era de la tricorder. +El ultrasonido porttil est superando y suplantando al estetoscopio. +Ahora estn a un precio de -lo que sola costar 100.000 o un par de cientos de miles de dlares- por unos $5.000 ahora puedo tener al alcance la potencia de un dispositivo de diagnstico muy poderoso. +Y combinando esto con el advenimiento de la historia clnica electrnica en Estados Unidos todava estamos en menos del 20% electrnico. +Aqu en los Pases Bajos creo que ronda un 80%. +Pero ahora que estamos pasando a combinar datos mdicos, disponibilizndolos en forma electrnica, podemos abrir las fuentes de informacin. Y ahora como mdico puedo acceder a los datos de mis pacientes desde cualquier lado solo a travs de mi mvil. +Por supuesto, ahora estamos en la era del iPad, incluso del iPad 2. +Y apenas el mes pasado el ente de salud aprob la aplicacin que le permite a los radilogos hacer una lectura real con estos dispositivos. +As que, sin duda, los mdicos de hoy en da, incluso yo mismo, confiamos plenamente en estos dispositivos. +Y como vieron hace apenas un mes Watson de IBM venci a los dos campeones de Jeopardy. +As que quiero que imaginen dnde estaremos en un par de aos cuando hayamos empezado a aplicar esta informacin de la nube, cuando contemos con mdicos de IA y aprovechemos nuestros cerebros para conectarnos y tomar decisiones y hacer diagnsticos sin precedentes. +Ya hoy muchas veces no necesitan ir al mdico. +Slo en un 20% de las visitas uno tiene que poner las manos en el paciente. +Estamos en la era de las visitas virtuales con una especie de visitas de tipo Skype que podemos hacer con American Well hasta Cisco ha desarrollado un sistema de telesalud muy complejo. +La capacidad de interactuar con el proveedor de atencin de salud es diferente. +Y eso va en aumento gracias a nuestros dispositivos. +Aqu mi amiga Jessica me envi una foto de su laceracin en la cabeza y pude evitarle un viaje a la sala de emergencia; puedo hacer algunos diagnsticos de ese modo. +O podramos aprovechar la tecnologa de juegos de hoy en da, como Microsoft Kinect, y adaptarla para hacer diagnsticos, por ejemplo, para diagnosticar accidentes cerebrovasculares con simple deteccin de movimiento, usando dispositivos de 100 dlares. +Ahora podemos visitar a los pacientes en forma robtica este es el RP7, si soy hematlogo, visito otra clnica, visito un hospital. +Estas se complementarn con un conjunto completo de herramientas hogareas. +Supongan que ya tenemos balanzas inalmbricas. +Pueden subir a la balanza, +pueden pasarle sus pesos en un tweet a sus amigos, y ellos pueden mantenerlos en lnea. +Tenemos tensimetros inalmbricos. +Se junta toda esta serie de tecnologas. +As, en vez de usar estos dispositivos desacoplados, podemos ponerlos en un parche. +Este fue desarrollado por colegas de Stanford, se llama iRhythm, suplanta por completo a la tecnologa anterior a un precio mucho ms bajo con mucha ms efectividad. +Hoy estamos tambin en la era del yo cuantificado. +Los consumidores ahora pueden comprar dispositivos de 100 dlares como este pequeo FitBit. +Puedo medir mis pasos, la quema de caloras. +Puedo consultar eso todos los das. +Puedo compartirlo con mis amigos, con mi mdico. +Hay relojes ahora que medirn la frecuencia cardaca, los monitores de sueo Zeo, toda una serie de herramientas que permiten aprovechar y conocer acabadamente la propia salud. +Y a medida que empecemos a integrar esta informacin vamos a saber mejor qu hacer con ella y cmo extraer mayor informacin de nuestras patologas, salud y bienestar. +Incluso hay espejos hoy en da que pueden tomar el pulso. +Y yo dira que, en el futuro, vamos a tener dispositivos porttiles en la ropa monitorendonos todo el tiempo. +Y as como tenemos el sistema OnStar en los coches se va a encender la luz roja; no va a decir "revisa el motor". +Se va a encender la luz de "revisa tu cuerpo" para que uno vaya a ser atendido. +Probablemente en pocos aos van a mirar al espejo y all vern el diagnstico. +Para quienes tienen nios en casa les gustara tener el paal inalmbrico que les ayude a... +demasiada informacin, creo, ms de la necesaria. +Pero va a estar disponible. +Hoy hemos escuchado mucho de nuevas tecnologas y conexin. +Y creo que alguna de estas tecnologas nos van a permitir estar ms conectados con nuestros pacientes y dedicar ms tiempo y de hecho aplicar el factor humano tan importante en la medicina mejorado por este tipo de tecnologas. +Hemos estado hablando de mejorar al paciente, en cierto sentido. +Qu tal si mejoramos al mdico? +Ahora estamos en la era del sper-cirujano que ahora puede meterse en el cuerpo e intervenir con ciruga robtica, que hoy ya se practica, a un nivel que realmente no era posible incluso hasta hace 5 aos. +Esto ha sido aumentado con ms capas de tecnologa como la realidad aumentada. +As, el cirujano puede ver dentro del paciente, con sus lentes, dnde est el tumor, dnde estn los vasos sanguneos. +Esto puede ser integrado con apoyo a las decisiones. +Un cirujano en Nueva York puede estar ayudando a uno de msterdam, por ejemplo. +Estamos entrando en una era de cirugas sin cicatrices llamada NOTES en las que el endoscopio robtico sale del estmago y saca la vescula biliar, todo sin cicatrices y de manera robtica. +Se llama NOTES y est llegando... ciruga sin cicatrices, con ciruga robtica. +Y el control de otros elementos? +Para los que tienen discapacidades -los parapljicos- est la era de la Interaccin Cerebro Computadora, o BCI (siglas en ingls, NT) con el implante de chips en la corteza motora de pacientes completamente tetrapljicos de modo que pueden controlar un cursor, o una silla de ruedas o, eventualmente, un brazo robtico. +Estos dispositivos son cada vez ms pequeos y cada vez se usan ms en estos pacientes. +En realidad, estamos entrando en la era de la robtica portable. +Si no han perdido un miembro -han tenido un accidente cerebrovascular, por ejemplo- pueden usar estos miembros aumentados. +O si son parapljicos -por ejemplo, fui a ver a la gente de Berkley Bionics- y han desarrollado eLEGS. +Hice este video la semana pasada. Este es un paciente parapljico que camina sujeto a estos exoesqueletos. +En caso contrario, depende por completo de la silla de rueda. +Esta es la primera era de la robtica porttil. +Y creo que mediante el aprovechamiento de este tipo de tecnologas, vamos a cambiar la definicin de la discapacidad por, en algunos casos, sper-habilidad, o sper-capacidad. +Esta es Aimee Mullins, perdi sus extremidades inferiores de nia, y Hugh Herr, profesor del MIT, perdi sus extremidades en un accidente de escalada. +Y ahora ambos pueden escalar ms, se mueven ms rpido, nadan de forma diferente con sus prtesis que nosotros, con capacidades normales. +Y las otras exponenciales? +Es evidente que la tendencia a la obesidad va exponencialmente en la direccin equivocada, incluso con grandes costos. +Pero la tendencia en la medicina va hacia lo exponencialmente pequeo. +Algunos ejemplos: ahora estamos en la era de "Viaje Fantstico", la iPill. +Se puede ingerir en este dispositivo totalmente integrado. +Puede tomar imgenes del sistema gastrointestinal, ayudar a diagnosticar y hacer un tratamiento en su paso por el tracto gastrointestinal. +Nos metemos en micro-robots an ms pequeos que eventualmente se movern de forma autnoma por el sistema y sern capaces de hacer cosas que los cirujanos no pueden hacer, de manera mucho menos invasiva. +A veces se podra auto-ensamblar en el sistema gastrointestinal y aumentarse en esa realidad. +Por el lado cardaco, los marcapasos se estn volviendo ms fciles de colocar por lo que no es necesario formar un cardilogo intervencionista para colocarlos. +Y, de nuevo, van a tener telemetra inalmbrica hacia dispositivos mviles entonces pueden ir a cualquier lado y ser monitoreados en forma remota. +Estos se estn encogiendo an ms. +Este es un prototipo de Medtronic; es ms pequeo que una moneda. +Retinas artificiales, la posibilidad de colocar esta red detrs del globo ocular para permitir ver a los ciegos. +De nuevo, son las primeras pruebas, pero directo al futuro. +Estos van a cambiar el juego. +O, para los que tenemos visin normal, qu tal unos lentes de contacto asistivos? +con BlueTooth y WiFi disponible transmiten imgenes a los ojos. +Y si uno tiene problemas para seguir la dieta podra ayudar tener algunas imgenes que nos recuerden cuntas caloras estamos por ingerir. +Y qu tal si le damos un mvil al patlogo para ver a nivel microscpico, para subir los datos a la nube y hacer mejores diagnsticos? +De hecho, toda la era de la medicina de laboratorio est cambiando completamente. +Ahora podemos aprovechar la microfludica, como en este chip hecho por Steve Quake en Stanford. +La microfludica puede sustituir a un laboratorio entero de tcnicos. +Ponerlos en un chip, permitiendo hacer miles de pruebas en el punto de atencin en cualquier parte del mundo. +Y esto va a aprovechar realmente la tecnologa en zonas rurales y de poco acceso a servicios posibilitando hacer pruebas que costaban miles de dlares por unos centavos y en el punto de atencin. +Si seguimos adelante todava un poco ms entramos en la era de la nanomedicina: la capacidad de hacer dispositivos sper-pequeos al punto de poder disear glbulos rojos o mircorobots que supervisarn el sistema sanguneo o el sistema inmunolgico, o incluso que pueden limpiar los cogulos de las arterias. +Y qu tal lo exponencialmente barato? +No es algo que pensemos habitualmente en la era de la medicina pero los discos rgidos costaban $3.400 los 10MB... hoy son exponencialmente baratos. +En genmica, el genoma costaba casi mil millones de dlares hace 10 aos cuando apareci el primero. +Hoy nos acercamos exponencialmente a un genoma de mil dlares. Probablemente en los prximos 2 aos llegaremos a un genoma de 100 dlares. +Qu vamos a hacer con genomas de 100 dlares? +Pronto habr millones de estos tests disponibles. +Y se pone interesante cuando empezamos a producir colectivamente esa informacin. +Entramos en la era de la medicina verdaderamente personalizada, la medicina correcta para la persona correcta en el momento indicado en vez de hacer lo de hoy, que es la misma medicina para todos una especie de medicacin a la blockbuster, medicaciones que no funcionan en los casos individuales. +Y hay muchsimas compaas trabajando para aprovechar estos enfoques. +Y, otra vez, les voy a mostrar un ejemplo simple de 23andMe. +Mis datos indican que tengo un riesgo promedio de desarrollar degeneracin macular, un tipo de ceguera. +Pero si tomo esa misma informacin y la subo a deCODEme, puedo mirar mi riesgo, por ejemplo, de diabetes tipo 2. +Tengo casi dos veces el riesgo de diabetes de tipo 2. +Podra querer controlar el postre del intervalo de almuerzo, por ejemplo. +Podra cambiar mi comportamiento. +Aprovechar los conocimientos de mi farmacogenmica -cmo modulan mis genes, el efecto de las drogas y las dosis que necesito- se va a volver cada vez ms importante y una vez en manos del individuo y del paciente la dosificacin del frmaco ser mejor y tambin la seleccin disponible. +De nuevo, no se trata slo de genes, son muchos detalles... nuestros hbitos, exposicin al ambiente. +Cundo fue la ltima vez que el mdico les pregunt dnde han vivido? +Geomedicina: dnde han vivido, a qu han estado expuestos, puede afectar decisivamente la salud. +Podemos capturar esa informacin. +As, la genmica, la protemica, el medio ambiente, todo este aluvin de informacin sobre unos pobres mdicos. Cmo lo manejamos? +Bueno, estamos entrando en la era de medicina de sistemas, o biologa de sistemas, en la que podemos integrar toda esta informacin. +Y mirando los patrones, por ejemplo, en nuestra sangre de 10.000 biomarcadores en una sola prueba, podemos empezar a mirar estos pequeos patrones y detectar enfermedad en etapas mucho ms tempranas. +Esto ha sido llamado por Lee Hood, el padre de la disciplina, medicina P4. +Vamos a ser predecibles; vamos a saber qu es lo probable que tenga. +Podemos ser preventivos; esa prevencin puede personalizarse; y ms importante, se va a volver cada vez ms participativa. +En sitios como Pacientes Como Yo (Patients Like Me) o manejando tus datos en Microsoft HealthVault o Google Health, aprovechando esto de forma participativa se va a volver cada vez ms importante. +Voy a terminar con lo exponencialmente mejor. +Nos gustara obtener mejores tratamientos y ms eficaces. +Hoy tratamos la presin arterial en su mayora con pldoras. +Qu tal si tomramos un nuevo dispositivo y golperamos los vasos nerviosos que ayudan a mediar en la presin arterial y con una simple terapia pudiramos curar la hipertensin? +Este nuevo dispositivo, en esencia, hace eso. +Debera estar en el mercado en un ao o dos. +Qu tal mejores terapias dirigidas para el cncer? +Correcto, soy onclogo y tengo que decir que la mayora de lo prescribimos es veneno. +Hemos aprendido en Stanford y en otros lugares que podemos descubrir clulas madre del cncer, que parecen ser realmente las responsables de la recada de la enfermedad. +Si piensan en el cncer como una mala hierba, queremos erradicarla. +Parece que cede terreno pero a menudo regresa. +Entonces estamos atacando el objetivo equivocado. +Las clulas madre del cncer quedan y el tumor puede regresar meses o aos despus. +Ahora estamos aprendiendo a identificar las clulas madre del cncer e identificndolas como objetivos, vamos en pos de la cura a largo plazo. +Estamos entrando en la era de la oncologa personalizada, la capacidad de aprovechar todos estos datos, analizar el tumor y encontrar un cctel real, especfico para cada paciente individual. +Voy a terminar con medicina regenerativa. +He estudiado mucho sobre clulas madre; las clulas madre embrionarias son especialmente potentes. +Tambin tenemos clulas madre adultas en el cuerpo. +Las usamos en mi campo de trasplantes de mdula sea. +Geron, el ao pasado, comenz el primer test con clulas madre embrionarias humanas para el tratamiento de la mdula espinal. +Todava en fase de prueba, pero evolucionando. +Hemos estado usando clulas madre adultas en ensayos clnicos durante unos 15 aos para abordar un rango completo de temas, en particular de enfermedades cardiovasculares. +Tomamos nuestras propias clulas de mdula sea y tratamos a un paciente con ataque cardaco y notamos mejoras en las funciones vasculares y mejor supervivencia usando las propias clulas de mdula sea luego de un ataque cardaco. +Invent un dispositivo llamado MarrowMiner (minero de mdula, NT), una forma mucho menos invasiva para la recoleccin de mdula sea. +Ahora lo est aprobando el ente regulatorio y es de esperar que est en el mercado el ao que viene. +Espero que puedan ver el dispositivo haciendo una curva en el cuerpo del paciente, extrayendo mdula sea, en lugar de 200 perforaciones, con slo una nica puncin con anestesia local. +Hacia dnde va la terapia de clulas madre? +Si lo piensan, cada clula de sus cuerpos tiene el mismo ADN que tenan cuando eran embriones. +Ahora podemos reprogramar clulas de la piel para que acten como clulas madre embrionarias pluripotentes y usarlas potencialmente para tratar mltiples rganos en el mismo paciente creando sus propias lneas de clulas madre personalizadas. +Y creo que el almacenamiento de las propias clulas madre marcar una era en la que congelaremos nuestras clulas cardacas, miocitos y clulas neuronales, para usarlas en el futuro, en caso de necesitarlas. +Y ahora integramos esto con toda una era de ingeniera celular. Integrando tecnologas exponenciales esencialmente para la impresin 3D de rganos reemplazando la tinta con clulas construyendo y reconstruyendo un rgano 3D. +Hacia ah va la cosa; estamos empezando. +Pero creo que, como integracin de tecnologas exponenciales, este es el ejemplo. +Entonces para cerrar, pensando en las tendencias tecnolgicas y la manera de impactar la salud y la medicina estamos entrando en una era de miniaturizacin, descentralizacin y personalizacin. +Y creo que poniendo todas estas cosas juntas -si podemos empezar a pensar cmo entenderlas y aprovecharlas- vamos a darle poder al paciente y al mdico, mejorar el bienestar y empezar a curar el bienestar antes de que se enfermen. +Porque como mdico s que si alguien viene a consultarme en etapa uno de la enfermedad me emociono... a menudo podemos curarlos. +Pero a menudo es muy tarde, en etapa tres o cuatro de cncer, por ejemplo. +Entonces, aprovechando estas tecnologas en conjunto creo que vamos a entrar en una nueva era que me gusta llamar medicina etapa cero. +Y como mdico de cncer tengo muchas ganas de estar sin trabajo. +Muchas gracias. +Anfitrin: Gracias. Gracias. +Hagan una reverencia. +Hoy estoy aqu para empezar una revolucin. +Antes que se levanten en armas, o comiencen a cantar, o elijan un color favorito, quiero definir qu entiendo por revolucin. +Para m una revolucin es un cambio drstico y de gran alcance en la forma en que pensamos y actuamos... la forma en que pensamos y actuamos... +Pero, Steve, por qu necesitamos una revolucin? +Necesitamos una revolucin porque las cosas no estn funcionando; no funcionan. +Y eso me entristece, porque estoy harto y cansado de que las cosas no funcionen. +Estoy harto y cansado de que no estemos a la altura de nuestro potencial. +Estoy harto y cansado de que seamos los ltimos. +Y estamos en el ltimo lugar de tantas cosas... por ejemplo, en factores sociales. +En innovacin, estamos en el ltimo lugar en Europa. +Ah estamos justo al final, bien al fondo, el ltimo lugar como una cultura que no valora la innovacin. +En salud, somos los ltimos, y eso es importante en el sentido del bienestar. +Y ah estamos, no solo ltimos en la UE, estamos ltimos en Europa, bien abajo. +Y lo peor de todo, lo publicaron hace 3 semanas en The Economist, muchos lo habrn visto. +Somos el lugar ms triste del planeta en relacin al PBI per cpita... el lugar ms triste de la Tierra. +Eso en lo social; miremos la educacin. +Dnde nos ubicbamos hace 3 semanas en otro informe de la OCDE? +ltimos en lectura, matemtica y ciencia; ltimos. +Negocios: la menor percepcin de la UE +de que los empresarios traigan beneficios a la sociedad. +Qu sucede como resultado? +El menor porcentaje de emprendimientos. +Y esto es a pesar del hecho de que todos saben que los pequeos negocios son el motor de las economas. +Contratamos ms personas, generamos ms impuestos. +Entonces, si nuestro motor se detiene, adivinen? +ltimos en Europa en PBI per cpita. +ltimos. +Por eso no es sorprendente que el 62% de los blgaros no sea optimista sobre el futuro. +Somos infelices, tenemos mala educacin y los peores negocios. +Y, gente, estos son hechos. +Esto no es un cuento, no es una ilusin. +No lo es. +No es una conspiracin que tramo contra Bulgaria. Estos son hechos. +Por eso pienso que realmente debe quedar muy claro que nuestro sistema no funciona. +La forma en que pensamos, que actuamos, nuestro sistema operativo de comportamiento no funciona. +Necesitamos un cambio drstico en la forma en que pensamos y actuamos para lograr un cambio positivo en Bulgaria para nosotros mismos, para nuestros amigos, para nuestra familia y nuestro futuro. +Cmo sucedi esto? +Seamos positivos. Vamos a ser positivos. Cmo sucedi esto? +Creo que somos los ltimos porque -esto va a ser drstico para algunos de Uds- porque nos ponemos en desventaja. +Nos estamos retrasando porque no valoramos el juego. +Dije jugar, de acuerdo. +En el caso de que alguno se haya olvidado lo que es jugar, es algo as. +Los bebs juegan, los nios juegan, los adultos juegan. +No valoramos el juego. +De hecho, lo desvalorizamos. +Y lo desvalorizamos en 3 reas. +Volvamos a las mismas 3 reas. +Social: 45 aos de qu? +De comunismo; de valorar la sociedad y el Estado por sobre el individuo y aplastando, sin darnos cuenta, la creatividad, la auto-expresin individual y la innovacin. +Y, en cambio, qu valoramos? +Porque est comprobado que el modo en que aplicamos, generamos y usamos el conocimiento se ve afectado por nuestro contexto social e institucional que nos peda qu en el comunismo? +Ser serios. +Ser realmente serios. +Era as. +Ser serios. +No s cuntas veces me reprendieron en el parque por dejar a mis hijos jugar en la tierra. +Dios nos libre de jugar con tierra o con agua, que los va a matar. +Mam y pap nos dijeron que no deberamos dejar jugar tanto a nuestros nios, porque la vida es seria y debemos educarlos para la seriedad de la vida. +Estamos en medio de un meme grave +Es un gen social, que se propaga entre nosotros. +Es un gen grave. +Hace 45 aos que fue creado lo que llamo el factor mami. +Y as es como funciona. +Paso 1: la mujer dice, "quiero tener un beb. Iskam beb". +Paso 2: tenemos el beb. Viva! +Pero luego qu sucede en el paso 3? +Quiero volver al trabajo, porque quiero avanzar en mi carrera o simplemente quiero salir y tomar un caf. +Se lo dejo a mami. +Pero debemos recordar que mami fue infectada durante 45 aos por el grave meme. +Entonces qu pasa? +Ella le pasa el virus al beb y realmente se necesita muchsimo tiempo, como las secuoyas, para sacar a ese grave meme de nuestro sistema operativo. +Qu pasa luego? +Entra en la educacin, donde tenemos un sistema educativo anticuado que en 100 aos cambi muy poco, que valora el aprendizaje repetitivo, la memorizacin y estandarizacin, y devala la expresin personal, la auto-exploracin, el cuestionamiento, la creatividad y el juego. +Es un sistema de mierda. +Historia real: estaba buscando escuela para mi hijo. +Fuimos a esta prestigiosa escuela y nos dijeron que estudiaran matemticas 10 veces a la semana y ciencias 8 veces a la semana y lectura 5 veces al da, y cosas por el estilo. +Y nosotros dijimos: "Bien, y qu hay del juego y el recreo?" +Y nos dijeron: "Ah. No habr tiempo". +Y nosotros dijimos: "Tiene 5 aos". +Qu crimen. Qu crimen. +Y es un crimen que nuestro sistema educativo sea tan serio, porque la educacin es tan seria es que estamos creando trabajadores mecnicos, robticos para poner tornillos en agujeros previamente perforados. +Pero lo siento, los problemas de hoy no son los problemas de la Revolucin Industrial. +Necesitamos adaptabilidad, aprender a ser creativos e innovadores. +No necesitamos trabajadores mecanizados. +Pero no, ahora el meme se mete en el trabajo donde no valoramos el guego. +Creamos trabajadores robticos que tratamos como recursos, para aprovechar y luego tirar. +Cules son las cualidades del trabajo blgaro? +Autocrtico: haz lo que digo porque soy el jefe. +Soy el jefe y conozco mejor que t. +Desconfiado: obviamente eres un criminal, por eso voy a instalar cmaras. +Controlador: obviamente eres un idiota, por eso voy a hacer un trilln de pasos para que sigas y no te salgas de lo establecido. +As que son represivos: no uses el telfono mvil, no uses tu laptop, no navegues en internet, no uses el chat. +Est mal y es poco profesional. +Y, al final del da, esto no es gratificante porque eres controlado, reprimido, no te valoran y no te diviertes en absoluto. +En lo social, en lo educativo y en los negocios, no valoramos el juego. +Y por eso somos los ltimos, porque no valoramos el juego. +Y pueden decir: "Steve, eso es ridculo. Qu idea tonta. +No puede ser por el juego. +Jugar es algo estpido". +El meme est en nuestro interior. +Bueno, les digo que no. +Y les voy a demostrar en la siguiente parte de la charla que el juego es el catalizador, es la revolucin, que podemos usar para transformar y mejorar Bulgaria. +Jugar: nuestros cerebros estn programados para jugar. +La evolucin ha favorecido a travs de millones y miles de millones de aos lo ldico, en animales y humanos. +Y saben qu? +La evolucin realmente hace un gran trabajo anulando los rasgos que no nos son ventajosos y seleccionando aquellos que nos dan una ventaja competitiva. +La Naturaleza no es tonta y favorece el juego. +En todo el reino animal, por ejemplo, las hormigas, las hormigas juegan. +Tal vez no lo saban. +Pero al jugar estn aprendiendo el orden social y la dinmica de las cosas. +Las ratas juegan, pero lo que quiz no saben es que las ratas que ms juegan tienen cerebros ms grandes y aprenden mejor las tareas, las habilidades. +Los gatitos juegan. Todo el mundo sabe que los gatitos juegan. +Pero lo que quizs no saben es que los gatitos privados del juego son incapaces de interactuar socialmente. +Pueden cazar, pero no pueden socializar. +Los osos juegan. +Pero quizs lo que no saben es que los osos que ms juegan, viven ms tiempo. +No es el oso que aprende cmo pescar mejor. +Es el que juega ms. +Y un ltimo estudio interesante, se mostr una correlacin entre el jugar y el tamao del cerebro. +Cuanto ms juegas, ms grande es el cerebro. +Los delfines, con cerebros bien grandes, juegan mucho. +Pero quines creen que, con los cerebros ms grandes, son los mayores jugadores? +Nosotros mismos, los humanos. +Los nios juegan, nosotros jugamos... de cualquier nacionalidad, raza, color, religin, +es algo universal... jugamos. +Y no slo los nios, tambin los adultos. +Una palabra interesante: neotenia; la retencin del juego y de rasgos juveniles en los adultos. +Y quines son los mayores neotenistas? +Los humanos. Hacemos deportes. +Lo hacemos por diversin, como aficionados o como profesionales. +Tocamos instrumentos musicales. +Bailamos, besamos, cantamos, o pasamos el tiempo. +Estamos diseados naturalmente para jugar desde el nacimiento hasta la vejez. +Estamos diseados para hacerlo continuamente... jugar y jugar mucho y no parar de jugar. +Es un enorme beneficio. +As como hay beneficios para los animales, hay beneficios para los humanos. +Por ejemplo, se ha demostrado que estimula el crecimiento neuronal de la amgdala, en la zona en la que controla las emociones. +Se ha demostrado que promueve el desarrollo de la corteza prefrontal donde se produce gran parte de la cognicin. +Como resultado, qu sucede? +Si jugamos ms, desarrollamos mayor madurez emocional. +Desarrollamos mejores habilidades de toma de decisiones si jugamos ms. +Estos son hechos. +No es ficcin, no es un cuento, no intento convencerles; es ciencia pura y fra. +Estos son los beneficios de jugar. +Es un derecho gentico, innato, que tenemos, como caminar, hablar o ver. +Y al negarnos la posibilidad de jugar es como si negsemos cualquier otro derecho innato. +Nos perjudicamos. +Hagamos un breve ejercicio: cierren sus ojos y traten de imaginar un mundo sin juego. +Imaginen un mundo sin teatro, sin arte, sin msica, sin baile, sin ftbol, sin risas. +Cmo sera ese mundo? +Bastante sombro. +Bastante triste. +Ahora imaginen sus lugares de trabajo. +Es divertido? Es ldico? +O tal vez el lugar de trabajo de sus amigos; aqu estamos pensando en el futuro. +Es divertido? Es ldico? +O es una mierda? Es autoritario, controlador, restrictivo, desconfiado y frustrante? +Tenemos esta idea de que lo contrario al juego es el trabajo. +Incluso nos sentimos culpables si nos ven jugando en el trabajo. +"Oh, mis colegas me ven rer. No debo estar trabajando lo suficiente", u "Oh, me debo ocultar porque mi jefe me puede ver. +Pensar que no estoy trabajando lo suficiente". +Pero les tengo una noticia: lo pensamos al revs. +Lo opuesto a jugar no es trabajar. +Lo opuesto a jugar es la depresin. +De hecho, el juego mejora nuestro trabajo. +Del mismo modo que beneficia a humanos y animales el juego aporta beneficios al trabajo. +Por ejemplo, estimula la creatividad. +Incrementa nuestra apertura al cambio. +Mejora nuestra habilidad de aprendizaje. +Nos da un propsito y un dominio del tema; dos factores motivacionales que aumentan la productividad, a travs del juego. +No piensen en el juego como algo poco serio; jugar no significa frivolidad. +El atleta profesional que ama esquiar, lo hace seriamente, pero le encanta hacerlo. +Se divierte, est en su ambiente, como pez en el agua. +Si bien el mdico puede ser serio, es sabido que la risa es una gran medicina. +Lo estamos pensando al revs. +No deberamos sentirnos culpables. +Deberamos celebrar el juego. +Un rpido ejemplo del mundo empresarial. +FedEx, un lema fcil: "gente, servicio, ganancia". +Si tratas a tu gente como personas, si los tratas bien, estn ms felices; se dan cuenta que tienen un propsito y dominio del tema. +Qu sucede? Dan mejor servicio... no peor, sino mejor. +Y cuando los clientes llaman y hablan con gente feliz que puede tomar decisiones y se siente realizada, cmo se sienten los clientes? Se sienten genial. +Y qu hacen los clientes que se sienten bien? +Compran ms servicios y hacen correr la voz entre sus amigos, lo que genera ms ganancia. +Gente, servicio, ganancia. +Jugar aumenta la productividad, no la disminuye. +Y me van a decir: "Eso puede funcionar para FedEx en EEUU, pero no en Bulgaria. +De ninguna manera. Somos diferentes". +S funciona en Bulgaria; por dos razones. +Primero, jugar es algo universal. +No hay nada que impida a los blgaros jugar, aparte del grave meme que debemos eliminar. +Segundo, lo he probado. Lo he probado en Sciant. +Cuando llegu ah, no tenamos ningn cliente feliz. +Ningn cliente nos poda recomendar. +Les ped a todos. +Nuestra ganancia era marginal. +Tenamos ganancias insignificantes, y accionistas infelices. +Mediante algunos cambios bsicos, como mejorar la transparencia, promover la auto-gestin y la colaboracin, alentar la colaboracin, no la autocracia, cosas como enfocarnos en los resultados. +No me importa a qu hora llegas en la maana, o a qu hora te vas. +Me importa que tu cliente y tu equipo est feliz y te organices con eso. +Por qu me importara que llegues a las 9 en punto? +Bsicamente promover la diversin. +Estimulando la diversin y el buen ambiente pudimos transformar Sciant y solamente en 3 aos -parece mucho tiempo, pero los cambios son lentos- todos los clientes, de ninguno a todos, nos recomendaban, ganancias por sobre la media de la industria y accionistas felices. +Pueden decir: "Bien, cmo sabes que son felices?" +Bueno, ganamos todos los aos en los que competimos, en uno de los rankings para mejor empleador de las pequeas empresas. +Anlisis independiente sobre encuestas a trabajadores annimos. +Funciona, y puede funcionar en Bulgaria. +No hay nada que nos detenga, excepto nuestra propia mentalidad sobre el juego. +Para finalizar, algunas medidas que podemos tomar para hacer la revolucin a travs del juego. +Antes que nada, tienen que creerme. +Si no me creen, vuelvan a casa y piensen un poco ms en esto. +En segundo lugar, si dentro de Uds no tienen la sensacin de jugar, necesitan recuperarla. +Lo que fuese que de nio solan disfrutar, que disfrutaban hace slo 6 meses, pero que ahora que fueron ascendidos, ya no disfrutan, porque sienten que deben ser serios, redescubran eso. +No importa si se trata de andar en bicicleta o leer un libro o jugar un juego, +redescubran eso. Porque Uds son los lderes, los lderes de la innovacin, los lderes del pensamiento. +Son los que tienen que volver a la oficina y hablar con sus amigos y encender el fuego del cambio en la revolucin del juego. +Ustedes lo tienen que hacer, y si no lo sienten, sus colegas, sus empleados, tampoco lo van a sentir. +Tienen que volver y decir: "Oye, voy a confiar en ti". +Idea rara. Yo te contrat. Debo confiar en ti. +Dejar que tomes decisiones. Voy a darte poder. Y voy a delegar hacia el nivel ms bajo, en vez de hacia el ms alto. +Voy a alentar la crtica constructiva. +Voy a dejar que desafen la autoridad. +Porque es volviendo a pensar la manera tradicional de hacer las cosas que podemos salir de la rutina en la que estamos y crear soluciones innovadoras para los problemas de hoy. +Como lderes, no siempre tenemos la razn. +Tenemos que eliminar el miedo. +El miedo es enemigo del juego. +Y vamos a hacer cosas como eliminar restricciones. +Saben qu, dejen que usen sus mviles para llamadas personales -Dios no lo permita. +Dejen que naveguen en Internet. +Dejen que usen la mensajera instantnea. +Dejen que tomen largos almuerzos. +El almuerzo es como el receso para el trabajo. +Es cuando sales al mundo y recargas tu cerebro, te encuentras con tus amigos, tomas una cerveza, comes algo, hablas, tienes algunas sinergias de ideas que tal vez no hubieras tenido antes. +Permtanles que lo hagan. Denles libertad. Y, en general, djenles jugar. Permtanles divertirse en el trabajo. +Gran parte de nuestra vida la pasamos en el trabajo, y si caemos en una rutina miserable, en 20 aos un da van a despertar diciendo: "Esto es todo? +Eso es todo lo que haba?" +Inaceptable. Nepriemliv. +En resumen, necesitamos un cambio drstico en la forma de pensar y actuar, pero no necesitamos una revolucin obrera. +No necesitamos una revolucin obrera. +Lo que necesitamos es una insurreccin ldica. +Hace falta una insurreccin ldica. +Hace falta una insurreccin ldica. +En serio, necesitamos unirnos. +Hoy es el comienzo de la insurreccin. +Pero lo que hay que hacer es avivar las llamas de la revolucin. +Deben compartir sus ideas e historias exitosas que funcionaron para impulsar nuestras vidas, nuestras escuelas, y nuestro trabajo con el juego; compartir cmo el juego fomenta un sentido de promesa y autorrealizacin; compartir cmo el juego fomenta la innovacin y la productividad; y, finalmente, cmo el juego crea significado. +Porque no podemos hacerlo solos. Tenemos que hacerlo juntos. Y juntos, si hacemos esto y compartimos estas ideas sobre el juego, podemos hacer de Bulgaria un pas mejor. +Gracias. +Texto: BeatJazz +El beatjazz es 1. Un ciclo en vivo 2. Improvisacin de jazz y 3. Diseo de sonido "gestual". +Los acelermetros de cada mano leen la posicin de las mismas. +Los colores de las luces indican qu sonidos estoy tocando +Rojo = Tambores Azul = Bajo Verde = Cuerdas Naranja = Leads Morado = Pads La boquilla consta de... +un botn, dos mediadores y mucho pegamento ardiente. +La pantalla es la de un mvil que muestra los parmetros del sistema. +Por qu? +Para atomizar la cultura musical y que TODOS los gneros, pasados, presentes y futuros puedan estudiarse y sintetizarse, en vivo. +Y hoy los "beatjazzeros" son tan populares como los D.J. +Pero sobre todo... +para CONSTRUIR el futuro en lugar de esperar. +Gracias. +Al pensar en un concierto para solo de violonchelo viene a la mente una de las suites de Johannes Sebastian Bach para chelo, sin acompaamiento. +Cuando nia estudiando estas obras inmortales, la msica de Bach se entremezclaba con las voces de cantos religiosos musulmanes de la aldea rabe vecina al kibutz en el norte de Israel donde crec. +Por la noche, luego de horas de estudio, escuchaba a Janice Joplin y a Billie Holiday mientras los compases de tangos venan del estreo de mis padres. +Para mi todo era msica +sin fronteras. +Todava, mi da comienza tocando a Bach +Su msica no deja de sonar, para m, siempre nueva y sorprendente. +Pero al alejarme del repertorio clsico tradicional, buscando nuevos caminos de expresin musical, me di cuenta que con los recursos tecnolgicos actuales, no hay razn para limitar lo que se puede producir en un momento dado, con un solo instrumento de cuerdas. +La fuerza y la coherencia que se produce cuando una misma persona escucha, percibe y toca todas las voces, constituye una experiencia diferente. +La emocin de la ejecucin por una gran orquesta proviene del propsito de lograr que un equipo de msicos produzca un concepto unificado. +El placer de usar multi-canal, de la forma como lo hice en la pieza que van a escuchar a continuacin, viene del objetivo de crear y construir todo un universo de muchas capas, todas creadas en una misma fuente. +Mi violonchelo y mi voz son las capas que conforman esta gran carpa sonora. +A los compositores que escriben mi msica les pido que se olviden de lo que saben sobre el chelo. +Yo espero llegar a territorios nuevos para descubrir sonidos que nunca haba odo antes. +Quiero crear incontables posibilidades con este violonchelo. +Me convierto en el medio por el que se canaliza la msica y, en el proceso, si todo anda bien, la msica se transforma, al igual que yo misma. +El espacio, todos conocemos su aspecto. +Hemos estado rodeados de imgenes del espacio toda la vida desde las imgenes especulativas de la ciencia ficcin, pasando por las visiones artsticas, hasta las imgenes cada vez ms hermosas producto de tecnologas complejas. +Pero al tiempo que tenemos una comprensin visual del espacio tan abrumadoramente vvida, no tenemos una nocin de los sonidos del espacio. +De hecho, la mayora de la gente asocia el espacio al silencio. +Pero la historia de la comprensin del Universo ha significado en la misma medida escuchar y mirar. +Y an a pesar de esto, casi nadie ha odo alguna vez el espacio. +Cuntos de los presentes podra describir el sonido de un planeta o de una estrella? +Bueno, en caso de que se lo hayan preguntado, este es el sonido del Sol. +Este es el planeta Jpiter. +(Crujido Suave) Y esta es la sonda espacial Cassini haciendo piruetas entre los anillos de hielo de Saturno. +Este es un grupo altamente condensado de materia neutra girando en el Universo lejano. +Mi prctica artstica consiste en escuchar los ruidos extraos y maravillosos que emiten los magnficos cuerpos celestes que conforman el Universo. +Se preguntarn: cmo sabemos cules son estos sonidos? +Cmo podemos identificar la diferencia entre el sonido del Sol y el sonido de un pulsar? +Bueno, la respuesta es la ciencia de la radioastronoma. +Los radioastrnomos estudian las ondas de radio del espacio mediante antenas y receptores sensibles que les brindan informacin precisa de los cuerpos astronmicos y de su posicin en el cielo nocturno. +Y al igual que con las seales que enviamos y recibimos aqu en la Tierra, podemos convertir estas transmisiones en sonido mediante simples tcnicas analgicas. +Y, por lo tanto, es escuchando que hemos llegado a descubrir algunos de los secretos ms importantes del Universo -- su escala, de qu est hecho y hasta qu edad tiene. +Por eso hoy les voy a contar un cuento de la historia del Universo que escuchamos. +Est signada por tres ancdotas breves qu muestran cmo unos encuentros accidentales con sonidos extraos nos dieron una de las informaciones ms importantes que tenemos del espacio. +Pero esta historia no empieza con un gran telescopio o una nave futurista, sino con un medio ms humilde -- de hecho, "el" medio que propici la revolucin en telecomunicaciones de la que somos parte hoy: el telfono. +Es 1876, en Boston, y este es Alexander Graham Bell que estaba trabajando con Thomas Watson en la invencin del telfono. +Una parte clave en su despliegue tecnolgico fueron cientos de metros de cable tendidos por sobre los tejados de varias casas de Boston. +La lnea transportaba la seal telefnica que ms tarde hara de Bell un nombre conocido. +Pero como toda extensin de cable cargado, se convirti, sin darse cuenta, en antena. +Thomas Watson pas horas escuchando los extraos crujidos, pitidos, chirridos y silbidos detectados por la antena accidental. +Ahora bien, tienen que recordar que esto es 10 aos antes de que Heinrich Hertz demostrara la existencia de las ondas de radio - 15 aos antes de los 4 circuitos sintonizados de Nikola Tesla; casi 20 aos antes de la primera transmisin de Marconi. +As que Thomas Watson no nos escuchaba. +Todava no tenamos la tecnologa para transmitir. +Entonces, qu eran esos extraos sonidos? +Watson de hecho escuchaba emisiones de radio de muy baja frecuencia causadas por la Naturaleza. +Algunos de los crujidos y estallidos eran rayos, pero los silbidos misteriosos y los chirridos curiosamente melodiosos tenan un origen bastante ms extico. +Al usar el primer telfono Watson, de hecho, hizo una llamada al cielo. +Como bien supuso, algunos de estos sonidos eran provocados por la actividad en la superficie del Sol. +Era un viento solar que interactuaba con nuestra ionsfera eso que l estaba escuchando... un fenmeno que podemos ver en las latitudes extremas del norte y del sur de nuestro planeta, como la aurora. +As, simultneamente a la invencin de la tecnologa que marcara el comienzo de la revolucin de las telecomunicaciones, Watson haba descubierto que la estrella del centro del Sistema Solar emita potentes ondas de radio. +Accidentalmente, haba sido la primer persona que las haba sintonizado. +Avanzamos 50 aos y la tecnologa de Bell y Watson ha transformado completamente las comunicaciones mundiales. +Pero pasar de tirar unos cables en los tejados de Boston a poner miles y miles de kilmetros de cable en el fondo marino del Atlntico no es tarea fcil. +Y por eso, pronto Bell estaba buscando nuevas tecnologas para optimizar su revolucin. +La radio poda transportar el sonido sin cables. +Pero el medio tiene prdida; est sujeto a mucho ruido e interferencia. +Por eso Bell contrat a un ingeniero para que estudiara esos ruidos y tratara de identificar su origen con miras a crear el aparato perfecto que pudiera deshacerse de los ruidos, para as poder pensar en la radio con fines telefnicos. +La mayora de los ruidos que investig el ingeniero Karl Jansky eran de origen bastante comn. +Resultaron ser rayos o fuentes de energa elctrica. +Pero hubo un ruido persistente que Jansky no pudo identificar, y al parecer apareca en los auriculares de radio 4 minutos ms temprano cada da. +Ahora, cualquier astrnomo les dir que es la seal identificadora de algo que no se origina en la Tierra. +Jansky haba hecho un descubrimiento histrico: que los cuerpos celestes podan emitir ondas de radio, as como ondas de luz. +50 aos despus del encuentro accidental de Watson con el Sol, Jansky escuchando atentamente marc el comienzo de una nueva era de la exploracin espacial: la era de la radioastronoma. +En los aos siguientes los astrnomos conectaron sus antenas a los altavoces y aprendieron sobre nuestro cielo radial, sobre Jpiter y el Sol, escuchando. +Saltemos adelante otra vez. +Es 1964, volvemos a los laboratorios Bell. +Y, otra vez, hay dos cientficos que tuvieron problemas con el ruido. +Arno Penzias y Robert Wilson estaban usando la antena de bocina en el laboratorio Bell de Holmdel para estudiar la Va Lctea con una precisin extraordinaria. +Realmente estaban escuchando la galaxia en alta fidelidad. +Hubo una falla tcnica en su banda sonora. +Un ruido misterioso pero persistente estaba interrumpiendo su investigacin. +Estaba en el rango de las microondas y pareca estar viniendo de todas partes al mismo tiempo. +Pero esto no tena sentido. Y como cualquier ingeniero o cientfico razonable, supusieron que el problema deba ser la tecnologa en s misma; tena que ser la parablica. +Haba palomas posadas en la parablica. +Entonces quiz una vez que limpiaran el excremento de paloma el disco seguramente volvera a funcionar y retomaran las operaciones habituales. +Pero el ruido no desapareci. +El misterioso ruido que estaban escuchando Penzias y Wilson result ser el sonido ms antiguo y significativo que nadie haba odo nunca. +Era una radiacin csmica que dej el propio nacimiento del Universo. +Esta fue la primera evidencia experimental de que existi el Big Bang y de que el Universo naci en un instante preciso hace unos 14.700 millones de aos. +As que nuestro cuento termina en el principio - el principio de todas las cosas, el Big Bang. +Este es el sonido que oyeron Penzias y Wilson - el sonido ms antiguo que van a escuchar en su vida; la radiacin de fondo csmico de microondas que dej el Big Bang. +Gracias. +Mi nombre es Emiliano Salinas y voy a platicarles acerca del papel que tenemos los miembros de la sociedad civil frente al clima de violencia que est viviendo el pas en este momento. +Yo nac en 1976. +Crec en una familia tradicional mexicana. +De nio tuve una vida bastante normal: iba a la escuela, jugaba con mis amigos y mis primos. +Y luego mi pap se convirti en presidente de Mxico y mi vida cambi. +Lo que voy a decir a continuacin, algunas de las cosas que voy a decir, van a ser controversiales. +Van a ser controversiales, primero porque las voy a decir yo. +Y, segundo, porque lo que voy a decir es cierto. Y va a poner nerviosos a muchos porque son cosas que no queremos escuchar. +Pero es esencial escucharlo porque es innegable y es definitivo. +Tambin va a poner nerviosos a muchos miembros de las organizaciones criminales por las mismas razones. +Voy a hablar acerca del papel que jugamos los miembros de la sociedad civil ante este fenmeno y de cuatro niveles de respuesta que tenemos los ciudadanos ante la violencia. +Reconozco que para algunos va a ser difcil separar el hecho de que soy hijo de Carlos Salinas de Gortari del hecho de que soy un ciudadano preocupado por la situacin actual del pas. +No se preocupen. +No se requiere para entender la importancia de lo que viene a continuacin. +Creo que en Mxico tenemos un problema. +Tenemos un gran problema. +[En] esto creo que hay consenso. +Creo que nadie lo debate. Estamos todos de acuerdo. +En lo que no estamos de acuerdo es en cul es el problema que tenemos. +Son los Zetas, es el narco, es el Gobierno, +es la corrupcin, es la pobreza o algo ms? +Yo creo que ninguno de esos es el problema. +No digo que no sean cosas a atender. +Pero no vamos a poder atender ninguna de esas cosas si no resolvemos primero el verdadero problema que tenemos en Mxico. +El verdadero problema que tenemos en Mxico es que la mayora de los mexicanos nos asumimos como vctimas de nuestras circunstancias. +Somos un pas de vctimas. +Incluso histricamente siempre nos hemos asumido como vctimas de alguien o de algo. +Fuimos vctimas de los espaoles. +Luego fuimos vctimas de los franceses. +Luego fuimos vctimas de Don Porfirio. +Luego fuimos vctimas del PRI. +Tambin de Salinas. +Y del Peje. +Y ahora de los Zetas y de los narcos y de los delincuentes y de los secuestradores +Esprenme, esprenme, esprenme! +Qu si ninguna de esas cosas son el problema? +El problema no son las cosas de las que nos sentimos vctimas. +El problema es que nos asumimos como vctimas. +Necesitamos abrir los ojos y ver que no somos vctimas. +Si dejramos de sentirnos vctimas, si dejramos de vernos como vctimas, cmo cambiara eso nuestro pas! +Voy a hablarles de cmo pasar de una sociedad que se asume como vctima de las circunstancias a una sociedad responsable, participativa y que toma el futuro de su pas en sus propias manos. +Voy a hablar de cuatro niveles de respuesta ciudadana ante la violencia. desde el ms dbil hasta el ms fuerte. +El nivel ms dbil de respuesta ciudadana ante la violencia es la negacin y la apata. +Hoy en da, gran parte de la sociedad mexicana est en un estado de negacin ante la situacin que vivimos. +Queremos seguir haciendo nuestra vida cotidiana cuando no estamos en una situacin normal. +Estamos, por decir lo menos, en un momento extraordinario, digamos de excepcin, en la vida cotidiana de nuestro pas. +Es como la persona que tiene una grave enfermedad y quiere pretender que tiene gripa y que se va a quitar sola. +Los mexicanos queremos pretender que Mxico tiene gripa. +Pero Mxico no tiene gripa. +Tiene cncer. +Y si no hacemos algo al respecto ese cncer va a acabar por matarlo. +Necesitamos mover a la sociedad mexicana de esa negacin y esa apata al siguiente nivel de respuesta ciudadana que es, efectivamente, ese reconocimiento. +Y ese reconocimiento va a generar miedo en muchas personas. El reconocer la gravedad de la situacin. +Sin embargo, el miedo es mejor que la apata. Porque el miedo, por lo menos, nos mueve a hacer algo. +Hay tambin gran parte de la ciudadana en Mxico que experimenta mucho miedo el da de hoy. +Tenemos mucho miedo. +Y estamos actuando en base a ese miedo. +Y les voy a decir cul es el problema de actuar en base a miedo -y este es el segundo nivel de respuesta ciudadana ante la violencia, el miedo. +El problema de actuar en base a miedo es que, imaginmonos, las calles en Mxico estn inseguras por la violencia. Y entonces la gente se repliega en sus casas. +Eso hace a las calles ms o menos inseguras? +Ms inseguras! +Ahora las calles estn ms solas, estn ms inseguras, entonces ms nos replegamos en nuestras casas. Lo que hace a las calles ms solas y ms inseguras y ms nos replegamos en nuestras casas. +Este crculo vicioso acaba con toda la sociedad replegada en sus casas, muertos de miedo. [Con] ms miedo que cuando estbamos en las calles. +Necesitamos enfrentar ese miedo. +Necesitamos mover a la sociedad mexicana, a los miembros de la sociedad mexicana que estn en ese nivel, al siguiente nivel que es la accin. +Necesitamos enfrentar nuestros miedos y retomar nuestras calles, nuestras ciudades, nuestras colonias. +Ahora, para muchas personas el actuar requiere incluso de sentir coraje. +Del miedo pasamos al coraje. +Dicen: "Ya no soporto ms esta situacin. +Vamos a hacer algo al respecto". +Hoy en da, este es un dato que es muy delicado, hoy en da en lo que va del 2010 se han registrado 35 linchamientos pblicos en el pas. +Normalmente se registran uno o dos al ao. +Ahora estamos viendo uno por semana. +Esto es muestra de una sociedad que est desesperada. Y que est tomando la justicia en sus manos. +Pero, lamentablemente, la accin violenta -aunque cualquier accin es mejor a no hacer nada- pero la accin violenta y el participar en la violencia tiene el problema de que enmascara la violencia. +Si yo estoy siendo violento contigo y t respondes de manera violenta t ests participando en esa violencia y acabas de enmascarar lo asqueroso de mi violencia. +Entonces es importante que haya una accin de parte de la ciudadana pero es importante [a] todas las personas que estn en este nivel de respuesta ciudadana del coraje y la accin violenta pasarlos al siguiente nivel que es la accin no violenta. +Que es la accin ciudadana coordinada y pacfica que no quiere decir pasiva. +Quiere decir determinada y efectiva pero no violenta. +Y hay ejemplos en Mxico de esto tambin. +Hace dos aos en la ciudad de Galeana, Chihuahua, secuestraron a un miembro de la comunidad, Eric Le Barn. +Y sus hermanos, Benjamn y Julin, se juntaron con el resto de la comunidad para ver cul era el mejor curso de accin: pagar el rescate, o tomar las armas e ir en busca de los secuestradores, o pedir ayuda al gobierno estatal. +Y, finalmente, Benjamn y Julin, decidieron que lo mejor que podan hacer era movilizar a la comunidad y actuar todos juntos. +Y qu fue lo que hicieron? +Movilizaron a toda la comunidad de Le Barn y la comunidad completa se movi, se mud a Chihuahua e hicieron un plantn en la plaza central de Chihuahua. +Y mandaron un mensaje a los secuestradores: si quieren el rescate vengan aqu por l; +aqu los esperamos. +Y no se movieron de ah. +Siete das despus Eric fue liberado y pudo regresar a su casa. +Este es un ejemplo de lo que hace una sociedad organizada, una sociedad que se moviliza. +Por supuesto que los criminales responden. +Y en este caso respondieron. +Y el 7 de julio del 2009 Benjamn Le Barn fue asesinado. +Sin embargo, Julin Le Barn desde hace ms de un ao sigue trabajando y sigue movilizando comunidades en todo Chihuahua. +Y desde hace un ao sabe que su cabeza tiene precio. +Pero no deja de luchar. +Y no deja de organizar. +Y no deja de movilizar. +Estos son actos heroicos que existen por todo el pas. +Con mil Julianes trabajando unidos Mxico sera un pas muy distinto. +Y s los hay! +Slo tienen que levantar la mano. +Yo nac en Mxico, crec en Mxico, y en el proceso aprend a amar a Mxico. +Y creo que para todos los que han pisado esta tierra -y ya no se diga todos los mexicanos- estarn de acuerdo conmigo en que amar a Mxico no es difcil. +He viajado por muchsimos lados y en ningn lugar he visto la pasin de los mexicanos. +Esa entrega con la que apoyamos a la seleccin nacional de ftbol. +Pero tambin esa entrega con la que apoyamos a los damnificados de desastres como el temblor de 1985 o las inundaciones de este ao. +Esa pasin con la que cantamos el himno nacional desde nios. +Cuando pensbamos que Masiosare era el extrao enemigo. Y cantbamos, con corazn de nio, "un soldado en cada hijo te dio". +Creo que el peor insulto, la peor ofensa, que puedes hacerle a un mexicano es insultar a su madre. +Es lo ms sagrado que tenemos en la vida. +Mxico es nuestra madre que hoy clama por sus hijos. +Estamos viviendo el momento ms obscuro de nuestra historia reciente. +Nuestra Madre Mxico est siendo violada frente a nosotros. +Qu vamos a hacer? +Lleg Masiosare el extrao enemigo. +Dnde est el soldado en cada hijo? +Mahatma Gandhi, uno de los ms grandes luchadores civiles de la historia dijo: "debes ser el cambio que quieres ver en el mundo". +En Mxico hoy se buscan Gandhis. +Necesitamos Gandhis. +Necesitamos hombres y mujeres que amen a Mxico y estn dispuestos a tomar accin. +Esto es un llamado a todos los verdaderos mexicanos a sumarse a esta iniciativa. +Estamos frente a un adversario muy poderoso. +Pero nosotros somos muchos ms. +Pueden acabar con la vida de un hombre. +Cualquier persona puede acabar con mi vida. O con la tuya, o con la tuya. +Pero nadie puede acabar con el espritu de los verdaderos mexicanos. +La batalla est ganada, pero hay que darla. +Hace 2000 aos el poeta romano Juvenal dijo una frase que hace eco hoy en el corazn de todos los verdaderos mexicanos. +Dijo: "considera que el mayor de los pecados es preferir la mera existencia a una existencia con honor. Y, cuidado, de -por preservar la vida- no perder las razones mismas de vivir". +Muchas gracias. +Me gustara empezar con un experimento mental. +Imaginen que estamos 4.000 aos en el futuro. +La civilizacin tal como la conocemos ha dejado de existir. No hay libros, ni dispositivos electrnicos, ni Facebook o Twitter. +Todo conocimiento del idioma ingls y su alfabeto se ha perdido. +Ahora imaginen a los arquelogos excavando en los escombros de una de nuestras ciudades. +Qu encontraran? +Bueno, quiz algunos trozos rectangulares de plstico con extraos smbolos impresos. +Quiz algunos pedazos circulares de metal. +Puede que unos recipientes cilndricos con algunos smbolos. +Y quiz una arqueloga se hiciese famosa de repente al descubrir enterradas en las colinas de algn lugar de Norteamrica versiones enormes de esos mismos smbolos. +Ahora preguntmonos, qu podran decir de nosotros tales artefactos a las gentes de dentro de 4.000 aos? +Pero esta no es una pregunta hipottica. +De hecho, este es exactamente el tipo de preguntas a las que nos enfrentamos cuando tratamos de entender la civilizacin del valle del Indo que existi hace 4.000 aos. +La civilizacin del Indo fue aproximadamente contempornea de las mucho mejor conocidas civilizaciones egipcia y mesopotmica, pero realmente fue mucho ms grande que cualquiera de ellas dos. +Ocup un rea de aproximadamente un milln de kilmetros cuadrados, cubriendo lo que hoy es Pakistn, el noroeste de la India y partes de Afganistn e Irn. +Dado que fue una civilizacin tan extensa, ustedes esperaran encontrar gobernantes realmente poderosos, reyes, y enormes monumentos para glorificar a estos poderosos reyes. +De hecho, los arquelogos no han encontrado nada de todo eso. +Han encontrado pequeos objetos como estos. +Aqu tenemos un ejemplo de uno de esos objetos. +Bueno, obviamente es una rplica +pero, quin es esta persona? +Un rey? Un dios? +Un sacerdote? +O quiz una persona normal como ustedes o yo? +No lo sabemos. +Pero las gentes del Indo tambin dejaron tras de s artefactos con textos escritos en ellos. +Bueno, no trozos de plstico, sino sellos de piedra, tablillas de cobre, cermica y, sorprendentemente, un gran letrero, que se encontr enterrado cerca de la entrada a una ciudad. +No sabemos si pone "Hollywood", o mejor para el caso, "Bollywood". +De hecho, no sabemos lo que pone en ninguno de estos objetos. Y eso es porque la escritura del Indo no se ha descifrado. +No sabemos lo que significa ninguno de estos smbolos. +Los smbolos se encuentran ms frecuentemente en los sellos. +Ah arriba pueden ver uno de esos objetos. +Es el objeto cuadrado con un animal parecido a un unicornio. +Es una magnifica pieza de arte. +Cmo de grande creen que es? +Quiz as de grande? +O as? +Bueno, djenme mostrrselo. +Aqu tengo una rplica de un sello as. +Slo tiene unos dos centmetros y medio por dos centmetros y medio, bastante pequeo. +As que, para qu se usaban? +Sabemos que fueron usados para estampar etiquetas de barro que se adjuntaban a fardos de mercancas que eran enviados de un lugar a otro. +Saben esas etiquetas que vienen con las cajas de FedEx? +Pues estos sellos fueron usados para hacer ese tipo de etiquetas. +Ahora quiz se pregunten que contenan esos objetos en lo que a sus textos se refiere. +As que,quiz son el nombre del remitente o alguna informacin sobre las mercancas que se envan de un sitio al otro. No lo sabemos. +Necesitamos descifrar la escritura para contestar esa pregunta. +Descifrar la escritura no es slo un rompecabezas intelectual, Realmente se convierte en una cuestin que se entrelaza profundamente con la poltica y la historia cultural del sur de Asa. +De hecho, el texto se ha convertido en un campo de batalla entre tres grupos diferentes de personas. +As que primero, hay un grupo de personas muy vehementes en su creencia de que la escritura de los Indus no representa una lengua en absoluto. +Estas personas creen que los smbolos son muy similares al tipo de smbolos que se encuentran en las seales de trfico o los emblemas que se encuentran en los escudos. +Hay un segundo grupo de personas que creen que los escritos Indus representan una lengua Indo-Europea. +Si miran a un mapa de la India actual, vern que la mayora de las lenguas habladas en el norte de la India pertenecen a la familia de las lenguas Indo-Europeas. +As que algunos creen que la escritura de los Indus representa una antigua lengua Indo-Europea como el Snscrito. +Hay un ltimo grupo de personas que creen que los Indus fueron los ancestros de la gente que vive en el sur de la India hoy en da. +Estas personas creen que la escritura de los Indus representa una forma antigua de la familia de lenguas dravdicas, que es la familia de las lenguas habladas en la mayor parte del sur de la India actual. +Y los que proponen esta teora sealan a esa pequea bolsa de hablantes dravdicos en el norte, en realidad cerca de Afganistn, y dicen que quiz en algn momento del pasado, las lenguas dravdicas fueron habladas en toda la India y que eso sugiere que la civilizacin del Indo es quiz tambin dravdica. +Cul de estas hiptesis puede ser cierta? +No lo sabemos, pero quiz si descifrramos la escritura, seramos capaces de responder esta pregunta. +Pero descifrar la escritura es una tarea muy desafiante. +Primero, no hay una Piedra Rosetta. +No me refiero al software; me refiero a un antiguo artefacto que contiene en el mismo texto a la vez un texto conocido y uno desconocido. +As que no tenemos un artefacto como ese para la escritura Indus +Y adems, ni siquiera sabemos que lengua hablaban. +Y para ponerlo an peor, la mayora de los textos que conocemos son extremadamente cortos. +Como les mostr, se encuentran habitualmente en estos sellos que son muy, muy pequeos. +Y dados estos formidables obstculos, uno podra preguntarse y preocuparse por si, siquiera alguna vez, ser capaz de descifrar la escritura Indus. +En el resto de mi charla, me gustara contarles como aprend a dejar de preocuparme y amar el reto que plantea la escritura Indus. +Siempre me ha fascinado la escritura Indus desde que le sobre ella en un libro de texto de la escuela secundaria. +Y por qu me fascino? +Bueno, es la ltima gran lengua del mundo antiguo sin descifrar. +Mi trayectoria profesional me llevo a convertirme en neurocientfico computacional, as que en mi trabajo diario, creo modelos informticos del cerebro para tratar de entender como hace predicciones el cerebro, como toma decisiones como aprende, etctera. +Pero en 2007, mi camino se cruz de nuevo con la escritura Indus. +Fue cuando estaba en la India, y tuve la maravillosa oportunidad de conocer a algunos cientficos Indios que estaban usando modelos informticos para tratar de analizar la escritura. +Y as fue como entonces me di cuenta de que haba una oportunidad para m de colaborar con estos cientficos, y me lanc a por aquella oportunidad. +Y me gustara describir algunos de los resultados que he encontrado. +O, incluso mejor, vamos a descifrar colectivamente. +Listos? +Lo primero que tienen que hacer cuando tienes un escrito sin descifrar es tratar de entender la direccin de escritura. +Aqu tenemos dos textos que contienen algunos smbolos. +Pueden decirme si la direccin de escritura es de derecha a izquierda o de izquierda a derecha? +Les dar unos segundos. +Vale. De derecha a izquierda, cuntos? Muy bien. +Vale. De izquierda a derecha? +Oh, est casi al 50 por ciento. Vale. +La respuesta es: Si miran a la parte izquierda de los dos textos, vern que hay unos signos amontonados, parece como si hace 4.000 aos, cuando el escriba estaba escribiendo de derecha a izquierda, se quedaron sin espacio. +Y tuvieron que amontonar los signos. +Uno de los signos esta tambin por debajo del texto de arriba. +Y esto sugiere que la direccin de escritura era probablemente de derecha a izquierda. Y esta es una de las primeras cosas que sabemos, que la direccionalidad es una aspecto clave en los escritos lingsticos. +Y la escritura Indus tiene ahora esta particular propiedad. +Cules son las propiedades de la lengua que esto nos muestra? +Las lenguas contienen patrones. +As que si yo les doy la letra Q y les pido que predigan la siguiente letra, cul piensan que sera? +La mayora de ustedes dira que la U, lo que es correcto. +Ahora, si les pido predecir una letra ms, cul piensan que sera? +Ahora hay varias posibilidades. Est la E. Podra ser la I. Podra ser la A, pero ciertamente no la B, la C o la D verdad? +La escritura Indus presenta tipos similares de patrones. +Hay un montn de textos que empiezan con un smbolo con forma de diamante. +Y este a su vez tiende a preceder a este smbolo con parecido a unas comillas. +Y esto es muy similar al ejemplo de la Q y la U. +A su vez a este signo le pueden seguir estos smbolos parecidos a peces y algunos otros signos, pero nunca estos otros signos de abajo. +Y adems, hay algunos signos que realmente prefieren el final de los textos, como este con forma de jarra. Y este signo, de hecho, resulta ser el signo que aparece con ms frecuencia en la escritura. +Ahora, dados tales patrones, aqu va nuestra idea. +La idea era usar un ordenador para aprender estos patrones. As que le dimos al ordenador los textos existentes, +y el ordenador aprendi un modelo estadstico de qu smbolos tendan a aparecer juntos que qu smbolos tendan a seguirse unos a otros. +Ahora, dado el modelo por ordenador, podemos ponerlo a prueba bsicamente hacindole preguntas. +Podemos borrar un smbolo deliberadamente, y pedirle que prediga el smbolo que falta. +Aqu tenemos algunos ejemplos. +Pueden considerar este como el juego ms antiguo de La Ruleta de la Fortuna. +Lo que encontramos fue que el ordenador acertaba en el 75 por ciento de los casos el smbolo que faltaba. +En el resto de los casos, normalmente la segunda o tercera mejor opcin era la respuesta correcta. +Hay tambin un uso prctico para este procedimiento en particular. +Muchos de estos textos estn daados, +aqu hay un ejemplo de un texto as. +Y ahora podemos usar el modelo informtico para tratar de completar el texto y hacer una mejor prediccin. +Aqu hay un ejemplo de un smbolo que fue predicho. +Y puede ser realmente til mientras tratamos de descifrar la escritura, generando ms datos que podamos analizar. +Hay otra cosa que puedes hacer con el modelo informtico. +Imaginen un mono sentado frente a un teclado. +Pienso que podran obtener un revoltijo aleatorio de letras parecido a esto. +De un revoltijo de letras aleatorio tal se dice que tiene una entropa muy alta. +Este es un trmino de fsica y teora de la informacin. +Pero simplemente imaginen que es realmente un revoltijo aleatorio de letras. +Cuntos de ustedes habis derramado alguna vez el caf sobre el teclado? +Puede que se hayan encontrado el problema del teclado atascado en el que el mismo smbolo es repetido una y otra vez. +De este tipo de secuencia se dice que tiene una entropa muy baja porque no hay variaciones en absoluto. +Por otra parte, el lenguaje tiene un nivel de entropa intermedio; ni es demasiado rgido, ni demasiado aleatorio. +Y qu hay de la escritura Indus? +Este es un grfico que traza las entropas de unas pocas secuencias. +Arriba del todo se encuentra la secuencia uniformemente aleatoria, que es un revoltijo aleatorio de letras, y curiosamente, encontramos tambin la secuencia del ADN del genoma humano y msica instrumental. +Ambos son muy, muy flexibles, y es por ello que se encuentran en un rango muy alto. +Ahora, en lo ms bajo de la escala, te encuentras una secuencia rgida, una secuencia slo de aes, y tambin un programa de ordenador, en este caso en lenguaje Fortran, que obedece reglas realmente estrictas. +Los textos lingsticos ocupan el rango medio. +Y qu hay de la escritura Indus? +Pues encontramos que la escritura Indus en realidad est en el rango de los textos lingsticos. +Cuando este resultado fue publicado por primera vez, fue muy controvertido. +Hubo gente que puso el grito en el cielo, y estas personas eran aquellos que crean que la escritura Indus no representa una lengua. +Incluso empec a recibir cartas amenazantes. +Mis estudiantes decan que debera considerar seriamente obtener algo de proteccin. +Quin hubiera pensado que descifrar podra ser una profesin peligrosa? +Qu muestra este resultado en realidad? +Muestra que la escritura Indus comparte una propiedad importante del lenguaje. +As que, como reza el antiguo dicho, si parece un texto lingstico, y se comporta como un texto lingstico, entonces quiz tengamos un texto lingstico entre manos. +Qu otra evidencias hay de que la escritura pudiera en realidad codificar una lengua? +Bueno, en realidad los textos lingsticos pueden codificar mltiples lenguas. +Por ejemplo, aqu est la misma frase escrita en ingls y la misma frase escrita en holands usando las mismas letras del alfabeto. +Si no saben holands y slo saben ingls y les doy algunas palabras en holands, me dirn que esas palabras contienen algunos patrones muy inusuales. +Algunas cosas no estn bien, y me dirn que estas palabras probablemente no son inglesas. +Pasa lo mismo en el caso de la escritura Indus. +El ordenador encontr algunos textos, dos de ellos se muestran aqu, que tienen patrones muy inusuales. +Por ejemplo el primer texto: Hay un doble signo con forma de jarra. +Este signo es el que aparece con ms frecuencia en la escritura Indus, y slo en este texto aparece duplicado. +As que, por qu se da este caso? +Dimos marcha atrs y miramos donde fueron encontrados estos textos en particular, y result que fueron encontrados muy, muy lejos del valle del Indo. +Fueron encontrados en lo que hoy son Irak e Irn. +Y por qu fueron encontrados all? +Pero lo que nos les he dicho es que los Indus eran muy, muy emprendedores. +Solan comerciar con gente bastante lejos de donde ellos vivan. Y como en este caso, viajaban por mar todo el trayecto hasta Mesopotamia, el Irak de hoy da. +Y lo que parece haber pasado aqu es que los comerciantes Indus, los mercaderes, estaban usando esta escritura para escribir una lengua extranjera. +Es justo como el ejemplo del ingls y el holands. +Y eso explicara por qu tenemos estos patrones extraos que son muy diferentes del tipo de patrones que se ven en los textos que son encontrados en el valle del Indo. +Esto sugiere que la misma escritura, la escritura Indus, pudo ser usada para escribir en diferentes lenguas. +Los resultados que tenemos hasta ahora parecen apuntar a la conclusin de que la escritura Indus probablemente representa lenguaje. +As que si representa lenguaje, entonces cmo leemos los smbolos? +Ese es nuestro siguiente gran reto. +Se darn cuenta de que muchos de los smbolos parecen dibujos de humanos, de insectos, de peces, de pjaros. +La mayora de las escrituras antiguas usan el principio Rebus que es usar imgenes para representar palabras. +Por ejemplo, aqu tienen una palabra. (Belief = Creencia en ingls) +Pueden escribirla usando dibujos? +Les dar un par de segundos. +Lo tienen? +Ok, fenomenal. +Aqu est mi solucin (fonticamente: "Bee" = abeja + "Leaf" = hoja --> "Belief") +As que puedes usar la imagen de una abeja con la imagen de una hoja y eso hace "Creencia" correcto? +Puede haber otras soluciones. +Ahora, en el caso de la escritura Indus, El problema es el contrario. +Tienes que imaginarte el sonido para cada uno de estos dibujos de tal modo que la secuencia completa tenga sentido. +Esto es justo como un crucigrama, excepto que es la madre de todos los crucigramas, porque es mucho lo que est en juego si lo resuelves. +Mis colegas, Iravatham Mahadevan y Asko Parpola han estado realizando algunos progresos en este problema en particular. +Y me gustara darles un ejemplo rpido del trabajo de Parpola +Aqu tenemos un texto realmente corto. +Contiene siete trazos verticales seguidos de este smbolo parecido a un pez. +Y quiero mencionar que estos sellos se usaron para estampar etiquetas de barro que se adjuntaban a fardos de mercancas, as que es bastante probable que estas etiquetas, al menos algunas de ellas, contengan nombres de comerciantes. +Y resulta que en la India hay una larga tradicin de basar los nombres en horscopos y constelaciones de estrellas presentes a la hora del nacimiento. +En las lenguas dravdicas la palabra para pez es "min" que resulta que suena justo como la palabra estrella. +y as, siete estrellas lo que significara "elu min" que es la palabra dravdica para la constelacin de la Osa Mayor. +De forma parecida, hay otra secuencia de seis estrellas, y que se transcribe como "aru min" que es el antiguo nombre dravdico para la constelacin de las Plyades. +Y, por ltimo, hay otras combinaciones, como este signo pez con algo parecido a un tejado encima. +Que se podra transcribir como "mey min" que es el antiguo nombre dravdico para el planeta Saturno. +Fue bastante emocionante. +Parece que estamos llegando a alguna parte. +Pero prueba esto que estos sellos contengan nombres dravdicos basados en planteas y constelaciones? +Bueno, aun no. +No tenemos forma de validar estas lecturas en particular, pero si ms y ms de estas lecturas comienzan a tener sentido, y si secuencias ms y ms largas parecen ser correctas, entonces sabemos que vamos por buen camino. +Hoy, podemos escribir una palabra, como TED en egipcio jeroglfico y en escritura cuneiforme, porque ambos fueron descifrados en el siglo XIX. +El descifrado de estas dos escrituras permiti a estas civilizaciones hablarnos directamente de nuevo. +Los Mayas empezaron a hablarnos en el siglo XX, pero la civilizacin del Indo permanece en silencio. +Por qu debera importarnos? +La civilizacin del Indo no pertenece solo a los Indios del sur o los Indios del norte o a los paquistanes. Nos pertenece a todos nosotros. +Estos son nuestros ancestros, suyos y mos. +Fueron silenciados por un desafortunado accidente de la historia. +Si desciframos la escritura, debemos permitirles hablarnos de nuevo. +Qu nos diran? +Qu descubriremos sobre ellos? Sobre nosotros? +No puedo esperar para enterarme. +Gracias. +Voy a contarles un poco sobre la reinvencin de los alimentos. +Los alimentos me interesan desde hace mucho. +Soy un autodidacta de la cocina; aprend con grandes libros como stos. +Fui a una escuela de gastronoma en Francia. +Hay una manera como el mundo entiende los alimentos, al tiempo que se escribe, se aprende sobre ellos . +En gran medida eso es lo que se encuentra en estos libros. +Algo maravilloso. +Pero han sucedido algunas cosas desde que se estableci esta idea del alimento. +En los ltimos 20 aos la gente se ha dado cuenta que la ciencia tiene mucho que ver con los alimentos. +De hecho, entender por qu funciona la cocina requiere conocer la ciencia de la cocina -algo de su qumica, algo de su fsica, etc. +Pero eso no est en esos libros. +Hay tambin un montn de tcnicas de los chefs respecto a nuevas estticas, nuevos enfoques hacia los alimentos. +Hay un chef en Espaa llamado Ferran Adri +que ha desarrollado una cocina muy vanguardista. +Otro tipo de Inglaterra llamado Heston Blumenthal tiene tambin su cocina de vanguardia. +Y ninguna de las tcnicas de estas personas de los ltimos 20 aos est en esos libros. +No se ensean en las escuelas de gastronoma. +Para aprenderlas uno tiene que ir a trabajar en sus restaurantes. +Y, por ltimo, est la vieja manera de ver los alimentos, a la antigua. +Y as hace unos aos -hace 4 aos, en realidad- me pregunt si habra alguna forma de comunicar la ciencia, la tcnica y esa maravilla. +Existe alguna forma de mostrar los alimentos a la gente de una manera nunca antes vista? +Lo intentamos y les mostrar a qu llegamos. +Esta es una foto llamada corte. +En realidad es la primera foto del libro. +La idea es explicar qu sucede cuando se cocina brcoli al vapor. +Esta vista mgica permite ver todo lo que sucede al hacer brcoli al vapor. +Luego cada una de las pequeas piezas circundantes explican algo. +Perseguamos un doble propsito. +Uno, explicar qu sucede realmente cuando uno hace brcoli al vapor. +Y el otro, quiz poder llevar a las personas hacia algo un poco ms tcnico, tal vez un poco ms cientfico, quiz un poco ms culinario, de lo esperado. +Porque con esa hermosa foto quiz tambin puedo incluir este pequeo cuadro que habla de las diferencias de tiempo de coccin entre cocinar al vapor y hervir. +Cocinar al vapor debera ser ms rpido. +Pero resulta que no lo es debido a algo llamado condensacin del film, y all se explica eso. +Bueno, la primera foto de un corte funcion as que dijimos: "Bien, hagamos ms". +Por eso aqu hay otra. +Descubrimos por qu los woks tienen esa forma. +Esta forma de wok no funciona muy bien; se incendi tres veces. +Pero nuestra filosofa era que sera correcto si luca bien al menos una milsima de segundo. +Y uno de nuestros cortes de conservas. +Si uno empieza a cortar las cosas por la mitad, como que se deja llevar; vean que cortamos los frascos a la mitad, al igual que la cazuela. +Cada uno de estos bloques de texto explica un concepto clave. +En este caso, hervir conservas sirve para hacer conservas que ya son un poco cidas. +No hace falta calentarlas demasiado como cuando se hacen conservas a presin, porque las esporas bacterianas no pueden crecer en el cido. +As que esto es muy bueno para las hortalizas en vinagre, que es lo que estamos haciendo aqu. +Este es nuestro corte de hamburguesa. +Una de las filosofas de nuestro libro es que no hay un plato que sea intrnsecamente mejor que otro. +As, uno puede prodigarle el mismo esmero, la misma tcnica, a una hamburguesa que a cualquier otro plato mucho ms elegante. +Y si uno cuida la tcnica lo ms posible y trata de hacer la hamburguesa de ms alta calidad, se va a involucrar un poco ms. +El New York Times public un artculo luego de que mi libro se retrasara y lo titul: "La espera de la hamburguesa de 30 horas ahora se prolonga". +Siguiendo nuestra receta de hamburguesa, la receta suprema, si uno hace los panes, marina la carne y hace todas estas cosas, le lleva unas 30 horas. +Claro, uno no est trabajando todo el tiempo. +Gran parte del tiempo se va ah esperando. +La idea de este corte es mostrarle a la gente una vista de las hamburguesas nunca antes vista y explicarle la fsica y la qumica de las hamburguesas porque, crase o no, hay algo de fsica y qumica sobre todo en esas llamas que estn debajo. +En gran medida el gusto a brasas no viene de la madera o el carbn. +Comprar carbn de lea de mezquite en realidad no cambia mucho. +En gran parte viene de la pirolizacin o quemado de la grasa. +Es la grasa que gotea y se enciende la que le da el sabor caracterstico. +Quiz se pregunten cmo hacemos estos cortes. +La mayora supone que usamos Photoshop. +Y la respuesta es que no, en realidad no, usamos un taller mecnico. +La mejor manera de cortar las cosas por la mitad es cortndolas por la mitad. +As que tenemos dos mitades de una de las mejores cocinas del mundo. +Cortamos por la mitad un horno de restaurante de 5.000 dlares. +Los fabricantes dijeron: "Qu se necesita para cortar un horno en dos?" +Les dije: "Ser libre". +Y as fue, lo usamos un poco, lo cortamos por la mitad. +Ahora pueden ver cmo fue que hicimos algunas de estas tomas. +Le pegbamos un pedazo de Pyrex o vidrio resistente al calor en el frente. +Usbamos silicona roja, resistente a muy altas temperaturas. +Lo bueno de cortar algo por la mitad es que hay otra mitad. +As que uno lo fotografa exactamente en la misma posicin y luego se lo puede sustituir -esa parte si usa Photoshop- pero slo en los bordes. +Como en una pelcula de Hollywood en la que un tipo vuela por el aire, sujetado con alambres, luego se quitan los alambres en forma digital y parece que volara por el aire. +En la mayora de los casos no haba cristal. +Como con la hamburguesa cuando cortamos la maldita parrilla. +Tenamos que poner de nuevo los carbones que se caan por el borde. +Como ya dije, tena que funcionar durante al menos un milisegundo. +La toma del wok se incendi tres veces. +Lo que pasa cuando uno tiene el wok cortado por la mitad es que el aceite cae sobre el fuego y zas! +Uno de nuestros cocineros perdi las cejas de ese modo. +Pero, bueno, vuelven a crecer. +Adems de los cortes tambin explicamos la fsica. +Esta es la ley de Fourier de conduccin de calor. +Es una ecuacin diferencial parcial. +Tenemos el nico libro de cocina del mundo que contiene ecuaciones diferenciales parciales. +Pero para que sean aceptables la cortamos en una placa de acero, la colocamos frente al fuego y as la fotografiamos. +Tenemos un montn de cositas en el libro. +Todo el mundo sabe que los distintos aparatos tienen vatios, no? +Pero probablemente no sepan mucho de James Watt. +Ahora lo sabrn; pusimos una biografa de James Watt. +Son un par de prrafos para explicar por qu llamamos vatio a la unidad de calor y en qu se inspir l. +Resulta que fue contratado por una destilera escocesa para entender por qu estaban quemando tanta turba para destilar el whisky. +Tambin hicimos muchos clculos. +Yo personalmente escrib miles de lneas de cdigo para escribir este libro de cocina. +Aqu hay un clculo que muestra cmo vara la intensidad de una parrilla, u otra fuente de calor radiante, conforme uno se aleja de ella. +As, a medida que uno se eleva sobre esta superficie, el calor disminuye. +Conforme uno se mueve a los lados, disminuye. +La regin en forma de cuerno es lo que llamamos punto dulce. +Esa es la zona de calor uniforme, hasta un 10%. +Ah es donde uno quiere cocinar en realidad. +Y tiene esta divertida forma de cuerno que es, hasta donde s, el primer libro de cocina que la tiene. +Puede ser el ltimo libro de cocina en tenerla. +Ya saben, hay dos maneras de hacer un producto. +Se puede hacer mucha investigacin de mercado y hacer grupos de enfoque y averiguar qu es lo que la gente necesita o se puede ir directamente al grano y hacer un libro esperando que a la gente le guste. +Este es un paso a paso que muestra la molienda de la hamburguesa. +Si uno quiere una gran hamburguesa resulta importante alinear la picadora. +Y es muy simple, como pueden ver aqu. +A medida que sale de la picadora, hay una pequea bandeja que uno retira de a poco, la arma, hace cortes verticales. +Esta es la hamburguesa final. +Es la hamburguesa de las 30 horas. +Hacemos cada parte de esta hamburguesa. +La lechuga tiene humo lquido. +Tambin explicamos cmo hacer el pan. +Hay un champin, ketchup, etc. +Miren de cerca. Son palomitas de maz. Lo voy a explicar. +La palomita de maz ilustra algo clave de la fsica. +No es hermoso? +Tenemos una cmara de muy alta velocidad con la que nos divertimos mucho en el libro. +El principio fsico clave es que cuando el agua hierve a vapor se expande en un factor de 1.600. +Eso es lo que pasa con el agua que contiene esa palomita. +Es un gran ejemplo. +Voy a terminar con un video un poco inusual. +Tenemos un captulo sobre geles. +Y como la gente ve Cazadores de Mitos y CSI, pens, bueno, vamos a poner una receta con gelatina balstica. +Si tienen una cmara de alta velocidad y un bloque de gelatina balstica por ah, muy pronto alguien hace algo as. +Lo sorprendente es que una gelatina balstica se supone que imita lo que pasa con la carne humana cuando se le dispara -por eso es mejor no recibir un disparo. +La otra cosa que sorprende es que cuando esta gelatina se calma vuelve a tener la consistencia de un bloque. +Como sea, aqu est el libro. +Aqu est. +2.438 pginas. +Son grandes y bonitas. +Una amiga ma se quej de que era demasiado grande y bonito como para estar en la cocina. Por eso hay un sexto volumen de papel resistente al agua, lavable. +Saben ustedes cuntas especies de plantas con flores hay? +Hay un cuarto de milln. Al menos esas son las que conocemos. Un cuarto de milln de plantas que florecen. +Las flores son bien problemticas. +Para una planta es realmente difcil producirlas. +Requieren enormes cantidades de energa y muchsimos recursos. +Por qu tomarse tanto trabajo? +La respuesta es, como en tantos otros casos en la vida, el sexo. +S qu se les ocurre al mirar estas imgenes. +La razn por la que la reproduccin sexual es tan importante... las plantas tienen muchas formas de reproducirse. +Pueden hacerlo por esquejes; pueden tener sexo con ellas mismas; pueden autopolinizarse. +Pero es que necesitan dispersar sus genes para mezclarlos con otros, y as producir su adaptacin a los nichos ambientales. +As se logra la adaptacin. +Ahora bien; la forma en la que las plantas transmiten esa informacin es a travs del polen. +Algunos pueden ya haber visto algunas de estas fotos antes. +Siempre digo que en todo hogar debera haber un microscopio electrnico para poder verlas. +Hay tantas clases diferentes de polen como plantas que dan flores. +Esto es bien til en investigaciones forenses, entre otras cosas. +Todo ese polen que nos produce fiebre de heno viene de plantas que utilizan el viento para diseminar su polen. Un proceso bastante ineficiente que nos llega hasta las narices. +Se necesita echar cantidades y cantidades, confiando en que las clulas sexuales, las masculinas, que estn dentro del polen, de alguna manera lleguen casualmente a otras flores. +As, todos los tipos de pastos, o sea, los cereales y la mayora de los rboles, producen polen transportado por el viento. +Pero la mayora de las especies en realidad usan insectos para ello. Esta es una forma ms inteligente, ya que as no necesitan producir tanto polen. +Los insectos y otras especies pueden tomar el polen y transportarlo directamente a donde haga falta. +Conocemos bien, obviamente, la relacin que hay entre insectos y plantas. +Es una relacin simbitica, sean moscas, aves o abejas, todas obtienen algo a cambio; generalmente la ganancia es el nctar. +A veces, esta simbiosis ha producido adaptaciones maravillosas; la esfinge colibr es una bellsima adaptacin. +La planta obtiene algo y la esfinge colibr distribuye el polen por otros lugares. +Las plantas han evolucionado para crear pequeas pistas de aterrizaje por todas partes para las abejas que han perdido su rumbo. +Hay marcas en muchas plantas que lucen como otros insectos. +Estas son las anteras de un lirio, muy astutas; cuando un insecto incauto le llega, la antera se voltea y lo golpea por detrs con una gran carga de polen que el insecto se lleva luego a otra planta. +Esta es una orqudea que parece como si tuviera mandbulas. En cierta forma, las tiene; hacen que el insecto se arrastre para salir y quede recubierto de polen que se lleva a otra parte. +Hay por lo menos 20.000 especies de orqudeas diferentes; extraordinarias, maravillosamente distintas. +Se ingenian toda clase de trucos. +Tienen que tratar de atraer a los polinizadores para que hagan su trabajo. +Esta se llama orqudea de Darwin, porque la estudi l mismo e hizo una fantstica prediccin cuando la vio. Se puede ver que tiene un tubo bien largo para el nctar que baja desde la flor. +Bsicamente, el insecto tendr... (estamos en medio de la flor) tendr que introducir su pequea trompa dentro hasta abajo por el tubo del nctar para poder conseguirlo. +Al ver esta flor, Darwin dijo: "Me imagino que algo ha coevolucionado con esto". +Y as fue. Ah est el insecto. +Normalmente esto como que se enrolla, pero en su forma erecta se ve as. +Se puede pensar que el nctar es algo muy valioso para la planta y muy costoso de producir, y que atrae a muchos polinizadores. Entonces, al igual que con el sexo humano, la gente comienza a engaar. +Podran decir: "Tengo nctar. Quieres venir y tomarlo?". +Esta es una planta... +Esta planta enamora a los insectos en Sudfrica. Por eso han evolucionado con una trompa larga para poder extraer el nctar del fondo. +Y aqu est la imitacin. +Esta planta est simulando a la anterior. +Aqu, una mosca de trompa larga que no consigui nada de nctar de la que finga. La imitacin no produce ningn nctar. Crey que obtendra algo. +El engao contina por todo el reino vegetal. +Esta flor, con sus puntos negros... puede que nos parezcan simplemente puntos negros, pero puedo decir que a un insecto masculino de cierta especie esto le parece ms bien como dos hembras que estn listas y calientes. +Y as el insecto llega, se posa y se zambulle en el polen, naturalmente, para llevarlo a otras plantas... Si miran la foto del microscopio electrnico, como el que debera haber en todas las casas, pueden ver que se forma como un patrn ah tridimensional. +As, probablemente el insecto se siente muy bien ah y se ve muy bien. +Estas imgenes son de un microscopio electrnico. Aqu hay una orqudea simulando ser un insecto. Se pueden ver las diferentes partes de su estructura con colores distintos y texturas diversas a la vista. Tiene texturas bien distintas para que el insecto las perciba. +Aqu se ve una imitacin por evolucin; una superficie brillante metlica como las de ciertos escarabajos. +Bajo el microscopio electrnico se ve esa superficie, bien distinta de las otras que hemos visto. +Algunas veces toda la planta se parece a un insecto, inclusive para nosotros. +Esta luce como algn tipo de animal o bestia que vuela. +Algo magnfico, maravilloso. +Esta es bien interesante. Se llama obsidiana. +A veces pienso que es "insidiosa". +Para ciertas especies de abejas se parece a otra abeja muy agresiva y va y le da en la cabeza muchas, muchas veces tratando de mandarla lejos y mientras tanto se cubre toda de polen. +Veamos otro caso. Esta planta se parece a otra orqudea que tiene un gran depsito de alimento para los insectos. +Pero esta no tiene nada para ellos. +Es un engao doble; fabuloso! +Aqu vemos un ylang-ylang, un componente de muchos perfumes. +En verdad, hace poco vi a alguien que lo llevaba. +Pero las flores no necesitan ser tan llamativas. +Ellas emiten combinaciones de aromas para los insectos que las quieran. +Esta no huele muy bien. +Es una flor que en verdad huele muy mal; est hecha, ha evolucionado para parecer carne de cadver. +A las moscas les encanta. +Llegan volando y la polinizan. +Este, el Helicodiceros, tambin es llamada yaro tragamoscas. +Yo no s cmo huele un caballo muerto, pero esta, muy probablemente huele as. +Verdaderamente horrible. +Los moscardones azules no pueden evitarlo. +Llegan volando y se introducen hasta el fondo. +Dejan ah sus huevos pensando que es un bonito cadver, sin darse cuenta de que ah no hay alimento para los huevos; se les mueren. Pero entre tanto, la planta se beneficia porque las cerdas las dejan ir, las moscas desaparecen y se van a polinizar a la prxima flor. Fantstico. +Esta es un Arum, Arum maculatum, tambin conocida como aro o yaro tragamoscas. +Tom esta foto la semana pasada en Dorset. +Se calienta como unos 15 por encima del medio ambiente. Sorprendente. +Mirando hacia adentro se ve esta especie de barrera detrs de la espiga... el calor atrae a las moscas... que emite sustancias, como pequeos mosquitos... y quedan atrapadas ah abajo en el recipiente. +Se toman el fabuloso nctar y quedan pegajosas. +Por la noche se recubren de polen con que las han baado; y las cerdas que vimos antes, como que se marchitan y liberan los mosquitos, todos cubiertos de polen. Algo fabuloso. +Si esto les parece maravilloso, el siguiente es uno de mis favoritos. +Este es un Philodendron selloum. +Cualquier brasileo conoce esta planta. +Esto es lo ms sorprendente. +Esta especie de falo mide como 30 cm. +Hace algo que nunca he visto hacer a ninguna otra planta: cuando florece (ah est la espiga en el medio), durante unos dos das metaboliza de igual manera que los mamferos. +En lugar de tomar almidn, que es el alimento de las plantas, usa algo semejante a una grasa parda para quemarla a un ritmo tal que consume la grasa, la metaboliza, como al ritmo de un gatito. +Eso es el doble de la energa que produce, por peso, un colibr. Absolutamente increble. +Esta hace algo absolutamente inslito. +No solo se calienta a 115F (como 46C) durante dos das, sino que se mantiene a temperatura constante. +Tiene un mecanismo termorregulador que mantiene su temperatura constante. +Ahora, por qu lo hace?, me parece or. +No lo saben? A algunos escarabajos les fascina hacer el amor a esa temperatura. +Se introducen y ah lo hacen. +Entre tanto, la planta los baa en polen y luego salen a polinizar. +Qu cosa ms extraordinaria! +La mayora de los polinizadores que conocemos son insectos, pero, por ejemplo en el trpico, muchas aves y mariposas tambin polinizan. +Muchas flores tropicales son rojas, simplemente porque las mariposas y los pjaros ven como nosotros, eso creemos, y pueden distinguir muy bien el color rojo. +Cuando miramos todo el espectro, las aves y nosotros vemos el rojo, el verde y el azul; eso es lo que vemos del espectro. +Pero los insectos ven el verde, el azul y el ultravioleta, varios tonos de ultravioleta. +Ahora veamos algo que sucede ah. +"No sera genial poder ver de alguna manera, esos colores?" me parece or. +Bien, s que podemos. +Qu es lo que ven los insectos? +La semana pasada tom estas fotografas de Cistaceaes o Helianthemum, en Dorset. +Son unas pequeas flores amarillas, como puede verse, estn por todas partes. +As se ven bajo luz visible. +Y si eliminamos el rojo, se ven as. +La mayora de las abejas no ven el rojo. +Ahora, si le pongo a mi cmara un filtro ultravioleta y tomo una exposicin muy larga con las frecuencias precisas de luz ultravioleta, esto es lo que se obtiene. +Y eso es hacerlo bien. +No sabemos exactamente cmo ven las abejas, tal como ustedes no pueden saber qu veo yo cuando digo que esto es rojo. +No podemos saber qu sucede en otra mente humana; mucho menos en la de un insecto. +Pero el contraste puede ser algo as. Destacndose bien sobre el fondo. +Aqu hay otra pequea flor; gama diferente de frecuencias ultravioletas, diferentes filtros para acoplarse a los polinizadores. +Y esto puede ser lo que l vera. +Ustedes podran pensar que todas las flores amarillas tienen esta misma propiedad. Advierto que no daamos ninguna flor en el proceso fotogrfico; simplemente la adherimos al trpode, no la matamos... luego, bajo luz ultravioleta, miren lo que result. +Este puede ser el fundamento de los bloqueadores de sol, porque su operacin se basa en absorber la luz ultrvioleta. +As que este proceso qumico puede ser til. +Finalmente, aqu una onagra que Bjorn Rorslett me envi desde Noruega. Un diseo oculto fantstico. +Me encanta la idea de algo oculto. +Creo que eso es algo potico. Estas fotografas tomadas con filtro ultravioleta... el uso principal de esos filtros es para que los astrnomos tomen fotos de Venus; de las nubes de Venus. +Principalmente para eso se usan esos filtros. +Obviamente, Venus es la diosa del amor y la fertilidad, que es la misma historia de las flores. +Muchas gracias. +Hubo un tiempo en mi vida en el que todo pareca perfecto. +Dondequiera que fuera, me senta en casa. +Con quien me encontrara, senta que lo conoca desde siempre. +Y quiero contarles cmo llegu a ese lugar y qu aprend una vez que lo dej. +Aqu es donde empieza. +Y evoca una pregunta existencial, que es, si estoy teniendo esta experiencia de completa conexin y total conciencia, por qu no soy visible en la fotografa y dnde sucede este tiempo y lugar? +Esto es en Los ngeles, California, donde vivo. +Esta es una foto de la polica. Ese es mi auto. +Estamos a 1 km de uno de los hospitales ms grandes de Los ngeles llamado Cedars-Sinai. +Y la situacin es que unos paramdicos en un auto yendo a sus hogares despus del trabajo se encontraron con un accidente e informaron a la polica que no haba sobrevivientes dentro del auto; que el conductor muri; que yo estoy muerto. +Y la polica est esperando que lleguen los bomberos para desmantelar el vehculo y as extraer el cuerpo del conductor. +Y cuando lo logran, encuentran que detrs del vidrio, me encuentran +y mi crneo est aplastado y mis clavculas aplastadas, todo menos dos de mis costillas, mi pelvis y ambos brazos. Todo est quebrado pero an hay pulso. +Y me llevan a ese hospital cercano, Cedars-Sinai, donde esa noche recibo, por mi hemorragia interna, 45 unidades de sangre, lo que significa el reemplazo total de toda mi sangre, antes de que pudieran detener la prdida. +Me ponen en terapia intensiva, tengo un ataque cardaco y mi cerebro cae en coma. +Ahora, los comas se miden en una escala de 15 a 3. +15 es coma medio. 3 es el ms profundo. +Y si observan, vern que hay slo una forma de llegar a 3. +Bsicamente, no hay signos vitales desde afuera. +Pas ms de un mes en un coma 3 Glasgow, y es dentro de este profundo grado de coma, al borde entre la vida y la muerte, que estoy experimentando la conexin total y completa conciencia del espacio interior. +Ahora pongo esto en un contexto ms amplio; quiero que imaginen que son aliengenas eternos, que observan la Tierra desde el espacio y su programa favorito en la TV intergalctica satelital es el canal Tierra; su programa favorito es el Show Humano. +La razn por la que creo que sera tan interesante para Uds es porque la conciencia es muy interesante, +muy impredecible y muy frgil. +As es como empezamos. +Todos empezamos en el Valle bajo de Awash en Etiopa. +El show empez con efectos especiales tremendos, porque hubo cambios climticos catastrficos cuyo paralelismo resulta interesante hoy en da. +As hicimos crecer nuestra conciencia en respuesta a esta amenaza global. +Ahora, podemos seguir observando cmo la conciencia evolucion al punto que aqu en India, en Madhya Pradesh, se encuentra una de las dos obras en piedra ms antiguas. +Es una cpula cuya creacin demand de 40 a 50 mil golpes de piedra y es la primera forma de arte conocida en el planeta. +La razn por la que esto nos conecta con la conciencia hoy es que todava la primera forma que dibujamos de nios es un crculo. +Y la siguiente cosa que hacemos es poner un punto en el medio del crculo. +Creamos un ojo y el ojo evoluciona a travs de toda nuestra historia. +Existe el dios egipcio Horus, que simboliza prosperidad, sabidura y salud. +Y eso llega directo al presente con el billete de dlar estadounidense que tiene el ojo de la providencia. +As que viendo todo eso desde el espacio ustedes piensan que entendimos que el ms escaso recurso en el planeta azul es nuestra conciencia. +Porque es la primera cosa que dibujamos; nos rodeamos de imgenes alusivas; es probablemente la imagen ms comn del planeta. +Pero no. Damos por sentado nuestra conciencia. +Cuando era productor en Los ngeles nunca pens en esto ni un segundo. +Hasta que la perd nunca pens en ella. +Y lo que aprend, a partir de entonces y durante mi recuperacin, es que la conciencia pende de un hilo en este planeta como nunca antes. +Slo algunos ejemplos. +Me siento honrado de estar aqu, de hablar hoy en India, porque India se distingue tristemente por ser la capital mundial en traumatismo craneal. +Esa estadstica es muy triste. +No hay una brecha ms drstica y repentina entre mente potencial y real que un traumatismo craneal severo. +Cada incidente puede significar hasta una dcada de rehabilitacin, lo que implica que India, a menos que algo cambie, est acumulando una necesidad de mil aos de rehabilitacin. +Lo que uno ve en los Estados Unidos es un traumatismo cada 20 segundos (esto es un milln y medio por ao); infarto cada 40 segundos; Alzheimer, cada 70 segundos alguien sucumbe a esta enfermedad. +Todas estas representan brechas entre mentes potenciales y mentes reales. +Y aqu hay algunas de las otras categoras, si miran todo el planeta. +La Organizacin Mundial de la Salud dice que la depresin es la enfermedad nmero uno en la Tierra en trminos de los aos vividos con discapacidad. +Encontramos que la segunda fuente de discapacidad es la depresin en el grupo etario de 15 a 44. +Nuestros chicos se estn deprimiendo a una velocidad alarmante. +Descubr durante mi recuperacin que la tercera causa principal de muerte en adolescentes es el suicidio. +Si observan algunos de estos otros tems... conmociones cerebrales. +La mitad de las asistencias en las guardias a adolescentes son por conmociones. +Si hablamos de migraa, el 40% de la poblacin sufre episodios de dolor de cabeza. +Un 15% sufre migraas que los incapacitan por completo durante das. +Todo esto est derivando -- la adiccin a las computadoras, slo para cubrir esto, la cosa ms frecuente que hacemos es usar aparatos digitales. +El adolescente promedio enva 3.300 textos cada [mes]. +Estamos hablando de una sociedad que se est recluyendo en la depresin y la disociacin mientras estamos enfrentando, potencialmente, la prxima gran catstrofe de cambio climtico. +As que lo que deberan preguntarse, viendo el Show Humano es: vamos a confrontar y abordar la catstrofe del cambio climtico que puede asolarnos expandiendo nuestra conciencia? O vamos a continuar recluyndonos? +Y eso puede que los lleve a ver un da un episodio del centro mdico Cedars-Sinai y a considerar la diferencia entre mente potencial y real. +Esta es una representacin de electroencefalogramas que registra 156 canales de informacin. +No es mi EEG del Cedars; es el EEG de Uds esta noche y anoche. +Es lo que hacen nuestras mentes cada noche para digerir el da y para prepararse para pasar de la mente potencial cuando dormimos a la mente real cuando despertamos a la maana siguiente. +As es como estaba cuando regres del hospital luego de casi 4 meses. +Esta forma de herradura que pueden ver en mi crneo es donde me operaron y entraron a mi cerebro para hacer las cirugas necesarias para salvarme la vida. +Pero si miran dentro del ojo de la conciencia, ese ojo solo que pueden ver, estoy mirando para abajo, pero djenme decirles cmo me senta en ese momento. +No me senta vaco; senta todo simultneamente. +Me senta vaco y lleno, caliente y fro, eufrico y deprimido. Porque el cerebro es la primera computadora cuntica totalmente funcional del mundo. Puede ocupar mltiples estados al mismo tiempo. +Y con todos los reguladores internos de mi cerebro daados senta todo simultneamente. +Pero giremos y obsrvenme de frente. +Este es un avance acelerado al momento en el que fui dado de alta por el sistema de salud. +Miren esos ojos. Yo no puedo enfocar esos ojos. +No puedo seguir una lnea de texto en un libro. +Pero el sistema me dio el alta porque, como mi familia comenz a descubrir, no hay una concepcin de largo plazo en el sistema de salud. +El dao neurolgico, 10 aos de rehabilitacin, requieren un enfoque de largo plazo. +Pero observemos por detrs de mis ojos. +Este es un escner SPECT que usa rayos gamma para mapear funciones dentro del cerebro en 3D. +Hace falta un laboratorio para verlo en 3D, pero en 2D creo que pueden ver la hermosa simetra e iluminacin del funcionamiento de una mente normal. +Este es mi cerebro. +Esa es la consecuencia de ms de un tercio del lado derecho de mi cerebro daado por el derrame. +Entonces mi familia, a medida que avanzamos y descubrieron que el sistema de salud nos haba abandonado, tuvo que tratar de encontrar soluciones y respuestas. +Y durante ese proceso -llev muchos aos- uno de los doctores dijo que mi recuperacin, mi grado de avance, partiendo del grado de traumatismo craneal que haba sufrido era un milagro. +Y ah fue cuando comenc a escribir un libro porque yo no crea que fuera milagroso. +Pensaba que haba elementos milagrosos pero tambin pensaba que no estaba bien que uno tuviera que pelear y buscar respuestas cuando esto es una pandemia en nuestra sociedad. +As que desde la experiencia de mi recuperacin, quiero compartir cuatro aspectos particulares. Los llamo las cuatro C de la conciencia que me ayudaron a desarrollar mi mente potencial y transformarla en la mente real con la que trabajo cada da. +La primera C es entrenamiento Cognitivo. +Al contrario que los vidrios rotos de mi auto, la plasticidad del cerebro significa que siempre hay una chance con el tratamiento de entrenar al cerebro para poder recobrar y elevar el nivel de entendimiento y conciencia. +La plasticidad significa que siempre hay esperanza para nuestra razn; esperanza en nuestra capacidad de reconstruir la funcin. +De hecho, la mente puede redefinirse, y esto fue demostrado por dos especialistas llamados Hagen y Silva en los aos 70. +La perspectiva global es que hasta un 30% de los chicos en edad escolar tienen dificultades de aprendizaje que no se pueden autocorregir. Pero con el tratamiento apropiado pueden ser detectadas y corregidas para evitar el fracaso acadmico. +Pero descubr que es casi imposible encontrar a alguien que provea ese tratamiento o cuidado. +Esto es lo que me dio mi neuropsiclogo cuando finalmente encontr a alguien que lo aplicara. +No soy doctor, as que no entrar en detalles. +Hablemos slo del C.I. de escala completa. +El C.I. de escala completa es el procesamiento mental, cun rpido uno puede adquirir informacin retenerla y utilizarla; esto es esencial para el xito en la vida hoy. +Y pueden ver aqu que hay 3 columnas. +Inestable; all es donde estoy en coma. +Y luego avanzo lentamente al punto de obtener 79 lo cual est justo debajo del promedio. +En el sistema de salud si tocas el promedio ya ests listo. +Ah fue cuando fui dado de alta del sistema. +Qu significa realmente un C.I. promedio? +Significa que cuando me dieron 2 horas y media para hacer el test que cualquiera aqu hara en 50 minutos, yo obtuve una F. +Esto es un nivel muy, muy bajo como para ser expulsado del sistema de salud. +Luego comenc con el entrenamiento cognitivo. +Y djenme mostrarles lo que pas en la columna de la derecha cuando hice mi entrenamiento cognitivo durante un tiempo. +Esto no debera suceder. +Se espera que el C.I. se estabilice y solidifique a los 8 aos de edad. +Ahora el Diario de la Asociacin Nacional de Mdicos hizo una revisin clnica de mis reportes, algo muy inusual. +No soy un doctor. No tengo ninguna formacin mdica. +Pero ellos percibieron las evidencias de que haba informacin importante y de valor en el libro y comentaron esto cuando le dieron una revisin total entre colegas. +Pero hicieron una pregunta. Dijeron: se puede replicar? +Fue una pregunta sensata. Porque mis escritos hablaban slo de cmo encontr soluciones que funcionaron para m. +La respuesta es: s y, por primera vez, es un placer para m poder contarles dos ejemplos. +Aqu un caso, lo que fueron logrando a medida que hicieron el entrenamiento cognitivo a los 7 y 11 aos. +Y aqu otra persona en, digamos, la secundaria y la universidad. +Esta persona es particularmente interesante. +No voy a entrar en detalles pero tena an un problema neurolgico. +Esa persona poda identificarse como alguien con dificultades de aprendizaje. +Con ayuda lleg a la universidad y tuvo una vida plena en trminos de sus oportunidades. +Segundo aspecto: todava tengo terribles dolores de cabeza. +Dos elementos que me sirvieron en esto fueron, primero, que el 90% del dolor de cabeza y cuello se debe a un desequilibrio muscoesqueltico. +El sistema crneo-mandibular es crucial en esto. +Y cuando lo sufr y encontr soluciones esta es la interrelacin con el desorden termomandibular y los dientes. +Hasta un 30% de la poblacin tiene un desorden, desorden o disfuncin, en la mandbula que afecta al cuerpo entero. +Fui afortunado de encontrar un dentista que aplic todo este universo de tecnologa que estn por ver para determinar que si reposicionaba mi mandbula, los dolores de cabeza se resolveran bastante, pero que entonces mis dientes no estaban en el lugar apropiado. +Sostuvo la mandbula en la posicin correcta mientras que con ortodoncia puso mis dientes en correcta alineacin. +As que mis dientes mantienen mi mandbula en la posicin correcta. +Esto afect a todo mi cuerpo. +ese pequeo desajuste? +Tengan presente que no hay nervios en los dientes. +Por eso este esquema antes y despus parece igual; es difcil de ver la diferencia. +Ahora intenten poner unos granos de arena entre sus dientes y ver la diferencia. +Yo todava tena migraa. +El siguiente tema que resolv fue que, si el 90% del dolor de cabeza y cuello es causado por un desequilibrio, el otro 10 %, en gran medida -descartando aneurismas, cncer cerebral y temas hormonales- es la circulacin. +Imaginen la sangre fluyendo por el cuerpo -me lo ensearon en el centro mdico de la UCLA- vean un sistema cerrado. +Hay una gran caera con sangre fluyendo por ella. Y en torno a esa caera estn los nervios absorviendo los nutrientes de la sangre. +Es bsicamente eso. +Si uno presiona uno de los caos en un sistema cerrado, se hincha algn otro lugar. +Si ese otro lugar donde se hincha est dentro del nervio ms grande del cuerpo, el cerebro, uno tiene una migraa vascular. +Este es un nivel de dolor que es slo comprensible por otras personas que sufren migraas vasculares. +Con esta tecnologa tenemos este mapeo en 3D. +Esta es una resonancia magntica volumtrica. +Con esta tecnologa los especialistas del Centro Mdico de la UCLA pudieron identificar dnde estaba ocurriendo esa compresin en la caera. +Un cirujano vascular removi la mayora de las obstrucciones en ambos lados de mi cuerpo. +Y en los meses y aos siguientes sent el retorno del fluir neurolgico de la vida. +La Comunicacin, la siguiente C, es esencial. +Toda la conciencia tiene que ver con la comunicacin. +Y aqu, afortunadamente, una de las clientas de mi padre tena al marido que trabajaba en la Fundacin Alfred Mann para Investigacin Cientfica. +Alfred Mann es un fsico e innovador brillante que est fascinado con cerrar las brechas de la conciencia, sea restituyendo la audicin a los sordos, la visin a los ciegos o el movimiento a los paralizados. +Y hoy voy a darles slo un ejemplo del movimiento a los paralizados. +Traje conmigo, desde California del Sur, el dispositivo FM. +Es lo que tengo en la mano. +Pesa menos de un gramo. +As que 2 de ellos implantados en el cuerpo pesaran menos que un centavo. +Cinco de ellos an pesaran menos que una moneda de 1 rupia. +En qu parte del cuerpo va? +Se ha simulado y testeado para que dure en el cuerpo libre de corrosin ms de 80 aos. +As que se inserta y se queda ah. +Aqu estn los lugares de implantacin. +El concepto para el que estn trabajando -y tienen prototipos que funcionan- es que los ubicamos en todos los puntos motores del cuerpo donde se necesitan. +La unidad principal va dentro de cerebro. +Un dispositivo FM en la corteza del cerebro, la corteza motora, enviar seales en tiempo real a los puntos motores en los msculos relevantes para que la persona pueda mover el brazo, por ejemplo, en tiempo real si ha perdido control de su brazo. +Y otros dispositivos FM implantados en las yemas de los dedos, cuando tocan una superficie, enviarn un mensaje a la corteza sensorial del cerebro para que la persona sienta que toc algo. +Es esto ciencia ficcin? No. Porque yo mismo estoy usando la primera aplicacin de esta tecnologa. +No puedo controlar mi pie derecho. +Un equipo de radio est controlando cada paso que doy. Y un sensor levanta mi pie cada vez que camino. +Y para terminar, quiero compartirles la razn personal por la que esto es tan importante para m y cambi la direccin de mi vida. +En mi coma, una de las presencias que percib fue alguien que sent como un protector. +Y cuando sal del coma, reconoc a mi familia, pero no recordaba mi propio pasado. +Gradualmente, record que el protector era mi mujer. +Y le dije bajito la buena noticia a travs de mi mandbula rota, sellada con cables, a mi enfermera. +Y a la maana siguiente, mi madre vino a explicarme que yo no haba estado siempre en esa cama y habitacin; que haba estado trabajando en cine y televisin y que haba sufrido un accidente y que, s, estaba casado, pero que Marcy haba muerto instantneamente en el accidente. +Y que durante mi coma ella haba sido enterrada en su pueblo natal: Phoenix. +Ahora en los aos oscuros que pasaron luego, tuve que descubrir qu me quedaba si todo lo que haca especial mi presente se haba ido. +Y a medida que descubr estas amenazas a la conciencia y cmo estn circundando el mundo y limitando las vidas de cada da ms personas, descubr lo que realmente me quedaba. +Creo que podemos superar las amenazas a nuestra conciencia, que el Show Humano puede seguir en el aire durante el prximo milenio. +Creo que todos podemos elevarnos y brillar. +Muchas gracias. +Aplausos Lakshmi Pratury: Qudate un segundo ms. Qudate aqu un segundo. +Sabes, cuando escuch a Simon -por favor sintense, slo quiero hablar con l un segundo- cuando le su libro fui a L.A. para conocerlo. +Y ah estaba yo sentada en un restaurante esperando a que el hombre llegara que obviamente estara con alguna dificultad... +no s lo que tena en mi mente. +Y l estaba caminando a mi alrededor. +No esperaba que la persona que estaba por conocer fuera l. +Y entonces nos encontramos y hablamos, y yo pensaba: l no parece alguien que se hizo de la nada. +Y entonces me qued fascinada por el papel que jug la tecnologa en tu recuperacin. +Y tenemos su libro afuera en la librera. +Lo que me fascin es el detalle minuscioso con el que lo ha escrito: cada hospital donde ha estado, cada tratamiento que tuvo, cada casi prdida que tuvo, y cmo accidentalmente se top con las innovaciones. +Y creo que este detalle se le escap a la gente. +Cuntanos un poco sobre lo que llevas en tu pierna. +Simon Lewis: Saba cuando ensayaba esto que no habra tiempo para mostrarlo. Bueno, es esto. Este es el dispositivo de control. +Y esto registra cada paso que he dado durante, oh, 5 6 aos, ya. +Y si hago as, probablemente el micrfono lo tome. +Ese pequeo chirrido seguido por otros 2, es que ahora est encendido. +Cuando presiono nuevamente, hace 3 chirridos. Eso significar que est activo y listo para usarse. +Es mi amigo. Digo, lo cargo todas las noches. +Y funciona. Funciona. +Y lo que me encantara agregar porque no tuve tiempo... +Qu es lo que hace? Bueno, les mostrar aqu mismo. +Esto de aqu abajo, si la cmara puede tomarlo, es una pequea antena. +debajo de mi taln hay un sensor que detecta cuando mi pie se eleva del piso; se lo denomina elevacin de taln. +Esto parapadea todo el tiempo. Lo dejar afuera as pueden verlo. +Pero est parpadeando todo el tiempo. Est enviando seales en tiempo real. +Y si uno camina ms rpido, si camino ms rpido, detecta lo que se llama el intervalo de tiempo que es el intervalo entre cada elevacin de taln. +Y acelera la cantidad y el nivel de estimulacin. +Las otras cosas en las que trabajaron -no tuve tiempo de decir esto en la charla- es en recuperar la funcin auditiva en miles de personas sordas. +Podra contarles la historia: sta iba a ser una tecnologa abandonada, pero Alfred Mann conoci al doctor que se estaba por retirar, el Dr. Schindler. Y l se iba a retirar -toda la tecnologa se iba a perder, porque ninguna compaa productora de mdicina quera tomarlo porque era un asunto pequeo. +Pero hay millones de personas sordas en el mundo, y el implante coclear le ha dado audicin a miles de personas sordas hasta ahora. +Funciona. +Y la otra cosa es que estn trabajando en retinas artificiales para los ciegos. +Y esto, esta es la regeneracin implantable. +Porque lo que no dije en mi charla es que esto es en realidad exoesqueltico. +Debo dejar claro eso. +Porque la primera generacin es exoesqueltica, se envuelve sobre la pierna, alrededor del miembro afectado. +Debo decirles, son fantsticos -hay 100 personas que trabajan en ese edificio: ingenieros, cientficos, y otros miembros del equipo- todo el tiempo. +Alfred Mann ha concebido esta fundacin para avanzar en esta investigacin porque vio que no habra forma de que los inversores se involucraran en algo as. +La audiencia es muy pequea. +Uds pensarn que hay mucha gente paraltica en el mundo, pero la audiencia es demasiado pequea, y la cantidad de investigacin, el tiempo que lleva, las autorizaciones del ente gubernamental, el tiempo de retorno de la inversin es muy largo como para interesar a los inversores. +As que l vio una necesidad y se involucr. +Es un hombre notable. +Ha hecho mucha ciencia de avanzada. +LP: Cuando tengan una oportunidad, pasen algn tiempo con Simon. +Gracias. Gracias. +Comienzo con una campaa publicitaria inspirada por George Orwell que Apple public en 1984. +Gran Hermano. Somos un pueblo con una voluntad, una resolucin, una causa. +Nuestros enemigos hablarn hasta su muerte, y los enfrentaremos con su propia confusin. +Venceremos. +Narrador: El 24 de enero, Apple introducir Macintosh. +Y vern por qu 1984 no ser como "1984". +Rebecca MacKinnon: El mensaje subyacente del video sigue siendo muy poderoso an hoy. +Tecnologa creada por compaas innovadoras nos har libres. +Avancemos rpidamente ms de dos dcadas. Apple lanza el iPhone en China y sensura al Dalai Lama junto con otras aplicaciones polticamente sensibles a pedido del gobierno chino en las tiendas de aplicaciones de Apple chinas. +El caricaturista poltico americano Mark Fiore tambin tuvo su aplicacin de stira censurada en los Estados Unidos porque algunos de los empleados de Apple teman que sera ofensiva para ciertos grupos. +Su aplicacin no fue rehabilitada hasta que gan el premio Pulitzer. +La revista alemana Stern, una revista de noticias, tuvo su aplicacin censurada porque el control parental de Apple la consider un poco racista para sus usuarios, a pesar de que la venta de esta revista es perfectamente legal en los quioscos de toda Alemania. +Y an ms cuestionable, recientemente, Apple censur una aplicacin de protesta Palestina luego de que el gobierno israel expresara sus inquietudes de que podra ser utilizada para organizar ataques violentos. +As esta la cosa, +tenemos una situacin en la que empresas privadas estn aplicando normas de censura que son a menudo bastante arbitrarias y generalmente ms estrechas que las normas constitucionales sobre libertad de expresin que tenemos en democracias. +O estn respondiendo a pedidos de censura de regmenes autoritarios que no reflejan el consentimiento de los gobernados. +O estn respondiendo a pedidos e inquietudes de gobiernos sin jurisdiccin sobre muchos, o la mayora, de los usuarios y observadores que interactan con el contenido en cuestin. +De modo que sta es la situacin. +En el mundo antes de Internet, la soberana sobre nuestras libertades fsicas, o la falta de las mismas, estaba controlada casi en su totalidad por los Estados-nacin. +Pero ahora tenemos este nuevo estrato de soberana privada en el ciberespacio. +Y sus decisiones sobre programas de codificacin, ingeniera, diseo, trminos de servicio, todos actan como una suerte de ley que establece lo que podemos y no podemos hacer con nuestras vidas digitales. +Y sus soberanas, transversales, globalmente interconectadas, pueden, en ciertas formas, desafiar las soberanas de los Estados-nacin de maneras muy interesantes, pero a veces pueden actuar para proyectarlas y extenderlas justamente cuando el control sobre lo que la gente puede y no puede hacer con informacin tiene ms efecto que nunca sobre el ejercicio de poder en nuestro mundo fsico. +Despus de todo, inclusive el lder del mundo libre necesita un poco de ayuda del sultn de Facebookistn si desea ser reelecto el ao prximo. +Y estas plataformas fueron ciertamente muy tiles para los activistas en Tnez y Egipto la primavera pasada y ms all. +Como Wael Ghonim, el ejecutivo egipcio de Google de da, y activista secreto de Facebook de noche, famosamente dijo en CNN luego de la renuncia de Mubarak, "Si quieres liberar a una sociedad, simplemente dales Internet". +Pero derrocar a un gobierno es una cosa y construir una democracia estable es un poco ms complicado. +A la izquierda hay una fotografa sacada por un activista egipcio que particip de la toma de las oficinas de seguridad del estado egipcio en marzo. +Y muchos de los agentes destruyeron la mayor cantidad de documentos posible dejndolos amontonados. +Pero algunos de los archivos permanecieron intactos, y algunos de los activistas que estaban bajo supervisin, encontraron sus propios expedientes con transcripciones de sus emails sus mensajes de texto de celulares, inclusive conversaciones en Skype. +Y un activista encontr un contrato de una compaa de Occidente para la venta de tecnologa de supervisin a las fuerzas de seguridad egipcias. +Y los activistas egipcios asumen que stas tecnologas de supervisin siguen siendo usadas por las autoridades de transicin que se encargan de las redes. +Y en Tnez, la censura comenz a aplicarse de nuevo en mayo -- aunque de manera menos extensiva que bajo el Presidente Ben Ali. +Pero vern aqu una pgina bloqueada que es lo que ocurre cuando se trata de acceder ciertas pginas de Facebook u otros sitios de Internet que las autoridades de transicin determinaron que pueden incitar a la violencia. +En protesta, el blogger Slim Amamou, que fue encarcelado bajo Ben Ali y que form parte del gobierno de transicin luego de la revolucin, renunci al gabinete. +Ha habido mucho debate en Tnez sobre cmo manejar este tipo de problema. +De hecho, en Twitter, haba un nmero de personas que apoyaban la revolucin que dijeron, "Bueno, en realidad, queremos democracia y libertad de expresin, pero hay cierta clase de expresiones que deben estar limitadas porque son demasiado violentas y podran desestabilizar nuestra democracia. +Pero el problema es, cmo decidir quines tienen el poder de tomar esas decisiones y cmo asegurarse de que no abusen su poder? +Como Riadh Guerfali, el veterano activista digital de Tnez, seal sobre este incidente, "Antes las cosas eran simples: estaban los buenos por un lado y los malos por el otro. +Hoy, las cosas son mucho ms sutiles." +Bienvenidos a la democracia, amigos tunesinos y egipcios. +La realidad es que, inclusive hoy, en sociedades democrticas no tenemos buenas respuestas sobre cmo encontrar el balance necesario entre seguridad y la aplicacin de la ley por un lado y la proteccin de libertades civiles y la libertad de expresin por el otro en nuestras redes digitales. +De hecho, en los Estados Unidos, ms all de lo que piensen de Julian Assange, an quienes no lo admiran demasiado necesariamente estn muy preocupados por la manera en que el gobierno de los Estados Unidos y algunas compaas manejaron el caso Wikileaks. +El servicio de alojamiento web de Amazon abandon a Wikileaks como cliente luego de recibir una queja del Senador americano Joe Lieberman, a pesar de que Wikileaks no haba sido imputada, ni mucho menos condenada por ningn crimen. +As, asumimos que Internet es una tecnologa que rompe fronteras. +Este es un mapa de las redes sociales a nivel mundial, y ciertamente Facebook ha conquistado gran parte del mundo -- lo cual es algo bueno o malo, dependiendo de cunto les guste la manera en que Facebook administra su servicio. +Pero las fronteras persisten en ciertas partes del ciberespacio. +En Brazil y Japn, es nicamente por razones culturales y lingsticas. +Pero si miran a China, Vietnam y a un nmero de Estados post-soviticos, lo que est ocurriendo all es ms problemtico. +Tienen una situacin en la cual la relacin entre el gobierno y las compaas de redes sociales locales estn creando una situacin en la que, efectivamente, el poder potencial de estas plataformas est siendo constreido por stas relaciones entre compaas y gobierno. +Ahora en China, tienen el gran "cortafuegos'', como es bien sabido, que bloquea Facebook y Twitter y ahora Google+ y muchos de los otros sitios del exterior. +Y eso se hace, en parte, con la ayuda de tecnologa occidental. +Pero esa es slo una parte de la historia. +La otra parte de la historia son los requisitos que el gobierno chino impone a todas las compaas que operan en el Internet chino, conocido como el sistema de auto-disciplina. +En simple Espaol, eso signfica censura y supervisin de sus usuarios. +Y esta es una ceremonia a la que asist en 2009 donde la Sociedad de Internet de China hizo entrega de premios a las 20 compaias chinas con el mejor ejercicio de auto-disciplina -- ello es, control de su contenido. +Y Robin Li, el presidente de Baidu, el buscador lder en China, fue uno de los galardonados. +En Rusia, en general no bloquean el Internet y directamente censuran a los sitios de Internet. +Este es un sitio llamado Rospil que es un sitio anti-comunista. +Esto tiene un efecto escalofriante en la habilidad de la gente de usar Internet y de hacer responsable al gobierno. +De modo que hoy tenemos una situacin en el mundo donde en ms y ms pases la relacin entre ciudadanos y gobiernos esta mediada por el Internet, que est compuesto principalmente de servicios privados. +De modo que la pregunta importante, creo, no es el debate sobre si Internet va a ayudar a los buenos ms que a los malos. +Por supuesto, va a darle ms poder a quienes tengan ms experiencia en el uso de la tecnologa y mejor comprensin del Internet en relacin con la competencia. +La pregunta ms urgente que debemos hacernos hoy es cmo asegurarnos que el Internet evolucione teniendo al ciudadano como centro. +Porque creo que todos ustedes coincidirn en que el nico objetivo legtimo de todo gobierno es servir a los ciudadanos. Y yo dira que el nico objetivo legtimo de la tecnologa es mejorar nuestras vidas, no manipularnos o esclavizarnos. +La cuestin es que sabemos cmo hacer responsables a nuestros gobiernos. +No siempre lo hacemos muy bien, pero tenemos una idea de cules son los modelos, polticos e institucionales, para hacerlo. +Cmo se hace responsables a los soberanos del ciberespacio ante el inters pblico cuando la mayora de los presidentes ejecutivos sostienen que su obligacin principal es maximizar las ganancias de los accionistas? +Y las regulaciones gubernamentales no suelen ayudar demasiado. +Hay situaciones, por ejemplo, como en Francia donde el presidente Sarkozy les dice a los presidentes de compaas de Internet, 'Somos los nicos representantes legtimos del inters pblico.' +Y aqu en el Reino Unido tambin hay preocupacin sobre una ley llamada el Acta de Economa Digital que pone ms responsabilidad en intermediarios privados para controlar el comportamiento ciudadano. +Debemos reconocer que si queremos tener en el futuro un Internet que tenga como centro al ciudadano necesitamos un movimiento ms amplio y sostenido de libertad en Internet. +Despus de todo, las compaas no dejaron de contaminar las aguas subterrneas como una cosa natural ni dejaron de emplear a nios de 10 aos como una cosa natural, simplemente porque sus ejecutivos amanecieron un buen da y decidieron que era lo correcto. +Fue el resultado de dcadas de activismo sostenido, de grupos de defensa de accionistas y grupos de defensa de consumidores. +De manera similar, los gobiernos no promulgan leyes laborales y de medio amiente inteligentes simplemente porque los polticos amanecen un buen da. +Es el resultado de un prolongado y sostenido activismo poltico que se obtienen las regulaciones correctas, y la conducta correcta de las corporaciones. +Necesitamos tomar el mismo enfoque con el Internet. +Tambin vamos a necesitar innovacin poltica. +Hace aproximadamente 800 aos, los barones de Inglaterra decidieron que el derecho divino de los reyes ya no les funcionaba muy bien, y forzaron al Rey John a firmar la Carta Magna, que reconoci que inclusive el rey que alegaba poder divino deba someterse a una serie de leyes bsicas. +Esto desat un ciclo de lo que podemos llamar innovacin poltica, que eventualmente di lugar a la idea del consentimiento de los gobernados -- que fue implementado por primera vez por ese gobierno revolucionario y radical en America del otro lado del lago. +De modo que necesitamos descifrar cmo construir el consentimiento de los que estamos en red. +Qu aspecto tiene? +Por el momento, no sabemos. +Pero va a requerir innovacin que no slo necesitar enfocarse en poltica, en geopoltica, sino que tambin deber lidiar con cuestiones de gestin de empresa, comportamiento del inversor, eleccin del consumidor e inclusive programacin de diseo e ingeniera. +Cada uno de nosotros tiene un rol vital que desempear en la construccin de un mundo en el que gobiernos y tecnologa estn al servicio de la poblacin mundial y no a la inversa. +Muchas gracias. +Se han preguntado alguna vez por qu el extremismo ha estado en alza en los pases de mayora musulmana durante la ltima dcada? +Se han planteado alguna vez cmo se puede cambiar esa situacin? +Alguna vez, al ver las revueltas rabes, se han preguntado cmo podramos haberlo predicho? +O cmo podramos habernos preparado mejor para eso? +Mi historia personal, mi viaje ntimo, lo que me trae hoy al escenario de TED, es un ejemplo de lo que ha estado ocurriendo en los pases de mayora musulmana durante las ltimas dcadas al menos, o quiz ms. +Me gustara compartir parte de mi historia con ustedes y tambin mis ideas sobre el cambio, sobre el papel de los movimientos sociales en su creacin en las sociedades de mayora musulmana. +Empezar, si me lo permiten, por una muy breve historia del tiempo. En las sociedades medievales +las filiaciones estaban muy claras. +A la identidad la defina principalmente la religin. +Luego nos adentramos en una nueva era, en el siglo XIX, la de las naciones estado en Europa, en la que a las identidades y lealtades las defina el origen tnico. +A la identidad la defina, sobre todo, el origen tnico y las naciones estado lo reflejaban. +En la era de la globalizacin hemos avanzado. +La llamo la era de la ciudadana, en la que las personas pueden tener orgenes multitnicos o multirraciales pero son ciudadanos iguales ante un Estado, +ya seas italo- o irlando-estadounidense o britnico de origen pakistan. +Pero creo que estamos entrando en una nueva era, la era que el New York Times apod hace poco como la "era del comportamiento". +Yo la defino como un periodo de tiempo de lealtades transnacionales en el que la identidad se define, sobre todo, por ideas y discursos. +Y estas ideas y discursos que sacuden a gente en todos lados cada vez afectan ms su modo de actuar y comportarse. +No todo es positivo, ya que creo que, al igual que el amor, el odio tambin se ha hecho global. +Me gustara hablar un poco ms sobre esto. +Cuando observamos a los islamistas, o al fenmeno de los fascistas de extrema derecha, algo que han hecho muy bien, algo en lo que de verdad han sobresalido ha sido en la comunicacin ms all de las fronteras, en el uso de las tecnologas para organizarse y extender su mensaje para crear un fenmeno global. +Yo debera saberlo ya que estuve 13 aos de mi vida metido en una organizacin islamista radical. +Y era una persona clave en la propagacin de ideas entre pases. Y presenci el ascenso del extremismo islmico como algo diferente de la fe islmica, y la manera en la que influy en mis correligionarios alrededor del mundo. +Y mi historia, mi historia personal, es un verdadero ejemplo de esta era del comportamiento sobre la que les hablo. +Era... de hecho, soy, un chico de Essex, nacido y criado en Essex, en el Reino Unido. +Cualquiera que sea de Inglaterra sabe la reputacin que tenemos los de all. +Pero habiendo nacido en Essex, a los 16 me met en una organizacin. +A los 17, reclutaba a estudiantes de la Universidad de Cambridge para esta organizacin. +A los 19 estaba en la jefatura nacional del Reino Unido. +A los 21 estaba estableciendo la organizacin en Pakistn. +A los 22, la estaba cofundando en Dinamarca. +Y a los 24 me encontr en la crcel en Egipto; estaba en la lista negra de 3 pases por haber intentado derrocar sus gobiernos, me torturaron en las crceles egipcias y me condenaron a 5 aos como prisionero de conciencia. +Este viaje, lo que me llev de Essex a recorrer el mundo... de hecho, siempre nos reamos de los activistas democrticos. +Para nosotros eran de la edad de piedra, +estaban desfasados. +Aprend a usar el e-mail en la organizacin radical en la que estaba. +Aprend a comunicarme internacionalmente sin ser detectado. +Al final, claro, me detectaron en Egipto. +Pero aprend a valerme de la tecnologa porque perteneca a una organizacin extremista que deba pensar ms all de los lmites de la nacin-estado. +La era del comportamiento: donde las ideas y los discursos cada vez definan ms el comportamiento, la identidad y las filiaciones. +Como les he dicho, observbamos el status quo y nos reamos de l. +Y no solo lo hicimos los extremistas islmicos. +Con solo mirar a su alrededor, el estado de nimo de Europa ltimamente o el fascismo de extrema derecha que est en auge. +Cierta retrica antislmica tambin est en auge y es transnacional. +Y las consecuencias que esto tiene es que afecta al clima poltico europeo. +Lo que ocurre es que lo que antes eran provincialismos localizados, extremistas individuales o pequeos grupos aislados unos de otros, se han interconectado de manera global y, por tanto, se han convertido en corrientes dominantes. +Porque Internet y otras tecnologas de comunicacin los han conectado alrededor del mundo. +Si observamos el fascismo de extrema derecha en Europa, ltimamente veremos que hay cosas que han afectado las polticas nacionales aunque el fenmeno sea transnacional. +En algunos pases se han prohibido los minaretes de las mezquitas. +En otros, se va a prohibir el pauelo. +En otros, la carne kosher y halal van a prohibirse en un santiamn. +Por otra parte, tenemos a los extremistas islmicos globalizados que hacen lo mismo en sus sociedades. +Por lo que vemos provincianismos que se estn conectando y que les hace sentirse como una corriente dominante. +Eso nunca hubiera sido posible antes. +Se hubieran sentido aislados, hasta que ciertos tipos de tecnologa llegaron y los conectaron de forma que empezaron a sentirse parte de un fenmeno a gran escala. +Dnde deja eso a los aspirantes democrticos? +Me temo que se estn quedando bastante atrs. +Y en este punto les pondr un ejemplo: +el atentado frustrado de Navidad (N.T.: 2009). Haba un tal Anwar al-Awlaki, +ciudadano estadounidense, de etnia yemen, que se esconda en Yemen e inspir a un nigeriano, hijo del director del banco nacional de Nigeria. +El estudiante nigeriano estudi en Londres, se entren en Yemen, tom un avin en msterdam para atacar a los EE.UU. +Mientras, su padre, el director del banco de Nigeria, que representaba la mentalidad Conservadora, con C mayscula, avis a la CIA de que su hijo estaba a punto de atacarles y nadie le hizo caso. +La mentalidad Conservadora, con mayscula, representada en la nacin-estado, que no est todava en la era del comportamiento, que no ha reconocido el poder de los movimientos sociales transnacionales, se qued atrs. +Y el terrorista del da de Navidad casi lleva a cabo su ataque en los EE.UU. +De nuevo, la extrema derecha: irnicamente, los nacionalistas xenfobos se estn beneficiando de la globalizacin. +Cmo lo consiguen? +Y por qu los aspirantes democrticos se quedan atrs? +Para eso debemos entender el poder de los movimientos sociales que tienen xito. +Un movimiento social, en mi opinin, est compuesto de 4 caractersticas principales. +Est compuesto de ideas, discursos, smbolos y lderes. +Se lo explicar con un ejemplo, un ejemplo que todos conocern: Al-Qaeda. +Si les pidiera que pensaran en las ideas de Al-Qaeda, seguro que se les vendran a la mente inmediatamente. +Si les pregunto sobre su discurso... la guerra de Occidente contra el Islam, la necesidad de este de defenderse de aquel... este discurso se les viene automticamente a la cabeza. +Por cierto, la diferencia entre las ideas y el discurso: la idea es la causa en la que se cree y el discurso es la forma de vender esa causa, la propaganda, si prefieren, de la causa. +As que las ideas y el discurso de Al-Qaeda son fciles de recordar. +Si les preguntara por sus smbolos y sus lderes, tambin sera muy fcil. +Uno de sus lderes fue asesinado en Pakistn hace poco. +Se acuerdan de estos smbolos y lderes fcilmente. +Ese es el poder de los movimientos sociales. +Son transnacionales y se aglutinan en sus ideas y sus discursos, sus smbolos y sus lderes. +Sin embargo, si les pido que piensen en Pakistn y, en concreto, en los smbolos de sus lderes democrticos, en el Pakistn actual, les costar recordar algo ms que, quiz, el asesinato de Benazir Bhutto. +Lo que quiere decir, de hecho, que ese lder ya no existe. +En mi opinin, uno de los problemas es que no existen movimientos sociales globales, de base, liderados por jvenes, que defiendan la cultura democrtica en las sociedades de mayora musulmana. +En las sociedades de mayora musulmana no existe el equivalente democrtico, no terrorista, de Al-Qaeda. En la calle no encuentras ni ideas ni discursos ni smbolos ni lderes prodemocrticos. +Esto nos lleva a la siguiente cuestin. +Por qu las organizaciones extremistas, tanto las de extrema derecha como las islamistas (entendiendo islamista como aquella versin del Islam que quiere imponerse sobre el resto), por qu son tan eficaces organizndose de manera global mientras que aquellas que defienden la cultura democrtica se quedan atrs? +Creo que se debe a 4 razones. +La primera, para m, es la autocomplacencia. +Porque aquellos que defienden la cultura democrtica tienen el poder, o estn en sociedades poderosas que dirigen la globalizacin, en pases fuertes. +Y esa autocomplacencia significa que no sienten la necesidad de defender esas ideas. +La segunda razn, creo, es la correccin poltica. +Dudamos a la hora de propugnar la universalidad de la cultura democrtica porque lo asociamos... asociamos la universalidad de nuestros valores con el extremismo. +Sin embargo, siempre que hablamos de derechos humanos afirmamos que son derechos universales. +Pero la idea de propugnar un punto de vista se asocia al neoconservadurismo o al extremismo islmico. +El ir diciendo por ah que la cultura democrtica es la mejor forma de organizacin poltica que tenemos se asocia con el extremismo. +Y la tercera es que la democracia en las sociedades de mayora musulmana se ha convertido en una opcin poltica ms, lo que significa que en estas sociedades algunos partidos piden que se les vote como el partido democrtico, mientras otros piden que se les vote como el partido militar, porque quieren instaurar una dictadura militar. +Y un tercer partido pide que se le vote porque instaurarn una teocracia. +La democracia es simplemente una opcin ms entre muchas otras formas de gobierno en estas sociedades. +El resultado de esto es que, cuando estos partidos salen elegidos e, inevitablemente, fracasan, o cometen errores polticos, se acusa a la democracia de estos errores. +La gente dice: "Hemos probado la democracia, pero no funciona. +Volvamos a un rgimen militar". +Y la cuarta, creo, es lo que he catalogado como la ideologa de la resistencia, +lo que significa que si hoy en da la superpotencia mundial fuera un pas comunista, sera mucho ms fcil para los activistas democrticos utilizar la democracia como una forma de resistencia anticolonialista, ms fcil que hoy en da con EE.UU. a la cabeza que ocupa tierras y propugna los ideales democrticos. +Estas son las 4 razones que hacen tan difcil la expansin de la democracia como una opcin cvica y no solo como una opcin poltica. +Cuando hablamos de estas razones, rompamos algunos prejuicios. +Son solo lamentos? +Es solo falta de educacin? +Estadsticamente, la mayora de los que se unen a organizaciones radicales tienen buena educacin. +Estadsticamente, su educacin est normalmente por encima de la media del mundo occidental. +Por ejemplo, valga decir que si la pobreza fuera el nico factor... en fin, Bin Laden pertenece a una de las familias ms ricas de Arabia Saudita. +Su mano derecha, Aymn al-Zawahir, era pediatra, no exactamente un iletrado. +La ayuda internacional y el desarrollo llevan muchos aos funcionando pero el extremismo, en muchas de estas sociedades, est en alza. +Y lo que yo creo que falta es un verdadero activismo de base, en la calle, adems de la ayuda internacional, adems de la educacin, adems de la sanidad. +entre las masas como algo complementario pero no independiente. +Y aqu es donde creo que el neoconservadurismo lo ha entendido mal. +El neoconservadurismo apoya la idea de que es mejor imponer los valores democrticos de arriba hacia abajo, imponiendo la oferta a los consumidores. +Mientras que los islamistas y las organizaciones de extrema derecha llevan dcadas alimentando el apoyo a sus ideologas entre las bases. +Han fomentado la reivindicacin cvica de sus valores entre las bases y vemos como estas sociedades, lentamente, se transforman en sociedades que demandan algn tipo de islamismo. +Tras las revueltas rabes, los movimientos de masas en Pakistn que se han llevado a cabo para reclamar algn tipo de teocracia, no han sido revueltas democrticas. +Llevan desde antes de la particin promoviendo el apoyo hacia su ideologa entre las masas. +Y lo que necesitamos es un verdadero movimiento transnacional liderado por jvenes que propugnen activamente la cultura democrtica, que por supuesto no es solo elecciones. +Ya que sin libertad de expresin no puede haber elecciones libres y justas. +Sin derechos humanos, la proteccin durante la campaa no est asegurada. +Sin libertad de pensamiento nadie tiene el derecho a unirse a organizaciones. +Lo que se necesita son organizaciones de base que propugnen la cultura democrtica en s misma con el objetivo de crear una demanda de esta cultura. +As conseguiramos evitar el problema del que hablaba antes, la situacin actual en la que algunos partidos presentan la democracia en estas sociedades como una opcin ms entre otras, como la teocracia o un rgimen militar. +Mientras que si promovemos la democracia en la esfera cvica, ms que en la esfera poltica, en un nivel por encima de esta... mediante movimientos que no sean partidos, sino que busquen la creacin de esta demanda cvica de una cultura democrtica +lo que conseguiremos es lo que ven en esta diapositiva: el ideal en el que los ciudadanos voten en una democracia y no por la democracia. +Pero para llegar al punto en el que la democracia establezca la estructura y las opciones polticas de esa sociedad que no sern nunca ni dictaduras teocrticas ni militares... es decir, votar en una democracia, en una democracia establecida, en la que la democracia no es simplemente una opcin ms. +Para llegar a ese punto tenemos que empezar a preparar la demanda de la sociedad desde la base. +Para concluir, cmo lo conseguimos? +Bien, Egipto es una buena referencia. +Las revueltas rabes demuestran que esto est empezando a suceder. +Lo ocurrido con las revueltas rabes y en especial en Egipto ha sido muy catrtico para m. +Lo que pas es que una coalicin poltica se uni con un objetivo poltico: derribar al lder poltico. +Necesitamos seguir avanzando. +Debemos encontrar la manera de ayudarles a transformar las coaliciones polticas con poca base en coaliciones cvicas que trabajen por el ideal y el discurso democrticos desde abajo. +No es suficiente con derrocar a un lder o a un dictador. +Eso solo no garantiza que lo prximo ser una sociedad de valores democrticos. +Y, en general, las tendencias que empiezan en Egipto histricamente se han difundido por la regin MENA (Oriente Prximo y Norte de frica). +El socialismo rabe empez en Egipto y se extendi por toda la regin. +En los 80 y 90 fue el islamismo el que empez y tambin se extendi por toda la regin. +Y nuestra aspiracin actual es que... lo que la juventud rabe est demostrando es que se estn redefiniendo, que estn dispuestos a morir no solo por el terrorismo, que existe la posibilidad de construir una cultura democrtica en la regin que se extienda al resto de los pases vecinos. +Pero para eso necesitamos ayudarles a transformar unas coaliciones meramente polticas en movimientos sociales de base que propugnen la cultura democrtica. +Nosotros hemos empezado algo parecido en Pakistn, con un movimiento llamado Khudi con el que tratamos de animar a la juventud a crear un verdadero apoyo de la cultura democrtica. +Y con esto me gustara terminar. +Mi tiempo se acaba, gracias por escucharme. +Estamos en la Segunda Guerra Mundial, +en un campo de concentracin alemn +y este hombre, Archie Cochrane, prisionero de guerra y mdico, tiene un problema +y es que las personas que tiene que cuidar sufren de una atroz afeccin debilitante que Archie no entiende bien. +Se caracteriza por unas horribles ampollas llenas de un lquido subcutneo. +l no sabe si es una infeccin o si tiene que ver con malnutricin. +No sabe cmo tratarla. +Y tiene que trabajar en un ambiente hostil. +En la guerra la gente hace cosas terribles. +Los guardias alemanes en ese campo se aburran +y empezaban a disparar hacia el campo, al azar, por diversin. +En alguna ocasin, uno de los guardias lanz una granada al bao de los prisioneros estando lleno de gente. +Dijo que haba odo risas sospechosas. +Y a Archie Cochrane, como era el mdico del campo, le toc ser uno de los primeros en limpiar el desastre. +Algo ms: Archie mismo estaba sufriendo esa misma enfermedad. +La situacin pareca completamente acuciante. +Pero Archie Cochrane era una persona prctica. +l haba introducido en el campo la vitamina C, de contrabando, y tambin logr conseguir unas provisiones de marmite en el mercado negro. +Tal vez algunos de ustedes se pregunten qu es la marmite. +La marmite es una crema para untar al pan que les encanta a los ingleses. +Parece petrleo crudo. +Y el sabor es... +picante. +Muy importante; es una gran fuente de vitamina B12. +Archie dividi a las personas bajo su cuidado, como pudo, en dos grupos iguales. +A la mitad les dio vitamina C. +A los otros, vitamina B12. +Cuidadosa y meticulosamente iba anotando los resultados en un cuaderno. +Despus de unos pocos das, se vio claramente que cualquiera fuese la causa de la enfermedad, se curaba con marmite. +Cochrane se dirigi a los alemanes que manejaban el campo. +Ahora hay que imaginarse el momento... olvdense de la foto. Piensen en este tipo con barba larga rojiza y cabello con mechones pelirrojos. +No poda afeitarse; se pareca a Billy Connolly. +Cochrane comenz a quejarse ante esos alemanes con su acento escocs. Buen alemn, pero con acento escocs. Les explic que la cultura alemana fue la que produjo a Schiller y a Goethe para el mundo. +Y no poda entender cmo podan tolerar esas barbaridades. Se desahog con sus frustraciones. +Volvi a su habitacin y rompi a llorar porque estaba convencido de que la situacin era acuciante. +Pero un joven doctor alemn encontr el cuaderno de Archie Cochrane y les dijo a sus colegas: "Esta evidencia es irrefutable. +Si no les damos vitaminas a los prisioneros, ser un crimen de guerra". +A la maana siguiente llegaron al campo provisiones de vitamina B12 y los prisioneros comenzaron a mejorarse. +Yo no traje a colacin esta historia porque piense que Archie Cochrane era un buen tipo, aunque s era un buen tipo. +No he trado este episodio porque piense que deberamos ser ms cuidadosos con los ensayos al azar en todos los aspectos de las polticas pblicas, aunque s pienso que eso sera verdaderamente magnfico. +He trado esto porque Archie Cochrane, toda su vida, tuvo que luchar contra una terrible dolencia. l se daba cuenta de algo que debilita a las personas y corroe a las sociedades. +Le puso nombre. +Lo llamaba el complejo de Dios. +Puedo describir los sntomas del complejo de Dios muy, muy fcilmente. +Los sntomas... no importa qu tan complicado sea un problema, la persona tiene la certeza absolutamente abrumadora de que su solucin es infaliblemente correcta. +Como Archie era mdico, se encontraba a cada rato con otros doctores. +Y todos ellos sufren muchsimo del complejo de Dios. +Yo soy economista, no soy mdico, pero puedo ver que me rodea el complejo de Dios todo el tiempo, en mis colegas. +Lo veo en los lderes de empresas. +Lo veo en los polticos que votamos; gente que, ante asuntos increblemente complejos, estn absolutamente convencidos de que entienden cmo funciona el mundo. +Con todos esos miles de millones para el futuro, de los que hemos odo, sencillamente el mundo es demasiado complejo para entenderlo as. +Permtanme poner un ejemplo. +Imagnense por un momento que en lugar de Tim Harford aqu estuviera Hans Rosling presentando sus grficas. +Conocen a Hans; el Mick Jagger de TED. +Y que estuviera mostrando esas fantsticas estadsticas con sus maravillosas animaciones. +Son brillantes. Es un trabajo excelente. +Una grfica tpica de Hans Rosling; piensen un momento, no en su significado, sino en lo que no incluye. +Muestra el PIB per cpita, la poblacin y la longevidad, no ms que eso. +Tres grupos de variables para cada pas, tres datos. +Tres datos no son nada. +Miren esta grfica +producida por el fsico Csar Hidalgo +del MIT. +No se entiende nada pero as se ve. +Csar ha examinado la base de datos de ms de 5.000 productos diferentes, usando tcnicas de anlisis de redes para examinar la base de datos y hacer grficas de las relaciones entre los diferentes productos. +Es magnfico. Muy buen trabajo. +Se muestran todas esas conexiones, todas esas relaciones. +Pienso que ser extremadamente til para entender cmo crecen las economas. +Un trabajo brillante. +Con l tratamos de escribir algo para la revista del New York Times, explicando cmo funciona eso. +Lo que aprendimos fue que el trabajo de Csar era demasiado bueno para explicarlo en esa revista. +Y 5.000 productos todava no son nada. +5.000 productos. Piensen en contar cada una de las referencias de productos de los datos de Csar Hidalgo. +Digamos un segundo por cada referencia. +En lo que dura esta sesin habramos contado los 5.000. +Ahora imagnense hacer lo mismo con todos los productos que se venden en Walmart. +Hay 100.000. Nos llevara todo el da. +Ahora piensen en tratar de contar todos los productos y servicios que se venden en las grandes economas como Tokio, Londres o New York. +Ms difcil sera en Edimburgo porque habra que contar todo el whisky y todo el tartn. +Si se quiere contar todos los productos y servicios en oferta en New York, hay 10.000 millones, nos tomara 317 aos. +Esto muestra la complejidad de la economa que hemos creado. +Y esto apenas contando tostadoras. +No es el problema del Cercano Oriente. +Ah la complejidad es increble. +Algo de contexto; las sociedades en que evolucionaron nuestros cerebros tenan unos 300 productos y servicios. +Se podan contar en cinco minutos. +As es la complejidad del mundo que nos rodea. +Tal vez por eso es que el complejo de Dios es tan atractivo. +Tenemos la tendencia a decir: "Puedo trazar una grfica, dibujar varias grficas y listo. Ya s cmo funciona". +Y no es cierto. +Nunca lo sabremos. +Y no traigo un mensaje nihilista. +No quiero decir que no se puedan resolver los problemas complicados de este mundo complejo. +S podemos. +Pero la manera de hacerlo es con humildad. Hay que prescindir del complejo de Dios y usar una tcnica de solucin de problemas que funcione. +Tenemos la metodologa. +Mustrenme un sistema complejo que funcione y yo les mostrar un sistema que ha evolucionado por ensayo y error. +Veamos un ejemplo. +Este beb fue producido por ensayo y error. +Yo s que esta afirmacin es ambigua. +Debera clarificarla. +El beb es un ser humano; viene de la evolucin. +Qu es la evolucin? +Por millones de aos, variacin y seleccin. Variacin y seleccin. Ensayo y error. Ensayo y error. +No slo los sistemas biolgicos producen milagros por ensayo y error. +Se puede ver en un contexto industrial. +Supongamos que se desea hacer un detergente. +Supnganse que somos Unilever y que queremos producir detergentes en una fbrica cerca a Liverpool. +Cmo lo hacemos? +Tenemos un gran tanque lleno de detergente lquido. +Se bombea por una boquilla a alta presin. +Y se hace una rociada de detergente. +Luego ese roco se seca, se vuelve polvo +y cae al piso. +Se recoge y se empaca en cajas de cartn. +Lo vendemos en el supermercado +y hacemos cantidades de dinero. +Cmo se disea la boquilla? +Esto es bien importante. +Si tenemos el complejo de Dios, lo que hacemos es conseguir un pequeo dios. +Se contrata un matemtico, un fsico, alguno que entienda la dinmica de este fluido. +l calcular el diseo ptimo para la boquilla. +Unilever lo hizo y no funcion, muy complicado. +Este problema es demasiado complicado. +El profesor de gentica, Steve Jones describe cmo resolvieron el problema en Unilever. Ensayo y error, variacin y seleccin. +Se toma una boquilla y se crean 10 variaciones aleatorias de esa. +Se ensayan todas y se conserva la que funciona mejor. +Se crean otras 10 variaciones de esa, +se ensayan todas y se conserva la mejor. +Se ensayan 10 variaciones de esta ltima. +Ya entienden cmo funciona. +Despus de 45 generaciones se logra esta boquilla increble. +Parece una pieza de ajedrez y funciona admirablemente. +No tenemos idea de cmo opera, ni idea. +En ese momento uno se aparta del complejo de Dios. Trata de obtener algo, de encontrar una manera sistemtica de decidir qu funciona y qu no. As podemos resolver el problema. +Este proceso de ensayo y error es en realidad ms comn en las instituciones exitosas de lo que nos interesa reconocer. +Hemos odo bastante sobre cmo funcionan las economas. +La mayor de todas en el mundo es todava la economa estadounidense. +Cmo lleg a ser la mayor economa? +Podra traer aqu toda clase de datos y cifras sobre la economa estadounidense, pero creo que lo ms sobresaliente es esto: el 10% de las empresas en Estados Unidos desaparece cada ao. +Una tasa de fracasos enorme. +Es bastante mayor que la mortalidad en EE.UU.. +Cada ao no muere el 10% de las personas. +Segn esto se puede concluir que las empresas desaparecen ms rpido que las personas. O sea que los negocios evolucionan ms rpido que la gente. +Eventualmente las empresas llegarn a tal grado de perfeccin que nos convertirn a nosotros en sus mascotas, si es que no lo han hecho ya. +A veces me pregunto... +Es este proceso de ensayo y error, lo que explica tanta divergencia en la increble organizacin de las economas occidentales. +No surgi por haber puesto algn ser superinteligente a cargo. +Surgen por ensayo y error. +He estado repitiendo esto durante los ltimos dos meses y algunas personas me dicen: "Oye Tim, eso es bastante obvio. +Es evidente que el ensayo y error es importante. +Obviamente, la experimentacin es muy importante. +Pero por qu razn andas diciendo algo tan evidente?" +Y respondo, est bien. +Piensan que es obvio? +Admitir que s es obvio cuando en las escuelas comiencen a ensear a los nios que hay problemas sin respuesta. +Cuando dejen de darles cantidades de preguntas todas con sus respuestas. +Siempre habr una autoridad en la esquina, detrs del escritorio del profesor, con todas las respuestas. +Si alguno no encuentra las respuestas es por perezoso o por estpido. +Si las escuelas dejaren de hacer esto todo el tiempo, admitira que s, que es obvio que ensayo y error es algo bueno. +Si un poltico en campaa para algn cargo pblico y dice: "Quiero mejorar el sistema de salud. +Quiero arreglar el sistema educativo. +Pero no s cmo hacerlo. +Tengo unas cuantas ideas. +Vamos a ensayarlas. Posiblemente todas fallen. +Entonces ensayaremos otras. +Veremos si algunas funcionan. Y de ah partiremos. +Y nos deshacemos de las que no funcionan". Si un poltico hace su campaa con tal programa, ms importante an, si los votantes como Uds. y yo votamos por esa clase de polticos, entonces admitir que es obvio que ensayo y error funciona... y gracias. +Hasta ese momento seguir repitiendo esto del ensayo y error y por qu hay que abandonar el complejo de Dios. +Porque no es fcil admitir nuestra falibilidad. +Es muy incmodo. +Archie Cochrane entendi esto, como tantos otros. +l haba ensayado otra cosa muchos aos antes de la Segunda Guerra. +l quera ensayar la cuestin de dnde deben estar los pacientes de ataques al corazn, para recuperarse. +Debern estar en la sala especializada de cardiologa de un hospital? O debern recuperarse en sus casas? +Todos los cardilogos trataron de mandarlo callar. +Tenan el complejo de Dios como arma. +Saban que los hospitales eran el lugar ideal para esos pacientes. Y que sera completamente antitico llevar a cabo algn experimento o algn ensayo. +Sin embargo, Archie logr un permiso para hacerlo. +Hizo su primer ensayo. +Despus de que el experimento llevaba un tiempo, reuni a todos sus colegas en su oficina y les dijo: "Seores, tenemos unos resultados preliminares. +No son estadsticamente significativos, +pero tenemos algo. +Y resulta que Uds tenan razn. Yo estaba equivocado. +Es riesgoso para un paciente tratar de recuperarse de un ataque al corazn, en casa. +Deben permanecer en el hospital". +Se oy un alboroto y los mdicos empezaron a dar golpes a la mesa y a decir: "Ya lo habamos dicho que eras antitico, Archie. +Ests matando a la gente con esos ensayos clnicos. Hay que suspenderlos ya. +Detn eso de inmediato". +Y hubo un gran barullo. +Archie dej que se calmaran +y entonces les dijo: "Esto es muy interesante, seores, porque cuando les entregu las tablas con los resultados, intercambi las columnas. +Resulta que los hospitales son los que matan a la gente y es mejor que permanezcan en casa. +Quieren que suspendamos el ensayo ahora? o prefieren esperar a tener mejores datos?" +por la sala. +Cochrane sola hacer esas cosas. +Y la razn por la que lo haca es porque saba que es mucho mejor adoptar una posicin y decir: "Aqu en mi pequeo mundo yo soy un dios y lo entiendo todo. +No me gusta que se cuestionen mis opiniones. +No me gusta que se pongan a prueba mis conclusiones". +Es mucho mejor cuando uno simplemente hace la ley. +Cochrane entenda que la incertidumbre, la falibilidad, el sentirse cuestionado, duele. +Y en ocasiones es necesario salirse de esa posicin. +No quiero decir que eso sea fcil. +No es fcil. +Es increblemente doloroso. +Desde que comenc a hablar de este asunto y a investigar el tema, me he sentido obsesionado por algo que un matemtico japons dijo al respecto. +Poco despus de la guerra, este joven, Yutaka Taniyama, desarroll una suposicin fantstica llamada la Conjetura de Taniyama-Shimura, +que result totalmente funcional varias dcadas despus en la demostracin del ltimo Teorema de Fermat. +En verdad, resulta que es equivalente a probar ese teorema. +Si se demuestra uno, se ha demostrado el otro. +Pero era una simple conjetura. +Taniyama trat muchas veces y nunca pudo demostrar que era verdadera. +Poco antes de su cumpleaos 30, en 1958, Yutaka Taniyama se suicid. +Su amigo Goro Shimura, que haba trabajado las matemticas con l, muchas dcadas despus, reflexionando sobre la vida de Taniyama, +dijo: "No era muy cuidadoso como matemtico. +Cometi muchos errores. +Pero sus errores estaban bien orientados. +Yo trat de seguirlo, pero me di cuenta que es muy difcil cometer errores buenos". +Gracias. +Pat Mitchell: Has trado imgenes de The Yemen Times. +Y al hacerlo nos has presentado otro Yemen. +Nadia Al-Sakkaf: Bueno, me alegro de estar aqu. +Me gustara compartir con Uds. algunas de las imgenes de lo que sucede hoy en Yemen. +Esta imagen muestra una revolucin iniciada por las mujeres. Muestra a mujeres y hombres dirigiendo una protesta mixta. +La otra imagen es la popularidad de la necesidad real de cambio. +Hay mucha gente all. +La intensidad del levantamiento. +Esta imagen muestra que la revolucin ha dado oportunidades de formacin, de educacin. +Estas mujeres estn aprendiendo primeros auxilios y sus derechos constitucionales. +Me encanta esta foto. +Quera simplemente mostrarles que ms del 60% de la poblacin yemen tiene 15 aos o menos. +Fueron excluidos de la toma de decisiones y ahora estn en primera plana en las noticias izando la bandera. +En ingls... ya ven, pantalones vaqueros ajustados y unas frases en ingls, la capacidad de compartir con el mundo lo que est sucediendo en nuestro pas. +Y estas manifestaciones tambin han generado talentos. +Los yemenes usan caricaturas, arte, pinturas, tiras cmicas, para contarle al mundo y a s mismos lo que est pasando. +Obviamente, siempre hay un lado oscuro. +Esta es una de las imgenes ms horripilantes de la revolucin y del costo que tenemos que pagar. +La solidaridad de millones de yemenes en todo el pas que piden una sola cosa. +Y, finalmente, mucha gente est diciendo que la revolucin yemen va a fracturar al pas. +Surgirn muchos pases? +Ser otra Somalia? +Queremos decirle al mundo que no; bajo la misma bandera, seguiremos siendo yemenes. +PM: Gracias por las imgenes, Nadia. +En varios sentidos cuentan una historia distinta de la historia de Yemen que uno suele ver en las noticias. +Y, s, t misma desafas todos esos estereotipos. +Hablemos de la historia personal por un momento. +Tu padre fue asesinado. +The Yemen Times ya tiene una gran reputacin en Yemen como peridico independiente en lengua inglesa. +Cmo es entonces que tomaste la decisin de asumir la responsabilidad de dirigir un peridico, sobre todo en esta poca de conflicto? +NA: Bueno, en primer lugar les advierto que no soy la tpica joven yemen. +Supongo que ya lo habrn notado. +En Yemen, la mayora de las mujeres usan velo y se sientan detrs de las puertas y no participan mucho en la vida pblica. +Pero hay mucho potencial +que deseo mostrarles de mi Yemen. +Deseo que vean Yemen a travs de mis ojos. +Entonces sabrn que hay mucho ms que eso. +Tuve el privilegio de nacer en una familia con un padre que siempre alent a nios y nias. +l deca que ramos iguales. +Era un hombre extraordinario. +E incluso mi madre se lo debo a mi familia +una historia. Estudi en la India. +Y en tercer grado empec a confundirme porque era yemen pero interactuaba tambin con muchos de mis amigos de la escuela. +Y volva a casa diciendo: "Papi, no s quin soy. +No soy yemen ni soy india". +Y l deca: "T eres el puente". +Y eso es algo que voy a guardar en mi corazn para siempre. +As que desde entonces he sido el puente y mucha gente ha caminado sobre m. +PM: No lo creo. NA: Sirve para contar que algunas personas son agentes de cambio en la sociedad. +Y cuando me convert en jefa de redaccin sucediendo a mi hermano, en realidad mi padre falleci en 1999 y luego mi hermano en 2005... y todo el mundo apostaba a que yo no podra hacerlo. +"Qu viene a hacer esta joven ostentando porque es el negocio de su familia" o algo as? +Al principio fue muy difcil. +No quera entrar en conflicto con la gente. +Pero, con el debido respeto a todos los hombres, y a los ms viejos en especial, ellos no me queran. +Fue muy difcil, ya saben, imponer mi autoridad. +Pero una mujer tiene que hacer lo que tiene que hacer. +Y en el primer ao tuve que despedir a la mitad de los hombres. +Incorporar ms mujeres. +Incorporar hombres jvenes. +Y hoy tenemos una sala de redaccin ms equilibrada en cuestiones de gnero. +El otro tema es el profesionalismo. +Hay que probar quin es uno y sus capacidades. +Y no s si voy a pecar de soberbia pero solo en 2006 ganamos tres premios internacionales. +Uno de ellos es el IPI Premio Pionero de los Medios Libres. +As que esa fue la respuesta al pueblo yemen. +Y quiero anotar un punto aqu, porque mi marido est en la sala por all. +Por favor, si puedes pararte... +l me ha apoyado mucho. +PM: Y hay que destacar que l trabaja contigo tambin en el diario. +Pero al asumir esta responsabilidad y hacerlo del modo que lo haces te has convertido en un puente entre la sociedad antigua tradicional y la que ests creando ahora en el diario. +Y a la par del cambio que aconteci all tuviste que toparte con otra postura con la que siempre tropezamos, particularmente las mujeres, y tiene que ver con la imagen exterior, el vestido, la mujer con velo. +Cmo has manejado esto a nivel personal y con las mujeres que trabajan contigo? +NA: Como sabes la imagen de muchas mujeres yemenes es de mucho negro, mujeres cubiertas con velo. +Eso es verdad. +Y en gran parte se debe a que las mujeres no pueden, no son libres, de mostrar su rostro. +Hay una gran imposicin de la tradicin que viene de la figura de autoridad como la del hombre, los abuelos, etc. +Y es el poder econmico y la capacidad de la mujer de decir: "Contribuyo a esta familia tanto o ms que t". +Y cuanto ms poder gana la mujer ms probable es que se quite el velo, por ejemplo, o que conduzca su propio auto o que tenga un empleo o pueda viajar. +La otra cara de Yemen en realidad yace tras los velos. Y es el poder econmico en gran medida lo que permite que la mujer se descubra. +Y con mi trabajo he procurado eso. +He tratado de alentar a las jvenes. +Empezamos con que se lo podan quitar en la oficina. +Y luego de eso se lo podan quitar durante una entrevista. +Porque no creo que una periodista pueda hacer su tarea... cmo puede hablar con las personas con la cara cubierta? y as sucesivamente; es un movimiento. +Y soy un modelo a seguir en Yemen. +Muchas personas me admiran. +Muchas jvenes me admiran. +Y tengo que demostrarles que, s, se puede estar casada, se puede ser madre y as y todo ser respetada en la sociedad, pero, al mismo tiempo, eso no quiere decir que una deba ser una ms en la multitud. +Una puede ser quien es y tener un rostro. +PM: Pero al ponerte t misma all... al proyectar una imagen diferente de la mujer yemen y al hacer posible lo que contabas de las mujeres que trabajan en el diario... te ha puesto esto en peligro personal? +NA: Bueno, The Yemen Times, a lo largo de 20 aos, ha pasado por muchas cosas. +Hemos sufrido persecucin; el diario fue clausurado ms de tres veces. +Es un peridico independiente pero dganselo a las autoridades. +Piensan que si hay algo contra ellos entonces somos un diario de la oposicin. +Hemos pasado momentos muy difciles. +Algunos de mis reporteros fueron arrestados. +Hemos tenido algunos casos judiciales. +Asesinaron a mi padre. +Hoy estamos en una situacin mucho mejor. +Hemos creado la credibilidad. +Y en tiempos de revolucin o cambio como ahora es muy importante que los medios independientes tengan una voz. +Es muy importante que entren a YemenTimes.com, y es muy importante que escuchen nuestra voz. +Esto probablemente sea algo que comparta con Uds. en los medios occidentales cmo existen muchos estereotipos pensando en Yemen en un solo cuadro: Yemen es esto. +Y no es justo. +No es justo para m; no es justo para mi pas. +Muchos periodistas vienen a Yemen queriendo escribir una historia sobre Al-Qaeda o terrorismo. +Y yo quera compartir algo con Uds.: vino un periodista. +Quera hacer un documental sobre lo que le pedan sus editores. +Y termin escribiendo una historia que me sorprendi sobre hip hop; que hay jvenes yemenes que se expresan mediante danza y punchi punchi. +Esa cosa. (PM: Rap. Break dance.) S, break dance. +No soy tan vieja. +Es solo que no estoy en el tema. +PM: S, lo ests. +En realidad, hay un documental que est en lnea; un video en lnea. +NA: ShaketheDust.org. +PM: "Shake the Dust." (NA: "Shake the Dust".) PM: ShaketheDust.org. +Definitivamente brinda una imagen diferente de Yemen. +Hablabas de la responsabilidad de la prensa. +NA: Bueno, hay un refrn que dice: "Se teme lo que no se conoce y se odia lo que se teme". +As que bsicamente es falta de investigacin. +Es casi como "Haz la tarea"; es tomar parte activa. +Y no se puede hacer periodismo de paracaidista; saltar al pas y estar dos das y pensar que has hecho tu tarea y una historia. +Por eso deseo que el mundo conozca mi Yemen, mi pas, mi gente. +Soy un ejemplo, y hay otros como yo. +Puede que no seamos muchos pero si se nos promociona como ejemplos buenos y positivos habr otros, hombres y mujeres, que eventualmente oficiarn de puente volvemos al tema del puente entre Yemen y el mundo hablando primero del reconocimiento y luego de la comunicacin y la compasin. +Creo que Yemen va a estar en muy mala situacin en los prximos 2 o 3 aos. +Es natural. +Pero luego de dos aos, que es un precio que estamos dispuestos a pagar, nos vamos a parar con nuestros propios medios pero en un nuevo Yemen con gente ms joven y con ms poder... democrtico. +PM: Nadia, creo que nos acabas de brindar una visin muy diferente de Yemen. +Y ciertamente t y lo que haces nos ha dado un panorama del futuro al que nos aferraremos y agradeceremos. +La mejor de las suertes para ti. +YemenTimes.com. +NA: En Twitter tambin. +PM: Veo que ests conectada. +Amo Internet. +En serio. +Piensen en todo lo que nos ha brindado. +Piensen en todos los servicios que utilizamos, en la conectividad, en todo el entretenimiento, los negocios y el comercio. +Y todo eso est sucediendo durante nuestra existencia. +Estoy bastante seguro de que algn da, cuando escriban libros de historia de aqu a cientos de aos... esta poca, nuestra generacin, ser recordada como la que se conect en lnea, la generacin que construy algo genuinamente global. +Pero claro, tambin es cierto que Internet tiene problemas, problemas muy graves: Problemas de seguridad y problemas de privacidad. +He pasado toda mi carrera luchando contra estos problemas. +Voy a mostrarles algo. +Esto es Brain. +Esto es un disquete de 5 pulgadas infectado con Brain.A. +Este el primer virus que descubrimos para computadoras PC. +Y de hecho sabemos de dnde sali Brain. +Lo sabemos porque lo dice dentro de su cdigo. +Vemoslo juntos. +Muy bien. +Ese es el sector de arranque de un disquete infectado Si miramos de cerca, justo aqu vemos que dice "Bienvenidos al calabozo". +Y contina diciendo, 1986, Basit y Amjad. +Basit y Amjad son nombres propios, pakistanes. +Es ms, hay un nmero telefnico y una direccin en Pakistn. +De 1986 +al 2011 +pasaron 25 aos. +El problema de los virus de PC tiene ya 25 aos. +Entonces, hace medio ao, decid ir yo mismo a Pakistn. +Veamos, aqu tienen algunas fotografas que tom mientras estaba all. +Esta es de la ciudad de Lahora, a unos 300 km al sur de Abbottabad, donde capturaron a Bin Laden. +Esta es una calle tpica de la ciudad. +Y esta es la calle o carretera que lleva a este edificio, el 730 Nizam Block de la ciudad de Allama Iqbal. +Llam a la puerta. +Quieren adivinar quines me abrieron? +Basit y Amjad. An estn ah. +El que est parado aqu es Basit. +Y el que est sentado es su hermano Amjad. +Ellos fueron quienes escribieron el primer virus para PC. +Por supuesto, tuvimos una charla muy interesante. +Les pregunt por qu. +Les pregunt como se sienten acerca de lo que iniciaron. +Y sent algo de satisfaccin al enterarme que las computadoras de Basit y Amjad haban sido infectadas docenas de veces por otros virus completamente distintos a lo largo de los aos. +As que existe alguna especie de justicia en este mundo, despus de todo. +Por supuesto, que los virus que solamos ver en los 80 y los 90 obviamente ya no son un problema. +As que djenme mostrarles algunos ejemplos de cmo eran. +Aqu estoy iniciando un sistema que me permite ejecutar programas antiguos en una computadora moderna. +Entonces necesito montar algunas unidades pticas... Bien. +Aqu tenemos una lista de virus antiguos. +Voy a ejecutar algunos virus en mi computadora. +Por ejemplo, veamos el virus Ciempis. +Como pueden ver en la parte superior de la pantalla aparece un ciempis desplazndose cuando se nos infecta con este virus. +Nos damos cuenta de que estamos infectados, porque de hecho se ve. +Aqu hay otro. Este se llama "Crash" fue creado en Rusia en 1992 +Voy a mostrarles uno que emite un sonido +(Sonido de sirena) Y como ltimo ejemplo, adivinen qu hace el virus "Walker" +S, aparece un hombrecito caminando por la pantalla una vez que hemos sido infectados. +Entonces era bastante fcil darse cuenta que nos afectaba un virus, cuando eran creados por aficionados y adolescentes. +Hoy, ya no los crean aficionados o adolescentes. +Actualmente, los virus son un problema global. +Lo que tenemos aqu en la pantalla es un ejemplo de los sistemas que utilizamos en nuestros laboratorios donde rastreamos infecciones de virus a nivel mundial. +Entonces podemos ver en tiempo real que acabamos de bloquear virus en Suecia, en Taiwan, en Rusia y en otros lugares. +De hecho, si tan solo me conecto a nuestro sistema de laboratorio a travs de la web, podemos ver en tiempo real ms o menos una idea de cuntos virus, cuntos nuevos ejemplos de software malicioso encontramos cada da +Este es el ms reciente en un archivo llamado Server.exe +Y lo encontramos por aqu hace unos 3 segundos -- el anterior, hace 6 segundos. +Y si nos desplazamos, esto es enorme. +Encontramos decenas de miles y hasta cientos de miles. +Y esos son solo los ltimos 20 minutos de malware de un da tpico. +Entonces De dnde provienen? +Actualmente, son las bandas de crimen informtico organizado quienes programan estos virus, porque con ellos ganan dinero. +Son bandas como... vayamos a GangstaBucks.com. +Esta es una pgina web que opera en Mosc donde estos muchachos compran computadoras infectadas. +Entonces, si eres un programador de virus y eres capaz de infectar computadoras con Windows, pero no sabes qu hacer con ellas, puedes venderlas infectadas, las computadoras de otras personas, a estos muchachos. +Y van a pagarte dinero por ellas. +Pero como es que ellos convierten en dinero estas computadoras infectadas? +Hay varias formas, como troyanos bancarios, que roban dinero de sus cuentas bancarias cuando las operan por Internet. o registradores de teclas . +Los keyloggers, esperan silenciosos en sus computadoras, escondidos de la vista y graban absolutamente todo lo que escriben en su teclado. +Supongamos que alguien est en su computadora buscando en Google. +Cada vez que escribe algo en Google lo guarda y lo enva los criminales. +Cada e-mail que escribe, lo guarda y lo enva. +Lo mismo pasa con las contraseas y lo dems. +Pero lo que ms buscan realidad son las sesiones en las que nos conectamos a Internet y hacemos compras en una tienda en lnea. +Porque cuando hacemos compras por Internet escribimos en el teclado el nombre, la direccin de envo, el nmero de tarjeta de crdito y el cdigo de seguridad de la tarjeta. +Este es un ejemplo de un archivo que encontramos en un servidor hace algunas semanas. +Ese es el nmero de la tarjeta de crdito, esa es la fecha de vencimiento, este es el cdigo de seguridad y ese, el nombre del titular de la tarjeta. +Una vez que se obtiene acceso a la informacin de la tarjeta de crdito de otro, por Internet, simplemente se puede comprar cualquier cosa con esos datos. +Esto es, obviamente, un problema. +Ahora tenemos todo un mercado subterrneo y un ecosistema empresarial creado con base en el crimen informtico. +Veamos un ejemplo de cmo estos muchachos son capaces de monetizar sus operaciones. Podemos conectarnos a las pginas web de la Interpol y revisar la lista de los ms buscados. +Encontramos personas como Bjorn Sundin, originario de Suecia y su cmplice, que tambin figura entre los ms buscados de Interpol, el seor Shaileshkumar Jain, un ciudadano estadounidense. +Estos tipos llevan adelante una operacin llamada I.M.U., un crimen ciberntico con el que produjeron millones. +Ambos estn ahora prfugos. +Nadie sabe dnde estn. +El gobierno estadounidense, hace algunas semanas, congel una cuenta bancaria suiza perteneciente al seor Jain. Haba 14.9 millones de dlares en esa cuenta. +As que la cantidad de dinero que genera el crimen informtico es muy significativa. +Y esto quiere decir que esos criminales informticos tienen medios para costear sus ataques. +Sabemos que estos criminales contratan programadores, testers, para poner a pruebas sus cdigos, con sistemas de respaldo con bases de datos SQL. +Y pueden pagar para ver cmo trabajamos nosotros... los que trabajamos en seguridad informtica... y tratan de esquivar las medidas de seguridad que podamos crear. +Tambin utilizan la naturaleza global de Internet a su favor. +Internet es internacional, por supuesto. +Por eso se llama Internet. +Miremos qu est pasando en el mundo de Internet. Aqu hay un video creado por Clarified Networks, que muestra cmo una familia de malware en particular, se mueve por el mundo. +Se cree que esta operacin comenz en Estonia y se mueve de un pas a otro tan pronto como tratan de clausurar la pgina web. +As que simplemente no pueden clausurarlos. +Se cambian de un pas a otro, de una jurisdiccin a otra, por todo el mundo, abusando de que no tenemos los medios para combatir operaciones como sas a nivel mundial. +Internet funciona como si les hubiesen dado pasajes areos gratuitos a todos los delincuentes informticos del mundo. +Los criminales que antes no podan llegar a nosotros, ahora s pueden. +Entonces Cmo se hace para encontrar a estos criminales? +Cmo se pueden rastrear? +Les muestro un ejemplo. +Este es un archivo exploit. +Aqu estamos viendo el cdigo hexadecimal de un archivo de imagen, que contiene un exploit. +Significa que si abre este archivo de imagen en su computadora con Windows, ste toma el control de la mquina y ejecuta el cdigo. +Entonces, si miramos este archivo de imagen aqu... este es el encabezado, y all mismo se inicia el cdigo de ataque. +Este cdigo est encriptado as que vamos a descifrarlo. +Est cifrado con funcin 97 en XOR. +Van a tener que creerme, pues as es. +Podemos acceder aqu y comenzar a descifrarlo. +Ahora, la porcin en amarillo est desencriptada. +Acepto que en realidad no se ve muy diferente de la original. +Pero sigan observando +y notarn aqu abajo una direccin Web: unionseek.com/d/ioo.exe Entonces si ven esta imagen en su computadora es porque se est ejecutando ese programa. +Y esa va a ser la puerta trasera por la que se tomen el control de su informacin. +Pero lo ms interesante es que si continuamos desencriptando vamos a encontrar esta extraa cadena que dice O600KO78RUS. +Este codigo est cifrado como una especia de firma. +No sirve de nada. +Estuve examinndolo, tratando de entender qu significa. +As que obviamente lo busqu en Google +y no encontr ningn resultado; no exista. +As que lo convers con algunos compaeros del laboratorio. +Tenemos 2 compaeros rusos en nuestro laboratorio. Uno de ellos dijo, "Termina en RUS, como Rusia". +Y 78 es el cdigo de rea de la ciudad de San Petersburgo +Por ejemplo, figura en algunos nmeros telefnicos, en matrculas de automviles y en cosas as. +As que busqu algunos contactos en San Petersburgo y luego de un largo camino, llegamos a encontrar una pgina web en particular. +Este tipo de Rusia, ha estado operando en Internet hace varios aos, dirige su propia pgina web y tambin tiene un blog bajo el popular Live Journal. +En este blog escribe sobre su vida, sobre su vida en San Petersburgo, tiene poco ms de 20 aos. Escribe acerca de su gato, y acerca de su novia. +Y que tiene un auto muy lindo. +De hecho, este muchacho conduce un Mercedes-Benz S600 motor V12 de 6 litros con ms de 400 caballos de fuerza. +Ese es un auto muy bueno para un chico de 20 aos en San Petersburgo. +Cmo es que s acerca de su auto? +Porque lo escribi en su blog. +Tuvo un accidente automovilstico +en el centro de San Petersburgo, choc contra otro auto. +Y subi imgenes del accidente a su blog -- este es su Mercedes. Justo aqu est el Lada Samara contra el que choc. +Se puede ver que la matrcula del Samara termina en 78RUS. +Y si miramos la escena de la fotografa, se puede observar que la matrcula del Mercedes es O600KO78RUS. +Yo no soy abogado, pero si lo fuese, aqu es cuando dira, "No tengo ms para agregar" +Entonces Qu sucede cuando los criminales informticos son capturados? +En la mayora de los casos no llega tan lejos. +La gran mayora de los crmenes informticos, ni siquiera sabemos de qu continente provienen. +Y an si somos capaces de encontrar a los delincuentes informticos, casi nunca hay un resultado concreto. +La polica local no interviene y, si lo hace, nunca hay suficiente evidencia, o por alguna razn nunca pueden encarcelarlos. +Deseara que esto fuese ms sencillo; lamentablemente no lo es. +Pero las cosas estn cambiando a un ritmo vertiginoso. +Habrn odo acerca de cosas como Stuxnet. +Lo que hace Stuxnet es que infecta stos. +Este es un Siemens S7-400 PLC, un controlador lgico programable. +Y esto es lo que sostiene nuestra infraestructura; +ejecuta todo lo que nos rodea. +estos PLC que son cajitas sin pantallas, ni teclados, que se programan, se instalan y hacen su trabajo. +Por ejemplo, los ascensores en este edificio muy probablemente son controlados por uno de estos. +Y cuando Stuxnet infecta uno de estos controladores, se arma una revolucin masiva con riesgos de los que hay que preocuparse. +Porque todo a nuestro alrededor es controlado por stos. +Quiero decir que tenemos una infraestructura vulnerable. +Si van a cualquier fbrica, a cualquier planta de energa, a una plata qumica o procesadora de alimentos y miran a su alrededor, todo se ejecuta a travs estas computadoras. +Todo se hace por computadora. +Todo depende del funcionamiento de estas mquinas. +Nos hemos vuelto muy dependientes de Internet, de cosas bsicas como la electricidad, obviamente, y del funcionamiento de las computadoras. +Y esto nos crea problemas completamente nuevos. +Deberamos tener alguna forma de continuar funcionando an si las mquinas fallan. +Estar preparados significa poder hacer cosas aunque lo que damos por hecho no est ms all. +Es algo en realidad muy bsico; pensar en la continuacin, pensar en el respaldo, pensar en lo que realmente importa. +Ya lo dije; Amo Internet. En serio. +Piensen en todos los servicios que tenemos en lnea. +Piensen qu sucedera si se los quitaran, si algn da ya no los tienen, por cualquier motivo. +Vislumbro belleza en el futuro de Internet, pero me preocupa que no lleguemos a verlo. +Me preocupa que encontremos problemas por causa del crimen informtico. +El crimen informtico es lo que podra quitarnos estas cosas. +He pasado mi vida defendiendo la red. Y creo profundamente que si no luchamos contra el crimen informtico corremos el riesgo de perderlo todo. +Debemos hacer esto de manera global, y debemos hacerlo ahora. +Lo que necesitamos son operaciones globales para la exigencia de la ley, para localizar estas bandas criminales, estas bandas organizadas que ganan millones con sus ataques. +Esto es mucho ms importante que ejecutar anti-virus o cortafuegos . +Lo que importa en realidad es encontrar a los culpables detrs de estos ataques. Y ms urgente an, es que debemos buscar a las personas que estn a punto de formar parte de ese mundo criminal informtico, pero an no lo hemos hecho. +Hay que encontrar a las personas que tienen la capacidad, pero no la oportunidad y darles la oportunidad de utilizar sus capacidades para el bien. +Muchas gracias. +Abrazar la alteridad. +La primera vez que escuch este tema pens que abrazar la alteridad era abrazarme a m misma. +Y el trayecto hacia ese lugar de comprensin y aceptacin ha sido muy interesante para m y me ha brindado una perspectiva ms integral del ser que creo que vale la pena compartir con ustedes hoy. +Todos tenemos un "s mismo" pero no considero que uno nazca con l. +Ustedes saben que los bebs recin nacidos creen que son parte de un todo, que no estn separados de las cosas. +Pues bien, ese sentimiento primordial de unidad lo perdemos muy rpidamente. +Ese estado inicial tiene un fin, esa unicidad: la primera infancia, ese estado sin forma y primitivo. +No persiste a lo largo del tiempo, o de manera real. +Lo que es real es la separacin. Y en un determinado momento de la infancia temprana la nocin del s mismo comienza a formarse. +Y a nuestra pequea porcin de unidad se le da un nombre, se le dice toda clase de cosas sobre s mismos. Y esos pequeos detalles, opiniones e ideas se convierten en hechos, que servirn a la construccin de nosotros mismos, de nuestra identidad. +Y ese s mismo, se convierte en el vehculo para desplazarnos por nuestro mundo social. +Pero el s mismo es una proyeccin basada en las proyecciones de otras personas. +Somos realmente as? +O como realmente quisiramos ser? O deberamos ser? +As es que toda esta interaccin entre el s mismo y la identidad fue muy difcil para m mientras creca. +El s mismo que intentaba sacar al mundo era rechazado una y otra vez. +Y el pnico que sent al no tener un s mismo que encajara y la confusin que provino de mi s mismo al ser rechazado provoc ansiedad, vergenza y desesperanza, lo que me defini por mucho tiempo. +Pero mirando hacia atrs, la destruccin de mi s mismo era tan repetitiva que comenc a percibir un patrn. +Mi s mismo cambi, qued afectado, quebrado, destrudo, dando lugar a otro, a veces ms fuerte, a veces odioso, otras veces no queriendo estar all bajo ninguna circunstancia. +Mi s mismo no era constante. +Y cuntas veces mi s mismo tuvo que morir antes de darme cuenta que nunca haba estado vivo? +Me cri en la costa de Inglaterra en lo aos 70. +Mi padre es blanco, de Cornwall, y mi madre es negra, de Zimbabue. +Incluso la idea de nosotros como familia fue un desafo para la mayora de las personas. +Pero la naturaleza fue por el mal camino y los bebs nacieron con piel oscura. +Pero alrededor de los cinco aos me di cuenta que no encajaba. +Yo era la nia negra atea en una escuela catlica de monjas y nios blancos. +Yo era una rareza. Y mi s mismo buscaba una definicin y trataba de conectarse. +Porque al s mismo le gusta adaptarse, verse replicado en otros, pertenecer. +Eso confirma su existencia y su importancia. +Y es importante. +Tiene una funcin extremadamente importante. +Sin l, esencialmente, no podramos interactuar con otros. +No podramos trazar una meta y subir esa escalera de la popularidad, del xito. +Pero mi color de piel no estaba bien. +Mi cabello no estaba bien. +Mi historia no estaba bien. +Mi s mismo qued definido por la alteridad, lo que signific en ese mundo social, que yo en realidad no exista. +Y yo era otra antes de ser cualquier otra cosa... incluso antes de ser una nia. +Yo era un nadie perceptible. +Ante m se estaba abriendo otro mundo en esa poca: la actuacin y la danza. +Ese temor persistente de individualidad no exista mientras danzaba. +Yo, literalmente, me perda. +Y era muy buena bailarina. +Yo podra volcar toda mi expresin emotiva a la danza. +Yo poda ser en movimiento de una manera que no poda en mi vida real, en m misma. +A los 16 aos surgi otra oportunidad al obtener mi primer protagnico en una pelcula. +No encuentro palabras para describir la paz que senta cuando actuaba. +Mi s mismo disfuncional pudo, de hecho, conectarse con otro s mismo que no era el mo. Y me senta muy bien. +Por primera vez exista adentro de un s mismo que funcionaba a pleno, que controlaba, que conduca, y al que le daba vida. +Pero el da de filmacin terminara y tendra que volver a mi antiptico y torpe s mismo. +A los 19 aos ya era una actriz de cine consagrada pero segua en la bsqueda de una definicin. +Quise estudiar Antropologa en la universidad. +La Dra. Phyllis me dio la entrevista y me pregunt: "Cmo definira la raza?" +Bueno, pens que tena la respuesta a esa pregunta. Y le dije: el color de la piel. +Ella contest: Entonces es biologa, es gentica? +Pero eso, Thandie, no es exacto. +Porque, en realidad, existen mayores diferencias genticas entre un negro de Kenia y uno de Uganda, que entre un negro de Kenia y, por ejemplo, un blanco de Noruega. +Porque todos provenimos de frica. +Por lo tanto es en frica donde ha habido ms tiempo para crearse diversidad gentica". +En otras palabras, la raza no se basa en hechos biolgicos o cientficos. +Por un lado, estn los resultados. +Correcto? +Y, por otro lado, mi definicin del s mismo acababa de perder gran parte de su credibilidad. +Pero lo que s es irrefutable, lo que s es un hecho biolgico y cientfico, es que todos provenimos de frica; de hecho, de una mujer llamada Eva Mitocondrial que vivi hace unos 160.000 aos. +Y la raza es un concepto ilegtimo que hemos creado nosotros mismos basado en el temor y la ignorancia. +Curiosamente, estas revelaciones no curaron mi baja autoestima, ese sentimiento de otredad. +Mi deseo de desaparecer era an muy potente. +Obtuve mi ttulo de grado de Cambridge; logr una carrera prspera, pero mi s mismo estaba a los golpes, y acab padeciendo bulimia y en el divn de un terapeuta. +Y por supuesto que s. +An as segu creyendo que mi s mismo era todo mi ser. +An valoraba la autovaloracin por sobre todas las cosas. Hay otra cosa que sugiriera lo contrario? +Hemos creado un sistema completo de valores y una realidad fsica que sostiene el valor del s mismo. +Observen la cultura de la imagen personal y las fuentes de trabajo que genera; las grandes ganancias que arroja. +Estaramos en lo cierto si supusiramos que el s mismo es un autntico ser vivo. +Pero no lo es; es una proyeccin, que crean nuestros cerebros inteligentes para autoengaarnos y as escapar de la realidad de la muerte. +Pero existe algo que le puede dar al s mismo una conexin esencial e infinita, y esa es la unicidad, nuestra esencia. +La lucha del s mismo por su autenticidad y definicin no tendr fin a menos que est conectado a su creador... a ustedes y a m. +Y eso puede suceder con la conciencia... siendo conscientes de la realidad de la unicidad y de la proyeccin de nuestra persona. +Para empezar, podemos pensar en todas las ocasiones en que nos perdemos a nosotros mismos. +Esto me sucede cuando danzo, cuando acto. +Me conecto con mi esencia y se suspende mi s mismo. +En esos momentos estoy conectada con todo: a la superficie, al aire, a los sonidos, a la energa de la audiencia. +Todos mis sentidos estn alerta y vivos de la misma manera en que sentira un beb... ese sentimiento de unicidad. +Y cuando estoy interpretando un papel ocupo otro s mismo y le doy vida por un tiempo. Porque cuando el s mismo se suspende, tambin se suspende la segmentacin y el juicio. +Y he representado todo tipo de papeles, desde un fantasma vengativo en tiempos de la esclavitud, a la Secretaria de Estado en el 2004. +Y sin importar cmo fuesen estos s mismos, son todos afines a m. +Y creo, honestamente, que la clave de mi xito como actriz y mi progreso como persona, fue la falta de un s mismo; eso que me haca sentir tan ansiosa e insegura. +Siempre me pregunt por qu yo poda sentir el dolor de otros tan profundamente, por qu poda reconocer a un alguien en un nadie. +Y es porque no tena un s mismo que lo impidiera. +Yo pensaba que careca de esencia, por el hecho de que poda "sentir a los otros", entonces significaba que no tena nada de m misma para sentir. +Lo que era una fuente de vergenza fue en realidad una fuente de iluminacin. +Y cuando me di cuenta y comprend realmente que mi s mismo es una proyeccin y que tiene una funcin sucedi algo muy curioso. +Dej de darle tanta importancia. +Le doy el lugar que corresponde. +Lo llevo a terapia. +Me he acostumbrado mucho a este comportamiento disfuncional. +Pero no me avergenzo de m misma. +En verdad, le tengo respeto a mi s mismo y a su funcin. +Y con el tiempo y con la prctica, he tratado de vivir ms y ms desde mi esencia. +Y si ustedes pueden hacer eso, suceden cosas increbles. +Porque, claro, si vivimos para nosotros mismos y creemos errneamente que eso es la vida, entonces lo que estamos haciendo es desvalorizando e insensibilizando la vida. +Y en ese estado de desconexin, pues claro, podemos construir granjas industriales sin ventanas, destruir la vida marina y usar el abuso deshonesto como arma de guerra. +Y aqu, un llamado de atencin a nosotros mismos: han comenzado a aparecer grietas en el mundo que hemos construido y de los ocanos continuarn emergiendo, a travs de esas grietas, el petrleo y la sangre, ros formados de esto. +Fundamentalmente, no hemos podido encontrar la manera de vivir en unidad con la Tierra y con cada uno de los seres vivos. +Hemos tratado frenticamente de entender cmo hacer para vivir unos con otros... miles de millones de personas unas con otras. +Slo que no estamos viviendo unos con otros; nuestros perturbados s mismos estn viviendo unos con otros y perpetuando una epidemia de la desconexin. +Vivamos unos con otros y respiremos poco a poco. +Y si podemos domar a ese fuerte s mismo, encendamos una antorcha de la conciencia, y descubramos nuestra esencia, nuestra conexin con el infinito y con todos los dems seres vivos. +Lo supimos el da en que nacimos. +No nos dejemos asustar por nuestra generosa nada. +Es ms real que aquellos otros que nosotros mismos hemos creado. +Imaginen qu clase de existencia podramos tener si honrrramos la inevitable muerte del s mismo, si valorramos el privilegio de la vida y nos maravillramos de lo que sucede despus. +La simple toma de conciencia es el comienzo. +Gracias por escucharme. +Esta es una fotografa tomada por el artista Michael Najjar, y es real porque l fue a Argentina para tomarla. +Pero tambin es ficcin. Hay bastante trabajo en ella despus de eso. +Y lo que ha hecho es que prcticamente ha rediseado, digitalmente, todos los contornos de las montaas para seguir las vicisitudes del ndice Dow Jones. +As que lo que se ve, ese precipicio, lo alto del precipicio que se abre con el valle, es la crisis financiera del 2008. +La foto fue tomada cuando estbamos muy en el fondo de aquel valle. +No s dnde estamos ahora. +Este es el ndice Hang Seng de la Bolsa de Hong Kong. +Y la topografa es similar. +Me pregunto por qu. +Y esto es arte y tambin es una metfora. +Pero creo que lo importante es que es una metfora con dientes. Y es con esos dientes que hoy quiero proponer que reconsideremos un poco el rol de las matemticas contemporneas, no solo las financieras, sino las matemticas en general. +Reconsideremos que han pasado de ser algo que se extrae y se deriva del mundo a algo que realmente empieza a darle forma, al mundo que nos rodea y al mundo dentro de nosotros. +Y es especficamente con algoritmos, que son bsicamente las matemticas que utilizan los computadores para tomar decisiones. +Adquieren el sentido de la verdad, porque se repiten una y otra vez y se osifican y se calcifican y se vuelven reales. +Y estaba pensando en esto, en un lugar improbable, en un vuelo transatlntico hace un par de aos, porque me encontraba sentado al lado de un fsico hngaro como de mi edad y hablbamos de cmo era la vida de los fsicos en Hungra durante la guerra fra. +Y le pregunt: "Qu hacan ustedes?" +Y dijo: "Mayormente, destruamos escudos furtivos". +A lo que le dije: "Ese es un buen trabajo. Es interesante. +Cmo funciona?" +Y para entender eso, hay que entender primero cmo funciona la tecnologa furtiva. +Y para esto, voy a simplificar al extremo, en el fondo no se trata de pasar una seal de radar a travs de 156 toneladas de acero en el cielo. +Eso no va a desaparecer. +Pero se puede tomar esta cosa enorme y transformarla en un milln de cosas pequeas, como una bandada de pjaros, por ejemplo, y luego el radar que la est buscando tiene que ser capaz de ver todas las bandadas de pjaros en el cielo. +Y si usted es un radar, ese es un trabajo muy duro. +Y l dijo: "S, pero eso es solo si usted es un radar. +Pero, no usbamos radares; construamos una caja negra que buscaba seales elctricas, de comunicacin electrnica. +Y cuando veamos una bandada de pjaros que tena comunicacin electrnica, pensbamos que probablemente tena algo que ver con los estadounidenses". Y le dije: "S. +Est bien. +Ud. ha reducido a la nada 60 aos de investigacin aeronutica. +Y luego, qu va a hacer? +Qu va a hacer cuando sea mayor?" +Y respondi: "Trabajar en servicios financieros". +Y le dije: "Oh!". +Porque se haba hablado de ellos en las noticias ltimamente. +Le pregunt: "Cmo funciona eso?" +Y dijo: "Bueno, actualmente, hay 2 000 fsicos en Wall Street, y soy uno de ellos". +Y le pregunt: "Cul es la caja negra de Wall Street?" +Y l dijo: "Es curioso que lo pregunte, porque, en efecto, se llama comercio de caja negra. +Y a veces tambin se le llama comercio algo, comercio algortmico". +Y el comercio algortmico se ha desarrollado en parte porque los inversores institucionales tienen los mismos problemas que tena la Fuerza Area de los Estados Unidos, es decir, que mueven sus posiciones que se trate de Procter & Gamble, Accenture u otra compaa y transfieren un milln de acciones de algo a travs del mercado. +Y si lo hacen todo a la vez, es como jugar al pker y apostar todo inmediatamente. +Estn mostrando su jugada. +De manera que tienen que encontrar una solucin y para eso usan algoritmos para dividir ese gran paquete en un milln de transacciones pequeas. +Y la magia y el horror de eso es que las mismas matemticas que se usan para dividir ese gran paquete en un milln de pequeas cosas pueden usarse para encontrar ese milln de pequeas cosas, unirlas nuevamente y averiguar lo que sucede realmente en el mercado. +As que para que tengan una idea de lo que pasa en la bolsa en este momento, pueden imaginarse un montn de algoritmos programados bsicamente para esconderse, y otro montn de algoritmos programados para ir a buscarlos y actuar. +Y todo eso es genial, est muy bien. +Representa el 70 % de la bolsa de los Estados Unidos, el 70 % del sistema operativo antes conocido como nuestras pensiones e hipotecas. +Y qu podra fallar? +Podra pasar algo como lo de hace un ao, cuando el 9 % del total del mercado desapareci en 5 minutos y lo llamaron el flash crash de las 2.45. +De repente, 9 % simplemente desapareci, y nadie hasta hoy se pone de acuerdo sobre lo que pas, porque nadie dio la orden, nadie quera eso. +Nadie tena ningn control sobre lo que realmente pasaba. +Lo nico que tenan era un monitor delante de ellos que tena unos nmeros y un botn rojo que deca: "Pare". +Y ese es el problema, que estamos escribiendo cosas, que ya no podemos leer. +Hemos dejado algo ilegible. Y en este mundo que hemos fabricado, hemos perdido el sentido de lo que realmente est sucediendo. Y hemos empezando a hacer nuestro camino. +Hay una compaa en Boston llamada Nanex, que usa las matemticas y la magia y no s qu ms, que consigue todos los datos del mercado y, a veces encuentra algunos de estos algoritmos. +Y cuando los encuentra, los extrae y los sujeta contra la pared como si fueran mariposas. +Y hace lo que siempre hemos hecho cuando nos enfrentamos a grandes cantidades de datos que no entendemos, les da un nombre y una historia. +Aqu hay unos que encontr. A este lo llam el Cuchillo, el Carnaval, la Mezcla de Boston, el Crepsculo. +Y el chiste es que, por supuesto, no se trata solo del mercado. +Podemos encontrar este tipo de cosas donde miremos, una vez que aprendemos cmo buscarlos. +Podemos encontrarlos aqu: en este libro sobre las moscas que tal vez hemos estado buscando en Amazon. +Puede que lo hayamos notado, cuando su precio subi a 1,7 millones de dlares. +Est agotado, an... +Si lo hubisemos comprado a 1,7, habra sido una ganga. +Unas horas ms tarde, subi a 23,6 millones de dlares, ms gastos de envo. +Y la pregunta es: Nadie compraba ni venda nada; qu pasaba? +Y esto se ve tanto en Amazon como en Wall Street. +Y cuando uno ve este tipo de comportamiento, lo que ve es la evidencia de los algoritmos en conflicto, trabados entre s en bucles, sin ninguna supervisin humana, sin ningn tipo de supervisin de un adulto para decir: "En realidad, 1,7 millones es bastante". +A Netflix le ha sucedido lo mismo que a Amazon. +Netflix ha pasado por varios algoritmos diferentes a travs del tiempo. +Comenz con Cinematch, y ha probado muchos otros, pasando por Dinosaur Planet y Gravity. +Ahora est usando Pragmatic Chaos +que, al igual que todos los algoritmos de Netflix, trata de hacer lo mismo: +conseguir un asidero en nosotros, en el firmware dentro del crneo humano, para que pueda recomendar qu pelcula podramos tener ganas de ver prximamente, lo cual es un problema muy, muy difcil. +Pero la dificultad del problema y el hecho de que en realidad no lo tengamos resuelto, no le quita los efectos que el Pragmatic Chaos tiene. +Este, al igual que todos los algoritmos de Netflix, determina, en ltima instancia, el 60 % de las pelculas que terminan siendo alquiladas. +De manera que un segmento de cdigo con una idea acerca de nosotros es responsable del 60 % de esas pelculas. +Qu pasara si pudisemos evaluar esas pelculas antes de que se hiciesen? +No sera til? +Bien, hay unos especialistas de datos del Reino Unido en Hollywood que tienen algoritmos de historias, son una empresa llamada Epagogix. +Pueden probar un guion cinematogrfico, y decirnos, de manera cuantificable, si ser una pelcula de 30 millones de dlares o una de 200 millones de dlares. +Y el caso es que esto no es Google. +No es informacin. +No se trata de estadsticas financieras; es cultura. +Y lo que vemos aqu, o ms bien, lo que no vemos normalmente, es que se trata de la fsica de la cultura. +Y si estos algoritmos, como los de Wall Street, acaban estrellndose un da y todo falla, cmo podramos saber +lo que se vera? +Y estn en nuestras casas. +Hay dos algoritmos que compiten por la sala de estar. +Son dos tipos diferentes de robots de limpieza que tienen ideas muy distintas de lo que significa limpio. +Y se pueden ver si les bajamos la velocidad y les fijamos luces. Son algo as como los arquitectos secretos del dormitorio. +Y la idea de que la propia arquitectura est sujeta de alguna manera a la optimizacin algortmica no es descabellada. +Es muy real y est ocurriendo a nuestro alrededor. +Es ms evidente cuando estamos en una caja metlica sellada, en un ascensor moderno llamado ascensor de control de destino. +Es de aquellos en los que hay que presionar el piso al que vamos a ir antes de entrar en el ascensor. +Utiliza lo que se llama un algoritmo de embalaje de cajas. +As que nada de esas locuras de dejar que todo el mundo suba a cualquier cabina que quiera. +Todos los que quieran ir al dcimo piso suben a la cabina 2, y los que quieran ir al tercer piso suben a la cabina 5. +Y el problema con esto es que la gente enloquezca, +que entre en pnico. +Y es claro por qu. +Porque al ascensor le faltan algunos instrumentos importantes, como los botones. +Como las cosas que la gente usa. +Lo nico que tiene es el nmero que cambia cuando sube o baja y ese botn rojo que dice "Pare". +Y eso es lo que estamos diseando. +Estamos trabajando en el dialecto de esa mquina. +Y hasta dnde podemos ir?, hasta qu punto? +Podemos ir muy, muy lejos. +Volvamos al tema de Wall Street. +Los algoritmos de Wall Street dependen de una cualidad por encima de todo, la velocidad. +Operan en milisegundos y microsegundos. +Y para que tengan una idea de lo que es un microsegundo, piensen que se necesitan 500 000 microsegundos solo para hacer un clic con un mouse. +Pero si un algoritmo de Wall Street tiene cinco microsegundos de tardanza, es un perdedor. +Creemos que el internet es un tipo de sistema descentralizado. +Y, por supuesto, lo es, pero se descentraliza desde ciertos lugares. +Aqu es desde donde se descentraliza en Nueva York: el hotel Carrier ubicado en la calle Hudson. +Es realmente desde all que los cables llegan hasta la ciudad. +Y la realidad es que cuanto ms nos alejamos de all, ms nos atrasamos en microsegundos. +Estos tipos en Wall Street, Marco Polo y la nacin Cherokee, estn 8 microsegundos detrs de todos estos tipos que van a los edificios que se desocupan en los alrededores del hotel Carrier. +Y esto va a seguir sucediendo. +Vamos a seguir vaciando edificios, ya que, centmetro a centmetro, libra por libra y dlar por dlar, ninguno de nosotros podra sacar ms provecho de ese espacio que la Mezcla de Boston. +Pero si nos alejamos, si nos alejamos, veremos una zanja de 1 300 kilmetros entre Nueva York y Chicago construida en los ltimos aos por una compaa llamada Spread Networks. +Este es un cable de fibra ptica colocado entre las dos ciudades solamente para hacer pasar una seal 37 veces ms rpido que el clic de un mouse, solo para estos algoritmos, el Carnaval y el Cuchillo. +Y cuando pensamos en esto, que estamos atravesando los Estados Unidos con dinamita y sierras de roca para que un algoritmo pueda cerrar un contrato 3 microsegundos ms rpido, todo en un marco de comunicaciones que ningn ser humano sabr nunca, es una especie de destino manifiesto que siempre buscar una nueva frontera. +Pero an tenemos mucho trabajo por hacer. +Todo eso es solo teora +de unos matemticos del MIT. +Y la verdad es que no entiendo mucho de lo que hablan. +Se trata de conos luminosos y conexiones cunticas, y realmente no entiendo nada de eso. +Pero puedo leer este mapa que dice que si tratamos de hacer dinero en los mercados donde estn los puntos rojos, que es donde est la gente, donde estn las ciudades, vamos a tener que poner los servidores en los puntos azules para tener el mximo de eficiencia. +Y habrn notado que los puntos azules estn mayormente en medio del ocano. +As que vamos a tener que crear burbujas o plataformas. +En realidad, vamos a compartir el agua para sacar dinero del aire porque all hay un futuro brillante si somos algoritmos. +Y en realidad, el dinero no es lo que ms nos interesa, +sino la motivacin que trae el dinero. El hecho de transformar el planeta mismo con este tipo de eficiencia algortmica. +A la luz de esto, volvemos a ver las fotografas de Michael Najjar y nos damos cuenta de que no son metafricas, son profticas. +Se anticipan a los efectos ssmicos, terrestres de las matemticas que hacemos. +Y el paisaje siempre ha estado configurado por este tipo de colaboracin extraa y difcil entre la naturaleza y el hombre. +Pero ahora existe esta tercera fuerza coevolutiva: los algoritmos; la Mezcla de Boston, el Carnaval. +Y vamos a tener que entenderlos como parte de la naturaleza. Y de una manera, lo son. +Gracias. +Es un sueo de la humanidad volar como un pjaro. +Las aves son muy giles. +No necesitan componentes de rotacin para volar, lo hacen simplemente batiendo las alas. +As que observamos a las aves, y tratamos de construir un modelo que fuese ultraligero, poderoso, de excelentes cualidades aerodinmicas y que pudiese volar por s mismo nicamente por el aleteo de sus alas. +Y qu poda ser mejor que usar la gaviota argntea, que estando libre, da vueltas y se precipita sobre el mar, y tomarla como modelo? +Entonces, armamos un equipo. +All haba generalistas y tambin especialistas en el campo de la aerodinmica +y de la construccin de planeadores. Se trataba de construir un modelo ultraligero, de vuelo en interiores capaz de volar sobre sus cabezas. +As que tengan cuidado ms adelante. +Y tuvimos un problema: el modelo deba ser lo suficientemente ligero como para que nadie se lastimase si caa al suelo. +Y por qu hacemos todo esto? +Somos una empresa dedicada a la automatizacin, y nos gusta hacer estructuras de peso muy ligero, porque consumen energa de manera ms eficiente. Y queremos aprender ms sobre neumtica y fenmenos de flujo de aire. +As que ahora quisiera que se abrochen los cinturones de seguridad y se pongan los cascos. +Vamos a intentar hacer volar un SmartBird. +Gracias. +Ahora, veamos el SmartBird de cerca. +Aqu hay uno sin revestimiento. +Las alas tienen una envergadura de unos 2 metros. +La longitud es de 1,6 metros y el peso, es tan solo 450 gramos. +Y est hecho totalmente de fibra de carbono. +En el medio hay un motor, y tambin hay un engranaje en el mismo. Y este engranaje se usa para transmitir el giro del motor. +En el motor, hay tres sensores de efecto Hall, de manera que sabemos exactamente dnde est el ala. +Y si ahora lo agitamos de manera vertical ... tenemos la posibilidad de hacerlo volar como un pjaro. +Si descendemos, tenemos una gran superficie de propulsin. Y si subimos, las alas no son tan grandes, y subir es ms fcil. +Lo que hicimos despus, o el reto que tuvimos, fue coordinar el movimiento. +Hay que girar, subir y bajar. +El ala est dividida en dos partes. +Con el ala en dos partes conseguimos que se eleve con la parte superior del ala, y tenemos la propulsin en la parte inferior del ala. +Asimismo, vemos cmo medir la eficiencia aerodinmica. +Nos haca falta conocer la eficiencia electromecnica, para poder calcular la eficiencia aerodinmica. +Por lo tanto, esta aumenta entre la torsin pasiva y la torsin activa, de 30 % a 80 %. +Lo que hicimos despus, fue controlar y regular +toda la estructura. nicamente controlando y regulando, se consigue la eficiencia aerodinmica. +Por lo que el consumo total de energa es de unos 25 vatios en el despegue y de 16 a 18 vatios en pleno vuelo. +Gracias. +Bruno Giussani: Markus, creo que deberamos hacerlo volar una vez ms. +Markus Fischer: S, claro. +Actualmente la pregunta no es: Por qu invadimos Afganistn? +La pregunta es: Por qu seguimos en Afganistn una dcada despus? +Por qu estamos gastando 135.000 millones de dlares? +Por qu tenemos 130.000 tropas en el terreno? +Por qu es que murieron ms personas en el ltimo mes que en cualquier mes anterior de este conflicto? +Cmo sucedi esto? +Los ltimos 20 aos han sido la era de la intervencin y Afganistn es simplemente un acto de una tragedia de 5 actos. +Salimos del fin de la Guerra Fra con desesperacin. +Nos enfrentamos a Ruanda; a Bosnia; y luego redescubrimos nuestra propia confianza. +En el tercer acto fuimos a Bosnia y Kosovo y parecimos tener xito. +En el cuarto acto, con nuestra arrogancia, y nuestra soberbia en aumento, invadimos Irak y Afganistn. Y en el quinto acto nos sumimos en un desastre humillante. +Entonces la pregunta es: Qu estamos haciendo? +Por qu seguimos metidos en Afganistn? +Y, por supuesto, la respuesta que nos dan una y otra vez es la siguiente: nos dicen que fuimos a Afganistn por los atentados del 11-S, y que seguimos all porque los talibanes representan una amenaza existencial a la seguridad mundial. +Segn las palabras del presidente Obama: "Si los talibanes toman el control nuevamente invitarn a Al-Qaeda que intentar asesinar a tantos de los nuestros como puedan". +Y que no fue hasta el ao 2009, cuando el presidente Obama autoriz un aumento, que finalmente tuvimos, segn las palabras de la Secretaria de Estado, Clinton, "La estrategia, el liderazgo y los recursos". +Entonces, tal y como ahora nos asegura el presidente, estamos camino a alcanzar nuestros objetivos. +Todo esto est mal. +Cada una de esas afirmaciones son errneas. +Afganistn no representa una amenaza existencial para la seguridad mundial. +Es altamente improbable que los talibanes alguna vez puedan tomar el control del pas... extremadamente improbable que puedan tomar el control de Kabul. +Simplemente no tienen una opcin militar convencional. +Y aunque pudieran lograrlo, an si estoy equivocado, es absolutamente improbable que los talibanes traigan de regreso a Al-Qaeda. +Desde el punto de vista talibn, ese fue su error principal la ltima vez. +Si no hubiesen trado a Al-Qaeda, actualmente, an tendran el poder. +Y an si me equivoco en ambas cuestiones, an si pudiesen retomar el control del pas, si invitasen nuevamente a Al-Qaeda, es extremadamente improbable que Al-Qaeda pudiese mejorar significativamente su capacidad para daar a los Estados Unidos o perjudicar a Europa. +Porque estos ya no son los aos 90. +Si la base de Al-Qaeda fuese establecida cerca de Ghazni, los golpearamos fuertemente, y sera muy difcil para los talibanes protegerlos. +Adems, simplemente no es cierto que lo que sali mal en Afganistn fue la intervencin leve. +De hecho, en mi experiencia, esta intervencin leve fue de extrema ayuda. +Y estas tropas que emplazamos... hay una buena foto de David Beckham all con una ametralladora... esto empeor la situacin, no la mejor. +Cuando anduve por Afganistn en el invierno del 2001-2002, vi escenas como esta. +Una nia, si tienes suerte, en la esquina de un cuarto oscuro... afortunada de poder ver el Corn. +Pero en aquellos das cuando nos dijeron que no tenamos suficientes tropas ni recursos, progresamos mucho en Afganistn. +En tan solo unos meses ya haba 2 millones y medio ms de nias en la escuela. +En Sangn, donde me enferm en 2002, la clnica ms cercana estaba a 3 das de caminata de distancia. +Hoy hay 14 clnicas solamente en esa zona. +Ha habido mejoras sorprendentes. +Pasamos de una situacin en la cual casi no haba afganos que tuviesen telfonos mviles durante el control talibn a otra donde, casi de un da para el otro, 3 millones de afganos tenan telfonos mviles. +Y habamos progresado en la libertad de medios. +Progresamos en el proceso electoral... y todo esto con la famosa intervencin leve. +Pero cuando empezamos a emplear ms dinero, cuando empezamos a invertir ms recursos, las cosas empeoraron, no mejoraron. Cmo? +En primer lugar, si se invierten 125.000 millones de dlares al ao en un pas como Afganistn donde todos los ingresos del estado afgano es de 1.000 millones de dlares al ao, se asfixia todo. +No es simplemente la corrupcin y el despilfarro que se crea; esencialmente se reemplazan las prioridades del gobierno afgano, El gobierno electo de Afganistn, con sus tendencias de control a los detalles de extranjeros presta servicio por periodos cortos con sus propias prioridades. +Y lo mismo es cierto en cuanto a las tropas. +Cuando estuve en Afganistn, me hosped con personas como esta. +Este es el comandante Haji Malem Mohsin Khan de Kamenj. +El comandante Haji Malem Mohsin Khan de Kamenj fue un gran anfitrin. +Fue muy generoso como muchos de los afganos con quienes me hosped. +Pero tambin l era considerablemente ms conservador, considerablemente ms anti-extranjeros, considerablemente ms islamista de lo que nos gustara saber. +Este hombre, por ejemplo, Mullah Mustafa, intent dispararme. +Y la razn por la cual me veo un poco perplejo en esta foto es porque estaba algo asustado, y en esa ocasin tuve mucho miedo, habiendo corrido una hora a travs del desierto y habindome refugiado en esta casa, de preguntarle por qu haba aparecido queriendo sacarse una foto conmigo. +Pero 18 meses despus, le pregunt por qu haba tratado de dispararme. +Y Mullah Mustafa --es el hombre con el papel y el bolgrafo-- me explic que el hombre que ven sentado a su izquierda en esta fotografa, Nadir Shah le haba apostado que no podra impactarme. +Esto no quiere decir que Afganistn es un lugar lleno de personas como Mullah Mustafa. +No lo es, es un lugar maravilloso lleno de una energa increble y de inteligencia. +Pero es un lugar donde el emplazamiento de tropas ha incrementado la violencia en lugar de disminuirla. +En 2005, Anthony Fitzherbert, un ingeniero agrnomo, poda viajar a travs de Helmand, alojarse en Nad Ali, Sangn y Ghoresh, que son los nombres de los pueblos en donde se est llevando a cabo el combate. +Actualmente, no podra hacerlo. +Entonces la idea de que despleguemos tropas como respuesta a la insurreccin talibn es errnea. +En lugar de ser anteriores a la insurreccin, los talibanes vinieron despus del emplazamiento de tropas. Hasta donde s, el emplazamiento de tropas fue la causa de su regreso. +Ahora, es esta una idea nueva? +No, ya han habido varias personas diciendo esto mismo durante los ltimos 7 aos. +Dirig un centro en Harvard desde 2008 a 2010. Y all haba personas como Michael Semple que habla las lenguas afganas con fluidez, y ha recorrido casi todos los distritos del pas. +Andrew Wilder, por ejemplo, nacido en la frontera entre Pakistn e Irn toda su vida prest servicio en Pakistn y Afganistn. +Paul Fishtein, que comenz a trabajar all en 1978, trabaj para Save the Children, lider la unidad de evaluacin e investigacin afgana. +Estas son personas que pudieron decir de manera consistente que el incremento de la ayuda para el desarrollo haca que Afganistn fuera menos segura, no ms segura, que la estrategia de medidas anti-insurrectivas no estaba funcionando y que no iba a funcionar. +Y, an as, nadie los escuch. +En cambio, hubo una letana de optimismo sorprendente. +Desde el ao 2004 en adelante cada general que asuma deca: "Heredamos una situacin funesta, pero finalmente tengo los recursos adecuados y la estrategia correcta que cumplir con el cometido" segn la palabra del General Barno en 2004, el "ao decisivo". +Pues, adivinen qu. No fue as. +Pero esto no fue suficiente para prevenir al General Abuzaid que tambin dijo que tena la estrategia y los recursos para cumplir, en 2005, el "ao decisivo". +O al General David Richards, que asumi en 2006, y tambin dijo que tena la estrategia y los recursos para cumplir en el "ao de la hora de la verdad". +O, en 2007, cuando el vice ministro de relaciones exteriores de Noruega, Espen Eide, dijo que ese sera el "ao decisivo". +O, en 2008, el General de Divisin Champoux que afirm que sera l quien cumplira en el "ao decisivo". +O, en 2009, mi querido amigo, el General Stanley McChrystal, dijo que estaba "metido hasta las rodillas en el ao decisivo". +O, en 2010, cuando el secretario de relaciones exteriores del Reino Unido, David Miliband, dijo que finalmente cumpliramos nuestro cometido del "ao decisivo". +Y les encantar saber que actualmente, en 2011 Guido Westerwelle, el canciller alemn, nos asegura que estamos en el "ao decisivo". +Cmo es que permitimos que suceda todo esto? +La respuesta, por supuesto, es que si se gastan 125.000 millones 130.000 millones de dlares al ao en un pas, se apropia de casi todos, +incluidas las agencias de ayuda humanitaria que comienzan a recibir enormes sumas de dinero de los gobiernos europeos y estadounidense para construir escuelas y clnicas... estn un poco reacias a desafiar la idea de que Afganistn es una amenaza existencial para la seguridad mundial. +En otras palabras, les preocupa, que si alguien creyese que en realidad no es una amenaza... Oxfam, Save the Children... no recibiran el dinero necesario para construir hospitales y escuelas. +Tambin es muy difcil enfrentar a un general con condecoraciones en su pecho. +Resulta muy difcil para un poltico porque se teme la cantidad de vidas que se perdieron en vano. +Se siente una profunda culpa. +Se exageran los miedos. Se le tiene terror a la humillacin de la derrota. +Cul es la solucin a esto? +Bueno, la solucin a esto es que debemos encontrar una manera para que personas como Michael Semple, o esas otras personas, que estn diciendo la verdad, que conocen el pas, que han pasado 30 aos en el lugar y, lo que es ms importante, el componente que falta en esta cuestin: los mismos afganos, que entienden qu est pasando. +De alguna manera tenemos que hacer llegar su mensaje a quienes hacen la poltica. +Y esto es muy difcil de lograr debido a nuestras estructuras. +Lo primero que debemos cambiar son las estructuras de nuestro gobierno. +Muy lamentablemente, las agencias de relaciones exteriores, Naciones Unidas, las fuerzas armadas en estos pases casi no tienen idea de lo que est sucediendo. +El soldado britnico promedio, presta servicio por un periodo de 6 meses; los soldados italianos, por 4 meses; el militar estadounidense, est en servicio por 12 meses. +Los diplomticos se encierran en complejos de embajadas. +Y cuando salen, viajan en estos curiosos vehculos blindados con estos equipos de seguridad personal algo atemorizantes que se preparan con 24hs de anticipacin que dicen que solo puedes permanecer en el territorio por una hora. +En la embajada britnica en Afganistn en 2008, de 350 personas, haba solo 3 personas que hablaban dari decentemente, la lengua principal en Afganistn. +Y no haba una sola persona que pudiese hablar pastn. +En el sector Afgano en Londres responsable por la poltica de gobierno afgana en el territorio, se me dijo el ao pasado que no haba un solo miembro del personal de la oficina de asuntos exteriores en ese sector que haya prestado servicio en un puesto de comando en Afganistn. +Entonces necesitamos cambiar esa cultura institucional. +Y podramos demostrar lo mismo acerca de Estados Unidos y las Naciones Unidas. +En segundo lugar, debemos tomar distancia del optimismo de los generales. +Debemos asegurarnos de ser un poco ms suspicaces, de que entendemos que ese optimismo est en el ADN de las fuerzas armadas, y de no responder a eso con tanta celeridad. +Y, en tercer lugar, necesitamos un poco de humildad. +Hay que partir de la postura de que nuestro conocimiento, nuestro poder, nuestra legitimidad es limitada. +Esto no significa que la intervencin alrededor del mundo es desastrosa. +No lo es. +Bosnia y Kosovo fueron una seal de xito, de un gran xito. +Si viajamos a Bosnia en la actualidad es casi imposible creer que lo que vimos a principios de los 90 realmente sucedi. +Es casi imposible creer en todo lo que avanzamos desde 1994. +El regreso de los refugiados, algo que el Alto Comisionado de las Naciones Unidas para los Refugiados pens que sera altamente improbable y ha sucedido a gran escala. +Se han devuelto un milln de propiedades. +Las fronteras entre el territorio bosnaco y serbio-bosnio se ha calmado. +El ejrcito nacional ha disminuido. +Actualmente la tasa de crmenes en Bosnia es menor a la de Suiza. +Esto se logr gracias a un increble esfuerzo de altos principios de la comunidad internacional, y, por supuesto, sobre todo de los propios bosnios. +Pero es necesario ver el contexto. +Y esto es lo que hemos perdido en Afganistn e Irak. +Y, finalmente, debemos entender que en Bosnia y Kosovo, parte del secreto de lo que logramos, del secreto de nuestro xito fue nuestra humildad; fue la naturaleza tentativa de nuestro compromiso. +Criticamos a muchas personas en Bosnia por ser algo lentos en capturar a criminales de guerra. +Los criticamos por ser algo lentos en regresar a los refugiados. +Pero esa lentitud, esa cautela, el hecho de que el presidente Clinton inicialmente dijo que las tropas estadounidenses seran emplazadas por tan solo un ao, result ser una fortaleza, y ayud a establecer las prioridades de manera correcta. +Una de las cosas ms tristes de nuestra participacin en Afganistn es que tenemos nuestras prioridades desincronizadas. +No estamos asociando nuestros recursos con nuestras prioridades. +Porque si en lo que estamos interesados es en el terrorismo, Pakistn es mucho ms importante que Afganistn. +Si lo que nos interesa es la estabilidad regional, Egipto es mucho ms importante. +Si lo que nos preocupa es la pobreza y el desarrollo, frica subsahariana es mucho ms importante. +Esto no significa que Afganistn no importa, pero ese es tan solo uno de los 40 pases del mundo en los que necesitamos involucrarnos. +Entonces, si pudiese finalizar con una metfora para la intervencin, en lo que tenemos que pensar es en algo as como un rescate en alta montaa. +Por qu un rescate de montaa? +Porque cuando se habla de intervencin, se imaginan que alguna teora cientfica... la Corporacin RAND viaja contando 43 insurrecciones previas elaborando una frmula matemtica que dice que se necesita un contra-insurgente entrenado por cada 20 miembros de una poblacin. +Es la forma incorrecta de abordarlo. +Debe mirarse de la misma forma en la que se abordara un rescate en la montaa. +Cuando se hace un rescate en la montaa, no se hace un doctorado en rescates de montaa, se busca a alguien que conozca el terreno. +Se trata del contexto. +Se entiende que podemos prepararnos, pero que el tiempo que se puede emplear en prepararse es limitado. Se puede llevar algo de agua, un mapa, un bolso. +Y la clave para esto es un gua que haya estado en esa montaa, bajo cada temperatura, en todos los periodos. Un gua que, ante todo, sepa cundo regresar, que no presione implacablemente cuando las condiciones se vuelvan en contra. +Lo que se busca en bomberos, alpinistas, policas, y lo que debera buscarse para una intervencin son personas que tomen riesgos de manera inteligente, no personas que se precipiten ciegamente de un precipicio, ni que se zambullan a una habitacin en llamas, sino que midan sus riesgos, y sus responsabilidades. +Porque lo peor que hicimos en Afganistn es esta idea de que el fracaso no es una opcin. +Esto hace que el fracaso se vuelva invisible, inconcebible e inevitable. +Y si podemos resistirnos a esa consigna descabellada, descubriremos... en Egipto, en Siria, en Libia y en cualquier otro lugar del mundo al que vayamos, que si con frecuencia logramos hacer menos de lo que pretendemos, podemos hacer mucho ms de lo que tememos. +Muchas gracias. +Gracias. Muchas gracias. +Gracias. Muchas gracias. +Gracias, gracias. Gracias. +Gracias. +Gracias. Muchas gracias. +Gracias. +Bruno Giussani: Rory, mencionaste Libia al final. +Brevemente, cul es tu opinin de los eventos actuales all y de la intervencin? +Rory Stewart: Bien, creo que Libia representa el problema clsico. +El problema en Libia es que siempre se presiona por blanco o por negro. +Imaginamos que hay tan slo dos opciones: o la participacin completa y el emplazamiento de tropas o el aislamiento total. +Y siempre se nos tienta hasta el cuello. +Metemos un dedo y terminamos metidos hasta el cuello. +Lo que deberamos haber hecho en Libia es haber acatado la resolucin de Naciones Unidas. +Deberamos habernos limitado de manera muy estricta a la proteccin de la poblacin civil en Bengasi. +Podramos haber hecho eso. +En 48 horas establecimos una zona de exclusin area porque Gaddafi no tena aviones en 48 horas. +En vez de eso, nos permitimos tentarnos hacia el cambio de rgimen. +Al hacerlo, hemos destruido nuestra credibilidad con el Consejo de Seguridad, lo que significa que es muy difcil conseguir una resolucin en Siria. Y que nos estamos embarcando nuevamente en otro fracaso. +Una vez ms, humildad, lmites, honestidad, expectativas realistas y podramos haber logrado algo de lo que nos pudisemos enorgullecer. +BG: Muchas gracias Rory. +RS: Gracias (BG: Gracias) +Las ciudades son los crisoles de la civilizacin. +Han crecido, la urbanizacin las ha expandido, a una tasa exponencial en los ltimos 200 aos, de tal modo que en la segunda parte de este siglo el planeta estar completamente dominado por ciudades. +En las ciudades se originan el calentamiento global, la contaminacin, las enfermedades, el impacto en el medio ambiente, en las finanzas, en la economa, en la energa... Problemas todos que son generados por la existencia de las ciudades. +De ah viene todo eso. +La avalancha de problemas que enfrentamos por la sostenibilidad cuestionada, es reflejo del crecimiento exponencial de la urbanizacin, por todo el mundo. +He aqu algunas cifras. +Hace 200 aos, los Estados Unidos estaban urbanizados solo en un pequeo porcentaje. +Ahora lo estn en ms del 82 %. +El planeta ha cruzado la lnea media hace unos aos. +China va a construir 300 ciudades nuevas en los prximos 20 aos. +Escuchen esto: cada semana, en el futuro previsible hasta el 2050, cada semana, ms de un milln de personas se va a sumar a nuestras ciudades. +Esto lo afecta todo. +Todos los que estn en esta sala, si estn vivos, van a verse afectados por lo que suceda en las ciudades con este fenmeno extraordinario. +Sin embargo, las ciudades, a pesar de tener estos aspectos negativos, tambin tienen las soluciones. +Porque son las aspiradoras y los imanes que atraen a la gente creativa para generar ideas, innovaciones, riqueza y dems. +Tienen esta naturaleza dual. +Hay una necesidad urgente de una teora cientfica de las ciudades. +Estos son mis compaeros de lucha. +Hemos hecho este trabajo con un grupo de personas extraordinarias, ellas han hecho todo el trabajo; yo soy el gran fanfarrn que lo junta todo. +He aqu el problema; esto es lo que todos queremos. +Los 10 000 millones de personas del planeta en el 2050 desean vivir en lugares como este, con cosas como estas, haciendo cosas como estas, con una economa creciente como esta, sin darse cuenta de que la entropa produce cosas as, as, as y as. +Y nos preguntamos Ser que Edimburgo, Londres y Nueva York se vern as en el 2050? o se vern as? +Esa es la pregunta. +Yo creo que, segn varios indicadores, as es como se vern. Hablemos de esto. +Debo declarar que necesitamos con urgencia una teora cientfica de las ciudades. +Teora cientfica significa cuantificable, que dependa de principios generales subyacentes y que lleve a hacer predicciones. +Esa es la cuestin. +Ser posible? +Existen leyes universales? +Hay dos preguntas que me vienen a la mente cuando pienso en esto. +La primera es: Las ciudades son parte de la biologa? +Ser que Londres es una gran ballena? +Ser Edimburgo un caballo? +Ser Microsoft un enorme hormiguero? +Qu se desprende de esto? +Hablando en metforas, el ADN de una empresa, el metabolismo de una ciudad, y todo eso, son simples palabreras metafricas? o tienen contenido serio? +Y si ese es el caso, por qu es tan difcil matar una ciudad? +Pueden lanzarle una bomba atmica y 30 aos despus estar sobreviviendo. +Muy pocas ciudades fracasan. +Las empresas quiebran, todas. +Con una buena teora se podra predecir cundo va a quebrar Google. +Ser eso otra versin de esto? +Esto se entiende muy bien. +Es decir, si hago preguntas genricas sobre todo esto; cuntos rboles de un determinado tamao? cuntas ramas de cierto calibre tiene un rbol? cuntas hojas? cunta energa pasa por cada rama? qu tan grande es su manto de hojas? cul es su crecimiento? cul su mortalidad? +Tenemos un esquema matemtico basado en principios genricos universales para resolver todas estas preguntas. +La idea es: podremos hacer lo mismo con esto? +Se logra con el reconocimiento de una de las cosas ms extraordinarias de la vida; que su escala es ajustable en un margen muy amplio. +Esta es una aplicacin muy limitada, en realidad; estos somos nosotros, los mamferos, de los cuales formamos parte. +Los mismos principios, la misma dinmica, la misma organizacin funciona en todos los mamferos, incluidos nosotros y puede ampliarse 100 millones de veces. +Esta es una de las razones por las que los seres vivos tienen tanta resiliencia y son tan fuertes, por ser ajustables a escala. +En un momento vamos a hablar de esto. +Sabemos que, a nivel local, todo puede ampliarse; todos en esta sala han sido ajustados a escala. +Lo llaman crecimiento. +Miren como crecemos. +Esta es una rata. Podra ser uno de Uds. +Somos casi iguales. +Veamos esto que nos es muy familiar. +Uno crece muy rpido y en cierto momento se detiene. +Esta curva es una prediccin, de la misma teora, basada en los mismos principios, como la que describe un bosque. +Esta es la curva de crecimiento de una rata. Los puntos sealan los datos reales. +Muestra simplemente el peso en funcin de la edad. +Vean que el crecimiento se detiene. +Muy bueno para la biologa, que tambin es una de las razones de su gran resiliencia. +Pero muy malo para la economa, las empresas y las ciudades en nuestro modelo actual. +Eso es lo que creemos. +Esto es lo que toda la economa nos impone, como puede verse en la esquina de la izquierda, como palos de hockey. +Esto es sobre unas compaas de programas informticos; se ven sus ingresos en funcin de la edad, progresan muy rpido y todas hacen millones y miles de millones de dlares. +Bien, cmo se entiende esto? +Hablemos primero de biologa. +Explcitamente esto nos muestra, cmo vara la escala de las cosas. Una grfica verdaderamente notable. +Lo que vemos aqu es la tasa metablica; cunta energa se necesita para conservarse vivo un da, en funcin del peso o la masa, para organismos como los nuestros. +Tiene una forma extraa, aumentando en factores de 10; si no fuera as, no cabra todo en la grfica. +Lo que se ve, al trazarla de esta forma un poco curiosa, es que todos caen sobre la misma recta. +A pesar de que este es el sistema ms complejo y ms diverso del universo, resulta extraordinariamente sencillo al expresarlo de esta forma. +Es verdaderamente asombroso puesto que cada uno de estos organismos, cada subsistema, cada tipo de clula, cada gen, cada uno ha evolucionado en su propio nicho ambiental, con su propia historia nica. +Y, a pesar de toda esa evolucin y seleccin natural darwinianas, todos se han limitado a colocarse en una recta. +Sucede algo ms. +Antes de hablar de eso, he agregado all, en la parte inferior, la pendiente de esta recta. +Es aproximadamente , menor que 1. La llamamos sublineal. +Esto tiene el siguiente significado; +Nos dice que si fuera lineal, con mayor pendiente, al duplicar el tamao se requerira el doble de la energa. +Pero como es sublineal, esto significa que si se duplica el tamao del organismo, solo se va a necesitar un 75 % adicional de energa. +Un rasgo maravilloso de toda la biologa es que existe esta extraordinaria economa de escala. +Cuanto mayor es el sistema, segn unas reglas bien definidas, menor ser la energa por unidad. +Para cada variable fisiolgica imaginable, cualquier evento en la vida que se pueda pensar, si se hace una grfica de esta forma, se va a ver as. +Una regularidad extraordinaria. +Si alguien me dice el tamao de un mamfero, le puedo decir, con un 90 % de precisin, todo sobre l en trminos de su fisiologa, la historia de su vida, etc. +La razn de esto son las redes. +Todo en la vida est controlado por redes; desde las intercelulares a las multicelulares, hasta el nivel de ecosistemas. +Ustedes conocen bien esas redes. +Esto es algo muy pequeo que habita dentro de un elefante. +Y aqu est el resumen de lo que estoy diciendo. +Si tomo esas redes, el concepto de las redes, y les aplico unos principios cuantificables y universales, estos cambios de escala y estas restricciones se cumplen, incluyendo la descripcin de un bosque, la del sistema circulatorio o la del interior de la clula. +Una de las cosas que no recalqu en la introduccin es que, sistemticamente, el ritmo de la vida disminuye a medida que uno crece. +Los latidos del corazn se vuelven ms lentos cuando se vive ms tiempo, la difusin del oxgeno y los recursos que pasan por las membranas se vuelven ms lentos, etc. +La pregunta es: ser esto cierto para las ciudades y para las empresas? +Ser que Londres es como Birmingham ampliada? Y que sta es una ampliacin de Brighton, etc.? +Ser que Nueva York es una ampliacin de San Francisco? Y que sta lo es de Santa Fe? +No lo s. Vamos a analizarlo luego. +Pero existen las redes. Y lo ms importante en la red de una ciudad, es la gente. +Las ciudades son simplemente manifestaciones fsicas de sus interacciones y las nuestras; las acumulaciones y agrupaciones de personas. +Esta es una grfica simblica. +Aqu aparecen ciudades a diferentes escalas. +Se nota en este simple ejemplo, se trata de un caso trivial; el nmero de estaciones de servicio en funcin del tamao, en una grfica similar a la de la biologa. Se ve exactamente lo mismo. +Hay un efecto de escala. +O sea que el nmero de estaciones de servicio se puede obtener a partir del tamao. +La pendiente es menos que lineal. +Hay una economa de escala. +Menos estaciones de servicio per cpita, para mayor tamao. Nada sorprendente. +Pero ahora viene lo que s es sorprendente. +El cambio de escala es igual en todas partes. +Esto es para los pases europeos, pero en Japn, China o Colombia, da siempre igual, con el mismo tipo de economa de escala, de igual grado. +Todo tipo de infraestructura que estudiamos, sea la longitud de las carreteras, la de las lneas elctricas, cualquier cosa que uno mire, tiene la misma economa de escala, siempre igual. +Es un sistema integrado que ha evolucionado, a pesar de todo el planeamiento. +Pero algo an ms sorprendente aparece cuando se estudian parmetros socioeconmicos, datos que no tienen ninguna analoga en biologa, que han evolucionado desde que se empezaron a formar comunidades 8 000 a 10 000 aos atrs. +El primero es el de sueldos en funcin del tamao, en la misma grfica. +Y el ltimo es el de todos Uds., personas supercreativas. +Lo que se nota es un fenmeno de escala. +Lo ms importante aqu es que el exponente anlogo a los 3/4 para la tasa metablica, es mayor que uno; aproximadamente de 1.15 a 1.2. +Aqu est y dice que cuanto mayor se es, se tiene ms per cpita, a diferencia de la biologa, mayores son los salarios, ms gente supercreativa habr, ms patentes per cpita, mayor criminalidad. +Hemos examinado todo: casos de sida, gripe, etc. +Y aqu estn todos reunidos en una sola grfica. +Hemos incluido aqu el ingreso, el PIB, el PIB de la ciudad, la criminalidad, las patentes, todo en una grfica. +Y como se ve, todos caen en la misma recta. +Esta es la declaracin. +Al duplicar el tamao de la ciudad, de 100 000 a 200 000, de un milln a dos millones, de 10 millones a 20 millones, no importa, sistemticamente se obtiene un 15 % de aumento en salarios, riqueza, nmero de casos de sida, nmero de policas, lo que uno se imagine. +Sube en un 15 %. Se tiene un 15 % de ahorro en infraestructura. +Sin duda esta es la razn por la que cada semana las ciudades se acrecientan en un milln de personas, +Todas esas maravillas la gente creativa, la riqueza, el ingreso, resultan atractivas y hacen olvidar lo malo y lo feo. +Y cul es la razn? +No tengo tiempo para hablar en trminos matemticos, pero bajo todo esto estn las redes sociales, que son un fenmeno universal. +Esta regla del 15 % es vlida sin importar en qu parte del planeta estemos; Japn, Chile, Portugal, Escocia, no importa. +Siempre, todos los datos muestran lo mismo, a pesar de la evolucin independiente de esas ciudades. +Algo universal sucede. +Lo que es universal, somos nosotros, lo repito, nosotros somos la ciudad. +Son nuestras interacciones y los agrupamientos de esas interacciones. +Aqu est, una vez ms. +Son todas esas redes y su estructura matemtica. Por una parte la biologa con su escala sublineal, su economa de escala, y el menor ritmo en el paso de la vida a medida que crecemos. +Por otra parte, las redes sociales con su escala superlineal; ms per cpita; la teora dice que se incrementa el ritmo vital. +Con el crecimiento, la vida va ms rpido. +A la izquierda se muestra el ritmo cardaco. +Y a la derecha, la velocidad al caminar en algunas ciudades europeas, y se ve el aumento. +Por ltimo, quiero hablar del crecimiento. +Repito; esto es lo que se ve en biologa. +Las economas de escala generan este comportamiento sigmoideo. +Crecemos rpidamente y luego nos detenemos; es parte de nuestra resiliencia. +Eso sera malo para la economa y para las ciudades. +Pero uno de los mejores aspectos de esta teora es que si uno tiene una escala superlineal para la creacin de riqueza y para la innovacin, entonces se obtiene, por la misma teora, una hermosa curva exponencial ascendente, encantadora. +Y si se compara con los datos, se ajusta muy bien con el desarrollo de las ciudades y la economa. +Pero hay un problema, y es que el sistema est destinado a colapsar. +Y se debe a muchas razones; razones de tipo Malthus; o sea, que se agotan los recursos. +Y cmo se puede evitar? Bueno, se ha hecho en el pasado. +Lo que se ha hecho es que a medida que crecemos y nos acercamos al colapso, surge una innovacin importante y volvemos a empezar. Y al acercarnos a la siguiente, volvemos a empezar, y as sucesivamente. +Esta serie continua de innovaciones es necesaria a fin de sostener el crecimiento y evitar el colapso. +Sin embargo, el problema es que es necesario innovar ms rpido, cada vez ms rpido. +Usando una imagen, no solo estamos en una mquina trotadora que se acelera, sino que tenemos que cambiarla, con ms y ms frecuencia. +Tenemos que acelerar continuamente. +La gran pregunta es: Ser posible, como seres socioeconmicos, evitar el ataque al corazn? +Para terminar, en este par de minutos que quedan, pregunto sobre las empresas. +Las empresas se ajustan a escala. +Esta empresa, bien conocida, es Walmart. +La misma grfica +muestra ingresos y activos en funcin del tamao de la compaa, por el nmero de empleados. +Podra usarse volumen de ventas, o lo que quiera. +Ah est; luego de unas pequeas fluctuaciones al principio, cuando las empresas hacen innovaciones, siguen despus la escala de manera estupenda. +Hemos estudiado 23 000 compaas en los Estados Unidos, si puedo decirlo. +Y solo estoy mostrando una pequea parte. +Lo sorprendente de esto es que siguen la escala sublineal, como en biologa, lo cual indica que estn regidas, no por lo superlineal, innovacin e ideas; sino que estn dominadas por economas de escala. +En esta interpretacin, por burocracia y administracin, funcionan de manera estupenda. +De modo que si me dicen el tamao de una compaa pequea, podra haber predicho el tamao de Walmart. +Si se tiene esta escala sublineal, segn la teora, tendramos crecimiento sigmoideo. +Ah est Walmart. No parece muy sigmoidea, +como nos gusta, como un palo de hockey. +Pero habrn notado que hice trampa, pues solo fui hasta el 94. +Vayamos hasta el 2008. +La lnea roja sigue la teora. +Si lo hubiera hecho as en 1994, habra podido predecir cmo estara Walmart ahora. +Y esto se repite en todas las empresas del sector. +Ah estn. Las 23 000 compaas. +Al principio todas parecen palos de hockey, todas se pliegan, y todas mueren, como ustedes y como yo. +Gracias. +Hoy voy a hablar de los placeres de la vida cotidiana. +Pero quiero empezar con la historia de un hombre terrible y singular. +Este es Hermann Goering. +Goering secund a Hitler en la Segunda Guerra Mundial, fue su sucesor designado. +Y al igual que Hitler Goering se crea coleccionista de arte. +Fue por Europa, en la Segunda Guerra Mundial, robando, extorsionando y, de vez en cuando, comprando varias pinturas para su coleccin. +Lo que realmente quera era algo de Vermeer. +Hitler tena dos obras y l no tena ninguna. +As que finalmente encontr un comerciante de arte, un holands llamado Han van Meegeren que le vendi un maravilloso Vermeer en lo que hoy seran 10 millones de dlares. +Y fue su obra de arte favorita. +Termin la Segunda Guerra Mundial, Goering es capturado, juzgado en Nuremberg y finalmente sentenciado a muerte. +Despus las fuerzas aliadas hallaron su coleccin y encontraron las pinturas; fueron a ver a la gente que se la vendi. +En algn momento la polica holandesa entr en msterdam y arrest a Van Meegeren. +Van Meegren fue acusado del delito de traicin a la patria, que a su vez se castiga con la muerte. +Seis semanas despus de su condena, Van Meegeren confes. +Pero no confes la traicin. +Dijo: "Yo no le vend una gran obra maestra a ese nazi. +La pint yo mismo; soy un falsificador". +Nadie le crey. +Y dijo: "Voy a demostrarlo. +Traigan un lienzo y pintura y voy a pintar un Vermeer mucho mejor del que le vend a ese asqueroso nazi. +Tambin necesito alcohol y morfina porque es la nica manera en que puedo trabajar". +Le trajeron las cosas. +Pint un Vermeer hermoso. +Y entonces retiraron los cargos de traicin. +Tena un cargo menor de falsificacin, recibi una sentencia de un ao y muri como un hroe para el pueblo holands. +Hay mucho ms para contar de Van Meegeren pero ahora quiero volver a Goering que aqu est representado en un interrogatorio de Nuremberg. +Goering era, a todas luces, un hombre terrible. +Incluso como nazi, era un hombre terrible. +Sus interrogadores estadounidenses lo describieron como un psicpata amistoso. +Pero se poda sentir simpata por la reaccin que tuvo al enterarse de que su pintura favorita era en realidad una falsificacin. +Segn su bigrafo: "Pareca como si por primera vez hubiese descubierto que haba maldad en el mundo". +Y poco despus se suicid. +Haba descubierto, despus de todo, que la pintura que pens era esto en realidad era eso. +Se parecan pero tenan distinto origen, era una obra distinta. +Pero no slo l estaba conmocionado. +Cuando Van Meegeren fue a juicio, no poda dejar de hablar. +Y se jact de las grandes obras maestras que l mismo haba pintado que fueron atribuidas a otros artistas. +En particular, "La cena de Emas" que fue vista como la mejor obra maestra de Vermeer, su mejor trabajo -la gente vena de todas partes del mundo para verla- y en realidad era una falsificacin. +No era esa pintura, sino esa pintura. +Y cuando esto se descubri, perdi todo su valor y se la llevaron del museo. +Por qu importa esto? +Psiclogos: por qu el origen es tan importante? +Por qu respondemos tanto a nuestro conocimiento de dnde viene algo? +Bueno, hay una respuesta que mucha gente suele dar. +Muchos psiclogos como Veblen y Wolfe diran que la razn por la cual tomamos tan en serio los orgenes es porque somos snobs, porque nos centramos en el status. +Entre otras cosas si uno quiere alardear de lo rico que es, de lo poderoso que es, siempre es mejor poseer un original que una falsificacin porque siempre va a haber menos originales que falsificaciones. +No dudo de que eso juegue un papel pero hoy quiero convencerlos de que hay algo ms. +Quiero convencerlos de que los humanos somos, en cierta medida, esencialistas natos. +Con esto quiero decir que no slo respondemos a las cosas tal como las vemos o las sentimos u omos. +Por el contrario, nuestra respuesta est condicionada por nuestras creencias, por lo que son, por su origen, por su constitucin, por su naturaleza oculta. +Quiero sugerir que esto es cierto no slo por la forma en que pensamos las cosas sino por cmo reaccionamos ante las cosas. +Quiero sugerir que el placer es profundo... y que esto no es verdad slo para los altos niveles de placer como el arte sino que incluso placeres en apariencia ms simples estn condicionados por nuestras creencias en las esencias ocultas. +Por ejemplo, la comida. +Comeran esto? +Bueno, una buena respuesta es: "Depende. Qu es?" +Algunos lo comeran si es cerdo, pero no vaca. +Algunos lo comeran si es vaca, pero no cerdo. +Pocos lo comeran si es rata o humano. +Algunos slo lo comeran si es tofu coloreado de manera extraa. +Eso no es tan sorprendente. +Pero lo ms interesante es que el sabor percibido depender fundamentalmente de lo que piensen que estn comiendo. +Se hizo una demostracin de esto con nios pequeos. +Cmo se hace para que los nios no slo sean ms propensos a comer zanahoria y beber leche sino que les guste ms comer zanahoria y beber leche y crean que tienen mejor sabor? +Es simple, dganles que son de McDonald's. +Ellos creen que la comida de McDonald's es ms sabrosa y eso los lleva a experimentarlo como ms sabroso. +Cmo se hace para que los adultos disfruten el vino? +Es muy simple: squenlo de una botella cara. +Hay docenas, quiz cientos de estudios que muestran que si uno cree que est bebiendo algo caro le parece que tiene mejor sabor. +Esto se hizo recientemente con una variante neurocientfica. +Pusieron a la gente en un escner dMRI, y mientras estaban all, con un tubo, les daban sorbos de vino. +Delante de ellos en una pantalla haba informacin sobre el vino. +Todos, por supuesto, bebieron exactamente el mismo vino. +Pero si uno cree que est bebiendo un vino caro las partes del cerebro asociadas con el placer y la recompensa se iluminan como un rbol de Navidad. +No slo uno dice que es ms placentero, uno dice que le gusta ms, realmente lo experimenta de otra manera. +O hablemos de sexo. +Estos son estmulos que he usado en algunos estudios. +Si uno les muestra a las personas estas imgenes dirn que son personas bastante atractivas. +Pero el grado de atractivo, el grado de movilizacin sexual o romntica que producen descansa fundamentalmente en quines creemos que estamos mirando. +Probablemente piensen que la foto de la izquierda es masculina y que la de la derecha es femenina. +Si esa creencia resulta errnea, producir una diferencia. +Producir una diferencia si resultan ser mucho ms jvenes o ms viejos que lo que pensaban. +Producir una diferencia si llegaran a descubrir que la persona que miran con lujuria es en realidad una versin disfrazada de su hijo o hija, su madre o su padre. +Saber que alguien es de su familia normalmente mata la libido. +Tal vez uno de los hallazgos ms alentadores de la psicologa del placer es que verse bien es mucho ms que la apariencia fsica. +Si te gusta alguien, se ve mejor para ti. +Es por eso que los cnyuges de matrimonios felices tienden a pensar que sus esposos y esposas se ven mucho mejor de lo que el resto piensa. +Un ejemplo particularmente dramtico de esto proviene de un trastorno neurolgico conocido como sndrome de Capgras. +El sndrome de Capgras es un trastorno en el que uno experimenta un delirio especfico. +Quienes sufren el sndrome de Capgras creen que las personas que ms aman en el mundo han sido reemplazadas por duplicados perfectos. +A menudo el resultado del sndrome de Capgras es trgico. +Hay gente que ha matado a quien ama creyendo que ha matado a un impostor. +Pero hay al menos un caso en el que el sndrome de Capgras tuvo final feliz. +Esto fue grabado en 1931. +"La investigacin describe a una mujer con sndrome de Capgras que se queja de su amante, mal dotado y con insuficiencia sexual". +Pero eso fue antes de contraer el sndrome de Capgras. +Luego de contraerlo, "ella estaba feliz de informar que haba descubierto que l tena un doble que era rico, viril, apuesto y aristocrtico". +Por supuesto, era el mismo hombre, pero ella lo vea de manera diferente. +Como tercer ejemplo consideremos los productos de consumo. +Una de las razones por las que podra gustarnos algo es por su utilidad. +Uno puede ponerse zapatos; jugar al golf con palos de golf; y masticar chicles y no significar nada para uno. +Pero cada uno de estos tres objetos tiene valor ms all de lo que signifiquen para uno en base a su historia. +Los palos de golf eran de John F. Kennedy y se vendieron a 3/4 de milln en una subasta. +El chicle fue masticado por la estrella pop Britney Spears y se vendi en varios cientos de dlares. +De hecho, hay un mercado floreciente en los alimentos a medio comer de las personas queridas. +Los zapatos son, quizs, los ms valiosos de todos. +De acuerdo con un informe no confirmado, un millonario saud ofreci 10 millones de dlares por este par de zapatos. +Fueron los arrojados a George Bush en una conferencia de prensa iraqu hace varios aos. +Ahora bien, esta atraccin por los objetos no slo funciona con objetos de famosos. +Cada uno de nosotros, la mayora de la gente, tenemos algo en nuestra vida literalmente irremplazable porque tiene un valor por su historia -quiz el anillo de bodas, tal vez los zapatos de beb de sus hijos- y si se pierde, no se puede recuperar. +Podra conseguirse algo que se parezca pero nunca se podr recuperar el mismo objeto. +Con mis colegas George Newman y Gil Diesendruck hemos analizado qu tipo de factores, qu tipo de historia, es importante en los objetos que a las personas les gustan. +En uno de nuestros experimentos le pedimos a la gente que nombre a un famoso que adora, una persona viviente que adora. +Una respuesta fue George Clooney. +Y luego les preguntamos: "Cunto pagaran por el suter de George Clooney?" +Y la respuesta es una buena cantidad -ms de lo que pagaran por un suter nuevo, o por un suter de alguien a quien no adoran. +Luego le preguntamos a otro grupo -les dimos distintas restricciones y distintas condiciones. +As, por ejemplo, a algunas personas les dijimos: "Mira, puedes comprar el suter pero no puedes decirle a nadie que te pertenece y no puedes revenderlo". +Eso baj el valor del artculo sugiriendo que era una razn por la que nos gustaba. +Pero lo que realmente causa un efecto es decirle a la gente: "Miren, pueden revenderlo, pueden hacer alarde de esto pero antes de que llegue a ti se lava bien". +Eso provoca una cada enorme en el valor. +Como dijo mi esposa: "Has lavado los piojos de Clooney". +As que volvamos al arte. +Me encanta un Chagall. Me encanta el trabajo de Chagall. +Si la gente quisiera regalarme algo al final de la conferencia podra ser un Chagall. +Pero no quiero un duplicado, aunque no pueda distinguir la diferencia. +No se debe, o no se debe simplemente, a que soy snob y quiero alardear de tener un original. +Al contrario, es porque quiero algo que tenga su historia especfica. +En el caso de la obra de arte la historia es especial, de hecho. +El filsofo Denis Dutton en su maravilloso libro "El instinto del arte" argumenta que "El valor de una obra de arte se basa en supuestos sobre el comportamiento humano que subyace a su creacin". +Y eso podra explicar la diferencia entre un original y una falsificacin. +Puede que se parezcan pero tienen historias diferentes. +El original tpicamente es producto de un acto creativo la falsificacin no lo es. +Creo que este enfoque puede explicar las diferencias en los gustos de la gente por el arte. +Esta es una obra de Jackson Pollock. +A quin le gusta la obra de Jackson Pollock? +Bueno. A quin no le importa? +A ellos no les gusta. +Uso Jackson Pollock a propsito como ejemplo porque hay una joven artista estadounidense que pinta con un estilo similar al de Jackson Pollock, y su trabajo vali muchas decenas de miles de dlares -en gran parte porque es una artista muy joven. +Esta es Marla Olmstead que hizo la mayor parte del trabajo a los 3 aos. +Lo interesante de Marla Olmstead es que su familia cometi el error de invitar al programa de televisin 60 Minutos II a su casa para filmar su pintura. +Y luego informaron que el padre la estaba asesorando. +Cuando esto sali en la televisin el valor de su arte cay a la nada. +Era el mismo arte, fsicamente, pero la historia haba cambiado. +Me he centrado en las artes visuales pero quiero dar dos ejemplos de la msica. +Este es Joshua Bell, un violinista muy famoso. +El periodista Gene Weingarten del Washington Post decidi reclutarlo para un experimento audaz. +La pregunta es: cunto le gustara a la gente Joshua Bell, la msica de Joshua Bell, si no supiera que estaba escuchando a Joshua Bell? +Llev a Joshua Bell y su violn de un milln de dlares a una estacin de metro de Washington D.C. y se par en la esquina a ver cunto dinero haca. +Este es un pequeo video de esto. +(Msica de Violn) Despus de estar all tres cuartos de hora hizo 32 dlares. +No est mal. Tampoco bien. +Al parecer, para disfrutar realmente la msica de Joshua Bell uno tiene que saber que est escuchando a Joshua Bell. +En realidad hizo 20 dlares ms pero eso no cuenta. +Porque vino una mujer, al final del video, vino. +Lo haba odo en la Biblioteca del Congreso pocas semanas antes con ese asunto de la corbata negra extravagante. +Est sorprendida de que est all en la estacin de metro. +Le da mucha lstima. +Busca en su bolso y le da un 20. +El segundo ejemplo de la msica es de la composicin moderna de John Cage, 4'33". +Como muchos saben, esta es la composicin en la que el pianista se sienta en un banco, abre el piano se sienta y no hace nada durante 4 minutos y 33 segundos -ese perodo de silencio. +Las personas tienen distintos puntos de vista de esto. +Pero lo que quiero sealar es que se puede comprar en iTunes. +Por 1,99 dlar se puede escuchar ese silencio que es diferente de otras formas de silencio. +Bueno, habl mucho del placer pero lo que quiero sugerir es que todo lo que dije se aplica tambin al dolor +y a lo que pensamos que estamos experimentando; la creencia respecto de su esencia afecta el grado de dolor. +Un experimento precioso fue realizado por Kurt Gray y Dan Wegner. +Conectaron a estudiantes de Harvard a una mquina de descarga elctrica. +Les dieron una serie de descargas elctricas dolorosas. +Una serie de 5 descargas dolorosas. +En la mitad de los casos les dijeron que iban a recibir descargas de alguien de otra sala pero la persona de la otra sala no sabe que le est dando descargas. +No hay maldad, slo pulsa un botn. +La primera descarga se registra como muy dolorosa. +La segunda parece menos dolorosa porque uno ya est un poco acostumbrado. +La tercera, la cuarta, la quinta. +El dolor disminuye. +En la otra condicin se les dice que la persona de la otra sala les da descargas a propsito; sabe que les est dando descargas. +La primer descarga duele muchsimo. +La segunda duele con la misma intensidad y la tercera, y la cuarta y la quinta. +Duelen ms si uno cree que alguien lo hace a propsito. +El ejemplo ms extremo de esto es que en algunos casos el dolor en ciertas circunstancias puede transformarse en placer. +Los humanos tenemos esta propiedad extraordinariamente interesante que a menudo buscamos pequeas dosis de dolor en circunstancias controladas y eso nos da placer; como consumir chiles picantes y dar paseos en montaa rusa. +La idea fue muy bien resumida por el poeta John Milton; escribi: "La mente es su propio lugar, y en s misma puede hacer un cielo del infierno, o un infierno del cielo". +Con esto voy a terminar. Gracias. +Despus de muchos aos de carrera en economa y negocios, desde hace cuatro aos trabajo en el frente de la vulnerabilidad humana. +He conocido lugares donde la gente lucha cada da para sobrevivir y ni siquiera pueden conseguir una comida. +Esta taza roja viene de Ruanda, de un nio llamado Fabin. +la llevo conmigo como smbolo del desafo y tambin de la esperanza. +Porque una taza de alimento al da puede cambiar completamente la vida de Fabin. +Quisiera mencionar que cerca de mil millones de personas pasan hambre en el mundo; una de cada siete se despierta cada maana sin saber cmo llenar esta taza. +Una persona de cada siete. +Primero, una pregunta: por qu preocuparnos? +ser este nuestro problema? +Para mucha gente, pensar en el hambre, no implica ir muy atrs en su historia familiar, posiblemente en su propia vida, o en la de sus padres, o la de sus abuelos, para recordar una experiencia de lo que es el hambre. +Rara vez encuentro una audiencia que tenga que ir muy atrs sin esa experiencia. +Algunos se mueven por compasin, sienten que quizs es uno de los actos fundamentales de la humanidad. +Como dijo Gandhi: "Para un hambriento, un pedazo de pan es la cara de Dios". +Otros se preocupan por la paz, por la seguridad o por la estabilidad del mundo. +Vimos los motines por el hambre en el 2008 luego de lo que yo llamo, el silencioso tsunami del hambre, que agit al planeta cuando los precios de los alimentos se duplicaron de un da al otro. +Los efectos desestabilizadores del hambre se conocen en toda la historia de la humanidad. +Uno de los actos ms fundamentales de la civilizacin es asegurar que la gente tenga suficientes alimentos. +Otros piensan en las pesadillas malthusianas. +Seremos capaces de alimentar a una poblacin que llegar a 9 000 millones en unas pocas dcadas? +El hambre no es algo negociable. +La gente tiene que comer. +Llegar a haber mucha gente. +Esto significa trabajo y oportunidades de arriba a abajo, en toda la lnea. +Llegu a esto de diferente manera. +En esta foto estamos mis tres hijos y yo. +En 1987 fui madre por primera vez con mi primera hija. La tena en mis brazos dndole de comer, cuando una imagen muy parecida a esta apareci en la TV. +Haba otra hambruna en Etiopa. +La anterior, dos aos antes, haba matado a ms de un milln de personas. +Pero no me haba conmovido tanto como en ese momento, porque en esa imagen estaba una seora tratando de alimentar a su beb, pero no tena leche. +El llanto del beb me traspas, verdaderamente, como madre. +Y pens que no haba nada ms obsesionante que el llanto de un nio al que no se le puede responder con alimento; la necesidad ms fundamental de todo ser humano. +Fue en ese momento que me sent invadida por el desafo y la indignacin pensando que en realidad s sabemos cmo solucionar el problema. +No es una de esas enfermedades raras para las que no hay tratamiento. +Sabemos cmo corregir el hambre. +Hace cien aos no lo sabamos. +Pero ahora tenemos la tecnologa y los medios. +Y qued horrorizada porque eso estaba fuera de lugar. +En esta poca, estas imgenes son inaceptables. +Saben? +Esto es de la semana pasada en el norte de Kenia. +Nuevamente, la cara del hambre a gran escala, con ms de 9 millones de personas preguntndose si podrn llegar al da siguiente. +Es una realidad. Hoy sabemos que cada 10 segundos perdemos un nio, por hambre. +Esto es peor que el sida, la malaria y la tuberculosis juntas. +Y sabemos bien que el problema no es solo la produccin de alimentos. +Uno de mis maestros en la vida fue Norman Borlaug, mi hroe. +Pero hoy voy a hablar del acceso a los alimentos, porque el ao pasado y este y durante la crisis del 2008, haba suficientes alimentos en el mundo para que cada persona tuviera 2 700 caloras. +Por qu, entonces, hay mil millones de personas que no pueden encontrar alimento? +Tambin quiero hablar de lo que llamo la nueva carga del conocimiento. +En el 2008, La revista Lancet compil todas las investigaciones y present la prueba concluyente de que si un nio, en sus primeros mil das, desde la concepcin hasta los dos aos, no tiene una nutricin adecuada, el dao es irreversible. +Su cerebro y su cuerpo quedarn mal desarrollados. +Aqu vemos tomografas del cerebro de dos nios; uno adecuadamente nutrido y el otro, descuidado, severamente desnutrido. +Como se puede ver, el volumen del cerebro es menor hasta en 40 % en estos nios. +En esta imagen se ve que las neuronas y las sinapsis del cerebro no llegan a formarse. +Ahora sabemos que esto tiene un enorme impacto en la economa, de lo cual hablaremos luego. +Adems, los ingresos potenciales de estos nios se reducen a la mitad en toda su vida por causa del mal desarrollo sufrido en sus primeros aos. +Esta carga en el conocimiento me abruma +porque en verdad sabemos cmo corregirla, simplemente. +Y aun as, en muchos lugares, la tercera parte de los nios, cuando llegan a los 3 aos ya tienen que afrontar una vida de infortunio debido a esto. +Me gustara hablar de algunas de las cosas que he visto en el frente del hambre; algunas de las cosas que he aprendido al traer mis conocimientos de economa y negocios y mi experiencia en el sector privado. +Me gustara comentar dnde est la brecha del conocimiento. +En primer lugar, voy a referirme al mtodo de nutricin ms antiguo, la lactancia. +Tal vez les sorprenda saber que se puede salvar un nio cada 22 segundos si fuese amamantado los primeros 6 meses. +Pero, por ejemplo, en Nger, menos del 7 % de los nios son amamantados, exclusivamente, los primeros 6 meses. +En Mauritania, menos del 3 %. +Esto es algo que se puede cambiar con informacin. +Este mensaje, estas palabras, pueden presentarse diciendo que no se trata de una forma anticuada de hacerlo; sino que es una forma brillante de salvar la vida de sus hijos. +Hoy en da nos concentramos, no solo en distribuir alimentos, sino tambin en hacer que las madres estn bien alimentadas y en ensearles sobre la lactancia. +En segundo lugar, quiero mencionar que si uno vive en una aldea remota de alguna parte, con un nio que cojea, y hay una sequa, o una inundacin, o si no tenemos acceso a una adecuada dieta balanceada, qu se puede hacer? +piensan que se puede ir a la tienda y escoger entre varias barras nutritivas, como aqu, y tomar la ms conveniente? +Pues, he visto padres en la pobreza, muy conscientes de que sus hijos van en descenso. +Y voy a esas tiendas, si las hay, o voy al campo a ver qu les puedo conseguir, y no hay nada nutritivo. +Aunque sepan lo que necesitan, no hay disponibilidad. +Pero, estoy emocionada porque estamos trabajando para hacer que la tecnologa que est disponible en la industria alimentaria llegue a los cultivos tradicionales. +Esto se puede hacer con garbanzo, leche en polvo y una variedad de vitaminas adaptadas precisamente para las necesidades del cerebro. +Cuesta 17 centavos producir esto que yo llamo alimento humanitario. +Lo hicimos con especialistas en alimentos en la India y Pakistn..., en realidad, eran tres. +El 99 % de los nios que lo toman mejoran su estado nutricional. +Un paquete, 17 centavos al da, y se supera la desnutricin. +Estoy convencida de que si se usa la tecnologa, que es comn en el mundo desarrollado, podremos transformar los alimentos. +Y esto es para todo clima. +No hay que refrigerarlo y no requiere agua, que a menudo es escasa. +Este tipo de tecnologa tiene la capacidad de cambiar la cara del hambre y la desnutricin y reducirlas drsticamente. +Tambin quiero hablar de la alimentacin en las escuelas. +El 80 % de la poblacin mundial carece de una red de seguridad alimentaria. +Cuando llegan los desastres; se arruina la economa, la gente pierde su trabajo, hay inundaciones, guerras, conflictos, malos gobiernos, todas esas cosas; no hay dnde sostenerse. +Usualmente, las instituciones; las iglesias, los templos y otras; no tienen los recursos para proveer una red de seguridad. +Trabajando con el Banco Mundial hemos descubierto que la red de seguridad ante la pobreza, la mejor inversin, es la alimentacin en las escuelas. +Si se les llena la taza con productos agrcolas de pequeos cultivadores locales, se tiene un efecto transformativo. +En el mundo, muchos nios no pueden ir a la escuela porque tienen que ir a pedir y a conseguir sus alimentos. +Pero si el alimento est asegurado, hay todo un cambio. +Cuesta menos de 25 centavos al da cambiar la vida de un nio. +Pero el efecto ms impresionante es en las nias. +En pases donde ellas no van a la escuela, si se les ofrece comida, la relacin de la matrcula se acerca al 50 % para nias y nios. +Se ve un cambio en la escolaridad de las nias. +No hay discusin puesto que se trata de un incentivo. +Las familias necesitan ayuda. +Hemos visto que si las nias permanecen ms tiempo, si estn en la escuela hasta los 16, no van a casarse mientras haya alimento escolar. +Si reciben una porcin extra de alimento al final de la semana, cuesta 50 centavos, se logra retener a las nias en la escuela, que luego darn a luz hijos ms saludables, porque la desnutricin se propaga de generacin en generacin. +Sabemos que hay ciclos de abundancia y escasez de alimentos. +Eso es bien conocido. +Lo que est sucediendo en este momento en el Cuerno de frica, ya lo habamos visto. +Ser esta una causa perdida? +No, en absoluto. +Me gustara hablar de lo que llamo almacenes de la esperanza. +En el norte de Camern hay ciclos de abundancia y escasez, todos los aos, por dcadas. +Cada ao llega la ayuda alimentaria cuando la gente se muere de hambre, en las malas pocas. +Hace dos aos que decidimos transformar el modelo para combatir el hambre y en lugar de entregar la ayuda, la pusimos en bancos de alimentos. +Y dijimos: "Escuchen, durante la escasez, pueden retirar los alimentos. +Uds. los administran". La aldea maneja esos bancos de alimentos. +Y durante la cosecha, los devuelven con intereses, intereses en alimentos. +As se aaden 5 o 10 % ms de alimentos. +En los ltimos dos aos, 500 de estas aldeas en donde funcionan han prescindido de la ayuda alimentaria; son autosuficientes. +Y los bancos de alimentos estn creciendo. +Se han implementado programas de alimentacin en las escuelas, manejados por la gente local. +Nunca antes haban tenido la habilidad de construir ni la infraestructura bsica ni los recursos. +Me encanta esta idea que sali de ellos mismos: tres llaves para abrir el almacn. +All, los alimentos son oro. +Ideas sencillas pueden cambiar la situacin, no de pequeas zonas, sino de grandes reas del mundo. +Quiero hablar ahora de lo que llamo alimento digital. +La tecnologa est transformando la cara de la vulnerabilidad alimentaria en lugares donde se vea hambre clsica. +Amartya Sen obtuvo el Premio Nobel por decir: "Piensen que el hambre sucede en presencia de alimentos porque la gente no tiene los medios para comprarlos". +Eso lo vimos en el 2008. +Ahora est sucediendo en el Cuerno de frica, donde los precios se han elevado hasta 240 %, en ciertas zonas, respecto al ao pasado. +Puede haber alimentos pero la gente no puede comprarlos. +En esta foto... estuve en Hebrn en una pequea tienda, esta, donde en lugar de llevar alimentos, distribuimos alimentos digitales, una tarjeta. +Dice "bon appetit" en rabe. +Las seoras pueden ir y pasarla y obtener nueve productos alimentarios. +Tienen que ser nutritivos y deben ser producidos localmente. +Y lo que sucedi con la industria lctea, solo el ao pasado, donde se usa la tarjeta para leche, yogurt, huevos y fertilizantes, es que esa industria creci en 30 %. +Los tenderos estn contratando ms gente. +Es una solucin ganadora que fomenta la industria alimentaria. +Ahora llevamos alimentos a ms de 30 pases por telfonos celulares, transformando hasta la presencia de los refugiados, entre otras cosas. +Qu pasa si a las mujeres africanas que no pueden vender ningn alimento; pues no hay carreteras, ni bodegas, ni toldos para proteger los alimentos; qu pasa si habilitamos las condiciones para que ellas puedan suministrar los alimentos para alimentar nios con hambre en otros lugares? +Ahora, Purchasing for Progress [Compras para el Progreso] est en 21 pases. +Y saben? +Prcticamente, en todos los casos en que a los granjeros se les asegura un mercado; si se les dice: "Compraremos 300 toneladas de esto, +las recogemos y nos aseguramos de que se almacenen adecuadamente"; su produccin se eleva 2, 3, 4 veces, y ellos hacen sus clculos, porque es la primera oportunidad garantizada que han tenido en la vida. +Hemos visto cambiar la vida de la gente. +Hoy, la ayuda alimentaria, la nuestra, es un poderoso motor..., el 80 % de las compras se hacen en el mundo en desarrollo. +Una transformacin total que en realidad puede cambiar las vidas mismas de quienes necesitan alimentos. +Ahora se pueden preguntar, se podr hacer esto a gran escala? +Estas son grandes ideas a nivel de aldeas. +Hablemos de Brasil porque viaj a ese pas en los ltimos dos aos, cuando supe que all se estaba derrotando el hambre ms rpido que en ningn otro pas del mundo. +Lo que descubr es que en lugar de invertir sus recursos en subsidios para alimentacin y otros asuntos, se decidieron por un programa de alimentacin en las escuelas. +Exigen que la tercera parte de esos alimentos venga de los granjeros ms pequeos que no tendran otra oportunidad. +Estn haciendo esto a gran escala. El presidente Lula declar que su objetivo era asegurar que todos tuvieran 3 comidas al da. +Este programa contra el hambre cuesta 0.5 % del PIB y ha sacado a muchos millones de personas del hambre y la pobreza. +Est cambiando la cara del hambre en Brasil a gran escala y est creando oportunidades. +He estado all; he conocido a pequeos granjeros que han armado su sustento sobre la oportunidad que este programa les ha brindado. +Pensemos en los imperativos econmicos y veremos que esto no es solo por compasin. +Lo que muestran los estudios es que el costo de la desnutricin y el hambre, el costo para la sociedad, la carga que hay que soportar, en promedio es el 6 % y en algunos pases, hasta el 11 %, del PIB por ao. +Y si nos fijamos en los 36 pases con la mayor carga de desnutricin, hay una prdida de 260 000 millones de la economa productiva cada ao. +El Banco Mundial calcula que costara aproximadamente 10 000 millones de dlares 10,3, el manejo de la desnutricin en esos pases. +Partiendo de un anlisis de costo beneficio, sueo con abordar este problema, aparte del argumento compasivo, y llevarlo a los ministros de finanzas de todo el mundo, para decirles que no podemos dejar de invertir para lograr una nutricin adecuada y costeable para toda la humanidad. +Es interesante lo que he descubierto; que no puede haber cambios a gran escala sin la determinacin de un lder. +Cuando el lder expresa claramente su posicin, todo empieza a cambiar. +Y todo el mundo comienza a aportar nuevos ambientes motivadores y nuevas oportunidades para lograrlo. +Que Francia haya dado el paso de poner los alimentos en el corazn del G20, es muy importante. +Porque la nutricin es un asunto que no se puede resolver persona a persona, ni nacin a nacin. +Debemos luchar todos juntos. +Lo hemos visto en pases africanos. +El PMA ha podido retirarse de 30 naciones; s, 30 naciones; porque cambiaron la cara del hambre en sus territorios. +Quisiera aqu presentarles un desafo. +Pienso que estamos viviendo un momento de la historia en el que es simplemente inaceptable que haya nios que se despierten y no tengan dnde encontrar una taza de alimento. +No solo eso, transformar el hambre es una oportunidad; pienso que tenemos que cambiar de mentalidad. +Hoy tengo el honor de estar aqu con algunos de los principales innovadores y pensadores del mundo. +Quisiera que todos en el mundo nos unisemos para trazar una raya en la arena y decir: "No ms. +No lo vamos a aceptar ms". +Deseamos poder decirle a nuestros nietos que hubo un tiempo abominable en la historia en el que la tercera parte de los nios tenan el cerebro y el cuerpo atrofiados, pero que ya no es as. +Gracias. +Estamos perdiendo nuestra capacidad para escuchar. +En una comunicacin, pasamos el 60% del tiempo escuchando, pero no somos muy buenos en eso. +Solo retenemos el 25% de lo que escuchamos. +No Uds, no en esta charla, pero en general es algo cierto. +Definimos la escucha como el proceso de extraer significado de un sonido. +Es un proceso mental y es un proceso de extraccin. +Para ello se usan tcnicas muy interesantes. +Una de ellas es el reconocimiento de patrones. +(Ruido de Multitud) As, en una fiesta como esta, si digo "David, Sara, presten atencin", algunos se ponen en guardia. +Reconocemos patrones que distinguen el ruido de la seal, y en especial nuestros nombres. +La diferenciacin es otra tcnica que usamos. +Si dejo este ruido fluctuante por ms de un par de minutos, literalmente lo dejan de escuchar. +Escuchamos las diferencias, ignoramos los sonidos que se mantienen constantes. +Y, luego, tenemos todo un conjunto de filtros. +Estos filtros nos llevan desde todos los sonidos hasta lo que prestamos atencin. +Muchas personas usan estos filtros de manera inconsciente. +Pero en cierto modo le dan forma a nuestra realidad porque nos dicen a qu estamos prestando atencin en este momento. +Les doy un ejemplo: la intencin es una parte importante de la escucha. +Cuando me cas con mi esposa le promet que la escuchara cada da como si fuese la primera vez. +Bien, a diario no mantengo esa promesa. +Pero es una gran intencin. +Pero eso no es todo. +El sonido nos ubica en el espacio y en el tiempo. +Si cierran los ojos, ahora, en esta sala, son conscientes del tamao de la sala por la resonancia y los sonidos que se reflejan en la superficie. +Y son conscientes de la cantidad de personas que los rodean por los micro-ruidos que estn recibiendo. +Y el sonido tambin nos ubica en el tiempo, porque en el sonido siempre hay tiempo. +De hecho, yo dira que la escucha es la principal forma por la que experimentamos el flujo del tiempo desde el pasado hacia el futuro. +"El sonido es el momento y el significado"; una gran cita. +En el comienzo dije que estamos perdiendo nuestra capacidad de escucha. +Por qu dije eso? +Hay muchas razones. +En primer lugar, inventamos formas de grabar... primero, la escritura, luego la grabacin de audio y ahora la grabacin de video. +La ventaja de escuchar con atencin simplemente ha desaparecido. +Segundo, el mundo de ahora es tan ruidoso, y tenemos esta cacofona visual y acstica, es muy difcil escuchar; escuchar es agotador. +Muchas personas se refugian en sus auriculares, pero esto crece, y los espacios pblicos como este, se tornan paisajes sonoros compartidos, millones de burbujas sonoras personales pequeas y diminutas. +En este escenario, nadie escucha a nadie. +Nos volvemos impacientes. +Ya no queremos oratoria, queremos fragmentos. +Y el arte de la conversacin est siendo reemplazado, peligrosamente creo, por la transmisin personal. +No s cuanta escucha hay en esta conversacin, que lamentablemente es muy comn, especialmente en el R.U. +Nos estamos volviendo insensibles. +Los medios nos tienen que gritar con ese tipo de titulares a fin de captar nuestra atencin. +Y eso significa que nos es ms difcil prestar atencin a lo que no se dice, a lo sutil, a lo que no se destaca. +Es un problema serio que estemos perdiendo nuestra capacidad de escucha. +No es una cosa trivial. +Porque al escuchar accedemos al entendimiento. +La escucha consciente siempre crea entendimiento. +Y solo sin la escucha consciente pueden suceder estas cosas... un mundo donde no nos escuchamos unos a otros es, de hecho, un lugar tenebroso. +As que me gustara compartir 5 ejercicios simples, herramientas que se pueden llevar para mejorar sus habilidades de escucha consciente. +Les gustara? +(Audiencia: Si) Bueno. +Lo primero es el silencio. +Solo 3 minutos de silencio al da es un ejercicio maravilloso para recalibrar los odos y volver a escuchar la tranquilidad. +Si no pueden lograr silencio absoluto, busquen la tranquilidad, eso est absolutamente bien. +Segundo, a esto le llamo mezcla. +An cuando estn en un ambiente ruidoso como ste, todos pasamos mucho tiempo en lugares como ste, escuchar en una cafetera cuntos canales de sonido pueden escuchar? +Cuntos canales individuales estoy escuchando de esa mezcla? +Tambin lo pueden hacer en un lugar agradable, como ser un lago. +Cuntos pajaritos estoy escuchando? +Dnde estn? Dnde estn esos murmullos? +Es un gran ejercicio para mejorar la calidad de nuestra escucha. +Tercero, a este ejercicio lo llamo saborear y es un ejercicio hermoso. +Se trata de disfrutar de los sonidos mundanos. +Por ejemplo, esta es mi secadora. +Es un vals. +Un-dos-tres. Un-dos-tres. Un-dos-tres. +Me encanta. +O prueben uno de estos. +(Molinillo de caf) Guau! +Si prestan atencin, sonidos tan mundanos pueden ser realmente interesantes. +Lo llamo el coro oculto. +Est alrededor nuestro todo el tiempo. +El siguiente ejercicio es probablemente el ms importante de todos, si hay que elegir uno solo. +Son las posiciones de escucha; la idea de poder cambiar la posicin de escucha hacia donde mejor se escuche. +Es jugar con esos filtros. +Recuerdan los filtros que les di al comienzo. +Es comenzar a usarlos como palancas para tomar consciencia de ellos y moverse a diferentes lugares. +Estas son slo algunas de las posiciones de escucha, o escalas de posiciones de escucha, que pueden usar. +Hay muchas. +Divirtanse. Es muy emocionante. +Y, por ltimo, un acrnimo. +Lo pueden usar para escuchar, para comunicar. +Si estn en algunos de esos roles, y es probable que sean todos los que escuchan esta charla, el acrnimo es RASA, que es una palabra snscrita para jugo o esencia. +Y RASA quiere decir Recibir, que significa prestar atencin a la persona; Apreciar, haciendo poco ruido como mmm, oh, ok; Sintetizar, la palabra "entonces" es muy importante en la comunicacin; y Preguntar , hacer preguntas al finalizar. +El sonido es mi pasin, es mi vida. +Escrib todo un libro sobre esto. Vivo para escuchar. +Eso es demasiado pedir a gran parte de la gente. +Pero creo que cada ser humano necesita escuchar conscientemente para vivir plenamente... conectados en el espacio y el tiempo del mundo fsico que nos rodea, para entendernos unos a otros, conectados espiritualmente, porque cada camino espiritual que conozco se basa en la escucha y la contemplacin. +Es por eso que necesitamos ensear a escuchar en nuestras escuelas como una habilidad. +Por qu no se ensea? Es una locura. +Y si podemos ensear a escuchar en nuestras escuelas, podemos sacar a la escucha de ese terreno resbaladizo, de ese mundo peligroso y tenebroso del que les habl, y movernos hacia un lugar donde todos estn todo el tiempo escuchando conscientemente; o que al menos sean capaces de hacerlo. +No saben cmo hacerlo, pero esto es TED, y creo que la comunidad de TED es capaz de cualquier cosa. +As que los invito a conectarse conmigo, a conectarse unos con otros, lleven esta misin y logremos que se ensee a escuchar en las escuelas, y en una generacin transformemos al mundo en un mundo de escucha consciente, un mundo de conexin, un mundo de entendimiento y un mundo de paz. +Gracias por haberme escuchado hoy. +A finales de este ao habr alrededor de mil millones de personas en el planeta que usarn activamente las redes sociales. +Todos tienen en comn que van a morir. +Aunque esto pueda ser un poco morboso, creo que tiene implicaciones profundas que vale la pena explorar. +Lo primero que me llev a pensar en esto fue un artculo de Derek K. Miller de principios de ao que era periodista de ciencia y tecnologa y muri de cncer. +Miller le pidi a sus familiares y amigos que escribieran un mensaje para publicar poco despus de su muerte. +Esto es lo que escribi: +"Ya est. Estoy muerto y este es mi ltimo comentario en el blog. +Anticipadamente, he pedido que una vez que mi cuerpo ceda al castigo de mi cncer, mi familia y amigos publiquen este mensaje que prepar... es la primera parte del proceso de convertir esto de sitio activo a archivo". +La verdad es que como periodista, el archivo de Miller puede haber sido mejor escrito y ms cuidadosamente organizado que el de muchos de nosotros. La verdad es que en la actualidad todos estamos creando archivos que son completamente diferentes de cualquier cosa que hayan creado las generaciones pasadas. +Consideren algunas estadsticas. +En este momento 48 horas de video estn siendo subidas a YouTube cada minuto. +Hay 200 millones de tweets por da. +Y el usuario promedio de Facebook cada mes crea 90 contenidos. +As que, si piensan que sus padres o abuelos, cuanto mucho habrn creado algunas fotos o videos caseros o un diario que est en algn cajn. +Pero hoy todos estamos creando este archivo digital increblemente rico que vivir en la nube indefinidamente, durante aos despus de nuestra muerte. +Y creo que eso va a crear algunas oportunidades muy interesantes para los tecnlogos. +Debo aclarar que soy periodista, no tecnlogo, as que me gustara, brevemente, representar una imagen del presente y del futuro. +Ya estamos viendo algunos servicios diseados para permitirnos decidir qu suceder con nuestro perfil virtual y nuestras cuentas de redes sociales despus de morir. +Uno de ellos, no pudo haber sido ms oportuno, me encontr cuando me registr en una tienda de delicatessen en un restaurante de Nueva York en Foursquare. +Adam Ostrow: Hola. +Muerte: Adam? +AO: Si. +Muerte: La muerte puede alcanzarte en cualquier lugar, en cualquier momento, an en la tienda de alimentos saludables. +AO: Quin eres? +Muerte: Visita ifidie.net antes que sea demasiado tarde. +Adam Ostrow: da un poco de miedo, no? +Ese servicio, bsicamente, permite crear un mensaje o un video que se puede publicar en Facebook despus de tu muerte. +Otro servicio se llama 1000 Recuerdos. +Aqu se puede crear un homenaje virtual a tus seres queridos, con fotos, y videos e historias que ellos pueden publicar despus que uno muere. +Pero creo que lo que viene a continuacin es mucho ms interesante. +Muchos de Uds estn familiarizados con Deb Roy que en marzo pasado demostr ser capaz de analizar ms de 90.000 horas de videos caseros. +Creo que mientras la capacidad de las mquinas para entender el lenguaje humano y procesar gran cantidad de informacin contine mejorando, ser posible analizar el contenido de toda la vida... los tweets, las fotos, los videos, las publicaciones de blog... que estamos produciendo con tanta abundancia. +Y creo que una vez que esto suceda, ser posible para nuestra personalidad digital seguir interactuando con el mundo real mucho tiempo despus de habernos ido gracias a la abundancia de contenido que estamos creando y a la capacidad tecnolgica para darle sentido a todo esto. +Estamos empezando a ver algunas de las experiencias. +Un servicio llamado My Next Tweet analiza todos los mensajes de Twitter, todo lo publicado en Twitter, para hacer algunas predicciones de lo que uno podra decir a continuacin. +Como pueden ver, los resultados pueden ser un poco cmicos. +Pueden imaginarse esto dentro de 5, 10 20 aos a medida que mejoren nuestras capacidades tcnicas. +Avanzando un paso ms, el Media Lab del MIT est trabajando en robots que pueden interactuar como humanos. +Pero qu pasara si esos robots fuesen capaces de interactuar en base a las caractersticas nicas de una determinada persona considerando los cientos de miles de contenidos que esa persona produce en toda su vida? +Finalmente, recuerden esta famosa escena de la noche de la eleccin del 2008 en Estados Unidos, cuando CNN transmiti un holograma en vivo del artista de hip hop, will.i.am, en su estudio para una entrevista con Anderson Cooper. +Qu pasara si fusemos capaces de usar ese mismo tipo de tecnologa para transmitir una representacin de nuestros seres queridos en nuestras salas de estar... interactuando de una forma casi real en base a los contenidos que crearon mientras estuvieron vivos? +Creo que eso ser completamente posible a medida que la cantidad de informacin que estamos usando y las habilidades tecnolgicas para entenderla se expandan exponencialmente. +Finalmente, lo que necesitamos reflexionar es si queremos que esto sea nuestra realidad; y si es as, qu significa esto para una definicin de la vida y todo lo que viene despus de ella. +Muchas gracias. +Saban que tenemos 1,4 millones de antenas de telefona celular instaladas en todo el mundo? +Y estas son estaciones base. +Y tambin tenemos ms de 5.000 millones de dispositivos como ste. +Estos son telfonos mviles celulares. +Y con estos telfonos mviles transmitimos ms de 600 terabytes de datos al mes. +Eso es un 6 con 14 ceros... un nmero muy grande. +Las comunicaciones inalmbricas se han vuelto un servicio pblico como la electricidad y el agua. +Las usamos cada da. Ahora en nuestras vidas cotidianas; en nuestra vida privada, en nuestros negocios. +E incluso se nos ha pedido en ocasiones, muy amablemente, apagar nuestro telfono mvil en eventos como ste, por buenas razones. +Y es por esta importancia por lo que he decidido abordar los problemas que tiene esta tecnologa, ya que es tan fundamental para nuestras vidas. +Y uno de esos problemas es la capacidad. +La forma en que transmitimos datos inalmbricos es mediante ondas electromagnticas; en concreto, ondas de radio. +Y las ondas de radio son limitadas. +Son escasas, son caras, y tenemos slo cierto espectro de ellas. +Es esta limitacin la que no permite lidiar con la demanda de transmisiones inalmbricas de datos y con el nmero de bytes y de datos que se transmiten cada mes. +Y simplemente se les est acabando el espectro. +Hay otro problema +que es la eficiencia. +Estas 1,4 millones de antenas de transmisin celular, o estaciones base, consumen un montn de energa. +Y lo que es ms, la mayora de esa energa no es utilizada para transmitir las ondas de radio, se usa para enfriar las estaciones base. +As que la eficiencia de una estacin base as es slo alrededor de un 5 %. +Y eso crea un gran problema. +Luego hay otro problema del cual todos son conscientes. +Hay que apagar el telfono mvil durante los vuelos. +En hospitales, hay cuestiones de seguridad. +La seguridad es otro problema. +Esas ondas de radio penetran las paredes. +Pueden ser interceptadas, y alguien puede hacer uso de tu red si tiene malas intenciones. +As que esos son los cuatro problemas principales. +Pero por otro lado, tenemos 14.000 millones de focos incandescentes, de luces. +Y la luz es parte del espectro electromagntico. +As que veamos esto en el contexto del espectro electromagntico completo, donde tenemos rayos gamma. +No conviene estar cerca de loa rayos gamma, puede ser peligroso. +Los rayos X son tiles en los hospitales. +Luego est la luz ultravioleta, +buena para un buen bronceado, pero tambin peligrosa para el cuerpo humano. +Los infrarrojos, debido a regulaciones de seguridad visual, slo pueden usarse a intensidades bajas. +Y luego tenemos las ondas de radio, con los problemas que acabo de mencionar. +Y ah en la mitad, tenemos este espectro de luz visible. +Es luz, y ha existido por muchos millones de aos. +Y, de hecho, nos ha creado; ha creado la vida, ha creado la materia de la vida. +As que su uso es intrnsecamente seguro. +No sera grandioso utilizarla para comunicaciones inalmbricas? +Y no slo eso, si la comparamos con el espectro completo. +Comparada con el espectro de las ondas de radio... el tamao del mismo... con el tamao del espectro de la luz visible. +Saben qu? +Tenemos un espectro 10.000 veces ms amplio a nuestra disposicin. +Y no tenemos slo este espectro enorme. Comparmoslo con el nmero que acabo de mencionar. +Tenemos 1,4 millones de estaciones base de radio celular ineficientes y caras de instalar. +Y multipliquen eso por 10.000, el resultado es 14.000 millones. +14.000 millones de focos ya instalados. +As que ah tenemos la infraestructura. +Vean al techo, pueden ver todos esos focos. +Si van al piso principal vern esos focos. +Podemos utilizarlos para comunicaciones? +S. +Qu necesitamos hacer? +Lo nico que necesitamos hacer es reemplazar esos ineficientes focos incandescentes, lmparas fluorescentes, con esta nueva tecnologa LED, focos LED. +Un LED es un semiconductor. Es un dispositivo electrnico. +Y tiene una hermosa y linda propiedad: +Su intensidad puede ser modulada a velocidades muy altas, y puede ser apagada a velocidades muy altas. +Y esta es una propiedad bsica fundamental que aprovechamos con nuestra tecnologa. +As que vamos a mostrar cmo lo hacemos. +Vayamos al vecino ms cercano al espectro de la luz visible, vayamos a los controles remotos. +Todos ustedes conocen los controles remotos que tienen un LED infrarrojo; bsicamente encendemos el LED, o lo apagamos si est encendido. +Y eso crea un flujo de datos sencillo y de baja velocidad a 10.000 bits por segundo, 20.000 bits por segundo. +No es til para un video de YouTube. +Lo que hemos hecho es desarrollar una tecnologa con la cual podemos adems reemplazar el control remoto de nuestro foco. +Transmitimos con nuestra tecnologa, no un nico flujo de datos, transmitimos miles de flujos de datos en paralelo, a velocidades an ms altas. +Y la tecnologa que hemos desarrollado, se llama SIM OFDM. +Y es de modulacin espacial... son trminos tcnicos, no voy a entrar en detalles... pero es la forma en que hemos habilitado a esa fuente de luz para transmitir datos. +Ustedes dirn, "OK, se ve bien... una presentacin hecha en 10 minutos". +Pero no es slo eso. +Tambin hemos desarrollado un prototipo. +Y voy a mostrar por primera vez en pblico la transmisin por luz visible. +Y lo que tenemos aqu es una lmpara de escritorio comn. +Le ponemos un foco LED, de 3 dlares estadounidenses, conectamos nuestra tecnologa de procesamiento de seales. +Y luego lo que tenemos aqu es un pequeo orificio. +La luz pasa por ese orificio. +Hay un receptor. +El receptor convertir esos pequeos y sutiles cambios en amplitud que convertimos aqu en una seal elctrica. +Y esa seal elctrica es convertida de vuelta en un flujo de datos de alta velocidad. +En el futuro esperamos poder integrar este pequeo hoyo en estos telfonos inteligentes. +Y no slo integrar un detector de fotones aqu, sino quizs usar la cmara integrada. +Entonces qu ocurre cuando enciendo esa luz? +Tal como es de esperar es una luz, una lmpara de escritorio. +Pones un libro abajo y puedes leerlo. +Est iluminando el espacio. +Pero al mismo tiempo, vean este video. +Es un video en alta definicin transmitido a travs de ese rayo de luz. +Son escpticos. +Piensan: "Ja, ja, ja". +"Aqu tenemos a un acadmico listo haciendo trucos". +Pero si hago as... +Otra vez. +An no lo creen? +Es esta luz la que transmite el video de alta definicin en un flujo dividido. +Y si observan la luz, est iluminando como cabe esperar. +No lo notan con sus ojos. +No distinguen los cambios sutiles en la amplitud que le imprimimos al foco. +Sirve para iluminar pero, al mismo tiempo, transmite datos. +Y pueden verlo, incluso hay luz que viene del techo hacia el receptor. +Puede ignorar esa luz constante, porque todo lo que le interesa al receptor son los cambios sutiles. +Cada tanto me hacen preguntas crticas. Dicen: "OK, tengo que tener la luz encendida todo el tiempo para que esto funcione?" +Y la respuesta es s. +Pero, se puede atenuar la luz a un nivel en el que aparenta estar apagada. +Y an as se puede transmitir datos, eso es posible. +Entonces les he mencionado los cuatro desafos. +Capacidad: tenemos 10.000 veces ms espectro, 10.000 veces ms LEDs instalados ya en la infraestructura. +Espero que estn de acuerdo conmigo en que el problema de la capacidad ya no existe. +Eficiencia: son datos transmitidos por iluminacin... es antes que nada un dispositivo de iluminacin. +Y si consideran el presupuesto de energa, la transmisin de datos sale gratis... es altamente eficiente en energa. +Sin mencionar la alta eficiencia en energa de estos focos LED. +Si todo el mundo los instalara, nos ahorraramos cientos de plantas de energa. +Eso es extra. +Y luego he mencionado la disponibilidad. +Estarn de acuerdo en que tenemos luces en hospitales. +All hay que ver lo que se hace. +Hay luces en los aviones. +As que por todos lados hay luz. +Miren alrededor. Por todas partes. Miren sus telfonos inteligentes. +Tiene flash, un flash LED. +Es una fuente potencial para transmisin de datos de alta velocidad. +Y luego est la seguridad. +Estarn de acuerdo en que la luz no pasa a travs de las paredes. +As que nadie, si tengo aqu una luz... si tengo datos seguros, nadie al otro lado de esta sala, a travs de esa pared sera capaz de leer esos datos. +Y slo hay datos donde hay luz. +As que si no quiero que este receptor reciba datos, entonces qu puedo hacer, lo muevo a un lado. +As que los datos van en esa direccin, ya no para all. +Ahora podemos de hecho ver hacia dnde van los datos. +As que, para m, las aplicaciones de esto por el momento superan lo imaginable. +Hemos tenido un siglo con desarrolladores de aplicaciones muy inteligentes. +Slo hay que darse cuenta, donde hay luz existe una forma potencial de transmitir datos. +Pero puedo darles unos cuantos ejemplos. +Bien, quizs vean el impacto ya en este momento. +Este es un vehculo a control remoto subocenico. +Y usa luz para iluminar el espacio all abajo. +Y esta luz puede usarse para transmitir datos inalmbricos que estas cosas usen para comunicarse entre s. +Ambientes intrnsecamente seguros como esta planta petroqumica: no se puede usar frecuencias de radio, que pueden generar chispas en las antenas, pero se puede usar luz; pueden ver cantidad de luz ah. +En hospitales, para nuevos instrumentos mdicos; en calles para control de trfico. +Los automviles pueden tener faros LED adelante y atrs, y pueden comunicarse entre ellos y prevenir accidentes con la forma en que intercambien informacin. +Las luces de trfico pueden comunicarse con el auto y dems. +Y luego tenemos estos millones de lmparas en las calles instaladas en todo el mundo. +Y cada lmpara pblica puede ser un punto de acceso gratuito. +De hecho, lo llamamos Li-Fi: Y tenemos las cabinas de los vehculos areos. +Hay cientos de luces en la cabina de un avin, y cada una de esas luces es un transmisor de datos inalmbricos en potencia. +As que podran disfrutar de su video TED favorito en el viaje de regreso a casa. +Vida en lnea. Yo creo que esa es una visin posible. +As que todo lo que necesitaramos hacer es poner un pequeo microchip a cada dispositivo de iluminacin potencial. +Y esto entonces combinara dos funcionalidades bsicas: iluminacin y transmisin inalmbrica de datos. +Y es esta simbiosis la que, en lo personal, creo que podra resolver los cuatro problemas esenciales que enfrentamos hoy en da en las comunicaciones inalmbricas. +Y en el futuro, quizs no tangamos 14.000 millones de focos incandescentes, sino que quizs sean 14.000 millones de Li-Fis instalados en todo el mundo; por un futuro ms limpio, ms ecolgico e incluso ms brillante. +Gracias. +Cada uno de ustedes posee la caracterstica ms poderosa, peligrosa y subversiva que la seleccin natural ha creado. +Es una tecnologa auditiva neural para renovar la mente de otras personas. +Estoy hablando del lenguaje, por supuesto, porque te permite implantar un pensamiento de tu mente directamente en la mente de otra persona, y ellos pueden tratar de hacerte lo mismo, sin tener que realizar una ciruga. +Por el contrario, cuando hablan, estn usando una forma de telemetra no muy diferente de la del control remoto del televisor. +La nica diferencia es que, mientras ese dispositivo depende de pulsos de luz infrarroja, el lenguaje depende de pulsos de sonido diferenciados. +Y as como usan el control remoto para cambiar los ajustes internos del televisor de acuerdo al estado de nimo, as usan el lenguaje para modificar los ajustes dentro del cerebro de alguien de acuerdo a sus intereses. +Los lenguajes son genes que hablan y obtienen las cosas que quieren. +Imaginen el asombro de un beb cuando recin descubre que, con slo emitir un sonido, puede mover objetos en una habitacin como por arte de magia, y tal vez hasta en su boca. +Ahora bien, el poder subversivo del lenguaje ha sido reconocido durante aos en censuras, en libros que no se pueden leer, en frases que no se pueden usar y palabras que no se pueden decir. +De hecho, la historia de la torre de Babel en la Biblia es una fbula y advertencia acerca del poder del lenguaje. +Segn dicha historia, los seres humanos primitivos fueron tan vanidosos de pensar que, al usar el lenguaje para trabajar en conjunto, podran construir una torre que los llevara hasta el cielo. +As Dios, furioso por este intento de usurpar su poder, destruy la torre y, para asegurarse de que nunca se reconstruira, dispers a las personas dndoles diferentes idiomas... los confundi dndoles diferentes idiomas. +Y esto lleva a la grandiosa irona de que nuestros idiomas existen para evitar que nos comuniquemos. +Incluso hoy, sabemos que hay palabras que no podemos usar, frases que no podemos decir, porque si lo hacemos, nos podran increpar, encarcelar, o incluso matar. +Y todo esto a partir de un soplido que proviene de nuestra boca. +Todo este escndalo por uno solo de nuestros rasgos nos dice que hay algo que vale la pena explicar. +Y esto es, cmo y por qu evolucion esta caracterstica extraordinaria y por qu lo hizo solamente en nuestra especie? +Es un poco sorprendente que para llegar a una respuesta a esa pregunta, tengamos que usar una herramienta de los chimpancs. +Estos chimpancs estn usando herramientas, y a esto lo tomamos como un signo de inteligencia. +Pero si de verdad fueran inteligentes, por qu usaran una rama para extraer termitas de la tierra, y no una pala? +Y si de verdad fueran inteligentes, por qu abriran nueces con una roca? +Por qu simplemente no van a un negocio y compran una bolsa de nueces que alguien ya haya abierto? +Por qu no? Si eso es lo que hacemos nosotros. +Bien, la razn por la que los chimpancs no lo hacen es porque no tienen lo que los psiclogos y antroplogos llaman "aprendizaje social". +Parece ser que no tienen la capacidad de aprender de los dems copiando, imitando, o simplemente mirando. +Como resultado, no pueden mejorar las ideas de los dems ni aprender de los errores de otros; ni sacar provecho de la sabidura de otros. +Y por eso hacen lo mismo una y otra vez. +En realidad, podramos desaparecer por un milln de aos y volver y estos chimpancs estaran haciendo lo mismo con las mismas ramas para las termitas y las mismas rocas para abrir las nueces. +Esto puede sonar arrogante, o incluso de un orgullo exagerado. +Cmo lo sabemos? +Porque esto es exactamente lo que hizo nuestro ancestro, el homo erectus. +Estos simios erguidos evolucionaron en la sabana africana hace dos millones de aos, e hicieron estas magnficas hachas que encajan perfectamente en nuestras manos. +Pero si miramos el registro de fsiles, podemos ver que ellos hicieron las mismas hachas una y otra y otra vez durante un milln de aos. +Puede verse en el registro de fsiles. +Ahora bien, si hacemos algunas suposiciones sobre cunto vivi el homo erectus, cunto pudo haber vivido su generacin, son unas 40.000 generaciones de parientes a hijos y otros individuos que miraban, en las que el hacha no cambi. +Incluso no est claro que nuestros parientes ms cercanos, los neandertales, hayan tenido aprendizaje social. +Seguramente sus herramientas eran ms complicadas que las del homo erectus, pero tambin mostraban muy poco cambio en los casi 300.000 aos que esa especie, los neandertales, vivi en Eurasia. +Entonces, lo que esto nos dice es que, al contrario del viejo dicho "lo que hace el mono hace la mona" lo sorprendente es que el resto de los animales no pueden hacer eso; al menos no tanto. +E incluso esta imagen tiene un dejo sospechoso de haber sido falsificada... algo del circo Barnum & Bailey. +Pero comparando, podemos aprender. +Podemos aprender observando a otras personas y copiando o imitando lo que pueden hacer. +Luego podemos decidir, entre muchas opciones, la mejor. +Podemos sacar provecho de las ideas de otros. +Podemos basarnos en su sabidura. +Y como resultado, nuestras ideas se acumulan, y nuestra tecnologa evoluciona. +Y esta adaptacin cultural acumulada, como la llaman los antroplogos, esta acumulacin de ideas, es responsable de todo lo que est a tu alrededor en tu alborotada vida diaria. +El mundo ha cambiado ms alla de toda proporcin que podamos reconocer incluso hace 1.000 o 2.000 aos. +Y todo esto por la adaptacin cultural acumulada. +Las sillas en las que estn sentados, las luces de este auditorio, mi micrfono, los iPads y iPods que tienen son el resultado de la adaptacin cultural acumulada. +Para muchos comentaristas, la adaptacin cultural acumulada, o aprendizaje social, es un trabajo terminado, fin de la historia. +Nuestra especie puede crear cosas, y por lo tanto prosperamos de una manera que ninguna otra especie lo ha hecho. +De hecho, incluso podemos hacer las "cosas de la vida"... como recin dije, todo lo que nos rodea. +Pero en realidad, resulta que hace 200.000 aos, cuando surgi nuestra especie y adquiri aprendizaje social, esto fue en realidad el comienzo de nuestra historia, y no el final. +Porque nuestra adquisicin de aprendizaje social creara un dilema social y evolutivo, cuya resolucin, es justo decir, determinara no slo el curso futuro de nuestra psicologa, sino tambin el del mundo entero. +Y lo ms importante de esto, es que nos dira por qu tenemos un lenguaje. +Y la razn por la que surgi ese dilema es que, resulta ser, que el aprendizaje social es un robo visual. +Si puedo aprender observndote, puedo robarte tus mejores ideas, y puedo beneficiarme de tus esfuerzos, sin tener que dedicar el tiempo y la energa que pusiste al desarrollarlas. +Si puedo ver qu seuelo usaste para atrapar un pez, o ver cmo puliste tu hacha para hacerla mejor, o si te sigo a escondidas hasta tu huerta de hongos, puedo beneficiarme de tu conocimiento, sabidura y habilidades, e incluso atrapar ese pez antes que t. +El aprendizaje social es verdaderamente un robo visual. +Y en cualquier especie que lo haya adquirido, te corresponde a ti esconder tus mejores ideas, para que nadie te las robe. +Entonces, hace unos 200.000 aos nuestra especie enfrent esta crisis. +Y tenamos slo dos opciones para tratar los conflictos que el robo visual traera. +Una de esas opciones era que podamos habernos refugiado en pequeos grupos familiares. +Porque entonces, los beneficios de nuestras ideas y conocimiento circularan slo entre nuestros parientes. +Si hubiramos elegido esta opcin, hace unos 200.000 aos, probablemente todava estaramos viviendo como los neandertales cuando entramos a Europa hace 40.000 aos. +Y esto es porque en grupos pequeos hay menos ideas, menos innovaciones. +Y los grupos pequeos son ms propensos a tener accidentes y mala suerte. +Entonces, si hubiramos elegido ese camino, nuestro recorrido evolutivo nos habra llevado al bosque... y hubiera sido un recorrido corto. +La otra opcin que podamos elegir era desarrollar los sistemas de comunicacin que nos permitiran compartir ideas y cooperar con otros. +Elegir esta opcin significara que una mayor cantidad de conocimiento y sabidura acumulada estara disponible para cualquier individuo ms que la que podra surgir dentro de una familia o una persona en s misma. +Bien, elegimos la segunda opcin, y el lenguaje es resultado de eso. +El lenguaje evolucion para resolver la crisis del robo visual. +El lenguaje es una tecnologa social para mejorar los beneficios de la cooperacin; para llegar a acuerdos, cerrar tratos y coordinar nuestras actividades. +Y pueden ver que, en una sociedad en desarrollo que comenzaba a adquirir lenguaje, no tenerlo sera como un pjaro sin alas. +Asi como las alas abren esta esfera de aire para que los pjaros la aprovechen, el lenguaje abri la esfera de cooperacin para que la aprovechen los humanos. +Y damos esto completamente por sentado, porque somos una especie que se siente cmoda con el lenguaje. Pero deben entender que hasta los actos de intercambio ms simples en los que nos involucramos son completamente dependientes del lenguaje. +Y para ver por qu, consideren dos perspectivas de nuestra temprana evolucin. +Imaginemos que son muy buenos haciendo puntas de flechas, pero no sirven para hacer el mango de madera con las plumas atadas. +Otras dos personas que ustedes conocen son muy buenos haciendo los mangos de madera, pero no sirven para hacer las puntas de flechas. +Entonces lo que hacen es -una de esas personas todava no ha adquirido lenguaje. +Y supongamos que la otra tiene habilidades para el lenguaje. +Entonces, lo que hacen un da es tomar un montn de puntas, caminar hasta el que no puede hablar muy bien, y ponerle las flechas en frente, esperando que entienda la idea de que uno quiere intercambiar las puntas por flechas terminadas. +Pero l mira la pila de puntas, piensa que son un regalo, las toma, sonre y se va. +Ahora sigamos a este hombre que hace gestos. +Se desata una pelea y es apualado con una de sus puntas. +Bien, ahora se repite la escena y nos acercamos al que tiene lenguaje. +Deja tus puntas y dice: "Me gustara intercambiar estas puntas por flechas terminadas. Dividimos 50 y 50". +El otro dice: "Bien, me parece justo. +Hagmoslo". +Ahora el trabajo se termina. +Una vez que tenemos lenguaje, podemos juntar nuestras ideas y cooperar para tener una prosperidad que no podamos tener antes de adquirirlo. +Por eso nuestra especie ha prosperado en el mundo mientras que el resto de los animales se sienta tras las rejas en zoolgicos, languideciendo. +Por eso construimos transbordadores y catedrales mientras que el resto del mundo utiliza ramas para extraer termitas. +Bien, si esta idea sobre el lenguaje y su valor al resolver la crisis del robo visual es cierta, cualquier especie que lo adquiera debera demostrar un estallido de creatividad y prosperidad. +Y esto es exactamente lo que muestra el registro arqueolgico. +Si observan a nuestros ancestros, los neandertales y el homo erectus, nuestros ancestros inmediatos, estn limitados a pequeas regiones del mundo. +Pero cuando surgi nuestra especie hace unos 200.000 aos, un tiempo despus de que saliramos de frica y nos esparciramos por todo el mundo, ocupando casi todo el hbitat sobre la Tierra. +Mientras otras especies estn confinadas a lugares a los que sus genes las adaptan, con aprendizaje social y lenguaje, nosotros podemos transformar el medio ambiente para favorecer nuestras necesidades. +Entonces prosperamos de una manera que ningn otro animal ha hecho. +El lenguaje es verdaderamente la caracterstica ms importante que ha evolucionado. +Es la caracterstica ms valiosa que tenemos para convertir nuevas tierras y recursos en ms gente y sus genes que la seleccin natural jams haya ideado. +El lenguaje realmente es la voz de nuestros genes. +Al evolucionar el lenguaje, hicimos algo extrao, incluso estrafalario. +Mientras nos esparcamos por el mundo, desarrollamos miles de lenguajes diferentes. +Actualmente, hay cerca de 7 u 8 mil lenguas diferentes en el mundo. +Pero dirn, bueno, esto es natural. +As como nos separamos, nuestros lenguajes naturalmente harn lo mismo. +Pero el verdadero misterio e irona es que la mayor densidad de lenguas diferentes de la Tierra se encuentra donde la gente est ms concentrada. +Si vamos a la isla de Papa Nueva Guinea, podemos encontrar entre 800 y 1.000 lenguajes humanos distintos, diferentes, que se hablan slo en esa isla. +Hay lugares en esa isla donde se puede encontrar una lengua nueva cada 3 4 kilmetros. +Aunque parezca mentira, una vez conoc a un hombre pap, y le pregunt si esto poda ser cierto. +Y me dijo "Ah, no. +Estn mucho ms cerca que eso". +Y es verdad. Hay lugares en esa isla donde pueden encontrar un nuevo lenguaje en menos de un kilmetro. +Y esto tambin es cierto en algunas islas ocenicas remotas. +Entonces parece que usamos nuestro lenguaje, no slo para cooperar, sino para dibujar crculos alrededor de nuestros grupos cooperativos y para establecer identidades, y, tal vez, para proteger nuestro conocimiento, sabidura y habilidades de intrusos. +Y sabemos esto porque, cuando estudiamos diferentes grupos de lenguajes y los asociamos con sus culturas, vemos que stos disminuyen el flujo de ideas entre los grupos. +Disminuyen el movimiento de las tecnologas. +E incluso la circulacin de los genes. +Ahora bien, no puedo hablar por ustedes, pero parece ser que no tenemos sexo con gente con la que no podemos hablar. +Sin embargo, tenemos que refutar, en contra de la evidencia que escuchamos, que podramos haber tenido algunos coqueteos genticos desagradables con los neandertales y los denisovan. +Bien, esta tendencia que tenemos, esta tendencia aparentemente natural, hacia el aislamiento, a no ser sociables, nos estrella de cabeza en nuestro mundo moderno. +Esta imagen asombrosa no es un mapa del mundo. +En realidad, es un mapa de redes de amistad en Facebook. +Y cuando trazan esas redes de amistad por su latitud y longitud, dibujan literalmente un mapa del mundo. +Nuestro mundo moderno se comunica consigo mismo y con el resto ms de lo ocurrido en cualquier momento del pasado. +Y esa comunicacin, esa conectividad alrededor del mundo, esa globalizacin ahora genera un problema. +Porque estos distintos lenguajes imponen una barrera, como hemos visto, a la transferencia de bienes e ideas, tecnologas y sabidura. +E imponen una barrera a la cooperacin. +Y en ningn lugar vemos eso ms claramente que en la Unin Europea, cuyos 27 pases miembros hablan 23 idiomas oficiales. +La Unin Europea est gastando ms de mil millones de euros anuales para traducir entre sus 23 lenguas oficiales. +Eso es cerca de 1.450 millones de dlares estadounidenses en costos de traduccin solamente. +Ahora, piensen en lo absurdo de esta situacin. +Si 27 personas de esos 27 estados miembros se sentaran alrededor de una mesa, hablando sus 23 lenguas, una simple ecuacin matemtica dira que hace falta un ejrcito de 253 traductores para anticipar todas las posibilidades de a pares. +La Unin Europea emplea un personal permanente de cerca de 2.500 traductores. +Y slo en el 2007 -y estoy seguro de que hay datos ms recientes- cerca de 1,3 millones de pginas fueron traducidas slo al ingls. +Entonces, si el lenguaje de verdad es la solucin para la crisis del robo visual, si de verdad es el conducto de nuestra cooperacin, la tecnologa que nuestra especie obtuvo para promover la libre circulacin e intercambio de ideas, en nuestro mundo moderno, nos enfrentamos a una pregunta. +Y esa pregunta es si, en este mundo moderno y globalizado podemos permitirnos tener tantas lenguas diferentes. +En otras palabras, la naturaleza no conoce otra circunstancia en la que caractersticas funcionales equivalentes coexistan. +Una de ellas siempre extingue a la otra. +Y vemos esto en la marcha inexorable hacia la uniformidad. +Hay miles y miles de formas de medir las cosas, de pesarlas y medir su longitud, pero el sistema mtrico est ganando. +Hay miles y miles de formas de medir el tiempo, pero un bizarro sistema en base a 60 conocido como horas, minutos y segundos es casi universal en todo el mundo. +Hay muchas maneras de grabar CD's o DVD's, pero esas tambin estn siendo estandarizadas. +Y probablemente puedan pensar de muchas, muchas ms en sus vidas diarias. +Y por eso nuestro mundo moderno nos est enfrentando a un dilema. +Y es el dilema de que estos hombres con caras chinas, cuyo idioma habla ms gente en el mundo que cualquier otro idioma, todava se sienta frente al pizarrn y convierte frases chinas en frases en ingls. +Gracias. +Matt Ridley: Mark, una pregunta. +Svante descubri que el gen FOXP2, que parece estar asociado con el lenguaje, tambin lo compartan de la misma manera los neandertales. +Tenemos alguna idea sobre cmo podramos haber derrotado a los neandertales si hubieran tenido lenguaje? +Mark Pagel: Muy buena pregunta. +Muchos de ustedes deben saber que hay un gen llamado FOXP2 que parece estar implicado de cierta manera en el control motriz asociado con el lenguaje. +La razn por la que no creo que eso nos diga que los neandertales tenan lenguaje es... les doy una simple analoga: Las Ferraris son autos que tienen motores. +Mi auto tiene motor, pero no es una Ferrari. +Ahora, la simple respuesta a eso es que los genes por s mismos, no determinan el resultado de cosas complicadas como el lenguaje. +Lo que sabemos del FOXP2 y los neandertales es que podran haber tenido control motriz de sus bocas... quin sabe. +Pero eso no necesariamente significa que hayan tenido lenguaje. +MR: Muchas gracias. +Los humanos en el mundo desarrollado pasan ms del 90% de sus vidas en edificios, donde respiran y entran en contacto con billones de formas de vida invisibles al ojo: microorganismos. +Los edificios son ecosistemas complejos que son una fuente importante de microbios que son buenos para nosotros, y algunos que son malos para nosotros. +Qu determina el tipo y la distribucin de los microbios en nuestros edificios? +Los edificios estn colonizados por microbios areos que entran por las ventanas y a travs de los sistemas mecnicos de ventilacin. +Y son llevados adentro por los humanos y otras criaturas. +El destino de los microbios adentro depende de interacciones complejas con los humanos, y con el ambiente construido por ellos. +Y ahora, arquitectos y bilogos estn trabajando juntos para explorar diseos inteligentes que pueden crear edificios ms sanos para nosotros. +Pasamos una cantidad de tiempo extraordinaria en edificios que son ambientes extremadamente controlados, como este edificio aqu, ambientes que tienen sistemas mecnicos de ventilacin que incluyen filtros, calentadores y acondicionadores. +Dada la cantidad de tiempo que pasamos en edificios, es importante entender cmo esto afecta nuestra salud. +En el Centro de Construccin Ambiental y Biologa, hicimos un estudio en un hospital donde tomamos muestras de aire y extrajimos el ADN de los microbios del aire. +Y comparamos tres diferentes tipos de habitaciones. +Revisamos habitaciones mecnicamente ventiladas, que son los puntos en azul. +Revisamos habitaciones ventiladas naturalmente donde el hospital nos permiti apagar la ventilacin mecnica en un ala del edificio y poder abrir las ventanas que haban dejado de funcionar como ventanas, pero que se hicieron operables para nuestro estudio. +Y tambin hicimos un muestreo del aire exterior. +Si vemos el eje de las "x" de esta grfica, vern que, lo que normalmente deseamos hacer, que es mantener el aire libre fuera de la habitacin, se logra con ventilacin mecnica. +As, si ven los puntos verdes, que representan el aire exterior, vern que hay una gran diversidad microbiana, o una gran variedad de clases de microbios. +Pero si ven los puntos en azul, que es aire mecnicamente ventilado, no es tan diverso. +Pero el ser menos diverso no es necesariamente bueno para nuestra salud. +Si ven al eje de las "y" de la grfica, vern que, en el aire mecnicamente ventilado, tenemos ms probabilidad de encontrar un patgeno potencial, o grmenes, que si estuvieras al aire libre. +Para entender porqu sucede de este modo, tomamos nuestros datos y los pusimos en un diagrama ordinal, que es un mapa estadstico que nos dice algo acerca de la relacin entre las comunidades de microbios en las diferentes muestras. +Los puntos que estn ms cercanos tienen comunidades microbianas ms parecidas que los puntos que estn muy alejados. +Y lo primero que se puede ver de esta grfica es que, si vemos los puntos en azul, que representan aire mecnicamente ventilado, no son simplemente un subconjunto de los puntos verdes, que representan el aire ambiente. +Lo que encontramos es que el aire mecnicamente ventilado se parece a los humanos. +Contiene microbios que son comnmente asociados con nuestra piel y con nuestra boca, nuestra saliva. +Y esto es porque estamos constantemente esparciendo microbios. +As que todos ustedes estn compartiendo sus microbios unos con otros. +Y cuando estn al aire libre, ese tipo de aire tiene microbios que estn asociados comnmente con las hojas de planta y polvo. +Por qu esto importar? +Importa porque la industria de la salud es la segunda ms intensiva en energa en los Estados Unidos. +Los hospitales usan dos y media veces la cantidad de energa que los edificios de oficinas. +Y el modelo con el que estamos trabajando en hospitales, y tambin en muchos, muchos tipos de edificios, es mantener el aire libre afuera. +Y este modelo puede que no sea el mejor para nuestra salud. +Y, dada la increble cantidad de infecciones nosocomiales, o infecciones adquiridas en el hospital, es una pista de que es un buen momento para reconsiderar nuestras prcticas. +As que igual que administramos los parques nacionales, donde promovemos el crecimiento de algunas especies e inhibimos el crecimiento de otras, estamos pensando en trabajar en nuestros edificios usando al ecosistema como marco de referencia donde podamos promover los tipos de microbios que deseamos mantener en nuestros edificios. +Escuch a alguien decir que eres tan sano como tu intestino. +Y por esta razn muchas personas comen yogurt probitico para promover una sana flora intestinal. +Y lo que finalmente deseamos hacer es ser capaces de usar este concepto para promover un grupo sano de microorganismos en los edificios. +Gracias. +Por mucho tiempo ramos "yo" y mi cuerpo. +"Yo" estaba formada de historias, de anhelos, de luchas, de deseos de futuro. +"Yo" estaba tratando. de no ser el resultado de mi pasado violento, pero la separacin que haba ocurrido ya entre "yo" y mi cuerpo era un resultado bastante significativo. +"Yo" estaba siempre tratando de convertirse en algo, alguien. +"Yo" solo existia en el intento. +Mi cuerpo a menudo se interpona en el camino. +"Yo" era una cabeza flotante. +Por aos, yo solo usaba sombreros. +Era una manera de mantener mi cabeza sujeta. +Era una manera de localizarme a mi misma. +Me preocupaba que si me quitaba el sombrero no estara ms aqu +Tuve un terapeuta que me dijo una vez: "Eve, has estado viniendo por dos aos, y, para ser honesto, nunca se me ocurri que tuvieras un cuerpo". +Todo este tiempo he vivido en la ciudad, porque, sinceramente, me asustaban los rboles. +Nunca tuve bebs porque las cabezas no pueden dar a luz. +Los bebs no salen de tu boca. +Como no tena un punto de referencia para mi cuerpo, comenc a preguntarle a otras mujeres sobre sus cuerpos, en particular, sus vaginas, porque pensaba que las vaginas eran algo as como importante. +Esto me llev a escribir "Los Monlogos de la Vagina" lo que me puso a hablar obsesiva e incesantemente sobre vaginas, siempre que pudiese. +Lo hice frente a muchos extraos. +Una noche en el escenario, realmente entr en mi vagina. +Fue una experiencia exttica. +Me asust, me energiz, y entonces me convert en una persona orientada, una vagina orientada. +Comenc a ver mi cuerpo como una cosa, una cosa que poda moverse rpido, como una cosa que poda conseguir otras cosas, muchas cosas, todas al mismo tiempo. +Comenc a ver mi cuerpo como un iPad o un auto. +Lo manejara y le demandara cosas. +No tena lmites. Era invencible. +Deba ser conquistado y dominado como la Tierra misma. +No le prestaba atencin; no, lo organizaba y lo diriga. +No tena paciencia para mi cuerpo. Lo molde bruscamente. +Fu mezquina. +Tom ms de lo que mi cuerpo tena para ofrecer. +Si estaba cansada, tomaba ms cafs expresos. +Si estaba asustada, iba a lugares ms peligrosos. +Ah, seguro, seguro, tuve momentos de mayor aprecio por mi cuerpo, del modo en que un padre abusivo puede a veces tener momentos de bondad. +Mi padre fue bondadoso conmigo en mi cumpleaos 16, por ejemplo. +O murmurar algunas veces que yo deba amar mi cuerpo, entonces aprend a hacerlo. +Era vegetariana, me mantena sobria, no fumaba. +Pero todo esto solo era una manera ms sofisticada de manipular mi cuerpo, una disociacin mayor, como plantar un campo de vegetales en una autopista. +Como resultado de hablar tanto sobre mi vagina, muchas mujeres comenzaron a contarme sobre las suyas, sus historias sobre sus cuerpos. +Sus historias me llevaron alrededor del mundo, y he estado en ms de 60 pases. +He escuchado miles de relatos. Y debo decirles, que hubo siempre un episodio en que las mujeres compartan conmigo ese momento particular en que se separaron de sus cuerpos, dejaron sus casas. +Escuch sobre mujeres acosadas en sus camas, azotadas en sus burcas, abandonas a la muerte en aparcaderos, quemadas con acido en sus cocinas. +Algunas mujeres se silenciaron y desaparecieron. +Otras se volvieron locas, trabajando como mquinas, como yo. +En medio de mis viajes, cumpl 40 y comenc a odiar mi cuerpo, lo que era realmente un progreso, porque al menos mi cuerpo exista lo suficiente como para odiarlo. +Bueno, mi estmago; era mi estmago lo que odiaba. +Era la prueba de que no estaba a la altura, que era vieja, no fabulosa, no perfecta o capaz de ajustarme a una imagen corporativa predeterminada. +Mi estmago era la prueba de que yo haba fallado, de que me haba fallado, que estaba roto. +Mi vida se convirti en sacrmelo de encima; una obsesin por deshacerme de l. +Se convirti en algo tan extremo que escrib una obra de teatro sobre l. +Pero cuanto ms hablaba de l, ms se transformaba en un objeto y ms se fragmentaba mi cuerpo. +Se convirti en un entretenimiento; en un nuevo tipo de mercanca, algo que estaba vendiendo +Luego fui a otro lugar. +Sal de lo que crea conocer. +Me fui a la Republica Democratica del Congo. +Y escuch historias que hicieron aicos todas las otras. +Escuch relatos que se metieron en mi cuerpo. +Me enter de esta pequea nia que no poda dejar de orinarse encima porque tantos soldados mayores se haban metido dentro de ella. +Escuch sobre una mujer de 80 aos cuyas piernas fueron quebradas y arrancadas de sus coyunturas y dobladas sobre su cabeza mientras los soldados la violaban. +Hay miles de estas historias. Muchas de las mujeres tenan agujeros en sus cuerpos, agujeros, fstulas, que eran violaciones de guerra, agujeros en el tejido de sus almas. +Estas historias saturaron mis clulas y mis nervios. Para ser honesta, dej de dormir por tres aos. +Todas estas historias comenzaron a sangrar al mismo tiempo. +La violacin de la tierra, el ultraje de minerales, la destruccin de vaginas; ninguna estuvo separada de las otras, o de m. +Los milicianos violaban bebs de seis meses para que pases muy lejanos pudieran tener acceso al oro y al coltn para sus iPhones y computadoras. +Mi cuerpo no solo se haba convertido en una mquina de trabajo, sino que ahora era responsable por destruir los cuerpos de otras mujeres en esta loca empresa de crear ms mquinas para sostener la velocidad y eficiencia de mi mquina. +Luego contraje cncer, o descubr que tena cncer. +Lleg como un pjaro a toda velocidad estrellndose contra el cristal de una ventana. +De pronto, tena un cuerpo, un cuerpo que fue pellizcado y hurgado y pinchado, un cuerpo abierto al medio; un cuerpo al que sacaron rganos y fue transportado, arreglado y reconstruido; un cuerpo que era examinado y que tena tubos metidos en l; un cuerpo que se estaba quemando con qumicos. +El cncer explot la pared de mi desconexin. +Comprend, de pronto, que la crisis en mi cuerpo era la crisis del mundo, no es que ocurrira ms tarde; sino que estaba ocurriendo ahora. +En su reciente libro visionario, "Nuevo Individuo, Nuevo Mundo", el escritor Philip Shepherd dice, "Si ests dividido de tu cuerpo, tambin ests separado del cuerpo del mundo, que entonces aparece como otro distinto de t, o separado de t, en lugar de vivir un contnuo al que perteneces" +Antes del cncer, el mundo era algo distinto. +Era como si estuviese viviendo en una pileta estancada y el cncer dinamit la roca que me separaba del mar mayor. +Ahora estoy nadando. +Ahora me acuesto en el csped, froto mi cuerpo en l y disfruto el barro entre mis piernas y pies. +Ahora hago un peregrinaje diario para visitar un sauce llorn a la orilla del Sena, y estoy hambrienta de campos verdes en los matorrales en las afueras de Bukavu. +Y cuando caen lluvias fuertes, grito y corro en crculos. +S que todo est conectado y la cicatrz que baja por mi torso es la marca del terremoto. +Estoy all con tres millones en las calles de Puerto Prncipe. +El fuego que me quema el tercer da, de seis de quimio, es el fuego que est quemando los bosques del mundo. +S que los abcesos que crecieron alrededor de mi herida luego de la operacin, de 16 onzas de pus, son la contaminacin del Golfo de Mxico; haba pelcanos saturados de petrleo dentro mo y peces muertos flotando. +Los catteres que me metieron sin la medicacin apropiada me hicieron gritar del modo en que la Tierra grita por las perforaciones. +En mi segunda quimio, mi madre enferm gravemente y fui a verla. +Y en nombre de la conexin, la nica cosa que quera antes de morir era ser llevada a casa, al lado de su amado Golfo de Mxico. +Entonces, la trajimos, y rec para que el petrleo no llegara a su playa antes de que muriera. +Y afortunadamente, no lleg. +Y ella muri tranquila en su lugar favorito. +Unas semanas despus, yo estaba en Nueva Orleans, y esta hermosa, espiritual amiga me dijo que quera hacerme una curacin. +Y yo me sent honrada. +Fui a su casa, era de maana, el sol matutino de Nueva Orleans se filtraba por las cortinas. +Mi amiga estaba preparando este recipiente grande, y le dije: "Qu es?" +Y ella dijo: "Es para t. +Las flores lo hacen bello, y la miel lo hace dulce". +Y yo dije: "Pero qu es la parte del agua?" +Y en nombre de la conexin, ella dijo, "Ah, es el Golfo de Mxico" +Y yo dije: "Por supuesto que s". +Otras mujeres llegaron y se sentaron en crculo, y Micaela ba mi cabeza con el agua sagrada. +Y cant; quiero decir, todo su cuerpo cant. +Las otras mujeres cantaron y rezaron por m y por mi madre. +Y cuando el agua tibia del Golfo lav mi cabeza desnuda, me d cuenta de que inclua lo mejor y lo peor de nosotros. +Era la codcia y la imprudencia que llevaron a la explosin de perforaciones. +Eran todas las mentiras dichas, antes y despus. +Era la miel en el agua lo que lo haca dulce, era el petroleo lo que lo enfermaba. +Era mi cabeza la que estaba pelada y cmoda, ahora sin un sombrero. +Era todo mi ser derritindose en la falda de Micaela. +Eran las lgrimas, no distinguibles del Golfo, que rodaban por mis mejillas. +Era finalmente estar en mi cuerpo. +Era la tristeza que se ha quedado tanto tiempo. +Fue encontrar mi lugar y la enorme responsabilidad que viene con la conexin. +Era la continuidad de la devastadora guerra en el Congo y la indiferencia del mundo. +Eran las mujeres congolesas que estn levantndose ahora. +Era mi madre partiendo, justo en el momento en que yo estaba naciendo. +Era darme cuenta que haba estado muy cerca de la muerte, del mismo modo que la Tierra, nuestra madre, escasamente aguanta, de la misma forma que el 75 por ciento del planeta escasamente logra salir adelante, del mismo modo que hay una receta para la supervivencia. +Lo que aprend tiene que ver con la atencin y los recursos que todo el mundo se merece. +Fue convocar amigos y una amorosa hermana. +Fueron mdicos sabios, medicina avanzada y cirujanos que saban qu hacer con sus manos. +Fueron enfermeras mal pagas y realmente cariosas. +Fueron curas mgicas y aceites aromticos. +Fue gente que vino con hechizos y rituales. +Fue tener una visin del futuro y algo por qu luchar, porque yo saba que esta batalla no es ma. +Fue un milln de plegarias. +Fueron mil aleluyas y un milln de oms. +Fue un montn de ira, humor insano, un montn de atencin e indignacin. +Fue energa, amor y alegra. +Fueron todas estas cosas. +Fueron todas estas cosas +Fueron todas estas cosas en el agua, en el mundo, en mi cuerpo. +Bien, hoy quisiera que reflexionemos sobre la decadencia de los jvenes. +Los muchachos estn "en llamas" acadmicamente; estn fracasando socialmente con las chicas y sexualmente con las mujeres. +Ms all de eso, no hay mucho problema. +Entonces qu datos tenemos? +Bien, la tasa de desercin es impresionante. +Los chicos tienen 30% ms de probabilidades que las chicas de desertar en la escuela. +En Canad, cinco varones dejan la escuela por cada tres mujeres. +Las chicas actualmente se desempean mejor que los chicos en todo nivel, desde la escuela primaria a la universitaria. +Hay una brecha del 10% en la finalizacin de licenciaturas y otros programas de grado que posiciona a los varones por detrs de las mujeres. +Dos tercios de los alumnos en clases de apoyo son varones. +Y como todos ustedes saben, los chicos tienen cinco veces ms probabilidades que las chicas de ser diagnosticados con trastorno por dficit de atencin, as que los drogamos con Ritalina. +Cul es la evidencia de su malestar social? +Primero, hay un nuevo miedo a la intimidad. +Intimidad significa conexin fsica, emocional con otra persona, en especial una persona del sexo opuesto que transmite seales ambiguas, contradictorias, fosforescentes. +Y cada ao se hacen investigaciones sobre timidez autorreportada entre estudiantes universitarios. +Y estamos observando un constante incremento entre los varones. +Y ste es de dos clases. +Es una inadaptacin social. +La antigua timidez era miedo al rechazo. +Es una inadaptacin social como ser un extranjero en tierra extraa. +No saben qu decir, no saben qu hacer, especialmente cara a cara con el sexo opuesto. +No conocen el lenguaje del contacto personal, las reglas verbales y no verbales que te permiten hablar cmodamente con otra persona, escuchar a otra persona. +Hay algo que estoy desarrollando aqu llamado sndrome de intensidad social, que trata de explicar por qu los muchachos en realidad prefieren entablar relaciones masculinas antes que formar pareja con mujeres. +Resulta que, desde la ms temprana infancia, los nios y, luego, los hombres prefieren la compaa de hombres, compaa fsica. +Y hay en realidad un incremento en los corticoides que estamos observando, porque los hombres han estado con hombres en equipos, clubes, pandillas, fraternidades, especialmente en el ejrcito, y luego en bares. +Y esto encuentra su pico en el domingo de Sper Tazn, cuando los hombres prefieren estar en un bar con extraos, mirando a un excesivamente vestido Aaron Rodgers de los Green Bay Packers, en vez de a Jennifer Lpez totalmente desnuda en la habitacin. +El problema es que ahora prefieren el mundo asincrnico de internet a la interaccin espontnea en las relaciones sociales. +Cules son las causas? Bueno, es una consecuencia no intencional. +Creo que es el exceso de uso de internet en general, exceso de videojuegos, excesivo nuevo acceso a la pornografa. +El problema es que estas son adicciones excitantes. +Drogadiccin, simplemente quieres ms. +Adiccin excitante, quieres lo diferente. +Drogas, quieres ms de lo mismo; diferente. +Pues bien, necesitas de la novedad para que la excitacin sea sostenida. +Y el problema es que la industria la est proveyendo. +Jane McGonigal nos dijo el ao pasado que para el momento en que un joven tiene 21 aos, ha jugado 10.000 horas de videojuegos, la mayora de ellas en soledad. +Como recordarn, Cindy Gallop dijo que los hombres no conocen la diferencia entre hacer el amor y hacer porno. +El joven promedio ahora mira 50 videoclips porno por semana. +Y hay algn tipo mirando 100, obviamente. +Y la industria del porno es la industria de ms rpido crecimiento en Estados Unidos, 15.000 millones al ao. +Por cada 400 pelculas que se hacen en Hollywood, se hacen 11.000 videos porno. +Entonces el efecto, muy rpidamente, es un nuevo tipo de excitacin. +Los cerebros de los jvenes se reestructuran digitalmente de maneras muy diferentes hacia el cambio, la novedad, la emocin y la excitacin constante. +Eso quiere decir que estn completamente fuera de sincrona en las clases tradicionales, que son analgicas, estticas, interactivamente pasivas. +Tambin estn totalmente fuera de sincrona en las relaciones amorosas, que se construyen gradual y sutilmente. +Entonces, cul es la solucin? No es mi trabajo. +Estoy aqu para alarmar. Resolver es trabajo de ustedes. +Sin ofender a los dueos de babosas banana. Gracias. +El cambio climtico ya es un tema pesado, y es cada vez ms pesado porque estamos entendiendo que tenemos que hacer ms de lo que hacemos. +De hecho, estamos entendiendo que quienes vivimos en el mundo desarrollado tenemos que impulsar la eliminacin de las emisiones. +Eso, por decir lo menos, no es algo que est sobre la mesa. +Y es un poco abrumador si vemos lo que sucede hoy en la realidad y la magnitud del problema que enfrentamos. +Cuando enfrentamos problemas abrumadores tendemos a buscar respuestas simples. +Y creo que eso hemos hecho con el cambio climtico. +Observamos el origen de las emisiones - estn saliendo de nuestros caos de escape, chimeneas, etc. Y decimos: bueno, el problema es que provienen de combustibles fsiles que estamos quemando y por ende la respuesta debe ser reemplazar esos combustibles fsiles por fuentes de energas limpias. +Y por supuesto, aunque necesitamos energa limpia, les digo que es posible que al mirar el cambio climtico como un problema de generacin de energa limpia, en realidad nos estemos mentalizando para no resolverlo. +Y el motivo es que vivimos en un planeta que se est urbanizando rpidamente. +Eso no debera ser novedad para nadie. +Sin embargo, a veces es difcil recordar el alcance de dicha urbanizacin. +Para mediados de siglo vamos a tener cerca 8.000 millones - quizs ms - de personas viviendo en las ciudades, o a un da de distancia de ellas. +Vamos a ser una especie predominantemente urbana. +Para proveer el tipo de energa que hace falta para alojar 8.000 millones de personas en las ciudades en cierto modo parecidas a las ciudades en las que vivimos en el norte del mundo hoy en da, tendramos que generar una cantidad descomunal de energa. +Quiz no sea posible que podamos crear tanta energa limpia. +Por eso si hablamos seriamente de abordar el cambio climtico en un planeta que se urbaniza tenemos que buscar la solucin en otro lado. +De hecho, la solucin puede estar ms cerca de lo que pensamos. Porque esas ciudades que construimos son oportunidades. +Cada ciudad determina en gran medida la cantidad de energa que usan sus habitantes. +Tendemos a ver el uso de energa como algo comportamental - uno elige encender esta luz - pero en realidad ingentes cantidades de uso de energa estn predestinadas por el tipo de comunidades y ciudades en las que vivimos. +Y la correlacin, por supuesto, es que los lugares ms densos tienden a tener emisiones ms bajas, algo que no es difcil de imaginar, en absoluto, si uno lo piensa. +Bsicamente, sustituimos en nuestra vida el acceso a las cosas que queremos. +Vamos por ah, entramos a nuestros autos y conducimos de lugar en lugar. +Bsicamente usamos la movilidad para conseguir el acceso que necesitamos. +Pero cuando vivimos en una comunidad ms densa de repente encontramos, por supuesto, que las cosas que necesitamos estn cerca. +Y dado que el viaje ms sustentable es el que nunca se tuvo que hacer, en primer lugar, de repente nuestras vidas se vuelven ms sustentables. +Y por supuesto, es posible aumentar la densidad de las comunidades circundantes. +Algunos lugares estn haciendo esto con nuevos ecodistritos, desarrollando nuevos barrios enteramente sustentables, que es un buen trabajo si se puede lograr. Pero de hecho, la mayora de las veces estamos hablando de recomponer el tejido urbano que ya tenemos. +Por eso estamos hablando de proyectos de relleno: pequeos cambios bien ntidos, dnde tenemos edificios, dnde estamos desarrollando. +La modernizacin urbana: la creacin de diferentes tipos de espacios y usos en lugares que ya estn all. +Cada vez ms, nos estamos dando cuenta que ni siquiera tenemos que densificar toda la ciudad. +En cambio, necesitamos una densidad media que alcance un nivel que no requiera conducir tanto, etc. +Y eso puede hacerse aumentando mucho la densidad en puntos muy especficos. +As que pueden pensarse como puntales que realmente eleven la densidad de toda la ciudad. +Y vemos que al hacerlo, podemos, de hecho, tener lugares hiperdensos en un amplio tejido de lugares que tal vez sean un poco ms cmodos y lograr el mismo resultado. +Esto representa un ahorro de energa enorme. Porque lo que sale de nuestros caos de escape es slo el principio de la historia de las emisiones de los autos. +Tenemos la fabricacin del coche, su eliminacin, los estacionamientos, las autopistas, etc. +Cuando uno puede deshacerse de todo eso, porque alguien no lo usa, uno encuentra que puede recortar las emisiones del transporte hasta en un 90%. +Y la gente apoya esto. +En todo el mundo, estamos viendo cada vez ms personas que adoptan este estilo de vida. +Personas que dicen que pasan de la idea de la casa soada al barrio soado. +Y si solapamos esto con las comunicaciones omnipresentes que estamos empezando a ver hallamos, de hecho, incluso ms acceso a los espacios. +En parte es acceso al transporte. +Este es el mapa Mapnificent que muestra, en este caso, qu distancia puedo recorrer desde casa en 30 minutos usando el transporte pblico. +En parte se hace caminando. No es perfecto todava. +Estos son los Mapas de Caminata de Google. +Pregunt cmo hacer el mayor Ridgeway y me dijo que fuera por Guernsey. +Me dijo que por este camino tal vez falten aceras o cruces peatonales. +Pero las tecnologas estn mejorando y estamos empezando a trabajar colectivamente en esta navegacin. +Y, por supuesto, como se ha dicho antes, estamos aprendiendo a poner informacin en los objetos. +Cosas que no estn cableadas en absoluto; estamos aprendiendo a incluirlas en estos sistemas de notacin y navegacin. +Parte de lo que estamos descubriendo con esto es que lo que pensbamos que era el punto principal de fabricacin y consumo, que es obtener gran cantidad de material, no implica, de hecho, vivir mejor en entornos densamente poblados. +Estamos encontrando que lo que queremos es acceder a las capacidades de las cosas. +Mi ejemplo favorito es un taladro. Quin de los presentes tiene un taladro en casa? +Bueno, yo tambin. +El taladro hogareo promedio se usa entre 6 y 20 minutos en toda su vida til dependiendo de a quin le preguntemos. +Compramos estos taladros que tienen una capacidad potencial de miles de horas de uso, los usamos una o dos veces para hacer un agujero en la pared y listo. +Nuestras ciudades, les dira, acumulan estas capacidades excedentes. +Y mientras tratamos de imaginar nuevas formas de usar esas capacidades, como cocinar o hacer esculturas de hielo, o incluso un golpe de mafia, probablemente lo que encontremos es que esos productos se transformen en servicios a los que tenemos acceso cuando queramos; una manera mucho ms inteligente de actuar. +De hecho, el espacio mismo se est volviendo un servicio. +Hemos hallado que la gente puede compartir los mismos espacios y hacer cosas con el espacio vacante. +Los edificios se estn convirtiendo en paquetes de servicios. +Tenemos nuevos diseos que nos estn ayudando a tomar las cosas mecnicas en las que solamos gastar energa - como la calefaccin, la refrigeracin, etc - y las volvemos cosas en las que evitamos gastar energa. +Iluminamos nuestros edificios con la luz del da. +Los refrigeramos con la brisa. Los calentamos con la luz del sol. +De hecho, cuando usamos todo esto hallamos que, en algunos casos, el uso de energa en un edificio puede disminuir hasta en un 90%. +Lo que trae otro efecto de umbral al que llamo volcado de horno. Que es, simplemente, si uno tiene un edificio que no necesita ser calentado con un horno, se ahorra un montn de dinero de antemano. +Esto es mucho ms barato de construir que las alternativas. +Pero si buscamos poder recortar el uso de un producto, reducir el uso del transporte, recortar el uso de energa del edificio, todo eso est muy bien pero todava queda algo fuera. +Y si buscamos ciudades verdaderamente sustentables tenemos que pensar un poco diferente. +Esta es una manera de hacerlo. +Esta es la propaganda de Vancouver sobre lo verde que es como ciudad. +Y seguramente muchas personas se han tomado a pecho la idea de que una ciudad sustentable est cubierta de vegetacin. +As que tenemos visiones como sta. +Tenemos visiones como sta. +Todos estos proyectos estn muy bien pero se est perdiendo un punto esencial y es que no se trata de las hojas de arriba sino de los sistemas de abajo. +Toman el agua de lluvia, por ejemplo, para poder reducir el uso de agua? +El agua consume mucha energa. +Incluyen una infraestructura verde para tomar la escorrenta y el agua que va a salir de nuestras casas, limpiarla, filtrarla, y poner rboles urbanos en la calle? +Nos vuelven a conectar con los ecosistemas que nos rodean, conectndonos a los ros, por ejemplo, permitiendo la restauracin? +Permiten la polinizacin, las vas de los polinizadores, para que las abejas y las mariposas puedan volver a nuestras ciudades? +Es que acaso toman la materia de desperdicio que se obtiene de la comida, las fibras, etc., y la devuelven al suelo, secuestran carbono - quitan carbono del aire - mientras usamos nuestras ciudades? +Yo les dira que todas estas cosas no slo son posibles, se estn haciendo en este momento, y eso es algo muy bueno. +Porque ahora mismo nuestra economa en general opera, como dijo Paul Hawken, "robando el futuro, vendindolo en el presente y lo llaman PIB". +Y si tenemos otros 8.000 millones o 7.000 millones, o incluso 6.000 millones de personas que viven en un planeta cuyas ciudades tambin roban el futuro, nos vamos a quedar sin futuro muy rpidamente. +Pero si pensamos de manera diferente creo que, de hecho, podemos tener ciudades que no slo no tengan emisiones sino que tengan tambin posibilidades ilimitadas. +Muchas gracias. +Desde que tengo memoria, he sentido una conexin muy profunda con los animales y el ocano. +mi dolo era el delfn Flipper. +Cuando me enter de las especies en peligro de extincin, me sent muy apenada al saber que cada da haba animales que estaban siendo borrados de la faz de la tierra. +Quera hacer algo para ayudar, pero siempre me preguntaba qu poda hacer una sola persona para lograr un cambio. +Y pasaron 30 aos hasta que finalmente obtuve la respuesta. +Cuando estas imgenes desgarradoras de aves cubiertas de petrleo emergieron desde el golfo de Mxico, el ao pasado, durante el horrible derrame de petrleo de BP, una biloga alemana llamada Silvia Gaus dijo lo siguiente: "Se debera practicar la eutanasia en todas estas aves porque los estudios han demostrado que menos del 1 % sobreviven despus de ser rescatadas". +Estuve totalmente en desacuerdo. +Adems, creo que todos los animales cubiertos de petrleo merecen una segunda oportunidad de vida. +Y quiero decirles por qu estoy tan segura de esto. +El 23 de junio del 2000, un barco llamado "Treasure" se hundi frente a las costas de Ciudad del Cabo, en Sudfrica, derramando 1 300 toneladas de combustible, que contaminaron los hbitats de casi la mitad de la poblacin mundial de pinginos africanos. +El barco se hundi entre la isla de Robben en el sur y la isla de Dassen en el norte. Estas son dos de las principales islas de apareamiento de pinginos. +Y exactamente 6 aos y 3 das antes, el 20 de junio de 1994, un barco llamado "Apollo Sea" se hundi cerca de la isla de Dassen, cubriendo de petrleo 10 000 pinginos, de los cuales murieron la mitad. +Cuando el "Treasure" se hundi en el 2000, era la mejor temporada alta de apareamiento jams registrada por los cientficos para el pingino africano, que, en su momento, fue catalogado como una especie en extincin. +Y, pronto, cerca de 20 000 pinginos estaban cubiertos con este aceite txico. +El centro local de rescate de aves marinas, llamado SANCCOB, lanz inmediatamente una operacin masiva de rescate, que pronto se convertira en el ms grande rescate de animales de la historia. +En esa poca, trabajaba cerca de all. +Me encargaba de los pinginos del Acuario de Nueva Inglaterra +y ayer hizo exactamente 11 aos que son el telfono en la oficina de los pinginos. +Y, con esa llamada, mi vida cambiara para siempre. +Era Estelle van der Meer, de SANCCOB, y me dijo: "Por favor venga a ayudarnos. +Tenemos miles de pinginos cubiertos de petrleo y miles de voluntarios entusiastas pero completamente inexpertos. +Y necesitamos expertos en pinginos para capacitarlos y supervisarlos". +As que dos das despus, estaba en un avin rumbo a Ciudad del Cabo con un equipo de especialistas en pinginos. +Y la escena en ese edificio era devastadora y surrealista. +De hecho, mucha gente la asoci a una zona de guerra. +La semana pasada, una nia de 10 aos me pregunt: "Cmo se sinti cuando entr en el edificio por primera vez y vio tantos pinginos cubiertos de petrleo?" +Y esto es lo que pas. +Me remont inmediatamente a aquel momento en el tiempo. +Los pinginos son aves que gritan bastante y son muy, muy ruidosos. Entonces, me imaginaba que al entrar al edificio iba a encontrarme con esa cacofona de chillidos, roznidos y graznidos, +pero en vez de eso, al entrar al edificio, reinaba un silencio extrao. +As que era muy claro que las aves estaban estresadas, enfermas y traumatizadas. +La otra cosa que me impresion fue el gran nmero de voluntarios. +Hasta 1 000 personas al da llegaban al centro de rescate. +Y, finalmente, en el transcurso de este rescate, ms de 12 500 voluntarios llegaron de todas partes del mundo a Ciudad del Cabo para ayudar a salvar a estas aves. +Y lo ms sorprendente era que ninguno de ellos tena obligacin de hacerlo, +y sin embargo estaban all. +As que para los pocos que estbamos all en calidad de profesionales, esta respuesta voluntaria maravillosa a la crisis de los animales fue profundamente conmovedora y estimulante. +Al da siguiente de nuestra llegada, a dos empleados del acuario nos asignaron la sala 2. +Esa sala tena ms de 4 000 pinginos cubiertos de petrleo. +Y pensar que, tres das antes, cuidbamos solo 60 pinginos. Sin duda, estbamos abrumados y hasta un poco aterrorizados, al menos yo. +Personalmente, no saba si iba a ser capaz de manejar una tarea de tal envergadura. +Y, colectivamente, no sabamos si en realidad podamos sacar esto adelante. +Porque todos recordbamos que apenas 6 aos antes, el nmero de pinginos rescatados era la mitad del de ahora, y solo la mitad de esos haban sobrevivido. +Entonces, sera humanamente posible salvar a tantos pinginos cubiertos de petrleo? +Simplemente no lo sabamos. +Pero lo que nos daba esperanza era ver esos voluntarios tan dedicados y valientes, tres de los cuales estn aqu alimentando a los pinginos a la fuerza. +Y pueden notar que estn usando guantes muy gruesos +porque los pinginos africanos tienen picos afilados como navajas. +Y, en poco tiempo, estbamos cubiertos de pies a cabeza de heridas desagradables infligidas por los pinginos aterrorizados. +Al da siguiente de nuestra llegada, se desencaden una nueva crisis. +La mancha de petrleo avanzaba al norte hacia la isla de Dassen, y los miembros del cuerpo de rescate estaban desesperados porque saban que si el petrleo llegaba a la isla no sera posible rescatar ms aves afectadas. +Y en realidad no haba solucin. +Pero, finalmente, uno de los investigadores tuvo esta idea descabellada. +Dijo: "Bueno, por qu no intentamos recoger las aves ms expuestas al petrleo" recogieron 20 000 "y las llevamos en barco unos 1 000 km ms lejos a Port Elizabeth, en camiones al aire libre, y las liberamos en las aguas limpias para que puedan regresar nadando". +3 de estos pinginos Peter, Pamela y Percy llevaban marcas satelitales. Y los investigadores cruzaron los dedos y esperaron que antes del regreso de las aves, la isla estuviese libre de petrleo. +Afortunadamente, el da que llegaron, lo estaba. +Haba sido una apuesta arriesgada, pero haba valido la pena. +De manera que ahora saben que pueden usar esta estrategia en futuros derrames de petrleo. +En el rescate de la fauna silvestre, as como en la vida, aprendemos de las experiencias pasadas, y aprendemos tanto de nuestros xitos como de nuestros fracasos. +Y la mayor leccin aprendida durante el rescate en el "Apollo Sea" del 94 fue que la mayora de los pinginos murieron debido al uso inconsciente de camiones y cajas de transporte con poca ventilacin, simplemente porque no estaban preparados para rescatar a tantos pinginos a la vez. +Por eso en estos 6 aos entre los 2 derrames de petrleo, se construyeron miles de cajas bien ventiladas. +En consecuencia, durante el rescate en el "Treasure", solo murieron 160 pinginos durante el transporte, en comparacin con 5 000 del rescate anterior. +Eso solo ya fue una gran victoria. +Algo ms que aprend durante el rescate en el "Apolo Sea" fue cmo ensear a los pinginos a tomar pescado de nuestras manos, usando cajas para entrenarlos. +Y usamos esta tcnica nuevamente durante el rescate en el "Treasure". +Pero, observamos un detalle interesante durante la fase de entrenamiento. +Los primeros pinginos en hacer la transicin y alimentarse por s mismos fueron los que tenan una banda de metal en las alas del rescate en el "Apollo Sea" 6 aos antes. +Vemos que los pinginos tambin aprenden de sus experiencias pasadas. +Tenamos que limpiar meticulosamente a los pinginos para retirar todo el petrleo de sus cuerpos. +A dos personas les lleva al menos una hora +limpiar un solo pingino. Y para limpiarlos, primero hay que rociarlos con un desengrasante. +Esto nos lleva a mi ancdota favorita del rescate en el "Treasure". +Cerca de un ao antes de este derrame de petrleo, un estudiante de 17 aos haba inventado un desengrasante +que se haba usado en SANCCOB con gran xito, por lo que comenz a usarse tambin en el rescate en el "Treasure". +Pero pasado cierto tiempo, se acab. +Y Estelle, de SANCCOB, presa del pnico, llam al estudiante y le dijo: "Por favor, tienes que hacer ms desengrasante". +Y l fue rpidamente al laboratorio e hizo ms cantidad para limpiar el resto de las aves. +Me parece genial que un adolescente haya inventado un producto que ha ayudado a salvar las vidas de miles de animales. +Entonces, qu pas con los 20 000 pinginos cubiertos de petrleo?, +Silvia Gaus tena razn? +Se debe practicar la eutanasia sistemticamente en todas las aves cubiertas de petrleo porque la mayora van a morir de todos modos? +Bueno, ella no poda estar ms equivocada. +Despus de medio milln de horas de un trabajo voluntario agotador, ms del 90 % de los pinginos cubiertos de petrleo regresaron con xito a la vida silvestre. +Y sabemos por los estudios de seguimiento que han vivido el mismo tiempo que los pinginos que no fueron afectados y se han reproducido casi con el mismo xito. +Adems, cerca de 3 000 polluelos de pinginos fueron rescatados y criados a mano. +Y, otra vez, sabemos por el seguimiento a largo plazo que la crianza a mano garantiza mayor supervivencia en la edad adulta de procrear que la crianza con sus padres. +As que, armado de este conocimiento, SANCCOB tiene un proyecto para proteger polluelos. Cada ao rescata y cra polluelos abandonados. Y tienen una tasa impresionante de xito del 80 %. +Esto es muy importante, ya que, hace un ao, el pingino africano fue declarado en peligro de extincin. +Y podran extinguirse en menos de 10 aos si no hacemos algo ahora para protegerlos. +Entonces, qu aprend de esta experiencia intensa e inolvidable? +En lo personal, aprend que soy capaz de encargarme de muchas ms cosas de las que jams so. Y que una persona +puede lograr un gran cambio. +Basta con ver aquel estudiante de 17 aos. +Cuando nos unimos y trabajamos al unsono, podemos lograr cosas extraordinarias. +Y, en verdad, ser parte de algo mucho ms grande que uno mismo es la experiencia ms gratificante que se pueda tener. +Me gustara dejarles una reflexin final y un reto, si se quiere. +Mi misin como la dama de los pinginos es crear conciencia y conseguir fondos para proteger a los pinginos, +pero por qu hay que preocuparse por los pinginos? +Bueno, hay que hacerlo porque son un indicador ambiental. +En pocas palabras, si los pinginos mueren, eso significa que nuestros ocanos estn muriendo, +y al final nos veremos afectados, ya que, como dice Sylvia Earle: "Los ocanos son nuestro sistema de soporte vital". +Las dos principales amenazas para los pinginos hoy son la sobrepesca y el calentamiento global. +Estas son dos cosas por las que cada uno de nosotros tiene realmente el poder de hacer algo. +Y si cada uno hace su parte, juntos, podemos lograr un cambio, y podemos ayudar a evitar la extincin de los pinginos. +Los seres humanos siempre hemos sido la mayor amenaza para los pinginos, pero ahora somos su nica esperanza. +Gracias. +Me preocupaba bsicamente lo que estaba pasando en el mundo. +No poda entender el hambre, la destruccin, el asesinato de personas inocentes. +Dar sentido a esas cosas es algo muy difcil. +Y a los 12 aos me hice actor. +Era el ltimo de la clase. No era apto para nada. +Me dijeron que era dislxico. +De hecho, s era apto para algo. +Tena D en cermica; la nica cosa que logr... que fue til, obviamente. +La preocupacin era de dnde viene todo esto. +Luego, como actor, hice todo tipo de cosas. Y sent que el contenido de la obra en la que estaba involucrado no era suficiente, que seguramente tena que haber algo ms. +Y en ese momento le un libro de Frank Barnaby, ese fsico nuclear maravilloso, y deca que los medios tenan una responsabilidad, que todos los sectores sociales tenan una responsabilidad de hacer que las cosas avancen, de impulsarlas. +Y eso me fascin porque haba estado jugando con una cmara gran parte de mi vida. +Y entonces pens, bueno, podra hacer algo. +Quiz podra convertirme en cineasta. +Tal vez puedo usar el formato del cine de forma constructiva para, en cierto modo, marcar una diferencia. +Quiz haya algn cambio en el que pueda involucrarme. +As empec a pensar en la paz y estaba, obviamente, como les dije, muy movilizado por estas imgenes tratando de darles sentido. +Poda ir a hablar con las personas mayores y ms sabias capaces de decirme cmo les dan ellos sentido a las cosas que estn sucediendo? +Porque, obviamente, es muy aterrador. +Pero me di cuenta de que, al haber estado jugando con el formato como actor, que unas frases lapidarias por s mismas no eran suficientes; que haba una montaa por escalar, que haba un viaje por emprender. +Y si emprenda ese viaje, sin importar si fallaba o tena xito, eso sera completamente irrelevante; +la idea era que tendra algo para conectar las preguntas de si la Humanidad en el fondo es mala; +de si la destruccin es inevitable; si debera tener hijos; +Es responsable tenerlos? Etc., etc. +As que pensaba en la paz y estaba pensando, bueno, cul es el punto de partida de la paz? +Y fue entonces que se me ocurri la idea. +No haba un punto de partida para la paz. +No haba un da de unidad mundial. +No haba un da de cooperacin intercultural. +No haba un da en el que la Humanidad se uniera, separada como est, a compartir simplemente que estamos juntos en esto y que si nos unimos y cooperamos entre las culturas eso podra ser la clave para la supervivencia de la Humanidad. +Eso podra cambiar el nivel de conciencia en torno a las cuestiones fundamentales que enfrenta la Humanidad si lo hiciramos slo por un da. +Obviamente no tena dinero. +Viva en la casa de mi mam. +Y empezamos a escribirle cartas a todo el mundo. +Uno pronto se da cuenta que es lo que tiene que hacer para llegar a comprenderlo. +Cmo se crea un da votado por todos los jefes de Estado del mundo como primer Da del Alto el Fuego y la No Violencia, el 21 de septiembre? +Quera que fuese el 21 de septiembre porque era el nmero favorito de mi abuelo. +l era prisionero de guerra. +Vio caer la bomba en Nagasaki. +Eso envenen su sangre y muri cuando yo tena 11 aos. +As que era mi hroe. +Y la razn por la que 21 era el nmero: partieron 700 hombres, regresaron 23, 2 murieron en el bote y 21 tocaron tierra. +Por eso queramos que la fecha sea el 21 de septiembre. +As que empezamos este viaje y lo lanzamos en 1999. +Le escribimos a jefes de Estado, embajadores, premios Nobel de la Paz, ONGs, a los credos, a varias organizaciones... literalmente, le escribimos a todos. +Muy pronto empezaron a volver algunas cartas. +Y empezamos a construir este caso. +Recuerdo la primera carta. +Una de las primeras cartas fue del Dalai Lama. +Por supuesto que no tenamos el dinero; tocbamos la guitarra para pagar las estampillas de todo el correo que mandbamos. +Lleg una carta del Dalai Lama que deca: "Esto es algo increble. Ven a verme. +Quiero hablarte del primer da de la paz". +Y no tenamos dinero para el vuelo. +As que llam a Sir Bob Ayling, CEO de BA en ese entonces, y le dije: "Compaero, tenemos esta invitacin. +Podra darme un vuelo? Porque vamos a ir a verlo". +Y, claro, fuimos a verlo y fue increble. +Y luego se present el Dr. Oscar Arias. +En realidad, permtanme volver a esa diapositiva porque cuando lo lanzamos en 1999 -esta idea de crear el primer da del alto el fuego y la no violencia- invitamos a miles de personas. +Bueno, no miles -cientos de personas, muchas personas- toda la prensa, porque bamos a tratar de crear el primer Da Mundial de la Paz, un da de paz. +Invitamos a todos y no apareci la prensa. +Haba 114 personas... eran casi todos amigos y familiares. +Y esto fue como el almuerzo del evento. +Pero no import porque estbamos documentando y eso era lo importante. +Para m, se trataba del proceso. +No del resultado final. +Y eso es lo hermoso de la cmara. +Suelen decir que la pluma es ms poderosa que la espada. Creo que es la cmara. +Era el hecho de estar en ese hermoso momento; era muy alentador, en realidad. +As que, de todos modos, comenzamos el viaje. +Y aqu ven personas como Mary Robinson a quien fui a ver a Ginebra. +Me corto el pelo, est corto y est largo, porque cada vez que vea a Kofi Annan me preocupaba que pensara que era un hippie, as que me lo cortaba. Eso era lo que pasaba. +S, ahora eso ya no me preocupa. +As que Mary Robinson me dijo: "Ha llegado el momento para esa idea. Hay que crearlo". +Kofi Annan dijo: "Esto ser beneficioso para mis tropas en el terreno". +La OUA en aquel momento, dirigida por Salim Ahmed Salim, dijo: "Tengo que conseguir que se involucren los pases africanos". +El Dr. Oscar Arias, premio Nobel de la Paz, ahora presidente de Costa Rica, dijo: "Har todo lo que pueda". +Fui a ver a Amr Moussa, de la Liga de Estados rabes. +Conoc a Mandela en las conversaciones de paz de Arusha. Y as sucesivamente... mientras construa el caso para probar si esta idea tendra sentido. +Y luego escuchbamos a la gente. Estbamos documentando en todos lados. +En los ltimos 12 aos visit 76 pases. +Y siempre he hablado con las mujeres y los nios en cada lado que he ido. +He grabado 44.000 jvenes. +He grabado unas 900 horas de sus pensamientos. +Tengo muy claro el sentimiento de los jvenes que tienen cuando uno les habla de esta idea de tener un punto de partida para sus acciones para un mundo ms pacfico mediante su poesa, su arte, su literatura, su msica, su deporte, lo que sea. +Y escuchamos a todos. +Y fue una cosa increble, trabajar con la ONU +y con las ONGs para construir este caso. +Senta que estaba presentando un caso en nombre de la comunidad mundial al tratar de crear este da. +Y cuanto ms fuerte el caso y ms detallado era, ms oportunidades haba de crear este da. +Y fue esto, esto, cuando realmente era el principio sin importar qu pasara, en realidad no importaba. +No importaba si no se creaba un da de la paz. +El hecho era que, si lo intentaba y no funcionaba, entonces podra afirmar la falta de predisposicin de la comunidad mundial para unirse hasta que estuve en Somalia, recogiendo a esa nia. +Y a ese nio a quien le haban quitado unos centmetros de su pierna sin antispticos y ese muchacho que era un nio soldado, que me dijo que haba matado gente -tena 12 aos- estas cosas me hicieron dar cuenta que este no era un film que pudiera detener. +Y que en realidad, en ese momento me sucedi algo, que obviamente me hizo decir: "Voy a documentar. +Esta es la nica pelcula que he de hacer. Voy a documentar hasta que esto se haga realidad". +Porque tenemos que parar, tenemos que hacer algo para unirnos... aparte de toda poltica y religin que, como joven, me confunde. +No s cmo involucrarme en ese proceso. +Y luego, el 7 de septiembre, me invitaron a Nueva York. +Los gobiernos de Costa Rica y Gran Bretaa haban presentado a la Asamblea General de Naciones Unidas, con 54 co-patrocinadores, la idea del primer da del Alto el Fuego y la No Violencia como una fecha fija del calendario, el 21 de septiembre, y fue aprobada por unanimidad por todos los jefes de Estado del mundo. +S, pero fueron cientos de personas, obviamente, que lo hicieron una realidad. +Gracias a todos ellos. +Fue un momento increble. +Yo estaba en la parte superior de la asamblea general mirando hacia abajo, viendo lo que suceda. +Y, como dije, cuando empez estbamos en el Globe y no haba prensa. +Y ahora pensaba: "Bueno, la prensa realmente va a escuchar esta historia". +Y, de repente, empezamos a institucionalizar este da. +Kofi Annan me invit en la maana del 11 de septiembre a una conferencia de prensa. +A las 8 de la maana yo estaba all. +Estaba esperando que viniera y saba que vena en camino. +Obviamente, nunca vino. La declaracin no se hizo. +Nunca se le dijo al mundo que haba un da del alto el fuego y la no violencia. +Y, obviamente, fue un momento trgico para las miles de personas que perdieron sus vidas all y posteriormente en todo el mundo. +Nunca ocurri. +Y recuerdo que pensaba: "Es por esto exactamente que tenemos que trabajar an ms arduamente. +Y tenemos que hacer que este da funcione. +Se ha creado; nadie lo sabe. +Pero tenemos que continuar este viaje y tenemos que contarle a la gente y demostrar que puede funcionar". +Y me fui de Nueva York enloquecido, pero con poder. +Me senta inspirado por las posibilidades que de existir, quiz no veramos cosas como esa. +Recuerdo haber puesto esa pelcula y la reaccin de los cnicos. +Estaba mostrando la pelcula, recuerdo que estando en Israel la masacraron por completo unos tipos que haban visto la pelcula -es slo un da de paz, no significa nada. +No va a funcionar; no van a parar la lucha en Afganistn; los talibanes no van a escuchar, etc, etc. +Es puro simbolismo. +Y eso era an peor que lo que ya haba sucedido de muchas maneras ya que no poda no funcionar. +Haba hablando en Somalia, Burundi, Gaza, Cisjordania, India, Sri Lanka, Congo, donde fuere, y todos me decan: "si puedes crear una ventana de oportunidad podemos pasar ayuda, vacunar a los nios. +Los nios pueden llevar sus proyectos. +Pueden unirse. Se pueden juntar. Si las personas pararan, se salvaran vidas". +Eso era lo que oa. +Y lo oa de las personas que entendan realmente de qu se trataba el conflicto. +As que volv a las Naciones Unidas. +Decid que continuara filmando y haciendo otra pelcula. +Y volv a la ONU durante otro par de aos. +Empezamos movindonos por los pasillos de la ONU, con gobiernos y ONGs tratando desesperadamente de encontrar a alguien para presentarle la propuesta y ver si podamos hacerla posible. +Y despus de muchas, muchas reuniones, obviamente, estoy encantado de que este hombre, Ahmad Fawzi, uno de mis hroes y mentores, en realidad, se las arregl para conseguir involucrar a UNICEF. +Y UNICEF, Dios les bendiga, dijo: "Bueno, vamos a darle una oportunidad". +Y luego se involucr UNAMA en Afganistn. +Fue histrico. Poda funcionar en Afganistn con UNAMA y la OMS y la sociedad civil, etc., etc., etc.? +Y estaba registrando todo en la pelcula y lo estaba grabando mientras pensaba: "Esto es todo. Esta es la posibilidad de que funcione. +Pero si no funciona, al menos la puerta est abierta y hay una oportunidad". +Y regres a Londres y fui a ver a este muchacho, Jude Law. +Fui a verlo porque era actor, como yo. Yo tena una conexin con l, porque tenamos que llegar a la prensa, necesitbamos esta atraccin, necesitbamos involucrar a los medios. +Porque si empezbamos a impulsarlo un poco quiz ms gente escuchara y habra ms... al entrar en ciertas reas, quiz habra ms gente interesada. +Y tal vez recibiramos un poco ms de ayuda econmica; algo que haba resultado muy difcil. +No voy a entrar en eso. +As que Jude dijo: "Bueno, voy a darles algunas declaraciones". +Mientras estaba filmando estas declaraciones, me dijo: "Dnde vas despus?" +Le dije: "Voy a ir a Afganistn". Dijo: "En serio?" +Y pude advertir una especie de inters en su mirada. +Y le dije: "Quieres venir conmigo? +Me interesara mucho que vengas. +Ayudara a atraer la atencin. +Y esa atencin ayudara a aprovechar la situacin y a muchas otras cosas". +Creo que hay una serie de pilares para el xito. +Uno es tener una gran idea. +Otro es tener una circunscripcin, hay que tener las finanzas, y ser capaz de despertar conciencia. +Y la verdad es que nunca pude despertar la conciencia por m mismo, sin importar lo que haya logrado. +Por eso estos tipos eran algo crucial. +As que dijo que s y nos encontramos en Afganistn. +Fue algo realmente increble que cuando aterrizamos all hablando con varias personas, me decan: "Tienes que conseguir que todos se involucren aqu. +No puedes esperar slo que funcione. Tienes que ir y trabajar". +Y lo hicimos, fuimos a recorrer, hablamos con los mayores, con los mdicos, con las enfermeras, dimos conferencias de prensa, salimos con los soldados, nos reunimos con la ISAF, nos reunimos con la OTAN, nos reunimos con el gobierno del Reino Unido. +Quiero decir, bsicamente, nos reunimos con todo el mundo dentro y fuera de las escuelas con los ministros de educacin, dando estas conferencias de prensa que, por supuesto, ahora estaban repletas de prensa; estaban todos. +Haba inters en lo que estaba pasando. +Esta mujer increble, Ftima Magalani, fue absolutamente fundamental en lo que pas dado que era la portavoz de la resistencia contra los rusos. +Y su red afgana estaba por todas partes. +Ella fue crucial para transmitir el mensaje. +Y luego nos fuimos a casa. Como que lo habamos hecho. +Ahora tenamos que esperar y ver qu pasaba. +Me fui a casa y recuerdo que alguien del equipo me trajo una carta de los talibanes. +Y esa carta, bsicamente, deca: "Hoy vamos a cumplir. +Este da vamos a cumplir. +Lo vemos como una ventana de oportunidad. +Y no vamos a participar. No vamos a participar". +Eso quera decir que los trabajadores humanitarios no seran secuestrados o asesinados. +De repente supe, obviamente en ese momento, que haba una oportunidad. +Y das ms tarde, 1,6 millones de nios fueron vacunados contra la polio como consecuencia de que todos pararon. +Y al igual que en la Asamblea General, obviamente fue un momento muy maravilloso. +Y luego terminamos la pelcula y la montamos porque tenamos que regresar. +La proyectamos en dari y pashto. La pasamos en los dialectos locales. +Regresamos a Afganistn porque llegaba el prxima ao y queramos ayudar. +Pero lo ms importante, queramos regresar, porque estas personas en Afganistn son los hroes. +Eran las personas que creyeron en la paz y en sus posibilidades, etc., etc. ... y lo hicieron posible. +Y queramos regresar y mostrarles la pelcula y decir: "Miren, ustedes lo hicieron posible. Muchas gracias". +Dimos la pelcula otra vez. +Obviamente la mostramos y fue increble. +Y luego ese ao, ese ao, 2008, esta declaracin de la ISAF en Kabul, Afganistn, el 17 de septiembre: "El General Stanley McChrystal, comandante de las fuerzas internacionales de asistencia de seguridad en Afganistn, anunci hoy que la ISAF no realizar operaciones militares ofensivas el 21 de septiembre". +Estaban diciendo que pararan. +Y luego estaba esta otra declaracin que sali del Departamento de Seguridad y Vigilancia y deca que, en Afganistn, debido a este trabajo, la violencia se redujo en un 70%. +Un 70% de reduccin de la violencia al menos este da. +Y eso me dej alucinado por completo casi ms que cualquier otra cosa. +Y recuerdo estar atrapado en Nueva York, esta vez por el volcn, algo obviamente mucho menos peligroso. +Y estaba pensando lo que estaba pasando. +Y segu pensando en este 70%. +Un 70% de reduccin en la violencia -algo que todos decan que era completamente imposible, que no se poda hacer. +Y eso me hizo pensar que, si logramos un 70% en Afganistn, entonces podemos conseguir un 70% de reduccin en cualquier lado. +Tenemos que ir tras una tregua mundial. +Tenemos que usar este da del alto el fuego y la no violencia e ir tras una tregua mundial, ir tras el cese de hostilidades ms grande que se haya registrado tanto a nivel nacional e internacional. +Eso es exactamente lo que debemos hacer. +Y el 21 de septiembre de este ao vamos a lanzar la campaa en el O2 Arena para ir tras ese proceso, para tratar de crear el cese de hostilidades ms grande jams registrado. +Y usaremos todo tipo de cosas -la danza y los medios sociales, visitas en Facebook, visitas al sitio web, firmas de peticin. +Y est en los seis idiomas oficiales de las Naciones Unidas. +Vincularemos mundialmente con gobiernos, entre gobiernos, ONGs, educacin, sindicatos, deportes. +Y all pueden ver la caja educativa. +En este momento tenemos recursos en 174 pases tratando de hacer que los jvenes sean la fuerza motriz tras la visin de la tregua global. +Obviamente, aumenta las vidas que se salvan, los conceptos ayudan. +La vinculacin con los Juegos Olmpicos. Fui a ver a Seb Coe. Le dije: "Londres 2012 tiene que ver con la tregua. +En ltima instancia, de eso se trata". +Por qu no nos unimos todos? Por qu no darle vida a la tregua? +Por qu no apoyan el proceso de la mayor tregua de la historia? +Haremos una pelcula sobre este proceso. +Usaremos el deporte y el ftbol. +El Da de la Paz, hay miles de partidos de ftbol que se juegan desde las favelas de Brasil hasta cualquier lugar. +As, se usan todas estas formas para inspirar la accin individual. +Y, en ltima instancia, tenemos que probarlo. +Tenemos que trabajar juntos. +Yo estaba con Brahimi, el Embajador Brahimi. +Creo que es uno de los hombres ms increbles de la poltica internacional -en Afganistn, en Irak. +Es un hombre increble. +Y me reun con l hace unas semanas. +Y le dije: "Seor Brahimi, no es una locura una tregua mundial? +Es posible? Ser posible que lo logremos?" +Y dijo: "Es totalmente posible". +Le dije: "Qu hara? +Ira en busca de los gobiernos, hara lobby usando el sistema?" +Dijo: "No, hablara con los individuos". +Se trata de los individuos. +Se trata de Ud y yo. +Todo es cuestin de alianzas. +Se trata de circunscripciones, de negocios. +Porque juntos, trabajando juntos, creo, en serio, que podemos empezar a cambiar las cosas. +Y hay un hombre maravilloso en esta audiencia, y no s dnde est, que me dijo hace unos das -porque ensay un poco- y me dijo: "He estado pensando en este da y lo imagino como un cuadrado con 365 cuadros y uno de ellos es blanco". +Y eso me hizo pensar en un vaso de agua, que es clara. +Si uno pone una gota, una gota de algo en el agua cambiar para siempre. +Trabajando juntos, podemos crear la paz un da. +Gracias TED. Gracias. +Gracias. +Muchas gracias. +Muchsimas gracias. Gracias. +Los sistemas planetarios fuera del nuestro son como ciudades distantes cuya luz podemos ver centellear pero cuyas calles no podemos recorrer. +Sin embargo, estudiando esos centelleos podemos aprender cmo interactan las estrellas y los planetas para formar su propio ecosistema y crear hbitats favorables a la vida. +En esta imagen del perfil urbano de Tokio he ocultado datos del telescopio busca-planetas ms nuevo del barrio: la Misin Kepler. +Pueden verlo? +Ah vamos. +Esta es una parte minscula del cielo que observa Kepler en su bsqueda de planetas midiendo la luz de ms de 150.000 estrellas a la vez, cada media hora, de manera muy precisa. +Estamos buscando una diminuta disminucin de luz causada por un planeta que al pasar frente a una de estas estrellas, interfiera algo de la luz que nos llega. +En poco ms de dos aos de operaciones hemos hallado ms de 1.200 sistemas planetarios potenciales en torno a otras estrellas. +Para que se hagan una idea, en las dos dcadas previas de bsqueda slo habamos conocido unos 400 antes de Kepler. +Cuando vemos estas pequeas disminuciones de luz podemos determinar varias cosas. +Por un lado, que all hay un planeta, pero adems, el tamao de ese planeta y a qu distancia est de su estrella madre. +Esa distancia es muy importante porque nos dice la cantidad de luz total que recibe el planeta. +La distancia y la cantidad de luz, son importantes porque es como si estuviramos sentados alrededor de una fogata. Uno quiere estar lo suficientemente cerca para estar caliente pero no tan cerca como para tostarse demasiado y quemarse. +No obstante, hay mucho ms que saber de la estrella madre que la cantidad de luz que se recibe en total. +Y les voy a mostrar por qu. +Esta es nuestra estrella. Es el Sol. +As se ve con luz visible. +Esta es la luz que podemos ver con nuestros ojos. +Vern que se ve ms o menos como la bola amarilla, ese cono del Sol que todos dibujamos de nios. +Pero notarn algo ms y es que la cara del Sol tiene pecas. +Esas pecas se llaman manchas solares, y son slo una de las manifestaciones del campo magntico solar. +Tambin hacen variar la luz de la estrella. +Y podemos medir esto de manera muy, muy precisa, con Kepler, y rastrear sus efectos. +Sin embargo, esta es slo la punta del tmpano. +Si tuviramos ojos ultravioletas o de rayos X veramos realmente los efectos dinmicos espectaculares de la actividad magntica de nuestro Sol -el tipo de cosas que sucede tambin en otras estrellas. +Piensen que incluso cuando est nublado estas cosas suceden en el cielo encima nuestro todo el tiempo. +Pero realmente no podemos mirar en los planetas en torno a otras estrellas el mismo tipo de detalles que podemos observar en los de nuestro Sistema Solar. +Aqu vemos a Venus, la Tierra y Marte -tres planetas de nuestro Sistema Solar que tienen un tamao parecido pero slo uno de ellos es un buen lugar para vivir. +Mientras tanto podemos medir la luz de nuestras estrellas y aprender de esta relacin entre los planetas y sus estrellas madres para descubrir pistas sobre qu planetas podran ser buenos lugares para buscar vida en el Universo. +Kepler no encontrar un planeta en torno a cada estrella que mire. +Pero cada medicin que hace es algo precioso porque nos ensea sobre la relacin entre las estrellas y los planetas y cmo la luz de las estrellas sienta las bases para la formacin de vida en el Universo. +Si bien Kepler es el telescopio, el instrumento que mira, somos nosotros, la vida, quienes buscamos. +Gracias. +El tipo de magia que me gusta, y soy un mago, es la que utiliza la tecnologa para crear ilusiones. +Me gustara mostrarles algo en lo que he estado trabajando. +Se trata de una aplicacin que creo que ser til para los artistas, en particular para los artistas multimedia. +Sincroniza videos en varias pantallas de dispositivos mviles. +Y he tomado prestados estos tres iPods de la gente aqu en el pblico para mostrarles lo que quiero decir. +Y voy a usarlos para hablarles un poco de mi tema favorito: el engao. +Uno de mis magos favoritos es Karl Germain. +l haca este fascinante truco en el que un rosal floreca ante nuestros ojos. +Pero su nmero de la mariposa era el ms hermoso. +Voz en off: Seoras y seores, la creacin de la vida. +Marco Tempest: Cuando se le pregunt sobre el engao, dijo lo siguiente: Voz en off: La magia es la nica profesin honesta. +Un mago promete engaarnos, y lo cumple. +MT: Me gusta considerarme como un mago honesto. +Uso muchos trucos, lo que significa que a veces tengo que mentirles. +Ahora eso me hace sentir mal. +Pero la gente miente todo el tiempo. +(Timbre telefnico) Esprame. +Mujer joven al telfono: Oye!, dnde ests? +MT: Atrapado en el trfico. Llegar pronto. +Todos hemos hecho eso. +Seora: Estar lista en un minuto, cario. +Hombre: Es justo lo que siempre he querido. +Mujer: Te ves muy bien. +MT: El engao, es una parte fundamental de la vida. +Las encuestas muestran que los hombres mienten dos veces ms que las mujeres suponiendo que las mujeres encuestadas dijeron la verdad. +Engaamos para sacar ventaja y para ocultar nuestras debilidades. +El general chino Sun Tzu dijo que toda guerra +Oscar Wilde dijo lo mismo del amor. +Hay gente que engaa por dinero. +Juguemos. +Tres cartas, tres posibilidades. +Voz en off: Con un 5 se obtiene un 10 y con un 10 un 20. +Ahora dnde est la seora? +Dnde est la reina? +MT: Es esta? +Lo siento. Perdieron. +Bueno, no los enga. +Se engaaron a s mismos. +Fue autoengao. +Que es cuando nos convencemos de que una mentira es verdad. +A veces es difcil diferenciar entre las dos. +Los jugadores compulsivos son expertos en el autoengao. +(Ruido de mquinas tragamonedas) Creen que pueden ganar. +Se olvidan de las veces en que han perdido. +El cerebro es muy bueno para olvidar. +Las malas experiencias se olvidan rpidamente. +Las malas experiencias desaparecen rpidamente. +Por eso, en este cosmos inmenso y solitario, somos tan maravillosamente optimistas. +Nuestro autoengao se convierte en una ilusin positiva por qu las pelculas son capaces de llevarnos a aventuras extraordinarias?, por qu le creemos a Romeo cuando dice que ama a Julieta? y por qu las notas musicales, cuando se tocan juntas, se convierten en una sonata y evocan un significado? +Esto es "Claro de luna". +Su compositor, Debussy, dijo que el arte era el engao ms grande de todos. +El arte es un engao que crea emociones reales, una mentira que crea una verdad. +Y cuando nos dedicamos al engao, se convierte en magia. +Gracias. Muchas gracias. +Estuve hospitalizado por mucho tiempo. +Y algunos aos despus del alta, regres. Y el director del departamento de quemados que estaba muy contento de verme-- Dijo, "Dan, tengo un nuevo tratamiento que es fantstico para t." +Yo estaba muy emocionado. Fui con el a su oficina. +El me explic que cuando me afeito, Tengo pequeos puntos negros en el lado izquierdo del rostro donde hay pelo, pero en el lado derecho de mi rostro sufr una fuerte quemadura por lo que no tengo pelo, y esto produce una asimetra +Y cul fue su brillante idea? +Tatuar pequeos puntos negros del lado derecho de mi rostro y hacerme ver muy simtrico. +Pareca interesante. Me pidi que me afeitara. +Dejenme decirles, que era una manera extraa de afeitarse. porque pensndolo me di cuenta de que la forma en que me afeitara en ese momento sera la forma en que me afeitara por el resto de mi vida-- porque deba mantener el mismo grosor. +Cuando volv a su oficina, no estaba seguro. +Le dije, "Puedo ver alguna prueba de esto?" +Y l me mostr algunas fotos de pequeas mejillas con pequeos puntos negros-- nada muy informativo. +Dije, "Que ocurrir cuando envejezca y mi pelo se torne blanco? +Qu pasar entonces?" +"Oh, no te preocupes por eso." dijo. +"Tenemos lasers; podemos blanquearlo." +Pero yo segua preocupado, y le dije, "Sabes, no voy a hacerlo." +Y entonces, sent uno de los sentimientos de culpa mas grandes de mi vida. +Esto, viniendo de un muchacho Judo, significa mucho +Risas. Y el me dice, "Dan, qu te ocurre? +Te gusta ser asimtrico? +Sientes un placer perverso por ser as? +Las mujeres sienten pena por t y tienes sexo con ms frecuencia?" +Ninguna de ellas. +Y esto me sorprendi, porque haba atravesado muchos tratamientos-- Hubo muchos tratamientos que decid no seguir-- y nunca me sent culpable hasta este extremo. +Pero decid no seguir este tratamiento. +Visit al subdirector y le pregunt, "Que est ocurriendo? +De dnde surge ste sentimiento de culpa?" +Y l me explic que haban realizado este procedimiento en dos pacientes, y que nececitaban un tercer paciente para el trabajo que estaban escribiendo. +Probablemente piensen que este sujeto es un idiota. +Bien, eso es lo que parece. +Pero permtanme darles una perspectiva diferente de la misma historia. +Hace algunos aos, estaba realizando algunos de mis experimentos en el laboratorio. +Y cundo realizamos experimentos, normalmente esperamos que un grupo se comporte distinto de otro. +Tenamos un grupo del que esperaba un alto rendimiento, otro grupo que pensaba que tendra un rendimiento muy bajo. Y cuando tuvimos los resultados, eso fue lo que obtuvimos-- Estaba muy contento-- si no contamos a una persona. +En el grupo haba una persona que se supona tendra resultados muy altos pero cuyo rendimiento era terrible. +Y que baja el promedio general, destruyendo la cuanta estadstica de la prueba. +Examin con cuidado a este sujeto. +Era alrededor de 20 aos mayor que el resto de las personas de la muestra. +Y record que este sujeto viejo y borracho lleg un da al laboratorio intentando hacer dinero fcil y este era el hombre. +"Fantstico!" Pens. "Echmoslo. +Quin incluira un borracho en la muestra?" +Pero unos das despus, pensamos con mis estudiantes, y dijimos, "Qu hubiese ocurrido si este borracho no hubiera estado en esa condicin? +Qu hubiese pasado si hubiese estado en el otro grupo? +Lo hubiramos echado?" +Probablemente no habramos siquiera mirado los datos, y si hubiesemos mirado los datos, probablemente habramos dicho, "Fantstico! Un hombre inteligente con un rendimiento tan bajo." porque hubiese bajado el promedio del grupo aun ms bajo, dndonos resultados an ms contundentes. +Decidimos no echarlo y realizar el experimento nuevamente. +Pero ustedes saben, estas historias, y muchos otros experimentos sobre conflictos de intereses, traen bsicamente dos puntos al frente para m. +El primero es que en la vida uno encuentra mucha gente quienes, de una u otra forma, tratan de tatuarnos los rostros. +Tienen los incentivos que los llevan a cegarse a la realidad y nos dan consejos que son intrnsecamente parciales. +Y estoy seguro de que es algo que todos reconocemos, y que vemos que ocurre. +Tal vez no lo reconocemos todas las veces, pero sabemos que ocurre. +Lo ms dificil, por supuesto, es reconocer que nosotros tambin a veces, estamos cegados por nuestros propios incentivos. +Y esa es una leccin mucho, mucho ms dificil a tener en cuenta. +Porque no vemos como el conflicto de intereses nos afecta. +Cundo estaba haciendo estos experimentos, en mi cabeza, yo estaba ayudando a la ciencia. +Estaba eliminando los datos para llegar a un patrn verdadero. +No estaba haciendo nada malo. +En mi mente, yo era un caballero tratando de ayudar en el progreso de la ciencia. +Pero este no era el caso. +Yo estaba interfiriendo en el proceso con las mejores intenciones. +Y creo que el desafo real es darnos cuenta cules son los casos en nuestras vidas donde el conflicto de intereses nos afecta, y no confiar en nuestra propia intuicin para sobreponernos, sino tratar de hacer algo para prevenir que seamos victimas de estas conductas, porque podemos crear circunstancias no deseadas. +Quiero dejarlos con un pensamiento positivo. +porque esto es bastante deprimente,cierto-- la gente tiene conflictos de intereses, no los vemos, etc. +El lado positivo, creo, de todo esto es que si comprendemos cundo nos equivocamos, si comprendemos los mecanismos profundos de porqu fallamos y dnde fallamos, podemos tambin enmendarnos. +Y eso, creo, es el anhelo. Muchas gracias. +Hoy quiero contarles qu podemos aprender del estudio del genoma de personas vivas y de humanos extintos. +Pero antes de eso quiero recordarles brevemente algo que ya saben: que nuestros genomas, nuestro material gentico, est almacenado en clulas del cuerpo, en los cromosomas, en forma de ADN que es la famosa molcula de doble hlice. +La informacin gentica est contenida en forma de secuencia de 4 bases abreviadas con las letras A, T, C y G. +La informacin est dos veces: una en cada cadena; algo importante ya que cuando se forman nuevas clulas estas cadenas se separan y se sintetizan nuevas cadenas a partir de las viejas en un proceso casi perfecto. +Pero, claro, en la Naturaleza nada es totalmente perfecto as que a veces se comete un error y se incorpora una letra errnea. +Y podemos ver el resultado de tales mutaciones al comparar secuencias de ADN entre los presentes en la sala, por ejemplo. +Si comparamos mi genoma con el de Uds veremos unas 1.200 1.300 letras de diferencia entre nosotros. +Y estas mutaciones se acumulan ms o menos, s, en funcin del tiempo. +As, si agregamos un chimpanc veremos ms diferencias. +Ms o menos una de cada 100 letras va a diferir de las del chimpanc. +Y si a uno le interesa la historia de un fragmento de ADN, o de todo el genoma, se puede reconstruir la historia del ADN con esas diferencias observadas. +Por lo general representamos las ideas de esta historia con rboles como ste. +En este caso es muy simple. +Las dos secuencias de ADN humano se remontan a un ancestro comn hace poco tiempo. +Ms atrs hay uno compartido con los chimpancs. +Y debido a que estas mutaciones ocurren ms o menos en funcin del tiempo uno puede transformar estas diferencias para estimar el tiempo en que estos dos humanos, en general, compartan un ancestro comn hace medio milln de aos y, con los chimpancs, est en el orden de los 5 millones de aos. +Lo sucedido en los ltimos aos es que aparecieron tecnologas que permiten ver muchos, muchos fragmentos de ADN muy rpidamente. +Por eso ahora podemos, en cuestin de horas, determinar todo un genoma humano. +Todos tenemos, claro, dos genomas humanos: uno de nuestras madres y uno de nuestros padres. +Tienen una longitud de unas 3.000 millones de letras. +Y descubriremos que mis dos genomas, o un genoma mo que queremos usar, tendr unas tres millones de diferencias, en ese orden. +Y luego tambin uno puede empezar a describir la distribucin de estas diferencias genticas en el mundo. +Y al hacerlo uno halla una cierta variacin gentica en frica. +Y si miramos fuera de frica encontramos menos variacin gentica. +Esto es sorprendente, por supuesto, porque hay de 6 a 8 veces menos gente que vive dentro que fuera de frica. +Sin embargo, las personas de frica tienen ms variacin gentica. +Adems, casi todas estas variantes genticas que vemos fuera de frica tienen secuencias de ADN ms estrechamente relacionadas que las de frica entre s. +Pero si vemos en frica hay una componente de variacin gentica que no tiene parientes cercanos fuera. +El modelo que explica esto dice que una parte de la variacin africana, pero no toda, sali a colonizar el resto del mundo. +Y junto a estos mtodos para datar las diferencias genticas esto ha llevado a la idea de que los humanos modernos, humanos que en esencia son indistinguibles de Uds y de m, evolucionaron en frica hace muy poco; hace entre 100 y 200 mil aos. +Y luego, hace entre 100.000 y 50.000 aos, salimos de frica para colonizar el resto del mundo. +Por eso a menudo me gusta decir que, desde un punto de vista genmico, todos somos africanos. +Hoy o bien vivimos dentro de frica o en un exilio muy reciente. +Otra consecuencia de este origen reciente de los humanos modernos es que las variantes genticas por lo general se distribuyen ampliamente en el mundo en muchos lugares y tienden a variar como gradientes por lo menos vistas a vuelo de pjaro. +Y dado que hay muchas variantes genticas y tienen diferentes gradientes, esto significa que si determinamos una secuencia de ADN, un genoma individual, podemos estimar con bastante precisin de dnde viene una persona dado que sus padres o abuelos no se han movido demasiado. +Pero, significa esto, como mucha gente suele pensar, que hay grandes diferencias genticas entre grupos de personas entre continentes, por ejemplo? +Bueno, podemos empezar a hacernos estas preguntas. +Hay, por ejemplo, un proyecto en curso para hacer la secuencia de 1.000 individuos, sus genomas, de diferentes partes del mundo. +Se han secuenciado 185 africanos de dos poblaciones de frica. +Se han secuenciado tambin cantidades similares en Europa y China. +Y podemos empezar a contar las variaciones que encontramos, cuntas letras varan, en al menos una de estas secuencias individuales. +Y es mucho: 38 millones de posiciones variables. +Pero podemos preguntarnos: hay diferencias absolutas entre africanos y no africanos? +Quiz la mayora de nosotros piensa que hay una gran diferencia. +Y por diferencia absoluta quiero decir una diferencia que la gente de frica tenga en una posicin en la que todos los individuos, el 100%, tenga una letra y todos fuera de frica tengan otra letra. +Y la respuesta a eso entre esos millones de diferencias es que no hay una sola de tales posiciones. +Esto puede ser sorprendente. +Tal vez un individuo est mal clasificado. +Por eso podemos relajar el criterio un poco y decir: cuntas posiciones encontramos en las que el 95% de la gente de frica tenga una variante y el 95% tenga otra variante, y ese nmero es 12. +Esto es muy sorprendente. +Eso significa que al mirar a la gente y ver una persona de frica y una de Europa o Asia no podemos, por una sola posicin en el genoma con una precisin del 100%, predecir su carga gentica. +Y slo para 12 posiciones podemos esperar estar un 95% seguros. +Esto puede sorprender porque podemos, por supuesto, mirar a esta gente y decir muy fcilmente de dnde vienen ellos o sus ancestros. +Ahora bien, esto significa que esos rasgos que luego miramos y vemos tan fcilmente... rasgos faciales, color de piel, estructura del cabello... no estn determinados por genes simples de gran efecto sino por muchas variantes genticas diferentes que parecen variar en frecuencia entre diferentes partes del mundo. +Hay otra cosa respecto de estos rasgos que observamos muy fcilmente unos a otros que creo es digno de mencin y es que, en sentido muy literal, estn realmente a nivel superficial. +Son, como acabamos de decir, rasgos faciales, estructura del cabello, color de piel. +Tambin hay una serie de caractersticas como esas que varan entre continentes que tienen que ver con metabolizar los alimentos que ingerimos o con la forma de tratar los microbios del sistema inmunolgico que tratan de invadir nuestros cuerpos. +Pero esas son todas las partes del cuerpo en las que interactuamos en forma directa con el entorno en confrontacin directa, si se quiere. +Es fcil imaginar cmo en particular esas partes del cuerpo se vieron rpidamente influidas por la seleccin del entorno y desplazaron las frecuencias de genes involucradas en ellas. +Pero si miramos en otras partes del cuerpo en las que no interactuamos directamente con el entorno -riones, hgados, corazones- no hay manera de decir con slo mirar estos rganos de qu lugar del mundo vienen. +Hay otra cosa interesante que viene de esta toma de conciencia de que los humanos tienen un origen comn reciente en frica y que cuando surgieron esos humanos hace unos 100.000 aos no estaban solos en el planeta. +Rondaban otras formas de seres humanos; quiz los ms famosos eran los neandertales, estas formas humanas robustas de la izquierda comparadas con los esqueletos modernos de la derecha que existieron en el oeste de Asia y en Europa desde hace cientos de miles de aos. +As que una pregunta interesante es: qu sucedi cuando nos conocimos? +Qu les sucedi a los neandertales? +Y para empezar a responder estas preguntas mi grupo de investigacin -desde hace ms de 25 aos- trabaja en mtodos de extraccin de ADN en restos de neandertales y animales extintos que tienen decenas de miles de aos. +As que esto implica un montn de cuestiones tcnicas sobre la forma de extraer el ADN, de cmo convertirlo en algo que pueda secuenciarse. +Hay que trabajar con mucho cuidado para evitar la contaminacin de los experimentos con el ADN de uno mismo. +Y se lo puede empezar a comparar con los genomas de la gente de hoy. +Y una pregunta que pueden querer hacer es qu sucedi cuando nos conocimos? +Nos mezclamos o no? +Y la manera de hacer esa pregunta es mirar el neandertal que viene del sur de Europa y compararlo con los genomas de la gente de hoy en da. +As, luego buscamos hacer esto con pares de individuos empezando con dos africanos, observando dos genomas africanos, encontrando lugares donde difieren uno del otro, y en cada caso nos preguntarnos: qu aspecto tiene el neandertal? +Concuerda con un africano o con el otro africano? +Esperaramos no hallar diferencias porque los neandertales nunca estuvieron en frica. +Deberan ser iguales, no hay razn para que estn ms cerca de un africano que de otro. +Y realmente es as. +Estadsticamente hablando, no hay diferencia en la frecuencia en que los neandertales coinciden con un africano u otro. +Pero esto es diferente si ahora miramos un individuo europeo y un africano. +Entonces, con mucha ms frecuencia el neandertal concuerda con el europeo antes que con el africano. +Lo mismo es vlido si comparamos un individuo chino con un africano; el neandertal concordar ms a menudo con el individuo chino. +Esto tambin puede sorprender porque los neandertales nunca estuvieron en China. +Por eso el modelo que propusimos para explicar esto es que cuando los humanos modernos salieron de frica hace unos 100.000 aos conocieron a los neandertales. +Es de suponer que ocurri por primera vez en Medio Oriente donde vivan neandertales. +Si se mezclaron unos con otros all luego esos humanos modernos que se tornaron ancestros de todos fuera de frica llevaron consigo el componente neandertal en su genoma al resto del mundo. +As, hoy la gente que vive fuera de frica tiene cerca de 2,5% de su ADN de los neandertales. +Al tener hoy un genoma neandertal a mano como punto de referencia y las tecnologas para ver restos antiguos y extraer el ADN podemos empezar a aplicarlo en todas partes del mundo. +Y estaba tan bien conservado que se pudo determinar el ADN de este individuo en mayor grado incluso que para los neandertales, en realidad, y se empez a relacionarlo con el genoma neandertal y con la gente de hoy. +Hallamos que este individuo comparta un origen comn para sus secuencias de ADN con los neandertales de hace cerca de 640.000 aos. +Y ms atrs, hace 800.000 aos hay un origen comn con los humanos actuales. +Este individuo viene de una poblacin que comparte un origen con los neandertales pero yendo hacia atrs, tienen una larga historia independiente. +Llamamos a este grupo de humanos, que luego describimos por primera vez a partir de este trozo de hueso diminuto, denisovans en honor al lugar donde se los describi por primera vez. +Luego podemos preguntarnos de los denisovans lo mismo que preguntamos de los neandertales: se mezclaron con ancestros de la gente actual? +Si nos hacemos esa pregunta y comparamos el genoma del denisovan con la gente de todo el mundo encontramos con sorpresa que no hay evidencia de ADN denisovan ni siquiera en la gente que hoy vive cerca de Siberia. +Pero la encontramos en Papa Nueva Guinea y en otras islas de Melanesia y del Pacfico. +Esto significa, probablemente, que estos denisovans estuvieron ms dispersos en el pasado dado que no creemos que los ancestros de los melanesios hayan estado en Siberia. +As, estudiando estos genomas de humanos extintos estamos empezando a llegar a la foto de lo que suceda cuando los humanos modernos salieron de frica. +En Occidente haba neandertales; en Oriente haba denisovans... y quiz tambin otras formas humanas que todava no describimos. +No conocemos bien las fronteras entre estas gentes pero sabemos que en el sur de Siberia haba tanto neandertales como denisovans, al menos en algn momento del pasado. +Los humanos modernos surgieron en algn lugar de frica; salieron de frica, probablemente hacia Medio Oriente. +Conocieron a los neandertales, se mezclaron, continuaron esparcindose por el mundo y en algn lugar al sur de Asia conocieron a los denisovans y se mezclaron y continuaron hacia el Pacfico. +Luego desaparecieron estas formas tempranas de humanos pero hoy viven un poco en algunos de nosotros en esa gente que vive fuera de frica que tiene el 2,5% de su ADN de los neandertales y gente de Melanesia que en realidad tiene ms o menos un 5% adicional de los denisovans. +Significa esto que existe despus de todo alguna diferencia absoluta entre la gente de fuera de frica y la de dentro en que la gente de fuera de frica tiene este componente viejo en su genoma de estas formas extintas de humanos mientras que los africanos no? +Bueno, no creo que sea as. +Probablemente, los humanos modernos surgieron en algn lugar de frica. +Se esparcieron por frica, claro, y haba all formas humanas ms viejas, ms tempranas. +Y como nos mezclamos en algn lado estoy bastante seguro que un da cuando quiz tengamos un genoma de estas formas tempranas de frica vamos a encontrar que tambin se mezclaron con humanos modernos tempranos en frica. +Para resumir: qu hemos aprendido al estudiar genomas de humanos actuales y humanos extintos? +Quiz aprendemos muchas cosas pero una cosa que encuentro importante de mencionar es que creo que la leccin es que siempre nos hemos mezclado. +Nos mezclamos con estas formas tempranas de humanos dondequiera que nos encontramos y nos hemos mezclado unos con otros desde entonces. +Gracias por su atencin. +Soy cineasta. +Durante los ltimos 8 aos, he dedicado mi vida a hacer documentales sobre el trabajo de israeles y palestinos que tratan de poner fin al conflicto por medios pacficos. +Cuando viajo con este material por toda Europa y los Estados Unidos, hay preguntas que siempre surgen: Dnde est el Gandhi palestino? +Por qu los palestinos no adoptan la resistencia no violenta? +El desafo que enfrento ante estas preguntas es que a menudo acabo de regresar de Oriente Prximo donde me dedico a filmar decenas de palestinos que usan la no violencia para defender sus tierras y recursos hdricos de los soldados y colonos israeles. +Estos lderes estn tratando de forjar un gran movimiento no violento nacional para poner fin a la ocupacin y traer la paz en la regin. +Sin embargo, muchos de Uds. probablemente nunca han odo hablar de ellos. +Esta contradiccin entre lo que est ocurriendo en realidad y la idea que se tiene en el extranjero es una de las razones claves por las que an no tenemos un movimiento palestino de resistencia pacfica que haya tenido xito. +As que estoy aqu hoy para hablar del poder de la atencin, el poder de nuestra atencin, y del surgimiento y desarrollo de los movimientos no violentos en Cisjordania, Gaza y otros lugares; pero hoy, mi estudio va a ser sobre Palestina. +Creo que lo que ms hace falta para el progreso de la no violencia no es que los palestinos empiecen a adoptarla, sino que nosotros empecemos a prestar atencin a aquellos que ya la han adoptado. +Permtanme ilustrar este punto, llevndolos al pueblo llamado Budrus. +Hace unos 7 aos, estuvieron a punto de desaparecer porque Israel anunci la construccin de un muro de separacin, y parte de ese muro iba a construirse sobre el pueblo. +Iban a perder el 40 % de su territorio e iban a estar amurallados, por lo que perderan el libre acceso al resto de Cisjordania. +Gracias a la inspiracin de los lderes locales, lanzaron una campaa de resistencia pacfica para evitar que eso sucediese. +Djenme mostrarles algunos videos cortos para que tengan una idea de cmo eran las cosas en ese lugar. +Mujer palestina: Nos dijeron que el muro separara a Palestina de Israel. +Aqu en Budrus, nos dimos cuenta de que el muro robara nuestra tierra. +Hombre israel: La muralla, de hecho, es una solucin al terrorismo. +Hombre: Hoy, se les invita a una marcha pacfica. +Estarn junto a decenas de sus hermanos y hermanas israeles. +Activista israel: Nada asusta ms al ejrcito que la oposicin no violenta. +Mujer: Hemos visto a los hombres tratando de empujar a los soldados, pero ninguno ha podido hacerlo. +Pero creo que las jvenes s podran. +Miembro del partido Fatah: Tenemos que despojarnos del pensamiento tradicional. +Miembro del partido Hams: Estbamos en completa armona, y queramos que esto se extendiera a toda Palestina. +Cantando: Una nacin unida. +Fatah, Hams y el Frente Popular! +Presentador de noticias: Los enfrentamientos por el muro continan. +Reportero: La polica fronteriza israel fue enviada para dispersar a la multitud. +Estaban autorizados a usar la fuerza necesaria. +Hombre: Se trata de balas de verdad. +Es como Fallujah. Disparos por todas partes. +Activista israel: Estaba seguro de que bamos a morir. +Pero haba otros a mi alrededor que ni siquiera se haban agachado. +Soldado israel: Una protesta no violenta no va a detener el [poco claro]. +Manifestante: Se trata de una marcha pacfica. +No hay necesidad de usar la violencia. +Cantando: Podemos hacerlo. Podemos hacerlo. +Podemos hacerlo! +Julia Bacha: La primera vez que o hablar de la historia de Budrus, me sorprendi que los medios de comunicacin internacionales no hubiesen cubierto estos acontecimientos extraordinarios ocurridos hace 7 aos, en el 2003. +Lo que fue an ms sorprendente fue que Budrus fue un xito. +Los residentes, despus de 10 meses de resistencia pacfica, convencieron al gobierno israel para que moviese la ruta del muro fuera de sus tierras hacia la lnea verde, que es la frontera internacionalmente reconocida entre Israel y los territorios palestinos. +La resistencia de Budrus se ha extendido a los pueblos de Cisjordania y a los barrios palestinos de Jerusaln. +Pero los medios de comunicacin guardan silencio sobre estas historias. +Este silencio trae graves consecuencias para la posibilidad de desarrollar o incluso mantener la no violencia en Palestina. +La resistencia violenta y la no violenta tienen algo muy importante en comn; ambas son una forma de teatro en busca de un pblico para su causa. +Si los actores violentos son los nicos que siempre estn en las primeras planas y atraen la atencin internacional sobre la cuestin palestina, se hace muy difcil que los lderes no violentos expongan a las comunidades la idea de la desobediencia civil como una opcin viable para hacer frente a su difcil situacin. +El poder de la atencin no es, probablemente, ninguna sorpresa para los padres aqu presentes. +La forma ms segura para que un nio tenga rabietas cada vez ms fuertes es prestndole atencin la primera vez que le da un ataque. +La rabieta se convierte en lo que los psiclogos infantiles llaman comportamiento funcional, ya que el nio ha aprendido que puede llamar la atencin de los padres. +Los padres pueden incentivar o desincentivar esta conducta simplemente haciendo caso o no a sus hijos. +Y esto es cierto tambin para los adultos. +De hecho, el comportamiento de comunidades y pases enteros puede estar influenciado, dependiendo de los puntos donde la comunidad internacional decide centrar su atencin. +Creo que para poner fin al conflicto en Oriente Prximo y traer la paz lo principal es que transformemos la no violencia en un comportamiento funcional, prestando mayor atencin a los lderes no violentos en la actualidad. +Al llevar mi pelcula a los pueblos de Cisjordania, Gaza y Jerusaln Este, he visto el impacto que incluso un documental puede tener para influir en el cambio. +En un pueblo llamado Wallajeh, muy cerca de Jerusaln, la comunidad se enfrentaba a una situacin muy similar a la de Budrus. +La comunidad iba a estar amurallada, a perder gran parte de sus tierras y el libre acceso, tanto a Cisjordania como a Jerusaln. +Haban estado usando la no violencia durante unos 2 aos, pero haba crecido el desencanto, ya que nadie les prestaba atencin. +Por lo que organizamos una proyeccin. +Una semana despus, llevaron a cabo la manifestacin ms concurrida y disciplinada hasta la fecha. +Los organizadores dicen que los habitantes del pueblo, al ver la historia de Budrus en el documental, sintieron que, en verdad, haba gente que segua lo que ellos hacan, que les importaba. +Por eso, continuaron con sus planes. +En el lado israel, hay un movimiento pacifista nuevo llamado Solidariot, que significa solidaridad en hebreo. +Los lderes de este movimiento usan a Budrus como una de sus principales armas para el reclutamiento. +Nos cuentan que aquellos israeles que nunca antes participaron activamente, al ver la pelcula, entendieron el poder de la no violencia y empezaron a unirse a sus actividades. +El ejemplo de Wallajeh y el del movimiento Solidariot muestran que hasta una pelcula independiente de bajo presupuesto puede tener un rol para transformar la no violencia en un comportamiento funcional. +Ahora, imaginemos el poder que los grandes medios de comunicacin podran tener si empezaran a cubrir las manifestaciones no violentas semanales que ocurren en pueblos como Bil'in, Ni'lin, Wallajeh, en los barrios de Jerusaln como Sheikh Jarrah y Silwan; los lderes no violentos se volveran ms visibles, seran ms valorados y ms eficaces en su trabajo. +Creo que lo ms importante es entender que si no prestamos atencin a estos esfuerzos, son como invisibles, y es como si nunca hubiesen ocurrido. +Pero he constatado por m misma que si lo hacemos, se multiplicarn. +Si se multiplican, su influencia crecer en el conjunto del conflicto israelo-palestino. +Y ese es el tipo de influencia que, finalmente, puede desbloquear la situacin. +Estos lderes han demostrado que la no violencia funciona en lugares como Budrus. +Prestmosles atencin para que puedan probar que funciona en todas partes. +Gracias. +Hoy quiero mostrarles el futuro de la manera de construir cosas. +Creo que pronto, nuestros edificios y mquinas se auto-construirn, replicndose y reparndose a s mismas. +As que voy a mostrarles el estado actual del proceso de manufactura, y despus lo compararemos con algunos sistemas naturales. +En la construccin actual, tenemos rascacielos dos aos y medio, formados por 500.000 a un milln de partes, bastante complejos, tecnologas complejas e interesantes en acero, concreto, vidrio. +Tenemos mquinas maravillosas que pueden llevarnos al espacio, cinco aos y 2,5 millones de piezas. +Por otro lado, si vemos los sistemas naturales, tenemos protenas que tienen dos millones de clases, y pueden armarse en 10.000 nanosegundos o el ADN con 3.000 millones de pares de bases que puede replicarse en cerca de una hora. +Aqu est toda esta complejidad de nuestros sistemas naturales, pero que son extremadamente eficientes, mucho ms que otra cosa que podamos construir, mucho ms complejos que otros que hayamos hecho. +Son ms eficientes en trminos de energa. +Rara vez cometen errores. +Y pueden repararse a s mismos para alargar su vida. +Aqu hay algo muy interesante en los sistemas naturales. +Y si pudiramos traducirlo a nuestro ambiente de construccin, encontraramos un potencial increble en la manera de fabricar cosas. +Y creo que la clave de todo esto es la auto-construccin. +Si queremos utilizar la auto-construccin en nuestro ambiente fsico, creo que hay cuatro factores clave. +El primero es que necesitamos descifrar toda la complejidad de lo que queremos construir, de nuestras mquinas y edificios. +Y necesitamos decodificarlo en secuencias sencillas, que sean el ADN del funcionamiento de nuestros edificios. +Despus necesitamos partes programables que puedan tomar esa secuencia y usarlas para armar, o reconfigurar. +Necesitamos algo de energa que nos permita activar el proceso, y permita que nuestras partes se armen a partir del programa. +Tambin necesitamos algn tipo de corrector de errores redundante que garantice que tenemos xito en construir lo que queremos. +As que voy a mostrarles algunos proyectos en los que estamos trabajando con mis compaeros del MIT para llegar a este futuro auto-construible. +Los primeros dos son el MacroBot y el DeciBot. +Estos proyectos son robots reconfigurables de gran escala, 2,5 metros, 3,7 metros, grandes protenas. +Estn llenos de dispositivos mecnicos, elctricos, sensores. +Uno decodifica lo que quiere armar, en una secuencia de perspectivas, aqu negativo 120, negativo 120, 0, 0, 120, negativo 120, algo as; hay una secuencia de perspectivas, o vistas, y se manda esa secuencia por el cable. +Cada unidad toma su mensaje, el 120 negativo. Rota para alinearse, verifica si lleg all y despus le pasa informacin a su vecino. +Aqu estn los brillantes cientficos, ingenieros y diseadores que trabajaron en este proyecto. +Y creo que lo que realmente trae a la luz es: Podramos escalar esto? +Quiero decir, miles de dlares, cientos de horas hombre invertidos para hacer este robot de 2,5 metros. +Podramos escalar este proceso? Podramos integrar robots en cada pieza? +El siguiente ejemplo trata de responder eso y examina su naturaleza pasiva, o trata pasivamente de obtener programacin reconfigurable. +Pero va un paso ms all, y trata de calcular en tiempo real. +Bsicamente integra los bloques bsicos del cmputo, las compuertas lgicas, directamente en sus piezas. +Esta es una compuerta NAND. +Tenemos un tetraedro, que es la compuerta, que har el procesamiento, y tenemos dos tetraedros que dan la entrada. +Uno de ellos tiene la entrada del usuario, conforme armamos los bloques. +La otra entrada viene del bloque colocado anteriormente. +Y nos da un resultado en un espacio tridimensional. +Esto significa que el usuario puede ir conectando lo que quiere que los bloques hagan. +Procesa lo que estaba haciendo antes y lo que dijimos que queremos que haga. +Y ahora empieza a moverse en un espacio tridimensional; hacia arriba y hacia abajo. +En la parte izquierda tenemos una entrada [1,1] y la salida es un 0, va para abajo. +En el lado derecho, la entrada es [0,0] y la salida es 1, va para arriba. +Esto significa que nuestras estructuras ahora contienen los planos de lo que queremos construir. +Tienen integrada en s mismas la informacin de lo que se construy. +Eso significa que podemos tener cierta forma de auto-replicacin. +En este caso, le llamo replicacin auto-dirigida, porque la estructura contiene las instrucciones exactas. +Si acaso hay errores, se puede reemplazar una pieza. +Toda la informacin local est integrada para mostrar cmo hacer arreglos. +As que podramos tener algo que se trepe hasta el lugar y lo lea y pueda darnos una salida de uno a uno. +Est directamente integrada; as que no hay instrucciones externas. +Este es el ltimo proyecto y le llamar: Cadenas Torcidas, y es probablemente el ejemplo ms innovador que tenemos ahora de sistemas pasivos de auto-construccin. +A partir de la capacidad de reconfiguracin y programacin los funde en un sistema completamente pasivo. +Bsicamente tenemos una cadena de eslabones. +Cada eslabn es completamente idntico, y estn torcidos. +Cada eslabn de la cadena "quiere" girar a la derecha o a la izquierda. +As que al ensamblar la cadena, bsicamente la estamos programando. +Le decimos a cada unidad si queremos que gire a la derecha o a la izquierda. +Y cuando sacudimos la cadena, se dobla en cualquier configuracin que le hayamos programado, en este caso, en una espiral, o en este caso, en dos cubos, uno junto al otro. +As que bsicamente podemos programar cualquier forma tridimensional, o unidimensional, bidimensional, en esta cadena de manera completamente pasiva. +Qu nos dice esto del futuro? +Creo que esto nos muestra que hay nuevas posibilidades para la auto-construccin, la replicacin y reparacin de nuestras estructuras fsicas, nuestros edificios y mquinas. +Hay nuevas capacidades de programacin en estas piezas. +Y, a partir de all, nuevas posibilidades para el cmputo. +Tendremos computacin espacial. +Imaginemos que nuestros edificios, nuestros puentes, nuestras mquinas, todas nuestras piezas pueden hacer clculos. +Es increble ese poder de cmputo paralelo y distribuido, y las nuevas posibilidades de diseo. +Es fantstico el potencial de estos conceptos. +Yo creo que estos proyectos que les acabo de mostrar son slo un pequeo paso hacia el futuro, si implementamos estas nuevas tecnologas para un mundo auto-construible. +Gracias. +Quiero abordar el tema de la compasin. +La compasin tiene muchas caras. +Algunas son feroces; otras son colricas; algunas son tiernas; otras son sabias. +Citando algo que dijo el Dalai Lama una vez; dijo: "El amor y la compasin son necesidades. +No son lujos. +Sin ellos, la Humanidad no puede sobrevivir". +Y yo sugerira, que no sera solamente la Humanidad la que no sobrevivira, sino todas las especies de este planeta, tal como lo hemos odo hoy. +Son los grandes felinos, y tambin el plancton. +Hace dos semanas, estuve en Bangalore, en India. +Tuve el privilegio de poder ensear en un hospicio en las afueras de Bangalore. +Y temprano en la maana fui al pabelln principal. +En ese hospicio, haba 31 hombres y mujeres en agona. +Me acerqu a la cabecera de la cama de una anciana que respiraba jadeando, muy frgil, obviamente en la etapa final de la agona. +Observ su rostro. +Observ el rostro de su hijo, que estaba a su lado, y su rostro estaba hendido de pena y confusin. +Y record una cita del Mahbharata, la gran epopeya india: "Qu es lo ms asombroso de este mundo, Yudhisthira?" +Y Yudhisthira respondi: "Lo ms asombroso de este mundo es que a nuestro alrededor la gente puede estar murindose y no nos damos cuenta de que tambin nos puede suceder a nosotros". +Mir hacia arriba. +Y haba mujeres jvenes ocupndose de esos 31 moribundos de aldeas cercanas a Bangalore. +Observ el rostro de una de estas mujeres, y pude ver la fuerza que surge si hay realmente compasin natural +Observ sus manos mientras baaba a un anciano. +Pos la mirada en otra joven que limpiaba el rostro de otra persona moribunda. +Y me record algo que haba presenciado. +Cerca de una vez al ao tengo el privilegio de cumplir algunas misiones en el Himalaya y en la meseta tibetana +Y dirigimos clnicas en estas regiones remotas donde no existe ayuda mdica de ninguna clase. +Y el primer da en Simikot, en Humla, en el lejano oeste de Nepal, la regin ms pobre de Nepal, vino un anciano aferrndose a un montn de harapos. +Entr y alguien le habl. y nos dimos cuenta de que era sordo, y miramos entre los harapos, y se vean un par de ojos. +Se quitaron los trapos de una nia pequea cuyo cuerpo estaba cubierto de quemaduras. +Nuevamente los ojos y manos de Avalokiteshvara. +Era la joven, la enfermera que limpiaba las heridas de la beb y las vendaba. +S que esas manos y esos ojos tambin me conmovieron. +Me conmovieron en ese momento. +Y me han conmovido a lo largo de mis 68 aos. +Me cuidaron cuando tena 4 aos de edad y perd la vista y qued parapljica. +Y mi familia trajo una mujer cuya madre haba sido una esclava para cuidarme. +Y esa mujer no tena compasin sentimental. +Tena una fuerza asombrosa. +Y realmente creo que fue su fuerza que se convirti en una especie de madurez prematura la que ha estado guiando la luz en mi vida. +Entonces nos preguntamos: En qu consiste la compasin? +Y hay varias facetas. +Existe la compasin referencial y la no referencial. +Pero, ante todo, la compasin est compuesta de esa capacidad de ver con claridad la naturaleza del sufrimiento. +Es esa habilidad de mantenerse firme y de reconocer tambin que no somos ajenos a ese sufrimiento. +Pero eso no es suficiente, porque la compasin que activa la corteza motora, significa que aspiramos, que de hecho aspiramos a transformar el sufrimiento. +Y, si somos muy bendecidos, nos involucramos en actividades que transforman el sufrimiento. +Pero la compasin tiene otro componente, y ese componente es realmente esencial. +Ese componente consiste en que no podemos aferrarnos al desenlace. +He trabajado con personas moribundas por ms de 40 aos. +Y he tenido el privilegio de trabajar con personas en pena de muerte en una crcel de mxima seguridad por 6 aos. +Y comprend, con mucha claridad, que traer mi propia experiencia de vida de haber trabajado con moribundos y capacitando acompaantes, que cualquier apego al desenlace distorsionara profundamente nuestra propia capacidad de estar bien presentes en toda la catstrofe. +Y cuando trabaj en el sistema penitenciario, lo siguiente, se me hizo muy claro: muchos de nosotros en esta sala, y casi todos los condenados a pena de muerte con los que trabaj, nunca experimentamos la compasin en carne propia. +La compasin es en realidad una cualidad humana inherente. +Est presente en todo ser humano. +Pero las condiciones para que se active la compasin, para que se suscite, son muy particulares. +Hasta cierto punto, pas por eso, desde la enfermedad en mi niez. +Eve Ensler, a quien oiremos luego, desarroll esta condicin de manera asombrosa a travs de varias formas de sufrimiento por las que ha pasado. +Y lo fascinante es que la compasin tiene enemigos, y esos enemigos son cosas como la lstima, la indignacin moral, el miedo. +Y bien saben que tenemos una sociedad, un mundo, paralizado por el miedo. +Y en esa parlisis, por supuesto, nuestra capacidad de ser compasivos tambin est paralizada. +La mismsima palabra "terror" es global. +Y el propio sentimiento de terror es global. +Entonces, de alguna manera, nuestro trabajo es enfrentarnos a esta representacin, a este arquetipo que ha invadido la psique de todo el planeta. +Ahora sabemos por la neurociencia que la compasin tiene algunas cualidades extraordinarias. +Por ejemplo: una persona que est abierta a la compasin, ante la presencia del sufrimiento, siente ese sufrimiento mucho ms de lo que lo sienten la mayora de las personas. +Sin embargo, regresa a su estado anterior mucho antes. +Esto se llama "resiliencia". +Muchos pensamos que la compasin nos agota, pero les aseguro que es algo que realmente nos anima. +Otra cosa acerca de la compasin es que realmente aumenta lo que se denomina integracin neutral. +Involucra a todas las reas del cerebro. +Y algo ms que ha sido descubierto por varios investigadores en Emory y en Davis y dems, es que la compasin fortalece al sistema inmune. +Oigan, vivimos en un mundo muy nocivo. +Muchos nos estamos retrayendo ante la presencia de venenos fsicos y psicosociales de las toxinas de nuestro mundo. +Pero la compasin, el generar compasin de hecho moviliza nuestra inmunidad. +Saben, si la compasin es tan buena para nosotros, tengo una pregunta: +Por qu no les enseamos a nuestro hijos a ser compasivos? +Si la compasin es tan buena para nosotros, Por qu no capacitamos a los profesionales de la salud en compasin, para que puedan hacer lo que se supone que deben hacer, que es realmente transformar el sufrimiento? +Si la compasin es tan buena para nosotros, Por qu no votamos la compasin? +Por qu no votamos a los funcionarios de nuestros gobiernos basndonos en la compasin? Para que podamos tener un mundo ms comprensivo. +En el budismo, decimos: "Se requiere una espalda fuerte y un frente suave". +Se necesita de una gran fortaleza en la espalda para sostenernos en medio de la adversidad. +Y esa es la cualidad mental de la ecuanimidad. +Pero tambin es necesario un frente suave; la capacidad para estar abiertos al mundo tal y como es, de tener un corazn desguarnecido. +Y el arquetipo de esto en el budismo es Avalokiteshvara, Kuan-Yin. +Es un arquetipo femenino: Ella que percibe el llanto y el sufrimiento en el mundo. +Ella se resiste, con 10.000 brazos, y en cada mano, hay un instrumento de liberacin, y en la palma de cada mano, hay ojos, y estos son los ojos de la sabidura. +Digo que, por miles de aos, ha habido mujeres, ejemplificando, conociendo ntimamente, el arquetipo de Avalokiteshvara, de Kuan-Yin, ella que percibe el llanto y el sufrimiento en el mundo. +Las mujeres han manifestado por miles de aos la fortaleza que nace de la compasin sin tapujos ni mediaciones percibiendo el sufrimiento tal como es. +Han infundido la bondad en las sociedades y es lo que realmente hemos sentido a medida que una mujer tras otra se ha parado en este escenario en este ltimo da y medio. +Y han restaurado la compasin mediante la accin directa. +Jody Williams lo dijo: "Es bueno meditar". +Lo siento, pero deber hacer un poco ms de eso Jody. +Retrocede, dale un respiro a tu madre, bien. +Pero del otro lado de la ecuacin es que hay que salir de la cueva. +Hay que adentrarse en el mundo como lo hizo Asanga que buscaba desarrollar el Buda Maitreya luego de 12 aos de estar en una cueva. +Dijo "Me voy de aqu". +Y est yendo por el camino. +Y vislumbra algo. +Observa, es un perro, cae en sus rodillas. +Ve que el perro tiene una herida grande en una pata. +La herida est llena de gusanos. +Saca su lengua para quitar los gusanos, y no lastimarlos. +En ese momento, el perro se transforma en el Buda del amor y la bondad. +Creo que las mujeres y nias actualmente deben unirse de una manera poderosa con los hombres; con sus padres, con sus hijos, sus hermanos, con los plomeros, los constructores de caminos, los enfermeros, los mdicos, los abogados, con nuestro presidente, y con todos los seres. +Las mujeres en esta sala son flores de loto en un mar de fuego. +Renovemos esa capacidad para las mujeres en todas partes. +Gracias. +No siempre fui fantico de las consecuencias imprevistas, pero he aprendido a quererlas de verdad. +Aprend que son la esencia de lo que genera el progreso, incluso cuando parecen ser terribles. +Y me gustara revisar las consecuencias imprevistas. Remontmonos 40 mil aos al pasado, a la poca de la explosin cultural, cuando nacieron la msica, el arte, la tecnologa, muchas de las cosas que estamos disfrutando hoy en da, muchas de las cosas que estamos viendo en TED. +Y el antroplogo Randall White hizo una observacin muy interesante: que, si nuestros antepasados de hace 40 mil aos atrs hubieran sido capaces de ver lo que realmente haban hecho en realidad no lo hubieran entendido. +Ellos estaban respondiendo a lo que les preocupaba en ese momento. +Nos estaban dando la posibilidad de hacer lo que ellos hacan y, sin embargo, no entendan de verdad lo que estaban haciendo. +Avancemos ahora hasta 10 mil aos atrs. +Y aqu se empieza a poner interesante. +Qu pasa con la domesticacin de los granos? +Qu pasa con los orgenes de la agricultura? +Qu hubieran dicho nuestros antepasados de hace 10 mil aos atrs si hubieran tenido evaluacin de tecnologa? +Puedo imaginar los comits reportndoles sobre a dnde llevara la agricultura a la humanidad, al menos en los prximos cientos de aos. +Eran noticias realmente malas. +En primer lugar, la nutricin empeor y es posible que incluso sus vidas se redujeran. +Fue simplemente terrible para las mujeres. +Los restos seos de la poca nos muestran que ellas estaban moliendo granos a toda hora del da y de la noche. +Y fue nefasto polticamente. +Fue el comienzo de una desigualdad mucho mayor entre las personas. +Si en esa poca hubieran tenido evaluacin racional de tecnologa creo que bien podran haber dicho: "Anulemos este proyecto". +Incluso hoy nuestras decisiones tienen efectos imprevistos. +Histricamente, por ejemplo, los palillos de acuerdo a un antroplogo japons que escribi una tesis sobre esto en la Universidad de Michigan provocaron cambios a largo plazo en la dentadura, en los dientes, del pueblo japons. +Y tambin estamos cambiando nuestra dentadura hoy en da. +Existe evidencia de que la boca y la dentadura humana estn reducindose continuamente. +Eso no es de por s una consecuencia imprevista negativa. +Pero creo que desde el punto de vista de un neandertal habra habido una tremenda desaprobacin hacia los pusilnimes dientes que tenemos hoy. +As que estas cosas dependen en cierto modo del lugar donde Uds o sus ancestros vivieron. +En el mundo antiguo haba muchsimo respeto por las consecuencias imprevistas, y se tena muchsima precaucin; lo que se refleja en el rbol del Conocimiento, en la caja de Pandora y, sobre todo, en el mito de Prometeo que ha sido tan importante en las metforas recientes relacionadas a la tecnologa. +Y todo eso es muy cierto. +Los mdicos de la antigedad especialmente los egipcios, quienes crearon la medicina que hoy conocemos estaban muy conscientes de lo que podan y no podan tratar. +Y en las traducciones de los textos que han sobrevivido dice: "Esto no lo tratar. Esto no lo puedo tratar". +Tenan esto muy presente en su consciencia. +As tambin eran los seguidores de Hipcrates. +Los manuscritos hipocrticos tambin en repetidas ocasiones, segn estudios recientes manifiestan lo importante que es no hacer dao. +Hace menos tiempo, Harvey Cushing, quien desarroll la neurociruga conocida hoy da, quien la transform de una especialidad de la medicina donde la mayora de las muertes eran consecuencia de cirugas a una con pronstico ms esperanzador, l era muy consciente de que no siempre iba a hacer lo correcto. +Pero haca todo lo posible y mantena registros meticulosos que le permitieron transformar esa especialidad. +Ahora, si nos adelantamos un poco hasta el siglo 19 nos encontramos con un nuevo estilo de tecnologa. +Ya no nos encontramos con herramientas simples, sino que con sistemas. +Nos encontramos con ms y ms conglomerados complejos de mquinas que hacen cada vez ms difcil diagnosticar lo que est pasando. +Y los primeros que vieron esto fueron los telegrafistas de mediados del siglo 19, quienes fueron los hackers originales. +Thomas Edison hubiera estado muy, muy cmodo en el ambiente de una empresa de software actual. +Y estos hackers tenan una palabra para los errores misteriosos de los sistemas de telgrafo, los llamaban "bugs" . +Ese fue el origen de la palabra "bug". +En todo caso, esta conciencia tard en permear por la poblacin, incluyendo a las personas muy, muy bien informadas. +Samuel Clemens, Mark Twain, fue un inversionista importante en la mquina ms compleja de todos los tiempos o al menos hasta 1918 registrada en la Oficina de Patentes de EE.UU. +Era el tipgrafo Paige. +El tipgrafo Paige tena 18 mil piezas. +La patente tena 64 pginas de texto y 271 imgenes. +Era una mquina gloriosa ya que haca lo mismo que una persona al configurar la tipografa mvil para la impresin; incluyendo devolver los tipos a su lugar, lo cual era muy difcil de hacer. +Y Mark Twain, que lo saba todo sobre la tipografa, qued realmente loco por esta mquina. +Lamentablemente, esta locura tuvo un resultado negativo dado que lo dej en bancarrota, y tuvo que recorrer el mundo dando charlas para recuperar su dinero. +Y esto es algo importante acerca de la tecnologa del siglo 19, que todas estas relaciones entre sus componentes podan destruir hasta la idea ms brillante, incluso cuando eran juzgadas por los ms expertos. +Ahora, en los principios del siglo 20 hubo otro elemento que hizo todo an ms complejo. +Y fue que la tecnologa de seguridad en s misma se volvi una posible fuente de peligro. +La leccin del Titanic, para muchos de sus contemporneos, fue que se deban tener suficientes botes salvavidas para todos los que estaban en el barco. +Y este fue el resultado de la trgica prdida de vidas de las personas que no tuvieron botes para salvarse. +Sin embargo hubo otro caso, el Eastland, un barco que naufrag en el puerto de Chicago en 1915 y mat a 841 personas; es decir 14 ms que los pasajeros fallecidos en el Titanic. +La razn fue, en parte, que los botes salvavidas que se agregaron hicieron que este barco que ya era inestable fuera an ms inestable. +Y eso demuestra una vez ms que cuando hablamos de consecuencias imprevistas, no es tan fcil saber cules son las lecciones correctas. +Tiene que ver con el sistema, con cmo el barco estaba cargado, con el lastre y muchas otras cosas. +Por lo que el siglo 20, entonces, pudo ver cunto ms compleja era la realidad pero tambin vio el lado positivo. +Vio que la invencin poda realmente beneficiarse de las emergencias. +Que poda beneficiarse de las tragedias. +Y mi ejemplo favorito de eso que en realidad no es muy conocido como un milagro tecnolgico, pero puede ser uno de los ms grandes de todos los tiempos fue el aumento de la penicilina en la Segunda Guerra Mundial. +La penicilina fue descubierta en 1928, pero incluso en 1940, no se estaban produciendo cantidades tiles comercial y mdicamente. +Varias empresas farmacuticas estaban trabajando en ello. +Estaban tratando cada una por s sola y no estaban llegando a ningn lado. +Y la Oficina de Investigacin del Gobierno reuni a sus representantes y les dijo que esto es algo que hay que hacer. +Y no slo lo hicieron sino que en dos aos, aumentaron la produccin de penicilina pasando de frascos de un litro a estanques de 40 mil litros. +As de rpido se fabric la penicilina y se convirti en uno de los mayores avances de la medicina de la historia. +Al mismo tiempo, en la Segunda Guerra Mundial se demostr la existencia de la radiacin solar estudiando la interferencia detectada por las estaciones de radar de Gran Bretaa. +As que las calamidades traen beneficios: beneficios a la ciencia pura, as como a la ciencia aplicada y a la medicina. +Ahora bien, cuando llegamos al perodo de posguerra, las consecuencias imprevistas se tornan an ms interesantes. +Bueno, la tecnologa fue al rescate. +Y los qumicos se pusieron a trabajar y desarrollaron un bactericida que lleg a ser ampliamente usado en estos sistemas. +Pero algo ms ocurri en la dcada de 1980 y fue que hubo una misteriosa epidemia de fallas de unidades de respaldo de cinta en todo Estados Unidos. +E IBM, que haca estas unidades no tena ninguna pista de qu poda hacer. +Le encargaron a un grupo de sus mejores cientficos que investigaran esto y lo que encontraron fue que todas estas unidades de cinta estaban cerca de ductos de ventilacin. +Y lo que pasaba era que el bactericida estaba formulado con pequeas partculas de estao. +Y estas partculas de estao eran depositadas sobre los lectores de cinta y estaban arruinndolos. +Por lo que reformularon el bactericida. +Pero lo interesante para m es que este el primer caso de un dispositivo mecnico que sufre, al menos indirectamente, una enfermedad humana. +Y esto demuestra que realmente estamos todos juntos en esto. +De hecho, tambin muestra algo interesante, que a pesar de que nuestras capacidades y la tecnologa han ido expandindose geomtricamente, desafortunadamente nuestra capacidad de modelar su comportamiento a largo plazo -que tambin ha ido aumentando- ha aumentado slo aritmticamente. +As que uno de los problemas caractersticos de nuestro tiempo es cmo cerrar esta brecha entre capacidades y visin de futuro. +Otra consecuencia muy positiva de la tecnologa del siglo 20 fue la manera en que otros tipos de calamidades pudieron conducir a avances positivos. +Hay dos historiadores del mundo de los negocios de la Universidad de Maryland, Brent Goldfarb y David Kirsch, que han hecho un trabajo muy interesante, mucho del cual an no se publica, sobre la historia de las innovaciones ms importantes. +Han combinado la lista de estas innovaciones ms importantes y han descubierto que la mayor cantidad, la mejor dcada, de innovaciones fundamentales, reflejada en todas las listas que otros han producido una serie de listas que ellos unieron fue la de la Gran Depresin. +Y nadie sabe exactamente por qu esto fue as, pero una historia puede reflejar un poco este porqu. +Fue el origen de la copiadora Xerox que celebr su aniversario nmero 50 el ao pasado. +Y Chester Carlson, el inventor, era un abogado de patentes. +Realmente no tena la intencin de trabajar estudiando patentes pero realmente no poda encontrar otro trabajo tcnico. +Y este fue el mejor trabajo que pudo conseguir. +l estaba molesto por la baja calidad y alto costo de las copias de las patentes existentes, as que comenz a desarrollar un sistema de fotocopiado en seco, que patent a finales de los 1930s; y que se convirti en la primera fotocopiadora en seco comercialmente factible en 1960. +As que vemos que, a veces, como resultado de estos trastornos, como resultado de que la gente abandona la carrera que pretenda originalmente y va en otra direccin donde su creatividad puede marcar una diferencia, que las depresiones y todo tipo de otros eventos desafortunados pueden tener paradjicamente un efecto estimulante sobre la creatividad. +Qu significa esto? +Creo que esto significa que estamos viviendo en una poca de posibilidades inesperadas. +Piensen, por ejemplo, en el mundo financiero. +El mentor de Warren Buffett, Benjamin Graham, desarroll su sistema de inversin en valores como consecuencia de sus propias prdidas en la crisis de 1929. +Y public ese libro comenzando la dcada de 1930 y el libro todava existe en ediciones posteriores y sigue siendo un texto fundamental. +As que muchas cosas creativas e importantes pueden suceder cuando la gente aprende de los desastres. +Ahora consideren las pequeas y grandes plagas que tenemos hoy da chinches, abejas asesinas, el spam y es muy posible que las soluciones a esos problemas se extiendan muchsimo ms all del problema inmediato. +Si pensamos, por ejemplo, en Louis Pasteur, a quien la industria de la seda le pidi que estudiara las enfermedades de los gusanos de seda en la dcada de 1860, y sus descubrimientos fueron en realidad el inicio de la teora de los grmenes de las enfermedades. +As que, muy a menudo, algn tipo de desastre a veces, por ejemplo, la consecuencia de un sobre-cultivo de gusanos de seda, un problema en Europa en ese momento puede ser la clave de algo mucho ms grande. +As que esto significa que tenemos que tener una visin distinta sobre las consecuencias imprevistas. +Tenemos que tener una visin muy positiva. +Tenemos que ver qu pueden hacer por nosotros. +Tenemos que aprender de esas cifras que he mencionado. +Tenemos que aprender, por ejemplo, del Doctor Cushing, quien mat a pacientes en sus primeras operaciones. +Tena que tener algunos errores. Tena que cometer algunas equivocaciones. +Pero aprendi meticulosamente de sus errores. +Y, como resultado, cuando decimos: "Esto no es ciruga cerebral", rendimos tributo a lo difcil que era que alguien pudiera aprender de sus errores en una especialidad mdica en que sus resultados eran considerados tan desalentadores. +Y tambin podemos recordar cmo las compaas farmacuticas estuvieron dispuestas a unir sus conocimientos, a compartir su informacin, al enfrentar una emergencia que nunca antes haban tenido. +Podran haber sido capaces de hacerlo antes. +Entonces el mensaje que tomo de las consecuencias imprevistas es que el caos existe; aprovechemos de darle un mejor uso. +Muchas gracias. +En los prximos 15 minutos voy a tratar de contarles una idea de cmo vamos a hacer que la materia cobre vida. +Esto puede parecer un poco ambicioso pero, si nos miramos, si miramos nuestras manos, nos damos cuenta que estamos vivos. +Esto es un comienzo. +Esto empez hace 4.000 millones de aos en el planeta Tierra. +Ha habido 4.000 millones aos de vida orgnica, biolgica. +Como qumico inorgnico, con mis amigos y colegas hacemos la distincin entre el mundo orgnico, vivo, y el mundo inorgnico, muerto. +Voy a tratar de sembrar algunas ideas de cmo podemos transformar la materia inorgnica, muerta, en materia viva, en biologa inorgnica. +Pero antes de eso quiero poner la biologa en contexto. +Estoy absolutamente fascinado por la biologa. +Me encanta hacer biologa sinttica. +Me encantan las cosas vivas. +Me encanta manipular la infraestructura de la biologa. +Pero dentro de esa infraestructura tenemos que recordar que la fuerza motriz de la biologa viene en realidad de la evolucin. +Y la evolucin, si bien fue establecida hace ms de 100 aos por Charles Darwin y mucha otra gente, la evolucin sigue siendo un poco intangible. +Y cuando hablo de la evolucin darwiniana quiero decir una y slo una cosa: la supervivencia del ms apto. +Olvidmonos de la evolucin en un sentido metafsico. +Pensemos la evolucin en trminos de una competencia de la prole en la que alguien gana. +Teniendo eso en mente, como qumico, quera formularme la pregunta frustrada por la biologa: Cul es la mnima unidad de materia capaz de experimentar una evolucin darwiniana? +Parece una pregunta bastante profunda. +Como qumicos no estamos acostumbrados a preguntas profundas cotidianas. +Al pensarlo de repente me di cuenta que la biologa nos daba una respuesta. +Y, de hecho, la mnima unidad de materia que puede evolucionar en forma independiente es una clula simple... una bacteria. +Esto plantea tres preguntas muy importantes: Qu es la vida? +La biologa es algo especial? +Los bilogos piensan que s. +Evoluciona la materia? +Si respondemos esas preguntas en orden inverso... la tercera, evoluciona la materia? Si podemos responderla, entonces sabremos cun especial es la biologa y quiz, slo quiz, nos haremos una idea de qu es realmente la vida. +Aqu hay algo de vida inorgnica. +Este es un cristal muerto al que le voy a hacer algo y va a cobrar vida. +Y pueden ver como que se poliniza, germina, crece. +Este es un tubo inorgnico. +Y todos estos cristales bajo el microscopio estaban muertos hace unos minutos y ahora parecen vivos. +Claro, no estn vivos. +Es un experimento qumico en el que he hecho un jardn de cristales. +Pero cuando vi esto realmente me fascin porque pareca tener vida. +Y, mientras me detengo unos segundos, miren la pantalla. +Pueden ver que la arquitectura crece, que llena el vaco. +Esto est muerto. +Yo estaba seguro de que, si de algn modo podemos hacer que las cosas imiten la vida, podremos dar un paso ms. +Veamos si podemos realmente crear vida. +Pero hay un problema; hasta hace quiz una dcada nos decan que la vida era imposible y que era ramos el milagro ms increble del universo. +Que ramos los nicos en el universo. +Ahora, eso es un poco aburrido. +Por eso, como qumico, yo quera decir: "Esperen. Qu est pasando aqu? +Es tan improbable la vida?" +Esta es realmente la pregunta. +Creo que tal vez la aparicin de las primeras clulas era tan probable como la de las estrellas. +Demos ese paso adicional. +Digamos que si la fsica de la fusin est codificada en el universo, quiz la fsica de la vida tambin lo est. +El problema con los qumicos, y esto tambin es una gran ventaja, es que nos gusta centrarnos en los elementos. +En biologa el carbono ocupa un lugar central. +En el universo, donde existe el carbono y la biologa orgnica, tenemos toda esta maravillosa diversidad de la vida. +Tenemos formas de vida increbles que podemos manipular. +Tenemos extremo cuidado en el laboratorio para tratar de evitar los distintos riesgos biolgicos. +Y qu pasa con la materia? +Si podemos hacer que la materia viva, tendramos esos riesgos? +Pensemos; esta es una pregunta seria. +Si su bolgrafo pudiera replicarse eso sera un problema. +Por eso tenemos que pensar de manera diferente si vamos a hacer que las cosas cobren vida. +Y tambin tenemos que ser conscientes de los problemas. +Pero antes de poder crear vida pensemos un segundo qu es lo que caracteriza la vida. +Perdonen lo complicado del diagrama. +Esto es slo una coleccin de caminos en la clula. +Y para nosotros la clula es, obviamente, algo fascinante. +Los bilogos sintticos las estn manipulando. +Los qumicos investigan las molculas para estudiar enfermedades. +Tenemos todos estos caminos al mismo tiempo. +Hay regulacin; se transcribe informacin; se crean catalizadores; pasan muchas cosas. +Pero qu hace la clula? +Bueno, se divide, compite, sobrevive. +Y creo que es ah donde tenemos que empezar a pensar en la construccin de nuestras ideas sobre la vida. +Pero, por qu otra cosa se caracteriza la vida? +Bueno, me gusta pensarlo como una llama en una botella. +Por eso aqu tenemos una descripcin de clulas simples que se replican, metabolizan, y consumen mediante la qumica. +Por eso tenemos que entender que si vamos a crear vida artificial, o entender el origen de la vida, tenemos que alimentarla de algn modo. +As que antes de empezar a crear vida en realidad tenemos que pensar de dnde vino. +Y el propio Darwin reflexionaba en una carta a un colega que l pensaba que la vida probablemente surgi en algn pequeo estanque clido por ah; quiz no en Escocia, quiz en frica, quiz en algn otro lado. +Pero la respuesta realmente honesta es que no lo sabemos porque hay un problema con el origen. +Remontmonos al pasado 4.500 millones de aos; hay un gran caldo qumico de materia. +Y de esa materia vinimos. +As que cuando piensen en la naturaleza improbable de lo que les voy a contar en los prximos minutos slo recuerden que vinimos de materia del planeta Tierra. +Y pasamos por una variedad de mundos. +Los expertos en ARN hablan del mundo del ARN. +De algn modo llegamos a las protenas y al ADN. +Luego llegamos al ltimo ancestro. +La evolucin irrumpe... eso es lo genial. +Y aqu estamos. +Pero hay un obstculo que no podemos superar. +Se puede decodificar el genoma, ir hacia atrs, podemos vincularnos todos por un ADN mitocondrial, pero no podemos ir ms all del ltimo ancestro, la ltima clula visible que pudimos secuenciar o a la cual nos retrotraemos en la historia. +No sabemos cmo llegamos aqu. +Hay dos opciones: diseo inteligente, directo e indirecto; es decir, Dios o mi amigo. +Ahora bien, hablar de que E.T. nos puso all, o a otra forma de vida, slo posterga el problema para ms adelante. +No soy poltico, soy cientfico. +Lo otro en que tenemos que pensar es en el surgimiento de la complejidad qumica. +Esto parece ms probable. +Hay una especie de caldo primigenio. +Y da la casualidad que sta es una buena fuente de los 20 aminocidos. +Y que de algn modo se combinaron estos aminocidos y empez la vida. +Pero, qu significa que empez la vida? +Qu es la vida? Qu es esto de la vida? +En los aos 50 Miller-Urey realiz un experimento qumico fantstico de tipo Frankenstein; fue el equivalente para el mundo qumico. +Tomaron los ingredientes bsicos, los pusieron en el mismo frasco, los encendieron, y les aplicaron alto voltaje. +Luego miraron qu haba en la sopa y hallaron aminocidos pero no sali nada, no haba clulas. +Toda esa disciplina se detuvo durante un tiempo y se reaviv en los aos 80 con el surgimiento de tecnologas analticas e informticas. +En mi propio laboratorio el modo en que tratamos de crear vida inorgnica es mediante muchos y distintos formatos de reaccin. +Estamos tratando de hacer reacciones... no en un frasco, sino en decenas de frascos, y conectamos, como pueden ver en este sistema de flujo, todos estos tubos. +Podemos hacerlo con microfluidos, podemos hacerlo litogrficamente, podemos hacerlo con impresoras 3D, podemos hacerlo en gotas para los colegas. +La clave es tener un montn de procesos qumicos complejos burbujeando. +Pero eso probablemente termine fracasando, por eso tenemos que centrar ms la atencin. +Y la respuesta, por supuesto, se encuentra en los ratones. +Esto me recuerda lo que necesito como qumico. +Digo: "Bueno, quiero molculas". +Pero necesito un metabolismo, necesito energa. +Necesito informacin, y necesito un contenedor. +Porque si quiero evolucin necesito que los contenedores compitan. +As, si tenemos un contenedor es como entrar al coche. +"Este es mi coche y voy a salir a alardear con l". +Me imagino que ocurre algo similar en la biologa celular con el surgimiento de la vida. +As que estas cosas juntas, quiz nos dan la evolucin. +Y la forma de probarlo en el laboratorio es reducirlo a lo mnimo. +Por eso vamos a tratar de encontrar un kit de componentes inorgnicos de molculas. +Disculpen que puse molculas en la pantalla pero se trata de un kit muy simple. +Slo hay 3 4 tipos diferentes de bloques de construccin. +Podemos combinarlos y hacer, literalmente, miles y miles de grandes estructuras nanomoleculares del mismo tamao que el ADN y las protenas pero sin carbono a la vista. +El carbono es malo. +As, con este kit del tipo Lego, tenemos la diversidad que se requiere para el almacenamiento de informacin compleja sin ADN. +Pero tenemos que crear contenedores. +Y hace apenas unos meses en mi laboratorio pudimos tomar estas mismas molculas y crear clulas con ellas. +En pantalla pueden ver la creacin de una clula. +Ahora vamos a ponerle qumica en el interior y hacer qumica en esta clula. +Todo lo que quera mostrarles es que podemos montar molculas en membranas, en clulas reales, y luego eso establece una especie de darwinismo molecular, una supervivencia molecular del ms apto. +Esta pelcula de aqu muestra esa competencia entre molculas. +Las molculas compiten por la materia. +Todas estn hechas de la misma materia pero cada una quiere que gane su forma. +Cada una quiere que persista su forma. +Y esa es la clave. +Si de alguna manera podemos alentar a estas molculas para que hablen unas con otras, adopten las formas correctas y compitan, empezarn a formar clulas que se replicarn y competirn. +Si logramos hacer eso olvidmonos del detalle molecular. +Alejmonos y veamos qu podra significar eso. +Tenemos esta teora especial de la evolucin que slo se aplica a la biologa orgnica, a nosotros. +Si pudiramos llevar la evolucin al mundo material entonces propongo que deberamos tener una teora general de la evolucin. +Y eso es algo que vale la pena pensar. +Controla la evolucin la sofisticacin de la materia del universo? +Existe alguna fuerza motriz que gracias a la evolucin permita a la materia competir? +Eso quiere decir que podramos empezar a desarrollar distintas plataformas para explorar esta evolucin. +Imaginen que creamos una pequea clula. +Queremos ponerla en el ambiente y que sea alimentada por el sol. +La ponemos en una caja con una luz encendida. +Y ya no usamos ms diseo. Hallamos lo que funciona. +Deberamos inspirarnos en la biologa. +La biologa no tiene en cuenta el diseo a menos que funcione. +Esto reorganizar la forma en que diseamos las cosas. +Pero no slo eso, empezaremos a pensar en la forma de desarrollar una relacin simbitica con la biologa. +No sera genial si se pudiera tomar estas clulas biolgicas artificiales y fusionarlas con clulas biolgicas para corregir problemas a los que no podamos hacer frente? +El verdadero problema en la biologa celular es que nunca vamos a entenderlo todo porque es un problema multidimensional el que plantea la evolucin. +La evolucin no se puede escindir. +De algn modo tenemos que hallar la funcin de aptitud. +Y para m la consecuencia profunda es que, si esto funciona, el concepto de gen egosta avanza un nivel y empezamos a hablar de materia egosta. +Y qu quiere decir esto en un universo en el que en este momento somos la forma ms elevada de materia? +Uds. estn sentados en sus butacas. +Son inanimadas, no tienen vida. +Pero Uds estn hechos de materia, usan materia, y hacen uso intensivo de ella. +Por eso usar la evolucin en biologa y en biologa orgnica, para m es bastante atractivo, muy emocionante. +Estamos realmente muy cerca de comprender los pasos clave que hacen que la materia muerta cobre vida. +De nuevo, cuando piensen lo improbable de esto recuerden que hace 5.000 millones de aos no estbamos aqu y no haba vida. +Qu nos dice eso del origen de la vida y de su significado? +Tal vez yo, como qumico, quiero mantenerme alejado de los trminos generales; quiero pensar en los detalles. +Qu quiere decir eso sobre la definicin de la vida? +Realmente luchamos para lograrlo. +Creo que si podemos hacer biologa inorgnica y podemos hacer que la materia evolucione, eso, de hecho, definir la vida. +Pienso que la materia que puede evolucionar, est viva y esto nos da la idea de hacer materia que evolucione. +Muchas gracias. +Chris Anderson: Slo una pregunta rpida en funcin del tiempo. +Crees que vas a tener xito en este proyecto? +Cundo? +Lee Cronin: Mucha gente piensa que el surgimiento de la vida llev millones de aos. +Estamos proponiendo hacerlo en unas pocas horas, una vez que establezcamos la qumica correcta. +CA: Y cundo crees que va a pasar? +LC: Con suerte, en los prximos dos aos. +CA: Eso sera una gran noticia. +En tu opinin, qu posibilidad crees que hay de la existencia de vida que no dependa del carbono caminando en otro planeta... caminando, rezumando o algo as? +LC: Creo que hay un 100%. +Porque la cosa es que nos centramos demasiado en la biologa; si quitamos el carbono, pueden suceder otras cosas. +Lo otro es que si pudiramos crear vida que no se base en el carbono quiz podamos decirle a la NASA qu buscar. +No vayan a buscar carbono, vayan en busca de materia que evoluciona. +CA: Lee Cronin, buena suerte. (LC: Muchas gracias) +Hola a todos. +Soy artista... y padre, por segunda vez. +Gracias. +Y quiero compartir con Uds mi ltimo trabajo. +Es un libro infantil para iPad. +Es un poco peculiar y algo tonto. +Se llama "Pop-It". Y se trata de las cosas que hacen los nios pequeos con sus padres. +Aqu se ensea a ir al bao... algo que los presentes, espero, ya sepan. +Pueden divertirse con la alfombra. +Hacer que el beb lo haga. +Hacer todas estas cosas graciosas. +Se puede explotar burbujas. +Y dibujar; algo que todos deberamos hacer. +Pero, ya saben, tengo un problema con los libros infantiles: creo que estn llenos de propaganda. +Al menos un indio comprando libros estadounidenses en Park Slope, olvdense. +No es as como me criaron. +As que dije: "voy a contrarrestar esto con mi propia propaganda". +Si miran con atencin hay una pareja homosexual criando un beb. +No les gusta? +Agitan y tienen una pareja de lesbianas. +Agitan y tienen una pareja heterosexual. +Saben, ni siquiera creo en el concepto de familia ideal. +Tengo que contarles algo sobre mi niez. +Fui a esta escuela cristiana muy correcta... fui educado por monjas, sacerdotes, hermanos, hermanas. +Me educaron para ser un buen samaritano, y lo soy. +Y al final del da iba a un hogar hind tradicional que probablemente era el nico hogar hind en un barrio predominantemente islmico. +Bsicamente, yo celebraba todos los eventos religiosos. +De hecho, cuando haba una boda en el barrio todos pintbamos nuestras casas para la boda. +Recuerdo que llorbamos a mares cuando las cabritas con las que jugbamos en verano se transformaban en biriani. +Todos tenamos que ayunar en Ramadn. +Fue una poca muy hermosa. +Pero debo decir algo que nunca olvidar. Cuando tena 13 aos ocurri algo. +Babri Masjid... una de las mezquitas ms hermosas de India construida por el rey Babur, creo, en el siglo XVI fue derribada por activistas hindes. +Esto caus disturbios importantes en mi ciudad. +Y, por primera vez, me afectaron estos disturbios comunales. +Mi vecinito de 5 aos vino corriendo y me dijo: "Hindes. +Los hindes nos estn matando a los musulmanes. Cuidado". +Y le digo: "Amigo, soy hind". +Y l hace "Ahh!" +Saben, mi trabajo se inspira en cosas como esta. +Incluso en mis exposiciones trato de repasar hechos histricos como el de Babri Masjid, extraer slo lo emocional y retratar mi propia vida. +Imaginen si la historia se enseara de forma diferente. +Recuerdan ese libro infantil que al agitarlo cambia la sexualidad de los padres? +Tengo otra idea. +Es un libro infantil sobre la independencia india... muy patritico. +Pero si lo agitamos, vemos la perspectiva pakistan. +Lo agitamos de nuevo y tenemos la perspectiva britnica. +Hay que separar los hechos de la parcialidad. Correcto. +Incluso mis libros infantiles tienen animales lindos y difusos +que practican geopoltica. +Representan a Israel y Palestina a India y Pakistn. +Estoy planteando un argumento muy importante. +Mi idea es que la nica manera que tenemos de ensear creatividad es mediante la enseanza de perspectivas a los nios desde la ms temprana infancia. +Despus de todo, los libros infantiles son los manuales de crianza as que son mejores los que ensean perspectivas diferentes. +Y, a la inversa, solamente ensendole varias perspectivas el nio podr imaginar y ponerse en el lugar de alguien diferente. +Sostengo la idea de que el arte y la creatividad son herramientas esenciales para la empata. +No le puedo prometer a mi hijo una vida libre de parcialidades; todos somos parciales, pero prometo sesgar a mi hijo con perspectivas mltiples. +Muchas gracias. +Mi tema es el crecimiento econmico en China e India. +Y la pregunta que quiero explorar con Uds es si la democracia ha ayudado u obstaculizado el crecimiento econmico. +Pueden decir que no es justo porque estoy eligiendo dos pases para bregar en contra de la democracia. +En realidad, voy a hacer todo lo contrario. +Voy a usar estos dos pases para plantear un argumento econmico a favor de la democracia, no en contra de la democracia. +La primera cuestin es ver por qu China ha crecido mucho ms rpido que India. +En los ltimos 30 aos, en trminos de las tasas de crecimiento del PIB, China ha crecido al doble del ritmo de India. +En los ltimos cinco aos, de algn modo, los dos pases han comenzado a converger en crecimiento econmico. +Pero en los ltimos 30 aos, China, sin duda, ha hecho las cosas mucho mejor que India. +Una respuesta sencilla, y es que, China tiene a Shanghi e India a Mumbai. +Miren el perfil urbano de Shanghi. +Esta es la zona de Pudong. +La foto de India es de la barriada de Dharavi en Mumbai, en India. +La idea que yace detrs de estas dos imgenes es que el gobierno chino puede actuar por encima del imperio de la ley. +Puede planificar los beneficios a largo plazo del pas y, en el proceso, expulsar a millones de personas... es slo una cuestin tcnica menor. +Mientras que en India, no se puede hacer eso porque hay que escuchar al pblico. +Se est limitado a la opinin pblica. +Incluso el primer ministro, Manmohan Singh, est de acuerdo con esa opinin. +En una entrevista publicada por la prensa financiera india, dijo que quiere hacer de Mumbai otra Shanghi. +Es un economista formado en Oxford, aunque sumido en valores humansticos, est de acuerdo con las tcticas de alta presin de Shanghi. +Lo llamo, "modelo de crecimiento econmico de Shanghi", y hace hincapi en las siguientes caractersticas para promover el desarrollo econmico: infraestructura, aeropuertos, autopistas, puentes; cosas de ese estilo. +Y hace falta un gobierno fuerte para hacerlo porque no se puede respetar el derecho a la propiedad privada. +No se puede limitar a la opinin pblica. +Se necesita tambin del patrimonio estatal, en especial de la tierra, para desarrollar y desplegar las infraestructuras ms rpidamente. +La consecuencia de este modelo es que la democracia es un obstculo para el crecimiento econmico, ms que un facilitador del mismo. +Esta es la pregunta clave: +Qu importancia tienen las infraestructuras en el crecimiento econmico? +Este es un tema clave. +Si creen que las infraestructuras son muy importantes para el crecimiento econmico, alegarn, entonces, que se necesita un gobierno fuerte para impulsar el crecimiento. +Pero si creen que las infraestructuras no son tan importantes, como muchos creen, entonces harn menos hincapi en un gobierno fuerte. +As que para ilustrar esta cuestin tomaremos dos pases. +Por una cuestin de brevedad, denominar a un pas, "Pas 1, y al otro, "Pas 2". +"Pas 1" tiene una ventaja sistemtica sobre "Pas 2" en infraestructuras. +"Pas 1" tiene ms telfonos y un sistema ferroviario ms extenso. +Y si les preguntara, "Cul es China y cul India, y qu pas ha crecido ms rpido?" +Si son partidarios de la infraestructura, entonces dirn que,"Pas 1" debe ser China. +Deben haber hecho las cosas mejor, en trminos de crecimiento econmico. +Y "Pas 2", posiblemente sea India. +En realidad, el pas con ms telfonos es la Unin Sovitica, y los datos son de 1989. +Despus de informar estadsticas muy impresionantes sobre los telfonos el pas se derrumb. +Eso no es muy bueno. +La foto es de Khrushchev. +S que en 1989 ya no gobernaba la Unin Sovitica, pero es la mejor foto que pude encontrar. +Los telfonos, las infraestructuras, no garantizan el crecimiento econmico. +"Pas 2", que tiene menos telfonos, es China. +Desde 1989, el pas ha crecido a una tasa promedio anual de dos dgitos, durante los ltimos 20 aos. +Si no supieran nada de China ni de la Unin Sovitica, salvo el hecho de los telfonos, habran hecho una prediccin pobre sobre el crecimiento econmico de las siguientes dos dcadas. +"Pas 1", que tiene un sistema ferroviario ms extenso, en realidad es India. +Y "Pas 2" es China. +Esto es algo que se conoce muy poco sobre los dos pases. +S, hoy China tiene una ventaja enorme de infraestructura sobre India. +Pero durante muchos aos, hasta fines de los aos 90, China tena una desventaja de infraestructura en relacin a India. +En los pases en desarrollo, el modo de transporte ms comn es el ferrocarril. Los britnicos construyeron gran cantidad de vas frreas en India. +India es el menor de los dos pases y, sin embargo, tena un sistema ferroviario ms extenso hasta finales de los 90. +As que, claramente, la infraestructura no explica por qu a China le fue mejor antes de los 90 respecto de India. +De hecho, si atendemos a las evidencias a nivel mundial, stas demuestran que, la infraestructura es producto del crecimiento econmico. +La economa crece, el gobierno acumula ms recursos y puede invertir en infraestructura... en vez de ser la infraestructura la causa del crecimiento econmico. +Esta es claramente la historia del crecimiento econmico chino. +Voy a abordar la cuestin en forma ms directa. +La democracia, es mala para el crecimiento econmico? +Volvamos a plantear dos pases: "Pas A" y "Pas B". +"Pas A", en 1990, tena un PIB per cpita de unos 300 dlares en comparacin con "Pas B", que tena un PIB per cpita de 460 dlares. +Para el 2008 "Pas A" sobrepas a "Pas B" con un PIB per cpita de 700 dlares, en comparacin con un PIB per cpita de 650 dlares. +Ambos pases estn en Asia. +Si les preguntara: "Cules son los dos pases asiticos? +Cul es una democracia? +Podran argumentar que, quiz, "Pas A" es China y "Pas B" es India". +De hecho, "Pas A" es la India democrtica y "Pas B" es Pakistn... el pas con un largo perodo de regmenes militares. +Y es muy comn comparar a India con China, +debido a que ambos pases tienen casi la misma poblacin. +Pero la comparacin ms natural, es en realidad, entre India y Pakistn. +Ambos pases tienen una geografa similar. +Tienen una historia complicada pero compartida y comn. +Comparando de sta manera, la democracia parece muy, muy buena en trminos de crecimiento econmico. +Entonces, por qu los economistas se enamoran de los gobiernos autoritarios? +Una razn es el "modelo de Asia oriental". +En Asia oriental hemos tenido historias exitosas de crecimiento econmico como las de Corea del Sur, Taiwn, Hong Kong y Singapur. +Algunas de estas economas estuvieron regidas por gobiernos autoritarios en las dcadas del 60, 70 y 80. +El problema de enfocarlo as es igual que preguntarle a los ganadores de lotera: "Ganaron la lotera?" +Todos van a decir: "S, ganamos la lotera". +Luego sacaremos la conclusin de que la probabilidad de ganar es del 100%. +La razn es que nunca nos vamos a molestar en preguntarle a los perdedores, que tambin compraron billetes de lotera pero no terminaron ganando el premio. +Por cada xito de estos gobiernos autoritarios de Asia oriental hay un fracaso a la par. +Corea del Sur tuvo xito, Corea del Norte no. +Taiwn tuvo xito, la China de Mao Zedong no. +Birmania no tuvo xito. +Filipinas no tuvo xito. +Si miramos los datos estadsticos de todo el mundo, realmente no hay sustento para la idea de que los gobiernos autoritarios tengan una ventaja sistemtica sobre las democracias, en trminos de crecimiento econmico. +As, el "modelo de Asia oriental" tiene este sesgo de seleccin masiva lo que se conoce como seleccin de la variable dependiente, algo que siempre le pedimos a nuestros estudiantes que eviten. +Entonces, por qu China creci mucho ms rpido? +Los llevar a la Revolucin Cultural en la que China se volvi loca y comparar el desempeo de ese pas con el de la India, de Indira Gandhi. +La pregunta es: a qu pas le fue mejor, a China o a India? +A China durante la Revolucin Cultural. +Resulta que, incluso durante la Revolucin Cultural, China sobrepas a India en crecimiento del PIB, en un promedio cercano al 2,2% anual de PIB per cpita. +Fue en ese momento cuando China se volvi loca. +Todo el pas se volvi loco. +Vale decir que, el pas tena ventajas en s mismo, en trminos de crecimiento econmico, como para superar los efectos negativos de la Revolucin Cultural. +La ventaja que tena el pas era el capital humano. Nada ms que el capital humano. +Esta es la informacin de los indicadores del desarrollo mundial, a principio de los aos 90. +Y estos son los primeros datos que pude encontrar. +La tasa de alfabetizacin de adultos en China es del 77%, en comparacin con el 48% de la tasa india. +El contraste en las tasas de alfabetizacin se agudiza, en especial, entre las mujeres chinas e indias. +No les he hablado de la definicin de alfabetizacin. +En China, la alfabetizacin es la capacidad de leer y escribir 1.500 caracteres chinos. +En India, la alfabetizacin, la definicin operativa de alfabetizacin, es la capacidad, la gran capacidad, de escribir el propio nombre en el idioma que se le presente. +La brecha entre los dos pases en materia de alfabetizacin es mucho ms importante que los datos aqu indicados. +Si consultamos otras fuentes, como el ndice de Desarrollo Humano, esa serie de datos, se remontan a principios de los aos 70, vemos exactamente el mismo contraste. +China mantuvo una gran ventaja en materia de capital humano respecto de India. +La esperanza de vida: ya en 1965, China tena una ventaja enorme en la esperanza de vida. +En promedio, un chino en 1965 viva 10 aos ms que un indio promedio. +As que si podemos elegir entre ser un chino o un indio querramos ser chinos para poder vivir 10 aos ms. +Si tomaban esa decisin en 1965 el lado negativo de eso fue que, al ao siguiente, tuvimos la Revolucin Cultural. +As que uno siempre tiene que meditar detenidamente estas decisiones. +Si uno no puede elegir la nacionalidad, entonces querr ser un hombre indio. +Porque, como hombre, uno tiene cerca de dos aos ms de expectativa de vida respecto de la mujer india. +Este es un hecho muy extrao. +Es muy raro que se de entre pases este tipo de patrones. +Esto muestra la discriminacin sistemtica y los prejuicios de la sociedad india contra la mujer. +La buena noticia es que, para el 2006, India achic la brecha entre hombres y mujeres en materia de esperanza de vida. +Hoy las mujeres indias tienen una ventaja considerable, en ese sentido, sobre los hombres. +India est volviendo a la normalidad. +Pero an India tiene mucho trabajo por hacer, en materia de igualdad de gnero. +Aqu tenemos dos fotos tomadas en fbricas de ropa en la provincia de Guangdong, y en fbricas de ropa de India. +En China son todas mujeres. +Entre el 60% y el 80% de la mano de obra china son mujeres, en la parte costera del pas, mientras que en India son todos hombres. +El "Financial Times" public esta foto de una fbrica textil india con el ttulo: "India preparada para superar a China en textiles". +Al observar estas dos imgenes yo digo que no, no va a superar a China por un tiempo. +Si miramos otros pases de Asia oriental, all las mujeres, desempean un papel sumamente importante en materia de despegue econmico, en trminos de la creacin del milagro manufacturero, que se asocia a Asia oriental. +India todava tiene un largo camino que recorrer para alcanzar a China. +Entonces la cuestin es: qu pasa con el sistema poltico chino? +Hablamos de capital humano, hablamos de educacin y de salud pblica. +Qu pasa con el sistema poltico? +No es cierto que el sistema poltico de partido nico ha facilitado el crecimiento econmico de China? +En realidad, la respuesta tiene ms matices y es ms sutil. +Depende de la distincin que hagamos entre la esttica del sistema poltico y la dinmica del sistema poltico. +Visto estticamente, China es un sistema de partido nico, autoritario. No hay duda al respecto. +Visto dinmicamente, ha cambiado con el tiempo, se ha vuelto ms democrtica, menos autoritaria. +Al explicar el cambio -por ejemplo, el crecimiento econmico; el crecimiento econmico es un cambio. Al explicar el cambio, se usan otras cosas que han cambiado para explicar el cambio, en lugar de usar aquello constante para explicarlo. +A veces, un efecto fijo puede explicar el cambio, pero un efecto fijo slo explica los cambios en la interaccin con las cosas que cambian. +En materia de cambios polticos se han introducido las elecciones locales. +Han aumentado la seguridad de los propietarios. +Y han aumentado la seguridad de los arrendamientos de tierras a largo plazo. +Tambin hay reformas financieras en la China rural. +Tambin hay una revolucin rural empresarial en China. +Para m, el ritmo de los cambios polticos es demasiado lento, demasiado gradual. +Para m el pas va a enfrentar algunos retos importantes porque no han avanzado ms rpido en las reformas polticas. +Pero no obstante el sistema se ha movido en una direccin ms liberal, se ha movido en una direccin ms democrtica. +Se puede aplicar exactamente la misma perspectiva dinmica en India. +De hecho, cuando India creca a tasa hind, al 1%, 2% anual, fue en el perodo menos democrtico. +Indira Gandhi declar el estado de emergencia en 1975. +El gobierno indio era propietario y operaba todos los canales de TV. +Un hecho poco conocido de la India de los 90 es que el pas no slo llev a cabo reformas econmicas, sino que tambin emprendi reformas polticas mediante autonomas regionales, privatizacin de medios y leyes de libertad de informacin. +Por eso la perspectiva dinmica se adapta tanto a China como a India, en trminos de direccin. +Por qu muchas personas creen que India sigue siendo un desastre de crecimiento? +Una razn es que siempre se compara a India con China. +Pero China es una superestrella en materia de crecimiento econmico. +Si uno es jugador de la NBA y siempre se lo compara con Michael Jordan, no va a parecer muy admirable. +Pero eso no quiere decir que uno sea un mal jugador de baloncesto. +La comparacin con una superestrella, es el punto de referencia equivocado. +De hecho, si uno compara India con un pas en desarrollo promedio, incluso antes del perodo ms reciente de aceleracin del crecimiento indio -ahora India est creciendo entre el 8% y el 9%- incluso antes de este perodo, India ocup el cuarto lugar en materia de crecimiento econmico entre las economas emergentes. +Esta es una marca muy impresionante. +Pensemos en el futuro: el dragn versus el elefante. +Qu pas tiene impulso de crecimiento? +Creo que China todava tiene algunas bases primarias excelentes -principalmente el capital social, la salud pblica, el sentido de igualitarismo, que no encontramos en India. +Pero creo que India tiene el mpetu. +Tiene las bases de la mejora. +El gobierno ha invertido en educacin bsica, ha invertido en salud bsica. +Creo que el gobierno debera hacer ms, pero, no obstante, se estn moviendo en la direccin correcta. +India tiene las condiciones institucionales correctas para el crecimiento econmico mientras que China todava est luchando con las reformas polticas. +Creo que las reformas polticas son imprescindibles para que China mantenga el crecimiento. +Y es muy importante tener reformas polticas para compartir ampliamente los beneficios del crecimiento econmico. +No s si eso va a ocurrir o no, pero soy optimista. +Esperemos que, en 5 aos, pueda venir a informar a TEDGlobal que van a producirse reformas polticas en China. +Muchas gracias. +Esto es algo muy atpico para TED pero vamos a comenzar la tarde con un mensaje de un patrocinador misterioso. +Annimo: Querido Fox News, nos ha llamado desafortunadamente la atencin que han hecho estragos tanto con el nombre de Annimo como con su naturaleza. +Somos todos. Somos nadie. +Somos annimos. Somos legin. +No perdonamos. No olvidamos. +No somos ms que la base del caos. +Misha Glenny: Annimo, damas y caballeros, un grupo sofisticado de piratas informticos motivados polticamente que surgieron en 2011. +Y dan bastante miedo. +Nunca se sabe cundo ser el prximo ataque, quin o cul ser la consecuencia. +Pero, curiosamente, tienen sentido del humor. +Estos muchachos entraron a la cuenta de Twitter de Fox News para anunciar el asesinato del presidente Obama. +Imaginen el pnico que habr generado en la sala de prensa de Fox. +"Qu hacemos ahora? +Nos ponemos un brazalete negro o descorchamos champn?" +Y, por supuesto, quin podra escapar a la irona de que la vctima de piratera haya sido, para variar, +un miembro de la corporacin de Rupert Murdoch? +A veces uno mira las noticias y dice: "queda alguien por piratear?" +Sony Playstation Network... hecho, el gobierno de Turqua... hecho, la Agencia Britnica contra el Delito Grave Organizado... como si nada, la CIA... tambin. +De hecho, un amigo que trabaja en seguridad informtica me dijo el otro da que hay dos tipos de compaas en el mundo: las que saben que han sido hackeadas y las que no. +Quiero decir, tres compaas que brindan servicios de seguridad informtica al FBI han sido atacadas. +Por el amor de Dios! Ya no hay nada sagrado? +De todos modos, este misterioso grupo Annimo -y ellos mismos lo aseguraran- provee un servicio al demostrar lo intiles que son las compaas para proteger nuestros datos. +Pero tambin hay un aspecto muy serio de Annimo: persiguen una ideologa. +Dicen que estn luchando contra una conspiracin ruin. +Dicen que los gobiernos estn tratando de apoderarse de Internet y de controlarla y que ellos, Annimo, son la voz autntica de la resistencia -sea contra las dictaduras de Medio Oriente, contra las corporaciones globales de medios, contra las agencias de inteligencia o quienquiera que sea. +Y sus polticas son un poco atractivas. +Es verdad, son un poco rudimentarias. +Hay en ellas un fuerte olor de anarquismo a medias. +Pero algo es cierto: estamos al principio de una lucha enorme por el control de Internet. +La Web lo enlaza todo y muy pronto va a mediar en casi toda la actividad humana +porque Internet ha forjado un entorno nuevo y complicado para un viejo dilema que enfrenta las demandas de seguridad con el deseo de libertad. +Pero esta es una lucha muy complicada. +Y, desafortunadamente, los mortales como Uds. y yo, probablemente no podemos entenderlo muy bien. +Sin embargo, en un ataque inesperado de arrogancia, hace un par de aos, decid que intentara hacerlo. +Y en cierto modo lo hice. +Estas eran todas las cosas que estaba mirando al tratar de entenderlo. +As que ah estn. +Y como ven, en el medio, est nuestro viejo amigo: el hacker. +El hacker es absolutamente central para muchos de los problemas polticos, sociales y econmicos que afectan la Red. +Y por eso pens: "Bueno, estos son los chicos con los que quiero hablar". +Y, qu creen ustedes? Nadie ms habla con los hackers. +Tal parece que de verdad son completamente annimos. +As que a pesar de que estamos empezando a inyectar miles de millones, cientos de miles de millones de dlares, en seguridad informtica -para las soluciones tcnicas ms extraordinarias- nadie quiere hablar con estos chicos, los hackers, quienes son los que hacen todo. +En su lugar, preferimos estas soluciones tecnolgicas muy deslumbrantes que cuestan gran cantidad de dinero. +Y no va nada destinado para los hackers. +Bueno, yo digo nada, pero en realidad hay una unidad de investigacin muy, muy pequea en Turn, Italia, llamada Proyecto de Perfiles de Hackers. +Y estn haciendo investigaciones fantsticas de las caractersticas, las habilidades y la socializacin de los hackers. +Pero dado que es una operacin de N.U. quiz por eso los gobiernos y las empresas no tienen inters en ello. +Dado que es una operacin de N.U., por supuesto, carece de financiacin. +Pero creo que estn haciendo un trabajo muy importante. +Dado que tenemos un supervit de tecnologa en la industria de la seguridad informtica tenemos una clara falta de, llmenme antiguo, inteligencia humana. +Hasta ahora he mencionado a los hackers Annimo que son un grupo de hackers con motivacin poltica. +Claro, el sistema de justicia penal los trata como tpicos criminales comunes. +Pero, curiosamente, Annimo no usa la informacin hackeada para obtener ganancias. +Pero, y los ciberdelincuentes de verdad? +El cibercrimen organizado real se remonta a unos 10 aos atrs cuando un grupo de talentosos hackers ucranianos desarrollaron un sitio web que llev a la industrializacin del crimen informtico. +Bienvenidos al ahora reino olvidado de CarderPlanet. +Esta es la forma en que se autopublicitaban en la Red hace una dcada. +CarderPlanet era muy interesante. +Los criminales informticos iban all a comprar y vender datos robados de tarjetas de crdito, para intercambiar informacin sobre el nuevo malware que estaba all. +Y recuerden, este es un momento en el que veamos por primera vez el as llamado malware comercial. +Es material que viene listo para usar, que puede implementarse incluso si uno no es un hacker muy sofisticado. +As que CarderPlanet se volvi una especie de supermercado para criminales informticos. +Y sus creadores fueron increblemente inteligentes y emprendedores dado que enfrentaban un desafo enorme dada su naturaleza de cibercriminales. +Y ese desafo es: Cmo hacer negocios, cmo confiar en alguien de la Red que quiere hacer negocios con uno cuando sabemos que son criminales? +Est en su naturaleza ser poco fiables y van a querer estafarte. +La familia, como se conoca al ncleo interno de CarderPlanet, apareci con esta idea brillante llamada sistema de garanta. +Nombraron a un oficial como intermediario entre el vendedor y el comprador. +El vendedor, digamos, haba robado datos de la tarjeta de crdito; el comprador quera conseguirlas. +El comprador le enva al oficial administrativo algunos dlares en electrnico y el vendedor enviara los datos de la tarjeta de crdito robada. +El oficial luego verificara si funcionaba la tarjeta robada. +Y si lo haca luego l le pasa el dinero al vendedor y los datos de la tarjeta robada al comprador. +Y esto fue lo que revolucion al crimen informtico en la Web. +Y luego de eso, simplemente explot. +Tuvimos una dcada de champn de gente que conocemos como Carders. +Yo habl con uno de estos Carders; a quien llamaremos RedBrigade -ni siquiera era ese su apodo- pero promet que no revelara quin era. +Y l me explic como en 2003 y 2004 se iba de juerga en Nueva York, sacando 10.000 dlares de un cajero automtico, 30.000 dlares de otro, usando tarjetas de crdito clonadas. +Estaba haciendo, un promedio por semana de $150.000 libre de impuestos, por supuesto. +Y dijo que tena tanto dinero escondido en su departamento de lujo que no saba qu hacer con eso e incluso cay en una depresin. +Pero esa es una historia un tanto diferente de la cual no voy a hablar ahora. +Lo interesante de RedBrigade es que no era un hacker avanzado. +l medio que entenda la tecnologa y se daba cuenta que la seguridad era muy importante si uno quera ser un Carder pero no pasaba da y noche encima de la computadora, comiendo pizza, bebiendo Coca, ni ese tipo de cosas. +Estaba all en la ciudad pasndola bien, disfrutando de la buena vida. +Y esto se debe a que los hackers son solo un eslabn de la cadena del crimen informtico. +Y con frecuencia son el elemento ms vulnerable de todos. +Se los voy a explicar presentndoles seis personajes que conoc haciendo esta investigacin. +Dimitry Golubov, alias SCRIPT, nacido en Odessa, Ucrania, en 1982. +Desarroll su brjula moral y social en el puerto del Mar Negro durante la dcada del 90. +En este entorno te adaptabas o moras; participar en actividades criminales o de corrupcin era algo totalmente necesario si uno quera sobrevivir. +Como usuario experto de computadoras Dimitry llev el capitalismo mafioso de su ciudad natal a la red de redes. +E hizo un gran trabajo. +Hay que entender que desde los nueve aos el nico entorno que conoci fue el ambiente de pandillas. +No conoca otra forma de ganarse la vida y hacer dinero. +Despus est Renukanth Subramaniam, alias JiLsi, fundador de DarkMarket, oriundo de Colombo, Sri Lanka. +A los ocho aos huy junto a sus padres de la capital de Sri Lanka porque las turbas cingalesas vagaban por la ciudad, en busca de tamiles como Renu para asesinarlos. +A los 11 aos fue interrogado por el Ejrcito de Sri Lanka, acusado de terrorismo y sus padres lo mandaron solo a Gran Bretaa como refugiado en busca de asilo poltico. +A los 13 aos con poco ingls y habiendo sido intimidado en la escuela se refugi en el mundo de las computadoras en el que mostr gran habilidad tcnica, pero pronto fue seducido por la gente de Internet. +Fue declarado culpable de fraude hipotecario y de tarjetas de crdito y ser liberado de la crcel de Wormwood Scrubs de Londres en 2012. +Matrix001, era administrador de DarkMarket. +Nacido en el sur de Alemania en una respetable familia de clase media; su obsesin por los juegos en la adolescencia lo llev a la piratera. +Pronto empez a controlar servidores enormes en todo el mundo en los que guardaba los juegos que haba saqueado y pirateado. +Su cada en la delincuencia fue gradual. +Y cuando por fin se dio cuenta de su situacin, y entendi las consecuencias, ya estaba muy comprometido. +Max Vision, alias ICEMAN; cerebro de CardersMarket. +Oriundo de Meridian, Idaho. +Max Vision era experto en pruebas de penetracin y trabajaba en Santa Clara, California, a fines de los 90 para compaas privadas y, en forma voluntaria, para el FBI. +A finales de los 90 descubri una vulnerabilidad en todas las redes del gobierno de EE.UU., y l fue y le puso un parche -porque esto inclua las instalaciones de investigacin nuclear- evitndole al gobierno estadounidense una vergenza enorme en seguridad. +Pero como hacker empedernido que era dej un pequeo gusano digital a travs del cual slo l poda entrar. +Pero esto fue descubierto por un investigador avezado y entonces fue condenado. +En su rgimen carcelario abierto cay en la rbita de los defraudadores financieros, y esos defraudadores financieros lo convencieron de trabajar para ellos luego de la liberacin. +Y este hombre con un cerebro de escala planetaria actualmente cumple una condena de 13 aos en California. +Adewale Taiwo, alias FeddyBB; ciberladrn de cuentas bancarias de Abuja, Nigeria. +Cre su grupo, de nombre poco creativo, bankfrauds@yahoo.co.uk antes de llegar a Gran Bretaa en 2005 para hacer una maestra en ingeniera qumica en la Universidad de Manchester. +Impresion en el sector privado con el desarrollo de productos qumicos para la industria petrolera y al mismo tiempo manejaba un fraude bancario y de tarjetas de crdito millonario a nivel mundial hasta su arresto en 2008. +Y, por ltimo, Cagatay Evyapan, alias Cha0; uno de los hackers ms notables de la historia de Ankara, Turqua. +l combin las tremendas habilidades de un geek con las habilidades arrolladoras de ingeniera social de un maestro criminal. +Una de las personas ms inteligentes que he conocido. +Tambin tena la red de seguridad virtual y privada ms eficaz que la polica haya encontrado jams entre los cibercriminales a escala mundial. +Ahora, lo importante de todas estas personas es que comparten ciertas caractersticas a pesar de provenir de ambientes muy diferentes. +Todos aprendieron de piratera al inicio y mediados de la adolescencia. +Todos ellos demostraron una capacidad avanzada las matemticas y las ciencias. +Recuerden que cuando desarrollaron sus habilidades tcnicas todava no haban desarrollado su brjula moral. +Y la mayora de ellos, salvo SCRIPT y Cha0, no presentaban habilidad social real en el mundo exterior; slo en la Web. +Y la otra cosa es la alta incidencia de hackers como stos con caractersticas consistentes con el sndrome de Asperger. +Yo he discutido esto con el profesor Simon Baron-Cohen, que es profesor de psicopatologa del desarrollo en Cambridge. +l ha hecho una labor pionera en el autismo y confirm, tambin para las autoridades locales, que Gary McKinnon -que es requerido por los EE.UU. por hackear el Pentgono- sufre de Asperger y una condicin secundaria de depresin. +Y Baron-Cohen explicaba que ciertas discapacidades pueden manifestarse en el mundo de la informtica y la piratera como habilidades tremendas, y que no deberamos arrojar a la crcel personas con tales discapacidades y habilidades porque se han descarriado socialmente o han sido engaados. +Ahora, aqu nos falta algo, porque no creo que gente como Max Vision deba estar en la crcel. +Y permtanme ser franco al respecto. +En China, en Rusia y en muchos otros pases que estn desarrollando capacidades ciberofensivas, estn haciendo exactamente eso. +Estn reclutando piratas informticos antes y despus de que se vean involucrados en actividades de espionaje criminal e industrial; los estn movilizando en nombre del Estado. +Tenemos que atraer y encontrar formas de ofrecer orientacin a esta gente joven porque son una generacin notable. +Y si nos atenemos, como lo hacemos en este momento, nicamente al sistema de justicia penal y a la amenaza de las penas punitivas, vamos a alimentar a un monstruo que no podremos domesticar. +Muchas gracias por escuchar. +Chris Anderson: As que la idea a difundir es contratar hackers. +Cmo superar esa especie de temor de que el pirata que contratamos preserve ese gusanito digital? +MG: Creo que hasta cierto punto, uno tiene que entender que est en la naturaleza del hacker hacerlo. +Son implacables y obsesivos con lo que hacen. +Pero todas las personas con las que he hablado que han quedado fuera de la ley, todos han dicho: "Por favor, dennos una oportunidad de trabajar en la industria legtima. +Nunca supimos cmo llegar hasta all, ni lo que estbamos haciendo. +Queremos trabajar con Uds". +Chris Anderson: Muy bien, tiene sentido. Muchas gracias Misha. +Mi nombre es Kate Hartman +y me gusta crear dispositivos que recreen las maneras de relacionarnos y comunicarnos. +Por eso me interesa conocer cmo, como seres humanos, nos relacionamos con nosotros mismos, mutuamente y con el mundo que nos rodea. +Para que comprendan mejor, como dijo June, soy artista, tecnloga y pedagoga. +Doy clases de computacin fsica y de indumentaria electrnica. +Y la mayora de las cosas que hago son para ponerse o estn relacionadas con la figura humana. +Y para explicar lo que hago, quisiera sealar, rpidamente, por qu el cuerpo es importante. +Es bastante simple. +Todos tenemos un cuerpo. +Les garantizo, todos en esta sala, los que estn cmodamente sentados, los de all arriba con las porttiles... todos tenemos un cuerpo. +No se avergencen. +Es algo que tenemos en comn y opera como interfaz primaria para el mundo. +Al trabajar como diseadora de interaccin, o como artista que trabaja con la reciprocidad, crear elementos corporales externos o internos, en torno a la figura humana, es un espacio realmente poderoso desde donde partir. +As que, en mi propio trabajo, uso una gran variedad de materiales y herramientas. +Me comunico mediante cualquier elemento, desde transceptores hasta embudos y tubos de plstico. +Y para contarles lo que hago, ser ms sencillo empezar con el sombrero. +Todo empez hace unos aos, una noche, al regresar a casa en el subterrneo, mientras pensaba... +...porque soy una persona que piensa mucho y habla poco. +Y as fue que pens que sera grandioso si pudiera tomar todos esos sonidos, como los ecos de mis pensamientos, si pudiera sacarlos, materializarlos de alguna manera, para poder compartirlos con alguien ms. +Ya en casa, hice un prototipo de ese sombrero +y lo llam "sombrero murmurador" porque emite esos murmullos, esos que tenemos como amarrados, pero que se pueden separar y compartir con los dems. +Tambin hice otros sombreros. +Este se llama Sombrero para hablar con uno mismo. +Es bastante auto-explicativo. +Sita el espacio de conversacin en un solo lugar, +y al hablar en voz alta, el sonido de la voz es reemitido a los odos. +Y cuando hago estas cosas, no tienen mucho que ver con el objeto en s, sino con el espacio que lo rodea. +Qu sucede cuando la gente se pone estos objetos? +Qu tipo de experiencia tienen? +Cmo se transforman al usarlos? +Muchos de estos dispositivos se centran en las maneras de relacionamos con nosotros mismos. +Este particular dispositivo se llama Intestino oyente. +Y es una herramienta que permite escuchar nuestras propias vsceras. +Y algunos otros, en realidad, estn ms orientados a la expresin y a la comunicacin. +Como el Corazn inflable, un rgano externo que puede ser usado para expresarse. +Se puede inflar y desinflar de acuerdo a las emociones. +Y puede expresar desde admiracin y codicia, hasta ansiedad y angustia. +Y alguno de stos, de hecho, tienen el propsito de mediar experiencias. +Por ejemplo, el "Descomunicador", es una herramienta para las discusiones, +y permite un intercambio emocional intenso. Asimila lo especfico de las palabras que se emiten. +Y por ltimo, alguna de estas cosas actan como imitaciones. +Como el Manipulador de odos, que tiene algo colocado all afuera para que alguien pueda "tomar nuestra oreja" y decirnos lo que quieran. +Aunque me interesa mucho la relacin entre las personas, tambin considero importante la manera en que nos relacionamos con el mundo que nos rodea. +Hace unos aos, mientras viva en Nueva York, pensaba mucho en las formas arquitectnicas conocidas que me rodeaban y cmo relacionarme mejor con ellas. +Y pens: "listo! +Si quiero vincularme mejor con las paredes, entonces, tal vez, necesito convertirme en pared". +Entonces hice una pared porttil para usar como mochila. +Me lo pondra y sera, de alguna manera, una transformacin fsica de m misma para contribuir o criticar los espacios que me rodeaban. +Y as fue que pas del entorno construido a pensar en el mundo natural. Tengo este proyecto en curso, llamado "Llamados vegetales", que permite a las plantas del hogar hacer uso de los protocolos de comunicacin humana. +As, cuando una planta tiene sed, puede llamar por telfono, o enviar un mensaje a un servicio, como Twitter. +Y esto realmente produce un giro en la dinmica humano-planta, porque una simple planta hogarea puede expresar sus necesidades a miles de personas al mismo tiempo. +Y, pensando a gran escala, mi obsesin ms reciente son, de hecho, los glaciares... por supuesto. +Son seres tan magnficos que hacen que existan muchas razones para estar obsesionados con ellos. Pero en lo que estoy particularmente interesada, es en la relacin humano-glaciar. +Porque parece que hay un problema. +Los glaciares nos estn abandonando, +estn retrocediendo y reducindose, y alguno de ellos han desaparecido por completo. +Vivo en Canad en realidad, y he estado visitando mis glaciares. +Y ste es particularmente interesante, porque, de todos los glaciares de Amrica del Norte, ste recibe el mayor nmero de personas por ao. +Incluso, hay autobuses que suben y llegan hasta la morrena lateral, haciendo descender a la gente en la superficie del glaciar. +Y esto realmente me hizo pensar en ese primer encuentro como experiencia en s. +Cuando veo un glaciar por primera vez, qu debo hacer? +No hay ningn protocolo social para eso. +Realmente, ni siquiera s cmo decir hola. +Tengo que grabar un mensaje en la nieve? +O, tal vez, armar un mensaje con esferas y cubos de hielo como un cdigo Morse de cubos de hielo. +O tal vez necesito hacer un instrumento para hablar, como un megfono de hielo para amplificar mi voz, para dirigirme hacia l. +Pero la experiencia ms gratificante que he tenido, fue el acto de escuchar, que es lo que se necesita en cualquier buena relacin. +Y realmente me impresion lo mucho que me afect. +Un cambio fundamental en mi orientacin fsica que hizo cambiar mi punto de vista con respecto al glaciar. +Y dado que en esta poca usamos dispositivos para relacionarnos con el mundo, hice un dispositivo llamado "Traje para abrazar glaciares". +Y est construido con un material que refleja el calor, que sirve como intermediario de la diferencia de temperatura, entre el cuerpo humano y el hielo del glaciar. +Y una vez ms, esa es la invitacin que se hace a la gente, arrojarse al suelo y darle un abrazo al glaciar. +Pero esto, en realidad, es slo el comienzo. +Son las primeras reflexiones de este proyecto. +Y as como quise ser una pared, en ste proyecto, quisiera que los glaciares no nos abandonaran. +Y, para eso, mi intencin es desarrollar en los prximos 10 aos, proyectos en colaboracin con gente de diferentes disciplinas tales como: artistas, tecnlogos, cientficos, y pensar qu tipo de trabajo podemos implementar para mejorar la relacin humano-glaciar. +Muchas gracias. +Damas y caballeros, les presento al genoma humano. +Arriba, a la izquierda, est el cromosoma 1. Los cromosomas sexuales estn abajo, a la derecha. +Las mujeres tienen dos copias de este gran cromosoma X; los hombres tienen la X y, por supuesto, esta copia pequea del Y. +Lo siento muchachos, pero es algo diminuto lo que los hace nicos. +As que si enfocamos en un primer plano a este genoma, lo que vemos, por supuesto, es una estructura de doble hlice; el cdigo de la vida escrito con estas 4 letras bioqumicas, a las que tambin llamamos bases: A, C, G y T. +Cuntas hay en el genoma humano? 3.000 millones. +Es esta una cifra lo suficientemente grande? +Porque cualquiera puede ir mostrando grandes nmeros. +Pero en realidad, si tuvisemos que poner una base en cada pixel de esta pantalla de resolucin de 1280x800, necesitaramos unas 3.000 pantallas para ver el genoma. +Es realmente grande. +Y es probable que su gran tamao haya sido la razn por la que un grupo de personas -todos, por cierto, con cromosomas del tipo Y- decidieron que queran estudiar su secuencia. +Y despus de 15 aos, con un presupuesto aproximado de 4.000 millones de dlares, se public la secuencia del genoma. +En el 2003, se public la versin final, y todava se sigue trabajando en ello. +Todo esto se hizo en una mquina como sta. +Cuesta alrededor de un dlar por cada base... una manera poco eficiente de hacerlo. +Bueno, les quiero decir que el mundo ha cambiado por completo y nadie se ha enterado. +Ahora tomamos el genoma, hacemos unas 50 copias, cortamos cada copia en pequeos segmentos de 50 bases, y despus las secuenciamos en simultneo. +Esa informacin la pasamos a un software, para luego rearmarla y explicarles a Uds. los resultados. +Para darles una idea de cmo funciona, el Proyecto del Genoma Humano: 3 gigabases. +Una ejecucin en una de estas mquinas: 200 gigabases en una semana. +Y esas 200 van a convertirse en 600 este verano, y no hay muestras de que vaya a disminuir este ritmo. +El precio de una base, de secuenciar una base, ha bajado 100 millones de veces. +Equivale a llenar el auto con gasolina en 1998, esperar hasta el 2011, y ahora poder manejar ida y vuelta hasta Jpiter unas dos veces. +La poblacin mundial, el nmero de computadores, los archivos de toda la literatura mdica, la ley de Moore, la forma arcaica de secuenciar, y ac todo lo nuevo. +Muchachos, esta es una escala logartmica; tpicamente no se ven lneas que suben de esa manera. +La capacidad mundial para secuenciar genomas humanos est entre 50.000 y 10.000 este ao. +Esto lo sabemos por las mquinas que se necesitan. +Se espera que la capacidad se duplique, triplique e incluso cuadruplique ao tras ao en un futuro prximo. +De hecho, hay un laboratorio en particular que representa el 20% de toda esa capacidad. Es el Instituto de Genmica de Pekn. +Y por cierto, los chinos definitivamente estn ganando esta carrera hacia la nueva luna. +Qu significa esto para la medicina? +Tenemos a una mujer de 37 aos. Presenta cncer de mama positivo para receptores de estrgenos en etapa II. +Recibe ciruga, quimioterapia y radiacin. +Se va a casa. +Despus de dos aos, regresa con cncer de ovarios en etapa III. Lamentablemente, es sometida otra vez a ciruga y a quimioterapia. +A los tres aos regresa cuando tiene 42 con ms cncer de ovario, ms quimioterapia. +Despus de 6 meses, regresa con leucemia mieloide aguda. +Le da una insuficiencia respiratoria y muere a los 8 das. +En menos de 10 aos, el tratamiento que recibi esta mujer, ser considerado algo menos que una barbarie. +Y todo gracias a personas como mi colega, Rick Wilson, del Instituto del Genoma de la Universidad de Washington, que decidi hacerle una autopsia a esta mujer. +l secuenci, tom biopsias de la piel sana, y de la mdula sea cancerosa, y secuenci los genomas de ambos en un par de semanas y no pas nada. +Despus de esto, compar los dos genomas en el software, y encontr, entre otras cosas, una supresin de 2.000 bases entre las 3.000 mil millones de bases en un gen particular llamado TP53. +Si uno tiene una mutacin maligna en este gen, tiene un 90% de probabilidad de contraer cncer en la vida. +Desafortunadamente, ya no se puede ayudar a esta mujer, pero esta informacin tiene consecuencias profundas para su familia. +Me refiero a que si su familia tiene la misma mutacin, y se hace este anlisis gentico, entendiendo sus consecuencias, van a poder ir a controles mdicos peridicamente, detectando el cncer temprano y, potencialmente, poder vivir una vida significativamente ms larga. +Permtanme presentarles a los gemelos Beery, diagnosticados con parlisis cerebral a los 2 aos. +Su mam es una mujer muy valiente que no crea que los sntomas estaban coincidiendo, +y que gracias a un esfuerzo heroico y a muchas horas de bsqueda en Internet, fue capaz de convencer a la comunidad mdica de que sus hijos tenan, en realidad, otra cosa. +Lo que tenan era una distona resistente a dopamina. +Les medicaron L-Dopa, y aunque sus sntomas mejoraron, no quedaron completamente asintomticos. +Quedaron con problemas significativos. +Resulta que el caballero en esta foto es un hombre llamado Joe Beery, que tena la fortuna de ser el CIO de una compaa llamada Life Technologies. +Es una de las dos compaas que desarrollan programas para secuenciar todo el genoma. +Y secuenci a sus hijos. +Encontraron una serie de mutaciones en un gen llamado SPR, responsable de producir serotonina, entre otras cosas. +As que adems de recibir L-Dopa, le dieron a los nios una droga precursora de la serotonina, y ahora son perfectamente normales. +Esto nunca hubiese pasado de no ser por la secuenciacin completa del genoma. +Y en esa poca -esto fue hace algunos aos- costaba $100.000. +Hoy cuesta $10.000. El prximo ao ser $1.000. Dentro de un par de aos, costar unos $100. +As de rpido se mueve esto. +Aqu tenemos al pequeo Nick, le gusta Batman y las pistolas de agua. +Y resulta que Nick llega al hospital de nios con el estmago hinchado como si fuera un nio desnutrido. +Y no es que Nick no coma, sino que cuando come, sus intestinos se abren y las heces se le riegan en su estmago. +Despus de cientos de cirugas, mira a su mam y le dice: "Mami, +por favor reza por m, tengo mucho dolor". +Resulta que su pediatra tiene experiencia en gentica clnica y aunque no tiene ni idea de lo que le pasa a Nick, dice: "Vamos a secuenciarle el genoma a este nio". +Y encontr una mutacin de punto en el gen responsable de controlar la muerte celular programada. +Se formula la teora de que Nick tiene una reaccin inmunolgica a todo lo que tiene que ver con la comida, +y esta es una reaccin que causa muerte celular programada. El gen que regula esta reaccin est roto. +Esto quiere decir, entre otras cosas, que Nick necesita un trasplante de mdula sea, al cual se somete. +Despus de 9 meses de intensa recuperacin, ahora come un asado con salsa de primera. +La posibilidad de diagnosticar universalmente usando el genoma es posible hoy en da. +Hoy, ya es posible. +Y la importancia de esto para todos nosotros es que todos los aqu presentes podramos vivir unos 5, 10 20 aos ms de vida y todo gracias al genoma. +Es una noticia estupenda, a menos que consideremos nuestra huella ecolgica sobre el planeta y nuestra capacidad para mantener la produccin de alimentos. +Resulta que esta misma tecnologa est siendo usada para crear nuevas variedades de maz, trigo, soja y otros cultivos que sean mucho ms resistentes a la sequas, a las inundaciones, a las plagas y a los pesticidas. +Ahora bien, mientras siga aumentando la poblacin mundial, vamos a tener que seguir desarrollando y comiendo alimentos genticamente modificados, +y esa es mi postura hoy da. +A menos que haya un voluntario en la audiencia que se ofrezca a dejar de comer. +No, no hay ninguno. +Esta es una mquina de escribir, imprescindible en el escritorio por dcadas. +Pues la mquina de escribir fue eliminada por esto. +Y despus, por las primeras versiones de los procesadores de palabras. +Pero finalmente, desapareci debido a las tecnologas disruptivas. +Fue gracias a que Bob Metcalfe invent Ethernet y a las conexiones de todos los equipos que todo cambi radicalmente. +Y de repente tuvimos Netscape, tuvimos Yahoo +y tuvimos, de hecho, toda la burbuja punto com. +Pero no se preocupen, que fuimos rescatados por el iPod, por Facebook y, por supuesto, por Angry Birds. +Este es nuestro estado actual. +Esta es la revolucin genmica hoy da. As estamos ahora. +Lo que me gustara que consideraran es lo siguiente: Qu significado tiene que estos puntos no solo representan las bases individuales de su genoma, sino que se conectan con genomas de todos lados del planeta? +Tuve que comprar un seguro de vida recientemente. Y tena que responder la siguiente pregunta: A. Nunca me he hecho un examen gentico, B. Me he hecho uno y ac lo tengo, y C. Me he hecho uno y prefiero no mostrarlo. +Afortunadamente, pude contestar A, y lo digo con toda honestidad, en caso de que mi asegurador me est escuchando. +Pero, Qu hubiese pasado de haber contestado C? +Floreceran las aplicaciones genmicas para el pblico. +Quieres saber si eres genticamente compatible con tu novia? Hecho. +Secuenciacin de ADN en tu iPhone? Ya hay una aplicacin para eso. +Alguien quiere un masaje genmicamente personalizado? +Ya hay un laboratorio que hace exmenes para encontrar el alelo 334 del gen AVPR1, el as llamado gen de la infidelidad. +As que todo el que est aqu con su pareja, solo tiene que acercarse y tomar una muestra de su boca, mandarla al laboratorio y as salir de dudas. +Uds. elegiran a un presidente con un genoma que indique miocardiopata? +Imagnense que estamos en el ao 2016 y la candidata favorita no solo lanza su propuesta para reducir impuestos en los prximos 4 aos sino tambin su genoma personal. +Es un genoma muy bueno. +Entonces llega y desafa a sus oponentes a que hagan lo mismo. +Creen que es algo que no va a pasar? +Ser que hubiese ayudado a John McCain? +Cuntas personas en la audiencia +se apellidan Resnick como yo? Levanten la mano. +Alguno? Nadie. +Normalmente, siempre hay uno o dos. +Mi abuelo paterno tena 10 hermanos. +Todos ellos se odiaban entre s. As que cada uno se mud a una parte diferente del planeta. +Es muy probable que yo sea familiar de cada Resnick que he conocido, pero no estoy seguro. Pero imagnense si mi genoma estuviese annimamente en un software, y el genoma de un primo tercero tambin estuviese ah, y que hubiese un software que pudiera comparar ambos genomas y hacer la asociacin. +No es algo difcil de imaginar. Mi compaa ya lo est haciendo. +Ahora imagnense algo ms: este software tambin puede pedir mutuo consentimiento a ambas partes: "Estara dispuesto a conocer a su primo tercero?" +Y si ambos dicen que s, +voila! Bienvenidos al LinkedIn cromosomtico. +Esto es algo muy bueno, cierto? +Las reuniones familiares van a ser ms grandes, etc. +Pero puede que tambin sea algo malo. +Cuntos padres hay aqu presentes? Levanten la mano. +Bueno, algunos expertos aseguran que del 1% al 3% de Uds. no son realmente los padres de sus hijos. +Miren... Estos genomas, estos 23 cromosomas, no representan, bajo ninguna circunstancia, la calidad de nuestras relaciones ni la naturaleza de nuestra sociedad; al menos no por el momento. +Y como cualquier tecnologa nueva, depende realmente del Hombre el saber usarla para el mejoramiento de la Humanidad. Les pido que despierten y se pongan al da para poder influir en la revolucin genmica que se est gestando a su alrededor. +Gracias. +Debo decirles que, realmente despus de estos increbles discursos e ideas difundidas, estoy en la incmoda posicin de estar aqu hoy para hablarles de la televisin. +Casi todo el mundo ve TV. +Nos gusta. Nos gustan algunos de sus programas. +Aqu en Estados Unidos a la gente le encanta la TV. +El estadounidense promedio ve TV durante casi 5 horas al da. +Bueno, +ocurre que actualmente me gano la vida en la TV, as que para m eso es algo bueno. +Pero a mucha gente no le gusta tanto. +Hay quienes, de hecho, la desaprueban. +Dicen que es algo estpido y cosas peores, cranme. +Mi madre creci llamndola la "caja tonta". +Pero hoy mi idea no es debatir si existe tal cosa como una buena o mala TV, sino decirles que creo que la TV tiene una conciencia. +La razn por la que lo creo es porque realmente considero que la TV refleja directamente las necesidades morales, polticas, sociales y emocionales de una nacin; ya que la TV es la forma en que difundimos el conjunto de nuestro sistema de valores. +Todo esto es exclusivo de los humanos y se suma a nuestra idea de la conciencia. +Hoy no se habla de TV buena o mala +sino de la que tiene ms popularidad, +de los 10 programas de mayor audiencia del ndice de Nielsen a lo largo de 50 aos. +Se habla de cmo este ndice de audiencia refleja no solo lo que ya sabemos la idea de un inconsciente social y colectivo sino cmo estos 10 programas de mayor audiencia en ms de 50 aos reflejan el concepto de una conciencia social colectiva. +Cmo evoluciona la TV con el tiempo y qu dice esto de nuestra sociedad. +Ahora, hablando de evolucin probablemente recuerden que segn la biologa bsica, el reino animal, incluyendo a los humanos, tiene cuatro instintos primarios bsicos: +el hambre, el deseo sexual, el poder y el impulso de poseer. +Es importante recordar que como seres humanos hemos evolucionado. Con el tiempo hemos llegado a atenuar o dominar estos instintos animales bsicos. +Tenemos la capacidad de rer y de llorar. +Sentimos temor, lstima. +Y eso es distinto y aparte del reino animal. +Otro aspecto de los seres humanos es que nos gusta divertirnos. +Nos encanta ver TV. +Esto es algo que claramente nos separa del reino animal. +A los animales les puede gustar jugar, pero no les gusta mirar. +As que tuve la ambicin de descubrir qu podra entenderse a partir de esta relacin humana nica entre los programas de TV y la conciencia humana. +Por qu la TV de entretenimiento ha evolucionado de esa forma? +Me parece que es como la caricatura del diablo o del ngel sentado sobre nuestros hombros. +Ser que la TV funciona literalmente como nuestra conciencia que nos tienta y nos gratifica al mismo tiempo? +As que para empezar a responder a estas preguntas realizamos un estudio de investigacin. +Fuimos 50 aos atrs a la temporada televisiva de 1959-1960. +Estudiamos los 20 programas de mayor audiencia del Nielsen para cada ao en 50 aos; unos mil programas. +Hablamos con ms de 3 000 personas, casi 3 600, entre 18 y 70 aos de edad y les preguntamos cmo se sintieron emocionalmente. +Cmo se sintieron viendo cada uno de esos programas? +Tuvieron una sensacin de ambigedad moral? +Sintieron indignacin? Se rieron? +Qu signific esto para ellos? +Debo aclarar para nuestra audiencia global de TED, que esto fue una muestra de los EE. UU. +Pero como pueden ver, estos estados de necesidad emocionales son universales. +Se sabe por datos objetivos que ms del 80 % de los programas ms populares de los EE. UU. se exportan a todo el mundo. +As que esperamos que nuestra audiencia global pueda sentirse identificada. +Tengo que agradecer a 2 personas antes de ver la primera diapositiva: por inspirarme para siquiera pensar en la idea de conciencia y de los trucos que la conciencia puede jugar con nosotros a diario, agradezco al legendario rabino Jack Stern. +Y por la forma en que voy a presentar los datos, quiero agradecer a Hans Rosling, superestrella de la comunidad de TED, a quien probablemente acaban de ver. +Bien, aqu vamos. +Aqu pueden ver de 1960 al 2010, los 50 aos de nuestro estudio. +Hay 2 criterios con los que vamos a comenzar: la inspiracin y la ambigedad moral. Para este propsito, definimos la inspiracin como los programas de TV que nos elevan, que nos hacen ver el mundo de manera mucho ms positiva. +La ambigedad moral se muestra en los programas en los que no discernimos la diferencia entre el bien y el mal. +Al comienzo, vemos que en 1960 la inspiracin se mantiene estable. +Es la razn por la que se ve TV. +La ambigedad moral empieza a subir. +Justo al final de los aos 60 la ambigedad moral sube y la inspiracin est casi cuesta abajo. +Por qu? +La crisis de los misiles cubanos, JFK es asesinado, el movimiento por los derechos civiles, los disturbios raciales, la guerra de Vietnam, Martin Luther King y Bobby Kennedy son asesinados, Watergate. +Miren lo que pasa. +En 1970 la inspiracin se desploma. +La ambigedad moral remonta. +Se cruzan, pero Ronald Reagan, un presidente telegnico, accede al poder. +Est tratando de recuperarse. +Pero miren, no se puede: el sida, el escndalo Irn-Contra, el desastre del Challenger, Chernbil. +La ambigedad moral se convierte en el elemento cultural dominante de la TV en 1990 y en los 20 aos siguientes. +Veamos esto. +Este grfico documenta una tendencia muy similar. +Pero en este caso, tenemos la felicidad la burbuja en rojo el comentario social y la irreverencia en azul y verde. +Esta vez en la TV tenemos las series "Bonanza", "La ley del revlver " y "Andy Griffith"; todos ellos programas nacionales sobre felicidad. +Esto va en aumento. La felicidad lo ocupa todo. +La irreverencia comienza a subir. +Y de pronto el comentario social va de subida. +Llegamos a 1969 y miren lo que pasa. +Vemos que la felicidad, la irreverencia y el comentario social no solo se disputan nuestra sociedad, sino que, literalmente, se mantienen en 2 series: "La ley del revlver" y "El recluta Gomer Pyle" que en 1969 ocupan el segundo y el tercer lugar en popularidad en la TV. +Quin ocupa el primer lugar? +El programa hippie socialmente irreverente "Rowan and Martin's Laugh-In". +Todos conviven. +Los espectadores han respondido de manera notable. +Veamos esta subida en la pantalla en 1966 con un programa indicador de tendencias. +Cuando escuchen en esta industria: xito sin precedentes qu significa eso? +En la temporada televisiva de 1966 eso significa que la serie "Los hermanos Smothers" surgi de la nada. +Ese fue el primer programa que permiti a los espectadores decir: "Dios mo puedo decir lo que pienso de la guerra de Vietnam o de la presidencia en la TV?". +Eso es lo que queremos decir con un programa sin precedentes. +Al igual que en el grfico anterior, miren lo que pasa. +En 1970 ese esquema se desploma. +La comodidad deja de ser la razn por la que vemos TV. +La crtica social y la irreverencia suben a lo largo de los aos 70. +Ahora miren esto: +Quin marc los aos 70? Norman Lear. +Tenemos "Todo en familia", "Sanford and Son" y el programa ms popular en los 10 primeros lugares en toda la dcada del 70 "MAS*H". +En los 50 aos de TV que hemos estudiado 7 de 10 programas que debieron su popularidad a la irreverencia aparecieron durante la guerra de Vietnam, 5 de los 10 ms populares durante la administracin Nixon. +Recin una generacin despus, 20 aos ms tarde, hemos descubierto que: vaya! la TV puede hacer esto? +me puede hacer sentir as? +me puede cambiar? +A Uds. que son una audiencia muy astuta, tambin quiero resaltarles que esta gente digital no invent la problemtica. +Archie Bunker fue empujado fuera de su silln junto con el resto de nosotros hace 40 aos. +Este es un grfico rpido. Aqu hay otro atributo: la fantasa y la imaginacin que son programas que se caracterizan por: "sacarnos de la realidad cotidiana" y "hacernos sentir mejor". +Que hicieron contrapeso al punto rojo, el desempleo, que es una simple cifra estadstica del Departamento de Trabajo. +Veremos que cada vez que un programa de fantasa e imaginacin sube coincide con un aumento en el desempleo. +Queremos ver programas de gente que tiene que gastar lo mnimo porque est desempleada? +No. En los aos 70 tenemos como indicador a la serie "La mujer binica" que se dispar a la cima de la popularidad en 1973, seguida por "El hombre nuclear" y "Los ngeles de Charlie". +Hay otro pico en la dcada de 1980; el repunte de programas sobre control y poder. +Qu haba en esos programas? +Ricos y glamorosos: +"Dallas" y "La isla de la fantasa". +Haciendo un contraste increble de nuestra psique nacional con hechos de la dura realidad como el desempleo. +Aqu tenemos mi grfico favorito ya que trata de los ltimos 20 aos. +Sea que estn o no en este negocio, seguramente han odo o ledo de la disminucin de comedias de situacin de 3 cmaras y del aumento de programas de telerrealidad. +Bien, como se dice en el negocio: la X marca el lugar. +En los aos 90 en la burbuja grande del humor tenemos "Friends", "Frasier", "Cheers" y "Seinfeld". +Todo va bien, la tasa del desempleo es baja. +Pero miren: la X marca el lugar. +En el 2001, en la temporada de TV de setiembre del 2001, el humor sucumbe al juicio por primera vez. +Por qu no? +En el 2000 tuvimos una eleccin presidencial decidida por la Corte Suprema. +Ocurri el estallido de la burbuja tecnolgica. +Tuvimos el 11 de setiembre. +El trmino ntrax pas a formar parte del lxico social. +Miren lo que pasa si seguimos adelante. +El internet repunta en el cambio de siglo, los programas de telerrealidad se afianzan. +Qu quiere ver la gente en la TV entonces? +Pens que sera algo de venganza o de nostalgia. +Denme algo de consuelo, mi mundo se cae a pedazos. +Pero no, la gente quiere juzgar. +Podemos votar para expulsar a alguien. +Podemos bailar con la hija de Sarah Palin. +Podemos elegir al prximo American Idol. Ests despedido. +Todo eso es genial, no? +Pese a lo radicalmente diferentes que estos programas de TV, de puro entretenimiento, han sido durante los ltimos 50 aos recuerdan lo que mencion al comienzo? mantienen un instinto bsico. +Somos animales y necesitamos a nuestras madres. +No ha habido una dcada de la TV sin una madre de carcter, una madre dominante en la TV. +En la dcada de 1950: June Cleever en el original programa sobre felicidad "Leave it to Beaver". +Lucille Ball nos hizo rer durante el auge de la conciencia social en los aos 60. +Maude Findlay, el eptome de la irreverencia en la dcada de 1970, trat temas como el aborto, el divorcio, e incluso la menopausia en la TV. +En la dcada de 1980 lleg nuestra primera asaltacunas bajo el aspecto de Alexis Carrington. +Murphy Brown tuvo que vrselas con un vicepresidente cuando asumi la idea de ser madre soltera. +La madre de nuestra era es Bree Van de Kamp. +Ahora no s si esto es un diablo o un ngel sentado en nuestra conciencia, sobre el televisor, solo s que me encanta esta imagen. +As que a todos ustedes seoras y seores de TEDWomen, la audiencia global de TEDWomen, gracias por dejarme presentar la idea sobre la conciencia de la TV. +Tambin quisiera agradecer a los creadores extraordinarios que se levantan todos los das para plasmar sus ideas en nuestras pantallas de TV a lo largo de todos estos aos. +Ellos realmente dan vida a la TV, pero somos nosotros como espectadores a travs de la conciencia social colectiva, los que le damos o quitamos vida, longevidad y poder. +Muchas gracias. +Hablemos de miles de millones. +Hablemos de los miles de millones pasados y futuros. +Sabemos que han existido unos 106 mil millones de personas. +Y sabemos que la mayora han muerto. +Tambin sabemos que la mayora viven o han vivido en Asia. +Y tambin sabemos que la mayora eran o son muy pobres... ...y no vivieron mucho tiempo. +Hablemos de miles de millones. +Hablemos de los 195 mil millones de dlares de riqueza en el mundo actualmente. +Sabemos que la mayor parte de esa riqueza fue creada despus del ao 1800. +Y sabemos que la mayor parte pertenece actualmente a personas que llamaremos occidentales: europeos, estadounidenses, australasiticos. +El 19% de la poblacin mundial actual, los occidentales, son dueos de dos tercios de esta riqueza. +Los historiadores economistas lo llaman "La Gran Divergencia". +Y esta diapositiva es la mejor simplificacin de la historia de la Gran Divergencia que puedo ofrecerles. +Se trata bsicamente de dos proporciones del PIB per cpita, Producto Interno Bruto per cpita, el ingreso promedio. +Una, la lnea roja, es la proporcin del ingreso per cpita entre britnicos e indios. +Y a lnea azul es la proporcin entre estadounidenses y chinos. +Y esta grfica llega hasta el ao 1500. +Como pueden ver aqu, la Gran Divergencia es una exponencial. +Comenzaron estando muy cercanas. +De hecho, en 1500, el chino promedio era ms rico que el estadounidense promedio. +Cuando llegamos a la dcada de 1970, en la cual termina la grfica, el britnico promedio es 10 veces ms rico que el indio promedio. +Y eso se debe a las diferencias en el costo de la vida. +Est basado en la paridad del poder de compra. +El estadounidense promedio es 20 veces ms rico que el chino promedio en la dcada de 1970. +Por qu? +No se trata solamente de economa. +Si toman los 10 pases que posteriormente se convirtieron en imperios occidentales, en 1500 eran muy pequeos; el 5% de la superficie terrestre mundial, el 16% de su poblacin, y quiz el 20% de su ingreso. +Para 1913, estos 10 pases, adems de Estados Unidos, controlaban vastos imperios globales... ...el 58% del territorio mundial, el mismo porcentaje de su poblacin, y una parte muy grande, casi tres cuartos de la produccin econmica mundial. +Y noten, la mayora se fue a la madre patria, a las metrpolis imperiales, no a sus posesiones coloniales. +Ahora bien, no se puede culpar de esto al imperialismo, aunque muchas personas han tratado de hacerlo, por dos razones. +Primero, el imperio era lo menos original que hizo Occidente despus de 1500. +Todos hacan imperios. +Vencieron a los imperios orientales preexistentes, como los mongoles y los otomanos. +As que no parece que el imperio sea una gran explicacin para la Gran Divergencia. +De cualquier manera, como recordarn, la Gran Divergencia alcanza su cenit en la dcada de 1970, un tiempo considerable despus de la descolonizacin. +Esta no es una pregunta nueva. +Samuel Johnson, el gran lexicgrafo, opuso esto mediante su personaje Rasselas en su novela "Rasselas, prncipe de Abisinia", publicada en 1759. +"Por qu medios son los europeos tan poderosos?; o por qu, si pueden visitar fcilmente Asia y frica para comerciar o conquistar, no pueden los asiticos y africanos invadir sus costas, plantar colonias en sus puertos, y dar leyes a sus prncipes naturales? +El mismo viento que los lleva de regreso podra llevarnos para all?" +Esa es la gran pregunta. +A diferencia de Rasselas, Muteferrika tuvo la respuesta a esa pregunta, y fue la respuesta correcta. +Dijo que esto fue "porque ellos tienen leyes y reglas inventadas por la razn". +No se trata de la geografa. +Uds pueden pensar que podemos explicar la Gran Divergencia en trminos geogrficos. +Sabemos que eso es incorrecto porque hemos realizado dos grandes experimentos naturales en el siglo 20 para ver si la geografa importaba ms que las instituciones. +Tomamos a todos los alemanes, los dividimos aproximadamente en dos, y a los que estaban en el Este les dimos comunismo, y vern el resultado. +En un increblemente corto periodo de tiempo, la gente que viva en la Repblica Democrtica Alemana produjo los Trabants, el Trabbi, uno de los peores automviles del mundo, mientras las personas del Oeste producan el Mercedes Benz. +Si an no me creen, tambin se llev a cabo otro experimento tambin en la Pennsula de Corea. +Y decidimos que tomaramos coreanos de aproximadamente el mismo lugar geogrfico con, noten, la misma tradicin cultural bsica, los dividimos en dos, y les dimos el comunismo a los del norte. +Y el resultado fue de una divergencia an mayor en un periodo muy corto de tiempo que el que ocurri en Alemania. +No es una divergencia importante en trminos de diseo de uniformes para los guardias fronterizos, sin duda, pero si, en casi todos los dems aspectos, divergen enormemente. +Lo que me lleva a pensar que ni la geografa ni el carcter nacional, que son explicaciones populares para este tipo de suceso, sean en verdad significativas. +Son las ideas. +Son las instituciones. +Esto debe ser verdad porque lo dijo un escocs. +Y creo que soy el nico escocs aqu en el TED de Edimburgo. +As que permtanme explicarles que el hombre ms inteligente de todos los tiempos fue un escocs. +Fue Adam Smith, no Billy Connolly, no Sean Connery, aunque l es muy inteligente en verdad. +Smith -y quisiera que fueran y se inclinaran ante su estatua en la Royal Mile; es una estatua maravillosa... Smith, en su libro "La riqueza de las naciones" publicado en 1776... fue el evento ms importante que ocurri ese ao... +Pueden apostarlo. +Hubo una pequea dificultad local en algunas de nuestras colonias menores, pero... +"China parece que ha estado largo tiempo inmvil, y probablemente hace mucho que adquiri una gran cantidad de riquezas, algo consistente con la naturaleza de sus leyes e instituciones. +Pero este cumplido podra ser muy inferior al que, con otras leyes e instituciones, la naturaleza de su tierra, clima y situacin podra alcanzar". +Eso es tan correcto y tan genial. +Y l lo dijo hace mucho tiempo. +Pero Uds saben, esta es una audiencia TED, y si sigo hablando sobre instituciones, Uds se van a dormir. +As que traducir esto en un lenguaje que puedan comprender. +Llammosle "aplicaciones asesinas". +Quiero explicarles que existen seis aplicaciones asesinas que separan a Occidente del resto del mundo. +Y son muy parecidas a las aplicaciones de sus mviles, en el sentido de que parecen muy sencillas. +Son como iconos; slo hay que hacer clic. +Pero detrs de ese icono, existe un cdigo complejo. +Es lo mismo con las instituciones. +Son seis y creo que explican la Gran Divergencia. +Una, competencia. +Dos, revolucin cientfica. +Tres, derechos de propiedad. +Cuatro, medicina moderna. +Cinco, sociedad de consumo. +Y seis, tica de trabajo. +Pueden jugar y tratar de pensar en alguna que se me haya olvidado, o tratar de resumirlas en solo cuatro aplicaciones, pero perdern. +Permtanme decirles brevemente a qu me refiero con esto, sintetizando el trabajo de muchos economistas historiadores en el proceso. +Competencia significa no slo que hubieron cientos de unidades polticas diferentes en Europa en 1500, sino que dentro de esas unidades, haba competencia entre corporaciones as como entre soberanos. +El ancestro de las corporaciones modernas, la "City of London Corporation", existi en el siglo 12. +Nada de esto existi en China, donde slo haba un estado monoltico que cubra una quinta parte de la humanidad, y cualquiera que tuviera ambicin tena que aprobar una revisin estndar que duraba tres das y era muy difcil e involucraba memorizar un gran nmero de caracteres y un ensayo escrito estilo Confucio muy complejo. +La revolucin cientfica fue diferente de la ciencia que se haba alcanzado en el mundo oriental de varias maneras cruciales, la ms importante fue que, mediante el mtodo experimental, le dio el control al hombre sobre la naturaleza de una forma que no haba sido posible antes. +Ejemplo: La aplicacin extraordinaria de Benjamin Robins de la fsica newtoniana de los proyectiles. +Una vez que uno hace eso, su artillera se vuelve acertada. +Piensen en lo que significa eso. +Esa de verdad fue una aplicacin asesina. +Mientras tanto, no hubo revolucin cientfica en ningn otro lado. +El Imperio Otomano, no est tan lejos de Europa, pero no hubo revolucin cientfica ah. +De hecho, ellos demolieron el observatorio de Taqi al-Din, porque consideraban una blasfemia investigar la mente de Dios. +Derechos de propiedad: esto no es democracia, seores; es tener la regla de la ley basada en derechos de propiedad privados. +Eso es lo que hace la diferencia entre Amrica del Norte y Amrica del Sur. +Pueden aparecerse en Amrica del Norte habiendo firmado el ttulo de propiedad de una escritura diciendo: "trabajar sin sueldo durante cinco aos. +Slo tienen que alimentarme". +Pero al final de ello, tendrn 40 hectreas de tierra. +Esa es la concesin de tierras de la mitad inferior de la diapositiva. +Eso no es posible en Amrica latina donde la tierra es propiedad de una pequea lite descendiente de los conquistadores. +Como pueden ver existe una gran divergencia que ocurre entre la propiedad de bienes entre el Norte y el Sur. +La mayora de la gente de la parte rural de Amrica del Norte fueron dueos de su propiedad para el ao 1900. +Difcilmente alguien de Amrica del Sur lo logr. +Esa es otra aplicacin asesina. +La medicina moderna a finales del siglo 19 comenz a tener grandes avances en contra de enfermedades infecciosas que mataban a muchas personas. +Y esta fue otra aplicacin asesina; lo ms opuesto a un asesino, porque duplicaba, y a veces ms que duplicaba, la esperanza de vida humana. +Eso se hizo incluso en los imperios de Europa. +An en lugares como Senegal, comenzando a principios del siglo 20, hubieron grandes avances en salud pblica, y la esperanza de vida comenz a aumentar. +Y no aument ms despus que estos pases se vuelven independientes. +Los imperios no fueron del todo malos. +La sociedad de consumo es lo que se necesita para que la Revolucin Industrial tenga un objetivo. +Se necesitan personas que quieran usar cientos de ropas. +Uds han comprado algo de ropa el mes pasado; Se los garantizo. +Eso es la sociedad de consumo, y eso impulsa el crecimiento econmico ms que el cambio tecnolgico en s. +Japn fue la primera de las sociedades no occidentales en adoptarla. +La alternativa, propuesta por Mahatma Gandhi, era institucionalizar y hacer la pobreza permanente. +Muy pocos indios actualmente desean que India se hubiera ido por el camino de Mahatma Gandhi. +Finalmente, la tica del trabajo. +Max Weber pens que era algo peculiarmente protestante. +Y se equivocaba. +Cualquier cultura puede tener tica del trabajo si las instituciones estn ah para crear un incentivo al trabajo. +Sabemos esto porque hoy la tica del trabajo no es un fenmeno protestante, un fenmeno occidental. +De hecho, Occidente ha perdido su tica del trabajo. +Actualmente, el coreano promedio trabaja mil horas ms al ao que el alemn promedio; mil horas. +Y esto es parte de un fenmeno realmente extraordinario, que es el final de la Gran Divergencia. +Quin tiene la tica de trabajo ahora? +Observen los conocimientos matemticos de los jvenes de 15 aos. +En la parte superior de la tabla de la liga internacional de acuerdo con el ltimo estudio PISA (Programa Internacional de Logros de Estudiantes), est el distrito Shanghai, de China. +La brecha entre Shanghai, el Reino Unido y los Estados Unidos es tan grande como la brecha entre el Reino Unido, los Estados Unidos +Albania y Tnez. +Probablemente supongan que se debe a que el iPhone fue diseado en California pero ensamblado en China que Occidente an es lder en trminos de innovacin tecnolgica. +Estn equivocados. +En trminos de patentes, no hay duda de que Oriente est adelante. +No slo Japn ha sido lder desde hace algn tiempo, Corea del Sur ha llegado al tercer lugar, y China est a punto de superar a Alemania. +Por qu? +Porque las aplicaciones asesinas pueden descargarse. +Son cdigos abiertos. +Cualquier sociedad puede adoptar estas instituciones, y cuando lo hacen, logran lo que Occidente logr despus de 1500... ...slo que ms rpido. +Esta es la Gran Reconvergencia, y esta es la historia ms grande de sus vidas. +Debido a que estn viendo cmo ocurre. +Nuestra generacin es testigo del final de la predominancia occidental. +El estadounidense promedio sola ser 20 veces ms rico que el chino promedio. +Ahora slo lo es 5 veces ms, y pronto ser de solo 2,5 veces. +As que quiero terminar con tres preguntas para los futuros miles de millones, justo antes del 2016, cuando Estados Unidos pierda su lugar como economa nmero uno ante China. +La primera es: se pueden borrar estas aplicaciones, y acaso estamos en el proceso de hacerlo en el mundo occidental? +La segunda pregunta es: importa la secuencia de descarga? +Y... podra frica tener la secuencia equivocada? +Una consecuencia obvia de la historia de la economa moderna es que es muy difcil la transicin a la democracia antes de que se hayan establecido derechos de propiedad privada seguros. +Advertencia: eso podra no funcionar. +Y tercero: podra tener xito China sin la aplicacin asesina nmero tres? +Esa es la que John Locke sistematiz cuando dijo que la libertad tena raz en los derechos de propiedad privada y la proteccin de la ley. +Esta es la base para el modelo occidental del gobierno representativo. +Ahora esta imagen muestra la demolicin del estudio del artista chino Ai Weiwei en Shanghai a principios de este ao. +l est nuevamente libre, habiendo sido detenido, como saben, durante algn tiempo. +Pero no creo que su estudio haya sido reconstruido. +Winston Churchill defini la civilizacin en una conferencia que dio en el fatdico ao 1938. +Y creo que estas palabras lo describen a la perfeccin: "Esto significa una sociedad basada en la opinin de civiles. +Esto significa que la violencia, el dominio de guerreros y jefes dspotas, las condiciones de los campamentos y la guerra, de los alborotos y la tirana, dan lugar a parlamentos en donde las leyes se hacen, en Cortes de Justicia independientes en las cuales, durante largos periodos de tiempo, estas leyes se mantienen. +Esto es civilizacin... ...y en su tierra crece continuamente la libertad, la comodidad y la cultura", lo que a todos los participantes TED les importa ms. +"Cuando la civilizacin reina en un pas, hay una vida ms amplia y menos acosada para las masas de personas". +Eso es muy cierto. +No creo que la cada de la civilizacin occidental sea inevitable, porque no creo que la historia funcione en este tipo de modelos de vida cclicos, las hermosamente ilustradas pinturas de Tomas Cole "Curso del Imperio". +La historia no funciona as. +Occidente no surgi as, y no creo que sea la forma en que caer. +Occidente podra colapsar de pronto. +Las civilizaciones complejas hacen eso, debido a que operan, la mayor parte del tiempo, al borde del caos. +Esa es una de las ms profundas reflexiones que resultan del estudio histrico de instituciones complejas como las civilizaciones. +Ahora, nos podramos detener, a pesar de las grandes cargas de deuda que hemos acumulado, a pesar de la evidencia de que hemos perdido nuestra tica de trabajo y otras partes de nuestro encanto histrico. +Pero una cosa es segura, la Gran Divergencia ha terminado, amigos. +Muchas gracias. +Bruno Giussani: Niall, tengo curiosidad sobre qu piensas de la otra regin del mundo que est surgiendo, Amrica latina. +Cul es tu opinin al respecto? +Niall Ferguson: Bueno, en realidad no estoy hablando solamente del surgimiento de Oriente; Estoy hablando del surgimiento del Resto, que incluye a Amrica del Sur. +Yo alguna vez pregunt a uno de mis colegas en Harvard, "Oye, Amrica del Sur es parte de Occidente?" +l era experto en historia latinoamericana. +Y respondi: "No lo s; tendr que pensar al respecto". +Eso te dice algo muy importante. +Pienso que si observas qu est pasando en Brasil, particularmente, y tambin en Chile, que en muchos sentidos est liderando la transformacin de la vida econmica de las instituciones, tienen un brillante futuro, en verdad. +As que mi relato es sobre la convergencia en Amrica as como en Eurasia. +BG: Y existe esta impresin de que Amrica del Norte y Europa no estn poniendo atencin a estas tendencias. +Ellos se preocupan unos de otros. +Los estadounidenses piensan que el modelo europeo se va a deshacer maana. +Los europeos piensan que los estadounidenses van a explotar maana. +Y esa es la forma en que se est llevando a cabo esto. +NF: Yo pienso que la crisis fiscal que vemos en el mundo desarrollado actualmente, a ambos lados del Atlntico, es esencialmente lo mismo que toma diferentes formas en trminos de cultura poltica. +Y esta es una crisis que tiene su faceta estructural y en parte tiene que ver con la demografa. +Pero tambin, por supuesto, tiene que ver con la crisis masiva que sigui a un excesivo apalancamiento, un prstamo excesivo en el sector privado. +Esa crisis, que ha sido el foco de mucha atencin, incluyendo la ma, pienso que es un epifenmeno. +La crisis financiera es en realidad un fenmeno histrico relativamente pequeo, que ha acelerado este enorme cambio, que termina medio milenio de ascensin occidental. +Yo pienso que esa es la verdadera importancia. +BG: Niall, gracias (NF: Muchas gracias, Bruno). +Erez Lieberman Aiden: Todo el mundo sabe que una imagen vale ms que mil palabras. +Pero en Harvard nos preguntbamos si realmente es verdad. +As que reunimos a un equipo de expertos de Harvard, del MIT de "The American Heritage Dictionary", de la Enciclopedia Britnica e incluso de nuestros patrocinadores: Google. +Y meditamos sobre esto durante unos 4 aos +hasta llegar a una conclusin sorprendente. +Damas y caballeros: una imagen no vale ms que mil palabras. +De hecho, hallamos que algunas imgenes valen 500.000 millones de palabras. +Jean-Baptiste Michel: Cmo llegamos a esta conclusin? +Erez y yo estbamos pensando formas de ver el panorama general de la cultura humana y de la historia humana: su cambio en el tiempo. +Se han escrito muchos libros en los ltimos aos. +As que estbamos pensando que la mejor forma de aprender de ellos es leyendo estos millones de libros. +Por supuesto, si existe una escala de lo impresionante, ese tiene que estar posicionado muy, muy arriba. +Pero el problema es que hay un eje X que es el eje de lo prctico. +Este est muy, muy abajo. +Ahora bien, la gente suele usar un enfoque alternativo: tener pocas fuentes y leerlas con mucho cuidado. +Esto es muy prctico pero no tan impresionante. +Lo que realmente queremos es llegar a lo impresionante y prctico. +Y resulta que haba una empresa del otro lado del ro llamada Google que hace unos aos haba comenzado un proyecto de digitalizacin que podra permitir este enfoque. +Ellos han digitalizado millones de libros. +Eso significa que uno podra usar mtodos computacionales para leer todos los libros con el clic de un botn. +Eso es muy prctico y sumamente impresionante. +ELA: Ahora les voy a contar un poco de dnde vienen los libros. +Desde la noche de los tiempos existen autores. +Estos autores se han esforzado por escribir libros. +Y eso se volvi considerablemente ms fcil con el desarrollo de la imprenta hace algunos siglos. +Desde entonces, los autores han tenido 129 millones de ocasiones para publicar libros. +Y si esos libros no se perdieron en la historia entonces estn en alguna biblioteca y muchos de esos libros han sido recuperados de las bibliotecas y digitalizados por Google que ha escaneado 15 millones de libros hasta la fecha. +Pero cuando Google digitaliza un libro lo pone en un formato muy bueno. +Ahora tenemos los datos y tenemos metadatos. +Tenemos informacin sobre cosas como el lugar de publicacin el autor, fecha de publicacin. +Y recorremos todos esos registros, excluyendo todo lo que no tenga la ms alta calidad. +Lo que nos queda es una coleccin de 5 millones de libros 500.000 millones de palabras, una cadena de caracteres mil veces ms larga que el genoma humano; un texto que, de escribirlo, se extendera desde aqu hasta la luna ida y vuelta 10 veces ms... un verdadero fragmento de nuestro genoma cultural. +Por supuesto lo que hicimos frente a tal extravagante hiprbole... +fue hacer lo que cualquier investigador que se respete habra hecho. +Tomamos una pgina de XKDC, y dijimos: "Hganse a un lado. +Vamos a intentar con la ciencia". +JM: Ahora, por supuesto, estbamos pensando: primero pongamos los datos all para que la gente haga ciencia con eso. +Ahora estamos pensando: qu datos podemos liberar? +Por supuesto, uno quiere tomar los libros y liberar el texto completo de estos 5 millones de libros. +Pero Google, y Jon Orwant en particular, nos explicaron una pequea ecuacin: +5 millones de autores y 5 millones de demandantes, genera demandas masivas. +Por eso aunque sea muy, muy impresionante de nuevo, es completamente imprctico. +Pero, de nuevo, cedimos y adoptamos un enfoque muy prctico, un poco menos impresionante. +Dijimos: bueno, en vez de liberar todo el texto vamos a liberar estadsticas sobre los libros. +Tomemos, por ejemplo, "un destello de felicidad". +Tiene 4 palabras; lo denominamos cuatro-grama. +Les vamos a contar cuntas veces aparece un cuatro-grama particular en libros en 1801, 1802, 1803, en cada ao hasta 2008. +Eso nos da series temporales de la frecuencia con que esta oracin particular se us en el tiempo. +Hacemos eso para todas las palabras y frases que aparecen en esos libros y eso nos da una gran tabla de 2.000 millones de lneas que nos cuentan formas en las que fue cambiando la cultura. +ELA: Esos dos millones de lneas se denominan 2 millones de n-gramas. +Qu nos dicen? +Los n-gramas individuales miden las tendencias culturales. +Les dar un ejemplo. +Supongamos que soy muy prspero y maana quiero contarles lo bien que me fue. +Podra decir: "Ayer prosper". +En ingls, prosper es 'throve' o 'thrived'? +Cul debera usar? +Cmo saberlo? +Desde hace unos 6 meses la vanguardia en este campo dice que, por ejemplo, uno tiene que ir a ese psiclogo de pelo fabuloso y decirle: "Steve, eres experto en verbos irregulares. +Qu debera hacer?" +Y l dir: "Bueno la mayora de la gente dice 'thrive' pero alguna gente dice 'throve'". +Y tambin saban, ms o menos, que si retrocedieran en el tiempo 200 aos y le preguntaran a este estadista de pelo fabuloso, "Tom, cmo debera decir?" +Dira: "Bueno, en mis tiempos era 'throve' pero haba 'thrived'". +Por eso ahora voy a mostrar los datos en crudo. +Dos filas de esta tabla de 2.000 millones de entradas. +Lo que estn viendo es la frecuencia ao por ao de 'thrived' y 'throve' en el tiempo. +Estas son slo 2 de 2.000 millones de filas. +As que el set de datos entero es mil millones de veces ms impresionante que esta diapositiva. +JM: Ahora bien, hay muchas otras imgenes que valen 500.000 millones de palabras. +Por ejemplo, sta. +Si uno toma el caso de la gripe, ver picos en el tiempo en el que se saba de la muerte por grandes epidemias de gripe en todo el mundo. +ELA: Si todava no estn convencidos, los niveles del mar estn subiendo, y tambin el CO2 en la atmsfera y la temperatura del planeta. +JM: Puede ser que tambin deseen echar un vistazo a estos n-gramas, para decirle a Nietzsche que Dios no est muerto, aunque, estamos de acuerdo, necesitara un mejor publicista. +ELA: Con este tipo de cosas se puede llegar a conceptos bastante abstractos. +Por ejemplo, tenemos la historia del ao 1950. +En general para la gran mayora de la historia a nadie le importa un comino 1950. +En 1700, en 1800, en 1900, a nadie le importa. +Entre los aos 30 y 40 a nadie le importa. +De repente, a mediados de los 40, empez a desatarse un rumor. +La gente se dio cuenta que vena 1950 y quiz era algo genial. +Pero nada cautiv el inters de la gente en 1950 tanto como el ao 1950. +La gente iba por ah obsesionada. +No poda parar de pensar en todo lo que hicieron en 1950 todas las cosas que planeaban hacer en 1950 todos los sueos que queran cumplir en 1950. +De hecho, 1950 fue tan fascinante que en los aos sucesivos la gente sigui hablando de las cosas sorprendentes que sucedieron en el 51, 52, 53. +Finalmente, en 1954, alguien despert y se dio cuenta que 1950 ya estaba un poco pasado de moda. +Y, as porque s, estall la burbuja. +Y la historia de 1950 es la historia de cada ao que tenemos registrado con un pequeo giro, porque ahora contamos con estos lindos grficos. +Y, porque los tenemos, podemos medir cosas. +Podemos decir: "Bueno, a qu velocidad estalla la burbuja?" +Y resulta que podemos medir con mucha precisin. +Se derivaron ecuaciones, se hicieron grficos, y el resultado neto es que hallamos que la burbuja estalla cada vez ms rpidamente con cada ao que pasa. +Estamos perdiendo inters por el pasado ms rpidamente. +JM: Ahora un pequeo consejo de carrera. +Para los que buscan ser famosos podemos aprender de los 25 personajes polticos ms famosos: autores, actores, etc. +Si quieren llegar a ser famosos desde temprano, deberan ser actores porque empiezan a tener fama al final de los ventipico... todava son jvenes, es genial. +Ahora, si pueden esperar un poquito, deberan ser autores porque entonces alcanzaran grandes alturas como Mark Twain, por ejemplo, que es sumamente famoso. +Pero si quieren llegar realmente a la cima deberan demorar la gratificacin y, claro, ser polticos. +En este caso se harn famosos al final de los 50 y tantos y se volvern muy, muy famosos en lo sucesivo. +Los cientficos suelen hacerse famosos cuando son mucho mayores. +Por ejemplo, los bilogos y los fsicos suelen ser casi tan famosos como los actores. +Un error que no deben cometer es ser matemticos. +Si lo hacen podran pensar: "Oh, genial. Voy a hacer mi mejor trabajo a los ventipico". +Pero adivinen qu; a nadie le importar. +ELA: Hay notas ms preocupantes entre los n-gramas. +Por ejemplo, esta es la trayectoria de Marc Chagall, un artista nacido en 1887. +Parece la trayectoria normal de un famoso. +Se hace cada vez ms y ms famoso salvo que miremos en alemn. +Si miramos en alemn vamos a notar algo muy extrao, algo casi nunca visto y es que se vuelve sumamente famoso y de repente se desploma cayendo al punto ms bajo entre 1933 y 1945, y despus se recupera. +Por supuesto, lo que vemos es que, de hecho, Marc Chagall era un artista judo en la Alemania nazi. +Estas seales son tan fuertes, en realidad, que no hace falta saber que alguien fue censurado. +Podemos averiguarlo mediante procesamiento bsico de seales. +Esta es una manera simple de hacerlo. +Una expectativa razonable es que la fama de alguien en un perodo dado de tiempo debera ser aproximadamente el promedio de su fama antes y su fama despus de eso. +Es ms o menos lo que esperamos. +Comparamos eso con la fama que observamos +y dividimos una por otra para producir algo que llamamos ndice de represin. +Si el ndice de represin es muy, muy, muy pequeo podran estar reprimindote. +Si es muy grande, quiz uno se est beneficiando de la propaganda. +JM: Ahora bien, podemos mirar la distribucin de los ndices de represin en poblaciones enteras. +As, por ejemplo, aqu... este ndice de represin es para 5.000 personas calculado sobre libros de ingls, donde no hay represin conocida, sera algo as, bastante centrado en el uno. +Lo que uno espera es bsicamente lo que observa. +Esta es la distribucin como se ve en Alemania... muy diferente, est desplazada a la izquierda. +Se habla de la gente 2 veces menos de lo que se debera. +Pero an ms importante, la distribucin es mucho ms amplia. +Hay muchas personas que terminan en el extremo izquierdo de esta distribucin; gente de la que se habla unas 10 veces menos de lo que se debera. +Pero tambin mucha gente en el extremo derecho que parece beneficiarse de la propaganda. +Esta imagen muestra el sello de la censura en el libro registrado. +ELA: Culturoma, as denominamos al mtodo. +Es una especie de genmica, +salvo que la genmica hace foco en la biologa mediante la ventana de la secuencia de bases del genoma humano. +La culturoma es similar. +Es la aplicacin del anlisis de grandes volmenes de datos al estudio de la cultura humana. +Aqu, en vez de mirar bajo la lente del genoma, lo hacemos mediante la digitalizacin de registros histricos. +Lo genial de la culturoma es que todos podemos practicarla. +Por qu podemos todos? +Todo el mundo puede hacerlo porque tres muchachos Jon Orwant, Matt Gray y Will Brockman en Google, vieron el prototipo del visor de n-gramas y dijeron: "Es algo muy divertido. +Tenemos que dejarlo disponible para la gente". +As que en dos semanas -dos semanas antes de que salga nuestro artculo- programaron una versin del visor de n-gramas para el pblico en general. +De ese modo, Uds tambin pueden escribir la palabra o frase que les interese y ver su n-grama de inmediato; tambin explorar ejemplos de los distintos libros en los que aparece el n-grama. +JM: El primer da lo usaron ms de un milln de veces y esta es realmente la mejor de todas las consultas. +La gente quiere dar lo mejor de s, en ingls se dice 'best'. +Pero resulta que en el siglo XVIII esto no importaba para nada. +En ingls, no decan "dar lo mejor de s" usando 'best' sino 'beft'. +Por supuesto, se debe a un error. +No es que se esforzaran en ser mediocres, sino que la S se sola escribir como una F. +Pero claro, Google no advirti esto en ese momento por eso lo informamos en el artculo cientfico que escribimos. +Pero resulta que esto nos recuerda que, aunque es muy divertido, al interpretar estos grficos hay que tener mucho cuidado y adoptar las normas bsicas de la ciencia. +ELA: La gente ha estado usando esto para todo tipo de cosas. +En realidad no vamos a hablar sino a mostrarles diapositivas y quedarnos en silencio. +Esta persona estaba interesada en la historia de la frustracin. +Hay varios tipos de frustracin. +Si nos damos con el pie en algo, es con 1A: "Ay". +Si la Tierra es aniquilada por la Vogons para hacer espacio para una autopista interestelar eso es con 8A: "Aaaaaaaay". +Esta persona estudia todos los "Ay" que tienen de 1 a 8 aes. +Y resulta que los "ay" menos frecuentes son, por supuesto, los correspondientes a las cosas ms frustrantes salvo, curiosamente, en los aos 80. +Pensamos que podra tener algo que ver con Reagan. +JM: Hay muchos usos para estos datos pero la conclusin es que el registro histrico se est digitalizando. +Google ha empezado a digitalizar 15 millones de libros. +Eso representa el 12% de todos los libros publicados en la historia. +Es un fragmento considerable de la cultura humana. +La cultura tiene ms cosas: hay manuscritos, hay peridicos, hay cosas que no tienen texto, como el arte y las pinturas. +Todo est en nuestras computadoras, en las computadores del mundo. +Y cuando eso suceda va a transformar nuestra manera de entender nuestro pasado, nuestro presente y la cultura humana. +Muchas gracias. +Soy una promotora reconvertida y ahora trabajo en desarrollo internacional. +En octubre estuve un tiempo en la Repblica Democrtica de Congo, el segundo pas ms grande de frica. +De hecho, es del tamao de Europa Occidental pero tiene solo 500 kilmetros pavimentados. +El Congo es un lugar peligroso. +En los ltimos 10 aos han muerto 5 millones de personas por la guerra del este. +Pero la guerra no es la nica razn que dificulta la vida en el Congo. +Tambin hay muchos problemas sanitarios. +De hecho, la tasa de prevalencia del VIH es del 1,3% entre los adultos. +Esto puede no parecer un gran nmero pero en un pas con 76 millones de personas significa que hay 930.000 infectados. +Y debido a la infraestructura deficiente slo el 25% de ellos reciben los medicamentos que necesitan para salvar sus vidas. +Razn por la cual, en parte, hay agencias que donan preservativos a un costo bajo o nulo. +Y as, mientras estuve en el Congo, pas mucho tiempo contndole a la gente acerca de los preservativos, incluyendo a Damien. +Damien administra un hotel en las afueras de Kinshasa. +Es un hotel que abre slo hasta la medianoche, no es un lugar para quedarse. +Pero es un lugar a donde acuden trabajadoras sexuales con sus clientes. +Ahora Damien sabe todo sobre condones pero no los vende. +Dice que no hay demanda. +Y no sorprende porque slo el 3% de los congoleos usa condones. +Joseph y Christine, administran una farmacia que vende preservativos, dijeron, a pesar de que las agencias los proveen gratis o a bajo costo y tienen campaas de marketing acordes, sus clientes no compran las versiones de marca. +Les gustan los genricos. +Como promotora me pareci curioso. +Empec a analizar cmo era el marketing. +Y resulta que las agencias usan tres mensajes principales para estos preservativos: miedo, financiacin y fidelidad. +Llaman a los condones Vive o Confa. +Los empaquetan con la cinta roja que nos recuerda el VIH; los colocan en cajas que nos recuerdan quin los pag; muestran fotos de las esposas o esposos y nos dicen que los protejamos o nos piden prudencia. +Pero ese no es el tipo de cosas en las que uno piensa justo antes de ir a buscar un preservativo. +En qu piensan justo antes de ir a buscar un preservativo? +Sexo! +Y las empresas privadas que venden condones en estos lugares entienden esto. +Su marketing es levemente diferente. +El nombre puede no ser muy diferente pero la grfica seguro lo es. +Por eso las marcas usan otras iniciativas y, ciertamente, el envase es muy provocativo. +Esto me hizo pensar que quiz las agencias se estaban perdiendo de un aspecto fundamental del marketing: entender quin es la audiencia. +Y para las agencias, por desgracia, la audiencia suele ser gente que ni siquiera est en el pas en el que trabajan. +Es la gente del pas, la gente que sostiene su trabajo, gente como esa. +Pero si realmente queremos tratar de detener la propagacin del VIH tenemos que pensar en el cliente, la gente cuyo comportamiento tiene que cambiar, las parejas, las mujeres y hombres jvenes, cuyas vidas dependen de eso. +Por eso la leccin es que en realidad no importa lo que uno venda; uno slo tiene que pensar quin es su cliente y cules son los mensajes que harn que cambien de comportamiento. +Eso podra salvarles la vida. +Gracias. +Todos estamos familiarizados con el cncer pero no todos pensamos en el cncer como una enfermedad contagiosa. +El demonio de Tasmania nos muestra que el cncer no es slo una enfermedad contagiosa sino que adems puede amenazar a una especie con la extincin. +Para comenzar, qu es el demonio de Tasmania? +Muchos estarn familiarizados con Taz, el personaje de caricaturas, ese que gira, gira y gira. +Pero no mucha gente sabe que existe realmente un animal que se llama demonio de Tasmania, y que es el mayor marsupial carnvoro del mundo. +Un marsupial es un mamfero que tiene una bolsa, como un canguro. +El demonio de Tasmania recibe su nombre por el terrorfico grito nocturno que produce. +El demonio de Tasmania es predominantemente carroero y utiliza sus poderosas mandbulas y sus filosos dientes para mascar los huesos de animales muertos en descomposicin. +El demonio de Tasmania se encuentra slo en la isla de Tasmania, que es una isla pequea situada al sur de Australia. +Y a pesar de su aspecto feroz el demonio de Tasmania es, en realidad; un animalito adorable. +De hecho, crec en Tasmania, y siempre nos resultaba muy emocionante llegar a ver un demonio de Tasmania en estado natural. +Pero la poblacin de demonios de Tasmania ha sido diezmada. +Y, de hecho, hay preocupacin de que la especie desaparezca del estado salvaje en 20 30 aos. +Y la razn es la aparicin de una nueva enfermedad, un cncer contagioso. +La historia comienza en 1996 cuando un fotgrafo de vida silvestre tom esta fotografa de un demonio de Tasmania que tena un gran tumor en su cara. +En ese momento se pens que era excepcional. +Los animales, igual que los humanos, son afectados, a veces, por tumores extraos. +No obstante, creemos que este es el primer avistamiento de una nueva enfermedad, que ahora es una epidemia en expansin en Tasmania. +Esta enfermedad fue vista por primera vez en el noreste de Tasmania en 1996 y se ha extendido por Tasmania como una ola gigante. +Queda slo una pequea porcin de la poblacin que no ha sido afectada. +Esta enfermedad aparece primero como un tumor, normalmente en la cara o dentro de la boca del demonio de Tasmania afectado. +Estos tumores inevitablemente se hacen ms grandes, como stos. +Y la prxima imagen que vern es bastante impactante. +Inevitablemente, estos tumores progresan hasta llegar a ser enormes tumores ulcerosos como este. +ste en particular qued grabado en mi mente porque es el primer caso de esta enfermedad que vi. +Y recuerdo el horror de ver a esta pequea hembra con ese enorme tumor ulceroso, maloliente dentro de su boca que haba quebrado el hueso de su mandbula inferior. +No se haba alimentado por das. +Sus intestinos estaban infectados de gusanos parasitarios. +Su cuerpo estaba cubierto de tumores secundarios. +Y, an as, alimentaba a sus tres pequeas cras en su bolsa. +Por supuesto, ellos murieron junto con la madre. +Eran demasiado pequeos para sobrevivir sin su madre. +De hecho, en el rea de la que provena, ms del 90% de la poblacin de demonios de Tasmania ha muerto por esta enfermedad. +Los cientficos del mundo estaban intrigados por este cncer, este cncer infeccioso, que se expanda por la poblacin de demonios de Tasmania. +Y nos centramos en el cncer cervical en mujeres, que se extiende por un virus y en la epidemia de SIDA que se asocia a varios tipos de cncer. +La evidencia sugera que este cncer se expanda por un virus. +Sin embargo, ahora sabemos... y les dir ahora mismo que sabemos que este cncer no se expande por un virus. +De hecho, el agente de contagio de la enfermedad en este cncer es algo ms siniestro; algo que no habamos pensado antes. +Pero para poder explicar de qu se trata necesito dedicar unos minutos a hablar del cncer. +El cncer es una enfermedad que afecta a millones de personas en todo el mundo cada ao. +Una de cada tres personas en esta sala desarrollar cncer en algn momento de su vida. +A m misma me extirparon un tumor del intestino grueso cuando tena slo 14 aos. +El cncer se produce cuando una clula de nuestro cuerpo adquiere una serie de mutaciones al azar en genes importantes que hace que la clula produzca cada vez ms copias de s misma. +Paradjicamente, una vez establecido, la seleccin natural favorece el continuo crecimiento del cncer. +La seleccin natural es la supervivencia del ms apto. +Y cuando se tiene una poblacin de clulas cancerosas que se multiplican rpidamente, si una de ellas adquiere nuevas mutaciones, que les permite crecer ms rpido, adquirir nutrientes ms satisfactoriamente, invadir el cuerpo; sern seleccionadas por la evolucin. +Es por ello que el cncer es una enfermedad tan difcil de tratar. +Evoluciona. +Si le arrojamos una droga, las clulas resistentes volvern a crecer. +Un aspecto sorprendente es que, teniendo el ambiente y los nutrientes correctos, una clula de cncer tiene el potencial de crecer indefinidamente. +Pero, el cncer est restringido a vivir en nuestros cuerpos, y su continuo crecimiento, su expansin dentro de nuestros cuerpos y la destruccin de nuestros tejidos, lleva a la muerte del paciente de cncer y tambin a la muerte del mismo cncer. +Podemos pensar en el cncer como una forma de vida extraa, de corta existencia y auto destructiva; un punto final en la evolucin. +Y es aqu donde el cncer del demonio de Tasmania ha adquirido una adaptacin evolutiva absolutamente sorprendente. +Y la respuesta nos lleg del estudio de ADN del cncer del demonio de Tasmania. +Este fue el trabajo de muchas personas, pero voy a explicarlo con un experimento de confirmacin que realic hace algunos aos. +La prxima diapositiva es impresionante. +Este es Jonas. +Es un demonio de Tasmania que encontramos con un gran tumor en su cara. +Como genetista, siempre me interes el ADN y las mutaciones. +Aprovech esta oportunidad para juntar algunas muestras del tumor de Jonas y tambin muestras de otras partes de su cuerpo. +Las llev al laboratorio +y extraje el ADN. +Y al examinar la secuencia de ADN, y comparar la secuencia del tumor de Jonas con la del resto de su cuerpo, descubr que tenan un perfil gentico completamente diferente. +De hecho, Jonas y su tumor eran tan diferentes uno de otro como Uds de la persona que tienen sentada al lado. +Esto nos indic que el tumor de Jonas no creci de clulas de su propio cuerpo. +De hecho, otro perfil gentico nos dijo que este tumor de Jonas probablemente haba aparecido primero de las clulas de un demonio de Tasmania hembra... y Jonas era claramente macho. +Cmo poda un tumor que haba aparecido de clulas de otro individuo crecer en la cara de Jonas? +El siguiente avance vino de estudiar cientos de tipos de cncer en todo el territorio de Tasmania. +Encontramos que todos estos tipos de cncer compartan el mismo ADN. +Piensen esto por un minuto. +Esto significa que todos ellos son el mismo cncer que apareci de un slo individuo, que se liber de ese primer cuerpo y se extendi por toda la poblacin de demonios de Tasmania. +Pero cmo pudo un cncer expandirse en una poblacin? +La pieza final del rompecabezas apareci al recordar cmo se comportan los demonios en estado salvaje al encontrarse con otros. +Tienden a morderse bastante ferozmente y usualmente en la cara. +Pensamos que las clulas cancerosas salieron del tumor y entraron en la saliva. +Cuando el demonio muerde a otro demonio le implanta clulas cancerosas vivas al siguiente demonio y el tumor contina creciendo. +Este cncer del demonio de Tasmania es tal vez lo ms avanzado en cncer. +No est restringido a vivir dentro del cuerpo que lo gener. +Se extiende a toda la poblacin, presenta mutaciones que le permite evadir el sistema inmunolgico y es el nico cncer que, sabemos, amenaza a una especie completa con la extincin. +Y si esto ocurre en los demonios de Tasmania Por qu no ha ocurrido con otros animales, o, ms an, con los humanos? +Pues bien, la respuesta es que s ha ocurrido. +Este es Kimbo. +Es un perro que pertenece a una familia de Mombasa, Kenia. +El ao pasado su duea not sangre en la regin de sus genitales. +Lo llev al veterinario y el veterinario descubri algo bastante desagradable. +Si son impresionables, por favor, miren para otro lado. +Encontr sto: un enorme tumor sangrante en la base del pene de Kimbo. +El veterinario diagnostic que es un tumor venreo transmisible, un cncer transmitido sexualmente que afecta a los perros. +Y, al igual que el cncer del demonio de Tasmania, se contagia a travs de clulas vivas de cncer; como el de este perro. +Pero el cncer de este perro es bastante particular porque se disemina por todo el mundo. +Y, de hecho, estas mismas clulas que estn afectando a Kimbo afectan a perros en la ciudad de Nueva York, en pueblos montaosos en el Himalaya y en los llanos de Australia. +Creemos tambin que este cncer puede ser muy antiguo. +De hecho, los perfiles genticos nos dicen que puede tener decenas de miles de aos de antigedad; lo que significa que este cncer puede haber aparecido por primera vez de las clulas de un lobo que viva con los neandertales. +Este cncer es notable. +Es la forma de vida ms antigua de origen mamfero conocida. +Es una reliquia viviente del pasado lejano. +Y hemos visto que puede presentarse en animales. +Puede el cncer ser contagioso entre las personas? +Esta pregunta fascinaba a Chester Southam, un onclogo de la dcada de 1950 +que decidi poner esto a prueba inoculando personas con cncer de otros. +Esta fotografa es del Dr. Southam en 1957 inyectando cncer a un voluntario, que, en este caso, era prisionero en la Penitenciaria Estatal de Ohio. +La mayora de las personas que el Dr. Southam inyect no desarrollaron cncer de las clulas inyectadas. +Pero un pequeo nmero de ellos s lo hizo, y eran personas que ya se encontraban enfermas, cuyos sistemas inmunes estaban probablemente comprometidos. +Lo que esto nos dice, cuestiones ticas de lado, es que... +es extremadamente poco probable que el cncer se transfiera entre personas. +Pero, bajo ciertas circunstancias, puede ocurrir. +Y creo que es algo que los onclogos y epidemilogos deberan tener presente en el futuro. +Finalmente, el cncer es la resultante inevitable de la habilidad de nuestras clulas para dividirse y adaptarse a sus ambientes. +Pero esto no significa que debamos perder las esperanzas en la lucha contra el cncer. +De hecho, creo que dado el mayor conocimiento de los complejos procesos evolucionarios que llevan al aumento del cncer, podemos vencer al cncer. +Mi objetivo personal es vencer al cncer del demonio de Tasmania. +Evitemos que sea el demonio de Tasmania el primer animal en extinguirse por cncer. +Gracias. +Quisiera contarles mi historia. +Paso mucho tiempo enseando a los adultos a usar el lenguaje visual y los garabatos en su trabajo +Y por supuesto encuentro mucha resistencia porque se consideran como algo antiintelectual y contrario al aprendizaje serio. +Pero me opongo a esa creencia porque s que los garabatos tienen un gran impacto en la manera en que procesamos informacin y en que resolvemos problemas. +Tuve curiosidad por saber por qu la forma en que la sociedad percibe los garabatos est tan alejada de lo que es en realidad. +Y descubr cosas muy interesantes. +Por ejemplo, no hay ninguna definicin favorable del garabato. +En el siglo XVII, un doodle era un tonto o un loco, como en Yankee Doodle. +En el siglo XVIII, doodle se convirti en un verbo con el significado de estafar, ridiculizar o burlarse de alguien. +En el siglo XIX, un doodle era un poltico corrupto. +Y hoy, tenemos lo que es tal vez la definicin ms ofensiva, al menos para m, que es la siguiente: to doodle significa oficialmente perder el tiempo, titubear, hacer travesuras, hacer marcas sin sentido, hacer algo de poco valor, sustancia o importancia, y mi favorita no hacer nada. +Con razn la gente es reacia a hacer garabatos en el trabajo. +No hacer nada en el trabajo es como masturbarse; es totalmente inapropiado. +Adems he odo historias horribles de gente reprendida por sus maestros, por supuesto, por garabatear en clase +Y que tienen jefes que les reprenden por hacer garabatos en la sala de juntas. +Hay una norma cultural muy fuerte en contra de los garabatos en lugares en los que se supone que debemos aprender algo. +Y por desgracia la prensa tiende a reforzar esta norma cuando reporta los garabatos que hacen personas importantes en una audiencia o en una situacin similar, y suele usar palabras como "descubierto", "atrapado" o "pillado" como si se tratase de un crimen. +Y adems existe una aversin psicolgica a garabatear, gracias Freud! +En la dcada de 1930, Freud nos dijo que se poda analizar la psique de la gente a partir de sus garabatos. +Esto no es exacto, pero le sucedi a Tony Blair en el Foro de Davos en 2005 cuando, por supuesto, se "descubrieron" sus garabatos y recibi los apelativos que ven aqu. +Luego result que eran los garabatos de Bill Gates. +Y Bill, si ests aqu, nadie piensa que seas un megalmano. +Pero esto, en efecto, contribuye a que la gente no quiera ni mostrar sus garabatos. +Y esto es lo que creo que pasa realmente: +que nuestra cultura est tan intensamente centrada en la informacin verbal que nos negamos siquiera a ver el valor de los garabatos. +Y no me siento cmoda con eso. +Y es por esa creencia, que considero que hay que erradicar, que estoy aqu para traerlos rpidamente de vuelta a la verdad. +Esta es la verdad: el garabateo es una herramienta increblemente poderosa y necesitamos recordar esto y aprenderlo nuevamente. +Por ello, hace falta una nueva definicin del garabateo. +Y espero que aqu haya alguien del Diccionario Ingls Oxford porque quiero hablar con esa persona ms tarde. +Aqu est la verdadera definicin: Garabatear es hacer marcas espontneas que nos ayuden a pensar. +Por ello, millones de personas garabatean. +Aqu hay otra verdad interesante sobre el garabato: Las personas que garabatean cuando reciben informacin verbal retienen ms de esa informacin que los que no hacen garabatos. +Pensamos que hacemos garabatos cuando nos desconcentramos, pero en realidad se trata de una estrategia para evitar desconcentrarnos. +Adems tiene un gran efecto en la capacidad para resolver problemas creativamente y en el procesamiento de informacin. +Al aprender, contamos con 4 formas de retener informacin para poder tomar decisiones. +Y son: visual, auditiva, lectoescritora y kinestsica. +Para que realmente podamos apropiarnos de la informacin y hacer algo con ella tenemos que usar al menos 2 de estas modalidades o usar una de ellas junto con una experiencia emocional. +La increble contribucin de los garabatos es que involucra las 4 modalidades de aprendizaje al mismo tiempo con la posibilidad de una experiencia emocional. +Es una gran contribucin para ser un comportamiento asociado a no hacer nada. +S que es algo tonto, pero llor cuando lo descubr. +Se hizo una investigacin antropolgica sobre el desarrollo de la actividad artstica en los nios y se descubri que independientemente del tiempo y lugar todos los nios muestran la misma evolucin en la lgica visual a medida que crecen. +En otras palabras, comparten y desarrollan cierta complejidad en el lenguaje visual que ocurre en un orden predecible. +Y esto me parece increble. +Creo que eso significa que garabatear es algo innato y nosotros simplemente estamos negndonos ese instinto. +Finalmente, muy poca gente lo sabe, pero el garabato es el precursor de algunos de nuestros mayores emblemas culturales. +Aqu hay uno de ellos: Frank Gehry, el arquitecto precursor del Museo Guggenheim en Abu Dhabi. +Esto es lo que quiero decirles: En ningn caso los garabatos deben ser prohibidos en aulas, salas de juntas o incluso en consejos de guerra. +Por el contrario, se debe incentivar hacer garabatos precisamente en esas situaciones donde la informacin es muy densa y la necesidad de procesarla es muy grande. +Y voy a ir ms lejos. +Hacer garabatos es algo tan accesible universalmente que no es intimidante como forma de arte y se puede aprovechar como un canal a travs del cual las personas acceden a niveles ms altos de alfabetizacin visual. +Amigos mos, el garabato nunca ha sido enemigo del pensamiento intelectual. +En realidad es uno de sus mayores aliados. +Gracias. +Hace unos meses, una mujer de 40 aos lleg a la sala de urgencias de un hospital cercano y estaba confundida cuando la trajeron. +Su presin arterial era un alarmante 230 sobre 170. +En pocos minutos entr en paro cardiaco. +Fue reanimada, estabilizada y le hicieron una tomografa axial computarizada justo a un lado de la sala de urgencias porque les preocupaban posibles cogulos en el pulmn. +La tomografa revel que no tena cogulos, pero si mostr masas palpables y visibles en las mamas, tumores de mama, que se haban dispersado por todo su cuerpo. +Y la verdadera tragedia fue que, al observar sus registros, ella haba estado en otros 4 o 5 hospitales en aos anteriores. +4 o 5 oportunidades para palpar y encontrar esas masas en las mamas e intervenir en una etapa ms temprana que cuando lleg a nosotros. +Damas y caballeros, esta historia no es inusual. +Lamentablemente esto sucede todo el tiempo. +Bromeo, aunque solo en parte, diciendo que si Ud. llega a un hospital sin una extremidad, nadie le creer hasta que le hagan una tomografa, resonancia magntica o consulta ortopdica. +Yo no odio a las mquinas. +Doy clases en Stanford. +Soy un mdico que usa tecnologa de punta, +pero quiero explicarles, en los prximos 17 minutos, que cuando omitimos el examen fsico, cuando solo ordenamos pruebas en lugar de examinar y hablar con el paciente, no solo estamos pasando por alto diagnsticos sencillos que pueden realizarse en una etapa temprana y tratable, sino que estamos perdiendo mucho ms que eso. +Estamos perdiendo un rito +que es transformador, trascendente y que es el ncleo de la relacin mdico-paciente. +Podra ser una hereja decir esto aqu en TED, pero quisiera presentarles la innovacin ms importante en medicina de los prximos 10 aos: el poder de la mano humana... que toca, consuela, diagnostica y realiza el tratamiento. +Quiero presentarles a esta persona cuya imagen pueden o no reconocer. +Sir Arthur Conan Doyle. +Como estamos en Edimburgo dir que soy gran admirador de Conan Doyle. +Quiz no sepan que Conan Doyle estudi en la escuela de medicina aqu en Edimburgo y su personaje, Sherlock Holmes, fue inspirado por Sir Joseph Bell. +Joseph Bell fue un maestro extraordinario en todos aspectos. +Conan Doyle, escribiendo acerca de Bell, describi el siguiente dilogo entre Bell y sus estudiantes. +Imaginen a Bell en el departamento de consulta externa, rodeado de estudiantes, con pacientes que llegan a la sala de urgencias, se registraban e ingresan. +Llega una mujer con un nio y Conan Doyle describe el siguiente dilogo: +La mujer dice: "Buenos das". +Bell pregunta: "Cmo estuvo su viaje en el transbordador de Burntisland?" +Ella responde: "Estuvo bien". +l pregunta: "Qu hizo usted con su otro nio?" +Ella responde: "Lo dej con mi hermana en Leith". +l pregunta: "Tom el atajo en Inverleith Row para llegar al hospital?" +Ella responde: "As fue". +l pregunta: "Ir a trabajar a la fbrica de linleo?" +Ella responde: "S". +Entonces Bell comienza a explicar a sus estudiantes. +"Cuando ella dijo 'Buenos das', reconoc su acento de Fife. +El transbordador ms cercano que lo cruza es Burntisland. +Por lo que debi subir a ese transbordador. +Noten que el abrigo que est cargando es muy pequeo para el nio que la acompaa, por lo tanto ella inici el viaje con dos nios, pero dej a uno en el camino. +Noten que hay barro en la suela de sus zapatos. +Ese tipo de barro rojo no se encuentra Edimburgo, excepto en los jardines botnicos. +Entonces, debi tomar un atajo en Inverleith Row para llegar aqu. +Finalmente, ella tiene dermatitis en los dedos de su mano derecha, una dermatitis que es nica de los obreros de la fbrica de linleo en Burntisland". +Cuando Bell pidi a la paciente que se desnudara y la examin, se podrn imaginar cuanto ms percibi. +Como maestro de medicina y como estudiante tambin, este relato me ha inspirado. +Pero es posible que no sepan que esta habilidad para reconocer el cuerpo simplemente usando nuestros sentidos es muy reciente. +Esta imagen es de Leopold Auenbrugger quien, a finales de 1700, descubri la percusin. +La historia dice que Leopold Auenbrugger era hijo de un posadero. +Su padre sola bajar al stano y golpear con sus dedos los toneles de vino para saber cunto vino quedaba en ellos y si deba hacer un nuevo pedido. +Cuando Auenbrugger se convirti en mdico comenz a hacer lo mismo. +Golpeaba levemente con sus dedos el pecho o el abdomen de sus pacientes. +que fue seguido un par de aos despus por Laennec, descubridor del estetoscopio. +Se dice que Laennec caminaba por Pars cuando vio a 2 nios jugando con un palo. +Uno raspaba un extremo del palo mientras el otro nio escuchaba en el otro extremo. +Laennec pens que sera una forma maravillosa de escuchar el pecho o el abdomen usando lo que l llam "cilindro". +Despus lo renombr como "estetoscopio". +Fue as como nacieron el estetoscopio y la auscultacin. +En pocos aos, a finales de 1800 o principios de 1900, de pronto, el barbero cirujano dej paso al mdico que trataba de diagnosticar. +Si ustedes recuerdan, antes de eso, no importaba qu le aquejara, Ud. iba con el cirujano barbero quien terminara aplicndole ventosas, sangrndolo, purgndolo. +Ah, y si usted quera, poda hacerle un corte de cabello y extraerle una muela mientras tanto. +No intentaba diagnosticar. +Puede que Uds. sepan que en el tubo del barbero, las rayas rojas y blancas representan las bandas ensangrentadas del cirujano barbero y los receptculos en los extremos representan los recipientes donde se recolectaba la sangre. +Pero la llegada de la auscultacin y la percusin represent enormes cambios cuando los mdicos comenzaron a mirar dentro del cuerpo. +Esta pintura en particular, representa el pinculo, lo ms alto, de la era clnica. +Esta pintura es muy famosa: "El doctor" de Luke Fildes. +Luke Fildes fue comisionado por Tate para pintarla, quien estableci la Galera Tate. +l pidi a Fildes que hiciera una pintura de importancia social. +Es interesante que Fildes eligiera este tema. +El hijo mayor de Fildes, Philip, muri a los 9 aos en la vspera de Navidad despus de una breve enfermedad. +Fildes qued tan impresionado por el mdico que hizo vigilia durante varias noches, que decidi que tratara de representar al mdico en nuestro tiempo, casi como un tributo a este mdico. +Es por eso que "El doctor" es una pintura famosa. +Ha estado en calendarios y estampillas de varios pases. +A veces me pregunto, Qu hubiera hecho Fildes de haber realizado esta pintura en la poca actual, en el ao 2011? +Hubiera usado un monitor de computadora en lugar del paciente? +He tenido problemas en Silicon Valley por decir que un paciente en cama se ha vuelto un icono del paciente real que est en la computadora. +He acuado un trmino para dicha entidad. +Lo llamo iPacient. +iPacient recibe un magnfico cuidado en Estados Unidos. +El paciente real a menudo se pregunta: Dnde estn todos? +Cundo vendrn a explicarme lo que tengo? +Quin est a cargo? +Existe una disyuncin real entre la percepcin del paciente y la de los mdicos sobre cul es la mejor atencin. +Quiero mostrarles una imagen de lo que eran las rondas cuando yo era aprendiz. +Se centraba la atencin en el paciente. +bamos de cama en cama. El mdico tratante estaba a cargo. +Ahora es muy comn que las rondas se vean as donde la conversacin tiene lugar lejos del paciente. +La conversacin es sobre imgenes y datos. +La pieza crtica que est ausente es el paciente. +Yo pienso de esta manera por dos ancdotas que quiero contarles. +Una es de una amiga que tuvo cncer de mama, se le detect un pequeo cncer de mama y le hicieron una tumorectoma donde yo viva, +cuando estaba en Texas. +Ella investig mucho para encontrar el mejor centro oncolgico del mundo para su tratamiento ms adelante. +Encontr el lugar y fue all. +Meses despus, me sorprend al verla de regreso para atenderse por su onclogo particular. +Le pregunt con insistencia: "Por qu regresaste?" +Se resista a responder. +Ella dijo: "El centro oncolgico era maravilloso. +Tena bellas instalaciones, un atrio gigante, estacionamiento, un piano que tocaba solo, un conserje que te llevaba a todas partes. +Pero", dijo, "ellos no tocaban mis senos". +Nosotros podemos argumentar que probablemente no era necesario explorar sus senos. +Haban escaneado su interior. +Comprendan el cncer a nivel molecular. No necesitaban explorar sus senos. +Pero para ella esto era muy importante. +Lo suficiente para que decidiera recibir el tratamiento con su onclogo particular quien, cada vez que iba, examinaba ambos senos y tambin la cola axilar, examinaba su axila con cuidado, examinaba la regin cervical, la regin inguinal. Realizaba un examen completo. +Era el tipo de atencin que ella necesitaba. +Esta ancdota ejerci mucha influencia en m. +Y tambin otra experiencia que tuve, cuando viva en Texas, antes de ir a Stanford. +Tena la reputacin de interesarme en pacientes con fatiga crnica. +No es algo para desear ni a su peor enemigo. +Lo digo porque estos son pacientes difciles. +muchas veces son rechazados por sus familias y tienen malas experiencias en atencin mdica y vienen preparados para agregarnos a la lista de gente que los va a decepcionar. +Pronto aprend, con mi primer paciente, que no le hara justicia a este complicado paciente con todos los historiales que me traan y un nuevo paciente que llegaba cada 45 minutos. +No haba manera de hacerlo. +De intentarlo, los hubiera decepcionado. +Pero encontr este mtodo donde invitaba al paciente a que narrara el problema durante toda la primera visita y yo trataba de no interrumpirlo. +Sabemos que el mdico estadounidense promedio interrumpe a sus pacientes cada 14 segundos. +Si alguna vez voy al cielo, ser por que mantuve mi paciencia 45 minutos y no interrump al paciente. +Entonces asignaba el examen fsico dos semanas despus y cuando el paciente regresaba para el examen, poda realizar un examen detallado pues no tena nada ms que hacer. +Pienso que hago exmenes fsicos detallados y como la visita era solamente para el examen, poda hacerlo con todo detalle. +Recuerdo mi primer paciente en esa serie que continu relatndome su historia durante lo que deba ser el examen fsico. +Yo comenc mi rito. +Siempre inicio tomando el pulso, examino las manos, despus el nacimiento de las uas, despus paso mi mano por el nodo epitroclear, yo estaba en mi ritual. +Y cuando mi ritual comenz, este paciente que era tan voluble comenz a calmarse. +Recuerdo haber tenido la extraa sensacin de que el paciente y yo realizbamos un rito primitivo donde yo tena un papel y el paciente otro. +Cuando termin el paciente me dijo con asombro: "Nunca antes me haban examinado as". +Si eso fuera cierto, sera una vergenza para el sistema de salud, pues l ya haba ido a otros lugares. +Entonces le dije al paciente, una vez que se hubo vestido, lo mismo que ya haba escuchado en otras instituciones, que es: "Esto no son ideas suyas. +Esto es real. +La buena noticia es que no es cncer ni tuberculosis, no es coccidioidomicosis o alguna oscura infeccin mictica. +La mala notica es que no sabemos qu lo est causando, pero esto es lo que debe de hacer, esto es lo que debemos hacer". +Le present toda la gama de opciones que el paciente haba escuchado antes. +Siempre sent que si el paciente dejaba de buscar al mdico brujo y el tratamiento mgico y comenzaba conmigo el camino a la salud, era porque me haba ganado el derecho de decirle estas cosas por haberlo examinado. +Algo importante haba surgido del intercambio. +Llev esto a mis colegas de antropologa en Stanford y les cont esta historia. +Ellos de inmediato me dijeron "Lo que describes es un rito clsico". +Me ayudaron a comprender que los ritos se refieren siempre a cambios. +Cuando nos casamos, por ejemplo, gastamos en grandes fiestas y ceremonias para marcar la transicin de una vida solitaria y miserable a una de gozo eterno. +No s de qu se ren. +Esa era la intencin original o no? +Marcamos la transicin al poder con ritos. +Marcamos el final de una vida con ritos. +Los ritos son muy importantes. +Tratan acerca de transformaciones. +Cuando los someto al rito de un individuo que va con otro y le dice cosas que no le dira al sacerdote o al rabino, y adems de eso, debe desvestirse y permitir que lo toquen... les puedo decir que ese rito tiene tremenda importancia. +Si ese rito se acorta sin desvestir al paciente, si se escucha con el estetoscopio por encima de la bata, sin hacer un examen completo, habrn perdido la oportunidad de sellar la relacin mdico-paciente. +Soy escritor y quiero terminar leyendo un pasaje corto que escrib que tiene que ver con esta escena. +Yo trato enfermedades infecciosas y los primeros das del VIH, antes de tener medicamentos, atestig muchas escenas como esta. +Recuerdo que cada vez que iba a la cama de un moribundo, ya fuera en el hospital o en casa, recuerdo mi sentido de fracaso... la sensacin de no saber qu decir, no saba qu decir ni qu deba hacer. +Y de esa sensacin de fracaso recuerdo que siempre debo examinar al paciente. +Siempre debo ver debajo de los prpados, +observar la lengua, +golpear levemente el pecho, escuchar el corazn, +sentir el abdomen. +Recuerdo a muchos pacientes, sus nombres an vivos en mi lengua, sus rostros an claros. +Recuerdo muchos ojos enormes, hundidos, asustados que me miraban mientras realizaba este ritual. +Y al siguiente da, regresara y lo volvera a hacer. +Quisiera leerles este pasaje de cierre sobre un paciente: +"Recuerdo a un paciente que estaba a punto de ser solo huesos envueltos en piel encogida, sin poder hablar; su boca incrustada con Candida resistente a los medicamentos usuales. +Cuando l me vio en lo que seran sus ltimas horas de vida, sus manos se movieron muy despacio. +Y mientras me preguntaba qu estaba haciendo l llev sus delgados dedos hacia su camisa de pijama, luchando por desabrocharla. +Me di cuenta de que l quera mostrarme su huesudo pecho. +Un ofrecimiento, una invitacin. +Que no rechac. +Le toqu. Lo palp. Escuche su pecho. +Pienso que l ya saba que eso era tan vital para m como necesario para l. +Ninguno de los dos poda escapar del rito que nada tiene que ver con encontrar estertores de pulmn o el ritmo galopante del corazn que falla. +No, este rito era sobre el mensaje que los mdicos necesitan transmitir a sus pacientes. +Aunque, Dios sabe que ahora en nuestra arrogancia, nos hemos alejado. +Parece que hemos olvidado... como si, con la explosin del conocimiento, con todo el genoma humano conocido a nuestros pes, nos hemos dejado llevar por la falta de atencin, olvidando que el rito es catrtico para el mdico, necesario para el paciente. Hemos olvidado que el rito tiene un significado y un mensaje singular que transmitir al paciente. +El mensaje, el cual no comprend totalmente entonces, an cuando lo realizaba y que ahora comprendo mejor; es este: Yo siempre, siempre, siempre estar aqu. +Te acompaar a travs de esto. +Nunca te abandonar. +Estar contigo hasta el final". +Muchas gracias. +Hoy quiero hablarles de una idea. +Una idea acerca de un nuevo modelo de escuela, que produce un cambio en nuestra manera habitual de pensar en relacin a las metas y al cmo funcionan las escuelas. +Y pronto se abrir alguna en su barrio. +stas pertenecen a una organizacin llamada Young Foundation que durante dcadas ha producido muchas innovaciones en educacin, como la Universidad Abierta, las Escuelas Extendidas, las Escuelas para Emprendedores Sociales, las Universidades de Verano, y la Escuela de Todo. +Y, hace unos cinco aos, investigamos cul era la necesidad de innovacin en educacin en el Reino Unido. +Y observamos que la prioridad era unificar dos problemas. +Uno de ellos era que haba muchos adolescentes aburridos a los que no les gustaba la escuela y no encontraban ninguna relacin entre lo que aprendan all y los trabajos futuros. +El otro, los empresarios se quejaban de que los jvenes, al salir de la escuela, no estn preparados para el mundo del trabajo; no tienen la disposicin ni la experiencia necesaria. +Y entonces nos preguntamos: a qu clase de escuela los adolescentes desearan pertenecer, en lugar de mantenerse al margen? +Y elegimos ese nombre para retomar la idea original del Renacimiento donde se integran el trabajo y el aprendizaje. +Trabajas mientras aprendes, y aprendes mientras trabajas. +Y el proyecto que diseamos tiene las siguientes caractersticas. +En primer lugar, queramos escuelas pequeas, de alrededor de 300, 400 alumnos, de 14 a 19 aos. Y, fundamentalmente, el 80% del plan de estudios no se lleva a cabo en los pupitres, sino en la vida real, a travs de proyectos prcticos, trabajando a comisin en empresas, en ONGs y otros sitios. +Cada alumno tendr un tutor, adems de los docentes, quienes tendrn horarios de trabajo similares a una empresa. +Y esto se desarrollar dentro del sistema pblico, financiado con fondos pblicos, pero gestionado de manera independiente, +sin costo adicional, ni seleccin, y hacer accesible el camino de los alumnos a la universidad. Incluso para aquellos que deseen ser emprendedores o dedicarse a trabajos manuales. +Las ideas subyacentes son muy simples: un gran nmero de adolescentes aprende mejor haciendo, aprenden mejor en grupo, y aprenden mejor haciendo las cosas de verdad. Precisamente lo contrario de lo que plantea nuestro sistema educativo formal. +Y, como fue una buena idea, pasamos a desarrollar un modelo del proyecto. +Lo probamos primero en Luton, famosa por su aeropuerto, pero nada ms, creo... ...y en Blackpool, famosa por sus playas y esparcimiento. +Y encontramos que haba muchos errores, y entonces los corregimos, pero nos dimos cuenta que a los jvenes les encant. +Lo encontraron mucho ms motivador y apasionante que a la educacin tradicional. +Y no es de extraar que estos resultados hayan hecho pensar a otros que estbamos en lo cierto. +El ministro de educacin del sur de Londres, se describe como un "gran fan". +Y las organizaciones empresariales tambin pensaron que estbamos en lo cierto, dado que los jvenes salen mejor preparados para el mundo real del trabajo. +Y, de hecho, el titular de la Cmara de Comercio ahora preside la Fundacin Escuelas Studio, brindndole su ayuda, no slo a travs de las grandes empresas, sino tambin de pequeas empresas de todo el pas. +Comenzamos con dos escuelas. +Este ao habr alrededor de 10. +Y el prximo ao esperamos abrir 35 escuelas ms en toda Inglaterra, y otros 40 sitios esperan la apertura. Se expandi bastante rpido esta idea. +Pero, curiosamente, esto ha sucedido sin la cobertura de los medios de comunicacin, +y sin grandes sumas de dinero. +Se ha difundido, casi por completo, de boca en boca, como un virus, entre docentes, padres, y gente vinculada a la educacin. +Y se ha difundido por el poder de una idea... ...una idea muy simple: transformar la educacin, es decir, poner en primer lugar aquello que era secundario. Por ejemplo, trabajos en grupos, trabajos prcticos, y situarlos en el centro del aprendizaje. +Hay ahora un nuevo grupo de escuelas que abrirn este otoo. +Esta escuela es de Yorkshire, y, de hecho, mi sobrino es de all y espero que asista. +sta se centra en la creatividad y en la industria de los medios de comunicacin. +Otras se centran en el cuidado de la salud, el turismo, la ingeniera, y otros campos. +Creemos estar en lo cierto, +y aunque no es perfecta todava, creemos que sta es una idea que puede transformar la vida de miles, tal vez millones de jvenes que se aburren en una escuela +que no los estimula. +Ellos no son como Uds, que pueden estar sentados y pasar as horas y horas escuchando. +Ellos quieren hacer, quieren ensuciarse las manos; quieren que la educacin sea para la vida real. +Y espero que algunos de Uds nos puedan ayudar a hacerlo posible. +Sentimos que estamos iniciando un camino de experimentacin y progreso para convertir la idea de Escuela Studio en algo que no presentamos como respuesta universal para todo nio, sino como una propuesta para algunos en cada rincn del mundo. +Y espero que algunos de Uds puedan ayudarnos a hacerlo realidad. +Muchas gracias. +Nac en Suiza y crec en Ghana, frica Occidental. +De nio, Ghana me resultaba un lugar seguro. +Era libre, era feliz. +El comienzo de los aos 70 marc un momento de excelencia artstica y musical en Ghana. +Pero a fines de la dcada, el pas haba recado en una inestabilidad poltica y mala administracin. +En 1979, fui testigo de mi primer golpe militar. +Los nios nos habamos reunido en la casa de un amigo. +Era una choza iluminada de forma tenue. +Haba un televisor blanco y negro estropeado parpadeando en el fondo, y el ex jefe de estado y general tena lo ojos vendados y estaba siendo atado a un poste. +El pelotn de fusilamiento apunt, dispar; el general muri. +Esto estaba siendo transmitido en vivo. +Y, poco despus, nos fuimos del pas y regresamos a Suiza. +Europa fue una sorpresa para m y creo que comenc a sentir la necesidad de cambiar mi piel para encajar. +Quera mimetizarme como un camalen. +Creo que fue una tctica de supervivencia. +Y funcion, o eso cre. +All estaba, en 2008 preguntndome dnde estaba situado en la vida. +Y senta que estaba siendo encasillado como actor. +Siempre estaba interpretando al africano extico. +Interpretaba al africano violento, al terrorista africano. +Y pensaba: a cuntos terroristas podra interpretar antes de convertirme yo mismo en uno? +Y me haba avergonzado del otro, del africano en m. +Y afortunadamente en 2008 decid volver a Ghana, luego de 28 aos de ausencia. +Quera documentar en una pelcula las elecciones presidenciales de 2008. +Y, all, comenc por buscar las huellas de mi niez. +Y, antes de darme cuenta, de pronto estaba en un escenario rodeado por miles de personas que vitoreaban durante una congregacin poltica. +Y me d cuenta de que, cuando abandon el pas, las elecciones libres y justas en un ambiente democrtico eran tan slo un sueo. +Y ahora que regres, ese sueo se haba vuelto realidad, aunque una realidad frgil. +Y pens: Ghana buscaba su identidad, como yo buscaba la ma? +Acaso lo que suceda en Ghana era una metfora de lo que me suceda a m? +Y fue como si a travs de las normas de mi vida occidental no hubiese desarrollado todo mi potencial. +Y Ghana tampoco, aunque lo habamos estado intentando mucho. +En 1957, Ghana fue la primera nacin subsahariana en obtener su independencia. +Al final de la dcada del 50 Ghana y Singapur tenan el mismo PBI. +Y digo, actualmente, Singapur es un pas del primer mundo y Ghana no lo es. +Pero quiz era momento de probarme a m mismo que s, es importante entender el pasado, es importante verlo bajo una perspectiva diferente, pero quizs deberamos ver las fortalezas de nuestra propia cultura y construir a partir de esas bases en el presente. +All estaba, el 7 de diciembre de 2008. +Las urnas se abrieron para los votantes a las 7 AM, pero los votantes, ansiosos de tomar el destino poltico en sus propias manos comenzaron a hacer la cola a las 4 de la maana. +Y venan de cerca y de lejos, porque queran hacer or sus voces. +Y le pregunt a uno de los votantes: "Por quin va a votar?" +Y me contest: "Lo siento, no puedo decrselo". +Dijo que su voto estaba en su corazn. +Y comprend que esta era su eleccin, y que no iban a dejar que nadie se las arrebatara. +La primera vuelta no produjo un ganador definitivo, nadie logr la mayora absoluta, as que hubo segunda vuelta 3 semanas ms tarde. +Los candidatos estaban de nuevo en carrera haciendo campaa. +La retrica de los candidatos, por supuesto, cambi. +Se acalor. +Y luego vino el lugar comn. +Haba acusaciones de intimidacin en las mesas de votacin, de robo de urnas. +Empezaron a llegar resultados inflados y la muchedumbre comenzaba a salirse de control. +Fuimos testigos de un estallido de violencia en las calles. +Golpeaban a las personas de manera brutal. +El ejrcito comenz a hacer uso de las armas. La gente estaba descontrolada. +Era un caos total. +Y se me cay el alma a los pies porque pens, aqu estamos nuevamente. +He aqu otra prueba de que los africanos son incapaces de gobernarse a as mismos. +Y no solo eso, lo estoy documentando, documentando las flaquezas de mi propia cultura. +Y mientras el eco de los disparos toddava resonaba, pronto fue opacado por el canto de la multitud, y no poda creer lo que estaba oyendo. +Cantaban: "Queremos paz. +Queremos paz". +Y me d cuenta de que eso tena que venir del pueblo. +Despus de todo, ellos son quienes deciden, y as fue. +Entonces el sonido que antes era confuso y enrgico, de pronto se convirti en una meloda. +El sonido de sus voces era armonioso. +Entonces era posible. +Una democracia poda sostenerse en paz. +Era posible, por la voluntad de las masas, que ahora presionaba apremiante con todo su corazn y su afn por la paz. +Aqu hay una comparacin interesante. +En Occidente predicamos los valores, la luz dorada de la democracia, que somos el claro ejemplo de cmo debe ser. +Pero al ponerlo en prctica Ghana se encontr en la misma situacin que cuando en Estados Unidos se estancaron las elecciones presidenciales del 2000: Bush vs. Gore. +Pero en lugar de la falta de voluntad de los candidatos para permitir que el sistema contine y que el pueblo decida, Ghana honr la democracia y a su pueblo. +No dej que fuera una decisin de la Suprema Corte, sino del pueblo. +La segunda vuelta tampoco revel un ganador definitivo. +Quiero decir, estuvo muy reida. +El comisionado electoral declar, con el consentimiento de los partidos, llevar a cabo un segundo ballotage sin precedentes. +Entonces las personas acudieron nuevamente a las urnas para definir su presidente ellos mismos, no el sistema legal. +Y qu creen? Funcion. +El candidato derrotado abandon el poder y cedi el lugar para que Ghana ingresara en un nuevo ciclo democrtico. +Y, quiero decir, en el momento justo de una necesidad absoluta de democracia, no abusaron de su poder. +La fe en la verdadera democracia y en el pueblo es muy profunda, demostrando que los africanos son capaces de gobernarse a s mismos. +Pero la cuesta arriba para Ghana y para frica an no termina, pero tengo pruebas de que existe el otro lado de la democracia, y que no debemos tomarlo a la ligera. +Aprend que mi lugar no es slo en Occidente o en frica, an sigo buscando mi identidad, pero v a Ghana crear una mejor democracia. +Ghana me ense a mirar a las personas de una manera diferente; a mirarme a m mismo de una manera diferente. +Y s, nosotros, los africanos, podemos. +Gracias. +Bien, soy doctor, pero me inclin hacia la investigacin y ahora soy epidemilogo. +La verdad es que nadie sabe bien qu es la epidemiologa. +Es la ciencia para saber en el mundo real si algo es bueno o malo para uno. +Se entiende mejor con un ejemplo: es la ciencia de los titulares descabellados en los peridicos. +Veamos ejemplos. +Esto es del Daily Mail. Cada pas tiene un peridico as. +Tiene un proyecto filosfico estrafalario en curso de dividir los objetos inanimados del mundo en los que previenen o los que provocan cncer. +Estas son cosas que dijeron recientemente que provocan cncer: divorcio, wi-fi, artculos de aseo y caf. +Y estas dijeron que lo previenen: corteza, pimienta roja, regaliz y caf. +Ya pueden ver que hay contradicciones. +El caf provoca y previene el cncer. +Y, a medida que continan leyendo, pueden observar que quiz haya alguna forma de valencia poltica detrs de esto. +Para las mujeres, los quehaceres previenen el cncer de mama, pero, para los hombres, ir de compras puede hacerlos impotentes. +Por eso debemos empezar a desentraar la ciencia subyacente. +Y espero mostrarles que deshacer estas afirmaciones arriesgadas, deshacer la evidencia que subyace a estas afirmaciones, no es refunfuar con mala intencin; socialmente es til pero tambin es una herramienta aclaratoria, extremadamente valiosa. +Porque la verdadera ciencia consiste en evaluar la evidencia de manera crtica ante la postura de otro. +Esto sucede en las publicaciones acadmicas. +Es lo que sucede en las conferencias acadmicas. +Los debates luego de un postoperatorio son normalmente una batalla campal. +Y a nadie le molesta. La recibimos con gusto. +Es como una actividad intelectual sadomasoquista consensuada. +As que voy a mostrarles las partes principales, las caractersticas principales de mi disciplina... la medicina basada en evidencias. +Voy a guiarlos y demostrarles cmo funcionan, exclusivamente usando ejemplos de personas que malinterpretan las cosas. +Empecemos con la forma ms dbil de evidencia conocida por el hombre, la autoridad. +En la ciencia, no nos importa cual sea tu apellido. +En la ciencia, queremos saber cules son las razones para creer algo. +Cmo sabemos si algo es bueno... ...o malo para nosotros? +La autoridad tampoco nos convence porque es muy sencillo inventarla. +Esta es la Dra. Gillian McKeith o, para darles su ttulo mdico completo, Gillian McKeith. +Y claro, cada pas tiene a alguien as. +Ella es nuestra nutricionista y gur meditica. +Tiene 5 series de TV masivas en horario pico de audiencia, dando consejos de salud esplndidos y exticos. +Resulta que ella tiene un doctorado no oficial por correspondencia, +de algn lugar de Estados Unidos. +Tambin se jacta de ser miembro profesional certificado de la American Association of Nutritional Consultants, lo cual suena muy fascinante y glamoroso. +Te dan un certificado y todo. +Esta es Hetti, mi difunta gata; una gata espantosa. +Uno entra al sitio web, llena el formulario, les paga 60 dlares y se lo envan por correo. +Pero, no es la nica razn por la cual pensamos que esta persona es una idiota. +Tambin sale a decir cosas tales como que deberamos comer muchas hojas verde oscuras, porque contienen mucha clorofila, y eso ayuda a oxigenar la sangre. +Y cualquiera que haya estudiando biologa en el colegio recuerda que la clorofila y los cloroplastos solo producen oxgeno a la luz del sol, y que en sus intestinos estn bastante oscuros para la espinaca. +Despus, hacen falta ciencia y evidencia apropiadas. +"El vino tinto ayuda a prevenir el cncer de mama". +Este es un titular del Daily Telegraph del Reino Unido. +"Un vaso de vino tinto por da contribuira a la prevencin del cncer de mama". +Entonces vemos este diario y descubrimos que es un verdadero artculo cientfico. +Es la descripcin de los cambios en una enzima cuando se le coloca una gota de qumico extrado de la piel de una uva negra en clulas cancerosas en una bandeja en algn laboratorio. +Esto es algo muy til para describir en una publicacin cientfica, pero en cuanto al riesgo personal de contraer cncer de mama si tomamos vino tinto, no nos est diciendo absolutamente nada. +Y, resulta que el riesgo de contraer cncer de mama aumenta ligeramente si aumenta la cantidad de alcohol consumido. +Queremos estudios hechos en humanos reales. +Aqu hay un ejemplo +del destacado nutricionista britnico del Daily Mirror, nuestro segundo diario ms vendido. +"Un estudio realizado en Australia en 2001 revela que el aceite de oliva, con frutas, vegetales y legumbres sirve para prevenir arrugas en la piel". +Y luego nos aconseja: "Si comemos aceite de oliva y vegetales, vamos a tener menos arrugas". +Y nos dicen dnde encontrar la publicacin. +Y uno la lee y encuentra un estudio de observacin. +Por supuesto, nadie ha podido volver a 1930, y hacer que los recin nacidos de una maternidad, la mitad coman muchas frutas y verduras y aceite de oliva, y que la otra mitad coma McDonald's, para despus ver cuntas arrugas hay al final. +Hay que muestrear cuntas personas hay ahora. +Y, claro, quienes comen vegetales y aceite de oliva tienen menos arrugas en la piel +porque quienes consumen frutas, vegetales y aceite de oliva son raros, no son normales, son como Uds; vienen a eventos como ste. +Son elegantes, adinerados, trabajan menos al aire libre, hacen menos labores manuales, tienen mejor asistencia social, fuman menos... por una cantidad de razones sociales, culturales y polticas, fascinantes y entrelazadas, es menos probable de que tengan arrugas en la piel. +No significa que sea por los vegetales o el aceite de oliva. +Idealmente, uno querra hacer es un ensayo. +Todos piensan que estn muy familiarizados con la idea de ensayo. +Los ensayos son muy antiguos. El primero est en la Biblia, Daniel 1:12. +Es muy directo, se toma un grupo de gente, se los divide en 2 tratamos un grupo de una forma y al otro de otra forma y poco despus, se les hace un seguimiento para ver qu pas con cada grupo. +As que voy a contarles de un ensayo, que seguramente es el ensayo ms clebre de la prensa del Reino Unido en la ltima dcada. +Es el ensayo con pldoras de aceite de pescado. +Se deca que las pldoras mejoran el rendimiento en la escuela y el comportamiento de la mayora de los nios. +Dijeron: "Hemos hecho el ensayo. +Los ensayos anteriores fueron positivos y sabemos que ste tambin lo ser". +Esto debera ser seal de alarma. +Porque si ya se sabe el resultado del ensayo, no deberamos estar hacindolo. +O est manipulado desde el diseo, o hay suficiente informacin y ya no hay necesidad de aleatorizar personas. +Esto es lo que iban a hacer en este ensayo. +Iban a tomar a 3.000 nios, iban a darles estas enormes pldoras, 6 al da, y, un ao despus, iban a evaluar su rendimiento en exmenes escolares y comparar este rendimiento con la previsin del rendimiento de los mismos de no haber tomado las pldoras. +Alguien puede identificar la falla en este diseo? +Ningn profesor en metodologa de ensayos clnicos tiene permitido contestar esta pregunta. +No hay control; no hay un grupo de control. +Pero esto suena muy tcnico. +Es terminologa tcnica. +Los nios tomaron las pastillas y su rendimiento mejor. +Qu otra cosa podra haber sido, si no fueron las pldoras? +Crecieron. Se desarrollaron a lo largo del tiempo. +Y, por supuesto, est tambin el efecto placebo. +El efecto placebo es una de las cosas ms fascinantes de toda la medicina. +No slo se trata de tomar una pldora y de que mejoren el rendimiento y dolor. +Se trata de nuestras expectativas y creencias. +Se trata del sentido cultural de un tratamiento. +Y esto ha sido demostrado en un montn de estudios fascinantes comparando un tipo de placebo contra otro. +Entonces sabemos, por ejemplo, que 2 pldoras de azcar por da es un tratamiento ms efectivo para eliminar lceras gstricas que 1 pldora de azcar. +Dos por da son mejores que una por da. +Es un hallazgo exorbitante y ridculo, pero es cierto. +Sabemos que nuestras expectativas y creencias pueden manipularse, razn por la que hacemos estos ensayos donde experimentamos con un placebo; la mitad de un grupo recibe el tratamiento real y la otra mitad recibe el placebo. +Pero eso no es suficiente. +Lo que acabo de mostrarles son slo ejemplos de formas sencillas y directas que los periodistas, y los comerciantes de suplementos dietarios y naturpatas pueden usar para tergiversar la evidencia para su propio inters. +Encuentro realmente fascinante que la industria farmacutica use los mismos trucos e instrumentos pero en versiones un poco ms sofisticadas, para tergiversar la evidencia que le dan a los mdicos y pacientes, y que usamos para tomar decisiones de importancia vital. +En primer lugar, los ensayos con placebos: todos piensan que saben que un ensayo debera ser una comparacin de drogas nuevas contra un placebo. +Pero, de hecho, en muchos casos eso est mal. +Porque, con frecuencia, ya tenemos disponible un muy buen tratamiento, entonces no queremos saber si el nuevo tratamiento alternativo es mejor que nada. +Queremos saber si es superior al mejor tratamiento disponible que ya tenemos. +Pero an as, reiteradamente, todava se hacen ensayos comparando contra placebos. +Se puede obtener una licencia para sacar una droga al mercado con solo informacin que demuestre que es mejor que nada algo intil para un mdico como yo que trata de tomar una decisin. +Pero no es la nica forma de manipular informacin. +Tambin puede manipularse haciendo que contra lo que comparamos la nueva droga sea basura. +Dando la droga competidora en dosis demasiado bajas, asi las personas no reciben el tratamiento adecuado. +Dando la droga competidora en dosis demasiado altas, para que las personas tengan efectos secundarios. +Y esto fue exactamente lo que sucedi con medicamentos antipsicticos para la esquizofrenia. +Hace 20 aos sali al mercado una nueva generacin de antipsicticos y la promesa era que tendran menos efectos secundarios. +Se hacan ensayos con estas nuevas drogas comparndolas con las viejas, suministraban las viejas drogas en dosis ridculamente altas, 20 miligramos por da de haloperidol. +Y es una conclusin previsible, si se administra una droga en dosis altas, tendr ms efectos secundarios y eso har que la nueva droga se destaque. +Hace 10 aos la historia se repiti, es interesante, cuando la risperidona, el primero de una nueva generacin de antipsicticos, no tena ms derechos de autor, as que cualquiera poda imitarlo. +Todos queran demostrar que su droga era mejor que la risperidona, entonces en muchos ensayos se comparaba nuevos antipsicticos con la risperidona a 8 miligramos por da. +De nuevo, no es una dosis alocada, no es ilegal, pero es mucho ms alta de lo normal. +Es obvio que har que la nueva droga se destaque como mejor. +No sorprende que, en general, los ensayos de las industrias tienen una tendencia 4 veces mayor de dar un resultado positivo que los ensayos independientes. +Pero, y es un gran "pero", tal y como resulta cuando se investigan los mtodos usados por ensayos de las industrias, son de hecho mejores que los usados por ensayos independientes. +Y an as, siempre se las arreglan para obtener el resultado que desean. +Cmo funciona esto? +Cmo explicar este extrao fenmeno? [Qu diablos!] +Bueno, resulta que lo que sucede es que la informacin negativa se pierde en accin; no se la revelan a doctores y pacientes. +Y este es el aspecto ms importante de toda la historia. +Est en la punta de la pirmide de la evidencia. +Necesitaramos toda la informacin de un tratamiento en particular para saber si realmente es o no efectivo. +Hay dos formas distintas de identificar si algo se perdi en accin. +Se pueden usar estadsticas, o historias. +Personalmente prefiero las estadsticas, as que eso har primero. +Hay algo llamado grfico de embudo. +El grfico de embudo es una forma inteligente de identificar pequeos ensayos negativos desaparecidos o perdidos en accin. +Este es un grfico de todos los ensayos realizados para un tratamiento en particular. +Si observan la parte superior del grfico, vern que cada punto representa un ensayo. +Y, a medida que suben, estos son los ensayos ms grandes, y tienen menos errores. +Es menos probable que tengan resultados falsos positivos o negativos al azar. +Entonces estos se agrupan juntos. +Los grandes ensayos se acercan ms a la verdadera respuesta. +Y, luego, a medida que bajamos a la parte inferior lo que vemos es, de este lado, los ficticios falsos negativos, y de este lado, los ficticios falsos positivos. +Si hay arbitrariedad en la publicacin si los pequeos ensayos negativos se pierden en accin, se puede ver en uno de estos grficos. +Aqu puede verse que los pequeos ensayos negativos que deberan estar abajo a la izquierda han desaparecido. +Este grfico demuestra la arbitrariedad de una publicacin en estudios sobre publicaciones arbitrarias. +Creo que esa es la broma epidemiolgica ms graciosa que vayan a escuchar. +As se comprueba estadsticamente, pero qu hay de las historias? +Bueno, son atroces, de verdad lo son. +Existe una droga llamada reboxetina. +Es una droga que personalmente he recetado a mis pacientes. +Y soy un mdico muy estudioso. +Hago lo posible para intentar leer y entender la bibliografa. +Le los ensayos al respecto. Todos positivos. Todos bien realizados. +No encontr ninguna falla. +Pero result que, desafortunadamente, se ocultaron muchos de estos ensayos. +De hecho, el 76% de los ensayos realizados con esta droga fueron ocultados a mdicos y pacientes. +Si se piensa, si yo lanzara una moneda cientos de veces, y se me permitiera ocultarles las respuestas la mitad de las veces, entonces podra convencerlos de que tengo una moneda con 2 caras. +Si quito la mitad de la informacin, jams sabremos cual es el efecto estadstico verdadero de este medicamento. +Y esta no es una historia aislada. +Cerca de la mitad de la informacin de ensayos con antidepresivos est oculta, pero va mucho ms all. +El Nordic Cochrane Group intent acceder a esa informacin para poder consolidarla. +Los Cochrane Groups son colaboradores internacionales sin fines de lucro que producen crticas sistemticas de toda la informacin que se ha demostrado. +Y necesitan tener acceso a toda la informacin del ensayo. +Pero las compaas les ocultan esta informacin, tal como lo hizo la Agencia Europea de Medicamentos durante 3 aos. +Este es un problema que actualmente no tiene solucin. +Para mostrarles la magnitud, esta es una droga llamada Tamiflu, en la que los gobiernos del mundo han gastado miles de millones de dlares. +Y han gastado este dinero con la promesa de que sta es la droga que va a disminuir la tasa de complicaciones de la gripe. +Ya tenemos informacin que reduce la duracin de una gripe en tan solo unas pocas horas. +Pero no me importa. A los gobiernos no les importa. +Lamento muchsimo si tienen gripe, s que es horrible, pero no vamos a gastar miles de millones de dlares tratando de reducir la duracin de sus sntomas gripales en medio da. +Recetamos estas drogas, las almacenamos para emergencias creyendo que reducir la cantidad de complicaciones, es decir, de neumona, de muertes. +El Cochrane Group de enfermedades infecciosas, con sede en Italia, ha intentado obtener la informacin completa y usable de las farmacuticas para poder tomar una decisin concluyente sobre si esta droga es efectiva o no y no han podido acceder a esta informacin. +Este es, sin dudas, el problema tico ms grande que enfrenta la medicina actualmente. +No podemos tomar decisiones en ausencia de toda la informacin. +Entonces se hace un poco difcil desde all llegar a alguna conclusin positiva. +Pero s les dira: creo que la luz solar es el mejor desinfectante. +Todas estas cosas estn pasando a simple vista, y estn todas protegidas por un campo de fuerza de monotona. +Y creo que, con todos los problemas en ciencias, una de las mejores cosas que se pueden hacer es levantar la tapa, meter la cuchara en los mecanismos y curiosear. +Muchas gracias. +La noche anterior a salir para Escocia fui invitada a conducir la final de "Talento chino" en Shanghai con un pblico de 80.000 personas en un estadio. +Adivinen quin fue la artista invitada. +Susan Boyle. +Le dije: "Maana me voy para Escocia". +Ella cant maravillosamente e incluso se las arregl para decir algunas palabras en chino: No dijo "hola" o "gracias", esas cosas comunes. +Dijo: "cebolla de verdeo gratis". +Por qu lo dijo? +Porque es un verso de nuestra Susan Boyle china, una mujer de 50 y pico, verdulera de Shanghai, amante de la pera occidental, pero que no saba ingls, francs o italiano as que se las ingeni para completar la letra con nombres de vegetales en chino. +Y el ltimo verso de Nessun Dorma que estaba cantando en el estadio fue "cebolla de verdeo gratis". +Y a medida que Susan Boyule cantaba eso una audiencia de 80.000 personas cant con ella. +Fue muy gracioso. +Supongo que tanto Susan Boyle como la verdulera de Shanghai pertenecen a la otredad. +Se supona que no triunfaran en el mundo del entretenimiento pero gracias a su coraje y talento salieron adelante. +Y un espectculo y un formato les dieron un escenario para hacer realidad sus sueos. +Bueno, ser diferentes no es tan difcil. +Todos somos distintos desde diferentes ngulos. +Pero creo que ser diferentes es bueno porque uno aporta un punto de vista diferente. +Puede que tengamos la oportunidad de marcar una diferencia. +Mi generacin ha tenido mucha suerte de presenciar y participar en la trasformacin histrica de China que ha hecho muchos cambios en los ltimos 20 30 aos. +Recuerdo que en 1990, cuando me estaba graduando en la universidad, solicit un trabajo en el departamento de ventas del primer hotel cinco estrellas de Beijing, el Sheraton Gran Muralla, que todava sigue all. +Despus de la entrevista de media hora con el gerente japons al final dijo: "Bien, Sta Yang, tiene alguna pregunta para hacerme?" +Yo junt coraje y aplomo y le dije: "S, podra contarme qu vende exactamente?" +No tena ni idea para qu serva un departamento de ventas en un hotel cinco estrellas. +Era la primera vez que pisaba un hotel cinco estrellas. +Ms o menos al mismo tiempo estaba haciendo a una audicin, la primera audicin pblica de la televisin nacional china, con otras mil colegialas universitarias. +Los productores nos dijeron que buscaban a alguien dulce, inocente; una cara hermosa y fresca. +As que cuando lleg mi turno me par y dije: "Por qu las personalidades femeninas de la tele siempre tienen que ser hermosas, dulces, inocentes y, ya saben, comprensivas? +Por qu no pueden tener sus ideas propias, sus voces propias?" +Pens que en cierto modo los ofenda. +Pero, en realidad, los impresionaba con mis palabras. +Y pas a la segunda ronda de la competencia y luego a la tercera y la cuarta. +Despus de siete rondas fui la ltima sobreviviente. +As que estaba en horario central en la televisin nacional. +Y, crase o no, ese fue el primer programa de la televisin china que le permiti a sus conductores hablar libremente sin leer un guion aprobado. +Y mi audiencia semanal en ese momento rondaba los 200 a 300 millones de personas. +Despus de algunos aos decid ir a EE.UU., a la Universidad de Columbia, a proseguir mis estudios de postgrado, y luego abr mi propia empresa de medios; algo impensado en los aos que comenc mi carrera. +Hacemos muchas cosas. +He entrevistado a ms de mil personas. +A veces vienen los jvenes y me dicen: "Lan, t cambiaste mi vida", y me siento orgullosa de eso. +Pero tenemos tanta suerte de presenciar la transformacin de todo un pas! +Yo estuve en la puja de Beijing por los Juegos Olmpicos. +Estuve representando a la Expo de Shanghai. +Vi a China abrazar al mundo y vice versa. +Pero, luego, a veces pienso: qu se trae esta generacin joven entre manos? +En qu se diferencia, qu diferencias va a marcar para modelar el futuro de China o, en general, del mundo? +Por eso hoy quiero hablar de los jvenes y de la plataforma de los medios sociales. +En primer lugar, quines son? Cmo son? +Esta es una muchacha llamada Guo Meimei, de 20 aos, hermosa. +Alardeaba con bolsas caras, la ropa y el coche en su microblog, en la versin china de Twitter. +Y deca ser la gerente general de la Cruz Roja en la Cmara de Comercio. +No se dio cuenta que toc un nervio sensible y despert un cuestionamiento nacional, casi un torbellino, en contra de la credibilidad de la Cruz Roja. +La controversia fue tan acalorada que la Cruz Roja tuvo que dar una conferencia de prensa para aclararlo y la investigacin est en curso. +Hasta ahora, hoy, sabemos que ella misma invent ese ttulo, probablemente porque se siente orgullosa de estar asociada con la caridad. +Recibi todos esos regalos costosos de su novio que sola ser un miembro de la junta de una subdivisin de la Cruz Roja en la Cmara de Comercio. +Es muy complicado de explicar. +Pero, en cualquier caso, el pblico no se lo cree. +Sigue estando en ebullicin. +Nos muestra una desconfianza general hacia las instituciones gubernamentales o respaldadas por el gobierno, que carecan de transparencia en el pasado. +Y tambin nos muestra el poder y el impacto de los medios sociales como el microblog. +El microblog tiene su auge en el 2010 cuando se duplican las visitas y se triplica el tiempo de uso. +En sina.com, el mayor portal de noticias, tienen ms de 140 millones de microbloggers. +En Tencent, hay 200 millones. +La blogger ms popular no soy yo; es una estrella de cine que tiene ms de 9,5 millones de seguidores, de fanticos. +Cerca del 80% de esos microbloggers son jvenes, menores de 30 aos. +Y dado que, como saben, los medios tradicionales todava estn muy controlados por el gobierno, los medios sociales ofrecen una apertura que permite que salga un poco de vapor. +Pero, dado que no hay muchas otras aperturas, el calor que sale de esta apertura a veces es muy intenso, activo e incluso violento. +As que mediante el microblogging podemos entender a la juventud china mucho ms. +En qu si diferencian? +Ante todo, muchos nacieron en la dcada de 1980 y 1990 bajo la poltica de un solo hijo. +Y debido al aborto selectivo, familias que favorecan a los nios sobre las nias, ahora hemos terminado con 30 millones ms de muchachos que muchachas. +Eso podra plantear un peligro potencial a la sociedad pero quin sabe; estamos en un mundo globalizado as que pueden buscar novias en otros pases. +Muchos tienen una educacin bastante buena. +El analfabetismo chino en esta generacin est debajo del 1%. +En las ciudades, el 80% de los nios llega a la universidad. +Pero enfrentan una China que envejece con una poblacin que supera los 65 aos que est en el 7 y pico por ciento este ao y va a ser del 15% en el ao 2030. +Y, como saben, tenemos la tradicin de que las generaciones jvenes dan apoyo financiero los mayores y cuidan de ellos cuando enferman. +Eso significa que las parejas jvenes tendrn que ayudar a cuatro padres que tienen expectativas de vida de 73 aos. +As que ganarse la vida no es tan fcil para los jvenes. +Los graduados universitarios no son escasos. +En las reas urbanas los graduados universitarios tienen salarios iniciales de cerca de 400 dlares al mes mientras que el alquiler promedio es de unos $500. +Cmo hacen? Comparten el espacio... se hacinan en un espacio muy limitado para ahorrar dinero y se autodenominan "tribu de hormigas". +Los que estn listos para casarse y comprar su departamento descubren que tienen que trabajar 30 40 aos para poder comprar su primer departamento. +La proporcin en EE.UU. costara slo una dcada de ingresos pero en China son 30 40 aos con el precio sideral de los bienes races. +Entre los 200 millones de trabajadores migrantes el 60% son jvenes. +Se encuentran en una especie de sndwich entre las reas urbanas y las rurales. +La mayora no quiere volver al campo, no tienen el sentido de pertenencia. +Trabajan ms horas con menos ingresos, menos bienestar social. +Y son ms vulnerables a perder el empleo, a la inflacin, al endurecimiento de los prstamos bancarios, a la apreciacin del renminbi, o a la disminucin de la demanda de Europa o EE.UU. para las mercaderas que producen. +El ao pasado, sin embargo, un incidente fatal, en un componente de fabricacin OEM al sur de China, 13 jvenes trabajadores en el fin de la adolescencia y los 20 y pico se suicidaron uno a uno causando una enfermedad contagiosa. +Todos murieron por diferentes razones personales. +Pero todo este incidente despert una gran protesta de la sociedad sobre el aislamiento fsico y mental de estos trabajadores migrantes. +Los que regresan al campo se sienten muy bien recibidos a nivel local porque con el conocimiento, habilidades y contactos que han adquirido en las ciudades, con la ayuda de Internet, pueden crear ms trabajos actualizar la agricultura local y crear nuevos negocios en el mercado menos desarrollado. +As que en los ltimos aos las zonas costeras se encontraron con una escasez de mano de obra. +Estos diagramas muestran un contexto social ms general. +El primero es el coeficiente de Engels, que explica que el costo de las necesidades diarias ha disminuido su porcentaje a lo largo de la ltima dcada en materia de ingresos familiares, en cerca de un 37%. +Pero luego en los ltimos dos aos subi nuevamente al 39% indicando un aumento en el costo de vida. +El coeficiente de Gini ya ha pasado la lnea peligrosa del 0,4. +Ahora es del 0,5 incluso peor que en EE.UU., eso muestra la desigualdad de ingresos. +Y as ven toda esta sociedad que se ve frustrada por la prdida de algo de su movilidad. +Y tambin la amargura, e incluso el resentimiento hacia los ricos y los poderosos, estn muy extendidos. +Por eso cualquier acusacin de corrupcin o acuerdos esprios entre las autoridades y los empresarios provocara una protesta social o incluso malestar. +As, mediante los temas ms candentes del microblogging, podemos ver qu le preocupa ms a los jvenes. +La justicia social y la responsabilidad del gobierno estn primeros en las preferencias. +En la ltima dcada un desarrollo y una urbanizacin masivos nos han permitido presenciar muchos informes de la demolicin forzada de la propiedad privada. +Eso ha despertado una ira y frustracin enorme en las generaciones jvenes. +A veces la gente muere y otras se prende fuego en forma de protesta. +Por eso cuando se informan estos incidentes, cada vez con ms frecuencia en Internet, la gente pide a gritos que el gobierno tome acciones para detener esto. +La buena noticia es que a principios de ao el consejo de estado aprob una regulacin sobre la requisa y demolicin de casas y transfiri el derecho de ordenar una demolicin forzosa de los gobiernos locales a la corte. +Del mismo modo, muchas otras cuestiones relacionadas con la seguridad pblica son un tema candente en Internet. +Hemos odo hablar de la contaminacin del aire, de agua contaminada, de comida envenenada. +Adivinen qu; tenemos carne falsa. +Hay un tipo de ingrediente que uno le pone a un trozo de pollo o pescado y lo hace pasar por carne de res. +Y, ltimamente, la gente est muy preocupada por el aceite de cocina porque miles de personas han encontrado aceite de cocina tomado de los restos de restaurantes. +Todas estas cosas han despertado grandes protestas en Internet. +Y, por suerte, hemos visto que el gobierno responde ms oportunamente y con ms frecuencia a las preocupaciones pblicas. +Si bien los jvenes parecen estar muy seguros de su participacin en la formulacin de polticas pblicas, a veces estn un poco perdidos en lo que quieren para sus vidas personales. +China pronto va a pasar a EE.UU. +como mercado nmero uno para marcas de lujo; eso sin incluir los gastos chinos en Europa y otros lugares. +Pero, saben qu?, la mitad de los consumidores ganan menos de 2.000 dlares. +No son para nada ricos. +Llevan esas bolsas y esa ropa como smbolo de identidad y de estatus social. +Y esta es una muchacha diciendo explcitamente en un programa de citas por TV que prefiere llorar en un BMW que rer en una bicicleta. +Pero, claro, tenemos jvenes que todava prefieren sonrer ya sea en un BMW o en una bicicleta. +En la prxima foto ven un fenmeno muy popular llamado boda o matrimonio "al desnudo". +No quiere decir que no se van a poner nada en la boda pero muestra que estas parejas jvenes estn dispuestas a casarse sin tener casa, coche, ni un anillo de brillantes y sin banquete de boda para demostrar su compromiso con el amor verdadero. +Y la gente tambin hace el bien a travs de los medios sociales. +La primera foto nos muestra que se detuvo a un camin con 500 perros sin hogar secuestrados que estaban destinados al procesamiento de alimentos; fue identificado y detenido en la autopista y todo el pas lo vio por el microblogging. +La gente don dinero, alimento para perros y trabajo voluntario para detener ese camin. +Y despus de horas de negociacin se rescataron 500 perros. +Y aqu la gente est ayudando a encontrar nios perdidos. +Un padre public la foto de su hijo en Internet. +Luego de miles de relevos por turnos encontraron al nio y presenciamos el reencuentro de la familia mediante el microblogging. +La felicidad es la palabra ms popular que hemos odo en las ltimos dos aos. +La felicidad no slo tiene que ver con experiencias y valores personales sino tambin con el entorno. +La gente est pensando en las siguientes cuestiones: vamos a sacrificar ms nuestro entorno para producir un mayor PBI? +Cmo vamos a realizar nuestra reforma social y poltica para mantener el ritmo de crecimiento econmico, para mantener la sustentabilidad y la estabilidad? +Y tambin, cun capaz es el sistema de auto-corregirse para tener a ms gente satisfecha con todo tipo de fricciones que ocurren en al mismo tiempo? +Supongo que estas son las preguntas que las personas van a contestar. +Y nuestras generaciones ms jvenes van a transformar este pas y al mismo tiempo se van a transformar a s mismos. +Muchas gracias. +Tengo una carrera extraa. +Lo s, porque se acercan mis colegas y dicen: "Chris, tienes una carrera extraa". +Y lo entiendo, porque comenc mi carrera como fsico terico nuclear. +Pensaba en quarks, en gluones, en colisiones de iones pesados, y tena tan slo 14 aos. +No, no tena 14. +Pero despus de ello, tuve mi propio laboratorio en el departamento de neurociencia computacional, y no estaba haciendo neurociencia. +Despus, trabaj en gentica evolutiva y en biologa de sistemas. +Pero hoy les contar algo ms. +Les contar cmo aprend algo acerca de la vida. +En verdad era cientfico. +No trabajaba en cohetes, pero s en el Jet Propulsion Laboratory (Laboratorio de Propulsin a Chorro) en la soleada California donde est templado; mientras que ahora estoy en el medio-oeste, y hace fro. +Pero fue una experiencia emocionante. +Un da un gerente de la NASA entr a mi oficina, se sent y me dijo: "Podra por favor decirnos cmo buscamos vida fuera de la tierra?" +Y me sorprendi, porque me haban contratado para trabajar en computacin cuntica. +Sin embargo, tena una buena respuesta. +Le dije: "No tengo idea". +Y l me dijo: "Biomarcadores, necesitamos buscar un biomarcador". +Le dije: "Qu es eso?" +Me dijo: "Es un fenmeno medible que nos permite indicar la presencia de la vida". +Dije: "En serio? +No es as de simple? +Digo, hay vida. +No se puede aplicar una definicin, digamos, una definicin como de la Suprema Corte de la -Vida-?" +Pens un poco y dije: "Bueno, es realmente as de fcil? +Porque, s, si ves algo como esto, entonces, bien, lo llamar vida... sin duda. +Pero aqu hay algo". +Y l sigui: "Bien, eso es vida tambin. Lo s". +Excepto, que si se piensa que la vida est definida tambin por las cosas que mueren, no tienes suerte con esto, porque eso es de hecho un organismo muy extrao. +Crece hasta la etapa adulta y luego pasa por una etapa de Benjamin Button, y regresa y regresa hasta que es como un embrin otra vez, y entonces crece otra vez, regresa y crece, como un yo-yo, y nunca muere. +Entonces es, de hecho, vida, pero no lo es como pensaramos que sera la vida. +Y entonces ves algo como esto. +l se qued como: "Por Dios, qu tipo de forma de vida es esa?" +Alguien sabe? +De hecho no es vida, es un cristal. +As que una vez que comienzas a observar cada vez ms pequeas... Esta persona en particular escribi un artculo entero y dijo: "Oye, esas son bacterias". +Pero, si no las ves de cerca, ves, de hecho, que es demasiado pequea para ser algo as. +Entonces qued convencido, pero, de hecho, la mayora no lo est. +Y entonces, por supuesto, la NASA tambin tena un gran anuncio. El Presidente Clinton dio una conferencia de prensa, acerca de este descubrimiento increble de vida en un meteorito de Marte. +Hoy en da est en duda. +Si toman la leccin de todas estas imgenes, entonces se darn cuenta, bueno, tal vez no sea tan fcil. +Tal vez se necesita una definicin de -vida- para poder hacer ese tipo de distincin. +Entonces, se puede definir la vida? +Bueno Cmo hacerlo? +Desde luego, vamos a la Enciclopedia Britannica y abrimos en la V. +No, por supuesto que no hcemos eso; lo bucamos en Google. +Y encontramos algo. +Encontraramos... algo refereido a lo que estamos acostumbrados, lo descartamos. +Podra aparecer algo como esto. +Dice algo complicado, con muchos conceptos. +Quin podra escribir algo tan enredado, complejo y necio? +Oh, de hecho es una serie de conceptos muy, muy importantes. +Resalto slo algunas palabras y digo que definiciones como esta no estn basadas en los aminocidos o las hojas ni en nada de lo que estemos acostumbrados, sino solamente en procesos. +Y, si observan, esto estaba en un libro que escrib que tiene que ver con vida artificial. +Y eso explica por qu el gerente de la NASA estaba en mi oficina, para empezar. +Porque la idea era que, con conceptos como este, tal vez podramos hacer una forma de vida. +Y entonces si se preguntan: "Qu es la vida artificial?", har un resumen vertiginoso de cmo es que sali todo esto. +Comienza hace algn tiempo cuando alguien escribi uno de los primeros virus informticos exitosos. +Para quienes no son tan viejos, no tienen idea de cmo funcionaba la infeccin... es decir, a travs de disquetes. +Lo interesante de estas infecciones informticas era que, si se observa la tasa a la que funcionaba la infeccin, muestran este comportamiento con puntos similar al del virus de la gripe. +Y es debido a esta carrera armamentista entre hackers y diseadores de sistemas operativos que la situacin sube y baja. +El resultado es como un rbol de la vida de estos virus, una filogenia que se ve tal como el tipo de vida a la que estamos acostumbrados, al menos en el nivel viral. +Eso es vida? No lo creo. +Por qu? Porque estas cosas no evolucionan por s mismas. +De hecho, hay hackers que las escriben. +Pero la idea avanz rpidamente cuando un cientfico del Scientific Institute se pregunt: "Por qu no intentamos empaquetar estos virus en mundos artificiales dentro de una computadora y los dejamos evolucionar?" +Fue Steen Rasmussen, +que dise este sistema, pero en realidad pero no funcion porque sus virus se destruan unos a otros constantemente. +Pero haba otro cientfico observando, un eclogo, +que se fue a casa diciendo: "S cmo arreglarlo". +Y escribi The Tierra System, y, en mi libro, es de hecho uno de los primeros sistemas vivientes realmente artificiales... salvo por el hecho de que estos programas no aumentaban su complejidad. +Habiendo visto su trabajo y trabajado un poco en eso, es cuando llego yo +y decido crear un sistema con las propiedades necesarias para ver la evolucin de la complejidad, problemas ms complejos que evolucionan constantemente. +Y, desde luego, como no s escribir cdigo, me ayudaron. +Tena dos estudiantes de pregrado en el California Institute of Technology que trabajaban conmigo. +Eran Charles Offria a la izquierda, Titus Brown a la derecha. +Ahora son profesores respetables en Michigan State University, pero les puedo asegurar, en aquel entonces, no ramos un equipo respetable. +Estoy feliz de que no haya ninguna foto de nosotros tres juntos. +Cmo es este sistema? +Bueno, no puedo ahondar en los detalles, pero aqu ven parte de sus entraas. +Quiero centrarme en este tipo de estructura poblacional. +Aqu hay unos 10.000 programas. +Las diferentes cepas tienen diferentes colores. +Como pueden ver, hay grupos que crecen sobre otros, porque se estn esparciendo. +Cuando hay un programa que es mejor para sobrevivir en este mundo, por alguna mutacin adquirida, se esparcir sobre otros y los llevar a la extincin. +Les mostrar una pelcula donde vern ese tipo de dinmica. +Estos experimentos comienzan con programas que escribimos nosotros mismos. +Escribimos nuestros propios programas, los replicamos, y nos sentimos orgullosos. +Los ponemos dentro, y lo que ven inmediatamente es que hay olas y olas de innovacin. +Por cierto, esto est altamente acelerado, son como mil generaciones por segundo. +Pero inmediatamente el sistema dice: "Qu cdigo ms tonto es este! +Se puede mejorar de muchas formas, muy rpidamente". +As que ven olas de nuevos tipos que ocupan el lugar de otros tipos. +Esto contina un rato, hasta que los programas adquieren las cosas principales +y entonces se llega a una estabilidad donde el sistema espera, en esencia, un nuevo tipo de innovacin, como este, que se esparcir sobre las innovaciones anteriores y borrar los genes que tena antes, hasta adquirir un mayor tipo de complejidad. +El proceso sigue y sigue. +Por eso vemos que vive de la forma en que estamos acostumbrados a la vida. La gente de la NASA pregunt: "Estos tipos, tienen un biomarcador? +Podemos medir este tipo de vida? +Porque si podemos, tal vez podamos descubrir vida en otro lugar sin estar sesgados por cosas como los aminocidos". +Les dije: "Bueno, tal vez podramos construir un biomarcador basado en la vida como un proceso universal. +De hecho, tal vez debera usar los conceptos que desarroll para, de alguna forma, capturar lo que seran sistemas vivientes simples". +Y propuse... Tengo que presentar la idea primero, quiz sera un detector de significado, en vez de ser un detector de vida. +Y la forma en que lo hacemos... Me gustara saber distinguir el texto escrito por un milln de monos, del texto que est en los libros. +Y me gustara hacerlo de forma tal de no tener que leer el lenguaje porque s que no podr. +Slo s que hay algn tipo de alfabeto +y una grfica de frecuencias de la presencia de cada una de las 26 letras del alfabeto en un texto escrito por monos al azar. +Obviamente, cada una de las letras resulta casi igual de frecuente. +Pero si vemos la misma distribucin en un texto en ingls, se parece a esto. +Es muy consistente en textos en ingls. +Y si vemos un texto en francs, se ve un poco distinto. o en italiano, o en alemn. +Todos tienen su propia frecuencia de distribucin de letras, pero es robusto. +No importa si se escribe de poltica o ciencia. +no importa si es un poema o un texto matemtico. +Es una seal robusta, y muy estable. +Mientras los libros estn escritos en ingls, porque las personas los re-escriben y copian, estar ah. +Eso me inspir a pensar, bueno, qu tal si usamos esta idea no para diferenciar textos al azar de textos con significado, sino para detectar que hay significado en las biomolculas que conforman la vida. +Primero tengo que preguntar: cules son estos bloques de construccin, como el alfabeto? +Bueno, resulta, que tenemos diferentes alternativas para estos bloques de construccin. +Podramos usar aminocidos, podramos usar cidos nucleicos, cidos carboxlicos, cidos grasos. +La qumica es muy rica y nuestros cuerpos la usan mucho. +Para probar esta idea primero observamos los aminocidos y algunos cidos carboxlicos. +Y he aqu el resultado. +Esto es lo que se obtiene si, por ejemplo, vemos la distribucin de aminocidos en un cometa o en el espacio interestelar o, de hecho, en un laboratorio, donde aseguramos que en la sopa primigenia no haya nada viviente. +Principalmente encontramos glicina y alanina y algunos elementos traza de otros . +Eso tambin es muy robusto... se encuentra en sistemas similares a la Tierra en los que hay aminocidos, pero no hay vida. +Pero supongamos que escarbamos en la tierra y lo ponemos en estos espectmetros, porque hay bacterias por todas partes; o tomamos agua en cualquier lugar de la Tierra, porque est repleta de vida, y hacemos el mismo anlisis; el espectro se ve completamente diferente. +Desde luego, hay glicina y alanina todava, pero de hecho, son elementos pesados, aminocidos pesados, que se producen porque son valiosos para el organismo. +Y algunos otros que no se usan en el grupo de 20, no aparecern en ningn tipo de concentracin. +As que esto resulta ser muy robusto. +No importa qu tipo de sedimento se muela, ya sea bacteria o cualquier planta o animal. +Siempre que haya vida, existir esta distribucin, a diferencia de esta. +Y es detectable no slo en aminocidos. +Ahora podran preguntarse: Qu son los avidianos? +Los avidianos son los habitantes de este mundo computacional donde se replican felizmente y aumentan su complejidad. +Esta es la distribucin que se obtiene si, de hecho, no hay vida". +Hay cerca de 28 instrucciones. +Y si tienen un sistema donde se reemplazan unas por otras es como tener monos que escriben en un teclado. +Cada una de estas instrucciones aparece con casi la misma frecuencia. +Pero si se toma un grupo de tipos replicantes como en el video que vieron, se ve as. +Hay instrucciones muy valiosas para estos organismos, y su frecuencia ser alta. +Hay otras instrucciones que se usan una sola vez, si acaso. +As que o son venenosas o deberan usarse poco menos que aleatoriamente. +En este caso, la frecuencia es baja. +Y ahora podemos ver, es realmente una seal robusta? +Les puedo decir que s lo es, porque este tipo de espectro, tal como lo han visto en los libros, y justo como lo vieron en los aminocidos, no importa cmo cambie el ambiente, es muy robusto; reflejar el ambiente. +Les mostrar ahora un pequeo experimento que hicimos. +Tengo que explicarles, la parte superior de esta grfica muestra la distribucin de frecuencias de la que habl. +Aqu, de hecho, es el ambiente sin vida donde ocurre cada instruccin con igual frecuencia. +Y aqu abajo, les muestro la tasa de mutacin en el ambiente. +Comienzo esto en una tasa de mutacin que es tan alta que, an si tiramos un programa replicante que crecera felizmente en otras condiciones hasta llenar todo el mundo, si lo tiramos ah, muta a muerte de inmediato. +As que no hay posibilidad de vida en ese tipo de tasa de mutacin. +Pero entonces voy a bajar la temperatura, por as decirlo, y est este umbral de viabilidad donde ahora sera posible que sobreviva un replicador. +Y, de hecho, echaremos a estos tipos a esta sopa todo el tiempo. +Veamos cmo se ve. +Primero, nada, nada, nada. +Muy caliente, muy caliente. +Ahora alcanzan el umbral de viabilidad, y la distribucin de frecuencias cambia drsticamente y, de hecho, se estabiliza. +Y ahora lo que hice fue, estaba siendo grosero, sub la temperatura ms y ms. +Y por supuesto, alcanz el umbral de viabilidad. +Se los mostrar de nuevo porque se ve bien. +Alcanzan el umbral de viabilidad. +La distribucin cambia a "vivientes" +y entonces, ya que alcanzan el umbral donde la tasa de mutacin es tan alta que no pueden auto-replicarse, no pueden copiar la informacin hacia sus descendientes sin cometer tantos errores que la habilidad de replicarse se desvanece. +Y entonces se pierde el marcador. +Qu aprendimos de esto? +Bueno, creo que aprendimos varias cosas. +Porque slo tiene que ver con este concepto de informacin, de almacenar informacin en sustratos fsicos... cualquier cosa: bits, cidos nucleicos, cualquier cosa que sea un alfabeto, y asegurarse de que haya algn proceso para almacenar informacin por ms tiempo del esperado por las escalas de tiempo del deterioro de la informacin. +Y, si pueden hacerlo, entonces tienen vida. +As que lo primero que aprendimos es que es posible definir la vida slo en trminos de procesos, sin referirnos para nada al tipo de cosas que apreciamos, como tipo de vida en la Tierra. +Y que de alguna forma nos quita del centro, como todos nuestros descubrimientos cientficos, o la mayora, -de este continuo destronamiento del hombre- de pensar que somos especiales porque estamos vivos. +Bueno podemos hacer vida. Podemos hacer vida en una computadora. +Cierto, es limitada, pero hemos aprendido lo que hace falta para construirla realmente. +Ahora no sabemos que hay vida, pero podramos decir: "Bueno, al menos ver con precisin este compuesto qumico y ver de dnde viene". +Y esa sera nuestra oportunidad de descubrir vida en realidad cuando no la podemos ver. +Y ese es el nico mensaje para llevarse a casa que tengo para Uds. +La vida puede ser menos misteriosa de lo que imaginamos cuando intentamos pensar cmo sera en otros planetas. +Y si quitamos el misterio de la vida creo que es ms fcil pensar cmo vivimos y que tal vez no somos tan especiales como siempre pensamos. +Los dejar con eso. +Muchas gracias. +Qu hay en la caja? +Lo que sea, debe ser muy importante. porque he viajado con ella, me he mudado con ella de apartamento en apartamento. +Les suena familiar? +Saban que los estadounidenses contamos con el triple del espacio que tenamos hace 50 aos? +El triple. +Pensarn que, con todo este espacio extra, tendramos suficiente lugar para todas nuestras cosas. +Pero no! +Hay una nueva planta en el pueblo, una planta de 22 mil millones de dlares y 20 mil hectreas; que almacena cosas personales. +Tenemos el triple de espacio, pero nos hemos convertido en tan buenos compradores que cada vez necesitamos ms espacio. +A qu nos lleva todo esto? +A grandes deudas en tarjetas de crdito, enormes huellas ambientales, y tal vez, aunque no es coincidencia, nuestros niveles de felicidad siguen iguales desde hace 50 aos. +Pues bien, quiero decirles que hay una mejor manera de vivir, en la que menos en realidad es ms. +Apuesto que algunos hemos experimentado la alegra de la frugalidad: en la universidad -en el dormitorio, al viajar -en un cuarto de hotel, acampando -bsicamente sin nada, tal vez en una lancha. +Sin importar lo que haya sido apuesto que, entre otras cosas, esto les dio ms libertad, un poco ms de tiempo, +Voy a recomendarles que tengan menos cosas y menos espacio esto resultar en una menor huella ecolgica. +Adems es una manera increble de ahorrar dinero. +Y les dar un poco ms de versatilidad en sus vidas. +As empec un proyecto llamado "La vida editada" en lifeedited.org para profundizar en este tema y para encontrar mejores soluciones en este rea. +Primero: acomodar todo en mi departamento de 40 m2 en Manhattan con mis socios de Mutopo y Jovoto.com +Quera todo, una oficina, tener mesa para una cena con 10 personas, espacio para visitas, y tambin mi equipo de paracaidismo. +Recibimos ms de 300 sugerencias de todo el mundo, Y lo consegu, mi pequea joya. +Al conseguir un apartamento de 40 m2, +en lugar de 55 m2, me ahorr de inmediato 200 mil dlares. +Un espacio reducido tambin requiere muebles pequeos, y ah ahorr ms dinero. Tambin reduje mi huella ambiental. +Y, debido a que es un espacio diseado alrededor de un conjunto editado de posesiones, mis cosas favoritas, est diseado especialmente para m, estoy muy contento de vivir all. +Y cmo vivir en un espacio pequeo? +Hay tres enfoques. +Ante todo, hay que editar sin piedad. +Tenemos que limpiar las arterias de nuestras vidas. +Qu hacer con la camisa que no he usado en aos? +Es hora de dejarla partir. +Tenemos que quitar lo superfluo de nuestras vidas, y aprender a canalizar el flujo. +Necesitamos pensar antes de comprar. +Preguntarnos primero: "Esto me har feliz? De verdad?" +Por todos los medios, deberamos comprar y conservar slo cosas magnficas. +Pero queremos cosas que amemos por aos, no simplemente cosas. +En segundo lugar, nuestro nuevo mantra: lo pequeo es sexy. +Queremos espacios eficientes. +Queremos cosas diseadas para aquello en lo que sern usadas la mayor parte del tiempo, no en alguna extraa ocasin. +Por qu tener una estufa con 6 hornillas cuando raramente usamos 3? +Queremos cosas que se aniden, queremos cosas que se apilen, digitalizadas. +Podemos tomar todos nuestros documentos, libros, pelculas, y hacerlos desaparecer; es magia. +Finalmente, queremos espacios y muebles multifuncionales, un lavabo combinado con un bao, un comedor que se convierte en cama, el mismo espacio, una mesa lateral que se expande para poder sentar a 10 personas. +En el esquema de "Vida editada" que les muestro aqu, combinamos una pared mvil con mobiliario "transformer" para conseguir una gran cantidad de espacio. +Vean la mesita baja, crece en altura y tamao para acomodar a 10. +Mi oficina se dobla y se oculta. +La cama sale de la pared con slo dos dedos. +Invitados? Movemos la pared mvil, y tenemos algunas camas que se expanden. +Y no poda faltar mi propio cine en casa. +No digo que todo lo que necesitamos para vivir son 40 m2. +Pero consideren los beneficios de una vida "editada". +Vayan de 300 a 200 m2, de 150 a 100. +Muchos de nosotros, tal vez todos, estamos aqu muy felices durante varios das con un par de maletas, y tal vez un pequeo cuarto de hotel. +As que, cuando lleguen a casa y crucen la puerta, tmense un segundo y pregntense: "Podra editar algo en mi estilo de vida? +Me dara eso un poco ms de libertad? +Tal vez un poco ms de tiempo?" +Qu hay en esta caja? +Eso en realidad no importa. +Lo que s es que no lo necesito. +Qu hay en sus cajas? +Tal vez, solo tal vez, vivir con menos en realidad sea mejor. +As que hagamos espacio para las cosas buenas. +Gracias. +Soy recogedor de basura, +puede ser que les parezca curioso porque odio el desperdicio. +Espero que en los prximos 10 minutos pueda cambiar su forma de pensar sobre muchas cosas en su vida. +Y me gustara empezar por el principio. +Piensen en su niez. +Cmo vean las cosas? +Tal vez segn las reglas de los nios pequeos: Esto es mo si yo lo encontr primero. +Toda esta pila de cosas es ma si estoy construyendo algo. +Cuanto ms cosas tengo, mejor. +Y, por supuesto, si esto est roto no es mo. +Despus de pasar unos 20 aos en la industria del reciclaje tengo muy claro que no siempre dejamos atrs esas reglas de la infancia cuando nos convertimos en adultos. +Y djenme decirles por qu pienso as. +En nuestras plantas de reciclaje en todo el mundo, cerca de 500 toneladas de material que la gente desecha. +500 toneladas por da puede parecer bastante, pero no es ms que una gota entre los productos no perecederos que se eliminan cada ao en todo el mundo, es decir, menos del 1 %. +De hecho, las Naciones Unidas estiman que hay ms de 40 millones de toneladas de residuos electrnicos que se descartan en todo el mundo cada ao. Son los de mayor crecimiento de nuestro flujo de residuos. +Y si hablamos de otros productos no perecederos como los autos y dems, la cifra es ms del doble. +Y, por supuesto, cuanto ms desarrollados son los pases, ms grandes son estas montaas. +Al ver estas montaas, la mayora de la gente piensa en la basura, +pero nosotros vemos minas al aire libre +ya que hay una gran cantidad de materias primas valiosas que se usaron para fabricar todas estas cosas. +Y cada vez es ms importante encontrar la manera de extraer esas materias primas de estos flujos de residuos sumamente complejos. +Porque, como hemos escuchado en TED durante toda la semana, el mundo se est volviendo cada vez ms pequeo y con cada vez ms gente que quiere cada vez ms y ms cosas. +Y, por supuesto, quieren los juguetes y las herramientas que muchos de nosotros damos por sentados. +Y qu se necesita para fabricar estos juguetes y herramientas que usamos todos los das? +Bsicamente muchos tipos de plsticos y de metales. +Y los metales se obtienen normalmente de los minerales de las minas que son cada vez ms grandes y ms profundas en todo el mundo. +Y los plsticos se obtienen del petrleo que nos lleva a lugares cada vez ms remotos a perforar pozos cada vez ms profundos para extraerlos. +Y estas prcticas tienen serias repercusiones econmicas y ambientales que hoy ya comenzamos a ver. +La buena noticia es que ya empezamos a recuperar materiales y a reciclar productos que han llegado al final de su vida til, en particular en regiones como aqu en Europa donde ya existen normas de reciclaje que requieren que estos productos se reciclen de manera responsable. +La mayor parte de lo que se extrae de estos productos, si llegan a ser reciclados, son los metales. +Para ponerlo en perspectiva voy a usar el acero para representar los metales ya que es el metal ms comn les dir que si un producto llega a ser reciclado es probable que ms del 90 % de los metales se recuperen y sean reutilizados para otros fines. +Con el plstico la historia es muy distinta: se recupera mucho menos del 10 %. +De hecho, es ms bien un 5 %. +La mayor parte es incinerada o va a parar a los vertederos. +La mayora de la gente piensa que el plstico es un material desechable y que tiene muy poco valor, +pero, en realidad, el plstico es mucho ms valioso que el acero. +Y en trminos de volumen, cada ao se produce y se consume ms plstico que acero en todo el mundo. +Entonces por qu un material tan abundante y valioso no se recupera en cantidades ni tan siquiera cercanas a las de los materiales de menor valor? +Es principalmente porque, al reciclar, los metales son muy fciles de separar entre ellos y de otros materiales. +Tienen densidades y propiedades +elctricas y magnticas diferentes +y hasta tienen colores diferentes. +Es muy fcil para los seres humanos o las mquinas separarar los metales entre ellos y de otros materiales. +La densidad de los plsticos vara muy poco, +tienen propiedades elctricas y magnticas idnticas o muy similares +y pueden ser de cualquier color, como probablemente lo saben. +Por lo tanto, las formas tradicionales de separar materiales simplemente no funcionan para los plsticos. +Otra consecuencia de que los metales sean tan fciles de reciclar es que muchos de los productos del mundo desarrollado y lamentablemente, en particular de Estados Unidos, donde no tenemos normas de reciclaje como aqu en Europa van a parar a los pases en desarrollo para ser reciclados a bajo costo. +La gente, por solo un dlar al da, rebusca entre nuestros desechos +y extrae lo que puede, esencialmente los metales tarjetas de circuitos y otros y dejan todo lo que no se puede recuperar, que es, una vez ms, el plstico. +O para llegar a los metales, queman el plstico en grandes hornos caseros como se puede ver aqu +y extraen los metales a mano. +Aunque esta sea la solucin ms econmica, no es la mejor para el medio ambiente ni para la salud o la seguridad humana. +Yo llamo a esto el arbitraje ambiental. +Y no es justo, seguro ni sostenible. +Como los plsticos son tan abundantes, y por cierto, estos mtodos alternos no llevan a su reciclaje, la gente trata de recuperar los plsticos. +Este es solo un ejemplo. +Esta es una foto que tom desde los tejados de uno de los barrios marginales ms grandes del mundo en Mumbai, India. +Ellos almacenan los plsticos en los techos +y de all los llevan a pequeos talleres como estos y trabajan duramente para separarlos por colores, formas, texturas o por cualquier otro mtodo posible. +A veces recurren a lo que se conoce como el mtodo de "quemar y oler" en el que queman el plstico y huelen el humo para tratar de identificar el tipo de plstico. +Ninguno de estos mtodos lleva al reciclaje de manera significativa. +Y, por si acaso, no intenten estos mtodos en casa, por favor. +Entonces, qu hacemos con este material de la era espacial, como solamos llamar al plstico? +Desde luego, creo que es demasiado valioso y abundante para seguir sepultndolo bajo tierra o reducindolo a humo. +Hace unos 20 aos, comenc a experimentar en mi garaje para tratar de hallar la manera de separar estos materiales tan similares entre s y, finalmente, congregu a muchos de mis amigos de la industria minera y de la de los plsticos y empezamos a visitar laboratorios de minera en todo el mundo +porque, despus de todo, estbamos haciendo minera al aire libre +y, finalmente, desciframos el cdigo. +Esta es la ltima frontera del reciclaje, +el ltimo material importante y recuperable en cantidades significativas en el mundo +y, por fin, descubrimos la manera de reciclarlo. +En el proceso, recreamos la forma en que las industrias fabrican el plstico. +La fabricacin tradicional es con petrleo o productos petroqumicos. +Hay que descomponer molculas y recombinarlas en formas muy especficas para fabricar los plsticos que usamos a diario. +Pensamos que deba haber una forma ms sostenible de fabricar plsticos +y no solo desde el punto de vista medioambiental sino tambin econmico. +Comenzar por los desechos fue una buena idea +ya que no cuestan como el petrleo y son abundantes, como deben haber visto en las fotografas. +Y al no tener que descomponer el plstico en molculas para luego recombinarlas, usamos un enfoque de minera para extraer los materiales. +Nuestra maquinaria nos permite tener costos de capital mucho ms bajos +y ahorrar mucha energa. +No s cuntos proyectos hay actualmente en el mundo que puedan ahorrar entre 80 y 90 % de energa en comparacin con la fabricacin tradicional. +Y en vez de gastar cientos de millones de dlares para construir una planta qumica que fabricara un solo tipo de plstico durante toda su vida, en nuestras plantas reciclamos y producimos cualquier tipo de plstico +y reemplazamos el plstico que se fabrica con petroqumicos. +Nuestros clientes se benefician de un enorme ahorro de CO2, +logran cerrar el crculo con sus productos +y fabricar otros ms sostenibles. +En el poco tiempo que tengo, quiero que vean cmo trabajamos para lograr todo esto. +Todo empieza con los recicladores de metal que trituran los materiales, +recuperan los metales y dejan lo que se llama residuo de fragmentacin sus residuos una mezcla muy compleja de materiales, pero sobre todo de plsticos. +Sacamos las cosas que no sean plsticos tales como los metales irrecuperables, tapices, espuma, caucho, madera, vidrio, papel, entre otros. +A veces, hasta un animal muerto, por desgracia. +Y esta es la primera parte del proceso, que es ms como el reciclaje tradicional. +Tamizamos el material, usamos imanes y hacemos una clasificacin area. +Esto se parece a la fbrica de chocolate de Willy Wonka. +Al final de este proceso, obtenemos una mezcla compuesta de diferentes tipos de plsticos y de muy diversos grados. +Luego, esto va en la parte ms sofisticada del proceso, el trabajo ms duro: la separacin en varias etapas. +Trituramos el plstico hasta aproximadamente el tamao de la ua de un meique. +Utilizamos un proceso altamente automatizado para clasificar los plsticos, no slo por tipo, sino por grado. +Y al final de esa parte del proceso obtenemos pequeos copos de plstico: un tipo, un grado. +Luego, separamos el material, lo clasificamos por colores +y lo mezclamos en silos mezcladores de 25 toneladas. +Despus, empujamos ese material para extrudirlo y fundirlo, lo empujamos a travs de agujeros pequeos para hacer tiras de plstico en forma de espagueti. +Y cortamos esas tiras en bolas pequeas +que se convierten en la moneda de la industria del plstico. +Es el mismo material que se obtendra del petrleo. +Y hoy, lo obtenemos de sus cosas viejas y se convierte en sus cosas nuevas. +Entonces, en vez de que sus desechos vayan a parar a una colina en un pas en desarrollo o que, literalmente se hagan humo, ustedes pueden volver a encontrarlos convertidos en nuevos productos en su escritorio, en su oficina, o volver a usarlos en casa. +Y estos son solo algunos ejemplos de las empresas que estn comprando nuestros plsticos, en sustitucin de plstico virgen, para fabricar sus productos nuevos. +As que espero haber cambiado su forma de ver al menos algunas cosas en su vida. +Tomamos estos indicios de la madre naturaleza +que deja muy pocos desechos ya que reutiliza prcticamente todo. +Y espero que dejen de verse a s mismos como consumidores que es una etiqueta que he odiado toda mi vida y que se vean como usuarios de recursos de una forma hasta que puedan transformarlos en otra para otro uso ms adelante. +Y, para terminar, espero que estn de acuerdo conmigo en cambiar, por lo menos un poco, esa ltima regla de los nios a: "Si esto est roto, es mo". +Gracias por su tiempo. +Soy director de orquesta y hoy estoy aqu para hablarles de la confianza. +Mi trabajo depende de ella. +Tiene que haber, entre la orquesta y yo, un vnculo inquebrantable de confianza, producto del respeto mutuo, que nos permita construir una narrativa musical en la que todos creamos. +En los viejos tiempos, dirigir, hacer msica tena menos que ver con la confianza y ms con la coercin. +Hasta la Segunda Guerra Mundial los directores eran invariablemente dictadores; estas figuras tirnicas ensayaban no slo con toda la orquesta sino con cada uno de sus integrantes en cada aspecto de sus vidas. +Pero me complace decir que el mundo ha progresado y la msica tambin. +Ahora tenemos una visin y una manera de hacer msica ms democrticas, una doble va. +Como director de orquesta tengo que venir al ensayo con un sentido frreo de la arquitectura exterior de esa msica dentro de la que existe luego una libertad personal inmensa para que brillen los miembros de la orquesta. +Para m, por supuesto, tengo que confiar plenamente en mi lenguaje corporal. +Eso es todo lo que tengo. +Es gesto silencioso. +Claramente no puedo dar instrucciones mientras tocamos. +Damas y caballeros, el Conjunto Escocs. +Por eso para que todo esto funcione obviamente tengo que estar en una posicin de confianza. +Tengo que confiar en la orquesta y, ms importante an, tengo que confiar en m mismo. +Piensen: cuando no se est en posicin de confianza, qu se hace? +Uno compensa en exceso. +Y, como director, eso significa sobre gesticular. +Uno termina siendo como un molino de viento rabioso. +Y cuanto mayor es el gesto menos definido, ms borroso, y menos til es para la orquesta. +Uno se vuelve una figura cmica. No hay ms confianza; slo el ridculo. +Y recuerdo al principio de mi carrera una y otra vez, en esas salidas lamentables con orquestas, me volva completamente loco en el podio tratando de generar un pequeo crescendo, un pequeo aumento de volumen. +Me molestaban, no me obedecan. +En los primeros aos pas mucho tiempo llorando en silencio en los camarines. +Y lo intiles que parecan los consejos del veterano y gran director de orquesta britnico Sir Colin Davis que deca: "Dirigir, Charles, es como tener un pajarito en la mano. +Si lo aprietas demasiado, lo aplastas. +Si lo tienes demasiado flojo, se escapa". +Tengo que decir que en esa poca ni siquiera poda encontrar el pjaro. +Pero algo fundamental, una experiencia muy visceral para m, en materia musical, han sido mis aventuras en Sudfrica, para m, el pas ms musical del planeta, un pas que, con su cultura musical, me ha enseado una leccin fundamental: que a travs de la creacin musical puede surgir una confianza vital, profunda y fundamental. +En el 2000 tuve la oportunidad de ir a Sudfrica a formar una nueva compaa de pera. +As que fui e hice audiciones principalmente en las localidades rurales de todo el pas. +O cerca de 2.000 cantantes y form una compaa de los 40 jvenes intrpretes ms extraordinarios, en su mayora negros, aunque haba un puado de blancos. +Y se puso de manifiesto en los primeros ensayos que uno de los intrpretes blancos en su encarnacin anterior haba sido miembro de la polica sudafricana. +Y en los ltimos aos del antiguo rgimen se le encomendaba ir a los asentamientos urbanos a agredir a la comunidad. +Imaginen lo que provoc saber esto en la temperatura de la sala, en la atmsfera general. +No nos engaemos. +En Sudfrica no hay relacin ms carente de confianza que la existente entre un polica blanco y la comunidad negra. +Cmo nos recuperamos de eso, damas y caballeros? +Simplemente a travs del canto. +Cantamos, cantamos, cantamos, y sorprendentemente surgi la confianza y, de hecho, floreci la amistad. +Y eso me mostr una verdad fundamental: la creacin musical y otras formas de creatividad pueden llegar a lugares a los que las palabras no pueden. +Pusimos en marcha algunos shows. Empezamos a hacer giras internacionales. +Una de ellas fue "Carmen". +Luego pensamos en hacer una pelcula de "Carmen", que grabamos y rodamos en exteriores en el municipio de las afueras de Ciudad del Cabo llamado Khayelitsha. +La pieza fue cantada en su totalidad en xhosa, un idioma musical muy hermoso, si es que no lo conocen. +Se llama "U-Carmen e-Khayelitsha"; literalmente, "Carmen de Khayelitsha". +Ahora quiero pasarles un pequeo clip sin otro motivo que mostrarles que no tiene nada de pequeo hacer msica en Sudfrica. +Algo que me parece absolutamente encantador de la creacin de msica sudafricana es que es muy libre. +Los sudafricanos hacen msica con gran libertad. +Y creo que, en gran parte, eso se debe a un hecho fundamental: no estn limitados por un sistema de notacin. +No leen msica. +Confan en su odo musical. +Se puede ensear a un grupo de sudafricanos una meloda en unos cinco segundos. +Y luego, como por arte de magia, espontneamente van a improvisar toda una armona alrededor de esa meloda porque pueden hacerlo. +Para los que vivimos en Occidente, si vale el trmino, creo que tenemos una actitud o sentido musical mucho ms rgidos que se basa en destrezas y sistemas. +Por lo tanto es competencia exclusiva de una lite. +Aunque, damas y caballeros, cada habitante del planeta probablemente se relaciona con la msica a diario. +Y si puedo explayarme por un segundo, apostara a que cada uno de los presentes en la sala estara feliz de hablar con agudeza, con absoluta certeza, de pelculas, quiz de literatura. +Pero, cuntos podran afirmar con certeza algo respecto de la msica clsica? +A qu se debe? +Y lo que voy a decirles ahora es que quiero instarlos a superar esta falta de confianza suprema, a dar el paso y creer que pueden confiar en su odo musical, pueden or algunos tejidos fundamentales... la fibra, el ADN, que hacen una gran pieza musical. +Quiero probar con Uds un pequeo experimento. +Saban que... ...TED es una meloda? +Una meloda simple basada en tres notas: T, E, D. +Pero, esperen un minuto. +S que me van a decir que "T no existe en la escala musical". +Bueno, damas y caballeros, hay un sistema de larga tradicin usado por los compositores durante cientos de aos que prueba que existe. +Si les canto una escala musical: A, B, C, D, E, F, G y sigo con el siguiente conjunto de letras del alfabeto, en la misma escala: H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, T... ah la tienen. +T, en msica es lo mismo que F . +T es F. +T, E, D es lo mismo que F, E, D (la, sol, fa). +La msica que tocamos al inicio de esta sesin consagra en su corazn el tema, que es TED. +Oigan. +Lo oyen? +Huele a duda en la sala? +Bueno, ahora se los tocaremos de nuevo y vamos a poner de relieve, vamos a resaltar el TED. +Perdonen la expresin. +Ay, Dios mo!, eso fue alto y claro, sin duda. +Creo que deberamos hacerlo an ms explcito. +Damas y caballeros, es casi la hora del t. +Creen que deberan cantar por el t? +Creo que deberamos cantar por el t. +Vamos a entonar esas tres notas maravillosas: T, E, D. +Lo van a intentar? +Audiencia: T, E, D. +Charles Hazlewood: S, por el sonido, ms que humanos parecen vacas. +Intentamos una vez ms? +Miren, si se atreven, suban una octava. +T, E, D. +Audiencia: T, E, D. +CH: Una vez ms, con entusiasmo. (Audiencia: T, E, D) Ven, ya parezco un maldito molino de viento otra vez. +Ahora vamos a ponerlo en el contexto de la msica. +Va a comenzar la msica y luego, con una seal ma, Uds empiezan a cantar. +Una vez ms, con sentimiento, damas y caballeros. +De otro modo no lograrn el tono. +Consiguieron una redonda, damas y caballeros. +No fue un mal debut para el coro de TED, no fue un mal debut para nada. +Hay un proyecto que estoy iniciando en este momento que me tiene muy entusiasmado y quera compartir con Uds porque se trata de cambiar percepciones y, de hecho, de construir un nuevo nivel de confianza. +Mi hija ms pequea naci con parlisis cerebral que, como pueden imaginar si no tienen una experiencia propia, es algo muy difcil de aceptar. +Pero el regalo que mi preciosa hija me ha dado, aparte de su propia existencia, es que me abri los ojos a una parte de la comunidad hasta ahora oculta, la comunidad de personas con discapacidad. +Y me encontr en los Juegos Paralmpicos pensando en lo increble, cmo se ha aprovechado la tecnologa para probar fuera de toda duda que la discapacidad no es una barrera para alcanzar los niveles deportivos ms altos. +Por supuesto que hay un lado oscuro de esa verdad y es que en realidad le llev dcadas al mundo en general alcanzar una posicin de confianza para creer realmente que la discapacidad y los deportes pueden ir de la mano de manera interesante y convincente. +As que me pregunto: dnde est la msica en todo esto? +No pueden decirme que no hay millones de personas con discapacidad, slo en el Reino Unido con un potencial musical enorme. +Por eso decid crear una plataforma para ese potencial. +Va a ser la primera orquesta de msicos con discapacidad del pas. +Se llama Paraorquesta. +Ahora les voy a mostrar un clip de la primera sesin de improvisacin que tuvimos. +Fue un momento realmente extraordinario. +Slo cuatro talentossimos msicos con discapacidad y yo. +Por lo general, cuando uno improvisa -y lo hago todo el tiempo en todo el mundo- hay un periodo inicial de horror en el que todos estn demasiado asustados, hay un silencio ensordecedor. +Luego, de repente, como por arte de magia, bum!, estamos all y todo es un caos. No se oye nada. +Nadie escucha. Nadie confa. +Nadie responde al otro. +Pero en esta sala, con estos cuatro msicos con discapacidad, en cinco minutos una escucha ensimismada, una respuesta absorta y una msica increblemente hermosa. +Nicholas: Me llamo Nicholas McCarthy. +Tengo 22 aos y soy un pianista zurdo. +Nac sin mi mano izquierda... mano derecha. +Puedo hacerlo otra vez? +Lyn: Cuando hago msica me siento como un piloto en la cabina piloteando un avin. +Cobro vida. +Clarence: preferira tocar de nuevo un instrumento que caminar. +Hay mucha alegra y cosas que puedo obtener al tocar un instrumento. +Me quita parte de la parlisis. +CH: slo deseara que algunos de los msicos estuvieran aqu hoy, para que pudieran ver de primera mano lo absolutamente extraordinarios que son. +El nombre del proyecto es Paraorquesta. +Si alguno de Uds piensa que me puede ayudar de algn modo para lograr un sueo prcticamente imposible e inverosmil en este momento, por favor, que me avise. +Ahora mi ltimo comentario es cortesa del gran Joseph Haydn, compositor austraco maravilloso de la segunda mitad del siglo 18 que pas la mayor parte de su vida al servicio del prncipe Nikolaus Esterhzy, junto con su orquesta. +Este prncipe amaba a su msica, pero tambin al castillo rural en el que sola residir la mayora de las veces, que est justo en la frontera austro-hngara, un lugar llamado Esterhzy, bastante lejos de la gran ciudad de Viena. +Pero un da de 1772 el prncipe decret que las familias de los msicos, las familias de los msicos de la orquesta, ya no eran bienvenidas en el castillo. +Ya no podan quedarse ms all, tenan que regresar a Viena; como digo, una distancia demasiado grande para esa poca. +Pueden imaginar, los msicos no tenan consuelo. +Haydn protest ante el prncipe, pero fue en vano. +As que, dado que el prncipe amaba a su msica, Haydn pens en escribir una sinfona para expresar la idea. +Y ahora vamos a interpretar justo la parte final de esa sinfona. +Y van a ver la orquesta en una especie de revuelta silenciosa. +Me complace decirles que el prncipe entendi el mensaje de la actuacin de la orquesta y los msicos se reunieron con sus familias. +Pero creo que resume mi charla bastante bien, esto, que donde hay confianza hay msica... y por extensin vida. +Donde no hay confianza, la msica simplemente se desvanece. +Qu sucede en la mente de este nio? +Si se hubiera hecho esta pregunta hace 30 aos, la mayora, incluyendo psiclogos, habran respondido que este nio era irracional, ilgico, egocntrico y que no podra comprender otros puntos de vista o comprender la relacin causa y efecto. +En los ltimos 20 aos la ciencia del desarrollo ha invalidado por completo esa idea. +As que ahora, de alguna manera, creemos que el pensamiento de este beb, es como el pensamiento de los cientficos ms brillantes. +Les dar un ejemplo. +Una de las cosas en las que podra estar pensando este beb, que podra pasar por su mente, es que estuviera tratando de averiguar lo que est pasando en la mente de otro beb. +Porque, a fin de cuentas, lo ms difcil es descifrar lo que otro piensa y siente. +Y tal vez, lo ms difcil de todo, es darse cuenta de que lo que otros piensan y sienten, no es, precisamente, lo que nosotros pensamos o sentimos. +Quien sigue de cerca la poltica, puede dar fe de lo difcil que es para algunos lograr esto. +Nosotros queramos saber si los bebs y los nios pequeos podan comprender este hecho profundo acerca de los otros. +Ahora la pregunta es: cmo podramos preguntarles? +Despus de todo, los bebs no pueden hablar, y si preguntan a un nio de tres aos qu piensa, se obtiene un hermoso monlogo sobre ponis, cumpleaos y cosas de ese estilo. +Entonces, cmo preguntarles? +Pues el secreto est en el brcoli. +Lo que hicimos mi alumna Betty Rapacholi y yo, fue dar a los a bebs dos recipientes con comida: uno de brcoli crudo y otro de pececitos salados deliciosos. +A todos los bebs, incluso en Berkley, les gustan las galletas saladas y no les gusta el brcoli crudo. +Lo que hizo Betty fue probar un poquito de alimento de cada recipiente +e hizo como si le gustara uno y otro no. +As, la mitad de las veces mostraba agrado por los pececitos salados y desagrado por el brcoli... igual que cualquier beb y persona sensata. +Pero la mitad de las otras veces, ella con una porcin de brcoli haca: "mmm... brcoli. +Es brcoli, mmm..." +Luego, coma galletas saladas, y haca: "uf, puaj! Galletas... +He comido galletas. Aaaagggggg!" +Ella hizo lo contrario de lo que les gustaba a los bebs. +Probamos esto con bebs de 15 y 18 meses. +Luego, ella simplemente extendi la mano y dijo: "puedes darme un poco?" +Y la cuestin es: qu le dar el beb, lo que les gusta a ellos o a ella? +Y lo increble fue que, a los 18 meses de edad, y aunque apenas puedan caminar y hablar, le darn las galletas si es eso lo que a ella le gustaba, o el brcoli, en caso contrario. +Por otro lado, los bebs de 15 meses, se quedaban contemplndola mucho tiempo si haca como si le gustara el brcoli; no lo podan comprender. +Pero tras un lapso de tiempo, ellos le daban las galletas, ya que pensaban que a todos les deben gustar. +As que encontramos aqu dos cosas realmente notables. +La primera es que estos bebs de 18 meses han descubierto este hecho realmente profundo de la naturaleza humana, y es que no siempre todos queremos lo mismo. +Y lo que es ms, crean que realmente deban hacer cosas para ayudar a otros a conseguir lo ansiado. +Ms sorprendente an, es el hecho que los nios de 15 meses no hicieran esto, y esto sugiere que los bebs de 18 meses han aprendido este hecho profundo de la naturaleza humana, a partir de los 15 meses. +Por lo tanto, los nios saben ms y aprenden ms de lo que habamos pensado. +Y este es uno de los cientos de estudios realizados los ltimos 20 aos que lo demuestran. +Ahora, la pregunta que se podra hacer es: por qu los nios aprenden tanto? +Y cmo pueden aprender tanto en tan poco tiempo? +Es decir, despus de todo, si se observa superficialmente a los bebs, parecen bastante intiles. +Y en realidad, en muchos aspectos, son ms que intiles, dado que tenemos que invertir mucha energa para tan solo mantenerlos con vida. +Pero si nos remitimos a la evolucin para obtener una respuesta a este misterio de por qu dedicamos tanto tiempo al cuidado de bebs intiles, existe una respuesta. +Si observamos a travs de las muchas y diversas especies, no solo a nosotros, los primates, sino tambin otros mamferos, las aves, incluso los marsupiales, como los canguros y uombats; existe una relacin entre la duracin de la infancia de una especie y el tamao de sus cerebros en comparacin con sus cuerpos, y cuan inteligentes y flexibles son. +Un claro ejemplo de esta idea son las aves all. +Por un lado, tenemos un cuervo de Nueva Caledonia. +Los cuervos y otros crvidos, grajos, etc. son aves sorprendentemente inteligentes +y en muchos aspectos, son tan inteligentes como los chimpancs. +Y la ciencia ha descubierto que este ave ha aprendido a usar una herramienta para obtener alimento. +Y por otro lado, tenemos a nuestra amiga, la gallina. +Las gallinas, patos, gansos y pavos son bsicamente tan tontos como inoperantes, +Son muy buenos para picotear granos, pero para nada ms son muy buenos. +Resulta que los cuervos beb de Nueva Caledonia son polluelos inexpertos. +Dependen de que sus madres les den a la boca pequeas lombrices durante dos aos, un perodo largo en la vida de un pjaro. +Mientras que las gallinas maduran en pocas meses. +Por lo tanto, la niez es la razn para que los cuervos acaben en las portadas de la ciencia Mientras que las gallinas acaban siendo sopa en la olla. +Hay algo acerca de esa larga infancia que parece estar conectada con el conocimiento y el aprendizaje. +Qu tipo de explicacin tendramos? +Bien, algunos animales, como las gallinas, parecen ser muy aptos para hacer muy bien una sola cosa, +Por eso demuestran una gran capacidad para picotear granos en un ambiente. +Otras criaturas, como los cuervos, no son muy buenos haciendo algo en particular, sin embargo, son extremadamente capaces de aprender las leyes de ambientes diferentes. +Y por supuesto nosotros, los seres humanos, somos el exponente en esta distribucin, como los cuervos. +En relacin al cuerpo, nuestros cerebros son mucho ms grandes que el de cualquier otro animal, +somos ms inteligentes, ms flexibles, podemos aprender ms; podemos sobrevivir en los ambientes ms diversos, migramos para poblar el mundo, e incluso, hemos ido al espacio. +Y nuestros bebs y nios dependen de nosotros durante mucho ms tiempo en comparacin con otras especies. +Mi hijo tiene 23 aos. +Y por lo menos, hasta los 23 aos, estamos alimentndolos en la boca. +Pero, por qu vemos esta correlacin? +Una idea sera que esa estrategia de aprendizaje, es una estrategia de supervivencia muy poderosa, pero tiene una gran desventaja. +Y esa gran desventaja es que, hasta que se aprende, uno est indefenso. +As que no querrn que el mastodonte se lance sobre Uds. y preguntarse a s mismo: "Una honda o tal vez una lanza Qu sera mejor?" +Uds. quieren aprender todo eso antes que el mastodonte aparezca. +Y la manera en que la evolucin ha resuelto ese problema, es mediante cierta divisin del trabajo. +Es decir, en esa primer etapa, estamos protegidos por completo, +no tenemos que hacer nada ms que aprender. +Y luego en la adultez, podemos utilizar esas cosas aprendidas siendo bebs y nios y ponerlas en prctica en la vida. +Entonces, una manera de ver esto sera pensar que los bebs y los nios pequeos son el departamento de investigacin y desarrollo de la especie humana. +Son los nios celestiales protegidos que solo tienen que explorar, aprender y tener buenas ideas, y nosotros somos la produccin y la comercializacin. +Nosotros tenemos que retomar todas esas ideas que aprendimos de pequeos y ponerlas en prctica. +Si esto es cierto, si los bebs estn diseados para aprender, y la historia evolutiva muestra que los nios estn capacitados para aprender, estn preparados para eso, podramos suponer que tienen poderosos mecanismos de aprendizaje. +De hecho, el cerebro de los bebs parece ser la computadora ms poderosa de aprendizaje del planeta. +Pero parece que las computadoras pueden llegar a ser mucho mejor. +Ha habido recientemente una revolucin en nuestra comprensin del aprendizaje de las mquinas. +Y esto gracias a las ideas del reverendo Thomas Bayes, un estadstico y matemtico del siglo XVIII. +Y bsicamente, lo que Bayes hizo fue proporcionar una base matemtica, utilizando la teora de la probabilidad, para caracterizar y describir, la manera en que los cientficos hacen sus hallazgos. +As, si los cientficos tienen una hiptesis, luego, +salen a comprobarla contra las evidencias. +Si las evidencias hacen modificar su hiptesis, +entonces testearn una nueva hiptesis, y as sucesivamente. +Y Bayes demostr un procedimiento matemtico para hacerlo. +Y las matemticas constituyen el ncleo de los mejores programas de aprendizaje automtico actuales. +Hace unos diez aos, yo propuse que los bebs podran hacer algo parecido. +As que si quieren saber qu sucede detrs de esos hermosos ojos marrones, creo que en realidad, sera algo as. +Ese es el cuaderno del reverendo Bayes. +As, creo que los bebs hacen clculos complejos de probabilidad condicional que revisan para comprender cmo funciona el mundo. +Bien, ahora parecera que existe un orden superior que demostrar. +Despus de todo, si preguntan a los adultos sobre estadstica, se ven muy ridculos; +Entonces, cmo puede ser que los nios hagan estadsticas? +Para probar esto, usamos un aparato que llamamos, el detector Blicket. +Esta es una caja que se enciende y suena la msica cuando apoyas sobre ella algunas cosas y otras no. +Y con este aparato sencillo, mi laboratorio y otros han hecho decenas de estudios mostrando, precisamente, lo bueno que son los nios para aprender acerca el mundo. +Permtanme mencionarles solo uno, que hicimos con mi alumna, Tumar Kusher. +Si les hubiera mostrado este detector, seguramente habran pensado que la manera de hacerlo funcionar sera colocando un bloque sobre l. +Sin embargo, este detector, funciona de una manera un poco extraa. +Porque si agitamos un bloque sobre l, algo que seguramente no hubieran pensado que podramos hacer, el detector se activar dos veces de cada tres; +mientras que, si hace lo previsible, apoya el bloque sobre el detector, este solo se activar dos veces de cada seis. +Por lo tanto, la hiptesis poco probable, es la que tiene evidencias ms slidas. +Parece como si la agitacin del bloque fuese una estrategia ms eficaz que la otra estrategia. +Entonces, dimos a los nios de 4 aos este patrn de evidencias y les pedimos que lo hicieran funcionar. +Y efectivamente, el nio de 4 aos us la evidencia, de agitar el objeto sobre el detector. +Ahora, hay dos cosas realmente interesantes al respecto. +La primera, y nuevamente, se trata de nios de 4 aos. +Estn aprendiendo a sumar. +Pero inconscientemente, estn haciendo esos clculos complejos que les darn una medida de probabilidad condicional. +Y otra cosa interesante, es que ellos usan esa evidencia para llegar a una idea, a una hiptesis acerca del mundo, que al comienzo, parece muy poco probable. +Y en los estudios que hemos estado haciendo en mi laboratorio, hemos demostrado que los nios de 4 aos son mejores que los adultos en averiguar una hiptesis poco probable ante la misma tarea. +As que en estas circunstancias, los nios estn usando estadsticas para comprender el mundo. Pero, despus de todo, los cientficos hacen experimentos y quisimos ver si los nios tambin los hacen. +Cuando los nios experimentan, lo llamamos: "meterse en todo" o bien: "jugar". +Y han surgido recientemente un montn de estudios interesantes que han demostrado que el juego es, realmente, una especie de programa de investigacin experimental. +Aqu hay uno del laboratorio de Cristine Legare. +Cristina us nuestro detector Blicket, +y lo que hizo fue mostrarle a los nios que los amarillos lo hacan funcionar y los rojos no. Luego, les mostr una anomala. +Y vern ahora que este pequeo despleg 5 hiptesis en un lapso de 2 minutos. +Nio: "Qu tal este?" +"Igual que el otro lado" +Alison Gopnik: Su primer hiptesis ha sido falseada. +Nio: "Esta se enciende, y esta no". +AG: Hizo su registro de la experiencia. +Nio: "Qu la hace encender?" +"No lo s..." +AG: Los cientficos reconoceran esa expresin de desesperacin, verdad? +Nio: "Ah, es porque este tiene que estar como este y este como este". +AG: Muy bien, hiptesis 2. +Nio: "Es por eso..." +"Oh..." +AG: Ahora la prxima idea. +Y pidi a la investigadora hacer esto, colocarlos sobre el otro lugar. +Tampoco funciona. +Nio: "Oh, porque la luz solo llega hasta aqu... y no hasta aqu. +"Oh, la parte inferior de la caja tiene electricidad, pero esta no". +AG: Bien, esa es su cuarta hiptesis. +Nio: "Se enciende +cuando pones 4". +"Entonces, tienes que poner 4 en este para que se encienda, y dos en este". +AG: Muy bien, esa es su quinta hiptesis. +Se trata de un nio adorable y particularmente expresivo, pero Cristine descubri que esto es bastante tpico. +Si Uds. observan cmo juegan los nios, y les piden que les expliquen, lo que realmente hacen es una serie de experimentos. +Esto, en realidad, es bastante caracterstico en los nios de 4 aos. +Pues bien, qu se siente siendo este tipo de criatura? +Qu se siente siendo una de esas brillantes mariposas que puede poner a prueba 5 hiptesis en dos minutos? +Bueno, si nos remontamos a psiclogos y filsofos, muchos de ellos afirmaban que los bebs apenas eran conscientes o no lo eran en absoluto. +Pienso que es exactamente lo contrario. +Creo que los bebs y los nios son ms conscientes que nosotros, los adultos. +Ahora, esto es lo que sabemos sobre cmo funciona la conciencia en adultos. +La atencin y la conciencia de los adultos se parece a un reflector. +Los adultos decidimos si algo es relevante o importante, o no, y dirigimos la atencin hacia eso. +Y la conciencia hacia ese objeto que estamos atendiendo se ilumina y reaviva considerablemente, mientras que el resto de las cosas se apagan; +e incluso sabemos cmo el cerebro hace esto. +Cuando prestamos atencin, la corteza prefrontal, que es la parte ejecutiva de nuestro cerebro, enva una seal que hace que una pequea porcin de nuestro cerebro sea ms flexible, mejor para el aprendizaje, anulando la actividad en el resto del cerebro. +Por lo tanto, tenemos una atencin muy enfocada, dirigida a un propsito. +Si observamos a los bebs y a los nios, vemos algo muy diferente. +Yo pienso que los bebs y los nios parece que tuvieran un farol de la conciencia ms que un reflector de la conciencia. +Por eso, los bebs y los nios son muy malos para concentrarse en una sola cosa, +pero son muy buenos para tomar informacin de muchas fuentes diferentes a la vez. +Y si observan sus cerebros, los vern inundados de neurotransmisores que son muy buenos para inducir el aprendizaje y la plasticidad, mientras que los inhibidores no se ponen aun en funcionamiento. +Entonces, cuando decimos que los bebs y los nios pequeos no son buenos prestando atencin, es decir, en realidad, son malos en no prestar atencin. +Por tanto, son malos para ignorar todas las cosas interesantes que los rodean y mirar solo lo que es importante. +Ese es el tipo de atencin, de conciencia que podemos esperar, de aquellas mariposas que estn diseadas para aprender. +Y lo que sucede, en esos casos, no es que la conciencia se contrae, todo lo contrario, se expande. Y es as que, esos tres das en Pars, parecen estar mucho ms rebosantes de conciencia y experiencia, que todos esos meses de caminar, hablar, reunirse en la facultad --como zombis- de regresar a casa. +Y por cierto, ese caf, ese maravilloso caf que han tomado, en realidad, imita el efecto de los neurotransmisores del beb. +Entonces, qu se siente siendo un beb? +Es como estar enamorado en Pars por primera vez, tras haber tomado tres expresos dobles. +Esa es una fantstica manera de vivir, pero les har despertarse a las tres de la madrugada llorando. +Pero es bueno ser adulto. +No quiero decir mucho ms sobre lo maravillosos que son los bebs. +Es bueno ser adulto. +Podemos atarnos los cordones y cruzar la calle solos. +Y tiene sentido que pongamos mucho esfuerzo en hacer que los bebs piensen como los adultos. +Pero queremos ser como esas mariposas para tener mentes abiertas y dispuestas al aprendizaje, imaginacin, creatividad, innovacin... y tal vez, algunas veces, los adultos deberan empezar a pensar como los nios. +Cuando era pequeo, por cierto, fui pequeo una vez, mi padre me cont la historia de un relojero del siglo 18. +Este hombre sola producir relojes increblemente hermosos. +Y, un da, vino uno de sus clientes a su taller y le pidi que le limpie el reloj que haba comprado. +Y el hombre lo desarm, sac uno de los engranajes +y, al hacerlo, su cliente not que en la parte trasera la pieza tena un grabado con palabras. +Y le pregunt al hombre: "Por qu puso algo en la parte trasera... ...que nunca nadie va a ver?" +El relojero gir hacia l y le dijo: "Dios lo ve". +Yo no soy religioso en lo ms mnimo, ni lo era mi padre, pero en ese momento not que algo estaba sucediendo. +Sent algo en este plexo de vasos sanguneos y nervios y supongo que hay msculos all tambin en algn lado. +Sent algo. +Fue una respuesta fisiolgica. +Y desde aquel momento de mi vida en adelante empec a ver las cosas de otra manera. +Y a medida que avanzaba en la carrera como diseador empec a plantearme la pregunta: pensamos en la belleza... ...o la percibimos? +Pero quiz ya sepan la respuesta. +Probablemente piensen, bien, no s cual creas que sea pero creo que tiene que ver con la percepcin. +Y luego segu mi carrera de diseo y empec a encontrar cosas apasionantes. +Uno de los primeros trabajos era de diseo automotriz; all hicimos un trabajo muy apasionante. +Y durante gran parte de este trabajo, encontramos algo, o encontr algo, que realmente me fascin y, tal vez, puedan recordarlo. +Se acuerdan cuando las luces simplemente se encendan y apagaban, clic-clic, cuando cerraban la puerta del auto? +Y luego alguien, creo que fue BMW, puso una luz que se desvaneca lentamente. +Se acuerdan? +Yo me acuerdo claramente. +Se acuerdan de la primera vez que vieron eso en un auto? +Yo me acuerdo que estaba sentado y pensaba: es fantstico. +De hecho, nunca encontr a nadie a quien no le gustara la luz que se desvaneca lentamente. +Pens: qu es esta sensacin? +Empec a preguntarme cosas. +Lo primero que le pregunt a los dems: "Te gusta?" "S". +"Por qu?" Y me decan: "Oh, parece muy natural", o, "Es lindo". +Yo pensaba, bueno eso no me basta. +Podemos indagar un poquito ms, porque, como diseador, necesito el vocabulario, el teclado, del funcionamiento de esto. +Por eso hice experimentos. +Y, de repente, me di cuenta que haba algo que haca exactamente eso -de luz a oscuridad en 6 segundos- exactamente eso. +Saben qu es? Alguien sabe? +Ven, usen esta parte, la parte pensante, la parte lenta del cerebro... usen eso. +Y esto no es un pensamiento; es una sensacin. +Me hacen un favor? +En los prximos 14 minutos y pico, pueden probar sensaciones? +No me sirve que piensen, quiero que sientan. +Sent una mezcla de relajacin y anticipacin. +Y eso que encontr fue el cine o el teatro. +Aqu es donde sucede... de luz a oscuridad en 6 segundos. +Y cuando sucede, se sientan y piensan: "No, la pelcula est por empezar", o "Es fantstico. No veo la hora de que empiece. +Disfruto por anticipado?" +Pero no soy neurlogo. +Ni siquiera s si hay algo llamado reflejo condicional. +Pero podra ser. +Porque las personas con las que hablo en el hemisferio norte que solan ir al cine lo perciban as. +Y otras personas con las que hablo que nunca han visto una pelcula o ido al teatro no lo perciben de la misma manera. +A todos les gusta pero a algunos les gusta ms que a otros. +Por eso esto me lleva a pensarlo de manera diferente. +No lo percibimos. Pensamos que la belleza est en el sistema lmbico... si esta ya no es una idea pasada de moda. +Estos son los lugares, los centros de placer, y quiz lo que veo, percibo y siento, no pasa por el cerebro. +Las conexiones entre estos lugares y el aparato sensorial son ms cortas que las que tienen que pasar por la zona del pensamiento, la corteza. +Llegan primero. +Cmo lo hacemos funcionar? +Cunto de ese aspecto reactivo se debe a lo que ya conocemos de algo o a lo que vamos a aprender de algo? +Esto es una de las cosas ms hermosas que conozco. +Es una bolsa de plstico. +Cuando la vi por primera vez pens que no tiene nada bello. +Despus descubr, despus de la exposicin, que si pongo esta bolsa en un charco sucio o en una corriente llena de cloroformo y todo tipo de cosas desagradables, que ese agua sucia permear por la pared de la bolsa por smosis y terminar dentro como agua corriente pura, potable. +Y, de repente, esta bolsa de plstico me pareci bellsima. +Ahora les voy a pedir otra vez que enciendan la parte emocional. +Seran tan amables de sacarse el cerebro? Quiero que sientan algo. +Miren eso. Qu sensacin les provoca? +Es bello? Es emocionante? +Estoy mirando sus caras con atencin. +Hay unos caballeros de aspecto aburrido y algunas damas que parecen comprometidas que perciben algo de ese objeto. +Tal vez hay algo de inocencia. +Ahora les voy a decir qu es. Estn listos? +Es el ltimo acto de esta Tierra de una nia llamada Heidi, de 5 aos, antes de morir de cncer de mdula. +Es lo ltimo que hizo, su ltimo acto fsico. +Miren la imagen. +Miren la inocencia. Miren la belleza que tiene. +Ahora la ven bella? +Alto. Alto. Cmo se sienten? +Dnde lo sienten? +Yo lo siento aqu. Lo siento aqu. +Les estoy viendo sus rostros porque sus rostros me dicen algo. +La dama de all est llorado, por cierto. +Qu estn haciendo? +Miro las acciones de la gente. +Miro sus rostros. +Miro sus reacciones. +Tengo que saber cmo reacciona la gente ante las cosas. +Y uno de los rostros ms comunes que surge frente a la belleza, a algo tremendamente delicioso, es lo que llamo Oh Dios Mo. +Y, por cierto, ese rostro no expresa placer. +No dice "es maravilloso!" +Las cejas hacen as, los ojos estn desenfocados, y la boca desencajada. +No es una expresin de alegra. +Hay algo ms. +Ocurre algo extrao. +Parece que el placer es aplacado por toda una serie de cosas diversas que intervienen. +La intensidad es una palabra que me encanta como diseador. +Es algo que provoca una gran respuesta emocional, a menudo una respuesta emocional muy triste, pero es parte de lo que hacemos. +No se trata slo de algo agradable. +Y este es el dilema, esta es la paradoja, de la belleza. +En lo sensorial, incluimos todo tipo de cosas: mezclas de cosas buenas, malas, emocionantes, aterradoras... para toparnos con esa exposicin sensorial, esa sensacin de lo que est pasando. +El patetismo parece obvio en lo que se vio en el dibujo de esa pequea nia. +Y tambin el triunfo, este sentido de la trascendencia, este "No lo saba. Ah, esto es algo nuevo". +Y eso es algo que est all tambin. +A medida que ensamblamos estas herramientas, desde el punto de vista del diseo, me entusiasmo mucho, porque estas son cosas, como ya dijimos, que llegan al cerebro, parecera, antes que la cognicin, antes de que podamos manipularlas; trucos electroqumicos. +Otra cosa que me interesa es saber si es posible separar la belleza intrnseca de la extrnseca. +Con esto quiero decir cosas intrnsecamente bellas, algo extremadamente bello, de belleza universal. +Muy difcil de encontrar. Quiz tengan ejemplos de esto. +Es muy difcil encontrar algo que, para todos, sea una cosa muy hermosa que no tenga cierta cantidad de informacin previa. +Por eso gran parte suele ser extrnseca. +Es mediada por informacin previa a la comprensin. +O se le agrega informacin en la parte de atrs como en el dibujo de la niita que les mostr. +Ahora cuando se habla de belleza uno no puede escapar al hecho de que muchos experimentos se han realizado con rostros, etc. +Y uno de los ms tediosos, creo, fue decir que la belleza se basa en la simetra. +Bueno, obviamente no. +Este es ms interesante; se le mostraba a la gente mitades de rostros, luego se peda aadirlos a una lista de ms hermosos a menos hermosos y luego exponer el rostro completo. +Y encontraron que haba una coincidencia casi exacta. +No se trataba de simetra. +De hecho, esta dama tiene un rostro particularmente asimtrico, y ambos lados son hermosos. +Pero ambos son diferentes. +Y, como diseador, no puedo evitar entrometerme en esto as que lo part en pedazos e hice cosas como estas: tratar de entender cules eran los elementos individuales, de percibirlos a medida que avanzo. +Puedo percibir una sensacin de placer y belleza si miro esos ojos. +No me pasa con las cejas. +Tampoco con el lbulo perforado, en absoluto. +As que no s cunto me est ayudando esto pero me ayuda a llegar a los lugares que irradian las seales. +Y, como dije, no soy neurlogo, pero entender cmo puedo empezar a ensamblar las cosas rpidamente evitar el rea del pensamiento y me llevar a los elementos de goce precognitivos. +Anais Nin y el Talmud nos han dicho una y otra vez que no vemos las cosas como son, sino tal como somos. +As que voy a exponer sin pudor algo que es hermoso para m. +La F1 MV Agusta. +Ahhhh! +Es muy... digo, no puedo expresarles lo exquisito que es este objeto. +Pero tambin s por qu me resulta exquisito y son muchas cosas. +Son capas y capas de cosas. +Esto es slo lo que sobresale en nuestra dimensin fsica. +Es algo mucho ms grande. +Son capas y capas de leyenda, deporte, detalles que resuenan. +Digo, por mencionar algunas... s del flujo laminar cuando se trata de objetos aerodinmicos y que es muy bueno, pueden verlo. +Eso me entusiasma. +Y lo percibo aqu. +Esta parte, el gran secreto del diseo automotriz... manejo de la reflexin. +No se trata de las formas sino de la manera en que stas reflejan la luz. +Otra cosa, la luz que destella a medida que uno se mueve, se vuelve un objeto cintico, an estando detenido; controlado por el brillo que produce en la reflexin. +Este alivio en el apoyapi, por cierto, para un motociclista significa que hay algo all abajo; en este caso, una cadena que corre a 480 km por hora con la potencia del motor. +Estoy muy entusiasmado cuando mi mente y mis ojos se detienen en estas cosas. +Laca de titanio por aqu. +No puedo contar lo maravilloso que es. +As se evita que la tuerca se escapen de la rueda a altas velocidades. +Ya me estoy subiendo. +Por supuesto, una de carrera no tiene palanca de arranque; pero esta s, porque es de calle, se pliega en este pequeo hueco. +As que desaparece. +Y no se imaginan lo difcil que es hacer este radiador curvo. +Por qu hacerlo as? +Porque s que tenemos que hacer la rueda ms aerodinmica. +Es ms caro, pero es hermoso. +Y para coronar todo esto: la marca real, Agusta, Conde Agusta, las grandes historias de estas cosas. +Lo que no se puede ver es el genio que la cre. +Massimo Tamburini. +En Italia lo llaman "El Plomero" y tambin "Maestro", porque es ingeniero, artesano y escultor al mismo tiempo. +Hay pocas situaciones de compromiso, pueden verlo. +Pero, por desgracia, la gente como yo tiene que lidiar todo el tiempo con el compromiso de la belleza. +Tenemos que lidiar con eso. +Por eso tengo que trabajar con la cadena de suministro, con las tecnologas, y con todo lo dems todo el tiempo, las soluciones de compromiso empiezan a aparecer. +Mrenla. +Tuve que hacer una solucin de compromiso all. +Tuve que mover esa parte, pero slo un milmetro. +Nadie se percat, lo vieron? +Vieron lo que hice? +Mov tres cosas un milmetro. +Bonita? S. +Hermosa? Tal vez menos. +Pero luego, por supuesto, el consumidor dice que en realidad no importa. +As que est bien, no? +Otro milmetro? +Nadie va a notar las lneas de divisin y los cambios. +Es tan fcil perder la belleza, porque la belleza es increblemente difcil de lograr. +Y slo unas pocas personas pueden lograrlo. +No se logra en un grupo de enfoque. +Raramente lo pueda lograr un equipo. +Hace falta una corteza central, si se quiere, para poder orquestar todos los elementos al mismo tiempo. +Esta es una hermosa botella de agua, algunos de Uds lo saben, hecha por Ross Lovegrove, el diseador. +Es bastante cercana a la belleza intrnseca. sta, siempre y cuando sepan cmo es el agua entonces pueden experimentar eso. +Es preciosa porque es la encarnacin de algo refrescante y delicioso. +Puede que me guste ms que a Uds porque s lo difcil que es lograrla. +Es tremendamente difcil algo que refracte la luz de esa manera,, que salga de la herramienta correctamente que baje en la lnea, sin caerse. +Por debajo, como la historia del cisne, hay un milln de cosas muy difciles de hacer. +Todas las loas para esto. +Es un ejemplo fantstico, un objeto simple. +Y lo que les mostr antes era, por supuesto, un objeto muy complejo. +Y estn trabajando en la belleza de manera levemente diferente debido a eso. +Uds, supongo que como yo, disfrutan de ver una bailarina de ballet. +Parte del goce es que saben que es difcil. +Puede que tambin tengan en cuenta que es muy doloroso. +Alguien vio los pies de una bailarina... ...cuando salen de los puntos? +Mientras est haciendo estos arabescos elegantes, los plis, etc, aqu abajo est ocurriendo algo terrible. +Entender eso nos lleva a sentir ms intensamente la belleza de lo que est ocurriendo. +Aqu estoy usando mal los microsegundos por favor, ignrenme. +Lo que tengo que hacer ahora, sintiendo de nuevo, es poder suministrar la suficiente cantidad de estas enzimas de estos disparadores tempranos en el proceso que Uds reciban no con el pensamiento, sino con la percepcin. +Vamos a hacer un pequeo experimento. +Estn listos? Voy a mostrarles algo por un momento muy, muy breve. +Estn listos? Bien. +Creen haber visto una bicicleta cuando les mostr ese destello? +No lo es. +Dganme algo, pensaron que era rpida a primera vista? S, lo pensaron. +Pensaron que era moderna? S, lo pesaron. +Esa seal, esa informacin, los impact antes que nada. +Y como sus motores cerebrales comenzaron all ahora tienen que lidiar con eso. +Y lo genial es que esta motocicleta tiene este diseo especficamente para dar la idea de tecnologa verde, que es buena para uno, liviana y es parte del futuro. +Eso es malo? +Bueno, en este caso no lo es porque es una tecnologa muy, muy ecolgica. +Pero somos esclavos de ese primer destello. +Somos esclavos de las primeras fracciones de segundo... y all es donde gran parte de mi trabajo tiene que ganar o perder en el estante de una tienda. +Se gana o se pierde en ese momento. +Pueden ver 50, 100, 200 cosas en un estante a medida que van pasando pero yo tengo que trabajar en ese dominio para asegurarme que llega a Uds primero. +Y, finalmente, la capa que me encanta, del conocimiento. +Algunos, estoy seguro, estarn familiarizados con esto. +Lo increble de todo esto, y me encanta volver a esto, es que es tomar que detestan o les aburre, doblar ropa, y si pueden hacer esto Quin puede hacer esto? Alguien que lo intente? +S? +Es fantstico, no? +Miren eso. Quieren verlo de nuevo? +No hay tiempo. Dice que quedan 2 minutos, as que no puedo. +Vayan a la web, en YouTube, pongan "doblar camiseta". +Los jvenes mal pagados tienen que doblar as las camisetas. +Uds tal vez no lo saban. +Cmo se sienten al respecto? +Es fantstico hacerlo, uno no ve la hora de hacerlo, y cuando se lo cuenta a alguien, cosa que probablemente han hecho, uno se siente muy inteligente. +La burbuja de conocimiento que hay afuera, las cosas que no cuestan nada, porque ese conocimiento es gratis... consolidemos todo y, dnde terminamos? +La forma sigue a la funcin? +Slo a veces. Slo a veces. +La forma "es" funcin. +Nos informa, nos cuenta, nos provee respuestas antes de haber siquiera pensado en ello. +Como diseador he dejado de usar palabras como "forma", y he dejado de usar palabras como "funcin". +Ahora mi objetivo es la funcionalidad emocional de las cosas. +Porque si puedo lograr eso puedo lograr la maravilla, y hacerlo repetidamente. +Y saben qu productos y servicios son porque tienen algunos de ellos. +Son las cosas que les gustara llevarse si la casa se incendia. +Crear el vnculo emocional entre la cosa y Uds es un truco electroqumico que sucede antes de siquiera pensar en ello. +Muchas gracias. +Todos sabemos que la World Wide Web ha transformado por completo los medios escritos y audiovisuales, el comercio y las conexiones sociales, pero cul es su origen? +Hablar de tres personas: Vannevar Bush, Doug Engelbart y Tim Berners-Lee. +As que hablemos de estos tipos. +Este es Vannevar Bush. +Vannevar era el asesor cientfico en jefe del gobierno de EE.UU. durante la guerra. +Y, en 1945, public un artculo en una revista llamada Atlantic Monthly. +El artculo se titulaba "Como podramos pensar". +Y Vannevar Bush deca que usamos la informacin de forma fragmentada. +No funcionamos con bibliotecas y sistemas de catlogo o cosas similares. +El cerebro funciona por asociacin. +Est pensando en una cosa y salta instantneamente a la siguiente. +Y que la forma en que se estaba estructurando la informacin era totalmente incapaz de seguir este proceso. +Entonces propuso una mquina, y la llam Memex. +Memex enlazara la informacin, una unidad de informacin enlazada a otra unidad de informacin relacionada. +Esto era 1945. +En aquellos das una computadora era algo que los servicios de inteligencia usaban para descifrar cdigos. +Y nadie saba nada de su existencia. +Luego fue "antes" de que se inventara la computadora. +l propuso esta mquina llamada Memex. +Tena una plataforma donde se enlazaba informacin con informacin. y entonces se poda recuperar a voluntad. +Avancemos un poco, uno de los tipos que ley este artculo fue Doug Engelbart, un oficial de las Fuerzas Areas de EE.UU. +que estuvo leyndolo en una biblioteca que tenan el lejano oriente. +Fue este artculo tal inspiracin para l, que fue como su gua para el resto de su vida. +A mediados de los 60, pudo hacerlo realidad cuando trabajaba en el Stanford Research Lab en California. +Construy un sistema. +El sistema estaba diseado para aumentar la inteligencia humana. +Y como premonicin del mundo de hoy, de computacin en la nube y software como servicio, su sistema se llam NLS de "oN-Line System" (Sistema eN-Lnea). +Y este es Doug Engelbart +realizando una presentacin en la Fall Joint Computer Conference en 1968. +Esto es lo que mostr... Se sent en un escenario como ste y mostr este sistema. +Llevaba un micrfono, como yo. +Comienza a trabajar con el sistema. +Como pueden ver, est trabajando con documentos y grficos... +Y todo lo dirige con esta plataforma con un teclado de cinco dedos y el primer ratn de la historia, que dise especialmente para construir este sistema. +Luego ste es el origen del ratn. +Este era Doug Engelbart. +El problema con el sistema de Doug Engelbart era que las computadoras por aqul entonces costaban varios millones de libras. +Y tratndose de una computadora personal, unos pocos millones de libras era el precio de un "jet personal"; verdaderamente no muy prctico. +Pero pasemos a los 80 cuando lleg la computadora personal, en aqul entonces las computadoras personales podan ejecutar este tipo de sistema. +Y mi compaa, OWL, construy un sistema llamado Guide para el Apple Macintosh. +y comercializamos el primer sistema de hipertexto del mundo. +Y esto empez a ganar velocidad. +Apple introdujo una cosa llamada HyperCard, e hicieron bastante ruido al respecto. +Tuvieron un suplemento de 12 pginas en el Wall Street Journal en el lanzamiento. +Las revistas empezaron a hablar de l. +Byte magazine y Communications at the ACM lanzaron nmeros especiales acerca del hipertexto. +Nosotros desarrollamos una versin para PC de este producto, tambin una versin para Macintosh. +La versin para PC lleg a madurar bastante. +Estos son ejemplos de este sistema en accin a final de los aos 80. +Uno poda enviar documentos, dejar a la computadora trabajando por la noche. +Desarrollamos un sistema tal que tena un lenguaje de marcado basado en html. +Nosotros lo llambamos hml: hypertext markup language +Y este sistema era capaz de gestionar conjuntos muy, muy grandes de documentos distribuidos en redes de computadoras. +Llev mi sistema a una feria comercial en Versalles, cerca de Pars, a finales de noviembre de 1990. +Y se me acerc un agradable joven llamado Tim Berners-Lee que me dijo, "Eres Ian Ritchie?" y dije "S". +Me dijo: "Necesito hablar contigo". +Y me cont su propuesta de un sistema llamado la Word Wide Web. +Pens, bien, un nombre pretencioso, especialmente al estar solamente funcionando en la computadora de su oficina. +Pero l estaba completamente convencido de que su World Wide Web conquistara algn da el mundo entero. +Intent persuadirme para que creara un navegador para ella, porque su sistema no tena grficos o fuentes o algo as; slo era texto plano. +Y pens, bien, ya sabes, es interesante... ...pero es un tipo del CERN, no va a conseguirlo. +Y no lo hicimos. +Durante el siguiente par de aos, la comunidad del hipertexto tampoco le prest atencin. +En 1992, su artculo para la Hypertext Conference fue rechazado. +En 1993, haba una mesa en la conferencia de Seattle, con un tipo llamado Marc Andreessen mostrando su pequeo navegador para la World Wide Web. +Y lo v, y pens, s, aqu est. +Y justo al ao siguiente, en 1994, tuvimos una conferencia aqu en Edimburgo, y nadie se opuso a tener a Tim Berners-Lee como orador principal. +Esto me sita al nivel de unos compaeros muy ilustres. +Hubo un tipo llamado Dick Rowe que estando en Decca Records dijo no a los Beatles. +Hubo un tipo llamado Gary Kildall que sali a volar con su avin cuando IBM le visit buscando un sistema operativo para el IBM PC, y, como no estaba, regresaron y fueron a ver a Bill Gates. +Y las 12 editoriales que dijeron que no al Harry Potter de J.K. Rowling. +Por otro lado, est Marc Andreessen quien program el primer navegador para la WWW del mundo. +Y que, segn la revista Fortune, tiene una fortuna de 700 millones de dlares. +Pero...es feliz? +No quiero alarmar a nadie en la sala, pero acabo de notar que la persona a su derecha es una mentirosa. +La persona a su izquierda tambin lo es. +Y tambin la persona sentada en su propio asiento. +Todos somos mentirosos. +Lo que har hoy es mostrarles lo investigado acerca de por qu mentimos, cmo pueden convertirse en detectores de mentiras, y por qu deberan ir ms all e ir de la deteccin de mentiras a la bsqueda de la verdad, y finalmente al desarrollo de confianza. +Hablando de confianza, desde que escrib este libro, "Deteccin de mentiras", nadie quiere verme en persona, no, no, no, no. +Me dicen, "Le reponderemos por correo electrnico." +Ni siquiera puedo tomarme un caf en Starbucks. +Mi esposo dice, "Querida, engao? +Tal vez podras haber escrito sobre cocina. Qu tal cocina francesa?" +As que antes de empezar, lo que har es clarificar mi objetivo, que no es ensearles a jugar Gotcha. +Los detectores de mentiras no son esos nios melindrosos, sentados detrs que gritan: "Te descubr! Te descubr! +Moviste la ceja. Tus fosas nasales se dilataron. +Yo veo esa serie de TV 'Minteme'. S que ests mintiendo." +No, los detectores de mentiras estn armados con conocimientos cientficos sobre cmo detectar el engao. +Usan ese conocimiento para llegar a la verdad y hacen lo que los lderes experimentados hacen a diario; tienen conversaciones difciles con gente difcil, a veces en tiempos muy difciles. +Empiezan as aceptando una proposicin central, esa proposicin es la siguiente: La mentira es un acto cooperativo. +Piensen, una mentira no tiene poder en s misma. +Su poder surge cuando alguien ms acepta creer la mentira. +S que puede sonar rudo, pero si alguna vez les mintieron, es porque Uds. aceptaron ser engaados. +Verdad nm. uno: La mentira es un acto cooperativo. +No todas las mentiras son dainas. +Algunas veces estamos dispuestos a participar en el engao para mantener la dignidad social, tal vez para guardar un secreto que debe permanecer secreto. +Decimos, "Linda cancin." +"Querida, as no se te ve gorda, no." +O la favorita de los informticos, "Acabo de recuperar ese correo de la carpeta de correo basura. +Lo siento." +Otras ocasiones participamos sin querer en el engao. +Y eso puede tener costos enormes para nosotros. +El ao pasado se perdieron 997 mil millones de dlares en fraude empresarial, slo en los EEUU. +Eso no es nada con respecto a un billn de dlares. +Representa el 7% de los ingresos recaudados. +El engao puede costar miles de millones. +Piensen en Enron, Madoff, la crisis hipotecaria. +O en el caso de espas y traidores, como Robert Hanssen o Aldrich Ames, las mentiras pueden traicionar a nuestro pas, comprometer nuestra seguridad, debilitar la democracia, provocar la muerte de quienes nos defienden. +El engao es un asunto serio. +Este estafador, Henry Oberlander, era tan buen estafador que las autoridades britnicas dijeron que pudo haber quebrantado por completo el sistema bancario de los pases occidentales. +Y no se le puede encontrar en Google; no se le encuentra en ningn lado. +Una vez fue entrevistado y dijo lo siguiente. +Dijo: "Tengo una regla." +Y esta era la regla de Henry: "Todos estn dispuestos a darte algo. +Preparados para darte algo a cambio de lo que ms desean." +Y esa es la esencia del problema. +Si no quieres ser engaado, tienes que saber, qu es lo que deseas? +Y todos odiamos admitirlo. +Deseamos ser mejores esposos, mejores esposas, ms inteligentes, ms poderosos, ms altos, ms ricos... la lista sigue. +El engao es un intento por acortar la brecha, por conectar nuestros deseos y fantasas sobre quines y cmo nos gustara ser, con quienes somos realmente. +Y s, estamos dispuestos a rellenar las brechas con mentiras. +Estudios muestran que cada da nos mienten entre 10 y 200 veces. +Aunque muchas son mentiras piadosas. +Pero en otro estudio se demostr que los extraos mienten tres veces en los primeros 10 minutos de conocerse. +Rehuimos al escuchar estos datos. +No podemos creer que las las mentiras sean tan comunes. +Estamos esencialmente en contra de la mentira. +Pero si prestan atencin, las cosas son an ms complicadas. +Mentimos ms a extraos que a compaeros de trabajo. +Las personas extrovertidas mienten ms que las introvertidas. +Los hombres mienten ocho veces ms sobre ellos mismos que sobre otras personas. +Las mujeres mienten ms para proteger a otros. +Si son un matrimonio promedio, mentirn a su cnyuge en una de cada 10 interacciones. +Ahora, pueden pensar que eso es malo. +Si no estn casados, el nm. disminuye a tres. +Mentir es complicado. +Forma parte de nuestra vida cotidiana y laboral. +Somos profundamente ambiguos sobre la verdad. +Slo la analizamos cuando lo requerimos, a veces por muy buenas razones, otras porque no comprendemos las brechas en nuestras vidas. +Verdad nm. dos sobre la mentira. +Estamos en contra de la mentira, pero, en secreto, a favor de ella, en formas que nuestra sociedad ha sancionado durante siglos y siglos. +Mentir es tan antiguo como respirar. +Es parte de nuestra cultura, parte de nuestra historia. +Piensen en Dante, Shakespeare, la Biblia, News of the World. +Mentir tiene un valor evolutivo para nuestra especie. +Los investigadores saben desde hace tiempo que cuanto ms inteligente es una especie, mayor es el neocrtex y mayores son las posibilidades de ser engaoso. +Tal vez recuerden a Koko. +Recuerdan a Koko, la gorila a quien ensearon el lenguaje de seas? +A Koko le ensearon a comunicarse a travs de seas. +Aqu est Koko con su gatito. +Su lindo y suave gatito. +Una vez Koko culp a su gatito por haber arrancado un lavabo de la pared. +Estamos predispuestos a ser lderes de la manada. +Comienza desde una edad muy temprana. +Pero cundo? +Los bebs fingen el llanto, hacen una pausa para ver si alguien viene, y continan llorando. +Los nios de un ao ocultan. +Los de dos aos disimulan. +Los nios de cinco aos mienten sin reservas. +Manipulan mediante halagos. +A los nueve aos son maestros del encubrimiento. +Cuando entras a la universidad, mentirs a tu madre en una de cada cinco interacciones. +Cuando entramos al mundo laboral y tenemos una familia, entramos a un mundo lleno de correo indeseado, falsos amigos digitales, medios de comunicacin con inclinaciones polticas, ingeniosos ladrones de identidad, estafadores de primera clase, una epidemia de engaos-- en resumen, lo que un autor llama una sociedad post-verdad. +Ha sido muy confuso durante un largo tiempo. +Qu hacemos? +Hay pasos que podemos seguir para navegar en este lo. +Los detectores de mentiras entrenados llegan a la verdad el 90% de las veces. +El resto de nosotros, slo atinamos el 54%. +Por qu es tan fcil aprender? +Hay buenos mentirosos y malos mentirosos. No hay mentirosos originales. +Todos cometemos los mismos errores. Todos usamos las mismas tcnicas. +As que voy a +mostrarles dos patrones en que se presenta el engao. Y observaremos las seales delatoras para ver si son identificables. +Empezaremos con el discurso. +Bill Clinton: Quiero que me escuchen. +Lo repetir. +No tuve relaciones sexuales con esa mujer, la seorita Lewinsky. +Nunca le ped a nadie que mintiera, ni una sola vez, nunca. +Y estas acusaciones son falsas. +Y debo regresar a trabajar para los estadounidenses. +Gracias. +Pamela Meyer: Bien, cules fueron los signos delatores? +Bueno, primero escuchamos lo conocido como negacin extendida. +Estudios demuestran que las personas obstinadas en negar sus actos recurren al uso del lenguaje formal ms que al informal. +Tambin escuchamos lenguaje distanciador: "esa mujer." +Sabemos que los mentirosos inconscientemente se distancian del sujeto de quien hablan utilizando como herramienta el lenguaje. +Ahora, si Bill Clinton hubiera dicho, "Para ser honesto..." +o la favorita de Richard Nixon, "Con toda franqueza...", +se habra delatado inmediatamente, pues cualquier detector de mentiras sabe que el lenguaje calificativo, as se llama, lenguaje calificativo, quita credibilidad a la persona. +Ahora, si hubiera repetido la pregunta completa o si hubiera saturado su relato con detalles-- y en verdad nos alegra que no lo hiciera-- habra perdido an ms credibilidad. +Freud estaba en lo cierto. +Freud dijo, existe mucho ms que el discurso: "Ningn mortal puede mantener un secreto. +Si sus labios no hablan, hablan las yemas de los dedos." +Y todos lo hacemos es igual lo poderosos que seamos. +Todos hablamos con las yemas de los dedos. +Les mostrar a Dominique Strauss-Kahn con Obama quien charla con la punta de sus dedos. +Esto nos lleva al siguiente patrn, que es el lenguaje corporal. +Con el lenguaje corporal, esto es lo que deben hacer. +Realmente deben desechar sus creencias. +Permitan a la ciencia moderar un poco sus conocimientos. +Creemos que los mentirosos se mueven siempre. +Pero se sabe que inmovilizan la parte superior del cuerpo al mentir. +Pensamos que los mentirosos no miran a los ojos. +Pues miran a los ojos ms de lo normal slo para compensar el mito. +Pensamos que la cordialidad y las sonrisas son signos de honestidad y sinceridad. +Pero un detector de mentiras entrenado puede identificar una falsa sonrisa a una milla de distancia. +Pueden identificar la sonrisa falsa? +Se pueden contraer conscientemente los msculos en las mejillas. +Pero la sonrisa autntica est en los ojos, en las arrugas de los ojos, +que no se pueden contraer conscientemente, en especial si abusaron del Botox. +Nunca abusen del Botox, nadie creer que son honestos. +Ahora veremos las seales delatoras. +Saben lo que ocurre en una conversacin? +Ven las seales que reflejan las discrepancias entre palabras y acciones? +S que parece obvio, pero cuando mantienen una conversacin con alguien de quien sospechan, la actitud es el indicador ms valioso y menospreciado. +Una persona honesta cooperar. +Demostrarn que estn de su lado. +Se mostrarn entusiasmados. +Estarn dispuestas a ayudarles a llegar a la verdad. +Estarn dispuestos a dar ideas, nombrar sospechosos, brindar detalles. +Dirn, "Oye, tal vez fueron los encargados de la nmina quienes falsificaron los cheques." +Se pondrn furiosos si creen que se les acusa injustamente, a lo largo de la conversacin, no slo en algunos momentos; estarn furiosos durante toda la conversacin. +Y si preguntan a una persona honesta qu debera hacerse con quien haya falsificado los cheques, es ms probable que recomiende una medida estricta a un castigo poco severo. +Ahora, digamos que tienen la misma conversacin con un mentiroso. +Esa persona puede mostrarse reservada, bajar la mirada, disminuir su tono de voz. hacer pausas, inquietarse. +Pidan a un mentiroso narrar su versin de la historia, la saturarn con los detalles ms irrelevantes. +Y narrar los hechos cronolgicamente. +Lo que hace un interrogador entrenado es indagar sutilmente durante horas, pedir a la persona narrar la historia hacia atrs y los vern retorcerse y determinar qu preguntas producen la mayor cantidad de respuestas engaosas. +Por qu lo hacen? Porque todos hacemos lo mismo. +Practicamos nuestro discurso, pero rara vez ensayamos nuestros gestos. +Decimos "s", pero movemos la cabeza diciendo "no". +Contamos historias bastante convincentes, pero sutilmente encogemos los hombros. +Cometemos crmenes terribles y sonremos por el placer de salirnos con la nuestra. +Esa sonrisa se conoce como "placer por el engao". +Y lo veremos a continuacin, pero comenzaremos, para quienes no lo conozcan, este es el cantidato presidencial John Edwards quien sorprendi a los EEUU por un supuesto hijo extramatrimonial. +Habla sobre realizarse una prueba de paternindad. +Miren si identifican cuando dice, "s", mientras niega con la cabeza y sutilmente encoge los hombros. +John Edwards: Estara encantado de realizar una. +S que es imposible que este nio sea mo, por cmo transcurrieron los hechos. +As que s que es imposible. +Encantado de someterme a una prueba de paternidad, me fascinara realizarla. +Entrevistador: Lo har pronto? Hay alguien -- JE: Slo soy una de las partes. Slo una parte de la prueba. +Pero me encantara participar en ella. +PM: Las negaciones con la cabeza son mucho ms fciles de detectar cuando sabes buscarlas. +A veces alguien realiza una expresin mientras oculta otra que de repente revela por un instante. +Se sabe que los asesinos revelan tristeza. +Su nuevo socio puede estrechar su mano, celebrar, cenar contigo y luego dejar salir un gesto de ira. +No nos convertiremos en expertos en expresiones faciales de repente, pero les ensear una que es muy peligrosa, y es fcil de aprender, la expresin del desprecio. +Ahora, con la ira tienen a dos personas jugando parejo en la cancha. +Todava una relacin saludable. +Pero cuando la ira se convierte en desprecio, han sido rechazados. +El desprecio se asocia con la superioridad moral. +Y por eso es muy difcil recuperarse de l. +As es como se ve. +Se caracteriza por una esquina del labio levantada hacia arriba y hacia adentro. +Es la nica expresin asimtrica. +Y ante el desprecio, sin importar si le sigue o no el engao -- y no siempre le sigue -- miren hacia otro lado, vayan hacia la direccin contraria, reconsideren el trato, digan, "No, gracias. No volver por solo una copa ms. Gracias." +La ciencia ha descubierto muchos ms indicadores. +Sabemos, por ejemplo, que los mentirosos cambian la velocidad del parpadeo, dirigen sus pies hacia alguna salida. +Toman objetos como barreras y los colocan entre ellos y la persona que los interroga. +Alteran su tono de voz, frecuentemente disminuyndolo. +El asunto es, +estos comportamientos son slo comportamientos. +No son prueba definitiva del engao. +Son indicadores. +Somos seres humanos. +Hacemos gestos engaosos todo el tiempo. +No significan nada por s mismos. +Pero cuando los observas en grupo, ah est la seal. +Observen, escuchen, investiguen, pregunten cosas difciles, salgan de esa forma tan cmoda de conocer, adopten un modo inquisitivo, pregunten ms, sean dignnos y cordiales con la persona con quien hablan. +No acten como los personajes de "La Ley y el Orden" u otras series de TV, que fastidian a los sospechosos hasta someterlos. +No sean tan agresivos, no funciona. +Hemos hablado un poco sobre cmo hablar con alguien que miente y cmo detectar una mentira. +Y como promet, le mostrar cmo es la verdad. +Les ensear dos videos, dos madres: una miente, otra dice la verdad. +stos los hizo el investigador David Matsumoto en California. +Y creo que son un excelente ejemplo sobre cmo se ve la verdad. +Esta mujer, Diana Downs, dispar a sus hijos, los llev al hospital mientras se desangraban en el auto, asegur que un extrao de cabello desaliado lo hizo. +Y cuando les muestre el video notarn que ni puede actuar como una madre afligida. +Deben prestar atencin a la enorme discrepancia entre los horrendos hechos que describe y su comportamiento tan calmado. +Si miran cuidadosamente, observarn un ejemplo del "placer por el engao" en este video. +Diana Downs: Por la noche, cuando cierro los ojos, puede ver a Christie dndome la mano mientras manejo, y la sangre segua salindole de la boca. +Tal vez lo olvide con el tiempo, pero no creo. +Eso es lo que ms me molesta. +PM: Ahora les mostrar un video de una madre verdaderamente afligida, Erin Runnion, enfrentando al asesino de su hija en el juicio. +Aqu no vern emociones falsas, slo la autntica expresin de la agona de una madre. +Erin Runnion: Escrib esta declaracin en el tercer aniversario de la noche en que tomaste a mi beb, y la lastimaste, y la abatiste, la aterraste hasta que su corazn se detuvo. +Y luch, s que luch contra ti. +Pero s que te mir con esos asombrosos ojos cafs. y an as queras matarla. +Y no lo entiendo, nunca lo entender. +PM: No cabe duda de la veracidad de esas emociones. +Ahora, la tecnologa que nos permite conocer cmo es la verdad est progresando. +Sabemos, por ejemplo, que hay mquinas para rastrear el movimiento del ojo y escneres cerebrales infrarrojos, imgenes por resonancia magntica que decodifican las seales emitidas por el cuerpo cuando intentamos mentir. +Estas tecnologas se comercializarn como la panacea contra el engao, y algn da sern increblemente tiles. +Mientras tanto, deben preguntarse: A quin quieren tener a su lado en una reunin, alguien entrenado para llegar a la verdad o alguien que arrastre una mquina para electroencefalografiar de 180 Kg? +Los detectores de mentiras confan en recursos humanos. +Saben, como alguien dijo alguna vez, "Carcter es quien eres en la oscuridad." +Lo que es interesante es que hoy en da tenemos tan poca oscuridad. +Nuestro mundo est iluminado 24 horas al da. +Es transparente, con blogs y redes sociales transmitiendo el murmullo de una nueva generacin de personas decididas a vivir sus vidas en pblico. +Es un mundo muy ruidoso. +Uno de los retos que tenemos es recordar, compartirlo todo, eso no es honestidad. +Nuestra mana por mandar tweets y mensajes puede cegar el hecho de que las sutilezas de la decencia humana, la integridad, es lo importante, lo que siempre importar. +En este mundo tan ruidoso, tiene sentido ser un poco ms explcito sobre nuestro cdigo moral. +Cuando combinas la ciencia de la deteccin del engao con el arte de observar y escuchar, evitas formar parte de una mentira. +Empiezas por este camino de ser un poco ms explcito, porque lo demuestras a todos a tu alrededor, dices, "Oye, mi mundo, nuestro mundo, ser un mundo honesto. +En mi mundo la verdad ser fortalecida y la falsedad ser detectada y rechazada." +Y al hacer esto, el mundo a su alrededor cambia un poco. +sa es la verdad. Gracias. +Estoy aqu para explicar por qu estoy usando este pijama de ninja. +Pero me gustara hablar primero de las toxinas ambientales de nuestros cuerpos. +Algunos deben conocer el qumico Bisfenol A, BPA. +Es un endurecedor de materiales y estrgeno sinttico que se encuentra en las etiquetas de los alimentos enlatados y en algunos plsticos. +El BPA imita las propias hormonas del cuerpo y provoca problemas neurolgicos y reproductivos. +Est en todos lados. +Un estudio reciente encontr BPA en el 93% de los mayores de 6 aos. +Pero es slo un qumico. +El Centro para el Control de Enfermedades de Estados Unidos +dice que tenemos 219 contaminantes txicos en el cuerpo, y esto incluye conservantes, pesticidas y metales pesados como plomo y mercurio. +Para m, esto significa tres cosas. +Primero, no hay que comer carne. +Segundo, somos responsables y vctimas de nuestra propia contaminacin. +Y tercero, nuestros cuerpos son filtros y almacenes para las toxinas ambientales. +Ahora bien, qu sucede con estas toxinas cuando morimos? +La respuesta rpida es: vuelven al medio ambiente, de alguna u otra manera, para continuar el ciclo de toxicidad. +Nuestras prcticas funerarias actuales empeoran an ms la situacin. +Si te creman, todas las toxinas mencionadas son liberadas en la atmsfera. +Y esto incluye 2.300 kilos de mercurio de nuestros empastes dentales cada ao. +Y en un funeral estadounidense tradicional, un cuerpo sin vida se cubre con rellenos y cosmticos para que parezca que est vivo. +Luego se lo bombea con formaldehdo txico para retrasar la descomposicin, una prctica que causa problemas respiratorios y cncer al personal de las funerarias. +Por tratar de conservar nuestros cuerpos sin vida, negamos la muerte, envenenamos a los vivos, y daamos al medio ambiente. +Los funerales verdes o naturales, que no usan embalsamiento, son un paso en la direccin correcta, pero no tratan las toxinas que existen en nuestro cuerpo. +Creo que hay una mejor solucin. +Soy artista, y me gustara ofrecer una propuesta modesta en la interseccin del arte, la ciencia y la cultura. +El proyecto Entierro Infinity, un sistema de entierro alternativo que usa hongos para descomponer y limpiar toxinas en cadveres. +Entierro Infinity empez hace unos aos con la fantasa de crear el hongo Infinity, un nuevo hongo hbrido para descomponer cuerpos, limpiar toxinas y repartir nutrientes a las races de las plantas, dejando abono limpio. +Pero aprend que es casi imposible crear un nuevo hongo hbrido. +Tambin aprend que algunos de nuestros hongos ms sabrosos pueden limpiar las toxinas ambientales de la tierra. +Entonces pens que tal vez poda entrenar un ejrcito de hongos que limpian toxinas comestibles para comer mi cuerpo. +Actualmente, estoy juntando lo que libero o desprendo: pelo, piel y uas; con esto alimento a estos hongos comestibles. +A medida que crecen, elijo los ms rendidores para convertirse en hongos Infinity. +Es un proceso de crianza selectivo para la vida despus de la muerte. +Entonces cuando yo muera, los hongos Infinity reconocern mi cuerpo y se lo podrn comer. +Bien, para algunos esto puede ser muy, muy alocado. +Slo un poco. +Me doy cuenta de que este no es el tipo de relacin que normalmente aspiramos a tener con nuestra comida. +Queremos comer (no ser comidos) por ella. +Pero al ver crecer a los hongos y digerir mi cuerpo, me imagino al hongo Infinity como un smbolo de una nueva manera de pensar la muerte y la relacin entre mi cuerpo y el medio ambiente. +Para m, cultivar el hongo Infinity es ms que un experimento cientfico o jardinera o criar una mascota, es un paso hacia la aceptacin del hecho de que algn da voy a morir y deteriorarme. +Tambin es un paso hacia la responsabilidad de mi propio peso en el planeta. +Cultivar un hongo tambin es parte de una prctica mayor de cultivar organismos descomponedores llamada decompicultura, un concepto desarrollado por un entomlogo, Timothy Myles. +El hongo Infinity es un subconjunto de la decompicultura al que llamo decompicultura corporal y remedio de toxinas, el cultivo de organismos que descomponen y limpian toxinas en los cuerpos. +Ahora voy a hablar de este pijama ninja. +Una vez finalizado, planeo integrar los hongos Infinity en algunos objetos. +Primero, un traje mortuorio hecho con esporas de hongos, el "traje mortuorio de hongos". +Estoy usando el segundo prototipo de este traje mortuorio. +Est cubierto con un alambrado de crochet incrustado con esporas de hongos. +El diseo dendrtico que ven imita el crecimiento del micelio de hongos que es equivalente a las races de las plantas. +Tambin estoy creando un kit de decompicultura, un cctel de cpsulas que contienen esporas de hongos Infinity y otros elementos que aceleran la descomposicin y el remedio de toxinas. +Estas cpsulas estn incrustadas en una jalea rica en nutrientes, una especie de segunda piel, que se disuelve rpidamente y se convierte en papilla para los hongos en crecimiento. +Tengo pensado terminar el hongo y el kit de decompicultura en los prximos dos aos, y luego me gustara empezar a probarlos, primero con carne vencida y luego con humanos. +Y, crase o no, algunas personas han ofrecido donar su cuerpo al proyecto para ser comidas por los hongos. +Lo que aprend hablando con esta gente es que compartimos el deseo de entender y aceptar la muerte y de minimizar el impacto de nuestra muerte en el ambiente. +Quera cultivar esta perspectiva como a los hongos, por eso cre la Sociedad de Decompicultura, un grupo de personas llamadas decompinautas que exploran activamente sus opciones post mortem, buscan aceptar la muerte y cultivan organismos descomponedores como el hongo Infinity. +La Sociedad de Decompicultura comparte la visin de un cambio cultural, de nuestra actual cultura de negacin de la muerte y preservacin del cuerpo a una de decompicultura, una aceptacin radical de la muerte y la descomposicin. +Aceptar la muerte significa aceptar que somos seres fsicos ntimamente conectados con el ambiente, como lo confirma la investigacin sobre toxinas ambientales. +Y como dice el dicho: "polvo eres y en polvo te convertirs". +Y una vez que comprendemos que estamos conectados con el medio ambiente, vemos que la supervivencia de nuestra especie depende de la supervivencia del planeta. +Creo que este es el comienzo de una verdadera responsabilidad ambiental. +Gracias. +Me gustara transportarlos a otro mundo. +Quisiera compartir 45 aos de una historia de amor con los pobres que viven con menos de un dlar al da. +En la India tuve una educacin costosa, muy elitista y esnob que casi me destruy. +Todo estaba preparado para que yo fuese diplomtico, profesor o mdico. +Luego, no parece, pero fui campen nacional de squash en la India durante 3 aos. +El mundo entero estaba dispuesto ante m. +Todo estaba a mis pies. +Nada poda salir mal. +Y luego, por curiosidad, pens que me gustara ir, vivir, trabajar y simplemente ver cmo es una aldea. +As, en 1965, fui a lo que se denomin la peor hambruna de Bihar, en la India, y por primera vez vi hambre, muerte, personas que moran de hambre. +Eso cambi mi vida. +Regres a casa y le dije a mi madre: "Me gustara vivir y trabajar en una aldea". +Ella entr en coma. +"Qu es esto? +Tienes el mundo entero ante ti, los mejores empleos por delante, y, quieres ir a trabajar a una aldea? +Dijo: Te pasa algo?" +Le dije: "No, tengo la mejor educacin, +eso me hizo pensar, +y quisiera retribuir algo a mi manera". +"Qu quieres hacer en una aldea? +Sin empleo, ni dinero, sin seguridad, ni perspectiva". +Le dije: "Quiero vivir cavando pozos durante 5 aos". +"Cavar pozos durante 5 aos? +Fuiste a los colegios ms caros de la India y quieres cavar pozos durante 5 aos?" +Dej de hablarme por mucho tiempo porque pensaba que yo haba defraudado a la familia. +Pero luego, entr en contacto con el saber y las tcnicas ms extraordinarios que tiene la gente muy pobre, que nunca son parte de la tendencia general, que no se les identifica ni respeta, pero que se aplican a gran escala. +Pens crear una Escuela de descalzos (Barefoot College) solo para los pobres. +Esa universidad reflejara todo lo que los pobres consideren importante. +Fui a esta aldea por primera vez. +Me recibieron los ancianos y dijeron: "Ests huyendo de la polica?" +Les dije: "No". +"Te fue mal en el examen?" +Les dije: "No". +"No conseguiste trabajo en el gobierno?" Dije: "No". +"Qu ests haciendo aqu? +Por qu ests aqu? +El sistema educativo indio hace que aspires a Paris, Nueva Delhi, Zrich; qu ests haciendo en esta aldea? +Te pasa algo malo que no nos has contado?" +Les dije: "No, en realidad quiero crear una universidad solo para pobres. +Esa universidad reflejara todo lo que los pobres consideren importante". +Y los ancianos me dieron un consejo muy sano y eficaz. +Me dijeron: "Por favor, no traigas a nadie con ttulo y calificacin a la universidad". +Por eso, es la nica universidad en la India en la que si uno tiene un doctorado o una maestra est descalificado. +Hay que ser un desastre, un fracaso, un marginado, para venir a nuestra universidad. +Tienen que hacer trabajos manuales, +tener dignidad de trabajo, +demostrar que uno tiene una habilidad para ofrecer a la comunidad y brindarle un servicio. +Comenzamos la Escuela de descalzos y redefinimos el profesionalismo. +Quin es profesional? +Un profesional es alguien con una combinacin de competencias, confianza y fe. +Un zahor es un profesional. +Una partera tradicional es una profesional. +Un ensalmador tradicional es un profesional. +Son profesionales que estn en todo el mundo. +Se los encuentra en cualquier aldea aislada del mundo. +Y pensamos que estas personas deban saltar a la palestra y mostrar que el saber y las habilidades que tienen son universales. +Que hace falta usarlos, aplicarlos, que hay que mostrarle al mundo que estos saberes y habilidades son importantes incluso hoy. +Por eso el colegio funciona siguiendo el estilo de vida y trabajo de Mahatma Gandhi. +Se come en el piso, se duerme en el piso, se trabaja en el piso. +No hay contratos, no hay contratos escritos. +Pueden permanecer conmigo 20 aos e irse maana. +Y nadie puede ganar ms de 100 dlares al mes. +Si vienen por el dinero, no vengan a la Escuela de descalzos. +Si vienen por el trabajo y el desafo, vengan a la Escuela de descalzos. +All queremos que traten de probar y crear las ideas. +Cualquiera sea la idea que tengan, vengan a probarla. +No importa si fallan. +Maltratados, amoratados, empiezan nuevamente. +Es la nica universidad donde los profesores son alumnos y los alumnos, profesores. +Y es la nica universidad donde no damos certificado. +A uno lo certifica la comunidad para la que sirve. +No hace falta un papel que cuelgue de la pared para mostrar que uno es ingeniero. +Cuando dije eso me dijeron: "Bueno, mustranos que se puede hacer. Qu ests haciendo? +Todo esto es un galimatas si no puedes demostrarlo en el terreno". +As construimos la primera Escuela de descalzos en 1986. +Fue construida por 12 arquitectos "descalzos" que no saban leer ni escribir cost $1,50 el pie cuadrado; +150 personas vivan y trabajaban all. +Ganaron el Premio Aga Khan de Arquitectura en 2002. +Pero luego sospecharon, pensaron que haba arquitectos detrs de esto. +Y dije: "S, ellos hicieron los planos, pero, en realidad, los arquitectos 'descalzos' construyeron el colegio". +Fuimos los nicos que realmente devolvimos el premio de $50.000 porque no nos creyeron y pensamos que ellos estaban poniendo en duda a los arquitectos "descalzos" de Tilonia. +Le pregunt a un silvicultor, experto, prestigioso, muy calificado, le dije: "Qu puedes construir en este lugar?" +Con una sola mirada al suelo dijo: "Olvdalo. No se puede. +Ni siquiera vale la pena. +No hay agua, tiene suelo rocoso". +Estaba en un espacio nfimo. +Dije: "Bueno, preguntar a un anciano de la aldea 'Qu debera cultivar en este lugar?'" El anciano mir en silencio y me dijo: "Construye esto, esto, pon esto, y va a funcionar". +Este es el aspecto que tiene hoy. +Fuimos a la azotea y las mujeres dijeron: "Lrguense. +Los hombres deben irse porque no queremos compartir esta tecnologa con ellos. +Esto es impermeabilizacin de techos". +Un poco de azcar moreno y un poco... de otras cosas que no s. +Pero realmente no se filtra. +Desde 1986 no se ha filtrado. +Las mujeres no compartirn esta tecnologa con los hombres. +Es la nica universidad con electricidad solar total. +Toda la energa viene del sol. +Tiene paneles de 45 kilovatios en el techo. +Todo funcionar con el sol durante los prximos 25 aos. +Mientras el sol brille, no tendremos problemas de energa. +Pero la belleza es que la red fue instalada por un sacerdote hind que tuvo solo 8 aos de escolaridad primaria; nunca fue a la secundaria ni a la universidad. +Sabe ms de energa solar que otra persona de cualquier lugar del mundo, lo garantizo. +Los alimentos, si vienen a la Escuela de descalzos se cocinan con el sol. +Las personas que fabricaron esa cocina solar son mujeres, mujeres analfabetas, que en realidad fabrican la cocina solar ms sofisticada. +Es una cocina solar parablica. +Por desgracia, son casi medio alemanas; son muy precisas. +Nunca encontrarn mujeres indias tan precisas. +Pueden construir esa cocina hasta el ltimo milmetro. +Se sirven 60 comidas dos veces al da, cocinadas con el sol. +Tenemos una dentista. Es una abuela, analfabeta, que es dentista. +Se ocupa de los dientes de 7000 nios. +Tecnologa "descalza": esto fue en 1986; no haba ingenieros ni arquitectos en esto pero recolectamos agua de lluvia de los techos. +Se desperdicia muy poca agua. +Todos los techos estn conectados de forma subterrnea a un tanque de 400.000 litros, y no se desperdicia agua. +Si tuviramos 4 aos de sequa, todava habra agua en el campus porque recolectamos agua de lluvia. +El 60 % de los nios no van a la escuela, porque tienen que cuidar de los animales ovejas, cabras tareas domsticas. +Por eso pensamos abrir una escuela nocturna para nios. +Gracias a las escuelas nocturnas de Tilonia ms de 75.000 nios han concurrido a las mismas +porque a los nios les conviene; no es por conveniencia del maestro. +Qu enseamos en estas escuelas? +Democracia, ciudadana, cmo se debe medir la tierra, qu hacer en caso de ser arrestado o si un animal se enferma. +Esto es lo que enseamos en las escuelas nocturnas. +Pero todas las escuelas tienen energa solar. +Cada 5 aos tenemos una eleccin. +Los nios de 6 a 14 aos participan en un proceso democrtico y eligen al primer ministro. +La primera ministra tiene 12 aos. +Ella cuida 20 cabras por la maana y por la tarde es primera ministra. +Tiene un gabinete: ministerios de educacin, energa y salud +que controlan y supervisan 150 escuelas para 7000 nios. +Hace 5 aos gan el Premio Mundial de la Infancia y viaj a Suecia. +Era la primera vez que sala de su aldea. +Nunca haba visitado Suecia antes. +No se deslumbr para nada con lo que estaba sucediendo. +Y la Reina de Suecia, que estaba all, gir hacia m y dijo: "Puede preguntarle a esta nia de dnde sac esa confianza? +Solo tiene 12 aos y nada la deslumbra". +Y la nia, que estaba a su izquierda, gir hacia m y mir a la reina directo a los ojos y dijo: "Por favor, dgale que soy la primera ministra". +Cuando el porcentaje de analfabetismo es muy alto, usamos tteres. +Nos comunicamos con tteres. +Aqu est Jaokim Chacha que tiene 300 aos. +l es mi psicoanalista, maestro, +mdico, abogado, +y mecenas. +En realidad recauda dinero, resuelve mis conflictos. +Resuelve mis problemas en la aldea. +Si hay tensin en la aldea, si baja la asistencia a las escuelas y hay roces entre maestros y padres el ttere rene a maestros y padres frente a toda la aldea y dice: "Dense la mano. +La asistencia no debe decaer". +Estos tteres estn hechos de informes del Banco Mundial reciclados. +En este enfoque descentralizado, desmitificado, de aldeas electrificadas a energa solar hemos cubierto toda la India desde Ladakh hasta Butn; aldeas electrificadas con energa solar por personas que han sido capacitadas. +Y fuimos a Ladakh, y le preguntamos a esta mujer estbamos a menos 40 grados, en la azotea porque no haba lugar, estaba todo nevado a ambos lados y le preguntamos a esta mujer: "Qu beneficio obtiene de la energa solar?" +Ella pens durante un minuto y dijo: "Es la primera vez que puedo ver el rostro de mi esposo en invierno". +Fuimos a Afganistn. +Una leccin que aprendimos en la India es que a los hombres no se les puede ensear. +Los hombres son inquietos, son ambiciosos, se mueven compulsivamente, y todos quieren un certificado. +En todo el mundo existe esta tendencia de hombres que quieren certificados. +Por qu? Porque quieren dejar la aldea e ir a una ciudad a buscar un empleo. +Por eso se nos ocurri una gran solucin: ensear a las abuelas. +Cul es la mejor manera de comunicarse en el mundo de hoy? +La televisin? No. +El telgrafo? No. +El telfono? No. +Contarle a una mujer. +As que fuimos a Afganistn por primera vez, elegimos a 3 mujeres y les dijimos: "Queremos llevarlas a la India". +Dijeron: "Imposible. Ni siquiera salen de sus habitaciones y quieren llevarlas a la India". +Dije: "Voy a hacer una concesin. Me llevar a los maridos tambin". +As que llev a los maridos. +Por supuesto, las mujeres fueron mucho ms inteligentes que los hombres. +Cmo cambiar a estas mujeres en 6 meses? +Con lenguaje de signos. +Uno no elige la palabra escrita +ni la hablada. +Usa lenguaje de signos. +Y en 6 meses pueden convertirse en ingenieras solares. +Regresan a su aldea y hacen la electrificacin fotovoltaica. +Esta mujer regres y electrific fotovoltaicamente la primera aldea, imparti un taller... fue la primera aldea con electricidad solar de Afganistn gracias a estas 3 mujeres. +Esta mujer es una abuela extraordinaria. +Tiene 55 aos y ha llevado electricidad solar a 200 hogares afganos. +Y siguen en pie. +Ella fue a hablar a un departamento de ingeniera en Afganistn y le explic al jefe del departamento la diferencia entre AC y DC. +l no lo saba. +Esas 3 mujeres capacitaron a otras 27 mujeres y llevaron electricidad solar a 100 aldeas afganas. +Fuimos a frica e hicimos lo mismo. +Todas estas mujeres sentadas a la mesa, de 8 o 9 pases, todas hablando unas con otras sin entender una palabra porque estn hablando todas idiomas diferentes. +Pero el lenguaje corporal es genial. +Estn hablando unas con otras convirtindose, de hecho, en ingenieras solares. +Fui a Sierra Leona, y este ministro, que conduca a altas horas de la noche, encuentra esta aldea. +Vuelve, entra a la aldea y dice: "Bueno, de qu se trata?" +Le dicen: "Estas dos abuelas..." "Abuelas?" El ministro no poda creer lo que estaba sucediendo. +"Dnde fueron?" "Fueron a la India y volvieron". +Fue directo al presidente. +Le dijo: "Saba que hay una aldea con electricidad solar en Sierra Leona?" +Respondi: "No". La mitad del gabinete fue a ver a las abuelas al da siguiente. +"De qu se trata?" +El presidente me llam: "Puede ensear a 150 abuelas?" +Le dije: "No puedo, seor presidente. +Pero ellas s. Las abuelas lo harn". +As construy el primer centro "descalzo" de formacin de Sierra Leona. +Y se instruy a 150 abuelas en Sierra Leona. +Gambia: fuimos a seleccionar una abuela en Gambia. +Fuimos a la aldea. +Yo saba qu mujer elegir para llevar. +La comunidad se reuni y dijo: "Lleve estas 2 mujeres". +Dije: "No, quiero llevar a esta mujer". +Me dijeron: "Por qu? Ella no conoce el idioma. Ud. no la conoce". +Dije: "Me gusta su lenguaje corporal. Me gusta la forma en que habla". +"Su marido es difcil; no es posible". +Llam al marido, el marido vino; arrogante, poltico, mvil en mano. "No es posible". +"Por qu no?" "Mire lo hermosa que es esta mujer". +Dije: "S, es muy hermosa". +"Qu tal si se va con un indio?" +Ese era su mayor temor. +Le dije: "Ella estar feliz. Lo llamar a su mvil". +Ella se fue como abuela y regres como una tigresa. +Sali del avin y habl a la prensa como si tuviera experiencia. +Ella manej la prensa nacional como una estrella. +Y cuando volv 6 meses ms tarde le dije: "Dnde est tu marido?" +"Oh, en algn lugar. No importa". +Historia de xito. +Voy a terminar diciendo que pienso que no tienen que buscar soluciones fuera. +Bsquenlas dentro. +Y escuchen a las personas que tienen las soluciones frente a Uds. +Estn en todo el mundo. +Ni se preocupen. +No escuchen al Banco Mundial, escuchen a la gente del lugar. +Tienen todas las soluciones del mundo. +Voy a terminar con una cita de Mahatma Gandhi: +"Primero te ignoran, luego se ren de ti, despus te atacan, y entonces ganas". +Gracias. +Por qu no somos capaces de resolver estos problemas? +Sabemos cules son, +pero siempre hay algo que parece detenernos. +Por qu? +Recuerdo que el 15 de marzo de 2000 +el tmpano B15 se desprendi de la barrera de hielo Ross. +Los peridicos dijeron que eso era parte de un proceso normal". +Un poco ms adelante el artculo deca que era "una prdida que normalmente llevara unos 50 a 100 aos de recuperacin". +La misma palabra "normal" tena 2 significados diferentes y hasta casi opuestos. +Si nos dirigimos al tmpano B15 al salir de aqu hoy, vamos a encontrarnos con algo de 300 metros de altura, 120 kilmetros de largo, 27 kilmetros de ancho y que pesar 2 gigatoneladas. +Lo siento; no hay nada normal en esto. +Y, sin embargo, creo que nuestra visin del mundo como seres humanos a travs de la ptica de la normalidad es una de las fuerzas que nos impide el desarrollo de soluciones reales. +Solo 90 das despus de esto, se produjo lo que es sin duda el mayor descubrimiento del siglo pasado. +La secuenciacin del genoma humano por primera vez. +Este es el cdigo que est en los 50 trillones de clulas que nos hacen quines somos. +Y si tomamos el cdigo de una sola clula y lo extendemos, veremos que mide 1 metro de largo y tiene 2 nanmetros de grosor. +2 nanmetros son 20 tomos de espesor. +Y yo me pregunt: Y si la respuesta a algunos de nuestros mayores problemas se pudiese encontrar en el ms pequeo de los lugares, donde la diferencia entre lo que tiene valor y lo que no es tan solo la suma o resta de unos pocos tomos? +Y qu pasara si pudisemos tener un control total sobre la esencia de la energa: el electrn? +As que empec a recorrer el mundo para encontrar a los cientficos ms destacados y brillantes de las universidades cuyos descubrimientos colectivos pudiesen llevarnos al xito y formamos una compaa para poner en prctica sus ideas extraordinarias. +6 aos y medio ms tarde, 180 investigadores lograron avances sorprendentes en el laboratorio, y hoy les mostrar 3 de ellos para que podamos dejar de agotar el planeta y en su lugar, podamos generar toda la energa que necesitamos de manera limpia, segura y barata y justo en el lugar donde estemos. +Piensen en el lugar donde pasamos la mayor parte de nuestro tiempo. +Una gran cantidad de energa nos llega del sol. +Nos gusta la luz que entra en la habitacin, pero en pleno verano todo ese calor entra en la habitacin que tratamos de refrescar. +En invierno, ocurre exactamente lo contrario: +tratamos de subir la temperatura del lugar donde nos encontramos, pero ese calor se escapa por la ventana. +No sera genial si la ventana pudiese regresar el calor a la habitacin si lo necesitamos o expulsarlo antes de que entre? +Uno de los materiales que puede hacer esto es un material extraordinario: el carbono que cambia de forma en una reaccin notable donde un vapor sopla sobre el grafito y cuando el carbono vaporizado se condensa toma una forma diferente: de malla galvanizada. +Pero, esta malla galvanizada de carbono, llamada nanotubo de carbono, es 100.000 veces ms pequea que el ancho de una hebra de cabello. +Es 1.000 veces mejor conductor elctrico que el cobre. +Cmo es eso posible? +Una de las propiedades del trabajo a nanoescala es que las cosas se ven y actan de manera muy diferente. +Creemos que el carbono es negro, +pero a nanoescala es realmente transparente y flexible. +Y cuando est en esta forma, si se combina con un polmero y se fija en la ventana cuando est en estado coloreado, repeler todo el calor y la luz, y cuando est en estado transparente permitir que entre toda la luz y el calor o adoptar cualquier otra combinacin intermedia. +Por cierto, para cambiar de estado hace falta un impulso de 2 voltios durante 1 milisegundo. +Y si cambiamos su estado, permanece as hasta el siguiente cambio. +Cuando estbamos trabajando en este descubrimiento asombroso en la Universidad de Florida, se nos dijo que fusemos por el pasillo para visitar a otro cientfico que estaba trabajando en algo realmente increble. +Imagnense si no tuvisemos que depender de la iluminacin artificial para alumbrarnos por la noche. +Tendramos que ver en la noche, verdad? +Esto permite lograrlo. +Se trata de 2 nanomateriales: un detector y un dispositivo de captura de imgenes. +El ancho total es 600 veces ms pequeo que un decimal. +Y captura todo el infrarrojo de la noche, lo convierte en un electrn entre 2 pelculas pequeas y nos permite reproducir una imagen que podemos ver. +Ahora voy a hacer una demostracin para el pblico de TED, por primera vez. +En primer lugar, voy a mostrarles la transparencia. +La transparencia es clave. +Es una pelcula a travs de la cual se puede ver, +luego, voy a apagar las luces. +A travs de una pelcula pequea se puede ver una claridad increble. +Mientras trabajbamos en esto, nos dimos cuenta de algo ms: esto capta la radiacin infrarroja, las longitudes de onda y las convierte en electrones. +Qu pasa si se combina con esto? +De repente, hemos convertido la energa en un electrn en una superficie de plstico que puede adherirse a nuestras ventanas. +Y como es flexible, puede fijarse en cualquier superficie. +La planta de energa del futuro no es una planta de energa. +Hemos hablado de generar y de usar, +ahora, hablemos de almacenar energa, y, lamentablemente, lo mejor que tenemos es algo que se desarroll en Francia hace 150 aos: la batera de plomo y cido. +En trminos econmicos por capacidad de almacenamiento, es simplemente lo mejor. +Pero como no podemos poner 50 bateras en nuestros stanos para almacenar energa, visitamos un grupo de la Universidad de Texas en Dallas, y les dimos este diagrama. +Fue en un restaurante, fuera del aeropuerto de Dallas Fort Worth. +Les preguntamos: "Podran construir esto?" +Y estos cientficos, en lugar de rerse de nosotros, dijeron: "S". +Y construyeron el eBox +que est probando los nuevos nanomateriales para dejar un electrn al exterior y mantenerlo all hasta que se necesite, y despus soltarlo y hacerlo circular. +Lograr eso significa que podemos generar energa de manera limpia, eficiente y barata en el lugar donde estemos. +Es nuestra energa. +Y si no la necesitamos, desde las ventanas, podemos convertirla, en energa o luz y hacerla brillar en direccin hacia donde estemos. +Y para eso no necesitamos contar con una red elctrica. +La red del maana es la ausencia de red y la energa limpia y eficiente llegar a ser gratuita un da. +Si logramos esto, completaremos el rompecabezas que es el agua. +Diariamente, cada uno de nosotros necesita solo 8 vasos de esto, porque somos humanos. +Cuando nos quedemos sin agua como ocurre en algunas partes del mundo y muy pronto en otras, vamos a tener que obtenerla del mar y tendremos que construir plantas de desalinizacin. +Y tendremos que gastar 19 trillones de dlares. +Esto tambin requiere grandes cantidades de energa. +De hecho, va a requerir el doble de la reserva mundial de petrleo hacer funcionar las bombas para poder tener agua. +Por supuesto, no vamos a hacer eso. +Pero en un mundo donde la energa se libere y se transmita fcilmente y a bajo costo, podemos extraer agua dondequiera que estemos y usarla en lo que sea necesario. +Me precio de trabajar con cientficos increblemente brillantes y amables, no ms amables que otras personas en el mundo, pero que ven el mundo de una manera mgica. +Y me alegro de ver que sus descubrimientos salen del laboratorio al mundo. +He tenido que esperar mucho para llegar donde estoy. +Hace 18 aos, vi una fotografa en el peridico. +Tomada por Kevin Carter, que fue a Sudn para documentar la hambruna. +Desde entonces, he llevado esta foto conmigo todos los das. +Es la foto de una nia que muere de sed. +Bajo cualquier punto de vista, esto est mal. +Es simplemente injusto. +Podemos hacer algo para cambiar esto. +Deberamos hacer algo. +Y por donde voy, cuando alguien me dice: "Sabe qu?, est trabajando en algo que es muy difcil. +Eso no va a ocurrir nunca. Usted no tiene suficiente dinero. +Usted no tiene suficiente tiempo. +Hay otras cosas ms interesantes a la vuelta de la esquina", les contesto: "Traten de decrselo a ella". +Eso es lo que me digo mentalmente. Y acabo diciendo "gracias" y me dirijo a la persona que sigue. +Es por eso que tenemos que resolver estos problemas y s que la respuesta al cmo reside en tener control total sobre uno de los pilares de la naturaleza, de las cosas de la vida: el simple electrn. +Gracias. +Buenas tardes. +Si han odo las noticias diplomticas en las ltimas semanas, sabrn de una especie de crisis entre China y Estados Unidos +respecto a ciberataques contra la compaa estadounidense Google. +Se dijeron muchas cosas al respecto. +Se habl de una ciberguerra que en realidad puede ser solo una operacin de espionaje, y obviamente, una muy torpe. +Sin embargo, este episodio revela la ansiedad creciente en el mundo occidental respecto a la aparicin de estas ciberarmas. +De hecho, estas armas son peligrosas, +tienen una nueva naturaleza: podran llevar al planeta a un conflicto digital que podra convertirse en un conflicto armado. +Estas armas virtuales tambin pueden destruir el mundo fsico. +En 1982, en medio de la guerra fra en la Siberia sovitica explot un gasoducto cuya potencia era de 3 kilotones, equivalente a la cuarta parte de la bomba de Hiroshima. +Actualmente sabemos esto fue develado por Thomas Reed, exsecretario de la Fuerza Area estadounidense durante la gestin de Ronald Reagan que esta explosin fue el resultado de una operacin de sabotaje de la CIA en la que se las arreglaron para infiltrarse en los sistemas de seguridad informtica de ese gasoducto. +Ms recientemente, el gobierno estadounidense revel que en septiembre de 2008, ms de 3 millones de personas del estado de Espirito Santo en Brasil quedaron a oscuras, vctimas de una operacin de chantaje de piratas informticos. +Es ms preocupante an para los estadounidenses que en diciembre de 2008, lo ms sagrado, los sistemas informticos de Centcom, el comando central a cargo de las guerras en Irak y Afganistn, podran haber sido infiltrados por hackers que utilizaron esto: unidades USB sencillas pero infectadas +con las que podran haber ingresado a estos sistemas a verlo y orlo todo y hasta quiz infectar algunos de los sistemas. +Como resultado, los estadounidenses toman muy en serio esta amenaza. +Cito al General James Cartwright, subjefe del Estado Mayor Conjunto de EE. UU., quien dice en un informe al congreso que los ataques informticos podran ser tan poderosos como las armas de destruccin masiva +Por otra parte, los estadounidenses decidieron emplear ms de 30 000 millones de dlares en los prximos 5 aos para aumentar su capacidad para guerras informticas. +Y a travs del mundo actualmente vemos una especie de carrera armamentista ciberntica con unidades de ciberguerra creadas por pases como Corea del Norte o hasta Irn. +An as, lo que nunca van a or de los voceros del Pentgono o del Departamento de Defensa de Francia es que el problema no es quin es el enemigo, sino en realidad la naturaleza de las ciberarmas. +Y para comprenderlo debemos ver cmo, a lo largo de los aos, la tecnologa militar ha mantenido o destruido la paz mundial. +Por ejemplo si hubisemos tenido un TEDxParis hace 350 aos, habramos hablado de la innovacin militar de turno, las fortificaciones masivas al estilo Vauban, y habramos pronosticado un periodo de estabilidad en el mundo o en Europa, +lo que sin duda fue el caso en Europa entre 1650 y 1750. +Asimismo, si hubisemos tenido esta charla hace 30 o 40 aos, habramos visto cmo el aumento de armas nucleares y la amenaza de destruccin mutua que conllevan impiden una lucha directa entre dos superpotencias. +Sin embargo, si hubisemos hablado de esto hace 60 aos, habramos visto cmo el surgimiento de nuevas tecnologas en aeronaves y tanques que le dan ventaja al atacante hacen muy creble la doctrina Blitzkrieg y, por ende, la posibilidad de guerra en Europa. +Entonces, la tecnologa militar puede influenciar el rumbo del mundo, hacer o deshacer la paz mundial y all est el problema con las armas cibernticas. +El primer problema: Imaginen un enemigo potencial que anuncia que est construyendo una unidad de ciberguerra, pero solo para la defensa de su pas. +Bien, pero qu lo distingue de una unidad ofensiva? +Y esto se vuelve ms complicado an cuando las doctrinas de uso se tornan ambiguas. +Hace solo 3 aos, los Estados Unidos y Francia divulgaron que estaban invirtiendo en el ciberespacio en forma militar estrictamente para defender sus sistemas informticos. +Pero actualmente ambos pases admiten que la mejor defensa es atacar. +Entonces, no hacen ms que unirse a China cuya doctrina de uso por 15 aos ha sido tanto la ofensiva como la defensiva. +El segundo problema: Su pas podra estar bajo un ciberataque con regiones enteras sumidas en una total oscuridad y es probable que no se sepa quin los est atacando. +Las ciberarmas tienen esta caracterstica peculiar: pueden utilizarse sin dejar rastro. +Esto le da una ventaja enorme al atacante porque quien se defiende no sabe contra quin luchar. +Y si el que se defiende toma represalias contra el adversario equivocado, se arriesga a hacerse de un enemigo ms y terminar aislado diplomticamente. +Este problema no es solamente terico. +En mayo de 2007, Estonia fue vctima de ciberataques que daaron su comunicacin y sistemas bancarios. +Estonia acus a Rusia. +pero la OTAN, que defiende a Estonia, reaccion de manera muy prudente. Por qu? +Porque la OTAN no poda estar 100 % segura de que el Kremlin estaba, efectivamente, tras estos ataques. +Para resumir, tenemos entonces, por un lado, que cuando un enemigo potencial anuncia que est construyendo una unidad de ciberguerra, no se sabe si es para atacar o para defender, +por otro lado, sabemos que estas armas le dan una ventaja al ataque. +En un artculo importante publicado en 1978, el profesor Robert Jervis de la Universidad de Columbia en Nueva York describi un modelo para comprender cmo podran surgir los conflictos. +En este contexto, cuando no se sabe si estos enemigos potenciales se preparan para una defensa o un ataque y si las armas le dan una ventaja al ataque, entonces, es posible que este ambiente genere un conflicto. +Este es el ambiente que actualmente estn creando las ciberarmas e histricamente fue el ambiente en Europa en vsperas de la Primera Guerra Mundial. +Entonces, las ciberarmas son peligrosas por naturaleza, pero adems, estn surgiendo en un ambiente mucho ms inestable. +Si recuerdan, la guerra fra fue un juego muy difcil, pero relativamente estable ya que solo haba dos oponentes, lo cual permiti cierta coordinacin entre dos superpotencias. +Actualmente, estamos entrando a un mundo multipolar en el cual la coordinacin es mucho ms compleja, tal y como lo atestiguamos en Copenhague, +y esta coordinacin podra volverse an ms difcil con la presencia de ciberarmas. +Por qu? Porque ninguna nacin sabe a ciencia cierta si su vecino est por atacarlos. +Entonces, las naciones pueden vivir bajo la amenaza de lo que el premio nobel de economa, Thomas Schelling, llam "el miedo recproco al ataque sorpresa" ya que no sabemos si el vecino est por atacarnos o no. Puede que no lo sepa nunca, entonces es mejor tomar ventaja y atacar primero. +Tan solo la semana pasada, en un artculo del New York Times del 26 de enero de 2010, se revel por primera vez que los funcionarios de la Agencia de Seguridad Nacional consideraron la posibilidad de ataques preventivos en caso de que Estados Unidos fuese vctima de un ciberataque. +Y estos ataques preventivos puede que no solo permanezcan en el ciberespacio. +En mayo de 2009, el general Kevin Chilton, comandante de las fuerzas nucleares estadounidenses, declar que en caso de que hubiesen ciberataques contra Estados Unidos se pondran todas las opciones sobre la mesa. +Las ciberarmas no reemplazan las armas convencionales o nucleares; simplemente se suman al sistema de terror existente, +Las tecnologas de la informacin de las que Jol de Rosnay hablaba que histricamente nacieron de investigacin militar, actualmente estn a punto de convertirse en una capacidad ofensiva de destruccin que en el futuro, si no somos cuidadosos, podra destruir por completo la paz mundial. +Gracias. +Hoy quisiera hablarles de la binica, que es el trmino popular para la ciencia de reemplazar una parte de un organismo humano por un aparato mecatrnico o un robot. +En esencia es el encuentro de la vida con la mquina. +Especficamente, quiero contarles la evolucin de la binica para quienes han sufrido amputaciones de brazos. +Esta es nuestra motivacin. +La amputacin del brazo es muy invalidante. +Es decir, la dificultad funcional es muy clara. +Las manos son instrumentos maravillosos. +Y cuando se pierde una o, peor an, ambas, es mucho ms difcil hacer las cosas cotidianas. +Hay tambin un gran impacto emocional. +En realidad, en la clnica paso tanto tiempo tratando el reajuste emocional de los pacientes, como la disfuncin fsica. +Por ltimo, hay un profundo impacto social. +Hablamos con las manos. +Con ellas saludamos. +Interactuamos con el mundo fsico, con las manos. +Y si no las tenemos, hay una barrera. +La amputacin del brazo usualmente es consecuencia de un trauma, de casos como accidentes industriales, de choques de vehculos o, conmovedoramente, de la guerra. +Tambin hay algunos nios que nacen sin brazos, algo llamado carencia congnita de extremidad. +Desafortunadamente no podemos hacer mucho con prtesis de miembros superiores. +Hay dos tipos generales. +Las llamadas prtesis de control corporal, que se inventaron poco despus de la Guerra Civil, y se refinaron en las dos guerras mundiales. +Esta es la patente de un brazo de 1912. +No es muy diferente de las que podemos ver en mis pacientes. +Aprovechan la energa de la espalda. +Al encoger la espalda se tira de un cable de bicicleta. +El cable puede hacer que se abra o cierre la mano, o un gancho, o se doble el codo. +Hoy todava se usan porque son fuertes y relativamente sencillas. +Las ms modernas son las prtesis mioelctricas. +Son aparatos motorizados que se controlan con pequeas seales elctricas desde el msculo. +Cada vez que se contrae el msculo, emite una pequea corriente que se puede captar con antenas o con electrodos, para el control de las prtesis motorizadas. +Funcionan bien para quienes han perdido la mano, porque los msculos de la mano todava estn ah. +Si se aprieta la mano, estos msculos se contraen. +Si se abre, se contraen estos. +Es intuitivo y funciona bastante bien. +Y qu pasa con amputaciones mayores? +Si alguien pierde el brazo ms arriba del codo, +desaparecen no slo esos msculos sino tambin la mano y el codo. +Qu se puede hacer? +Nuestros pacientes tienen que usar sistemas bien codificados que al activar los msculos del brazo operan miembros robticos. +Tenemos miembros robticos. +Hay varios disponibles en el mercado y aqu se ven algunos. +Incluyen una mano que se puede abrir y cerrar, un sistema para girar mueca y codo. +No hay ms funciones. +Si las hubiera, cmo podramos ordenar lo que deben hacer? +Construimos un brazo en el Instituto de Rehabilitacin de Chicago al que pusimos alguna flexin de mueca y articulaciones de espalda para mover hasta seis motores, o seis grados de libertad. +Hemos podido trabajar con algunos brazos bien avanzados financiados por el ejrcito estadounidense, usando estos prototipos, hasta con 10 grados de libertad diferentes incluyendo manos mviles. +Pero, finalmente, cmo le ordenamos a estos brazos robticos qu hacer? +Cmo los controlamos? +Pues necesitamos una interfaz neural, una manera de conectarnos al sistema nervioso o a los procesos mentales para que sea intuitiva, natural, como para todos nosotros. +La actividad corporal comienza con una orden de movimiento en el cerebro, que baja por la mdula espinal y sale por los nervios hacia la periferia. +Las sensaciones van en sentido opuesto. +Al tocar algo aparece un estmulo que viaja por esos mismos nervios hacia el cerebro. +Cuando se pierde un brazo, el sistema nervioso sigue operando. +Los nervios pueden producir rdenes. +Al tocar la terminacin nerviosa de un veterano de la Segunda Guerra, l sigue sintiendo la mano que perdi. +Podra alguien decir que hay que ir al cerebro y poner ah algo para captar las seales, o en el extremo del nervio perifrico, y captarlas all. +Estas son estupendas reas de investigacin, pero verdaderamente, muy difciles. +Habra que colocar centenares de alambres microscpicos para registrar desde pequesimas neuronas, fibras comunes, unas seales mnimas emitidas en microvoltios. +Esto es demasiado difcil para hacerlo con mis pacientes actuales. +Por eso desarrollamos un mtodo diferente. +Usamos un amplificador biolgico para agrandar esas seales nerviosas; un msculo. +Los msculos amplifican las seales unas mil veces, de modo que las podemos tomar de la superficie de la piel, como vimos antes. +Este mtodo se llama reinervacin inducida. +Puede pensarse en alguien que perdi todo el brazo pero que conserva cuatro nervios principales que van por el brazo. +Se extrae el nervio del msculo pectoral y se hacen crecer esos nervios all. +Al pensar, "cerrar la mano", se contrae una pequea parte del pecho. +Al pensar, "doblar el codo", se contrae otra parte. +Podemos usar electrodos o antenas para captarlas y ordenar al brazo que se mueva. +Esa es la idea. +El primer ensayo fue con este hombre. +Su nombre es Jesse Sullivan. +Ms que un hombre, es un santo; un electricista de 54 aos que toc el alambre equivocado por lo que sus dos brazos se quemaron horriblemente y tuvieron que amputarlos desde la espalda. +Jesse vino al centro RIC para que se le adaptaran estos modernos dispositivos que aqu ven. +Todava estoy usando tecnologa antigua con un cable de bicicleta del lado derecho. +l decide cul articulacin quiere mover, con esos interruptores en el mentn. +A la izquierda tiene prtesis motorizadas ms modernas en las tres articulaciones y las controla con pequeas almohadillas en la espalda que hacen mover el brazo. +Como Jesse es un buen operario de gra, lo hace muy bien para nuestros patrones. +Como necesitaba una operacin en el pecho, para revisarlo, +esta fue una oportunidad para hacer la reinervacin inducida. +Mi colega, el Dr. Greg Dumanian, practic la ciruga. +Primero cortamos el nervio de su propio msculo, luego tomamos los nervios del brazo y simplemente los insertamos en el pecho para finalmente cerrarlo. +Luego de unos tres meses los nervios haban crecido un poco y pudimos tener una contraccin. +Despus de seis meses los nervios haban crecido bien y se podan ver contracciones fuertes. +As se ve. +Esto es lo que sucede cuando Jesse piensa que se abra o cierre su mano o que se doble o enderece el codo. +Pueden ver ahora los movimientos del pecho. Esas pequeas marcas visibles estn donde colocamos las antenas o los electrodos. +Puedo desafiar a todos en este saln para que muevan as el pecho. +El cerebro piensa en el brazo. +l no tuvo que aprender a hacer as con el pecho. +No hay un proceso de aprendizaje. +Porque es algo intuitivo. +Aqu est Jesse en la primera prueba. +A la izquierda se ve la prtesis original y a l usando los controles para pasar pequeos bloques de una caja a otra. +Ha tenido ese brazo por 20 meses, o sea que ya se siente bien con l. +A la derecha, dos meses despus de ajustarle la prtesis de reinervacin inducida; que, dicho de paso, es el mismo brazo fsico, aunque programado un poco diferente; se ve mucho ms rpido y ms suave al pasar esos pequeos bloques. +En ese momento slo estbamos usando tres de las seales. +Luego tuvimos una de esas pequeas sorpresas cientficas. +Estbamos tratando de obtener las rdenes para mover los brazos robticos. +Despus de unos pocos meses, al tocar a Jesse en el pecho l sinti su mano perdida. +La sensacin de la mano volvi a su pecho probablemente porque habamos retirado una cantidad de grasa, de modo que la piel estaba pegada al msculo y desnerv, si se quiere, su piel. +As, si tocas a Jesse aqu, l siente su dedo; y si lo tocas aqu, siente su meique. +l siente pequeos toques hasta de un gramo de fuerza. +Siente calor, fro, una punta, algo romo, todo eso, en la mano perdida o en la mano y en el pecho, pero puede sentirlo en uno u otro. +Esto es verdaderamente emocionante porque ahora tenemos un portal, o sea una manera posible de recuperar las sensaciones para que l pueda sentir lo que toca con su mano ortopdica. +Imagnense unos sensores en la mano que tocan y presionan sobre la nueva piel. +Es increble. +Tambin volvimos a la que inicialmente era nuestra poblacin primaria; personas con amputacin arriba del codo. +Aqu desnervamos, o sea, cortamos un nervio apenas con pequeos trozos de msculo y otros los dejamos intactos para que nos den seales de arriba-abajo y otros dos que emitan seales de mano abierta y cerrada. +Hicimos esto en uno de nuestros primeros pacientes; Chris. +Pueden verlo con su dispositivo original a la izquierda, despus de 8 meses de usarlo, y a la derecha, con slo 2 meses. +Cuatro o cinco veces ms rpido segn este sencillo medidor de desempeo. +Bien. +Una de mis mejores tareas es trabajar con pacientes maravillosos que a la vez son colaboradores. +Hoy tenemos la suerte de contar con Amanda Kitts, que nos acompaa. +Por favor, una bienvenida para Amanda Kitts. +Amanda, por favor, quieres contar como perdiste el brazo? +AK: Claro. En el 2006 tuve un accidente automovilstico. +Yo iba manejando del trabajo a casa, y vena un camin en direccin opuesta, que se pas a mi carril, se abalanz sobre mi auto y con el eje me arranc el brazo. +Todd Kuiken: Bueno, despus de la amputacin, se san +y conseguiste uno de estos brazos convencionales. +Puedes decir cmo funcionaba? +AK: Bueno, era un poco difcil, porque tena que operar con el bceps y el trceps. +Para las cosas simples como levantar algo, tena que doblar el codo, y luego volver a contraerlo para cambiar de modalidad. +Al hacerlo tena que usar el bceps para que la mano se cerrara, y luego el trceps para abrirla y volver a contraer para que el codo actuara nuevamente. +TK: Era un poco lento? +AK: Un poco lento y era difcil de manejar. +Haba que concentrarse mucho. +TK: Bien. Pienso que unos 9 meses despus, cuando tuviste la ciruga, llev seis meses ms para completar toda la reinervacin. +Luego le acoplamos una prtesis. +Cmo te funciona eso? +AK: Funciona bien. +Puedo usar el codo y la mano simultneamente. +Puedo controlarlos con solo pensarlo. +Ya no tengo que hacer todas esas contracciones. +TK: Algo ms rpido? +AK: Algo ms rpido. Y mucho ms fcil, mucho ms natural. +TK: Bueno. Ese es mi objetivo. +Durante 20 aos mi propsito ha sido que alguien pueda usar el codo y la mano de manera intuitiva y simultnea. +Tenemos ms de 50 pacientes por todo el mundo, que han tenido esta ciruga, incluyendo ms de una docena de soldados heridos en las fuerzas armadas de Estados Unidos. +La tasa de xito de transferencias de nervios es muy alta. +Como del 96%. +Porque ponemos un nervio grande y grueso en una pequea porcin de msculo. +Y esto nos da el control intuitivo. +Nuestras pequeas pruebas de desempeo, siempre muestran ms rapidez y mayor facilidad. +Y lo ms importante es que a nuestros pacientes les encanta. +Todo esto es muy emocionante. +Pero tenemos que mejorar. +Hay una gran cantidad de informacin en las seales nerviosas y queremos obtener algo ms. +Que uno pueda mover cada uno de los dedos, el pulgar, la mueca. +Podremos obtener ms? +Hicimos algunos experimentos en los que saturamos a los pobres pacientes con millones de electrodos para que hicieran ms de veinte tareas diferentes; desde encorvar un dedo hasta mover todo el brazo para alcanzar algo; y registramos la informacin. +Luego aplicamos unos algoritmos parecidos a los de reconocimiento de voz, llamados reconocimiento de patrones. +Miren. +Aqu puede verse el pecho de Jesse, tratando de hacer tres cosas diferentes. Pueden ver tres patrones diferentes. +Pero no podemos poner un electrodo y decir: "Vaya all". +En colaboracin con nuestros colegas de la Universidad de Nueva Brunswick, logramos este algoritmo de control que Amanda puede mostrar ahora. +AK: Tengo un codo que puede subir y bajar. +Tengo rotacin en la mueca que se mueve; puede hacer giros completos. +Y tengo flexin y extensin en la mueca. +Tambin puedo abrir y cerrar la mano. +TK: Gracias, Amanda. +Este es un brazo experimental, hecho de partes del comercio local con algunas que traje de otros lugares del mundo. +Pesa como 3 kilos, que es probablemente lo que pesara mi brazo si lo cortara desde aqu. +Obviamente, para Amanda es muy pesado. +Y parece ms pesado an porque no est integrado +sino que lleva todo ese peso colgado de arneses. +La mejor parte no es tanto toda esa mecatrnica, sino el control. +Hemos desarrollado un pequeo microcomputador que est centelleando por ah en su espalda, que funciona como ella le ensea para usar cada una de las seales musculares. +Amanda, cuando comenzaste a usar este brazo, cunto tiempo necesitaste para manejarlo? +AK: Me llev probablemente unas 3 o 4 horas ensearle. +Tuve que conectarlo a un computador, as que no poda entrenarlo en cualquier parte. +Si dejaba de funcionar, tena que quitrmelo. +Ahora puedo entrenarlo con este pequeo aparato en la espalda +que puedo llevar conmigo. +Si deja de funcionar por alguna razn, lo vuelvo a entrenar. +Como en un minuto. +TK: Estamos encantados porque estamos llegando a un dispositivo clnicamente prctico. +Esa es nuestra meta; tener algo, clnicamente pragmtico, que pueda usarse. +Amanda tambin ha podido usar algunos de los brazos ms avanzados que mostr antes. +Aqu est Amanda usando un brazo hecho por DEKA Research Corporation. +Creo que Dean Kamen lo present en TED hace unos aos. +Amanda, como puede verse, tiene muy buen control. +Todo es reconocimiento de patrones. +Ahora se tiene una mano que puede agarrar de diversas formas. +Lo que hacemos es que el paciente la abra por completo y piense: "Qu clase de agarre quiero?" +Y se pone en esa modalidad; son hasta 5 o 6 formas de agarre diferentes con esta mano. +Amanda, cuntas podas hacer con el brazo de DEKA? +AK: Poda hacer 4. +Tena el de agarrar una llave, el de lanzar, el de hacer fuerza y el de pellizco fino. +Pero mi favorito era simplemente la mano abierta porque trabajo con chicos y todo el tiempo ests aplaudiendo y cantando, de modo que pude volver a hacerlo, y fue muy bueno. +TK: Pero esa mano no es buena para aplaudir. +AK: No puedo aplaudir con esta. +TK: Bien. Es emocionante pensar a dnde podremos llegar con mejor mecatrnica, si le hacemos las mejoras para comercializarlo y hacer un ensayo de campo. +Miren con atencin. +Claudia: Ahh! +TK: Esta es Claudia, era la primera vez que poda sentir con esa prtesis. +Tiene un pequeo sensor en el extremo que ella frota en superficies diferentes para sentir diversas texturas; de papel de lija, varios granos, cable, al apoyarse en la piel de la mano reinervada. +Ella dijo que al pasarla sobre la mesa, senta que el dedo se meca. +Este es un gran experimento de laboratorio para devolver, posiblemente, alguna sensacin de la piel. +Aqu hay otro video que muestra algunos retos. +Este es Jesse apretando un juguete de espuma. +Cuanto ms oprime -en el centro se ve una cosa pequea que hace fuerza sobre su piel en proporcin a la presin que l ejerce. +Fjense en los electrodos. +Tengo un problema de espacio. +Tenemos que poner muchas de estas cosas ah, y el motorcito hace toda clase de ruidos junto a los electrodos. +Ah hay un serio desafo. +El futuro es brillante. +Estamos muy interesados en hacer todas estas cosas. +Por ejemplo, queremos resolver el problema de espacio y obtener mejores seales. +Hay que desarrollar pequeas cpsulas del tamao de granos de arroz para incrustarlas en los msculos y emitir a distancia seales electromiogrficas, para no preocuparse por electrodos de contacto. +Podemos tener el espacio abierto para ensayar ms reacciones sensoriales. +Queremos hacer un mejor brazo. +Este brazo -siempre se hacen para el percentil 50, masculino- o sea que son demasiado grandes para 5/8 de la gente. +Ms que un brazo superfuerte y superrpido, estamos haciendo uno que sea, partiendo del percentil 25, femenino, que tenga una mano envolvente, que se abra bien, con dos grados de libertad en mueca y codo. +Que sea el ms pequeo, ms liviano y ms listo que jams se haya hecho. +Cuando logremos hacerlo as de pequeo ser mucho ms fcil ampliarlo. +Estas son algunas de nuestras metas. +Me alegro que todos Uds. estn hoy aqu. +Me gustara contar algo un poco negativo que sucedi ayer. +Amanda lleg con un gran desfase horario usando su brazo y todo sali mal. +Apareci un fantasma en el computador, un cable roto, un convertidor que haca chispas. +Desarmamos todos los circuitos en el hotel y casi activamos la alarma de incendio. +Yo no poda resolver ninguno de esos problemas, pero tengo un gran equipo de investigadores. +Doy gracias que la Dra. Annie Simon estaba ah y trabaj ayer muchsimo para arreglarlos. +As es la ciencia. +Afortunadamente hoy funcion bien. +Muchas gracias. +Acaban de escuchar interacciones de mediciones de presin, viento y temperatura tomadas del huracn Noel en 2007. +Los msicos interpretan grficos 3D de datos meteorolgicos como ste. +Cada cuenta, cada banda coloreada, representa un dato meteorolgico que tambin puede leerse como una nota musical. +El clima es algo que me fascina. +Es una amalgama de sistemas intrnsecamente invisibles para la mayora. +Por eso uso la escultura y la msica para hacerlo no slo visible sino tambin tctil y audible. +Mis obras empiezan de manera muy simple. +Saco informacin de un entorno especfico con sensores poco sofisticados; en general, cualquier cosa que encuentre en la ferretera. +Luego comparo mi informacin con lo que encuentro en Internet; imgenes satelitales, datos de estaciones meteorolgicas y de boyas de alta mar. +Son datos histricos y tambin datos de tiempo real. +Despus recopilo todos las mediciones en estos anotadores que ven all. +Estos anotadores estn llenos de nmeros. +Y a partir de estos nmeros empiezo con solo dos o tres variables. +As arranco mi proceso de traduccin. +El medio de mi traduccin es una simple canasta. +La canasta se compone de elementos horizontales y verticales. +Uso los cambios de esos datos en el tiempo para asignar valores a los elementos verticales y horizontales y as crear la forma. +Uso caa natural porque tiene mucha tensin que no puedo controlar por completo. +Eso significa que son los nmeros los que controlan la forma y no yo. +Obtengo formas como stas. +Estas formas estn construidas completamente por datos meteorolgicos o cientficos. +Cada cuenta coloreada, cada cuerda coloreada, representa un dato meteorolgico. +Y juntos, estos elementos, no slo constituyen la forma sino que tambin revelan relaciones de comportamiento que quiz no aparezcan en un grfico bidimensional. +Al acercarnos vemos que en realidad todo est hecho de nmeros. +A los elementos verticales se les asigna una hora especfica del da. +En todos los sentidos hay una lnea de tiempo de 24 horas. +Pero se usa tambin para asignar un rango de temperaturas. +En esa grilla puedo tejer las mediciones de las mareas altas; la temperatura del agua, la del aire y las fases lunares. +Tambin traduzco la informacin meteorolgica en partituras musicales. +La notacin musical me permite traducir la informacin de manera ms matizada sin comprometerla. +Todas estas partituras estn hechas de datos meteorolgicos. +Cada color, cada punto, cada lnea es un dato meteorolgico. +Y juntas, estas variables, forman una partitura. +Uso estas partituras para colaborar con msicos. +Aqu est el Tro 1913 interpretando una de mis piezas en el Museo de Arte de Milwaukee. +Entre tanto, uso estas partituras como planos para traducir en esculturas como sta que siguen actuando como visualizaciones meteorolgicas tridimensionales pero ahora tienen incrustadas la matriz visual de la partitura y por eso pueden leerse como una partitura musical. +Lo que me gusta de esta obra es que desafa nuestros supuestos sobre qu tipo de vocabulario visual pertenece al mundo del arte, y cul a la ciencia. +Esta pieza se lee de manera muy diferente dependiendo de dnde se la coloque. +Si se la coloca en un museo de arte, se vuelve escultura. +Si se la coloca en un museo de ciencias, se vuelve una visualizacin tridimensional de datos. +Si se la coloca en un teatro musical de repente se transforma en una partitura. +Y eso me gusta mucho porque desafa al espectador a determinar qu lenguaje visual es ciencia, arte o msica. +La otra razn por la que me gusta tanto es porque ofrece un punto de entrada alternativo a la complejidad de la ciencia. +Y no todos tienen un doctorado en ciencias. +Por eso para m fue una va de entrada. +Gracias. +Ya conocen la verdad de lo que voy a decir. +Creo que la nocin de que la desigualdad es divisiva y corrosiva socialmente es anterior a la Revolucin Francesa. +Lo que cambi fue que podemos ver la evidencia, comparar sociedades, ms o menos iguales y ver lo que hace la desigualdad. +Voy a mostrarles esa informacin y luego les explicar por qu existen los nexos que voy a ensearles. +Pero primero, veamos qu grupo triste que somos. +Sin embargo, quiero comenzar con una paradoja. +Esto muestra la expectativa de vida contra el PNB, en promedio, cun ricos son los pases. +Y los pases a la derecha como Noruega y Estados Unidos, son el doble de ricos que Israel, Grecia, Portugal a la izquierda. +Y esto no afecta su expectativa de vida para nada. +No hay una sugerencia de correlacin all. +Pero si miramos dentro de nuestras sociedades, hay una cantidad extraordinaria de pendientes en salud atravesando la sociedad. +Aqu, nuevamente, la expectativa de vida. +Estas son pequeas regiones en Inglaterra y Gales, la ms pobre a la derecha, la ms rica a la izquierda. +Una gran diferencia entre el pobre y el resto de nosotros. +An las personas apenas por debajo de la cima tienen menos buena salud que las personas en la cima. +Entonces el ingreso es significativamente importante. en nuestras sociedades, y nada entre ellas. +La explicacin de esa paradoja es que, en nuestras sociedades vemos al ingreso relativo o a la casta social, el estatus social, donde estamos relacionados unos con otros y el tamao de las brechas entre nosotros. +Y tan pronto se entiende esa idea inmediatamente deberamos preguntarnos: Qu sucede si ampliamos esas diferencias, o las suprimimos, y hacemos las diferencias en ingresos mayores o menores? +Y eso es lo que voy a ensearles. +No estoy utilizando informacin hipottica. +Estoy tomando informacin de la ONU, la misma que tiene el Banco Mundial, de la escala de diferencias en ingresos en estos mercados desarrollados democrticos ricos. +La medida que utilizamos, porque es sencillo de entender y puede descargarse, es cunto ms rico es el 20% superior que el 20% inferior en cada pas. +Y se ve en los pases ms equitativos a la izquierda, Japn, Finlandia, Noruega, Suecia, el 20% superior es entre 3 y 4 veces y media ms rico que el 20% inferior. +Pero en el extremo ms desigual, el Reino Unido, Estados Unidos y Singapur, las diferencias son el doble de grandes. +En esta medida, somos el doble de desiguales que otros mercados democrticos exitosos. +Ahora, voy a mostrarles qu efecto tiene esto en nuestras sociedades. +Recopilamos informacin acerca de problemas en las escalas sociales, el tipo de problemas ms comunes en el fondo de la escala social. +Informacin internacional comparable de esperanza de vida, en puntajes de los nios en matemticas y alfabetizacin en la tasa de mortalidad infantil, tasa de homicidios, la proporcin de la poblacin en prisin, embarazos adolescentes, niveles de confianza, obesidad, enfermedades mentales; en la clasificacin de diagnstico estndar incluye dependencia de drogas y alcohol y ascenso social. +Pusimos todo junto en un solo ndice. +Todos con la misma relevancia. +La ubicacin de cada pas se da por una especie de puntaje promedio. +Y all, se observa en relacin a la medida de desigualdad que les mostr, que usar una y otra vez para la informacin. +A los pases ms desiguales les va peor en este tipo de problemas sociales. +Es una correlacin extraordinariamente estrecha. +Pero si miramos el mismo ndice de problemas sociales y de salud en relacin al PBN per cpita, el ingreso bruto nacional, no hay nada all, no hay correlacin. +Estbamos un poco preocupados de que se pensara que habamos elegido problemas para ajustar nuestro argumento y que solo habamos fabricado la evidencia, as que tambin publicamos en el British Medical Journal acerca del ndice de UNICEF de bienestar infantil. +Tiene 40 componentes distintos armado por otras personas. +Detalla si los nios conversan con sus padres, si tienen libros en casa, cual es la tasa de inmunizacin, si existe acoso escolar. +Todo se incluye. +Aqu est relacionado con esa misma medida de desigualdad. +Los nios estn peor en sociedades ms desiguales. +Una relacin significativamente ms alta. +Pero una vez ms, si se observa la medida del bienestar infantil en relacin al ingreso por ao por persona, no hay una relacin. ni una sugerencia de una relacin. +Lo que dice la informacin que les he enseado es lo mismo. +El bienestar promedio de nuestras sociedades ya no depende del ingreso nacional o del crecimiento econmico. +Eso es muy importante en pases pobres, pero no el mundo desarrollado. +Sin embargo, las diferencias entre nosotros y dnde nos ubicamos en relacin con unos a otros ahora importan muchsimo. +Voy a mostrarles algunas partes de nuestro ndice. +Aqu, por ejemplo, est la confianza. +Es simplemente el porcentaje de la poblacin que concuerda en que se puede confiar en las personas. +Viene de las encuestas de World Values Survey. +Si ven, en el extremo ms desigual, acerca del 15% de la poblacin sienten que pueden confiar en otros. +Pero en sociedades ms igualitarias, el porcentaje sube a 60% o 65%. +Y si se mira la medida de participacin en la vida comunitaria o capital social, hay relaciones muy similares estrechamente relacionadas con la desigualdad. +Puedo decir que hicimos este anlisis 2 veces, +Primero en estos pases ricos y desarrollados, y luego de manera asilada como un banco de pruebas, lo repetimos en los 50 estados estadounidenses; haciendo la misma pregunta: A los estados ms desiguales les va peor en todos estos tipos de medidas? +Aqu se ve la confianza segn una encuesta social del gobierno federal relacionada con la desigualdad. +Un diagrama muy parecido por encima de niveles similares de confianza. +Sucede lo mismo. +Bsicamente encontramos que casi cualquier cosa relacionada con la confianza de manera global se relaciona con la confianza entre los 50 estados en ese banco de pruebas. +No estamos hablando de una mera casualidad. +Estos son enfermedades mentales. +La OMS confecciona ndices utilizando las mismas entrevistas de diagnstico con muestras aleatorias de la poblacin que nos permite comparar la tasa de enfermedades mentales en cada sociedad. +Este es el porcentaje de la poblacin con alguna enfermedad mental en el ltimo ao. +Y vara desde un 8% hasta 3 veces ese porcentaje; sociedades enteras con 5 veces ms el nivel de enfermedades mentales que otras. +Y nuevamente, muy relacionado a la desigualdad. +Esto es la violencia. +Estos puntitos rojos son estados estadounidenses, y los tringulos azules, provincias canadienses. +Pero miren la escala de diferencias. +Vara desde 15 homicidios por milln hasta 150. +Este es el porcentaje de la poblacin en prisin. +Aqu hay una diferencia diez veces mayor, registrada en la escala de este lado. +Pero aumenta de cerca de 40 a 400 personas en prisin +La relacin no es mayormente impulsada por ms crmenes. +En algunos casos, forma parte de esto. +Pero en la mayora de los casos se trata de sentencias punitivas, penas ms duras. +Y las sociedades ms desiguales son tambin ms propensas a retener la pena de muerte. +Aqu tenemos nios que abandonan la escuela secundaria. +Nuevamente, grandes diferencias. +Extraordinariamente dainas, si se habla de usar el talento de la poblacin. +La movilidad social. +Se trata de una medida de movilidad social basada en el ingreso. +Fundamentalmente es como preguntar: Los padres ricos tienen hijos ricos y los padres pobres tienen hijos pobres o acaso no hay una relacin entre estos dos? +Y en el extremo ms dispar, el ingreso del padre es mucho ms importante, en el Reino Unido, en Estados Unidos... +Y en pases Escandinavos, el ingreso del padre es mucho menos importante. +Hay ms movilidad social. +Como nos gusta decir; y s que hay muchos estadounidenses entre el pblico hoy, si los estadounidenses quieren vivir "El sueo Americano", deberan mudarse a Dinamarca. +Solo les he mostrado algunas cosas en cursiva. +Podra haberles enseado otro nmero de problemas. +Son todos problemas que suelen ser mucho ms frecuentes en la parte inferior de la pendiente social. +Pero hay un sinfn de problemas con las escalas sociales que son peores entre los pases ms desiguales, no solo un poco peores. pero desde entre el doble de frecuente y 10 veces ms frecuentes. +Piensen en el gasto, el costo humano de eso. +Quiero volver al grfico que les ense recin donde juntamos la informacin para demostrar 2 cosas. +Una es que, grfico tras grfico, descubrimos que a los pases que les va peor, sin importar su ingreso, parecen ser los ms desiguales, y a los que les va bien suelen ser pases nrdicos y Japn. +Entonces lo que observamos es la disfuncin social general relacionada a la desigualdad. +Y no es solo una de las dos cosas que estn mal, es la mayora. +Lo segundo muy importante que quiero mostrarles en este grfico es que, si se mira la parte inferior, Suecia y Japn, son pases muy distintos en muchos aspectos. +El lugar de la mujer, cun cerca se mantienen del ncleo familiar, estn en polos opuestos en trminos del mundo rico y desarrollado. +Pero la otra diferencia muy importante es cmo logran su igualdad superior. +Suecia tiene grandes diferencias en ganancias, y reduce esa brecha a travs de impuestos, asistencia social general, grandes beneficencias y dems. +Sin embargo Japn es un poco diferente. +Comienza con diferencias mucho menores en ganancias antes de impuestos. +Tiene impuestos ms bajos. +Tiene menor asistencia social. +Y en nuestro anlisis de los estados estadounidenses, descubrimos ms o menos el mismo contraste. +A algunos estados les va muy bien en cuanto a redistribucin, otros estados tienen xito porque tienen menores diferencias en ingresos antes de impuestos. +Entonces concluimos que no importa cmo se llega a una mayor igualdad, siempre y cuando se llegue de alguna forma. +No estoy hablando de una igualdad perfecta, Hablo de lo que existe en mercados democrticos ricos y desarrollados. +Otro factor sorprendente de esta imagen es que no son solo los pobres quienes se ven afectados por la desigualdad. +Hay algo de cierto en la frase de John Donne's "Ningn hombre es una isla". +Y en una serie de estudios, es posible comparar cun bien les va a las personas en pases con ms o menos desigualdad en cada nivel de la escala social. +Este es solo un ejemplo. +La tasa de mortalidad infantil. +Algunos suecos muy amablemente clasifican su mortalidad infantil segn el registro britnico de clasificacin socio-econmica general. +Entonces anacrnicamente es una clasificacin segn la ocupacin de los padres, entonces los padres solteros van por separado. +Pero donde dice "clase social baja" se refiere al trabajo manual no especializado. +Pasa a travs del trabajo manual especializado de la clase media, luego el trabajo jerrquico no manual, hasta el trabajo profesional: doctores, abogados, directores en grandes empresas. +Aqu ven que a Suecia le va mejor que a Gran Bretaa en todas las escalas sociales. +Las diferencias mayores estn en lo ms bajo de la sociedad. +Pero an en lo ms alto, parece haber un pequeo beneficio en pertenecer a una sociedad con ms igualdad. +Lo demostramos en casi 5 piezas diferentes de informacin cubriendo resultados educativos y de salud en los Estados Unidos y mundialmente. +Y parece ser la imagen generalizada, que una mayor igualdad hace una mayor diferencia abajo en la escala, pero tambin, tiene ciertos beneficios arriba en la escala. +Debera decirles algunas palabras acerca de lo que sucede. +Siento que estoy observando y hablando acerca de los efectos psico-sociales de la desigualdad. +Que tienen ms que ver con emociones de superioridad o inferioridad de ser valorado o devaluado, respetado o no. +Y por supuesto, estas emociones de la competencia de status en la que resulta lleva adelante el consumismo en nuestra sociedad. +Tambin lleva a un estado de inseguridad. +Nos preocupa ms cmo van a juzgarnos y vernos los dems si somos considerados atractivos, inteligentes, y ese tipo de cosas. +Aumenta el prejuicio de evaluacin social, el miedo a esos prejuicios. +Curiosamente, hay ciertos estudios paralelos sucediendo en psicologa social: Alguien revis 208 estudios diferentes en el que se haba invitado a voluntarios a un laboratorio psico-social y se les haban medido las hormonas del estrs y su reaccin ante situaciones de estrs. +Y en la revisin lo que les interesaba observar era qu tipos de estrs suben de manera confiable los niveles de cortisol. la hormona de estrs principal. +Y concluyeron que las tareas que involucraban amenazas de evaluacin social; amenazas a la autoestima o al status social en las que otros podran juzgar nuestro desempeo de manera negativa. +Esos tipos de estrs tienen un efecto muy peculiar en la fisiologa del estrs. +Se nos ha criticado. +Por supuesto, hay personas a las que esto no les gusta y personas a quienes les sorprende. +Pero debo decirles que cuando nos critican por elegir y filtrar datos, jams elegimos ni filtramos informacin. +Tenemos una norma absoluta, si nuestra fuente de informacin tiene datos de uno de los pases que observamos, entonces se incluye en el anlisis. +Es nuestra fuente de informacin la que decide si esa informacin confiable o no, no nosotros. +De lo contrario habra parcialidad. +Qu hay de los otros pases? +Hay 200 anlisis de salud en relacin a los ingresos y la igualdad en publicaciones revisadas por pares. +Esto no est confinado solo a estos pases ocultando una demostracin muy simple. +Los mismos pases el mismo ndice de desigualdad, problema tras problema. +Por qu no controlamos otros factores? +Porque demostramos que el PBN per cpita no hace ninguna diferencia. +Y por supuesto, otros tratando con mtodos ms sofisticados en el tema han medido la pobreza y la educacin etctera. +Qu hay de la causalidad? +La correlacin en s misma no demuestra causalidad +Pasamos un largo tiempo. +Y sin dudas, las personas saben del nexo causal en algunos de estos resultados. +El cambio grande de nuestra comprensin de los motores de la salud crnica en el mundo desarrollado y rico es la importancia de como el estrs crnico de fuentes sociales afecta el sistema inmune, el sistema cardiovascular. +Por ejemplo, la razn la que la violencia sea ms comn en sociedades desiguales se da porque las personas estn ms propensas a ser despreciadas. +Dira que para lidiar con esto, debemos lidiar con las finanzas despus de impuesto y las finanzas antes de impuestos. +Debemos restringir los ingresos, el ingreso cultural ventajoso en la cima. +Creo que debemos responsabilizar a nuestros jefes por sus empleados de cualquier manera que se pueda. +Y creo que la moraleja para que se lleven a casa es que podemos mejorar la verdadera calidad de vida humana reduciendo las diferencias en ingresos entre nosotros. +De pronto se podra manejar el bienestar psico-sociales de sociedades enteras, y eso es emocionante. +Gracias. +Gracias. +Es un verdadero placer estar aqu. +Mi ltima TEDTalk fue hace unos 7 aos ms o menos. +Habl de la salsa de los espaguetis. +Creo que muchas personas ven estos videos. +Desde ese entonces la gente me contacta para consultarme sobre la salsa, algo maravilloso a corto plazo, que ha demostrado no ser tan bueno durante 7 aos seguidos. +Por eso quise volver para dejar atrs lo de la salsa. +Esta maana el tema de la sesin es "Las Cosas que Hacemos". +Por eso quera contarles una historia de alguien que cre uno de los objetos ms preciosos de su poca. +El hombre es Carl Norden. +Carl Norden naci en 1880. +Era suizo. +Y, claro, los suizos se dividen en 2 categoras generales: los que hacen objetos costosos, pequeos y exquisitos, y los que administran el dinero de quienes compran objetos costosos, pequeos y exquisitos. +Y Carl Norden, sin dudas, est en el primer grupo. +Es ingeniero. +Va al Politcnico Federal de Zrich. +De hecho, tiene de compaero a un joven de apellido Lenin que luego destrozara los objetos costosos, pequeos y exquisitos. +Carl es un ingeniero suizo. +Y lo digo en el ms completo sentido de la palabra: +De todas formas, Carl Norden emigra a Estados Unidos antes de la Primera Guerra Mundial y abre una tienda en la calle Lafayette en el centro de Manhattan. +Y se obsesiona con el tema de arrojar bombas desde un avin. +Si lo pensamos, antes del GPS y el radar, obviamente era un problema muy difcil. +Es un problema de fsica complicado. +Tenemos un avin a miles de metros de altitud que viaja a cientos de kilmetros por hora, e intentamos lanzar un objeto, una bomba, hacia un objetivo fijo en medio de todo tipo de vientos, nubosidades, y toda clase de impedimentos. +Son muchas las personas que desde la Primera Guerra Mundial y entre guerras intentaron resolver este problema y casi todos fracasaron. +Los visores disponibles eran muy rudimentarios. +Pero Carl Norden es quien realmente encuentra la clave. +Presenta este dispositivo increblemente complicado. +Pesa unos 20 kilos +y se llama visor Norden Mark 15. +Tiene todo tipo de resortes, rodamientos, aparatos y medidores. +l crea esta cosa complicada. +Y hace que los bombarderos, usando este objeto, identifiquen el objetivo, porque estn en el cono de plexigls del bombardero y luego agregan la altitud del avin, la velocidad del avin, la velocidad del viento y las coordenadas del objetivo. +El visor indicar cundo arrojar la bomba. +Y como deca Norden: "Antes de este visor las bombas erraban su objetivo en ms de un kilmetro". +Pero -deca- con el visor Norden Mark 15 podramos lanzar una bomba sobre un barril a 6.000 metros. +No puedo explicarles lo entusiasmado que estaba el ejrcito de EE.UU. con la noticia del visor Norden. +Era como man cado del cielo. +Este era un ejrcito con una experiencia en la Primera Guerra Mundial en la que millones de hombres combatieron en las trincheras sin resultados, sin avances, y llega alguien con un dispositivo que les permite surcar los cielos sobre el territorio enemigo y destruir lo que quieran con una precisin absoluta. +El ejrcito de EE.UU. gasta 1.500 millones de dlares -dlares de 1940- en el desarrollo del visor Norden. +Para entender las magnitudes, el costo total del proyecto Manhattan fue de 3.000 millones de dlares. +Para el visor Norden se gast la mitad y fue el proyecto militar-industrial ms famoso de la era moderna. +Dentro del ejrcito de EE.UU. haba personas, estrategas, que sinceramente crean que este dispositivo poda marcar la diferencia entre la derrota y la victoria en la batalla contra los nazis o contra los japoneses. +Y tambin para Norden este dispositivo tena una importancia moral increble porque Norden era un cristiano devoto. +De hecho, siempre se enojaba cuando le atribuan la invencin del visor porque para l slo Dios tena el poder de inventar. +l era simplemente un instrumento de la voluntad de Dios. +Cul era la voluntad de Dios? +La voluntad de Dios era reducir el sufrimiento en cualquier guerra a la mnima expresin. +Para qu serva el visor de Norden? +Permita lograr justamente eso. +Permita bombardear slo lo absolutamente necesario. +As que en los aos previos a la Segunda Guerra Mundial, el ejrcito de EE.UU. compr 90.000 visores Norden a 14.000 dlares cada uno. De nuevo, dlares de 1940; un montn de dinero. +Y capacitaron a 50.000 bombarderos en el modo de uso; fueron muchos meses de entrenamiento porque, en el fondo, se trata de computadoras analgicas; no son fciles de usar. +Los bombarderos debieron hacer un juramento y prometer que de ser capturados no divulgaran detalles de este dispositivo al enemigo porque es imperativo que el enemigo no entre en contacto con esta tecnologa absolutamente esencial. +Y cada vez que el visor Norden se coloca en un avin era escoltado por varios guardias armados. +Y se transporta en una caja con una cubierta de lona. +La caja est esposada a uno de los guardias. +No se permite fotografiarlo. +En el interior hay un pequeo dispositivo incendiario para que se destruya si el avin se estrella y as el enemigo no tendra forma de conocer la tecnologa. +El visor Norden es el Santo Grial. +Qu pas en la Segunda Guerra Mundial? +Bueno, result no ser el Santo Grial. +En la prctica, el visor Norden puede arrojar bombas sobre un barril desde 6.000 metros pero en condiciones ideales. +Por supuesto, en tiempos de guerra, las condiciones no son ideales. +En primer lugar, era muy difcil de usar. +De los 50.000 bombarderos no todos tenan la habilidad para programar correctamente una computadora analgica. +En segundo lugar, se rompa mucho. +Estaba repleto de giroscopios, poleas, artilugios y rodamientos que, en el fragor de la batalla, no funcionaban tan bien como deban. +En tercer lugar, cuando Norden hizo los clculos supuso que el avin volara relativamente a poca velocidad y baja altitud. +Bueno, en la guerra real, eso no es posible; te derriban. +Por eso empezaron a volar a grandes alturas e increbles velocidades. +Y el visor Norden no funciona tan bien en esas condiciones. +Pero, sobre todo, el visor Norden requera que el bombardero hiciera contacto visual con el objetivo. +Pero, claro, qu pasa en la vida real? +Hay nubes, correcto. +Para que sea preciso hace falta un cielo despejado. +Bien, cuntos cielos despejados creen que haba en Europa Central entre 1940 y 1945? +No muchos. +Para darles una idea de lo inexacto que era el visor Norden hubo un episodio famoso en 1944 en el que los Aliados bombardearon una planta qumica en Leuna, Alemania. +La planta qumica ocupaba 306 hectreas. +En el transcurso de 22 bombardeos los Aliados lanzaron 85.000 bombas sobre esta planta qumica de 306 hectreas usando el visor Norden. +Qu porcentaje de las bombas creen que aterrizaron efectivamente en el permetro de las 300 hectreas de la planta? +El 10%. El 10%. +Y de ese 10% que aterriz el 16% ni siquiera explot; no estallaron. +La planta qumica de Leuna luego de uno de los bombardeos ms costosos de la historia de la guerra estaba nuevamente en funcionamiento en semanas. +Por cierto, qu fue de las precauciones para mantener el secreto del visor Norden alejado de los nazis? +Bueno, result que Carl Norden, como verdadero suizo, era un enamorado de la ingeniera alemana +y en los aos 30 contrat a varios ingenieros alemanes entre los que estaba Hermann Long que, en 1938, le dio los planos del visor Norden a los nazis. +As, tuvieron sus propios visores Norden durante toda la guerra y, por cierto, no funcionaron muy bien. +Pero, por qu hablamos de los visores Norden? +Bueno, porque vivimos en una era en la que hay muchos visores Norden. +Vivimos en un tiempo en el que hay toda clase de personas muy, muy inteligentes que van por ah diciendo que inventaron artilugios que cambiarn el mundo para siempre. +Han inventado sitios que nos permitirn ser libres. +Han inventado esto y lo otro que har del mundo un lugar mejor para siempre. +Si vamos al ejrcito encontraremos muchos Carl Nordens tambin. +Si vamos al Pentgono, nos dirn: "Sabes, ahora realmente podemos lanzar una bomba sobre un barril desde 6.000 metros". +Saben qu? Es verdad; ahora es posible. +Pero tenemos que tener bien claro lo poco que significa eso. +En la guerra de Irak, al comienzo de la guerra, el ejrcito de EE.UU., la fuerza area, envi 2 escuadrones de F-15E Fighter Eagle al desierto iraqu equipados con estas cmaras de 5 millones de dlares que les permitan ver toda la vastedad del desierto. +La misin era encontrar y destruir... recuerdan los lanzadores de misiles Scud, esos misiles tierra-aire que los iraques lanzaban a los israeles? +La misin de los dos escuadrones era deshacerse de los lanzadores de misiles Scud. +Partan misiones areas da y noche, arrojaron miles de bombas, bombardearon miles de misiles, para intentar deshacerse de esta plaga. +Y cuando termin la guerra, se hizo una auditora como hace siempre el ejrcito, la fuerza area, y preguntaron: Cuntos Scuds destruimos? +Saben cul fue la respuesta? +Cero, ni uno. +Por qu? +Fue porque las armas no eran precisas? +No, eran sumamente precisas. +Podran haber destruido este pequeo objeto desde 7.000 metros. +El problema era que no saban dnde estaban los lanzadores de Scud. +El problema con las bombas y los barriles no es que la bomba impacte en el barril sino saber cmo encontrar el barril. +Ese ha sido siempre el problema difcil en materia de guerras. +O miremos la batalla de Afganistn. +Cul es el arma distintiva de la guerra de la CIA en el norte de Pakistn? +Es el drone. Qu es eso? +Es el nieto del visor Norden Mark 15. +Es un arma con una exactitud y precisin devastadoras. +Durante los ltimos 6 aos, en el norte de Pakistn, la CIA ha usado cientos de misiles drone y los ha usado para matar a 2.000 militantes sospechosos pakistanes y talibanes. +Qu precisin tienen esos drones? +Son algo extraordinario. +Creemos que tienen un 95% de precisin en los ataques. +El 95% de las personas que matamos, tena que morir, s? +Esa es una de las marcas ms extraordinarias en la historia de la guerra moderna. +Pero, saben qu es lo crucial? +En ese mismo perodo en el que usamos estos drones, de una exactitud devastadora, la cantidad de ataques, ataques suicidas y terroristas, contra fuerzas estadounidenses en Afganistn se multiplic por 10. +Cuanto ms eficiencia logramos para matarlos se ponen cada vez ms furiosos y estn cada vez ms motivados a matarnos. +No les he contado una historia de xito. +Les he descrito lo opuesto a un xito. +Y ese es el problema de encapricharnos con las cosas que hacemos. +Creemos que las cosas que hacemos pueden resolver nuestros problemas pero nuestros problemas son mucho ms complejos. +La cuestin no es la precisin de las bombas que tenemos sino cmo usar las bombas que tenemos y, lo ms importante, determinar si hace falta usar las bombas. +Hay un eplogo en la historia de Norden de Carl Norden y su fabuloso visor. +El 6 de agosto de 1945 un cazabombardero B-29, el Enola Gay, sobrevol Japn y, usando un visor Norden, arroj un dispositivo termonuclear muy grande sobre Hiroshima. +Y, como era tpico del visor Norden, la bomba cay a 250 metros del objetivo. +Pero, claro, no import. +Esa es la irona ms grande de todas cuando hablamos del visor Norden: +se us un visor de 1.500 millones de dlares para arrojar una bomba de 3.000 millones de dlares que no necesitaba ningn tipo de visor. +Mientras tanto, en Nueva York, nadie le dijo a Carl Norden que su visor se haba usado en Hiroshima. +Era un cristiano devoto. +l pensaba que haba diseado algo que reducira el sufrimiento en la guerra. +Eso le habra partido el corazn. +Me mud de Chicago a Boston hace 10 aos, interesado en el cncer y en la qumica. +Quizs sabrn que la qumica es la ciencia de hacer molculas o en mi opinin, nuevas medicinas contra el cncer. +Y quizs, tambin sabrn, que para la ciencia y la medicina, Boston es como un paraso. +No puedes saltarte un stop en Cambridge sin atropellar a un universitario. +El bar se llama "El Milagro de la Ciencia" +Hay carteles que rezan:"Espacio disponible para laboratorio." +Y no es exagerado decir que en estos 10 aos, hemos presenciado el inicio de una revolucin cientfica: la medicina genmica. +Ahora sabemos ms que nunca sobre los pacientes que entran en nuestra clnica. +Y somos capaces, finalmente, de responder la pregunta tan acuciante durante tantos aos: por qu tengo cncer? +Esta informacin es tambin asombrosa. +Quizs sepan que hasta ahora y en los albores de esta revolucin, sabemos que hay quizs 40.000 mutaciones especficas que afectan a ms de 10.000 genes y que 500 de estos genes del cncer. +Aunque solamente tenemos una docena de medicamentos especficos. +Esta deficiencia de la medicina contra el cncer me toc de cerca cuando a mi padre le diagnosticaron cncer de pncreas. +No le trajimos en avin a Boston. +No secuenciamos su genoma. +Se sabe desde hace dcadas que la causa de su carcter maligno, +son tres protenas: Ras, Myc y P53. +Es informacin antigua conocida desde cerca de los 80, pero an no hay medicina que pueda recetarse a un paciente con ste u otro de los numerosos tumores slidos causados por estos tres jinetes +de ese Apocalpsis que es el cncer. +No hay medicacin para RAS, MIC o P53. +Y se podran preguntar con razn y por qu? +Y la respuesta muy insatisfactoria, pero cientfica, es que es muy complicado. +que por cualquier razn, esas tres protenas estn en un terreno que en nuestra especialidad se denomina el genoma no medicable que es como decir, la computadora sin acceso a internet o la Luna sin astronautas. +Es un trmino horrible de la jerga mdica. +Pero lo que significa es que no hemos conseguido identificar un espacio en esas protenas, donde encajar, cul cerrajeros moleculares, una pequea e imaginaria molcula orgnica activa que ser el frmaco. +Cuando estudiaba medicina clnica y hematologa y oncologa y transplante de clulas madre, de lo que realmente disponamos, tras superar la autorizacin de la Agencia de Frmacos y Alimentos eran de estas sustancias: arsnico, talomida y de este derivado qumico del gas mostaza nitrogenado. +Y esto en el siglo XXI. +el qumico que sintetiz esta molcula. La BR4 es una protena interesante. +Se podran preguntar, con todo lo que hace el cncer para matar a nuestro paciente, cmo se acuerda que es cncer? +Cuando despliega su genoma, y lo repliega de nuevo tras dividirse en dos clulas, por qu no se convierte en un ojo, un hgado, teniendo todos los genes necesarios para hacerlo? +Se acuerda de que es un cncer. +Y la razn reside en que el cncer, como todas las clulas del cuerpo, emplea pequeos marcadores moleculares similares a las etiquetas Post-it que recuerdan a la clula "Soy un cncer; seguir creciendo" +Y esas etiquetas Post-it emplean esta y otras protenas de su tipo denominadas bromodominios. +Se nos ocurri una idea, una hiptesis que si, quizs, hiciramos una molcula que impidiera pegarse a las etiquetas metindose en este pequeo bolsillo de la base de esta protena rotatoria, entonces quizs podramos convencer a las clulas cancergenas, al menos a las adictas a la protena BRD4, de que no son cncer. +As que empezamos a trabajar en el problema. +Desarrollamos bibliotecas de compuestos y entonces llegamos a esta sustancia llamada JQ1. +Al no ser una farmacutica, podamos hacer cosas con cierta flexibilidad, que la industria farmacutica no tiene. +Enviamos la sustancia por correo electrnico a nuestros amigos. +Tengo un laboratorio pequeo. +Pensamos en enviar la molcula a diferentes personas para que vieran cmo se comportaba. +Y la enviamos a Oxford, Inglaterra donde un grupo de destacados cristalgrafos generaron esta imagen, que nos ayud a entender exactamente porqu esta molcula es tan efectiva con la protena objetivo. +Es lo que llamamos una pareja perfecta tienen formas complementarias, como una mano y un guante. +Este cncer es muy raro, cncer adicto a la BRD4. +As que trabajamos con muestras que recogieron jvenes patlogos en el Hospital Brigham para mujeres. +Y al tratar estas clulas con esta molcula, observamos algo realmente asombroso. +Estas clulas cancerosas, pequeas, redondas y en rpida divisin desarrollaron estos brazos y extensiones. +Cambiaban su forma. +En efecto, la clula cancerosa se olvidaba que era un cncer y se transformaba en una clula normal. +Todo esto nos entusiasm muchsimo. +El siguiente paso sera inocular esta molculas en ratones. +El nico problema era que no hay modelizacin en ratones de este raro cncer. +Y en la poca cuando hacamos esta investigacin, yo trataba a un bombero de 29 aos de Connecticut que se hallaba casi al final de su vida debido a este cncer incurable. Este cncer adicto a la BRD4 +estaba extendindose por todo su pulmn izquierdo, +y se le haba implantado un tubo que le drenaba residuos. +Y en cada turno de enfermeras procedamos a eliminar estos residuos. +As que nos dirigimos a este paciente y le preguntamos si colaborara con nosotros. +Podramos extraer este raro y preciado material canceroso del tubo en su pecho, y atravesar la ciudad e introducirselo a ratones e intentar hacer una prueba clnica y combatir con un medicamento experimental? Bien, eso sera imposible e ilegal en seres humanos. +Pero l nos oblig a que lo hiciramos. +En centro de imagen animal Lurie Family mi colega, Andrew Kung, pudo desarrollar con xito este cncer en ratones sin llegar a tocar nunca material de laboratorio. +Pueden ver esta tomografa de positrones de un ratn. +El cncer se extiende como esta enorme masa rojiza en el miembro trasero de ese animal. +Y conforme la tratbamos con nuestro compuesto, esta adiccin al azcar, este rpido crecimiento, se desvaneci. +Y en el animal de la derecha, se ve que el cncer responda al tratamiento. +Hemos completado las pruebas clnicas en cuatro modelizaciones de la enfermedad en ratones. +Y cada vez, vemos lo mismo. +Los ratones con este cncer que reciben la medicina viven, y los que no fallecen rpidamente. +As que nos comenzamos a preguntar, que hara una compaa farmacutica al llegar a este punto? +Bien, probablemente lo mantendran en secreto hasta que consiguieran transformar un prototipo de tratamiento en un principio activo para farmacia. +E hicimos justamente lo contrario. +Publicamos un artculo cientfico describiendo este descubrimiento en el estadio ms temprano del prototipo. +Difundimos pblicamente la frmula qumica de esta molcula, tpicamente un secreto en nuestra disciplina. +Dijimos exactamente cmo producirla. +Les dimos nuestra direccin de correo. sugiriendo que, si nos escriban, les enviaramos una muestra gratuita de la molcula. +Bsicamente intentamos crear un entorno hipercompetitivo entorno a nuestro laboratorio. +Y, desafortunadamente, tuvimos mucho xito. +Porque al haber compartido esta molcula, desde diciembre del ao pasado, con 40 laboratorios en EEUU y 30 ms en Europa, muchos de ellos farmacuticas buscando posicionarse en esta investigacin, para combatir este raro cncer y, afortunadamente, ahora es un objeto de estudio deseable para la industria. +Pero el retorno cientfico de todos estos laboratorios relacionado con el uso de esta molcula nos ha proporcionado ideas que no podramos haber tenido solos. +Las clulas de leucemia tratadas con este compuesto se transforman en glbulos blancos normales. +Ratones con mieloma mltiple, un transtorno incurable de la mdula sea, responden de una manera asombrosa al tratamiento con este medicamento. +Quizs saben que la grasa tiene memoria. +Es fantstico podrselo demostrar. De hecho nuestra molcula impide que el adipocito, la clula madre de la grasa recuerde como volver a acumular grasa as que ratones con una dieta alta en grasas. como estos en mi ciudad natal de Chicago, no consiguen desarrollar hgado graso que un problema mdico de gran relevancia. +Por todas las razones que ven listadas, creemos que existe una gran oportunidad para centros acadmicos para participar en esta incipiente, y conceptualmente dificultosa y creativa disciplina de descubrir prototipos de medicamentos. +Y qu hacemos ahora? +Tenemos esta molcula, pero no es todava una pastilla. +No est disponible de forma oral. +Debemos solucionarlo para poderla facilitar a nuestros pacientes. +Y todo el mundo en el laboratorio, especialmente tras interaccionar con estos pacientes. se siente ms que motivado para conseguir una medicina basada en esta molcula. +Es aqu donde tengo que decir que podramos usar su ayuda y su ideas, su participacin colaborativa. +De forma diferente a una farmacutica, no tenemos unos procesos de produccin que aplicar a estas molculas. +No tenemos equipos de ventas ni de marketing que nos digan como posicionar esta sustancia frente a otras. +Lo que s tenemos es la flexibilidad de un centro acadmico para trabajar con competentes, motivados, entusiastas y, espero, equipos de investigacin bien financiados, para impulsar estas molculas hacia el mbito clnico mientras preservamos nuestra habilidad para compartir la sustancia prototipo internacionalmente. +Esta molcula dejar pronto nuestros laboratorios y estar a cargo de una pequea compaa llamada Tensha Therapeutics. +Quiero dejarles slo con estas dos ideas. +La primera es lo novedoso de es esta investigacin no es la ciencia sino la estrategia +para nosotros fue un experimento social, un experimento de sucesos posibles si furamos tan abiertos y honestos en las fases iniciales de un descubrimiento en investigacin qumica como fuese posible. +Esta cadena de letras y nmeros y de smbolos y parntesis supongo que se puede enviar por SMS o por Twitter por todo el mundo, es la identidad qumica de nuestro pre-compuesto +Es la informacin ms necesaria de las compaas farmacuticas, la informacin sobre cmo frmacos prototipo podran funcionar. +Pero esta informacin es normalmente secreta. +Y lo que buscamos realmente es aprender del increble xito de la industra de la informtica dos principios: el de cdigo abierto y de trabajo colaborativo para de una manera rpida y responsable acelerar la produccin de teraputicas especficas a pacientes con cncer. +Ahora el modelo de negocio nos incluye a todos. +Esta investigacin se financia pblicamente. +Est financiada por fundaciones. +Y una de las cosas que he aprendido en Boston y que Uds.harn cualquier cosa contra el cncer y eso me encanta. +Cruzan el estado en bicicleta. Caminan arriba y abajo siguiendo el cauce del ro. +Y no he visto en ningn lugar este apoyo nico a la investigacin del cncer. +Y por eso les quiero dar las gracias por su participacin, su colaboracin y principalmente por la confianza en nuestras ideas. +Me dedico a recortar papel. +Recorto historias. +Mi tcnica es muy sencilla. +Tomo un papel, imagino la historia, a veces boceto, a veces no. +Y como mi imagen ya est en el papel simplemente elimino lo que no es parte de esa historia. +No llegu a esta disciplina en lnea recta. +De hecho, creo que fue en espiral. +No nac con un cortador en la mano. +No recuerdo haber cortado papel de nia. +De adolescente bocetaba, dibujaba, quera ser artista. +Pero era rebelde +y dej todo para hacer varios trabajos ocasionales. +A saber: fui pastora, camionera, trabajadora de fbrica, encargada de limpieza. +Trabaj durante un ao en turismo en Mxico y un ao en Egipto. +Viv durante dos aos en Taiwn. +Y luego me instal en Nueva York para ser gua de turismo. +Todava trabajo como gua de viajes; viajo por todas partes China, Tbet y Asia Central. +Claro, me llev tiempo, tena cerca de 40, cuando decid que era hora de empezar como artista. +Eleg recortar papel porque el papel es barato, es liviano, y se lo puede usar de muchas maneras diferentes. +Eleg el lenguaje de la silueta porque desde lo grfico es muy eficiente +y porque se trata de ir a la esencia de las cosas. +La palabra "silueta" viene de un ministro de economa: Etienne de Silhouette +que recort tantos presupuestos que la gente dijo que ya no podran seguir pintando y que tenan que hacer sus retratos "a la Silhouette". +Hice muchas imgenes, recortes, y los ensambl en carpetas. +La gente me dijo -como estas 36 vistas del edificio Empire State- la gente dijo: "Ests haciendo libros de artista". +Hay muchas definiciones de libro de artista. +Vienen en muy diversas formas. +Pero para m son objetos fascinantes para narrar historias en forma visual. +Pueden tener palabras o no tenerlas. +Siento pasin por las imgenes y las palabras, +por los juegos de palabras y su relacin con el inconsciente. +Me encantan las curiosidades idiomticas. +He aprendido el idioma de cada lugar donde viv pero nunca los domin. +Por eso siempre busco falsos amigos o palabras idnticas en distintos idiomas. +Como pueden adivinar, mi lengua materna es el francs. +Y mi idioma diario es el ingls. +Por eso hice una serie de obras en las que hay palabras idnticas en francs e ingls. +Una de estas obras es la "Araa ortogrfica". +La araa ortogrfica es prima de la abeja ortogrfica. (spelling bee) +Pero est mucho ms pegada a la Red. +Esta araa teje un alfabeto bilinge. +Puede leerse "architecture active" o "active architecture". +La araa recorre todo el alfabeto con adjetivos y sustantivos idnticos. +De modo que si uno no conoce uno de estos idiomas aprende al instante. +Una forma antigua de libro es el rollo de pergamino. +Los pergaminos son muy tiles porque permiten crear grandes imgenes en mesas muy pequeas. +Esto trae una consecuencia inesperada y es que al ver slo una parte de la imagen, se genera una arquitectura de estilo muy libre. +Hago todo tipo de ventanas +para mirar ms all de la superficie. +Para mirar mundos diferentes. +Muchas veces observo desde afuera. +Quiero ver el funcionamiento de las cosas, lo que sucede. +As, cada ventana es una imagen y un mundo al que vuelvo a menudo. +Y vuelvo a este mundo pensando en la imagen o clich de lo que quiero hacer y en las palabras, modismos, con que nos expresamos. +Son supuestos. +Qu tal si viviramos en globos aerostticos? +Sera un mundo muy elevado. +Dejaramos una huella ecolgica muy leve en el planeta. +Sera muy liviano. +A veces miro desde dentro con egocentricidad los crculos internos. +A veces hago una panormica para ver nuestras races comunes y la forma de usarlas para atrapar los sueos. +Podemos usarlas tambin como malla de seguridad. +Mis fuentes de inspiracin son muy eclcticas. +Influye en m todo lo que leo y todo lo que veo. +Tengo historias hilarantes, como "Latidos inertes". +Otras son histricas. +Esta es la "Ciudad del Dulce". +Es una historia no edulcorada del azcar. +Va de la trata de esclavos al consumo excesivo de azcar con algunos intermedios dulces. +A veces tengo una respuesta emocional a noticias como la del terremoto haitiano de 2010. +Otras veces ni siquiera son historias mas. +Las personas me cuentan sus vidas, sus recuerdos, sus aspiraciones, y yo creo un paisaje mental. +Canalizo sus historias para que tengan un lugar a dnde volver y mirar sus vidas y sus posibilidades. +Las llamo ciudades freudianas. +No puedo hablar de todas mis imgenes as que recorrer algunos mundos slo con el ttulo. +"Modicidad" +"Electri-cidad" +"Crecimiento disparatado de Columbus Circle". +"Ciudad arrecife" +"Red de tiempo" +"Ciudad caos" +"Batallas cotidianas" +"Feli-cidad" +"Islas flotantes" +En un momento tuve que hacer "la historia larga" +Esta mide 8 metros... +En la vida como en el recorte de papel todo est conectado. +Una historia lleva a la otra. +Me interesaba mucho el aspecto fsico de este formato porque hay que caminar para verlo. +Y a la par de mis recortes van mis carreras. +Empec con imgenes pequeas y con unos pocos kilmetros. +Imgenes ms grandes y maratones. +Despus corr 50 km, despus 60 km. +Luego 80 km... ultramaratones. +Todava creo que sigo corriendo a modo de entrenamiento para llegar a ser una cortadora fondista. +Correr me da mucha energa. +Esta es una maratn de corte de tres semanas en el Museo de Arte y Diseo de Nueva York. +El resultado es "Infiernos y parasos". +Son dos paneles de 4 metros de alto. +En el museo estn en dos pisos pero en realidad son una imagen continua. +La llamo "Infiernos y Parasos" por los infiernos y parasos cotidianos. +No hay lmites entre ambos. +Algunas personas nacen en infiernos y contra toda adversidad los convierten en parasos. +Otra gente hace el viaje contrario. +Esa es la frontera. +En el infierno hay maquiladoras. +En el paraso hay gente que alquila sus alas. +Y luego estn las historias individuales en las que a veces hacemos incluso las mismas cosas y el resultado nos lleva al infierno o al paraso. +El concepto de "Infiernos y Parasos" es el libre albedro y el determinismo. +En el corte artesanal el dibujo es la estructura misma. +Por eso se lo puede despegar de la pared. +Esta es la instalacin de un libro de artista llamado "Proyecto Identidad". +No son identidades autobiogrficas. +Son ms bien identidades sociales. +Se puede caminar por detrs y probrselas. +Son como nuestras diferentes capas constitutivas que presentamos al mundo como identidad. +Este es otro proyecto de libro de artista. +De hecho, en la foto, hay dos modelos. +Uno que estoy luciendo y otro que est en exhibicin en el Centro del Libro Artstico de Nueva York. +Por qu lo llamo libro? +Se llama "Declaracin de moda", tiene citas sobre moda; porque se puede leer y tambin porque la definicin de libro de artista es muy generosa. +Los libros de artista se despegan de la pared. +Se los lleva de paseo. +Se los puede instalar como arte pblico. +Este est en Scottsdale, Arizona, y se llama "Recuerdos flotantes". +Son recuerdos regionales que se mueven aleatoriamente con el viento. +Me encanta el arte pblico. +Particip en competiciones durante mucho tiempo. +Despus de ocho aos de rechazos me entusiasm recibir mi primer encargo con el Porcentaje para el Arte de Nueva York. +Fue para una estacin de trabajadores de emergencia y bomberos. +Hice un libro de artista en acero inoxidable en vez de usar papel. +Lo llam "Trabajando en la misma direccin". +Le puse veletas a ambos lados para mostrar que cubren todas las direcciones. +En el arte pblico tambin puedo cortar vidrio. +Esto es cristal facetado en el Bronx. +Cada vez que hago arte pblico quiero algo realmente relevante para el lugar donde est. +As, para el metro de Nueva York veo una correlacin entre tomar el metro y leer. +Es viajar a tiempo, en el tiempo. +La literatura del Bronx trata sobre escritores del Bronx y de sus historias. +Otro de los proyectos en vidrio est en una biblioteca pblica de San Jos, California. +Plasm un punto de vista vegetal del crecimiento de San Jos. +Empec en el centro con la bellota de la civilizacin aborigen ohlone. +Luego puse la fruta europea de los rancheros. +Y luego el fruto actual del mundo de Silicon Valley. +Y sigue en crecimiento. +La tcnica es el corte, la limpieza con chorro de arena, el grabado y el cristal impreso para uso arquitectnico. +Fuera de la biblioteca quera tener un lugar para el cultivo de la mente. +Con material de la biblioteca que contiene fruta en el ttulo constru un sendero de la huerta con estos frutos del conocimiento. +Tambin plant el bibliorbol. +Es un rbol que en su tronco tiene las races de los idiomas. +Representa los sistemas internacionales de escritura. +Y en las ramas crece el material de la biblioteca. +Con el arte pblico es posible tener funcin y forma. +En Aurora, Colorado, es un banco. +Este banco tiene un plus. +Si uno se sienta mucho tiempo en verano con pantalones cortos, se va luego con una marca temporal de la historia en sus muslos. +Otra obra funcional est en el sur de Chicago en una estacin de metro. +Se llama "Las semillas del futuro se plantan hoy". +Es una historia de transformacin y conexiones. +Funciona como pantalla para proteger al riel y al pasajero y para que no caigan objetos en los rieles. +Poder cambiar las cercas y los protectores de ventanas por flores, es fantstico. +Y aqu he estado trabajando en los ltimos tres aos con un promotor del sur del Bronx para darle vida al arte en los edificios populares y viviendas econmicas. +Cada edificio tiene su propia personalidad. +A veces se trata del legado del barrio como el jazz en Morrisania. +Y en otros proyectos, como en Pars, se trata del nombre de la calle. +Se llama Rue des Prairies, o Calle de la Pradera. +Recuper el conejo y la liblula, para esta calle. +Y en 2009 me pidieron que hiciera un cartel para poner en el metro de Nueva York durante un ao. +Era una audiencia muy cautiva. +Y yo quera darles una va de escape. +Cre "De paseo por la ciudad". +Es una obra en papel cortado que luego colore con la computadora. +Por eso la llamo tecno-artesana. +Y, mientras tanto, corto el papel y uso otras tcnicas. +Siempre el resultado son las historias. +Historias que tienen muchas posibilidades. +Tienen muchos escenarios. +Yo no conozco las historias. +Tomo imgenes de nuestro imaginario colectivo, del lugar comn, de las cosas que pensamos, de la historia. +Todos somos narradores porque todos tenemos algo para contar. +Pero ms importante an es que todos tenemos que crear una historia para darle sentido al mundo. +Y en todos estos universos es como si la imaginacin fuese el medio de transporte pero el destino fuera nuestra mente y la manera de reconectarnos con lo esencial y con la magia. +De eso se trata este arte del papel. +Hola. Soy Hasan. Soy artista. +A menudo cuando digo que soy artista, me miran y dicen: "Acaso pintas?" +o, "Con qu clase de medio trabajas?" +Bueno, la mayor parte del trabajo que hago tiene que ver ms bien sobre metodologas que en una disciplina en especial o una tcnica especfica. +Lo que realmente me interesa es la creatividad en resolver problemas. +Hace unos aos tuve un pequeo problema. +Voy a contarles algo sobre eso. +Por aqu comenz, +Este es el aeropuerto de Detroit el 19 de junio del 2002. +Volva a los Estados Unidos de una exposicin en el exterior. +Estaba regresando cuando un agente del FBI me abord, me llev a una pequea sala y me hizo toda clase de preguntas: "De dnde viene? Qu estaba haciendo? Con quin habl? +Por qu estaba all? Quin paga sus viajes?" Todos esos detalles. +Y luego, literalmente de la nada, el tipo me pregunt: "Dnde estuvo el 12 de septiembre?" +Cuando a la mayora nos preguntan: "Dnde estuvo el 12 de septiembre?" +o cualquier otra fecha, es como: "No recuerdo exactamente, pero djeme consultarlo". +Saqu mi pequeo asistente digital y le dije: "Bueno, veamos mis citas del 12 de septiembre". +Ese da, de 10:00 a.m. a 10:30 a.m., pagu el alquiler de mi bodega. +De 10:30 a.m. a 12:00 p.m., me reun con Judith que era una de mis estudiantes de postgrado. +De 12.00 p.m. a 3:00 p.m., estuve dictando mi clase introductoria, 3:00 p.m. a 6:00 p.m., dict la clase avanzada. +"Dnde estuvo el da 11? Dnde estuvo el da 10?" +"Dnde estuvo el 29? Y el 30?" +"Dnde estuvo el 5 de octubre?" +Le le como unos 6 meses de mi calendario. +No creo que l esperara que yo tuviera un registro tan detallado de lo que haba hecho. +Fue bueno tenerlo, porque el naranja-prisin no me queda bien. +Me pregunt... " esta bodega que alquila, qu guarda ah?" +Esto fue en Tampa, Florida y le dije: "Ropa de invierno que no me sirve de nada en la Florida, +muebles que no me caben en mi apartamento; +slo cosas como para una venta de garaje, porque yo tiendo a guardar todo". +Entonces me mir bastante confundido y me dijo: "Nada de explosivos?" +Y le dije: "No, no. Estoy seguro de que no haba explosivos. +Si los hubiera me acordara". +l segua confundido, pero pienso que cualquiera que hable conmigo por un par de minutos se dara cuenta que no soy precisamente una amenaza terrorista. +Sentados ah como por una hora, o una y media, volva siempre a lo mismo, finalmente me dijo: "Bueno, ya tengo suficiente informacin, +voy a pasar esto a la oficina de Tampa, que fueron los que empezaron con esto; +ellos le darn seguimiento y nosotros nos ocuparemos de esto". +Le dije: "Perfecto". +Me fui a casa y son el telfono; un seor se present. +En breve, era la oficina del FBI en Tampa donde pas 6 meses de mi vida yendo y viniendo ocasionalmente. +A propsito, ustedes saben que en los Estados Unidos no se pueden tomar fotos de edificios federales, pero Google s que puede hacerlo por ti, +as que amigos de Google, gracias. +Pas mucho tiempo en este edificio. +Preguntas como: "Ha visto o ha participado usted en algn acto que pudiera daar a los Estados Unidos, o a una nacin extranjera?" +Pueden imaginarse el estado emocional en que est uno cuando le pasa esto. +En esencia ests cara a cara con alguien que puede decidir sobre la vida o la muerte. +Con preguntas como... en verdad, con el polgrafo, que fue a lo que finalmente llegamos, despus de nueve sesiones consecutivas... una de las preguntas fue +bueno, la primera, fue: "Su nombre es Hasan?" "S". +Estamos en la Florida? "S" "Hoy es martes?" "S". +Todo es a punta de s o no. +Luego la siguiente es, naturalmente: "Pertenece usted a algn grupo que desea hacer dao a los Estados Unidos?" +Trabajo para una universidad. +Contest: "Tal vez usted quisiera preguntarle esto directamente a mis colegas". +Luego me dijeron: "Bueno, aparte de lo dicho, pertenece usted a algn grupo que quiere daar a los Estado Unidos?" +Y dije: "No". +Al final de seis meses de esto y nueve sesiones consecutivas de polgrafo, me dijeron: "Oye todo est bien". +Entonces dije: "Ya lo saba. Eso es lo que les he tratado de decir todo el tiempo. +Yo s que todo est bien". +Me miraron con extraeza. +Era como decir: "Oigan, yo viajo mucho". +As es con el FBI. +Era como, "Slo nos falta Alaska y no hallar el ltimo memorando para comenzar de nuevo todo, otra vez". +Haba una sincera preocupacin. +Me dijeron: "Ya sabe, si se mete en problemas, denos una llamada... nosotros nos encargamos". +Desde entonces, antes de cada viaje yo llamaba al FBI. +Y les deca: "Amigos, me voy a tal parte. Este es mi vuelo. +Es el Northwest vuelo siete que llega de Seattle el 12 de marzo", o lo que fuera. +Un par de semanas ms tarde, llamara de nuevo y les informara. +No es que tuviera que hacerlo, pero as lo decid. +Slo quera decir: "Amigos, +no quiero que piensen que estoy haciendo movimientos sbitos, +no quiero que piensen que estoy a punto de huir, +slo los estoy enterando. Atentos". +Segu haciendo esto una y otra y otra vez. +Luego las llamadas se convirtieron en correos, y estos eran cada vez ms largos... +con fotos, con datos del viaje. +Despus hice una pgina web +y ms tarde constru esto. Volvamos aqu. +De hecho la dise en el 2003. +Con esto me pueden seguir en cualquier momento. +Escrib un programa para mi celular. +En el fondo lo que decid es: bueno, me quieren observar, perfecto. +Yo mismo me vigilar, est bien. +No necesitan malgastar su energa y sus recursos. +Les voy a ayudar. +Mientras tanto, pens, qu ms podrn saber de m? +Probablemente tienen todo sobre mis vuelos, entonces decid ponerlos todos desde que nac. +Como pueden ver Delta 1252 de Kansas City a Atlanta. +Aqu ven algunas de las comidas que sirven en los viajes. +Este fue el Delta 719 de Nueva York a San Francisco. +Ven esto? No me dejan llevarlo conmigo pero me lo entregan dentro del avin. +Estos son los aeropuertos a donde voy porque me fascinan. +Este es el Kennedy, martes 19 de mayo, +Esto es en Varsovia. +Singapur. Vean, estn casi vacos. +Estas fotos son en efecto annimas porque cualquiera las pudo haber tomado. +Pero si se cotejan estos datos con los dems, en esencia ests haciendo el papel de un agente del FBI, al ponerlos todos juntos. +Si ests en la situacin de tener que justificar cada momento de tu vida esto te hace reaccionar de una manera muy diferente. +Cuando esto suceda, lo ltimo en mi mente era un "proyecto artstico". +No pensaba que tena ah trabajo nuevo. +Pero al revisar todo esto, me di cuenta, qu pas? +Al ensamblar todo esto, con esto y con esto, esta manera de ver todo lo que me haba sucedido, con el tiempo evolucion y se convirti en este proyecto. +Estas son las tiendas donde compro -- algunas de ellas -- porque necesitan saberlo. +Aqu estoy yo comprando pat de pato en el Ranch 99 en Daly City el domingo 15 de noviembre. +En el supermercado coreano estoy comprando kimchi, porque me encanta. +Tambin compr unos cangrejos ah cerca y algunas Chitlins en el Safeway de Emoryville. +Y tambin, detergente para lavadora en West Oakland, perdn, en East Oakland. +Y luego mis medusas marinadas en el supermercado de Hong Kong, en la Ruta 18, en East Brunswick. +Ahora, si vamos a mis registros bancarios, se ver algo ah, como que el 9 de mayo compr $14,79 de combustible en el Safeway de Vallejo. +No es slo que yo est dando esta informacin de aqu y de all, sino que hay un tercero independiente, mi banco, que est certificando que en verdad estuve all en ese momento. +Ah estn esos puntos realmente cotejados y verificados. +Se estn haciendo los controles. +Algunas veces son slo pequeas compras. +34 centavos de comisin de una transaccin en el exterior. +Todo esto extrado de mis cuentas bancarias y todo aparece inmediatamente. +En ocasiones hay demasiada informacin. +Aqu estaba mi viejo apartamento en San Francisco +Y a veces se obtiene esto. +Puede resultar as; un saln vaco en Salt Lake City. El 22 de enero. +Puedo decir exactamente con quin estuve y en dnde, pues eso es lo que tena que hacer con el FBI. +Deba decir cada detalle de cada cosa. +Paso mucho tiempo viajando. +Este es un aparcadero en Elko, Nevada, a la salida de la ruta 80, el 19 de agosto a las 8:01 p.m. +Paso mucho tiempo en estaciones de servicio, en estaciones vacas de tren. +Tengo muchas bases de datos +y miles de miles de miles de fotos. +Ahora mismo tengo 46 000 imgenes en mi pgina y el FBI las ha examinado todas, al menos confo que las hayan visto. +A veces no tengo mucha informacin, como esta cama vaca. +O puede que tenga mucha informacin escrita sin nada visual. +Algo como esto. +A propsito, esta es la ubicacin de mi local favorito de sndwiches en California; sndwich vietnamita. +Hay varias categoras de lugares dnde comer; estaciones de tren y estaciones de servicio vacos. +Y estas son algunas de las comidas que he preparado en casa. +Cmo saber cules han sido tomadas en casa? +El mismo plato aparece muchas veces. +Entonces hay que hacer un trabajo de detective. +En ocasiones la base de datos se vuelve muy especfica. +Estos son tacos consumidos en la ciudad de Mxico cerca a una estacin de tren. del 5 al 6 de julio. +ste fue a las 11:39 a.m. +ste otro a la 1:56 p.m. Y ste a las 4:59 p.m. +Anoto la hora cada rato. +A toda hora estoy tomando fotos. +Todo esto lo hago con mi iPhone; se va derecho al servidor, all se hace el trabajo de archivo, clasificacin y ensamble. +Ellos deben saber en donde hago mi trabajo porque lo quieren saber todo. +As, el 4 de diciembre estuve aqu. +Y el sbado, 14 de junio del 2009, esto fue como a las dos de la tarde en Skowhegan, Maine, en mi departamento. +Lo que aparece aqu son partes y fragmentos de toda esa informacin. +En mi pgina hay cantidades de cosas, +pero la interfaz no es muy amigable, +ms bien es hostil con el usuario. +Una de las razones de la hostilidad es porque aunque ah est todo cuesta trabajo buscarlo +Al poner toda esa informacin ah, simplemente estoy dejando constancia de todo. +Pero entre todo ese ruido que pongo, en realidad tengo una vida completamente privada y annima. +En realidad, Uds. saben muy poco de m. +He llegado a la conclusin de que la manera de proteger la privacidad, particularmente en esta poca en que todo est catalogado, archivado y registrado, es que ya no es necesario borrar informacin. +Qu hacer si todo est a la vista? +Uno tiene que tomar el control. +Si les diera toda esta informacin directamente, veran un tipo de identidad muy diferente al que revisaran y examinaran parte por parte. +Otro aspecto interesante que observamos es que las agencias de inteligencia -- no importa cules -- todas ellas funcionan como fbricas, cuya mercanca es la informacin, o la informacin de acceso restringido. +La razn por la que esa informacin tiene un valor es porque nadie ms tiene acceso a ella. +Al eliminar al intermediario y entregarla directamente, la informacin que tiene el FBI ya no vale nada y se devala su moneda. +Yo entiendo que a nivel individual, esto es simplemente simblico. +Pero si 300 millones de personas en Estados Unidos +empezramos a hacer lo mismo, habra que revisar todo el sistema de inteligencia desde la base. +Si todo el mundo compartiera todo, pues ya no funcionara. +Y a eso estamos llegando. +Cuando comenc este proyecto la gente me miraba y me preguntaba: "Por qu quieres decirle a todo el mundo lo que haces, a dnde vas? +Por qu subes todas esas fotos?" +Esto era antes de que Twitter estuviera en todas partes y de que 750 millones de personas estuvieran publicando su posicin o husmeando a los dems. +En cierta forma, me alegra ser completamente obsoleto. +Sigo en el proyecto aunque est en desuso, porque todo el mundo lo est haciendo. +Todos lo hacemos diariamente, consciente o inconscientemente. +Estamos creando nuestros propios archivos. +Algunos de mis amigos me dicen: "Oye, ests paranoico. Por qu lo haces? +Si nadie te est observando. +Nadie te est molestando". +Algo que hago es mirar con cuidado los registros del servidor. +Porque se trata de vigilancia. +Miro quin me est observando. +Y me encuentro con esto. +Estos son algunos de los registros. +Son muestras de lo que pueden ver +Yo limpi parte de la lista para que se vea bien. +Para que se note lo que al Homeland Security le gusta pasar... Departamento de Seguridad Nacional +Pueden ver que a la Agencia de Seguridad le gusta visitarme. +Me mud fsicamente muy cerca a ellos. Ahora vivo en la misma calle. +La Agencia Central de Inteligencia . +El Despacho Ejecutivo del Presidente +No estoy muy seguro por qu se dejan ver, pero lo hacen. +Pienso que les gusta mirar el arte. +Me alegra que patrocinen esta forma de arte. +Muchas gracias. Se los agradezco. +Bruno Giussani: Hasan, solo por curiosidad. +Dices que: "Ahora todo sale de mi iPhone, automticamente", pero en realidad tomas las fotos y metes la informacin. +Cuntas horas al da te toma esto? +HE: Casi nada. +No es diferente de enviar un mensaje. +No es distinto de revisar el correo. +Es como tantas otras cosas que hacemos, sin saberlo nos acostumbramos bien. +Se vuelve rutinario. +Es decir, al actualizar la informacin, ni pensamos cunto tiempo nos toma hacerlo. +Es simplemente teclear un par de veces el celular, se enva y listo. +Todo es automtico del otro lado. +BG: Y cuando ests en un lugar donde no hay conexin, El FBI se enloquece? +HE: Todo llega al ltimo punto donde estaba. +Y se quedan en ese lugar. +Si voy en un vuelo de 12 horas, ven el ltimo aeropuerto, de donde sal. +BG: Muchas gracias, Hasan. (HE: Gracias) +Existe un rasgo distintivo del ser humano? +S. +Somos los nicos seres que desarrollamos sentimientos morales. +Como seres sociales, nos obsesiona la moral. +Necesitamos saber por qu la gente se comporta como lo hace. +En lo personal, me obsesiona la moral. +Se lo debo a esta mujer, la hermana Mary Marastela, conocida como mi madre. +Como monaguillo aspir mucho incienso y aprend a decir frases en latn pero tambin tuve tiempo de pensar si la moralidad vertical de mi madre se aplica a todo el mundo. +Vea que las personas, religiosas o no, tenan una obsesin por la moral. +Pens que quiz hay un fundamento terrenal en las decisiones morales. +Quera ir ms all de la idea de que los cerebros nos hacen morales. +Quera saber si existe una qumica de la moralidad. +Quera saber si exista una molcula moral. +Tras 10 aos de experimentos la encontr. +Quieren verla? Traje un poco. +Esta jeringa contiene la molcula moral. +Es oxitocina, +una molcula ancestral simple, propia de los mamferos. +Conocida en los roedores por hacer que las madres cuiden a su prole y en algunos animales por permitir tolerar la "infidelidad". +En los humanos slo se saba que facilita el parto y la lactancia en las mujeres y que ambos sexos la liberan durante la cpula. +Yo sostena que la oxitocina poda ser la molcula moral +y la coment con mis colegas, como hace la mayora. +Un colega me dijo: "Paul, es la idea ms tonta del mundo. +Es una molcula solo mujer dijo +No puede ser tan importante". +Le respond: "El cerebro de los hombres tambin la produce. +Tiene que haber una razn". +Pero tena razn, era una idea tonta. +Tonta, pero experimentable. +O sea, pens que poda disear un experimento para estudiar el efecto moral de la oxitocina. +Result no ser tan fcil. +Ante todo, la oxitocina es una molcula tmida. +El valor de referencia es casi nulo si no hay estmulos que provoquen la liberacin. +Y luego de producida vive tres minutos y se degrada rpidamente a temperatura ambiente. +Por eso el experimento tena que generar oxitocina, recolectarla rpidamente y almacenarla en fro. +Pens que poda lograrlo. +Por suerte la oxitocina se produce tanto en el cerebro como en la sangre por eso pude hacer el experimento sin aprender neurociruga. +Despus tuve que medir la moralidad. +Abordar la Moral, con maysculas, es un proyecto colosal. +Por eso empec con algo pequeo. +Estudi una sola virtud: la confiabilidad. +Por qu? A comienzos de los aos 2000 demostr que los pases con ms gente confiable son ms prsperos. +En estos pases hay ms transacciones econmicas, y ms riqueza, lo que alivia la pobreza. +Los pases pobres en general son de baja confianza. +As, si entenda la qumica de la confiabilidad poda aliviar la pobreza. +Pero soy escptico +y por eso no quiero preguntar: "Eres confiable?" +En vez de eso uso el enfoque de Jerry McGuire: +si eres tan virtuoso, mustrame el dinero. +En mi laboratorio tentamos a las personas con dinero hacia el vicio y la virtud. +Les mostrar qu hacemos. +Convocamos algunas personas para un experimento +y reciben $10 si quieren participar. +Les damos muchas instrucciones y jams los engaamos. +Luego los agrupamos en pares por computadora. +Y en ese par, a uno le damos un mensaje que dice: "Quieres reasignar parte de los $10 que ganaste por estar aqu y envirselo a otra persona del laboratorio?" +El truco es que no puedes ver a esa persona, no puedes hablar con ella. +Slo lo haces una vez. +La suma enviada se triplica en la cuenta de la otra persona. +El otro se vuelve mucho ms rico +y recibe un mensaje que dice: la persona uno te envi esta suma de dinero. +Quieres quedarte con todo o quieres enviarle algo en compensacin? +Piensen en el experimento por un momento. +Me siento en esta silla dura durante una hora y media. +Un cientfico loco me pinchar el brazo con una aguja para sacarme cuatro tubos de sangre. +Y ahora quieres que reasigne el dinero y se lo d a un desconocido? +As naci la economa vampiresca: +toma una decisin y dame sangre. +De hecho, los economistas experimentales hicieron el experimento en el mundo con riesgos mucho mayores y la opinin consensuada indic que la mtrica de la primera a la segunda persona fue la confianza y que la respuesta de la segunda a la primera midi la confiabilidad. +Los economistas quedaron desconcertados: por qu devolvera dinero la segunda persona? +Suponan que el dinero es bueno, por qu no quedrselo todo? +No es eso lo que hallamos. +Encontramos que el 90% decidi enviar dinero y, de los que recibieron el dinero, el 95% devolvi algo. +Por qu? +Bueno, al medir la oxitocina encontramos que cuanto ms dinero reciba la segunda persona ms oxitocina generaba su cerebro y cuanto ms oxitocina generaba ms dinero devolvan. +Asi que existe una biologa de la confiabilidad. +Un momento. Qu hay de malo en este experimento? +Dos cosas. +Una es que en el cuerpo nada sucede de forma aislada. +Por eso medimos otras nueve molculas que interactan con la oxitocina pero sin efectos. +La segunda es que todava tena esta relacin indirecta entre la oxitocina y la confiabilidad. +No saba a ciencia cierta que la oxitocina provocara confiabilidad. +Para el experimento saba que tena que acceder al cerebro y suministrar oxitocina en forma directa. +Us de todo, menos un taladro, para llevar oxitocina a mi propio cerebro. +Y descubr que era posible con un inhalador nasal. +As, con unos colegas de Zrich pusimos 200 hombres ante oxitocina o placebo, hicimos la misma prueba con dinero, y vimos que los expuestos a la oxitocina no solo mostraron ms confianza conseguimos duplicar ms la cantidad de personas que enviaron todo su dinero a un extrao; sin alterar el humor o la cognicin. +As, la oxitocina es la molcula de la confianza pero, es la molcula moral? +Con el inhalador de oxitocina hicimos ms estudios. +Demostramos que la infusin de oxitocina aumenta la generosidad en transferencias de dinero unilaterales en un 80%. +Demostramos que aumenta las donaciones caritativas en un 50%. +Tambin investigamos formas no farmacolgicas de aumentar la oxitocina, +como los masajes, el baile y los rezos. +S, mi madre estaba feliz por los rezos. +Y con cada incremento de oxitocina las personas abran con ganas sus billeteras para compartir el dinero con extraos. +Por qu lo hacen? +Qu se siente cuando la oxitocina inunda el cerebro? +Para averiguarlo hicimos un experimento en el que las personas miraban el video de un padre y su hijo de cuatro aos; el hijo tiene cncer cerebral terminal. +Despus de ver el video les pedimos que evalen sus sentimientos y les sacamos sangre antes y despus para medir la oxitocina. +Los niveles de oxitocina predijeron sentimientos de empata. +La empata es lo que nos conecta con otras personas. +La empata nos hace ayudar a otras personas. +La empata nos hace seres morales. +Esta no es una idea nueva. +Un filsofo llamado Adam Smith, desconocido en ese entonces, escribi un libro en 1759 llamado "Teora de los sentimientos morales". +En este libro Smith sostiene que somos seres morales, no por una razn impuesta sino por conviccin. +l dice que somos seres sociales y por eso compartimos las emociones de otros. +As, si hago algo que te hace dao, siento dolor. +Por eso trato de evitarlo. +Si hago algo que te hace feliz, comparto tu alegra. +Por eso trato de hacerlo. +Es el mismo Adam Smith que, 17 aos despus, escribira un librito llamado "La riqueza de las naciones"; el primer libro moderno de economa. +Smith fue, de hecho, un filsofo moral y tena razn en que somos morales. +Y hall la molcula subyacente. +Conocer esa molcula es muy valioso porque nos dice como activar este comportamiento y qu lo desactiva. +En particular, nos dice por qu vemos inmoralidad. +Y para investigar la inmoralidad los llevar al 1980. +Trabajaba en una gasolinera en las afueras de Santa Brbara, California. +En una gasolinera todo el da uno ve mucha moralidad e inmoralidad, cranme. +As, un domingo por la tarde viene un hombre a la caja con esta hermoso joyero. +Lo abre y dentro hay un collar de perlas. +Dice: "Oye, estaba en el bao de hombres. +La encontr. Qu crees que deberamos hacer?" +"No s, llvela a objetos perdidos". +"Es algo de mucho valor. +Tenemos que averiguar de quin es". Dije: "S". +Intentbamos decidir qu hacer y en eso suena el telfono. +Un hombre, muy exaltado, dice: "Estuve en su gasolinera hace poco; compr una joya para mi esposa y no puedo encontrarla". +Le dije: "Un collar de perlas?" "S". +"Oye, un tipo lo encontr". +"Oh, me salvas la vida. Este es mi telfono. +Dile a ese tipo que espere media hora. +Ir para all y le dar $200 de recompensa". +Genial, le digo al tipo: "Mira, reljate. +Te recompensarn muy bien. La vida es buena". +Me dijo: "No puedo. +Tengo una entrevista de trabajo en Galena, en 15 minutos, necesito el trabajo, tengo que irme". +Dice otra vez: "Qu crees que deberamos hacer?" +Estoy en la secundaria, no tengo idea. +Le dije: "Te lo guardo". +Me dijo: "Has sido tan bueno conmigo, dividamos la recompensa". +Te dar la joya, me das cien dlares, y cuando venga el tipo..." Ya ven. Fui engaado. +Esta es una estafa clsica llamada "cazabobo" y yo fui el "bobo". +La dinmica de muchas estafas no consiste en hacer que la vctima confe en el estafador; el estafador muestra que confa en la vctima. +Ahora sabemos qu sucede. +El cerebro de la vctima libera oxitocina y sta abre la billetera de par en par, regalando el dinero. +Quines son las personas que manipulan nuestra oxitocina? +Hallamos, en pruebas con miles de personas, que el 5% de la poblacin no libera oxitocina ante el estmulo. +As, aunque uno confe en ellos, sus cerebros no liberan oxitocina. +Si hay dinero sobre la mesa, se lo quedan todo. +En mi laboratorio usamos una palabra tcnica para esta gente. +Les llamamos bastardos. +No es gente que uno invitara a tomar una cerveza. +Tienen mucho de psicpatas. +Pero hay otras maneras de inhibir la oxitocina. +Una es la nutricin insuficiente. +Hemos estudiado a mujeres abusadas sexualmente y la mitad de ellas no liberan oxitocina ante el estmulo. +Hace falta suficiente nutricin para desarrollar el sistema. +Adems, el estrs inhibe la oxitocina. +Todos sabemos que cuando estamos muy estresados no rendimos al mximo. +Hay otra manera de inhibir la oxitocina, y es interesante... por la accin de la testosterona. +En experimentos hemos suministrado testosterona a hombres +que, en vez de compartir dinero, se volvieron egostas. +Pero, curiosamente, los hombres con mucha testosterona son ms propensos a usar su propio dinero para castigar a otros por ser egostas. +Pinsenlo. Significa que en nuestra propia biologa tenemos el yin y el yang de la moralidad. +Tenemos la oxitocina que nos conecta con los otros, que nos hace sentir lo que ellos sienten. +Y tenemos testosterona. +Los hombres tenemos 10 veces ms testosterona que las mujeres por eso los hombres, con ms frecuencia, queremos castigar a quienes tienen comportamientos inmorales. +No hace falta Dios ni un gobierno que nos lo diga. +Est en nuestro interior. +Quiz se pregunten: estos experimentos de laboratorio se aplican en la vida cotidiana? +S, me preocup por eso tambin. +Sal del laboratorio para constatar que se cumple en la vida cotidiana. +El verano pasado fui a una boda en el sur de Inglaterra. +Haba 200 personas en esta hermosa mansin victoriana. +Yo no conoca a nadie. +Llegu all en mi Vauxhall alquilado. +Llev una centrifugadora, hielo seco, agujas y tubos de ensayo. +Les saqu sangre a la novia y al novio; la ceremonia, la familia, los amigos, antes e inmediatamente despus de la ceremonia. +Y, adivinen qu? +Las bodas provocan liberacin de oxitocina pero de manera muy particular. +Quin es el centro del sistema solar nupcial? +La novia. +Ella tuvo el mayor aumento de oxitocina. +A quin le gusta la boda casi tanto como a la novia? +A su madre, correcto. +Su madre fue la segunda. +Luego vino el padre del novio, el novio, luego la familia, luego los amigos, dispuestos en torno a la novia como planetas alrededor del sol. +Creo que esto nos dice que hemos diseado este ritual para conectarnos con la nueva pareja a nivel emocional. +Por qu? Porque los necesitamos para reproducirse, para perpetuar la especie. +Tambin me preocupaba que mis experimentos de confianza con pequeas sumas de dinero no capturaran realmente la frecuencia con la que confiamos en extraos. +Por eso, aunque tengo miedo a las alturas, hace poco me at a otro ser humano y salt de un avin a 4.000 metros; +me saqu sangre antes y despus y tuve un gran aumento de oxitocina. +Hay muchas formas de conectarnos con las personas. +Por ejemplo, mediante los medios sociales. +Hay mucha gente que tuitea. +Por eso investigamos el papel de los medios sociales y hallamos que el uso de medios sociales produce un aumento de dos dgitos en la oxitocina. +Hace poco hice este experimento en el Sistema de Radiodifusin Coreano. +Participaron periodistas y productores. +Uno de estos tipos, tendra 22, midi 150% en el pico de oxitocina. +Sorprendente; nadie tena tanto. +l usaba medios sociales en privado. +Cuando escrib el informe para los coreanos dije: "Miren, no s qu haca este tipo", pero supongo que interactuaba con su madre o con su novia. +Verificaron +y estaba interactuando con su novia en Facebook. +Ah tienen. Eso es conexin. +Hay mil maneras de conectarse con otras personas y parece ser universal. +Hace dos semanas acabo de regresar de Papa Nueva Guinea donde sub a las tierras altas; all las tribus aisladas de agricultores de subsistencia viven como hace milenios. +Se hablan 800 lenguas distintas en las tierras altas. +Son las personas ms primitivas del mundo. +Y ellos tambin liberan oxitocina. +La oxitocina nos conecta con los otros. +Nos hace sentir lo que sienten los dems. +Es muy fcil hacer que los cerebros liberen oxitocina. +S cmo hacerlo y mi manera favorita de hacerlo, de hecho, es la ms fcil. +Se los mostrar. +Ven aqu. Dame un abrazo. +Aqu vamos. +Mi aficin por abrazar a otros me he ganado el apodo de Dr. Amor. +Estoy feliz de compartir amor con el mundo, es genial. Esta es la receta del Dr. Amor: ocho abrazos al da. +Vimos que la gente que libera ms oxitocina es ms feliz. +Son ms felices porque tienen mejores relaciones de todo tipo. +El Dr. Amor receta ocho abrazos al da. +Ocho abrazos al da... y sern ms felices y el mundo ser un lugar mejor. +Claro, si no les gusta tocar a la gente, les pongo esto en la nariz. +Gracias. +Qu hay con autos que vuelan? +Hemos querido tenerlos desde hace unos 100 aos. +Hay algunos intentos histricos que han tenido algn grado de xito tcnico. +Pero no hemos llegado al punto en el que en esta maana de camino hacia ac hubieran visto una verdadera integracin sin discontinuidad de nuestro cmodo mundo bidimensional, con los cielos tridimensionales por encima y que, no s ustedes, pero yo gozo cuando me encuentro arriba. +Por eso, en lugar de hacer un coche que vuele, decidimos hacer un avin que se pudiera conducir. +Y el resultado es el Terrafugia Transition. +Un monomotor de dos puestos que funciona como cualquier otro avin pequeo. +Se eleva y aterriza en un aeropuerto local. +Y una vez en tierra, se doblan las alas, se conduce a casa, y se guarda en la cochera. +Y adems funciona. +Despus de dos aos de diseo y construccin innovadores el prototipo hizo su aparicin en pblico en el 2008. +Como en todos los casos en que se hace algo realmente diferente, las pruebas no resultaron muy satisfactorias. +Descubrimos entonces algo muy bueno, y es que, al volver a casa con algo estropeado, uno ha aprendido mucho ms que cuando logra todos los objetivos desde la primera vez. +De todas formas, habramos querido ver el avin que habamos construido, levantar el vuelo y estar por los aires como se esperaba. +As, en el tercer ensayo a alta velocidad, una maana helada, al norte de Nueva York, lo logramos por primera vez. +La foto aqu detrs de mi fue tomada por el copiloto del avin de seguimiento justo despus de que las ruedas despegaron del suelo por primera vez. +Estamos muy orgullosos de ver que esta imagen se ha convertido en un smbolo del logro que la gente de todo el mundo crea verdaderamente imposible. +La FAA, hace un ao, nos concedi una excepcin para el Transition que nos permite llevar 50 kg adicionales, +en la categora de aviones deportivos livianos. +No parece gran cosa, pero s es muy importante porque al poder presentar el Transition como un avin deportivo liviano se hace ms sencilla su certificacin y tambin mucho ms fcil aprender a manejarlo. +Se obtiene licencia de piloto deportivo con slo unas 20 horas de vuelo. +Y los 50 kg, son importantes para resolver el otro lado de la ecuacin; la conduccin en tierra. +Resulta que la conduccin, con todas las cargas impuestas por el diseo y por las regulaciones, es un problema ms complicado que volar. +Para nosotros, que pasamos la mayor parte de la vida en tierra, no parece lgico, pero manejar implica sortear baches, piedras, peatones, otros conductores, y toda una larga y detallada lista de normas de seguridad gubernamentales que hay que cumplir. +Tenemos una cabina de seguridad de fibra de carbono que protege a los ocupantes, menor a un 10% del peso del chasis de acero tradicional de un coche. +Pero esto tan bueno como es, era insuficiente +Las normas para vehculos en el trfico no se hicieron pensando en aviones. +As que necesitbamos un poco de apoyo de la Agencia Nacional de Seguridad en el Trfico. +Posiblemente han visto en recientes noticias, que nos concedieron, a finales del mes pasado, unas cuantas excepciones especiales que permitirn vender el Transition en la misma categora de camionetas y camiones pequeos. +Como un vehculo mixto de pasajeros, oficialmente "diseado para uso ocasional fuera de las vas". +Vemoslo en accin. +Pueden ver las alas plegadas a los lados del avin. +No se est accionando la hlice, sino las ruedas. +Tiene menos de 2 m de altura. de modo que cabe en una cochera normal. +Este es el mecanismo automtico para plegar las alas, +en tiempo real. +Slo se oprimen unos botones en la cabina y salen las alas. +Una vez desplegadas completamente, hay un cierre mecnico que las bloquea, nuevamente, desde la cabina. +Ahora pueden soportar perfectamente todas las cargas de vuelo; y se accionan como el techo de un convertible. +Todos Uds. estarn pensando en lo que diran sus vecinos al verlo. +Piloto de prueba: Hasta que vuele, el 75% del riesgo est en el primer vuelo. +Radio: En efecto vol. S. +Radio 2: Maravilloso. +Radio: Qu piensas de esto? +Te digo que desde aqu se ve bellsimo. +AMD: Miren, estamos totalmente maravillados por este primer salto. +Y el piloto de prueba nos dio la mejor opinin que se puede recibir sobre un primer vuelo, que es "notablemente ordinario". +Nos dijo que el Transition ha sido el avin ms fcil de aterrizar que l ha volado en su carrera de 30 aos como piloto de pruebas +Aunque estamos haciendo algo aparentemente revolucionario, realmente nos proponemos hacer tan pocas cosas nuevas, como es posible. +Incorporamos mucha tecnologa avanzada de aviacin general y de coches de carreras. +Si hay que hacer algo realmente novedoso, lo hacemos por incrementos en ciclos de diseo, construccin, prueba, rediseo, para reducir los riesgos a pequeos pasos. +Desde que empezamos con el Terrafugia, hace 6 aos, hemos tenido muchas pequeas etapas. +Comenzamos siendo slo tres personas trabajando en un stano en MIT, todava estudiando postgrado y ahora somos 24 que trabajamos en una planta industrial cerca a Boston. +Si todo nos resulta satisfactorio en cuanto a experimentacin y construccin para producir los prototipos en los que estamos trabajando las primeras entregas, para los cien que han reservado aviones, hasta ahora, deben comenzar a finales del ao entrante. +El Transition costar como otros aviones pequeos. +No creo que vaya a reemplazar a su actual Chevy, pero s creo que ha de ser su prximo avin. +Explico por qu. +Mientras que casi todos los viajes areos comerciales del mundo salen de un pequeo nmero de aeropuertos principales, hay una cantidad de recursos subutilizados. +Hay miles de pistas locales que no tienen nunca todas las operaciones areas que podran. +En promedio, hay una cada 30 50 km, en cualquier parte de Estados Unidos. +El Transition permite una forma ms segura y ms conveniente de usar esos recursos. +A los que todava no son pilotos, les digo que hay cuatro razones principales por las que los que s somos no volamos tanto como quisiramos: principalmente el clima, el costo, el excesivo tiempo de viaje de puerta a puerta y la movilidad en el lugar de su destino. +Si hay mal clima, simplemente, aterrizas, doblas las alas y regresas a casa. +Si llueve solo un poco, no importa, para eso tenemos limpiabrisas. +En lugar de pagar por guardar el avin en un hangar, puedes tenerlo en la cochera. +El combustible de automvil que usamos es ms econmico y mejor para el ambiente que el que tradicionalmente se usa en aviones. +Se reduce el tiempo de viaje de puerta a puerta porque ahora, en lugar de cargar maletas, buscar un aparcadero, quitarte los zapatos o sacar el avin del hangar, ese tiempo lo usas en ir a donde vas. +Y la movilidad en el destino est claramente resuelta. +Simplemente doblas las alas y sigues andando. +El Transition, simultneamente, expande el horizonte y a la vez hace ms pequeo el mundo, todo ms accesible. +Sigue siendo una aventura fabulosa. +Espero que ustedes se tomen un momento para pensar en cmo usar algo como esto para tener mayor acceso a su propio mundo y hacer que sus viajes sean ms convenientes y ms divertidos. +Gracias por la oportunidad de compartirlo con ustedes. +Soy neurocientfico. +Y en neurociencia, abordamos interrogantes muy complejos acerca del cerebro. +Pero quiero comenzar con el ms sencillo, es una pregunta que seguramente, alguna vez, se habrn hecho, porque es una cuestin fundamental, si queremos comprender la funcin del cerebro. +Y es, por qu nosotros y los dems animales tenemos cerebro? +No todas las especies del planeta tienen cerebro, entonces si queremos saber para qu sirven los cerebros, pensemos por qu evolucion el nuestro. +Podran plantear que esto se produjo para percibir el mundo y para pensar, y eso es totalmente errneo. +Si lo piensan bien, es claramente evidente por qu tenemos un cerebro. +Tenemos cerebro por una razn y solo una razn. Y es para producir movimientos adaptativos y complejos. +No hay otra razn para tener un cerebro. +Pinsenlo. +El movimiento es la nica manera que tenemos de modificar el mundo que nos rodea. +Eso no es del todo cierto; otra forma es a travs del sudor. +Pero adems de eso, todo sucede a travs de las contracciones musculares. +Piensen en la comunicacin: el habla, los gestos, la escritura, el lenguaje de seas; todos se deben a contracciones musculares. +Por lo tanto, es muy importante recordar que todos los procesos de la memoria, sensoriales, y cognitivos son importantes, pero slo son importantes en la medida que impulsan o suprimen futuros movimientos. +No podra tener una ventaja evolutiva poder establecer los recuerdos infantiles o percibir el color de una rosa, si no influyeran en las acciones futuras. +Para aquellos que no creen en esta argumentacin, tenemos rboles y hierba sin cerebros, pero la evidencia contundente es este animal de aqu: la humilde ascidia. +Es un animal rudimentario; posee un sistema nervioso, y nada en el ocano durante su juventud. +Y en un momento de su vida, se implanta en una roca, a la que nunca ms abandonar, +y lo primero que hace al implantarse, es comerse su cerebro y el sistema nervioso, para alimentarse. +Dado que no necesita moverse, tampoco necesita el lujo de un cerebro. +Y a este animal a menudo se lo suele comparar con los profesores universitarios cuando logran el puesto vitalicio, pero ese es otro tema. +Soy un chovinista del movimiento. +Creo que el movimiento es la funcin ms importante del cerebro, y que nadie les diga lo contrario. +Entonces, si el movimiento es tan importante, comprendemos bien cmo el cerebro controla el movimiento? +Y la respuesta es, que lo comprendemos muy mal. Es un problema muy difcil. +Sin embargo, podemos observar lo bien que lo hacemos cuando fabricamos mquinas que hacen tareas humanas. +Piensen en el ajedrez. +Cmo de bien determinamos qu pieza mover? +Y si enfrentan a Gary Kasparov, cuando no est en prisin, cotra la computadora Azul Profundo de IBM, sta ganar ocasionalmente. +Y si Azul Profundo de IBM jugara con cualquiera de Uds., ganara siempre. +Ese problema est resuelto. +Ahora otro problema, qu sucede si tomamos una pieza de ajedrez, la manipulamos con destreza, y la ponemos nuevamente sobre el tablero? +Si se desafa la destreza de un nio de cinco aos con los mejores robots actuales, la respuesta es simple: el nio gana fcilmente. +No hay competencia en absoluto. +Por qu entonces el problema de arriba es tan sencillo y el de abajo tan difcil? +Una de las razones es que un nio inteligente de 5 aos podra resolver el algoritmo para el problema de arriba: observa todos las ejecuciones posibles y hacia el final del juego, elige la jugada ganadora. +Es un algoritmo muy sencillo. +Por supuesto que hay otros movimientos, pero con la mayora de las computadoras nos acercamos a la solucin ptima. +Cuando se trata de ser hbil, tampoco est claro cul es el algoritmo a resolver para llegar a serlo. +Y al mismo tiempo, se tiene que percibir y actuar en el mundo, lo que acarrea muchos problemas. +Pero permtanme mostrarles la vanguardia en robtica. +La mayora de la robtica es muy impresionante, pero la manipulacin robtica, an se encuentra en la Edad Media. +Este es un proyecto de una tesis doctoral de uno de los mejores institutos en robtica. +Y un alumno ha entrenado a este robot para verter el agua en el vaso. +Es una tarea difcil, porque el agua se esparce, pero lo logra. +Pero no lo hace con la agilidad de un humano. +Ahora, si quieren que este robot haga otra tarea, ese es otro doctorado de tres aos. +En robtica, no hay en absoluto generalizacin de una tarea a otra. +Ahora podemos comparar esto con un rendimiento humano de vanguardia. +Y voy a mostrarles a Emily Fox, rcord mundial de apilamiento de vasos. +Los estadounidenses aqu presentes conocen muy bien el apilamiento de vasos. +Es un deporte de la escuela secundaria, en el que hay 12 vasos para apilar y desapilar, a contra reloj y en un orden determinado. +Y aqu est logrando el rcord mundial en tiempo real. +Y est muy feliz. +No sabemos qu sucede en su mente al hacerlo, y eso es lo que nos gustara saber. +Para eso, lo que hacemos con mi equipo es realizar ingeniera inversa a cmo los humanos controlan el movimiento. +Y parece un problema sencillo. +Se enva una orden que hace que los msculos se contraigan. +Cuando se mueve un brazo o el cuerpo, se obtiene retroalimentacin sensorial de la visin, de la piel, de los msculos, y etc. +El problema es que estas seales no son tan perfectas como desearamos que fueran. +Y una cosa que dificulta el control del movimiento es, que la retroalimentacin es extremadamente ruidosa. +Pero cuando digo ruido, no me refiero al sonido. +Nosotros lo utilizamos en ingeniera y neurociencia, en el sentido de aquel ruido aleatorio que altera una seal. +As que antes de la era digital, cuando se sintonizaba la radio y se escuchaba crrcckkk en la emisora de radio deseada, eso significaba ruido. +Pero en un sentido mas amplio, este sonido es algo que corrompe la seal. +Por ejemplo, si colocan una mano debajo de la mesa y tratan de localizarla con la otra mano, podran errar por varios centmetros debido al ruido en la retroalimentacin sensorial. +Lo mismo sucede al estimular el movimiento en los efectores, es extremadamente ruidoso. +Olvdense de dar en el blanco con los dardos una y otra vez. +Hay una enorme propagacin debido a la variabilidad del movimiento. +Y mas an, en el mundo exterior o en una tarea, son ambos ambiguos y variables. +La tetera puede llenarse y puede vaciarse; +cambia con el tiempo. +Por lo tanto, trabajamos en tareas de desempeo motor inmersas en ruidos. +Ahora bien, el ruido es tan grandioso que la sociedad le otorga un lugar destacado a aquellos que reducimos las consecuencias del mismo. +Entonces, si se tiene la suerte de embocar una pequea bola blanca en un agujero a cientos de metros de distancia empleando una vara de metal, nuestra sociedad estar dispuesta a premiarlo con cientos de millones de dlares. +De lo que quiero convencerlos es de que el cerebro tambin hace un gran esfuerzo en reducir las consecuencias negativas de esta clase de ruidos y sus variantes. +Y para hacerlo, voy a darles un marco terico muy usado los ltimos 50 aos en estadstica y en aprendizaje automtico, llamado teora de la decisin bayesiana. +Y actualmente, hay una manera unificadora de pensar cmo el cerebro aborda lo incierto. +Y la idea fundamental es que primero se hacen deducciones y luego se toman decisiones. +As que pensemos en la deduccin. +Uno genera creencias sobre el mundo. +Pero qu son las creencias? +Creencias pueden ser: dnde estn mis brazos en el espacio? +Veo un gato o un zorro? +Representaremos las creencias con probabilidades. +Representemos entonces una creencia con un nmero entre cero y uno, con el que 0 significa, no creo en absoluto y 1 significa, estoy absolutamente seguro. +Y los nmeros intermedios les darn los niveles grises de incertidumbre. +Y la idea clave de la inferencia bayesiana es que hay dos fuentes de informacin de donde hacer deducciones. +Se dispone de datos y datos en neurociencia es la percepcin sensorial +As, tengo la percepcin sensorial, de la que parto para crear mis creencias. +Pero hay otra fuente de informacin y es, efectivamente, el conocimiento previo. +Se acumula conocimiento en la memoria a lo largo de la vida. +Y respecto a la teora de decisin bayesiana, sta aporta las matemticas de la mejor manera para combinar los conocimientos previos con la evidencia sensorial, para generar nuevas creencias. +Y puse la frmula all arriba +No explicar esa frmula, pero es muy hermosa. +Y tiene una belleza y un poder explicativo real. +Y lo que realmente dice y lo que queremos estimar, es la probabilidad de diferentes creencias dado el receptor sensorial. +Les dar un ejemplo intuitivo. +Imaginen que estn aprendiendo a jugar al tenis y tienen que decidir donde rebotar la pelota, mientras viene hacia Uds. al pasar la red. +Hay dos fuentes de informacin segn la regla de Bayes. +Hay evidencia sensorial: se puede usar informacin visual y auditiva, lo que le dir que reconozca ese espacio rojo. +Pero sabemos que los sentidos no son perfectos, y por lo tanto, habr cierto grado de variabilidad en donde caer la pelota, graficado por la nube roja y representado por nmeros entre 0,5 y tal vez 0,1. +Esa informacin esta disponible en este tiro, pero hay otra fuente de informacin que no se presenta en este tiro y que slo se obtiene al repetirse la experiencia durante el partido, porque la pelota no rebota en la cancha durante el partido con igual probabilidad. +Si juega contra un gran rival, distribuir las pelotas por el rea verde, siendo se el espacio a priori, porque es ms difcil que desde all la devuelva. +Ahora, ambas fuentes de informacin contienen informacin importante. +Y lo que dice la regla de Bayes es que, tendra que multiplicar los nmeros del rea roja por los nmeros del rea verde para obtener los nmeros del rea amarilla, que es la que posee las elipses, y que es mi creencia. +Por lo tanto, es la manera ptima de combinar informacin. +Pero no les dira todo esto si no fuera porque hace unos aos, demostramos que esto es exactamente lo que la gente hace cuando aprende nuevas habilidades de movimiento. +Y significa que somos verdaderamente mquinas de inferencia bayesiana. +A medida que avanzamos, aprendemos las estadsticas del mundo y las utilizamos, pero tambin aprendemos que nuestro sistema sensorial es muy ruidoso y entonces combinamos ambos de una manera muy bayesiana. +Y el punto clave de esta regla, es sta parte de la frmula. +Y lo que dice realmente esta frmula es que, dadas mis creencias, tengo que predecir la probabilidad de diferentes reacciones sensoriales. +Lo que significa, que tengo que predecir el futuro. +Y quiero convencerlos de que el cerebro hace predicciones. de la informacin sensorial que va a obtener. +Y adems, esto cambia profundamente su percepcin de lo que hace. +Y para hacer eso, les explicar cmo el cerebro maneja la percepcin sensorial. +Entonces, se enva una orden y se obtiene retroalimentacin sensorial. Y esa transformacin se rige por la fsica del cuerpo y el sistema sensorial. +Pero imaginen el interior del cerebro. +Y aqu lo tienen. +Y es posible que exista un factor predictivo, como un simulador neuronal de la fsica corporal y de los sentidos. +As, cuando se ordena un movimiento, ste se copia y se ejecuta en el simulador neuronal para anticipar las consecuencias sensoriales de las acciones. +De esta manera, al agitar la botella de ketchup, obtengo una retroalimentacin sensorial, como la funcin de tiempo en la parte de abajo. +Y si tengo un buen predictor, predice lo mismo. +Pues bien, por qu me molesto en hacer esto? +Voy a lograr la misma retroalimentacin de todos modos. +Hay buenas razones. +Imaginen si mientras agito la botella de ketchup, alguien se acerca muy amablemente y la golpetea. +Ahora obtengo una fuente de informacin sensorial adicional, debido a la accin externa. +Entonces hay dos fuentes: +el golpeteo de la otra persona y yo agitndola. Pero desde el punto de vista de mis sentidos, ambas se combinan en una sola fuente de informacin. +Pero hay una buena razn para creer que queremos ser capaces de distinguir los hechos externos de los internos. +Porque los acontecimientos externos, son de hecho, mucho ms relevantes en trminos de la conducta, que las sensaciones internas del cuerpo. +Entonces, una manera de reconstruir eso, es comparando la prediccin, --que se basa en las rdenes de movimiento-- con la realidad. +Cualquier discrepancia debera, afortunadamente, ser externa. +As, mientras transito por el mundo, hago predicciones de lo que puedo obtener, sustrayndolas. +Todo lo restante, es externo para m. +Qu pruebas hay de ello? +Pues, hay un ejemplo muy claro. Y es que se siente diferente si una sensacin es generada por m que si es generada por otra persona. +Y decidimos que el lugar ms indicado para comenzar fueran las cosquillas. +Se sabe desde hace mucho tiempo que es imposible hacerse cosquillas a uno mismo tan bien como a otras personas. +Pero si no ha sido demostrado realmente, es porque existe un simulador neuronal que simula el propio cuerpo humano y sustrae ese sentido. +Y podemos traer los experimentos del siglo XXI aplicando tecnologas robticas a este problema. +Y, en efecto, lo que tenemos es una especie de palo en una mano, unido a un robot, y lo movern de atrs para adelante. +Luego lo rastrearemos con una computadora y lo usaremos para controlar a otro robot, quien se har cosquillas en la palma con otro palo. +Luego les pediremos que evalen una serie de cosas, incluyendo el cosquilleo. +Les mostrar slo una parte de nuestro estudio. +Y aqu he quitado a los robots, pero bsicamente, la gente mueve su brazo derecho hacia atrs y adelante sinuosamente. +Repetimos eso con el otro brazo con una demora. +Y sin retraso, una luz hara cosquillas en la mano, o con una demora de dos a tres dcimas de segundo. +El punto importante aqu es que la mano derecha siempre hace el mismo movimiento sinusoidal. +La mano izquierda, lo mismo, hace cosquillas sinusoidales. +Lo que hacemos es jugar con una causalidad de tiempo. +Y a medida que van de 0 a 0,1 segundos, se vuelve mas cosquilloso. +A medida que va de 0,1 a 0,2, se vuelve mas cosquilloso al final. +Y a 0,2 de segundos, es igualmente cosquilloso que el robot que le hizo cosquillas sin que Ud. hiciera nada. +Aquello esponsable de esta cancelacin, est sumamente conectado con la causalidad de tiempo. +Y basados en esta representacin, en nuestro mbito, estamos convencidos de que el cerebro hace predicciones precisas que sustrae de las sensaciones. +Pero tengo que admitir, que estos han sido los peores estudios hechos en mi laboratorio. +Dado que la sensacin de cosquillas en la palma de la mano va y viene, se necesita un nmero mayor de sujetos con este desempeo para que sea significativo. +Estuvimos buscando una manera mucho ms objetiva de evaluar este fenmeno. +Y en el transcurso de esos aos tuve dos hijas. +Y lo que notas en los nios cuando van sentados en el asiento trasero durante viajes prolongados, es que se pelean, que comienza uno hacindole algo al otro, y el otro contraatacando. +Se intensifican rpidamente. +Y los nios tienden a desatan peleas que se desarrollan en trminos de fuerza. +As, cuando gritaba a mis hijas para que pararan, a veces me decan que la otra la haba golpeado ms fuerte. +Ahora, s que mis hijas no mienten, entonces como neurocientfico, pens que sera importante poder explicar cmo podran decir verdades contradictorias. +Y basados en el estudio del cosquilleo, planteamos la hiptesis de que cuando un nio golpea a otro, genera la orden del movimiento. +Ellos predicen las consecuencias sensoriales y las sustraen. +Es as que creen de verdad que no han golpeado tan fuerte como en realidad han hecho, algo as como el cosquilleo. +Mientras que el receptor pasivo no hace la prediccin y siente el golpe de lleno. +Y si se contraataca con la misma fuerza, la primera persona piensa que ha aumentado. +Fue as que decidimos comprobar esto en el laboratorio. +Ahora, no trabajamos con nios ni con golpes, pero el concepto es idntico. +Trabajamos con dos adultos y les hacemos jugar a un juego. +Los jugadores se sientan uno frente a otro +y el juego es muy simple. +Comenzamos con un motor, con una pequea palanca, y un transfusor de poca fuerza. +Y usamos ese motor para aplicar fuerza en uno de los dedos de los jugadores durante tres segundos y luego se detiene. +Entonces, se le dice a ese jugador que recuerde la fuerza experimentada y que use otro dedo para aplicar la misma fuerza sobre el dedo del otro sujeto, a travs del transfusor de fuerza, y lo hacen. +Luego, se le pide al otro jugador que recuerde la fuerza experimentada +y que utilice la otra mano para aplicar la fuerza. +Por turnos, aplican la fuerza que han experimentado una y otra vez. +Pero para ser ms precisos, ellos han recibido las reglas en salas separadas, +por lo tanto, no saben con qu reglas juega el otro. +Y lo que hemos medido es la fuerza en funcin de los trminos. +Y si observamos con lo que comenzamos, un cuarto de Newton all, la cantidad de turnos, perfecto sera la lnea roja. +Y lo que hemos observado en todas las parejas de jugadores es esto: un 70% de intensificacin de la fuerza en cada turno. +Entonces, lo que demostramos con esto, basados en este estudio y otros realizados, es que el cerebro cancela las consecuencias sensoriales y subestima la fuerza que produce. +Por lo tanto, esto vuelve a demostrar que el cerebro hace predicciones, y fundamentalmente, cambia los preceptos. +Es as que hemos hecho inferencias, predicciones, ahora tenemos que generar acciones. +Y lo que la regla de Bayes dice es que, teniendo en cuenta mis creencias, la accin debe ser en algn sentido ptima. +Pero tenemos un problema, +las tareas son simblicas: quiero beber, quiero danzar, pero el sistema motor tiene que contraer 600 msculos en una secuencia determinada +Y hay una gran brecha entre la tarea y el sistema motor. +Y esa brecha podra salvarse de infinitas maneras. +Piensen slo en el movimiento punto por punto. +Podra elegir estos dos caminos entre un nmero infinito de posibilidades. +Habiendo elegido un camino en particular puedo sostener mi mano en ese camino como un nmero infinito de configuraciones de uniones diferentes. +Y puedo sostener mi brazo en una configuracin de conexin en particular o muy rgidos o muy relajados. +As que tengo un montn de opciones para hacer. +Ahora resulta que somos muy estereotipados. +Todos nos movemos ms a o menos de la misma manera. +Y resulta que somos tan estereotipados, que nuestro cerebro tiene circuitos neuronales dedicados a descifrar este estereotipo. +Y si tomo algunos puntos y los pongo en marcha con movimiento biolgico, los circuitos cerebrales entenderan instantneamente lo que est pasando. +Ese es un conjunto de puntos en movimiento. +Uds. sabrn lo que esta persona hace, si est feliz o triste, si es vieja o joven. Una gran cantidad de informacin. +Si stos puntos fueran autos en un circuito de carreras, no tendran la menor idea de lo que pasa. +Entonces, por qu nos movemos de la manera singular que lo hacemos? +Pensemos en lo que realmente sucede. +Tal vez no todos nos movemos de la misma manera. +Tal vez haya una variacin en la poblacin. +Y quiz, los que se mueven mejor que otros tienen ms posibilidades de lograr que sus hijos se inserten en la nueva generacin. +As, en escalas evolutivas, los movimientos mejoran. +Y quiz en la vida, los movimientos mejoran a travs del aprendizaje. +Entonces, qu tiene un movimiento para que sea bueno o malo? +Imaginen que quiero atrapar esta pelota. +Aqu hay dos caminos posibles para hacerlo. +Si elijo hacerlo con la izquierda, puedo trabajar las fuerzas requeridas con uno de mis msculos en funcin del tiempo. +Pero hay ruido aadido a esto. +As que lo que consigo realmente, basado en esta agraciada, suave y deseada fuerza, es una versin muy ruidosa. +Entonces, si reiteradamente elijo la misma orden, obtendr una versin ruidosa diferente, porque el ruido cambia constantemente. +Lo que puedo mostrarles aqu es cmo la variabilidad del movimiento evolucionar si escojo esa manera. +Si opto por una forma de movimiento diferente, por ejemplo, a la derecha, entonces tendr una orden y ruido distinto, jugando a travs de un sistema ruidoso; muy complicado. +De lo que podemos estar seguros es de que la variabilidad ser diferente. +Si me muevo de esta manera en particular, acabar con una movilidad menor a travs de los movimientos. +Y si tengo que elegir entre esos dos, elegira el de la derecha, porque es menos variable. +Y la idea principal es que Ud. quiere planificar sus movimientos a fin de minimizar las consecuencias negativas del ruido. +Y algo intuitivo que muestro aqu es de hecho la cantidad de ruido o la variabilidad que aumenta a medida que aumenta la fuerza. +Por tanto, como principio, querrn evitar grandes esfuerzos. +Hemos demostrado que usando esto, podemos explicar una gran cantidad de informacin, y que precisamente, la gente va por la vida planeando sus movimientos para minimizar las consecuencias negativas del ruido. +As que, espero haberlos convencido de que sus cerebros estn ah y han evolucionado para controlar el movimiento. +Y es un reto intelectual comprender cmo lo hacemos. +Pero es relevante tambin, para la enfermedad y la rehabilitacin. +Hay muchas enfermedades que afectan el movimiento. +Y afortunadamente, si comprendemos cmo controlamos el movimiento, podremos aplicar eso a la tecnologa en robtica. +Y por ltimo, quisiera recordarles que, cuando ven animales haciendo tareas que parecen muy simples, la verdadera complejidad de lo que sucede en sus cerebros, es realmente espectacular. +Muchas gracias. +Chris Anderson: Una pregunta rpida, Dan. +Entonces, t eres undel movimiento (DW: Chovinista)chovinista. +Con eso quieres decir que las otras cosas relacionadas con nuestro cerebro, p. ej.: soar, bostezar, enamorarse, y todo eso son funciones secundarias, son casualidades? +DW: No, no, en realidad creo que todas son importantes para conducir el comportamiento del movimiento apropiadamente para lograr la reproduccin. +As que creo que la gente que estudia la sensibilidad o la memoria, lo hacen sin darse cuenta por qu se establecen los recuerdos de la infancia. +El hecho de que nos olvidamos de la mayor parte de nuestra infancia, por ejemplo, probablemente est bien, porque no afectan nuestros movimientos en el futuro. +Solo necesitas almacenar aquellas cosas que realmente afectarn el movimiento. +CA: Entonces crees que la gente, pensando en el cerebro y en la conciencia, en general, podra lograr una comprensin real preguntndose: dnde est involucrado el movimiento en este juego? +DW: La gente ha descubierto, por ejemplo, que estudiar la visin sin atender a comprender por qu se posee la visin, es un error. +Se debe estudiar la visin comprendiendo cmo el sistema motor la usar. +Y la usa de manera diferente cuando lo piensas de esa manera. +CA: Realmente fascinante. Muchas gracias de verdad. +La magia es algo muy introvertido. +Los cientficos siempre publican sus ltimas investigaciones, pero los magos no compartimos nuestros mtodos y secretos +ni con los pares. +Viendo la prctica creativa como investigacin o el arte como forma de I+D para la humanidad cmo podra compartir su investigacin un ciberilusionista como yo? +Mi especialidad es una mezcla de tecnologa digital y magia. +Y hace unos tres aos empec a ejercitar una apertura e inclusin en la comunidad de software de cdigo abierto, a crear nuevas herramientas de magia -herramientas para compartir, eventualmente, con otros artistas- para hacerlos avanzar en el proceso y en la poesa ms rpidamente. +Hoy quisiera mostrarles algo que surgi de estas colaboraciones. +Es un sistema de seguimiento y mapeo de proyecciones de realidad aumentada; una herramienta de narracin digital. +Podran bajar las luces, por favor? Gracias. +Probemos esto. +Voy a usarlo para darles mi visin de las cosas de la vida. +Lo siento mucho. Olvid el piso. +Despierta. +Oye. +Vamos. +Por favor. +Vamos. +Lo siento. +Olvid esto. +Prueba de nuevo. +Bueno. +l descubri el sistema. +Oh, oh. +Est bien. Probemos esto. +Vamos. +Oye. +La oste, adelante. +Adis. +Histricamente ha habido una gran divisin entre lo que se considera por un lado, un sistema no vivo y por el otro, un sistema vivo. +Pasamos de este cristal hermoso y complejo considerado no vivo, a este bello y complejo gato. +Durante los ltimos 150 aos ms o menos, la ciencia casi ha borrado esta distincin entre sistemas vivos y no vivos, y ahora consideramos que podra existir una continuidad entre ambos. +Miremos este ejemplo: un virus es un sistema natural, verdad? +Pero es muy sencillo. Es muy simplista. +La verdad es que no satisface todos los requisitos, no tiene todas las caractersticas de un sistema vivo y de hecho es un parsito que usa otros sistemas vivos para, por ejemplo, reproducirse y evolucionar. +Pero esta noche vamos a hablar de los experimentos hechos a esta especie situada al final del espectro no viviente; de los experimentos qumicos hechos en el laboratorio, mezclando ingredientes sin vida para crear nuestras estructuras y que estas nuevas estructuras lleguen a tener algunas de las caractersticas de los sistemas vivos. +Realmente estoy hablando de la creacin de una especie de vida artificial. +Entonces, cules son las caractersticas de las que hablo? Son estas: +consideramos que la vida tiene un cuerpo. +Esto es necesario para distinguir el ser del medio ambiente. +La vida tambin tiene un metabolismo. Este es un proceso por el cual la vida convierte los recursos del entorno en bloques de construccin para mantenerse y autoconstruirse. +La vida tambin tiene informacin heredada. +Como humanos, guardamos nuestra informacin como ADN en el genoma y transmitimos esta informacin a nuestra descendencia. +Si juntamos los primeros dos, el cuerpo y el metabolismo, podramos crear un sistema capaz de moverse y duplicarse, y si reunisemos estas dos condiciones con informacin heredada podramos crear un sistema ms parecido a la vida y que quiz pudiese evolucionar. +Y esto es lo que intentaremos hacer en el laboratorio, hacer algunos experimentos que tengan una o ms de estas caractersticas de vida. +Cmo lo logramos? Bien, usamos un sistema modelo al cual llamamos protoclula. +Lo que queremos lograr en el laboratorio es similar, pero con decenas de distintos tipos de molculas; por ende con una reduccin drstica en complejidad, pero an as, produciendo algo similar a la vida. +Entonces comenzamos desde lo ms simple hasta los organismos vivientes. +Piensen un momento en esta cita de Leduc, de hace 100 aos, acerca de una especie de biologa sinttica: "La sntesis de la vida, si alguna vez la descubrisemos, no sera el descubrimiento sensacional que usualmente asociamos con esa idea". +Es su primera afirmacin. As que si de verdad creamos vida en los laboratorios, probablemente no va a impactar nuestras vidas para nada. +Empezaremos con algo simple, haciendo algunas estructuras que puedan tener algunas de estas caractersticas de vida, y despus las desarrollamos para que se asemejen a seres vivientes. +As es como empezamos a hacer una protoclula. +Usamos lo que se conoce como autoensamblaje. +Esto quiere decir que si mezclo algunos qumicos en un tubo de ensayo en mi laboratorio, estos qumicos van a empezar a autoasociarse para formar estructuras cada vez ms grandes. +De las miles de molculas, unos cientos se unirn para formar una estructura grande que no exista antes. +Y en este caso en particular, tom algunas molculas de membranas, las mezcl en el ambiente adecuado, y en cuestin de segundos se forman unas estructuras complejas y hermosas. +Estas membranas tambin son bastante similares, morfolgica y funcionalmente, a las membranas que hay en sus cuerpos, y podemos usarlas, como quien dice, para formar el cuerpo de nuestra protoclula. +Del mismo modo, podemos trabajar con sistemas de aceite y agua. +Como saben, el agua y el aceite no se mezclan, pero gracias al autoensamblaje podemos formar una linda gota de aceite, y usarla como cuerpo para nuestro organismo artificial o para nuestra protoclula, como se darn cuenta luego. +Todo eso es para formar el cuerpo, verdad? +La arquitectura. +Y los otros aspectos de los sistemas vivos? +Para eso, creamos este modelo de protoclula que estoy mostrando aqu. +Empezamos con arcilla natural llamada montmorillonita. +Esta arcilla proviene del medio ambiente +y forma una superficie qumicamente activa. +Esta superficie soporta un metabolismo. +A cierta clase de molculas le gusta asociarse con la arcilla. Por ejemplo, en este caso, el ARN, sealado en rojo -un pariente del ADN, es una molcula informativa- puede empezar a asociarse con la superficie de esta arcilla. +Esta estructura puede organizar la formacin de una membrana protectora alrededor de s misma, para poder construir un cuerpo de molculas lquidas a su alrededor, y eso es lo que est en verde en esta microfotografa. +As que usando solamente el autoensamblaje, y mezclando cosas en el laboratorio, se obtiene por ejemplo, una superficie metablica con algunas molculas informativas pegadas al interior del cuerpo de esta membrana. +Y as vamos en camino hacia los sistemas vivos. +Pero si vieran esta protoclula, no la confundiran con un ser viviente. +De hecho es inerte. Una vez que se forma, no hace nada ms. +As que algo est faltando. +Todava faltan algunas cosas. +Falta, por ejemplo, si pasramos un flujo de energa a travs de un sistema, lo que querramos es una protoclula que pueda retener algo de esa energa para autoabastecerse, como lo hacen los sistemas vivos. +As que creamos un modelo diferente de protoclula, una versin ms simple que la anterior. +Este modelo es solo una gota de aceite, pero dentro posee un metabolismo qumico que le permite a la protoclula usar la energa para hacer cosas, para volverse dinmica, tal como lo veremos ac. +Se aade la gota al sistema. +Es una piscina y la protoclula se mueve por s sola en el sistema. +Bien? Las gotas de aceite que se forman mediante autoensamblaje tienen un metabolismo qumico interno que les permite usar energa y pueden usar esa energa para moverse por s mismas en su ambiente. +Como escuchamos antes, el movimiento es muy importante es estas clases de sistemas vivientes. +Moverse, explorar su ambiente y remodelar su entorno, como pueden ver, gracias a estas ondas qumicas que se forman por las protoclulas. +Estn actuando, en cierto modo, como un sistema viviente que trata de sobrevivir. +Tomamos esta misma protoclula que se mueve, pongmosla en otro experimento y empecemos a moverla. Y ahora voy a aadir comida al sistema y Uds. lo vern en azul aqu, correcto? +As que aado una fuente de comida al sistema. +La protoclula se mueve. Encuentra la comida. +Se reconfigura a s misma e incluso es capaz de subir hasta la ms alta concentracin de comida en ese sistema y detenerse ah. +As que no solo tenemos este sistema que tiene un cuerpo, metabolismo, que puede usar energa y se mueve. +Tambin puede sentir su entorno local y de hecho puede encontrar recursos en el medio ambiente para sostenerse a s mismo. +Ahora, no tiene un cerebro, no posee un sistema neural. Es solo un puado de qumicos capaz de tener un comportamiento interesante y muy complejo que simula la vida. +Si contamos el nmero de qumicos de este sistema, incluyendo el agua que est en la bandeja, tenemos cinco qumicos que pueden hacer esto. +Luego ponemos todas estas protoclulas en un experimento para ver lo que haran y, dependiendo de las condiciones, tenemos algunas protoclulas en la izquierda que se estn moviendo y que les gusta tocar las otras estructuras en su entorno. +Por otro lado tenemos dos protoclulas andariegas que les gusta rodearse mutuamente, y hacen una especie de baile, una danza compleja entre ambas. +Est bien? No solo cada protoclula tiene un comportamiento, lo que nosotros hemos interpretado como comportamiento en este sistema, sino que tambin tenemos comportamientos a nivel de poblacin similar a lo que tienen los organismos. +Como ya son unos expertos en protoclulas, haremos un juego con estas protoclulas. +Vamos a hacer protoclulas de dos tipos. +La protoclula A tiene cierta clase de qumica interna que, cuando se activa, la protoclula comienza a vibrar, a bailar. +Recuerden, estas clulas son primitivas, as que el hecho de que bailen nos resulta interesante. La segunda protoclula tiene una composicin qumica diferente, que cuando se activa, todas las protoclulas se juntan y se fusionan en una gran clula. De acuerdo? +Entonces las ponemos a ambas en el mismo sistema. +Tenemos a la poblacin A, est la poblacin B, luego activamos el sistema y las protoclulas B, son las azules, se juntan. Se fusionan para formar una gran masa y las otras protoclulas siguen bailando. Y esto contina hasta que toda la energa del sistema se consuma y, entonces, se acabe el juego. +Repet este experimento muchas veces y una vez ocurri algo muy interesante. +Aad estas protoclulas al sistema y las protoclulas A y B se fusionaron y formaron la protoclula hbrida AB. +Eso nunca haba pasado. Ah lo tienen. +Ahora tenemos una protoclula AB en el sistema. +A la protoclula AB le gusta bailar, mientras que la protoclula B se fusiona, OK? +Y entonces sucede algo an ms interesante. +Miren cuando estas dos grandes protoclulas -las hbridas- se fusionan. +Ahora tenemos una protoclula bailarina y un evento que se imita a s mismo. As es. Volvamos a las masas de qumicos. +Funcionan de esta manera: tenemos un sistema simple de cinco qumicos, un sistema simple. Cuando forman hbridos, se est formando algo diferente a lo que haba antes y ahora es ms complejo, porque ahora surge otro comportamiento que simula la vida y que en este caso es la replicacin. +Claro que haba molculas en la Tierra primitiva, pero no como estos componentes puros con los que trabajamos en el laboratorio y que mostr en estos experimentos. +Ms bien, seran una mezcla realmente compleja de toda clase de sustancias porque las reacciones qumicas no controladas producen una mezcla diversa de compuestos orgnicos. +Piensen en ello como un caldo primordial, s? +Es una muestra muy difcil de caracterizar completamente, incluso con mtodos modernos, el producto luce marrn, como la muestra de la izquierda. Un compuesto puro se encuentra a la derecha, para contraste. +Esto es similar a lo que pasa cuando uno toma cristales puros de azcar de la cocina y los pone en una sartn y los calienta. +Se aumenta la temperatura y se empiezan a romper los lazos qumicos en el azcar, formando un caramelo color marrn, cierto? +Si uno no los regula, los lazos qumicos se seguirn formando y rompiendo, haciendo una mezcla de molculas an ms diversa que a su vez se transforma en una capa negra en el fondo de la sartn que es muy difcil de lavar. Bueno, este es quiz el aspecto del origen de la vida. +Haba que generar vida con toda esa basura que estaba presente en la Tierra primitiva, hace unos 4500 millones de aos. +El reto entonces es desechar todos los qumicos puros en el laboratorio y tratar de hacer protoclulas que simulen vida a partir de este caldo primitivo. +As, podremos ver el autoensamblaje de estas gotas de aceite que vimos previamente y los puntos negros del interior representan la masa negra... una masa orgnica diversa y muy compleja. +Lo ponemos en uno de estos experimentos, como han visto antes, y miramos en vivo los movimientos que resulten. +Se ven muy bien los movimientos y tambin parece que tienen un cierto comportamiento donde pareciera que se rodean y se siguen mutuamente, parecido a lo que hemos visto antes... pero eso s, trabajando esta vez solo con condiciones primordiales y no con qumicos puros. +Tambin existen unas protoclulas capaces de localizar recursos en su entorno. +Aadir algunos recursos por la izquierda que se desactivan en el sistema y, como pueden ver, a ellas les gusta mucho. +Se vuelven muy activas y capaces de encontrar los recursos en su entorno, algo similar a lo que vimos antes. +Pero vuelvo y repito, esto se hace en condiciones primordiales y muy desordenadas y no en condiciones esterilizadas de laboratorio. +De hecho, estas pequeas protoclulas son muy sucias. Pero tienen propiedades que simulan vida. +As que hacer estos experimentos de vida artificial nos ayuda a definir el camino potencial entre sistemas vivos y no vivos. +No solo eso, sino que nos ayuda a expandir nuestra visin de la vida y qu posibles tipos de vida pueden existir; vida que puede ser muy diferente a la vida que encontramos ac en la Tierra. +Y esto me lleva al prximo trmino: "vida extraa". +Es un trmino de Steve Benner. +Bueno, ellos propusieron tres criterios generales. El primero... estn listados aqu. +El primero es que el sistema no tiene que estar en equilibrio. Es decir que el sistema no puede estar muerto. +Bsicamente uno tiene un ingreso de energa en el sistema que puede ser usado y explotado para que la vida se mantenga. +Esto es similar al sol que brilla en la Tierra que gua la fotosntesis y el ecosistema. +Sin el sol, probablemente no habra vida en este planeta. +Segundo, la vida necesita estar en forma lquida, o sea que incluso si encontrramos estructuras o molculas interesantes pero estuvieran congeladas, sera un buen lugar para la vida +Y tercero, tenemos que poder crear y romper los lazos qumicos. De nuevo, esto es importante porque la vida transforma los recursos del entorno en bloques de construccin para automantenerse. +Hoy les he hablado de protoclulas muy extraas -algunas contienen arcilla, algunas tienen caldo primordial, algunas bsicamente tienen aceite en vez de agua en su interior. +La mayora no contiene ADN, sin embargo tienen propiedades que simulan vida. +Pero estas protoclulas satisfacen estos requisitos generales de los sistemas vivos. +As que al hacer estos experimentos qumicos de vida artificial, esperamos no solo entender algo fundamental sobre el origen de la vida y la existencia de la vida en el planeta, sino tambin qu tipo de vida podra haber en el universo. Gracias. +Hola. Hoy voy a hablarles brevemente de 8 de mis proyectos, llevados a cabo en colaboracin con el artista dans Soren Pors. +Nos hacemos llamar Pors y Rao, y vivimos y trabajamos en La India. +Me gustara comenzar con el primer objeto, que llam "El telfono to". +Est inspirado en el hbito peculiar de mi to de pedirme constantemente que haga cosas por l, casi como si yo fuese una extensin de su cuerpo: prender las luces, traerle un vaso de agua o un paquete de cigarrillos. +Y a medida yo iba creciendo, esto solo empeoraba. Y empec a pensar que se trataba de una especie de control. +Por supuesto, no poda decir nada al respecto, porque el to es una figura de autoridad respetada en la familia india. +Y lo que ms me fastidiaba y me desconcertaba era cmo utilizaba el telfono fijo. +Tomaba el telfono y esperaba que yo marcara los nmeros por l. +Entonces en respuesta y como un regalo para mi to, le hice "El telfono to". +Es tan largo que se necesitan 2 personas para operarlo. +Se usa de la misma forma que mi to usa un telfono que es para una persona. +Pero el problema es que, cuando dej mi hogar para ir a la universidad, empec a extraar sus rdenes, +as que le hice una mquina de escribir dorada con la cual l pudiese dar rdenes a sobrinos y sobrinas alrededor del mundo en forma de e-mails. +Entonces, deba poner un pedazo de papel en el carro de la mquina, escribir su correo u orden y extraer el papel. +Este aparato enviaba automticamente la carta al destinatario deseado en forma de correo electrnico. +Como ven, incluimos todo tipo de electrnica que comprendiese todas las funciones mecnicas y las convirtiese en acciones digitales. +As mi to solo tena que usar una interfaz mecnica. +Y por supuesto, el aparato deba ser magnfico y con cierto sentido de ritualidad, de la forma que a l le gusta. +La siguiente pieza es un aparato sensible al sonido que afectuosamente llamamos "Pigmeo". +Quisimos trabajar con la idea de estar rodeados de una tribu de criaturas tmidas, afables y sensibles. +Y funciona por medio de estos paneles, que tenemos en el muro, y detrs de ellos, tenemos estas criaturitas que se esconden. +Y en cuanto hay silencio, entran sigilosamente. +Y si hay an ms silencio, ellos asoman la cabeza. +Ante el menor ruido, vuelven a esconderse. +Colocamos estos paneles en 3 muros de una habitacin. +Haba ms de 500 de estos pigmeos escondidos detrs de los paneles. +Y as es como funciona. +Este es un vdeo prototipo. +Cuando hay silencio, se asoman de detrs de los paneles. +Y oyen del mismo modo que los humanos o criaturas reales. +Luego de un tiempo, se vuelven inmunes a los ruidos que los asustan. +No reaccionan al ruido de fondo. +En breve, van a or el ruido de un tren y ellos no reaccionarn. +Pero reaccionan a ruidos en primer plano. Lo oirn en un segundo. +Trabajamos muy duro para hacerlos parecer lo ms vivos posible. +Cada pigmeo tiene comportamiento, psique, cambios de estado de nimo, personalidad, etc. propios. +Este es un prototipo prematuro. +Por supuesto, mejor muchsimo despus. +Hicimos que reaccionaran a las personas, pero descubrimos que las personas jugaban casi como nios con ellos. +Este aparato de vdeo se llama "La persona que falta". +Tenamos mucha curiosidad por jugar con la nocin de invisibilidad. +Cmo sera posible experimentar la sensacin de invisibilidad? +As que trabajamos con una compaa que se especializa en vigilancia con cmaras y les pedimos que desarrollaran un programa con nosotros que usase una cmara que pudiese observar personas en una habitacin, rastrearlas y sustituir una persona por el fondo, volvindola como invisibles. +As que solo voy a mostrarles un prototipo inicial. +A la derecha pueden ver a mi colega Soren, que de hecho est en ese espacio. +Y a la izquierda, vern el vdeo procesado en el que la cmara lo hizo invisible. +Soren entra en la habitacin. Zas!, se vuelve invisible. +Y pueden ver que la cmara est rastrendolo y borrndolo. +Es un vdeo preliminar, as que no hemos editado superposiciones ni nada de eso, pero refinamos eso poco despus +y lo implementamos en una sala con una cmara que apuntaba a ese espacio, con un monitor en cada pared. +Y a medida que la gente entraba a la sala, se veran en el monitor, con una pequea diferencia: una persona era constantemente invisible dondequiera que se moviesen en la sala. +Y este proyecto se llama "La sombra del sol". +Era casi como una hoja de papel, como el recorte del dibujo de un nio de una mancha de aceite o un sol. +Y mirado de frente este objeto pareca muy fuerte y robusto. pero de los costados, pareca casi dbil. +Entonces, la gente entrara en la habitacin y casi lo ignorara, pensando que es una especie de basura tirada en el suelo. +Pero en cuanto pasaran al lado, empezara a trepar la pared de forma espasmdica, +luego se cansara y se desplomara cada vez. +Y este proyecto es una caricatura de un hombrecito de cabeza. +Su cabeza es tan pesada, llena de pensamientos, que parecen haberse hundido en su sombrero y su cuerpo crece desde el sombrero casi como una planta. +Y lo que hace es moverse alrededor como borracho sobre su cabeza en un movimiento impredecible y extremadamente lento. +Y est como atrapado en ese crculo. +Porque si ese crculo no estuviese all, y el piso fuese an ms liso, empezara a deambular por todo el lugar. +No tiene cables. +As que solo les ensear un ejemplo: cuando las personas entran en la sala, se activa un objeto +y luego, muy lentamente, despus de unos minutos sube trabajosamente, luego toma impulso y parece que est a punto de caerse. +Y este es un momento importante porque queramos infundirle al observador el instinto de casi ir y ayudar, o salvar al sujeto. +Pero realmente no lo necesita ya que, nuevamente, se las arregla para levantarse solo. +Y esta pieza realmente fue un desafo tecnolgico para nosotros y trabajamos muy duro, como en casi todas las piezas, durante aos para lograr la mecnica justa, el equilibrio y la dinmica. +Y fue muy importante para nosotros establecer el momento exacto en el que se caera porque si lo hacamos de una forma en la que se diera vuelta, se poda romper, y si no caa lo suficiente, no infundira ese fatalismo o esa sensacin de querer acercarse y ayudarlo. +Voy a mostrarles un vdeo corto donde estamos haciendo una prueba, mucho ms rpida. +Ese es mi colega. Lo ha soltado. +Ahora se est poniendo nervioso, as que se acerca a atajarlo. +Pero no necesita hacerlo porque se las arregla para levantarse por s mismo. +Esta es una pieza que nos tena muy intrigados por trabajar con la esttica del pelaje incrustado con miles de pequeas fibras pticas de diferentes tamaos que titilan como el cielo nocturno. +Y es a escala del cielo nocturno. +Lo envolvimos en esta estructura de forma de mancha, que parece un osito de peluche, que penda del techo. +Y la idea era contrastar algo fro, distante y abstracto como el universo con la forma familiar de un osito de peluche que es reconfortante e ntimo. +Y la idea era que en algn momento uno dejase de verlo con la forma de un osito y lo percibiese casi como un agujero en el espacio, y como si estuvisemos contemplando un cielo nocturno brillante. +Y esta es la ltima pieza, que actualmente est en construccin, y se llama el "El que llena el espacio" +Imaginen un cubito de este tamao frente a nosotros, en medio de una sala, y que tratara de intimidarnos a medida que nos aproximamos convirtindose en un cubo que tiene el doble de su altura y 4 veces su volumen. +Y as este objeto est constantemente expandindose y contrayndose creando una dinmica con la gente que se mueve a su alrededor, casi como si quisiese guardar un secreto entre sus bordes o algo as. +As que trabajamos con mucha tecnologa, aunque no necesariamente nos gusta la tecnologa, porque nos da mucho trabajo en la labor a lo largo de los aos. +Pero la usamos porque nos interesa la forma en la que puede ayudarnos a expresar las emociones y los patrones de conducta de estas criaturas que creamos. +Y una vez que se nos ocurre una criatura es casi como el proceso de creacin, es descubrir la forma en que esta criatura quiere realmente existir y qu forma quiere adoptar y de qu manera quiere moverse. +Gracias. +Quisiera comenzar con una pequea historia. +Se trata de un nio cuyo padre era aficionado a la historia y que lo llevaba de la mano a visitar las ruinas de una antigua metrpolis en las afueras de su campamento. +Siempre pasaban a visitar estos enormes toros alados usados como guardias de las puertas de la antigua metrpolis y el nio sola asustarse de estos toros alados, pero al mismo tiempo lo maravillaban. +Y el padre sola usar esos toros para contarle historias sobre la civilizacin y sus obras. +Avancemos rpidamente varias dcadas al rea de la baha de San Francisco, donde comenc una empresa de tecnologa que le dio al mundo su primer sistema de escaneo de lser 3D. +Les mostrar cmo funciona. +Voz femenina: El escaneo lser de largo alcance funciona mediante el envo de un pulso que es un haz de luz lser. +El sistema mide el tiempo de vuelo del haz, registrando el tiempo que tarda la luz en topar con una superficie y retornar. +Con dos espejos, el escner calcula los ngulos horizontales y verticales del haz, entregando coordenadas precisas para x, y y z. +Y ese punto se registra en un programa de visualizacin de 3D. +Todo esto sucede en cuestin de segundos. +Ben Kacyra: Pueden ver aqu lo extremadamente rpidos que son estos sistemas. +Toman millones de puntos a la vez con una altsima precisin y una altsima resolucin. +A un topgrafo con sus herramientas tradicionales le resultara difcil llegar a generar ms de 500 puntos en todo un da. +Estos chicos estn generando unos 10 mil puntos por segundo. +As que, como pueden imaginar, este fue un cambio de paradigma para la topografa y la construccin as como tambin para la industria de la captura digital. +Hace unos diez aos, creamos una fundacin benfica con mi seora y justo en ese momento los magnficos Budas de Bamiyn, de 55 metros de altura en Afganistn, fueron destruidos por los talibanes. +Desaparecieron en un instante. +Y, por desgracia, no haba documentacin detallada sobre esos budas. +Esto me dej realmente deshecho y no pude dejar de pensar en el destino de mis viejos amigos, los toros alados, y el destino de los tantos y tantos sitios patrimoniales de todo el mundo. +Tanto a mi esposa como a m nos conmovi tanto esto que decidimos ampliar la misin de nuestra fundacin para incluir la preservacin digital de los sitios patrimoniales del mundo. +Llamamos al proyecto CyArk, que significa Cyber Archive (o Archivo Ciberntico). +Hasta la fecha, con la ayuda de una red global de entidades asociadas, hemos finalizado cerca de 50 proyectos. +Les mostrar algunos de ellos: Chichn Itz, Rapa Nui -y aqu estamos viendo nubes de puntos, Babilonia, la Capilla de Rosslyn, Pompeya y nuestro proyecto ms reciente: el monte Rushmore, el cual resulto ser uno de nuestros mayores desafos. +Como pueden ver, hemos tenido que desarrollar equipamiento especial para llevar el escner lo suficientemente cerca. +Los resultados de nuestro trabajo en terreno se usan para producir productos mediticos para conservadores e investigadores. +Tambin producimos contenido para difundir gratuitamente al pblico a travs de la pgina web CyArk. +Estos pueden usarse en educacin, turismo cultural, etc. +Aqu vemos un visor 3D que hemos desarrollado para observar y manipular la nube de puntos en tiempo real, cortndole lonjas y obteniendo sus dimensiones. +Esta es la nube de puntos de Tikal. +Aqu se ve el tradicional dibujo 2D de arquitectura e ingeniera que se usa para la preservacin y, por supuesto, contamos las historias navegando por los sitios. +Y aqu estamos sobrevolando la nube de puntos de Tikal y aqu se ve dibujado y con texturas fotogrficas de las imgenes que tomamos del sitio. +Esto no es un video. +Son puntos 3D reales con precisin de entre dos y tres milmetros. +Y, por supuesto, los datos pueden usarse para desarrollar modelos en 3D extremadamente precisos y detallados. +Y aqu estn viendo un modelo generado desde la nube de puntos del castillo de Stirling. +Esto se usa para estudios, para visualizaciones y tambin para la educacin. +Y, finalmente, producimos aplicaciones mviles que incluyen herramientas virtuales con narracin. +Cuanto ms me involucraba en el tema de los sitios patrimoniales, ms claro me quedaba que estamos perdiendo los sitios y las historias ms rpido de lo que podemos conservarlos fsicamente. +Por supuesto, los terremotos y todos los fenmenos naturales inundaciones, tornados, etc. van dejando su huella. +Sin embargo, me di cuenta que la destruccin causada por el hombre no slo daba cuenta de una parte importante de la destruccin total, sino que adems se estaba acelerando +debido a incendios intencionales, a expansin urbana, a lluvia cida, sin mencionar el terrorismo y las guerras. +Me quedaba cada vez ms claro que estbamos perdiendo la batalla. +Estamos perdiendo nuestros sitios y sus historias y, bsicamente, estamos perdiendo una parte y una parte importante de nuestra memoria colectiva. +Imaginen a nuestra raza humana sin saber de dnde venimos. +Afortunadamente, en las ltimas dos o tres dcadas, se han ido desarrollando tecnologas digitales que nos han ayudado a desarrollar herramientas con las que hemos podido avanzar en la preservacin digital, en nuestra guerra de preservacin digital. +Esto incluye, por ejemplo, los sistemas de escaneo de lser 3D, computadoras personales cada vez ms potentes, grfica 3D, fotografa digital de alta definicin, sin mencionar Internet. +Debido a este acelerado ritmo de destruccin, nos pareci evidente que necesitbamos desafiarnos y a nuestros asociados para acelerar nuestro trabajo. +Y hemos creado un proyecto que llamamos el desafo CyArk 500; que consiste en preservar digitalmente 500 sitios del Patrimonio Mundial en cinco aos. +Tenemos tecnologa escalable y nuestra red de socios mundiales se est ampliando y puede expandirse a un ritmo rpido, por lo que estamos confiados que podemos cumplir esta tarea. +Sin embargo, para m, en realidad estos 500 slo son los primeros 500. +Para mantener nuestra tasa de crecimiento hacia adelante, usamos centros de tecnologa donde nos asociamos con universidades y centros de estudio locales para transferirles la tecnologa mediante la que nos pueden ayudar con la preservacin digital de sus sitios patrimoniales y al mismo tiempo ellos adquieren la tecnologa que los beneficiar en el futuro. +Terminar con otra pequea historia. +Hace dos aos, se nos acerc uno de nuestros asociados para preservar digitalmente un sitio patrimonial importante, un patrimonio de la UNESCO en Uganda; las Tumbas Reales de Kasubi. +Esto se realiz con xito en terreno y los datos se archivaron y se difundieron pblicamente a travs de la pgina web de CyArk. +En marzo pasado recibimos una noticia muy triste. +Las tumbas reales haban sido destruidas por un incendio que se cree fue intencional. +Unos das ms tarde recibimos una llamada: "Estn disponibles los datos para ser usados en la reconstruccin?" +Nuestra respuesta, obviamente, fue que s. +Les dejo una reflexin final. +Nuestra herencia es mucho ms que la memoria colectiva; es nuestro tesoro colectivo. +Le debemos a nuestros hijos, a nuestros nietos y a las generaciones que nunca conoceremos mantenerla segura y entregrselas en buen estado. +Gracias. +Gracias. +Gracias. +Gracias. +Bueno, sigo aqu porque hemos querido demostrarles el poder de esta tecnologa as que mientras yo hablaba los hemos escaneado. +Tengo dos magos que estn detrs de la cortina y me ayudarn a mostrar los resultados en la pantalla. +Esto es todo en 3D y, por supuesto, se puede sobrevolar la nube de puntos. +Se puede mirar desde arriba, desde el techo. +Lo pueden mirar desde diferentes puntos de vista pero voy a pedirle a Doug que se acerque a una persona del pblico, slo para mostrar la cantidad de detalles que podemos crear. +As que han sido preservados digitalmente en cerca de cuatro minutos. +Me gustara agradecer a estos genios. +Tuvimos mucha suerte de tener aqu a dos de nuestros asociados: la Historic Scotland (o Escocia Histrica) y la Escuela de Arte de Glasgow. +Tambin quisiera agradecer personalmente los esfuerzos de David Mitchell, Director de Conservacin de Historic Scotland. +David. +Y Doug Pritchard, Director de Visualizacin de la Escuela de Arte de Glasgow. +Dmosles un aplauso. +Gracias. +A los seres humanos siempre nos ha fascinado el cerebro. +Lo graficamos, lo describimos, lo dibujamos, lo cartografiamos. +Igual que la tecnologa afect a la cartografa, piensen en Google Maps, en el GPS, ocurre la misma transformacin en los mapas del cerebro. +Miremos el cerebro. +Mucha gente al ver un cerebro real por primera vez dice: "no se parece a lo que se ve generalmente cuando alguien muestra un cerebro". +En general se ve un cerebro esttico, gris. +Esta capa exterior es la vasculatura; algo que recubre al cerebro humano. +Estos son los vasos sanguneos. +El cerebro recibe oxgeno en un 20% de los pulmones, el 20% de la sangre que bombea el corazn. +Bsicamente, si juntamos los dos puos es un poco ms grande que los dos puos. +A finales del siglo XX los cientficos aprendieron a hacer mapas no invasivos siguiendo el flujo sanguneo, para detectar actividad en el cerebro. +Por ejemplo, vean la parte negra del cerebro que gira ahora hacia all. +Ese es el cerebelo; que ahora nos mantiene erguidos. +Me mantiene de pie. Participa en los movimientos coordinados. +A un lado, aqu tenemos la corteza temporal. +Ah ocurre el procesamiento auditivo primario, por eso oyen mis palabras y las envan a los centros de procesamiento del lenguaje. +Hacia la parte frontal del cerebro ocurre el pensamiento ms complejo, la toma de decisiones... es lo ltimo que madura en la adultez tarda. +Aqu ocurren todos los procesos de toma de decisiones. +Es el lugar en el que ahora deciden que no pedirn carne en la cena. +Mirando el cerebro ms de cerca, si lo miramos en un corte transversal, podemos advertir que no se ve all gran estructura. +Pero s hay una gran estructura. +Hay clulas y conexiones, todo est conectado. +Hace unos cien aos algunos cientficos inventaron una tintura celular. +Aqu se ve en celeste. +Se ven zonas con cuerpos celulares normales coloreados. +Como ven es muy irregular. Se ve una gran estructura. +La parte exterior del cerebro es el neocrtex. +La unidad de procesamiento continuo, si se quiere. +Pero ven debajo de eso tambin. +Y en esas zonas blancas estn las zonas por las que pasan las conexiones. +Quiz haya menor densidad celular. +Hay unas 86.000 millones de neuronas en el cerebro. +Y, como ven, distribuidas de manera muy irregular. +Esta distribucin contribuye realmente a sus funciones subyacentes. +Y, claro, como dije antes, como ahora podemos mapear la funcin cerebral podemos llegar a las clulas individuales. +Veamos en ms detalle. +Veamos las neuronas. +Como dije, hay 86.000 millones de neuronas. +Adems hay clulas ms pequeas, como vern. +Estas son clulas de apoyo; astrocitos. +Y los propios nervios reciben la entrada. +La almacenan y la procesan. +Cada neurona se conecta por sinapsis hasta con 10.000 neuronas. +Y cada neurona, en gran medida, es nica. +El carcter nico de las neuronas individuales y de las neuronas en el conjunto del cerebro sigue las propiedades fundamentales de su bioqumica subyacente. +Estas son las protenas, +que controlan el movimiento de los canales inicos. +Controlan qu clula del sistema nervioso se relaciona con otra. +Y, bsicamente, controlan todo lo que tiene que hacer el sistema nervioso. +As que si nos acercamos an ms todas esas protenas estn codificadas en el genoma. +Todos tenemos 23 pares de cromosomas: +uno de mam y uno de pap. +Y en estos cromosomas hay unos 25.000 genes. +Estn codificados en el ADN. +Y la naturaleza de una clula, que gua su bioqumica subyacente, depende de cul de esos 25.000 genes est activado y del nivel de activacin. +Nuestro proyecto intenta observar esta lectura y entender cules de estos 25.000 genes estn activados. +Para realizar un proyecto as obviamente necesitamos cerebros. +Mandamos a nuestros tcnicos +en busca de cerebros normales. +Empezamos en la oficina de un mdico forense. +All llevan a los muertos. +Buscamos cerebros normales. +Seguimos varios criterios al seleccionar cerebros. +Queremos asegurarnos que son de humanos normales de entre 20 y 60 aos que tuvieron una muerte natural sin lesiones cerebrales ni antecedentes de enfermedad psiquitrica, ni presencia de drogas. Hacemos anlisis toxicolgicos. +Somos muy cuidadosos con los cerebros que seleccionamos. +Otra condicin es que podamos obtener el tejido; el consentimiento para tomar el tejido dentro de las 24 horas de la muerte. +Porque tratamos de medir el ARN -la lectura de nuestros genes- es muy lbil, por eso tenemos que movernos con rapidez. +Una nota al margen de la seleccin de cerebros: debido al modo de recoleccin y dado que hace falta consentimiento, tenemos ms cerebros masculinos que femeninos. +Los hombres son ms propensos a morir en accidentes en la flor de la vida. +Y es mucho ms probable obtener el consentimiento del cnyuge, la esposa, que al revs. +Lo primero que hacemos en el lugar de recoleccin es recolectar lo que se llama RM. +Es decir, una imagen de resonancia magntica o IRM. +Es una plantilla estndar sobre la que estructuraremos el resto de los datos. +As que recolectamos RM. +Podemos pensarlo como una vista satelital del mapa. +Luego recolectamos imgenes con tensores de difusin: +el mapa del gran cableado del cerebro. +De nuevo, pueden pensarlo como si cartografiaramos las rutas provinciales. +Se extrae el cerebro del crneo y luego se corta en rodajas de un cm. +Todo se congela y se enva a Seattle. +All, tomamos... esto es un hemisferio completo, y lo pasamos por esta cortadora de carne venida a ms. +Hay una hoja que corta una seccin del tejido y se transfiere al portaobjetos. +Luego la coloreamos y la escaneamos. +As construimos nuestro primer mapa. +Aqu entran en juego los expertos que realizan tareas bsicas de anatoma. +Pueden pensarlo como fronteras entre provincias, esas lneas bastante gruesas. +A partir de esto podemos fragmentar el cerebro en trozos que luego pondremos en un criostato ms pequeo. +Aqu mostramos este tejido congelado, que se corta. +Tiene 20 micrones de espesor, como el cabello de un beb. +Y recuerden, est congelado. +Aqu ven que se usa la vieja tecnologa del pincel. +Tomamos un portaobjetos. +Luego derretimos la lmina cuidadosamente. +Despus pasa por un robot que lo colorea +para que los anatomistas lo observen en detalle. +Esto es lo que se ver bajo el microscopio. +Se ven conjuntos y configuraciones de clulas grandes y pequeas en grupos y en varios lugares. +A partir de ah es rutina. Ellos saben dnde trabajar. +Y construyen un atlas de referencia. +Este es un mapa ms detallado. +Los cientficos usan esto para volver a otra pieza de tejido y hacer la microdiseccin lser. +El tcnico toma las instrucciones, +escribe por all +y luego el lser corta. +All ven el corte del punto azul. Y ese tejido se desprende. +Pueden ver en el portaobjetos lo que sucede en tiempo real. +Debajo hay un contenedor que recolecta ese tejido. +Tomamos ese tejido purificamos su ARN mediante varias tecnologas bsicas y luego le ponemos una etiqueta fluorescente. +Tomamos el material etiquetado y lo ponemos en algo llamado micromatriz. +Esto parece un puado de puntos pero cada uno de estos puntos es una pieza nica del genoma humano que identificamos en un cristal. +Esto contiene unos 60.000 elementos as que medimos muchas veces varios genes de los 25.000 genes del genoma. +Y al tomar una muestra e hibridarla con eso obtenemos una huella nica, si se quiere, que cuantifica los genes activos en la muestra. +Hacemos esto una y otra vez para cada cerebro. +De cada cerebro tomamos ms de mil muestras. +Esta zona de aqu es el hipocampo. +Se relaciona con el aprendizaje y la memoria +y contribuye con cerca de 70 muestras de esas miles. +Por eso cada muestra nos da unos 50.000 datos con medidas repetidas, y hay unas mil muestras. +Hay unos 50 millones de datos para cada cerebro. +Hasta ahora tenemos datos equivalentes a dos cerebros. +Hemos juntado todo en una sola cosa y les mostrar el aspecto de esa sntesis. +Bsicamente es un gran conjunto de informacin disponible gratis para cualquier cientfico del mundo. +Ni siquiera deben registrarse para usar esta herramienta para analizar los datos y encontrar algo interesante. +Estas son las modalidades que consolidamos. +Empezarn a reconocer cosas a partir de lo ya habamos recolectado. +Esta es la RM que proporciona el marco. +Hay un control a la derecha que permite girar, permite aumentar, permite resaltar estructuras individuales. +Pero, lo ms importante, ahora mapeamos en este marco anatmico, un marco comn para que se entienda dnde se activan los genes. +Los niveles rojos son lugares en los que se activan mucho los genes. +Las zonas verdes son ms bien fras, no se encienden. +Y cada gen deja una huella. +Recuerden que analizamos los 25.000 genes del genoma y que tenemos todos los datos disponibles. +Qu pueden aprender los cientficos de estos datos? +Empezamos a ver estos datos nosotros mismos. +Hay cosas bsicas que querramos entender. +Dos grandes ejemplos son los medicamentos Prozac y Wellbutrin. +Son antidepresivos recetados comnmente. +Recuerden que analizamos genes. +Los genes envan instrucciones para crear protenas. +Las protenas son el objetivo de los medicamentos. +Las medicinas se adhieren a las protenas y las apagan, etc. +Si queremos entender el funcionamiento de los medicamentos entender cmo actan de la forma que queremos, y tambin de la forma que no queremos. +Sus efectos secundarios, etc., queremos ver dnde se activan esos genes. +Y, por primera vez, podemos hacerlo. +Podemos hacerlo en varias personas analizadas. +Ahora miraremos en el cerebro. +Podemos ver esta huella nica. +Y tenemos una confirmacin +de que, de hecho, el gen se activa con Prozac en estructuras serotoninrgicas, algo de lo que ya se sabe que afecta pero tambin podemos ver el todo. +Tambin vemos zonas que nadie ha visto antes y all vemos esos genes encendidos. +Es muy interesante como efecto secundario. +Otra cosa que se puede hacer con algo as dado que es un ejercicio de comparacin de patrones, porque hay una huella nica, podemos barrer todo el genoma y encontrar otras protenas que tengan una huella similar. +As que si investigan medicinas, por ejemplo, pueden analizar todo un listado de lo que el genoma ofrece para encontrar quiz mejores objetivos y optimizarlas. +A muchos les resultarn familiares los estudios sobre el genoma publicados en las noticias y que dicen: "Los cientficos descubrieron el gen o los genes que afectan X". +Los cientficos publican a menudo este tipo de estudios. Y son geniales. Analizan grandes poblaciones. +Miran todos sus genomas y tratan de encontrar zonas de mucha actividad que tengan una relacin causal con los genes. +Pero de estos ejercicios obtenemos una lista de genes. +Se nos dice qu, pero no dnde. +Para los investigadores es muy importante que hayamos creado este recurso. +Ahora pueden venir y empezar a obtener pistas de esa actividad. +Pueden empezar a buscar vas comunes... de otras formas antes inexistentes. +Creo que esta audiencia en particular entiende la importancia de la individualidad. +Pienso que como humanos tenemos diferentes antecedentes genticos, todos vivimos vidas separadas. +Pero el hecho es que son similares en ms del 99%. +Somos similares a nivel gentico. +Y hallamos que incluso a nivel de la bioqumica cerebral somos bastante similares. +Esto demuestra no el 99%, pero casi el 90% de correspondencia en un corte razonable as que todo en la nube est correlacionado. +Luego encontramos valores extremos que estn fuera de la nube. +Y los genes son interesantes pero muy sutiles. +Hay un mensaje importante para llevarse a casa y es que an si bien celebramos las diferencias somos muy similares incluso a nivel cerebral. +Cmo son esas diferencias? +Este es el ejemplo de un estudio que hicimos para analizar esas diferencias y son muy sutiles. +Aqu los genes se encienden en un tipo individual de clula. +Estos dos genes son buenos ejemplos. +Uno se llama RELN... participa en las claves tempranas del desarrollo. +El DISC1 es un gen ausente en la esquizofrenia. +Estas no son personas con esquizofrenia pero muestran cierta variacin de la poblacin. +Y aqu vemos en los donantes uno y cuatro, que son la excepcin a los otros dos, esos genes se activan en un subconjunto muy especfico de clulas. +Este precipitado de color prpura oscuro dentro de la clula nos dice que all hay un gen activo. +Se deba o no a los antecedentes genticos de una persona o a sus experiencias no lo sabemos. +Esos estudios requieren de poblaciones mucho ms grandes. +Terminar con una nota final sobre la complejidad del cerebro y lo que falta por recorrer. +Creo que estos recursos son muy valiosos. +Son una gua para investigadores. +Pero en este momento slo vimos un puado de personas. +Sin duda incorporaremos ms. +Terminar diciendo que las herramientas existen, que es un continente inexplorado, sin descubrir. +Es la nueva frontera, si se quiere. +Y para los intrpidos, intimidados por la complejidad del cerebro, el futuro aguarda. +Gracias. +Cre "Improv Everywhere" hace 10 aos cuando me mud a Nueva York movido por la actuacin y la comedia. +Como era nuevo en la ciudad, no tena acceso a los escenarios por eso decid abrir mis propios espacios pblicos. +El primer proyecto que vamos a ver es el primer "Paseo en metro sin pantalones". +Esto sucedi en enero del 2002. +Esta mujer es la estrella del video. +No sabe que la estn filmando. +La estn filmando con cmara oculta. +Esto ocurre en el tren 6 de Nueva York. +Es la primera parada de la lnea. +Y estos son dos daneses que vienen y se sientan al lado de la cmara oculta. +Ah estoy yo con una capa marrn. +Afuera haca menos de 0C. +Yo tengo sombrero y bufanda. +La muchacha est a punto de verme. +Y ahora me van a ver, no tengo pantalones. +En este momento... en este momento me observa pero en Nueva York hay gente rara en todos los trenes. +Una persona no es algo tan extrao +Sigue leyendo su libro que, por desgracia, se titula "Rape" . +Ella nota algo raro pero contina con su vida normal. +Mientras tanto, tengo seis amigos que estn, slo con su ropa interior, en las siguientes seis paradas consecutivas. +Van a entrar en este vagn uno por uno. +Vamos a comportarnos como si no nos conociramos. +Y haremos como si haber olvidado los pantalones fuera slo una casualidad en este fro da de enero. +En este momento ella decide guardar el libro de la violacin. +Y decide prestar un poquito ms de atencin al entorno. +Mientras tanto, los dos daneses de la izquierda se estn matando de la risa. +Creen que esto es lo ms gracioso que han visto en sus vidas. +Y miren como ahora hace contacto visual con ellos. +Me encanta este momento del video porque antes de que se vuelva una experiencia compartida era algo que quiz daba un poco de miedo o al menos algo confuso para ella. +Pero luego de convertirse en una experiencia compartida fue algo gracioso de lo que poda rerse. +El tren ahora llega a la tercera estacin de la lnea 6. +El video no mostrar todo. +Esto sigue en otras cuatro paradas. +Entraron siete tipos en ropa interior. +En la octava parada entra una nia con una bolsa gigante anunciando que venda pantalones a un dlar como si vendiera bateras o dulces en el tren. +Como si fuera lo ms natural, los compramos y nos los pusimos y le dijimos: "Gracias. Es exactamente lo que necesitaba". Y luego sin decirle nada a nadie salimos en diferentes direcciones. +Gracias. +Este es un cuadro del video. +Me encanta la reaccin de esta muchacha. +Ver ese video ms tarde ese da me inspir a seguir haciendo esto. +En verdad, una de las ideas de "Improv Everywhere" es crear una escena en un lugar pblico, una experiencia positiva para otras personas. +Es una broma, pero una broma que le da a alguien una gran historia para contar. +Y su reaccin me inspir a hacer un segundo "Paseo en metro sin pantalones". +Y lo hemos seguido haciendo cada ao. +En enero pasado hicimos el dcimo "Paseo en metro sin pantalones" con un grupo diverso de 3.500 personas que subieron al tren en Nueva York con ropa interior casi a todas las lneas de trenes de la ciudad. +Y participaron personas en otras 50 ciudades del mundo. +Al comenzar a tomar clases de improvisacin en el Upright Citizens Brigade Theater y conocer otras personas creativas, intrpretes y comediantes empec a acumular una lista de correo de personas que queran participar en estos proyectos. +As que poda hacer proyectos a ms gran escala. +Un da estaba caminando por Union Square, y vi este edificio construido en 2005. +Haba una muchacha en una de las ventanas y estaba bailando. +Fue algo muy singular porque estaba oscuro y estaba iluminada por una luz fluorescente, tena mucha presencia escnica y no pude advertir por qu lo estaba haciendo. +Despus de unos 15 segundos apareci su amiga, que estaba oculta detrs de una pantalla, se rieron, se abrazaron y luego se fueron. +Pareca que la haban desafiado a hacerlo. +Eso me inspir. +Mir la fachada, haba 70 ventanas en total, y supe lo que tena que hacer. +Este proyecto se llam "Buscar Ms". Haba 70 actores vestidos de negro. +Esto estaba completamente prohibido. +Las tiendas no saban que estbamos yendo. +Yo estaba en el parque dando seales. +La primera seal fue para que levanten estas letras de ms de un metro de alto que dicen "Look Up More" (buscar ms) el nombre del proyecto. +La segunda seal fue para que todos salten al mismo tiempo. +Ahora van a ver cmo lo hacen. +Y luego bailamos. Hicimos que todos bailen. +Despus hicimos solos, o bailes individuales, y todo el mundo los sealaba. +Luego hice una nueva seal con la mano al siguiente solista en el lado de abajo en Forever 21 y l bail. +Hubo varias actividades ms. +Hubo personas saltando, personas tirndose al piso. +Yo estaba de pie en forma annima con una sudadera poniendo y sacado la mano del cubo de basura para marcar el avance. +Y como estaba en Union Square, al lado del metro, al final del da haba cientos de personas que pararon a mirar qu estbamos haciendo. +Esta es una buena foto. +Ese evento en particular surgi en un momento por casualidad. +El siguiente proyecto me lleg en un correo electrnico de un desconocido. +Me escribi un chico texano de secundaria en el 2006 y me dijo: "Deberas reunir tanta gente como sea posible con polo azul y pantalones caqui ir a Best Buy y dar vueltas por all". +As que le respond de inmediato a este chico diciendo: "S, tienes razn. +Creo que voy a hacerlo este fin de semana. Gracias". +Este es el video. +De nuevo, esto es en 2005. +Este es el Best Buy de Nueva York. +Participaron unas 80 personas que entraron una por una. +Haba una nia de 8 aos, una de 10 aos. +Particip tambin un hombre de 65 aos. +Un grupo muy diverso de gente. +Y les dije: "No trabajen. No lo hagan. +Pero tampoco compren. +Simplemente caminen y no miren los productos". +Pueden distinguir a los empleados porque tienen etiquetas amarillas en sus camisas. +Todos los dems son actores nuestros. +A los empleados de nivel inferior les pareci muy divertido. +De hecho, varios fueron a buscar sus cmaras a la sala de descanso a sacarse fotos con nosotros. +Muchos bromeaban invitndonos a ir atrs y cargar pesados televisores para los clientes. +A los gerentes y guardias de seguridad, por otro lado, no les caus gracia. +Pueden verlos en esta toma. +Llevan puestas camisas amarillas o negras. +Y estuvimos all quiz 10 minutos hasta que llamaron al 911. +Empezaron a correr dicindole a todos que vena la polica, atencin, que vena la polica. +Y aqu pueden ver a la polica en esta toma. +Ese es un polica vestido de negro, filmado con una cmara oculta. +Finalmente, la polica tuvo que informarle a la gerencia de Best Buy que no era ilegal vestir un polo azul y pantalones caqui. +Gracias. +Estuvimos all 20 minutos; nos alegr salir de la tienda. +Los gerentes trataron de localizar nuestras cmaras. +Y atraparon a un par de mis muchachos que tenan cmaras ocultas en bolsas de lona. +Pero no atraparon al camargrafo que fue con una cinta en blanco a la seccin de cmaras de Best Buy y puso su cinta en una de las cmaras y fingi comprar. +Me gusta esa idea de usar su propia tecnologa en su contra. +Creo que nuestros mejores proyectos ocurren en sitios especficos en un lugar particular por alguna razn. +Una maana yo estaba tomando el metro. +Tena que hacer un cambio en la parada de la calle 53 en la que hay estas dos escaleras gigantes. +Por la maana es un lugar muy deprimente, muy concurrido. +Por eso decid poner algo en escena que lo transformara en un lugar feliz durante una maana. +Esto fue en el invierno de 2009 a las 8:30 de la maana. +La hora pico de la maana. +Afuera hace mucho fro. +Las personas vienen de Queens y pasan del tren E al tren 6. +Estn yendo en estas escaleras gigantes de camino a sus trabajos. +Gracias. +Hay una foto que lo ilustra un poco mejor. +Dio 2.000 palmadas ese da y se lav las manos antes y despus y no se enferm. +Esto tambin lo hicimos sin permiso aunque a nadie pareci importarle. +Dira que en los ltimos aos la principal crtica que veo a Improv Everywhere viene en forma annima en comentarios de YouTube: "Esta gente tiene demasiado tiempo libre". +Es lgico pensar que nuestro trabajo no le va a gustar a todos, y gracias a Internet me he armado una coraza pero eso es algo que siempre me molesta porque no tenemos demasiado tiempo libre. +Quienes participan de eventos de Improv Everywhere tienen el mismo tiempo libre que cualquier otro neoyorquino slo que a veces eligen pasarlo de manera poco comn. +Ya saben, todos los sbados y domingos cientos de miles de personas cada otoo se renen en estadios de ftbol a ver partidos. +Y no he visto a nadie decir, al ver un partido de ftbol, "Toda esta gente de las gradas tiene demasiado tiempo libre". +Por supuesto que no es as. +Es una manera perfecta de pasar la tarde del fin de semana mirando ftbol en un estado. +Pero creo que tambin es perfectamente vlido pasar la tarde helndose en un lugar con 200 personas en la terminal Grand Central o disfrazarse de cazafantasmas y correr por la Biblioteca Pblica de Nueva York. +O escuchar el mismo mp3 que otras 3.000 personas y bailar en silencio en un parque o irrumpir con una cancin en una tienda como parte de un musical espontneo o meterse al mar en Coney Island con vestimenta formal. +Ya saben, de nios nos ensearon a jugar. +Nunca nos dieron una razn por la que deberamos jugar. +Simplemente aceptamos que jugar es bueno. +Y creo que esa es la idea de "Improv Everywhere". +Que no tiene sentido; no tiene que tener sentido. +No hace falta una razn. +Si es divertido y parece que va a ser una idea divertida y parece que la gente que lo va a ver se va a divertir eso es suficiente para nosotros. +Y creo que como adultos tenemos que aprender que no hay maneras buenas o malas de jugar. +Muchas gracias. +Texto: Jetman - Yves Rossy Gran Can Narrador: Muchas de las pruebas se llevan a cabo con Yves atado a las alas, porque su cuerpo es parte integral del aparato. +Texto: Pruebas en el tnel de viento. Narrador: Las alas no tienen control de direccin, ni alerones, ni timn. +Yves usa su cuerpo para direccionar las alas. +Stefan von Bergen: Gira simplemente volteando la cabeza a un lado u otro. +En ocasiones se ayuda con las manos, o an con la pierna. +Es decir, acta como un fuselaje humano. +Eso es nico. +Narrador: Si arquea la espalda, gana altura. +Si empuja hacia adelante los hombros, se va en picada. +Texto: Alpes suizos Cruzando el estrecho de Gibraltar Cruzando el canal de la Mancha Cronista: Ah va. +Es Yves Rossy. +Parece que se abrieron las alas, estn abiertas. +Primer momento crtico, estn abiertas. +Est bajando. Est volando? +Cronista 2: Parece que se ha estabilizado. +Comienza a ascender. +Cronista: Ah est ese giro de 90 grados del que hablaba, lo saca. +Sali fuera, sobre el canal. +Ah est Yves Rossy. +Ahora ya no hay regreso. +Est sobre el canal de la Mancha, en camino. +Seoras y seores, ha comenzado un vuelo histrico. +Cronista 2: Lo que va a hacer al acercarse al piso es tirar de esas palancas para encender, desacelerar un poco y luego aproximarse para un aterrizaje suave. +Cronista: Ah va. +Yves Rossy ha aterrizado en Inglaterrra. +Bruno Giussani: Y ahora est en Edimburgo. Yves Rossy. +Tambin con su equipo. +Bienvenido Yves. Es maravilloso. +Esas tomas se hicieron en los ltimos tres aos en varios momentos de tus actividades. +Haba muchas, muchas ms. +As que es posible volar casi como un ave. +Cmo se siente all arriba? +Yves Rossy: Es divertido. Muy divertido. +No tengo plumas. +Pero a veces me siento como un pjaro. +En verdad, una sensacin irreal, porque usualmente se tiene algo grande que te cubre, como un avin. +Y cuando me ajusto estos pequeos arneses, estas pequeas alas, tengo la sensacin real de ser un ave. +BG: Cmo comenzaste a ser Jetman? +YR: Fue hace como 20 aos cuando descubr la cada libre. +Cuando saltas de un avin ests casi desnudo. +Tomas una posicin como esta. +Y especialmente al colocarte en posicin de rastreo, tienes la sensacin de ir volando. +Y esto es lo ms cercano a un sueo. +No tienes ninguna mquina a tu alrededor. +Ests solo en tu elemento. +Es muy breve y vas en una sola direccin. +La idea era: "bien, sostn esa sensacin de libertad, pero cambia el vector y alarga el tiempo". +BG: Por curiosidad, cul es tu velocidad mxima? +YR: Es como 300 km por hora antes de un bucle. +Es decir, como 190 millas por hora. +BG: Y cunto pesa el equipo que llevas? +YR: Al salir, lleno de combustible, pesa como 55 kilos. +Llevo 55 kilos a la espalda. +BG: Y no lo diriges? +No hay palanca ni timn ni nada? +Es slo tu cuerpo? Las alas se vuelven parte del cuerpo y viceversa? +YR: De eso se trata, porque si le agregas un timn, ests reinventando el avin. +Yo quera conservar la libertad de movimiento. +Es como un chico jugando a los aviones. +Quiero bajar as. +Y subir y voltear. +Es realmente puro vuelo. +No es manejo, slo vuelo. +BG: Qu clase de entrenamiento hiciste, personalmente, para esto? +YR: En realidad slo trato de mantenerme en forma. +No tengo ningn entrenamiento fsico especial. +Slo trato de conservarme gil con nuevas actividades. +Por ejemplo, el invierno pasado comenc a hacer kitesurfing; +y otras cosas nuevas. +Tienes que adaptarte. +Porque es... Tengo experiencia en manejar sistemas como piloto... pero en realidad... se requiere fluidez. Tienes que mantenerte gil y adaptarte con gran rapidez. +BG: Alguien de la audiencia me pregunt "Cmo hace para respirar all arriba?", +porque vas muy rpido y ests como a 3000 m. +YR: Bueno, estar a 3000 metros no es un gran problema con el oxgeno. +Por ejemplo, los motociclistas llevan esa misma velocidad. +Con el casco, ese casco integral, no hay ningn problema para respirar. +BG: Descrbeme el equipo que tienes aqu. +Cuatro motores Breitling. +YR: S, envergadura de dos metros. +Un perfil superestable. +Cuatro pequeos motores, cada turbina produce 22 kilos de empuje y funcionan con queroseno. +Arnses, paracadas. +Los nicos instrumentos son un altmetro y un reloj. +S que tengo combustible como para 8 minutos. +As que reviso antes de que se agote. +S, eso es todo. +Dos paracadas. +Por si tengo problemas con el primero, todava tengo la posibilidad de abrir el segundo. +Se trata de mi vida. +Es bien importante todo lo relacionado con la seguridad. +En verdad los us, en los ltimos 15 aos, unas 20 veces. +Nunca con este tipo de alas, sino al principio. +Puedo liberar las alas si voy en un remolino o estoy inestable. +BG: Vimos el cruce del estrecho de Gibraltar del 2009 cuando perdiste el control y te fuiste en picada por las nubes hacia el mar. +Ese fue uno de aquellos casos en que tuviste que liberar las alas, correcto? +YR: S. Trat de hacerlo en las nubes, pero haba perdido la orientacin por completo. +Entonces trat de tomar de nuevo un ascenso. +Pens, bueno, saldr. +Pero probablemente hice algo as. +BG: Algo que no parece muy seguro en la imagen. +YR: Pero se siente delicioso, aunque no tenga la altura correcta. +Lo siguiente que v fue todo azul: +era el mar. +Tambin tengo un altmetro sonoro. +Y estaba a una altura mnima en ese vector as que lo accion +y abr el paracadas. +BG: Entonces las alas tienen su propio paracadas y t tienes los tuyos. +YR: As es. Hay un paracadas de rescate para las alas por dos razones: para poderlas reparar despus y especialmente para que no le caigan en la cabeza a alguien. +BG: Veo. Vuelve aqu. +Es algo ciertamente riesgoso. +Ciertas personas han muerto tratando de hacer esto. +No pareces un tipo loco; eres un piloto comercial suizo, eres de los que revisan con lista. +Supongo que tienes tus normas. +YR: S. Pero no tengo lista de revisiones. +BG: No se lo digamos a tus jefes. +YR: No. Son dos mundos distintos. +En la aviacin civil hay que saberlo todo muy bien. +Hay cien aos de experiencia. +Y uno se puede adaptar bien, con precisin. +Con esto, tengo que adaptarme a algo nuevo. +O sea, hay que improvisar. +Es un juego entre dos enfoques distintos. +Algo que conozco muy bien, por ejemplo, estos principios bsicos, +en un Airbus hay dos turbinas y puedes volar con una sola. +Hay un plan B. Siempre lo hay. +En uno de combate hay silla de expulsin. +Esta es mi silla de expulsin. +Tengo el sentido de un piloto profesional con el respeto de un explorador frente a la madre naturaleza. +BG: Bien dicho. Muy bien dicho. +Qu pasa si se detiene uno de los motores? +YR: Doy vueltas. +Y luego me estabilizo, y segn la altura, contino con dos o tres motores. +A veces es posible. +No es fcil de explicar, pero segn el rgimen en que vaya, puedo continuar con dos, trato de buscar un lugar adecuado para aterrizar y luego abro el paracadas. +BG: Para iniciar el vuelo tienes que saltar de un avin o un helicptero, entras en picada y aceleras los motores para arrancar en pleno vuelo. +Y luego para el aterrizaje, como hemos visto, llegas a este lado del canal con un paracadas. +Por curiosidad, en dnde aterrizaste cuando volaste sobre el Gran Can? +Aterrizaste en el borde o all abajo? +YR: Fue all abajo, en el fondo. +Y luego volv en el patn de un helicptero. +Pero arriba haba muchas piedras y cactus. +BG: Por eso te preguntaba. +YR: Adems hay corrientes all muy raras. +Mucha actividad trmica y grandes diferencias en altura. +As, era mucho ms seguro aterrizar en el fondo. +BG: Pienso que ahora mismo, muchos en la audiencia se estn preguntando "Cundo desarrollar uno de dos puestos para volar con l?". +YR: Tengo una respuesta estndar. +Han visto alguna vez aves en tndem? +BG: Respuesta perfecta. +Yves, una ltima pregunta. +Qu ser lo prximo? Qu ms har el Jetman? +YR: Primero, entrenar a un joven. +Quiero compartirlo, para volar en formacin. +Tambin pienso arrancar de una montaa, lanzndome de un pico. +BG: En lugar de saltar de un avin, no? +YR: S, con el objetivo de despegar, pero con velocidad inicial. +En verdad, voy paso a paso. +Parece un poco loco, pero no lo es. +Sera posible empezar ahora, pero todava es muy peligroso. +Con tecnologas ms avanzadas, mejoradas, ser ms seguro. +Espero que todos lo puedan usar. +BG: Yves, Gracias, muchas gracias. Yves Rossy. +Siempre he tenido fascinacin por los computadores y la tecnologa, y he hecho algunas aplicaciones para iPhone, iPod Touch y iPad. +Quisiera mostrarles un par hoy. +Mi primera aplicacin fue un adivino especial llamado Tierra Fortuna que muestra la Tierra de diferentes colores dependiendo de cul sea tu fortuna. +Mi aplicacin favorita y la ms exitosa es Bustin Jieber, que es un un... que es un "Golpea con Mazo" a Justin Bieber. +Lo cre porque a muchas personas en el colegio les desagrada un poco Justin Bieber, as que decid hacer una aplicacin. +As que me puse a trabajar en programarlo y lo publiqu justo antes de las fiestas del 2010. +Mucha gente me pregunta, cmo haces eso? +Muchas veces es porque quien me lo pregunta quiere hacer una aplicacin tambin. +Hoy a muchos nios les gusta jugar estos juegos pero ahora quieren hacerlos, y es difcil, porque pocos saben a dnde ir para encontrar cmo hacer un programa. +Quiero decir, para ftbol, vas a un equipo de ftbol. +Para violn, tomas clases de violn. +Pero si quieres hacer una aplicacin? +Sus padres quiz hicieron algo de estas cosas cuando eran jvenes, pero pocos padres escribieron aplicaciones. A dnde ir para encontrar cmo hacer una aplicacin? +Bien, este fue mi enfoque. Esto fue lo que hice. +Primero que todo, he estado programando en muchos otros lenguajes de programacin para adquirir los conceptos bsicos, como Python, C, Java, etc. +Y luego Apple lanz el iPhone, y con l, las herramientas de desarrollo de programas para iPhone que es un grupo de herramientas para crear y programar aplicaciones para iPhone. +Esto me abri un mundo completo de nuevas posibilidades y luego de jugar un poco con el equipo de desarrollo de programas, hice un par de aplicaciones, prob algunas. +Una de ellas termin siendo Tierra Fortuna y estaba listo para ponerla en la Tienda de aplicaciones, as que convenc a mis padres de pagar los 99 dlares para poder poner mis aplicaciones en la Tienda. [App Store]. +Aceptaron y ahora tengo aplicaciones en la Tienda. +He logrado mucho inters y estmulo de mi familia, amigos, profesores e incluso de personas de la Tienda Apple, que han sido una gran ayuda para m. +He encontrado mucha inspiracin en Steve Jobs y he comenzado un club de aplicaciones en el colegio, y un profesor del colegio, amablemente, patrocina mi club. +Cualquier estudiante del colegio puede venir y aprender a disear una aplicacin. +As puedo compartir mis experiencias con otros. +Existen unos programas llamados Programa Piloto del iPad y muchos distritos los tienen. +Tengo la fortuna de ser parte de uno. +Un gran reto es, cmo deben usarse los iPads y cules aplicaciones deben ponerse en los iPads? +As que estamos recibiendo comentarios de los profesores del colegio para ver qu aplicaciones les gustaran. +Cuando diseamos una aplicacin y la vendemos, ser gratis para los distritos locales, y lo que vendemos a otros distritos, se usar para las fundaciones de educacin locales. +Hoy, los estudiantes normalmente saben de tecnologa un poco ms que los profesores. As que... perdn... as que es un recurso para los profesores, y los educadores deben reconocer este recurso y hacer un buen uso de l. +Quisiera terminar diciendo lo que quisiera hacer en el futuro. +Primero que todo, quisiera crear ms aplicaciones, ms juegos. +Estoy trabajando con una tercera compaa para hacer una aplicacin. +Me gustara adentrarme en programacin y desarrollo en Android y quisiera continuar con mi club de aplicaciones y encontrar otras formas de que los estudiantes compartan su conocimiento con otros. Gracias. +Alguna vez han querido permanecer jvenes un poco ms y retrasar el envejecimiento? +Este ha sido el sueo por siglos. +Pero los cientficos durante un largo periodo han pensado que esto simplemente sera imposible. +Pensaban que uno se desgasta y no hay nada que hacer... como un zapato viejo. +Pero si miramos la naturaleza, veremos que diferentes tipos de animales pueden tener esperanzas de vida muy distintas. +Ahora, estos animales son diferentes unos de otros porque tienen diferentes genes. +Esto sugiere que en algn lugar de esos genes, en algn lugar del ADN, hay genes para el envejecimiento, genes que les permiten tener diferentes esperanzas de vida. +Si hay genes as, entonces podemos imaginar que si pudiramos cambiar uno de esos genes en un experimento, un gen del envejecimiento, tal vez se podra retrasar el envejecimiento y extender la esperanza de vida. +Y, de hacerlo, podramos encontrar genes para el envejecimiento. +Y si existen y los encontramos, tal vez uno podra eventualmente hacer algo con eso. +As que comenzamos a buscar genes que controlan el envejecimiento. +Y no estudiamos ninguno de estos animales. +En cambio, estudiamos un gusanito redondo llamado C. elegans, del tamao de una coma en una oracin. +ramos muy optimistas de que encontraramos algo porque hubo un reporte de un mutante de vida longeva. +As que empezamos a cambiar genes al azar, buscando animales longevos. +Y tuvimos la fortuna de encontrar que las mutaciones que daan un solo gen llamado daf-2 duplican la esperanza de vida del gusanito. +As que pueden ver en negro, despus de un mes -tienen una vida muy corta; es por eso que nos gusta estudiarlos para estudios de envejecimiento- en negro, despus de un mes, todos los gusanos normales estn muertos. +Pero en ese momento, la mayora de los gusanos mutantes siguen vivos. +Y no es sino hasta el doble de tiempo que todos estn muertos. +Y ahora quiero mostrarles cmo se ven realmente en esta pelcula. +As que lo primero que vern es el gusano normal cuando tiene la edad de un estudiante universitario; un adulto joven. +Es un lindo gusanito. +Lo siguiente que vern es el mutante longevo cuando es joven. +As que estos animales vivirn el doble. +Est triste? No parece. +Est activo. No se nota la diferencia. +Son completamente frtiles... tienen la misma descendencia que los gusanos normales. +Ahora saquen sus pauelos. +Vern, en slo dos semanas, los gusanos normales ya son viejos. +All ven la pequea cabeza movindose en la parte inferior. +Pero todo lo dems slo est ah. +El animal est claramente en el asilo. +Y si observan los tejidos del animal, se estn comenzando a deteriorar. +Saben, an si nunca han visto uno de estos pequeos C. elegans -probablemente la mayora de Uds nunca ha visto uno- pueden darse cuenta de que son viejos, no es interesante? +As que hay algo en el envejecimiento que es universal. +Este es el mutante daf-2. +Se cambia un gen de los 20.000, y mrenlo. +Tiene la misma edad, pero no est en el asilo; se va a esquiar. +Esto es realmente genial: est envejeciendo lentamente. +A un gusano le lleva dos das envejecer tanto como el gusano normal en un da. +Y cuando cuento esto, se piensa en una persona de 80 o 90 aos que se ve muy bien para tener 80 o 90. +Pero en realidad se parece ms a esto: digamos que uno tiene 30 aos -o treinta y pico- es soltero y sale con alguien. +Y conoce a alguien que realmente te gusta, llega a conocerla. +Uno est en un restaurant, y dice: "Qu edad tienes?" +Ella dice: "Tengo 60". +Es as. No nos daramos cuenta. +No lo sabramos hasta que lo dijera. +Bien. +Entonces qu es el gen daf-2? +Bueno, como saben, los genes, que son parte del ADN, son instrucciones para hacer una protena que hace algo. +Y el gen daf-2 codifica un receptor hormonal. +Lo que ven en esta imagen es una clula con un receptor hormonal en rojo que atraviesa el borde de la clula. +As que una parte es como un guante de bisbol. +Una parte est en el exterior, y est atrapando a la hormona cuando pasa en verde. +Y la otra aparte est en el interior donde enva seales hacia la clula. +Bien, entonces qu le dice el receptor daf-2 al interior de la clula? +Acabo de contrselos, si hacen una mutacin en el gen daf-2 celular, obtienen un receptor que no funciona tan bien; el animal vive ms tiempo. +Significa que la funcin normal de este receptor hormonal es acelerar el envejecimiento. +Eso significa esa flecha. +Acelera el envejecimiento. Hace que sea ms rpido. +Es como si el animal tuviera a la parca dentro de s, acelerando el envejecimiento. +As que esto es en conjunto muy, muy interesante. +Nos dice que el envejecimiento est sujeto al control gentico, y especialmente por hormonas. +Qu tipo de hormonas son estas? +Hay muchas hormonas. Est la testosterona, la adrenalina, +Saben bastante de ellas. +Estas hormonas son similares a las hormonas que tenemos en nuestros cuerpos. +El receptor hormonal daf-2 es muy semejante al receptor para la hormona insulina y la IGF-1 +Todos han escuchado al menos de la insulina. +Es una hormona que promueve la adquisicin de nutrientes hacia los tejidos despus de haber comido. +Y la hormona IGF-1 promueve el crecimiento. +Conocamos estas hormonas desde hace tiempo, pero nuestros estudios sugieren que tal vez tengan una tercera funcin que nadie saba; tal vez tambin afectan al envejecimiento. +Y parece que ese es el caso. +As que despus de nuestros descubrimientos con C. elegans, las personas que trabajaban con otros tipos de animales comenzaron a preguntarse, si hacemos la misma mutacin daf-2, la mutacin del receptor hormonal, en otros animales, vivirn ms tiempo? +Y as es en el caso de las moscas. +Si se cambia esta ruta hormonal en las moscas, viven ms tiempo. +Y tambin en los ratones... que son mamferos como nosotros. +As que es una ruta antigua, porque debera haber surgido hace mucho tiempo en la evolucin para que siga funcionando en todos estos animales. +Y tambin, el precursor comn que le dio origen a las personas. +As que tal vez funcione en las personas de la misma manera. +Y hay indicios de ello. +As que, por ejemplo, se hizo un estudio en una poblacin de judos asquenaz de Nueva York. +Y, como cualquier poblacin, la mayora de las personas vivan entre 70 y 80 aos, pero algunas vivan hasta 90 o 100. +Y lo que encontraron fue que las personas que vivieron hasta los 90 o 100 era muy probable que tuvieran mutaciones daf-2, es decir, cambios en el gen que codifica el receptor de IGF-1. +Y estos cambios hicieron que el gen no actuara tan bien como lo habra hecho el gen normal. +Da al gen. +As que esos son indicios que sugieren que los humanos somos susceptibles a los efectos de las hormonas del envejecimiento. +As que la siguiente pregunta, desde luego, es: Hay algn efecto en las enfermedades relacionadas con la edad? +Al envejecer, es mucho ms probable padecer cncer, Alzheimer, enfermedades cardacas, todo tipo de enfermedades. +Resulta que estos mutantes longevos son ms resistentes a todas estas enfermedades. +Difcilmente les da cncer, y cuando les da, no es tan severo. +Es muy interesante, y en cierta forma tiene sentido que sigan jvenes, por qu tendran enfermedades de la vejez antes de ser viejos? +Esto sugiere que, si pudiramos tener una terapia o una pastilla que tomar para replicar algunos de estos efectos en los humanos, tal vez tendramos una forma de combatir muchas enfermedades distintas relacionadas con la edad, todas al mismo tiempo. +Cmo puede una hormona afectar la tasa de envejecimiento? +Cmo podra funcionar eso? +Bueno, resulta que en los mutantes daf-2, varios de los genes se activan en el ADN que codifica para protenas que protegen a las clulas y los tejidos, y reparan el dao. +Y se activan mediante una protena reguladora de genes llamada FOXO. +As que en un mutante daf-2... ven que tengo la X dibujada aqu a travs del receptor. +El receptor no est funcionando tan bien. +Bajo esas condiciones, la protena FOXO en azul ha pasado al ncleo, ese pequeo compartimiento ah en medio de la clula, y reposa sobre un gen enlazndose a l. +Ven un gen. Hay varios genes que se enlazan a FOXO. +Y slo se posa sobre uno de ellos. +As que FOXO enciende varios genes. +Entre los genes que activa estn los antioxidantes; genes que llamo dadores-de-zanahoria, cuyos productos proteicos ayudan a otras protenas a funcionar bien, a doblarse correctamente y funcionar correctamente. +Y pueden tambin escoltarlos hacia los basureros de la clula y reciclarlos si estn daados. +Los genes reparadores de ADN son mucho ms activos en estos animales. +Y el sistema inmune est ms activo. +Muchos de estos genes distintos, hemos demostrado, contribuyen a la vida longeva del mutante daf-2. +As que es muy interesante. +Estos animales tienen dentro de s la capacidad latente de vivir mucho ms de lo normal. +Tienen la habilidad de protegerse de muchos tipos de dao, y es lo que creemos que los hace vivir ms. +Qu hay respecto al gusano normal? +Bueno cuando el receptor daf-2 est activo, entonces activa una serie de eventos que evitan que FOXO entre al ncleo donde est el ADN. +No puede activar los genes. +As funciona. Por eso no vemos la longevidad, hasta que tenemos al mutante daf-2. +Pero qu beneficio hay para el gusano? +Bueno, pensamos que las hormonas insulina e IGF-1 estn particularmente activas bajo condiciones favorables -en los buenos tiempos- cuando la comida es abundante y no hay estrs ambiental. +Entonces promueven la obtencin de nutrientes. +Pueden almacenar comida, usarla para obtener energa, crecer, etc. +Pero bajo condiciones de estrs, los niveles de estas hormonas disminuyen; por ejemplo, teniendo una fuente limitada de alimento. +Y as, pensamos, el animal registra una seal de peligro, una seal de que las cosas no estn bien y de que debera cambiar su capacidad de proteger. +Por eso activa a FOXO, FOXO va al ADN, y eso activa la expresin de estos genes que mejoran la habilidad de la clula de protegerse y repararse a s misma. +Y pensamos que es por eso que los animales viven ms. +As que pueden pensar en FOXO como el conserje del edificio. +Tal vez sea un poco loco, pero ah est, se encarga del edificio. +Pero se est deteriorando. +Y entonces, sbitamente, se entera de que viene un huracn. +As que l no hace mucho. +Toma el telfono, como FOXO toma el ADN, y llama al reparador de techos, a la persona de las ventanas, al pintor, al que pone los pisos. +Y todos van a fortificar la casa. +Entonces llega el huracn, y la casa est en mejor condicin de lo que estara normalmente. +Y no slo eso, tambin puede durar ms, an si no hay un huracn. +Pensamos que esa es la razn de esta habilidad para extender la vida. +Ahora, lo genial de FOXO es que tiene diferentes formas. +Todos tenemos genes FOXO, pero no todos tenemos exactamente la misma forma de gen FOXO. +As como todos tenemos ojos, pero algunos los tenemos azules y otros marrones. +Hay ciertas formas del gen FOXO que se presentan con mayor frecuencia en personas que viven hasta los 90 o 100. +Y es as en todo el mundo, como pueden ver por estas estrellas. +Cada una representa una poblacin donde los cientficos han preguntado: "hay diferencias en el tipo de gen FOXO entre las personas que viven una vida longeva?"; las hay. +No conocemos los detalles del funcionamiento pero s sabemos que los genes FOXO pueden tener un impacto en la longevidad de las personas. +Y eso significa que, tal vez si lo modificamos un poco, podramos incrementar la salud y longevidad de las personas. +Esto es muy emocionante para m. +Un FOXO es una protena que encontramos en estos gusanitos redondos que afectan la longevidad, y aqu afectan la longevidad en las personas. +En el laboratorio intentamos desarrollar medicamentos que activen esta clula FOXO usando clulas humanas para intentar obtener medicamentos que retrasen el envejecimiento y las enfermedades relacionadas a ste. +Soy muy optimista de que esto funcionar. +Hay muchas protenas distintas que se sabe que afectan el envejecimiento. +Y, para al menos una de ellas, hay un medicamento. +Hay uno llamado TOR, que es otro sensor de nutrientes, como la ruta de la insulina. +Y las mutaciones que daan al gen TOR, como con las mutaciones daf-2, extienden la esperanza de vida en gusanos, en moscas y ratones. +Pero en este caso, hay un medicamento disponible llamado rapamicina que se enlaza con la protena TOR e inhibe su actividad. +Se puede tomar rapamicina y drsela a un ratn an cuando es bastante viejo, como un humano a los 60, en un ratn, uno le da al ratn rapamicina, y vivir ms tiempo. +Ahora, no quiero que todos vayan a tomar rapamicina. +Es un medicamento para las personas, pero la razn es que suprime el sistema inmune. +As que las personas lo toman para prevenir el rechazo de trasplantes de rganos. +No es el medicamento perfecto para mantenerse joven por ms tiempo. +Pero an as, hoy en el 2011, hay una droga que se le puede dar a los ratones en una edad avanzada que prolongar sus vidas, lo que resulta de esta ciencia probada en todos estos animales. +Por eso soy bastante optimista y creo que no pasar mucho tiempo, espero, antes de que este sueo de edad avanzada comience a ser realidad. +Gracias. +Matt Ridley: Gracias, Cynthia. +Djame aclararlo. +Aunque ests buscando un medicamento que pueda solucionar el envejecimiento en hombres viejos como yo, se podra comenzar en el laboratorio, si se permitiera ticamente, una vida humana desde cero con genes alterados que haran que viva ms tiempo? +CK: Ah, los medicamentos de los que hablaba no cambiaran los genes, sino que slo se uniran a la protena misma para cambiar su actividad. +As que, si dejas de tomar el medicamento, la protena vuelve a la normalidad. +Podras cambiar los genes en principio. +No hay ninguna tecnologa para hacerlo. +Pero no creo que sea una buena idea. +Y la razn es que estas hormonas como la hormona insulina y la IGF y la ruta de TOR, son esenciales. +Si los eliminas por completo, entonces ests muy enfermo. +As que podra ser que quieras ajustarlo con precisin con mucho cuidado para conseguir los beneficios sin tener problemas. +Y creo que es mucho mejor, ese tipo de control sera mucho mejor como medicamento. +Y tambin, hay otras formas de activar a FOXO que ni siquiera involucran a la insulina o IGF-1 eso podra ser an ms seguro. +MR: No estaba sugiriendo que lo fuera a hacer, pero... +Hay un fenmeno sobre el que has escrito y hablado, una senectud insignificante. +Ya hay algunos seres en este planeta que no envejecen. +Muvete a un lado, por favor. +CK: Ah estn. Ah hay unos animales que aparentemente no envejecen. +Por ejemplo, estn las llamadas tortugas de Blanding. +Y crecen hasta ser ms o menos de este tamao. +Y se han etiquetado y se han encontrado hasta de 70 aos. +Y cuando ves a estas tortugas de 70 aos, no puedes notar la diferencia, slo con verlas, entre esas tortugas y unas de 20 aos. +Y las de 70 aos, de hecho son mejores para buscar lugares de anidamiento, y tambin tienen ms descendencia cada ao. +Hay otros ejemplos de este tipo de animales, de forma similar, algunos tipos de aves son as. +Y nadie sabe si realmente pueden vivir para siempre, o qu les impide envejecer. +No est claro. +Si vemos a las aves, que tienen una vida larga, sus clulas tienden a ser ms resistentes ante varios tipos de estrs ambiental como las altas temperaturas o el perxido de hidrgeno, cosas as. +Y tambin es as con nuestros mutantes longevos. +Son ms resistentes a este tipo de estrs. +As que podra ser que las rutas de las que les he hablado, que ocurren realmente rpido en los gusanos, tengan un punto de inicio normal distinto en algo como un ave, para que las aves puedan vivir ms tiempo. +Y tal vez incluso estn determinadas de forma muy distinta en animales sin senectud; pero no lo sabemos. +MR: Pero de lo que ests hablando aqu no es de extender la esperanza de vida evitando la muerte, sino de prolongar la juventud. +CK: S, correcto. +Es como, digamos, si fueras un perro. +Te das cuenta de que ests envejeciendo, y observas a tu humano y piensas, "Por qu no est envejeciendo este humano? +No estn envejeciendo en el tiempo de vida canino. +Se parece a eso. +Los humanos ahora miramos e imaginamos un ser humano diferente. +MR: Muchas gracias, Cynthia Kenyon. +Ante todo, quisiera disculparme ante Uds. porque no tengo una presentacin en PowerPoint. +As, lo que har, de vez en cuando, es este gesto, y en el momento del PowerPoint, imaginen lo que les gustara ver. +Hago un programa de radio, +llamado La jaula infinita del mono. +Y trata de la ciencia, del racionalismo. +Por eso recibimos muchas quejas cada semana... Una muy frecuente es por el ttulo mismo, La jaula infinita del mono, que oficia la idea de la viviseccin. +Hemos dejado muy claro a estas personas que una jaula infinita de monos es espaciosa. +Incluso hubo una persona que dijo: La idea de Una jaula infinita de monos es ridcula. +Un nmero infinito de monos nunca podra escribir las obras de Shakespeare. +Lo sabemos, porque ellos hicieron un experimento. +S, le dieron a 12 monos una mquina de escribir durante una semana, tras ese lapso, la usaron slo de cuarto de bao. +Sin embargo, el elemento primordial, la queja principal y que me parece ms preocupante, es la que la gente dice: Oh, por qu insisten en arruinar la magia? +Al traernos la ciencia, arruinas la magia +Estoy graduado en arte; amo el mito, la magia, el existencialismo y el autodesprecio. +Eso es lo que hago. +Pero no entiendo, por qu eso arruina la magia. +Creo que toda la magia, que pudiera evitar la ciencia, se sustituye por lo maravilloso. +Por ejemplo, la Astrologa, y como muchos racionalistas, soy Piscis. +Ahora bien, la Astrologa, eliminamos la idea banal, de que su vida se puede predecir, que tal vez, encuentre a un hombre afortunado que usa un sombrero. +Eso est terminado. +Pero si queremos mirar al cielo y ver predicciones, todava podemos. +Podemos predecir la formacin de las galaxias, de stas colisionando entre s, de nuevos sistemas solares. +Esto es algo maravilloso. +Si un da el Sol pudiera -e incluso la Tierra tambin- si la Tierra pudiera leer su carta astrolgica y astronmica, un da dira: No es un buen da para hacer planes. +Un gigante rojo le atrapar. +Lo mismo se aplicara si pensaran que me preocupa la prdida de los mundos, es decir, la Teora de los universos mltiples, una de las ideas ms hermosas, fascinantes, a veces aterradora de la interpretacin cuntica, es una cosa maravillosa. +Y es que, cada persona aqu, cada decisin que han tomado hoy, cada decisin tomada en su vida, no la han tomado en realidad, sino que cada permutacin de esas decisiones se desva a un nuevo universo. +Esa es una idea asombrosa. +Y si alguna vez piensan que su vida es una basura, siempre recuerden que hay otros que han tomado decisiones mucho peores. +Y si alguna vez pensaron: Ah, quiero acabar con todo. No lo hagan. +Recuerden que en la mayora de los universos, Uds. ni siquiera existen. +Y esto para m, extraamente, es muy, muy reconfortante. +Ahora la reencarnacin, el ms all, esa es otra cosa que ya ha pasado. +Pero no del todo. +De hecho la ciencia afirma que viviremos eternamente. +Bueno, hay una salvedad. +No viviremos eternamente, Uds. tampoco. +La conciencia de su propio ser, la conciencia de mi yo, eso no perdurar. +Pero aquellas cosas de las que estamos formados, cada tomo en nosotros, ya ha creado una infinidad de cosas diferentes y crear miles de cosas nuevas. +Hemos sido montaas, manzanas, plsares y las rodillas de los dems. +Quien sabe, tal vez uno de sus tomos fue la rodilla de Napolen. +Eso es bueno. +A diferencia de los habitantes del universo, el universo no es malgastador. +Somos totalmente reciclables. +Y cuando morimos, ni siquiera se nos tiene que colocar en bolsas de residuos diferentes. +Esa es una cosa fabulosa. +Para m, comprender esto, no le quita lo maravilloso ni la alegra. +Por ejemplo, podra ser que mi esposa me preguntara: Por qu me amas? +Y con toda honestidad puedo mirarla a los ojos y decir: porque nuestras feromonas coincidieron con nuestros receptores. +Aunque tambin podra decir algo sobre su cabello y personalidad. +Y esa es una cosa sorprendente. +El amor no muere por esas cosas. +El dolor no desaparece tampoco. +Esto es algo terrible, aunque comprendo el dolor. +Si alguien me golpea y debido a mi personalidad, ocurre regularmente... Puedo comprender de donde proviene el dolor. +Es bsicamente empuje de energa, donde el cuarto vector es constante; eso es. +Pero en ningn caso puedo reaccionar y decir: Ah! ese es el mejor empuje de energa del cuarto vector constante que has tenido? +No, simplemente escupo un diente. +Y es por todas esas cosas diferentes...el amor a mi hijo. +Tengo un hijo, se llama Archie. +Soy muy afortunado. porque es mejor que todos los dems nios. +Y s que Uds. no se lo creen. +Puede que tengan sus propios hijos y piensen: Oh no, mi hijo es mejor. +Eso es lo maravilloso de la evolucin, la predileccin de creer que nuestro hijo es mejor. +Y en muchos aspectos, es una cuestin de supervivencia. +El hecho que observamos aqu, es el vehculo de nuestros genes y por lo tanto nos encanta. +Pero no nos damos cuenta; slo amamos incondicionalmente. +Eso es algo maravilloso. +Aunque debo decir que mi hijo es mejor, y es mejor que sus hijos. +He hecho algunas pruebas. +Y para m, todas estas cosas brindan alegra, emocin y asombro. +Incluso la mecnica cuntica puede darles una justificacin para las malas tareas domsticas, por ejemplo. +Tal vez tuvieron la casa a cargo por una semana, +y est en un estado terrible. +Su pareja est a punto de regresar, +y piensan: Qu puedo hacer? +No hacer nada. +Todo lo que tienen que hacer cuando ella entre es usar una interpretacion cuntica, y decir: Lo siento mucho. +Por un momento, dej de prestarle atencin a la casa, y cuando volv a hacerlo, ya haba sucedido todo. +Ese es el principio antrpico fuerte para la aspiradora +Para m, es una cosa muy, muy importante. +Incluso en mi viaje hacia aqu, la alegra que tengo al hacerlo cada vez. +Si lo piensan de verdad, si retiran los mitos, aun as hay algo maravilloso. +Estoy sentado en un tren, +y cada vez que respiro, inspiro un milln de millones de miles de tomos de oxgeno. +Estoy sentado en una silla; +aunque s que la silla est hecha de tomos y por lo tanto, en muchos aspectos, de espacio vaco, me resulta cmoda. +Miro por la ventana y me doy cuenta que cada vez que nos detenemos y miro a travs de ella, desde el marco de esa ventana, dondequiera que estemos, observo ms vida de la que hay en el resto del universo conocido mas all de la Tierra. +Si van a los parques de safari en Saturno o Jpiter, se decepcionarn. +Y me doy cuenta que lo observo con el cerebro humano, que es lo ms complejo conocido hasta ahora en el universo. +Eso, para m, es una cosa increble. +Y saben que eso no es poca cosa. +El premio Nobel Steven Wienberg dijo una vez: Cuanto ms comprensible parece el universo, tanto ms carece de sentido. +Para algunas personas, esto parece conducirles a una idea nihilista. +Pero para m, no. Eso es algo asombroso. +Y me alegra que el universo no tenga sentido. +Significa que si llego al final de mi vida, el universo no podr venir y decirme: qu has hecho, idiota? +Ese no era el momento. +Puedo crear mis propios propsitos. +Uds. pueden hacerlo tambin. +Tenemos el poder individual para decir: Esto es lo que quiero hacer. +Y en un universo sin sentido, esto es para m maravilloso. +He optado por hacer bromas tontas sobre la mecnica cuntica y la interpretacion de Copenhague. +Uds., me imagino, pueden hacer cosas mejores con su tiempo. +Muchas gracias. Adis. +Les presento a Rezero. +Este compaero fue desarrollado por un grupo de 10 estudiantes universitarios en el Laboratorio de Sistemas Autnomos Nuestro robot pertenece a una familia de robots llamados Robopelota. +En vez de ruedas, un Robopelota se sostiene y mueve sobre una sola pelota. +La caracterstica principal de este sistema es que hay un nico punto de contacto con el suelo. +Esto significa que el robot es intrnsecamente inestable. +Es como cuando trato de sostenerme en un pie. +Se preguntarn cul es la utilidad de un robot inestable. +Se lo explicar en un segundo. +Primero les dir cmo Rezero mantiene el equilibrio. +Rezero se sostiene midiendo su ngulo de inclinacin constantemente con un sensor. +Luego contrarresta y evita caerse girando los motores de manera apropiada. +Esto sucede 160 veces por segundo, y si algo falla en este proceso, Rezero inmediatamente cae al suelo. +Para moverse y sostenerse, Rezero debe girar la pelota. +Tres ruedas especiales manejan la pelota lo que permite a Rezero moverse en cualquier direccin e incluso moverse sobre su propio eje al mismo tiempo. +Debido a esta inestabilidad, Rezero est en constante movimiento. Ahora, ah est el truco. +De hecho, es esta inestabilidad lo que permite a un robot moverse dinmicamente. +Juguemos un poco. +Se habrn preguntado qu pasara si le doy un empujoncito al robot. +En este modo, trata de mantener su posicin. +Para la siguiente demostracin, me gustara presentarles a mis colegas Michael, en la computadora, y Thomas quien me ayudar en el escenario. +En el siguiente modo, Rezero est pasivo, y lo podemos mover. +Casi sin fuerza puedo controlar su posicin y velocidad. +Tambin puedo hacerlo girar. +En el siguiente modo, podemos hacer que Rezero siga a una persona. +Ahora mantiene una distancia constante con Thomas. +Esto funciona con un sensor lser que se encuentra en la parte superior de Rezero. +Con el mismo mtodo, podemos hacer que de vueltas alrededor de una persona. +Lo llamamos modo orbital. +Bien, muchas gracias, Thomas. +Ahora bien, cul es el uso de esta tecnologa? +Por ahora, es un experimento, pero djenme mostrales algunas posibles aplicaciones futuras, +Rezero puede utilizarse en exhibiciones o parques. +Con una pantalla podra informar o mostrar a las personas de una forma divertida y entretenida. +En un hospital este dispositivo podra usarse para llevar equipo mdico. +Debido al sistema Robopelota, tiene una huella muy pequea y es fcil de manejar. +Y por supuesto, a quin no le gustara pasear en uno de estos. +Y stas son aplicaciones ms prcticas. +Pero tambin hay cierta belleza dentro de esta tecnologa. +Muchas gracias. +Gracias. +Damas y caballeros, acrquense. +Quiero compartir con Uds. una historia. +Haba una vez, en la Alemania del s.XIX, el libro. +Durante ese tiempo, el libro era el rey de la narrativa. +Era venerable. +Era omnipresente. +Pero... era un poco aburrido... +Porque en sus 400 aos de existencia, los narradores nunca desarrollaron al libro como un dispositivo narrativo. +Hasta que un autor lleg, y lo cambi para siempre. +Su nombre era Lothar, Lothar Meggendorfer. +l, con firmeza, dijo: Genug ist genug! (ya basta!) +Tom su pluma, y cogi sus tijeras. +Este hombre se rehus a seguir las convenciones de la normalidad y decidi plegar. +La historia conocera a Lothar Meggendorfer como -quin ms? - el verdadero inventor de los libros desplegables para nios. +Para su agrado y sorpresa, la gente se alegr mucho. +Ellos estaban felices porque el cuento sobrevivi, y porque el mundo continuara girando. +Lothat Meggendorfer no fue el primero en desarrollar la manera en que las historias eran contadas; y desde luego que no fue el ltimo. +Aunque los narradores se dieran cuenta de esto o no, ellos estaban encauzando el espritu de Meggendorfer cuando transformaron la pera en un vodevil, las noticias de la radio en radio teatro; la pelcula en movimiento a la pelcula con sonido, en color, 3D, en VHS, y en DVD. +No pareca haber ninguna cura para esta Meggendeferitis. +Y las cosas fueron mas divertidas cuando apareci Internet. +Porque la gente pudo difundir sus historias en todo el mundo, y pudo hacerlo, usando lo que pareca ser una cantidad infinita de dispositivos. +Por ejemplo, una compaa podra contar una historia de amor a travs del buscador propio. +Un estudio de produccin taiwans podra interpretar la poltica estadounidense en 3D. +Y un hombre podra contar las historias de su padre mediante una plataforma llamada Twitter, para comunicar las groseras que su padre pudiera gesticular. +Y despus de todo esto, todos se detuvieron; dieron un paso atrs. +Se dieron cuenta que durante 6000 aos de narrativa, se ha pasado de representar la caza en las paredes de las cavernas, a representar a Shakespeare en los muros de facebook. +Y esto fue motivo de celebracin. +El arte de la narracin ha permanecido intacto. +Y en su mayora, la historias se reciclan. +Pero la manera en que los seres humanos contamos las historias siempre ha evolucionado con la novedad pura y consistente. +Y ellos recordaron a un hombre, un alemn increble, cada vez que un dispositivo narrativo surgi. +Y por eso, la audiencia -la encantadora, bella audiencia- vivir feliz para siempre. +Cuando me gradu en la UCLA, me traslad al norte de California, a Elk, un pequeo pueblo en la costa de Mendocino. No tena telfono ni tele, pero tena el servicio postal de EE.UU. y entonces la vida era buena, si pueden recordarlo. +Me tomara un mes fotografiar un rollo de pelcula de cuatro minutos porque eso era todo lo que poda permitirme. +Llevo fotografiando flores con 'time-lapse' sin parar, 24 horas al da, 7 das a la semana, ms de 30 aos, y su movimiento es un baile del cual jams me cansar. +Su belleza nos envuelve de colores, sabor, tacto. +Adems, provee un tercio de los alimentos que ingerimos. +Belleza y seduccin son las herramientas de la naturaleza para sobrevivir, porque protegemos aquello de lo que nos enamoramos. +Abre nuestros corazones y nos hace darnos cuenta de que somos parte de la naturaleza y no estamos separados de ella. +Vernos a nosotros mismos reflejados en la naturaleza, tambin nos conecta a unos con otros porque todo est conectado entre s. +Cuando la gente ve mis imgenes, muchas veces exclama: Oh, Dios mo!" Se han preguntado alguna vez lo que significa? +El oh significa que he captado tu atencin, que ests aqu, consciente. +El mo significa que te conectas con algo profundo dentro de tu alma. +Se crea una espacio para que tu voz interior se eleve y sea oda y Dios? +Dios es aquel viaje personal en el que todos queremos estar, para inspirarnos, para sentir que estamos conectados con un universo que celebra la vida. +Saban que el 80% de la informacin que recibimos llega a travs de nuestros ojos? +Y si se compara la energa luminosa con las escalas musicales, solo podramos ver una octava a simple vista, justo la octava del medio. +No le estamos agradecidos a nuestros cerebros por tomar el impulso elctrico de la energa luminosa y crear imgenes a fin de que exploremos nuestro mundo? +No estamos agradecidos de tener corazones que pueden sentir las vibraciones que nos permiten sentir el placer y la belleza de la naturaleza? +La belleza de la naturaleza es un regalo que cultiva el aprecio y la gratitud. +Tengo un regalo para compartir con ustedes hoy, un proyecto en el que trabajo denominado Felicidad Revelada, y que nos da una idea de las perspectivas, de los puntos de vista de una nia y de un anciano sobre aquel mundo. +Anciano: Creen que este es solo otro da en sus vidas? +No es solo otro da. Es el da que se les ha regalado hoy. +Se les ha dado. Es un regalo. +Es el nico regalo que tienen ahora mismo y la nica respuesta apropiada es el agradecimiento. +Si tan solo cultivan esa respuesta al gran regalo que este excepcional da representa, si aprenden a responder como si fuese el primer da de su vida y a la vez el ltimo, entonces habrn tenido un da muy bueno. +Comiencen abriendo los ojos y sorprndanse de que tienen ojos que pueden abrirse, de esa increble paleta de colores que se nos ofrece constantemente para el puro deleite. +Miren el cielo. +Miramos el cielo tan pocas veces. +Pocas veces notamos cun diferente es de un momento a otro, con nubes yendo y viniendo. +Solo pensamos en el tiempo, e incluso as, no pensamos en todos los matices del tiempo. +Solo vemos si hace buen o mal tiempo. +Hoy, ahora mismo, hace un tiempo nico, quizs de una ndole irrepetible, que nunca ser exactamente la misma. +Aquella formacin en las nubes del cielo jams ser la misma que ahora. +Abran sus ojos. Mrenlo. +Miren los rostros de las personas que conocen. +Cada una tiene una historia increble tras su rostro, una historia que nunca podrn desentraar del todo, no solo su propia historia, sino tambin la de sus ancestros. +Todos venimos de tan lejos, y ahora, hoy, todas las personas que conoces, todas las generaciones, de tantos lugares del mundo, fluyen juntas y se renen con Uds. aqu como un agua vivificadora, con solo abrir sus corazones y beber de ella. +Abran sus corazones a los increbles regalos de la civilizacin. +Si accionan un interruptor, hay luz elctrica. +Si abren el grifo, hay agua fra y tibia y potable. +Es un regalo que millones y millones jams experimentarn en el mundo. +Estos son solo algunos de los muchos regalos a los cuales podemos abrir nuestros corazones. +Por lo tanto, deseo que abran sus corazones a todas estas bendiciones, y que las dejen fluir a travs de Uds., para hoy que bendigan a todos aquellos que conozcan, simplemente con sus ojos, con su sonrisa, con su roce, o con su simple presencia. +Dejen que la gratitud se transforme en bendicin a su alrededor, y entonces ser realmente un buen da. Louie Schwartzberg: Gracias. +Muchsimas gracias. +Como muchos de ustedes, soy una de los 2 billones de personas de la Tierra que vive en las ciudades. +Y hay das no s ustedes- en los cuales percibo de manera palpable cunto dependo de otras personas para casi todo en mi vida. +Y algunos das podran ser un poco temibles. +Pero hoy estoy aqu para hablar con ustedes acerca de cmo esa interdependencia es en realidad, una infraestructura social muy poderosa que podemos aprovechar para ayudar a sanar nuestros problemas cvicos ms profundos si aplicamos la colaboracin de cdigo abierto. +Hace un par de aos, le un articulo de un escritor del New York Times, Michael Pollan en el que sostena que cultivar aunque sea algunos de nuestros alimentos, es una de las mejores cosas que podemos hacer por el medio ambiente. +Pero en el momento que le esto fue a mitad del invierno y definitivamente no tenia lugar para mucha suciedad en mi apartamento de Nueva York. +As que bsicamente, estaba dispuesta a conformarme con leer la prxima revista Wired y averiguar de qu manera los expertos estuvieron descubriendo cmo resolver todos estos problemas por nosotros en el futuro. +Y de hecho ese era exactamente el tema que Michael Pollan desarrollaba en este articulo, y que precisamente deca, que es delegando la responsabilidad de todas estas cosas a especialistas, que causamos el tipo de desconcierto que vemos en el sistema alimentario. +Pero resulta que a partir de mi trabajo s cmo la NASA ha estado usando hidropona para explorar el cultivo de alimentos en el espacio. +Y se puede lograr una produccin alimenticia ptimo mediante la ejecucin de una humidificacin del suelo de alta calidad en los sistemas radiculares de la plantas. +Ahora, para un vegetal, mi apartamento tiene que ser tan forneo como el espacio exterior. +Pero puedo proporcionarle algo de luz natural y clima controlado todo el ao. +Adelantndonos dos aos: ahora tenemos granjas en ventanas verticales y plataformas hidropnicas de cultivo de alimentos de interior. +Y la forma en que funciona, es mediante una bomba en la parte inferior que peridicamente expide parte de esta solucin nutriente hacia la parte superior, y luego se filtra a travs de los sistemas radiculares de las plantas que se encuentran suspendidos en bolitas de arcilla; por lo tanto no hay suciedad. +Ahora, la luz y la temperatura vara de acuerdo al microclima de cada ventana, por lo tanto, una granja en ventana requiere un granjero que decida qu tipo de cultivo querr cultivar en su ventana y si va a darle nutrientes orgnicos. +Volviendo en el tiempo, una granja en ventana no era ms que una idea tcnicamente compleja que iba a requerir muchas pruebas. +Y yo quera realmente que este fuera un proyecto abierto, porque los hidropnicos es una de las reas de mayor crecimiento de patentes en estos momentos en los Estados Unidos, y podra convertirse posiblemente en otra rea como Monsanto, donde tenemos una gran cantidad de propiedad intelectual corporativa en la categora de alimentos de la gente. +Entonces lo que decid, en lugar de crear un producto, fue abrir esto a todo un grupo de co-desarrolladores. +Los primeros sistemas que creamos funcionaron. +Logramos de hecho la cosecha para una ensalada por semana en una ventana tpica de un apartamento neoyorquino. +Y hemos cultivado tambin tomates cereza, pepinos, y todo clase de cosas. +Pero los primeros sistemas fueron estos grandes consumidores ruidosos con goteras que Martha Stewart definitivamente nunca hubiera aprobado. +Lo que hicimos para atraer a ms co-desarrolladores, fue crear una red social en la que publicbamos los diseos, explicbamos cmo funcionaban, e incluso llegamos a sealar qu estaba mal en estos sistemas. +Luego invitamos a personas de todo el mundo a construir y experimentar con nosotros. +Es as que ahora en esa pgina Web tenemos 18000 personas; +y tenemos granjas en ventanas en todo el mundo. +Lo que estamos haciendo, es lo que la NASA o las grandes corporaciones llamaran I+D, o investigacin y desarrollo. +Pero nosotros lo llamamos I&Bricolaje o investigacin y desarrllelo usted mismo. +As, por ejemplo, Jackson se acerc y sugiri el uso de bombas de aire en lugar de bombas de agua. +Acarre la construccin de un gran nmero de sistemas para hacerlo correctamente, pero una vez que lo logramos, fuimos capaces de reducir nuestra huella de carbono a la mitad. +Tony en Chicago ha estado llevando adelante experimentos de cultivo al igual que muchos de los granjeros en ventanas, y ha sido capaz de cultivar fresas durante 9 meses al ao en condiciones de poca luz, cambiando simplemente los nutrientes orgnicos. +Y los granjeros en ventanas en Finlandia han personalizado sus granjas en ventanas para los das oscuros de los inviernos finlandeses, equipndolas con luces LED para cultivo en cdigo abierto y parte del proyecto. +Por lo tanto, las granjas en ventanas han evolucionado a travs de un proceso rpido de versiones al igual que en software. +y con cada proyecto de cdigo abierto, el beneficio concreto es la interaccin entre las inquietudes especificas de las personas al personalizar sus sistemas para sus intereses particulares y las inquietudes universales. +As que mi equipo y yo podemos concentrarnos en las mejoras que beneficien realmente a todos. +Y estamos atentos a las necesidades de los que recin comienzan. +Y para aquellos emprendedores, proveemos de muy bien probadas instrucciones gratuitas para que cualquier persona, en cualquier lugar del mundo, pueda construir uno de estos sistemas sin costo alguno. +Y hay una patente pendiente de estos sistemas tambin que es sostenido por la comunidad. +Y para financiar el proyecto, nos asociamos para crear productos que luego vendemos a las escuelas y a particulares que no tienen tiempo para construir sus propios sistemas. +Y ahora, dentro de nuestra comunidad, cierta cultura ha aparecido. +En esta, es mejor ser un tester que apoya las ideas de otros que ser la persona de las ideas. +Lo que obtenemos de estos proyectos es el apoyo a nuestro trabajo, como as tambin, la experiencia de contribuir al movimiento ecologista de una manera que no sea solo atornillando bombitas de luces nuevas. +Pero creo que Eileen expresa mejor lo que obtenemos de esto, y es la alegra real de la colaboracin. +Ella expresa aqu lo que es ver a alguien del otro lado del mundo que ha tomado y construido sobre tu idea, y luego reconocerte por esa contribucin. +Si queremos ver un cambio amplio en el comportamiento del consumidor, que compartimos ecologistas y alimentos, tal vez necesitemos deshacernos del trmino consumidor y apoyar a la gente que est haciendo cosas. +Los proyectos de cdigo abierto tienden a tener un impulso propio. +Y lo que estamos observando es que I&Bricolaje ha trascendido las granjas en ventanas y los LED a los paneles solares y sistemas de acuaponia. +Y nos basamos en las innovaciones de generaciones que nos predecedieron. +Y estamos mirando hacia el futuro a generaciones que realmente nos necesitan para renovar las vidas. +Por lo tanto, les pedimos que nos acompaen en el redescubrimiento del valor de los ciudadanos unidos, y declarar que todos somos pioneros todava. +Si su vida fuera un libro y Ud. fuera el autor, cmo querra que fuese la historia? +Esa es la pregunta que cambi mi vida para siempre. +Al crecer en un lugar clido como el desierto de Las Vegas, todo lo que quera era ser libre. +Soaba despierta con viajar por todo el mundo, vivir en un lugar donde nevase y me imaginaba todas las historias que contara despus. +A los 19 aos, el da siguiente a mi graduacin, me mud a un lugar donde nevaba y me hice masajista. +Con ese trabajo, solo necesitaba mis manos y mi mesa de masajes conmigo, y poda ir a cualquier lugar. +Por primera vez en mi vida, me senta libre, independiente y totalmente en control. +Hasta que mi vida dio un giro. +Un da volv temprano a casa del trabajo con lo que crea ser una gripe y menos de 24 horas despus estaba en el hospital conectada al respirador, con menos del 2 % de probabilidades de sobrevivir. +No fue hasta das despus, cuando ca en coma, que los mdicos me diagnosticaron meningitis bacteriana, una infeccin de la sangre que se puede prevenir con una vacuna. +Durante los siguientes 2 meses y medio, perd el bazo, los riones, la audicin en el odo izquierdo y las dos piernas por debajo de la rodilla. +Cuando mis padres me sacaron del hospital en silla de ruedas, me senta como si me hubiesen zurcido igual que a una mueca de trapo. +Pensaba que lo peor ya haba pasado hasta que semanas despus vi mis piernas nuevas por primera vez. +Las pantorrillas eran unos trozos de metal con tubos atornillados para los tobillos y unos pies de goma amarillos con una lnea que sobresala en la goma, desde el dedo gordo hasta el tobillo, que pareca una vena. +No saba lo que me esperaba, pero desde luego que no me esperaba eso. +Con mi madre a mi lado y entre lgrimas, me ajust aquellas piernas rechonchas y me puse en pie. +Me dolan y me apretaban tanto que solo poda pensar en cmo iba yo a recorrer el mundo con aquellos trastos. +Cmo iba a vivir una vida llena de aventuras e historias como siempre haba querido? +Y cmo iba a hacer "snowboard" otra vez? +Aquel da volv a casa, me met en la cama y as fue mi vida durante unos cuantos meses. Estaba como inconsciente, huyendo de la realidad, con las dos piernas posadas a mi lado. +Estaba totalmente destrozada, fsica y emocionalmente. +Pero saba que para salir adelante tena que dejar marchar a la antigua Amy y aprender a aceptar a la nueva. +Y ah es cuando lo vi claro: ya no tena por qu medir 1,67 m. +Poda ser tan alta como quisiera! +O tan bajita como quisiera, segn con quin estuviera saliendo. +Y si volviese a hacer "snowboard", no se me van a enfriar los pies. +Y lo mejor de todo, pens, es que puedo calzar la talla de todos los zapatos de la seccin de rebajas y as lo hice. +As que tena ventajas la cosa. +Y fue en ese momento cuando me formul a m misma esa pregunta fundamental en la vida: Si mi vida fuera un libro y yo fuese el autor, cmo me gustara que fuese la historia? +Y empec a soar despierta +igual que cuando era pequea. Y me imaginaba a m misma caminando con elegancia, ayudando a otros en mi viaje y volviendo a hacer "snowboard". +Y no solo me vea a m misma bajando a toda leche por una montaa de polvo, sino que poda sentirlo de verdad. +Senta el viento en mi cara y mi corazn latiendo muy rpido como si estuviese sucediendo en ese preciso momento. +Y ah es donde empez un nuevo captulo en mi vida. +Estaba horrorizada, como todos los dems, y muy desanimada, pero saba que con los pies adecuados podra hacerlo otra vez. +Y ah es cuando aprend que nuestros lmites y obstculos solo pueden hacer 2 cosas: o detenernos en el camino u obligarnos a ser creativos. +Estuve investigando durante un ao y todava no saba qu tipo de piernas usar, no pude encontrar ayuda. +As que decid hacrmelas yo misma. +Mi fabricante de piernas y yo nos pusimos a juntar piezas e hicimos un par de pies con los que poda hacer "snowboard". +Como pueden ver, tornillos oxidados, goma, madera y cinta adhesiva de color rosa fosforito. +Y s, puedo cambiar el esmalte de uas. +Estas piernas fueron, junto con el mejor regalo que nadie poda hacerme en mi 21 cumpleaos el rin que me dio mi padre las que me permitieron perseguir mis sueos otra vez. +Empec a hacer "snowboard", volv a trabajar y a la universidad. +Y en 2005 cofund una organizacin sin nimo de lucro para jvenes con discapacidad fsica para que puedan practicar deportes extremos. +Desde ah, tuve la oportunidad de ir a Sudfrica donde ayud a ponerles zapatos a miles de nios para que pudiesen ir a la escuela. +Y este febrero gan la medalla de oro en la Copa del Mundo 2 veces consecutivas, lo que me convirti en la mejor "snowboarder" adaptada del mundo. +Hace 11 aos, cuando perd mis piernas, no tena ni idea de qu poda esperar. +Pero si me preguntasen hoy si me gustara cambiar mi situacin, tendra que decir que no. +Porque mis piernas no me han hecho discapacitada; en todo caso, me han hecho ms capacitada. +Me obligaron a aferrarme a mi imaginacin y a creer en mis posibilidades, y por eso creo que podemos usar la imaginacin como una herramienta para derrumbar muros, porque en nuestra imaginacin podemos hacer lo que queramos y ser lo que queramos. +Creer en esos sueos y enfrentarnos a nuestros miedos directamente es lo que nos permite vivir la vida ms all de nuestros lmites. +Y aunque el tema de hoy es la innovacin sin lmites, he de decir que en mi vida la innovacin solo ha sido posible gracias a mis lmites. +He aprendido que los lmites son el lugar donde termina lo real, pero tambin donde empiezan la imaginacin y la historia. +No se trata de derrumbar los muros, +sino de alejarlos y ver los lugares maravillosos a los que nos pueden llevar. +Gracias. +Ese es Johnny Depp, por supuesto. +Y ese es su hombro. +Y ese es su famoso tatuaje del hombro. +Algunos de Uds. sabrn que en 1990, Depp se comprometi con Winona Ryder, Y se tatu en su hombro derecho: Winona para siempre. +Y tres aos despus, -es francamente normal para Hollywood- se separaron, y Johnny intent repararlo. +Y ahora su hombro se lee: Wino [borrachn] para siempre. +As como Johnny Depp y el 25% de los estadounidenses, entre 16 y 50 aos, tengo un tatuaje. +Pens tener mi primer tatuaje a mitad de los 20 aos, pero deliberadamente esper un tiempo. +Porque todos sabemos que hay gente que se tatu a los 17 aos o a los 19 o 23 aos, y lo lament a los 30. +Eso no me pas. +Me tatu a los 29 aos, Y me arrepent inmediatamente. +Y con me arrepent, quiero decir que sal del negocio de tatuajes, que est a un par de millas de aqu, hacia el Lower East Side, y tuve una gran crisis emocional a plena luz del da, en la esquina de East Broadway y Canal Street. +Y es un lugar estupendo para hacerlo porque a nadie le importa. +Luego me fui a casa esa noche, y tuve una crisis emocional an mayor, de la que dir algo ms en unos minutos. +Y todo esto fue muy impactante para m, porque antes de esta situacin me enorgulleca de no tener nada de que arrepentirme. +Comet muchos errores y tom decisiones tontas, por supuesto. +Y lo hago a cada momento. +Pero siempre he sentido que tom la mejor decisin teniendo en cuenta quin era yo, y dada la informacin a mi alcance. +De esto aprend una leccin. +De alguna manera me llev donde estoy ahora. +Y no lo cambiara. +En otras palabras, haba bebido nuestra gran cultura Kool-Aid del arrepentimiento, que plantea que lamentar cosas que ya ocurrieron es una prdida absoluta de tiempo, y que siempre debemos mirar hacia adelante y no hacia atrs; Y que lo mejor y ms noble que podemos hacer es tratar de vivir sin remordimientos. +Esta idea esta muy bien comprendida en esta cita: Las cosas que no tienen remedio no deben tenerse en cuenta; lo hecho, hecho est. +Y en un primer momento parece una filosofa admirable, algo que todos podran estar de acuerdo en firmar, +hasta que les diga quin lo dijo. +Correcto, sta es Lady Macbeth, dicindole bsicamente a su marido que no sea cobarde sintindose mal por matar a gente. +Y resulta que Shakespeare ha dado en el clavo aqu; como generalmente haca. +Porque la incapacidad de experimentar arrepentimiento, es, en realidad, una caracterstica de diagnstico de socipatas. +Y por cierto, es tambin una caracterstica de cierta clase de dao cerebral. +As las personas que tienen un dao en la corteza orbitofrontal parecen ser incapaces de sentir remordimientos, incluso frente a las decisiones evidentemente ms pobres. +Y si a pesar de esto quieren vivir una vida libre de remordimientos, hay una opcin para Uds. +Se llama lobotoma. +Pero si quieren ser completamente funcionales y humanos, y realmente humanitarios creo que es necesario aprender a vivir no sin arrepentimiento, sino con l. +Pero comencemos a definir algunos trminos. +Qu es arrepentimiento? +El arrepentimiento es el sentimiento experimentado al pensar que nuestra situacin actual podra ser mejor o ms feliz si hubiramos hecho algo diferente en el pasado. +En otras palabras, el remordimiento requiere de dos cosas. +En primer lugar, requiere de agencialidad, es decir, tuvimos que tomar una decisin. +Y segundo, se requiere imaginacin. +Tenemos que ser capaces de imaginar volver atrs y hacer una eleccin diferente, y luego necesitamos rebobinar este registro imaginario hacia adelante e imaginar cmo las cosas se desarrollaran en nuestro presente. +Y de hecho, cuanto ms tenemos de cualquiera de estas cosas, cuanto ms albedro e imaginacin respecto a un remordimiento, ms agudo ser el arrepentimiento. +Digamos, por ejemplo, que ests en camino a la boda de tu mejor amigo, tratas de llegar al aeropuerto y te encuentras atascado en el trnsito; finalmente llegas al embarque pero has perdido el vuelo. +Lo lamentars mucho ms si pierdes el vuelo por 3 minutos que por 20. +Por qu? +Porque si pierdes el vuelo por 3 minutos, resulta doloroso imaginar que podran haber tomado decisiones diferentes que les habran llevado a un mejor resultado. +Hubiera tomado el puente y no el tnel. +Tendra que haber pasado con la luz amarilla. +Estas son las circunstancias clsicas que generan remordimiento. +Sentimos remordimiento cuando pensamos que somos responsables por una decisin que sali mal, pero que casi sale bien. +Y dentro de ese marco, podemos, por supuesto, sentir remordimiento por muchsimas cosas diferentes. +La charla de hoy es acerca de la economa conductual. +Y la mayor parte de lo que sabemos acerca del arrepentimiento nos llega de ese campo. +Tenemos un vasto campo literario acerca del consumidor y las decisiones financieras, y los lamentos asociados a ellas, bsicamente, el remordimiento del comprador- +Pero finalmente, se les ocurri a algunos investigadores dar un paso atrs y decir: est bien, pero en general, qu es lo que ms lamentan en la vida? +Y esto es lo que mostraron las respuestas. +As, los 6 lamentos ms importantes, las cosas que ms lamentamos en la vida: nmero 1, con diferencia, la educacin. +El 33% de todos nuestros arrepentimientos, conciernen a decisiones tomadas sobre educacin. +Hubiramos deseado sacar ms partido de ella. +Nos hubiera gustado haber aprovechado mejor la educacin que tuvimos. +Hubiramos deseado estudiar otra disciplina. +Otro de los temas de la lista de arrepentimientos ms importantes, son la carrera, el amor, la paternidad; varias decisiones y elecciones vinculadas al sentido de uno mismo, y cmo usamos nuestro tiempo libre, o ms especficamente, cmo desperdiciamos nuestro tiempo libre. +Los dems arrepentimientos, se refieren a lo siguiente: finanzas, problemas familiares sin estar vinculados con el amor o la paternidad, salud, amigos, espiritualidad y la comunidad. +En otras palabras, sabemos ms acerca del arrepentimiento por el estudio de las finanzas. +Pero resulta que cuando se observa en general lo que la gente lamenta en la vida, saben una cosa, nuestras decisiones financieras ni siquiera clasifican. +Ellas representan menos del 3% del total de nuestros lamentos. +As, si estn all sentados y estresados por una gran capitalizacin o una pequea, o entre la compaa A y la compaa B; o si compraran el Subaru o el Prius, saben que, dejen eso. +Segn las probabilidades, no le prestarn atencin dentro 5 aos. +Pero ante aquellas cosas que realmente nos importan, y experimentamos un profundo arrepentimiento, Qu se siente de esa experiencia? +Todos conocemos la respuesta inmediata. +Se siente muy mal. Es horrible sentir arrepentimiento. +Pero resulta que uno se siente terrible lamentndose de 4 maneras especficas y constantes. +As, el primer componente constante del arrepentimiento es bsicamente la negacin. +Al irme a casa esa noche tras hacerme el tatuaje, permanec despierta prcticamente toda la noche. +Y durante las primeras horas, tuve exactamente un pensamiento en la cabeza +Y el pensamiento era: Qutatelo! +Esa es una respuesta emocional increblemente primitiva. +Quiero decir que es el tipo de respuesta: Quiero a mi mam! +No tratamos de resolver el problema. +No tratamos de entender cmo se produjo el problema. +Slo queremos que desaparezca. +El segundo componente caracterstico del arrepentimiento, es la sensacin de desconcierto. +As que otra cosa que pens esa noche fue: Cmo pude haber hecho eso?" +"Qu estaba pensando? +Este sentido real de separacin de aquella parte de nosotros que tom la decisin que lamentamos; +no podemos identificarnos con esa parte. +No la comprendemos. +Y ciertamente, no tenemos ninguna empata hacia esa parte, lo que explica el tercer componente del arrepentimiento, que es un intenso deseo de autocastigo. +Es por eso que frente a nuestro lamento, lo que decimos sistemticamente es: es para darme la cabeza contra la pared. +El cuarto componente es como los psiclogos llaman al remordimiento: perseverante. +Perseverar significa centrarse obsesiva y repetidamente en lo mismo. +El efecto de la perseverancia es, bsicamente, tomar estos tres componentes del remordimiento y ponerlos en un bucle infinito. +Por eso, no es que me quedara en mi cuarto pensando esa noche: Qutatelo +Sino que me qued all y pens: Qutatelo. Qutatelo. +Qutatelo. Qutatelo." +Y si consultan bibliografa especializada en psicologa, estos son los 4 componentes constantes de la definicin de arrepentimiento. +Pero quiero sugerir un quinto tambin. +Y creo esto como un llamado de atencin existencial. +Esa noche en mi apartamento, tras haberme dado de patadas, me qued en la cama durante un rato largo, y pens en los injertos cutneos. +Y entonces pens que de la misma manera que el seguro no cubre los actos de Dios, probablemente mi seguro de salud no cubre actos idiotas. +A decir verdad, ningn seguro cubre actos idiotas. +El punto central de los actos idiotas es que te dejan totalmente sin seguro; te dejan expuesto al mundo y expuesto a tu propia vulnerabilidad y falibilidad, frente a un mundo francamente indiferente. +Esta es obviamente una experiencia dolorosa. +Y creo que es particularmente doloroso para nosotros en Occidente condicionados por lo que llamo: la cultura del Control Z. Control Z, como el comando de la computadora, Deshacer. +Estamos increblemente acostumbrados a no enfrentar en cierto sentido, las duras realidades de la vida. +Creemos que poniendo dinero en un problema o empleando tecnologa en l, podemos deshacer, "desamistarnos" y dejar de seguir a alguien. +Y el problema es que hay ciertas cosas que pasan en la vida que queremos cambiar desesperadamente y no podemos. +Algunas veces, en lugar del Control-Z, tenemos control cero. +Y para aquellos que somos fanticos del control y perfeccionistas -y s de lo que hablo- esto es realmente difcil, porque queremos hacer todo nosotros mismos y bien. +Ahora, hay un argumento vlido Para que los fanticos del control y perfeccionistas no se hagan tatuajes y volver a ese punto en unos minutos. +Pero primero quiero decir, que la intensidad y persistencia con que experimentamos estos componentes emocionales del arrepentimiento, obviamente variarn de acuerdo al hecho especfico del arrepentimiento. +As, por ejemplo, este es uno de mis generadores favoritos de arrepentimiento automticos de la vida moderna. +Texto: Responder a todos. +Y lo increble de esta innovacin tecnolgica insidiosa, es que solo con una cosa, podemos experimentar una gran variedad de arrepentimiento. +Puedes accidentalmente apretar responder a todos en un email y arruinar una relacin. +O pueden tener un da increblemente difcil en el trabajo. +O pueden tener su ltimo da en el trabajo. +Y esto ni siquiera roza los profundos arrepentimientos de la vida. +Porque por supuesto, algunas veces tomamos decisiones que tienen consecuencias irrevocables y terribles para nosotros o para la salud, felicidad y sustento de otras personas; y en el peor de los casos, incluso para sus vidas. +Obviamente, esta clase de remordimientos son increblemente desgarradores y duraderos. +Quiero decir que hasta un arrepentimiento tonto como el responder a todos pueden dejarnos una martirizante agona durante das. +Entonces cmo vivir con esto? +Quiero sugerir tres cosas que ayudan a aceptar nuestros remordimientos. +Y el primero de estos es consolarse en su universalidad. +Si googlean arrepentimiento y tatuaje, obtendrn 11,5 millones de visitas. +La FDA (Administracin de Alimentos y Medicamentos) estima que de todos los estadounidenses que tienen tatuajes, el 17% de nosotros lo lamenta. +Esto incluye a Johnny Depp y a m, y a nuestros 7 millones de amigos. +Y esto es solo arrepentimiento de los tatuajes. +Estamos todos juntos en esto. +La segunda manera para poder ayudar a aceptar nuestros arrepentimientos es rernos de nosotros mismos. +En mi caso, esto no fue un problema porque de hecho es muy fcil rerse de uno mismo cuando se tiene 29 aos y llamas a tu mam, porque no te gusta tu nuevo tatuaje. +Sin embargo, podra parecer una sugerencia cruel y simplista cuando se trata de remordimientos ms profundos. +Aunque no creo que este sea el caso. +Todo aquel que haya experimentado remordimiento que contenga dolor y desconsuelo real, comprende que el humor e incluso el humor negro, juega un papel fundamental en ayudarnos a sobrevivir. +este conecta los polos opuestos de nuestra vida, el positivo y el negativo, y nos reenva un poco de corriente de vida. +La tercer manera en que podemos hacer las paces con los remordimientos es a travs del tiempo, el cual, como sabemos, cicatriza todas las heridas -excepto por los tatuajes porque son permanentes- +As, ya han pasado varios aos desde mi primer tatuaje. +Y quieren verlo? +Muy bien. +En realidad, debo advertirles que se decepcionarn. +Porque francamente no es tan horrible. +No me tatu la cara de Marilyn Manson en alguna parte indiscreta de mi cuerpo, o algo por el estilo. +Cuando alguien ve mi tatuaje, a la mayora le gusta cmo luce. +Es solo que a m no me gusta cmo se ve. +Y como dije al comienzo, soy una perfeccionista. +Pero se lo mostrar de todas maneras. +Este es mi tatuaje. +Puedo adivinar lo que algunos estn pensando. +As que permtanme asegurarles algo. +Alguno de sus arrepentimientos no son tan feos como creen. +Me hice este tatuaje porque pas la mayor parte de mis 20 aos viviendo fuera del pas y viajando. +Y cuando despus volv y me instal en Nueva York, me preocupaba que fuera a olvidar algunas de las lecciones importantes que aprend durante ese tiempo. +Concretamente, las dos cosas que aprend de m y que no quera olvidar para nada, eran qu importante es seguir explorando, y al mismo tiempo, qu importante es seguir atentos a nuestro verdadero norte. +Y lo que me encant de esta imagen de la brjula, es que sintetizaba dos ideas en una sola imagen. +Y pens que poda servir como dispositivo mnemotcnico permanente. +Pues bien, sirvi. +Pero resulta que no me recuerda lo que pens, sino que me recuerda constantemente otra cosa. +En realidad, me recuerda la leccin de remordimiento ms importante, que es tambin la leccin ms importante que nos ensea de vida. +E irnicamente es, probablemente, lo ms importante que podra haberme tatuado en el cuerpo, por un lado, como escritora, pero tambin como ser humano. +Aqu est, si tenemos metas y sueos, y queremos hacerlo mejor, y si amamos a las personas y no queremos lastimarlas o perderlas; hemos de sentir dolor cuando las cosas salen mal. +La cuestin no es vivir sin ningn remordimiento. +La cuestin es no odiarnos por tenerlos. +En definitiva, la leccin que aprend de mi tatuaje, y es la que les dejar hoy, es sta: necesitamos aprender a amar lo defectuoso, las cosas imperfectas que creamos y perdonarnos por crearlas. +El arrepentimiento no nos recuerda lo que hicimos mal. +Sino que nos recuerda que sabemos que podemos hacerlo mejor. +Muchas gracias. +Buenas tardes. +Como todos saben, nos enfrentamos a tiempos econmicos difciles. +Les traigo una modesta propuesta para aligerar la carga financiera. +Esta idea se me ocurri hablando con un fsico amigo mo del MIT. +Le estaba costando explicarme una cosa: un bonito experimento que usa lseres para enfriar materia. +Me confundi desde el principio, porque la luz no enfra las cosas. +Las calienta. Est pasando ahora mismo. +La razn de que me puedan ver aqu de pie es que esta sala est llena de ms de 100 quintillones de fotones que se mueven al azar a travs del aire, a una velocidad cercana a la de la luz. +Son todos de distintos colores, vibran a distintas frecuencias, y rebotan en todas las superficies, incluyndome a m, y algunos vuelan directamente a sus ojos, y por eso sus cerebros forman una imagen de m aqu de pie. +Pero un lser es distinto. +Tambin usa fotones, pero todos estn sincronizados, y si los enfocamos en un rayo, lo que tenemos es una herramienta increblemente til. +El control de un lser es tan preciso que se puede realizar una ciruga dentro de un ojo, se puede usar para almacenar cantidades enormes de datos, y se puede usar en este bonito experimento que mi amigo intentaba explicar. +Para empezar, atrapamos tomos en un frasco especial. +Usa campos electromagnticos para aislarlos del ruido ambiental. +Y los tomos en s son bastante violentos, pero si disparamos lseres sintonizados exactamente a la frecuencia correcta, un tomo absorbe brevemente esos fotones, que tienden a ralentizarse. +Poco a poco se va enfriando hasta que finalmente se acerca al cero absoluto. +Y si usamos la clase correcta de tomos y los enfriamos lo suficiente, ocurre algo realmente raro. +Ya no es un slido, un lquido o un gas. +Entra en un nuevo estado de la materia llamado superfluido. +Los tomos pierden su identidad individual y las reglas del mundo cuntico toman el mando, y eso es lo que da esas propiedades espeluznantes a los superfluidos. +Por ejemplo, si dirigimos una luz a travs de un superfluido es capaz de ralentizar los fotones a 60 kilmetros por hora. +Otra propiedad espeluznante es que fluye sin nada de viscosidad o friccin, de forma que si destapramos el frasco, no se quedara dentro. +Una fina pelcula trepara por la pared interior, se derramara por el borde y seguira por fuera. +Por supuesto, en el momento que entra en contacto con el ambiente exterior y su temperatura aumenta en una fraccin de grado, inmediatamente vuelve a transformarse en materia normal. +Los superfluidos son una de las cosas ms frgiles que jams hayamos descubierto. +Y esta es la gran satisfaccin de la ciencia: la derrota de la intuicin a travs de la experimentacin. +Pero la historia no termina con el experimento, porque an queda transmitir ese conocimiento a otras personas. +Tengo un doctorado en biologa molecular. +Pero apenas entiendo de qu hablan la mayora de los cientficos. +As que cuando mi amigo intent explicarme este experimento, me pareca que cuanto ms hablaba l, menos entenda yo. +Porque si se intenta darle a alguien una idea general de algo muy complejo, para captar lo esencial, cuantas menos palabras se utilicen, mejor. +De hecho, lo mejor podra ser no utilizar ninguna palabra. +Recuerdo pensar que mi amigo podra haber explicado el experimento entero con un baile. +Por supuesto, parece que nunca hay bailarines por ah cuando los necesitas. +La idea no es tan descabellada como parece. +Hace 4 aos puse en marcha un concurso llamado Baila tu Doctorado. +En vez de explicar la investigacin con palabras, los cientficos deben hacerlo con danza. +Sorprendentemente, parece que funciona. +La danza realmente puede facilitar la comprensin de la ciencia. +Pero no se lo crean slo porque lo diga yo. +Entren en internet y busquen "Baila tu Doctorado". +Les esperan cientos de cientficos bailando. +Lo ms sorprendente que ha ocurrido llevando este concurso es que ahora hay cientficos que trabajan directamente con bailarines en la investigacin. +Por ejemplo, en la Universidad de Minnesota, hay un ingeniero biomdico llamado David Odde que trabaja con bailarines para estudiar el movimiento de las clulas. +Se mueven cambiando de forma. +Cuando una seal qumica se debilita en un lado, provoca que la clula se expanda por ese lado, porque la clula toca y tira constantemente del entorno. +Y eso permite que las clulas se deslicen en la direccin correcta. +Pero lo que parece tan lento y agraciado visto desde fuera parece ms un caos desde dentro, porque las clulas controlan su forma con un esqueleto de fibras proteicas rgidas, y esas fibras se destruyen constantemente. +Pero tan pronto explotan, ms protenas se adhieren a los extremos y las alargan, as que cambia constantemente pero permanece exactamente igual. +Bueno, David hace modelos matemticos de esto y los analiza en el laboratorio, pero antes de hacer eso, trabaja con bailarines para decidir en primer lugar qu clase de modelos crear. +En general es una lluvia de ideas eficiente, y cuando visit a David para informarme sobre su investigacin, utiliz bailarines para explicrmelo, en vez del mtodo normal: PowerPoint. +Y eso me lleva a mi modesta propuesta. +Creo que las malas presentaciones de PowerPoint son una amenaza grave para la economa global. +Evidentemente depende de cmo se calcule, pero una estimacin sita las prdidas a unos 250 millones de dlares por da. +Por supuesto, este slo es el tiempo que perdemos aguantando presentaciones. +Hay otros costes, porque PowerPoint es una herramienta, y como cualquier herramienta, se puede abusar de ella, y se abusa. +Tomando prestado un concepto de la CIA, te ayuda a ablandar a la audiencia. +Los distrae con imgenes bonitas y datos irrelevantes. +Te permite crear una ilusin de competencia, una ilusin de simplicidad, y lo ms destructivo, una ilusin de comprensin. +De modo que mi pas tiene una deuda de 15 billones de dlares. +Nuestros lderes se estn esforzando al mximo para intentar encontrar formas de ahorrar. +Una de sus ideas es reducir drsticamente la financiacin pblica de las artes. +Por ejemplo, el Fondo Nacional para las Artes, con su presupuesto de 150 millones de dlares. Eliminar ese programa reducira inmediatamente la deuda nacional en una milsima parte. +Las cifras hablan por s solas. +Sin embargo, si eliminamos la financiacin pblica de las artes, habr algunos retrocesos. +Los artistas callejeros aumentarn las filas de los desempleados. +Muchos recurrirn a las drogas y la prostitucin, lo que sin duda reducir el valor de la propiedad en los vecindarios urbanos. +Y todo eso podra liquidar los ahorros que esperaban conseguir en primer lugar. +Por lo tanto, voy a proponer humildemente mis propias ideas, que espero no provocarn la menor objecin. +Una vez que hayamos eliminado la financiacin pblica de los artistas, pongmoslos a trabajar emplandolos en lugar de PowerPoint. +Como ensayo propongo que empecemos con bailarines estadounidenses. +Al fin y al cabo son los ms perecederos de la especie, propensos a lesiones y de curacin muy lenta a causa de nuestro sistema de salud. +Ms que bailar nuestros doctorados, deberamos usar la danza para explicar cualquier problema complejo. +Imaginen nuestros polticos utilizando la danza para explicar por qu debemos invadir otro pas o rescatar un banco de inversin. +Seguro que ayudara. +Est claro que, en el futuro, se podra inventar una tecnologa de persuasin an ms potente que PowerPoint, haciendo que los bailarines sean innecesarios como herramientas de la retrica. +Sin embargo, estoy convencido que para entonces, habremos superado esta calamidad financiera. +Puede que para entonces podamos permitirnos el lujo de sentarnos en un pblico sin otro motivo que el de observar la forma humana en movimiento. +Al pensar en nuestros sentidos, no solemos pensar en las razones de su evolucin, desde una perspectiva biolgica. +Realmente no pensamos en la necesidad evolutiva de que nuestros sentidos deben protegerse, Y probablemente por eso nuestros sentidos se han desarrollado para mantenernos a salvo y permitirnos vivir. +Realmente al pensar en nuestros sentidos, o en la prdida de ellos, en realidad pensamos en algo as: la capacidad de tocar algo lujoso, saborear algo delicioso, oler algn aroma, o ver algo hermoso. +Esto esperamos de nuestros sentidos. +Queremos belleza; no slo operatividad. +Y cuando se trata de devolucin sensorial, todava estamos muy lejos de poder proveer belleza. +Y de eso me gustara hablarles un poco. +As como tambin de audicin. +Cuando pensamos acerca de por qu omos, no pensamos en la capacidad de escuchar una alarma o una sirena, aunque sea algo muy importante. +Realmente lo que queremos escuchar es msica. +Muchos de Uds. saben que es la Sptima Sinfona de Beethoven. +Y muchos de Uds. saben que era sordo, o casi sordo profundo, cuando la escribi. +Ahora me gustara recalcarles lo extrao que es realmente poder escuchar msica. +La msica es una de las cosas ms extraas que existen. +Son vibraciones acsticas en el aire, pequeas ondas de energa en el aire que cosquillean el tmpano. +De alguna manera esas cosquillas en el tmpano transmiten energa por nuestros huesos del odo que se convierten en un impulso dentro de la cclea y que de algn modo se convierten en una seal elctrica en los nervios auditivos que terminan en el cerebro en forma de una percepcin de una cancin o una hermosa pieza de msica. +Ese proceso es absolutamente abstracto y muy inusual. +Y podramos discutir ese tema durante das para tratar de averiguar, cmo es posible or algo emocional en algo que comienza como una vibracin en el aire? +Resulta que si se tiene prdida auditiva, la mayora de las personas que pierden audicin la pierden en la cclea, el odo interno. +Y se produce en el nivel de clulas ciliadas. +Si Ud. tuviera que elegir la prdida de un sentido, Siendo muy sincero con Uds., les dir, somos mejores en devolver la audicin de lo que somos en rehabilitar cualquier otro sentido. +De hecho, realmente nada se le acerca a nuestra capacidad para devolver la audicin. +Y como mdico y cirujano, puedo afirmar sin temor a mis pacientes que si tuvieran que elegir perder un sentido, en lo que vamos ms avanzados mdicamente y quirrgicamente es en audicin. +Como msico, puedo decirles que si necesitara un implante coclear, se me partira el corazn. Estara destrozado, porque s que la msica nunca me sonara igual. +Ahora les mostrar un video sobre una nia sorda de nacimiento. +Est en un ambiente muy estimulante. +Su madre hace todo lo que puede. +Bueno, veamos el vdeo. +Madre: Esto es un bho. +Bho, s. +Bho. Bho. +S. +Beb. Beb. +Lo quieres? +Charles Limb: A pesar de tener todo a su favor en relacin al apoyo familiar y aprendizaje de motivacin intrnseca, existe una limitacin para el nio sordo o beb que naci sordo, en este mundo en materia social, educativa y oportunidades profesionales. +No digo que no puedan vivir una vida hermosa y maravillosa. +Lo que digo es que se enfrentarn a obstculos que la mayora de personas con audicin normal no tendrn. +La prdida auditiva y su tratamiento realmente ha evolucionado durante los ltimos 200 aos. +Me refiero literalmente a que, se les sola insertar objetos adaptados a la oreja dentro de los odos e insertar embudos. +Y eso era lo mejor que se poda hacer para mitigar la prdida auditiva. +En esa poca no se poda ni explorar el tmpano. +As que no resulta sorprendente que no fuesen buenos tratamientos para la prdida auditiva. +Y hoy tenemos el implante coclear multicanal, un procedimiento ambulatorio. +Se coloca quirrgicamente dentro del odo interno. +Dura aprox. de hora y media a dos, dependiendo del lugar donde lo hagan bajo anestesia general. +Y al final, se consigue algo as, un conjunto de electrodos se insertan dentro de la cclea. +Realmente es bastante tosco en comparacin con nuestro odo interno. +Pero aqu est la misma nia que ahora tiene su implante +Es ella 10 aos ms tarde. +Y ste es un vdeo grabado por mi cirujano mentor, el Dr. John Niparko, quien se lo implant. +Veamos este vdeo. +John Niparko: Has escrito dos libros? +Nia: He escrito dos libros. (Madre: El otro era un libro o un escrito en el diario?) Nia: No, el otro era un libro. (Madre: Ah, bueno.) JN: Bueno este libro consta de siete captulos, y el ltimo captulo se titula "Las cosas buenas de ser sordo." +Te acuerdas haber escrito este captulo? +Nia: S. Recuerdo haber escrito cada captulo. +JN: S. +Nia: Mi hermana a veces puede ser un poco molesta. +Por eso va muy bien para que no me moleste. +JN: Ya veo. Y quin es? +Nia: Holly. (JN: De acuerdo) Madre: Su hermana. (JN: su hermana.) Nia: Mi hermana. +JN: Y cmo se puede evitar que te moleste? +Nia: Solo me quito el implante y ya no oigo nada. +Va muy bien. +JN: De modo que t no deseas escuchar todo lo que hay all afuera? +Nia: No. +CL: Y por lo dems, ella est fenomenal. +Y no hay otra forma de considerarlo sino como un xito rotundo. +Lo es. Es un gran xito de la medicina moderna. +Sin embargo, a pesar de esta increble facilidad que algunos implantados de cclea muestran con el lenguaje, al encender la radio no escuchan prcticamente nada de msica. +De hecho, la mayora de ellos realmente se resisten y les disgusta la msica porque les suena mal. +Y por lo tanto, cuando se trata de la idea de recuperar la belleza en la vida de alguien, tenemos un largo camino por recorrer en relacin a la audicin. +Existen un montn de razones para ello. +Ya he mencionado el hecho de que la msica es una capacidad diferente porque es abstracta. +La lengua es muy diferente. La lengua es muy precisa. +De hecho, toda la base para usarla Estriba en su especificidad semntica. +Cuando uno dice una palabra, lo que importa es que la palabra se perciba correctamente. +Ya no importa que la palabra suene muy bien al pronunciarla. +La msica es completamente distinta. +Al escuchar msica, si no suena bien, qu sentido tiene? +Realmente no tiene sentido escuchar msica si no suena bien. +La acstica de la msica es ms difcil que la de la lengua. +Y Uds. pueden ver en la figura, que la gama de frecuencias y de decibelios, la gama dinmica de la msica es mucho ms heterognea. +Si tuviramos que disear un implante coclear perfecto, lo que trataramos de hacer es dirigirlo para permitir la transmisin de msica. +Porque entiendo la msica como la cumbre de la audicin. +Si pueden escuchar msica, Uds. podrn or todo. +Los problemas empiezan primeramente con la percepcin del tono. +La mayora de nosotros sabe que el tono es un pilar fundamental de la msica. +Y sin la capacidad de percibir bien el tono, la msica y la meloda es muy difcil, olvdense de armona y cosas as. +Ahora escucharemos un arreglo MIDI del Preludio de Rachmaninov. +La ponen por favor?. +Bueno, ahora, si consideramos que en un implantado coclear la percepcin del tono no podra alcanzar ms de dos octavas, veamos lo que sucede al ponerlo de forma aleatoria en un semitono. +Nos encantara si los implantados cocleares tuvieran la percepcin de un semitono +Por favor, pngala. +Mi objetivo es mostrar que la msica no es inmune a la degradacin. +Se puede distorsionar un poco, especialmente en tono, y entonces ya ha cambiado. +Y puede ser que le guste. +Es algo hipntico. +Pero no era lo que la msica tiene por objeto. +Y no escuchan lo mismo que la mayora de las personas con una audicin normal. +La otra cuestin que nos ocupa, no slo es la capacidad para diferenciar tonos, sino la capacidad para diferenciar los sonidos. +La mayora de los implantados cocleares no diferencian un instrumento. +Escuchemos estos dos clips de sonido. +La trompeta. +Y el segundo. +Es un violn. +Tienen ondas similares; son instrumentos sostenidos. +Los implantados cocleares no pueden diferenciar estos instrumentos. +Ni la calidad del sonido, ni el sonido del sonido es como me gusta describir timbre: tono y color no pueden saber estas cosas. +Este implante no transmite la calidad de la msica que tambin ofrece cosas como calor. +Miramos el cerebro de una persona con un implante coclear hacindole escuchar el habla, ritmo y meloda. Lo que se ve es que el crtex auditivo es el ms activo durante el habla. +Sera lgico pensar que estos implantes estn optimizados para el habla, que se disearon para el habla. +Pero en realidad si nos fijamos en la meloda, lo que vemos es que hay poca actividad cortical en los implantados de cclea comparados con el grupo de control. +Por la razn que sea, este implante no ha logrado estimular con xito corteza auditiva durante la percepcin de la meloda. +La siguiente pregunta es cmo suena realmente? +Estamos haciendo algunos estudios para entender cmo es la calidad del sonido para los implantados cocleares. +Pondr dos clips de Usher, uno que es normal y uno que no tiene casi ninguna frecuencias alta, ni baja y ni siquiera muchas frecuencias medias. +Por favor, pngala. +(Msica de frecuencia limitada) Tuve pacientes que me dijeron que sonaban igual. +No identifican las diferencias de calidad entre aquellos dos clips. +Una vez ms, estamos muy lejos de conseguir nuestro objetivo. +Ahora la cuestin es: existe alguna esperanza? +Y s, hay esperanza. +No s si alguien sabe quin es ste. +ste es... alguien lo sabe? +ste es Beethoven. +Ahora pues, cmo sabemos cmo es su crneo? +Porque su tumba fue exhumada. +Y resulta que robaron sus huesos temporales cuando l muri para intentar saber la causa de su sordera, por eso se ha moldeado en arcilla y su crneo es abultada en un lateral. +Pero Beethoven compuso msica mucho despus de haber perdido la audicin. +Lo que esto sugiere es que, incluso en el caso de prdida auditiva, la capacidad para la msica queda. +Los cerebros permanecen programados para la msica. +He tenido la suerte de trabajar con el Dr. David Ryugo Con quien he trabajado con gatos sordos, los blancos, tratando de averiguar qu sucede cuando se les realizan implantes cocleares. +Este es un gato entrenado para responder a una trompeta. +Texto: Beethoven no le entusiasma. +La Obertura 1812 no funciona como despertador. +pero se pone en marcha a la llamada del deber. +CL: No estoy sugiriendo que el gato escucha como nosotros. +Planteo que con entrenamiento Se puede infundir un sonido musical con significado, incluso en un gato. +Si dirigiramos los esfuerzos hacia el entrenamiento de los implantados para escuchar msica, por ahora no existe ninguna iniciativa en esta direccin, no hay estrategias de rehabilitacin, muy poco en el tema de avances tecnolgicos para mejorar la msica, entonces recorreramos un gran camino. +Quiero mostrarles un ltimo vdeo. +Y ste es un alumno mo llamado Joseph con el que tuve la suerte de trabajar durante tres aos en mi laboratorio. +l es sordo y aprendi a tocar el piano despus del implante coclear. +Aqu hay vdeo de Joseph. +Joseph: nac en 1986. +Y en unos cuatro meses de edad, me diagnosticaron una grave prdida de audicin. +No mucho despus, me pusieron audfonos. +Pero aunque estos audfonos eran los ms potentes en el mercado en el momento, no eran de gran ayuda. +Por eso tena que confiar mucho en la lectura de labios, y realmente no escuchaba lo que deca la gente. +A la edad de 12 aos, fui uno de los primeros en Singapur, al que se le realiz la implantacin coclear. +Y no mucho despus de la implantacin coclear, comenc a aprender a tocar el piano. +Y fue absolutamente maravilloso. +Desde entonces, nunca pienso en el pasado. +CL: Joseph es fenomenal. l es brillante. +Ahora es estudiante de medicina en la Universidad de Yale, y quiere hacer la especialidad quirrgica; uno de los primeros sordos que piensa en una carrera de ciruga. +Casi no hay cirujanos sordos en ningn lugar. +Y esto es verdaderamente raro, y esto lo da esta tecnologa. +Y el hecho de que puede tocar el piano as es una prueba para su cerebro. +Cierto que puedes tocar el piano sin un implante coclear, solo hay que presionar las teclas en el momento correcto. +Uds. en verdad no tienen que escuchar. +S que no oye bien, porque le he escuchado cantar karaoke. +Y es una de las cosas ms terribles, muy reconfortante, pero horrible. +Y por eso, hay ciertamente mucha esperanza, pero hay mucho por hacer. +Tan slo quiero concluir con las palabras siguientes. +Cuando se trata de que se recupere la audicin, es verdad que ya hemos recorrido un largo camino. +Y tenemos mucho ms camino por recorrer en lo que respecta a la idea de rehabilitar una visin perfecta. +Y djenme decirles, es bueno que todos estemos muy contentos con el habla. +Pero digo: si perdiramos nuestra audicin, si aqu alguien perdiera repentinamente su audicin, que le gustara escuchar si se la devolvieran. +No les gustara simplemente una audicin satisfactoria, desearan una audicin perfecta. +La rehabilitacin de la funcin sensorial es crtica. +Y no me refiero a subestimar la importancia que tiene restablecer la funcin bsica. +Sino a restablecer la capacidad de percibir la belleza donde podamos obtener inspiracin. +Y no creo que debamos desistir de esa belleza. +Y quiero agradecerles su tiempo. +Buenas tardes, me siento orgulloso de estar en TEDxKrakow. +Hablar acerca de un fenmeno que puede y que, en realidad, est cambiando el mundo y es el poder popular. +Empezar con una ancdota, o para los amantes de Monty Python, es una especie de sketch a la Monty Python. +Es el 15 de diciembre de 2011. +Alguien te reta a mirar en una bola de cristal, para ver el futuro; el futuro ser certero. +Pero lo debes compartir con el mundo. +La curiosidad mata al gato, as que aceptas el reto. Miras a travs de la bola de cristal. Una hora ms tarde +te ves sentado en un edificio de la TV en un programa y explicas la historia: +"Antes de finales del 2011, Ben Ali, Mubarak y Gadafi sern derrocados y procesados. +Saleh de Yemen y Assad de Siria sern desafiados, o ya doblegados. +Osama bin Laden estar muerto, y Ratko Mladic estar ante el tribunal de La Haya". +Ahora, el moderador te mira con una expresin extraa en la cara. +Y luego, adems de todo lo dicho, aades: "Y miles de jvenes de Atenas, Madrid y Nueva York se manifestarn por justicia social, inspirados por los rabes". +Lo siguiente que recuerdas son dos tipos de blanco que te ponen una extraa camisa y te llevan al psiquitrico ms cercano. +Por eso quisiera hablar sobre el fenmeno detrs de lo que ya parece ser un ao muy malo +para los malos y sobre este fenmeno del poder popular. +El poder popular existe ya hace tiempo. +Ayud a Gandhi a sacar a los britnicos de la India. Ayud a Martin Luther King a ganar su histrica lucha racial. +Ayud a Lech Walesa a echar a un milln de tropas soviticas de Polonia, que fue el principio del fin de la Unin Sovitica, como ya sabemos. +Entonces, cul es la novedad? Lo que parece ser muy nuevo y es la idea que deseara compartir con Uds. hoy, es que existen normas y habilidades, que pueden aprenderse y ensearse con el objetivo de luchar con xito de forma no violenta. +Si esto es cierto, podemos ayudar a estos movimientos. +Primero: habilidades analticas. +Intentar explicar cmo comenz todo en Oriente Medio. +Durante muchos aos, hemos vivido con una percepcin muy equivocada de Oriente Medio. +Pareca la regin congelada. Literalmente pareca un refrigerador. +Y all slo haba dos tipos de comida. +Filete que representa a Mubarak o Ali-Ben, un tipo de dictadura militar-policial o una papa que representa a Tehern, un tipo de teocracia. +Y todo el mundo se sorprendi cuando el refrigerador se abri y millones de jvenes, principalmente laicos exigieron un cambio. Saben qu? Ellos no consultaron la demografa. +Cul es el promedio de edad de un egipcio? 24. +Cunto tiempo estuvo Mubarak en el poder? 31. +Por lo tanto, este sistema estaba obsoleto, haba expirado. +Personas jvenes de todo el mundo despertaron una maana, y comprendieron que el poder estaba en sus manos. +El resto lo vimos este ao. Y saben qu? La misma Generacin Y, con sus normas, con sus herramientas, con sus juegos, y con su idioma, +que me suena un poco extrao... Tengo 38 aos... +Y pueden ver la edad de las personas en las calles de Europa? +Parece que la Generacin Y est surgiendo. +Ahora, djenme poner otro ejemplo. +Me encuentro con diferentes personas en todo el mundo, acadmicos, profesores, mdicos... y siempre hablan de condicionantes. +Dirn: "El poder popular funcionar slo si el rgimen no es demasiado opresivo". +Dirn: "El poder popular funcionar, si el ingreso anual del pas es entre X y Z". +Dirn: "El poder popular funcionar slo si hay una presin exterior". +Dirn: "El poder popular funcionar slo si no hay petrleo". +Y, digo, hay una serie de condicionantes. +Bueno, la noticia es que sus habilidades durante el conflicto parecen ser ms importantes que los condicionantes. +Esto es, capacidad de unidad, planificacin y mantenimiento de la no violencia. +Veamos un ejemplo. +Soy de un pas llamado Serbia. +Nos cost 10 aos unir a 18 lderes de los partidos de la oposicin, con sus grandes egos, bajo un nico candidato contra el dictador los Balcanes, Slobodan Milosevic. +Saben qu? Ese fue el da de su derrota. +Vean a los egipcios, luchan en la plaza Tahrir, se han deshecho de sus smbolos individuales. Aparecen en la calle slo con la bandera de Egipto. +Les dar un contraejemplo. +Vieron 9 candidatos aspirando a la presidencia contra Lukashenko. Todos conocemos el resultado. +As que la unidad es importante. Y se puede lograr. +Lo mismo ocurre con la planificacin. Alguien ha mentido sobre el xito de la revolucin espontnea no violenta? +Esto no existe en el mundo. +Cada vez que vean a jvenes ante la lnea tratando de fraternizar con la polica o el ejrcito, alguien previamente lo ha pensado. +Al final, la consigna es no a la accin violenta. +Y este es probablemente el cambio en el juego. +Si se mantiene la accin no violenta, tenemos las de ganar. +Tenemos 100 000 personas en una marcha no violenta, un idiota o un agente provocador tira una piedra. +Saben lo que enfocarn todas las cmaras? +Un solo acto de violencia puede literalmente destruir el movimiento. +Pasemos a otro tema. +Vamos a la seleccin de estrategias y tcticas. +Hay ciertas reglas a seguir en la lucha no violenta. +Primero, empezar poco a poco. +Segundo, escoger las batallas que se pueden ganar. +Aqu en esta sala slo somos 200. +No vamos a convocar una marcha para millones. +Pero y si organizamos la propagacin mediante graffiti durante la noche, por todo Cracovia? La ciudad lo sabr. +As, recogemos las tcticas adaptadas para el evento, todo esto que llamamos pequeas tcticas de dispersin. +Son muy tiles en la opresin violenta. +En realidad, somos testigos de una de las mejores tcticas de la historia. Fue en la plaza Tahrir, donde la comunidad internacional estaba constantemente en vilo de que los islamistas +hicieran suya la revolucin. Organizaron proteccin de cristianos donde los musulmanes oraban, una boda copta aclamada por miles de musulmanes, El mundo acaba de cambiar la imagen, pero, alguien lo haba planeado y pensado previamente. +As que hay muchas cosas que se pueden hacer en vez de ir solo a un lugar, y gritar exhibindose ante las fuerzas de seguridad. +Ahora bien, existe tambin otra dinmica muy importante. +Se trata de una dinmica que los analistas normalmente no ven. +La dinmica entre temor y apata, por un lado, y entusiasmo y humor, por otro lado. +Por lo tanto, funciona como en un videojuego. +Uno tiene un gran temor, tiene un status quo. +Al tener an mayor entusiasmo, el miedo empieza a disiparse. +Da dos, se ve a la gente corriendo hacia la polica en vez de a la polica. +en Egipto, se puede decir que algo est sucediendo. +Y luego, se trata del humor. El humor es un modificador de juego poderoso, y, por supuesto, fue muy potente en Polonia. +ramos un grupito de estudiantes locos en Serbia, cuando hicimos esta gran escenificacin. +Pusimos el barril de gasolina con un retrato del presidente +en medio de la calle principal. Haba un agujero en la parte superior. +As que, literalmente, se poda llegar, introducir una moneda, obtener un bate de bisbol, y golpearle la cara. +Suena fuerte. Y en cuestin de minutos, sentados en una cafetera cerca tomando un caf, y haba una cola de gente esperando para hacer esto tan hermoso. +Bueno, eso fue slo el comienzo de la funcin. +El verdadero espectculo comienza cuando aparece la polica. +Qu iban a hacer? Arrestarnos? No estbamos en ningn lado visible. +Estbamos como a 3 calles, observando desde la barra del caf. +Arrestar a los clientes con los nios? No tiene sentido. +Por supuesto, pueden pensar, que hicieron lo ms estpido posible. +Arrestaron al barril. Y la imagen +de la cara aplastada en el barril con los policas arrastrndolo hacia el auto de polica, fue el mejor da de la historia para el periodismo grfico. +As que, digo, esto es lo que se puede hacer. +Y siempre se puede usar el humor. +Tambin hay algo maravilloso acerca del humor, realmente duele. +Puesto que estos chicos realmente se toman demasiado en serio. +Cuando uno comienza a burlarse de ellos, duele. +Ahora, todo el mundo habla de Su Majestad Internet, y tambin es algo muy til, pero no se apresuren +a etiquetarlo todo como Revolucin Facebook o Revolucin Twitter. +No confundan las herramientas con la sustancia. +Es cierto que Internet y los nuevos medios son muy tiles en hacer las cosas ms rpidas y ms baratas. +Tambin logran que sean un poco ms seguras para los implicados, porque ofrecen un cierto anonimato. +Estamos viendo otro gran ejemplo del potencial de Internet. +Puede etiquetar la violencia de Estado ejercida sobre manifestantes no violentos. +Este es el famoso grupo "Todos somos Khaled Said", creado por Wael Ghonim y su amigo en Egipto. +Esta es la cara mutilada del hombre golpeado por la polica. +As es como la gente lo conoci y probablemente es la gota que colm el vaso. +Pero aqu tambin hay malas noticias. +La lucha no violenta en el mundo real se gana +en las calles. Nunca se cambiar la sociedad a una democracia, as como tampoco la economa, estando sentado y haciendo clic. +Hay riesgos que se deben correr y hay personas vivas que estn ganando la batalla. +y la pregunta del milln... Qu pasar en el mundo rabe? +Y aunque los jvenes del mundo rabe tuvieron bastante xito en el derrocamiento de tres dictadores, haciendo temblar la regin, y persuadiendo a los reyes inteligentes de Jordania y Marruecos a hacer reformas sustanciales, est an por verse cul ser el resultado. +Si los egipcios y tunecinos lo lograrn a travs de la transicin; o si acabar en conflictos sangrientos tnicos y religiosos; o si los sirios mantendrn la disciplina no violenta, frente a una violencia cotidiana brutal que ya mata a miles, o si, por el contrario, se volver una lucha violenta desembocando en una desagradable guerra civil. +Se forzarn estas revoluciones a travs de transiciones y democracia? O sern absorbidas por militares +o extremistas de toda ndole? No lo podemos saber. +Lo misma para la regin de Occidente, donde se pueden ver a todos esos jvenes entusiasmados protestando en todo el mundo, ocupando esto y lo otro. +Ser la nueva ola mundial? +Desarrollarn sus habilidades, entusiasmo y estrategias para encontrar lo que realmente quieren e impulsar reformas, o simplemente se quedar todo en una mera lista interminable de quejas o de cosas que odian? +Esta es la diferencia entre las dos ciudades. +Ahora, qu dicen las estadsticas? +El libro de mi amiga Mara Estephan habla mucho de violencia y de la lucha no violenta, y hay algunos datos impactantes. +Si miramos los ltimos 35 aos y sus diferentes transiciones sociales de la dictadura a la democracia, veremos que, de 67 casos, en 50 de estos casos fueron luchas no violentas y eso fue en s la clave. +Esta es una razn ms para observar este fenmeno, esta es una razn ms para observar a la Generacin Y. +Razones suficientes para m para darles crdito y abrigar la esperanza de que encuentren la forma y el valor para no usar la lucha violenta y as arreglar, al menos, una parte del caos +que nuestra generacin est creando en este mundo. +Cuntos han tenido que llenar un formulario web e ingresar unas letras distorsionadas como estas? +Cuntos odian hacerlo? +Excelente. Bueno, eso lo invent yo. +Particip en el invento. +Eso se llama captcha +y sirve para asegurar que quien llena el formulario es un humano y no un programa informtico diseado para enviar el formulario millones de millones de veces. +Y funciona porque los humanos, salvo los discapacitados visuales, pueden leer estos caracteres distorsionados pero los programas informticos no pueden. +Por ejemplo, en el caso de Ticketmaster hay que ingresar estos caracteres distorsionados para evitar que los revendedores escriban un programa que compre millones de entradas, dos a la vez. +Los captchas se extienden por Internet. +Y dado que se usan tan a menudo muchas veces la secuencia de letras escogidas al azar es un poco desafortunada. +Por ejemplo, esto viene de Yahoo. +Las letras escogidas totalmente al azar fueron WAIT que en ingls significa esperar. +Pero lo mejor es el mensaje que, unos 20 minutos despus, recibi Yahoo de este usuario. +(Texto: "Ayuda! Hace 20 minutos que espero y no pasa nada") +Esta persona pens que tena que esperar. +Claro, no es tan malo como ste. (Texto: REINICIAR) +El proyecto CAPTCHA fue concebido aqu Carnegie Mellon hace 10 aos, y se usa en todos lados. +Les contar de un proyecto de hace unos aos que es una evolucin de captcha. +Es un proyecto que se llama reCAPTCHA. Algo que iniciamos aqu en Carnegie Mellon, y que luego convertimos en empresa. +Y hace cosa de ao y medio fue adquirida por Google. +Les contar el origen de este proyecto. +Este proyecto surgi al darnos cuenta de que cada da la gente de todo el mundo ingresa unos 200 millones de captchas. +Al principio sent orgullo de esto. +Pens, mira el impacto que ha tenido mi trabajo. +Pero despus empec a sentirme mal. +Y es que cada vez que ingresamos un captcha perdemos unos 10 segundos de nuestro tiempo. +Y si multiplicamos eso por 200 millones llegamos a que la humanidad en su conjunto pierde unas 500 mil horas diarias ingresando captchas en la Web. +Eso me hizo sentir mal. +Pero despus pens que no podemos deshacernos de los captchas porque de eso depende en parte la seguridad de la red. +Y me pregunt si habra alguna forma de usar este esfuerzo en algo de utilidad para la humanidad. +La cosa es as: +en esos 10 segundos que ingresamos un captcha los cerebros estn haciendo algo genial. +Estn haciendo algo imposible para las computadoras. +Podemos hacerles hacer algo beneficioso en esos 10 segundos? +Dicho de otro modo, existe algn problema gigantesco que las computadoras an no puedan resolver pero que podamos dividir en pedacitos de 10 segundos de modo que cada vez que alguien resuelva un captcha resuelva un pedacito de ese problema? +La respuesta es "s" y eso es lo que hacemos. +Hoy en da, si alguien ingresa un captcha, lo que tal vez no saben es que no slo verifican que son humanos sino que adems nos ayudan a digitalizar libros. +Les explicar como funciona. +Hay varios proyectos de digitalizacin de libros. +Hay uno de Google, otro de The Internet Archive. +Amazon tiene otro con el Kindle. +Bsicamente, eso funciona as. Se empieza con esas cosas fsicas. +Las han visto, verdad? +Empezamos con un libro y luego lo escaneamos. +Escanear un libro es tomar una foto digital a cada pgina. +Eso nos da una imagen que contiene +el texto de cada pgina. +En el paso siguiente un programa informtico convierte a texto todas las palabras de la imagen. +Esta tecnologa se llama ROC, reconocimiento ptico de caracteres, y consiste en tomar una imagen del texto e intentar averiguar el texto que contiene. +Pero el problema es que el ROC no es perfecto. +En particular en los libros antiguos de pginas amarillentas, en los que la tinta se ha desvanecido hay muchas palabras que el OCR no reconoce. +Por ejemplo, en obras escritas hace ms de 50 aos, hay un 30% de palabras que la computadora no reconoce. +Por eso ahora tomamos todas esas palabras que la computadora no descifra y hacemos que las personas las reconozcan mientras introducen un captcha en la Web. +O sea que la prxima vez que llenen un captcha, esas palabras ingresadas son palabras que vienen de libros que han sido digitalizados y que la computadora no pudo reconocer. +La razn por la que hoy tenemos dos palabras en vez de una es que el sistema toma una palabra desconocida de un libro y la pone frente a ustedes. Pero dado que no conoce la respuesta, no puede puntuarlos. +Entonces ponemos otra palabra conocida por el sistema. +No decimos cul es cul; pedimos que ingresen ambas. +Y si ingresan la palabra correcta, para la cual el sistema ya sabe la respuesta, suponemos que es un humano y eso da cierta confianza de que se ingres la otra palabra correctamente. +Si repetimos el proceso con diez personas diferentes y todos estn de acuerdo en la nueva palabra entonces tenemos una nueva palabra digitalizada con precisin. +As funciona el sistema. +Y como lo lanzamos hace tres o cuatro aos muchos sitios web pasaron del viejo captcha en el que la gente perda el tiempo al nuevo captcha en el que la gente ayuda a digitalizar libros. +Un ejemplo es Ticketmaster. +Cada vez que compramos entradas en Ticketmaster, ayudamos a digitalizar un libro. +Facebook: cada vez que aadimos un amigo o tocamos a alguien ayudamos a digitalizar un libro. +Twitter y otros 350 mil sitios usan recaptcha. +De hecho, la cantidad de sitios que usan recaptcha es tan alta que digitalizamos diariamente una cantidad muy grande de palabras. +Son unas 100 millones al da que es el equivalente a unos 2 millones y medio de libros al ao. +Y todo se hace palabra a palabra por cada vez con el ingreso de captchas por Internet. +Ahora, claro, como procesamos tantas palabras al da suceden cosas divertidas. +Y esto es particularmente cierto dado que ahora ponemos dos palabras al azar, una al lado de la otra. +Por eso ocurren cosas divertidas. +Por ejemplo, presentamos esta palabra. +Es la palabra "cristianos"; no tiene nada de malo. +Pero si se la presenta con otra palabra elegida al azar pueden pasar cosas malas +como esta. (Texto: malos cristianos) Pero es an peor porque el sitio en el que apareci se llama La Embajada del Reino de Dios. +Uy! +Aqu hay otro tremendo. +JohnEdwards.com (Texto: maldito liberal) Y seguimos insultando gente de izquierdas y de derechas. +Pero no slo son insultos. +As, como presentamos pares de palabras elegidas al azar ocurren cosas interesantes. +Eso ha dado lugar a un gran meme de Internet en el que han participado decenas de miles de personas que se llama arte de captchas. +Estoy seguro de que muchos de Uds. lo han odo. +Funciona as. +Imaginen que estn usando Internet y ven un captcha que les parece interesante. Como ste. (Texto: tostadora invisible) La idea es que capturen la pantalla. +Despus tienen que ingresar el captcha porque as nos ayudan a digitalizar libros. +Y despus dibujan algo +As funciona. +Hay decenas de miles de ejemplos. +Algunos son muy tiernos. (Texto: Gan!) Otros son ms divertidos. +(Texto: fundadores drogados) Y algunos como el shvisle paleontolgico tienen a Snoop Dogg. +Este es mi nmero favorito de recaptcha. +Esto es lo que ms me gusta de todo el proyecto. +Es la cantidad de personas distintas que nos han ayudado a digitalizar al menos una palabra de un libro con captchas: 750 millones, poco ms del 10% de la poblacin mundial nos ha ayudado a digitalizar el conocimiento humano. +Y son nmeros como estos los que motivan mi programa de investigacin. +Es raro, pero todos se hicieron con cerca de 100 mil personas. +Y la razn es que, antes de Internet, coordinar a ms de 100 mil personas aparte de pagarles, era esencialmente imposible. +Pero ahora con Internet les acabo de ensear un proyecto donde hemos coordinado a 750 millones de personas para digitalizar conocimiento. +Entonces la pregunta que motiva mi trabajo es si podemos poner a un hombre en la Luna con 100 mil personas, Qu podemos hacer con 100 millones? +Y basados en esa pregunta hemos trabajado en varios proyectos. +Quiero explicar uno que me tiene entusiasmado. +Llevamos cerca de un ao y medio trabajando +silenciosamente en este proyecto. Todava no lo lanzamos. Se llama Duolingo. +Silencio, por favor, que an no lo lanzamos. +Confo en que guardarn silencio. +Este es el proyecto. As es como empez. +Todo empez con una pregunta a mi estudiante de postgrado, Severin Hacker. +Ese es Severin Hacker. +Le plante una pregunta a mi estudiante. +Por cierto, oyeron bien: su apellido es Hacker. +Le plante esta pregunta: Cmo podemos hacer que 100 millones de personas traduzcan la Web a los principales idiomas, gratis? +Hay varias cosas que decir acerca de esta pregunta. +La primera es traducir la Web. +Como todos sabemos, la Web est fragmentada en varios idiomas. +Una gran parte est en ingls. +Si alguien no sabe ingls no puede acceder. +Y hay gran cantidad de contenido en otros idiomas pero si alguien no sabe esos idiomas tampoco los puede consultar. +Yo quisiera traducir toda la Web a los principales idiomas. +Eso es lo que yo quisiera hacer. +Mucha gente me podra decir por qu no usamos computadoras para hacerlo. +Por qu no usar traduccin automtica? +ltimamente las computadoras estn traduciendo algunas oraciones aqu y all. +Por qu no usar eso para traducir toda la Web? +Las computadoras no son muy buenas para traducir. Y no van a ser muy buenas en los prximos 20 o 30 aos. +Cometen muchos errores. +Incluso cuando no se comete un error, dado hay muchos errores, no se sabe si confiar o no en el resultado. +Les mostrar un ejemplo de una traduccin automtica. +En realidad era el mensaje de un foro. +Era alguien que preguntaba algo de programacin +y fue traducido del japons al ingls. +Quiero que lean esto. +La persona empieza disculpndose por tratarse de una traduccin automtica. +Aqu viene el prembulo de la pregunta. +Est explicando algo. +Recuerden. Esto es una pregunta de programacin. +(Texto: A menudo, la cabra durante la instalacin de un error es vomitar) Despus viene la primera parte de la pregunta. +(Texto: Cuntas veces como el viento, un poste, y el dragn?) Despus viene mi parte favorita de la pregunta. +(Texto: Este insulto a las piedras de mi padre?) Y despus viene mi parte favorita de todo el mensaje. +(Texto: Por favor, pedir disculpas por su estupidez. Hay muchos gracias) O sea, las traducciones automticas no son muy buenas an. +Volviendo a la pregunta. +Necesitamos humanos para traducir la Web. +Entonces la pregunta sera por qu no le pagamos a alguien para que lo haga? +Le podramos pagar a traductores profesionales. +Podramos hacerlo. +Por desgracia, sera extremadamente caro. +Por ejemplo, traducir una fraccin muy, muy pequea de toda la Web, la Wikipedia, a otro idioma como el espaol, +Wikipedia existe en espaol pero es muy pequea respecto de la versin en ingls; +es de un 20% del tamao de la versin en ingls. +Si quisiramos traducir el otro 80% al espaol costara al menos US$ 50 millones. Y esto incluso con la mayora de recursos subcontratados en pases explotados. +Sera muy caro. +Entonces queremos que 100 millones de personas traduzcan la Web a los principales idiomas gratis. +Si queremos hacerlo nos damos cuenta de que hay dos grandes obstculos para lograrlo. +El primero es la falta de personas bilinges. +No s si existen 100 millones de personas que usan la Web lo suficientemente bilinges para ayudarnos a traducir. +Ese es un gran problema. +El segundo problema es la falta de motivacin. +Cmo hacer para motivar a las personas para que traduzcan en forma gratuita? +Por lo general este trabajo se paga. +Cmo motivar a las personas para que lo hagan gratis? +Despus de pensar en esos dos problemas durante varios meses, +nos dimos cuenta que haba una manera de resolver ambos problemas con la misma solucin. +Es decir, matar dos pjaros de un tiro. +Y la manera es transformar la traduccin de idiomas en algo que millones de personas quieran hacer y que adems ayude con el problema de falta de personas bilinges. Y eso es el aprendizaje de otros idiomas. +Resulta ser que hoy en da hay 1.200 millones de personas aprendiendo otro idioma. +La gente quiere aprender nuevos idiomas. +Y no slo porque los obliguen a hacerlo en el colegio. +En EEUU, por ejemplo, hay ms de 5 millones de personas que han pagado ms de US$ 500 por programas para aprender nuevos idiomas. +La gente quiere aprender nuevos idiomas. +En el ltimo ao y medio hemos trabajado en un nuevo sitio web llamado Duolingo en el que la gente puede aprender un nuevo idioma, 100% gratis, y al mismo tiempo, mientras aprenden, traducen la Web. +O sea, aprenden traduciendo. +Ms precisamente cuando empiecen les daremos +oraciones muy sencillas de la Web. +Les daremos oraciones muy, muy sencillas y les diremos qu significa cada palabra. +Y despus vern cmo otras personas traducen la misma oracin y van a ir aprendiendo cmo se traduce. +Y despus que usen el sitio les vamos a ir dando oraciones ms y ms complejas. +Pero en todo momento aprenden traduciendo. +Lo increble de este mtodo es que realmente funciona. +En primer lugar la gente aprende idiomas. +Ya casi terminamos de construirlo y ahora lo estamos probando. +Las personas aprenden idiomas muy bien. +Tan bien como con cualquier otro mtodo informtico de enseanza de idiomas. +Realmente la gente aprende idiomas. +Pero no slo aprenden bien sino que es ms interesante. +Porque con Duolingo las personas aprenden con contenido real. +En vez de aprender con oraciones inventadas las personas aprenden con contenido real, que es de por s interesante. +Por eso la gente aprende los idiomas. +Pero quiz an ms increble, las traducciones que realiza la gente, incluso los principiantes, son muy buenas. Tan buenas como las traducciones profesionales. Muy sorprendente. +Les mostrar un ejemplo. +Esta es una oracin traducida del alemn al ingls. +La parte superior est en alemn. +En el centro hay una traduccin al ingls hecha por un traductor profesional al que le pagamos 20 centavos por palabra. +En la parte inferior hay una traduccin de usuarios de Duolingo; ninguno saba alemn antes de empezar a usar el sitio. +Como ven, es casi perfecta. +Claro, hay un truco en esto para lograr traducciones tan buenas como las profesionales. +Combinamos las traducciones de varios principiantes para obtener la calidad un traductor profesional. +Adems de combinar las traducciones, en el sitio podemos traducir realmente bastante rpido. +Les mostrar una estimacin de la velocidad con la que podramos traducir la Wikipedia del ingls al espaol. +Recuerden que esta traduccin vale costara al menos US$ 50 millones. +Si quisiramos traducir la Wikipedia al espaol con 100 mil usuarios podramos hacerlo en 5 semanas. +Y si tuviramos un milln de usuarios podramos hacerlo en 80 horas. +Y ya que todos mis proyectos hasta la fecha han logrado tener millones de usuarios esperamos poder traducir extremadamente rpido con este proyecto. +Lo que ms me entusiasma de Duolingo es que creo que brinda un buen modelo de negocio para la enseanza de idiomas. +Hoy es as: en el modelo de negocio de la enseanza de idiomas el estudiante paga en particular, paga costara al menos US$ 500 por Rosetta Stone. +Ese es el modelo de negocio actual. +El problema con este modelo de negocio es que el 95% de la poblacin del mundo no tiene US$ 500. +Esto es muy injusto para con los pobres. +Y totalmente orientado hacia los ricos. +En Duolingo dado que uno aprende se crea valor, uno traduce material y, por ejemplo, podramos cobrar por las traducciones. +As podramos obtener beneficios econmicos. +Como las personas crean valor mientras aprenden no tienen que pagar con dinero, pagan con su tiempo. +Pero lo mgico es que estn pagando con su tiempo, un tiempo que de todos modos habran pasado aprendiendo el idioma. +Por eso lo bueno de Duolingo es que creo que es un modelo de negocio justo que no discrimina a los pobres. +Este es el sitio. Gracias. +Este es el sitio. +Todava no lo lanzamos pero si van al sitio pueden entrar a la versin beta privada que se presentar en unas tres o cuatro semanas. +Todava no hemos lanzado Duolingo. +Por cierto, yo soy la cara visible pero Duolingo es obra de un equipo impresionante y estos son algunos integrantes. +Gracias. +Estoy aqu para difundir el mensaje sobre la magnificencia de las araas y lo mucho que podemos aprender de ellas. +Las araas son verdaderas ciudadanas globales. +Se pueden encontrar araas en casi todos los hbitats terrestres. +Este punto rojo seala la Gran Cuenca de Amrica del Norte, y all estoy involucrada en un proyecto sobre biodiversidad alpina, con algunos colaboradores. +Aqu tenemos uno de nuestros campos, y solo para darles un sentido de perspectiva, esta pequea mancha azul aqu, es uno de mis colaboradores. +Es un paisaje agreste y rido, an as aqu hay unas cuantas araas. +Al mover las piedras apareci esta araa cangrejo enfrentndose con un escarabajo. +Las araas no solo estn en todas partes, sino que existe una gran diversidad. +Hay ms de 40.000 especies de araas descritas. +Para poner ese nmero en perspectiva, aqu muestro un grfico que compara las 40.000 especies de araas con las 400 especies de primates. +Hay dos rdenes de magnitud ms de araas que de primates. +Las araas tambin son extremadamente arcaicas. +Aqu abajo, vemos la escala de tiempo geolgico, y los nmeros indican millones de aos desde el presente, as que la zona cero de aqu, sera hoy. +Lo que esta figura muestra es que las araas se remontan a casi 380 millones de aos. +Para poner eso en perspectiva, esta barra vertical de color rojo muestra la divergencia de tiempo de los humanos desde los chimpancs, a tan solo siete millones de aos atrs. +Todas las araas hacen seda en algn momento de sus vidas. +La mayora de araas usan grandes cantidades de seda, y la seda es esencial para su supervivencia y reproduccin. +Incluso las araas fsiles producan seda, como podemos ver en esta imagen de una hilera de esta araa fsil. +Eso significa que ambas, araas y seda de araa, han existido desde hace 380 millones de aos. +Tras empezar a trabajar con araas, no se necesita mucho tiempo, para notar lo esencial que es la seda para casi todos los aspectos de sus vidas. +Las araas usan la seda para mltiples propsitos, Incluido para hacer la red de amarre, as como envolver los huevos para la reproduccin con fines protectores y para atrapar presas. +Hay muchos tipos de seda de araa. +Por ejemplo, esta araa de jardn puede hacer siete tipos diferentes de seda. +Cuando miran esta tela de araa, en realidad ven muchos tipos de fibras de seda. +El marco y los radios de esta tela de araa se componen de un solo tipo de seda, mientras que la espiral de captura est compuesta de dos sedas diferentes: el filamento y la gota pegajosa. +Cmo una sola araa produce tantos tipos de seda? +Para responder, tienen que mirar mucho ms de cerca en la regin de la hilera de una araa. +Entonces la seda sale de las hileras, y para nosotros los bilogos de seda de araas, esto es lo que llamamos "el fin del negocio" de la araa. Pasamos largos das... +Pero, no se ran. Esa es mi vida. +Pasamos largos das y noches observando esta parte de la araa. +Y esto es lo que vemos. +Se pueden ver mltiples fibras saliendo de las hileras, porque cada hilera tiene muchas espigas. +Cada una de estas fibras de seda existe desde la espiga, y si siguieran el rastro de la fibra hasta la araa, lo que encontrarn es que cada espiga se conecta con su propia glndula de seda. Una glndula de seda se ve como un saco con muchas protenas de seda dentro. +As, si tienen la oportunidad de analizar un tejido de tela de araa y espero que la tengan, lo que encontrarn es una abundancia de hermosas y translucientes glndulas de seda. +Dentro de cada araa, hay cientos de glndulas de seda, a veces miles. +Pueden agruparse en siete categoras. +Difieren en tamao, forma, y a veces hasta en color. +En un tejido de tela de araa, pueden encontrarse siete tipos de glndulas de seda, y lo que he descrito en esta foto, empecemos en la posicin de la una en punto, hay glndulas tubuliformes usadas para hacer la seda externa de un saco de huevos. +Hay glndulas de seda flageliformes y las agregadas que se combinan para hacer la espiral pegajosa de captura de una telaraa. +Las glndulas piriformes hacen el cemento de unin, es la seda que se usa para adherir las lneas de seda a un substrato. +Tambin hay seda aciniforme usada para envolver la presa. +La seda ampulcea menor se usa en la construccin de la tela. +Y la lnea de seda ms estudiada de todas: la seda ampulcea mayor. +Es la seda que se utiliza para hacer el marco y los radios de una telaraa, y tambin la red de amarre. +Pero, qu es exactamente la seda de araa? +La seda de araa se compone casi ntegramente de protenas. +Existen varias caractersticas que todas esas sedas tienen en comn. Todas tienen un diseo comn, como por ejemplo, que son todas muy largas, considerablemente largas comparadas con otras protenas. +Son muy repetitivas y muy ricas en los aminocidos glicina y alanina. +Para darles una idea de cmo es la protena de la seda de araa, esta es la la protena de la seda de amarre, es solo una porcin, proveniente de la araa viuda negra. +Es la clase de secuencia que me encanta mirar da y noche. As que lo que ven aqu es la abreviacin para aminocidos en una sola letra, y he coloreado las glicinas de verde, y las alaninas de rojo, por eso se ven muchas Ges y Aes. +Se ven tambin muchos elementos de secuencias cortas que se repiten una y otra vez as que por ejemplo hay mucho de lo que llamamos polialaninas, o Aes reiteradas, AAAAA. Hay GGQ. Hay GGY. +Pueden pensar en estos elementos cortos que se repiten una y otra vez como palabras, y estas palabras aparecen en oraciones. +Por ejemplo, sta sera una oracin, y obtendran esta regin verde y la polialanina roja, que se repite una y otra vez, y pueden tener esos cientos y cientos y cientos de veces en una sola molcula de seda. +Las sedas producidas por la misma araa pueden tener secuencias de repeticin drsticamente diferentes. +En la parte superior de la pantalla, ven la unidad de repeticin de la seda del hilo de amarre de una araa de jardn Argiope. +Es corta. Y abajo, la secuencia de repeticin para el caso del huevo, o la protena tubuliforme de la seda, de la misma araa. Y pueden ver cun radicalmente diferentes son estas protenas de seda; sta es la belleza de la diversificacin de la familia gentica de la seda de araa. +Pueden ver que las unidades de repeticin difieren en duracin. Tambin difieren en secuencia. +As que he coloreado las glicinas otra vez en verde, alaninas en rojo, y las serinas, la letra S, en morado. Y pueden ver que la unidad de repeticin en la parte superior puede explicarse enteramente por el verde y el rojo, y la unidad de repeticin tiene una cantidad sustanciosa de morado. +Lo que los bilogos de seda hacemos es tratar de relacionar estas secuencias de aminocidos, a las propiedades mecnicas de las fibras de seda. +As que, es muy conveniente que las araas usen su seda completamente fuera del cuerpo. +Esto hace que las pruebas de seda de araa sean muy fciles de hacer en el laboratorio, porque las probamos en el aire, ya saben, es exactamente el ambiente en que las araas usan sus protenas de seda. +Esto hace que la cuantificacin las propiedades de la seda a travs de mtodos tales como ensayos de traccin, que bsicamente es tirar de un extremo de la fibra sea muy favorable. +Aqu hay curvas de tensin-deformacin generadas por los ensayos de traccin de cinco fibras producidas por la misma araa. +As que lo que pueden ver aqu es que las cinco fibras tienen diferentes comportamientos. +Especficamente, si miran los ejes verticales, eso es estrs. Si miran el valor mximo de estrs para cada una de estas fibras, vern que hay mucha variacin, y de hecho la seda del hilo de amarre, o seda ampulcea mayor, es la ms fuerte de estas fibras. +Pensamos que es porque la seda del hilo de amarre, usada para hacer marcos y radios para una tela de araa, debe ser fuerte. +Por otro lado, si miraran la tensin, esto es, lo mucho que una fibra puede extenderse, si miran el valor mximo aqu, nuevamente, hay mucha variacin y el ganador claramente es el flageliforme, o el filamento de la espiral de captura. +De hecho, esta fibra flageliforme puede estirarse el doble de su longitud original. +As que las fibras de seda varan en su fuerza y tambin en su extensibilidad. +En el caso de la espiral de captura, debe ser muy elstica para absorber el impacto de presas voladoras. +Si no fuera capaz de estirarse tanto, entonces bsicamente cuando un insecto impactara contra la tela de araa, simplemente saltara fuera de ella. +As que si la tela de araa se hiciera enteramente de seda de hilo de amarre, un insecto probablemente rebotara enseguida. Pero siendo una espiral de captura muy elstica, la tela de araa es capaz de absorber el impacto de la presa interceptada. +Hay bastante variacin entre las fibras que una sola araa puede producir. +Llamamos eso el kit de herramientas de una araa. +Lo que la araa tiene para interactuar con su ambiente. +Pero, qu pasa con la variacin entre las especies de araas, si se observa un tipo de seda y diferentes especies de seda? +Esta es un rea en gran parte inexplorada pero aqu hay un poco de informacin que les mostrar. +Esta es la comparacin de la resistencia de la seda del hilo de amarre tejida por 21 especies de araas. +Algunas son araas tejedoras y algunas no son araas tejedoras. +Se ha especulado que las araas tejedoras, como la Argiope aqu, deberan tener las sedas del hilo de amarre ms resistentes porque interceptan las presas voladoras. +Lo que ven aqu en este grfico de dureza es que mientras ms alto est el punto negro en el grfico, hay ms dureza. +Las 21 especies estn indicadas por esta filogenia, este rbol evolutivo, que muestra sus relaciones genticas, y he coloreado en amarillo las araas tejedoras. +Si miran las dos flechas rojas, sealan los valores de dureza del hilo de amarre de la nephila clavipes y de la araneus diadematus. +Estas son dos especies de araas en las que, la mayor parte del tiempo y dinero invertido en investigaciones sobre la seda de araa sinttica, ha sido para imitar las protenas de la seda del hilo de amarre. +An as, sus hilos de amarre no son los ms fuertes. +De hecho, el hilo de amarre ms resistente en esta encuesta, est aqu en la regin blanca, una araa no tejedora. +Es el hilo de amarre tejido por las scytodes, la araa escupidora. +Las scytodes no usan una tela de araa para atrapar sus presas. En cambio, las scytodes acechan y esperan a que sus presas se acerquen a ellas, y luego las inmovilizan rocindoles un veneno similar a la seda. +Piensen en cazar con una cuerda tonta. +As es como las scytodes buscan comida. +Realmente no sabemos por qu las scytodes necesitan un hilo de amarre tan fuerte, pero son resultados inesperados como ste, lo que hace tan excitante y valiosa la bioprospeccin. +Nos libera de las limitaciones de nuestra imaginacin. +Ahora marcar los valores ms resistentes de la fibra de nailon, fibrona, seda de los gusanos de seda de granja, lana, Kevlar y fibras de carbono. +Y lo que ven es que casi todos los hilos de amarre de las araas los sobrepasan. +Es la combinacin de fuerza, extensibilidad y resistencia que hacen a la seda de araa tan especial, lo que ha atrado la atencin de los biomimeticistas, las personas que recurren a la naturaleza para encontrar nuevas soluciones. +Las sedas de araas tambin tienen mucho potencial por su capacidad antibalstica. +La seda podra incorporarse en el cuerpo y en el equipo de una armadura que sera ms ligera y flexible que cualquier armadura disponible hoy en da. +Adems de estas aplicaciones biomimticas de las sedas de araas, personalmente pienso que estudiar las sedas de araas es fascinante. +Me encanta cuando estoy en el laboratorio, y aparece una nueva secuencia de seda. +Es lo mejor. Es como si las araas estuvieran compartiendo un secreto antiguo conmigo, y es por eso que pasar el resto de mi vida estudiando la seda de araa. +La prxima vez que vean una tela de araa, por favor, detnganse y mrenla un poco ms de cerca. +Vern uno de los materiales de mejor funcionamiento conocidos por el ser humano. +Tomando prestado de los escritos de una araa llamada Charlotte, la seda es genial. +Gracias. +No tengo idea de lo que vamos a tocar. +No podr decirles de qu se trata hasta que suceda. +No me haba dado cuenta de que iba a haber algo de msica. +Por eso empezar con lo que acabo de or. +En primer lugar, demos la bienvenida al Sr. Jamire Williams en la batera, Burniss Travis en el bajo, y el Sr. Christian Sands en el piano. +El escenario es un lugar increble. +Es realmente un lugar sagrado. +Y una de las cosas que lo hace sagrado es que aqu no se puede pensar en el futuro o en el pasado. +Uno est realmente vivo aqu, ahora. +Cuando pisas el escenario se toman muchas decisiones. +No tenamos ni idea de qu bamos a tocar. +Sobre la marcha enfilamos hacia una cancin llamada "Titi Boom". +Eso pudo pasar o no. +Todos escuchan. Nosotros respondemos. +No hay tiempo para las ideas proyectadas. +Por eso el concepto de error: desde el punto de vista del msico de jazz es ms fcil hablar del error de los otros. +La manera en que yo percibo desde el escenario... en primer lugar, no lo vemos realmente como un error. +El nico error reside en no percibir qu hicieron los otros. +En el jazz, cada "error" es una oportunidad. +Incluso es difcil describir qu sera una nota graciosa. +Por ejemplo, si pintara un color, como jugando con una paleta sonara as... +Si Christian tocara una nota... FA, por ejemplo... +Vean, todas encajan en la paleta cromtica. +Si tocara MI, +todas encajan bien en esta paleta cromtica emocional que estamos pintando. +Si tocara FA sostenido... ...sera percibido por mucha gente como un error. +Por eso les mostrar... tocaremos durante un instante, +con en esta paleta cromtica. +Y en un momento Christian introducir esta nota. +Y no reaccionaremos a eso. +l va a introducir la nota, entonces me detendr, hablar un instante. +Veremos qu pasa cuando toquemos con esta paleta cromtica. +Conceptualmente algunos podrn verlo como un error. +Yo dira que desde el nico lugar que fue un error es si no reaccionamos ante eso. +Fue una oportunidad perdida. +Es impredecible. Vamos a pintar esta paleta otra vez. +l va a tocar. No s cmo reaccionaremos ante eso, pero algo va a cambiar. +Todos aceptaremos sus ideas, o no. +Ya ven, l toc esta nota. +Yo termin crendole una meloda. +Esta vez cambi la textura de los tambores. +Se torn un poco ms rtmico, un poco ms intenso, en funcin de mi respuesta. +Entonces no hay error. +El nico error es no estar atento, que cada msico no est atento y compenetrado con su compaero de banda para incorporar la idea y sea un obstculo para la creatividad. +El jazz, este escenario, es algo increble. +Es una experiencia purificadora. +Y s que hablo por todos cuando digo que no lo damos por hecho. +Sabemos que pararse en el escenario y hacer msica es una bendicin. +Y qu tiene que ver esto con la dinmica de las finanzas? +Somos msicos de jazz; y segn el estereotipo, no nos llevamos bien con las finanzas. +Como sea, slo quera contarles cmo lo manejamos. +Parte de la dinmica del jazz consiste en no hacer microgestin. +Algunos lo hacen. +Pero eso en realidad limita el potencial artstico. +Si yo vengo y le digo a la banda que quiero que toquen de esta manera y que vayamos por este camino y empiezo... +listo, toquemos algo. +Un, dos, un, dos, tres, cuatro. +Es medio catico porque estoy forzando mis ideas. +Les digo "vengan conmigo por este lado". +Si realmente quiero que la msica vaya en ese sentido lo mejor que puedo hacer es escuchar. +Esto es la ciencia de escuchar. +Tiene mucho ms que ver con lo que puedo percibir que con lo que puedo hacer. +Por eso si quiero que la msica adquiera cierto grado de intensidad el primer paso a seguir es ser paciente, escuchar lo que est pasando y tomar algo de lo que sucede a mi alrededor. +Al hacerlo, uno motiva e inspira a los dems msicos y ellos entregan ms, y de a poco se va gestando. +Miren. Un, dos, y un, dos, tres, cuatro. +Es totalmente diferente cuando uno tira ideas. +Es mucho ms orgnico. Tiene muchos ms matices. +No se trata de imponer mi visin o algo por el estilo. +Se trata de estar en el aqu y ahora de aceptarnos mutuamente y dejar que fluya la creatividad. +Gracias. +Mis viajes a Afganistn comenzaron hace muchsimos aos en la frontera este de mi pas, mi patria, Polonia. +Yo caminaba por los bosques de los relatos de mi abuela. +Una tierra en la que cada campo esconde una tumba, donde millones de personas han sido deportadas o asesinadas en el siglo XX. +Detrs de la destruccin hall el alma de los lugares. +Conoc gente humilde. +O sus plegarias y com de sus panes. +Despus recorr el este durante 20 aos, desde Europa del Este hasta Asia Central. pasando por el Cucaso, Medio Oriente, norte de frica, Rusia. +Era la gente ms humilde que conoc. +Y compart sus panes y sus plegarias. +Por eso fui a Afganistn. +Un da cruc el puente que est sobre el ro Oxus. +Iba sola y a pie. +El soldado afgano se sorprendi tanto al verme que olvid sellar mi pasaporte. +Pero me ofreci un t. +Y ah entend que su sorpresa fue mi proteccin. +As, he estado caminando y viajando, a caballo, en yak, en camin, a dedo, desde la frontera iran hasta el otro lado, en el borde del corredor de Wakhan. +Y de este modo pude encontrar a noor, la luz oculta de Afganistn. +Mi nicas armas eran mi cuaderno y mi Leica. +O las oraciones de los sufes -musulmanes humildes- odiados por los talibanes. +Un ro escondido conectado con el misticismo, desde Gibraltar hasta la India. +La mezquita donde el extranjero respetuoso es empapado en lgrimas y bendiciones y recibido como un regalo. +Qu sabemos del pas y de las personas que fingimos proteger, y de las aldeas en las que la nica medicina que calma el dolor y detiene el hambre es el opio? +Estas son personas adictas al opio que estn en los techos de Kabul 10 aos despus del comienzo de nuestra guerra. +Estas son chicas nmadas devenidas prostitutas de los empresarios afganos, +Qu sabemos de las mujeres 10 aos despus de la guerra? +Vestidas con estas bolsas de nylon, hechas en China bajo el nombre de burka. +Un da vi la escuela ms grande de Afganistn; una escuela de nias. +13 mil nias estudian aqu en aulas subterrneas, llenas de escorpiones. +Y su amor [al estudio] era tan grande que llor. +Qu sabemos de las amenazas de muerte talibanas clavadas en las puertas como smbolo para quienes se atrevan a mandar a sus hijas a la escuela? +La regin no es segura, est llena de talibanes, y ellos lo hicieron. +Mi propsito es darle voz a los que no la tienen, para mostrar las luces ocultas que hay tras las bambalinas del gran juego, los pequeos mundos ignorados por los medios de comunicacin y los profetas de un conflicto mundial. +Gracias. +Quisiera hablarles de uno de los mayores mitos de la medicina, la idea de que con ms descubrimientos mdicos todos nuestros problemas se resolvern. +Nuestra sociedad adora la idea romntica de que un investigador solo, trabajando hasta tarde en el laboratorio una noche hace un descubrimiento estremecedor, y, listo, en una noche todo cambia. +Es una idea muy deseable pero simplemente no es cierta. +De hecho, la medicina hoy es un equipo deportivo. +Y en muchos aspectos siempre ha sido as. +Quiero compartirles una historia sobre cmo he experimentado esto dramticamente en mi propio trabajo. +Soy cirujana, y los cirujanos siempre hemos tenido esa relacin especial con la luz. +Cuando hago una incisin dentro del cuerpo de un paciente, est oscuro. +Necesitamos luz brillante para ver qu hacemos, +y es por esto que, tradicionalmente, las cirugas siempre comienzan tan temprano en la maana... para aprovechar la luz del da. +Y si miran fotos histricas de los primeros quirfanos estos han estado en lo alto de los edificios. +Por ejemplo, esta es la ms antigua sala de ciruga de Occidente, en Londres, donde la sala de ciruga esta realmente en lo alto de la iglesia entrndole la luz del cielo. +Y esta es un foto de uno de los ms famosos hospitales de EE.UU. +Este es el Hospital General de Massachusetts, Boston. +Y saben dnde est la sala de ciruga? +Aqu est en lo alto del edificio llena de ventanas para que entre la luz. +Pero actualmente en el quirfano no necesitamos ms la luz solar. +Y debido a que no necesitamos ms usar la luz solar, tenemos luces muy especiales hechas para las salas de ciruga. +Tenemos la oportunidad de llevar otras clases de luz; luces que nos permiten ver lo que normalmente no vemos. +Y es por eso que creo que es mgica la fluorescencia. +As que permtanme retroceder un poco. +Cuando estbamos en la facultad de medicina, aprendimos anatoma de ilustraciones como esta en las que todo tiene un cdigo de color. +Los nervios amarillos, las arterias rojas, las venas azules. +Tan fcil que cualquiera puede volverse cirujano, cierto? +Sin embargo, cuando tienes un paciente real en la mesa, esta es la misma diseccin de cuello... no es tan fcil ver la diferencia entre las diferentes estructuras. +Hemos odo en los ltimos dos das lo apremiante que es an el problema del cncer en nuestra sociedad, lo acuciante que es para nosotros el no tener una persona muerta cada minuto. +Bien, si el cncer se puede detectar tempranamente tanto como para que alguien les pueda sacar su cncer, extirparlo con ciruga, me tiene sin cuidado si tiene este gen o este otro o si tiene esta protena o aquella, ya est en un frasco. +Listo, est afuera, usted se cur del cncer. +As es como los extirpamos. +Hacemos lo mejor que podemos, de acuerdo a nuestro entrenamiento y la forma que adopte y su aspecto y la relacin con otras estructuras y toda nuestra experiencia, decimos, sabes qu, el cncer se fue. +Hicimos un buen trabajo. Lo sacamos. +Es lo que el cirujano est diciendo en la sala de ciruga cuando el paciente est en la mesa. +Pero realmente no sabemos si est afuera todo. +Realmente tenemos que tomar muestras en ciruga, de lo que dejamos dentro del paciente, y enviar estos pedacitos a patologa. +Entre tanto, el paciente est en la mesa de operaciones. +Las enfermeras, el anestesilogo, el cirujano, todos los asistentes estamos esperando alrededor. +Y esperamos. +El patlogo toma la muestra, la congela, la corta, mira en el microscopio una por una y luego llama al quirfano. +Puede demorar 20 minutos por muestra. +As que si ha enviado tres especmenes, es una hora despus. +Y muy frecuentemente dicen "Sabes qu, las muestras A y B estn bien, pero en la C an tienes cncer residual. +Por favor ve y scalo". +As que vamos y volvemos a hacerlo, y otra vez. +Y todo este proceso: "Bien, est hecho. +Creemos que sacamos todo el tumor". +Pero muy frecuentemente, varios das despus, el paciente se ha ido a casa, recibimos una llamada telefnica: "Lo siento, cuando miramos la patologa final, una vez miramos la muestra final, encontramos que hay un par de puntos en los que los bordes son positivos. +An hay cncer en su paciente". +As que ahora uno est abocado a decirle al paciente, primero, que necesita otra ciruga, o que necesita una terapia adicional como radio o quimioterapia. +As que, no sera mejor si pudiramos realmente decir, si el cirujano pudiera realmente decir, si an hay o no cncer en el campo quirrgico? +Quiero decir, en cierto sentido, por la manera en que lo hacemos, an operamos en la oscuridad. +As que en 2004, durante mi residencia en ciruga, tuve la gran suerte de conocer al Dr. Roger Chen, que vino a ganar el Nobel de qumica en el 2008. +Roger y su equipo estaban trabajando en una forma de detectar el cncer, y tenan un molcula muy ingeniosa a la que haban llegado. +La molcula que haban desarrollado tena tres partes. +La parte principal es la azul, un policatin, que es bsicamente muy pegajoso para todos los tejidos del cuerpo. +As que imaginen que tienen una solucin repleta de este material pegajoso y se la inyectan en las venas de alguien con cncer, todo quedar pintado. +Nada ser especfico. +No hay especificidad ah. +As que le aadieron dos componentes adicionales. +El primero un segmento polianinico, que bsicamente acta como un antiadherente posterior como la parte de atrs de una cinta adhesiva. +As cuando estn juntos, la molcula es neutra y nada se queda pegado. +Y los dos pedazos estn unidos por algo que slo se puede cortar si uno tiene las tijeras moleculares correctas... por ejemplo, la clase de enzimas proteasa que producen los tumores. +As que en esta situacin, si hacen una solucin con esta molcula de tres partes junto con un colorante, que se muestra aqu verde y lo inyectan en una vena de alguien con cncer, los tejidos normales no podrn cortarlo. +La molcula pasa a travs de ellos y es excretada. +Sin embargo, en presencia del tumor, habr ahora unas tijeras moleculares que pueden romper la molcula justamente en la parte fracturable. +Y ahora, bum, el tumor se marca a s mismo y se vuelve fluorescente. +As que, aqu hay un ejemplo de un nervio rodeado por tumor. +Pueden decir dnde est el tumor? +Yo no poda cuando trabajaba en l. +Pero aqu est. Es fluorescente. +Ahora es verde. +Vean, as cada uno en la audiencia puede decir ahora dnde est el cncer. +Podemos decirlo en la sala de ciruga, en el campo, a nivel molecular, dnde est el cncer y qu tiene que hacer el cirujano y cunto ms trabajo necesita hacer para sacarlo. +Y lo estupendo de la fluorescencia es que no slo brilla, realmente puede brillar a travs de los tejidos. +La luz que la fluorescencia emite puede atravesar los tejidos. +As que aunque el tumor no est justo en la superficie an puede verse. +En esta pelcula, se puede ver que el tumor es verde. +Hay realmente msculo normal en l. Lo ven? +Y yo estoy retirando este msculo. +Pero incluso antes de que lo quitara, ustedes vieron que haba tumor debajo. +Esa es la belleza de tener un tumor cuyas molculas se marcan con fluorescencia. +Que uno puede, no slo ver los mrgenes ah mismo a un nivel molecular, sino verlo incluso aunque no est delante, an si est ms all de su campo visual. +Y sirve tambin para ganglios linfticos metastsicos. +La diseccin del ganglio centinela realmente ha cambiado la forma en que manejamos el cncer de mama, el melanoma, etc. +A las mujeres se acostumbraba hacerles cirugas realmente invalidantes extirpando todos los ganglios linfticos axilares. +Pero cuando el ganglio centinela lleg a nuestro protocolo de tratamiento, el cirujano bsicamente mira el ndulo solitario que es el primer ganglio linftico al que drena el cncer. +Y entones si este ndulo tiene cncer, la mujer ir a una diseccin de ganglios linfticos axilares. +Esto significa que si este ganglio no tiene cncer, la mujer se salvar de una ciruga innecesaria. +Pero el ganglio centinela, la forma en que lo hacemos hoy, es como tener un mapa de carreteras slo para saber dnde ir. +As, si uno est conduciendo en una autopista y quiere saber dnde queda la siguiente estacin de gasolina, uno tiene un mapa que le dice que esa estacin est en el camino. +No le dice, ni s ni no, acerca de si esa estacin tiene gasolina. +Usted tiene que cortar, llevarlo a casa, cortarlo, mirar dentro, y decir, "Oh s, tiene gasolina". +Esto lleva ms tiempo. +Los pacientes estn an en el quirfano. +Anestesilogos, cirujanos esperan alrededor. +Esto lleva tiempo. +As que con nuestra tecnologa, podemos decir ah mismo. +All ven una cantidad de pequeas protuberancias redondas. +Algunas de estas son ganglios linfticos inflamados que se ven un poco ms grandes que otros. +Quin no ha tenido ganglios linfticos inflamados por una gripa? +Esto no quiere decir que dentro haya cncer. +Bien, con nuestra tecnologa, el cirujano es capaz de decir inmediatamente qu ndulos tienen cncer. +No voy a profundizar mucho en ello pero nuestra tecnologa, aparte de ser capaz de marcar el tumor y los ganglios linfticos con fluorescencia, nos permite tambin usar la misma ingeniosa partcula tripartita para marcar gadolinio dentro del sistema as que esto puede hacerse de manera no invasiva. +El paciente tiene cncer uno quiere saber si los ganglios linfticos tienen cncer incluso antes de entrar. +Esto se ve en una resonancia magntica. +En ciruga, es importante saber qu sacar. +Pero igualmente importante es preservar cosas importantes por su funcin. +As que es muy importante evitar hacer dao fortuito. +Y estoy hablando de nervios. +Los nervios, si son daados, pueden causar parlisis, pueden causar dolor. +En el contexto del cncer de prstata, hasta un 60% de los hombres despus de una ciruga de prstata por cncer pueden tener incontinencia urinaria y disfuncin erctil. +Hay muchas personas que tienen muchos problemas; y esto incluso en la llamada 'ciruga que preserva los nervios' que significa que el cirujano est al tanto de este problema y est tratando de evitar los nervios. +Pero saben qu?, estos nervios son tan pequeos, en el contexto de un cncer de prstata, que realmente nunca se ven. +Se los sigue mediante sus conocidas vas anatmicas a lo largo de la vasculatura. +Y son conocidos debido a que alguien decidi estudiarlos, lo que significa que an estamos aprendiendo dnde estn. +Es una locura pensar que estamos haciendo cirugas, tratando de extirpar el cncer y no sabemos dnde est el cncer. +Estamos tratando de preservar los nervios pero no podemos ver dnde estn. +As que digo, no sera grandioso si pudiramos encontrar una forma de ver los nervios fluorescentes? +Y al principio esto no tuvo mucho apoyo. +Decan: "Lo hemos hecho as todos estos aos. +Cul es el problema? +No estamos teniendo muchas complicaciones". +Pero de todos modos segu adelante. +Y Roger me ayud. +Vino con toda su gente. +As que trabajamos en equipo otra vez. +Y realmente descubrimos molculas que identifican nervios. +Y cuando solucionamos esto marcndolo con fluorescencia e inyectndolo en el cuerpo de un ratn, sus nervios literalmente brillaban. +Pueden ver dnde estn. +Aqu estn viendo el nervio citico de un ratn, y se puede ver que esa porcin grande, gorda, puede verse muy fcilmente. +Pero de hecho, en lo que estoy diseccionando ahora, hay realmente una ramificacin muy fina que no puede verse. +Vean que parece como una pequea cabeza de Medusa que sale. +Podemos ver los nervios de la expresin facial, del movimiento facial, de la respiracin, cada uno de los nervios; nervios para la funcin urinaria alrededor de la prstata. +Podemos ver cada uno de los nervios. +Juntamos estas dos investigaciones... +y aqu est el tumor. +Saben dnde estn los mrgenes del tumor? +Ahora s. +Qu dicen del nervio que pasa por este tumor? +Esta porcin blanca es fcil de ver. +Pero qu pasa con la parte que va dentro del tumor? +Saben a dnde est yendo? +Ahora lo saben. +Bsicamente, hemos llegado a una forma de teir tejidos y marcar con color el campo quirrgico. +Esto fue un pequeo avance. +Creo que cambiar la forma en que operaremos. +Publicamos nuestros resultados en las actas de la Academia Nacional de Ciencias y en Nature Biotechnology. +Fuimos comentados en la revista Discover, en The Economist. +Y se lo hemos mostrado a muchos de mis colegas cirujanos. +Dicen: "Oh! +Tengo pacientes que se pueden beneficiar con esto. +Creo que esto har que mis cirugas tengan mejores resultados y menos complicaciones" +Ahora hacen falta mayores desarrollos tecnolgicos junto con desarrollos en la instrumentacin que nos permitan ver este tipo de fluorescencia en las salas de ciruga. +La meta eventual es que podamos llevar esto a los pacientes. +Sin embargo, hemos descubierto que no hay realmente un mecanismo sencillo para desarrollar una molcula para usar una sola vez. +Comprensiblemente, la mayora de la industria mdica est enfocada en drogas de uso frecuente, como drogas diarias de largo plazo. +Estamos abocados a mejorar esta tecnologa. +Enfocados en aadir drogas y factores de crecimiento, que maten los nervios que causan problemas y no al tejido circundante. +Sabemos que puede hacerse y estamos comprometidos con ello. +Quiero dejarles un ltimo pensamiento. +La innovacin exitosa no es algo individual. +No es un esprint. +No es un evento de un solo corredor. +La innovacin exitosa es un equipo deportivo, es una carrera de relevos. +Se necesita un equipo para dar un paso y otro equipo para aceptar y adoptar ese avance. +Y requiere coraje permanente para la lucha del da a da para educar, persuadir y ganar la aceptacin. +Y esa es la luz que quiero que brille en la salud y la medicina de hoy. +Muchas gracias. +Estoy aqu para contarles de la invisibilidad econmica de la naturaleza. +Las malas noticias son que el rea contable de la naturaleza an no funciona, as que no se emiten facturas. +Pero tenemos que enfrentar este problema. +Comenc mi vida laboral en los mercados burstiles y segu interesado en eso, pero recientemente empec a observar el valor de lo que recibimos los humanos de la naturaleza, y que no se aprecia en los mercados. +En el 2007 comenz el proyecto TEEB por iniciativa de un grupo de ministros ambientales del G8+5. +Se inspiraron bsicamente en una revisin severa de Lord Stern. +Se preguntaron lo siguiente: si la economa halla razones convincentes para tomar acciones tempranas sobre el cambio climtico, por qu no se puede hacer lo mismo con la conservacin? +Por qu no se puede hacer algo as para la naturaleza? +Y la respuesta es: s, se puede. +Pero no es tan directo. +La biodiversidad, el tejido viviente del planeta, no es un gas. +Existe en varias capas: ecosistemas, especies y genes en varias escalas: internacional, nacional, local, comunal... pero hacer por la naturaleza lo que Lord Stern y su equipo hicieron por el clima no es tan fcil. +Y an as +comenzamos el proyecto con un reporte provisional, que rpidamente junt mucha informacin de muchos, muchos investigadores. +Y en nuestros resultados hallamos una revelacin sorprendente: estbamos perdiendo capital natural; los beneficios naturales que recibimos. +Los estbamos perdiendo a una tasa extraordinaria de unos dos a cuatro billones de dlares de capital natural. +Esto sali en 2008, ms o menos cuando la crisis bancaria haba mostrado la prdida de capital financiero del orden de los dos a cuatro billones de dlares. +As que era comparable en tamao a dicha prdida. +Desde entonces hemos ido a presentarle a la comunidad internacional, a los gobiernos, a gobiernos locales y a empresas y a personas como Uds y como yo infinidad de reportes, que se presentaron en las Naciones Unidas el ao pasado, que abordan la invisibilidad econmica de la naturaleza y describe lo que se puede hacer para arreglarlo. +De qu se trata? +Una imagen con la que estn familiarizados: la selva del Amazonas. +Imponente reserva de carbono, un gran reservorio de biodiversidad, pero lo que la gente no sabe es que tambin es una fbrica de lluvia. +Porque los vientos del noreste, al pasar sobre el Amazonas, efectivamente acumulan el vapor. +Unas 20 mil millones de toneladas por da de vapor de agua extradas por los vientos del noreste, que eventualmente se precipitan en forma de lluvia sobre la cuenca del Plata. +El ciclo de la lluvia, esta fbrica de lluvia, alimenta efectivamente una economa agrcola de unos 240 mil millones de dlares en Amrica latina. +Pero surge la pregunta: Cunto paga Uruguay, Paraguay, Argentina y, desde luego, el estado de Mato Grosso en Brasil por tan vital aportacin a esa economa del estado del Amazonas que produce esa lluvia? +Y la respuesta es... nada, exactamente cero. +Esa es la invisibilidad econmica de la naturaleza. +Que no puede continuar, porque los incentivos econmicos y los desincentivos son muy poderosos. +La economa se ha convertido en la moneda de la poltica. +Y a menos que tratemos esta invisibilidad, obtendremos los resultados que estamos viendo, que es una degradacin y prdida gradual de este valioso activo natural. +No slo es el Amazonas, o las selvas tropicales. +No importa en qu nivel se lo mire, ya sea a nivel del ecosistema o de las especies o a nivel gentico, vemos el mismo problema una y otra vez. +Entonces el ciclo de la lluvia est regulado por las selvas tropicales a nivel del ecosistema. +A nivel de las especies, se ha estimado que la polinizacin por insectos, abejas que polinizan frutas, etc. es de alrededor de 190 mil millones de dlares. +Es cerca del ocho por ciento de la produccin agrcola mundial. +Pasa completamente desapercibida. +Cundo una abeja les ha dado una factura? +A nivel gentico, el 60% de las medicinas probables, se encontraron primero como molculas en la selva tropical o en un arrecife. +Otra vez, todo eso no se paga. +Lo que me lleva a otro aspecto: a quin le deberamos pagar? +Ese material gentico posiblemente le perteneci, si pudiera pertenecerle a alguien, a una comunidad local de gente pobre que iniciaron el conocimiento que ayud a los investigadores a encontrar la molcula, que luego se convirti en medicina. +Es a ellos a quienes no se les pag. +Y si lo ven a nivel de especies, lo vieron en los peces. +Hoy, el agotamiento de la pesca martima es tan importante que efectivamente est afectando la habilidad del pobre, del pescador artesanal y de aquellos que pescan como forma de vida, para alimentar a sus familias. +Cerca de mil millones de personas dependen de la pesca, de la cantidad de pescados en el ocano. +Mil millones de personas dependen del pescado como fuente principal de protena animal. +Y a la tasa en la que estamos perdiendo peces, es un problema humano de dimensiones enormes, un problema de salud como no hemos visto antes. +Esa es la diferencia. +Porque estos son beneficios importantes para los pobres. +Y no puede haber un modelo apropiado para el desarrollo si al mismo tiempo se est destruyendo o permitiendo la degradacin del activo mismo, del activo ms importante, que es tu activo de desarrollo, como es la infraestructura ecolgica. +Qu tan mal se puede poner? +Bueno he aqu una imagen de algo llamado abundancia media de especies. +Es una medida de cuntos tigres, sapos, garrapatas o lo que sea hay en promedio de biomasa en un rea. +El verde representa un porcentaje +de entre 80% y 100%. +El amarillo, 40% a 60%. +Y estos porcentajes contra el estado original, por decirlo as, de la era pre-industrial, 1750. +Ahora les mostrar cmo los negocios usuales le afectan. +Y slo observen el cambio en colores en India, China, Europa, frica subsahariana, mientras nos movemos en un consumo mundial de biomasa en una tasa que no podr mantenernos. +Vemoslo otra vez. +Los nicos lugares que permanecen verdes, y no son buenas noticias, son, de hecho, lugares como el Desierto de Gobi, la tundra o el Sahara. +Pero eso no ayuda pues hay muy pocas especies y volumen de biomasa en primer lugar. +Este es el reto. +La razn por la que est ocurriendo la resumo en un problema bsico, que es nuestra incompetencia para detectar la diferencia entre beneficios pblicos y ganancias privadas. +Constantemente tendemos a ignorar la salud pblica porque est en el bienestar comn, son bienes comunes. +Pero, si observan exactamente cules son las ganancias, cerca de 8 000 de esos dlares son, de hecho, subsidios. +As que si comparan los dos lados de la moneda vern que es como de 1200 a 600. +Eso no es tan duro. +Pero por otra parte, si lo midiramos, cunto costara realmente restaurar la tierra de las granjas de camarones a uso productivo? +Una vez que el depsito de sales y qumicos ha surtido efecto, la respuesta es de unos 12 000 dlares en costos. +Y si observan los beneficios del manglar en trminos de la proteccin contra tormentas y ciclones que se obtienen y en trminos de la industria pesquera, los viveros, que proveen de pescado a los pobres, la respuesta es de unos 11 000 dlares. +Por eso, veamos los diferentes aspectos. +Si vemos el bienestar pblico contra las ganancias privadas, la respuesta es completamente distinta: la conservacin tiene ms sentido y no la destruccin. +Entonces, es slo una cuestin de Tailandia? +Lo siento, es un tema mundial. +Y estos son los mismos clculos realizados recientemente -bueno, en los ltimos 10 aos- por un grupo llamado TRUCOST. +Ellos calcularon para las 3 000 corporaciones principales, los efectos colaterales. +Es decir: cul es el costo de hacer negocios como siempre? +No es algo ilegal, son negocios tradicionales, lo que provoca las emisiones que cambian el clima, que tienen un costo econmico. +Provoca la emisin de contaminantes, que tiene un costo econmico, un costo en salud y ms. +El uso del agua. +Si se usa agua para hacer coca cerca de una granja rural, no es ilegal, pero s, le cuesta a la comunidad. +Podemos detenerlo? Cmo? +Creo que el primer punto es que necesitamos reconocer el capital natural. +Bsicamente la vida est hecha de capital natural, y necesitamos reconocer eso e incorporarlo en nuestros sistemas. +Cuando medimos el PIB, como una medida de desempeo econmico a nivel nacional, no incluimos nuestros principales activos a nivel nacional. +Cuando medimos el desempeo corporativo, no incluimos el impacto en la naturaleza y lo que le cuesta el negocio a la sociedad. +Eso debe parar. +De hecho, es lo que inspir mi inters en esta fase. +Comenc un proyecto hace mucho llamado el Green Accounting Project (Proyecto de Contabilidad Verde). +A principios de los 2000 cuando India estaba obsesionada con el crecimiento del PIB como medida de avance. Miraba a China con su crecimiento estelar del 8%, 9%, 10% y se preguntaba: podemos hacer lo mismo? +Y algunos amigos mos y yo decidimos que eso no tena sentido. +Esto le costara ms a la sociedad y dara ms prdidas. +As que decidimos hacer una serie de clculos y comenzamos a producir cuentas verdes para India y sus estados. +As es como comenz mi inters y fui al proyecto TEEB. +Calcularlo a nivel nacional es algo, y haba comenzado. +Y el Banco Mundial lo reconoci y comenzaron un proyecto llamado WAVES... en espaol, Contabilidad de la riqueza y Valuacin de los Servicios de los Ecosistemas. +Pero calcularlo en el siguiente nivel, a nivel del sector comercial, es importante. +Y de hecho lo hemos hecho con el proyecto TEEB. +Lo hemos hecho para un caso muy difcil, que era la deforestacin en China. +Esto es importante, porque en China en 1997, el Ro Amarillo se sec durante nueve meses causando grandes prdidas a la produccin agrcola y dolor y prdidas a la sociedad. +Un ao despus, el Yangtz se inund, causando cerca de 5 500 muertes. +As que evidentemente haba un problema con la deforestacin. +Se asociaba principalmente con la industria constructora. +El gobierno chino respondi sensatamente y prohibi la tala. +As que, de hecho, el precio de la madera en Beijing debi ser tres veces ms que lo que fue si hubiese reflejado el verdadero costo para la sociedad china. +Desde luego, despus de ocurrido uno se da cuenta. +La forma de hacerlo es como en una compaa, asumir el liderazgo, y hacerlo para los sectores importantes que tienen un costo, y revelar las respuestas. +Alguien me pregunt alguna vez: "Quin es mejor, Unilever o P&G en materia de impacto forestal en Indonesia?" +Y no pude responder porque ninguna de estas compaas, por buenas y profesionales que son, calcula o revela su dao colateral. +Pero si vemos compaas como PUMA -Jochen Zeits, su director ejecutivo y presidente, una vez me desafi diciendo que implementara mi proyecto antes de que lo terminara. +Bueno, creo que lo hicimos al mismo tiempo, pero l lo logr; +Bsicamente calcul el costo de PUMA- +PUMA factura anualmente 2 700 millones de dlares, 300 millones de dlares en ganancias, 200 millones de dlares despus de impuestos, 94 millones de dlares en dao colateral, costo al negocio. +Ahora, no es una situacin agradable para ellos, pero han tenido la confianza y el valor de enfrentarlo y decir: "He aqu lo que estamos calculando. +Lo hacemos porque sabemos que no se puede dirigir lo que no se ha medido". +Ese es un ejemplo, creo, para que veamos y para que encontremos consuelo. +Si ms compaas lo hicieran, y ms sectores se comprometieran como sectores, podran tener analistas, analistas mercantiles, y podran tener personas como nosotros y consumidores y ONGs viendo realmente y comparando el desempeo social de las compaas. +An no podemos hacerlo hoy en da, pero creo que el camino est trazado. +Se puede hacer. +Y me encanta que el Institute of Chartered Accountants en Reino Unido +haya establecido una coalicin para hacerlo, una coalicin internacional. +Mi otra solucin favorita es la creacin de mercados de carbono verdes. +Y por cierto, estas son mis favoritas: clculo de colaterales y mercados de carbono verdes. +TEEB tiene ms de una docena de grupos de soluciones distintos incluyendo la evaluacin de reas protegidas y pagos por los servicios de los ecosistemas y eco-certificacin y lo que gusten, pero estas son las favoritas. +Qu es el carbono verde? +Hoy lo que tenemos es bsicamente un mercado de carbono marrn. +Se trata de emisiones de energa. +La ETS de la Unin Europea es el principal mercado. +No lo est haciendo muy bien. Han emitido de ms. +Es como la inflacin: emiten ms moneda, y obtienen precios en declive. +Pero todo se trata de energa e industria. +Pero lo que hemos perdido son tambin otras emisiones como carbono negro, holln. +Tambin estamos perdiendo carbono azul, que, por cierto, es el almacn ms grande de carbono... ms del 55%. +Afortunadamente, en otras palabras, el flujo de las emisiones del ocano a la atmsfera y vice versa, est ms o menos equilibrado. +De hecho, lo que se absorbe es cerca del 25% de nuestras emisiones, lo que lleva a la acidificacin o baja alcalinidad en los ocanos. +Ms al respecto en un rato. +Y finalmente, la deforestacin, y hay emisin de metano de la agricultura. +El carbono verde -la deforestacin y las emisiones agrcolas- y el carbono azul juntos comprenden el 25% de nuestras emisiones. +Tenemos los medios en nuestras manos, mediante una estructura, un mecanismo llamado Red Plus; un esquema para las emisiones reducidas de la deforestacin y degradacin forestal. +Noruega ya ha contribuido con mil millones de dlares para que Indonesia y Brasil implementen este esquema Red Plus. +Hemos progresado algo. +Pero hay que hacer mucho ms. +Esto arreglar el problema? La economa lo arreglar todo? +Me temo que no. +Hay un rea que son los ocanos, arrecifes de coral. +Como pueden ver, cruzan el mundo entero desde Micronesia a travs de Indonesia, Malasia, India, Madagascar y el Caribe Occidental. +Estos puntos rojos, estas reas rojas, proveen de alimento y sustento a ms de 500 millones de personas. +Casi una octava parte de la sociedad. +As que al seleccionar blancos de 450 ppm y dos grados en las negociaciones climticas, lo que hemos hecho es una eleccin tica. +Hemos hecho una eleccin tica en la sociedad para no tener arrecifes. +Bueno, lo que les dir ahora es lo que podramos haber hecho. +Pensemos al respecto y lo que significa, pero por favor, no lo hagamos ms. +Porque la madre naturaleza slo tiene esto en infraestructura ecolgica y capital natural. +No creo que podamos costear muchas de estas decisiones ticas. +Gracias. +Ben Roche: por cierto, soy Ben. +Homaro Cantu: Y yo Homaro. +HC: Los comensales empezaron a aburrirse de esta idea, as que decidimos darles el mismo plato dos veces, por eso quitamos un elemento del rollo maki hicimos una foto del plato y luego servimos esa foto como parte del plato. +En particular, aqu tenemos bsicamente champn con mariscos. +Las uvas de champn que ven son uvas carbonadas. Unos mariscos, algo de crema fresca y la foto que sabe exactamente igual que el plato. BR: Pero no todas son fotos comestibles. +Decidimos hacer algo un poco diferente y transformamos sabores muy familiares, en este caso una tarta de zanahoria. +Pusimos la tarta de zanahoria en una licuadora, y con eso obtuvimos un jugo que luego congelamos en un globo, con nitrgeno lquido, para crear esta cscara hueca de tarta de zanahoria; el helado, supongo, da como resultado una especie de planeta Jpiter orbitando en el plato. +Y, s, transformamos las cosas en algo de lo que no tenemos la menor referencia. +BR: Pero eso no es todo. +En vez de hacer comidas que semejen cosas que uno no comera decidimos que los ingredientes parezcan platos conocidos. +Este es un plato de nachos. +La diferencia entre nuestros nachos y los nachos de los dems es que estos en realidad son un postre. +Las chips estn acarameladas, la carne picada es de chocolate, y el queso se hace con un sorbete de mango rallado que al pasarlo por nitrgeno lquido, parece queso. +Y despus de hacer todo esto, desmaterializar y reconfigurar estos ingredientes, nos dimos cuenta de que era muy bueno, porque conforme lo servamos, aprendamos que el plato se comportaba como la cosa real y el queso empezaba a derretirse. +As que cuando lo vemos en el comedor, nos da esa sensacin de que en realidad es un plato de nachos y recin cuando empezamos a saborearlo nos damos cuenta de que es un postre. Es una suerte de enigma. +HC: Hemos creado todos estos platos en una cocina ms parecida a un taller mecnico que a una cocina El siguiente paso fue instalar un laboratorio de vanguardia y eso es lo que tenemos aqu. +Pusimos esto en el stano, nos tomamos muy en serio la comida, experimentamos en serio. +HC: Hablemos de la transformacin de sabores y hagamos algo realmente interesante. +All ven una vaca con la lengua fuera. +Yo veo una vaca a punto de comer algo delicioso. Qu come esa vaca? +Por qu es delicioso? +Bsicamente, la vaca come tres cosas en su alimentacin: maz, remolacha y cebada, por eso yo desafo a mi personal con estas ideas locas. Podemos extraer lo que come la vaca quitar la vaca, y hacer con eso algunas hamburguesas? +La reaccin suele ser como sta. BR: S, ese es nuestro jefe de cocina, Chris Jones. No es el nico tipo que se vuelve loco si le asignamos una tarea ridcula. Muchas de estas ideas son difciles de entender. +Son difciles de automatizar. +Hay mucha investigacin y mucho error, prueba y error -supongo que ms error- en la preparacin de cada plato. No siempre nos sale bien y lleva tiempo poder explicrselo a la gente. +HC: As, a Chris y a m luego de un da entero de mirarnos el uno al otro, se nos ocurri algo bastante cercano a la hamburguesa y, como pueden ver, tiene forma de carne vacuna. +Est hecha de tres ingredientes: remolacha, cebada, maz, y as se cocina como carne de hamburguesa, parece y sabe a carne de hamburguesa y no slo eso, sino que se elimina a la vaca de la ecuacin. +La rplica culinaria, hacia ese lado nos dirigimos. +BR: Definitivamente, es la primera hamburguesa vegetal, que es un efecto secundario genial. +Y una baya milagrosa, si no estn familiarizados con esto, es un ingrediente natural que tiene una propiedad especial. +Es una glicoprotena llamada miraculina, algo natural. Todava me alucina cada vez que la como, pues tiene una capacidad nica para actuar sobre ciertas papilas gustativas, y hacer que los receptores de lo amargo, esas cosas de sabor muy amargo o agrio, de algn modo se tornen muy dulces. +HC: Estn por comer un limn y ahora sabe a limonada. +Detengmonos a pensar en los beneficios econmicos de algo as. +Podramos eliminar todo el azcar de los productos de confitera y las gaseosas, y podemos reemplazarlo por frutas naturales. +BR: Aqu estamos cortando una sanda. La idea es eliminar toneladas de alimentos, el derroche de energa y la sobrepesca del atn mediante la creacin de atn o cualquier producto extico de lugares remotos con productos orgnicos locales; as que tenemos una sanda de Wisconsin. +HC: As como las bayas milagrosas vuelven dulces las cosas agrias, tenemos este otro polvo mgico que le ponemos a la sanda que la hace pasar de dulce a salada. +Despus la ponemos en una bolsa al vaco, le aadimos algunas algas marinas, unas especias, lo enrollamos y esto empieza a parecerse al atn. +La clave ahora es hacer que se comporte como atn. +BR: Y despus de un chapuzn en nitrgeno lquido para lograr ese aire de mar, realmente tenemos algo que parece, sabe y acta como si fuera verdadero. +HC: Lo importante a recordar aqu es que no nos importa de qu es este atn. +Mientras sea bueno para uno y para el medio ambiente, no importa. +A dnde va esto? +Cmo podemos usar esta idea de engaar a las papilas gustativas y hacer algo que revolucione la tecnologa alimenticia actual? +Ese es el prximo desafo. +Ya le dije al personal que tomemos un puado de plantas silvestres y las pensemos como ingredientes, siempre que no sean venenosas para el cuerpo humano, y que vayan por las aceras de Chicago las tomen, las mezclen, las cocinen para que todos las degusten en Moto. +As que tuvimos que pensar nuevas maneras creativas de condimentar, de cocinar y de cambiar texturas; ese fue el desafo principal. +HC: Ah es donde nos adentramos en el futuro y damos un gran paso adelante. +Pases en desarrollo, pases desarrollados, imaginen si pudieran tomar estas plantas silvestres y consumirlas, el bio-regionalismo pasara de kilmetros a metros. +Esta manera novedosa de ver la comida abrira la enciclopedia de los ingredientes, con slo intercambiar digamos, uno de stos, por la harina eso eliminara mucha energa y por ende muchos residuos. +Para darles un ejemplo simple de lo que servimos a estos clientes, all hay un fardo de heno y unas manzanas silvestres. +Bsicamente, con heno y manzanas silvestres hacemos salsa de barbacoa. +La gente jura que est comiendo salsa de barbacoa, y esto es comida gratis. +BR: Gracias, chicos. +Voy a compartir con ustedes algo de lo que no he hablado durante ms de 10 aos. +Permtanme que los lleve en este viaje. +Cuando tena 22 aos, al regresar del trabajo a casa, le puse la correa a mi perro y sal a correr como de costumbre. +No me imaginaba que en ese momento mi vida iba a cambiar para siempre. +Mientras preparaba al perro, un hombre sala de beber en un bar, tom las llaves, subi a su auto y se dirigi hacia el sur o a dondequiera que iba. +Yo corra por la calle y lo nico que recuerdo es algo como la explosin de una granada en la cabeza. +Recuerdo que puse las manos en el suelo y sent que toda la sangre me sala por el cuello y por la boca. +Lo que sucedi es que se pas un semforo en rojo y nos atropell, al perro y a m. +El perro qued debajo del auto. +Yo sal volando delante del coche que luego pas sobre mis piernas. +La izquierda qued atrapada en un neumtico que la hizo dar vueltas. +El parachoques golpe mi garganta y la abri en dos. +Termin con un traumatismo brutal en el pecho. +La aorta pasa por detrs del corazn. +Es la arteria principal y me la cort de modo que la sangre me sala a borbotones por la boca. +Se haca espuma y me ocurran otras cosas horribles. +Yo no saba qu estaba pasando, pero unos desconocidos intervinieron, hicieron que mi corazn siguiera movindose, latiendo. +Digo movindose porque se agitaba mientras ellos intentaban restaurarle el ritmo. +Alguien, inteligentemente, me insert un bolgrafo en el cuello para abrirle paso al aire y permitirme respirar. +El pulmn colaps y alguien lo abri y puso un alfiler ah tambin para as evitar que sucediera lo peor. +De alguna manera, termin en un hospital. +Me envolvieron en hielo y luego con medicinas me indujeron un coma. +Despus de 18 meses me despert. +Estaba ciega, no poda hablar ni caminar. +Pesaba 29 kilos. +En los hospitales no tienen ni idea de cmo tratar personas as. +Comenzaron a llamarme "zombi". +Esa es otra historia de la que no vamos a hablar. +Me hicieron muchas cirugas para arreglarme el cuello, y varias para repararme el corazn. +Algunas cosas funcionaron bien, otras no. +Me pusieron cantidades de titanio, y huesos de cadveres para hacer que los pies se movieran bien. +Termin con una nariz plstica, dientes de porcelana y toda clase de cosas. +Finalmente comenc a recuperar el aspecto humano. +En ocasiones no es fcil hablar de estas cosas. Disclpenme. +Tuve ms de 50 cirugas. +A quin le interesa contarlas? +En algn momento el hospital decidi que tena que irme. +Necesitaban el espacio para alguien que pensaban que podra regresar de lo que le estuviera pasando. +Todos haban perdido la fe en mi recuperacin. +As que pusieron un mapa en la pared y lanzaron un dardo que se clav en un hogar de ancianos, en Colorado. +Me imagino que ustedes se estarn rascando la cabeza: "Un hogar de adultos mayores? Qu cosa se puede hacer all?" +Pero, pensndolo bien, todas las habilidades y el talento que hay ahora mismo en esta sala, igualmente se encuentran en un hogar de mayores. +Estas personas tenan esas habilidades y talento. +La ventaja que ellos tenan sobre ustedes es la sabidura, despus de sus largas vidas. +En ese momento de mi vida, yo necesitaba esa sapiencia. +Pueden imaginar lo que signific para ellos mi aparicin en su puerta? +En ese momento ya haba ganado 2 kilos, pesaba 31. +Estaba calva. +Vesta ropa de hospital. +Alguien me haba donado unos tenis. +Tena un bastn blanco en una mano y un maletn con todos mis registros clnicos en la otra. +Entonces los residentes decidieron que tenan que hacer una reunin de emergencia. +Se retiraron y se miraban aterrados diciendo: "Bueno, qu habilidades hay en esta sala? +Esta chica requiere mucho trabajo. +Empezaron a acoplar su talento y sus habilidades a todas mis necesidades. +Una de las primeras cosas que haba que hacer era determinar rpidamente mis necesidades. +Yo necesitaba aprender a comer como un ser humano normal ya que me haban alimentado por un tubo en el pecho, por las venas. +Tena que aprender a comer. +Ellos asumieron ese proceso. +Tuvieron que ingenirselas: "Necesita muebles. +Est durmiendo en un rincn del apartamento". +Fueron a sus depsitos y trajeron unos muebles, me consiguieron batera de cocina, mantas, de todo. +Lo siguiente que necesitaba era mi arreglo personal. +Me quitaron la ropa del hospital y me trajeron ropa de polister y estampados con flores. +No voy a mencionar los estilos de peinados que ensayaron cuando me creci el cabello. +Al pelo azul, dije que no. +En su momento decidieron que, s, necesitaba aprender a hablar. +No puedes ser independiente si no puedes hablar ni ver. +Ellos pensaron que no poder ver es una cosa, pero necesitaban hacerme hablar. +As que Sally, la administradora, me enseaba a hablar durante el da. Es difcil; cuando nios tomamos todo por sentado. +Aprendemos inconscientemente. +Pero yo era adulta y era embarazoso; tena que aprender a coordinar mi nueva garganta con la lengua, con los nuevos dientes y con los labios, tomar el aire y producir palabras. +Actuaba como si tuviera 2 aos y me negaba a esforzarme. +Los hombres tuvieron una idea mejor. +Queran hacerlo de manera divertida. +Por la noche me ensaaban a hacer crucigramas con groseras y, en secreto, a maldecir como un marinero. +Dejo simplemente a su imaginacin cules fueron mis primeras palabras cuando Sally finalmente, logr devolverme la confianza. +Luego continuamos. +Un antiguo profesor, que sufra de Alzheimer, resolvi ensearme a escribir. +La redundancia me sirvi mucho. +Entonces, continuemos. +Uno de mis momentos cruciales fue cuando aprend a cruzar la calle nuevamente, como los ciegos. +Cierren los ojos. +Ahora piensen que tienen que cruzar la calle. +No saben qu tan lejos est la va ni si van derecho, oyen los autos que zumban por todas partes y recuerdan haber tenido un horrible accidente que los dej en esta situacin. +Haba un par de obstculos que tena que superar. +Uno era el estrs postraumtico. +Cada vez que me acercaba a una esquina o a un borde senta pnico. +Y el otro era que trataba de entender cmo se cruzaba la calle. +Entonces una de las residentes se me acerc, me empuj hacia la esquina y me dijo: "cuando pienses que ya es el momento de pasar, sacas el bastn. +Si choca con algo, no cruces la calle". +Tena toda la razn. +Cuando llegamos al tercer bastn que sali zumbando por la calle, se dieron cuenta de que tenan que aunar esfuerzos y consiguieron fondos para que yo pudiera ir al Instituto Braille donde aprend a comportarme como una ciega y tambin consegu un perro gua que transform mi vida. +Pude volver a la universidad gracias a los adultos mayores que invirtieron en mi educacin y gracias al perro y a las destrezas que desarroll. +10 aos ms tarde recobr la vista. +No fue por magia. +Decid someterme a 3 cirugas, una de ellas experimental. +Fue una operacin con robots. +Extrajeron un hematoma que estaba detrs del ojo. +El mayor cambio que not fue que el mundo haba progresado, haba muchas innovaciones y toda clase de cosas nuevas; telfonos mviles, computadores porttiles, cosas que nunca haba visto antes. +Si eres ciego, tu memoria visual se desvanece y se reemplaza con las sensaciones de cmo se sienten las cosas, cmo suenan y cmo huelen. +Un da, estando en mi habitacin, vi una cosa que estaba ah y pens que era un monstruo. +Camin a su alrededor. +Y pens: "voy a tocarlo". +Y al tocarlo, me dije: "Ay, Dios mo, si es una canasta para la ropa". +Todo es diferente cuando se puede ver porque se toma todo por sentado. +Pero si eres ciego tienes memoria tctil para las cosas. +El mayor cambio que not fue cuando me mir las manos y vi que haba perdido 10 aos de mi vida. +Pensaba que por alguna razn el tiempo se haba detenido y solo haba avanzado para mis parientes y amigos. +Pero cuando me mir, me di cuenta de que tambin para m haba pasado y que tena que alcanzarlo; as que me puse a actualizarme. +No existan palabras para "recursos mltiples" o "colaboracin radical" cuando mi accidente. +Pero los conceptos eran reales: grupos de personas que trabajaron juntas para reconstruirme, gente que colabor para reeducarme. +Yo no estara hoy aqu si no fuera por esa colaboracin radical. +Muchas gracias. +Estoy aqu para hablar de la maravilla y el misterio de la mente consciente. +Lo maravilloso es el hecho que al despertar esta maana recuperamos asombrosamente nuestra mente consciente. +Recuperamos la mente bajo una completa sensacin de ser y una sensacin de existencia propia, pero casi nunca nos detenemos a contemplar esta maravilla. +Deberamos hacerlo, en realidad, porque sin la posibilidad de una mente consciente, no tendramos ningn conocimiento acerca de nuestra humanidad; no tendramos ningn conocimiento acerca del mundo. +No tendramos dolores, pero tampoco alegras. +No accederamos al amor o a la capacidad de crear. +Y por supuesto, como dijo Scott Fitzgerald: Quien descubri la conciencia cometi un pecado mortal. +Pero l tambin olvid que sin conciencia no habra acceso a la verdadera felicidad, e incluso, a la posibilidad de trascender. +Hasta aqu lo maravilloso, ahora el misterio. +Este es un misterio que ha sido extremadamente difcil de elucidar. +Desde los comienzos de la filosofa y sin duda, a lo largo de la historia de la neurociencia, ste ha sido un misterio que siempre se ha resistido a la elucidacin, y ha planteado grandes controversias. +E incluso hay muchos que piensan que no deberamos tocarlo; deberamos dejarlo como est, que no ser resuelto. +Yo no lo creo, y creo que las circunstancias estn cambiando. +Sera ridculo afirmar que sabemos cmo se crea la conciencia en nuestros cerebros, pero desde luego, podemos comenzar planteando la cuestin y empezar a ver el desarrollo de una solucin. +Y otra maravilla para celebrar es que tenemos tecnologas de imagen que nos permiten entrar al cerebro humano, y acceder, por ejemplo, a lo que ven en este momento. +Estas son imgenes del laboratorio Hanna Damasio, donde se muestra la reconstruccin de un cerebro vivo. +Y esa persona est viva. +Ese no es el estudio de una autopsia. +E incluso lo que les mostrar a continuacin, es algo que puede sorprenderlos realmente, y que va por debajo de la superficie cerebral, e incluso observando en el cerebro vivo, las conexiones, las vas reales. +De modo que esas lneas coloreadas corresponden a grupos de axones, las fibras que unen los cuerpos celulares en las sinapsis. +Y disculpen por decepcionarlos, stas no son de colores. +Sea como fuere, ellas estn all. +Los colores sirven para indicar la direccin, si va de atrs a adelante o viceversa. +De todos modos, qu es la conciencia? +Qu es una mente consciente? +Y a primera vista, podramos decir que es aquello que perdemos al caer en un sueo profundo sin sueos, o bajo anestesia; Y es aquello que recobramos al despertarnos o tras los efectos de la anestesia. +Pero qu es aquello que perdemos precisamente bajo anestesia, o en estado de sueo profundo sin sueos? +Bueno, en primer lugar, es una mente, lo que significa que es un flujo de imgenes mentales. +Y por supuesto considerar las imgenes como patrones sensoriales. En este caso, las imgenes son visuales, en relacin al escenario y a m, o imgenes auditivas, en relacin a mis palabras. +Ese flujo de imgenes mentales es la mente. +Pero hay algo ms que experimentamos en este recinto. +No somos exhibidores pasivos de imgenes visuales, auditivas o tctiles. +Todos tenemos un s mismo. +Tenemos un yo que est presente involuntariamente en nuestras mentes en este momento. +Somos dueos de nuestras mentes. +Y tenemos la sensacin de que cada uno de nosotros est experimentando esto, y no la persona sentada a su lado. +As que para tener una mente consciente, tendrn un s mismo dentro de la mente consciente. +Por lo tanto, una mente consciente es una mente con un s mismo en ella. +El s mismo introduce la perspectiva subjetiva en la mente, y somos completamente conscientes cuando el s mismo viene a la mente. +Entonces lo que necesitamos saber para abordar este misterio es, en primer lugar, cmo la mente se une al cerebro y segundo, cmo se construye el s mismo. +Pues bien, el primer problema es relativamente sencillo, pero es algo que se ha abordado progresivamente en neurociencia. +Y est bien claro que para constituir la mente, es necesario construir mapas neuronales. +As, imaginen una cuadrcula como la que muestro, e imaginen en esa cuadrcula una hoja de dos dimensiones; imaginen neuronas. +Una presentacin, si se quiere, una cartelera digital, con elementos que pueden iluminarse o no. +Y de acuerdo a cmo creen el patrn de iluminacin o no, los elementos digitales, o en ese caso, las neuronas en la hoja, podrn construir un mapa. +Esto que les muestro es, por supuesto, un mapa visual pero se aplica a todo tipo de mapa, por ejemplo, auditivos, en relacin a las frecuencias de sonido, o los mapas construidos con la piel, cuando se palpa un objeto. +Para entender lo cercana que es la relacin entre la cuadrcula de neuronas y la disposicin topogrfica de la actividad neuronal y nuestra experiencia mental, les contar una experiencia personal. +Si cubro mi ojo izquierdo- hablo de m y no de ninguno de Uds.-, si cubro mi ojo izquierdo, y miro una cuadrcula, similar a las que les estoy mostrando; +todo esta bien, correcto, y perpendicular. +Pero hace algn tiempo descubr que si cubro mi ojo izquierdo, lo que veo es esto. +Veo una deformacin en el borde del rea central izquierda. +Muy extrao; lo he analizado durante un tiempo. +Pero hace algn tiempo, mediante la ayuda de una colega oftalmloga, Carmen Puliafito, quien desarroll un escner lser de la retina, hall lo siguiente. +Si escaneo mi retina mediante un plano horizontal como el que se ve all en el rincn, lo que se obtiene es lo siguiente. +En el lado derecho, mi retina es perfectamente simtrica. +Observen la bajada hacia la fvea, que es donde comienza el nervio ptico. +Pero en mi retina izquierda hay un bulto, sealado por la fecha roja. +Corresponde a un pequeo quiste alojado por debajo. +Y es eso exactamente lo que causa la deformacin de mi visin. +Piensen en esto: tienen una cuadrcula de neuronas, y se produce un cambio mecnico plano en la posicin de la cuadrcula, y se obtiene una deformacin de su experiencia mental. +Esta es la relacin entre su experiencia mental y la actividad de las neuronas en la retina, que es la parte del cerebro localizado en el globo ocular, o en este caso, una capa de la corteza visual. +Entonces, se va desde la retina hacia la corteza visual. +Y por supuesto, el cerebro aade mucha informacin respecto a las seales que provienen de la retina. +Y en aquella imagen, ven una variedad de islas, las que llamo regin de creacin de imgenes en el cerebro. +El rea verde, por ejemplo, corresponde a la informacin tctil, y la azul a la informacin auditiva. +Y otra cosa que sucede es que, aquella regin de creacin de imgenes, donde est el trazado de estos mapas neuronales, puede proveer de seales a este ocano prpura que se observa alrededor, que es la corteza de asociacin, y es donde se puede archivar lo que sucedi en las islas de creacin de imgenes. +Y la verdadera belleza es que se puede pasar de la memoria, de aquellas cortezas de asociacin, y reproducir imgenes en las mismas regiones que tienen percepcin. +Piensen en lo maravillosamente prctico y perezoso que es el cerebro. +As, contempla reas de percepcin y de creacin de imgenes. +Y aquellas sern exactamente las que se utilizarn para la creacin de imgenes cuando recordamos informacin. +Entonces, de esta manera, el misterio de la mente consciente se reduce un poco, porque tenemos un conocimiento general de cmo creamos esas imgenes +Pero qu sucede con el s mismo? +El s mismo es realmente difcil de aprehender. +Y durante mucho tiempo, la gente ni quera abordarlo, porque planteaban: Cmo se puede tener este punto de referencia, que se requiere para mantener una continuidad del s mismo da tras da. +Y encontr una solucin a este problema. +Y es la siguiente. +Creamos mapas cerebrales del interior del cuerpo y los utilizamos como referencia para los otros mapas +Y permtanme contarles cmo llegu a esto. +Y lo logr porque, si tenemo una referencia que conocemos como s mismo, el m, el yo en nuestro procesamiento, necesitamos que sea estable, que no presente muchas desviaciones da a da. +Pues sucede que tenemos un nico cuerpo. +Un cuerpo solo, no dos ni tres. +Y ese es el comienzo. +El cuerpo es justamente un punto de referencia. +Pero el cuerpo, desde luego, posee muchos miembros, que crecen a ritmos diferentes, tienen diferentes tamaos y personas diferentes; sin embargo, no sucede lo mismo con el interior. +Con aquellos elementos relacionados a lo que se conoce como nuestro medio interno. Por ejemplo, la gestin integral de los compuestos qumicos internos del cuerpo, son de hecho mantenidos intensamente, da tras da, por una muy buena razn. +Si se desvan demasiado en los parmetros cercanos a la media, en base al rango de supervivencia que permite la vida, se producir la enfermedad o la muerte. +As que tenemos un sistema incorporado en nuestras vidas que asegura cierto tipo de continuidad. +Algo as como una casi infinita uniformidad da tras da. +Porque si no existe esa uniformidad fisiolgica, nos enfermamos o morimos. +Y hay un elemento ms para esta continuidad. +Y es que existe un acoplamiento estrecho entre la regulacin de nuestro cuerpo en el cerebro y el cuerpo en s; a diferencia de otro acoplamiento. +Por ejemplo, estoy creando imgenes de Uds., pero no existe ningn vnculo fisiolgico entre las imgenes de Uds.como audiencia y mi cerebro. +Sin embargo, existe un vnculo estrecho y sostenido permanentemente entre el cuerpo regulando partes de mi cerebro y mi propio cuerpo. +As es cmo se ve. Observen el rea. +El tronco enceflico se encuentra entre la corteza cerebral y la mdula espinal. +Y esa regin que ahora les marcar, es el alojamiento de todos los dispositivos reguladores de la vida del cuerpo. +Lo que sucede en realidad, es que se pierde la base del s mismo, ya no tendrn acceso a ninguna sensacin de su existencia, y de hecho pueden sucederse imgenes formadas en la corteza cerebral, pero no sabrn que estn all. +En efecto, han perdido la conciencia si se ha daado la seccin roja del tronco enceflico. +Pero si consideramos la regin verde del tronco enceflico, no sucede lo mismo. +Eso es muy especifico. +As, en el segmento verde del tronco enceflico, cuando se daa, y sucede frecuentemente, lo que se produce es una parlisis completa, pero se mantiene la mente consciente. +Uds. sienten, que existe una mente completamente consciente, de la que pueden dar cuenta muy indirectamente. +Esta es una afeccin espantosa, no desearan verla. +Y las personas estn realmente encarceladas dentro de sus cuerpos, pero poseen su mente. +Hubo una pelcula muy interesante, una de las pocas bien hechas sobre un caso similar a ste, de Julian Schnabel, acerca de un paciente con esa afeccin. +Les mostrar una foto. +Prometo no decir nada a no ser que les asuste. +Slo especificar que en la seccin roja del tronco enceflico, hay, y para simplificar, pequeos cuadrados que corresponden a los mdulos que en realidad forman los mapas cerebrales de los diferentes aspectos de nuestro interior, de las diferentes partes de nuestro cuerpo, +Son exquisitamente topogrficos y estn exquisitamente interconectados en un patrn recurrente. +Entonces qu es esa foto que vemos all? +Observen la corteza cerebral y el tronco enceflico, observen el cuerpo, y obtendrn la interconexin, mediante la cual el tronco enceflico provee de base al s mismo, en una estrecha interconexin con el cuerpo. +Y tenemos la corteza cerebral proporcionando el gran espectculo de nuestras mentes con la exuberancia de imgenes, que son en realidad, el contenido de nuestras mentes, y a lo que normalmente le prestamos ms atencin, y deberamos, porque verdaderamente es la pelcula que se ve en nuestras mentes. +Pero observen las flechas. +No estn all por casualidad. +Estn all porque hay una interaccin muy estrecha. +No tendrn una mente consciente si no tienen esa interaccin entre la corteza cerebral y el tronco enceflico. +No tendrn una mente consciente si no tienen la interaccin entre el tronco enceflico y el cuerpo. +Otra cosa interesante es que el tronco enceflico tambin lo compartimos con otras especies. +Es as que en los vertebrados, el diseo del cerebro es muy similar al nuestro, y ese es uno de los motivos por el cual otras especies tienen una mente consciente como la nuestra. +No tan rica como la nuestra, porque no poseen nuestra corteza cerebral. +All radica la diferencia. +Y estoy en total desacuerdo con la idea de que la conciencia sea considerada como el gran producto de la corteza cerebral. +Es la riqueza de nuestra mente, y no el hecho de que tengamos un s mismo al que podamos referirnos sobre nuestra propia existencia, y esa sensacin de ser persona. +Ahora, existen tres niveles de s mismo: el proto-yo, el yo-central y el yo- autobiogrfico. +Los dos primeros son compartidos con muchas especies y son producidos en gran medida por el tronco enceflico y todo lo que derive de la corteza en esas especies. +Es el yo-autobiogrfico el que poseen algunas especies, creo. +Cetceos y primates poseen un yo-autobiogrfico hasta cierto punto. +Y los perros domsticos tienen en cierto modo tambin, un yo-autobiogrfico. +Pero la novedad esta aqu. +El yo-autobiogrfico se construye sobre la base de los recuerdos del pasado y de los recuerdos de los planes que hemos hecho; es la vida pasada y el futuro proyectado. +Y el yo-autobiogrfico ha provocado la memoria ampliada, el razonamiento, la imaginacin, la creatividad y el lenguaje. +Y de ellos han salido los instrumentos de la cultura: la religin, la justicia, el comercio, las artes, la ciencia, la tecnologa. +Y es dentro de esa cultura que podemos lograr, y ese es el descubrimiento, algo que no est establecido biolgicamente por completo. +Est desarrollado en las culturas. +Lo desarrollan los seres humanos en colectivo. +Y sta es, por supuesto, la cultura en la que hemos desarrollado algo que denomino la regulacin socio-cultural. +Y por ltimo, podran acertadamente preguntar, qu importa esto? +Qu importa si lo primordial es el tronco cerebral o la corteza cerebral y cmo estn formados? +Tres razones. La primera, la curiosidad. +Los primates son extremadamente curiosos y los humanos ms que ninguno. +Y si nos interesa, por ejemplo, el hecho de que la antigravedad aleja galaxias de la Tierra, Por qu no vamos a estar interesados en lo que sucede en el interior de los seres humanos? +Segundo, comprender la sociedad y la cultura. +Pero debemos considerar cmo la sociedad y la cultura, en esta regulacin socio-cultural, es una labor que contina. +Y finalmente, la medicina. +No olvidemos que algunas de las peores enfermedades de la humanidad son la depresin, Alzheimer, y la adiccin a las drogas. +Piensen en un accidente cerebrovascular que puede desbastar la mente o dejarlos inconscientes. +No hay oracin que trate esas enfermedades de manera efectiva y tampoco de manera imprevista si no se sabe cmo funciona. +As que es una muy buena razn, mas all de la curiosidad, para justificar lo que hacemos y justificar el inters por saber lo que sucede en nuestros cerebros. +Gracias por su atencin. +Recuerdan la historia de Odiseo y las sirenas, de la escuela secundaria? +El hroe Odiseo volva a casa despus de la Guerra de Troya. +Est sobre la cubierta de su barco hablando con el primer oficial, y le dice: "Maana cuando pasemos al lado de esas rocas unas hermosas mujeres estarn sentadas all, son las sirenas. +Ellas cantarn una cancin cautivadora, tan seductora, que todos los marineros que la oigan se estrellarn contra las rocas y morirn". +En vista de esto, uno esperara que decidieran tomar una ruta distinta para evitar a las sirenas, pero, en cambio, Odiseo dijo: "Yo quiero or esa cancin. +Lo que har es poner cera en tus odos y el de todos los dems que estn conmigo, para que no puedan or la msica, y har que a m me aten al mstil para que pueda escuchar sin que nos afecte al pasar navegando". +Este capitn arriesga la vida de todas las personas del barco para poder l or una cancin. +Quisiera pensar que si as sucedi, probablemente debieron hacer varios ensayos. +Odiseo debi haber dicho, "Est bien, simulemos. +Uds. me atan al mstil y yo les rogar y suplicar. +No importa lo que diga, no me pueden desatar. +Muy bien. Pueden amarrarme ahora". +El primer oficial toma una cuerda y ata a Odiseo al mstil con un buen nudo. +Luego Odiseo juega su papel y dice, "Destenme. Destenme. +Quiero or esa cancin. Destenme." +El primer oficial sabiamente se resiste y no suelta a Odiseo. +Entonces Odiseo dice, "Ya veo que lo hicieron bien. +Bueno, ahora sultenme y cenemos." +El primer oficial empieza a dudar. +y se dice, "Estamos todava ensayando o debera desatarlo?" +Y luego piensa, "Bueno, el ensayo tiene que terminar en algn momento." +As que suelta a Odiseo, y ste se voltea +y le dice, "Idiota. Imbcil. +Si haces esto maana, yo morir, Uds. morirn, absolutamente todos moriremos. +No me puedes desatar, de ninguna manera." +Y tira al suelo al primer oficial. +Esto mismo se repite toda la noche: ensayo, amarrada al mstil, engatusamiento para ser liberado, paliza inmisericorde al pobre primer oficial. +Y todos rindose. +Atarse a un mstil es probablemente el ejemplo ms antiguo de lo que los psiclogos llaman un "mecanismo de compromiso". +Mecanismo de compromiso es una decisin que uno toma con cabeza fra, para comprometerse y as evitar hacer algo lamentable cuando se est perturbado. +Porque hay dos cabezas en una misma persona, si lo pensamos. +Los acadmicos usan esta metfora de la doble personalidad al hablar de problemas con tentaciones. +Est primero la personalidad actual. +Es el caso de Odiseo cuando oye la cancin. +l quiere estar en primera fila. +Slo piensa en el aqu y el ahora, y en la gratificacin inmediata. +Pero existe la otra personalidad, la del futuro. +ste es Odiseo de mayor que slo quiere retirarse a una villa soleada con su esposa Penlope en las afueras de taca, el otro Odiseo. +Y por qu necesitamos mecanismos de compromiso? +Pues porque es difcil resistirse a las tentaciones, como dijo el economista del siglo XIX Nassau William padre, "Abstenerse del goce a nuestro alcance, o buscar resultados distantes y no inmediatos, son algunos de los ejercicios ms duros para la voluntad humana". +Si tienes tus ideales y eres como mucha gente, probablemente te das cuenta de que tus ideales no son fsicamente inalcanzables lo que te impide lograrlos, sino que te falta autodisciplina para lograrlos. +Fsicamente es posible perder peso. +Fsicamente es posible hacer ms ejercicio. +Pero resistirse a la tentacin es difcil. +La otra razn por la que es tan difcil resistirse a las tentaciones es porque es una batalla desigual entre la personalidad actual y la futura. +Digmoslo con claridad, la actual es real. +Se puede controlar, manejar ahora mismo. +Tiene estos brazos fuertes y poderosos que puede darte de comer. +Y la futura ni siquiera est cerca. +Est apagada, en el futuro, es dbil. +No tiene siquiera un defensor presente. +No hay nadie que se levante en su nombre. +Y por eso la presente puede truncar todos tus sueos. +Esta es la lucha entre las dos personalidades; necesitamos mecanismos de compromiso para nivelar el campo de batalla. +Soy un fantico de los mecanismos de compromiso. +Atarse a un mstil es la forma ms antigua, pero hay otras, como guardar bajo llave la tarjeta de crdito, o no traer a casa comida basura, para no comerla, o desconectar la salida de internet para no usar el computador. +Me invento mecanismos de compromiso desde antes de saber lo que eran. +Cuando era un estudiante postdoctoral pobre en la Universidad de Columbia, estaba en la fase de mi carrera de "publicas o mueres". +O escriba cada da 5 pginas acadmicas o tendra que deshacerme de 5 dlares. +Y al tratar de cumplir estos mecanismos de compromiso, te das cuenta que el enemigo est en los detalles. +Porque no es fcil desprenderse de 5 dlares. +Podra quemarlos, pero es ilegal. +Pens donarlos a una organizacin, o darlos a mi esposa, o algo as. +Pero entonces me enviara mensajes confusos. +Porque no escribir es algo malo, pero dar para un fin benfico es bueno. +As justificara el no escribir al hacer una donacin. +Entonces cambi por completo y pens que podra darlo a los neonazis. +Pero eso resultaba mucho peor que no escribir y as que esto tampoco funcionara. +Por ltimo resolv, simplemente que podra dejarlos en un sobre en el metro. +Algunas veces los encontrara una buena persona, y otras veces, una mala persona. +En promedio sera un simple intercambio de dinero sin sentido, lo que lamentara. +Eso sucede con estos mecanismos. +A pesar de lo mucho que me gustan, hay dos cosas que me preocupan al respecto desde siempre. Uds. posiblemente las notarn si los usan. +La primera es que cuando se adopta uno de estos mecanismos, como el compromiso de escribir o pagar, es un recordatorio permanente de que no tienes autocontrol. +Te dices, "Sin ti, mecanismo de compromiso, no soy nada, no tengo disciplina." +As, cuando te encuentras en una situacin en la que no tienes ese mecanismo listo, piensas, "Ay Dios, me ofrecen una rosquilla y no tengo un mecanismo que me defienda" y te la comes. +Por eso, no me agrada la forma como te quita la voluntad. +Pienso que la autodisciplina es como un msculo. +Cunto ms la ejercitas, ms se refuerza. +Otra cosa molesta de los mecanismos es que siempre puedes escabullirte de ellos. +Te dices, "No, est claro que hoy no puedo escribir, porque dar una charla en TED y tengo 5 entrevistas en TV, luego ir a una fiesta y despus estar borracho. +Por eso, no hay manera de que esto funcione." +As que seras como Odiseo y su primer oficial en una misma persona. +Te presentas, te amarras luego te las ingenias para escapar y por ltimo te das una paliza. +Llevo trabajando durante unos 10 aos buscando otras maneras de cambiar la relacin con el futuro de uno mismo, sin usar mecanismos de compromiso. +En particular, estoy interesado en la relacin con el propio futuro financiero. +Es una cuestin muy oportuna. +Hablo del tema del ahorro. +El ahorro es tpico de la doble personalidad. +A la personalidad actual no le interesa ahorrar. +Prefiere consumir. +Mientras que la futura prefiere que la actual ahorre. +Es un asunto pertinente. +Vemos que los hbitos de ahorro van disminuyendo desde los aos 50. +Al mismo tiempo, el ndice de riesgo para la jubilacin, el riesgo de no poder cubrir las necesidades de la jubilacin, aumenta. +Estamos en una situacin en que de cada 3 personas de la generacin la explosin de natalidad, el Instituto Global McKinsey predice, que 2 no llegarn a cubrir las necesidades anteriores de la jubilacin cuando les llegue el momento. +Qu podr hacerse al respecto? +El filsofo Deerek Parfit dijo algo que a mis coautores y a m nos ha servido de inspiracin. +Dijo que, "ignoramos nuestra personalidad futura por fallas de nuestras creencias o de la imaginacin". +Es decir, de alguna manera no creemos que llegaremos a viejos, o no somos capaces de imaginarnos que algn da nos volveremos viejos. +Por una parte, parece ridculo. +Claro que sabemos que vamos a volvernos viejos. +Pero, no hay asuntos que creemos y no creemos, al mismo tiempo? +Mis coautores y yo usamos computadores, la extraordinaria herramienta, para ayudar a pensar a la gente y ayudarles a imaginar cmo sera llegar al futuro. +Ahora les mostrar algunas de esos instrumentos. +El primero se llama "constructor de distribuciones". +Muestra a la gente cmo puede ser su futuro exhibiendo cien resultados igualmente probables que podran obtenerse. +Cada uno aparece con una de estas seales, y se coloca en una fila que representa un nivel econmico en el retiro. +Si ests en la cima es porque gozas de altos ingresos para la jubilacin. +Si ests en el extremo inferior, tendrs que luchar para que te alcancen. +Cuando haces una inversin, es como si dijeras, "Acepto que me puede suceder una de estas 100 cosas y eso determinar mi nivel econmico." +Puedes imaginarte diversas posibilidades. +Puedes tratar de manipular tu suerte, como esta persona, pero te costar algo. +Osea, que tienes que ahorrar ms ahora. +Una vez que se encuentra una inversin que satisface lo que hace la gente es activar "hecho" y las seales empiezan a desaparecer, lentamente, una tras otra. +La herramienta simula cmo sera una inversin y muestra su comportamiento. +Al final quedar solo una seal que determina el nivel econmico para la jubilacin. +S, esta persona se jubil con el 150% de sus ingresos en activo. +Entonces recibir ms dinero cuando se jubile que cuando trabajaba. +Si eres como la mayora, simplemente al ver esto te entusiasmas, te sientes feliz; slo con pensar que tendrs 50% ms cuando la jubilacin, que antes. +Sin embargo, si terminas en el extremo inferior, podrs tener una leve sensacin de pavor o trastorno, por pensar en la lucha para sostenerte durante la jubilacin. +Al usar esta herramienta repetidamente y simular uno y otro resultado, la gente puede entender que las inversiones y los ahorros que hacen ahora determinan su bienestar en el futuro. +La gente se motiva a travs de emociones, pero cada persona se motiva por cosas diferentes. +Esta es una simulacin basada en grficos, pero otros se motivan por lo que pueden comprar con dinero, no slo por nmeros. +Aqu apliqu el constructor de distribuciones pero, en lugar de mostrar resultados numricos muestro lo que se puede conseguir con cada resultado; en particular, el apartamento que puede costear si se retira con 3.000, con 2.500 o con 2.000 dlares mensuales, etc. +Al descender en la escala de apartamentos, se ve que son cada vez peores. +Algunos se parecen a donde yo viva cuando estudiaba. +Y al llegar al final hacia abajo, te encuentras con la horrible realidad de que si no has ahorrado nada para la jubilacin, no podrs costear ningn tipo de vivienda. +Estas son fotos de apartamentos reales que se alquilan por esas sumas segn se anuncian en internet. +Lo ltimo que lesmostrar, es "la mquina del tiempo del comportamiento", es algo que dise con Hal Hershfield, a quien me present mi coautor en un proyecto anterior, Bill Sharpe. +Se trata de una exploracin en realidad virtual. +Lo que hacemos es tomar fotos de las personas, en este caso en edad estudiantil, y con un software los envejecemos y les mostramos cmo se vern cuando tengan 60, 70, 80 aos. +Tratamos de investigar si al ayudar a la imaginacin, haciendo que se vean como seran en el futuro, pueden cambiar la actitud sobre el ahorro. +Este es uno de los experimentos. +Aqu se ve la cara de la persona joven, a la izquierda. +Se le da el control que le permite ajustar su nivel de ahorro. +Al bajar el ahorro totalmente, significa que no ahorra nada cuando est al final, aqu a la izquierda. +Se puede ver su ingreso anual actual; esto es lo que le queda para gastar como porcentaje de lo que gana; es bastante, 91%, pero lo que recibir en su retiro es bajito. +Se jubilar con el 44% de lo que ganaba trabajando. +Si ahorra el mximo permitido legalmente, su pensin de retiro subir, y ahora no est contento porque en la actualidad le queda menos dinero para gastar. +Otras condiciones muestran la persona del futuro. +Desde el punto de vista del futuro, todo es al revs. +Si ahorras muy poco, el futuro no va a ser feliz con 44% del ingreso. +Pero si la personalidad actual ahorra bastante, la del futuro se alegrar si el ingreso llega a ser cercano al 100%. +Para llevar esto a una audiencia mayor he estado trabajando con Hal y Allianz para crear la mquina del tiempo del comportamiento, con la que no slo te ves como sers en el futuro sino las reacciones emocionales anticipadas para diversos niveles econmicos durante la jubilacin. +Por ejemplo, aqu se ve como se usa la herramienta. +Miren las expresiones faciales a medida que se mueve el cursor. +La cara joven se ve ms y ms feliz si no ahorra nada. +La cara mayor se ve triste. +Poco a poco elevamos moderadamente los hbitos de ahorro , +hasta uno realmente alto. +La cara joven se vuelve triste. +Y la mayor est complacida con la decisin. +Veremos si esto tiene algn efecto en el comportamiento. +Lo mejor de esto es que en realidad no condiciona a las personas porque cuando una cara sonre, la otra frunce el ceo. +No te dice dnde colocar el cursor, slo te recuerda que ests conectado irremediablemente a tu persona futura. +Tus decisiones actuales determinarn tu bienestar. +Esto es algo fcil de olvidar. +Esta realidad virtual no slo puede envejecer a la gente. +Se pueden conseguir programas para ver cmo la gente se ver si fuma, si se expone mucho al sol, si engorda, etc. +Lo bueno es que, a diferencia de nuestros experimentos con Hal y Russ Smith, no tiene que programarlo uno mismo para ver la realidad virtual. +Hay aplicaciones para telfonos mviles que se consiguen por muy poco, y que hacen lo mismo. +Esta es una imagen de Hal, mi coautor. +Lo pueden reconocer por las tomas anteriores. +Y slo por diversin, la pasamos por las aplicaciones de perder pelo, envejecer y ganar peso para ver cmo se vera. +Hal est aqu. Pienso que les debo excusas a Uds. y a l por esta ltima imagen. +Y aqu termino. +En nombre de Hal y en el mo, les deseo lo mejor para sus personalidades actuales y futuras. +Gracias. +He estado en Afganistn durante 21 aos. +Trabajo para la Cruz Roja y soy fisioterapeuta. +Mi trabajo es hacer brazos y piernas, aunque no es exactamente as. +Hacemos ms que eso. +Brindamos a los pacientes discapacitados afganos, en primer lugar, rehabilitacin fsica y luego reinsercin social. +Es un plan muy lgico, pero no siempre funcion as. +Durante muchos aos, slo les proporcionbamos prtesis. +Pasaron muchos aos hasta que el programa se convirtiera en lo que es ahora. +Hoy quisiera contarles una historia, la historia de un gran cambio, y la historia de la gente que hizo posible este cambio. +Llegu a Afganistn en 1990 para trabajar en un hospital con vctimas de la guerra. +Y despus, no slo con ellos, sino con cualquier paciente. +Tambin estuve trabajando en el centro ortopdico. +All hacemos las piernas ortopdicas. +En ese momento me encontr en una situacin extraa. +Sent que no estaba preparado para ese trabajo. +Haba mucho que aprender. +Haba muchas cosas nuevas para m. +Fue un trabajo extraordinario. +Pero cuando el combate se intensificaba, la rehabilitacin fsica se suspenda. +Haba otras cosas que hacer. +Fue as que el centro ortopdico se cerr, porque a la rehabilitacin fsica no se la consideraba una prioridad. +Fue una sensacin extraa. +En fin, cada vez que cuento esto... no es la primera vez, pero es siempre emocionante. +Es algo que viene del pasado. +Son 21 aos, pero an estn presentes. +En fin, en 1992 los muyahidines tomaron Afganistn +y el centro ortopdico se cerr. +Me asignaron a trabajar con las personas sin hogar, con los desplazados internos. +Pero un da algo sucedi. +Yo regresaba de una gran distribucin de alimentos en una mezquita, donde decenas y decenas de personas estaban en cuclillas en condiciones terribles. +Quera irme a casa; iba manejando. +Ustedes comprenden, cuando se quiere olvidar, cuando no se desea ver nada ms, slo quieres ir a tu cuarto a encerrarte, y decir: Es suficiente. +Una bomba cay no muy lejos de mi auto, en realidad, algo lejos, pero con gran estruendo. +Todos desaparecieron de la calle. +Los autos tambin. +Me agach. +Y slo una imagen permaneca en medio del camino. +Era un hombre en silla de ruedas tratando de alejarse desesperadamente. +No soy una persona especialmente valiente, debo confesar, pero no poda ignorarlo. +Entonces, par el auto y fui a ayudarlo. +El hombre no tena piernas y tena un slo brazo. +Detrs de l haba un nio, su hijo, con la cara enrojecida por el esfuerzo de empujar a su padre. +As, lo lleve a un lugar seguro. +Y le pregunt: Qu ests haciendo en la calle en esta situacin? +Trabajo, dijo. +Yo me preguntaba, qu trabajo? +Y luego le hice una pregunta ms estpida an: Por qu no tienes las prtesis? +Por qu no tienes tus piernas ortopdicas? +Y me dijo: La Cruz Roja cerr. +Y sin pensar, le dije: Ven maana. +Te daremos un par de prtesis. +El hombre se llamaba Mahmoud, Y el nio, Rafi. Se fueron. +Y luego me dije: Oh, mi Dios, qu dije? +El centro est cerrado, no hay personal +y tal vez la maquinaria est daada. +Quin le har las prtesis? +Tuve la esperanza de que no regresara. +Estas son las calles de Kabul en aquellos das. +Y entonces pens: Le dar algo de dinero. +Al da siguiente, fui al centro ortopdico +y habl con el de vigilancia. +Iba preparado a decirle: Mira, si alguien viene maana, por favor, dile que fue un error, +que no se puede hacer nada +y dale algo de dinero. +Pero Mahmoud y su hijo ya estaban all, +y no eran los nicos. +Haba 15, tal vez 20 personas como l esperando. +Y haba personal tambin +entre los que se encontraba mi mano derecha, Najmuddin. +Y el de vigilancia me dijo: Ellos vienen todos los das para ver si el centro abre. +Y dije: No. +Nos tenemos que ir, no podemos quedarnos aqu. +Estaban bombardeando, no muy cerca, pero se oa. +Tenemos que irnos de aqu, es peligroso; +no es una prioridad. +Pero Najmuddin me dijo: Escucha, estamos aqu. +"Por lo menos, podemos comenzar reparando las prtesis, las prtesis que la gente tiene rotas y tal vez hacer algo por personas como Mahmoud. +Le dije: No, por favor, no podemos hacer eso. +Es realmente peligroso. +Tenemos otras cosas que hacer. +Pero ellos insistieron. +Cuando tienes 20 personas frente a ti, mirndote y t tienes que tomar la decisin +Fue as que comenzamos con algunas reparaciones. +Uno de los fisioterapeutas inform que Mahmoud podra recibir una pierna ortopdica, pero no inmediatamente. +Sus piernas estaban hinchadas y las rodillas estaban rgidas, por lo que necesitaba una preparacin prolongada. +Cranme que estaba preocupado porque estaba incumpliendo las reglas. +Estaba haciendo algo que no deba. +Esa noche fui a la sede a hablar con los jefes, y les dije... les ment. Les dije: Miren, comenzaremos con un par de horas por da, slo algunas reparaciones. +Tal vez algunos de ellos estn aqu ahora. +As que comenzamos. +Trabajaba todos los das con las personas sin hogar +y Najmuddin se qued all, haciendo todo tipo de tareas e informando acerca de los pacientes +l me deca: los pacientes estn viniendo. +Suponamos que muchos de ellos no vendran debido a los combates. +Pero la gente segua viniendo. +Y Mahmoud vena todos los das +y muy lentamente, semana tras semana, sus piernas iban mejorando. +Se tomaron los moldes de los muones, se hicieron las prtesis. y comenz la rehabilitacin fsica efectiva. +Vena todos los das, cruzando el frente de batalla. +Algunas veces tambin lo cruc, por el mismo lugar que Mahmoud y su hijo lo hacan. +Era algo siniestro que me asombraba que ellos pudieran hacerlo todos los das. +Y finalmente, el gran da lleg. +Mahmoud iba a ser dado de alta con sus piernas nuevas. +Estbamos en abril, y recuerdo que era un da hermoso. +En abril Kabul es hermoso, lleno de flores, de rosas. +No podamos permanecer adentro con todas esas bolsas de arena en las ventanas. +Era muy triste y oscuro. +As, elegimos un lugar pequeo en el jardn. +Mahmoud se coloc sus prtesis y otros pacientes tambin, y comenzaron a ejercitar por ltima vez antes de ser dados de alta. +De repente, comenz un combate +entre dos grupos de muyahidines. +Oamos las balas pasar por el aire. +As que corrimos hacia el refugio. +Mahmoud cogi a su hijo, y yo a otra persona. +Todos hicieron lo mismo. +Corrimos. Y saben que +50 metros pueden ser una distancia muy larga si estn completamente expuestos, pero logramos llegar al refugio. +Adentro, todos llegaron fatigados. Me sent un momento y escuch que Rafi le deca a su padre: Pap, puedes correr ms rpido que yo. +Y Mahmoud dijo: Por supuesto que puedo. +Puedo correr y ahora puedes ir a la escuela. +Ya no es necesario que ests conmigo todo el da empujando mi silla de ruedas. +Ms tarde los llevamos a su casa. +Y nunca olvidar a Mahmoud y a su hijo caminando juntos, empujando la silla de ruedas vaca. +Y ah comprend que la rehabilitacin fsica es una prioridad. +La dignidad no puede esperar tiempos mejores. +Desde ese momento, no cerramos ni un solo da. +Alguna vez suspendimos por algunas horas, pero nunca, nunca ms cerramos. +Encontr a Mahmoud un ao despus. +Estaba en muy buena forma, ms delgado. +Necesitaba cambiar sus prtesis por un nuevo par. +Le pregunt por su hijo. +Y me dijo: Est en la escuela y le est yendo muy bien. +Pero entend que quera decirme algo. +Y le pregunte: qu sucede? +Sudaba. +Estaba realmente avergonzado, +parado frente a m con su cabeza gacha. +Y me dijo: Me has enseado a caminar. +Muchas gracias. +Ahora, ensame a no ser ms un mendigo. +Ese era su trabajo. +Mis hijos estn creciendo +y me siento avergonzado. +No quiero que otros nios se burlen de ellos en la escuela. +Le dije: Bueno. +Y pens, cunto dinero tengo en mi bolsillo? +Para darle un poco. +Es la manera ms sencilla. +l ley mi mente. y dijo: Pido trabajo. +Y aadi algo que no olvidar el resto de mi vida. +Dijo: Soy un trozo de un hombre, pero si me ayudas, puedo hacer cualquier cosa, hasta arrastrarme por el suelo. +Luego se sent +y me sent tambin con piel de gallina en todo mi cuerpo. +Sin piernas, un brazo, analfabeto, sin instruccin. Qu trabajo habra para l? +Pero Najmuddin me dijo: Tenemos un puesto vacante en el taller de carpintera. +Y dije: Qu? Un momento. +Bueno, s, tenemos que incrementar la produccin de pies. +Necesitamos emplear a alguien que pegue y atornille las suelas de los pies. +Necesitamos incrementar la produccin. +Perdn? +No lo poda creer. +Y luego dijo: Podramos modificar el banco de trabajo, tal vez colocar una herramienta especial un yunque, un torno especial, y quiz un destornillador elctrico. +Y dije: Escuchen, es una locura. +Y ms cruel an es pensar algo as. +Esa es una lnea de produccin y muy rpida. +Es cruel ofrecerle trabajo sabiendo que va a fracasar. +Pero con Najmuddin no se puede discutir. +As que lo nico que logr obtener fue cierto compromiso. +Slo una semana, probar una semana y ni un da ms. +Una semana despus, Mahmoud era el ms rpido de la lnea de produccin. +Le dije a Najmuddin: Es un truco. +No lo puedo creer. +La produccin se increment un 20%. +Es un truco, es un truco, dije. +Y luego lo verifiqu. +Era cierto. +Najmuddin percibi que Mahmoud tena algo que demostrar. +Y comprend que yo estaba equivocado otra vez. +Mahmoud pareca ms alto. +Lo recuerdo sentado detrs del banco de trabajo sonriendo. +Era un hombre nuevo, alto nuevamente. +Por supuesto que sus piernas lo hacan ms alto; claro que eran sus piernas, muchas gracias, pero el primer paso fue la dignidad. +l recuper su dignidad por completo gracias al trabajo. +Y por supuesto que comprend. +Luego comenzamos con una nueva poltica, completamente diferente. +Decidimos emplear el mayor nmero de discapacitados posible y entrenarlos en cualquier trabajo. +Se convirti en una poltica de discriminacin positiva. +Y saben qu? +Es bueno para todos. +Todos se benefician, los empleados, por supuesto, porque consiguen sus trabajos y dignidad. +Pero tambin los recin llegados. +Son 7.000 cada ao que vienen por primera vez. +Y hay que ver sus rostros cuando se dan cuenta que quienes les ayudan son como ellos. +Y algunas veces se los percibe que miran: Oh. +Y ves sus rostros. +Y la sorpresa se convierte en esperanza. +Y me resulta sencillo entrenar a alguien que ha pasado por esa experiencia. +Puf, aprenden mucho ms rpido... la motivacin, la empata que establecen con el paciente, es completamente diferente. +No existen trozos de hombre. +Personas como Mahmoud son agentes de cambio. +Y cuando se inicia el cambio, no se puede parar. +Empleamos a la gente, claro que s, pero adems, comenzamos a planificar proyectos de microfinanzas, educacin. +Y una vez que se empieza, no se puede parar. +Entonces se imparte formacin profesional y educacin en el hogar para aquellos que no pueden ir a la escuela. +Tambin se realiza fisioterapia y no slo en el centro ortopdico, sino tambin a domicilio. +Siempre hay una manera mejor de hacer las cosas. +Ese es Najmuddin, el del saco blanco. +Najmuddin el terrible. +Aprend muchsimo de personas como Najmuddin, Mahmoud, Rafi. +Ellos son mis maestros. +Tengo un deseo, un deseo grande, y es que esta manera de trabajar y de pensar sea implementada en otros pases. +Hay muchos pases en guerra como Afganistn. +Y esto es posible, no es difcil. +Todo lo que hay que hacer es escuchar a la gente a la que se supone que debemos asistir para hacerlos parte del proceso de toma de decisiones y por supuesto para integrarlos. +Esa es mi gran aspiracin. +Pero no crean que los cambios en Afganistn han terminado; para nada. Seguimos. +Hace poco hemos comenzado un programa, un programa deportivo, baloncesto en silla de ruedas. +Transportamos las sillas de ruedas a todas partes. +Tenemos varios equipos en la parte central de Afganistn. +En un principio, cuando Anajulina me dijo: Nos gustara comenzar con esto, yo dud +y dije: No. Se imaginan +Dije: No, no, no, no, no podemos. +Y luego hice la pregunta habitual: "Es una prioridad? +Es realmente necesario?" +Deberan verme ahora. +No pierdo un slo da de entrenamiento. +La noche anterior al partido estoy muy nervioso. +Y deberan verme durante el partido; +grito como un verdadero italiano. +Qu vendr? Cul ser el prximo cambio? +No lo s an, Pero estoy seguro de que Najmuddin y sus amigos ya lo tienen en mente. +Esta fue mi historia. Muchas gracias. +Ha habido muchas revoluciones en el ltimo siglo, pero quizs ninguna tan significativa como la revolucin de la longevidad. +Hoy en da vivimos, en promedio, 34 aos ms que nuestros bisabuelos. +Piensen en eso. +Es toda una segunda vida de adulto que se ha aadido a la nuestra. +Y, sin embargo, en su mayor parte, nuestra cultura no ha aceptado lo que esto significa. +Todava vivimos con el viejo paradigma de la edad como un arco. +Esa es la metfora, la vieja metfora. +Nacemos, llegamos a la cima a la mitad de la vida y decrecemos en la decrepitud. +La edad como una patologa. +Sin embargo, muchas personas hoy en da, filsofos, artistas, mdicos, cientficos, tienen una nueva perspectiva de lo que yo llamo el tercer acto: las tres ltimas dcadas de la vida. +Se dan cuenta de que es en realidad una etapa de desarrollo con su propio significado, tan diferente de la mediana edad como la adolescencia difiere de la infancia. +Y se preguntan todos deberamos preguntarnos cmo podemos utilizar este tiempo? +Cmo podemos vivirlo con xito? +Cul es la nueva metfora apropiada para el envejecimiento? +Me he pasado el ltimo ao investigando y escribiendo sobre este tema. +Y he llegado a encontrar que una metfora ms apropiada para el envejecimiento es una escalera; la ascensin del espritu humano que nos ha dado la sabidura, la integridad y la autenticidad. +La edad, ya no como una patologa, sino como un potencial. +Y adivinen qu? +Este potencial no es para unos pocos afortunados. +Resulta que la mayora de las personas mayores de 50 aos se sienten mejor, tienen menos estrs, son menos hostiles, menos ansiosas. +Tendemos a ver ms los rasgos comunes que las diferencias. +Algunos de los estudios, dicen incluso que somos ms felices. +Esto no es lo que esperaba, cranme. +Vengo de una familia de depresivos. +A medida que me acercaba a los 50 aos de edad, cuando me despertaba en la maana mis primeros seis pensamientos eran todos negativos. +Y me asust. +Pens, oh, Dios mo! +voy a convertirme en una vieja cascarrabias. +Pero ahora que estoy justo a la mitad de mi propio tercer acto, me doy cuenta de que nunca he sido ms feliz. +Tengo una fuerte sensacin de bienestar. +Y he descubierto que cuando uno est en la vejez, contrariamente a verla desde fuera, el miedo desaparece. +Nos damos cuenta de que seguimos siendo nosotros mismos, tal vez an ms. +Picasso dijo una vez: "Se necesita mucho tiempo para llegar a ser joven". +No quiero idealizar el envejecimiento. +Obviamente, no hay garanta de que sea un tiempo para disfrutar y desarrollarse. +Es en parte una cuestin de suerte. +Es en parte, obviamente, de origen gentico. +De hecho, una tercera parte es de origen gentico. +Y no hay mucho que podamos hacer al respecto. +Pero eso significa que dos tercios de nuestro xito en el tercer acto depende de nosotros mismos. +Vamos a hablar de lo que podemos hacer para que esos aos aadidos sean todo un xito y marquen una diferencia positiva. +Ahora, permtanme decir algo sobre la escalera que puede parecer una metfora extraa para los adultos mayores, ya que para muchos las escaleras son un reto, +en los que me incluyo. +Como ustedes saben, el mundo entero funciona segn una ley universal: la entropa, la segunda ley de la termodinmica. +La entropa significa que todo en el mundo, todo, est en un estado de deterioro y decadencia, el arco. +Solo hay una excepcin a esta ley universal, el espritu humano que puede continuar ascendiendo la escalera hasta la plenitud, la autenticidad y la sabidura. +Y he aqu un ejemplo de lo que quiero decir. +Esta ascensin puede ocurrir incluso frente a desafos fsicos extremos. +Hace unos tres aos, le un artculo en el New York Times. +Se trataba de un hombre llamado Neil Selinger 57 aos, abogado retirado que se haba unido al grupo de escritores de la Universidad Sarah Lawrence donde haba descubierto su vena de escritor. +Dos aos ms tarde, fue diagnosticado con esclerosis lateral amiotrfica, o mal de Lou Gehrig. +Es una enfermedad terrible. Es mortal. +Daa el cuerpo, pero la mente permanece intacta. +En este artculo, el Sr. Selinger escribi lo siguiente para describir lo que le estaba pasando. +Y cito: A medida que mis msculos se debilitaban, mi escritura se haca ms fuerte. +A medida que perda lentamente el habla, ganaba mi voz. +A medida que disminua, creca. +A medida que perda tanto, comenc finalmente a encontrarme a m mismo. +Neil Selinger, para m, es la encarnacin del ascenso por la escalera en su tercer acto. +Todos nacemos con el espritu, todos, pero a veces decae por los retos de la vida, la violencia, el maltrato, la negligencia. +Tal vez nuestros padres sufrieron de depresin. +Tal vez ellos no fueron capaces de amarnos ms all de nuestros xitos o fracasos. +Tal vez todava padecemos de un dolor psquico, una herida. +Tal vez pensamos que muchas de nuestras relaciones no han culminado. +Y tenemos la sensacin de estar inconclusos. +Tal vez la tarea del tercer acto es terminarnos a nosotros mismos. +Para m, esto comenz cuando me acercaba al tercer acto, mi cumpleaos nmero 60. +Cmo se supona que iba a vivir? +Qu se supona que deba cumplir en este acto final? +Y me di cuenta de que, con el fin de saber a dnde iba, tena que saber dnde haba estado. +As que regres al pasado en mi memoria y estudi mis 2 primeros actos tratando de ver quin era yo entonces, quin era yo en realidad no aquella que mis padres u otras personas me dijeron que era o me trataron como si lo fuese. +Sino quin era yo? Quines eran mis padres no como padres sino como personas? +Quines eran mis abuelos? +Cmo trataron a mis padres? +Este tipo de cosas. +Un par de aos despus descubr que este proceso por el que haba pasado se llamaba, segn los psiclogos, hacer una revisin de la vida. +Y dicen que puede dar un nuevo significado, claridad y sentido a la vida de una persona. +Ustedes descubrirn, como yo, que muchas cosas que crean que ocurrieron por su culpa, muchas cosas que pensaban de s mismos, realmente no tenan nada que ver con ustedes. +No fue su culpa, ustedes hicieron bien las cosas. +Y ustedes sern capaces de volver atrs y perdonarlos y perdonarse a s mismos. +Sern capaces de liberarse de su pasado. +Usted podrn cambiar su relacin con el pasado. +Ahora bien, mientras escriba esto, encontr un libro llamado El hombre en busca de sentido de Viktor Frankl. +Viktor Frankl era un psiquiatra alemn que haba pasado 5 aos en un campo de concentracin nazi. +Y escribi que, mientras se encontraba en el campamento, poda decir, si llegaban a ser liberados, quines iban a salir adelante y quines no. +Y escribi lo siguiente: Nos pueden quitar todo lo que tenemos en la vida, excepto una cosa, la libertad de elegir cmo reaccionar ante una situacin. +Eso es lo que determina la calidad de la vida que hemos vivido, no se trata de si hemos sido ricos o pobres, famosos o desconocidos, sanos o enfermos. +Lo que determina la calidad de vida es cmo nos relacionamos con estas realidades, qu significado les damos, qu tipo de actitud adoptamos frente a ellas, qu estado de nimo les permitimos activar. +Tal vez el propsito central del tercer acto es volver y tratar de, si es el caso, cambiar nuestra relacin con el pasado. +Resulta que la investigacin cognitiva demuestra que somos capaces de hacer esto, se manifiesta neurolgicamente por vas nerviosas creadas en el cerebro. +Vern que, a travs del tiempo, si reaccionaron negativamente a los acontecimientos y personas del pasado, se han establecido unas vas neuronales por medio de seales qumicas y elctricas enviadas a travs del cerebro. +Y con el tiempo, estas vas neuronales se fijan, se convierten en la norma, aunque sean dainas para nosotros porque nos causan estrs y ansiedad. +Sin embargo, si volvemos atrs y cambiamos nuestra relacin, modificamos nuestra relacin con las personas y acontecimientos del pasado, las vas neuronales pueden cambiar. +Y si somos capaces de tener sentimientos ms positivos sobre el pasado, esto se convierte en la nueva norma. +Es como reiniciar un termostato. +Lo que nos hace sabios no es tener experiencias, es reflexionar sobre las experiencias que hemos tenido lo que nos hace sabios. Adems, nos ayuda a ser ntegros, nos trae sabidura y autenticidad. +Esto nos ayuda a convertirnos en lo que podramos haber sido. +Las mujeres, todas comenzamos ntegras, no? +De nias, comenzamos combativas S, quin lo dice? +Tenemos el libre albedro. +Somos los sujetos de nuestras propias vidas. +Pero muy a menudo, muchas, si no la mayora de nosotras, llegada la pubertad, empezamos a preocuparnos por integrarnos y ser populares. +Y nos convertimos en sujetos y objetos de la vida de otras personas. +Pero ahora, en nuestro tercer acto, puede ser posible que regresemos al punto de partida y saberlo por primera vez. +Y si podemos hacerlo, no ser solo para nosotras mismas. +Las mujeres mayores representan la mayor poblacin mundial. +Si podemos volver atrs y redefinirnos y llegar a ser ntegras, esto va a crear un cambio cultural en el mundo y dar un ejemplo a las generaciones ms jvenes para que puedan repensar sus propias vidas. +Muchas gracias. +Hay un poema de un poeta ingls muy famoso de fin del siglo XIX, +que hizo eco en la mente de Churchill en la dcada de 1930. +Y el poema dice as: En la colina reposada del verano, dormido con el cauce de los ros, a los lejos se escucha un tambor, redoblando como un rumor en sueos. Lejos y cerca, suave y sonoro, por los caminos de tierra pasan, queridos para los amigos y alimento para el polvo, los soldados marchan, a morir pronto." +A los que les interesa la poesa, el poema se llama Un muchacho de Shropshire, escrito por A.E. Housman. +Pero lo que Housman comprendi, y pueden escucharlo en las sinfonas de Nielsen tambin, era que los largos, calurosos y silvestres veranos de estabilidad del siglo XIX llegaban a su fin, y que nos dirigamos hacia uno de esos perodos histricos aterradores, que suceden cuando el poder cambia. +Y estos perodos, damas y caballeros, van siempre acompaados de turbulencias, y muy a menudo de sangre. +Y mi mensaje es que estamos condenados, si se quiere, a vivir en uno de esos momentos histricos, cuando el revoltijo del orden establecido del poder comience a cambiar y el nuevo aspecto del mundo, los nuevos poderes que existen en el mundo, comiencen a tomar forma. +Y lo vemos muy claramente hoy en da; son tiempos de gran turbulencia, muy difciles y muchas veces, son tiempos muy sangrientos. +Por cierto que esto ocurre una vez cada siglo. +Podra afirmarse que eso fue lo que sucedi, y lo que Housman presinti y Churchill tambin, cuando el poder de las antiguas naciones, de las viejas potencias europeas, se transfiri, a travs del Atlntico, a la nueva potencia emergente de los EEUU, el comienzo del siglo estadounidense. +Y por supuesto, en el vaco que dejaban los viejos poderes europeos se desarrollaron las dos catstrofes sangrientas del ltimo siglo. La primera en la primera mitad de siglo, y otra en la segunda mitad: las dos grandes guerras mundiales. +Mao Zedong las describe como las guerras civiles europeas, y es probablemente la manera ms precisa de describirlas. +Pues bien, damas y caballeros, vivimos en uno de esos tiempos. +Pero en nuestro caso, quiero hablar de tres factores. +Y el primero de ellos, los dos primeros, tratan del traspaso de poder, +y el otro de una dimensin nueva que quiero especificar, porque no se ha producido de esta manera antes. +Pero hablemos acerca del traspaso de poder que ocurre en el mundo. +Y lo que sucede hoy es de alguna manera aterrador, porque nunca haba sucedido antes. +Hemos visto los traspasos laterales de poder, el poder que Grecia transfiri a Roma, y los que ocurrieron durante las civilizaciones europeas; pero estamos viendo algo un poco diferente. +Y es que el poder no se est moviendo lateralmente, es decir, de nacin a nacin +sino que tambin lo est haciendo verticalmente. +Lo que sucede hoy es que el poder que estaba confinado, regido por la responsabilidad, regido por el estado de derecho, dentro de la institucin del Estado-nacin ha emigrado, en gran medida, hacia el escenario mundial. +La globalizacin del poder, hablamos de la globalizacin de los mercados, pero en realidad, es la globalizacin del poder real. +Y a nivel del Estado-nacin el poder tiene una responsabilidad sujeta al estado de derecho, pero no as en la escena internacional. +Estos viven en un espacio global que en gran parte no est regulado, no est sujeto al estado de derecho, y donde la gente puede actuar libremente. +Ahora, eso conviene al poderoso, hasta el momento. +La prueba del 11/9 es que, an siendo la nacin mas poderosa de la tierra, sin embargo, puede ser atacada por aquellos que habitan ese espacio, incluso sus mayores conos de la ciudad, en una maana radiante de septiembre. +Se dice que alrededor del 60% de los 4 millones de dlares tomados para financiar el 11/9, fueron financiados por instituciones de las Torres Gemelas que el 11/9 destruy. +As, ven que nuestros enemigos usan este espacio, el espacio de los viajes en masa, de Internet, de las emisoras de radiodifusin por satlite, para desplazar su veneno, que consiste en destruir nuestros sistemas y nuestras prcticas. +Tarde o temprano, tarde o temprano, la regla de la historia dice que a donde vaya el poder, el gobierno debe seguirlo. +Y si ste es el caso, como creo que lo es, que uno de los fenmenos de nuestro tiempo es la globalizacin del poder, entonces se deduce que uno de los desafos de nuestro tiempo es llevar gobernanza al espacio global. +Y creo que las dcadas que vienen sern en mayor o menor medida turbulentas, ms o menos seremos capaces de lograr el objetivo: de llevar gobernanza al espacio global. +Pero noten que no hablo de gobierno. +No me refiero a establecer una institucin democrtica global. +Mi punto de vista, damas y caballeros, es que es improbable que esto se realice mediante la multiplicacin de instituciones de la ONU. +Si no tuviramos la ONU, tendramos que inventarla. +El mundo necesita un foro internacional. +Se necesita un medio por el cual se pueda legitimar la accin internacional. +Pero cuando se trata de la gobernanza del espacio global, mi impresin es que esto no se producir multiplicando instituciones de la ONU. +Se producir a travs de la unin del poder y de sistemas basados en tratados, en acuerdos, para gobernar el espacio global. +Y si prestan atencin, vern que ya se est produciendo. +La Organizacin Mundial del Comercio: organizacin basada en tratados, totalmente basada en tratados, y aun as, lo suficientemente poderosa como para contener al ms poderoso: EEUU, pidindo cuentas si es necesario. +Kyoto: es los inicios de la lucha por crear una organizacin basada en tratados. +El G-20: ahora sabemos que tenemos que armar una institucin que sea capaz de brindar gobernanza a ese espacio financiero para la especulacin financiera. +Y eso es el G-20, una institucin basada en tratados. +Pero hay un problema all, y lo retomar en un minuto, y es que si se renen los ms poderosos para crear las reglas de las instituciones basadas en tratados para llenar ese espacio de gobernanza, qu sucede con los dbiles que se quedan afuera? +Y ese es un gran problema, y volver a esto en un segundo. +As que ste es mi primer mensaje, y es que si queremos atravesar estos tiempos turbulentos, ms o menos turbulentos, entonces nuestro xito depender, en gran medida, de nuestra capacidad de llevar gobernanza sensible al espacio global. +Y ver que se produzca. +Mi segundo punto es que s que no tengo que hablar de esto a una audiencia como esta, pero el poder no es slo cambiar verticalmente, es tambin horizontalmente. +Uds. podran argumentar que la historia, la historia de las civilizaciones, han sido civilizaciones reunidas alrededor de los mares, las primeras alrededor del Mediterrneo, las ms recientes, en el poder ascendente de Occidente, alrededor del Atlntico. +Y me parece que, en trminos generales, estamos viendo un cambio fundamental del poder, de aquellas naciones congregadas alrededor del Atlntico, de la costa, hacia aquellas congregadas alrededor de la cuenca del Pacfico. +Y eso comienza con el poder econmico, pero es as como comienza siempre. +Ya empezamos a ver el desarrollo de la poltica exterior, del aumento de los presupuestos militares en los otros poderes en ascenso en el mundo. +Y de hecho creo que esto no es un cambio del Oeste hacia el Este; algo diferente est sucediendo. +Mi opinin es que los EEUU seguirn siendo la nacin ms poderosa de la tierra durante los prximos 10, 15 aos, pero el contexto en el cual ella mantiene su poder ha cambiado, se ha modificado radicalmente. +Estamos saliendo de 50 aos, los ms inusuales de la historia, en los que hubo un mundo totalmente unipolar, en el que cada aguja de la brjula, a favor o en contra, era aludida a su posicin con Washington, un mundo dominado por un solo coloso. +Pero eso no es usual en la historia. +De hecho, lo que est surgiendo es lo ms normal en la historia. +Estamos viendo la aparicin de un mundo multipolar. +Hasta ahora, los Estados Unidos han sido la faccin dominante de nuestro mundo. +Ellos seguirn siendo la nacin mas poderosa, pero lo seguirn siendo en un mundo cada vez ms multipolar. +Y comenzamos a ver construir otros centros de poder, en China, por supuesto; aunque mi opinin es que el ascenso a la grandeza de China no es suave. +Ser brusco, a medida que China democratice su sociedad, despus de liberalizar su economa. +Pero se es un tema para otra discusin. +Vemos India, Brasil. +Se ve al mundo que se asemeja cada vez ms, para nosotros los europeos, a la Europa del siglo XIX. +Europa en el siglo XIX: Lord Canning, un gran secretario de relaciones exteriores britnico, sola describirla como Concierto de Poderes Europeo. +Haba un equilibrio de cinco lados. +Gran Bretaa siempre jug al equilibrio. +Si Paris se reuna con Berln, Gran Bretaa se reuna con Viena y Roma para proporcionar un contrapeso. +Ahora noten que, en un perodo que es dominado por un mundo unipolar, hay alianzas fijas: como la OTAN, el pacto de Varsovia. +Una polaridad fija de poder significa alianzas fijas. +Pero una polaridad mltiple de poder significa cambio y alianzas cambiantes. +Y se es el mundo al que vamos en el que veremos cada vez ms que nuestras alianzas no son fijas. +Canning, el gran secretario de relaciones exteriores una vez dijo: Gran Bretaa tiene un inters comn, pero no aliados comunes. +Y veremos cada vez ms que incluso nosotros, en Occidente, tendremos que lograr, ms all del crculo grato de los poderes del Atlntico, hacer alianzas con otros si queremos hacer cosas en el mundo. +Fjense que cuando entramos en Libia, no era result suficientemente bueno para Occidente hacerlo solo; tuvimos que convocar a otros. +Tuvimos que traer en este caso, a la Liga rabe. +Mi opinin es que Irak y Afganistn han sido el ltimo ejemplo de que Occidente intent hacerlo solo, y no lo logramos. +Mi hiptesis es que estamos llegando al comienzo del fin de 400 aos. Y digo 400 aos, porque es el fin del Imperio Otomano, de la hegemona del poder occidental, de las instituciones y de los valores occidentales. +Y saben que, hasta ahora, si Occidente lograba actuar junto, poda proponer y disponer en cada rincn del mundo, +esto ya no es cierto. +Observen la ltima crisis financiera, tras la Segunda Guerra Mundial. +Occidente se uni: con la institucin de Bretton Woods, el Fondo Monetario Internacional, y as el problema se resolvi. +Ahora es necesario convocar a otros. +Ahora es necesario crear el G-20. +Ahora tenemos que ir ms all del circulo acogedor de nuestros amigos occidentales. +Permtanme hacer una prediccin que es aun ms sorprendente. +Sospecho que estamos llegando al final de 400 aos cuando el poder occidental era suficiente. +La gente me dice: Los chinos, por supuesto, nunca se vern envueltos en la pacificacin multilateral alrededor del mundo. +Ah, s? Por qu no? +Cuntas tropas chinas estn hoy en el mundo al servicio de los cascos azules, de la bandera azul, bajo el comando de la ONU? +3.700. +Cuntas estadounidenses? 11. +Cul es el contingente naval ms grande que enfrenta el problema de los piratas Somales? +El contingente naval chino. +Por supuesto que lo son, ellos son una nacin mercantilista. +Ellos quieren mantener las rutas martimas abiertas. +Cada vez ms, vamos a tener que hacer negocios con gente con la que no compartimos valores, pero con las que por el momento, compartimos los mismos intereses. +Es una manera completamente diferente de ver al mundo que ahora est surgiendo. +Y el tercer factor, es totalmente diferente. +Hoy en nuestro mundo moderno, debido a Internet, y a las cosas que la gente ha abordado aqu, todo est interconectado. +Somos ahora interdependientes. +Estamos interconectados, como naciones, como individuos, de manera como nunca antes se ha dado; nunca de esta manera. +La interrelacin de las naciones, siempre existi. +La diplomacia es la gestin de la interrelacin de la naciones. +Pero ahora estamos estrechamente entrelazados. +Si contraen la influenza porcina en Mxico, ser un problema para el aeropuerto Charles de Gaulle 24 horas despus. +Si Lehman Brothers cae, colapsa todo. +Hay incendios en las estepas de Rusia, revueltas por hambre en frica. +Estamos ahora profundamente interconectados. +Y lo que eso significa, es que la idea de nacin actuando en soledad, sin conexin con otras, sin trabajar con otras, ya no es una propuesta viable. +Porque las acciones de un Estado-nacin no se limitan as misma, ni es suficiente para el Estado-nacin controlar su propio territorio, porque los efectos fuera del Estado-nacin comienzan a afectar su interior. +Yo era un soldado joven durante las ltimas guerras imperiales britnicas. +En ese momento, la defensa de mi pas era por una sola cosa: el podero de nuestro ejrcito, de nuestra fuerza area, nuestra armada y de nuestros aliados. +Era entonces cuando el enemigo estaba fuera de las murallas. +El enemigo ahora est adentro de ellas. +Ya no se trata de que la seguridad de un pas es un asunto de soldados y del Ministro de Defensa. +Sino la capacidad de unificar, estrechar sus instituciones. +Y esto indica algo muy importante. +Muestra, de hecho, que nuestros gobiernos construidos verticalmente, en base al modelo econmico de la Revolucin Industrial de jerarqua vertical, con especializacin de tareas, con estructuras de mando, han tenido estructuras completamente equivocadas. +En los negocios sabemos que el paradigma de nuestro tiempo, damas y caballeros, es la red. +Lo que importa, es la capacidad de interconexin, tanto dentro de los gobiernos como con el exterior. +Pues aqu est la tercera ley de Ashdown. +Por cierto, no me pregunten por la primera ley y la segunda, porque an no las invent. Siempre es mejor si hay una tercera ley. No es cierto? +La tercera ley de Ashdown es que en la era moderna donde todo est interconectado, lo ms importante que podemos hacer es aquello que hacemos con otros. +La parte ms importante de la estructura, as se trate de un gobierno, del regimiento de un ejrcito, o de un negocio, sern los puntos de articulacin, las interconexiones, la capacidad de relacionarse con otros. +Esto es sabido en la industria, en los gobiernos no. +Y lo ltimo. +Si ste es el caso, damas y caballeros...y lo es, de que estamos unidos de una manera que nunca antes se produjo, entonces, es el caso tambin que compartimos un destino con los dems. +Repentinamente y por primera vez, la defensa colectiva, lo que nos ha dominado como el concepto de la seguridad de nuestras naciones, ya no es suficiente. +Suceda que si mi tribu era ms poderosa que otros, yo estaba a salvo; si mi pas era ms poderoso que otros, yo estaba seguro; si mi alianza, como la OTAN, era ms poderosa que otra alianza, yo estaba a salvo. +Ya no es el caso. +El advenimiento de la interconexin y de las armas de destruccin masiva, significa que, cada vez ms, comparto un destino con mi enemigo. +Cuando era diplomtico logramos exitosamente la negociacin de tratados de desarme con la Unin Sovitica, en Gnova en 1970, porque comprendimos que compartamos un destino con ellos. +La seguridad colectiva no es suficiente. +La paz lleg a Irlanda del Norte porque las dos partes comprendieron que el juego de la suma cero no funcionara. +Ellos comparten un destino con sus enemigos. +Uno de los obstculos para la paz en Oriente Medio, es que ambas partes, tanto Israel y creo que los palestinos, no comprenden que comparten un destino colectivo. +Y de pronto, seoras y seores, lo que ha sido la propuesta de visionarios y poetas a travs de los siglos, se convierte en algo que tenemos que tomar seriamente como un asunto de poltica pblica. +Comenc con un poema y terminar con otro. +El gran poema de John Donne: +No hagas preguntar por quin doblan las campanas. +El poema se llama: Ningn hombre es una isla. +Y dice as: La muerte de cualquier hombre me disminuye, porque yo formo parte de la humanidad, por ello no hagas preguntar por quin doblan las campanas, doblan por ti. +Para John Donne, es una recomendacin de moralidad. +Para nosotros, creo, parte de la ecuacin para nuestra supervivencia. +Muchas gracias. +Actualmente hay ms de 1000 TEDTalks en el sitio de TED. +Y supongo que muchos de Uds. pensarn que es estupendo... salvo yo. Yo no estoy de acuerdo. +Creo que aqu hay un problema. +Porque, si lo piensan, 1000 TEDTalks son ms de 1000 ideas que vale la pena divulgar. +Cmo diablos se pueden divulgar 1000 ideas? +Incluso si intentramos meternos esas ideas en la cabeza mirando esos 1000 videos de TED, slo hacer eso nos llevara ms de 250 horas. +E hice un clculo simple. +El dao a la economa por cada persona que lo haga es de unos 15 000 dlares. +Dado este problema para la economa pens que debamos encontrar una solucin. +Este es mi enfoque al tema. +Si vemos la situacin actual tenemos 1000 TEDTalks. +La longitud media de cada TEDTalk es de unas 2300 palabras. +Juntemos ambas cosas y tendremos 2,3 millones de palabras en las TEDTalks; el tamao de unas tres Biblias. +La pregunta obvia es: Una TEDTalk necesita 2300 palabras? +No se puede acortar? +Digo, si tenemos una idea que vale la pena divulgar, seguramente se puede expresar ms brevemente que con 2300 palabras. +La pregunta es: cunto puede acortarse? +Cul es la mnima cantidad de palabras necesarias para hacer una TEDTalk? +Mientras pensaba en esta cuestin encontr una leyenda urbana sobre Ernest Hemingway, que supuestamente dijo que estas seis palabras: "A la venta zapatitos sin usar", era la mejor novela de su obra. +Y encontr un proyecto llamado "Recuerdos en seis palabras" donde se pidi a las personas resumir la vida entera en seis palabras, como stas: "Amor verdadero... en otro matrimonio." +O, "Vivir en el vaco existencial apesta". +Me gusta esa ltima. +Entonces, si con seis palabras se escribe una novela y todo un recuerdo, no hace falta ms de seis palabras para una TEDTalk. +Podramos haber terminado para el almuerzo. +Digo... +Y si hiciramos lo mismo con las 1000 TEDTalks bajaramos de los 2,3 millones de palabras a 6000. +Por eso pens que esto vala la pena. +Empec a pedirle a mis amigos que expresaran su TEDTalk favorita en seis palabras. +Estos son algunos resultados que recib. Creo que son bastante buenos. +Por ejemplo, la charla de Dan Pink sobre la motivacin que es bastante buena, si no la han visto: "Sin garrote, ni zanahoria: aporte sentido". +De eso habla en los 18 minutos y pico. +Otros mencionan caractersticas oratorias como el estilo de Nathan Myhrvold o el de Tim Ferriss, que a veces pueden considerarse un poco extenuantes. +El desafo de hacerlo de manera sistemtica es que quiz termine con muchos resmenes pero con no tantos amigos. +Por eso tuve que encontrar un mtodo diferente, preferiblemente involucrando a extraos. +Por suerte hay un sitio llamado Mechanical Turk donde se pueden publicar tareas que uno no quiere hacer como "Por favor, resuman este texto en seis palabras". +No permit que la tarea se realizara en pases de bajo costo pero descubr resmenes de seis palabras por solo 10 centavos que creo es un precio bastante bueno. +An as, por desgracia, no es posible resumir cada TEDTalk de forma individual. +Si hacen la cuenta, hay 1000 TEDTalks, se paga 10 centavos cada una; uno tiene que hacer ms de un resumen por cada charla porque alguna quiz sea, o son, muy malas. +Terminara pagando cientos de dlares. +Por eso pens algo diferente; bien, las charlas tratan ciertos temas. +Y si, en vez de pedirle a las personas que resuman las TEDTalks en seis palabras, les damos 10 TEDTalks al mismo tiempo y les pedimos: "Por favor, resuman esto en seis palabras". +Recortara los costos en un 90%. +Por 60 dlares podra resumir 1000 TEDTalks en 600 resmenes algo que no estara mal. +Alguno de Uds. podra estar pensando que francamente es una locura resumir 10 TEDTalks en seis palabras. +Pero no lo es porque hay un ejemplo del profesor de estadstica, Hans Rosling. +Supongo que muchos de Uds. han visto alguna charla suya. +Tiene ocho charlas en lnea que pueden resumirse en slo cuatro palabras porque es eso lo que nos est mostrando: "nuestra intuicin es psima". +Siempre muestra que nos equivocamos. +En Internet algunas personas no lo hicieron bien. +Cuando les ped que resumieran 10 TEDTalks al mismo tiempo algunos tomaron el camino fcil. +Ponan algn comentario general. +Haba otros que, y esto me pareci bastante descarado, +usaban las seis palabras para responderme si haba pasado mucho tiempo en Google ltimamente. +Y finalmente, nunca entend esto, algunas personas salieron con una versin propia de la verdad. +No conozco ninguna TEDTalk que diga eso. +Pero, bueno. Al final, no obstante, esto es lo realmente increble, para cada grupo de 10 TEDTalks que envi recib resmenes significativos. +Estos son algunos de mis favoritos. +Por ejemplo, para las TEDTalks sobre alimentos, alguien lo resumi as: "La comida es cuerpo, mente, ambiente", que no est tan mal. +O la felicidad: "Forzar felicidad es desembocar en infelicidad". +En eso estaba. +Comenc con 1000 TEDTalks y tena 600 resmenes de seis palabras. +Al principio sonaba bien pero luego 600 resmenes es demasiado. +Es una lista enorme. +Entonces pens en dar un paso adelante y crear resmenes de los resmenes... y as hice. +Tom los 600 resmenes que tena, los divid en nueve grupos, de acuerdo a las valoraciones de las charlas en TED.com y le ped a las personas que las resumieran. +Otra vez, hubo algunos malentendidos. +Por ejemplo, en el grupo de las charlas hermosas, alguno pens que trataba de encontrar la frase suprema. +Pero al final, sorprendentemente, nuevamente lo lograron. +Por ejemplo, las TEDTalks valientes: "personas moribundas" o "personas sufriendo" eran una: "rodeadas de soluciones fciles". +O la receta de la TEDTalk ms pasmosa: "Foto-Flickr de compositor clsico intergalctico". +Digo, es la esencia de todas ellas. +Ahora tena mis grupos de nueve, eso en s ya es una gran reduccin. +Pero claro, si ya hemos llegado tan lejos, queremos ms. +Yo quera ir al final, llegar al fondo de la destilacin, a partir de 1000 TEDTalks. +Quera llegar a resumir las 1000 TEDTalks en seis palabras una reduccin de contenido del 99,9997%. +Y slo pagara 99,50 dlares estara as por debajo de los 100 dlares. +Ya tena 50 resmenes generales. +Esta vez pagu 25 centavos porque pens que la tarea era ms difcil. +Lamentablemente, cuando recib las respuestas -aqu vern seis de ellas- qued un poco decepcionado. +Porque creo que estarn de acuerdo, todas resumen aspectos de TED, pero son un poco sosas o captan slo un aspecto de TED. +Estaba a punto de darme por vencido hasta que una noche, jugando con estas oraciones, hall que contienen una solucin hermosa. +Y es sta, un resumen colectivo de seis palabras para 1000 TEDTalks por US$ 99,50: "Por qu preocuparme si puedo maravillarme?" +Muchas gracias. +Lauren Hodge: Si fueran a un restaurante y quisieran una opcin ms saludable qu elegiran, pollo asado o frito? +La mayora respondera pollo asado, y es verdad que el pollo asado contiene menos grasa y caloras. +Sin embargo, oculta un peligro. +El peligro oculto son las aminas heterocclicas; especficamente la fenometil imidazopiridina o PhIP que es el compuesto inmunognico o cancergeno. +Un carcingeno es la sustancia o agente que causa un crecimiento anormal de las clulas, que puede provocar una metstasis o propagacin. +Tambin hay componentes orgnicos en los que uno o ms de hidrgenos del amonaco son reemplazados por un grupo ms complejo. +Hay estudios que demuestran que los antioxidantes disminuyen estas aminas heterocclicas. +Pero an no hay estudios que muestren cmo o por qu. +Aqu hay cinco maneras de clasificar los agentes cancergenos. +Como ven, ninguna considera que los compuestos sean seguros, lo que justifica la necesidad de reducirlos en la dieta. +Se preguntarn cmo es que a una nia de 13 aos se le ocurre esta idea. +Y fue por una serie de eventos. +Primero, me enter leyendo sobre una demanda en el consultorio de mi mdico una demanda entre el Comit Mdico para una Medicina Responsable y siete restaurantes de comida rpida. +No fueron demandados porque hubiese carcingenos en el pollo, sino debido a la Propuesta 65 de California, que establece que si hay algo peligroso en los productos las empresas tienen que brindar una advertencia clara. +El hecho me sorprendi mucho. +Me preguntaba por qu nadie saba ms respecto de este peligroso pollo asado que no parece muy daino. +Pero una noche, mam estaba preparando pollo asado para la cena y not que los bordes del pollo, adobados con jugo de limn, se pusieron blancos. +Y ms tarde, en la clase de biologa, supe que se debe a la desnaturalizacin proceso en el cual las protenas cambian de forma y pierden la capacidad de funcionar qumicamente. +Combinando estas dos ideas formul una hiptesis: podr acaso el adobo disminuir los carcingenos? Tendr esto que ver con la diferencia en el PH? +As naci mi idea, tena un proyecto y una hiptesis, cul era el paso siguiente? +Bueno, tena que encontrar un laboratorio donde trabajar porque no tena el equipamiento en mi escuela. +Pens que esto sera fcil pero le escrib a 200 personas en un radio de 5 horas de donde yo viva y recib slo una respuesta diciendo que podran trabajar conmigo. +El resto o bien nunca me respondi o deca que no tenan el tiempo o el equipamiento y que no podan ayudarme. +Fue un gran compromiso conducir hasta el laboratorio varias veces. +No obstante, fue una gran oportunidad de trabajar en un laboratorio real as que al final pude empezar mi proyecto. +Hice la primera etapa en casa que consisti en adobar el pollo asar el pollo, amasarlo, y prepararlo para su transporte al laboratorio. +La segunda etapa se desarroll en el laboratorio de Penn State University que fue donde extraje los qumicos, cambi el PH para poder pasarlo por el equipo y separ del resto del pollo los componentes que necesitaba. +Las etapas finales, cuando pas las muestras por un espectrmetro de masa de cromatografa lquida de alta presin que separ los componentes, analiz los qumicos, y me dijo exactamente la cantidad de carcingenos presentes en el pollo. +Al analizar los datos, obtuve resultados muy sorprendentes, porque hall que cuatro de los cinco ingredientes del adobo inhiban la formacin de carcingenos. +Comparado con el pollo sin adobar, que fue lo que us como control, descubr que el jugo de limn era por lejos lo mejor; reduca los carcingenos en un 98%. +La salmuera y el adobo con azcar morena tambin anduvieron muy bien, reduciendo los carcingenos en un 60%. +El aceite de oliva disminuy levemente la formacin de PhIP pero era casi insignificante. +Y los resultados con salsa de soja no fueron concluyentes debido al gran rango de datos pero al parecer la salsa de soja aumentaba el potencial de los carcingenos. +Otro factor importante que no tuve en cuenta en un principio fue el tiempo de coccin. +Y me di cuenta que si uno aumenta el tiempo de coccin rpidamente aumenta la cantidad de carcingenos. +As que la mejor manera de adobar el pollo, segn esto, no es cocinar de menos pero tampoco cocinarlo de ms y quemar el pollo y adobarlo con jugo de limn, azcar morena o salmuera. +Con estos descubrimientos, quiero preguntarles algo. +Haran un pequeo cambio en sus dietas que podra salvarles la vida? +No estoy diciendo que por comer pollo asado que no est adobado indefectiblemente van a morir de cncer. +No obstante, cualquier cosa que disminuya el riesgo potencial de carcingenos puede aumentar la calidad de vida. +Vale la pena para Uds? +Cmo van a cocinar el pollo ahora? +Shree Bose: Hola a todos. Soy Shree Bose. +Gan en la categora de 17 a 18 aos y luego el gran premio. +Quiero que todos imaginen a una niita que sostiene una espinaca azul. +Est parada delante de Uds y les explica que los nios pequeos comern ms vegetales si tienen distintos colores. +Suena ridculo, verdad? +Pero esa era yo hace unos aos. +Y ese fue mi primer proyecto de ciencias. +A partir de all se torn ms complicado. +Mi hermano mayor, Panaki Bose, pas horas hablndome de tomos cuando yo apenas entenda el lgebra elemental. +Mis padres sufrieron muchos de mis proyectos de ciencia entre ellos un cubo de basura teledirigido. +En el verano siguiente a primer ao de secundaria mi abuelo falleci de cncer. +Recuerdo ver a mi familia pasar por eso y pensar que no quera que otra familia atravesara una prdida as. +As, armada con la sabidura de primer ao de biologa decid que quera investigar el cncer a los 15. +Buen plan. +Empec a escribirle a todos los profesores de la zona pidindoles trabajar bajo su supervisin en el laboratorio. +Todos me rechazaron menos uno. +Entonces, al siguiente verano fui a trabajar con el Dr. Basu en el Centro de Salud UNT de Fort Worth, Texas. +All empez la investigacin. +El cncer de ovario es uno de esos cnceres que la mayora desconoce o al menos no le presta demasiada atencin. +Pero, sin embargo, es la quinta causa de muerte por cncer entre las mujeres de Estados Unidos. +De hecho, una de cada 70 mujeres ser diagnosticada con cncer de ovario. +Una de cada 100 morir de eso. +La quimioterapia, una de las maneras ms eficaces para tratar el cncer hoy en da, consiste en suministrar altas dosis de qumicos a los pacientes para tratar de matar las clulas cancergenas. +El Cisplatino es un medicamento relativamente comn para cncer de ovario; una molcula de laboratorio, relativamente simple, que se mete con el ADN de las clulas cancerosas y las lleva a la auto-eliminacin. +Suena genial, no? +Pero hay un problema: a veces las pacientes se vuelven resistentes a la medicina y aos despus de haber sido declaradas libres de cncer, regresan. +Y esta vez no responden a la medicina. +Es un gran problema. +De hecho, hoy es uno de los mayores problemas de la quimioterapia. +Por eso queramos averiguar cmo estas clulas de cncer de ovario se vuelven resistentes a esta medicina llamada Cisplatino. +Queramos averiguar esto porque de hacerlo tal vez podramos evitar esa resistencia. +Eso fue lo que nos propusimos hacer. +Y nos pareci que tena algo que ver con una protena llamada quinasa AMP, una protena de la energa. +Realizamos todas estas pruebas bloqueando la protena y vimos este gran cambio. +Digo, en la diapositiva pueden ver que en nuestro lado sensible, estas clulas que responden a la droga, cuando empezamos a bloquear la protena la cantidad de clulas que mueren -los puntos coloreados- disminuye. +Pero en este lado, con el mismo tratamiento, aumentan... interesante. +Pero para Uds son solo puntos en una pantalla; Qu significa eso en realidad? +Bueno, bsicamente, significa que esta protena est cambiando de la clula sensible a la clula resistente. +De hecho, podra estar cambiando a las clulas mismas y hacerlas resistentes. +Y eso es algo enorme. +Quiere decir que si viene una paciente resistente a esta medicina y le damos un qumico para bloquear esta protena podemos tratarla nuevamente con la misma medicina. +Y eso es grandioso para la eficacia de la quimioterapia posiblemente para muchos tipos de cncer. +As que ese fue mi trabajo y esa mi manera de volver a imaginar el futuro para futuras investigaciones, averiguar qu hace exactamente esta protena y para el futuro de la efectividad de la quimioterapia para que quiz todos los abuelos con cncer tengan un poquito ms de tiempo para pasar con sus nietos. +Pero mi trabajo no slo fue de investigacin. +Tuvo que ver con encontrar mi pasin. +Por eso ser la ganadora del gran premio de la Feria de Ciencias Global de Google, linda foto, no? fue algo muy emocionante para m y un gran honor. +Y desde entonces he hecho algunas cosas geniales desde conocer al presidente hasta subirme a este escenario para hablarles a ustedes. +Pero, como dije, mi viaje no tuvo que ver slo con la investigacin sino con encontrar mi pasin y con forjarme mis propias oportunidades cuando ni siquiera saba qu estaba haciendo. +Tuvo que ver con la inspiracin, la determinacin, y con nunca darme por vencida en mi inters por la ciencia, por aprender y crecer. +Despus de todo, mi historia comienza con una planta de espinaca marchita y seca y no ha hecho ms que mejorar a partir de ah. +Gracias. +Naomi Shah: Hola a todos. Soy Naomi Shah, y hoy voy a hablarles de mi investigacin sobre la calidad del aire interior y los pacientes asmticos. +1,6 millones de muertes en todo el mundo. +Una muerte cada 20 segundos. +La gente pasa ms del 90% de sus vidas en interiores. +Y la carga econmica del asma sobrepasa a la del VIH y la tuberculosis juntas. +Estas estadsticas me produjeron un gran impacto pero lo que realmente despert mi inters por la investigacin fue ver a mi padre y hermano sufrir alergias crnicas durante todo el ao. +Me confunda; por qu persisten los sntomas de la alergia mucho ms all de la estacin del polen? +Con esta pregunta en mente, empec a investigar, y descubr que los culpables eran los contaminantes del aire interior. +Tan pronto como me di cuenta de esto investigu la relacin subyacente entre cuatro contaminantes frecuentes y sus efectos en la salud pulmonar de los pacientes asmticos. +Al principio slo quera averiguar cul de estos cuatro contaminantes tiene el mayor impacto negativo en la salud pulmonar de los pacientes asmticos. +Pero poco despus, desarroll un nuevo modelo matemtico que, en esencia, cuantifica el efecto de estos contaminantes ambientales en la salud pulmonar de los pacientes asmticos. +Y me sorprendi saber que actualmente no existe un modelo que cuantifique el efecto de los factores ambientales en la salud pulmonar humana, porque esa relacin parece muy importante. +Con eso en mente empec a investigar cada vez ms y despert en m una gran pasin. +Porque me di cuenta de que si pudiramos encontrar un paliativo podramos tambin hallar una manera de tratar pacientes asmticos con ms eficacia. +Por ejemplo, los compuestos orgnicos voltiles son contaminantes qumicos que se encuentran en escuelas, hogares y lugares de trabajo. +Estn en todos lados. +Estos contaminantes qumicos no representan contaminantes de criterio como se define en la Ley del Aire Limpio de EE.UU. +Algo que me sorprendi porque estos contaminantes qumicos, en mi investigacin, revelaron tener un impacto muy negativo para la salud pulmonar de los pacientes asmticos y por ende deberan regularse. +Hoy quiero mostrarles el modelo de software interactivo que he creado. +Se los mostrar en mi porttil. +Tengo una voluntaria en la audiencia, Julie. +El modelo de software interactivo tiene pre-cargados los datos de Julie. +Cualquiera puede usarlo. +As que quiero que se pongan en el lugar de Julie o de alguien cercano a Uds que sufre de asma o de otra enfermedad pulmonar. +Julie va al consultorio de su mdico a atenderse por su asma. +El mdico le pide que se siente y mide su tasa de flujo espiratorio mximo, que es su tasa de exhalacin, o la cantidad de aire exhalada en una sola respiracin. +Yo he ingresado la tasa de flujo espiratorio mximo al modelo de software interactivo. +Tambin ingres su edad, gnero y altura. +Supuse que ella vive en un hogar medio con niveles medios de contaminacin del aire. +Cualquier usuario puede entrar aqu hacer clic en "Informe de la funcin pulmonar" y obtener este informe que he creado. +Este informe es el meollo de mi investigacin. +Muestra, si miramos el grfico de la esquina superior derecha, muestra la tasa de flujo espiratorio mximo de Julie en la barra amarilla. +Esta es la medicin que tom en el consultorio de su mdico. +En la barra azul de la parte inferior muestra la tasa de flujo espiratorio mximo ideal; cul debera ser su tasa de exhalacin o salud pulmonar para su edad, gnero y altura. +El mdico ve la diferencia entre la barra de color amarillo y la barra azul, y dice: "Tenemos que darle esteroides, medicamentos e inhaladores". +Pero quiero que piensen en un mundo en el que en vez de recetar esteroides inhaladores y medicamentos, el mdico mirando a Julie le diga: "Por qu no vas a casa y limpias el filtro de aire? +Limpia los conductos de aire de tu hogar, de tu trabajo, de tu escuela. +Deja de usar incienso y velas. +Y si ests remodelando tu casa quita las alfombras y pon pisos de madera dura". +Porque estas soluciones son naturales, son sustentables, estas soluciones son inversiones a largo plazo, inversiones a largo plazo que hacemos para nuestra generacin y para las futuras generaciones. +Porque estas soluciones ambientales que Julie hace en su hogar, en su trabajo y en su escuela afectan a todo su entorno. +Esta investigacin me apasiona y realmente quiero continuarla y expandirla a otros trastornos adems del asma, otros trastornos de las vas respiratorias, y a ms contaminantes. +Pero antes de terminar mi charla de hoy quiero dejarles un dicho. +El dicho sostiene que la gentica carga el arma, pero el ambiente aprieta el gatillo. +Y eso me impact mucho mientras haca esta investigacin. +Porque uno cree, muchos pensamos, que el ambiente est en un macro nivel, que no podemos hacer demasiado para cambiar la calidad del aire o para cambiar el clima, etc. +Pero si cada uno toma la iniciativa en su hogar, en su escuela o en su lugar de trabajo podemos marcar una gran diferencia en la calidad del aire. +Porque recuerden, pasamos el 90% de nuestras vidas en interiores. +Y la calidad del aire y los contaminantes tienen un gran impacto en la salud pulmonar de los pacientes asmticos, cualquiera con trastorno respiratorio y cualquiera de nosotros en general. +Por eso quiero que piensen un mundo con mejor calidad de aire, mejor calidad de vida y mejor calidad de vida para todos incluyendo nuestras futuras generaciones. +Gracias. +Lisa Ling: Correcto. +Shree y Lauren, pueden venir rpidamente? +Campeonas de la Feria de Ciencias de Google. +Las ganadoras. +Nosotros, los diplomticos, estamos preparados para abordar conflictos y problemas entre estados. +Y les puedo asegurar que nuestra agenda est completa, +con comercio, desarme, relaciones transfronterizas... +Pero la situacin est cambiando y detectamos que hay nuevos actores principales que salen a escena. +En trminos generales los denominamos "grupos". +Pueden representar realidades sociales, religiosas, polticas, econmicas o militares. +Nos debatimos sobre cmo tratar con ellos. +Las reglas del compromiso son: cmo hablar, cundo hablar y cmo tratar con ellos. +Djenme mostrarles una diapositiva que ilustra el carcter de los conflictos desde 1946 hasta hoy. +Observen, el verde es un conflicto interestatal tradicional, aquellos que solamos leer. +El rojo es el conflicto moderno, conflictos dentro de los estados. +Son bastante diferentes y estn fuera del alcance de la diplomacia moderna. +El ncleo de estos actores principales son los grupos que representan intereses diferentes dentro de los pases. +La forma de abordar sus conflictos se extiende rpidamente a otros pases. +As que,parece que es asunto de todos. +Otra cosa que hemos reconocido durante los ltimos aos es que muy pocos de estos conflictos internos interestatales, intraestatales, pueden resolverse militarmente. +Quiz haya que abordarlos con medios militares, pero no se pueden resolver as. +Necesitan soluciones polticas. +Y nosotros, encontramos un problema, porque escapan a la diplomacia tradicional. +Y los estados somos reacios a abordarlos. +Adems, durante la ltima dcada, hemos seguido la moda de que tratar con grupos era conceptual y polticamente peligroso. +Tras el 11-S, se estaba con o contra nosotros. +Era blanco o negro. +Y a los grupos, a menudo, se los etiqueta inmediatamente como terroristas. +Y quin hablara con terroristas? +Occidente, en mi opinin, sali debilitado de esa dcada, porque no comprendimos el grupo. +As que empleamos ms tiempo centrados en por qu no debamos hablar con ellos en vez de averiguar cmo hacerlo. +Bueno, no soy un ingenuo. +No se puede hablar siempre con todos. +A veces habra que apartarse; +otras veces, hay que intervenir militarmente. +Soy de los que creen que fue necesario en Libia y tambin en Afganistn. +Mi pas confa en su seguridad por medio de la alianza militar. Eso est claro. +Pero, aun as, tenemos un gran dficit en el trato y la comprensin del conflicto moderno. +Veamos el caso de Afganistn. +Diez aos despus de la intervencin militar el pas no es nada seguro. +La situacin, para ser sinceros, es muy grave. +Una vez ms, el ejrcito es necesario, pero el ejrcito no soluciona los problemas. +La primera vez que fui a Afganistn en 2005 como ministro de Asuntos Exteriores, me reun con el comandante de la ISAF, la Fuerza Internacional de Asistencia para la Seguridad. +Me dijo: "Esto se puede ganar militarmente, seor ministro. +Simplemente tenemos que perseverar". +Tras cuatro comandantes de la ISAF, escuchamos un mensaje diferente: "Esto no se puede ganar militarmente. +Necesitamos la presencia militar, pero necesitamos pasar a la poltica. +Solo lo podemos resolver mediante una solucin poltica. +Y no lo solucionaremos nosotros; tienen que hacerlo los afganos". +Sin embargo, necesitan un proceso poltico diferente al que les dimos en el 2001 y 2002. +Necesitan un proceso global en el que la verdadera estructura de esta sociedad tan compleja pueda abordar sus problemas. +Todos parecen estar de acuerdo en esto. +Era muy controvertido decirlo hace 3, 4 o 5 aos. +Ahora todos estamos de acuerdo. +Pero ahora, al prepararnos para hablar, entendemos qu poco sabemos. +Porque en el pasado no hablamos. +No comprendimos lo que ocurra. +El Comit Internacional de la Cruz Roja habla con todos porque es neutral. +Probablemente por eso sean el actor clave mejor informado para entender el conflicto moderno: porque hablan. +No es necesario ser neutral para hablar. +Y no es necesario estar de acuerdo para sentarse con el otro bando. +Y siempre es posible apartarse. +Pero si no se habla, no se puede captar la atencin del otro bando. +Y estamos en profundo desacuerdo con ese otro bando. +El primer ministro Rabin, al firmar los Acuerdos de Oslo, dijo: "No se hacen las paces con los amigos, se hacen las paces con los enemigos". +Es difcil, pero es necesario. +Dejen que vaya an ms lejos. +Esta es la plaza Tahrir +con una revolucin en marcha. +La primavera rabe se encamina hacia el otoo y avanza hacia el invierno. +Durar mucho, mucho tiempo. +Y quin sabe cmo se llamar al final. +Eso no es lo importante. +Lo importante es que probablemente estamos presenciando, por primera vez en la historia del mundo rabe, una revolucin desde abajo: la revolucin del pueblo. +Los grupos sociales estn tomando las calles. +Y en Occidente descubrimos que sabemos muy poco de lo que sucede. +Porque nunca hablamos con los pueblos de estos pases. +La mayora de los gobiernos siguieron las rdenes de los lderes autoritarios de mantenerse alejados de los diferentes grupos, porque eran terroristas. +Y ahora que estn saliendo a la calle y saludamos a la revolucin democrtica, descubrimos lo poco que sabemos. +En estos momentos, la discusin contina: "Deberamos hablar con los Hermanos Musulmanes? +Deberamos hablar con Hams? +Si lo hacemos, puede que los legitimemos". +Creo que es un error. +Si se habla de la manera adecuada, se deja muy claro que hablar no es estar de acuerdo. +Cmo podemos decirle a los Hermanos Musulmanes, como es debido, que deben respetar los derechos de las minoras si nosotros no aceptamos los de la mayora? +Porque puede que se conviertan en una mayora. +Cmo podemos librarnos del doble rasero, si predicamos la democracia y al mismo tiempo no queremos tratar con los grupos representativos? +Cmo seremos interlocutores algn da? +A mis diplomticos se les instruye para hablar con todos estos grupos. +Pero se puede hablar de distintas maneras. +Se puede hablar a nivel diplomtico o a nivel poltico. +El hablar puede estar acompaado de ayuda o no. +Puede estar acompaado de inclusin o no. +Hay una gran variedad de formas de hacerlo. +Si nos negamos a hablar con estos nuevos grupos que dominarn las noticias en los prximos aos, fomentaremos la radicalizacin, eso es lo que creo. +Haremos el camino desde la violencia hacia la poltica ms difcil de recorrer. +Si no podemos demostrarles que avanzar hacia la democracia, si se hace participando en valores civilizados y normales entre los estados, produce recompensas. +La paradoja aqu es que la dcada pasada se perdi para avanzar en esto. +Y la paradoja es que la anterior haba sido muy prometedora, sobre todo por +lo ocurrido en Sudfrica: Nelson Mandela. +Cuando Mandela sali de prisin tras 27 aos de cautiverio, si le hubiera dicho a su pueblo: "Es el momento de tomar las armas, es el momento de luchar", lo habran seguido. +Y opino que la comunidad internacional habra dicho: "Est bien. +Tienen derecho a luchar". +Como saben, Mandela no hizo eso. +En sus memorias, *El largo camino hacia la libertad*, relata que sobrevivi durante esos aos de cautiverio porque siempre consider un ser humano a su opresor, como otro ser humano. +Por eso se comprometi a un proceso poltico de dilogo, no como la estrategia del dbil, sino como la del poderoso. +Y se comprometi a hablar en profundidad y a solucionar algunos de los asuntos ms delicados por medio de un proceso de verdad y reconciliacin en el que las personas acudan y hablaban. +Los amigos sudafricanos saben que fue muy doloroso. +Qu podemos aprender de todo esto? +El dilogo no es fcil, ni entre individuos ni entre grupos ni entre gobiernos, pero es muy necesario. +Cuando abordemos la resolucin poltica de conflictos, cuando comprendamos a estos nuevos grupos que surgen desde abajo, apoyados por una tecnologa disponible para todos, nosotros, los diplomticos, no podremos apoltronarnos en los sillones y creernos que estamos estableciendo relaciones interestatales. +Tenemos que entender estos cambios profundos. +En qu consiste el dilogo realmente? +Cuando entablo un dilogo, espero de verdad que la otra parte entienda mi punto de vista, que les voy a transmitir mis opiniones y mis valores. +No puedo hacer algo as a menos que enve la seal de estar receptivo a escuchar las seales de la otra parte. +Necesitamos mucha ms formacin sobre cmo hacerlo y mucha ms prctica sobre cmo esto puede fomentar la resolucin de problemas. +Sabemos por nuestra experiencia personal que a veces es sencillo simplemente apartarse y a veces es necesario luchar. +No pienso que sea un error en todas las circunstancias. +A veces hay que hacerlo. +Pero esa estrategia rara vez te lleva muy lejos. +La alternativa es una estrategia de compromiso y dilogo de principios. +Necesitamos consolidar este enfoque en la diplomacia moderna, no solo entre los estados, tambin dentro de los estados. +Observamos algunos indicios nuevos. +Nunca podramos haber realizado la convencin contra las minas antipersonas y la que prohbe las municiones de racimo, si no hubiramos desarrollado la diplomacia de manera diferente, comprometindonos con la sociedad civil. +De pronto, las ONG no solo gritaban sus lemas en las calles, sino que se las inclua en las negociaciones, en parte porque representaban a las vctimas de estas armas. +Y aportaron su conocimiento. +Y hubo una interaccin entre la diplomacia y el poder que surga desde abajo. +Tal vez es el primer elemento del cambio. +En el futuro, creo que deberamos tomar como ejemplo estos acontecimientos para no tener una diplomacia desconectada del pueblo y de la sociedad civil. +Y adems tenemos que llegar ms all de la diplomacia tradicional hasta el tema de la supervivencia actual, como el cambio climtico. +Cmo vamos a solucionar mediante negociaciones el cambio climtico a menos que podamos hacer que la sociedad civil y el pueblo sean parte de la solucin y no del problema? +Ser necesario un proceso global de diplomacia muy distinto al de la actualidad, pues avanzamos hacia una nueva serie de difciles negociaciones climticas, Cuando nos acercamos a algo que tiene que estar mucho ms unido a una gran movilizacin, +creo que es crucial entender que, debido a la tecnologa y a la globalizacin, las sociedades son de abajo a arriba. +Como diplomticos necesitamos conocer el capital social de las comunidades. +Qu hace que las personas confen unas en otras, no solo entre los estados, sino tambin dentro de los estados? +Cul es la legitimidad de la diplomacia, de nuestras soluciones de diplomticos, si estas fuerzas variadas de las sociedades que ahora llamamos grupos, no se ven tambin reflejadas ni son entendidas? +Lo bueno es que podemos hacer algo. +Nunca hemos tenido tantos medios de comunicacin, maneras de estar conectados y contactar, maneras de incluir. +La caja de herramientas diplomtica est repleta de herramientas diversas que podemos utilizar para fortalecer nuestra comunicacin. +Pero el problema es que estamos saliendo de una dcada en la que tenamos miedo de tocarla. +Espero que, en los prximos aos, seamos capaces de demostrar por medio de ejemplos concretos que el miedo est desapareciendo y que podamos sacar fuerzas de esa alianza con la sociedad civil en distintos pases para apoyarlos en la resolucin de sus problemas. Entre los afganos, con la poblacin palestina, entre los pueblos de Palestina e Israel. +Y mientras tratamos de entender este amplio movimiento por todo el mundo rabe, podemos hacer algo. +Tenemos que mejorar las habilidades necesarias, y nos hace falta el valor para utilizarlas. +En mi pas, presenci cmo el consejo de los grupos islamistas y el de los grupos cristianos se reunan, no por iniciativa del gobierno, sino por iniciativa propia para establecer contacto y dilogo en un momento en el que la tensin era bastante moderada. +Y cuando la tensin aument, ya haban mantenido ese dilogo, y eso supuso una ventaja para abordar diferentes asuntos. +Nuestras modernas sociedades occidentales son ms complejas que antes en esta poca de migracin. +Cmo estableceremos y construiremos un "nosotros" ms grande para abordar nuestros problemas, si no mejoramos nuestras habilidades de comunicacin? +Por tanto, hay muchos motivos, y por todos estos motivos, este es el momento y la razn por la que debemos hablar. +Gracias por su atencin. +En Hait se registr clera por primera vez en ms de 50 aos el pasado octubre. +No haba manera de predecir hasta dnde se extendera a travs del agua ni cunto empeorara la situacin. +Y no saber dnde se necesita la ayuda siempre es garanta de falta de ayuda en las zonas ms comprometidas. +Somos buenos prediciendo tormentas y anticipndonos a eso para salvar vidas de inocentes y prevenir daos irreversibles, pero an no podemos hacer lo mismo con el agua y esta es la razn. +Actualmente si uno quiere analizar el agua en el terreno se necesita un tcnico especializado, equipamiento caro como este, y esperar cerca de un da el resultado de las reacciones qumicas. +Se hace muy lento obtener un panorama de las condiciones en el terreno antes de que cambien, demasiado costoso implementarlo en los lugares donde los anlisis hacen falta. +Y se ignora el hecho de que, mientras tanto, las personas tienen que beber agua. +Gran parte de la informacin recolectada en el brote de clera no vino del anlisis del agua; vino de formularios como este que daban cuenta de todas las personas a quienes no pudimos ayudar. +Los canarios han salvado muchas vidas en las minas; eran una forma simple e invaluable en que los mineros saban si estaban a salvo. +Tuve en cuenta esa simplicidad al trabajar en este problema con algunas de las personas ms trabajadoras y brillantes que he conocido. +Creemos que hay una solucin simple, muy til para personas que enfrentan problemas como este a diario. +Est en fase preliminar y por ahora tiene este aspecto. +Lo llamamos Water Canary [Canario del Agua] +Es un dispositivo rpido y econmico que responde una pregunta importante: El agua est contaminada? +No requiere entrenamiento especial. +En vez de esperar reacciones qumicas usa la luz. +Es decir, no hay que esperar que ocurran reacciones qumicas; no intervienen reactivos que se acaban ni expertos para conseguir informacin til. +Para analizar el agua, ponemos una muestra, esperamos unos segundos, y aparece una luz roja si el agua est contaminada o una luz verde si la muestra est a salvo. +Esto har posible que cualquiera obtenga informacin vital para monitorear la calidad del agua durante un brote. +Y por encima tambin estamos integrando redes inalmbricas en un dispositivo prctico y econmico que tiene GPS y GSM. +O sea que cada lectura puede transmitirse automticamente a servidores para trazar mapas en tiempo real. +Con suficientes usuarios ser posible hacer mapas como este para tomar acciones preventivas y tratar los peligros antes de que sean emergencias que requieran aos de recuperacin. +As, en vez de demorar das en diseminar esta informacin a las personas que ms la necesitan, puede hacerse en forma automtica. +Ya hemos visto cmo las redes distribuidas, la informacin y los datos pueden transformar la sociedad. +Creo que es hora de que apliquemos eso al agua. +Nuestro objetivo para el ao prximo es tener listo Water Canary y hacer el hardware de cdigo abierto para que cualquiera pueda contribuir al desarrollo y la evaluacin de modo que podamos abordar juntos el problema. +Gracias. +Empezar con esto: +Un cartel escrito a mano que vi en una panadera familiar de mi antiguo barrio en Brooklyn hace unos aos. +El local tena una de esas mquinas para imprimir en placas de azcar. +Los nios podan llevar dibujos y all les impriman una placa para decorar la torta de cumpleaos. +Por desgracia, uno de las cosas que amaban dibujar eran las caricaturas. +Les gustaba dibujar a La Sirenita a los pitufos, al ratn Mickey. +Pero resulta que era ilegal imprimir los dibujos del ratn Mickey en la placa de azcar. +Violaba la propiedad intelectual. +Vigilar la propiedad intelectual en las tortas de cumpleaos era una molestia tal que College Bakery dijo "Saben qu, abandonaremos el negocio. +Si eres aficionado ya no tendrs acceso a nuestra mquina. +Si quieren decorar una torta con dibujos tienen que usar una imagen del catlogo slo para profesionales". +Y ahora hay dos leyes en el Congreso. +Una se llama SOPA y la otra PIPA. +SOPA significa "Ley de freno a la piratera en lnea". +Viene del Senado. +PIPA se abrevia PROTECTIP, que es acrnimo en ingls de "Prevenir amenazas reales en lnea a la creatividad econmica y el robo de la propiedad intelectual", porque los congresistas que ponen estos nombres se nota que disponen de mucho tiempo. +Y tanto SOPA como PIPA pretenden esto. +Quieren aumentar el costo de la propiedad intelectual hasta que las personas abandonen el negocio de ofrecer estas posibilidades a los aficionados. +Y proponen hacerlo identificando a los sitos que infringen ostensiblemente la propiedad intelectual. Los proyectos de ley no aclaran cmo van a identificar a esos sitios, pero quieren eliminarlos del sistema de nombres de dominio. +Quieren sacarlos del sistema de nombres de dominio. +El sistema de nombres de dominio convierte nombres legibles como google.com en esas direcciones que esperan las mquinas 74.125.226.212. +El problema de este modelo de censura, de identificar un sitio y tratarlo de eliminar del sistema de nombres de dominio, es que no funcionar. +Y uno pensara que es un problema bastante grande para una ley pero al parecer al Congreso no le ha molestado demasiado. +Pero no funcionar porque se puede ingresar 74.125.226.212 en el navegador o ponerlo en un enlace o encontrarlo en Google. +La cantidad de vigilancia en torno al problema es lo preocupante de la propuesta. +Pero para entender cmo llega el Congreso a redactar un proyecto de ley que no cumple su objetivo declarado pero que tiene muchos efectos secundarios perniciosos hay que entender un poco la historia de fondo. +La historia de fondo es que SOPA y PIPA, como legislacin, en gran parte son producto de las empresas de medios fundadas en el siglo XX. +El siglo XX fue un gran momento para las empresas de medios porque por todos lados haba escasez. +Si tenas un programa de TV no tena que ser mejor que todos los programas de la historia; slo tena que ser mejor que los otros dos programas que haba al mismo tiempo; un umbral muy bajo de competencia. +O sea que con un contenido promedio uno tena, gratis, un tercio del pblico de EE.UU., decenas de millones de usuarios sin hacer nada demasiado exigente. +Era como estar autorizado a imprimir dinero y tener un barril de tinta gratis. +Pero la tecnologa fue avanzando. +Y, muy lentamente, a fines del siglo XX empez a erosionarse esa escasez y no me refiero a la tecnologa digital, sino a la analgica. +Cintas de casete, grabadoras de vdeo, incluso la humilde fotocopiadora abrieron oportunidades para que nos comportemos de forma que asombr a las empresas de medios. +Porque result ser que no somos adictos a la televisin. +No nos gusta solamente consumir. +Nos gusta consumir pero cada vez que aparecen nuevas tecnologas resulta que tambin nos gusta producir y compartir. +Y esto asust a las empresas de medios, las asust en todo momento. +Jack Valenti, el agente principal de la Asociacin Cinematogrfica de EE.UU., una vez compar a la feroz grabadora de vdeo con Jack el Destripador y al pobre e indefenso Hollywood con una mujer sola en su casa. +Ese era el grado de retrica. +Por eso las industrias de medios rogaban, insistan, exigan que el Congreso hiciera algo. +Y el Congreso hizo algo. +A principio de los 90, aprob la ley que lo cambi todo. +Es la ley de grabacin de audio de 1992. +La ley de grabacin de audio de 1992 deca que si las personas hacen copias de la radio y luego hacen mezclas para sus amigos eso no es un crimen. Est bien. +Grabar, remezclar y compartir con los amigos est bien. +Pero si uno hace muchsimas copias de alta calidad para venderlas eso no est bien. +Pero el asunto de las copias bueno, est permitido. +Pensaron que haban aclarado el problema estableciendo una distincin clara entre las copias legales y las ilegales. +Pero las empresas de medios no queran eso. +Queran que el Congreso prohibiera las copias y punto. +Por eso cuando se aprob la ley de grabacin de audio de 1992 las empresas de medios desistieron de la idea de lo legal contra lo ilegal en las copias porque estaba claro que si el Congreso actuaba en ese marco ampliara los derechos ciudadanos de participacin en el entorno meditico. +Por eso optaron por el plan B. +Les llev bastante tiempo idear el plan B. +El plan B cobr forma definitiva en 1998; se llam "Ley de propiedad intelectual en el milenio digital". +Era una legislacin complicada, con muchos resortes legales. +Pero la Asociacin Cinematogrfica quera legalizar la venta de material digital no duplicable El pequeo detalle es que tal cosa no existe. +Sera, como dijo una vez Ed Felton, "Como distribuir agua no mojada". +Los bits se copian. As operan las computadoras. +Es un efecto secundario de sus operaciones comunes. +Por eso para fingir que era posible vender bits no duplicables la Asociacin Cinematogrfica hizo obligatorio el uso de sistemas que impidieran la copia en los dispositivos. +Cada reproductor de DVD, consola de juegos, televisor o computadora que llevramos a casa sin importar qu pensbamos cuando los compramos podan ser bloqueados por la industria de medios si ellos quisieran poner eso como condicin de venta del contenido. +Y para asegurarse de que no nos daramos cuenta o de que no activaramos esas capacidades en los dispositivos de propsito general tambin prohibieron que pudiramos reactivar la posibilidad de copiar ese contenido. +La Asociacin Cinematogrfica marca el momento en el que las empresas de medios abandonan la distincin entre legal e ilegal y directamente trata de impedir la copia por medios tcnicos. +La Asociacin Cinematogrfica caus muchas complicaciones, y sigue en eso, pero en este mbito, de frenar el intercambio, no ha tenido mucho xito. +La razn principal por la que no funcion es que Internet result ser mucho ms popular y potente de lo imaginado. +no existen comparado con lo que vemos hoy en Internet. +Estamos en un mundo en el que gran parte de los ciudadanos de EE.UU. de ms de 12 aos comparten cosas en lnea. +Compartimos textos, imgenes, audio y video. +Algunas cosas que compartimos son propias. +Otras cosas las hemos encontrado. +Algunas de las cosas que compartimos son producto de lo que hicimos con lo que encontramos y todo esto horroriza a esas industrias. +PIPA y SOPA son la etapa 2. +El mecanismo para lograrlo, como dije, es sacar a todos los que apunten a esas direcciones IP. +Hay que sacarlos de los motores de bsqueda, sacarlos de los directorios que estn en lnea, sacarlos de las listas de usuarios. +Y dado que los mayores productores de contenidos de Internet no son Google ni Yahoo, somos nosotros, somos el objeto de la vigilancia. +Porque al final la amenaza real para la promulgacin de PIPA y SOPA es nuestra capacidad de compartir unos con otros. +El riesgo de PIPA y SOPA es invertir un concepto jurdico antiqusimo: uno es inocente hasta que se demuestre lo contrario, y cambiarlo a culpable hasta que se demuestre lo contrario. +No se podr compartir hasta que no demostremos que no compartimos algo que no les gusta. +De repente, la carga de la prueba de legal vs ilegal cae sobre nosotros y sobre los servicios que podran ofrecernos nuevas opciones. +Y aunque costara 10 centavos vigilar a un usuario, eso destruira un servicio de cien millones de usuarios. +Esa es la Web que tienen en mente. +Imaginen este cartel en todos lados salvo que en vez de decir College Bakery imaginen que dice YouTube Facebook y Twitter. +Imaginen que dice TED, porque los comentarios no pueden vigilarse a costos aceptables. +Los efectos reales de SOPA y PIPA sern diferentes a los efectos propuestos. +De hecho, la amenaza es esta inversin de la carga de la prueba por la que, de repente, nos toman a todos por ladrones en momentos en los que tenemos la libertad de crear, para producir o compartir. +Y la gente que nos brinda esas posibilidades los YouTubes, los Facebooks, los Twitters y los TEDs se ocuparn de vigilarnos o estn a la caza de infracciones. +Hay dos cosas que pueden hacer para frenar esto. Una cosa es simple, la otra complicada. Una es fcil y la otra difcil. +La cosa simple, la cosa fcil, es esta: si son ciudadanos estadounidenses llamen a sus representantes, a sus senadores. +Si miramos quines firman el proyecto de ley SOPA o los que firman PIPA vern que han recibido en forma acumulativa millones y millones de dlares de las industrias de medios tradicionales. +Uds. no tienen millones y millones de dlares pero pueden llamar a sus representantes y recordarles que Uds. votan, y pueden pedirles que no los traten como ladrones y sugerirles que Uds. prefieren que no destruyan la Web. +Y si no son ciudadanos estadounidenses pueden contactar a sus conocidos en EE.UU. y animarles a que hagan lo mismo. +Porque esto parece un asunto nacional pero no lo es. +Estas industrias no se contentarn con destruir nuestra Web. +Si la destruyen, lo harn en todo el mundo. +Esa es la parte fcil. +Eso es lo simple. +Lo tarea difcil es estar listos porque hay ms. +SOPA es otra versin de COICA, propuesta el ao pasado, que no se aprob. +Y todo se remonta al fracaso de la Asociacin para impedir el intercambio por medios tcnicos. +Se remonta a la ley de grabacin de audio que horroriz a esas industrias. +Porque todo este asunto de sugerir que alguien infringe la ley y luego juntar evidencia para aportarla, todo resulta muy complicado. +"Preferiramos no hacerlo", dicen las industrias de contenidos. +Buscan evitar hacer eso. +No quieren distinciones legales entre intercambio legal e ilegal. +Quieren que el intercambio se acabe. +PIPA y SOPA no son rarezas, no son anomalas, no son eventualidades. +Son una vuelta de tuerca ms del engranaje que ha estado actuando durante 20 aos. +Y si lo derrotamos, como espero que suceda, an falta ms. +Porque hasta que convenzamos al Congreso de que la forma de tratar las faltas a la propiedad intelectual es como se hizo con Napster o YouTube, que es con un juicio adecuado, con presentacin de pruebas, hechos, y evaluacin de resarcimientos como en las sociedades democrticas. +Esa es la manera de manejarlo. +Mientras tanto lo difcil es estar preparados. +Porque ese es el mensaje de PIPA y SOPA. +Time Warner quiere que todos nosotros volvamos al sof a consumir -no a producir, ni compartir- y deberamos decir "No". +Gracias. +Lo que voy a hacer aqu, es explicar el concepto de verde extremo desarrollado en el Centro de Investigacin Glenn de la NASA en Cleveland, Ohio. +Pero antes de hacer eso, revisemos lo que entendemos por verde, porque muchos de nosotros tenemos definiciones diferentes. +Verde. El producto se crea por mtodos con conciencia social y ambiental. +Hay cantidad de cosas que ahora llamamos verdes. +Pero, qu significa, en realidad? +Usamos tres mediciones para determinar lo verde. +La primera: es sostenible? +Es decir: lo que se est haciendo tiene uso en el futuro con las generaciones venideras? +Es alternativo? Es diferente de lo que se hace hoy? o reduce la huella de carbono con respecto a lo convencional? +Y tercero: es renovable? +Proviene de los recursos que la Tierra repone de forma natural, como el sol, el viento o el agua? +Mi tarea en la NASA es desarrollar la prxima generacin de combustibles de aviacin, +verde extremo. Por qu en aviacin? +El campo de la aviacin usa ms combustible que todos los dems combinados. Necesitamos buscar una alternativa. +A su vez, es una directiva de la aeronutica nacional. +Una de las metas nacionales de la aeronutica es desarrollar la siguiente generacin de combustibles, biocombustibles, que usen recursos del pas, amigables y seguros. +Para enfrentar ese reto adems tenemos que cumplir con las tres medidas. Verde extremo, para nosotros, es que cumpla los tres criterios, por eso ven el signo ms, como me pidieron que dijera. +Tiene que cumplir bien los 3 criterios del laboratorio Glenn. Esa es otra medida. +El 97,5% del agua del planeta es salada. +Qu tal si la usamos? Combinamos eso con el nmero 3, +no usar tierra cultivable. +Porque esas tierras ya se estn cultivando y son escasas en el mundo. +N 2: No competir con cultivos alimentarios. +Eso est ya bien establecido. no se requiere nada ms. +Por ltimo, el recurso ms precioso que tenemos en la Tierra es el agua dulce; no usar agua dulce. +Si el 97.5% del agua en el mundo es salada, 2.5% es agua dulce. Menos de la mitad de esto est disponible para uso humano. +El 60% de la poblacin se abastece de ese 1%. +Para resolver mi problema, tena que ser verde extremo y cumplir con esas 3 grandes medidas. Damas y caballeros: bienvenidos al laborartorio de investigacin GreenLab. +Este es una entidad dedicada a la prxima generacin de combustibles de aviacin que usan halfitas. +Una halfita es una planta que tolera la sal. +A la mayora de las plantas no les gusta la sal, pero las halfitas la toleran. +Tambin usamos malezas, al igual que algas. +Lo bueno de nuestro laboratorio es que hemos tenido 3600 visitantes en los ltimos 2 aos. +A qu se debe eso? +Es porque estamos haciendo algo especial. +En la parte baja ven al GreenLab, obviamente. A la derecha ven las algas. +Estando involucrados en la prxima generacin de combustibles de aviacin, las algas son una opcin viable. Hoy hay mucho financiamiento y tenemos un programa de algas para combustibles. +Existen dos maneras de desarrollar algas. +Una es un fotobiorreactor cerrado que ven aqu. Lo que aparece al otro lado es nuestra especie, la que usamos en el momento que se llama Scenedesmus Diamorphis. +Nuestro trabajo en la NASA es tomar los datos experimentales y computacionales para hacer la mejor mezcla para el fotobiorreactor cerrado. +El problema con estos fotobiorreactores es que son bastante costosos, estn automatizados, lo que hace muy difcil producirlos a gran escala. +Qu se usa a gran escala? +Se usan sistemas de tanques abiertos. En todas partes del mundo se estn cultivando algas con como circuitos, como ven aqu. Como un valo con una rueda de paletas para mezclar bien pero cuando llega a la ltima ronda, que yo llamo la cuarta, se estanca. +Tenemos solucin para eso. +En el sistema de estanque abierto de GreenLab usamos algo que ocurre en la naturaleza; las olas. +Con la tecnologa de olas, en el sistema de tanques abiertos, +logramos mezclas del 95% y el contenido de lpidos es mayor al del sistema del fotobiorreactor cerrado, lo cual, pensamos, es significativo. +Pero las algas tienen una desventaja; son muy costosas. +Habr alguna forma de producir algas econmicamente? +La respuesta es, s. +Hacemos lo mismo que con las halfitas, es decir, adaptacin climtica. +En GreenLab tenemos seis ecosistemas primarios que van alterndose desde agua dulce hasta llegar a la salada. +Lo que estamos intentando es conseguir una sola especie que pueda sobrevivir en cualquier parte del mundo, aunque sea un desierto rido. +Hasta ahora hemos tenido mucho xito. +Ahora, uno de nuestros problemas. +Para los agricultores hay 5 requisitos para tener xito: Se necesitan semillas, suelo, agua, sol y, por ltimo, fertilizantes. +La mayora usa fertilizantes qumicos. Pero saben algo? +Nosotros no usamos fertilizantes qumicos. +Un momento! Veo mucho verde en tu laboratorio. Seguro usan fertilizantes. +Aunque no lo crean, en los anlisis de los ecosistemas de agua salada, el 80% de lo que necesitamos est dentro de estos tanques. +El 20% faltante es nitrgeno y fsforo. +Nuestra solucin natural es, peces. +No picamos los peces para echarlos ah. +Usamos los deshechos de los peces; es ms usamos peces poecilia de agua dulce con la tcnica de adaptacin climtica gradualmente desde agua dulce hasta agua salada. +Los poecilias de agua dulce son baratos, les encanta tener bebs y les fascina ir al bao. +Cuanto ms van al bao, ms fertilizante obtenemos, mejor para nosotros, aunque no lo crean. +Cabe notar que usamos arena como piso, arena comn de playa, o sea, crustceos fosilizados. +Muchos me preguntan, cmo empezaste? +Bueno, empezamos con lo que llamamos biocombustibles de laboratorio bajo techo. +Es un laboratorio semillero donde tenemos 26 especies diferentes de halfitas y cinco son ganadoras. Lo que hacemos es... debera llamarse laboratorio de la muerte, porque intentamos matar semillas, hacerlas resistentes y luego vamos al laboratorio verde. +Lo que ven en la esquina inferior es una planta experimental de tratamiento de residuos donde estamos desarrollando, una macroalga de la que hablar en un minuto. +Y por ltimo, ese soy yo en el laboratorio para mostrarles que tambin trabajo; no solo hablo de lo que hago. +Aqu estn las especies de plantas, Salicornia virginica. +Es una planta maravillosa, me encanta. +Se ve por todas partes, desde Maine, por todas partes hasta California. La adoro. +La segunda es Salicornia Bigelovi, muy dficil de encontrar. +Es la que tiene ms alto contenido de lpidos, pero con una desventaja: es enana. +Y ahora, la Salicornia europaea, la ms grande o ms alta. +Lo que estamos intentando con seleccin natural o biologa adaptativa, es combinar las tres y hacer una planta ms alta con mucho lpido. +Cuando un huracn diezm la Baha de Delaware, los campos de soya desaparecieron. Se nos ocurri una idea: podremos tener una planta con la que se pueda recuperar el suelo de Delaware? La respuesta es s. +Y se llama malva de la costa, Kosteletzkya virginica, repitan eso cinco veces, bien rpido, si pueden. +Es una planta 100% til; las semillas como biocombustible y el resto para forraje. +Ha estado ah por 10 aos y funciona muy bien. +Ahora veamos la Chaetomorpha, +que es una macroalga a la que le encantan los nutrientes en exceso. Los que estn en la industria acuaria, saben que se usa para limpiar tanques sucios. +Esta especie es muy importante para nosotros. +Sus propiedades se acercan al plstico. +Intentamos ahora convertir estas macroalgas en bioplstico. +Si tenemos xito, revolucionaremos la industria de los plsticos. +Tenemos ya una semilla para el programa de biocombustibles. +Tenemos que hacer algo con esta biomasa que resulta. +Hacemos extraccin GC, optimizacin de lpido y dems, porque nuestra meta es crear la prxima generacin de combustibles para aviacin... y lo que sigue. +Hasta ahora hemos hablado de agua y combustibles, pero en el camino nos encontramos con algo interesante sobre la Salicornia; es un producto alimenticio. +Hablamos de ideas que vale la pena difundir no? +Qu tal esta: en frica subsahariana, prxima al mar, agua salada, desierto rido... qu tal si cultivamos esa planta; la mitad como alimento y la mitad como combustible. +Podemos lograrlo sin grandes costos. +Hay un invernadero en Alemania que lo vende como alimento saludable. +Se cultiva y aqu en el medio, hay camarones para encurtir. +Tengo que contarles un chiste. A la Salicornia se le conoce como frijoles de mar, esprragos marinos y algas en escabeche. +Estamos encurtiendo algas en escabeche, en el medio. +Bueno, pens que era divertido. Y abajo, mostaza nutica. Tiene sentido como refrigerio, parece lgico. Se tiene mostaza, si eres marinero ves las halfitas, las mezclas y tienes un gran platillo con galletas. +Y por ltimo, ajo con Salicornia, que es lo que ms me gusta. +O sea, agua, combustible y alimentos. +Nada de esto sera posible sin el equipo del GreenLab. +As como Miami Heat tiene sus 3 grandes, nosotros tenemos nuestros 3 grandes en GRC de la NASA: +Ah estamos con el profesor Bob Herndricks, nuestro temerario lder, y el doctor Arnon Chait. +La columna vertebral del GreenLab son los estudiantes. +En los ltimos 2 aos, hemos tenido 35 estudiantes de todo el mundo, trabajando en el GreenLab. +A propsito, mi jefe de divisin repite: "tienes una universidad verde". +Y yo le digo: "Me parece bien porque estamos formando la prxima generacin de pensadores en verde extremo, lo que es importante". +Resumiendo, primero les present lo que pensamos es una solucin global para alimentos, combustibles y agua. +Algo falta para completarlo. +Obviamente usamos electricidad. Les tengo una solucin;; usamos fuentes de energa limpia. +Tenemos dos turbinas elicas conectadas al GreenLab y esperamos que pronto lleguen unas 4 o 5 ms. +Tambin estamos usando algo bastante interesante... Hay un campo de paneles solares en el Centro de Investigacin Glenn de la NASA, sin uso desde hace 15 aos. +Junto con algunos colegas, ingenieros elctricos, vimos que eran viable, as que los estamos restaurando. +En unos 30 das los conectaremos al GreenLab. +Y la razn por la que ven rojo, rojo y amarillo, es que mucha gente piensa que los empleados de la NASA no trabajan los sbados. Esta es una foto tomada en sbado. +No hay autos pero vean mi camioneta amarilla. Yo s trabajo los sbados. As muestro que estoy trabajando. +Porque hacemos lo necesario para lograr el trabajo; todos lo saben. +Hay un concepto relacionado con esto: Usamos el GreenLab como base de prueba para la idea de una microred inteligente en Ohio. +Tenemos la capacidad de hacerlo y creo que funcionar. +All en el laboratorio de investigacin de GreenLab. +Un ecosistema de energa renovable autosostenible, es lo que he presentado hoy. +En verdad espero y deseo que este concepto se extienda por todo el mundo. +Creemos tener una solucin para alimentos, agua, combustibles, y tambin energa. Todo completo +Es verde extremo, sostenible, alternativo y renovable, y cumple con las tres grandes de GRC: no usa tierras frtiles, no compite con cultivos alimenticios, y sobre todo, no usa agua dulce. +Me preguntan mucho, "y t qu haces en el laboratorio?" +Mi respuesta habitual es, "No te importa. Eso es lo que hago". Aunque no lo crean, mi primera meta de trabajo en este proyecto es: quiero ayudar a salvar el mundo. +Hay un verdadero T? +Esto puede parecerles una cuestin muy extraa. +Porque, pueden preguntar, cmo encontrar el verdadero T?, cmo saber cul es el verdadero T? +Y as sucesivamente. +Pero la idea de que debe haber un verdadero T, seguramente es obvia. +Si hay algo real en el mundo, eres T. +Bueno, yo no estoy tan seguro. +Al menos tenemos que entender un poco mejor qu significa. +Sin duda hay muchas cosas en nuestra cultura que refuerzan la idea de que que cada uno de nosotros tenemos una especie de esencia. +Existe algo acerca de lo que significa ser el T que te define, y que es permanente e inmutable. +La manera ms burda que tenemos, son cosas como los horscopos. +La gente est muy apegada a ellos, en realidad. +La gente los pone en su perfil de Facebook como si fueran significativos, incluso algunos saben su horscopo chino. +Tambin hay versiones ms cientficas, todo tipo de perfiles de personalidad, como las pruebas de Myers-Briggs, por ejemplo. +No s si las han hecho. +Muchas empresas las usan para contratar. +Uno contesta muchas preguntas, y se supone que esto revela algo sobre la personalidad bsica de uno. +Y, por supuesto, la fascinacin popular por esto es enorme. +En las revistas como estas, vern, abajo a la izquierda, anuncian prcticamente todos los meses algo sobre la personalidad. +Y si toman una de esas revistas, es difcil no hacerlos, no? +Hacer la prueba para saber cul es nuestro estilo de aprendizaje, cul es nuestro estilo amatorio, o laboral. +Eres este tipo de persona u otra? +As que creo que tenemos una idea de sentido comn de que hay un ncleo o esencia de nosotros mismos que debe descubrirse. +Y que es como una verdad permanente acerca de nosotros mismos, Algo que permanece igual durante toda la vida. +Bueno, esa es la idea que quiero cuestionar. +Y tengo que decirlo no lo cuestiono solo porque yo sea raro, el cuestionamiento tiene en realidad una historia muy larga e insigne. +Esta es la idea del sentido comn. +Existe un T. +Uds. son los que son y tienen esa esencia. +En su vida, lo que pasa es que, por supuesto, se acumulan experiencias diferentes. +As que uno tiene recuerdos, y estos recuerdos ayudan a crear lo que uno es. +Tienen deseos; tal vez, deseas una galleta, tal vez algo de lo que no queremos hablar a las 11 de la maana en una escuela. +Tendrn creencias. +Esta es una placa de alguien en EE. UU. +No s si esta placa donde dice "Mesas 1" indica que el conductor cree en el mesas, o si cree que es el mesas. +De cualquier manera, tiene creencias sobre el mesas. +Tenemos conocimiento. +Tenemos sensaciones y experiencias. +No son solo las cosas intelectuales. +Esto es un modelo de sentido comn, creo, de lo que una persona es. +Una persona tiene todo de lo que se componen nuestras experiencias vitales. +Pero lo que les quiero plantear hoy es que hay algo fundamentalmente errneo en este modelo. +Y puedo demostrar lo errneo con un solo clic. +En realidad no hay un "T" en el corazn de todas estas experiencias. +Pensamiento extrao? Tal vez no. +Qu hay, entonces? +Es claro que hay recuerdos, deseos, intenciones, sensaciones, y as sucesivamente. +Pero lo que pasa es que estas cosas existen, y estn todas integradas, estn solapadas, estn conectadas de diferentes formas. +Estn conectadas en parte, y quizs incluso principalmente, porque todas pertenecen a un cuerpo y un cerebro. +Pero tambin hay una narrativa, una historia que contamos de nosotros, las experiencias que tenemos al recordar cosas pasadas. +Hacemos las cosas a causa de otras cosas. +As que lo que deseamos es, en parte, resultado de lo que creemos, y lo que recordamos tambin nos informa de lo que sabemos. +Y as, en realidad, son todas estas cosas, como creencias, deseos, sensaciones, experiencias, las que estn relacionadas entre s, y esto es lo que forma el T. +En cierto modo, es una pequea diferencia de la comprensin del sentido comn. +En cierto modo, es una gigante. +Es el cambio entre el pensar de uno mismo como algo que acumula todas las experiencias de la vida, y pensar en uno mismo como simplemente la coleccin de todas las experiencias de la vida. +T eres la suma de tus partes. +Esas piezas tambin son fsicas, por supuesto, cerebros, cuerpos y piernas y tal, pero no son tan importantes, en realidad. +Si a uno le trasplantan el corazn, sigue siendo la misma persona. +Si le trasplantan la memoria, sigue siendo la misma persona? +Si le trasplantan las creencias, sigue siendo la misma persona? +Esta idea, de lo que somos, la manera de entendernos a nosotros mismos, no es algo permanente, que tiene experiencias, sino que es una coleccin de experiencias, puede que suene un poco raro. +Pero, en realidad, no creo que debera ser raro. +En cierto modo, es de sentido comn. +Como acabo de invitarles a reflexionar sobre eso, por comparacin, piensen en casi cualquier otra cosa en el universo, quiz aparte de las fuerzas o poderes muy fundamentales. +Tomemos algo como el agua. +No soy muy bueno en Ciencias. +Podemos decir que el agua tiene dos partes de hidrgeno y una de oxgeno no? +Todos sabemos eso. +Espero que nadie en esta sala crea que lo que significa es que hay una cosa que se llama agua, a la que se atribuye tomos de hidrgeno y uno de oxgeno, y eso es lo que es el agua. +Por supuesto que no. +Entendemos, muy fcilmente y en seguida, que el agua no es nada ms que molculas de hidrgeno y oxgeno dispuestas adecuadamente. +Todo lo dems en el universo es lo mismo. +No hay misterio acerca de mi reloj, por ejemplo. +Decimos que el reloj tiene una cara, manecillas un mecanismo y una batera, Pero lo que queremos decir es, no creemos que haya algo llamado el reloj al que despus pegamos todas estas partes. +Entendemos claramente que las piezas del reloj se ensamblan y crean un reloj. +Ahora bien, si todo lo dems en el universo es as, por qu bamos a ser diferentes? +Por qu pensar en nosotros no como en una coleccin de todas nuestras partes, sino como una entidad separada, permanente que tiene esas partes? +Este punto de vista no es, en realidad, nuevo. +Tiene un largo linaje. +Existe en el budismo, se encuentra en la filosofa del siglo XVII y XVIII hasta el da de hoy, en personas como Locke y Hume. +Pero curiosamente, tambin es un punto de vista cada vez ms ms respaldado por la neurociencia. +Este es Paul Broks, neuropsiclogo clnico, y dice esto: "Tenemos una profunda intuicin de que existe un ncleo, una esencia ah, y es difcil de eliminarla, probablemente es imposible desprenderse de ella. +Pero es cierto que la neurociencia demuestra que no existe un centro en el cerebro donde las cosas convergen". +As que cuando nos fijamos en el cerebro, y nos fijamos en cmo el cerebro posibilita un sentido de s mismo, uno descubre que no existe un punto de control central en el cerebro. +No hay ningn tipo de centro donde todo sucede. +Hay muchos procesos diferentes en el cerebro, todos los cuales operan, en cierto modo, con total independencia. +Pero debido a la forma en que se relacionan obtenemos este sentido de nosotros mismos. +El trmino que utilizo en el libro, lo he denominado el truco ego. +Es como un truco mecnico. +No es que no existamos, Es solo que el truco consiste en hacernos sentir que dentro de nosotros hay algo ms unificado que est realmente all. +Ahora podran pensar que esto es una idea preocupante. +Se podra pensar que si es cierto, que para cada uno de nosotros no existe una ncleo permanente de s mismo, que no existe una esencia permanente, querra eso decir que, realmente, el yo es una ilusin? +Querra eso decir que realmente no existimos? +No existe un verdadero T. +Muchas personas realmente hablan de la ilusin y esto. +Aqu estos tres psiclogos, Thomas Metzinger, Bruce Hood, y Susan Blackmore, muchas de estas personas hablan del lenguaje de la ilusin, el yo es una ilusin, es una ficcin. +Pero yo no creo que esto sea una forma muy til de verlo. +Volvamos al reloj. +El reloj no es una ilusin, porque no haya nada en el reloj distinto a la suma de sus partes. +De la misma manera, tampoco somos ilusiones. +El hecho de que seamos de alguna forma, solo esta suma muy, muy compleja, una suma ordenada de cosas, no significa que no seamos reales. +Puedo hacer una metfora burda para esto. +Tomemos una cascada. +Estas son las Cataratas del Iguaz, en Argentina. +Ahora bien, si tomamos algo as se puede apreciar el hecho de que en muchas maneras, no hay nada permanente ah. +Por un lado, siempre est cambiando. +Las aguas siempre estn tallando nuevos canales. +Con los cambios, las mareas y el clima, algunas cosas se secan, se crean cosas nuevas. +Por supuesto, el agua que fluye a travs de la cascada es diferente en instante nico. +Pero no significa que las Cataratas de Iguaz sean una ilusin. +Esto no quiere decir que no sean reales. +Lo que significa es que tenemos que entender lo que es como algo que tiene una historia, con ciertas cosas que las mantienen juntas, pero es un proceso, es fluido, est cambiando siempre. +Creo, es un modelo para la comprensin de nosotros mismos, y creo que es un modelo de liberacin. +Porque si uno piensa que tiene una esencia permanente fija, que es siempre la misma a lo largo de su vida, no importa qu, de alguna manera uno est atrapado. +Uno nace con una esencia, eso es lo que uno es hasta que se muere. Si uno cree en el ms all, tal vez contine. +Pero si uno piensa en s mismo como ser, en cierto modo, no como una cosa en s, sino como un proceso, algo que est cambiando, entonces creo que eso es muy liberador. +Porque a diferencia de las cascadas, en realidad, tenemos la capacidad para canalizar la direccin de nuestro desarrollo hasta un cierto grado. +Tenemos que tener cuidado con esto verdad? +Si uno mira demasiado Factor X, es posible asumir esta idea de que podemos ser, todo lo que queramos ser. +Eso no es cierto. +He escuchado a msicos fantsticos esta maana, y estoy segursimo de que no podra jams ser tan bueno como ellos. +Podra practicar mucho y tal vez ser bueno, pero yo no tengo esa capacidad natural. +Hay lmites respecto a lo que podemos lograr. +Hay lmites respecto a lo que podemos hacer nosotros solos. +Pero, sin embargo, s tenemos esta capacidad de, en cierto sentido, automodelarnos. +El verdadero ser, por as decirlo, no es algo que est ah para que sea descubierto. No observas tu propia alma y encuentras tu verdadero Yo. Lo que se hace en parte, es crear, en realidad, el verdadero Yo. +Y esto, creo, que es muy, muy importante, especialmente en la etapa de la vida en que estn. +Sern conscientes del hecho de cunto cambiaron en los ltimos aos. +Si tienen videos suyos de hace tres o cuatro aos, probablemente se sientan avergonzados porque no se reconocen. +Quiero hacer llegar ese mensaje, que lo que tenemos que hacer es pensar en nosotros mismos como entes que podemos dar forma, canalizar y cambiar. +Este es el Buda, de nuevo: "Los fabricantes de pozos conducen el agua, los arqueros tensan la flecha, los carpinteros doblan un tronco de madera, los sabios se automodelan". +Y esa es la idea con la que quiero que se queden que su verdadero Yo no es algo que tengan que ir a buscar, como un misterio, y que tal vez nunca logren encontrar. +En la medida en que uno tiene un verdadero ser, es algo que, en parte, uno descubre, pero en parte que crea, +y esto, pienso, es una perspectiva liberadora y emocionante. +Muchas gracias. +Hoy es una realidad: se pueden descargar productos de la Web -datos de productos, dira, desde la Web- quiz los personalizamos segn nuestros gustos y preferencias y enviamos esa informacin a una mquina de escritorio que lo fabricar en el acto. +De hecho, podemos construir muy rpidamente un objeto fsico. +Y esto se debe a una tecnologa emergente llamada fabricacin aditiva, o impresin 3D. +Esta es una impresora 3D. +Se conocen desde hace casi 30 aos lo cual resulta bastante increble, pero recin empiezan a popularizarse. +Por lo general, uno toma los datos de estos marcadores, por ejemplo, una representacin geomtrica de dicho producto en 3D, y se los pasa junto al material a una mquina. +Y mediante un proceso que ocurre en la mquina se construye el producto capa por capa. +Como resultado tenemos un producto fsico listo para usar o, quiz, para ensamblar. +Pero si estas mquinas estn desde hace casi 30 aos, por qu no las conocamos? +Porque eran demasiado ineficientes, inasequibles, no funcionaban lo suficientemente rpido o eran muy costosas. +Pero hoy se estn convirtiendo en una realidad que empieza a tener xito. +Se derriban muchas barreras. +Eso significa que todos Uds. pronto podrn tener una de estas mquinas o quiz ahora mismo. +Eso va a cambiar y alterar el paisaje fabril y sin dudas nuestras vidas, nuestros negocios y las vidas de nuestros hijos. +Cmo funciona? +Por lo general lee datos de CAD, que son datos de diseo de productos generados con programas profesionales de diseo. +Aqu pueden ver a un ingeniero -puede ser un arquitecto o un diseador de productos profesional- que crea un producto en 3D. +Estos datos se envan a una mquina que los rebana en representaciones bidimensionales de ese producto hasta el final; como si fueran rodajas de salame. +Los datos, capa por capa, pasan por la mquina desde la base del producto y se deposita el material, capa tras capa, colocando una nueva capa de materiales sobre la anterior en un proceso aditivo. +Este material depositado empieza siendo lquido o teniendo forma de polvo. +Y el proceso de unin puede ocurrir o bien derritiendo y depositando o depositando y luego derritiendo. +En este caso, vemos una mquina de alineamiento lser desarrollada por EOS. +Usa el lser para fusionar la nueva capa de material con la anterior. +Y, con el tiempo, rpidamente, en cuestin de horas, podemos construir un producto fsico listo para sacar de la mquina y usar. +Esta es una idea extraordinaria que hoy ya es una realidad. +Todos estos productos que ven en la pantalla se hicieron de la misma manera. +Todos con una impresora 3D. +Y pueden ver que van desde zapatos, anillos de acero inoxidable, fundas plsticas para celulares, hasta implantes de mdula espinal, por ejemplo, creados a partir de titanio de grado mdico y piezas de motores. +Pero notarn que todos estos productos son muy, muy complicados. +Tienen un diseo extraordinario. +Dado que tomamos estos datos tridimensionales y los rebanamos antes de que pasen por la mquina, podemos crear estructuras mucho ms complejas que con cualquier otra tecnologa de fabricacin o, de hecho, imposibles de construir con otra tecnologa. +Y se pueden crear piezas con partes mviles; bisagras, piezas dentro de las partes. +En algunos casos, podemos prescindir totalmente de las tareas manuales. +Suena genial. +Es genial. +Hoy podemos tener impresoras 3D que construyan estructuras como estas. +Esta tiene casi tres metros de alto. +Y esta fue construida mediante el depsito de arenisca artificial capa tras capa, en capas de 5 a 10 milmetros de espesor, que lentamente formaron esta estructura. +Esta fue creada por una firma de arquitectos llamada Shiro. +Y se puede recorrer caminando. +En el otro extremo del espectro estn las microestructuras. +Se crean depositando capas de unos 4 micrones. +Por eso la resolucin es bastante increble. +El detalle que puede obtenerse hoy es muy asombroso. +Quin usa esto? +Debido a que se pueden crear productos muy rpidamente, es muy usada por diseadores de productos o alguien que quiere hacer prototipos de productos y crear rpidamente un diseo y hacer iteraciones de diseo. +Y otra cosa muy llamativa de esta tecnologa es que permite crear productos a medida, en masa. +Hay muy poca economa de escala. +Por eso ahora se pueden crear piezas nicas con facilidad. +Los arquitectos, por ejemplo, quieren crear prototipos de edificios. +Como pueden ver, este es un edificio de la Universidad Libre de Berln, diseado por Foster y Asociados. +De nuevo, no se puede construir de otra forma. +Y es muy difcil de crear a mano. +Esta es una pieza de motor. +Fue desarrollada por una compaa llamada Within Technologies y 3T RPD. +Es muy, muy, muy detallado el diseo por dentro. +La impresin 3D puede derribar barreras en el diseo, lo cual desafa las restricciones de la produccin en masa. +Si rebanamos este producto que tenemos aqu pueden ver que tiene una cantidad de canales de refrigeracin, lo que significa que es un producto ms eficiente. +Esto no se puede crear con tcnicas de fabricacin tradicionales, ni siquiera en forma manual. +Es ms eficiente porque ahora podemos crear estas cavidades internas del objeto que enfran el fluido. +Se usa en la industria aeroespacial y automotriz. +Es una pieza ms ligera y desperdicia menos material. +Por eso su rendimiento y eficacia son superiores a los de la produccin masiva. +Y esta idea de crear estructuras muy detalladas podemos aplicarla a las estructuras de panal y usarlas dentro de implantes. +Por lo general los implantes son ms efectivos dentro del cuerpo si son ms porosos, porque nuestros tejidos crecern dentro. +Hay una probabilidad ms baja de rechazo. +Pero es muy difcil crearlo de la manera tradicional. +Con la impresin 3D hoy vemos que podemos crear implantes mucho mejores. +De hecho, dado que podemos crear productos a medida en masa, nicos, podemos crear implantes especficos para cada individuo. +Como pueden ver, esta tecnologa y la calidad de lo que sale de las mquinas es fantstica. +Y estamos empezando a ver que se usa en productos finales. +De hecho, a medida que mejoran los detalles, mejora la calidad, bajan los precios de las mquinas y cada vez se tornan ms veloces. +Las hay tan pequeas que caben en un escritorio. +Hoy se puede comprar una por unos 300 dlares para crear uno mismo algo muy increble. +Pero luego surge la pregunta: por qu no tenemos una en casa? +Simplemente porque casi todos los presentes no sabemos cmo crear los datos que lee una impresora 3D. +Si les diera una impresora 3D no sabran cmo manejarla para hacer lo que desean. +Pero cada vez hay ms y ms tecnologas, programas y procesos que derriban esas barreras. +Creo que estamos en un punto de inflexin en el que ahora es algo inevitable. +Esta tecnologa va a afectar el paisaje fabril y, creo, provocar una revolucin en la manufactura. +As que hoy pueden descargar productos de la Web; todo lo que hay en la mesa, como marcadores, silbatos, exprimidores de limn. +Pueden usar programas como Google SketchUp para crear productos desde cero muy fcilmente. +La impresin 3D puede usarse tambin para descargar repuestos de la Web. +Supongamos que tienen, digamos, una aspiradora en su casa y se rompi. Necesitan un repuesto, pero se dan cuenta que el producto est discontinuado. +Imaginen que van a la Web -esto ya es una realidad- y buscan ese repuesto en una librera de geometras de productos discontinuados y descargan esa informacin, esos datos, y consiguen el producto en casa, listo para usar, a demanda. +De hecho, como podemos crear repuestos con mquinas stas literalmente se construyen a s mismas. +Tenemos mquinas que se fabrican a s mismas. +Aqu tenemos piezas de una mquina RepRap que es una especie de impresora de escritorio. +Pero lo que ms le interesa a mi empresa es la posibilidad de crear productos nicos a gran escala. +No hace falta hacer una partida de miles de millones o enviar el producto a moldear por inyeccin en China. +Se lo puede construir fsicamente en el lugar. +Eso significa que ahora podemos presentarle al pblico una nueva generacin en personalizacin. +Esto hoy es algo posible; uno puede decidir personalmente el aspecto de sus productos. +Todos estamos familiarizados con la idea de personalizacin. +Ya lo hacen marcas como Nike. +Est en toda la Web. +De hecho, las grandes tiendas nos permiten interactuar con sus productos a diario... con coches elegantes, Prada, o Ray Ban, por ejemplo. +Pero esto no es personalizacin a gran escala; son variantes de produccin, variaciones del mismo producto. +Hoy uno puede influir sobre el producto y manipular la forma del producto. +Imaginen que ahora pueden relacionarse con una marca e interactuar de modo tal que pueden pasarle sus atributos personales a los productos que estn por comprar. +Hoy pueden descargar un producto con un programa como este y ver el producto en 3D. +Este es el tipo de datos 3D que leer una mquina. +Esta es una lmpara. +Pueden hacerse varias versiones del diseo. +Se puede elegir el color del producto, quiz el material. +Y tambin podemos participar en la manipulacin de la forma dentro de unos lmites de seguridad. +Porque obviamente los usuarios no son diseadores de productos. +El programa informtico guiar a la persona por los lmites de lo posible. +Cuando alguien est listo para comprar el producto con su diseo personalizado, presiona una tecla y estos datos pasan a la impresora tridimensional ubicada quiz en un escritorio. +Pero no creo que eso vaya a ser inmediato. +No creo que suceda pronto. +Lo ms probable, lo estamos viendo hoy, es que los datos vayan a un centro de fabricacin local. +Esto implica una menor huella de carbono. +Ahora, en vez de transportar un producto por todo el mundo mandamos los datos por Internet. +Aqu ven el producto terminado. +Sali de la mquina en una sola pieza y luego se le agreg la electrnica. +Es esta lmpara, como pueden ver. +Si uno tiene los datos, puede crear la pieza a demanda. +Estas personalizaciones pueden no obedecer slo a razones estticas, se las puede usar en aspectos funcionales escaneando partes del cuerpo para crear cosas a medida. +Podemos usarlo en prtesis, por ejemplo, de manera muy puntual para una discapacidad individual. +O podemos construir prtesis especficas para esa persona. +Mediante escaneo hoy se puede modelar la dentadura y hacer recubrimientos dentales ergonmicos. +Mientras uno espera en el dentista una mquina pacientemente ir crendolo para luego insertarlo en los dientes. +La idea es crear implantes a partir del escaneo de datos con resonancia magntica que ahora se pueden convertir en datos 3D y con eso podemos crear implantes muy especficos. +Y aplicar esto a la idea de construir lo que est en nuestros cuerpos. +Este es un par de pulmones y el rbol bronquial. +Es muy complicado. +Realmente era imposible crearlo o simularlo de otra manera. +Pero con resonancia magntica podemos construir productos como ven, muy complicados. +Con este proceso los pioneros de la industria hoy estn apilando clulas. +Uno de los pioneros, por ejemplo, es el Dr. Anthony Atala, y l ha estado trabajando en el apilado de clulas para crear vejigas, vlvulas, riones. +Todava no es algo de dominio pblico pero es un trabajo en curso. +Mi mensaje final es que todos somos individuos. +Todos tenemos distintas preferencias, distintas necesidades. +Nos gustan cosas diferentes. +Todos tenemos distintas estaturas, al igual que nuestras compaas. +Las empresas quieren distintas cosas. +Sin temor a equivocarme creo que esta tecnologa va a provocar una revolucin manufacturera y cambiar el paisaje fabril tal como lo conocemos. +Gracias. +La mxima "Concete a ti mismo" viene de los antiguos griegos. +Algunos atribuyen este pensamiento de la era dorada a Platn, otros a Pitgoras. +Pero la verdad es que no importa realmente qu sabio lo dijo primero porque es un consejo sabio incluso hoy. +"Concete a ti mismo". +Es conciso, casi al extremo de carecer de sentido, pero suena familiar y verdadero, no? +"Concete a ti mismo". +Entiendo este aforismo atemporal como una declaracin sobre los problemas, o ms exactamente, sobre las confusiones, de la conciencia. +Siempre me fascin el conocimiento de uno mismo. +Esta fascinacin me llev a sumergirme en el arte, a estudiar neurociencia y ms tarde a ser psicoterapeuta. +Hoy combino todas mis pasiones como DGE de InteraXon, una empresa de informtica neurodirigida. +Mi objetivo, en esencia, es ayudar a las personas a estar ms a tono con s mismas. +Y lo tomo de este aforismo: "Concete a ti mismo". +Si lo piensan este imperativo es una caracterstica distintiva de nuestra especie verdad? +Digo, es la autoconciencia la que separa al homo sapiens de otros eslabones de nuestra humanidad. +Hoy estamos demasiado ocupados con nuestros iPhones y iPods como para detenernos a auto-conocernos. +Con el aluvin de conversaciones minuto a minuto, los correos, el intercambio incesante de los canales de contenido, las claves, aplicaciones, recordatorios, los tweets y etiquetas perdemos de vista qu hay detrs de todo ese alboroto: nosotros. +Estamos paralizados gran parte del tiempo por las tantas maneras de reflejarnos en el mundo. +Y apenas si hallamos el tiempo para reflexionar sobre nuestro propio ser. +Nos enmascaramos tras todo esto. +Y sentimos que necesitamos irnos muy, muy lejos a un retiro aislado, y dejar todo atrs. +Y nos vamos bien lejos a la cumbre de una montaa suponiendo que si llegamos all ilesos seguro que eso nos dar el respiro que necesitamos para ordenar el desorden, el caos cotidiano, y reencontrarnos nuevamente. +Pero en esa montaa en la que conseguimos esa hermosa paz mental qu estamos logrando? +Slo es un escape exitoso. +Piensen en la palabra que usamos: "retiro". +La "retirada" es el trmino que usa el ejrcito cuando pierde una batalla. +Significa que tenemos que irnos de aqu. +Sentimos de esa manera las presiones del mundo que, para adentrarnos en nosotros mismos, tenemos que correr a las montaas? +Y el problema de escaparse del da a da es que tarde o temprano tenemos que volver. +As que, si lo pensamos, somos casi como turistas que nos visitamos a nosotros mismos. +Y a la larga las vacaciones se terminan. +Y mi pregunta es entonces: hay maneras de auto-conocernos sin escapar? +Podemos redefinir nuestra relacin con el mundo tecnologizado para tener ese sentimiento profundo de auto-conciencia que estamos buscando? +Podemos vivir el aqu y ahora interconectado y an as seguir ese mandato ancestral "concete a ti mismo"? +Y yo digo que la respuesta es s. +Estoy aqu hoy para compartir una nueva forma de trabajar con la tecnologa con este fin de familiarizarnos con nuestro yo interior como nunca antes; humanizando la tecnologa, fomentando esa bsqueda secular del hombre por conocerse ms a s mismo. +Se llama informtica neurodirigida. +Puede que hayan notado, o no, que tengo un pequeo electrodo en la frente. +En realidad un sensor de ondas cerebrales que lee la actividad elctrica del cerebro conforme doy esta charla. +Estas ondas cerebrales se pueden analizar y ver en forma grfica. +Se los mostrar. +Esa lnea azul es la onda cerebral. +Es la seal directa registrada en mi cabeza graficada en tiempo real. +Las barras verdes y rojas muestran esa misma seal vista por frecuencia: las frecuencias ms bajas aqu, y las ms altas por aqu. +Estn viendo dentro de mi cabeza mientras hablo. +Son grficos atractivos, ondulantes, pero, desde una perspectiva humana, en realidad no son muy tiles. +Por eso hemos pasado mucho tiempo pensando la forma de dotarlo de sentido para los usuarios. +Por ejemplo: qu tal si uso estos datos para ver mi estado de relajacin actual? +Y si extraigo esa informacin y le doy forma orgnica en la pantalla? +La figura de la derecha se vuelve un indicador de lo que sucede en mi cabeza. +Cuanto ms me relajo, menos energa pasar por ah. +Tambin puede interesarme saber mi estado de concentracin; por eso puedo poner mi nivel de atencin en el tablero, del otro lado. +Cuanto ms concentrado est mi cerebro, ms energa aparecer en el tablero. +Por lo general no tenemos forma de saber cun concentrados o relajados estamos de manera tangible. +Como sabemos, nuestra percepcin de cmo nos sentimos es muy poco confiable. +Es ese aumento paulatino de estrs que ni siquiera notamos hasta que surte efecto en alguien que no se lo mereca y ah nos damos cuenta que quiz deberamos habernos controlado un poco antes. +Esta nueva conciencia brinda un abanico enorme de aplicaciones para ayudarnos a mejorar nuestras vidas y a nosotros mismos. +Tratamos de crear tecnologas que usen esas ideas para hacer ms eficiente nuestro trabajo, ms relajado el descanso ms profundas nuestras conexiones, y ms gratificantes que nunca. +Compartir algunos proyectos con Uds. en un momento pero primero quiero que veamos cmo llegamos hasta aqu. +Por cierto, sintanse libres de mirar mi actividad cerebral. +Mi equipo de InteraXon y yo hace casi 10 aos que hacemos aplicaciones neurodirigidas. +En la primera fase del desarrollo nos entusiasmaban todas las cosas que se pueden controlar con la mente. +Hacamos que las cosas se activen, enciendan y funcionen con slo pensar. +Estbamos trascendiendo el espacio entre la mente y el dispositivo. +Pergeamos muchos prototipos y productos dirigidos por la actividad neuronal como los electrodomsticos neurodirigidos, carreras de autos, videojuegos, o sillas que levitaban. +Creamos tecnologas y aplicaciones que cautivaron la imaginacin de las personas y fue muy emocionante. +Luego nos pidieron hacer algo muy importante para los JJ.OO. +Nos convocaron para crear una instalacin gigante en los Juegos Olmpicos de Vancouver 2010. Desde Vancouver se controlaban las luces de la Torre C.N. el edificio del Parlamento de Canad y las Cataratas del Nigara atravesando todo el pas con sus mentes. +En los JJ.OO., en 17 das los 7000 visitantes de todo el mundo realmente controlaron la iluminacin de la Torre C.N., del Parlamento y de Nigara en tiempo real usando sus mentes a travs del pas a 3000 km. +As que controlar cosas con la mente es genial. +Pero a nosotros siempre nos interesa la interaccin humana multicapa. +Por eso empezamos a investigar las aplicaciones neurodirigidas en un marco ms complejo que slo el control. +Tena que ver con la receptividad. +Nos dimos cuenta de que tenamos un sistema con una tecnologa que conoca algo sobre nosotros. +Que poda entablar una relacin con nosotros. +Creamos una sala receptiva en la que la msica, las luces y las persianas responden a nuestro estado. +Acompaan esos pequeos cambios de la actividad mental. +A medida que uno se va relajando al final de un da ajetreado, en el sof o en la oficina, la msica se va atenuando con uno. +Cuando uno lee, la lmpara del escritorio se pone brillante. +Si uno dormita, el sistema lo advierte, y atena las luces al mismo tiempo. +Despus nos dimos cuenta de que si la tecnologa sabe algo de nosotros y lo usa para ayudarnos se le puede dar una aplicacin ms til que esa. +Podramos conocer algo de nosotros mismos. +Podramos conocer lados de nosotros mismos que eran casi invisibles y llegar a ver cosas que antes estaban ocultas. +Ahora les mostrar a qu me refiero, con un ejemplo. +Esta es una aplicacin que hice para el iPad. +El objetivo del primer juego Zen Bound es envolver una pieza de madera con una cuerda. +Esta versin con un dispositivo en la cabeza +se conecta de forma inalmbrica al iPad o al telfono. +En el dispositivo hay sensores en el tejido sobre la frente y encima de la oreja. +En el primer juego Zen Bound uno interactuaba con los dedos sobre la superficie. +En nuestro juego, por supuesto, uno controla la pieza de madera que aparece en pantalla con la mente. +Si nos concentramos en la pieza de madera, sta rota. +Cuanto ms nos concentramos, ms rpido rota. +Esto es de verdad. +No es un truco. +Pero lo que ms me interesa es que al final del juego nos da estadsticas y retorno de lo que hicimos. +Nos da grficos y tablas que nos muestran el desempeo del cerebro y no slo cunta cuerda usamos o cuntos puntos hicimos sino qu sucedi dentro de nuestra mente. +Es informacin de retorno valiosa que podemos usar para entender qu sucede en nuestro interior. +Me gusta llamarlo "intraactivo". +Por lo general pensamos la tecnologa como interactiva. +Esta tecnologa es intraactiva. +Comprende lo que ocurre en nuestro interior y entabla una especie de relacin receptiva entre nosotros y nuestra tecnologa de modo que podamos usarla para progresar nosotros. +Podemos usar esta informacin para comprendernos en un ciclo de respuesta. +En InteraXon, la tecnologa intraactiva es una de nuestras ideas fuerza. +Se trata de comprender el mundo interior y reflejarlo hacia el exterior con este ciclo estrecho. +Por ejemplo, la informtica neurodirigida puede ensearle a los nios con TDAH a concentrar su atencin. +Al concentrase en algo, los nios con TDAH registran baja proporcin de ondas beta y altas proporciones de estados theta. +Pueden crearse aplicaciones que premien los estados de concentracin. +As, imaginemos nios que manejan videojuegos con sus ondas cerebrales y, al hacerlo, van mejorando los sntomas del TDAH. +Puede ser tan efectivo como el Ritalin. +Y tal vez ms importante an, la informtica neurodirigida puede darle datos a los nios con ADAH sobre la fluctuacin de sus propios estados mentales para que puedan conocerse mejor a s mismos y conocer mejor sus necesidades de aprendizaje. +La forma en que estos nios puedan usar este conocimiento para mejorarse pondr fin a muchos estigmas sociales, tan nocivos y generalizados, que enfrentan las personas diagnosticadas como diferentes. +Podemos observar el interior de nuestras cabezas e interactuar con eso que antes nos estaba vedado, que alguna vez nos desconcertaba y separaba. +La tecnologa cerebral puede comprendernos, anticipar nuestras emociones y encontrar las mejores soluciones a nuestras necesidades. +Imaginen toda este conocimiento de la persona procesado y proyectado a lo largo de toda la vida. +Imaginen las ideas que pueden sacar de esta suerte de segunda mirada. +Ser como conectarnos a nuestro propio Google. +Y, ya que menciono a Google, hoy es posible buscar y etiquetar imgenes en funcin de lo uno pensaba y senta en el momento de mirarlas. +Pueden etiquetar con "feliz" las imgenes de cachorros, o el nombre que los cachorros les inspiren, y despus pueden buscar en esa base de datos y navegarla segn sus sentimientos en vez de poner claves que slo insinan cosas. +O pueden etiquetar fotos de Facebook con las emociones que les despertaron esos recuerdos y luego priorizar de inmediato los flujos que captan nuestra atencin como ste. +La tecnologa humanizante consiste en tomar lo que ya es natural de la experiencia humano-tecnologa y crear tecnologa que se ajuste a eso perfectamente. +Y que alineada con nuestro comportamiento humano nos permita darle ms sentido a lo que hacemos y entender por qu lo hacemos brindando un panorama general a partir de los detallitos importantes que hacen de nosotros quienes somos. +La tecnologa humanizada permite controlar la calidad de los ciclos del sueo. +Cuando nuestra productividad empieza a mermar podemos volver a los datos y ver cmo establecer un equilibrio ms efectivo entre trabajo y juego. +Saben qu cosas les producen fatiga, o qu cosa les consumen ese yo energtico, qu desencadena ese estado de depresin, o qu cosas divertidas los sacarn de esa mieditis? +Imaginen si tuvieran acceso a esos datos y pudieran calificar en una escala de felicidad general qu personas les han hecho ms felices en la vida o qu actividades les producen alegra. +Les dedicaran ms tiempo a esas personas? Tendran ms prioridad? +Se divorciaran? +La informtica neurodirigida puede permitirnos crear imgenes, coloridas y estratificadas, de nuestras vidas. +Con esto podemos obtener la informacin interna de nuestra felicidad psquica y armar una historia de los comportamientos en el tiempo. +Podemos empezar a ver las narrativas subyacentes que nos motivan y nos dicen qu est ocurriendo. +A partir de esto podemos aprender a cambiar la trama, el resultado y el carcter de nuestras historias personales. +Hace dos mil aos esos griegos tuvieron ideas potentes. +Ellos saban una pieza fundamental encaja en su sitio si uno empieza a experimentar esa pequea frase y entra en contacto con uno mismo. +Ellos comprendan el poder de la narrativa humana y el valor del ser humano como agente de cambio, evolucin y crecimiento. +Pero ellos comprendan algo ms fundamental; la alegra difana del descubrimiento, el placer y la fascinacin que nos provoca el mundo y nuestra presencia en l, cunto nos enriquece ver, sentir y conocer la vida que nos constituye. +Mam es artista y yo de nia a menudo sola verla darle vida a las cosas con unas pinceladas. +En un momento todo estaba en blanco, era mera posibilidad. +Al siguiente, cobraba vida con sus ideas y expresiones coloridas. +Sentada al lado del caballete, observndola transformar lienzo tras lienzo, aprend que uno puede crear su propio mundo. +Aprend que nuestros mundos interiores -ideas, emociones, imaginaciones- no estn confinados al cerebro o al cuerpo. +Si podemos pensarlo, si podemos descubrirlo, podemos darle vida. +Par m, la informtica neurodirigida es tan simple y poderosa como un pincel. Es otra herramienta para desbloquear y dar vida a nuestros mundos interiores. +Espero con ansias el da en que pueda sentarme a ver sus caballetes a mirar el mundo que podemos crear con estas nuevas herramientas y ver los descubrimientos que podemos hacer sobre nosotros mismos. +Gracias. +No invertimos en vctimas, invertimos en sobrevivientes. +Y en formas grandes y pequeas, el relato de la vctima modela la forma en que vemos a las mujeres. +No se puede contar lo que no se ve. +Y no invertimos en lo que es invisible para nosotros. +Pero este es el rostro de la resiliencia. +Hace seis aos, comenc a escribir sobre mujeres emprendedoras durante y despus de situaciones de conflicto. +Me propuse escribir una historia econmica persuasiva, una que tuviera grandes personajes, que nadie ms estuviera contando, y que yo considerara importante. +Y eso result ser las mujeres. +Yo haba dejado ABC News y una carrera que amaba a los 30 por la escuela de negocios, un camino sobre el que no saba casi nada. +Ninguna de las mujeres con las que haba crecido en Maryland haba terminado la facultad, y menos an considerado la escuela de negocios. +Pero haban trabajado duro para alimentar a sus hijos y pagar su renta. +Y yo v desde una temprana edad que el tener un trabajo decente y un buen nivel de vida haca la mayor diferencia para las familias menos favorecidas. +Si vamos a hablar de trabajos, tenemos que hablar de emprendedores. +Y si vamos a hablar de emprendedores en un marco de conflicto y post-conflicto, entonces debemos hablar de las mujeres, porque ellas son la poblacin que queda. +Inmediatamente despus del genocidio, Ruanda era un 77% mujeres. +Quisiera presentarles a algunas de esas emprendedoras que conoc y compartir con ustedes algo de lo que me han enseado con los aos. +Fui a Afganistn en 2005 a trabajar en una nota para el Financial Times, y all conoc a Kamila, una joven mujer que me cont que acababa de rechazar un trabajo con la comunidad internacional que le hubiera pagado casi $2.000 al mes, una suma astronmica en ese contexto. +Y lo haba rechazado, me dijo, porque estaba por comenzar su prximo negocio, una consultora de emprendimientos que le enseara tcnicas de negocios a hombres y mujeres en todo Afganistn. +Los negocios, me dijo, eran crticos para el futuro de su pas. +Porque mucho despus de que esta partida internacional se fuera, los negocios ayudaran a mantener su pas pacfico y seguro. +Y dijo que los negocios eran an ms importantes para las mujeres porque generar un ingreso generaba respeto y el dinero es poder para las mujeres. +Estaba asombrada. +Aqu tena una chica que nunca haba vivido en tiempos de paz quien de alguna manera sonaba como un candidato de "The Apprentice". +As que le pregunt, "Cmo es posible que sepas tanto sobre negocios? +Por qu eres tan apasionada?" +Dijo: "Bueno Gayle, ste es en realidad mi tercer negocio. +Mi primer negocio fue uno de confeccin de vestidos. Lo comenc bajo el rgimen talibn. +Y fue realmente un excelente negocio, porque di trabajo a mujeres en todo nuestro vecindario. +Y as es como me convert en una emprendedora." +Piensen en esto: Aqu haba mujeres que desafiaron al peligro para convertirse en el sostn de su familia durante los aos en los que no podan siquiera salir a la calle. +Y en un tiempo de colapso econmico en el que la gente venda muecas y cordones de zapato y puertas y ventanas slo para sobrevivir, estas chicas hacan la diferencia entre subsistir y morir de hambre para tanta gente. +No poda dejar la historia, y no poda dejar tampoco el tema, porque donde quiera que iba conoca ms de estas mujeres de las que nadie pareca saber, o querer saber. +Continu hacia Bosnia, y en mis primeras entrevistas me encontr con un oficial del FMI que me dijo: "Sabes Gayle, no creo que realmente tengamos mujeres de negocios en Bosnia, pero hay una seora vendiendo queso cerca de aqu al costado de la ruta. +As que tal vez puedas entrevistarla." +As que fui haciendo reportajes y luego de un da conoc a Narcisa Kavazovic, quien en ese momento estaba abriendo una nueva fbrica en las antiguas lneas de guerra de Sarajevo. +Haba empezando su negocio ocupando un garage estacionado, cosiendo sbanas y fundas de almohada que llevara a mercados por toda la ciudad para poder mantener a los 12 o 13 miembros de su familia que contaban con ella para su supervivencia. +Cuando nos conocimos, tena 20 empleados, la mayora mujeres, que estaban enviando a sus hijos e hijas a la escuela. +Y ella era slo el comienzo. +Conoc mujeres dirigiendo negocios de aceites esenciales, vinotecas e incluso la agencia de publicidad ms grande del pas. +As que estas historias juntas fueron tapa del suplemento de negocios del Herald Tribune. +Y cuando se public esta historia, corr a mi computadora a reenvirsela al oficial del FMI. +Y le dije, "Por si ests buscando emprendedores para presentarse en su prxima conferencia de inversiones, aqu hay un par de mujeres." +Pero piensen en esto. +El oficial del FMI difcilmente sea la nica persona en automticamente etiquetar a las mujeres como "micro". +Estos prejuicios, sean intencionales o no, son predominantes, al igual que las imgenes mentales equivocadas. +Si ven la palabra "microfinanzas", qu les viene a la cabeza? +La mayora de la gente dira mujeres. +Y si dicen la palabra "emprendedor", casi todos piensan en hombres. +Por qu es eso? +Porque apuntamos bajo y pensamos pequeo cuando se refiere a las mujeres. +La microfinanza es una herramienta increblemente poderosa que lleva a la autosuficiencia y el autorespeto, pero debemos ir ms all de los microdeseos y las microambiciones para las mujeres, porque ellas tienen ms grandes esperanzas para ellas mismas. +Quieren pasar de micro a medio y ms all. +Y en muchos lugares, ya estn ah. +En Estados Unidos, los negocios propiedad de mujeres crearn cinco millones y medio de nuevos empleos hacia 2018. +En Corea del Sur e Indonesia, las mujeres son dueas de casi medio milln de empresas. +En China, las mujeres dirigen el 20% de los pequeos negocios. +Y en el mundo en desarrollo en general, ese nmero es del 40 al 50%. +Casi a cada lugar al que voy, conozco emprendedoras increblemente interesantes que buscan acceso a financiacin, acceso a los mercados y redes de negocio establecidas. +A menudo son ignoradas porque son ms difciles de ayudar. +Es mucho ms riesgoso otorgar un prstamo de 50.000 dlares que uno de 500. +Y como el Banco Mundial ha notado recientemente, las mujeres estn atrapadas en una trampa productiva. +Aquellas en pequeos negocios no pueden conseguir el capital que necesitan para expandirse y aquellas en microemprendimientos no pueden salir de ellos. +Hace poco estuve en el Departamento de Estado en Washington y conoc una emprendedora de Ghana increblemente apasionada. +Ella vende chocolates. +Y haba venido a Washington, no buscando una limosna ni un microcrdito. +La buena noticia es que ya sabemos qu es lo que funciona. +La teora y la evidencia emiprica ya nos lo han enseado. +No necesitamos inventar soluciones porque ya las tenemos: crditos al flujo de caja basados en las ganancias ms que en los activos, crditos que usen contratos seguros en lugar de colaterales, porque las mujeres a menudo no poseen tierras. +Y Kiva.org, la microprestamista, ahora est experimentando con tercerizar en forma masiva pequeos y medianos prstamos. +Y eso es slo el comienzo. +Recientemente se ha puesto muy de moda llamar a las mujeres "el mercado emergente del mercado emergente". +Creo que es extraordinario. +Saben por qu? +Porque (y digo esto como alguien que trabaj en finanzas) por lo menos 500 mil millones de dlares han ido a parar a los mercados emergentes en la pasada dcada. +Porque los inversores vieron la ganancia potencial en tiempos de bajo crecimiento econnico, y entonces crearon productos financieros e innovacin financiera orientada a los mercados emergentes. +Cun maravilloso sera si estuvieramos preparados para reemplazar nuestras airadas palabras con nuestras billeteras e invertir 500 mil millones de dlares dando rienda suelta al potencial econmico de las mujeres? +Slo piensen en los beneficios en lo que refiere a puestos de trabajo, productividad, empleos, nutricin infantil, mortalidad materna, alfabetizacin y mucho, mucho ms. +Porque, como dijo el Foro Econmico Mundial, reducir las brechas econmicas entre gneros est directamente relacionado con un incremento en la competitividad econmica. +Y ni un solo pas en el mundo ha eliminado su brecha de participacin econmica; ni uno solo. +As que la buena noticia es que esto es una gran oportunidad. +Tenemos tanto lugar para crecer. +As que ven, esto no es acerca de hacer el bien, es acerca del crecimiento global y empleo global. +Es sobre cmo invertimos y sobre cmo vemos a las mujeres. +Y las mujeres no pueden continuar siendo la mitad de la poblacin y un grupo de inters especial. +A menudo entablo interesantes conversaciones con periodistas que me dicen, "Gayle, stas son historias geniales, pero realmente ests escribiendo sobre las excepciones". +Ahora, eso me obliga a pausar por un par de segundos. +Primero, para excepciones, hay muchas de ellas y son importantes. +Segundo, cuando hablamos de hombres que estn teniendo xito, justamente los consideramos conos o pioneros o innovadores a ser emulados. +Y cuando hablamos de mujeres, son o bien excepciones a ser desechadas o aberraciones a ser ignoradas. +Y finalmente, no hay ninguna sociedad en todo el mundo que no cambie ecepto por lo ms excepcional de ella. +As que por qu no podramos celebrar y elevar a estas creadoras de cambios y empleos en lugar de pasarlas por alto? +Este tema de resiliencia es muy personal para m y cambi mi vida en muchas maneras. +Mi madre era una madre soltera que trabajaba en la compaa telefnica durante el da y venda Tupperwares de noche para que yo pudiera tener cada oportunidad posible. +Comprbamos con cupones dobles y cuotas y tiendas de segunda mano, y cuando ella enferm con cncer de mamas de fase cuatro y ya no pudo trabajar ms, hasta aplicamos para estampillas de comida. +Y cuando senta lstima por m misma como lo hacen las nias de 9 o 10 aos, ella deca, "Mi cielo, en una escala de las mayores tragedias mundiales, la tuya no llega a tres." +Y cuando estaba aplicando para la escuela de negocios y estaba segura de que no podra lograrlo, y nadie que yo conoca lo haba logrado, fu con mi ta, que haba sobrevivido aos de golpizas por parte de su esposo y escapado a un matrimonio de abusos con tan slo su dignidad intacta. +Y me dijo, "Nunca adoptes las limitaciones de otras personas." +Primero que nada, nadie rechaza un Fulbright, y segundo, McDonald's siempre est contratando." +"Encontrars un trabajo. Pega el salto." +Las mujeres en mi familia no son excepciones. +Las mujeres aqu y vindonos en Los ngeles +y en todo el mundo no son excepciones. +No somos un grupo de inters especial. +Somos mayora. +Y por demasiado tiempo, nos hemos subestimado a nosotras mismas y hemos sido menospreciadas por otros. +Es hora de que apuntemos ms alto cuando hablamos de mujeres, para invertir ms y hacer uso de nuestros dlares para beneficiar a mujeres en todo el mundo. +Podemos hacer una diferencia, y hacer una diferencia, no slo para las mujeres, sino para la economa global que desesperadamente necesita sus contribuciones. +Juntos podemos lograr que las as llamadas excepciones sean la regla. +Cuando cambiemos la forma en que nos vemos a nosotras mismas, otros nos seguirn. +Y es tiempo de que todos pensemos ms grande. +Muchas gracias. +Quiero hablarles o compartirles un hito de un nuevo enfoque para administrar artculos de un inventario dentro de un depsito. +Hablamos de un escenario de recolectar, empacar, enviar. +Como pista, esta solucin involucra cientos de robots mviles a veces miles de robots mviles, que se mueven por todo un depsito. Les hablar de la solucin. +Pero por un instante, solo piensen en la ltima vez que pidieron algo en lnea. +Estaban sentados en su sof y decidieron que sin duda tenan que comprarse esa camiseta roja. +Con un clic lo ponen en su canasta de compras. +Luego deciden que ese par de pantalones verdes tambin se ve bien y clic. +Y quiz un par de zapatos azules, clic. +En este punto, ya armaron su pedido. +En ningn instante se detuvieron a pensar que quiz no es el mejor atuendo. +Pero oprimieron 'Enviar pedido'. +Dos das despus, se presenta el paquete a su puerta. +Abren la caja y ups!, ah tengo mi revoltijo. +Se detuvieron a pensar cmo estos artculos del inventario en realidad encontraron su camino hacia la caja en el depsito? +Estoy aqu para contarles qu es ese tipo que est ah. +A lo lejos en el centro de la foto, ven a un tpico "trabajador de empaque" en un escenario de distribucin o de cumplimiento de pedidos. +Lo tpico es que estos trabajadores dedican de 60 % al 70 % de su da caminando por toda la bodega. +A menudo caminan de 7 km a ms de 15 km buscando esos artculos del inventario. +No solo es esta una forma improductiva de cumplir pedidos, tambin resulta ser una forma insatisfactoria de cumplir pedidos. +Les contar de cuando me top con este problema por primera vez. +Estaba por San Francisco en 1999-2000, la era de la burbuja del punto com. +Trabajaba para una espectacular compaa llamada Webvan. +Esta compaa recaud cientos de millones de dlares con la idea de hacer entregas de abarrotes por compras en lnea. +Llegamos a la conclusin de que no podamos tener costos eficientes. +Result que el comercio electrnico era difcil y muy costoso. +En ese momento particular intentamos reunir 30 artculos de inventario en unos cuantos acarreos, en una camioneta para entregar a domicilio. +Si lo piensan, nos costaba USD 30. +Imaginen, tenamos una lata de sopa de 89 centavos que nos costaba un dlar recolectarlo y empacarlo para su trasiego. +Y eso era antes de intentar la entrega a domicilio. +Para acortar la historia, en mi primer ao en Webvan, me di cuenta al hablar con todos los distintos proveedores que no haba una solucin especfica diseada para cada base de recoleccin. +Artculo rojo, verde, azul, poner esas 3 cosas en una caja. +Nos dijimos, tiene que haber una mejor forma de hacer esto. +El manejo de materiales existente est armado para mover tarimas y cajas a las tiendas. +Claro que Webvan quebr y como un ao y medio despus, todava estaba pensando en este problema, me segua molestando. +Y empec a pensarlo otra vez. +Me dije: "Me voy a centrar en lo que quiero como trabajador de empaque". Cul es mi visin de cmo debe funcionar... +Me dije: "Enfcate en el problema". +Tengo un pedido aqu y lo que quiero es poner rojo, verde y azul en esta caja. +Lo que necesito es un sistema donde ponga mi mano y puf! los productos aparecen y completo el pedido y ahora estamos pensando, "sera un enfoque muy centrado en el operador para solucionar el problema. +Eso es lo que necesito, qu tecnologa existe para solucionar este problema?" +Pero como ven, los pedidos van y vienen, los productos van y vienen. +Nos permite enfocar al trabajador de empaque como el centro del problema y dotarlo con herramientas para hacerlos tan productivos como sea posible. +Cmo llegu a esta nocin? +En realidad vino de un ejercicio de lluvia de ideas, una tcnica que probablemente muchos de Uds. usan, es esta nocin de probar sus ideas. +Toman una hoja en blanco, luego prueban sus ideas al lmite. Al infinito, cero... +En este caso particular, nos retamos con la idea: qu tal si tuviramos que construir un centro de distribucin en China, donde el costo de mercado es muy bajo? +Digamos, que la mano de obra es barata, el suelo es barato. +Y decimos especficamente: "Qu tal si fuera cero dlares la hora de trabajo directo y pudiramos construir un centro de distribucin de 93 000 m?" +Eso naturalmente conduce a ideas como: "Pongamos a mucha gente en el depsito". +A lo que dije: "Esperen, cero dlares por hora, lo que hara es 'contratar' a 10 000 trabajadores que acudan al depsito cada maana a las 8 horas, caminen por el depsito y recojan un artculo del inventario y luego que solo se paren ah. +Entonces t tienes la barra de Cap'n Crunch, t el Mountain Dew y t la Diet Coke. +Si la necesito, les llamo, si no solo esperan ah. +Pero cuando necesito una Diet Coke y les llamo, hablan entre Uds. +Diet Coke aparece, lo recolecto, lo trasiego y est en camino". +Caramba!, qu tal si los productos pudieran caminar y hablar por su cuenta? +Esa es una forma poderosa e interesante de potenciar la organizacin del depsito. +Claro est, que la mano de obra no es gratis, lo prctico versus el espectro fabuloso. +As dijimos estantera mvil, los pondremos en estanteras mviles. +Usaremos robots mviles y moveremos el inventario. +Nos pusimos manos a la obra en eso cuando sentado en mi sof en 2008... +Vieron la ceremonia de apertura de los JJ.OO. de Beijing? +Por poco me caigo del sof cuando vi eso. +Eso es! +Pondremos a miles de personas en el piso del depsito, el piso del estadio. +Resulta curioso, esto est relacionado con la idea de crear arte digital impresionante increblemente poderoso, todo sin computadora, me dijeron, era todo coordinacin y comunicacin punto a punto. +T te paras, yo me agacho. +E hicieron arte fabuloso. +Habla del poder del surgimiento en sistemas cuando dejan que las cosas empiecen a hablar entre s. +Eso fue una partecita de la travesa. +Por supuesto, de esta idea qu se convirti en realidad prctica? +Aqu est un depsito, un centro +de recoleccin, empaque y envo con unos 10 mil nmeros de referencia. +Les llamamos plumas rojas, plumas verdes y post-it amarillos. +Mandamos pequeos robots naranjas para recoger anaqueles azules +y los entregamos a un lado del edificio. +As todos los trabajadores de recoleccin permanecen en la periferia. +La maniobra aqu es recolectar los anaqueles, ponerlos en la banda y entregarlos directamente al trabajador de empaque. +La vida de los trabajadores es completamente diferente. +En vez de vagar por el depsito, permanecen quietos en una estacin de recoleccin como sta y cada producto en el edificio puede ahora llegarles. +As el proceso es muy productivo, +a su alcance, recolecta un artculo, escanea el cdigo de barra, lo empaca. +Cuando se dan la vuelta, hay otro producto listo para ser recolectado y empacado. +Eliminamos todo el tiempo de espera, perdido, de bsqueda, de caminar sin valor agregado y desarrollamos un forma de alta confiabilidad de recoleccin de pedidos, donde apuntan con un lser, escanean el cdigo electrnico y luego indican con una luz a cul caja debe ir. +Es ms productivo, ms preciso y resulta que es un ambiente de trabajo ms interesante para estos trabajadores. +De hecho cumplen con todo el pedido. +As que hacen rojo, verde y azul y no solo una parte. +Se sienten un poco ms en control de su ambiente. +As los efectos secundarios de este enfoque es lo que en verdad nos sorprendi. +Sabamos que iba a ser ms productivo. +Pero no nos dimos cuenta cmo se fue permeando esta forma de pensar en otras funciones del depsito. +La efectividad de este enfoque dentro del centro de distribucin es que lo transforma en una mquina de procesamiento paralelo masivo. +Otra vez, esto es una fertilizacin cruzada de ideas. +Aqu hay un depsito y estamos pensando en arquitecturas de supercomputadora de procesamiento en paralelo. +La nocin aqu es que tienen 10 trabajadores a la derecha de la pantalla ahora todos son trabajadores de empaque autnomos independientes. +Si el trabajador de la estacin 3 necesita ir al bao, no hay impacto en la productividad de los otros 9 trabajadores. +Contrasten eso, con el mtodo tradicional del uso de la banda transportadora. +Cuando alguien les pasa el pedido, le ponen algo y lo pasan a la banda corriendo. +Todos tienen que estar en su lugar para que el proceso en serie funcione. +Esto se convierte en una forma ms robusta de concebir el depsito. +Debajo del toldo se pone interesante porque estamos rastreando la popularidad de los productos. +Y estamos usando algoritmos adaptativos y dinmicos para ajustar el piso del depsito. +Lo que ven aqu es la semana previa al da de San Valentn. +Todo el dulce polvoso rosa se ha movido al frente del edificio y se recolecta para llenar pedidos en las estaciones de recoleccin. +Vengan 2 das despus de San Valentn y el dulce que qued, todo se ha recorrido a la parte posterior del depsito y ocupa la zona ms templada en el mapa trmico aqu. +Otro efecto secundario de este enfoque que usa el procesamiento en paralelo es que estas cosas se pueden escalar a lo 'hipergigante'. +Sea que tengan 2 estaciones de recoleccin, 20 estaciones o 200 estaciones, los algoritmos de planeacin de ruta y todos los algoritmos de inventario funcionan. +En este ejemplo ven que el inventario ocupa ahora todo el permetro del edificio, porque es ah donde estn las estaciones de recoleccin. +Los clasifican ellos mismos. +Concluyo con un video final que muestra cmo se desarrolla esto en un da de la vida del trabajador de empaque +Como dijimos, el proceso es mover el inventario por la carretera y luego encuentra su camino hacia las estaciones de recoleccin. +Nuestro software tras bambalinas entiende lo que pasa en cada estacin, dirigimos el depsito por toda la carretera e intentamos ponerlo en una sistema de cola que presente el trabajo al trabajador de empaque. +Lo interesante es que podemos adaptar la velocidadde recoleccin de los trabajadores. +Los ms rpidos obtienen ms anaqueles y los ms lentos, menos. +Pero el trabajador ahora experimenta cabalmente lo que describimos antes. +Saca su mano, el producto le brinca +o tiene que alzarlo y tomarlo. +Lo escanea y lo pone en la canasta. +Y todo el resto de la tecnologa est tras bambalinas. +As el trabajador se concentra en la parte de recoleccin y empaque. +Nunca tiene tiempos muertos ni tiene que dejar su puesto. +De hecho pensamos que no solo es ms productivo y ms preciso para cumplir los pedidos +sino que creemos que es una forma ms satisfactoria de cumplir pedidos. +Podemos decir esto porque los trabajadores en muchos de estos edificios ahora compiten por el privilegio de trabajar en la zona KIVA. +Y a veces los sorprendemos en videos testimoniales diciendo cosas como que tienen ms energa al final del da para jugar son sus nietos o en una ocasin alguien dijo, "En la zona KIVA no hay estrs y de hecho he dejado de tomar la medicina para la presin". +Eso fue con un distribuidor farmacutico, que nos pidi que no usramos ese video. +Hoy quiero dejarles la nocin de que cuando dejan que las cosas empiecen a pensar y caminar y que hablen por su cuenta, surgen procesos interesantes y productivos. +Creo que el siguiente paso es que vayan a la puerta, recojan esa caja de lo que pidieron en lnea, la abran y el revoltijo est ah; sentirn cierto asombro de si un robot asisti en la recoleccin y empaque de ese pedido. +Gracias. +Como el ms alto comandante militar de los Pases Bajos, con tropas apostadas en todo el mundo, me siento honrado de estar hoy aqu. +Si miro alrededor, en esta sede de TEDxmsterdam, veo un pblico muy especial. +Uds. son la razn por la que acept la invitacin a venir aqu hoy. +Si miro alrededor, veo personas +veo personas que quieren construir un mundo mejor haciendo trabajos cientficos pioneros, creando obras de artes impresionantes, redactando artculos crticos o libros inspiradores o creando empresas sustentables. +Todos Uds. han elegido los instrumentos propios para cumplir esta misin de crear un mundo mejor. +Algunos eligen el microscopio como instrumento. +Otros eligen bailar, pintar o hacer msica como acabamos de escuchar. +Algunos eligen la pluma. +Otros emplean el dinero como instrumento. +Damas y caballeros, yo eleg otra cosa. +Gracias. +Damas y caballeros... +Comparto sus objetivos. +Comparto los objetivos de los oradores que me precedieron. +Yo no eleg enarbolar la pluma, el pincel, la cmara. +Yo eleg este instrumento. +Eleg un arma. +Para Uds., y lo que han odo, estar tan cerca de esta arma puede incomodarlos +o incluso infundirles temor. +Un arma verdadera a pocos metros de distancia. +Detengmonos un momento a sentir esta incomodidad. +Casi puede orse. +Apreciemos el hecho de que quiz muchos de Uds. nunca han estado cerca de un arma. +Eso significa que los Pases Bajos son un pas pacfico. +Los Pases Bajos no estn en guerra. +Significa que no hace falta que los soldados patrullen nuestras calles. +Las armas no son parte de nuestras vidas. +En muchos pases la historia es diferente. +En muchos pases las personas hacen frente a las armas. +Estn oprimidos, +son intimidados por los seores de la guerra, por terroristas, por criminales. +Las armas pueden hacer mucho dao. +Son la causa de mucha angustia. +Entonces, por qu estoy frente a Uds. con un arma? +Por qu eleg un arma como instrumento? +Hoy quiero contarles la razn. +Hoy quiero contarles por qu eleg un arma para hacer un mundo mejor. +Y quiero contarles cmo puede ayudar esta arma. +Mi historia empieza en la ciudad de Nijmegen en el este de los Pases Bajos, mi ciudad natal. +Mi padre era un panadero muy trabajador pero cuando terminaba la faena en la panadera a menudo nos contaba historias a mi hermano y a m. +Casi siempre me contaba esta historia que ahora voy a compartir. +La historia de lo que le ocurri cuando era recluta forzoso en las fuerzas armadas holandesas al principio de la Segunda Guerra Mundial. +Los nazis invadieron los Pases Bajos. +Sus sombros planes eran evidentes. +Apuntaban a gobernar mediante la represin. +La diplomacia no logr detener a los alemanes. +Slo qued la fuerza bruta. +Era nuestro ltimo recurso. +Y mi padre estaba all para ejercerla. +Como buen hijo de granjero que saba cazar, mi padre era un excelente tirador. +Cuando apuntaba, nunca fallaba. +En ese momento decisivo de la historia holandesa mi padre estaba apostado en la ribera del ro Waal cerca de la ciudad de Nijmegen. +Tena bien en la mira a los soldados alemanes que venan a ocupar un pas libre, su pas, nuestro pas. +l disparaba, pero no ocurra nada. +Disparaba otra vez, +pero no caa ningn soldado alemn. +A mi padre le haban dado un arma vieja que ni siquiera llegaba a la vera opuesta del ro. +Las tropas de Hitler avanzaron y no hubo nada que mi padre pudiera hacer al respecto. +Hasta el da en que muri, mi padre se lament de haber errado esos tiros. +Podra haber hecho algo. +Pero con un arma vieja ni siquiera el mejor tirador de las fuerzas armadas podra haber dado en el blanco. +As que viv con esta historia. +Luego en la secundaria me atraparon las historias de los soldados aliados que dejaron la seguridad de sus propios hogares y arriesgaron sus vidas para liberar a un pas y a unas personas que no conocan. +Liberaron mi ciudad natal. +Fue entonces que decid abrazar las armas por respeto y gratitud a esos hombres y mujeres que vinieron a liberarnos... +por ser consciente de que a veces slo las armas pueden plantarse entre el bien y el mal. +Por esa razn abrac las armas; no para disparar ni para matar ni para destruir, sino para detener a quienes hacen el mal, para proteger a los vulnerables, para defender los valores democrticos, para defender la libertad que tenemos y hablar aqu hoy en msterdam de cmo podemos hacer del mundo un lugar mejor. +Damas y caballeros, no he venido aqu hoy a contarles maravillas de las armas. +No me gustan las armas. +Y si uno ha estado bajo fuego vuelve a casa teniendo ms claro que un arma no es un instrumento de machos del que presumir. +Hoy vengo aqu a contarles del uso de las armas como instrumento de paz y estabilidad. +Las armas quiz sean los instrumentos ms importantes para la paz y la estabilidad que existen en el mundo. +Tal vez esto pueda sonarles contradictorio. +Pero no slo lo vi con mis propios ojos durante mi despliegue en el Lbano, en Sarajevo y, a nivel nacional, como jefe del ejrcito holands sino que est sustentado por fros datos estadsticos. +La violencia ha disminuido drsticamente en los ltimos 500 aos. +A pesar de las imgenes que vemos a diario en las noticias, las guerras entre pases desarrollados ya no son comunes. +La tasa de homicidios en Europa se ha reducido 30 veces desde la Edad Media. +Y los casos de guerra civil y de represin han mermado desde el fin de la Guerra Fra. +Las estadsticas muestran que estamos viviendo en una era relativamente pacfica. +Por qu? +Por qu ha disminuido la violencia? +Ha cambiado la mente humana? +Bueno, estuvimos hablando de la mente humana esta maana. +Perdimos ese impulso animal de venganza, de rituales violentos, de mera rabia? +O hay algo ms? +En otras palabras, un monopolio estatal que mantiene a raya el uso de la violencia. +Este tipo de monopolio de la violencia ante todo sirve como promesa. +Elimina el incentivo a una carrera armamentista entre grupos potencialmente hostiles +de nuestra sociedad. En segundo lugar, las desventajas de usar la violencia sobrepasan sus beneficios y as inclinan an ms la balanza. +Abstenerse de la violencia que iniciar una guerra. +La no violencia empieza a funcionar +como un volante de inercia. Fortalece la paz un poco ms. +Si no hay conflicto, florece el comercio. +Y el comercio es otro incentivo importante contra la violencia. +Con el comercio se crea una interdependencia recproca +y un beneficio mutuo entre las partes. Y si hay beneficio mutuo, todos entienden que, de comenzar una guerra, se perdera +ms de lo que se ganara. La guerra ya no es la mejor opcin porque la violencia ha disminuido. +Esto, damas y caballeros, es la razn de ser de mis fuerzas armadas. +Las fuerzas armadas materializan el monopolio estatal de la violencia. +Lo hacemos de manera legtima slo porque nuestra democracia nos lo pide. +Es este uso legtimo y acotado de las armas lo que ha contribuido en gran medida a mejorar las estadsticas de la guerra, el conflicto y la violencia en todo el mundo. +Es esta participacin en las misiones de paz que ha propiciado la resolucin de muchas guerras civiles. +Mis soldados usan las armas como instrumentos de paz. +Y es por esto mismo que los estados fallidos son tan peligrosos. +Los estados fallidos no hacen uso legtimo y acotado democrticamente de la fuerza. +Los estados fallidos no ven las armas como instrumentos de paz y estabilidad. +Por esa razn los estados fallidos pueden arrastrar a toda una regin al caos y al conflicto. +Por eso propagar la nocin del estado de derecho es un aspecto tan importante de nuestras misiones en el exterior. +Por eso estamos tratando de construir un sistema judicial en Afganistn. +Por eso instruimos a oficiales de polica, capacitamos a jueces y formamos a fiscales en todo el mundo. +Y por eso -en los Pases Bajos somos especiales en esto- la Constitucin holandesa establece que una de las principales tareas de las fuerzas armadas es defender y promover el imperio internacional de la ley. +Damas y caballeros, al mirar este fusil, nos enfrentamos al lado oscuro del gnero humano. +Siempre abrigo la esperanza de que polticos, diplomticos, trabajadores humanitarios, transformen los conflictos en paz y las amenazas en esperanza. +Y espero que algn da se disuelvan los ejrcitos y encontremos la manera de vivir juntos sin violencia ni opresin. +Pero hasta que llegue ese da tendremos que hacer que los ideales y los errores humanos encuentren un punto medio. +Hasta que llegue ese da, pensar en mi padre que trataba de dispararle a los nazis con un arma vieja. +Defender a mis hombres y mujeres que estn dispuestos a arriesgar sus vidas para que tengamos un mundo menos violento. +Estar con esta soldado que ha perdido parcialmente la audicin y sufri lesiones permanentes en la pierna cuando fue alcanzada por un cohete en una misin en Afganistn. +Damas y caballeros, hasta el da en que podamos deshacernos de las armas, espero que estemos de acuerdo en que la paz y la estabilidad no son gratis. +Requieren un arduo trabajo que a menudo no se ve. +Hace falta un buen equipamiento y soldados dedicados y bien entrenados. +Espero que apoyen los esfuerzos de nuestras fuerzas armadas para formar soldados como esta joven capitana y dotarla de buenas armas en vez de viejos fusiles como el de mi padre. +Espero que apoyen a nuestros soldados cuando vayan al exterior, cuando vuelvan a casa y cuando estn heridos y necesiten nuestra atencin. +Ellos ponen sus vidas en juego por nosotros, por ti, y no podemos defraudarlos. +Espero que respeten a mis soldados, a esta soldado y su fusil. +Porque ella quiere un mundo mejor. +Porque ella contribuye activamente a crear un mundo mejor igual que nosotros hoy aqu. +Muchas gracias. +Todos en nuestro entorno han sido tocados por el cncer, si no personalmente, a travs de algn ser querido, un familiar, compaero, amigo. +Y una vez que nuestras vidas son tocadas por el cncer, aprendemos rpidamente que hay bsicamente tres armas o herramientas disponibles para luchar contra la enfermedad: Ciruga, radiacin y quimioterapia. +Y una vez que nos involucramos en las decisiones teraputicas, ya sea a nivel personal o con nuestros familiares y seres queridos, aprendemos tambin, casi de inmediato, sobre los beneficios, los compromisos y las limitaciones de estas herramientas. +Estoy muy agradecido a Jay y Mark y al equipo de TEDMED por invitarme a describir una cuarta herramienta, una nueva, a la que llamamos Campos de Tratamiento de Tumores. +Los Campos de Tratamiento de Tumores fueron inventados por el Dr. Yoram Palti, profesor emrito del Technion en Israel. +Y stos usan campos electromagnticos de baja intensidad para luchar contra el cncer. +Para entender cmo funcionan los Campos de Tratamiento de Tumores, necesitamos comprender primero qu son los campos electromagnticos. +Djenme primero hablar de algunos conceptos malentendidos. +Primero que nada, los campos electromagnticos no son una corriente elctrica que pase a travs del tejido. +Los campos electromagnticos no son radiacin ionizante, como los rayos X o los rayos de protones, que bombardean los tejidos para romper el ADN. +Los campos electromagnticos tampoco son magnetismo. +Los campos electromagnticos son campos de fuerzas. +Y estas fuerzas actan, atraen a cuerpos que tienen carga elctrica. +La mejor manera de imaginar un campo electromagntico es pensar en la gravedad. +La gravedad tambin es un campo de fuerza que acta en las masas. +Podemos imaginar a los astronautas en el espacio. +Flotando libremente en tres dimensiones sin ninguna fuerza actuando sobre ellos. +Pero conforme la nave espacial regresa a la Tierra, y los astronautas entran al campo de gravedad de la Tierra, se empiezan a ver los efectos de la gravedad. +Empiezan a ser atrados hacia la Tierra. +Y en el momento de aterrizar estn totalmente alineados con el campo gravitacional. +Nosotros estamos atrapados en el campo gravitacional de la Tierra ahora. +Por eso todos estn en sus sillas. +Y por eso tenemos que esforzarnos para levantarnos, caminar y levantar objetos. +En el cncer, las clulas se dividen rpidamente y conducen a un crecimiento incontrolado de los tumores. +Podemos imaginar una clula desde una perspectiva elctrica como si fuera una mini estacin espacial. +Y es en esta estacin espacial donde tenemos material gentico, los cromosomas, dentro del ncleo. +Y fuera de l, en el caldo de citoplasma tenemos protenas especiales que se requieren para la divisin celular y que flotan libremente en el caldo en tres dimensiones. +Es importante notar que esas protenas estn entre los cuerpos con mayor carga elctrica en nuestro cuerpo. +Conforme comienza la divisin celular el ncleo se desintegra, los cromosomas se alinean en medio de la clula y esas protenas especiales comienzan una secuencia tridimensional donde se unen y literalmente se unen cual eslabones de una cadena. +Estas cadenas entonces avanzan y se unen al material gentico y reparten el material gentico de una clula en dos. +Y esto es exactamente cmo la clula cancerosa se convierte en dos clulas, dos clulas cancerosas forman cuatro clulas, y despus tenemos un crecimiento del tumor descontrolado. +Los Campos de Tratamiento de Tumores usan transductores colocados fuera del cuerpo conectados a un generador de campo para crear un campo electromagntico artificial en esa estacin espacial. +Y cuando la estacin espacial celular esta dentro de ese campo electromagntico, Acta en esas protenas cargadas elctricamente Y las alinea. +Y evita que formen las cadenas, esos husos mitticos, que son necesarios para juntar el material gentico en las clulas hijas. +Lo que vemos aqu es el intento de divisin de la clula durante horas. +stas clulas entrarn en lo que llamamos suicidio celular, muerte celular programada, o formarn clulas hijas enfermas e iniciarn la apoptosis una vez que se dividan. +Y lo podemos observar. +Lo que les mostrar ahora son dos experimentos in vitro. +Estos son cultivos, dos cultivos idnticos, de clulas cervicales cancerosas. +Marcamos estos cultivos con una tinta fluorescente para poder ver las protenas que forman estas cadenas. +Este primer video muestra una divisin celular normal sin los Campos de Tratamiento de Tumores. +Lo que vemos primeramente es un cultivo muy activo, muchas divisiones, y despus un ncleo muy claro una vez que las clulas se han separado. +Y podemos observarlas durante el proceso de divisin. +Cuando aplicamos los campos electromagnticos, de nuevo, en el mismo espacio de tiempo, a un cultivo idntico, vern algo diferente. +Las clulas se acomodan para dividirse, pero se quedan en esa posicin. +Veremos dos clulas en la parte alta de la pantalla tratando de dividirse. +La que est en el crculo lo logra. +Pero vean cunto de la protena se encuentra todava en el ncleo, an en la clula dividida. +La que est all no se pudo dividir en absoluto. +Y tambin este burbujeo, esta membrana burbujeando, es el sello de apoptosis en esta clula. +La formacin de husos mitticos saludables es necesaria para la divisin de cualquier clula. +Hemos aplicado los Campos de Tratamiento de Tumores a ms de 20 diferentes tipos de cncer en el laboratorio, y hemos visto este efecto en todos. +Ahora, lo que es importante, es que estos Campos de Tratamiento de Tumores no tienen efecto en las clulas normales que no se dividen. +Hace 10 aos el Dr. Palti fund una empresa llamada Novocure para convertir su descubrimiento en una terapia prctica para los pacientes. +En aquel tiempo, Novocure desarroll dos sistemas, uno para los cnceres en la cabeza y otro para los cnceres en el tronco del cuerpo. +El primero de los cnceres en el que nos concentramos es el mortal cncer cerebral: Glioblastoma Multiforme . +El GBM afecta a cerca de 10 000 personas en los EEUU cada ao. +Es una sentencia de muerte. +La esperanza de sobrevivir ms de 5 aos es inferior al 5%. +Y el paciente tpico con una terapia ptima sobrevive un poco ms de un ao, y slo cerca de siete meses desde el momento en que se comienza a tratar el cncer que despus vuelve a crecer otra vez. +Novocure realiz en su primera fase tres pruebas aleatorias en pacientes con GBM recurrente. +Estos son pacientes que han pasado por ciruga, grandes dosis de radicacin en la cabeza y quimioterapia de primera lnea, todos ellos fallaron y los tumores volvieron a crecer. +Dividimos a los pacientes en dos grupos. +El primer grupo recibi quimioterapia de segunda lnea, que podra duplicar su expectativa de vida, comparado con ningn tratamiento. +Y el segundo grupo recibi slo terapia de Campos de Tratamiento de Tumores. +Lo que vimos en las pruebas fue que la expectativa de vida de ambos grupos, el que se trat con quimioterapia y el de los Campos de Tratamiento de Tumores, result ser la misma. +Pero hay que resaltar que el grupo de Campos de Tratamiento de Tumores no sufri ninguno de los efectos colaterales tpicos de los pacientes de quimioterapia. +No sufrieron dolor, no pasaron por infecciones. +No tuvieron nauseas, ni diarrea, estreimiento o fatiga como se podra haber esperado. +A partir de estas pruebas, en abril de este ao, la Administracin de Drogas y Alimentos aprob el uso de los Campos de Tratamiento de Tumores para el tratamiento de pacientes con GBM recurrente. +Hay que recalcar que fue la primera vez que la FDA en la aprobacin del tratamiento oncolgico incluy una clusula sobre la calidad de vida. +Les mostrar ahora a uno de los pacientes de esta pruebas. +Robert Dill-Bundi es un famoso campen ciclista suizo. +Gan la medalla de oro en Mosc en la persecucin de 4 Km. +Hace cinco aos a Robert se le diagnostic GBM. +Recibi los tratamientos tpicos. +Pas por ciruga. +Recibi grandes dosis de radiacin en la cabeza. +Y recibi quimioterapia de primera lnea. +Despus de un ao de este tratamiento tenemos aqu su Resonancia Magntica original. +Pueden ver las regiones en negro en el cuadrante de arriba a la derecha donde estn las reas en las que tuvo ciruga. +Un ao despus del tratamiento el tumor regres para vengarse. +La masa blanca que ven es una recurrencia del tumor. +En este punto sus mdicos le dijeron que le quedaban cerca de 3 meses de vida. +Ingres en nuestras pruebas. +Aqu podemos verlo tomando la terapia. +Primero que nada, estos electrodos no son invasivos. +Estn adheridos a la piel en el rea del tumor. +Aqu pueden ver que un tcnico esta colocndolos como si fueran vendajes. +Los pacientes aprenden a hacerlo por si mismos Y despus los pacientes pueden volver a las actividades de su vida diaria. +No hay nada del cansancio. +Ninguno de los trastornos mentales de la quimioterapia. +No hay sensacin. +No interfiere con computadoras o equipo elctrico. +Y la terapia se realiza continuamente en casa, sin necesidad de ir al hospital ya sea peridica o continuamente. +Estas son las resonancias magnticas de Robert igualmente, slo con la terapia de Campos de Tratamiento de tumores. +Esta es una terapia que precisa tiempo para actuar. +Es un dispositivo mdico que trabaja cuando est puesto. +Pero lo que vemos es que, para el sexto mes, el tumor ha respondido y empieza a disolverse. +All est todava. +Para el mes 12, podramos decir que todava hay un poco de material alrededor de los bordes, pero esencialmente ha desaparecido. +Han pasado ya cinco aos desde el diagnstico de Robert, y todava est vivo, pero muy importante, est sano y trabajando. +Dejar que l, en este video describa sus opiniones de la terapia con sus propias palabras. +Robert Dill-Bundi: Mi calidad de vida, Yo califico lo que tengo hoy de manera un poco diferente a lo que la gente supondra. +Soy el ms feliz, soy la persona ms feliz del mundo. +Cada maana agradezco estar vivo. +Cada noche me duermo muy bien, yo soy, les repito, el hombre ms feliz del mundo, y estoy muy agradecido por estar vivo. +BD. Novocure tambin est trabajando en el cncer de pulmn como segundo objetivo. +Hemos hecho unas pruebas de fase dos en Suiza de nuevo en pacientes con recurrencia, pacientes que han recibido terapia tpica y cuyo cncer ha vuelto. +Les mostrar otro video de una mujer llamada Lydia. +Lydia es una granjera de 66 aos en Suiza. +Le diagnosticaron cncer de pulmn hace cinco aos. +Pas por cuatro diferentes tipos de quimioterapia durante cuatro aos, y ninguno de ellos tuvo efecto. +Su cncer sigui creciendo. +Hace tres aos ella ingres a la prueba de Novocure. +Vern que, en su caso, ella utiliza sus arreglos transductores, uno al frente de su pecho y otro en la espalda, y tambin el segundo par, uno junto al otro, encima del hgado. +Pueden ver aqu el generador del Campo de Tratamiento de Tumores, pero algo que deben notar es que ella sigue haciendo vida normal. +Sigue manejando su granja. +Se sigue relacionando con sus hijos y nietos. +Y cuando hablamos con ella, nos deca que cuando ella iba a quimioterapia, tena que ir al hospital cada mes para recibir inyecciones. +Toda su familia sufra cuando los efectos secundarios venan y se iban. +Ahora puede llevar a cabo todas las actividades de su granja. +Slo es el comienzo. +En el laboratorio hemos observado tremendas sinergias entre la quimioterapia y los Campos de Tratamiento de Tumores. +Hay una investigacin en curso en la Escuela de Medicina de Harvard para elegir el par de tratamientos que pueda maximizar el beneficio. +Tambin creemos que los Campos de Tratamiento de Tumores pueden funcionar con la radiacin e interrumpir nuestros mecanismos de autoreparacin. +Tambin hay un proyecto de investigacin en el Karolinska en Suecia para probar esa hiptesis. +Hemos planeado ms pruebas para el cncer de pulmn, el cncer pancretico, el cncer de ovarios, y el cncer de seno. +Creo firmemente que en los prximos 10 aos los Campos de Tratamiento de Tumores sern un arma disponible para los mdicos y los pacientes para los tumores ms difciles de tratar. +Tambin tengo la esperanza de que en las prximas dcadas, realicemos grandes avances para reducir la tasa de mortalidad que para el cncer ha sido el mayor reto. +Gracias. +Cuando yo tena 7 aos y mi hermana solo 5, jugbamos en la cama superior de la litera. +Entonces tena dos aos ms que mi hermana. Bueno, ahora sigo siendo dos aos mayor. En ese momento significaba que tena que hacer lo que yo quisiera y yo quera jugar a la guerra. +Estbamos en la cama de arriba. +Y a un lado yo tena todos mis soldados y mi armamento. +Y al otro lado estaban todos los caballitos de mi hermana listos para una batalla de caballera. +Hay varias versiones de lo que sucedi esa tarde, pero ya que ella no est hoy aqu, voy a contarles la verdadera historia... que trata de que mi hermana era un poco torpe. +De alguna manera, sin ninguna intervencin de su hermano, de pronto Amy desapareci de la cama superior y aterriz con en el suelo. +Yo, muy nervioso, me asom para ver lo que haba cado: mi hermana. Y la vi que sobre sus manos y rodillas, en las cuatro, en el piso. +Me puse nervioso porque mis padres me haban encomendado que jugramos lo ms seguros y silenciosos posible. +Y en la cara de mi hermana vi un gemido de dolor y sufrimiento en su sorpresa, a punto de estallar y despertar a mis padres de su larga siesta. +Entonces hice lo nico que mi loca cabeza de 7 aos pudo pensar temiendo una tragedia. +Si Uds. tienen hijos, habrn visto esto cientos de veces. +Le dije: "Amy, Amy, espera. No llores. Viste como caste? +Ningn humano cae en las cuatro as. +Amy, eso quiere decir que eres un unicornio". +Era una trampa porque lo que ella ms quera era, en lugar de ser Amy, la hermanita lesionada de 5 aos, ser Amy, el unicornio especial. +Esta opcin le habra parecido imposible un momento antes. +Si hubieran visto a mi pobre hermana manipulada ante el conflicto de prestar atencin al sufrimiento, dolor y sorpresa que estaba padeciendo, o a contemplar su nueva identidad como unicornio. +Y venci esto ltimo. +En lugar de llorar, o de suspender el juego, en lugar de despertar a mis padres, con todo lo que me habra cado encima, una sonrisa ilumin su cara y se arrastr ah mismo a la litera con toda la gracia de un beb unicornio... con una pierna fracturada. +Lo que nos encontramos a esta tierna edad de solo 5 y 7 -ni lo sabamos entonces- fue algo que iba a estar al frente de una revolucin cientfica 2 dcadas despus, sobre la manera en que vemos el cerebro humano. +Lo que vimos es algo llamado psicologa positiva, que es la razn por la que estoy hoy aqu y por la que me levanto cada maana. +Cuando empec a hablar de esta investigacin fuera del mundo acadmico, en empresas y escuelas, lo primero que me dijeron es que nunca comenzara una charla con una grfica. +Y lo primero que har ser comenzar con una grfica. +Esta grfica parece aburrida, pero es la razn por la que ilusionado me levanto por las maanas. +Pero no significa nada; son datos falsos. +Lo que aqu se ve... Me encantara que estos datos vinieran de Uds., de esta audiencia, porque habra una clara tendencia de lo que sucede y eso querra decir que lo puedo publicar, que es lo nico que importa. +El punto extraviado, el rojo, significa que hay un tipo raro en el saln. S quin eres, ya te vi antes; pero no importa. +Como todos saben, puedo simplemente borrar ese punto. +Y puedo porque es claramente un error de medicin. +Y s que es un error de medicin +porque est estropeando mis datos. Una de las primeras cosas que enseamos en los cursos de estadstica, negocios y psicologa, es cmo eliminar a los raros de manera estadsticamente vlida. +Y cmo eliminamos a esos atpicos para encontrar la lnea de mejor ajuste? +Es fantstico si estoy tratando de encontrar cuntos Advil debe tomar una persona promedio: dos. +Pero si estoy interesado en su potencial, o en la felicidad, o en la productividad, o en la energa, o en la creatividad, estamos creando un culto cientfico a los promedios. +Si preguntara "Qu tan rpido aprende un nio a leer?", +los cientficos la cambiaran a: "Qu tan rpido el nio promedio aprende a leer?", +para luego ajustar la clase justo al promedio. +Y si ests fuera del promedio de la curva, los psiclogos se emocionan porque eso quiere decir que o ests deprimido o tienes un problema, o, con suerte, ambas. +Queremos que sean ambas porque nuestro modelo del negocio dice que si vienes a terapia con un problema, nos aseguremos que salgas con 10, para que sigas viniendo. +Volveremos a tu niez, si es necesario, pero lo que queremos es volverte normal. +Pero normal es lo mismo que promedio. +Lo que propongo con la psicologa positiva es que si estudiamos lo que es apenas promedio, nos quedaremos en lo escasamente promedio. +Y en lugar de borrar esos atpicos positivos, lo que hago es venir a un grupo como este y preguntar: por qu? +Por qu algunos de Uds. estn tan encima de la curva en su habilidadad intelectual, atltica, musical, creativa, sus niveles de energa, su capacidad para asumir retos o su sentido del humor? +Lo que sea, en lugar de borrarte, prefiero estudiarte. +Porque quizs descubriremos la manera, no de mover a la gente hacia el promedio, sino de elevar los promedios de las empresas y de las escuelas de todo el mundo. +La importancia de esta grfica es que cuando enciendo las noticias, parece que casi toda la informacin +es negativa, no positiva. +La mayora es sobre crimen, corrupcin, enfermedades, desastres. +Y rpidamente mi cabeza empieza a pensar que esa es la proporcin real de lo negativo en el mundo. +Lo que sucede es que se crea el llamado sndrome del estudiante. +Si Uds. conocen a alguien que estudie medicina, sabrn que en el primer ao, cuando leen la lista de todos los sntomas y enfermedades que puede haber, de pronto se dan cuenta de que las tiene todas. +Tengo un cuado llamado Bobo -eso es otro cuento-. +Bobo se cas con Amy, el unicornio. +Bobo me llam por telfono desde la escuela de medicina de Yale y me dijo: "Shawn, tengo lepra". +Lo cual, aun en Yale, es bastante raro. +Yo no tena ni idea de cmo consolarlo porque l acababa de salir de una semana de menopausia. +Estamos descubriendo que no es que la realidad nos transforme, sino que el lente con el que vemos el mundo transforma nuestra realidad. +Y si cambiamos el lente, no solo cambia el grado de felicidad, sino tambin los resultados educativos y empresariales. +Cuando solicit admisin en Harvard, me arriesgu. +No esperaba ser admitido y mi familia no poda pagarlo. +Dos semanas despus consegu una beca militar y me admitieron. +Algo que ni siquiera era una posibilidad, se hizo realidad. +Ya estando all, supuse que todos lo veran como un privilegio, que estaran muy emocionados. +Aun en una clase llena de personas ms listas que t, eres feliz de estar ah. As me senta. +Pero descubr que, aunque algunas personas as lo sienten, cuando me gradu, en 4 aos, y los 8 que segu viviendo en la residencia de estudiantes... Harvard me lo pidi. Yo no soy as. +Como funcionario asesoraba a estudiantes esos 4 difciles aos. +Cuando entr, fui al comedor de los de primero, con mis amigos de Waco, Texas, donde yo crec... Supongo que a algunos les suena. +Cuando venan a visitarme, miraban alrededor y decan: "Este comedor parece salido de Hogwart, de la pelcula de Harry Potter", lo cual es cierto. +Este es Hogwart de la pelcula y este es Harvard. +Vean esto y decan: "Shawn, por qu pierdes el tiempo estudiando la felicidad en Harvard? +En serio, qu puede tener un estudiante de Harvard para sentirse infeliz?". +Implcito en esta pregunta est la clave de la ciencia de la felicidad. +Porque lo que se asume con esa pregunta es que por el mundo exterior se puede predecir tu felicidad, cuando en realidad, si conozco tu mundo exterior, puedo predecir el 10% de tu felicidad a largo plazo. +El otro 90% proviene no del exterior, sino de la manera en que procesas lo externo. +Y si cambiamos la frmula de la felicidad y del xito, cambiar la manera en que afectan la realidad. +Encontramos que solo el 25% del xito es predecible por el coeficiente de inteligencia. 75% del xito se puede predecir por los niveles de optimismo, por el apoyo social y por percibir la presin como reto en vez de amenaza. +Habl en un internado de New England, quizs el ms presitigioso, y me decan: "Ya lo sabemos. Por eso +cada ao, adems de las clases, tenemos una semana de bienestar. +Es emocionante. El lunes traemos al principal experto del mundo que viene a hablar sobre la depresin en adolescentes. +El martes es sobre violencia y acoso en la escuela. +El mircoles es sobre problemas alimenticios. +El jueves es cmo evitar las drogas. +Y el viernes estamos entre sexo riesgoso y felicidad". +Anot: "Como los viernes de todo el mundo...". +Me alegro de que les guste; a ellos no les gust nada. +Silencio total. +En medio del silencio, dije: "Me encantara hablar aqu, pero esa no es una semana de bienestar, sino de malestar. +Han recorrido todo lo negativo que puede suceder, pero no han hablado de lo positivo". +La ausencia de enfermedad no es salud. +Para llegar a la salud tenemos que invertir la frmula de la felicidad y del xito. +En los ltimos tres aos he viajado a 45 pases, trabajando con escuelas y empresas en medio de la depresin econmica. +Vi que en la mayora siguen esta frmula: "Si trabajo ms duro, tendr ms xito. +Si tengo ms xito, ser ms feliz". +As solemos actuar como padres o administradores. As motivamos el comportamiento. +Pero cientficamente est mal, es regresivo, por 2 razones. +Primero, cada vez que tienes un xito, la meta cambia, la forma del xito. +Sacaste buenas notas, ahora debes obtener mejores, ingresaste a una buena escuela, luego hay que ir a una mejor, conseguiste un buen empleo, hay que obtener uno mejor, alcanzaste tu meta de ventas, vamos a cambiarla. +Y si la felicidad viene despus, nunca la vas a alcanzar. +Lo que hemos hecho es empujar la felicidad ms all del horizonte cognitivo. +Pensamos que hay que tener xito y luego ser felices. +Pero el cerebro trabaja en sentido opuesto. +Si hoy elevas el nivel de positivismo de alguien, entonces sentir lo que llamamos una ventaja de felicidad, o sea que el cerebro en positivo funciona mucho mejor que cuando est negativo, neutro o estresado. +Se eleva la inteligencia, la creatividad, los niveles de energa. +Lo que descubrimos es que se mejoran todos los resultados econmicos. +El cerebro positivo es 31% ms productivo que si est negativo, neutro o bajo presin. +Trabajamos 37% mejor en ventas. +Los doctores son 19% ms rpidos, ms precisos y ms correctos en sus diagnsticos, si estn positivos, que si estn negativos, neutros o presionados. +Lo cual indica que se puede invertir la frmula. +Si encontramos una manera de volvernos positivos en el presente lograremos an mayores xitos al poder trabajar ms duro, ms rpido y con ms inteligencia. +Necesitamos aprender a invertir la frmula para ver lo capaz que es el cerebro. +La dopamina, que irriga el sistema cuando somos positivos, tiene dos funciones. +No solo te hace sentir ms feliz, sino que tambin activa los centros de aprendizaje permitindote adaptarte al mundo de manera diferente. +Hemos encontrado maneras de entrenar el cerebro para que se vuelva ms positivo. +En lapsos de solo 2 minutos, durante 21 das, podemos readaptar el cerebro, permitiendo as que funcione con ms optimismo y mayor xito. +Hicimos esta investigacin en las empresas con que he trabajado haciendo que escriban 3 motivos de gratitud durante 21 das seguidos, tres cosas nuevas cada da. +Y al final sus cerebros empiezan a retener un patrn de buscar en el mundo no lo negativo, sino primero lo positivo. +Al anotar una experiencia positiva del da anterior le das fuerzas al cerebro. +Aprendes a darle importancia al comportamiento. +La meditacin ayuda a superar el TDAH que hemos creado, al tratar de hacer muchas cosas a la vez, y ayuda a concentrarse en una sola tarea. +Y finalmente, los actos aleatorios de bondad son actos conscientes. +Hacemos que la gente, al abrir su buzn de correo, escriban un mensaje positivo elogiando o agradeciendo a alguien en la red social. +Y al hacer estas actividades, al entrenar el cerebro, igual que se entrena el cuerpo, notamos que se puede invertir la frmula de la felicidad y el xito, y al hacerlo, no solo se crean olas de positivismo, sino que se genera una verdadera revolucin. +Muchas gracias. +Hoy voy a hablarles del diseo de tecnologa mdica para entornos de bajos recursos. +Estudio los sistemas de salud de estos pases +y una de las mayores carencias en proteccin, en casi todas partes, es el acceso a cirugas seguras. +Uno de los mayores obstculos que encontramos y que dificulta tanto el acceso a las cirugas como la seguridad de estas, es la anestesia. +Y realmente, es sobre este modelo que esperamos trabajar para llevar anestesia a estos lugares. +Esta es una escena que pueden encontrar en cualquier sala de ciruga de EE.UU. u otro pas desarrollado. +Al fondo hay una mquina de anestesia muy sofisticada. +Esta mquina permite realizar cirugas y salvar vidas ya que est diseada pensando en este ambiente. +Para funcionar, necesita muchas cosas que el hospital tiene que darle. +Necesita un anestesilogo bien capacitado con aos de prctica con mquinas complejas que le permitan monitorizar los flujos de gases y tener a sus pacientes seguros y anestesiados durante toda la ciruga. +Es una mquina delicada, controlada por algoritmos computacionales que necesita cuidado especial para seguir funcionando y que se puede daar muy fcilmente. +Y cuando se daa, necesita un equipo de ingenieros biomdicos que entiendan su complejidad, puedan arreglarla y conseguir sus repuestos para que siga salvando vidas. +Es una mquina muy costosa. +Necesita un hospital cuyo presupuesto permita comprarla y mantenerla a un costo de hasta 50 000 o 100 000 dlares. +Y tal vez, lo ms obvio, y quiz lo ms importante adems de ser la forma de ilustrar los conceptos de los que hemos odo hablar es que necesita una infraestructura que le suministre una fuente ininterrumpida de electricidad, oxigeno comprimido y otros suministros mdicos crticos para el funcionamiento de esta mquina. +En otras palabras, esta mquina requiere muchas cosas que este hospital no le puede dar. +Este es el suministro elctrico de un hospital rural en Malawi. +En este hospital, hay una persona que da anestesia y est calificada para ello debido a que tiene 12, quiz 18 meses, de instruccin en anestesia. +En el hospital y en toda la regin, no hay un solo ingeniero biomdico. +As que cuando esta mquina se daa, cuando se daan las mquinas con las que trabajan, tienen que intentar arreglarlas, pero casi siempre, no hay nada que hacer. +Estas mquinas van a la bien conocida chatarrera. +Y el precio que les mencion de estas mquinas puede representar de un cuarto a un tercio del presupuesto anual operacional de este hospital. +Y finalmente, creo que pueden ver que esta infraestructura no es muy resistente. +Este hospital est conectado a una red elctrica muy dbil que tiene cortes frecuentes. +As que, a menudo, todo el hospital funciona con un solo generador. +E imaginarn que el generador se daa o se queda sin combustible. +El Banco Mundial ve esto y calcula que un hospital de un pas de bajos ingresos puede esperar hasta 18 cortes de electricidad al mes. +Igualmente el oxgeno comprimido y otros suministros mdicos son realmente un lujo y frecuentemente se agotan por meses o hasta un ao. +As que parece una locura, pero el modelo actual es tomar estas mquinas, diseadas para ese primer entorno que les mostr, y donarlas o venderlas a hospitales con este entorno. +No es solo inadecuado, sino realmente peligroso. +Uno de nuestros colegas en el Johns Hopkins observ cirugas en Sierra Leona hace cerca de un ao. +La primera ciruga del da result ser un caso de obstetricia. +La mujer que lleg necesitaba una cesrea para salvar su vida y la de su beb. +Todo comenz muy bien. +El cirujano estaba de turno y disponible, +la enfermera estaba ah +y fue capaz de anestesiarla rpidamente y esto era importante dada la urgencia de la situacin. +Todo comenz bien hasta que se fue la electricidad. +Y en la mitad de la ciruga el cirujano corra contra el reloj para acabar pronto y lo logr con una linterna. +Pero la enfermera, literalmente corra alrededor de la sala oscura tratando de encontrar algo para anestesiar su paciente, para mantenerla dormida, +porque su mquina no funciona sin electricidad. +Y ahora esta ciruga de rutina que muchos de ustedes seguramente hacen y otros probablemente han nacido as, se volvi una tragedia. +Y lo ms frustrante es que no es un hecho aislado; pasa constantemente en los pases en desarrollo. +Se realizan 35 millones de cirugas al ao sin una anestesia segura. +Mi colega, el Dr. Paul Fenton, vivi esta realidad. +Era el jefe de anestesiologa en un hospital en Malawi, un hospital docente. +Iba a trabajar todos los das a unas salas de ciruga como esta y trataba de dar anestesia y ensear a otros a hacerlo usando el mismo equipo del hospital que se volvi poco fiable, francamente peligroso. +Y despus de innumerables cirugas e, imaginarn, inexplicables tragedias, simplemente dijo: Es todo. Se acab. Suficiente. +Tiene que haber algo mejor. +Se fue por el pasillo a dnde tiraban todas las mquinas que los haban dejado creo que es el trmino cientfico y comenz a restaurarlas. +Tom una parte de aqu, otra de all y trat de idear una mquina que funcionara en la realidad que l afrontaba. +Y se le ocurri el prototipo de la mquina universal de anestesia, una mquina que poda funcionar y anestesiar a sus pacientes sin importar las circunstancias que se presentaran en el hospital. +Aqu est de regreso al mismo hospital, un poco ms desarrollada, 12 aos despus, para trabajar con pacientes desde pediatra hasta geriatra. +Permtanme mostrarles un poco cmo funciona esta mquina +Voil! +Aqu est. +Cuando hay electricidad, todo en esta mquina comienza en la base. +Hay un concentrador de oxgeno instalado aqu. +Me han odo mencionar varias veces al oxgeno. +Esencialmente, para dar anestesia, se prefiere oxgeno tan puro como sea posible, ya que al final hay que diluirlo con el anestsico. +Y la mezcla que inhala el paciente necesita al menos cierto porcentaje de oxgeno o de lo contrario sera peligrosa. +Cuando hay electricidad, el concentrador de oxgeno toma el aire de la sala, +que es completamente gratuito, abundante y tiene un 21 % de oxgeno. +El concentrador lo toma, lo filtra y enva oxgeno 95 % puro por aqu donde lo mezcla con el agente anestsico. +Luego de mezclarlo, va a los pulmones del paciente pasando por aqu; no lo pueden ver, pero hay un oxmetro aqu que mostrar en esta pantalla el porcentaje de oxgeno dado. +Y si no tienen electricidad, o, Dios no lo quiera, la electricidad se va en la mitad de una ciruga, la mquina automticamente cambia, sin tocarla siquiera, a un funcionamiento con aire ambiente por esta entrada. +Todo lo dems es igual. +La nica diferencia es que ahora se trabaja con oxgeno al 21 %. +Sola ser un peligroso juego de adivinanzas porque solo sabas que habas dado poco oxgeno, una vez que algo malo pasaba. +Pero pusimos una batera de larga duracin de soporte aqu. +Esta es la nica parte con batera de soporte. +Pero da control al anestesilogo, haya o no electricidad, debido a que puede ajustar el flujo basado en el porcentaje de oxgeno que le est dando al paciente. +En ambos casos, tenga o no electricidad, a veces el paciente necesita ayuda para respirar. +Es una realidad de la anestesia. Los pulmones pueden paralizarse. +As que simplemente aadimos este fuelle manual. +Hemos tenido cirugas de tres o cuatro horas en las que hemos ventilado as al paciente. +Es una mquina sencilla. +Me estremece decir simple; es sencilla. +Y lo es por diseo. +Y no se necesita ser un anestesilogo altamente calificado para usarla y eso es bueno, dado que en las reas rurales no se encuentra este nivel de formacin. +Est diseada para el medio en que ser usada. +Esta es una mquina increblemente resistente. +Tiene que soportar el calor y el desgaste que ocurre en hospitales rurales. +Y no se va a daar fcilmente, pero si pasara, todas las piezas de esta mquina pueden retirarse y reemplazarse con una llave hexagonal y un destornillador. +Y finalmente, es asequible. +Esta mquina tiene un octavo del costo de una convencional como la que les mostr al principio. +En otras palabras, lo que tenemos aqu es una mquina que permite hacer cirugas y salvar vidas porque est diseada para estos ambientes, tal como la primera mquina que les mostr. +Pero no queremos detenernos aqu. +Funciona? +Es el diseo que va a servir en el sitio de trabajo? +Hemos visto buenos resultados hasta ahora. +Est en 13 hospitales en 4 pases, y desde 2010, hemos hecho 2000 cirugas sin ningn efecto clnico adverso. +As que estamos encantados. +Parece ser una solucin costo-efectiva, escalable para un problema realmente generalizado. +Pero queremos estar seguros de que es el aparato ms efectivo y seguro que podemos poner en los hospitales. +Por eso enviamos a un nmero de asociados con ONGs y universidades a recolectar datos sobre la interfaz del usuario y a averiguar el tipo de cirugas para la que es apropiada y las formas de mejorar el aparato en s. +Uno de esos asociados est en Johns Hopkins, aqu mismo en Baltimore. +Tienen un excelente laboratorio de simulacin de anestesia. +As que llevamos esta mquina y recreamos algunas de las crisis en ciruga que est mquina enfrentar en uno de los hospitales a la que est destinada, en un ambiente controlado y seguro, para evaluar su efectividad. +Estaremos en capacidad de comparar los resultados del estudio con la experiencia del mundo real, ya que pusimos dos de estas en hospitales con los que Johns Hopkins trabaja en Sierra Leona, incluso en el que se dio la emergencia en la cesrea. +He hablado mucho de anestesia y tiendo a hacerlo. +Creo que es increblemente fascinante y un componente importante de la salud. +Y parece perifrica, nunca pensamos en ella, hasta que no tenemos acceso a ella y se vuelve un factor decisivo: +Quin recibe una ciruga y quin no? +Quin tiene una ciruga segura y quin no? +Pero ya saben, es solo una de las muchas formas en que un diseo, uno apropiado, puede tener un impacto en la salud. +Muchas gracias. +Al aparcar en un estacionamiento grande, Cmo hacemos para recordar dnde estacionamos? +ste es el problema que enfrenta Homero. +Y trataremos de comprender qu sucede en su cerebro. +Comenzaremos con el hipocampo, en amarillo, que es el rgano de la memoria. +Si se daa, como sucede en la enfermedad de Alzheimer, no se pueden recordar cosas como dnde estacionamos el auto. +Es el nombre en latn de caballo de mar, debido a su semejanza. +Y como el resto del cerebro, est compuesto de neuronas. +As el cerebro humano posee un centenar de millones de neuronas. +stas se comunican entre s enviando pequeos impulsos o picos elctricos mediante sus conexiones. +El hipocampo est formado por dos lminas de clulas densamente conectadas. +Los cientficos comenzaron a comprender cmo funciona la memoria espacial rastreando las neuronas individuales en ratas o ratones mientras ellos exploran el ambiente en busca de alimento. +Imaginemos que registramos una neurona del hipocampo de esta rata de aqu. +Y al disparar un impulso elctrico, es decir, el potencial de accin, aparecer un punto rojo y un clic. +As, lo que vemos es que esta neurona sabe cundo la rata ha entrado a un lugar particular de su ambiente +y enva seales al resto del cerebro mediante pequeos destellos elctricos. +As, podemos mostrar el ndice de disparo de esa neurona, como una funcin de la ubicacin del animal. +Y si hacemos un registro de un montn de neuronas diferentes, veremos que las neuronas disparan cuando el animal recorre diferentes entornos, como lo muestra este recuadro. +Juntas forman un mapa para el resto del cerebro, dicindole constantemente: Dnde me encuentro en mi ambiente? +Las clulas de lugar se registran tambin en los humanos. +Los epilpticos, algunas veces, necesitan el monitoreo de la actividad elctrica de sus cerebros. +Y algunos de estos pacientes jugaron un video juego donde conducan alrededor de un pequeo pueblo. +Las clulas de lugar en el hipocampo dispararan, se activaran, y comienzan a enviar impulsos elctricos cada vez que recorren los espacios de esa ciudad. +Cmo sabe una clula de lugar dnde se encuentra la rata dentro de su ambiente? +Pues bien, estas dos clulas muestran que los lmites del ambiente son especialmente importantes. +As, la de la parte superior interviene disparando desde la mitad entre las paredes de la caja donde est su rata. +Y cuando se expande la caja, el potencial de accin se expande. +La neurona de abajo interviene disparando cada vez que hay una pared cerca hacia el Sur. +Y si agregan otra pared, la clula dispara en ambos lados cada vez que hay una pared al Sur mientras el animal explora la caja. +As, esto predice la percepcin de las distancias y direcciones de los lmites que nos rodean, los espacios ampliados, etc., son particularmente importantes para el hipocampo. +Y efectivamente, en las entradas del hipocampo, hay clulas que se proyectan en el hipocampo, las que responden precisamente a detectar lmites o bordes a distancias determinadas y direcciones desde donde la rata o ratn se encuentra explorando. +Y la clula de la derecha, dispara cada vez que hay un borde al Sur, as se trate del borde de una mesa o una pared, o incluso, el espacio entre dos mesas separadas. +sta es una de las maneras que pensamos cmo las clulas de lugar determinan dnde el animal se encuentra cuando explora. +Incluso podemos probar dnde pensamos que se encuentran los objetos, como esta bandera en situaciones simples, o incluso, dnde estara su auto. +As puede haber gente que explore el ambiente y que observe la ubicacin que tienen que recordar. +Si los llevamos nuevamente al ambiente, generalmente suelen marcar correctamente dnde creen que estaba la bandera o el auto. +Pero en algunos intentos, podramos cambiar la forma y el tamao del ambiente, como lo hicimos con la clula de lugar. +En ese caso, podemos ver cmo creen que la bandera haba cambiado, en funcin de cmo se modifica la forma y el tamao del entorno. +Y lo que observan, por ejemplo, es si la bandera estaba en la cruz del espacio pequeo cuadrangular. Si luego preguntan a la gente dnde estaba, pero agrandaron el espacio dnde ellos creen que la bandera estaba desplegada de la misma manera que el disparo de la clula de lugar despleg. +Es como si se recordara dnde estaba la bandera almacenando el patrn de disparo a travs de todas las clulas de lugar en ese sitio, y entonces pueden volver all desplazndose para corresponder el patrn actual de disparo de sus clulas de lugar con el patrn almacenado. +Eso los gua hacia la ubicacin que quieren recordar. +Pero tambin sabemos dnde estamos a travs del movimiento. +Cuando aparcamos y nos alejamos y tomamos algn camino de salida, sabemos dnde estamos por nuestros movimientos, que integramos a ese camino dirigindonos hacia ese punto de salida. +Y las clulas de lugar tambin logran integrar ese camino de salida a travs de un tipo de clula llamada celda de la cuadrcula. +Las celdas de la cuadricula, de nuevo, se encuentran en las entradas al hipocampo y son similares a las clulas de lugar. +Mientras la rata explora alrededor, cada clula se dispara en una variedad de direcciones desplegadas en el ambiente asombrosamente en forma de cuadrcula, pero triangular. +Y si registramos algunas clulas, vistas aqu en diferentes colores, cada una de ellas tiene un patrn de disparo de la cuadrcula a travs del ambiente, y cada patrn de disparo de la celda de la cuadrcula, se desplaza ligeramente en relacin a las otras clulas. +Por lo tanto, la roja dispara en esta cuadrcula, la verde en sta, y la azul en sta. +As juntas, es como si la rata situara una cuadrcula virtual de disparos en todo su entorno, algo as como las lneas de longitud y latitud de los mapas, pero utilizando tringulos. +Y a medida que se desplaza, la actividad elctrica puede transferirse de una de las clulas a la otra para rastrear dnde se encuentra, y as utilizar sus propios movimientos para saber dnde est en su entorno. +Las personas tienen celdas de cuadrcula? +Entonces, podemos poner a una persona en el escner de RMI y darle un pequeo video para jugar como el que les mostr y observar las seales. +Y de hecho, esto se observa en la corteza entorrinal, que est en la misma parte del cerebro en la que observamos las celdas de cuadrcula en las ratas. +Entonces volviendo a Homero. +l, probablemente, recuerda donde estaba su auto, en trminos de direcciones y distancias con los edificios y lmites del lugar donde estacion. +Y podra representarse mediante el disparo de las clulas detectoras de limites. +l tambin recuerda el camino que tom para salir del estacionamiento, el que estara representado en el disparo de las celdas de la cuadrcula. +Ahora los dos tipos de clulas pueden hacer disparar a las clulas de lugar. +Y l puede volver al lugar donde estacion movindose hasta encontrarlo, hasta que el patrn de disparo de las clulas de lugar en su cerebro encaje con el patrn que almacen al estacionar. +Y eso lo gua hacia el lugar, independientemente de las seales visuales, como por ejemplo, si el auto est realmente all. +Tal vez ha sido remolcado. +Pero l sabe dnde estaba, as que sabe donde ir a buscarlo. +Entonces, mas all de la memoria espacial, si buscamos el patrn de disparo de la cuadrcula en todo el cerebro lo veremos en toda una serie de lugares que estn siempre activos cuando realizamos toda clase de tareas de la memoria autobiogrfica, como por ejemplo, recordar la ltima boda a la que asistimos. +As, puede ser que los mecanismos neuronales para representar el espacio que nos rodea tambin sean utilizados para generar imgenes visuales y as poder recrear la escena espacial de los eventos del pasado cuando queremos representarlos. +Si esto sucedi, su memoria comenzara activando entre s las clulas de lugar a travs de esta densa conexin y as reactivando clulas de frontera para crear la estructura espacial de la escena alrededor de su punto de vista. +Y las celdas de la cuadrcula pueden mover esta perspectiva a travs de ese espacio. +Otro tipo de clulas, las clulas de direccin de la cabeza, que no haba mencionado, orientan como una brjula el camino a recorrer. +Ellas pueden precisar la direccin de visualizacin desde la cual se desea formar una imagen para las imgenes visuales de uno, y as se podr representar que pas en la boda a la que se asisti, por ejemplo. +ste es solo un ejemplo de una nueva era en neurociencia cognitiva donde estamos comenzando a comprender los procesos psicolgicos, tales como de qu manera recordamos o imaginamos, o alguna vez pensamos en trminos de actos de miles de millones de neuronas individuales que componen nuestro cerebro. +Muchas gracias. +Hoy quiero hablarles de algunos problemas que afrontan los ejrcitos occidentales de Australia, EEUU, RU, etc., en algunos despliegues de tropas que ocurren hoy en el mundo moderno. +Si piensan en los lugares a los que hemos enviado tropas australianas en los aos recientes algunos son obvios como Irak y Afganistn. Pero hay otros como Timor Oriental, las Islas Salomn, etc. +Estamos enviando tropas actualmente a guerras no tradicionales. +Muchas de las tareas que pedimos al personal militar que haga en estas situaciones son cosas que, en sus propios pases, Australia, EEUU, etc., haran los oficiales de polica. +Por eso surgen muchos problemas con el personal militar en estas situaciones porque hacen tareas para las que no se les capacit y son cosas que quienes las realizan en sus pases reciben una capacitacin y un equipamiento muy diferentes. +Hay muchas razones por la que enviamos personal militar en vez de polica para hacer estas tareas. +Si Australia maana tuviera que enviar miles de personas a Papa Occidental, por ejemplo, no tenemos mil oficiales de polica disponibles que maana podran acudir, pero s tenemos mil soldados que podran ir. +As, si tenemos que enviar a alguien, enviamos al ejrcito. Porque ellos estn disponibles, y, caramba, estn acostumbrados a salir a hacer eso, a valerse por s mismos, sin todo ese apoyo adicional. +As que, en ese sentido, pueden hacerlo. +Pero no tienen el entrenamiento de los oficiales de polica y, desde luego, tampoco el equipamiento de los oficiales de polica. +Esto puso plante una serie de problemas frente a este tipo de cuestiones. +En particular algo que me interesa sobre todo es si, cuando enviamos personal militar a hacer este tipo de tareas deberamos equiparlos de manera diferente. En particular, si deberamos proveerles de las armas no letales que tiene la polica. +Dado que hacen el mismo tipo de tareas, quiz deberan tener alguna de estas cosas. +Y, claro, hay muchos lugares en los que esas cosas seran muy tiles. +Por ejemplo, en los puestos de control militares, +Si alguien se acerca al puesto de control y el personal militar no est seguro de si esa persona es peligrosa o no... +digamos que esta persona se acerca y ellos dicen: "es un suicida o no? +Tiene algo escondido debajo de la ropa o no? Qu pasar?" +No saben si la persona es peligrosa o no. +Si esta persona no sigue las instrucciones quiz terminen disparndole para luego averiguar si, en efecto, le dieron a la persona correcta o, si slo era un inocente que no entendi lo ocurrido. +Si tuvieran armas no letales diran: "Bueno, podemos usarlas en esas situaciones. +Si le disparamos a alguien que no era peligroso al menos no lo mataremos". +Otra situacin. +Esta foto es una de las misiones de los Balcanes de fines de los 90. +La situacin es un poco diferente si saben que alguien es peligroso, si alguien les est disparando o tiene una actitud hostil como arrojar piedras, etc. +Pero si uno responde hay gente alrededor, personas inocentes, que pueden salir heridas; esos daos colaterales de los que el ejrcito casi nunca habla. +Diran: "Bueno, si tuviramos armas no letales, frente a alguien que sabemos que es peligroso, podramos hacer algo al respecto sabiendo que si le damos a otra persona cercana, al menos no la mataremos". +Otra sugerencia fue, dado que hay tantos robots en el campo, que ha llegado el momento de enviar al terreno robots autnomos +que tomen sus propias decisiones sobre a quin dispararle y a quin no, sin seres humanos en el medio. +As que la sugerencia es, si enviaremos robots al terreno que hagan esto, quiz sera buena idea, de nuevo, que fueran provistos de armas no letales para que, si el robot toma una mala erronea y le da a la persona equivocada en realidad no la mate. +Hay muchas armas no letales, algunas ya estn disponibles hoy, otras estn en desarrollo. +Hay armas tradicionales como el gas pimienta, el gas pimienta de all arriba, o las armas paralizantes de aqu. +Arriba, a la derecha, hay un rayo lser para cegar a la persona momentneamente y as desorientarla. +Hay municiones no letales con balas de goma en vez de las tpicas de metal. +Y este del medio, el gran camin, es el Sistema de Negacin Activa un proyecto en curso del ejrcito de EEUU. +Es un gran transmisor de microondas. +Es la idea clsica del rayo de calor. +Llega a distancias muy largas, en comparacin con todas las dems armas. +Y todo aquel que es impactado siente una sbita explosin de calor y slo quiere escapar de all. +Es mucho ms sofisticado que un horno de microondas pero, en esencia, hierve las molculas de agua de la superficie de la piel. +Entonces uno siente ese enorme calor y piensa: "debo salir de aqu". +Y se est pensando que ser muy til en lugares en los que tenemos que dispersar multitudes si se comportan con hostilidad. +Si hay que dispersar a la gente de un lugar especfico, pueden usarse este tipo de cosas. +Es obvio que hay gran cantidad de armas no letales que el personal militar podra usar; y hay muchas situaciones para las que se cree: "Oye, estas cosas podran ser muy tiles". +Pero, como dije, el ejrcito y la polica son muy diferentes. +No hace falta ir muy lejos para reconocer que podra ser muy diferente. +En particular, la actitud respecto del uso de la fuerza y a su entrenamiento en el uso de la fuerza son bien diferentes. +La polica -lo s porque ayud a entrenar a la polica- al menos en las jurisdicciones occidentales estn capacitadas para contener el uso de la fuerza, para tratar de evitar el uso de la fuerza de ser posible, y a usar la fuerza letal slo como ltimo recurso. +El personal militar est entrenado para la guerra, est entrenado para que, si las cosas van mal, su primera reaccin sea la fuerza letal. +Cuando las cosas se complican empiezan a disparar a la gente. +As, su actitud ante el uso de la fuerza letal es muy diferente, y creo que es bastante obvio que su actitud hacia el uso de las armas no letales tambin sera muy distinta respecto del uso policial. +Y dado que ya hemos tenido muchos problemas con el uso policial de las armas no letales, pensaba que sera una muy buena idea ver alguna de estas cosas y tratar de relacionarlas con el contexto militar. +Y yo estaba muy sorprendido cuando empec a ver que, en realidad, incluso aquellos que apoyaban el uso de armas no letales por parte del ejrcito no lo haban hecho. +Por lo general piensan: "Por qu debera preocuparnos lo sucedido con la polica? +Esto es algo diferente". Y, de hecho, no parecen reconocer que estaban frente a casi lo mismo. +As que empec a analizar algunos de estos problemas y a observar el uso policial de las armas no letales en su implantacin y algunos de los problemas que podran surgir con ese tipo de armas cuando se usan por primera vez. +Y, claro, como australiano, empec a buscar en Australia, sabiendo por experiencia propia de las tantas veces que se implantaron armas no letales en Australia. +Una de las cosas que he estudiado fue el uso del gas pimienta, la oleorresina capsicum, el spray de pimienta, por la polica australiana a ver qu sucedi en la implantacin de esas armas y ese tipo de problemas. +Un estudio que me result particularmente interesante fue uno de Queensland, porque ellos tenan un perodo de prueba del gas pimienta antes de su adopcin masiva. +Y fui a ver algunos nmeros. +Cuando se introduce el gas pimienta en Queensland, fueron muy explcitos. +El ministro de defensa hizo muchas declaraciones pblicas. +Deca: "Est diseado especficamente para darle a la polica una opcin entre gritar y disparar. +Es algo que pueden usar en lugar de las armas de fuego en situaciones en las que antes hubieran tenido que matar a alguien". +Luego me fui a ver las cifras de disparos de la polica. +Realmente no es tan fcil encontrar cifras de los estados australianos. +Slo pude encontrar estas. +Es un informe del Instituto Australiano de Criminologa. +Como pueden ver, si llegan a leer all arriba: "Muertes en episodios policiales" no slo son las perpetradas por la polica, sino tambin los suicidios en presencia policial. +Son cifras de todo el pas. +Y la flecha roja es el punto en el que Queensland dijo: "S, ahora pondremos el gas pimienta a disposicin de la polica de todo el estado". +As que pueden ver que fueron causadas seis muertes cada ao, durante varios aos. +Por supuesto, hubo un pico unos aos antes pero no en Queensland. +Alguien sabe dnde fue? Port Arthur no era, no. +Victoria? S, correcto. +El pico ocurri en Victoria. +As que Queensland no tuvo un problema particular de muertes por disparos policiales. +Seis disparos en todo el pas, bastante constante en los aos anteriores. +Ellos estudiaron los dos aos siguientes: 2001 y 2002. +Alguien adivina la cantidad de veces, en la implantacin de las armas, la cantidad de veces que la polica de Queensland us el gas pimienta en ese perodo? +Cientos? Uno, tres. +Miles est mejor. +Introducido explcitamente como alternativa al uso de la fuerza letal; una alternativa entre gritar y disparar. +Me meter en camisa de once varas al decir que la polica de Queensland, de no haber usado el gas pimienta, no habra matado a 2226 personas en esos dos aos. +De hecho, si analizan los estudios que estaban viendo, el material que recolectaban y examinaban, puede verse que los sospechosos estaban armados slo en el 15% de los casos en los que se us el gas pimienta. +Estas personas no hacen nada violento, pero no hacen lo que queremos que hagan. +No obedecen las instrucciones que les damos por eso les vamos a arrojar gas pimienta. +Eso har que se apuren. Todo funcionar mejor as. +Fue algo introducido explcitamente como alternativa a las armas de fuego, pero se usa habitualmente para afrontar muchos otros problemas. +Un problema particular que surge con el uso militar de armas no letales -y las personas que dicen, "bueno, podra haber problemas"- hay un par de problemas particulares en los que concentrarse. +Uno de ellos es el uso indiscriminado que podra hacerse de las armas no letales. +Uno de los principios fundamentales del uso militar de la fuerza es que hay que ser selectivo. +Hay que identificar a quin se le dispara. +Por eso uno de los problemas potenciales de las armas no letales sera el uso indiscriminado; que se las use contra un gran nmero de personas dado que ya no hay que preocuparse. +Y, de hecho, un ejemplo particular en el que creo que ocurri esto fue en el cerco al teatro Dubrovka de Mosc, en el 2002, que tal vez muchos de Uds., salvo mis alumnos del ADFA, tengan la edad suficiente para recordar. +Los chechenos entraron al teatro y tomaron el control. +Tomaron como rehenes a unas 700 personas. +Haban liberado muchas personas pero todava tenan unos 700 rehenes. +Y la polica militar de Rusia, las fuerzas especiales, Spetsnaz, entraron y tomaron el teatro por asalto. +Y para eso cubrieron el teatro con gas anestsico. +Como resultado murieron muchos rehenes producto de la inhalacin del gas. +Se us en forma indiscriminada. +Llenaron de gas el teatro. +Y esas muertes no sorprenden porque uno no sabe cunto gas inhalar cada persona, en qu posicin caer cada uno, cundo se desmayarn, etc. +En el episodio hubo slo un par de disparos. +Luego, cuando fueron a ver slo haba un par de personas al parecer asesinadas por los secuestradores o a manos de efectivos policiales que ingresaron para tratar de resolver la situacin. +Prcticamente todos los que murieron, murieron por la inhalacin de gas. +El recuento final de vctimas no est claro, pero sin duda es un poco ms que eso porque murieron otras personas en los das subsiguientes. +Este fue un caso en el que sealaron que pudo haberse usado indiscriminadamente. +La gente a la que disparemos no podr apartarse del camino. +No sabr lo que pasa y ser ms fcil matarlos. +De hecho, eso fue lo que pas aqu. +Los secuestradores que quedaron inconscientes con el gas no fueron puestos en custodia, se les dispar en la cabeza. +El arma no letal en este caso se us como multiplicador de la fuerza letal para matar con ms eficacia en esta situacin particular. +Otro problema que quiero mencionar rpidamente es que hay muchos problemas con esta manera de ensearle a la gente a usar armas no letales, a capacitarse sobre su uso y luego con la evaluacin, etc. +Porque se los evala en entornos seguros. +Aprenden a usarlas en entornos seguros como este en el que puede verse exactamente lo que ocurre. +La persona que roca el gas pimienta usa guantes de goma para asegurarse de no contaminarse, etc. +Pero nunca se usan as. +Se usan en el mundo real, como en Texas. (Texto: Polica usa arma paralizante contra abuela en parada de trfico) +Confieso que este caso despert mi inters. +Sucedi mientras trabajaba como investigador en la Academia Naval de EEUU +Aparecieron noticias sobre esta situacin en la que la mujer discuta con el oficial de polica. +Ella no era violenta. +l probablemente meda 15 cm ms que yo y ella tena esta estatura. +En un momento ella dice: "Bueno, regreso a mi coche". +Y l le dice: "Si vuelve a su coche, usar el arma paralizante". +Ella dice: "Pues, adelante". Y l procedi. +Todo qued registrado en la cmara de video ubicada en el frente del patrullero. +Tiene 72 aos y es evidente que no es la manera ms apropiada de tratarla. +Otro ejemplo del mismo tipo con otras personas en el que uno se pregunta: "es la forma ms adecuada de usar armas no letales?" +"Jefe de polica usa arma paralizante con nia de 14 aos". +"Estaba huyendo. Qu otra cosa iba a hacer yo?" +O en Florida: "Polica usa arma paralizante con nio de seis aos en una escuela primaria". +Evidentemente aprendieron mucho con esto porque, en el mismo distrito, "La polica revisa la norma tras usar arma paralizante con un nio: segundo nio vctima de arma paralizante en pocas semanas". +En el mismo distrito policial. +Despus del nio de seis aos, otro nio vctima de arma paralizante. +Por si acaso piensan que esto slo ocurre en EEUU, tambin ha sucedido en Canad. +Un colega me envi esto desde Londres. +Pero mi favorito, lo confieso, viene de EEUU: "Oficiales usan arma paralizante con discapacitada de 86 aos en su lecho". +Verifiqu los informes de este caso. +Los observ y realmente me sorprend. +Al parecer, ella adopt una posicin amenazante en su lecho. +No bromeo, dice exactamente eso: +"Adopt una posicin amenazante en su lecho". +Bueno. +Les recuerdo de qu estoy hablando. Hablo del uso militar de las armas no letales. +Por qu importa? +Porque la polica hace un uso ms restringido de la fuerza que el ejrcito. +Se les entrena para ser ms comedidos en el uso de la fuerza que el ejrcito. +Estn capacitados para pensar ms, para tratar de contenerse. +Pero si hay tantos problemas con el uso policial de las armas no letales, por qu diablos pensamos que funcionar mejor con el personal militar? +Lo ltimo que aadira, al consultar a la polica es cul podra ser el arma no letal perfecta, invariablemente dicen lo mismo: +"Bueno, tiene que ser algo bastante terrible para que la gente no quiera ser impactada con eso. +Para que si uno amenaza con usarla la gente obedezca, pero debe ser algo que no deje efectos duraderos". +En otras palabras, el arma no letal perfecta es algo perfecto para cometer abusos. +Qu habran hecho estos chicos con armas paralizantes o con una versin porttil del Sistema de Negacin Activa, un pequeo rayo de calor que puede usarse en personas sin preocuparse? +Por lo tanto, creo que en muchos casos las armas no letales pueden ser fantsticas en estas situaciones, pero tambin hay gran cantidad de problemas que deben considerarse. +Muchas gracias. +Tanto mi hermano como yo pertenecemos al grupo de menos de 30 aos que, como dijo Pat, somos el 70%; pero segn nuestras estadsticas es un 60% de la poblacin de la regin. +Qatar no es una excepcin en la regin. +Es una nacin muy joven, liderada por jvenes. +Hemos estado rememorando las ltimas tecnologas, los iPods, y, para m, la abaya; el atuendo tradicional que luzco hoy. +Esto no es un hbito religioso ni una creencia religiosa. +Elegimos usarlo como una declaracin de diversidad cultural. +Recuerdo, que hace algunos aos, un periodista le pregunt a la Dra. Sheikha, aqu presente -rectora de la Universidad de Qatar-, le pregunt si pensaba que la abaya, en cierto modo, obstaculizaba su libertad. +Su respuesta fue todo lo contrario. +Por el contrario, se senta ms libre, ms libre, porque poda usar lo que quisiera bajo la abaya. +Poda venir a trabajar en pijama, que nadie lo vera. +No es el caso; lo digo por decir. +Lo que quiero decir es que se puede elegir, as como las indias pueden usar el sari o las japonesas el kimono. +Estamos cambiando nuestra cultura desde adentro, pero al mismo tiempo estamos volviendo a conectar con nuestras tradiciones. +Sabemos que la modernizacin existe. +Y, s, Qatar quiere ser una nacin moderna. +Pero al mismo tiempo volvemos a conectarnos y a reafirmar nuestra herencia rabe. +Para nosotros es importante crecer orgnicamente. +Continuamente tomamos decisiones conscientes para lograr ese equilibrio. +De hecho, las investigaciones han demostrado que cuanto ms uniforme es el mundo, o para usar la analoga de Tom Friedman, ms global, la gente cada vez quiere diferenciarse ms. +Y para nosotros, los jvenes, la gente busca su individualidad y descubrir sus diferencias como individuos. +Es por eso que prefiero la analoga de Richard Wilk, de hacer global lo local y local lo global. +No queremos ser todos iguales, sino respetarnos unos a otros y comprendernos mutuamente. +Por eso la tradicin se vuelve ms importante y no al revs. +La vida necesita un mundo universal y, sin embargo, creemos en la seguridad de una identidad local. +Eso es lo que tratan de hacer los lderes de esta regin. +Tratamos de ser parte de esta aldea global, pero al mismo tiempo nos estamos reinventando mediante nuestras instituciones culturales y nuestro desarrollo cultural. +Yo soy un exponente de ese fenmeno. +Y creo que mucha gente en esta sala, muchos de Uds. estn en mi misma posicin. +Y estoy segura, aunque no puedo ver a la gente de Washington, que estn en la misma posicin. +Constantemente tratamos de mantener el equilibrio entre diferentes mundos y culturas, tratando de hacer frente a los desafos de las distintas expectativas; las propias y las ajenas. +Por eso quiero hacer una pregunta: Cmo debe ser la cultura del siglo XXI? +En un momento en el que el mundo se personaliza, en el que el mvil, la hamburguesa, el telfono, todo tiene su impronta personal, cmo deberamos percibirnos y cmo deberamos percibir a los dems? +Qu impacto tiene eso en nuestra cultura del desierto? +No estoy segura de que muchos de Uds. en Washington estn al tanto de los desarrollos culturales de la regin, el ms reciente reciente fue el Museo de Arte Islmico inaugurado en Qatar en 2008. +Yo misma personalizo estos acontecimientos culturales, pero tambin entiendo que se debe hacer de manera orgnica. +S, tenemos todos los recursos que necesitamos para desarrollar nuevas instituciones culturales, pero creo que ms importante es que somos muy afortunados de contar con lderes visionarios que entienden que este cambio no puede ser externo, que tiene que venir desde dentro. +Y saben qu? +Quiz se sorprenderan al saber que la mayora de la gente del Golfo que llevan adelante estas iniciativas culturales son mujeres. +Y les pregunto, por qu creen que sucede esto? +Porque es una opcin fcil? Porque no tenemos otra cosa que hacer? +No, no lo creo. +Creo que las mujeres de esta parte del mundo entienden que la cultura es un elemento importante para conectar a las personas tanto a nivel local como regional. +Es un componente natural para convocar a las personas a discutir ideas, como hacemos aqu en TED. +Estamos aqu, somos parte de una comunidad, compartimos ideas y las discutimos. +El arte se torna una parte importante de nuestra identidad nacional. +El impacto existencial, social y poltico que ejerce un artista en el desarrollo de la identidad cultural de su nacin es muy importante. +Ya saben, el arte y la cultura son un gran negocio. +Dganmelo a m. +Pregntenle a los altos directivos de Sotheby's y Christie's. +Pregntenle a Charles Saatchi sobre el gran arte. +Ellos ganan mucho dinero. +Por eso creo que las mujeres en nuestra sociedad se estn convirtiendo en lderes porque se dan cuenta de que para las futuras generaciones es muy importante preservar nuestra identidad cultural. +Sino, por qu exigiran los griegos la devolucin de los mrmoles de Elgin? +Por qu se arma un gran revuelo cuando un coleccionista privado trata de vender su coleccin a un museo extranjero? +Por qu me lleva varios meses conseguir un permiso de exportacin de Londres o Nueva York para traer obras a mi pas? +En pocas horas mi amiga iran Shirin Neshat, una artista muy importante para nosotros, hablar aqu. +Vive en Nueva York, pero no pretende ser una artista occidental. +En su lugar, intenta entablar un dilogo muy importante sobre su cultura, su nacin y su legado. +Lo hace mediante formas visuales importantes de la fotografa y el cine. +Del mismo modo, Qatar est buscando ampliar sus museos nacionales a travs de un proceso interno personal. +Nuestra misin se centra en la integracin cultural y la independencia. +No queremos tener lo que hay en Occidente. +No queremos sus colecciones. +Queremos construir nuestra identidad, nuestro tejido cultural, entablar un dilogo abierto para compartir nuestras ideas con Uds. y las suyas con nosotros. +En pocos das, inauguraremos el Museo rabe de Arte Moderno. +Hemos realizado una amplia investigacin para asegurar la presencia de artistas rabes y musulmanes y de rabes no musulmanes -por cierto, no todos los rabes son musulmanes- pero nos aseguramos de que estn representados en esta nueva institucin. +Esta institucin cuenta con apoyo estatal y as ha sido durante las ltimas tres dcadas. +En pocos das inauguraremos el museo y los invito a tomar un vuelo de Qatar Airways para que vengan a visitarnos. +Este museo es tan importante para nosotros como para Occidente. +Algunos de Uds. habrn odo de la artista argelina Baya Mahieddine, pero dudo que muchos sepan que esta artista trabaj en el estudio de Picasso en la Pars de los aos 1930. +Para m fue un descubrimiento. +Y creo que con el tiempo, en los prximos aos, aprenderemos mucho sobre nuestros Picassos, nuestros Legers y Czannes. +S que tenemos artistas pero, por desgracia, todava no los hemos descubierto. +La expresin visual es slo una forma de integracin cultural. +Nos hemos dado cuenta de que hoy en da cada vez ms personas usan YouTube y las redes sociales para contar sus historias, compartir sus fotos... para contar sus historias con sus propias voces. +De manera similar hemos creado el Instituto de Cine de Doha, +una organizacin para ensearle a la gente a hacer cine. +El ao pasado no tenamos ni una sola cineasta qatar. +Hoy digo con orgullo que hemos entrenado y capacitado a ms de 66 mujeres qatares para editar y contar sus historias con sus propias voces. +Si me lo permiten, me encantara compartir un corto de un minuto que ha demostrado que un corto de 60 segundos puede ser tan eficaz como un haiku para pintar un panorama general. +Este es uno de los productos de nuestras realizadoras. +Nio: Oye, escucha! Sabas que subieron las acciones? +Qu papel interpretas? +Nia: Al to Khaled. Toma, ponte el velo. +Khaled: Por qu? +Nia: Haz lo que te digo, jovencita. +Nio: No, t eres la mam y yo el pap. (Nia: Pero es mi juego). Entonces, juega sola. +Nia: Mujeres! Una palabra y se enojan. +Es intil. +Gracias. Gracias! +SM: Volviendo al equilibrio entre Oriente y Occidente, el mes pasado se celebr el segundo Festival de Cine Doha Tribeca aqu en Doha. +El Festival de Cine Doha Tribeca se celebr en nuestro nuevo centro cultural, Katara. +Atrajo a 42 000 personas, y proyectamos 51 pelculas. +Pero el Festival de Cine Doha Tribeca no es un festival importado, sino un gran festival entre las ciudades de Nueva York y Doha. +Es importante por dos razones. +En primer lugar, nos permite mostrarle nuestros cineastas rabes y sus voces a una de las ciudades ms cosmopolitas del mundo, Nueva York. +Al mismo tiempo, les invitamos a venir y explorar nuestra parte del mundo. +Estn aprendiendo nuestra cultura, nuestra lengua, nuestra herencia y se dan cuenta de que somos tan diferentes y tan iguales como cualquier otro. +Una y otra vez la gente ha dicho: "Construyamos puentes" y, francamente, yo quiero hacer mucho ms que eso. +Quisiera destruir los muros de la ignorancia entre Oriente y Occidente; no, no de la opcin fcil de la que hemos hablado antes, sino ms bien del poder blando, del que hablaba antes Joseph Nye. +La cultura es una herramienta muy til para unir a la gente. +No deberamos subestimarla. +"Concete a ti mismo". Ese es el viaje de autoexpresin y autorealizacin que estamos transitando. +No pretendo tener todas las respuestas, pero s que yo, como persona, y nosotros, como nacin, le damos la bienvenida a esta comunidad de grandes ideas para compartir. +Es un viaje muy interesante. +Son bienvenidos a bordo, para discutir nuevas ideas sobre la manera de unir a la gente mediante eventos culturales y debates. +La familiaridad destruye al miedo. Prubenla. +Damas y caballeros, muchas gracias. Shokran. +Debera pedir que levanten la mano o que aplaudan segn su generacin? +Porque yo estoy interesado en gente de 3 a 12 aos. +Nadie, no? +Bueno. +Voy a hablarles de dinosaurios. +Recuerdan los dinosaurios de cuando eran pequeos? +Los dinosaurios son bien divertidos. +Aunque hoy tomaremos una perspectiva diferente, +espero que lo noten. +As que ser claro: intenten no extinguirse. +Eso es. +A menudo me preguntan... es lo que ms me suelen preguntar: por qu a los nios les gustan tanto los dinosaurios? +Qu les fascina tanto? +Normalmente respondo: "Los dinosaurios eran grandes, diferentes y ya no existen". +Se han extinguido. +Bueno, eso no es cierto, pero ahora nos pondremos a ello. +Ah reside su fuerza: grandes, diferentes y extintos. +El ttulo de mi charla es "Dinosaurios multiformes: la causa de su extincin prematura". +Entiendo que todos los recordamos +y sabemos que adoptan muchas formas, +muchas y diferentes. +Hace mucho tiempo, a principios del siglo XX, los museos salieron a buscar dinosaurios. +Los buscaron y los recogieron. +Esta historia es interesante. +Todos los museos queran conseguir uno mejor o ms grande que los dems +Si el museo de Toronto sala y encontraba un tiranosaurio grande, el museo de Ottawa quera uno todava ms grande y mejor. +Y eso le pasaba a todos los museos. +As que todos salieron a buscar los dinosaurios ms grandes y mejores. +Eso pasaba a principios del siglo XX. +Pero en 1970, algunos cientficos se reunieron y pensaron: "Pero qu pasa? +Miren estos dinosaurios: +son todos grandes. +Dnde estn los pequeos?". +Y reflexionaron e incluso escribieron artculos: "Dnde estn los dinosaurios pequeitos?". +Pues vayan a un museo y vean, vean cuntos bebs de dinosaurio hay. +Todos suponan, y esto era el problema... todos suponan que si encontraban pequeos dinosaurios, dinosaurios juveniles, sera muy fcil identificarlos. +Tendramos un dinosaurio grande y otro pequeo, +pero solo tenan dinosaurios grandes. +Y habra que advertir un par de cosas. +Primero, los cientficos tienen ego y les gusta ponerle nombres a los dinosaurios. +Les gusta poner nombres en general. +A todos les gusta ponerle nombre a un animal. +As que cada vez que encontraban algo un poco diferente, le ponan un nombre diferente. +Y lo que pas, obviamente, es que terminaron con muchos dinosaurios diferentes. +En 1975, alguien tuvo una iluminacin. +El Dr. Peter Dodson, de la Universidad de Pennsylvania, se dio cuenta de que los dinosaurios crecen como lo hacen los pjaros, que es diferente de como lo hacen los reptiles. +Normalmente usaba a los casuarios como ejemplo. +Y los casuarios son muy interesantes, o cualquier pjaro con cresta, ya que alcanzan el 80% de su tamao adulto antes de que la cresta empiece a crecer. +Pinsenlo. +Bsicamente retienen sus caractersticas de juveniles bien avanzada su ontogenia. +La ontogenia alomtrica craneal es el crecimiento relativo del crneo. +Y pueden imaginarse que si encontraran un crneo al 80% de su crecimiento, sin saber que es un casuario, pensaran que son animales diferentes. +Este era el problema y Peter Dodson lo identific usando dinosaurios con pico de pato llamados hipacrosaurios. +Y demostr que si se estimaba la apariencia de forma lineal, a partir de un adulto y una cra, entonces tendra una cresta la mitad de grande que un adulto. +Pero el subadulto al 65% no tena ninguna cresta. +Esto era interesante. +Pero aqu se volvieron a equivocar. +Es decir, si hubieran tenido en cuenta el trabajo de Peter Dodson y lo hubieran aplicado, tendramos muchos menos dinosaurios en la actualidad. +Pero los cientficos tienen ego, les gusta poner nombres. +Y siguieron poniendo nombres porque eran dinosaurios diferentes. +Pero existe una forma de comprobar si un dinosaurio, o cualquier animal, es una cra o un adulto. +Se hace cortando los huesos. +Cortar los huesos de un dinosaurio es algo difcil, ya les digo, porque en los museos los huesos son muy valiosos. +En los museos los cuidan muy bien. +Los ponen entre espuma, en cajas. +Los cuidan muy bien. +No les hace gracia si alguien quiere abrirlos para mirar el interior. +As que normalmente no te dan permiso. +Pero yo tengo un museo y colecciono dinosaurios, y puedo abrir los mos. +Y eso es lo que hago. +Si abres un hueso de una cra, es muy esponjoso, como en A. +Y si abres el de un adulto, es macizo. +Se ve que es hueso adulto. +Es muy fcil diferenciarlos. +Quiero mostrarles lo siguiente. +En las llanuras septentrionales de los EE. UU. y en las llanuras meridionales de Alberta y Saskatchewan hay una zona llamada formacin Hell Creek que contiene los ltimos dinosaurios que existieron. +Y hay 12 que todo el mundo reconoce: los 12 principales que se extinguieron. +Y ahora los evaluaremos. +Eso es lo que yo hago. +Mis estudiantes, mis trabajadores los han abierto. +Como pueden imaginar, abrir un hueso de la pierna es una cosa, pero ir a un museo y preguntar: "Disculpen, podra abrir el crneo de su dinosaurio?". +Te responden: "Largo de aqu". +Aqu ven 12 dinosaurios. +Primero analizaremos estos tres. +Estos dinosaurios se llaman paquicefalosaurios. +Todo el mundo sabe que estos tres estn emparentados. +La suposicin es que estn emparentados como primos o algo as. +Pero a nadie se le ocurri que puedan estar ms emparentados. +Es decir, que cuando los observaron, vieron las diferencias. +Pero todos saben, que si quieren establecer si alguien est emparentado con su hermano, no se pueden observar las diferencias. +Solo se puede determinar el grado de parecido observando las similitudes. +As que cuando los observaban solo se fijaban en lo diferentes que son. +El paquicefalosaurio tiene una cpula grande y gruesa en el crneo y algunos bultitos en la parte trasera de la cabeza, y algunos bultos nudosos en la punta de la nariz. +El stygimoloch, otro dinosaurio de la misma poca, tiene cuernos en la parte trasera de la cabeza +y una cpula pequea, y bultos nudosos en la nariz. +Y este otro se llama dracorex, el favorito de Hogwart. +Adivinan de donde viene? De "dragn". +Este dinosaurio tiene cuernos que salen de la cabeza, sin cpula y nudos en la nariz. +Nadie se dio cuenta de que la parte nudosa se pareca. +Pero los miraban y decan: "Son tres dinosaurios diferentes y el dracorex es probablemente el ms primitivo. +Y aquel es ms primitivo que el otro". +No tengo claro cmo los ordenaron. +Pero si los alineamos, si alineamos los tres crneos, quedaran as. +dracorex es el ms joven, stygimoloch es el mediano y el paquicefalosaurio es el mayor. +Y eso debera darles alguna idea. +Pero no, no se les ocurri nada. +Bueno... ya sabemos por qu. +A los cientficos les gusta poner nombres. +Si abrimos el dracorex... (yo abr nuestro dracorex) vemos tejido esponjoso, muy esponjoso, +que significa que es un juvenil y que est creciendo muy de prisa. +As que crecer mucho ms. +Si abrimos el stygimoloch, est en el mismo proceso. +La pequea cpula est creciendo muy rpido. +Inflndose muy de prisa. +Lo interesante es que el cuerno trasero del dracorex tambin estaba creciendo muy rpido, +pero las del stygimoloch se estaban reabsorbiendo, estaban empequeeciendo, mientras la cpula se haca ms grande. +Si observamos al paquicefalosaurio, este tiene una cpula maciza y los bultos en la parte trasera de la cabeza se estn reabsorbiendo. +Un cientfico, solo con estos tres dinosaurios puede fcilmente establecer la hiptesis de que representan una serie de crecimiento del mismo animal. +Lo que por supuesto significa que el stygimoloch y el dracorex se han extinguido. +Bien. +Lo que significa que solo nos quedan 10 dinosaurios principales. +Con un colega de Berkley estudiamos al triceratops. +Y antes del ao 2000... recuerden que el triceratops fue descubierto en el siglo XIX. Antes de 2000, nadie haba visto un juvenil de triceratops. +Hay triceratops en todos los museos del mundo, pero nadie tena un juvenil. +Ya saben por qu, verdad? +Porque todos queran tener uno grande. +Y todos tenan uno grande. +As que nosotros salimos a buscar y encontramos muchos pequeos. +Son muy abundantes. +As que tenemos un montn en nuestro museo. +Todos piensan que es porque el museo es pequeo, +entonces tenemos dinosaurios pequeos. +Si observamos al triceratops, vemos que cambia de forma. +Cuando los juveniles crecen, los cuernos se curvan hacia atrs. +Y cuando se hacen mayores, se curvan hacia delante. +Es muy impresionante. +A lo largo del collar seo tienen huesos triangulares que crecen bastante y se achatan contra el collar seo, ms o menos como los cuernos del paquicefalosaurio. +Y como los juveniles estn en mi coleccin, los abro y miro dentro. +Y el pequeo es muy esponjoso +y el mediano tambin. +Pero lo interesante era que el triceratops adulto tambin era esponjoso. +Y este crneo tiene dos metros de largo. +Es un gran crneo. +Pero hay otro dinosaurio en el mismo lugar que se parece al triceratops, solo que ms grande y que se llama torosaurio. +Y cuando abrimos al torosaurio encontramos hueso adulto. +Pero con grandes agujeros en la placa. +Y todos afirman: "El triceratops y el torosaurio no pueden ser la misma especie porque uno es ms grande que el otro". +"Y tiene agujeros en el collar seo". +"Tenemos algn ejemplar juvenil de torosaurio?", pregunt. +Contestaron: "Pues no, pero este tiene agujeros en el collar seo". +Uno de mis estudiantes, John Scannella, revis nuestra coleccin completa y de hecho descubri que el agujero se empieza a formar en el triceratops y se abre en el torosaurio y encontr las transiciones entre ambos, que son geniales. +Ahora sabemos que el torosaurio es la versin adulta del triceratops. +Cuando les ponemos nombre, a los dinosaurios o a otras cosas, el primer nombre queda y el segundo se descarta. +As que el torosaurio se extingui. +triceratops, si escuchaste las noticias, algunos lo entendieron al revs. +Decan que el torosaurio debera mantenerse y eliminarse al triceratops, pero no ocurrir. +As que podemos hacer lo mismo en otros casos. +Por ejemplo, el edmontosaurio y el anatotitn: +el pato gigante. +Es un dinosaurio gigante en forma de pato. +Aqu tienen otro. +Analizamos la histologa sea +y esta nos dice que el edmontosaurio es un juvenil o por lo menos un subadulto y que el otro es un adulto y as construimos la ontogenia. +Y nos libramos del anatotitn. +Y as podramos seguir. +Y el ltimo es el T. rex. +Aqu hay dos dinosaurios: el T. rex y el nanotirano. +Curioso, no? +Pero se hacan una buena pregunta. +Los observaban y decan: "Uno tiene 17 dientes y el ms grande tiene 12. +Y eso no tiene sentido, no conocemos ningn dinosaurio que gane dientes con la edad. +As que debe ser verdad, deben ser diferentes". +Y entonces los abrimos. +Y, por supuesto, el nanotirano tena hueso juvenil y el ms grande tena hueso ms maduro. +Y pareca que todava poda crecer ms. +En el Museo de las Rocallosas donde trabajamos tenemos cuatro T. rex, as que puedo abrir unos cuantos. +Pero no tenamos que abrirlos porque simplemente alinebamos sus mandbulas y veamos que el ms grande tena 12 dientes y que el siguiente menor tena 13 y el siguiente menor 14. +Y, por supuesto, Nano tena 17. +Y buscamos en otras colecciones diferentes y encontramos uno con 15 dientes. +As que es fcil afirmar que la ontogenia del tiranosaurio incluye al nanotirano y por lo tanto podemos eliminar otro. +As que al final del Cretcico solamente quedan siete. +Y ese es un buen nmero. +Creo que es un buen nmero para extinguirse. +Como pueden imaginar, esta teora no es muy popular entre los nios. +Los nios adoran a los dinosaurios y los memorizan. +Y no les hace gracia esta teora. +Muchas gracias. +Cuntos de ustedes se sienten cmodos cuando los llaman lderes? +Ven? Hice esa misma pregunta por todo el pas, y en cada lugar que pregunto, no importa donde sea, siempre encuentro una gran parte de la audiencia que no levanta la mano, +y me he dado cuenta de que consideramos el liderazgo como algo ms grande que nosotros. Algo que est ms all de nosotros. +Algo relacionado con cambiar el mundo. +Y tomamos ese ttulo de lder y lo consideramos como algo de lo que algn da seremos merecedores, +pero adjudicrnoslo en este preciso momento implicara llegar a un nivel de arrogancia o vanidad con la que no nos sentimos cmodos. +Y a veces me preocupa que pasemos tanto tiempo festejando hechos asombrosos que muy pocos pueden lograr, que estemos convencidos de que esos hechos +son los nicos que valen la pena celebrar, y comenzamos a menospreciar los hechos cotidianos, y comenzamos a subestimar momentos en los que realmente somos lderes, y no nos permitimos recibir mrito por ello, y no nos permitimos sentirnos bien por ello. +He sido lo suficientemente afortunado en los ltimos 10 aos de trabajar con gente maravillosa quienes me ayudaron a redefinir el liderazgo de un modo que, creo, me ha hecho ms feliz. +Y a pesar del poco tiempo que tengo, me gustara compartir con ustedes la historia que probablemente sea la causa de esa redefinicin. +Asist a una pequea facultad llamada Mount Allison University en Sackville, New Brunswick, +y en mi ltimo da de clases, una joven se me acerc y dijo: "Recuerdo la vez en que nos conocimos". +Y luego me cont una historia que haba ocurrido 4 aos atrs. +Me dijo: "El da anterior a que comenzara la universidad estaba en un cuarto de hotel con mis padres, y estaba tan temerosa y convencida de que no podra hacerlo, de que no estaba lista para la universidad, que romp en llanto. +Y mis padres reaccionaron sorprendentemente; me dijeron: +'Sabemos que ests asustada, pero veamos qu pasa maana. Dejemos que pase el primer da y, si en algn momento sientes que no puedes hacerlo, est bien. Solo dnoslo +y te llevaremos de vuelta a casa. Pase lo que pase, te seguiremos amando' ". Y continu: "As que fui al da siguiente +y estaba all, parada en la fila esperando para registrarme, y mir a mi alrededor y lo supe: no poda hacerlo. +Saba que no estaba lista. Saba que deba abandonarlo todo". +Y luego dijo: "Tom esa decisin, y al instante, sent que me llenaba de una increble sensacin de paz. +Y me di vuelta para decirle a mis padres que debamos volver a casa, y justo en ese momento, t saliste del edificio del centro de estudiantes luciendo el sombrero ms ridculo que he visto en toda mi vida". "Fue genial. +Y llevabas un gran letrero promocionando Shinerama, una asociacin de estudiantes en lucha contra la fibrosis qustica, una fundacin con la que haba trabajado muchos aos y tenias un balde lleno de golosinas. Y caminabas por ah, entregando golosinas +a la gente en la fila y les hablabas de Shinerama. +Hasta que de repente llegaste hasta m y te detuviste, +Se puso rojo como un tomate y ni siquiera se atrevi a mirarme. +Solo me entrego la golosina, as". "Y me sent tan mal por l, que agarr la golosina +y tan pronto como lo hice, te pusiste serio y miraste a mis padres y les dijiste: "Vean eso. Vean eso. +Primer da fuera de casa, y ya acepta caramelos de un extrao?" Y ella dijo: "Todos estabamos pasmados y todos +a mi alrededor comenzaron a carcajearse. +Y s que esto es cursi, y no s por qu te lo estoy contando, pero en ese momento, cuando todos rean, supe que no deba abandonar. +Supe que estaba donde deba estar, +y supe que estaba en casa; y no te he hablado ni una vez en los cuatro aos que pasaron desde ese da, +pero escuch que te ibas, y tena que venir a decirte que habas sido +una persona muy importante en mi vida y que iba a extraarte. Buena suerte". +Y luego se fue y me dej helado. +Camin unos metros, se dio vuelta y dijo: "Probablemente tambin deberas saber que an salgo con ese chico cuatro aos despus". Un ao y medio despus de que me mud a Toronto recib una invitacin para su boda. +Pero lo curioso del caso es que no lo recuerdo. +No tengo recuerdo de ese momento, +y busqu en mis bancos de memoria, porque es un hecho gracioso y debera recordarlo, pero no, no lo recuerdo. +Cuntos de ustedes tuvieron un momento como el de la golosina? Un momento donde alguien dijo o hizo algo que hizo su vida mejor. +Bien, cuntos de ustedes le dijeron a esa persona lo que haba hecho? +Ven?, por qu no? Celebramos cumpleaos, cuando todo lo que tienen que hacer es no morir por 365 das y aun as permitimos que la gente que mejor nuestra vida camine por ah, sin saberlo. +Y cada uno de ustedes, cada uno de ustedes ha sido el catalizador de un momento goloso. +Han mejorado la vida de alguien con algo que dijeron +o hicieron, y si piensan que no lo han hecho, piensen en todas esas manos que no se levantaron cuando realic esa pregunta. +Son uno de esos que no han sido notificados. +Pero es tan escalofriante pensar que somos tan poderosos. Puede ser atemorizador pensar que importamos tanto para otra persona, +porque mientras hagamos que el liderazgo sea algo ms grande que nosotros, mientras mantengamos el liderazgo como algo ms all de nosotros, mientras pensemos que es algo que cambia al mundo, nos damos una excusa para no esperarlo de nosotros y de los otros cada da. +Marianne Williamson dijo: "Nuestro mayor temor no es que seamos inadecuados. +Nuestro mayor temor es que somos poderosos ms all de lo mensurable. +Es nuestra luz, y no nuestra oscuridad, lo que nos atemoriza". +Y lo que quiero decirles hoy es que necesitamos superarlo. Debemos superar nuestro miedo a cuan extraordinariamente poderosos podemos ser en nuestras vidas, el uno con el otro. +Debemos superarlo as podremos avanzar, y nuestros hermanos menores, y algn da nuestros nios, o tal vez ahora, puedan observarnos y empezar a valorar el impacto que podemos generar en la vida de cada uno, ms que el dinero y el poder, los ttulos y la influencia. +Debemos redefinir el liderazgo como esos momentos de la golosina, cuntos de ellos creamos, cuntos de ellos reconocemos, cuntos de ellos devolvemos y cuntos agradecemos. +Porque hemos hecho que el liderazgo sea algo que cambia al mundo, pero no hay un mundo. Tan solo hay 6 mil millones de concepciones, +y si cambias la concepcin de una persona, una persona que comprenda de lo que es capaz, una persona que entienda cunto se preocupan por ella, una persona que capte cun poderosa puede ser y cunto puede cambiar este mundo, entonces podremos cambiar todo. +Y si podemos entender el liderazgo de esa manera, pienso que podremos redefinirlo de ese modo, pienso que podemos cambiar todo. +Es una idea sencilla, pero no creo que sea pequea, +y quiero agradecerles a todos por permitirme compartirla con ustedes hoy. +Penelope Jagessar Chaffer: Estaba por preguntar si hay un mdico en la sala. +No, era una broma. +Es interesante. Sucedi hace seis aos cuando estaba esperando a mi primer hijo descubr que el conservante usado con ms frecuencia en productos para bebs simula al estrgeno cuando se incorpora al cuerpo humano. +Es muy fcil hacer que un compuesto qumico se introduzca en el cuerpo a travs de la piel. +Se han encontrado estos conservantes en tumores cancerosos de seno. +As empez este recorrido para hacer la pelcula "Toxic Baby" (El beb intoxicado). +No toma mucho tiempo descubrir algunas estadsticas asombrosas sobre esto. +En primer lugar, cada uno de nosotros tiene entre 30 y 50.000 productos qumicos en el cuerpo que no tenan nuestros abuelos. +Muchos de estos productos tienen que ver con muchsimos casos de enfermedades infantiles crnicas que se dan en las naciones industrializadas. +Veamos algunas estadsticas. +Por ejemplo, en el Reino Unido, los casos de leucemia infantil han aumentado en un 20 %, en una generacin. +Un crecimiento similar aparece en el cncer infantil en EEUU. +En Canad, ahora 1 de cada 10 nios es asmtico. +Un aumento de 4 veces. +Lo mismo sucede en todo el mundo. +En EEUU, probablemente las ms sorprendentes cifras estn en un aumento del 600 % en autismo, desrdenes relacionados con esto y otras dificultades de aprendizaje. +Nuevamente, se ve esa tendencia en Europa y Norteamrica. +En Europa, en ciertos lugares, se ve un aumento de 4 veces en ciertos defectos genitales de nacimiento. +Es interesante que uno de esos defectos ha crecido 200 % en los EEUU. +Un crecimiento enorme de enfermedades crnicas infantiles que incluyen afecciones como obesidad, diabetes juvenil y pubertad prematura. +Es interesante ver que cuando estaba buscando a alguien con quien dialogar sobre estos temas frente a una audiencia, descubr que probablemente una de las personas ms sobresalientes en el mundo capacitada para hablar de txicos en bebs es un experto en ranas. +Tyrone Hayes: Fue tambin una sorpresa para m que llegara a hablar de pesticidas y de salud pblica Porque, en verdad, nunca me haba imaginado poder ser til en esos casos. +Ranas. +En verdad, el inters en todo este asunto de los pesticidas tambin me lleg por sorpresa cuando me llamaron de la mayor empresa qumica del mundo y me pidieron que evaluara el efecto de la atrazina en los anfibios, o sea, a mis ranas. +Resulta que este es el producto de ms ventas de la mayor empresa qumica del mundo. +Es el contaminante nmero uno del agua subterrnea, de beber y de lluvia. +En el 2003, segn mis estudios, fue prohibida en la Unin Europa, pero ese mismo ao, la EPA de Estados Unidos volvi a registrar el producto. +Nos pareci muy sorprendente descubrir que cuando las ranas estaban expuestas a muy bajos niveles de atrazina (1 parte entre 10.000 millones), resultaban animales que se vean as. +stas son gnadas extradas de un animal que tena dos testculos, dos ovarios, otros testculos ms grandes y ms ovarios, lo cual no es normal... +ni siquiera en los anfibios. +En algunos casos, en otras especies como la rana leopardo norteamericana, se encontraron machos expuestos a la atrazina, con huevos en los testculos. +Aqu se pueden ver estos grandes huevos con yema asomndose a la superficie de los testculos de este ejemplar macho. +Mi esposa me dice, y con seguridad Penelope concuerda, que no hay dolor mayor que el de dar a luz, lo cual nunca sufrir, se los puedo asegurar, pero supongo que una docena de huevos de gallina en mis testculos podra ser uno de los peores dolores. +En estudios recientes publicados, se ha demostrado que de estos animales, cuando se exponen a atrazina, algunos machos se vuelven completamente hembras. +Estos son dos hermanos machos en plena relacin. +Y no es solo que estos machos genticos se acoplen con otros machos, sino que estn en capacidad de poner huevos a pesar de ser genticamente machos. +Lo que propusimos, y para lo que conseguimos apoyo, Es sobre lo que hace la atrazina que causa un desequilibrio hormonal desastroso. +Normalmente los testculos producen testosterona, la hormona masculina. +Pero lo la atrazina hace que se active una enzima, digamos que la fabrica, la aromatasa, la cual convierte la testosterona en estrgeno. +Como resultado, los machos expuestos pierden su testosterona, son castrados qumicamente, enseguida se afeminan porque resultan produciendo la hormona femenina. +Esto es lo que me trajo a asuntos con humanos. +Porque resulta que el tipo de cncer ms frecuente en las mujeres, el cncer de seno, se regula por el estrgeno y la enzima aromatasa. +As, cuando alguien desarrolla una clula cancerosa en el seno la aromatasa convierte los andrgenos en estrgenos, y esos estrgenos producen, o promueven el crecimiento del cncer que se convierte en tumor y se extiende. +La aromatasa es tan crtica en el cncer de seno que uno de los ltimos tratamientos para ello es con un qumico llamado letrozol, que bloquea la aromatasa y el estrgeno, para que las clulas transformadas no crezcan convertidas en tumor. +Naturalmente, llama la atencin que todava estemos usando unas 40.000 toneladas de atrazina, el contaminante nmero uno del agua para beber, que da resultados negativos: se transforma en aromatasa, aumenta el estrgeno, promueve tumores en ratas y est asociado con tumores en humanos, cncer de seno. +Lo ms interesante es que la misma empresa que nos vende 40.000 toneladas de atrazina, causante del cncer de seno, ahora nos vende el antdoto; exactamente la misma compaa. +Me parece muy curioso que en vez de tratar la enfermedad previniendo la exposicin a los productos que la promueven, simplemente respondemos trayendo ms qumicos al ambiente. +PJC: Y hablando de estrgeno, otro de los compuestos a que Tyrone alude en la pelcula es uno llamado bisfenol A, BPA, que se ha visto en las noticias recientemente. +Es un plastificante, +un compuesto que se encuentra en el policarbonato, del que hacen los biberones para bebs. +Lo interesante del BPA es que es un estrgeno tan fuerte que alguna vez se consider usarlo como estrgeno sinttico en terapia hormonal. +Y hay muchsimos estudios que demuestran que el BPA se filtra de los biberones a la leche, y por tanto les llega a los bebs. +As que estamos administrando a nuestros bebs, a los recin nacidos, a los pequeitos, estrgeno sinttico. +Hace unas dos semanas la Unin Europea aprob una ley prohibiendo el uso de BPA en biberones y en jarros para bebs. +Para los que entre ustedes no son padres, los jarros para bebs son esas tazas plsticas que los nios usan cuando dejan el bibern. +Dos semanas antes, el Senado de los Estados Unidos se haba negado a debatir siquiera la prohibicin del BPA en biberones y jarros para bebs. +Como pueden ver, queda la responsabilidad en los padres que tienen que vigilar, regular y controlar esto en su da a da; esto es realmente preocupante. +PJC: Se ha demostrado que muchos biberones de plstico dejan filtrar bisfenol A. Esto prueba cmo, algunas veces, depende solo del cuidado de los padres interponerse entre los compuestos qumicos y nuestros nios. +El caso de los biberones demuestra que podemos prevenir contactos innecesarios. +Pero si los padres no tenemos cuidado, estaremos dejando que nuestros nios se defiendan solos. +TH: Lo que dice Penelope aqu es totalmente cierto. +Algunos de Uds. no saben que estamos en medio de la sexta extincin masiva. +Los cientficos estn de acuerdo. +Estamos perdiendo especies en la Tierra ms rpido que la desaparicin de los dinosaurios y las mayores prdidas estn en los anfibios. +El 80 % de los anfibios estn amenazados y en franca disminucin. +Al igual que muchos investigadores, creo que los pesticidas son parte importante de este descenso. +Los anfibios son buenos indicadores y son ms sensibles, en parte porque no tienen proteccin ante los contaminantes en el agua; sus huevos no tienen cscara, ni membrana, ni placenta. +Uno de nuestros mayores inventos de nosotros los mamferos fue la placenta. +Recordemos que originalmente ramos acuticos. +Pero resulta que esta antigua estructura que nos distingue de otros animales, la placenta, no puede evolucionar con suficiente rapidez ya que estamos generando nuevos productos qumicos ms rpido que nunca. +Hay evidencia en estudios con ratas, con el mismo producto, de que el desequilibrio hormonal producido por la atrazina genera abortos. +Porque la salud en el embarazo depende de las hormonas. +Cuando las ratas no abortan la atrazina les causa enfermedad de prstata a sus cras, as que desde recin nacidos vienen con esta enfermedad propia de hombres mayores. +Cuando no abortan, la atrazina produce defectos en el desarrollo mamario en las hijas que han estado expuestas a esta sustancia en el tero, de tal forma que sus mamas no se desarrollan correctamente. +Como resultado, cuando estas ratas crecen, sus cras sufren retardos de crecimiento y desarrollo porque no pueden producir suficiente leche para alimentarlas. +Ese cachorro que se ve abajo est afectado porque su abuela estuvo expuesta a la atrazina. +Debido a que la vida de esta sustancia abarca, varias generaciones, aos, decenas de aos, eso significa que ahora mismo estamos afectando la salud de los nietos de nuestros nietos por las cosas que hoy estamos poniendo en el ambiente. +Esto no es solo filosofa; ya se sabe muy bien que los productos qumicos como dietilestilbestrol y estrgeno, PCBs y DDT, atraviesan la placenta y efectivamente determinan la posibilidad de desarrollar cncer de mama, obesidad y diabetes, en el beb desde el vientre materno. +Adems de esto, otro invento nuestro original, de nosotros los mamferos, es la funcin de alimentar a las cras despus de nacidas. +Ya sabemos que los productos qumicos como DDT, DES y atrazina pueden pasarse a la leche igualmente afectando a los bebs aun despus de nacidos. +PJC: As, como dice Tyrone, la placenta es un rgano antiguo. Pienso cmo puedo demostrarlo? +Cmo se hace para probarlo? +Es interesante que, haciendo una pelcula como sta, para visualizar un hecho cientfico, no haya una buena forma de hacerlo. +Aqu tengo que darme una pequea licencia artstica. +Hombre mayor: Control de placenta. +Qu es eso? +Cmo? +Puffuffuff, qu? +cido perfluorooctanoico. +Caray. +Nunca lo haba odo. +PJV: En realidad yo tampoco, hasta que comenzamos a rodar esta pelcula. +Y cuando me di cuenta de que los productos qumicos pueden atravesar la placenta y llegarle al hijo por nacer, me puse a pensar, qu me dira mi feto? +Qu nos pueden decir los bebs por nacer cuando estn expuestos, como sucede cotidianamente, da tras da? +Beb: Hoy, recib algo de octilfenol, algo de almizcle artificial y tambin bisfenol A. +Aydenme. +PJC: Es una idea impactante, saber que nosotras las mujeres, estamos a la vanguardia de esto. +Es asunto nuestro porque acumulamos estos compuestos toda la vida y luego se los pasamos a nuestros bebs por nacer. +En efecto, estamos contaminando a nuestros hijos. +Me encontr esto hace un ao cuando supe que estaba embarazada y el primer examen mostraba que mi beb tena un defecto congnito relacionado con el contacto con productos estrognicos en el vientre. En el segundo examen no se encontraron latidos del corazn. +As, la muerte de mi hijo, de mi beb, me puso en resonancia con lo que estaba tratando de hacer en la pelcula. +En ocasiones se da esta situacin extraa en que el comunicador se hace parte de la historia, aunque esa no fuera la intencin original. +Cuando Tyrone habla del feto atrapado en un ambiente contaminado, siento que este es mi ambiente contaminado. +Que este es mi beb intoxicado. +Esto es algo profundo y triste a la vez, pero tambin sorprendente porque muchos no lo sabemos. +Posiblemente es la conexin con la siguiente generacin, con mi esposa y mi linda hija aqu, hace 13 aos, posiblemente esta conexin hace que las mujeres se vuelvan activistas en esto. +A los hombres aqu, quiero decirles que no son solo las mujeres y los pequeos quienes estn en riesgo. +Los testculos de las ranas expuestas a la atrazina estn llenos de huecos y espacios, debido al desequilibrio hormonal, en lugar de generar esperma, como en este caso, los tubos testiculares quedan vacos y la fertilidad desciende hasta en 50%. +No solo sucede con anfibios, como en mi trabajo, sino tambin con peces de Europa, con un grupo de reptiles en Sudamrica que presenta huecos en los testculos y ausencia de esperma, y con ratas, tambin con ausencia de esperma en los tubos testiculares. +Obviamente, no se hacen experimentos con humanos, pero simplemente por coincidencia, mi colega demostr que los hombres con bajos registros de esperma y semen de mala calidad tienen ms altos niveles de atrazina en la orina. +Son los hombres que viven en comunidades agrcolas. +Quienes trabajan en cultivos tienen niveles ms altos de atrazina. +Y los que efectivamente la aplican la tienen en mayor nivel en la orina, hasta 24.000 veces superior a lo que conocemos como nivel activo. Naturalmente la mayora, +90 %, son mexicanos o mexicanoestadounidenses. +Y no solo estn expuestos a la atrazina. +Tambin tienen contacto con otros productos como cloropicrina que originalmente se usaba como gas nervioso. +La esperanza de vida de muchos de estos trabajadores es apenas de 50 aos. +No debe sorprendernos, pero lo que sucede en la vida animal es una seal de peligro para todos, como nos lo advierten Rachel Carson y otros. +Es bastante obvio lo que se ve en esta foto del lago Nabugabo; el agua de desechos agrcolas de estos cultivos que va a estos recipientes es, en esa poblacin, la nica fuente de agua para cocinar y para el bao. +Si les digo a los hombres de esa aldea que las ranas tienen las defensas inmunes bajas y que tienen huevos en los testculos, la conexin entre el problema ambiental y la salud pblica queda bien clara. +Nadie tomara agua que se sabe que tiene este efecto en la vida animal que la habita. +El problema est en mi pueblo, Oakland, y en la mayora de nuestras ciudades, porque no vemos la conexin. +Abrimos el grifo, sale agua, suponemos que es segura y creemos que somos dueos de nuestro ambiente, en lugar de ser parte de l. +PJC: No es difcil concluir que en realidad este es un problema ambiental. +Sigo pensando todo el tiempo en esto. +Sabemos bastante sobre el calentamiento global y el cambio climtico y sin embargo no tenemos claro lo que he llamado ambientalismo interno. +Conocemos lo que estamos echando fuera, tenemos algn sentido de las consecuencias, pero ignoramos lo que sucede cuando colocamos, o nos colocan, ciertas sustancias en el cuerpo. +Quiero exhortar a que, cuando pensemos en asuntos ambientales, recordemos que no se trata solo de glaciales y de casquetes de hielo, sino, tambin, de nuestros hijos. +Gracias. +Cada ao solo en Estados Unidos 2077000 parejas toman la decisin legal y espiritual de pasar el resto de su vida juntos... +y de no tener sexo con nadie ms, jams. +l compra un anillo; ella, un vestido. +Compran todo tipo de cosas. +Ella lo lleva a Arthur Murray a clases de baile de saln. +Y llega el gran da. +Estarn de pie ante Dios y la familia, y uno que hizo negocios con su padre una vez, y jurarn que nada, ni la mayor miseria, ni una enfermedad muy grave, ni el sufrimiento total y absoluto pondr nunca la menor nota de tristeza a su eterno amor y devocin. +Estos cabrones optimistas y jvenes prometen honrarse y quererse durante los sofocos, la crisis de los 40 y un aumento de peso de 23 kg, hasta ese lejano da en el que uno de ellos puede, al fin, descansar en paz. +Porque ya no podr or los ronquidos. +Y se emborracharn como tontos, se lanzarn tarta a la cara y bailarn la "Macarena". Y estaremos all colmndoles de toallas y tostadores, bebiendo en la barra libre y tirndoles alpiste todas las veces, aunque sabemos que, estadsticamente, la mitad se divorciar en menos de una dcada. +Por supuesto, la otra mitad no, verdad? +Seguirn olvidando aniversarios, discutiendo sobre dnde pasar las vacaciones y debatiendo de qu manera debe colocarse el rollo de papel higinico. +Y algunos, incluso, disfrutarn todava de su mutua compaa cuando ya no puedan masticar comida slida. +Y los investigadores quieren saber el porqu. +No hace falta un estudio doble ciego controlado con placebo para entender qu hace fracasar un matrimonio. +Falta de respeto, aburrimiento, demasiado tiempo en Facebook, tener sexo con otras personas. +Pero se puede tener justo lo contrario: respeto, emocin, una conexin a Internet averiada, soporfera monogamia... y an as puede irse todo al garete. +Entonces qu ocurre cuando no es as? +Qu tienen en comn los que llegan hasta el final Qu estn haciendo bien? +Qu podemos aprender de ellos? +Y si todava duermes felizmente solo, por qu deberas dejar de hacerlo y que el trabajo de tu vida sea encontrar a esa persona especial a la que puedas irritar el resto de tu vida? +Los investigadores gastan miles de millones de tus impuestos para intentar averiguarlo. +Acechan a parejas felices y estudian todos sus movimientos y gestos. +Intentan sealar con exactitud qu las diferencia de sus tristes vecinos y amigos. +Y resulta que las historias con xito comparten algunas similitudes, de hecho, ms all de que no tienen sexo con otros. +Por ejemplo, en los matrimonios ms felices la esposa es ms delgada y guapa que el marido. +Obvio, verdad? +Es obvio que esto lleva a un matrimonio feliz porque a nosotras nos importa mucho estar delgadas y guapas, mientras que a ellos les importa sobre todo el sexo... +ojal con mujeres ms delgadas y guapas que ellos. +Pero la belleza de esta investigacin es que nadie sugiere que debemos estar delgadas para ser felices; solo hay que estarlo ms que nuestras parejas. +En lugar de todas esas laboriosas dietas y ejercicios, solo tenemos que esperar a que ellos engorden, tal vez hacer unas tartas. +Es bueno tener esta informacin, y no es tan complicado. +La investigacin tambin sugiere que las parejas ms felices son las que se centran en lo positivo. +Por ejemplo, la esposa feliz +en vez de sealar la creciente panza del marido o sugerirle que vaya a correr, le dira: "Vaya! Cario, gracias por esforzarte en hacerme relativamente ms delgada". +Son parejas capaces de ver siempre el lado positivo. +"S, fue devastador cuando lo perdimos todo en aquel incendio, pero es agradable dormir bajo las estrellas, y es una suerte que tengas toda esa grasa para mantenernos calentitos". +Uno de mis estudios favoritos descubri que cuanto ms dispuesto est l a hacer tareas del hogar, ms atractivo lo encontrar su esposa. +Como si necesitramos que un estudio nos lo dijera. +Esto es lo que ocurre. +Cuanto ms atractivo lo encuentra, ms sexo tienen; cuanto ms sexo, ms amable es l con ella; cuanto ms amable es l, menos le insiste ella sobre dejar toallas mojadas en la cama, y al final, viven felices para siempre. +En otras palabras, hombres, os conviene mejorar en la seccin domstica. +Esto es interesante. +Un estudio descubri que quienes sonren en fotos de su infancia tienen menos probabilidades de divorciarse. +Es un estudio real, y dejen que se lo aclare. +Los investigadores no examinaron autoinformes documentados de felicidad infantil, ni siquiera estudiaron viejos diarios. +Los datos se basaron completamente en si la gente pareca feliz en esas primeras fotos. +No s que edad tienen ustedes, pero cuando yo era nia, los padres hacan fotos con una cmara especial que contena algo llamado carrete, y, se lo juro, el carrete era caro. +No te hacan 300 fotos en modo vdeo digital de disparo rpido y luego elegan la ms simptica y sonriente para la tarjeta navidea. +No. +Te arreglaban, te ponan en fila, t sonreas a la jodida cmara como te decan o podas despedirte de tu fiesta de cumpleaos. +An as, tengo un enorme montn de fotos de falsa felicidad infantil y me alegro de que por ello tenga menos probabilidades de divorciarme que otros. +Qu ms pueden hacer para salvaguardar su matrimonio? +No ganen un scar a la mejor actriz. +Lo digo en serio. +Bettie Davis, Joan Crawford, Hallie Berry, Hillary Swank, Sandra Bullock, Reese Witherspoon, todas ellas solas poco despus de llevarse la estatuilla a casa. +De hecho, lo llaman la maldicin del scar. +Es la sentencia de muerte del matrimonio y algo que debera evitarse. +Y no solo protagonizar pelculas con xito es peligroso. +Resulta que simplemente ver una comedia romntica hace caer en picada la satisfaccin de una relacin. +Al parecer, la amarga comprensin de que podra ocurrirnos a nosotros, pero no lo ha hecho y probablemente nunca lo har, hace que nuestras vidas, en comparacin, parezcan insoportablemente deprimentes. +Y tericamente, supongo que si optamos por una pelcula donde matan brutalmente a alguien o muere en un abrasador accidente de coche, tenemos ms probabilidades de salir del cine con la impresin de que nos va bastante bien. +Beber alcohol, por lo visto, es malo para tu matrimonio. +S. +No puedo decir ms sobre el tema porque le el titular y dej de leer. +Este da miedo: el divorcio es contagioso. +As es, cuando una pareja amiga se separa, aumentan tus posibilidades de divorciarte en un 75%. +He de decir que no lo entiendo. +Mi marido y yo hemos visto a unos cuantos amigos dividir sus activos y luego enfrentarse al problema de tener nuestra edad y estar solo en la era del sexting y el Viagra y las pginas de contactos. +Y pienso que han hecho ms por mi matrimonio que toda una vida de terapia. +Tal vez se estn preguntando por qu se casa la gente? +El Gobierno federal de los EE.UU. cuenta ms de 1000 beneficios legales por ser cnyuge de alguien. Una lista que incluye derecho de visita en prisin, pero con suerte nunca lo necesitarn. +Ms all de los profundos beneficios federales, la gente casada gana ms dinero. +Estamos ms sanos, fsica y emocionalmente. +Nuestro hijos son ms felices, ms estables y ms triunfadores. +Tenemos ms sexo que nuestros amigos solteros y en teora activos, lo crean o no. +Incluso vivimos ms aos, lo que es un argumento bastante convincente para casarse con alguien que te gusta mucho para empezar. +La conclusin es, lo tengan ya o lo estn buscando, creo que el matrimonio es una institucin que merece la pena reivindicar y proteger. +Espero que usen esta informacin para comparar sus puntos fuertes con sus factores de riesgo. +Por ejemplo, en mi matrimonio, dira que lo estoy haciendo bien. +Por una parte, tengo un marido irritantemente delgado e increblemente guapo. +Obviamente tendr que engordarlo. +Y ya dije que tenemos amigos divorciados que tal vez estn intentando hacernos romper de manera secreta o subconsciente. +Debemos estar pendientes. +Y nos gusta beber un cctel o dos. +Por otra parte, tengo las fotos de falsa felicidad. +Adems, mi marido hace muchas tareas del hogar, y con mucho gusto no volvera a ver otra comedia romntica en su vida. +Tengo todas estas cosas a mi favor. +Pero, por si acaso, pienso trabajar muy duro para no ganar un scar en un futuro cercano. +Y por el bien de sus relaciones, les animo a que hagan lo mismo. +Les ver en el bar. +Los tiburones peregrinos son criaturas increbles. Son simplemente magnficos. +Alcanzan los 10 metros de largo, +o incluso ms. +Llegan a pesar dos toneladas. +Y dicen que hasta cinco toneladas. +Es el segundo pez ms grande del mundo. +Son animales inofensivos que se alimentan de plancton. +Y se cree que pueden filtrar un kilmetro cbico de agua por hora y comer 30 kilos de zooplancton al da para sobrevivir. +Son criaturas fantsticas. +En Irlanda tenemos la suerte de tener muchos de ellos y muchas oportunidades para estudiarlos. +Este es un grabado antiguo de los 1700-1800. +Fueron muy importantes por el aceite de sus hgados. +El hgado representa un tercio del tamao del tiburn peregrino y est lleno de aceite. +Se obtenan muchos litros de aceite de su hgado. +Principalmente se usaba para iluminacin, pero tambin para curar heridas, entre otros usos. +De hecho, el alumbrado pblico en 1742 de Galway, Dubln y Waterford funcionaba a base de aceite de pez luna. +Y "pez luna" es una de las denominaciones del tiburn peregrino. +As que eran animales muy importantes. +Llevan aqu mucho tiempo, han sido muy importantes para las comunidades costeras. +Quiz el caladero de tiburones peregrinos mejor documentado del mundo sea el de la isla de Achill. +Esta es la baha Keem en la isla de Achill. +Los tiburones solan entrar a la baha. +Y los pescadores ataban una red en una punta y la enlazaban a otra red. +Cuando vena el tiburn, se meta en la red y quedaba enredado en ella. +A menudo el tiburn se asfixiaba. +O a veces iban remando en sus botes y los mataban enterrndoles una lanza en el pescuezo. +Luego remolcaban a los tiburones hacia Puerto Purteen, los hervan y usaban su aceite. +Tambin solan usar la carne como fertilizante y cortarles la aleta. +Esta quiz sea la mayor amenaza para los tiburones del mundo: el cercenamiento de las aletas. +Gracias a "Tiburn" a menudo les tememos. +Los tiburones matan quiz a 5 6 personas al ao. +Hace poco muri alguien; hace un par de semanas. +Nosotros matamos 100 millones de tiburones al ao. +No se cul es el saldo pero creo que los tiburones tienen ms derecho a temernos que nosotros a ellos. +Era un caladero bien documentado y, como pueden ver aqu, alcanz su mximo en los 50 cuando faenaban 1500 tiburones al ao. +Y descendi muy rpido; un ciclo clsico en la pesca, lo que sugiere que se agotaron las reservas o que las tasas de reproduccin son bajas. +Mataron unos 12 000 tiburones en este perodo, simplemente tendiendo una cuerda en la punta de la baha Keem, en la isla de Achill. +Esto continu hasta mediados de los 80, sobre todo en lugares como Dunmore East en el condado de Waterford. +Y hasta el ao 85 seguan matando entre 2500 y 3000, muchos a manos de barcos noruegos. +Eso negro no puede verse bien pero son barcos noruegos cazando tiburones y la lnea negra en la cofa significa que es un barco tiburonero en vez de un barco ballenero. +La importancia de los tiburones peregrinos para las comunidades costeras se refleja en el idioma. +Sin presumir de mis dotes para el irlands s que en Kerry se los conoca como "Ainmhide na seolta", el monstruo con velas. +Y otro nombre sera "Liop una lapa da", la bestia deforme de dos aletas. +"Liabhan mor", un animal grande. +O mi favorita, "Liabhan chor greine", el leviatn del sol. +Y ese es un nombre precioso, evocador. +En Tory Island, lugar extrao, se los conoca como muldoons y nadie parece saber por qu. +Espero que no haya nadie de Tory aqu; precioso lugar. +Pero por toda la isla se les conoce comnmente como pez luna (pez sol, en ingls) +dado su hbito de salir a la superficie cuando est soleado. +Hay gran preocupacin por la merma de tiburones peregrinos en todo el mundo. +Algunos dicen que no es una disminucin de la poblacin. +Podra ser un cambio en la distribucin del plancton. +Y se piensa que los tiburones peregrinos podran ser indicadores fantsticos del cambio climtico, ya que van midiendo el plancton continuamente al ir nadando con la boca abierta. +Ya han sido definidos como vulnerables por la UICN. +Hay iniciativas europeas para tratar de detener su pesca. +y hoy se prohbe pescarlos o incluso sacarlos del agua an si son pescados en forma accidental. +En Irlanda no estn protegidos. +De hecho, no existe ninguna ley que los ampare en Irlanda, a pesar de nuestra preocupacin por la especie y por el contexto histrico de los tiburones peregrinos. +Sabemos muy poco sobre ellos. +Y gran parte de lo que sabemos se basa en su hbito de salir a la superficie. +Tratamos de adivinar qu hacen a partir de su comportamiento en la superficie. +Recin el ao pasado, en una conferencia en la Isla de Man, presenci lo extrao que es vivir en un lugar en donde estos tiburones salen a la superficie con frecuencia y regularidad previsible a "tomar sol". +Tener la experiencia de verlos es una oportunidad cientfica fantstica ya que son criaturas increbles. +Es una oportunidad fantstica para estudiarlos y tener acceso a ellos. +Por eso desde hace un par de aos, y en especial el ao pasado, empezamos a etiquetar tiburones como para hacernos una idea de la fidelidad visual, de los movimientos, etc. +Nos concentramos principalmente en North Donegal y West Kerry por ser mis principales zonas de actividad. +Los etiquetamos de manera muy sencilla, casera, con un palo grande y largo. +Esta es una caa de pescar con una etiqueta en el extremo. +Vamos al frente del bote y etiquetamos al tiburn. +Fuimos muy eficaces. +Etiquetamos 105 tiburones el verano pasado. +Etiquetamos 50 en tres das en la Pennsula de Inishowen. +La mitad del problema es estar en el lugar correcto en el momento justo. +Pero es una tcnica muy simple y fcil. +Les mostrar cmo es. +Usamos una cmara telescpica para filmar a los tiburones. +El propsito inicial es establecer el gnero del tiburn. +Tambin pusimos un par de etiquetas satelitales, de alta tecnologa. +Son etiquetas historizadoras. +Sirven para almacenar informacin. +Una etiqueta satelital slo funciona si est sobre el agua y puede enviar una seal al satlite. +Por supuesto, los tiburones y los peces pasan mucho tiempo bajo el agua. +Esta etiqueta calcula la ubicacin del tiburn dependiendo del momento de la puesta del sol, de la temperatura del agua y la profundidad. +Y uno tiene que reconstruir el camino. +Uno pone la etiqueta para que se desprenda del tiburn pasado un tiempo, en este caso ocho meses. Y precisamente ese da se desprendi la etiqueta, dijo hola al satlite y envi los datos necesarios para trabajar. +Esta es la nica forma para calcular el comportamiento y los movimientos cuando estn bajo el agua. +Y trazamos un par de mapas. +Aqu pueden ver que ambos fueron etiquetados en Kerry. +El primero pas los ltimos ocho meses en aguas irlandesas. +En Navidad estaba en el lmite de la plataforma continental. +Y este otro mapa an no lo hemos contrastado con la temperatura superficial del mar y la profundidad del agua, pero el segundo tiburn pas ms tiempo en el Mar de Irlanda. +El ao pasado unos colegas de la Isla de Man etiquetaron un tiburn que fue desde la Isla de Man hasta Nueva Escocia en unos 90 das. +Son 9500 kilmetros. Creamos que eso nunca ocurra. +Otro colega en los EE.UU. etiquet unos 20 tiburones en Massachusetts pero no le result. +Todo lo que conoce es el lugar donde los etiquet y sabe dnde se desprendieron +las etiquetas; fue en el Caribe e incluso en Brasil. +Pensbamos que los tiburones peregrinos eran de clima templado y slo vivan en nuestra latitud. +Pero obviamente tambin cruzaron la lnea del Ecuador. +As de bsico es lo que estamos intentando aprender sobre los tiburones peregrinos. +Algo que me sorprende y extraa mucho es lo baja que resulta ser la diversidad gentica de los tiburones. +No soy genetista as que no pretendo entender la gentica. +Por eso es bueno colaborar con otros profesionales. +Yo trabajo en terreno, me dara pnico si tuviera que pasar muchas horas en un laboratorio con una bata blanca; squenme de ah. +Por eso es bueno trabajar con expertos que entienden del tema. +Al observar la gentica de los tiburones peregrinos hallaron una diversidad increblemente baja. +Si observan la primera lnea vern que todas estas especies son muy similares. +Creo que esto significa que todos son tiburones y tienen un ancestro en comn. +Si analizamos la diversidad de nucletidos, la gentica heredada de los padres, pueden ver que, comparndolos al primer estudio, los tiburones peregrinos son un orden de magnitud menos diversos que otras especies de escualos. +Como ven, este trabajo es de 2006. +Antes de 2006 no tenamos ni idea de la variabilidad gentica del tiburn peregrino. +Ni idea. Haba diferentes poblaciones? +Haba subpoblaciones? +Por supuesto, eso es muy importante si uno quiere conocer el tamao de la poblacin y el estado de los animales. +As, Les Noble en Aberdeen encontr esto un poco increble. +Por eso realiz otro estudio mediante microsatlites que son mucho ms caros en recursos y en tiempo y, para su sorpresa, arroj resultados casi idnticos. +As que al parecer, por alguna razn, los tiburones peregrinos tienen una diversidad increblemente baja. +Se cree que quiz hubo un cuello de botella gentico hace 12 000 aos que produjo una diversidad muy baja. +Sin embargo, si observamos los tiburones ballena, el otro gran tiburn que se alimenta de plancton, su diversidad es mucho ms grande. +Por eso no se entiende mucho. +Hallaron que no haba diferenciacin gentica entre los tiburones peregrinos de los distintos ocanos. +Si bien hay tiburones peregrinos en todo el mundo, no podramos identificar las diferencias genticas entre uno del Pacfico, del Atlntico, de Nueva Zelanda, de Irlanda o Sudfrica. +Todos parecen ser iguales. +Es bastante sorprendente. Uno no esperara ese resultado. +Yo no lo entiendo, ni pretendo entenderlo. +Sospecho que los genetistas tampoco lo entienden pero ellos son los que obtienen estos resultados. +Podemos estimar el tamao de la poblacin en funcin de la diversidad gentica. +Rus Hoelzel calcul un tamao de la poblacin efectivo: 8200 animales. +Eso es todo. +8000 animales en el mundo. +Estn pensando: "Eso es ridculo. No es posible". +Les realiz un estudio ms fino y lleg a unos 9000. +Con distintos microsatlites, hubo resultados diferentes. +Pero el promedio de todos los estudios arroj una media de 5000, que yo personalmente no creo por mi escepticismo. +Pero incluso si proyectamos sobre esos nmeros, estamos hablando de probablemente unos 20 000 animales. +Recuerdan cuntos se mataban en Achill en los aos 50 y 70? +Esto nos dice en realidad que hay un riesgo de extincin de esta especie debido al reducido tamao de la poblacin. +De hecho, de esos 20 000, se cree que 8000 son hembras. +Hay slo 8000 hembras de tiburn peregrino en el mundo? +No lo s. No lo creo. +El problema de esto es que las muestras limitaron el estudio. +No consiguieron suficientes muestras para explorar la gentica con suficiente detalle. +Y dnde se consiguen muestras para el anlisis gentico? +Una fuente obvia son los tiburones muertos tirados por el mar a la playa. +Con suerte, aparecen dos o tres tiburones al ao en las playas de Irlanda. +Otros son pescados por error. +Aparecen algunos en las redes de deriva de superficie. +Eso ya se ha prohibido; buenas noticias para los tiburones. +Algunos son atrapados en las redes de arrastre. +Este es un tiburn que trajeron a Howth justo antes de Navidad de manera ilegal, porque la ley de la U.E. no lo permite, y se vendi a 8 euros el kilo como filete de tiburn. +Incluso pusieron una receta en la pared, hasta que se les dijo que eso era ilegal. +Y, de hecho, los multaron. +Si miran todos los estudios que les mostr la cantidad total de muestras a nivel mundial obtenidas hasta hoy es de 86. +Es un trabajo muy importante que puede responder preguntas esenciales sobre el tamao de la poblacin, las subpoblaciones y la estructura pero est restringido por falta de muestras. +Cuando salimos a etiquetar tiburones lo hacemos de este modo, por el frente, llegando rpidamente; a veces los tiburones reaccionan. +Una vez estbamos en Malin Head, en Donegal y un tiburn golpe al bote con su cola, creo que se sobresalt ms por la proximidad del bote que por la etiqueta que le pusimos. +Todo bien, slo nos mojamos. No hubo problemas. +Y luego cuando Emmett y yo regresamos a Malin Head, al muelle, not un lodo negro en el frente del barco. +Y recuerdo, dado que pas mucho tiempo en pesqueros comerciales, que los pescadores siempre me decan que saban cuando capturaban un tiburn peregrino porque deja este lodo negro o baba tras de s. +As que pens que provena del tiburn. +Queramos obtener muestras de tejido para anlisis genticos porque sabamos que eran muy valiosos. +Usamos los mtodos convencionales; all me ven con la ballesta que tambin usamos para tomar muestras genticas de ballenas y delfines. +Intent esa y muchas otras tcnicas. +Pero rompa mis flechas porque la piel del tiburn es muy fuerte. +No haba manera de extraer una muestra de su piel. +Eso no iba a funcionar. +Pero cuando vi el lodo negro en la proa del bote pens: "Si tomas lo que te dan en este mundo..." +As que guarde una muestra del lodo en alcohol +y se lo envi a los expertos en gentica. +De ese modo envi el lodo a Aberdeen. +Y les dije: "Prueben con esto". +Lo tuvieron durante meses. +Slo cambi porque tenamos una conferencia en la Isla de Man. +Yo segua envindole correos: "Pudieron analizar el lodo que les envi?" +Y l me deca: "S, s, s. Despus, despus, despus". +Hasta que pens que era mejor hacerlo porque no nos habamos visto antes e iba a quedar mal si no analizaba lo que le envi. +Y se sorprendi de hallar ADN en el lodo. +Lo amplificaron, lo analizaron y hallaron que, s, era ADN de tiburn peregrino obtenido del lodo. +l estaba muy entusiasmado. +Y se hizo conocido como "el lodo de tiburn de Simon". +Pens: "Oye, es un buen punto de partida". +As que pensamos en salir en busca de lodo. +Despus de gastar 3500 en etiquetas satelitales pens invertir 7,95 pueden verle el precio all en mi ferretera local de Kilrush para comprar un mango de madera y menos dinero en limpiadores de hornos. +Envolv el limpia hornos en la punta del mango de madera y estaba muy desesperado por tener una oportunidad de conseguir muestras. +Esto ocurra en agosto y, en general, es comn ver tiburones en junio, julio. +Era raro verlos. +Era raro estar en el lugar adecuado para encontrar tiburones en agosto. +Por eso estbamos desesperados. +Corrimos a Blasket tan pronto supimos que haba tiburones y logramos encontrar algunos. +As, con slo frotar el mango de madera debajo del tiburn, mientras nadaba bajo el bote ah ven un tiburn pasando debajo del bote logramos extraerle lodo. +Y ah est. +Miren ese precioso lodo negro de tiburn. +En una media hora conseguimos 5 muestras, de 5 tiburones, con el sistema de muestreo de lodo de tiburn de Simon. +Hace 20 aos que trabajo en Irlanda con ballenas y delfines y son un poco ms espectaculares. +Quiz vieron las imgenes de la ballena jorobada que obtuvimos hace uno o dos meses en el condado de Wexford. +Y uno siempre piensa que puede dejarle un legado al mundo. +Pensaba que sera con las ballenas jorobadas y los delfines. +Pero a veces estas cosas slo vienen a ti y tienes que aprovecharlas cuando llegan. +Este quiz sea mi legado: el lodo de tiburn de Simon. +Este ao tenemos ms dinero para recolectar ms muestras. +Y algo muy til son las cmaras telescpicas all est mi colega Joanne con una de ellas para mirar debajo del tiburn. +Tratamos de ver si son machos y tienen rganos sexuales externos que cuelgan bajo el tiburn y hacia atrs. +De ese modo se puede determinar fcilmente el gnero. +Si podemos determinar el gnero del tiburn antes de tomar la muestra podemos informarle esto al genetista. +Porque en la actualidad no se puede determinar genticamente la diferencia entre un macho y una hembra; algo que me parece asombroso dado que no saben qu buscar. +Y determinar el gnero del tiburn es muy importante para vigilar el comercio de tiburones peregrinos y de otras especies porque el comercio de tiburones es ilegal. +Y se capturan y comercializan. +Como bilogo de campo uno desea estar en contacto con estos animales. +Uno quiere aprender tanto como sea posible. +Los encuentros a menudo son breves y ocurren en una estacin del ao. +Y uno quiere aprender tanto como pueda, lo antes posible. +Pero, no es fantstico que uno pueda ofrecer estas muestras y darle la oportunidad a otras disciplinas, como la gentica, que pueden beneficiarse mucho con eso? +Y como dije: estas cosas llegan de maneras extraas. Atrpenlas mientras puedan. +Lo tomar como mi legado cientfico. +Ojal que consiga algo ms espectacular y romntico antes de morir. +Pero por el momento, gracias por eso. +Y estn atentos a los tiburones. +Si les interesa, visiten el sitio (Texto: www.baskingshark.ie). +Muchas gracias por escucharme. +El modelo humanitario ha cambiado poco desde principios del siglo XX. +Sus orgenes estn profundamente arraigados a ese perodo. +Y se ve venir un gran cambio en el horizonte. +El catalizador de este cambio fue el gran terremoto que azot a Hait el 12 de enero de 2010. +Hait cambi las cartas sobre la mesa. +El terremoto destruy la capital Puerto Prncipe cobrando la vida de unas 320.000 personas, dejando sin casa alrededor de 1,2 millones de personas. +Se destruyeron totalmente las instituciones gubernamentales, incluyendo el palacio presidencial. +Recuerdo que estaba en el tejado del Ministerio de Justicia en el centro de Puerto Prncipe. +Estaba a unos dos metros de altura, completamente aplastado por la violencia del terremoto. +Para los que estbamos en tierra en esos primeros das, e incluso para los veteranos ms acostumbrados a los desastres, era evidente que Hait era un caso particular. +Hait era algo que no habamos visto antes. +Pero Hait nos trajo algo sin precedentes. +Nos permiti vislumbrar un futuro sobre la posible respuesta a los desastres en un mundo hiperconectado donde la gente tiene acceso a dispositivos mviles inteligentes. +Debido a la devastacin urbana en Puerto Prncipe lleg un torrente de SMS: gente pidiendo ayuda, implorando asistencia, compartiendo informacin, ofreciendo apoyo, buscando a los seres queridos. +Era una situacin que las agencias de ayuda tradicionales nunca antes haban experimentado. +Estbamos en uno de los pases ms pobres del planeta, sin embargo, el 80% de las personas tena un dispositivo mvil. +No estbamos preparados para esto, y ellos daban forma a los esfuerzos de ayuda. +Fuera de Hait tambin las cosas se vean diferentes. +Volviendo a Hait, la gente recurra cada vez ms a los SMS. +La gente hambrienta y herida manifestaba su angustia y la necesidad de ayuda. +Por todos lados en las calles de Puerto Prncipe aparecieron empresarios ofreciendo estaciones de recarga de telfonos mviles. +Entendieron mejor que nosotros la necesidad instintiva de estar conectados. +Como nunca antes nos habamos enfrentado a este tipo de situaciones, queramos tratar de entender cmo explotar este recurso increble, cmo aprovechar realmente el uso increble de la tecnologa mvil y la tecnologa SMS. +Empezamos hablando con Voil, un proveedor local de telecomunicaciones que es una subsidiaria de la Trilogy International. +Bsicamente tenamos tres requisitos. +Queramos comunicarnos en ambas direcciones. +No queramos gritar; tambin necesitbamos escuchar. +Queramos ser capaces de identificar determinadas comunidades geogrficas. +No necesitbamos hablar a todo el pas al mismo tiempo. +Y queramos que fuera fcil de usar. +De los escombros de Hait y de esta devastacin surgi algo que llamamos TERA, un sistema de respuesta a emergencias, que desde entonces se ha empleado para apoyar la asistencia humanitaria +y para ayudar a las comunidades a prepararse ante los desastres. +Se ha usado para advertir con anticipacin en caso de desastres climticos. +Se usa en campaas de sensibilizacin sanitaria como la prevencin del clera, +e incluso en cuestiones delicadas como la construccin de conciencia en torno a la violencia de gnero. +Pero, funciona? +Acabamos de publicar una evaluacin de este programa y la evidencia que se observa es sorprendente. +El 74% de las personas recibi los datos. +Entre aquellos que deban recibir los datos, el 74% los recibi. +Al 96% de ellos les parecieron tiles. +Un 83% entr en accin, prueba de que es realmente eficaz. +Y el 73% los compartieron. +El sistema TERA se desarroll desde Hait con el apoyo de ingenieros de la regin. +Es una tecnologa fcil de manejar que se ha usado eficazmente para el bien de la humanidad. +La tecnologa es transformacional. +En los pases en vas de desarrollo los ciudadanos y las comunidades usan la tecnologa para poder lograr el cambio, un cambio positivo en sus propias comunidades. +La gente comn se ha fortalecido gracias al poder del intercambio social y est desafiando los viejos modelos, los viejos modelos analgicos de comando y control. +Un ejemplo del poder transformador de la tecnologa se encuentra en Kibera, +uno de los barrios marginales ms grandes de frica. +Est a las afueras de Nairobi, la capital de Kenia. +Es el hogar de un indefinido nmero de personas, algunos dicen entre 250.000 y 1,2 millones. +Si Uds. llegaran hoy a Nairobi y miraran un mapa turstico, Kibera est representado como un frondoso parque nacional desprovisto de asentamiento humano. +Los jvenes de Kibera en su comunidad, con simples dispositivos porttiles como GPS y telfonos celulares con servicio SMS, literalmente se colocaron en el mapa. +Recogieron datos colectivos e hicieron visible lo invisible. +Gente como Josh y Steve siguen proporcionando informacin sobre informacin, informacin en tiempo real enviada por Twitter y SMS a estos mapas para uso de todos. +Pueden enterarse acerca de la ltima sesin de msica improvisada. +Averiguar sobre el incidente de seguridad ms reciente. +Encontrar informacin sobre los lugares de culto. +Obtener informacin sobre los centros de salud. +Se puede sentir el dinamismo de esta comunidad que vive y respira. +Tambin tienen su propia red de noticias en YouTube con 36.000 visualizaciones hasta el momento. +Nos muestran lo que se puede hacer con las tecnologas mviles digitales. +Estn mostrando que la magia de la tecnologa puede hacer visible lo invisible. +Y se estn dando voz. +Estn contando su propia historia por encima de la versin oficial. +Y desde cualquier lugar del mundo vemos historias similares. +En Mongolia, por ejemplo, donde el 30% de la gente es nmada, los sistemas de informacin SMS se usan para seguir las migraciones y los patrones climticos. +Tambin se usan para celebrar reuniones de pastores a travs de la participacin a distancia. +Y si las personas emigran hacia zonas urbanas desconocidas, tambin pueden ser previamente asistidas con apoyos sociales preparados para ayudarlos gracias a los conocimientos SMS. +En Nigeria, herramientas SMS de cdigo abierto se usan por los trabajadores comunitarios de la Cruz Roja para recabar informacin de la comunidad local en un intento por comprender mejor y mitigar la prevalencia de la malaria. +Mi colega Jason Peat, quien dirige este programa, me dice que es 10 veces ms rpido y barato que la forma tradicional de hacer las cosas. +Y no solo le da ms poder a las comunidades, la cosa importante es que esta informacin queda en la comunidad donde ms se necesita para formular polticas de salud a largo plazo. +Estamos en un planeta de siete millones de personas, 5000 millones de suscripciones a telefona mvil. +Para el 2015, habr 3000 millones de smartphones en el mundo. +La comisin de banda ancha de la ONU recientemente ha fijado objetivos para ayudar el acceso a la banda ancha en 50% de los pases en vas de desarrollo, frente al 20% actual. +Estamos precipitando hacia un mundo hiperconectado donde los ciudadanos de todas las culturas y todos los estratos sociales tendrn acceso a dispositivos mviles rpidos e inteligentes. +La gente est entendiendo, desde El Cairo a Oakland, que hay nuevas formas de unirse, nuevas formas de movilizarse, nuevas formas de influir. +Se acerca una transformacin que deben entender las estructuras y modelos humanitarios. +La voz colectiva de la gente debe ser ms integral a travs de las nuevas tecnologas en las estrategias organizativas y planes de accin y no solo recicladas para la recaudacin de fondos o de marketing. +Por ejemplo, tenemos que aceptar los datos importantes, los conocimientos brindados por los lderes del mercado que entienden lo que significa usar y aprovechar los datos importantes. +Una idea que me gustara consideraran, por ejemplo, es dar un vistazo a nuestros departamentos TIC. +Por lo general son proveedores de hardware en cuartos traseros o en stanos, pero deben ser ascendidos a estrategas de software. +Necesitamos gente en nuestras organizaciones que sepa lo que es trabajar con grandes datos. +Necesitamos la tecnologa como principio organizativo central. +Necesitamos estrategas tecnolgicos en las asambleas capaces de responder a la pregunta: "Qu haran Amazon y Google con todos estos datos +y utilizarlos en bien de la humanidad?" +Siempre ha sido el ideal difcil de alcanzar asegurar la plena participacin de la gente afectada por los desastres en el esfuerzo humanitario. +Ahora tenemos las herramientas y las posibilidades. +No hay ms razones para no hacerlo. +Creo que tenemos que traer el mundo humanitario del analgico al digital. +Muchas gracias. +El ms grande y devastador proyecto industrial y medioambiental del mundo est situado en el corazn del ms grande y ms intacto bosque en el mundo, el bosque boreal de Canad. +Se expande justo a travs del norte de Canad, en Labrador, Es el hogar de la ms grande manada salvaje sobreviviente de carib en el mundo, la manada de carib del ro George, alcanzando aproximadamente 400,000 animales. +Desafortunadamente, cuando estuve all no pude localizar a ninguno, mas estn los cuernos como prueba. +A travs de toda la zona boreal, somos afortunados de esta increble abundancia de pantanos. +Los pantanos a nivel mundial son uno de los principales ecosistemas en peligro. +Ellos son ecosistemas absolutamente cruciales, ellos limpian el aire, el agua, ellos secuestran grandes cantidades de gases de efecto invernadero, y son hogar de una enorme diversidad de especies. +En la zona boreal, ellos son adems la morada donde casi 50 por ciento de las 800 especies de aves ubicadas en Amrica del Norte migran al norte para reproducir y criar a sus vstagos. +En Ontario, la zona boreal avanza del sur a la orilla norte del Lago Superior. +Y estos bosques boreales increblemente hermosos fueron la inspiracin para algo del ms famoso arte en la historia de Canad, el Grupo de los Siete fueron muy inspirados por estos paisajes, y as la zona boreal no es slo en efecto una parte clave de nuestro patrimonio natural, sino tambin una parte importante de nuestro patrimonio cultural. +En Manitoba, esta es una imagen del lado este del Lago Winnipeg, y este es el hogar del recientemente designado sitio del Patrimonio Cultural de la UNESCO. +En el norte, la zona boreal es bordeada por la tundra, y justo bajo aquella, en Yukn, Tenemos este increble valle, el Valle Tombstone. +y el Valle Tombstone es el hogar de la manada de caribues Porcupine. +Bueno, Uds. probablemente han odo acerca de la manada de caribues Porcupine. en el contexto de su rea de reproduccin en el Refugio Nacional de Vida Silvestre del rtico +Bien, el rea de invernada es tambin crtica y adems no esta protegida, y es potencialmente, podra ser potencialmente, explotada por derechos de explotacin minera y de gas. +El borde oeste de la zona boreal en la Columbia Britnica, est marcado por la Cordillera de la Costa, y por el otro lado de estas montaas est el ms grande bosque pluvial templado restante en el mundo, el bosque pluvial del Gran Oso, y discutiremos esto en breves minutos con un poco ms de detalle. +A travs de toda la zona boreal, est el hogar de un inmenso e increble hbitat de personas indgenas, y una rica y variada cultura. +y creo que una de las razones por las cuales tantos de estos grupos han retenido su vnculo con el pasado, conocen sus lenguas nativas, las canciones, las danzas, las tradiciones, Creo en parte la razn es debido a el alejamiento, el lapso y la tierra salvaje de sta casi 95 por ciento del ecosistema intacto. +Y creo particularmente ahora, mientras nos vemos en un tiempo de crisis medioambiental, podemos aprender tanto de estas personas quienes han vivido tan sustentable en este ecosistema por ms de 10,000 aos. +En el corazn de este ecosistema est la misma anttesis de todos estos valores los cuales hemos estado hablando acerca de, y creo que estos son algunos de los valores fundamentales los cuales nos hacen sentir orgullosos de ser canadienses. +Estas son las arenas de alquitrn de Alberta. las reservas de petrleo ms grandes del planeta aparte de Arabia Saudita. +Atrapadas debajo del bosque boreal y los pantanos del norte de Alberta, estn estas vastas reservas de este pegajoso, betn tipo alquitrn. +Y la explotacin minera y el aprovechamiento de esto, est creando devastacin a una escala que el planeta jams haba visto antes. +Quiero intentar transmitir algn tipo de sentido respecto al tamao de esto. +Si Uds. miran aquel camin de all, es el camin ms grande de su tipo en el planeta. +Es un camin basculante de 360 toneladas mtricas de capacidad y sus dimensiones son 14 metros de largo por 11 metros de ancho y 8 metros de alto. +Si me ubico al lado de aquel camin, mi cabeza llega ms o menos a la base de la parte amarilla de ese tapacubo. +Dentro de las dimensiones de aquel camin, podra construirse muy fcilmente una casa de dos pisos de 280 metros cuadrados con toda facilidad. Hice las matemticas. +Entonces, en vez de pensar en aquel como un camin, piensen en aquel como una casa de 280 metros cuadrados. +Esa no es una casa de mal tamao. +Y alineen aquellos camiones/casas una y otra vez a travs de all desde la base todo el recorrido hasta la parte superior. +Y luego, piensen en cun grande es la muy pequea seccin de una mina. +Bueno, Uds. pueden aplicar ese mismo tipo de razonamiento tambin aqu. +Bueno, aqu Uds. vendesde luego, a medida que Uds. se alejan ms, estos camiones se convierten en un pxel. +Nuevamente, imaginen todos ellos una y otra vez ac all. +Cun grande es esta porcin de una mina? +Aquella sera un rea metropolitana vasta e inmensa, probablemente, mucho ms grande que la Ciudad de Victoria. +Y esta es slo una dentro de un nmero de minas, 10 minas hasta ahora. +Esta es una parte de un complejo minero, y existen alrededor de otros 40 o 50 en proceso de aprobacin. +A ninguna mina de arenas de alquitrn nnca le ha sido en realidad denegada la aprobacin, pus es esencialmente un simple sellado. +El otro mtodo de extraccin es el denominado in situ. +y aqu, cantidades masivas de agua son sobrecalentadas y bombeadas a travs del suelo, por medio de estas vastas redes de tuberas, lneas ssmicas, senderos de perforacin, estaciones de compresores. +Y an cuando esto parezca no del todo tan repugnante como las minas, es an ms daino de alguna forma. +Impacta y fragmenta una gran parte de la naturaleza, donde existe una disminucin de 90 por ciento de las especies importantes, como el carib del bosque y los osos pardos, y ello consume aun ms energa, ms agua, y produce por lo menos tanto gas de efecto invernadero. +Por lo tanto, estas explotaciones in situ son por lo menos tan dainas desde el punto de vista ecolgico como las minas. +El petrleo producido por cualquiera de ambos mtodos genera ms emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero que cualquier otro petrleo. +Esta es una de las razones por las cuales es denominado el petrleo ms sucio del mundo. +Es adems, una de las razones por las que es la nica fuente de carbono ms grande y de mayor crecimiento en Canad, y es tambin la razn por la que ahora Canad es el nmero tres en trminos de generacin de carbono por persona. +Los relaves son los depsitos txicos ms grandes del planeta. +Las arenas aceitosaso mejor debiera decir, arenas de alquitrn arenas aceitosas es un trmino creado por Relaciones Pblicas a fin de que las compaas petroleras no estuviesen intentando promover algo que sonase como una substancia tipo alquitrn pegajoso el cual es el petrleo ms sucio del mundo. +Por lo tanto, decidieron denominarlo arenas aceitosas. +Las arenas de alquitrn consumen ms agua que ningn otro proceso petrolfero, de 480 a 800 litros de agua son tomados, contaminados y posteriormente devueltos a los relaves, los depsitos de txicos ms grandes del planeta. +SemCrude, slo una de las licencias, en slo uno de sus relaves, vaca 230,000 toneladas mtricas de mugre txica cada da. +Ello est creando los ms grandes depsitos txicos en la historia del planeta. +Hasta el momento, sta es suficiente toxina para cubrir la cara del Lago Eerie con 30 centmetros de profundidad. +Y los relaves oscilan en tamao hasta 3,600 hectreas. +Aquello equivale a dos tercios del tamao completo de la isla de Manhattan. +Eso es como desde Wall Street en el borde sur de Manhattan. hasta quizs la calle 120. +As, esto es absolutamente esto es uno de los ms grandes relaves. +Esto podra ser, qu? No lo s, la mitad del tamao de Manhattan. +Y Uds. puede apreciar en el contexto, es slo una seccin relativamente pequea de uno de los 10 complejos mineros y otros 40 a 50 en vas de ser aprobados pronto. +Y por supuesto, estos relaves bueno, Uds. no pueden apreciar muchos estanques desde el espacio exterior y Uds. pueden ver estos, as que quiz debiramos dejar de llamarles estanques estos pramos txicos robustos son construdos libremente y sobre los bancos del ro Athabasca. +Y el ro Athabasca drena ro abajo a una serie de comunidades aborgenes. +En el Fuerte Chippewa, las 800 personas ah, estn encontrando toxinas en la cadena alimenticia, esto ha sido comprobado cientficamente. +Las toxinas de las arenas de alquitrn, estn en la cadena alimenticia, y esto est provocando tasas de cncer hasta 10 veces superiores de lo que ocurre en el resto de Canad, +A pesar de ello, la gente tiene que vivir, tiene que comer este alimento a fin de sobrevivir. +El precio increblemente alto de enviar alimentos por carga area a estas remotas comunidades de aborgenes del norte y la alta tasa de desempleo, convierten esto en una necesidad absoluta por sobrevivir. +Y no hace muchos aos, un hombre de las Naciones Originarias de Canad me prest un bote. +y dijo, Cuando usted salga del ro, bajo ninguna circunstancia coma pescado. +Es cancergeno. +A pesar de ello, en el porche delantero de la cabaa del hombre, vi cuatro pescados. l tena que alimentar a su familia para sobrevivir. +Y como padre, no puedo imaginar lo que aquello provoca en el alma de aquel hombre. +Y eso es lo que nosotros estamos haciendo. +El bosque boreal es adems quizs nuestra mejor defensa contra el calentamiento global y el cambio climtico. +El bosque boreal secuestra ms carbono que ningn otro ecosistema terrestre. +Y esto es absolutamente clave. +Entonces, lo que estamos haciendo es, estamos tomando el ms concentrado sumidero de gases de invernadero, dos veces ms gases de invernadero son secuestrados en el bosque boreal por hectrea que en los bosques pluviales tropicales. +Y lo que estamos haciendo es destruir este sumidero de carbono, convirtindolo en una bomba de carbono. +Y lo estamos reemplazando por el ms grande proyecto industrial en la historia del mundo, el cual est produciendo el petrleo con mayor emisin de gases de efecto invernadero con alto carbono en el mundo. +Y estamos haciendo esto sobre la segunda ms grande reserva de petrleo en el planeta +Esta es una de las razones por las cuales Canad, en un principio hroe del cambio climtico Fuimos uno de los primeros signatarios del Protocolo de Kioto. +Ahora, somos el pas que tiene cabilderos de tiempo completo en la Unin Europea y Washington, D.C. +Slo 113 km ro abajo, est la desembocadura de agua dulce ms grande del mundo, la desembocadura Peace-Athabasca, la nica en la unin de todas las cuatro rutas de vuelo migratorias. +Este es un pantano globalmente significativo, quiz el ms extenso del planeta. +Increble hbitat para la mitad de las especies de aves, las cuales Uds. encuentran en Amrica del Norte, migran aqu. +Y tambin el ltimo refugio para la ms grande manada de bfalo, y adems, por supuesto, el hbitat crucial para una variedad completa de otras especies. +Asimismo, est siendo amenazado por la enorme cantidad de agua que es extrada del Athabasca, el cual alimenta estos pantanos, y tambin la increble carga txica de los ms grandes depsitos de txicos sin pautar del planeta, los cuales se estn colando hacia la cadena alimenticia para todas las especies ro abajo. +As, tan perjudicial como todo ello es, las cosas se volvern mucho peores, mucho, mucho peores. +Esta es la infraestructura como la vemos actualmente. +Esto es lo que est planificado para 2015. +Aqu Uds. ven la ruta hacia el Valle Mackenzie. +sta colocara una tubera para llevar gas natural desde el Mar de Beaufort a travs del centro de la tercera cuenca hdrica ms grande en el mundo, y la nica que permanece 95 por ciento intacta. +Y construyendo una tubera con una autopista industrial cambiara para siempre esta increble tierra salvaje, la cual es una verdadera rareza en el planeta hoy en da. +El bosque pluvial del Gran Oso es generalmente considerado ser el mayor ecosistema de bosque pluvial costero templado en el mundo. +Cuando uno de estos buques alquitraneros, llevando el petrleo ms sucio, 10 veces tanto como el Exxon Valdez, casualmente golpee una roca y se hunda, vamos a tener uno de los peores desastres ecolgicos que el planeta jams haya presenciado. +Y aqu tenemos el plan en detalle para el 2030. +Lo que ellos estn proponiendo es un incremento de casi cuatro veces en la produccin, y aquello industrializara un rea del tamao de Florida. +De hacer esto, estaremos removiendo una gran parte de nuestro ms extenso sumidero de carbono y reemplazndolo por el petrleo de ms alta emisin de gases de invernadero en el futuro. +El mundo no requiere ninguna mina de alquitrn ms. +El mundo no necesita ms tuberas para unir nuestra adiccin a los combustibles fsiles. +Y el mundo ciertamente no necesita los depsitos de txicos ms grandes para acrecentar y multiplicar y ms an amenazar a las comunidades ro abajo. +Y encaremoslo, todos nosotros vivimos ro abajo, en una era de calentamiento global y cambio climtico. +Lo que necesitamos es actuar para asegurar que Canad respete las enormes cantidades de agua dulce que poseemos en este pas. +Necesitamos asegurar que estos pantanos y bosques los cuales constituyen nuestra mejor y ms grandiosa y crucial defensa contra el calentamiento global sean protegidos, y que no estemos liberando aquella bomba de carbono hacia la atmsfera. +Y requerimos reunirnos todos juntos y decirle no a las arenas de alquitrn. +Y podemos hacer esto. Existe una enorme red alrededor de todo el mundo luchando por detener este proyecto. +Y creo simplemente que esto no es algo que deba ser decidido slo en Canad. +Todos en este saln, cada uno a lo ancho de Canad, cada uno de los que est escuchando esta presentacin tiene un rol que desempear y, creo, una responsabilidad. +Porque lo que hagamos aqu, va a cambiar nuestra historia, va a influir en nuestra posibilidad de sobrevivir, para que nuestros hijos sobrevivan, y tengan un futuro prspero. +Tenemos un increble obsequio en la zona boreal, una oportunidad increble para preservar nuestra mejor defensa contra el calentamiento global, mas podramos dejar aquello escaparse. +Las arenas de alquitrn podran amenazar no slo a una gran parte de la zona boreal. +Compromete la vida y la salud de algunas de nuestras ms desamparadas y vulnerables gente, las comunidades Aborgenes, las cuales tienen demasiado que ensearnos. +Podra destruir la desembocadura del Athabasca, la ms grande y posiblemente ms grandiosa desembocadura de agua dulce del planeta. +Podra destruir el bosque pluvial del Gran Oso, el ms grande bosque pluvial templado del mundo, +y podra tener enormes impactos, en el futuro de la zona central agrcola de Norteamrica, +Muchsimas gracias. +Las cosas que hacemos tienen una calidad suprema, viven ms tiempo que nosotros. +Perecemos pero ellas sobreviven; tenemos una vida, ellas tienen muchas, y en cada vida pueden significar distintas cosas. +Mientras que nosotros tenemos una biografa, ellas tienen muchas. +Esta maana quiero contarles la historia, la biografa -mejor dicho, las biografas- de un objeto peculiar, de una pieza notable. +De acuerdo, no dice mucho visualmente. +Es del tamao de una pelota de rugby. +Est hecho de arcilla y ha sido modelado en forma de cilindro cubierto por una escritura ceida, y luego cocido bajo el sol. +Como pueden ver, est un poco zarandeado; algo que no sorprende porque tiene unos 2500 aos y fue desenterrado en 1879. +Pero hoy, creo que este objeto es un factor clave en la poltica de Oriente Medio. +Es una pieza con historias fascinantes que de ninguna manera han terminado an. +La historia comienza en la guerra entre Irn e Irak y esa serie de eventos que culminaron en la invasin a Irak por fuerzas extranjeras, la salida del dspota gobernante y el cambio inmediato de rgimen. +Y quiero empezar con un episodio de esa secuencia de eventos que resultar familiar a muchos de Uds., El festn de Baltasar. Porque hablamos de la guerra entre Irn e Irak de 539 aC. +La similitud entre los sucesos del 539 a.C. y el 2003, y lo intermedio, es sorprendente. +Lo que estamos viendo es la pintura de Rembrandt, de la Galera Nacional de Londres, que ilustra el texto del profeta Daniel en las escrituras hebreas. +Y, ms o menos, ya conocen la historia. +Baltasar es el hijo de Nabucodonosor. Nabucodonosor conquist Israel, saque Jerusaln, captur a la gente y regres a los judos a Babilonia +No slo a los judos, l se llev las vasijas del templo. +Saque y profan el templo. +Y las grandes vasijas de oro del templo de Jerusaln fueron llevadas a Babilonia. +Baltasar, su hijo, decide hacer un festn. +Y para hacerlo an ms emocionante le dio un toque sacrlego a la diversin sacando las vasijas del templo. +Ya est en guerra con los iranes, con el rey de Persia. +Y esa noche, Daniel nos cuenta, que en el clmax de la fiesta una mano aparece escribiendo en la pared: "Fuiste pesado en balanza, y hallado falto, Tu reino ha sido roto y ser dado a los medos y a los persas". +Y esa misma noche Ciro, rey de los persas, entr en Babilonia y cay el rgimen de Baltasar. +Desde luego, es un gran momento en la historia del pueblo judo. +Es una gran historia que todos conocemos. +"La escritura en la pared" es parte de nuestro lenguaje cotidiano. +Lo que ocurri despus fue notable, y es all donde nuestro cilindro entra en la historia. +Ciro, rey de los persas, entr en Babilonia sin pelea; el gran imperio de Babilonia que se extenda desde el centro sur de Irak hasta el Mediterrneo, cae ante Ciro. +Y Ciro hace una declaracin. +Este cilindro es la declaracin del gobernante guiado por Dios que derroc al dspota iraqu y que le llevara la libertad a la gente. +En resonante acadio -fue escrito en acadio- dice: "Soy Ciro, rey del Universo, el gran rey, el rey poderoso, el rey de Babilonia, rey de los cuatro cuartos del mundo". +Como ven, no carece de hiprboles. +Probablemente sea el primer comunicado de prensa de un ejrcito victorioso que tenemos. +Y est escrito, como veremos en su momento, por unos asesores muy habilidosos. +Por eso no es de sorprender la hiprbole. +Y qu har el gran rey, el rey poderoso, el rey de los cuatro cuartos del mundo? +l contina diciendo que, despus de conquistar Babilonia, al mismo tiempo permitir a toda la gente que los babilonios, Nabucodonosor y Baltasar, capturaron y esclavizaron, quedar en libertad. +Les permitir regresar a sus pases. +Y, lo ms importante, les permitir recuperar los dioses, las estatuas, las vasijas del templo que haban sido confiscadas. +Todos los pueblos que los babilonios haban reprimido y eliminado volvern a casa llevndose consigo sus dioses. +Y podrn restaurar sus altares y adorar a sus dioses a su manera, en sus propios lugares. +Este es el decreto, este objeto es la evidencia de que a los judos despus del exilio en Babilonia, de los aos que pasaron a la vera de las aguas de Babilonia llorando al recordar a Jerusaln, a esos judos se les permiti volver a casa. +Pudieron volver a Jerusaln a reconstruir el templo. +Es un documento central de la historia juda. +Y el libro de las Crnicas, el libro de Esdras en las escrituras hebreas lo dice en trminos resonantes. +Esta es la versin juda de la misma historia. +As habla Ciro, rey de Persia: "El Seor, el Dios de los cielos, me ha dado todos los reinos de la tierra. l me ha encargado que le edifique una casa en Jerusaln. +Quien de entre vosotros pertenezca a su pueblo, + Dios est con l, y suba!" Y suba! +El elemento central, an, es la nocin del regreso, una parte central de la vida del judasmo. +Como saben, ese regreso del exilio, el segundo templo, reform al judasmo. +Y ese cambio, ese gran momento histrico, fue posible gracias a Ciro, rey de Persia, y nos llega en hebreo por las escrituras y en acadio, en arcilla. +Dos grandes textos, y la poltica? +Lo que ocurri producira un cambio fundamental en la historia de Medio Oriente. +El imperio iran, los medos y los persas, unidos bajo Ciro, constituyeron el primer gran imperio mundial. +Ciro se inicia en los aos 530 a.C. +Y en tiempos de su hijo de Daro, todo el Mediterrneo oriental est bajo control persa. +Este imperio es, de hecho, el Oriente Medio como lo conocemos ahora, es lo que da forma al Oriente Medio que conocemos hoy. +Fue el mayor imperio mundial conocido hasta entonces. +Y, mucho ms importante, fue el primer estado multicultural y multirreligioso a gran escala. +Y tuvo que ser gobernado de forma novedosa. +Tuvo que ser gobernado en distintos idiomas. +El hecho de que este decreto est en acadio, dice algo. +Tena que reconocer los diferentes hbitos, los diferentes pueblos, las diferentes religiones. +Ciro respet todo eso. +Ciro estableci un modelo de cmo gobernar una gran sociedad multinacional, multirreligiosa y multicultural. +Y el resultado de eso fue un imperio que abarcaba las zonas que ven en pantalla y que sobrevivi 200 aos de estabilidad hasta que fue destruida por Alejandro. +Dej el sueo de Oriente Medio como unidad; una unidad en la que personas de diferentes credos pudieran convivir. +Las invasiones griegas acabaron eso. +Y, por supuesto, Alejandro no pudo sostener un gobierno y se fragment. +Pero el legado de Ciro sigui siendo absolutamente central. +El historiador griego Jenofonte escribi su libro "Ciropedia" promocionando a Ciro como al gran soberano. +Y para la cultura europea posterior Ciro qued como modelo. +Esta es una imagen del siglo XVI para mostrarles lo generalizada que era su veneracin. +El libro de Jenofonte sobre Ciro y cmo gobernar una sociedad diversa fue uno de los grandes textos que inspiraron a los Padres Fundadores de la Revolucin Estadounidense. +Jefferson era un gran admirador de los ideales de Ciro; obviamente, hablando de los ideales del siglo XVIII, de cmo se crea la tolerancia religiosa en un nuevo estado. +Mientras tanto, en Babilonia, las cosas no haban salido bien. +Despus de Alejandro, los otros imperios, Babilonia decae, cae en ruinas, y se pierde todo rastro del gran imperio de Babilonia hasta 1879 en que se descubre el cilindro en una excavacin del Museo Britnico en Babilonia. +Y aparece otra historia. +Surge el gran debate a mediados del siglo XIX: Son confiables las escrituras? Podemos confiar en ellas? +Slo sabamos del retorno de los judos y del decreto de Ciro por las escrituras hebreas. +No haba otra evidencia. +De repente, aparece esto. +Y genera gran entusiasmo en un mundo en el que los que creen en las escrituras haban visto sacudida su fe en la creacin por la evolucin, la geologa... Aqu haba evidencia de que las escrituras eran una verdad histrica. +Es un gran momento del siglo XIX. +Pero... esto, claro, aqu es donde se complica... los hechos eran verdaderos hurra por la arqueologa, pero la interpretacin fue bastante ms complicada. +Porque el relato del cilindro y el relato de la Biblia Hebrea difieren en un aspecto clave. +El cilindro babilnico fue escrito por los sacerdotes del gran dios de Babilonia, Marduk. +Y, como es lgico, dicen que todo esto fue obra de Marduk. +"Marduk, sostenemos, llam a Ciro por su nombre". +Marduk toma a Ciro de la mano, le pide que acompae a su pueblo y le da el dominio de Babilonia. +Marduk le dice a Ciro que har esas cosas grandes y generosas de liberar a los pueblos. +Por esa razn deberamos agradecer y adorar a Marduk. +Los escritores hebreos del Antiguo Testamento, no les sorprender saberlo, tienen una visin bastante diferente de esto. +Para ellos es impensable que fuera Marduk quien hiciera esto posible. +Slo puede ser Jehov. +Y as, en Isaas, tenemos textos maravillosos que le dan todo el crdito no a Marduk sino al Seor Dios de Israel; el Seor Dios de Israel que llam a Ciro por su nombre, que tambin tom a Ciro de la mano y le pidi que acompaara a su pueblo. +Es un ejemplo notable de dos apropiaciones religiosas diferentes del mismo evento, dos tomas de posesin religiosas diferentes de un hecho poltico. +Dios, lo sabemos, generalmente est del bando de los grandes batallones. +La pregunta es, qu dios era? +Y el debate perturba a todo el mundo en el siglo XIX dando cuenta de que las escrituras hebreas son parte de un mundo religioso mucho ms amplio. +Y est bastante claro de que el cilindro es ms antiguo que el texto de Isaas y, sin embargo, Jehov est hablando en palabras muy similares a las de Marduk. +Y da una ligera sensacin de que Isaas lo sabe, porque dice, por supuesto, es Dios quien habla: "Te he llamado por tu nombre mas t no me conoces". +Pienso que ha reconocido que Ciro no se da cuenta de que est actuando bajo las rdenes de Jehov. +De igual modo, habra sorprendido que actuara bajo las rdenes de Marduk. +Porque, es interesante claro, Ciro es un buen iran que tiene otros dioses que no se mencionan en estos textos. +Eso era 1879. +Pasan 40 aos, estamos en 1917, y el cilindro entra en un mundo diferente. +Esta vez, la realpolitik del mundo contemporneo -el ao de la Declaracin de Balfour, el ao en el que el nuevo poder imperial de Oriente Medio, Gran Bretaa, decide que declarar un hogar nacional judo, les permitir a los judos regresar. +Y la respuesta a esto de la poblacin juda de Europa del Este es rapsdica. +Por toda Europa del Este, los judos muestran imgenes de Ciro y de Jorge V lado a lado los dos grandes soberanos que han permitido el regreso a Jerusaln. +Y el cilindro de Ciro regresa a la palestra pblica y este texto como demostracin del porqu suceder despus de culminada la guerra de 1918 es parte de un plan divino. +Todos saben lo que ocurri. +El Estado de Israel se instal y 50 aos despus, a fines de los 60, est claro que el papel de Gran Bretaa como potencia imperial ha terminado. +Y empieza otra historia del cilindro. +La regin, el R.U. y EE.UU. deciden mantenerse a salvo del comunismo y la superpotencia que se crear para ello ser Irn, el Shah. +Y el Shah inventa una historia de Irn, o un regreso a la historia iran, que lo coloca en el centro de una gran tradicin y acua monedas que lo muestran con el cilindro de Ciro. +Cuando l tiene sus grandes celebraciones en Perspolis, pide el cilindro y el Museo Britnico le presta el cilindro, lo enva a Tehern, y es parte de esas grandes celebraciones de la dinasta Pahlavi. +El cilindro de Ciro: garante del Shah. +10 aos despus, otra historia: Revolucin Iran de 1979. +Revolucin islmica, no hay ms Ciro; no nos interesa esa historia, nos interesa el Irn islmico hasta que Irak, la nueva superpotencia que hemos decidido que debera estar en la regin, ataca. +Hay otra guerra entre Irn e Irak. +Y se hace crucial para los iranes recordar su gran pasado, su gran pasado cuando pelearon con Irak y ganaron. +Era fundamental encontrar un smbolo que congregara a todos los iranes, musulmanes y no musulmanes, cristianos, zoroastrianos, judos de Irn, personas devotas, no devotos. +Y el emblema obvio es Ciro. +Por eso cuando el Museo Britnico y el Museo Nacional de Tehern cooperan y trabajan juntos, como lo hemos estado haciendo, los iranes piden una sola cosa como prstamo. +Es el nico objeto que quieren. +Piden prestado el cilindro de Ciro. +Y el ao pasado el cilindro de Ciro fue a Tehern por segunda vez. +Quien lo exhibe en esa vitrina es la directora del Museo Nacional de Tehern, una de las tantas mujeres iranes que ocupan posiciones muy altas, la Sra. Ardakani. +Fue un gran evento. +Este es el otro lado de la misma imagen. +Fue visto en Tehern por entre uno y dos millones de personas en cuestin de pocos meses. +Ms que cualquier xito de taquilla en Occidente. +Y es tema de un gran debate el significado del cilindro, el significado de Ciro, pero, sobre todo, Ciro articulado a travs de este cilindro, Ciro como defensor de la patria, el defensor, por supuesto, de la identidad iran y del pueblo iran, tolerante de todas las religiones. +Y en el Irn actual, zoroastrianos y cristianos tienen plazas garantizadas en el parlamento iran, algo para sentirse muy, muy orgullosos. +Para ver este objeto en Tehern, miles de judos que viven en Irn fueron a Tehern a verlo. +Se convirti en un gran emblema, en un gran tema de debate sobre qu es Irn en casa y en el extranjero. +Es Irn todava el defensor de los oprimidos? +Liberar Irn a los pueblos que los tiranos han esclavizado y expropiado? +Es una retrica nacional embriagadora, y se puso todo junto en un gran espectculo lanzando el regreso. +Aqu en el escenario ven este cilindro de Ciro sobredimensionado con grandes figuras de la historia iran reunidas para ocupar su lugar en el patrimonio de Irn. +Fue una narrativa presentada por el propio presidente. +Y, para m, llevar este objeto a Irn, que me permitieran llevar este objeto a Irn, fue permitirme ser parte de un debate extraordinario de altsimo nivel sobre qu es Irn, cuntos Iranes existen y cmo las diferentes historias de Irn podran dar forma al mundo actual. +Es un debate que an contina y que continuar haciendo ruido porque este objeto es una de las grandes declaraciones de una aspiracin humana. +Aparece en la Constitucin de EE.UU. +Sin duda, dice mucho ms de las libertades reales que la Carta Magna. +Es un documento que puede significar muchas cosas, para Irn y para la regin. +Hay una rplica en las Naciones Unidas. +Estar presente en el otoo en Nueva York cuando se den los grandes debates sobre el futuro de Oriente Medio. +Y quiero terminar preguntndoles, cul ser la prxima historia en la que aparecer este objeto? +Aparecer, sin duda, en muchas ms historias de Oriente Medio. +Y qu historia de Oriente Medio, qu historia del mundo, quieren ver reflejada en lo dicho y expresado en este cilindro? +El derecho de los pueblos a vivir juntos en el mismo estado, con diferentes credos, en libertad. Un Oriente Medio, un mundo, en el que la religin no sea objeto de divisin o de debate. +En Oriente Medio en este momento los debates son, como saben, estridentes. +Pero pienso que es posible que la voz ms vigorosa y sabia de todas bien puede ser la voz de este objeto mudo, el cilindro de Ciro. +Gracias. +Gabriel Garca Mrquez es uno de mis escritores favoritos, por su manera de contar historias, pero an ms, creo, por la belleza y precisin de su prosa. +Ya sea en las primeras lneas de "Cien aos de soledad" o en el fantstico flujo de conciencia en "El otoo del patriarca", donde se precipitan las palabras, pgina tras pgina de imgenes sin puntuacin que arrastran al lector como un ro silvestre que atraviesa una primitiva selva sudamericana; leer a Garca Mrquez es una experiencia visceral. +Lo que me impact de sobremanera durante una de mis sesiones con la novela fue que me di cuenta de que me estaban atrapando las imgenes de este vvido viaje en la traduccin. +Estudi literatura comparada en la universidad, que es como estudiar literatura inglesa, slo que en lugar de estudiar a Chaucer durante tres meses, tuvimos que leer las traducciones de grandes obras de todo el mundo. +Y si bien eran grandes libros, siempre pareca que no era posible abarcar toda la narracin. +Pero no para Garca Mrquez que alguna vez elogi las versiones traducidas diciendo que eran mejores que su original, lo que es un increble cumplido. +As que cuando escuch que el traductor, Gregory Rabassa, haba escrito su propio libro acerca del tema, no vea la hora de leerlo. +Su ttulo viene del refrn italiano que tom del prlogo, "Si esto es traicin". +Y es una lectura encantadora, +altamente recomendable para quin est interesado en el arte de la traduccin. +Pero la razn por la que lo menciono es porque, al principio, Rabassa propone un pensamiento simple y elegante: "Cada acto de comunicacin es un acto de traduccin". +Puede que esto haya sido obvio para todos ustedes pero para m, que con frecuencia enfrento esa dificultad a diario, nunca haba visto el problema inherente a la comunicacin tan claramente. +Desde que tengo uso de razn he pensado en detalle en esas cosas, y la comunicacin ha sido mi pasin principal. +Desde nio recuerdo que mi deseo ms grande era poder entender todo y comunicrselo a todos. +No es que me creyera mucho. +Es divertido, mi esposa Daisy cuya familia est llena de esquizofrnicos -son muchos, de verdad- una vez me dijo: "Chris, ya tengo un hermano que se cree Dios. +No necesito un esposo que quiera serlo". +Bueno, a los veintipico cada vez ms consciente de lo difcil que era alcanzar la ambicin de mi infancia, es en esa segunda parte al ser capaz de comunicarle adecuadamente a los dems cualquier tipo de conocimiento, que me di cuenta de lo intil de mi bsqueda. +Una y otra vez, cada vez que deseaba compartir alguna gran verdad con alguien que yo esperaba que agradeciera esa sabidura, tena el efecto contrario. +Es interesante que cuando tratas de abrir las lneas de comunicacin como: "Oye, escucha, porque estoy a punto de pasaste conocimiento de calidad", es sorprendente lo rpido que descubres la crtica y el desinters. +Finalmente, despus de 10 aos de volver locos a amigos y extraos por igual, finalmente ca en la cuenta, de una nueva verdad personal, totalmente propia, que si iba a ser capaz de comunicar bien a otras personas las ideas que estaba aprendiendo, sera mejor encontrar una manera diferente de hacerlo. +Y fue all cuando descubr la comedia. +La comedia transita un nivel diferente con otras formas del lenguaje. +Si tuviera que situarla en una gama arbitraria, dira que cae entre la poesa y las mentiras. +No estoy hablando de toda la comedia, porque claro que hay mucho humor que da sabor a eso que ya sentimos y pensamos. +De lo que quiero hablar es de la habilidad nica que tiene la mejor comedia y la stira de esquivar nuestros prejuicios. La comedia es como la piedra filosofal. +Toma como fundamento nuestra sabidura convencional y la transforma, a travs del ridculo, en una nueva manera de ver y, a fin de cuentas, una manera de ser en el mundo. +Porque eso es lo que yo interpreto del tema de esta conferencia: "Ganado en la traduccin". +Se trata de la comunicacin que no slo produce un mayor entendimiento en el individuo, sino que lleva a un cambio real. +Lo que, en mi experiencia, significa comunicacin que encuentra el modo de hablar y de expandir nuestro concepto de propio inters. +Yo soy muy bueno llegando al propio inters de la gente porque todos estamos hechos para ello. +Es parte de nuestro equipo de supervivencia y es la razn de que eso es tan importante para nosotros, y tambin por la que siempre somos tan receptivos. +Y tambin es por eso que, en trminos de nuestro propio inters, finalmente comenzamos a concebir nuestra capacidad de respuesta, nuestra responsabilidad con el resto del mundo. +Ahora, cuando digo lo de la mejor comedia y stira, hablo de trabajos que surgen desde la honestidad y la integridad. +Si reflexionamos sobre las imitaciones de Tina Fey en "Saturday Night Live" de la recin nominada candidata a vice-presidenta Sarah Palin, fueron devastadoras. +Fey demostr, de manera ms efectiva que cualquier poltico, la falta de seriedad de la candidata, fijando la impresin mayoritaria que tienen hoy los estadounidenses. +Y la clave de todo es que los dilogos de Fey no fueron escritos por ella ni por los escritores del programa. +Tomaron literalmente los comentarios de Sarah Palin. +Es una imitadora de Palin que la cita palabra por palabra. +Eso es honestidad e integridad, y tambin es por eso que la actuacin de Fey dej una impresin memorable. +En el otro lado del espectro poltico, la primera vez que escuch a Rush Limbaugh referirse al entonces aspirante presidencial John Edwards como la chica del comercial supe que haba dado en el clavo. +Normalmente no asociara las palabras honestidad e integridad con Limbaugh, pero es difcil no rerse de tan buen chiste. +La descripcin atrap perfectamente la vanidosa personalidad de Edward. +Y adivinen qu? +Eso termin siendo el rasgo personal centro del escndalo que termin con su carrera poltica. +The Daily Show, de John Stewart, es el mejor, por mucho... es por mucho el ejemplo mejor documentado de la efectividad de este tipo de comedia. +Encuesta tras encuesta, encuestadoras como 'Pew Research' o el 'Centro Annenberg de Polticas Pblicas', han constatado que el pblico de Daily Show est mejor informado sobre la actualidad que el pblico de otros noticieros de televisin o del cable. +Ahora, si esto dice ms sobre el conflicto entre la integridad y la rentabilidad del periodismo empresarial que sobre la atencin del pblico de Stewart, el punto ms importante sigue siendo que el material de Stewart siempre se basa en un compromiso con los hechos no porque sea su propsito informar, que no lo es. +Su propsito es ser gracioso. +Resulta que el tipo de chistes de Stewart no se entiende a menos que los hechos sean verdad. +Y el resultado es un gran programa cmico que tambin es un sistema de informacin cuya retencin y credibilidad est entre los ms altos comparndolo con los noticieros tradicionales. +Esto es doblemente irnico si pensamos que la ventaja de la comedia al tocar los prejuicios personales es la manera en la que se distrae al espectador. +Un gran acto de comedia es un truco de magia verbal, donde uno cree que va en una direccin pero sbitamente se ve transportado en otra direccin. +Y esa es la razn del goce mental al que sigue la respuesta fsica de las risas, que, no por casualidad, libera endorfinas en el cerebro. +Y en un instante, nos seduce una perspectiva diferente de las cosas porque las endorfinas han reducido nuestras defensas. +Es exactamente lo contrario a la manera en la que operan el enojo, el miedo y el pnico, son respuestas de huye o pelea. +El huye o pelea descarga adrenalina, que refuerza enormemente las defensas. +Y ah aparece la comedia enfrentando las mismas temticas en las que nuestras defensas son ms fuertes: raza, religin, poltica, sexualidad, slo que lo hace con humor y no con adrenalina, generamos endorfinas y la alquimia de la risa convierte las barreras en ventanas, revelando un punto de vista nuevo e inesperado. +Les dar un ejemplo de mi presentacin. +Tengo algn material de la llamada agenda 'gay' radical, que empieza preguntando: Qu tan radical es la agenda 'gay'? +Hasta donde s, hay tres cosas principales que desean los gays de EE.UU.: enlistarse en el ejrcito, casarse y constituir una familia. +Tres cosas que he evitado toda mi vida. +All tienen radicales sinvergenzas. El campo es suyo. +Y despus de eso tenemos tambin la adopcin gay: Cul es el problema de la adopcin gay? +Por qu estamos siquiera hablando de esto? +Si tienes un beb y piensas que es gay deberas poder darlo en adopcin. +Has trado al mundo una abominacin. +Scalo de tu casa. +Al tomar el calificativo bblico de "abominacin" y ligarlo a la imagen ms pura de la inocencia, un beb, es que este chiste permite evadir las respuestas emocionales que hay detrs del debate y le permite al pblico, a travs de la risa, cuestionar su validez. +El desviar la atencin no es el nico truco que el comediante tiene bajo la manga. +La brevedad del discurso es otra caracterstica de la mejor comedia. +Pocas frases comunican tanta temtica y smbolo como un remate perfecto. +Bill Hicks, y si no lo conocen deberan buscarlo en Google, Hicks tiene una rutina acerca de meterse en una de esas discusiones de presumidos en el recreo, donde al final un nio le dice: "Mi pap le puede ganar a tu pap", a lo que Hicks le responde: De verdad? "A qu hora?" +Eso es un retrato de la infancia en slo tres palabras. +Sin mencionar lo que revela del adulto que se dirige a ellos. +Y una ltima caracterstica es que la comunicacin en la comedia es viral por s misma. +La gente no ve la hora de contar el nuevo gran chiste. +Y esto no es slo un nuevo fenmeno de nuestro mundo en Internet. +La comedia atravesaba el pas con una velocidad sorprendente incluso antes de las redes sociales, o la televisin por cable. +En los aos 80 cuando el comediante Richard Pryor se prendi fuego por accidente cuando purificaba drogas, yo estaba en Los ngeles el da que eso pas y dos das despus estaba en Washington D.C. +y escuch exactamente el mismo chiste en la costa este: Fondo Universitario para Negros Incendiados [Ignited por United ]. +Por supuesto que el chiste no sali del monlogo de un show nocturno. +Mi teora es que, y aqu no he hecho investigacin, es que si pudiramos ver hacia atrs e investigarlo, encontraramos que la comedia es la segunda profesin viral ms vieja. +Primero fueron los tambores y despus las bromas de "Quin es?" +Pero es cuando combinamos todos los elementos que conseguimos el poder viral de un gran chiste con una conclusin poderosa, que surge de la honestidad y la integridad, y que puede tener un impacto real en el mundo cambiando nuestras conversaciones. +Tengo un amigo cercano, Joel Pett, que es caricaturista editorial para el Lexinton Herald-Leader. +Antes dibujaba para el USA Today los lunes por la maana. +Estaba visitando a Joel una semana antes de la conferencia sobre el cambio climtico en Copenhague en diciembre del 2009. +As que empezamos a platicar del cambio climtico. +Y result que a Joel y a m nos molestaba la misma cosa, que gran parte del debate todava se enfocaba en la ciencia y cunta certeza aportaba o no lo que, para ambos, pareca intencionalmente fuera de contexto. +Porque primero que todo, est la falsa premisa de que existe la certeza cientfica. +El gobernador Perry, de mi recin adoptado estado de Texas, trataba de forzar este concepto el verano pasado al principio de su desventurada campaa para la nominacin republicana a la presidencia, diciendo una y otra vez que no haba certeza cientfica al tiempo que 250 de los 254 municipios del estado de Texas estaban en llamas. +Y la solucin poltica de Perry fue pedirle a la gente de Texas que rezara por lluvia. +Personalmente yo rezaba por cuatro nuevos incendios para que finalmente tuviramos certeza cientfica. +Pero all en 2009, la pregunta que Joel y yo nos hacamos repetidamente era por qu a estas alturas del juego se gastaba tanta energa hablando de la ciencia cuando las polticas necesarias para enfrentar el cambio climtico a largo plazo beneficiaran a la humanidad independientemente de la ciencia. +As que lanzamos ideas hasta que Joel se le ocurri esto: +Caricatura: "Qu tal si es solo un gran mito y creamos un mundo mejor para nada? +Deberan amar esa idea. +Qu tal si creamos un mundo mejor para nada? +No por Dios, ni por la patria, ni por dinero, simplemente como una medida para la toma de decisiones mundial. +Y esta caricatura dio en el blanco. +Poco despus de que termin la conferencia, le pidieron a Joel que autografiara una copia para los directores de la Agencia Ambiental de Washington donde ahora cuelga en una pared. +Y poco despus le volvieron a pedir otra copia autografiada para la direccin de la Agencia Ambiental de California que la us como parte de su presentacin en una conferencia internacional de cambio climtico en Sacramento, el ao pasado. +Y esto no par all. +A la fecha Joel ha recibido solicitudes de ms de 40 grupos ambientalistas, de Estados Unidos, Canad y Europa. +Y a principios del ao recibi otra solicitud del Partido Verde de Australia que la us en su campaa y se convirti en parte del debate que consigui que el parlamento australiano fijara impuestos ms exigentes a las emisiones que cualquier pas del mundo. +No est mal para slo 15 palabras. +As que mi recomendacin para todos ustedes que estn seriamente interesados en crear un mundo mejor es que dediquen un poco de tiempo todos los das a ejercitar ideas graciosas porque puede que all encuentren las respuestas que han estado buscando. +Gracias. +Voy a hablar hoy sobre ahorrar ms, pero no hoy, maana. +Voy a hablar sobre Ahorrar Ms Maana. +Es un programa que Richard Thaler de la Universidad de Chicago y yo concebimos hace quizs 15 aos. +El programa, en un sentido, es un ejemplo de comportamiento financiero con esteroides -- cmo podramos realmente usar nuestro comportamiento financiero. +Ahora, preguntarn, Qu es comportamiento financiero? +Pensemos sobre cmo manejamos nuestro dinero. +Empecemos por las hipotecas. +Es un tema reciente, al menos en EE.UU. +Mucha gente compra la casa ms grande que pueden pagar, y en realidad un poco ms grande. +Y luego, al ejecutar la hipoteca +culpan a los bancos por ser los malos que les otorgaron las hipotecas. +Tambin pensemos cmo manejamos los riesgos, por ejemplo, invirtiendo en el la bolsa de valores. +Dos aos atrs, tres, casi cinco aos atrs, los mercados iban bien. +ramos tomadores de riesgos, +Luego el mercado de valores se encoge y decimos, "Guau +Estas prdidas, se sienten de verdad, la emocin es muy distinta a lo que pensamos que sera cuando los mercados estaban en alza." +Probablemente no estemos haciendo un gran trabajo en trminos de la toma de riesgos. +Cuntos de ustedes tiene iPhones? +Alguien? Genial. +Apostara que muchos de ustedes aseguraron su iPhone, estn implcitamente hacindolo cuando tienen una garanta extendida. +Y qu si pierden su iPhone? +Qu les pasara? +Cuntos de ustedes tiene hijos? +Alguien? +Mantengan sus manos en alto si tienen un seguro de vida suficiente. +Veo un montn de manos bajando. +Podra predecir, si son una muestra representativa, que muchos de ustedes aseguraron sus iPhone pero no sus vidas, incluso teniendo hijos. +No somos muy buenos cuando se trata de seguros. +La familia Americana promedio gasta 1,000 dlares al ao en loteras. +Y s que suena disparatado. +Cuntos de ustedes gasta 1,000 dlares al ao en lotera? +Nadie. +Eso nos dice que la gente que no est en esta sala estn gastando ms de mil para llegar al promedio de mil. +La gente de bajos ingresos gasta mucho ms de mil en loteras. +A dnde nos lleva esto? +No hacemos un buen trabajo en el manejo de dinero. +El comportamiento financiero es una combinacin de psicologa y economa, tratando de entender los errores que la gente comete con el dinero. +Y podra seguir aqu parado por los 12 minutos y 53 segundos que me quedan y rerme de todas las formas en las que manejamos nuestro dinero, y al final, preguntarn, "Cmo podemos ayudar a la gente?" +Y eso es en lo que quiero enfocarme hoy. +Cmo comprendemos los error que la gente comete hoy con el dinero, y convertimos esos desafos en soluciones del comportamiento? +Y de lo que voy a hablar hoy es de Ahorra Ms Maana. +Quiero apuntar al tema del ahorro. +Tenemos en pantalla una muestra representativa de 100 americanos. +Vamos a observar su conducta de ahorro. +Lo primero que hay que ver es que la mitad de ellos, no tienen siquiera acceso a un plan de retiro. +No pueden ahorrar fcilmente. +No tienen cmo separar de su sueldo el dinero que va a un plan de retiro antes de que lo vean, antes de que lo toquen. +Qu sucede con la otra mitad de la gente? +Algunos eligen no ahorrar. +Son demasiado perezosos. +Nunca logran subscribirse a un sitio Web complejo y hacer clic 17 veces para unirse a un plan de retiro. +Y despus todava falta decidir cmo van a invertir en sus 52 opciones, nunca han odo hablar de un Fondo financiero. +Se sienten abrumados y terminan por descartarlo. +Cunta gente termina ahorrando en un plan de retiro? +Un tercio de los Norteamericanos. +Dos tercios no est ahorrando ahora. +Estn ahorrando lo suficiente? +Quitemos aquellos que dicen ahorrar muy poco. +Uno de diez ahorra lo suficiente. +Nueve de diez o no pueden ahorrar a travs de su plan de retiro, O deciden no ahorrar -- o no deciden -- o ahorran muy poco. +Creemos que tenemos un problema de gente que ahorra mucho. +Veamos esto. +Tenemos una persona -- bueno, vamos a partirla en dos porque es menos del uno por ciento. +Casi el 0,5% de los americanos siente que ahorra mucho. +Qu vamos a hacer con esto? +Eso es en lo que me quiero enfocar hoy. +Tenemos que entender por qu la gente no ahorra, para luego con suerte, transformar, los desafos de este comportamiento en soluciones, y luego ver cun poderosas puedan ser. +Djenme cambiar de tema por un segundo mientras identificamos los problemas, los desafos, los retos del comportamiento, que impiden que la gente ahorre. +Voy a cambiar de tema y hablar de bananas y chocolate. +Supongamos que tenemos otro evento TED la prxima semana. +Y durante el receso hay un tentempi y pueden elegir entre bananas o chocolate. +Cuntos de ustedes pensaran en servirse bananas durante este evento TED hipottico? +Quines se comeran las bananas? +Maravilloso. +Predigo cientficamente que El 74% de ustedes ir por bananas. +Bueno, eso es lo que al menos un gran estudio predijo. +Y luego esperamos la fecha y vemos lo que la gente termina comiendo. +La misma gente que se imagino a s misma comiendo bananas termin comiendo chocolates una semana despus. +El autocontrol no es un problema en el futuro. +Es un problema ahora cuando el chocolate est frente a nosotros. +Qu tiene esto que ver con el tiempo y el ahorro, este tema de la gratificacin inmediata? +O como lo llaman algunos economistas, el sesgo del presente. +Pensamos sobre el ahorro. Sabemos que deberamos ahorrar. +Sabemos que lo haremos el ao que viene, pero hoy gastemos. +La Navidad se acerca, bien podramos comprar muchos regalos para los conocidos. +As que este tema del sesgo del presente nos hace pensar sobre ahorrar, pero terminamos gastando. +Permtanme ahora hablar, sobre otro obstculo del comportamiento del ahorro que tiene que ver con la inercia. +Otra vez cambiemos un poco de tema hacia el tema de la donacin de rganos. +En un maravilloso estudio que compara diferentes pases, +vamos a ver dos pases similares, Alemania y Austria. +En Alemania, Si uno desea donar sus rganos -- No quiera Dios que algo malo te pase -- cuando sacas tu Licencia para conducir o tu identificacin, marcas la opcin que dice, "Deseo donar mis rganos." +No a mucha gente le gusta marcar opciones. +Cuesta trabajo. Necesitamos pensar. +El 12% lo hace. +Austria, un pas vecino, un poco similar, un poco distinto. +Cul es la diferencia? +Bueno, todava tienes opcin. +Decidirs si quieres donar tus rganos o no. +Pero cuando obtienes tu Licencia para conducir, Marcas la opcin si no quieres donar tus rganos. +Nadie marca en las casillas. +Parece ser un gran esfuerzo. +El 1% marca la casilla. El resto no hace nada. +Hacer nada es muy comn. +Pocas personas marcan casillas. +Cules son las implicaciones en el salvar vidas y tener rganos disponibles? +En Alemania, el 12% marca la casilla. +Un 12% son donantes de rganos. +Existe gran escasez de rganos, Dios no permita, que necesites uno. +En Austria, nadie marca la casilla. +Entonces, el 99% de la gente es donantes de rganos. +Inercia, falta de accin. +Qu sucede por defecto si la gente no hace nada, si continan sin hacer nada, si no marcan las opciones? +Esto es muy poderoso. +Vamos a hablar sobre lo que pasa si la gente se encuentra abrumada y asustada al decidir sobre su plan de retiro. +Vamos a meterlos automticamente al plan, o vamos a dejarlos afuera? +En demasiados planes de retiro, si la gente no hace nada, significa que no estn ahorrando para su pensin, si no marcan la casilla. +Y marcar casillas conlleva un esfuerzo. +As que hablamos sobre algunos desafos del comportamiento. +Uno ms antes de convertir desafos en soluciones, que tiene que ver con monos y manzanas. +No, no, no, este es un estudio real y tiene mucho que ver con la economa del comportamiento. +Un grupo de monos obtiene una manzana, estn contentos. +El otro grupo obtiene dos manzanas, y les quitamos una. +Todava tienen una manzana. +Pero estn muy enojados +Por qu nos quitaron nuestra manzana? +Este es el concepto de la aversin a la prdida. +Odiamos perder cosas, an cuando no implique riesgo. +Odiaran tener que ir a un cajero automtico a sacar 100 dlares y ver que perdieron uno de los billetes de $20. +Es muy doloroso, an cuando eso no significa nada. +Esos 20 dlares podran haber sido un almuerzo. +As que esta nocin de aversin a la prdida nos afecta cuando de ahorro se trata, porque la gente, mentalmente y emocional e intuitivamente considera los ahorros como prdida porque debo recortar mi gasto. +Hablamos de diversos tipos de desafos de del comportamiento que se relacionan con el ahorro. +Ya sea que pienses en una gratificacin inmediata, y los chocolates vs. las bananas, es difcil ahorrar ahora. +Es mucho ms divertido gastar ahora. +Hemos hablado de la inercia y la donacin de rganos y de marcar la casilla. +Si la gente tuviera que marcar un montn de casillas para subscribirse a un plan de retiro, van a seguir posponindolo y no se unirn. +Y por ltimo, hablamos de la aversin a la prdida, y los monos y las manzanas. +Si la gente imagina que el ahorro para la pensin es una prdida, no van a ahorrar para su retiro. +As que tenemos estos desafos, y lo que a Richard Thaler y yo nos fascina siempre es: si tomamos el comportamiento financiero, Y lo convertimos en comportamiento financiero con esteroides O comportamiento financiero 2.0 o comportamiento financiero en accin, convertimos los desafos en soluciones. +Y llegamos a una solucin vergonzosamente simple llamada Ahorrar Dinero, no hoy, Maana. +Cmo esto va a resolver los desafos de los que hablamos? +Si piensan en el problema de las bananas vs. los chocolates, pensamos que vamos a comer bananas la semana prxima. +Pensamos que vamos a ahorrar ms el ao que viene. +Ahorra Ms Maana incita a los empleados a ahorrar ms quizs el ao que viene, en algn futuro momento cuando puedan imaginarse comiendo bananas, participando ms con la comunidad, haciendo ms ejercicio y haciendo todas las cosas bien. +Ahora, hablamos tambin de marcar la casilla y la dificultad de actuar. +Ahorra Ms Maana lo hace fcil. +Lo ponemos en piloto automtico. +Una ves que me dices que deseas ahorrar ms en el futuro, digamos cada Enero, vas a ahorrar ms automticamente y va a salir de tu sueldo y a entrar a tu plan de retiro antes de que lo veas o lo toques, antes de que tengas el problema de la gratificacin inmediata. +Pero qu vamos a hacer con los monos y la aversin a la prdida? +El prximo Enero llega y la gente siente que si ahorraran ms, deberan gastar menos, y es doloroso. +Bueno, quizs no sea slo Enero. +Quizs deberamos hacer a la gente ahorrar ms cuando hacen ms dinero. +De esa forma, cuando hacen ms dinero, cuando tiene un aumento, no tienen que recortar sus gastos. +Se llevan una porcin del aumento en su sueldo a casa y gastan ms -- toman una tajada del aumento y la ponen en su plan de retiro. +As que este es el programa, vergonzosamente simple, pero como vamos a ver, tremendamente poderoso. +En principio lo implementamos, Richard Thaler y yo, en 1998. +En una pequea empresa en Midwest, empleados de oficina luchando por pagar sus cuentas nos decan reiteradamente que no podan ahorrar dinero. +Ahorrar dinero hoy no es una opcin. +Los invitamos a ahorrar tres por ciento ms cada vez que obtuvieran un aumento. +Y he aqu los resultados. +Estamos viendo aqu un perodo de 3,5 aos, cuatro aumentos, gente que estaba luchando por ahorrar, estn ahorrando el 3% de su sueldo, 3,5 aos ms tarde, ahorrando casi cuatro veces ms, casi el 14%. +Y hay zapatos y bicicletas y cosas en este grfico porque no quiero slo tirar nmeros al vaco. +Quiero, realmente, pensar sobre el hecho de que ahorrar cuatro veces ms es una gran diferencia en trminos de la calidad de vida de quienes podrn afrontarlo. +Es real. +No son simples nmeros en un papel. +Ya sea que ahorrando el 3%, la gente pueda agregar unas lindas zapatillas para poder caminar, porque no podrn pagar nada ms, cuando ahorren el 14%, puede que puedan tener unos lindos zapatos de vestir para caminar al auto y manejar. +Esta es una diferencia real. +Ahora, alrededor del 60% de las grandes corporaciones implementan programas como estos. +Es parte de la Ley de Proteccin de la Pensin. +Y no merece comentario que Thaler y yo hemos sido bendecidos con ser parte de este programa Y hacer una diferencia. +Voy a cerrar con dos mensajes clave. +Uno es: el comportamiento financiero es extremadamente poderosa. +Esto es slo un ejemplo. +Segundo: todava hay mucho por hacer. +Esta es realmente la punta del iceberg. +Si piensan en la gente y las hipotecas y comprar casas y luego no poder pagar por ellas, debemos pensar en ellos. +Si estn pensando sobre gente que toma mucho riesgo y que no entienden el riesgo que estn tomando o el tomar muy poco riesgo, debemos pensar en ello. +Si piensan sobre la gente gastando mil dlares al ao en boletos de lotera, debemos pensar en ello. +El promedio realmente, el rcord es de Singapur. +La familia promedio gasta $4,000 al ao en lotera. +Tenemos muchas cosas por hacer, por resolver, tambin en la esfera de las pensiones lo que la gente hace con su dinero cuando se jubila. +Una ltima pregunta: Cuntos de ustedes se siente cmodo con que a medida que planifican su retiro tienen un plan slido cuando se retiren, cuando vayan a reclamar sus beneficios de Seguridad Social, qu calidad de vida pueden esperar, cunto gastar cada mes para no quedarse sin dinero? +Cuntos de ustedes sienten tener un plan slido para el futuro en trminos de decisiones post-jubilacin? +Uno, dos, tres, cuatro. +Menos del tres por ciento de una audiencia muy sofisticada. +El comportamiento financiero tiene un largo camino. +Existen muchas oportunidades para volverla poderosa una y otra vez. +Gracias. +Soy profesor de informtica, y mi rea de especializacin es informtica y seguridad de la informacin. +Cuando estaba en la universidad tuve la oportunidad de escuchar a mi abuela describindole a uno de sus compaeros de edad avanzada lo que yo haca para vivir. +Aparentemente yo era el encargado de que nadie robara las computadoras de la universidad. Y, saben, es perfectamente comprensible que ella pensara eso, porque le dije que trabajaba en seguridad informtica, as que su perspectiva resultaba bastante interesante. +Pero eso no es lo ms absurdo que he escuchado sobre mi trabajo. +Ms adelante voy a retomar esta idea de ser infectado por un virus de su computadora, de una manera seria. +Nada de este trabajo es mo. Todo ha sido realizado por mis colegas y en realidad les ped sus diapositivas y las inclu en esta charla. +As que de lo primero que voy a hablar es de los dispositivos mdicos implantados. +Hoy en da los dispositivos mdicos son tecnolgicamente muy avanzados. +En 1926 se invent el primer marcapasos. +En 1960 fue implantado el primer marcapasos, afortunadamente, un poco ms pequeo que el que se puede ver aqu y la tecnologa ha seguido avanzando. +En 2006 alcanzamos un hito importante desde la perspectiva de la seguridad informtica. +Y por qu digo esto? +Porque fue entonces cuando los dispositivos implantados en personas comenzaron a tener capacidad de conexin en red. +Lo que hizo un equipo de investigadores fue tomar lo que se llama un DAI. +Esto es un desfibrilador y es un aparato que va implantado dentro de una persona para controlar su ritmo cardaco y stos han salvado muchas vidas. +Realizaron muchos, muchos ataques exitosos. +Uno que me gustara destacar aqu es cambiar el nombre del paciente. +No s por qu alguien querra hacer eso, pero estoy seguro de que no quisiera que me lo hicieran a m. +Y fueron capaces de cambiar terapias, incluyendo la deshabilitacin del dispositivo y esto con un dispositivo comercial, de venta al pblico simplemente realizando ingeniera inversa y enviando seales inalmbricas al mismo. +Haba una parte en el NPR de algunos de estos desfibriladores que poda lograr que se interrumpiera su desempeo simplemente sosteniendo unos auriculares encima de ellos. +Ahora, la tecnologa inalmbrica e Internet pueden mejorar los cuidados de la salud notablemente. +Bien, vamos a cambiar de rumbo y mostrar otro ejemplo. +Voy a mostrarles algunos ejemplos diferentes, como este que ser mi tema. Hablemos de automviles. +Este es un vehculo, y tiene muchos componentes, hoy en da, muchos de ellos son electrnicos. +De hecho, tiene muchos ordenadores dentro de l, ms Pentiums que los que tena mi laboratorio cuando estaba en la facultad, y estn conectados por una red cableada. +Tambin hay una red inalmbrica en el auto, a la que se tiene acceso por diferentes medios. +Bluetooth, radio FM, radio XM, de hecho posee un wi-fi, hay sensores en las ruedas que comunican la presin de las mismas inalmbricamente a un controlador en la cabina. +El auto moderno es un sofisticado dispositivo multicomputadora. +Y qu ocurre si alguien intenta atacarlo? +Bueno, eso es lo que hicieron los investigadores de los que les voy a hablar. +Bsicamente adhirieron un atacante a la red cableada y a la red inalmbrica. +De esta forma tienen dos flancos por donde atacar. +Uno es una red inalmbrica de corto alcance, con la cual puedes comunicarte con un dispositivo cercano, tanto por Bluetooth como por wi-fi, y la otra es de largo alcance, con la que puedes comunicarte con el auto a travs de la red mvil o a travs de una de las estaciones de radio. +Pinsenlo. Cuando un coche recibe una seal de radio es procesada por un software. +Este software tiene que recibir y descodificar esta seal de radio y luego saber qu hacer con ella, incluso si solo fuera msica que ser reproducida en la radio, y ese software que realiza esta descodificacin, si tiene algn fallo, puede generar una vulnerabilidad para alguien que quiera hackear el auto. +Los investigadores hicieron este trabajo as: leyeron el software en los chips del ordenador del auto y luego utilizaron herramientas sofisticadas de ingeniera inversa para saber lo que haca el software, encontraron sus vulnerabilidades, y crearon mecanismos para atacarlas. +De hecho, realizaron el ataque en la vida real. +Compraron dos autos me imagino que tienen un mejor presupuesto que yo. +El primer modelo era para comprobar lo que sucedera si un atacante tuviera acceso a la red interna del auto. +Bien, piensa en ello como si alguien accede a tu coche, lo utiliza para hacer tonteras por ah y luego lo abandona, y ahora, en qu problema te han metido? +El otro modelo es uno en el cual te contactan en tiempo real a travs de una de las redes inalmbricas como con un mvil, o algo similar, y nunca tienen acceso fsico a tu auto. +As es como se ve el equipo para el primer modelo en el cual tienen acceso al auto. +Toman una computadora y la conectan a la unidad de diagnstico de la red interna del coche y hacen todo tipo de tonteras, como por ejemplo aqu hay una foto del velocmetro mostrando 225 km por hora cuando el auto est aparcado. +Una vez que han controlado los ordenadores del auto, puedes hacer cualquier cosa. +Bueno, ahora podras decir "Oye, eso es absurdo". +Bueno, qu pasara si se lograra que el auto siempre indicara que va como a 30 km por hora menos de las que realmente va? +Te podran poner un montn de multas. +Luego fueron a una pista de aterrizaje abandonada con dos autos, la vctima y el perseguidor, y realizaron otros ataques. +Una de las cosas que pudieron hacer desde el auto perseguidor fue hacer frenar al otro auto, simplemente hackeando su ordenador. +Fueron capaces de inhibir los frenos. +Tambin fueron capaces de instalar programas maliciosos que no tuvieran efecto y que no funcionaran hasta que el auto hiciera algo como ir a ms de 30 km por hora. +Los resultados son asombrosos, y cuando compartieron esta charla, incluso impartindola en una conferencia a un grupo de cientficos en seguridad computacional, todo el mundo estaba boquiabierto. +Fueron capaces de tomar el control de varios de los ordenadores crticos dentro del auto: el que controla los frenos, las luces, el motor, el tablero, la radio, etc... y fueron capaces de hacerlo en vehculos reales de la calle que compraron, utilizando la seal de radio. +Fueron capaces de comprometer cada parte del software que controlaba cada una de la conexiones inalmbricas del auto. +Cada una de ellas fue implementada exitosamente. +Cmo se podra robar un auto utilizando este modelo? +Bueno, se podra poner en peligro a travs de un desbordamiento de memoria de la vulnerabilidad en este software, o algo parecido. +Se utiliza el GPS en el auto para localizarlo. +Se quita la llave de las puertas remotamente a travs de la computadora que controla esto, se enciende el motor, se ignora la alarma antirobo, y listo, ya tienes un vehculo. +La observacin fue bastante interesante. +Los autores del estudio tienen un vdeo en el que se muestra como ellos tomaron control del vehculo y luego encendieron el micrfono y los parlantes en el auto mientras lo rastreaban va GPS en un mapa, de forma que eso es algo que los conductores nunca sabran que est sucediendo. +Ya tienen algo de miedo? +An tengo algunas ms de estas historias interesantes. +stas son algunas que recuerdo de una conferencia, en la que mi mente estaba simplemente asombrada, y yo me deca, "Tengo que compartir esto con otra gente". +Esta es del laboratorio de Fabian Monrose en la Universidad de Carolina del Norte, y lo que hicieron fue algo intuitivo, una vez que uno lo ha visto, pero sorprendente a la vez. +Ellos grabaron en video a personas en un autobs, y postprocesaron el vdeo. +Lo que ven aqu, en el nmero uno es el reflejo de los anteojos de alguien, del telfono mvil en el que est escribiendo. +Les mostrar dos ms. Una son las radios P25. +Los P25 son radios utilizados por la polica, por todo tipo de agencias gubernamentales y por los soldados en combate para comunicarse, hay una opcin de encriptacin en esos telfonos. +As es como se ve un telfono. En realidad no es un telfono. +Es ms como un radio de doble-va. +Motorola fabrica uno de los ms utilizados, y Uds. pueden ver que son utilizados por el Servicio Secreto y tambin en combate, es un estndar bastante, bastante comn en EE.UU. y en otros lugares. +As que una de las preguntas que los investigadores se han hecho es, se podra bloquear este aparato, no? +considerando que estos son equipos de primera respuesta? +Entonces, podra una organizacin terrorista eliminar la capacidad de la polica y de los bomberos de informar sobre alguna emergencia? +Encontraron que hay un dispositivo GirlTech usado para mandar mensajes de texto que opera en exactamente la misma frecuencia que el P25, as es que construyeron lo que llamaron Mi Primer Bloqueador de Seal. Si ven de cerca este dispositivo, posee un interruptor para encriptacin o texto puro. +Permtanme pasar de diapositiva, y ahora regresar. +Ven la diferencia? +Este es texto puro. Este es encriptado. +Hay un pequeo punto que se despliega en la pantalla, y tambin se ve un pequeo giro en el interruptor. +As es que los investigadores se dijeron, "Me pregunto como es posible que muchas veces conversaciones bien seguras, importantes y delicadas se dan en estos radios de dos-vas cuando se olvida encriptar y no se dan cuenta de que no encriptaron?" +As es que compraron un scanner. Estos son perfectamente legales y operan en la frecuencia del P25, lo que hicieron fue saltar en varias frecuencias y disearon un software para escuchar. +Si se encontraban con comunicacin encriptada, ellos permanecan en ese canal y anotaban, que ese era un canal por medio del cual la gente se comunicaba, agencias de polica federal, y se fueron a 20 reas metropolitanas y escucharon conversaciones que se daban en esas frecuencias. +Encontraron que en cada rea metropolitana, capturaban ms de 20 minutos diarios de comunicacin clara. +Y de qu hablaba la gente? +Bueno, ellos encontraron nombres e informacin acerca de informantes confidenciales. Encontraron informacin que estaba siendo intervenida telefnicamente, se discutan varios crmenes, informacin delicada. +En su mayora era informacin criminal y de polica federal. +Fueron y lo reportaron a la polica federal, despus de dejarlo en el anonimato, y en este caso la vulnerabilidad es simplemente que la interfaz de usuario no era lo suficientemente buena. Si se va hablar de algo realmente seguro y sensible, debe tenerse completamente claro que esa conversacin est encriptada. +Eso se resuelve fcilmente. +Finalmente, el ltimo caso es algo que creo que es algo genial, y tena que mostrrselos, probablemente no es algo por lo que Uds. dejarn de dormir como los autos o los desfibriladores, pero est robando tecleadas. +Hemos visto a los telfonos inteligentes boca abajo. +Cada experto de seguridad quiere hackear un telfono inteligente, y tendemos a analizar el puerto USB, el GPS para el rastreo, la cmara, el micrfono, pero nadie hasta este punto haba observado el acelermetro. +El acelermetro es eso que determina la orientacin vertical del telfono inteligente. +As que hicieron algo sencillo. +Pusieron un telfono inteligente junto a un teclado, y pusieron a la gente a teclear, su meta era usar las vibraciones que eran generadas al teclear para medir el cambio en la lectura del acelermetro y determinar as lo que la persona haba estado escribiendo. +Ahora, al intentar esto en el iPhons 3GS, esta es una grfica de las perturbaciones creadas al escribir, y como pueden observar es bastante difcil de decir cundo o qu era lo que alguien estaba escribiendo, pero en el iPhone 4 con el acelermetro mejorado, la misma medicin produjo esta grfica. +Luego vino la fase de ataque, en la que alguien escriba algo, se desconoca el contenido, pero utilizando el modelo creado en la fase de entrenamiento, se determinaba qu era lo que se estaba escribiendo. +Fue algo bastante exitoso. Este es un artculo del USA Today. +Ellos escribieron "La Suprema Corte de Illinois ha ordenado que Rahm Emanuel es elegible como candidato para la Alcalda de Chicago". vean, esto lo ligu en la ltima charla "y le ordenaron permanecer en la papeleta electoral". +Lo interesante de este sistema es que produjo "Suprema de Illinois" y entonces no estaba seguro. +El modelo produjo varias opciones, y esto es lo asombroso de algunas tcnicas de I.A., las computadoras son buenas en algunas cosas, los humanos buenos en otras, tomen lo mejor de ambos y dejen que los humanos resuelvan esto. +No desperdicien los ciclos de computadora. +Un humano no va a pensar que es la voluntad Suprema. +Es la Corte Suprema, verdad? +Y as, juntos lograron reproducir lo que se haba escrito simplemente midiendo el acelermetro. +Por qu importa esto? Bueno, en la plataforma Android, por ejemplo, los diseadores tienen un manifiesto en el que cada dispositivo, el micrfono, etc... tiene que ser registrado si va a ser utilizado para que los hackers no puedan controlarlo, pero nadie controla el acelermetro. +Entonces, cul es el punto? Pueden dejar su iPhone junto al teclado de alguien, y dejar la habitacin, y ms tarde recuperar lo que hicieron ellos, an sin utilizar el micrfono. +Si alguien es capaz de copiar software malicioso en su iPhone, tambin quizs podra acceder a lo que escriban cuando pongan su iPhone junto a su teclado. +As es que jugaron Pac-Man en ellas. +Qu quiere decir todo esto? +Bueno, creo que la sociedad tiende a adoptar la tecnologa rpidamente. Me encanta tener el prximo genial aparato. +Lo que nosotros podemos hacer, es estar conscientes de que los dispositivos pueden ser comprometidos, y que cualquier cosa que tenga software dentro de s puede ser vulnerable. Tendr fallos. +Muchas gracias. +Los ocanos cubren el 70% del planeta. +Creo que Arthur C. Clarke tena razn cuando dijo que quiz deberamos llamar al planeta Planeta Ocano. +Los ocanos son sumamente productivos, como puede verse en la imagen satelital de la fotosntesis, la produccin de vida nueva. +De hecho, los ocanos producen a diario la mitad de la vida nueva del planeta y casi la mitad del oxgeno que respiramos. +Adems, abriga gran parte de la biodiversidad de la Tierra, y en gran medida no lo sabemos. +Pero hoy les contar algo de eso. +Pasando incluso por alto la extraccin de protenas procedente del ocano +que cubre el 10% de las necesidades globales y el 100% de algunos pases insulares. +Si descendiramos en el 95% de la biosfera habitable pronto se tornara negra azabache, salpicada slo por pequeos resquicios de luz de organismos bioluminiscentes. +Y si uno encendiera las luces vera pasar organismos espectaculares, los moradores de las profundidades, quienes viven en las profunidades. +Finalmente veramos el fondo marino. +Este tipo de hbitat cubre ms superficie del planeta que el resto de los hbitats combinados. +Sin embargo, sabemos ms de las superficies lunar y marciana que de este hbitat, a pesar de que an no hemos extrado ni un gramo de alimento, ni una bocanada de oxgeno, ni una gota de agua, de esos cuerpos celestes. +Por eso hace 10 aos comenz un programa internacional denominado Censo de la Vida Marina para comprender mejor la vida de los ocanos del mundo. +Hubo 17 proyectos de todo el mundo. +Como pueden ver, estas son las reas de los distintos proyectos. +Espero que aprecien el nivel de cobertura mundial que ha conseguido. +Todo empez cuando dos cientficos, Fred Grassle y Jesse Ausubel, se conocieron en Woods Hole, Massachusetts, como invitados de un instituto oceanogrfico de renombre. +Fred se lamentaba del estado de la biodiversidad marina y de que estaba en peligro pero nadie haca nada para protegerla. +Bien, ese debate dio lugar a este programa en el que participan 2700 cientficos de ms de 80 pases del mundo que hicieron 540 expediciones ocenicas con un costo total de 650 millones de dlares para estudiar la distribucin, la diversidad y la abundancia de la vida en los ocanos del mundo. +Qu hallamos? +Hallamos nuevas especies espectaculares, criaturas ms hermosas y de alto impacto visual por doquier: desde la costa hasta las profundidades, desde los microbios hasta los peces, y todo lo dems. +El cuello de botella no era la diversidad biolgica desconocida sino ms bien los especialistas en taxonoma que pueden identificar y catalogar estas especies, ese fue el cuello de botella. +De hecho, ellos mismos son especies en peligro de extincin. +Todos los das se describen 4 o 5 especies nuevas en los ocanos. +Y, como dije, podra haber muchas ms. +Vengo de Canad; de Terranova, una isla frente a la costa este del continente, donde ocurri uno de los peores desastres en la historia de la pesca. +Esta imagen muestra a un nio al lado de un bacalao. +Estamos en el 1900. +Cuando yo tena su edad iba a pescar con mi abuelo y pescbamos piezas de la mitad de ese tamao. +Yo pensaba que eso era normal porque nunca haba visto peces como este. +Si furamos a pescar hoy, 20 aos despus del colapso de esa industria, si atrapramos un pez, que no sera poca cosa, tendra incluso la mitad de ese tamao. +Estamos experimentando el desplazamiento del punto de partida. +Realmente no apreciamos las expectativas de lo que pueden producir los ocanos porque no lo vemos durante nuestras vidas. +Muchos de nosotros, y me incluyo, creemos que la explotacin humana de los ocanos se ha convertido en un problema en los ltimos 50, quiz 100 aos. +El Censo ha tratado de retroceder en el tiempo usando todas las fuentes de informacin disponibles. +Desde mens de restaurantes y registros monacales, hasta diarios de viaje para ver cmo eran los ocanos. +Porque los datos cientficos se remontan, en el mejor caso, hasta la 2 Guerra Mundial. +El resultado del estudio arroja que la explotacin pesada empez con los antiguos romanos. +Obviamente, en ese momento no haba frigorficos, +por eso los pescadores capturaban slo lo que podan comer o vender en el da. +Pero los romanos inventaron la salmuera. +Y eso posibilit la preservacin del pescado y su transporte a largas distancias. +As naci la pesca industrial. +Este es el tipo de extrapolaciones que hacemos de las prdidas que hemos sufrido, en relacin a los impactos previos al ocano. +Van desde el 65% al 98% para estos grandes grupos de organismos, como se ve en las bandas azules. +En cuanto a las especies que logramos salvar, que protegemos -por ejemplo, las aves y mamferos marinos en aos recientes- vemos cierta recuperacin. +Todava hay esperanza. +Pero en su mayora, pasamos del saladero a la extincin. +Otra evidencia muy interesante proviene +de los torneos de pesca de la costa de Florida. +Esta es una foto de los aos 50. +Quiero que observen la escala en la diapositiva porque cuando uno ve la misma foto de los aos 80 observa peces mucho ms chicos y tambin se nota un cambio en la composicin de esos peces. +Para el 2007, la pesca era risible en cuanto al tamao de los peces. +Pero no hay nada de que rerse. +Los ocanos han perdido gran parte de su productividad, a causa nuestra. +Qu queda? Mucho, en realidad. +Hay muchas cosas interesantes y ahora les voy a contar algunas. +Quiero empezar con un poco de tecnologa, porque, claro, esto es una Conferencia TED y Uds. quieren or hablar de tecnologa. +Una forma de detectar muestras en aguas profundas son los vehculos a control remoto. +Son vehculos que, atados, enviamos al lecho marino y se convierten en nuestros ojos y manos en el fondo del mar. +Hace un par de aos yo tena que partir en un crucero oceanogrfico pero no pude ir por otros compromisos previos. +Gracias al vnculo satelital pude, desde la comodidad de mi casa, con el perro acurrucado a mis pies y una taza de t en la mano, pude decirle al piloto: "Quiero una muestra all". +Y el piloto hizo exactamente lo que le ped. +Hoy contamos con ese tipo de tecnologa, algo que no tenamos hace una dcada. +Eso nos permite tomar muestras de estos hbitats asombrosos tan lejanos de la superficie y de la luz. +Uno de los instrumentos usados en el muestreo de los ocanos son las ondas acsticas. +La ventaja de las ondas acsticas es que penetran fcilmente en el agua, a diferencia de la luz. +Podemos enviar ondas acsticas que rebotan en los peces y se reflejan. +En este ejemplo, un cientfico del Censo envi dos barcos. +Uno emita ondas acsticas que se reflejaban +y eran recibidas por el segundo barco y, en este caso, nos dio estimaciones muy precisas de 250 mil millones de arenques en aproximadamente un minuto. +Esa es un rea de cerca del tamao de Manhattan. +Poder hacer eso es una herramienta de pesca enorme porque conocer la cantidad de peces es algo crucial. +Tambin podemos usar etiquetas satelitales para rastrear a los animales en los ocanos. +Y los animales que salen a la superficie a respirar, como los elefantes marinos, dan una oportunidad de enviar los datos para indicarnos en qu parte del ocano estn. +A partir de eso podemos trazar estas lneas. +Por ejemplo, la azul oscura muestra el desplazamiento de elefantes marinos en el Pacfico Norte. +Acabo de darme cuenta que para los daltnicos esta diapositiva no es de gran ayuda, pero sganme de todos modos. +Para animales que no salen a la superficie usamos etiquetas desplegables que recopilan datos sobre la luz y la hora del amanecer y del ocaso. +Y luego de un cierto tiempo la etiqueta emerge a la superficie y transmite los datos a tierra. +Usamos estas herramientas porque el GPS no funciona bajo el agua. +Con esto podemos identificar esas autopistas azules, esas zonas del ocano que deben recibir prioridad de conservacin. +Otro aspecto que se podra considerar es que cuando van al supermercado a comprar cosas, las escanean. +Hay un cdigo de barras en cada producto que le dice a la computadora qu producto es. +Los genetistas han desarrollado algo similar: el cdigo de barras gentico. +Este cdigo usa un gen especfico llamado CO1 que es constante dentro de una especie, pero vara entre especies. +Eso significa que podemos identificar de forma inequvoca cul es cada especie porque, aunque se parezcan, biolgicamente pueden ser muy diferentes. +Quisiera traer a colacin la historia de dos chicas, estudiantes de secundaria de Nueva York, que trabajaron en el Censo. +Fueron a censar peces a los mercados y restaurantes de Nueva York y les tomaron el cdigo. +Hallaron nombres que no correspondan. +Por ejemplo, hallaron que algo que se vende como atn, que es muy valioso, en realidad era tilapia, que es mucho ms econmico. +Tambin encontraron especies en riesgo vendidas como especies comunes. +Por eso el cdigo de barras nos permite saber con qu trabajamos y tambin qu estamos comiendo. +El Sistema de Informacin Biogeogrfica Ocenica es la base de datos para todos los datos del Censo. +Es de libre acceso; pueden ir a descargar los datos. +Contiene todos los datos del Censo y otros que la gente proporcion con gusto. +De esta manera es posible graficar la distribucin de las especies y su ubicacin en el ocano. +En este grfico puse los datos que tenemos. +Aqu hemos concentrado nuestro trabajo de muestreo. +Pueden verse las muestras de la zona del Atlntico Norte, del mar del Norte en particular, y bastante bien la costa este de Amrica del Norte. +Los colores clidos muestran las reas analizadas en detalle. +Los colores fros, azul y negro, muestran las reas para las cuales no tenemos datos. +An despus de un censo de 10 aos, todava hay grandes reas que permanecen sin explorar. +Hay un grupo de cientficos que vive en Texas y trabaja en el golfo de Mxico que decidi, por pura pasin, recopilar toda la informacin posible sobre la biodiversidad del golfo de Mxico. +Recopilaron una lista de todas las especies, con los lugares ms frecuentados; pareca un ejercicio cientfico muy esotrico. +Pero luego ocurri el derrame de petrleo de la Deep Horizon. +De repente, esta tarea desinteresada, que no persegua fines econmicos, se transform en una informacin vital en trminos de cmo y cundo se recuperara el sistema y cmo se podran resolver los pleitos y las discusiones de miles de millones de dlares en los aos venideros. +Qu hallamos? +Podra hablar durante horas, pero obviamente no puedo hacerlo. +Pero les contar algunos de mis mejores descubrimientos del Censo. +Una de las cosas que descubrimos es dnde estn las zonas de mayor diversidad. +Dnde encontramos la mayora de las especies de vida marina? +Si seguimos a las especies conocidas encontramos este tipo de distribucin. +Vemos que para las etiquetas costeras, de aquellos organismos que viven cerca de la costa, hay ms diversidad en los trpicos. +Esto es algo que ya conocamos desde hace tiempo as que no es un gran descubrimiento. +Lo apasionante, sin embargo, es que las etiquetas ocenicas, las que estn muy lejos de la costa, son ms diversas en las latitudes intermedias. +Este es el tipo de datos que podran usar las autoridades para priorizar las zonas del ocano que tenemos que conservar. +Puede hacerse a escala mundial, pero tambin a escala regional. +Por eso los datos de la biodiversidad pueden ser tan valiosos. +Si bien muchas especies que hemos descubierto en el Censo son pequeas y difciles de ver, desde luego, no siempre fue as. +Por ejemplo, es difcil de creer que una langosta de 3 kilos pueda eludir a los cientficos; era el caso hasta hace pocos aos hasta que los pesqueros sudafricanos solicitaban permiso de exportacin y los cientficos se dieron cuenta de que era algo nuevo para la ciencia. +Asimismo, el laminar aleuticus recogido en Alaska, en bajamar, probablemente sea una especie nueva. +Si bien mide 3 metros haba eludido a la ciencia. +Este muchacho, este calamar gigante, mide 7 metros de largo. +Pero, en verdad, vive en las aguas profundas del Atlntico Medio por eso fue ms difcil de encontrar. +Pero an existe potencial para descubrir cosas apasionantes. +Este camarn particular, apodado el camarn del Jursico, se supona extinguido hace 50 aos, al menos lo estaba hasta que el Censo descubri que viva muy bien frente a la costa de Australia. +Eso muestra que el ocano, debido a su inmensidad, puede ocultar secretos durante mucho tiempo. +Steven Spielberg, murete de envidia! +Si miramos, las distribuciones cambian dramticamente. +Uno de los registros que obtuvimos fue el de esta pardela sombra que realiza migraciones espectaculares desde Nueva Zelanda hasta Alaska, y regresa nuevamente en busca del verano eterno a medida que completa su ciclo de vida. +Tambin hablamos del caf Tiburn Blanco. +Es el lugar de reunin de los tiburones blancos en el Pacfico. +Sencillamente no sabemos por qu convergen all. +Es una pregunta para el futuro. +Una de las cosas que nos ensean en la secundaria es que todos los animales necesitan oxgeno para vivir. +Esta criaturita, que mide medio milmetro y no es de lo ms carismtica, +fue descubierta a principios de los aos 80. +Pero tiene algo muy interesante y es que, hace unos aos, los cientficos del Censo descubrieron que el tipo puede crecer en sedimentos con poco oxgeno en las profundidades del Mediterrneo. +De hecho, ahora se sabe que algunos animales pueden vivir sin oxgeno y pueden adaptarse incluso a las peores condiciones. +Si se quitara toda el agua en el ocano, quedara esto, esta es la biomasa de la vida en el fondo marino. +Vemos una gran biomasa hacia los polos y no tanta en zonas intermedias. +Hallamos vida en los extremos. +Encontramos nuevas especies que viven en el hielo y ayudan a mantener una cadena alimenticia all. +Y tambin este espectacular cangrejo yeti que vive cerca de las fuentes hidrotermales de la isla de Pascua. +Esta especie en particular llam la atencin del pblico. +Tambin encontramos bocas profundas, de 5000 metros, las ms calientes registraron 407 C, en el Pacfico Sur y tambin en el rtico, donde antes no se haba encontrado nada. +Podemos incluso llegar a descubrir nuevos entornos. +Hay mucho por conocer todava. +Slo voy a resumir algunos puntos muy rpidamente. +En primer lugar, podramos preguntarnos cuntos peces hay en el mar. +Conocemos ms de los peces que de cualquier otro grupo del ocano, quitando a los mamferos marinos. +Podemos extrapolar en funcin de la tasa de descubrimientos la cantidad de especies probable a descubrir. +Con eso, calculamos que en realidad conocemos unas 16 500 especies marinas y probablemente haya entre 1000 y 4000 ms. +Lo hemos hecho bastante bien. +Tenemos cerca del 75% de los peces, quiz el 90%. +Pero, como dije, los peces son los ms conocidos. +Nuestro nivel de conocimiento es mucho menor en otros grupos de organismos. +Esta cifra se basa realmente en un nuevo artculo que se publicar en la revista PLoS Biology. +Y predice cuntas especies existen en tierra y en el ocano. +Y hallaron que creen que conocemos un 9% de las especies del ocano. +Esto significa que el 91%, incluso despus del Censo, queda an por descubrir. +Eso da como resultado unos dos millones de especies, en ltima instancia. +As que todava tenemos mucho trabajo por hacer en materia de incgnitas. +Esta bacteria es parte de las mantas que se encuentran frente a la costa de Chile. +Cubren un rea del tamao de Grecia. +Esta bacteria en particular se ve a simple vista. +Imaginen la biomasa que representa. +Pero algo realmente interesante de los microbios es su gran variedad. +Una gota de agua de mar podra contener 160 tipos diferentes de microbios. +Pensamos que los ocanos contienen, en potencia, mil millones de tipos diferentes. +Es apasionante. Qu funcin cumplirn all? +No lo sabemos. +Yo dira que lo ms apasionante del Censo es el papel de la ciencia mundial. +Como vemos en esta imagen del planeta iluminado por la noche, hay muchas reas de la Tierra en las que el desarrollo humano es ms grande y otras en las que es mucho menor, pero entre ellas vemos muchas zonas oscuras de un ocano relativamente inexplorado. +El otro punto que quiero destacar es que el ocano est interconectado. +Los organismos marinos no conocen de lmites internacionales; se mueven a voluntad. +Y es all donde la colaboracin mundial gana cada vez ms importancia. +Hemos perdido mucho paraso. +Por ejemplo, este atn que sola ser tan abundante en el mar del Norte ahora ha desaparecido. +Hay redes en las profundidades del Mediterrneo que recogen ms basura que animales. +Y es el mar profundo, ese entorno que consideramos entre los reductos ms prstinos de la Tierra. +Y hay muchas otras presiones. +La acidificacin del ocano es realmente un gran problema para la gente, as como el calentamiento del ocano y los efectos que tendr en los arrecifes de coral. +En cuestin de dcadas, durante nuestras vidas, veremos mucho dao a los arrecifes de coral. +Y podra seguir, pero mi tiempo se termina, con esta letana de preocupaciones sobre el ocano, pero quiero terminar con una nota ms positiva. +Entonces, el gran desafo es asegurarnos de preservar lo que queda porque todava hay una belleza espectacular. +Y los ocanos son tan productivos, hay tantas cosas all importantes para los seres humanos que realmente necesitamos, incluso desde un punto de vista egosta, tratar de hacerlo mejor que nosotros en el pasado. +Por eso tenemos que reconocer esas zonas importantes y empearnos en protegerlas. +Cuando miramos fotos como esta, nos quitan el aliento, adems de ayudarnos a respirar con el oxgeno que proveen los ocanos. +Los cientficos del Censo trabajaron bajo la lluvia, en el fro, bajo el agua y en la superficie tratando de iluminar el maravilloso descubrimiento, lo desconocido que an es mucho, las adaptaciones espectaculares que vemos en la vida del ocano. +Por eso, si eres un pastor de llamas en las montaas chilenas, o un agente burstil en Nueva York, o un seguidor de TED que vive en Edimburgo, los ocanos son importantes. +Como vayan los ocanos, iremos nosotros. +Gracias por su atencin. +Comenzar con cuatro palabras que servirn de contexto para esta semana; cuatro palabras que vienen a definir este siglo. +Son stas: La Tierra est llena. +Est llena de nosotros, llena de cosas, de nuestros residuos, de nuestras necesidades. +S, somos una especie creativa y brillante pero hemos creado demasiadas cosas; tantas que nuestra economa es ms grande que el anfitrin, nuestro planeta. +Esto no es una declaracin filosfica, es slo ciencia respaldada por la fsica, la qumica y la biologa. +Hay muchos estudios cientficos al respecto y todos llegan a la misma conclusin: estamos viviendo por encima de nuestros recursos. +Los cientficos eminentes de la Global Footprint Network, por ejemplo, calculan que necesitamos una Tierra y media para sostener esta economa. +En otras palabras, para continuar operando en nuestro nivel actual, necesitamos medio planeta ms. +En trminos financieros, sera como gastar siempre 50% ms de lo que ganamos, endeudndonos ms y ms cada ao. +Pero, claro, uno no puede pedir prestados los recursos naturales por eso: o quemamos nuestro capital, o le robamos al futuro. +Y cuando digo lleno, digo repleto; ms all de cualquier margen de error y de todo cuestionamiento metodolgico. +Eso significa que nuestra economa es insostenible. +No estoy diciendo que no es agradable o que afecta a los osos polares o a los bosques, aunque, desde luego, es as. +Me refiero a que nuestro enfoque sencillamente es insostenible. +En otras palabras, gracias a estas molestas leyes de la fsica cuando las cosas son insostenibles, se detienen. +Se podra pensar que esto no es posible. +No se puede parar el crecimiento econmico. +Pues eso va a detenerse: el crecimiento econmico. +Se detendr por falta de recursos comerciables. +Se detendr debido a nuestra demanda creciente de recursos, de toda la capacidad, de todos los sistemas de la Tierra, que hoy tienen prdidas econmicas. +Al pensar en que el crecimiento econmico se detenga decimos: "No es posible", porque el crecimiento econmico es tan vital para nuestra sociedad que rara vez se cuestiona. +Aunque el crecimiento sin duda ha trado muchos beneficios, es una idea tan central que solemos no entender la posibilidad de que no est. +A pesar de que ha trado muchos beneficios, se apoya en una idea muy loca que sostiene que es posible el crecimiento infinito en un planeta finito. +Y estoy aqu para decirles que el emperador est desnudo. +La idea loca es slo eso, un disparate, y con la Tierra llena, se acab el juego. +Vamos!, estarn pensando. +No es posible. +La tecnologa es increble, la gente es innovadora. +Podemos mejorar la manera de hacer las cosas. +Sin dudas resolveremos esto. +Todo eso es verdad. +Bueno, casi todo. +Claro que somos increbles y que resolvemos problemas complejos con creatividad sorprendente. +Si el problema a resolver fuera hacer decrecer la economa humana del 150% al 100% de la capacidad de la Tierra, lo lograramos. +El problema es que estamos calentando este motor de crecimiento. +Con esta economa tan tensionada planeamos duplicarla en tamao, para luego cuadruplicarla en un futuro no muy lejano, en menos de 40 aos, durante la vida de la mayora de Uds. +China planea estar all en tan slo 20 aos. +El nico inconveniente del plan es que no es posible. +En respuesta, algunas personas dicen: necesitamos el crecimiento, solucionar la pobreza. +Tenemos que desarrollar la tecnologa. +hay que mantener la estabilidad social. +Este argumento me parece fascinante, es como si pudiramos romper las reglas de la fsica a nuestra medida. +A la Tierra no le importara lo que necesitamos. +La Madre Naturaleza no negocia; define las reglas y describe consecuencias. +Y no son lmites esotricos. +Es el alimento, el agua, el suelo y el clima; las bases prcticas y econmicas de nuestras vidas. +Esa idea de que podemos pasar sin problemas a una economa muy eficaz de energa solar, basada en el conocimiento, transformada por la ciencia y la tecnologa para que los 9000 millones puedan vivir en 2050 una vida de abundancia y descargas digitales es un espejismo. +No es que no haya alimentos, ropa y viviendas para todos o que no podamos tener vidas dignas. +Claro que s. +Pero la idea de que podemos crecer poquito a poco casi sin contratiempos es un error, es peligrosamente errnea porque implica que no estamos listos para lo que realmente suceder. +Vean lo que ocurre cuando se utiliza un sistema, sobrepasando sus lmites y sigue adelante a ritmo acelerado sin pausa: el sistema deja de funcionar y se rompe. +Y eso nos va a pasar. +Muchos pensarn que estamos a tiempo de parar esto. +Si es tan malo, reaccionaremos. +Reflexionemos sobre esa idea. +Hemos tenido 50 aos de calentamiento. +La ciencia nos ha mostrado lo imperioso del cambio. +El anlisis econmico ha sealado no slo que podemos afrontarlo sino que es ms barato actuar pronto. +Y, s, la realidad es que hemos hecho muy poco para cambiar el rumbo. +Ni siquiera aminoramos la marcha. +El ao pasado, por ejemplo, tuvimos las emisiones ms altas de la historia. +En materia de alimentos, agua, suelo y clima la historia se repite. +No digo esto con desesperacin. +Ya hice el duelo por la prdida. +Acepto donde estamos. +Es triste, pero es lo que hay. +Pero tambin es tiempo de dejar de negar y reconocer que no actuaremos, que no estamos listos para actuar y que no lo vamos a hacer hasta que esta crisis impacte a la economa. +Por eso el fin del crecimiento es el tema central para el que tenemos que prepararnos. +Cundo empieza la transicin? +Cundo empieza la ruptura? +Para m, ya est en curso. +S que la mayora no lo ve de esa manera. +Solemos ver el mundo no como el sistema integrado que es sino como una serie de temas individuales. +Vemos las protestas Ocupa, vemos la espiral de crisis crediticia, vemos la desigualdad en aumento, vemos la influencia del dinero en la poltica, vemos limitaciones de recursos, alimentos, el precio del petrleo. +Pero errneamente vemos cada uno de estos temas como cosas separadas a resolver. +De hecho, el sistema... en ese colapso doloroso, nuestro sistema de crecimiento econmico alimentado por deuda, con una democracia ineficiente, con un planeta sobrecargado, se devora a s mismo. +Podra mostrar infinidad de estudios y evidencias que lo demuestran, pero no lo har porque, si quieren ver, esa evidencia est por todas partes. +Quiero hablarles del miedo. +Y quiero hacerlo porque, para m, el tema ms importante que enfrentamos es nuestra reaccin ante esta cuestin. +La crisis ahora es inevitable. +El tema es, cmo reaccionaremos? +Por supuesto, no sabemos que ocurrir. +El futuro es intrnsecamente incierto. +Pero piensen en lo que nos dice la ciencia que probablemente ocurra. +Imaginen nuestra economa cuando estalle la burbuja del carbono, cuando los mercados financieros reconozcan para tener alguna esperanza de evitar que la espiral climtica se salga de control, que el petrleo y el carbn se agotaron. +Imaginen a China, India y Pakistn en guerra cuando los impactos ambientales generen conflictos por los alimentos y el agua. +Imaginen a Oriente Medio sin ingresos por petrleo, con gobiernos en cada. +Imaginen que la industria alimenticia tan perfecta y el sobrecargado sistema agrcola fallen y la escasez en los supermercados. +Imaginen un 30% de desempleo en EE.UU. con una economa mundial presa del miedo y la incertidumbre. +Imaginen lo que eso significa para Uds., sus familias, sus amigos, su seguridad financiera personal. +Imaginen lo que significa para su seguridad personal cuando una poblacin civil fuertemente armada est cada vez ms enojada porque hayan permitido que ocurra esto. +Mam y pap, mientras el sistema claramente se vena abajo, qu hicieron Uds.?, en qu estaban pensando?" +Cmo se sienten cuando en sus mentes se apagan las luces de la economa mundial, cuando se desvanecen los supuestos sobre el futuro y emerge algo muy diferente? +Tmense un momento, respiren profundamente y piensen, qu sienten en ese momento? +Quiz negacin. +Tal vez furia. +Tal vez miedo. +Por supuesto, no podemos saber qu ocurrir y tenemos que vivir con incertidumbre. +Pero al pensar en las posibilidades que estoy pintando, deberamos sentir un poco de miedo. +Estamos en peligro, todos, y hemos evolucionado para responder al peligro con el miedo, para dar lugar a una respuesta vigorosa, para enfrentar a la amenaza con valenta. +Pero esta vez no es un tigre en la entrada de la cueva. +No podemos ver el peligro en la puerta. +Pero si miramos, podemos verlo en la puerta de nuestra civilizacin. +Por eso tenemos que sentir la respuesta ahora mientras hay luz porque si esperamos a que se instale la crisis, podemos entrar en pnico y escondernos. +Si lo sentimos y reflexionamos sobre eso, nos daremos cuenta de que no tenemos nada que temer, salvo al miedo mismo. +S, las cosas irn mal y ser pronto -sin duda durante nuestra vida- pero somos ms que capaces de sortear las dificultades que vienen. +Ya ven, esas personas que tienen fe en que los humanos podemos resolver cualquier problema, que la tecnologa no tiene lmites, que los mercados pueden ser una fuerza para siempre, tienen razn. +Lo nico que no pueden ver es que hace falta una buena crisis para que actuemos. +Cuando sentimos miedo y tememos la prdida somos capaces de cosas fuera de lo comn. +Piensen en la guerra. +Despus del bombardeo de Pearl Harbor, el gobierno demor slo cuatro das en prohibir la produccin de vehculos civiles y reorientar la industria automotriz y luego el racionamiento de alimentos y energa. +Piensen cmo responde una empresa a una amenaza de quiebra y cmo un cambio que pareca imposible, simplemente se hace. +Piensen en cmo responde una persona a un diagnstico de una enfermedad terminal con cambios en el estilo de vida que antes eran demasiado difciles y de repente se vuelven relativamente fciles. +Somos inteligentes, somos muy sorprendentes, pero nos encanta una buena crisis. +La buena noticia es que esta es monstruosa. +Claro, si nos equivocamos, podramos enfrentar el fin de esta civilizacin pero si lo hacemos bien podra ser el comienzo de la civilizacin. +No sera genial contarle a sus nietos que formaron parte de eso? +No existe una barrera tcnica o econmica. +Cientficos como James Hansen dicen que tenemos que eliminar las emisiones netas de CO2 de la economa en unas dcadas. +Yo quera saber cunto tiempo llevara as que trabaj con el profesor Jorgen Randers, de Noruega, para hallar la respuesta. +Desarrollamos un plan llamado "El plan de guerra de un grado" as llamado por el grado de movilizacin y la concentracin que requiere. +Para mi sorpresa, eliminar las emisiones netas de CO2 de la economa en slo 20 aos es bastante simple y barato, no tan barato, pero sin dudas ms barato que el costo de una civilizacin en declive. +No lo calculamos con precisin, pero entendemos que es muy caro. +Pueden leer los detalles, pero en resumen, podemos transformar nuestra economa. +Podemos hacerlo con la tecnologa probada. +Podemos hacerlo a un precio asequible. +Podemos hacerlo con las estructuras polticas existentes. +Lo nico que tenemos que cambiar es la manera de pensar y sentir. +Y ah es donde entran Uds. +Si pensamos en el futuro que describo, claro, debemos tener un poco de miedo. +Pero el miedo puede paralizar o motivar. +Tenemos que aceptar el miedo y luego tenemos que actuar. +Tenemos que actuar como si el futuro dependiera de eso. +Debemos actuar como si tuviramos un solo planeta. +Podemos hacerlo. +S que los fundamentalistas del libre mercado dirn que ms crecimiento, ms bienes y 9000 millones de consumidores es lo mejor que puede pasar. +Se equivocan. +Podemos ser ms, muchos ms. +Hemos logrado cosas notables desde que hallamos la manera de producir alimentos hace 10 000 aos. +Hemos construido una poderosa base de ciencia, conocimiento y tecnologa ms que suficientes para construir una sociedad en la que 9000 millones de personas puedan llevar vidas decentes, profundas y satisfactorias. +La Tierra nos puede acompaar si elegimos el camino correcto. +Podemos optar en este momento de crisis por plantearnos las grandes preguntas de la evolucin de la sociedad como: qu quisiramos ser cuando crezcamos, cuando salgamos de esta incmoda adolescencia, cuando creamos que no hay lmites y padezcamos delirios de inmortalidad? +Bien, es tiempo de crecer, de estar tranquilos, de ser ms sabios y ms considerados. +Como las generaciones anteriores creceremos en guerra; no entre civilizaciones sino por la civilizacin, por la extraordinaria oportunidad de construir una sociedad ms fuerte y ms feliz y planear una vida en torno a la mediana edad. +Podemos elegir la vida en lugar del miedo. +Podemos hacer lo que debemos hacer pero har falta cada lder empresarial, cada artista, cada cientfico, cada comunicador, cada madre, cada padre, cada hijo, cada uno de nosotros. +Este podra ser nuestro mejor momento. +Gracias. +Buenos das. +Hoy vine a hablarles de las pelotas de playa voladoras. +No, de robots giles areos como este. +Me gustara hablar un poco de los desafos de su construccin y de algunas aplicaciones fabulosas de esta tecnologa. +Estos robots estn emparentados con los vehculos areos no tripulados. +Sin embargo, los vehculos que ven aqu son grandes. +Pesan miles de kilos no son giles, en absoluto. +Ni siquiera son autnomos. +De hecho, muchos de estos vehculos son operados por tripulaciones de vuelo que pueden contar con varios pilotos, operadores de sensores y coordinadores de misin. +Nos interesa desarrollar robots como este -aqu hay dos fotos ms de robots que se comercializan. +Estos son helicpteros con cuatro rotores miden ms o menos un metro a escala y pesan cientos de gramos. +Nosotros adaptamos estos robots con sensores y procesadores para que puedan volar +sin GPS. +El robot que tengo en la mano es ste, y fue creado por dos estudiantes, Alex y Daniel. +Este pesa unos 50 gramos. +Consume unos 15 vatios de potencia. +Y, como pueden ver, mide unos 20 cm de dimetro. +As que voy a dar un tutorial rpido sobre su funcionamiento. +Tiene cuatro rotores. +Si los cuatro rotores giran a la misma velocidad lo hacen cernerse. +Al aumentar la velocidad de cada uno de los rotores el robot vuela hacia arriba, acelera. +Claro, si el robot estuviera inclinado respecto a la horizontal acelerara en esa direccin. +Hay dos maneras de hacer que se incline. +En esta imagen ven que el rotor 4 gira ms rpido y que el rotor 2 gira ms despacio. +Cuando ocurre eso se produce un impulso que lo hace rodar. +Y, al revs, si se incrementa la velocidad del rotor 3 y decrementa la del rotor 1, se lanza hacia adelante. +Y, por ltimo, si se giran los pares opuestos de rotores ms rpido que los otros pares, el robot vira en torno al eje vertical. +Un procesador de a bordo analiza los movimientos a ejecutar, combina estos movimientos y calcula los comandos a enviar a los motores 600 veces por segundo. +Bsicamente, as funciona. +Una de las ventajas de este diseo es que, al disminuir la escala, el robot es naturalmente ms gil. +Aqu R es la longitud caracterstica del robot. +Es la mitad del dimetro. +Hay muchos parmetros fsicos que cambian al reducir R. +Uno de los ms importantes es la inercia o resistencia al movimiento. +Resulta que la inercia, que regula el movimiento angular, se eleva a la quinta potencia de R. +As, cuanto ms chica es R ms acentuadamente se reduce la inercia. +Como resultado, la aceleracin angular, denotada aqu con la letra griega alfa, es 1 sobre R. +Es inversamente proporcional a R. +Cuanto ms chica sea R, ms rpido se puede girar. +Esto debera quedar claro con estos videos. +Abajo a la derecha se ve un robot que da un giro de 360 grados en menos de medio segundo. +Y varios giros en un poco ms de tiempo. +Aqu los procesos de a bordo reciben respuesta de los acelermetros y giroscopios de a bordo y calculan comandos, como dije antes, 600 veces por segundo para estabilizar al robot. +A la izquierda ven a Daniel que arroja el robot al aire. Eso muestra la robustez del control. +Sin importar como uno lo lance, el robot se recupera y regresa a su mano. +Por qu construir robots as? +Bien, estos robots tienen muchas aplicaciones. +Se los puede enviar a edificios como este, como primera repuesta en busca de intrusos, o en busca de escapes bioqumicos, o de una fuga de gas. +Se los puede usar tambin en la construccin. +Aqu hay robots que transportan vigas y columnas que montan estructuras cbicas. +Les contar ms al respecto. +Pueden usarse en el transporte de carga. +Pero uno de los problemas de estos pequeos robots es su capacidad de carga til. +Por eso querramos distribuir la carga til en varios robots. +Esta es una imagen de un experimento reciente -ya no tan reciente- en Sendai, poco despus del terremoto. +Podran enviarse robots como este a edificios derrumbados para evaluar los daos luego de desastres naturales o a edificios radiactivos para medir el nivel de radiacin. +Un problema fundamental que tienen que resolver los robots para ser autnomos es averiguar cmo llegar del punto A al punto B. +Esto se hace un poco difcil porque la dinmica de este robot es muy complicada. +De hecho, opera en un espacio de 12 dimensiones. +Por eso usamos un truco. +Usamos este espacio curvo de 12 dimensiones y lo transformamos en un espacio plano de 4 dimensiones. +Y ese espacio de 4 dimensiones est formado por X, Y, Z y el ngulo de viraje. As, el robot planifica +lo que denominamos la trayectoria de sacudida mnima. Recordando un poco de fsica, tenemos la posicin, la derivada, la velocidad, luego la aceleracin, luego viene el tirn y despus la sacudida . +Este robot minimiza la sacudida. +Y eso da como resultado un movimiento suave y elegante. +Y todo eso, evitando obstculos. +Estas trayectorias de sacudida mnima en el espacio plano luego son transformadas en este espacio complicado de 12 dimensiones que el robot debe realizar para el control y posterior ejecucin. +Les mostrar algunos ejemplos de trayectorias de sacudida mnima. +En el primer video vern al robot ir del punto A al punto B, pasando por un punto intermedio. +El robot puede recorrer cualquier trayectoria curva. +En estas trayectorias circulares el robot experimenta unas dos fuerzas G. +En la parte superior hay cmaras areas de captura de movimiento que le indican al robot dnde est, 100 veces por segundo. +Adems, le dicen dnde estn los obstculos. +Los obstculos pueden moverse. +Y aqu vemos a Daniel lanzando el aro al aire mientras el robot calcula la posicin del aro y trata de averiguar la mejor manera de atravesarlo. +Como acadmicos, estamos entrenados para saltar aros y as conseguir fondos para el laboratorio y logramos que nuestros robots lo hagan. +Otra cosa que puede hacer el robot es recordar partes de la trayectoria que aprende o que tiene pre-programada. +Por eso aqu ven al robot combinando un movimiento que acumula impulso, despus cambia su orientacin y luego se recupera. +Tiene que hacerlo porque el hueco de la ventana es ligeramente ms grande que el ancho del robot. +As, al igual que un clavadista se para en el trampoln luego salta para ganar impulso, hace esa pirueta, dos saltos mortales y medio y se recupera con gracia; este robot hace bsicamente eso. +Sabe cmo combinar pequeos tramos de trayectorias para realizar estas tareas bastante difciles. +Quiero cambiar de marcha. +Una de las desventajas de estos pequeos robots es el tamao. +Como les dije antes quisiramos emplear gran cantidad de robots para sortear las limitaciones del tamao. +Y una de las dificultades es la manera de coordinar muchos de estos robots. +Por eso recurrimos a la naturaleza. +Quiero mostrarles un video de las hormigas aphaenogasters del desierto cargando un objeto en el lab. del Profesor Stephen Pratt +Es un pedacito de higo. +En realidad, cualquier objeto cubierto con jugo de higo sirve para que las hormigas lo lleven al hormiguero. +Estas hormigas no tienen un coordinador central. +Detectan a sus vecinas. +No hay comunicacin explcita. +Pero como detectan a sus vecinas y detectan al objeto tienen, como grupo, una coordinacin implcita. +Ese es el tipo de coordinacin que queremos para nuestros robots. +Cuando tenemos un robot rodeado por vecinos -miremos al robot I y al J- queremos que los robots controlen la separacin entre ellos mientras vuelan en formacin, +y asegurarnos de que la separacin entre ellos sea aceptable. +De nuevo, los robots controlan este error y calculan los comandos correctivos 100 veces por segundo +que luego se traducen en comandos al motor, 600 veces por segundo. Esto tiene que hacerse de manera descentralizada. +Otra vez, si tenemos muchos robots es imposible coordinarlos con informacin centralizada lo suficientemente rpido como para que cumplan la tarea. +Adems, los robots tienen que basar sus acciones slo en la informacin local que detecten de sus vecinos. +Y, finalmente, insistimos en que los robots desconozcan quines son sus vecinos. +Esto es lo que llamamos anonimato. +Ahora quiero mostrarles un video de 20 pequeos robots que vuelan en formacin. +Observan la posicin de sus vecinos. +Mantienen la formacin. +Las formaciones pueden cambiar. +Pueden ser formaciones planas, pueden ser tridimensionales. +Como pueden ver aqu pasan de una formacin tridimensional a una formacin plana. +Y para volar sorteando obstculos pueden modificar las formaciones sobre la marcha. +Estos robots pueden acercarse mucho unos a otros. +Como pueden ver en este vuelo en forma de 8, estn a centmetros unos de otros. +Y a pesar de las interacciones aerodinmicas de las palas de las hlices, pueden mantener un vuelo estable. +As que una vez que uno sabe volar en formacin, puede levantar objetos en forma colaborativa. +Esto demuestra que podemos duplicar, triplicar, cuadruplicar, la fuerza del robot con slo hacerlo trabajar en equipo con sus vecinos, como ven aqu. +Una de las desventajas de esto, a medida que agrandamos la escala, es que si tenemos muchos robots llevando la misma cosa efectivamente aumentamos la inercia y por ende pagamos un precio: no son tan giles. +Pero lo ganamos en trminos de capacidad de carga til. +Esta es otra aplicacin que quiero mostrarles de nuestro laboratorio. +Es un trabajo de Quentin Lindsey, un estudiante graduado. +Su algoritmo le dice al robot cmo construir en forma autnoma estructuras cbicas con armazones. +Su algoritmo le dice al robot qu parte levantar, cundo y dnde ubicarlo. +En este video vemos -est acelerado de 10 a 14 veces- a los robots construyendo tres estructuras diferentes +Y nuevamente de manera autnoma, lo que Quentin hace es darles un plano del diseo que quiere que construyan. +Todos estos experimentos que hemos visto hasta ahora, todas estas demostraciones, requieren sistemas de captura de movimiento. +Pero, qu pasa cuando salimos del laboratorio y vamos al mundo real? +Y si no hay GPS? +Pues este robot est equipado con una cmara y un telmetro lser de Hokuyo. +Y usa estos sensores para trazar un mapa del entorno. +Ese mapa tiene caractersticas como puertas, ventanas, gente, muebles... y calcula su posicin respecto de esas caractersticas. +No hay sistema de posicionamiento global. +El sistema de coordenadas se define respecto del robot, dnde est y hacia dnde mira. +Y navega siguiendo estas caractersticas. +Por eso quiero mostrarles un video de algoritmos desarrollados por Frank Shen y el profesor Nathan Michael que muestra al robot entrando por primera vez al edificio y trazando este mapa sobre la marcha. +El robot descubre las caractersticas. Traza el mapa. Descubre dnde est respecto de las caractersticas y luego estima su posicin 100 veces por segundo y nos permite usar los algoritmos de control que les describ antes. +As que este robot es comandado a distancia por Frank. Pero el robot puede averiguar a dnde ir por su cuenta. +Supongan que lo enviara a un edificio y no tuviera idea del aspecto del edificio, +puedo pedirle al robot que entre, que trace un mapa y luego regrese y me diga cmo es el edificio. +Aqu, el robot no slo resuelve el problema de cmo ir del punto A al punto B en este mapa, sino que averigua cul es el mejor punto B en cada momento. +En esencia, sabe dnde ir a buscar lugares con la menor informacin. As es como completa el mapa. +Y quiero despedirme con una ltima aplicacin. +Es una tecnologa que tiene muchas aplicaciones. +Soy profesor y me apasiona la educacin. +Robots como estos pueden cambiar el modo de educar desde la ed. preescolar hasta los 12 aos. +Pero estamos en el sur de California, cerca de Los ngeles, as que tengo que cerrar con algo de entretenimiento. +Quiero concluir con un video musical. +Quiero presentarles a los creadores, Alex y Daniel, ellos crearon el video. +Pero antes de reproducir el video quiero que sepan que lo crearon en los ltimos tres das despus de una llamada de Chris. +Y los robots que actan en el video son completamente autnomos. +Vern a nueve robots ejecutar seis instrumentos diferentes. +Y, claro, est hecho exclusivamente para TED 2012. +Veamos. +Un turista mochilero va por las tierras altas de Escocia y se detiene en un pub a tomar un trago. +Dentro hay solo un camarero y un anciano bebiendo una cerveza. +Pide una cerveza y se sienta en silencio durante un momento. +De repente el anciano se vuelve hacia l y le dice: "Ves esta barra? +La constru con mis propias manos, con la madera ms fina del condado. +Le di ms amor y afecto que a mis propios hijos. +Pero, me llaman McGregor el constructor de barras? No". +Seala la ventana. +"Ves ese muro de piedra all? +Constru ese muro de piedra con mis propias manos. +Encontr cada piedra, la coloqu bajo la lluvia y el fro. +Pero, me llaman McGregor el constructor de muros? No". +Seala la ventana. +"Ves ese muelle en el lago all? +Lo constru con mis propias manos. +Conduje los pilotes en contra de la marea de arena, tabla por tabla. +Pero, me llaman McGregor el constructor de muelles? No. +Pero tienes sexo con una sola cabra..." La narracin... es contar chistes. +Es conocer tu remate, tu final, saber que todo lo que uno dice, desde la primera a la ltima frase, conduce a una meta, y, a ser posible, confirma alguna verdad que profundiza nuestra comprensin de lo que somos como humanos. +Nos encantan las historias. +Nacimos para esto. +Las historias afirman quines somos. +Todos queremos confirmar que nuestras vidas tienen sentido. +Y nada nos reafirma ms que conectarnos mediante historias. +Porque pueden atravesar las barreras del tiempo: pasado, presente y futuro; y nos permiten experimentar las similitudes entre nosotros y con los dems, reales e imaginarias. +El Sr. Rogers, presentador de TV infantil, siempre llevaba en su billetera la cita de un trabajador social que deca: "Francamente, no hay nadie a quien no podras aprender a amar despus de haber escuchado su historia". +Y la interpretacin que me gusta darle quiz sea el mandamiento ms grande de la narrativa, que es "Haz que me importe"; por favor, en lo emocional intelectual, esttico, haz que me importe. +Todos sabemos que es lo que no nos importa. +Hemos cambiado cientos de canales de TV, pasando de canal en canal, y, de repente, nos detenemos en uno. +Algo ya est por la mitad, pero llama la atencin y hace que a uno le importe. +Eso no es por casualidad, es por diseo. +As que pens, y si les dijera que mi vida es una historia, cmo nac para esto, cmo aprend sobre la marcha esta asignatura? +Y para hacerlo ms interesante empezaremos por el final e iremos hasta el principio. +Si tuviera que contar el final de esta historia dira algo como esto: esto es lo que finalmente me llev a contar aqu en TED esta historia. +La ltima leccin de narrativa que aprend recientemente fue al terminar la pelcula que acabo de hacer este ao, en 2012. +Es la pelcula "John Carter". Se basa en el libro "Una princesa de Marte", de Edgar Rice Burroughs. +Edgar Rice Burroughs se puso como personaje en la pelcula y como narrador. +Su to adinerado lo llama a su mansin con un telegrama que dice: "Vemonos de inmediato". +Pero al llegar all descubre que su to ha fallecido misteriosamente y que est enterrado en un mausoleo de la propiedad. +Butler: No encontrar una cerradura. +Slo se abre desde el interior. +l insisti: sin embalsamar, sin atad abierto, ni funeral. +No se amasa la fortuna de su to siendo como todos nosotros, eh? +Ven, vamos a entrar. +AS: Lo que hace esta escena, y lo mismo en el libro, es bsicamente una promesa fundamental. +Nos hace la promesa de que esta historia conducir a algo que vale nuestro tiempo. +Toda buena historia en el principio debe hacernos una promesa. +Esto se puede hacer de infinidad de maneras. +A veces es tan simple como "rase una vez..." Estos libros de Carter han tenido siempre a Edgar Rice Burroughs como narrador. +Y siempre pens que era una herramienta esplndida. +Es como una invitacin alrededor de una fogata, o alguien en un bar que dice: "Ven, te contar una historia. +No me pas a m, le pas a otra persona, pero ser tiempo bien invertido". +Una promesa bien contada es como una piedra cargada en una honda y expulsada hacia adelante en la historia hasta el final. +En 2008, llev todas las teoras que tena sobre la narrativa en ese momento a los lmites de mi entendimiento en este proyecto. +(Sonidos mecnicos) Y ese es el significado del amor Y recordaremos cuando se agote el tiempo Que slo AS: Narrativa sin dilogo. +Es la forma ms pura de la narracin cinematogrfica. +Es el enfoque que lo abarca todo. +Confirma la sensacin que tuve de que el pblico quiere ganarse el pan. +Pero no quieren saber que lo estn haciendo. +Es la tarea del narrador ocultar el hecho de que se estn ganando el pan. +Hemos nacido para resolver problemas. +Nos vemos obligados a concluir y a deducir, porque eso hacemos en la vida real. +Es esta falta de informacin bien organizada lo que nos atrae. +Hay una razn por la que nos atraen los nios y los cachorros. +No es slo porque son tan lindos; sino porque no pueden expresar plenamente lo que piensan y cules son sus intenciones. +Eso es como un imn. +No podemos evitar el querer terminar la frase y llenar los huecos. +Empec a entender cabalmente esta herramienta narrativa cuando escrib junto a Bob Peterson "Buscando a Nemo". +Y la denominamos teora unificada del dos ms dos. +Hagan que la audiencia ate cabos. +No les den cuatro; denles dos ms dos. +Los elementos provistos y el orden de aparicin son cruciales para el xito o el fracaso de la participacin del pblico. +Los editores y guionistas siempre lo han sabido. +Es la aplicacin invisible que mantiene nuestra atencin en la historia. +No quiero que parezca una ciencia exacta, porque no lo es. +Eso hace tan especiales a las historias, no son un dispositivo, son inexactas. +Si son buenas, son inevitables, pero son impredecibles. +En un seminario este ao con una maestra de actores, Judith Weston, +aprend una idea fundamental para los personajes. +Ella cree que todo personaje bien construido tiene un eje. +La idea es que el personaje tiene un motor interno, un objetivo dominante, inconsciente, que lo moviliza; una picazn que no puede rascar. +Daba un ejemplo maravilloso de Michael Corleone, el personaje de Al Pacino en "El Padrino", y que probablemente su eje era agradar a su padre. +Algo que impulsa todas sus elecciones. +Incluso despus de la muerte de su padre, todava trata de rascar esa picazn. +Me volqu a esto de lleno. +Para Wall-E era encontrar la belleza. +Para Marlin, el padre de "Buscando a Nemo", era evitar daos. +Y Woody estaba haciendo lo mejor para su nio. +Estos ejes no siempre te llevan a tomar las mejores decisiones. +A veces puedes tomar decisiones horribles. +Tengo la suerte de ser padre y ver crecer a mi hijo; creo firmemente que uno nace con un temperamento dado y que estamos hechos de una manera determinada, que no podemos discutir y no se puede cambiar. +Slo podemos aprender a reconocerlo y hacerlo propio. +Algunos nacemos con un temperamento positivo, otros con uno negativo. +Sin embargo, se cruza un umbral importante cuando crecemos lo suficiente como para reconocer lo que nos impulsa y tomar el volante y conducir. +Como padres, siempre estamos aprendiendo quines son nuestros hijos. +Ellos aprenden quines son. +Y uno an est aprendiendo quin es. +Todos aprendemos todo el tiempo. +Por eso el cambio es fundamental en la narrativa. +Si las cosas quedan estticas, la historia muere, porque la vida nunca es esttica. +En 1998, yo haba terminado de escribir "Toy Story" y "Bichos" y estaba enganchado con la escritura de guiones. +Quera mejorar en eso y aprender todo lo que pudiera. +As que investigu cuanto pude. +Y finalmente encontr esta cita excepcional del dramaturgo britnico William Archer: "El teatro es una mezcla de anticipacin e incertidumbre". +Es una definicin muy ingeniosa. +Al contar una historia, construyeron la anticipacin? +En el corto plazo, me han hecho querer saber que pasar despus? +Pero, an ms importante, me han hecho querer saber cmo va a terminar todo en el largo plazo? +Han construido conflictos autnticos con verdades que creen dudas sobre el posible resultado? +Un ejemplo en "Buscando a Nemo", de breve tensin, que siempre nos preocupaba, hara la memoria de corto plazo de Dory que se olvide de lo que le dijo Marlin? +Y eso con una base de tensin general: encontraremos a Nemo en este inmenso y vasto ocano? +En los primeros das de Pixar, antes de entender cabalmente los resortes invisibles de una historia, ramos un grupo de muchachos que trabajaban por corazonadas, por instinto. +Y es interesante ver cmo eso nos llev por una direccin bastante buena. +Recuerden que en ese ao, 1993, se consideraban exitosas animaciones como "La Sirenita", "La Bella y la Bestia", "Aladn" y "El rey len". +La primera vez que le propusimos "Toy Story" a Tom Hanks se acerc y dijo: "No querrn que cante, verdad?". +Y creo que resume perfectamente el pensamiento de la poca sobre qu deba ser una animacin. +Pero realmente queramos demostrar que se podan contar historias animadas de manera radicalmente diferente. +En ese entonces no tenamos influencia, por eso mantuvimos secreta una lista de reglas que nos reservamos para nosotros. +Y eran: no a las canciones, no a los momentos "yo quiero", nada de aldea feliz, ni historia de amor. +La irona del caso es que, en el primer ao, la historia no funcion en absoluto y Disney estaba aterrorizada. +As que consult en privado a un famoso letrista, que no voy a nombrar, y l les envi por fax algunas sugerencias. +Le echamos mano al fax. +Y el fax deca: debera haber canciones, debera tener una cancin "yo quiero", debera haber una cancin de aldea feliz, tambin una historia de amor y un villano. +Y gracias a Dios en ese momento ramos muy jvenes, rebeldes e inconformistas. +Eso nos dio ms determinacin para demostrar que se poda construir una historia mejor. +Y, un ao ms tarde, lo logramos. +Y eso demostr que la narracin tiene algunas pautas, pero no sigue reglas fciles y estrictas. +Otra cosa fundamental que aprendimos fue a amar al protagonista. +Y pensamos, ingenuamente, que, al final, Woody en "Toy Story" se convirtiera en altruista para lo cual haba que empezar por algn lugar. +Entonces, hagmoslo egosta. Y esto es lo que conseguimos: +(Voz en off) Woody: Qu ests haciendo? +Fuera de la cama. +Oye, fuera de la cama! +Sr. Cara de Papa: nos hars esto, Woody? +Woody: No, l lo har. +Slinky? Slink... Slinky! +Levntate y ven a hacer tu trabajo. +Ests sordo? +Dije que cuides de ellos. +Slinky: Lo siento, Woody, pero estoy de acuerdo con ellos. +Pienso que lo que hiciste no estuvo bien. +Woody: Qu? Estoy oyendo bien? +Piensas que no estuve bien? +Quin dijo que tenas que pensar, Salchichita? +AS: Cmo hacer simptico a un personaje egosta? +Nos dimos cuenta de que podamos hacerlo amable, generoso, divertido, carioso, pero con una condicin: l es el lder de los juguetes. +Y as son las cosas, todos vivimos una vida con condiciones. +Todos estamos dispuestos a seguir las reglas, siempre y cuando se cumplan ciertas condiciones. +Despus, se cierran todas las apuestas. +E incluso antes de decidir hacer de la narrativa mi profesin ahora veo episodios clave ocurridos en mi juventud que de alguna manera me abrieron los ojos a ciertas cosas sobre la narrativa. +En 1986, comprend cabalmente la nocin de que la historia debe tener un tema. +En ese ao se restaur y se puso nuevamente en cartel "Lawrence de Arabia". +La vi siete veces en un mes. +Todo me pareca poco. +Por detrs haba un gran diseo... en cada toma, en cada escena, en cada lnea. +Sin embargo, en la superficie pareca representar el camino histrico de lo ocurrido. +Pero deca algo ms. Qu era exactamente? +Y slo despus de verla varias veces, se levant el velo y fue en una escena en la que l cruza el desierto del Sina para llegar al Canal de Suez, cuando, de repente, lo entend. +Chico: Ey! Ey! Ey! Ey! +Motociclista: Quin eres t? +Quin eres t? +AS: Esa es la cuestin: quin eres t? +Estaban estos eventos y dilogos aparentemente heterogneos que contaban su historia cronolgicamente, pero haba una constante subyacente, una lnea gua, un mapa. +A lo largo de toda la pelcula Lawrence intenta descubrir cul es su lugar en el mundo. +Un tema importante siempre atraviesa una historia bien contada. +Cuando tena cinco aos, me presentaron el que quiz sea el ingrediente ms importante que debe tener una historia pero al que se recurre poco. +Esto me llev a ver mi madre cuando tena cinco aos. +Tambor: Vamos. Todo est bien. +Mira. +El agua est dura. +Bambi: Yupi! +Tambor: Un poco de diversin, eh, Bambi? +Vamos. Anmate. +As. +Ja, ja. No, no, no. +AS: Sal de all completamente maravillado. +Y creo que ese es el ingrediente mgico, el ingrediente secreto, recurrir a la maravilla. +La maravilla es honesta y totalmente inocente. +No se la puede evocar artificialmente. +Para m, no hay una mayor capacidad que el don de que otro ser humano te provoque esa sensacin; de mantenerlos en suspenso por un breve momento del da y hacer que se entreguen a la maravilla. +Cuando ocurre, la afirmacin de estar vivo, impregna cada clula. +Y cuando un artista hace eso con otro artista, uno se ve obligado a dar un paso adelante. +Es como un comando latente que de repente se activa, como la llamada de la Torre del Diablo. +Haz a otros lo que te han hecho a ti. +Las mejores historias inspiran asombro. +Cuando yo tena cuatro aos, tengo el recuerdo ntido de cuando encontr dos pequeas cicatrices en mi tobillo y le pregunt a pap qu era eso. +Y me dijo que tambin tena dos iguales en la cabeza pero que no poda verlas por el cabello. +Y me explic que cuando nac, nac prematuro, que sal demasiado pronto, no estaba desarrollado por completo; Estaba muy, muy enfermo. +Y cuando el mdico vio a este beb amarillo con los dientes negros mir fijamente a mam y le dijo: "No sobrevivir". +Estuve en el hospital durante meses. +Y despus de muchas transfusiones, viv, y eso me hizo especial. +No s si realmente lo cre. +No s si mis padres realmente crean eso, pero no me interes demostrarles que se equivocaban. +En lo que terminara siendo bueno me esforzara por ser digno de la segunda oportunidad recibida. +Marlin: All, all, all. +Tranquilo, pap est aqu. +Pap te encontr. +Te prometo que nunca dejar que te pase nada, Nemo. +AS: Y esta es la primera leccin que aprend de las historias. +Usa lo que sabes. Crea a partir de eso. +No siempre significa un argumento o hecho. +Significa capturar una verdad de tu experiencia y expresar los valores que uno siente en la fibra ntima. +Y eso es lo que en ltima instancia me llev a dar esta TEDTalk hoy. +Gracias. +Qu conozco yo, un cientfico reticente del medio oeste, que pueda hacer que me arresten en una protesta frente a la Casa Blanca? +Y, qu haran Uds. si supieran lo que yo s? +Empecemos con la forma como llegu a este punto. +Tuve la suerte de crecer en un momento en que no era difcil para el hijo de un colono hacer su carrera en la universidad estatal. +Y fui muy afortunado de ir a la Universidad de Iowa donde pude estudiar con el profesor James Van Allen que construy instrumentos para los primeros satlites de EE.UU. +El profesor Van Allen me cont de las observaciones de Venus; que haba intensa radiacin de microondas. +Significa esto que Venus tena una ionosfera? +O era Venus muy caliente? +La respuesta correcta, confirmada por la nave sovitica Venera, fue que Venus era muy caliente... 900F . +Y se mantiene caliente gracias a una espesa atmsfera de dixido de carbono. +Tuve la suerte de entrar a la NASA y proponer con xito un experimento para viajar a Venus. +Nuestro instrumento tom esta imagen del velo de Venus, que result ser una niebla de cido sulfrico. +Pero mientras se construa el instrumento me involucr en los clculos del efecto invernadero aqu en la Tierra, porque nos dimos cuenta que la composicin de la atmsfera est cambiando. +Finalmente renunci al cargo de investigador principal en nuestro experimento de Venus porque un planeta que cambia ante nuestros ojos es ms interesante e importante. +Sus cambios afectarn a toda la humanidad. +Se ha estudiado al detalle el efecto invernadero durante ms de un siglo. +El fsico britnico John Tyndall, en la dcada de 1850, hizo mediciones de laboratorio de la radiacin infrarroja, que es el calor. +Y demostr que los gases como el CO2 absorben el calor, actuando as como una manta que calienta la superficie terrestre. +Trabaj con otros cientficos para analizar las observaciones del cambio climtico. +En 1981, publicamos un artculo en la revista Science que conclua que el calentamiento observado en el siglo anterior de 0,4 grados Celsius era consistente con el efecto invernadero del incremento de CO2. +Que posiblemente la Tierra se calentara en los aos 1980 y que ese calentamiento excedera el nivel de ruido aleatorio del clima para finales del siglo. +Tambin dijimos que el siglo XXI vera desplazamientos de zonas climticas, regiones propensas a la sequa en Amrica del Norte y Asia, erosin de las capas de hielo, aumento del nivel del mar y la apertura del legendario Paso del Noroeste. +Todos estos impactos ya han ocurrido o estn en marcha. +Ese documento sali en la primera pgina del New York Times y me llev a dar testimonio ante el Congreso en la dcada de 1980. Testimonio en el que resalt que el calentamiento global aumenta ambos extremos del ciclo del agua de la Tierra. +Las olas de calor y las sequas, por un lado, se deben al calentamiento pero tambin, una atmsfera ms caliente contiene ms vapor y con su energa latente produce precipitaciones que se vuelven ms extremas. +Habra tormentas ms fuertes y ms inundaciones. +La conmocin por el calentamiento global me consumi el tiempo y me distrajo de mis investigaciones; en parte porque me he quejado de que la Casa Blanca alter mi testimonio. +As que decid volver a hacer solamente ciencia y dejar las comunicaciones a otros. +15 aos ms tarde la evidencia del calentamiento global era mucho ms fuerte. +Muchas de las cosas mencionadas en el artculo de 1981 ya eran hechos. +Tuve el privilegio de hablar dos veces en la comisin presidencial del clima. +Pero las polticas energticas siguieron centrndose en la bsqueda de ms combustibles fsiles. +A la sazn ya tenamos dos nietos, Sophie y Connor. +Decid evitar que en el futuro ellos digan: "El abu entenda lo que pasaba pero no lo dijo claramente". +As que decid dar una charla pblica criticando la falta de una poltica energtica adecuada. +Fue en la Universidad de Iowa en el 2004 y en el coloquio de 2005 de la Unin Geofsica de EE.UU. +Esto ocasion llamadas de la Casa Blanca a la sede de la NASA y me dijeron que no poda dar charlas o hablar con los medios sin aprobacin explcita de la NASA. +Despus de informar al New York Times de estas restricciones la NASA se vio obligada a poner fin a la censura. +Pero hubo consecuencias. +Yo haba estado usando la primera lnea de la declaracin de misin de la NASA, "Entender y proteger nuestro planeta", para justificar mis charlas. +Pronto se elimin la primera lnea de la declaracin de misin y nunca volvi a aparecer. +En los aos siguientes sent cada vez ms la necesidad de comunicar la urgencia de un cambio en las polticas energticas mientras segua investigando la fsica del cambio climtico. +Describir la conclusin ms importante de la fsica, primero respecto del balance energtico de la Tierra y luego sobre la historia del clima terrestre. +Agregar CO2 al aire es como poner otra manta sobre la cama. +Reduce la radiacin de calor terrestre al espacio lo que produce un desequilibrio temporal de energa. +Entra ms energa de la que sale hasta que la Tierra se calienta lo suficiente como para irradiar al espacio otra vez tanta energa como la que absorbe del sol. +Por lo tanto, la cantidad clave es el desequilibrio energtico terrestre. +Entra ms energa de la que sale? +Si es as, habr ms calentamiento. +Ocurrir sin agregar ms gases de efecto invernadero. +Ahora, finalmente, podemos determinar el desequilibrio energtico con precisin midiendo el contenido de calor de los reservorios de calor de la Tierra. +El mayor reservorio, el ocano, era el peor medido hasta que se distribuyeron ms de 3000 flotadores Argo en los ocanos del mundo. +Estos flotadores revelan que la mitad superior del ocano se est calentando a una velocidad considerable. +El ocano profundo tambin se calienta, pero a menor velocidad, y la energa se va al derretimiento neto del hielo del planeta. +Y el suelo, a profundidades de decenas de metros, tambin se calienta. +Hoy el desequilibrio energtico total es de unas seis dcimas de vatio por metro cuadrado. +Puede no parecer mucho pero sumado a nivel planetario, es enorme. +Es unas 20 veces mayor a la tasa de uso de energa mundial. +Equivale a la explosin de 400 000 bombas atmicas de Hiroshima por da los 365 das del ao. +Esa es la cantidad de energa extra que recibe la Tierra cada da. +Este desequilibrio, si quisiramos estabilizar el clima, implica que debemos reducir el CO2 de 391 ppm, partes por milln, a 350 ppm. +Ese es el cambio necesario para restaurar el balance energtico y prevenir ms calentamiento. +Los escpticos del cambio climtico dicen que el sol es la causa principal. +Pero el desequilibrio energtico ms bajo de la historia ocurri durante el mnimo solar, cuando la energa proveniente del sol era menor. +Sin embargo, entr ms energa de la que sali. +Esto demuestra que el efecto de las variaciones del sol sobre el clima es desbordado por el aumento de gases de efecto invernadero debido principalmente a la quema de combustibles fsiles. +Ahora hablemos de la historia del clima en la Tierra. +Estas curvas de la temperatura mundial del CO2 atmosfrico y del nivel del mar se obtuvieron de ncleos del ocano y de ncleos de hielo antrtico, de sedimentos ocenicos y copos de nieve acumulados ao tras ao durante ms de 800 000 aos formando una capa de hielo de 3 km. +Como ven, hay una correlacin alta entre la temperatura, el CO2 y el nivel del mar. +Un examen cuidadoso muestra que los cambios de temperatura anteceden levemente a los cambios de CO2 en algunos siglos. +Los escpticos del cambio climtico usan este hecho para confundir y engaar al pblico diciendo: "Miren, la temperatura provoca el cambio de CO2, no a la inversa". +Pero ese desfase es exactamente lo esperado. +Los pequeos cambios en la rbita terrestre que ocurren cada decenas o cientos de miles de aos alteran la distribucin de la luz solar en la Tierra. +Cuando hay ms luz solar en latitudes altas, en verano, el hielo se derrite. +La disminucin de las capas de hielo oscurecen al planeta, y ste absorbe ms luz solar tornndose ms caliente. +Un ocano ms caliente, libera CO2 al igual que una Coca-Cola caliente. +Y ms CO2 provoca ms calentamiento. +As que el CO2, el metano y las capas de hielo fueron reacciones que amplificaron el cambio de la temperatura global provocando estas enormes oscilaciones climticas ancestrales a pesar de que el cambio climtico se inici con una fuerza muy dbil. +El punto importante es que estas mismas reacciones amplificadoras ocurren actualmente. +La fsica no cambia. +Conforme la Tierra se calienta, ahora debido al CO2 extra que ponemos en la atmsfera, se derrite el hielo y se libera CO2 y metano por el calentamiento ocenico y el deshielo del permafrost. +Si bien no podemos decir exactamente qu tan rpido ocurrir esta reaccin amplificadora lo cierto es que se producir, a menos que detengamos el calentamiento. +Hay evidencia de que las reacciones ya empezaron. +Mediciones precisas de GRACE, satlite gravitatorio, revelan que tanto Groenlandia como la Antrtida estn perdiendo masa, varios cientos de kilmetros cbicos por ao. +Y la tasa se ha acelerado desde que empezaron las mediciones hace nueve aos. +El metano tambin empieza a escapar del permafrost. +Qu aumento del nivel del mar podemos esperar? +La ltima vez que el CO2 fue de 390 ppm, el valor actual, el nivel del mar era superior en al menos 15 metros, 50 pies. +Donde estn sentados ahora estara bajo el agua. +La mayora de las estimaciones para este siglo indican un aumento de al menos un metro. +Creo que ser ms que eso si seguimos quemando combustibles fsiles; quiz lleguemos a 5 metros, 18 pies, en este siglo o poco despus. +El punto importante es que habremos iniciado un proceso que escapar al control de la humanidad. +Las capas de hielo seguiran desintegrndose durante siglos. +No habra un litoral estable. +Las consecuencias econmicas son casi impensables. +Habra cientos de devastaciones como las de Nueva Orlens en todo el mundo. +Lo ms condenable, de seguir con este escepticismo climtico, sera el exterminio de las especies. +La mariposa monarca podra ser una del 20% al 50% de las especies que el Grupo Intergubernamental de Expertos sobre el Cambio Climtico estima que estarn en vas de extincin a finales del siglo si seguimos con el uso actual del combustible fsil. +El calentamiento global ya est afectando a las personas. +En Texas, Oklahoma, Mxico, olas de calor y sequas el ao pasado, Mosc el ao anterior y Europa en 2003 fueron eventos fuera de lo comn, ms de tres desviaciones estndar por fuera de la media. +Hace 50 aos, tales anomalas cubran slo 2 a 3 dcimos del 1% del suelo terrestre. +En aos recientes, debido al calentamiento global, ahora cubren un 10%; un factor de aumento de 25 a 50 veces. +As que podemos decir con un alto grado de confianza que las severas olas de calor de Texas y Mosc no fueron naturales; fueron provocadas por el calentamiento global. +Un impacto importante, si sigue el calentamiento global, estar en el granero de la nacin y del mundo, el Medio Oeste y las Grandes Llanuras, que se prev que sufrirn muchas sequas, peor que el Dust Bowl (desastre ecolgico) en unas pocas dcadas, si dejamos que siga el calentamiento global. +Cmo fue que me met cada vez ms en este intento por comunicar, dando charlas en 10 pases, siendo arrestado, consumiendo las vacaciones acumuladas durante ms de 30 aos? +Ms nietos me ayudaron. +Jake es un chico sper positivo y entusiasta. +Aqu, con dos aos y medio, piensa que puede proteger a su hermanita de dos das y medio. +Sera inmoral dejarle a estos nios un sistema de clima en una espiral fuera de control. +Pero lo trgico del cambio climtico es que podemos resolverlo con un enfoque simple y honesto con una tasa creciente sobre el carbono cobrada a las compaas de combustibles fsiles y distribuida 100% electrnicamente cada mes a todos los residentes legales en una base per cpita, sin que el gobierno se quede con un centavo. +La mayora de la gente ganara ms con el dividendo mensual que lo que pagara en aumento de precios. +Esta tasa y los dividendos estimularan la economa y las innovaciones creando millones de empleos. +Este es el requisito principal para pasar rpidamente a un futuro de energa limpia. +Hay varios economistas que son coautores de esta propuesta. +Jim DiPeso de los Republicanos para la Proteccin del Medio Ambiente lo describe as: "Transparente. Basado en el mercado. +No engrosa el gobierno. +Deja las decisiones sobre la energa en manos de las personas. +Parece un plan climtico conservador". +Este camino, de continuar, garantiza que sobrepasaremos los puntos de inflexin que llevan a la desintegracin de las capas de hielo que estarn fuera de control para las futuras generaciones. +Una gran porcin de las especies estarn condenadas a la extincin. +Y el aumento de intensidad de las sequas y las inundaciones afectar severamente a los graneros del mundo, provocando hambrunas en masa y declive econmico. +Imaginen un asteroide gigante en curso de colisin directa contra la Tierra. +Ese es el equivalente de lo que hoy enfrentamos. +An as, dudamos y no tomamos medidas para desviar el asteroide a pesar de que cuanto ms esperemos, ms difcil y costoso se volver. +De haber empezado en el 2005 se habra requerido una reduccin de emisiones del 3% anual para restaurar el equilibrio energtico planetario y estabilizar el clima en este siglo. +Si empezamos el ao que viene ser del 6% anual. +Si esperamos 10 aos, ser del 15% anual; algo sumamente difcil y costoso, quiz imposible. +Pero ni siquiera empezamos. +As que ahora ya saben lo mismo que yo. Esto es lo que me mueve a disparar esta alarma. +Evidentemente, no he conseguido transmitir el mensaje. +La ciencia es clara. +Necesito la ayuda de Uds. para comunicar la gravedad y la urgencia de esta situacin y de sus soluciones de manera ms eficaz. +Se lo debemos a nuestros hijos y nietos. +Gracias. +Quiero hablarles esta tarde sobre por qu no van a tener una gran carrera profesional. Soy economista, la ciencia funesta. +Fin del da, listos para los comentarios funestos. +Solo quiero decirles a aquellos de ustedes que quieran una gran carrera. +S que algunos de ustedes ya han decidido +que quieren una buena carrera. +Tambin van a fracasar porque... Madre ma, estn muy alegres con lo de fracasar. Canadienses, sin duda. Los que intenten tener una buena carrera fracasarn porque, en serio, los buenos trabajos estn desapareciendo. +Estn los grandes trabajos y las grandes carreras, y luego estn los empleos con mucha carga de trabajo, estresantes, que te chupan la sangre y te destruyen el alma, y, prcticamente, nada medio. +As que la gente que busque buenos trabajos va a fracasar. +Voy a hablar de aquellos que buscan grandes trabajos, grandes carreras, y de por qu... por qu fracasarn. +La primera razn es que no importa las veces que te digan: "Si quieres una gran carrera profesional, debes perseguir la pasin, perseguir tus sueos, debes perseguir la mayor fascinacin de tu vida", lo oyes una y otra vez y entonces decides +no hacerlo. Da igual cuntas veces te hayas bajado el discurso de graduacin de Stanford de Steve Jobs, lo ves y lo ves, y decides no hacerlo. +No estoy seguro de por qu decides no hacerlo. +Eres muy perezoso, es muy difcil. +Tienes miedo de buscar tu pasin y no encontrarla, te sientes como un idiota, as que te inventas excusas sobre por qu no vas a buscar tu pasin. +Y mira que hay excusas, seoras y seores. +Vamos a ver una larga lista, muy creativa, y pensar en excusas para no hacer lo que realmente debes hacer si quieres una gran carrera. +As que, por ejemplo, una gran excusa es: "Bueno, las grandes carreras realmente son para la mayora, cuestin de suerte, as que voy a quedarme por aqu, intentando tener suerte y si la tengo, +entonces tendr una gran carrera; si no, tendr una buena carrera". +Pero tener una buena carrera es imposible, as que no va a funcionar. +Entonces, la otra excusa es: "s, hay gente especial que persigue sus pasiones, pero son genios, +Son Steve Jobs. Yo no soy un genio. +Con cinco aos, yo pensaba que era un genio, pero mis profesores arrancaron esa idea de mi cabeza hace mucho". Mmm? "Y ahora s que soy completamente competente". +Bueno, si estuviramos en 1950, ser completamente competente te podra haber dado una gran carrera. +Pero, qu creen? Estamos casi en el 2012, y decir al mundo: "Soy total y completamente competente", es condenarte a ti mismo con el menor de los elogios. +Y por supuesto, otra excusa: "Bueno, podra hacerlo, podra, pero... pero... bueno, al final, no soy tan raro". +Todos saben que las personas que persiguen sus pasiones son un tanto obsesivas un poco raras? Mmm? No? +Ya saben una delgada lnea entre la locura y la genialidad. +No soy raro. He ledo la biografa de Steve Jobs. +Dios mo, yo no soy as. Soy amable. +Soy normal. Una persona normal y amable, +y las personas normales y amables no tienen pasin. +Ah, pero sigo queriendo tener una gran carrera. +No estoy preparado para perseguir mi pasin, as que ya s que voy a hacer, porque tengo... tengo una solucin, +tengo una estrategia. +Es el plan que mam y pap me contaron. +Mam y pap me dijeron que si trabajaba duro, tendra una buena carrera. As que, si trabajas duro y tienes una buena carrera, si trabajas muy, muy, muy duro, tendrs una gran carrera. Acaso no tiene +sentido, matemticamente hablando? +Mmm, qu va. +Pero has conseguido convencerte de eso. +Sabes qu? Ah va un secreto. Quieres trabajar? Quieres trabajar muy, muy duro? +Sabes qu? Lo conseguirs. El mundo te dar +la oportunidad de trabajar muy, muy, muy, muy duro, +pero ests seguro de que eso te dar una gran carrera cuando todo apunta a lo contrario? As que veamos ahora a aquellos de ustedes +que estn tratando de encontrar su pasin. +Realmente entiendes que debas hacerlo, +sin excusas. Ests intentando encontrar tu pasin, y ests tan feliz. +Has encontrado algo que te interesa. +Tengo algo que me interesa! Lo tengo! Me dices, +dices: "Tengo algo que me interesa!", y respondo: Estupendo! +Y qu, qu intentas decirme? Que tu... +"Bueno, tengo algo que me interesa". +Y pregunto: "Tienes pasin?" +"Tengo inters", respondes. +Inters comparado con qu? +"Bueno, esto me interesa". +Y qu pasa con el resto de las actividades de la humanidad? +"No estoy interesado en ellas". +Porque las has visto todas, no? +"No exactamente". +La pasin es tu gran amor. +La pasin es lo que te ayudar a crear la mayor expresin de tu talento. +Pasin, inters... no son la misma cosa. +De verdad vas a ir a tu amorcito y decirle: "Csate conmigo! Eres interesante" Pues no. No pasar, y morirs solo. Lo que quieres, eso que quieres, eso que quieres, es pasin. Est ms all del inters. +Necesitas 20 intereses, y entonces uno de ellos, uno, te agarrar, uno de ellos puede que atrape ms que a nada en el mundo, y entonces puede que hayas encontrado tu gran amor en comparacin con las otras cosas que te interesan, y eso es la pasin. +Tengo un amigo que le propuso matrimonio a su amorcito. +Era una persona econmicamente racional. +Le dijo a su amorcito: "Casmonos. +Unamos nuestros intereses". +S que lo hizo. +"Te quiero de verdad", dijo. "Profundamente, ms que +a ninguna otra mujer con la que me haya encontrado. +Ms que a Mary, Jane, Susie, Penlope, Ingrid, Gertrude, Gretel... por aquel entonces yo estaba en un programa de intercambio alemn". +"Te quiero ms que..." Hasta ah! Ella se fue de la habitacin a mitad de la enumeracin de su amor por ella. +Despus de recuperarse de su sorpresa, ya saben, al ser rechazado, lleg a la conclusin de que haba escapado por los pelos de casarse con una persona irracional, +aunque, tom nota, la prxima vez que pidiera la mano, quizs no sera necesaria la enumeracin de todas las mujeres candidatas. Pero vale como consejo. Debes buscar alternativas +para as encontrar tu destino. O tienes miedo de la palabra "destino"? +Te asusta la palabra "destino"? +Eso es de lo que estamos hablando, y si no encuentras +la ms alta expresin de tu talento, si tu meta es un "inters", lo que demonios signifique eso, sabes qu pasar al final de tu larga vida? +Tus amigos y familia se reunirn en el cementerio y ah, al lado de tu tumba habr una lpida, y grabado en ella se leer: "Aqu yace el distinguido ingeniero que invent el velcro". +Pero lo que esa lpida debera haber dicho era, en una vida alternativa, lo que debera haber dicho si eso era la mayor expresin de tu talento: "Aqu yace el ltimo premio Nobel, laureado en fsica, que formul la Teora de la Gran Unificacin y demostr la viabilidad del empuje por curvatura". +Velcro, en serio. Una fue una gran carrera. +La otra fue una oportunidad perdida. +Pero entonces, habr algunos de ustedes, que, a pesar de todas esas excusas, encontrarn, encontrarn su pasin. +Y an as fracasarn +Quiero ser un gran padre, y no los sacrificar para conseguir el xito". +Qu quieres que te diga? +De verdad, quieres que te diga, que te diga...? "En serio, lo juro, no pego a los nios" Mmm? Mira la visin del mundo que te ests dando. +Eres un hroe de una forma u otra, y yo, sugiriendo, tan delicadamente, que podras querer una gran carrera, +debes odiar a los nios. No odio a los nios. Ni les pego. +Bueno, haba un nio deambulando por el edificio cuando llegu, y no, no le pegu. Eso s, tuve que decirle que en el edificio solo podan entrar adultos y que se fuera. +Murmur algo sobr su madre. y le respond que probablemente la encontrara fuera. +La ltima vez que lo vi, estaba en las escaleras, llorando. Qu llorica. Pero qu quieres? Eso es lo que esperas de m. +De verdad crees, de verdad, que es apropiado que utilices a los nios para que acten como escudo? +Y sabes lo que te pasar algn da, a ti, el padre perfecto? +Tu hijo vendr algn da y te dir: "Ya s lo que quiero ser. +Ya s que voy a hacer con mi vida". +Ests tan feliz. Es la conversacin +que todo padre quiere or, porque tu hijo es bueno en matemtica y sabes lo que pasar a continuacin. +Y tu hijo dice: "He decidido que quiero ser mago. +Quiero hacer trucos de magia en el escenario". +Y qu respondes? +Le dices: "Mmm... un poco arriesgado, hijo. +Puede que no salga. No se gana mucho, hijo. +Sabes, no estoy seguro, pero creo que deberas pensrtelo, hijo, +eres tan bueno en mate, por qu no...?" Y el nio te interrumpe y dice: "Pero es mi sueo. Es mi sueo serlo". +Y qu le vas a decir? +Sabes que le vas a decir? +"Mira, hijo. Una vez, yo tambin tuve un sueo, pero... pero..." Y cmo vas a terminar tu frase con un "pero"? +"...pero. Tuve un sueo tambin, una vez, hijo, pero tuve miedo de perseguirlo". +O le vas a decir esto? "Una vez tuve un sueo, hijo... +pero entonces naciste t". De verdad, realmente quieres usar a tu familia, quieres mirar a tu cnyuge, a tus hijos, y ver a tus carceleros? +Hay algo que le podras haber dicho a tu hijo cuando l o ella dijera: "Tengo un sueo". +Podras haber respondido, mirndole a la cara: "Persguelo, hijo, +igual que hice yo". +Pero no podrs decirlo porque no lo hiciste. As que no puedes. Y as los pecados de los padres recaen sobre los pobres nios. +Por qu buscar refugio en las relaciones humanas como excusa para no perseguir tu pasin? +Sabes por qu. +En el fondo de tu corazoncito, lo sabes, y estoy hablando en serio. +T sabes por qu te sientes tan a gustito y te escudas en las relaciones humanas. +Porque eres... T sabes lo que eres. +Tienes miedo de perseguir tu pasin. +Tienes miedo de hacer el ridculo. +Miedo de intentarlo. Miedo de que puedas fallar. +Un gran amigo, gran cnyuge, gran padre, gran carrera. +No viene todo junto? No es eso lo que eres? +Cmo puedes ser una cosa sin la otra? +Pero tienes miedo. +Y es por eso que no vas a tener una gran carrera, salvo que... "salvo"... una de las palabras ms evocadoras en ingls... salvo. +Pero la palabra "salvo" tambin va unida a esta otra frase, tan terrorfica: "Si solo hubiera..." +"Si solo hubiera..." +Si alguna vez tienes ese pensamiento rondndote la cabeza, te va a doler mucho. +As que estas son las razones de por qu no vas a tener una gran carrera, +salvo que... Salvo. +Gracias. +Tengo una pregunta para ustedes: Son religiosos? +Por favor levanten la mano ya, si se consideran personas religiosas. +Veamos, dira que cerca de un tres por ciento. +No tena idea de que haba tantos creyentes en una TED Conference. +Bien, aqu va otra pregunta: Se consideran a s mismos espirituales en cualquier forma o sentido? Levanten la mano. +Bueno, eso es la mayora. +Mi charla de hoy es acerca de la razn principal, o una de las razones principales, por las que la mayora de la gente se considera espiritual en alguna forma o sentido. +Mi charla es sobre la autotrascendencia. +Es un hecho fundamental del ser humano que a veces el "yo" parece desvanecerse. +Y cuando eso pasa, el sentimiento lleva al xtasis y procuramos metforas del arriba y el abajo para explicar esos sentimientos. +Hablamos de ser ascendidos o elevados. +Pero es muy difcil pensar en algo as de abstracto sin una buena metfora concreta. +As que aqu traigo la metfora de hoy. +Piensen en la mente como si fuera una casa con muchos cuartos, la mayora de los cuales conocemos muy bien. +Pero a veces es como si una puerta apareciera de la nada y se abriera a una escalera. +Subimos por la escalera y experimentamos un estado de conciencia alterada. +En 1902, el gran psiclogo estadounidense William James escribi sobre los muchos tipos de experiencias religiosas. +Recolect todo tipo de casos de estudio. +Cit las palabras de todo tipo de personas que haban tenido una variedad de esas experiencias. +Una de las ms emocionantes para m es este joven, Stephen Bradley, quien tuvo un encuentro, as crey, con Jess en 1820. +Y esto es lo que Bradley dijo al respecto. +Stephen Bradley: Pens ver al Salvador en su forma humana por alrededor de un segundo en la habitacin, con sus brazos extendidos, como dicindome, "Ven". +Al da siguiente me regocij tanto que temblaba. +Mi felicidad era tan grande que dije que quera morir. +Este mundo no caba en mis sentimientos. +Antes de esto yo era muy egosta y soberbio. +Pero ahora quera el bienestar de toda la humanidad y poda, con un corazn compasivo, perdonar a mis peores enemigos. +JH: As que fjense como el "yo" mezquino y moralista de Bradley simplemente muere al subir esas escaleras. +Y en este nivel superior se convierte en alguien que ama y perdona. +Las diferentes religiones del mundo han encontrado muchas formas para ayudar a la gente a subir la escalera. +Algunos apagan el "yo" valindose de la meditacin. +Otros usan drogas psicodlicas. +Esto es de un pergamino Azteca del siglo XVI mostrando un hombre a punto de comer un hongo psilocybe y al mismo momento siendo arrastrado escaleras arriba por un dios. +Otros usan danzas, giran en crculos para promover la autotrascendencia. +Pero no se necesita de una religin para subir la escalera. +Mucha gente encuentra autotrascendencia en la naturaleza. +Otros se superan a si mismos en fiestas electrnicas. +Pero este es el lugar ms raro de todos: la guerra. +Muchos libros de guerra dicen lo mismo, que nada une a la gente tanto como la guerra. +Y que el unirlas abre la posibilidad de experiencias autotrascendentes extraordinarias. +Voy a reproducir un extracto de este libro de Glenn Gray. +Gray era un soldado del ejrcito estadounidense de la Segunda Guerra Mundial. +Despus de la guerra entrevist a muchos otros soldados y escribi acerca de la experiencia de los hombres en la batalla. +Aqu hay un pasaje clave en el que bsicamente describe la escalera. +Glenn Gray: Muchos veteranos admitiran que la experiencia del esfuerzo comunal en batalla fue el punto lgido en sus vidas. +El "Yo" pasa sin notarse a ser "nosotros", Lo "mio" se convierte en "nuestro" y la fe individual pierde su importancia central. +Creo que no es nada menos que la certeza de la inmortalidad la que lleva al autosacrificio en esos momentos de manera relativamente fcil. +Puedo caer, pero no morir, pues eso que es real en m, contina y sobrevive en mis camaradas por quienes di mi vida. +JH: Lo que todos estos casos tienen en comn es que el "yo" parece hacerse ms dbil, o desvanecerse, y se siente bien, se siente muy bien, totalmente diferente a nada que sintamos en nuestra vida normal. +En algn modo se siente edificante. +La idea de que nos elevamos era central en los escritos del gran socilogo francs Emile Durkheim. +Durkheim incluso nos llam Homo duplex, hombres de doble nivel. +El nivel inferior lo llamaba el de lo profano. +Profano es lo opuesto a sagrado. +Significa ordinario o comn. +En nuestras vidas ordinarias existimos como individuos. +Queremos satisfacer nuestros deseos individuales. +Perseguimos nuestras metas individuales. +Pero a veces algo pasa que dispara un cambio de fase. +Los individuos se unen en un equipo, movimiento o nacin, que es mucho ms que la suma de sus partes. +Durkheim lo llamaba, el nivel de lo sagrado porque crea que la funcin de la religin era unir a la gente en un grupo, en una comunidad moral. +Durkheim crea que cualquier cosa que nos uniera tomaba un aire de sacralidad. +Y si la gente se cierra alrededor de algn objeto o valor sagrado, entonces trabaja como equipo y pelea para defenderlo. +Durkheim escribi acerca ciertas emociones colectivas intensas que logran el milagro de E pluribus unum, de formar un grupo a partir de individuos. +Piensen en la alegra colectiva en Gran Bretaa el da en que finaliz la Segunda Guerra Mundial. +Piensen en la furia colectiva en la Plaza Tahrir, que derroc a un dictador. +Y piensen en el luto colectivo en los Estados Unidos que sentimos, que nos uni a todos, luego del 11 de septiembre. +Permtanme resumir dnde estamos. +Digo que la capacidad de autotrascendencia es simplemente una parte bsica de ser humanos. +Ofrezco la metfora de una escalera en la mente. +Digo que somos Homo duplex y esta escalera nos eleva desde el nivel de lo profano al nivel de lo sagrado. +Cuando subimos esa escalera, el autointers se desvanece, nos volvemos menos interesados en nosotros mismos, y nos sentimos mejores, ms nobles y en algn modo, elevados, +As que aqu est la pregunta del milln para cientficos sociales como yo: Es esta escalera una caracterstica del diseo evolutivo? +Es un producto de la seleccin natural, como nuestras manos? +O ser una falla, un error en el sistema? Ser que este asunto religioso es tan solo algo que sucede cuando los cables se cruzan en el cerebro? Jill tiene un derrame y entonces tiene esta experiencia religiosa, ser tan solo un error? +Muchos cientficos que estudian la religin toman este punto de vista. +Los Nuevos Ateos, por ejemplo, argumentan que la religin es un conjunto de memes, un tipo de memes parsitos, que se nos meten en la mente y nos obligan a hacer todo tipo de locuras religiosas, cosas autodestructivas, como los ataques suicidas. +Y, despus de todo, cmo podra ser mejor para nosotros el perdernos a nosotros mismos? +Cmo podra ser adaptativo para ningn organismo superar el inters propio? +Pues bien, djenme mostrarles. +En "El Origen del Hombre", Charles Darwin escribi bastante sobre la evolucin de la moralidad; de dnde vino, por qu la tenemos. +Darwin anot que muchas de nuestras virtudes tienen muy poco valor para nosotros, pero son muy tiles para nuestros grupos. +Escribi acerca del escenario en el que dos tribus humanas primitivas entran en contacto y compiten. +Dijo, "Si una de las tribus incluyera un gran nmero de miembros valientes, comprensivos y leales que siempre estuvieran listos a ayudarse y defenderse entre ellos, esta tribu triunfara y conquistara a la otra". +Continu diciendo que "La gente egosta y conflictiva no tendr coherencia, y sin coherencia nada puede lograrase". +En otras palabras, Charles Darwin crea en la seleccin grupal. +Ahora bien, esta idea ha sido muy controvertida en los ltimos 40 aos, pero est a punto de regresar a las primeras planas este ao, especialmente luego de que se publique el libro de E.O. Wilson en abril, exponiendo fuertemente que nosotros, y varias otras especies, somos producto de la seleccin grupal. +Pero realmente la manera de pensar en esto es como seleccin multinivel. +As que vanlo de esta manera: Hay competencia tanto dentro de los grupos como entre grupos. +Imagnenese un grupo de muchachos en un equipo universitario. +Dentro de este equipo hay competencia. +Hay chicos que compiten entre ellos. +Los remeros ms lentos, los ms dbiles, sern eliminados del equipo. +Tan solo unos pocos participarn en las competencias. +Tal vez alguno llegue a los Juegos Olmpicos. +Entonces dentro del equipo, sus intereses estn en realidad enfrentados. +Y a veces podra ser ventajoso para uno de estos chicos tratar de sabotear al resto. +Tal vez hablar mal de su principal rival a su entrenador. +Pero mientras rivalizan en el bote, la competencia sucede entre botes. +Y si los pones en un bote a competir con otro, ahora no tienen otra opcin que cooperar porque estn todos en el mismo bote. +Slo pueden ganar si reman todos juntos como equipo. +Estas cosas suenan trilladas, pero son profundas verdades evolutivas. +El principal argumento contra la seleccin grupal siempre ha sido que, claro, sera lindo tener un grupo de cooperadores, pero tan pronto lo tienes, simplemente sern dominados por oportunistas, individuos que explotarn el arduo trabajo de los otros. +Djenme ilustrarles esto. +Supongamos que tenemos un grupo de pequeos organismos (pueden ser bacterias, pueden ser hamsters, no importa qu) y supongamos que este pequeo grupo, ha evolucionado para ser cooperativo. +Eso es genial. Se alimentan, se defienden unos a otros, trabajan juntos, generan riqueza. +Y como vern en esta simulacin, al interactuar ganan puntos, por as decirlo, crecen, y luego llegan a duplicar su tamao, los vern dividirse. As es como se reproducen y la poblacin crece. +Pero supongamos ahora que uno de ellos sufre una mutacin. +Hay una mutacin en su gen y adopta una estrategia egosta. +Se aprovecha de los otros. +Y entonces cuando un verde interacta con un azul, vern que el verde se hace ms grande y el azul ms pequeo. +As es como la situacin se desarrolla. +Comenzamos con un solo verde, y a medida que interacta, gana riqueza o puntos o comida. +Y en poco tiempo, los cooperadores estn perdidos. +Los oportunistas han tomado el control. +Si un grupo no puede solucionar el problema de los oportunistas entonces no puede cosechar los beneficios de la cooperacin y la seleccin grupal no puede comenzar. +Pero hay soluciones al problema de los oportunistas. +No es un problema tan difcil. +De hecho, la naturaleza lo ha resuelto muchas veces. +La solucin favorita de la naturaleza es poner a todos en el mismo barco. +Por ejemplo, por qu ser que las mitocondrias de cada clula tienen su propio ADN, totalmente separado del ADN del ncleo? +Es porque solan ser bacterias separadas de vida libre y se unieron para conformar un superorganismo. +De una u otra manera (tal vez una se trag a la otra, nunca sabremos por qu) una vez que tuvieron una membrana alrededor, estaban todas en la misma membrana, ahora toda la divisin de labor creada por la riqueza, toda la grandeza creada por la cooperacin, queda encerrada dentro de la membrana y tenemos un superorganismo. +Ahora volvamos a pasar la simulacin poniendo uno de estos superorganismos en una poblacin de oportunistas, de desertores, de tramposos y veamos qu pasa. +Un superorganismo puede bsicamente tomar lo que quiera. +Es tan grande, poderoso y eficiente que puede tomar recursos de los verdes, de los desertores, los tramposos. +Y muy pronto toda la poblacin queda compuesta por estos nuevos superorganismos. +Lo que les mostr aqu es a veces llamado una transicin mayor en la historia evolutiva. +Las leyes de Darwin no cambian, pero ahora hay un nuevo tipo de jugador en el campo y las cosas cosas comienzan a verse muy diferentes. +Esta transicin no fue un fenmeno nico de la naturaleza que solo pas con algunas bacterias. +Volvi a suceder alrededor de 120 o 140 millones de aos atrs, cuando algunas avispas solitarias comenzaron a crear pequeos, simples y primitivos nidos o colmenas. +Una vez que varias avispas estuvieron en la misma colmena, no tenan otra opcin que cooperar, porque muy pronto se vieron trabadas en competencia con otras colmenas. +Y las colmenas ms cohesivas ganaron, tal como dijo Darwin. +Estas colmenas tempranas dieron origen a las abejas y hormigas que cubrieron el mundo y cambiaron la bisfera. +Y volvi a suceder, de manera an ms espectacular, en el ltimo medio milln de aos cuando nuestros ancestros se convirtieron en criaturas culturales, se unieron alrededor de un hogar o un fogn, dividieron la labor, comenzaron a pintar sus cuerpos, a hablar en sus dialectos, y eventualmente a adorar a sus dioses. +Una vez estuvieron todos en la misma tribu, pudieron mantener los beneficios de la cooperacin dentro de ella. +Y desencadenaron la fuerza ms poderosa jams conocida en este planeta, que es la cooperacin humana; una fuerza para construir y destruir. +Por supuesto, los grupos humanos no son nunca tan cohesivos como las abejas. +Los grupos humanos pueden verse como colmenas por instantes, pero tienden a romperse. +No estamos trabados en la cooperacin como las abejas y las hormigas. +De hecho, a menudo, como hemos visto en las revueltas de la Primavera rabe, esas divisiones siguen lneas religiosas. +Sin embargo, cuando la gente s se une y se ponen todos en el mismo movimiento, pueden mover montaas. +Miren a la gente en estas fotos que les muestro. +Creen que estn aqu por inters personal? +O estn persiguiendo el bien comn, lo cual requiere perderse a s mismos y pasar a ser simplemente partes de un todo? +Bien, esta fue mi charla en el formato estndar de TED. +Y ahora voy a dar la charla entera de nuevo en tres minutos en un espectro ms amplio. +Jonathan Haidt: Los humanos tenemos muchos tipos de experiencias religiosas, como William James explic. +Una de las ms comunes es subir la escalera secreta y perdernos a nosotros mismos. +La escalera nos lleva de la experiencia de la vida profana u ordinaria hacia arriba, a la experiencia de la vida sagrada, o profundamente interconectada. +Somos Homo duplex, como lo explic Durkheim. +Y somos Homo duplex porque hemos evolucionado por seleccin multinivel, como Darwin explic. +No estoy seguro de si la escalera es una adaptacin o un error, pero si es una adaptacin, las implicaciones son profundas. +Si es una adaptacin, hemos evolucionado para ser religiosos. +No quiero decir que evolucionamos para unirnos a gigantescas religiones organizadas. +Esas cosas llegaron recientemente. +Quiero decir que hemos evolucionado para ver lo sagrado alrededor nuestro y para unirnos a otros en equipos y cerrarnos alrededor de objetos, gente e ideas sagradas. +Por eso la poltica es tan tribal. +La poltica es en parte profana, es en parte de inters personal, pero la poltica es tambin sobre lo sagrado. +Es sobre juntarse con otros para perseguir ideas morales. +Es acerca de la eterna lucha entre el bien y el mal; todos nos creemos en el equipo de los buenos. +Y ms importante, si la escalera es real, explica el persistente trasfondo de insatisfaccin en la vida moderna. +Porque los seres humanos son, en alguna medida, criaturas de colmenas, como las abejas. +Somos abejas. Escapamos de la colmena en el Siglo de las Luces. +Echamos abajo las antiguas instituciones y trajimos libertad a los oprimidos. +Liberamos una creatividad que cambi la Tierra y gener gran cantidad de riqueza y comodidad. +Hoy en da volamos como abejas gozando de la libertad. +Pero a veces nos preguntamos: Es esto todo lo que hay? +Qu debo hacer con mi vida? +Qu est faltando? +Lo que falta es que somos Homo duplex, pero la sociedad moderna y secular fue construida para satisfacer a nuestro bajo y profano "yo". +Es realmente cmodo aqu abajo en el nivel inferior. +Ven, toma asiento en mi centro de entretenimiento hogareo. +Un gran desafo de la vida moderna es encontrar la escalera entre todo el desorden y luego hacer algo bueno y noble una vez que llegas a la cima. +Veo este deseo en mis estudiantes de la Universidad de Virginia. +Todos quieren encontrar una causa o una llamada a la que puedan responder. +Todos estn buscando la escalera. +Y eso me da esperanzas, porque la gente no es puramente egosta. +La mayora desea superar la mezquindad y pasar a ser parte de algo ms grande. +Esto explica la extraordinaria resonancia de esta simple metfora formulada casi 400 aos atrs. +"Ningn hombre es una isla entera por s misma. +Cada persona es un trozo de continente, una parte de un todo". +Gracias. +Los debates recientes sobre las leyes de propiedad intelectual como SOPA en Estados Unidos y el acuerdo ACTA en Europa fueron muy emotivos. +Pero creo que un razonamiento desapasionado y cuantitativo podra aportar mucho al debate. +Por lo tanto, quisiera proponer el uso de una disciplina de vanguardia, la matemtica de la propiedad intelectual, para analizar este tema. +Por ejemplo, hace poco la Motion Picture Association revel que nuestra economa pierde 58 000 millones de dlares al ao por robo de propiedad intelectual. +Pero en vez de discutir este nmero, un matemtico de la propiedad intelectual lo analizara y pronto descubrira que si ponemos ese dinero en lnea recta ira desde este auditorio, pasando por Ocean Boulevard, hasta el Westin, y de ah a Marte... +...si usramos monedas. +Esta es una idea vigorosa, alguno podr decir que es peligrosamente vigorosa. +Pero tambin es importante moralmente. +No estamos hablando del valor de venta hipottico de algunas pelculas pirateadas, sino de prdidas econmicas reales. +Hablamos del equivalente a perder la cosecha de maz estadounidense junto con todos los cultivos frutcolas, ms el trigo, el tabaco, el arroz, el sorgo... sea lo que fuere el sorgo, hablamos de su prdida. +Pero es casi imposible identificar las prdidas reales para la economa sin usar la matemtica de la propiedad intelectual. +Los ingresos por venta de msica han cado unos 8000 millones por ao desde la aparicin de Napster. +Estamos buscando una parte de eso. +Pero suben los ingresos totales en cines, video hogareo y cable bajo demanda. +Y mucho ms en la TV, terrestre y por cable. +Otros mercados de contenidos, como editoriales y radios, tambin estn creciendo. +Por eso esta parte de aqu es desconcertante. +Dado que los grandes mercados de contenidos han crecido acompasados por las leyes histricas, la piratera no ha impedido el crecimiento adicional, sino que esta matemtica muestra un crecimiento previsible en un mercado sin leyes precedentes que no exista en los aos 90. +Aqu vemos el costo insidioso de la piratera de tonos de llamada. +50 000 millones de dlares al ao, suficientes para, con tonos de 30 segundos, llegar directo desde aqu hasta la poca neandertal. +Es cierto. +Tengo Excel. +La industria del cine dice que la economa pierde ms de 370 000 empleos por el robo de contenidos, lo cual es mucho si consideramos que, en 1998, la Oficina de Estadsticas Laborales indic que las industrias del cine y el video empleaban a 270 000 personas. +Otros datos sitan la industria de la msica en 45 000 personas. +Entonces las prdidas de empleo que produjo Internet y todo ese robo de contenidos han dejado a las industrias de contenido con una cifra de empleo negativa. +Y esa es una de las tantas estadsticas increbles que analizamos los matemticos de la propiedad intelectual a diario. +Y algunos piensan que la teora de cuerdas es difcil. +Este nmero es indispensable en la caja de herramientas de estos matemticos. +Representa el dao preciso que le produce a las compaas de medios la piratera de cada cancin o pelcula. +Hollywood y el Congreso llegaron a este nmero matemticamente cuando se sentaron por ltima vez a evaluar los daos y redactaron esta ley. +Algunos piensan que este nmero es un poco grande, pero a los matemticos especializados en presiones mediticas lo que les sorprende es que no incluya una tasa de inflacin anual. +Cuando se aprob esta ley, el mejor reproductor de MP3 slo reproduca 10 canciones. +Y fue un gran xito navideo. +Qu pequeo matn no querra un milln y medio en su bolsillo, en mercadera robada. +Hoy un iPod Classic almacena 40 000 canciones, lo que equivale a 8000 millones de dlares en contenido robado. +O unos 75 000 empleos. +Quiz les resulte extraa esta nueva matemtica porque es un campo que es mejor dejar a los expertos. +Eso es todo por ahora. +Espero que me acompaen en la prxima cuando haga un estudio igualmente cientfico y basado en hechos sobre el costo de la piratera aliengena de msica para la economa de EE. UU. +Muchas gracias. +Gracias. +Les contar un poco sobre mi charla en TEDxHouston. +A la maana siguiente de dar esa charla me despert con la peor resaca de vulnerabilidad de toda mi vida. +Y realmente no sal de casa en tres das. +La primera vez que sal fue para almorzar con una amiga. +Y cuando entr, ella ya estaba en la mesa. +Me sent y me dijo: "Dios, ests horrible". +Y dije: "Gracias as me siento. Ya no funciono". +Y pregunt: "Pero qu pasa?" +Y contest: "Acabo de decir a 500 personas que me hice investigadora para sortear la vulnerabilidad. +Y que ser vulnerable resulta, segn mis datos, absolutamente esencial a toda vida bien intencionada, dije a estas 500 personas que tuve una crisis. +Tena una diapositiva donde se lea "Crisis". Pero en qu momento se me ocurri que fuese una buena idea? +Y ella dijo: "Vi tu charla transmitida en vivo. +En verdad no eras t. +Era un poco diferente a lo que sueles hacer. +Pero fue genial". +Y le dije: "Esto no puede pasar. +YouTube, se est difundiendo en YouTube. +Estamos hablando de 600 700 personas..." +Y me contest: "Bueno, creo que ya es demasiado tarde". +Y le dije: "Djame preguntarte algo". +Y ella: "S". +Y yo: "Te acuerdas cuando estbamos en la universidad ese tiempo realmente salvaje y un poco tonto?" +Y ella: "S". +Y yo: "Recuerdas cuando dejamos un mensaje terrible en el contestador de nuestros exnovios? +Y tuvimos que entrar en el dormitorio y luego borrar la cinta?" +Y ella: "Eh... no". +As que, por supuesto, lo nico que se me ocurri decir en ese momento fue, "S, yo tampoco. +Eso... yo tampoco". +Y pienso para mis adentros, "Brene, pero qu haces? qu haces? +Por qu sacas esto a colacin? Has perdido la cabeza? +Tus hermanas seran perfectas para esto". +As que alc la mirada y ella dijo, "De verdad intentars robar el video antes de difundirlo en YouTube?" +Y yo dije: "S, lo estoy pensando". +Ella: "Eres el peor ejemplo de vulnerabilidad". +Y entonces la mir y le dije algo que en ese momento lo consider un poco dramtico, pero que termin siendo ms proftico que dramtico. +Le dije: "y si 500 se convierten en 1000 2000, mi vida ha llegado a su fin". +Y no tena ningn plan de contingencia para cuatro millones. +Y mi vida llegara a su fin cuando eso sucediera. +Pero quiero hablar de lo que aprend. +Hay dos cosas que aprend en el ltimo ao. +La primera es que vulnerabilidad no es debilidad. +Y ese mito es profundamente peligroso. +Djeme preguntarles con sinceridad y les advertir, estoy formada como terapeuta, as que puedo esperar su incomodidad, as que si alzaran la mano sera estupendo. Cuntos de Uds., con sinceridad, al pensar en hacer algo vulnerable o decir algo vulnerable, piensan, "Dios, la debilidad de la vulnerabilidad. Es esto debilidad?" +Cuntos piensan que vulnerabilidad y debilidad son sinnimos? +La mayora de las personas. +Permtanme una pregunta: Esta semana en TED, Cuntos, al percibir vulnerabilidad aqu, pensaron que era pura valenta? +La vulnerabilidad no es debilidad. +Defino vulnerabilidad como riesgo emocional, exposicin, incertidumbre. +Alimenta nuestra vida cotidiana. +Y he llegado al convencimiento, son 12 aos investigando sobre el tema, que la vulnerabilidad es la medida ms precisa de valenta. Ser vulnerables, dejarnos ver para ser sinceros. +Una de las cosas raras que sucedieron tras la explosin de TED, es que tengo muchas ofertas para impartir conferencias en todo el pas, desde escuelas y asociaciones de padres hasta empresas de la lista Fortune 500. +Y muchas de las llamadas se desarrollaron as, "Dra. Brown. Nos encant la charla en TED. +Nos gustara que viniera para hablarnos. +Le agradeceramos si no menciona vulnerabilidad o vergenza". +De qu les gustara que hablara? +Hay tres grandes respuestas. +Para ser honesto con uno mismo, sobre todo del sector empresarial: innovacin, creatividad +y cambio. As que djenme mirar en las actas para decir: la vulnerabilidad es el lugar donde nace la innovacin, la creatividad y el cambio. +Crear es hacer algo que nunca antes existi. +No hay nada ms vulnerable que eso. +La adaptabilidad a los cambios tiene que ver con la vulnerabilidad. +Lo segundo, para entender en realidad, finalmente, la relacin entre la vulnerabilidad y el coraje. Lo segundo que aprend es: tenemos que hablar sobre la vergenza. +Y les ser muy sincera. +Cuando me convert en "investigadora de vulnerabilidad" y esto se convirti en el foco, por la charla en TED, y no bromeo. +Les pondr un ejemplo. +Hace tres meses, estaba en una tienda de deportes comprando gafas y canilleras y todas las cosas que los padres compran en tiendas de deportes. +A un centenar de metros de distancia, esto es lo que escuch: "La vulnerabilidad de TED. La vulnerabilidad de TED". +Soy una tejana de quinta generacin. +Nuestro lema familiar es "Bloquear y cargar". +No soy investigadora nata de la vulnerabilidad. +As es que yo simplemente segu caminando, ella pisndome los talones. +Y luego escucho, "La vulnerabilidad de TED" +Me doy la vuelta y digo, "Hola". +Ella ya aqu mismo y dice: "Ud. es la investigadora de la vergenza que tuvo una crisis". +En este punto los padres hacen como si se sacaran a sus hijos de encima. +Miran a otro lado! +Y me siento tan agotada en ese momento de mi vida, que la miro y digo en realidad, "Fue un maldito despertar espiritual". +Y ella mira hacia atrs y hace esto, "Lo s". +Y continu: "Vimos la charla de TED en mi club de lectura. +Luego le su libro y nos hemos cambiado de nombre "Las chicas en crisis". Y dijo: "Nuestro lema es: nos derrumbamos y es fantstico". Pueden imaginar lo que es para m en una reunin de departamento. +As es que cuando me convert en Vulnerabilidad TED, a modo de personaje de accin, como la Barbie Ninja, pero yo como Vulnerabilidad TED, pens, voy a sacarme esto de la vergenza de encima, porque ya pas seis aos estudiando la vergenza antes de haber empezado a escribir y hablar sobre vulnerabilidad. +Y pens que, gracias a Dios, porque la vergenza es este tema horrible, del que nadie quiere hablar. +Es la mejor manera de que la gente se cierre en banda. +"A qu te dedicas?" "Estudio la vergenza". "Oh". +Y te estoy viendo. +Pero para sobrevivir este ao que pas, me acordaba de una regla de oro, no es una regla de investigacin, sino un imperativo moral de mi educacin... tienes que bailar con el nico que te sepa llevar. +Y no aprend sobre vulnerabilidad y coraje, creatividad e innovacin del estudio de vulnerabilidad. +Aprend de estas cosas al estudiar la vergenza. +Y por eso quiero que nos adentremos hacia +la vergenza. Los seguidores de Jung denominan a la vergenza los pantanos del alma. +Y vamos a adentrarnos all. +Y el objetivo no es entrar para construir una casa y vivir all. +Se trata de ponerse botas de agua atravesarla y encontrar el camino. +He aqu el porqu. +Hemos odo la llamada ms convincente de tener una conversacin en este pas, y pienso de forma global, en torno a la raza, verdad? +S? Lo hemos odo. +S? +No se puede tener esa conversacin sin vergenza, +porque tampoco se puede hablar sobre raza sin hablar de privilegios. +Y cuando la gente empieza a hablar de privilegios, se paraliza por vergenza. +Hemos escuchado una solucin simple y brillante para no matar a la gente en el quirfano, teniendo una lista de verificacin. +No se puede solucionar ese problema sin abordar la vergenza, porque cuando se ensea cmo suturar, tambin se ensea cmo suturar su autoestima siendo todopoderoso. +Y todos esos todopoderosos no necesitan listas de verificacin. +Y me escrib el nombre de este miembro de TED para no equivocarme. +Mishkin Ingawale, Espero haberlo hecho bien. +Vi aqu a compaeros de TED el primer da. +Y uno de ellos se par y explic qu le llev a crear una tecnologa para detectar la anemia porque la gente mora innecesariamente. +Y dijo: "Vi la necesidad. +As, qu creen que hice? Yo lo desarroll". +Y todos irrumpieron en aplausos, diciendo "S!" +Y entonces dijo: "Y no funcion. +Entonces lo prob 32 veces ms, hasta que funcion. +Saben cul es el gran secreto de TED? +No veo la hora de decirlo. +Creo que ya lo estoy haciendo. +Es como la conferencia del fracaso. +No, de verdad. +Saben por qu este lugar es increble? +Porque muy pocas personas aqu, tienen miedo al fracaso. +Y nadie que yo haya visto hasta ahora subido a este escenario, no ha fracasado. +He fracasado miserablemente muchas veces. +No creo que el mundo lo considere una vergenza. +Una gran cita me salv el ao pasado. Es de Theodore Roosevelt. +Muchas personas la aluden como la cita del "Hombre en el ruedo". +Y reza ms o menos as. "No importan las crticas. Ni aquellos que muestran +cmo aquellos que hicieron algo podran haberlo hecho mejor y cmo yerran y dan un traspi tras otro. El reconocimiento pertenece al hombre que est en el ruedo +con el rostro manchado de polvo, sudor y sangre. +Pero cuando est en el ruedo, en el mejor de los casos gana, y en el peor, pierde, pero cuando falla, cuando pierde, lo hace con gran osada". +Y de eso trata esta conferencia. +De eso va la vida, de atreverse mucho, de estar en el ruedo. +Cuando vamos a entrar al ruedo y tenemos la mano en la puerta, y pensamos: "Entrar y lo intentar", la vergenza es el fantasma que dice: "Uh, uh. +No eres lo suficientemente bueno! +Nunca terminaste el master. Te dej tu esposa. +S que tu padre realmente no estaba en Luxemburgo, estaba en Sing Sing. +S las cosas que te sucedieron de nio. +S que no crees que seas lo suficientemente apuesto o lo suficientemente inteligente o talentoso o lo suficientemente vigoroso. +S que tu padre nunca te prest atencin, incluso al convertirte en director de finanzas". +La vergenza es eso. +Y si podemos acallarla, seguir y decir: "Lo har", alzamos la mirada y el crtico que vemos sealndonos y rindose, es el 99 % de las veces quin? +Nosotros mismos. +La vergenza grava dos grandes cintas. "Nunca lo suficientemente bueno" y, si puedes hablar de eso, "Quin te crees que eres?" +Lo que se debe entender sobre la vergenza es que no es culpa. +La vergenza est centrada en uno mismo, la culpa en el comportamiento. +La vergenza es "soy malo". +La culpa es "Hice algo mal". +Cuntos de Uds., si hicieron algo que fue doloroso para m, estaran dispuestos a decir: "Lo siento. He cometido un error"? +Cuntos de Uds. estaran dispuestos a decirlo? +La culpa: lo siento. He cometido un error. +Vergenza: Lo siento. Yo soy un error. +Hay una gran diferencia entre la vergenza y la culpa. +Y esto es lo que necesitan saber. +La vergenza est muy correlacionada con adiccin, depresin, violencia, agresin, intimidacin, suicidio y trastornos alimentarios. +Y adems debemos saber algo ms. +La culpa est inversamente correlacionada con esas cosas. +La capacidad de retener algo que hemos hecho o dejado de hacer en contra de lo que queremos ser es increblemente adaptable. +Es incmodo, pero es adaptable. +Otra cosa que deben saber acerca de la vergenza es que est absolutamente organizada por gnero. +Si la vergenza me inunda e inunda a Chris, nos sentiremos igual. +Todo el mundo aqu conoce la inundacin tibia de la vergenza. +Estamos bastante seguros de que las nicas personas que no experimentan vergenza son quienes no tienen capacidad para la conexin o la empata. +Lo que significa: s, tengo un poco de vergenza; no, no soy un socipata. +As que optar por, s, tenemos un poco de vergenza. +La vergenza la sienten igual hombres y mujeres, pero se organiza por gnero. +Para las mujeres, el mejor ejemplo que puedo darles es Enjoli +"Puedo poner la lavadora, preparar los almuerzos, dar los besos y estar en el trabajo a las 8:55. +Puedo traer a casa carne, frerla en la sartn y hacer que siempre recuerdes que eres un hombre". +Para las mujeres, la vergenza es hacerlo todo, hacerlo perfectamente y nunca dejar que te vean sudar. +No s la cantidad de perfume que vendi ese anuncio, pero les garantizo, que movi una gran cantidad de antidepresivos y ansiolticos. +La vergenza, para las mujeres, es esta red de expectativas contradictorias y competencias imposibles de obtener relacionadas con lo se supone que debemos ser. +Y es una camisa de fuerza. +Para los hombres, la vergenza no es un montn de expectativas contradictorias y conflictivas. +La vergenza es una, no ser percibido como qu? +Dbil. +No entrevist a hombres durante los primeros cuatro aos de mi estudio. +Y no fue hasta que un hombre me mir un da despus de la firma de libros, y dijo: "Me encanta lo que tiene que decir sobre la vergenza, me pregunto por qu no mencion a los hombres". +Y dije: "No estudio a los hombres". +Y l: "Eso es prctico". +Y yo: "Por qu?" +Y l: "Porque Ud. dice que para llegar a contar nuestra historia, debemos ser vulnerables. +Pero, ve los libros que acaba de firmar para mi esposa y mis tres hijas?" +Y yo: "S". +"Ellas prefieren que muera sobre mi caballo blanco a verme fracasar. +Cuando conseguimos ser vulnerables tenemos que salir como podemos de ese lo. +Y no me diga Ud. que esto se debe a los chicos, los entrenadores y los paps, +porque las mujeres en mi vida son mucho ms duras conmigo que cualquier otra persona". +As que empec a entrevistar a hombres y hacer preguntas. +Y lo que he aprendido es lo siguiente: mustrenme a una mujer que realmente pueda sentarse con un hombre con vulnerabilidad y miedo, les mostrar a una mujer que ha hecho un trabajo increble. +Mustrenme a un hombre que pueda sentarse con una mujer que no da ms, que ya no puede hacerlo todo, y la primera respuesta de l no es, "He vaciado el lavavajillas" +lo que realmente hace es escuchar, porque eso es todo lo que necesitamos... Les mostrar a un hombre que ha hecho un gran trabajo. +La vergenza es una epidemia en nuestra cultura. +Y para salir de ella, para encontrar el camino de vuelta, tenemos que entender cmo nos afecta y cmo afecta nuestra paternidad, cmo trabajamos, cmo nos buscamos el uno al otro. +Muy rpidamente, algo breve sobre la investigacin de Mahalik del Boston College. +l preguntaba qu deben hacer las mujeres para ajustarse a las normas femeninas. +Las 10 respuestas ms frecuentes en este pas: ser bonita, delgada, modesta y recurrir siempre a la apariencia. +Cuando pregunt sobre los hombres, qu creen que los hombres en este pas tienen que hacer para ajustarse a las normas masculinas? Las respuestas fueron: mostrar siempre control emocional, el trabajo es lo primero, lograr estatus social y uso de la violencia. +Si vamos a reencontrarnos el uno al otro, tenemos que entender y conocer la empata, porque la empata es el antdoto para la vergenza. +Si ponemos la vergenza en una placa de Petri, se necesitan tres cosas para crecer de forma exponencial: secretismo, silencio y juicio. +Si se pone la misma cantidad de vergenza en una placa de Petri y se roca con empata, no puede sobrevivir. +Las dos palabras ms poderosas cuando estamos en lucha: Yo tambin. +Y, les dejo este pensamiento. +Si vamos a reencontrar el camino que nos una, deberemos transitar la vulnerabilidad. +Y s que es muy seductor permanecer fuera del ruedo, porque creo que es lo que hice toda mi vida, y pienso para mis adentros, ir all y propinar una buena patada cuando est acorazada y sea perfecta. +Y eso es seductor. +Pero la verdad es que nunca sucede. +E incluso si has llegado a ser tan perfecto y estar bien acorazado cuando logres la meta, no ser eso lo que querrs ver. +Queremos que t entres. +Queremos estar contigo y frente a ti. +Y slo queremos, para nosotros y para los nuestros y para la gente con la que trabajamos, una gran osada. +As que muchas gracias a todos. Realmente lo agradezco. +Soy creyente. +Soy un creyente del calentamiento global y mi historial sobre el tema es bueno. +Pero mi especialidad es la seguridad nacional. +Tenemos que librarnos de comprar petrleo al enemigo. +Estoy hablando de la OPEP. +Y permtanme retroceder 100 aos, a 1912. +Probablemente estn pensando que nac ese ao. +Pero no; nac en 1928. +Pero remontmonos a 1912, 100 aos atrs, y observemos lo que en ese momento nuestro pas estaba enfrentando. +Es el mismo dilema sobre energa que tenemos hoy, pero es un combustible diferente. +Hace 100 aos, buscbamos el carbn, por supuesto, buscbamos el aceite de ballena y tambin el petrleo crudo. +En ese momento buscbamos el combustible que fuera ms limpio, ms econmico, aunque no era nuestro, era de ellos. +En ese momento, en 1912, escogimos el petrleo crudo en lugar del aceite de ballena y un poco ms de carbn. +Pero a medida que avanzamos cien aos hasta el presente estamos nuevamente en otra encrucijada. +En qu basaremos nuestra decisin? +Esto es lo que vamos a utilizar en el futuro. +As que desde aqu, es bastante claro para mi, que optramos por lo ms limpio, lo ms econmico, domstico, propio -- lo que ya tenemos, y lo que tenemos es nuestro gas natural. +As es que el coste de esto al mundo es de 89 millones de barriles de petrleo por da aproximadamente. +Y el costo anual es de 3 billones de dlares. +Y un billn de esos va a la OPEP. +Esto tiene que detenerse. +Ahora, si nos fijamos en el costo de la OPEP, Son 7 billones de dlares -- segn un estudio del ao pasado del Milken Institute -- 7 billones de dlares, desde 1976, es lo que hemos pagado por el petrleo a la OPEP. +Esto incluye el costo militar y el costo del petrleo. +Esta es la transferencia de riqueza ms grande de un grupo a otro en la historia de la humanidad +Y contina. +Y cuando observamos a dnde se transfiere la riqueza, podemos ver que las flechas se dirigen al Medio Oriente, y lejos de nosotros. +Y en esto nos encontramos siendo la polica del mundo. +Estamos patrullando el mundo, y cmo hacemos eso? +S la respuesta. +Apostara a que no hay un 10% de ustedes que sepa cuntos portaviones hay en el mundo. +Levanten la mano los que crean saberlo. +Hay 12. +Uno lo estn fabricando los chinos y los otros 11 son nuestros. +Por qu tenemos 11 portaviones? +Tenemos una posicin dominante en el mercado? +Somos ms inteligentes que los dems? No estoy seguro. +Y si observamos dnde estn situados -- en esta diapositiva son las manchas rojas -- hay 5 estn operando en Medio Oriente y el resto estn en los EE.UU. +Acaban de irse al Medio Oriente y aquellos regresan. +As, la mayor parte de los 11 que tenemos se encuentran anclados al Medio Oriente. +Por qu? Por qu estn en el Medio Oriente? +Estn all para controlar, mantener las rutas de navegacin abiertas y mantener el petrleo disponible. +Y los EE.UU. utilizan cerca de 20 millones de barriles al da, Lo que representa el 25% de todo el petrleo que se usa en el mundo. +Y slo lo usa el 4% de la poblacin. +En cierto modo, eso no parece correcto. +Eso no es sostenible. +Entonces, a dnde vamos? +Esto contina? +S, esto continuar. +La diapositiva que ven aqu es de 1990 a 2040. +Durante ese perodo se duplicar la demanda. +Y cuando nos fijamos para qu estamos usando el petrleo, el 70% se usa como combustible para transporte. +As cuando alguien dice: Vayamos por la energa nuclear, vayamos por la elica, por la solar. Bien, yo estoy a favor de todo lo estadounidense, todo lo estadounidense. +Pero si vamos a hacer algo acerca de la dependencia respecto al petrleo extranjero, lo que hay abordar es el transporte. +Ya que aqu estamos usando a diario 20 millones de barriles -- produciendo 8, e importando 12, y de los 12, 5 vienen de la OPEP. +Si observamos a los dos mayores consumidores, nosotros consumimos 20 millones de barriles y los chinos consumen 10. +Los chinos tienen un plan un poco mejor -- o tienen un plan; Nosotros no tenemos plan. +En la historia de los EE.UU., nunca hemos tenido un plan energtico. +No nos damos cuenta de los recursos que tenemos a nuestra disposicin. +Si tomamos los ltimos 10 aos y los analizamos, se han transferido a la OPEP 1 biilln de dlares. +Si nos adelantamos 10 aos, y le ponemos un tope al precio del barril de petrleo de 100 dlares, pagaremos 2.2 mil millones. +Eso tampoco es sostenible. +Pero los das del petrleo econmico han terminado. +Han terminado. +Los saudes ponen claramente de manifiesto que tienen que tener el barril a 94 dlares para cumplir con sus compromisos sociales. +La semana pasada alguien en Washington me dijo: Los saudes pueden producir petrleo por 5 dlares el barril. +Eso no tiene nada que ver. +Lo que ellos tengan que pagar sino lo que nosotros vamos a pagar por el petrleo. +No hay mercado libre para el petrleo. +El petrleo se cotiza fuera de los mrgenes. +Y las naciones de la OPEP son las que le ponen el precio al petrleo. +Entonces, hacia dnde dirigirnos? +Nos dirigimos hacia el gas natural. +El gas natural har todo lo que queremos que haga. +Es un combustible de 130 octanos. +Es un 25% ms limpio que el petrleo. +Es nuestro y tenemos en abundancia. +Y no requiere una refinera. +Sale de la tierra a 130 octanos. +Psalo por un separador y estar listo para usar. +Ser muy simple para nosotros utilizarlo +Ser sencillo lograr esto. +Encontraremos, y se los dir en un minuto, lo que estamos buscando para que esto ocurra. +Aqu pueden ver que en esta lista +el gas natural sirvir para todo. +Va a sustituir o podr usarse para eso. +Servir para la generacin de energa, para el transporte, Es el combustible mximo, es todos los combustibles en uno. +Tenemos suficiente gas natural? +Miren la barra de la izquierda; son 24 mil millones. +Es lo que usamos anualmente. +Avancemos y las estimaciones que tenemos de la AIE (Administracin de Informacin Energtica) y de la industria -- la industria sabe de lo que habla-- tenemos 4 billones de pies cbicos de gas natural disponibles para nosotros. +Cmo se traduce eso a barriles de petrleo? +Sera tres veces ms de lo que los sauditas afirman tener. +Y ellos dicen tener 250 mil millones de barriles de petrleo, lo que no creo. +Creo que son probablemente 175 mil millones de barriles. +Pero de todos modos, as sea cierto o lo que sea, nosotros tenemos un montn de gas natural. +As he tratado de indicar dnde deberamos usar el gas natural. +Y hacia donde apunt fue sobre los camiones de carga. +Hay 8 millones de ellos. +Si tomamos 8 millones de camiones -- esto es camiones de 18 ruedas -- y los transformamos a gas natural, se reducira el carbn al 30%; es ms barato, y reduciramos 3 millones de barriles de nuestras importaciones. +Es decir, que con 8 millones de camiones, bajamos la demanda de la OPEP en un 60%. Hay 250 millones de vehculos en los EE.UU. +Por lo tanto, el combustible puente que tenemos es el gas natural, es la forma en que lo veo. +A mi edad, no tengo que preocuparme por el puente. +Esta es su preocupacin. +Pero si nos fijamos en el gas natural que tenemos podra ser muy bien el puente, porque tenemos en gran cantidad. +Pero como les dije, estoy a favor de todo lo estadounidense. +Ahora permtanme una cosa he sido realista-- he sido primero terico y luego realista. +Voy a ser terico nuevamente. +Si observamos el mundo, en el ocano alrededor de cada continente, hay hidratos de metano. +Yo plante mi posicin y es que en los EE.UU. tenemos que poner manos a la obra a nuestros recursos. +Si lo hacemos -- eso nos cuesta mil millones de dlares por da, +y sin embargo, no tenemos un plan energtico. +No hay nada que me convenza de ese plan de Washington, ms que tratar de enfocarme en esos 8 millones de camiones de 18 ruedas. +Y si pudiramos hacerlo, daramos el primer paso hacia un plan energtico. +Si lo hiciramos, podramos ver que nuestros recursos son ms fciles de utilizar de lo que se pudiera imaginar. +Muchas gracias. +Chris Anderson: gracias por esto. +Entonces, desde tu punto de vista, tenas este gran plan Pickens que se basaba en energa elica, y lo abandonaste, fundamentalmente, porque la economa cambi. +Qu pas? +TBP: Perd 150 millones de dlares. +Eso te har abandonar algo. +No, Chris, lo que nos sucedi es que la energa se vala en el margen, +y ese margen es el gas natural. +Y en el momento en que entr al negocio elico, el gas natural costaba 9 USD; +hoy cuesta 2, 40 USD. +No puedes hacer un negocio elico con menos de 6 USD por MPC (millones de pies cbicos). +CA: Entonces, debido a la mayor capacidad para usar la tecnologa de fracturamiento hidrulico, las reservas calculadas de gas natural explotaron, de alguna manera, y el precio cay en picada, lo que convirti a la elica en no competitiva. +En pocas palabras, eso es lo que pas? +TBP: Eso es lo que pas. +Nos dimos cuenta que podamos ir a la roca generadora, que eran los esquistos carbonferos en las cuencas. +El primero fue Barnett Shale, en Texas, y luego Marcellus en el noroeste a travs de Nueva York, Pennsylvania, Virginia Occidental; y Haynesville en Louisiana. +Este material se encuentra en todas partes. +Estamos abarrotados de gas natural. +CA: Y ahora eres un gran inversor de eso y lo llevas al mercado? +TBP: Bueno, dirs un gran inversor. +Es mi vida. +Soy gelogo y me gradu en el 51, y he estado en la industria toda mi vida. +Ahora creo mis propias acciones. +No soy un gran productor de gas natural. +Alguien el otro da dijo que yo era el segundo mayor productor de gas en los EE.UU. +Me gustara. +Pero no lo soy. Soy dueo de las acciones. +Pero tambin estoy en el negocio de abastecimiento de combustible. +CA: Pero el gas natural es un combustible fsil; +al quemarlo se libera CO2 (dixido de carbono). +Tu eres un creyente del cambio climtico +Por qu ese aspecto no te preocupa? +TBP: Bueno, vamos a tener que utilizar algo. +Qu es lo que tenemos que reemplazar? +CA: No, no. El argumento de que el gas es un combustible puente tiene sentido, porque la cantidad de CO2 por unidad de energa es menor que el petrleo y el carbn, correcto? +Y as todos pueden estar contentos de ver un giro del carbn o el petrleo al gas natural. +Pero si eso es as y es la razn por la que no se invierte en esas energas renovables, entonces, a largo plazo, estamos en problemas no es cierto? +TBP: Bueno, no estoy dispuesto a renunciar, pero Jim y yo hablamos all cuando se fue, y dije: Qu piensas del gas natural? +Y l dijo: Es un combustible puente; es lo que es. +Y yo dije: Un puente hacia qu? +hacia dnde vamos? +Mira, te lo dije, yo no tengo que preocuparme por eso. +Ustedes tienen que hacerlo. +CA: Pero yo no creo que sea as, Boone. +Pienso que eres una persona que crees en tu legado. +Has hecho el dinero que necesitas. +Eres una de las pocas personas en condiciones de dar realmente un giro al debate. +Apoyas la idea de algn tipo de precio a las emisiones? +Eso tiene sentido? +TBP: No me gusta eso porque el gobierno va a terminar ejecutando el programa, +y puedo decirles que ser un fracaso. +El gobierno no tiene xito en esas cosas. +Ellos simplemente no lo tienen; es un mal negocio. +Mira Solyndra, o lo que fuera. +Quiero decir, se dijo 10 veces que sera una mala idea, pero de todas maneras siguieron adelante y lo hicieron. +Pero eso slo hizo volar 500 millones; +creo que es cercano a los mil millones. +Pero Chris, creo que hacia a dnde vamos, a largo plazo, no me importa volver a la nuclear. +Y puedo contarte qu dir la ltima pgina del informe que les llevar 5 aos escribir. +Nmero 1, no construyas un reactor en un falla. +Y nmero 2, no construyas un reactor en el ocano. +Y ahora creo que los reactores son seguros; +muvanlos al interior sobre un terreno muy estable y constryanlos. +No tiene nada de malo la energa nuclear. +Se va a necesitar energa, no hay duda. +No es posible de acuerdo. +CA: Una pregunta de la audiencia es con respecto al proceso de fracturamiento hidrulico y de gas natural, qu pasa con el problema de la fuga de metano, siendo ste el gas que contribuye al calentamiento global ms que el dixido de carbono? +Eso preocupa? +TBP: Fracturamiento hidrulico? qu es? +CA: Fracturamiento hidrulico. +TBP: Estoy bromeando. +CA: Tenemos una incompatibilidad de acentos, sabes? +TBP: No, permteme. Te dije cuntos aos tengo. +Me gradu en el ao 51 +y tuve mi primer trabajo en el sector de fracturamiento en 1953 en la frontera de Texas. +El fracturamiento hidrulico apareci en el ao 47, y no creo ni por un minuto cuando el presidente dice que hace 30 aos el departamento de energa desarroll el fracturamiento hidrulico. +No se de qu demonios est hablando. +Lo digo en serio, el departamento de energa no tuvo nada que ver con el fracturamiento hidrulico. +El primer trabajo de fracturamiento se hizo en el 47. +Mi primer trabajo en ese sector, fue en el ao 53. +He fracturado ms de 3 000 pozos en mi vida. +Nunca tuve un problema por daar un acufero o cualquier otra cosa. +Ahora, el acufero ms grande de los EE.UU. es de Midland, Texas, hacia la frontera de Dakota del Sur, a lo largo de 8 estados -- un acufero grande: Ogallala, del trisico. +En ese acufero tenan que fracturarse 800 000 pozos, en Oklahoma, Texas, Kansas. +No hubo problemas. +No entiendo por qu los medios de comunicacin se centran en el este de Pennsylvania. +CA: Muy bien, entonces no respaldas un impuesto o precio a las emisiones. +Entonces creo que el panorama para ti de cmo el mundo se librar de los combustibles fsiles, es en definitiva, a travs de la innovacin, de que algn da hagamos el costo solar y nuclear competitivo? +TBP: De la energa solar y elica, Jim y yo acordamos en 13 segundos. +Es decir, que va a ser una parte pequea, porque no puedes confiar en ella. +CA: Entonces cmo se librar el mundo de los combustibles fsiles? +TPB: Cmo llegamos alli? +Tenemos tanto gas natural que no llegar el da que se diga: No usen ms eso. +Se seguir usando; es el ms limpio de todos. +Y si se fijan en California, ellos usan 2 500 autobuses. +LAMTA ha estado en el gas natural durante 25 aos. +La Ft. Worth T ha estado en eso 25 aos. +Por qu? Usaron el gas natural por la calidad del aire y se alejaron del diesel. +Por qu hoy todos los camiones de basura en el sur de California funcionan a gas natural? +Se debe a la calidad del aire. +Y s lo que me ests diciendo y no disiento contigo. +Cmo demonios en algn momento podremos salir del gas natural? +Y digo, ese es su problema. +CA: Muy bien, entonces es el combustible puente. +Qu est al otro lado de ese puente, es lo que tiene que averiguar la audiencia. +Si alguien te trae un plan que realmente pareciera ser parte de la solucin, ests dispuesto a invertir en esas tecnologas, incluso si no estn potenciadas para las ganancias, si pudieran ser maximizadas para la futura salud del planeta? +TBP: Perd 150 mil millones con la elica. OK. +S, claro, podramos jugar con eso. +Porque, de nuevo, estoy tratando de resolver la obtencin de energa para los EE.UU. +Y todo lo estadounidense funcionar para mi. +CA: Boone, realmente, en serio, te agradezco que hayas venido aqu, participar en esta conversacin. +Creo que hay una gran cantidad de personas que querrn comprometerse contigo. +Y ese fue un verdadero regalo que le diste a la audiencia. +Muchas gracias. (TBP: seguro que s, Chris. Muchas gracias.) +Una de cada dos mujeres aqu va a verse afectada por una enfermedad cardiovascular a lo largo de su vida. +Esta es la principal causa de muerte en mujeres. +Es un secreto bien guardado por razones que desconozco. +Adems de hacer de esto un tema personal; porque vamos a hablar de la relacin con sus corazones y las relaciones de todas las mujeres con sus corazones, tambin vamos a profundizar en la poltica. +Porque, como saben, lo personal es poltico. +Y no se est haciendo lo suficiente al respecto. +Y as como hemos visto mujeres vencer el cncer de mama a travs de las campaas contra el cncer, esto es lo que debemos hacer con el corazn. +Desde 1984, en EE. UU. mueren ms mujeres que hombres. +Y estamos acostumbrados a que los problemas cardacos sean principalmente un problema masculino; lo cual nunca fue cierto, pero esa era la creencia en los aos 50 y 60 y as apareca en todos los libros. +Fue justamente lo que aprend cuando me capacit. +Si quisiramos ser sexistas, aunque no estara bien, pero si nos hubisemos ofuscado, habra sido de hecho una enfermedad femenina. +Ahora es una enfermedad de mujeres. +Y una de las cosas que se observan es esa tendencia masculina, la mortalidad que baja y baja y baja y baja y baja. +Y como ven, la tendencia femenina desde 1984, es que esta brecha se ensancha. +Ms y ms mujeres, dos, tres, cuatro veces ms mujeres, mueren de problemas cardacos que hombres. +Y ese es un periodo de tiempo demasiado corto para que los diferentes factores de riesgo que conocemos cambien. +Lo que esto nos sugera a un nivel nacional es que las estrategias de diagnstico y tratamiento que haban sido desarrolladas con hombres, por y para hombres durante los ltimos 50 aos; y que haban funcionado bastante bien en hombres, verdad?; pues, no estaban funcionando tan bien para las mujeres. +Esto fue una gran llamada de atencin durante la dcada de los 80. +Los problemas cardacos matan ms mujeres de todas las edades que el cncer de mama. +Y la campaa contra el cncer de mama... nuevamente, esto no es una competencia. +Queremos tener el mismo xito que la campaa contra el cncer de mama. +Necesitamos ser tan buenos como ellos para lidiar con esta crisis. +Cuando las personas se enteran de esto, quedan todas boquiabiertas. +Todos podemos pensar en alguien, en general, una mujer joven, que haya sufrido cncer de mama. +Pero con frecuencia no podemos pensar en una joven que tenga problemas cardacos. +Y les voy a explicar por qu. +Las enfermedades cardacas matan, a menudo con mucha rapidez. +As que la primera vez que un problema cardaco afecta a hombres y mujeres, la mitad de las veces se trata de una muerte sbita cardaca, sin ninguna oportunidad de despedirse, de llevarla a quimioterapia, de ayudarla a escoger una peluca. +La mortalidad del cncer de mama baj al 4 %. +Y esos son los 40 aos que las mujeres han luchado. +Betty Ford y Nancy Reagan le hicieron frente y dijeron: "Yo sobreviv al cncer de mama", y estaba bien hablar al respecto. +Y luego los mdicos las han ayudado. +Hemos investigado. +Ahora tenemos tratamientos efectivos. +Las mujeres estn viviendo ms que nunca. +Lo mismo debe suceder en el campo de las enfermedades cardacas y este es el momento. +No est sucediendo y ya es hora. +Tenemos una gran deuda de gratitud con estas mujeres. +Como Barbara lo describi, en una de sus maravillosas pelculas, "Yentl", mostrando a una joven que quera educarse. +Quera estudiar el Talmud. +Y cmo fue que pudo educarse? +Deba hacerse pasar por hombre. +Deba parecer un hombre. +Deba convencer a los dems de que era un hombre y de que tena los mismos derechos que un hombre. +Bernadine Healy, la Dra. Healy, era cardiloga. +Y ms o menos por esa poca, en los aos 80, el nmero de mujeres que moran por enfermedades cardacas suba y suba y suba y suba; ella escribi una publicacin en el New England Journal of Medicine que hablaba del sndrome Yentl. +Las mujeres mueren por enfermedades cardacas, dos, tres, cuatro veces ms que los hombres. +Esa tasa de mortalidad no disminuye, aumenta. +Y ella cuestion, cre una hiptesis: es este un sndrome Yentl? +Y la historia es as: +acaso es porque las mujeres no se parecen a los hombres, que los patrones de enfermedades cardacas no son como los masculinos, que son los que hemos estado estudiando durante los ltimos 50 aos, de los cuales hemos obtenido diagnsticos precisos y muy buenos tratamientos, que por ende, no reconocemos sus enfermedades cardacas. +Simplemente pasaron. +No se las trata, no se las detecta, no se benefician de toda la medicina moderna. +La doctora Healy posteriormente se convirti en la primera directora mujer de nuestros Institutos Nacionales de Salud. +Y esta es la iniciativa de investigacin bioqumica ms grande en el mundo. +Financia muchas de mis investigaciones +y financia investigaciones por todas partes. +Fue un gran logro que ella llegase a directora. +Y comenz, frente a mucha controversia, la Iniciativa de la Salud de la Mujer. +Y toda mujer en esta sala se ha beneficiado de esa iniciativa. +Nos cont acerca de la terapia hormonal sustitutiva. +Nos inform acerca de la osteoporosis. +Nos inform acerca del cncer de mama y de colon en las mujeres. +Financi muchos estudios a pesar de que, nuevamente, muchas personas le dijeron que no lo hiciera, porque era muy costoso. +El mensaje sobrentendido era que las mujeres no valan la pena. +Y ella les deca: "No! Lo siento. Las mujeres lo valen". +Bien, hubo un pedacito de esa Iniciativa para la Salud de la Mujeres que fue para el Instituto Nacional del Corazn, los Pulmones y la Sangre, que es la rama de cardiologa del NIH. +Y pudimos hacer el estudio WISE, que por sus siglas es la "Evaluacin del Sndrome Isqumico Coronario en Mujeres", y yo he presidido ese estudio durante los ltimos 15 aos. +Se trataba de un estudio para preguntarnos especficamente: qu pasa con las mujeres? +Por qu es que cada vez mueren ms mujeres por enfermedades isqumicas coronarias? +As que en WISE, hace 15 aos, comenzamos diciendo: "Vaya, aqu hay un par de observaciones claves y seguramente deberamos investigar ms al respecto". +Y nuestros colegas en Washington D. C. +Y van a encontrar analogas muy interesantes en esta fisiologa. +Voy a empezar describindoles el patrn masculino de un paro cardaco. +Ataque al corazn de Hollywood. Ahhhggg. +Un dolor de pecho espantoso. +El monitor del electrocardiograma hace "pufff", as que los mdicos ven este electrocardiograma increblemente anormal. +Hay un gran cogulo justo en medio de la arteria. +As que introducen un catter y bum, bum, bum se deshacen del cogulo. +As es un paro cardaco en un hombre. +Algunas mujeres sufren paros as, pero un gran nmero de mujeres tienen este otro tipo de paros, donde erosiona, no se llena completamente con un cogulo, los sntomas son sutiles, los resultados de los electrocardiogramas son distintos: el patrn femenino. +Entonces, qu creen que les pasa a estas chicas? +Con frecuencia no se las reconoce, se las mandan a sus casas. +No estoy seguro de lo que podra haber sido. Podran haber sido gases. +As que seguimos esa pista y dijimos: "Saben, ahora tenemos la capacidad de mirar dentro de seres humanos con estos catteres especiales llamados IVUS: ultrasonido intravascular". +Y dijimos: "Vamos a plantear una hiptesis acerca de que la placa adiposa en las mujeres sea en realidad probablemente diferente, y depositada de otra forma que en los hombres". +Y por el conocimiento en comn de cmo los hombres y las mujeres engordan. +Cuando observamos a las personas volverse obesas, dnde engordan los hombres? +Justo aqu, es solo central, justo aqu. +Dnde engordan las mujeres? +Por todos lados. +Celulitis aqu, celulitis ac. +Entonces nos dijimos: "Miren, parece las mujeres hacen un buen trabajo guardando la basura ordenadamente. +Los hombres solo la concentran en una sola rea". +As que dijimos: "Observemos esto". +Lo amarillo es placa adiposa, en el panel A hay un hombre. +Y como ven, es bultosa y rugosa. +Tiene panza de cerveza en sus arterias coronarias. +En el panel B hay una mujer, se ve muy suave. +Ella lo tiene todo lindo y ordenado. +Y si hiciesen esa angiografa, que es la roja, veran la enfermedad del hombre. +Despus de 50 aos mejorando y perfeccionando estas angiografas, podemos reconocer fcilmente el patrn de la enfermedad en el hombre. +Pero se hace un poco difcil reconocer ese patrn de enfermedad en la mujer. +Eso fue un descubrimiento. +Y cules son las repercusiones al respecto? +Bien, una vez ms, las mujeres pasan por la angiografa y nadie se da cuenta de que tienen un problema. +As que ahora estamos trabajando en un mtodo no invasivo, porque estos eran todos estudios invasivos. +Idealmente a una le encantara hacerse todo esto de forma no invasiva. +Y de nuevo, 50 aos de exmenes de estrs no invasivos. somos buenos reconociendo el patrn masculino de la enfermedad con exmenes de estrs. +Esta es una imagen de resonancia magntica cardaca. +Estamos haciendo este examen en el Cedars-Sinai Heart Institute, en el Women's Heart Center. +Escogimos este centro para la investigacin. +Esto no est disponible en el hospital de su barrio, pero esperbamos poder aplicarlo. +Y ya llevamos unos dos aos y medio en un estudio de 5 aos de duracin. +Esta era la nica modalidad para ver el revestimiento interno del corazn. +Y si se observa con atencin, puede verse que hay un sombreado negro justo ah. +Esa es una obstruccin microvascular. +El sndrome, el patrn femenino ahora se llama disfuncin u obstruccin coronaria microvascular. +La segunda razn por la cual nos gust la resonancia magntica es porque no hay radiacin. +A diferencia de las tomografas computadas, los rayos X y las cintigrafas para mujeres, cuyo pecho se interpone en el camino para poder observar el corazn; cada vez que pedimos algo que tenga la mnima cantidad de radiacin, nos preguntamos, "realmente necesitamos ese examen?". +As que estamos muy entusiasmados con la resonancia magntica. +Todava no se puede pedir con facilidad, pero es una rea de investigacin activa en la cual el estudio en mujeres va a ser de hecho un gran avance para todos, mujeres y hombres. +Cules son entonces las consecuencias inevitables cuando el patrn femenino de enfermedades cardacas no se reconoce? +Esta es una cifra de una publicacin que escrib para el European Heart Journal el verano pasado. +Y este es solo un pictograma para mostrar de alguna manera por qu mueren ms mujeres que hombres de problemas cardacos, a pesar de todos estos tratamientos tan buenos que conocemos y con los que hemos trabajado. +Y que cuando las mujeres sufren de una enfermedad con un patrn masculino, cuando se parece a Barbara en la pelcula, es cuando se las trata. +Pero cuando tienen a alguien con un patrn de enfermedad femenino, y una parece una mujer como Barbara aqu con su marido, entonces no reciben tratamiento. +Estos son los tratamientos que pueden salvarnos la vida. +Y esas cajitas rojas son muertes. +Esas son las consecuencias. +Y ese es el patrn femenino y por qu pensamos que el sndrome Yentl de hecho explica muchas de estas brechas. +Tambin ha habido noticias maravillosas acerca de los estudios en mujeres en enfermedades coronarias. +Y una de las reas innovadoras con la cual estamos muy entusiasmados son los tratamientos con clulas madres. +Si me preguntan: cul es la gran diferencia entre un hombre y una mujer en trminos fisiolgicos? +Por qu es que existen hombres y mujeres? +Porque las mujeres traen vida nueva al mundo. +Esas son las clulas madre. +Planteamos la hiptesis de que las clulas madres de mujeres podran ser mejores para identificar lesiones, para reparar clulas o hasta para producir nuevos rganos, que es una de las cosas que estamos intentando. +Estas son clulas madre de hombres y mujeres. +Si tuviesen un rgano lesionado o sufriesen un paro cardaco y quisiramos reparar la lesin, preferiran utilizar estas clulas madre robustas, abundantes que estn ah arriba? +O preferiran estas otras, que parece que estn de siesta? +Algunos de nuestros equipos de investigacin han demostrado que las clulas madre de mujeres (y esto es en animales pero tambin lo vemos en humanos), que las clulas madre de mujeres, incluso cuando se las coloca en un cuerpo de hombre, hacen un mejor trabajo que las clulas madre de hombre implantadas en un cuerpo masculino. +Algo sobre la fisiologa femenina... aunque hablamos de los problemas cardacos, en promedio, las mujeres son ms longevas que los hombres. Desplegar los secretos de la fisiologa femenina va a ayudar tanto a hombres como a mujeres. +En este juego solo se puede ganar. +Bien, aqu es donde comenzamos. +Y recuerden, los caminos se cruzaron en 1984, cuando cada vez ms mujeres moran de enfermedades cardiovasculares. +Qu sucedi en los ltimos 15 aos con este trabajo? +Estamos cambiando la curva. +Estamos modificando la curva. +Igual que con el cncer de mama, hacer investigaciones, concienciar... funciona: hay que poner eso mismo en marcha. +Estamos satisfechos con esto? +Todava hoy, por cada hombre mueren de dos a tres mujeres. +Yo les sugiero que, con la mayor longevidad que en promedio tienen las mujeres, en teora deberan vivir ms, si tan slo se las tratara. +Aqu es donde estamos, pero queda mucho por avanzar an. +Hemos trabajado en esto 15 aos. +Como les dije, hemos trabajado con patrones masculinos de enfermedades cardacas 50 aos. +Llevamos 35 aos de retraso. +Nos gustara pensar que tardaremos menos. +Probablemente ser as. +Pero no podemos detenernos ahora. +Hay demasiadas vidas en riesgo. +Entonces, qu debemos hacer? +Espero que ahora tengan una relacin ms personal con sus corazones. +Las mujeres han escuchado el llamado del cncer de mama y han salido a luchar contra l con campaas de concienciacin. +Ahora se hacen las mamografas cuando deben. +Tambin recaudan fondos. +Las mujeres participan. +Han respaldado sus palabras con acciones y han luchado y se han sumado a campaas. +Eso es lo que debemos hacer con las enfermedades cardacas. +Y es un asunto poltico. +La salud de la mujer, desde un punto de vista de financiacin federal, a veces es popular y otras no tanto. +Y pasamos por ciclos de escasez y abundancia. +As que les ruego que se sumen a la campaa de la Cruz Roja en su recaudacin de fondos. +Como dijimos, el cncer de mama mata mujeres, pero las enfermedades cardacas matan a muchsimas ms. +Si podemos ser tan efectivos como contra el cncer de mama y darles a las mujeres esta nueva oportunidad, tenemos muchas vidas por salvar. +Gracias por su atencin. +Mi nombre es Taylor Wilson. +Tengo 17 aos y soy fsico nuclear, lo que puede ser un poco difcil de creer, pero es cierto. +Y me gustara argumentar que la fusin nuclear ser donde el puente del que T. Boone Pickens hablaba nos llevar. +Por tanto, la fusin nuclear es el futuro de la energa. +Y en segundo lugar, defiendo que los nios realmente pueden cambiar el mundo. +Entonces podran preguntar... Podran preguntarme, bien, cmo sabes cul va a ser el futuro de la energa? +Pues, constru un reactor de fusin cuando tena 14 aos. +Ese es el interior de mi reactor de fusin nuclear. +Comenc con este proyecto cuando tena 12 13 aos de edad. +Decid que quera crear una estrella. +La mayora de ustedes probablemente dirn, "pero si la fusin nuclear no existe". +"No veo que haya centrales nucleares de fusin de energa". +No alcanza el punto de equilibrio. +No produce ms energa de la que introduzco, pero an as hace algunas cosas impresionantes. +Lo mont en el garaje de mi casa y ahora est alojado en el departamento de fsica de la Universidad de Nevada, en Reno. +Y colisiona deuterio con deuterio, que es solo hidrgeno con un neutrn extra. +Es parecido a la reaccin de la cadena de protones que sucede en el interior del Sol. +Y hago que colisione con tanta fuerza que el hidrgeno se fusiona, y en el proceso genera ciertos subproductos, que yo utilizo. +El ao pasado, gan el premio de la Feria Internacional Intel de Ciencia e Ingeniera. +Desarroll un detector que reemplaza los detectores actuales que tiene el departamento de Seguridad Nacional. +Por unos cientos de dlares, desarroll un sistema que supera la sensibilidad de detectores de cientos de miles de dlares. +Lo constru en mi garaje. +Tambin he desarrollado un sistema para producir istopos mdicos. +En lugar de necesitar instalaciones multimillonarias, he desarrollado un aparato que, a muy pequea escala, puede producir estos istopos. +Ah al fondo tenis mi reactor de fusin. +Ese soy yo en el panel de control de mi reactor de fusin. +Ah, por cierto, hago "torta amarilla" en mi garaje, as que mi programa nuclear es tan avanzado como el de los iranes. +Aunque quizs prefiera no confesarlo. +Este soy yo en el CERN, en Ginebra, Suiza, que es el laboratorio preeminente de fsica de partculas en el mundo. +Y aqu estoy con el presidente Obama, ensendole mi investigacin sobre Seguridad Nacional. +As que, en unos 7 aos de investigacin nuclear... Comenc con el sueo de hacer una "estrella en un frasco", una estrella en mi garaje, y termin conociendo al presidente y desarrollando cosas que creo que pueden cambiar el mundo, y creo que otros nios tambin pueden. +As pues, muchas gracias. +Billy Collins: Estoy aqu para darles la dosis recomendada de poesa. +Y lo har presentndoles 5 animaciones de 5 de mis poemas. +Les contar un poco cmo naci todo esto +dado que la mezcla de esas dos formas de arte no es muy natural, ni necesaria. +Pero al volverme Poeta Laureado de EE.UU. -me encanta decir eso- +-es un gran modo de empezar una frase- +Cuando recib la distincin, vino la agencia publicitaria J. Walter Thompson para una produccin del Sundance Channel. +Me propusieron que grabe algunos de mis poemas y luego ellos buscaran especialistas para animarlos. +Al principio me resist porque siempre pienso que la poesa no necesita otros recursos. +Los intentos de musicalizar mis poemas han dado resultados desastrosos, siempre. +Y el poema, si fue escrito de odo, ya tiene una musicalidad verbal desde su composicin. +Sin duda, si uno lee un poema que habla de una vaca, no hace falta en la pgina siguiente el dibujo de una vaca. +Digo, dejmosle un poco de trabajo al lector. +Pero ced porque me pareci una posibilidad interesante y siempre he sido fan de los dibujos animados desde la infancia. +Creo que ms que Emily Dickinson, Wordsworth o Coleridge, me influyeron Warner Brothers, Merrie Melodies y los dibujos animados de Looney Tunes. +Bugs Bunny es mi inspiracin. +De esa forma la poesa se abrira camino en la televisin. +Soy partidario de la poesa en lugares pblicos... de la poesa en autobuses, en metros, en carteleras y cajas de cereales. +Como Poeta Laureado -lo dije otra vez, no puedo evitarlo, porque es verdad- cre un canal de poesa para Delta Airlines que dur un par de aos. +Se poda escuchar poesa durante el vuelo. +Mi sensacin es que es bueno sacar la poesa de los estantes y ponerla en la vida pblica. +Empezar una reunin con un poema. Pueden adoptar esa idea. +Cuando un poema llega a una cartelera o a la radio o a una caja de cereales, etc., a menudo sucede que uno no tiene tiempo de activar el escudo anti-poesa que construy en la secundaria. +As que empecemos con el primero. +Es un poema corto titulado "Budapest" en el que revelo, o pretendo revelar, los secretos del proceso creativo. +Narracin: "Budapest". +Mi pluma recorre la pgina cual morro de animal extrao con forma de brazo humano enfundado en la manga de un holgado suter verde. +Lo veo olfatear el papel en forma incesante, como cualquier cazador que no tiene nada en mente ms que las larvas y los insectos que le permitan vivir un da ms. +Le basta con estar aqu maana, vestido quiz con la manga de una camisa a cuadros y el morro contra la pgina escribiendo unas lneas sumisas mientras yo miro por la ventana e imagino Budapest o alguna otra ciudad en la que nunca he estado. +BC: Eso la hace parecer un poco ms fcil. +Escribir no es una tarea tan fcil para m. +Pero finjo que fluye con facilidad. +Una estudiante se acerc despus de clase, de una clase introductoria, y dijo: "Sabe?, la poesa es ms difcil que la escritura", algo a la vez errneo y profundo. +Por eso, al menos, me gusta fingir que fluye. +Un amigo mo, otro poeta, tiene un lema. +l dice: "Si no tienes xito al primer intento, oculta la evidencia de que lo has intentado". +El siguiente poema tambin es bastante corto. +La poesa se limita a decir unas cuantas cosas de diferentes maneras. +Creo que podra resumir este poema diciendo: "Hay das en que te comes al oso y otros das en que el oso te come a ti". +Y usa las imgenes del mobiliario de una casa de muecas. +Narracin: "Algunos das". +Algunos das pongo a las personas en sus lugares en la mesa, doblo sus piernas a la altura de las rodillas, si vienen con esa funcionalidad, las pongo en diminutas sillas de madera. +Cada tarde se miran de frente, el hombre del traje marrn, la mujer del vestido azul... perfectamente inmviles, perfectamente compuestos. +Pero otros das soy yo a quien toman por las costillas y confinan al comedor de una casa de muecas, a sentarse con otros en la larga mesa. +Muy gracioso. +Pero, cmo podra gustarte si nunca se sabe de un da para otro si uno va a estar caminando por ah como un dios viviente, con los hombros en las nubes, o sentado all abajo en medio del empapelado mirando al frente con su carita de plstico? +BC: Hay una pelcula de terror all en algn lado. +El siguiente poema se llama "El olvido", en realidad es una especie de ensayo potico sobre el tema del retraso mental. +El poema empieza con un cierto tipo de olvido que algunos llaman amnesia literaria; en otras palabras: olvidarse lo que se acaba de leer. +Narracin: "El olvido". +El nombre del autor es lo primero que se olvida, seguido obedientemente por el ttulo, la trama, la conclusin desgarradora, toda la novela, que, de pronto, te parece no haber ledo nunca ni jams haber odo hablar de ella. +Es como si, uno a uno, los recuerdos que solamos albergar decidieran retirarse al hemisferio sur del cerebro, a una pequea aldea de pescadores donde no hay telfonos. +Hace mucho tiempo, le dijimos adis a los nombres de las nueve musas y vimos a la ecuacin cuadrtica empacar su maleta. +E incluso ahora, al memorizar la secuencia de los planetas, algo ms se esconde, quiz una flor nacional, la direccin de un to, la capital de Paraguay. +Como sea uno trata de recordar, no lo tiene en la punta de la lengua, ni tampoco est anidado en algn meandro oscuro del bazo. +Se ha ido bajo un oscuro ro mitolgico cuyo nombre empieza con L, como podrn recordar, bien en el camino al olvido en el que te sumars a los que han olvidado incluso cmo nadar y cmo andar en bicicleta. +No es extrao despertar en medio de la noche para comprobar la fecha de la famosa batalla en un libro de guerra. +No es de extraar que la luna de la ventana parezca haber escapado de un poema de amor que solas saber de memoria. +BC: El siguiente poema se llama "El campo" y se basa en mi poca universitaria cuando conoc a un compaero que sigue siendo mi amigo. +l viva, y an lo hace, en la zona rural de Vermont. +Yo vivo en Nueva York. +Nos visitamos mutuamente. +Y cuando yo voy al campo l me ensea cosas como cazar ciervos, que bsicamente es perderse con una escopeta... ...pescar truchas y cosas as. +Y despus l viene a Nueva York y yo le enseo lo que s principalmente a fumar y beber. +De ese modo intercambiamos nuestras tradiciones. +El poema que viene es sobre mi amigo que trata de decirme algo sobre las reglas de etiqueta domsticas de la vida en el campo que al principio me cost mucho asimilar. +Se llama "El campo". +Narracin: "El campo". +Estaba pensando en ti cuando me decas que nunca dejara una caja de fsforos abandonada en la casa porque los ratones podran encontrarla y provocar un incendio. +Pero tu cara estaba en calma cuando giraste la tapa de la lata redonda donde, decas, siempre estaban los fsforos. +Quin podra dormir esa noche? +Quin podra desterrar del pensamiento a ese ratn inverosmil que desplazndose por la tubera de agua fra, detrs del empapelado floral, toma un fsforo de madera entre sus dientes afilados? +Quin no se lo imagina detrs del rincn, ese extremo azul que frota contra una viga tosca, la llamarada repentina y la criatura, por un momento brillante, incandescente, de golpe catapultada al futuro... ...un propagador de incendio, portador de la antorcha en un ritual olvidado, un pequeo druida marrn que ilumina una noche ancestral? +Y, quin no se dara cuenta, iluminado por el aislante en llamas, de las diminutas miradas de asombro en los rostros de sus compaeros roedores una vez habitantes de lo que fue tu casa en el campo? +BC: Gracias. +Gracias. Y el ltimo poema se llama "Los muertos". +Lo escrib despus del funeral de un amigo, pero no tanto por l, sino por lo que deca el panegirista, como suelen decir los panegiristas: el difunto estara feliz de vernos desde lo alto reunidos por l. +Y, para m, fue un mal comienzo hacia la otra vida presenciar el propio funeral y sentirse gratificado. +El pequeo poema se titula "Los muertos". +Narracin: "Los muertos". +Los muertos siempre nos miran desde arriba, as dicen. +Al ponernos los zapatos o hacer un sndwich, nos miran desde arriba a travs del suelo transparente de las naves del cielo, mientras reman lentamente hacia la eternidad. +Ven nuestras cabezas que se mueven debajo, en la Tierra. +Y cuando nos recostamos en un prado o en un sof, quiz embriagados por el zumbido de una tarde calurosa, piensan que los estamos viendo, y as aumentan las remadas y en silencio esperan como padres que cerremos los ojos. +BC: No estoy seguro de si animarn otros poemas. +Me llev mucho tiempo... Es decir, es un maridaje inusual... que insume mucho tiempo. +Pero, de nuevo, nos llev mucho tiempo juntar la rueda y la maleta. +Quiero decir, tenamos la rueda desde haca un tiempo. +El arrastre es un arte honorable y ancestral. +Me queda el tiempo justo para leer un poema reciente. +Si tiene un tema ese tema es la adolescencia. +Est dirigido a una persona determinada. +Se titula "A mi estudiante de secundaria de 17 aos favorita". +"Te das cuenta de que si empezabas a construir el Partenn el da que naciste lo terminaras en slo un ao ms? +Claro, no podras haberlo hecho sola. +Pero no importa; est bien as como eres. +Te aman por ser as. +Pero, sabas que a tu edad Judy Garland ganaba 150 000 dlares por pelcula, Juana de Arco condujo al ejrcito francs a la victoria y Blaise Pascal haba arreglado su cuarto... no, esperen, quise decir haba inventado la calculadora? +Por supuesto, habr tiempo para eso ms tarde en la vida, cuando salgas de tu dormitorio y empieces a florecer o al menos a juntar tus calcetines. +Por alguna razn sigo recordando que Lady Jane Grey fue reina de Inglaterra con slo 15 aos. +Pero luego fue decapitada, as que no la tomen como ejemplo. +Unos siglos ms tarde, cuando tena tu edad, Franz Schubert estaba lavando los platos en su casa, pero eso no le impidi componer dos sinfonas, cuatro peras y dos misas completas, y era slo joven. +Pero, claro, eso sucedi en Austria en el smmum del lirismo romntico, no aqu, en los suburbios de Cleveland. +Francamente, a quin le importa si Annie Oakley era experta tiradora a los 15 o si Mara Callas debut como Tosca a los 17 aos? +Creemos que eres especial, tal y como eres... mientras juegas con la comida y miras al vaco. +Por cierto, ment en la historia de Schubert y los platos pero eso no significa que nunca haya ayudado en la casa". +Gracias. Gracias. +Gracias. +Bien, en verdad, me replantee varias veces si en realidad debera hablar de esto frente a una audiencia tan vital como esta. +Luego record una cita de Gloria Steinem que reza: "La verdad te liberar, pero antes te molestar". As... As que con eso en mente, voy a tratar de hacer eso aqu y les hablar de la muerte en el siglo XXI. +Bien, lo primero que les molestar, sin duda, es que todos nosotros moriremos en el siglo XXI. +Sin excepciones. +Aparentemente, uno de cada ocho de Uds. piensa que es inmortal segn las encuestas, pero desgraciadamente, eso no suceder. +En los prximos 10 minutos, mientras doy esta charla, 100 millones de mis clulas morirn, y en el transcurso del dia 2000 clulas cerebrales morirn y nunca regresarn. As que podramos decir que el proceso de la muerte comienza bastante temprano. +De cualquier manera, la segunda cosa que quiero comentar sobre el morir en el siglo XXI, adems de que es algo que nos suceder a todos, es que est destinado a ser un desastre para la mayora de todos nosotros a menos que hagamos algo para recuperar este proceso y desviarlo de esa trayectoria inexorable. +Es eso. Esa es la verdad. +Sin duda los molestar, pero ahora veamos si podemos liberarlos. No les prometo nada. +Bien, como escucharon en la introduccin, trabajo en cuidados intensivos y creo haber vivido en el apogeo de los cuidados intensivos. Ha sido una gran experiencia. +Ha sido fantstico. +Tenemos mquinas que emiten sonidos. +Hay muchas all. +Y tenemos tecnologa de asistencia que, creo, ha funcionado realmente bien y durante el periodo en el que trabaj en cuidados intensivos, la tasa de mortalidad masculina en Australia se redujo a la mitad y los cuidados intensivos han tenido que ver con eso. +Definitivamente, mucha de la tecnologa que usamos tiene que ver con ello. +As que hemos tenido un xito enorme y, en cierta manera, terminamos envueltos en nuestro propio xito y comenzamos a usar expresiones como "salvar vidas". +Les pido perdn a todos por haber hecho eso, porque, evidentemente, no hacemos eso. +Lo que hacemos es prolongar la vida de alguien y demorar la muerte, y redireccionar la muerte, pero lo que no podemos es salvar vidas, en sentido estricto, de forma permanente. +Y lo que realmente ha pasado durante el tiempo en que trabaj en cuidados intensivos es que aquellas personas a las que habamos salvado en los '70, los '80 y los '90, ahora iban a morir en el siglo XXI por enfermedades a las cuales no podemos enfrentarnos de la forma en que lo habamos hecho entonces. +As que lo que est pasando ahora es que se produjo un gran cambio en la forma en que la gente muere y muchas de las causas actuales no son tan curables como solan serlo en los '80 y '90 cuando yo haca esto. +As que, en cierta manera, nos vimos atrapados por esto y no hemos esclarecido realmente con Uds. lo que realmente est pasando ahora, y era hora de que lo hiciramos. +Yo me encontr con esto a fines de los '90 cuando conoc a este hombre. +Este hombre se llamaba Jim, Jim Smith, y as se vea. +Me llamaron a la sala para verlo. +La suya es la mano pequea. +Un neumlogo me llam a la sala para verlo. +Me dijo: "Mira, tengo un paciente aqu, +tiene neumona, y me parece que necesita cuidados intensivos. +Su hija est aqu y quiere que se haga todo lo que sea posible". +La cual es una frase muy escuchada por todos nosotros. +As que me dirijo a la sala para ver a Jim y su piel es traslucida como esta. +Se podan ver sus huesos a travs de la piel. +Es muy, muy flaco y, de hecho, esta muy enfermo de neumona. Est tan enfermo que no puede hablarme, as que hablo con su hija, Kathleen, y le digo: "Alguna vez Jim y t hablaron de lo que querran que se hiciese si se daba una situacin como esta?" +Ella me miro y dijo: "Claro que no!" +"Bien, tommoslo con calma", pens. +Y me puse a hablar con ella y, luego de un tiempo, me dijo: "Sabes? siempre pens que habra tiempo". +Jim tena 94. Y me di cuenta de que algo no estaba pasando. +No exista ese dialogo que yo imaginaba que estaba ocurriendo. +Entonces con un grupo de enfermeros comenzamos a hacer encuestas y visitamos a 4500 pacientes en residencias de ancianos en Newcastle, en el rea de Newcastle, y encontramos que solo uno de cada cien tena pensado qu hacer cuando sus corazones dejaran de latir. +Uno de cada cien. +Y solo uno de 500 tena planificado qu hacer si tenan alguna enfermedad de gravedad. +Y me di cuenta, por supuesto, que esta conversacin definitivamente no tena lugar entre el pblico en general. +Bien, yo trabajo en el servicio de cuidados agudos. +Este es el hospital John Hunter. +Y pens: "seguramente podemos hacer algo ms que esto". +Pero no encontramos un solo registro de preferencias sobre objetivos, tratamientos o resultados en ninguna de las notas realizadas por los mdicos o por los pacientes. +Entonces nos dimos cuenta de que haba un problema; y el problema es ms grave a causa de esto. +Lo que sabemos es que inevitablemente todos vamos a morir, pero como morimos es, en realidad, muy importante. No solo para nosotros, sino tambin para el impacto que eso tendr en las vidas de todos los que nos sobrevivan. +Y como si eso no fuera suficiente, todo esto est rpidamente avanzando hacia el hecho de que muchos de Uds. --de hecho uno de cada 10 en este momento-- morir en cuidados intensivos. +En los EE.UU, uno de cada cinco. +En Miami, tres de cada cinco personas morir en cuidados intensivos. +As que este es el impulso que tenemos en este momento. +La razn de que todo esto suceda es este hecho, y yo tengo que darles a conocer de qu se trata esto. +Estas son las cuatro opciones. +As que una de estas es la que nos suceder a todos nosotros. +Las que seguramente conocen ms son las que se estn volviendo de inters histrico: muerte repentina. +Es muy probable en una audiencia de este tamao, pero no les suceder a todos los aqu presentes. +La muerte sbita se ha vuelto algo muy raro. +La muerte de Little Nell y Cordelia y de todo ese tipo de personajes ya no sucede a menudo. +El proceso de muerte de aquellos con una enfermedad terminal como las que hemos visto tiene lugar solo en los jvenes. +Cuando uno ha llegado a los 80 es muy poco probable que esto le suceda. +Solo una de cada 10 personas mayores de 80 morir de cncer. +Lo que ms aumenta son estas dos causas. +Puedes morir por una falla orgnica; y tu sistema respiratorio, cardaco, renal o cualquier otro rgano dejar de funcionar. Cada una de estas fallas ser la causa de que termines en una unidad de cuidados intensivos; y al final, o en algn momento, alguien dice: "es suficiente" y debemos detenernos. +La estn pasando bien? Perdn, me siento como... me siento como Casandra aqu. +Qu les puedo decir que sea bueno? Lo que es bueno es que esto est sucediendo a una edad mayor en la actualidad. +Todos, o casi todos, llegaremos a este punto. +Saben? histricamente nunca habamos logrado esto. +Esto es lo que sucede cuando la esperanza de vida aumenta, pero, desafortunadamente, una mayor longevidad implica mas vejez y no ms juventud. +Siento decirles eso. Lo que hicimos, de todos modos... miren lo que hicimos Nosotros no solo llevamos esos resultados al Hospital John Hunter y a todo el mundo, +sino que comenzamos una serie de proyectos para tratar de investigar si podramos, de hecho, involucrar ms a las personas en las cosas que les suceden a ellos. +Ella es la persona a la que l est mirando y [ella] es a quien l se dirige. Pueden ver eso? +Ella luce aterrorizada. +Es un cuadro maravilloso. +Bien, como les deca, tuvimos un gran problema cultural. +Era evidente que la gente no quera que le hablsemos de la muerte, o al menos eso pensamos nosotros. +Entonces, con un gran fondo del gobierno federal y de los servicios de salud local, introdujimos en el John Hunter algo llamado "Respeto a las elecciones de los pacientes" +Entrenamos cientos de personas para ir a las salas y hablar con la gente sobre el hecho de que moriran y sobre que querran que se hiciese en esa circunstancia. +A ellos les encant. A las familias y a los pacientes les encant. +El 98 % de las personas realmente pensaba que esto debera ser una prctica comn y que as deberan hacerse las cosas. +Y cuando nos expresaban deseos, todos esos deseos se realizaban, como debera ser. +Nosotros fuimos capaces de hacrselos realidad. +Pero luego, los fondos se acabaron volvimos a investigar seis meses despus y todo el mundo haba parado y nadie tena estas conversaciones ya. +Eso fue devastador para nosotros porque pensbamos que esto realmente funcionaria. +El factor cultural se haba reafirmado. +Bien, resumiendo: pienso que es importante que no solo entremos en la autopista hacia la UCI sin pensar mucho si es all donde queremos terminar, especialmente a medida que envejecemos y nos volvemos ms frgiles y la UCI tiene cada vez menos para ofrecernos. +Tiene que haber alguna callecita paralela para las personas que no quieren seguir ese camino. +Yo tengo una pequea idea y una gran idea sobre lo que podra suceder. +Y esta es la idea pequea. +La pequea idea es: vamos todos a envolvernos ms en este camino que Jason ilustr. +Porqu no podemos tener este tipo de conversaciones con nuestros mayores y con todos aquellos que tal vez estn prximos a esto? +Hay un par de cosas que podemos hacer. +Una de ellas es formular una simple pregunta. Esta pregunta nunca falla. +"En caso de que estuvieras muy enfermo y no pudieras expresarte, quin querras que hablase por ti?" +Esa es una pregunta muy importante para realizar a las personas porque darle a la gente el control sobre quien puede ser produce un resultado asombroso. +La segunda cosa que uno puede preguntar es: "Has hablado con esa persona sobre las cosas que son importantes para ti de forma tal que sepamos mejor qu es lo que podemos hacer?" +Esa es la idea pequea. +La gran idea, pienso, es ms poltica. +Pienso que tenemos que concentrarnos en eso. +Yo suger que debamos tener el Ocupa Muerte. +Mi esposa me dijo: "Si, claro, protestas en la morgue. +Si, si. Como no". Entonces eso no tuvo lugar en verdad, pero estaba muy afectado por esto. +Bien, soy un hippie envejecido. +Pienso que debemos ser ms polticos y comenzar a reclamar este proceso del modelo medicalizado en el que tiene lugar ahora. +Ahora, escuchen, esto suena como una apologa a la eutanasia. +Pero quiero que quede bien en claro: odio la eutanasia. Pienso que es algo de mal gusto. +No creo que la eutanasia importe. +Pienso, en realidad, que en lugares como en Oregn, donde se puede tener un suicidio asistido por un mdico, donde uno toma una dosis de algn veneno, apenas medio por ciento de las personas lo hacen. +Me interesa ms lo que le sucede al 99,5 % restante que no quiere hacer eso. +Creo que la mayora de las personas no quieren morir pero tambin creo que la mayora quisiera tener algo de control sobre cmo se desarrolla su proceso de muerte. +Por eso me opongo a la eutanasia. Pero creo que tenemos que devolverle a la gente algo de control. +Eso le quita a la eutanasia el suministro de oxgeno. +Pienso que deberamos buscar detener la voluntad de realizar una eutanasia, no para hacerla legal o ilegal y preocuparse por eso. +Esta es una cita de Dame Cicely Saunders, quien conoc cuando era estudiante de medicina. +Fue la fundadora del movimiento hospicio. +Ella dijo: "T importas porque eres t, y t importas hasta el ltimo momento de tu vida". +Y creo firmemente que ese es el mensaje que tenemos que transmitir. +Gracias. +La electricidad que alimenta las luces en este teatro ha sido generada hace unos momentos. +Porque como estn las cosas hoy en da, la demanda de electricidad debe estar en constante equilibrio con la oferta. +Si mientras caminaba hacia el escenario, algunas decenas de megavatios de energa elica dejaban de fluir en la red, la diferencia tendra que haber sido compensada inmediatamente por otros generadores. +Pero las plantas de carbn y las centrales nucleares no pueden responder con suficiente rapidez. +Una batera gigante podra hacerlo. +Con una batera gigante seramos capaces de hacer frente al problema de intermitencia que impide a la energa elica y solar contribuir a la red del mismo modo que hacen hoy el carbn, el gas y la energa nuclear. +Vean, la batera es el dispositivo clave que permitira hacerlo. +Con ella podramos extraer electricidad del sol, incluso cuando no brilla. +Y esto cambia todo. +Porque entonces las energas renovables como la elica y la solar salen tras bambalinas, aqu al centro del escenario. +Hoy quiero hablarles de un dispositivo similar. +Se llama batera de metal lquido. +Es una nueva forma de almacenamiento de energa que invent en el Instituto Tecnolgico de Massachusetts junto con un equipo de mis estudiantes y post-docs . +El tema de TED de este ao es Full Spectrum (amplio espectro). +El Diccionario Ingls Oxford define espectro como: "Toda la gama de longitudes de onda de la radiacin electromagntica, desde las ondas de radio ms largas a los rayos gamma ms cortos, de los cuales el rango de luz visible es solo una pequea parte". +No estoy aqu solo para contarles cmo mi equipo en el MIT ha extrado de la naturaleza una solucin a uno de los problemas ms grandes del mundo. +Quiero recorrer el amplio espectro y contarles cmo, en el proceso de desarrollo de esta nueva tecnologa, hemos descubierto algunas heterodoxias sorprendentes que pueden servir como leccin para la innovacin, ideas que vale la pena difundir. +Y saben, si queremos sacar al pas de la situacin energtica actual, la salida no pueden ser los mismos procedimientos; no podemos solo excavar; no podemos solo bombardear. +Vamos a hacerlo a la antigua manera americana, vamos a inventar nuestra salida trabajando juntos. +Bien, comencemos. +La batera fue inventada hace unos 200 aos por un profesor, Alessandro Volta, en la Universidad de Padua, en Italia. +Su invento dio origen a un nuevo campo de la ciencia, la electroqumica, y a nuevas tecnologas como la galvanoplastia. +Tal vez pas por alto, pero la invencin de la batera de Volta, tambin demostr por primera vez la utilidad de un profesor. +Hasta Volta, pareca impensable que un profesor pudiera servir de algo. +Aqu est la primera batera: una pila de monedas, zinc y plata, separados por cartn salmuerizado. +Este es el punto de partida para el diseo de una batera: dos electrodos, en este caso metales de diferente composicin, y un electrolito, en este caso sal disuelta en agua. +La ciencia es as de simple. +Claro que he dejado fuera algunos detalles. +Ahora les he enseado que la ciencia de la batera es sencilla y la necesidad de almacenar energa en red es urgente, pero el hecho es que hoy simplemente no hay tecnologa de las bateras capaz de satisfacer la demanda de rendimiento que requiere la red; es decir, potencia extraordinariamente alta, larga vida til y bajsimo costo. +Tenemos que pensar el problema de manera diferente. +Tenemos que pensar en grande, tenemos que pensar barato. +Abandonemos el paradigma de la bsqueda de la mejor qumica con la esperanza de reducir la curva de los costos haciendo solo montones y montones de productos. +En su lugar, inventemos el punto de precio del mercado de la electricidad. +Eso quiere decir que ciertas partes de la tabla peridica estn axiomticamente fuera de los lmites. +Esta batera debe hacerse con elementos abundantes en la tierra. +Yo digo, si quieren hacer algo muy barato, hganlo con la basura, preferiblemente basura de origen local. +Y tenemos que ser capaces de construir esta cosa utilizando tcnicas sencillas de produccin y fbricas que no nos cuesten una fortuna. +As que, hace unos seis aos, empec a pensar en este problema. +Y para adoptar una nueva perspectiva, busqu inspiracin ms all del campo del almacenamiento de electricidad. +De hecho, mir hacia una tecnologa que no almacena ni produce electricidad, sino que en cambio, consume en grandes cantidades. +Estoy hablando de la produccin de aluminio. +El proceso fue inventado en 1886 por dos jvenes de 22 aos: Hall en los Estados Unidos y Hroult en Francia. +Y solo unos pocos aos despus de su descubrimiento, el aluminio pas de un metal precioso costoso como la plata a ser un material estructural comn. +Estn viendo la casa de las celdas de una ferrera de aluminio moderna. +Tiene unos 15 metros de ancho y aproximadamente un kilmetro de largo; hileras e hileras de celdas que, por dentro, se asemejan a la batera de Volta, con tres diferencias importantes. +La batera de Volta funciona a temperatura ambiente. +Est dotada de electrodos slidos y un electrolito que es una solucin de agua y sal. +La celda de Hall-Heroult funciona a alta temperatura, suficientemente alta para mantener el aluminio lquido. +El electrolito no es una solucin de agua y sal, sino ms bien de sal fundida. +Es esta combinacin de metal lquido, sal fundida y alta temperatura que nos permite enviar corriente elevada a travs de esta cosa. +Hoy en da, podemos producir metal virgen del mineral por menos de 1 USD el kilo. +Ese es el milagro econmico de la electrometalurgia moderna. +Esto es lo que llam mi atencin a tal punto que me obsesion con la invencin de una batera capaz de capturar esta economa de escala enorme. +Y lo hice. +Hice una batera completamente lquida: metales lquidos para ambos electrodos y una sal fundida para el electrolito. +Les mostrar cmo. +Puse metal lquido de baja densidad en la parte superior, un metal lquido de alta densidad en la parte inferior, y sal fundida en el medio. +Y ahora, cmo elegir los metales? +Para m, el ejercicio de diseo siempre comienza aqu con la tabla peridica, formulada por otro profesor, Dmitri Mendeleyev. +Todo lo que conocemos est constituido por una combinacin de lo que ven representado aqu. +Y eso incluye a nuestros propios cuerpos. +Recuerdo el da en que estaba buscando un par de metales que pudieran adaptarse a las limitaciones de profusin en la tierra, a densidad diferente y opuesta y a reactividad recproca alta. +Sent una emocin increble cuando supe que haba hallado la respuesta. +Magnesio para la capa superior. +Y antimonio para la capa inferior. +Saben, tengo que decrselos, uno de los mayores beneficios de ser un profesor: tizas de colores. +As que para producir corriente, el magnesio pierde dos electrones para convertirse en iones de magnesio que luego migra a travs del electrolito, acepta dos electrones del antimonio, y luego se mezcla con ste para formar una aleacin. +Los electrones van a trabajar en el mundo real aqu, alimentando nuestros aparatos. +Ahora, para cargar la batera, conectamos una fuente de electricidad. +Podra ser algo como un parque elico. +Y luego invertimos la corriente. +Esto obliga al magnesio a separarse y regresar al electrodo superior, restaurando la constitucin inicial de la batera. +Y la corriente que pasa entre los electrodos genera suficiente calor para mantener la temperatura constante. +Es genial, al menos en teora. +Pero, realmente funciona? +Entonces, qu se hace despus? +Vamos al laboratorio. +Ahora, puedo contratar profesionales con experiencia? +No, contrato a un estudiante y lo preparo, le enseo cmo pensar el problema para verlo desde mi punto de vista y luego lo dejo libre. +Este es el estudiante, David Bradwell, que en esta imagen parece estar preguntndose si esto algn da funcionar. +Lo que no le dije al momento fue que ni yo mismo estaba convencido que funcionara. +Pero David es joven, inteligente y quiere un doctorado, y sigue construyendo... Sigue construyendo la primera batera de metal lquido de esta qumica. +Y basado en los primeros resultados prometedores de David, pagados con el capital semilla del MIT, logr conseguir mayor financiamiento para investigacin de parte del sector privado y del gobierno federal. +Y eso me permiti ampliar mi grupo a 20 personas, una mezcla de egresados, post-docs e incluso algunos estudiantes universitarios. +Logr reunir gente realmente buena, personas que comparten mi pasin por la ciencia y el servicio a la sociedad y no ciencia y servicio para hacer carrera. +Y si preguntan a estas personas por qu trabajan en la batera de metal lquido, su respuesta se remonta a las declaraciones del presidente Kennedy hechas en la Universidad Rice en 1962, cuando dijo y aqu me estoy tomando la libertad "Elegimos trabajar en el almacenamiento de energa en red, no porque sea fcil, sino porque es difcil". +Esta es la evolucin de la batera de metal lquido. +Empezamos aqu con nuestro caballo de batalla: la celda de un vatio-hora. +Yo la llamo copita. +Hemos construido ms de 400, perfeccionando su rendimiento con una serie de composiciones qumicas; no solo magnesio y antimonio. +En el proceso pasamos a la celda de 20 vatios-hora. +Yo la llamo disco de hockey. +Y conseguimos los mismos notables resultados. +Y luego estaba en el platillo. +Esa es de 200 vatios-hora. +La tecnologa estaba demostrando ser slida y escalable. +Pero el ritmo no era suficientemente rpido para nosotros. +As que hace un ao y medio, David y yo, junto con otro miembro del personal de investigacin, formamos una compaa para acelerar el ritmo de los avances y la carrera para la fabricacin del producto. +Hoy en la LMBC, estamos construyendo celdas de 41 cm de dimetro con una capacidad de un kilovatio-hora; 1.000 veces la capacidad de la celda copita inicial. +La llamamos pizza. +Y ya est en desarrollo una celda de cuatro kilovatios-hora +que tendr un dimetro de 60 centmetros. +A esa la llamamos mesa de bistro, pero todava no est lista para ser mostrada. +Y una variante de la tecnologa nos permite apilar estas mesas de bistro en mdulos, que se agregan en una batera gigante que encaja en un contenedor de 12 metros para la colocacin en el campo. +Y esta tiene una capacidad nominal de 2 megavatios-hora: dos millones de vatios-hora. +Energa suficiente para satisfacer las necesidades de electricidad diarias de 200 hogares estadounidenses. +Aqu est, el acumulador de energa de red: silencioso, libre de emisiones, sin piezas mviles, a control remoto, diseado para un precio de mercado sin subsidio. +Entonces, qu hemos aprendido de todo esto? +Qu hemos aprendido de todo esto? +Permtanme compartir con ustedes algunas sorpresas, las ideas no convencionales. +No se ven a simple vista. +Temperatura: la sabidura popular sugiere mantenerla baja -a temperatura ambiente o casi- y luego instalar un sistema de control para mantenerla constante. +Evitar escapes trmicos. +La batera de metal lquido est diseada para funcionar a temperatura elevada con una regulacin mnima. +Nuestra batera es capaz de responder a temperaturas muy altas que originan los picos de corriente. +Proporcin: la sabidura popular sugiere producir muchas para reducir los costos. +La batera de metal lquido est diseada para reducir el costo produciendo pocas, pero sern ms grandes. +Y finalmente, los recursos humanos: La sabidura popular sugiere contratar a expertos de la batera, profesionales avezados, que puedan aprovechar su enorme experiencia y conocimiento. +Para desarrollar la batera de metal lquido, contrat estudiantes y post-docs y los instru. +En una batera, me esfuerzo por maximizar el potencial elctrico; cuando instruyo, me esfuerzo por maximizar el potencial humano. +Como pueden ver, la historia de la batera de metal lquido ms que un relato sobre la invencin de una tecnologa, es un proyecto para crear inventores, de amplio espectro. +Hay que ser amables con los nerds, con los cerebritos. +En realidad, voy ms all y digo que si todava no tienen un nerd en su vida, deberan conseguirse uno. +Quiero decir +que los cientficos y los ingenieros cambian el mundo. +Les contar de un lugar mgico llamado DARPA en el que los cientficos y los ingenieros desafan lo imposible y rechazan temer al fracaso. +Estas dos ideas estn ms conectadas de lo que parece porque si desaparece el temor al fracaso, lo imposible de pronto se vuelve posible. +Si quieren saber cmo, hazte la siguiente pregunta: Qu intentara si supieran que no pueden fracasar? +Si de verdad se hacen esta pregunta, no pueden evitar sentirse incmodos. +Yo me siento un poco incmoda. +Porque cuando uno se lo pregunta se empieza a entender de qu manera nos limita el temor al fracaso cmo nos impide intentar grandes cosas y la vida se vuelve aburrida, no suceden cosas grandiosas. +Claro, siempre sucedern cosas buenas, pero grandiosas, no. +Debo ser muy clara, no estimulo el fracaso, desestimulo el temor al fracaso. +Porque no es el fracaso mismo lo que nos limita. +El sendero hacia lo verdaderamente nuevo, lo nunca hecho antes, siempre est plagado de fracasos. +Estamos probados. +Y, en parte, esa prueba es un factor importante para lograr cosas grandes. +Clemenceau dijo: "La vida se vuelve interesante cuando fracasamos, porque es una seal de que nos hemos superado" +En 1895 Lord Kelvin declar que las mquinas voladoras ms pesadas que el aire, eran imposibles. +En octubre de 1903, la opinin predominante de los expertos en aerodinmica, era que quizs en 10 millones de aos podra construirse una nave que volara. +Y 2 meses despus, el 17 de diciembre, Orville Wright condujo el primer avin sobre una playa de Carolina del Norte. +El vuelo dur 12 segundos y alcanz 36 metros. +Esto fue en 1903. +Un ao despus siguieron otras declaraciones de imposibles. +Ferdinand Foch, un general francs conocido por tener una de las mentalidades ms originales y sutiles del ejrcito francs, dijo: "Los aviones son juguetes interesantes, sin ningn valor militar". +40 aos ms tarde los expertos en aviacin acuaron el trmino ultrasnico. +Se preguntaban como deba escribirse . +Como ven, tenan problemas con los vuelos y ni siquiera tenan claro si era posible volar ms rpido que el sonido. +En 1947, no haba datos de tneles de viento ms all de 0,85 Mach. +Sin embargo, el 14 de octubre de 1947, Chuck Yeager se subi a la cabina de su Bell X-1 y vol hacia una posibilidad desconocida, y al hacerlo, se convirti en el primer piloto en volar ms rpido que el sonido. +6 de 8 cohetes Atlas estallaron en su plataforma. +Despus de completar 11 misiones fracasadas, obtuvimos las primeras fotos desde el espacio. +Y de ese primer vuelo nos llegaron ms datos que de todas las misiones U-2 combinadas. +Se cometieron muchos errores para alcanzarlo. +Llegamos al cielo porque queramos volar ms rpido y ms lejos. +Y para lograrlo tenamos que creer en lo imposible. +Tenamos que renunciar al temor al fracaso. +Eso todava est vigente. +En la actualidad no hablamos de vuelos ultrasnicos, ni supersnicos, hablamos de vuelos hipersnicos; no de 2 3 Mach, sino de 20 Mach. +A 20 Mach podemos volar de Nueva York a Long Beach en 11 minutos, 20 segundos. +A esa velocidad la superficie aerodinmica est a la temperatura del hierro fundido. 1900 C; como un alto horno. +En esencia, la superficie aerodinmica se quema al volar. +Y lo hacemos, o intentamos. +La nave hipersnica de pruebas de DARPA es el avin manejable ms rpido jams construido. +Se impulsa hasta casi el espacio exterior sobre un cohete Minotaur IV. +Pero este cohete tiene demasiado empuje, por eso tenemos que reducirlo volando a un ngulo de 89 grados respecto a su direccin general, en algunos trayectos. +Es algo antinatural para un cohete. +La tercera etapa tiene una cmara. +La llamamos, la "rocketcam". +Se enfoca hacia el planeador hipersnico. +Esta es la filmacin real de la rocketcam en el primer vuelo. +Para disimular la forma hemos cambiado un poco su aspecto. +As es como se ve desde la tercera etapa del cohete enfocado hacia el planeador en va hacia la atmsfera de regreso a la Tierra. +Lo hemos volado dos veces. +El primer vuelo sin control aerodinmico del vehculo. +Pero conseguimos ms datos sobre vuelos hipersnicos que todo lo que habamos logrado en 30 aos de pruebas en tierra. +El segundo caso fue 3 minutos de vuelo aerodinmico totalmente controlado a 20 Mach. +Tenemos que hacerlo otra vez porque cosas maravillosas nunca hechas antes, requieren que volemos. +No se puede aprender a volar a 20 Mach si no es volando. +Y no habiendo sustituto para la velocidad, la maniobra es lo que viene enseguida. +Si a 20 Mach toma 11 minutos, 20 segundos para ir de Nueva York a Long Beach, un colibr tardara... bueno, das. +Como saben, los colibres no son hipersnicos, pero si son maniobrables, +En verdad, el colibr es la nica ave que puede volar hacia atrs. +Puede ascender, descender, ir adelante o atrs incluso invertido. +Si quisiramos volar dentro de esta sala o a lugares a donde no pueden ir las personas, necesitaramos un avin suficientemente pequeo y manejable para lograrlo. +Este es un colibr robot +Puede volar en cualquier direccin incluso hacia atrs. +Puede voltearse y girar. +Esta nave prototipo est dotada con una cmara de video. +Pesa menos que una batera AA. +Pero no liba nctar. +En el 2008 vol nada menos que 20 segundos. El ao siguiente, 2 minutos, luego 6, hasta 11. +Muchos prototipos se estrellaron, muchsimos. +Pero no se puede aprender a volar como un colibr, si no es volando. +Es hermoso, cierto? +Guau. +Genial. +Matt es el primer piloto de colibr que ha habido. +Los errores son parte del proceso de creacin de nuevas maravillas. +No se puede temer al fracaso y al mismo tiempo hacer maravillas novedosas, como un robot con la estabilidad de un perro sobre terreno difcil, o quizs sobre hielo; un robot que corra como un leopardo o suba escaleras como una persona con las ocasionales torpezas humanas. +O quizs, el Hombre Araa un da ser el Hombre lagartija. +Una lagartija puede sostener todo el peso de su cuerpo en la punta del dedo del pie +Un mm cuadrado de la planta del pie de la lagartija tiene 14 000 elementos en forma de pelos llamados setaes. +Los usan para agarrarse a las superficies aprovechado fuerzas intermoleculares. +En la actualidad podemos fabricar estructuras que simulan los pelos del pie de la lagartija. +El resultado es una nano-lagartija adhesiva artificial de 10 X 10 cm, +que puede sostener una carga de 300 kilos. +Suficiente para fijar a la pared un televisor de 42 pulgadas, sin clavos. +Hasta aqu el Velcro, cierto? +No es solo para estructuras estticas, sino mquinas enteras. +Este es un caro +de un milmetro parecido a Godzilla ah junto a estas micromquinas. +En el mundo de los caros Godzilas podemos hacer millones de espejos, cada uno igual a la quinta parte del dimetro de un cabello humano, que se mueven cientos de miles de veces por segundo para desplegar en pantallas grandes, para ver pelculas como "Godzilla" en alta definicin. +Y si podemos construir mquinas a esa escala, qu tal estructuras como la Torre Eiffel de ese microtamao? +En la actualidad podemos hacer metales ms ligeros que el poliestireno. Tan livianos que se pueden colocar en una flor diente de len y mandarlos a volar con un soplo de aire. Tan livianos que se puede construir un auto elevable por 2 personas. Pero tan fuerte que resiste golpes como un todoterreno. +Desde el soplo de aire ms leve hasta las poderosas fuerzas de las tormentas. +Cada segundo caen 44 rayos en todo el mundo. +Cada rayo calienta el aire a 24 000 a 24 000 C, ms caliente que la superficie del Sol. +Qu tal si pudiramos usar esos pulsos electromagnticos como reflectores, en una red de faros mviles, de poderosos transmisores? +Los experimentos sugieren que los relmpagos podran ser los prximos GPS (sistemas de posicionamiento). +Pulsos elctricos de nuestros pensamientos. +Con una rejilla del tamao de una ua, con 32 electrodos en la superficie del cerebro, Tim capta sus pensamientos para controlar una prtesis avanzada de brazo. +Y sus pensamientos le permiten llegar a Katie. +Esta es la primera vez que una persona puede controlar un robot con solo pensarlo. +Y es la primera vez que Tim le toma la mano a Katie, en 7 aos. +Ese momento fue importante para Tim y Katie y posiblemente algn da lo ser para Uds. +Esta plaga gris es posiblemente la vacuna que podra salvarles la vida. +Se produjo en plantaciones de tabaco. +Las matas de tabaco pueden producir millones de dosis de la vacuna en semanas, no en meses, y ste podra ser el primer uso saludable del tabaco. +Si les parece inverosmil que el tabaco pueda darle salud a la gente, qu tal unos jugadores que resuelven problemas que no pueden los expertos? +El pasado septiembre, unos jugadores de Foldit descubrieron la estructura tridimensional de la proteasa retroviral que contribuye al sida en monos rhesus. +Comprender esta estructura es muy importante para desarrollar tratamientos. +Durante 15 aos estuvo sin resolverse en la comunidad cientfica. +Los jugadores de Foldit la resolvieron en 15 das. +Lo lograron trabajando en equipo. +Pudieron trabajar juntos porque estaban conectados a Internet. +Otros, igualmente conectados, lo usaron como instrumento de democracia. +Juntos cambiaron la suerte de su pas. +Internet es el hogar de 2000 millones de personas, el 30% de la poblacin mundial. +Nos permite contribuir y ser odos como individuos. +Nos permite amplificar nuestras voces y nuestra fuerza como grupo. +Pero tambin tuvo un origen humilde. +En 1969 Internet no era sino un sueo, unos cuantos dibujos en un papel. +Pero el 29 de octubre se envi el primer mensaje de conmutacin en paquetes desde UCLA a SRI. +Las dos primeras letras de la palabra "Login" fue todo lo que se transmiti, una L y una O, y entonces un desbordamiento del bfer apag el sistema. +Dos letras, una L y una O, y ahora es una fuerza mundial. +Y quines son estos cientficos e ingenieros en ese lugar mgico llamado DARPA? +Unos cerebritos, unos nerds, que son nuestros hroes. +Ellos retan las perspectivas reales en las fronteras de la ciencia bajo las ms exigentes condiciones. +Nos recuerdan que podemos cambiar el mundo si desafiamos lo imposible y si evitamos el miedo al fracaso. +Nos recuerdan que todos tenemos la fuerza de los nerds. +A veces lo olvidamos. +Hubo una poca en la que no tenamos miedo de fallar. Eras un gran artista, una gran bailarina, podas cantar, eras bueno en matemticas, podas construir cosas, eras astronauta, un aventurero, Jacques Cousteau, podas saltar ms alto, correr ms rpido, patear ms fuerte que nadie. +Creas cosas imposibles, no tenas temores. +Estabas total y completamente en contacto con tu superhroe interior. +Los cientficos y los ingenieros pueden de verdad cambiar el mundo. +Uds. tambin pueden. +Nacimos para eso. +As que sigan, pregntense qu podran hacer si supieran que no pueden fallar. +Permtanme decirles que no es fcil. +Es difcil sostenerse en esta idea. Verdaderamente difcil. +Pienso que en cierta forma, se supone que es difcil. +Las dudas y los temores se cuelan. +Pensamos que otro es ms inteligente, ms capaz, otro con ms recursos puede resolver el problema. +Pero no existe otro; solo usted. +Con suerte en ese momento alguien se adentra en esas dudas y miedos, nos orienta y dice: "Permtame ayudarle a creer ". +Jason Harley hizo eso conmigo. +Jason fund DARPA el 18 de marzo del 2010. +Estaba en nuestro grupo de transporte. +Yo vea a Jason todos los das, en ocasiones dos veces al da. +Ms que la mayora, l vea altibajos, las celebraciones y las decepciones. +Cierto da especialmente negro para m, Jason se sent y escribi un mensaje. +Era estimulante, pero a la vez, firme. +Cuando lo envi, quizs no se dio cuenta la diferencia que iba a producir. +Para m fue importante. +En ese momento, y hoy todava, cuando dudo, cuando siento temores, cuando necesito reconectarme, con esos sentimientos, recuerdo sus palabras, que todava suenan muy fuertes. +Texto: "Solo tienes tiempo suficiente para alisarte la capa y volver a los cielos". + Superhroe, superroe. Superhroe, superroe. Superhroe, superroe. Superhroe, superroe. Superhroe, superroe. Voz: "Porque de eso se trata cuando se es un superhroe" +RD: "Solo tienes tiempo suficiente para alisarte la capa y volver a los cielos". +Recuerden, Hay que ser amables con los nerds. +Gracias. Gracias. +Chris Anderson: Gracias, Regina. +Tengo un par de preguntas. +Sobre ese planeador tuyo, el de 20 Mach, el primero, sin control, termin en el Pacfico, en alguna parte?. +RD: S, s. As fue. (CA: Qu pas en el segundo vuelo?) Si, tambin se fue al Pacfico. (CA: Pero, esta vez bajo control?) No lo dirigimos hacia el Pacfico. +No. Haba muchas porciones en la trayectoria bastante exigentes al volar a esa velocidad. +De tal modo que en el segundo vuelo pudimos llegar a 3 minutos con control aerodinmico total del vehculo antes de perderlo. +CA: Imagino que no piensas ofrecerlo como servicio con pasajeros de Nueva York a Long Beach, prximamente. +RD: Puede estar un poco caliente. +CA: Cmo te imaginas que se usar el planeador? +RD: Pues nuestra responsabilidad es desarrollar la tecnologa. +Cmo se usar al final, lo decidirn los militares. +El objetivo de ese vehculo, el propsito de esa tecnologa, es poder llegar a cualquier parte del mundo en menos de 60 minutos. +CA: Y llevar una carga de unos pocos kilos? (RD: S). Cunta carga podr llevar? +RD: Bueno, no creo que llegaremos a saber cunto ser. +Primero tenemos que volarlo. +CA: Pero no ser solamente una cmara? +RD: No, no solo una cmara. +CA: Es asombroso. +El colibr? +RD: S? +CA: Tengo curiosidad. Comenzaron esa hermosa secuencia de vuelos con un avin que trataba de agitar las alas y que fracas horriblemente. Y no ha habido muchos aviones ms desde entonces, que agiten las alas. +Por qu pensaron que era oportuno biomimetizar y simular un colibr? +No era sta una solucin muy costosa para un pequeo objeto maniobrable? +RD: En parte, queramos saber si era posible hacerlo. +Estas cuestiones hay que revisarlas de vez en cuando. +Los muchachos de AeroVironment ensayaron 300 o ms diseos de alas diferentes, 12 formas diferentes de avinica. +Necesitaron 10 prototipos completos para lograr algo que en efecto volara. +Pero hay algo bien interesante sobre las mquinas voladoras que se parecen a algo reconocible. +A menudo hablamos de cautela como la manera de evitar ser detectados. Pero si las cosas se ven bien naturales, tampoco se ven. +CA: Ah. Entonces no es solo el funcionamiento. +Tambin es la apariencia. (RD: Desde luego) Se trata de, "Miren ese lindo colibr volando por mis instalaciones". +Porque pienso que as como nos maravillamos mirndolo, estoy seguro que algunos estarn pensando que la tecnologa avanza tan rpido que en breve algn genio alocado, con un pequeo control remoto, meter uno por la ventana, en la Casa Blanca. +Es decir, no te preocupa el efecto de la caja de Pandora aqu? +RD: Pues mira. Nuestra misin particular es la creacin y la prevencin de las sorpresas estratgicas. +Eso es lo que hacemos. +Sera inconcebible hacer ese trabajo sin que al mismo tiempo la gente se emocione y se inquiete con lo que producimos. +Esta es la naturaleza de nuestro trabajo. +Nuestra responsabilidad es mover los lmites. +Es obvio que tenemos que actuar con cuidado y con responsabilidad sobre la forma como se desarrolla la tecnologa y como se ha de usar finalmente. No podemos cerrar los ojos y pensar que no avanza. S est avanzando. +CA: Veo claramente que eres una lder realmente inspiradora. +Puedes persuadir para hacer que la gente se mueva hacia estas aventuras de invencin, a nivel personal. No me imagino la forma cmo hacer tu trabajo. +No te despiertas a media noche preguntndote sobre posibles consecuencias inesperadas de tu equipo tan brillante? +RD: Claro. +Creo que no seramos humanos si no nos preguntramos todo eso. +CA: Y cmo las respondes? +RD: Pues no siempre tengo las respuestas. +Pienso que aprendemos con el tiempo. +Mi trabajo es uno de los ms estimulantes que uno puede tener. +Trabajo con algunas de las personas ms increbles. +Con tanta estimulacin te llega un sentido realmente profundo de responsabilidad. +Por una parte tenemos este empuje tremendo de lo que es posible y este gran sentido de lo que significa. +CA: Regina, esto nos ha dejado boquiabiertos. +Muchas gracias por venir a TED. (RD: Gracias). +Muchas veces voy por el mundo dando discursos y la gente me pregunta acerca de los desafos, mis momentos, algunos de mis pesares. +1998: Madre soltera, con cuatro hijos, tres meses despus de tener mi cuarto hijo. Fui a trabajar como asistente de investigacin +al norte de Liberia. +Y, como parte del trabajo, la aldea nos albergara. +Me dieron alojamiento con una madre soltera y su hija. +Esa nia result ser la nica en toda la aldea que haba llegado al noveno grado. +Era el hazmerrer de la comunidad. +Otras mujeres le decan a su madre: T y tu hija morirn pobres. +Despus de trabajar dos semanas en la aldea ya era hora de volver. +La madre vino a verme, se arrodill, y dijo: Leymah, llvate a mi hija. +Quiero que sea enfermera. +Yo, que era extremadamente pobre, y viva con mis padres, no tena el dinero. +Con lgrimas en los ojos le dije: No. +Dos meses despus, fui a otra aldea con el mismo encargo y me pidieron que viviera con la jefa de la aldea. +La jefa de la aldea tena una nia, del mismo color de piel que yo, totalmente sucia. +Todo el tiempo deambulaba en ropa interior. +Cuando le pregunt: Quin es? +Me dijo: Es Wei. +Su nombre significa 'cerda' +Su madre muri al darla a luz y nadie sabe quin ee su padre. +Durante dos semanas me hizo compaa, durmi conmigo. +Le compr ropa usada y su primera mueca. +La noche antes de irme vino a la habitacin y me dijo: Leymah, no me dejes aqu. +Quiero ir contigo. +Quiero ir a la escuela. +Yo, muy pobre, sin dinero, viviendo con mis padres, nuevamente dije: No. +Dos meses despus, ambas aldeas entraron nuevamente en guerra. +Hasta hoy, no tengo idea de dnde estn esas dos nias. +Pasemos a 2004: En el auge de nuestro activismo, el ministro de asuntos de gnero de Liberia me dijo: Leymah, tengo una nia de nueve aos para ti. +Quiero que le des un hogar porque no tenemos hogares seguros. +La historia de esta nia: Haba sido violada por su abuelo paterno a diario, durante seis meses. +Vino muy hinchada, muy plida. +Yo llegaba de trabajar cada noche y me tiraba en el piso fro. +Ella se pona a mi lado y me deca: Ta, quisiera estar bien. +Me gustara ir a la escuela. +2010: Una mujer joven, frente a la presidenta Sirleaf, da su testimonio de cmo vive junto con sus hermanos y que su padre y madre murieron durante la guerra. +Tiene 19 aos; suea con ir a la universidad para poder ayudarles. +Es muy atltica. +Y sucedi que solicit una beca. +Una beca completa. La obtuvo +Su sueo de ir a la escuela, su deseo de recibir instruccin finalmente se cumpli. +Fue a su primer da de clases. +El director de deportes, responsable de haberla admitido al programa, le pidi que saliera del saln. +Durante los siguientes tres aos estara condenada a tener sexo con l a diario como favor por haberla admitido. +A nivel mundial hay polticas, instrumentos internacionales, dirigentes. +Grandes personas que se han comprometido a proteger a la infancia de la miseria y el dolor. +La ONU tiene la Convencin sobre los Derechos del Nio. +En pases como EE.UU. omos cosas como ningn nio rezagado. +Otros pases apelan a otras cosas. +Hay un objetivo de desarrollo del milenio llamado Three que se centra en las nias. +Estas obras loables por grandes personas encaminadas a ayudar a los jvenes a alcanzar metas a nivel mundial, creo que han fracasado. +En Liberia, por ejemplo, la tasa de embarazo adolescente es de tres por cada 10 nias. +La prostitucin adolescente est en su apogeo. +En una comunidad nos dijeron que uno se despierta en la maana y ve tantos condones usados como papeles de goma de mascar. +Nias de 12 aos que son prostitudas por menos de un dlar por noche. +Es desalentador, es triste. +Alguien me pregunt justo antes de mi TEDTalk, hace unos das, Dnde est la esperanza? +Hace varios aos, unos amigos mos decidieron que tenamos que llenar el vaco entre nuestra generacin y la generacin de las mujeres jvenes. +No basta con decir que hay dos ganadores del Nobel, de la Repblica de Liberia si las nias andan por all sin esperanzas, o parecen no tener esperanza. +Creamos un espacio llamado Proyecto Transformador de Chicas Jvenes. +Vamos a las comunidades rurales y, como se hace en esta sala, creamos el espacio. +Cuando estas chicas hablan, dan rienda suelta a su inteligencia, a su pasin, a su compromiso, a su determinacin; nacen grandes lderes. +Hasta ahora hemos trabajado con ms de 300. +Algunas de estas chicas que entraban con timidez a la sala han dado pasos audaces como jvenes madres para salir a defender los derechos de otras mujeres jvenes . +Una joven que conoc, una madre adolescente de cuatro hijos, nunca pens en terminar la secundaria y se gradu con xito; nunca pens en ir a la universidad pero se inscribi. +Un da me dijo: Deseo terminar la universidad y poder mantener a mis hijos. +Est en un lugar en el que no consigue dinero para ir a la escuela. +Vende agua, refrescos y tarjetas de recarga para mviles. +Podra pensarse que con ese dinero invierte en su educacin. +Se llama Juanita. +Con ese dinero busca madres solteras en su comunidad para enviarlas a la escuela. +Y dice: Leymah, deseo una educacin. +Y si no puedo tenerla, al ver que lo consigue alguna de mis hermanas, se cumple mi deseo. +Deseo una vida mejor. +Deseo alimento para mis hijos. +Me gustara poner fin al abuso y la explotacin sexual en las escuelas. +Este es el sueo de la chica africana. +Hace varios aos, haba una chica africana. +Esta chica tena un hijo que deseaba un pedazo de rosquilla porque senta mucha hambre. +Enojada, frustrada, muy molesta por las condiciones de su sociedad y de sus hijos, esta joven cre un movimiento, un movimiento de mujeres comunes, que se unieron por la paz. +Yo cumplira ese deseo. +Este es el deseo de otra chica africana. +No pude cumplir el deseo de esas dos chicas. +No lo logr. +Este era el pensamiento de estas jvenes mujeres... Fracas, fracas, fracas. +Por eso hice esto. +Las mujeres salieron a protestar contra un dictador brutal, sin temor de hablar. +Y no slo se les cumpli el sueo de un trozo de rosquilla sino tambin el deseo de paz. +Estas jvenes deseaban ir a la escuela. +Y fueron a la escuela. +Estas jvenes deseaban otras cosas, y las consiguieron. +Hoy, esa joven soy yo, una premio Nobel. +Estoy emprendiendo un viaje para cumplir el deseo, dentro de mis humildes posibilidades, a estas niitas africanas; el deseo de recibir educacin. +Creamos una fundacin. +Estamos dando becas de cuatro aos a las nias de las aldeas que demuestran potencial. +No tengo mucho qu pedir as Uds. +Se animan a viajar conmigo para ayudar a esas nias, sean estas africanas, estadounidenses o japonesas, a cumplir sus deseos, a cumplir sus sueos, a realizar esos sueos? +Viajemos juntos. Viajemos juntos. +Gracias. +Chris Anderson: Muchas gracias. +Cul es, hoy en Liberia, en tu opinin el problema que ms te preocupa? +LG: Me han pedido que lidere la Iniciativa de Reconciliacin Liberiana. +Como parte de mi trabajo hago estas recorridas por distintas aldeas y pueblos -13 a 15 horas por caminos de tierra- y no hay una sola comunidad de las que he visitado en la que no haya nias inteligentes. +Lamentablemente, la visin de un gran futuro, el sueo de un gran futuro, es slo un sueo, porque existen todos esos problemas. +El embarazo adolescente, como dije, es una epidemia. +Lo que me preocupa es haber estado en ese lugar y estar en este lugar... No quiero ser la nica que est en este lugar. +Trato de encontrar la forma de que otras chicas vengan conmigo. +Dentro de 20 aos me gustara ver a otra chica liberiana, de Ghana, nigeriana o etope, en el escenario de TED +diciendo, quiz, slo quiz: "Gracias a esa premio Nobel hoy estoy aqu". +Me preocupa cuando veo que no tienen esperanza. +Pero no soy pesimista porque s que no requiere gran esfuerzo infundirles nimo. +CA: Y en el ltimo ao... Cuntanos algo esperanzador que hayas visto. +LG: Puedo contar muchas cosas esperanzadoras. +El ao pasado fuimos a la aldea natal de la presidenta Sirleaf para trabajar con unas nias. +Y no pudimos encontrar ni 25 chicas en secundaria. +Todas haban ido a las minas de oro, eran en su mayora prostitutas que hacan otras cosas. +Trabajamos con 50 de esas chicas. +Estbamos en el inicio de las elecciones. +Este es un lugar en el que las mujeres -incluso las mayores- apenas se sientan al lado de los hombres. +Estas chicas se reunieron, formaron un grupo, y lanzaron una campaa para registrar votantes. +Esta es una aldea rural. +El lema que usaron fue: "Hasta las chicas lindas votan". +As, movilizaron a las mujeres jvenes. +Pero no se quedaron con eso sino que fueron a ver a los candidatos y les preguntaron: Qu harn por las chicas de la comunidad si ganan?" +Y uno de los tipos que ya tena un cargo... Liberia tiene una de las leyes ms fuertes contra las violaciones y l era uno de los que luchaba en el parlamento para anular esa ley por considerarla una barbarie. +La violacin, deca, no es una barbarie, pero la ley s. +Y cuando las chicas empezaron a involucrarlo l reaccion de manera hostil. +Estas muchachitas le dijeron: "Votaremos para que pierdas el puesto". +Hoy ya no ocupa el cargo. +CA: Leymah, gracias. Muchas gracias por venir a TED. +LG: De nada. (CA: Gracias.) +Marco Tempest: Lo que hoy quisiera mostrarles es una especie de experimento. +Hoy es el debut +de una demostracin de realidad aumentada. +Las imgenes que estn por ver no fueron grabadas previamente. +Ocurren en vivo e interactan conmigo en tiempo real. +Me gusta pensar que es una especie de magia tecnolgica. +Crucemos los dedos. +Y mantengan la vista en la pantalla grande. +La realidad aumentada es la fusin del mundo real con imgenes generadas por computadora. +Parece el medio perfecto para investigar la magia y preguntarnos por qu, en una era tecnolgica, seguimos maravillndonos con este sentido de lo mgico. +La magia es 'engao' [d-e-c-e-p-t-i-o-n], pero un engao que nos gusta. +Para disfrutar el engao el pblico primero debe suspender su incredulidad [d-i-s-b-e-l-i-e-f]. +Fue el poeta Samuel Taylor Coleridge el primero en sugerir este estado receptivo de la mente. +Samuel Taylor Coleridge: Trato de darle una apariencia de verdad en mis escritos para producir en estas sombras de la imaginacin una suspensin voluntaria de la incredulidad que, durante un momento, constituye una fe potica. +MT: Esta fe en la ficcin es esencial para cualquier tipo de experiencia teatral. +Sin ella, un guion seran solo palabras. +La realidad aumentada es la ltima tecnologa. +Un juego de manos es solo una manifestacin artstica de la destreza. +Somos muy buenos para suspender nuestra incredulidad. +La suspendemos a diario al leer novelas, mirar televisin o ir al cine. +Entramos con gusto a mundos de ficcin vitoreando hroes y llorando por amigos que nunca tuvimos. +Sin esta habilidad no habra magia. +Fue Jean Robert-Houdin, el ilusionista ms grande de Francia, el primero que reconoci el papel del mago como narrador. +Dijo algo que yo tengo colgado en la pared de mi estudio. +Jean Robert-Houdin: Un mago no es un malabarista. +Es un actor que representa el papel de mago. +MT: Lo que significa que la magia es teatro y que cada truco es una historia. +Los trucos de magia siguen los arquetipos de la ficcin narrativa. +Hay cuentos de creacin y prdida, de muerte y resurreccin y de obstculos a superar. +Muchos son de un dramatismo intenso. +Los magos juegan con fuego y acero desafan la furia de la sierra circular, se atreven a atrapar una bala o intentan un escape mortal. +Pero el pblico no viene a ver morir al mago, viene a verlo vivir. +Porque las mejores historias siempre tienen un final feliz. +Los trucos de magia tienen un elemento especial. +Son historias con 'giros' imprevistos. +Edward de Bono sostiene que el cerebro es una mquina para detectar patrones. +Dice que los magos explotan deliberadamente el modo de pensar de sus pblicos. +Edward de Bono: la magia de escenario se basa casi en su totalidad en el error de momento. +Se lleva al pblico a hacer suposiciones o elaboraciones perfectamente razonables, pero que, de hecho, no coinciden con lo que tienen frente de s. +MT: En ese sentido los trucos de magia son como chistes. +'Chistes' que nos guan a un 'destino esperado'. +Pero cuando el escenario que imaginamos de repente se vuelve algo totalmente inesperado, remos. +Lo mismo ocurre cuando la gente ve 'trucos de magia'. +El 'final' desafa la 'lgica', ofrece una nueva visin del problema, y el pblico expresa su 'asombro' con la risa. +Es divertido ser engaado. +Un aspecto clave de las historias es que estn hechas para ser compartidas. +Nos urge contarlas. +Cuando hago un truco en una fiesta... esta persona llamar de inmediato a sus amigos y me pedir que lo haga de nuevo. +Quieren compartir la experiencia. +Eso dificulta ms mi trabajo porque, si quiero sorprenderlos, tengo que contar una historia que empiece igual pero que termine diferente... un truco con un giro inesperado. +Eso me mantiene ocupado. +Pero los expertos creen que las historias van ms all del entretenimiento. +Pensamos con estructuras narrativas. +Conectamos 'eventos' y 'emociones' y las transformamos de manera instintiva en una secuencia fcilmente comprensible. +Es un logro exclusivamente humano. +Todos queremos compartir nuestras historias, ya sea ese truco que vimos en la fiesta, un mal da en la oficina o la hermosa puesta de sol que vimos en las vacaciones. +Hoy, gracias a la tecnologa, podemos compartir esas historias como nunca antes, por correo electrnico, Facebook, blogs, tweets, en TED.com. +Las herramientas de las redes sociales son las fogatas digitales en torno a las que el pblico se rene a escuchar la historia. +Transformamos hechos en smiles y metforas, e incluso en fantasas. +Pulimos las asperezas de nuestras vidas para sentirlas como un todo. +Nuestras historias nos hacen quienes somos y, a veces, quienes queremos ser. +Nos dan identidad y sentido de comunidad. +Y si la historia es buena, puede incluso hacernos sonrer. +Gracias. +Gracias. +Buenas. +Lo he hecho por dos motivos. +Uno: quera causarles una buena impresin visual. +Pero sobre todo porque esto es lo que ocurre cuando tengo que usar un micrfono repulsivo como el de Lady Gaga. +Estoy acostumbrado a los micrfonos fijos. +Es lo razonable cuando hablamos en pblico. +Pero con esto en la cabeza me ocurre algo. +Me pongo raro. +Lo siento. +Ya me he ido del tema. +Damas y caballeros, he dedicado los ltimos 25 aos de mi vida a disear libros. +"S, LIBROS. Esos papeles encuadernados llenos de tinta +que no se apagan con un interruptor. +Avisen a sus hijos". Empez como un error afortunado, como la penicilina. Yo quera ser diseador grfico en un estudio grande de Nueva York. +Pero cuando llegu, en otoo del 86, fui a muchas entrevistas y lo nico que me ofrecieron fue el puesto de asistente de Director Artstico en Alfred A. Knopf, una editorial. +Era estpido, pero no tanto como para rechazar la oferta. +No tena ni idea de en lo que me meta, pero tuve muchsima suerte. +Pronto me di cuenta de que mi trabajo consista +en responder a esta pregunta: qu aspecto tienen las historias? +De eso trata Knopf. +En la industria de la historia es una de las mejores del mundo. +Acercamos historias al pblico. +Las historias pueden ser cualquier cosa, incluso algunas son ciertas. +Pero todas tienen algo en comn: necesitan una apariencia, +necesitan un rostro. +Por qu? Les dar una idea de lo que estamos hablando. +Un diseador le da forma al contenido, pero tambin busca un equilibrio entre los dos. +El primer da de mi formacin en la Universidad de Pensilvania, mi profesor, Lanny Sommese, entr y dibuj en la pizarra una manzana y justo abajo escribi "manzana" y dijo: "Bien. Primer leccin. Escuchen". +Tap la imagen y dijo: "O bien dicen esto", pas a tapar la palabra, "o muestran esto. +Pero no hagan esto". +Porque eso es tratar al pblico como si fuera imbcil. +Y se merecen algo mejor. +Y mira por donde, muy pronto pude poner en prctica esta teora en dos libros que hice para Knopf. +Uno eran las memorias de Katharine Hepburn y el otro la biografa de Marlene Dietrich. +El de Hepburn estaba escrito como si fuera una conversacin, como si estuvierais charlando en una cafetera. +El de Dietrich era las observaciones de su hija en forma de biografa. +El de Hepburn eran palabras y el de Dietrich eran imgenes, e hicimos esto. +Aqu lo tienen. +Contenido puro y forma pura. +Sin peleas, seoras. +[Qu es un parque jursico?] Cul es la historia aqu? +Alguien ha rediseado dinosaurios a partir del ADN de un mbar prehistrico. +Genial! +Por suerte, vivo y trabajo en Nueva York, donde hay muchos dinosaurios. +Entonces, me fui al Museo de Historia Natural y mir los huesos, visit la tienda de regalos y compr un libro. +Y me gust especialmente esta pgina, en concreto el ngulo inferior derecho. +No tena ni idea de lo que estaba haciendo. No saba adnde iba. Pero entonces par cuando continuar pareca pasarse de la raya. +Y logr una representacin grfica de nuestra visin del animal. +Eso es la mitad del proceso. +Luego le puse algo de tipografa, +algo muy bsico, como sugiriendo las prohibiciones en los parques. +A todos les encant en la editorial y se lo enviaron al autor. +Incluso entonces, Michael era un vanguardista. +[Michael Crichton responde por fax:] [Guau! Una sobrecubierta de la hostia] Fue una alegra ver esa nota salir del fax. +Echo de menos a Michael. +Y, por supuesto, la Universal MCA llam a nuestro departamento para comprar los derechos de la imagen, en caso de que la quisieran usar. +Y s que la usaron. +Estaba contentsimo. +Fue una pelcula sorprendente y fue muy interesante ver cmo se meta en la cultura y acababa en un fenmeno con mltiples ramificaciones. +Pero no hace mucho, encontr esto en Internet. +No, se no soy yo. +Pero sea quien sea, no puedo evitar imaginar que un da se despert: "Ay, Virgen! Esto no estaba aqu anoche. Ay, ay, ay! +Qu borrachera". +Si lo piensan... desde mi cabeza a mi manos a esta pierna. +Qu responsabilidad. +Y no me la tomo a la ligera. +La responsabilidad del diseador es triple: hacia el lector, el editor y, sobre todo, hacia el autor. +Quiero que vean un libro y digan: "Guau! Tengo que leerlo". +David Sedaris es uno de mis autores favoritos y el ensayo principal de la coleccin es sobre su viaje a una colonia nudista. +Y la razn de su visita era que le tena miedo a su cuerpo y quera saber qu haba debajo de todo eso. +Para m fue la excusa perfecta para disear un libro que te dejara en calzoncillos. +Pero cuando lo desnudas, no encuentras lo que esperabas, +sino algo mucho ms profundo. +Y a David le encant el diseo porque cuando firma libros, que es a menudo, puede dibujar esto. +Hola! +Augusten Burroughs escribi una autobiografa titulada [En el dique seco] sobre su rehabilitacin. +En su juventud era un ejecutivo publicitario importante y, como aparece en Mad Men, un alcohlico empedernido. +l no opinaba lo mismo, pero sus compaeros le dijeron claramente: "Vas a desintoxicarte o te despediremos y morirs". +Vi claramente que la solucin sera tipogrfica, lo contrario de la Tipografa Elemental. +Qu significa? +En el primer da de Introduccin a la Tipografa normalmente tienes que elegir una palabra y hacer que parezca lo que significa. Eso es la Tipografa Elemental. +Muy simple. +Esto iba a ser lo contrario. +Quera que el libro mintiera de manera desesperada, como si fuera un alcohlico. +La respuesta fue lo ms simple que puedan imaginarse. +Eleg la tipografa, lo imprim con una Epson de tinta soluble en agua, lo pegu a la pared y le arroj un cubo de agua. Listo! +Entonces fuimos a la imprenta y all le dieron un acabado brillante a la tinta y de verdad pareca que caan gotas. +No mucho despus de publicarse, Augusten estaba en un aeropuerto escondido en la librera espiando quin compraba sus libros. +Esta mujer tom uno, lo mir de reojo y lo llev a la caja: "ste est estropeado". +Y el cajero le contest: "Lo s, seora. Todos vinieron igual". +Eso es un buen trabajo de imprenta. +Una portada es una destilacin. +Es un haiku, si lo prefieren, de la historia. +Esta historia en concreto de Osama Tezuka es la vida pica de Buda en ocho volmenes. Pero lo mejor es que en la estantera ves la vida entera de Buda de su juventud a la vejez. +Todas estas soluciones se inspiran en el contenido del libro. Pero cuando el diseador lee el libro, tiene que interpretarlo, traducirlo. +Esta historia era un gran rompecabezas. +Este es el argumento: +[Intriga y asesinatos entre los pintores de la corte otomana en el siglo XVI.] Bien, tom una serie de pinturas, las mir, las deconstru y las volv a montar. +Y este es el diseo, ven? +Aqu ven la portada y el lomo en un plano. +Pero la gracia empieza cuando est en un libro puesto en una estantera. +Ais! Aqu los vemos, los amantes secretos, saqumoslos. +Uy! El sultn los ha descubierto, +se enojar. +Oh! El sultn est en peligro... +Y si queremos saber cmo contina tenemos que abrir el libro. +Intenten algo as en un Kindle. +No me hagan hablar, +de verdad. +Podemos ganar mucho con los e-books: comodidad, sencillez, transporte. +Pero se pierden cosas: tradicin, la experiencia sensual, la comodidad de un objeto fsico... un poco de humanidad. +Saben lo primero que haca John Updike cuando Alfred A. Knopf le mandaba una copia de uno de sus libros nuevos? +Lo ola. +Luego pasaba la mano por las trazas del papel, con el olor acre de la tinta y las barbas en los bordes... +Nunca se cans de esos libros. +Estoy a favor del iPad pero cranme, por ms que intenten olerlo... +Los chicos de Apple estn anotando: "Disear un plug-in de emisiones odorficas". +La ltima historia de la que les hablar es toda una historia. +Japn, 1984, una mujer llamada Aomame logr salirse de una autopista elevada a travs de una escalera en espiral. Cuando llega abajo, no puede evitar sentir, de repente, que ha entrado en una nueva realidad, una realidad un peln diferente a la que acaba de abandonar. Muy similar, pero diferente. +Trata de planos paralelos de la existencia, como la portada de un libro y el libro en s. +Cmo podemos mostrarlo? +Volvemos a Hepburn y Dietrich y las mezclamos. +Hablamos de diferentes planos, de diferentes hojas de papel. +Esto est en una vitela semitransparente, +parte a la vez de la forma y el contenido. +Cuando est sobre el libro, que es el complementario, forman esto. +Incluso si no sabes nada sobre el libro, te enfrentas a una persona que lucha entre dos planos de la existencia. +Y el objeto invitaba a la exploracin, a la interaccin, la consideracin y al tacto. +Empez como el nmero dos en la lista de los mejores vendidos del New York Times. +Algo inaudito para el editor y para el autor. +Hablamos de un libro de 900 pginas, tan extravagante como irresistible, con una escena clave en la que una horda de personas diminutas salen de la boca de una chica dormida y hacen explotar a un pastor alemn. +No es exactamente Jackie Collins. +14 semanas en la lista de los ms vendidos. Ocho reediciones y an sigue ah. +Aunque amemos la edicin como un arte, tambin sabemos que es un negocio. Si hacemos bien nuestro trabajo y con un poco de suerte, el magnfico arte puede ser un magnfico negocio. +Esa es mi historia. Continuar. +Cul es su apariencia? +S. Puede pasar, pasa y pasar. Pero para este diseador editorial, pasador de pginas, apuntador de notas en los mrgenes, oledor de tinta, una historia es as. +Gracias. +Esta noche quiero tener una conversacin sobre este increble tema global de la interseccin entre el uso de la tierra, la comida y el ambiente, algo a lo que todos podemos relacionarnos y que he estado llamando, la otra verdad incmoda. +Pero primero quiero llevarlos a un pequeo viaje. +Visitemos primero nuestro planeta, pero de noche, y desde el espacio. +As luce nuestro planeta desde el espacio exterior a medianoche, si pudieran tomar un satlite y viajar alrededor del planeta. Y lo primero que notarn, claro, es qu tan dominante es la presencia humana en nuestro planeta. +Vemos ciudades, campos de petrleo, incluso distinguimos la flotas pesqueras en el mar, que dominamos gran parte del planeta, y principalmente mediante el uso de energa que podemos ver aqu de noche. +Pero retrocedamos y bajemos un poco ms profundo y miremos durante el da. +Lo que vemos es nuestros paisajes. +Esto es parte de la cuenca amaznica, un lugar llamado Rondnia en la parte central sur de la amazonia brasilea. +Si ven con cuidado en la esquina superior derecha vern una delgada lnea blanca, que es un camino construido en los 70. +Si volvemos al mismo sitio en 2001 encontraremos que estos caminos se desplegaron en ms caminos, y ms despus, al final de los cuales hay un pequeo claro en el bosque donde habr algunas vacas. +Estas vacas se usan para carne. Vamos a comrnoslas. +Y se comern bsicamente en Suramrica, en Brasil y Argentina. No sern enviadas aqu. +Pero este patrn de espina de pescado de desforestacin lo vemos con frecuencia alrededor de los trpicos especialmente en esta parte del mundo. +Si vamos un poco al sur en nuestro pequeo viaje podemos ir a la parte boliviana del Amazonas, aqu an en 1975, y si vemos con cuidado, hay un delgada lnea blanca como de costura y un solitario granjero en medio de la selva primaveral. +Volvamos otra vez, unos pocos aos atrs, en 2003 y veremos cmo realmente luce ms como Iowa que como un bosque hmedo. +De hecho, lo que vemos son campos de soya. +Esta soya se enviar a Europa y China, como forraje, especialmente despus de la enfermedad de las vacas locas cerca de una dcada atrs, cuando decidimos no alimentar ms a los animales con protena animal, porque poda transmitir la enfermedad. +En cambio, quisimos darles ms protena vegetal. +As que la soya realmente explot mostrando qu tanto realmente responden el comercio y la globalizacin por la desforestacin de la selva tropical hmeda y la amazonia, un extraamente increble e interconectado mundo que tenemos hoy. +Bien, una y otra vez, lo que vemos si miramos alrededor del mundo en nuestro pequeo viaje es que los paisajes, uno tras otro, han sido despejados y alterados para sembrar comida y otros cultivos. +As que una de las preguntas que nos hacemos es, qu tanto del mundo se usa para cultivar comida dnde exactamente, y qu tanto cambiar esto en el futuro, y qu implicar? +Nuestro grupo ha estado mirando esto a escala global usando datos satelitales y datos de campo de seguimiento de la agricultura a escala global. +Y esto es lo que hemos encontrado, y es sorprendente. +Este mapa muestra la presencia de la agricultura en el planeta Tierra. +Las reas verdes son las que usamos para cultivos como trigo, soya, maz, arroz o lo que sea. +Son 16 millones de km de tierra. +Si los pones en un lugar, equivalen al tamao de Suramrica. +La segunda rea, marrn, son los pastos y dehesas donde viven nuestros animales. +Es un rea de 30 millones de km, o cerca de toda la tierra de frica. una enorme cantidad de tierra, y es la mejor, claro, es lo que ven. Y lo que queda es, como la mitad del desierto del Sahara, o Siberia, o la mitad del bosque hmedo. +Ya estamos usando la riqueza de tierra del planeta. +Si miramos con cuidado, encontramos cerca del 40% de la superficie Tierra est dedicada a la agricultura, y es 60 veces mayor que toda el rea que reclamamos para nuestra expansin suburbana y las ciudades en las que vivimos. +Media humanidad vive en las ciudades hoy, pero un rea 60 veces ms grande se usa para cultivar alimentos. +Esto es un resultado sorprendente y realmente nos afecta cuando los vemos. +As que no solo usamos una cantidad enorme de tierra para agricultura sino que tambin usamos una gran cantidad de agua. +Esta es una foto area de Arizona y cuando la miras, es como: "Que cultivan aqu?" Resulta que cultivan lechuga en medio del desierto usando agua esparcida desde lo alto. +La irona es que, probablemente se vende en nuestros supermercados en Twin Cities. +Pero lo realmente interesante es, de dnde viene el agua para este lugar, y viene de aqu, del ro Colorado en Norteamrica. +Bueno, el Colorado en un da tpico en los 1950 era como, saben, ni una inundacin, ni sequa, en promedio, luca algo as. +Pero si vamos hoy, en condicin normal en exactamente la misma localizacin, lo que queda es esto. +La diferencia es principalmente por irrigar cultivos en el desierto o de pronto campos de golf en Scottsdale, Uds. elijan. +Bueno, es una gran cantidad de agua, y, otra vez, estamos haciendo minera de agua y usndola para cultivos de alimento, y hoy, si viajan ms abajo del Colorado, est seco del todo y ya no llega al ocano. +estamos consumiendo, literalmente, todos los ros de Norteamrica para irrigacin. +Bueno, no es el peor ejemplo del mundo. +Este probablemente s: el mar de Aral. +Muchos de Uds. lo recordarn por sus clases de geografa. +Esta es la antigua Unin Sovitica entre Kazajistn y Uzbekistn, uno de los grandes mares interiores del mundo. +Pero hay una especie de paradoja aqu, porque parece como si estuviera rodeado de desierto. Por qu est el mar aqu? +La razn de que est aqu es que, en la parte derecha, ven dos pequeos ros que bajan por la arena, alimentando esta cuenca con agua. +Esos ros estn drenando nieve derretida de las montaas lejanas del este, donde la nieve se derrite, descienden por el ro por el desierto, y forma el gran mar de Aral. +Bien, en los 50, los soviticos decidieron desviar esta agua para irrigar el desierto y cultivar algodn, cranlo o no, en Kazajstn, para vender algodn en los mercados internacionales y conseguir divisas para la Unin Sovitica. +Realmente necesitaban ese dinero. +Bien, imaginarn lo que pas. Si cierras la llave del agua del mar de Aral, qu pasar? +Aqu en 1973, 1986, 1999, 2004 y cerca de 11 meses atrs. +Es bastante extraordinario. +Ahora, muchos de Uds. viven en el medio oeste. +Imaginen que fuera el lago Superior. +Imaginen que fuera el lago Hurn. +Este es un cambio extraordinario. +Este no es solo un cambio en el agua y dnde queda la costa, es un cambio en los fundamentos del medio ambiente en esta regin. +Comencemos con esto. +La Unin Sovitica en realidad no tena un Sierra Club. +Pongmoslo as. +As que lo que encontramos en el fondo del mar de Aral no es agradable. +Hay muchos residuos txicos, cantidad de cosas que fueron botadas ah y que ahora empiezan a estar en el aire. +Una de esas pequeas islas que eran remotas e imposibles de llegar, fue sitio de prueba sovitico de armas biolgicas. +Uno puede caminar all hoy. +Los patrones climticos cambiaron. +19 de 20 especies nicas de peces que se encontraban solo en el mar de Aral desaparecieron de la faz de la Tierra. +El desastre ambiental es muy evidente. +Pero volvamos a casa. +Esta es una foto que Al Gore me dio hace unos aos que tom cuando estuvo en la Unin Sovitica mucho, mucho tiempo atrs, que muestra las flotas pesqueras en el mar de Aral. +Ven el canal que cavan? +Estaban tan desesperados de tratar de que los botes flotaran en lo que quedaba de agua... pero finalmente tuvieron que rendirse porque los muelles y amarres simplemente no podan mantenerse al da con el litoral que se retiraba. +No se Uds., pero me aterra que futuros arquelogos caven esto y escriban historias de nuestro tiempo, y se pregunten, "En qu estaban pensando?" +Bien, ese es el futuro que tenemos que afrontar. +Ya estamos usando el 50% del agua dulce de la Tierra que es sostenible, y la sola agricultura es un 70% de eso. +As que usamos mucha agua, mucha tierra en agricultura. +Tambin usamos mucho de la atmsfera para la agricultura. +Usualmente cuando pensamos en la atmsfera pensamos en cambio climtico y gases de efecto invernadero y principalmente en energa, pero resulta que la agricultura es tambin uno de los mayores emisores de gases de efecto invernadero. +Si miran el CO2 de la quema de selva hmeda tropical, o el metano de la vacas y el arroz, o el oxido nitroso de muchos fertilizantes, resulta que la agricultura aporta el 30% de los gases de efecto invernadero que van a la atmsfera por actividad humana. +Esto es ms que todos nuestros transportes. +Es ms que toda nuestra electricidad. +Es ms que toda la otra manufactura, de hecho. +Es el principal emisor individual de gases de efecto invernadero de cualquier actividad humana en el mundo. +Y sin embargo, no hablamos mucho de ello. +As que tenemos esta increble presencia de agricultura hoy, dominando nuestro planeta que viene siendo el 40% de la superficie de tierra, el 70% de uso de agua, el 30% de la emisin de gases con efecto invernadero +Hemos duplicado el flujo de nitrgeno y fosfatos alrededor del mundo solo por usar fertilizantes, causando grandes problemas de calidad de agua en los ros, lagos y hasta ocanos, y es tambin la mayor causa de prdida de biodiversidad. +As que sin duda la agricultura es la fuerza ms poderosa desatada en este planeta desde la edad del hielo. Sin duda. +Y rivaliza con el cambio climtico en importancia. +Y los dos estn sucediendo al mismo tiempo. +Pero lo importante para recordar es que no todo es malo. No es que la agricultura sea una cosa mala. +De hecho, dependemos completamente de ella. +No es opcional. No es un lujo. Es absolutamente necesaria. +Necesitamos proveer comida y pienso y, s, fibras e incluso biocombustibles para algo as como 7 mil millones de personas en el mundo hoy, y si pasa algo, es que esas demandas a la agricultura aumentarn en el futuro. No va a desaparecer. +Va a ser an mayor, principalmente por el aumento de la poblacin. Somos 7 mil millones hoy llegando al menos a 9, probablemente nueve y medio hasta parar. +Ms importante, con cambio de dieta. +Conforme el mundo se vuelve ms sano y ms populoso, aumentamos nuestro consumo de carne, lo que consume ms recursos que la comida vegetariana. +As que ms personas, comen ms y con ms abundancia y claro, con una crisis energtica al mismo tiempo por la que tenemos que reemplazar petrleo por otras fuentes lo que en ltima instancia tendr que incluir ms biocombustibles y fuentes de bioenerga. +As que pongan todo junto. Es realmente duro ver cmo vamos a lograrlo para el resto del siglo sin doblar al menos la produccin agrcola global. +Bien, cmo vamos a hacerlo? Cmo vamos a doblar la agricultura global en el mundo? +Bueno, podemos cultivar ms tierra. +Este es el anlisis que hicimos, en la izquierda es donde hay cultivos hoy, en la derecha donde los debera haber, basados en suelos y clima, suponiendo que el cambio climtico no haga mucho dao a esto, que no es una buena presuncin. +Podemos cultivar ms tierra, pero el problema es que las tierras restantes son reas sensibles. +Tienen mucha diversidad, mucho carbono, cosas que queremos proteger. +As que podemos cultivar ms expandiendo las tierras de labranto pero es mejor no hacerlo, porque ecolgicamente es muy, muy peligroso hacerlo. +En cambio, quiz queramos congelar la huella de la agricultura y trabajar mejor las tierras que tenemos. +Este es trabajo que estamos haciendo para resaltar los lugares en el mundo donde podemos mejorar los rendimientos sin daar el medioambiente. +Las reas verdes aqu muestran dnde se da el maz, solo muestra el maz como ejemplo, ya es muy alta, probablemente lo mximo que se puede encontrar en la Tierra hoy para este clima y suelo, pero las reas marrones y amarillas, son lugares donde solo hay un 20 o 30% del rendimiento que se podra lograr. +Ven muchas en frica, incluso en Latinoamrica, pero noten que en Europa del este, donde la Unin Sovitica y los pases del Bloque del este estaban, la agricultura es todava un desastre. +Ahora, esto requiere nutrientes y agua. +Ser u orgnica o convencional o alguna mezcla de las dos. +Las plantas necesitan agua y nutrientes. +Pero podemos hacerlo y hay oportunidades para hacer este trabajo. +Pero tenemos que hacerlo de forma que sea sensible para cubrir la seguridad de alimentos del futuro y la seguridad medio ambiental necesaria en el futuro. +Tenemos que ver cmo hacemos esta compensacn entre cultivar comida y tener un ambiente sano, que funcione mejor. +Ahora mismo, es una especie de 'todo o nada'. +Podemos cultivar comida en el fondo este es un campo de soya y en este diagrama de flor, se muestra que cultivamos mucha comida pero no tenemos mucha agua limpia, no reservamos mucho carbono, no tenemos mucha biodiversidad. +En primer plano, tenemos esta pradera magnfica desde el punto de vista ambiental, pero no puedes comer nada. Qu hay para comer? +Tenemos que ingeniarnos la forma de unirlas en un nuevo tipo de agricultura que nos d ambas cosas. +Ahora, cuando hablo de esto, la gente con frecuencia me dice: "Bien, no es obvia la respuesta? Comida orgnica, comida local, organismos modificados genticamente, nuevos subsidios al comercio y a las granjas". Y s, tenemos cantidades de buenas ideas, pero ninguna es una varita mgica. +De hecho, lo que creo es que hay ms como trucos mgicos. +Y adoro los trucos. Los pones juntos y obtienes algo de verdad poderoso, pero necesitamos ponerlos juntos. +Ahora, tener esta conversacin es de verdad duro y nosotros hemos intentado con ahnco traer estos puntos claves a la gente para reducir la controversia y aumentar la colaboracin. +Quiero mostrarles un video corto que trata de mostrar el tipo de esfuerzos que estamos haciendo para unir estos lados en una nica conversacin. Djenme mostrrselos. +("Instituto de Medioambiente, Universidad de Minnesota: Guiando el descubrimiento) ("La poblacin mundial crece 75 millones de personas cada ao. +Esto es casi la poblacin de Alemania. +Hoy somos cerca de 7 mil millones de personas. +A este paso, seremos 9 mil millones para el 2040. +Y todos necesitamos comida. +Pero qu? +Cmo podemos alimentar al mundo sin destruir el planeta? +Ya sabemos que el cambio climtico es un gran problema. +Pero no es el nico problema. +Necesitamos enfrentar 'la otra verdad incmoda'. Una crisis global en la agricultura. +Aumento de la poblacin + consumo de carne + consumo de leche + costos energticos + produccin de bioenerga = estrs de los recursos naturales. +Ms del 40% de los suelos de la Tierra se han despejado para agricultura. +Los cultivos globales cubren 16 millones de km. +Esto es casi el tamao de Suramrica. +Los pastizales globales cubren 30 millones de km. +Es el tamao de frica. +La agricultura usa 60 veces ms tierra que las reas urbanas y suburbanas combinadas. +La irrigacin es el mayor uso del agua del planeta. +Usamos 2 000 kilmetros cbicos de agua en cultivos cada ao. +Es tanto como llenar 7 305 Empire States cada da. +Hoy, muchos grandes ros estn reducidos a arroyos. +Algunos se secaron del todo. +Miren el mar de Aral, ahora un desierto. +O el ro Colorado, que ya no llega al ocano. +Los fertilizantes han ms que duplicado los fosfatos y el nitrgeno del ambiente. +La consecuencia? +Polucin generalizada del agua y degradacin masiva de lagos y ros. +Sorprendentemente, la agricultura es el mayor contribuyente del cambio climtico. +Genera el 30% de los gases de efecto invernadero. +Es ms que la emisin de toda la electricidad y la industria de todos los aviones, trenes y automviles del mundo. +Muchas emisiones por agricultura vienen de la desforestacin tropical, el metano de los animales y los campos de arroz, el oxido nitroso de la fertilizacin alta. +No hay nada que hayamos hecho que transforme ms al mundo que la agricultura. +Y nada es ms crucial para nuestra sobrevivencia. +Este es el dilema... +Conforme el mundo crece en varios miles de millones de personas, necesitamos duplicar, quiz triplicar, la produccin global de comida. +As que, a dnde vamos? +Necesitamos una gran conversacin, un dilogo internacional. +Necesitamos invertir en soluciones reales: incentivos para agricultores, agricultura de precisin, nuevas variedades de cultivos, irrigacin por goteo, reciclar aguas negras, mejores prcticas de labranza, dietas inteligentes. +Necesitamos a todos en la mesa. +Defensores de la agricultura comercial, ambientalistas, granjeros orgnicos... +necesitamos trabajar juntos. +No hay una nica solucin. +Necesitamos colaboracin, imaginacin, determinacin, porque fallar no es una opcin. +Cmo alimentamos el mundo sin destruirlo?") +S, enfrentamos uno de los mayores retos de toda la historia de la humanidad: necesitamos alimentar 9 mil millones de personas y hacerlo de forma sostenible, equitativa y justa, a la vez que protegemos nuestro planeta para esta y las siguientes generaciones. +Esta ser una de las cosas ms difciles que haya hecho la humanidad en su historia y tenemos que hacerlo muy bien, y hacerlo bien en nuestro primer y quiz nico intento. +Muchas gracias. +Hoy, me gustara hablarles sobre un tema que no debera ser en absoluto polmico. +Sin embargo, por desgracia, se ha vuelto muy controvertido. +Este ao, si se piensa en ello, ms de mil millones de parejas tendrn sexo. +Parejas como esta, y esta, y esta, y s, tambin esta. +Y mi idea es que todos estos hombres y mujeres deberan ser libres de decidir si desean o no concebir un beb. +Y deberan poder usar uno de estos mtodos anticonceptivos para actuar segn su decisin. +Creo que Uds. han tenido dificultad para encontrar a mucha gente en desacuerdo con esta idea. +Ms de mil millones de personas usan sin vacilar un mtodo anticonceptivo. +Ellos desean poder planificar sus propias vidas y formar familias ms saludables, mejor educadas y prsperas. +Pero, para una idea tan aceptada en privado el control de la natalidad genera una fuerte oposicin pblica. +Algunos creen que hablar de anticoncepcin es un cdigo para el aborto, pero no lo es. +Algunas personas, seamos honestos, se sienten incmodas con el tema porque est relacionado con el sexo. +A algunas personas les preocupa que el objetivo real de la planificacin familiar sea el control de la poblacin. +Todos estos son temas secundarios vinculados a esta idea central de que hombres y mujeres deben poder decidir cundo quieren tener un hijo. +Y por eso, el control de la natalidad ha desaparecido casi por completo de la agenda de salud global. +Las vctimas de esta parlisis son personas de frica subsahariana y del sur asitico. +Aqu en Alemania, la proporcin de personas que usan anticonceptivos es de alrededor del 66 %. +Eso es lo que se espera. +En El Salvador, muy similar, tambin el 66 %. +En Tailandia, el 64 %. +Pero comparmoslo con otros lugares, como Uttar Pradesh, uno de los estados ms grandes de India. +De hecho, si Uttar Pradesh fuese un pas, este sera el 5 pas ms grande del mundo. +Su tasa de uso de anticonceptivos es del 29 %. +Nigeria, el pas ms poblado de frica, el 10 %. +Chad, el 2 %. +Tomemos un pas en frica, Senegal. +Su tasa de uso es de cerca del 12 %. +Pero por qu es tan bajo? +Una de las razones es que los anticonceptivos ms populares estn raramente disponibles. +Las mujeres en frica dirn una y otra vez que lo que ellas prefieren hoy es una inyeccin. +Se la ponen en el brazo y van unas cuatro veces al ao, con una frecuencia de tres meses a por su inyeccin. +La razn para que a las mujeres en frica les gusta tanto es porque lo pueden esconder de sus maridos, quienes a veces desean muchos nios. +El problema es que muchas veces cuando una mujer va a una clnica en Senegal, la inyeccin est agotada. +Las clnicas estn desabastecidas 150 das al ao. +As que imaginen la situacin, ella va hasta all para obtener su inyeccin. +Ella sale de su campo, a veces dejando solos a sus hijos, y no hay inyecciones. +Y ella no sabe cundo habr de nuevo. +Es la misma historia en la actualidad en todo el continente de frica. +Y as hemos creado un mundo en crisis de vida o muerte. +Hay 100 000 mujeres al ao que dicen que no quieren estar embarazadas y mueren en el parto, 100 000 mujeres al ao. +Hay otras 600 000 mujeres al ao que dicen que no queran estar embarazadas en primer lugar, y dan a luz a un beb y su beb muere en el primer mes de vida. +S que todo el mundo quiere salvar a estas madres y a estos nios. +Pero a lo largo del camino, nos confundimos con nuestro propio debate. +Y ya no tratamos de salvar estas vidas. +As que si vamos a avanzar en este tema, tenemos que ser muy claros sobre qu es nuestra agenda. +No estamos hablando sobre el aborto. +No estamos hablando sobre el control de la poblacin. +Hablo de dar a las mujeres el poder para salvar sus vidas, para salvar la vida de sus hijos y para dar a sus familias el mejor futuro posible. +Ahora, en el mundo, hay muchas cosas que debemos hacer en la comunidad global de la salud si queremos que el mundo sea mejor en el futuro, cosas como combatir enfermedades. +Muchos nios mueren hoy de diarrea y de neumona, como Uds. escucharon antes, +Esas matan literalmente a millones de nios al ao. +Tambin hay que ayudar a los pequeos agricultores, a los campesinos que aran pequeas parcelas de tierra en frica, a fin de poder cultivar suficiente alimento para alimentar a sus hijos. +Y debemos asegurarnos de que los nios reciban educacin en todo el mundo. +Pero una de las cosas ms simples y transformadoras que podemos hacer es dar acceso a todos los mtodos anticonceptivos a los que casi todos los alemanes y estadounidenses acceden en algn momento, ellos los usan durante su vida. +Y creo que cuando tengamos muy claro qu est en nuestra agenda, habr un movimiento mundial a punto de ocurrir y listo para llegar a esta idea totalmente indiscutible. +Crec, me cri en un hogar catlico. +Todava me considero una catlica practicante. +El to abuelo de mi madre era un sacerdote jesuita. +Mi ta abuela era una monja dominicana. +Ella fue maestra y directora de escuela toda su vida. +De hecho, ella fue la que me ense de nia a leer. +Yo estaba muy prxima a ella. +Y fui a la escuela catlica toda mi infancia hasta irme de casa para ir a la universidad. +En mi escuela secundaria, la academia ursulina, las monjas hicieron del servicio y la justicia social una prioridad en la escuela. +Hoy en da, en el trabajo de la Fundacin Gates, creo aplicar las lecciones aprendidas en la escuela secundaria. +As, en la tradicin de estudiosos catlicos, las monjas tambin nos ensearon a cuestionar las enseanzas recibidas. +Y una de las enseanzas que las nias y mis compaeras cuestionaron era si el control de la natalidad realmente era pecado. +Creo que una de las razones para tener esta enorme molestia de hablar sobre la anticoncepcin es esta preocupacin persistente de que si separamos el sexo de la reproduccin, fomentaremos la promiscuidad. +Y creo que es una pregunta razonable que se plantea con la anticoncepcin, cul es su impacto en la moral sexual? +Pero, como la mayora de las mujeres, mi decisin para controlar la natalidad no tena que ver con la promiscuidad. +Yo tena un plan para mi futuro. Yo quera ir a la universidad. +Yo estudi mucho en la universidad, y estaba orgullosa de ser una de las pocas mujeres graduadas en ciencias informticas en mi universidad. +Quera hacer carrera, por eso fui a la escuela de negocios y me convert en una de las ejecutivas ms jvenes de Microsoft. +Todava recuerdo, sin embargo, cuando me fui de casa de mis padres para para comenzar este nuevo trabajo en Microsoft. +Haban sacrificado mucho para darme 5 aos de estudios superiores. +Sin embargo, al irme de casa bajando los escalones de la entrada de la casa, dijeron: "A pesar de que has tenido esta gran educacin, si decides casarte y tener hijos de inmediato, eso tambin nos parece bien a nosotros". +Ellos queran para m lo que me hiciera ms feliz. +Yo era libre de decidir lo que quera hacer. +Fue una sensacin increble. +De hecho, yo quera tener hijos, pero yo deseaba tenerlos, cuando estuviera preparada. +Y por ahora, Bill y yo tenemos tres. +Y cuando naci nuestra hija mayor, no estbamos muy seguros de cmo ser buenos padres. +Tal vez algunos conocen esa sensacin. +As que esperamos algo de tiempo antes de tener el segundo hijo. +Y no es casualidad que tengamos tres hijos en intervalos de tres aos de diferencia. +Ahora, como madre, qu es lo que ms deseo para mis hijos? +Quiero que se sientan como yo me sent, que ellos puedan hacer lo que quieran hacer en la vida. +Y as, de lo que me he dado cuenta viajando la ltima dcada por todo el mundo para la fundacin es que todas las mujeres quieren lo mismo. +El ao pasado estaba en Nairobi en uno de los barrios pobres llamado Korogocho que literalmente significa "hombro con hombro en pie". +Y habl con un grupo de mujeres representado aqu. +Y las mujeres hablaron abiertamente de su vida familiar de cmo era en los barrios pobres. Y hablaron ntimamente de +cmo hacan para controlar la natalidad. +Marianne, en el centro de la pantalla con el suter rojo, resumi toda ese debate de dos horas en una frase que nunca olvidar. +Ella dijo: "Quiero dar todo lo bueno a este nio antes de tener otro". +Y pens: As es, eso es todo. +Eso es universal. +Todos queremos dar todo lo bueno para nuestros hijos. +Lo que no es universal es nuestra capacidad de proporcionar todo lo bueno. +Porque muchas mujeres sufren de violencia domstica. +Y ni siquiera pueden abordar el tema del control de la natalidad, incluso en su propio matrimonio. +Hay muchas mujeres que carecen de educacin bsica. +Incluso muchas mujeres con conocimiento y con poder no tienen acceso a los anticonceptivos. +Durante 250 aos, padres de todo el mundo han decidido tener familias ms pequeas. +Esta tendencia ha sido constante durante un cuarto de milenio, en todas las culturas y en todas las geografas, con la clara excepcin del frica subsahariana y Asia meridional. +El francs comenz a reducir el nmero de hijos a mediados de la dcada de 1700. +Y en los siguientes 150 aos, esta tendencia se extendi por toda Europa. +Lo sorprendente para m, al enterarme de esta historia, es que se extendi no por capas socioeconmicas, sino por culturas. +Las personas con el mismo idioma hacen el cambio como grupo. +Ellos hicieron la misma eleccin para su familia, ya bien fueran ricos o pobres. +La razn para extenderse la tendencia hacia familias ms pequeas fue impulsada por una idea, la idea de que las parejas pueden ejercer un control consciente sobre el nmero de hijos que tienen. +Esta es una idea muy poderosa. +Esto significa que los padres tienen la capacidad de influir el futuro, no solo aceptarlo tal y como es. +En Francia, el tamao medio de la familia se redujo por cada dcada durante 150 aos consecutivamente hasta que se estabiliz. +Nos llev mucho tiempo porque los anticonceptivos no eran tan buenos. +En Alemania, esta transicin se inici en la dcada de 1880, y tom solo 50 aos hasta que el tamao de la familia se estabiliz en este pas. +Y en Asia y Amrica Latina, la transicin se inici en la dcada de 1960, y sucedi mucho ms rpido debido a la anticoncepcin moderna. +A medida que avanzamos en esta historia, es importante hacer un inciso y recordar por qu esto se ha convertido en un tema tan polmico. +Esto se debe a que algunos programas de planificacin familiar ha recurrido a incentivos desafortunados y a polticas coercitivas. +Por ejemplo, en la dcada de 1960, la India adopt metas numricas muy especficas y pagaron a las mujeres que aceptaban colocarse un DIU. +Las mujeres indias eran muy listas en esa situacin. +Cuando les ponan un DIU, les pagaban seis rupias. +Y entonces qu hacan? +Esperaban unas horas o unos das, y se iban a otra persona que les extraa el DIU por una rupia. +Durante dcadas en EE.UU. las mujeres afroamericanas fueron esterilizadas sin su consentimiento. +El procedimiento era tan comn que se populariz como la apendicetoma del Mississippi. Un captulo trgico en la historia de mi pas. +Y recientemente, en la dcada de 1990, en Per, las mujeres de los Andes recibieron anestesia para ser esterilizadas sin su conocimiento. +Lo ms sorprendente de esto es que estas polticas coercitivas ni siquiera se necesitan. +Se llevaron a cabo en lugares donde los padres ya queran reducir el tamao de la familia. +Porque en toda regin, una vez, tras otra, los padres han querido tener familias ms pequeas. +No hay razn para creer que las mujeres africanas tienen innatamente diferentes deseos. +Si tienen la opcin, tendrn menos hijos. +La pregunta es: invertiremos en ayudar a todas las mujeres a conseguir lo que quieren ahora? +O las condenaremos a una lucha centenaria, como si esto fuera todava la Francia revolucionaria y el mejor mtodo fuera el coitus interruptus? +Empoderar a los padres, no necesita justificacin. +Pero aqu est el punto, nuestro deseo de darles lo mejor a nuestros hijos es una fuerza para el bien en el mundo. +Es lo que impulsa a las sociedades hacia adelante. +En ese mismo barrio pobre de Nairobi, conoc a una joven empresaria, ella haca mochilas fuera de su casa. +Ella y sus hijos pequeos iban a la fbrica local de jeans para recoger trozos de tela vaquera. +Ella haca estas mochilas y las venda. +Y cuando habl con ella, ella tena tres hijos, y le pregunt por su familia, +ella dijo que ella y su esposo decidieron que no queran tener ms hijos tras su tercero. +Y as, al preguntarle por qu, ella simplemente dijo: "Bueno, porque no podra llevar mi negocio si tuviera otro hijo". +Y ella explic los ingresos que tena llevando su negocio le posibilitaba poder dar una educacin a sus tres hijos. +Ella era increblemente optimista sobre el futuro de su familia. +Este es el mismo clculo mental, que cientos de millones de hombres y mujeres han hecho. +Y la evidencia demuestra que tienen toda la razn. +Ellos son capaces de dar a sus hijos ms oportunidades mediante la aplicacin del control de la natalidad. +En Bangladesh, hay un distrito llamado Matlab donde +investigadores han recogido datos de ms de 180 000 habitantes desde 1963. +En la comunidad sanitaria mundial, nos gusta decir que es una de las piezas ms extensas de investigacin realizadas. +Tenemos muchas estadsticas de salud de gran tamao. +En uno de los estudios, qu hicieron? +Eligieron a la mitad de los habitantes del pueblo para obtener anticonceptivos. +Obtuvieron formacin y acceso a los anticonceptivos. +Veinte aos ms tarde, con base en esos pueblos, hemos aprendido que tenan mayor calidad de vida que sus vecinos. +Las familias eran ms saludables. +Las mujeres tenan menos probabilidad de morir en el parto. +Sus hijos tenan menos probabilidad de morir en los primeros 30 das de vida. +Los nios estaban mejor alimentados. +Las familias tambin eran ms ricas. +Los salarios de las mujeres adultas eran superiores. +Los hogares tenan ms activos, como ganado, tierra o ahorros. +Por ltimo, sus hijos e hijas tenan ms tiempo de escolaridad. +As que cuando se multiplican estos efectos en millones de familias, el producto puede ser un desarrollo econmico a gran escala. +La gente habla sobre el milagro econmico asitico de los aos 1980, pero no fue realmente un milagro. +Una de las principales causas del crecimiento econmico en toda la regin fue esta tendencia cultural hacia familias ms pequeas. +Los cambios radicales comienzan a nivel individual de la familia, la familia toma una decisin de lo que es mejor para sus hijos. +Cuando hacen ese cambio y toman esa decisin, la convierten en tendencia arrasadora nacional y regional. +Si a las familias de frica subsahariana se les da la oportunidad de tomar esas decisiones de forma autnoma, creo que ayudar a despertar un crculo virtuoso de desarrollo en las comunidades de todo el continente. +Podemos ayudar a las familias pobres a construir un futuro mejor. +Podemos insistir en que todas las personas tienen la oportunidad para aprender sobre anticonceptivos y tener acceso a toda la variedad de mtodos. +Creo que el objetivo es muy claro: acceso universal a mtodos anticonceptivos que las mujeres deseen. +Y para que eso suceda, significa que tanto los gobiernos ricos y pobres deben hacer que la anticoncepcin sea una prioridad absoluta. +Podemos hacer nuestra parte, en esta sala y en el mundo, al hablar de los cientos de millones de familias que no tienen acceso a la anticoncepcin hoy y lo que podra hacer para cambiar sus vidas si tuvieran acceso. +Creo que si Marianne y los miembros de su grupo de mujeres pueden hablar de esto abiertamente y tener esta discusin entre ellas y en pblico, nosotros podemos, tambin. +Y tenemos que empezar ahora. +Porque al igual que Marianne, todos queremos todo lo mejor para nuestros hijos. +Y dnde est lo polmico en eso? +Gracias. +Chris Anderson: Gracias. +Tengo algunas preguntas para Melinda. +Gracias por tu valenta y por todo lo dems. +Melinda, en los ltimos aos he odo a mucha gente inteligente decir cosas como: "Ya no necesitamos preocuparnos por la cuestin de la poblacin. +El tamao de las familias se ha reducido de forma natural en todo el mundo. +Alcanzaremos su punto mximo en los 9000 o 10 000 millones. Y ya est". +Estn equivocados? +Melinda Gates: Si nos fijamos en las estadsticas de toda frica, estn equivocadas. +Y creo que debemos verlo, desde una perspectiva diferente. +Tenemos que verlo desde abajo hacia arriba. +Esa es una de las razones que nos generaron tantos problemas en este tema de la anticoncepcin. +Lo mirbamos de arriba a abajo y quisimos tener nmeros diferentes de la poblacin con el tiempo. +S, nos preocupamos por el planeta. S, debemos tomar las decisiones correctas. +Pero las decisiones deben tomarse a nivel familiar. +Y se hace solo dando acceso a la gente y dejar que ellos elijan qu hacer para conseguir esos cambios radicales que hemos visto en todo el mundo a excepcin de frica subsahariana y en sitios del sur de Asia y Afganistn. +CA: Algunas personas de la derecha en EE.UU. y en muchas culturas conservadoras de todo el mundo podran decir algo como: "Todo muy bien al hablar de salvar vidas, empoderar a las mujeres, etc. +Pero, el sexo es sagrado. +Lo que estamos proponiendo aumentar la probabilidad de que ocurra mucho sexo fuera del matrimonio. +Y eso est mal". +Qu les diras a ellos? +MG: Yo dira que el sexo es absolutamente sagrado. +Y es sagrada en Alemania, y es sagrado en EE.UU. y en Francia y en muchos lugares en todo el mundo. +Y el hecho de que el 98 % de las mujeres en mi pas que tienen experiencia sexual dicen que usan mtodos anticonceptivos no hace al sexo menos sagrado. +Solo significa que logran tomar decisiones sobre sus vidas. +Y creo que en esa eleccin, tambin honramos lo sacrosanto de la familia y el carcter sagrado de la vida de la madre y de las vidas de los nios al salvar sus vidas. +Para m, eso es muy sagrado, tambin. +CA: Entonces, qu hace tu fundacin para promover este tema? +Y qu podra hacer la gente aqu y la gente que nos escucha en la web? qu te gustara que hicieran? +MG: Yo dira esto, que se unan al debate. +Hemos apuntado el sitio web. Smense al debate. +Cuenten su historia de cmo la anticoncepcin ha cambiado su vida o la vida de alguien que conocen. +Y digan que estn a favor. +Necesitamos una oleada de gente que diga: "Esto tiene sentido. +Tenemos que dar a todas las mujeres acceso, sin importar donde vivan". +Y una de las cosas que haremos es hacer un gran evento el 11 de julio en Londres, con una serie de pases africanos, para decir que incluimos esto en la agenda de la salud mundial. +Dedicaremos recursos a esto, y haremos una planificacin de abajo hacia arriba con los gobiernos para asegurarnos de que las mujeres obtienen formacin, y si desean los mtodos, que los obtengan. y que tienen muchas opciones disponibles ya sea a travs de su trabajador de salud local, o de su clnica rural de la comunidad local. +CA: Melinda, supongo que algunas de esas monjas que te ensearon en la escuela van a ver esta charla TED en algn momento. +Van a estar horrorizadas o encantadas? +MG: Yo s que van a ver la charla TED porque saben lo que hago y planeamos envirsela. +Las monjas que me ensearon eran increblemente progresistas. +Espero que estn muy orgullosas de m por vivir lo que nos ensearon sobre la justicia social y el servicio. +He llegado a apasionarme por este tema por lo que he visto en el mundo en desarrollo. +Y para m, este tema se ha vuelto muy cercano a mi corazn porque cumplo con estas mujeres, que tan a menudo no tienen voz. +Y no debera ser as. Deben tener voz, deben tener acceso. +As que espero que sientan que estoy viviendo lo que he aprendido de ellas en las dcadas de trabajo que ya he hecho en la fundacin. +CA: T y tu equipo trajeron a un grupo increble de oradores hoy al que todos estamos agradecidos. +Has aprendido algo? +MG: Dios mo, he aprendido muchas cosas. Tengo muchas preguntas complementarias. +Y creo que mucha de esta obra es un viaje. +Ya has odo la discusin sobre el viaje a travs de la energa, o el viaje a travs del diseo social, o el viaje por venir que diga: "Por qu no hay ninguna mujer en esta plataforma?" +Y creo que para todos los que trabajamos en estos temas de desarrollo, aprendemos hablando con otras personas. +Se aprende con la prctica, probando y cometiendo errores. +Y con las preguntas que una se hace. +A veces es la pregunta lo que ayuda a guiar la respuesta, la siguiente persona puede ayudarte a responderla. +As que tengo muchas preguntas para los oradores de hoy. +Y pienso que fue un da increble. +CA: Melinda, gracias por invitarnos a todos en este viaje contigo. +Muchas gracias. MG: Gracias, Chris. +Yo tena un plan y nunca imagin que tendra que ver con el banjo. +No poda imaginar el gran impacto que recibira una noche en una fiesta; escuch el sonido de un tocadiscos en una esquina de la habitacin. +Era Doc Watson que cantaba y tocaba "Shady Grove". + Shady Grove, amorcito Shady Grove, mi amada Shady Grove, amorcito Regresando a Harlan El sonido era tan hermoso, el sonido de la voz de Doc y el ritmo estremecedor del banjo. +Y despus de una total obsesin por la vasta riqueza y la historia de la cultura china, fue un gran alivio poder or algo tan estadounidense y tan impresionante. +Supe que tena que llevar un banjo a China. +As que antes de ir a la facultad de derecho en China, compr un banjo, lo puse en mi camioneta roja y cruc los Apalaches y aprend muchas viejas canciones de EE.UU., hasta que termin en Kentucky en la Convencin Internacional de la Asociacin de Msica Bluegrass. +Una noche estaba sentada en un pasillo y se me acerc un par de chicas. +Me preguntaron si quera tocar con ellas +y les dije: "Claro". +As que tom mi banjo y a pesar de los nervios toqu cuatro canciones con ellas. +Un productor de msica que pasaba por ah me invit a Nashville, Tennessee, para grabar un disco. +Han pasado ocho aos y les puedo asegurar que nunca fui a China a estudiar leyes. +De hecho, fui a Nashville. +Y despus de unos cuantos meses ya estaba escribiendo canciones. +La primera cancin que compuse fue en ingls, y la segunda en chino. +, Afuera, el mundo espera. +Adentro, en tu corazn, una voz te llama. +Las cuatro esquinas del mundo te miran, as que viaja hija, viaja. +Hazlo, t puedes nena. +Ya han pasado ocho aos desde aquella noche en Kentucky. +Y he tocado en miles de presentaciones. +He colaborado con msicos increbles e inspiradores de todo el mundo. +Y puedo ver el poder la msica. +Veo el poder de la msica para conectar culturas. +Lo veo cuando en el escenario de un festival de bluegrass en Virginia Oriental miro el mar de sillas del pblico y de repente empiezo a cantar una cancin en chino. + Y todos se quedan con los ojos abiertos como si se les fueran a salir de sus rbitas. +Y piensan: "Qu le pasa a esta chica? +Pero despus de la presentacin se me acercan y todos tienen una historia para compartir. +Todos llegan y me cuentan cosas como: "el pollo del perro de la niera de la hermana de mi ta fue a China y adopt una nia". +En serio les digo, parece que todo el mundo tiene su historia. +Es increble. +As que me fui a China y estando en un escenario de la universidad empiezo a cantar una cancin en Chino y todo el mundo tararea conmigo y todos se emocionan al verme con mi gran cabello y el banjo, cantando su msica. +Pero veo algo ms importante: el poder de la msica para conectar corazones. +Como la vez que estaba en la provincia de Sichuan cantando para los nios en una escuela-refugio en una zona propensa a los terremotos. +Y una niita se me acerca +"?" "Hermana Wong", Washburn o Wong, no importa +"Hermana Wong, Puedo cantarle una cancin que mi mam me cantaba antes de morir en el terremoto?" +Yo me sent, ella se sent en mi regazo. +Y empez a cantar su cancin. +Y sent el calor de su cuerpo y las lgrimas que rodaban por sus mejillas, y empec a llorar. +en la luz que emanaba de sus ojos. Y en ese momento, ya no ramos de EE.UU., ni chinas, ramos simples mortales sentadas en esa luz que nos cubra. +Quiero vivir bajo esa luz contigo y con todo el mundo. +Porque s que las relaciones entre EE.UU.y China no necesitan otra abogada. +Gracias. +Este es Shivdutt Yadav, y es de Uttar Pradesh, India. +Cuando Shivdutt visit el registro de la propiedad en Uttar Pradesh, descubri que en los registros oficiales lo declaraban muerto. +Su tierra no segua registrada a su nombre. +Sus hermanos, Chandrabhan y Phoolchand, tambin aparecan como muertos. +Miembros de la familia haban sobornado a los funcionarios para interrumpir la transmisin hereditaria de la tierra declarando muertos a los hermanos, lo que les permite heredar la parte de su padre de las tierras ancestrales de cultivo. +Debido a esto, los tres hermanos y sus familias tuvieron que abandonar su hogar. +De acuerdo con la familia Yadav, el tribunal local ha estado planificando una revisin del caso desde 2001, pero nunca ha aparecido un juez. +Hay varios casos en Uttar Pradesh de personas que mueren antes de que se de a su caso una revisin adecuada. +La muerte del padre de Shivdutt y el deseo de su propiedad condujo a esta corrupcin. +l fue sepultado en el ro Ganges donde los muertos son incinerados en las orillas del ro o atados a pesadas piedras y hundidos en el agua. +Fotografiar a estos hermanos fue un intercambio desorientador porque en papel no existen, y una fotografa se utiliza muy a menudo como una prueba de vida. +Sin embargo, estos hombres continan muertos. +Este dilema llev al titulo del proyecto, que considera en muchos aspectos que todos somos muertos vivientes y que de alguna manera representamos los fantasmas del pasado y del futuro +As que esta historia es el primero de 18 captulos en mi nuevo trabajo titulado "Un hombre vivo declarado muerto y otros captulos". +Y para este trabajo, he viajado por el mundo durante un perodo de cuatro aos investigando y registrando linajes y sus historias relacionadas. +Estaba interesada en las ideas que rodean al destino y si nuestro destino esta determinado por la sangre, el azar o las circunstancias. +Los temas que document iban desde pugnas familiares en Brasil. a vctimas del genocidio en Bosnia a la primera mujer que secuestr un avin y los muertos vivientes en la India. +En cada captulo, se pueden ver a las fuerzas externas del gobierno, el poder y el territorio o la religin chocando con las fuerzas internas de la herencia psicolgica y fsica. +Cada trabajo que hago est compuesto de tres segmentos. +A la izquierda hay uno o ms paneles con retratos en el que sistemticamente ordeno a los miembros de un linaje determinado. +Esto va seguido de un panel de texto, est diseado en forma de pergamino en el que construyo la narrativa en juego. +Y luego a la derecha est a lo que me refiero como un panel de notas al pie de pgina. +Es un espacio que es ms intuitivo en el que presento fragmentos de la historia, comienzos de otras historias, pruebas fotogrficas. +Y esto pretende reflejar de algn modo cmo nos relacionamos con las historias o los relatos en Internet, de una forma menos lineal. +As que est ms desordenado. +Y este desorden contrasta directamente con el orden inalterable de un linaje. +En mis proyectos anteriores he trabajado a menudo en forma consecutiva documentando cosas que tienen la apariencia de ser integrales a travs de un ttulo determinado y una presentacin determinada, pero, en realidad, son bastante abstractos. +En este proyecto he querido trabajar en la direccin opuesta y encontrar un catlogo absoluto, algo que no podra interrumpir, seleccionar o modificar por decisin propia. +Esto me llev a la sangre. +Un linaje est determinado y ordenado. +Pero el proyecto se centra en el choque entre orden y desorden - el orden de la sangre choca con el desorden, representado por las a menudo caticas y violentas historias, que son los temas de mis captulos. +En el segundo captulo, fotografo a los descendientes de Arthur Ruppin. +Fue enviado en 1907 a Palestina por la organizacin Sionista para observar reas para el asentamiento judo y adquirir tierras para el asentamiento judo. +Supervis la adquisicin de tierras en nombre de la Compaa de Desarrollo de la Tierra Palestina cuyo trabajo condujo a la creacin de un estado judo. +A travs de mi investigacin en el Archivo Sionista en Jerusaln, quera ver la documentacin inicial del establecimiento del Estado judo. +Y encontr estos mapas que ven aqu. +Y estos son los estudios encargados por la organizacin Sionista para reas alternativas para el asentamiento judo. +Mi inters aqu se centraba en las consecuencias de la geografa e imaginar cmo el mundo sera de diferente si Israel estuviese en Uganda, que es lo que demuestran estos mapas. +Estos archivos en Jerusaln, conservan un archivo ndice de tarjetas de los primeros inmigrantes y de los solicitantes para inmigrar a Palestina, y ms tarde Israel, de 1919 a 1965. +Tercer captulo: Joseph Nyamwanda Jura Ondijo trat a pacientes fuera de Kisumu, Kenia de SIDA, tuberculosis, infertilidad enfermedades mentales, malos espritus. +Se le paga por sus servicios a menudo en efectivo, vacas o cabras. +Pero a veces cuando sus pacientes femeninas no pueden pagar sus servicios sus familias dan las mujeres a Jura a cambio del tratamiento mdico. +Como resultado de estas transacciones Jura tiene nueve esposas, 32 hijos y 63 nietos. +En su linaje se ve a los hijos y nietos aqu +Dos de sus esposas le fueron llevadas sufriendo infertilidad y l las cur, tres de malos espritus, una afectada de asma y dolor intenso en el pecho y a dos esposas Ondijo afirma que las tom por amor, pagando a sus familias un total de 16 vacas. +Una esposa lo abandon y otra falleci durante el tratamiento de los malos espritus. +La poligamia es una prctica generalizada en Kenya. +Es comn entre la clase privilegiada capaz de pagar numerosas dotes y mantener mltiples viviendas. +Los casos de figuras polticas y sociales prominentes en relaciones polgamas, han llevado a la percepcin de la poligamia como un smbolo de riqueza, estatus y poder. +Pueden observar que en varios de los captulos que he fotografiado hay retratos vacos. +Estos retratos vacos representan a personas, personas vivas, que no pudieron estar presentes. +Y las razones de su ausencia figuran en el panel de texto. +Estas incluyen: dengue, encarcelamiento, servicio militar, mujeres sin permiso para ser fotografiadas por razones culturales y religiosas. +Y en este captulo en particular, hay nios a lo que sus madres no les permitieron viajar a la sesin fotogrfica, por temor a que sus padres les secuestrasen durante el mismo. +Veinticuatro conejos europeos fueron llevados a Australia en 1859 por un colono britnico con fines deportivos, para la caza. +Y en cien aos esa poblacin de 24 se ha disparado hasta quinientos millones. +El conejo europeo no tiene depredadores naturales en Australia y compite con la fauna nativa y daa las plantas nativas y degrada la tierra. +Desde los aos 50, Australia ha estado introduciendo enfermedades letales en la poblacin de conejos silvestres para controlar el crecimiento. +Estos conejos fueron criados en una instalacin del gobierno, Bioseguridad de Queensland, donde se cran tres linajes de conejos y los han infectado con una enfermedad mortal y estn vigilando su progreso para ver si efectivamente los mata. +As que estn poniendo a prueba su virulencia. +Durante el transcurso de este ensayo, todos los conejos murieron, a excepcin de unos pocos, que fueron sacrificados. +Chocolates Haigh, en colaboracin con la Fundacin para la Australia Libre de Conejos, detuvo toda la produccin del conejo de pascua de chocolate y lo ha sustituido por el bilbi de pascua. +Esto se hizo para contrarrestar la celebracin anual de los conejos y se supone que har que el pblico est ms cmodo con la matanza de conejos y promocionar a un animal nativo de Australia, y de hecho un animal que est amenazado por el conejo europeo. +En el captulo sptimo, me centro en los efectos de un acto de genocidio en un linaje. +En un periodo de dos das, seis individuos de este linaje fueron asesinados en la masacre de Srebrenica. +Este es el nico trabajo en el que represento visualmente a los muertos. +Slo represento a los que fueron asesinados en la masacre de Srebrenica, que se document como el genocidio en masa ms grande en Europa desde la Segunda Guerra Mundial. +Y durante la masacre, 8.000 musulmanes bosnios, hombres y nios fueron ejecutados de manera sistemtica. +As que cuando nos fijamos en un detalle de este trabajo, se puede ver, el hombre en la parte superior izquierda es el padre de la mujer sentada a su lado. +Su nombre es Zumra. +Ella va seguida de sus cuatro hijos, todos ellos asesinados en la masacre de Srebrenica. +Despus de esos cuatro nios, est la hermana menor de Zumra que va seguida de sus hijos que fueron asesinados tambin. +Durante el tiempo que estuve en Bosnia, los restos mortales del hijo mayor de Zumra fueron exhumados de una fosa comn. +Y, por lo tanto, fui capaz de fotografiar los restos completamente dispuestos. +Sin embargo, las otras personas estn representadas por estas diapositivas azules, que muestran dientes y muestras de huesos que fueron comparadas con las pruebas de ADN recogidas de los miembros de la familia para demostrar que eran las identidades de aquellas personas. +Todos ellos han recibido un entierro apropiado, lo que queda son las diapositivas de color azul en la Comisin Internacional sobre Personas Desaparecidas. +Estos son los efectos personales desenterrados de una fosa comn que estn a la espera de la identificacin por miembros de la familia y el graffiti en la fbrica de bateras Potochari, donde los soldados holandeses de la ONU se alojaban, y tambin ms tarde los soldados serbios durante los periodos de las ejecuciones. +Este material de video utilizado en el juicio de Milosevic, que, de arriba a abajo, muestra una unidad escorpin serbia siendo bendecida por un sacerdote ortodoxo antes de reunir a los nios y los hombres y matarlos. +El Captulo 15 es ms una actuacin. +Solicit a la Oficina de Informacin del Estado de China en 2009 que seleccionara un linaje de varias generaciones para representar a China para este proyecto. +Eligieron una familia grande de Pekn por su tamao, y se negaron a darme ningn razonamiento ms para su eleccin. +Esta es una de las situaciones poco frecuentes donde no tengo retratos vacos. +Todo el mundo se present. +Tambin se puede ver la evolucin de la poltica del hijo nico a medida que se viaja a travs del linaje. +Conocido previamente como el Departamento de Propaganda Exterior, la Oficina de Informacin del Consejo de Estado es responsable de todas las operaciones de publicidad exterior de China. +Controla todos los medios de comunicacin extranjeros y la produccin de imgenes fuera de China de los medios de comunicacin extranjeros que trabajan dentro de China. +Tambin supervisa Internet e instruye a los medios locales sobre cmo manejar las cuestiones potencialmente polmicas, incluyendo el Tbet, las minoras tnicas, los derechos humanos, la religin, los movimientos democrticos y el terrorismo. +Para el panel de notas en este trabajo, esta oficina me dio instrucciones de fotografiar la torre de la televisin central de Pekn. +Y tambin fotografi la bolsa de regalo que me dieron cuando me fui. +Estos son los descendientes de Hans Frank que era el asesor jurdico personal de Hitler y el gobernador general de la Polonia ocupada. +Este linaje incluye numerosos retratos vacos, poniendo de relieve una relacin compleja con la historia de la familia de uno mismo. +Las razones de estas ausencias incluyen a personas que declinaron su participacin. +Tambin hay padres que participaron que no dejaron que sus hijos participaran porque pensaron que eran demasiado jvenes para decidir por s mismos. +Otra seccin de la familia present sus prendas de vestir, en lugar de su presencia fsica, porque no queran ser identificados con el pasado que yo estaba poniendo de relieve. +Y, por ltimo, otra persona se sent de espaldas a mi y ms tarde rescindi su participacin, as que tuve que pixelarlo para que sea irreconocible. +En el panel de notas que acompaa a este trabajo, fotografi un sello oficial de Adolph Hitler y una imitacin de ese sello producido por la Inteligencia britnica con la imagen de Hans Frank. +Fue lanzado en Polonia para crear friccin entre Frank y Hitler, de modo que Hitler imaginara que Frank estaba tratando de usurpar su poder. +Una vez ms, hablando del destino estaba interesada en las historias y el destino de determinadas obras de arte. +Estas pinturas fueron tomadas por Hans Frank durante el Tercer Reich. +Me interesa el impacto de su ausencia y su presencia a travs del tiempo. +Se trata de la "Dama del armio" de Leonardo da Vinci, "Paisaje con buen samaritano" de Rembrandt y "Retrato de un joven" de Rafael, que nunca ha sido encontrado. +El captulo 12 destaca a personas que nacen en una batalla que no crearon, pero se convierte en suya. +Esta es la familia Ferraz y la familia Novaes. +Y estn en una disputa familiar activa. +Esta disputa ha estado sucediendo desde el ao 1991 en el noreste de Brasil, en Pernambuco, e involucra las muertes de 20 miembros de las familias y de otros 40 asociados a la disputa, incluyendo a sicarios, transentes inocentes y amigos. +Las tensiones entre estas dos familias se remontan a 1913 cuando hubo una disputa por el poder poltico local. +Sin embargo, se volvi violenta en las ltimas dos dcadas e incluye la decapitacin y la muerte de dos alcaldes. +Instalados tras un muro de proteccin que rodea la casa de las afueras de Luis Novaes, que es el jefe de la familia Novaes, estn estos agujeros de torreta, que se utilizaban para disparar y mirar. +El estado brasileo de Pernambuco, al noreste, es una de las regiones ms violentas del pas. +Se basa en un principio de justicia punitiva, o de ojo por ojo, as que los asesinatos por represalia han dado lugar a varias muertes en la zona. +Esta historia, como muchas de las historias de mis captulos, se lee casi como un episodio arquetpico, como algo de Shakespeare, que est sucediendo ahora y volver a suceder en el futuro. +Me interesan estas ideas de repeticin. +As que despus de regresar a casa, recib la noticia de que un miembro de la familia haba recibido 30 disparos en la cara. +Captulo 17 es una exploracin de la ausencia de un linaje y la ausencia de una historia. +Los nios de este orfanato de Ucrania tienen entre 6 y 16 aos. +Esta pieza est ordenada por edad porque no puede ser ordenada por la sangre. +En 12 meses en los que estuve en el orfanato, slo fue adoptado un nio. +Los nios tienen que dejar el orfanato a los 16 aos, a pesar del hecho que con frecuencia no hay ningn lugar a donde puedan ir. +En Ucrania se seala con frecuencia que los nios, al salir del orfanato son objeto de trata de personas, pornografa infantil y prostitucin. +Muchos tienen que recurrir a actividades delictivas para sobrevivir y se registran altas tasas de suicidio. +Este es un dormitorio de nios. +Hay un suministro insuficiente de camas en el orfanato y no hay suficiente ropa de abrigo. +Los nios se baan con poca frecuencia porque el agua caliente no se enciende hasta octubre. +Este es un dormitorio de nias. +Y el director incluye en la lista de necesidades ms urgentes del orfanato una mquina de tamao industrial para lavado y secado, cuatro aspiradoras, dos ordenadores, un proyector de vdeo, una fotocopiadora, zapatos de invierno y un taladro de dentista. +Esta fotografa que tom en el orfanato de una de las aulas de clase, muestra un cartel que traduje al llegar a casa. +Y dice: "Aquellos que no conocen su pasado no son dignos de su futuro". +Hay muchos ms captulos en este proyecto. +Esto es slo una presentacin abreviada de ms de mil imgenes. +Y este enorme montn de imgenes e historias forman un archivo. +Y dentro de esta acumulacin de imgenes y textos, estoy luchando por encontrar patrones e imaginar que los relatos que rodean la vida que llevamos estn tan codificados como la propia sangre. +Sin embargo, los archivos existen porque hay algo que no puede ser articulado. +Algo que se dice en los espacios entre toda la informacin que se ha reunido. +Y est esta implacable persistencia de nacimiento y muerte y una coleccin interminable de historias en medio. +Es casi mecnica la manera en que las personas nacen y mueren y las historias siguen llegando y llegando. +Y con esto, estoy considerando, esta acumulacin misma conduce a una especie de evolucin o estamos repitiendo una y otra vez? +Gracias. +Hace unos meses se otorg el premio Nobel de fsica a dos equipos de astrnomos por un descubrimiento catalogado como una de las observaciones astronmicas ms importantes de la historia. +Pero la idea de multiverso es rara. +Digo, muchos nos hemos criado con la idea de que "universo" quiere decir "todo". +Y digo la mayora pensando como mi hija de cuatro aos que me ha odo hablar de estas ideas desde que naci. +El ao pasado la tena en brazos y le dije: "Sophia, eres a quien ms amo en el universo". +Me mir y dijo: "Papi, universo o multiverso?" +Pero salvo este tipo de crianza anmala, es raro imaginar otros reinos distintos de los nuestros, con caractersticas fundamentalmente diferentes, que puedan denominarse universos por derecho propio. +Y, sin embargo, aunque especulativa, la idea existe. Mi objetivo es convencerles de que hay razones para tomarlo en serio, porque podra ser correcto. +Contar la historia del multiverso en tres partes. +En la primera parte hablar de los resultados de los ganadores del Nobel y pondr de relieve el misterio profundo que revelaron esos resultados. +En la segunda parte ofrecer una solucin para ese misterio, +basada en un enfoque llamado teora de cuerdas y es all que aparecer el multiverso en esta historia. +Finalmente, en la tercera parte, describir una teora cosmolgica llamada inflacin que unir todas las piezas de la historia. +Bueno, la primera parte empieza en 1929 cuando el gran astrnomo Edwin Hubble se dio cuenta de que las galaxias lejanas estaban huyendo de nosotros y estableci que el propio espacio se est estirando, se est expandiendo. +Esto fue revolucionario. +La idea predominante era que, a muy gran escala, el universo era esttico. +Pero aun as, haba algo de lo que todo el mundo estaba seguro: la expansin debera estar desacelerndose. +As como la fuerza gravitacional terrestre retrasa el ascenso de una manzana lanzada hacia arriba, la fuerza gravitacional de cada galaxia sobre las dems debera aminorar la expansin del espacio. +Ahora avancemos hasta los aos 1990 cuando esos dos equipos de astrnomos que mencion al principio se inspiraron en este razonamiento para medir la tasa de desaceleracin de la expansin. +Y lo hicieron observando meticulosamente muchas galaxias lejanas, lo que les permiti graficar el cambio de la tasa de expansin en el tiempo. +Y he aqu la sorpresa: encontraron que la expansin no se est desacelerando. +Por el contrario, se est acelerando; va cada vez ms rpido. +Es como lanzar una manzana hacia arriba y que ascienda cada vez ms rpido. +Si vieran que una manzana hace eso querran saber el porqu. +Qu la empuja? +Del mismo modo, los resultados de estos astrnomos, sin duda meritorios del premio Nobel, arrojaron una pregunta similar: +Qu fuerza lleva a las galaxias a huir de las dems a una velocidad cada vez mayor? +Bueno, la respuesta ms prometedora viene de una vieja idea de Einstein. +Estamos acostumbrados a ver a la gravedad como una fuerza que hace una sola cosa: atrae objetos mutuamente. +Pero en la teora de la gravedad de Einstein, en su teora de la relatividad general, la gravedad tambin puede repeler. +Cmo? Bueno, segn los clculos de Einstein si el espacio est ocupado uniformemente por una energa invisible, una especie de niebla uniforme e invisible, entonces la gravedad generada por esa niebla sera repelente, gravedad expansiva, que es justo lo que necesitamos para explicar las observaciones. +Dado que la gravedad expansiva de una energa invisible del espacio -- ahora la llamamos energa oscura, pero la puse como humo blanco para que puedan verla -- su gravedad expansiva hara que cada galaxia empuje a las otras, acelerando la expansin, en vez de aminorarla. +Esta explicacin representa un gran avance. +Pero les promet un misterio aqu en la primera parte. +Es ste. +Cuando los astrnomos calcularon la cantidad de energa oscura que debe tener el espacio para dar cuenta de la aceleracin csmica miren lo que encontraron. +Es un nmero pequeo. +Expresado en la unidad significativa es espectacularmente pequeo. +El misterio consiste en explicar este nmero peculiar. +Queremos que este nmero surja de las leyes de la fsica pero hasta ahora nadie ha encontrado la manera de hacerlo. +Tal vez se pregunten: debera importar? +Quiz explicar este nmero es un tema tcnico, un detalle tcnico que interesa a los expertos pero que no le importa a nadie ms. +Claro que es un detalle tcnico, pero algunos detalles importan mucho. +Algunos detalles abren la puerta a otras realidades desconocidas y este nmero peculiar puede tener esa funcin, dado que el nico enfoque que hasta ahora avanza en una explicacin suscita la posibilidad de otros universos -- una idea que naturalmente surge de la teora de cuerdas -- lo que me lleva a la segunda parte: la teora de cuerdas. +Guarden el misterio de la energa oscura en sus mentes mientras prosigo hablando de tres cosas claves de la teora de cuerdas. +En primer lugar: qu es? +Bueno, es un enfoque para hacer realidad el sueo de Einstein de una teora unificada de la fsica, un marco conceptual nico capaz de describir todas las fuerzas que actan en el universo. +Y la idea central de la teora de cuerdas es muy sencilla. +Dice que si uno examina la materia cada vez ms en detalle al principio encontrar molculas, luego tomos y partculas subatmicas. +Pero la teora de cuerdas dice que si vamos ms al detalle mucho ms de lo que hoy se puede con la tecnologa existente uno encontrara algo ms dentro de estas partculas: un filamento de energa diminuto, una diminuta cuerda vibratoria. +Y, al igual que las cuerdas de un violn, pueden vibrar siguiendo patrones diferentes que producen distintas notas musicales. +Estas pequeas cuerdas fundamentales, al vibrar siguiendo diferentes patrones, produciran distintos tipos de partculas -- electrones, quarks, neutrinos, fotones y todas las otras partculas -- unificadas en un mismo marco conceptual y todas provendran de cuerdas vibratorias. +Es un panorama fascinante, una suerte de sinfona csmica, en la que toda la riqueza que vemos en el mundo circundante surge de la msica ejecutada por estas diminutas cuerdas. +Pero esta unificacin elegante tiene un costo, porque aos de investigacin han demostrado que el clculo de la teora de cuerdas no cuadra bien. +Tiene inconsistencias internas, a menos que aceptemos algo totalmente desconocido: otras dimensiones del espacio. +Es decir, todos conocemos las tres dimensiones tpicas del espacio. +Se las puede pensar como alto, ancho y profundidad. +Pero la teora de cuerdas dice que, a escalas increblemente pequeas, hay otras dimensiones adicionales estrujadas de tal manera que no las hemos detectado. +Pero aunque esas dimensiones estn ocultas, podran tener un impacto en las cosas que observamos porque la forma de esas dimensiones adicionales restringen la vibracin de las cuerdas. +Y en la teora de cuerdas la vibracin lo determina todo. +As, la masa de las partculas, la intensidad de las fuerzas y, lo ms importante, la cantidad de energa oscura, estara determinada por la forma de estas dimensiones adicionales. +Si conociramos estas otras dimensiones podramos calcular estas fuerzas, calcular la cantidad de materia oscura. +El desafo es que desconocemos la forma de las dimensiones adicionales. +Slo contamos con una lista de formas candidatas calculadas matemticamente. +Cuando surgieron estas ideas por primera vez slo haba unas cinco formas candidatas, de modo que podamos pensar en analizarlas una a una para determinar si alguna tena las caractersticas fsicas que observamos. +Pero con el tiempo la lista creci a medida que los investigadores encontraban otras formas candidatas. +De cinco pasaron a ser cientos y luego miles. Una cantidad grande, pero todava manejable. Despus de todo los estudiantes de posgrado necesitan algo que hacer. +Pero luego la lista sigui creciendo a millones y millones de millones, hasta hoy. +La lista de formas candidatas ha remontado de unas 10 a 500. +Entonces, qu hacer? +Bueno, algunos investigadores perdieron el nimo; llegaron a la conclusin de que si hay tantas formas para las dimensiones adicionales y cada una da lugar a distintas caractersticas fsicas, la teora de cuerdas nunca dar predicciones definitivas, comprobables. +Pero otros le dieron una vuelta al asunto y analizaron la posibilidad de un multiverso. +Esta es la idea. +Quiz todas estas formas estn en pie de igualdad unas con otras. +Cada una es tan real como las otras, en el sentido de que hay muchos universos y en cada uno las dimensiones adicionales adquieren una forma diferente. +Esta propuesta radical tiene un profundo impacto en este misterio: la cantidad de energa oscura revelada por los resultados de los premios Nobel. +Porque como ven, si hay otros universos y si esos universos tienen, digamos, formas diferentes para las dimensiones adicionales, luego las caractersticas fsicas de cada universo sern diferentes y, en particular, la cantidad de energa oscura en cada universo ser diferente. +Lo que significa que el misterio de explicar la cantidad de energa oscura que hemos medido tendra un carcter totalmente diferente. +En este contexto, las leyes de la fsica no podran explicar un nmero para la energa oscura porque no habra un solo nmero, habra muchos nmeros. +Lo que significa que hemos estado hacindonos la pregunta equivocada. +La pregunta correcta es: Por qu los seres humanos nos encontramos en un universo con una determinada cantidad de energa oscura, que hemos medido, en vez de en cualquier otra posibilidad de las existentes? +Y esa es una cuestin sobre la que podemos avanzar. +Porque en esos universos que tienen mucha ms energa oscura que el nuestro siempre que la materia trata de agruparse en galaxias, el empuje expansivo de la energa oscura es tan fuerte que dispersa el cmulo y las galaxias no se forman. +Y los universos en los que hay mucha menos energa oscura colapsan sobre s mismos tan rpidamente que, de nuevo, las galaxias no se forman. +Y sin galaxias, no hay estrellas, ni planetas ni posibilidad de nuestra forma de vida en esos otros universos. +As que estamos en un universo con esa cantidad particular de energa oscura que hemos medido sencillamente porque nuestro universo tiene condiciones favorables a nuestra forma de vida. +Y eso sera todo. +Misterio resuelto, multiverso encontrado. +Pero algunos piensan que esta explicacin es poco satisfactoria. +Estamos acostumbrados a la fsica que nos da explicaciones definitivas para los fenmenos que observamos. +Pero la idea es que si el fenmeno que observamos puede aceptar, y lo hace, una gran variedad de valores distintos en el amplio panorama de la realidad, entonces pensar una explicacin para un valor particular es llanamente errneo. +Un viejo ejemplo es el del gran astrnomo Johannes Kepler que tena una obsesin por comprender otro nmero: por qu el Sol est a casi 150 millones de km de la Tierra? +Trabaj durante dcadas intentando explicar este nmero, pero nunca lo logr, y sabemos por qu. +Kepler se haca la pregunta equivocada. +Ahora sabemos que hay muchos planetas y una amplia variedad de diferentes distancias a sus estrellas. +As que esperar que las leyes de la fsica expliquen un nmero en particular, 150 millones de km, eso es sencillamente errneo. +En cambio, la pregunta correcta es: por qu los seres humanos estamos en un planeta, a esta distancia en particular, en vez de estar a otra de las posibles distancias? +De nuevo, eso es algo que podemos responder. +En esos planetas que estn mucho ms cercanos a una estrella como el Sol hara tanto calor que nuestra forma de vida no existira. +Y los planetas que estn mucho ms lejos de esa estrella estn tan fros que, de nuevo, nuestra forma de vida no prosperara. +As que estamos en un planeta a esta distancia en particular sencillamente porque brinda las condiciones esenciales para nuestra forma de vida. +Y si se trata de planetas y sus distancias claramente este es el razonamiento correcto. +La idea es que si se trata de universos y de la energa oscura que contienen tambin puede ser el razonamiento correcto. +Claro, una diferencia clave es que sabemos que hay otros planetas pero hasta ahora slo he especulado con la posibilidad de que existan otros universos. +As que para juntar todo necesitamos un mecanismo que pueda generar otros universos. +Y eso me lleva a mi ltima parte, la tercera parte. +Porque los cosmlogos han encontrado este mecanismo tratando de entender el Big Bang. +Ya ven, al hablar del Big Bang a menudo pensamos en una especie de explosin csmica que cre nuestro universo y gener el espacio abruptamente. +Pero hay un pequeo secreto. +El Big Bang deja de lado algo muy importante, el Bang. +Nos cuenta la evolucin del universo despus del Bang, pero no nos explica qu habra alimentado al propio Bang. +Finalmente esta brecha se cubri con una versin mejorada de la teora del Big Bang. +Se llama cosmologa inflacionaria, e identifica un tipo particular de combustible que generara en forma natural una expansin del espacio. +El combustible se basa en algo llamado campo cuntico, pero el nico detalle que nos importa es que este combustible resulta ser tan eficiente que es prcticamente imposible usarlo todo lo que significa en la teora inflacionaria que el Big Bang que origin nuestro universo probablemente no fue un evento de nica vez. +Por el contrario, el combustible no slo gener nuestro Big Bang sino que generara otros incontables Big Bangs, cada uno dando lugar a su propio universo separado siendo nuestro universo slo una burbuja en el gran bao csmico de burbujas de universos. +Y cuando fundimos esto con la teora de cuerdas obtenemos esta imagen. +Cada uno de estos universos tiene dimensiones adicionales +que adoptan una amplia variedad de formas diferentes. +Las diferentes formas producen fenmenos fsicos diferentes. +Y nosotros estamos en un universo y no en otro sencillamente porque slo en nuestro universo los fenmenos fsicos, como la cantidad de energa oscura, son adecuados para que prospere nuestra forma de vida. +Y esta es la imagen convincente pero muy polmica de un cosmos ms amplio que las teoras y observaciones de vanguardia nos han llevado a considerar seriamente. +Claro, una gran pregunta remanente es si alguna vez podremos confirmar la existencia de otros universos. +Bueno, describir una forma en que algn da puede ocurrir. +La teora inflacionaria ya cuenta con un fuerte apoyo observacional. +Yendo ms all, si hay otros universos, la teora predice que de vez en cuando esos universos pueden colisionar. +Y si nuestro universo chocara con otro, esa colisin generara un sutil patrn adicional de variaciones trmicas en el espacio que algn da podramos detectar. +As que por ms extica que parezca esta imagen algn da podra fundamentarse en observaciones que establezcan la existencia de otros universos. +Concluir con una consecuencia sorprendente de todas estas ideas para un futuro muy lejano. +Como ven, aprendimos que nuestro universo no es esttico, que el espacio est en expansin, que esa expansin se acelera y que habra otros universos todo a partir de examinar cuidadosamente tenues seales de luz estelar que nos llegan de galaxias lejanas. +Pero dado que la expansin se acelera, en un futuro muy lejano esas galaxias se alejarn tanto y a tanta velocidad que no podremos verlas; no debido a limitaciones tecnolgicas sino a las leyes de la fsica. +La luz que emiten esas galaxias an viajando a la mxima velocidad, la velocidad de la luz, no podrn sortear el abismo cada vez mayor que hay entre nosotros. +Por eso los astrnomos en un futuro lejano al mirar el espacio profundo no vern ms que una interminable extensin de una esttica quietud azabache. +Y concluirn que el universo es esttico e invariable y est poblado por un oasis central de materia que ellos habitan; una imagen del cosmos que definitivamente sabemos que es errnea. +Pero quiz esos astrnomos del futuro tendrn registros de una poca anterior, como la nuestra, que acredite un cosmos en expansin repleto de galaxias. +Pero esos astrnomos futuros creeran tales conocimientos antiguos? +O creeran en el universo negro, esttico y vaco revelado por sus observaciones de vanguardia? +Sospecho que creeran lo ltimo. +Lo que significa que estamos viviendo una poca muy privilegiada en la que ciertas verdades profundas del cosmos todava estn al alcance del espritu humano de exploracin. +Parece que puede que no siempre sea as. +Porque los astrnomos de hoy, apuntando potentes telescopios hacia el cielo, capturaron un puado de fotones con mucha informacin, una especie de telegrama csmico, que viaj miles de millones de aos. +Y el mensaje que atraves las eras es claro. +A veces la naturaleza guarda sus secretos con el puo inquebrantable de las leyes fsicas. +A veces la verdadera naturaleza de la realidad llama desde ms all del horizonte. +Muchas gracias. +Chris Anderson: Brian, gracias. +La gama de ideas de las que acabas de hablar es vertiginosa, emocionante, increble. +En qu etapa est la cosmologa hoy?, en una especie de etapa histrica? +En tu opinin, estamos en medio de algo inusual en trminos histricos? +BG: Bueno, es difcil de decir. +Cuando nos enteramos de que los astrnomos del futuro lejano podran no tener informacin para entender las cosas la pregunta natural es que quiz ya estamos en esa posicin y ciertas caractersticas del universo, profundas, crticas, ya se han escapado a nuestra capacidad de comprensin debido a la forma en que evoluciona la cosmologa. +Desde ese punto de vista, quiz siempre nos haremos preguntas que nunca podremos responder plenamente. +Por un lado, ahora podemos entender la edad del universo. +Podemos comprender cmo entender los datos de la radiacin de fondo de microondas de hace 13 720 millones de aos y podemos calcularlo hoy para predecir su aspecto y coincide. +Santo cielo! Eso es increble. +Por otro lado, es increble lo que hemos conseguido pero quin sabe qu tipo de bloques podemos encontrar en el futuro. +CA: Estars por aqu en los prximos das. +Tal vez algunas de estas conversaciones puedan continuar. +Gracias. Gracias, Brian. (BG: El placer es mo) +Es un gran honor estar aqu. +Es un gran honor estar aqu hablando de ciudades, hablando del futuro de las ciudades. +Es estupendo estar aqu como alcalde. +Realmente creo que los alcaldes tienen el papel poltico de cambiar de verdad la vida de la gente. +Es el lugar donde hay que estar. +Y es estupendo estar aqu como alcalde de Ro. +Ro es una ciudad hermosa, un lugar vibrante, un lugar especial. +Ahora mismo, estn viendo a un to que tiene el mejor trabajo del mundo. +Y de verdad quera compartir con vosotros un momento muy especial de mi vida y de la historia de la ciudad de Ro. +Presentador: Y ahora, seoras y seores, el sobre que contiene el resultado. +Jacques Rogge: Tengo el honor de anunciar que la 31 edicin de los Juegos Olmpicos es para la ciudad de Ro de Janeiro. +Vale, es muy conmovedor, muy emotivo, pero no fue fcil llegar ah. +Realmente fue un reto muy duro. +Tuvimos que vencer a la monarqua europea. +Este es Juan Carlos, rey de Espaa. +Tuvimos que vencer al poderoso japons y toda su tecnologa. +Tuvimos que vencer al hombre ms poderoso del mundo defendiendo su propia ciudad. +As que no fue para nada fcil. +Y de hecho ste ltimo dijo aqu una frase hace unos cuantos aos que creo que se adapta perfectamente a la situacin de Ro ganando la puja de las Olimpiadas. +Mostramos de verdad ese, "s, nosotros podemos". +Y de verdad, esta es la razn por la que vine aqu esta noche. +Vine aqu esta noche para contaros que las cosas se pueden lograr, que no tienes siempre que ser rico o poderoso para que las cosas salgan, que las ciudades son un gran reto. +Es una tarea difcil lidiar con las ciudades. +Pero con algunas maneras originales de hacer las cosas, con algunos mandamientos bsicos, puedes lograr que las ciudades sean un gran, gran lugar donde vivir. +Quiero que todos os imaginis Ro. +Probablemente pensis en una ciudad llena de energa, una ciudad vibrante llena de verde. +Y nadie lo mostr mejor que Carlos Saldanha en "Ro", del ao pasado. +Pjaro: Esto es increble. +EP: De acuerdo, algunas partes de Ro son as, pero no es as en todas partes. +Somos como toda gran ciudad en el mundo. +Tenemos mucha gente, polucin, coches, cemento, mucho cemento. +Estas imgenes que estoy mostrando, son fotos de Madureira. +Es como el corazn de los suburbios de Ro. +Y quiero usar un ejemplo de Ro de lo que estamos haciendo en Madureira, en esta regin, para ver qu es lo que consideramos como nuestro primer mandamiento. +As que cada vez que veis una jungla de cemento como esa, lo que tenis que hacer es buscar espacios abiertos. +Si no tenis espacios abiertos, tenis que ir all y abrir espacios. +Y adentraros en estos espacios abiertos y hacer que la gente pueda entrar y usar esos espacios. +Este ser el tercer ms grande parque de Ro en junio de este ao. +Ser un lugar donde la gente podr encontrarse, donde puedes poner naturaleza. +La temperatura va a descender dos o tres grados centgrados. +As que el primer mandamiento que quiero dejaros esta noche es, que una ciudad del futuro tiene que ser ecolgica. +Cada vez que pienses en una ciudad, tienes que pensar verde. +Tienes que pensar verde y verde. +Vayamos al segundo mandamiento que quiero mostraros. +Pensemos que las ciudades estn hechas de gente, muchsima gente junta. +las ciudades estn repletas de gente. +As que cmo mueves a toda esta gente? +Si tienes a 3500 millones de personas viviendo en ciudades que para el 2050 sern 6000 millones. +As que cuando piensas en cmo mover a toda esta gente, piensas en transportes de gran capacidad. +Pero hay un problema. +Transportes de gran capacidad significa gastar mucho, mucho dinero. +As que lo que voy a mostrar aqu es algo que ya fue presentado en TED por el antiguo alcalde de Curitiba que cre esto, una ciudad en Brasil, Jaime Lerner. +Y es algo que estamos haciendo de nuevo, en Ro. +Es el BRT (Bus Rapid Transit), autobs de trnsito rpido. +As que coges un autobs. Un autobs normal que todo el mundo conoce. +Y lo transformas por dentro como un vagn de tren. +Usas carriles separados, carriles exclusivos. +A los contratistas no les gusta eso. +No tienes que cavar en la tierra. +Puedes construir estaciones bonitas. +Esta es una estacin que estamos construyendo en Ro. +Insisto, no tienes que cavar en la tierra para hacer una estacin as. +Esta estacin tiene las mismas comodidades, las mismas caractersticas que una estacin de metro. +Un kilmetro de esto cuesta una dcima parte de una estacin de metro. +As que se gasta mucho menos y se hace mucho ms rpido, puedes realmente cambiar la forma en que se mueve la gente. +Esto es un mapa de Ro. +Todas las lneas, las lneas de colores que veis, es nuestra red de transporte de gran capacidad. +Actualmente, slo trasportamos al 18% de nuestra poblacin con el transporte de gran capacidad. +Con el BRT que estamos haciendo, insisto, la forma ms barata y rpida, vamos a mover al 63% de la poblacin llevada por el transporte de gran capacidad. +As que recordad lo que he dicho: no siempre tienes que ser rico o poderoso para lograr las cosas. +Puedes buscar formas originales de hacer las cosas. +As que el segundo mandamiento que quiero dejaros esta noche es, que una ciudad del futuro tiene que lidiar con la movilidad y la integracin de su gente. +Pasemos al tercer mandamiento. +Y este es el ms polmico. +Tiene que ver con las favelas, las barriadas - como las llamis, se les da diferentes nombres en todo el mundo. +Pero a dnde queremos llegar aqu esta noche es, a que las favelas no son siempre un problema. +Quiero decir, las favelas pueden a veces ser una solucin, si lo afrontas, si llevas las polticas pblicas a las favelas. +Djame mostraros de nuevo un mapa de Ro. +Ro tiene 6,3 millones de habitantes - Ms del 20%, 1,4 millones, viven en las favelas. +Todas estas partes rojas son favelas. +As que como veis, estn por toda la ciudad. +Esta es una imagen tpica de una favela de Ro. +Podis ver el contraste entre los ricos y los pobres. +Quiero remarcar dos puntos esta noche sobre las favelas. +El primero es, que puedes cambiar de lo que llamamos un crculo vicioso a un crculo virtuoso. +pero lo que tienes que hacer para llegar a eso es meterte dentro de las favelas, llevar los servicios bsicos- principalmente educacin y sanidad - de alta calidad. +Voy a daros un ejemplo rpido. +Este era un edificio viejo en una favela de Ro - Colonia Juliano Moreira que transformamos en una escuela primaria, de gran calidad. +Este es un centro de salud primario que construimos dentro de una favela, de nuevo, de buena calidad. +Lo llamamos clnica familiar. +As que el primer punto es llevar los servicios bsicos a las favelas con alta calidad. +El segundo punto que quiero exponer sobre las favelas es, que tienes que abrir espacios en la favela. +Llevar infraestructuras a las favelas, a las barriadas, adonde ests. +Ro tiene el objetivo, para el 2020, de tener todas sus favelas completamente urbanizadas. +Otro ejemplo, esto estaba completamente repleto de casas, y entonces construimos esto, lo que llamamos, una plaza del conocimiento. +Es un lugar con alta tecnologa donde los nios que viven en una casa pobre cerca de este lugar pueden entrar y tener acceso a toda la tecnologa. +Incluso construimos una sala de cine en 3D. +Y este es el tipo de cambio que puedes lograr. +Y al final del da recibes algo mejor que el Premio TED, la gran sonrisa de un nio que vive en una favela. +As que el tercer mandamiento que quiero dejar aqu esta noche es, que una ciudad del futuro tiene que estar socialmente integrada. +No puedes tratar con una ciudad si no est socialmente integrada. +Pero sin nuestro cuarto mandamiento, no podra estar aqu esta noche. +Entre noviembre y mayo, Ro est completamente repleto. +La semana pasada acabamos de tener el Carnaval. +Fue maravilloso. Hubo mucha diversin. +Tenemos la Fiesta de Ao Nuevo. +Hay como dos millones de personas en la Playa de Copacabana. +Tenemos problemas. +Luchamos contra las inundaciones, las lluvias tropicales en esta poca del ao. +Podis imaginaros lo contenta que se pone la gente conmigo viendo este tipo de escenas. +Tenemos problemas con las lluvias tropicales. +Casi cada ao tenemos estos desprendimientos de tierra, que son terribles. +Pero la razn por la que pude venir aqu es por esto. +Esto es algo que hicimos con IBM hace poco ms de un ao. +Es lo que llamamos el Centro de Operaciones de Ro. +Y quera mostrar que yo puedo gobernar mi ciudad usando tecnologa, desde aqu, desde Long Beach, de manera que estoy aqu esta noche y lo s todo. +Vamos a hablar ahora con el Centro de Operaciones. +Este es Osorio, l es nuestro Secretario de los Asuntos Urbansticos. +Osorio, encantado de estar aqu contigo. +Acabo de contarle a la gente que tenemos lluvias tropicales en esta poca del ao. +As que, cmo est el clima en Ro ahora? +Osorio: El clima est bien. Hoy tenemos un buen tiempo. +Djame mostrarte el radar del satlite climtico. +Aqu ves un poco de humedad alrededor de la ciudad. +No hay en absoluto problemas para la ciudad en trminos del clima, ni hoy ni en los prximos das. +EP: Muy bien, y cmo est el trfico? +En esta poca del ao, tenemos muchos atascos. +La gente se enfada con el alcalde. As que cmo est el trfico esta noche? +Osorio: el trfico esta noche est bien. +Djame ensearte uno de nuestros 8000 autobuses. +Una transmisin en vivo del centro de Ro para usted, seor alcalde. +Ya ve, las carreteras estn despejadas. +Ahora son las 11:00 p.m. en Ro. +Nada de qu preocuparse en referencia al trfico. +Te mostrar ahora los incidentes de hoy. +Tuvimos mucho trfico por la maana temprano y en la hora punta por la tarde, pero nada de qu alarmarse. +Estamos por debajo del promedio en lo referente al trfico en la ciudad. +EP: Muy bien, as que ahora me ests mostrando algunos servicios pblicos. +Estos son los coches. +Osorio: por supuesto, seor alcalde. +Djeme que le ensee el parque de los camiones de basura. +Esta es una transmisin en directo. +Tenemos GPS en todos los camiones. +Y los puedes ver trabajando por toda la ciudad. +Recoleccin de basura a tiempo. +Servicios pblicos funcionando bien. +EP: Vale, Osorio, muchas gracias. +Ha sido estupendo tenerte con nosotros. +Prosigamos para poder llegar a una conclusin. +Bien, as que no hay archivos, ni papeleo, ni distancias, trabajando 24/7. +Por lo tanto el cuarto mandamiento que quiero compartir con vosotros esta noche es, que una ciudad del futuro tiene que usar la tecnologa para estar presente. +Ya no necesito estar all para saber y administrar la ciudad. +Pero todo lo que dije esta noche, o los mandamientos, son formas, son modos, para poder gobernar las ciudades - invertir en infraestructura, invertir en verde, abrir parques, abrir espacios, integrar socialmente, usar tecnologa. +Pero al final del da, cuando hablamos de ciudades, hablamos de reunin de personas. +Y no podemos ver eso como un problema. +Eso es algo fantstico. +Si hay 3500 millones ahora, sern 6 mil millones y luego 10 mil. +Eso es genial, eso significa que vamos a tener 10 mil millones de mentes trabajando juntas, 10 mil millones de talentos juntos. +Por lo tanto una ciudad del futuro, creo realmente que es una ciudad que se preocupa de sus ciudadanos, que integra socialmente a sus ciudadanos. +Una ciudad del futuro es una ciudad que no puede dejar nunca a nadie fuera de esa gran fiesta, que son las ciudades. +Muchsimas gracias. +Para mucha gente este es un dispositivo para comprar, vender, jugar, ver videos. +Yo creo que puede ser un salvavidas. +Creo que podra salvar ms vidas que la penicilina. +Enviar mensajes de texto: s que digo enviar textos y muchos piensan en sexo, muchos piensan en fotos obscenas, espero que sus hijos no enven de esas fotos a alguien, o intentar traducir abreviaturas como LOL, TQM, SDS. +Ms tarde puedo ayudarles con esos. +Pero los padres aqu presentes saben que enviar textos es, en efecto, la mejor manera de comunicarse con los hijos. +Podra ser la nica forma de comunicarse con ellos. +El adolescente promedio enva 3339 mensajes por mes si no es una chica; en ese caso, enva casi 4000. +El secreto es que ellas abren todos los mensajes. +Los mensajes tienen una tasa de apertura del 100 %. +Los padres estn realmente alarmados. +Se trata de 100 % de mensajes ledos aunque no responda si uno le pregunta si vendr a casa para la cena. +Les aseguro que lee el mensaje. +Y no es un fenmeno limitado a los adolescentes suburbanos que tienen un iPhone. +Los mensajes SMS son vitales para la juventud minoritaria y urbana. +Lo s porque en DoSomething.org, la mayor organizacin en EE.UU. para adolescentes e intercambio social, hace unos seis meses empezamos a hacer hincapi en los mensajes de texto. +Ahora enviamos unos 200 000 mensajes a adolescentes por semana con campaas de ecologa para sus escuelas o para trabajar con los sintecho y ese tipo de cosas. +Constatamos que es 11 veces ms potente que el correo electrnico. +Tambin descubrimos consecuencias inesperadas. +Recibimos respuestas como esta: +Hoy no quiero ir a la escuela. +Los chicos me llaman maricn. +Me automutilaba, mis padres se enteraron, dej de hacerlo. +Pero he vuelto a hacerlo hace una hora. +O, l no deja de violarme. +Me dijo que no se lo contara a nadie. +Es mi pap. Ests all?. +En efecto, recibimos ese ltimo mensaje. +Y, s, estamos all. +Nunca olvidar el da que recibimos ese mensaje. +Ese fue el da que decidimos que tenamos que crear una lnea de asistencia de SMS para crisis. +Porque esa no es nuestra tarea. +Hacemos cambio social. +Los adolescentes envan estos mensajes de texto porque les resultan cmodos y familiares y como no tienen quin los ayude, nos envan los mensajes a nosotros. +Pinsenlo: una lnea de sms es algo bastante potente. +Es rpido, es bastante privado. +Nadie te oye en una cabina, envas los mensajes en silencio. +Es en tiempo real. +Podemos ayudar a millones de adolescentes con consejos y recomendaciones. +Es genial. +Pero lo que lo hace fantstico son los datos. +Porque no me siento tranquila al ayudar a esa chica solo con consejos y recomendaciones. +Quiero evitar que ocurra esa mierda. +Piensen en CompStat, +un sistema que hay en Nueva York. +Es de la polica; sola tratar solo deduccin, trabajo policial. +Luego empezaron a cartografiar la criminalidad. +Y empezaron a seguir y observar pequeos hurtos, citaciones, todo ese tipo de cosas; esencialmente, a hacer mapas del futuro. +Y encontraron cosas como: si la metanfetamina circula por las calles, y hay presencia policial, se puede frenar la ola potencial de asaltos y robos, de otro modo inevitable. +De hecho, al ao siguiente de implementar CompStat, la tasa de homicidios baj un 60 %. +Piensen en los datos obtenidos con una lnea de ayuda por sms. +No hay un censo de intimidaciones, malos tratos, desrdenes alimenticios, automutilaciones, ni violaciones. No hay censo. +Quiz haya algunos estudios longitudinales, que cuestan mucho dinero y llevan mucho tiempo. +O tal vez hay alguna prueba endeble. +Imaginen contar con datos en tiempo real sobre cada uno de estos problemas. +Podran ayudar a legislar. +Podran ayudar en polticas educativas. +Podran decirle al director: Tiene un problema todos los jueves a las tres de la tarde. +Qu est pasando en su escuela?. +Podran ver el impacto inmediato de la legislacin o de un odioso discurso que alguien da en una asamblea escolar y ver qu sucede. +Para m, esto es el poder de los sms y el poder de los datos. +Gracias. +Doscientos cincuenta y nueve millones ciento seis mil kilos de toallas de papel usan los estadounidenses cada ao. +Si pudiramos -correccin, cifra incorrecta- 5900 millones cada ao. +Si pudiramos reducir el uso a una toalla de papel por persona, por da, ahorraramos 259 106 000 kilos de papel. +Podemos hacerlo. +Hay todo tipo de dispensadores de toallas de papel. +Estn los de tres pliegues. La gente generalmente toma dos o tres. +Estn los que se arrancan. +La gente arranca uno, dos, tres, cuatro. +Un trozo as, cierto? +Estn los de corte automtico. +La gente toma uno, dos, tres, cuatro. +O estn los mismos, pero de papel reciclado, y se toman cinco hojas porque no absorben tanto, por supuesto. +El hecho es que puede secarse con una sola toalla. +La clave est en dos palabras: Para esta mitad de la sala la palabra es "sacudir". +Quiero orlos. "Sacudir". Ms fuerte. +Audiencia: "Sacudir". +Joe Smith: Para Uds. la palabra es "plegar". +Audiencia: "Plegar". +JS: Nuevamente. +Audiencia: "Plegar". JS: Bien fuerte. +Audiencia: "Sacudir". "Plegar". +JS: Bien. Manos hmedas. +Sacudir; uno, dos, tres, cuatro, cinco, seis, siete, ocho, nueve, diez, once, doce. +Por qu 12? Doce apstoles, doce tribus, doce signos del zodaco, doce meses. El que ms me gusta: en ingls, es el nmero ms grande de una slaba . +Tres pliegues. Plegar... +Secar. +Audiencia: "Sacudir". +"Plegar". +JS: Las de corte automtico. Plegar. El pliegue es importante porque permite suspensin intersticial. +No tendrn que recordar esto, pero confen en m. +Audiencia: "Sacudir". "Plegar". +JS: Las de corte automtico. +Lo gracioso es que tengo las manos ms secas que la gente que usa tres o cuatro hojas porque ellos no secan entre las hendiduras. +Si lo piensan, esto no es tan bueno... +Audiencia: "Sacudir". "Plegar". +JS: Hay una invencin muy elegante, esa en la que uno mueve la mano y expulsa la hoja. +Sale una toalla muy grande. +Les dir un secreto. +Si son rpidos, si son realmente rpidos... y puedo demostrarlo... esta es media toalla del dispensador de este edificio. +Cmo? Ni bien empieza, hay que cortarla. +Es inteligente y se detiene. +As, obtenemos la mitad de una toalla. +Audiencia: "Sacudir". "Plegar". +JS: Ahora todos juntos. "Sacudir". "Plegar". +Debern recordar estas palabras el resto de sus vidas cada vez que tomen una toalla de papel. +Y recuerden, una toalla por persona por ao equivale a 259 106 000 kilos de papel. No es un tema menor. +El ao que viene, el papel higinico. +Si pensamos en los juegos, los hay de todo tipo. +Algunos nos indignan o, a veces, esperamos ansiosamente un nuevo juego. O nos quedamos jugando hasta tarde. +Todo eso me ha ocurrido. +Pero muchas veces cuando hablamos de juegos pensamos en juegos de primera persona, o en los grandes, lo que llamamos juegos AAA, o quiz hablamos de los juegos de Facebook. +En ste trabajamos con mi socio. +Tal vez jueguen en Facebook, actualmente estamos haciendo un tipo de juego ms liviano. +Quiz piensan en esos juegos de mesa que nos aburren como ostras, de los que somos rehenes en ocasiones como Accin de Gracias. +Este sera uno de esos juegos de mesa que aburren como ostras que se imaginaron. +O uno puede estar en la sala, ya saben, jugando a la Wii con los nios, o algo por el estilo, y hay una gran variedad de juegos y pienso justamente en eso. +Me gano la vida con los juegos. Tengo la suerte de hacerlo desde los 15 aos, lo que tambin significa que nunca tuve un trabajo de verdad. +Pensamos en los juegos como algo divertido y es completamente razonable, pero detengmonos en esto. +Estos son los JJ.OO. de 1980. +No s donde estaban Uds., pero yo en mi sala de estar. Fue un acontecimiento casi religioso +Este es el momento en el que EE.UU. vence a Rusia y fue... s, tcnicamente fue un juego. +El hockey es un juego. Pero, realmente, fue un juego? +Digo, la gente lloraba. Nunca haba visto a mi madre llorar de ese modo al terminar el Monopolio. +As que esta fue una experiencia increble. +O, no s, si alguien aqu es de Boston... cuando los Red Sox de Boston ganaron la Serie Mundial, despus de 51 aos, cuando ganaron la Serie Mundial, fue increble. +En ese momento yo viva en Springfield, y lo mejor era que -es que- una cerraba la puerta del bao de damas y recuerdo haber visto "Vamos Sox", y pensaba, es verdad? +O las casas, uno sala, porque todos los juegos... creo que casi todos los juegos iban a tiempo suplementario, s? +Uno sala a la calle y las luces de los vecinos estaban encendidas en todo el barrio, y los nios, bueno, baj la asistencia a clases; los nios no iban a la escuela. +Pero est bien, son los Red Sox, no? +Digo, est la educacin y despus estn los Red Sox, y conocemos las prioridades. +As que fue una experiencia increble y, de nuevo, s, era un juego, no era para escribir artculos de peridicos diciendo... ya saben, en realidad, "Ahora puedo morir, porque ganaron los Red Sox". Y mucha gente lo hizo. +Los juegos significan algo ms para nosotros. +Definitivamente significan algo ms. +Ahora, aqu hay una transicin abrupta. +Durante tres aos tuve un trabajo de verdad, ms o menos. +Diriga un departamento universitario enseando juegos, de nuevo, una especie de trabajo de verdad donde tena que hablar de hacer juegos, se supona que yo los haca. +Y yo estaba en una cena. Parte del trabajo, cuando una es jefe de departamento es comer, y a eso yo lo haca muy bien, as que estaba en una cena con este tipo llamado Zig Jackson. +Esta es una foto de Zig. A la vez es una foto tomada por Zig. l es fotgrafo. +Y va por todo el pas tomando fotos de s mismo, y aqu pueden ver una foto de la reserva aborigen de Zig. Y esta toma en particular es una de las tradicionales. Es la danza de la lluvia. +Y esta es una de mis fotos favoritas. +Uno ve esto y... quiz hayan visto cosas como stas. Es la expresin de una cultura, no? +Esta pertenece a su serie "Degradacin". +En esta serie me pareci fascinante ver a ese nio pequeo de all. +Se lo imaginan? Podemos ver que hay un aborigen de EE.UU. Pero ahora quiero cambiarle la raza al tipo. +Supongan que es un tipo negro. +"Querida, ven aqu, tmate una foto con el tipo negro". +De verdad? Digo, seriamente, nadie lo hara. +Y, como diseadora de juegos, eso me fascin porque nunca se me ocurri, decir, debera hacer un juego sobre este tema difcil o no? +Porque hacemos cosas divertidas, ya lo saben, haremos que sientan temor, esa emocin visceral. +Pero los otros medios lo hacen tambin. +Esta es mi nia, Maezza. Y a los 7 aos un da al volver de la escuela, como hago todos los das, le pregunt: "Qu hiciste hoy?" +Y ella dijo: "Hablamos de la Travesa del Atlntico". +Fue un gran momento. El pap de Maezza es negro y saba que llegara este da. No esperaba que fuera a los 7 aos. No s por qu, pero no lo esperaba. +De todos modos le pregunt: "Cmo te sientes al respecto?" +Ella sigui contndome y, quienes son padres, reconocern las palabras clave aqu. +Las naves partieron de Inglaterra, bajaron de Inglaterra, fueron a frica, atravesaron el ocano, esa es la Travesa del Atlntico, vinieron a EE.UU. donde vendieron a los esclavos, me dice. +Pero Abraham Lincoln fue elegido presidente y luego se aprob la Proclamacin de Emancipacin, y ahora son libres. +Una pausa de 10 segundos. +"Puedo jugar a algo, mami?" +Soy diseadora de juegos as que tengo de esto por toda mi casa. +Dije: "S, puedes jugar", y le di un puado de piezas y le ped que pintara distintas familias. Estas son fotos de Maezza mientras... Dios, todava se me hace un nudo en la garganta al verlo. +Est pintando pequeas familias. +Tom un puado de familias y las puse en un bote. +Este era el bote. Obviamente, fue construido rpidamente. En esencia, el juego consiste en tomar un puado de familias; y ella deca: "Mami, te olvidaste la beb rosa y al papi azul y olvdaste estas otras cosas". +Y dijo: "Quieren irse". Y yo le respond: "Querida, no, no quieren irse. Esta es la Travesa del Atlntico. +Nadie quiere hacer la Travesa del Atlntico". +Ella me mir como slo la hija de una diseadora de juegos puede hacerlo, y mientras atravesbamos el ocano, siguiendo estas reglas, se da cuenta de que no le va muy bien y dice: "No vamos a lograrlo". +Se da cuenta que no tenemos suficiente comida y pregunta qu hacer y yo le digo: "Bien, podemos" -recuerden que tena 7 aos- "Podemos poner alguna gente en el agua o esperar que nadie se enferme y llegar al otro lado". +Y esa mirada en su rostro volvi a aparecer y dijo... supongamos que pas un mes este es el Mes Negro de la Historia, s? +Luego de un mes me pregunta: "Esto realmente ocurri?" +Y le dije: "S". Y ella dijo: "Entonces, si estuviera fuera de peligro" -estos son su hermano y su hermana- "Si estuviera fuera de peligro, Avalon y Donovan podran haber desaparecido". "S". +"Pero me gustara verlos en EE.UU." "No". +"Pero, y si los veo? No podramos volver a estar juntos?" "No". +"O sea, papi podra desaparecer?" "S". +Estaba fascinada con esto y empez a llorar, y yo empec a llorar, y su padre empez a llorar, y ahora todos llorbamos. l no esperaba volver a casa del trabajo a la Travesa del Atlntico, pero all estbamos. As, creamos este juego, y ella lo entendi. +Lo entendi porque pas tiempo con esta gente. +No era algo abstracto en un folleto o en una pelcula. +Por eso era una experiencia increblemente vigorosa. +Este es el juego, que termin llamando "Nuevo Mundo", porque me gusta la frase. +Creo que el Nuevo Mundo no debe haber sido demasiado increble para las personas que venan en los barcos de esclavos. +Pero cuando esto sucedi, vi todo el planeta. +Estaba muy entusiasmada. Estuve haciendo juegos durante 20 aos, y decid volver a hacerlos. +Mi historia es irlandesa. +As que este juego se llama "Sochn Leat", o sea, "que la paz sea contigo". +Es toda la historia de mi familia en un solo juego. +Hice otro juego llamado "Train". +Hice una serie de seis juegos que abarcan temas difciles, y si vamos a tratar temas difciles, este es uno de ellos, y dejar que solos se den cuenta de qu se trata. +Tambin hice un juego sobre el "Camino de las Lgrimas". +Este es un juego de 50 000 piezas. +Estaba loca cuando decid empezarlo pero ahora estoy en medio del proceso. +Es lo mismo. +Espero poder ensear cultura con estos juegos. +Y el juego en el que trabajo ahora... en este momento estoy en medio del proceso y, por alguna razn, se me hace un nudo en la garganta... es el juego de los "Trabajadores de la Cocina Mexicana". +Al principio era ms o menos un problema matemtico. +Como si fuera la economa de la inmigracin ilegal. +Y cuanto ms aprenda de la cultura mexicana -mi socio es mexicano- ms aprenda que si bien para todos la comida es una necesidad bsica, para los mexicanos tambin lo es, pero es mucho ms que eso. +Es una expresin de amor. Es una expresin de... Dios, el nudo en la garganta es ms grande de lo que pensaba. +Volver a la imagen. +Es una expresin de belleza. Es una forma de expresarte amor. +Es la forma decir que les importas, y es difcil hablar de una abuela mexicana sin decir la palabra "comida" en la primera oracin. +Por eso para m, esta cultura hermosa, esta expresin hermosa es algo que quiero capturar en los juegos. +Los juegos cambian nuestra manera de ver los temas, cambian nuestras percepciones sobre esas personas y nos cambian a nosotros mismos. +Con los juegos cambiamos como personas, porque nos involucramos, jugamos, y aprendemos al hacerlo. Gracias. +Tradicionalmente dividimos los espacios entre lo privado y lo pblico, y sabemos muy bien la diferencia legal entre ambos porque nos hemos vuelto expertos en proteger nuestra propiedad y los espacios privados. +Pero no estamos tan acostumbrados a reconocer los matices de lo pblico. +Qu convierte un espacio pblico comn en un espacio cualitativo? +Esto es algo en lo que nuestro estudio ha trabajado durante la ltima dcada. +Estamos haciendo esto a travs de unos estudios de caso. +Una gran parte de nuestra labor se ha concentrado en transformar esta ruina industrial abandonada en un espacio post-industrial viable que mire hacia adelante y hacia atrs al mismo tiempo. +Otra gran parte de nuestro trabajo se concentra en hacer relevante un lugar que ha perdido sintona con su tiempo. +Hemos estado trabajando en la democratizacin del teatro Lincoln Center para un pblico que por lo general no tiene 300 USD para gastar en una entrada a la pera. +Es as que hemos estado comiendo, bebiendo, pensando y viviendo el espacio pblico por bastante tiempo. +Lo que esto nos ense es que para hacer un espacio pblico bueno de verdad, es necesario borrar las distinciones entre arquitectura, urbanismo, diseo de exteriores, de medios, etctera. +Esto va ms all de la distincin. +Ahora nos dirigimos a Washington D.C. +donde trabajaremos en otra transformacin, esta vez para el Museo Hirshhorn, situado en uno de los espacios pblicos ms venerados en EEUU, el National Mall. +El Mall es un smbolo de la democracia estadounidense. +Y la cosa fantstica es que este smbolo no es una cosa, no es una imagen ni tampoco un artefacto, sino que es un espacio que parece estar definido solo por una hilera de edificios a ambos lados de la calle. +Es un espacio donde los ciudadanos pueden expresar su descontento y demostrar su poder. +Es un lugar donde han tenido lugar momentos clave en la historia estadounidense. +Y han sido tallados para siempre, como la marcha en Washington por el trabajo y la libertad y el gran discurso que dio all Martin Luther King. +Las protestas de Vietnam, la conmemoracin por los fallecidos en la pandemia del SIDA, la marcha por los derechos reproductivos de la mujer, hasta marchas recientes. +El Mall es el mayor escenario cvico para el disenso en este pas. +Es sinnimo de libertad de expresin, incluso cuando uno no est seguro de lo que debe decir. +Tal vez sea un lugar para la compasin cvica. +Nosotros creemos que existe una gran desconexin entre el espacio comunicativo y discursivo del Mall y los museos que se ubican en l. +El hecho es que estos museos suelen ser pasivos, son pasivos en la relacin entre el museo como el presentador, y la audiencia como receptora de informacin. +Entonces podemos ver dinosaurios, insectos, colecciones de locomotoras, y todo eso, pero no estamos realmente involucrados; hay alguien que nos habla. +Cuando Richard Koshalek se convirti en el director del Hirshhorn en 2009, estaba determinado a aprovechar la ubicacin privilegiada del museo en este lugar nico: la sede del poder de los Estados Unidos. +Mientras que el arte y la poltica estn ligados inherente e implicitamente todo el tiempo, podra existir una relacin muy especial que podra ser forjada en este lugar tan nico. +La pregunta es: Es posible que el arte pueda introducirse por su cuenta dentro del dilogo poltico nacional y mundial? +Podra el museo ser un agente de diplomacia cultural? +Existen ms de 180 embajadas en Washington D.C. +Existen ms de 500 grupos de discusin. +Debera haber una manera de aprovechar toda esa energa intelectual y global y hacerla fluir hacia y a travs del museo. +Debera existir una especie de grupo de cerebros. +Entonces, desde que empezamos a pensar en el Hirshhorn, y a medida que avanzamos en la misin, con Richard y su equipo, ste se ha convertido en su fuerza vital. +Pero ms all de exhibir arte contemporneo, el Hirshhorn se convertir en un foro pblico, un lugar para la discusin de cuestiones artsticas, culturales, polticas y legislativas. +Tendr el alcance global del Foro Econmico Mundial. +Tendr la interdisciplinariedad de una conferencia TED. +Tendr la informalidad de una plaza pblica. +Para esta nueva iniciativa, el Hirshhorn tendra que expandirse o encontrar un lugar para una estructura contempornea desplegable. +Aqu est. Este es el Hirshhorn: un anillo de hormign de 70 metros de dimetro diseado en los aos 70 por Gordon Bunshaft. +Es descomunal, es silencioso, est aislado, es arrogante, es un desafo para el diseo. +A los arquitectos les encanta odiarlo. +Un punto a su favor es que est elevado del suelo y tiene este vaco, y una especie de ncleo vaco en el espritu y la fachada de ese estilo corporativo y federal. +Y alrededor de ese espacio, el anillo se compone de galeras. +Es sumamente difcil montar un espectculo all. +Cuando el Hirshhorn abri sus puertas, Ada Luisa Huxstable, crtico del New York Times, eligi sus palabras de manera peculiar: "Neopenitenciario moderno". +"Un monumento mutilado y un Mall mutilado para una coleccin mutilada". +Casi cuatro dcadas ms tarde, Cmo se ampliar este edificio para un nuevo programa progresivo? +Dnde podra ir? +No se puede expandir hacia el Mall. +No hay espacio. +No puede expandir hacia el patio +porque ese espacio est ocupado por jardines y esculturas. +Bueno, siempre est el agujero. +Pero, cmo podra aprovechar el espacio de ese agujero sin ser ocultado por su invisibilidad? +Cmo podra convertirse en un icono? +Qu idioma usara? +El Hirshhorn se sita entre las instituciones monumentales del Mall. +La mayora son neoclsicas, pesadas y opacas, hechas de piedra o de hormign. +Y la pregunta es: si alguien ocupara ese espacio, cul sera el material del Mall? +Tiene que ser diferente de los edificios que estn all. +Tiene que ser algo totalmente diferente. +Tiene que ser aire. +En nuestra imaginacin, tiene que ser luz. +Tiene que ser efmero. Tiene que ser amorfo. +Y tiene que ser libre. +Y aqu est la gran idea. +Es un airbag gigante. +Al expandirse toma la forma de su contenedor y rezuma por donde puede, hacia arriba y hacia los lados. +De forma ms potica nos gusta pensar que la estructura inhala aire democrtico del Mall, para absorberlo. +El antes y despus. +Fue apodada por la prensa como "la burbuja". +Este es el saln. +Se trata bsicamente de un gran volumen de aire que solo rezuma en toda direccin. +La membrana es translcida. +Est hecha de fibra de vidrio recubierta de silicona. +Y se infla dos veces al ao por un mes. +Esta es la vista desde el interior. +Seguramente se estarn preguntando cmo logramos conseguir la aprobacin del gobierno federal. +En realidad, tuvo que ser aprobado por dos organismos. +Uno de ellos existe para preservar la dignidad y la santidad del Mall. +Me ruborizo siempre que muestro esto. +Interpretarlo depende de Uds. +Pero algo que puedo decir es que es una combinacin de iconoclastia y adoracin. +Tambin hubo algo de interpretacin creativa. +La ley de edificios del Congreso de 1910 limita la altura de los edificios en D.C. +a 40 metros, excepto las agujas, torres, cpulas y alminares. +Esto prcticamente exime los monumentos de la Iglesia y el Estado. +Y la burbuja tiene 46 metros. +Ese es el Panten junto a ella. +Tiene alrededor de 34 mil metros cbicos de aire comprimido. +Y entonces lo justificamos diciendo que se trataba de una cpula. +As que ah est, muy seorial, entre todos los majestuosos edificios del Mall. +Y aunque este Hirshhorn no es un lugar muy conocido, es muy importante desde una perspectiva histrica. +As que no podamos tocar sus superficies. +No podamos dejar rastro alguno. +Por lo tanto, la tensamos desde sus bordes y la sostuvimos con cables. +Es un estudio de tcnicas de contencin, que son realmente muy importantes porque es azotada por el viento constantemente. +Hay un anillo de acero permanente en la parte superior, pero no puede ser visto desde ningn punto del Mall. +Tambin hay algunas restricciones en cuanto a la iluminacin. +Brilla desde su interior, es translcida. +Pero no puede estar ms iluminada que el Capitolio o algunos de los monumentos. +Por lo tanto, est bajo la jerarqua de la iluminacin. +Se instala en el sitio dos veces al ao. +Se baja del camin. +Es erguida. +Y luego se infla con aire a baja presin. +Luego se contiene con los cables. +Y despus se afirma con agua en la parte inferior. +Este es un momento muy extrao, cuando la burocracia del Mall nos pregunt cunto tiempo tomara la instalacin. +Y respondimos: bien, el primer montaje alrededor de una semana. +Realmente conectaron con esa idea. +De ah en adelante fue un proceso muy simple. +Tengo que decir que realmente no tuvimos tantos obstculos ni con el gobierno ni las autoridades. +Los obstculos ms difciles de sortear fueron los de carcter tcnico. +Esta es la urdimbre y trama. +Esta es una nube de puntos. +Hay presiones extremas. +Es un edificio muy, muy inusual dado que no existe carga de gravedad, pero hay carga en cada direccin. +Voy a pasar rpidamente estas diapositivas. +Y este es el espacio de accin. +Un interior muy flexible para debates, as como este, pero a la redonda: un espacio luminoso y transformable +que se adapta a cada necesidad; espectculos, pelculas, instalaciones. +El primer programa ser uno sobre el dilogo cultural y la diplomacia organizado en colaboracin con el Consejo de Relaciones Exteriores. +Aqu coexisten forma y contenido. +La burbuja es un antimonumento. +Los ideales de la democracia participativa estn representados a travs de la flexibilidad en lugar de rigidez. +Arte y poltica ocupan un lugar ambiguo fuera de las paredes del museo, pero dentro del ncleo del museo, se fusiona su aire con el aire democrtico del Mall. +Esperamos que la burbuja se infle por primera vez a finales de 2013. +Gracias. +El debate sobre la energa pblica de EE.UU. se reduce a esta pregunta: Preferira morir por: a) guerras por el petrleo; b) cambios climticos; c) un holocausto nuclear; o d) todas las anteriores? +Ah, me olvidaba una: e) ninguna de las anteriores. +Esa es la que por lo general se omite. +Y si pudiramos hacer que la energa hiciera nuestro trabajo sin perjudicarnos? +Podramos usar combustibles sin sentir ningn temor? +Podramos reinventar el fuego? +Ya saben, el fuego nos hizo humanos; los combustibles fsiles, modernos. +Pero ahora necesitamos un nuevo fuego que nos d seguridad, salud y durabilidad. +Veamos la forma. +Anualmente, 80 % de la energa mundial proviene de la combustin; son 16 kilmetros cbicos de restos putrefactos del pantano primitivo. +Esos combustibles fsiles construyeron nuestra civilizacin, +crearon nuestra riqueza, +enriquecieron las vidas de miles de millones, +pero tambin elevaron los costos de nuestra seguridad, economa, salud y ambiente que empiezan a erosionar, si no a sobrepasar, sus beneficios. +Por eso necesitamos un nuevo fuego. +Y pasar del viejo al nuevo fuego significa hacer cambios importantes en la historia del petrleo y la electricidad que emiten cada una 40 % del dixido de carbono del aire, +pero son, en verdad, muy diferentes. +Menos del 1 % de nuestra electricidad proviene del petrleo; aunque casi la mitad proviene del carbn. +Sus usos estn bastante concentrados. +El 75 % de nuestro combustible de petrleo se usa en transporte. +El 75 % de nuestra electricidad abastece edificios. +Y el resto de ambos abastece fbricas. +Los vehculos, edificios y fbricas muy eficientes ahorran petrleo y carbn, y tambin gas natural que puede desplazar a los dos primeros. +Pero el sistema energtico actual no solo es ineficiente, tambin est desconectado, es viejo, contaminante e inseguro. +Por eso necesita reformas. +Sin embargo, para 2050 podra llegar a ser eficiente, conectado y bien distribuido si los autos, fbricas y edificios elegantes y econmicos tuvieran el soporte de un sistema elctrico moderno, seguro y adaptable. +Podemos eliminar nuestra dependencia del petrleo y el carbn para 2050 y usar un tercio menos de gas natural mientras pasamos al uso eficiente y al suministro renovable. +Para 2050, esto podra costar USD 5 billones menos en valor actual neto que hoy se expresa como una suma ms abultada que mantener los negocios usuales, suponiendo que las emisiones de carbono y los costos ocultos o externos sean nulos, una estimacin moderadamente baja. +Sin embargo, este sistema energtico ms barato podra soportar una economa estadounidense un 158 % mayor y todo sin necesidad de petrleo o carbn, ni siquiera energa nuclear. +Adems, esta transicin no requiere nuevas invenciones ni leyes del Congreso, ni ms impuestos nacionales, subsidios o leyes que llevaran a Washington a un atasco. +Lo dir nuevamente. +Les contar cmo llegar a un EE.UU. libre de petrleo y carbn, que gasta USD 5 billones menos, sin leyes del Congreso orientadas por intereses lucrativos. +En otras palabras, usaremos nuestras instituciones ms eficaces: la empresa privada en desarrollo paralelo a la sociedad civil, con el estmulo de la innovacin militar, para apoyar a las instituciones menos eficaces. +Y si nos preocupan ms las ganancias, el empleo y la ventaja competitiva, o la seguridad nacional, la gestin ambiental, la proteccin del clima y la salud pblica, reinventar el fuego tiene sentido y genera dinero. +El general Eisenhower supuestamente dijo que ampliar los lmites de un problema difcil permite resolverlo al dar ms opciones y ms sinergias. +Por eso, al reinventar el fuego, integramos los cuatro sectores que usan energa transporte, edificios, industria y electricidad y los integramos a cuatro tipos de innovacin, no solo a la tecnologa y la poltica, sino tambin al diseo y la estrategia comercial. +Esas combinaciones dan ms resultados que la suma de las partes, sobre todo al crear oportunidades comerciales profundamente atpicas. +El petrleo le cuesta USD 2000 millones diarios a nuestra economa, ms otros USD 4000 millones diarios en costos econmicos y militares ocultos que elevan el costo total a ms de un sexto del PBI. +60 % del combustible de transportes se va en automviles. +Empecemos, entonces, a fabricar autos libres de petrleo. +66 % de lo que toma mover cualquier auto se debe a su peso. +Por cada unidad de energa que se ahorra en las ruedas, quitando peso o resistencia, se ahorran siete unidades en el tanque, ya que no hay que desperdiciar seis unidades para llevar energa a las ruedas. +Por desgracia, durante los ltimos 25 aos, el rpido crecimiento de la obesidad ha hecho que nuestros autos de dos toneladas de acero aumentaran de peso dos veces ms rpido que nosotros. +Pero hoy, los materiales ultralivianos, ultrarresistentes, como los compuestos de fibra de carbono, pueden llevar a reducciones sustanciales en el peso y abaratar y simplificar la construccin de autos. +Los autos ms livianos y sin friccin necesitan menos fuerza para moverse y motores ms pequeos. +De hecho, este tipo de gimnasia para los vehculos hace que la propulsin elctrica sea rentable porque sus bateras o celdas de combustible son tambin ms pequeas, livianas y econmicas. +Al final, los precios bajarn a los valores actuales y los costos al conducir sern, aun desde el principio, mucho ms bajos. +Gracias a estas innovaciones, los fabricantes de autos pueden pasar de los pequeos mrgenes obtenidos de motores casi de la poca victoriana y tecnologas obsoletas a una cada abrupta de costos de tres innovaciones que se refuerzan mutuamente: materiales ultralivianos, su transformacin en estructuras y la propulsin elctrica. +Las ventas pueden aumentar y los precios caer aun ms rpido con incentivos temporales de impuestos, rebajas en los autos nuevos eficientes pagados con derechos sobre los autos ineficientes. +Solo en los primeros dos aos, el mayor de los cinco programas europeos de incentivos de impuestos ha hecho progresar la eficiencia automotriz tres veces ms rpido. +El cambio resultante a autos elctricos ser un factor decisivo como lo fue el paso de la mquina de escribir a la computadora. +Claro, la computacin y la electrnica son hoy los mayores sectores industriales de EE.UU., mientras que la fabricacin de mquinas de escribir ha desaparecido. +La salud de los autos ofrece una nueva estrategia competitiva que puede duplicar el ahorro de petrleo en los prximos 40 aos y hacer accesible la electrificacin, reemplazando as el resto del petrleo. +EE.UU. podra liderar esta revolucin automotriz. +Actualmente el lder es Alemania. +El ao pasado, Volkswagen anunci que para el ao siguiente producira este hbrido recargable de fibra de carbono que recorre 100 km por litro de combustible. +Tambin el ao pasado, BMW present este auto elctrico de fibra de carbono diciendo que el costo del material se compensa con el ahorro en bateras. +Y dijeron: No queremos construir mquinas de escribir. +Audi afirm que superara a ambos en un ao. +Hace siete aos, una tecnologa estadounidense incluso ms rpida y barata sirvi para fabricar esta pieza para pruebas de fibra de carbono, que tambin sirve como casco de carbono. +En un minuto... se nota por el sonido lo inmensamente rgido y resistente que es. +No teman que se caiga; es ms fuerte que el titanio. +Tom Friedman lo golpe tan duro como pudo con un martillo sin siquiera rayarlo. +Pero tales tcnicas de fabricacin pueden adaptarse a la velocidad y al costo del sector automotor con un rendimiento aeroespacial. +Pueden ahorrar 80 % del capital requerido para construir autos. +Pueden salvar vidas porque este material puede absorber una fuerza de impacto por kilo hasta cinco veces y media ms que el acero. +Si construyramos todos los autos de ese modo, el ahorro del petrleo equivaldra a encontrar una Arabia Saudita y media, o media OPEP, perforando en la formacin de Detroit, una zona petrolera prometedora. +Y todos esos megabarriles bajo Detroit cuestan un promedio de USD 18 por barril. +Todos son 100 % estadounidenses, libres de carbono e inagotables. +La misma fsica y la misma lgica comercial se aplican tambin a vehculos grandes. +De 2005 a 2010, Walmart ahorr 60 % de combustible por tonelada-milla en su flota gigante de camiones pesados gracias a mejores logstica y diseo. +Solo el ahorro tecnolgico en camiones pesados puede llegar a dos tercios, +y combinado con los aviones tres o cinco veces ms eficientes, actualmente en proyecto, el ahorro puede alcanzar un billn de dlares. +La revolucin militar actual en la eficiencia energtica tambin va a acelerar estos avances civiles del mismo modo que lo hizo la I+D militar al darnos el internet, el GPS (sistema de posicionamiento global) y las industrias del motor de reaccin y del microchip. +A medida que diseamos y construimos mejores vehculos, podemos usarlos con ms inteligencia aprovechando cuatro tcnicas importantes para eliminar trayectos innecesarios. +En vez de aumentar los recorridos, podemos usar un sistema de precios innovador cobrando la infraestructura vial por kilmetro, no por litro. +Con una informtica inteligente, podramos mejorar el trnsito y habilitar tanto autos como viajes compartidos. +Podemos tomar modelos de crecimiento inteligentes y lucrativos que permitan a la gente estar cerca de donde quieren ir de modo que no tengan que ir a ningn otro lado. +Podemos usar una informtica inteligente que permita el trfico fluido. +Estos medios juntos pueden darnos la misma o ms accesibilidad conduciendo un 46 a 84 % menos, ahorrando otros USD 0,4 billones ms USD 0,3 billones por el uso ms productivo de camiones. +As, si sumamos todo, en 40 aos, la economa de EE.UU. podra ser mucho ms mvil y sin usar petrleo. +Ahorrar o desplazar barriles de USD 25 en vez de comprarlos a ms de USD 100, suma un ahorro neto de USD 4 billones contando todos los costos nulos ocultos. +Lograr el transporte sin petrleo, eliminar progresivamente el petrleo, nos permitira ser eficaces y luego cambiar de combustible. +Esos autos que rinden de 50 a 100 km por litro pueden usar cualquier combinacin de pila de hidrgeno, electricidad y biocombustibles avanzados. +Los camiones y aviones pueden usar en forma realista hidrgeno o biocombustibles avanzados. +Los camiones podran incluso usar gas natural, +pero ningn vehculo necesitar petrleo. +El mximo de biocombustible necesario, solo tres millones de barriles al da, puede obtenerse en dos tercios de residuos, sin desplazar terrenos de cultivo y sin daar el suelo o el clima. +Nuestro equipo acelera este tipo de ahorro de petrleo con lo que llamaos acupuntura institucional. +Analizamos dnde se congestiona y no fluye correctamente la lgica comercial e introducimos unas agujas para que fluya, trabajando con socios como Ford, Walmart y el Pentgono. +La transicin a largo plazo ya est en marcha. +De hecho, hace tres aos, los analistas principales empezaron a ver el apogeo del petrleo no en la oferta, sino en la demanda. +Y el Deutsche Bank dijo que el petrleo podra alcanzar su punto mximo cerca de 2016. +En otras palabras, el petrleo pierde competitividad aun a precios bajos, antes de escasear aun a precios altos. +Pero los vehculos elctricos no tienen por qu sobrecargar la red elctrica. +Al contrario, cuando los autos inteligentes intercambian electricidad e informacin, en edificios inteligentes con redes inteligentes, agregan a la red una flexibilidad y almacenaje que le facilita la integracin de las energas variables solar y elica. +Por eso los autos elctricos facilitan la resolucin de problemas automotores y energticos en conjunto, en vez de hacerlo en forma separada. +Y hacen converger la historia del petrleo con la segunda gran historia, ahorrar electricidad y luego generarla de manera diferente. +Estas revoluciones gemelas de la electricidad llevarn a ese sector interrupciones ms numerosas, profundas y diversas que a cualquier otro sector, porque la tecnologa del siglo XXI y la velocidad van a entrar en colisin contra las instituciones, reglas y culturas de los siglos XIX y XX. +Cambiar la forma de generar electricidad es ms fcil si se la necesita menos. +Hoy se desperdicia la mayor parte y las tecnologas de ahorro energtico mejoran ms rpidamente que nuestra capacidad para instalarlas. +Estos recursos eficientes que no se venden son cada vez ms abundantes y econmicos. +Pero como la eficiencia de los edificios y las industrias crece ms rpido que la economa, el consumo de electricidad en EE.UU. podra reducirse aun con ese pequeo uso adicional requerido por esos autos elctricos eficientes. +Y podemos lograrlo acentuando razonablemente las tendencias existentes. +Durante los prximos 40 aos, los edificios, que consumen 75 % de la electricidad, pueden triplicar o cuadruplicar su productividad energtica, ahorrando USD 1,4 billones en valor actual neto, con una tasa de rendimiento interno de 33 % o en lenguaje llano: el ahorro vale cuatro veces lo que cuesta. +Y la industria puede progresar tambin duplicando su productividad energtica para alcanzar una tasa interna de retorno de 21 %. +La clave es una innovacin revolucionaria que llamamos diseo integrador que a menudo hace que un gran ahorro de energa cueste menos que ahorrar poco o nada. +Es decir, puede dar retornos sostenidos y que no disminuyen. +As es como las mejoras de 2010 ahorran ms de 40 % de la energa del Empire State; porque transformaron 6500 ventanas en superventanas por las que pasa la luz, pero reflejan el calor. +Adems, una mejor iluminacin y mejores equipos de oficina reducen la carga de enfriamiento mximo en un tercio. +Y la renovacin de congeladores pequeos en vez de instalar otros grandes ahorr USD 17 millones que ayudaron a financiar otras mejoras y redujeron el reintegro de la inversin a tres aos. +El diseo integrador tambin puede aumentar el ahorro energtico en la industria. +La inversin de USD 1000 millones en la eficiencia energtica del Dow ya ha devuelto USD 9000 millones. +Pero la industria en su conjunto an tiene que ahorrar otro medio billn de dlares en energa. +Por ejemplo, 60 % de la electricidad del mundo alimenta motores. +La mitad de eso alimenta bombas y ventiladores. +Y todos esos aparatos pueden ser ms eficientes; los motores que los hacen girar pueden casi duplicar la eficiencia de sus sistemas integrando 35 mejoras, devolviendo la inversin en cerca de un ao. +Pero primero debemos captar ahorros mayores y ms baratos que por lo general se ignoran y no estn en los libros de texto. +Las bombas, por ejemplo, el mayor uso de los motores, mueven lquido por tuberas. +Pero se redise una tubera industrial tpica para usar al menos un 86 % menos energa, no mediante mejores bombas sino reemplazando tubos largos, finos y torcidos por tubos gordos, cortos y rectos. +Esta no es una tecnologa nueva, es solo cuestin de reordenar la tubera. +Claro, tambin reduce el equipo de bombeo y sus costos de capital. +Entonces, qu significa este ahorro para el 60 % de electricidad empleada en los motores? +Bueno, desde el carbn que se quema en la central elctrica hasta las prdidas de capitalizacin, solo 10 % de la energa de combustin termina saliendo de la tubera en forma de flujo. +Pero ahora, revirtamos esas prdidas de capitalizacin, y cada unidad de flujo o friccin que ahorramos en la tubera ahorra 10 unidades en el costo de combustible, en contaminacin y lo que Hunter Lovins llama rareza mundial en la planta de energa. +Y, claro, si avanzamos corriente arriba, los componentes se vuelven ms pequeos y baratos. +Nuestro equipo ha descubierto recientemente este tipo de ahorro en cadena en ms de USD 30 000 millones de rediseo industrial; todo, desde centros de datos y fbricas de chips hasta minas y refineras. +Por lo general, nuestra mejora de los diseos ahorra de 30 a 60 % de la energa y devuelve la inversin en unos aos, mientras que los diseos de las instalaciones nuevas ahorran 40 a 90 % de energa con un costo de capital generalmente inferior. +Ahora, necesitar menos electricidad facilitara y acelerara el cambio hacia nuevas fuentes de energa, principalmente renovables. +China lidera su crecimiento exponencial y los costos que caen en picada. +De hecho, estos costos de los mdulos de energa solar acaban de bajar y se escapan por la parte inferior del grfico. +Hoy Alemania tiene ms obreros solares que EE.UU. obreros metalrgicos. +En unos 20 estados, los instaladores privados colocan estos paneles solares baratos en tu techo, sin pago inicial y eso reducir la factura. +Tales productos no regulados podran, en ltima instancia, convertirse en un servicio real que evitara a tu compaa elctrica del mismo modo que el mvil evita la red de telefona fija. +Este tipo de cosas pone nerviosos a los ejecutivos de servicios pblicos y da tranquilidad a los capitalistas de riesgo. +Las energas renovables ya no son una actividad marginal. +En los ltimos cuatro aos, la mitad de la nueva capacidad de produccin mundial ha sido renovable, sobre todo, ltimamente, en los pases en desarrollo. +En 2010, las renovables no hidroelctricas, en particular la elica y la solar, recibieron USD 151 000 millones de inversin privada, y superaron la capacidad total instalada de la energa nuclear del mundo produciendo 60 000 millones de vatios adicionales en un ao. +Es la misma capacidad de energa solar que el mundo puede producir por ao actualmente... una cantidad que aumenta 60 o 70 % por ao. +Por el contrario, las sumas netas de capacidad nuclear y carbonfera y su demanda subyacente siguen cayendo porque cuestan demasiado y tienen demasiados riesgos financieros. +De hecho, en este pas, ninguna central nuclear nueva ha podido recaudar capital privado para su construccin, a pesar de siete aos de subsidios de ms del 100 %. +Cmo podramos reemplazar a las centrales de carbn? +Bueno, la eficiencia y el gas pueden desplazarlas por debajo de su costo operativo y, en combinacin con las energas renovables, pueden desplazarlas ms de 23 veces a menos de su costo de reposicin. +Pero solo tenemos que reemplazarlas una vez. +Aunque a menudo se nos dice que solo las plantas de energa carbonferas y nucleares pueden mantener las luces encendidas, porque trabajan todo el tiempo, mientras que las energas elica y solar son variables, y por ende supuestamente no fiables. +En realidad, no hay generadores que trabajen todo el tiempo. Todos se daan. +Y cuando una gran planta deja de funcionar, se pierden mil megavatios en milisegundos, a menudo durante semanas o meses, a menudo sin previo aviso. +Precisamente por eso diseamos la red para que las plantas que funcionen tomen el relevo de las que se daan. +Y exactamente de la misma manera, la red puede manejar variaciones de potencia previsibles de las energas elica y solar. +Las simulaciones hora por hora muestran que una gran parte o la totalidad de las redes renovables puede brindar una energa muy confiable cuando est anticipada, integrada y diversificada tanto en tipo como en ubicacin. +Y vale tanto para zonas continentales, como EE.UU. o Europa, como para zonas ms pequeas integradas en una red ms amplia. +Es as como, en 2010, 4 estados alemanes se abastecieron de energa elica en un 43 a 52 %. +Portugal us 45 % de energas renovables, Dinamarca 36 %. +Es la forma en que Europa puede adoptar la electricidad renovable. +Para 2050, en EE.UU., debemos reemplazar nuestro sistema energtico viejo, contaminado e inseguro. +Sin importar por qu sistema lo reemplacemos va a costar lo mismo: unos USD 6 billones en valor actual, ya sea que compremos ms de lo que tenemos o el nuevo carbn nuclear, llamado carbn limpio, o energas renovables ms o menos centralizadas. +Pero al mismo costo, estos cuatro escenarios difieren profundamente en los riesgos referentes a seguridad nacional, combustible, agua, finanzas, tecnologa, clima y salud. +Por ejemplo, nuestra red ultracentralizada es muy vulnerable a fallas en cadena provocados por mal tiempo, otros desastres naturales, o un ataque terrorista. +Pero ese riesgo de apagones desaparece y los dems riesgos se manejan mejor con energas renovables distribuidas organizadas en microrredes locales normalmente interconectadas, pero autnomas, si es necesario. +Es decir, pueden desconectarse fractalmente y luego reconectarse a la perfeccin. +Ese es exactamente el mtodo adoptado por el Pentgono de su propio abastecimiento de energa. +Ellos piensan que lo necesitan; y nosotros, a los que ellos defienden? +Nosotros queremos que nuestras fuentes funcionen tambin. +Ms o menos al mismo precio habitual, esto maximizara la seguridad nacional, la variedad al cliente, las oportunidades empresariales y la innovacin. +En conjunto, el uso eficiente y la provisin dispersa de energas renovables diversas estn empezando a transformar el sector elctrico. +Tradicionalmente, los servicios pblicos construyen muchas plantas gigantes nucleares y de carbn y muchas plantas de gas enormes y quiz algo de energas renovables eficientes. +Esos servicios pblicos tuvieron recompensas, y todava las tienen en 34 estados, por vendernos ms electricidad. +Sin embargo, especialmente donde los reguladores recompensan el menor consumo en las facturas, las inversiones pasan radicalmente a la eficiencia, la respuesta a la demanda, la cogeneracin, las energas renovables y las formas de interconectarlas de manera confiable con menos transmisin y poco o ningn almacenamiento elctrico a granel. +Nuestro futuro energtico no est dado por el destino, sino por una eleccin, y esa eleccin es muy flexible. +En 1976, por ejemplo, el gobierno y la industria insistieron en que la cantidad de energa necesaria para generar un dlar de PBI nunca podra bajar. +Y yo herticamente suger que podra bajar mucho. +Bueno, eso es lo que ha ocurrido hasta ahora. +Ha cado a la mitad. +Pero hoy, con tecnologas mucho mejores, canales de distribucin ms desarrollados y un diseo integrador, podemos hacer mucho ms e incluso ms barato. +As, para resolver el problema de la energa, nos basta multiplicarla. +A primera vista, los resultados pueden parecer increbles pero como dijo Marshall McLuhan: Solo los secretos insignificantes necesitan proteccin. +Los grandes descubrimientos estn protegidos por la incredulidad pblica. +Ahora bien, si les gusta alguno de esos resultados, pueden apoyar la reinvencin del fuego sin necesidad de apreciarlos a todos y sin definir cul es el ms importante. +Centrarse en resultados, no en motivos, puede transformar atascos y conflictos en una solucin unificada al desafo energtico de EE.UU. +Esta tambin resulta ser la mejor manera de hacer frente a los desafos mundiales: el cambio climtico, la proliferacin nuclear, la inseguridad energtica, la escasez de energa, que comprometen nuestra seguridad. +Nuestro equipo de RMI ayuda a las empresas inteligentes a despegar y acelerar este viaje a travs de seis iniciativas sectoriales, y algunas ms en eclosin. +Por supuesto, que todava hay muchas ideas viejas por ah tambin. +El exhombre del petrleo Maurice Strong, dijo: No todos los fsiles estn en el combustible. +Pero como nos recuerda Edgar Woolard, que dirigi Dupont, Las empresas obstaculizadas por viejas ideas no sern un problema porque, dijo, no durarn mucho tiempo. +No se trata de una nica oportunidad comercial para una civilizacin, sino de una de las transiciones ms profundas de nuestra historia. +Los humanos estamos inventando un nuevo fuego que no surge desde abajo, sino que viene de arriba; no es escaso, sino abundante; no es local, sino omnipresente; no es transitorio, sino permanente; no es costoso, sino gratuito. +Y salvo por un poco de gas natural para la transicin y de biocombustible producido en forma sostenible y durable, este nuevo fuego no tiene llama. +Usado con eficiencia, puede hacer nuestro trabajo sin perjudicarnos. +Cada uno de Uds. es dueo de parte de ese premio de USD 5 billones. +Y nuestro nuevo libro, Reinventing Fire [La reinvencin del fuego], describe cmo capturarlo. +La conversacin recin empieza en ReinventingFire.com e invito a cada uno de Uds. a que participen con nosotros, unos con otros, con quienes les rodean, para construir un mundo ms rico, ms justo, ms fresco y ms seguro reinventando juntos el fuego. +Gracias. +Por lo general me gusta trabajar en mi negocio, pero cuando llueve y la calzada se convierte en un ro sencillamente me encanta. +Entonces corto algo de madera y hago un par de agujeros y observo el agua, y tal vez tenga que salir a buscar arandelas. +No saben cunto tiempo le dedico. +Esta es la "gota de agua doble". +De todas mis esculturas, es la ms locuaz. +Ampla el patrn de interferencia a partir de dos gotas de lluvia que caen una cerca de la otra. +En lugar de ampliar crculos, se amplan hexgonos. +Todas las esculturas se mueven mecnicamente. +Ven los tres picos en la onda senoidal? +Aqu estoy aadiendo una onda senoidal con 4 picos y movindola. +800 botellas de refresco de 2 litros... oh s. +400 latas de aluminio. +Tule es una caa nativa de California y lo mejor de trabajar con l es que huele exquisito. +Una gota de lluvia aumentando la amplitud. +La corriente en espiral que empuja un remo al pasear en balsa. +Esta aade 4 ondas diferentes. +Y aqu voy a quitar las longitudes de onda dobles y aumentar la individual. +El mecanismo que impulsa esto tiene 9 motores y alrededor de 3.000 poleas. +445 cuerdas en un tejido de tres dimensiones. +Trasladado a una escala mayor en realidad, a una mucho ms grande y con gran ayuda 14 064 reflectores de bicicletas, una instalacin que tom 20 das. +"Conectado" es en colaboracin con el coregrafo Gideon Obarzanek. +Hay cordeles ligados a bailarines. +Este es uno de los primeros ensayos; el trabajo terminado est de gira y vendr a Los ngeles en un par de semanas. +Un par de hlices y 40 listones de madera. +Con su dedo, dibujen esta lnea. +El verano, el otoo, el invierno, la primavera, el medioda, el atardecer, la noche, el amanecer. +Han visto alguna vez esas nubes estratos que van en franjas paralelas en el cielo? +Saban que son una capa de nubes continua que se sumerge y emerge de la capa de condensacin? +Qu sucedera si cada objeto aparentemente aislado se situara justo en la onda continua abrindose paso hacia nuestro mundo? +La Tierra no es plana ni redonda. +Es ondulada. +Suena bien, pero apuesto a que saben que eso no es del todo cierto, y les dir por qu. +Tengo una hija de dos aos, que es lo mejor del mundo. +Y solo voy a decir: mi hija no es una onda. +Uds. podran decir: "Sin duda, Rueben, si dieras un mnimo paso atrs, los ciclos de hambre y comer, caminar y dormir, rer y llorar surgiran como patrn". +Pero yo dira: "Si hiciera eso, se perdera mucho". +Esta tensin entre la necesidad de mirar ms profundo, la belleza y la inmediatez del mundo, en la que si tratas de mirar ms profundamente, pierdes lo que estabas buscando; esta tensin es lo que mueve a las esculturas. +Y para m, la va entre esos dos extremos toma la forma de una onda. +Permtanme mostrarles una ms. +Muchas gracias. Gracias. +Gracias. +June Cohen: Observando tus esculturas, evocan imgenes muy diferentes. +Algunas evocan el viento, otras las olas, y algunas parecen tener vida, otras parecen matemticas. +Hay una inspiracin real detrs de cada una de ellas? +Piensas en algo fsico o algo tangible cuando diseas? +RM: Bueno, algunas de ellas son producto de una observacin directa, literalmente, como dos gotas de lluvia, y la sola observacin de esa situacin es muy impresionante. +Y luego, simplemente trato de pensar cmo usar esas cosas. +Me gusta trabajar con las manos. +No hay nada mejor que cortar un trozo de madera y hacerlo mover. +JC: Y alguna vez cambia? +Crees que ests diseando una cosa y cuando la terminas resulta otra? +RM: Trabaj nueve meses en la "gota de agua doble" y cuando estuvo lista, la odi realmente. +En el momento en que la hice funcionar, la odi. +En el fondo, fue como una reaccin instintiva de querer tirarla. +Y resulta que un amigo me dijo: "Por qu no esperas?" +Y esper, y al da siguiente me gust un poco ms, y al siguiente, un poco ms, y ahora me encanta realmente. +Por eso creo que las reacciones instintivas, por un lado, son erradas a veces, y por otro, no resulta ser lo esperado. +JC: La relacin evoluciona con el tiempo. +Bueno, muchas gracias. Ha sido un regalo magnfico. +RM: Gracias. (JC: Muchas gracias, Reuben). +No s por qu, pero siempre me asombro al pensar que 2 000 millones y medio de nosotros en todo el mundo estamos interconectados a travs de internet y que en cualquier momento ms del 30 % de la poblacin mundial puede estar en lnea para aprender, crear y compartir. +Y el tiempo que cada uno de nosotros pasa haciendo estas cosas tambin contina creciendo. +Un estudio reciente demostr que solamente la generacin joven pasa ms de 8 horas al da en lnea. +Como padre de una nia de 9 aos, esa cifra me parece muy baja. +Pero as como el internet ha abierto el mundo a todos nosotros, tambin nos muestra a todos nosotros al mundo. +Y cada vez ms, el precio que debemos pagar por el hecho de estar conectados es nuestra privacidad. +Hoy en da, a muchos de nosotros nos gustara creer que el internet es un lugar privado; no lo es. +Y con cada clic y cada toque de la pantalla, estamos como Hansel y Gretel dejando migas de pan de nuestra informacin personal por todos los sitios que visitamos en los bosques digitales. +Dejamos nuestros cumpleaos, direcciones, nuestros intereses y preferencias, nuestras relaciones, nuestras historias financieras, y as sucesivamente. +Pero no me malinterpreten, no estoy sugiriendo para nada que el intercambio de datos sea algo malo. +De hecho, cuando s cules son los datos que se comparten y doy mi consentimiento explcitamente, es porque me interesa que algunos sitios conozcan mis hbitos. +Esto les ayuda a sugerirme libros o pelculas para ver con la familia o amigos con quin conectarme. +Pero el problema surge cuando yo no s y no se me ha pedido permiso. +Es un fenmeno en el internet hoy llamado seguimiento del comportamiento y es un gran negocio. +De hecho, hay toda una industria formada en torno a seguirnos a travs de los bosques digitales y compilar un perfil de cada uno de nosotros. +Y cuando han recopilado todos los datos, pueden hacer casi lo que quieran con ellos. +Se trata de un rea que hoy en da tiene muy pocas regulaciones y muchas menos normas. +A excepcin de algunos anuncios recientes aqu en los Estados Unidos y en Europa, es un rea de proteccin al consumidor que est casi sin explorar. +Permtanme hablarles un poco ms de esta industria al acecho. +La imagen que se est formando detrs de m se llama Colusin y es un complemento experimental para navegador que se puede instalar en Firefox y que ayuda a ver a dnde van nuestros datos en la red y quin nos est siguiendo. +Los puntos rojos que ven all arriba son sitios de seguimiento del comportamiento que no he navegado, pero que me estn siguiendo. +Los puntos azules son los sitios que s he navegado directamente. +Y los puntos grises son los sitios que tambin me estn siguiendo, pero no tengo ni idea de quines son. +Todos ellos estn conectados, como se puede ver, para formar una imagen de m en la red. +Y este es mi perfil. +Ahora voy a pasar de un ejemplo a un caso concreto y personal. +Hace 2 semanas, instal Colusin en mi propio computador porttil y dej que me siguiera a todas partes durante un da bastante tpico. +Como la mayora de ustedes, comienzo el da en lnea y consulto mi correo electrnico, +luego voy a un sitio de noticias, busco algunos titulares +y en este caso particular me gust uno de ellos sobre los mritos de la instruccin musical en las escuelas y lo compart en una red social. +Nuestra hija entonces se uni a nosotros en el desayuno, y le pregunt: Hay un nfasis en la instruccin musical en tu escuela? +Y ella, por supuesto, como cualquier nio de 9 aos, me mir y me pregunt con curiosidad: Qu es la instruccin? +As que le dije que lo buscara, en internet por supuesto. +Permtanme que me detenga aqu. +Apenas habamos tomado un par de bocados del desayuno y ya haba cerca de 25 sitios que me seguan. +Haba navegado un total de 4. +Voy a ir rpidamente por el resto de mi da. +Los puntos rojos se han disparado. +Los puntos grises han aumentado de manera exponencial. +En total, hay ms de 150 sitios que rastrean mi informacin personal, la mayora de ellos sin mi consentimiento. +Miro esta imagen y me asusta. +Esto no es nada. Estoy siendo acosado en la red. +Y por qu sucede esto? +Muy sencillo: es un gran negocio. +Los ingresos de las empresas en la cima de este espacio son de ms de 39 000 millones de dlares en la actualidad. +Y como adultos, ciertamente no estamos solos. +Al mismo tiempo que instal mi propio perfil Colusin, tambin instal uno para mi hija. +Y en una sola maana de sbado con ms de 2 horas en internet, aqu est su perfil Colusin. +Se trata de una nia de 9 aos de edad que navega en sitios principalmente para nios. +Pas de asustado a enfurecido. +Ya no se trata de m como pionero de la tecnologa o defensor de la privacidad, sino de m como padre. +Imagnense si (en el mundo real) alguien siguiese a nuestros hijos con una cmara y un computador porttil y registrase todos sus movimientos. +Creo que ninguna persona en esta sala se quedara de brazos cruzados. +Tomaramos medidas. Podra no ser una buena medida, pero haramos algo. +No podemos quedarnos de brazos cruzados aqu tampoco. +Esto est sucediendo hoy en da. +La privacidad no es una opcin y no debera ser el precio que hay que pagar simplemente por usar internet. +Nuestras voces son importantes y nuestras acciones lo son an ms. +Hoy hemos lanzado Colusin. +Se puede descargar e instalar en Firefox, para ver quin nos rastrea a travs de la red y nos sigue en los bosques digitales. +En adelante, todas nuestras voces deben ser escuchadas. +Porque lo que no sabemos puede realmente hacernos dao, +porque la memoria del internet es para siempre. +Nos estn vigilando. +Ahora es el momento de vigilar a los que nos acechan. +Gracias. +Lo que ven aqu es un cigarrillo electrnico. +Es algo que, desde que lo inventaron hace 1 o 2 aos, me ha dado una felicidad indescriptible. +Una parte, creo, es la nicotina, pero hay algo que es mucho ms que eso. +Y es que, desde que prohibieron fumar en lugares pblicos en el Reino Unido, ya no he vuelto a disfrutar de una reunin con bebidas. +Y la razn, acabo de darme cuenta, es que cuando asistes a un coctel y ests ah parado con una copa de vino tinto en la mano y hablas con la gente interminablemente, en realidad no quieres pasarte todo el tiempo hablando. +Es muy, muy cansado. +A veces solamente quieres estar parado en silencio, solo con tus pensamientos. +A veces solo quieres pararte en un rincn y asomarte por la ventana. +El problema es que, cuando no puedes fumar, si ests ah solo, asomndote por la ventana, eres un idiota insociable y sin amigos. +Si ests parado ah solo, asomndote por la ventana, con un cigarrillo, eres un maldito filsofo. +El poder de recontextualizar las cosas no se puede exagerar. +Lo que tenemos es exactamente lo mismo, la misma actividad, pero una de ellas te hace sentir fenomenal y la otra, con solo un pequeo cambio de postura, te hace sentir terrible. +Y creo que uno de los problemas de la economa clsica es que solo se ocupa de la realidad. +Y la realidad no es una gua particularmente buena de la felicidad humana. +Por ejemplo, por qu los jubilados son mucho ms felices que los jvenes desempleados? +Despus de todo, ambos estn en exactamente la misma etapa de la vida. +Ambos tienen mucho tiempo libre y muy poco dinero. +Pero los jubilados, segn dicen, son muy, muy felices, mientras que los desempleados son extraordinariamente infelices y estn deprimidos. +La razn es, creo, que los jubilados creen que han elegido serlo, mientras que los jvenes desempleados sienten que les ha sido impuesto. +En Inglaterra, las clases media-altas han resuelto este problema de manera perfecta, ya que han dado un nuevo nombre al desempleo. +Si uno es un ingls de la clase media-alta al desempleo le llamar un ao libre. +Y eso porque tener un hijo desempleado en Manchester es realmente vergonzoso, pero tener un hijo desempleado en Tailandia es visto como un gran logro. +Pero el poder de renombrar las cosas, de comprender que en realidad nuestros costos, experiencias, cosas no dependen mucho de lo que de verdad son sino de cmo los vemos, pienso genuinamente que no se puede exagerar. +Hay un experimento, creo que Daniel Pink lo menciona, que pone a dos perros en una caja que tiene un piso elctrico. +De vez en cuando se aplica al piso una descarga elctrica que provoca dolor a los perros. +La nica diferencia es que uno de los perros tiene un pequeo botn en su mitad de la caja. +Y cuando el perro toca el botn con la nariz, la descarga elctrica cesa. +El otro perro no tiene el botn. +Est expuesto a exactamente el mismo nivel de dolor que el perro de la primera caja, pero no tiene ningn control sobre las circunstancias. +En general, el primer perro puede estar relativamente contento. +El segundo perro cae en una depresin completa. +Las circunstancias de nuestra vida pueden tener menos importancia para nuestra felicidad que la sensacin de control que sentimos sobre ellas. +Es una cuestin interesante. +Hacemos la pregunta; el debate en el mundo occidental solo trata sobre la cantidad de impuestos. +Pero pienso que hay otro debate que debe hacerse sobre el nivel de control que tenemos sobre los impuestos que pagamos. +Lo que nos cuesta 10 libras en un contexto puede ser una maldicin. +Lo que nos cuesta 10 libras en otro contexto puede ser bienvenido. +Si pagamos 20 000 libras de impuestos para la salud nos sentimos como meros idiotas. +Si pagamos 20 000 libras para dotar de fondos a una sala de hospital, nos llaman filntropos. +Tal vez estoy en el pas equivocado para hablar de la disposicin a pagar impuestos. +As que les propondr algo diferente. Cmo planteamos las cosas de verdad importa. +Lo llamamos el rescate de Grecia o el rescate de un montn de bancos estpidos que hicieron prstamos a Grecia? +Porque es realmente lo mismo. +Cmo le llamas afecta cmo reaccionas, visceral y moralmente. +Creo que el valor psicolgico es formidable, honestamente. +Uno de mis grandes amigos, Nick Chater, que es profesor de Ciencias de la Decisin en Londres, cree que deberamos pasar mucho menos tiempo explorando las profundidades ocultas de la humanidad y mucho ms tiempo explorando las superficies ocultas. +Pienso que es verdad. +Creo que las impresiones tienen un efecto absurdo sobre lo que pensamos y hacemos. +Pero lo que no tenemos es un buen modelo de psicologa humana. +Por lo menos antes de Kahneman, quizs, no tenamos un buen modelo de psicologa humana que comparar a los modelos de ingeniera, de economa neoclsica. +As que las personas que crean en soluciones psicolgicas no contaban con un modelo. +No tenamos un marco de referencia. +Es lo que Charlie Munger, socio de Warren Buffett, llama "una celosa donde colgar las ideas". +Ingenieros, economistas, economistas clsicos, todos contaban con una muy robusta celosa donde podan colgar prcticamente cualquier idea. +Sin un modelo general, tenemos solamente una coleccin de ideas individuales aleatorias. +Y lo que significa es que, buscando soluciones, probablemente hemos dado demasiada importancia a lo que llamo soluciones de ingeniera, soluciones newtonianas, y no la suficiente a las soluciones psicolgicas. +Conocen mi ejemplo de los trenes Eurostar. +Se gastaron 6 millones de libras para reducir 40 minutos del tiempo de viaje entre Pars y Londres. +Por el 0,01 % de ese dinero se poda haber instalado un sistema wifi en los trenes, lo cual no habra reducido la duracin del viaje, pero lo habra hecho ms entretenido y provechoso. +Por tal vez un 10 % de ese dinero se poda haber pagado a los mejores supermodelos masculinos y femeninos del mundo para recorrer el tren y obsequiar vino Chateau Petrus a todos los pasajeros. +An quedaran 5 millones de libras y la gente pedira disminuir la velocidad de los trenes. +Por qu no se nos dio la oportunidad de resolver el problema de manera psicolgica? +Pienso que porque existe un desequilibrio, una asimetra entre la manera en que consideramos las ideas psicolgicas creativas y emocionales y la forma en que consideramos las ideas racionales y numricas basadas en hojas de clculo. +Si somos personas creativas, creo que con razn, debemos presentar nuestras ideas para que las aprueben personas mucho ms racionales que nosotros. +Tenemos que ir y presentar un anlisis de costo-beneficio, un estudio de viabilidad, otro de retorno de la inversin, etc. +Y creo que es correcto, +pero no funciona a la inversa. +La gente que tiene un contexto fijo, econmico y de ingeniera, cree que la lgica es la nica respuesta. +Lo que no dicen es: Bueno, los nmeros cuadran, pero antes de presentar mi idea, ir a mostrrsela a algunas personas muy locas a ver si se les ocurre algo mejor. +As le damos prioridad, pienso que de manera artificial, a lo que yo llamara ideas mecanicistas sobre las ideas psicolgicas. +Un ejemplo de una gran idea psicolgica: la mejor innovacin para aumentar la satisfaccin de los pasajeros del metro de Londres, en relacin con el dinero invertido, no ocurri con trenes adicionales o al aumentar su frecuencia, sino cuando se instalaron pantallas electrnicas en las plataformas. +Ya que la naturaleza de la espera no solo depende de su cualidad numrica, de su duracin, sino del nivel de incertidumbre que se experimenta durante la espera. +Esperar el tren durante siete minutos con un reloj en cuenta regresiva es menos frustrante e irritante que esperar cuatro minutos, mordindonos las uas y pensando: Cundo demonios va a llegar el tren? +He aqu un bello ejemplo de una solucin psicolgica utilizada en Corea. +La luz roja de los semforos tiene cuenta regresiva. +Se ha demostrado en experimentos que esto reduce la tasa de accidentes. +Por qu? Debido a que la ira al volante, la impaciencia y la irritacin en general disminuyen grandemente cuando uno puede ver cunto tiempo hay que esperar. +En China no entendieron bien el principio detrs de ello y aplicaron la misma regla a la luz verde. +Es una mala idea. +Ests a 200 metros, te das cuenta de que te quedan 5 segundos, y aceleras. +Los coreanos, aplicadamente, probaron las dos. +La tasa de accidentes disminuye cuando aplicas la cuenta regresiva a la luz roja, y aumenta cuando la aplicas a la luz verde. +Todo lo que pido en la toma de decisiones humana es considerar estos 3 elementos. +No pido la preponderancia de uno sobre los otros. +Solo digo que cuando se resuelven problemas, deberan considerarse por igual estas 3 reas y tratar hasta donde sea posible de encontrar soluciones que caigan en la dulce zona del medio. +Si observan a los grandes negocios, casi siempre notarn que estas 3 reas entran en juego. +Los negocios verdaderamente exitosos: Google es un gran xito tecnolgico, pero tambin se basa en una muy buena estrategia psicolgica: la gente cree que algo que hace solamente una cosa es mejor haciendo esa cosa que algo que hace eso y otras cosas ms. +Es algo innato que se llama dilucin de metas. +Ayelet Fishbach escribi un artculo sobre ello. +En los tiempos de Google todo el mundo trataba, ms o menos, de tener un portal. +S, hay una funcin de bsqueda, pero tambin ofrecen el clima, los resultados deportivos, noticias. +Google comprendi que si solo eres un motor de bsqueda, la gente supone que eres un motor de bsqueda muy, muy bueno. +Todos ustedes lo saben, de hecho, cuando van a comprar un televisor +y en el ms triste rincn al final de la hilera de televisores de pantalla plana pueden ver estos aparatos despreciados de TV y DVD combinados. +No tenemos ni idea de cul es la calidad de esos aparatos, pero les damos un vistazo y decimos: Puaj. +Probablemente es una tele mala y un DVD basura. +As que salimos de la tienda con uno de cada uno. +Google es un xito psicolgico, adems de tecnolgico. +Propongo que usemos la psicologa para resolver problemas que ni siquiera sabamos que eran problemas. +Esto es lo que sugiero para lograr que la gente termine su ciclo de antibiticos: +no les den 24 pldoras blancas. +Denles 18 pldoras blancas y 6 azules y dganles que se tomen primero las pldoras blancas y despus las azules. +Se le llama chunking . +La probabilidad de que la gente llegar hasta el final es mucho mayor cuando hay un indicador en el camino. +Pienso que uno de los grandes errores de la economa es que no comprende que las cosas, ya sea la jubilacin, el desempleo, los costos, son una funcin, no solo de la cantidad, pero tambin de su significado. +Esta es una estacin de peaje en Gran Bretaa. +A menudo se forman filas en las estaciones de peaje +y a veces son muy, muy largas. +Podran aplicar el mismo principio, si quieren, a las filas de seguridad en los aeropuertos. +Qu pasara si pudieran pagar el doble de dinero para cruzar el puente pero utilizar un carril exprs? +No es algo insensato. Es una solucin econmicamente eficiente. +El tiempo tiene ms importancia para algunas personas que para otras. +Si estamos esperando obtener una entrevista de trabajo, est muy claro que pagaramos un par de libras ms para utilizar el carril rpido. +Si vamos a visitar a la suegra, probablemente preferimos quedarnos en el lado izquierdo. +El nico problema al introducir esta solucin econmicamente eficiente, es que la gente la odia. +Porque cree que se estn creando retrasos en el puente a propsito para maximizar las ganancias, y adems: Por qu demonios debo pagar para subvencionar su incompetencia? +Por el otro lado, si se cambia ligeramente el esquema y se utiliza una gestin del rendimiento caritativa para que el dinero adicional no vaya hacia la compaa duea del puente, sino hacia obras de caridad, entonces la disposicin mental para pagar cambia por completo. +Ahora se tiene una solucin relativamente eficiente en trminos econmicos, pero que cuenta con la aprobacin pblica e incluso un poco de afecto, en lugar de verse como una movida cabrona. +As que los economistas cometen un error fundamental al pensar que el dinero es el dinero. +En realidad, el dolor que experimento al pagar 5 libras no es solamente proporcional a la cantidad, sino a dnde creo que va ese dinero. +Y creo que entender eso podra revolucionar la poltica de impuestos, +los servicios pblicos. +Podra en verdad cambiar las cosas de manera muy significativa. +He aqu un hombre al que todos necesitamos estudiar. +Es un economista de la escuela de Austria que inici su actividad en la primera mitad del siglo XX en Viena. +Lo interesante de la escuela de Austria es que se desarroll en la poca de Freud. +As que se interesan predominantemente en la psicologa. +Ellos pensaban que exista una disciplina llamada praxeologa que deba ser prioritaria en el estudio de la economa. +La praxeologa es el estudio de las opciones, acciones y toma de decisiones humanas. +Creo que tienen razn. +Creo que el peligro del mundo actual es que el estudio de la economa se considera como una disciplina prioritaria para el estudio de la psicologa humana. +Pero, como dice Charles Munger: Si la economa no se relaciona con el comportamiento, entonces no se qu diablos es. +Es interesante que von Mises considere a la economa como un subgrupo de la psicologa. +Creo que se refiere a la economa solamente como "el estudio de la praxeologa humana bajo condiciones de escasez". +Pero von Mises, entre otras muchas cosas, utiliza, creo, una analoga que probablemente es la mejor justificacin y explicacin del valor de la mercadotecnia, el valor del valor percibido y el hecho de que deberamos manejarlo como absolutamente equivalente a cualquier otro tipo de valor. +Tendemos, todos nosotros, incluso los que trabajamos en mercadotecnia, a pensar acerca del valor de dos maneras. +Est el valor real, que es cuando se produce algo en una fbrica y se ofrece un servicio, y luego est un tipo de valor dudoso, que uno crea al cambiar la forma en que la gente ve las cosas. +Von Mises rechazaba por completo esta distincin +y utilizaba la siguiente analoga: +se refera en realidad a unos extraos economistas llamados los fisicratas franceses que crean que el nico valor verdadero era lo que se extraa de la tierra. +As que si uno era un pastor, un minero o un campesino, creaba valor verdadero. +Sin embargo, si uno compraba algo de lana al pastor y cobraba una prima por convertirla en un sombrero, uno en realidad no estaba creando valor, sino explotando al pastor. +Von Mises deca que los economistas modernos cometan el mismo error en relacin con la publicidad y la mercadotecnia. +Deca que, si uno es dueo de un restaurante, no puede hacer una distincin entre el valor que se crea al cocinar la comida y el que se crea al limpiar el piso. +Una de estas actividades crea, tal vez, el producto principal, lo que creemos que estamos pagando; la otra crea un contexto en el cual podemos disfrutar y apreciar el producto. +Y la idea que una de ellas debera tener prioridad sobre la otra es fundamentalmente errnea. +Intenten rpidamente un experimento mental. +Imagnense un restaurante que sirve comida digna de recibir estrellas Michelin, pero que en realidad huele a desage y tiene heces humanas en el piso. +Lo mejor que se puede hacer ah para crear valor no es mejorar an ms la calidad de la comida, sino deshacerse del olor y limpiar el piso. +Y es vital que entendamos esto. +Parece algo extrao e incomprensible que, en el Reino Unido, la oficina de correos tena una tasa de xito del 98 por ciento en las entregas del correo de primera clase al da siguiente. +Decidieron que no era suficiente, que queran llegar al 99 por ciento. +Al intentarlo casi llevaron al organismo a la quiebra. +Si al mismo tiempo hubieran ido a preguntar a la gente: "Qu porcentaje del correo de primera clase se entrega al da siguiente?", +la respuesta promedio, o la moda, habra sido 50 o 60 por ciento. +Entonces, si la percepcin es mucho peor que la realidad, por qu demonios tratar de cambiar la realidad? +Es como intentar mejorar la calidad de la comida en un restaurante que apesta. +Lo que se necesita hacer es, primero que nada, decirle a la gente que el 98 por ciento del correo de primera clase se entrega al siguiente da. +Eso es muy bueno. +Yo alegara que, en Gran Bretaa, sera un mejor marco de referencia el decirle a la gente que en el Reino Unido se entrega al da siguiente ms correo de primera clase que en Alemania. +Porque generalmente, si se nos quiere hacer felices a los britnicos acerca de algo, solo hay que decirnos que lo hacemos mejor que los alemanes. +Elijan su marco de referencia y el valor percibido y de esta forma el valor real se transforma por completo. +Hay que decir de los alemanes que ellos y los franceses estn llevando a cabo una brillante labor al crear una Europa unida. +Lo nico que no esperaban es que estn uniendo a Europa en un ligero odio compartido hacia ambos. +Pero yo soy britnico, as es como nos gusta. +Lo que notarn tambin es que, en todo caso, nuestra percepcin es inexacta. +No podemos diferenciar entre la calidad de la comida y el ambiente en que la consumimos. +Todos habrn notado este fenmeno si han llevado su auto a lavar o limpiar por profesionales. +Cuando regresan, sienten como si el auto se condujese mejor. +Y la razn es que, a menos que hayan cambiado el aceite en secreto, o hecho algo por lo que yo no pagu y de lo que no me he enterado, es porque nuestra percepcin es imprecisa. +Los analgsicos de marca reducen el dolor de manera ms efectiva que los analgsicos sin marca. +Y no me refiero solamente a la reduccin del dolor manifestada por la gente, sino a la real y medida reduccin del dolor. +As que la percepcin es, en todo caso, imperfecta. +As que si hacemos algo que se percibe como malo en algn aspecto, esto puede afectar a los dems aspectos. +Muchas gracias. +Hace exactamente cuatro aos empec un blog sobre moda llamado Style Rookie. +El pasado septiembre de 2011, empec una revista online para chicas adolescentes llamada Rookiemag.com. +Me llamo Tavi Gevinson, y el ttulo de mi charla es "An entendindolo," y la calidad del Paint de mis diapositivas fue una decisin totalmente creativa teniendo en cuenta el tema de hoy, y no tiene nada que ver con mi incapacidad para usar PowerPoint. As que edito esta pgina para chicas adolescentes. Soy feminista. +Soy un tanto nerd de la cultura pop, y pienso un montn respecto a qu es lo que hace fuerte a un personaje femenino, y, ustedes saben, las pelculas y las series, marcan influencia. Mi propia pgina web. +Pienso que la cuestin sobre qu es lo que hace fuerte a un personaje femenino se malinterpreta a menudo, y en realidad pensamos en heronas bi-dimensionales que tal vez tienen una cualidad que se acenta muchsimo, como el estilo de Gatbela, o ella utiliza su sexualidad a menudo, y es visto como un poder. +Pero no son personajes fuertes que por casualidad son mujeres. +Son totalmente planos, y son bsicamente personajes de cartn. +No soy la primera en decir esto. +Lo que hace a un personaje femenino fuerte es un personaje que tiene debilidades, que tiene defectos, que puede que no nos guste en un principio, pero s en algn momento. +No me gusta mencionar un problema sin adems reconocer a aquellos que trabajan para arreglarlo, as que quiero mencionar series como "Mad Men," pelculas como "La Boda de mi Mejor Amiga," en las que los personajes femeninos o protagonistas son complejos, polifacticos. +Lena Dunham, que est aqu, y estrena serie el prximo mes en HBO, "Girls," dijo que quera empezar la serie porque senta que todas las mujeres que conoca eran precisamente un manojo de contradicciones, y eso parece cierto para todo el mundo, pero normalmente no se representa a las mujeres de ese modo. +Este es un diagrama cientfico de mi cerebro -- -- en la poca en la que, cuando empec a ver esas series. +Estaba terminando la escuela secundaria, comenzando la preparatoria -- ahora estoy en segundo ao -- y estaba intentando reconciliar todas esas diferencias que te dicen que no puedes ser cuando eres una chica. +No puedes ser inteligente y guapa. +No puedes ser una feminista a la que le interesa la moda. +No te puede interesar la ropa si no es por lo que otra gente, especialmente hombres, piensan de ti. +Pero, s. +As que escrib en mi blog que quera empezar esta publicacin para chicas adolescentes y le ped a la gente que mandase sus escritos, fotografas, cualquier cosa, para ser un miembro de nuestro equipo. +Recib alrededor de 3.000 emails. +Mi director editorial y yo los revisamos y reunimos a un equipo de personas, y emprendimos el pasado septiembre. +No estoy diciendo, "S como nosotros," y "Somos modelos de conducta," porque no lo somos, sin embargo, slo queremos ayudar a representar a las chicas de una manera que muestre sus diferentes facetas. +Quiero decir, tenemos artculos llamados "Tomndote en serio: Cmo no preocuparse de lo que la gente piensa de ti," pero tambin tenemos artculos como, ups Estoy entendindolo! +Jaja. Si usas esto, siempre podrs salirte con la tuya. +Tambin tenemos artculos llamados "Cmo aparentar en menos de cinco minutos, que no estabas realmente llorando." +Despus de todo lo dicho, realmente aprecio esos personajes en las pelculas y artculos como se en nuestro sitio web, que no son sobre ser completamente poderosa, sino aceptarse a s misma y su autoestima y defectos y cmo aceptarlos. +As que, lo que quiero que recuerden de mi charla, la leccin de todo esto, es simplemente ser como Stevie Nicks. +Gracias. +Cuando me pidieron que diera esta charla TED, me hizo mucha gracia, porque vern, mi padre se llamaba Ted, y gran parte de mi vida, en especial mi vida musical, es realmente una charla que an tengo con l, o la parte de m en la que l an existe. +Ted era neoyorquino, un muchacho del teatro y fue ilustrador y msico autodidacta. +No poda leer una sola nota musical, y padeca una seria incapacidad auditiva. +An as, fue mi gran maestro. +Porque aun a travs de los chillidos de sus audfonos su conocimiento de la msica era profundo. +Para l no se trataba de la forma en la que la msica se desarrollara sino de lo que es testigo y a dnde puede transportarnos. +Y cre una pintura de esta experiencia que titul "En el reino de la msica." +Ted entraba en este reino todos los das a travs de la improvisacin en una especie de estilo Tin Pan Alley como este. +Pero era exigente cuando se trataba de msica. +Deca: "Hay tan slo dos cosas que son importantes en la msica: el Qu y el Cmo. +Y la cuestin acerca de la msica clsica, ese Qu y Cmo, es inagotable." +Esa era su pasin por la msica. +Mis padres la amaban. +No saban demasiado al respecto, pero me dieron la oportunidad de descubrirla junto a ellos. +Y creo que inspirado por ese recuerdo, ha sido mi deseo intentar hacerla llegar a la mayor cantidad de gente posible, hacerla llegar a travs del medio que sea. +Y cmo es que esta msica entra en sus vidas realmente me fascina. +Un da, en las calles de Nueva York vi unos nios jugando bisbol entre escalinatas, coches y bocas de incendios. +Y un nio desgarbado y fuerte se par a batear, e intent batear la pelota y realmente se conect. +Y observ la pelota en el aire por un segundo, y luego dijo: "Dah dadaratatatah. +Brah dada dadadadah." +Y corri por todas las bases. +Y pens, fjate. +Cmo es que esta pieza de entretenimiento de la Austria arstocrtica del siglo 18 se transform en el cntico de victoria de este nio neoyorquino? +Cmo es que eso se le transmiti? Cmo lleg l a or a Mozart? +Cuando se trata de msica clsica, hay muchsima informacin para transmitir mucho ms que solo Mozart, Beethoven o Tchaikovsky. +Porque la msica clsica es una tradicin viva ininterrumpida que data desde hace ms de mil aos. +Y cada uno de esos aos nos ha dicho algo nico y poderoso acerca de qu significa estar vivo. +Ahora la materia prima de esto, por supuesto, es la msica cotidiana. +Son todos los himnos y las danzas de moda y las baladas y las marchas. +Pero lo que la msica clsica hace es sublimar estos estilos de msica, condensarlos hasta su absoluta esencia, y de esa misma escencia, crear un nuevo idioma. Un idioma que habla afectuosa e intrpidamente acerca de quines somos en realidad. +Es un idioma que sigue evolucionando. +A lo largo de los siglos, creci y se convirti en las grandes piezas en que siempre pensamos, como los conciertos y las sinfonas, pero hasta las obras maestras ms ambiciosas pueden tener como misin principal remontarnos a un momento personal y frgil, como este del Concierto para Violn de Beethoven. +Es tan sencilla, tan nostlgica. +Parece tener tantas emociones alojadas. +Y an as, como toda la msica, en esencia no es acerca de nada. +Es tan solo un diseo de tonos, silencios y tiempos. +Y los tonos, las notas, como saben, son slo vibraciones. +Son puntos en el espectro del sonido. +Y sea que los llamemos 440 por segundo, La o 3,729, Si bemol, cranme tengo razn, es slo un fenmeno. +Pero la manera en la que reaccionamos a las diferentes combinaciones de este fenmeno es compleja y emocional, y no se comprende del todo. +Y esta reaccin a estos fenmenos ha cambiado radicalmente a lo largo de los siglos, as como tambin nuestras preferencias por ellos. +Por ejemplo, en el siglo 11, a la gente le gustaban las piezas musicales que terminaban as. +Y en el siglo 17, preferan algo as. +Y en el siglo 21... +En el siglo 21, nuestros odos estn muy a gusto con este ltimo acorde, aunque hace un tiempo, nos hubiese perturbado o molestado o hubiese obligado a alguien a salir de la sala. +Y la razn por la que nos gusta es porque hemos heredado, aunque no lo sepan, siglos de cambios en teora muscial, prctica y moda. +Y en la msica clsica podemos identificar estos cambios con mucha exactitud gracias al compaero silencioso de la msica, la manera en la que nos es legada: la notacin. +El impulso de anotar, o quizs deba decir, de codificar msica ha estado entre nosotros por mucho tiempo. +En el ao 200 A.C., un hombre llamado Sekulos escribi esta cancin para su difunta esposa y la grab en su lpida en el sistema griego de anotacin. +Y miles de aos despus, el impulso de anotar tom una forma completamente distinta. +Y pueden ver cmo es que esto sucedi en estos fragmentos de la misa de Navidad "Puer Natus est nobis," "Naci por nosotros." +En el siglo 10, se usaban garabatos para indicar el formato general de una meloda. +Y en el siglo 12, se dibuj una lnea, como una lnea horizontal musical, para marcar de manera ms precisa la ubicacin de un tono. +Y luego, en el siglo 13, aparecieron ms lneas y nuevas formas de notas encerradas en el concepto exacto de la meloda, y eso nos llev a la clase de anotacin que tenemos actualmente. +La anotacin no fue la nica manera de legar msica, anotar y codificar msica cambi sus prioridades completamente, porque le dio la posibilidad a los msicos de imaginar la msica a una escala mucho ms amplia. +Ahora, movimientos hijos de la improvisacin podan ser documentados, guardados, considerados, priorizados, transformados en diseos complejos. +Y desde ese momento, la msica clsica se transform en lo que esencialmente es, un dilogo entre dos partes poderosas de la naturaleza: el instinto y la inteligencia. +Y en este punto comenz a haber una diferenciacin clara entre el arte de la improvisacin y el arte de la composicin. +Un improvisador intuye e interpreta el prximo movimiento fresco, pero un compositor, considera todos los movimientos posibles, ponindolos a prueba, priorizndolos, hasta que ve cmo pueden formar un diseo coherente y potente de una frescura duradera. +Algunos de los grandes compositores, como Bach, eran una combinacin de ambas. +Bach era un gran improvisador con la mente de un maestro ajedrecista. +Mozart era igual. +Pero cada msico logra un equilibrio distinto entre la fe y la razn, el instinto y la inteligencia. +Cada era musical tena prioridades diferentes de estas cuestiones, diferentes cosas para legar, distintos "Qus" y "Cmos". +Durante los primeros ochos siglos de esta tradicin el gran "Qu" era alabar a Dios. +Y para el 1400, se escriba msica con el propsito de imitar la mente de Dios, como podra apreciarse en el diseo del cielo nocturno. +El "Cmo" era un estilo llamado polifona, msica de muchas voces mviles independientes que sugeran la forma que tienen de moverse los planetas en el universo geocntrico de Ptolomeo. +Esta era verdaderamente la msica de las esferas. +Este es el tipo de msica que conociera Leonardo DaVinci. +Quizs, su perfeccin inteletectual y serenidad significaban que algo nuevo deba suceder, un nuevo movimiento radical, que finalmente ocurri en el 1600 +Cantante: Oh! Soplido amargo! +Oh, destino perverso, cruel! +Oh, estrellas siniestras! +Oh, cielo avaro! +MTT: Esto, por supuesto, fue el nacimiento de la pera, y su desarrollo le dio un nuevo encauce radical a la msica. +El qu ahora no trataba de imitar la mente de Dios, sino de seguir la turbulencia emocional del hombre. +Y el cmo era la armona, apilando los tonos para formar acordes. +Y los acordes resultaron ser capaces de representar una variedad increble de emociones. +Los acordes bsicos eran como los que an tenemos hoy, las tradas, ya sea una mayor, que nos da la sensacin de felicidad, o una menor, que se percibe como triste. +Pero, cul es la verdadera diferencia entre estos acordes? +Son tan solo estas dos notas en el medio. +Puede ser Mi natural, y 659 vibraciones por segundo, o E bemol, a 622. +Entonces, cul es la diferencia entre la tristeza y la felicidad humana? +37 vibraciones de nada. +Como pueden observar, en un sistema como este haba un enorme potencial sutil de representar las emociones humanas. +Y de hecho, como el hombre comenz a comprender mejor su naturaleza compleja y ambivalente, la armona se tornaba ms compleja para reflejarla. +Y result que tena la capacidad de expresar emociones ms all de las palabras. +Con todas estas posibilidades, la msica clsica realmente levant vuelo. +Fue el momento en que las grandes formas comenzaron a surgir. +Y tambin se sintieron los efectos de la tecnologa, porque la imprenta puso la msica, las partituras, los libros de msica, en manos de los artistas de todas partes. +E instrumentos nuevos e improvisados hicieron posible la era del virtuosismo. +En ese entonces fue cuando surgieron estas grandes formas: Las sinfonas, las sonatas, los conciertos. +En estas grandes arquitecturas de tiempo, compositores como Beethoven podan compartir el entendimiento de toda una vida. +Una pieza como La Quinta de Beethoven, que bsicamente atestigua cmo era posible para l pasar de la tristeza y el enojo, a lo largo de media hora, detalladamente, paso a paso, al momento en cuando pudo llegar a la alegra. +Y result que la sinfona poda usarse para temas ms complejos, como enfatizar aspectos de nuestra propia cultura, como el nacionalismo o la lucha por la libertad, o las fronteras de la sensualidad. +Cualquiera sea la direccin que la msica tomara, algo permaneca siempre igual hasta ahora, y era que cuando los msicos dejaban de tocar, la msica se detena. +Y este momento me fascina. +Me resulta un momento muy profundo. +Qu sucede cuando la msica se detiene? +Dnde va? Qu nos deja? +Qu le queda a la audiencia al final de una interpretacin? +Es acaso una meloda o un ritmo o un humor o una actitud? +Y cmo puede afectar sus vidas? +Para m, este es el lado ntimo y personal de la msica. +Es lo que transmite, es el lado del "por qu." +Yo lo veo como lo fundamentalmente esencial. +En mayor medida ha sido algo a corta distancia, de maestro a alumno, de intrprete a la audiencia, y luego, alrededor de 1880 surgi esta nueva tecnologa que, primero de forma mecnica, luego analgica y luego digital, cre esta nueva forma milagrosa de legar msica, si bien es una forma impersonal. +Las personas ahora podan oir msica en todo momento, aunque no fuese necesario que tocaran un instrumento, leyeran msica o siquiera tuvieran que ir a conciertos. +La tecnologa democratiz la msica haciendo que todo estuviese disponible. +Encabez una revolucin cultural en la que artistas como Caruso y Bessie Smith estaban al mismo nivel. +Y la tecnologa incit a los compositores a alcanzar extremos tremendos, utilizando computadoras y sintetizadores para crear obras de una complejidad intelectual impenetrable ms all de las posibilidades de los intrpretes o la audiencia. +Al mismo tiempo, la tecnologa, conquistando el papel que tena la anotacin musical, cambi el equilibrio de la balanza en la msica entre el instinto y la inteligencia, hacia el lado instintivo. +La cultura en la que vivimos actualmente est inundada de msica de improvisacin que ha sido seccionada en rebanadas, cubitos y capas y, por supuesto, distribuida y comercializada. +Cul es el efecto a largo plazo de esto en nosotros o en la msica? +Nadie lo sabe. +La pregunta persiste: Qu sucede cuando la msica se detiene? +Qu le queda al pblico? +Ahora que tenemos acceso ilimitado a la msica, qu queda con nosotros? +Voy a contarles una historia para que entiendan lo que quiero decir con "realmente queda con nosotros." +Haba ido a visitar a un primo mo a un asilo de ancianos y divis a un hombre muy viejito y tembloroso abrindose paso por la habitacin con un andador. +Se acerc al piano que estaba all, se sent y comenz a tocar algo como esto. +Y dijo algo como, "Yo... muchacho... sinfona... Beethoven." +Y de pronto comprend, y le pregunt, "Amigo, es posible que usted est tratando de tocar esto?" +Y me dijo, "S, s, yo era un muchachito, +La sinfona: Isaac Stern, el concierto, yo lo o." +Y pens, Dios mo, qu importancia debe de tener esta msica para este hombre, que se levenat de la cama y atraves la habitacin para evocar el recuerdo de esta msica que, aunque todo lo dems en su vida se desvanece, todava significa tanto para l? +Bien, es por eso que tomo tan en serio cada interpretacin, por qu son tan importantes para m. +Nunca s quien puede estar all, absorbindola y qu va a sucederle en sus vidas. +Pero ahora estoy entusiasmado, porque ahora hay muchas ms posibilidades que antes de compartir esta msica. +Y por supuesto, La Nueva Orquesta Sinfnica Mundial llev a la Orquesta Sinfnica de YouTube y proyectos en Internet que llegan a msicos y audiencias alrededor del mundo. +Y lo emocionante es que esto es tan solo un prototipo. +Aqu hay un papel disponible para que ocupen muchos: maestros, padres, artistas, para explorar juntos. +Por supuesto, los grandes eventos son los que llaman mucho la atencin, pero lo que realmente importa es lo que pasa cada da. +Necesitamos de su perspectiva, su curiosidad, sus voces. +Y me emociona conocer personas como los alpinistas, los chefs, programadores, taxistas, personas que nunca me habra imaginado que amaran la msica y quienes ahora la transmiten. +No es necesario que se preocupen por conocer del tema. +Si son curiosos, si tienen capacidad de asombro, si estn vivos, ya saben todo lo que deben saber, +Pueden comenzar en cualquier parte. Divaguen un poco. +Sigan las huellas. Pirdanse. Sorprndanse, divirtanse, insprense. +Ese "qu", ese "cmo" est ah afuera esperando a que ustedes descubran su "por qu", que se sumerjan en l y que lo transmitan. +Gracias. +Me encanta la comida +y tambin la informacin. +Mis hijos me dicen que por lo general una de esas pasiones es un poco ms evidente que la otra. +Pero lo que quiero hacer en los prximos 8 minutos es llevarlos a ver cmo se han desarrollado esas pasiones, al momento de mi vida en que las 2 se fusionaron, al viaje de aprendizaje que comenz en ese momento. +Y una idea que quiero dejarles hoy es: qu cambiara en sus vidas si viesen la informacin de la misma forma en que ven la comida? +Nac en Calcuta, vengo de una familia de padre y abuelo periodistas; ellos escriban revistas en ingls. +Ese era el negocio de la familia. +Y como resultado, crec rodeado de libros. +Y estaba literalmente rodeado de libros en la casa, +que en realidad es una tienda en Calcuta, pero es un lugar donde nos gustan los libros. +De hecho, ahora tengo 38 000 y ningn Kindle a la vista. +Sin embargo, crecer rodeado de libros y con gente que hablaba de esos libros, no fue un aprendizaje sencillo. +A los 18 aos, haba desarrollado una profunda pasin por los libros. +No era la nica pasin que tena. +Nac en el sur de la India, pero crec en Bengala. +Bengala tiene 2 caractersticas: los platos sabrosos y los dulces. +As que a medida que creca, desarrollaba tambin una gran pasin por la comida. +Mi juventud transcurri entre fines de los aos 60 y principios de los 70 tambin tena otras pasiones, pero estas dos eran las que me diferenciaban. +Y entonces la vida era buena, excelente. +Todo iba bien hasta que cumpl 26 aos y vi la pelcula Cortocircuito. +Oh!, algunos de ustedes la han visto. +Y parece que estn haciendo una nueva versin para el prximo ao. +Es la historia de este robot experimental que se electrocut y cobr vida. +Y cuando corra, deca: Alimntame, alimntame. +Y de repente me di cuenta de que para un robot informacin y alimento eran lo mismo. +Se cargaba de energa de alguna forma y los datos ingresaban de alguna manera. +Y me puse a pensar, me pregunt cmo sera si me imaginase a m mismo con la energa y la informacin como dos entradas, como si la comida y la informacin tuviesen formas similares. +Empec a investigar y esto result ser un viaje de 25 aos en el que descubr que los seres humanos, en tanto primates, tenemos estmagos mucho ms pequeos de lo que deberamos, dado nuestro peso corporal, y cerebros mucho ms grandes. +Y a medida que investigaba ms, llegu a un punto en el que descubr algo llamado la hiptesis del tejido costoso +que propone que la tasa metablica de la determinada masa corporal de un primate es esttica. +Lo que cambia es el equilibrio de los tejidos disponibles. +Y dos de los tejidos ms costosos del cuerpo humano son los del sistema nervioso y del digestivo. +Y ocurri que la persona que haba propuesto esta hiptesis, que al parecer tuvo grandes resultados alrededor de 1995, +era una mujer llamada Leslie Aiello. +El documento sugera que eran intercambiables. +Si alguien quera que su cerebro tuviese mayor tamao, tena que vivir con un tubo digestivo ms pequeo. +Me result muy provocador aceptar esta interconexin. +Entonces, vi el cultivo de informacin como si se tratase de comida; habamos sido cazadores-recolectores de informacin. +Luego nos convertimos en agricultores y cultivamos informacin. +Esto podra explicar lo que estamos viendo con las batallas de propiedad intelectual hoy en da? +Debido a que estos eran originalmente cazadores- recolectores, queran ser libres, errar y recoger la informacin que queran, y los que cultivaban informacin queran cercarla, crear propiedad, riqueza, estructura y asentamientos. +As que siempre iba a haber tensin. +Y vi que en los cultivos haba grandes peleas entre los amantes de la comida entre los agricultores y los cazadores-recolectores. +Y esto est ocurriendo aqu. +Cuando pas a la preparacin, ocurri lo mismo, excepto que haba 2 escuelas. +Un grupo de personas deca que la informacin poda extraerse, extraerse valor, separarlo y servirlo, mientras que el otro grupo deca que no, El valor surge si se tiene todo junto, consolidado. +Lo mismo ocurre con la informacin. +Sin embargo, todo se vuelve agradable con el consumo +porque entonces me di cuenta de que haba muchas maneras diferentes de consumo. +Se compra materia prima en la tienda. +Ustedes cocinan? Quieren que los sirvan? +Van a un restaurante? +Lo mismo ocurre cuando pienso en la informacin. +Las analogas eran sorprendentes: la informacin tiene fecha de caducidad, pero hay gente que hace mal uso de la informacin que no estaba fechada correctamente y eso puede repercutir en el mercado de valores, en los valores corporativos, etc. +Y en ese momento estaba cautivado. +Y este proceso lleva cerca de 23 aos. +Empec a pensar en m mismo a medida que la gente empieza a confundir la realidad y la ficcin: docudramas, documentales falsos, como quieran llamarlo. +Llegaremos a un punto en que la informacin tenga un porcentaje de realidad? +Llegaremos a etiquetar la informacin de acuerdo a ese porcentaje de realidad? +Veremos qu sucede cuando la fuente de informacin se apague, como en una hambruna? +Esto me lleva al ltimo elemento. +Clay Shirky dijo una vez que no existe la sobrecarga de informacin, solo hay fallas en el filtraje. +Si vemos la informacin desde el punto de vista de la comida, nunca hay problemas de produccin, nunca se habla de sobrecarga de alimentos. +Se trata fundamentalmente de un problema de consumo. +Y tenemos que pensar cmo hacer dietas y ejercitarnos para tener las facultades para enfrentar la informacin, para que el etiquetado se haga de manera responsable. +De hecho, cuando vi Sper engrdame, empec a pensar qu pasara si alguien pasase 31 das ininterrumpidos con noticias de la cadena Fox? +Habra tiempo para procesar eso? +As que empezamos a comprender que podemos tener enfermedades y toxinas y que necesitamos equilibrar nuestra dieta y una vez que buscamos, a partir de ese momento, todo lo que he hecho en trminos de consumo, produccin y preparacin de la informacin, todo lo he considerado desde el punto de vista de los alimentos. +Probablemente esto no ha ayudado en nada a mi silueta porque me gusta practicar en ambos lados. +Pero me gustara dejarles esta pregunta: Si consideramos toda la informacin que consumimos como si se tratase de alimentos, qu cambiaramos? +Muchas gracias por su tiempo. +Soy muy afortunada. +He tenido el privilegio de ver mucho de nuestro hermoso planeta y de las personas y criaturas que habitan en l. +Mi pasin surgi a los siete aos cuando mis padres me llevaron por primera vez a Marruecos, al borde del Sahara. +Ahora, imaginen a una nia britnica en un lugar donde no hace fro ni es hmedo como en casa. +Qu asombrosa experiencia. +Y esto me motiv a explorar ms. +As que como cineasta, he ido de un extremo de la Tierra al otro tratando de obtener la toma perfecta y de captar comportamiento animal nunca antes visto. +Soy an ms afortunada porque puedo compartirlo con millones de personas del mundo. +La idea de ver el planeta desde nuevas perspectivas y compartirlas es lo que me empuja a salir de la cama todos los das. +Quiz piensen que es difcil encontrar temas e historias originales, pero la nueva tecnologa est cambiando las formas de filmar. +Nos est permitiendo obtener imgenes novedosas y contar historias inditas. +En Grandes Acontecimientos de la Naturaleza, una serie para la BBC que realic con David Attenborough, queramos hacer eso. +Las imgenes de osos grizzly son comunes. +Pensarn que las ven todo el tiempo. +Pero hay gran parte de sus vidas que difcilmente vemos y que nunca se haba filmado. +As que fuimos a Alaska, donde los grizzlies dependen de altas pendientes montaosas, casi inaccesibles, para hibernar. +La nica manera de filmarlo es con una toma area. +David Attenborough: En Alaska y en la Columbia Britnica, miles de familias de osos emergen de su letargo invernal. +Aqu arriba no hay qu comer, pero las condiciones eran ideales para la hibernacin. +Hay suficiente nieve donde cavar una madriguera. +Para encontrar alimento, las madres deben guiar a sus oseznos hacia la costa, donde la nieve ya se estar derritiendo. +Pero descender puede ser un reto para los cachorros. +Aunque las montaas son peligrosas, al final el destino de estas familias y el de todos los osos del Pacfico Norte, depende del salmn. +KB: Me encanta esa escena. +Me da escalofros cuando la veo. +Fue filmada desde un helicptero usando una cmara giroestabilizada. +Es una herramienta maravillosa, porque es como tener un trpode volador, con gra y plataforma incluidas. +Pero la tecnologa por s misma no es suficiente. +Para conseguir las tomas ms valiosas hay que estar en el lugar y el momento indicado. +Esa secuencia fue especialmente difcil. +El primer ao no conseguimos nada. +Tuvimos que volver al siguiente, a las zonas remotas de Alaska . +Y aguardamos dos semanas completas con un helicptero. +Al fin tuvimos suerte. +El cielo se despej, el viento se calm, incluso los osos aparecieron. +Y logramos captar ese momento mgico. +Para un cineasta, la nueva tecnologa es una herramienta increble, pero lo que tambin me emociona mucho es el descubrimiento de nuevas especies. +Cuando escuch de este animal supe que debamos captarlo en mi prxima serie, Amrica Indmita, para National Geographic. +En 2005 se descubri una especie de murcilago en los bosques nubosos de Ecuador. +Lo asombroso del descubrimiento es que tambin aclar el misterio de qu polinizaba una especie peculiar de flor. +Dependa solamente de ese murcilago. +La serie an no se estrena, as que son los primeros en verlo. +A ver qu piensan. +Narrador: El murcilago nectarvoro trompudo. +Una reserva de delicioso nctar yace al fondo de la flor. +Pero, cmo alcanzarla? +La necesidad es la madre de la evolucin. +Este murcilago de 6 centmetros tiene una lengua de 8,5 centmetros, la ms larga en relacin al tamao corporal de cualquier mamfero en el mundo. +Si fuera humano, su lengua medira 2,7 metros. +KB: Qu lengua! +La filmamos cortando un pequeo agujero en la base de la flor y con una cmara que ralentiza la accin 40 veces. +Imaginen cun rpido es en realidad. +Ahora, me preguntan seguido cul es mi lugar favorito del planeta. +La verdad no tengo uno. +Hay tantos lugares maravillosos. +Pero algunos te atraen una y otra vez. +Y un sitio remoto que visit primero como mochilera y al que he regresado varias veces a filmar, recientemente para Amrica Indmita, es el Altiplano en los Andes de Sudamrica, el lugar ms extrao que conozco. +Pero a 4500 metros se vuelve difcil. +Hace un fro terrible y la escasez de aire realmente te afecta. +A veces es difcil respirar, en especial cuando cargas con el equipo de filmacin pesado. +Y esa cabeza punzante se siente como una resaca permanente. +Pero la ventaja de una atmsfera tan liviana es que deja ver las estrellas del firmamento con asombrosa claridad. +Observen. +Narrador: Unos 2400 kilmetros al sur del trpico, entre Chile y Bolivia, los Andes cambian por completo. +Se conoce como el Altiplano o las altas planicies, un lugar de extremos y contrastes descomunales. +Donde los desiertos hielan y las aguas hierven. +Ms semejante a Marte que a la Tierra, parece tan hostil hacia la vida. +Las estrellas mismas... a 3600 metros, el aire seco y tenue permite contemplarlas perfectamente. +Algunos astrnomos del mundo tienen telescopios cerca. +Pero con mirar al cielo a simple vista, en realidad no se necesita uno. +KB: Muchas gracias por dejarme compartir algunas imgenes de nuestro magnfico y maravilloso planeta Tierra. +Gracias por dejarme compartirlo con Uds. +Quiero contarles una breve historia de una pgina de error 404 y de la leccin que esta me dej. +Pero para empezar, sera bueno que entendamos bien qu es una pgina de error 404. +La pgina 404 es esto. +Es esa experiencia fallida en la web. +Es la pgina que aparece por defecto cuando buscamos un sitio web +y no lo encontramos. +Al llegar all, nos invade un sentimiento de fracaso. +Quiero que piensen un poco en esto y que recuerden por s mismos; es un fastidio cuando uno se topa con esto. +Porque nos sentimos como en una relacin que fracasa. +Y por ello, es interesante pensar en eso, de dnde proviene del error 404? +De hecho, es de una familia de errores, un conjunto de relaciones fallidas, y cuando empezamos a hurgar en ellas, parece la lista de comprobacin de un terapeuta sexual o un consejero de parejas. +Cuanto ms abajo, ms problemticas se vuelven las cosas. +S. +Estn en todas partes, +tanto en los sitios grandes como en los pequeos. +Esta es una experiencia global. +La pgina 404 nos dice que nos hemos cado por las grietas. +Y no es una buena experiencia si no estamos acostumbrados a este tipo de cosas. +Pueden usar un Kinect y hacer bailar unicornios y hacer brotar arco iris de sus telfonos mviles. +Esperamos todo, menos un error 404. +Y cuando aparece es como una bofetada en la cara. +Traten de pensar en el efecto que produce un error 404. Es como ir a Starbucks y encontrar al tipo detrs del mostrador, pero no hay leche descremada. +Y le decimos: Oye, podras traer la leche descremada? +Y este sale de detrs del mostrador sin pantalones. +Y pensamos: Oh!, yo no quera ver eso. +Esa es la sensacin del error 404. +Quiero decir, he odo hablar de eso. +Esto es importante y aqu entra en juego porque nos adentramos en una incubadora de tecnologa, y haba 8 nuevas empresas. +Y esas empresas se centran en lo que son, no en lo que no son, hasta que un da Athletepath, un sitio web especializado en servicios para deportistas extremos, encontr este video. +Un tipo: Joey! +Multitud: Guau! +Renny Gleeson: Usted acaba de... no, l no est bien. +Incorporaron ese video en su pgina 404 y fue como una revelacin para todos. +Finalmente haba una pgina que haca sentir la experiencia de una 404. +As que esto se convirti en un concurso. +Dailypath, que vende inspiracin, puso inspiracin en su pgina 404. +Stayhound, que ofrece servicios de cuidado de mascotas a travs de su red social, se compadeci de su mascota. +Cada uno encontr su forma. +Se convirti en un concurso de 24 horas +y a las 4:04 del da siguiente, dimos $404 en efectivo. +Y lo que aprend fue que esas pequeas cosas, cuando se hacen bien, importan de verdad, y que los momentos bien diseados pueden crear marcas. +As que echemos un vistazo al mundo real, y lo divertido es que podemos hacer estas cosas nosotros mismos. +Podemos ingresar una direccin URL en una 404 y esta se abrir. +Esta se compadece de nosotros. +Esta nos culpa. +Esta me encant. +Es una pgina de error, pero qu pasara si esta pgina fuese tambin una oportunidad? +En cierta ocasin, cuando todos estos empresarios nuevos tenan que sentarse y pensar; se entusiasmaron con lo que podan ser. +Porque volviendo al tema de la relacin general, lo que descubrieron a travs de este ejercicio fue que un simple error puede decirnos lo que alguien no es o recordarnos por qu amamos a alguien. +Gracias. +(Mosquitos zumbando) Muerto! +Mosquitos. Los odio. +Uds. no? +Ese zumbido horrible en los odos toda la noche que te vuelve absolutamente loco? +Saber que quiere clavarte una aguja en la piel y chuparte sangre? Es horrible, cierto? +De hecho, solo hay una cosa buena que se me ocurre cuando se trata de mosquitos. +Cuando vuelan en mi habitacin de noche, prefieren picar a mi esposa. +Fascinante, cierto? +Por qu la pican ms a ella que a m? +La respuesta es el olor, su olor corporal. +Y ya que todos olemos diferente y producimos qumicos en nuestra piel que atraen o repelen mosquitos, algunos somos ms atractivos para ellos que otros. +Mi esposa huele mejor que yo, o simplemente apesto ms que ella. +Como sea, los mosquitos nos encuentran en la oscuridad por el olfato. Nos huelen. +Durante mi doctorado, quise saber exactamente qu qumicos de nuestra piel usaban los mosquitos, los africanos transmisores de paludismo, para encontrarnos en la oscuridad. +Y hay una gran cantidad de componentes que usan. +Y no iba a ser una tarea fcil. +Por eso, preparamos varios experimentos. +Por qu molestarse con estos experimentos? +Porque la mitad de la poblacin mundial corre el riesgo de contraer una enfermedad mortal como el paludismo por una simple picadura de mosquito. +Cada 30 segundos, en algn lugar de este planeta, muere un nio de paludismo, y Paul Levy esta maana hablaba de la metfora de un avin 727 que se estrellara en EE.UU. +Bueno, en frica, tenemos el equivalente de 7 aviones Jumbo 747 estrellados cada da. +Pero quizs, si atraemos a estos mosquitos a trampas, usando de cebo nuestro olor, podremos parar la transmisin de la enfermedad. +Resolver este rompecabezas no iba a ser fcil, ya que producimos cientos de componentes qumicos en la piel, pero llevamos a cabo varios experimentos notables que nos permitieron resolver este rompecabezas rpidamente, de hecho. +Primero, observamos que no todas las especies de mosquitos pican en la misma rea del cuerpo. Extrao. +Entonces preparamos un experimento en que pusimos a un voluntario desnudo en una jaula grande y liberamos mosquitos para ver en qu parte del cuerpo se concentraban. +Y encontramos diferencias llamativas. +A la izquierda pueden ver las picaduras del mosquito de paludismo holands en esta persona. +Mostraron una fuerte preferencia por picar en la cara. +Y esto nos llev a hacer un experimento notable. +Intentamos, con un delgado trozo de queso limburger, que huele peor que los pies, atraer a los mosquitos africanos de la malaria. +Y saben qu? Funcion. +De hecho, funcion tan bien que ahora tenemos una mezcla sinttica del aroma del queso limburger que usamos en Tanzania y ha demostrado ser de dos a tres veces ms atrayente para los mosquitos que los seres humanos. +Limburg, estn orgullosos de su queso, ya que ahora se utiliza en la lucha contra la malaria. +Este es el queso, solo para mostrarles. +Mi segunda historia es tambin notable. +Es sobre el mejor amigo del hombre. Es sobre perros. +Y les mostrar cmo podemos utilizar perros en la lucha contra la malaria. +Una de las mejores maneras de matar mosquitos es no esperar a que vuelen por ah como adultos, piquen a personas y transmitan la enfermedad. +Es acabar con ellos cuando en el agua todava son larvas. +Porque son como la CIA. [Concentrados Inmviles Accesibles] +Estas larvas se concentran en los charcos. +Estn all todas juntas. Inmviles. +No pueden escapar del agua. No pueden volar. +Y son accesibles. Uno puede en realidad ir al charco y matarlas, correcto? +As el problema que enfrentamos con esto es que, a lo largo del paisaje, todos estos charcos de agua con las larvas, estn dispersos por todas partes, lo que hace muy difcil para un inspector como este realmente encontrar todos estos sitios de cra y tratarlos con insecticidas. +Y el ao pasado nos pareci muy, muy difcil, cmo podamos resolver este problema? Hasta que nos dimos cuenta de que al igual que nosotros, que tenemos un olor nico, las larvas de mosquito tambin tienen un olor nico. +Entonces, diseamos otro experimento loco, porque recolectamos el olor de estas larvas, lo pusimos en trozos de tela, y luego hicimos algo muy notable. +Aqu tenemos una barra con cuatro agujeros, y ponemos el olor de estas larvas en el orificio izquierdo. +Oh, fue muy rpido. +Y luego vean el perro. Se llama Tweed. Es un pastor escocs. +Est examinando los orificios, y ya lo consigui. +Volver a revisar los orificios de control pero regresar al primero, y ahora est fijo en ese olor, lo que significa que podemos utilizar perros con estos inspectores para encontrar mejor los criaderos de mosquitos en el campo, y por lo tanto, tener un mucho mayor impacto sobre el paludismo. +Esta seora es Ellen van der Zweep. Es una de las mejores adiestradoras de perros del mundo y cree que podemos hacer mucho ms. +Ya sabemos tambin que las personas que llevan los parsitos de la malaria huelen diferente de las personas no infectadas, y ella est convencida de que podemos entrenar perros encontrar a personas que lleven el parsito. +Esto significa que en una poblacin donde la malaria haya sido dominada y haya pocas personas con parsitos, los perros pueden encontrarlas, podemos tratarlas con medicamentos contra el paludismo y dar el golpe definitivo a la malaria. +El mejor amigo del hombre en la lucha contra la malaria. +Mi tercera historia es quizs an ms notable, y, debo decir, nunca se ha mostrado en pblico, hasta hoy. +S. +Es una historia loca, pero creo que quizs es la mejor y ltima revancha contra los mosquitos. +De hecho, algunas personas me han dicho que ahora podrn disfrutar de las picaduras de los mosquitos. +Y por supuesto la pregunta es, qu hara que alguien disfrutara de ser picado por mosquitos? +Y la respuesta la tengo aqu en mi bolsillo... si la encuentro... +Es una pastilla, una simple pastilla, y cuando la tomo con agua, hace milagros. +Gracias. +Ahora, permtanme mostrarles cmo funciona. +Aqu en esta caja tengo una jaula con varios cientos de mosquitos hembras hambrientos que estoy a punto de soltar. Es broma, es broma. +Les mostrar que voy a meter mi brazo y vern cmo rpidamente me pican. +All vamos. +No se preocupen, lo hago todo el tiempo en el laboratorio. +All vamos. Bien. +Ahora, en el video, el video aqu, les mostrar exactamente lo mismo, salvo que lo que les muestro en el video pas una hora despus de que me tom la pastilla. +Miren. Esto no funciona. Est bien. Lo siento. +No nos matan. Los matamos nosotros. +Ahora Maastricht, estn preparados. +ahora piensen en lo que podemos hacer con esto. +Podemos realmente utilizar esto para contener los brotes de enfermedades por mosquitos, epidemias, de acuerdo? +Y mejor an, imaginemos lo que ocurrira si, en un rea muy grande, todo el mundo tomase estos medicamentos, esta medicina, por tan solo tres semanas. +Nos dara la oportunidad de eliminar realmente la malaria como enfermedad. +As que: queso, perros y una pldora para matar mosquitos. +Esa es la clase de ciencia no convencional que me encanta hacer, para ayudar a la humanidad, pero especialmente a ella, para que puede crecer en un mundo sin malaria. Gracias. +Les voy a hablar del optimismo; o ms especficamente, de la predisposicin al optimismo. +Es una ilusin cognitiva que hemos estado estudiando en mi laboratorio en los ltimos aos, y que el 80% de nosotros tenemos. +Se trata de nuestra tendencia a sobreestimar la probabilidad de experimentar situaciones positivas y subestimar las posibilidades de experimentar situaciones negativas. +As que subestimamos la posibilidad de sufrir cncer o de tener un accidente automovilstico. +Sobreestimamos nuestra longevidad, nuestras posibilidades laborales. +En resumen, somos ms optimistas que realistas, pero olvidamos los hechos. +Pongamos por ejemplo el matrimonio. +En la sociedad occidental, las tasas de divorcio son de un 40%. +Esto quiere decir que de cada cinco matrimonios, dos terminarn separndose. +Pero si preguntamos a unos recin casados sobre su posibilidad de divorciarse, consideran que est en 0%. +Incluso los abogados de divorcios, que deberan saberlo mejor que nadie, subestiman altamente sus propias posibilidades de divorciarse. +Resulta que los optimistas no tienen menos posibilidades de divorciarse, pero s es ms probable que vuelvan a casarse. +En palabras de Samuel Johnson, "Casarse otra vez significa el triunfo de la esperanza sobre la experiencia". +Si estamos casados, tenemos ms posibilidades de tener hijos. +Y todos pensamos que nuestros hijos sern especialmente talentosos. +Esto por cierto, sucede con mi sobrino de dos aos, Guy. +Y slo quiero dejar absolutamente claro que l es muy mal ejemplo de la predisposicin al optimismo, ya que de verdad, tiene un talento extraordinario. +Y no soy la nica que lo piensa. +De cada cuatro britnicos, tres dijeron que eran optimistas sobre el futuro de sus propias familias. +Eso es el 75%. +Sin embargo, slo el 30% dijo que pensaba que a las familias en general, les va mejor que a la generacin de sus abuelos. +Y este es un punto muy importante, porque somos optimistas sobre nosotros mismos, somos optimistas acerca de nuestros hijos, somos optimistas sobre nuestras familias, pero no somos tan optimistas acerca del tipo de al lado, y somos algo ms pesimistas sobre el destino de nuestros conciudadanos y de nuestro pas. +Pero el optimismo personal acerca de nuestro propio futuro permanece con insistencia. +Y esto no quiere decir que pensemos que las cosas saldrn bien por arte de magia, sino que tenemos la habilidad nica de hacer que as suceda. +Soy una cientfica, hago experimentos. +As que para mostrar lo que quiero decir, voy a hacer un experimento aqu con Uds. +Les doy una lista de habilidades y caractersticas, y quiero que piensen en cada una de ellas, dnde estn situados en relacin al resto de la poblacin. +La primera es llevarse bien con los dems. +Quines de los presentes creen estar por debajo del 25%? +Bueno, eso es aproximadamente 10 personas entre 1500. +Quin cree estar por encima del 25%? +Eso es la mayora. +Bueno, ahora hagamos lo mismo con la habilidad al volante. +Cun interesante sois? +Cun atractivos? +Cun honestos? +Y finalmente, cun modestos? +As que la mayora de nosotros nos situamos por encima de la media en la mayora de estas habilidades. +Ahora, esto es estadsticamente imposible. +No podemos ser todos mejores que los dems. +Pero si nos creemos mejores que los dems, eso significa que es ms probable que consigamos ese ascenso, que sigamos casados, ya que somos ms sociables, ms interesantes. +Es un fenmeno global. +La predisposicin al optimismo ha sido observada en muchos pases diferentes, en culturas occidentales, en culturas no occidentales, en mujeres y hombres, en nios, en personas mayores. +Est bastante extendido. +Pero la pregunta es, es esto bueno para nosotros? +Algunas personas dicen que no. +Algunas personas dicen que el secreto de la felicidad es tener bajas expectativas. +Creo que la lgica va ms o menos as: si no tenemos expectativas de grandeza, si no esperamos encontrar el amor y estar sanos y tener xito, entonces no vamos a decepcionarnos si estas cosas no suceden. +Y si no nos decepcionamos cuando no lleguen las cosas buenas, y estamos agradablemente sorprendidos cuando suceden, seremos felices. +Es una muy buena teora, pero resulta ser incorrecta por tres razones. +Nmero uno: Pase lo que pase, tengas xito o fracases, la gente con expectativas altas siempre se siente mejor. +Porque cmo nos sintamos cuando nos echan o nos nombran empleado del mes depende de cmo interpretemos esa situacin. +Los psiclogos Margaret Marshall y John Brown estudiaron a estudiantes con expectativas altas y bajas. +Y descubrieron que cuando la gente con expectativas altas tiene xito, lo atribuye a sus propias cualidades. +"Soy un genio, por lo tanto tengo un sobresaliente, por lo que conseguir sobresalientes una y otra vez en el futuro". +Cuando fracasan, no es porque sean tontos, sino porque el examen simplemente era injusto. +La prxima vez lo harn mejor. +Las personas con expectativas bajas hacen exactamente lo contrario. +Cuando no aprueban, lo hacen porque son tontos, y cuando aprueban lo hacen porque el examen simplemente era muy fcil. +La prxima vez la realidad los alcanzar. +As que se sienten peor. +Nmero dos: independientemente del resultado, el puro acto de la anticipacin nos hace felices. +El economista del comportamiento George Lowenstein pidi a los alumnos de su universidad que se imaginaran recibiendo un apasionado beso de una celebridad cualquiera. +Entonces dijo, "Cunto estn dispuestos a pagar para recibir un beso de una celebridad si el beso fuera dado inmediatamente, dentro de 3 horas, de 24 horas, de 3 das, en un ao o 10 aos ms tarde?" +Descubri que los estudiantes estaban dispuestos a pagar lo mximo para recibir el beso, no inmediatamente, sino para recibirlo 3 das despus. +Estn dispuestos a pagar extra por esperar. +Ahora, no estaban dispuestos a esperar un ao o 10; nadie quiere a una celebridad envejecida. +Pero tres das pareca un tiempo ptimo. +Por qu? +Bueno, si recibes el beso ahora, est hecho y terminado. +Pero si recibes el beso dentro de 3 das, bueno, eso son 3 das de nerviosa anticipacin, la emocin de la espera. +Los alumnos queran ese tiempo para imaginar dnde va a pasar, cmo va a pasar. +La anticipacin les hace felices. +Esto es, por cierto, la razn por la que la gente prefiere el viernes al domingo. +Es un hecho realmente curioso, porque el viernes es un da laboral y el domingo es un da de placer, as que es de suponer que la gente prefiera el domingo, pero no es as. +Y no es porque les vuelva locos estar en la oficina y no puedan soportar pasear por el parque o almorzar tranquilamente. +Sabemos esto porque cuando preguntas a la gente sobre su da favorito de la semana, sorpresa, sorpresa; el sbado resulta ser el primero, despus el viernes, despus el domingo. +La gente prefiere el viernes porque el viernes trae consigo la anticipacin del fin de semana que tienen por delante, de todos los planes que tienen. +El domingo, la nica cosa que puedes anticipar es la semana laboral. +Los optimistas son personas que esperan ms besos en su futuro, ms paseos en el parque. +Y la anticipacin aumenta su bienestar. +De hecho, sin la predisposicin al optimismo, estaramos todos un poco deprimidos. +Las personas con depresin leve, no tienen una predisposicin cuando miran al futuro. +En realidad son ms realistas que las sanas. +Sin embargo, las que sufren depresin severa, tienen una predisposicin al pesimismo. +Por lo que tienden a esperar que el futuro sea peor de lo que resulta ser al final. +El optimismo cambia la realidad subjetiva. +Las expectativas que tenemos del mundo hacen que cambie la forma en que lo vemos. +Pero tambin cambia la realidad objetiva. +Acta como una profeca autocumplida. +Y esta es la tercera razn por la que bajar tus expectativas no te har feliz. +Experimentos controlados han demostrado que el optimismo no est solo relacionado con el xito, sino que desemboca en xito. +El optimismo nos lleva hacia el xito en los estudios, los deportes y la poltica. +Y puede que el beneficio ms sorprendente del optimismo sea en la salud. +Si esperamos un futuro brillante, el estrs y la ansiedad se reducen. +As que, en general, el optimismo tiene muchos beneficios. +Pero lo que realmente me parece complicado es, cmo mantenemos el optimismo ante la realidad? +Como neurocientfica, esto es especialmente complicado, porque de acuerdo con todas las teoras que hay, cuando tus expectativas no son alcanzadas, deberas alterarlas. +Pero esto no es lo que nos encontramos. +Pedimos a la gente que venga a nuestro laboratorio para intentar averiguar qu estaba pasando. +Les pedimos que calcularan sus posibilidades de experimentar en sus vidas una serie de terribles situaciones. +Por ejemplo, cul es la probabilidad que tienes de sufrir cncer? +Y entonces les dijimos la probabilidad media de que alguien como ellos sufra esta desgracia. +As que el cncer, por ejemplo, es de un 30%. +Y entonces les preguntamos otra vez, "Qu probabilidades tienes de sufrir cncer?" +Lo que queramos saber era si la gente tomara la informacin que les dimos para cambiar lo que creen. +Y ya creo que lo hicieron. Pero principalmente cuando la informacin que les dimos era mejor de lo que esperaban. +Por ejemplo, si alguien deca, "Mi probabilidad de padecer cncer est alrededor del 50%", y nosotros decamos, "buenas noticias. +La posibilidad media es de slo el 30%", la vez siguiente ellos diran, "Bueno quizs mi probabilidad est en torno al 35%". +As que aprendieron rpida y eficientemente. +Pero si alguien empezaba diciendo, "La probabilidad que tengo de padecer cncer es alrededor de un 10%", y le decamos, "malas noticias. +La probabilidad media es de alrededor del 30%", la vez siguiente decan, "S. An pienso que est alrededor del 11%". +Y no es que no hayan aprendido en absoluto; lo hicieron, pero mucho, mucho menos que cuando les dimos informacin positiva acerca de su futuro. +Y no se trata de que no recordaran las cifras que les dimos; todos recordaban que la probabilidad media de tener cncer es de un 30% y que la probabilidad media de divorcio es de un 40%. +Pero no crean que esos nmeros tuvieran relacin con ellos. +Lo que esto significa es que las seales de alerta como estas pueden tener slo un impacto limitado. +S, fumar mata, pero principalmente mata a los dems. +Lo que yo quera saber era qu estaba pasando dentro del cerebro humano que nos impide tomar personalmente estos signos de alerta. +Pero al mismo tiempo, cuando omos que el mercado inmobiliario est esperanzado, pensamos, "Ah, mi casa definitivamente va a duplicar su precio". +Para experimentar y averiguar todo esto, ped a los participantes en el experimento que mintieran durante un escner de imagen. +As se ve. +Y usando un mtodo llamado resonancia magntica funcional, pudimos identificar las regiones del cerebro que estaban respondiendo a la informacin positiva. +Una de estas regiones se denomina circunvolucin frontal inferior izquierda. +As que si alguien deca, "La probabilidad que tengo de sufrir cncer es del 50%", y nosotros decamos, "Buenas noticias. +La media es del 30%", la circunvolucin frontal inferior izquierda responda con fuerza. +Y no importaba si eras extremada, o mediana, o ligeramente pesimista, la circunvolucin frontal inferior izquierda de todos funcionaba perfectamente bien tanto si eras Barack Obama o Woody Allen. +En la otra parte del cerebro, la circunvolucin frontal inferior derecha estaba respondiendo a las malas noticias. +Y aqu est la cosa; no estaba haciendo un buen trabajo. +Mientras ms optimista fueras, era menos probable que esta regin respondiera a la informacin negativa inesperada. +Y si tu cerebro est fallando al integrar malas noticias sobre el futuro, llevars puestas constantemente tus gafas de color de rosa. +Queramos saber, podremos cambiar esto? +Podremos alterar el optimismo de la gente interfiriendo en la actividad cerebral de estas regiones? +Hay una manera de hacerlo. +Este es mi colaborador Ryota Kanai. +Y lo que est haciendo es pasar un pequeo pulso magntico a travs del crneo del participante en el estudio hacia su circunvolucin frontal inferior. +Y haciendo esto, est interfiriendo en la actividad de esta regin del cerebro durante aproximadamente media hora. +Despus de esto todo vuelve a la normalidad, se los aseguro. +Veamos qu sucede. +Primero que nada, voy a mostrarles la cantidad media de predisposicin que encontramos. +Si fuera a examinarles a todos Uds. ahora, esta es la cantidad que aprenderan ms de las buenas noticias comparado con las malas. +Ahora interferimos con la regin que averiguamos que integra informacin negativa, y la predisposicin al optimismo se hace incluso mayor. +Hacemos que la gente est ms predispuesta en el sentido en el que procesan la informacin. +Entonces interferimos en la regin cerebral que encontramos que integra buenas noticias, y la predisposicin al optimismo desapareci. +Estbamos asombrados con estos resultados porque fuimos capaces de eliminar una predisposicin profundamente arraigada en los humanos. +Y llegados a este punto, paramos y nos preguntamos, querramos destrozar en pedacitos la ilusin del optimismo? +Si podemos hacerlo, querramos quitarle a la gente la predisposicin al optimismo? +Bien, ya les he hablado de todos los beneficios que tiene la predisposicin al optimismo, la cual probablemente haga quieran aferrarse a ella desesperadamente. +Pero por supuesto existen inconvenientes y sera realmente estpido de nuestra parte, ignorarlos. +Tomemos como ejemplo este e-mail que he recibido de un bombero aqu en California. +Dice, "Investigaciones con bomberos sobre casos con vctimas mortales normalmente incluyen 'No pensamos que el fuego fuera a hacer eso' incluso cuando toda la informacin disponible estuviese all para tomar decisiones seguras". +Este capitn va a emplear nuestros hallazgos acerca de la predisposicin al optimismo para intentar explicar a los bomberos por qu piensan de la manera en que lo hacen, con el fin de hacerles del todo conscientes sobre la predisposicin al optimismo de la gente. +Es que el optimismo no realista puede llevar a un comportamiento peligroso; al colapso financiero, a una planificacin deficiente. +El gobierno britnico, por ejemplo, ha reconocido que la predisposicin al optimismo puede hacer que los individuos sean ms propensos a subestimar el coste y la duracin de los proyectos. +As que han ajustado el presupuesto de las Olimpiadas del 2012 teniendo en cuenta la predisposicin al optimismo. +Mi amigo que se casa dentro de unas semanas ha hecho lo mismo con su presupuesto para la boda. +Y por cierto, cuando le pregunt sobre de sus posibilidades de divorciarse, dijo que estaba seguro de que eran del 0%. +Lo que quisiramos hacer, es protegernos a nosotros mismos de los peligros del optimismo, pero al mismo tiempo mantener la esperanza, beneficindonos de los muchos frutos del optimismo. +Y creo que hay una manera de hacerlo. +La clave aqu es el conocimiento. +No nacemos con un entendimiento innato de nuestras predisposiciones. +Deben ser identificadas a travs de la investigacin cientfica. +Pero la buena noticia es que ser consciente de la predisposicin al optimismo no destruye la ilusin. +Es como las ilusiones visuales, en las que entenderlas no las hace desaparecer. +Y esto es bueno porque significa que podramos encontrar un equilibrio, cumplir los planes y las reglas para protegernos del optimismo no realista, pero al mismo tiempo permanecer esperanzados. +Creo que este dibujo lo refleja bien. +Ya que si eres uno de los pinginos pesimistas de all arriba que simplemente creen que no pueden volar, ciertamente nunca lo hars. +Porque para hacer cualquier tipo de progreso, necesitamos ser capaces de imaginar una realidad diferente, y adems necesitamos creer que esa realidad es posible. +Pero si uno es un pingino con un optimismo extremo que salta ciegamente al vaco esperando lo mejor, puede encontrar un pequeo desastre cuando llegue al suelo. +Pero si uno es un pingino optimista que cree que puede volar, pero que se pone un paracadas en la espalda por si las cosas no van exactamente como las ha planeado, volar como un guila, incluso si uno es slo un pingino. +Gracias. +Al parecer, las matemticas son un lenguaje muy poderoso. +Nos han hecho comprender de manera considerable la fsica, la biologa y la economa, pero no mucho las ciencias humanas y la historia. +Pienso que hay una creencia que dice que es simplemente imposible cuantificar los logros de la humanidad, que no se puede medir la historia. +Pero creo que eso no es cierto. +Quiero demostrrselos con un par de ejemplos. +Erez, mi colaborador, y yo consideramos el siguiente hecho: que dos reyes separados por siglos hablaran un idioma muy diferente. +Esa es una extraordinaria cualidad de la historia. +Entonces, el rey de Inglaterra, Alfredo el Grande, usara un vocabulario y una gramtica muy diferente a la del rey del hip hop, Jay-Z. +Simplemente es as cmo funciona. +El idioma cambia con el tiempo y es una fuerza poderosa. +Erez y yo queramos saber ms al respecto. +Entonces nos concentramos en una regla gramatical especfica: la conjugacin del pasado en ingls. +Solo hay que agregar ed al final de un verbo para expresar el pasado: +Today I walk. Yesterday I walked. +Pero algunos verbos son irregulares: +Yesterday I thought. +Ahora, lo interesante de esto es que los verbos irregulares entre Alfredo y Jay-Z se han vuelto ms regulares +como el verbo to wed que, como vemos aqu, se ha vuelto regular. +Eso es parte de la historia, pero viene en un paquete matemtico. +Ahora, en algunos casos, las matemticas pueden incluso explicar o proponer explicaciones para las fuerzas histricas. +Aqu Steve Pinker y yo consideramos la magnitud de las guerras en los ltimos dos siglos. +Se ha visto que hay una regularidad notoria: cuando el nmero de guerras es 100 veces ms mortal es 10 veces menos frecuente. +De este modo, hubo 30 guerras casi tan mortales como la Guerra de los Seis Das, pero solo 4 fueron 100 veces ms mortales, como la Primera Guerra Mundial. +Qu tipo de mecanismo histrico puede producir eso? +Cul es su origen? +A travs del anlisis matemtico, Steve y yo, sugerimos que el origen estaba en la existencia de un fenmeno muy simple que se encuentra en nuestro cerebro. +Se trata de una caracterstica muy conocida; percibimos las cantidades en formas relativas, cantidades como la intensidad de la luz o la intensidad de un sonido. +Por ejemplo, 10.000 soldados enviados a la guerra suena demasiado. +Es relativamente enorme si ya se haban enviado 1.000 soldados. +Pero no suena tanto, no es relativamente suficiente, ni har la diferencia si ya se haban enviado 100.000 soldados. +Entonces, ocurre que a causa de la forma en que percibimos las cantidades, durante el curso de la guerra, el nmero de tropas desplegadas y las vctimas no aumentar de forma lineal: como 10.000, 11.000, 12.000, sino de manera exponencial: 10.000, luego 20.000, despus 40.000. +Y esto explica el patrn que vimos antes. +Aqu las matemticas pueden unir una caracterstica muy conocida de la mente humana a un patrn histrico de largo plazo, que abarca varios siglos y a todos los continentes. +Hasta ahora solo hay algunos ejemplos, pero creo que en la prxima dcada sern como el pan de cada da. +La razn es que el registro histrico se est digitalizando a un ritmo muy rpido. +Existen unos 130 millones de libros que han sido escritos desde el inicio de la historia. +Empresas como Google han digitalizado muchos de ellos, ms de 20 millones en realidad. +Y cuando el material histrico est disponible en formato digital, permite hacer un anlisis matemtico muy rpido y conveniente para descubrir nuestras tendencias histricas y culturales. +Por tanto, creo que en la prxima dcada, las ciencias y las humanidades se acercarn ms para dar respuesta a las grandes preguntas sobre la humanidad. +Y creo que las matemticas sern una herramienta muy eficaz para hacerlo. +Podrn revelar las nuevas tendencias en nuestra historia, a veces explicarlas, y, quizs en un futuro, predecir lo que va a suceder. +Muchas gracias. +Hoy quisiera hablarles de la confianza creativa. +Quiero empezar bien atrs, en el tercer grado de la escuela Oakdale de Barberton, en Ohio. +Recuerdo que un da mi mejor amigo Brian estaba haciendo una tarea. +Estaba haciendo un caballo con la arcilla que el profesor tena bajo el fregadero. +En un momento, una de las nias que estaba sentaba a su lado viendo lo que l estaba haciendo se inclin y le dijo: "Es espantoso. No se parece en nada a un caballo". +Y Brian se encogi de hombros. +Estruj el caballo y lo arroj a la basura. +Nunca volv a ver a Brian hacer un trabajo como ese. +Y me pregunto cun a menudo sucede esto. +Y cuando cont la historia de Brian en mi clase al terminar, mucha gente se me acerc a contarme experiencias similares, de un profesor que los hizo callar, o de la crueldad de algn estudiante. +Y algunos renuncian a la creatividad en ese momento. +Y he observado que esa renuncia empieza en la infancia, luego contina y se afianza, incluso en la adultez. +Vemos muchos casos as. +En los talleres, o cuando trabajamos codo a codo con los clientes, siempre llega un momento en el proceso que no est claro o no es convencional. +Estos grandes ejecutivos finalmente sacan sus Blackberries y dicen que tienen que hacer llamadas muy importantes y se dirigen a la salida. +Estn muy incmodos. +Cuando los buscamos y les preguntamos qu sucede dicen algo como: "No soy un tipo creativo". +Pero sabemos que no es verdad. +Si se atienen al proceso, si lo siguen, terminan haciendo cosas increbles y quedan sorprendidos de lo innovadores que son ellos y sus equipos. +As que he analizado este miedo al juicio que tenemos. +No hacemos cosas por miedo al qu dirn. +Si no decimos la idea ms creativa, nos van a juzgar. +Pero descubr algo excepcional cuando conoc al psiclogo Albert Bandura. +No s si lo conocen, +pero si entran en la Wikipedia, dice que es el cuarto psiclogo ms importante de la historia... como Freud, Skinner, alguien ms y Bandura. +Bandura tiene 86 aos y todava trabaja en Stanford. +Es un tipo encantador. +As que fui a verlo porque ha trabajado en fobias durante mucho tiempo, tema que me interesa mucho. +Ha desarrollado una forma, una especie de metodologa, que termina curando a la gente en perodos muy cortos de tiempo. +En cuatro horas obtiene una alta tasa de curacin de fobias. +Y hablamos de serpientes. +pero hablamos de serpientes, del miedo a las serpientes como fobia. +Y fue muy agradable, muy interesante. +Me cont que sola invitar a las personas tratadas dicindoles: "Sabes, hay una serpiente en la habitacin contigua e iremos hacia all". +A lo que, me deca, muchos respondan: "Maldicin, no. Ah no entro, si es cierto que hay una serpiente". +Pero Bandura tiene un proceso detallado que es sper exitoso. +Pona a las personas frente a un falso espejo que daba a la habitacin donde estaba la serpiente y las haca sentirse cmodas con eso. +Y luego, mediante una serie de pasos, les haca ir hacia la entrada, con la puerta abierta, y se quedaban mirando desde all. +Haca que se sintieran cmodos con la situacin. +Y luego, pasito a paso, entraban a la habitacin con un guante de cuero como el de los soldadores hasta que finalmente tocaban la serpiente. +Y cuando lo hacan +De hecho, todo estaba ms que bien. +Estas personas que toda la vida tuvieron miedo a las serpientes decan cosas como: "Miren lo hermosa que es esa serpiente". +Y las sostenan en sus regazos. +Bandura llama a este proceso "dominio guiado". +Me encanta el trmino: dominio guiado. +Pero adems ocurri otra cosa, estas personas que siguieron el proceso y tocaron a la serpiente terminaron teniendo menos miedo a otras cosas en sus vidas. +Se esforzaron ms, perseveraron ms, y fueron ms resistentes de cara al fracaso. +Ganaron una confianza nueva. +Y Bandura llama a esta confianza, auto-eficacia... la sensacin de poder cambiar el mundo, de que uno puede lograr lo que se propone. +Bueno, conocer a Bandura fue catrtico para m porque me di cuenta que este cientfico famoso haba documentado y validado cientficamente algo que hemos visto ocurrir en los ltimos 30 aos. +Que a las personas que temen no ser creativas podemos guiarlas mediante una serie de pasos, una serie de pequeos xitos, hasta transformar el miedo en familiaridad, algo que les sorprende. +Es una transformacin increble. +Lo vemos continuamente en la escuela de diseo +Personas de todas las disciplinas que se consideran excesivamente analticos. +Vienen, siguen el procedimiento, nuestro procedimiento, ganan confianza y ahora tienen otra opinin de s mismos. +Y estn muy entusiasmados con eso de ir por ah pensndose como personas creativas. +Por eso una de las cosas que quisiera hacer hoy es mostrarles cmo es este viaje. +Para m es como el viaje de Doug Dietz. +Doug Dietz es un tcnico +que disea instrumental de imaginologa mdica, esos grandes equipos mdicos de imagen. +Trabaj para GE, donde hizo una carrera fantstica. +Pero en un cierto momento tuvo una crisis. +l estaba en el hospital mirando una de esas mquinas en funcionamiento cuando vio a una familia joven. +Haba una nia pequeita que lloraba aterrorizada. +Y Doug se decepcion al enterarse de que el 80% de los pacientes peditricos de ese hospital eran sedados antes de entrar a la mquina de resonancia. +Esto fue una gran desilusin para Doug, porque hasta ese momento l estaba orgulloso de lo que haca. +Salvaba vidas con esa mquina. +Pero realmente le dola ver el miedo que esa mquina despertaba en los nios. +En ese momento tomaba clases en la escuela de diseo de Stanford. +Estaba aprendiendo el procedimiento de pensar el diseo, de empata, del protipado interactivo. +De all tomara este nuevo conocimiento para hacer algo muy extraordinario. +Rediseara toda la experiencia del escaneo. +Y esto es lo que cre. +La transform en una aventura para los nios. +Pint las paredes y la mquina y capacit a los operadores con personas que conocen a los nios, que trabajan en el museo de los nios. +Ahora cuando vienen los nios, es una aventura. +Les cuentan del ruido y del movimiento de la nave. +As que cuando llegan, les dicen: "Bien, van a entrar a la nave pirata pero qudense bien quietos porque no queremos que los piratas los descubran". +Los resultados fueron espectaculares: +de un 80% de nios sedados se pas a un 10%. +El hospital y GE tambin estaban felices. +Porque no fue necesario llamar al anestesista cada vez y pudieron atender a ms nios por da con la mquina. +Los resultados cuantitativos fueron geniales. +Pero los resultados que le importaban a Doug eran mucho ms cualitativos. +Estaba con una de las madres que esperaba a su nia a la salida del escner. +Y cuando la pequeita sali del escner fue a decirle a su madre: "Mami, podemos volver maana?" +Muchas veces he escuchado a Doug contar la historia de su transformacin personal y de su consecuente diseo innovador pero siempre que cuenta la historia de la pequeita suelta una lgrima. +La historia de Doug ocurre en un hospital. +Y s un par de cosas sobre los hospitales. +Hace un par de aos sent un ndulo en el cuello y me toc pasar por una resonancia magntica. +Era un cncer maligno. +Me dijeron que tena un 40% de probabilidad de sobrevivir. +As que cuando uno est sentado all con otros pacientes en pijama, todos flacos y con la piel plida, mientras uno espera su turno para los rayos gamma, uno piensa muchas cosas. +Sobre todo piensa: "Sobrevivir?" +Y pens mucho en cmo sera la vida de mi hija sin m. +Y pens otras cosas. +Pensaba mucho en para qu estoy en la Tierra. +Cul es mi vocacin? Qu debera hacer? +Tuve la gran suerte de tener muchas opciones. +Habamos trabajado en salud y bienestar, desde preescolar hasta los 12, en pases en desarrollo. +Hubo muchos proyectos en los que pude trabajar. +Pero en ese momento decid y me compromet con lo que ms quera hacer... ayudar a tantas personas como fuera posible a recuperar la confianza creativa que perdieron. +Y, de sobrevivir, eso era lo que quera hacer. +Y, como ven, sobreviv. +Creo realmente que cuando las personas ganan confianza -- lo vemos tanto en la escuela de diseo como en IDEO -- empiezan a trabajar en las cosas realmente importantes para sus vidas. +Vemos personas dejar de hacer lo que hacen para ir en otras direcciones. +Vemos que tienen ideas ms interesantes, muchas ms ideas, y as pueden elegir las mejores. +Toman mejores decisiones. +Y s que en TED se supone que quieren cambiar el mundo. +Todos quieren cambiar el mundo. +Y mi manera de hacerlo es ayudar para que ocurra esto. +Por eso espero que me ayuden en esto... Uds. como lderes de pensamiento. +Sera genial si no dejaran que el mundo se divida en creativos y no creativos, como si fuera un don divino, y que las personas entiendan que son creativos por naturaleza. +Que deberan dejar volar sus ideas. +Que deberan obtener lo que Bandura llama la auto-eficacia, lograr lo que se propongan, alcanzar un estado de auto-confianza creativa y tocar la serpiente. +Gracias. +Este dibujo del cerebro tiene mil aos. +Es un diagrama del sistema de la vista. +Algunas cosas hoy resultan muy familiares. +Dos ojos abajo, nervios pticos que salen desde atrs. +Hay una nariz muy grande que no parece estar conectada a nada en particular. +Y si lo comparamos con representaciones ms recientes de la visin, vern que las cosas se han complicado considerablemente en estos mil aos. +Y esto se debe a que hoy podemos ver el interior del cerebro en lugar de ver solo su aspecto general. +Imaginen que quisieran entender el funcionamiento de una computadora y todo lo que vieran fuese un teclado, un ratn, una pantalla. +Sera muy desafortunado. +Querran verla abierta, totalmente abierta, ver el cableado interior. +Y hasta hace poco ms de un siglo nadie haba podido ver as el cerebro. +Nadie haba podido ver las conexiones del cerebro, +porque si uno saca al cerebro del crneo y corta una delgada rebanada, aunque la ponga bajo un microscopio potente, no ver nada. +Es gris, sin forma. +No tiene estructura. No aportar informacin. +Pero todo cambi a fines del siglo XIX. +De repente se crearon marcadores qumicos para el tejido cerebral que nos permitieron ver las conexiones cerebrales. +Se descifr el enigma. +Lo que dio origen a la neurociencia moderna fue una tincin llamada tincin de Golgi. +Y funciona de un modo muy particular. +En vez de marcar todas las clulas del tejido, de algn modo, marca solo el uno por ciento. +Despeja el bosque, revela los rboles del interior. +De haberse etiquetado todo, no se habra visto nada. +De algn modo muestra lo que hay. +El neuroanatomista espaol Santiago Ramn y Cajal, ampliamente considerado como el padre de la neurociencia moderna, aplic la tintura de Golgi y consigui algo parecido a esto; realmente acu la nocin moderna de clula nerviosa, de neurona. +Y si piensan en el cerebro como una computadora, este es el transistor. +Cajal muy pronto se dio cuenta de que las neuronas no funcionan solas, sino que mas bien se conectan con otras y forman circuitos como los de las computadoras. +Hoy, un siglo despus, cuando los investigadores quieren ver neuronas las iluminan desde el interior en vez de oscurecerlas. +Y hay varias maneras de hacerlo. +Pero una de las ms populares es mediante una protena verde fluo. +La protena verde fluo, que por extrao que parezca viene de una medusa bioluminiscente, es muy til. +Si obtenemos la protena verde fluo y la colocamos en la clula, esa clula se iluminar de verde... o cualquiera de las variantes actuales de protenas verde fluo, la clula se iluminar de varios colores. +Y volviendo al cerebro, este es de un ratn genticamente modificado llamado Brainbow (cerebro arco iris). +Se llama as, por supuesto, por las neuronas de distintos colores. +Pero a veces los neurocientficos tenemos que identificar los distintos componentes moleculares de las neuronas, las molculas, en vez de toda la clula. +Y hay varias maneras de hacerlo pero una de las ms populares es con anticuerpos. +Claro, uno tiende a pensar en los anticuerpos como aliados del sistema inmunolgico. +Pero resulta que son tan tiles para el sistema inmunolgico porque pueden reconocer molculas especficas como, por ejemplo, el cdigo gentico de un virus que est invadiendo el cuerpo. +Y los investigadores han usado esto para reconocer molculas especficas en el interior del cerebro; para reconocer estructuras especficas de la clula e identificarlas en forma individual. +Y muchas de las imgenes que les he mostrado aqu son muy hermosas, pero tambin son muy potentes. +Tienen un gran poder explicativo. +Por ejemplo, esta es la coloracin de un anticuerpo contra los transportadores de serotonina en un corte de cerebro de ratn. +Han odo hablar de la serotonina, por supuesto, en el marco de enfermedades como la depresin y la ansiedad. +Han odo hablar de los ISRS, medicamentos usados para tratar estas enfermedades. +Y entender el funcionamiento de la serotonina es fundamental para entender dnde est su maquinaria. +Y los marcadores de anticuerpos como este pueden usarse para entender estas preguntas. +Quiero despedirme dejndoles este pensamiento: las protenas verde fluo y los anticuerpos son productos de origen totalmente natural. +Evolucionaron en la naturaleza para que las medusas brillaran por la razn que sea o para detectar el cdigo gentico de un virus invasor, por ejemplo. +Y solo mucho despus, los cientficos aparecieron y dijeron, Oye, estas son herramientas, estas son funciones que podramos usar en nuestra propia caja de herramientas. +Y en vez de emplear nuestras mentes dbiles para disear estas herramientas desde cero, all en la naturaleza estaban estas soluciones predefinidas desarrolladas y refinadas de manera constante durante millones de aos por la mayor ingeniera de todas. +Gracias. +Hace doce aos, estaba en la calle escribiendo mi nombre para poder decir: "Existo". +Despus me puse a sacar fotos de gente para pegarlas en las calles y poder decir: "Existen". +Desde los suburbios de Pars al muro de Israel y Palestina, de los tejados de Kenia a las favelas de Ro, con papel y pegamento. Tan sencillo como eso. +El ao pasado lanc una pregunta: Puede el arte cambiar el mundo? +Bueno, les dir que, en lo que a cambiar el mundo respecta, ha habido mucha competencia este ao, porque la Primavera rabe an se est propagando, la Eurozona se ha desplomado... Qu ms? +El movimiento Occupy ha encontrado una voz, y yo an tengo que hablar en ingls constantemente. +As que ha habido muchos cambios. +Cuando ped mi deseo TED el ao pasado, dije: "voy a cambiar mi concepto". +"Ustedes sacarn las fotos". +"Me las enviarn". +"Yo las imprimo y se las mando de nuevo +para que las peguen donde tenga sentido para que Uds. muestren ese mensaje". +Eso es Inside Out. +Se han impreso cien mil psteres este ao. +Se trata de este tipo de pster, les mostrar. +Y seguimos mandando ms y ms cada da. +Este es el tamao. +Simplemente una hoja de papel corriente con un poco de tinta. +Este es de Hait. +Cuando ped mi deseo el ao pasado, cientos de personas se movilizaron y quisieron ayudarnos. +Pero dije que tena que ser bajo las condiciones con las que siempre he trabajado: ni crditos, ni logotipos, ni patrocinadores. +Una semana ms tarde, un puado de gente se encontraba lista para ayudar y dar fuerza a la gente que deseaba cambiar el mundo. +Esa es la gente de la que quiero hablar hoy. +Dos semanas despus de mi charla, en Tnez, se hicieron cientos de retratos. +Y cubrieron todos y cada uno de los retratos del dictador con sus propias fotos. +Bam! Esto es lo que pas. +Slim y sus amigos recorrieron el pas y pegaron cientos de fotos por todas partes para mostrar la diversidad de su pas. +De veras han conseguido hacer de Inside Out su propio proyecto. +De hecho, esa foto se peg en una comisara de polica, y lo que ven en el suelo son carns de identidad de todas las fotos de gente investigada por la polica. +Rusia. Chad quera luchar contra la homofobia en Rusia. +Fue con sus amigos a todas las embajadas rusas de Europa y se plant all con fotos para decir: "Tenemos derechos". +Usaron Inside Out como una plataforma de protesta. +Karachi, Pakistn. +Sharmeen de hecho est aqu. +Organiz una accin TEDx all e hizo todas las caras invisibles de la ciudad visibles en los muros de su pueblo. +Y hoy quiero darle las gracias. +Dakota del Norte. Standing Rock Nation. En esta, Isla Tortuga, integrante de la tribu Dakota Lakota quera mostrar que los aborgenes de EE.UU. siguen ah. +La sptima generacin an sigue luchando por sus derechos. +Peg retratos por toda su reserva. +Y tambin est aqu hoy. +Cada vez que consigo un muro en Nueva York, uso sus fotos para seguir difundiendo el proyecto. +Jurez: seguro oyeron hablar de la frontera; una de las ms peligrosas del mundo. +Mnica ha hecho miles de retratos con un grupo de fotgrafos y la ha cubierto por completo. +Saben lo que hace falta para hacer algo as? +Gente, energa, preparar el pegamento, organizar al equipo. +Fue increble. +Al mismo tiempo en Irn, Abololo -un apodo, por supuesto- ha pegado el rostro de una nica mujer para mostrar su oposicin al gobierno. +No hace falta que les diga el riesgo que corri haciendo eso. +Hay un montn de proyectos escolares. +El 20% de los psteres que recibimos viene de colegios. +La educacin es fundamental. +Los nios sacan fotos en clase, el profesor las recibe, las pegan en el colegio. +Aqu incluso tuvieron la ayuda de los bomberos. +Debera haber ms colegios haciendo este tipo de proyecto. +Por supuesto, queramos volver a Israel y Palestina. +As que fuimos con un camin que contena una cabina fotogrfica. +Uno entra por la parte de atrs del camin, saca su foto, 30 segundos despus la recoge y est preparado para sacudir el mundo. +Miles de personas lo usaron y cada uno de ellos firm una iniciativa por un doble estado pacfico y despus marcharon por las calles. +Esta es la marcha, 450 000 personas, a principios de septiembre. +Todos mostraban su foto en una pancarta como protesta. +Por otro lado, la gente estaba cubriendo las calles y los edificios. +Por todas partes. +Vamos, no me digan que all la gente no est lista para la paz. +Fueron necesarias miles de acciones en un ao, haciendo que participaran cientos de miles de personas, dando lugar a millones de opiniones. +Este es el mayor proyecto global de arte participativo en curso. +As que volvamos a la pregunta: "Puede el arte cambiar el mundo?" +Quizs no en un ao. Eso es el principio. +Pero a lo mejor deberamos cambiar la pregunta. +Puede el arte cambiar la vida de la gente? +Por lo que he visto este ao, s. +Y saben qu? Esto es solo el principio. +Juntos, revolucionemos el mundo. +Gracias. +Voy a comenzar siendo un poco aguafiestas. +Cuarenta y dos millones de personas fueron desplazadas por desastres naturales en 2010. +Pero, el 2010 no tena nada de especial porque en promedio, los desastres naturales desplazan todos los aos 31 millones y medio de personas. +Bien, por lo general, cuando la gente oye estas estadsticas comienza a pensar en lugares como Hait, u otro tipo de lugares lejanos o pobres, pero ocurre aqu mismo, en Estados Unidos todos los aos. +Solo en el ltimo ao, se radicaron 99 desastres federales reconocidos oficialmente en el FEMA desde Joplin, Missouri, y Tuscaloosa, Alabama, hasta los recientes incendios en el centro de Texas. +Entonces, cmo hace el pas ms poderoso de la tierra para atender a esta poblacin desplazada? +Los amontonan sobre catres, colocan sus pertenencias en bolsas plsticas de basura, las meten debajo, y los acomodan sobre el piso de un coliseo deportivo o un gimnasio. +Antes de eso, la gente se las tiene que arreglar sola. +As que me obsesion intentando ingeniar una forma efectiva para llenar este vaco. +En realidad esto se convirti en mi obsesin creativa. +Dej de lado toda actividad en las noches y empec a enfocarme nicamente en este problema. +As que empec a realizar un diseo preliminar. +Dos das despus del Katrina, empec a disear y a hacer un bosquejo para tratar de generar ideas o soluciones para esto, y cuando las cosas cuajaron o las ideas se formaron, empec a disear digitalmente en el computador pero como era una obsesin, no pude detenerme all. +Empec a experimentar, a realizar modelos, a hablar con expertos, a recoger sus comentarios, a depurar, y continu depurando y depurando en la noche y en los fines de semana, durante ms de cinco aos. +Entonces, mi obsesin termin conducindome a crear prototipos de tamao real en el patio de mi casa... y de hecho, gast mis ahorros personales en todo, desde herramientas hasta patentes y una diversidad de otros gastos, pero al final consegu este sistema modular de vivienda que puede responder a cualquier situacin o desastre. +Se puede armar en cualquier entorno, desde un parqueadero asfaltado hasta praderas o campos, porque no necesita ninguna estructura especial o herramientas especializadas. +Bien, en la cimentacin, y en cierto modo, el ncleo de todo el sistema, est la Unidad de Vivienda Exo que no es ms que el mdulo individual de refugio. +Y, sin embargo, es liviano; lo suficiente como para que se pueda levantar para trasladarlo a mano, y de hecho, permite que duerman cuatro personas. +As que esto modifica de modo fundamental la forma en que atendemos los desastres, porque elimina las terribles condiciones en el interior de los coliseos deportivos o los gimnasios en que la gente se apia sobre catres. +Ahora logramos vecindarios instantneos, afuera. +As que Exo est diseado para ser simple, bsicamente como una taza de caf. En realidad, se pueden apilar y de este modo lograr que su transporte y almacenamiento sea muy eficiente. +De hecho, se pueden colocar 15 en un solo semirremolque. +Esto significa que el Exo se puede transportar e instalar ms rpido que cualquier tipo de vivienda disponible hoy. +Pero, soy obsesivo, as que no poda detenerme all; empec a modificar las literas, que se podan deslizar y reemplazar por escritorios o estanteras, as que la misma unidad podra utilizarse como oficina o como depsito. +Parece una gran idea, pero cmo se vuelve realidad? +As que al comienzo lo primero que se me ocurri fue ir al gobierno federal y estatal y decirles: "Esto, para ustedes, gratis." +Pero, de inmediato alguien me dijo, "Oye, el gobierno no funciona as." Bien. Entonces voy a crear una entidad sin fines de lucro con el nimo de ser consultor y poner la idea en prctica junto con el gobierno, entonces me dijeron: "Hijo, el gobierno busca al sector privado para este tipo de cosas." +Bien. Entonces, tal vez podra llevar la idea completa a las empresas privadas que tendran un inters de provecho mutuo, pero ciertas empresas me dijeron que mi apasionado proyecto personal no era el apropiado para su marca porque nadie quera sus logotipos impresos en los barrios marginales de Hait. +Y encontramos durante todo este proceso este estupendo y pequeo fabricante en Virginia, y si su lenguaje corporal les da alguna pista, ese es el dueo... Si quieren saber lo que es un fabricante que trabaja directamente con el diseador, van a tener que mirar lo que ocurre aqu. Pero Industrias G.S. fue fantstica. +En realidad nos fabricaron tres prototipos a mano. +Ahora tenemos modelos que muestran que cuatro personas pueden dormir mucho ms seguras y cmodas que en una tienda de campaa. +Adems nos los enviaron aqu a Texas. +Ahora comenz a ocurrir algo gracioso. +Otras personas comenzaron a creer en lo que hacemos, nos ofrecieron espacio en un hangar, nos donaron ese espacio. Y la administracin del aeropuerto de Georgetown hizo lo imposible para ayudarnos con lo que necesitbamos. +As que ahora tenemos espacio de hangar para trabajar y prototipos para realizar demostraciones. +As, en un ao hemos negociado acuerdos de fabricacin, obtenido una patente, solicitado una segunda, hablado con mucha gente, hecho demostraciones al FEMA y sus consejeros, quienes lo criticaron muy favorablemente, y hemos comenzado a conversar con otras personas que solicitaron datos, el colectivo llamado Naciones Unidas. +Y adems, ahora tenemos una gran cantidad de otras personas que han aparecido y nos han hablado para aplicarlo en campos de minera, albergues mviles de jvenes, hasta la Copa del Mundo y los Juegos Olmpicos. +Para terminar, en lo que he expuesto aqu yace el anhelo de que pronto no tengamos que responder a las penosas llamadas telefnicas que siguen a los desastres con la negativa de que no hay nada para la venta o en donacin. +Con algo de suerte, muy pronto estaremos all porque ese es nuestro destino y nuestra obsesin: volverlo una realidad. +Gracias. . +Hace poco estuve en Beloit, Wisconsin. +Fui a homenajear a un gran explorador del siglo XX, Roy Chapman Andrews. +Mientras estuvo en el Museo Estadounidense de Historia Natural Andrews condujo expediciones a regiones desconocidas, como sta, en el desierto de Gobi. +Fue una gran figura. +Se dice que se basaron en l para el personaje de Indiana Jones. +Y cuando estuve en Beloit, Wisconsin, di una conferencia a un grupo de estudiantes de secundaria. +Y estoy aqu para decirles que, si hay algo ms intimidante que hablar aqu en TED, es intentar mantener la atencin de un grupo de chicos de 12 aos durante 45 minutos. +No lo intenten. +Al final de la conferencia me hicieron varias preguntas pero hay una que me qued grabada desde entonces. +Una jovencita se puso de pie y me hizo esta pregunta: "Dnde deberamos explorar?" +Creo que muchos tenemos la sensacin que aquella poca, de grandes exploraciones en la Tierra, ha terminado; que la prxima generacin tendr que ir al espacio exterior o al ocano ms profundo para encontrar algo importante que explorar. +Pero, es realmente as? +No hay nada importante que podamos explorar aqu en la Tierra? +Eso me hizo recordar a uno de mis exploradores favoritos de la historia de la biologa: +el explorador del mundo invisible, Martinus Beijerinck. +Beijerinck se propuso descubrir la causa de la enfermedad del mosaico del tabaco. +Para esto, agarr el jugo infectado de las plantas de tabaco y lo pas por filtros cada vez ms pequeos +hasta que llego al punto en que sinti que all tena que haber algo ms pequeo que las formas de vida ms pequeas que se conocan... las bacterias, en ese entonces. +Se le ocurri un nombre para su agente misterioso. +Lo llam virus, que en latn significa "veneno". +Y al descubrir los virus Beijerinck en realidad nos abri un mundo totalmente nuevo. +Hoy sabemos que los virus constituyen la mayora de la informacin gentica de nuestro planeta; ms que la informacin gentica de todas las otras formas de vida juntas. +Y, obviamente, ha tenido una aplicacin prctica enorme a nivel mundial... cosas como la erradicacin de la viruela, el advenimiento de la vacuna contra el cncer crvico-uterino que ahora sabemos es causado principalmente por el virus del papiloma humano. +Y este descubrimiento de Beijerinck, no es algo que ocurri hace 500 aos. +Fue hace poco ms de 100 aos que Beijerinck descubri los virus. +O sea, ya tenamos automviles pero desconocamos las formas de vida que componen la mayor parte de la informacin gentica del planeta. +Podemos aplicar estas tcnicas a cosas desde el suelo hasta la piel y a todo el espectro intermedio. +En mi empresa usamos esto cotidianamente para identificar qu provoca los brotes que no tienen una causa conocida. +Y slo para darles una idea de cmo funciona esto, imaginen que tomamos una muestra nasal de cada uno de Uds. +Esto es algo que hacemos comnmente al buscar virus respiratorios como la influenza. +Lo primero que veramos sera una cantidad ingente de informacin gentica. +Y si comenzramos a analizar esa informacin gentica veramos a gran parte de los sospechosos de siempre... claro, mucha informacin gentica humana, pero tambin informacin bacteriana y viral la mayora de cosas totalmente inofensivas que hay en la nariz. +Pero veramos algo muy, muy sorprendente. +A medida que analizramos esta informacin veramos un 20% de informacin gentica en la nariz que no concuerda con nada que hayamos visto antes; ni planta, ni animal, ni hongo, ni virus, ni bacteria. +Bsicamente no tenemos idea de qu es esto. +Y del pequeo grupo de nosotros que estudiamos estos datos, algunos hemos empezado a llamar a esta informacin materia oscura biolgica. +Sabemos que no es algo que hayamos visto antes; es como una especie de continente desconocido dentro de nuestra propia informacin gentica. +Y hay mucha de esta materia. +Si lo piensan, el 20% de la informacin gentica en sus narices es mucha materia oscura biolgica; si viramos sus intestinos, el 40% o 50% de esa informacin sera materia oscura biolgica. +E incluso en la sangre relativamente estril, cerca del 1% o 2% de esta informacin es materia oscura... es inclasificable, no se puede tipificar ni catalogar con nada conocido. +Al principio pensamos que tal vez era un error. +Estas herramientas de secuenciamiento profundo son relativamente nuevas. +Pero a medida que se vuelven ms precisas, hemos determinado que esta informacin es una forma de vida o al menos una parte de ella es una forma de vida. +Y si bien las hiptesis para explicar la existencia de materia oscura biolgica estn todava en paales hay una posibilidad muy, muy apasionante: que oculto en esta vida, en su informacin gentica, haya seales de una vida hasta el momento desconocida. +A medida que exploramos estas cadenas Aes, Tes, Ces y Ges podemos descubrir un tipo de vida totalmente nuevo que, como Beijerinck, cambiara fundamentalmente nuestra manera de abordar la naturaleza de la biologa. +Tal vez eso nos permita identificar la causa de un cncer que nos aqueja o el origen de un brote desconocido o quiz crear una nueva herramienta en biologa molecular. +Me complace anunciar que, junto con colegas de Caltech, Stanford y la UCSF, actualmente estamos comenzando una iniciativa para explorar la materia oscura biolgica en busca de nuevas formas de vida. +Hace poco ms de 100 aos la gente desconoca los virus, las formas de vida que constituyen la mayor parte de la informacin gentica en nuestro planeta. +Dentro de 100 aos, a la gente quiz le sorprenda el que hoy no conociramos un nuevo tipo de vida que literalmente estaba bajo nuestras narices. +Es verdad, es posible que hayamos descubierto todos los continentes y todos los mamferos sobre la faz de la tierra, pero eso no quiere decir que no hay nada ms que explorar en la Tierra. +Beijerinck y los de su tipo dan una gran leccin a la prxima generacin de exploradores... a personas como esa jovencita de Beloit, Wisconsin. +Y creo que, si tuviramos que ponerlo en palabras, sera algo as: No supongan que todo lo que vemos es la historia completa. +Busquen la materia oscura en cualquier campo que decidan explorar. +Estamos rodeados de incgnitas que estn esperando ser descubiertas. +Gracias. +Este sonido, este olor, esta visin, me recuerdan a las hogueras de mi infancia, cuando cualquiera poda convertirse en cuentacuentos frente a las llamas danzantes. +Acababa de una forma maravillosa: la gente y el fuego se dorman casi al unsono. +Era la hora de soar. +Mi historia tiene mucho que ver con soar, aunque se me conoce por hacer realidad mis sueos. +El ao pasado cre un espectculo personal. +Durante una hora y media comparta con la audiencia toda una vida de creatividad, cmo persigo la perfeccin, cmo engao a lo imposible. +Y entonces TED me desafi: "Philippe, puedes comprimir esta vida a 18 minutos?" +18 minutos, claramente imposible. +Pero aqu estoy. +Una solucin era ensayar una forma de hablar como si fuera una ametralladora en la que cada slaba, cada segundo, tendra su importancia y rogar a Dios que la audiencia fuera capaz de seguirme. +No, no, no. +No, la mejor manera de empezar es presentar mis respetos a los dioses de la creatividad. +As que, por favor, nanse a m en un minuto de silencio. +Vale, he hecho trampas, fueron escasos 20 segundos. +Pero eh, estamos en el tiempo de TED. +Cuando tena 6 aos, me enamor de la magia. +Para Navidad me regalaron una caja de magia, y un libro muy viejo sobre manipulacin de cartas. +De alguna forma, estaba ms interesado en la manipulacin pura que en los estpidos truquitos de la caja. +As que busqu en el libro el movimiento ms difcil y era este. +Se supone que no debera contrselos, pero tengo que ensearles que la carta est oculta detrs de mi mano. +Esta manipulacin se divida en siete movimientos descritos en siete pginas. +Uno, dos, tres, cuatro, cinco, seis y siete. +Les mostrar otra cosa. +Las cartas eran ms grandes que mis manos. +Dos meses despus, con seis aos, soy capaz de hacer uno, dos, tres, cuatro, cinco, seis, siete. +Y me voy a ver a un famoso mago y le pregunto con orgullo: "Bueno, qu te parece?" +Seis aos. +El mago me mir y me dijo: "Esto es un desastre. +No puedes hacer eso en dos segundos y que se vea una parte minscula de la carta. +Para que el movimiento sea profesional, tiene que ser en menos de un segundo, y tiene que ser perfecto". +Dos aos despus, uno... zum! +Y no hago trampas. Est detrs. Es perfecto. +La pasin es el lema de todas mis acciones. +Mientras estudio magia, mencionan una y otra vez el malabarismo como una buena forma de adquirir destreza y coordinacin. +Yo siempre haba admirado la rapidez y fluidez de los malabaristas al hacer volar los objetos. +As que eso era. Tengo catorce aos: voy a ser malabarista. +Me hago amigo de un joven malabarista de una banda, que accede a venderme tres clavas. +Las clavas son unos palos, +pero nada que ver con el golf. +Son esos bellos objetos oblongos, difciles de fabricar. +Tienen que ser torneados con precisin. +Cuando estaba comprando los palos, de alguna manera, el joven malabarista se esconda de los dems. +No le di mucha importancia en ese momento. +As que aqu estaba yo progresando con mis nuevos palos. +Pero no lo entenda. +Era muy rpido, pero no haca un movimiento fluido, para nada. +Los palos se me escapaban cada vez que los tiraba. +Y constantemente los intentaba atraer hacia m. +Hasta que un da practiqu frente a Francis Brunn, el mejor malabarista del mundo. +Y estaba frunciendo el ceo. +Y finalmente dijo: "Puedo verlos?" +As que le ense mis palos con orgullo. +Dijo: "Philippe, te han tomado el pelo. +Son defectuosos. Estn completamente desalineados. +No se puede hacer malabarismos con ellos". +Con tenacidad he hecho frente a todas las adversidades. +As que fui al circo a ver a ms magos, ms malabaristas, y vi... no, no, no, no vi. +Fue ms interesante: o. +O hablar de esos fascinantes hombres y mujeres que andan sobre el aire... los que andan sobre cuerda floja. +Yo haba estado jugando con cuerdas y trepando a los rboles toda mi infancia, as que eso era. Tengo diecisis aos: voy a caminar sobre la cuerda floja. +Encontr dos rboles... pero no cualquier tipo de rboles. rboles con carcter. Y luego una cuerda muy larga. +Y con la cuerda los rode una vez y otra y otra y otra y otra hasta que no tena ms cuerda. +Tengo todas esas cuerdas paralelas as. +Consigo un par de lminas y algunas perchas, y junto todo en una especie de camino de cuerda. +As que acabo de crear la cuerda floja ms ancha del mundo. +Qu ms necesitaba? Necesitaba los zapatos ms anchos del mundo. +As que encontr unas botas de esquiar enormes, ridculas, gigantes, y luego temblando, temblando, me subo a las cuerdas. +En unos das soy capaz de cruzar una vez. +As que quito una cuerda. +Y el siguiente da otra cuerda. +Y unos das ms tarde, estaba practicando en una sola cuerda. +Pueden imaginar que para entonces haba tenido que cambiar las ridculas botas por unas zapatillas. +As que aqu est el cmo, en caso de que haya gente aqu en el pblico que quiera intentarlo, as es cmo no se aprende a andar por la cuerda floja. +La intuicin es una herramienta esencial en mi vida. +Mientras tanto, me han echado de cinco colegios diferentes porque en vez de escuchar a los profesores, soy mi propio profesor, progresando en mi nuevo arte y convirtindome en un malabarista callejero. +En la cuerda floja, en unos meses, soy capaz de dominar todos los trucos que hacen en el circo, pero no estoy satisfecho. +Estaba empezando a inventar mis propios movimientos y perfeccionarlos. +Pero nadie quera contratarme. +As que empec a disponer cuerdas en secreto y a actuar sin permiso. +Notre Dame, el puente de la baha de Sidney, el World Trade Center. +Y desarroll una certeza, una fe que me convenca de que iba a llegar a salvo al otro lado. +Si no, nunca daba ese primer paso. +Bueno, aun as, en la cima del World Trade Center, mi primer paso fue terrorfico. +De repente, la densidad del aire no es la misma. +Manhattan ya no se extiende en su infinidad. +El murmullo de la ciudad se disuelve en una rfaga cuyo espeluznante poder ya no puedo sentir. +Levanto el palo de equilibrio. Me acerco al borde. +Paso por encima de la barra. +Pongo el pie izquierdo en la cuerda, el peso de mi cuerpo alzado en mi pierna derecha, anclada en el borde del edificio. +Debo cambiar mi peso poco a poco a la izquierda? +Mi pierna derecha se descargara, mi pie derecho podra encontrar libremente el cable. +A un lado, la masa de una montaa, una vida que conozco. +Al otro, el universo de las nubes, tan lleno de cosas desconocidas que pensamos que est vaco. +A mis pies, el camino a la torre norte: 55 metros de cable. +Es una lnea recta, que se comba, que oscila, que vibra, que se enrolla en s misma, que es hielo, que es tres toneladas tensa, lista para estallar, lista para tragarme. +Un aullido interior me asedia, lo salvaje intentando escapar. +Pero es demasiado tarde. +El cable est listo. +Decisivamente, mi pie se coloca solo en la cuerda. +La fe es lo que reemplaza a la duda en mi diccionario. +As que, tras el paso, la gente me pregunta: "Cmo puedes superar eso?" +Bueno, yo no tena ese problema. +No estaba interesado en ganarme lo gigantesco, en batir rcords. +De hecho, cruzar el World Trade Center lo pongo al mismo nivel artstico que algunos de mis pasos ms pequeos... o de un tipo de actuacin completamente diferente. +Veamos, como mi malabarismo callejero, por ejemplo. +As que cada vez dibujo un crculo con tiza en el pavimento y entro como el improvisado personaje cmico, silencioso, que cre hace 45 aos. Soy tan feliz como cuando estoy en las nubes. +Pero esto, aqu, esto no es la calle. +As que entendern que aqu no puedo hacer malabarismo callejero. +As que no quieren que haga malabarismo callejero, no? +Lo saben, verdad? +No quieren que haga malabarismos, no? +Gracias. Gracias. +Cada vez que hago malabarismo callejero uso la improvisacin. +La improvisacin te da poder porque proviene de lo desconocido. +Y como lo imposible es siempre desconocido, me permite creer que puedo engaar a lo imposible. +He hecho lo imposible no una, sino varias veces. +As que, qu debera contarles? Oh, ya lo s. Israel. +Hace algunos aos me invitaron a abrir el Festival de Israel con un paso por la cuerda floja. +Y eleg poner mi cable entre los barrios rabes y el barrio judo de Jerusaln, sobre el valle Ben Hinnom. +Y pens que sera increble si a la mitad del cable paraba y, como un mago, sacaba una paloma y la enviaba al cielo como un smbolo vivo de paz. +Bueno, debo decir que fue un poco difcil encontrar una paloma en Israel, pero me hice con una. +Y en mi habitacin de hotel, cada vez que practicaba haciendo que apareciera y lanzndola al aire, ella rozaba la pared y terminaba en la cama. +As que dije, bueno, es normal. La habitacin es demasiado pequea. +Quiero decir, un pjaro necesita espacio para volar. +Ir perfectamente el da del paso. +Ahora, llega el da del paso. +Ochenta mil personas se dispersan por todo el valle. +El alcalde de Jerusaln, Teddy Kollek, viene a desearme lo mejor. +Pero pareca nervioso. +Haba tensin en mi cable, pero tambin poda sentir tensin en la tierra. +Porque todas esa masa de gente estaba formada por personas que, en su mayor parte, consideraban enemigas a las otras. +As que empec el paso. Todo va bien. +Me paro en el medio. +Hago aparecer la paloma. +La gente aplaude maravillada. +Y entonces, con el gesto ms esplendoroso, envo el pjaro de la paz al azul celeste. +Pero el pjaro, en vez de irse volando, hace flop, flop, flop y se deja caer en mi cabeza. +Y la gente grita. +As que agarro a la paloma, y por segunda vez la envo al aire. +Pero la paloma, que obviamente no haba ido a la escuela de volar, hace flop, flop, flop y termina en el extremo de mi palo de equilibrio. +Provoca risa. Pero oigan. +Me siento inmediatamente. Es un reflejo de los que caminamos por la cuerda. +Mientras tanto, la audiencia se vuelve loca. +Deben de pensar, este tipo, con la paloma, debe de haber pasado aos ensayando con ella. +Qu genio, qu profesional. +As que hago una reverencia. Saludo con la mano. +Y al final golpeo el palo con mi mano para que el pjaro se mueva. +Pero la paloma, que, ahora lo saben, obviamente no sabe volar, hace por tercera vez flop, flop, flop y termina en el cable detrs de m. +Y el valle entero se vuelve loco. +Pero esperen, no he terminado. +As que ahora estoy a 45 metros de mi destino y estoy exhausto, as que mis pasos son lentos. +Y algo ocurri. +Alguien, en alguna parte, un grupo de gente, empieza a dar palmas al ritmo de mis pasos. +Y en cuestin de segundos el valle entero est aplaudiendo en unsono con cada uno de mis pasos. +Pero no un aplauso de delicia como antes, un aplauso de coraje. +Por un momento, toda la muchedumbre haba olvidado sus diferencias. +Se haban convertido en uno, empujndome al triunfo. +Quiero que por un segundo experimenten esta espeluznante sinfona humana. +As que digamos que estoy aqu y que la silla es mi destino. +As que camino, Uds. aplauden, todos al unsono. +As que despus del paso, Teddy y yo nos hacemos amigos. +Y me cuente que tiene en su escritorio una foto de m en medio del cable con la paloma en la cabeza. +No saba la verdadera historia. +Y siempre que una situacin imposible de solucionar le amilane en esta ciudad tan difcil de gobernar, en vez de rendirse, mira a la foto y dice: "Si Philippe puede hacer eso, yo puedo hacer esto", y vuelve a su trabajo. +Inspiracin. +Al inspirarnos nosotros, inspiramos a otros. +Nunca olvidar esta msica, y espero que ahora tampoco Uds. +Por favor, llvense esta msica a casa con Uds., y empiecen a pegar plumas a vuestros brazos y despeguen y vuelen, y miren al mundo desde una perspectiva diferente. +Y cuando vean montaas, recuerden que las montaas se pueden mover. +Gracias. Gracias. +Gracias. +Empecemos con una historia. +rase una vez, de hecho, hace menos de dos aos, en un reino no muy lejano, haba un hombre que viajaba muchos kilmetros para ir a trabajar en la joya de la corona del reino: una compaa de fama internacional. +Llammosla Redes de la Isla. +Este reino tena muchos recursos y grandes ambiciones, pero careca de personas. +As que invit a trabajadores de todas partes del mundo para ir y ayudarle a construir la nacin. +Sin embargo, para ingresar y quedarse estos emigrantes tenan que pasar algunas pruebas. +Y as que nuestro personaje se present a las autoridades del reino, esperando con muchas ganas empezar su nueva vida, +pero algo inesperado sucedi. +El personal mdico que le tom muestras de sangre nunca le dijo para qu eran. +No se le ofreci asesoramiento antes o despus de las pruebas, que es lo indicado. +Nunca se le inform el resultado del anlisis. +Aun as, unas semanas despus, lo arrestaron y lo llevaron a prisin donde fue sometido a un examen mdico que inclua un examen completo a la vista de sus compaeros de celda. +Lo dejaron en libertad, pero uno o dos das despus, lo llevaron al aeropuerto y lo deportaron. +Qu diablos hizo este hombre para merecer este trato? +Cul fue su crimen tan terrible? +Estaba infectado por el VIH. +Ese reino es uno de aproximadamente 50 pases que imponen restricciones a las personas infectadas por el VIH que quieran entrar o quedarse en el reino. +El reino sostiene que sus leyes le permiten detener o deportar a los extranjeros que representen un riesgo para la economa, la seguridad, la salud pblica o la moral del Estado. +Pero estas leyes, al aplicarse a personas infectadas por el VIH, son una violacin a los acuerdos internacionales de derechos humanos de los que estos pases son signatarios. +Pero saben qu? +Dejando de lado las cuestiones de principios, desde un punto de vista prctico, estas leyes contribuyen a ocultar la propagacin del VIH. +Es menos probable que las personas accedan a hacerse exmenes, a tratarse o revelar su condicin; nada de lo cual ayuda a estos individuos o a las comunidades que estas leyes pretenden proteger. +Hoy podemos prevenir la transmisin del VIH; +con tratamiento, es una enfermedad manejable. +Atrs quedaron los das en que la nica respuesta prctica a las enfermedades ms temidas era proscribir a los enfermos, como en El exilio del leproso. +As que dganme por qu, en esta era de la ciencia, tenemos todava leyes y polticas que provienen de la poca de la supersticin. +Rpidamente, levanten la mano los que +hayan sido afectados por el VIH, ya sea por ser portadores del virus o por tener un familiar, amigo o colega infectado por el VIH. +Alcen la mano. +Caramba! +Es un nmero grande de nosotros. +Ustedes saben mejor que nadie que el VIH muestra lo mejor y lo peor de los seres humanos. +Y las leyes reflejan estas actitudes. +No hablo solo de las leyes en los libros, sino de las que se aplican en las calles y las que se deciden en los tribunales. +No solo hablo de las leyes que se refieren a las personas infectadas por el VIH, sino de aquellos que corren el mayor riesgo de infeccin: personas que se inyectan drogas, trabajadores del sexo, hombres que tiene relaciones homosexuales, transexuales, emigrantes o presos. +En muchos lugares del mundo, esto incluye a mujeres y nios, que son especialmente vulnerables. +Hoy en muchos lugares del mundo hay leyes que reflejan lo mejor de la naturaleza humana. +Esas leyes tratan a las personas infectadas por el VIH con compasin y aceptacin. +Esas leyes respetan los derechos humanos universales y se basan en la evidencia. +Esas leyes garantizan que los infectados por el VIH y las personas en mayor riesgo sean protegidos contra la violencia y la discriminacin, y que tengan acceso a la prevencin y al tratamiento. +Desafortunadamente, esas buenas leyes hacen contrapeso a todo un conjunto de muy malas leyes, basadas en el juicio moral, en el miedo y en la desinformacin; leyes que castigan especialmente a personas infectadas por el VIH o a las que estn en mayor riesgo. +Esas leyes van en contra de la ciencia, estn basadas en el prejuicio, la ignorancia, en una reescritura de la tradicin y en una lectura selectiva de la religin. +Pero, saben qu? No tienen que creerme. +Vamos a escuchar a dos personas que se encuentran ms afectadas por la ley. +El primero es el estadounidense Nick Rhoades. +Fue condenado por la ley del estado de Iowa por la transmisin y exposicin del virus del VIH. Sin embargo, no cometi ninguna de estas ofensas. +Nick Rhoades: Si algo es ilegal se le est diciendo a la sociedad que es inaceptable, que es un mal comportamiento. +Pienso que la severidad de ese castigo dice lo malo que eres como persona. +Eres un convicto de segunda clase, un agresor sexual de por vida. +Eres una persona realmente mala +e hiciste algo muy malo. +Esto queda grabado en ti. +Pasas por el sistema correccional y todos te dicen lo mismo. +Piensas que eres una persona muy mala. +Shereen El-Feki: No es solo una cuestin de leyes injustas o ineficientes. +Algunos pases tienen buenas leyes que podran poner freno al VIH. +El problema es que la gente desacata estas leyes, +pues el estigma da permiso no oficial para tratar a la gente infectada por el VIH o a aquellos en mayor riesgo de manera diferente a otros ciudadanos. +Esto es exactamente lo que les pas a Helma y Dongo de Namibia. +Hilma: Me enter cuando fui al hospital para un chequeo de maternidad. +La enfermera dijo que toda mujer embarazada deba hacerse tambin una prueba de VIH ese mismo da. +Me hice la prueba y el resultado dio positivo. +Ese fue el da en que me enter. +La enfermera me dijo: Por qu ustedes quedan embarazadas si saben que estn infectadas por el VIH? +Por qu est embarazada si tiene el virus? +Ahora estoy segura de que esa fue la razn por la que me esterilizaron. +Porque soy seropositiva. +No me dieron los formularios ni me dijeron qu informacin haba all. +La enfermera simplemente vino con el formulario ya marcado en donde deba firmar. +Con los dolores de parto, no tuve la fuerza para pedirle que me lo leyera. +Solo firm. +SE: Hilma y Nick y nuestro hombre en el reino forman parte de los 34 millones de personas que viven con el VIH, segn clculos recientes. +Son afortunados porque an siguen vivos. +De acuerdo a esos clculos, en 2010, 1,8 millones de personas murieron de enfermedades relacionadas con el sida. +Estos datos son terribles y trgicos. +Pero si miramos las estadsticas en trminos ms generales, veremos que podemos guardar la esperanza. +En trminos mundiales, el nmero de nuevos infectados por el VIH est en descenso. +Tambin a escala mundial, las muertes estn empezando a disminuir. +Hay muchas razones para estos hechos positivos, pero una de las ms notables es el aumento en el nmero de personas en todo el mundo que recibe terapia antirretroviral, las medicinas que se necesitan para mantener bajo control la enfermedad. +An hay muchos problemas. +Actualmente, solo la mitad de la gente que necesita el tratamiento lo recibe. +En algunos lugares del mundo, como aqu en el Cercano Oriente y en el norte de frica, las nuevas infecciones van en aumento, as como las muertes. +Y el dinero que necesitamos para la respuesta global al VIH se est acabando. +Pero por primera vez en tres dcadas de esta epidemia tenemos la oportunidad real de aceptar la existencia del VIH. +Para hacerlo debemos enfrentar una epidemia de muy malas leyes. +Les dar tan solo un ejemplo de la manera cmo un ambiente jurdico puede tener un impacto positivo. +La gente que se inyecta drogas es uno de los grupos que mencion. +Corren un alto riesgo de contraer el VIH por medio del uso de agujas o parafernalia contaminadas y otros comportamientos riesgosos. +De hecho, 1 de cada 10 nuevas infecciones por el VIH ocurre entre la gente que se inyecta drogas. +Ahora bien, el uso de drogas o su posesin es ilegal en casi todos los pases. +Pero algunos pases son ms severos al respecto que otros. +En Tailandia, la gente que usa drogas, o que se sospecha que las usan, es llevada a centros de detencin, como este que ven aqu, en donde se supone que deben rehabilitarse. +No hay ninguna evidencia en absoluto que indique que llevar a la gente a estos centros los cure de su dependencia. +Sin embargo, hay suficiente evidencia que indica que encarcelar a la gente aumenta el riesgo de infeccin por el VIH u otras infecciones. +Sabemos cmo reducir la transmisin del VIH y otros riesgos en la gente que se inyecta drogas. +Esto se llama reduccin del dao, e implica, entre otras cosas, proveer de agujas y jeringas nuevas, ofrecer terapia de sustitucin con opioides y otros tratamientos basados en la evidencia para reducir la dependencia a las drogas. +Esta estrategia implica tambin dar informacin, educacin y preservativos para reducir la transmisin del VIH. Implica tambin ofrecer pruebas de VIH y asesoramiento y terapia psicolgica en caso de infeccin. +Cuando el ambiente legal permite una disminucin de los daos, los resultados son impresionantes. +Australia y Suiza son dos pases que introdujeron la reduccin del dao en una etapa muy temprana de sus epidemias de sida, y ahora tienen una tasa muy baja del virus entre las personas que se inyectan drogas. +Los Estados Unidos y Malasia introdujeron la reduccin del dao un poco despus, y tienen tasas ms altas del VIH en estas poblaciones. +Sin embargo, Tailandia y Rusia no han introducido la estrategia de reduccin del dao y tienen leyes estrictas que castigan el uso de drogas. +No es de sorprender que tengan altas tasas del VIH entre la poblacin drogodependiente. +En la Comisin Mundial hemos analizado la evidencia y hemos conocido las experiencias de ms de 700 personas de 140 pases. +Cul es la tendencia? Es clara. +Cuando se criminaliza a la gente infectada por el VIH o a aquellos en mayor riesgo, se exacerba la epidemia. +Crear una vacuna contra el VIH o una cura contra el sida es muy complicado. +Pero cambiar la ley, no. +De hecho, varios pases han comenzado a hacer avances en varios aspectos. +Primero, los pases deben revisar sus legislaciones en lo referente al VIH y a los grupos vulnerables. +Junto con esta revisin, los gobiernos deben revocar las leyes que castiguen o discriminen a la gente infectada por el VIH o que estn en mayor riesgo. +Revocar una ley no es fcil, es difcil, en especial cuando est relacionada con temas delicados como drogas y sexo. +Sin embargo, se puede hacer mucho mientras este proceso est en marcha. +Uno de los aspectos ms importantes es la reforma de la polica de manera que tengan un mejor desempeo. +Por ejemplo, los trabajadores que distribuyen preservativos a las poblaciones vulnerables no deberan estar sometidos al acoso de la polica o a abusos o arrestos arbitrarios. +Tambin podemos formar a los jueces de manera que encuentren flexibilidad en la ley y dictaminen desde una perspectiva ms tolerante en vez de prejuiciosa. +Podemos modernizar las prisiones de manera que los reclusos tengan acceso a la prevencin del VIH y a la reduccin del dao. La clave est en fortalecer a la sociedad civil +puesto que esta es primordial para que los grupos vulnerables sean ms conscientes de sus derechos. +Pero la concientizacin necesita accin. +Debemos asegurarnos de que la gente que vive con el VIH o que est en mayor riesgo tenga acceso a servicios jurdicos e igual acceso a los tribunales. +Tambin es importante la comunicacin con las comunidades de manera que cambiemos su interpretacin de la ley religiosa o tradicional, que a menudo se usa para justificar el castigo y alimentar el estigma. +Para muchos de nosotros aqu el VIH es una amenaza real. +Nos ha tocado de cerca. +La ley, por otro lado, puede parecer remota, arcana, un tema de especialistas, pero no es as. +Pues para los que vivimos en democracias, o en pases que aspiran a ser democracias, la ley comienza con nosotros. +Las leyes que tratan con respeto a la gente infectada por el VIH o a aquellos que estn en mayor riesgo empiezan con la manera como nosotros mismos los tratamos: como iguales. +Si queremos detener la propagacin del VIH, entonces ese es el cambio que hay que promover. +Gracias. +[En otro idioma] ...y esa es una de las cosas que ms disfruto de esta convencin. +No es mucho y tiene tan poco que ver con todo esto. +Pero es de nuestro inters personal comprender la topografa de nuestras vidas en nosotros mismos. +El futuro establece que no hay ms tiempo que el colapso de la sensacin del espejo de las memorias en las que vivimos. +Es sabidura popular, pero es importante de todos modos. +A medida que enfrentamos el miedo en estos tiempos y que el miedo nos rodea, tenemos tambin el antimiedo. +Es difcil de imaginar o medir. +La radiacin de fondo es simplemente demasiado esttica para que pueda verse bajo el anlisis espectral normal. +Pero sentimos que hay ocasiones cuando muchos de nosotros saben de lo que hablo? +Pero... saben de lo que hablo? +Porque, como algo del hip hop, saben de lo que hablo, TED es genial, saben de lo que hablo. +Al igual que la cancin que escrib y espero que ustedes la aprueben. +Es una cancin sobre las personas y los sasquatches (pie grande)... y cosas de la ciencia francesa. +Esa es la ciencia francesa. +Bueno, aqu vamos. +Hace cuatro aos trabaj con algunas personas en el Instituto Brookings, y llegu a una conclusin. +Maana ser otro da. +No cualquier da, pero es un da. +Llegar, sin duda +Y es importante que recordemos que esta simulacin es buena. +Es creble, es palpable. +La puedes alcanzar; las cosas son slidas. +Puedes mover objetos de un rea a otra. +Puedes sentir tu cuerpo. +Puedes decir: Me gustara ir a este lugar y puedes mover esta masa de molculas en el aire a otro lugar a voluntad. +Esto es algo que vives todos los das. +Entonces, como deca en la cancin anterior, no nos sentimos como si viviramos en una esfera, ms bien como en un plano infinito que tiene la ilusin de llevarnos al punto de partida. +Una vez que entendamos que todas las esferas en el cielo son solo grandes planos infinitos, ser ms sencillo de ver. Ja, ja, ja. +Esta es mi ltima cancin +Entonces, sin ms prembulos. +Gracias. +Esta es una divertida. +Es as. +Bueno, la ltima cancin que quiero cantar, es muy similar a esto. +Espero que la reconozcan. +Aqu vamos. +Est bien, eso an funciona. OK, bien. +Muy bien, aqu vamos. +Aqu vamos. + Yeah, yo, yo, yo Gracias. Disfruten lo que queda. Gracias +S que esto sonar extrao, pero pienso que los robots nos pueden inspirar a ser mejores humanos. +Miren, yo crec en Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, el hogar de Bethlehem Steel. +Mi padre fue un ingeniero, y cuando yo creca, l me enseaba cmo funcionaban las cosas. +Juntos construamos proyectos, como cohetes de modelismo y coches para pista de carrera. +Aqu est el "go-kart" construido por nosotros. +Ese soy yo detrs del volante, con mi hermana y mi mejor amigo en aquel tiempo, +y un da, l vino a casa, cuando yo tena cerca de 10 aos, y en la mesa del comedor, l anunci que para nuestro siguiente proyecto, construiramos un robot. +Un robot. +Entonces, estaba muy entusiasmado por esto, porque en la escuela, haba un abusivo llamado Kevin, que me molestaba porque yo era el nico nio judo de la clase. +Por tanto, no vea la hora de empezar a trabajar en esto para mostrarle a Kevin mi robot. (Ruidos de robot) Pero esa no era la clase de robot que mi pap tena en mente. +Vean, l era propietario de una compaa para cromado. y ellos tenan que mover partes pesadas de acero entre tinas de qumicos, +y por tanto necesitaba un robot industrial como este para acarrear la carga pesada. +Pero mi pap tampoco consigui la clase de robot que quera. +Junto a l trabajamos en ste por varios aos, pero fue en los aos 70, y la tecnologa disponible a los aficionados no exista an. +As que mi pap continu haciendo este tipo de trabajo a mano, +y algunos aos despus, l fue diagnosticado con cncer. +Vern, lo que el robot que tratbamos de construir le deca no tena que ver con acarrear la carga pesada. +Era una advertencia sobre la exposicin de mi pap a los qumicos txicos. +l no reconoci esto en ese tiempo, y contrajo leucemia, +y muri a los 45 aos de edad. +Yo estaba devastado por esto, +y nunca olvido el robot que tratamos de construir. +Cuando ingres a la universidad, decid estudiar ingeniera, como l. +Fui a Carnegie Mellon y obtuve mi doctorado en robtica. +He estado estudiando robots desde entonces. +As, lo que quisiera contarles son cuatro proyectos con robots y cmo ellos me han inspirado a ser un mejor ser humano. +Para 1993, yo era un joven profesor en la Universidad del Sur de California, y precisamente construa mi propio laboratorio de robtica, y este fue el ao en que lleg la Red Informtica Mundial . +Recuerdo a mis estudiantes que me contaron de esta red, y estbamos... estbamos tan sorprendidos. +Comenzamos jugando con esto y aquella tarde, nos dimos cuenta cmo podramos usar esta interfaz nueva y universal para permitir a cualquiera en el mundo operar el robot en nuestro laboratorio. +As, en vez de tenerlo para pelear o hacer trabajo industrial, decidimos hacer un plantador, pusimos el robot en el centro, y lo llamamos el Tele-jardn. +Y tuvimos que poner una cmara en el sujetador de la mano del robot y escribimos algunas secuencias de comandos especiales y software para que cualquiera en el mundo pudiese entrar y haciendo clic en la pantalla pudiese activar el robot y visitar el jardn. +Adems, tambin permitimos configurar otro software que les permita participar y ayudarnos a regar el jardn +remotamente y si Uds. regaban el jardn algunas veces, les dbamos sus propias semillas para plantar. +Ahora, esto fue un proyecto, un proyecto de ingeniera, y publicamos algunos artculos sobre el diseo, el diseo del sistema, pero tambin lo pensamos como instalacin de arte. +Fue invitado, despus del primer ao, por el Museo Ars Electrnica en Austria para tenerlo instalado en su vestbulo, +y estoy feliz de decir que permaneci ah en lnea 24 horas al da, durante casi 9 aos. +Este robot fue operado por ms gente que cualquier otro robot en la historia. +Y as, un da, recib una llamada inesperada de un estudiante, quien hizo una muy simple pero profunda pregunta. +l dijo, "Es el robot real?" +Bueno, todos los dems hubieran supuesto que s, y sabamos que lo era porque estbamos trabajando con l. +Pero supe qu quiso decir, porque sera posible tomar un montn de fotos de flores en el jardn y entonces, bsicamente, ordenarlas en un sistema informtico tal que pareciera que haba un robot real cuando no lo haba. +Y cuanto ms pensaba en esto no se me ocurra en una buena respuesta para que l pudiese distinguir la diferencia. +Fue justo cuando me ofrecieron una posicin aqu en Berkeley; +cuando llegu, busqu a Hubert Dreyfus, profesor de filosofa de renombre mundial, y habl con l de esto, y me dijo: "Este es uno de los problemas ms antiguos y ms fundamentales de la filosofa. Nos remonta a los escpticos, +y de ah a Descartes. +Es un problema epistemolgico, el estudio de como sabemos cuando algo es verdad. +As, comenzamos a trabajar juntos y acuamos un nuevo trmino: 'telepistemologa', el estudio del conocimiento a la distancia. +Invitamos a artistas, ingenieros y filsofos destacados para escribir ensayos sobre esto y los resultados, los resultados estn compilados en este libro de la MIT Press. +Entonces, gracias a este estudiante que cuestion aquello que los dems supusieron que era verdad, este proyecto me ense una leccin importante sobre la vida, y es que siempre hay que cuestionar las suposiciones. +Ahora, les contar del segundo proyecto surgido del Tele-jardn. +Conforme operaba, con mis alumnos estuvimos muy interesados en la interaccin de la gente entre s y en lo que estaban haciendo con el jardn. +As comenzamos a pensar: Y si el robot pudiera dejar el jardn e ir a algn otro ambiente interesante? +Lo llamamos el Tele-actor. +Conseguimos un humano, alguien que fuera muy cordial y sociable, equipada con un casco con varios equipos, cmaras y micrfonos, y luego una mochila con una conexin a Internet inalmbrica, +y la idea fue que ella poda ir a un ambiente remoto interesante y entonces, a travs de la Internet, la gente poda vivir lo experimentado por ella +y ver lo visto por ella, pero entonces, incluso ms importante, podan participar, interactuando el uno con el otro; llegando a ideas sobre lo siguiente que ella deba hacer; a dnde debera ir; y transmitrselo al Tele-actor. +Tuvimos la oportunidad de llevar el Tele-actor a la premiacin de los "Webby Awards" en San Francisco. +Ese ao el anfitrin fue Sam Donaldson. +Justamente antes de levantarse la cortina, tuve alrededor de 30 segundos para explicarle al Sr. Donaldson qu haramos. +Le dije: "El Tele-actor lo va a acompaar a Ud. en el escenario; +esto es un nuevo proyecto experimental; la gente en sus pantallas la estar observando; ella est equipada con cmaras, micrfonos y un audfono en su odo; y la gente desde la red le da recomendaciones sobre lo siguiente a hacer". +Y l dijo: "Espera un segundo, +eso es lo que yo hago". Por tanto, le encant el concepto. Cuando el Tele-actor entr al escenario, ella camin directo a l y le dio un gran beso +justo en los labios. Estbamos totalmente sorprendidos. No tenamos idea de lo que sucedera. +l estuvo genial. Slo le dio a ella un gran abrazo en retorno y funcion muy bien. +Pero esa noche, mientras empacbamos, pregunt a la tele-actriz cmo decidieron los Tele-directores que le diera un beso a Sam Donaldson. +Ella dijo: no lo decidieron. +Ella cuenta que cuando caminaba sobre el escenario, los Tele-directores estaban an tratando de llegar a un acuerdo sobre qu hacer, entonces ella slo se dirigi al escenario e hizo +lo que sinti ms natural. As, el xito del Tele-actor aquella noche fue debido al hecho que ella fue una maravillosa actriz +Ella supo cuando confiar en sus instintos, +y por tanto el proyecto me ense otra leccin sobre la vida, que es, ante la duda, improvisa. Bueno, el tercer proyecto surgi de mi experiencia cuando mi padre estuvo en el hospital, +sometindose a un tratamiento de quimioterapia, relacionado con otro tratamiento llamado braquiterapia, en el que se colocan "semillas" pequeas, radioactivas en el cuerpo para tratar tumores cancerosos. +Y la forma de hacerlo, como pueden ver aqu... los cirujanos insertan agujas en el cuerpo para liberar las semillas, +todas estas semillas en paralelo, +as es muy comn penetrar rganos sensibles a las agujas y, como resultado, +las agujas causan dao a estos rganos, y este dao produce traumas y efectos secundarios. +As mis estudiantes y yo nos preguntamos, qu tal si pudiramos modificar el sistema para que las agujas pudieran llegar en diferentes ngulos? +Simulamos esto y desarrollamos algunos algoritmos de optimizacin; lo simulamos +y pudimos demostrar que seramos capaces de evitar los rganos delicados y an as lograr la cobertura de los tumores con radiacin. +Y ahora, estamos trabajando con mdicos de la Universidad de California en San Francisco e ingenieros de John Hopkins y construimos un robot que tiene un nmero de, es un diseo especializado con diferentes articulaciones que permiten que las agujas se acerquen en una variedad infinita de ngulos +y, como pueden ver aqu, pueden evitar rganos delicados y an as alcanzar los objetivos pretendidos por ellas. +Entonces, al cuestionar la suposicin de que todas las agujas tienen que ser paralelas, este proyecto me ense una leccin importante: Cuando tu camino est bloqueado, pivota. +Y el ltimo proyecto tiene relacin con la ciruga robtica. +Y esto es algo que naci a partir del sistema llamado robot quirrgico Da Vinci; +es un dispositivo que est disponible comercialmente. +Lo usan unos 2000 hospitales en el mundo, +y la idea es permitirle a los cirujanos operar cmodamente en su propio marco de coordenadas y muchas de las tareas menores en ciruga +son muy rutinarias y tediosas, como suturar, y actualmente, todas stas son realizadas bajo el especfico e inmediato control del cirujano, +causando fatiga al cirujano con el tiempo. +Y nos habamos preguntado: Y si pudiramos programar al robot para realizar algunas de estas tareas menores, y de este modo liberar a los cirujanos para que se concentren en las partes ms complicadas de la ciruga y tambin reducir el tiempo que lleva la ciruga? Y si pudiramos conseguir que el robot las haga un poco ms rpido? +Bueno, es difcil programar un robot para hacer actividades delicadas +como sta, pero resulta que mi colega, Pieter Abbeel, que ha desarrollado aqu en Berkeley unas nuevas tcnicas para ensear a los robots con ejemplos. +De esta forma, ha conseguido robots que vuelan helicpteros, que hacen acrobacias increbles, interesantes y bellas con slo observar cmo pilotean expertos humanos. +As, conseguimos uno de esos robots. +Comenzamos a trabajar con Pieter y sus estudiantes +y le pedimos a un cirujano que realice una tarea, y al robot le pedimos al robot... +el cirujano realiza la tarea, y nosotros registramos los movimientos del robot. +Aqu tenemos un ejemplo. Usar un ocho como figura, +rastrearemos la figura de ocho como ejemplo. +Aqu est cmo se ve cuando el robot... as se ven las trayectorias del robot, esos tres ejemplos. +Bueno, son mucho mejores que los que un novato como yo podra hacer pero an son errticos e imprecisos. +As registramos todos estos ejemplos, los datos, y luego seguimos una secuencia de pasos. +Primero, usamos un tcnica llamada deformacin temporal dinmica del reconocimiento de voz y esto nos permiti alinear temporalmente todos los ejemplos, +y entonces aplicamos un filtro de Kalman, +una tcnica de teora de control, que nos permite analizar estadsticamente todos los ruidos y extraer la trayectoria deseada subyacente. +Lo que hicimos fue tomar estos ejemplos humanos, ruidosas e imperfectas; de ellas extrajimos una trayectoria inferida de la tarea; y la secuencia de control para el robot. +Luego ejecutamos esto en el robot, observamos qu ocurre, ajustamos los controles usando una secuencia de tcnicas llamada aprendizaje iterativo. +Incrementamos la velocidad un poco. +Observamos los resultados, ajustamos los controles de nuevo, y observamos lo ocurrido. +Y hacemos esto en varias rondas. +Y este es el resultado. +Esta es la trayectoria inferida de la tarea, y aqu tenemos al robot movindose a la velocidad del humano. +Aqu es cuatro veces la velocidad del humano. +Aqu es siete veces. +Y aqu est el robot operando a 10 veces la velocidad del humano. +As, pudimos lograr que un robot realice tareas delicadas, como un tarea quirrgica menor, a 10 veces la velocidad de un humano. +As este proyecto tambin, gracias a la prctica y el aprendizaje que conllev, hacer algo una y otra vez, este proyecto tambin deja una leccin y es que si quieren hacer algo bien, no hay sustituto a la prctica, prctica, prctica. +Estas son las cuatro lecciones que he aprendido de los robots a travs de los aos, +y la robtica, el campo de la robtica ha mejorado mucho con el tiempo. +Hoy en da, los alumnos de secundaria pueden construir robots como el robot industrial que mi pap y yo tratamos de construir. +Y ahora, tengo una hija, llamada Odessa. +Tiene ocho aos de edad. +y tambin le gustan los robots. +Quiz lo llevamos en la sangre. Cmo deseo que hubiese podido conocer a pap! +Y ahora yo debo ensearle cmo funcionan las cosas. Construimos proyectos juntos, y me pregunto: +qu clase de lecciones aprender de ellos? +Los robots son las ms humanas de nuestras mquinas. +Ellos no pueden resolver todos los problemas del mundo, pero pienso que tienen algo importante para ensearnos. +Los invito a pensar en las innovaciones que les interesen, en las mquinas que desean, +y piensen en qu podran decirles, +porque tengo la corazonada de que muchas de nuestras innovaciones tecnolgicas, los instrumentos soados por nosotros, pueden inspirarnos a ser mejores humanos. +Gracias. +Y luego, en 1918, la produccin de carbn en Gran Bretaa alcanz su cnit, y ha disminuido desde entonces. +En su momento, Gran Bretaa comenz a usar petrleo y gas del mar del Norte y, en el ao 2000, la produccin de petrleo y gas del mar del Norte tambin alcanz su punto mximo, y ahora est en declive. +Estas observaciones de la finitud de combustibles fsiles, fcilmente accesibles, seguros y locales, son motivo para decir: "Bueno, qu ser lo prximo? +Cmo va a ser la vida tras los combustibles fsiles? +No deberamos estar pensando seriamente en librarnos de los combustibles fsiles?" +Otra motivacin, por supuesto, es el cambio climtico. +Permtanme ilustrarlo con lo que los fsicos llaman un clculo adicional. +Nos encantan los clculos adicionales. +Se hace una pregunta, se escriben algunos nmeros, y se obtendr una respuesta. +Puede que no sea muy exacto, pero puede hacer decir, "Hmm". +As que he aqu la cuestin: imaginen que decimos: "S, podemos prescindir de los combustibles fsiles. +Vamos a usar biocombustibles. Problema resuelto. +Transporte? Ya no necesitamos petrleo". +Bien, qu pasa si cultivamos biocombustibles para una carretera en el margen de la carretera? +Cun ancho tiene que ser ese margen para funcionar? +Muy bien, vamos a hacer algunos nmeros. +Vamos a hacer que nuestros coches circulen a 100 km/h. +Digamos que hacen 13 km por litro. +Es la media europea para vehculos nuevos. +Digamos que la productividad de las plantaciones de biocombustibles es de 1200 litros de biodiesel por hectrea por ao. +Eso es cierto para los biocarburantes europeos. +Y vamos a imaginar que los coches circulan espaciados en 80 metros uno de otro, y que circulan siempre por esta carretera. +No importa la longitud de la carretera, porque cuanto mayor sea la carretera, mayor ser la plantacin de biocombustibles que tengamos. +Qu hacemos con estos nmeros? +Bien, se toma el primer nmero, se divide entre los otros tres y se obtendrn 8 km. +Y sa es la respuesta. +As de ancha tendra que ser la plantacin, Dados estos supuestos. +Y puede que esto les haga decir: "Hmm. +Tal vez esto no vaya a ser tan fcil". +Y les puede hacer pensar que quizs hay un problema con las reas. Y en esta charla me gustara hablar de las tierras, y preguntar hay un problema con las reas? La respuesta va a ser s, pero depende de en qu pas se encuentre. +As que vamos a empezar por el Reino Unido, ya que es donde estamos hoy. +El consumo de energa del Reino Unido, el consumo total de energa, no slo transporte, sino todo, me gusta cuantificarlo en lmparas. +Es como si todos tuviramos 125 lmparas todo el rato, 125 kilovatios/hora por da y persona es el consumo de energa del Reino Unido. +Hacen falta 40 lmparas para el transporte, 40 lmparas para la calefaccin, y 40 lmparas para crear electricidad, y otras cosas son relativamente pequeas en comparacin con esos tres peces gordos. +En realidad es una huella ms grande si tenemos en cuenta la energa incorporada en las cosas que importamos en nuestro pas tambin, y el 90 % de esta energa an hoy proviene de combustibles fsiles. Slo el 10 % de otras fuentes, posiblemente ms verdes, como la energa nuclear y las renovables. +Por lo tanto, eso es en el Reino Unido, y su densidad de poblacin +es de 250 personas por km2, y ahora voy a mostrarles otros pases con esas mismas dos medidas. +Agreguemos los pases europeos en azul, y se puede ver que hay bastante variedad. +Debo destacar que ambos ejes son logartmicos. De una barra gris a la siguiente barra gris se multiplica el valor por 10. +A continuacin, vamos a agregar Asia en rojo, Oriente Medio y norte de frica en verde, frica subsahariana en azul, el negro para Sudamrica, prpura para Centroamrica, y luego en amarillo vmito, Norteamrica, Australia y Nueva Zelanda. +Se puede ver la gran diversidad de densidades de poblacin y de consumos per cpita. +Los pases son diferentes unos de otros. +Arriba a la izquierda, Canad y Australia, con enorme superficie de tierras, consumo per cpita muy alto, 200 o 300 lmparas por persona, y densidad de poblacin muy baja. +Arriba a la derecha, Bahrin tiene el mismo consumo de energa por persona, aproximadamente, que Canad, unas 300 lmparas por persona, pero su densidad de poblacin es 300 veces mayor, 1000 personas por km2. +Abajo a la derecha, Bangladesh tiene la misma densidad de poblacin que Bahrin, pero consume 100 veces menos por persona. +Parte inferior izquierda, bien, no hay nadie. +Pero sola haber un montn de gente. +Este es otro mensaje de este diagrama. +He aadido pequeas cruces azules tras Sudn, Libia, China, India, Bangladesh. +Significan 15 aos de progreso. +Dnde estaban hace 15 aos, y dnde estn ahora? +Y el mensaje es que la mayora de pases van a la derecha, y suben hacia arriba y hacia la derecha: mayor densidad de poblacin y mayor consumo per cpita. +Y tambin he aadido en este diagrama ahora algunas lneas rosas que van hacia abajo y hacia la derecha. +Son lneas de consumo por rea, que mido en vatios por m2. +As, por ejemplo, la lnea del medio, 0,1 vatios por m2, es el consumo de energa por unidad de rea de Arabia Saudita, Noruega, Mxico en prpura, y Bangladesh hace 15 aos, y la mitad de la poblacin mundial vive en pases que ya estn por encima de esa lnea. +El Reino Unido est consumiendo 1,25 vatios por m2. +Lo mismo Alemania, Japn est consumiendo un poco ms. +Por lo tanto, vamos ahora a decir por qu esto es relevante. Por qu es relevante? +Bien, podemos medir las energas renovables y otras formas de produccin de energa en las mismas unidades, y las renovables son una de las principales ideas para reducir el 90 % del consumo de combustibles fsiles. +Aqu vienen algunas renovables. +Los biocultivos rinden medio vatio por m2 en climas europeos. +Qu significa eso? Y puede que ya lo hayan predicho, por lo que les dije sobre las plantaciones de biocombustibles hace un momento. +Bien, consumimos 1,25 vatios por m2. +Lo que esto significa es que incluso si se cubriera la mitad del Reino Unido con cultivos bioenergticos, no se poda satisfacer el consumo de energa actual. +La energa elica produce un poco ms, 2,5 vatios por m2, pero slo es el doble de 1,25 vatios por m2, significa que si se quisiese producir el total del consumo de energa de todas las formas a partir de parques elicos, se necesitaran parques elicos de la mitad del tamao del Reino Unido. +Tengo datos para respaldar estas afirmaciones, por cierto. +A continuacin, vamos a estudiar la energa solar. +Los paneles solares, cuando se colocan en un techo, rinden unos 20 vatios por m2 en Inglaterra. +Si realmente se desea obtener mucho rendimiento de los paneles solares, se necesita adoptar el mtodo de la agricultura tradicional bvara donde se desborda el techo y se cubre el campo de paneles solares. +Los parques solares, debido a los espacios entre paneles, rinden menos. Alrededor de 5 vatios por m2 de superficie. +Este es un parque solar en Vermont con datos reales de rendimiento de 4,2 vatios por m2. +Recuerden dnde nos encontramos: 1,25 vatios por m2, parques elicos 2,5, parques solares cerca de cinco. +Por lo tanto, con cualquier renovable que elijan, el mensaje es: con cualquier combinacin de renovables que se use, si desea alimentar al Reino Unido, se va a necesitar cubrir algo as como el 20 o 25 % del pas con esas renovables. +Y no estoy diciendo que sea mala idea. +Slo necesitamos entender los nmeros. +No soy en absoluto anti-renovables. Me encantan las renovables. +Pero tambin soy pro-aritmtica. Concentrar la energa solar en los desiertos ofrece mayor potencia por unidad de rea, porque no hay problema de nubes, as que este centro rinde 14 vatios por m2, este 10 vatios por m2, y este otro en Espaa 5 vatios por m2. +Siendo generosos en la concentracin de energa solar, Creo que es perfectamente creble un rendimiento de 20 vatios por m2. Est bien. +Por supuesto, Gran Bretaa no tiene desiertos. +An. As que este es el resumen hasta ahora. +Todas las renovables, por mucho que nos gusten, son difusas. +Todas tienen un pobre rendimiento por unidad de rea, y tenemos que vivir con ello. +Esto significa que si desean que las renovables signifiquen una diferencia sustancial para un pas como el Reino Unido, a la escala de consumo de hoy, se necesitan instalaciones de renovables del tamao de un pas, no el pas entero pero s una parte importante. +Hay otras opciones para generar energa que no requieren combustibles fsiles. +Est la energa nuclear, y en este mapa cortesa de Ordnance Survey pueden ver que hay un Sizewell B dentro de un km2 azul. +Es un gigavatio en un km2, que funciona a 1000 vatios por m2. +Por esta mtrica en particular, la energa nuclear no es tan intrusiva como las renovables. +Por supuesto, tambin cuentan otras mediciones, y la energa nuclear tiene todo tipo de problemas de popularidad. +Pero lo mismo ocurre con las renovables. +Aqu est una fotografa de una consulta popular en pleno apogeo en la pequea ciudad de Penicuik a las afueras de Edimburgo, y se puede ver a los nios de Penicuik festejando la quema de una efigie del aerogenerador. +Las personas son anti-todo, tenemos que mantener todas las opciones sobre la mesa. +Qu puede hacer un pas como el Reino Unido en cuestin de suministros? +Y es una opcin seria. +Es una manera mundial de tratar este asunto. +As, pases como Australia, Rusia, Libia, Kazajstn, podran ser nuestros mejores amigos para la produccin de renovables. +Y una tercera opcin es la energa nuclear. +Estas son las opciones. +Adems de mtodos de suministro que podramos iniciar, y recuerden que necesitamos grandes cantidades, porque en este momento, conseguimos el 90 % de nuestra energa de combustibles fsiles. +Adems de estos mtodos, podramos hablar de otras maneras de resolver este problema, por ejemplo, reducir la demanda, y eso significa reducir la poblacin (no s muy bien cmo hacer eso) o reducir el consumo per cpita. +As que vamos a hablar de tres mecanismos que podran ayudar en el consumo. +Primero, el transporte. Aqu estn los principios fsicos que te dicen cmo reducir el consumo de energa de transporte. La gente suele decir: "S, la tecnologa puede responder todo. +Podemos hacer vehculos que sean cien veces ms eficientes". Y eso es casi cierto. Se los mostrar. +El consumo de energa de este tanque tpico de aqu es de 80 kilovatios por hora por cada cien kilmetros. +Como el coche europeo medio. +Ochenta kilovatios por hora. Podemos hacer algo cien veces mejor mediante la aplicacin de los principios de fsica que enumer? +S. Aqu est. Es la bicicleta. Es 80 veces mejor en consumo de energa y es alimentado por biocombustibles, por Weetabix. +Hay otras opciones intermedias, porque tal vez la dama en el tanque dira: "No, no, no, eso es un cambio de estilo de vida. No cambien mi estilo de vida, por favor". +Bien. Podramos convencerla de ir en tren, que es mucho ms eficiente que un coche, pero podra ser un cambio de estilo de vida, o hay eco-coches, arriba a la izquierda. +Acoge cmodamente un adolescente es ms corto que un cono de trfico, y casi tan eficiente como una bicicleta mientras que conduzcas a 24 km/h. +Entre medias, tal vez algunas opciones ms realistas en este nivel de transporte son los vehculos elctricos: bicis elctricas y coches elctricos en el centro, cuatro veces tan eficientes energticamente como el tanque de gasolina estndar. +A continuacin, se encuentra la calefaccin. +La calefaccin supone un tercio de nuestro consumo de energa en Gran Bretaa, y mucha va a los hogares y otros edificios para su calefaccin y el agua caliente. +Esta es una tpica casa britnica. +Es mi casa, con el Ferrari en la puerta. +Qu podemos hacer con ella? +Bueno, las leyes de la fsica estn ah escritas, describen cmo el consumo de energa para la calefaccin se maneja por artilugios que se pueden controlar. +Pueden controlar la diferencia de temperatura entre el interior y el exterior, gracias a una notable tecnologa llamada termostato. +Si lo giran a la izquierda, disminuye su consumo de energa en el hogar. +Lo he probado. Funciona. Algunas personas lo llaman un cambio de estilo de vida. +Tambin pueden instalar material aislante para reducir filtraciones en su edificio: poner aislante en las paredes, en el techo, una nueva puerta y as sucesivamente, y la triste verdad es que esto le ahorrar dinero. +Que no es triste, eso es bueno, pero la triste verdad es, slo se reducen en un 25 % las filtraciones de su edificio, si hacen estas cosas, que son buenas ideas. +Si realmente desean acercarse a los estndares suecos de construccin con una casa como sta, es necesario poner aislamiento externo en el edificio como se muestra en este conglomerado de apartamentos de Londres. +Tambin pueden obtener calor ms eficientemente con bombas de calor que emplean menos energa elctrica para llevar calor desde su jardn a su casa. +La tercera opcin de la que quiero hablar, la tercera forma de reducir el consumo de energa es, lean sus contadores. +La gente habla mucho de medidores inteligentes, pero pueden hacerlo Uds. mismos. +Usen sus propios ojos y sean inteligentes; lean sus contadores, y si son como yo, su vida cambiar. +Este es un grfico que hice. +Estaba escribiendo un libro sobre energa sostenible y un amigo me pregunt: "Bueno, cunta energa usas en casa?". Y me avergonc. No lo saba. +Hice algo similar con el consumo de electricidad, apagando los reproductores de DVD, el estreo, los perifricos del PC que estaban encendidos todo el tiempo, y slo los encenda cuando los necesitaba y reduje otro tercio mis facturas de electricidad. +As que necesitamos un plan que sume, y he descrito para Uds. seis grandes palancas; necesitamos grandes acciones porque obtenemos el 90 % de nuestra energa de combustibles fsiles, as que necesitan emplear la mayora, si no todas esas palancas. +Y la mayora de ellas son impopulares, y si hay una palanca que no les guste usar tengan en cuenta que eso supone hacer ms esfuerzos en las otras. +As que soy un firme defensor de mantener conversaciones adultas basadas en hechos y nmeros, y quiero terminar con este mapa en el que se visualizan los requisitos de la tierra y dems para obtener slo 16 lmparas por persona de cuatro de las grandes fuentes posibles. +As que, si desean obtener 16 lmparas, recuerden, hoy nuestro consumo total de energa es de 125 lmparas. +Si quieren 16 del viento, este mapa visualiza una solucin en el Reino Unido. Tiene 160 parques elicos, cada uno de 100 km2, sera un aumento de veinte veces sobre la cantidad de viento actual. +Con la energa nuclear, para obtener 16 lmparas por persona, necesitaran dos gigavatios en cada uno de los puntos prpuras en el mapa. +Es un aumento de cuatro veces sobre los recursos actuales en energa nuclear. +El rea total de los hexgonos es de un Shara del doble del tamao del Gran Londres, y necesitarn tendido elctrico por toda Espaa y Francia para llevar la energa desde el Sahara a Surrey. +Necesitamos un plan que sume. +Tenemos que dejar de gritar y empezar a hablar, y si podemos tener una conversacin adulta, hacer un plan de suma y empezar a construir, quiz esta revolucin de reduccin de uso del carbono sea hasta divertida. Muchas gracias por escucharme. +Los grandes textos de la antigedad no sobrevivieron en su formato original, +sobrevivieron porque escribas medievales los copiaron y los copiaron y los volvieron a copiar. +Y as pas con Arqumedes, el gran matemtico griego. +Todo lo que sabemos de Arqumedes como matemtico lo sabemos gracias a tres libros, los llamados A, B y C. +A fue extraviado por un humanista italiano en 1564. +Y la ltima vez que se vio a B fue en la biblioteca del Papa hace unos cientos de kms al norte de Roma en Viterbo, en 1311. +Ahora, el cdice C fue descubierto en 1906 y lleg hasta mi escritorio en Baltimore el 19 de enero de 1999. +Y aqu est el cdice C. +En realidad, el cdice C est enterrado en este libro. +Es un tesoro enterrado. +Porque este libro es en realidad un libro de oraciones. +Fue escrito por un hombre llamado Johannes Myrones el 14 de abril de 1229. +Y para hacer su libro de oraciones, utiliz pergamino. +Pero no us pergamino nuevo, sino pergamino reciclado de manuscritos anteriores y haba siete de ellos. +Y el cdice C de Arqumedes fue uno de esos siete. +Desmont el manuscrito de Arqumedes y el resto de los otros siete. +Les borr el texto y luego cort las hojas por la mitad, las mezcl, las rot en un ngulo de 90 grados, y escribi oraciones por encima. +En esencia estos siete manuscritos desaparecieron por 700 aos y tenemos un libro de oraciones. +El libro de oraciones fue descubierto por este seor, Johan Ludvig Heiberg, en 1906. +Y slo con una lupa, transcribi el texto lo ms que pudo. +Y la cosa es que encontr dos textos en este manuscrito que eran textos nicos. +No estaban ni en A ni en B; eran textos de Arqumedes completamente nuevos, y se llamaban "El Mtodo" y "El Stomachion". +Y se convirti en un manuscrito de fama mundial. +Ahora, ya debera estar claro que este libro est en malas condiciones. +Se puso mucho peor en el siglo XX luego de que Heiberg lo vio. +Le pintaron falsificaciones encima y sufri mucho con los hongos. +Este libro es la definicin de una prdida. +Es el tipo de libro que uno pensara estara en una institucin. +Pero no est en una institucin, lo compr un dueo privado en 1998. +Por qu compr este libro? +Porque quera asegurarse que lo que era frgil estuviera seguro. +Quera que aquello que era nico estuviera en todos lados. +Quera hacer de eso que era caro, gratuito. +Y quera hacerlo por cuestin de principios. +Porque no hay mucha gente que vaya a leer a Arqumedes en griego antiguo, pero deberan tener la oportunidad de hacerlo. +As que se reuni con los amigos de Arqumedes y prometi pagar por todo. +Y fue un trabajo caro, pero no sera tanto como creen porque estas personas, no venan por el dinero, venan por Arqumedes. +Y tenan distintos orgenes. +Venan de la fsica de partculas, venan de la filologa clsica, venan de la conservacin de libros, venan de las matemticas antiguas, venan desde el manejo de datos, venan de las ciencias de las imgenes y el manejo de programas. +Y se juntaron para trabajar en este manuscrito. +El primer problema era la conservacin. +Y estas fueron el tipo de cosas con las que tuvimos que lidiar: Haba pegamento en el lomo del libro. +Y si ven con cuidado esta fotografa, vern que la mitad de abajo es algo marrn. +Y que el pegamento es de origen animal. +Si eres un conservador, puedes quitar este pegamento con cierta facilidad. +La mitad superior es pegamento Elmer's Wood. +Es una emulsin de acetato de polivinilo que una vez seco no se disuelve en agua. +Y es ms fuerte que el pergamino donde estaba pegado. +Y antes de que pudiramos empezar a ver a Arqumedes, tenamos que desmontar este libro. +Y nos llev 4 aos hacerlo. +Y esta es una rara foto en accin, damas y caballeros. +Lo otro fue que tenamos que deshacernos de la cera, porque la usaban en los servicios litrgicos de la iglesia griega ortodoxa y usaban velas de cera. +Y la cera estaba sucia, y no podamos sacar las imgenes a travs de la cera. +As que, cuidadosamente, tuvimos que raspar mecnicamente toda la cera. +Es difcil decirles con exactitud que tan mala era la condicin del libro, pero obtenamos fragmentos ms a menudo. +Y normalmente en un libro, no te preocupan esos fragmentos, pero estos podran contener textos nicos de Arqumedes. +Aunque eran pequeos fragmentos, pudimos colocarlos en su lugar correcto. +Luego de hacer eso, empezamos a sacar imgenes del manuscrito. +Y sacamos imgenes en 14 frecuencias distintas de luz. +Porque si miran algo en distintas frecuencias de luz, ven cosas distintas. +Aqu est la imagen de una pgina vista bajo 14 distintas frecuencias de luz. +Pero ninguna funcion. +As que lo que hicimos fue procesar las imgenes juntas, y pusimos dos imgenes en una pantalla en blanco. +Y aqu hay dos vistas distintas del manuscrito de Arqumedes. +Y la imagen de la izquierda es la imagen normal en rojo. +Y la imagen de la derecha es una imagen en ultravioleta. +Y en la imagen de la derecha pueden ver algo de la escritura de Arqumedes. +Si las juntan en un lienzo digital, el pergamino brilla en ambas imgenes y sale ms ntido. +El libro de oraciones es oscuro en ambas imgenes y sale oscuro. +El texto de Arqumedes es oscuro en una imagen y brillante en otra. +Saldra oscuro pero rojo y podran empezar a leerlo con claridad. +As es como luce. +Esa es una imagen del antes y el despus, pero as no se lee la imagen en la pantalla. +La acercan y la acercan y la acercan y la vuelven a acercar, y ahora s lo pueden leer. +Si procesan la misma imagen de forma distinta, pueden deshacerse del libro de oraciones. +Y esto es muy importante, porque los diagramas en el manuscrito son la nica fuente de los diagramas que Arqumedes dibuj en la arena en el siglo IV a.C. +Y aqu est, se los puedo mostrar. +Con este tipo de imgenes -- este tipo de vistas de luces infrarrojas, ultravioleta o invisible -- nunca podramos haber hecho las vistas a travs de los plagios en oro. +Cmo bamos a hacer eso? +Bien, tomamos el manuscrito, y decidimos hacer una vista fluorescente en rayos X. +Un rayo X entra por el diagrama a la izquierda y tumba un electrn de la pared interna de un tomo. +Y el electrn desaparece. +Y mientras desaparece, un electrn de una pared ms alejada entra y toma su lugar. +Y cuando toma su lugar, despide una radiacin electromagntica. +Despide rayos X. +Y este rayo X es especfico en su longitud de onda con el tomo al cual golpea. +Y lo que queramos obtener era el hierro. +Porque la tinta estaba escrita en hierro. +Y si podemos hacer un plano desde donde sale este rayo X, podemos hacer un plano de todo el hierro de la pgina, y tericamente podemos leer la imagen. +Lo que se necesita es una fuente de luz poderosa para hacer esto. +As que lo llevamos al Laboratorio Stanford de Radiacin de Sincrotones en California, que es un acelerador de partculas. +Los electrones van por un lado, los positrones van por el otro. +Se encuentran a medio camino y crean partculas subatmicas como el quark encantado y el tau leptn. +En realidad no bamos a poner a Arqumedes dentro del acelerador. +Pero mientras los electrones dan vueltas a la velocidad de la luz, irradian rayos X. +Y esa es la fuente de luz ms poderosa en el sistema solar. +Esto se llama radiacin de sincrotn, y normalmente se usa para ver cosas como protenas y cosas por el estilo. +Pero queramos que viese tomos, tomos de hierro, para que pudiramos leer la pgina del antes y el despus. +Y he aqu, nos enteramos de que s podamos hacerlo. +Nos tom como 17 minutos hacer una sola pgina. +Y qu descubrimos? +Bien, uno de los textos nicos de Arqumedes es llamado "El Stomachion". +Y este no exista ni en los cdices A ni B. +Y sabamos que involucraba este cuadrado. +Y este es un cuadrado perfecto, dividido en 14 partes. +Pero nadie saba lo que Arqumedes estaba haciendo con estas 14 partes. +Y ahora creemos que lo sabemos. +l estaba tratando de calcular cuntas veces podas recombinar esas 14 partes y an as hacer un cuadrado perfecto. +Alguien quiere adivinar la respuesta? +Es 17 152 dividido en 536 familias. +Y lo importante de esto es que es el primer estudio en combinaciones matemticas. +Y las combinaciones es una rama hermosa e interesante de las matemticas. +Lo ms sorprendente de este manuscrito es que vimos los otros manuscritos donde el palimpsesto fue realizado, donde el escriba haba escrito su libro, y uno de ellos era un manuscrito que contena un escrito de Hiprides. +Hiprides fue un orador ateniense del siglo IV a.C. +Fue un contemporneo exacto de Demstenes. +Y en el ao 338 a.C., l y Demstenes decidieron que queran rebelarse ante el poder militar de Filipo de Macedonia. +As que Atenas y Tebas salieron a pelearse con Filipo de Macedonia. +Esta fue una mala idea, porque Filipo de Macedonia tena un hijo llamado Alejandro Magno y perdieron la batalla de Queronea. +Alejandro Magno fue a conquistar el mundo que conocemos; Hiprides se encontr a s mismo acusado de traicin +y este fue el discurso que dio en su juicio, y es un gran discurso: "Lo mejor", dijo, "es ganar. +Pero si no puedes ganar, entonces deberas pelear por una causa noble, porque as sers recordado. +Consideren a los espartanos. +Ganaron numerosas batallas, pero nadie recuerda lo que fueron porque todos pelearon por razones egostas. +La nica batalla que los espartanos pelearon y que todos recuerdan es la batalla de las Termpilas donde fueron masacrados hasta que qued solo un hombre, pero pelearon por la libertad de Grecia". +Fue un discurso tan genial que la corte de justicia ateniense le dej irse. +Vivi otros 10 aos, pero los macedonios le alcanzaron. +Le cortaron la lengua como burla por su oratoria, y nadie sabe lo que hicieron con su cuerpo. +As que este es el descubrimiento de una voz perdida de la antigedad, hablndonos, no desde la tumba, porque su tumba no existe, sino desde la corte de la justicia ateniense. +Ahora debera decir que generalmente cuando uno est viendo manuscritos medievales que han sido raspados, no encuentra textos nicos. +Y encontrar dos en un manuscrito es realmente algo. +Encontrar tres es rarsimo. +Y encontramos tres. +"Categoras" de Aristteles, es uno de los textos que fund la filosofa occidental. +Y encontramos una resea del siglo III a.C. acerca de l, posiblemente de Galeno y probablemente de Porfirio. +Todos estos datos que recolectamos, todas las imgenes, todas las imgenes no procesadas, todas las transcripciones que hicimos y ese tipo de cosas han sido puestas en lnea bajo una licencia Creative Commons para que cualquiera la use para cualquier propsito comercial. +Por qu hizo esto el dueo del manuscrito? +Lo hizo porque entiende de datos tanto como de libros. +Lo que hay que hacer con los libros, si quieren asegurarse de su utilidad a largo plazo, es esconderlos en armarios y dejar que muy pocas personas los vean. +Lo que hay que hacer con la informacin, si quieren que sobreviva, es divulgarla, que todos la tengan, controlndola lo menos posible. +Y eso fue lo que hicimos. +Y las instituciones pueden aprender de esto. +Porque las instituciones, por el momento, confinan sus datos con restricciones de derechos de autor y cosas por el estilo. +Y si quieren ver manuscritos medievales en la red, por ahora tienen que ir al sitio de la Biblioteca Nacional de X o de la Biblioteca de la Universidad Y, que es la manera ms aburrida de lidiar con los datos digitales. +Lo que quieren hacer es juntarlo todo. +Porque la red de manuscritos ancestrales del futuro no ser construida por las instituciones. +Ser construida por los usuarios, por la gente que recolect estos datos, por la gente que quiere juntar todo tipo de mapas desde cualquier lugar del que hayan venido, todo tipo de novelas medievales desde donde quiera que hayan venido, gente que quiere curar su propia coleccin gloriosa de cosas bellas. +Y ese es el futuro de la red. +un futuro atractivo y bello, si slo podemos hacer que suceda. +Nosotros en el Museo de Arte Walters hemos seguido el ejemplo, y hemos puesto todos nuestros manuscritos en la red para que la gente los disfrute y todos los datos en bruto, las descripciones y los metadatos +bajo la licencia de Creative Commons. +El Museo de Arte Walters es un museo pequeo y tiene hermosos manuscritos, pero la informacin es fantstica. +Y el resultado de esto es que si buscan en Google Imgenes "Manuscrito iluminado del Corn", por ejemplo, 24 de 28 imgenes provienen de mi institucin. +Una reflexin breve. +Qu gana la institucin con esto? +Hay muchas cosas que benefician a la institucin. +Pueden hablar de las humanidades y cosas as, pero hablemos de las cosas egostas. +Porque eso es lo que gana la institucin: Por qu va la gente al Louvre? +Para ver a la Mona Lisa. +Para qu van a ver a la Mona Lisa? +Porque ya saben cmo luce. +Y saben cmo luce porque han visto fotos de ella en todas partes. +No hay necesidad de estas restricciones. +Y creo que las instituciones deberan liberar esta informacin bajo licencias no restrictivas, y sera un gran beneficio para todo el mundo. +Por qu no dejamos que todos tengan acceso a esta informacin y as curan su propia coleccin de conocimiento antiguo, de cosas bellas y maravillosas para as aumentar la belleza y el significado cultural del Internet. +Muchsimas gracias. +Mi charla de hoy es sobre algo de lo que algunos tal vez hayan odo hablar: +la primavera rabe. +Alguien sabe algo de eso? +En 2011, el poder pas, de algunas personas a muchas, de oficinas ovales a plazas, de ondas custodiadas a redes libres. +Pero antes de que Tahrir fuera un smbolo global de liberacin, existan encuestas representativas que ya estaban dndole una voz a la gente de maneras ms discretas, pero igual de poderosas. +En Gallup, estudio las sociedades musulmanas de todo el mundo. +Desde 2001, hemos entrevistado a cientos de miles de personas: viejos y jvenes, hombres y mujeres, con y sin educacin. +Mi charla de hoy parte de esta investigacin para explicar la rebelin de los rabes y qu es lo que quieren ahora. +Esta regin es muy diversa y cada pas es nico. +Pero aquellos que se revelaron compartan quejas y hoy en da tienen demandas similares. +Voy a centrar gran parte de mi charla en Egipto. +Por supuesto, no tiene nada que ver que haya nacido all. +Pero es el mayor pas rabe y tambin uno de los que tienen ms influencia. +Pero terminar ampliando la visin que se tiene de la regin para tratar los temas mundanos de las visiones religiosas y polticas rabes y cmo esto afecta a las mujeres, lo que revela algunas sorpresas en el camino. +Luego de analizar bastante informacin, descubrimos esto: el desempleo y la pobreza no fueron lo nico que llev a las revueltas rabes del 2011. +Si un acto de desesperacin de un vendedor de frutas tunecino desat estas revoluciones, el detonante fue la diferencia entre la realidad rabe y sus expectativas. +Para explicarles a qu me refiero, consideren esta tendencia en Egipto. +En el papel, al pas le iba muy bien. +De hecho, atraa a cientos de organizaciones multinacionales debido a su crecimiento econmico. +Pero la realidad era muy distinta de la apariencia. +En 2010, justo antes de la revolucin, a pesar de que el PIB per cpita haba crecido un 5 % durante varios aos, los egipcios nunca haban estado peor. +Y esto es muy inusual porque no es de extraarse que en todo el mundo, la gente se sienta mejor a medida que su pas se enriquece, +dado que tienen mejores oportunidades de trabajo y su estado ofrece mejores servicios sociales. +Pero en Egipto pasaba lo contrario. +A medida que el pas se enriqueca, el desempleo aumentaba y la satisfaccin de la gente en temas como la vivienda y la educacin, caa en picada. +Pero no se trataba nada ms de rabia contra la injusticia econmica. +Haba una gran aoranza del pueblo por la libertad. +Al contrario de la teora del choque de civilizaciones, los rabes no despreciaban la libertad occidental, la deseaban. +Ya en el 2001, le preguntamos a los rabes y musulmanes en general de todo el mundo, qu era lo que ms admiraban de Occidente. +Entre las respuestas ms frecuentes estaban la libertad y la justicia. +En sus propias palabras a una pregunta abierta escuchamos: Su sistema poltico es transparente y sigue a la democracia en su verdadero sentido. +Otros dijeron que era la libertad y ser tolerantes los unos con los otros. +Unas mayoras del 90 % y ms en Egipto, Indonesia e Irn nos dijeron en 2005 que si redactaran una nueva constitucin para un nuevo pas hipottico, garantizaran la libertad de expresin como un derecho fundamental, especialmente en Egipto. +El 88 % dijo que pasar a una democracia mayor ayudara a los musulmanes a progresar... el porcentaje ms alto de cualquier otro pas que hayamos encuestado. +Pero junto a estas aspiraciones democrticas haba una realidad cotidiana muy distinta, especialmente en Egipto. +Mientras muchos aspiraban a la democracia, eran la poblacin del mundo que menos haba expresado su opinin ante un funcionario pblico en el ltimo mes; solo un cuatro por ciento. +Mientras que el desarrollo econmico enriqueci a algunos, dej ms pobres a muchos. +A medida que la gente se senta menos libre, se senta tambin ms descuidada. +Y en vez de ver a los antiguos regmenes como padres generosos y quiz sobreprotectores, los vean como guardias de prisin. +As que los egipcios dieron por terminado el mandato de 30 aos de Mubarak, y potencialmente seran un ejemplo para la regin. +Si Egipto logra construir una sociedad basada en el respeto a la ley, podran ser un modelo. +Sin embargo, si no se abordan los problemas que desataron la revolucin, las consecuencias podran ser catastrficas; no solo para Egipto, sino para toda la regin. +Algunos dicen que los indicios no son buenos. +Los islamistas, no los jvenes liberales que iniciaron la revolucin, ganaron como mayora en el parlamento. +El consejo militar ha golpeado a la sociedad civil y sus protestas y la economa del pas contina sufriendo. +Sin embargo, evaluar a Egipto tomando solo eso en cuenta, es ignorar la verdadera revolucin. +Porque los egipcios son ms optimistas de lo que han sido en aos, tienen menos divisiones religiosas de lo que pensaramos y estn listos para las exigencias de la democracia. +No importa si apoyan a los islamistas o a los liberales, las prioridades de los egipcios para este gobierno son idnticas, y son el trabajo, la estabilidad y la educacin, no las polticas morales. +Pero principalmente, por primera vez en dcadas, esperan ser participantes activos, no espectadores, en los asuntos del pas. +Hace un par de semanas, estaba en una reunin con un grupo de parlamentarios recin electos de Egipto y Tnez. +Y lo que realmente me sorprendi de ellos fue que no solo eran optimistas, sino que me pareci que estaban algo nerviosos, a falta de una mejor palabra. +Uno me dijo: Nuestro pueblo sola ir a los cafs para ver el ftbol o soccer, como decimos en Estados Unidos y ahora se rene para ver al Parlamento. +En serio, nos estn viendo y no podemos evitar preocuparnos de que no llenemos sus expectativas. +Y lo que tambin me sorprendi es que hace menos de 24 meses, era la gente la que estaba nerviosa si el gobierno la vea. +Y la razn por la que esperan tanto es porque tienen una nueva esperanza en el futuro. +Justo antes de la revolucin dijimos que los egipcios nunca haban estado peor en sus vidas, y no solo eso, sino que pensaban que su futuro no sera mejor. +Lo que en realidad cambi luego del derrocamiento de Mubarak no fue que la vida mejor. +En realidad se hizo ms difcil. +Pero las expectativas de la gente por su futuro se incrementaron significativamente. +Y esta esperanza, este optimismo, soport un ao de transicin turbulenta. +Una razn de ser de este optimismo es, contrario a lo que mucha gente ha dicho, que la mayora de los egipcios piensan que las cosas han cambiado de muchas maneras. +As que mientras lo egipcios eran conocidos por la poca participacin de sus electores en las elecciones antes de la revolucin, la ltima eleccin tuvo una concurrencia del 70 % de votantes... hombres y mujeres. +Mientras que en el 2010 solo un cuarto crea a medias en la honestidad de las elecciones me sorprende que haya sido un cuarto el 90 % pens que esta ltima eleccin fue honesta. +Y esto es importante porque descubrimos un nexo entre la fe de las personas en su proceso democrtico y su fe en que la gente oprimida pueda cambiar su situacin solo a travs de medios pacficos. +S lo que algunos de ustedes estarn pensando. +El pueblo egipcio y muchos otros rabes que se revelaron y estn en transicin, tienen expectativas altas del gobierno. +Simplemente son vctimas de una larga autocracia y esperan que un estado paternal les solucione todos sus problemas. +Pero esta conclusin ignorara un cambio tectnico que est ocurriendo en Egipto lejos de las cmaras de la plaza Tahrir. +Y es que las expectativas elevadas de los egipcios estn en primer lugar en ellos mismos. +En el pas una vez conocido por su pasiva resignacin, donde, con lo mal que estaban las cosas, solo un 4 % expresaba su opinin a un funcionario pblico, hoy el 90 % nos dice que si hay un problema en su comunidad, depende de ellos arreglarlo. +Y tres cuartos creen que no solo tienen la responsabilidad, sino el poder de hacer un cambio. +Y esta conquista de poder tambin pertenece a las mujeres, cuyo rol en las revueltas no puede subestimarse. +Eran doctoras y disidentes, artistas y organizadoras. +Un tercio de quienes desafiaron tanques y bombas lacrimgenas para pedir o exigir la libertad y la justicia en Egipto fueron mujeres. +Pero la gente ha planteado una preocupacin real sobre qu significa para las mujeres el ascenso de los partidos islamistas. +Respecto al rol de la religin en la ley y la sociedad, hallamos que no hay un consenso femenino. +Encontramos que las mujeres en un pas se parecen ms a los hombres de ese pas que sus contrapartes femeninas fuera de la frontera. +Esto sugiere que la forma en que las mujeres ven el rol de la religin en la sociedad est ms modelada por la cultura y el contexto de su propio pas que por una visin monoltica de que simplemente la religin es mala para las mujeres. +Donde las mujeres coinciden, sin embargo, es en su propio rol y que debe ser central y activo. +Y es aqu donde vemos la mayor diferencia de gneros en un pas: en el asunto de los derechos de las mujeres. +Lo que los hombres piensen acerca de los derechos de las mujeres es importante para el futuro de esta regin. +Porque descubrimos un vnculo entre el apoyo de los hombres hacia el empleo femenino y la cantidad de mujeres que tienen empleo en campos profesionales en ese pas. +Y la pregunta sera: Qu motiva el apoyo de los hombres hacia los derechos de las mujeres? +Cmo ven los hombres a la religin y las leyes? +[Acaso] la opinin de un hombre sobre el papel de la religin en la poltica forma su visin de los derechos de las mujeres? +La respuestas es no. +No encontramos ninguna relacin, ningn impacto en absoluto, entre estas dos variables. +Lo que lleva a que los hombres apoyen el empleo para la mujer es el empleo de los hombres, su nivel de educacin como tambin una alta calificacin de su pas en el ndice de Desarrollo Humano de la ONU. +Esto significa que el desarrollo humano, no la secularizacin, es la clave del empoderamiento de las mujeres para transformar el Oriente Prximo. +Y la transformacin contina. +Desde Wall Street hasta Mohammed Mahmoud Street, jams ha sido tan importante comprender las aspiraciones de la gente comn. +Gracias. +Hoy se habla de persuasin moral. +Qu es moral o inmoral al tratar de cambiar el comportamiento de las personas por medio de la tecnologa y el diseo? +No s qu esperan ustedes, pero cuando estaba pensando en eso, enseguida me di cuenta de que no soy capaz de darles respuestas. +No s decirles qu es moral o inmoral porque vivimos en una sociedad pluralista. +Mis valores pueden ser radicalmente diferentes de los suyos. +Esto significa que lo que yo considero moral o inmoral, no necesariamente corresponde a lo que ustedes consideran moral o inmoral. +Pero tambin me di cuenta de que hay algo que les puedo dar. +Y es lo que este hombre detrs de m le dio al mundo: Scrates. +Las preguntas. +Lo que puedo hacer y lo que me gustara hacer con ustedes es darles, al igual que la pregunta inicial, una serie de preguntas para que descubran por su propia cuenta, capa por capa, como pelando una cebolla, hasta llegar al centro de lo que creen que es la persuasin moral o inmoral. +Y me gustara hacerlo con un par de ejemplos de tecnologas donde se han usado elementos de juego para lograr que la gente haga cosas. +Es muy sencillo; una pregunta muy obvia que quisiera hacerles: Cules son sus intenciones si estn diseando algo? +Y, por supuesto, las intenciones no son lo nico, as que aqu hay otro ejemplo de una de estas aplicaciones. +Actualmente hay un par de estos ecopaneles de mando, tableros integrados en los autos que tratan de motivarnos a conducir ahorrando combustible. +Este es el Nissan MyLeaf que permite comparar su comportamiento al volante con el de otras personas, as que pueden competir para ver quin conduce de forma ms eficiente. +Y resulta que esas cosas son muy efectivas, tanto que animan a la gente a adoptar conductas de riesgo al volante, como no detenerse en un semforo en rojo. +Porque de ese modo hay que parar y reiniciar el motor y eso hace consumir ms combustible, no es cierto? +A pesar de ser una aplicacin muy bien intencionada, obviamente tena efectos secundarios. +Aqu hay otro ejemplo de uno de estos efectos secundarios. +Commendable : un sitio web que permite a los padres dar medallas a sus hijos cuando hacen algo que quieren que hagan, como amarrarse los zapatos. +Y eso aparentemente suena muy bien, muy inofensivo, bien intencionado. +Pero resulta que si miramos la investigacin sobre la mentalidad de la gente, esta preocupacin por los resultados, por el reconocimiento pblico, por este tipo de smbolos pblicos de reconocimiento no es necesariamente de gran ayuda para nuestro bienestar psicolgico a largo plazo. +Es mejor preocuparse por aprender algo. +Es mejor preocuparse por uno mismo que en cmo nos vemos frente a los dems. +Esta es una segunda pregunta obvia: Cules son los efectos de lo que estn haciendo? +Los efectos que se obtienen con el dispositivo, como menos combustible, as como los efectos de la herramienta usada para empujar a la gente a hacer algo... reconocimiento pblico. +Eso es todo?: intencin, efecto? +Bueno, existen tecnologas que obviamente combinan ambos. +Y creo que muchos estaremos de acuerdo en que es algo bien planeado y que tiene consecuencias positivas. +En palabras de Michel Foucault: Es una tecnologa del yo. +Es una tecnologa que permite al individuo determinar su propia vida, darle forma. +Pero el problema es, como seala Foucault, que toda la tecnologa del yo tiene una tecnologa de dominacin como contrapartida. +Como puede verse hoy en da en las democracias liberales modernas, la sociedad y el Estado, no solo nos permite determinar y dar forma a nuestro yo, tambin es exigente con nosotros. +Exige que mejoremos, que aprendamos a controlarnos, que nos manejemos constantemente porque es la nica forma en que una sociedad liberal funciona. +Estas tecnologas quieren que nos quedemos en el juego que la sociedad ha creado para nosotros. +Quieren que nos adaptemos mejor, +que mejoremos para adaptarnos. +Ahora, no estoy diciendo que sea necesariamente algo malo. +Simplemente creo que este ejemplo nos conduce a una comprensin general, es decir, no importa qu tecnologa o diseo miremos, incluso algo que consideremos bien diseado y positivo en sus efectos como Freedom de Stutzman lleva consigo ciertos valores. +Y podemos cuestionar estos valores. +Podemos preguntarnos: es bueno que todos mejoremos continuamente para adaptarnos mejor a esa sociedad? +O para darles otro ejemplo, qu pasa con la tecnologa persuasiva que convence a las mujeres musulmanas para usar el velo? +Es una tecnologa buena o mala en sus intenciones o en sus efectos? +Bueno, eso depende bsicamente del tipo de valores que cada uno tiene para hacer este tipo de juicios. +Entonces, una tercera pregunta es: Qu valores usan para juzgar? +Y hablando de valores, he notado que en los debates en Internet sobre la persuasin moral, y cuando hablo con la gente, a menudo noto un prejuicio extrao. +Y por ese prejuicio es que nos preguntamos: esto o aquello todava es tico?, +todava es aceptable? +Preguntamos cosas como: Este formulario de donacin para Oxfam donde la donacin mensual regular est predeterminada y la gente, tal vez sin pretenderlo, se ve alentada o empujada a hacer donaciones regulares en lugar de donaciones ocasionales todava es aceptable? +Todava es tico? +Estamos pescando en aguas poco profundas. +De hecho, la pregunta, todava es tico? +es solo una forma de ver la tica. +Porque si se fijan en los comienzos de la tica en la cultura occidental, notarn una idea muy diferente de lo que podra ser la tica. +Para Aristteles, la tica no se ocupaba de la cuestin de si algo an era bueno o malo. +Se refera a la cuestin de cmo vivir bien la vida. +Y lo puso en la palabra aret, que del latn, traducimos como virtud. +Pero en realidad significa excelencia. +Significa vivir de acuerdo a nuestro propio potencial como seres humanos. +Y es una idea que creo que Paul Richard Buchanan expres perfectamente en un ensayo reciente donde dijo: Los productos son vivas discusiones sobre cmo deberamos vivir nuestras vidas. +Nuestros diseos no son morales o inmorales en funcin de si usan medios morales o inmorales para persuadirnos. +Tienen un componente moral solo en el tipo de visin y aspiracin de la buena vida que nos presentan. +Esta es la cuarta pregunta que quisiera dejarles: Qu visin de la buena vida transmiten sus diseos? +Y hablando de diseo, noten que ya he ampliado la discusin. +Porque ya no hablamos solo de tecnologa persuasiva, sino de cualquier diseo que ponemos en el mundo. +No s si conocen al gran investigador de la comunicacin Paul Watzlawick, que en los aos 60 argument que es imposible no comunicarse. +Incluso si optamos por permanecer en silencio, elegimos guardar silencio. Estamos comunicando algo al optar por el silencio. +Y de la misma forma que no podemos no comunicar, no podemos dejar de persuadir. +Cualquier cosa que hagamos o dejemos de hacer, cualquier cosa que pongamos en el mundo como un diseo tiene un componente persuasivo +que trata de influenciar a las personas. +Pone una cierta visin de la buena vida frente a nosotros. +Y eso es lo que dice Peter-Paul Verbeek, el filsofo holands de la tecnologa. +Ya sea voluntario o no, nosotros, como diseadores, materializamos la moralidad. +Hacemos que ciertas cosas sean ms difciles o ms fciles de hacer. +Organizamos la existencia de las personas. +Ponemos delante de la gente una cierta visin de lo que es bueno o malo, o normal o habitual con todo lo que ponemos en el mundo. +Incluso algo tan inocuo como un juego de sillas escolares es una tecnologa persuasiva. +E incluso algo tan inocuo como una silla de diseo nico como esta de Arne Jacobsen es una tecnologa persuasiva. +Porque, reitero, comunica una idea de la buena vida. +Una buena vida... una vida que ustedes como diseadores autorizan diciendo: En la buena vida, los bienes que se producen son sostenibles o insostenibles como esta silla. +A los trabajadores se les trata bien o mal como a los que construyeron esa silla. +As que estas son las capas, los tipos de preguntas que quera transmitirles hoy. Las preguntas: Qu intenciones tienen cuando disean algo? +Qu efectos, intencionales y no intencionales, obtienen? +Cules son los valores que usan para juzgarlos? +Cules son las virtudes y aspiraciones que en realidad estn expresando con eso? +Y cmo se aplica, no solo en la tecnologa persuasiva, sino a todo lo que disean? +Nos detenemos ah? +No lo creo. +Creo que todas esas cosas derivan, en ltima instancia, de la base de todo esto que no es ms que la vida misma. +Por qu cuando la pregunta sobre lo que es la buena vida impregna todo lo que diseamos, deberamos parar de disear y dejar de preguntarnos, cmo se aplica a nuestra propia vida? +Por qu esta lmpara o esta casa puede ser un objeto de arte pero mi vida no?, +como dice Michel Foucault. +Quiero darles un ejemplo prctico de Buster Benson. +Este es Buster ensamblando un aparato de musculacin en la oficina de su nueva empresa Habit Labs, donde estn tratando de hacer otras aplicaciones como Health Month para la gente. +Por qu crea una cosa as? +Porque en ltima instancia, cmo pueden preguntarse y encontrar una respuesta sobre la visin de la buena vida que quieren transmitir y crear con sus diseos sin preguntarse qu visin de la buena vida les gustara vivir? +Y con eso, les doy las gracias. +Existe E.T.? +Bueno, trabajo en el Instituto SETI. +Es casi mi nombre. SETI: Bsqueda de inteligencia extraterrestre. +En otras palabras, busco aliengenas, y cuando digo eso a la gente en una fiesta, normalmente me miran con una expresin levemente incrdula en sus caras. +Yo trato de mantener mi propio rostro un tanto desapasionado. +Esto... podemos volver? +Hola, adelante, la Tierra. +Ah vamos. Muy bien. +Este es el Radio Observatorio de Owens Valley detrs de la Sierra Nevada y en 1968, estuve trabajando all recolectando datos para mi tesis. +Ahora, es un poco solitario, tedioso, solamente recoger datos, as que me entretena tomando fotos por la noche de los telescopios o incluso de m mismo, porque, saben, en la noche, yo deba ser el nico homnido en unos 50 kilmetros a la redonda. +Aqu hay fotografas mas. +El observatorio acababa de adquirir un nuevo libro, escrito por un cosmlogo ruso de nombre Isif Shklovski y luego ampliado, traducido y editado por un astrnomo poco conocido de Cornell llamado Carl Sagan. +Y recuerdo, leyendo ese libro a las 3 de la maana, estaba leyendo este libro y en l explicaban cmo las antenas que yo estaba usando para medir los giros de las galaxias, tambin podran usarse para comunicar, enviar bits de informacin de un sistema estelar a otro. +As que era cierto. +Bien. Ahora, la idea de hacer esto, no era muy antigua en el momento en que tom la foto. +La idea se remonta a 1960, cuando un joven astrnomo cuyo nombre era Frank Drake us esta antena en Virginia Occidental, la apunt a un par de estrellas cercanas con la esperanza de interceptar a E.T. +Pero Frank no escuchaba nada. +En realidad lo logr, pero result ser la Fuerza Area de Estados Unidos, la que no cuenta como inteligencia extraterrestre. +Pero la idea de Drake se hizo muy popular debido a que era muy atractiva -y voy a volver a eso- y sobre la base de este experimento, que no tuvo xito, hemos desarrollado desde entonces la bsqueda de inteligencia extraterrestre, aunque no de forma continua. +Todava no hemos odo nada. +Todava no hemos odo nada. +De hecho, no sabemos si hay vida ms all de la Tierra, pero quiero sealarles que esto va a cambiar ms bien pronto, y parte de la razn por la cual creo que va a cambiar es, de hecho, que el instrumental est mejorando. +Este es el Conjunto de Telescopios Allen, a unos 560 km desde donde estamos. +Es algo que estamos usando actualmente para la bsqueda de E.T., y los dispositivos electrnicos han mejorado mucho tambin. +Esta es la electrnica de Frank Drake en 1960. +Estos son los actuales sistemas electrnicos del Conjunto de Telescopios Allen. +Algunos expertos con bastante tiempo libre han calculado que los nuevos experimentos son aproximadamente 100 billones de veces mejores que en 1960, 100 billones de veces mejores. +Es un grado de mejora que se vera bien en tu informe de evaluacin, no? +Pero algo que no es apreciado por el pblico es, que el experimento sigue mejorando, y en consecuencia tiende a ser ms rpido. +Este es un pequeo grfico, y cada vez que muestras un grfico, pierdes el 10% de la audiencia. +Tengo 12 grficos. Pero lo que he graficado aqu son slo algunas mediciones que indican la rapidez con que estamos buscando. +En otras palabras, estamos buscando una aguja en un pajar. +Sabemos cun grande es el pajar. Es la galaxia. +Pero ya no nos movemos por el pajar con una cucharita, sino con una pala de carga, gracias a este aumento en la velocidad. +De hecho, aquellos que todava estn conscientes y sean matemticamente competentes, notarn que este es un grfico semilogartmico. +En otras palabras, la tasa de crecimiento es exponencial. +Est mejorando exponencialmente. Ahora, exponencial es una palabra demasiado empleada. La pueden or en los medios todo el tiempo. +Realmente no saben lo que significa exponencial, pero esto es exponencial. +De hecho, se duplica cada 18 meses y, por supuesto, cada miembro con carnet de "digerati" [elite digital] sabe que esa es la ley de Moore. +Esto significa que en el transcurso de las siguientes dos docenas de aos, vamos a ser capaces de contemplar un milln de sistemas estelares, un milln sistemas estelares, en bsqueda de seales que probaran que hay alguien all. +Bueno, un milln de sistemas estelares, es interesante? +Me refiero a, cuntos de esos sistemas de estrellas tienen planetas? +Y el hecho es que no sabamos la respuesta apenas hace 15 aos y, en realidad, tampoco la sabamos hace seis meses. +Pero ahora s. Resultados recientes sugieren que prcticamente todas las estrellas tienen planetas, y ms de uno. +Son como los gatitos. Se tiene una camada. +No un solo gatito. Se tiene un montn. +En realidad, esta es una estimacin bastante exacta del nmero de planetas en nuestra galaxia, slo en nuestra galaxia, por cierto, y les recuerdo a quienes no sean especialistas en astronoma que nuestra galaxia es slo una entre 100 mil millones que pueden verse con telescopios. +Es una gran cantidad de bienes races, pero claro, la mayora de estos planetas prcticamente no tienen valor, como, saben, Mercurio o Neptuno. +Neptuno probablemente no sea muy importante en sus vidas. +Entonces la pregunta es, qu fraccin de esos planetas es realmente adecuada para la vida? +Bien, an considerando la estimacin pesimista, que es de uno en mil, significa que hay por lo menos mil millones de primos de la Tierra solo en nuestra galaxia. +Bien, as que el balance final es este: Debido al aumento en la velocidad y a raz de la gran cantidad de inmuebles habitables en el cosmos, calculo que vamos a captar una seal dentro de dos docenas de aos. +Y estoy tan convencido de ello que les voy a hacer una apuesta: Vamos a encontrar E.T. en las prximas dos docenas de aos, o les invito una taza de caf. +O sea que no es tan malo. Quiero decir, o bien en dos docenas de aos, abren su navegador y hay noticias de una seal, o tienen una taza de caf. +Ahora, permtanme contarles de un aspecto que la gente no considera y es qu pasa? Supongamos que lo que digo es cierto. +Es decir, quin sabe, pero supongamos que ocurre. +Supongamos que algn momento en las prximas dos docenas de aos captamos una lnea tenue que nos dice que tenemos compaa csmica. +Cul es el efecto? Cul es la consecuencia? +Ahora, yo podra estar en la zona cero para esto. +Y me qued esperando a que aparecieran los Hombres de Negro. S? +Segua y segua esperando a que mi mam llamara, alguien que llamara, al Gobierno que llamara. Nadie llamaba. +Nadie llam. Estaba tan nervioso que no poda sentarme. Slo me paseaba por el lugar tomando fotos como esta, para hacer algo. +Bien, a las 9:30 de la maana, con la cabeza apoyada sobre mi escritorio dado que obviamente no haba dormido en toda la noche, suena el telfono y eran de The New York Times. +Y creo que en esto hay una leccin y es que si captamos una seal, los medios de comunicacin estarn sobre ella ms rpido que liebre sobre patines. Va a ser rpido. +Pueden estar seguros de eso. No hay secreto. +Eso es lo que me pasa. En cierto modo se arruina toda mi semana, porque todo lo que tengo planeado para esa semana prcticamente se desmorona. +Pero, a Ud.? Qu es lo que eso le va a hacer a Ud.? +Y la respuesta es que no sabemos la respuesta. +No sabemos lo que le va a hacer, ni en el largo plazo ni tampoco demasiado en el corto plazo. +O sea, que sera un poco como preguntarle a Cristobal Coln en 1491, "Oye Cris, qu pasa si resulta que hay un continente entre aqu y Japn, hacia donde ests navegando? Cules sern las consecuencias para la humanidad si resulta ser ese el caso?" +Creo que Coln quiz respondera que tal vez no puedas entender, pero probablemente no hubiera sido correcta, y creo que predecir lo que significar el hallazgo de E.T., tampoco podemos hacerlo. +Pero aqu hay un par de cosas que puedo decir. +Para empezar, va a ser una sociedad ms avanzada que la nuestra. +No vas a or de aliens de Neandertal. +No estn construyendo transmisores. +Ahora, esto podra parecernos algo hiperblico, y puede que lo sea, pero sin embargo, es concebible que esto suceder, y, saben, podra considerarse esto como, no s, dar a Julio Csar, clases de ingls y la clave para acceder a la biblioteca del Congreso. +Cambiara su da, verdad? +Esta es una cosa. Otra cosa que seguro va a suceder es que nos pondr en perspectiva. +Sabremos que no somos ese milagro, correcto, que solo somos un pato de la fila, no somos los nicos de la cuadra, y creo que eso filosficamente es algo muy profundo para aprender. +No somos un milagro, est bien? +La tercera cosa que les podra decir es algo vaga, pero me parece interesante e importante, y es que, si encontrramos una seal proveniente de una sociedad ms avanzada, puesto que lo sern, nos dir algo sobre nuestras propias posibilidades, que no estamos inevitablemente condenados a la autodestruccin. +Puesto que ellos sobrevivieron su tecnologa, nosotros tambin podramos hacerlo. +Normalmente cuando miramos hacia el Universo, estamos mirando hacia atrs en el tiempo. s? +Es interesante para los cosmlogos. +Pero en este sentido, realmente se puede mirar hacia el futuro, vagamente, pero se puede mirar hacia el futuro. +As que esas son todos los tipos de cosas que provendran de una deteccin. +Ahora, permtanme hablar un poco de algo que ocurre incluso en el nterin, y es que, SETI, creo que es importante, ya que es exploracin, y no solo exploracin, es exploracin comprensible. +Ahora, tengo que decirles, que siempre estoy leyendo libros sobre exploradores. La exploracin me resulta muy interesante, La exploracin del rtico, saben, gente como Magallanes, Amundsen, Shackleton, ven a Franklin all abajo, Scott, todos estos chicos. Es realmente ingeniosa, la exploracin. +Y lo hacen slo porque quieren explorar, y podramos decir: "Oh, esa es una especie de oportunidad frvola", pero no es frvolo. No es una actividad frvola, porque, quiero decir, pensemos en las hormigas. +La mayora de las hormigas estn programadas para seguirse una a la otra a lo largo de una larga lnea, pero hay algunas hormigas, tal vez el uno por ciento de las hormigas, que son lo que se puede llamar hormigas pioneras y son las que deambulan. +Son las que encontramos en la mesada de la cocina. +Hay que darles con el pulgar antes que encuentren el azcar u otra cosa. +Pero esas hormigas, aunque la mayora sean eliminadas, esas son las hormigas que son esenciales para la supervivencia del hormiguero. Entonces la exploracin es importante. +Tambin creo que la exploracin es importante en trminos de poder abordar lo que pienso que es una falta crtica en nuestra sociedad y es la falta de divulgacin de la ciencia, la falta de capacidad de entender siquiera la ciencia. +Ahora, miren, mucho se ha escrito sobre el estado deplorable de la educacin cientfica en este pas. +Lo han escuchado. +Bien, de hecho, aqu hay un ejemplo. +Se hicieron encuestas, esta se realiz hace 10 aos. +Muestra que aproximadamente un tercio del pblico piensa que los extraterrestres no solo estn ah fuera, los estamos buscando ah fuera, sino que estn aqu, verdad? +Navegando los cielos en sus platillos y en ocasiones secuestrando personas para experimentos que sus padres no aprobaran. +Bueno, eso sera interesante si fuera cierto, y seguridad laboral para m, pero no creo que la evidencia sea muy buena. Esto es ms triste que significativo. +Pero hay otras cosas que la gente cree que son significativas, como la eficacia de la homeopata, o que la evolucin es una especie de idea loca de cientficos sin piernas, o que la evolucin... todo ese tipo de cosas, o el calentamiento global. +Ese tipo de ideas realmente no tienen ninguna validez, que no se pueda confiar en los cientficos. +Ahora, tenemos que resolver ese problema, porque es un problema muy importante y podramos decir: "Bueno, est bien, cmo vamos a resolver ese problema con SETI?" +Bueno, quisiera sugerirles que obviamente SETI no puede resolver el problema, pero que puede abordar el problema. +Puede abordar el problema consiguiendo que los jvenes se interesen en la ciencia. Miren, la ciencia es difcil, tiene una reputacin de ser difcil, y en realidad es difcil, y ese es el resultado de 400 aos de ciencia, no? +Es decir, en el siglo XVIII, podramos llegar a ser un experto en cualquier campo de la ciencia en una tarde yendo a una biblioteca, si pudiramos encontrar la biblioteca, no? +En el siglo XIX, si tuviramos un laboratorio en el stano, podramos hacer grandes descubrimientos cientficos en nuestra propia casa. Verdad? Debido a que todo aquello era ciencia tirada por ah esperando a alguien la recogiera. +Ahora, eso ya no es cierto. +Hoy en da, hay que pasar varios aos en la escuela de posgrado y haciendo post-doctorado slo para averiguar cules son las cuestiones importantes. +Es difcil. No hay ninguna duda. +Y, de hecho, aqu hay un ejemplo: el bosn de Higgs, encontrar el bosn de Higgs. +Pregntenle a 10 personas cercanas que vean en la calle: "Oye, crees que vale la pena gastar miles de millones de francos suizos buscando el bosn de Higgs?" +Y apuesto que la respuesta que van a obtener es: "Bueno, no s qu es el bosn de Higgs, y no s si es importante". +Y probablemente la mayora de las personas ni siguiera sabran el valor de un franco suizo, s? +Y sin embargo estamos gastando miles de millones de francos suizos en este problema. +De acuerdo? As que la gente no se interesa en la ciencia debido a que no pueden comprender de qu se trata. +SETI, por otro lado, es realmente simple. +Vamos a usar estas antenas grandes y a tratar de interceptar las seales. Todo el mundo puede entender eso. +S, tecnolgicamente, es muy sofisticado, pero todo el mundo comprende la idea. +As que eso es una cosa. La otra cosa es que es una ciencia apasionante. +Es emocionante porque estamos naturalmente interesados en otros seres inteligentes y creo que eso es parte de nuestro cableado. +Es decir, estamos programados para estar interesados en seres que podran ser, si se quiere, competidores, o si eres romntico, posiblemente incluso compaeros. s? +Es decir, esto es anlogo a nuestro inters en las cosas que tienen dientes grandes. Correcto? +Estamos interesados en cosas que tienen dientes grandes y podemos ver el valor evolutivo de eso, y tambin podemos ver las consecuencias prcticas viendo "Animal Planet". +Notarn que hacen muy pocos programas sobre jerbos. +Mayormente los hacen sobre cosas que tienen dientes grandes. +Muy bien, as que estamos interesados en este tipo de cosas. +Y no slo nosotros. Tambin los nios. +Esto nos permite devolver el favor mediante el uso de este tema como un gancho para la ciencia, porque SETI implica todo tipo de ciencia, obviamente biologa, obviamente astronoma, pero tambin geologa, qumica, varias disciplinas cientficas que pueden presentarse en la forma de: "Estamos buscando E.T.". +Entonces para m es interesante e importante y, de hecho, es mi poltica y aunque d muchas charlas para adultos, dos das despus vuelven a donde estaban. +Pero si se da charlas a los nios, saben, en uno de cada 50 de ellos, alguna bombilla se activa, y piensan: "Vaya, nunca haba pensado que", y luego se van a leer un libro o una revista o lo que sea. +Se interesan en algo. +Ahora es mi teora, apoyada solo por ancdotas, ancdotas personales pero, no obstante, estos nios logran interesarse en algo entre los 8 y los 11 aos. Tienes que llegarles ah. +Entonces, doy charlas para adultos, lo que est muy bien, pero trato de hacer un 10 % de las charlas que doy, para los chicos. +Recuerdo cuando un hombre vino a nuestra escuela secundaria, en realidad, era mi escuela primaria. Yo estaba en sexto grado. +Y nos dio una charla. Todo lo que recuerdo de ella es una palabra: electrnica. +Era como Dustin Hoffman en "El graduado", cuando dijo "plstica", lo que quiera que signifique, plstica. +Bien, el tipo dijo electrnica. No recuerdo nada ms. De hecho, no recuerdo nada de lo que mi maestra de sexto grado dijo durante todo el ao, pero recuerdo "electrnica". +Y de esa manera me interes en la electrnica y estudi para obtener mi licencia de radioaficionado. Yo estaba cableando cosas. +Aqu estoy yo a eso de los 15, haciendo ese tipo de cosas. +De acuerdo? Eso tuvo un gran efecto en m. +Esa es mi idea, que se puede causar un gran efecto en estos nios. +De hecho, esto me recuerda, no s, hace un par de aos di una charla en una escuela de Palo Alto donde haba una docena de nios de 11 aos que haban asistido a la charla. +Me convocaron para hablarles durante una hora. +Uno de estos nios levant su mano y dijo: "Bueno, realmente hay un nombre para l. +Es un sextra-cuadra-hexa o algo as". +Ahora, ese nio se equivoc en cuatro rdenes de magnitud, pero no cabe ninguna duda, estos nios eran inteligentes. +As que dej de dar la Conferencia. +Todo lo que queran era hacer preguntas. +De hecho, mis ltimo comentarios a estos nios, al final dije: "Saben chicos, Uds. son ms inteligentes que la gente con la que trabajo". Ahora... Ni siquiera les import. +Lo que queran era mi direccin de correo electrnico para poder hacerme ms preguntas. Permtanme decirles que mi trabajo es un privilegio porque estamos en una poca especial. +Las generaciones anteriores no pudieron de ninguna manera hacer este experimento. +En una generacin ms, creo que vamos a tener xito. +As que para m, es un privilegio, y cuando me miro en el espejo, realmente no me veo a m mismo. +Lo que veo es la generacin que viene detrs de m. +Estos son algunos nios de la escuela de Huff, alumnos de cuarto grado. +Habl all, hace dos semanas, ms o menos. +Creo que si se puede inculcar cierto inters por la ciencia y cmo funciona, bien, eso es una recompensa ms all de toda medida. Muchas gracias. +Pens que hablara sobre identidad. +Un tema que me parece bastante interesante. +Y esto es porque cuando me lo pidieron, acababa de leer en un peridico cuyo nombre no recuerdo, algo de alguien en Facebook que deca, "tenemos que hacer que todos usen sus nombres reales". +Y entonces as, basicamente, todos los problemas se resuelven. +Y eso es tan errado, es una forma tan reaccionaria de ver la identidad, y nos va a meter en toda suerte de problemas. +Y entonces pens que explicara cuatro tipos de problemas al respecto, y que luego sugerir una solucin, que, con suerte, Uds. hallaran interesante. +Y entonces, para darle marco al problema, qu significa la autenticidad? +Ese soy yo, es una foto ma de una cmara de telfono viendo una pintura. +[Cul es el problema?] Es un cuadro que fue pintado por un famoso falsificador, no soy muy bueno con las presentaciones, y ahora no puedo recordar el nombre que escrib en mi tarjeta. +Y lo encarcelaron en Wakefield, creo, por falsificar piezas maestras de impresionistas franceses, creo. +Y era tan bueno en eso que cuando estaba preso, todos en la prisin, el gobernador y todos, queran que les pintara obras para colgar en las paredes, porque eran tan buenas. +Y entonces, esa es una obra maestra, una falsificacin de una obra maestra, y adherido a la tela hay un chip que la identifica como falsificacin real, si entienden a que me refiero. +As que cuando hablamos de autenticidad, es algo ms fractal de lo que parece y este es un buen ejemplo para ilustrarlo. +Trat de escoger cuatro problemas que enmarcaran el asunto apropiadamente. +El primer problema que pens, chip y pin, de acuerdo? +[bancos hunden el sistema] [offline no funciona online] Todos tienen una tarjeta con chip y nmero de PIN, verdad? +Y por qu es ese un buen ejemplo? +Es un ejemplo de cmo la forma heredada de pensar la identidad subvierte la seguridad de un sistema bien construido. +La tarjeta con chip y nmero de PIN que est en su bolsillo tiene un pequeo chip cuyo desarrollo cuesta millones de libras es extremadamente seguro, se lo puede pasar por un microscopio electrnico de barrido, se puede intentar desgastar, bla, bla, bla. +Esos chips nunca han sido rotos, todo lo que se lee en los peridicos. +Y como si fuera un chiste, cogemos ese chip superseguro y lo combinamos con una banda magntica fcilmente falsificable, y para los criminales ms perezosos, todava les repujamos la tarjeta. +Si Ud. es un criminal afanado que necesita copiar la tarjeta de alguien, solo la cubre con papel y repasa con un lpiz por encima para desocuparse rpido de eso. +Y lo que es ms divertido, en las tarjetas dbito tambin, imprimimos el nombre y el cdigo SALT y todo eso, tambin en el frente. +Por qu? +No hay ninguna razn sobre la tierra para que su nombre est impreso en una tarjeta de chip y nmero de PIN. +Y si Ud. lo piensa bien, es ms malicioso y perverso de lo que parece en principio +Las nicas personas que se benefician de que el nombre aparezca en la tarjeta son los criminales. +Uds. conocen su nombre, verdad? +Y si Ud. va a un almacn a comprar algo, necesita el PIN, el nombre no importa. +El nico sitio donde Ud. tiene que escribir el nombre por el momento, es en EE.UU. +Y si voy a EE.UU. y tengo que pagar con una tarjeta de banda magntica, siempre firmo como Carlos Tethers, por seguridad, porque si dudo de alguna transaccin y el recibo por detrs dice Dave Birch, se que debi haber sido un criminal, porque yo nunca firmara como Dave Birch. +Perder una tarjeta en la calle, entonces, significa que un criminal puede leerla. +Tienen el nombre, con el nombre pueden saber la direccin, y con eso pueden ir y comprar online. +Por qu ponemos el nombre en la tarjeta? +Porque creemos que la identidad es algo que tiene que ver con nombres, y porque estamos casados con la idea del Documento de Identidad, y nos obsesiona. +Y sabemos que eso se vino abajo hace un par de aos, pero si se trata de polticos o de directivos de lo que sea, que necesitan pensar la identidad, slo pueden pensar en ella como tarjetas con nombres en ellas. +Y eso es muy subversivo en un mundo moderno. +El segundo ejemplo que pens usar es el de las salas de chat. +Salas de chat y nios Me siento muy orgulloso de esta foto, es mi hijo tocando en su banda con sus amigos en el primer concierto, en el que, Uds. diran, le pagaron. +Y amo esa foto, +me gusta mucho ms la foto de cuando entra a la escuela de medicina, Me gusta esa foto por el momento. +Pero, por qu uso esa foto? +Porque fue muy interesante pensar en esa experiencia como adulto. +La primera banda de la lista que haga una presentacin en pblico obtiene la plata de los 20 primeros boletos, y la siguiente banda la de los 20 siguientes boletos, y as sucesivamente. +Ellos estaban de quintos, y pens que no tenan oportunidad. l, de hecho, recibi 20 libras. +Fantstico, verdad? +Pero mi punto es que todo funcion perfectamente, excepto por la web. +Ellos estn en Facebook, y estn enviando mensajes y organizando las cosas y no saben quin es quien, verdad? +El gran problema que estamos tratando de resolver. +Si usaran los nombres reales, no nos preocupara que estuvieran en internet. +Es decir, por lo general lo son, a juzgar por los peridicos, verdad? +Uno quiere saber quines estn en la sala de chat, verdad? +Bueno, puedes entrar a la sala de chat, pero solo si todos en la sala estn usando sus nombres reales, y si mandan copias completas de su prontuario policial. +Pero por supuesto, si alguien en la sala preguntara su nombre real, yo dira que no. No puedes darles tu nombre real. +Porque qu pasa si resultaran ser pervertidos, y profesores y lo que sea? +Y entonces uno enfrenta este tipo extrao de paradoja en el que uno se alegra de que entre a este sitio si sabemos quines son los dems, pero no queremos que nadie ms sepa quin es l. +Y uno se encuentra en este atolladero de la identidad, donde queremos informacin de todos, menos de nosotros. +Y no hay avance, estamos atascados. +Las salas de chat no funcionan bien, y es una muy mala forma de pensar la identidad. +En mis notificaciones por RSS, le sobre esto-- Ahora dije algo malo de mi RSS, cierto? +Debera dejar de decirlo de esa forma. +Por alguna extraa razn que no alcanzo a imaginar, algo sobre porristas lleg a mi buzn. +Le esta historia de porristas y es una historia fascinante. +Pas hace un par de aos en EE.UU. +Era una secundaria en EE.UU. donde unas porristas de un equipo dijeron cosas mezquinas de su entrenadora, estoy seguro que los muchachos hacen lo mismo con todos su profesores todo el tiempo, y de alguna manera la entrenadora se enter de aquello. +Se disgust mucho. +Y fue donde una de las chicas, y le dijo, "tienes que darme tu clave de Facebook". +Leo lo mismo todo el tiempo, universidades e instituciones educativas donde incluso son forzados a entregar sus claves de Facebook. +Me tienes que dar tu clave de Facebook. +Era una nia! +Lo que debera haber dicho es, "mi abogado la llamar a primera hora de la maana. +Es un escandalosa vulneracin del derecho a privacidad establecido en la 4ta enmienda, y la voy a demandar por todo lo que tiene. +Eso debera haber dicho +Pero es solo una nia, y entrega su clave. +La profesora no puede ingresar, porque la escuela bloque el acceso a Facebook. +Tiene que esperar a llegar a la casa para entrar. +La nia le cuenta a las amigas, y adivinen qu pasa? +Entonces, todas entraron a Facebook desde sus telfono y borraron su perfiles. +Y cuando la profesora pudo ingresar, no haba nada all. +Mi punto es que ellos no piensan las identidades de la misma forma. +La identidad es algo fluido, especialmente cuando se es adolescente. +Se tiene cantidades, se experimenta con diferentes-- +Ud. puede tener una identidad, y no le gust porque se la violaron de alguna manera, o es insegura o inapropiada, la borra y se hace a otra. +La idea de que se tiene una identidad que le es dada a uno por alguien ms, el gobierno o quien sea, con la que hay que casarse y usar en todas partes, es absolutamente errada. +Por otro lado, Por qu querria uno saber quien est en Facebook si no es para abusar de ellos y acosarlos de alguna forma? +Es un problema complicado. +Y mi cuarto ejemplo es que hay casos en los que uno en verdad quiere ser-- En caso de que se lo estn preguntando, ese soy yo en la protesta ante la cumbre del G20. +No estaba realmente en la protesta, pero tena una reunin en un banco el da de la protesta y recib un correo del banco pidindome no usar traje porque eso alterara a los protestantes. +Francamente, me veo muy bien de traje, y eso explica lo del frenes entre ellos. +Y entonces pens, +si no quieres que enardezcan, lo ms inteligente es ir vestido de protestante. +Y me vest todo de negro, ya saben, con un pasamontaas negro, tena guantes negros que me quit para firmar el libro de visitantes. +Tengo pantalones negros, botas negras, estoy vestido todo de negro. +Llego puntual y digo, "Hola, soy Dave Birch, tengo cita con fulano de tal". +Seguro. Me registran. +Me dan mi distintivo de visitante. +No tiene sentido tener nombres reales en Facebook o lo que sea, que nos den ese tipo de seguridad. +Es un teatro de la seguridad donde no hay seguridad real, y donde la gente representa su papel en una obra sobre la seguridad. +Y mientras todos sepan sus lneas, todos contentos. +Pero no es seguridad real. +Especialmente porque odio los bancos ms que los protestantes del G20, porque trabajo para ellos. +Se que las cosas son incluso peores de los que ellos piensan. +Pero supongamos que trabajaba en el banco junto a alguien que estaba haciendo algo-- Son como--- +Supongamos que estaba sentado junto a un intermediario deshonesto, y quiero reportarlo al jefe del banco. +Me conecto para delatarlo. +Envo un mensaje, "este tipo es un deshonesto". +Ese mensaje no significa nada si no saben que soy empleado del banco. +Si el mensaje proviene de un NN, tiene cero valor de informacin. +No tiene objeto mandar ese mensaje. +Ud. tiene que saber que yo soy-- Pero si tengo que identificarme, nunca mandar ese mensaje. +Como la enfermera del hospital que reporta al cirujano borracho. +Ese mensaje solo se dar si me mantengo en el anonimato. +El sistema tiene que tener formas de garantizar el anonimato en esos casos, de otra forma no llegaremos donde queremos llegar. +Cuatro casos. +Que vamos a hacer al respecto? Lo que solemos hacer es que pensamos en un espacio orwelliano. +Tratamos de hacer versiones electrnicas del Documento de Identidad de la que nos deshicimos en 1953. +Creemos que si tuviramos una tarjeta, llmese nombre de usuario Facebook, que pruebe quien es Ud, y hacemos que se lleve todo el tiempo, eso resuelve el problema. +Y por las razones que he esbozado, no lo har, y puede en realidad, empeorar algunos problemas. +Cuanto ms forzado se vea Ud. a usar su identidad real, para efectos transaccionales por supuesto, ms propenso estar Ud. a que se la roben y suplanten. +La meta es hacer que la gente deje de usar su identidad en transacciones que no necesitan la identidad, que son en verdad cas todas. +Casi todas las transacciones que Ud. hace no son, quin es Ud.? +Son, tiene permiso para conducir carro? tiene permiso para ingresar? tiene Ud. ms de 18? etctera, etctera. Sugiero-- +Yo, como James, creo que debera haber ms inters en robo de identidad +Creo que el problema se puede resolver +Hay algo que podemos hacer. +Como es natural, en estas circunstancias yo volteo hacia el Doctor Who. +Porque en esta, como en tantas otras cosas de la vida, el Doctor Who ya nos ha enseado la respuesta. +Yo debera decir, para nuestros visitantes forneos, que el Doctor Who es el cientfico Britnico vivo ms grande, y un modelo de verdad y esclarecimiento para todos nosotros. +Y aqu est el Doctor Who con su papel psquico. +Vamos muchachos, deben haber visto el papel psquico del Doctor Who. +No son nerds porque digan que s. +Quin ha visto el papel psquico del Doctor Who? +Ah, ya! Estuvieron todo el tiempo estudiando, me imagino. +Eso es lo que nos van a decir? +El papel psquico del Doctor Who es ese que cuando uno lo muestra, la persona, en su cerebro, ve lo que uno quiere que vea. +Quiero mostrarle un pasaporte Britnico, le enseo el papel psquico y mira un pasaporte Britnico. +Quiero entrar a la fiesta, le enseo el papel psquico y Ud. ve una invitacin a la fiesta. +Ud. ve lo que quiere ver. +Lo que digo es que necesitamos hacer una versin electrnica de eso, pero con un pequesimo cambio, que es que slo mostrar el pasaporte si Ud. en realidad tiene uno. +Mostrar que tengo ms de 18 si realmente los tengo. +Pero nada ms. +Ud. es el portero en el bar, necesita saber si tengo ms de 18, en lugar de ensearle mi licencia, que le muestra que s conducir. cul es mi nombre, mi domicilio, todo ese tipo de cosas, le enseo mi papel psquico, y lo que le dice es si tengo 18 o no. +Bien. +Es este un sueo imposible? +Claro que no, sino no estara aqu hablndoles. +Para crear esto y hacerlo funcionar, voy a nombrar esas cosas, no voy a ahondar en ellas, necesitamos un plan, que es que vamos a crear esto como una infraestructura que todos usarn para resolver todos estos problemas. +Vamos a hacer un dispositivo, un dispositivo que tiene que ser universal que se use en todas partes, voy a ideas de tecnologa a medida que avancemos. +Este es un cajero electrnico japons, toma la huella guardada en el telfono mvil. +Cuando Ud. quiere sacar plata, pone el telfono en el cajero, toca con el dedo, el telfono lee su huella digital, el telfono dice, "s, es el que es", y el cajero te da el dinero. +Tiene que ser un dispositivo que Ud. pueda usar en todas partes. +Tiene que ser absolutamente conveniente. Ese soy yo entrando en el bar. +Todo lo que va a decir el dispositivo en la puerta del bar es, si esta persona tiene ms de 18 y si no tiene ingreso prohibido. +Y entonces la idea es que Ud. arrima la tarjeta a la puerta, y si puedo entrar, muestro mi foto, si no, muestra una cruz roja. +No revela ninguna otra informacin. +No tiene que ser complejo +Esto solo puede significar una cosa, siguiendo la sentencia de Ross con la que estoy totalmente de acuerdo. +Si no son aparatos especiales, tiene que ser un celular. +Es la nica opcin: tenemos que usar los celulares. +Hay 6 600 millones de cuentas de celulares +Mi estadstica favorita de todos los tiempos, hay slo 4 000 millones de cepillos de diente en el mundo. +Eso debe significar algo No se qu +Confo en que los futurlogos me lo digan. +Tiene que ser un dispositivo que sea extensible. +Tiene que ser algo que cualquiera puede usar. +Cualquiera debe poder usar esta infraestructura sin pedir permisos, licencias, lo que fuera, todos deberan poder escribir el cdigo para hacer esto. +Todos saben lo que es la simetra, no necesitan un dibujo de eso. +As es como lo vamos a hacer. +Vamos a usar los celulares usando la proximidad mvil. +Voy a sugerir que la tecnologa para implementar el papel psquico del Doctor Who ya est aqu, y si alguno tiene una nueva tarjeta de dbito Barclay con la interfaz en ella, ya tiene esa tecnologa. +Si alguna vez ha ido al Gran Londres y ha usado la tarjeta Oyster, eso no le suena a algo? +La tecnologa ya existe. +Los primeros celulares que tienen la tecnologa, el Google Nexus, el S2, el Samsung Wifi 7.9, Los primeros telfonos que tienen esta tecnologa estn ya en las tiendas. +La idea es que el hombre del gas pueda aparecer en casa de mi madre y pueda mostrarle el telfono, y que ella pueda acercar el de ella y que aparezca una luz verde si realmente es de la British Gas y puede entrar, y aparezca una luz roja si no lo es, fin de la historia. +Tenemos la tecnologa para hacerlo. +Y ms, algunas de estas cosas suenan contraintuitivas cmo probar que se tiene 18 sin probar quien soy?, la criptografa para hacerlo no solo existe, es muy conocida y bien comprendida. +Las firmas digitales, el cifrado de los certificados de clave pblica, tenemos estas tecnologas hace rato, es solo que no tenamos forma de empaquetarlas. +La tecnologa ya existe. +Sabemos que funciona. Algunos ejemplos de que la tecnologa est siendo usada de manera experimental en algunos lugares. +Para la Semana de la Moda de Londres, construimos un sistema con O2, para el Wireless Festival en Hyde Park, se puede ver las personas caminando con su banda de VIP, la verificacin se hace con el Nokia que lee la banda. +Lo muestro para que vean que estas cosas son prosaicas, funcionan en estos ambientes. +No necesitan ser especiales. +Finalmente, yo s que Ud. puede hacer esto, porque si Ud. vio aquel episodio, el especial de pascuas del Doctor Who, donde iba a Marte en bus, debera aclarar para los extranjeros que no pasa en todo episodio. +Este fue un caso muy especial. +Probando as que el papel psquico tiene una interfaz MSE. Muchas gracias. +Bueno, como toda buena historia, esta comienza hace mucho, mucho tiempo cuando bsicamente nada exista. +Aqu tenemos una imagen completa del universo, hace unos 14 000 millones de aos. +Toda la energa est concentrada en un solo punto. +Por alguna razn, este explot y comenzamos a tener estas cosas. +Por lo que ahora tenemos unos 14 000 millones de aos en esto. +Y estas cosas se expanden y expanden y forman estas galaxias gigantes, y tenemos billones de ellas. +Y dentro de estas galaxias tenemos estas enormes nubes de polvo. +Y aqu quiero que pongan particular atencin a los 3 pequeos cuernos en el centro de esta imagen. +Si se les hace un acercamiento, se ven as. +Y lo que observan son columnas de polvo donde hay tanto polvo por cierto, la escala vertical de esto es de un billn de kilmetros y lo que sucede es que hay tanto polvo, que se condensa y fusiona y comienza una reaccin termonuclear. +Y por lo tanto, lo que estn viendo, es el nacimiento de las estrellas. +Estas son estrellas nacidas aqu. +Cuando salen suficientes estrellas, crean una galaxia. +Esta resulta ser una galaxia especialmente importante porque ustedes estn aqu. +Y mientras se hace un acercamiento a esta galaxia, se ver una estrella relativamente normal, que no es particularmente interesante. +Por cierto, ahora estamos a dos tercios de la narracin de esta historia. +Esta estrella no aparece sino hasta que llegamos a unos dos tercios de la narracin de esta historia. +Y, a continuacin, lo que sucede si existe suficiente polvo sobrante que no arde en una estrella, se convierte en un planeta. +Y esto es hace poco ms de 4 000 millones de aos. +Y poco despus queda suficiente material sobrante para tener un caldo primitivo, y eso crea la vida. +Y la vida se comienza a expandir y expandir, hasta que se extingue. +Ahora, lo realmente extrao es que la vida se extingue, no una vez, no dos, sino cinco veces. +Por lo que casi toda la vida en la Tierra ha sido aniquilada unas 5 veces. +Y mientras piensan en ello, lo que pasa es que se obtiene ms y ms complejidad, ms y ms cosas para construir cosas nuevas con ellas. +Y nosotros no aparecemos hasta aproximadamente el 99,96 % del tiempo de esta historia, solo para ponernos a nosotros y a nuestros antepasados en perspectiva. +Por lo que dentro de ese contexto, hay 2 teoras del porqu estamos todos aqu. +La primera teora es que eso ha sido todo. +Segn esta teora, somos el ser supremo y la quintaesencia de toda la creacin. +Y la razn de que existan billones de galaxias, miles de trillones de planetas es para crear algo que se ve as y algo que se ve as. +Y ese es el propsito del universo; y, a continuacin, se estanca, ya no puede mejorar. +La nica pregunta que podran hacerse es: no podra ser esto ligeramente arrogante? +Y si es as, en particular por el hecho de que hemos estado muy cerca de la extincin +cuando solo quedaban cerca de 2000 de nuestra especie. +Unas semanas ms sin lluvia, y nunca habramos visto a ninguno de estos. +Entonces tal vez tenemos que pensar en una segunda teora si la primera de ellas no es suficientemente buena. +La segunda teora es: podramos actualizarnos? +Bien, por qu uno hara una pregunta como esta? +Porque ha habido al menos 29 actualizaciones de humanoides hasta ahora. +Por lo que resulta que nos hemos actualizado. +Nos hemos actualizado una y otra vez. +Y resulta que seguimos descubriendo actualizaciones. +Hemos encontrado esta el ao pasado. +Encontramos otra el mes pasado. +Y mientras usted lo piensa tambin podra preguntarse: por qu una sola especie humana? +No sera realmente extrao si usted fuera a frica, a Asia y la Antrtida y encontrara exactamente el mismo pjaro, especialmente cuando hemos coexistido al mismo tiempo con al menos otras 8 versiones de humanoides en este planeta? +Lo normal no es tener solamente un Homo sapiens; lo normal es tener varias versiones de seres humanos alrededor. +Y si eso es lo normal, a continuacin usted podra preguntarse, muy bien, si quisiramos crear algo ms, cun grande tendra que ser la mutacin? +Bien, Svante Paabo tiene la respuesta. +La diferencia entre los seres humanos y el Neanderthal es 0,004 % del cdigo gentico. +Esa es toda la diferencia entre una especie y otra. +Esto explica la mayora de los debates polticos contemporneos. +Pero mientras usted lo piensa, una de las cosas interesantes es lo pequeas que son estas mutaciones y dnde suceden. +La diferencia entre los humanos y el Neanderthal son el esperma y los testculos, el olor y la piel. +Y esos son los genes especficos que difieren de uno a otro. +Por lo tanto, cambios muy pequeos pueden tener un gran impacto. +Y mientras usted lo piensa, continuamos mutando. +Hace unos 10 000 aos, cerca del mar Negro, tuvimos una mutacin en un gen que condujo a los ojos azules. +Y esto sigue y sigue. +Y mientras esto sigue, una de las cosas que van a suceder este ao es que vamos a descubrir los primeros 10 000 genomas humanos, porque se ha vuelto bastante barato hacer la secuenciacin gentica. +Y cuando los encontremos, tal vez encontraremos diferencias. +Y por cierto, este no es un debate para el que estemos preparados porque le hemos dado un mal uso a la ciencia en esto. +En la dcada de 1920, pensbamos que haba grandes diferencias entre las personas. +En parte basados en el trabajo de Francis Galton, +que era primo de Darwin. +Pero en los Estados Unidos, el Instituto Carnegie, Stanford, la Asociacin Neurolgica Americana llevaron esto realmente lejos. +Se export y se le dio mal uso. +De hecho, esto llev a dar un trato absolutamente horrendo a seres humanos. +As, desde la dcada de 1940, hemos dicho que no hay diferencias, que todos somos iguales. +A finales de ao sabremos si eso es cierto. +Y mientras pensamos en ello, estamos empezando a encontrar cosas como: tiene Ud. un gen ECA? +Por qu importara? +Porque nunca nadie ha subido un pico de 8000 metros sin oxgeno que no tenga un gen ECA. +Y si desea ser ms especfico, qu tal un genotipo 577R? +Pues resulta que todos los atletas olmpicos varones examinados tienen al menos una de estas variantes. +Si eso es cierto, conduce a algunas preguntas muy complicadas para los Juegos Olmpicos de Londres. +3 opciones: Desea que los juegos olmpicos sean un escaparate para mutantes que trabajan duro? +Opcin nmero 2: Por qu no jugarlo como el golf o la vela? +Porque t tienes uno y t no tienes uno, te vamos a dar una dcima parte de ventaja inicial. +Versin nmero 3: Porque se trata de un gen natural y t lo tienes y t no escogiste a los padres correctos, tienes el derecho a actualizarte. +3 opciones diferentes. +Si estas desigualdades son la diferencia entre tener medalla olmpica o no tenerla. +Y resulta que mientras descubrimos estas cosas, a los seres humanos nos gusta cambiar cmo nos vemos, cmo actuamos, qu hacen nuestros cuerpos. +Y hemos tenido 10,2 millones de cirugas plsticas en los Estados Unidos, excepto que con las tecnologas que se desarrollan hoy en da, correcciones y eliminaciones actuales, aumentos y mejoras van a parecer un juego de nios. +Usted ya vio la obra de Tony Atala en TED, pero esta capacidad para comenzar a llenar cosas como los cartuchos de tinta con clulas nos permiten imprimir piel, rganos y toda una serie de otras partes del cuerpo. +Y conforme avanzan estas tecnologas, seguimos viendo esto, y esto, viendo estas cosas 2000, la secuencia del genoma humano y parece que no pasa nada, hasta que pasa. +Y podramos estar en una de esas semanas. +Eso es algo importante. +Por lo que unas van por un lado de la montaa, otras van por otro. +Y mientras eligen, stas se convierten en hueso, y entonces ellas eligen otro camino y se convierten en plaquetas, y estas se convierten en macrfagos, y estas se convierten en clulas T. +Pero una vez que se ha esquiado hacia abajo, es realmente difcil regresar. +A menos, claro, que tenga un telefrico. +Y lo que hacen esos 4 productos qumicos es tomar cualquier clula y llevarla de regreso a lo alto de la montaa para que pueda convertirse en cualquier parte del cuerpo. +Y mientras usted lo piensa, lo que significa es que, potencialmente, se puede reconstruir una copia completa de cualquier organismo a partir de cualquiera de sus clulas. +Eso resulta ser algo muy importante porque ahora se pueden tomar no solo clulas de ratn, sino clulas de piel humana y convertirlas en clulas madre humanas. +Y lo que hicieron en octubre fue tomar clulas de la piel, convertirlas en clulas madre y comenzar a convertirlas en clulas del hgado. +As que en teora, se podra hacer crecer cualquier rgano desde cualquiera de nuestras clulas. +He aqu un segundo experimento: si pudiera Ud. fotocopiar su cuerpo, tambin le gustara tomar su mente. +Y una de las cosas que vieron en TED hace un ao y medio fue a este tipo +que dio una charla tcnica maravillosa. +Es un profesor del MIT. +Pero en esencia lo que l dijo es que se pueden tomar retrovirus, que entran dentro de las clulas cerebrales de ratones. +Se puede etiquetarlos con protenas que se iluminan cuando usted los enciende. +Y se pueden trazar las rutas exactas cuando un ratn mira, siente, toca, recuerda, ama. +Y, despus, se puede tomar un cable de fibra ptica y encender algunas de las mismas cosas. +Y por cierto, mientras hacen esto, pueden imaginarlo en dos colores, lo que significa que se puede descargar esta informacin como cdigo binario directamente en un equipo. +Cul es la conclusin de eso? +Bien, no es completamente inconcebible que algn da puedan descargar sus propios recuerdos, tal vez en un nuevo cuerpo. +Y tal vez puedan subir los recuerdos de otras personas. +Y esto podra tener solo una o dos pequeas consecuencias ticas, polticas, morales. +Solo un pensamiento. +Estas son el tipo de preguntas que se vuelven interesantes para los filsofos, los gobernantes, los economistas, los cientficos. +Debido a que estas tecnologas estn cambiando muy rpidamente. +Y mientras usted lo piensa, permtanme concluir con un ejemplo del cerebro. +El primer lugar donde Ud. esperara ver una enorme presin evolutiva hoy, tanto debido a la entrada de informacin, que se est volviendo masiva, como a la plasticidad del rgano, es el cerebro. +Tenemos alguna evidencia de que eso est sucediendo? +Bien, echemos un vistazo a algo como la incidencia de autismo por mil. +As se ve en el ao 2000. +As se ve en el ao 2002, 2006 y 2008. +Este es el aumento en menos de una dcada. +Y todava no sabemos por qu est sucediendo. +Lo que s sabemos es que, potencialmente, el cerebro est reaccionando de una manera hiperactiva, hiperplstica y creando individuos que son como este. +Y esta es solo una de las condiciones que estn ah afuera. +Tambin hay gente que es extraordinariamente inteligente, personas que pueden recordar todo lo que han visto en sus vidas, personas que tienen sinestesia, gente que tiene esquizofrenia. +Hay todo tipo de cosas que pasan por ah, y todava no entendemos cmo ni por qu ocurren. +Pero algo que Ud. quisiera preguntar es: estamos viendo una rpida evolucin del cerebro y de cmo procesamos datos? +Porque cuando Ud. piensa cuntos datos entran a nuestros cerebros, estamos tratando de asimilar tanta cantidad de datos en un da como la gente sola hacerlo en toda una vida. +Y mientras piensa en ello, hay cuatro teoras respecto a por qu esto podra estar pasando, adems de muchas otras. +No tengo una buena respuesta. +Realmente se necesita investigar ms al respecto. +Una opcin es el fetiche de la comida rpida. +Est comenzando a verse evidencia de que la obesidad y la dieta tienen algo que ver con modificaciones de genes, lo que puede o no tener un impacto sobre cmo funciona el cerebro de un nio pequeo. +Una segunda opcin es la opcin del geek sexy. +Estas condiciones son muy raras. +Pero ya est sucediendo debido a que estos frikis se estn reuniendo, porque estn altamente calificados para programacin y eso es muy bien remunerado, as como otras tareas muy orientadas al detalle, es que se estn concentrando geogrficamente y estn encontrando compaeros afines. +As que esta es la hiptesis de apareamiento selectivo de estos genes que se refuerzan mutuamente en estas estructuras. +La tercera es: existe demasiada informacin? +Estamos tratando de procesar tanta cosas que algunas personas se vuelven sinestsicas y solo tienen enormes tubos que recuerdan todo. +Otras personas se vuelven hipersensibles a la cantidad de informacin. +Otras reaccionan con diversas condiciones psicolgicas o reacciones a esta informacin. +O quizs se trate de productos qumicos. +Pero cuando se ve un aumento de esa magnitud en una enfermedad, ya sea que no se est midiendo bien o algo est pasando muy rpidamente, y podra ser evolucin en tiempo real. +La idea final es esta. +Pienso que estamos haciendo una transicin como especie. +Y no pensaba as cuando Steve Gullans y yo comenzamos a escribir juntos. +Creo que estamos transformndonos en Homo evolutis que, para bien o para mal, no es solo un homnido que es consciente de su entorno, es un homnido que est empezando directa y deliberadamente a controlar la evolucin de su propia especie, de bacterias, de plantas, de animales. +Y creo que es tal el cambio de orden de magnitud que sus nietos o sus bisnietos podran ser una especie muy diferente a la de usted. +Muchas gracias. +Cuando asisto a fiestas, la gente no suele tardar mucho en descubrir que soy cientfica y mi campo de estudio es el sexo. +Y entonces me hacen preguntas. +Y stas tienen con frecuencia un formato muy particular. +Empiezan con la frase, "Un amigo me ha contado", y luego acaban con la frase, "esto es verdad?" +Y la mayora de las veces me alegra decir que puedo contestar esas preguntas, pero a veces tengo que responder, "Lo siento mucho, pero no lo s porque no soy ese tipo de doctor". +Es decir, no soy mdico, soy una biloga comparativa que estudia anatoma. +Y mi trabajo consiste en analizar cientos de especies animales e intentar averiguar cmo funcionan sus tejidos y rganos cuando todo funciona correctamente, ms que intentar averiguar la forma de arreglar las cosas cuando funcionan mal, como en el caso de muchos de ustedes. +Y lo que hago es buscar similitudes y diferencias en las soluciones que esos animales han desarrollado para resolver problemas biolgicos fundamentales. +Hoy estoy aqu para defender que esta investigacin no constituye en absoluto una actividad esotrica cual torre de marfil propia de universidades, sino que es una investigacin amplia y extensa de los distintos tipos de tejido y sistemas de rganos directas para la salud humana. +Y esto se ha demostrado tanto en mi reciente proyecto sobre las diferencias sexuales en el cerebro, como tambin en mi obra ms formada sobre la anatoma y funcin de los penes. +Ahora ya saben por qu soy la diversin de las fiestas. +Hoy voy a darles un ejemplo sacado de mi estudio sobre el pene para ensearles cmo el conocimiento, fruto del estudio de un aparato de un rgano ayud a entender otro aparato muy distinto. +Estoy segura de que todas las personas de esta sala saben -- yo misma se lo tuve que explicar a mi hijo de nueve aos la semana pasada -- que los penes son estructuras que transfieren esperma de un individuo a otro. +Y la diapositiva que tengo detrs apenas muestra por encima la diversidad que presentan en el mundo animal. +Existe un enorme grado de variacin anatmica. +Podemos encontrar tanto trompas musculares, piernas modificadas, como tambin ese cilindro mamfero, hinchable y carnoso que a todos nos resulta familiar, o al menos a la mitad de ustedes. +Y creo que encontramos esta tremenda variacin porque supone una solucin muy efectiva a un problema biolgico muy bsico, que es hacer llegar el esperma al lugar donde se encuentra con los vulos para formar cigotos. +Ahora bien, el pene no es estrictamente necesario para la fertilizacin interna, pero cuando sta evoluciona, los penes suelen seguir el mismo camino. +Y la pregunta que me hacen ms a menudo cuando hablo de esto es: "Qu hizo interesarte en esto?" +Y la respuesta es esqueletos. +No pensaran que el esqueleto y el pene tienen mucho que ver el uno con el otro. +Y eso es porque tendemos a pensar en los esqueletos como sistemas de palanca rgidos que producen velocidad o fuerza. +Y mis primeras incursiones en el campo de la biologa, estudiando paleontologa de los dinosaurios como universitaria, fueron encaminadas precisamente en esa direccin. +Pero cuando me gradu para estudiar biomecnica, estaba decidida a encontrar un proyecto final de carrera que ampliase nuestro conocimiento de la funcin esqueltica. +Lo intent con muchas ideas distintas. +Muchas de ellas no dieron resultado. +Pero de repente un da empec a pensar en el pene mamfero. +Y se trata de un tipo de estructura muy curioso. +Antes de que pueda utilizarse para la fertilizacin interna, su comportamiento mecnico tiene que cambiar de manera drstica. +Es un rgano flexible la mayor parte del tiempo. +Se dobla con facilidad. +Pero antes de que se ponga en funcionamiento durante la copulacin tiene que volverse rgido, tiene que ser complicado doblarlo. +Y adems, tiene que funcionar. +Un aparato reproductivo que no funciona da lugar a un individuo sin descendencia, y ese individuo queda entonces fuera del acervo gentico. +Y ah es cuando pens: "Aqu tenemos un problema que est pidiendo a gritos un sistema esqueltico" no un esqueleto como este sino uno como este y es que, funcionalmente, un esqueleto es cualquier sistema que aguanta tejido y transmite fuerzas. +Y yo ya saba que los animales como esta lombriz, de hecho la mayora de los animales, no aguantan sus tejidos colocndolos alrededor de huesos. +Son ms bien como globos de agua armados. +Utilizan un esqueleto llamado hidroesttico o hidroesqueleto. +Y un esqueleto hidroesttico funciona con dos elementos. +El soporte esqueltico es consecuencia de la interaccin entre un fludo presurizado y una pared de tejido circundante sujetada en tensin y reforzada con protenas fibrosas. +Y esta interaccin es crucial. +Sin ambos elementos no existe soporte. +Si tienes fluido sin la pared de tejido para rodearlo y mantener la presin, tienes un charco. +Y si slo tienes la pared sin fluido que mantenga la presin dentro de ella, tienes un pequeo trapo mojado. +Un pene visto en seccin transversal posee muchas de las partes distintivas de un esqueleto hidroesttico. +Tiene una seccin central de tejido erctil y esponjoso que se llena de fluido -- en este caso sangre -- rodeada por una pared de tejido rica en una protena estructural llamada colgeno. +Pero en el momento en que empec este proyecto, la mejor explicacin que pude encontrar para la ereccin fue que la pared rodeaba los tejidos esponjosos, estos tejidos se llenaban de sangre, la presin aumentaba y voil! Se pona erecto. +Y eso me hizo entender la expansin -- tena sentido: a ms fluido, los tejidos se expanden -- pero no explicaba realmente la ereccin. +Y es que no haba en esta explicacin ningn mecanismo que endureciese la estructura para no doblarse. +Y nadie haba estudiado la pared de tejido detenidamente. +As que pens, la pared de tejido debe ser importante para +los esqueletos. Tiene que ser parte de la explicacin. +Y ese fue el punto en el cual mi tutor de proyecto me dijo, "Mira! Espera. Tranquilzate" +Porque despus de que me pas seis meses hablando del tema, creo que por fin entendi que iba en serio con lo de los penes. +As que me hizo sentarme y me advirti. +Me dijo, "Ten cuidado si sigues por este camino. +No estoy seguro de que este proyecto vaya a salir bien". +Porque tena miedo de que me estuviese metiendo +en un callejn sin salida. Quera encargarme de una pregunta socialmente embarazosa con una respuesta que segn l poda no ser especialmente interesante. +Y la razn era que todos los hidroesqueletos que habamos encontrado hasta entonces en la naturaleza posean los mismos elementos bsicos. +Tenan el fluido central, la pared circundante y las fibras de refuerzo en ella estaban dispuestas en forma de hlices cruzadas alrededor del eje largo del esqueleto. +La imagen detrs de m muestra un trozo de tejido en uno de estos esqueletos de hlices cruzadas seccionado de manera que podemos ver la superficie de la pared. +La flecha muestra el eje largo. +Y pueden ver las dos capas de fibras, una en azul y otra en amarillo, dispuestas de izquierda a derecha y de derecha a izquierda. +Y si no estuvisemos mirando tan solo una pequea seccin de fibras, esas mismas fibras formaran hlices alrededor del eje largo del esqueleto, algo as como una trampa para dedos china, donde metes los dedos y se quedan atascados. +Estos esqueletos tienen un rango especfico de comportamientos que voy a demostrar en un video. +Se trata de la maqueta de un esqueleto que hice con un trozo de tela que envolv alrededor de un globo inflado. +La tela est cortada al sesgo. +Pueden ver cmo las fibras se enredan en hlices y pueden reorientarse conforme se mueve el esqueleto, lo que significa que el esqueleto es flexible. +Se alarga, se acorta y se dobla con increble facilidad en respuesta a fuerzas internas o externas. +La pregunta de mi tutor fue entonces y si la pared de tejido del pene es simplemente como cualquier otro esqueleto hidroesttico? +Qu vas a aportar? +Qu has descubierto que pueda contribuir a nuestro conocimiento de la biologa? +Y entonces pens: "Ah s que ha hecho una buena pregunta". +As que dediqu mucho, mucho tiempo a darle vueltas +a esa pregunta. Y haba algo que no poda quitarme de la cabeza era que, cuando estn en funcionamiento, los penes no se menean. +Algo interesante tena que estar ocurriendo. +As que segu adelante, reun pared de tejido, prepar el tejido de modo que estuviese erecto, lo seccion, lo puse en un portaobjetos de vidrio y luego lo coloqu en el microscopio para echar un vistazo, vida por ver hlices cruzadas de algn tipo. +Y en cambio fue esto lo que vi. +Existen dos capas, una exterior y una interior. +La flecha muestra el eje largo del esqueleto. +Esto me sorprendi muchsimo. +Todo aqul al que se lo ense se sorprendi muchsimo. +Por qu estaba todo el mundo tan sorprendido? +Pues porque todos sabamos que en teora haba otro modo de ordenacin de las fibras en un esqueleto hidroesttico y ese modo era con las fibras colocadas a 90 grados del eje largo de la estructura. +El caso es que nadie haba detectado algo as jams +en la naturaleza y ahora lo estaba mirando. +Las fibras con esa orientacin en concreto proporcionan al esqueleto un comportamiento muy diferente. +Voy a mostrar un modelo fabricado con los mismos materiales. +As que estar hecho de la misma tela de algodn, el mismo globo e idntica presin interna. +Aunque la nica diferencia es que las fibras estn dispuestas de una manera distinta. +Y vern que, a diferencia del modelo con las hlices cruzadas, este resiste la extensin, la contraccin y tambin resiste el doblado. +Y lo que esto nos muestra es que las paredes de tejido cumplen una funcin mucho ms complicada que simplemente cubrir el tejido vascular. +Son una pieza fundamental del esqueleto peniano. +Si esa pared que rodea el tejido erctil no estuviese ah, si no estuviese reforzada de esta manera, la forma cambiara, pero el pene hinchado no resistira el doblado, y la ereccin simplemente no funcionara. +Se trata de una observacin con obvias aplicaciones mdicas en humanos tambin, pero tambin es relevante en un sentido ms amplio, creo yo, al diseo de prtesis, robots flexibles, bsicamente cualquier cosa donde el cambio de forma y la rigidez sean importantes. +As que, en resumen: Hace 20 aos, uno de mis tutores me dijo, cuando fui a la universidad y le dije, "Estoy bastante interesada en anatoma" me contest, "La anatoma es una ciencia muerta". +No podra haber estado ms equivocado. +De verdad creo que an tenemos muchsimo por aprender acerca de la estructura y funcin bsicas de nuestros cuerpos. +No slo acerca de su gentica y biologa molecular, sino justo aqu, en el ltimo peldao de la escalera. +Hoy en da tenemos lmites. +Con frecuencia nos centramos en una enfermedad, un modelo, un problema, pero mi experiencia me dice que deberamos tomarnos el tiempo necesario para aplicar ideas abiertamente entre distintos sistemas y ver a dnde nos lleva el proceso. +Despus de todo, si el estudio de los esqueletos invertebrados puede ayudarnos a comprender los aparatos reproductivos mamferos, bien podran haber cientos de conexiones inexploradas ah fuera, acechando, esperando ser descubiertas. +Gracias. +Les tengo la respuesta a una pregunta que todos hemos hecho. +La pregunta es: por qu la letra X representa la incgnita? +S que aprendemos esto en clase de matemticas pero ahora est en todas partes en nuestra cultura: El premio X, los archivos X, Proyecto X, TEDx. +De dnde viene esto? +Hace unos seis aos decid aprender rabe, que resulta ser un lenguaje supremamente lgico. +Escribir una palabra, una frase o una oracin en rabe es como elaborar una ecuacin, ya que cada parte es extremadamente precisa y contiene mucha informacin. +Esta es una de las razones ms importantes por las que hemos llegado a pensar desarrollaron la ciencia occidental, las matemticas y la ingeniera en los primeros siglos de nuestra era. +Esto incluye al pequeo sistema llamado al-jebra en rabe. +Y al-jebra se traduce aproximadamente como sistema para reconciliar partes dispares. +Al-jebra finalmente lleg al ingls como algebra . +Un ejemplo entre muchos. +Los textos rabes que contienen esta sabidura matemtica finalmente llegaron a Europa es decir, a Espaa en los siglos XI y XII. +Y cuando llegaron hubo un gran inters en trasladar esa sabidura a un lenguaje europeo. +Pero haba problemas. +Un problema es que hay ciertos sonidos en rabe que simplemente no pueden producirse en las voces europeas sin una gran cantidad de prctica. +Cranme en esto. +Tambin, muchos de estos sonidos tienden a ser representados por caracteres que no existen en las lenguas europeas. +Aqu uno de los culpables. +Esta es la letra SHeen, que produce un sonido creemos como SH: sh. +Es la primera letra de la palabra shalan, que significa algo tal como en ingls la palabra something : algo indefinido, desconocido. +En rabe podemos hacer esto definido adicionando el artculo definido al. +As esto es al-shalan: la cosa desconocida. +Y esta es una palabra que aparece a lo largo de la primera matemtica, como en esta derivacin de races del siglo X. +El problema de los profesores medievales espaoles que tenan la tarea de traducir este material es que la letra SHeen y la palabra shalan no podan llevarse al espaol porque el espaol no tiene esta SH, este sonido sh. +Por convencin, crearon una regla por la que tomaron prestado el sonido CK, ck, del griego clsico en la forma de la letra Ji. +Ms tarde cuando este material se tradujo a la lengua comn europea, es decir, al latn simplemente reemplazaron la griega Ji por la X latina. +Y una vez que esto pas, una vez que el material estuvo en latn, fue el fundamento de los textos de matemticas por cerca de 600 aos. +Pero ahora les tengo la respuesta a nuestra pregunta. +Por qu la X es la incgnita? +X es la incgnita porque no se puede decir sh en espaol. +Y pens que vala la pena compartir esto. +Me dedico a estudiar bacterias +y voy a mostrarles unas imgenes de animacin en volumen que he montado recientemente en las que se observa cmo estas bacterias acumulan minerales de su medio ambiente por un perodo de una hora. +Lo que vemos aqu es a las bacterias que metabolizan y al hacerlo crean una carga elctrica +que atrae los metales del medio ambiente. +Y estos metales se acumulan como minerales en la superficie de las bacterias. +Actualmente, uno de los problemas ms generalizados de la gente es la falta de acceso al agua potable. +Y el proceso de desalinizacin, por medio del cual se retira la sal, +es el que permite que la usemos para el consumo y la agricultura. +La eliminacin de la sal del agua en particular del agua de mar por medio de la smosis inversa es una tcnica fundamental para los pases que no tienen acceso al agua potable. +As, la smosis inversa del agua de mar es una tecnologa de filtracin por membranas. +Tomamos el agua del mar y aplicamos presin. +Y esta presin fuerza el paso del agua de mar a travs de una membrana. +Esto gasta energa y produce el agua potable, +pero tambin deja una solucin salina concentrada o salmuera. +Pero el proceso es muy caro y resulta demasiado costoso para muchos pases del mundo. +Y tambin, la salmuera que se produce a menudo simplemente se bombea de regreso al mar. +Y esto es perjudicial para la ecologa de la zona martima hacia donde se bombea. +Actualmente trabajo en Singapur, que es uno de los lugares lderes en tecnologa de desalinizacin. +De aqu al 2060, Singapur propone producir [900] millones de litros diarios de agua desalinizada. +Pero esto va a producir una cantidad igual de grande de salmuera de desalinizacin. +Y es aqu donde entra en juego mi trabajo con las bacterias. +Lo que estamos haciendo en este momento es recolectar minerales como el calcio, el potasio y el magnesio de la salmuera de desalinizacin. +Y esto, en trminos de magnesio y la cantidad de agua que acabo de mencionar, equivale a una industria minera de USD 4500 millones en Singapur, un lugar que no tiene recursos naturales. +As que me gustara que se imaginen una industria minera diferente de las que han existido antes; imagnense una industria minera que no profane el planeta; imagnense que unas bacterias nos ayuden a lograrlo mediante la acumulacin, precipitacin y sedimentacin de minerales de la salmuera de desalinizacin. +Lo que se puede ver aqu es el comienzo de una industria en un tubo de ensayo, una industria minera que est en armona con la naturaleza. +Gracias. +Hoy voy a presentarles tres ejemplos de diseo icnico, y tiene mucho sentido que sea yo el que lo haga porque tengo una licenciatura en Literatura. +Pero tambin soy una conocida figura secundaria de televisin y un vido coleccionista de catlogos Design Within Reach, as que ms o menos s lo que hay que saber. +Ahora, estoy seguro de que reconocen este objeto; muchos de ustedes probablemente lo vieron cuando aterrizaban sus zepelines privados en el Aeropuerto Internacional de Los ngeles estos ltimos das. +Se le conoce como el Theme Building, ese es su nombre por razones que siguen siendo bastante turbias. +Y es quizs el mejor ejemplo que tenemos en Los ngeles de la arquitectura extraterrestre antigua. +Se cree que haya reemplazado los puertos espaciales ms antiguos situados, por supuesto, en Stonehenge y se le considera como un gran avance gracias a su diseo ordenado, a la falta de druidas rondando todo el tiempo y, obviamente, al mejor acceso a los estacionamientos. +Cuando se descubri, marc el comienzo de una nueva era de diseo moderno arcaicamente futurista llamada Googie, que se convirti en sinnimo de la Era del jet, un nombre inapropiado. +Despus de todo, los antiguos astronautas que lo usaban no viajaban en jet con mucha frecuencia, sino que preferan transportarse en serpientes emplumadas impulsadas por calaveras de cristal. +Ah, s, una mesa. +Las usamos todos los das. +Y sobre ella, el Juicy Salif. +Este es un diseo de Philippe Starck, que creo que est entre el pblico en este momento. +Y se dan cuenta de que es un diseo de Starck por su precisin, desenfado, innovacin y garanta de violencia inminente. +Es un diseo que va contra toda intuicin; no es lo que parece a primera vista. +No es un tenedor diseado para coger tres aperitivos a la vez, cosa que sera til en el vestbulo, dira yo. +Y a pesar de la evidente influencia de los antiguos astronautas y su evocacin de la era espacial y sus tres patas, no es un objeto diseado para pegarse a su cerebro y succionar sus pensamientos. +En realidad es un exprimidor y siempre que digo eso, ya no lo vuelven a ver como otra cosa. +Tampoco es un monumento al diseo, es un monumento a la utilidad del diseo. +Pueden llevrselo a casa, a diferencia del Theme Building, que siempre permanecer donde est. +Es asequible y pueden llevrselo a casa, y, de ese modo, ponerlo en la encimera de su cocina no puede ir en los cajones; cranme, lo descubr a las malas y transformar la encimera en un monumento al diseo. +Otra cosa acerca de este objeto es que si tienen uno en casa, djenme que les comente una cualidad que tal vez no sepan: Cuando se quedan dormidos, cobra vida y camina por la casa, les revisa el correo y los observa mientras duermen. +OK, qu es este objeto? +No tengo ni idea. No s qu es esa cosa. +Es horrible. Es una pequea placa calefactora? +No capto la idea. +Alguien lo sabe? Chi? +Es un... iPhone. iPhone. +Ah s, los recuerdo; los us para renovar las baldosas del bao en los viejos tiempos. +No, tengo un iPhone. Claro que s. +Este es mi amado iPhone. +Hago muchas cosas con este pequeo dispositivo. +Me gusta leer libros en l. +Es ms, me gusta usarlo para comprar libros que nunca me siento culpable por no leer porque los tengo aqu dentro y no los vuelvo a mirar y es perfecto. +Lo uso todos los das para calcular el peso de un buey, por ejemplo. +De vez en cuando, lo admito, lo uso para hacer llamadas. +Y a pesar de todo, se me olvida todo el tiempo. +Este es un diseo que una vez que lo ven, se les olvida. +Es fcil olvidar esa sensacin de asombro que se produjo en 2007 cuando por primera vez tocaron este objeto porque se difundi demasiado rpido y por la inmediatez con que adoptamos estos gestos y lo convertimos en una extensin de nuestra vida. +A diferencia del Theme Building, esta no es la tecnologa aliengena. +O mejor dicho, lo que hizo fue tomar la tecnologa que, a diferencia de la gente en esta sala, para muchas otras personas del mundo sigue siendo muy ajena, y la hizo inmediata e instantneamente ntima y familiar. +Y a diferencia del Juicy Salif, no amenaza con pegarse a su cerebro, sino que simplemente se pega a su cerebro. +Y ni siquiera se dieron cuenta que as pas. +Pues ya est. Mi nombre es John Hodgeman. +Acabo de explicar el diseo. +Muchas gracias. +Siempre quise convertirme en un laboratorio ambulante de compromiso social, para hacerme eco de los sentimientos, pensamientos, intenciones y motivaciones de otras personas al estar con ellas. +Como cientfico, siempre quise medir esa repercusin, ese sentido del otro que sucede tan rpido, en un abrir y cerrar de ojos. +Intuimos los sentimientos de otras personas. +Sabemos el significado de sus acciones incluso antes de que sucedan. +Siempre estamos en esa posicin de ser objeto de la subjetividad de otro. +Siempre lo hacemos. No podemos dejarlo de lado. +Es tan importante que las herramientas usadas para entendernos, para entender el mundo alrededor de ellos, est determinado por esa posicin. +Somos sociales hasta la mdula. +Mi viaje en el autismo comenz cuando viva en una unidad residencial para adultos con autismo. +La mayora de esos individuos haba pasado la mayor parte de su vida en hospitales para enfermos de larga duracin. De esto hace mucho tiempo. +Y para ellos, el autismo era devastador. +Tenan profundas discapacidades intelectuales. +No hablaban. Pero por sobre todo, estaban extremadamente aislados del mundo a su alrededor, de su ambiente y de la gente. +De hecho, en ese momento, si uno entraba a una escuela para individuos con autismo, se escuchaba mucho ruido, mucho alboroto, acciones, gente haciendo cosas, pero siempre de forma individual. +Pueden estar mirando la luz en el techo, o estar aislados en una esquina, o tal vez envueltos en estos movimientos repetitivos, en movimientos autoestimulantes que no los llevan a ningn lado. +Muy, muy aislados. +Ahora sabemos que el autismo es esta alteracin, la alteracin de esta resonancia de la que les hablo. +Son habilidades de supervivencia. +Habilidades que heredamos durante muchos, cientos de miles de aos de evolucin. +Como vern, los bebs nacen en un estado de extrema fragilidad. +Sin alguien que les cuide, no sobreviviran, por lo que parece lgico que la naturaleza los dotara de estos mecanismos de supervivencia. +Ellos se dirigen al cuidador. +Desde los primeros das y semanas de vida, los bebs prefieren escuchar sonidos humanos en vez solo sonidos del ambiente. +Prefieren mirar a la gente en vez de mirar cosas, e incluso mientras miran a la gente, miran a los ojos, porque el ojo es la ventana a las experiencias de la otra persona, tanto es as que prefieren mirar a gente que los est mirando y no a quienes no lo hacen. +Bien, se dirigen al cuidador o cuidadora. +Quien cuida al beb, lo busca +Y es de esta coreografa de refuerzo mutuo de gran importancia para que aflore la mente, depende la mente social, el cerebro social. +Siempre pensamos sobre el autismo como algo que sucede en una edad ms avanzada. +Pero no. Comienza con el principio de la vida. +Cuando los bebs se involucran con quienes les cuidan, pronto se dan cuenta de que hay algo entre las orejas que es muy importante, es invisible, no lo puedes ver, pero es crucial y se llama atencin. +Y pronto aprenden, incluso antes de emitir una palabra, que pueden atraer esa atencin y moverse para tener las cosas que quieren. +Tambin aprenden a seguir la mirada de la gente, porque lo que sea que la gente est mirando es sobre lo que est pensando. +Esos son significados que son adquiridos como parte de sus experiencias compartidas con otros. +Esta es una nia de 15 meses, y tiene autismo. +Y me estoy acercando tanto a ella que tal vez estoy a 5 cm de su cara, y ella me ignora por completo. +Imagnense si les hubiera hecho eso a Uds., y me acercara a 5 cm de su cara. +Seguramente haran dos cosas, no es as? +Retrocederan. Llamaran a la polica. Haran algo, porque es literalmente imposible invadir el espacio fsico de alguien y no tener una reaccin. +Recuerden, lo hacemos por intuicin, sin esfuerzo. +Esta es la sabidura de nuestro cuerpo. No es algo que est mediado por nuestro lenguaje. Nuestro cuerpo simplemente lo sabe, y lo hemos sabido por mucho tiempo. +Y esto no es algo que le sucede solo a los humanos. +Les sucede a algunos de nuestros primos filticos, porque si eres un mono, y miras a otro mono, y ese mono tiene una posicin jerrquica ms alta que t, y eso se considera una seal de amenaza, no vivirs por mucho tiempo. +Lo que en otras especies son mecanismos de supervivencia, sin ellos no viviran, los traemos al contexto de los seres humanos, y esto es lo que necesitamos: actuar, actuar socialmente. +Bien, ella me ignora, y estoy tan cerca, y Uds. piensan que quiz no me puede ver, o no me puede escuchar. +Minutos despus, se va a la esquina de la habitacin, y encuentra una pequea golosina, un M&M. +No pude atraer su atencin, pero algo, un objeto, lo hizo. +Muchos de nosotros establecemos una gran dicotoma entre el mundo de las cosas y el mundo de las personas. +Para esta nia, esa lnea divisoria no es tan clara, y no le atrae el mundo de las personas tanto como quisiramos. +Recuerden que aprendemos mucho al compartir experiencias. +Lo que ella hace ahora es bifurcar su camino de aprendizaje a cada instante al aislarse cada vez ms. +A veces sentimos que el cerebro es determinista, que define quines seremos. +Pero de hecho, el cerebro tambin se convierte en lo que somos, y al tiempo que su comportamiento se aleja del campo de la interaccin social, esto es lo que sucede con su mente y esto lo que sucede con su cerebro. +El autismo es el trastorno gentico ms severa de todos los trastornos del desarrollo, y es un trastorno cerebral. +Es un trastorno que comienza mucho antes del nacimiento del nio. +Ahora sabemos que hay un amplio espectro de autismo. +Hay individuos que estn totalmente incapacitados intelectualmente, pero hay otros superdotados. +Hay individuos que no hablan en absoluto, +y otros que hablan mucho. +Hay a quienes si los observas en su escuela, los ves corriendo por la cerca de la escuela todo el da si se les permite, y los que no paran de acercarse a ti y tratan de involucrarte repetidamente, incansablemente, pero siempre de una manera extraa, sin esa resonancia inmediata. +Esto sucede mucho ms frecuentemente de lo que pensbamos. +Cuando empec en este campo, pensamos que haba cuatro individuos por cada 10 000 con autismo, una afeccin muy rara. +Ahora sabemos que hay 1 por cada 100. +Hay millones de individuos con autismo a nuestro alrededor. +El costo social de este trastorno es enorme. +Solo en los EE.UU. de 35 a 80 mil millones de dlares, y saben? Muchos de esos fondos se asocian con adolescentes y, en especial, adultos que son discapacitados en su mayora, individuos que necesitan servicios integrales, servicios que son muy, muy intensivos, y esos servicios pueden costar de 60 a 80 000 dlares al ao. +Son personas que no se beneficiaron de tratamiento a tiempo, porque ahora sabemos que el autismo se crea a s mismo conforme se bifurca ese camino de aprendizaje que les mencion. +Si furamos capaces de identificar este trastorno a tiempo, intervenir y tratar, puedo decirles, y esto seguramente fue algo que cambi mi vida en los ltimos 10 aos, que podemos mitigar absolutamente este trastorno. +Tambin, tenemos una gama de oportunidades, porque el cerebro es maleable por un tiempo, y esa oportunidad se da en los primeros tres aos de vida. +No es que esa posibilidad se cierre. No es as. +Pero disminuye considerablemente. +Siento que tenemos un imperativo biotico. +Esta es nuestra visin sobre el autismo. +Hay ms de 100 genes asociados con el autismo. De hecho, creemos que habr entre 300 y 600 genes asociados con el autismo, y anomalas genticas, ms all de los genes. +Y tenemos una pequea pregunta, porque si hay tantas causas diferentes de autismo, cmo se va de esos impedimentos al sndrome en s? Porque gente como yo, cuando entramos a una sala de juegos, reconocemos a un chico que tiene autismo. +Cmo se va de causas mltiples a un sndrome que tiene cierta homogeneidad? +Y la respuesta es lo que est en medio, que es el desarrollo. +Y de hecho, estamos muy interesados en esos primeros dos aos de vida, porque esos impedimentos no necesariamente se convierten en autismo. +El autismo se autogenera. +Si furamos capaces de intervenir durante esos aos de vida, tal vez disminuiramos para algunos, y quin sabe, tal vez incluso prevendramos a otros. +Entonces, cmo lo hacemos? +Cmo entramos en ese sentimiento de resonancia, cmo entramos en el ser de otra persona? +Recuerdo cuando interactuaba con esa nia de 15 meses, que lo que se me vino a la mente fue: "Cmo entras en su mundo? +Est pensando en m? Est pensando en otros?" +Bueno, es difcil hacerlo, por lo que tuvimos que crear la tecnologa. Bsicamente, tenamos que adentrarnos en un cuerpo. +Tenamos que ver el mundo a travs de sus ojos. +Y en los ltimos aos, estuvimos construyendo estas nuevas tecnologas que se basan en el seguimiento ocular. +Podemos ver a cada momento en lo que se involucran los nios. +Lo que queremos es tomar ese mundo y traerlo a nuestro laboratorio, pero para poder hacerlo, tuvimos que crear estas medidas muy sofisticadas, medidas sobre cmo la gente, los bebs, los recin nacidos, se involucran con el mundo, a cada instante, lo que es importante y lo que no lo es. +Creamos esas medidas, y aqu, ven lo que llamamos un embudo de atencin. +Ven un video. +Esos fotogramas tienen un intervalo de un segundo a travs de los ojos de 35 nios de dos aos en desarrollo, y congelamos un fotograma, y esto es lo que los nios tpicos hacen. +En este escaneo, en verde, hay nios de dos aos con autismo. +En ese fotograma, los nios normales estn viendo esto, la expresin de emocin de ese nio pequeo mientras pelea con la nia. +Qu hacen los nios con autismo? +Estn concentrados en la puerta giratoria, abrindose y cerrndose. +Bien, puedo decirles que esta variacin que ven aqu no sucede solo en nuestro experimento de 5 minutos. +Sucede a cada instante en sus vidas reales, y sus mentes se van formando, y sus cerebros se especializan en algo distinto a lo que pasa con sus pares normales. +Tomamos un concepto de nuestros amigos pediatras, el concepto de tablas de crecimiento. +Es decir, cuando llevan a un nio al pediatra, y tienen su altura y peso. +Empiezan por aqu, aman los ojos de las personas, y se mantiene bastante estable. +Sube un poco en esos meses iniciales. +Ahora, veamos qu sucede con bebs que se volvieron autistas. +Es algo muy diferente. +Empieza por aqu arriba, pero despus es una cada libre. +Es como si hubieran trado a este mundo el reflejo que los gua a las personas, pero sin traccin. +Es como si ese estmulo, t, no ejerciera influencia en lo que sucede mientras navegan en su cotidianidad. +Pensamos que esos datos eran tan significativos en cierto modo, que queramos ver qu pasaba en los primeros seis meses de vida, porque si interactuamos con un nio de dos y tres meses de edad, estaran sorprendidos de lo sociables que son. +Y lo que vemos en los primeros seis meses de vida es que esos dos grupos pueden separarse fcilmente. +Y usando este tipo de medidas, y muchas otras, lo que descubrimos es que, de hecho, nuestra ciencia podra identificar esta afeccin mucho antes. +No tuvimos que esperar que el comportamiento autista se manifestara en el segundo ao de vida. +Si medimos cosas que son, evolutivamente, altamente preservadas, y surgen muy temprano en el desarrollo, cosas que estn presentes desde las primeras semanas de vida, podramos llevar la deteccin del autismo a esos primeros meses, y eso es lo que hacemos ahora. +Podemos crear las mejores tecnologas y los mejores mtodos para identificar a los nios, pero esto no servira para nada si no tuviramos un impacto en la realidad de su comunidad. +Ahora queremos, por supuesto, que esos aparatos los utilicen aquellos que estn en la trinchera, nuestros colegas, los mdicos de atencin primaria, que ven a cada nio, y necesitamos transformar esas tecnologas en algo que agregar valor a su prctica, porque tienen que ver a muchos nios. +Y queremos hacer eso de manera universal as no perdemos a ningn nio, pero esto sera inmoral si no tuviramos infraestructura para intervenir, para el tratamiento. +Necesitamos poder trabajar con las familias, apoyarlas, gestionar esos primeros aos con ellos. Debemos poder ir de la revisin universal, al acceso al tratamiento universal, porque esos tratamientos van a cambiar las vidas de estos nios y sus familias. +Cuando pensamos en lo que podemos hacer en esos primeros aos, puedo decirles, al haber estado en este campo por tanto tiempo, que uno se siente revitalizado. +Hay un sentimiento de que la ciencia en la que uno trabaj puede tener un impacto en la realidad, previniendo esas experiencias que empec en mi camino en este campo. +En ese entonces pensaba que esta era una afeccin intratable. +Ya no es as. Podemos hacer muchas cosas. +Y la idea no es curar el autismo. +Esa no es la idea. +Lo que queremos es asegurar que esos individuos con autismo pueden liberarse de las consecuencias devastadoras que suelen devenir, las discapacidades intelectuales severas, la falta de lenguaje, y el profundo, profundo aislamiento. +Sentimos que los individuos con autismo, tienen una perspectiva muy especial del mundo, y necesitamos diversidad, y ellos pueden trabajar muy bien en algunas reas de fortaleza: situaciones predecibles, situaciones que pueden definirse. +Porque despus de todo, aprenden sobre el mundo casi como l, en vez de aprender cmo funcionar en l. +Pero esta es una fortaleza, si se trabaja, por ejemplo, en tecnologa. +Y estos individuos son los que tienen habilidades artsticas increbles. +Queremos liberarlos de eso. +Queremos que la prxima generacin de individuos con autismo sean capaces no solo de expresar sus fortalezas sino de cumplir su promesa. +Muchas gracias por escucharme. +Como la mayora de periodistas, soy una idealista. +Me encantan las buenas historias descubiertas, especialmente +las que no se cuentan. No pens que, en 2011, las mujeres an estaran en esa categora. +Soy la presidente del Simposio de Periodismo y Mujeres, +JAWS (en ingls, mandbula). Eso es tiburonezco. Me un hace 10 aos porque quera modelos de roles femeninos, y estaba frustrada por el estado retrasado de las mujeres en nuestra profesin, y lo que eso significaba para nuestra imagen en los medios. +Constituimos la mitad de la poblacin mundial, pero somos solo el 24 % de los temas de noticia citados en historias informativas, +y somos solo el 20 % de expertos citados en las historias, +y ahora, con la tecnologa de hoy, es posible sacar a las mujeres por completo del panorama. +Esta es una foto del presidente Barack Obama y sus consejeros siguiendo la muerte de Osama bin Laden. +Pueden ver a Hillary Clinton a la derecha. +Veamos cmo se public la foto en un peridico judo ortodoxo con sede en Brooklyn. +Hillary desapareci por completo. +El peridico se disculp pero dijo que nunca publica fotos de mujeres. Pueden ser sexualmente provocativas. Este es un caso extremo, s... Pero la cuestin es que las mujeres son solo el 19 % de las fuentes en historias de poltica, y solo el 20 % en historias sobre economa. +Las noticias continan dndonos una imagen donde los hombres sobrepasan a las mujeres en casi todas las categoras laborales, excepto dos: estudiantes y amas de casa. Todos recibimos una imagen muy distorsionada de la realidad. +El problema es, por supuesto, que no hay suficientes mujeres en salas de prensa. +Informaron solo el 37% de historias impresas, en TV y radio. +Incluso en historias sobre violencia de gnero, los hombres tienen una mayora apabullante de espacio impreso y tiempo al aire. +Un buen ejemplo, en marzo, el New York Times public una historia por James McKinley acerca de la violacin de una nia, 11 aos, en un pequeo pueblo de Texas. +McKinley escribe que la comunidad se pregunta, "Cmo pudieron sus chicos ser llevados a esto?" +"Llevados a esto", como si hubieran sido seducidos a cometer un acto de violencia. +Y la primera persona que cita dice: "Estos chicos van a tener que vivir con esto el resto de sus vidas". +(El pblico reacciona) No se ve mucho sobre la vctima de 11 aos, salvo que usaba ropas que eran un poco viejas para ella y que tena maquillaje. +El Times recibi un aluvin de crticas. +En un principio, se defendi y dijo: "Estas no son nuestras opiniones. +Esto es lo que encontramos en nuestra cobertura informativa". +Aqu va un secreto que seguramente ya saben: Sus historias se construyen. +Como reporteros, nosotros investigamos, entrevistamos. +Tratamos de dar una buena imagen de la realidad. +Tambin tenemos nuestro propio sesgo inconsciente, +pero el Times hace que parezca como si cualquiera hubiera publicado esta historia de la misma manera. +No estoy de acuerdo con eso. +Tres semanas despus, el Times revisa la historia. +Esta vez, agrega otra firma con la de McKinley: Erica Goode. +Lo que surge es una historia verdaderamente triste y espantosa de una nia y su familia atrapadas en la pobreza. +Fue violada numerosas veces por muchos hombres. +Haba sido una nia brillante y de buen trato. +Estaba madurando rpido, fsicamente, pero su cama todava estaba cubierta con animales de peluche. +Es una imagen muy distinta. +Tal vez el agregado de la seorita Goode es lo que hace esta historia ms completa. +El Proyecto de Monitoreo Global de Medios encontr que las historias escritas por periodistas femeninas son ms propensas a desafiar estereotipos que aquellas de periodistas masculinos. +En KUNM aqu en Albuquerque, Elaine Baumgartel hizo investigaciones sobre la cobertura de la violencia contra las mujeres. +Lo que encontr fue que muchas de estas historias tienden a culpar a las vctimas y subestimar sus vidas. +Recurren al sensacionalismo, y les falta contexto. +Para su trabajo de graduacin, hizo una serie de tres partes sobre el asesinato de 11 mujeres que fueron encontradas enterradas en West Mesa, Albuquerque. Ella trat de desafiar aquellos patrones y estereotipos +en su trabajo, y trat de mostrar los desafos que enfrentan los periodistas, de fuentes externas, de su propio sesgo interno, y de normas culturales, +y trabaj con un editor de Radio Pblica Nacional para tratar de publicar a nivel nacional una historia. +Ella no est segura de que eso habra pasado si la editora no hubiera sido una mujer. +Es ms probable que las historias en las noticias presenten al doble de mujeres como vctimas que a hombres, y las mujeres son ms propensas a ser definidas por sus partes del cuerpo. +Revista Wired, noviembre 2010. +S, la edicin era sobre ingeniera del tejido mamario. +Bien, s que estn todos distrados, as que lo voy a quitar. La mirada ac. Bien... Esta es la cuestin. Wired casi nunca pone a mujeres en su portada. +Ha habido algunos engaosos. Pam de la serie The Office. Chicas Manga. Una modelo voluptuosa cubierta con diamantes sintticos. +La profesora Cindy Royal de la Universidad Estatal de Texas se preguntaba en su blog: "Cmo se supone que deberan sentirse las mujeres jvenes, como sus estudiantes, acerca de su rol en tecnologa, al leer Wired?" +Chris Anderson, editor de Wired, defendi su decisin y dijo, no hay suficientes mujeres, mujeres importantes en la tecnologa para vender una portada, una edicin. +Parte de eso es cierto. No hay muchas mujeres importantes en la tecnologa. +Aqu est mi problema con ese argumento. Los medios nos dicen a diario lo que es importante, con las historias que eligen y en dnde las ubican. Se llama 'orden del da'. +Cunta gente conoca a los fundadores de Facebook y Google antes de que sus caras aparecieran en la portada de una revista? +Ponerlos ah los hizo ms reconocibles. +La revista Fast Company adopta esa idea. +Esta es su cartula del 15 de noviembre de 2010. +La edicin es acerca de las mujeres ms importantes e influyentes en tecnologa. +El editor Robert Safian le dijo al Instituto Poynter: "Silicon Valley es muy blanco y muy masculino, +pero no es as como Fast Company piensa que se ver el mundo de los negocios en el futuro, por lo que trata de dar una imagen de hacia dnde se est moviendo el mundo globalizado". +Por cierto, aparentemente Wired se tom esto muy a pecho. +Esta fue su edicin en abril. Ese es Limor Fried, el fundador de Industrias Adafruit, en la pose de 'Rosie the Riveter'. +Ayudara tener ms mujeres en posiciones de liderazgo +en los medios. Una encuesta global reciente encontr que el 73 % de los mandos altos en empleos de gerencia de medios son ocupadas por hombres. +Pero esto es acerca de algo mucho ms complicado: nuestro propio sesgo inconsciente y puntos ciegos. +Shankar Vedantam es el autor de "El cerebro escondido: Cmo nuestras mentes inconscientes eligen presidentes, controlan mercados, desatan guerras y salvan nuestras vidas". Le dijo al anterior defensor del pueblo +en Radio Pblica Nacional, que estaba haciendo un reportaje sobre cmo les va a las mujeres en cobertura de RPN, que el sesgo inconsciente fluye a lo largo de nuestra vida. +Es muy difcil liberarse de esas tendencias. +Pero l tena una recomendacin. +Sola trabajar para dos editores que dijeron que cada historia deba tener al menos una fuente femenina. +Al principio se neg, pero dijo que al final sigui la directiva alegremente porque sus historias mejoraron y su trabajo se hizo ms fcil. +No s si uno de los editores era una mujer, pero eso puede hacer grandes diferencias. +Este es un punto importante para considerar, porque mucha de nuestra poltica internacional gira en torno a pases donde el trato a las mujeres es un problema, como en Afganistn. +Lo que nos dicen como argumentos en contra de abandonar este pas es que el destino de las mujeres es primordial. +Estoy segura de que un periodista en Kabul puede encontrar mujeres +para entrevistar. No estoy segura si en reas rurales, tradicionales, donde supongo que las mujeres no pueden hablar con hombres extraos. +Es importante seguir hablando de esto teniendo en cuenta a Lara Logan. +Ella era corresponsal de CBS News y fue brutalmente abusada sexualmente en la plaza Tahrir en Egipto justo despus de ser tomada esta foto. +Casi de inmediato, los comentaristas intervinieron culpndola y diciendo cosas como: "Saben, tal vez no hay que mandar a mujeres a cubrir estas historias". +Nunca escuch a alguien decir esto sobre Anderson Cooper y su equipo que fue atacado mientras cubran la misma historia. +Una manera de tener ms mujeres en posiciones de liderazgo es tener otras mujeres que las orienten. +Una de los miembros de mi junta es editora en una gran compaa mundial de medios, pero nunca pens sobre esto como una carrera profesional hasta que encontr modelos de rol femenino +en JAWS. Pero este no es solo un trabajo para superperiodistas, o mi organizacin. Todos tienen participacin en medios +fuertes y dinmicos. +Analicen sus noticias, y den su opinin cuando haya huecos en la cobertura como lo hizo la gente del New York Times. +Sugieran fuentes femeninas a reporteros y editores. +Recuerden, una imagen completa de la realidad +puede depender de eso. Y los dejo con un video clip que vi por primera vez en 2007 cuando era estudiante en Londres. +Es para el diario The Guardian. +Es incluso mucho antes de que pensara acerca de ser periodista, pero estaba muy interesada en cmo aprendemos a percibir nuestro mundo. +Narrador: Un evento visto desde un ngulo brinda una impresin. +Visto desde otro ngulo, brinda una impresin muy distinta. +Pero solo cuando pueden ver toda la imagen pueden entender por completo lo que est sucediendo. +"The Guardian" Megan Kamerick: Creo que todos estarn de acuerdo que estaramos mejor si todos tuviramos la imagen completa. +No soy diseador, no, para nada. +Mi pap s lo era, o sea que tuve una infancia interesante. +Tuve que descubrir qu haca pap y por qu era importante. +Pap hablaba mucho del mal diseo cuando ramos pequeos; "John, hay mal diseo porque la gente no piensa", sola decir si algn nio se daaba con una cortadora de csped o si se enredaba la cinta de una mquina de escribir o si la batidora de huevos se atascaba en la cocina. +Ya saben, "el mal diseo es injustificable". +Es dejar que las cosas ocurran sin prestarles atencin. +Cada objeto debera ser para algo, John. +Debera imaginarse a un usuario. +Debera proyectarse al usuario como protagonista de una historia con el objeto. +"El buen diseo", deca pap, "denota intencin". +Eso deca. +Pap ayud a disear los paneles de control de la IBM 360. +Fue algo grande, algo importante. Trabaj un tiempo en Kodak; eso fue importante. +Dise sillas, escritorios y otros muebles de oficina para Steelcase; eso fue importante. +Saba que el diseo era importante en mi casa porque, santo cielo, supona el pan, no? +En todo lo que haca pap haba diseo. +l tena una banda de jazz tipo Dixieland cuando ramos pequeos y sola interpretar canciones de Louis Armstrong. +Y cada tanto yo sola preguntarle: "Pap, quieres que suene como el disco?" +Tenamos muchos discos de jazz por toda la casa. +Y dijo: "No, nunca John, nunca. +La cancin es algo dado, tienes que verlo de ese modo. +Pero tienes que hacer la tuya propia. Tienes que disearla. +Muestra a todos tu propsito", es lo que dijo. +"Hacerlo, actuar por diseo, es algo que todos deberamos hacer. +Es nuestra seal de identidad". +Todos? Los diseadores? +Oh, oh, pap. Oh, pap. +La cancin es algo dado. +Lo que importa es tu interpretacin. +Bueno, quedmonos con ese pensamiento un minuto. +Es como esta silla de ruedas, cierto? +La cancin original? Da un poco de miedo. +"Ooh, qu le pas a ese tipo? +No puede caminar. Alguien sabe la historia? +Alguien?" +No me gusta mucho hablar de este tema, pero hoy les contar la historia. +Bien, esta semana se cumplen exactamente 36 aos; iba en un auto mal diseado que choc contra una valla mal diseada por un camino mal diseado de Pensilvania, ca por un terrapln de 60 metros y murieron dos personas del auto. +Desde entonces, la silla de ruedas ha sido una constante en mi vida. +Mi vida qued a merced del buen y el mal diseo. +Pinsenlo. Ahora, en materia de diseo, la silla de ruedas es un objeto muy difcil. +Sobre todo proyecta tragedia, miedo y desgracia; proyecta tan fuertemente ese mensaje, esa historia, que casi eclipsa cualquier otra cosa. +Me muevo rpidamente en un aeropuerto, cierto? +Las madres quitan del camino a sus hijos y dicen: "No mires!" +El pobre nio, ya saben, con esa mirada de terror en su rostro, sabe Dios lo que piensa. +Durante dcadas me preguntaba: Por qu pasa esto? Qu puedo hacer al respecto? Cmo cambiarlo? Deba haber una forma. +Pasar desapercibido, sin mirar a los ojos, frunciendo el ceo? +Vestirme con mucha elegancia o algo as? +Mirando a los ojos a todo el mundo? No, eso sera pavoroso; no funcionara en absoluto. +Saben? Lo intent. No me duch durante una semana; no funcion. +Nada funcion en absoluto hasta hace unos aos, mis hijas de seis aos viendo el catlogo de sillas de rueda dijeron: "Pap, pap! Tienes que comprarte estas ruedas que brillan, tienes que comprarlas!" +Les dije: "Nias, pap es un periodista muy importante, no sera apropiado". +A lo que, claro, concluyeron de inmediato: "Oh, qu fastidio, pap! Los periodistas no pueden tener ruedas destelleantes. +Entonces, cmo de importante puedes ser?", dijeron. +Dije: "Esperen un minuto, est bien, correcto. Comprar las ruedas". A modo de protesta, compr las ruedas llamativas y las instal, miren esto. Me pueden poner la luz especial, por favor? +Vean! +Ahora... miren, miren esto! +Lo que estn viendo ha cambiado mi vida por completo y digo: por completo. +En vez de miradas vacas e incomodidad, ahora la gente seala y sonre! +Dice: "Qu ruedas tan fabulosas, amigo! Son impresionantes! +Quiero una de esas ruedas!" Dicen los nios pequeos. "Me das una vuelta?" +Y no falta esa persona, generalmente un varn, de mediana edad, que dice: "Qu ruedas tan geniales! +Son por seguridad, no?" +No! No son por seguridad. +No, no, no, no, no. +Cul es la diferencia entre la silla de ruedas sin luces y la silla de ruedas con luces? +La diferencia es la intencin. +Correcto, correcto; ya no soy vctima. +Eleg cambiar la situacin: soy el comandante de la Silla Galctica con ruedas delanteras sincronizadas. +La intencin cambia el panorama por completo. +Eleg aumentar la experiencia rodante con un simple elemento de diseo. +Actuar con intencin. +Transmite personalidad. +Sugiere que hay alguien que conduce. +Es tranquilizador; atrae a la gente. +Alguien que se apropia de la experiencia, +que interpreta la cancin trgica con un toque diferente, algo radicalmente diferente. +La gente responde ante eso. +Parece simple pero en realidad creo que en nuestra sociedad y cultura en general tenemos un gran problema con la intencin. +Sganme. Miren a este tipo. Saben quin es? +Es Anders Breivik. Tena intencin de matar en Oslo, Noruega, el ao pasado, decenas y decenas de jvenes; como tena intencin de hacerlo es un criminal feroz. Lo castigamos. +Cadena perpetua. Pena de muerte en EE.UU., no tanto en Noruega. +Pero, si actu dominado por una fantasa delirante, si alguna enfermedad mental le llev a eso, entra en una categora totalmente diferente. +Podemos segregarlo de por vida, pero lo tratamos clnicamente. +Es un dominio completamente diferente. +Como asesino con premeditacin Anders Breivik es un malvado. +Pero como disfuncional, es un asesino psictico disfuncional, es un tema ms complejo. +Es el vestigio de un caos ancestral primitivo. +Es el estado aleatorio de la naturaleza del que emergimos. +l es alguien muy, muy diferente. +Es como si la intencin fuera un componente esencial para la humanidad. +Es lo que, de algn modo, se supone tenemos que hacer. +Se supone que tenemos que actuar con intencin. +Se supone que tenemos que hacer cosas por diseo. +La intencin es un marcador de civilizacin. +Este es un ejemplo un poco ms domstico: mi familia gira en torno a la intencin. +Probablemente descubran que hay dos pares de gemelos, producto de la FIV, fertilizacin in vitro, debido a algunas limitaciones fsicas que no detallar. +Como sea, la fertilizacin in vitro es tan premeditada como la agricultura. +Se lo contar, alguno quiz ya tuvo la experiencia. +De hecho, la tecnologa de extraccin de esperma para lesionados de mdula espinal es invento de un veterinario. +Lo conoc. Es un gran tipo. +Llevaba un bolso de cuero grande lleno de probetas de esperma para todos los animales con los que trabajaba, para los distintos animales. +Probetas que l dise de las que, de hecho, estaba muy orgulloso. +Me deca: "Ests entre el caballo y la ardilla, John". +Como sea, cuando mi esposa y yo decidimos mejorar nuestra madurez, despus de todo, -tenamos cuatro hijos- con una tecnologa un poco diferente que no explicar en detalle aqu, mi urlogo me asegur que no tena nada de qu preocuparme. +"Doctor, est seguro de que no necesito algn mtodo anticonceptivo?" +"John, John, al mirar tu ficha, +del examen de esperma podemos decir con confianza que t eres un mtodo anticonceptivo en s". +Bien! +Qu pensamiento liberador! S! +Tras un par de fines de semana muy liberadores mi esposa y yo, con tecnologa erctil de vanguardia que bien merece una TEDTalk pero que no detallar ahora, observamos sntomas familiares, aunque inesperados: +yo no era exactamente un mtodo anticonceptivo. +Miren esas letras. Mi esposa estaba muy enojada. +Digo, fue pensado por un diseador? +No, no creo que un diseador haya pensado eso. +De hecho, quiz ese sea el problema. +As, naci el pequeo Ajax. +l es como nuestros otros hijos pero la experiencia fue totalmente diferente. +Fue como un accidente mo, verdad? +Vino de la nada. +Todos tenamos que cambiar, no slo reaccionar a lo ocurrido; nos sometemos a esta nueva experiencia con intencin. +Ahora somos cinco. Cinco. +Enfrentar lo dado intencionadamente. Hacer las cosas por diseo. +Oye, el nombre Ajax, no puede ser ms intencionado, verdad? +Esperamos que nos lo agradezca algn da. +Pero nunca me hice diseador. No, no, no, no. Nunca lo quise. Ni por asomo. +Conforme creca, me encantaban algunos diseos: la calculadora HP 35S; Dios, me encantaba. Dios mo, deseaba tener una. +Hombre, me encantaba. +Pude comprarme una. +No pude comprar otros diseos como la 911 Targa de 1974. +En la escuela no estudi nada relacionado al diseo ni a la ingeniera; estudi cosas intiles como los clsicos, pero incluso all aprend lecciones; este tipo, Platn, result ser diseador. +Dise un Estado en "La Repblica", un diseo nunca implementado. +Escuchen una de las caractersticas de diseo del Gobierno 4.0 de Platn: "El Estado en el que los gobernantes son los ms reacios a gobernar siempre es el mejor y el gobernado ms discretamente, y el Estado ms ansioso, el peor". +Bien, no entendimos esta parte, no? +Pero miren la afirmacin; es todo intencin. Eso es lo que me encanta. +Piensen en lo que hace Platn aqu. Qu hace? +Es una gran idea de diseo, una enorme idea de diseo, comn a todas las religiones y filosofas surgidas en el Perodo Clsico. +Qu ocurra en aquel entonces? +Trataban de responderse la pregunta: Qu debe hacer el ser humano ahora que no trata simplemente de sobrevivir? +Mientras la raza humana emerga del caos prehistrico, de una confrontacin con la naturaleza aleatoria y brutal, de repente tuvieron un momento para pensar. Haba mucho para pensar. +De repente, la existencia humana necesitaba una intencin. +La vida humana necesitaba una razn. +La realidad misma necesitaba un diseador. +Lo impuesto fue reemplazado por varios aspectos de la intencin, por varios diseos, por varias divinidades. +Divinidades por las que todava hoy nos peleamos. +Hoy no confrontamos el caos de la naturaleza. +Hoy confrontamos el caos del impacto de la humanidad sobre la Tierra misma. +Esta joven disciplina llamada diseo, pienso, en realidad es la tica emergente que primero formula y luego responde una pregunta muy nueva: Qu debemos hacer ahora de cara al caos que hemos creado? +Qu debemos hacer? +Cmo debemos marcar la intencin en todos los objetos que creamos, en todas las circunstancias que creamos, en todos los lugares que cambiamos? +En las consecuencias de un planeta de 7000 millones de personas, en aumento. +Esa es la cancin que entonamos hoy todos. +Y no podemos imitar el pasado. No. +No funcionar. +No funcionar en absoluto. +Mi momento de diseo favorito: Ciudad de Kinshasa, Zaire, aos 90; estaba trabajando para ABC News en un reportaje sobre la cada de Mobutu Sese Seko, el cruel dictador de Zaire, que violent y saque a ese pas. +Haba disturbios en el centro de Kinshasa. +El lugar se caa a pedazos; era horrible, un lugar horrible y yo tena que ir a explorar el centro de Kinshasa para informar de los disturbios y saqueos. +La gente se llevaba vehculos, partes de edificios. +Haba soldados en las calles disparando a los saqueadores y arrestndolos en masa. +En medio de ese caos, llego yo en mi silla de ruedas y era totalmente invisible. Completamente. +Yo iba en silla de ruedas; no pareca un saqueador. +Yo iba en silla de ruedas; no pareca un periodista, al menos desde su punto de vista. +Y no pareca un soldado, eso seguro. +Era parte de esta especie de ruido de fondo de la miseria de Zaire, totalmente invisible. +Y, de repente, en una esquina aparece un joven, con parlisis como yo, en una silla-triciclo de metal, madera y cuero y pedalea hacia m lo ms rpido que puede. +Me dice: "Oiga, seor! Seor!" +Lo mir... l no saba decir nada ms en ingls, pero no haca falta; no, no, no, no, no. +Nos sentamos all a comparar ruedas, neumticos, radios y tubos. +Yo miraba su loco mecanismo de pedales; l estaba orgulloso de su diseo. +Ojal pudiera mostrarles ese artefacto. +Su sonrisa, nuestras sensaciones conforme hablbamos un lenguaje universal de diseo, invisible para el caos circundante. +Su mquina: casera, atornillada, oxidada, cmica. +Mi mquina: estadounidense, segura, elegante. +l estaba particularmente orgulloso del confort de su asiento hecho por l para su carro y de la bella tela de los bordes. +Cmo me habra gustado mostrarle estas ruedas destelleantes! +Le habran encantado! Seguramente. +Lo habra entendido; un carro de pura intencin, pinsenlo, en una ciudad fuera de control. +El diseo tir todo por la borda por un momento. +Hablamos unos minutos y luego cada uno se desvaneci en el caos. +Regres a las calles de Kinshasa; yo volv a mi hotel. Y pienso en l ahora, ahora... +Y planteo esta cuestin. +Un objeto impregnado de intencin tiene su poder, es un tesoro, nos atrae. +Un objeto sin intencin es aleatorio, es imitacin, nos repele. Es como un correo basura para eliminar. +Eso es lo que debemos exigir de nuestras vidas, de nuestros objetos, de nuestras cosas y circunstancias: vivir con intencin. +Y tengo que decir que en ese sentido, tengo una ventaja muy injusta sobre todos Uds. +Y quiero explicrselo ahora, porque este es un da muy especial. +Hace 36 aos, ms o menos en este momento, un joven de 19 aos despert de un coma y le pregunt a una enfermera, que tena la respuesta preparada: +"Tuviste un accidente terrible, jovencito. Te fracturaste la espina dorsal. +No volvers a caminar". +Dije: "Ya lo s; qu da es?" +Ya ven, saba que el auto haba pasado la valla de contencin el 28 de febrero, y saba que 1976 era un ao bisiesto. +"Enfermera! Es 28 o 29 de febrero?" +Me mir y me dijo: "Es 1 de marzo". +Y yo dije: "Dios mo. +Tengo que recuperar el tiempo perdido!" +Y desde ese momento supe que lo que haba era ese accidente; no tena ms remedio que inventar esta nueva vida sin caminar. +Intencin -una vida con intencin- vivida por diseo, interpretar el original algo mejor. +Es algo que hoy todos tenemos que hacer o encontrar la manera de hacerlo. +Para volver a hacerlo, para volver a disear, como mi papi sugiri hace muchsimo tiempo: "Canta tu propia cancin, John. +Mustrale al mundo tu intencin". +Papi, te la dedico. +En mi primer ao de universidad me inscrib en una pasanta en la unidad de vivienda del estudio Greater Boston Legal Services. +Me present el primer da lista para preparar caf y sacar fotocopias, pero me toc trabajar en equipo con este abogado tan justo e inspirado llamado Jeff Purcell quien me empuj a las primeras filas desde el primer da. +Y en el curso de nueve meses tuve la oportunidad de tener decenas de conversaciones con familias de bajos ingresos de Boston que tenan problemas relacionados con la vivienda, pero siempre tenan algn problema de salud subyacente. +Tuve un cliente que se present a punto de ser desalojado por no haber pagado la renta. +Pero no la haba pagado, por supuesto, porque estaba pagando su medicacin para el HIV y no poda costear ambas. +Tuvimos madres que llegaban porque la hija tena asma, y se despertaba cubierta de cucarachas todas las maanas. +Y una de nuestras estrategias de litigacin era, de hecho, enviarme a los hogares de estos clientes con estas grandes botellas de vidrio. +Y yo recolectaba las cucarachas, las pegaba con silicona caliente a una cartulina que llevaramos luego a los tribunales para nuestros casos. +Y siempre ganbamos porque los jueces estaban simplemente asqueados. +Mucho ms efectivo, debo decir, que cualquier cosa que haya aprendido en mis estudios de derecho. +Pero con el correr de estos nueve meses, creca mi frustracin porque senta que estbamos interviniendo muy tarde en las vidas de nuestros clientes; para el momento en que nos visitaban, ya estaban en crisis. +Y al final de mi primer ao en la universidad, le un artculo sobre el trabajo del Dr. Barry Zuckerman como jefe de pediatra del Boston Medical Center (Centro Mdico de Boston). +Y su primera contratacin fue un abogado de servicios legales para representar a los pacientes. +As que llam a Barry y con su aprobacin, en octubre de 1995, entr en la sala de espera de la clnica de pediatra del Centro Mdico de Boston. +Nunca olvidar esos rollos interminables de dibujos animados en la televisin. +El agotamiento de las madres que haban tomado dos, tres, a veces cuatro autobuses para traer a su hijo al doctor era simplemente palpable. +Pareca que los doctores nunca tenan tiempo suficiente para todos los pacientes, por ms que lo intentaban. +Y durante seis meses, los arrinconaba en el pasillo y les hacia una pregunta sencilla, pero fundamental: Si tuvieran recursos ilimitados, qu le daran a sus pacientes? +Y oa la misma historia una y otra vez, una historia que escuchamos cientos de veces desde entonces. +Decan: Todos los das tenemos pacientes que llegan a la clnica; si un nio tiene una infeccin en el odo, prescribo antibiticos. +Pero el verdadero problema es que no hay comida en casa. +El verdadero problema es que el nio vive con otras 12 personas en un departamento de 2 dormitorios. +Y ni siquiera pregunto sobre esos temas porque no hay nada que pueda hacer. +Tengo 13 minutos con cada paciente. +Los pacientes se acumulan en la sala de espera. +No tengo idea de dnde est el comedor comunitario ms cercano. +Y ni siquiera tengo ayuda. +En esa clnica, incluso hoy, hay dos trabajadores sociales para 24.000 pacientes peditricos y esto es mejor que en muchas otras clnicas. +As que Health Leads naci de estas conversaciones, un simple modelo donde doctores y enfermeras pueden recetar comida nutritiva, calefaccin en invierno y otros recursos bsicos para el paciente, de la misma manera que recetan medicamentos. +Los pacientes llevan sus recetas a nuestro escritorio en la sala de espera de la clnica donde tenemos un ncleo de estudiantes universitarios defensores, bien entrenados que trabajan codo a codo con estas familias para conectarlos con el grupo de recursos comunitarios existente. +As que empezamos con una mesa plegable en la sala de espera de la clnica, totalmente al estilo puesto de limonada. +Pero hoy tenemos mil estudiantes universitarios defensores que estn trabajando para conectar a cerca de 9.000 pacientes y a sus familias con los recursos que necesitan para estar saludables. +Y hace 18 meses, recib este correo electrnico que cambi mi vida. +Era del Dr. Jack Geiger, quien haba escrito para felicitarme por Health Leads y para compartir, como l dijo, un poco del contexto histrico. +En 1965, el Dr. Geiger fund uno de los dos primeros centros de salud comunitarios del pas, en una zona terriblemente pobre del delta de Mississippi. +Y eran tantos los pacientes que llegaban presentando malnutricin que empez a prescribirles comida. +Y ellos llevaban estas prescripciones al supermercado local que las despachaba y luego las cargaban al presupuesto de farmacia de la clnica. +Y cuando en la Oficina de Oportunidades Econmicas en Washington D.C. que financiaba la clnica de Geiger se enteraron de esto, se pusieron furiosos. +Y enviaron a este burcrata a decirle a Geiger que se supona que l deba usar sus dlares para cuidados mdicos, a lo que Geiger respondi de manera distinguida y lgica: La ltima vez que revis mis libros, la terapia especfica para la malnutricin era comida. +As que cuando recib este correo del Dr. Geiger, supe que deba estar orgullosa de ser parte de esta historia. +Pero la verdad es que estaba desconsolada. +Aqu estamos, 45 aos despus de que Geiger prescribiera comida para sus pacientes, y hay doctores que me dicen: En esos asuntos tenemos una poltica de no pregunte, no diga. +45 aos despus de Geiger, Health Leads tiene que reinventar la prescripcin de recursos bsicos. +As que pas horas y horas tratando de encontrar el sentido de este extrao Da de la Marmota. +Si por dcadas tuvimos una herramienta sencilla para mantener a los pacientes saludables, especialmente a los de bajos recursos, por qu no la usamos? +Si sabemos lo que hace falta para tener un sistema de salud, en vez de un sistema de cuidado de enfermos, por qu simplemente no lo hacemos? +Para m, estas preguntas son difciles, no porque las respuestas sean complicadas, sino porque requieren que seamos honestos con nosotros mismos. +Creo que es demasiado difcil articular nuestras aspiraciones para nuestro sistema de salud, o tan siquiera admitir que tenemos alguna. +Porque si lo hiciramos, estas seran muy lejanas de nuestra realidad actual. +Pero eso no cambia mi conviccin de que todos nosotros, en el fondo, aqu en esta sala y en todo el pas, compartimos un conjunto de deseos similares. +Que si somos honestos con nosotros mismos y escuchamos en silencio, todos albergamos una aspiracin fuertemente arraigada: que nuestro sistema de salud nos mantenga sanos. +Esta aspiracin de que el sistema de salud nos mantenga sanos es enormemente poderosa. +Y la manera en la que pienso en esto es que el cuidado de la salud es como cualquier otro sistema. +Es solo un conjunto de decisiones que la gente toma. +Qu tal si decidiramos tomar decisiones distintas? +Qu tal si decidiramos tomar todas las partes del cuidado de la salud que se han ido alejando de nosotros a la deriva y nos paramos firmemente y decimos: No. +Estas cosas son nuestras. +Sern usadas para nuestros propsitos. +Sern usadas para realizar nuestras aspiraciones? +Qu tal si todo lo que necesitamos para darnos cuenta de nuestras aspiraciones sobre el sistema de salud estuviera ah frente a nosotros esperando que lo reivindiquemos? +As que ah es donde empieza Health Leads. +Empezamos con el talonario de recetas, una receta es simplemente un hoja de papel, y no nos preguntamos qu necesitan los pacientes para curarse? antibiticos, un inhalador, medicacin sino ms bien qu necesitan para mantenerse sanos, para no enfermarse en primer lugar? +Y optamos por usar la prescripcin para ese propsito. +As que solo a unos kilmetros de aqu en el Centro Mdico Nacional de Nios, cuando los pacientes llegan al consultorio del doctor, se les hacen unas preguntas: +Se le termina la comida a fin de mes? +Tiene una vivienda segura? +Y cuando el doctor comienza la consulta, sabe la altura, el peso, si hay comida en casa, si la familia vive en un refugio. +Y eso no solo lleva a un mejor conjunto de decisiones clnicas, sino que el doctor puede prescribir esos recursos para el paciente, usando a Health Leads como cualquier otra subespecialidad de interconsulta. +El problema es, que una vez que le tomaste el gusto a lo que es hacer realidad tus aspiraciones en cuidado de la salud, quieres ms. +As que pensamos, si podemos conseguir que los doctores individuales prescriban estos recursos bsicos para sus pacientes, podramos lograr que todo un sistema de salud cambie sus premisas? +Y lo intentamos. +As que ahora en el Harlem Hospital Center cuando un paciente ingresa con un ndice de masa corporal elevado, la historia clnica electrnica automticamente genera una prescripcin para Health Leads. +Y nuestros voluntarios pueden luego trabajar con ellos para conectar a los pacientes con programas de comida saludable y de ejercicios en sus comunidades. +Creamos la premisa de que si eres un paciente en un hospital con un ndice elevado de masa corporal, las cuatro paredes del consultorio del doctor probablemente no vayan a darte todo lo que necesitas para estar saludable. +Necesitas ms. +As que por un lado, esto es solo una reprogramacin bsica de la historia clnica electrnica. +Y por el otro, es una transformacin radical de la historia clnica electrnica de un repositorio esttico de informacin de diagnstico a una herramienta de promocin de la salud. +En el sector privado, cuando se extrae esa clase de valor adicional de una inversin de costo fijo, se habla de una compaa de miles de millones de dlares. +Pero en mi mundo, se llama reduccin de obesidad y diabetes. +Se llama cuidado de la salud: un sistema en el que los doctores puedan prescribir soluciones para mejorar la salud, no solo controlar enfermedades. +Igualmente en la sala de espera de la clnica. +As, cada da en este pas tres millones de pacientes pasan por cerca de 150.000 salas de espera de clnicas . +Y qu hacen cuando llegan all? +Se sientan, observan al pez de colores de la pecera, leen ejemplares muy viejos de revistas. +Pero principalmente todos nos sentamos all para siempre, a esperar. +Cmo llegamos a esto de dedicar cientos de hectreas y miles de horas a esperar? +Qu tal si tuviramos una sala de espera donde no solo nos sentamos cuando estamos enfermos, sino a donde vamos para curarnos? +Si los aeropuertos pueden convertirse en centros comerciales y los McDonalds pueden convertirse en parques de juego, seguramente podemos reinventar la sala de espera de la clnica. +Y eso es lo que Health Leads ha tratado de hacer para recuperar ese espacio y ese tiempo y usarlo como un acceso para conectar a los pacientes con los recursos que necesitan para estar sanos. +En el noreste, el invierno es brutal, tu hijo tiene asma, acaban de desconectarte la calefaccin, y por supuesto ests en la sala de espera de urgencias, porque el aire fri provoc el asma de tu hijo. +Pero, qu tal si en vez de esperar por horas, con ansiedad, la sala de espera se convirtiera en el lugar donde Health Leads reconectara tu calefaccin? +Y por supuesto todo esto requiere una mayor fuerza de trabajo. +Pero si somos creativos, ya tenemos eso tambin. +Sabemos que nuestros doctores y enfermeras e inclusive los trabajadores sociales no son suficientes, que los pocos minutos del cuidado de la salud son demasiado imperiosos. +La salud simplemente toma ms tiempo. +Requiere un ejrcito no clnico una comunidad de trabajadores de la salud y administradores de casos y muchos otros. +Qu tal si una pequea parte de ese prximo ejrcito del cuidado de la salud fueran los 11 millones de estudiantes universitarios de este pas? +No comprometidos con responsabilidades clnicas, no dispuestos a aceptar un no como respuesta de esas burocracias que tienden a abrumar a los pacientes, y con una habilidad sin igual para conseguir informacin perfeccionada a travs de aos de usar Google. +Pero si son de los que no creen que un voluntario universitario pueda asumir esta clase de compromiso, tengo dos palabras para ustedes: Locura de Marzo (campeonato de la primera divisin de baloncesto masculino). +El jugador promedio de la primera divisin del NCAA (National Collegiate Athletic Association) dedica 39 horas a la semana al deporte. +Podemos pensar que es bueno o malo, pero en cualquier caso, es real. +Y Health Leads se basa en la suposicin de que por mucho tiempo les hemos pedido muy poco a nuestros estudiantes universitarios cuando se trata de un verdadero impacto en comunidades vulnerables. +Los equipos deportivos universitarios dicen: Te va a tomar decenas de horas en algn campo ms all del campus a una hora inapropiada de la maana y mediremos tu desempeo y el de tu equipo y si no ests a la altura o no vienes, te sacaremos del equipo. +Pero haremos grandes inversiones en tu entrenamiento y desarrollo, y te daremos una extraordinaria comunidad de compaeros. +Y la gente hace fila en la puerta solo por la oportunidad de ser parte de eso. +As que creemos que si es lo suficientemente bueno para el equipo de rugby, tambin lo es para la salud y la pobreza. +Health Leads tambin recluta competitivamente, entrena intensamente, dirige profesionalmente, demanda tiempo significativo, construye un equipo cohesionado y mide resultados, una especie de Teach for America (Ensea por Amrica) de la salud. +Ahora, en las 10 principales ciudades en Estados Unidos +con el nmero ms alto de pacientes de Medicaid (pacientes de bajos recursos) cada una tiene por lo menos 20.000 estudiantes universitarios. +Solo Nueva York tiene medio milln. +Y se van con la conviccin, la habilidad y la eficacia para convertir en realidad nuestras aspiraciones esenciales en cuanto al cuidado de la salud. +Y el punto es que ya hay miles de estos, ah afuera. +Mia Lozada es jefa de residentes de Medicina Interna en el centro mdico UCSF (Universidad de California, San Francisco), pero por tres aos antes de graduarse fue voluntaria de Health Leads en la sala de espera de la clnica del Centro Mdico de Boston. +Mia dice: Cuando mis compaeros de clase escriben una prescripcin, creen que su trabajo est terminado. +Cuando yo escribo una prescripcin, pienso: puede leerla la familia? +Tienen transporte hasta la farmacia? +Tienen comida para tomar con la prescripcin? +Tienen seguro para pagar la prescripcin? +Esas son las preguntas que aprend en Health Leads, no en la universidad. +Ahora bien, ninguna de estas soluciones: el talonario de prescripciones, la historia clnica electrnica, la sala de espera, el ejrcito de estudiantes universitarios, es perfecta. +Pero estn all para que las tomemos y son simples ejemplos de los vastos recursos subutilizados en el cuidado de la salud que, si los recuperamos y redistribuimos, podran realizar nuestra ms bsica aspiracin del cuidado de la salud. +Haba estado en Legal Services cerca de 9 meses cuando esta idea de Health Leads empez a rondar en mi cabeza. +Y supe que tena que decirle a Jeff Purcell, mi abogado, que necesitaba irme. +Y estaba tan nerviosa porque pensaba que lo iba a decepcionar por abandonar a nuestros clientes por una idea loca. +Y me sent con l y le dije: Jeff, tengo la idea de que podramos movilizar estudiantes universitarios para atender las necesidades ms bsicas de los pacientes. +Y ser honesta, todo lo que quera era que no se enojara conmigo. +Pero respondi: Rebecca, cuando tienes una visin, tienes la obligacin de realizar esa visin. +Debes perseguir esa visin. +Y tengo que decir que yo estaba como Uy! +Es mucha presin. +Yo solo quera su aprobacin, no una especie de mandato. +Pero la verdad es que he pasado cada minuto desde entonces persiguiendo esa visin. +Creo que todos tenemos una visin para el sistema de salud en este pas. +Creo que al final del da, cuando evaluemos nuestro sistema de salud no va a ser por las enfermedades curadas, sino por las enfermedades prevenidas. +No por la excelencia de nuestras tecnologas o la sofisticacin de nuestros especialistas, sino por lo poco que los necesitemos. +Y principalmente, creo que cuando evaluemos el sistema de salud ser, no por lo que el sistema era, sino por lo que nosotros queramos que sea. +Gracias. +Gracias. +La evidencia indica que los seres humanos de todas las edades y de todas las culturas crean su identidad a partir de algn tipo de narrativa. +De madre a hija, de predicador a oyente, de maestro a alumno, de narrador a audiencia. +Ya sea a travs del arte rupestre o de los ltimos medios de Internet, los seres humanos siempre han relatado sus historias y verdades por medio de la parbola o la fbula. +Somos narradores obstinados. +Pero dnde, en nuestro mundo cada vez ms fragmentado y secular, ofrecemos una experiencia de comunidad, no mediada por nuestro consumismo vertiginoso? +Y qu narrativa, qu historia, qu identidad o cdigo tico les estamos impartiendo a nuestros jvenes? +Podra decirse que el cine es la forma de arte de mayor influencia en el siglo XX. +Sus actores cuentan historias que cruzan fronteras nacionales, en tantos idiomas, gneros y filosofas como uno pueda imaginarse. +Sin duda, es difcil encontrar una temtica que una pelcula no haya abordado. +Durante la ltima dcada hemos visto una enorme integracin de los medios de comunicacin mundiales, ahora dominados por una cultura taquillera de Hollywood. +Cada vez ms se nos ofrece un rgimen en el cual reina la sensacin y no la historia. +Aquello que era comn entre nosotros hace 40 aos, el contar historias entre generaciones, es ahora escaso. +Como directora de cine, me preocupa. +Como ser humano, me produce miedo. +Qu futuro puede construir un joven con tan poco conocimiento del lugar de donde viene y con tan pocos relatos de lo que es posible? +La irona es evidente; el acceso a la tecnologa nunca ha sido mayor y el acceso a la cultura nunca ha sido tan endeble. +As fue que en el ao 2006 creamos FILMCLUB, una organizacin que exhibe pelculas semanales en escuelas, seguidas de debates. +Si pudiramos incursionar en los anales de 100 aos de cine, quiz podramos construir una narrativa que nos mostrara un significado al mundo fragmentado y agitado de los jvenes. +Con el acceso a la tecnologa, incluso una escuela en un pequeo pueblo rural podra proyectar un DVD en una pizarra blanca. +En los primeros nueve meses, pusimos en funcionamiento 25 clubs de cine en el Reino Unido, con grupos de chicos de entre 5 y 18 aos que vean una pelcula sin interrupciones durante 90 minutos. +Las pelculas se organizaban y se les daba contexto. +Pero la eleccin era de ellos y nuestra audiencia evolucion rpidamente para elegir entre el rgimen ms rico y variado que pudiramos ofrecer. +El resultado fue inmediato. +Fue una educacin de la ms profunda y transformadora. +En grupos tan grandes como de 150 o tan pequeos como de 3 miembros, estos jvenes descubrieron nuevos lugares, nuevos pensamientos, nuevas perspectivas. +Al concluir el proyecto piloto, contbamos con los nombres de miles de escuelas que deseaban participar. +La pelcula que cambi mi vida es una de 1951 de Vittorio De Sica, Milagro en Miln. +Es una observacin notable sobre los tugurios, la pobreza y la aspiracin. +Vi esta pelcula con motivo del cumpleaos nmero 50 de mi padre. +La tecnologa en ese entonces exiga contratar un teatro, buscar y pagar por la copia y por el proyeccionista. +Pero para mi padre, la importancia de la visin tanto emocional como artstica de De Sica era tal que quiso celebrar su medio siglo de vida con sus 3 hijos adolescentes y 30 de sus amigos, con el fin, dijo, de pasar el bastn del inters y la esperanza a la prxima generacin. +En la ltima escena de Milagro en Miln, los habitantes de los tugurios flotan rumbo al cielo en escobas voladoras. +Sesenta aos despus de que se film la pelcula y 30 aos despus de haberla visto, veo las caras de los nios elevarse con asombro, su incredulidad semejando la ma. +Y la velocidad con la que relacionan esta con Quin quiere ser millonario? (Slumdog Millionaire) o con las favelas de Ro es prueba del carcter imperecedero. +En una temporada del FILMCLUB sobre democracia y gobierno, exhibimos El Seor Smith va a Washington. +Esta pelcula, hecha en 1939, es ms vieja que la mayora de los abuelos de nuestros miembros del club. +El clsico de Frank Capra valora la independencia y la propiedad. +Muestra cmo hacer lo correcto, cmo ser torpe de manera heroica. +Es tambin la expresin de la fe en la maquinaria poltica como mecanismo de honor. +Luego de que El Sr. Smith se convirtiera en un clsico del FILMCLUB hubo una semana de filibusterismo en la Cmara de los Lores todas las noches. +Y fue muy grato descubrir que la gente joven de todo el pas explicaba con autoridad qu significaba el filibusterismo y porqu los Lores podan desafiar su tiempo de sueo por cuestin de principio. +Despus de todo, Jimmy Stewart practic el filibusterismo por dos rollos completos. +Cuando elegimos Hotel Ruanda, ellos indagaron en la clase ms cruel de genocidio. +Caus llanto tanto como preguntas tajantes sobre las fuerzas de mantenimiento de paz, sin armas, y el doble juego de la sociedad occidental que entabl peleas ticas con la idea de bienes en mente. +Y cuando La lista de Schindler les exigi que no olviden nunca, un chico, con todo el dolor en la consciencia, seal: Ya lo olvidamos, sino de qu otra manera habra pasado lo de Hotel Ruanda? +A medida que vean ms pelculas, sus vidas se enriquecan. +El carterista inici una discusin sobre la marginalizacin del delito. +Al maestro, con cario encendi a la audiencia adolescente. +Celebraron el cambio de actitud hacia los britnicos no blancos, pero criticaron nuestro impaciente sistema escolar que no valora la identidad colectiva como s lo hizo la cuidadosa tutela de Sidney Poitier. +En ese momento, a estos jvenes, reflexivos, crticos y curiosos no les preocup abordar pelculas de cualquier clase: En blanco y negro, con subttulos, documentales, cine no narrativo, de fantasa. Y tampoco les preocup escribir reseas detalladas que competan por favorecer una pelcula en vez de otra en una prosa cada vez ms vehemente y elegante. +Seis mil reseas por semana escolar competan por el honor de ser la resea de la semana. +Pasamos de 25 clubes a cientos y luego miles hasta llegar a tener cerca de 250.000 chicos en 7000 clubes en todo el pas. +Y aunque las cifras fueron y continan siendo extraordinarias, lo que fue todava ms extraordinario fue la experiencia de discusin crtica y curiosa traducida a la vida. +Algunos de nuestros chicos empezaron a conversar con sus padres, otros con maestros, o con sus amigos. +Y aquellos sin amigos empezaron a hacer amistades. +Las pelculas dieron la idea de comunidad en todo tipo de divisin. +Y las historias que vieron, ofrecieron una experiencia compartida. +Perspolis uni ms a una hija con su madre iran y Tiburn fue la forma en que un chico pudo articular el miedo que habra experimentado en su huida de la violencia que acab con la vida de su padre y luego de su madre, quien fue lanzada por la borda en un viaje en barco. +Quin tena la razn, quin no? +Qu haran ellos en las mismas circunstancias? +Se cont bien la historia? +Hubo un mensaje oculto? +Cmo ha cambiado el mundo? Cmo podra ser diferente? +Una oleada de preguntas salieron de las bocas de los chicos que el mundo pensaba que no estaban interesados. +Y ellos mismos tampoco saban que les importaba. +Mientras escriban y discutan, en lugar de ver las pelculas como mera ficcin, comenzaron a verse a ellos mismos. +Tengo una ta que es excelente narradora de historias. +En un momento, ella puede evocar imgenes de sus carreras descalza en la Montaa de la Mesa, jugando a policas y ladrones. +Hace poco, ella me cont que en 1948, dos de sus hermanas y mi padre viajaron en barco a Israel sin mis abuelos. +Cuando los marineros se amotinaron para solicitar condiciones dignas, fueron estas jovencitas quienes alimentaron a la tripulacin. +Cuando mi padre muri yo tena ms de 40 aos. +l nunca mencion ese viaje. +La madre de mi madre sali de Europa de prisa, sin su esposo, pero con su hija de 3 aos y diamantes cosidos en el ruedo de su falda. +Luego de dos aos de estar escondido, mi abuelo apareci en Londres. +Nunca ms volvi a estar bien. +Y callaron su historia a medida que l se integraba. +Mi historia comenz en Inglaterra con un borrn y cuenta nueva y el silencio de padres inmigrantes. +Tuve Ana Frank, El gran escape, Shoah, El triunfo de la voluntad. +Fue Leni Riefenstahl con su elegante propaganda nazi quien dio contexto a lo que mi familia tuvo que soportar. +Estas pelculas contenan lo que era muy doloroso de decir en voz alta y fueron ms tiles para m que los susurros de los sobrevivientes y el ocasional vistazo a un tatuaje en la mueca de una ta soltera. +Los puristas pueden pensar que la ficcin disipa la bsqueda de un entendimiento realmente humano, que el cine es muy burdo como para relatar una historia compleja y detallada o que los directores de cine ponen siempre el drama por sobre la verdad. +Pero en los carretes est el propsito y el significado. +Como deca una nia de 12 aos luego de ver El mago de Oz, Todas las personas deben ver esto, porque si no lo hacen puede que no sepan que tambin tienen corazn. +Respetamos la lectura, por qu no respetar tambin el cine con la misma pasin? +Pensemos que el Ciudadano Kane es tan valioso como Jane Austen. +Acordemos que Los dueos de la calle tanto como Tennyson, ofrecen un panorama emocional y un entendimiento intensificado que funcionan juntos. +Cada pieza de arte de antologa es un ladrillo en el muro de lo que somos. +Y est bien si recordamos mejor a Tom Hanks que al astronauta Jim Lovell o tenemos la imagen de Ben Kingsley superpuesta a la de Gandhi. +Y Eve Harrington, Howard Beale, Mildred Pierce, aunque no son reales, nos ofrecen la oportunidad de descubrir lo que significa ser humano y no es menos til que comprender nuestra vida y nuestro tiempo como Shakespeare al iluminar el mundo de la Inglaterra isabelina. +Supusimos que el cine cuyas historias son un punto de reunin del drama, la msica, la literatura y la experiencia humana, acogeran e inspiraran a los jvenes a que participaran en FILMCLUB. +Lo que no nos imaginbamos eran las notables mejoras en el comportamiento, confianza y logros acadmicos. +Los estudiantes, reacios de antes, ahora corren a la escuela, hablan con sus profesores, pelean, no en el patio de la escuela, sino para elegir la prxima pelcula de la semana, jvenes que se han autodefinido, tienen ambicin y apetito por una educacin y un compromiso social, a partir de las historias de las que han sido testigos. +Nuestros participantes desafan la descripcin binaria de cmo describimos con frecuencia a nuestros jvenes. +No son salvajes ni estn ensimismados de manera miope. +Son como otra gente joven que negocia en un mundo con infinidad de opciones, pero con poca cultura para encontrar una experiencia significativa. +Nos sorprendemos de los comportamientos de aquellos que se definen a s mismos por las cosas que tienen, aunque hemos ofrecido la narrativa como conocimiento. +Si queremos valores diferentes, tenemos que contar otra historia, una historia que entienda que la narrativa de un individuo es un componente esencial de la identidad de una persona, que una narrativa colectiva, es un componente esencial de una identidad cultural, y que sin esta, es imposible imaginarse uno mismo como parte de un grupo. +Porque cuando estas personas regresan a casa despus de ver La ventana indiscreta y levantan la mirada al edificio de al lado, tienen las herramientas para adivinar quines, aparte de ellos, estn ah afuera y cul es su historia. +Gracias. +Cuando tena 16 aos aproximadamente recuerdo que estaba cambiando de canal en casa durante las vacaciones de verano buscando una pelcula en HBO, cuntos de ustedes recuerdan "El da libre de Ferris Bueller"? +Seguro, gran pelcula, no es as? - Vi a Matthew Broderick en la pantalla y pens: "Grandioso! Ferris Bueller. Voy a ver esto!" +No era Ferris Bueller. Y perdname Matthew Broderick, S que has actuado en otras pelculas adems de Ferris Bueller, pero es as como te recuerdo, eres Ferris. +Pero no estabas haciendo cosas al estilo Ferris en ese momento. Estabas haciendo cosas gay en ese momento. +Actuaba en una pelcula llamada "Triloga de la Cancin de la Antorcha" +Y esta pelcula se basaba en una obra de teatro sobre un travesti que esencialmente estaba buscando el amor. +Amor y respeto; eso era sobre lo que trataba la pelcula. +Mientras la miraba, me di cuenta de que estaban hablando de m. +No la parte del travesti; No me afeitara por nadie; pero s la parte gay. +Encontrar amor y respeto, la parte sobre encontrar tu lugar en el mundo. +Mientras miro esto, hay una escena impactante que me hizo llorar y que ha permanecido conmigo por los ltimos 25 aos. +Arnold, el personaje principal, le dice a su madre mientras pelean sobre quin es l y la vida que lleva: +"Hay una cosa ms; slo una cosa ms que ms vale que entiendas. +Aprend por m mismo a coser, cocinar, reparar las caeras, fabricar muebles, incluso puedo palmearme la espalda a mi mismo si es necesario, todo para no tener que pedirle nada a nadie. +No necesito nada de nadie excepto amor y respeto y quien no pueda darme esas dos cosas no tiene lugar en mi vida". +Recuerdo esa escena como si fuese ayer. Tena 16 aos, lloraba, estaba en el armario, y vea a estas dos personas, Ferris Bueller y un muchacho que nunca haba visto antes luchando por amor. +Cuando finalmente llegu al punto en mi vida, en que sal del armario y acept quien soy, y era realmente bastante feliz, a decir verdad, era felizmente gay y supongo que es lo correcto porque "gay" significa feliz, tambin. +Me di cuenta de que haba mucha gente que no era tan feliz como yo, gay siendo feliz, no gay siendo atractivo para el mismo sexo. +De hecho, escuch que haba mucho odio y mucha ira, mucha frustracin y mucho miedo sobre quin era y el estilo de vida gay. +Ahora, estoy sentado tratando de descifrar "el estilo de vida gay", "el estilo de vida gay" y contino escuchando una y otra vez estas palabras: estilo de vida, estilo de vida, estilo de vida. +Incluso he escuchado a algunos polticos decir que el estilo de vida gay es una amenaza para la civilizacin mayor que el terrorismo. +Es ah cuando me asust. +Porque pienso, si soy gay y estoy haciendo algo que destruir la civilizacin, debo descubrir qu es y debo dejar de hacerlo ahora mismo. +Entonces revis mi vida, hice una revisin profunda de mi vida y encontr algunas cosas inquietantes. +Quiero comenzar a compartir con ustedes estas maldades que he estado haciendo, comenzando por mis maanas. +Tomo caf. +No slo tomo caf, conozco otra gente gay que toma caf. +Quedo atascado en el trnsito... en el malvado, malvado trnsito. +Algunas veces quedo atascado en filas en los aeropuertos. +Miro a mi alrededor y pienso, "Dios, miren a toda esta gente gay! +Estamos todos atascados en estas filas! Estas largas filas, tratando de tomar un avin! +Dios mo, este estilo de vida que estoy viviendo es tan condenadamente malvado. +Limpio. Esta no es una fotografa del dormitorio de mi hijo. El es mucho ms desordenado. +Y como tengo un quinceaero, todo lo que hago es cocinar, cocinar y cocinar. +Hay algn padre de adolescente aqu? Todo lo que hacemos es cocinar para esta gente; comen dos, tres, cuatro platos por noche. Es ridculo! +Este es mi estilo de vida gay. +Y cuando termino de cocinar y limpiar, de hacer filas y de quedar atascado en el trnsito, mi pareja y yo, nos reunimos y decidimos que tendremos una desenfrenada y loca diversin. +Normalmente estamos en la cama antes de enterarnos quien fue eliminado de "American Idol". +Tenemos que esperar al da siguiente para saber quien contina porque estamos demasiado cansados para saber quin se queda. +Este es el magnfico y malvado estilo de vida gay. +Salven sus vidas heterosexuales. +Cuando comenc a salir con mi pareja, Steve, l me cont esta historia sobre pinginos. +Y al comienzo no entend hacia donde apuntaba. +Estaba un poco nervioso mientras la comparta conmigo, pero me dijo que cuando un pingino encuentra un compaero con el que quiere pasar el resto de su vida, se presentan con un guijarro; el guijarro perfecto. +Luego busca en su bolsillo y saca esto. +Lo mir y era realmente genial. +Me dijo: "Quiero pasar el resto de mi vida contigo". +Siempre lo uso cuando tengo que hacer algo que me pone un tanto nervioso, algo como una charla para TEDx. +Lo uso cuando estamos separados por un largo perodo de tiempo. +Otras veces lo uso porque s. +Cuntos de ustedes estn enamorados? Alguno de ustedes est enamorado? +Tal vez son gay. +Porque yo tambin estoy enamorado y aparentemente eso es parte del estilo de vida gay sobre el que les estoy advirtiendo. +Tal vez quieran decrselo a sus cnyuges. Quienes, si estn enamorados, tal vez sean gay tambin. +Cuntos de ustedes son solteros? Hay algn soltero aqu? +Ustedes tambin pueden ser gays! Conozco algunos gays que tambin son solteros. +Esta cuestin sobre el estilo de vida gay es realmente espeluznante; es colosalmente maligno y no tiene fin! +Contina y contina y te abruma! +Bastante zonzo, no es as? +Por eso me alegra escuchar al Presidente Obama decir que l apoya, que l apoya el matrimonio igualitario. +Es un da maravilloso para la historia de nuestro pas; es un da maravilloso para la historia del planeta, tener un presidente en ejercicio que dice, basta de esto-- primero a s mismo y luego al resto del mundo. +Es maravilloso. +Pero, hay algo que me ha estado molestando desde que l hizo este comentario hace poco tiempo. +Esto es que, aparentemente, es otro paso de los activistas gay que est en la agenda gay. +Y esto me preocupa porque he sido abiertamente gay por algn tiempo. +He ido a todas las funciones, he asistido a eventos para recaudar fondos, he escrito sobre este tema y todava espero recibir mi copia de la agenda gay. +He cumplido con mis obligaciones a tiempo, he marchado en los desfiles del orgullo gay y an espero mi copia de la agenda gay. +Es una gran frustracin y me senta como dejado fuera, como si no fuese suficientemente gay. +Pero luego ocurri algo maravilloso: Estaba de compras, como suelo hacer, y me top con una copia ilegal de la agenda oficial gay. +Me dije, "LZ, se te ha negado esto por tanto tiempo. +Cuando te encuentres frente a esta multitud, compartirs las noticias. +Difundirs la agenda gay para que nadie mas tenga que preguntarse, Qu es, exactamente, la agenda gay? +Qu traman estos gays? +Qu es lo que quieren? +Entonces, sin ms prembulo, damas y caballeros, les presento pero tengan cuidado, porque es maligna; una copia, la copia oficial de la agenda gay. +Con ustedes, la agenda gay! +Ah la tienen! +La absorbieron completamente? La agenda gay. +Algunos de ustedes la pueden llamar, cmo? la Constitucin de los Estados Unidos, es as como la llaman tambin? +La Constitucin de los Estados Unidos es la agenda gay. +Estos gays como yo quieren ser tratados como ciudadanos y esto est escrito y a la vista. +Qued atnito cuando lo vi. Dije, esperen, sta es la agenda gay? +Por qu no la llamaron Constitucin para que yo supiera de qu estaban hablando? +No habra estado tan confundido; no habra estado tan disgustado. +Pero, ah est. La agenda gay. +Salven sus vidas heterosexuales. +Saban que en los estados que no estn sombreados las personas gay, lesbianas, bisexuales o transexuales pueden ser echadas de sus departamentos por ser gay, lesbianas, bisexuales o transexuales? +Es la nica razn que el propietario necesita para echarlos porque no existe proteccin contra la discriminacin para las personas gay, lesbianas, bisexuales o transexuales. +Saban que en los estados que no estn sombreados puedes ser despedido por ser gay, lesbiana, bisexual o transexual? +No se basan en la calidad de tu trabajo, cunto tiempo has estado en l o si eres malo en ello, te despiden slo por ser gay, lesbiana, bisexual o transexual. +Y todo esto va en contra de la agenda gay, tambin conocida como la Constitucin de Estados Unidos. +Especficamente, esta pequea enmienda justo aqu: "Ningn estado sancionar o impondr leyes que acoten los privilegios o la inmunidad de los ciudadanos de los Estados Unidos." +Te estoy mirando, Carolina del Norte. +Pero t no ests mirando a la Constitucin de los Estados Unidos. +Esta es la agenda gay: igualdad. No derechos especiales, sino los derechos que ya fueron escritos por esta gente, estos elitistas, si lo desean. +Educados, bien vestidos, algunos, digamos, dudosamente vestidos. +No obstante, nuestros predecesores, no es as? +Personas, de las que decimos, que saban lo que hacan cuando escribieron la Constitucin, la agenda gay, si lo prefieren. +Todo eso contradice lo que ellos hicieron. +Por esta razn sent que era imperativo que les presentara esta copia de la agenda gay. +Porque imagin que si lo haca divertido, no se sentiran amenazados. +Imagin que si era un tanto irreverente, no lo encontraran serio. +Estamos tratando retirar esos derechos que ya fueron establecidos, sobre los que ya hemos acordado. +Hay gente que vive con el temor de perder sus empleos y no les muestran a nadie quines son en realidad, aqu mismo. No se trata slo de Carolina del Norte; en todos los estados que no estaban sombreados, es legal. +Si puedo alardear por un segundo, tengo un hijo de 15 aos de mi matrimonio. +Tiene un promedio 4.0. +Est iniciando un nuevo club en su escuela, Debate Poltico. +Es un corredor estrella; tiene casi todos los rcords individuales de la escuela secundaria en cada evento en el que ha competido. +Hace trabajo voluntario. +Reza antes de comer. +Me gustara pensar, como su padre, l vive conmigo la mayor parte del tiempo, que yo tuve algo que ver con todo esto. +Me gustara pensar que es un buen muchacho, un joven respetuoso. Me gustara pensar que he sido un padre capaz. +Pero si fuese hoy al estado de Michigan, e intentara adoptar un joven que est en un orfanato, sera descalificado por una sola razn: porque soy gay. +No importa lo que haya hecho en el pasado, o lo que pueda hacer con mi corazn. +Es por lo que el estado de Michigan dice que soy por lo que soy descalificado para cualquier tipo de adopcin. +No es slo por m, sino por tantos otros habitantes de Michigan, ciudadanos de Estados Unidos, que no comprenden por qu, lo que son es tanto ms significativo de quines son. +Esta historia se repite una y otra vez en la historia de nuestro pas. +Hubo un tiempo en el que, no s, la gente negra no poda tener los mismos derechos. +Las mujeres no tenan los mismos derechos, no podan votar. +Hubo un momento en nuestra historia en el que, si eras considerado discapacitado, el empleador poda despedirte, antes de la Ley para Americanos con Discapacidad. +Continuamos haciendo esto una y otra vez.. +Y aqu estamos, 2012, agenda gay, estilo de vida gay, y no soy un buen padre y la gente no merece proteger a sus familias por lo que son y no por quines son. +Cuando en el futuro escuchen "estilo de vida gay" o "agenda gay" los invito a hacer dos cosas: Primero, recuerden la Constitucin de U.S. y luego, si no les molesta, miren a su izquierda, por favor. +Miren a su derecha. +Esa persona sentada a su lado es un hermano, una hermana. +Y deberan ser tratados con amor y respeto +Gracias. +(Sonido de patinete) Eso es lo que he hecho en la vida. Gracias. Me cri en una granja de Florida, y de nio haca lo tpico: +a veces jugaba al bisbol, haca otras cosas por el estilo, pero siempre me senta fuera de lugar, hasta que vi unas fotos de revistas de un par de tipos hacer 'skate' y pens: "Vaya, esto es lo mo". +Porque no haba un entrenador pendiente de ti todo el tiempo. Estos tipos eran ellos mismos, +no tenan un contrincante enfrente. +Y me encantaba esa sensacin, as que empec a patinar cuando tena unos 10 aos, en 1977. Y... aprend bastante rpido. +De hecho, estas imgenes son de 1984. +No fue hasta 1979 que gan mi primer campeonato aficionado y all por 1981, con 14 aos, gan mi primer campeonato mundial, lo que me pareci increble, y literalmente fue la primera victoria real que alcanc. +Miren esto, +es un 'casper', con la tabla bocabajo. +Tomen nota mental de este. Y esto? Un 'ollie'. +Como ella dijo antes, seguro que es exagerado, pero por eso me llaman el padrino del patinaje callejero moderno. +Pueden verlo en estas imgenes. +Pues estaba a la mitad de mi carrera profesional, dira que mediados de los 80. +De modo que iba a ms. +De hecho, cuando alguien dice que patina hoy en da, quiere decir ms bien que es patinador callejero, porque pasaron cinco aos hasta que el 'freestyle' desapareci, y en esa etapa, hubiese sido un "campen" campen durante 11 aos, lo que, buf! +Y de pronto se acab para m. Eso fue todo. +Desapareci. Retiraron mi modelo profesional, lo que supona bsicamente declararte muerto pblicamente. +As es como ganas dinero, saben?, +tienes una tabla firmada, ruedas, zapatillas y ropa. Lo tena todo y desapareci. +Lo ms loco de todo fue que tuve una sensacin de liberacin, porque ya no tena que proteger mi rcord de campen. "Campen", otra vez +Campen suena tan ridculo, pero es lo que era no? +Y tengo que... Lo que me llev a patinar, la libertad, haba vuelto, poda crear cosas. Porque es eso lo que me da felicidad, siempre, crear cosas nuevas. +Otra cosa que tena era muchos trucos a los que recurrir basados en estos trucos de piso. +Lo que haca la gente normal era muy distinto. +Aunque fue humillante y cutre... Y cranme, fue cutre. Iba donde patinaba la gente, y era "el tipo famoso" de acuerdo? +Y todos pensaban que era bueno. Pero en este nuevo terreno era malsimo. Y la gente deca, "Ah, es tan... vaya, qu le pasa a Mullen? Aunque fue humillante, empec de nuevo. +Estos son algunos trucos que empec a llevarme a ese nuevo terreno. (Sonidos de patinete) Tambin se ve la influencia del 'freestyle' que me hizo Oh, eso? +Es lo ms difcil que he hecho en mi vida. +Bueno, miren eso. Es un 'darkslide'. +Ven cmo se desliza al revs? +stos son superdivertidos. Y no tan difciles, de hecho. +En lo que se basa, los 'caspers', ven cmo se tira? (Sonidos de patinete) As de simple. No es gran cosa. Y el pie delantero, la forma en que lo agarra, es... Cuando vi a alguien deslizarse as con la tabla pens, "cmo puedo superarlo?" +Porque no lo haba hecho nadie. Entonces vi la luz y esto es parte de lo que estoy diciendo. +Tena una infraestructura, una base, y fue decir anda, si solo es mi pie. +Es solo la forma de lanzar la tabla. +si lo haces con la plataforma es fcil, y cuando menos lo imaginas hay 20 trucos ms basados en las variaciones. +Ese es el tipo de cosas que... miren esto, esta es otra forma, y no lo har ms de la cuenta. +Algo indulgente, creo. +Hay un truco, el 'primo slide'. +(Sonidos de patinete) Es el truco ms divertido de hacer. +(Sonidos de patinete) Es como el 'skimming'. +Y este, que va de costado por los dos lados. +Bien, pues cuando ests patinando y caes la tabla va hacia un lado o el otro. Es predecible. +En este va para cualquier lado. Parecen cadas de dibujos animados y eso es lo que ms me gusta. +Es tan divertido. De hecho, cuando empec a hacerlo, me acuerdo porque me lesion. Me tuvieron que operar la rodilla. Y hubo un par de das en los que, mejor dicho, un par de semanas, en que no pude patinar nada. +Y ya no poda ms. Y vea a esta gente, me iba a una nave donde haba mucha gente patinando, amigos mos, y pensaba, "Tengo que innovar. Quiero innovar. +Quiero empezar de nuevo, de nuevo". +As que la noche anterior a la operacin pensaba, "Cmo lo har? +Entonces corr y me sub a mi tabla de un salto hice un 'caveman', la puse boca abajo, y recuerdo aterrizar muy suavemente y pensar, si la rodilla cede, pues tendrn ms trabajo maana. +Era algo muy loco. +No s a cuntos de Uds. los han operado, pero ests indefenso, no? +Y ahora, les he hablado de la evolucin de los trucos. Tengan eso en cuenta. +Cmo lo puedo ampliar, cmo el contexto o el entorno pueden cambiar la naturaleza de lo que hago? +Este sitio no est muy lejos de aqu. +Es un barrio cutre. Lo primero que piensas es, me pegarn una paliza? Sales y... Ven este muro? +No es muy duro, y te est pidiendo a gritos que hagas trucos de banco. +Pero hay otra cosa de las ruedas, miren esto. Con algunos trucos... El entorno cambia la naturaleza de tus trucos. +Orientado al 'freestyle', abajo ruedas. +Miren, ste? Me encanta. Es como hacer 'surf', la forma de tomarla. +Este... Un poco flojo yendo hacia atrs, y miren el pie trasero. +Vaya. Tomen nota mental. Otra vez, volveremos con esto. +Ojo. El pie, el pie... Bien, pues eso? +Eso se llama '360 flip'. Fjense cmo la tabla gira hacia este lado, los dos ejes. +Y... otro ejemplo de cmo el contexto transforma, del proceso creativo para m y la mayora de patinadores, es que vas, sales del coche, compruebas que est bien cerrado, miras tus cosas. Es gracioso, llegas a ver el ritmo de estos tipos que conducen, y... el 'skateboarding' te hace tan humilde. +Da igual lo bueno que seas, siempre te toca... Pues te pegas en este muro, y al pegarte lo primero que haces es caer hacia delante, y digo, todo bien. +Recuperas el equilibrio, la levantas de un golpe y al hacerlo el hombro se me iba para este lado, y mientras lo haca pensaba, "ah, me est pidiendo un '360 flip' ", porque as se carga en un '360 flip'. +Y estos submovimientos estn en el aire, y cuando caes en el muro se conectan, y es cuando la mente cognitiva piensa, "Oh, '360 flip', voy a hacerlo". +Y as es como creo que funciona el proceso creativo, el proceso del patinaje callejero. +Y ahora ah, les importa? Esta es la comunidad. +Aqu estn algunos de los mejores 'skaters' del mundo. +Estos son mis amigos. Madre ma, son tan buena gente. +Y lo bonito del 'skateboarding' es que nadie es el mejor. De hecho, s que est mal decirlo, son mis amigos, pero hay un par de ellos que realmente no parecen estar tan a gusto en sus tablas. +Lo que los hace geniales es el grado en que usan su 'skateboarding' para individualizarse. +Cada uno de estos tipos, los miras y ves una silueta, y te das cuenta de que, "S, es l, es Haslam, es Koston", ah estn, son ellos. +Cuanto mayor es la contribucin, ms nos expresamos y formamos como individuos, lo que es muy importante para muchos de nosotros que nos sentimos rechazados al principio. +La suma de todo eso da algo que nunca podramos conseguir como individuos. +Debo decir que hay como una hermosa simetra: el grado en que conectamos con una comunidad es proporcional a nuestra individualidad, que expresamos con lo que hacemos. +Ahora. Estos tipos. Una comunidad muy parecida que contribuye enormemente a la innovacin. +Fjense que un par de fotos son de la polica. +Pero es parecido. Quiero decir, qu es 'hackear'? +Es conocer una tecnologa tanto que puedes manipularla y usarla para hacer cosas que se supone no debe hacer, no? +Y no son todas malas. +Puedes ser hacker de Linux, hacerlo ms estable, correcto? +Ms protegido, ms seguro. O un hacker de iOS y hacer con tu iPhone cosas que se supone que no debe hacer. +Desautorizadas, pero sin ser ilegales. +Y luego estn algunos de estos tipos. +Lo que hacen es muy parecido a nuestro proceso creativo. +Conectan informacin dispar y lo hacen de forma que un especialista en seguridad no se espera, no? +No los hace buenas personas, pero est en la base de la inventiva, de una comunidad creativa, innovadora. El ethos bsico de la comunidad de cdigo abierto es, toma lo que hacen otros, mejralo, y devulvelo para el beneficio de todos. +Son comunidades muy similares. +Tambin podemos ser provocadores. Qu gracia, mi padre tena razn. +Estos son mis colegas. +Pero respeto lo que hacen, y ellos respetan lo que hago, porque saben hacer cosas... Es impresionante lo que hacen. +De hecho, a uno de ellos, lo nombraron emprendedor del ao de Ernst & Young del condado de San Diego. No son.. nunca sabes con quin ests tratando. +Todos hemos alcanzado la fama de un modo u otro. +De hecho, tuve tanto xito que tena la sensacin de que no lo mereca. +Consegu una patente y fue estupendo, fundamos una empresa, creci, se convirti en lder... y empez a irle mal, pero volvi a ser lder, y es ms difcil que la primera vez y la vendimos, y la volvimos a vender. +As que he tenido cierto xito. Y al fin y al cabo, cuando has tenido todo esto, qu es lo que te sigue moviendo? Como les contaba, lo de la rodilla y eso, qu te dar el empujn? +Porque no es solo la mente. +He viajado por el mundo, con mil cros gritando tu nombre y es una experiencia muy rara, muy visceral. +Y te metes en el coche, te vas, y despus de 10 minutos, sales y a nadie le importa un comino quin eres. Y te da una perspectiva muy clara de: "soy yo mismo". Y la popularidad, qu significa realmente? Poca cosa. +Es el respeto a los colegas lo que nos mueve. Es lo nico que nos hace hacer todo esto. Me he roto una docena de huesos... Este tipo ha sufrido 8... 10 traumatismos, ya llega a ser cmico, no? +Es realmente cmico, le hacen bromas. +Y ahora, y esto es ms profundo, y es aqu donde... creo que estaba de gira cuando, le una biografa de Feynman, era la roja o la azul. +Y haca esta afirmacin que me pareci muy profunda: +Era que el Premio Nobel era la lpida de todo gran trabajo, y se me qued grabado porque haba ganado 35 concursos de 36 en que particip durante 11 aos, y me volvi loco +De hecho, ganar no es la palabra. Gan una vez. +Lo dems es solo defender, adoptas una actitud como de tortuga. +Donde ya no haces nada. Usurp la alegra de lo que me gustaba hacer porque ya no lo haca para crear y divertirme, y cuando desapareci, fue de lo ms liberador porque poda crear. +Y miren, entiendo que con esto puedo llegar a ser moralizante. Y no estoy aqu para eso. +Es que estoy ante una audiencia muy privilegiada. +Krisztina Holly: Tengo una pregunta. +Entonces te has reinventado en el pasado de 'freestyle' a 'callejero', y, creo que hace cuatro aos que te retiraste oficialmente. Es as? Qu es lo prximo? +Rodney Mullen: Buena pregunta... +KH: Algo me dice que no se acaba aqu. +RM: S, cada vez que piensas que has conseguido algo, es gracioso, da igual lo bueno que seas, y s que con tipos as, es como pulir excremento. +RM: Te mando un SMS. +KH: Gracias. Buen trabajo . RM: Gracias. +Hace dos semanas, estaba sentado a la mesa de mi cocina con mi esposa Katya, y conversbamos acerca de lo que voy a hablarles hoy. +Tenemos un hijo de 11 aos, Lincoln, y estaba sentado a la mesa con nosotros +haciendo su tarea de matemticas. +Durante una pausa en mi conversacin con Katya, mir a Lincoln y de pronto qued absorto por el recuerdo de uno de mis clientes. +Mi cliente era un tipo llamado Will. +Era del norte de Texas. +Nunca conoci bien a su padre, porque los haba abandonado cuando su mam estaba embarazada de l. +As que, su destino fue ser criado por una mam soltera, lo que hubiese estado bien, excepto que esta mam en particular padeca eszquizofrenia paranoide, y cuando Will tena cinco aos, ella trat de matarlo con un cuchillo. +Las autoridades se la llevaron y la internaron en un hospital psiquitrico, y as, en los aos siguentes, Will vivi con su hermano mayor hasta que ste se suicid dndose un tiro directo al corazn. +Despus de eso, Will pas a vivir con un familiar tras otro; y para cuando tena 9 aos, estaba viviendo prcticamente solo. +Esa maana en la cocina con Katya y Lincoln, mir a mi hijo, y me di cuenta de que cuando mi cliente, Will, tena su edad, ya haba estado viviendo solo durante dos aos. +Con el tiempo, Will se uni a una pandilla y cometi varios crmenes muy graves, ente ellos, el ms grave de todos, un trgico y horrible asesinato. +A la larga, Will fue ejecutado como castigo por ese crimen. +Pero hoy no quiero hablarles de la moralidad detrs de la pena capital. Claro que creo que mi cliente +no debi haber sido ejecutado. En vez de eso, me gustara hablarles de la pena de muerte como no lo he hecho antes; de una manera +Creo que es posible, porque hay un punto en el debate de la pena de muerte; quiz el punto ms importante; donde todos estamos de acuerdo, donde los partidarios ms fervientes de la pena de puerte y los abolicionistas ms enrgicos estn exactamente de acuerdo. +Ese es el ngulo que quiero explorar. +Pero antes que nada, quisiera tomar unos minutos para mostrarles cmo se desarrolla un caso de pena de muerte, y luego quiero compartirles dos lecciones que he aprendido en los ltimos 20 aos como abogado especilista en pena capital, despus de haber observado ms de un centenar de casos desarrollarse de esta forma. +Se puede pensar en un caso de pena capital como una historia de cuatro captulos. +El primer captulo, en cada caso, es exactamente el mismo, y es trgico. +Comienza con el asesinato de una persona inocente, a esto le sigue un juicio donde al asesino lo condenan a la pena de muerte, y, en ltima instancia, el tribunal estatal de apelaciones ratifica esa sentencia de muerte. +El segundo captulo consiste de un complicado proceso jurdico, conocido como la apelacin estatal de habeas corpus. +El tercer captulo es un proceso jurdico an ms complejo, conocido como el procedimiento federal de habeas corpus. +En el cuarto captulo, +varias cosas pueden pasar. Los abogados pueden presentar una peticin de clemencia, pueden iniciar litigios an ms complejos, o pueden no hacer nada. +Pero el cuarto captulo siempre termina con una ejecucin. +Cuando comenc a representar a condenados a la pena de muerte hace ms de 20 aos, estos reos no tienan derecho a un abogado, ni en el segundo ni en el cuarto captulo de esta historia. +Estaban por su cuenta. +De hecho, no fue sino hasta finales de los aos 80 que tuvieron derecho a un abogado durante el tercer captulo de la historia. +Entonces estos reos deban depender de los abogados voluntarios para que se ocuparan de sus procesos jurdicos. +El problema era que haba muchos ms reos que abogados que tuvieran el inters y la experiencia para trabajar en los casos. +Y as, inevitablemente, los abogados se hacan cargo de los casos que iban por el cuarto captulo. +Es lgico, son los casos ms urgentes, son las personas ms cercanas a la ejecucin. +Algunos de estos abogados tuvieron xito; lograron nuevos juicios para sus clientes. +Otros, pudieron extender la vida de sus clientes durante aos o a veces meses. +Pero lo que no sucedi fue una reduccin seria y constante en el nmero de ejecuciones anuales en Texas. +De hecho, como pueden observar en la grfica, para cuando el aparato de ejecuciones de Texas se volvi ms efectivo, a mediados y finales de los aos 90, haba habido solo un par de aos en que el nmero de ejecuciones anuales baj a menos de 20. +En un ao tpico en Texas, hablamos de un promedio de dos personas al mes. +En ocasiones, en Texas, hemos ejecutado cerca de 40 personas al ao y este nmero no ha disminuido significativamente en los ltimos 15 aos. +An as, seguimos ejecutando ms o menos el mismo nmero de personas cada ao. El nmero de gente a la que sentenciamos a muerte anualmente ha disminuido de manera ms bien abrupta. +Esto es una paradoja: por un lado, el nmero de ejecuciones anuales ha permanecido alto y por el otro lado, el nmero de sentencias a muerte ha disminuido. +Cul es la razn? +No se le puede atribuir a un descenso en la tasa de asesinatos, pues sta no ha disminuido tan sbitamente como la lne roja en esa grfica. +Lo que ha pasado es que ahora los jurados condenan cada vez a ms gente a cadena perpetua sin posibilidad de llibertad condicional, en vez de mandarlos a la cmara de ejecucin. +Por qu ha pasado esto? +No ha sido por falta de apoyo a la pena de muerte +Los que se oponen a ella se consuelan con el hecho de que la pena de muerte en Texas est en su punto ms bajo. +Saben cul es el punto ms bajo en Texas? +Es el rango bajo del 60 %. +Qu caus este fenmeno? +Lo que pas es que los abogados que representan a los convictos a pena de muerte se han concentrado en los primeros captulos de la historia de la pena capital. +As que hace 25 aos, centraban su atencin en el captulo cuatro. +Luego, pasaron del captulo cuatro al tres a finales de los aos 80. +Despus pasaron del captulo tres al dos +a mediados de los aos 90. A mediados y a finales de los aos 90, se empezaron a concentrar en el captulo uno de la historia. +Se puede pensar que esta disminucin en sentencias a muerte y el aumento en el nmero de cadenas perptuas es algo bueno o algo malo. +No quiero abordar esa discusin hoy. +Solo les quiero decir que la razn de esto es que los abogados especialistas en pena capital entendieron que entre ms temprano intervengan en un caso, ms probable es que se pueda salvar al cliente. +Eso es lo primero que entendieron. +Tambin aprendieron algo ms: Mi cliente Will no fue la excepcin a la regla; l fue la regla. +A veces digo que si me dicen el nombre de un condenado a pena de muerte, no importa en cul estado est, no importa si ya lo conozco, escribir su biografa. +Ocho veces de diez, los detalles de esa biografa sern ms o menos exactos. +Esto es porque el 80 % de los condenados a pena de muerte provienen del mismo tipo de familias disfuncionales que Will. +80% de los condenados a pena de muerte ha estado expuesto al sistema de justicia juvenil. +Esa es la segunda leccin que aprend. +Estamos justo en esa interseccin en donde todos estaremos de acuerdo. +Algunos de ustedes pueden no estar de acuerdo con que Will fuera ejecutado, pero creo que todos estaramos de acuerdo en que la mejor versin posible de esta historia sera una historia en la que no hubiera ejecuciones. +Cmo logramos esto? +Hce dos semanas, cuando nuestro hijo Lincoln haca su tarea de matemticas, trabajaba en un problema largo y complicado +Aprenda cmo, cuando se tiene un problema complicado, a veces hay que solucionarlo dividindolo en partes ms pequeas. +Eso es lo que hacemos con la mayora de los problemas, en matemticas, fsica y an en poltica social. Los dividimos en partes ms pequeas, ms manejables. +Sin embargo, de vez en cuando, como dijo Dwight Eisenhower, la manera de resolver un problema es hacerlo ms grande. +La manera como resolvemos este problema es hacer la cuestin de la pena de muerte ms grande. +Decimos, entonces, muy bien, +tenemos estos cuatro captulos en una historia de pena de muerte, pero qu pasa antes de que esta historia empiece? +Cmo podemos intervenir en la vida de un asesino antes de que se convierta en tal? +Qu opciones tenemos para sacarlo del camino que lo llevar a lo que todos, los que apoyan y los que se oponen a la pena capital, piensan es un mal resultado: el asesinato de un ser humano inocente? +Saben, a veces la gente dice que algo no es ciencia de avanzada. +Lo que quieren decir es que se trata de algo muy complicado y que este problema del que hablamos es realmente simple. +Es ciencia de avanzada es la expresin para referirse a formas de tecnologa muy avanzadas. +De lo que hablamos hoy es igual de complicado. +De lo que hablamos hoy es ciencia de avanzada. +Mi cliente Will y el 80 % de los sentenciados a la pena de muerte tenan cinco captulos en su vida antes de los cuatro captulos en la historia de la pena de muerte. +Veo estos cinco captulos como puntos de intervencin, momentos en sus vidas cuando nuestra sociedadd pudo haber intervenido y sacarlos del camino por el que iban y que tuvo como consecuencia lo que todos, los que apoyan la pena de muerte y los que se oponen a ella, dicen es un mal resultado. +No estoy aqu frente a ustedes con la solucin. +Pero el hecho de que an tengamos mucho que aprender, no significa que ya no sepamos bastante. +Sabemos por experiencia en otros estados que hay una gran variedad de formas de intervencin que podemos usar en Texas y en otros estados que an no las usan para prevenir una consecuencia que a todos nos parece negativa. +Solo mencionar unas cuantas. +No hablar de reformar el sistema jurdico. +Es un tema que es ms apropiado para un saln lleno de abogados y jueces. +Se podra dar atencin y cuidado en los primeros aos de infancia para los nios de bajos recursos y con otros problemas, y se podra ofrecer este servicio gratis. +Podramos sacar a chicos como Will del camino en el que estn. +Otros estados lo hacen, pero nosotros no. +Podramos ofrecer colegios especiales a nivel de secundaria y bachillerato, y an a nivel de preescolar y primaria, especficamente para nios desfavorecidos y de bajos recursos y en particular nios que han estado expuestos al sistema de justicia juvenil. +Hay unos cuantos estados que lo hacen; Texas no. +Hay otra cosa que se puede hacer, bueno, hay muchas otras cosas, pero, de todo lo que dir hoy, hay una en particular que causa controversia. +Podemos intervenir de manera ms agresiva en los hogares extremadamente disfuncionales, y sacar a los nios de all antes de que sus madres los amenacen de muerte con un cuchillo. +Si hacemos esto, vamos a necesitar de un lugar para llevarlos. An haciendo todo esto, habr algunos nios que quedarn al margen y terminarn en el ltimo captulo antes de que la historia de asesinato empiece; van a terminar en el sistema de justicia juvenil. +An si esto ocurre, no es demasiado tarde. +Tadava hay tiempo para rescatarlos; si pensamos en rescatarlos +en vez de slo castigarlos. En el noreste, hay dos profesores, uno en Yale y el otro en Maryland, que abrieron un colegio que est anexada a una prisin juvenil. +Los chicos son presos pero van al colegio de ocho de la maana a cuatro de la tarde. +Tuvieron que contratar maestros +que quisieran ensear dentro de una prisin; tuvieron que establecer un lmite muy claro entre la gente que trabaja en el colegio y las autoridades de la prisin. Pero lo ms difcil fue que tuvieron que inventar un currculo nuevo pues, saben qu? +la gente no llega y sale de la crcel por semestres. +Pero an as, hicieron todo esto. +Qu tienen en comn todas estas cosas? +Lo que tienen en comn es que cuestan dinero. +Algunos de ustedes han vivido lo suficiente para acordarse del comercial del tipo del filtro de aceite. +Deca, "Puede pagarme ahora o puede pagarme despus". +Lo que hacemos en el sistema de pena capital es que pagamos despus. Pero el problema es que +por cada 15 000 dlares que gastamos al intervenir en la vida de nios desprotegidos y de bajos recursos en esos primeros captulos, ahorramos 80 000 dlares en costos relacionados con el crimen ms adelante. +An si no estn de acuerdo en que es una obligacin moral que lo hagamos, tiene sentido desde un punto de vista econmico. +Quisiera contarles acerca de la ltima conversacin que tuve con Will. +Fue el da de su ejecucin. y estbamos ah hablando. +Ya no se poda hacer nada en su caso. +Hablbamos de su vida. +Primero me habl de su padre, a quien conoci muy poco y que ya haba muerto. Luego, habl de su madre, a quien s conoci y que todava vive. +Le pregunt, "Conozco tu historia. +Le los documentos. +S que trat de matarte". +Le pregunt, "Pero siempre me pregunt si de verdad recuerdas eso". +Luego le dije, Yo no recuerdo nada de cuando tena cinco aos. +Tal vez recuerdes que alguien te lo haya contado". +Me mir y se inclin hacia adelante y dijo, "Profesor", me conoci durante 12 aos y an me llamaba Profesor. +Espero que haya una cosa que ustedes no olviden: Entre el momento en que llegaron esta maana y la pausa del almuerzo en los Estados Unidos. +Vamos a invertir una gran cantidad de recursos sociales para castigar a la gente que comete esos crmenes, y eso est bien, pues hay que castigar a aquellos que hacen cosas malas. +Sin embargo, tres de esos crmenes podran prevenirse. +Si vemos el panorama desde una perspectiva ms amplia y prestamos atencin a los primeros captulos, nunca vamos a escribir la primera oracin que empieza la historia de la pena de muerte. +Gracias. +Aquellos que han visto la pelcula Moneyball o han ledo el libro de Michael Lewis, estarn familiarizados con la historia de Billy Beane. +Billy tena todo para ser un gran jugador, todos los reclutadores se lo decan. +Ellos le dijeron a sus padres que predecan que iba a ser una estrella. +Pero lo que realmente pas cuando firm el contrato, que por cierto, l no quiso firmarlo porque quera ir a la universidad, que es lo que mi madre, que me ama de verdad, dijo que yo tambin deba hacer y lo hice. Bueno, a l no le fue muy bien. Luch con fuerza. +Se cambi de equipo un par de veces, fue a parar en las ligas menores durante gran parte de su carrera, y termin en la administracin llegando a ser director general de los Atlticos de Oakland. +Para muchos de Uds, terminar en administracin, que es tambin lo hago, se ve como un xito. +Les puedo asegurar que para un chico que trata de llegar a las ligas mayores, terminar en administracin no es ninguna historia de xito, es un fracaso. +Lo que quiero compartir con Uds. es que nuestro sistema de salud o mdico, es tan malo para predecir lo que le suceder a los pacientes, como los reclutadores al predecir lo que le pasara a Billy Beane. +Y, sin embargo, cada da a miles de personas en este pas se les diagnostican enfermedades preexistentes. +Omos hablar de prehipertensin, predemencia, preansiedad y estoy casi seguro de que me autodiagnostiqu eso en los camerinos. +Tambin nos referimos a las afecciones subclnicas. +Hay aterosclerosis subclnica, endurecimiento de las arterias subclnico, obviamente vinculado a ataques cardacos, potencialmente. +Uno de mis favoritos se llama acn subclnico. +Si investigan sobre acn subclnico, quiz encuentren un sitio, como yo hice, que dice que este es el tipo de acn ms fcil de tratar. +No tienen las pstulas o el enrojecimiento y la inflamacin. +Tal vez porque en realidad no tiene acn. +Mi apelativo para todas esas afecciones, es otra enfermedad preexistente: yo las llamo absurdas. +En el bisbol, el juego sigue el prejuego. +Las temporadas siguen las pretemporadas. +Pero en la mayora de estas enfermedades, ese no es el caso, o al menos no siempre. Es como si siempre hubiese un retraso por la lluvia en muchos casos. +Tenemos lesiones precancerosas que no siempre se convierten en cncer. +Y, sin embargo, si tomamos, por ejemplo, la osteoporosis subclnica, un mal del adelgazamiento de los huesos, la enfermedad preexistente, tambin conocida como osteopenia, tendramos que tratar a 270 mujeres durante 3 aos para evitar que se rompan un hueso. +Son muchsimas mujeres, cuando se multiplica por el nmero de mujeres diagnosticadas con esta osteopenia. +Hemos medicalizado todo en este pas. +A las mujeres en la audiencia, les tengo muy malas noticias que ya conocen y es que hemos medicalizado cada fase de su vida. +El primer strike es cuando llegan a la pubertad. +Ahora tienen algo que les sucede una vez al mes y que est medicalizado. +Es un trastorno que debe ser tratado. Segundo strike viene si se embarazan +y tambin est medicalizado. +Deben probar la tecnologa de punta en el embarazo, de lo contrario algo puede ir mal. +Tercer strike es la menopausia. +Todos sabemos qu pas cuando millones de mujeres recibieron terapia de reemplazo hormonal para los sntomas menopusicos durante dcadas, hasta que de repente nos dimos cuenta, por los resultados de un estudio grande, en realidad, mucho de la terapia de reemplazo hormonal puede hacer ms dao que bien a muchas de estas mujeres. +Por si acaso, no quiero dejar de lado a los hombres, soy uno de ellos, despus de todo. Tengo muy malas noticias para todos Uds. en esta sala y para todos los que nos escuchan y ven en otros lugares: todos Uds. tienen una enfermedad universal y mortal. +Esperen un momento. +Se llama premuerte. +Todos y cada uno de Uds. la tiene, porque tienen el factor de riesgo que es estar vivo. +Pero tengo algunas buenas noticias porque soy periodista y me gusta terminar las cosas de una manera feliz o visionaria. +Y esa buena noticia es que si pueden sobrevivir hasta el final de mi charla, veremos si eso les ocurre a todos, sern presupervivientes. +Ya antes invent lo de la premuerte, +pero si he tomado ese trmino de otra persona, pido disculpas, creo que lo he inventado. +Pero no he inventado presuperviviente. +Presuperviviente es lo que algn grupo de apoyo a personas con cncer quisiera llamar a los que slo tienen un factor de riesgo, pero no han tenido ese cncer. Ustedes son presupervivientes. +Estuvo gente de HBO aqu esta maana. +Me pregunto si Mark Burnett, est an entre el pblico; me gustara sugerirle un programa de telerrealidad llamado Presuperviviente. +Si Uds. desarrollan una enfermedad, quedan fuera de la isla. +Pero el problema es que tenemos un sistema que es completamente... bsicamente promovi esto. +Hemos seleccionado, en cada punto de este sistema, hacer lo que hacemos y dar a todos una condicin preexistente y finalmente una enfermedad, en algunos casos. +Comencemos con la relacin mdico-paciente. Los mdicos, la mayora, tienen un sistema de pago por servicio. Prcticamente los incentivan a realizar ms procedimientos, exmenes, +prescripciones de medicamentos. Los pacientes acuden a ellos, quieren hacer algo. Somos estadounidenses, no podemos quedarnos de brazos cruzados; +tenemos que hacer algo. Y lo que quieren son medicamentos, un tratamiento, que se les diga lo que tienen y la forma de tratarlo. Si el mdico no lo hace, irn a otro lugar. +Eso no es muy bueno para el negocio de los mdicos. +Pero, no se trata, a pesar de lo que los periodistas suelen hacer, no se trata de culpar a unos jugadores en particular. +Todos somos responsables. +Yo soy responsable. +De hecho, apoyo a los Yankees, me refiero a apoyar al peor delincuente posible, cuando se trata de hacer todo lo que se puede hacer. +Gracias. +Pero cada uno es responsable. +Fui a la escuela de medicina y nunca llev cursos llamados cmo pensar con escepticismo o cmo hacer para no ordenar exmenes. +Tenemos este sistema en el que eso es justamente lo que hacemos. +Es ms, tuve que ser un periodista quien entendiera todos estos incentivos. Ya saben, a los economistas les gusta decir que no hay gente mala, solo hay malos incentivos. +Y efectivamente, eso es cierto. +Porque hemos creado una especie de Campo de sueos cuando se trata de la tecnologa mdica. +Al traer otra mquina para resonancia magntica, estamos llevando al hospital un robot que dice que todos debemos hacernos una ciruga robtica. +Bueno, hemos creado un sistema en el que si lo construyes, ellos vendrn. +Pero en realidad se puede convencer perversamente a gente sana de que tienen que venir. +Al hacerme periodista, me di cuenta realmente que yo era parte del problema y cmo todos somos parte de este problema. +Todos los das, medicalizaba factores de riesgo, escriba cuentos, encargaba historias que no necesariamente intentaban que la gente se preocupara, aunque eso era lo que ocurra a menudo. +Pero, ya saben, hay soluciones. +Vi a mi propio internista la semana pasada y me dijo: Ya sabes y me dijo algo que todos en esta audiencia me hubiesen dicho de forma gratuita, pero le pagu por la exclusiva: que necesito perder peso. +Bueno, tiene razn. Honestamente, sufro de presin arterial alta desde hace doce aos, a la misma edad que mi padre la tuvo y es una enfermedad real. No se trata de prehipertensin, es realmente hipertensin, presin arterial alta. +Bueno, l tiene razn, pero no me dijo que tena preobesidad o prediabetes, ni nada de eso. Tampoco dijo que deba tomar estatinas, que necesitaba bajar el colesterol. +Me dijo: Baja un poco de peso y regresa a verme en breve o simplemente llmeme y hzme saber lo que est haciendo. +As que ese es mi camino a seguir. +Billy Beane, por cierto, se enter de lo mismo. +Aprendi, de ver a este chico, que finalmente contrat y que fue todo un xito para l, que no estaba bateando hacia las vallas, que no bateaba todas las bolas como hacen los bateadores, como hacen todos los equipos caros a los Yankees les gusta hacer, a ellos les gusta reclutar estos chicos. +Gracias. +Como mago, siempre me interesan las actuaciones con un toque de ilusin. +Y una de las ms notables fue en el teatro de Tanagra, que fue muy popular a principios del siglo XX. +Usaba espejos para crear la ilusin de que actuaba gente pequea en un escenario en miniatura. No voy a usar espejos ahora, pero este es mi homenaje digital al teatro de Tanagra. +Que comience la historia! +En una noche oscura y tormentosa, de verdad!, del 10 de julio de 1856, +el cielo se ilumin de relmpagos y naci un beb. +Su nombre era Nikola, Nikola Tesla. +El beb creci y se convirti en un tipo muy inteligente. +Se los mostrar. +Tesla, cunto es 236 multiplicado por 501? +Nikola Tesla: El resultado es 118 236. +Marco Tempest: El cerebro de Tesla funcionaba de la manera ms extraordinaria. +Cuando se mencionaba una palabra, la imagen de esta apareca al instante en su mente. +rbol. Silla. Chica. +Eran alucinaciones que se desvanecan en el momento que las tocaba. +Probablemente, una forma de sinestesia. +Pero era algo que l usara a su favor ms adelante. +Mientras otros cientficos trabajaban en sus laboratorios, Tesla creaba inventos en su cabeza. +NT: Para mi deleite, descubr que poda visualizar mis inventos con la mayor facilidad. +MT: Y si funcionaban en esa ntida fantasa ldica de su imaginacin, luego los construa en su taller. +NT: No necesitaba modelos, dibujos ni experimentos. +Poda verlos mentalmente en imgenes reales, y los pona en prctica, los probaba y mejoraba. +Solo entonces los fabricaba. +MT: Su gran idea fue la corriente alterna. +Pero cmo iba a convencer al pblico de que los millones de voltios necesarios para que funcionara no eran peligrosos? +Para vender su idea, se convirti en showman. +NT: Estamos en los albores de una nueva era, la era de la electricidad. +Gracias a un cuidadoso invento, puedo transmitir electricidad a travs del ter con el simple toque de un interruptor. +Es la magia de la ciencia. +Tesla tiene ms de 700 patentes a su nombre: radio, telegrafa inalmbrica, control remoto, robtica. +Incluso tom fotos de los huesos del cuerpo humano. +Pero el punto culminante fue la realizacin de un sueo de la infancia: controlar la energa avasalladora de las cataratas del Nigara y traer la luz a la ciudad. +Pero el xito de Tesla no dur mucho. +NT: Tena ideas ms importantes. +Iluminar la ciudad fue solo el comienzo. +Un centro de telegrafa mundial; imaginen noticias, mensajes, sonidos, imgenes transmitidas a cualquier punto del mundo al instante y de forma inalmbrica. +MT: Es una gran idea, fue un proyecto enorme y costoso, tambin. +NT: Ellos no iban a darme el dinero. +MT: Bueno, quiz no debera haber dicho que podra usarse para entrar en contacto con otros planetas. +NT: S, eso fue un gran error. +MT: Tesla nunca recuper su carrera como inventor. +Se convirti en un recluso. +Esquivado por la muerte, pasaba gran parte del tiempo en su suite del Waldorf-Astoria. +NT: Todo lo que hice fue para la humanidad, por un mundo donde los pobres no seran humillados por la violencia de los ricos, donde los productos del intelecto, la ciencia y el arte serviran a la sociedad para mejorar la vida y hacerla ms agradable. +MT: Nikola Tesla falleci el 7 de enero de 1943. +Su ltima morada es un globo dorado que contiene sus cenizas en el Museo Nikola Tesla en Belgrado. +Su legado todava est con nosotros. +Tesla se convirti en el hombre que ilumin el mundo, pero esto fue solo el comienzo. +La visin de Tesla fue profunda. +NT: Dime, qu va a hacer el hombre cuando los bosques desaparezcan, y los depsitos de carbn se agoten? +MT: Tesla pens que tena la respuesta. +Todava nos hacemos esa pregunta. +Gracias. +Buenas noches +Estamos en este maravilloso anfiteatro al aire libre y la estamos pasando bien en esta noche de clima templado. Pero cuando Qatar sea el anfitrin de la Copa Mundial de Ftbol dentro de 10 aos, en el 2022, ya omos que ser en los calurosos y soleados meses de junio y julio. +Cuando Qatar fue nombrado organizador de la Copa del Mundo mucha gente en todas partes se empez a preguntar cmo sera posible que los jugadores demostraran sus mejores destrezas jugando en un clima desrtico como este? Cmo sera posible que los espectadores disfrutaran de los partidos en estadios al aire libre en un lugar tan caluroso? +Junto con los arquitectos de Albert Speer & Partner, nuestros ingenieros de Transsolar han estado desarrollando estadios al aire libre que funcionen 100% con energa solar, 100% con enfriamiento solar. +Djenme hablarles al respecto, pero antes voy a comenzar con la comodidad. +Comenzar hablando del factor comodidad pues mucha gente confunde temperatura ambiente con comodidad trmica. +Estamos acostumbrados a mirar grficos como ste, y vean esta lnea roja que muestra la temperatura del aire en junio y julio, y tal como lo ven, llega a los 45 grados C. +Es realmente muy caliente. +Pero la temepratura del aire no es todo el conjunto de parmetros climticos que definen la comodidad. +Les voy a mostrar un anlisis que un colega mo llev a cabo al observar differentes eventos como copas nundiales y juegos olmpicos en distintos lugares del mundo, teniendo en cuenta y analizando el nivel de comodidad que la gente percibi durante esas actividades deportivas. Comencemos con Mxico. +La temperatura de Mxico... La temperatura del aire estuvo entre 15 y 30 grados C. y la gente la pas bien. +El partido en ciudad de Mxico fue muy cmodo. Observen. +En Orlando, el mismo tipo de estadio, un estadio al aire libre. La gente haba estado sentada bajo un sol fuerte, y un alto ndice de humedad por la tarde, y no la pasaron bien. Fue incmodo. +La temperatura del aire no fue muy alta, y sin embargo, la gente no disfrut de estos juegos. +Y Seul? A causa de los derechos de transmisin, todos los juegos fueron al final de la tarde. El sol ya se haba puesto y la gente se sinti cmoda durante los juegos. +Qu pas en Atenas? Es el clima del Mediterrneo, pero estar bajo el sol no fue nada cmodo. La gente no disfrut de los eventos. +Y por Espaa, conocemos el "sol y sombra". +Una entrada para la sombra, cuesta ms por estar en un ambiente ms cmodo. +Qu pas en Pekn? +De nuevo, hay sol durante el da y el clima es muy hmedo; no fue cmodo. +Por qu pasa esto? +Porque hay ms parmetros que influyen en nuestra comodidad trmica, entre ellos, el sol, el sol directo, el sol difuso, el viento, el viento fuerte, suave, la humedad del aire, la temperatura radiante del entorno donde nos encontramos. +Esta es la temperatura del aire. +Todos estos parmetros influyen en la sensacin de comodidad de nuestro cuerpo. Los cientficos han desarrollado un parmetro que es la temperatura percibida, en el que incluyen todos estos factores y que ayuda a los diseadores a entender cul es el dato impulsor que nos permite sentirnos cmodos o incmodos. +Cul es el dato impulsor que hace que yo perciba determinada temperatura? Estos parmetros, climticos estn relacionados con el metabolismo humano. +A causa de nuestro metabolismo, como seres humanos, producimos calor. +As de sencillo .Si no me deshago de la energa, morir +Durante la Copa Mundial de Ftbol, en junio y julio, en realidad la temperatura del aire ser mucho ms alta. Como los partidos tendrn lugar en la tarde, probablemente se tendr el mismo nivel de otros lugares que no se han sido considerado cmodos +As que nos sentamos con el equipo que prepar la propuesta. Nuestro objetivo era apuntarle a la temperatura percibida, para una comodidad exterior en ese rango, que se sienta como una temperatura de 32 grados de temperatura percibida, la cual es muy cmoda. +La gente se sentira muy bien en un lugar abierto. +Pero, Qu significa esto? +Si miramos lo que pasa, vemos que la temepratura es muy alta. +Si aplicamos el mejor diseo arquitectnico, un diseo de ingenieria climtica, las cosas no mejorarn mucho. +Entonces necesitamos algo ms activo. +Por ejemplo, trabajamos con tecnologa de enfriamiento radiante y debemos combinar esto con el llamado acondicionamiento suave. +Cmo se ve esto en un estadio? +El estadio tiene algunos elementos que hacen posible esta comodidad exterior. Primero, su sombra. Hay que proteger a la gente sentada, contra un viento fuerte y clido. +Pero eso no es todo lo que hay que hacer. Necesitamos usar sistemas activos. +En lugar de provocar un huracn de aire helado por todo el estadio, podemos usar la tecnologa de enfriamiento radiante, como un sistema de calefaccin del suelo, en el cual tubos de agua son encrustados en el piso. +Solo con usar agua fra que vaya por los tubos, se puede liberar el calor que se absorbe durante el da en el estadio, para as crear comodidad, y luego al aadir aire seco en lugar de aire helado, los espectadores y jugadores pueden ajustarse a sus necesidades individuales de comodidad, a su balance individual de energa. +Pueden ajustar y encontrar su propia comodidad. +Tal vez haya 12 estadios pero hay 32 campos de entrenamiento, en donde todos los paises van a entrenar. +Aplicamos el mismo concepto: dar sombra al rea de entrenamiento por medio de un resguardo contra el viento, y por medio de la grama. +El csped regado de manera natural es una buena manera de enfriamiento; estabiliza la temepratura, y usa el aire deshumidificado para crear la sensacin de comodidad. +Sin embargo, ni el mejor diseo pasivo servira. +Necesitamos un sistema activo. +Y Cmo logramos esto? +Nuestra propuesta era utilizar 100% enfriamiento solar, basndonos en usar el techo de los estadios, lo cubrimos con sistemas fotovoltaicos. +No pedimos prestada energa del pasado. +No usamos energa fsil. +No pedimos prestada energa de nuestros vecinos. +Usamos energa que podemos recoger en nuestros techos, y tambin en los campos de entrenamiento, que estarn cubiertos con lminas largas y flexibles. En los prximos aos veremos una industria de pneles fotovoltaicos flexibles que brindarn la posibilidad de dar sombra contra el sol fuerte y al mismo tiempo producirn energa elctrica. +Ahora, esta energa se acumula a lo largo del ao, se enva a la red de suministro, all reemplaza fsiles y cuando necesite esta energa para enfriar, puedo tomarla de la misma red. Uso la energa solar que haba llevado a la red ahora que la necesito para el enfriamiento solar. +Puedo hacer esto el primer ao y puedo equilibrarlo en los siguientes 10 y 20 aos. Esta energa, que se necesitar para acondicionar un evento como la Copa del Mundo en Qatar, dentro de 20 aos, ir a parar a la red de suministro. +As que esto... Muchas gracias. ...esto no slo es til para los estadios. Podemos usarlo en lugares al aire libre, calles. Hemos estado trabajando en la Ciudad del Futuro en Masdar, en los Emiratos rabes, Abu Dhabi. +Tuve el placer de trabajar en la plaza central. +con estos hermosos parasoles. +As que quisiera alentarlos a que presten atencin a su comodidad trmica, a su entorno trmico, esta noche y maana y, si quieren saber ms sobre el tema, los invito a que visiten nuestra pgina web. +Colocamos una calculadora muy simple para determinar la temperatura percibida. Con esta calculadora se puede verificar su nivel de comodidad exterior. +Muchas gracias. Shukran. +Hace unos 75 aos, mi abuelo, un joven, entr en una tienda de campaa convertida en una sala de cine como sta, y se enamor perdidamente de la mujer que all vio en la gran pantalla: nada menos que Mae West, la diva de los aos 30, y nunca pudo olvidarla. +De hecho, cuando tuvo su hija, muchos aos despus, quiso llamarla Mae West, pero, se imaginan una nia india llamada Mae West? +La familia india dijo, de ningn modo! +As, cuando naci mi hermano gemelo Kaesava decidi retocar la escritura del nombre Keshava. +Dijo, si Mae West va con M-A-E, por qu Keshava no es con K-A-E? +As que cambi la escritura a Kaesava. +Ahora Kaesava tuvo un beb llamado Rehan, hace un par de semanas. +Y decidi escribirlo o, mejor dicho escribirlo mal, con A-E. +Ya ven, mi abuelo muri hace muchos aos cuando yo era pequeo, pero su amor por Mae West perdura en esta forma escrita en el ADN de su prole. +Para m eso es un legado exitoso. En lo que a m respecta, con mi esposa tenemos nuestro propio legado disparatado. +Durante aos nos sentamos, discutimos, no estbamos de acuerdo, peleamos, hasta que llegamos a nuestro propio plan a 200 aos. +Nuestros amigos piensan que estamos locos. +Nuestros padres tambin. +Porque ambos venimos de familias que realmente admiran la humildad y la sabidura pero nosotros queremos trascender esta vida. +Creo en la idea de Raja Yogi: ser un tipo normal antes de ser un asceta. +Aqu estoy yo, como estrella de rock, aunque sea en mi casa. +Saben? +Cuando nos sentamos con Netra a hacer nuestro primer plan hace 10 aos, dijimos: queremos que el ncleo de este plan nos trascienda por mucho. +Qu quiere decir nos trascienda? +Bueno, calculamos que 200 aos es el final de nuestro contacto directo con el mundo. +No conocer a nadie en mi vida que viva ms de 200 aos, as que pensamos que ese es un lapso perfecto para emplazar nuestro plan y dejamos volar nuestra imaginacin. +En realidad, nunca cre en el legado. Qu voy a dejar yo? Soy un artista. +Hasta que hice una caricatura del 11-S. +Eso me trajo muchos problemas. +Estaba muy molesto. +Una caricatura pensada para una semana termin permaneciendo mucho ms. +Ahora me dedico a crear arte que definitivamente me sobrevivir y pienso en qu ser lo que quiero dejar con esas pinturas. +La caricatura del 11-S me molest tanto que decid nunca volver a hacer caricaturas. +Me dije, nunca ms volvera a hacer un comentario honesto en pblico. +Pero, claro, segu creando arte honesto y en bruto porque olvid las reacciones de la gente a mi obra. +A veces olvidar es muy importante para seguir siendo idealista. +Quiz la prdida de memoria sea crucial para sobrevivir como seres humanos. +Una de las cosas ms importantes de nuestro plan a 200 aos -y lo escrib- es olvidarnos de nosotros mismos. +Cargamos demasiado peso, de nuestros padres, de la sociedad, de mucha gente -- temores, inseguridades -- y nuestro plan a 200 aos enlista todos los problemas de la infancia que deben caducar. +Les pusimos fecha de caducidad a todos los problemas de la infancia. +La ltima caducidad que puse fue decir que voy a dejar de temer a mi suegra izquierdista, feminista y ese da es el da de hoy! Ella est mirando. Como sea, ya saben, tomo decisiones todo el tiempo de cmo quiero que me recuerden y esa es la decisin ms importante que he tomado. +Y esto se traduce directamente en mis pinturas. +Pero al igual que a mis amigos, me va muy bien en Facebook, Pinterest, Twitter, Flickr, YouTube. +Donde digan, estoy. +He empezado a subcontratar mi memoria digital al mundo. Saben? Eso acarrea un problema. +Puede pensarse fcilmente en la tecnologa como metfora de la memoria, pero el cerebro no es un dispositivo de almacenamiento perfecto como la tecnologa. +Slo recordamos lo que queremos. Al menos yo lo hago. +Entiendo al cerebro como curador sesgado de la memoria, saben? Y si la tecnologa no es una metfora de la memoria, qu es? +Netra y yo, usamos la tecnologa como herramienta para el plan a 200 aos; para ser curadores de nuestro legado digital. +Esta es una foto de mi madre, que hace poco cre una cuenta de Facebook. +Ya imaginan hacia dnde vamos. +Yo la apoy mucho hasta que apareci esta foto en mi pgina de Facebook. Lo primero que hice fue quitar mi etiqueta y luego tom el telfono. Dije: "Ma, no vuelvas a poner una foto ma en bikini nunca ms". +Y me dijo: Por qu? Te ves tan lindo, querido!". Le dije: "No entendiste". +Quiz seamos la primera generacin que entiende realmente este auto-recorte curatorial. +Quiz incluso seamos los primeros en registrar activamente nuestras vidas. +Como saben, les guste o no esto del legado, realmente estamos dejando huellas digitales todo el tiempo. +Por eso con Netra queramos usar nuestro plan a 200 aos para curar este legado digital y no slo el legado digital sino que creemos en curar el legado del pasado y del futuro. +Cmo? Se preguntarn. +Bueno, cuando pienso en el futuro, nunca me veo movindome hacia adelante en el tiempo. En realidad veo el tiempo que retrocede hacia m. +Realmente puedo visualizar el futuro que se me acerca. +Puedo esquivar lo que no quiero y tomar lo que quiero. +Es como un videojuego de obstculos. Y he ido mejorando en esto. Incluso cuando pinto un cuadro, en realidad imagino que estoy detrs del cuadro, que ya existe, y alguien lo est mirando y veo si lo siente desde adentro. +Lo sienten desde lo profundo del corazn o es algo cerebral? +Y eso alimenta mi pintura. +Incluso cuando hago una muestra de arte, realmente pienso qu debera llevarse la gente. +Recuerdo que cuando tena 19 aos quera hacer mi primera muestra de arte y que todo el mundo lo supiera. +En ese entonces, no conoca a TED; as que cerr con fuerza los ojos y empec a soar. Poda imaginar a las personas que venan, bien vestidas, se vean hermosas, mis pinturas con mucha luz, y en mi visualizacin realmente vea a una actriz muy famosa inaugurando la gala; eso me daba credibilidad. +Despert de mi visualizacin y me dije: Quin era? No podra decir si era Shabana Azmi o Rekha, dos actrices indias muy famosas; vendran a ser las Meryl Streep indias. +Y result que a la maana siguiente escrib una carta a ambas, y Shabana Azmi me respondi y vino a la inauguracin de mi primera muestra hace 12 aos. +Y con qu estruendo empez mi carrera! Ya ven, si pensamos el tiempo de esta forma, no slo podemos curar el futuro sino tambin el pasado. +Esta es una foto de mi familia y esta es mi esposa Netra. +Ella es la co-creadora del plan a 200 aos. +Netra es profesora de historia de secundaria. Amo a Netra, pero detesto la historia. +Le sigo diciendo: "Nets, vives en el pasado mientras que yo creo el futuro y cuando termine puedes estudiarlo". +Y con una sonrisa indulgente, a modo de castigo, me dijo: "Maana dar una clase de historia india y t estars all, y te voy a evaluar". +"Oh, Dios", dije y me fui. +En realidad s fui a su clase. Ella empez entregando documentacin primaria de India, Pakistn, Gran Bretaa y dije: "Guau!" Luego pidi que separramos los hechos de la informacin sesgada. +Volv a decir "Guau!" +Y luego dijo: "Elijan sus hechos y su informacin sesgada y creen una imagen de su propia historia de dignidad". +La historia como soporte visual? +Fue de gran inspiracin. +As que cre mi propia versin de la historia india. +Inclu historias de mi abuela. +Ella sola trabajar para la central telefnica y escuchar las conversaciones entre Nehru y Edwina Mountbatten. +Y sola escuchar todo tipo de cosas que no debera haber escuchado. Pero, saben, puse cosas como esas. +Esta es mi versin de la historia india. +Si esto es as se me ocurri que quiz, tal vez, el objetivo principal del cerebro sea preservar la dignidad. +Dganselo a Facebook, a ver si se entera! +Netra y yo no escribimos nuestro plan a 200 aos para que otro venga y lo ejecute dentro de 150 aos. Imagnense que reciben un paquete del pasado que dice que se supone que uno debe pasar el resto de su vida haciendo todo esto. No. +En realidad lo escribimos slo para apuntalar nuestras actitudes. +Yo suelo creer que la educacin es la herramienta ms importante para dejar un legado profundo. +La educacin es genial. +Realmente nos ensea quines somos, y nos ayuda a contextualizarnos en el mundo pero, en verdad, es mi creatividad la que me ense que puedo ser mucho ms de lo que mi educacin me dijo que soy. +Me gustara defender el argumento de que la creatividad es nuestra herramienta ms importante. +Nos permite inventarnos y curar el porvenir. +Me gusta pensarme -gracias- +Me gusta pensarme como narrador, y ver mi pasado y mi futuro como simples historias; mis historias, que esperan ser contadas una y otra vez. Espero que Uds. algn da tengan la oportunidad de escribir y compartir sus historias a 200 aos. +Muchas gracias. +Shukran! +Quiero compartir algunas observaciones de un libro que estoy escribiendo llamado Cartas a un joven cientfico. +Me pareci apropiado presentarlo porque tengo una amplia experiencia en la enseanza y en el asesoramiento a cientficos en varios campos. +Tal vez les gustara escuchar algunos de los principios que he desarrollado para ensear y asesorar. +Permtanme comenzar pidindoles, en particular a los ms jvenes, que lleguen lo ms lejos posible en este camino que han elegido. +El mundo los necesita con urgencia. +La humanidad est de lleno en la era tecnocientfica. +No hay vuelta atrs. +Aunque vara entre disciplinas; digamos la astrofsica, la gentica molecular, la inmunologa, la microbiologa, la salud pblica, hasta la nueva era en la que el cuerpo humano es simbionte, con la salud pblica con la ciencia ambiental. +El conocimiento de la ciencia mdica y la ciencia en general se duplica cada 15 o 20 aos. +La tecnologa aumenta a un ritmo comparable. +Ambas disciplinas ya impregnan, como la mayora de ustedes saben, cada dimensin de la vida humana. +Tan rpida es la velocidad de la revolucin tecnocientfica, tan asombrosos son sus vericuetos, que nadie puede predecir el resultado que tendrn dentro de una dcada. +Llegar un momento, por supuesto, en el que el crecimiento exponencial del descubrimiento y del conocimiento que comenz en el siglo XVII, alcanzar un mximo y se estabilizar, pero eso no los va a afectar. +La revolucin continuar por lo menos durante varias dcadas. +Llevar a la condicin humana a un punto totalmente diferente al actual. +Las reas de estudio tradicionales continuarn creciendo y, al hacerlo, se crearn inevitablemente nuevas disciplinas. +Con el tiempo todas las ciencias sern una continua descripcin, una explicacin de redes, principios y leyes. +Por eso no es suficiente prepararse en una sola disciplina, sino tambin adquirir conocimientos en otros campos relacionados o incluso diferentes a su opcin inicial. +Miren hacia adelante y a su alrededor. +La bsqueda del conocimiento est en nuestros genes. +Fue heredada de nuestros antepasados que se diseminaron por el mundo, y nunca ser saciada. +Para comprenderla y usarla sanamente, como parte de la civilizacin an por evolucionar, se requiere un mayor nmero de personas con una formacin cientfica, como Uds., +en educacin, medicina, derecho, diplomacia, gobierno, negocios y medios de comunicacin actuales. +Nuestros lderes polticos necesitan al menos un modesto grado de conocimiento cientfico del que carecen hoy en da. Sin aplausos, por favor. +Sera mejor para todos si se prepararan antes de asumir el cargo en lugar de aprender sobre la marcha. +Por lo tanto, es recomendable que estn listos, sin importar lo lejos que puedan llegar en el laboratorio, para servir como educadores durante toda su carrera. +Ahora proceder rpidamente, y antes que nada, a un tema que puede ser un atributo vital y a la vez un posible obstculo para una carrera cientfica. +Si no son muy hbiles en matemticas, no se preocupen. +Muchos de los cientficos ms exitosos activos hoy en da son matemticamente semianalfabetas. +Algunos me consideran temerario, pero es mi costumbre dejar de lado el temor a las matemticas cuando charlo con candidatos a cientficos. +Durante 41 aos de ensear biologa en Harvard, observ con tristeza a estudiantes brillantes dar la espalda a la posibilidad de una carrera cientfica o incluso a tomar cursos de ciencia no obligatorios porque teman fracasar. +Esta fobia a las matemticas priva a la ciencia y a la medicina de una enorme cantidad de talentos absolutamente necesarios. +Aqu hay algunos consejos para aliviar la ansiedad, si es que la tienen: Consideren que las matemticas son un idioma como cualquier otro idioma verbal, un idioma que tiene su propia gramtica y sistema lgico. +Cualquier persona con una inteligencia media que aprende a leer y escribir las matemticas a un nivel elemental, como en los lenguajes verbales, tendr poca dificultad para comprender las reglas ms bsicas si decide dominar el lenguaje matemtico de muchas disciplinas cientficas. +Mientras ms se tarden en adquirir al menos un nivel bsico, ms difcil ser dominar el lenguaje matemtico, as como con cualquier lenguaje verbal, pero se puede hacer a cualquier edad. +Hablo como una autoridad en la materia, porque soy un caso extremo. +No estudi lgebra hasta mi primer ao en la Universidad de Alabama. +Antes de eso no se enseaba. +Comenc a estudiar clculo a los 32 aos cuando ya era profesor titular en Harvard, donde no me senta a gusto en clase con estudiantes de poco ms de la mitad de mi edad. +Un par de ellos eran mis alumnos en un curso que daba sobre biologa evolutiva. +Me tragu mi orgullo y aprend clculo. +Descubr que en la ciencia y en todas sus aplicaciones, lo importante no es la habilidad tcnica, sino la imaginacin en todas sus aplicaciones. +La habilidad de formar conceptos con imgenes de entidades y procesos ilustrados por intuicin. +Descubr que los avances en ciencia pocas veces surgen de la capacidad de estar frente a un pizarrn y conjurar imgenes a partir de proposiciones y ecuaciones matemticas por desarrollar. +Son el resultado de la imaginacin que conduce a un trabajo duro, donde el razonamiento matemtico puede ser relevante, o no. +Las ideas surgen cuando se estudia una parte del mundo real o imaginario en s mismo. +Es fundamental un conocimiento minucioso y bien organizado de todo lo que se sabe acerca de las entidades competentes y procesos involucrados en el dominio que se propone abordar. +Cuando se descubre algo nuevo, es lgico que uno de los pasos a seguir sea encontrar los mtodos matemticos y estadsticos para llevar a cabo su anlisis. +Si este paso es muy difcil para la persona o para el equipo que hizo el descubrimiento, es posible incorporar un matemtico como colaborador. +Consideren el siguiente principio, que modestamente llamar, el Primer Principio de Wilson: Es ms fcil para los cientficos, incluidos los investigadores mdicos, requerir colaboracin en matemticas y estadstica, que para los matemticos y estadsticos encontrar cientficos capaces de usar sus ecuaciones. +En la eleccin de la direccin a tomar en la ciencia, es importante encontrar un tema de su competencia que suscite profundo inters, y enfocarse en l. +Tengan en cuenta, entonces, el Segundo Principio de Wilson: Por cada cientfico, ya sea investigador, tcnico, maestro, administrador o empresario, que trabaja a cualquier nivel de competencia matemtica, hay una disciplina en ciencia o medicina en la que este nivel es suficiente para alcanzar la excelencia. +Ahora les propongo brevemente otros principios que sern tiles para organizar su educacin y su carrera, o si ensean, para mejorar las tcnicas de enseanza y orientacin de los jvenes cientficos. +Al elegir un tema para una investigacin original, o para desarrollar experiencia de clase mundial, elijan disciplinas poco estudiadas. +Determinen la oportunidad por el reducido nmero de estudiantes e investigadores disponibles. +No se trata de restar importancia a la necesidad esencial de una amplia formacin o el valor del autoaprendizaje en la actual bsqueda de programas de alta calidad. +Es importante tambin tener mentores mayores dentro de estos programas exitosos, y tener amigos y colegas de la misma edad para apoyarse mutuamente. +Pero adems, busquen la manera de surgir, quizs en un campo o un tema que an no sea popular. +Esto ya fue demostrado en las charlas anteriores. +Es ah donde se pueden hacer progresos ms rpidos, como muestra el nmero de descubrimientos por investigador en un ao. +Posiblemente hayan escuchado el lema militar para reunir a las tropas: Marchen hacia el sonido de las armas. +En la ciencia, es todo lo contrario: Aljense del sonido de las armas. +As, el Tercer Principio de Wilson: Aljense del sonido de las armas. +Observen desde la distancia, pero no se unan a la refriega. +Hagan su propia refriega. +Una vez que hayan elegido una especializacin y la profesin que aman, y se hayan asegurado una oportunidad, su posibilidad de xito ser mucho mayor si estudian suficiente para hacerse expertos. +Existen miles de temas profesionalmente delimitados repartidos entre la fsica y la qumica, la biologa y la medicina. +Y tambin dentro de las ciencias sociales, donde es posible adquirir en poco tiempo la condicin de autoridad. +Cuando el tema es an poco estudiado, la disciplina y el trabajo duro les permitir convertirse en la autoridad mundial. +El mundo necesita de este tipo de conocimiento y recompensa a las personas dispuestas a adquirirlo. +La informacin existente y la que irn descubriendo, al principio podra parecerles escasa y difcil de conectar con otros campos de conocimiento. +Si ese es el caso, bueno. Por qu difcil en lugar de fcil? +La respuesta merece llamarse Principio Nmero Cuatro. +Para lograr descubrimientos cientficos, cada problema es una oportunidad, y cuanto ms difcil el problema, mayor ser la importancia de su solucin. +Esto me lleva a una clasificacin bsica del modo en que se hacen descubrimientos cientficos. +Los cientficos, matemticos puros entre ellos, siguen uno de dos caminos: El primero, mediante los descubrimientos anteriores; se identifica un problema y se busca una solucin. +El problema puede ser relativamente pequeo; por ejemplo, en qu parte de un crucero comenz a diseminarse el norovirus? +O ms grande, cul es el papel de la materia oscura en la expansin del universo? +Mientras se encuentra la respuesta, generalmente se descubren otros fenmenos y surgen otras preguntas. +La primera estrategia es como un cazador que, explorando un bosque en busca de una presa en particular, encuentra otras en el camino. +La segunda estrategia de investigacin consiste en estudiar ampliamente un tema buscando fenmenos desconocidos o patrones de fenmenos conocidos como un cazador en lo que llamamos el trance del naturalista, que tiene la mente abierta a cualquier cosa interesante y a cualquier presa valiosa. +La investigacin no busca la solucin del problema, sino problemas mismos que merecen una solucin. +Ambas estrategias de investigacin, de investigacin original, pueden enunciarse como sigue, en el principio final que les voy a proponer: Por cada problema en una determinada disciplina de la ciencia existe una especie o entidad o fenmeno ideal para su solucin. +Y viceversa; por cada especie o entidad o fenmeno existen problemas importantes para la solucin de los cuales, dichos objetos particulares de investigacin son ideales. +Descubran cules son. +Encontrarn su propio modo de descubrir, de aprender y de ensear. +Las prximas dcadas traern enormes avances en la prevencin de enfermedades, la salud general y la calidad de vida. +Toda la humanidad depende del conocimiento y prctica de la medicina y la ciencia que ustedes dominarn. +Han elegido un llamado que vendr por etapas para darles al final la satisfaccin de una vida bien vivida. +Gracias por haberme recibido esta noche. +Ah! gracias. +Muchas gracias. +Los saludo. +Todos somos aprendices y maestros. +Aqu recibo inspiracin de mi primera maestra, mi mam, y aqu estoy enseando Introduccin a la Inteligencia Artificial a 200 estudiantes en la Universidad de Stanford. +Los estudiantes y yo disfrutamos la clase, pero se me ocurri que mientras la asignatura es avanzada y moderna, la tecnologa de enseanza no lo es. +De hecho, en esencia, uso la misma tecnologa que esta aula del siglo XIV. +Vean el libro de texto, el sabio en el escenario y el tipo que duerme all atrs. Como en la actualidad. +Por eso mi compaero, Sebastian Thrun, y yo pensamos que debe haber una mejor manera. +Aceptamos el desafo de crear una clase virtual de calidad igual o mejor a las clases de Stanford, pero sera para todo el mundo y gratis. +Anunciamos la clase el 29 de julio y en dos semanas se inscribieron 50 000 personas. +Y pasaron a ser 160 000 estudiantes de 209 pases. +Estbamos encantados con esa audiencia y un poco aterrorizados porque an no habamos terminado de preparar la clase. Y nos pusimos a trabajar. +Analizamos lo que hicieron otros, qu podamos copiar y qu podamos cambiar. +Benjamin Bloom haba demostrado que la enseanza uno a uno funciona mejor y eso fue lo que tratamos de emular, como ocurri con mi madre y yo, aunque sabamos que sera de uno para miles. +Aqu, una videocmara desde arriba me graba mientras hablo y dibujo en un papel. +Un estudiante dijo: "Esta clase parece ocurrir en un bar con un amigo muy inteligente que explica algo que no entendemos, pero estamos por entender." +Y eso es exactamente lo que buscbamos. +En Khan Academy vimos que esos videos de 10 minutos funcionaban mejor que las conferencias de una hora en un formato de pantalla pequea. +Decidimos hacerlos ms breves y ms interactivos. +Nuestro video tpico es de dos minutos, a veces ms breve, nunca ms de seis minutos, y luego viene una pausa para una pregunta, para que parezca una clase individual. +Aqu estoy explicando cmo usa una computadora la gramtica inglesa para analizar oraciones y aqu hay una pausa y los estudiantes tienen que pensar, entender lo que sucede y marcar en la casilla correcta antes de continuar. +Los estudiantes aprenden mejor si practican de forma activa. +Queramos animarles a esforzarse a resolver la ambigedad y ayudarles a sintetizar las ideas clave por s mismos. +Por lo general evitamos preguntas del tipo: "Esta es la frmula, dgame el valor de Y si X es igual a dos." +Preferimos las preguntas abiertas. +Un estudiante escribi: "Ahora veo redes bayesianas y ejemplos de teora de juegos por donde mire." +Me gusta ese tipo de respuestas. +Eso era exactamente lo que buscbamos. +No queramos que los estudiantes memorizaran las frmulas; queramos cambiar su manera de mirar el mundo. +Y lo logramos. +O, debera decir, los estudiantes lo lograron. +Y es un poco irnico que, puestos a romper con la educacin tradicional, al hacerlo terminamos en clases virtuales mucho ms parecidas a las tradicionales que a otras clases virtuales. +En la mayora de las clases virtuales, los videos siempre estn disponibles. +Uno puede verlos cuando quiere. +Esto motiv a los estudiantes a continuar y tambin a que todos trabajasen en la misma tarea al mismo tiempo; as que si uno iba al foro de discusin poda tener una respuesta de un compaero en minutos. +Ahora les mostrar algunos de los foros; en su mayora estaban auto-organizados por los mismos estudiantes. +De Daphne Koller y Andrew Ng aprendimos el concepto de "dar vuelta" al aula. +Los estudiantes miran los videos por su cuenta y luego se renen para hablar de ellos. +De Eric Mazur, aprend sobre la enseanza de pares, que los pares pueden ser los mejores profesores, porque saben cmo era eso de no entender. +Sebastian y yo nos habamos olvidado un poco de eso. +Claro, no podamos discutir en clase con decenas de miles de estudiantes, por eso alentbamos estos foros virtuales. +Y finalmente, de Teach For America, aprend que lo principal de una clase no es la informacin. +Ms importante es la motivacin y la determinacin. +Era fundamental que los alumnos vieran que trabajbamos mucho para ellos y que todos se ayudaran mutuamente. +El curso dur 10 semanas y al final, cerca de la mitad de los 160 000 estudiantes vieron al menos un video por semana, y ms de 20 000 terminaron todas las tareas empleando de 50 a 100 horas. +Obtuvieron este certificado de estudios. +Qu aprendimos? +Bueno, probamos ideas viejas en combinacin con ideas nuevas pero hay ms ideas por probar. +Sebastian ahora dicta otra clase. +Yo dictar una en otoo. +Coursera de Stanford, Udacity, MITx y otros, preparan ms clases. +Es un momento apasionante. +Pero para m, lo ms apasionante son los datos que estamos recolectando. +Estamos recolectando miles de interacciones por estudiante por clase; miles de millones de interacciones en total. Y ahora podemos empezar a analizarlas y cuando aprendamos de eso, cuando experimentemos, ah ocurrir la verdadera revolucin. +Y vern los resultados de una nueva generacin de estudiantes increbles. +De nio me fascinaba todo sobre la aeronutica y el espacio. +Miraba Nova, en la PBS. +En la escuela pasaban a Bill Nye "El tipo de la ciencia". +Cuando estaba en la escuela primaria, mi vecino me regal un libro para mi cumpleaos. +Bueno, unos aos ms tarde me gradu en la UCLA y me encontr en la NASA trabajando en el Laboratorio de Propulsin a Chorro, donde nuestro equipo recibi el desafo de crear una visualizacin 3D del Sistema Solar. Hoy quiero mostrarles lo hecho hasta el momento. +Lo emocionante de lo que mostrar aqu es que Uds. pueden repetirlo en casa, pues construimos esto para el pblico, para que Uds. lo usen. +Lo que vemos en este momento es la Tierra. +Pueden ver Estados Unidos, California y San Diego, y pueden usar el ratn o el teclado para girar la imagen. +Esto no es nuevo. Cualquiera que haya usado Google Earth ya lo conoce, pero algo que nos gusta decir en nuestro grupo, es que hacemos lo contrario a Google Earth. +Google Earth va desde esta vista hasta sus casas. +Nosotros vamos desde esta vista hacia las estrellas. +La Tierra es genial, pero lo que nosotros queremos mostrar son las naves espaciales. As que voy a levantar la interfaz visual y vern algunos de los satlites que orbitan la Tierra. +Estos son algunos de los orbitadores cientficos de la Tierra. +No hemos incluido los satlites militares, ni los meteorolgicos ni los de comunicaciones, ni los de reconocimiento. +De hacerlo, sera una total confusin porque hay muchsimas cosas all. +Lo genial es que hemos creado modelos tridimensionales de algunas de estas naves, as que si quieren visitar alguna, solo tienen que hacer clic sobre ella. +Voy a buscar la Estacin Espacial Internacional, hago doble clic y nos llevar directo a la EEI. +Y ahora viajamos junto a la EEI en donde est en este momento. +Bueno, haciendo clic en el botn de la casa nos lleva al interior del Sistema Solar y ahora vemos el resto del Sistema Solar. +Pueden ver a Saturno, Jpiter y ya que estamos aqu, quiero sealar algo. +Hay mucha actividad. +Aqu est el Laboratorio Cientfico de Marte de camino a Marte, lanzado la semana pasada. +Aqu est Juno, en su travesa hacia Jpiter. +Tenemos a Alba [Dawn] orbitando Vesta, y por aqu tenemos a Nuevos Horizontes que va directo a Plutn. +Y digo esto porque el pblico tiene la extraa idea de que la NASA est muerta, de que los transbordadores dejaron de volar y que, de repente, ya no hay ms naves en el espacio. +Bueno, la NASA hace mucha exploracin robtica y tenemos muchas naves en el espacio. +Por supuesto, no enviaremos humanos por el momento, al menos no con nuestros propios lanzadores, pero la NASA no est muerta, ni por asomo. Y una de las razones por las que hicimos este programa es para que la gente vea que hay muchas otras cosas que estamos haciendo. +Ya que estamos aqu, de nuevo, si quieren visitar algo simplemente hacen doble clic. +Har doble clic en Vesta, y aqu est Alba [Dawn] orbitando Vesta y esto ocurre en este instante. +Har doble clic en Urano y podremos ver a Urano rotando de lado con sus satlites. +Pueden ver su inclinacin de unos 89 grados. +Podemos visitar distintos lugares pasando por distintos momentos. Tenemos datos desde 1950 a 2050. +Claro, no tenemos todo lo intermedio, porque muchos de los datos son difciles de obtener. +Pero solo con poder visitar lugares en distintos momentos podrn explorar sto durante horas, literalmente horas y horas. Pero quiero mostrarles algo en particular, as que voy a abrir la seccin de destino, misiones espaciales a planetas exteriores, Voyager 1, abrir el sobrevuelo de Titn. +As que ahora hemos retrocedido en el tiempo. +Ahora viajamos con la Voyager 1. +La fecha es 11 de noviembre de 1980. +Y aqu pasa algo divertido. +Es como si no estuviera ocurriendo nada. +Es como si hubiera puesto pausa. +Pero se est ejecutando en tiempo real segundo a segundo y, de hecho, la Voyager 1 est volando por Titn creo que a unos 60 800 km por hora. +Slo que parece que no ocurre nada porque, bueno, Saturno est a 1 120 000 km de distancia y Titn a unos 6400 u 8000 km de distancia. +La inmensidad del espacio nos da la impresin de que no ocurre nada. +Pero para hacerlo ms interesante, acelerar el tiempo y podemos ver a la Voyager 1 sobrevolar Titn, que es un satlite brumoso de Saturno. +Realmente tiene una atmsfera muy densa. +Centrar la cmara de nuevo en Saturno. +Me alejar, y quiero mostrarles a la voyager 1 en su vuelo por Saturno. +Aqu hay algo que sealar. +Con una visualizacin 3D como esta, no solo podemos decir que la Voyager 1 sobrevol Saurno. +Aqu hay toda una historia que contar. +Y mejor an, porque es una aplicacin interactiva, uno puede contar la historia por s mismo. +Si uno quiere hacer una pausa, la hace. +Si uno quiere seguir o si uno quiere cambiar el ngulo de la cmara, puede hacerlo, y gracias a esto puedo mostrarles que la Voyager 1 no solo sobrevol Saturno. +En realidad vol por debajo de Saturno. +Lo que ocurre es que, al volar por debajo de Saturno, Saturno le da un impulso gravitacional ascendente hacia afuera del Sistema Solar, as que si lo dejo continuar, podrn ver a la Voyager 1 volar as. +Y, de hecho, regresar al Sistema Solar. +Regresar a esta fecha, al ahora, y quiero mostrarles dnde est la Voyager 1. +Justo all, arriba, muy por encima del Sistema Solar, mucho ms all de nuestro Sistema Solar. +Y esta es la cuestin. Ahora ya sabemos cmo lleg hasta all. +Ahora sabemos por qu y, en mi opinin, ese es el quid de este programa. +Podemos manipularlo. +Podemos volar por nuestra cuenta y ser autodidactas. +El tema de hoy es "El mundo en tus manos". +Bien, nosotros tratamos de poner al Sistema Solar en tus manos. Y esperamos que cuando lo tengan, puedan aprender por s mismos, lo que hemos hecho y lo que estamos por hacer. +Mi sueo personal es que los nios usen esto para explorar y ver las maravillas que hay all y sean inspirados, como lo fui yo de nio, a estudiar ciencia e ingeniera y a perseguir un sueo en la exploracin espacial. +Gracias. +Esto combinado con la prdida de trabajos de manufactura a China, como saben, ha causado considerable angustia entre las poblaciones de Occidente. +De hecho, las encuestas muestran una tendencia en declive del apoyo al comercio libre en Occidente. +Sin embargo, las lites occidentales dicen que este miedo es injustificado. +De hecho, dice, que es la innovacin lo que mantendr a Occidente por delante del mundo en desarrollo, con las tareas ms innovadoras y sofisticadas ocurriendo en el mundo desarrollado y las menos sofisticadas, digamos, el trabajo pesado ocurriendo en el mundo en desarrollo. +Entonces lo que intentbamos entender era: es esto cierto? +Puede la India convertirse en fuente, centro global de innovacin como se convirti en centro global de desarrollo de software y servicios internos de oficina? +As en los ltimos cuatro aos, mi coautor Phanish Puranam y yo investigamos este tema. +Se rieron y nos desestimaron. +Nos dijeron: "sabes una cosa? Los hindes no innovan". +Los ms educados decan: "Bueno, los hindes son buenos programadores y contadores, pero no pueden hacer cosas creativas". +A veces, tomando un aire ms de sofisticacin, la gente deca: "Esto nada tiene que ver con los hindes, +es en realidad el sistema de educacin reglamentado en la India el responsable de matar la creatividad". +En su lugar, decan, si quieres ver creatividad real, ve a observar compaas en el Valle del Silicio, como Google, Microsoft, Intel. +Entonces empezamos a examinar laboratorios de I+D e innovacin en el Valle del Silicio. +Lo interesante de nuestro hallazgo es que a menudo nos presentaban al jefe del laboratorio o centro de I+D como le llaman, y las ms de las veces, era un hind. De inmediato preguntaba: "Pero ser que no te educaste en la India cierto? +Seguro que te educaste aqu". +En todos los casos resultaba que venan del sistema de educacin hind. +Entonces nos dimos cuenta de que quiz debamos replantear la pregunta: pueden los hindes fuera de India hacer trabajo innovador? +Entonces partimos a la India e hicimos, creo, cerca de una docena de viajes a Bangalore, Mumbai, Gurgaon, Delhi, Hyderabad, donde quieran, a examinar cul es el nivel de innovacin corporativo en esas ciudades. +Lo que encontramos conforme avanzamos nuestra investigacin fue que estbamos haciendo la pregunta equivocada. +Cuando preguntas, dnde estn los Googles, iPods y Viagras hindes? Ests tomando una perspectiva particular de la innovacin, la que es para usuarios finales, innovacin visible. +En cambio, la innovacin si recuerdan, algunos de Uds. habrn ledo al famoso economista Schumpeter, que dice: "La innovacin es novedad en la forma de crear y distribuir valor". +Pueden ser productos y servicios nuevos, pero tambin puede ser nuevas formas de producir productos. +Tambin pueden ser formas novedosas de organizar empresas e industrias. +Una vez que aceptas esto, no hay razn para restringir la innovacin a los beneficiarios de la misma, los usuarios finales. +Cuando se toma esta conceptualizacin ms amplia de innovacin, encontramos que la India est bien representada, pero que la innovacin que se est haciendo all es de una forma que no anticipamos y que entonces llamanos "innovacin invisible". +En concreto, hay cuatro tipos de innovacin invisible provenientes de la India. +El primer tipo de innovacin de la India es la que llamamos innovacin para clientes de negocios, que est dirigida por corporaciones multinacionales, que han establecido, en las ltimas dos dcadas, 750 centros de I+D en la India, por estas multinacionales, empleando a ms de 400 000 profesionales. +Ahora si consideran el hecho de que histricamente, el centro de I+D de una multinacional estaba siempre en la sede central o el pas de origen de esa multinacional, contar con 750 centros de I+D de multinacionales en la India es en verdad una cifra notable. +Cuando fuimos a hablar con la gente de estos centros de innovacin y preguntamos en qu estaban trabajando nos decan: "estamos trabajando en productos globales". +No estaban convirtiendo productos globales en locales para India, que es el papel comn de un centro local de I+D, +estaban trabajando en hacer productos realmente globales. Compaas como Microsoft, Google, AstraZeneca, General Electric, Philips, nos dieron respuesta afirmativa a la pregunta de si sus centros de I+D en Bangalore y Hyderabad tenan capacidad para producir productos y servicios para el mundo. +Por supuesto, como usuarios finales, no ven esto, porque solo ven el nombre de la compaa y no en dnde fue desarrollado. +Otra cosa que nos dijeron fue: "S pero el tipo de trabajo que sale de un centro de I+D hind no se puede comparar con el tipo de trabajo que sale de centros I+D en Estados Unidos". +Entonces mi coautor Phanish Puranam, que resulta ser una de las personas ms listas que conozco, dijo que iba a hacer un estudio. +Su interesante hallazgo es, por cierto, la forma de ver la calidad de una patente es lo que llamamos citas directas: cuntas veces una futura patente hace referencia a una anterior? Encontr algo muy interesante. +Los datos encontrados dicen que el nmero de citas directas de una patente solicitada por una subsidiaria de I+D estadounidense es idntica al nmero de citas directas de una solicitada por una subsidiaria hind de la misma compaa dentro de la compaa. +As dentro de la compaa, no hay diferencia en el ndice de citas directas de sus subsidiarias hindes hacia sus contrapartes estadounidenses. +He ah el primer tipo de innovacin invisible proveniente de la India. +El segundo tipo de innovacin de la India es lo que llamamos innovacin subcontratada a compaas hindes. en las que muchas compaas hoy contratan compaas hindes para hacer una gran parte del trabajo del desarrollo de sus productos globales, que sern vendidos en todo el mundo. +Por ejemplo en la farmacutica, muchas de las molculas que se estn desarrollando, una gran parte de ese trabajo se est enviando a la India. +Por ejemplo, XCL Technologies, desarroll dos sistemas de misin crtica para el nuevo Boeing 787 Dreamliner, uno para evitar colisiones en el aire y otro que permite aterrizar con visibilidad cero. +Por supuesto, cuando se suben a un Boeing 787, no van a saber que esta es innovacin invisible proveniente de la India. +El tercer tipo de innovacin invisible de la India es la que llamamos innovaciones de proceso, ya que son una inyeccin de inteligencia de compaas hindes. +Innovacin de proceso es diferente de innovacin de producto, +se trata de crear un nuevo producto o desarrollo, un nuevo producto o manufacturar un producto nuevo, pero no de un producto nuevo en s mismo. +Solamente en la India millones de jvenes suean en trabajar en un centro de llamadas. +Sucede que es un trabajo sin futuro en Occidente, al que acuden desertores escolares. +Qu pasa cuando colocan cientos de miles de jvenes listos y ambiciosos en trabajos de un centro de llamadas? +Que muy pronto se aburren y empiezan a innovar, y empiezan a decirle al jefe cmo mejorar este trabajo y de esta innovacin de proceso surgen innovaciones de producto, que luego se comercializan alrededor del mundo. +Por ejemplo, la empresa 24/7 Customer, es un centro de llamadas tradicional, que sola ser una empresa de llamadas tradicional. Hoy estn desarrollando herramientas analticas que modelan predicciones tal que antes de contestar el telfono, se puede adivinar o predecir qu se va a tratar en la llamada. +Esto se debe a una inyeccin de inteligencia al proceso, que estaba considerando muerto en Occidente desde hace tiempo. +Y el ltimo tipo de innovacin, innovacin invisible de la India es lo que llamamos gestin de innovacin. +No son productos o procesos nuevos sino una nueva forma de organizar el trabajo y la gestin de innovacin ms relevante de la India, inventada por la industria de subcontratos al exterior hind, que llamamos modelo de entrega global. +El modelo de entrega global permite tomar tareas centrales previamente asignadas geogrficamente, separarlas en partes que se envan alrededor del mundo donde tengan la experiencia y la estructura de costos para luego especificar los medios y reintegralos. +Sin esto, no podran tener ninguna de las innovaciones invisibles actuales. +Lo que intento decir, lo que hemos hallado en nuestra investigacin es que si los productos para usuarios finales son la punta visible del iceberg de la innovacin, India est bien representada en la gran e invisible porcin sumergida del iceberg de la innovacin. +Por supuesto, esto tiene algunas implicaciones, tres de las cuales estudiamos en esta investigacin. +La primera es la que llamamos la escalera de habilidad sumergida, y ahora voy a regresar al inicio de mi charla sobre la fuga de cerebros. +Por supuesto, en un inicio, como una compaa multinacional, decidimos subcontratar la I+D a la India, lo que bamos a hacer era subcontratar el peldao ms bajo de la escalera a la India, los trabajos menos sofisticados justo como Tom Friedman lo predijera. +Entonces lo que sucede cuando subcontratas el peldao ms bajo de la escalera de la innovacin y la I+D a la India, es que llega un momento en el futuro cercano donde tienes que confrontar un problema: de dnde viene la gente del siguiente paso de la escalera dentro de la compaa? +Lo que intentamos decir es que una vez que subcontratas el peldao ms bajo de la escalera, se vuelve un acto de auto perpetuacin, por la simple razn de que en la escalera de habilidad sumergida no puedes ser un banquero inversionista sin haber sido alguna vez un analista. +No puedes ser un profesor sin haber sido un estudiante. +No puedes ser un consultor sin haber sido un investigador asociado. +Entonces si subcontratas los trabajos menos sofisticados, llega el momento de tomar el siguiente paso de la escalera. +La segunda cosa por mencionar es lo que llamamos el bronceado de los equipos de alta gerencia TMT (en ingls). +Cierto? Y la ltima cosa que resaltamos en esta diapositiva, es que esta historia tiene una advertencia. +India tiene la poblacin ms joven en crecimiento del mundo. +Esta cuota demogrfica es increble y a la vez paradjica, tambin tiene el espejismo de grupos de labor poderosos, +instituciones hindes y sistema educativo, salvo algunas excepciones, incapaces de producir estudiantes en cantidades y calidades que mantengan funcionando esta mquina de innovacin. As las compaas estn encontrando innovaciones para superar esto, pero al final esto no absuelve al gobierno de la responsabilidad de crear la estructura educacional. +Por ltimo quiero concluir mostrndoles el perfil de una compaa, IBM. +Como muchos de Uds. saben, IBM ha sido siempre considerada una de las compaas ms innovadoras en los ltimos cien aos. +De hecho si miran la historia del nmero de patentes solicitadas creo que estn entre las dos o tres a la cabeza en el mundo de todas las patentes solicitas en Estados Unidos por una compaa privada. +Aqu est el perfil de empleados de IBM en la ltima dcada. +En 2003, tenan 300 000 empleados, de los cuales, 135 000 eran de los Estados Unidos y 9000 de la India. +En 2009, tenan 400 000 empleados, de los cuales de Estados Unidos se redujeron a 105 000, mientras que de la India subieron a 100 000. +Para el 2010, decidieron ya no publicar ms los datos, as que tuve que hacer algunas estimaciones con base a varias fuentes. +Esta es mi mejor estimacin s? No estoy diciendo que sea una cifra exacta, es mi mejor estimacin; +da una idea de la tendencia. +IBM tiene ahora 433 000 empleados, de los que 98 000 son de Estados Unidos y 150 000 son de la India. +Dganme entonces, es IBM una compaa estadounidense o una compaa hind? Damas y caballeros, muchas gracias +El mes pasado, la Enciclopedia Britnica anunci que se dejar de imprimir despus de 244 aos. Esto me puso nostlgico porque recuerdo jugar con la colosal enciclopedia de la biblioteca local aos atrs cuando era nio, tal vez tendra 12 aos. +Y me pregunt si podra actualizar ese juego, no slo para mtodos modernos, sino para mi yo moderno. +As que lo intent. +Visit una enciclopedia en Internet, Wikipedia, y escrib la palabra "Tierra". +Uds. pueden empezar donde quieran, esta vez eleg Tierra. +La primera regla del juego es bastante simple. +Solo hay que leer el artculo hasta encontrar algo que uno no sepa, y preferentemente algo que ni siquiera sus padres sepan. +Y en este caso, rpidamente encontr esto: El punto ms lejano del centro de la Tierra no es la cima del monte Everest, como podra haber pensado; es la cima de esta montaa; monte Chimborazo en el Ecuador. +La Tierra gira, por supuesto, a la vez que viaja alrededor del Sol, por lo cual est ensanchada un poco en su zona media, como algunos terrcolas. +Y aunque el monte Chimborazo no es la montaa ms alta de Los Andes, est a un grado del Ecuador, en esa protuberancia, y por eso la cima del Chimborazo es el punto ms lejano del centro de la Tierra. +Es realmente divertido decirlo. +As que inmediatamente decid, que ste sera el nombre del juego, o mi nueva exclamacin. +Pueden usarla en TED. +Chimborazo, correcto? +Es como si "eureka" y "bingo" tuvieran un beb. +Yo no saba eso; es genial. +Chimborazo! +Bueno, la siguiente regla es tambin muy simple. +Solo tienen que encontrar otro trmino y buscarlo. +En los viejos tiempos eso significaba sacar un volumen y curiosear alfabticamente, tal vez llegando a distraerse. Era divertido. +Hoy hay cientos de enlaces para escoger. +Puedo ir literalmente a cualquier lugar del mundo. Entonces pens que ya que estaba en Ecuador, oprimira en la palabra "tropical". +Eso me llev a esta franja lluviosa y caliente llamada zona tropical que rodea la Tierra. +Ese es el trpico de Cncer en el norte y el de Capricornio en el sur. Eso era todo lo que saba, pero qued sorprendido por este pequeo detalle: estas no son lneas cartogrficas, como latitud o lmites entre naciones... Son fenmenos astronmicos causados por la inclinacin de la Tierra, que cambian. +Se mueven; suben y bajan. +De hecho, por aos, el trpico de Cncer y el de Capricornio han estado desplazndose hacia el Ecuador continuamente a un promedio de 15 metros por ao. Nadie me lo haba dicho. +No lo saba. +Chimborazo! +Para continuar con el juego, slo tena que encontrar otro trmino y buscarlo. +Ya que estaba en la zona tropical, escog "selva tropical". +Famosa por su diversidad, diversidad humana. +Todava hay decenas y decenas de tribus aisladas viviendo en este planeta. +Estn por todo el planeta, pero prcticamente todas viven en selvas tropicales. +ste es el nico lugar al que puedes ir en estos das y no ser "aadido a una lista de amigos". +El enlace al que acced aqu fue extico al principio y luego absolutamente misterioso al final. +Mencionaba leopardos, coates de cola anillada, ranas venenosas, boas constrictor y, de repente, colepteros, que terminaron siendo escarabajos. +Entonces oprim ah intencionalmente, pero para la banda sugiere "los Beatles" [Beatle ~ beetle = escarabajo] para el auto, vea "Volkswagon Beetle", pero llegu aqu por los escarabajos. +ste es el orden ms exitoso en el planeta, por mucho. +Entre el 20 % y el 25 % de todas las formas vivas del planeta, incluyendo las plantas, son escarabajos. +Eso significa que la prxima vez que estn en una tienda, miren a las cuatro personas que estn adelante. +Estadsticamente, uno de Uds. es un escarabajo. +Y si eres t, ests increblemente bien adaptado. +Hay escarabajos carroeros que remueven la piel y la carne de los huesos en museos. +Hay escarabajos depredadores que atacan a otros insectos y que nos resultan lindos. +Hay escarabajos que ruedan pequeas bolas de estircol por grandes distancias, por el desierto, para alimentar a sus cras. +Esto les recordaba a los antiguos egipcios su dios Jepri, quien renovaba el disco del Sol cada maana. As es como ese escarabajo que empuja estircol se convirti en el insecto sagrado en el peto del faran Tutankamn. +Los escarabajos, me record la enciclopedia, tienen el coqueteo ms romntico del reino animal. +Las lucirnagas no son moscas, son escarabajos. +Las lucirnagas son colepteros que se comunican de diferentes maneras +como en mi siguiente enlace: El lenguaje qumico de las feromonas. +La pgina de las feromonas me llevo a un video de un erizo de mar, teniendo sexo. +S. +Y este enlace, a afrodisaco. +Eso es algo que incrementa el deseo sexual, como el chocolate. +Hay un componente en el chocolate llamado fenetilamina que podra ser un afrodisaco. +Pero, como dice el artculo, por la accin de las enzimas, es poco probable que la fenetilamina llegue al cerebro si se toma oralmente. +As que quienes solo comen chocolate, deberan experimentar con algo ms. +Pas luego al enlace de "magia simptica", principalmente porque entiendo el significado de ambas palabras. +Pero no cuando van juntas de este modo. +Me gusta la simpata, me gusta la magia. +As que cuando oprim en "magia simptica" me llev a magia simptica y muecos vud. +Una vez ms el nio en m sali con suerte. +Magia simptica es imitacin. +Si imitas algo, tal vez puedas tener un efecto en ello. +Esa es la idea con los muecos vud, y posiblemente con la pintura rupestre. +El enlace de pintura rupestre me lleva a una de las artes ms antiguas de la humanidad. +Me encantara ver mapas de Google en algunas de estas cuevas. +Tenemos decenas de miles de aos de trabajo artstico. +Temas comunes en todo el mundo incluyen grandes animales salvajes y marcas de manos humanas, usualmente la mano izquierda. +Hemos sido una tribu dominantemente diestra por milenios. Aunque no sepa por qu, alguna persona paleoltica traz la forma de su mano o sopl pigmento sobre ella por un tubo. Y puedo fcilmente imaginar como lo hizo. +Esto es vergonzoso, porque hasta ahora, la expresin "lo conozco como la palma de la mano", indicaba "estoy totalmente familiarizado con eso", pero ni siquiera s como se llama el dorso de la mano". +El enlace donde oprim... lmures, monos y chimpancs tienen su pequeo opistenar. +Oprimo en chimpanc, y llego a nuestro ms cercano pariente gentico; +"Pan troglodytes" que es el nombre que le damos al "habitante de las cuevas". +Pero no es cierto. +Viva en selvas tropicales y sabanas. +Siempre pensamos en este tipo como alguien con retraso evolutivo o que de alguna manera nos sigue y en algunos casos, nos sobrepasa. +Como en el siguiente, el casi irresistible enlace de Ham el astrochimpanc. +Hice clic ah pensando que me dara dos vueltas completas. Y as fue. +Naci en Camern, que est justo en el medio de mi mapa de los trpicos Para ms datos, su esqueleto termin en el museo Smithsonian limpiado por escarabajos. +Entre uno y otro de esos 2 hitos en la vida de Ham, l viaj al espacio. +Experiment la ingravidez y volvi meses antes de que el primer ser humano lo hiciera; el cosmonauta sovitico Yuri Gagarin. +Cuando oprim en la pgina de Yuri Gagarin, llegu a este personaje que era sorprendentemente pequeo en estatura, enorme en herosmo. +Las mejores aproximaciones soviticas le dieron 1,65 metros, eso es menos de cinco pies y medio como mximo, de altura, posiblemente porque sufri de malnutricin de pequeo. +Los alemanes ocuparon Rusia. +Un oficial nazi tom control de su hogar, y l y su familia construyeron para vivir, una casa de barro. +Aos despus, el chico de la estrecha casa de barro crecera para ser el hombre en esa estrecha cpsula en la punta de un cohete, quien se ofrecera voluntariamente para ser lanzado al espacio exterior; el primero de nosotros en dejar, real y fsicamente, este planeta. +Y l no solo lo dej; le dio toda una vuelta. +Y cuando ya han tenido suficiente de esto, puedes irte a otro enlace. +Pueden volver a la Tierra. +Regresan a donde empezaron. +Pueden terminar el juego. +Solo hay que encontrar algo ms que no sepan. +Y en cuanto a m, rpidamente termin en este: La Tierra tiene una tolerancia de ms o menos 0,17% respecto al esferoide de referencia, lo cual es menos que el 0,22% permitido en las bolas de billar. +Esta es la clase de datos que me habra encantado de nio. +Lo encontr yo mismo. +Tiene algunos clculos que puedo hacer. +Estoy seguro que mi padre no lo sabe. +Genial! +Yo no saba eso. +Chimborazo! +Gracias. +Hace unas semanas, un amigo mo le dio este auto de juguete a su hijo de 8 aos. +Pero en vez de ir a una tienda y comprarlo, como es lo usual, l visit este sitio web, descarg un archivo y luego lo imprimi en esta impresora. +As que la idea de que se puede fabricar objetos digitalmente usando estas mquinas es algo que la revista The Economist define como la Tercera Revolucin Industrial. +En realidad, sostengo que est ocurriendo otra revolucin, relacionada con el hardware libre y con el movimiento de creadores, ya que la impresora que mi amigo us para imprimir el juguete es de cdigo abierto. +As que se puede visitar el mismo sitio web y descargar todos los archivos necesarios para fabricar la impresora: los archivos de construccin, los componentes fsicos, los programas; toda la informacin se encuentra ah. +Esto es parte de una gran comunidad formada por miles de personas en todo el mundo que fabrican este tipo de impresoras y estn innovando, ya que todo es de cdigo abierto. +No se necesita el permiso de nadie +Ese espacio se asemeja al de la computadora personal en 1976 cuando Apple y las otras compaas estaban peleando, y en unos aos veremos que surgir la versin Apple de este tipo de mercado. +Bueno, hay otro punto interesante. +Los componentes electrnicos son de cdigo abierto porque en el centro de esta impresora hay algo a lo que estoy muy apegado: estas tarjetas Arduino, la tarjeta madre que de cierta forma hace funcionar a la impresora, es un proyecto en el que he trabajado durante los ltimos 7 aos. +Es un proyecto de cdigo abierto. +He trabajado con mis amigos que ven aqu. +Al disear un objeto que se supone va a interactuar con un ser humano, si uno fabrica un modelo de telfono celular de gomaespuma, no tiene ningn sentido. +Hay que tener algo que de verdad interacte con la gente. +As que trabajamos en Arduino y en muchos otros proyectos para crear plataformas que fueran fciles de usar para nuestros alumnos, para que ellos pudieran fabricar cosas que funcionaran, ya que no disponen de 5 aos para volverse ingenieros en electrnica. Tienen 1 mes. +As que cmo hago algo que incluso un nio pueda usar? +Y de hecho, con Arduino, tenemos nios como Sylvia, a quien ven aqu, que fabrica proyectos con Arduino. +Hay nios de 11 aos que me muestran cosas que han construido con Arduino, y asusta darse cuenta de la capacidad de estos nios cuando se les dan las herramientas. +Veamos qu es lo que sucede cuando se fabrica una herramienta que cualquiera puede usar para construir algo rpido. Uno de los ejemplos con los que quiero empezar esta discusin es este alimentador para gatos. +El caballero que fabric este proyecto tena 2 gatos. +Uno estaba enfermo y el otro sano, as que deba asegurarse de que comieran la comida adecuada. +Fabric este aparato que reconoce al gato por un chip instalado en su collar, le abre la puerta y el gato puede alimentarse. +Para fabricarlo recicl un viejo reproductor de CD que se puede obtener de una computadora vieja, un poco de cartn, cinta adhesiva, un par de sensores, unos cuantos ledes intermitentes y de repente se tiene una herramienta. Se ha construido algo que no es posible encontrar en el mercado. +Me gusta esta frase: Rsquese con sus propias uas. +Si Ud. tiene una idea, solo vaya y constryala. +Es el equivalente de bosquejar en un papel, pero hecho con componentes electrnicos. +Cuando yo estudiaba programacin, aprend observando los cdigos de otras personas, o sus circuitos en las revistas. +Y esta es una buena manera de aprender, observando el trabajo de otros. +As que todos los diversos elementos del proyecto son abiertos, los componentes se publican bajo una licencia de bienes comunes creativos (Creative Commons). +Saben? Me gusta esta ida de que el hardware se convierta en un pedazo de cultura que se puede compartir y desarrollar, como si fuera una cancin o un poema mediante bienes comunes creativos. +Y los programas son de Licencia Pblica General, as que son tambin de cdigo abierto. +La documentacin y la metodologa prctica de trabajo tambin son de cdigo abierto y se publican como bienes comunes creativos. +Solo el nombre est protegido para asegurarnos de poder decir a la gente qu es Arduino y qu no es. +Arduino mismo est formado por muchos componentes de cdigo abierto diferentes que separadamente tal vez sean difciles de usar para un nio de 12 aos, as que Arduino rene todo en una mezcla de tecnologas de cdigo abierto donde tratamos de dar la mejor experiencia al usuario para fabricar algo con rapidez. +Esta tarjeta se fabrica en una compaa llamada Adafruit, que dirige esta mujer de nombre Limor Fried, tambin conocida como Ladyada, que es una de las heronas del movimiento de hardware libre y del movimiento de creadores. +Esta idea de tener una nueva comunidad hazlo t mismo por as decirlo turbopropulsada que apoya el cdigo abierto y la cooperacin, colabora en lnea, participa en diferentes espacios. +Esta revista llamada Make atrajo a todas estas personas y de cierta forma las reuni en comunidad, y se puede encontrar un proyecto muy tcnico explicado en un lenguaje muy simple y con un diseo muy atractivo. +Adems hay sitios web, como este, Instructables, donde la gente se ensea entre s acerca de cualquier cosa. +Esta es sobre proyectos Arduino, la pgina que ven en pantalla, pero, en efecto, pueden aprender a hacer un pastel y cualquier otra cosa. +Veamos algunos proyectos. +Este es un cuadricptero. +Es un pequeo modelo de helicptero. +Es como un juguete, no es as? +Este era tecnologa militar hace unos aos, y ahora es cdigo abierto, fcil de usar, se puede adquirir en lnea. +La comunidad DIY Drones fabrica el llamado ArduCopter. +Y luego alguien lanz una empresa emergente llamada Matternet, donde se dieron cuenta de que podan usarlo para transportar cosas de un pueblo a otro en frica, y el hecho de que haya sido fcil de encontrar, de cdigo abierto, fcil de manipular, les permiti desarrollar rpido un prototipo para la compaa. +O bien, veamos otros proyectos. Matt Richardson: Estaba harto de or hablar siempre de la misma gente en la TV una y otra vez, as que decid hacer algo al respecto. +Este proyecto Arduino, al que llamo Enough Already (Ya basta), silencia la TV cada vez que se menciona a una de estas personalidades sobreexpuestas. Les mostrar cmo lo hice. MB: Miren esto. +MR: Nuestros productores se encontraron con Kim Kardashian hoy para averiguar lo que planea ponerse para MB: Qu tal? MR: Hace un buen trabajo para proteger nuestros odos de los detalles de la boda de Kim Kardashian. +MB: Bien. De nuevo, lo interesante es que Matt encontr este mdulo que permite a Arduino procesar seales de TV, encontr un cdigo, escrito por otra persona, que genera seales infrarrojas para la TV, junt todo y cre este gran proyecto. +Arduino tambin se usa en lugares serios como el gran colisionador de hadrones . +Algunas tarjetas Arduino recopilan informacin y miden algunos parmetros. +O bien se usan para Esta es una interfaz musical fabricada por un estudiante de Italia que ahora va a convertirla en un producto. Ya que es un proyecto estudiantil que se volver un producto. +Tambin se puede usar para crear un dispositivo mdico +de ayuda tcnica. Este es un guante que entiende el lenguaje de seas y transforma los gestos en sonidos y escribe las palabras en un visualizador. Y, nuevamente, est hecho con diferentes partes que se pueden encontrar en cualquier sitio web que venda piezas compatibles con Arduino y que se ensamblan para crear proyectos. +Este es un proyecto del Programa de Telecomunicacin Interactiva de la Universidad de Nueva York, donde conocieron a este nio con una severa discapacidad que no poda jugar con el PlayStation 3, as que fabricaron este aparato que le permite jugar bisbol a pesar de su capacidad de movimiento limitada. +O bien se le encuentra en proyectos de arte. +Este es el txtBomber. +Se ingresa un mensaje en este aparato, se lo desliza sobre la pared; consta bsicamente de cierto nmero de solenoides que presionan los botones de los atomizadores, solo hay que deslizarlo sobre la pared y escribir sobre ella todos los mensajes polticos. +As es. Ahora tenemos esta planta. +Hay un aparato que tuitea cada vez que un beb da una patadita dentro del vientre de una mujer gestante. Este adolescente de 14 aos, en Chile, cre un sistema que detecta terremotos y lo publica en Twitter; +tiene 280000 seguidores. +Tiene 14 aos y ha anticipado un proyecto del gobierno por un ao. Existe otro proyecto que, mediante el anlisis de las fuentes Twitter de una familia, puede sealar dnde se encuentran, como en la pelcula Harry Potter. +Pueden averiguar todo sobre este proyecto en el sitio web. +O bien, alguien cre una silla que tuitea cuando alguien se tira un pedo. Es interesante que en 2009 el blog Gizmodo dijo bsicamente que este proyecto le da sentido a Twitter, as que mucho ha cambiado desde entonces. Ahora, un proyecto muy serio. +Esta mquina que ven aqu proviene del movimiento biolgico hazlo t mismo (DIY bio) y es uno de los pasos que se requieren para procesar ADN. Otra vez, se trata por completo de un cdigo abierto, desde lo ms elemental. +Tambin hay estudiantes de pases en desarrollo que fabrican rplicas de instrumentos cientficos costosos. +Los construyen ellos mismos, a mucho menor costo, usando Arduino y unas cuantas piezas. +Este es un instrumento para medir el pH. +O bien, hay adolescentes como estos, provenientes de Espaa. +Aprendieron a programar y a fabricar robots cuando tenan unos 11 aos y entonces comenzaron a usar Arduino para crear estos robots que juegan ftbol. Se convirtieron en campeones del mundo con un robot basado en Arduino. +As que cuando tuvimos que fabricar nuestro propio robot educativo, solo fuimos y les dijimos: Disenlo ustedes, ya que saben exactamente lo que se necesita para crear un robot fabuloso que entusiasme a los nios. +Yo no. Ya estoy muy viejo. +A quin puedo entusiasmar, no? Pero me refiero en trminos de cualidades educativas. Adems, hay compaas como Google que estn usando esta tecnologa para crear interfaces entre telfonos celulares, tabletas y el mundo real. +As que el Accesory Development Kit (kit de desarrollo de accesorios) de Google es de cdigo abierto y basado en Arduino, al contrario del de Apple que es de cdigo cerrado, con acuerdo de confidencialidad, compromete tu vida con Apple. Aqu tienes. +Joey est ah parado en un laberinto gigante que se mueve cuando uno inclina la tableta. +Vengo de Italia, donde el diseo es importante pero, sin embargo, muy conservador. +As que trabajamos con un estudio de diseo llamado Habits, en Miln, para hacer este espejo que es completamente de cdigo abierto. +Tambin hace las veces de parlante para iPod. +As que la idea es que los componentes fsicos, los programas, el diseo de un objeto, su fabricacin, todo lo relativo a este proyecto sea de cdigo abierto y que lo pueda hacer Ud. mismo. +Queremos que otros diseadores lo tomen y aprendan a fabricar aparatos magnficos, a crear productos interactivos empezando desde algo real. +Cuando se le ocurre una idea sabe lo que pasa con todas estas ideas? +Hay algo as como miles de ideas que Me tomara unas 7 horas presentrselas todas. +No me tomar las 7 horas. Gracias. +Comencemos con este ejemplo: un grupo de personas crearon una compaa llamada Pebble, desarrollaron el prototipo de un reloj de pulsera que se comunica va Bluetooth con su telfono y puede mostrar informacin. Lo crearon con una pantalla LCD vieja de un telfono celular Nokia y un Arduino. +Y luego, cuando tuvieron listo el proyecto final, fueron al sitio web Kickstarter y pidieron 100000 dlares para fabricar unos cuantos y venderlos. +Obtuvieron 10 millones de dlares. +Lograron iniciar la empresa completamente financiados, sin necesidad de involucrar capitales de riesgo ni nada, solo por entusiasmar a la gente con su gran proyecto. +Este es el ltimo proyecto que quiero mostrarles: Se llama Ardusat. Se encuentra ahora en Kickstarter, as que si desean contribuir, por favor hganlo. +Es un satlite que va al espacio, lo que probablemente sea el objeto con menos cdigo abierto que se puedan imaginar, y contiene un Arduino conectado a muchos sensores. As que si saben usar Arduino, entonces pueden cargar sus experimentos a este satlite y hacerlos funcionar. +Imagnense que un alumno de secundaria pueda tener el satlite por una semana y hacer experimentos espaciales as simplemente. +Como he dicho, hay muchos ejemplos, pero me voy a detener aqu. Solo quiero agradecer a la comunidad Arduino por ser la mejor, que simplemente crea tantos proyectos todos los das. +Gracias. Y gracias a la comunidad. +Chris Anderson: Massimo, hoy me dijiste que no tenas ni idea, claro, del xito que iba a tener el proyecto. +MB: No. +CA: Quiero decir, cmo te sientes cuando lees todo esto y te das cuenta de todo lo que has desencadenado? +MB: Bueno, es la labor de mucha gente, as que nosotros como comunidad estamos permitiendo a la gente crear cosas magnficas y estoy maravillado. +Es solo es difcil de describir. +Cada maana me despierto y veo todo lo que las alertas de Google me envan y es asombroso. Se expande a toda esfera imaginable. +CA: Muchas gracias. +Apertura. Es una palabra que denota oportunidades y posibilidades. +Preguntas abiertas, corazn abierto, cdigo abierto, poltica de puertas abiertas, bar abierto. En todas partes el mundo se est abriendo y es algo bueno. +Por qu sucede esto? +La revolucin tecnolgica est abriendo el mundo. +El internet de antes era una plataforma para la presentacin de contenidos. +El internet de hoy es una plataforma de computacin +y se est convirtiendo en un computador mundial gigante; cada vez que entramos, subimos un video, hacemos bsquedas en Google o hacemos alguna mezcla, estamos programando este gran computador mundial que todos compartimos. +La humanidad est construyendo una mquina y esto nos permite colaborar en nuevas formas. +La colaboracin puede ocurrir en proporciones astronmicas. +Tambin hay una nueva generacin que est abriendo el mundo. +As que comenc a trabajar con unos pocos cientos de nios, y llegu a la conclusin de que esta es la primera generacin que est creciendo en la era digital y que se baa en bits. +Los llamo la Generacin de la red. +Pienso que estos chicos son diferentes. +No tienen miedo a la tecnologa porque no est all. +Es como el aire. +Es algo as como no tener miedo de un refrigerador. +Y... Y no hay fuerza ms poderosa para cambiar las instituciones que la primera generacin de nativos digitales. +Soy un inmigrante digital. +Tuve que aprender el idioma. +La crisis econmica mundial est abriendo el mundo tambin. +Nuestras instituciones opacas de la era industrial, todo, desde viejos modelos de la corporacin, el gobierno, los medios de comunicacin, Wall Street se encuentran en diferentes etapas de parlisis o congelamiento o estn atrofiados o hasta han fracasado y esto est creando una plataforma en llamas en el mundo. +Quiero decir, piensen en Wall Street. +El modus operandi principal de Wall Street casi derrib al capitalismo mundial. +Conocen la idea de una plataforma en llamas: estn en un lugar donde el costo de permanecer all es mayor que el de salir e intentar algo diferente, tal vez algo radicalmente diferente. +Y tenemos que cambiar y preparar a nuestras instituciones para la innovacin. +El empuje de la tecnologa, una patada demogrfica de una nueva generacin y un tirn de la demanda de un nuevo entorno econmico mundial estn haciendo que el mundo se abra. +Ahora, creo, de hecho, estamos en un punto de inflexin en la historia en que por fin podemos reconstruir muchas de las instituciones de la era industrial en torno a un nuevo conjunto de principios. +Ahora, qu es la apertura? +Bueno, resulta que la apertura tiene cierto nmero de significados diferentes y para cada uno hay un principio correspondiente a la transformacin de la civilizacin. +El primero es la colaboracin. +Ahora bien, esto es la apertura en el sentido de los lmites de las organizaciones que cada vez son ms porosos, fluidos y abiertos. +El tipo de esta foto, voy a contarles su historia. +Su nombre es Rob McEwen. +Me gustara decir: Tengo un comit de expertos; recorremos el mundo en busca de estudios de casos increbles. +La razn por la que conozco esta historia es porque se trata de mi vecino. En realidad se mud frente a nuestra casa y ofreci un cctel para conocer a los vecinos, y me dijo: Usted es Don Tapscott. +He ledo algunos de sus libros. +Le dije: Qu bien! A qu se dedica? +Y l dijo: Bueno, sola ser banquero y ahora tengo una mina de oro. +Y me cont esta historia fascinante. +l se hace cargo de esta mina de oro, pero sus gelogos no pueden decirle dnde est el oro. +l les da ms dinero para los datos geolgicos, ellos vuelven y no pueden decirle a dnde ir para la produccin. +Despus de unos aos, est tan frustrado que est dispuesto a darse por vencido, pero un da tiene una revelacin. +Se pregunta: Si mis gelogos no saben dnde est el oro, tal vez alguien ms lo sepa. +As que hace algo radical. +Toma los datos geolgicos, los publica y organiza un concurso en internet llamado el Desafo Goldcorp. +Se trata bsicamente de un premio de medio milln de dlares para cualquiera que pueda decirle si tiene oro y si es as, dnde est? Recibe respuestas de candidatos de todo el mundo +que utilizan tcnicas de las que l nunca haba odo hablar. Por el premio de medio milln de dlares, Rob McEwen encuentra oro por un valor de USD 3400 millones. +El valor de mercado de su empresa pasa de 90 millones a 10 000 millones de dlares y puedo decirles, porque es mi vecino, que vive feliz. La sabidura popular dice que el talento se lleva por dentro, verdad? +El activo ms valioso de las empresas es el talento de sus trabajadores, +pero l vea el talento de una manera diferente. +Se pregunt: quines son sus compaeros? +Tendra que haber despedido a su departamento de geologa, pero no lo hizo. +Saben?, muchas de las mejores propuestas no provenan de gelogos, +venan de especialistas en sistemas, ingenieros. +La ganadora fue una empresa de grficos por computador que construy un modelo tridimensional de la mina a la que se puede llegar en un helicptero subterrneo para ver dnde est el oro. +l nos ayud a entender que los medios sociales se estn convirtiendo en produccin social. +No se trata de conseguir citas en lnea. +Este es un nuevo medio de produccin, en proceso. +La apertura tiene que ver con la colaboracin. +Ahora, en segundo lugar, la apertura es transparencia. +Esto es diferente. En este caso, estamos hablando de comunicacin de la informacin pertinente a las partes interesadas de las organizaciones: empleados, clientes, socios comerciales, accionistas y otros. +Y en todas partes, nuestras instituciones se estn quedando al descubierto. +A la gente le fastidiaba Wikileaks, pero eso es solo la punta del iceberg. +Ahora todos podemos ver a la gente, tenerla en nuestras manos, no solo Julian Assange; podemos tener estas herramientas poderosas para descubrir lo que est pasando, examinar, informar a los dems e incluso coordinar respuestas colectivas. +Las instituciones estn cada vez ms al descubierto, y si van a estar desnudas, bueno, hay algunas consecuencias que se derivan de ello. +Quiero decir, una es que el gimnasio ya no es opcional. Ya saben? O si van a estar desnudos, es mejor que luzcan bien. +Lo que quiero decir con lucir bien es que es necesario que sean honestos, porque ahora la honestidad est de manifiesto como nunca antes. +Si usted dice que tiene buenos productos, +es mejor que de verdad sean buenos. +Pero tambin hay que tener valores. +Usted necesita tener la integridad como parte de sus huesos y su ADN como organizacin, porque si no lo hace, ser incapaz de ganarse la confianza que es la condicin sine qua non de este nuevo mundo en red. +As que esto es bueno, no malo. +La luz del sol es el mejor desinfectante. +Y necesitamos una gran cantidad de luz solar en este mundo atribulado. +Ahora, el tercer significado y su correspondiente principio de apertura es sobre compartir. +Es diferente de la transparencia, +que es la comunicacin de la informacin. +Compartir requiere renunciar a bienes, a propiedad intelectual. +Y hay todo tipo de historias famosas sobre esto. +IBM regal USD 400 millones en software para el movimiento de Linux y eso los recompens de manera multimillonaria. +La sabidura popular dice: Nuestra propiedad intelectual nos pertenece y si alguien trata de violarla, recurrimos a nuestros abogados y los demandamos. +Bueno, no funcion tan bien para los sellos discogrficos, verdad? +Quiero decir, que tuvieron un obstculo de tecnologa y en lugar de recurrir a un modelo de innovacin en los negocios para contrarrestarlo, prefirieron una salida legal y la industria que nos trajo a Elvis y los Beatles ahora est demandando a nios y est en peligro de colapso. +As que tenemos pensar de manera diferente acerca de la propiedad intelectual. +Les dar un ejemplo. +La industria farmacutica est en serios problemas. +En primer lugar, no hay una gran cantidad de invenciones importantes en la lnea de montaje y esto es un gran problema para la salud, y la industria farmacutica tiene un problema mayor y es que est a punto de caerse por algo llamado el precipicio de patentes. +Saben de esto? +Ellos van a perder del 20 al 35 por ciento de sus ingresos en los prximos 12 meses. +Y qu vamos a hacer? recortar gastos en clips de papel o algo as? No. +Tenemos que reinventar el modelo de la investigacin cientfica. +La industria farmacutica tiene que colocar activos en la gente comn. Tienen que empezar a compartir la investigacin precompetitiva. +Tienen que empezar a compartir datos de sus ensayos clnicos y, al hacerlo, crear una marea que podra salvar a todos los barcos, no solo para la industria, sino para la humanidad. +Ahora, el cuarto significado de la apertura, y el principio correspondiente, trata del empoderamiento. +Y aqu no estoy hablando del sentido de la maternidad. +El conocimiento y la inteligencia son poder y a medida que se distribuyen mejor, hay una distribucin correspondiente y una descentralizacin y separacin de poderes que estn ocurriendo ahora en el mundo. +El mundo abierto est generando libertad. +Ahora, veamos la primavera rabe. +El debate sobre el papel de los medios de comunicacin social y el cambio social est resuelto. +Una sola palabra: Tnez. +Y entonces lleg a tener muchas otras palabras tambin. +Pero en la revolucin tunecina, los nuevos medios de comunicacin no causaron la revolucin, sino que fue la injusticia. +Los medios sociales no hicieron la revolucin, sino una nueva generacin de jvenes que queran puestos de trabajo y esperanza y que ya no queran ser tratados como sbditos. +Pero as como el internet baja los costos de transaccin y colaboracin en los negocios y el gobierno, tambin reduce el costo de la disidencia, la rebelin e incluso la insurreccin en maneras que la gente no entenda. +Ustedes saben, durante la revolucin tunecina, los francotiradores asociados al rgimen estaban matando a los estudiantes desarmados en la calle. +Entonces, los estudiantes tomaron sus dispositivos mviles, tomaron fotos, triangularon la ubicacin y enviaron las imgenes a unidades militares amigables que llegaron y sacaron a los francotiradores. +Creen que los medios sociales son para conseguir citas en lnea? +Para estos chicos, fueron una herramienta militar para defender a personas desarmadas de los asesinos. +Una herramienta de autodefensa. +Mientras hablamos hoy, en Siria estn asesinando a jvenes y hasta hace 3 meses, si alguien se lesionaba en la calle, una ambulancia lo recoga, lo llevaba al hospital, digamos, con una pierna rota y sala con una bala en la cabeza. +As que estos jvenes de veintitantos crearon un sistema alternativo de salud que utilizaba Twitter y herramientas pblicas bsicas para atender heridos; un auto se presentaba, los recoga y los llevaba a una clnica improvisada en la que recibiran tratamiento mdico, en lugar de ser ejecutados. +As que este es un momento de grandes cambios. +Aunque no est exento de problemas. +Hasta hace dos aos, todas las revoluciones de la historia tenan sus lderes y cuando caa el antiguo rgimen, estos lderes y su organizacin tomaban el poder. +Pero ahora estas revoluciones wiki ocurren tan rpido que crean un vaco y la poltica aborrece el vaco as que fuerzas indeseables pueden llenarlo, por lo general el antiguo rgimen, o extremistas o fundamentalistas. +Usted puede ver este juego hoy en da en Egipto. +Pero eso no importa, porque esto est avanzando. +El tren ha salido de la estacin. El gato est fuera de la bolsa. +El caballo est fuera del establo. Aydenme, OK? +La pasta de dientes est fuera del tubo. +Quiero decir que no vamos a volver. +El mundo abierto est trayendo el empoderamiento y la libertad. +Creo que, al final de estos 4 das, llegarn a la conclusin de que el arco de la historia es positivo y es hacia la apertura. +Si nos remontamos unos cientos de aos, el mundo era una sociedad muy cerrada. +Era agraria, los medios de produccin y el sistema poltico se llamaban feudalismo y el conocimiento se concentraba en la Iglesia y la nobleza. +La gente no saba nada de las cosas. +No exista el concepto de progreso. +Uno naca, viva y mora. +Pero entonces, lleg Johannes Gutenberg con su gran invento, y con el tiempo la sociedad se abri. +La gente empez a aprender acerca de las cosas y cuando lo hicieron, las instituciones de la sociedad feudal se estancaron o en su defecto se congelaron. +No tena sentido que la Iglesia se encargara de la medicina cuando la gente tena conocimientos. +As que ocurri la Reforma Protestante. +Martn Lutero llam a la imprenta: El mayor acto de gracia de Dios. +La creacin de una sociedad, la ciencia, la universidad y, con el tiempo, la Revolucin Industrial, y todo fue bueno. +Pero lleg con un costo. +Y ahora, una vez ms, el genio de la tecnologa est fuera de la lmpara, pero esta vez es diferente. +La imprenta nos dio acceso a la palabra escrita. +El internet permite que cada uno de nosotros sea un productor. +La imprenta nos dio acceso al conocimiento. +El internet nos da acceso, no solo a la informacin y el conocimiento, sino a la inteligencia de los cerebros de otras personas a nivel mundial. +Para m, esta no es la era de la informacin, es la era de la inteligencia en red. +Es una poca de gran promesa, de colaboracin, en la que los lmites de nuestras organizaciones estn cambiando, una era de transparencia, donde la luz solar es la desinfeccin de la civilizacin, una poca de compartir y entender el nuevo poder de la gente comn y es una poca de empoderamiento y de libertad. +Ahora, para cerrar, me gustara compartir con ustedes algunas investigaciones que he hecho. +He estudiado todo tipo de organizaciones para comprender cmo podra ser el futuro, pero recientemente he estudiado la naturaleza. +Sabemos que las abejas vienen en enjambres y los peces en bancos. +Los estorninos, en los alrededores de Edimburgo, en los pramos de Inglaterra, vienen en algo que se llama un murmullo y el nombre hace alusin al murmullo de las alas de los pjaros. Durante el da, los estorninos ocupan un radio de unos 30 kilmetros y hacen lo propio de los estorninos. +Y por la noche se juntan y crean una de las cosas ms espectaculares de la naturaleza y se llama un murmullo. +Los cientficos que lo han estudiado han dicho que nunca han visto un accidente. +Esto tiene una funcin. +Protege a las aves. +Podemos ver aqu a la derecha un depredador perseguido por el poder colectivo de las aves y al parecer esto es una cosa espantosa si usted es un depredador de estorninos. +Y hay liderazgo, pero no hay un lder. +Ahora, se trata de algn tipo de analoga extravagante o realmente podramos aprender algo de esto? +Bueno, las funciones del murmullo encierran una serie de principios y son bsicamente los principios que les he descrito hoy. +Esta es una colaboracin enorme. +Se trata de una apertura, es un intercambio de todo tipo de informacin, no solo acerca de la ubicacin, la trayectoria, el peligro y dems, sino de las fuentes de alimentos. +Y hay un verdadero sentido de la interdependencia; las aves individuales de alguna manera entienden que sus intereses estn en el inters de la colectividad. +Tal vez como deberamos entender que los negocios no pueden tener xito en un mundo que est fallando. +Veo esto y me da mucha esperanza. +Pensemos en los chicos hoy en la primavera rabe y se ve algo como esto en marcha. +Imaginen, solo consideren esta idea: Qu pasara si pudisemos conectarnos a travs de una vasta red de aire y vidrio? +Podramos ir ms all de compartir informacin y conocimiento? +Empezaramos a compartir nuestra inteligencia? +Podramos crear una especie de inteligencia colectiva que fuese ms all de un individuo o un grupo o un equipo para crear, tal vez, cierto tipo de conciencia a nivel mundial? +Si pudisemos hacer esto, podramos combatir algunos grandes problemas del mundo. +Y veo esto y, no s, me da mucha esperanza de que tal vez este mundo abierto, en red y ms pequeo que nuestros hijos heredan podra ser un mundo mejor y que esta nueva era de la inteligencia en red podra ser la era de las promesas cumplidas y del peligro no correspondido. +Hagmoslo! Gracias. +Soy una mujer que sufre de esquizofrenia crnica. +He pasado cientos de das en hospitales psiquitricos. +Podra haber pasado gran parte de mi vida en el ltimo pabelln de un hospital. pero no fue as. +De hecho, me las arregl para mantenerme alejada de los hospitales por lo menos tres dcadas, este es quiz, mi mayor logro. +Esto no significa que me haya alejado de todas las dificultades psiquitricas. +Tras graduarme en la facultad de derecho de Yale y obtener mi primer trabajo como abogada, mi analista en New Haven, el Dr. White, me anunci que cerrarara su consultorio en tres meses, muchos aos antes de lo que lo que planeaba abandonar New Haven. +White me haba sido de una gran ayuda, y solo pensar que se ira me dejaba hecha trizas. +Mi mejor amigo, Steve, presintiendo que ocurra algo grave, viaj hasta New Haven para estar conmigo. +Citar algunos de mis escritos: "Abr la puerta de mi apartamento. +Steve luego me dijo que, de todas las veces que me haba visto psictica, nada podra haberlo preparado para lo que vi ese da. +Haca ms de una semana que apenas coma. +Estaba demacrada. Caminaba, como si mis piernas fuesen de madera. +Mi cara pareca y la senta como una mscara. +Haba cerrado todas las cortinas en el apartamento, as, an en pleno da, el apartamento estaba sumido en casi una total oscuridad. +El aire era ftido, la habitacin estaba patas arriba. +Steve, que es abogado y psiclogo, ha tratado muchos pacientes con trastornos psicolgicos severos, y hasta hoy les dira que jams haba visto a alguien tan mal como a m. +"Hola", le dije, y luego me dirig al sof, donde me sent en silencio durante un largo tiempo. +"Gracias por venir, Steve." +Derrumbndose el mundo, la palabra, la voz. +Dile a los relojes que se detengan. +Es hora. Ha llegado la hora." "White se va," dijo Steve sombramente. +"Me empujan hacia una tumba. La situacin es grave," me lamento. +"La gravedad me tira hacia abajo. +Estoy asustada. Diles que se vayan."" De joven, estuve en un hospital psiquitrico en tres ocasiones durante periodos prolongados. +Los mdicos me diagnosticaron esquizofrenia crnica, y me dieron un pronstico "grave". +Es decir que, en el mejor de los casos, se esperaba que viviera en una residencia y trabajara en puestos sin importancia. +Afortunadamente, el caso fue que no desaroll ese pronstico. +En cambio, soy catedrtica titular en abogaca, psicologa y psiquiatra, en la facultad de derecho de USC Gould. Tengo muchos amigos cercanos un esposo amado, Will, que nos acompaa aqu hoy. +Gracias. +l es definitivamente la estrella de mi show. +Quisiera compartirles cmo sucedi esto, y tambin describirles mi experiencia de cmo es ser psictica. +Me apuro a aclarar, que es mi experiencia, porque todos sufren la psicosis de manera diferente. +Empecemos con la definicin de esquizofrenia. +La esquizofrenia es un trastorno cerebral. +Su caracterstica distintiva es la psicosis, o haber perdido el contacto con la realidad +Los delirios y las alucinaciones son el sello de este trastorno. +Los delirios son creencias falsas y rgidas que no son sensibles a la evidencia, y una alucinacin, es una experiencia sensorial falsa. +Por ejemplo, cuando estoy psictica, con frecuencia tengo la mana que he matado a cientos de miles de personas con mis pensamientos. +A veces tengo tengo la idea de que estn por desencadenarse explosiones nucleares en mi cerebro. +En ocasiones, alucino, como esa vez que di vuelta y vi a un hombre levantando un chuchillo. +Imaginen tener una pesadilla mientras estn despiertos. +A menudo, el habla y el pensamiento se desordenan hasta el punto de perder coherencia. +La asociacin por asonancia involucra agrupar palabras que suenan parecido, pero que no tienen ningn sentido, y si se mezclan lo suficiente, se llama "ensalada de palabras." +Al contrario de lo que muchos creen, la esquizofrenia no es lo mismo que el trastorno de personalidad mltiple o de personalidad dividida +La mente esquizofrnica no est dividida, sino hecha trizas. +Todos conocen a un vagabundo, descuidado, probablemente mal alimentado, parado afuera de un edificio de oficinas, balbuceando, hablando solo, o gritando. +Es probable que esta persona sufra de algn tipo de esquizofrenia. +Pero la esquizofrenia se presenta en una gran variedad de niveles socioeconmicos, y hay personas con este trastorno que son profesionales a tiempo completo con grandes responsabilidades. +Hace varios aos, decid escribir mis propias experiencias y mi crnica personal, y quisiera compartir un poco ms esta historia con Uds., para transmitirles el punto de vista desde adentro. +El siguiente episodio ocurri la sptima semana del primer semestre de mi primer ao en la facultad de derecho de Yale. +Cito de mis notas: "Concert una cita con mis dos compaeras de clase, Rebel y Val para encontrarnos en la biblioteca el viernes noche para trabajar en un ejercicio de clase. +Pero no pas mucho tiempo antes de que yo hablara de una manera que no tena ningn sentido. +"Los memos son visitas", les dije. +"Determinan ciertos puntos. El punto est en sus cabezas. +Pat sola decirlo. Han matado a alguien?" Rebel y Val me miraron como si a ellas o a m les hubiese cado un balde de agua fra. +"De qu ests hablando, Elyn?" "Oh, ya saben, lo de siempre. Quin es qu y qu es quin, del cielo y el infierno. Subamos al techo. +Es una superficie plana. Es seguro." Rebel y Val me siguieron la corriente y me preguntaron qu me pasaba. +"Este es mi verdadero yo", anunci, sacudiendo mis brazos por encima de mi cabeza. +Y as fue como, tarde un viernes noche en el techo de la facultad de derecho de Yale, comenc a cantar, y no disimuladamente. +"Vengan al arbusto resplandeciente de Florida. +Quieren bailar?" Una de ellas pregunt "Ests drogada?" "Drogada? Yo? Para nada, sin drogas. +Vengan al arbusto resplandeciente de Florida, donde hay limones, donde se forman demonios." "Me asustas", dijo una de ellas, y Rebel y Val se dirigieron nuevamente hacia la biblioteca. +Me encong de hombros y las segu. +Una vez adentro, le pregunt a mis compaeras si ellas tambin tenan la misma experiencia que yo, de palabras saltando de un lado a otro. +"Creo que alguien se infiltr en las copias de mis casos," dije. +"Tenemos que vigilar el caso. +No creo en las articulaciones, pero evitan que el cuerpo se desarme."" Es un ejemplo de asociaciones por asonancia: "Finalmente logr regresar a mi dormitorio, y una vez all, no pude tranquilizarme. +Mi cabeza estaba llena de ruidos, de naranjos, y memos legales que no poda escribir y asesinatos en masa de los que saba sera responsable. +Sentada en mi cama, me meca adelante y atrs, gimiendo por miedo y aislamiento." +Este episodio llev a mi primera hospitalizacin en los EE.UU. +Tuve dos episodios anteriores en Inglaterra. +Contino con mis escritos: "A la maana siguiente, fui a la oficina de mi profesor para pedir una prrroga en el trabajo de clase, y comenc a balbucear incomprensiblemente tal como lo haba hecho la noche anterior, hasta que finalmente me llev a la sala de emergencias. +Una vez all, alguien, a quien solo llamar 'El Doctor' y todo su equipo de matones, se abalanzaron, me levantaron en el aire y me tiraron a una cama de metal con tanta fuerza, que vi las estrellas. +Me ataron las piernas y brazos a la cama de metal con gruesas correas de cuero. +Sali un sonido de mi boca que nunca antes haba odo: mitad gruido, mitad grito, apenas humano y de terror puro. +Luego este sonido volvi a salir forzado desde algn lugar profundo de mi estmago y carraspeando salvajemente mi garganta." +Este episodio deriv en mi hospitalizacin involuntaria. +Una de las razones dadas por los mdicos por haberme hospitalizado contra mi voluntad fue que yo estaba "gravemente discapacitada." +Para respaldar este punto, escribieron en mi historia clnica que no poda hacer mi tarea de la facultad de derecho de Yale. +Me preguntaba qu significaba eso respecto a los dems en New Haven +Durante el ao siguiente, pas cinco meses en un hospital psiquitrico. +A veces pasaba hasta 20 horas en contencin mecnica con los brazos atados, los brazos y piernas atadas, brazos y piernas atadas con una red con fuerza sobre mi pecho. +Nunca golpe a nadie. +Jams le hice dao a nadie. Nunca amenac directamente. +Si nunca han sido atados, seguramente tengan una imagen benvola de la experiencia. +No tiene nada de benvolo. +Cada semana, en los EE.UU., se estima que una de cada tres personas muere inmovilizada. +Se estrangulan, aspiran su propio vmito, se ahogan, tienen paros cardacos. +No est claro si el uso de la contencin mecnica de hecho salva vidas o cuesta vidas. +Mientras me preparaba para escribir mi nota estudiantil para el Yale Law Journal acerca de la contencin mecnica, le consult a un ilustre profesor de derecho quien tambin era psiquiatra, y dijo que por supuesto que l estara de acuerdo en que la sujecin debe ser degradante, dolorosa y aterradora. +Me mir como dndome la razn, y me dijo: "Elyn, realmente no lo entiendes: Estas personas son psicticas. +Son diferentes a ti y a m. +No experimentan las sujeciones como lo haramos nosotros." +En ese momento, no tuve el coraje de decirle, que no, que no somos tan diferentes de l. +No nos gusta, como a l tampoco, que nos aten a una cama y que despus nos dejen sufriendo horas. +De hecho, hasta hace poco, y estoy segura que algunos lo siguen opinando, que las ataduras ayudan a los pacientes psiquitricos a sentirse seguros. +Jams conoc a un paciente psiquitrico que acordara con esa opinin. +Actualmente, me gustara decir que estoy a favor de la psiquiatra pero muy en contra de utilizar la fuerza. +No creo que la fuerza sea un tratamiento efectivo, y creo que utilizar la fuerza contra una persona terriblemente enferma es algo terrible. +Finalmente, vine a Los ngeles a ensear en la facultad de derecho en la Universidad de Southern California. +Durante aos, me resist a los medicamentos, haciendo muchos esfuerzos para dejarlos. +Senta que si poda manejarme sin medicamentos, podra demostrar, despus de todo, que no tena una enfermedad mental, que se trataba de un terrible error. +Mi lema era cuantos menos medicamentos, menos defectuosa. +Mi analista en Los ngeles, el Dr. Kaplan, me instaba a que siguera medicada y continuara con mi vida, pero decid que quera hacer un ltimo esfuerzo para dejarlos. +Cito del texto: "Comenc a reducir las dosis de mis medicamentos, y poco tiempo despus comenc a sentir los efectos. +Luego de regresar de Oxford, entr a la oficina de Kaplan, directamente a acurrucarme en un rincn, cubr mi cara y comenc a temblar. +A mi alrededor senta la presencia de entes malvados con dagas. +Me cortaban en finas lonchas y me hacan tragar carbones calientes. +Keplan luego me describira como 'retorcindome agonizante.' An en este estado, que l describa como psicosis directa y grave, me negaba a tomar ms medicamentos. +La misin an no estaba completa. +Inmediatamente despus de la cita con Kaplan, fui a ver al Dr. Marder, un experto en esquizofrenia, quien segua mi caso por los efectos secundarios de los medicamentos. +El tena la impresin de que yo padeca una psicosis leve. +Una vez en su oficina, me sent en el silln, me dobl, y comenc a balbucear. +"Explosiones de cabezas y personas intentando matar. +Est bien si destrozo su oficina por completo?" "Deberas irte si crees que vas a hacer eso," dijo Marder. +"Bien. Pequeo. Fuego en hielo. Diles que no me maten. +Diles que no me maten. Qu hice mal? +Miles y miles con pensamientos, prohibiciones." "Elyn, sientes que eres peligrosa para t misma o para otros? +Creo que necesitas estar en el hospital. +Puedo ingresarte inmediatamente, y todo puede ser muy discreto". "Ja, ja, ja. +Me ofreces internarme en un hospital? +Los hospitales son malos, locos, tristes. +Uno debe mantenerse alejado. Soy Dios, o sola serlo."" En este punto del texto, donde dije: "Soy Dios, o sola serlo", mi esposo hizo una nota al margen. +Me pregunt: "Renunciaste o te echaron?" +""Doy y quito vida. +Perdname, porque no s lo que hago." Finalmente, me quebr ante mis amigos, y todos estaban convencidos de que deba tomar ms medicamentos. +Ya no poda negar la verdad, y no poda cambiarla. +La pared que me separaba a m, Elyn, profesora Saks, de esa mujer demente, hospitalizada hace algunos aos, estaba hecha escombros." +Todo acerca de esta enfermedad dice que yo no debera estar aqu, pero aqu estoy. Y creo que es as por tres razones: Primero, tuve un tratamiento excelente. +Terapia-psicoanaltica entre cuatro y cinco veces por semana, durante dcadas que an se mantiene, y excelente psicofarmacologa. +Segundo, tengo muchos amigos y familia que me conocen y conocen mi enfermedad. +Estas relaciones le dieron sentido y profundidad a mi vida, y tambin me han ayudado a transitar mi vida a pesar de los sntomas. +Tercero, trabajo en un ambiente enormemente comprensivo en la facultad de derecho de USC. +Este es un lugar que no solo se ajusta a mis necesidades, sino que de hecho las acepta. +Adems es un lugar estimulante a nivel intelectual, y ocupar mi cabeza con problemas complejos ha sido la mejor, ms potente y confiable defensa contra mi enfermedad mental. +An con todo esto: el tratamiento excelente, familia y amigos maravillosos y ambiente de trabajo comprensivo; no hice pblica mi enfermedad hasta hace relativamente poco tiempo, y eso fue porque el estigma de las enfermedades mentales es tan potente que no me senta segura si los dems lo saban. +Si no escuchan nada ms hoy, por favor escuchen esto: No hay "esquizofrnicos." +Hay personas con esquizofrenia, y estas personas pueden ser sus esposos, sus hijos, sus vecinos, sus amigos, sus colegas. +As que les comparto una reflexin final. +Debemos invertir ms recursos en la investigacin y tratamiento de enfermedades mentales. +Mientras mejor entendamos estos trastornos, mejor sern los tratamientos, y si hay mejores opciones podremos ofrecer ms ayuda a las personas sin utilizar la fuerza. +Adems, debemos dejar de criminalizar las enfermedades mentales. +Es una tragedia nacional y un escndalo que la prisin del condado de Los ngeles sea la unidad psiquitrica ms grande de los EE.UU. +Las crceles y prisiones de EE.UU. estn repletas de personas que sufren trastornos mentales severos, y mucho de ellos estn all porque nunca recibieron un tratamiento adecuado. +Facilmente, podra haber terminado yo all, o en la calle. +Un mensaje para la prensa y la industria de entretenimiento: En general, han hecho un trabajo maravilloso luchando contra estigmas y prejuicios de todo tipo. +Por favor, sigan dejndonos ver personajes en sus pelculas, y obras de teatro que sufren trastornos mentales severos. +Represntenlos compasivamente, y represntenlos con toda la riqueza y profundidad de su experiencia, como personas, no como diagnsticos. +Recientemente, un amigo plante una pregunta: Si hubiese una pldora que pudiese tomar que me curara instantneamente, la tomara? +Al poeta Rainer Maria Rilke le ofrecieron psicoanlisis. +Se neg, diciendo: "No me quiten a mis demonios, porque mis ngeles tambin podran abandonarme." +Mi psicosis, por otro lado, es una pesadilla constante en la cual mis demonios son tan aterradores que todos mis ngeles ya me abandonaron. +As que, tomara la pldora? Inmediatamente. +Dicho esto, no quiero que piensen que me lamento de no haber tenido la vida que habra vivido, si no estuviese enferma, y tampoco pido a nadie que me tenga lstima. +Lo que preferira decir es que la humanidad que compartimos es ms importante que los trastornos mentales que podemos no compartir. +Lo que deseamos quienes sufrimos un trastorno mental es lo que cualquiera desea: citando a Sigmund Freud, "trabajar y amar." +Gracias. Gracias. Gracias. Son muy amables. Gracias. +El fenmeno que vieron por unos momentos se llama levitacin cuntica o bloqueo cuntico. +Y el objeto que estaba levitando se llama superconductor. +La superconductividad es un estado cuntico de la materia y se da solo bajo ciertas temperaturas crticas. +Pero es un fenmeno bastante viejo; fue descubierto hace 100 aos. +Sin embargo, debido a varios avances tecnolgicos recientes, ahora podemos mostrarles la levitacin y el bloqueo cunticos. +Un superconductor est definido por dos propiedades. +La primera es la resistencia elctrica nula y la segunda es la expulsin de un campo magntico desde el interior del superconductor. +Suena complicado, verdad? +Pero, qu es la resistencia elctrica? +La electricidad es el flujo de electrones por el interior de un material. +Y estos electrones, al fluir, colisionan con los tomos y en estas colisiones pierden una determinada cantidad de energa. +Disipan esta energa en forma de calor y ya conocen ese efecto. +No obstante, en el interior de un superconductor no hay colisiones y por ende no hay disipacin de energa. +Es extraordinario. Pinsenlo. +En la fsica clsica siempre hay friccin y se pierde algo de energa. +Pero aqu no, porque es un efecto cuntico. +Pero eso no es todo, porque a los superconductores no les gustan los campos magnticos. +Por eso un superconductor trata de expulsar el campo magntico desde el interior y lo hace mediante la circulacin de corrientes. +La combinacin de ambos efectos -la expulsin de los campos magnticos y la resistencia elctrica nula- es precisamente un superconductor. +Pero no todo es perfecto, como sabemos, y a veces quedan residuos de campo magntico dentro del superconductor. +En las condiciones apropiadas, que aqu tenemos, esos campos magnticos pueden quedar atrapados en el superconductor. +Y estos campos del interior del superconductor estn en cantidades discretas. +Por qu? Porque es un fenmeno cuntico. Es fsica cuntica. +Y resulta que se comportan como partculas cunticas. +En esta pelcula pueden ver cmo fluyen uno a uno, en forma discreta. +Estos son residuos de campo magntico. No son partculas, pero se comportan como partculas. +Por esta razn el efecto se llama levitacin cuntica o bloqueo cuntico. +Pero, qu le pasa al superconductor cuando lo ponemos en de un campo magntico? +Bueno, primero hay residuos de campo magntico en el interior pero ahora el superconductor no quiere que se muevan porque sus movimientos disipan energa y eso rompe el estado de superconductividad. +Entonces, bloquea esos cuantos de campo magntico, denominados fluxones, y los bloquea en el lugar. +Y, al hacerlo, realmente se autobloquea. +Por qu? Porque cada movimiento del superconductor cambiar su posicin, cambiar su configuracin. +As, obtenemos el bloqueo cuntico. Les mostrar su funcionamiento. +Aqu tengo un superconductor, que he envuelto para que permanezca fro bastante tiempo. +Y si lo coloco en la parte superior de un imn comn queda bloqueado en el aire. +Pero no es simple levitacin. Tampoco es slo repulsin. +Reconfigurando los fluxones, quedan bloqueados en esta nueva posicin. +De esta manera, lo movemos a la izquierda o a la derecha. +Es un bloqueo cuntico, en realidad, un bloqueo tridimensional del superconductor. +Claro, puedo darle vuelta, y quedar bloqueado. +Ahora que ya entendimos que esta denominada levitacin en realidad es un bloqueo -s, lo entendemos- +no les sorprender saber que si tomo este imn circular, que tiene un campo magntico uniforme, el superconductor podr rotar libremente por el eje del imn. +Por qu? Porque mientras rota, se mantiene el bloqueo. +Lo ven? Puedo ajustarlo y rotar el superconductor. +Tenemos un movimiento sin friccin. Sigue levitando, pero puede moverse libremente. +Entonces, hay bloqueo cuntico y levitacin encima del imn. +Pero, cuntos fluxones, cuntos cuantos magnticos hay en un disco como este? +Bueno, podemos calcularlo, y resultan ser muchos. +Cien mil millones de cuantos de campo magntico dentro de este disco de casi 8 cm. +Y, sin embargo, eso no es lo sorprendente. Hay algo que no les he contado todava. +Y, s, lo sorprendente es que este superconductor que ven aqu slo tiene medio micrn de espesor. Es extremadamente delgado. +Esta capa extremadamente delgada es capaz de levitar ms de 70 000 veces su propio peso. +Es un efecto notable. Es muy fuerte. +Ahora, puedo extender este imn circular, y construir la pista que quiera. +Por ejemplo, puedo hacer un carril circular aqu. +Y cuando coloco el disco superconductor sobre este riel, se mueve libremente. +Y, nuevamente, eso no es todo. Puedo ajustar su posicin as, y rotarlo, y se mueve libremente en esta nueva posicin. +Y puedo probar algo ms; intentmoslo por primera vez. +Puedo tomar este disco y ponerlo aqu, y mientras est aqu -no te muevas- tratar de rotar la pista y, con suerte, si lo hice bien, queda suspendido. +Ya ven, es bloqueo cuntico, no levitacin. +Mientras hago que circule un poco ms, les contar un poco ms de los superconductores. +Ahora... Ahora que sabemos que podemos transferir gran cantidad de corriente por los superconductores, podemos usarlos para producir grandes campos magnticos, como los necesarios en los resonadores magnticos, en aceleradores de partculas, etc. +Pero con los superconductores tambin se puede almacenar energa porque no hay disipacin. +Y tambin podramos producir cables, transferir grandes cantidades de corriente entre centrales elctricas. +Imaginen que pudieran respaldar una central elctrica con un simple cable superconductor. +Cul es el futuro de la levitacin cuntica y del bloqueo cuntico? +Responder esta pregunta con un ejemplo. +Supongan que tienen un disco como el que tengo aqu en mi mano, de unos 8 cm de dimetro, con una sencilla diferencia. +La capa superconductora, en vez de ser de medio micrn de espesor, es de dos milmetros, bastante delgada. +Esta capa superconductora de dos milmetros de espesor podra sostener una tonelada, un coche pequeo, en mi mano. +Increble. Gracias. +Estudio el futuro del crimen y del terrorismo, y, francamente, tengo miedo. +Tengo miedo de lo que veo. +Sinceramente quiero creer que la tecnologa puede traernos la prometida utopa tecnolgica, pero, ya ven, he hecho carrera en la polica y eso ha forjado mi punto de vista. +He sido agente de polica, investigador encubierto, estratega en la lucha contra el terrorismo y he trabajado en ms de 70 pases por todo el mundo. +He tenido que ver ms que lo que me tocaba de violencia y del lado ms oscuro de la sociedad, y eso influy en mis opiniones. +Mi trabajo con criminales y terroristas en realidad ha sido muy instructivo. +Me ha enseado mucho y me gustara poder compartir con Uds. algunas de esas observaciones. +Hoy voy a mostrarles el lado oscuro de esas tecnologas que nos maravillan; esas que nos encantan. +En manos de la comunidad de TED, son herramientas hermosas que traern un gran cambio al mundo, pero en manos de un terrorista suicida, el futuro puede verse muy diferente. +Empec a observar la tecnologa y el uso que le dan los criminales cuando era agente de patrulla. +En ese entonces, esta era la tecnologa de punta. +Ranse si quieren, pero los traficantes de droga y los pandilleros con los que trataba, tenan de estos mucho antes de que los tuviese la polica. +Veinte aos despus, los criminales an usan celulares pero tambin construyen sus propias redes de telefona como esta, desplegada por los narcos en los 31 estados de Mxico. +Tienen un sistema nacional de comunicaciones radiales encriptadas. +Pinsenlo. +Piensen en la innovacin que implica. +Piensen en la infraestructura que requiere. +Y piensen en esto: por qu no consigo seal en San Francisco? Cmo es posible? No tiene sentido. Sistemticamente subestimamos el poder de criminales y terroristas. +La tecnologa ha abierto el mundo cada vez ms, y en general eso es genial, pero esta apertura puede tener consecuencias no deseadas. +Piensen en el ataque terrorista de 2008 en Mumbai. +Quienes lo perpetraron estaban armados con fusiles AK-47, explosivos y granadas de mano. +Lanzaron estas granadas de mano a personas inocentes que coman en el bar mientras esperaban el tren para volver a casa luego del trabajo. +La artillera pesada no es nueva en operaciones terroristas. +Las armas y las bombas no son nada original. +Lo diferente esta vez es la forma en que los terroristas usaron las tecnologas modernas de comunicacin de la informacin para identificar ms vctimas y asesinarlas. +Estaban armados con telfonos mviles. +Tenan BlackBerries. +Tenan acceso a imgenes satelitales. +Tenan telfonos satelitales, e incluso tenan anteojos de visin nocturna. +Pero quiz su mayor innovacin sea esta. +Todos hemos visto imgenes como esta en la televisin y las noticias. Es un centro de operaciones. +Los terroristas construyeron el suyo propio en la frontera con Pakistn, y all vean la BBC, Al Jazeera, CNN y canales locales de India. +Tambin revisaban Internet y los medios sociales para monitorear la evolucin de los ataques y cuntas personas haban muerto. +Todo lo hicieron en tiempo real. +La innovacin del centro de operaciones terrorista le ha dado a los terroristas un conocimiento sin precedentes y una ventaja tctica sobre la polica y sobre el gobierno. +Qu hicieron con esto? +Lo usaron con gran eficacia. +En un momento del asedio de 60 horas, los terroristas iban habitacin por habitacin tratando de encontrar ms vctimas. +Llegaron a una suite del ltimo piso del hotel y tiraron la puerta abajo. Hallaron a un hombre escondido en su cama +y le preguntaron: "Quin eres t?, qu ests haciendo aqu?" +Y el hombre respondi: "Soy un simple e inocente profesor". +Claro, los terroristas saban que ningn profesor indio se hospeda en una suite del Taj. +Tomaron su identificacin, llamaron a la sala de guerra terrorista y desde all lo buscaron en Google, hallaron una foto, llamaron a los agentes del lugar y les dijeron: "El rehn, es corpulento? +Es calvo? Lleva anteojos?" +"S, s, s", fueron las respuestas. +El centro de operaciones lo haba identificado. +No era un profesor. +Era el segundo empresario ms rico de la India. Y luego de descubrir esta informacin la sala de guerra terrorista orden a los terroristas en el terreno en Mumbai: +"Mtenlo" Todos nos preocupamos por nuestra privacidad en Facebook, pero en realidad la apertura puede ser usada en nuestra contra. +Los terroristas la usan. +Un buscador puede determinar quin vivir y quin morir. +Este es el mundo en el que vivimos. +Durante el asedio de Mumbai, los terroristas estaban tan pendientes de la tecnologa que varios testigos informaron que mientras disparaban a los rehenes con una mano con la otra revisaban los mensajes de texto. +Al final, 300 personas resultaron gravemente heridas y ms de 172 hombres, mujeres y nios perdieron sus vidas ese da. +Piensen en lo ocurrido. +Durante este asedio de 60 horas en Mumbai, 10 hombres equipados no solo con armas sino con tecnologa, pusieron en vilo a una ciudad de 20 millones de habitantes. +Diez personas paralizaron a 20 millones y esto se propag por el mundo. +As pueden usar la apertura los radicales. +Esto ocurri hace casi cuatro aos. +Qu podran hacer hoy con las tecnologas disponibles que tenemos? +Qu harn maana? +La capacidad de uno de afectar a muchos aumenta exponencialmente y lo hace para bien y para mal. +Pero no ocurre solo en el terrorismo. +Ha habido un gran cambio de paradigma en el crimen. +Ya ven, ahora se puede cometer ms crmenes. +En los viejos tiempos, haba cuchillos y pistolas. +Luego los criminales pasaron a robar trenes. +Podan robar a 200 personas en un tren, una gran innovacin. +Avanzamos y tenemos Internet, que permite actuar a mayor escala. +De hecho, muchos recordarn el robo reciente a PlayStation de Sony. +En ese incidente, robaron a ms de 100 millones de personas. +Pinsenlo. +Cundo en la historia de la humanidad una persona pudo robarle a 100 millones? +Claro, no se trata solo de robar cosas. +Hay otras vas tecnolgicas que los criminales pueden explotar. +Muchos recordarn este video sper lindo de la ltima TED, pero no todos los enjambres de cuadricpteros son tan lindos. +No todos tienen palillos. +Algunos pueden tener cmaras HD y vigilar a los manifestantes o, como en este fragmento de cine, cuadricpteros cargados con armas de fuego y armas automticas. +Los robots pequeos son lindos cuando tocan msica. +Pero cuando te persiguen en enjambre por el barrio para dispararte, no tanto. +Claro, los criminales y terroristas no fueron los primeros en dotar de armas a los robots. Sabemos dnde empez. +Pero se adaptan rpidamente. +Hace poco el FBI arrest a un miembro de Al Qaeda en Estados Unidos, que planeaba usar estos aviones a control remoto para enviar explosivos C4 a edificios gubernamentales de Estados Unidos. +Por cierto, estos vuelan a ms de 960 km por hora. +Cada vez que aparece una nueva tecnologa los criminales estn all para explotarla. +Todos hemos visto impresoras 3D. +Sabemos que con ellas puede imprimirse en materiales como el plstico, el chocolate, el metal e incluso el concreto. +Con gran precisin pude hacer esto el otro da, un patito muy lindo. +Pero me preguntaba por esas personas que se atan bombas al pecho y se auto-inmolan, cmo podran usar las impresoras 3D? +Quiz as. +Ya ven, si se puede imprimir en metal, pueden imprimir una de estas, y, de hecho, tambin pueden imprimir una de estas. +S que el RU tiene unas leyes anti-armas muy estrictas. +Ya no hay que traer ms armas al RU. +Basta con traer la impresora 3D e imprimir el arma cuando estn aqu, y, claro, el cargador para las balas. +Pero a medida que esto crezca en el futuro, qu ms se podr imprimir? +La tecnologa permite impresoras ms grandes. +Conforme avancemos veremos nuevas tecnologas, como la Internet de las Cosas. +Cada da conectamos cada vez ms nuestras vidas a Internet, lo que significa que la Internet de las Cosas pronto ser la Internet de las Cosas a Robar. +Todos los objetos fsicos de nuestro espacio se estn transformando en tecnologas de la informacin y eso tiene consecuencias radicales en nuestra seguridad porque ms conexiones a ms dispositivos significa ms vulnerabilidades. +Los criminales entienden esto. +Los terroristas lo entienden. Los ciberpiratas tambin. +Si controlas el cdigo, controlas el mundo. +Este es el futuro que nos espera. +No existe un sistema operativo o tecnologa que no haya sido vulnerada. +Esto es preocupante, porque el propio cuerpo humano se est volviendo una tecnologa de la informacin. +Como hemos visto aqu, nos estamos transformando en ciborgs. +Cada ao se colocan miles de implantes cocleares, bombas de diabticos, marcapasos y desfibriladores en las personas. +En Estados Unidos hay 60 000 personas con marcapasos conectados a Internet. +Los desfibriladores le permiten a un mdico a distancia darle una descarga a un corazn en caso de que el paciente lo necesite. +Pero si no lo necesita y otra persona le da una descarga, no es algo bueno. +Claro, iremos ms all del cuerpo humano. +Nos adentraremos en el nivel celular actual. +Hasta este momento, todas las tecnologas de las que habl estn basadas en el silicio, unos y ceros, pero hay otro sistema operativo: el sistema operativo originario, el ADN. +Para los ciberpiratas, el ADN es solo otro sistema operativo a ser vulnerado. +Es un gran desafo para ellos. +Ya hay mucha gente que trabaja para descifrar el software de la vida, y mientras la mayora lo hace por el bien de todos, para ayudarnos, otros no lo hacen as. +Cmo abusarn los criminales de esto? +Bueno, con la biologa sinttica pueden hacerse cosas muy ingeniosas. +Por ejemplo, predigo que pasaremos de un mundo de drogas a base de hierbas a uno sinttico. Para qu necesitamos las plantas? +Basta con tomar el cdigo gentico de la marihuana o de las hojas de amapola o coca, copiar y pegar los genes, colocarlos en levadura, tomar esa levadura hacerla producir la cocana o marihuana, o cualquier droga. +El uso que le daremos a la levadura en el futuro ser muy interesante. +De hecho, podemos hacer pan y cerveza muy especiales conforme avancemos en este prximo siglo. +El costo de secuenciar el genoma humano cae precipitadamente. +Segua la Ley de Moore pero en 2008 algo cambi. +Mejor la tecnologa y ahora la secuenciacin de ADN sigue un ritmo cinco veces superior al de la Ley de Moore. +Eso tiene para nosotros consecuencias significativas. +Nos llev 30 aos pasar de la computadora personal al nivel de cibercrimen que tenemos hoy. Pero viendo lo rpido que se desarrolla la biologa, y conociendo a los criminales y terroristas, podemos llegar mucho ms rpido al biocrimen en el futuro. +Cualquiera podr avanzar con facilidad e imprimir su propio biovirus, versiones mejoradas del bola o el ntrax, gripe en forma de arma. +Hace poco vimos el caso de unos investigadores que obtuvieron un virus de la gripe aviar H5N1 ms potente. +Ya tiene una tasa de mortalidad del 70% si se lo contrae, pero es difcil de contraer. +Los ingenieros, haciendo pequeos cambios genticos, pudieron hacer con eso un arma para que sea ms fcil de contraer y mueran no miles de personas, sino decenas de millones. +Ya ven, se puede avanzar y crear nuevas pandemias; los investigadores que lo hicieron estaban tan orgullosos de sus logros que queran publicarlo abiertamente para que todos pudieran verlo y tener acceso a esta informacin. +Pero va ms all de eso. +El investigador del ADN, Andrew Hessel, seal muy acertadamente que si uno puede usar el tratamiento del cncer, el tratamiento moderno del cncer, para atrapar una clula dejando al resto de las clulas intactas, entonces se puede atrapar cualquier clula de una persona. +El tratamiento personalizado del cncer es la otra cara de las bioarmas personalizadas, lo que significa que se puede atacar a cada individuo incluidas las personas de esta foto. +Cmo las protegeremos en el futuro? +Qu hacer? Qu hacer con todo esto? +Eso me preguntan todo el tiempo. +Para mis seguidores en Twitter, tuitear la respuesta durante el da. En realidad, es ms complejo que eso y no hay milagros. +No tengo todas las respuestas, pero s algunas cosas. +A raz del 11 de septiembre, las mejores mentes en seguridad aunaron sus innovaciones y crearon esto para la seguridad. +Si esperan que la gente que cre esto los proteja de la robopocalipsis que viene... ... eh, habra que tener un plan alternativo. Por decir algo. Piensen en ello. Hoy la aplicacin de la ley es un sistema cerrado. +Depende de cada nacin, pero la amenaza es internacional. +No se mantiene el orden a escala mundial. Al menos hasta ahora. Nuestras armas actuales, los guardias de frontera, las grandes puertas y las cercas quedaron obsoletas en el nuevo mundo en que nos movemos. +Cmo podemos prepararnos para estas amenazas especficas, como el ataque a un presidente o a un primer ministro? +Esta sera la respuesta natural del gobierno, ocultar todos los jefes de gobierno en burbujas hermticamente selladas. +Pero esto no va a funcionar. +El costo de una secuencia de ADN ser insignificante. +Todo el mundo tendr la suya en el futuro. +As que puede haber una manera ms radical de verlo. +Qu tal si tomramos el ADN del presidente, del rey o de la reina, y se lo diramos a unas centenas de investigadores de confianza para que estudien el ADN y hagan pruebas anti-penetracin para ayudar a nuestros dirigentes? +Y si se lo enviramos a unos miles? +O, en forma polmica y no exenta de riesgos, qu tal si lo hiciramos de dominio pblico? +As todos podramos participar en la ayuda. +Ya hemos visto ejemplos de esto funcionando bien. +Estn matando tantas personas que ni siquiera pueden darles sepultura ms que en tumbas sin nombre, como esta en las afueras de Ciudad Jurez. +Qu podemos hacer al respecto? El gobierno ha sido ineficaz. +En Mxico, los ciudadanos asumiendo gran riesgo, luchan para construir una solucin eficaz. +Estn cartografiando colectivamente las actividades de los traficantes. +Nos demos cuenta o no, estamos en los albores de una escalada armamentista; una carrera armamentista entre personas que usan la tecnologa para el bien y aquellas que la usan para el mal. +La amenaza es grave y el tiempo de actuar es ahora. +Puedo asegurarles que los terroristas y los criminales lo hacen. +Yo opino que en vez de tener pequeas fuerzas de lite de agentes estatales altamente calificados que nos protejan, sera mucho mejor contar con ciudadanos comunes que aborden el problema como grupo y vean qu pueden hacer. +Si todos hacemos nuestra parte creo que estaremos en un espacio mucho mejor. +Las herramientas para cambiar el mundo estn en manos de todos. +Cmo usarlas no depende solo de m, depende de todos nosotros. +Esta era la tecnologa que usaba con frecuencia como oficial de polica. +Esta tecnologa ha quedado obsoleta en el mundo actual. +No trasciende, no funciona a nivel mundial, y, desde luego, no funciona en lo virtual. +Hemos visto cambios de paradigmas en el crimen y el terrorismo. +Se requiere un cambio hacia una forma ms abierta y una aplicacin ms participativa de la ley. +Por eso los invito a acompaarme. +La seguridad pblica es demasiado importante como para dejarla a los profesionales. +Gracias. +Me gustara hablarles de mi padre. +Mi padre tiene Alzheimer. +Los sntomas comenzaron a aparecer hace unos 12 aos, y el diagnstico se hizo oficial en 2005. +Ahora, de hecho, se encuentra bastante enfermo. Necesita ayuda para comer, para vestirse, no sabe dnde se encuentra en realidad o en qu momento. Ha sido muy duro. +Mi padre fue mi hroe y mentor durante casi toda mi vida, y me he pasado la ltima dcada observando cmo desaparece. +Pero no est solo. Hay alrededor de 35 millones de personas a nivel mundial con algn tipo de demencia, y para el 2030 se espera que la cifra se haya doblado hasta 70 millones. +Eso es mucha gente. +La demencia nos asusta. Las caras desorientadas y manos espasmdicas de las personas con demencia, la cantidad de personas que la desarrollan, todo eso nos estremece. +Y por culpa de ese miedo, tendemos a hacer una de estas dos cosas: Nos aferramos a la negacin: "No soy yo, no tiene nada que ver conmigo, jams me pasar a m". +O, nos decidimos a prevenir la demencia, y jams nos pasar porque haremos todo correctamente y nunca vendr por nosotros. +Yo intento buscar una tercera va: me estoy preparando para tener Alzheimer. +Prevenir es bueno, y me he propuesto hacer todo lo que se puede hacer para evitar el Alzheimer. +Como de manera saludable, hago ejercicio cada da, mantengo mi mente activa, eso es lo que las investigaciones dicen que deberamos hacer. +Pero esas investigaciones tambin aseguran que no existe nada que pueda protegernos al 100%. +Si el monstruo va a por ti, te alcanzar. +Eso es lo que ocurri con mi padre. +Mi padre era profesor bilinge de Instituto. Sus aficiones eran el ajedrez, el bridge y escribir artculos de opinin. +Y aun as desarroll demencia. +Si el monstruo va a por ti, te alcanzar. +Sobre todo si eres yo, pues el Alzheimer tiende a ser una enfermedad hereditaria. +As que me estoy preparando para tener Alzheimer. +En base a lo que he aprendido cuidando a mi padre, e investigando acerca de cmo es vivir con demencia, me estoy centrando en tres puntos para mi preparacin: Estoy cambiando las actividades que realizo por diversin, trabajando para mejorar mi fuerza fsica, y, esta es la parte complicada: Estoy intentando convertirme en mejor persona. +Empecemos por los hobbies. Cuando tienes demencia, cada vez es ms y ms difcil divertirte. +No puedes sentarte y tener conversaciones con tus viejos amigos, porque no los reconoces. +Ver la televisin es confuso, y a menudo intimida y asusta. +Y leer se hace casi imposible. +Cuando cuidas a alguien con demencia, y te entrenan para ello, te ensean a hacerles participar en actividades familiares para ellos, prcticas e indefinidas. +En el caso de mi padre, el resultado fue dejarle rellenar informes. +Era profesor en una universidad pblica; sabe qu aspecto tiene el papeleo burocrtico. +l firma con su nombre en cada rengln, marca todas las casillas, escribe nmeros donde cree que deberan escribirse. +Pero eso me hace pensar: qu haran mis cuidadores conmigo? +Soy como mi padre. Leo, escribo, pienso mucho acerca de la salud global. +Me daran revistas acadmicas para que pudiese garabatear en los mrgenes? +Me daran tablas y grficos que pudiese colorear? +Por eso he estado intentando aprender a hacer cosas manuales y prcticas. +Siempre me ha gustado dibujar, as que lo hago ms a menudo, aunque no sea muy buena. +Estoy aprendiendo a hacer origamis sencillos. Ya s hacer una caja increble. +Y estoy aprendiendo a tejer, de momento s tejer una bola. +Pero, saben? realmente no importa si soy buena. Lo que importa es que mis manos saben cmo hacerlo. +Porque cuantas ms cosas me sean familiares, ms recordarn mis manos, ms cosas podrn mantenerme ocupada y feliz hacindolas cuando mi cerebro ya no dirija el timn. +Dicen que las personas que realizan muchas actividades son ms felices, que es ms fcil cuidarlas y que esto incluso puede ralentizar el avance de la enfermedad. +Para m, eso es ganar la partida. +Quiero ser todo lo feliz que pueda durante todo el tiempo que me sea posible. +Mucha gente desconoce el hecho de que el Alzheimer implica tanto sntomas fsicos, como sntomas cognitivos. Pierdes el sentido del equilibrio, tus msculos tienen espasmos, y eso suele dejar a la gente cada vez menos y menos mvil. +Les asusta caminar. Les asusta incluso moverse. +As que estoy realizando actividades que entrenen mi sentido del equilibrio. +Hago yoga y tai chi para mejorar mi equilibrio, para que cuando empiece a perderlo, an sea capaz de moverme. +Hago ejercicio con pesas, de modo que tenga la fuerza fsica para que, cuando empiece a atrofiarme, disponga de ms tiempo de movilidad. +Por ltimo, el tercer paso, estoy intentando mejorar como persona. +Mi padre era amable y carioso antes de tener Alzheimer, y es amable y carioso ahora tambin. +He visto cmo perda su inteligencia, su sentido del humor, sus habilidades lingsticas, pero tambin he visto esto: me quiere, adora a mis hijos, quiere a mi hermano, a mi madre y a sus cuidadores. +Y ese amor hace que queramos estar cerca de l, incluso ahora, +a pesar de lo difcil que resulta. +Cuando lo despojas de todo lo que aprendi durante su vida, su desnudo corazn an brilla. +Nunca he sido tan amable como mi padre, y tampoco tan cariosa. +Y lo que necesito ahora es aprender a ser as. +Necesito un corazn tan puro que, aun desprovisto de todo por la demencia, pueda sobrevivir. +No quiero tener Alzheimer. +Lo que quiero es una cura en los prximos 20 aos, suficientemente pronto para que me proteja. +Pero si la enfermedad viene por m, estar preparada. +Gracias. +En el ocano, qu tienen en comn el petrleo, el plstico y la radiactividad? +En la parte superior est el derrame de petrleo de BP: miles de millones de barriles de petrleo que sale a chorros sobre el golfo de Mxico. +En la parte central hay millones de toneladas de acumulacin de desechos plsticos en el ocano y en la ltima parte hay una fuga de material radiactivo de la planta de energa nuclear de Fukushima en el ocano Pacfico. +Bueno, los tres grandes problemas tienen en comn que son provocados por el hombre, pero estn controlados por fuerzas naturales. +Esto debe hacernos sentir terriblemente mal y a la vez esperanzados porque si tenemos el poder para crear estos problemas, bien podemos tener el poder para remediarlos. +Pero qu pasa con las fuerzas naturales? +Bueno, eso es exactamente de lo que quiero hablar hoy, de cmo podemos utilizar estas fuerzas naturales para remediar estos problemas causados por el hombre. +Cuando ocurri el derrame de petrleo de BP, estaba trabajando en el MIT (Instituto Tecnolgico de Massachusetts) en el desarrollo de tecnologas de limpieza de derrames de petrleo. +Tuve la oportunidad de ir al golfo de Mxico y conocer a algunos pescadores y ver las condiciones terribles en las que ellos trabajaban. +Se usaron ms de 700 de estos barcos, que son barcos de pesca readecuados con absorbente de aceite en blanco y contenedor de aceite en naranja, pero solo se recogi 3 % del aceite de la superficie y la salud de los limpiadores result seriamente afectada. +Estaba trabajando en una tecnologa muy interesante en el MIT, pero era una visin muy a largo plazo de cmo desarrollar tecnologa e iba a ser una tecnologa muy cara que adems tena que patentarse. +Yo quera trabajar en algo que pudisemos desarrollar muy rpido, que fuese barato, que tuviese cdigo abierto, porque los derrames de petrleo no solo ocurren en el golfo de Mxico, y que usase energa renovable. +As que renunci al trabajo de mis sueos y me mud a Nueva Orleans y me dediqu a estudiar cmo ocurra el derrame de petrleo. +En ese momento, estaban usando estos pequeos barcos de pesca para limpiar lneas en un ocano de suciedad. +Si se usa exactamente la misma superficie de absorbente de aceite, pero solo se presta atencin a los patrones naturales y se va contra el viento, se puede recoger mucho ms material. +Si se multiplica la plataforma, se multiplica el nmero de capas de material absorbente que se usa, se puede recoger mucho ms. +Pero es muy difcil mover el absorbente de aceite en contra de los vientos, las corrientes de superficie y las olas. +Estas son fuerzas enormes. +La idea era muy simple y consista en usar la antigua tcnica de navegar y virar hacia el viento para capturar o interceptar el aceite que se va a la deriva por el viento. +As que no hizo falta ninguna invencin. +Tomamos un barco de vela sencillo y tratamos de sacar algo largo y pesado, pero en el vaivn en que bamos, perdimos dos cosas: capacidad de traccin y direccin. +Y as, pens, qu pasa si tomamos el timn de la parte posterior de la embarcacin a la parte delantera? Tendramos un mejor control? +As que constru este pequeo barco velero robot con el timn en la parte delantera y trat de sacar algo muy largo y pesado, un objeto de cuatro metros de largo, solo para tirar, y me sorprendi que simplemente con un timn de 14 cm, pudiese controlar 4 m de absorbente. +Estaba tan feliz que segu practicando con el robot y como ven, este tiene un timn delantero aqu. +Normalmente est en la parte posterior. +Al practicar, me di cuenta de que su capacidad de maniobra era realmente increble; poda evitar un obstculo en el ltimo segundo, era ms maniobrable que un barco normal. +Qu tal si el barco entero se convirtiese en un punto de control?, +y si el barco cambiase de forma? +Por lo tanto Muchas gracias. Eso fue el comienzo de Protei y ese es el primer barco en la historia que cambi completamente la forma del casco con el fin de controlarlo y las propiedades de navegacin a vela que se obtienen son muy superiores en comparacin con las de un barco normal. +Al girar, hay la sensacin de surfear y la forma en que va contra el viento es muy eficiente. +Es de baja velocidad, baja velocidad del viento, y la maniobrabilidad es mucho mejor y aqu voy a hacer un pequeo sesgo y veamos la posicin de la vela. +Lo que pasa es que, debido a que el barco cambia de forma, la posicin de la vela delantera y de la principal es diferente respecto al viento. +Recibimos viento de ambos lados. +Y esto es exactamente lo que se necesita si queremos sacar algo largo y pesado. +No queremos perder la capacidad de traccin ni la direccin. +Quise saber si era posible llevar este proyecto a escala industrial, as que hicimos un barco grande con una vela grande y un casco muy ligero, inflable, con un mnimo impacto en el ambiente, as obtuvimos una mayor proporcin entre el tamao y la fuerza. +Despus de esto, queramos ver si podamos implementar este y automatizar el sistema, as que usamos el mismo sistema, pero aadimos una estructura para activar la mquina. +Por lo tanto, usamos el mismo sistema de cmaras de inflado y lo llevamos a prueba. +Esto est sucediendo en los Pases Bajos. +Lo probamos en el agua sin ningn tipo de cubierta o de lastre solo para ver cmo funcionaba. +El pequeo prototipo nos hizo ver que estaba funcionando muy bien, pero que todava tenamos mucho trabajo por hacer. +Hicimos una evolucin acelerada de la tecnologa de la vela. +Pasamos de un timn trasero a uno delantero, a dos timones, a timones mltiples, al barco entero que cambiaba de forma y cuanto ms avanzbamos, ms simple y bonito quedaba el diseo. Pero yo quera mostrarles un pez, porque de hecho, es muy diferente de un pez. +El pez se mueve de esta manera, pero nuestro barco se impulsa por el viento y el casco controla la trayectoria. +He trado por primera vez, en el escenario de TED, a Protei nmero ocho. No es el ltimo, pero es un bueno para hacer demostraciones. +Lo primero que les muestro en el video es que podemos controlar mejor la trayectoria de un barco de vela o que no nos vamos a dejar arrastrar por el viento, nunca contra el viento, siempre podemos captar el viento por ambos lados. +Son nuevas propiedades de un barco de vela. +As que si ven el barco de este lado, les podra recordar el perfil de un avin. +Cuando un avin se mueve en esta direccin, comienza a levantarte y es as como despega. +Ahora, si tomamos el mismo sistema de manera vertical, doblamos y avanzamos en esta direccin, nuestro instinto nos dir que podemos seguir por ese camino, pero si nos movemos lo suficientemente rpido, podemos crear lo que llamamos elevacin lateral, por lo que podramos llegar ms lejos o ms cerca del viento. +La otra cosa es, la mayora de los barcos, cuando llegan a una cierta velocidad y van en las olas, comienzan a golpear y golpear sobre la superficie del agua y una gran parte de la energa que se mueve hacia adelante se pierde. +Pero si vamos con la corriente, si prestamos atencin a los patrones naturales en lugar de tratar de ser fuertes, podemos absorber muchos ruidos ambientales, as, la energa de las olas, para ahorrar algo de energa para seguir adelante. +Por lo tanto, podemos haber desarrollado la tecnologa eficiente para sacar algo largo y pesado, pero la idea es cul es el propsito de la tecnologa si no llega a las manos correctas? +Queremos que la innovacin suceda continuamente. El inventor, los ingenieros y tambin los fabricantes y todo el mundo trabajan al mismo tiempo, pero esto es intil si ocurre en un proceso paralelo y no cruzado. +No tiene que ser un desarrollo secuencial ni paralelo, +sino una red de innovacin. +Que todos trabajen al mismo tiempo, como ahora, y eso solo puede suceder si todas estas personas deciden compartir la informacin y hardware abierto es exactamente eso. +Para reemplazar la competencia con la colaboracin. +Para transformar cualquier producto nuevo en un nuevo mercado. +Entonces, qu es hardware abierto? +En esencia, es una licencia. +Es solo una configuracin de la propiedad intelectual. +Esto significa que todo el mundo es libre de usar, modificar y distribuir y en el intercambio solo pedimos dos cosas: El crdito del nombre el nombre del proyecto y tambin que las personas que hacen el mejoramiento, lo compartan nuevamente con la comunidad. +Es una condicin muy simple. +Comenc este proyecto en solitario en un garaje en Nueva Orleans, pero rpidamente despus quise publicar y compartir esta informacin. As que dise Kickstarter, que es una plataforma pblica de recaudacin de fondos y aproximadamente en un mes, recaudamos USD 30 000. +Con este dinero, contrat un equipo de jvenes ingenieros de todo el mundo y alquilamos una fbrica en Rotterdam en los Pases Bajos. +Hicimos el aprendizaje entre pares, en ingeniera, fabricacin de cosas, prototipos, pero lo ms importante es que probbamos nuestros prototipos en el agua tan a menudo como era posible y as detectbamos errores rpidamente, para aprender de ellos. +Este es un orgulloso miembro de Protei de Corea, y al lado derecho hay un diseo de mltiples mstiles propuesto por un equipo en Mxico. +Esta idea realmente le gust a Gabriella Levine en Nueva York y ella decidi hacer un prototipo de la idea y document cada paso del proceso y lo public en Instructables, que es un sitio web para compartir las invenciones. +Menos de una semana despus, este es un equipo de Eindhoven, una escuela de ingeniera. +Lo hicieron, pero finalmente publicaron un diseo simplificado. +Tambin lo publicaron en Instructables, y en menos de una semana, tuvieron casi 10 000 visitas e hicieron muchos nuevos amigos. +Estamos trabajando en la tecnologa ms simple tambin, no muy compleja, con los ms jvenes y tambin con las personas mayores, como este dinosaurio de Mxico. Protei es ahora una red internacional de innovacin para la venta de tecnologa y usa este casco que cambia de forma. +Lo que nos uni es que tenemos en comn, por lo menos, la comprensin global de lo que es o debera ser la palabra negocio. +As es como la mayora trabaja hoy. +Los negocios convencionales dicen que lo ms importante es tener muchas ganancias y se puede usar tecnologa para eso y la gente es la mano de obra. instrumentalizada, y el medio ambiente es generalmente la ltima prioridad. +Viene a ser solo una forma de, digamos, maquillar de verde a su pblico y, por ejemplo, aumentar sus precios. +Lo que tratamos de hacer, o lo que creemos, porque as es como creemos que el mundo realmente funciona, es que sin el medio ambiente no tenemos nada. +Cul es nuestro siguiente paso? +Este pequeo aparato que han visto, esperamos hacer juguetes pequeos como un Protei de un metro con control remoto que pueda actualizarse, reemplazara las partes del control remoto por androides, el telfono mvil, el microcontrolador Arduino, por lo que podran controlarlo desde su telfono mvil o tableta. +Queremos crear versiones de seis metros y probar el mximo rendimiento de estas mquinas para que podamos ir a una velocidad muy, muy alta. +As que imagnense a s mismos +en un torpedo flexible navegando a alta velocidad, controlando la forma del casco con las piernas y la vela con los brazos. +Es lo que estamos buscando desarrollar. Sustituimos al ser humano para ir, por ejemplo, a medir la radiactividad, no queremos que un ser humano navegue en esos robots con bateras, motores, microcontroladores y sensores. +Esto es lo que anhelamos los compaeros de equipo. +Esperamos que en algn momento podamos limpiar derrames de petrleo o recoger plstico en el ocano o tener multitudes de nuestras mquinas controladas por los motores de videojuegos para varios jugadores para controlar muchas de estas mquinas, para monitorear los arrecifes de coral o para controlar la pesca. +Nuestra esperanza es que podamos utilizar la tecnologa de hardware abierto para entender mejor y proteger nuestros ocanos. +Muchas gracias. +Chris Anderson: Muchachos, estuvieron increbles. +Es increble. +Esto, simplemente no se escucha todos los das. +Usman, la historia oficial dice que aprendiste a tocar la guitarra mirando videos de Jimmy Page en YouTube. +Usman Riaz: Si, ese fue el primero, y luego... eso fue lo primero que aprend, y despus empec a incursionar en otras cosas. +Empec a ver mucho a Kaki King, ella sola citar a Preston Reed como una gran influencia, as que empec a ver sus videos, y ahora es muy surrealista estar aqu y... CA: Esta pieza que tocaron, era una de las canciones que aprendiste de l? o cmo fue que se dio? +UR: No, esa no la haba aprendido, pero me dijo que la interpretaramos en el escenario, y la conoca, fue por eso que me result mucho ms entretenido aprenderla. +Y finalmente sucedi, as que... +CA: Preston, desde tu punto de vista, quiero decir, t inventaste esto hace unos 20 aos, verdad? +Qu se siente al ver que alguien as aparece, toma tu arte y hace tanto con eso? +Preston Reed: Es alucinante, y me siento muy orgulloso, muy honrado. +Y l es un msico maravilloso, as que es genial. +CA: Supongo que no tienen una pieza de un minuto que puedan interpretar... +Pueden? Improvisan? Tienen algo ms? +PR: No hemos preparado nada. +CA: Bien, no hay nada, pero les propongo algo. +Si tienes otros 30 o 40 segundos, y t tambin, y veremos... creo que, puedo sentirlo. Queremos escucharlos un poco ms. +Y si sale horriblemente mal, no se preocupen. +Soy jugadora, as que me gustan las metas. +Me gustan las misiones especiales y los objetivos secretos. +Esta es mi misin especial para esta charla: voy a intentar alargarles la vida a todos ustedes siete minutos y medio. +Literalmente, vivirn siete minutos y medio ms justamente por ver esta charla. +Algunos parecen un poco escpticos. +Est bien, pero vean, tengo los nmeros para probarlo. +No tienen mucho sentido ahora; +los explicar ms tarde. Solo pongan atencin al nmero de abajo: ms 7,68245837 minutos +ser mi regalo para Uds. si tengo xito en mi misin. +Ahora bien, Uds. tambin tienen una misin secreta. +Su misin es imaginar en qu quieren emplear esos siete minutos y medio extra. +Pienso que deberan hacer algo inusual con ellos, ya que son una bonificacin. No contaban con ellos. +Como yo soy diseadora de juegos, pueden estar pensando: "S lo que quiere que hagamos con esos minutos, quiere que los gastemos jugando". +Es una presuncin completamente razonable, dado que tengo el hbito de alentar a la gente a pasar ms tiempo jugando. +Por ejemplo, en mi primera charla en TED propuse que deberamos pasar 21 mil millones de horas a la semana como planeta jugando a videojuegos. +21 mil millones de horas es mucho tiempo. +Es tanto, de hecho, que el comentario indeseado ms comn que he odo de la gente alrededor del mundo desde que di esa charla, es este: "Jane, lo juegos son grandiosos, pero en tu lecho de muerte, vas a desear haber pasado ms tiempo jugando a Angry Birds? +Que los juegos son una prdida de tiempo de la que nos arrepentiremos es una idea tan generalizada, que la he odo en todos sitios. +Por ejemplo, una historia verdica: hace pocas semanas, este taxista, al enterarse de que mi amigo y yo estbamos en la ciudad para una conferencia de desarrolladores de juegos, se dio vuelta y dijo, cito: "Odio los juegos. Desperdicio de vida. Imaginen llegar al final de su vida +y lamentar toda esa prdida de tiempo". +Quiero afrontar este problema seriamente. +Quiero decir, quiero juegos que fomenten el progreso en el mundo. +No quiero jugadores que lamenten el tiempo perdido jugando, tiempo que yo les alent a gastar. +Vengo pensando en esta pregunta desde hace mucho. +Cuando estemos en nuestro lecho de muerte, lamentaremos el tiempo que pasamos jugando? +Tal vez les sorprenda, pero hay investigaciones cientficas sobre esta pregunta. +Es verdad. Trabajadores de hospicios, las personas que nos cuidarn al final de nuestras vidas, reportaron recientemente los lamentos ms frecuentes de las personas que estaban a punto de morir. +Eso es lo que quiero compartir hoy, cinco lamentos principales antes de morir. +Primero: deseara no haber trabajado tan arduamente. +Segundo: hubiera querido estar ms en contacto con mis amigos. +Tercero: quisiera haberme permitido ser ms feliz. +Cuarto: deseara haber tenido el valor de ser yo mismo. +Y quinto: deseara haber vivido fiel a mis sueos, en vez de hacer lo que otros esperaban de m. +Hasta dnde s, ninguno dijo a los trabajadores del hospicio "quisiera haber jugando ms videojuegos", pero cuando oigo estas cinco quejas antes de morir, no puedo dejar de escuchar cinco deseos que los juegos pueden ayudar a cumplir. +Por ejemplo, deseara no haber trabajado tan arduamente. +Para muchas personas esto quiere decir "quisiera haber pasado ms tiempo con mi familia, con mis hijos cuando crecan". +Sabemos que jugar juntos beneficia a la familia. +Un reciente estudio de la Brigham Young University School of Family, conclua que lo padres que dedican tiempo a jugar videojuegos con sus hijos tienen un relacin en la vida real ms fuerte con ellos. +Deseara haber tenido ms contacto con mis amigos. +Bien, cientos de millones de personas usan juegos sociales como FarmVille o Words With Friends para estar en contacto con amigos y familiares de la vida real. +Un reciente estudio de la Universidad de Michigan mostr que estos juegos son una herramienta increblemente poderosa para manejar las relaciones. +Nos ayuda a mantenernos conectados con personas de nuestra red social con los que de otra forma no hablaramos, si no estuviramos jugando juntos. +Quisiera haberme permitido ser ms feliz. +Bueno, aqu no puedo sino pensar en los ensayos clnicos innovadores hechos recientemente en East Carolina University que muestran que los juegos en lnea pueden superar a los tratamientos farmacuticos para la ansiedad y depresin clnicas. +Solo 30 minutos de juego en lnea al da fueron suficientes para cambiar drsticamente el estado de nimo e incrementar a largo plazo su felicidad. +Deseara haber tenido el valor de expresar mi verdadero yo: +Bien, los avatares son la forma de expresar nuestro verdadero yo la ms heroica e idealizada versin de lo que podemos llegar a ser. +Pueden verlo en esta imagen del alter ego de Robbie Cooper de un jugador con su avatar. +Y la Universidad de Stanford ha estado haciendo una investigacin de cinco aos para documentar cmo jugar con un avatar idealizado cambia cmo pensamos y actuamos en la vida real volvindonos ms valientes, ms ambiciosos, ms comprometidos con nuestras metas. +Deseara haber vivido de acuerdo a mis sueos y no a las expectativas de otros. +Hacen lo mismo los juegos? No estoy segura, +as que dejo un signo de interrogacin, uno de Super Mario. +Y volver ms tarde sobre este punto. +Pero mientras tanto, quiz se estarn preguntando, quin es esta diseadora que nos est hablando de lamentos en el lecho de muerte? +Y es verdad, nunca he trabajado en un hospicio, nunca he estado a punto de morir. +Pero recientemente estuve 3 meses en cama, esperando morir. +Realmente deseando morir. +Les contar la historia. +Comienza hace dos aos, cuando me golpe la cabeza y tuve una conmocin. +La conmocin no san adecuadamente, y luego de 30 das estaba postrada con sntomas como un dolor de cabeza que no paraba, naseas, vrtigo, prdida de memoria, aturdimiento. +Mi mdico me dijo que para sanar mi cerebro, deba descansar. +As que tuve que evitar todo lo que desencadenaba los sntomas. +Lo que para m fue no leer ni escribir ni usar videojuegos ni trabajar o escribir correos ni correr ni el alcohol ni la cafena. +En otras palabras imagino que saben a dnde voy, no tener razn para vivir. +Claro que parece extrao, pero con toda seriedad, la idea de suicidarse es muy comn en lesiones cerebrales traumticas. +Sucede en uno de tres, y me pas a m. +Mi cerebro comenz a decirme: "Jane, t quieres morir". +Deca: "Nunca vas a mejorar. +El dolor nunca pasar". +Y estas voces se hicieron tan persistentes y convincentes que empec a temer legtimamente por mi vida, que es cuando me dije, despus de 34 das nunca olvidar el momento, dije: "O me mato o lo convierto en un juego". +Bien, por qu un juego? +Saba por investigaciones psicolgicas de ms de una dcada sobre los juegos que cuando juegas y esto es literatura cientfica afrontas los desafos difciles con ms creatividad, ms determinacin, ms optimismo, y que somos ms capaces de pedir ayuda a otros. +Y yo quera llevar estas cualidades al reto de mi vida, as que cre un juego de rol llamado "Jane, la asesina de la conmocin". +Esta sera mi nueva identidad secreta y lo primero que hice como asesina fue llamar a mi hermana gemela tengo una hermana gemela idntica, Kelly y le dije: "Voy a jugar un juego para sanar mi cerebro y quiero que juegues conmigo". +Esta es una forma fcil de pedir ayuda. +Se volvi mi principal aliada en el juego, luego se sum mi esposo Kiyash, y juntos identificamos y peleamos contra los tipos malos, +que eran cualquier cosa que desencadenara los sntomas y que por ello ralentizaban el proceso de curacin, cosas como luces brillantes o lugares atestados. +Tambin recogimos y activamos mejoradores. +Eran cualquier cosa que poda hacer an en mi peor da para sentirme un poquito mejor, un poco productiva. +Cosas como acariciar a mi perro 10 minutos o levantarme y caminar una vez alrededor de la manzana. +El juego era tan simple como: adopte una identidad secreta, reclute aliados, pelee contra los chicos malos, active los mejoradores. +Pero an con un juego tan simple, con solo un par de das de estar jugando, esa niebla de depresin y ansiedad +se fue. Se desvaneci. Fue como un milagro. +Ahora bien, no cur milagrosamente los dolores de cabeza o los sntomas cognoscitivos. +Duraron ms de un ao y fue de lejos el ao ms difcil de mi vida. +Pero an cuando segua con los sntomas, incluso cuando an dola, dej de sufrir. +Y lo que pas despus con el juego me sorprendi. +Sub algunos blogs y videos en lnea explicando cmo jugar. +Pero no todos tienen una conmocin, obviamente, no todos quieren ser "el asesino", as que renombr el juego SuperMejor. [SuperBetter] +Y pronto empec a escuchar de gente de todo el mundo que estaba adoptando su identidad secreta, reclutando aliados, y que iban "super mejorando", enfrentando retos como el cncer o el dolor crnico, la depresin o la enfermedad de Crohn. +Incluso pacientes terminales con esclerosis lateral amiotrfica. +Y puedo decirles por sus mensajes y videos que el juego les ha ayudado de la misma forma en que me ayud a m. +Hablan de sentirse ms fuertes y valientes. +Hablan de sentirse mejor entendidos por sus familias y amigos. +Incluso hablan de sentirse ms felices, an teniendo dolor, an cuando estn afrontando el mayor reto de sus vidas. +Entonces me plante, qu est pasando aqu? +Quiero decir, cmo un juego tan trivial puede ser tan poderoso en circunstancias tan serias, en algunos casos de vida o muerte? +Es decir, si no hubiera servido para m, no lo hubiera credo posible. +Bueno, resulta que hay algo de ciencia aqu tambin. +Algunas personas se vuelven ms fuertes y felices despus de un evento traumtico. +Y esto es lo que estaba pasndonos. +El juego nos estaba ayudando a experimentar lo que los cientficos llaman crecimiento postraumtico, que no es algo de lo que generalmente oigamos. +Normalmente omos de estrs postraumtico. +Pero los cientficos saben ahora que un evento traumtico no nos condena a sufrir indefinidamente. +Al contrario, podemos usarlo como un trampoln para desplegar nuestras mejores cualidades y llevar una vida ms feliz. +Aqu estn las cinco cosas que dicen las personas con crecimiento postraumtico: +Mis prioridades han cambiado. No me da miedo hacer lo que me hace feliz. +Me siento ms cercano a mis amigos y familia. +Me entiendo mejor a m mismo. S ahora quin soy realmente. +Tengo un nuevo sentido y propsito de vida. +Estoy mejor capacitado para centrarme en mis metas y sueos. +Les suena familiar ahora? +Debera, porque los cinco primeros rasgos del crecimiento postraumtico son esencialmente opuestos a los cinco lamentos antes de morir. +Es interesante, verdad? +Parece que de alguna forma, un evento traumtico desencadena nuestra habilidad de llevar una vida con menos lamentos. +Pero cmo lo logra? +Cmo pasa uno del trauma al crecimiento? +Mejor, hay alguna forma de obtener los beneficios del crecimiento postraumtico sin el trauma, sin que te tengas que golpear antes la cabeza? +Sera bueno, verdad? +Quera entender mejor el fenmeno, as que devor la literatura cientfica y esto es lo que aprend. +Hay cuatro formas de fortaleza, o resiliencia, que contribuyen al crecimiento postraumtico, y hay actividades validadas cientficamente que uno puede hacer todos los das para construir esa resiliencia, y uno no necesita un trauma para hacerlo. +Les dir cules son esas cuatro fortalezas, pero preferira que las experimentaran directamente, +preferira que comenzramos ahora a construirlas juntos. +Esto es lo que haremos. +Vamos a jugar a un pequeo juego juntos. +Aqu es donde ganan esos siete minutos y medio adicionales que les promet antes. +Todo lo que tienen que hacer es terminar con xito estas cuatro SuperMejores misiones. +Siento que pueden hacerlo. Confo en Uds. +Todos listos? Su primera misin. Ah vamos. +Elijan una: o se levantan y dan tres pasos o hacen dos puos y los levantan sobre la cabeza tan alto como puedan durante cinco segundos. Vamos! +Muy bien, me gustan los que hacen las dos. Estn sobrados. +Muy bien. Bien todos. Esto vale un punto ms en +resiliencia fsica, lo que significa que su cuerpo tolera ms estrs y se cura ms rpidamente. +Sabemos por la investigacin, que lo primero que puede potenciar su resiliencia fsica es no permanecer sentados. +Es todo lo que hay que hacer. +Cada segundo en que no estn sentados mejoran activamente su salud y su corazn, y sus pulmones y cerebros. +Todos listos para la siguiente misin? +Quiero que chasqueen los dedos 50 veces, o cuenten hacia atrs desde 100 de siete en siete, 100, 93... +Vamos! +No se rindan. +No dejen que los que cuentan bajando de 100 interfieran con su conteo de 50. +Lindo. Oh! Es la primera vez que veo esto as. +Bonos para la resiliencia fsica. Bien hecho. +Esto vale un punto para la resiliencia mental, lo que significa que tienen ms foco mental, ms disciplina, determinacin y voluntad. +Sabemos por la investigacin cientfica que la voluntad trabaja realmente como un msculo. +Se fortalece conforme se ejercita. +As que aceptar un pequeo reto sin rendirse, incluso tan absurdo cono chasquear 50 veces o contar hacia atrs de siete en siete es realmente una forma cientficamente validada de fortalecer la voluntad. +As que buen trabajo. Misin nmero tres. +Elijan: debido al lugar donde estamos, la suerte decidi por Uds., pero hay dos opciones. +Si estn dentro, encuentren una ventana y miren afuera. +Si estn afuera, encuentren la ventana y miren adentro. +O busquen en YouTube o Google imgenes de "beb [su animal favorito]". Pueden hacerlo con sus telfonos o solo griten nombres de animales bebs. Voy a buscar algunos y proyectarlos. +Qu quieren ver? +Perezoso, jirafa, elefante, serpiente. Djenme ver qu consigo. +Un delfn beb y una llama beb. Todos miren. +Lo tienen? +Bien, uno ms. Un elefante beb. +Aplauden esto? +Sorprendente. +Bien, lo que acabamos de sentir es un punto ms en resiliencia emocional, lo que significa que tienen la habilidad de provocar poderosas emociones positivas como curiosidad o amor, lo que sentimos cuando miramos animales beb, cuando ms lo necesitamos. +Y he aqu un secreto de la literatura cientfica para Uds. +Si pueden lograr experimentar tres emociones positivas por cada una negativa a lo largo de una hora, un da, una semana, mejorarn dramticamente su salud y su habilidad de afrontar exitosamente cualquier problema al que se enfrenten. +Es la denominada relacin de emocin positiva, tres a uno. +Es mi SuperMejor truco favorito, consrvenlo. +Bien, escojan la ltima: Denle la mano durante seis segundos a alguien o envenle a alguien un breve gracias por mensaje de texto, correo, Facebook o Twitter. Vamos! +Buena pinta, muy buena. +Lindo, lindo. +Sostngalo. Me encanta! +Muy bien, todos un punto ms en resiliencia social, lo que significa que realmente tienen ms apoyo de sus amigos, vecinos, familia o comunidad. +Una excelente manera de potenciar la resiliencia social es la gratitud. +Tocarse es an mejor. +Un secreto ms para Uds.: dar la mano durante seis segundos a alguien sube dramticamente su nivel de oxitocina sangunea la hormona de la confianza. +Lo que significa que todos los que estrecharon las manos estn biolgicamente impulsados a agradar y querer ayudarse entre Uds. +Esto permanecer durante el descanso, as que aprovechen la oportunidad de formar redes sociales. +Bien, terminaron exitosamente sus cuatro tareas, as que djenme ver si termin con xito mi misin de darles un bono de siete minutos extra de vida. +Aqu es donde comparto un pedacito de ciencia. +Resulta que quienes con regularidad potencian estas cuatro resiliencias, fsica, mental, emocional y social, viven 10 aos ms que los dems. +Es verdad. +La esperanza de vida promedio en EE. UU. y Reino Unido es de 78,1 aos, pero sabemos por medio de ms de 1000 estudios cientficos evaluados por pares que uno puede aadir 10 aos a la vida potenciando +Felicitaciones, esos siete minutos y medio +son todos suyos. Se los ganaron. +S! Asombroso. +Esperen, esperen, esperen. +Aun tienen su misin especial, su misin secreta. +Cmo van a gastar esos siete minutos y medio adicionales de vida? +Bien, esta es mi sugerencia: +estos siete minutos y medio son una especia de genio de la lmpara, +su primer deseo puede ser un milln de deseos ms. +Muy inteligente, cierto? +As, si utilizan estos siete minutos y medio al da haciendo algo que los haga felices o haciendo actividad fsica o ponindose en contacto con alguien que les importe o incluso, aceptando un pequeo reto, potenciarn sus resiliencias, as que ganarn ms minutos. +Y la buena noticia es que pueden mantenerse as. +Cada hora del da, cada da de su vida, hasta sus muertes, que llegar ahora 10 aos ms tarde de lo que llegara de otra forma. +Y cuando estn all, no tendrn ninguno de esos cinco lamentos, porque habrn construido la fortaleza y resiliencia para conducir su vida siguiendo sus sueos. +Y con esos 10 aos extras, pueden incluso tener tiempo suficiente para jugar ms juegos. +Gracias. +Comenzar con una pequea historia. +Yo crec en este vecindario. Cuando tena 15 aos, pas de ser un atleta joven y fortachn a consumirme, en cuatro meses, hasta convertirme en una vctima de la hambruna con una sed insaciable. +Prcticamente me haba comido mi cuerpo. +Y todo esto me vino de frente, cuando empacaba para un campamento, el primero, de hecho, a la montaa Old Rag, en Virginia del Oeste, y yo meta la cabeza en charcos de agua y beba como un perro. +Esa noche, me llevaron a la sala de urgencias y me diagnosticaron diabetes tipo 1 con un ataque de cetoacidosis. +Me recuper gracias a los milagros de la medicina moderna, a la insulina y a otras cosas, recuper mi peso, e incluso ms. +Y algo se qued marcado en m despus de lo que ocurri. +Lo que pensaba era: qu caus la diabetes? +Vern, la diabetes es una enfermedad autoinmune en la que el cuerpo pelea consigo mismo; algunos pensaron que tal vez la exposicin a algn patgeno haba provocado que mi sistema inmune combatiera el patgeno y matara las clulas que producen insulina. +Y eso mismo pens yo durante mucho tiempo, de hecho, es en lo que la medicina se ha centrado bastante, en los microbios que hacen cosas malas. +Y es aqu donde necesito a mi ayudante. +Puede que la reconozcan. +Ayer me fui, lo siento. Me salt algunas de las conferencias, y fui hasta el edificio de la Academia Nacional de Ciencias, donde venden juguetes, microbios gigantes. +Y all vamos! +Si lo cogieron, acaban de contraer una fascitis necrotizante. +Tengo que recuperar mis habilidades de lanzador. +Desgraciadamente, aunque no es ninguna sorpresa, la mayora de los microbios que venden en la Academia Nacional de Ciencias son patgenos. +Todo el mundo se centra en las cosas que nos matan, y es en lo que yo me haba centrado. +Pero resulta que estamos cubiertos por una nube de microbios, y esos microbios nos ayudan la mayor parte del tiempo, en lugar de matarnos. +Hace tiempo que lo sabemos. +La gente ha usado microscopios para ver los microbios que nos rodean. S que no me estn poniendo atencin, pero... +Los microbios que nos cubren. +Y si los miran al microscopio, podrn ver que tenemos 10 veces ms microbios de lo que tenemos de clulas humanas. +Nuestros microbios pesan ms que todo nuestro cerebro. +Somos literalmente un ecosistema de microorganismos. +Desafortunadamente, si deseas aprender de los microorganismos, verlos al microscopio no es suficiente. +Acabamos de escuchar sobre la descodificacin del ADN. +Resulta que una de las mejores maneras de ver a los microbios y de entenderlos, es ver su ADN. +Y eso es lo que he venido haciendo por 20 aos, usando la descodificacin del ADN, recolectando muestras de varios lugares, incluyendo el cuerpo humano, leyendo el cdigo del ADN y despus usando ese cdigo para ver qu nos dice acerca de los microbios que hay en una parte especfica. +Y lo que es asombroso, es que cuando usas esta tecnologa, por ejemplo, al ver a los humanos, no slo estamos cubiertos por un mar de microbios. +Hay miles y miles de microbios de diferentes clases en nosotros. +Tenemos millones de genes de microbios en el microbioma humano que nos cubre. +Es la diferencia entre la poblacin de microbios de diferentes personas, sobre lo que los cientficos han reflexionado en los ltimos 10, tal vez 15 aos, quiz estos microbios, esta nube de microbios, en y a nuestro alrededor, y las variaciones entre nosotros, sean responsables de algunas de las diferencias en salud y enfermedad entre nosotros. +Lo que nos devuelve a la historia de diabetes que les estaba contando. +Resulta que la gente cree ahora que uno de los detonantes de la diabetes tipo 1 no es la lucha contra un patgeno, sino la mala comunicacin entre los microbios que viven dentro y fuera de nosotros. +Tal vez la comunidad microbiana que vive dentro y fuera de m, cambi, y esto deton algn mecanismo de respuesta inmune que me llev a matar las clulas que fabricaban la insulina. +De lo que quiero hablar con ustedes por algunos minutos es de lo que la gente ha aprendido usando las tcnicas de descodificacin de ADN en particular, al estudiar la nube de microbios que vive dentro y fuera de nosotros. +Quiero contarles acerca de un proyecto personal. +Mi primera experiencia personal al estudiar los microbios en el cuerpo humano, vino de una conferencia que dict, justo a la vuelta de la esquina de aqu, en Georgetown. +Di una charla, y un amigo de la familia que result ser el Director de la Escuela de Medicina de Georgetown estaba all, y se me acerc despus a decirme que estaban haciendo un estudio de trasplantes ileales en personas. +Y queran ver los microbios despus del trasplante. +As que empec a trabajar con ellos, Michael Zasloff y Thomas Fishbein, a revisar los microbios que vivan en el leon despus de haberlo trasplantado al receptor. +Y puedo compartir los detalles del estudio microbiano que hicimos all, pero la razn por la que quiero contarles esta historia es algo realmente sorprendente que hicieron al inicio del proyecto. +Tomaron el leon, que est lleno de microbios del donador y tenan un receptor que podra tener un problema con su comunidad microbiana, digamos enfermedad de Crohn, y esterilizaban el leon del donador. +Lo limpiaban de microbios y despus lo ponan en el receptor. +Hacan esto porque era una prctica comn en medicina, an cuando era obvio que esto no era una buena idea. +Afortunadamente en el curso del proyecto, los cirujanos de trasplantes y las otras personas decidieron, "olvidmonos de la prctica comn, tenemos que cambiar". +De hecho cambiaron a dejar algunos de los microbios de la comunidad en el leon. Dejaban los microbios en el donador, y en teora eso podra ayudar a las personas que eran receptores de este trasplante ileal. +As que, este es un estudio que hice ahora. +En los ltimos aos ha habido una gran expansin al usar tecnologa de ADN para estudiar a los microbios y a las personas. +Hay algo llamado el proyecto "Microbioma Humano" que se est haciendo en EE.UU., MetaHIT lo trabaja en Europa, y muchos otros proyectos. +Y cuando la gente ha hecho muchos estudios, ha aprendido cosas como que, cuando nace un beb, al salir por el conducto vaginal, el beb queda colonizado por los microbios de su madre. +Hay factores de riesgo asociados a las cesreas, algunos de esos factores de riesgo pueden deberse a una mala colonizacin cuando extrae a un beb de su madre en lugar de dejarlo nacer por el conducto del parto. +Y muchos otros estudios han mostrado que la comunidad microbiana que vive en nosotros ayuda al desarrollo del sistema inmune, ayuda a combatir patgenos, ayuda en nuestro metabolismo, y a determinar nuestra velocidad metablica, probablemente determine nuestro olor, y tal vez moldee nuestra conducta de muchas formas. +Estos estudios han documentado o sugerido una gran variedad de funciones importantes para la comunidad microbiana, esta nube, estos no patgenos que viven en y alrededor de nosotros. +Y esta es un rea que considero muy interesante. al igual que muchos de ustedes, ahora que les hemos lanzado microbios; es algo que llamo "germofobia," +Las personas son obsesivas con la limpieza, no es cierto? +Tenemos antibiticos en las repisas de la cocina, la gente se lava todo el cuerpo todo el tiempo, le inyectamos antibiticos a nuestra comida, a nuestras comunidades, tomamos antibiticos en exceso. +El matar patgenos es algo bueno si ests enfermo, pero debemos entender que cuando inyectamos qumicos y antibiticos en nuestro mundo, tambin estamos matando la nube de microbios que vive dentro y fuera de nosotros. +Y un uso excesivo de antibiticos, en particular en los nios, ha sido asociado a factores de riesgo para obesidad, para enfermedades autoinmunes, para una variedad de problemas que son causados probablemente por trastornar nuestras comunidades microbianas. +La comunidad microbiana puede degradarse sin importar si lo deseamos o no, o podemos acabarla con antibiticos, pero, cmo podemos restaurarla? +Estoy seguro de que muchos de ustedes han escuchado de los probiticos. +Los probiticos son lo que pueden usar para restaurar la comunidad microbiana dentro y fuera de ustedes. +Se ha demostrado que son efectivos en algunos casos. +Hay un proyecto en la Universidad de California en Davis en donde las personas usan proboticos para ensayar y tratar, prevenir, la enterocolitis necrotizante en infantes prematuros. +Los nios prematuros tienen verdaderos problemas con su comunidad microbiana. +Y puede ser que los probiticos ayuden a prevenir el desarrollo de esta horrible enterocolitis necrotizante en estos nios prematuros. +Pero los probiticos son una solucin muy simple. +Muchas de las pastillas que pueden tomar o de los yogures que pueden comer tienen una o dos especies en ellos, tal vez hasta cinco, y la comunidad humana consta de miles y miles de especies. +As que, qu podemos hacer para restaurar nuestra comunidad microbiana cuando tenemos miles y miles de especies en nosotros? +Una de las cosas que los animales hacen es esta, se comen sus heces coprofagia. +Resulta que muchos veterinarios, veterinarios de la vieja escuela en particular, han estado haciendo lo que llaman "t de heces", para tratar los clicos y otras enfermedades en caballos y vacas y cosas como esas, donde haces un t de heces de un animal sano y a partir de all alimentas a un animal enfermo. +Esto ha resultado muy efectivo para combatir algunas enfermedades infecciosas intransigentes como el Clostridium difficile, infecciones que pueden permanecer en las personas por aos y aos. +El trasplante de las heces, de los microbios de las heces de un donador sano, ha demostrado curar las infecciones sistmicas de C. dif en algunas personas. +Ahora bien, estos trasplantes fecales o los ts de heces me sugieren, y muchas otras personas han llegado a la misma idea, que la comunidad microbiana dentro y fuera de nosotros es un rgano. +Deberamos verlo como un rgano operativo, parte de nosotros mismos. +Deberamos tratarlo con delicadeza y respeto, y no maltratarlo haciendo cesreas o usando antibiticos o limpieza excesiva, sin una justificacin vlida. +Y lo que la tecnologa de descodificacin de ADN le permite hacer a la gente es hacer estudios detallados de, digamos, 100 pacientes que tenan enfermedad de Crohn y 100 personas que no tenan enfermedad de Crohn. +O 100 personas que tomaron antibiticos cuando eran pequeos, y 100 personas que no tomaron antibiticos. +Y podemos entonces comparar la comunidad de microbios y sus genes para descubrir las diferencias. +Eventualmente seremos capaces de entender si no son solo diferencias correlacionadas, sino causales. +Los estudios en sistemas modelo, como el ratn y otros animales nos ayudan a hacer esto, pero las personas ahora estn usando estas tecnologas porque se han vuelto econmicas para estudiar los microbios en y sobre una variedad de personas. +Para terminar, quiero contarles, una parte que no les cont de la historia de mi diabetes. +Resulta que mi pap era mdico, de hecho estudiaba hormonas. Le dije muchas veces que estaba cansado, sediento, que no me senta bien. +l se encoga de hombros, supongo que pensaba que era un quejumbroso o era el tpico mdico: "nada puede estar mal con mis hijos". +Incluso fuimos en familia a la Reunin Internacional de la Sociedad de Endocrinologa en Quebec. +Yo me levantaba cada cinco minutos para orinar, y me tomaba el agua de todo el mundo en la mesa, creo que todos pensaban que era drogadicto. +Pero la razn por la que les cuento esto es que la comunidad mdica, por ejemplo mi padre, algunas veces no ve lo que est frente a sus ojos. +La nube de bacterias est justamente frente a nosotros. +No podemos verla la mayor parte del tiempo, es invisible. +Son microbios. Son pequeos. +Pero podemos verlos bien a travs de su ADN. podemos verlos a travs de los efectos que provocan en las personas. +Y lo que necesitamos ahora es empezar a pensar acerca de esta comunidad en el contexto de todo en la medicina humana. +No significa que afecte cada parte de nuestras vidas, pero podra. +Lo que debemos hacer es crear una gua completa sobre los microbios que viven en y de la gente, de manera que podamos entender qu es lo que hacen en nuestras vidas. +Somos ellos. Ellos son nosotros. +Gracias. +Mis pasiones son la msica, la tecnologa y fabricar cosas. +Y es la combinacin de las tres la que me ha llevado a la aficin de la visualizacin del sonido y, en ocasiones, me ha llevado a jugar con fuego. +Este es un tubo de Rubens. Es uno de los muchos que he hecho durante aos y tengo uno aqu esta noche. +Es un tubo de metal de 2,4 metros de largo, con un centenar de agujeros en la parte superior; el parlante est en este lado y aqu hay un tubo de laboratorio conectado a este tanque de propano. +Vamos a encenderlo para ver qu hace. +Usemos una frecuencia de 550 herz y veamos qu pasa. +Cambiemos la frecuencia del sonido y veamos qu sucede con el fuego. +(Frecuencia ms alta) Cada vez que encontramos una resonancia, obtenemos una onda estacionaria y esta curva sinusoidal que emerge del fuego. +Apagumoslo. Estamos en interiores. +Gracias. Tambin he trado una mesa de fuego. +Es muy similar al tubo de Rubens y tambin se usa para visualizar las propiedades fsicas del sonido, como sus vibraciones y oscilaciones, as que vamos a encenderla y veremos qu hace. +Muy bien, es una danza delicada. +Si observan con atencin... si miran de cerca, es posible que hayan visto algunas de las oscilaciones, pero tambin pueden haber visto que la msica jazz es mejor con fuego. +En realidad, en mi mundo, muchas cosas son mejores con fuego, pero este es solo la base. +Muestra muy bien que los ojos pueden or y esto es interesante para m porque la tecnologa nos permite presentar sonido a los ojos de formas que acentan las fortalezas de los ojos para ver el sonido, tal como la eliminacin del tiempo. +Aqu uso un algoritmo de procesamiento para pintar las frecuencias de la cancin Smells Like Teen Spirit (Huele a espritu adolescente) de una forma en que los ojos las pueden tomar como una sola impresin visual y la tcnica tambin muestra las fortalezas de la corteza visual para el reconocimiento de patrones. +Las canciones son un poco similares, pero sobre todo estoy interesado en la idea de que algn da tal vez vamos a comprar una cancin porque nos gusta cmo se ve. +Bien, tengo ms datos sobre el sonido. +Si tuvisemos que representar estos sonidos visualmente, podramos obtener algo como esto. +Aqu estn los 40 minutos de la grabacin y, de inmediato, el algoritmo nos dice que hay ms acrobacias fallidas que exitosas y tambin que una acrobacia en los rieles tiene ms probabilidades de producir aclamacin, y si miramos muy de cerca, podemos desentraar la trayectoria de las acrobacias. +Se ve que los patinadores suelen ir en esta direccin. Los obstculos no son tan difciles. +Y en medio de la grabacin, los micrfonos grabaron esto, pero ms tarde en la grabacin, aparece este chico y hace una lnea en la parte superior del parque para hacer acrobacias muy avanzadas en algo llamado carril alto. +Y es fascinante. En ese mismo momento, los dems patinadores giran su lneas en 90 grados para permanecer fuera de su camino. +Se observa una marca sutil en el parque de patinaje y est dirigida por los ms influyentes y suelen ser los nios los que hacen las mejores acrobacias o usan pantalones rojos y, este da, los micrfonos grabaron esto. +Ahora pasemos de la fsica del patn a la fsica terica. +Soy un gran admirador de Stephen Hawking y quera usar las 8 horas de su ciclo de conferencias en Cambridge para hacerle un homenaje. +En estas conferencias, l habla con la ayuda de un computador que hace que identifiquemos fcilmente el final de las frases. As que escrib un algoritmo de direccin +que escucha la conferencia y luego usa la amplitud de cada palabra para mover un punto en el eje x y la inflexin de las frases para mover el mismo punto hacia arriba y hacia abajo en el eje y. +Las lneas de tendencia, como pueden ver, muestran que en las leyes de la fsica hay ms preguntas que respuestas y cuando llegamos al final de una oracin, colocamos una estrella en ese lugar. +Y hay muchas frases, por lo tanto, una gran cantidad de estrellas y esto es lo que tenemos despus de grabar todo el audio. +Este es el universo de Stephen Hawking. +Aqu estn las 8 horas de la serie de conferencias en Cambridge tomadas en una sola impresin visual; me encanta esta imagen, pero mucha gente piensa que es falsa. +As que hice una versin ms interactiva mediante su posicin en el tiempo en la conferencia para colocar estas estrellas en uno espacio 3D y con software personalizado y un Kinect, puedo caminar sobre la conferencia. +Aqu voy hacer una seal a travs del Kinect, tomo el control y ahora voy a estirarme hasta tocar una estrella y, cuando lo hago, reproduzco la frase que gener la estrella. +Stephen Hawking: Hay un arreglo, solamente uno, en el que las piezas forman una imagen completa. +Jared Ficklin: Gracias. Hay 1400 estrellas. +Es una manera muy divertida de explorar la conferencia y, espero, un homenaje apropiado. +Permtanme concluir con un proyecto en el que estoy trabajando. +Creo que, despus de 30 aos, existe la posibilidad de crear una versin mejorada de subttulos. +Todos hemos visto muchas charlas TEDTalks en lnea, as que vamos a ver una ahora con el sonido apagado, pero con subttulos. +No hay subttulos para el tema musical de TED, eso nos falta, pero si han visto suficientes charlas, lo pueden or mentalmente, luego empiezan los aplausos. +Por lo general, comienza aqu, crece y luego cae. +A veces tenemos una pequea estrella de aplausos y despus, creo hasta Bill Gates suelta un suspiro nervioso y la charla comienza. +Veamos el clip nuevamente. +Esta vez, no voy a hablar en absoluto. +Y vamos a seguir sin sonido, pero voy a reproducirlo visualmente en tiempo real en la parte inferior de la pantalla. +Observen con atencin y vern lo que sus ojos pueden or. +Para m, esto es bastante sorprendente. +Incluso la primera vez que lo ven, sus ojos identificarn exitosamente los patrones, pero si lo ven repetidas veces, sus cerebros se volvern ms agudos para convertir estos patrones en informacin. +Podrn notar el tono, el timbre y el ritmo del discurso, cosas que no se aprecian en los subttulos. +No s. Es una teora en estos momentos. +En realidad, todo es solo una idea. +Permtanme terminar diciendo que el sonido se mueve en todas direcciones y las ideas tambin. +Gracias. +Quin alguna vez ha estado al volante y en realidad no debera haber conducido? +Quiz estuvieron en el camino todo el da y no ven la hora de llegar a casa. +Estaban cansados pero sentan que podan conducir unos kilmetros ms. +Quiz pensaron que deberan haber bebido menos y haber vuelto a casa. +O quiz tenan la cabeza en otro lado. +Les resulta familiar? +Y, en esas situaciones, no sera genial tener un botn en el tablero que pudiramos presionar para que el coche volviera a casa a salvo? +Esa ha sido la promesa del coche auto-conducido, del vehculo autnomo, y ha sido el sueo al menos desde 1939, cuando General Motors present esta idea en su stand Futurama de la Feria Mundial. +Y es uno de esos sueos que siempre parecen estar a 20 aos en el futuro. +Pero hace dos semanas ese sueo dio un paso ms cuando el estado de Nevada otorg al coche auto-conducido de Google la primera licencia a un coche autnomo, sentando el precedente legal para hacer pruebas en los caminos de Nevada. +California est considerando una legislacin similar y esto asegurara que el coche autnomo no es una de esas cosas vlidas solo en Las Vegas. +En mi laboratorio de Stanford tambin hemos trabajado en coches autnomos, pero con una pequea variante. Hemos estado construyendo coches de carreras que en realidad pueden llevarse al lmite del rendimiento fsico. +Por qu querramos hacer algo as? +Bueno, hay dos buenas razones para hacerlo. +Primero, creemos que antes de que las personas le cedan el control a un coche autnomo, ese coche debera ser por lo menos tan bueno como el mejor conductor humano. +Y si Uds. son como yo y el 70% de la poblacin que sabe que est por encima del conductor medio, entendern que es un umbral alto. +Tambin hay otra razn. +As como los pilotos de carrera usan toda la friccin entre el neumtico y la pista, todos los recursos del coche para ir lo ms rpido posible, queremos usar todos esos recursos para evitar todos los accidentes que podamos. +Y uno puede poner el coche al lmite, no porque uno conduzca demasiado rpido, sino por encontrarse el piso helado y las condiciones cambian. +En esas situaciones, queremos un coche capaz de eludir un accidente fsicamente evitable. +Tambin tengo que confesar una tercera motivacin. +Como ven, siento pasin por las carreras. +En el pasado, tuve un coche de carreras, fui jefe de equipo y entrenador de pilotos, aunque quiz no al nivel que esperan. +Uno de los desarrollos del laboratorio -desarrollamos varios vehculos- es el primer coche, creemos, de deriva autnoma. +Es una de esas categoras en las que no hay mucha competencia. +Este es P1, un vehculo elctrico construido ntegramente por estudiantes que mediante su traccin trasera puede desplazarse en curvas cerradas. +Puede cambiar de lados como un piloto de rally y tomar siempre la curva ms cerrada, incluso en superficies resbaladizas, sin derrapar. +Supongo que no hace falta decir que nos divertimos mucho haciendo esto. +Pero hay algo ms que hemos descubierto al construir estos coches autnomos. +Le hemos tomado un gran aprecio a las capacidades de los pilotos humanos. +A medida que analizbamos el rendimiento de estos coches queramos compararlos con sus contrapartes humanas. +Y descubrimos que sus homlogos humanos son increbles. +Podemos trazar un mapa de la pista, hacer un modelo matemtico del coche y, luego de varios intentos, encontrar el camino ms rpido para esa pista. +Cotejamos esos datos con los registrados por un piloto profesional y la semejanza es realmente notable. +S, aqu hay diferencias sutiles, pero el piloto humano puede seguir una trayectoria increblemente rpida sin los beneficios de un algoritmo que compare el compromiso entre ir tan rpido como sea posible en esta curva y recortar un poco de tiempo en esta recta. +No solo eso, sino que lo hace vuelta, tras vuelta, tras vuelta. +Son capaces de hacerlo de manera consistente llevando el coche al lmite en cada una de las vueltas. +Es algo extraordinario de ver. +Uno los sube a un coche nuevo y al cabo de unas vueltas, encuentran la trayectoria ms rpida y toman la delantera. +Realmente te hace querer saber qu ocurre dentro del cerebro del piloto. +Y, como investigadores, decidimos averiguarlo. +Decidimos colocar instrumental no slo en el coche sino tambin en el piloto para tratar de ver lo que estaba pasando en su cabeza mientras conduca. +All est la Dra. Lene Harbott colocando electrodos en la cabeza de John Morton. +John Morton es un ex-piloto de carreras que adems es campen de la clase en Le Mans. +Un piloto estupendo, con ganas de soportar a los estudiantes y este tipo de investigaciones. +Le est colocando electrodos en la cabeza para que podamos monitorear la actividad elctrica en el cerebro mientras est en la pista. +Est claro que con un par de electrodos que pongamos en su cabeza no comprenderemos exactamente qu piensa mientras est en la pista. +No obstante, los neurocientficos han identificado patrones que nos permiten desentraar algunas cuestiones importantes. +Por ejemplo, el cerebro en reposo tiende a generar gran cantidad de ondas alfa. +En cambio, las ondas theta se asocian a mucha actividad cognitiva, como el procesamiento visual, algo en lo que el piloto piensa bastante. +Podemos medir esto y ver la intensidad relativa entre las ondas theta y las alfa. +Esto nos da una medida del trabajo mental; cul es el desafo cognitivo del piloto en cada punto de la pista. +Pero queramos ver si podamos registrarlo en la pista, as que nos fuimos al sur, a Laguna Seca. +Laguna Seca es una pista legendaria a mitad de camino entre Salinas y Monterrey. +Tiene una curva llamada Corkscrew . +Corkscrew es una chicana, seguida de una curva rpida a la derecha en un camino que desciende tres niveles. +La estrategia para conducir all, me explicaban, es apuntar a los arbustos distantes, y, a medida que el camino cae, uno se da cuenta de que era la copa de un rbol. +Bueno, as que gracias al Programa Revs de Stanford pudimos llevar a John y sentarlo al volante de un Porsche Abarth Carrera 1960. +La vida es demasiado corta para usar coches aburridos. +Aqu est John en la pista, aqu va cuesta arriba -Oh! A alguien le gust- y pueden ver su trabajo mental -medido con la barra roja- pueden ver sus acciones conforme se aproxima. +Ahora miren, tiene que bajar la velocidad. +Y luego dobla a la izquierda. +Mira el rbol, y hacia abajo. +No es de extraar, como ven, que sea una tarea bastante difcil. +Pueden ver el pico de trabajo mental mientras lo hace, como es de esperar en una actividad que requiere este nivel de complejidad. +Pero lo interesante es ver las zonas de la pista en las que su trabajo mental no aumenta. +Ahora los llevar al otro lado de la pista. +Tercera curva. John est por entrar en esa curva y el coche empezar a irse de cola. +Tendr que corregirlo con la direccin. +Vean cmo lo hace John, aqu. +Vean el trabajo mental, y vean la direccin. +El coche se va de cola, una gran maniobra para corregirlo, sin nign cambio en el trabajo mental. +No es una tarea difcil. +De hecho, es un acto reflejo. +An estamos en una etapa preliminar del anlisis de datos pero al parecer estas hazaas fenomenales que realizan los pilotos de carreras son instintivas. +Hay cosas que sencillamente han aprendido a hacer. +Y les demanda muy poco trabajo mental realizar estas hazaas asombrosas. +Sus acciones son fantsticas. +Es exactamente lo que uno quiere hacer al volante para manejar el coche en esta situacin. +Ahora, esto nos ha dado muchas ideas e inspiracin para nuestros vehculos autnomos. +Nos empezamos a preguntar: podemos hacerlos menos algortmicos y un poco ms intuitivos? +Podemos transferir este acto reflejo que vemos en los mejores pilotos de carreras, a nuestros coches, e incluso a un sistema que pueda ir en sus coches en el futuro? +Hay un largo trecho por recorrer hasta lograr vehculos autnomos que conduzcan tan bien como los humanos. +Pero eso tambin nos hace reflexionar. +Queremos algo ms de nuestro coche o que simplemente sea su propio chofer? +Queremos quiz que sea un compaero, un entrenador, que use su conocimiento de la situacin para ayudarnos a alcanzar nuestro potencial? +Puede la tecnologa no solo reemplazarnos como humanos sino permitirnos alcanzar todo el nivel de reflejos e intuicin de que somos capaces? +As, conforme avanzamos hacia este futuro tecnolgico, quiero que se detengan a pensar un momento. +Cul es el balance ideal entre hombre y mquina? +Y mientras lo pensamos, inspirmonos en las capacidades absolutamente increbles del cuerpo y la mente humanos. +Gracias. +Algo sucedi en la madrugada del 2 de mayo de 2000, que tuvo un efecto importante en el funcionamiento de nuestra sociedad. +Irnicamente, casi nadie lo advirti entonces. +El cambio fue silencioso, imperceptible, a menos que uno supiera exactamente dnde buscarlo. +Aquella maana, el presidente de EE.UU., Bill Clinton, orden desactivar un interruptor en los satlites orbitales del Sistema de Posicionamiento Global . +De inmediato, todo receptor civil de GPS en el mundo, pas de tener errores del tamao de un campo de ftbol a errores del tamao de una pequea habitacin. +No es fcil valorar el efecto que este cambio en la precisin ha significado para nosotros. +Antes de desactivar el interruptor, no tenamos autos con sistemas de navegacin integrado que nos dieran instrucciones en cada esquina, ya que entonces, el GPS no poda identificar en qu cuadra nos encontrbamos, ni siquiera en qu calle. +Para la geolocalizacin, la resolucin es importante y las cosas han mejorado en la ltima dcada. +Con ms estaciones de base, ms estaciones a nivel del suelo, mejores receptores y mejores algoritmos, los GPS pueden identificar no slo en qu calle nos encontramos, sino en qu parte de la calle. +Este nivel de precisin ha desatado una tormenta de innovacin. +De hecho, muchos de Uds. llegaron hoy aqu con ayuda de su TomTom o de su smartphone. +Los mapas impresos se estn volviendo obsoletos. +Ahora estamos al borde de otra revolucin en geolocalizacin. +Qu tal si les dijera que la resolucin de dos metros de nuestros celulares y TomToms actuales, es ridcula, comparada con lo que podramos tener? +Desde hace algn tiempo, si prestan atencin a la fase del portador de la seal de GPS, y si tienen conexin a Internet, pueden mejorar la exactitud de la posicin de metros a centmetros, incluso a milmetros. +Entonces, por qu nuestros telfonos no tienen esta capacidad? +Opino que solo por falta de imaginacin. +Los fabricantes no han incorporado esta tcnica de fase portadora en sus chips de GPS econmicos, porque no estn seguros del uso que el pblico en general le dara a un sistema tan exacto que podra localizar las lneas de la palma de la mano. +Pero Uds. y yo y otros innovadores, podemos ver el potencial de este nuevo salto a la precisin. +Imaginen, por ejemplo, una aplicacin de realidad aumentada que pueda sobreponer un mundo virtual con precisin milimtrica, al mundo fsico, real. +Podra construir una estructura en 3D, con precisin milimtrica, que solo vieran Uds., o mis amigos en casa. +Este es el nivel de posicionamiento que estamos buscando, y me atrevo a predecir que, en unos cuantos aos, este posicionamiento hiperpreciso, basado en la fase portadora, ser econmico y omnipresente, y tendr consecuencias fantsticas. +El Santo Grial, por supuesto, es el minireceptor del GPS. +Recuerdan la pelcula "El cdigo Da Vinci?" +Aqu tenemos al profesor Langdon examinando un mini GPS y su cmplice le dice que es un dispositivo que puede localizar cualquier punto en el mundo con una precisin de 60 cm, pero en el mundo real sabemos que el eso es imposible, no? +Primero, el GPS no funciona en interiores, y, segundo, no se fabrican dispositivos tan pequeos, sobre todo si esos aparatos tienen que basar sus mediciones en una red. +Bien, estas objeciones eran muy fundadas hace algunos aos, pero las cosas han cambiado. +Hay una fuerte tendencia hacia la miniaturizacin, y a una mayor sensibilidad, al punto de que hace algunos aos un dispositivo GPS se pareca a esta gran caja que est a la izquierda de las llaves. +Imaginen lo que se podra hacer con un mundo lleno de mini GPS. +No solo dejarn de perder el monedero o el llavero, o a sus hijos en Disneylandia. +Comprarn mini GPS al por mayor para ponerlos en cualquier pertenencia que valga ms de algunas decenas de dlares. +Una maana no lograba encontrar mis zapatos, y como siempre, pregunt a mi mujer si los haba visto. +Pero no debera haber molestado a mi mujer con este tipo de trivialidades. +Debera poder preguntar a mi casa dnde estn mis zapatos. +Los que han pasado a Gmail se acuerdan del alivio que supuso pasar de organizar todos los correos a poderlos buscar. +El mini GPS har lo mismo con nuestras pertenencias. +Desde luego estar la otra cara de la moneda del mini GPS. +Hace algunos meses estaba en mi oficina y recib una llamada. +La mujer del otro lado de la lnea, llammosla Carol, estaba aterrorizada. +Al parecer, un exnovio de Carol, de California, haba logrado encontrarla en Texas y la estaba siguiendo. +Ahora se preguntarn, Por qu llamar? +Yo tambin lo hice. +Pero descubr que haba una complicacin tcnica en el caso de Carol. +Cada vez que apareca su exnovio, en las horas y lugares ms inesperados, llevaba un porttil abierto, y con el tiempo Carol entendi que l haba puesto un localizador GPS en su coche, y me llamaba para que la ayudase a desactivarlo. +"Bueno, debera ir a buen mecnico para que le mire el coche", le dije. +"Ya lo hice", me contest. +"No vio nada que fuera evidente, y dijo que debera desmontar el coche pieza por pieza". +"Bueno entonces deberas ir a la polica", le dije. +"Ya lo hice", me contest. +"No estn seguros de que se pueda considerar acoso y no tienen el equipo tcnico para encontrar el dispositivo". +"Bien, y qu me dice del FBI?" +"Habl con ellos tambin, y ms de lo mismo". +Entonces dijimos que viniera a mi laboratorio para que barriramos por radio su coche, pero no estaba seguro de que funcionase, ya que algunos aparatos estn configurados para la transmisin exclusivamente en zonas seguras o cuando el coche se mueva. +As que aqu estbamos. +Carol no es la primera, y desde luego no ser la ltima en encontrarse en un entorno hostil o en una situacin preocupante debido a un posicionador GPS. +De hecho, examinando su caso descubr, para mi sorpresa, que no es ilegal poner un aparato de posicionamiento en el coche de otra persona. +Es un disturbador de GPS de cdigo libre, desarrollado por Limor Fried, una estudiante del MIT, que lo define como "un aparato para revindicar nuestro espacio personal". +Pulsando un botn, creas una burbuja a tu alrededor que las seales de GPS no pueden detectar. +Se quedan ahogados por la burbuja. +Limor la ha diseado, en parte, porque como Carol, se senta amenazada por los GPS. +Luego public su diseo en la red, y si no tienen tiempo para construir el propio, pueden comprarlo. +Los fabricantes chinos venden miles de aparatos similares por Internet. +As que quizs estn pensando, la Wave Bubble es una gran idea. +Debera tener una. Podra ser til si alguien pone un rastreador en mi coche. +Pero tienen que saber que su uso es ilegal en Estados Unidos. +Y, por qu? +Bueno, porque no es una burbuja. +Su disturbador de seales no termina en tu espacio personal, o el de tu coche. +Siguen disturbando receptores GPS inocentes varios km a tu alrededor. Ahora, si eres Carol o Limor, o alguien que se siente amenazado por los GPS, no sera nada malo encender el Wave Bubble, pero los resultados pueden ser desastrosos. +Imaginen, por ejemplo, que son el capitn de un crucero que intenta salir de un banco de niebla y algn pasajero enciende su Wave Bubble. +Y, de repente, su seal de GPS desaparece y quedan a solas con la niebla y lo que puedan detectar en el radar, si recuerdan cmo funciona. +De hecho, ya no hay faros y LORAN, la nica alternativa al GPS se interrumpi el ao pasado. +Nuestra sociedad tiene una relacin especial con el GPS. +Nos fiamos de l casi ciegamente. +Est en la base de nuestros sistemas e infraestructuras. +Algunos lo definen como "la herramienta invisible". +As que encender Wave Bubble no solo podra causar problemas. +Podra ser fatal. +Pero resulta que proteger la intimidad a costa de la fiabilidad del GPS, es algo ms potente y ms subversivo que el Wave Bubble, y es el falsificador seales GPS. +La idea que est detrs del falsificador de seales de GPS es simple. +En vez de mezclar las seales del GPS, las falsifica. +Las imita, y si lo hace bien, el aparato ni se entera de que es una falsificacin. +Les ensear cmo funciona. +Cada receptor GPS tiene un pico que se corresponde con las seales autnticas. +Estos puntos rojos representan los puntos de bsqueda que intentan centrarse en ese punto. +Pero si envan una seal GPS falsa, surge otro pico y se pueden alinear ambos puntos perfectamente, el rastreador no nota la diferencia y es anulado por la falsa seal ms potente que oculta la seal verdadera. +En ese momento acaba el juego. +Las seales falsas toman el control del receptor GPS. +Es esto posible? +Puede alguien manipular el posicionamiento de un receptor GPS de ese modo, con un simulador? +Bueno, s. +La clave es que las seales de los GPS civiles son completamente abiertas. +No estn encriptadas. Carecen de autenticacin. +Son vulnerables ante cualquier ataque de simuladores. +De hecho, hasta hace poco, nadie tena en cuenta a estos simuladores. +La gente crea que sera muy complicado o muy costoso de construir. +Pero un compaero de graduacin y yo mismo no lo veamos as. +Sabamos que no sera tan difcil, y quisimos ser los primeros en construirlo as que encaramos la cuestin de ayudar a proteger los GPS contra los simuladores. +Recuerdo perfectamente cuando nos reunimos. +Los construimos en mi casa, lo que significa que Ramn, mi hijo de tres aos, me ayud. +Aqu est Ramn... reclamando algo de atencin de su padre esa semana. +Al principio, el simulador era un montn de cables y circuitos, que logramos empaquetar en una pequea caja. +Ahora viene el momento Dr. Frankenstein. Cuando el simulador cobr vida y se me revel todo su potencial; una noche, cuando prob el simulador con mi iPhone. +Les mostrar un vdeo del momento del primer experimento. +Haba llegado a confiar plenamente en ese puntito azul y su tranquilizador halo azul. +Parecan hablarme. +Decan: "aqu ests, aqu ests... puedes confiar en nosotros". +Algo andaba muy mal en el mundo. +Fue una especie de traicin cuando el puntito azul sali de casa, se corri hacia el norte dejndome atrs. Yo no me mova. +Lo que vi en ese puntito azul en movimiento era el potencial del caos. +Vi aviones y barcos a la deriva, sus capitanes dndose cuenta demasiado tarde de que algo iba mal. +Vi el posicionamiento GPS de la Bolsa de Nueva York manipulado por hackers. +No se pueden hacer una idea del desastre que podran ocasionar si supieran lo que hacen con un simulador de GPS +No obstante, hay una salvedad en el simulador GPS. +Es el arma definitiva contra una invasin de mini GPS. +Imaginen, por ejemplo, que los estn siguiendo. +Bien, pueden engaar al GPS, fingiendo que estn en el trabajo cuando estn de vacaciones. +O, en el lugar de Carol, pueden despistar al exnovio hacia algn aparcamiento desierto donde est la polica esperndole. +Este conflicto me fascina porque plantea, por un lado, la privacidad y por otro, la necesidad de mantener un espectro de radio despejado. +No podemos tolerar la presencia de simuladores de GPS, y, dada la ausencia de medidas legales para proteger nuestra privacidad de los mini GPS, pueden culpar a la gente por querer instalarlos, por querer usarlos? +Tengo la esperanza de poder resolver este conflicto con algn tipo de tecnologa an por inventar. +Pero mientras tanto, procrense unas palomitas, porque el asunto se va a poner muy interesante. +En los prximos aos muchos de Uds. tendrn un mini GPS. +Quiz tengan varios. +Nunca volvern a perder nada. +El mini GPS reordenar sus vidas. +Pero podrn resistir la tentacin de seguir a su vecino? +Podrn resistirse a instalar un simulador GPS o un Wave Bubble para proteger su intimidad? +Como de costumbre, lo que percibimos en el horizonte est lleno de promesas y de peligros. +Ser fascinante ver en qu acaba todo esto. +Gracias. +Me encanta coleccionar objetos. +Desde que era un nio, tengo inmensas colecciones de cosas de todo tipo, desde extraas salsas picantes de todo el mundo hasta insectos que he ido capturando y metiendo en tarros. +No es de extraar, dada mi inclinacin por las colecciones, que me encante el Museo de Historia Natural y sus reproducciones en 3D de animales en sus hbitats. +Para m son como esculturas vivientes que podemos ir a observar, e inmortalizan un instante especfico de la vida de ese animal. +Justo como la gente en la calle reacciona cuando te acercas demasiado. +Algunos reaccionaban aterrorizados. Otros te pedan ayuda, y algunos se escondan de ti. +Me pareci muy interesante esta idea de trasladar el vdeo de la pantalla a la vida real, y tambin aadir interactividad a la escultura. +Durante el ao siguiente, document 40 de mis otros amigos, los atrap en tarros tambin y cre una obra llamada Jardn, que es literalmente un jardn de humanidad. +Pero haba algo en la primera obra, la de Animali Chordata, que no me quera soltar, esta idea de interaccin con el arte, realmente me gustaba que la gente pudiera interactuar, y que esto tambin les supusiera algn reto. +Quise crear una nueva obra que atrajera a la gente a interactuar con algo, as que proyect una ama de casa de los aos 50 en una licuadora. Esta obra se llama Mezcla, y te hace partcipe de forma implcita de la obra de arte. +No es necesario que participes totalmente. +Puedes pasar de largo y simplemente observar a esta mujer ah de pie en la licuadora mientras te mira, o si quieres, puedes interactuar con ella. +Si finalmente interactas con la obra, y presionas el botn de licuar, la mujer se ver inmersa en una vertiginosa nube de caos. +Y al hacerlo, eres ahora parte de mi obra. +Ustedes, al igual que la gente atrapada en mis creaciones, (Ruidos de licuadora, risas) se han convertido en parte de ellas tambin. Pero esto parece injusto, no? +Met a mis amigos en tarros, met a este personaje de una especie en peligro de extincin en una licuadora. +Pero nunca haba hecho nada conmigo. +Nunca me haba inmortalizado a m mismo. +As que decid crear un autorretrato, +que es una especie de cpsula del tiempo, llamada Un momento fugaz, en la que me proyecto encima de una perforadora de tarjetas de registro horario, y depende de ustedes. +Si deciden usar esa perforadora, me envejecen. +Empiezo siendo un beb, y si perforas, me transformas en un nio pequeo, y luego, en un adolescente. +A continuacin, en mi yo actual. +Seguidamente, en un hombre de mediana edad, y finalmente, en un anciano. +Y si perforas 100 veces en un da, la obra se queda en negro y no podr reiniciarse hasta el da siguiente. +Y al hacerlo, ests borrando el tiempo. +Eres partcipe de esta obra y ests borrando mi vida. +Esto es lo que me gusta de la vdeo escultura interactiva, que puedes interactuar con ella, que todos ustedes pueden tocar una obra artstica y ser parte de ella, y con suerte, un da, los tendr a cada uno de ustedes atrapados en uno de mis tarros. Gracias. +No me suelen gustar las tiras cmicas, la mayora no me parecen graciosas, me resultan extraas. Pero me encanta esta vieta del New Yorker. +(Texto: Ni se te ocurra salirte de los lmites) El tipo le est diciendo al gato: no te atrevas a pensar fuera de lo convencional. +Pues me temo que yo sola ser el gato. +Siempre deseaba pensar creativamente. +Y en parte, es debido a que llegu a esta especialidad desde una rama diferente, genetista qumica y bacteriana. +Lo que la gente me deca acerca de la causa del cncer, la procedencia del cncer o el motivo por el que somos lo que somos, no tena sentido. +Permtanme rpidamente explicarles por qu pensaba eso y cmo lo abord. +Para empezar, no obstante, tengo que darles una clase muy rpida de biologa del desarrollo, mis disculpas a aquellos que sepan algo de biologa. +Cuando sus mams y paps se encontraron, se forma un huevo fertilizado, esa cosa redonda con esa pequea irregularidad, +que crece y crece, hasta convertirse en este hombre atractivo. +Todas las clulas del cuerpo de este hombre poseen la misma informacin gentica. +Cmo se convirti su nariz en nariz, su codo en codo, y por qu no se levanta una maana con un pie por nariz? +Podra ocurrir. Tiene la informacin gentica. +Todos ustedes recordaran a Dolly, sali de una nica clula mamaria. +Entonces, por qu no ocurre? +Intenten adivinar cuntas clulas tiene l en su cuerpo. +Entre 10 y 70 billones de clulas en su cuerpo. +Billones! +Cmo estas clulas, teniendo el mismo material gentico, crearon todos esos tejidos? +Y la pregunta que hice antes se vuelve incluso ms interesante si piensan en esta inmensidad que hay en cada uno de sus cuerpos. +La teora del cncer ms extendida dice que si hay un solo oncogn en una sola clula cancerosa, esto nos hara una vctima del cncer. +Bien, esto no tena sentido para m. +Saben lo que es un billn? +Vemoslo. +Aqu llega, estos ceros y ms ceros y ms ceros. +Si .0001 de estas clulas mutaran, y .00001 tuvieran cncer, seramos una masa de cncer. +Tendramos cncer por todo el cuerpo. Y no es as. +Por qu no? +Conclu durante los aos siguientes, en base a una serie de experimentos, que esto ocurre por el contexto y la arquitectura. +Y djenme explicarles rpidamente un experimento crucial que permiti demostrarlo. +Para empezar, trabaj con ese virus que causa ese desagradable tumor en los pollos. +Rous lo descubri en 1911. +Fue el primer virus del cncer que se descubri, y cuando digo oncogn, quiero decir gen del cncer. +Hizo un filtrado, cogi este filtro que contena el lquido del tumor filtrado, lo inyect en otro pollo, y obtuvo otro tumor. +Los cientficos se estusiasmaron, y dijeron que un nico oncogn poda lograrlo. +Todo lo que necesitamos es un nico oncogn. +As pues, pusieron las clulas de pollo en cultivos, depositaron el virus en ellos, y despus de que se apilaran diran, este es maligno y este es normal. +Y segua sin tener sentido para m. +Por diferentes razones, cogimos este oncogn, lo unimos a un indicador azul, y lo inyectamos en los embriones. +Miren eso. Esa preciosa pluma en el embrin. +Cada una de esas clulas azules son un gen del cncer dentro de una clula cancerosa, y son parte de la pluma. +Cuando disociamos la pluma y la pusimos en un plato, obtuvimos una masa de clulas azules. +En el pollo obtenemos un tumor, en el embrin no. Lo separas, lo pones en un plato y obtienes otro tumor. +Qu significa esto? +Significa que el microambiente y el contexto que rodea a las clulas les dicen al gen del cncer y a la clula cancerosa lo que tienen que hacer. +Pongamos un ejemplo corriente. +Por ejemplo, la glndula mamaria humana. +Trabajo en el cncer de mama. +Aqu tenemos una hermosa mama humana. +Muchos de ustedes conocen su aspecto, excepto que dentro de esa mama se encuentran todas estas bonitas crecientes ramificaciones. +Lo que decidimos hacer fue coger slo una parte de esa glndula mamaria, llamada acino, donde se encuentran todas estas cositas dentro de la mama donde se encuentra la leche, y la punta del pezn es el extremo de ese pequeo tubo por el que el beb succiona. +Y dijimos, maravilloso! Qu bonita estructura!. +Queremos crear esta estructura, y preguntarnos, cmo la crean las clulas? +Tiene una parte inferior y superior, segrega gran cantidad de leche, porque procede de un ratn en las primeras fases de gestacin. +Cogemos estas clulas, las ponemos en un plato, y en no ms de 3 das, tienen este aspecto. +Olvidan completamente. +Las sacas, las pones en un plato, y no producen leche. Olvidan completamente. +Por ejemplo, aqu tenemos una preciosa gotita amarilla de leche en la izquierda, no hay nada en la derecha. +Miren los ncleos. El ncleo en la clula de la izquierda est en el animal, el de la derecha est en un plato. +Son muy diferentes el uno del otro. +Qu nos dice esto? +Nos dice que el contexto es lo que prevalece. +En contextos diferentes, las clulas hacen cosas diferentes. +Pero, cmo el contexto manda la seal? +Einstein dijo que No hay esperanza para una idea que al principio no parezca absurda. +Pueden imaginarse cunto escepticismo recib; no pude conseguir dinero, no pude hacer muchas otras cosas, pero me alegro que todo saliera bien. +As que dije, la matriz extracelular, que es esta materia llamada MEC, enva la seal y le dice a las clulas lo que hacer. +Decidimos crear cosas que tendran ese aspecto. +Encontramos algo de materia viscosa conteniendo la correcta clula extracelular, metimos las clulas, y observen, en aprox. 4 das, se reorganizaron y en la derecha tenemos lo que podemos crear en cultivos. +En la izquierda vemos lo que est dentro del animal, lo llamamos in vivo, y el cultivado estaba lleno de leche, y ah ese rojo precioso est lleno de leche. +Por tanto, tenemos leche (conocido slogan en EEUU), para el pblico americano. +Y aqu tenemos esta bonita clula humana, y como pueden suponer, aqu tambin hay contexto. +Qu hacemos ahora? +Plante una hiptesis radical. +Dije, si es cierto que la arquitectura prevalece, entonces si la restablecisemos en una clula cancerosa haramos creer a dicha clula que es normal. +Es posible hacerlo? +Decidimos intentarlo. +Para ello, sin embargo, necesitbamos tener un mtodo para distinguir normal de maligno, y en la izquierda tenemos una clula individual normal de una mama humana, metida en gel viscoso tridimensional con matriz extracelular, creando todas estas bonitas estructuras. +En la derecha, tiene un aspecto muy desagradable, las clulas continan creciendo, las normales se detienen. +Aqu podis ver con mayor aumento el acino normal y el horrendo tumor. +As que dijimos, Qu hay en la superficie de estos tumores? +Podramos calmarlas? enviaban seales sin parar y las secuencias eran un desastre Podramos estabilizarlas a los niveles de las normales? +Fue maravilloso. Me dej fascinada. +Esto es lo que logramos. +Podemos revertir el fenotipo maligno. +Y para demostrarles que no eleg un fenotipo maligno cualquiera, aqu pueden ver unos cortos vdeos un tanto borrosos, pero en los que en la izquierda pueden ver las clulas malignas, todas son malignas, aadimos un solo inhibidor al principio, y vean lo que ocurre, todas tienen ese aspecto. +Las inyectamos en el ratn, las de la derecha, y ninguna generara tumores. +Inyectamos las otras en el ratn, 100% de tumores. +Es una nueva forma de plantear el cncer, una forma que nos llena de esperanza. +Deberamos ser capaces de tratar con estas cosas a este nivel, y estas conclusiones nos dicen que el crecimiento y el comportamiento maligno se regulan a nivel de la organizacin de tejidos, que a su vez depende de la matriz extracelular y el microambiente. +Y as, forma y funcin interactan dinmica y recprocamente. +Y aqu otros 5 segundos de paz, es mi mantra. Forma y funcin. +Y por supuesto, podemos ahora preguntarnos, A dnde nos dirigimos ahora? +Nos gustara trasladar esta forma de pensar a la clnica. +Pero antes, me gustara que pensaran que en todo momento, estando sentados aqu, en sus 70 billones de clulas, la matriz extracelular est enviando informacin a sus ncleos, los cuales envan informacin a sus matrices extracelulares y as es como su equilibrio se mantiene y restablece. +Hemos hecho muchos descubrimientos, hemos demostrado que la matriz extracelular le habla a la cromatina. +Hemos demostrado que hay pequeas partes de ADN en los genes especficos de la glndula mamaria que responden a la matriz extracelular. +Nos ha llevado muchos aos, pero ha sido muy gratificante. +Y antes de pasar a la siguiente diapositiva, tengo que decirles que hay muchos ms descubrimientos que hacer. +Hay tanto que desconocemos. +En mis charlas, siempre les digo a los alumnos y post-docs: No sean arrogantes, porque la arrogancia mata la curiosidad. +La curiosidad y la pasin. +Siempre deberamos pensar, qu ms necesitamos descubrir? +Puede que mi descubrimiento necesite una ampliacin o quizs una modificacin. +Acabamos de hacer un magnfico descubrimiento, un fsico post-doctoral del laboratorio me pregunt, qu hacen las clulas cuando las metes ah? +Qu hacen al principio? +Le dije: no lo s, no era posible verlas. +No disponamos de imgenes de alta calidad por entonces. +Pues esta mujer, que es fsica y grafista, hizo esta cosa increble. +Esta es una clula de una mama humana en 3D. +Mrenla. Hace esto constantemente. +Tiene un movimiento regular. +Pero si metemos ah las clulas cancerosas, se desorganizan y hacen esto otro. No hacen esto. +Y cuando revertimos la clula cancerosa, vuelve a moverse as. +Me deja totalmente asombrada. +La clula acta como un embrin. Qu cosa ms fascinante!. +Me gustara acabar con un poema. +Me encantaba la literatura inglesa, y lo meditaba en la facultad, cul de las 2 debera hacer? +Y por suerte o por desgracia, eleg la qumica. +Aqu tenemos un poema de Yeats. Slo os leer las 2 ltimas lneas. +Se titula Entre nios de escuela. +Oh cuerpo entregado a la msica / Oh atisbo luminoso Cmo podemos separar al danzante de su danza? +Y aqu tenemos a Merce Cunningham, Tuve la fortuna de bailar con l cuando era ms joven, Aqu es un danzante, y mientras est danzando, es a la vez el danzante y la danza. +En cuanto se para, no es ni una cosa ni la otra. +Es como la forma y la funcin. +Ahora me gustara mostrarles una foto reciente de mi grupo. +He sido muy afortunada de haber tenido estos magnficos alumnos y post-docs que me han enseado tanto, y muchos de estos grupos han venido y se han ido. +Son el futuro e intento hacer que no tengan miedo de ser el gato y de que les digan: no pienses fuera de lo convencional +Y me gustara dejarles con este pensamiento. +A la izquierda hay agua penetrando la orilla, foto sacada de un satlite de la NASA. +A la derecha, tenemos un coral. +Si cogemos la glndula mamaria, la extendemos y le quitamos la grasa, ponindola en un plato, obtenemos esto. +Son iguales? Tienen las mismas estructuras? +Por qu la naturaleza contina hacindolas una y otra vez? +Y me gustara hacerles saber que hemos secuenciado el genoma humano, lo sabemos todo acerca de la secuencia, el idioma y el alfabeto de los genes, pero no sabemos nada de nada acerca del idioma y el alfabeto de la forma. +Es un nuevo horizonte maravilloso, es algo maravilloso que descubrir para los jvenes y los viejos apasionados como yo. +Vayan a por ello! +Djenme comenzar llevndoles al pasado, hasta lo ms profundo de su memoria hasta, quizs, el ao ms esperado de sus vidas, pero ciertamente el ao ms esperado de la historia de la humanidad: El ao 2000. Lo recuerdan? +Y2K, la burbuja punto-com, pensando a qu fiesta ir cuando el reloj marque las medianoche, antes de que se acabe el champagne, y luego ese anhelo incompleto que sintieron, creo, muchos, que el milenio, el ao 2000, debera tener ms significado, mucho ms que un dos y varios ceros. +Sorprendentemente, por una vez, los lderes del mundo de hecho cumplieron las expectativas de ese momento del milenio y en el ao 2000, llegaron a varios acuerdos bastante extraordinarios: Objetivos a largo plazo, visionarios, mensurables llamados los Objetivos de Desarrollo del Milenio. +Bien, nos estamos acercando al 2015, as que deberamos evaluar, cmo nos est yendo con estos objetivos? +Pero tambin deberamos decidir, nos gustan estos objetivos globales? +A algunos no. Y si nos gustan, deberamos decidir qu queremos hacer acerca de estos objetivos de aqu en adelante. +Qu quiere hacer el mundo unido? +Debemos determinar un proceso, por el cual podamos decidir. +Definitivamente creo que vale la pena construir a partir de estos objetivos y ver a travs de ellos, y estas son alguna razones del por qu: +Colaboraciones asombrosas entre el sector privado, lderes polticos, filntropos y activistas asombrosos a nivel local a lo largo del mundo en vas de desarrollo, pero tambin 250.000 personas marcharon por las calles de Edimburgo, fuera de este mismo edificio para Make Poverty History. +Todos juntos, lograron estos resultados: Aumentaron el nmero de personas medicadas con antiretrovirales, un medicamento contra el SIDA que salva vidas; bajaron a la mitad las muertes por malaria; vacunaron a tantos que se salvarn 5,4 millones de vidas. +Y en combinacin, esto significar que cada da, morirn 2 millones de nios menos, el ao pasado, que en el ao 2000. +Eso son 5.000 nios menos que mueren por da, diez veces de lo que puede contarse con vida gracias a todas estas sociedades. +As que creo que esto es la maravillosa prueba viviente del progreso que ms personas deberan conocer, pero el desafo de comunicar este tipo de buenas noticias es probablemente tema para otra TEDTalk. +Por ahora, para quienes estn involucrados en estos resultados, gracias. Creo que esto prueba que estos objetivos son valiosos. +Pero an hay mucho trabajo por hacer. +Todava, cada ao mueren 7,6 millones de nios de enfermedades prevenibles y tratables, y 178 millones de nios estn desnutridos hasta el punto de un retraso en el crecimiento, un termino espantoso que implica una discapacidad fsica y cognitiva de por vida. +As que claramente, an queda mucho por hacer dentro de estos objetivos. +Pero tambin, muchas personas creen que hay cosas que deberan haber estado incluidas en el acuerdo original que no se incluyeron entonces, pero que deberamos incluir ahora, como objetivos de desarrollo sustentable, objetivos de gerencia corporativa en el uso recursos naturales acceso a oportunidades, al conocimiento, igualdad, lucha contra la corrupcin. +Todo esto es mensurable y podran ser nuevos objetivos. +Pero aqu la clave es, cuales piensan ustedes que deberan ser los nuevos objetivos? +Qu es lo que quieren? +Les molesta que no haya hablado de igualdad de gnero o de educacin? +Deberamos tener un nuevo paquete de objetivos? +Y francamente, esa es una muy buena pregunta, pero van a haber algunos compromisos difciles y elecciones aqu, as que querrn tener la esperanza de que el proceso por el cual el mundo decida estos nuevos objetivos, sea un proceso legtimo, verdad? +Bien, mientras nos reunimos aqu en Edimburgo, tecncratas nombrados por la ONU y los gobiernos de ciertas naciones, con las mejores intenciones, estn ocupndose de disear un nuevo paquete de objetivos, y lo estn haciendo bsicamente a travs de ese viejo proceso de fines del siglo 20, elitista y cerrado. +Pero, por supuesto, desde entonces, la Web y la telefona mvil, junto con la omnipresencia de los formatos de telerrealidad se han esparcido alrededor del mundo. +Entonces lo que nos gustara proponer es utilizar estas tecnologas para involucrar a las personas alrededor del mundo en un primer hito histrico: la primera encuesta verdaderamente global, en la cual todos, en todas partes del mundo tengan la misma voz por primera vez. +Quiero decir, no sera una oportunidad histrica perdida no hacerlo, teniendo la oportunidad? +Hay cientos de miles de millones de su dinero de ayuda en riesgo, decenas de miles de vidas o muertes, en riesgo, y, podra argumentar, la seguridad y el futuro suyo y de sus familias tambin est en juego. +As que, si estn conmigo, les dira que hay 3 pasos esenciales en esta campaa de crowdsourcing: recolectar, conectar y comprometerse. +Primero, debemos basar esta campaa en la recopilacin de informacin pura. +Vayamos a todos los pases que nos dejen entrar, preguntemos a 1001 personas cules deberan ser los nuevos objetivos, tomando medida especiales para llegar a los ms pobres, a aquellos sin el acceso a tecnologas modernas, y asegurarnos de contar con su visin en el centro de estos objetivos hacia el futuro. +Luego, debemos preparar una lnea de base para asegurarnos de poder monitorizar el progreso de los objetivos de ah en adelante. Los objetivos originales no tenan una buena informacin base de encuestas y vamos a necesitar la ayuda de mucha informacin a lo largo del proceso para asegurarnos de poder monitorizar el progreso. +Luego debemos conectarnos con esta gran multitud. +Aqu vemos la oportunidad para una coalicin sin precedentes de los gigantes de las redes sociales y compaas de telecomunicaciones, formatos de telerrealidad, compaas de videojuegos, telecomunicadores, todos juntos en una especie de momento "Somos el mundo": +Podran juntarse todos ellos y ayudar a renovar la imagen de los Objetivos de Desarrollo del Milenio en los Objetivos de la Generacin del Milenio? +Y si tan solo 5% de esos ms de 5 millones que estn en este momento conectados dejaran un comentario, y ese comentario se transformara en un compromiso, podramos contribuir con una fuerza de 300 millones de personas alrededor del mundo a cumplir con estos objetivos. +Si tenemos estos datos y esta multitud conectada, basados en nuestra experiencia de campaa y de hacer que los lderes del mundo se comprometan, creo que los lderes del mundo s se comprometern a la mayora de las recomendaciones del pblico. +Pero la verdadera pregunta es, por medio de este proceso nos habremos comprometido todos? +Y si es as, estamos listos para repetir, monitorizar y proporcionar crticas, asegurarnos de que estas promesas realmente estn dando resultados? +Tenemos algunos ejemplos fantsticos aqu para ampliar, la mayora han sido pilotos en frica de hecho. +Est el proyecto Open Data Kenya, que geocodifica y comparte informacin sobre los lugares donde estn los proyectos, si estn generando resultados. +Con frecuencia, no estn en el lugar correcto. +Y Ushahidi, que significa "testigo" en suajili, que geocodifica y colabora pblicamente en emergencias complejas para ayudar a identificar soluciones. +Estas son algunas de las cosas ms emocionantes en el desarrollo y la democracia, donde los ciudadanos estn al borde de una red ayudando a forzar la apertura del proceso para asegurarse de que las grandes promesas globales de ayuda y las promesas vagas realmente se cumplan para las personas a niveles locales y que se invierta esa pirmide. +Esta apertura, esta forzada apertura, es clave y por si no ha sido lo suficientemente transparente hasta ahora, yo tambin voy a serlo: Tengo intenciones completamente transparentes. +Las tendencias a largo plazo sugieren que este siglo va a ser un poca difcil para vivir, con aumento en la poblacin, patrones de consumo en aumento, y conflicto debido a los escasos recursos naturales. +Y observemos el estado actual de la poltica global. +La Cumbre de la Tierra, en Ro, apenas la semana pasada, o La Cumbre del G20 en Mxico, tambin la semana pasada. +Ambas, si somos honestos, fueron un fracaso. +Nuestros lderes mundiales, polticos globales, actualmente no pueden hacerlo. +Necesitan nuestra ayuda. Necesitan de la caballera, y la caballera no va a llegar desde Marte. +Tiene que venir de nosotros, y veo este proceso de decidir de forma democrtica, de abajo hacia arriba, aquello en lo que el mundo quiere trabajar en conjunto como un medio vital por el cual podemos aportar la fuerza para construir ese grupo de votantes que revitalice el gobierno mundial en el siglo XXI. +Comenc en el ao 2000. Terminar en el ao 2030. +Muchos se burlaron de una gran campaa hace algunos aos que llamamos Make Poverty History. +Era una idea ingenua en las mentes de muchos, y es cierto, era solo el slogan en una camiseta que funcion por ese momento. Pero observen: +La condicin emprica de vivir con menos de 1.25 $ disminuye, y vean hasta donde llegar para el 2030. +Est acercndose al cero. +Seguramente, el progreso en China e India y la disminucin de la pobreza fueron claves para lograrlo, pero recientemente, tambin en frica, la tasa de pobreza disminuye. +Ser cada vez ms difcil a medida que nos acerquemos al cero. ya que la pobreza vas a estar cada vez ms localizada en estados frgiles de post-conflicto, o quiz en pases con ingresos medios donde realmente no les interesan los marginados. +Pero estoy seguro, con la campaa poltica correcta y la innovacin tecnolgica creativa combinada con el trabajo en conjunto cada vez ms como uno solo, creo que podemos lograrlo y alcanzar estos objetivos +Gracias. Chris Anderson: Jamie, lo que me intriga es: +Si hoy hubiese un episodio en el que cientos de nios muriesen en una tragedia o donde, por ejemplo, secuestraran a cientos de nios y los rescataran las fuerzas especiales, digo, estara en los medios toda una semana, verdad? +Antes nos mostraste, una de esas cifras, esos 5.000, es esa la cifra? +Jamie Drummond: Menos nios cada da. +CA: Cinco mil nios mueren cada da. +Quiero decir, eso empequeece, empequeece todo lo que actualmente vemos en las noticias, y es invisible. +Esto debe enloquecerte. +JD: As es, y estamos sosteniendo un gran debate en este pas acerca de los niveles de ayuda, por ejemplo, y la ayuda no es toda la solucin. Nadie lo cree. +Pero, sabes, si la gente viese los resultados de esta ayuda inteligente, se emocionara muchsimo. +Deseara que las 250.000 personas que se manifestaron afuera de este mismo edificio, supiesen estos resultados. +En este momento no lo saben, y sera fantstico encontrar una forma de comunicarlo mejor, porque no lo hemos hecho. +Hasta ahora, hemos fallado en comunicar estos resultados exitosos de manera creativa. +Si este tipo de esfuerzos tan solo pudiesen multiplicar sus voces y amplificarla en los momentos claves, de hecho s que tendramos mejores polticas. +La Cumbre del G20 en Mxico no tiene porqu ser un fracaso. +Ro, si a alguien le importa el medio ambiente, tampoco necesariamente fue fracaso, de acuerdo? +Pero estas conferencias se llevan acabo, y s que las personas se tornan escpticas y cnicas acerca de las grandes cumbres mundiales y las promesas que jams se cumplen, pero de hecho, lo poquito que s se cumple, hace una diferencia, y lo que los polticos necesitan es ms permiso del pblico. +CA: Pero an no has trabajado en concreto los mecanismos de red, etc., +por el cual esto podra llevarse acabo. +Quiero decir, hay las personas aqu con experiencia en plataformas abiertas, te interesar hablar con ellos esta semana, y tratar de sacar este proyecto adelante. +JD: Absolutamente. CA: Bien, debo decir, si esta conferencia se orienta de cierto modo a fomentar esa idea, es una gran idea, y si lo llevas acabo, sera realmente maravilloso, as que gracias. JD: Me encantara que me ayudases. +CA: Gracias, gracias. +Nac con una rara enfermedad visual llamada acromatopsia, es decir, incapacidad total para ver los colores, as que nunca he visto los colores y no s cmo son, porque vengo de un mundo en escala de grises. +Para m el cielo es siempre gris, las flores son siempre grises, y la televisin sigue siendo en blanco y negro. +Pero desde los 21 aos, en lugar de ver los colores, los puedo or. +En el 2003 comenc un proyecto con el ingeniero informtico Adam Montandon, y el resultado, con la colaboracin adicional de Peter Kese de Eslovenia y Matias Lizana de Barcelona, es este ojo electrnico. +Es un sensor de color que detecta la frecuencia de color enfrente de m (Sonidos de frecuencia) y enva esta frecuencia a un chip instalado detrs de mi cabeza, y oigo el color enfrente de m a travs del hueso, a travs de la conduccin sea. +(Sonidos de frecuencia) Entonces, si tengo por ejemplo... Este es el sonido del prpura. (Sonidos de frecuencia) Y este es el sonido de la hierba. (Sonidos de frecuencia) Este es el rojo, como TED. (Sonidos de frecuencia) Este es el sonido de un calcetn sucio. Que es como amarillo. +Como llevo ocho aos escuchando los colores, desde el 2004, me parece completamente normal orlos todo el tiempo. +Al principio tuve que memorizar los nombres que dan a cada color, luego tuve que memorizar las notas musicales, pero despus de algn tiempo, toda esta informacin se convirti en una percepcin. +No tena que pensar en las notas. +Y luego esta percepcin se convirti en una sensacin. +Comenc a tener colores favoritos, y empec a soar a colores. +Empec a soar a colores cuando sent que el software y mi cerebro se haban unido, porque en mis sueos, era mi cerebro el que creaba sonidos electrnicos. No era el software, entonces ah fue cuando empec a sentirme un cborg. +Cuando empec a sentir que el dispositivo ciberntico ya no era un dispositivo. +Se haba convertido en una parte de mi cuerpo, una extensin de mis sentidos, y despus de un tiempo, hasta se convirti en una parte de mi imagen oficial. +Este es mi pasaporte desde el 2004. +En los pasaportes del Reino Unido no se permiten fotos con equipos electrnicos, pero yo insist en la oficina de pasaportes en que lo que vean era en realidad una nueva parte de mi cuerpo, una extensin de mi cerebro, y finalmente aceptaron que apareciera con esa foto en el pasaporte. +Mi vida ha cambiado radicalmente desde que escucho el color, porque el color est casi en todas partes. Por ejemplo, el cambio ms grande es ir a una galera de arte y poder escuchar un Picasso. Es como ir a una sala de conciertos, porque puedo escuchar las pinturas. +Para m los supermercados son impactantes, es muy fascinante recorrerlos. +Es como ir a un club nocturno. +Estn llenos de melodas diferentes. S! +Especialmente la seccin de artculos de limpieza. +Es sencillamente fabuloso. Tambin mi forma de vestir ha cambiado. +Antes me vesta para verme bien. +Imaginen un restaurante donde se pudiera pedir una ensalada Lady Gaga como entrada. Esto probablemente incitara a los adolescentes a comer verduras. +O bien, un concierto para piano de Rachmaninov como plato principal, y algo de Bjork o Madonna como postre, sera un restaurante fantstico donde realmente se podra comer canciones. +La forma en que percibo la belleza tambin ha cambiado, porque cuando miro a alguien, oigo su cara, as que alguien podra parecer muy bonito, pero sonar horriblemente. +O podra suceder lo contrario. Me gusta crear retratos sonoros de la gente. +En vez de retratar el rostro de una persona, dibujar la forma, la sealo con el ojo electrnico y escribo las diferentes notas que oigo, y luego creo retratos sonoros. +Estas son algunas de las caras. +(Acordes musicales) S, Nicole Kidman suena bien. Algunas personas que no tienen nada que ver tienen un sonido similar. +El prncipe Carlos tiene cierto parecido con Nicole Kidman. +Los sonidos de sus ojos son parecidos. +Relacionan personas que nunca hubieran asociado, y de hecho pueden hacer conciertos mirando las caras del pblico. +Conecto el ojo electrnico y toco las caras del pblico. +Lo bueno es que, si el concierto no suena bien, es culpa de ellos. +No es mi culpa, porque... Otra cosa que pasa es que empiezo a tener este efecto secundario, es decir, que los sonidos normales comienzan a convertirse en color. +O sonar el telfono y lo sent verde porque tiene el mismo sonido del color verde. +Los pitidos de la BBC suenan turquesa, y escuchar a Mozart se convirti en una experiencia amarilla, entonces empec a pintar la msica y las voces de la gente, porque las voces de las personas tienen frecuencias que se asocian al color. +Y aqu est la msica traducida en color. +Por ejemplo, la Reina de la Noche de Mozart es as: +Muy amarilla y colorida porque hay muchas frecuencias diferentes. +Y esta es una cancin completamente diferente. +Es Baby de Justin Bieber. Es muy rosa y muy amarilla. +Y luego las voces, puedo transformar los discursos en color, por ejemplo, estos son dos discursos famosos. +Uno de ellos es I have a dream de Martin Luther King y el otro es de Hitler. +Me gusta exhibir estos cuadros en las salas de exposiciones sin la etiqueta, y luego preguntarle a la gente: Cul le gusta ms? +La mayora cambia de preferencia cuando les digo que el de la izquierda es Hitler y el de la derecha es Martin Luther King. +Llegu a percibir 360 colores, como en la visin humana. +Era capaz de diferenciar todos los grados del crculo cromtico. +Pero luego empec a pensar que la visin humana no era suficientemente buena. +Hay muchos ms colores que nos rodean que no podemos percibir, pero que el ojo electrnico s puede percibir. +Entonces decid seguir ampliando mi percepcin del color, y agregu infrarrojos y ultravioletas a la escala de color traducida en sonido, y ahora oigo colores que el ojo humano no puede percibir. +Por ejemplo, percibir los infrarrojos es til porque se puede identificar si hay detectores de movimiento en una habitacin. +Puedo or si alguien me apunta con un control remoto. +Y lo bueno de la percepcin ultravioleta es que se puede or si es un buen da o un mal da para tomar el sol, porque los ultravioletas son un color peligroso que realmente nos puede matar, as que creo que todos deberamos percibir las cosas que no podemos percibir. +Es por eso que hace dos aos cre la Cyborg Foundation, una fundacin que trata de ayudar a la gente a convertirse en cborg y la alienta a ampliar sus sentidos usando la tecnologa como parte del cuerpo. +Todos deberamos pensar que el conocimiento viene de nuestros sentidos, entonces si los ampliamos, por consiguiente, se ampliar nuestro conocimiento. +Creo que la vida ser mucho ms emocionante si dejamos de crear aplicaciones para los telfonos celulares y empezamos a crear aplicaciones para nuestro cuerpo. +Creo que esto ser un cambio muy importante que veremos en este siglo. +As que animo a todos a pensar en los sentidos que les gustara ampliar. +Los animo a convertirse en cborgs. +No estarn solos. Gracias. +Voy a hablarles de la seguridad de cdigo abierto, pues en el siglo XXI hay que mejorar en el rea de la seguridad. +Empecemos con una mirada al siglo XX y as nos damos una idea de cmo ese estilo de seguridad funcion para nosotros. +Este es Verdun, un campo de batalla en Francia, al norte de la sede de la OTAN en Blgica. +En Verdun, en 1916, 700 000 personas murieron en un lapso de ms de 300 das, eso es ms o menos 2000 personas por da. +Si nos adelantamos unos aos ms, a la Segunda Guerra Mundial, ven la batalla de Stalingrado, 2 millones de personas murieron en 300 das. +Durante la guerra fra, seguimos construyendo muros. +Fuimos de la guerra de trincheras de la Primera Guerra Mundial a la lnea de Maginot de la Segunda Guerra Mundial, a la cortina de hierro y el muro de Berln de la guerra fra. +Los muros no son la solucin. +Mi tesis es que en vez de erigir muros para sentirnos seguros, hay que construir puentes. +Este es un puente famoso en Europa, +en Bosnia-Herzegovina. +Es el puente sobre el rio Drina, es el tema de una novela de Ivo Andri, y habla de cmo, en esa parte agitada de Europa y de los Balcanes, se han construido una gran cantidad de muros a lo largo del tiempo. +En la ltima dcada, hemos visto a estas comunidades acercarse poco a poco. +De nuevo, afirmo que la seguridad de cdigo abierto es conectar lo internacional, lo interinstitucional, lo privado-pblico, y unir todo esto con la comunicacin estratgica, principalmente en las redes sociales. +Les voy a explicar por qu debemos hacer esto. Nuestros bienes comunes mundiales presentan varias amenazas y ninguna de ellas se eliminar construyendo muros. +Ahora, es claro que soy un navegante. +Este es un barco, un transatlntico que avanza por del ocano ndico. +Qu no va en este dibujo? +Tiene alambre de pas al rededor, +para defenderse de los piratas. +La piratera es una gran amenaza actualmente en todo el mundo. Esto es en el ocano ndico. +La piratera est tambin presente en el estrecho de Malaca. +Est presente en el golfo de Guinea, +as como en el Caribe. +Representa al ao un dficit de 10 mil millones de dlares en el sistema de transporte a nivel mundial. +El ao pasado, por estos das, haba 20 navos y 500 marineros tomados como rehenes. +Esto es un ataque a los bienes comunes mundiales. +Debemos pensar cmo hacer frente a este problema. +Cambiemos de mar, vayamos al mar ciberntico. +Estas fotografas muestran a dos hombres jvenes, +que en ese momento, estaban en prisin. +Llevaron a cabo un fraude con una tarjeta de crdito que les dej 10 mil millones de dlares. +Esto hace parte del crimen ciberntico, que representa un dficit de 2 billones al ao en la economa mundial. +Dos billones al ao. +Eso equivale a un poco menos del PIB de Gran Bretaa. +Este ciberocano, que conocemos es la pieza fundamental de la apertura radical, est bajo una gran amenaza tambin. +Otro factor que me preocupa respecto a los bienes comunes mundiales es la amenaza que representa el trfico de drogas, en este caso, el opio que viene de Afganistn por Europa hacia los Estados Unidos. +Nos preocupa la cocana que llega del norte de la cordillera de los Andes. +Nos preocupa el trfico ilegal de armas. Pero tal vez, lo que ms nos preocupa es el trfico humano. +El trfico ocurre ms que todo en el mar, pero tambin en otras partes de los bienes comunes mundiales. +Esta fotografa, quisiera poder decirles que es un equipo de alta tecnologa de la marina de los Estados Unidos que usamos para detener el trfico. +La mala noticia es que en realidad es un equipo semisumergible usado por los carteles de la droga. +Se construy en las selvas de Sudamrica. +Lo atrapamos con esa balsa sencilla y cargaba seis toneladas de cocana. +La tripulacin era de cuatro personas. Tena un sistema de comunicacin sofisticado. +Esta clase de trfico de narcticos, humanos, armas, Dios no lo quiera, de armas de destruccin masiva, es parte de la amenaza a los bienes comunes mundiales. +Ahora enfoqumonos en Afganistn. +Este es un campo de amapolas en ese pas. +Entre el 80 y el 90 % de la produccin mundial de amapola, opio y herona vienen de Afganistn. +Tambin hay terrorismo all, claro est. +Es aqu donde al Qaeda tiene su centro de operaciones. +Vemos tambin una gran insurgencia enraizada all. +Esta preocupacin por el terrorismo es parte de los bienes comunes mundiales y es a lo que hay que ponerle atencin. +Nos encontramos entonces en el siglo XXI +y sabemos que las herramientas del siglo pasado no sirven. +Qu hacer? +No creo que vayamos a proveer seguridad solo con las armas. +No proveeremos seguridad solo con las armas. +Vamos a necesitar la aplicacin de la fuerza militar. +Cuando lo hagamos, hay que hacerlo bien, hay que ser competentes. +Pero mi propuesta es que la seguridad de cdigo abierto es conectar lo internacional, lo interinstitucional, lo privado-pblico por medio de esta idea de la comunicacin estratgica en internet. +Les voy a dar un par de ejemplos de cmo esto funciona de una manera positiva. +Esto es en Afganistn. Estos son soldados afganos. +Tienen libros en sus manos. +Se podra decir eso raro, creo que le que en Afganistn, los hombres y las mujeres, de veintitantos o treinta y tantos aos, son analfabetos. +Eso es cierto. +El 85 % de la poblacin no sabe leer al momento de entrar en las fuerzas de seguridad. +La razn? Porque el rgimen talibn neg la educacin durante el tiempo en que estos jvenes debieron haber aprendido a leer. +As que la pregunta es: Por qu estn ah parados con libros en mano? +La respuesta es que les estamos enseando a leer en cursos de alfabetizacin de la OTAN en asociacin con entidades del sector privado y agencias de desarrollo. +Hemos enseado a ms de 200 000 afganos de las fuerzas de seguridad a leer y escribir a un nivel bsico. +En Afganistn cuando alguien sabe leer y escribir, es costumbre cargar un bolgrafo consigo. +En la ceremonia de graduacin, estos jvenes van a llevar este bolgrafo con orgullo y lo pondrn en su bolsillo. +Esto es conectar lo internacional ms de 50 pases forman parte de este proyecto lo interinstitucional las agencias de desarrollo y lo privado-pblico, para encargarnos de esta clase de seguridad. +Obviamente, tambin les enseamos habilidades de combate, pero dira que la seguridad de cdigo abierto es conectar de maneras que produzcan un efecto de seguridad ms duradero. +He aqu otro ejemplo. +Este es un barco de guerra de la marina de los Estados Unidos. +Se llama el Confort. +Hay un barco gemelo llamado la Merced. +Son barcos hospitales. +El Confort opera en el Caribe y la costa atlntica de Amrica del Sur tratando pacientes. +En un crucero tpico, se tratan a 400 000 pacientes. +Su tripulacin no es estrictamente militar, sino proveniente de varias organizaciones humanitarias: Operation Hope, Project Smile. +Otras organizaciones tambin enviaron voluntarios. +Mdicos interinstitucionales tambin vinieron. +Todos son parte de este proyecto. +Para mostrarles el impacto que esto puede tener, les doy el ejemplo de este nio de 8 aos. Tuvo que caminar durante dos das con su madre para venir a la clnica de ojos del Comfort. +Cuando se prob las gafas nuevas, mir con sus ojos extremamente miopes y dijo, Mam, veo el mundo. +Mam, veo el mundo. +Multipliquen esto por 400 000 pacientes tratados, esta es la colaboracin entre lo privado-pblico y las fuerzas de seguridad, y vern el poder de hacer seguridad de una manera diferente. +Aqu ven jugadores de bisbol. +Pueden identificar a los dos soldados del ejrcito de los Estados Unidos en esta foto? +Muestra modelos a seguir para jvenes, hombres y mujeres, de salud y de vida, que en mi opinin, ayudan a crear seguridad para nosotros. +Otro aspecto de esta asociacin es la ayuda en situaciones de catstrofe. +Este es un helicptero de la Fuerza Area de los Estados Unidos que ayud luego del tsunami del 2004, que dej 250 000 muertos. +Estos son ejemplos de la seguridad de cdigo abierto. +Por medio de acciones como esta, se crea una conexin ms fuerte. +Ahora, se pueden preguntar, Almirante, usted debe referirse a rutas martimas de comunicacin o a cables de fibra ptica. +No. Este es un grfico del mundo segn Twitter. +En morado estn los tuiteos. En verde est la geolocalizacin. +En blanco est la sntesis. +Es una evocacin perfecta de ese gran sondeo poblacional, las seis naciones ms grandes del mundo en orden descendiente: China, India, Facebook, los Estados Unidos, Twitter e Indonesia. Por qu queremos entrar en estas redes? +Por qu queremos participar? +Hace poco hablamos de la primavera rabe, y el poder de todo esto. +Les pondr otro ejemplo. Se trata de cmo se mueve este mensaje. +Hace un tiempo, di una charla como sta en Londres acerca de esto. Dije, como les digo ahora, estoy en Facebook, adanme como amigo. +La audiencia se ri. +Haba un artculo de la AP (Associated Press) en el servicio de noticias. +Dos lugares diferentes escogieron el artculo: Finlandia e Indonesia. +El encabezado lea: Almirante de la OTAN necesita amigos. +Ahora, hablemos de algo ms serio. +En esta fotografa vemos a un valiente soldado britnico. +Forma parte de la Guardia Escocesa. +Hace guardia en Helmand, al sur de Afganistn. +Escog su foto para acordarnos, no quisiera que nadie se vaya hoy pensando que no necesitamos soldados capaces y competentes que puedan crear un efecto militar real. +Es la esencia de lo que somos y lo que hacemos, y lo hacemos para proteger la libertad, libertad de expresin, de todas las cosas que valoramos en nuestras sociedades. +Sin embargo, la vida no funciona de forma espordica. +No es necesario tener un ejrcito que est o en el campo de batalla o en el cuartel. +Dira que la vida es como un reostato; +Termino diciendo que hoy omos hablar de Wikipedia. Uso Wikipedia todo el tiempo para buscar datos, y como se pueden dar cuenta, Wikipedia no se cre por 12 genios encerrados en un cuarto escribiendo artculos. +Cada da, Wikipedia es el resultado de decenas de miles de personas que contribuyen con informacin y miles de personas que retiran esa informacin. +Es la imagen perfecta del hecho fundamental de que uno solo no es tan inteligente como todos juntos. +Ninguna persona o alianza o nacin, ninguno de nosotros es tan inteligente como cuando todos pensamos juntos. +La visin de Wikipedia es simple: un mundo en el que cada ser humano pueda compartir libremente en la suma de todo el conocimiento. +Mi propuesta es que conectando lo internacional, interinstitucional, lo privado-pblico y la comunicacin estratgica en el siglo XXI, podemos crear la suma de toda la seguridad. +Gracias. Muchas gracias. Gracias. Gracias. +Quiero empezar con una nota un poco lgubre. +En el 2007, hace 5 aos, a mi esposa le diagnostican cncer de mama, +en estado IIB. +Mirando atrs, lo ms terrible de esa experiencia no fueron solo las visitas al hospital que eran muy dolorosas para mi esposa, es comprensible. +Ni siquiera fue el impacto inicial de saber que tena cncer de mama, con solo 39 aos, y sin antecedentes de cncer en su familia. +La parte ms horrible y dolorosa de toda la experiencia fue tener que tomar decisin, tras decisin, tras decisin, algo que se nos impona. +Debera practicarse una mastectoma? Una tumorectoma? +Debera aceptar una forma ms agresiva de tratamiento, dado el estado avanzado? +Con sus efectos secundarios? +O debera recibir un tratamiento menos agresivo? +Los mdicos nos presionaban con estas cosas. +Ahora, uno podra preguntarse: por qu lo hacan? +Una respuesta simplista sera que los mdicos lo hacen para protegerse legalmente. +Creo que eso es demasiado simplista. +Estos son mdicos bien intencionados; con algunos hemos entablado una gran amistad. +Quiz se guan por la sabidura popular transmitida por generaciones, ese adagio que dice que para tomar decisiones, sobre todo decisiones importantes, es mejor hacerse cargo, tener el control, es mejor tomar las riendas. +Y claro que tomamos el toro por las astas al tomar estas decisiones, y quiero decirles +que si a alguno le ha tocado, es la experiencia ms dolorosa y desgarradora. +Me dej pensando. +Me dije: es verdad esto que dice el adagio que cuando uno toma decisiones es mejor tomar el toro por las astas, estar a cargo, tener el control? +O hay contextos en los que estamos mucho mejor si no estamos a cargo y dejamos el control a otro? +Por ejemplo, un asesor financiero de confianza, un mdico de confianza, etc. +Y como estudio la toma de decisiones me dije, voy a realizar estudios para hallar las respuestas. +Y hoy voy a compartir algunos de estos estudios. +Imaginen que todos estn participando. +Quiero decirles que su tarea en el estudio consiste en tomar una taza de t. +Si se preguntan el porqu, se los voy a decir en unos segundos. +Van a resolver una serie de acertijos y les mostrar ejemplos dentro de poco. +Cuanto ms acertijos resuelvan, ms posibilidades tendrn de ganar algo. +Pero, por qu tienen que tomar el t? +Por qu? Porque tiene mucho sentido. Para resolver estos acertijos con eficacia, si lo piensan, la mente tiene que estar en dos estados en simultneo. +S? Tiene que estar alerta, para eso es buena la cafena. +Al mismo tiempo, tiene que estar en calma. Para eso es buena la manzanilla. +El diseo de la prueba es entre sujetos; es un diseo AB, una prueba AB. +Por eso voy a asignarlos aleatoriamente a uno de dos grupos. +Piensen que aqu hay una lnea imaginaria de modo que aqu est el grupo A, y aqu el grupo B. +Gente, lo que voy a hacer es mostrarles estos dos ts y les pedir, seguir adelante y les pedir, +que elijan uno. Pueden elegir cualquiera de los dos. +Segn su estado mental, decidan: bueno, tomar el t que tiene cafena o el t de manzanilla. +As que van a estar a cargo, van a tener el control, van a tomar las riendas. +Y a Uds., les mostrar estos dos ts, pero no podrn elegir. +Les voy a dar uno de los dos; tengan en cuenta que elegir uno de los dos al azar para Uds. +Saben qu? +Si lo piensan, esta es una situacin extrema porque en el mundo real siempre que cedan el control muy a menudo tomar el control alguien en quien confen un experto, etc. Por eso esta es una situacin extrema. +Ahora todos tomarn el t. +Imaginen que ahora estn tomando el t. Esperaremos que terminen de hacerlo. +Les daremos otros 5 minutos para que surta el efecto. +Y ahora tendremos 30 minutos para resolver 15 acertijos. +Este es un ejemplo de los acertijos que van a resolver. +Alguien del pblico quiere intentarlo? +(Pblico: Pulpit) Baba Shiv: Vaya! +Bueno, muy bien. +S, lo que hicimos fue calibrar el nivel de dificultad de los acertijos de acuerdo a la experiencia de los participantes. +Porque queramos que fueran acertijos difciles. +Estos acertijos son engaosos porque por instinto uno dice tulip y luego uno tiene que corregirse. +S? Por eso fueron calibrados segn el nivel de experiencia. +Porque queremos que sean difciles y les dir el porqu en un momento. +Este es otro ejemplo. +Voluntarios? Es mucho ms difcil. +(Pblico: Embark) BS: S, muy bien. +S, este tambin es difcil. +Uno dice kambar, luego maker todo eso y luego uno se desbloquea. +Bien, entonces tienen 30 minutos para resolver 15 acertijos. +Y mostraremos, de manera sistemtica, en una serie de estudios, que quienes cedieron el control, aunque el t fue elegido al azar, terminaron resolviendo ms acertijos que quienes tenan el control. +Tambin observamos algo ms, y es que Uds. no solo resolvieron menos acertijos sino que pusieron menos de s en la tarea. Menos esfuerzo, menos persistencia, etc. +Cmo lo sabemos? +Bueno, tenemos dos mtricas objetivas. +Una es el tiempo, en promedio, que invirtieron en tratar de resolver los acertijos. +Uds. emplearn menos tiempo que Uds. +Otra, es que tienen 30 minutos para resolverlos Se toman los 30 minutos o se dan por vencidos antes de los 30 minutos? +Es ms probable que Uds. se den por vencidos antes de los 30 minutos que Uds. Le ponen menos esfuerzo, y de ah el resultado: menos acertijos resueltos. +Eso nos lleva a preguntarnos por qu ocurre esto. +Y, bajo qu situaciones, veramos este patrn de resultados en el que quien cede el control tiene mejores resultados, ms favorables, que quien tiene el control? +Todo depende de en qu momento enfrentemos lo que llamo el INCA. +Es un acrnimo que indica la naturaleza de la respuesta recibida luego de tomar la decisin. +Si lo piensan, la resolucin de este acertijo podra ocurrir al invertir en el mercado de valores, que es tan voltil, o ante una situacin mdica... la reaccin aqu es inmediata. +Uno conoce la respuesta, si ha resuelto el acertijo o no. +S? Segundo, es negativo. +Recuerden, las cartas no estn de nuestro lado. En trminos del grado de dificultad de los acertijos. +Y esto puede ocurrir en el mbito mdico. +Por ejemplo, en la primera etapa del tratamiento, hay seales negativas antes de que la cosa mejore. +S? Puede ocurrir en el mercado de valores. +En el voltil mercado de valores, hay seales negativas inmediatas. +Y la reaccin en estos casos es concreta. No es ambigua; uno sabe si ha resuelto el acertijo o no. +Ahora, el plus, adems de la inmediatez de lo negativo, de lo concreto, es el sentido de la responsabilidad. +Uno es responsable de su decisin. +Entonces, qu hacer? +Uno se centra en la opcin inevitable. +Uno dice, sabes qu? Debera haber elegido el otro t. +Esto pone en duda la decisin de uno, reduce la confianza que uno tiene en la decisin, reduce la confianza que uno tiene en el rendimiento, el rendimiento en trminos de resolucin de acertijos. +Y por ende menos esfuerzo en la tarea, menos acertijos resueltos, un resultado ms desfavorable respecto de Uds. +Y, si lo piensan, esto puede ocurrir en el mbito mdico. +S? Un paciente que toma las riendas, por ejemplo. +Menos esfuerzo, significa no estar en forma, falta de estado fsico para acelerar el proceso de recuperacin, que es lo que se suele promover. Probablemente Uds. no lo haran. +Por lo tanto, hay veces en las que enfrentamos el INCA cuando la respuesta es Inmediata, Negativa, Concreta y uno se siente Actor. En esos casos uno se siente mejor soltando las riendas, dejando que otro tome el control. +Pero empec con una nota lgubre. +Y quiero terminar con una nota ms alegre. +Hace ya cinco aos, poco ms de cinco aos, y la buena noticia, gracias a Dios, es que el cncer an est en remisin. +As que todo termina bien, +pero una cosa que no mencion es que desde el principio del tratamiento mi esposa y yo decidimos que cederamos el control. +Y eso marc una gran diferencia en trminos de la paz mental que eso acarre. Nos pudimos centrar en su recuperacin. +Dejamos que los mdicos tomaran las decisiones, que tomaran el control. +Gracias. +Bien, esto se conoce tradicionalmente como ciencia ficcin, pero ahora nos hemos trasladado a un mundo en el que esto es realmente posible. +Y la mejor manera de explicarlo es simplemente mostrndolo. +Aqu vemos a Tamara que sostiene mi telfono que ahora est enchufado. +Permtanme empezar con esto. +Aqu tenemos un retrato del gran poeta Rabbie Burns y es solo una imagen normal, pero si nos trasladamos a lo que el telfono ve, con nuestra tecnologa, podemos ver efectivamente lo que Tamara est viendo en la pantalla y cuando ella seala esta imagen, sucede algo mgico. +Voz: Una ligera vista de la colina florida... +Matt Mills: Ahora, lo grandioso de esto es que aqu no hay ningn truco. +No se ha hecho nada a esta imagen. +Y la tecnologa es genial, permite realmente que el telfono empiece a ver y a comprender de forma muy similar al funcionamiento del cerebro humano. +No solo eso, sino que a medida que muevo el objeto alrededor, lo va a seguir y a superponer perfectamente ese contenido. +Nuevamente, es increble lo avanzados que se han vuelto estos dispositivos. +Todo este proceso se hizo realmente en el mismo dispositivo. +Ahora bien, esto tiene muchas aplicaciones, ya sea en cosas como el arte en los museos, como acaban de ver, en el mundo de, digamos, la publicidad o la prensa escrita. +As que un peridico se vuelve obsoleto en cuanto se imprime. +Aqu est el peridico de esta maana y tenemos algunas noticias de Wimbledon, que es genial. +Ahora podemos apuntar hacia la primera plana del peridico y obtener de inmediato el boletn. +Voz:... Al suelo y es muy importante que te adaptes y t, t tienes que ser flexible, tienes que estar dispuesto a cambiar de direccin en una fraccin de segundo y ella hace todo eso. Ha ganado este ttulo. +MM: Y ese vnculo del contenido digital a algo que es fsico es lo que llamamos un aura, voy a usar ese trmino a medida que avanzamos en la charla. +Lo bueno de esto es que no es solo una manera ms rpida y conveniente de obtener informacin en el mundo real, sino que a veces cuando este medio permite mostrar informacin de una manera que nunca antes fue posible. +Aqu tengo un router inalmbrico. +Mis colegas estadounidenses me han dicho que tengo que llamarlo router, para que todo el mundo aqu lo entienda sin embargo, aqu est el dispositivo. +As que ahora en lugar de obtener las instrucciones para el dispositivo en lnea, simplemente puedo apuntar hacia l y el dispositivo es reconocido y entonces Voz: Conecte el cable ADSL gris para comenzar. +Luego, enchfelo. Por ltimo, conecte el cable Ethernet amarillo. +Felicitaciones. Ha completado la instalacin. +MM: Impresionante. Gracias. +El increble trabajo que hizo que esto fuese posible se hizo aqu en el Reino Unido por cientficos de Cambridge que trabajan en nuestras oficinas. Aqu tengo una hermosa fotografa de ellos. +No pudieron venir al escenario, pero vamos a traer sus auras, as que aqu estn. +Tamara, puedes venir? +(Rugido de dinosaurios) MM: Debo saltar. +(Rugido de dinosaurios) Entonces, despus de la diversin, viene la parte emotiva de lo que hacemos, porque efectivamente, esta tecnologa permite ver el mundo a travs de los ojos de alguien, y que esa persona pueda tomar un momento en el tiempo y efectivamente almacenarlo y marcarlo con algo fsico que existe en el mundo real. +Y lo mejor de esto es que las herramientas para hacerlo son gratuitas. +Estn abiertas y disponibles para todos en nuestra aplicacin, y los educadores han llevado esto a las aulas. +As, tenemos maestros que han marcado libros de texto, aulas de escuela, y un gran ejemplo de esto es una escuela en el Reino Unido. +Tengo una foto aqu de un video y ahora vamos a reproducirla. +Profesor: Vean lo que sucede. (Nios hablando) Continen. +Nio: TV. (Los nios reaccionan) Nio: Oh, Dios mo! +Maestro: Ahora mueve cualquiera de los lados. Mira lo que sucede. +Aljate y vuelve a acercarte. +Nio: Oh, es genial! +Profesor: Y entonces, lo tienes de nuevo? +Nio: Oh Dios mo! Cmo lo hace? +Segundo nio: Es magia. +MM: Sin embargo, no es magia. +Est disponible para que todos lo hagan y realmente voy a mostrarles lo fcil que es haciendo uno ahora mismo. +As, como una especie de me han dicho que se llama una ola de estadio as que empecemos desde este lado de la sala a la cuenta de tres y, pasamos aqu. +Tamara, ests grabando? +Perfecto, estn todos listos? +Uno, dos, tres. Vamos! +Audiencia: Whooooooo! +MM: Ustedes son muy buenos. Muy bien. Ahora regresemos a la aplicacin Aurasma y Tamara va a marcar el video que acabamos de grabar a mi tarjeta de identificacin, para que los recuerde siempre. +Hay mucha gente que ya est haciendo esto y hemos hablado un poco del aspecto educativo. +En el lado emocional, tenemos gente que ha hecho cosas como enviar postales y tarjetas de Navidad a su familia con pequeos mensajes en ellas. +Hay gente que, por ejemplo, ha tomado el interior del motor de un auto viejo y ha etiquetado distintos componentes del motor, as que si estn atascados y desean saber ms, puede apuntar y descubrir la informacin. +Estamos todos muy, muy familiarizados con internet. +La descarga de esta aplicacin es completamente gratuita. +Si tienen una buena conexin Wi-Fi o 3G, el proceso es muy, muy rpido. +Ah, ah estamos. Ahora podemos guardarlo. +Solo va a hacer un poco de procesamiento para convertir esa imagen que tomamos en una especie de huella digital. Si son usuarios profesionales de un peridico las herramientas son prcticamente idnticas a las que acabamos de usar en esta demostracin. +La nica diferencia es que tienen la capacidad de agregar enlaces y un poco ms de contenido. Estn listos ahora? +Tamara Roukaerts: Estamos listos. +MM: Bien, me dicen que estamos listos, lo que significa que ahora podemos apuntar hacia la imagen y all estn todos ustedes. +MM en el video: Uno, dos, tres. Vamos! +MM: Bien hecho. Esto ha sido Aurasma. Gracias. +Frugal Digital es un pequeo grupo de investigacin del CID +en el que tratamos de encontrar visiones alternativas de sociedades con inclusin digital. +Eso es lo que buscamos. +Y lo hacemos porque realmente creemos que la tecnologa del silicio es hoy, en gran medida, una cultura del exceso. +Consiste en tener el aparato ms deslumbrante, el ms rpido y eficiente que puedas encontrar, mientras alrededor de dos tercios del mundo apenas disponen de la tecnologa ms bsica para afrontar necesidades bsicas vitales como la salud, la educacin y el resto de cuestiones fundamentales similares. +Antes de empezar quiero contarles una pequea ancdota, una pequea historia sobre un hombre que conoc en Mumbai. +Este hombre, de nombre Sathi Shri, +es una persona excepcional porque es un pequeo emprendedor. +Dirige una pequea tienda en una callejuela de Mumbai. +Tiene una pequea tienda de 10 metros cuadrados en la que se est haciendo muchsimo. +Es increble; no poda creer lo que vean mis ojos cuando lo conoc por casualidad. +Bsicamente, lo que hace es brindar estos servicios de micro-pagos y reserva de entradas y todo ese tipo de cosas que uno buscara en lnea, pero l lo ofrece a personas desconectadas a las que conecta al mundo digital. +Y, lo ms importante, l gana su dinero vendiendo estas tarjetas de recarga para mviles, ya saben, para suscripciones prepagas. +Pero luego, en la parte trasera, tiene este rinconcito con algunos de sus empleados en el que reparan casi todo. +Cualquier mvil o aparato que le lleven, ellos lo reparan. +Y es bastante increble porque le llev mi iPhone y me dijo: "quieres una actualizacin?" +"S". Yo estaba un poco escptico, pero luego decid darle un Nokia en su lugar. Pero lo que me sorprendi fue esta ingeniera inversa y el conocimiento creado en esos dos metros cuadrados. +Han descubierto todo lo necesario para desmantelar, desarmar las cosas, reescribir los circuitos, reiniciar el firmware y hacer lo que se quiera con el telfono. Reparan lo que sea en un abrir y cerrar de ojos. +Uno puede llevarles un telfono mvil por la maana e ir a recogerlo despus del almuerzo. Es bastante increble. +Pero despus nos preguntamos si esto es un fenmeno local o es realmente global. +Y, con el tiempo, empezamos a entender y a investigar metdicamente en qu consiste este ecosistema de los arreglos porque es algo que est ocurriendo no solo en una esquina de Mumbai. +En realidad est ocurriendo en todas partes del pas. +Incluso est ocurriendo en frica como, por ejemplo, en Ciudad del Cabo llevamos a cabo un estudio a fondo sobre esto. +Incluso aqu en Doha encontr este pequeo lugar en el que se reparan relojes de mano y despertadores, los cuales tienen muchas piezas pequeas. No es fcil. +Tienes que intentarlo por tu cuenta para creerlo. +Pero, qu alimenta todo esto? +Es todo este ecosistema de piezas baratas y suministros producidos por todo el mundo, literalmente, que se redistribuyen para abastecer a esta industria, luego incluso se pueden comprar las piezas recuperadas. +Uno no tiene que comprar necesariamente cosas nuevas. Hay computadoras desechadas que estn arrumbadas y uno puede comprar componentes recuperados y piezas que pueden montarse de manera distinta. +Pero, qu aporta esta nueva especie de enfoque? +Esa es la verdadera cuestin, porque esto es algo que est ah, es parte de toda sociedad que carece de suficientes recursos. +Pero existe un paradigma interesante. +Estn las artesanas tradicionales y luego las artesanas tecnolgicas. +Las llamamos artesanas tecnolgicas porque son emergentes. +No son algo que est establecido. +No es algo institucionalizado. +No se ensea en las universidades. +Se ensea por el boca a boca, y hay un sistema educativo informal en torno a esto. +Nos dijimos: "Qu podemos conseguir con esto?" +Es decir, "Qu valor fundamental podemos extraer de esto?" +Lo principal es una cultura del arreglo local, que es algo estupendo porque significa que el producto o servicio de uno no tiene que pasar por un enorme sistema burocrtico para ser arreglado. +Tambin nos permite la fabricacin barata, algo fantstico, lo que significa que se puede hacer mucho ms con todo. +Y luego, lo ms importante, es que nos proporciona tecnologa a bajo costo. +Esto quiere decir que uno puede de hecho integrar algoritmos muy ingeniosos y muchas otras ideas extensibles en dispositivos muy simples. +Por eso la denominamos industria artesanal del silicio. +En esencia es el sistema o paradigma anterior a la revolucin industrial que ahora resurge de una manera totalmente nueva en pequeas tiendas digitales de todo el mundo en los pases ms desarrollados. +Le estuvimos dando vueltas a esta idea, y nos preguntamos: "Qu podemos hacer con esto? +Podemos crear un pequeo producto o servicio con esto?" +As que una de las primeras cosas que hicimos fue esta cosa llamada plataforma multimedia. La llamamos fiambrera. +Uno de los contextos que estudiamos fueron las escuelas de zonas muy remotas de la India. +Existe un concepto sorprendente denominado escuela de maestro nico que, en esencia, es un solo maestro muti-tarea que ensea en este asombroso pequeo entorno social. +Es una escuela no oficial, pero est muy centrada en la educacin holstica. +Lo nico que no tienen es acceso a los recursos. Ni siquiera disponen de un libro de texto a veces, y tampoco poseen un plan de estudios adecuado. +As que nos preguntamos: "Cmo podemos habilitar a este maestro para que pueda hacer ms? Cmo podra acceder al mundo digital?" +En lugar de ser el nico guardin de la informacin, que sea facilitador de toda esta informacin. +Nos dijimos: "Cules son los pasos necesarios para habilitar al maestro?" +"Cmo reinsertar a este maestro en el mundo digital?" y "Cmo disear una plataforma multimedia barata que pueda construirse y repararse localmente?" +Nos dimos una vuelta por ah. +Hurgamos en los mercados cercanos e intentamos entender, "Qu podemos llevarnos que nos ayude a hacer esto realidad?" +Y lo que conseguimos fue un pequeo telfono mvil con un pico proyector que sale por unos 60 dlares. +Compramos una linterna con una batera muy grande y un puado de pequeos altavoces. +Bsicamente, el telfono mvil nos proporciona una plataforma multimedia conectada. +Nos permite conectarnos, cargar archivos de diferentes formatos y reproducirlos. +La linterna aporta un LED muy intenso y brillante con seis horas de duracin de batera recargable en la fiambrera, un lindo paquetito en el que se puede poner de todo, con unos mini-altavoces para amplificar el sonido. +Cranme, esas pequeas aulas son muy ruidosas. +Hay nios que gritan a viva voz, y uno tiene que imponerse. +Y lo llevamos nuevamente a esta tienda de reparacin de mviles, y se produjo la magia. +Desmantelamos todo, lo montamos de otra manera, mezclamos componentes de hardware y formamos al personal para que pueda realizar esta tarea. +El resultado: la fiambrera es el factor forma. +Sistemticamente hicimos pruebas de campo, porque es as como aprendimos algunas lecciones importantes, y realizamos muchas iteraciones. +Uno de los temas clave fue el consumo y la carga de la batera. +La luminosidad es un problema cuando afuera hay mucho resplandor solar. +Con frecuencia los techos estn rotos as que no hay suficiente oscuridad en el aula como para hacer estas cosas. +Extendimos esta idea. La probamos muchas veces ms, y la siguiente versin fue una caja que se poda cargar lentamente con energa solar, pero, ms importante, conectar a una batera de auto porque una batera de auto es una fuente ubicua de energa en lugares donde no hay suficiente electricidad o es errtica. +Y otro aspecto clave de lo que hicimos fue ponerle a la caja un puerto USB porque nos dimos cuenta de que aunque en teora exista el GPRS y todo eso, era mucho ms eficiente enviar los datos en una llave USB por correo terrestre. +Puede demorar unos das en llegar, pero al menos llega en alta definicin y con una calidad fiable. +As que hicimos y probamos esta caja otra vez una y otra vez, e hicimos muchas iteraciones para construir estas cosas. +Pero esto no se limita slo a la educacin. +Este tipo de tcnica o de metodologa puede aplicarse en realidad a otras reas y les contar otra pequea historia. +Se trata de este dispositivo llamado 'medmetro'. +Es bsicamente una pequea herramienta mdica de chequeo que desarrollamos. +En India existe un pequeo colectivo de personas increbles, las trabajadoras de la salud ASHA. +En esencia, prestan servicios de remisin. +As que todo, desde un simple resfriado a un caso grave de malaria, recibe casi el mismo grado de atencin, y no hay prioridades. +Por eso dijimos: "Tiene que haber un mejor modo de hacer esto". +Nos preguntamos: "Qu podemos hacer con las trabajadoras ASHA para que se conviertan en un filtro interesante, no un mero filtro, uno bien pensado mediante un sistema de remisin que permita el balanceo de carga de la red y remitan pacientes a distintas fuentes de asistencia mdica en funcin de la gravedad del diagnstico?" +As que la pregunta clave fue: "Cmo dotar de poder a estas mujeres? +Cmo dotarlas de herramientas simples, no de diagnstico sino de control, para que al menos puedan aconsejar mejor a los pacientes? +Por eso si hubiera algo que las trabajadoras pudieran hacer, sera increble. +As que lo que hicimos fue convertir este dispositivo en un aparato mdico. +Quiero hacer una demostracin, de hecho, porque se trata de un proceso muy simple. +Bruno, te gustara colaborar? Ven. Lo que vamos a hacer es medir unos parmetros bsicos como el pulso y la cantidad de oxgeno en sangre. +Vamos a poner tu pulgar aqu arriba. +Bruno Giussani: As est bien? +Vinay Venkatraman: S. Correcto. BG: De acuerdo. +VV: Lo pondr en marcha. Espero que funcione. +Emite un pitido y todo, porque es un despertador, al fin y al cabo. +As que... Lo pongo en la posicin inicial y luego presiono el botn de lectura. Est haciendo mediciones. Luego la aguja apunta a tres opciones distintas. +Veamos que ocurre aqu. +Oh, Bruno, puedes irte a casa, de hecho. +BG: Genial. Buenas noticias. VV: As que... El caso es que si la aguja, por desgracia, hubiera sealado la franja roja habramos tenido que correr al hospital. +Por suerte no fue as. Y si hubiera sealado la naranja, o mbar, significara que tendras que recibir un control ms concienzudo por parte del trabajador del centro de salud. +Este ha sido un proceso en tres pasos muy simple que podra cambiar la ecuacin del funcionamiento del sistema sanitario en varios aspectos. +BG: Gracias por las buenas noticias. VV: S. +VV: Muy brevemente, voy a explicarles cmo se hace esto, porque es la parte ms interesante. +Esto es un micro-controlador con algunos componentes adicionales con costes de envo muy bajos a todo el mundo, y eso es todo lo que hace falta -ms una pizca de talento local para su mantenimiento- para convertir el aparato en algo distinto. +En este momento estamos haciendo algunas pruebas de campo para determinar si algo como esto puede en realidad servir a las trabajadoras ASHA. +Eso es todo, y esperamos poder hacerlo a gran escala. +Gracias. +La mquina de la que voy a hablar es lo que llamo la mejor mquina que nunca existi. +Es una mquina que nunca se construy, y sin embargo, ser construida. +Fue diseada mucho antes de que alguien pensara en computadores. +Si conocen un poco la historia de los ordenadores, sabrn que en los aos 30 y 40, se crearon los computadores simples que iniciaron la revolucin informtica que hoy tenemos, y sera correcto, excepto que tendran el siglo equivocado. +El primer computador se dise realmente en la dcada de 1830 a 1840, no en la de 1930 a 1940. +Se dise, y partes del mismo fueron un prototipo, y los bits se construyeron aqu en South Kensington. +Esa mquina fue construida por Charles Babbage. +Realmente extrao esa era, ya saben, en la que se poda ir a una velada para ver la demostracin de un computador mecnico. Pero Babbage, Babbage mismo naci a finales del siglo XVIII y fue un matemtico bastante famoso. +Ocup el puesto que Newton tena en Cambridge y que Stephen Hawking ocup recientemente. +Es menos conocido que cualquiera de ellos porque tuvo esta idea para hacer dispositivos mecnicos de computacin, y nunca hizo ningn de ellos. +La razn por la que nunca los hizo es que era un nerd clsico. +Cada vez que tena una buena idea, l pensara: Esto es genial, voy a empezar a construir uno. +Le dedicar una fortuna. Tengo una idea mejor. +Voy a trabajar en este otro. Y voy a construir este. +Cada uno de estos crculos es un engranaje, una pila de ruedas dentadas, y es tan grande como una locomotora de vapor. +Mientras les hablo, quiero que imaginen esta mquina gigantesca. Escuchamos esos sonidos maravillosos que debe haber hecho. +Y voy a llevarlos a travs de la arquitectura de la mquina por ello, es arquitectura de computadores y hablarles acerca de esta mquina, que es un computador. +Hablemos de la memoria. Es muy similar a la memoria de un computador actual, excepto que todo estaba hecho de metal, pilas y pilas de ruedas dentadas, 30 de estas unas sobre otras. +Imaginemos algo as de alto de ruedas dentadas, cientos y cientos de ellas, y estn numeradas. +Es una mquina decimal. Todo est hecho en sistema decimal. +Pens en usar el sistema binario, pero el problema era que la mquina hubiese sido tan alta, hubiese sido una exageracin. Tal como est, ya es enorme. +Por lo tanto, tiene memoria. +La memoria es este bit aqu. +Se puede ver todo as. +Esta enormidad aqu es el CPU, el chip, si lo desean. +Por supuesto, es as de grande. +Totalmente mecnico. Toda la mquina es mecnica. +Esta es una foto de un prototipo para una parte del CPU que est en el Museo de Ciencias. +El CPU poda hacer las cuatro operaciones fundamentales de la aritmtica suma, resta, multiplicacin y divisin que ya es casi una hazaa en metal, pero tambin poda hacer algo que hace un ordenador, y una calculadora no: esta mquina poda usar su propia memoria interna y tomar decisiones. +Poda hacer los si entonces para programadores bsicos, y eso fundamentalmente hace que sea un ordenador. +Poda procesar informacin, no solo calcular. Poda hacer ms. +Ahora bien, si nos fijamos en esto y nos detenemos un instante, y pensamos en los chips de hoy; no podemos ver el interior de un chip. Es muy pequeo. +Y si lo hicisemos, se podra ver algo muy, muy similar a esto. +Hay esta complejidad increble en el CPU, y esta increble regularidad en la memoria. +Si alguna vez han visto una imagen de microscopio electrnico, vern esto. Todo esto se ve igual, entonces hay este bit aqu que es increblemente complicado. +Y no hay solo uno de estos, hay muchos ms. +Prepar programas previendo que esto iba a suceder. +Babbage, por supuesto, quera utilizar tecnologa de probada eficacia como el vapor y otras. +Necesitaba accesorios. +Ya tena el computador, +las tarjetas perforadas, el CPU y la memoria. +Necesitaba accesorios para complementarlos. +Detengmonos por un momento, imaginemos todos esos ruidos, ese clic, clac clic clic clic, mquina de vapor, Ding, correcto? Obviamente, tambin se necesita una impresora, como todo el mundo. +Aqu hay una imagen del mecanismo de impresin para otra de sus mquinas, llamada la Mquina diferencial N 2, que l nunca construy, pero que el Museo de Ciencias s construy en los aos 80 y 90. +Es completamente mecnico, nuevamente, una impresora. +Imprime solo nmeros, porque l estaba obsesionado con los nmeros, pero imprime en papel e incluso hace ajustes de texto, as que si llega al final de la lnea, se regresa as. +Tambin se necesitan grficos, correcto? +Si se va a hacer algo con grficos, l dijo, bueno, necesito un plotter. Tengo una hoja grande de papel y una pluma de tinta y voy hacer que imprima. +As que dise un plotter as, y, a estas alturas, creo que prcticamente logr una mquina bastante buena. +Luego vino esta mujer, Ada Lovelace. +Ahora, imaginen esas veladas, todos estos grandes juntos. +Esta seora es la hija del loco, malo y peligroso de conocer Lord Byron. Su madre, preocupada de que ella pudiese haber heredado algo de la locura y la maldad de Lord Byron, pens: S la solucin: las matemticas son la solucin. +Le ensearemos matemticas. Eso la calmar. +Porque por supuesto, nunca ha habido un matemtico loco, as que, ya saben, eso estara bien. Todo estara bien. As que ella recibi esta formacin en matemticas, y fue a una de estas veladas con su madre, y Charles Babbage sac su mquina. +El Duque de Wellington est all, sac la mquina, tambin demostr cmo funcionaba, y ella la entendi. Fue la nica persona en su vida, realmente, que dijo: Yo entiendo lo que esto hace, y entiendo el futuro de esta mquina. +Y le debemos muchsimo porque gracias a ella sabemos bastante de la mquina que Babbage tena la intencin de construir. +Algunas personas la llaman la primera programadora. +Esto es de uno de el documento que ella tradujo. +Se trata de un programa escrito en un estilo particular. +No es, histricamente, tan exacto decir que ella fue la primera programadora, en realidad, ella hizo algo ms sorprendente. +En lugar de ser simplemente una programadora, vio algo que Babbage no vio. +Babbage estaba totalmente obsesionado con las matemticas. +l estaba construyendo una mquina para hacer matemticas, Lovelace dijo: Usted podra hacer ms que matemticas con esta mquina. Y tal como todos ustedes en esta sala tienen un computador en este momento, porque tienen un telfono. +Si ven ese telfono, cada cosa en ese telfono o computador o cualquier otro dispositivo informtico es matemticas. Todo es bsicamente nmeros. +Ya sea video, texto, msica o voz, todos son nmeros, eso es todo, nmeros subyacentes, funciones matemticas operando, Lovelace dijo: Solo porque est haciendo smbolos y funciones matemticas no significa que estas funciones no puedan representar otras cosas en el mundo real, tales como la msica. +Esto fue un salto enorme, porque Babbage deca: Podramos calcular estas funciones increbles e imprimir tablas de nmeros y grficos y Lovelace estaba all y dijo: Mire, esto incluso podra componer msica si usted ingresa una representacin de msica numricamente. +Esto es lo que yo llamo el salto de Lovelace. +Cuando se dice que ella fue una programadora, tambin es cierto, pero lo ms importante fue haberle dicho que el futuro iba a ser mucho, mucho ms que eso. +Ahora, cien aos despus, llega este chico, Alan Turing, y en 1936 inventa el computador nuevamente. +Por supuesto, la mquina de Babbage era totalmente mecnica. +La mquina de Turing era totalmente terica. +Ambos venan desde una perspectiva matemtica, pero Turing nos dijo algo muy importante. +Sent las bases de las matemticas para las ciencias de la computacin y dijo: La manera de hacer un computador no es lo importante. +No importa si el computador es mecnico, como era el de Babbage, o electrnico, como son los computadores de hoy, o quizs en el futuro, de clulas, o, una vez ms, mecnico, una vez que entramos en la nanotecnologa. +Podramos volver a la mquina de Babbage y simplemente hacerla diminuta. Todas esas cosas son computadores. +Existe en un sentido, una esencia de computacin. +Esto se llama la tesis de ChurchTuring. +Y as, de repente, hacemos la asociacin y decimos que esto que Babbage construy fue realmente un computador. +De hecho, fue capaz de hacer todo lo que hacemos hoy con los computadores, solo que muy lentamente. Para darles una idea de su lentitud, tena aproximadamente 1k de memoria. +Utilizaba tarjetas perforadas, que haba que ingresar manualmente, y era aproximadamente 10 000 veces ms lento que la primera ZX81. +Tena un mdulo de memoria RAM. +Se le poda agregar ms cantidad adicional de memoria si se deseaba. +Y a qu nos lleva esto hoy? +Hay planes. +En Swindon, en los archivos del Museo de Ciencias, hay cientos de planos y miles de pginas de notas escritas por Charles Babbage acerca de esta mquina analtica. +Entre ellos, hay un conjunto de planos que llamamos Plan 28, y ese tambin es el nombre de una organizacin benfica que empec con Doron Swade, que era el responsable de contenidos de computacin en el Museo de Ciencias y tambin la persona que llev el proyecto para construir la mquina diferencial, y nuestro plan es construirla. +Aqu en South Kensington, vamos a construir la mquina analtica. +El proyecto tiene un nmero de piezas. +Una de ellas es el escaneo del archivo de Babbage. +Que ya se ha hecho. La segunda es ahora el estudio de todos esos planes para determinar qu construir. +La tercera parte es una simulacin por ordenador de la mquina, y la ltima parte es construirla fsicamente en el Museo de Ciencias. +El mismo Babbage escribi, dijo, tan pronto como exista la mquina analtica, seguramente guiar el curso futuro de la ciencia. +Por supuesto, l nunca la construy porque siempre estaba ocupado con nuevos planes, pero cuando finalmente se construy, en la dcada de 1940, todo cambi. +Ahora, solo les dar una pequea muestra de la mquina en movimiento con un vdeo que revela solo una parte del mecanismo del CPU en funcionamiento. +As hay solo tres juegos de ruedas dentadas, y se van a agregar ms. Este es el mecanismo de la suma en accin, por lo que se imaginarn una mquina gigantesca. +Entonces, denme cinco aos. +La tendremos antes del 2030, +Muchas gracias. +Como arquitecto, a menudo me pregunto, cul es el origen de las formas que diseamos? +Qu tipo de formas podramos disear si dejramos de trabajar con referencias? +Si no tuviramos preferencias ni ideas preconcebidas, qu tipo de formas podramos disear si pudisemos dejar a un lado nuestra experiencia, +si pudisemos liberarnos de nuestra educacin? +Qu aspecto tendran estas formas nunca vistas? +Nos sorprenderan? Nos fascinaran? +Nos deleitaran? +En ese caso, cmo podemos abordar la creacin de algo que es realmente nuevo? +Propongo que nos fijemos en la naturaleza. +A la naturaleza se le denomina la mejor arquitecta de formas. +No estoy diciendo que debamos copiarla o imitar a la biologa, sino que adoptemos los procesos de la naturaleza. +Podemos abstraerlos y crear algo nuevo. +El principal proceso de creacin en la naturaleza, la morfognesis, divide una clula en dos clulas. +Y estas clulas pueden ser idnticas, o diferentes entre s a travs de la divisin celular asimtrica. +Abstrayendo este proceso y simplificndolo todo lo posible, podramos empezar con una sola hoja de papel, una nica superficie, y podramos doblarla dividiendo la superficie en dos superficies. +Podemos doblarla por donde queramos. +Y de esta forma, podemos distinguir las superficies. +A travs de este simplsimo proceso, podemos crear una increble variedad de formas. +Bien, podemos tomar esta forma y usar el mismo proceso para generar estructuras en 3D, pero en vez de doblarlas a mano, trasladaremos la estructura a un computador, y la codificaremos en un algoritmo. +Y hacindolo, podemos doblar cualquier cosa. +Podemos hacerlo un milln de veces ms rpido, y emplear cientos y cientos de variantes. +Y puesto que buscamos crear algo en 3D, no empezaremos con una nica superficie, sino con un slido. +Uno sencillo, el cubo. +Si tomamos sus superficies y las doblamos una y otra y otra vez, despus de 16 iteraciones, 16 pasos, obtendremos 400 000 superficies y una figura con, por ejemplo, este aspecto. +Y si lo doblamos por otro sitio, si cambiamos la proporcin de los pliegues, entonces este cubo se convierte en este otro. +Podemos cambiar la proporcin de nuevo y obtener esta figura, o esta otra. +Ejercemos control sobre la forma al especificar el punto donde lo doblamos, pero bsicamente lo que ven es un cubo plegado. +Y podemos jugar con esto. +Podemos aplicar diferentes proporciones a diferentes partes de la forma para crear condiciones especficas. +Podemos empezar a esculpir la forma. +Y puesto que hacemos los pliegues en el ordenador, no tenemos absolutamente ningn lmite fsico. +Lo que significa que las superficies pueden entrecruzarse, y llegar a ser increblemente pequeas. +Podemos hacer pliegues que de otra forma no podramos. +Las superficies pueden hacerse porosas. +Pueden estirarse. Pueden rasgarse. +Y todo esto explica la variedad de formas que podemos producir. +Pero en ninguno de estos casos dise la forma. +Dise el proceso que generaba la forma. +En general, si realizamos un pequeo cambio en la proporcin de los pliegues, que es lo que estn viendo, la forma cambia en consecuencia. +Pero eso es solo una parte de la historia, el 99,9 % de las proporciones no producen esto, sino esto, el equivalente geomtrico del ruido. +Las formas que mostr antes se lograron a travs de un largo proceso de ensayo y error. +Una manera mucho ms efectiva de crear formas que he encontrado es usar la informacin ya contenida en las formas. +Una forma muy sencilla como sta contiene mucha informacin que puede ser invisible al ojo humano. +Por ejemplo, podemos determinar la longitud de los bordes. +Las superficies blancas tienen bordes largos, las negras, cortos. +Podemos determinar la planitud de las superficies, su curvatura, lo radiales que son; toda la informacin que quizs no sea visible de inmediato, pero que podemos extraer, definir y usar para controlar los pliegues. +As que ahora no especifico una nica proporcin para doblarla, sino que establezco una regla, un enlace entre una propiedad de una superficie y cmo sta se dobla. +Y puesto que he diseado el proceso y no la forma, puedo ejecutar el proceso una y otra vez para producir toda una familia de formas. +Estas formas parecen elaboradas, pero el proceso es muy simple. +Se hace un simple ingreso de datos, siempre empiezo con un cubo, y es una operacin muy simple: hacer un pliegue, y hacerlo una y otra vez. +Llevemos este proceso a la arquitectura. +Cmo? Y a qu escala? +Eleg disear una columna. +Las columnas son arquetipos arquitectnicos. +Se han usado a lo largo de la historia para expresar ideales de belleza y de tecnologa. +Todo un reto para m era cmo podramos expresar este nuevo orden algortmico en una columna. +Empec usando 4 cilindros. +Despus de mucha experimentacin, estos cilindros acabaron evolucionando as. +Estas columnas contienen informacin a muchsimas escalas. +Podemos empezar a acercarnos a ellas. +Cuanto ms nos acercamos, ms detalles nuevos descubrimos. +Algunas formaciones se hallan en el lmite de la visibilidad humana. +Y al contrario que la arquitectura tradicional, es un nico proceso el que crea tanto la forma global como el detalle microscpico de la superficie. +Estas formas son imposibles de dibujar. +Un arquitecto que las dibujara en papel y lpiz tardara meses probablemente, o incluso un ao si dibujara todas las secciones, todas las elevaciones; solo se puede crear algo as a travs de un algoritmo. +Quizs una pregunta ms interesante sera: Son imaginables estas formas? +Generalmente, un arquitecto puede visualizar el resultado final de lo que est diseando. +En este caso, el proceso es determinista. +No existe aleatoriedad alguna, pero no es completamente predecible. +Hay tantas superficies y tantos detalles, que no podemos ver el resultado final. +Esto nos lleva a un nuevo rol del arquitecto. +Necesitamos un nuevo mtodo para explorar todas las posibilidades que existen. +En primer lugar, podemos disear gran variedad de formas, en paralelo, y podemos ir desarrollndolas. +Y volviendo a la analoga con la naturaleza, podemos empezar a pensar en trminos de poblaciones, podemos hablar de permutaciones, de generaciones, de cruzamientos y reproducciones para lograr un diseo. +Y el arquitecto pasa a ser el orquestador de todos estos procesos. +Pero basta de teora. +En un momento dado, simplemente quera saltar dentro de la imagen, por as decirlo; compr estas gafas 3D rojas y azules, me acerqu bastante a la pantalla, pero segua sin ser lo mismo que poder andar por ah y tocar cosas. +As pues, slo haba una posibilidad: sacar la columna del computador. +Se ha hablado mucho ahora de la impresin en 3D. +Para m, o para mi propsito en este momento, no compensa todava elegir entre escala, por un lado, y resolucin y velocidad por el otro. +En su lugar, decidimos tomar la columna y construirla como un modelo con capas, compuesto de una gran cantidad de finas lminas, apiladas unas sobre otras. +Lo que estn viendo aqu es una radiografa de la columna que acaban de ver, vista desde arriba. +Por entonces ignoraba, puesto que slo habamos visto el exterior, que las superficies continuaban doblndose, creciendo dentro de la columna, lo cual fue un descubrimiento sorprendente. +Partiendo de esta forma, calculamos una lnea de corte, y la enviamos a una cortadora lser para producir y aqu pueden ver un segmento numerosas finas lminas, cortadas individualmente, una encima de otra. +Y esto ahora es una foto, no una renderizacin, y despus de mucho trabajo, la columna resultante gozaba de un sorprendente parecido a la que habamos diseado con el computador. +Casi todos los detalles y complejidades de las superficies se preservaban. +Pero requera mucha mano de obra. +Existe hoy en da todava una gran divergencia entre lo virtual y lo material. +Me llev varios meses disear la columna, pero el computador tarda alrededor de 30 segundos en calcular las 16 millones de caras. +El modelo fsico, por otro lado, tiene 2700 capas de un milmetro de grosor, pesa 700 kilos, est hecho de lminas de metal que podran cubrir todo este auditorio. +Y el trayecto recorrido por el lser al cortar va de aqu al aeropuerto y viceversa. +Pero cada vez resulta ms viable. +Las mquinas son cada vez ms rpidas, es cada vez menos caro, y vislumbramos algunos avances tecnolgicos prometedores en el horizonte. +Estas imgenes son del Gwangju Biennale. +En este caso, us plstico ABS para construir las columnas, usamos una mquina ms grande y rpida, y tienen un ncleo de acero dentro, as que son estructurales, y ahora pueden soportar peso. +Cada columna es realmente un hbrido de 2 columnas. +Pueden ver una columna diferente en el espejo, si hay un espejo detrs de la columna, lo que crea una especie de ilusin ptica. +A dnde nos lleva esto? +Creo que este proyecto ofrece una visin de los objetos nunca vistos que estn por llegar si, como arquitectos, empezamos a pensar en no disear el objeto, sino en un proceso para generar objetos. +He mostrado un simple proceso inspirado en la naturaleza; hay innumerables. +En resumen, no tenemos lmites. +En cambio, tenemos procesos en nuestro poder ahora mismo que nos permiten crear estructuras a todas las escalas que ni siquiera podramos haber imaginado. +Y que, si me permiten aadir, algn da construiremos. +Gracias. +Voy a hablares de una afliccin de la que sufro. +Tengo la extraa sensacin de que muchos de ustedes sufren de lo mismo. +Cuando recorro una galera de arte con salas y salas llenas de pinturas, luego de 15 o 20 minutos, me doy cuenta de que no estoy pensando en las pinturas. +No estoy conectada con ellas. +Ms bien, estoy pensando en esa taza de caf que necesito desesperadamente para despejarme. +Sufro de fatiga de las galeras. +Cuntos de ustedes sufren de lo mismo? S. Ah, ah, ah! +A veces puede durar ms de 20 minutos, otras incluso menos, pero creo que todos la sufrimos. Y sienten la culpa que la acompaa? +En mi caso, veo las pinturas expuestas y pienso, alguien decidi ponerlas ah, cree que son lo suficientemente buenas para estar ah, pero no siempre concuerdo. +De hecho, casi nunca concuerdo. +Y salgo sintindome infeliz. +Me siento culpable e infeliz conmigo misma, ms que pensar que hay algo malo en las pinturas, creo que hay algo malo en m. +Y no es una experiencia agradable salir as de una galera. +Creo que debemos darnos un respiro. +Si piensas en ir a un restaurante, cuando miras el men, esperas pedir cada cosa que hay en el men? +No! Elijes. +Si vas a una tienda por departamentos a comprar una camisa, te vas a probar cada una y vas a quererlas todas? +Claro que no, sers selectivo. Es lo esperado. +Cmo es, entonces, que no se espera que seas selectivo cuando vas a una galera de arte? +Por qu se supone que tenemos que tener una conexin con cada una de las pinturas? +Bien, trato de adoptar un enfoque diferente. +Y hay dos cosas que hago: Cuando voy a una galera, primero que todo, camino muy rpidamente y lo miro todo, e identifico las obras que me detienen por una u otra razn. +Ni siquiera s por qu me detienen, pero algo me atrae como un imn e ignoro todas las dems y voy solo a esa pintura. +Es lo primero que hago, soy mi propia curadora. +Escojo una pintura. Puede ser solo una entre 50. +Y la segunda cosa que hago es pararme en frente a esa pintura y contarme una historia sobre ella. +Qu historia? Bueno, creo que estamos conectados, nuestro ADN nos dice que contemos historias. +Contamos historias constantemente acerca de todo, y pienso que lo hacemos porque el mundo es una especie de lugar loco, confuso, y tratamos de darle un poquito de sentido al mundo, y a veces las historias tratan de ponerle algn orden. +Por qu no hacer igual al mirar pinturas? +As que ahora tengo esta especie de men de restaurante al visitar galeras de arte. +Hay tres pinturas que voy a mostrarles que son pinturas que me hicieron parar en seco y quiero contarles sus historias. +La primera necesita una pequea introduccin, La joven de la perla de Johannes Vermeer, pintor holands del siglo XVII. +Esta es la pintura ms maravillosa. +La vi por primera vez cuando tena 19 aos, e inmediatamente sal a conseguir el afiche, que de hecho conservo. Lleva 30 aos colgado en mi casa. +Me acompaa donde quiera que voy, no me canso de mirarla. +Desde el principio me atrajeron sus colores magnficos y la luz que cae sobre su rostro. +Pero creo que lo que hace que vuelva a ella ao tras ao es otra cosa, es la expresin de su rostro, su mirada conflictiva. +No s decir si est feliz o triste, y cambio de idea constantemente, +lo que mantiene mi inters. +Un da, 16 aos despus de tener el afiche en mi pared, recostada en mi cama, mirndola, repentinamente me pregunt qu le hizo el pintor para que ella mirara as? +Fue la primera vez que pens que la expresin de su rostro reflejaba lo que ella realmente senta por l. +Siempre pens que era el retrato de una nia; +ahora creo que es el retrato de una relacin. +Y pienso, bien, de qu relacin? +As que sal a encontrarla. Hice alguna investigacin y descubr que no tenemos ni idea de quin es. +De hecho, no sabemos de ninguna de las modelos de las pinturas de Vermeer, y sabemos muy poco del propio Vermeer. +Lo que me hizo decir Hurra! +Puedo hacer lo que quiera, puedo crear cualquier historia que quiera. +He aqu como llegu a la historia. +Primero, pens: tengo que llevarla a la casa. +Cmo pudo conocerla Vermeer? +Bueno, ha habido sugerencias de que es su hija de 12 aos. +Su hija tena 12 aos cuando pint el cuadro. +Y pens, no, es una mirada muy ntima, pero no es la mirada de una hija a su padre; +por un detalle: en la pintura holandesa de su tiempo, si la boca de la mujer estaba abierta, indicaba disponibilidad sexual. +Hubiera sido inapropiado para Vermeer pintar a su hija as. +De manera que no es su hija, pero s alguien cercana, fsicamente cercana a l. +Bien, quin ms podra estar en su casa? +Una criada, una preciosa criada. +Bien, ella ya est en la casa. +Cmo la llevamos al estudio? +No sabemos mayor cosa de Vermeer, pero de las pocas cosas que sabemos, una es que estaba casado con una mujer catlica, que vivan con la madre de ella en una casa donde tena su propio cuarto donde l... su estudio. Tambin que tena 11 hijos. +Deba haber sido una casa desordenada, ruidosa. +Y si han visto pinturas de Vermeer antes, sabrn que son increblemente apacibles y serenas. +Cmo hara un pintor para pintar as con 11 nios alrededor? +Bueno, fraccionando su vida. +Entrara a su estudio y dira: Que nadie venga. +Ni mi esposa ni mis hijos. Bueno, la criada puede venir y limpiar. +Ya est ella en el estudio. La llev al estudio, estn juntos. +Y l decide pintarla. +Ella lleva vestidos muy sencillos. +Todas las mujeres, o la mayora de ellas en las otras pinturas de Vermeer usaban terciopelo, seda, pieles, materiales muy finos. +Aqu todo es muy sencillo; la nica cosa que no lo es es su arete de perla. +Ahora bien, si es una criada, no hay forma de que pudiera comprarse unos pendientes de perlas. +As que no son suyos. De quin sern? +Hemos llegado a saber que hay una lista de la ropa de Catharina, su esposa. +Entre otras cosas un abrigo amarillo con pelaje blanco, un corpio amarillo y negro, y estas prendas pueden verse en muchas de sus otras pinturas de distintas mujeres. +As que claramente prestaron sus vestidos a diferentes mujeres. +No es muy arriesgado pensar que esa perla era en realidad de su esposa. +As que tenemos los elementos de la historia. +Ella pasa mucho tiempo con l en su estudio. +Toma mucho tiempo hacer estas pinturas. +Tuvieron que estar a solas, todo ese tiempo. +Ella usaba los aretes de perlas de la esposa. +Es preciosa. Ella obviamente lo amaba y tena un conflicto. +Lo sabra la esposa? Quiz no. +Y si no lo saba, bueno... esa es la historia. +La siguiente pintura de la que voy a hablarles se llama Castillo de naipes de Chardin, +pintor francs del siglo XVIII, conocido mayormente por sus bodegones, pero que ocasionalmente pint personas. +De hecho, pint cuatro versiones de esta pintura, diferentes nios construyendo castillos de naipes, todos muy concentrados. +Esta es la que ms me gusta debido a que unos nios son mayores y otros menores, y para m, este, como la sopa de Ricitos de oro, es justo el perfecto. +No es ni tan nio ni tan hombre. +Tiene el balance perfecto entre la inocencia y la experiencia, y esto me hizo detenerme frente a esta pintura. +Mir su cara. Es casi como un Vermeer; +la luz viene de la izquierda, y su cara est baada de esta luz brillante. Est justo en el centro del cuadro, y lo miras, y lo descubr que cuando lo estaba mirando, estaba parada all pidiendo, Mrame. Por favor, mrame. +Y no lo hace. Sigue mirando sus cartas, y ese es uno de los elementos seductores de esta pintura, que l est concentrado en lo que hace y no nos mira. +Y este es, para m, el signo de una obra maestra de la pintura, cuando no hay resolucin. +l nunca va a mirarme. +As que tengo que pensar en una historia, y si estoy en esta posicin, qu podra estar mirando? +No el pintor, no quiero pensar acerca del pintor. +Pienso en un una versin de l mayor. +Es un hombre, un criado, un viejo criado mirando a este criado joven, diciendo: Mrame. Quiero advertirte sobre lo que te va a pasar. Mrame por favor. +Y l nunca lo hace. +Y esta es la falta de resolucin, como en La joven de la perla, que no sabemos si est feliz o triste. +He escrito toda una novela sobre ella, y an no s si es feliz o triste. +Una y otra vez, vuelvo a la pintura, buscando respuestas, buscando la historia que llene el vaco. +Y podemos hacer una historia que nos satisfaga transitoriamente, pero no realmente, y volvemos una y otra vez. +La ltima pintura de la que voy a hablar se llama Annima de Annimo. Es un retrato Tudor comprado por la National Portrait Gallery. +Pensaban que era un hombre llamado Sir Thomas Overbury pero descubrieron que no era l y no tienen ni idea de quin es. +En la National Portrait Gallery, si no saben la biografa de la pintura, esta es como algo intil. +No la cuelgan, porque no saben quin es l. +As que desafortunadamente, este hurfano pasa la mayor parte del tiempo en el depsito, junto con otros muchos hurfanos, algunos muy hermosos. +Este cuadro me hizo parar en seco por tres razones: Una, la desconexin entre su boca que sonre, y sus ojos nostlgicos. +No est feliz, y por qu? +Lo segundo que me atrajo fue el rojo de sus brillantes mejillas. +Est sonrojado. Est sonrojado por el retrato que le estn haciendo! +Tena que ser alguien que se sonrojaba todo el tiempo. +Qu estara pensando para sonrojarse as? +Lo tercero que me hizo parar en seco es su absolutamente maravilloso jubn. +Seda, gris, esos bellos botones. +Y saben en lo que me hace pensar, que est como ceido y acolchado; es como un edredn sobre una cama. +Segu pensando en camas y mejillas rojas, y por supuesto segu pensando en sexo cuando lo miraba, y pens, es en lo que est pensando? +Y pens, si voy a hacer una historia, qu es lo ltimo que voy a poner ah? +Bien, qu le preocupara a un caballero Tudor? +Y pens, bueno, Enrique VIII, est bien. +Estara preocupado por su sucesin, por su heredero. +Quin va a heredar su nombre y su fortuna? +Juntas todo y ya tienes tu historia para llenar ese vaco que te hace regresar. +He aqu la historia. +Es corta. +Rosy [rosado]. Todava llevo el jubn de brocado blanco que Caroline me dio. +Tiene un cuello alto llano, mangas desmontables y botones intrincados de hilo trenzado de seda, puestos uno junto a otro para que quede ajustado. +El jubn me hace pensar en un edredn sobre una gran cama. +Tal vez esa era la intencin. +Lo estren para una exquisita cena en nuestro honor en casa de sus padres. +Saba, incluso antes de pararme a hablar, que mis mejillas estaban coloradas. +Siempre me sonrojo con facilidad, con ejercicio fsico, con vino, cuando me emociono. +De nio me molestaban mis hermanas y mis compaeros, pero no George. +Solo George poda llamarme Rosy [rosado]. +No lo permitira de nadie ms. +l lograba hacerlo sonar tierno. +Cuando hice el anuncio, George no se sonroj, sino que se puso plido como mi jubn. +No debera haberse sorprendido. +Era algo sabido, que un da me casara con su prima. +Pero es difcil escuchar las palabras en voz alta. +Lo s, apenas pude pronunciarlas. +Despus, me encontr con George en la terraza que da al jardn de la cocina. +A pesar de haber bebido toda la tarde, l estaba todava plido. +Estuvimos juntos y miramos las criadas cortar lechugas. +Qu piensas de mi jubn?, le pregunt. +Me mir. Parece que ese cuello te est estrangulando. +Todava seguiremos vindonos, insist. +Todava podemos cazar y jugar cartas e ir a la corte. +Nada tiene que cambiar. +George callaba. +Tengo 23 aos. Es momento de casarme y tener un heredero. Eso se espera de m. +George apur otra copa de vino tinto y me mir. +Felicitaciones por tu futuro matrimonio, James. +Estoy seguro de que sern felices juntos. +Nunca volvi a usar mi apodo. +Gracias. +Gracias. +Este hombre lleva lo que llamamos una barba de abejas. Una barba llena de abejas. +Esto puede ser lo que muchos de ustedes se imaginan cuando piensan en las abejas, los insectos o tal vez todo aquello que tiene ms de dos patas. +Y permtanme empezar por decirles que los comprendo. +Los entiendo. Pero, hay muchas cosas que deben saber, y quiero que abran sus mentes, que las mantengan abiertas y cambien su perspectiva acerca de las abejas. +Observen que a este hombre las abejas no lo pican . +Probablemente tiene una abeja reina atada a su mentn, que atrae a las otras abejas. +Esto realmente demuestra nuestra relacin con las abejas que se remonta a miles de aos atrs. +Hemos coevolucionado, ya que dependemos de las abejas para la polinizacin y, ms recientemente, como un bien econmico. +Muchos de ustedes han odo que las abejas melferas estn desapareciendo, no solo mueren, sino que estn desapareciendo. +Ni siquiera encontramos cadveres. +Esto se conoce como el sndrome de colapso de la colonia y es extrao. Los investigadores de todo el mundo todava no saben qu lo causa, pero lo que s sabemos es que, con la disminucin del nmero de abejas, los costos de 130 cultivos de frutas y hortalizas de los que dependemos para alimentarnos, estn subiendo de precio. +As que las abejas tienen una funcin importante tanto en la economa como en la agricultura. +Aqu vemos algunas fotos de lo que se denomina techos verdes o agricultura urbana. +Estamos familiarizados con la imagen de la izquierda que muestra un jardn de un vecindario local (el South End, en Boston) . +Es lo que llamo hogar. Tengo una colmena en el patio trasero +y tal vez tenga un techo verde en el futuro, cuando usemos ms las zonas urbanas donde hay muchos espacios de jardines. +Vean esta imagen por encima de la lnea naranja del metro de Boston. +Intenten detectar la colmena. Est all, +en el techo, justo en la esquina y ha estado all durante un par de aos. +La forma en que opera actualmente la apicultura urbana es que las colmenas estn ocultas, y no es porque tienen que estarlo. +Es solo porque la gente se incomoda con la idea y es por eso que hoy quiero que traten de pensar en esto, piensen en los beneficios de las abejas en las ciudades y por qu son realmente tan maravillosas. +Djenme darles un breve resumen de cmo funciona la polinizacin. +Se puede ver la orientacin. El tallo est hacia abajo. +El extremo de la flor habr cado para cuando la comamos, pero eso es una descripcin bsica de cmo funciona la polinizacin. +Pensemos en la vida urbana, no hoy, y no en el pasado, sino digamos en 100 aos, +En los techos, tenemos papel de alquitrn que devuelve el calor a la atmsfera, contribuyendo al cambio climtico global, sin duda. +Qu pasara en 100 aos, si tenemos techos verdes en todas partes y jardines y creamos nuestros propios cultivos justo en las ciudades? Ahorraramos los costos del transporte, tendramos una dieta saludable a un menor costo, y tambin educaramos y crearamos nuevos puestos de trabajo nivel local. +Necesitamos abejas para el futuro de nuestras ciudades y la vida urbana. +Hay una tendencia contraria al sentido comn que notamos en estos nmeros. As que analicemos la primera medida aqu, la supervivencia en el invierno. +Esto ha sido un gran problema durante muchos aos, bsicamente desde finales de los aos 80, cuando lleg el caro varroa y trajo consigo diferentes virus, bacterias y enfermedades fngicas. +El xito en el invierno es difcil, y all es cuando se pierden la mayora de las colonias, y hemos constatado que en las ciudades, las abejas sobreviven mejor que en el campo. +Un poco contradictorio, verdad? +Pensamos, oh!, abejas, campo, agricultura, pero eso no lo que las abejas estn mostrando. +A las abejas les gusta la ciudad. Adems, tambin producen ms miel. +La miel urbana es deliciosa. +Por lo tanto, el rendimiento de las colmenas urbanas, en trminos de produccin de miel, es mayor, as como la supervivencia en invierno, en comparacin con las zonas rurales. +Una vez ms, un poco contradictorio. +Si miramos, histricamente, la cronologa de salud de la abeja, nos remontamos al ao 950, cuando hubo una gran mortandad de las abejas en Irlanda. +As que los problemas de las abejas hoy no son necesariamente algo nuevo. Ha estado ocurriendo desde hace ms de mil aos, pero no nos damos cuenta de estos problemas en las ciudades. +Quiero animarlos a pensar en algo: la idea de una isla urbana. +Piensen que tal vez la temperatura es ms clida en la ciudad. +Por qu las abejas estn mejor en la ciudad? +Esta es una gran pregunta para ayudarnos a entender por qu las abejas deben estar en la ciudad. +Quizs all hay ms polen. +Los trenes que llegan a centros urbanos, pueden traer polen con ellos, polen muy liviano, y este es solo un gran supermercado en la ciudad. +Una gran cantidad de tilos viven a lo largo de las vas del tren. +Tal vez en las ciudades haya menos pesticidas que en las zonas rurales. +Tal vez haya otras cosas en las que simplemente no hemos pensando todava, pero esta es una idea, las islas urbanas. +El sndrome de colapso de la colonia no es lo nico que afecta a las abejas. Las abejas se estn muriendo, y ese es un gran reto para nuestro tiempo. +Lo que se ve aqu es un mapa del mundo y hacemos un seguimiento de la propagacin del caro varroa. +Este caro cambi las reglas del juego en la apicultura y se puede ver, en la parte superior derecha, que los aos estn cambiando, llegamos a tiempos modernos y se puede ver la propagacin del caro varroa desde comienzos del siglo XX hasta ahora. +En 1968, lleg a la mayor parte de Asia, +en 1971, se extendi a Europa y Amrica del Sur, y luego, cuando llegamos a la dcada de 1980, y especficamente a 1987, finalmente lleg a Amrica del Norte y a los Estados Unidos, y las reglas del juego cambiaron para las abejas en los Estados Unidos. +Muchos de nosotros recordaremos que en nuestra infancia, tal vez sufrimos una picadura de abeja o vimos abejas en las flores. +Piensen en los nios de hoy. Su infancia es un poco diferente. +No experimentan eso. +Las abejas ya no estn alrededor. +Necesitamos a las abejas, pero estn desapareciendo y esto es un gran problema. +Qu podemos hacer? +Me dedico a la investigacin de abejas melferas. +Obtuve mi doctorado en el estudio de la salud de las abejas melferas. +Empec a estudiar estas abejas en el 2005. +En el 2006, las abejas comenzaron a desaparecer, y de repente este chico nerd que iba a la escuela a estudiar insectos se convirti en alguien muy relevante en el mundo. +Y as result ser. +As que mi investigacin se centra en formas de hacer que las abejas sean ms saludables, +y no en la investigacin de lo que est matando a las abejas, per se. +No soy uno de los muchos investigadores alrededor del mundo que examinan los efectos de pesticidas o enfermedades o la prdida del hbitat y la malnutricin en las abejas. +Estamos buscando maneras de hacer que las abejas sean ms saludables a travs de vacunas y yogur, como probiticos, y otros tipos de terapias que puedan ser suministradas a las abejas por va oral, y este proceso es tan fcil que incluso un nio de 7 aos puede hacerlo. +Solo hay que mezclar un poco de polen, azcar y agua, y cualquier ingrediente activo que se desee agregar y se le da directamente a las abejas. Sin productos qumicos, solo refuerzos inmunitarios. +Pensamos en nuestra propia salud de forma prospectiva. +Hacemos ejercicio, comemos de manera saludable, tomamos vitaminas. +Por qu no pensamos en las abejas de esa misma forma? +Llevarlas a las zonas donde estn prosperando y tratar de mejorar su salud antes de que se enfermen. +Pas muchos aos de mi posgrado tratando de pinchar abejas y hacer vacunas con agujas. Aos, aos en la mesa de trabajo, Oh, Dios mo, son las 3 a.m. +y todava estoy inyectando abejas. Luego un da dije: por qu no hacemos simplemente una vacuna oral? +Es como, uf!, as que eso es lo que hacemos. Quisiera compartir con ustedes algunas imgenes de colmenas urbanas, porque pueden ser cualquier cosa. +Quiero decir, realmente abran su mente con esto. +Pueden pintar las colmenas para que hagan juego con sus casas. +Pueden ocultar una colmena dentro de sus hogares. +Eso es lo que los chefs van a usar para cocinar, y la miel hacen eventos en vivo usarn esa miel en sus bares. +La miel es un gran sustituto nutricional del azcar tradicional porque contiene diferentes tipos de azcar. +Tambin tenemos un proyecto de colmenas para las aulas, en el que es una empresa sin fines de lucro difundimos la idea alrededor del mundo para que sepan cmo llevar colmenas de abejas a las aulas o en el entorno de un museo, detrs de un vidrio, y usarlas como una herramienta educativa. +Esta colmena que ven aqu ha estado en la escuela secundaria Fenway desde hace muchos aos. +Las abejas vuelan directo a los jardines del parque Fenway. +Nadie lo nota. Si no eres una flor, estas abejas no se preocupan por ti. No lo hacen. Ellas diran: Permiso, estoy volando por aqu. Aqu hay algunas otras imgenes que cuentan una parte de la historia que hizo que la apicultura urbana fuese excelente. En Nueva York, la apicultura fue ilegal hasta el 2010. +Ese es un gran problema, porque cmo se van a polinizar los jardines y cultivos localmente? Con las manos? +A nivel local en Boston, hay una gran empresa llamada Green City Growers [Cultivadores de ciudades verdes], y ellos van y polinizan sus cultivos de zapallos a mano con hisopos, y si no lo hacen dentro de un periodo de tres das, no hay ningn fruto. +Sus clientes no estn satisfechos, y hay gente que pasa hambre. +Esto es importante. +Tenemos tambin algunas imgenes de la miel de Brooklyn. +Pars ha sido un excelente modelo para la apicultura urbana. +Desde hace muchos aos, han tenido colmenas en la azotea de la casa de la pera y eso hizo que la gente comenzara a pensar: Guau!, podemos hacerlo, y deberamos hacerlo. +Tambin en Londres y en Europa a travs de la Unin, estn muy avanzados en el uso de azoteas verdes y la integracin de colmenas, y les voy a mostrar una nota final aqu. +Me gustara animarlos a abrir su mente. +Qu pueden hacer para salvar o ayudar a las abejas o para que el futuro de las ciudades sea sostenible? +Bueno, realmente, solo cambien su perspectiva. +Traten de entender que las abejas son muy importantes. +Una abeja no va a picarles si la miran. +La abeja muere. Las abejas mueren cuando pican, as que ellas tampoco quieren picarlos. No es nada para entrar en pnico. Estn por toda la ciudad. +Pueden incluso tener sus propias colmenas si lo desean; +hay grandes recursos disponibles, hasta hay empresas que ayudan a establecerlas y brindan tutora. Y es importante para el sistema educativo mundial que los estudiantes aprendan sobre la agricultura en todo el mundo como esta nia a la que, una vez ms, ni siquiera la estn picando. +Gracias. +En los ltimos das, he odo hablar de China +y tambin he hablado con amigos acerca de China y del internet en China. +Hay algo que es muy difcil para m. +Quiero hacerles entender a mis amigos que China es complicada. +Por ello, quiero mostrar las dos caras de la historia, esta es una cara y esta es la otra. +No se puede mostrar una sola cara de la historia. +Les doy un ejemplo. China es un pas BRIC [ladrillo]. +Los pases que forman el grupo de los BRIC son Brasil, Rusia, India y China. +Estas economas emergentes realmente estn ayudando a la reactivacin de la economa mundial. +Pero al mismo tiempo, por otra parte, China es un pas SICK [enfermo], terminologa acuada en el expediente de la salida a bolsa de Facebook. +Segn ese documento, los pases SICK eran Siria, Irn, China y Corea del Norte. +Los cuatro pases que no tienen acceso a Facebook. +As que, bsicamente, China es un pas SICK BRIC [un ladrillo enfermo]. +Se ejecut otro proyecto para analizar a China y al internet chino. +Y hoy quiero hablarles de mi observacin personal desde esa muralla en los ltimos aos. +As que, si son aficionados a Juego de tronos, definitivamente, sabrn lo importante que es una gran muralla para un antiguo reino. +Evita cosas extraas desde el norte. +Igual que en el caso de China. +En el norte, hubo una gran muralla, Chang Cheng. +Protegi a China de los invasores hace 2000 aos. +Pero China tambin tiene una gran muralla de fuego. +Es el mayor sistema de censura digital de todo el mundo. +No es solo para defender al rgimen chino del extranjero, de los valores universales, sino tambin para evitar que los ciudadanos chinos tengan acceso a un internet libre y mundial, y tambin para separarlos en bloques, desunidos. +Por lo tanto, bsicamente el internet tiene dos internets. +Uno es el internet y el otro es el Chinanet. +Pero si creen que el Chinanet es algo como un lugar desierto o un terreno baldo, estn equivocados. +Usamos una metfora muy simple, el juego del gato y el ratn, para describir los ltimos 15 aos de lucha continua entre la censura china, la censura del Gobierno, el gato, y los usuarios de internet chinos. Es decir, nosotros, el ratn. +Pero a veces este tipo de metforas son demasiado simples. +As que hoy quiero actualizarla a la versin 2.0. +En China, tenemos 500 millones de usuarios de internet. +Es la mayor poblacin de internautas en todo el mundo. +Aunque China tenga un internet totalmente censurado, an as, la sociedad internauta en China est realmente en auge. +Cmo ocurre? Es simple. +Ustedes tienen Google, nosotros Baidu. +Ustedes tienen Twitter, nosotros Weibo. +Ustedes tienen Facebook, nosotros Renren. +Ustedes tienen YouTube, nosotros Youku y Tudou. +El Gobierno chino bloque todos los portales Web 2.0 internacionales, as que nosotros los chinos los copiamos. +Es lo que llamo censura inteligente. +No es solo para censurar. +A veces, esta poltica nacional china de internet es muy sencilla: Bloqueo y copia. +Por un lado, quiere satisfacer las necesidades de la gente de una red social, que es muy importante; la gente realmente ama las redes sociales. +Pero por otro lado, quieren mantener el servidor en Beijing para que puedan acceder a los datos en cualquier momento que quieran. +Es tambin la razn por la que Google sali de China, porque no poda aceptar el hecho de que el Gobierno chino quisiera mantener el servidor. +A veces, los dictadores rabes no entienden estos dos lados. +Por ejemplo, Mubarak, cerr el internet. +Quera evitar que los cibernautas lo criticaran. +Pero si los cibernautas no pueden estar en lnea, salen a la calle. +Y el resultado es muy simple. +Todos sabemos que Mubarak est tcnicamente muerto. +Ben Al, el expresidente de Tnez, no sigui la segunda regla, +que es mantener el servidor en sus manos. +Permiti que Facebook, un servicio con base en Estados Unidos, continuara operando en Tnez. +As que l no pudo evitar que sus propios ciudadanos publicaran videos que criticaban su corrupcin. +Le ocurri lo mismo. Fue el primero en ser derrocado durante la primavera rabe. +Pero esas dos polticas de censura internacional muy inteligentes no impidieron que los medios sociales chinos se convirtieran en un espacio pblico, una va de la opinin pblica y la pesadilla de los funcionarios chinos. +Porque tenemos 300 millones de microblogueros en China. +Es toda la poblacin de los Estados Unidos. +As que tenemos 300 millones de personas, microblogueros, a pesar del bloqueo del tuit, en nuestra plataforma censurada. +Pero el Chinanet por s solo puede crear energa muy potente, como nunca antes en la historia de China. +En julio del 2011, se estrellaron dos trenes [ininteligible], en Wenzhou, una ciudad del sur. +Justo despus del accidente de tren, las autoridades quisieron ocultar literalmente el tren, enterrar el tren. +El hecho enoj a los cibernautas chinos. +Durante 5 das despus del accidente de tren, hubo 10 millones de crticas en publicaciones en los medios sociales; algo que nunca haba sucedido en la historia de China. +Y ms tarde este ao, el ministro de Ferrocarriles fue despedido y condenado a 10 aos de prisin. +Y tambin, recientemente, hubo un debate muy divertido entre el ministerio de Medio Ambiente de Beijing y la Embajada de Estados Unidos en Beijing porque el ministerio culp a la Embajada de Estados Unidos de intervenir en la poltica interna de China por revelar datos de la calidad del aire de Beijing. +En los datos de la embajada, segn el ndice de medicin PM 2,5, el nivel de contaminacin +llega a los 148 microgramos y es peligroso para los grupos de riesgo. +Por lo tanto una sugerencia, quedarse en casa es buena idea. +Pero los datos del ministerio muestran solo 50 microgramos, dicen que +la calidad del aire es buena y que es bueno salir a la calle. +Pero el 99 % de los microblogueros chinos apoya firmemente la versin de la embajada. +Yo vivo en Beijing y todos los das veo los datos de la embajada estadounidense para decidir si debo abrir mi ventana. +Por qu los medios sociales chinos, incluso dentro de la censura, tienen tanto auge? Parte de la razn es el idioma chino. +Saben, Twitter y sus imitaciones tienen un cierto lmite de 140 caracteres. +En ingls es 20 palabras o una frase con un enlace corto. +Tal vez en alemn, puede ser simplemente Aja!. +Pero en chino, esos 140 caracteres significan realmente un prrafo, una historia. +Casi se pueden tener todos los elementos periodsticos all. +Por ejemplo, este es un pasaje de Hamlet, de Shakespeare. +Con el mismo contenido, se puede ver claramente que un tuit chino es igual a 3,5 tuits en ingls. +El chino siempre hace trampa, verdad? +As que por esta razn, los chinos realmente consideran que el microblog es ms que un titular, es un medio de comunicacin. +Y tambin, su copia, la empresa Sina, del chico que copi Twitter. +Incluso tiene su propio nombre, con Weibo. +Weibo es la traduccin al chino de microblog. +Tiene su propia innovacin. +En el rea de comentarios, el Weibo chino se parece ms a Facebook que al original Twitter. +As que cuando estas innovaciones y copias, como el Weibo y el microblog, llegaron a China en el 2009, inmediatamente se convirtieron en una plataforma de medios de comunicacin. +Se convirtieron en la plataforma de medios de comunicacin de 300 millones de lectores. +Se convirtieron en los medios de comunicacin. +Lo que no se menciona en Weibo, parece no existir para el pblico chino. +Pero adems, los medios de comunicacin sociales chinos realmente estn cambiando la mentalidad y la vida en China. +Por ejemplo, representan un medio de expresin para las personas mudas. +Tenamos un sistema de peticiones. Es una solucin fuera del sistema judicial, dado que el Gobierno central chino quiere mantener un mito, el emperador es bueno. Los antiguos funcionarios locales son unos matones. +Por eso el peticionario, las vctimas, los campesinos, toman el tren a Beijing para pedir al Gobierno central que el emperador solucione el problema. +Pero cuanto ms y ms gente va a Beijing, mayor es el riesgo de una revolucin. +As que en los ltimos aos, los han enviado de regreso. +E incluso algunos de ellos fueron puestos en crceles clandestinas. +Pero ahora tenemos Weibo, as que yo la llamo la peticin Weibo. +La gente solo tiene que usar sus telfonos mviles y tuitear. +Por lo tanto, los periodistas, profesores o celebridades recogen sus historias tristes, por alguna casualidad tu propia historia. +Entre estas personas est Yao Chen, ella es la microbloguera ms popular en China, tiene unos 21 millones de seguidores. +Son casi como un canal de televisin nacional. +As, ella recoge historias tristes. +As este medio social Weibo, incluso en la censura, brinda una oportunidad real para que 300 millones de personas en China charlen juntas todos los das. +Es como un gran TED, verdad? +Tambin es la primera vez que tenemos un espacio pblico en China. +Los chinos empiezan a aprender a negociar y hablar con la gente. +Pero el gato, la censura, tampoco duerme. +Es muy difcil publicar algunas palabras sensibles en el Weibo chino. +Por ejemplo, no se puede publicar el nombre del presidente, Hu Jintao y tampoco se puede publicar el nombre de la ciudad de Chongqing, y hasta hace poco, no se podan buscar los apellidos de los principales lderes. +Pero los chinos son muy buenos para los juegos de palabras y usan frases alternativas e incluso memes. +Hasta usan los nombres de ya saben, usan los nombres de esta batalla que est cambiando el mundo, la batalla entre el caballo de hierba y barro y el cangrejo de ro. +El caballo de hierba y barro es caonma, es el fonograma de hijo de puta, como se hacen llamar los cibernautas. +El cangrejo de ro es hxi, el fonograma de armona, la censura. +Se trata de caonma contra hxi, es muy bueno. +As, cuando ocurre algo muy emocionante en la poltica, se puede ver en Weibo que otra historia muy extraa ocurri. +Frases y palabras curiosas, incluso si usted tiene un doctorado en el idioma chino, no puede entenderlas. +Pero no se puede ampliar ms, no, porque el Sina Weibo chino se fund exactamente un mes despus del bloqueo oficial de Twitter.com. +Eso significa que desde el principio, Weibo ya ha convencido al Gobierno chino, de que no nos convertiremos en el escenario de ningn tipo de amenaza para el rgimen. +Por ejemplo, cualquier cosa que se desee publicar, como reunirse, encontrarse o caminar, se registra automticamente y se extraen los datos y se informa a un comit para que analice su contenido poltico. +Incluso si quiere hacer alguna reunin, antes de ir all, la polica ya lo est esperando. +Por qu? Porque tienen los datos. +Ellos lo tienen todo en sus manos. +Por lo tanto, pueden usar la minera de datos de los disidentes de los acontecimientos de 1984. +As que la represin es muy seria. +Pero quiero que tengan en cuenta algo muy curioso en el proceso del gato y el ratn. +El gato es la censura, pero China no es solo un gato, tambin tiene gatos locales. Gato central y gatos locales. +Ya saben, el servidor est en manos del gato central, as que incluso cuando los cibernautas critican a un gobierno local, este no tiene ningn acceso a los datos en Beijing. +Sin sobornar a los gatos centrales, no puede hacer nada, solo pedir disculpas. +As que en estos ltimos tres aos, los movimientos sociales de los microblogueros han producido cambios en el gobierno local que se ha vuelto ms y ms transparente, porque no puede acceder a los datos. +El servidor est en Beijing. +Sobre la historia del choque de trenes, quiz la pregunta no es por qu tuvieron 10 millones de crticas en 5 das, sino por qu el Gobierno central chino permiti la libertad de expresin en lnea durante 5 das. +Esto nunca haba sucedido antes. +Y es muy sencillo, porque incluso los grandes lderes estaban hartos de este tipo, de este reino independiente. +As que queran una excusa y la opinin pblica fue una muy buena excusa para castigarlo. +Pero tambin est recientemente el caso Bo Xilai, una gran noticia, es un principillo. +Desde febrero a abril de este ao, Weibo realmente se convirti en el centro de los rumores. +Podemos bromear casi todo acerca de estos principillos, todo!, es casi como si estuvisemos viviendo en los Estados Unidos. +Pero si alguien se atreve a retuitear o mencionar cualquier golpe falso sobre Beijing, definitivamente lo arrestarn. +As que este tipo de libertad es un tiempo especfico y preciso. +En China, la censura es tan normal como hablar chino. +Es raro encontrar libertad. +Algo sucede detrs de ella. +Porque l era un lder izquierdista muy popular, por ello, el Gobierno central quera purgarlo. y l fue muy lindo, convenci a todo el pueblo chino, cuando en verdad era tan perverso. +As Weibo, el espacio pblico de 300 millones, se convirti en una herramienta muy buena y conveniente para una lucha poltica. +Esta tecnologa es muy nueva, pero tcnicamente muy antigua. +El Presidente Mao, Mao Zedong, la hizo famosa porque l moviliz a millones de chinos en la Revolucin Cultural para destruir todos los gobiernos locales. +Es muy sencillo, porque el gobierno central chino ni siquiera necesita liderar la opinin pblica, +solo le concede a la gente un tiempo sin censura. +La no censura en China se ha convertido en una herramienta poltica. +As que esa es la actualizacin del juego del gato y el ratn. +Los medios de comunicacin social estn cambiando la mentalidad china. +Ms y ms chinos tienen la intencin de abrazar la libertad de expresin y los derechos humanos como su derecho de nacimiento, no como algn privilegio estadounidense importado. +Pero tambin, les ha dado a los chinos un espacio pblico nacional para que es como un curso de ciudadana se preparen para la futura democracia. +Pero no ha cambiado el sistema poltico chino, y tambin el Gobierno central chino ha usado esta estructura de un servidor centralizado para fortalecer su poder para luchar contra el gobierno local y las diferentes facciones. +Cul es el futuro? +Despus de todo, somos el ratn. +Cualquiera que sea el futuro, debemos luchar contra el gato. +Esto no solo existe en China, sino tambin en los Estados Unidos, hay algunos gatos muy pequeos, lindos pero malvados. +SOPA, PIPA, el ACTA, el PPT y la UIT. +Y al igual que Facebook y Google, dicen que son amigos del ratn, pero a veces vemos que salen con gatos. +As que mi conclusin es muy sencilla. +Que los chinos luchemos por nuestra libertad, pero que no dejemos de vigilar a los gatos malos. +No hay que dejarse atrapar de los gatos chinos. +Solo as, en el futuro, vamos a lograr los sueos del ratn: que podamos tuitear en cualquier momento y en cualquier lugar, sin miedo. +Gracias. +Trabaj en la pelcula Apolo 13 y mientras lo haca, descubr algo sobre cmo trabajan nuestros cerebros, y cmo este trabajo es tal, cuando estamos como inundados por entusiasmo o asombro o afecto o lo que sea, que se afecta y altera nuestra percepcin de las cosas. +Cambia lo que vemos y recordamos. +Qu debera realmente tratar de reproducir? +Qu debera tratar de imitar en cierto grado? +Estas son las imgenes que les mostr. +Y descubr que debido al tipo de imgenes y al hecho de que estbamos filmado esta pelcula, haba una emocin incorporada a ellas y a nuestra memoria colectiva del significado de este despegue para nosotros y todo esto. +Cuando las mostr y les pregunt, justo despus de la proyeccin, su opinin, cules eran las tomas que ms recordaban, ellos las haban cambiado. +Ellos... los estuve filmando... +tenan todo tipo de respuestas. Las tomas estaban mezcladas y tuve curiosidad, es decir, me pregunt, qu demonios vieron hace solo unos minutos y cmo llegaron a este tipo de descripcin? +Y descubr que no debera tratar de reproducir lo que vieron, sino lo que recordaban. +Estas son nuestras secuencias del despegue, basadas, principalmente, en nuestras notas, las opiniones de las personas, y entonces, la combinacin de todas las diferentes tomas y cosas juntas crearon una especie de conciencia colectiva de lo que ellos recordaban haba sido pero que realmente no lo era. +Entonces, esto es lo que creamos para Apolo 13. +(Ruidos del despegue) Lo que ven ahora, es literalmente la confluencia de un conjunto de diferentes opiniones y memorias, incluyendo la ma, con un cierto grado de libertad respecto al tema en cuestin. +Tom Hanks: Hola, Houston, este es el Odyssey. +Es un gusto volverlos a ver. Rob Legato: Imagino que me aplauden. +En este caso particular, esta es la parte culminante de la pelcula y, saben, para lograrlo solo tuve que tomar un modelo, tirarlo de un helicptero y filmarlo. +Y eso es simplemente lo que hice. +Ese soy yo filmando, y soy un operador bastante mediocre, y obtuve un buen grado de realismo, casi, ya saben, siguiendo al cohete en su cada, con el toque de realismo que estaba desesperadamente tratando de mantener en el encuadre. Pasemos a lo siguiente. +Tuvimos a un consultor de la NASA que era un verdadero astronauta que realmente particip en algunas misiones del Apolo 15 y que estaba all, principalmente, para verificar mis conocimientos cientficos. +Supongo que alguien pens que era necesario. +No s por qu, pero as fue. +Entonces, all estbamos, l es un hroe, un astronauta, y estamos entusiasmados, y bueno, me tom la libertad de decir, ya saben, que algunas de mis tomas no eran tan malas. +(Est mal) Bueno. Justo lo que sueas escuchar. +Lo que sucedi fue que el volte y me dijo: Nunca, jams, se disea un cohete espacial as. +Un cohete espacial no subira jams al mismo tiempo en que se liberan los soportes. Puedes imaginar la tragedia que podra ocurrir? +Nunca, jams, se disea un cohete espacial as. +l me miraba y yo pensaba: creo que no te has dado dado cuenta, pero soy el chico en el estacionamiento recreando uno de los momentos ms importantes de los Estados Unidos con extinguidores para incendios. +No voy a discutir contigo. T eres un astronauta, un hroe, y yo solo vengo de Nueva Jersey y...bueno... Solo te voy a mostrar unas secuencias. +Solo voy a mostrarte unas secuencias para que me digas lo que piensas. +Y entonces s tuve la reaccin que esperaba. +Le mostr esto, que son imgenes reales de una de las misiones en las que particip. Este es el Apolo 15, su misin. +Entonces, le mostr esto, y obtuve una reaccin interesante. +(Tambin est mal) Lo que sucedi, quiero decir, lo que pude intuir que sucedi fue que l lo recordaba de manera diferente. +l recordaba un tipo de sistema de soportes completamente seguro, una nave espacial totalmente segura, porque l est sentado en una nave espacial de cientos de miles de de libras de empuje, construida por el postor ms barato. +Por supuesto que esperaba que todo saliera bien. +Luego, l distorsion su memoria. +Entonces, Ron Howard se cruza con Buzz Aldrin que no est en la pelcula y no imagina que estamos simulando las secuencias, y l respondi simplemente como lo hubiera hecho, voy a mostrarlo. +Ron Howard: Buzz Aldrin se me acerc y me dijo: Oye, la secuencia del lanzamiento, vi algunas tomas que nunca haba visto antes, En qu stano las encontraron? Y yo le dije: Bueno, en ningn stano, Buzz, las hemos creado de cero. +Y l dijo: qu?, son muy buenas. Podemos usarlas? +(Por supuesto) RL: Creo que es un gran estadounidense. +Titanic, si no conocen la historia, no tiene un final feliz. +Jim Cameron fotografi el verdadero Titanic. +l prcticamente estableci o ech por tierra el prolongado escepticismo, porque lo que fotografi era el objeto real, sumergindose en un batiscafo Mir, en realidad dos batiscafos, hasta el lugar mismo del naufragio, creando esta secuencia inolvidable. +Esta es la secuencia que l fotografi, muy emotiva e impresionante. +Bueno, solo voy a pasarla, para que puedan captarlo ms o menos y describir lo que sent cuando la vi por primera vez. +Sent que mi cerebro quera en realidad ver al Titanic regresar a la vida. +Automticamente quise ver la nave, esta maravillosa nave, en todo su esplendor, pero al mismo tiempo, quise verla en la situacin contraria, es decir, como se ve en realidad. +Entonces, cre un efecto, luego les mostrar lo que quise hacer, que es el corazn de la pelcula, para m, y la razn por la que quise hacer la pelcula, la razn por la que quise crear lo que cre. +Les mostrar, ya saben, otra cosa ms que me pareci interesante, aquello que realmente nos emociona cuando lo ves. +Este es el detrs de cmaras, un par de escenas. +Entonces, cuando ven la secuencia que cre estn viendo esto: un grupo de muchachos volteando un barco al revs, y los pequeos batiscafos Mir tienen, en realidad, el tamao de pelotas de ftbol pequeas, y lo film con humo. +Jim descendi tres millas y yo me alej ms o menos tres millas del estudio y fotografi esto en un garaje. +Y entonces, lo que los emociona, lo que estn viendo, tiene el mismo sentimiento, la misma sensacin inolvidable que la secuencia de Jim, y me pareci tan fascinante que nuestros cerebros, una vez que creen que algo es real, transfieran todo lo que te hace sentir, la calidad que uno le da y que es totalmente artificial. +Y la siguiente toma, justo antes de esta... pueden darse cuenta de lo que estaba haciendo +Bsicamente, si hay dos batiscafos en la misma toma yo la film, porque, de qu cmara vendran? +Y cuando Jim lo film, solo haba un batiscafo, porque tomaba fotos desde el otro, y no recuerdo si fue Jim o yo quien hizo esto. +Vamos a decir que fue Jim, no le vendra mal una palmadita en la espalda. +Bueno. Vamos ahora a la transicin del Titanic. +Esto es a lo que me refera antes, quera pasar de un estado a otro del Titanic de una forma mgica. Voy a pasar la toma una vez. Y lo que quera era que se diluyera frente a Uds. +Gloria Stuart: Esa fue la ltima vez que el Titanic vio la luz del da. +El momento en que mis ojos se movieron, comenc inmediatamente a cambiarlas, de tal manera que ustedes no saben ahora cundo empez y cundo termin. +Vamos a verlo una vez ms. +El cambio se hace literalmente usando lo que naturalmente nuestros cerebros hacen, que es, que tan pronto desvan su atencin, algo cambia, y dej la bufanda en movimiento porque quera una toma fantasmal, quera sentir como si an estuvieran en los restos del barco, el lugar donde fueron enterrados para siempre +o algo as, acabo de inventar eso. +Por cierto, esa fue tambin la ltima vez que vi la luz del sol +fue una pelcula larga de filmar. Hugo tambin fue otra pelcula interesante porque la pelcula misma es sobre las ilusiones en las pelculas. +Algo muy peligroso, casi imposible de recrear, y en especial en nuestro set, porque literalmente no hay forma de mover el tren, porque cabe a las justas. +la cosa con ruedas, esa no se mueve? +Y la cosa sin ruedas, eso s se mueve. +Es el amo de su universo, y queramos que Hugo se sintiera igual, por lo que creamos esta toma. +Lo que ahora van a ver es cmo lo hicimos realmente. +En realidad son cinco sets diferentes filmados en cinco momentos diferentes, con dos nios diferentes. +As que estaba algo orgulloso de la toma, y fui a ver a un amigo y le dije: Sabes, esto es, ya sabes, esta es la toma con las mejores crticas en la haya trabajado. +Cul crees que fue la razn? +Y l dijo: Porque nadie sabe que t ests involucrado. +Bueno, solo me queda decir, gracias, y esta es mi presentacin. . +Hoy me gustara comenzar con un fragmento de una pieza musical para piano. +OK, yo la compuse. No, no es Oh!, gracias. +No, no la he compuesto. +De hecho, es una pieza de Beethoven, y, por lo tanto, no he estado en mi papel de compositor. +Acabo de desempear mi papel de intrprete, y aqu estoy, como intrprete. +Un intrprete de qu? De una pieza musical, verdad? +Pero podramos preguntarnos, esto es realmente msica?. +Y lo digo retricamente porque, claro, bajo cualquier norma, tendramos que conceder que, por supuesto, se trata de una pieza musical, pero sealo esto aqu ahora solo para fijarlo en sus mentes por el momento, porque vamos a regresar a esta pregunta. +Va a ser una especie de estribillo durante la presentacin. +As que aqu tenemos esta pieza musical de Beethoven, y mi problema es que es aburrida. +O sea, ustedes.. estoy casi como, susurrando, shh es como Es Beethoven, cmo se puede decir eso? +No, bueno, no s, es muy familiar para m. +Sera el tipo de cosa que hara, y no es necesariamente mejor que la de Beethoven. +De hecho, creo que no es mejor. Pero es ms interesante para m. Es menos aburrida para m. +Realmente estoy centrando esto en m, porque tengo que pensar en qu decisiones voy a tomar sobre la marcha mientras ese extracto de Beethoven se ejecuta en ese momento en mi cabeza y estoy tratando de averiguar qu tipo de transformaciones le voy a hacer. +se vuelve un poco aburrido y por lo tanto muy pronto tomo otros instrumentos, se convierten en familiares, y finalmente me encuentro diseando y construyendo mi propio instrumento y he trado uno conmigo hoy, y voy a tocarlo un poco para ustedes para que puedan escuchar cmo suena. +Hay que tener topes para la puerta, eso es importante. Aqu tengo peines. Son los nicos peines que tengo. Todos forman parte de mis instrumentos. Realmente puedo hacer todo tipo de cosas. Puedo tocar con un arco de violn. No tengo que usar los palillos. +Por eso tenemos este sonido. Y con grabaciones electrnicas en vivo, puedo cambiar radicalmente los sonidos. De esta forma o as. Y as sucesivamente. +S que algunos de ustedes estn pensando, obvio! O quien sabe qu. De todas formas, este tambin es un papel muy agradable. +Debo reconocer tambin que soy el que peor toca el mosquetero en el mundo, y era esta distincin de la cual estaba ms preocupado hace un momento, al final de la ejecucin. +Me alegro que haya pasado. No hablemos ms de esto. +Estoy llorando por dentro. Todava hay cicatrices. +De todos modos, mi punto es que lo que me atrae de todos estos proyectos es su multiplicidad, aunque de la forma como los he presentado hoy, son proyectos realmente solitarios, de manera que muy pronto quiero estar en contacto con otras personas y me alegra que pueda componer obras para ellas. +Algunas veces escribo para solistas y me toca trabajar con una persona, otras veces con orquestas completas, y ah trabajo con muchas personas, y esta es probablemente la capacidad, la funcin creativa por la cual soy conocido profesionalmente. +Ahora, algunas de mis partituras como compositor se ven as, y otras as, y algunas as, y hago todo esto a mano, y es realmente tedioso. +Toma mucho tiempo hacer estas notaciones, y ahora estoy trabajando en una pieza de 180 pginas, y es una gran parte de mi vida, y me estoy tirando de los pelos. +Tengo muchos as que supongo que est bien. Esto se vuelve realmente muy aburrido y fastidioso para m, as que despus de un tiempo el proceso de notacin se vuelve insoportable, y todo lo que quiero es hacerlo ms interesante, y eso me ha llevado a realizar otros proyectos, como este. +Este es un extracto de una partitura llamada La metafsica de la notacin. +La partitura completa mide 22 metros de ancho. +Es una compilacin muy loca de notacin pictogrfica. +Aunque comprendo la pregunta: Pero es msica? +O sea, no hay ninguna notacin tradicional. +Tambin puedo entender este tipo de crtica implcita en esta pieza, S-tog, que hice cuando estaba viviendo en Copenhague. +Tom el mapa del metro de Copenhague y renombr todas las estaciones con provocaciones musicales abstractas, y los reproductores, sincronizados con cronmetros, seguan los horarios, que se enumeran en minutos pasada la hora. +As que este es un caso de adaptar algo, o tal vez robarse algo para, a continuacin, convertirlo en una notacin musical. +Otra adaptacin sera esta pieza. +Tom la idea del reloj de pulsera y la convert en una partitura musical. +Hice mis propias caras y una compaa las fabric, y los reproductores siguen estas partituras. +Siguen las manecillas de los segundos y cuando estas pasan por los mltiples smbolos, responden musicalmente. +Aqu hay otro ejemplo de otra pieza, y luego de su realizacin. +As que en estas dos oportunidades, he sido recogedor, en el sentido de tomar algo, como fue el mapa del metro, o tal vez fui ladrn, y tambin he sido diseador en el caso de los relojes de pulsera. +Y una vez ms, esto es interesante para m. +Otro papel que me gusta desempear es el de artista de teatro. +Algunas de mis piezas tienen estos elementos teatrales medio raros, y a menudo acto en ellas. Quiero mostrarles un video de una obra llamada Ecolalia +con la actuacin de Brian McWhorter, que es un artista extraordinario. +Vamos a ver un poco y observen la instrumentacin. +OK, o que se rean nerviosamente porque tambin se poda or que el taladro estaba muy afilado, la entonacin es un poco cuestionable. Vamos a ver otro video. +Pueden ver que el alboroto contina, ya saben, no haba clarinetes, trompetas flautas ni violines. Aqu hay una pieza que tiene una instrumentacin aun ms inusual, ms peculiar. +Se trata de Tln para tres conductores y sin ejecutantes. Est basada en la experiencia de ver a dos personas teniendo un argumento violento en lenguaje de seas. Aunque no produce decibelios, afectiva y psicolgicamente, es una experiencia muy ruidosa. +As que, me va bien con los aparatos extraos y con la total ausencia de instrumentos convencionales y con este exceso de conductores, la gente podra, ya saben, preguntarse: pero esto es msica?. +Pero vamos a pasar a una pieza donde claramente me comporto bien , y este es mi Concierto para orquesta. +Van a notar muchos instrumentos convencionales en este video. Este, de hecho, no es el ttulo de la pieza. +Fui un poco travieso. De hecho, para hacerlo ms interesante, insert un espacio justo aqu y este es el verdadero ttulo de la pieza. +Vamos a seguir con ese mismo fragmento. +Es mejor con un florista, verdad? O al menos es menos aburrido. Vamos a ver un par de videos ms. +As que con todos estos elementos teatrales, esto me impulsa a otro rol, que sera, posiblemente, el de dramaturgo. +Actu bien. Tuve que escribir los trozos de la orquesta, verdad? +OK? Pero luego estaban estas otras cosas, verdad? +Estaba el florista y puedo entenderlo, una vez ms, estamos poniendo presin sobre la ontologa de la msica tal y como la conocemos convencionalmente, Pero veamos una ltima pieza que voy a compartir con ustedes hoy. +Esto va a ser una pieza llamada Afasia, y es para los gestos de las manos sincronizados al sonido que llama a otro papel, que es el ltimo que voy a compartir con ustedes: el de coregrafo. +Y la partitura de la pieza se ve as, con instrucciones para que el intrprete haga diversos gestos con las manos en momentos muy especficos sincronizados con una cinta de audio que se compone exclusivamente de muestras vocales. +Grab a un cantante impresionante y tom el sonido de su voz en mi computador y la deform de innumerables maneras para crear la banda sonora que van a escuchar. +Y ahora voy a interpretar solo un fragmento de Afasia para ustedes. OK? +Eso es solo una antesala de la pieza. S, est bien, es algo medio raro. +Es msica? As es cmo quiero concluir. +He decidido, en ltima instancia, que esa no es la pregunta adecuada, que eso no es lo importante. +La pregunta importante es: Es interesante? +Y vuelvo a esta pregunta sin preocuparme si es msica? y sin preocuparme por la definicin de lo que estoy haciendo. +Y con eso, les agradezco mucho. +Como pueden imaginar, me apasiona la danza. Me apasiona crearla, verla, alentar a otros a participar en ella, y tambin me apasiona la creatividad. +La creatividad es para m algo absolutamente esencial, y creo que es algo que se puede ensear. +Creo que las tcnicas de la creatividad pueden ensearse y compartirse, y creo que Uds. pueden descubrir cosas de su propia identidad fsica, de sus propios hbitos cognitivos y utilizarlos como punto de partida para portarse maravillosamente mal. +Nac en la dcada del 70, y John Travolta era un dolo con su "Grease" y "Fiebre del sbado noche", proporcionndome un modelo fantstico de rol masculino para empezar a bailar. Mis padres estaban dispuestos a apoyarme. +Y fue la primera vez que tuve una oportunidad de sentir que yo era capaz de expresarme con mi propia voz, y eso es lo que me impuls, entonces, a convertirme en coregrafo. +Siento que tengo algo que decir y compartir. +Y supongo que lo interesante es que ahora me obsesiona la tecnologa del cuerpo. +Creo que es lo ms tecnolgicamente alfabetizado que tenemos, y estoy absolutamente obsesionado con la forma de comunicar a travs del cuerpo ideas a las audiencias que puedan conmover, tocar, ayudarles a pensar de manera diferente. +As que para m, la coreografa es un gran proceso del pensamiento corpreo. Est muy presente tanto en la mente, como en el cuerpo y es un proceso colaborativo. +Es algo que tengo que hacer con otras personas. +De alguna manera se trata de un proceso cognitivo distribuido. +Trabajo a menudo con diseadores y artistas visuales, Obviamente, bailarines y otros coregrafos, pero tambin, ms y ms, con economistas, antroplogos, neurlogos, neurocientficos, realmente personas de muy diferentes dominios, que aportan su inteligencia a un proceso creativo diferente. +Lo que yo pretenda hacer hoy era explorar un poco esta idea del pensamiento corpreo, y somos todos expertos en pensamiento corpreo. +S, todos tenemos un cuerpo, no? +Y todos sabemos lo que es ese cuerpo en el mundo real, as, uno de los aspectos del pensamiento corpreo es pensar mucho en la nocin de propiocepcin, la percepcin de mi propio cuerpo en el espacio del mundo real. +As pues, todos entendemos lo que se siente al saber donde estn los extremos de los dedos al mantener los brazos arriba, s? +Sabemos perfectamente cuando vamos a agarrar una taza, o si esa copa se mueve y hay que reorientarla. +As que ya somos expertos en pensamiento corpreo. +Slo que simplemente no pensamos mucho en nuestros cuerpos. +Slo pensamos en ellos cuando van mal, cuando hay un brazo roto, o cuando se tiene un ataque al corazn, entonces se es realmente muy consciente del cuerpo. +Pero cmo podemos empezar a pensar en usar el pensamiento coreogrfico, la inteligencia quinestsica, para abordar formas de pensamiento ms genricas? +Pens que sera bueno hacer un estreno en TED. +No estoy seguro de si esto ir bien o no. +Simplemente lo har. +Pens en usar tres versiones de pensamiento corpreo para crear algo. +Quiero presentarles, ste es Paolo y sta es Catarina. +No tienen ni idea de lo que haremos. +Por tanto, no es el tipo de coreografa en la que ya tengo en mente lo que har, donde he ajustado la rutina en mi mente y se las voy a ensear, y los denominados recipientes vacos slo aprendern. +Esa no es la metodologa con la que trabajamos. +Pero lo importante es cmo captarn la informacin, cmo la asimilarn, cmo la usarn y cmo incorporarn al pensamiento. +Empezar con algo sencillo. +E imaginar esto, pueden hacerlo tambin si lo desean que tomar la letra "T" y me la imaginar en la mente, y la colocar fuera en el mundo real. As que slo visualizo la letra "T" delante de m. +S? Est ah. +Puedo caminar alrededor de ella al visualizarla, s? +Tiene una especie de gramtica. S lo que har con ella, y puedo empezar a describirla, as que la describo de forma sencilla. Puedo describirla con mis brazos, s? +As que lo nico que hice fue tomar mi mano y moverla. +Puedo describir, uou, en mi cabeza, s? Uou. +Est bien. Puedo hacerlo tambin con el hombro. S? +Me permite hacer algo, algo con lo que avanzar. +Si tuviera que tomar la letra "T" y aplanarla en el suelo, aqu, tal vez justo aqu en el suelo, de repente podra hacer algo con la rodilla, S? Uaa. As que si pongo la rodilla y los brazos juntos, Tengo algo fsico, cierto? Y puedo empezar a construir algo. +Y veremos cmo lo conseguimos. +As que observen un momento cmo acceden a esto y lo que hacen, y tomar esta letra "T", la letra "E" y la letra "D", para hacer algo. Bien. A por ello. +As que tengo que ir a la zona. De acuerdo. +Es casi como una cruz de mi brazo. +As que todo lo que hago es explorar el espacio de "T" y hacerla brillar a travs de algn movimiento. +Yo no recuerdo lo que estoy haciendo. +Slo hago mi tarea. Mi tarea es esta "T". +Vemosla desde el lateral, uaa. +En guardia. +Eso es todo. +As que hemos empezado a construir una frase. +As que lo que hacen, veamos, es algo como eso, as que lo que hacen es captar aspectos de ese movimiento y generarlos en una frase. +Pueden ver la extrema rapidez, s? +No les pido que la copien exactamente. +Usan la informacin que reciben para generar el comienzo de una frase. +Puedo ver eso y eso me dice algo de cmo se estn moviendo. +S, son muy rpidos, cierto? +As que he tomado el logo de TED y lo he traducido en algo fsico. +Algunos bailarines, cuando ven accin, toman la forma general, el arco del movimiento, el sentido cintico del movimiento, y lo incorporan a la memoria. +Algunos trabajan mucho los detalles especficos. +Comienzan con pequeas unidades que van desarrollando. +Vale, tienen algo? Una cosa ms. +As, me resuelven este problema, partiendo de un poco Estn construyendo esa frase. +Tienen algo y se aferrarn a ello. S? Es una manera de hacer. +Ser mi comienzo en este estreno mundial. +Est bien. A partir de esto har una cosa muy diferente. +As que, bsicamente har un dueto. +Quiero que piensen en ellos como objetos arquitectnicos, as que son solo meras lneas. +Ya no son personas, solo meras lneas, y trabajar con ellos casi como objetos para pensar. +As que pienso tomar unas pocas extensiones fsicas del cuerpo conforme me muevo, y los muevo y lo hago proponindoles cosas: si, entonces; si, entonces. Muy bien, as que all vamos. +Slo agarra este brazo. +Puedes colocarlo en el suelo? +S, hasta el suelo. Puedes ir por debajo? +S. Cat, puedes poner la pierna sobre ese lado? S. +Puedes girar? +Eso, vuelve al principio. +Vamos, listos? Y... bam, bam... (Tics de metrnomo) Estupendo. A partir de ah, se levantan. +Se levantan. Aqu est. Bien, ahora? A ellos. +As que a partir de ah, ambos nos levantamos. Nos levantamos, vamos en esta direccin, pasando por debajo. Uaa, uaa, por debajo. +Uua, por debajo, uuu-ah. S? Por debajo. Salto. +Por debajo. Salto. Paolo, patada. No importa hacia donde. Patada. +Patada, sustituye, cambia una pierna. Patada, sustituye, cambia una pierna. +S? Vale? Cat, casi agrrale la cabeza. Casi agarra su cabeza. +Uuaaa. Justo despus, tal vez. Uuaa, uuei, up. +Agarra su cintura, vuelve hacia ella primero, uum, gira, rodala, uuaa. Estupendo. +Bien, vamos a empezar un poco desde el principio. +Slo, djenme parar aqu. Es un lujo tener ocho Lujo tener ocho horas conmigo en un da. +Por lo tanto, tal vez sea demasiado. As que, vamos y (Tics de metrnomo) Agradable, buen trabajo. S? Est bien. Bueno, no est mal. Un poco ms? +S. Un poco ms, aqu vamos, desde ese lugar. +Seprense. Hacia delante. Seprense. Hacia delante. +Imaginemos que hay un crculo delante de Uds. s? +Evtenlo. Evtenlo. Uum. Squenlo con patadas del camino. +Squenlo con patadas del camino. Arrjenlo a la audiencia. Uum. +Arrjenlo a la audiencia una vez ms. +Tenemos una arquitectura mental, la compartimos para resolver un problema. Ellos lo actan. +Djenme ver slo un poco. Listo, vamos. +(Tics de metrnomo) Bueno, brillante. Bueno, aqu vamos. Desde el principio, podemos hacer nuestras frases primero? Y luego eso. +Y vamos a construir algo ahora, organizarlo, las frases. Aqu vamos. Agradable y lento? +Listo y vamos... um. (Tics de metrnomo) El do comienza. (Tics de metrnomo) (Tics de metrnomo) As que s, bueno, bueno. Bueno, estupendo, estupendo Muy bien. As Est bien. Y esto es todo. Bien hecho. Fue el segundo modo de trabajar. +El primero: la transferencia de cuerpo a cuerpo con una arquitectura mental exterior con la que trabajo donde ellos guardan en la memoria lo mo. +El segundo: el uso de ellos como objetos pensantes con esos objetos arquitectnicos hago una serie de provocaciones, digo, "Si esto ocurre, entonces esto. +Si esto, si esto sucede... "Tengo muchos mtodos semejantes, pero es muy, muy rpido, y este es el tercer mtodo. +Ya lo estn iniciando, se trata del mtodo basado en tareas, donde tienen la libertad de tomar todas las decisiones solos. +As que me gustara simplemente que hiciramos un poco de danza mental, un poco en este corto minuto. As que lo que me encantara hacer es imaginar, lo pueden hacer con los ojos cerrados o abiertos y si alguno no quiere hacerlo puede mirarlos, como deseen. +Slo durante un segundo piensen en esa palabra "TED", as ya est en la mente, y est ah delante de su mente. +Lo que me gustara hacer es que la transfieran fuera al mundo real, as que imagnense esa palabra "TED" en el mundo real. +Lo que me gustara que hicieran es que tomaran un aspecto de la misma. +Voy a la zona de la "E", y voy a escalar esa "E", porque es muy robusta, as que escalar esa "E" porque es muy robusta, Y, a continuacin, le dar dimensionalidad. +La voy a pensar en 3D. As que ahora, en lugar de ser simplemente una letra ante m, es un espacio en el que mi cuerpo puede entrar. +Si lo alcanzan con el dedo, dnde llegara? +Si lo hacen con el codo, dnde estara? +Esta es una imagen mental, estoy describiendo una situacin mental vvida que permite a los bailarines decidir solos lo que deben hacer. +Vale, pueden abrir los ojos si los tuvieran cerrados. +As los bailarines han trabajado con esto. +Trabajen con esto un segundo ms. +As que han estado trabajando en las arquitecturas mentales aqu. +Lo s, creo que debemos mantenerlas como una sorpresa. +As que all vamos, danza estreno mundial. S? Vamos. +Danza de TED. Bien. Aqu va. Voy a organizarlo rpidamente. +As que t hars el primer solo que hicimos, s, bla bla bla, bla, entonces entramos en do, s, bla bla bla bla. El siguiente solo, bla bla bla bla, s y ambos al mismo tiempo, resuelvan los ltimos desenlaces. +Vale? Est bien. Sras. y Sres., estreno mundial, danza de TED, tres versiones del pensamiento corpreo. Bueno, aplaudan despus, vamos a ver si es bueno, s? S, aplaudamos, s, aplaudamos despus. +Vamos. Catarina, gran momento, all vamos, uno. +(Tics de metrnomo) All va, Cat. (Tics de metrnomo) Paolo, ahora. (Tics de metrnomo) Acaba t solo. +El que hiciste. (Tics de metrnomo) Bien hecho. Bien, bien. Sper. As. Gracias. He aqu las tres versiones. Tres versiones de pensamiento corpreo, s? +Tres versiones del pensamiento corpreo. Espero que hoy, se vayan y hagan un baile para Uds. mismos y si no es eso, por lo menos prtense maravillosamente mal ms a menudo. +Muchas gracias. Gracias. Gracias. Vamos. +Buenas tardes. +No soy agricultor. +No lo soy. Soy padre de familia, residente y profesor. +Y este es mi mundo. +Y a lo largo del camino he empezado a notar que ya voy por la tercera generacin de nios que se estn volviendo ms gordos. +Se estn enfermando. +Adems de estas complejidades, acabo de enterarme que el 70 % de los nios que veo que han sido clasificados con discapacidades de aprendizaje no lo estaran de haber recibido alimentacin prenatal adecuada. +Estas verdades de mi comunidad son simples. Son as. +Los nios no deberan tener que crecer y ver cosas como esta. +Y a medida que perdemos empleos en mi comunidad, la energa contina entrando, siendo importada, no es para sorprenderse realmente que algunos consideren al sur de Bronx un desierto. +Soy el estudiante de sexto grado ms viejo de la historia. Todos los das me levanto con gran entusiasmo y espero compartirlo con todos ustedes hoy. +Y en esa disposicin, vengo con esta idea de que los nios no deberan tener que irse de sus comunidades para vivir, aprender y ganar ms en otra comunidad mejor. +As es que estoy aqu para contarles una historia personal. Y de esta pared que encontr afuera y que ahora estoy trayendo adentro. +La historia empieza con tres personas. +El profesor loco -ese soy yo, el de la izquierda. Me visto bien gracias a mi esposa -te quiero por conseguirme un buen traje- el apasionado presidente de mi barrio y un muchacho llamado George Irwin de la compaa Green Living Technologies quien me ayud con mi clase y con esta patente de tecnologa. +Pero todo comenz con unas semillas en las aulas. En mi aula, que es as. +Hoy estoy aqu con la esperanza de que mis logros excedan mi entendimiento. +Realmente se trata de eso. +Todo empieza con nios increbles como este, que vienen temprano y se quedan hasta tarde. +Todos mis nios son estudiantes de Educacin Individual o Ingls, la mayora de ellos tienen muchas desventajas, no tienen hogares y muchos estn en hogares temporarios. +Casi todos mis nios viven por debajo de la lnea de pobreza. +Pero desde el primer da, estamos cultivando esas semillas en clase, y as se ve mi aula. +Ya ven qu atentos estn estos nios a estas semillas. +Luego uno nota que esas semillas se convierten en granjas a lo largo del Bronx y se ven as. +Pero como dije, no soy agricultor. Soy profesor. +Y no me gusta el deshierbe, ni el trabajo agotador. +Por eso quera encontrar la forma de alcanzar este tipo de xito en algo pequeo, en algo as, y traerlo a mi aula para que los nios con discapacidades puedan hacerlo, los nios que no quieren estar afuera puedan hacerlo y todos puedan acceder. +As es que llam a George Irwin, qu haces ahora? +El vino a mi aula y construimos una pared comestible de interiores. +Y lo acompaamos con experiencias de autntico aprendizaje, aprendizaje individual. +Y hete aqu que dimos a luz a la primera pared comestible de la ciudad de Nueva York. +As que si tienes hambre, prate y come. +Puedes hacerlo ahora mismo. Mis nios juegan a la vaca todo el tiempo. +S? Pero recin estbamos empezando, a los nios les encant la tecnologa, as que llamamos a George y le dijimos: "Tenemos que aprender ms". +Alcalde Bloomberg, muchas gracias, pero ya no necesitamos permisos de trabajo, que requieren de licencia y seguro -estamos disponibles para Ud.- Decidimos ir a Boston. +Y mis nios, que provienen del distrito ms pobre de Estados Unidos, se convirtieron en los primeros en instalar una pared verde, diseada por una computadora, con instrumentos de aprendizaje verdaderamente vivos, 21 pisos de altura... si van a visitarla, se encuentra en la parte alta del edificio John Hancock. +Pero cerca de donde vivimos, comenzamos a instalar estas paredes en los colegios; se ven as, con iluminacin como esa, verdadero LED, tecnologa del siglo XXI. +Y qu creen? Hicimos dinero del siglo XXI y eso fue revolucionario. Guau! +Esta es mi cosecha, gente. +Y qu haces con esta comida? La comes! +Y esos son mis legados, mis estudiantes y esa salsa que preparan con tenedores de plstico; entramos a la cafetera, cultivamos cosas y alimentamos a los profesores. +Y esa es la fuerza de trabajo ms joven certificada a nivel nacional de los Estados Unidos con nuestro presidente del barrio de Bronx. +Y qu hicimos despus? Pues, conoc gente simptica como Uds. y nos invitaron a los Hamptons. +Por eso lo llamo "del sur de Bronx al sur de Hampton". +Y empezamos a instalarlas en los techos, se ven as, y vinimos de vecindarios indigentes para construir paisajes como ste. Guau! La gente los not. +Y nos invitaron nuevamente el verano pasado, y de hecho nos mudamos a los Hamptons, pagamos USD 3500 semanales por una casa y aprendimos a hacer surf +Y cuando puedes hacer cosas como esta... estos son mis nios presentando esta tecnologa y si puedes construir un techo as en una casa con ese aspecto con sedum que se ve as, este es el nuevo grafiti verde. +Se preguntarn, una pared como esta, adems de cambiar el paisaje y las mentes, en qu ayuda a los nios? +Pues bien, les dir en qu les ayuda. +Me permite conocer contratistas increbles como este, Jim Ellenberger, de Servicios Ellenberger. +Y aqui logramos impacto financiero, ambiental y social +porque Jim se dio cuenta de que estos nios, mis futuros agricultores, tenan realmente lo que l necesitaba: la capacidad de construir casas econmicas para los neoyorquinos, en sus propios vecindarios. +Y esto es lo que mis nios estn haciendo: ganar un salario. +Ahora, si Uds. son como yo, viven en un edificio junto con otras siete personas desempleadas que buscan manejar un milln de dlares. +Yo no lo tengo. Pero si necesitan arreglar su inodoro o, ya saben, algunos estantes, tengo que esperar seis meses para conseguir una cita con alguien que maneja un auto mucho mejor que el mo. +Esa es la belleza de esta economa. +Mis nios ahora tienen licencia y trabajan con seguro. +Y ese es mi primer estudiante en abrir una cuenta bancaria, el primero de su familia en tener una. +Este estudiante inmigrante es el primero de su familia en usar un cajero automtico. +Y estos son los verdaderos logros financieros, ambientales y sociales, puesto que podemos tomar vecindarios indigentes que fueron abandonados y convertirlos en algo as, con interiores como ste. +Guau! La gente lo not. Y lo comentaron. +Y entonces nos llam la CNN y estuvimos encantados de que vinieran a nuestro mercado agrcola. +Y cuando el Centro Rockefeller, la NBC, nos preguntaron: pueden poner esta cosa en las paredes? Estuvimos encantados. +Pero esto que les muestro, cuando nios del distrito ms pobre de Estados Unidos pueden construir una pared de 9 por 4,5 metros, disearla, plantarla e instalarla en el corazn de Nueva York, eso es un verdadero "s se puede". +Realmente escolstico, si me preguntan. +Y esto no es una imagen de Getty. +Esa es una fotografa que tom del presidente del Bronx dirigindose a mis nios en su casa, no en la prisin, reconocindoles su participacin. +Ese es Gustavo Rivera, nuestro senador del estado, y Bob Bieder; vinieron a mi aula para hacer sentir a mis nios importantes. +Y cuando el presidente del Bronx viene y el senador del estado viene a nuestra aula, cranme, Bronx puede cambiar de actitud. +Estamos preparados, listos, deseosos y podemos exportar nuestro talento y diversidad en formas que nunca habamos imaginado. +Cuando el senador local se sube a una balanza en pblico y dice que tiene que adelgazar, yo tambin! +Y les digo algo, lo estoy haciendo y mis nios tambin. +De acuerdo? Algunas celebridades tambin han empezado. +Frutas y vegetales Pete no puede creer lo que estamos cultivando. +Lorna Sass vino y don libros. +S? Estamos alimentando a personas de edad. +Y cuando nos dimos cuenta de que estbamos cultivando justicia en el sur de Bronx, la comunidad internacional tambin lo reconoci. +Y mis nios del sur de Bronx ganaron buena reputacin en la primera conferencia internacional de techos verdes. +Eso es sencillamente magnfico. +Qu sucedi a nivel local? +Pues bien, conocimos a Avis Richards y su campaa educativa Ground Up. +Increble! A travs de ella mis nios, los ms excluidos y marginados, pudieron crear 100 jardines en escuelas pblicas de Nueva York. +Eso es balance financiero, ambiental y social, s? +Un da como hoy, hace un ao, me invitaron a la Academia de Medicina de Nueva York. +Pens que este concepto de disear un Nueva York fuerte y saludable tena sentido, sobre todo cuando los recursos son gratis. +As que les agradec y los amo. +Me presentaron a la Alianza Estratgica para la Salud de Nueva York, nuevamente, recursos gratis, no los desperdici. +Y uno qu sabe? Seis meses ms tarde, mi escuela y mis nios ganaron el primer premio en excelencia, nunca antes entregado, a una escuela secundaria, por crear un entorno escolar saludable. +El aula ms verde de la ciudad de Nueva York. +Pero lo ms importante es que mis nios aprendieron a recibir y aprendieron a dar. +Con el dinero que ganamos en nuestro mercado agrcola, compramos regalos para los sin techo y para las personas necesitadas del mundo. +Empezamos a retribuir. +Fue entonces cuando me di cuenta de que el movimiento verde de EE.UU. empieza primero en el bolsillo, luego en el corazn y despus en la mente. +As es que estbamos en el camino correcto y an lo estamos. +Gracias a la Trinidad, Wall Street lo not; ellos facilitaron el nacimiento de la Mquina Verde del Bronx. +Ahora mismo tenemos la fuerza de 3000. +Y qu permite esto? +Ensea a los nios a reimaginar sus comunidades y entonces si crecen en lugares como este, pueden imaginarlos de esta forma. +Mis nios, entrenados y con certificado... Ah, conseguiste reducir sus impuestos. Gracias, alcalde Bloomberg... se puede trabajar en comunidades que se ven as y convertirlas en algo como eso y eso para m, gente, es otro momento verdadero de "s se puede". +Ahora, cmo empezar? Se empieza en las escuelas. +No ms pequeos prstamos, ni pequeas redes. +Agrpalos por brcolis, agrpalos por vegetal favorito, algo a lo que se pueda aspirar. +S? Estos son mis futuros agricultores de EE.UU. Si crecen en la calle 141 de Brook Park, la comunidad ms migrante de Estados Unidos. +Donde nios pequeos y tenaces aprenden a cultivar de esta forma, no es de sorprender que se obtengan frutas como esa. +Y, me encanta! Y a ellos tambin. +Estamos construyendo estructuras tipo tipis en vecindarios que estaban siendo quemados. +Y ese es otro momento verdadero de "s se puede". +Y, nuevamente, Brook Park alimenta a cientos de personas sin usar estampillas de comida o huella digitales. +El distrito ms pobre de Estados Unidos, la mayor comunidad migratoria de EE.UU., s podemos hacerlo. +El vecindario Bissel Gardens est produciendo comida en proporciones picas, movilizando a los nios dentro de una economa que ellos nunca imaginaron. +Ahora, mis amigos, en algn lugar del arco iris se encuentra el sur de Bronx de EE.UU. Y nosotros lo estamos haciendo. +Cmo empez? Pues, observen la atencin que Jos presta a los detalles. +Gracias a Dios, Omar sabe que las zanahorias vienen de la tierra y no de la seccin 9 del supermercado o a travs de una ventana a prueba de balas, sobre un trozo de polietileno. +Y si Henry sabe que lo verde es bueno, yo tambin lo s. +Cuando expandes sus paladares, expandes su vocabulario. +Y, lo ms importante, cuando juntas a nios ya grandes con nios pequeos, sacas al tipo blanco y gordo del medio, y eso es grandioso, y creas este sentido de responsabilidad entre iguales, lo cual es increble. +Dios, se me acaba el tiempo, tengo que apurarme. +Este es mi cheque semanal para los nios; ese es nuestro grafiti verde. +Esto es lo que estamos haciendo. +Y he aqu la gloria y la abundancia del condado de Bronx. +Nada me conmueve ms que ver a los nios polinizando plantas, en lugar de polinizarse unos a otros. +Tengo que admitirlo: soy un padre protector. +pero esos nios son los nios que ahora ponen parches de calabazas encima de los trenes. +Tambin estamos diseando estanques de carpas koi para los ricos. +Tambin nos estamos convirtiendo en los hijos del maz; creamos granjas en medio de la calle Fordham para concientizar y ventanas hechas con botellas de la basura. +No espero que todos los nios se conviertan en agricultores, pero s que Uds. lean sobre esto, que escriban, que hagan un blog, que ofrezcan un servicio al cliente excepcional. +Espero que ellos se comprometan y, caramba, s que lo hacen! +Esa es mi aula increble, esa es la comida. +Adnde va? A cero km del plato, directamente a la cafetera. +O, lo que es ms importante, va a albergues locales donde la mayora de nuestros nios comen una o dos veces al da. +Y estamos incrementndolos. +Ningn zapato Air Jordans fue nunca arruinado en mi granja. +Y en su da, jardines de un milln de dlares e instalaciones increbles. +Djenme decirles algo. +Este es un momento muy bonito. +Zonas industriales abandonadas, contaminadas, campos de batalla... En Bronx estamos probando que se puede cultivar en cualquier parte, en cemento. +Y tomamos pedidos de flores. Estoy avergonzando a los pasteleros. +Tomamos pedidos ahora. Reservo para la primavera. +Y todo esto creci de semillas. Estamos aprendiendo de todo. +Como digo, cuando se juntan nios con caractersticas tan diversas como estas, para hacer algo tan especial como esto, realmente estamos creando un momento. +Ahora, se preguntarn sobre estos nios. +Tenan asistencia del 40 % al 93 %. +Todos comenzaron atrasados en edad y con crditos insuficientes. +Ahora, mi primer grupo ya est en la universidad y gana un salario. +Los dems se graduarn en junio. +Nios felices, familias felices, colegas felices. +Gente asombrada. La gloria y abundancia del condado de Bronx. +Hablemos de la menta. Dnde est mi menta? +Cultivo siete clases de menta en mi aula. +Alguien desea mojitos? Ms tarde estar en Telepan. +Comprendan, esta es mi Viagra intelectual. +Damas y caballeros, tengo que apurarme, comprendan esto: el barrio que nos dio pantalones holgados y ritmos musicales curiosos se est convirtiendo en hogar de los orgnicos. +Con 11 000 kilos de vegetales estoy cultivando ciudadanos orgnicos, nios comprometidos. +As que aydennos a pasar de esto a eso. +Entidades autosostenibles, retorno de la inversin en 18 meses. Adems estamos ayudando a pagar el salario y el seguro de salud de personas, a la vez que alimentamos a otros por centavos de dlar. +Martin Luther King dijo que las personas deben ser levantadas con dignidad. +As es que aqu en Nueva York, yo les insto, compatriotas, a que nos ayuden a hacer un Estados Unidos grandioso otra vez. +Es sencillo. Compartan su pasin. +Es realmente sencillo. Vayan a ver estos dos videos, por favor. +Uno de los videos nos llev a la Casa Blanca, el otro es reciente. +Y, lo ms importante, saquen al matn mayor de las escuelas. +Tiene que ocurrir maana. +Uds. pueden hacerlo. +Saquen a los nios de las tiendas que se ven as. +Hganles un plato saludable, sobre todo si lo pueden crear de las paredes de sus propias clases... delicioso! +Denles un modelo de buen comportamiento. Consganles un carrito verde. +A los chicos grandes les gustan las fresas y los pltanos. +Ensenles a hacer negocio. Gracias a Dios por crear la ciudad de Nueva York. +Permtanles cocinar. Tengamos un gran almuerzo hoy da, permtanles preparar comida. +Y lo ms importante, simplemente quiranlos. +Nada funciona mejor que el amor incondicional. +Mi buen amigo Ren dijo que no es fcil ser verde. +No lo es. Yo vengo de un lugar donde los nios pueden comprar pitillos de marihuana con 35 sabores diferentes, en cualquier momento del da, donde los congeladores de helados son llenados con licor de malta medio derretido. +Comprenden? Mi querida amiga Majora Carter una vez me dijo: tenemos todo para ganar y nada que perder. +As es que, ahora que hemos pasado de tener la audacia de tener esperanza, a albergar la esperanza de tener audacia, les insto a hacer algo. +Les insto a hacer algo. +Ahora mismo, todos somos renacuajos, pero les insto a que se conviertan en un gran sapo, que den ese gran salto. +No me importa si Uds. estn en la izquierda, la derecha, arriba del medio, dnde sea. +nanse a m. senla. Tengo mucha energa. Aydenme a usarla. +Aqu podemos hacer algo. +Y en el transcurso, por favor tmense el tiempo para oler las flores, sobre todo si Uds. y sus alumnos las cultivaron. +Soy Steve Ritz, esta es la Mquina Verde del Bronx. +Tengo que agradecer a mi esposa y a mis familiares; a mis nios, gracias por venir todos los das, y a mi colegas, que creen en m y me apoyan. +Estamos abrindonos camino dentro de una nueva economa. +Gracias. Dios los bendiga y disfruten el da. Soy Steve Ritz. +S se puede! +Como muchos de Uds., soy una de las afortunadas. +Nac en una familia en la que la educacin lo impregnaba todo. +Soy la tercera generacin de doctores, hija de dos acadmicos. +De nia jugu alrededor del laboratorio universitario de mi padre. +As que se daba por hecho que asistira a una de las mejores universidades, lo que me abri la puerta a un mundo de oportunidades. +Por desgracia, la mayora no es tan afortunada. +En algunos lugares, como Sudfrica, no se accede fcilmente a la educacin. +All el sistema educativo se estableci durante la segregacin racial para la minora blanca, +por eso hoy no hay suficientes plazas para los muchos que desean y merecen una educacin de alta calidad. +Esta escasez provoc una crisis en enero de este ao en la Universidad de Johannesburgo. +Quedaba un puado de plazas y la noche anterior a que se abriera el registro, miles aguardaban en una fila de 1,5 km. esperando conseguir una plaza. +Cuando las puertas abrieron hubo una estampida, 20 personas resultaron heridas y una mujer falleci. +Era una madre que dio su vida intentando obtener para su hijo la oportunidad de una vida mejor. +Pero incluso donde la educacin est disponible, como en EE.UU., puede estar fuera del alcance. +En los ltimos aos se ha discutido mucho sobre el creciente costo de la asistencia mdica. +No obstante, durante el mismo periodo el costo de la educacin superior ha incrementado hasta un total de 559 % desde 1985. +Esto hace la educacin inaccesible para muchos. +Finalmente, incluso quienes logran terminar la universidad pueden no tener oportunidades. +Poco ms de la mitad de los universitarios recin graduados en EE.UU. tienen empleos que requieren ese nivel de formacin. +Ciertamente, esto es diferente para los graduados de las instituciones de prestigio, pero muchos otros no recuperan el valor de su tiempo y esfuerzo. +Tom Friedman, en un artculo para el New York Times, reflej, como ninguno, el espritu de nuestro proyecto. +Dijo que las grandes innovaciones ocurren cuando lo que de repente es posible encuentra lo desesperadamente necesario. +He hablado sobre lo que es desesperadamente necesario. +Ahora hablemos sobre lo que de repente es posible. +Esto fue demostrado en tres grandes clases ofrecidas por Stanford, cada una con 100 000 o ms personas inscritas. +Para entenderlo, veamos una de ellas, Aprendizaje automtico, ofrecido por mi colega y cofundador Andrew Ng. +Andrew dicta una de las mayores clases en Stanford. +Es sobre Aprendizaje automtico con 400 estudiantes inscritos cada periodo. +Cuando Andrew ofreci la clase al pblico, se registraron 100 000 personas. +Pongamos la cantidad en perspectiva: para que Andrew alcanzara la misma audiencia en Stanford tendra que dictar la clase durante 250 aos. +Claro, se aburrira mucho. +Al haber visto este impacto, decidimos intentar llevarlo a una mayor escala, para llevar la mejor educacin a tantas personas como pudiramos. +As que creamos Coursera, cuyo objetivo es tomar las mejores clases de los mejores profesores de las mejores universidades, y ofrecerlas gratis a todo el mundo. +Actualmente tenemos 43 cursos en la plataforma, de cuatro universidades y varias disciplinas. Les mostrar cmo se ve a grandes rasgos. +Robert Ghrist: Bienvenidos a Clculo. +Ezekiel Emanuel: 50 millones carecen de seguro. +Scott Page: Los modelos permiten disear polticas ms efectivas. +Tenemos una segregacin increble. +Scott Klemmer: Bush imagin que en el futuro, llevaramos una cmara en la frente. +Mitchell Duneier: Mills desea que el estudiante de sociologa desarrolle las cualidades mentales +RG: Los cables colgantes adoptan la forma de un coseno hiperblico. +Nick Parlante: Fijen el rojo de cada pxel a cero. +Paul Offit: las vacunas permitieron erradicar el polio. +Dan Jurafsky: Lufthansa sirve desayunos y San Jos? Suena raro. +Daphne Koller: sta es la moneda elegida y stos los posibles resultados. +Andrew Ng: El objetivo del aprendizaje automtico, a gran escala, es +DK: Resulta, quiz no es una sorpresa, que a los estudiantes les gusta tener acceso gratuito a los mejores materiales de las mejores universidades. +Desde que abrimos el sitio Web en febrero, hemos tenido 640 000 estudiantes de 190 pases. +Tenemos 1,5 millones de matrculas, 6 millones de exmenes en los 15 cursos impartidos y se han visto 14 millones de videos. +Pero no se trata solo de las cifras, sino tambin de las personas. +Bien sea Akash, que vive en un pequeo pueblo en India, y que nunca habra tenido acceso a un curso de la calidad de uno de Stanford ni habra podido costearlo. +O Jenny, madre soltera de dos, que desea mejorar sus habilidades para poder reanudar y terminar su maestra. +O Ryan, que no puede ir a la escuela porque su hija con inmunodeficiencia no puede exponerse a los grmenes que entran a la casa, as que l no puede salir de su casa. +Me da gusto decir hemos mantenido contacto con Ryan que la historia tiene un final feliz. +La pequea Shannon, a la izquierda, est mucho mejor, y Ryan consigui un empleo por formarse en algunos de nuestros cursos. +Qu hizo estos cursos tan diferentes? +Si bien los cursos en lnea han estado disponibles durante un tiempo +la diferencia estuvo en que estos recreaban la experiencia de una clase real. +Empezaban en un da determinado, los estudiantes vean los videos sobre una base semanal y se les asignaban tareas. +Tareas reales con valor para una calificacin real y una fecha de entrega definida. +Aqu ven las fechas lmite y el grfico de uso del sitio. +Estos picos demuestran que el posponer es un fenmeno global. +Al final del curso los estudiantes recibieron un certificado. +Lo podan presentar a un posible empleador para obtener un mejor empleo, y conocemos a muchos que lo hicieron. +Algunos lo presentaron en su institucin educativa para validar crditos. +As que los estudiantes obtuvieron algo valioso a cambio de su tiempo y esfuerzo. +Ahora hablemos sobre algunos componentes de estos cursos. +El primero es que cuando se dejan atrs las restricciones fsicas del aula y se disean contenidos explcitamente para una clase virtual, se puede escapar, por ejemplo, del inflexible formato de una hora. +Puedes fraccionar el material, por ejemplo, en unidades cortas de entre 8 y 12 minutos, que constituyen cada una un concepto coherente. +Los estudiantes pueden revisar el material de diferentes formas, dependiendo de sus conocimientos previos, habilidades e intereses. +Por ejemplo, algunos se benefician del material preparatorio que otros ya conocen. +Otros pueden estar interesados en un tema particular que quieren seguir de forma individual. +Este formato nos permite abandonar el modelo educativo en que todo es igual para todos y permite a los estudiantes seguir un currculo ms personalizado. +Por supuesto, como educadores sabemos que no se aprende viendo videos de forma pasiva. +Quiz uno de los mayores componentes del proyecto es que necesitamos tener estudiantes que practiquen con el material para asegurar su comprensin. +Numerosos estudios han demostrado la importancia de esto. +Este, que apareci en Science el ao pasado, por ejemplo, demuestra que incluso el simple repaso de retencin, que consiste en solo repetir lo aprendido, produce una mejora considerable en los resultados de varias pruebas de rendimiento, superando otro tipo de intervenciones didcticas. +Tratamos de incorporar el repaso de retencin, entre otras formas de prctica. +Por ejemplo, nuestros videos son ms que videos. +Cada pocos minutos hay una pausa y se plantea una pregunta. +SP: Teora de la perspectiva, descuento hiperblico, sesgo del statu quo y sesgo de conocimiento previo, +son desviaciones cognoscitivas bien documentadas del pensamiento racional. +DK: Aqu viene una pausa, el estudiante escribe su respuesta en el recuadro y la enva. Obviamente no puso atencin. +As que intenta de nuevo y esta vez acierta. +Si lo desea, puede revisar la explicacin. +Ahora el video contina. +La clase contina y la mayora ni siquiera nota que hice una pregunta. +Aqu, cada estudiante debe interactuar con el contenido. +Desde luego, hay mucho ms que estas simples preguntas. +Se deben incorporar ejercicios ms significativos y retroalimentar a los estudiantes en todos ellos. +Cmo calificar el trabajo de 100 000 estudiantes si no se tienen 10 000 asistentes? +La respuesta es dejar a la tecnologa hacerlo por ti. +Y por fortuna, la tecnologa ahora nos permite evaluar una diversidad interesante de tareas. +Adems de las preguntas de opcin mltiple y de respuesta corta como la que mostr, podemos evaluar expresiones y derivaciones matemticas. +Podemos calificar modelos, bien sean financieros en una clase de negocios, o fsicos en una clase de ciencias o ingeniera, y tambin ejercicios sofisticados de programacin. +Les mostrar uno sencillo, pero muy visual. +Es de la clase Ciencias de la Computacin 101, de Stanford. Los estudiantes deben corregir el color de esta imagen roja borrosa. +Escriben su programa dentro del explorador, pero no muy bien, la Estatua de la Libertad an parece enferma. +As que intentan de nuevo y lo logran, y ahora pueden ir al siguiente ejercicio. +Esta posibilidad de interactuar activamente con el material y recibir evaluacin inmediata es esencial para el aprendizaje. +Aunque an no podemos evaluar por completo las actividades que se requieren en todos los cursos. +En especial, faltan las actividades de pensamiento crtico, tan esenciales en disciplinas como las humanidades, las ciencias sociales y los negocios. +Intentamos convencer a algunos profesores de humanidades, de que las preguntas de opcin mltiple, no eran tan mala estrategia. +Pero no funcion bien. +Tuvimos que idear otra solucin, +y llegamos a la evaluacin por pares. +De acuerdo a estudios previos, como este de Saddler y Good, la evaluacin por pares es una estrategia efectiva para conseguir calificaciones reproducibles. +Solo se ha usado en clases pequeas, pero se demostr, por ejemplo, que las calificaciones asignadas por alumnos, en el eje Y, estn muy bien correlacionadas con la calificacin asignada por el maestro, en el eje X. +An ms sorprendente es que las calificaciones autoasignadas, cuando los mismos estudiantes calificaron su trabajo, en tanto los incentivos sean apropiados y no puedan asignarse una calificacin perfecta tuvieran an mejor correlacin con la calificacin asignada por el maestro. +As que sta es una estrategia efectiva para calificar a gran escala y tambin para enriquecer el aprendizaje, pues los estudiantes aprenden de la experiencia. +Contamos con el mayor sistema de evaluacin por pares jams concebido, decenas de miles de estudiantes estn calificando el trabajo de sus compaeros y exitosamente, hay que decirlo. +Pero no se trata de tenerlos aislados en un cuarto resolviendo problemas. +En cada curso se form una comunidad de estudiantes. Son comunidades globales que comparten un esfuerzo intelectual. +Aqu ven un mapa generado por los estudiantes del curso Sociologa 101, de Princeton, donde marcaron su localizacin en un planisferio. Pueden apreciar el alcance global de la iniciativa. +Los estudiantes colaboraron entre ellos de varias formas. +Primero, haba un foro de preguntas y respuestas, donde algunos estudiantes planteaban sus dudas y otros las respondan. +Lo maravilloso es que, debido a la gran cantidad de alumnos, si alguno haca una pregunta a las 3 de la madrugada, en alguna parte del mundo alguien estaba despierto y trabajando en el mismo problema. +Por lo que en muchos de nuestros cursos el tiempo de respuesta promedio en el foro, era de 22 minutos. +Es un nivel de servicio que nunca he ofrecido a mis alumnos en Stanford. +Y pueden ver por sus testimonios, que estos estudiantes creen que debido a esta gran comunidad en lnea, pudieron interactuar unos con otros en varias formas ms profundas que las que haban tenido en un aula. +Adems, los estudiantes se organizaron sin nuestra intervencin en pequeos grupos de estudio. +Algunos se establecieron fsicamente a partir de limitaciones geogrficas, y se reunan cada semana a trabajar en los problemas. +ste es el grupo de San Francisco, pero los haba en todo el mundo. +Otros grupos eran virtuales, centrados alrededor de un idioma u otro elemento cultural. Y abajo, a la izquierda, pueden ver el grupo multicultural, cuyos miembros deseaban explcitamente interactuar con personas de otras culturas. +Hay enormes oportunidades en este tipo de contexto. +Primero, tiene el potencial de darnos una mirada sin precedente en el entendimiento del aprendizaje, +porque podemos recopilar informacin nica. +Se pueden recopilar todos los clics, tareas y entradas en el foro, de decenas de miles de estudiantes. +As, el estudio del aprendizaje puede pasar de estar fundamentado en hiptesis a estar fundamentado en datos, un cambio que, por ejemplo, revolucion la biologa. +Los datos pueden ayudar a responder preguntas fundamentales, como qu estrategias de aprendizaje son efectivas y cules no. +Y para cada curso particular se pueden preguntar cosas como, cules son las equivocaciones ms comunes y cmo ayudar a los estudiantes a corregirlas. +Aqu hay un ejemplo, tambin de la clase de Aprendizaje automtico, +es la distribucin de respuestas errneas de una de las tareas. +Las respuestas vinieron a ser pares de nmeros, por lo que se pudieron graficar en dos ejes. +Cada pequea cruz es una respuesta errada diferente. +La grande de arriba es de 2000 estudiantes que cometieron exactamente el mismo error. +Ahora, si dos estudiantes en una clase de 100 cometen el mismo error, puedes no percibirlo. +Pero cuando se trata de 2000 estudiantes, es imposible ignorarlo. +Esta personalizacin es posible gracias a la gran cantidad de informacin recopilada. +La personalizacin representa una de las mayores oportunidades aqu, porque nos da la posibilidad de resolver un problema de 30 aos. +En 1984, el investigador educacional, Benjamin Bloom plante el llamado problema de las dos sigmas, que observ al estudiar tres grupos de estudiantes. +El primero estudiaba en un aula tradicional, a base de conferencias. +El segundo tambin estudiaba a base de conferencias, pero con un enfoque dirigido a objetivos, de tal forma que los estudiantes no avanzaban sin antes dominar el tema anterior. Y en el ltimo grupo, un tutor daba +instruccin individual a los estudiantes. El grupo basado en aprendizaje dirigido a objetivos obtuvo +una desviacin estndar o una sigma, por encima del rendimiento del grupo corriente con clases basadas en conferencias. Y la instruccin individual produjo una mejora de dos sigmas en el rendimiento. Para entender qu significa, veamos la clase basada en conferencias y tomemos el valor medio como umbral. +As, en la clase basada en conferencias, la mitad est por encima de ese nivel y la otra mitad por debajo. +En el caso de la instruccin individual, el 98 % estar por encima de ese nivel. +Imaginen lograr que el 98 % de los estudiantes superara ese promedio. +De aqu el problema de las dos sigmas, +dado que no podemos costear, como sociedad, el darle a cada estudiante un tutor humano individual. +Pero quiz podamos darles una computadora o un telfono inteligente. +La pregunta es, cmo usar la tecnologa para ir de la zona izquierda, de la curva azul, a la zona derecha de la curva verde? +Es fcil dominar un tema usando una computadora, porque esta no se cansa de repetir el mismo video cinco veces, +ni siquiera de calificar una actividad muchas veces, como les he mostrado en muchos de los ejemplos. +Incluso estamos viendo los inicios de la instruccin personalizada, bien sea a travs del currculo o de la retroalimentacin personalizada. +La meta aqu es probar, impulsar y ver cunto nos acercamos a la curva verde. +As que, si esto es tan bueno, son obsoletas las universidades? +Bueno, as lo crea Mark Twain, +quien dijo: "La universidad es el lugar donde los apuntes del profesor van directo a los del estudiante, sin pasar por el cerebro de ninguno de ellos". +Sin embargo, me permito disentir de Mark Twain. +Creo que lo que criticaba no eran las universidades, sino las clases basadas en conferencias a las que estas dedican gran parte del tiempo. +As que retrocedamos, hasta Plutarco, quien dijo: " La mente no es un vaso por llenar, sino una lmpara por encender". +Quiz debamos dedicar menos tiempo a llenar de conferencias las mentes de los estudiantes y dedicar ms tiempo a encender su creatividad, su imaginacin y sus habilidades de resolucin de problemas, a partir de la interaccin genuina con ellos. +Cmo lograrlo? +Lo hacemos adoptando el aprendizaje activo. +Numerosos estudios, incluyendo ste, demuestran que si se emplea el aprendizaje activo, interactuando con los estudiantes en el aula, mejoran todos los indicadores de rendimiento: asistencia, compromiso y aprendizaje medidos en exmenes estandarizados. +Pueden ver que, por ejemplo, el nivel de logro mejora hasta el doble en este experimento. +Quiz as debamos usar el tiempo en las universidades. +En resumen, si pudiramos ofrecer educacin de calidad a todos en el mundo, gratuitamente, Qu supondra esto? Tres cosas. +Primero, la educacin se establecera como un derecho fundamental. Cualquier persona en el mundo con la capacidad y la motivacin, podra desarrollar las habilidades que necesitara para mejorar autnomamente su calidad de vida, la de su familia y su comunidad. +Segundo, permitira el aprendizaje continuo. +Es una lstima que para muchos el aprendizaje termine al completar la escuela secundaria o la universidad. +Al tener disponible esta asombrosa coleccin de cursos, es posible aprender algo nuevo cuando se desee, ya sea para expandir nuestras mentes o para cambiar nuestras vidas. +Por ltimo, impulsara una ola de innovacin, porque en todas partes hay talento asombroso. +Quiz el prximo Albert Einstein o el prximo Steve Jobs viva en una villa remota en frica. +Y si pudiramos ofrecerle una educacin, podra ser capaz de producir la nueva gran idea y hacer del mundo un lugar mejor para todos nosotros. +Muchsimas gracias. +En Oxford, en los aos 50, haba un doctora fantstica que era muy poco corriente llamada Alice Stewart. +Alice era poco corriente en parte, claro, por ser mujer, lo que era muy raro en los aos 50. +Era brillante, era en ese momento la miembro ms joven elegida por el Royal College of Physicians. +Era poco corriente tambin porque continu trabajando despus de casarse, de tener hijos. Incluso despus de divorciarse y quedar sola con sus hijos, continu su trabajo en medicina. +Y era poco corriente porque estaba realmente interesada en una nueva ciencia, el naciente campo de la epidemiologa, el estudio de los patrones de la enfermedad. +Pero, como todo cientfico, ella comprenda que para dejar huella necesitaba encontrar un problema complejo y resolverlo. +El problema complejo que Alice escogi fue el aumento en la incidencia de cncer en nios. +La mayora de las enfermedades se correlacionan con la pobreza, pero no es el caso del cncer en la niez, donde la mayora de nios que mueren, provienen de familias pudientes. +As que ella quera saber qu poda explicar esta anomala? +Alice tuvo problemas para conseguir fondos para su investigacin. +Al final, consigui apenas 1000 libras del premio Lady Tata Memorial, +lo que implicaba que tendra una nica oportunidad para recolectar sus datos. +Ahora bien, no saba dnde buscar. +Era una bsqueda tipo aguja en un pajar, as que pregunt todo lo que se le ocurri. +Comieron los nios dulces cocinados? +Tomaron bebidas con colorantes? +Comieron pescado o papas? +Tena baos dentro o fuera de la casa? +A qu edad comenzaron el colegio? +Y cuando las copias en carbn del cuestionario empezaron a llegar una cosa, y solo una cosa, sobresali con la claridad estadstica con la que la mayora de los cientficos suean. +Con una relacin de dos a uno, los nios que murieron haban tenido madres expuestas a rayos X durante el embarazo. +Los resultados desafiaron abiertamente la sabidura convencional. +La sabidura convencional sostena que todo era seguro hasta un cierto punto, un umbral. +Desafi la sabidura convencional que tena un gran entusiasmo por la nueva tecnologa del momento, que era la mquina de rayos X. +Y desafi la idea que los doctores tenan de s mismos, de que eran personas que ayudaban a los pacientes y nunca les hacan dao. +Con todo, Alice Stewart se apur a publicar sus hallazgos preliminares en The Lancet en 1956. +La gente estaba muy entusiasmada, hablaban del Premio Nobel, y Alice estaba realmente urgida por tratar de estudiar todos los casos de nios con cncer que pudiera encontrar antes de que desaparecieran. +De hecho, no necesitaba tener afn. +Esto fue 25 aos antes de que el cuerpo mdico britnico, britnico y estadounidense, abandonara la prctica de tomar rayos X en mujeres embarazadas. +Los datos estaban ah, abiertos, libremente disponibles pero nadie quera atenderlos. +Mora un nio a la semana, pero nada cambi. +La apertura sola no puede liderar el cambio. +As que durante 25 aos, Alice Stewart tuvo un problema muy grande entre manos: +cmo saba si estaba en lo correcto? +Bien, tena una forma estupenda de pensar. +Trabajaba con un estadstico llamado George Kneale que era todo lo que Alice no era. +A Alice le gustaba salir y ser sociable, y George era retraido. +Alice era muy clida, muy emptica con sus pacientes. +George francamente prefera los nmeros a las personas. +Pero dijo algo fantstico acerca de su relacin de trabajo: +"Mi trabajo es demostrar que la Dra. Stewart est equivocada". +Busc, activamente, refutarla. +Busc formas diferentes de analizar sus modelos, sus estadsticas, diferentes maneras de estrujar los datos, todo para refutarla. +Vio que su trabajo se trataba de crear conflicto en torno a sus teoras. +Porque era slo no pudiendo demostrar que estaba equivocada, que George podra dar a Alice la confianza que necesitaba para saber que tena razn. +Es un fantstico modelo de colaboracin: socios de pensamiento que no son eco uno del otro. +Me pregunto, cuntos de nosotros tenemos, o nos atreveramos a tener, esos colaboradores? +Alice y George fueron muy buenos para el conflicto. +Lo vieron como una forma de pensar. +As que, qu requiere ese tipo de conflicto constructivo? +Bueno, en primer lugar, requiere que encontremos personas que sean muy diferentes de nosotros mismos. +Eso significa que tenemos que resistir el impulso neurobiolgico, que nos lleva a realmente preferir personas como nosotros, y significa que tenemos que buscar personas con diferentes antecedentes, diferentes disciplinas, diferentes maneras de pensar y diferentes experiencias, y encontrar formas de colaborar con ellos. +Requiere mucha paciencia y mucha energa. +Cuanto ms pienso en esto, ms creo que, realmente, se trata de una especie de amor. +Porque uno simplemente no invierte tanta energa y tiempo si realmente no le importa. +Y tambin significa que tenemos que estar dispuestos a cambiar nuestras mentes. +La hija de Alice me dijo que cada vez que Alice se enfrentaba a un colega cientfico, estos le hicieron pensar y pensar, una y otra vez. +"Mi madre", dijo, "mi madre no disfruta pelear, pero era realmente buena en ello". +Una cosa es hacerlo en una relacin uno a uno, +pero me parece que los mayores problemas que enfrentamos, muchos de los desastres ms graves que hemos tenido, en su mayora no provienen de individuos, sino de organizaciones, algunas mayores que pases, muchas de ellas capaces de afectar a cientos, miles, incluso millones de vidas. +As que, cmo es que piensan las organizaciones? +Pues bien, la mayora no lo hacen. +Y no es porque no quieran, en realidad es porque no pueden. +Y no pueden porque la gente all teme mucho al conflicto. +En encuestas a ejecutivos europeos y americanos, todo un 85 % reconoci que tena problemas o preocupaciones en el trabajo, que tena miedo de dar a conocer. +Miedo del conflicto que se provocara, miedo a estar involucrados en discusiones que no saban cmo manejar, y que sentan que estaban condenados a perder. +85 % es un nmero muy grande. +Significa que la mayora de las organizaciones no pueden hacer lo que George y Alice hicieron tan exitosamente. +No pueden pensar juntos. +Y significa que personas como muchos de nosotros, que hemos dirigido organizaciones, y hemos intentado encontrar a las mejores personas posibles, mayormente fallamos en lograr lo mejor de ellas. +Cmo desarrollamos las habilidades que necesitamos? +Porque hace falta habilidad y prctica, tambin. +Si no vamos a tenerle miedo al conflicto, tenemos que verlo como una forma de pensar y luego tenemos que conseguir ser realmente buenos en ello. +Recientemente, trabaj con un ejecutivo llamado Joe, que trabajaba para una compaa de equipos mdicos. +Joe estaba muy preocupado por el equipo en que estaba trabajando. +Pensaba que era demasiado complicado y que su complejidad generaba mrgenes de error que realmente podran lastimar personas. +Tena miedo de hacer dao a los pacientes que intentaba ayudar. +Pero cuando mir alrededor de su organizacin, nadie pareca preocuparse en absoluto. +As que l realmente no quera decir nada. +Despus de todo, tal vez saban algo que l no saba. +Tal vez parecera un tonto. +Pero segua preocupado y tanto, que lleg hasta el punto en que pens que lo nico que poda hacer era renunciar al trabajo que amaba. +Al final, Joe y yo encontramos una manera para que planteara sus inquietudes. +Y lo que sucedi entonces es lo que casi siempre sucede en esta situacin. +Result que todo el mundo tena exactamente las mismas preguntas y dudas. +As que ahora Joe tena aliados. Podran pensar juntos. +Y s, hubo mucho debate y conflicto y discusiones, pero esto permiti que todos alrededor de la mesa fueran creativos, solucionaran problemas, y que modificaran el equipo. +Mucha gente pensara que Joe era una especie de sopln, excepto que, a diferencia de casi todos los soplones, l no era para nada un oportunista, era un devoto apasionado de su empresa y de los propsitos superiores que sta buscaba. +Pero haba tenido mucho miedo al conflicto, hasta que finalmente fue mayor su miedo al silencio. +Y cuando se atrevi a hablar, descubri mucho ms dentro de s mismo para aportar al sistema, de lo que l nunca haba imaginado. +Y sus colegas no creen que sea un oportunista. +Lo ven como lder. +As que, cmo podemos tener estas conversaciones ms fcilmente y ms a menudo? +Bueno, la Universidad de Delft exige que los estudiantes de doctorado tengan que presentar cinco informes que estn preparados para defender. +Realmente no importa el contenido de los informes, lo que importa es que los candidatos estn dispuestos y sean capaces de enfrentar a la autoridad. +Creo que es un sistema fantstico, pero creo que dejarlo para candidatos a doctorado es para muy pocas personas y muy tarde en la vida. +Creo que tenemos que ensear estas habilidades a nios y adultos en cada etapa de su desarrollo, si queremos tener organizaciones que piensen y una sociedad pensante. +El hecho es que la mayora de las grandes catstrofes de las que hemos sido testigos, rara vez vienen de informacin que es secreta u oculta. +Vienen de informacin que est disponible libremente pero a la que somos intencionalmente ciegos, porque no podemos o no queremos afrontar el conflicto que esto provoca. +Pero cuando nos atrevemos a romper ese silencio, o cuando nos atrevemos a ver, y creamos el conflicto, nos habilitamos a nosotros y quienes nos rodean para nuestro mejor pensamiento. +La informacin abierta es fantstica, las redes abiertas son esenciales. +Pero la verdad no nos liberar hasta que desarrollemos las habilidades, el hbito, el talento y el coraje moral para utilizarla. +La apertura no es el fin. +Es el comienzo. +Empezaremos en 1964. +Bob Dylan tiene 23 aos y su carrera acaba de llegar a la cima. +Ha sido bautizado como la voz de una generacin y produce canciones clsicas a una velocidad aparentemente imposible, pero hay una pequea minora de disidentes que afirman que Bob Dylan le roba canciones a otra gente. +2004. Brian Burton, alias Danger Mouse, toma el "lbum blanco" de los Beatles lo combina con "El lbum negro" de Jay-Z para crear "El lbum gris". +"El lbum gris" suscita un inters inmediato en lnea y la casa discogrfica de los Beatles enva un sinnmero de cartas para detener la "competencia desleal y el deterioro de nuestra valiosa propiedad". +"El lbum gris" es un remix. +Son medios nuevos creados a partir de los viejos. +Se hizo usando estas tres tcnicas: copiar, transformar y combinar. +As se hace un remix. Tomas canciones existentes, las cortas, transformas las partes, las combinas nuevamente y tienes una nueva cancin, pero esa nueva cancin claramente se compone de canciones viejas. +Pero creo que estos no son solo los componentes de un remix. +Creo que son los elementos bsicos de toda creatividad. +Creo que todo es un remix y creo que esta es una mejor manera de concebir la creatividad. +Bueno, volvamos a 1964 y escuchemos de dnde vienen las primeras canciones de Dylan. +Haremos una confrontacin directa. +Bueno, la primera cancin que escucharemos es "Nottamun Town". Es una cancin popular tradicional. +Luego, escucharemos "Masters of War" de Dylan. +La ltima es "Who's Going To Buy You Ribbons", otra cancin popular tradicional. +A su lado est "Don't Think Twice, It's All Right". +Esta tiene ms que ver con la letra. +Se estima que dos tercios de las melodas usadas por Dylan en sus primeras canciones eran prestadas. +Es bastante normal entre los cantantes de folk. +Este es el consejo del dolo de Dylan, Woody Guthrie. +"Lo importante son las palabras. +No se preocupen por la meloda. Tomen una, canten alto si ellos cantan bajo, canten rpido si ellos cantan lento, y ya tienen una nueva meloda". +Esto es lo que hizo Guthrie y seguro que todos reconocen los resultados. +Conocemos la meloda, no? +En realidad, no. +Esta es "When the World's on Fire", una vieja meloda, en este caso ejecutada por la Familia Carter. +Guthrie la adapt en "This Land Is Your Land". +Bob Dylan, como todo cantante de folk, copi melodas las transform, las combin con nuevas letras que con frecuencia eran una mezcla de material previo. +Las leyes estadounidenses de copyright y patentes van en contra de esta idea de basarse en el trabajo de otros. +El resto del mundo tiene leyes con una extraa analoga respecto de la propiedad. +Los trabajos creativos implican una especie de propiedad, pero una propiedad construida por todos y las creaciones pueden echar races y crecer una vez que el terreno est preparado. +Henry Ford una vez dijo: "No invent nada nuevo. +Simplemente junt los descubrimientos de otros hombres que trabajaron en eso durante siglos. +El progreso ocurre cuando todos los factores que lo constituyen estn listos y entonces es inevitable". +2007. Es el debut del iPhone. +Apple sin dudas aporta pronto esta innovacin pero el momento se acercaba porque su tecnologa de base haba evolucionado durante dcadas. +El multi-touch es controlar un dispositivo tocando la pantalla. +Aqu est Steve Jobs presentando el multi-touch y haciendo una broma un poco proftica. +Steve Jobs: Hemos inventado una nueva tecnologa llamada multi-touch. +Sobre ella se pueden hacer gestos con varios dedos y, muchachos, la patentamos. KF: S. Aqu est el multi-touch en accin. +Esto es en TED, en realidad, un ao antes. +Este es Jeff Han y, digo, eso es multi-touch. +Al menos, es lo mismo. +Escuchemos lo que tiene para decir Jeff Han de esta tecnologa ultramoderna. +Jeff Han: el multi-touch no es algo... no es algo muy novedoso. Digo, personas como Bill Buxton juegan con esto desde los aos 80. +La tecnologa aqu no es lo ms impresionante sino ms bien su recin descubierta accesibilidad. +KF: Es bastante sincero al decir que no es algo nuevo. +As que no se patenta el multi-touch como un todo. +Son las pequeas partes lo que se patenta y es en esos pequeos detalles donde se ve claramente que las leyes de patentes contradicen su propsito: promover el progreso de las artes tiles. +Este es el primer "deslizar para desbloquear". +Eso es todo. Apple patent esto. +Es una patente de 28 pginas pero todo se resumir a, les cuento el final, desbloquear el telfono deslizando un cono con el dedo. Estoy exagerando un poco. Es una patente amplia. +Ahora, puede alguien poseer esta idea? +Volviendo a los aos 80, no haba patentes de software y Xerox fue la pionera de las interfaces grficas de usuario. +Y si hubieran patentando los mens emergentes, las barras de desplazamiento, los conos de las carpetas y las hojas de papel? +Habra sobrevivido una joven e inexperta Apple los embates legales de una compaa ms grande y ms madura como Xerox? +Esta idea de que todo es un remix podra sonar a sentido comn hasta que nos hagan un remix a nosotros. +Por ejemplo... +SJ: Digo, Picasso tena un dicho. +Deca: "Los buenos artistas copian. Los grandes roban". +Y nosotros, ya saben, siempre hemos robado grandes ideas sin vergenza. +KF: Bueno, eso es en 1996. Aqu est en 2010: +"Voy a destruir a Android porque es un producto robado". +"Estoy dispuesto a una guerra termonuclear". Bueno, en otras palabras, los grandes artistas roban, pero no a m. +Los economistas del comportamiento lo llaman aversin a la prdida. Tenemos una fuerte predisposicin a proteger lo que sentimos propio. +No tenemos esa aversin a copiar lo de otras personas, porque lo hacemos sin cesar. +Esta es la ecuacin que estamos viendo. +Tenemos leyes que tratan las obras creativas como propiedad, ms enormes recompensas o acuerdos en casos de infracciones, ms enormes gastos legales para defenderse en tribunales, ms prejuicios cognitivos sobre la prdida percibida. +Y al final se obtiene esto. +Estos son los ltimos cuatro aos de juicios en los telfonos inteligentes. +Promueve esto el progreso de las artes tiles? +1983. Bob Dylan tiene 42 aos, y su cuarto de hora en los medios pas hace tiempo. +Graba una cancin llamada "Blind Willie McTell", en honor al cantante de blues; la cancin es un viaje al pasado, en un perodo mucho ms oscuro, pero ms simple, un perodo en el que msicos como Willie McTell tenan pocas ilusiones sobre lo que hacan. +"Lo tomo de otros compositores, pero con arreglos a mi manera". +Creo que es la esencia de lo que hacemos. +Nuestra creatividad viene de afuera, no de adentro. +No lo hacemos solos. Dependemos unos de otros y admitirlo no quiere decir aceptar la mediocridad y la derivacin. +Es una liberacin de nuestros prejuicios y un incentivo para no esperar demasiado de nosotros mismos y simplemente empezar. +Muchas gracias. Fue un honor estar aqu. +Gracias. Gracias. Gracias. Gracias. +Hace dos aos, me invitaron como artista a participar en una muestra que celebraba 100 aos de arte islmico en Europa. +El curador puso una nica condicin: que usara la escritura rabe en mi obra. +Ahora, como artista, mujer, rabe, o ser humano que habitaba el mundo en 2010 slo tena una cosa que decir: quera decir no. +Y en rabe para decir "no" decimos, "no y mil veces no". +Por eso decid buscar mil noes diferentes +impresos en cada objeto producido bajo mecenazgo islmico en los ltimos 1400 aos, desde Espaa hasta las fronteras de China. +Recopil mis hallazgos en un libro, en orden cronolgico, indicando el nombre, el mecenas, el medio y la fecha. +El libro estaba en un pequeo estante junto a la instalacin de 3 por 7 metros, en Munich, Alemania, en septiembre de 2010. +En enero de 2011 comenz la revolucin y la vida se detuvo durante 18 das. El 12 de febrero ingenuamente celebramos en las calles de El Cairo creyendo que haba triunfado la revolucin. +Nueve meses despus yo estaba pintando mensajes en la plaza Tahrir. La razn fue esta imagen que vi en mi feed de noticias. +Sent que no podra vivir en una ciudad donde mataran a las personas y las arrojaran como basura a la calle. +Tom el "no" de una lpida del Museo Islmico de El Cairo y le aad un mensaje: "no al gobierno militar". +Y empec a pintar esto en las calles de El Cairo. +Eso llev a que salieran del libro una serie de noes como si fueran municiones, aadindole mensajes, y empec a pintarlos en las paredes. +Compartir algunos de esos noes con Uds. +No a un nuevo faran, porque quien viniera despus debera entender que nunca ms nos gobernara otro dictador. +No a la violencia: Ramy Essam vino a Tahrir el segundo da de la revolucin y all se sent a tocar la guitarra y a cantar. +Un mes despus renunci Mubarak; esta fue su recompensa. +No a los hroes ciegos. Ahmed Harara perdi su ojo derecho el 28 de enero y su ojo izquierdo el 19 de noviembre a manos de dos francotiradores diferentes. +No a la matanza, en este caso de religiosos, porque mataron a Sheikh Ahmed Adina Refaat el 16 de diciembre en una manifestacin, dejando una viuda y tres hurfanos. +No a la quema de libros. Ardi el Instituto Egipcio el 17 de diciembre, una gran prdida cultural. +No al desnudo de las personas; el sujetador azul es para recordarnos nuestra vergenza como nacin cuando permitimos que desnuden a una mujer con velo y la golpeen en la calle y en la huella se lee: "larga vida a una revolucin pacfica!", porque nunca vamos a responder con violencia. +No a los muros de contencin. El 5 de febrero instalaron bloques de cemento en El Cairo para proteger al Ministerio de Defensa de los manifestantes. +Y, hablando de muros, quiero compartir con Uds. la historia de un muro de El Cairo. +Un grupo de artistas decidi pintar un tanque de tamao natural en un muro. Escala uno a uno. +Frente a este tanque hay un hombre en bicicleta con un cesto en la cabeza. Para cualquier transente esta escena no crea problemas. +Despus de actos de violencia, otro artista pint sangre, manifestantes atropellados por el tanque, y el siguiente mensaje: "A partir de maana, me pongo el nuevo rostro, el rostro de cada mrtir. Existo". +Viene la autoridad, pinta el muro de blanco, deja el tanque y aade el mensaje: "El ejrcito y el pueblo, una sola mano. Egipto para los egipcios". +Viene otro artista, pinta al jefe de las fuerzas armadas como un monstruo que come una doncella en un ro de sangre en frente del tanque. +Viene la autoridad, pinta el muro de blanco, deja el tanque, deja el traje, y arroja un cubo de pintura negra para ocultar la cara del monstruo. +Yo vine con mis plantillas, y pint sobre el traje, sobre el tanque y en todo el muro y as est hoy hasta nuevo aviso. Ahora, quiero dejarles un no final. +En un trozo de papel encontr un escrito de Neruda en un hospital de campaa en Tahrir y decid tomar un no del Mausoleo Mamluk de El Cairo. +El mensaje dice as: "Podrn cortar todas las flores, pero no podrn detener la primavera". +Gracias. Gracias. Shukran. +La voluntad de vivir la vida de manera diferente puede empezar en algunos de los lugares ms inusuales. +Yo vengo de Todmorden. +Es un pueblo comercial del norte de Inglaterra de 15 000 habitantes, entre Leeds y Manchester, un pueblo bastante normal. +Sola verse as y ahora tiene este aspecto; con una irrupcin de frutas, vegetales e hierbas en todos lados. +Lo llamamos jardinera de propaganda. La esquina del ferrocarril, un estacionamiento, frente del centro mdico, jardines privados e incluso frente a la polica. Tenemos caminos de sirga comestibles y cementerios que germinan. +El suelo es muy bueno all. Incluso hemos inventado una nueva forma de turismo. +Se llama turismo vegetal y, crase o no, viene gente de todo el mundo a ver nuestros canteros, incluso si no crecen mucho. Pero genera conversacin. Y no lo hacemos porque estamos aburridos. Lo hacemos porque queremos empezar una revolucin. +Tratamos de responder esta simple pregunta: Puede encontrarse un lenguaje unificado que trascienda la edad, el ingreso, la cultura, que ayude a las personas a encontrar un nuevo modo de vida, ver los espacios circundantes de modo diferente, pensar de otra forma los recursos que usamos, e interactuar en forma diferente? +Podemos encontrar ese lenguaje? +Luego, podemos replicar esas acciones? +Y la respuesta parece ser que s, y el lenguaje parecen ser los alimentos. +As, hace tres aos y medio algunos de nosotros reunidos en torno a una mesa de cocina inventamos toda esta cuestin. Pensamos un plan de juego muy simple que propusimos en un encuentro pblico. +No pedimos consejos. No hicimos un informe. +Imaginemos esos platos agitados con acciones comunitarias en torno a la comida. +Si empezamos a hacer girar esos platos comunitarios es fantstico, eso empieza a darle poder a las personas pero si luego podemos mezclar ese plato comunitario con el plato educativo y luego con el plato comercial, es un verdadero espectculo, hay accin verdadera. +Empezamos a crear resiliencia propia. +Empezamos a reinventarnos la comunidad y lo hicimos sin un documento estratgico de rotacin. +Y esta es la cuestin tambin. +As que volviendo al encuentro pblico. Hicimos la propuesta en el encuentro, dos segundos, y luego la sala explot. +Nunca antes en mi vida haba vivido algo as. +Ha ocurrido lo mismo en cada sala, en cada pueblo en el que contamos la historia. +Las personas estn listas y responden a la historia de la comida. +Quieren acciones positivas en las que ocuparse y dentro de s saben que ahora es el momento de asumir la responsabilidad personal e invertir en ms amabilidad mutua y con el ambiente. +Y desde que tuvimos ese encuentro hace tres aos y medio todo ha sido una montaa rusa. +Empezamos con un intercambio de semillas, algo muy simple, luego tomamos un pedazo de tierra, una franja del borde de nuestra calle principal, que bsicamente tena heces de perros y lo convertimos en un jardn de hierbas realmente encantador. +Tomamos la esquina de la estacin, que all ven, e hicimos canteros para compartir, de los que todos pueden servirse. +Fuimos a los mdicos. Acababan de construir un centro de 6 millones de libras en Todmorden, y por alguna razn que no puedo entender, fue rodeado con plantas espinosas. Le preguntamos a los mdicos: "Les molestara si nos ocupamos nosotros?" +Dijeron: "Perfecto, si tienen la licencia urbanstica y lo hacen en latn por triplicado"; lo hicimos y ahora hay rboles frutales, arbustos, hierbas y verduras alrededor del centro mdico. +Y ha habido muchos otros ejemplos, como el maz que estaba en frente de la estacin de polica y el hogar de ancianos que hemos plantado con alimentos que ellos pueden tomar y cultivar. +Pero no se trata slo de cultivar porque todos somos parte de este rompecabezas. +Tiene que ver con compartir e invertir en amabilidad. +Y para quienes no quieren hacer ni una cosa ni la otra, quiz puedan cocinar; as que los recogemos en temporada y luego salimos a la calle, o al pub, o a al templo, o donde sea que las personas vivan sus vidas. +Se trata de ir hasta la gente y decirles: "Todos somos parte del rompecabezas alimenticio, todos somos parte de la solucin". +Y luego, como sabemos que tenemos turistas de vegetales y nos encanta verlos porque son absolutamente fantsticos, pensamos, qu podemos hacer para que tengan una mejor experiencia? +Por eso inventamos, sin preguntar por supuesto, la Increble Va Verde Comestible. +Y luego viene el segundo plato, el educativo. +Bueno, colaboramos con una escuela secundaria. +Un centro de jardinera local nos don un terreno. +Estaba cubierto de lodo, pero de manera increble, en forma totalmente voluntaria, lo convertimos en un centro comercial de formacin en jardines, y all hay politneles, canteros y todas las cosas necesarias para meter las manos en la tierra y pensar que quiz ese pueda ser un trabajo para m en el futuro. +Y dado que hacamos eso, algunos acadmicos locales dijeron: "Saben, podemos ayudarles a disear un curso de horticultura comercial. +No conocemos ninguno". +As que lo estn haciendo y lo lanzaremos a fin de ao; es todo un experimento y todo es voluntario. +Pero solo somos un grupo comunitario. +Somos todos voluntarios. Qu podamos hacer realmente? +Hicimos cosas muy simples. +Recaudamos fondos, compramos algunas pizarras, pusimos arriba "Comestible Increble"; se lo entregamos a cada comerciante que vendiera localmente y ellos garabateaban algo que vendieran en la semana. +Realmente popular. Las personas se congregaron alrededor. +Aumentaron las ventas. +As que lanzamos una campaa -porque me divierte- llamada Cada Huevo Cuenta. Y pusimos a la gente en nuestro plano de huevos. +Es un mapa estilizado de Togmorden. +Tenemos cada vez ms puestos en el mercado local de alimentos, y en una encuesta de los estudiantes locales, el 49 % de los comerciantes del pueblo dijeron que se ha incrementado el comercio debido a lo que estamos haciendo. +Y solo somos voluntarios que hacen un experimento. +Pero nada de esto es muy complicado. +Ciertamente, no es inteligente, ni es original. +Pero s nos une y es inclusivo. +Este no es un movimiento para esas personas que de todos modos encontrarn una solucin. +Este es un movimiento para todos. +Tenemos un lema: si comes, perteneces. Atraviesa edades, ingresos y culturas. +La experiencia ha sido una verdadera montaa rusa pero volviendo a esa primera pregunta que nos hicimos: Es replicable? S. Sin dudas es replicable. +Ms de 30 ciudades de Inglaterra ya tienen platos Comestibles Increbles. +Como sea que deseen hacerlo, por su propia voluntad, estn tratando de hacer sus vidas de modo diferente y tenemos comunidades en todo el mundo: en Amrica y Japn, es increble, no? Digo, Amrica, Japn y Nueva Zelanda. +Nos visit la gente despus del terremoto de Nueva Zelanda para incorporar parte de esta iniciativa pblica en cultivos locales en el corazn de Christchurch. +Y nada de esto requiere dinero adicional ni tampoco burocracia, pero s pensar de manera diferente y estar preparado para duplicar presupuestos y programas de trabajo para crear ese marco de apoyo que las comunidades pueden compartir. +Y ya hay algunas ideas geniales en nuestro terreno. +Las autoridades locales decidieron llevar a todos lados Comestible Increble y para apoyarlo han decidido hacer dos cosas. +En primer lugar, van a crear un registro de tierras libres que ellos tienen y ponerlas en un banco alimenticio para que las comunidades puedan usarlas dondequiera que vivan y van a sostenerlo con una licencia. +Y le pidieron a todos y cada uno de sus trabajadores que, si pueden, ayuden a esas comunidades y ayuden a mantener sus espacios. +De repente, estamos viendo acciones en el terreno del gobierno local. Se est popularizando. +Al fin estamos respondiendo de manera creativa al pedido de Ro y hay mucho ms por hacer. +Digo, por citar algunas cosas, por favor dejen de poner plantas espinosas alrededor de los edificios pblicos. Es un desperdicio de espacio. +Segundo, por favor creen... por favor, creen paisajes comestibles para que nuestros hijos empiecen a caminar y ver su comida en el da a da por nuestras calles en los parques, donde sea. +Inspiren a los planificadores locales para que pongan sitios de comida en el centro del pueblo y en el plan urbano, que no los releguen a zonas marginales que nadie puede ver. +Alienten a las escuelas a que lo tomen en serio. +Esto no es un ejercicio de segundo grado. +Si queremos inspirar a los granjeros del maana entonces por favor digmosle a cada escuela que cree un sentido de propsito en torno a la importancia del ambiente, de la comida local y de los suelos. +Pongan eso en el corazn de la cultura escolar y crearn una generacin diferente. +Hay tantas cosas que pueden hacerse pero, en ltima instancia, se trata de algo muy simple. +Mediante un proceso orgnico, con un creciente reconocimiento del poder de las pequeas acciones, estamos empezando, al fin, a creer en nosotros mismos otra vez y a creer en nuestra capacidad, todos y cada uno de nosotros, para construir un futuro diferente, ms amable, y en mi libro, eso es increble. +Gracias. Muchas gracias. +En 50 aos de tentativas para evitar las guerras, hay una pregunta que me persigue: Cmo lidiar con la violencia extrema sin recurrir a la fuerza a cambio? +Cuando nos enfrentamos a la brutalidad, ya sea cuando un nio se enfrenta a un agresor en un patio de recreo o violencia domstica o en las calles de Siria hoy, al enfrentar tanques y metralla. Qu es lo ms efectivo? +Pelear? Rendirse? +Utilizar ms fuerza? +Esta pregunta: Cmo puedo lidiar con un agresor sin convertirme en uno? +me persigue desde nia. +Recuerdo que tena unos 13 aos, estaba pegada a un televisor en blanco y negro de imagen granulosa en la sala de mis padres cuando los tanques soviticos llegaron a Budapest y unos nios no muy mayores que yo se arrojaban a los tanques para que estos les pasaran por encima. +Sub corriendo las escaleras y comenc a empacar. +Y mi madre se acerc y me dijo: Qu crees que ests haciendo?. +Y le dije: Voy a Budapest. +Y ella dijo: Para qu?. +Y le dije: Hay nios que estn muriendo all. +Algo terrible sucede. +Y ella dijo: No seas tan tonta. +Y me puse a llorar. +Y ella entendi, me dijo: Est bien, veo que es grave. +Eres demasiado joven como para ayudar. +Necesitas formacin. Te ayudar, +pero ahora deshaz tu maleta. +As que empec a formarme y viaj y trabaj en frica durante la mayor parte del perodo entre mis 20 y 30 aos. +Me di cuenta de que lo que realmente necesitaba saber no se enseaba en los cursos de capacitacin. +Quera entender cmo funciona la violencia, la opresin. +Y esto es lo que descubr desde entonces: Los agresores usan la violencia de 3 formas. +Usan la violencia poltica para intimidar, la violencia fsica para aterrorizar y la violencia mental o emocional para socavar. +Y escasamente solo en muy pocos casos, el recurso a ms violencia puede funcionar. +Nelson Mandela crea en la violencia cuando fue a la crcel, y 27 aos despus l y sus colegas fueron, lentamente y con cuidado, perfeccionando los conocimientos, las competencias increbles que necesitaban para convertir uno de los gobiernos ms crueles que haya conocido el mundo en una democracia. +Y lo hicieron con una devocin total a la no violencia. +Se dieron cuenta de que el uso de la fuerza contra la fuerza no funciona. +As que qu funciona? +Con el tiempo, he recogido una media docena de mtodos que s funcionan por supuesto que hay muchos ms que s funcionan y que son eficaces. +Y el primero es que el cambio que debe ocurrir ha de tener lugar aqu, en mi interior. +Es mi respuesta, mi actitud a la opresin la que puedo controlar y sobre la cual puedo hacer algo. +Y para lograrlo necesito conocerme a m misma. +Esto significa que necesito saber qu me hace enojar?, cundo me derrumbo?, dnde estn mis puntos fuertes y dnde mis puntos dbiles? +Cundo me rindo? +Por qu ideal luchara? +Y la meditacin o la autoinspeccin es una de las maneras nuevamente, no es la nica es una de las maneras de adquirir este tipo de poder interior. +Y mi herona aqu como la de Satish es Aung San Suu Kyi en Birmania. +Ella lideraba a un grupo de estudiantes en una protesta en las calles de Rangn. +Llegaron a una esquina frente a una fila de ametralladoras. +Y enseguida, se dio cuenta de que los soldados, con sus dedos temblorosos apuntando en los gatillos, estaban ms asustados que los manifestantes estudiantiles detrs de ella. +Pero ella les dijo a los estudiantes que se sentaran. +Y avanz con tal calma y firmeza y una total falta de miedo que pudo caminar directamente hasta el primer fusil, puso su mano sobre este y lo baj. +Y nadie result muerto. +Eso es lo que se puede lograr cuando se domina al miedo; no solo frente a ametralladoras, sino tambin frente a una lucha callejera a cuchillo. +Pero tenemos que practicar. +Y qu hay sobre nuestro miedo? +Tengo un pequeo mantra. +Mi temor crece gracias a la energa que le dedico. +Y si llega a ser muy grande, probablemente se materialice. +Todos conocemos el sndrome de las 3 de la maana, cuando algo que ha estado preocupndonos nos despierta a muchos de nosotros durante una hora, damos vueltas en la cama y se pone cada vez peor; para las 4 a.m. estamos pegados a la almohada con un monstruo as de grande. +Lo nico que queda por hacer es levantarse, preparar una taza de t y sentarse con el miedo a un lado, como si fuese un nio. +T eres el adulto. +El miedo es el nio. +Y hablas con el miedo y le preguntas lo que quiere, lo que necesita. +Cmo puede mejorar la situacin? +Cmo el nio puede sentirse ms fuerte? +Y haces un plan. +Y dices: Bueno, ahora vamos a dormir nuevamente. +Pasadas las 7:30 a.m, nos levantamos y esto es lo que vamos a hacer. +El domingo tuve uno de estos episodios de las 3 a.m., paralizada con miedo por venir a hablar con ustedes. +As que lo hice. +Me levant, prepar la taza de t, me sent con l, lo hice todo y aqu estoy, todava parcialmente paralizada, pero aqu estoy. +Eso es miedo. Qu hay sobre la ira? +Donde hay injusticia hay ira. +Pero la ira es como la gasolina y si usted la roca a su alrededor y alguien enciende un fsforo, se desencadena un infierno. +Pero la ira como motor en un motor es poderosa. +Si podemos usar nuestra ira en un motor, nos puede conducir hacia adelante, nos puede ayudar a superar momentos terribles y nos puede dar verdadera fuerza interior. +Aprend esto en mi trabajo con los legisladores de armas nucleares. +Al principio estaba tan indignada por los peligros a los que nos exponan que solo quera discutir, culparlos y mostrarles sus errores. +Totalmente ineficaz. +Para crear un dilogo para el cambio tenemos que manejar nuestra ira. +Est bien estar enojado con algo las armas nucleares en este caso pero no tiene sentido estar enojado con la gente. +Son seres humanos como nosotros. +Y estn haciendo lo que ellos piensan que es mejor. +Y esa es la base sobre la cual tenemos que dialogar. +As que ese es el tercero, la ira. +Y eso me lleva al punto crucial de lo que est pasando, o lo que percibo que pasa en el mundo de hoy, este ltimo siglo tuvo una estructura de poder de arriba hacia abajo. +Todava haba gobiernos que le decan a la gente lo que tena que hacer. +En este siglo hay un cambio. +La estructura de poder va de abajo hacia arriba. +Es como los hongos abrindose paso a travs del cemento. +Las personas se renen, como dijo Bundy, incluso a kilmetros de distancia, para lograr cambios. +Y Peace Direct se dio cuenta rpidamente de que la gente de las zonas de grandes conflictos sabe qu hacer. +Son los que mejor saben qu hacer. +Peace Direct los apoya para que lo logren. +Y el tipo de cosas que hacen incluye desmovilizacin de milicias, reconstruccin de economas, reubicacin de refugiados, e incluso liberacin de nios soldados. +Y tienen que arriesgar sus vidas casi a diario para lograrlo. +Y se han dado cuenta de que el uso de la violencia en esas situaciones no solo es menos humano, sino que es menos eficaz que los mtodos que unen a la gente, que reconstruyen. +Y creo que el ejrcito estadounidense finalmente est empezando a entender esto. +Hasta ahora su poltica de lucha contra el terrorismo ha consistido en matar a insurgentes casi a cualquier precio, y si caen civiles, los reportan como daos colaterales. +Y esto es tan exasperante y humillante para la poblacin de Afganistn, que hace que el reclutamiento para al-Qaeda sea muy fcil, cuando, por ejemplo, las personas se indignan cuando las tropas queman el Corn. +As que el entrenamiento de las tropas tiene que cambiar. +Y creo que hay seales de que ya est empezando a cambiar. +Los militares britnicos han sido siempre mucho mejores en esto. +Tienen un magnfico ejemplo que los inspira; es el brillante Teniente Coronel estadounidense llamado Chris Hughes. +l diriga a sus hombres por las calles de Nayaf en Irak y de repente la gente sali de sus casas y se amonton a ambos lados de la calle, gritando, insultando, tremendamente enojados, y rodearon a estas tropas de jvenes que estaban completamente aterrorizados, no saban lo que estaba pasando y no hablaban rabe. +Y Chris Hughes se abri paso por en medio de la muchedumbre con el arma por encima de la cabeza, apuntando hacia el suelo, y les dijo: Arrodllense. +Y estos soldados enormes con sus mochilas y trajes antibalas, tambalearon al suelo. +Y todo qued en completo silencio. +Y despus de 2 minutos, todos se dispersaron y se fueron a sus casas. +Para m, esto es sabidura en accin. +Eso fue lo que practic en ese momento. +Y ahora sucede en todas partes. +No me creen? +Se han preguntado por qu y cmo han cado tantas dictaduras en los ltimos 30 aos? +Dictaduras en Checoslovaquia, Alemania Oriental, Estonia, Letonia, Lituania, Mal, Madagascar, Polonia, Filipinas, Serbia, Eslovenia, podra continuar, y ahora Tnez y Egipto. +Y esto no ha sucedido de la nada. +Mucho se debe a un libro escrito por un hombre de 80 aos de Boston, Gene Sharp. +Escribi un libro llamado De la dictadura a la democracia con 81 metodologas para la resistencia no violenta. +Est traducido a 26 idiomas. +Circula alrededor del mundo +y lo leen jvenes y viejos de todas partes porque funciona y es eficaz. +Y esto es lo que me alienta, no es solo esperanza, sino que me siento positiva con lo que pasa en la actualidad. +Porque finalmente los seres humanos estn entendiendo +que contamos con metodologas prcticas y factibles para responder a mi pregunta: Cmo lidiar con un agresor sin convertirse en otro agresor? +Estamos usando el tipo de competencias que he resumido: poder interior desarrollo de este poder a travs del conocimiento de nosotros mismos, reconocer y trabajar con nuestro miedo, usar la ira como combustible, cooperar con los dems, hacer alianzas con otros, tener valor, y lo ms importante, comprometerse activamente a la no violencia. +No es que yo crea a ciegas en la no violencia, +es ms, no tengo si quiera que creer en ella. +Porque veo pruebas en todo el mundo de cmo funciona. +Y veo que nosotros, los ciudadanos comunes, podemos hacer lo que hicieron Aung San Suu Kyi, Ghandi y Mandela. +Podemos poner fin al siglo ms sangriento que jams haya conocido la humanidad. +Y podemos organizarnos para superar la opresin abriendo nuestros corazones as como fortaleciendo esta increble determinacin. +Y esa apertura es exactamente lo que he experimentado desde que llegu ayer durante toda la organizacin de estas reuniones. +Gracias. +Esta historia comienza en casa de una amiga que tena en la estantera un ejemplar del manual DSM, el manual de trastornos mentales. +En l se describe cada trastorno mental conocido. +Por los aos 50 este sola ser un folleto delgado. +Y entonces se hizo ms y ms grande, y ahora consta de 886 pginas. +Y actualmente contiene 374 trastornos mentales. +As que al hojearlo, me pregunt si tena algn trastorno mental, y resulta que yo tengo 12. +Tengo trastorno de ansiedad generalizada, lo que es un hecho. +Tengo parasomnia que se categoriza cuando se tienen sueos recurrentes de ser perseguido o de ser tildado de fracasado. y en todos mis sueos me persigue gente por la calle dicindome: "Eres un fracasado". +Tengo problemas paterno-filiales, y culpo a mis padres de ello. +Bromeo. No bromeo. +Estoy bromeando +Y finjo estar enfermo. +Y creo que en realidad es bastante raro fingir enfermedades y tener trastorno de ansiedad generalizada, porque fingir me hace sentir muy ansioso. +No saba cul de estas cosas era cierta, pero pens que era muy interesante. Y consider que tal vez debera conocer a algn crtico de la psiquiatra para saber su opinin. As es como llegu a almorzar con cientlogos. +Un hombre llamado Brian dirige un equipo estrella de cientlogos decidido a destruir la psiquiatra dondequiera que aparezca. +Se les conoce como la CCDH. +Y le pregunt: "Puedes demostrarme que la psiquiatra es una paraciencia en la que no se puede confiar?" +Y l contest: "S, podemos demostrrselo". +Y yo: "Cmo?" +Y l: "Le presentar a Tony". +Y yo: "Quin es Tony?" +Y l: "Tony est en Broadmoor". +Ahora es el hospital de Broadmoor. +Antes era conocido como el manicomio de Broadmoor para criminales dementes. +El lugar adonde envan a los asesinos en serie y a las personas que no pueden ayudarse a s mismas. +Y pregunt a Brian, "Qu hizo Tony?" +Y l: "Casi nada. +l golpe a alguien o algo, y decidi fingir locura para salir de la crcel. +Pero fingi tan bien que ahora est atrapado en Broadmoor y nadie creer que no est loco. +Quieres que vayamos a Broadmoor para encontrarnos con Tony?" +Y yo: "S, por favor". +As que fuimos en tren a Broadmoor. +Comenc a bostezar incontroladamente a la altura de Kempton Park, que al parecer es lo que hacen los perros cuando estn ansiosos, bostezan sin control. +Y llegamos a Broadmoor. +Y me llevaron a travs de una puerta, otra puerta y otra hasta el centro de salud y bienestar, donde se pueden conocer a los pacientes. +Parece un hotel Hampton gigante. +Todo en madera de pino y durazno con colores relajantes. +Y los nicos colores llamativos son los rojos de los botones de emergencia. +Y los pacientes comenzaron a deambular sin rumbo. +Tenan bastante sobrepeso, pantalones de entrenamiento adems de un aspecto bastante dcil. +Y Brian, el cientlogo, me susurr: "Estn medicados", que para los cientlogos es lo peor del mundo, y yo creo que quiz sea una buena idea hacerlo. +Y Brian dijo: "Aqu est Tony". +Un hombre vena caminando. +No tena sobrepeso, tena una muy buena condicin fsica. +Y no llevaba pantalones de entrenamiento, llevaba puesto un traje de raya diplomtica. +Y tena su brazo extendido como alguien del programa "El aprendiz". +Pareca un hombre que deseaba usar una indumentaria para convencer de que era muy cuerdo. +Y l se sent. +Y pregunt: "As que es cierto que fingi su camino hasta llegar aqu?" +Y dijo: "S. As es exactamente. Golpe a alguien cuando tena 17 aos. +Y cuando estaba en prisin en espera de juicio, mi compaero de celda me dijo: "Ya sabes lo que tienes que hacer? +Pues hacerte el loco". +Diles que ests loco. Te enviarn a algn hospital cmodo. +Las enfermeras te traern pizzas. Y tendrs tu propia Playstation". As que pregunt: "Bueno, cmo lo hiciste?" +l dijo: "Ped por el psiquiatra de la prisin. +Acababa de ver una pelcula llamada 'Crash' donde las personas obtienen placer sexual al estrellar autos contra las paredes. +As que dije al psiquiatra, 'Tengo placer sexual al estrellar autos contra las paredes". Y yo: "Y qu ms?" +l: "S. Le dije al psiquiatra que quera ver a las mujeres como moran porque eso me hara sentir ms normal". +Y yo: "De dnde sacaste eso?" +l: "De una biografa de Ted Bundy que tenan en la biblioteca de la prisin". +Y explic que fingi la locura demasiado bien. +As que no lo enviaron a un hospital cmodo. +Lo enviaron a Broadmoor. +Y desde el momento que lleg ah, tras haber echado un vistazo al lugar, pidi ver al psiquiatra, y le dijo: "Ha habido un terrible malentendido. +Yo no soy un enfermo mental". +Le pregunt: "Cunto tiempo llevas aqu?" +l: "Bueno, si hubiera cumplido el tiempo de condena en la crcel por el delito original, habra pasado cinco aos. +Ya llevo en Broadmoor 12 aos". +Tony dijo que es mucho ms difcil convencer a la gente de que ests cuerdo que de convencer que ests loco. +l: "Pens que la mejor manera de parecer normal sera hablar con la gente normalmente sobre cosas normales como el ftbol o sobre lo que dan en la televisin. +Estoy suscrito a la revista New Scientist, y recientemente se public un artculo acerca de cmo el Ejrcito de EEUU entrenaba abejorros para detectar explosivos. +As que le dije a una enfermera, "Saba Ud. que el Ejrcito de EEUU entrena abejorros para detectar explosivos?" Cuando le las anotaciones mdicas sobre m, vi que haba escrito: "Cree que las abejas pueden oler explosivos". l: "Siempre observan aspectos externos para obtener pistas no verbales de mi estado mental. +Pero, cmo se sienta uno de una forma cuerda? +Cmo cruzar las piernas de una manera sana? +Es simplemente imposible". +Y cuando Tony me dijo eso, me pregunt a m mismo: "Estoy sentado como un periodista? +Cruzo las piernas como un periodista?" +l dijo: "Sabe, tengo al estrangulador de Stockwell a un lado y al violador de los tulipanes al otro. +Por eso, tiendo a permanecer mucho en mi habitacin porque me parecen bastante aterradores. +Y eso se considera como un signo de locura. +Dicen que eso demuestra que soy distante y ambicioso". +As que slo en Broadmoor el no querer pasar el rato con asesinos en serie es un signo de locura. +A m me pareca completamente normal, pero qu saba yo? +Y cuando llegu a casa le envi un correo a su mdico Anthony Maden. +Le pregunt: "Cul es la historia?" +Y l contest, "S. Aceptamos que Tony fingi locura para zafarse de una pena de prisin porque en primer lugar las alucinaciones les haban parecido bastante estereotipadas y que desaparecieron en el momento de llegar a Broadmoor. +Sin embargo, lo evaluamos. Y determinamos que es un psicpata". +Y de hecho, fingir locura es exactamente el tipo de acto astuto y manipulador de un psicpata. +Est en la lista de verificacin: astuto y manipulador. +As que fingir que tu cerebro no funciona bien es la evidencia de que el cerebro funciona mal. +Y he hablado con otros expertos, y me dijeron que el traje de rayas es de psicpata clsico. Hablan de uno o dos elementos en la lista de verificacin: falta de sinceridad, encanto superficial y gran sentido de autoestima. +Y dije: "Bueno, pero por qu l no quera pasar el rato con los otros pacientes?" +De psicpata tpico, pues muestra de superioridad y falta de empata. +As que todas las cosas que me parecan ms normales de Tony eran una prueba, segn su mdico, de que estaba loco en esa nueva manera. +l era un psicpata. +Y su mdico me dijo: "Si quiere saber ms sobre psicpatas, vaya a un curso para detectar psicpatas impartido por Robert Hare quien invent la lista de verificacin del psicpata". +Y as lo hice. +Fui a un curso de deteccin de psicpatas, y ahora ya tengo el certificado, muy sobresaliente de detector de psicpatas. +As que aqu presento las estadsticas: una de cada 100 personas normales es psicpata. +Aqu en esta sala hay 1500 personas, as que +15 de Uds. son psicpatas. +Aunque la cifra se eleva a 4% entre los presidentes y directivos de empresas. As que creo que existe una gran probabilidad de que haya entre 30 y 40 psicpatas en esta sala. +Podra haber una masacre al final de la noche. +Hare dijo que la razn se fundamenta en que el capitalismo en su forma ms cruel recompensa comportamientos psicopticos, la falta de empata, la falta de sinceridad, la astucia y la manipulacin. +De hecho, el capitalismo, tal vez en su forma ms despiadada, es una manifestacin fsica de la psicopata. Es como una forma de psicopata +que ha llegado a afectar a todos. +Y Hare me dijo: "Sabes qu? Olvdate de alguien de Broadmoor que puede o no haber fingido locura. +A quin le importa? Eso no es una gran historia. +La gran historia", dijo, "es la psicopata empresarial. +Quieres ir a entrevistar t mismo a psicpatas empresariales?". +As que lo intent. Le escrib a la gente de Enron. +Le dije: "Puedo ir y entrevistarles en la crcel para averiguar si Uds. son psicpatas?" +Y no contestaron. +As que cambi de tctica. +Envi un correo electrnico a Dunlap alias "Motosierra", el depurador de activos de los 90. +Llegaba a empresas en crisis y echaba al 30% de los empleados, simplemente convirti ciudades estadounidenses en pueblos fantasmas. +Y le escrib por correo electrnico y le dije: "Creo que posiblemente tenga una anomala cerebral muy especial lo que le hace especial e interesado por su espritu depredador e intrpido. +Puedo ir a entrevistarle acerca de esa anomala cerebral especial?" +Y l dijo: "Venga". +As que me fui a Florida a la gran mansin de Al Dunlap +que estaba llena de esculturas de animales depredadores. +Haba leones y tigres. l me condujo a travs del jardn. Haba halcones y guilas. l me deca: "All hay tiburones". Esto lo deca de una manera menos afeminada. "Hay ms tiburones y ms tigres". +Era como Narnia. +Y luego nos fuimos a la cocina. +A Dunlap le encargaron salvar empresas en quiebra. Se deshizo de un 30% de los trabajadores. +Y l muy a menudo despeda a la gente con una broma. +Por ejemplo, hay una famosa historia sobre l, alguien se le acerc y le dijo: "Acabo de comprarme un auto nuevo". +Y l dijo: "Ud. puede que tenga un auto nuevo, pero le dir que no tiene trabajo". +As que en su cocina, l estaba de pie all con su esposa, Judy, y con Sean, su guardaespaldas, y dije: "Recuerda lo que le dije a Ud. en el e-mail que pueda que tenga una anomala cerebral especial que le hace especial?" +l dijo: "S, es una teora increble. +Es como Star Trek. Ud. llega all donde ningn hombre ha ido antes". +Y yo dije: "Bueno, algunos psiclogos podran decir que esto le convierte ... " Y l: "En qu?" +Y yo: "En un psicpata". +Y aad: "Tengo una lista de rasgos psicopticos en el bolsillo. +Puedo repasarlos con Ud.?" +Y se mostr intrigado muy a su pesar, y dijo: "Est bien, adelante". +Y yo: "De acuerdo. Sentido exagerado de autoestima". +Lo que habra sido difcil para l negar porque estaba de pie debajo de una pintura al leo gigante de s mismo. +l dijo: "Bueno, tienes que creer en ti!" +Y yo: "Manipulacin". +l: "Eso es liderazgo". +Y yo: "Afectividad superficial: la incapacidad de experimentar una serie de emociones". +l: "Quin quiere abrumarse por emociones sin sentido?" +As que l iba a travs de la lista de verificacin psicoptica, bsicamente convirtindola en "Quin se ha llevado mi queso?" +Pero me di cuenta de algo que me pas el da que estuve con Al Dunlap. +Cada cosa que l deca me resultaba que era normal, como cuando dijo que no a la delincuencia juvenil. Dijo que fue aceptado en West Point, y no aceptan a delincuentes en West Point. +l dijo que no a las relaciones de pareja a corto plazo. +l slo ha estado casado dos veces. +As que todo lo que me deca me pareci una suerte de no psicopata. Y me dije, no aadir eso en mi libro. +Y entonces me di cuenta de que al convertirme en un detector de psicpatas me haba vuelto un poco psicpata. +Porque estaba desesperado por meterle en un casillero marcado como psicpata. +Yo estaba desesperado por definirle en base a sus lmites ms descabellados. +Y me di cuenta, Dios mo. Esto es lo que he hecho durante 20 aos. +Es lo que todos los periodistas hacen. +Viajamos por todo el mundo con nuestros blocs de notas en la mano, y esperamos a las joyas. +Y las joyas son siempre los aspectos ms externos de la personalidad de nuestro entrevistado. +Y las ensamblamos como los monjes medievales. Y dejamos al margen las cosas normales. +Y este es un pas que sobrediagnostica tremendamente ciertos trastornos mentales +Infancia bipolar. A nios de cuatro aos se les etiqueta de bipolares porque tienen rabietas, que alcanzan la puntuacin ms alta en la lista bipolar. +Al regresar a Londres, Tony me llam por telfono. +l dijo: "Por qu no has respondido a mis llamadas?" +Le dije: "Bueno, dicen que eres un psicpata". +Y l dijo: "Yo no soy un psicpata". +l dijo: "Sabes que uno de los puntos de la lista es la falta de remordimiento, pero otro elemento en la lista de verificacin es ser astuto y manipulador. +As que cuando uno dice que siente remordimientos por su delito, ellos dicen: Tpico del psicpata al decir astutamente que uno siente remordimientos cuando no es cierto'. Es como un maleficio. Ellos dan a todo la vuelta". +l dijo: "Tengo un tribunal pronto. +Quieres acompaarme?" +Le dije que s. +As que fui a su tribunal. +Y tras 14 aos en Broadmoor, lo dejaron marchar. +Decidieron que no le deban retener indefinidamente aunque las puntuaciones altas en una lista de verificacin significaran que podra tener una mayor probabilidad de reincidencia que el promedio. +As que lo dejaron ir. +Y fuera, en el pasillo, me dijo: "Sabes qu, Jon? +Todo el mundo es un poco psicpata". +l dijo: "T lo eres. Yo lo soy. Bueno, obviamente yo soy". +Le pregunt: "Qu hars ahora?" +l: "Ir a Blgica +porque hay una mujer all que me gusta. +Pero est casada, as que tendr que conseguir que se separe de su marido". +De todos modos, eso sucedi hace dos aos, y ah es donde mi libro termina. +Y durante los ltimos 20 meses, todo iba bien. +Nada malo ha pasado. +l viva con una chica fuera de Londres. +Estaba, segn Brian el cientlogo, recuperando el tiempo perdido; que s que suena inquietante, pero no es necesariamente inquietante. +Desafortunadamente, despus de 20 meses, tuvo que volver a la crcel un mes. +Tuvo una pelea en un bar, +y acabo yendo a la crcel un mes, que s que es malo, pero al menos un mes que implica que toda la ria no haba sido tan nefasta. +Y entonces l me llam. +Y me parece bien que Tony est fuera. +Porque no se debe definir a las personas por sus aspectos ms descabellados. +Y Tony es un semipsicpata. +Es un rea gris en un mundo al que no le gustan las reas grises. +Pero en las reas grises es donde se encuentra la complejidad, +que es donde se encuentra la humanidad y es donde se encuentra la verdad. +Y Tony me dijo: "Jon, puedo invitarte a una copa en un bar? +Slo quiero darte las gracias por todo lo que has hecho por m". +Y no fui. Qu habra hecho Ud.? +Gracias. +Locutor: Destruccin por todos lados. +... rboles arrancados, cristales hechos aicos, casas sin techo. +Caitria O'Neill: Esa soy yo en nuestra casa en Monson, Massachusetts, en junio pasado. +Cuando el tornado EF3 arras nuestro pueblo y se llev parte de nuestro tejado, decid quedarme en Massachusetts, en vez irme a hacer el mster que tena preparado empezar. +Morgan O'Neill: El 1 de junio no ramos expertas en desastres, pero el da 3 dijimos que lo ramos. +Y la experiencia cambi nuestras vidas. Y ahora queremos cambiar los desastres. +CO: En Massachusetts no hay tornados. Pero yo estaba en el jardn delantero cuando uno lleg desde una colina. +Cuando vimos una farola volando, nos escondimos en el stano. +Los rboles se estrellaban contra la casa, las ventanas explotaban. +Cuando por fin salimos, haba transformadores ardiendo en la calle. +MO: Yo estaba en Boston. +Soy doctorando en el MIT y estudio ciencias atmosfricas. +Es an ms raro, porque cuando el tornado lleg, estaba en el museo de ciencias jugando con la maqueta de los tornados. Perd la llamada. Recib una llamada de Caitria, vi las noticias +y empec a seguir el radar en lnea para llamarlos cuando se acercara la siguiente supercelda al rea. +Volv a casa por la noche con pilas y hielo. +Vivimos en frente de una iglesia antigua que haba perdido el campanario en la tormenta. +Se haba convertido en el lugar de reunin de la comunidad. +La municipalidad y la comisara tenan muchos destrozos, y la gente que necesitaba informacin o ayuda iba a la iglesia. +CO: Fuimos a la iglesia porque nos dijeron que tenan comida caliente, pero lo que encontramos fueron problemas. +Haba dos hombretones sudorosos con sierras en el medio de la iglesia, pero nadie saba adnde mandarlos, porque no se saba todava cunto destrozo haba. +Y despus de un rato se frustraron y se fueron a ayudar a alguien por su cuenta. +MO: Empezamos a organizar. +Por qu? Haba que organizar. Encontramos al pastor Bob y nos ofrecimos para organizar la respuesta. +Tan solo con dos porttiles y una conexin a Internet, montamos la oficina de respuesta. [El tornado Monson en 60 segundos] CO: Sufrimos un tornado y todo el mundo viene a la iglesia a donar cosas y a ayudar. +MO: No paran de donar ropa. +Deberamos inventariar las donaciones que llegan. +CO: Necesitamos un nmero de telfono. Creas t uno en Google Voice? +MO: Claro! Necesitamos decirles lo que no necesitamos. +Abrir una cuenta en Facebook. Puedes hacer folletos para los vecinos? +CO: S, pero todava no s qu casas necesitan ayuda. +Necesitamos montar la tienda y enviar a los voluntarios. +MO: Tenemos que decirles qu no traer. +Ah hay un camin de las noticias. Los avisar. +CO: Sali el nmero en las noticias? No necesitamos ms frigorficos. +MO: No lo cubre el seguro? Necesita arreglar el tejado? CO: Envan 6 cajas de jugo? +Ambas: Que alguien traiga psits! +CO: Y la gente se dio cuenta de que tenamos respuestas. +MO: Puedo donar tres calentadores, pero alguien debe venir a recogerlos. +CO: Mi coche est en el saln. +MO: Mis boyscouts pueden reconstruir 12 buzones. +CO: Mi perrito est perdido y el seguro no cubre las chimeneas. +MO: Mientras reparamos casas, mis voluntarios necesitan alojamiento y comida durante una semana. +CO: Me enviaste a la calle Washington ayer, y hoy estoy cubierto en hiedra venenosa. +As pasaban los das. +Tuvimos que aprender a responder rpido y a resolver problemas en menos de un minuto, porque algo ms grave poda pasar y haba que resolverlo. +MO: Nuestra autoridad no vena de la junta de ediles ni del director de emergencias ni del United Way. +Empezamos a contestar preguntas y a tomar decisiones porque alguien tena que hacerlo. +Y por qu no yo? Organizo campaas. +Se me da bien el Facebook. +Y somos dos. +CO: Si hay inundaciones o un incendio o un huracn, t, o alguien como t, empezar a organizar las cosas. +Pero eso es difcil. +MO: Tras otra jornada de 17 horas, nos tirbamos al suelo, nos vacibamos los bolsillos y tratbamos de organizar los trozos de informacin, de ponerlas en contexto para poder ayudar. +Despus de otro da, nos dimos cuenta de que no debera ser tan difcil. +CO: En un pas como este, en el que respiramos wifi, usar la tecnologa para acelerar la recuperacin debera ser fcil. +Mtodos como el que estbamos creando al vuelo, deberan existir de antemano. +Y si siempre a alguien le toca el rol de organizador en todos los desastres, deberan existir herramientas. +MO: As que decidimos construirlas: recuperacin en una caja. Algo que pudiera desplegarse en todo tipo de desastre por un miembro local. +CO: Decid quedarme aqu, abandon mi mster en Mosc y me dediqu al 100% a conseguirlo. +En el ltimo ao nos hemos vuelto expertas en recuperacin comunitaria ante desastres. +Y hemos observado tres problemas principales. +MO: Las herramientas. Las grandes organizaciones humanitarias son estupendas trayendo recursos masivos tras un desastre, pero normalmente tienen una misin muy concreta y luego se marchan. +Los residentes se quedan solos para organizar a los miles de voluntarios y donaciones, sin formacin ni herramientas. +Usan psits, Excel y Facebook. +Pero esas no te sirven para localizar la informacin importante entre todas las fotos y buenos deseos. +CO: El tiempo. +La recuperacin tras catstrofes es una campaa electoral al revs. +En una campaa electoral, se empieza sin inters ni capacidad de movilizacin. +Ambas crecen poco a poco hasta llegar al pico en las elecciones. +En una catstrofe empiezas con todo el inters y sin ninguna capacidad. +Y slo tienes 7 das para conseguir el 50% de las bsquedas en Internet que se harn en la vida para ayudar a tu zona. +Luego hay algn partido de ftbol y te quedas con lo que hayas conseguido hasta el momento para los prximos cinco aos de recuperacin. +sta es la curva para el Katrina. +sta es la del Joplin. +Y sta es la de los tornados de Dallas en abril donde usamos software. +Hay un hueco aqu. +Las familias afectadas tienen que esperar al tasador del seguro antes de poder aceptar ayuda para sus casas. +Y slo hubo 4 das de inters en Dallas. +MO: Datos. +Los datos son muy poco sexis, pero pueden impulsar la recuperacin. +FEMA y el gobierno pagarn el 85% de los gastos de una catstrofe declarada, y el otro 15% lo pagar la localidad. +Esos gastos pueden ser tremendos, pero si la localidad moviliza a X voluntarios durante Y horas, el valor de ese trabajo puede incluirse en la contribucin local. +Pero quin sabe eso? +Imagnense el sentimiento de derrota cuando consigues movilizar a 2000 voluntarios pero no puedes probarlo. +CO: He aqu tres problemas comunes con una solucin comn. +Si llevamos a tiempo las herramientas adecuadas a las personas que se pondrn al frente para dirigir sus comunidades, crearemos nuevos estndares en la gestin de catstrofes. +MO: Necesitamos casetas, bases de datos para donaciones, informes de necesidades, acceso a distancia para voluntarios, todo en una web fcil de usar. +CO: Y necesitbamos ayuda. +Alvin, nuestro ingeniero de software y cofundador ha construido estas herramientas. +Chris y Bill han regalado su tiempo para las operaciones y las asociaciones. +Y nosotras hemos ido a catstrofes desde enero, instalando software, entrenando a los residentes y enviando el software a reas que se estn preparando para catstrofes. +MO: Uno de nuestros primeros intentos fue tras los tornados de Dallas. +Nos encontramos una web anticuada y esttica y una pgina de Facebook saturada tratando de organizar las respuestas. Y sacamos nuestra plataforma. +Todo el inters se concentr en los primeros cuatro das, pero cuando perdieron el sitio en las noticias, empezaron las necesidades, ya tenan el listado de todo lo que la gente poda aportar y pudieron ayudar a los residentes. +CO: Funciona, pero podra ser mejor. +En la gestin de catstrofes, estar preparado es muy importante, porque los municipios se vuelven ms seguros y resistentes. +Imaginen que estos sistemas pudieran estar disponibles antes de una catstrofe. +En eso estamos trabajando. +Queremos llevar el software a los lugares en los que se esperan catstrofes, para que lo sepan usar y puedan estar preparados con la microinformacin que dinamiza la recuperacin. +MO: No es nanotecnologa. +Son herramientas obvias que la gente quiere. +En nuestra ciudad natal, entrenamos a 6 personas para que usaran las herramientas solos. Porque nosotras vivimos aqu en Boston. +Lo aprendieron en seguida y ahora son fuerzas naturales. +Hay ms de tres grupos de voluntarios trabajando casi cada da desde el 1 de junio del ao pasado intentando que los residentes consigan lo que necesitan para sus hogares. +Tienen lneas telefnicas, folletos y datos. +CO: Eso lo cambia todo. +El primero de junio fue el aniversario del tornado de Monson. Y nuestra comunidad nunca ha estado ms unida o con ms fuerza. +Hemos visto los mismos cambios en Texas y en Alabama. +Porque no hace falta que Harvard y el MIT vengan a ayudar tras una catstrofe. Lo hace un vecino. +Da igual lo buena que una organizacin humanitaria sea, en algn momento ha de marcharse. +Pero si lo hacen los vecinos, si les enseamos lo que pueden conseguir, se hacen expertos. +MO: Bueno, nos vamos. +Hoy quiero hablarles de algo: el mundo de la programacin de cdigo abierto puede ensear democracia, pero antes, un pequeo prembulo. +Empecemos aqu. +Esta es Martha Payne, escocesa, de 9 aos y vive en el Consejo de Argyll y Bute. +Hace un par de meses, Payne abri un blog de comida llamado NeverSeconds; llevaba su cmara todos los das para documentar sus almuerzos escolares. +Pueden ver la verdura? Y, como ocurre a veces, este blog primero recibi decenas de lectores, despus cientos de lectores y luego miles, personas que ingresaban para ver su calificacin de almuerzos, que incluye mi categora favorita: "Pelos en los alimentos". Este da no hubo cabellos. Eso es bueno. +Pero ayer hizo dos semanas que ella public +una nota que deca: "Adis". +Deca: "Siento mucho decirte esto pero el director hoy me sac de la clase y dijo que ya no puedo sacar fotos en el comedor. +Realmente me gustaba hacerlo. +Gracias por leer. Adis". +Entonces, qu ocurre cuando un medio de repente pone en circulacin un montn de ideas nuevas? +Pero esta no es una cuestin contempornea. +Es algo que hemos enfrentado varias veces en los ltimos siglos. +Cuando surgi el telgrafo estaba claro que iba a globalizar el mundo de las noticias. +Y esto, a qu llevara? +Bueno, obviamente, llevara a la paz mundial. +La televisin, un medio que nos permiti no slo or sino ver, literalmente ver, qu estaba ocurriendo en otras partes del mundo, eso a qu conllevara? +A la paz mundial. El telfono? +Adivinaron: a la paz mundial. +Siento decirlo, pero no trajo la paz mundial. Todava no. +Incluso la imprenta, incluso la imprenta se supona que era una herramienta que impondra la hegemona intelectual catlica en toda Europa. +En cambio, trajo "Las 95 tesis" de Martn Lutero, la Reforma Protestante y, ya saben, la Guerra de los Treinta Aos. De acuerdo, pero en lo que todas estas predicciones de paz acertaron es que cuando, de repente, empiezan a circular muchas ideas nuevas, eso cambia la sociedad. +Se equivocaron en lo que ocurrira despus. +Cuanto ms ideas hay en circulacin, hay ms ideas con las que no estar de acuerdo a nivel individual. +Ms medios siempre significa ms discusiones. +Eso es lo que ocurre cuando se expande el espacio de medios. +Sin embargo, si nos retrotraemos a la imprenta en los primeros aos, nos gusta lo que pas. +Somos una sociedad proimprenta. +Entonces, cmo conciliar esas dos cosas? nos lleva a discusiones, pero nos parece algo bueno? +Creo que la respuesta est en este tipo de cosas. +Necesitaban apertura. Tenan que crear una norma que dijera, cuando uno hace un experimento tiene que publicar no slo sus afirmaciones, sino cmo hizo uno el experimento. +Si no nos dices cmo lo hiciste, no te creeremos. +Lo otro que necesitaban era velocidad. +Tenan que sincronizar rpidamente con lo que saban otros filsofos naturales. De otro modo, no se podran mantener las discusiones apropiadas. +Claramente, la imprenta era el medio correcto para esto, pero el libro era la herramienta incorrecta. Era demasiado lento. +Fue as que inventaron la revista cientfica como una forma de sincronizar la discusin en la comunidad de cientficos naturales. +La revolucin cientfica no fue producto de la imprenta. +Fue producto de los cientficos pero no se habra creado de no haber contado con la herramienta de la imprenta. +Y, qu hay de nosotros, de nuestra generacin y de nuestra revolucin meditica, Internet? +Bueno, predicciones de paz? Verifiquen. Ms discusin? Premio de oro para esa. Digo, YouTube es una mina de oro. Mejor discusin? Esa es la cuestin. +Por eso estudio medios sociales, es decir, en una primera aproximacin, veo a la gente discutir. +Y si tuviera que elegir un grupo que creo es nuestro Colegio Invisible, es el grupo humano de nuestra generacin que trata de tomar estas herramientas y plasmarlas en servicio no en busca de ms, sino de mejores discusiones, me quedara con los programadores de cdigo abierto. +La programacin es una relacin tripartita entre un programador, algo de cdigo y la computadora que lo ejecuta; pero las computadoras son clebres por interpretar instrucciones de forma inflexible. Es extremadamente difcil escribir un conjunto de instrucciones que la computadora sepa ejecutar y eso si interviene una sola persona. +En cuanto pones a ms de una persona a programar, es muy fcil que cualquiera sobrescriba el trabajo del otro si trabajan en el mismo archivo, o que enven instrucciones incompatibles que simplemente provoquen un colapso y este problema se acrecienta conforme intervienen ms programadores. +En una primera aproximacin, el problema de gestionar un gran proyecto de software consiste en mantener bajo control este caos social. +Ahora, durante dcadas ha existido una solucin cannica a este problema, que implica usar algo llamado "sistema de control de versiones". Y un sistema de control de versiones hace justamente eso. +Proporciona una copia cannica del software de un servidor de algn lado. +Los nicos programadores que pueden modificarlo son aquellos con permisos especficos para acceder al mismo, y slo pueden acceder a la subseccin de cdigo sobre la que tienen permisos de edicin. +Y al graficar diagramas de sistemas de control de versiones, los diagramas siempre tienen un aspecto como ste. +Correcto. Parecen organigramas. +Y no hay que esforzarse mucho para ver las ramificaciones polticas de un sistema como este. +Es feudalismo: un propietario, muchos obreros. +Est bien para la industria del software comercial. +Es el Office de Microsoft. Es el Photoshop de Adobe. +La empresa es propietaria del software. +Los programadores van y vienen. +Pero hubo un programador que decidi que esta no era forma de trabajar. +Se trata de Linus Torvalds. +Torvalds es el programador de cdigo abierto ms famoso; cre Linux, obviamente, y observ la manera en la que el movimiento de cdigo abierto haba abordado el problema. +El software de cdigo abierto, la promesa central de la licencia de cdigo abierto, es que todos deberan tener acceso al cdigo fuente todo el tiempo, pero claro, esto crea la amenaza del caos que hay que evitar para conseguir que algo funcione. +La mayora de los proyectos de cdigo abierto asomaron la nariz y adoptaron el sistema de gestin feudal. +Pero Torvalds dijo: "No, no lo har". +Su punto de vista sobre este tema fue muy claro. +Cuando uno adopta una herramienta, tambin adopta la filosofa de gestin que conlleva esa herramienta y l no adoptara algo que no funcionara a la manera de la comunidad de Linux. +Y para darles una idea de lo enorme que era una decisin as, este es el mapa de las dependencias internas de Linux dentro del sistema operativo Linux, qu subpartes del programa dependen de otras subpartes para funcionar. +Es un proceso sumamente complicado. +Es un programa sumamente complicado y sin embargo, durante aos, Torvalds lo dirigi no con herramientas automatizadas, sino desde su correo. +Las personas literalmente le enviaban los cambios que haban acordado, y l los combinaba a mano. +Y luego, 15 aos despus, al mirar Linux y analizar el trabajo de la comunidad dijo: "Creo que s cmo escribir un sistema de control de versiones para personas libres". +Y lo llam "Git". Git es un control de versiones distribuido. +Tiene dos grandes diferencias con los sistemas tradicionales de control de versiones. +La primera es que hace honor a la promesa filosfica del cdigo abierto. Todo el que trabaja en un proyecto tiene acceso a todo el cdigo fuente, todo el tiempo. +Y al graficar el flujo de trabajo de Git se usan grficos que tienen este aspecto. +Y no hay que entender el significado de los crculos, las cajas y las flechas para ver que sta es una forma mucho ms complicada de trabajar que la provista por los sistemas comunes de control de versiones. +Pero esto es tambin lo que trae nuevamente el caos, y esta es la segunda gran innovacin de Git. +Esta es una captura de pantalla de GitHub, el principal servicio de alojamiento de Git, y cada vez que un programador usa Git para hacer cualquier tipo de cambio, para crear un nuevo archivo o modificar uno existente, para combinar dos archivos, Git crea esta firma. +Esta larga cadena de nmeros y letras de aqu es un identificador nico asociado a cada cambio, pero sin una coordinacin central. +Cada sistema Git genera este nmero de la misma manera, lo que significa que es una firma infalsificable asociada directamente a un cambio particular. +Esto tiene el siguiente efecto: un programador en Edimburgo y uno en Entebbe pueden ambos tomar una copia del mismo software. +Cada uno puede hacer cambios y combinarlos despus de eso, incluso desconociendo de antemano la existencia el uno del otro. +Esto es cooperacin sin coordinacin. +Este es el gran cambio. +Pero no les cuento todo esto para convencerlos de que es genial que los programadores de cdigo abierto tengan una herramienta que respalde su filosofa de trabajo, aunque creo que es genial. +Les cuento todo esto por lo que creo que significa en materia de unin de comunidades. +En cuanto Git permiti la cooperacin sin coordinacin, se empezaron a ver formas comunitarias enormemente grandes y complejas. +Este es un grfico de la comunidad de Ruby. +Es un lenguaje de programacin de cdigo abierto y todas las conexiones interpersonales este ya no es un grfico del software, sino de personas todas las interconexiones entre personas que trabajan en ese proyecto... no parece un organigrama. +Parece un "desorganigrama" y no obstante en esta comunidad, usando estas herramientas, ahora pueden crear algo juntos. +Hay dos grandes razones para pensar que este tipo de tcnica puede aplicarse a las democracias en general y en particular a la ley. +De hecho, si uno afirma que algo de Internet ser bueno para la democracia, a menudo obtiene esta reaccin. +Ests hablando del video de los gatos que cantan? Eso es lo que crees que ser bueno para la sociedad? +A lo que respondo que el quid de los gatos que cantan es que siempre ocurre. +Y no slo quiero decir que ocurre con Internet, me refiero a que siempre ocurre con los medios, punto. +La ley tambin tiene una relacin de dependencia. +Este es un grfico del Cdigo Fiscal de EE.UU., y la dependencia de una ley de otras leyes para el efecto conjunto. +All est como sitio para la gestin de cdigo fuente. +Alguien puso todos los cables filtrados del Departamento de Estado, junto con el software usado para interpretarlos; eso incluye mi uso favorito de las filtraciones: una herramienta para detectar haikus naturales en la prosa del Departamento de Estado. +Correcto. El Senado de Nueva York puso algo llamado Open Legislation, tambin alojado en GitHub, nuevamente, debido a razones de actualizacin y fluidez. +Se puede ir, seleccionar un senador y luego ver los proyectos de ley que patrocin. +Alguien con seudnimo Divegeek subi el cdigo de Utah, las leyes del estado de Utah, y lo subieron all no slo para distribuir el cdigo, sino con la posibilidad muy interesante de que esto pueda usarse para favorecer el desarrollo de la legislacin. +Alguien subi una herramienta durante el debate de derechos de autor el ao pasado en el Senado, que deca: "Es extrao que Hollywood tenga ms acceso a los legisladores canadienses que los ciudadanos canadienses. Por qu no usar GitHub para mostrarles cmo sera un proyecto de ley ciudadano?" +Esta es una captura de pantalla muy evocadora. +Esto se llama "diff", esto de la derecha. +Muestra, en un texto editado por muchas personas, cundo se hizo un cambio, quin lo hizo y cul es el cambio. +Lo que est en rojo es lo que se borr. +Lo que est en verde es lo que se aadi. +Los programadores dan esto por sentado. +Ninguna democracia del mundo ofrece esta posibilidad a sus ciudadanos para la legislacin o para los presupuestos, a pesar de ser cosas hechas con nuestro consentimiento y nuestro dinero. +Me encantara decirles que el hecho de que los programadores de cdigo abierto hayan elaborado un mtodo colaborativo a gran escala, distribuido, econmico, en sintona con los ideales democrticos, me encantara decirles que dado que existen esas herramientas, la innovacin es inevitable. Pero no lo es. +Parte del problema, por supuesto, es slo falta de informacin. +Alguien public una pregunta en Quora: "Por qu los legisladores no usan control de versiones distribuido?" +Esta es la respuesta grfica. De hecho, eso es parte del problema, pero slo parte. +El problema ms grande, claro, es el poder. +Las personas que experimentan la participacin no tienen poder legislativo, y las personas que tienen poder legislativo no experimentan la participacin. +Estn experimentando la apertura. +No hay democracia que se precie que no tenga una medida de transparencia, pero la transparencia es la apertura en una sola direccin, y otorgar un tablero sin volante nunca ha sido una promesa troncal de una democracia a sus ciudadanos. +Pinsenlo. +Lo que llev las opiniones de Martha Payne al pblico fue una pieza de tecnologa, pero lo que las mantena era la voluntad poltica. +Fue la expectativa de los ciudadanos de que ella no fuera censurada. +Ese es el estado actual de estas herramientas colaborativas. +Las tenemos. Las hemos visto. Funcionan. +Podemos usarlas? +Podemos aplicar las tcnicas que funcionaron aqu, all? +T.S. Eliot dijo una vez: "Una de las cosas ms trascendentales que le puede ocurrir a una cultura es adquirir una nueva forma de prosa". +Creo que eso est mal, pero... Creo que est bien para discutir. Cierto? +Algo trascendental que puede ocurrirle a una cultura es adquirir un nuevo estilo de discusin: juicio por jurado, voto, revisin por pares, ahora esto. Bien? +En nuestra vida, se ha inventado una nueva forma de discusin; en la ltima dcada, de hecho. +Es en grande, distribuida, econmica y compatible con los ideales democrticos. +La pregunta ahora es, dejaremos que los programadores se la guarden para s mismos? +O trataremos de tomarla para ponerla al servicio de la sociedad en general? +Gracias por escuchar. Gracias. Gracias. +Me temo que soy uno de esos conferenciantes que Uds. no esperan encontrarse en TED. +Primero, no tengo telfono celular, as que estoy en el margen de seguridad. +Segundo, un politlogo terico que va a hablar de la crisis de la democracia probablemente no hable del tema ms apasionante que puedan imaginar. +Y adems, no les dar ninguna respuesta. +Ms bien tratar de aadir interrogantes al tema del que hablar. +Y una de las cosas que quiero cuestionar es esa esperanza muy popular estos das de que la transparencia y la apertura pueden restaurar la confianza en las instituciones democrticas. +Hay una razn ms por la que pueden sospechar de m. +Uds., la Iglesia de TED, son una comunidad muy optimista. +Bsicamente creen en la complejidad, pero no en la ambigedad. +Como les han dicho, soy blgaro. +Y segn las encuestas, somos las personas ms pesimistas del mundo. +La revista The Economist public hace poco un artculo que se refiere a un estudio reciente sobre felicidad, de ttulo, "El feliz, el infeliz y los blgaros". +Ahora, ya saben lo que les espera. Les contar una historia. +Es un da lluvioso de elecciones en un pas pequeo que puede ser mi pas, pero tambin podra ser el suyo. +Y debido a la lluvia, hasta las 4 de la tarde, nadie fue a las urnas. +Pero luego ces la lluvia y la gente acudi a votar. +Y cuando contaron los votos, tres cuartas partes de las personas haban votado en blanco. +El Gobierno y la oposicin estaban, simplemente, paralizados. +Porque ya se sabe qu hacer con las protestas; +se sabe a quin arrestar, con quin negociar. +Pero, qu hacer con las personas que votaron en blanco? +As que el Gobierno decidi llamar a elecciones otra vez. +Y esta vez, incluso un nmero mayor, el 83% de las personas, votaron en blanco. +Bsicamente fueron a las urnas a decir que no tenan a nadie por quin votar. +Esta es la apertura de una bella novela de Jos Saramago titulada "Ensayo sobre la lucidez". +En mi opinin plasma muy bien parte del problema que tenemos con la democracia en Europa estos das. +A cierto nivel, nadie cuestiona que la democracia sea la mejor forma de gobierno. +La democracia es el nico juego posible. +El problema es que mucha gente empieza a creer que es un juego que no vale la pena jugar. +Durante los ltimos 30 aos, los politlogos han observado una disminucin constante en la participacin electoral y que las personas menos interesadas en votar son las que se supone que ganaran ms votando. +Me refiero a los desempleados, los desfavorecidos. +Y esta es una cuestin importante. +Porque sobre todo ahora, con la crisis econmica, se puede ver que la confianza en la poltica, que la confianza en las instituciones democrticas, realmente, fue destruida. +Segn el ltimo estudio realizado por la Comisin Europea, el 89% de los europeos creen que existe una brecha creciente entre la opinin de los polticos y la opinin pblica. +Solo el 18% de los italianos y el 15% de los griegos creen que su voto es importante. +Bsicamente la gente comienza a entender que puede cambiar los gobiernos, pero no las polticas. +Y la pregunta que quiero hacerles es: cmo es posible que viviendo en sociedades que son mucho ms libres que nunca, tenemos ms derechos, podemos viajar ms fcilmente, tenemos acceso a ms informacin al mismo tiempo la confianza en nuestras instituciones democrticas bsicamente se ha derrumbado? +As que, bsicamente quiero preguntar: qu sali bien y qu sali mal en estos 50 aos cuando hablamos de democracia? +Empezar con lo que sali bien. +Lo primero que sali bien, por supuesto, fueron estas cinco revoluciones que, en mi opinin, cambiaron nuestra forma de vida y profundizaron nuestra experiencia democrtica. +La primera fue la revolucin cultural y social de 1968 y 1970, que puso al individuo en el centro de la poltica. +Era el momento de los derechos humanos. +Bsicamente fue tambin un estallido importante, una cultura de la disidencia, una cultura de, bsicamente, inconformismo, como no se conoca antes. +As que creo que incluso cosas como stas son, en definitiva, resultado del 68 aunque la mayora de nosotros an no habamos nacido entonces. +Despus tiene lugar la revolucin del mercado de la dcada de los 80. +Y aunque mucha gente de izquierda trate de odiarla, la verdad es que la revolucin del mercado envi, muy fuertemente, el mensaje de que "El Gobierno no lo sabe mejor". +Y as tenemos ms sociedades gobernadas mediante votacin. +Y por supuesto, el 1989, el fin del comunismo, el fin de la Guerra Fra. +Lo que fue el nacimiento del mundo global. +Y tenemos Internet. +Esta no es la audiencia a la haya que explicar hasta qu punto Internet ha dado poder a las personas. +Ha cambiado la forma en que nos comunicamos, y bsicamente la manera de ver la poltica. +La pura idea de comunidad poltica ha cambiado totalmente. +Mencionar una revolucin ms, la revolucin de las neurociencias, que ha cambiado completamente la forma en que entendemos cmo las personas toman decisiones. +Esto sali bien. +Pero si vemos lo que sali mal, llegaremos a las mismas cinco revoluciones. +Porque primero, tenemos las dcadas de los 60 y 70, revolucin cultural y social, que en cierta forma destruy la idea de un propsito colectivo. +La pura idea, todos estos sustantivos colectivos que nos han enseado: nacin, clase, familia. +Nos empez a gustar el divorcio, en caso de estar casados. +Todo esto se atac mucho. +Y es muy difcil involucrar a las personas en poltica cuando creen que lo que realmente importa, es su posicin personal. +Y tenemos la revolucin del mercado de la dcada de los 80 y el enorme aumento de la desigualdad social. +Recuerden que hasta la dcada de los 70, la propagacin de la democracia siempre haba estado acompaada de la disminucin de la desigualdad. +Cuanto ms democrticas eran nuestras naciones, ms igualitarias se volvan. +Ahora tenemos la tendencia inversa. +La propagacin de la democracia se acompaa ahora del aumento de la desigualdad. +Y esto me parece muy inquietante al hablar de lo bueno y malo de la actual democracia. +Y si vamos a 1989 algo que bsicamente no se espera que alguien critique pero muchos dirn: "Pero si fue el final de la Guerra Fra lo que rompi el contrato social entre las lites y el pueblo en Europa occidental". +Cuando la Unin Sovitica estaba todava all, los ricos y los poderosos necesitaban a la gente, porque les teman. +Ahora, bsicamente, las lites han sido liberadas. +Son muy mviles. No se pueden gravar. +Y bsicamente no temen a la gente. +Como resultado, tienes esta situacin muy extraa de que las lites, bsicamente, se salieron del control de los votantes. +As que no es por accidente que los votantes no estn interesados en votar nunca ms. +Y cuando hablamos de Internet, s, es cierto, Internet nos conecta a todos nosotros, pero tambin sabemos que Internet cre estas cmaras de resonancia y guetos polticos donde uno puede permanecer en la comunidad poltica a la que pertenece. +Y se hace ms y ms difcil entender a las personas que no son como uno. +S que mucha gente aqu ha estado hablando esplndidamente sobre el mundo digital y la posibilidad de cooperacin, pero han visto lo que el mundo digital le ha hecho a la poltica estadounidense estos das? +Esto tambin es en parte un resultado de la revolucin de Internet. +Este es el otro lado de las cosas que nos gustan. +Y cuando vas a las neurociencias, lo que aprendieron los consultores polticos es: no vuelvan a hablarme de ideas, ni de polticas pblicas. +Lo que realmente importa es, bsicamente, manipular las emociones de la gente. +Y se percibe muy fuertemente hasta el punto de que al hablar ahora de revoluciones estas ya no se denominan ideologas o ideas. +Antes, solan tener nombres ideolgicos. +Podan ser comunistas, podan ser liberales, podan ser fascistas o islmicas. +Ahora las revoluciones se nombran en funcin del medio en que son ms usadas. +Tienes la revolucin de Facebook, la de Twitter. +No importa el contenido, el asunto es el medio de comunicacin. +Digo esto porque uno de mis principales puntos es que lo que sali bien, tambin sali mal. +Y ahora al intentar ver cmo podemos cambiar la situacin, para ver qu se puede hacer con la democracia, debemos tener en mente esta ambigedad. +Porque probablemente algunas de las cosas que ms amamos sern tambin las que ms nos pueden lastimar. +En estos das es muy popular creer que este impulso a la transparencia, este tipo de combinacin entre ciudadanos activos, nuevas tecnologas y mucha ms legislacin apoyando la transparencia pueden restaurar la confianza en la poltica. +Creen que con estas nuevas tecnologas y personas que estn listas para usarlas puede ser mucho ms difcil para los gobiernos mentir, que les ser ms difcil robar y probablemente, incluso, que les ser ms difcil matar. +Probablemente es cierto. +Pero creo que debemos tener tambin muy claro que ahora que situamos la transparencia en el centro de la poltica, el mensaje es, que la transparencia es estpida. +La transparencia no trata de cmo restaurar la confianza en las instituciones. +La transparencia es la gestin poltica de la desconfianza. +Estamos asumiendo que nuestras sociedades estarn basadas en la desconfianza. +Y por cierto, la desconfianza siempre fue muy importante para la democracia; +por esto tiene controles y contrapuntos. +Por eso, se tiene toda esta desconfianza creativa entre los representantes y aquellos a quienes representan. +Pero cuando la poltica es solo gestin de desconfianza, entonces (estoy muy contento de que "1984" haya sido mencionado) tendremos un "1984" a la inversa. +No ser el Gran Hermano observndonos, sino que seremos el Gran Hermano observando a la clase poltica. +Pero es esta la idea de una sociedad libre? +Por ejemplo, imaginan que la gente decente, cvica, talentosa se postule para un cargo si realmente cree que la poltica es tambin gestionar la desconfianza? +Y los estadounidenses que estn aqu, no tienen miedo de que los presidentes los vayan a gobernar siguiendo lo que dijeron en las elecciones primarias? +Encuentro esto muy importante, porque la democracia consiste en que las personas modifiquen sus opiniones con discusiones y argumentos racionales. +Y podemos perder esto por la muy noble idea de mantener a las personas responsables de decirle a la gente que no toleraremos en los polticos el oportunismo en la poltica. +Para m esto es extremadamente importante. +Y creo que al discutir de poltica actualmente, probablemente tiene sentido mirar tambin este lado de la historia. +Y no olviden, revelar algo es tambin ocultar algo. +Sin importar qu transparentes quieran ser nuestros gobiernos, sern transparentes selectivamente. +En un pas pequeo que podra ser mi pas, pero podra el suyo, tomaron la decisin es una historia real de que todas las decisiones gubernamentales, debates del Consejo de Ministros, se publicaran en Internet. 24 horas despus. +El pblico lo apoyaba completamente. +Tuve la oportunidad de hablar con el Primer Ministro, sobre por qu tom esta decisin. +Me dijo: "Mira, es la mejor manera de mantener cerrada la boca de mis ministros, +porque ser muy difcil para ellos disentir sabiendo que 24 horas despus esto ser del dominio pblico y que, en cierta forma, va a producir una crisis poltica." +As que cuando hablamos de transparencia, cuando hablamos de apertura, realmente creo que lo que debemos tener en cuenta es, que "lo que sali bien, tambin sali mal". +Esto es de Goethe, que no es ni blgaro ni politlogo, quien hace unos siglos, dijo: "Hay una gran sombra donde hay mucha luz". +Muchas gracias. +Tengo una gran idea que cambiar el mundo. +Es tan fantstica, que har volar su imaginacin. +Mi beb hermoso. +Esta es la realidad, todo el mundo ama a un beb hermoso. +Quiero decir, yo era un beb hermoso. +Aqu estoy yo con mi pap un par de das despus de haber nacido. +As que en el mundo del diseo de productos, el beb hermoso es como un prototipo de auto +Es el knockout. +Uno lo ve y dice: "Dios mo. Me lo comprara!" +Por qu los autos nuevos de este ao son casi exactamente iguales a los autos nuevos del ao pasado? +Qu sali mal entre el estudio de diseo y la fbrica? +Hoy no quiero hablar de bebs hermosos, quiero hablar de la adolescencia torpe del diseo; ese tipo de adolescencia boba desde donde uno intenta averiguar cmo funciona el mundo. +Empezar con un ejemplo de un trabajo que hicimos sobre la salud del recin nacido. +Ah existe un problema. Cuatro millones de bebs en todo el mundo, en su mayora en los pases en desarrollo, mueren anualmente antes de cumplir su primer ao, incluso antes de su primer mes de vida. +Y la mitad de esos nios, o cerca de 1,8 millones de recin nacidos en todo el mundo, sobrevivira, si se les pudiera mantener con calor durante los tres primeros das, tal vez la primera semana. +Esta es una unidad de cuidados intensivos neonatales en Katmand, Nepal. +Todos estos nios en mantas deberan estar en incubadoras... algo as. Esta donacin es la incubadora japonesa Atom que encontramos en Katmand. +Esto es lo que queremos. +Probablemente lo que pas es que un hospital japons actualiz sus equipos y don los antiguos a Nepal. +El problema es que sin tcnicos, sin piezas de repuesto, donaciones como sta se convierten muy rpidamente en chatarra. +Esto pareca ser un problema que podramos resolver. +Mantener un beb con calor durante una semana, eso no necesita mucha ciencia. +As que empezamos. +Nos asociamos con una institucin de investigacin mdica lder aqu en Boston. +Realizamos meses de investigacin con usuarios en el extranjero, intentando pensar como diseadores, diseo centrado en el ser humano. A ver qu quiere la gente. +Tiramos miles de notas Post-it. +Hicimos decenas de prototipos hasta llegar a esto. +Esta es la incubadora NeoNurture y su construccin concentra una gran cantidad de inteligencia. Y nos sentimos muy bien. +As que la idea, a diferencia del prototipo del auto, es conjugar algo hermoso con algo que realmente funciona. +Y nuestra idea es que este diseo inspirara a los fabricantes y a otras personas influyentes a adoptar este modelo y avanzar. +Ahora la mala noticia: el nico beb que us la incubadora NeoNurture fue a este nio en una sesin de fotos de la revista Time. +El reconocimiento es fantstico. +Queremos disear para que la gente lo vea. +Obtuve muchos premios. +Pero los senta como un premio de consolacin. +Queramos hacer cosas hermosas para lograr del mundo un lugar mejor, y yo no creo que este nio estuviera ni siquiera el tiempo suficiente para entrar en calor. +As que el diseo para la inspiracin... en realidad no... +lo que quiero decir es, para nosotros, para lo que quiero lograr, es demasiado lento o simplemente no funciona, es ineficaz. +As que realmente quiero disear para resultados. +No quiero hacer cosas bonitas. Quiero hacer del mundo un lugar mejor. +Por eso, cuando estbamos diseando NeoNurture, prestamos mucha atencin a las personas que la usaran: por ejemplo, familias pobres, mdicos rurales, enfermeras sobrecargadas, incluso tcnicos de reparacin. +Pensamos que tenamos cubierto los fundamentos, habamos hecho todo bien. +Y resulta que existe toda una constelacin de personas involucradas en un producto para que sea un xito: fabricacin, financiacin, distribucin, regulacin. +Michael Free de PATH dice que tienes que saber quin va a "elegir, usar y pagar la cuota" para un producto como ste. +Y tengo que plantear la pregunta: los de capital riesgo siempre preguntan: "cul es tu negocio, y quin es tu cliente?" +Quin es nuestro cliente? Pues aqu un ejemplo. +Se trata de un director del hospital de Bangladesh fuera de sus instalaciones. +Resulta que l no compra el equipamiento. +Esas decisiones las toma el Ministerio de Salud o donantes extranjeros, y esto solo es un ejemplo ilustrativo. +Del mismo modo, aqu hay una multinacional de dispositivos mdicos. +Resulta que hay que pescar donde estn los peces. +Y resulta que en los mercados emergentes estn los peces, en la clase media emergente de estos pases; enfermedades de la opulencia: enfermedades cardacas, infertilidad. +As que disear buscando resultados de algn modo significa pensar en el diseo de la fabricacin y la distribucin. +Bien, esa fue una leccin importante. +En segundo lugar, con esa leccin intentamos sacar adelante nuestro siguiente proyecto. +As que empezamos la bsqueda de un fabricante, una organizacin llamada MTTS en Vietnam, que fabrica tecnologas para el cuidado de neonatos para el sudeste asitico. +Nuestro otro socio es East Meets West. Se trata de una fundacin estadounidense que distribuye esa tecnologa a los hospitales de pobres en toda la regin. +Empezamos preguntndoles: "Bueno, qu quieren? +Qu problema desean resolver?" +Y dijeron: "Bueno, hagamos algo con la ictericia del recin nacido". +Este es otro de los increbles problemas globales. +La ictericia afecta a dos tercios de los recin nacidos en todo el mundo. +A uno de aproximadamente diez recin nacidos, la ictericia, si no se trata, se complica tanto que desemboca en una incapacidad de por vida, o incluso en la muerte de los nios. +Hay una manera de tratar la ictericia, y eso se conoce como exanguinotransfusin. +As, como pueden imaginar, eso es caro y un poco peligroso. +Existe otro tratamiento. +Es muy tecnolgico, muy complejo, un poco intimidante. +Se tiene que iluminar al nio con luz azul; +luz azul brillante sobre la mayor cantidad de piel que se pueda cubrir. +Y por qu es un problema difcil? +As que fui al MIT, +Bueno, lo averiguaremos. As que he aqu un ejemplo. Se trata de un dispositivo de fototerapia +diseado para hospitales estadounidenses. Y as es como se supone que debe usarse. +As sobre el beb, iluminando a un solo paciente. +Squenlo de un hospital estadounidense, envenlo al extranjero a un centro lleno de gente en Asia, y es as como realmente se usa. +La eficacia de la fototerapia est vinculada a la intensidad de la luz. +En los cuadros azules oscuros se muestra dnde es eficaz la fototerapia. +As se ve en condiciones de uso real. +Esos nios de los extremos realmente no reciben una fototerapia eficaz. +Pero sin formacin, sin medidores de luz, cmo se sabe? +Veamos otros ejemplos de problemas semejantes. +Esta es una unidad de cuidados intensivos neonatales donde las madres vienen a visitar a sus hijos. +Y tengan en cuenta, que a la mam tal vez le acaban de practicar una cesrea, as que eso ya es algo tremendo. +La mam visita a su hijo. +Y ve a su beb desnudo, bajo luces azules, y parece desprotegido. +No es raro que la mam ponga una manta sobre el beb. +Desde un punto de vista de la fototerapia, tal vez no sea el mejor comportamiento. +De hecho, parece un poco tonto. +Aunque, por lo que hemos aprendido no existen usuarios tontos, es lo que hemos aprendido de verdad. Slo hay productos tontos. +Tenemos que pensar como existencialistas. No es la pintura que habramos pintado, sino, es la pintura que en realidad est pintada. +Est diseado para el uso efectivo. +Cmo usar realmente esto la gente? +Del mismo modo, cuando pensamos en nuestros socios, MTTS, han desarrollado tecnologas sorprendentes para el tratamiento de enfermedades del neonato. +Aqu hay un calentador y una mquina de asistencia respiratoria . +Son baratos, muy resistentes. +Se han tratado a 50 000 nios en Vietnam con esta tecnologa. +Pero aqu est el problema: todos los mdicos en el mundo, cada director de hospital, ha visto la serie "ER emergencias"... malditos reestrenos de "ER" +As que se supone que todos sabemos qu apariencia tiene un dispositivo mdico. +Quieren un Buck Rogers, no quieren eficacia. +Parece una locura, suena tonto, pero en realidad hay hospitales que prefieren no tener equipamiento antes de tener algo de apariencia barata y decadente. +As que, si queremos que la gente confe en un dispositivo, debe tener un aspecto fiable. +As que al pensar en resultados, se ve que las apariencias importan. +As que recogimos toda esa informacin. +Esta vez lo probamos, para hacerlo bien. +Y esto es lo que hemos desarrollado. +Este es el dispositivo de fototerapia Firefly, salvo que esta vez no nos hemos quedado en el prototipo. +Desde el primer momento empezamos hablando con los fabricantes. +Nuestro objetivo es hacer que un producto innovador que nuestros asociadas, MTTS, puedan fabricar de verdad. +Por eso nuestro objetivo es estudiar cmo funcionan, los recursos a los que tienen acceso, para que puedan fabricar este producto. +Se trata del diseo para plantear la fabricacin. +Cuando pensamos en el uso real, uno se da cuenta de que Firefly tiene un moiss nico. +Slo se acopla a un solo beb. La idea subyacente es que es obvio cmo se debe usar este dispositivo. +Si se intenta colocar a ms de un nio los apilara uno encima del otro. +As que la idea pretendida es que sea difcil usarlo mal. +En otras palabras, se desea posibilitar la forma correcta de usarlo, la forma ms fcil de usarlo. +Otro ejemplo: otra vez la mam tonta. +La mam cree que su beb parece tener fro y quiere tapar al beb con una manta. +Bueno, por eso en Firefly hay luces encima y debajo del beb. As que si mam puso una manta sobre el beb, Todava recibe fototerapia eficaz desde abajo. +Y la ltima historia. Tengo un amigo en la India que me dijo que en realidad no se ha probado ninguna tecnologa electrnica para su distribucin en Asia hasta no haber entrenado una cucaracha para trepar y orinar en cada componente pequeo del interior. +Lo creen gracioso. +Tuve un porttil en el Cuerpo de Paz, y la pantalla tena todos estos pxeles muertos. +Y un da mir dentro, eran todas las hormigas muertas que se haban metido en mi porttil y se murieron +las pobres hormigas! +As que con Firefly, lo que hemos hecho es... el problema es que la electrnica se calienta y se deben instalar ventiladores o extractores para mantenerlos frescos en la mayora de los productos. +Decidimos que no debamos poner un "No entrar" al lado de los respiraderos. +En realidad nos deshicimos de todo eso. +As Firefly est totalmente sellada. +Estas son las lecciones aprendidas tan poco prctico como una adolescencia bonita y bobalicona, mucho peor es ser un diseador frustrado. +As que pens, lo que realmente quiero hacer es cambiar el mundo. +Tengo que prestar atencin a la fabricacin y la distribucin. +Tengo que prestar atencin a cmo la gente har en realidad uso de un dispositivo. +De hecho, tengo que prestar atencin. Realmente, no hay excusa para el fracaso. +Tengo que pensar como un existencialista. +Tengo que aceptar que no hay usuarios tontos, que slo hay productos tontos. +Tenemos que hacer preguntas difciles. +Diseamos para el mundo que queremos? +Diseamos para el mundo que tenemos? +Diseamos para el mundo que viene, estemos o no preparados? +Me met en este negocio de productos de diseo. +Desde entonces he aprendido que si realmente se quiere marcar una diferencia en el mundo, se tiene que disear hacia los resultados. +Y ese es el diseo que importa. +Gracias. +Voy a hablarles de por qu me convert en escultor, y puede que Uds. piensen: bueno, que tratan con conceptos abstractos, con objetos, con cuerpos, pero realmente creo que lo ms importante para m es crear espacio, y por eso he llamado a esta charla: Crear espacio. +Espacio que existe dentro de nosotros, y sin nosotros. +Cuando era un nio, no s cuntos de ustedes crecieron en los 50, pero me mandaban arriba obligado para que descansara. Es una muy mala idea. Quiero decir, despus del almuerzo y teniendo seis aos lo que quieres hacer es subir a un rbol. +Pero tena que ir arriba, a este diminuto cuarto que en realidad estaba hecho en un viejo balcn, por lo que era increblemente caluroso, pequeo e iluminado, y tena que recostarme all. Era ridculo. +En todo caso, por alguna razn, me prometa que no me iba a mover, que iba a hacer lo que mam quera que hiciera. +Les importa si hacemos algo completamente diferente? +Podemos cerrar los ojos todos durante un minuto? +No va a ser nada raro. +No es nada de culto. Simplemente me gustara que furamos todos all. +As que voy a hacerlo tambin. Todos estaremos juntos. +As que cierren sus ojos durante un minuto. +Aqu estamos, en un espacio, el espacio subjetivo, colectivo de la oscuridad del cuerpo. +Creo que este es el lugar de la imaginacin, de potencial, pero cules son sus cualidades? +Carece de objetos. No hay nada en l. +Es adimensional. Es ilimitado. +Es interminable. +Bien, abran los ojos. +Ese es el espacio en el que creo que la escultura lo que es algo as como una paradoja, la escultura que trata de hacer proposiciones materiales pero creo que es el espacio en el que la escultura puede conectar con nosotros. +Bueno, imaginen que estamos en medio de EE UU +Estn dormidos. Se despiertan, y sin levantar la cabeza de la tierra en su saco de dormir, alcanzan a ver unos 112 km. +Se trata de un lecho de lago seco. +Era joven. Acababa de terminar la escuela de arte. +Quera hacer algo que funcionara directamente con el mundo, directamente con el lugar. +Este era un lugar maravilloso, porque era un lugar donde podras imaginar que eras la primera persona en estar all. +Era un lugar donde apenas haba pasado nada. +En fin, tengan paciencia conmigo. +Recog una piedra del tamao de una mano, la tir tan lejos como pude, alrededor de 22 metros. +Luego quit todas las piedras dentro de ese radio e hice un montn. +Este era el montn, por cierto. +Y entonces, me par en el montn, y tir todas esas rocas fuera nuevamente, y aqu est el desierto reorganizado. +Puede que piensen: bueno, no se ve muy diferente de como estaba antes. +De qu trata todo este alboroto? +De hecho, Chris estaba preocupado y dijo: "Mira, no les muestres esa diapositiva, porque van a pensar que eres uno de esos artistas modernos locos que no hacen gran cosa". +Pero el hecho es que esta es una prueba de un cuerpo vivo en otros cuerpos, rocas que han sido objeto de la formacin geolgica, de la erosin, de la accin del tiempo sobre los objetos. +El mundo elemental en el que todos vivimos es ese espacio que visitamos juntos, la oscuridad del cuerpo. +Quera empezar de nuevo en ese entorno, el entorno del espacio ntimo y subjetivo en el que cada uno de nosotros vive, pero desde el otro lado de la apariencia. +As es la actividad diaria en el estudio. +Pueden ver que no hago mucho. Simplemente me quedo all, con los ojos cerrados de nuevo, y otras personas me moldean para crear la evidencia. +Este es un registro que indica un momento vivido por un cuerpo en el tiempo. +Podemos crear un mapa de este espacio, utilizando el lenguaje de los neutrinos o el de los rayos csmicos, tomando la condicin delimitadora del cuerpo como su lmite, pero de una manera completamente diferente respecto a la tcnica griega ms tradicional del trpano? +Antiguamente solan tomar un trozo de mrmol pentlico y perforaban desde la superficie con el fin de identificar la piel, la apariencia, lo que Aristteles defini como la distincin entre la sustancia y la apariencia, lo que hace que las cosas sean visibles, pero aqu estamos trabajando desde el otro lado. +O podemos hacerlo como una membrana exclusiva? +Este es un estuche de plomo creado en el espacio que ocupaba mi cuerpo, pero ahora est vaco. +Este es un trabajo llamado "Aprender a ver". +Es un poco, bueno, podramos llamarlo noche, podramos llamarlo el 96 % de gravedad que no conocemos, materia oscura, puesta en el espacio, otra versin de un espacio humano en el espacio en toda su extensin. No s si podrn verlo; pero los ojos estn sealados, estn cerrados. +Se llama "Aprender a ver" porque se trata de un objeto que esperamos que trabaje reflexivamente y hable de la visin o conexin con la oscuridad del cuerpo que veo como un espacio potencial. +Podemos hacerlo de otra manera, utilizando el lenguaje de partculas alrededor de un ncleo y hablar sobre el cuerpo como un centro de energa? +Hay alguna otra forma? +Materia oscura puesta ahora contra un horizonte. +Si la mente vive en el cuerpo, si los cuerpos viven en la ropa y luego en habitaciones, y luego en edificios, y luego en ciudades, tendrn tambin una piel final, y ser esa piel perceptiva? +El horizonte. +Es el arte tratar de imaginar lo que est ms all del horizonte? +Tiempo humano, tiempo industrial, probado contra el tiempo de las mareas, en el que estas memorias de un cuerpo determinado, podra ser cualquier cuerpo, multiplicado como en el tiempo de la reproduccin mecnica, muchas veces, colocado sobre unos 5 kilmetros cuadrados, kilmetro y medio mar adentro, desapareciendo, en diferentes condiciones de da y de noche. +Pueden ver este trabajo. Est en la boca del Mersey, en las afueras de Liverpool. +Y all se puede ver el aspecto del mar de Liverpool en una tarde tpica. +Las piezas aparecen y desaparecen, pero quizs lo ms importante esto es mirando al norte desde el centro de la instalacin es que crean un campo, un campo que establece una especie de relacin entre la vida y los cuerpos subrogados, una relacin entre s y una relacin con ese lmite, el borde, el horizonte. +Pasando a otra cosa, es posible tener esa idea de la mente, el cuerpo, la construccin de cuerpos, para suplantar el primer cuerpo, el cuerpo biolgico, con el segundo, el cuerpo de la arquitectura y del entorno construido. +Esta es una obra llamada "Habitacin para el gran desierto australiano". +Est en un lugar no definido y nunca he publicado dnde est. +Es un objeto para la mente. +Pienso en l como un Buda del siglo XXI. +Una vez ms, la oscuridad del cuerpo, ahora contenida dentro de esta forma de bnker con la mnima posicin que necesita ocupar un cuerpo, un cuerpo agachado. +Hay un agujero a la altura ano, a nivel del pene. +Hay agujeros a la altura orejas. No hay agujeros a la altura de los ojos. +Hay una ranura para la boca. Es de seis centmetros de espesor, hormign con un vaco interior. +Nuevamente, un sitio que se encontr con un horizonte de 360 grados completamente plano. +Esto es simplemente pedir otra vez, como si hubiramos llegado por primera vez, cul es la relacin del proyecto humano con el tiempo y el espacio? +Teniendo esa expresin de, por as decirlo, la oscuridad del cuerpo transferida a la arquitectura, pueden utilizar el espacio arquitectnico, no para vivir, sino como una metfora, y utilizar sus espacios sistlicos, diastlicos, menores y mayores para proporcionar un tipo de narrativa somtica de primera mano para un viaje a travs del espacio, luz y la oscuridad? +Esta es una obra de cierta proporcin y peso que transforma el cuerpo en una ciudad, en una agregacin de clulas todas interconectadas y que permiten cierto acceso visual en ciertos lugares. +La ltima obra que quera compartir con ustedes es "Luz ciega," que es tal vez el trabajo ms abierto, y en un conferencia de sinceridad radical, creo que quizs esto es lo ms radical que he conseguido, utilizando luz y vapor de agua como mis materiales. +Es una caja llena a una atmsfera y media de presin atmosfrica, con una nube y con una luz muy brillante. +Mientras caminan hacia el umbral, que siempre est abierto, desaparecen, tanto Uds. como los dems. +Si mantienen la mano delante de ustedes, no pueden verla. +Si miran hacia abajo, no pueden ver sus pies. +Ahora estn conscientes, sin nada, liberados de la dimensionalidad y de la forma metdica en que la vida nos une a lo obligatorio. +Pero este es un espacio que realmente est lleno de gente, voces incorpreas, y fuera de ese entorno, cuando las personas se acercan a la zona de su propio cuerpo, muy cerca, parecen como representaciones. +Cuando aparecen cerca del borde, son representaciones, representaciones en las que los espectadores se han convertido en los observados. +Para m, el arte no es acerca de los objetos de alto valor monetario. +Se trata de reafirmar nuestra propia experiencia en el tiempo actual. +Como dijo John Cage, "No nos estamos moviendo hacia una especie de meta. +Estamos en la meta, y est cambiando con nosotros. +Si el arte tiene un propsito, es abrir los ojos ante ese hecho". +Muchas gracias. +Sdney. Toda mi vida haba estado esperando poder ir a Sdney. +Llegu al aeropuerto, al hotel, me registr y all sentado en el vestbulo vi un folleto del Festival de Sdney. Lo hoje y encontr un espectculo llamado "Minto: en vivo". +La descripcin deca: "Las calles suburbanas de Minto se convierten en el escenario de actuaciones creadas por artistas internacionales en colaboracin con la gente de Minto". +Qu lugar era Minto? +Sdney, como aprendera, es una ciudad de suburbios, y Minto est en el suroeste, a una hora de camino. +Debo decir que no era precisamente lo que tena en mente para mi primer da en Australia. +Pens en ir al Puente de la Baha o a Bondi Beach, pero Minto? Aun as, soy productor, y el atractivo de un proyecto teatral local era irresistible. [Risas] Me sumerg en el trfico de viernes por la tarde y nunca olvidar lo que vi al llegar all. +Para la actuacin, el pblico paseaba por el barrio de una casa a otra, y los vecinos, que eran los actores, salan de sus casas y realizaban unos bailes autobiogrficos en sus jardines y entradas de sus casas. [Risas] El espectculo es una colaboracin con Lone Twin, una compaa teatral con sede en el Reino Unido. +Lone Twin vino a Minto y trabaj con los residentes y ellos haban creado estos bailes. +Esta chica aborigen sali y empez a bailar en su jardn delantero, y su padre se asom a la ventana para ver a qu vena tanto ruido y alboroto y enseguida se uni a ella, +y luego se les uni la ms pequea. +Pronto estaban todos bailando alegre y exuberantemente en su jardn. [Risas] Y mientras caminaba por el barrio, me asombraba y me conmova el increble sentido de identidad que esta comunidad claramente senta por este evento. +"Minto: en vivo" entabl el dilogo entre la gente de Sdney y artistas internacionales para celebrar la diversidad de Sdney a su manera. +El Festival de Sdney que produjo "Minto: en vivo", representa un nuevo tipo de festival de arte del siglo XXI. +Estos festivales son radicalmente abiertos. +Pueden trasformar ciudades y comunidades. +Para entenderlo, tiene cierto sentido ver de dnde hemos venido. +Los festivales de arte moderno nacieron tras la 2 Guerra Mundial. +Los lderes cvicos crearon estos festivales anuales para ensalzar la cultura como la mayor expresin del espritu humano. +En 1947, naci el Festival de Edimburgo y naci Avignon y otros cientos seguiran su estela. +El trabajo que realizaban era arte con maysculas y llegaron estrellas como Laurie Anderson, Merce Cunningham y Robert Lepage que facilitaron esta revolucin, con exhibiciones como "El Majbharata" y la monumental "Einstein en la Playa". +Pero al paso de las dcadas, estos festivales se institucionalizaron y mientras la cultura y el capital se activaron, internet nos uni, el estatus desapareci y emergi un nuevo tipo de festival. +Los antiguos festivales seguan prosperando, pero, desde Brighton pasando por Ro hasta Perth, emerga algo nuevo y estos festivales eran muy diferentes. +Son abiertos porque, como en Minto, comprenden que el dilogo entre lo local y lo global es esencial. +Son abiertos porque piden al pblico que sea un actor, un protagonista, un compaero, en lugar de un espectador pasivo, y son abiertos porque saben que la imaginacin no puede encerrarse en edificios y mucho del trabajo que hacen es local o al aire libre. +As que los festivales nuevos piden al pblico que jueguen un papel esencial en la actuacin. +Compaas como De La Guarda, que yo produzco, y Punchdrunk crean estas experiencias de inmersin completa que ponen al pblico en el centro de la accin. Pero la compaa teatral alemana Rimini Protokoll lleva todo esto a un nivel totalmente novedoso. +En una serie de actuaciones que incluyen "100% Vancouver" y "100% Berln", Rimini Protokoll hace espectculos que reflejan la sociedad. +Rimini Protokoll elige 100 personas que representan esa ciudad en ese momento en trminos de raza, sexo y clase a travs de un proceso que comienza tres meses antes y luego, esas 100 personas comparten historias sobre ellos y sus vidas, y todo se convierte en una instantnea de la ciudad en ese momento. +LIFT siempre ha sido pionero en el uso de lugares de actuacin. +Entienden que el teatro y la actuacin pueden ocurrir en cualquier parte. +Puedes hacer una obra en una clase, en un aeropuerto, [Risas] en el escaparate de grandes almacenes. +Los artistas son exploradores, quin mejor para redescubrirnos una ciudad? +Pueden llevarnos a una remota parte de la ciudad que no hemos explorado, o meternos en ese edificio por el que pasamos a diario pero en el que nunca entramos. +Un artista, creo, puede mostrarnos de verdad a la gente que podemos pasar por alto en nuestras vidas. +Back to Back es una compaa australiana de personas con discapacidad intelectual. Vi su impresionante espectculo en Nueva York en la terminal del ferry de Staten Island en hora pico. +Al pblico nos dieron auriculares y nos dieron asiento en un lado de la terminal. +Los actores estaban justo frente a nosotros, justo entre los viajeros y podamos orlos, pero por lo dems podamos no verlos. +As que Back to Back hace teatro local y lo utiliza para recordarnos sutilmente quin y qu escogemos suprimir de nuestra vida diaria. +As que el dilogo con lo local y lo global, el pblico como partcipe, actor y protagonista, el uso innovador de los lugares; todo esto entra en juego en el asombroso trabajo de la fantstica compaa francesa Royal de Luxe. +Las marionetas gigantes de Royal de Luxe van a una ciudad y viven all por unos das. +Para "El Elefante del Sultn", Royal de Luxe lleg a Londres central y lo paraliz con su historia de una nia gigante y su amigo, un elefante que viaja en el tiempo. +Durante unos das, transformaron una ciudad enorme en una comunidad donde reinaban posibilidades infinitas. +The Guardian escribi: "Si el arte es sobre transformacin, entonces no puede haber experiencia ms transformativa". +Lo que representa "El Elefante del Sultn" no es menos que una ocupacin artstica de la ciudad y una recuperacin de las calles para la gente". +Podemos hablar del impacto econmico de estos festivales en sus ciudades, pero tengo ms inters en muchas otras cosas, sea cmo un festival ayuda a una ciudad a expresarse, sea cmo le permite seguir su propio camino. +Los festivales promueven la diversidad, propician el dilogo entre vecinos, incrementan la creatividad, ofrecen oportunidades al orgullo cvico, mejoran nuestro bienestar psicolgico general. +En resumen, hacen que las ciudades sean mejores lugares para vivir. +Caso ilustrativo: cuando "El Elefante del Sultn" lleg a Londres, justo nueve meses despus del 7/7, un londinense escribi: "Por primera vez desde el bombardeo de Londres, mi hija me llam con ese brillo en la voz. +Se haban reunido unos cuantos para ver "El Elefante del Sultn", y, ya saben, hizo toda la diferencia". +Lyn Gardner escribi en The Guardian, que un gran festival puede mostrarnos un mapa del mundo, un mapa de la ciudad y un mapa de nosotros mismos, pero no existe un modelo fijo de festival. +Lo que es tan genial de los festivales, los festivales nuevos, es que capturan por completo la complejidad y el entusiasmo del modo en que vivimos hoy da. +Muchas gracias. [Aplausos] +Hola. Me gustara hablar un poquito sobre la gente que hace las cosas que usamos todos los das: nuestros zapatos, bolsos, computadores, telfonos celulares. +Ahora bien, esta es una conversacin que a menudo acarrea mucha culpa +Imagnense la campesina adolescente que gana menos de un dlar por hora cosiendo nuestras zapatillas para correr o el joven chino que salta desde un tejado despus de trabajar horas extraordinarias armando nuestro iPad. +Nosotros, los que nos beneficiamos de la globalizacin, parecemos explotar a estas vctimas con cada compra que hacemos y la injusticia est incrustada en los mismos productos. +Despus de todo, qu hay de malo en un mundo en el que un obrero de una lnea de ensamblado de iPhones no pueda ni siquiera darse el lujo de comprar uno? +Se da por sentado que las fbricas chinas son opresoras, y que nuestro deseo de productos baratos es lo que las hace as. +Esta simple narrativa que iguala la demanda occidental con el sufrimiento chino es atrayente, especialmente en un momento en que varios de nosotros ya nos sentimos culpables por nuestro impacto en el mundo, pero tambin es inexacto e irrespetuoso. +Tenemos que ser particularmente auto-obsesivos para imaginarnos que tenemos el poder de impulsar a decenas de millones de personas en el otro lado del mundo a migrar y sufrir de manera tan terrible. +De hecho, China fabrica productos para mercados en todo el mundo, incluyendo el suyo propio, gracias a una combinacin de factores: sus bajos costos, su mano de obra numerosa y cualificada, y un sistema de produccin flexible que responde rpidamente a las demandas del mercado. +Al centranos tanto en nosotros mismos y en nuestros aparatos, hemos condenado a los individuos en el otro extremo a la invisibilidad, tan pequeos e intercambiables como las partes de un telfono celular. +A los obreros chinos no se los fuerza a trabajar en las fbricas debido a nuestro deseo insaciable de iPods. +Eligen dejar sus hogares para ganar dinero, para aprender nuevas habilidades y ver el mundo. +En el debate actual sobre la globalizacin, lo que ha lo que se echa de menos son las voces de los propios obreros. +Aqu presento algunas. +Bao Yongxiu: "Mi madre me dice que venga a casa y me case, pero si me caso ahora, antes de haberme desarrollado completamente, slo puedo casarme con un trabajador ordinario as que no tengo prisa." +Chen Ying: "Cuando fui a casa para el ao nuevo, todos me dijeron que haba cambiado. Me preguntaron, qu hiciste que has cambiado tanto? +Les dije que estudi y trabaj duro. Si les dices ms, de todas maneras no van a entender". +Wu Chunming: "Incluso si gano un montn de dinero, no voy a estar satisfecha. +Slo ganar dinero no da suficiente significado a la vida". +Xiao Jin: "Ahora, despus de que salgo del trabajo, estudio ingls, porque en el futuro, nuestros clientes no sern slo chinos, as que tenemos que aprender ms idiomas". +Todos estas presentadoras, por cierto, son mujeres jvenes, de 18 19 aos. +As que pas dos aos conociendo obreros de lneas de ensamblado como estos en una ciudad fbrica del sur de China llamada Dongguan. +Algunos temas salieron una y otra vez: cunto dinero ganaban, con qu tipo de esposo esperaban casarse, si deberan irse a otra fbrica o quedarse donde estaban. +Otros temas no salieron casi nunca, incluyendo las condiciones de vida que me parecan cercanas a la vida en prisin: 10 15 trabajadores en una habitacin, 50 personas compartiendo un nico bao, das y noches regidos por el reloj de la fbrica. +Todos los que ellos conocan vivan en circunstancias parecidas, y eso an era mejor que los dormitorios y casas de la China rural. +Los obreros rara vez hablaban sobre los productos que hacan, y a menudo tenan gran dificultad para explicar qu hacan exactamente. +Cuando le pregunt a Lu Qingmin, la joven que mejor llegu a conocer, qu era exactamente lo que ella haca en la planta, me dijo algo en chino que sonaba como "qiu xi." +Slo mucho despus, me percat que deca "QC," o control de calidad [quality control] +Ella ni siquiera poda decirme qu era lo que haca en la planta. +Lo nico que poda hacer era repetir como loro una abreviacin confusa en un idioma que ni siquiera entenda. +Karl Marx vio esto como la tragedia del capitalismo, la alienacin del obrero por el producto de su trabajo. +A diferencia de, digamos, un zapatero o carpintero tradicional, el obrero de una fbrica industrial no tiene control, ni placer, ni satisfaccin real o entendimiento en su propio trabajo. +Pero como tantas teoras a las que lleg Marx sentado en el saln de lectura del Museo Britnico, en esta se equivoc. +Slo porque una persona pase su tiempo haciendo un pedazo de algo, no significa que ella se convierta en eso, en un pedazo de algo. +Lo que hace ella con el dinero que gana, lo que aprende en ese lugar, y cmo eso la cambia, stas son las cosas que importan. +Lo que una fbrica haga nunca es el punto, y a los obreros no les podra importar menos quin compra sus productos. +La cobertura periodstica sobre las fbricas chinas, por otra parte, resalta esta relacin entre los obreros y los productos que hacen. +Muchos artculos calculan: Cunto le tomara a este obrero trabajar para ganar suficiente dinero para comprar lo que est fabricando? +Por ejemplo, un obrero principiante en una lnea de ensamblado en China en una fbrica de iPhones tendra que soltar dos meses y medio de salario por un iPhone. +Pero, qu significa este clculo, en realidad? +Por ejemplo, recientemente escrib un artculo en la revista The New Yorker, pero no puedo darme el lujo de publicar un anuncio ah. +Pero, a quin le importa? No quiero un anuncio en el New Yorker, y la mayora de estos trabajadores, en realidad, no quieren iPhones. +Sus clculos son diferentes. +Cunto tiempo debo quedarme en esta fbrica? +Cunto dinero puedo ahorrar? +Cunto tiempo tomar comprar un apartamento o un auto, casarme, o que mi hijo termine la escuela? +Los obreros que llegu a conocer tenan una relacin curiosamente abstracta con el producto de su trabajo. +Cerca de un ao despus de conocer a Lu Qingmin, o Min, me invit a su casa al pueblo de su familia para el ao nuevo chino. +En el tren a casa, me dio un regalo: un monedero de marca Coach con ribete de cuero caf. +Le di las gracias, suponiendo que era falso, como casi todo lo dems que se venda en Dongguan. +Despus de llegar a casa, Min le dio a su madre otro regalo: un bolso de mano Dooney & Bourke, y unas noches ms tarde, su hermana luca un bolso LeSportsac marrn. +Poco a poco entend que estos bolsos se hacan en su fbrica, y que cada uno de ellos era autntico. +La hermana de Min le dijo a sus padres, "En EE.UU., este bolso se vende por USD 320." +Sus padres, que eran campesinos, se quedaron mirando, mudos. +"Y eso no es todo, Coach est lanzando una nueva lnea, 2191," dijo. "Un bolso costar 6000." +Hizo una pausa y dijo, "No s si son 6000 yuanes o USD 6000, pero de todas maneras, son 6000." El novio de la hermana de Min, que haba viajado a casa con ella para el ao nuevo, dijo: "No parece que valga tanto" +La hermana de Min se gir hacia l y dijo: "Algunas personas realmente entienden de estas cosas. T no entiendes una mierda." +En el mundo de Min, los bolsos Coach tenan una curiosa moneda. +No es que no valieran nada precisamente, pero no estaban ni cerca del valor real, porque casi nadie que conocieran quera comprar uno, o saba cunto vala. +Una vez, cuando la amiga de la hermana mayor de Min se cas, compr un bolso de mano como regalo de bodas. +Otra vez, despus de que Min ya se haba ido de la fbrica de bolsos, su hermana menor vino de visita, y trajo dos bolsos de mano Coach Signature de regalo. +Mir el bolsillo con cremallera de uno, y encontr una tarjeta impresa en ingls, que deca, "Un clsico estadounidense. +En 1941, la pulida ptina de un guante de baseball hecho en EE.UU. inspir al fundador de Coach a crear una nueva coleccin de bolsos de mano del mismo cuero lujosamente suave usado para guantes. +Seis hbiles talabarteros confeccionaron 12 bolsos de diseo con proporciones perfectas y un estilo eterno. +Eran frescos, funcionales, y las mujeres en todas partes los adoraron. Un nuevo clsico americano haba nacido." +Me pregunto qu habra hecho Karl Marx con Min y sus hermanas. +Su relacin con el producto de su trabajo era ms complicada, sorprendente y divertida de lo que se podra haber imaginado. +Y an as, su visin del mundo persiste, y nuestra tendencia a ver a los trabajadores como masas sin rostro, a imaginar que podemos saber qu estn pensando realmente. +Cuando conoc a Min ella recin haba cumplido los 18 y dej su primer trabajo en la lnea de ensamblado de una fbrica de productos electrnicos. +Durante los siguientes dos aos, la vi cambiarse de trabajo cinco veces, finalmente fue a parar a un puesto lucrativo en el departamento de compras de una fbrica de ferretera. +Ms tarde, se cas con un trabajador inmigrante como ella, se mud con l a su pueblo, tuvo dos hijas, y ahorr suficiente dinero para comprar un Buick de segunda mano para ella y un apartamento para sus padres. +Recientemente volvi a Dongguan por su cuenta para aceptar un trabajo en una fbrica que hace gras de construccin, dejando atrs temporalmente a su esposo e hijas en el pueblo. +En un email reciente, ella me explicaba, "Una persona debera tener algo de ambicin cuando es joven para que en la vejez pueda mirar su vida pasada y sentir que no fue vivida sin sentido." +En todo China, hay 150 millones de obreros como ella, un tercio son mujeres, que han dejado sus pueblos para trabajar en las fbricas, los hoteles, los restaurantes y las obras de construccin de grandes ciudades. +Muy pocos de ellos quieren volver a la forma en que las cosas solan ser. +Cuando fui por primera vez a Dongguan, me preocupaba que fuera deprimente pasar tanto tiempo con obreros. +Tambin me preocupaba que nunca les pasara nada, o que no tuvieran nada que decirme. +En vez de eso, encontr a mujeres jvenes inteligentes y divertidas y valientes y generosas. +Al abrirme sus vidas, me ensearon tanto sobre fbricas y sobre China y sobre cmo vivir en el mundo. +Este es el monedero Coach que me dio Min en el tren a casa para visitar a su familia. +Lo llevo conmigo para acordarme de que los lazos que me atan a las jvenes sobre las que escrib, son lazos no econmicos, sino de naturaleza personal, medidos no en dinero, sino en recuerdos. +Este bolso es tambin un recordatorio de que las cosas que imaginas, sentado en tu oficina o en la biblioteca, no son como las encuentras cuando realmente sales al mundo. +Gracias. Chris Anderson: Gracias, Leslie, ha sido una introspectiva que muchos de nosotros no habamos tenido antes. +Pero tengo curiosidad. Si t tuvieras un minuto, digamos, con el jefe de la fbrica de Apple, qu le diras? +Leslie Chang: Un minuto? +CA: Un minuto. LC: Sabes, lo que realmente me impresion sobre los obreros es que en gran medida estn automotivados, son emprendedores, ingeniosos, y la cosa que me toc, es que lo que ms desean es formacin, aprender, porque la mayora de ellos viene de pasados muy pobres. +Generalmente dejan la escuela en 7 u 8 grado. +Sus padres son a menudo analfabetos, y entonces vienen a la ciudad, y solos, de noche, durante los fines de semanas, toman una clase de computacin, toman una clase de ingls y aprenden cosas muy, muy rudimentarias, sabes, tal como escribir un documento en Word, o cmo decir cosas muy simples en ingls. +As que, si quieres realmente ayudar a estos obreros, comienza estas clases pequeas, muy centradas, muy pragmticas, en estas escuelas, y lo que pasar es que, todos tus obreros avanzarn, pero ojal, avanzarn a puestos ms altos dentro de Apple, y as se puede ayudar a su movilidad social y a su propia mejora. +Cuando uno habla con los obreros, eso es lo que quieren. +No dicen, "quiero mejor agua caliente en las duchas. +Quiero una habitacin mejor. Quiero un televisor." +O sea, sera lindo tener esas cosas, pero no es por eso que estn en la ciudad, y no es eso lo que les preocupa. +CA: Hubo una sensacin en ellos de una narrativa en que las cosas eran un poco duras y malas, o hubo una narrativa de algn tipo de nivel de crecimiento, que las cosas en el tiempo iban a mejorar? +LC: S, claro, claro. O sea, sabes, fue interesante, porque estuve bsicamente dos aos pasando el tiempo en esta ciudad, Dongguan, y en ese tiempo, se puede ver un cambio inmenso en la vida de cada persona: hacia arriba, hacia abajo, hacia los lados, pero generalmente hacia arriba. +Si pasas suficiente tiempo, es hacia arriba, y conoc gente que se haba mudado a la ciudad haca 10 aos, y que ahora eran bsicamente gente urbana de clase media, as que la trayectoria va definitivamente hacia arriba. +Slo que es difcil verlo cuando la ciudad te absorbe. Se ve como si todos fueran pobres y desesperados, pero esa no es la realidad. +CA: Muchsimas gracias por tu charla. +Muchas gracias. +En el System D, esto es una tienda, y con ello quiero decir que es una foto que tom en Makoko, un barrio marginal de Lagos, Nigeria. +Est construido sobre la laguna, y no hay calles donde pueda haber tiendas para comprar, as que la tienda viene a nosotros. +Y en la misma comunidad, vemos sinergia laboral. +Esta es la barca donde la seora remaba; este artesano construye la barca y los remos y los vende directamente a la gente que los necesita. +Y esto es una empresa global. +Ogandiro ahuma pescado en Makoko, Lagos, y le pregunt: De dnde viene el pescado? +Pens que ella dira: Pues, de algn lugar de la laguna, o tal vez de otras partes de frica, pero les alegrar saber que dijo que era de aqu, del mar del Norte. +Lo pescan aqu, lo congelan, lo mandan a Lagos, lo ahuman y lo venden con una pequea ganancia en las calles de Lagos. +Y esto es una incubadora de empresas. +Este es el vertedero de basura Olusosun, el ms grande de Lagos, donde trabajan 2000 personas, y lo supe por este chico, Andrew Saburu. +Andrew estuvo 16 aos hurgando en busca de materiales en el vertedero, gan suficiente dinero para convertirse en un pesador contratista, es decir, llevaba una bscula consigo y pesaba todos los materiales que la gente haba recuperado del vertedero. Ahora es chatarrero. +Ah est su pequeo depsito, detrs de l, y gana el doble del salario mnimo nigeriano. +Esto es un centro comercial. +Es el Oshodi Market en Lagos. +Jorge Luis Borges escribi una historia llamada El Aleph, un lugar del mundo donde absolutamente todo existe, y para m, esta imagen es un lugar del mundo donde absolutamente todo existe. +Entonces, a qu me refiero cuando hablo de System D? +Se le conoce tradicionalmente como economa informal, economa sumergida, mercado negro. +Yo no lo veo de esa forma. +Creo que es muy importante entender que algo as es totalmente abierto. Est a la vista de todo el mundo. +Todo esto sucede abiertamente y sin tapujos. +No hay nada clandestino. +Es nuestro prejuicio que se considere clandestino. +Me apropi del trmino System D de las antiguas colonias francesas. +Existe una palabra en francs, dbrouillardise, que significa ser autosuficiente, y las antiguas colonias francesas lo han convertido en System D para la economa de la autosuficiencia, o del hgalo Ud. mismo. +Pero los gobiernos odian esta economa. tom esta foto en el 2007, y este es el mismo mercado en el 2009 Creo que cuando los organizadores de esta conferencia hablaban de apertura radical, no se referan a que las calles tuvieran que estar abiertas y que la gente tuviera que desaparecer. +Creo que tenemos un problema de reutilizacin. +Yo tena un amigo que trabajaba en una fbrica de conservas, donde los pepinos caan por una cinta transportadora, y a l le tocaba separar los que no tenan buen aspecto y tirarlos a un contenedor etiquetado como condimento donde se machacaban y mezclaban con vinagre para usarlos para otros provechos. +Es la llamada economa de reutilizacin. +Todos nos centramos en estos datos se publicaron a principios de mes en el Financial Times todos nos centramos en la economa del lujo. +Valorada en USD 1,5 billones anuales, una gran cantidad de dinero, verdad? +Es tres veces el Producto Interno Bruto de Suiza. +Es inmensa. Pero habra que aadir un asterisco, ya que excluye a dos terceras partes de los trabajadores en el mundo. +1,8 mil millones de personas en todo el mundo trabajan en la economa no regulada e informal. +Es una cifra enorme, y eso qu significa? +Bueno, significa que si se unieran en un sistema poltico nico, un pas, llamado por ejemplo Repblica de Vendedores Ambulantes Unidos, R.V.A.U., o Bazaristn, alcanzara un valor de USD 10 billones anuales, y se convertira en la segunda mayor economa del mundo, tras EE.UU. +Y dado que los pronsticos indican que la mayor parte del crecimiento econmico para los prximos 15 aos provendr de las economas emergentes de los pases en vas de desarrollo, podra fcilmente superar a EE.UU. y convertirse en la mayor economa del mundo. +Las implicaciones son enormes, porque significa que es aqu donde est el empleo 1,8 mil millones de personas y es aqu donde podemos crear un mundo ms igualitario, porque la gente es realmente capaz de ganar dinero y vivir y prosperar, como hizo Andrew Saboru. +Las grandes empresas lo han reconocido, y lo fascinante de esta diapositiva no es que estos chicos puedan llevar cajas en la cabeza y correr sin que se les caigan, +sino que el rollito de salchicha Gala sea un producto fabricado por una multinacional llamada UAC Foods que est presente en toda frica y Oriente Medio, pero este rollito no se vende en las tiendas. +UAC Foods ha reconocido que no triunfara en las tiendas. +Solo se vende mediante una falange de vendedores ambulantes que recorren las calles de Lagos en las estaciones de autobuses y en atascos, y que lo venden como refrigerio. As se ha vendido durante 40 aos. +Es un plan de negocio para una compaa. +Y no solo sucede en frica. +As, Procter & Gamble dice: "No nos importa si una tienda est constituida como sociedad o registrada o lo que sea. +Queremos nuestros productos en esa tienda". +Y luego estn los telfonos mviles. +Este es un anuncio del Grupo MTN, una multinacional sudafricana presente en unos 25 pases, y cuando llegaron a Nigeria Nigeria es el pez gordo de frica. +Tuvieron que replantear la estrategia y modificarla, e idearon otro plan: No le vendemos el telfono, no le vendemos el plan mensual. +Solo le vendemos tiempo de conversacin. +Y dnde se vende este tiempo? +Bajo las sombrillas de los puestos callejeros, donde la gente no est registrada, ni tiene licencia, pero MTN genera la mayor parte de sus ganancias, tal vez el 90 % de ellas, de la venta a travs del System D, la economa informal. +Y de dnde vienen los telfonos? +Vienen de aqu. Esto es en Guangzhou, China, arriba de este tranquilo centro comercial de electrnica se encuentra el centro de negocios de segunda mano Guangzhou Dashatou, y si entran, siguen a los chicos musculosos que llevan las cajas, y dnde van? +Van a Eddy en Lagos. +La mayora de los telfonos no son de segunda mano. +El trmino es engaoso. +Muchos son piratas. Tienen el nombre de la marca, pero sta no los fabrica. +Ahora, cules son los inconvenientes? +Bueno, supongo. Ya saben, China no tiene... propiedad intelectual, verdad? +Versace sin las vocales. +Zhuomani en lugar de Armani. +S. Guuuci, y... As es como se distribuyen los productos por todo el mundo, as, por ejemplo, en un mercado callejero en la Calle 25 de Marzo en San Paulo, Brasil, pueden comprar imitaciones de gafas de diseo, +falsificaciones de colonias, +DVDs piratas, por supuesto, +gorras de los New York Yankees de todo tipo de modelos no autorizados, +Ahora bien, hay otro problema. +Esta es una seal de trfico real en Lagos, Nigeria. +En el System D no se paga realmente impuestos, verdad? +Hubo una empresa que pag 4000 sobornos en la primera dcada de este milenio, y un milln de dlares en sobornos todos los das hbiles. +Por todo el mundo. Esa empresa fue el gigante alemn de la electrnica Siemens. +As que esto ocurre tanto en la economa formal, como en la economa informal, no est bien que culpemos y no lo digo solo por Siemens, estoy diciendo que todo el mundo lo hace. De acuerdo? +Solo quiero terminar diciendo que si Adam Smith hubiese formulado una teora del mercado callejero en lugar del libre mercado, cules seran algunos de los principios? +En primer lugar, entender que podra considerarse una cooperativa, y esto es lo que piensa el jurista brasileo Roberto Mangabeira Unger. +El desarrollo cooperativo es un camino a seguir. +En segundo lugar, de acuerdo con el filsofo austraco anarquista Paul Feyerabend, los hechos son relativos, y lo que es un enorme derecho de autosuficiencia para un empresario nigeriano, para otros es algo desautorizado y horrible, y debemos reconocer que hay diferencias en cmo la gente define las cosas y cul es su realidad. +Y en tercer lugar, y tomo esto del gran poeta beat estadounidense Allen Ginsberg, quien dijo que el trueque en economas alternativas y las diferentes monedas, las monedas alternativas tambin son muy importantes, y hablaba sobre comprar lo que necesitaba solo por su buena apariencia. +Me gustara dejarlo aqu y decir que esta economa es un impulso tremendo para el desarrollo mundial y es necesario que as la consideremos. +Muchas gracias. +Quiero hablarles sobre dos partidas de ajedrez. +La primera fue en 1997, cuando Garry Kasparov, un humano, perdi ante Deep Blue, una mquina. +Para muchos, este era el inicio de una nueva era, en la que las mquinas dominaran a los hombres. +Sin embargo aqu estamos, 20 aos despus, y el mayor cambio en nuestra relacin con las computadoras es el iPad, no HAL. +La segunda partida fue durante un torneo de ajedrez libre, en 2005, en el que hombre y mquina podan inscribirse como equipo y no como adversarios, si as lo deseaban. +Al principio se tuvieron resultados predecibles; +incluso un Gran Maestro derrot a una supercomputadora con un computador porttil ms bien de bajo desempeo. +La sorpresa lleg al final: quin gan? +No un Gran Maestro con una supercomputadora, sino dos aficionados norteamericanos con tres porttiles ms bien de bajo desempeo. +Su habilidad para instruir y manipular sus computadoras para explorar posiciones especficas en profundidad contrarrest con eficacia los conocimientos superiores en ajedrez de los Grandes Maestros y el poder superior de computacin de otros adversarios. +Este es un resultado increble: hombres promedio y mquinas convencionales que vencen al mejor hombre, a la mejor mquina. +Y adems, no se supone que se trata del hombre contra la mquina? +En cambio, se trata de cooperacin y del tipo correcto de cooperacin. +Durante los ltimos 50 aos, hemos prestado mucha atencin a la visin que tiene Marvin Minsky de la inteligencia artificial +Es una visin atractiva, por supuesto; muchos la han adoptado. +Se ha convertido en la escuela dominante de pensamiento en la ciencia de la computacin. +Pero a medida que entramos en la era de los grandes volmenes de datos, de los sistemas de red, de las plataformas abiertas y de la tecnologa embebida, quiero sugerir que es tiempo de reevaluar una visin alternativa que en realidad se desarroll en la misma poca. +Me refiero a la idea de la simbiosis humano-computadora, de J.C.R. Licklider, tal vez mejor llamada aumento de la inteligencia, o I.A. (en ingls) +Licklider fue un titn de la informtica que tuvo un impacto profundo en el desarrollo de la tecnologa y de internet. +Su visin era la de habilitar la cooperacin entre hombre y mquina en la toma de decisiones, y controlar situaciones complejas sin la dependencia inflexible de programas predeterminados. +Fjense en la palabra cooperacin. +Licklider nos alienta, no a tomar un tostador y convertirlo en Data, de Star Trek, sino a tomar a un ser humano y hacerlo ms capaz. +Los humanos somos tan sorprendentes... cmo pensamos, nuestros enfoques no lineales, nuestra creatividad, las hiptesis iterativas; todo esto es muy difcil, si no imposible, para las computadoras. +Licklider se dio cuenta de esto intuitivamente al contemplar a los humanos establecer las metas, formular las hiptesis, determinar los criterios y realizar la evaluacin. +Por supuesto, los humanos somos muy limitados en otras reas. +Somos muy malos para grandes escalas, volumen y para computar. +Necesitamos una gestin superior de talento para mantener al grupo de rock unido y tocando. +Licklider previ que las computadoras haran todo el trabajo rutinario que se necesitaba para preparar el camino al conocimiento y la toma de decisiones. +En silencio, sin mucha fanfarria, este enfoque ha ido acumulando triunfos ms all del ajedrez. +El plegamiento de protenas, un tema que comparte con el ajedrez la increble expansividad: hay ms formas de plegar una protena que tomos en el universo. +Este es un problema capaz de cambiar el mundo con enormes repercusiones en nuestra capacidad para comprender y tratar las enfermedades. +Y para esta tarea, la fuerza bruta de las supercomputadoras simplemente no basta. +Foldit, un juego creado por cientficos de la informtica, ilustra el valor de este enfoque. +Aficionados sin formacin en tecnologa ni biologa juegan un videojuego en el que reordenan visualmente la estructura de la protena, permitiendo que la computadora se encargue de las fuerzas atmicas de las interacciones y de identificar los problemas estructurales. +Este enfoque ha vencido a las supercomputadoras el 50 % de las veces y ha empatado con ellas el 30 %. +Foldit realiz hace poco un descubrimiento cientfico importante al descifrar la estructura del virus Mason-Pfizer de los monos. +Una proteasa que no haba podido ser determinada en ms de 10 aos fue resuelta por tres jugadores en cuestin de das; tal vez el primer avance cientfico importante que haya surgido de jugar un videojuego. +El ao pasado, en el sitio de las Torres Gemelas, se inaugur el monumento 9/11. +Muestra los nombres de miles de vctimas, usando un hermoso concepto llamado colindancia significativa. +Coloca los nombres uno junto a otro en funcin de las relaciones que tenan entre s: amigos, familias, +compaeros de trabajo. Hacer encajar todo es un considerable desafo computacional: 3500 vctimas, 1800 pedidos de colindancia, la importancia de las especificaciones fsicas generales y la esttica final. +En el primer informe de la prensa se dio crdito total por tal hazaa a un algoritmo de una compaa de diseo en Nueva York llamada Local Projects. La verdad es un poco ms sutil. +Si bien se utiliz un algoritmo para desarrollar la estructura base, fueron seres humanos quienes usaron esa estructura para disear el resultado final. +As que, en este caso, una computadora evalu los millones de diseos posibles, manej un sistema relacional complejo y monitore un gran conjunto de mediciones y variables, lo que permiti a los humanos enfocarse en el diseo y las alternativas de composicin. +Entre ms miren a su alrededor, ms vern por todos lados la visin de Licklider. +Ya sea la realidad aumentada en su iPhone o el GPS en su auto, la simbiosis humano-computadora nos est volviendo ms capaces. +Entonces, si quieren mejorar la simbiosis humano-computadora, qu pueden hacer? +Pueden empezar por incluir al ser humano en el diseo del proceso. +En vez de pensar qu har una computadora para resolver el problema, diseen la solucin en funcin de lo que har el ser humano tambin. +Al hacer esto, pronto se darn cuenta de que han pasado todo su tiempo en la interfaz entre hombre y mquina, especficamente en el diseo para eliminar la friccin en la interaccin. +De hecho, esta friccin es ms importante que el poder del hombre o de la mquina para determinar la capacidad total. +Es por eso que dos aficionados con unas cuantas computadoras porttiles vencieron fcilmente a una supercomputadora y a un Gran Maestro. +Lo que Kasparov llama proceso es un subproducto de la friccin. +Cuanto mejor sea el proceso, menor ser la friccin, +y minimizar la friccin resulta ser la variable decisiva. +O bien, tomen otro ejemplo: los grandes volmenes de datos. +Nuestras interacciones con en el mundo se registran por una variedad de sensores cada vez mayor: telfonos, tarjetas de crdito, computadoras. El resultado es el gran volumen de datos; y en realidad nos ofrece la oportunidad de entender ms profundamente la condicin humana. +El mayor nfasis de casi todos los enfoques al alto volumen de datos se centra en: Cmo almaceno estos datos?, cmo busco estos datos?, cmo proceso estos datos? +Estas preguntas son necesarias, pero insuficientes. +El imperativo no es resolver cmo computar, sino qu computar. Cmo se aplica la intuicin humana sobre los datos a esta escala? +De nuevo, empezamos por incluir al ser humano en el diseo del proceso. +En los inicios de la compaa PayPal, su mayor desafo no fue: cmo enviar y recibir dinero en lnea, +sino cmo enviarlo sin ser estafado por el crimen organizado. +Por qu tanto desafo? Porque las computadoras pueden aprender a detectar fraudes con base en patrones, pero no pueden aprender a hacerlo con base en patrones que nunca han visto, y el crimen organizado tiene mucho en comn con este pblico: es gente brillante, incansablemente ingeniosa, con un espritu emprendedor y una diferencia enorme y muy importante: sus intenciones. +Si bien las computadoras por s solas pueden atrapar a todos los estafadores excepto a los ms astutos, atrapar a los ms astutos hace la diferencia entre el xito y el fracaso. +Hay toda una clase de problemas como este, que tienen adversarios adaptables. Rara vez presentan un patrn repetitivo que las computadoras puedan discernir. +Al contrario, hay un componente intrnseco de innovacin o disrupcin, y se esconden cada vez ms entre el alto volumen de datos. +El terrorismo, por ejemplo. Los terroristas se adaptan siempre en mayor o menor medida a circunstancias nuevas. Y a pesar de lo que puedan ver en la TV, estas adaptaciones y su deteccin son fundamentalmente humanas. +Las computadoras no detectan patrones y comportamientos novedosos, pero los seres humanos s. Los seres humanos, al usar tecnologa, al probar una hiptesis, al buscar entendimiento al pedir a las mquinas que hagan cosas por ellos. +La inteligencia artificial no atrap a Osama Bin Laden. +Lo atraparon personas entregadas, ingeniosas y brillantes en asociacin con tecnologas varias. +Aunque suene atractivo, no se puede llegar a una respuesta haciendo minera de datos algortmicamente. +No existe un botn que diga Encontrar Terrorista, y mientras ms datos integremos de una amplia variedad de fuentes y sobre una gran variedad de formatos de sistemas muy dispares, menos efectiva ser la minera de datos. +En vez de esto, la gente tendr que mirar los datos y buscar respuestas, y como lo predijo Licklider hace tiempo, la clave de los grandes resultados es la forma correcta de cooperacin; y como lo not Kasparov, eso significa minimizar la friccin en la interfaz. +Este enfoque posibilita procesos como la exploracin de todos los datos disponibles provenientes de fuentes muy diferentes, identificar relaciones clave y ponerlas en un mismo lugar, algo que antes era casi imposible de hacer. +Para algunos, esto conlleva consecuencias aterradoras para la privacidad y las libertades civiles. Para otros, presagia una era de mayor proteccin de las mismas. Pero, la privacidad y las libertades civiles son de capital importancia. +Esto tiene que ser reconocido, y no se pueden dejar de lado ni con la mejor de las intenciones. +As que exploremos, mediante un par de ejemplos, el impacto que las tecnologas construidas para impulsar la simbiosis humano-computadora han tenido en los ltimos tiempos. +En octubre del 2007, los EE. UU. y las fuerzas de coalicin incursionaron en una casa de seguridad de Al Qaeda en la ciudad de Sinjar en la frontera sirio-iraqu. +Encontraron un tesoro de documentos: 700 esbozos biogrficos de combatientes extranjeros. +Estos combatientes haban dejado a sus familias en el golfo, en el Levante mediterrneo y el norte de frica para unirse a Al Qaeda en Iraq. +Estos registros eran formularios de recursos humanos; +los combatientes extranjeros los completaban al unirse a la organizacin. +Resulta que tambin Al Qaeda tiene su burocracia. Respondan a preguntas como: Quin te reclut?, +Cul es tu ciudad natal?, Qu ocupacin buscas? +Con esta ltima pregunta, se revel un dato sorprendente. +La gran mayora de los combatientes extranjeros buscaban ser hombres bomba para convertirse en mrtires... De tremenda importancia, ya que entre 2003 y 2007, Iraq sufri 1382 ataques suicidas, una gran fuente de inestabilidad. +Analizar estos datos fue difcil. Los originales eran hojas de papel escritas en rabe que debieron ser escaneadas y traducidas. +La friccin en el proceso no permiti obtener resultados significativos en un plazo de tiempo operativo usando solo seres humanos, PDFs y tenacidad. +Los investigadores deban apoyar sus mentes humanas con tecnologa para profundizar ms, para explorar hiptesis que no fuesen obvias, y de hecho, surgieron algunas revelaciones. +En marzo de 2007, este pronunci un discurso, despus del cual se produjo un repentino aumento en la participacin de combatientes libios. +Quizs lo ms ingenioso de todo, sin embargo, y lo menos obvio, al darle vueltas en la cabeza a los datos, los investigadores pudieron explorar en profundidad las redes de coordinacin en Siria que eran las responsables finales de recibir y transportar a los combatientes extranjeros hacia la frontera. +Estas eran redes de mercenarios, no de idelogos, que estaban en el negocio de la coordinacin por las ganancias. +Por ejemplo, a los combatientes sauditas les cobraban considerablemente ms que a los libios; dinero que de otra manera habra sido para Al Qaeda. +Tal vez el adversario interrumpira su propia red si supiera que estaban engaando a aspirantes a yihadistas. +En enero de 2010, un terremoto devastador de 7,0 grados sacudi Hait. El tercer terremoto ms letal de la historia, dej un milln de personas, el 10 % de la poblacin, sin hogar. +Un aspecto en apariencia pequeo de la ayuda humanitaria global se volvi cada vez ms importante cuando comenz la entrega de agua y alimentos. +Enero y febrero son los meses secos en Hait, pero en muchos campamentos se haban formado aguas estancadas. +La nica institucin con un conocimiento detallado durante el terremoto, con sus lderes dentro. +As que la pregunta era: qu campamentos estaban en riesgo, cunta gente haba en esos campamentos, cules eran los plazos de las inundaciones y dados los muy escasos recursos e infraestructura, cmo priorizar el traslado. +Los datos eran increblemente dispares. El ejrcito de los EE.UU. tena informacin detallada de solo una pequea porcin del pas. +Haba datos en lnea de una conferencia de riesgo ambiental de 2006, otros datos geoespaciales, nada de ello integrado. +La meta humana era identificar los campamentos a trasladar en funcin de las necesidades prioritarias. +La computadora deba integrar una gran cantidad de informacin geoespacial, datos de los medios sociales e informacin sobre la organizacin de ayuda humanitaria para responder a esta pregunta. +Mediante la implementacin de un proceso superior, lo que habra sido una tarea para 40 personas durante 3 meses, se volvi un trabajo simple para 3 personas en 40 horas, todas victorias de la simbiosis humano-computadora. +Han pasado ms de 50 aos de la visin de Licklider para el futuro, y los datos sugieren que deberamos sentirnos muy emocionados de poder atacar los problemas ms difciles del siglo, hombre y mquina cooperando juntos. +Gracias. +Quiero que imaginen algo. +Dos hombres, Rahul y Rajiv, viven en el mismo barrio, tienen la misma formacin acadmica, profesiones parecidas y los dos llegaron a urgencias quejndose de un agudo dolor en el pecho. +A Rahul le ofrecieron una intervencin cardaca, pero a Rajiv le dieron de alta. +Qu puede explicar la diferencia de experiencias entre estos dos hombres casi idnticos? +Rajiv padece una enfermedad mental. +La diferencia de la calidad del cuidado mdico que recibe un enfermo mental es una de las razones del por qu viven menos que las personas mentalmente sanas. +Incluso en los pases con los mejores recursos del mundo la brecha de esperanza de vida es de 20 aos. +En los pases en desarrollo, esta brecha es an mayor. +Claro, las enfermedades mentales tambin pueden matar de maneras ms directas. El ejemplo ms obvio es el suicidio. +Puede que les sorprenda, como me pas a m cuando descubr que el suicidio es la principal causa de muerte para los jvenes en todos los pases del mundo, incluyendo a los pases ms pobres del mundo. +Sin embargo, ms all del impacto del estado de salud en la esperanza de vida, tambin nos preocupa la calidad de lo vivido. +Para analizar la repercusin real del estado de salud en la esperanza de vida, as como en la calidad de lo vivido, necesitamos utilizar un sistema mtrico denominado DALY, que corresponde a los Aos de Vida Potencialmente Perdidos. +Cuando lo utilizamos, descubrimos cosas alarmantes acerca de la enfermedad mental desde una perspectiva mundial. +Por ejemplo, descubrimos que las enfermedades mentales estn entre las principales causas de invalidez en el mundo. +La depresin, por ejemplo, es la tercera causa principal de invalidez, junto con otras enfermedades como la diarrea y la neumona en los nios. +Cuando juntas todas las enfermedades mentales corresponden a aproximadamente el 15 % de todas las enfermedades del mundo. +Las enfermedades mentales tambin son muy danas para la vida de las personas. Ms all de la carga de la enfermedad, consideremos las cifras absolutas. +La Organizacin Mundial de la Salud estima que existen entre 400 y 500 millones de personas en nuestro planeta que padecen una enfermedad mental. +Veo que algunos asienten con la cabeza. +Sin embargo, incluso en los pases con mejores recursos, por ejemplo en Europa, aproximadamente el 50 % de las personas afectadas no reciben tratamiento. +En los tipos de pases en los que trabajo, esa brecha llega a un sorprendente 90 %. +No es sorprendente, cuando le hablas a alguien que padece una enfermedad mental, escuchar historias de sufrimiento oculto, vergenza y discriminacin en casi cada sector de sus vidas. +Pero quizs lo ms desgarrador de todo esto, son las historias de violacin incluso de los derechos humanos ms bsicos, como la de esta esta nia, que suceden todos los das. Lamentablemente, incluso en las instituciones que se construyeron para cuidar a estas personas: los hospitales psiquitricos. +Uno de los desafos ms importantes es la gran escasez de profesionales de la salud mental, como los psiquiatras y psiclogos, particularmente en los pases en desarrollo. +Estudi medicina en India y despus eleg como mi especialidad la psiquiatra y mi madre y mi familia se disgustaron, ya que pensaban que la neurociruga era una opcin ms respetable para su brillante hijo. +De todas maneras segu adelante e hice unas prcticas en uno de los mejores hospitales de Gran Bretaa. Era muy afortunado. +Trabaj con un equipo de profesionales increblemente talentosos y compasivos. Pero, sobre todo, perfectamente capacitados y especializados. +Poco despus, comenc a trabajar en Zimbabue y luego en India, donde me encontr con una realidad totalmente nueva. +Un mundo en donde casi no haba profesionales del campo de la salud mental. +En Zimbabue slo haba aproximadamente una docena de psiquiatras y la mayora de ellos vivan y trabajaban en la ciudad de Harare, por lo que slo unos pocos atendan las necesidades de cuidado mental de los 9 millones de personas que vivan en el campo. +En India la situacin no era muy diferente. +Para que se hagan una idea, si tuviera que traducir el porcentaje de psiquiatras que hay en Gran Bretaa, habra unos 150 000 psiquiatras en India. +Pero adivinen cuntos psiquiatras hay. +Son slo unos 3000, slo el 2 % de los que debiera haber. +Rpidamente me di cuenta de que para ofrecer cuidados de salud mental en pases como India y Zimbabue, no poda seguir los modelos que haba estudiado, porque dependan en gran medida de especialistas caros. +Tena que innovar y cear otro modelo. +Ah fue cuando encontr estos libros y descubr en la salud mundial, la idea de delegar tareas. +Si se puede entrenar a personas corrientes para realizar intervenciones mdicas tan complejas, posiblemente podra hacer lo mismo con la salud mental. +Hoy me complace informarles de que en la ltima dcada se ha experimentado mucho con la delegacin de funciones en el campo de la salud mental, en el mundo en vas de desarrollo. Me gustara compartir con ustedes los hallazgos de tres experimentos en particular enfocados en la depresin, la enfermedad mental ms comn. +En la Uganda rural, Paul Bolton y sus colegas demostraron que los lugareos podan realizar una psicoterapia interpersonal para la depresin y, mediante un control aleatorio, demostraron que el 90 % de las personas que fueron tratadas se recuperaron frente al 40 % del grupo de control. +En mi propio ensayo en Goa, India, nuevamente demostramos que los consejeros profanos de comunidades locales podan ser entrenados para realizar intervenciones psicosociales para la depresin y la ansiedad, aumentando a un 70 % las tasas de recuperacin, frente al 50 % de los centros de atencin primaria. +Si tuviera que unir todos estos experimentos sobre la delegacin de tareas (y claramente existen muchos otros ejemplos) e intentar identificar cules son las lecciones importantes que podemos aprender, que contribuyan a una delegacin de tareas exitosa... He acuado este particular acrnimo: SUNDAR. +SUNDAR en hindi significa atractivo. +Me parece que en esta diapositiva muestro cinco lecciones realmente importantes para una delegacin de tareas eficaz. +La primera es que necesitamos simplificar el mensaje que estamos utilizando, quitando toda la jerga que la medicina ha inventado. +Tenemos que dividir los componentes complejos de las intervenciones en unidades pequeas para que los individuos menos capacitados puedan ejecutarlos ms fcilmente. +Necesitamos otorgar cuidados mdicos no en grandes instituciones, sino ms cerca de los hogares y necesitamos utilizar a quien est disponible en nuestras comunidades locales. +An ms importante, tenemos que reasignar a los pocos especialistas disponibles para realizar labores de desarrollo de capacidades y supervisin. +Para m, la delegacin de tareas es una idea con una relevancia realmente mundial porque, aunque han surgido del problema de la falta de recursos que existen en los pases en va de desarrollo, tambin es muy importante para los pases con mejores recursos. Por qu? +En parte, porque la salud en los pases desarrollados, los costos de salud en los pases [desarrollados], estn salindose de control rpidamente y gran parte de esos costos son humanos. +Tambin es importante porque la salud se ha convertido en una profesin increblemente especializada y se ha alejado de las comunidades locales. +Para m, lo que es realmente "sundar" acerca de la idea de delegar tareas, no es slo que hace que la salud sea ms accesible y ms econmica, sino que tambin es fundamentalmente fortalecedora. +Motiva a las personas comunes y corrientes a interesarse por la salud de los otros en su comunidad. As, se convierten en mejores protectores de su propia salud. Para m, la delegacin de tareas es el ejemplo ms reciente de la democratizacin del conocimiento mdico y, as, del poder mdico. +Apenas hace 30 aos, los pases del mundo se reunieron en Alma-Ata y emitieron esta simblica declaracin. +Creo que todos pueden imaginar que tras 12 aos, an no estamos ni cerca de ese objetivo. +Sin embargo, sabiendo que las personas comunes y corrientes de una comunidad pueden ser capacitadas y, con la supervisin adecuada y el apoyo, pueden realizar una ciertas intervenciones mdicas con buenos resultados, quizs ahora esa promesa est al alcance. +De hecho, para implementar la iniciativa de "Salud para todos", necesitaremos incluir a todos en ese paso particular. Yy en el caso de la salud mental, necesitaremos incluir a las personas que padecen una enfermedad mental y a sus enfermeros. +Para concluir, cuando tengan un momento de paz o tranquilidad en estos pocos das muy ocupados, o quizs despus, dediquen un momento a pensar en la persona o en las personas que recordaron que tienen una enfermedad mental y atrvanse a cuidarlos. Gracias. +Cuando se construy la Casa Blanca a principios del siglo XIX, era un recinto de puertas abiertas. +Los vecinos entraban y salan. Durante la gestin del presidente Adams un dentista local pas a visitarlo. +Quera saludar de mano al Presidente. +El presidente despach al Secretario de Estado con quien estaba reunido y le pidi al dentista que le removiera un diente. +Ms tarde, en los aos 1850, el presidente Pierce pas a la historia por su respuesta quizs sea lo nico por lo que es conocido a un vecino que al pasar dijo: Me encantara conocer esta hermosa casa. Y Pierce le contest: Por supuesto estimado caballero, puede usted pasar. +sta no es mi casa, sino la casa del pueblo. +Cuando llegu a trabajar a la Casa Blanca en 2009, al inicio de la administracin de Obama, la Casa Blanca era todo menos un lugar de puertas abiertas. +Mis ventanas estaban cubiertas por protecciones anti-bombas. +Usbamos Windows 2000. +Las redes sociales estaban bloqueadas por protectores de seguridad. +No tenamos un blog, mucho menos la docena de cuentas de Twitter con las que ahora contamos. +Llegu para dirigir el proyecto Gobierno Abierto, para poner en prctica los valores de transparencia participacin y colaboracin, y permearlos en nuestro trabajo; para facilitar la apertura del gobierno en su trabajo con el pueblo. +Sabemos que las compaias son expertas en hacer que las personas trabajen en equipos y en redes de colaboracin para fabricar productos muy complejos, como autos y computadoras y cuanto ms complejos son los productos creados por una sociedad mayor es el xito de dicha sociedad en el tiempo. +Cuando quisimos crear nuestra poltica de Gobierno Abierto qu hicimos? Preguntamos a los empleados pblicos cmo tener un gobierno abierto. +Resulta que eso nunca se haba hecho antes. +Pedimos al pblico en general que nos ayudara a proponer una normativa que permitiera a las personas opinar sobre polticas, no despus de dictadas, como es costumbre, sino durante su elaboracin. No exista ningn precedente legal o cultural, ni un protocolo definido para ello. +De hecho, muchos nos dijeron que era ilegal. +He aqu el meollo del asunto: +los gobiernos existen para dar cauce a dos cosas: valores y pericia, desde y hacia el gobierno y desde y hacia los ciudadanos, en la toma de decisiones. +Pero el diseo de nuestras instituciones se basa en un modelo centralizado, ms propio del siglo XVIII que canaliza el flujo de valores a travs del voto cada cuatro aos, cada dos aos o, en el mejor de los casos, anualmente. Esta es una manera bastante pobre de comunicar nuestros valores, en esta era de las redes sociales. +La tecnologa de hoy nos permite expresarnos tanto como queramos, acaso en exceso. +En el siglo XIX, adoptamos los conceptos de burocracia y del Estado administrador para gobernar sociedades grandes y complejas. +Pero al centralizar estas burocracias +las atrincheramos. Sabemos que los ms inteligentes siempre trabajan para otros. +Basta con mirar alrededor de esta sala para notar que la pericia e inteligencia se encuentran ampliamente distribuidas en la sociedad y que no se limitan a nuestras instituciones. +Los cientficos han estudiado recientemente un fenmeno que llaman flujo, segn el cual nuestros sistemas, ya sean naturales o sociales, canalizan el flujo de aquello que los recorre. +El ro est diseado para dar cauce al flujo del agua, el relmpago que surge de una nube, da cauce al flujo de electricidad y la hoja est diseada para canalizar el flujo de nutrientes hacia el rbol, incluso sorteando obstculos, para hacer que le llegue el alimento. +Lo mismo puede decirse de nuestros sistemas sociales o de nuestros sistemas de gobierno, en los cuales el concepto del flujo nos sirve al menos de metfora para entender el problema, lo daado, y la urgente necesidad que todos sentimos de redisear el flujo de nuestras instituciones. +Vivimos en la era Cambriana de grandes cantidades de datos, de redes sociales, y tenemos la oportunidad de redisear estas instituciones que son de hecho bastante nuevas. +Qu otro negocio conoces, qu sector de la economa en particular tan grande como el sector pblico que no necesite reinventar su modelo de negocios frecuentemente? +Invertimos grandes cantidades en innovacin, en banda ancha, educacin cientfica y subsidios para investigacin, pero muy poco en reinventar y redisear nuestras instituciones. +Es fcil quejarse de los partidos polticos, y de la intrincada burocracia, y nos encanta quejarnos del gobierno. Es un pasatiempo que no pasa de moda, sobre todo en tiempos electorales. Pero el mundo es complejo. Pronto seremos 10 billones de habitantes muchos de los cuales carecern de recursos bsicos. +Podemos quejarnos cuanto queramos, pero pensemos qu podra reemplazar lo que hoy tenemos? +Que viene despus de la Primavera rabe? +Las redes sociales se presentan como una alternativa atractiva verdad? Redes como Facebook y Twitter. Son simples. Son importantes. +Facebook tiene 3000 empleados gobernando 900 millones de habitantes. +Podramos incluso llamarles ciudadanos, ya que se han levantado en contra de intervenciones legislativas. Los ciudadanos de estas redes sociales trabajan en conjunto para servir a los dems en una gran cantidad de maneras. +Pero las comunidades privadas, las corporaciones, no son democracias basadas en el pueblo. +No pueden reemplazar al gobierno. +Hacer amigos en Facebook no basta ni para llevar a cabo la ardua tarea de colaborar entre nosotros, ni para ejecutar el duro trabajo de gobernar. +Pero las redes sociales nos ensean algo: +Por qu Twitter es tan exitoso? Porque su plataforma es abierta, +Su interfaz de programacin permite el desarrollo de cientos de miles de nuevas aplicaciones en su plataforma. As leemos y procesamos informacin de nuevas y emocionantes maneras. +Existe un precedente. El buen Enrique II en el siglo XII, invent el jurado. +Un modelo poderoso, prctico y palpable para el manejo del poder desde el gobierno hacia los ciudadanos. +Hoy tenemos la oportunidad, y la necesidad de crear miles de nuevas maneras de entrelazar redes sociales e instituciones. Miles de nuevas clases de jurados: el jurado ciudadano el Carrotmob, el Haquetn. Ya comenzamos a inventar modelos que nos permiten crear en conjunto el proceso de gobernar. +An no tenemos una idea clara de cmo hacerlo pero existen ejemplos puntuales de evolucin surgiendo a nuestro alrededor. Quizs no sea evolucin, lo llamar revolucin en la manera de gobernar. +Pero no se trata slo de supervisar al gobierno; +se trata tambin de crear gobierno. +"Spacehive" en el Reino Unido se dedica al financiamiento comunal; hace que t y yo recaudemos el dinero para construir las canchas y las bancas en los parques que nos permitirn mejorar los servicios de nuestras comunidades. +Nadie es mejor que el proyecto Ushahid para hacer que nos involucremos en brindar servicios donde no existan. Ushahidi se cre en Kenia +en 2008, a partir de las revueltas post-electorales. Es un sitio de Internet a la vez que una comunidad. Mapea las crisis. Recauda y canaliza los servicios de rescate de personas atrapadas bajo los escombros de un terremoto, ya sea en Hait o, ms recientemente, en Italia. +La Cruz Roja est entrenando voluntarios y Twitter los est certificando, no slo para complementar el trabajo de los gobiernos, sino incluso, para tomar su lugar. +Ya se ven muchos ejemplos de lo que, evidentemente, es la apertura de la informacin gubernamental. No hay suficientes an, pero comenzamos a ver cmo la gente crea y genera aplicaciones innovadoras usando la informacin del gobierno. +Entre los ejemplos disponibles eleg el de Jon Bon Jovi. Algunos de ustedes quiz sepan que l dirige un comedor de beneficencia en Nueva Jersey; cuida y alimenta a personas sin hogar, especialmente a veteranos de guerra. +En febrero, se acerc a la Casa Blanca y dijo: Me gustara financiar un premio para crear aplicaciones telefnicas que ayuden no slo a las personas sin hogar, sino tambin a quienes trabajan para ayudarles. +Se inici en febrero de 2012 y en junio de 2012 anunciaron los finalistas. +Pueden imaginarse, en el mundo burocrtico del pasado, lograr cualquier cosa en un perodo de 4 meses? +Ese tiempo apenas alcanza para llenar solicitudes, no para generar innovaciones reales y tangibles que mejoren la vida de las personas. +Quiero ser clara; la revolucin del gobierno abierto no se trata de privatizarlo. Lo que se puede hacer, en muchos casos, cuando se tiene la voluntad, es crear polticas ms progresistas que las regulaciones y las estrategias agresivas de las polticas actuales. +En el estado de Texas, se regulan 515 profesiones desde excavadores de pozos hasta floristas. +Resulta que puedes entrar con un arma a una iglesia en Dallas, pero no puedes hacer un arreglo floral sin licencia porque vas a la crcel. +sa es una gran actividad complementaria del gobierno abierto. +No se trata slo de los beneficios que hemos mencionado en relacin al desarrollo. Se trata adems de los beneficios econmicos como la creacin de empleos que surgen a partir de esta labor abierta de innovacin. +Sherbank, el banco ms grande y ms antiguo de Rusia, propiedad del gobierno, ha comenzado a lanzar convocatorias pblicas para involucrar a sus empleados y ciudadanos en el desarrollo de innovaciones. +El ao pasado ahorraron mil millones de dlares, 30 000 millones de rupias, gracias a estas innovaciones. Ya estn impulsando de manera radical la extensin del proceso ms all del banco, a todo el sector pblico. +En muchos casos, las personas que innovan, usan los datos pblicos del gobierno para hacer no slo aplicaciones telefnicas, sino tambin para fundar empresas y contratar personas que colaboren con el gobierno. +Muchas de las innovaciones son locales. +En San Ramn, California, existe una aplicacin telefnica para personas certificadas en reanimacin cardiaca . Cuando alguien sufre un infarto los participantes reciben una notificacin y pueden ir a donde est esa persona y darle RCP. +La vctima que se atiende al inicio del ataque, tiene ms del doble de probabilidades de sobrevivir. +El lema es Hay un hroe en cada uno de nosotros. +Y no se limita al mbito local. +British Columbia, Canad, est publicando un catlogo que lista todas las maneras en que sus residentes y ciudadanos pueden involucrarse con el Estado para mejorar la gobernabilidad. +Permtanme ser muy clara, y quizs controversial, al decir que gobierno abierto no significa transparencia del gobierno. +El solo hecho de arrojar datos no cambia la manera como opera el gobierno. +No obliga a nadie a hacer nada con esa informacin para cambiar vidas o resolver problemas; no cambia al gobierno. +Lo que hace es crear una relacin de competencia entre la sociedad civil y el gobierno sobre quin tiene el control de la informacin. +Y la transparencia, por s sola, no reduce el flujo de dinero a la poltica, y posiblemente ni siquiera ayude a establecer responsabilidades. Eso requiere del paso siguiente; combinar participacin y colaboracin con transparencia para transformar nuestra forma de trabajar. +Creo que vamos a ver esta evolucin en dos fases. La primera fase, de la revolucin del gobierno abierto, consiste en llevar mejor informacin desde el pblico hacia el gobierno. +Pensamos en crear un sitio de Internet una red de expertos, una red social que se conectara con la institucin para permitir a cientficos y tecnlogos ofrecer valiosa informacin a la oficina de patentes y ayudar en la toma de decisiones. +Hicimos trabajos pilotos en EEUU, Reino Unido, Japn y Australia. Me complace informar que la Oficina de Patentes de Estados Unidos contar con una apertura universal, completa y total. Todas las solicitudes de patentes sern abiertas a la participacin ciudadana, a partir de este ao. +La segunda fase de esta evolucin... S Merecen mucho apoyo. La primera fase consiste en mejorar la informacin. +La segunda fase consiste en abrir el poder de decisin. +En Puerto Alegre, Brasil, el pueblo participa en la +planeacin del presupuesto, desde hace ya tiempo. +Ya han comenzado a hacerlo en el Distrito 49 de Chicago. Rusia est usando wikis para hacer que los ciudadanos redacten leyes, lo mismo Lituania. Cuando comencemos a tener poder sobre las funciones bsicas del gobierno; gasto, legislacin, toma de decisiones, entonces estaremos bien encaminados hacia la revolucin del gobierno abierto. +Hay muchas cosas que podemos hacer para lograrlo. +Obviamente abrir la informacin es una de ellas, pero lo importante es crear muchas ms oportunidades de participacin. +Los Hackatones y los Mashatones usan la informacin para desarrollar aplicaciones telefnicas que involucren a la gente, les permitan participar como jurado, pero necesitaremos muchas ms cosas por el estilo. +Tenemos que comenzar con los jvenes. +Hemos escuchado aqu en TED acerca de gente hackeando y bio-hackeando sus fbricas con Arduino. Mozilla est promoviendo por todo el mundo que los jvenes hagan sitios de Internet y videos. +Para terminar permtanme decirles que lo ms importante es que hablemos sobre esta revolucin y la demandemos. +No tenemos an palabras para describirla. +Palabras como equidad, justicia, elecciones, democracia, +Debemos abrir nuestras instituciones, y permitir que, como en la hoja del rbol, los nutrientes fluyan a travs de la estructura poltica, a travs de nuestra cultura. As crearemos instituciones abiertas una democracia ms fuerte, un mejor maana. +Gracias. +Pens que empezara con una muy breve historia de las ciudades. +Los asentamientos, tpicamente, comenzaron con personas agrupadas alrededor de un pozo, y su tamao fue aproximadamente la distancia que se poda caminar con una jarra de agua sobre la cabeza. +De hecho, si Uds. vuelan sobre Alemania, por ejemplo, y miran hacia abajo, vern cientos de estas pequeas aldeas, todo queda a 1,6 km. de distancia +Necesitan acceso fcil a los campos. +Y por cientos, incluso miles de aos, el hogar, fue realmente el centro de la vida. +La vida era muy corta para la mayora de la gente. +Fue el centro de entretenimiento, de produccin de energa, de trabajo, de salud. +Era donde los bebs nacan y moran las personas. +Luego, con la industrializacin, todo comenz a centralizarse. +Las fbricas sucias se trasladaron a las afueras de las ciudades. +La produccin estaba centralizada en plantas de ensamblaje. +La produccin de energa se haba centralizado. +El aprendizaje tuvo lugar en las escuelas. El cuidado de la salud +en los hospitales. +Y por supuesto, hubo redes que se desarrollaron. +Como el agua, redes de alcantarillado que permitieron este tipo de expansin desenfrenada. +Se haban separado las funciones cada vez ms. +Tambin redes de ferrocarril que conectaban las zonas residenciales, industriales, comerciales. Redes para automviles. +De hecho, el modelo fue en realidad, dar a todos un automvil, construir carreteras hacia todas partes y proveer un lugar para estacionar +cuando consiguieran llegar. No fue un modelo muy funcional. +Y todava vivimos en ese mundo, y esto es con lo que terminamos. +As que tenemos la expansin de Los ngeles, la expansin de la ciudad de Mxico. +Tenemos estas increbles nuevas ciudades en China que uno podra llamar la expansin de las torres. +Estn todos construyendo ciudades basndose en modelos ideados en las dcadas del 50 y 60, lo cual sostengo que es realmente obsoleto, , y hay cientos y cientos de nuevas ciudades que se estn planificando alrededor del mundo. +Solo en China, 300 millones de personas, algunos dicen que 400 millones, se trasladarn a las ciudades en los prximos 15 aos. +Esto significa construirlo todo, que equivale a toda la infraestructura construida de los EE.UU., en 15 aos. +Imaginen eso. +Y esto debera importarnos vivamos en ciudades o no. +Las ciudades representarn el 90 % del crecimiento de la poblacin, el 80 % del CO2 global, el 75 % del uso de energa, pero al mismo tiempo es donde la gente quiere estar, cada vez ms. +Ms de la mitad de las personas en el mundo viven, actualmente, en ciudades, y esto solo seguir aumentando. +Las ciudades son lugares de celebracin, de expresin personal. +Tenemos los "flash mobs" de pelea de almohadas; He ido a un par. Son muy divertidas. +Tenemos, Las ciudades es donde se produce la mayor parte de la riqueza, sobre todo en el mundo en desarrollo, es donde las mujeres encuentran oportunidades. Es decir +muchas de las razones por las qu las ciudades estn creciendo muy rpidamente. +Hay algunas tendencias que afectarn a las ciudades. +Primero, el trabajo se est distribuyendo y haciendo mvil. +Los edificios de oficinas son, bsicamente, obsoletos para hacer el trabajo privado. +El hogar, una vez ms, debido a la informtica en malla; la comunicacin, se est convirtiendo en un centro de vida, y de produccin y aprendizaje y compras y cuidado de la salud y todas esas cosas que acostumbrbamos pensar, que tenan lugar fuera del hogar. +Y cada vez ms, todo lo que la gente compra, cada producto de consumo, de una manera u otra, puede ser personalizado. +Y es una tendencia muy importante sobre la cual pensar. +As me imagino yo, la ciudad del futuro +En que es un lugar para la gente. +Tal vez no por la forma en que la gente viste, sino... La pregunta ahora es, cmo podemos tener todas las cosas buenas que identificamos con las ciudades sin todas las malas? +Esta es Bangalore. Me tom un par de horas +avanzar pocos kilmetros en Bangalore, el ao pasado. +Las ciudades, traen de la mano congestin y contaminacin y enfermedades y todas estas cosas negativas. +Cmo podemos tener las cosas buenas sin las malas? +As que fuimos hacia atrs y empezamos a buscar en las grandes ciudades su evolucin antes de los autos. +Pars fue una serie de estos pueblos que se unieron, y an pueden ver esa estructura hoy. +Los 20 distritos de Pars son estos pequeos barrios. +La mayora de lo que la gente necesita puede estar a 5 o 10 minutos a pie. +Y si se fijan en la informacin, cuando se tiene ese tipo de estructura, se logra una distribucin muy uniforme de las tiendas, los mdicos, las farmacias y los cafs en Pars. +Pero si nos fijamos en las ciudades que se desarrollaron despus del automvil, ese no es el tipo de patrn. +Es muy poco lo que est dentro de 5 minutos a pie de la mayora de las reas de lugares como Pittsburgh. +Por nombrar Pittsburgh, pero las mayora de las ciudades en EE.UU. realmente han evolucionado as. +As que dijimos, veamos las nuevas ciudades; y estamos involucrados en un par de proyectos de nuevas ciudades en China. +As que dijimos, vamos a comenzar con esa clula vecinal. +Lo pensamos como una clula urbana compacta. +Pongamos mucho de lo que la gente ms quiere a 20 minutos a pie. +Tambin puede ser una microred elctrica con capacidad de recuperacin, calefaccin comunal, energa, redes de comunicacin, +etc., concentradas all. +Stewart Brand pondra un microreactor nuclear justo en el centro, probablemente. +Y podra estar en lo correcto. +Y podemos formar, en efecto, una red de malla. +Es algo como un patrn del tipo Internet, as se puede tener una serie de estos barrios. +Se puede ajustar la densidad, cerca de 20 000 personas por clula si es Cambridge. Ir hasta 50 000 +si es la densidad de Manhattan. Se conecta todo +con transporte masivo y se proporciona ms de lo que la mayora de la gente necesita dentro de ese barrio. +Se puede comenzar a desarrollar una tipologa entera de paisajes urbanos y los vehculos que pueden ir sobre ellos. No los revisar +a todos. Solo les mostrar uno. +Se trata de Boulder. Es un gran ejemplo de un tipo de autopista de movilidad, una supercarretera para corredores y ciclistas donde se puede ir desde un extremo de la ciudad al otro sin cruzar una calle y tambin puede tener bicicletas compartidas, que mostrar en un minuto. +Esta es, incluso, una solucin ms interesante, en Sel, Corea. +Tomaron la autopista elevada, se deshicieron de ella, recuperaron la calle, el ro debajo de la calle, y se puede ir desde un extremo de Sel al otro sin cruzar por una va para automviles. +La lnea elevada en Manhattan es muy similar. +Tenemos este sbito surgimiento de carriles para bicicleta +en todo el mundo. Viv en Manhattan 15 aos. +Volv hace un par de fines de semana, tom esta fotografa de estos fabulosos nuevos carriles para bicicleta. +Todava no son los de Copenhague, donde algo as como el 42 % de los viajes dentro de la ciudad son en bicicleta. Es, principalmente, solo porque tienen +una fantstica infraestructura. +De hecho, hicimos exactamente lo incorrecto en Boston. +Nosotros, el Big Dig. As que nos hemos librado de la carretera, pero hemos creado una isla de trfico y ciertamente no es un camino de movilidad para nada ms que automviles. +Movilidad a demanda, es algo en que hemos estado pensando, as que creo que necesitamos un ecosistema de estos vehculos de uso compartido conectados al trnsito masivo. +Estos son algunos de los vehculos en los que hemos estado trabajando. +Pero el uso compartido es realmente la clave. Si compartimos un vehculo, +podemos tener al menos a cuatro personas usando un vehculo, en lugar de solo una. +Tenemos Hubway aqu en Boston, el sistema Vlib' en Pars. +Hemos desarrollado en el Media Lab este pequeo automvil de ciudad que est optimizado para uso compartido en ciudades. +Nos hemos librado de todas las cosas intiles como motores +y cajas de velocidades. Pasamos todo a ruedas, para que tener el motor, la direccin, los frenos, todo en las ruedas. +Esto dej un chasis flexible, as que podemos hacer cosas como doblarlo, por lo que se puede plegar este pequeo vehculo para ocupar muy poco espacio. +Este es un video transmitido en la televisin europea la semana pasada que muestra al ministro espaol de industria conduciendo este pequeo vehculo, y cuando se dobla, puede girar. +No tiene marcha atrs. No es necesario estacionar en paralelo. +Simplemente gira e ingresa directamente. As que hemos estado trabajando con una empresa para +comercializarlo. Mi alumno de doctorado, Ryan Chin, present estas ideas iniciales hace dos aos en un evento TEDx. +Realmente, no es un problema. +Podemos combinar el uso compartido y plegable y la autonoma y obtener algo as como 28 veces la utilizacin del terreno, con ese tipo de estrategia. +Uno de nuestros alumnos dice, bien, cmo se comunica un coche sin conductor con los peatones? +No tienes a nadie con quien hacer contacto visual. +No sabes si se te va a venir encima. +As que l est desarrollando estrategias para que el vehculo pueda comunicarse con los peatones... Los faros son globos oculares, pueden dilatarse las pupilas, tenemos audio direccional, podemos enviar sonido directamente a la gente. +Lo que me encanta de este proyecto es que resolvi un problema que an no existe, lo... Tambin pensamos que podemos democratizar el acceso a los carriles de bicicleta. +Saben, los carriles de bicicleta son usados sobre todo por los jvenes con pantalones elastizados, ya saben... Pensamos que podemos desarrollar un vehculo que funcione en carriles para bicicletas, accesibles a ancianos y discapacitados, mujeres con faldas, empresarios, y tratar los temas de energa, movilidad, envejecimiento y obesidad +al mismo tiempo. Ese es nuestro reto. +Este es un diseo piloto de este pequea de tres ruedas, +es una moto electrnica. Hay que pedalear +para operarla en un carril de bicicletas, pero si eres una persona de edad, es un interruptor. Si eres una persona sana, +podras tener que trabajar muy duro para ir ms rpido. +Se podran gastar 40 caloras yendo al trabajo y 500 a casa, cuando se puede tomar una ducha. +Esperamos poder construirlo este otoo. +La vivienda es otra rea donde realmente podemos mejorar. +El alcalde Menino en Boston dice que la falta de viviendas asequibles para los jvenes es uno de los mayores problemas que enfrentan las ciudades. +Los desarrolladores entonces deciden construir apartamentos mnimos. +Pero la gente, realmente no quiere vivir en un mini-apartamento convencional. +Por lo que estamos proponiendo construir un chasis estndar, al igual que nuestro coche. Vamos a traer tecnologa avanzada +Ahora, la implementacin ms interesante para nosotros es cuando se puede comenzar a tener paredes robticas, por lo que se puede convertir un espacio de ejercicios, en un lugar de trabajo, si se trabaja en una empresa virtual. +Si se tiene invitados, hay dos habitaciones que se desarrollan. +Se tiene un arreglo convencional de un dormitorio cuando se necesites. Tal vez la mayor parte del tiempo. +Quizs tenemos cena. La mesa se despliega +para adaptarse a 16 personas en lo que es un dormitorio convencional o tal vez nos interese un estudio de danza. +Es decir, los arquitectos han estado pensando acerca de estas ideas +durante mucho tiempo. Lo que tenemos que hacer ahora, es desarrollar cosas que puedan escalar hasta los 300 millones de chinos a los que les gustara vivir en la ciudad, y muy cmodamente. +Creemos que podemos hacer un apartamento muy pequeo que funciona como si fuese dos veces ms grande +mediante la utilizacin de estas estrategias. No creo en las casas inteligentes. Es una especie de concepto falso. +S creo que tenemos que construir casas bobas +y poner cosas inteligentes en ellas. Y as hemos estado trabajando sobre un chasis de la pared. +Una plataforma estandarizada con motores y batera cuando opera, pequeos solenoides que la ajusten en su lugar y lograr energa de bajo voltaje. +as que si tenemos un edificio convencional, tenemos una envoltura fija, tal vez podemos poner 14 unidades. +Si sirven como si fueran dos veces ms grandes, podemos conseguir 28 unidades. +Significa dos veces ms estacionamiento, entonces. +El estacionamiento es realmente costoso. Cerca de 70000 dlares por espacio, para construir un estacionamiento convencional dentro de un edificio. +Entonces, si tenemos algo plegable y autnomo, se puede hacer ocupando una sptima parte del espacio. +Eso se reduce a 10000 dlares por coche, solo por el costo del estacionamiento. +Agregue uso compartido, e incluso, se puede ir ms all. +Tambin podemos integrar toda clases de tecnologa avanzada a travs de este proceso. Hay una ruta de acceso al mercado para las empresas innovadoras para llevar tecnologa al hogar. +En este caso, es un proyecto que estamos haciendo con Siemens, +tenemos sensores en todos los muebles, todo el relleno, que entiende dnde estn las personas y qu estn haciendo. +La luz azul es muy eficiente, as que tenemos esta iluminacin regulable de LED de 24 bits. +Reconoce dnde est la persona, lo que est haciendo, e ilumina cuando es necesario, con luz blanca de espectro completo, y ahorra quiz 30, 40 % en el consumo de energa, pensamos por encima de mejores sistemas de iluminacin convencionales. +Esto apenas demuestra la informacin que proviene de los sensores que se ponen en los muebles. +Realmente no creemos en las cmaras para hacer cosas en casa. +Creemos que estos pequeos sensores inalmbricos son ms eficaces. +Creemos que tambin podemos personalizar la luz del sol. +Es la especie de la personalizacin suprema en algunos aspectos. +As, pusimos espejos articulados en la fachada que puedan refractar los rayos del sol a cualquier lugar en el espacio, permitindole, por lo tanto, oscurecer la mayora de los vidrios en un da caluroso como hoy. +En este caso, ella toma su telfono, puede asignar preparacin de alimentos en la isla de cocina con una determinada ubicacin de la luz solar. Un algoritmo lo mantendr en ese lugar +mientras ella se dedica a esa actividad. +Se puede combinar con iluminacin LED tambin. +Creemos que los lugares de trabajo deben ser compartidos. +O sea, que esto es realmente el lugar de trabajo del futuro, creo. +Se trata de Starbucks, ya saben. +Tal vez un tercio, y se ve que todo el mundo tiene su espalda contra la pared, tienen comida y caf y estn en su propia y pequea burbuja personal. +Necesitamos espacios compartidos de interaccin y colaboracin. +No estamos haciendo un buen trabajo con eso. +En el centro de innovacin de Cambridge, se pueden tener +escritorios compartidos. He pasado mucho tiempo en Finlandia en la fbrica de diseo de la Universidad de Aalto, donde tienen una tienda compartida y laboratorio compartido, espacios compartidos tranquilos, espacios de electrnica, lugares de recreacin. +Creemos que en ltima instancia, todo esto puede venir junto: un nuevo modelo de movilidad, un nuevo modelo de vivienda, un nuevo modelo de cmo vivimos y trabajamos, una ruta de acceso al mercado de las tecnologas avanzadas, +pero al final, lo principal en que tenemos que centrarnos es en +las personas. Las ciudades son personas. +Son lugares para personas. +No hay ninguna razn por la que no podemos mejorar drsticamente la habitabilidad y la creatividad de las ciudades como lo han hecho en Melbourne con los carriles, mientras al mismo tiempo, se reduce considerablemente el CO2 y la energa. +Es un imperativo mundial. Tenemos que corregir la situacin. +Gracias. +El asesinato ocurri hace poco ms de 21 aos, el 18 de enero de 1991, en una pequea ciudad dormitorio de Lynwood, California, a pocos km al sureste de Los ngeles. +Un padre sali de su casa para decirle a su hijo adolescente y a sus cinco amigos que era hora de dejar de hacer el tonto en el jardn y en la acera, que se fueran a casa, terminaran sus deberes de la escuela, y que se preparasen para la cama. +Y mientras el padre daba estas instrucciones, un auto pas por all, lentamente, y justo despus de que pasara el padre y los jvenes, una mano sali de la ventana del copiloto, "Pam, Pam!!" matando al padre. +Y el auto sali a toda velocidad. +La polica, los agentes de la investigacin fueron increblemente eficientes. +Tuvieron en cuenta a todos los culpables de costumbre, y en menos de 24 horas, ya tenan seleccionado a su sospechoso: Francisco Carrillo, un joven de 17 aos, que viva a dos o tres calles de distancia de donde ocurri el tiroteo. +Encontraron fotos de l. Se prepar una serie de fotos, y el da despus del tiroteo, se las mostraron a uno de los adolescentes, y dijo: "Esta es la foto. +Ese es el tirador que yo vi que mat al padre." +Eso era todo lo que un juez en audiencia preliminar tena que escuchar para juzgar al Sr. Carrillo por un asesinato en primer grado. +En la investigacin que sigui antes del propio proceso, a cada uno de los otros cinco adolescentes se les mostraron fotografas, la misma serie de fotos. +La imagen que se poda determinar mejor fue probablemente la mostrada en la serie de fotos situada en la esquina inferior izquierda de esas fotos policiales. +La razn por la que no estamos absolutamente seguros estriba en la naturaleza de la preservacin de pruebas en nuestro sistema judicial, pero eso sera para toda una charla TEDx en otro momento. As que en el propio proceso, los seis adolescentes declararon: e indicaron las identificaciones en la serie de fotos. +Le declararon culpable. Le condenaron a cadena perpetua, y le llevaron a la prisin de Folsom. +Entonces, qu es lo que est mal? +Sencillamente las garantas judiciales, toda la investigacin. +No se encontr arma alguna. +Ningn vehculo se identific como aquel desde donde el tirador haba sacado el brazo, y a nadie se le acus de ser el conductor del vehculo del tirador. +Y la coartada del Sr. Carrillo? +Quines de los padres aqu en la sala no mentira sobre el paradero de su hijo o hija en una investigacin de un asesinato? +Enviado a prisin, obstinadamente insiste en su inocencia, que reitera constantemente durante 21 aos. +Entonces, cul es el problema? +Los problemas, en realidad, para este tipo de casos vienen muchas veces de dcadas de investigacin cientfica que implica la memoria humana. +Sabemos que las identificaciones de testigos oculares son falibles. +Lo otro proviene de un aspecto interesante de la memoria humana que est relacionado con varias funciones del cerebro pero que puedo resumir en aras de la brevedad en una simple lnea: El cerebro aborrece el vaco. +En las mejores condiciones de observacin, la ms favorable, slo detectamos, codificamos y almacenamos en nuestro cerebro partes y trozos de toda la experiencia vivida, y las almacenamos en diferentes partes del cerebro. +As que ahora, cuando importa que seamos capaces de recordar qu es lo que experimentamos, tenemos un almacenamiento incompleto, parcial, y qu pasa? +Por debajo de la conciencia, sin que exista ningn tipo de procesamiento motivado, el cerebro se llena de informacin que no estaba all, que no se haba almacenado originalmente. A partir de inferencias, especulaciones, a partir de fuentes de informacin que te llegaron, como observador, despus de la observacin. +Pero sucede sin que uno se d cuenta, de tal manera que no se es consciente de que est ocurriendo. +Esto se conoce como memorias reconstruidas. +Nos pasa a nosotros en todos los aspectos de nuestra vida, todo el tiempo. +Esas dos consideraciones, entre otras... la memoria reconstruida, la falibilidad del reconocimiento... fue parte de la iniciativa de un grupo de abogados de apelacin liderados por una abogada increble llamada Ellen Eggers para aunar sus experiencias y sus talentos y solicitar a un tribunal superior un nuevo juicio a Francisco Carrillo. +Me contrataron, como un neurofisilogo forense, porque tena experiencia en la identificacin de testigos oculares, que obviamente es pertinente en este caso, no? +Pero tambin porque tengo experiencia y doy testimonio de la naturaleza de la visin nocturna humana. +Y, qu tiene eso que ver con lo otro? +Bueno, cuando se estudian los materiales del caso en el caso de Carrillo, una de las cosas que de repente llama la atencin es que los investigadores dijeron que la luz era buena en la escena del crimen, en el tiroteo. +Todos los adolescentes declararon durante el juicio que podan ver muy bien. +Pero esto ocurri a mediados de enero, en el hemisferio norte, a las 7 de la noche. +As que cuando hice los clculos para los datos lunares y solares en ese lugar de la Tierra en el momento del incidente del tiroteo, ya haba sobrepasado el final del crepsculo y en esa noche no haba Luna. +As que toda la luz en esta zona desde el Sol y la Luna es lo que se ve en la pantalla de la derecha aqu. +La iluminacin slo en esa zona tena que provenir de fuentes artificiales, y ah es donde intervengo yo y hago la reconstruccin real de la escena con fotmetros, con diferentes medidas de iluminacin y otras medidas de percepcin del color, junto con cmaras especiales y la pelcula de alta velocidad. +Es decir, tomo todas las mediciones y las registro, verdad? +Y luego de tomar fotografas, as se vea la escena en el momento de los disparos desde la posicin de los adolescentes mirando el auto a punto de disparar. +Este es el aspecto al otro lado de la calle directamente desde donde se encontraban. +Recuerden, el informe de los agentes, deca que la iluminacin era buena. +Los adolescentes dijeron que podan ver muy bien. +Esta es la vista hacia el este, donde el vehculo que dispar sali a toda velocidad, y esta es la iluminacin directa detrs del padre y los adolescentes. +Como se puede ver, es bastante pobre. +Si uno presenta a aquellos que no estn bien versados en esos aspectos de la ciencia, se convierten en salamandras al sol del medioda. Es como hablar de la tangente del ngulo visual, cierto? +Los ojos se ponen vidriosos, no? +Un buen experto forense tambin debe ser un buen educador, un buen comunicador, y eso es parte de la explicacin para tomar fotos, para mostrar no slo donde estn las fuentes de luz, la luz difusa, y la distribucin, sino tambin para que sea ms fcil para el juez comprender las circunstancias. +Y aqu me mostr un poco audaz, y volte hacia el juez y le pregunt, le dije: "Su Seora, creo que debera salir y mirar la escena Ud. mismo." +Puede que hubiera empleado un tono ms parecido a un desafo que a una peticin. No obstante, el crdito es de ese hombre y su coraje ya que dijo: "S, lo har." +Una sorpresa en la jurisprudencia estadounidense. +Pusimos un auto que pas por all, el mismo vehculo al descrito por los adolescentes, no? +Tena un conductor y un pasajero, y despus de que el auto haba pasado delante del juez, el pasajero extendi la mano, apunt de nuevo al juez, mientras el coche continu camino, exactamente al igual que los adolescentes lo haba descrito, no? +Bueno, l no llevaba un arma de verdad en la mano, sino un objeto negro en la mano similar al arma descrita. +Le apunt, y esto es lo que el juez vio. +Este es el auto a 9 m de distancia del juez. +Hay un brazo que sobresale del lado del pasajero y le apunt a Ud. +Eso son 9 m de distancia. +Algunos de los adolescentes dijeron que, de hecho, el auto estaba a 5 m de distancia cuando dispar. +Bien. Hay 5 m. +En este punto, me preocup un poco. +Este juez es alguien con el que nunca querras jugar al pquer. +Era totalmente impertrrito. No se va ni una contraccin de ceja. +No pude ver ni el ms mnimo movimiento de la cabeza. +No tena ni idea de cmo estaba reaccionando a esto, y despus mir la recreacin, se volvi hacia m y dijo: "Hay algo ms que quiere que mire?" +Y eso es lo que vio. Se darn cuenta de lo que tambin est en mi informe de la prueba, que toda la iluminacin dominante viene del lado norte, lo que significa que la cara del tirador habra estado en la foto totalmente obstruida. Habra sido a contraluz. +Adems, el techo del auto causaba lo que llamamos una nube de sombra en el interior del auto lo que lo haca ms oscuro. +Y esto como a un metro de distancia. +Por qu correr el riesgo? +Yo saba que la profundidad de campo es de 45 cm o menos. +De 1 a 1,2 metros, que bien podra haber sido un campo de ftbol de distancia. +Esto es lo que vio. +Volvi, hubo unos das ms de pruebas que se escucharon. Al final de todo, dict la sentencia que se conceda la peticin de un nuevo juicio. +Y, adems, puso en libertad al Sr. Carrillo para que pudiera ayudar en la preparacin de su defensa si el fiscal decidiera volver a juzgarlo. +Lo que decidieron no hacer. +Ahora es un hombre libre. Este es l abrazando a su abuela poltica. +l su novia estaba embarazada cuando l fue a juicio, no? Y ella tuvo un nio +l y su hijo van a la universidad Long Beach y asisten a clase. Y qu revela este ejemplo? Qu es lo que debemos tener en cuenta? +En primer lugar, hay una larga historia de antipata entre la ciencia y la ley en la jurisprudencia estadounidense. +Podra ofrecerles historias horribles de ignorancia a lo largo de dcadas de experiencia como experto forense de tratar de introducir ciencia en la sala de audiencias. +El consejo de oposicin siempre se opone. +Piense acerca de cmo seleccionamos a nuestros jueces en este pas. +Es muy diferente que la mayora de las otras culturas. S? +Lo siguiente que me gustara sugerir, es el cuidado que todos debemos tener, yo constantemente me lo tengo que recordar a m mismo, acerca de la exactitud de los recuerdos qu sabemos que son ciertos. +Hay dcadas de investigacin, ejemplos y ejemplos de casos como ste, donde los individuos realmente creen. Ninguno de esos adolescentes que lo identific pensaban que sealaban a la persona equivocada. +Ninguno de ellos pens que no poda ver la cara de la persona. +Todos tenemos que ser muy cuidadosos. +Todos nuestros recuerdos son recuerdos reconstruidos. +Son el producto de lo que originalmente hemos vivido y de todo lo que pas despus. +Son dinmicos. +Son maleables. Son voltiles, y como resultado de ello, todos tenemos que recordar ser cautelosos, que la precisin de nuestros recuerdos no se mide en la forma en que estn vivos ni en la certeza que tenemos de que son correctos. +Gracias. +Aos atrs, intent entender si era posible desarrollar biocombustibles de manera que pudiera reemplazar los combustibles fsiles sin competir por el agua, los fertilizantes o la tierra para la agricultura. +Aqu est lo que se me ocurri. +Por qu hablamos de microalgas? +Aqu ven un grfico que muestra los diferentes tipos de cultivos que considerados para la fabricacin de biocombustibles. Se pueden ver algo como soja, que genera 470 litros por hectrea por ao, o el girasol, la canola, la jatrofa o la palma, y esta barra alta muestra lo que las microalgas pueden aportar. +Es decir, las microalgas aportan entre 19 000 y 47 000 litros por hectrea por ao, en comparacin con los 470 litros por hectrea por ao de la soja. +Qu son las microalgas? Son micro, es decir, son extremadamente pequeas, como pueden ver aqu en una foto de esos organismos unicelulares comparados con un cabello humano. +Esos pequeos organismos han existido durante millones de aos y hay miles de especies diferentes de microalgas en el mundo, algunas son las plantas de ms rpido crecimiento en el planeta, y producen, como ya les mostr gran cantidad de petrleo. +y, por qu queremos hacerlo en la costa? +Bueno, la razn para hacerlo en la costa es porque al ver nuestras ciudades costeras, no hay otra opcin, ya que utilizaremos aguas residuales, como dije, y la mayora de las plantas de tratamiento de aguas residuales, estn dentro las ciudades. +Esta es la ciudad de San Francisco, que tiene 1450 km de tuberas de alcantarillado para descargar sus aguas residuales en el mar. +Cada ciudad del mundo trata sus aguas residuales de manera diferente. Algunas las procesan. +Otras simplemente las liberan. +Pero en todos los casos, el agua vertida es perfecta para el cultivo de microalgas. +As que imaginemos cmo se vera el sistema. +Lo llamamos OMEGA, que es el acrnimo (en ingls) para Cpsulas Costeras de Membrana para Cultivo de Algas. +En la NASA, se deben tener buenos acrnimos. +Cmo funciona? Tratar de mostrrselos. +Ponemos las aguas residuales y una fuente de CO2 en la estructura flotante. Las aguas residuales proporcionan nutrientes para que las algas crezcan, y capten el CO2 que de lo contrario se ira a la atmsfera como un gas de efecto invernadero. +Por supuesto utilizan energa solar para crecer, y la energa de las olas sirve para mover las algas. La temperatura se controla con el agua circundante. +Las algas que crecen producen oxgeno, como dije, y tambin producen biocombustibles, fertilizantes, alimentos y otros productos valiosos. +El sistema est confinado. Qu quiero decir? +Es modular. Es decir, si acaso le pasa algo totalmente inesperado a uno de los mdulos; +aparecen fugas, lo alcanza un rayo. +El agua residual que se filtrara es agua que ahora mismo, llega a ese ambiente costero; y las algas que salen son biodegradables, y, como viven en aguas residuales, son de agua dulce, lo que significa que no pueden vivir en agua salada, y mueren. +El plstico con que se construyen es bien conocido, con l tenemos experiencia. Podremos reconstruir los mdulos para reutilizarlos. +Y podremos ir ms all de este sistema que les muestro, es decir, podremos pensar en trminos del agua, el agua dulce, que tambin ser un problema en el futuro. Ahora estamos trabajando en mtodos para recuperar las aguas residuales. +Tambin hay que tener en cuenta la propia estructura +que proporciona una superficie para las cosas en el mar, y esta superficie, que est cubierta por algas y otros organismos, se convertir en un hbitat marino mejorado que aumenta la biodiversidad. +Finalmente, dado que es una estructura costera, podemos pensar en cmo podra contribuir a una actividad de acuicultura. +Probablemente estn pensando, "Que buena idea! Qu se puede hacer para hacerla realidad?" +Bien, puse laboratorios en Santa Cruz, en las instalaciones de Pesca y Caza de California donde nos permitieron tener grandes tanques de agua marina para probar algunas de estas ideas. +Tambin montamos experimentos en San Francisco, en una de las tres plantas de tratamiento de aguas residuales, un centro de prueba de ideas. +Y por ltimo, queramos encontrar un sitio para investigar el impacto de esta estructura en el medio marino; creamos una planta experimental en un laboratorio llamado "Moss Landing Marina Lab." en la Baha de Monterrey. All trabajamos en un puerto para ver el impacto que tendra en los organismos marinos. +El laboratorio que establecimos en Santa Cruz fue nuestro "skunkworks". +Era un lugar donde hacamos crecer algas, soldando plstico, construyendo herramientas y cometiendo un montn de errores. O, como deca Edison, estbamos encontrando las 10 000 maneras para que el sistema no funcionara. +Hicimos crecer algas en aguas residuales, y construimos herramientas que nos permitan entrar en la vida de las algas. As podamos vigilar la manera como crecen, qu las hace felices, y cmo asegurarnos que el cultivo sobreviva y prospere. +El aspecto ms importante que necesitbamos desarrollar fueron los llamados fotobiorreactores. +Permtanme mostrarles cmo funciona. +Hacemos circular las aguas residuales con algas de nuestra eleccin, hacia esta estructura flotante, tubular, de plstico flexible, para que la atraviesen. Por supuesto hay luz solar en la superficie, y las algas crecen por los nutrientes. +Pero esto es como meter la cabeza en una bolsa plstica. +Las algas no se asfixian por el CO2, como nosotros. +Se asfixiaran por el oxgeno que producen, aunque en realidad no las asfixia, sino que es problemtico. El CO2 s lo aprovechan todo. +Lo siguiente que hicimos fue encontrar la manera de retirar el oxgeno, lo cual logramos con esta columna que hace circular parte del agua, y devuelve el CO2, por medio de burbujeo en el sistema antes de recircular el agua. +Lo que Uds. ven aqu es el prototipo, del que fue el primer intento de construccin de este tipo de columna. +La columna ms grande fue la que luego instalamos en San Francisco. +La columna tena en realidad otra caracterstica muy interesante, y es que haca asentar las algas en ella, lo que nos permita acumular la biomasa de algas donde podramos cosecharla fcilmente. +Para retirar las algas concentradas en la parte inferior de la columna, aplicamos un procedimiento para hacerlas flotar en la superficie y as poderlas extraer con una red. +Queramos investigar tambin cul sera el impacto de este sistema en el ambiente marino. Mencion que hemos puesto este experimento en una estacin en el "Moss Landing Marine Lab". +En realidad estbamos trabajando en cuatro reas. +Nuestra investigacin cubra la biologa del sistema, que inclua el estudio de cmo crecen las algas, lo que comen y lo que las mata. +Hicimos ingeniera para comprender lo que necesitaramos para construir esta estructura, no solo en pequea escala, sino cmo construirla en la gran escala que finalmente ser necesaria. +Mencion que estudiamos aves y mamferos marinos y bsicamente el impacto ambiental del sistema. Finalmente miramos la economa, lo que quiero decir con economa es, cunta energa se requiere para operar el sistema? +Se obtendr ms energa del sistema que la que hay que emplear en hacer que funcione? +Y acerca de los costos de operacin? +Y los costos de capital? +Y qu de la estructura econmica completa? +Djenme decirles que no ser fcil, que hay mucho ms por hacer en esas cuatro reas para que el sistema realmente funcione. +A menos que se vea como una manera de tratar las aguas residuales, de captar carbono y potencialmente para paneles fotovoltaicos, o para captar energa de las olas, o incluso para energa elica. Y si se piensa en la integracin de todas estas actividades, tambin se podra incluir la acuicultura. +As podramos tener cultivos de mariscos donde produciramos mejillones o vieiras. +Cultivaramos ostras y otros alimentos y productos de alto valor. As se puede generar un mercado a medida que agrandamos el sistema, hasta convertirlo, en ltima instancia, en algo competitivo para producir combustibles. +Surge entonces la gran cuestin del plstico en el mar con su muy mala reputacin actual. Hemos pensado en esto, de punta a punta. +Qu vamos a hacer con todo este plstico que necesitaremos en el medio marino? +As que el sistema OMEGA contribuir en producir estos resultados y, cuando terminemos de usarlos en el medio marino, los podremos llevar a los campos. Eso espero. +Dnde vamos a ponerlo? Y cmo se ver en la costa? +Esta es una imagen de lo que podra hacerse en la baha de San Francisco. +San Francisco produce 245 millones de litros al da de aguas residuales. Si imaginamos un tiempo de retencin de 5 das para este sistema, necesitaramos acomodar 1230 millones de litros, en unas 520 hectreas, con estos mdulos OMEGA flotando en la baha. +Bueno, eso es menos del 1% del rea de la baha. +A 18 700 litros por hectrea por ao, se produciran ms de 7,5 millones de litros de combustible, aproximadamente el 20% del biodiesel, o del diesel que se necesitara en San Francisco, y esto sin hacer nada con la eficiencia. +Dnde ms podramos poner este sistema? +Hay muchas posibilidades. +Por supuesto, la baha de San Francisco, como ya he mencionado. +La baha de San Diego es otro ejemplo, Mobile Bay, o la baha de Chesapeake. Pero la realidad es que, a medida que sube el nivel del mar, habr montones de nuevas oportunidades. Estoy hablando de un sistema de actividades integradas. +Produccin de biocombustibles, integrada con energa alternativa, integrada con acuicultura. +Me puse a buscar un camino para la produccin innovadora de biocombustibles sostenibles, y en el camino descubr que lo que es realmente necesario para la sostenibilidad es integracin, ms que innovacin. +A largo plazo, tengo mucha fe en nuestro ingenio colectivo y conectado. +Creo que casi no hay lmite en lo que podemos lograr si estamos radicalmente abiertos y no nos importa quin se lleva el crdito. +Las soluciones sostenibles para nuestros problemas en el futuro tendrn que ser diversas y tendrn que ser variadas. +Creo que tenemos que considerarlo todo, todo, desde alfa hasta OMEGA. +Gracias. Chris Anderson: Solo una pregunta rpida, Jonathan. +Puede seguir avanzando este proyecto dentro de la NASA o necesita algunos fondos ambiciosos de energa verde que vengan y lo tomen por el cuello? +Jonathan Trent: Hemos llegado ya a una etapa en la que a la NASA le gustara liberarlo, que se volviera externo. Hay un montn de asuntos reapecto a hacerlo en los EE.UU., debido a las limitaciones por los permisos y el tiempo requerido para obtenerlos, si se quiere hacer algo en la costa. +Realmente, en este punto, se requiere gente externa. Estamos radicalmente abiertos con esta tecnologa que vamos a lanzarla para que cualquiera que est interesado, pueda tomarla e intentar hacerla realidad. +CA: Muy interesante. No la estn patentando. +La estn publicando. +JT: As es. +CA: Muy bien. Muchas gracias. +JT: Gracias. +Las clulas madre embrionarias son realmente increbles. +Son los kit de reparacin de nuestro cuerpo y son pluripotentes, es decir, pueden convertirse en cualquier tipo de clula en nuestro cuerpo. +Pronto podremos utilizar clulas madre para remplazar clulas daadas o enfermas. +Pero no les quiero hablar de esto, porque actualmente hay cosas realmente extraordinarias que hacemos con clulas madre que cambian completamente la forma en que vemos las enfermedades, nuestra capacidad de entender por qu enfermamos e incluso de desarrollar frmacos. +Creo de verdad que la investigacin con clulas madre permitir que nuestros hijos vean el Alzheimer, la diabetes y otras enfermedades graves como vemos hoy la poliomielitis, como una enfermedad prevenible. +Tenemos as este increble campo con grandes esperanzas para la humanidad, pero como pas con la fecundacin in vitro hace 35 aos, hasta el nacimiento de un beb sano, Louise, este campo ha estado bajo asedio poltico y financiero. +La investigacin crtica es cuestionada en vez de ser apoyada y vimos que era realmente esencial tener laboratorios privados seguros donde se pudiera avanzar en este trabajo sin interferencias. +Y as, en 2005 creamos la Fundacin de Clulas Madre de Nueva York para tener una pequea organizacin que pudiera desarrollar este trabajo y apoyarlo. +Porque si no se cierra esa brecha, estaremos exactamente donde estamos hoy. +Y en eso me quiero centrar. +Los ltimos dos aos hemos reflexionado sobre esto, haciendo una lista de cosas por hacer, y as desarrollamos una nueva tecnologa, software y hardware, que puede generar miles y miles de lneas de clulas madre genticamente diversas para crear una seleccin global, bsicamente nuestros propios avatares. +As que permtanme ponerles en perspectiva y darles un contexto. +Este es un campo extremadamente nuevo. +En 1998, se identificaron por primera vez las clulas madre embrionarias humanas y, nueve aos ms tarde, un grupo de cientficos en Japn era capaz de obtener clulas de la piel y reprogramarlas con poderosos virus para crear un tipo de clula madre pluripotente llamada clula madre pluripotente inducida, la llamada clula IPS. +Esto supuso un avance extraordinario porque, aunque estas clulas no son clulas madre embrionarias humanas, lo que mantiene todava la regla de oro, es que son fabulosas para modelar enfermedades y para el descubrimiento potencial de frmacos. +As que unos meses ms tarde, en 2008, uno de nuestros cientficos realiz esta investigacin. Tom biopsias de piel, esta vez de personas con la enfermedad, ELA (esclerosis lateral amiotrfica) o enfermedad de Lou Gehrig. +Las transform en clulas IPS, ya mencionadas, y despus transform esas clulas IPS en las motoneuronas que moran por la enfermedad. +As que bsicamente lo que hizo fue tomar una clula sana y convertirla en una clula enferma, y repiti la enfermedad una y otra vez en la placa, y esto fue extraordinario porque fue la primera vez que tenamos un modelo de enfermedad de un paciente vivo en clulas humanas vivas. +As que se podra decir que los investigadores que intentan entender la causa de la enfermedad sin tener modelos de clulas madre humanas, seran como investigadores intentando descubrir qu es lo ha ido mal en un accidente de avin sin tener una caja negra o un registrador de vuelo. +Pueden realizar hiptesis sobre lo que ha ido mal, pero en realidad no tienen forma de saber lo que ocasion el terrible acontecimiento. +Y las clulas madre nos han proporcionado la caja negra para las enfermedades y es una ventana sin precedentes. +Es realmente extraordinario porque se pueden repetir muchsimas enfermedades en una placa, ver lo que empieza a ir mal en la conversin celular antes de que aparezcan sntomas en un paciente. +Y esto crea la capacidad, que esperamos se convierta en algo rutinario a corto plazo, de usar clulas humanas para testar frmacos. +Ahora la forma en que testamos los frmacos es bastante problemtica. +Sacar al mercado un exitoso frmaco conlleva una media de 13 aos, eso para un frmaco, con un coste de USD 4 000 millones, y solo un 1% de los frmacos que inician su camino hacia el mercado consiguen llegar all. +Es inimaginable pensar otros negocios que se comenzaran con esas cifras. +Es un modelo de negocio terrible. +Pero es un modelo social todava peor debido a lo que implica y al coste que representa para nosotros. +As que la forma en que desarrollamos frmacos ahora es testando compuestos prometedores. No tenamos modelos de enfermedades de clulas humanas, as que se han testado en clulas de ratones, y otras criaturas, o en clulas que modificbamos, pero no tenan las caractersticas de las enfermedades que en realidad intentamos curar. +Ya saben, no somos ratones, y no podemos ir a una persona viva con una enfermedad y sacarle unas cuantas clulas cerebrales o cardiacas y empezar a trastear en un laboratorio para testar un frmaco prometedor. +Pero no basta solo con echar un vistazo a las clulas de unas cuantas personas o un grupo pequeo de personas porque tenemos que dar un paso atrs. +Tenemos que mirar todo el cuadro. +As que tenemos que alejarnos de este modelo de un tipo de clula vale para todo. +La forma en que hemos desarrollado frmacos es bsicamente como ir a una zapatera, nadie nos pregunta que nmero de pie tenemos o si los necesitamos para bailar o para ir de excursin. +Solo se nos dice: "Tiene pies, aqu sus zapatos". +Esto no funciona con zapatos y nuestro cuerpo es mucho ms complicado que nuestros pies. +As que tenemos que cambiar esto. +Un triste ejemplo de esto ocurri en la ltima dcada. +La gente para la que result ser una salvacin podra haber seguido tomando la medicina. +La gente para la que result ser un desastre, o mortal, nunca la hubiesen tomado, y pueden imaginar el resultado diferente para la empresa, que tuvo que retirar el frmaco. +As que nos fijamos en esto y pensamos, vale, la artesana es buena en ropa en pan y en las artes, pero lo artesanal no funcionar con clulas madre, as que tenemos que tratar esto. +Pero incluso con eso, todava haba otro gran obstculo, y esto nos lleva de vuelta a trazar el mapa del genoma humano, porque todos somos diferentes. +Sabemos por la secuenciacin del genoma humano que nos ha mostrado los alelos A, C, G y T que componen nuestro cdigo gentico, pero este cdigo, por s solo, nuestro ADN, es como mirar los unos y los ceros del cdigo binario en informtica sin tener una computadora que los pueda leer. +Es como tener una aplicacin de mvil sin tener Smartphone. +Necesitbamos tener una forma de unir la biologa a esa increble informacin, y la forma de hacer esto era buscando un suplente, un suplente biolgico, que contuviera toda la informacin gentica, pero tena que estar dispuesto de tal forma que se pudiese leer todo junto y crear este increble avatar. +Necesitamos clulas madre de todos los subtipos genticos que nos representen. +As que esto es lo que construimos. +Es una tecnologa robtica automatizada. +Tiene la capacidad de producir miles y miles de lneas de clulas madre. Est formado genticamente. +Esto nos lleva a un nuevo umbral de medicinas personalizadas. +Ya est aqu y en nuestra familia, mi hijo tiene diabetes tipo 1, an una enfermedad incurable, y perd a mis padres por una enfermedad cardaca y por cncer, pero creo que mi historia probablemente les resulte familiar, porque quiz algo de esto forma parte de sus vidas. +En algn momento de nuestras vidas, todos nosotros, o la gente que nos importa, nos convertimos en pacientes y por eso creo que la investigacin con clulas madre es increblemente importante para todos nosotros. +Gracias. +Hace quince aos se daba por sentado que el mayor desarrollo cerebral sucede en los primeros aos de vida. +Hace 15 aos, no tenamos la posibilidad de explorar dentro del cerebro humano vivo y hacer un seguimiento de su desarrollo a lo largo de la vida. +Y tambin usamos IRM funcional, llamada IRMf, para hacer videos de la actividad cerebral cuando los participantes desarrollan alguna tarea como pensar, sentir o percibir algo. +La adolescencia se define como el perodo de la vida que comienza con los cambios biolgicos, hormonales y fsicos de la pubertad y termina a la edad en la que un individuo consigue un rol estable, independiente en la sociedad. +Puede prolongarse mucho tiempo. Una de las regiones del cerebro que cambia ms drsticamente durante la adolescencia es la corteza prefrontal. +Este es un modelo del cerebro humano y esta es la corteza prefrontal, justo delante. +La corteza prefrontal es un rea interesante del cerebro. +Es proporcionalmente mucho mayor en humanos que en cualquier otra especie, y est involucrada en funciones cognitivas de alto nivel: la toma de decisiones, la planificacin, planificar lo que haceremos maana o la prxima semana o el prximo ao, inhibicin del comportamiento inapropiado, inhibiendonos de decir algo muy grosero o de hacer algo muy estpido. +Tambin est involucrada en la interaccin social, el entendimiento de otras personas, y la autoconciencia. +As que los estudios de IRM que observan el desarrollo de esta regin muestran que sufre un desarrollo realmente espectacular durante el perodo de la adolescencia. +Si observan el volumen de materia gris, por ejemplo, el volumen de materia gris desde los 4 a los 22 aos, se incrementa durante la infancia, como se ve en este grfico. Y alcanza su punto mximo en la adolescencia temprana. +Eso puede parecer malo, pero en realidad es un proceso del desarrollo realmente importante, porque la materia gris contiene cuerpos celulares y conexiones entre clulas, las sinapsis. Y esta disminucin en el volumen de materia gris dentro de la corteza prefrontal se cree que corresponde a una poda sinptica, la eliminacin de sinapsis no deseadas. +Este es un proceso muy importante. Depende parcialmente del ambiente donde est el animal o el humano, y las sinapsis usadas se fortalecen, y las sinapsis no usadas en ese ambiente desaparecen. +Lo pueden comparar como podar un rosal. +Se podan las ramas ms dbiles para que las ramas que quedan, las importantes, puedan crecer ms fuertes, y este proceso que ajusta eficazmente el tejido cerebral al ambiente especfico de la especie, ocurre en la corteza prefrontal y en otras regiones del cerebro durante el perodo de la adolescencia humana. +Una segunda lnea de investigacin usada para rastrear cambios en el cerebro adolescente es mediante IRM funcional para observar cambios en la actividad cerebral a travs de la edad. +Simplemente dar un ejemplo de mi laboratorio. +En mi laboratorio, nos interesa el cerebro social, es decir, la red de regiones cerebrales usadas para entender e interactuar con otras personas. +Quisiera mostrar una fotografa de un partido de ftbol para ilustrar dos aspectos de cmo funcionan nuestros cerebros sociales. +As que, sin necesidad de preguntarle a ninguno de estos individuos, +Uds. tienen una idea bastante buena de qu sienten y piensan en este instante. +Esto es en lo que nos interesa observar en mi laboratorio. +Imagnense que son los participantes de uno de nuestros experimentos. Entran al laboratorio, ven esta tarea computarizada. +En esta tarea, ven estantes. +Ahora, hay objetos en algunos de estos estantes, y ven que hay alguien de pie detrs de los estantes, y hay objetos que no puede ver. +Desde su perspectiva quedan ocultos por un pedazo de madera gris. +Estos son los mismos estantes desde la perspectiva de l. +Noten que l slo puede ver algunos objetos, mientras que hay muchos ms objetos que Uds. pueden ver. +Ahora bien, la tarea de Uds. es mover los objetos. +El director, de pie detrs de los estantes, ordenar a Uds. mover los objetos, pero recuerden, l no les pedir mover objetos que no puede ver. Esto introduce una condicin muy interesante que genera una especie de conflicto entre la perspectiva de Uds. y la perspectiva del director. +As que imagnense que les dice que muevan el camin de arriba a la izquierda. +Mueven el camin blanco, en vez del camin azul. +As que damos estas tareas a adolescentes y adultos, y tambin tenemos condiciones de control donde no hay director y en su lugar, damos una regla a la gente. +Les decimos: "De acuerdo, haremos exactamente lo mismo, pero esta vez no hay director. En lugar de eso, se deben ignorar los objetos con el fondo gris oscuro". +Vern que esta es exactamente la misma condicin, salvo que en la condicin sin director, tienen que acordarse de aplicar esta regla algo arbitraria, mientras que en la condicin con director, tienen que recordar tomar en cuenta la perspectiva del director para guiar su conducta en curso. +Desde el enfoque del desarrollo, estas dos condiciones se desarrollan exactamente de la misma forma. Entre el fin de la niez y el medio de la adolescencia, hay una mejora, en otras palabras, una reduccin de errores, en ambos ensayos, en ambas situaciones. +Pero slo al comparar los dos ltimos grupos, el grupo adolescente medio y el grupo adulto, es donde esto se pone realmente interesantes, porque ah no hay una mejora continua en la condicin sin director. +As que si tienen un hijo o hija adolescente y piensan a veces que tienen problemas para ponerse en el lugar de otros, estn en lo correcto: s los tienen. Y esta es la razn. +As que a veces nos remos de los adolescentes. +Son parodiados, a veces incluso demonizados en los medios por su tpico comportamiento adolescente. Corren riesgos, a veces estn de mal humor, son muy vergonzosos. +Tengo una ancdota muy simptica de un amigo mo que dijo que lo que ms notaba en sus hijas adolescentes antes y despus de la pubertad era su nivel de vergenza ante l. +Dijo, "Antes de la pubertad, si mis dos hijas se portaban mal en una tienda, les deca: Dejen de portarse mal y les canto su cancin favorita. E instantneamente paraban de portarse mal y les cantaba su cancin favorita. Despus de la pubertad, eso se convirti en una amenaza. +La idea misma de su pap cantando en pblico era suficiente para hacer que se comportaran bien. +As que la gente a menudo pregunta, "Bueno, es la adolescencia un fenmeno ms bien reciente? +Es algo que inventamos recientemente en Occidente?" +Y en realidad, la respuesta es que probablemente no. Hay un montn de descripciones de la adolescencia en la historia que suenan muy similar a las descripciones que usamos hoy en da. +Por ejemplo, tomemos el correr riesgos. Sabemos que los adolescentes tienen tendencia a correr riesgos. La tienen. +Corren ms riesgos que los nios o los adultos, y son particularmente propensos a correr riesgos cuando estn con sus amigos. Hay un impulso importante para llegar a ser independiente de los padres y para impresionar a los amigos en la adolescencia. +Pero ahora intentamos entender eso en trminos del desarrollo de una parte del cerebro llamada sistema lmbico, as que les mostrar el sistema lmbico en rojo en la diapositiva atrs, y tambin en este cerebro. +El sistema lmbico est justo en lo profundo del cerebro, y est involucrado en tareas como el procesamiento de emociones y el procesamiento de recompensas. Nos da la sensacin de recompensa al hacer cosas divertidas, incluyendo correr riesgos. +Nos da el disfrute al correr riesgos. +Y las regiones dentro del sistema lmbico, han demostrado ser hipersensibles a la sensacin de recompensa al correr riesgos en comparacin con adultos, y exactamente al mismo tiempo, la corteza prefrontal, la que pueden ver en azul aqu en la diapositiva, que nos impide correr excesivos riesgos, est todava en franco desarrollo en los adolescentes. +As que la investigacin cerebral ha mostrado que el cerebro adolescente realmente sufre un desarrollo bastante profundo, y esto tiene implicaciones para la educacin, la rehabilitacin, y la intervencin. El ambiente, incluida la enseanza, puede formar y forma el cerebro adolescente, y an as es slo ms bien recientemente que hemos educado rutinariamente a adolescentes en Occidente. +Mis cuatro abuelos/as, por ejemplo, abandonaron la escuela en su adolescencia temprana. No tenan alternativa. +Y ese es todava el caso de muchos adolescentes en todo el mundo hoy en da. El 40% de los adolescentes no tiene acceso a educacin escolar secundaria. +Y sin embargo, este es un perodo de la vida donde el cerebro es particularmente adaptable y maleable. +Es una oportunidad fantstica para el aprendizaje y la creatividad. +As que, lo que a veces es visto como el problema con adolescentes toma de riesgo aumentada, mal control de impulsos, autoconciencia no debera estigmatizarse. +En realidad refleja los cambios en el cerebro que proveen una excelente oportunidad para la educacin y el desarrollo social. Gracias. +Ya es hora de comenzar a disear pensando en nuestros odos. +Los arquitectos y los diseadores tienden a centrarse exclusivamente en estos. +Diseamos entornos que nos vuelven locos. No solo la calidad de vida se ve afectada; +tambin nuestra salud, nuestro comportamiento social e incluso nuestra productividad. +Cmo pasa esto? De dos maneras. +En primer lugar, est el ambiente. Tengo toda una TEDTalk acerca de esto. +El sonido nos afecta fisiolgica, psicolgica, cognitiva y conductualmente todo el tiempo. +El sonido que nos rodea nos afecta aunque no estemos conscientes de ello. +Tambin hay una segunda manera. +Y es la interferencia. La comunicacin requiere envo y recepcin, y tengo otra TEDTalk acerca de la importancia de la escucha consciente, pero puedo enviar tantos mensajes como quiera y ustedes pueden ser oyentes conscientes brillantes. +Si el espacio en el que se enva el mensaje no es efectivo, entonces no hay comunicacin. +Los espacios tienden a incluir ruido y acstica. +Un ambiente como este tiene acstica; este tiene muy buena acstica. +Muchas salas no son tan buenas. +Les voy a dar algunos ejemplos de un par de reas que creo que nos preocupan a todos: la salud y la educacin. +(Ruido de hospital) Cuando visitaba a mi padre, enfermo terminal, en el hospital, me preguntaba, cmo alguien puede mejorar en un lugar que suena as? +El ruido en los hospitales empeora cada vez ms. +Los niveles de ruido en los hospitales se han duplicado en los ltimos aos y afectan no solo a los pacientes, sino tambin a la gente que trabaja all. +Creo que a todos nos gustara prescindir de errores, no? Sin embargo, a medida que aumentan los niveles de ruido, as tambin aumentan los errores de dosificacin por parte del personal de los hospitales. +Pero sobre todo, afecta a los pacientes que podran ser ustedes, podra ser yo. +Dormir es absolutamente vital para la recuperacin; +es cuando nos regeneramos, cuando nos reconstruimos y con un ruido constante tan amenazante como este, el cuerpo, incluso si somos capaces de dormir, nos dice: Estoy bajo amenaza. Esto es peligroso. +Y la calidad del sueo empeora y tambin nuestra recuperacin. +Tendramos muchsimos beneficios en nuestro sistema de salud si diseramos pensando en los odos. +Esta es un rea en la que pretendo trabajar este ao. +La educacin. +Cuando veo un aula que se ve as, se imaginan cmo suena? +Me veo obligado a preguntarme +(los arquitectos tienen odos?) Es un poco injusto. Algunos de mis mejores amigos son arquitectos. Y definitivamente tienen odos. +Pero creo que a veces no los usan cuando disean edificios. Aqu hay un caso puntual. +Esta es una escuela insignia de 32 millones de libras, construida recientemente en el Reino Unido y diseada por uno de los principales arquitectos de Gran Bretaa. +Lamentablemente, fue diseada como una sede corporativa, con un gran atrio central y con las aulas orientadas hacia el atrio, pero sin paredes en absoluto. +Los nios no podan or a sus maestros. +Tuvieron que volver y gastar 600 000 libras para agregar las paredes. Hay que parar esta locura de las aulas de planos abiertos ahora mismo, por favor. +No solo estos edificios modernos se ven afectados, +las aulas de diseo tradicional tambin. +Un estudio en Florida hace pocos aos descubri que si ests sentado donde se tom esta fotografa en el aula, en la fila cuatro, la inteligibilidad del habla es solo del 50 %. +Los nios pierden una palabra de dos. +Esto no significa que solo estn recibiendo la mitad de su educacin, sino que tienen que trabajar muy duro para conectar los puntos y comprender qu es lo que est pasando. +Esto depende en gran medida del tiempo de resonancia, qu tan resonante puede ser una habitacin. +Un aula con un tiempo de resonancia de 1,2 segundos, que es bastante comn, suena as. +(Voz de eco inaudible) No muy bien, verdad? +Si se baja ese 1,2 segundos hasta 0,4 segundos mediante la instalacin de equipos acsticos, materiales absorbentes de sonido y otros, esto es lo que se obtiene. +Voz: En lenguaje, pueden escribirse muchas palabras infinitamente con un pequeo conjunto de letras. En aritmtica, muchos nmeros pueden componerse infinitamente con pocos dgitos con la ayuda del simple cero. +Julian Treasure: Qu diferencia! +La educacin que usted recibira, y gracias al especialista en acstica britnico Adrian James por las simulaciones. La seal era la misma, el ruido de fondo era el mismo. +Todo lo que cambi fue la acstica del saln de clases en esos dos ejemplos. +Si la educacin puede compararse a regar un jardn, que es una metfora justa, lamentablemente, gran parte del agua se evapora antes de llegar a las flores, especialmente en algunos grupos, por ejemplo, aquellos con discapacidad auditiva. +Ahora, no se trata solo de nios sordos. Podra ser cualquier nio que tenga un resfriado, otitis, una infeccin al odo, incluso fiebre del heno. En un da normal, uno de cada 8 nios entra en esta categora, en cualquier da. +Luego tenemos a los nios para quienes el ingls es su segunda lengua, o que reciben instruccin en un segundo idioma, cualquiera que sea. +En el Reino Unido, es ms del 10 % de la poblacin escolar. +Y finalmente, despus de la maravillosa TEDTalk de Susan Cain en febrero, sabemos que para los introvertidos es muy difcil relacionarse cuando trabajan en grupo en un ambiente ruidoso. +Sumemos todo. Estamos hablando de muchos nios que no reciben educacin adecuadamente. +Aunque no solo los nios se ven afectados. +(Conversacin ruidosa) Este estudio realizado en Alemania constat que el nivel de ruido promedio en las aulas es de 65 decibeles. +Tengo que alzar mucho la voz para hablar a ms de 65 decibeles de sonido, y los maestros no solo levantan la voz. +Este grfico muestra los latidos del maestro en comparacin con el nivel de ruido. +Si el ruido aumenta, el ritmo cardaco aumenta. +Eso no es bueno para usted. +De hecho, segn todas las pruebas de esta investigacin sobre los vnculos entre el de ruido y salud, 65 decibeles es el umbral para el riesgo de infarto de miocardio. +En otras palabras, se trata de un infarto. +No sera demasiado sugerir que muchos maestros estn bajando su esperanza de vida significativamente por trabajar en ambientes como este, da tras da. +Cunto cuesta bajar el tiempo de resonancia de un aula a 0,4 segundos? +2500 libras. +Creo que los nmeros son bastante claros en esto. +Me alegro de que haya un debate sobre este tema. +Fui moderador de una conferencia importante en Londres hace unas semanas, llamada Educacin del sonido, que reuni a a destacados especialistas en acstica, personas del gobierno, maestros y otros. +Por fin estamos empezando a debatir sobre este problema y los beneficios para la educacin de disear pensando en los odos, increble! +De esas conferencias, entre otras cosas, se cre una aplicacin gratuita que est diseada para ayudar a los nios a estudiar si tienen que hacer tareas en casa, por ejemplo, en una cocina ruidosa. +Esta aplicacin es gratuita y result de la conferencia. +Vamos a ampliar un poco la perspectiva y mirar las ciudades. +Tenemos los planificadores urbanos. +Dnde estn los urbanistas de sonido? +No conozco a ninguno en el mundo, y tenemos la oportunidad de transformar nuestra experiencia en las ciudades. +La Organizacin Mundial de la Salud estima que un cuarto de la poblacin europea tiene problemas de sueo por el ruido en las ciudades. Podemos mejorar eso. +Y en nuestras oficinas, pasamos mucho tiempo en el trabajo. +Dnde estn los planificadores de sonido de oficina? +Personas que digan, no coloque ese grupo junto a este grupo, porque a unos les gusta el ruido y los otros necesitan tranquilidad. +O alguien que diga que no gasten todo el presupuesto en una pantalla gigante en la sala de conferencias, para despus colocar solo un pequeo micrfono en medio de una mesa para 30 personas. Si usted me escucha, me entiende an sin verme. Si puede verme sin escucharme, eso no funciona. +El sonido de la oficina es un rea enorme y, por cierto, se ha demostrado que el ruido hace que el personal sea menos cooperativo, disfrute menos del trabajo en equipo, y sea menos productivo en el trabajo. +Por ltimo, tenemos las casas. Tenemos los diseadores de interiores. +Dnde estn los diseadores de sonido en interiores? +Eh, seamos todos diseadores de sonido en interiores, escuchemos nuestras habitaciones y diseemos sonido que sea eficaz y adecuado. +Mi amigo Richard Mazuch, un arquitecto de Londres, acu la frase arquitectura invisible. +Me encanta esa frase. +Se trata de disear una experiencia, no una apariencia, para que tengamos espacios que suenen tan bien como se vean, adecuados para su propsito, que mejoren nuestra calidad de vida, nuestra salud y bienestar, nuestro comportamiento social y nuestra productividad. +Ya es hora de comenzar a disear pensando en los odos. +Gracias. Gracias. +La tarea de descubrir el escndalo del desperdicio de alimentos comenz para m cuando tena 15 aos. +Cuando viva en Sussex, compr unos cerdos +y comenc a alimentarlos de la manera ms tradicional y respetuosa del medio ambiente. +Fui a la cocina de mi escuela y dije: Por favor denme las sobras que mis compaeros no quieren comer. +Fui a la panadera local y tom el pan pasado. +Fui a la verdulera y habl con un agricultor que estaba tirando patatas porque no tenan la forma o el tamao adecuados para los supermercados. +Genial. Mis cerdos convertan todos esos desperdicios de comida en deliciosa carne. Los venda a los padres de mis compaeros y ganaba un buen dinero para aadir a mi mesada de adolescente. +Pero not que la mayora de los alimentos que les daba a mis cerdos eran aptos para el consumo humano y apenas estaba rozando el problema. En toda la cadena alimenticia, en supermercados, verduleras, panaderas, en nuestras casas, en fbricas y granjas, estbamos provocando una hemorragia de alimentos. +Los supermercados no queran ni decirme cunta comida estaban desechando. +Pero al entrar por la trastienda, vea recipientes llenos de alimentos bien cerrados, para luego ser transportados a rellenos sanitarios. Pens que con seguridad deba haber algo ms sensato qu hacer con la comida en vez de desperdiciarla. +Una maana, mientras alimentaba a mis cerdos, not que una hogaza de pan de tomate secado al sol especialmente apetitosa surga de vez en cuando. +Esa result ser una manera de enfrentar a grandes empresas que estn en el negocio de desperdiciar comestibles. Tambin, y ms importante an, es explicar al pblico que cuando hablamos de comida que se bota, no estamos hablando de cosas podridas, no nos referimos a cosas que han excedido su vencimiento. +Hablamos de alimentos buenos y frescos que se desperdician a escala colosal. +Con el tiempo, me dispuse a escribir un libro para mostrar el alcance del problema a escala mundial. All se analiza pas por pas los niveles probables de desperdicio de comida en cada lugar. +Lamentablemente, no existen buenas estadsticas o datos concretos y por esa razn, para demostrar mi argumento tuve que hallar primero otra manera de calcular cunta comida se desperdiciaba. +Tom las cifras de provisiones de alimentos de cada uno de los pases y las compar con lo que al parecer se consuma en esos lugares. +Me bas en la informacin sobre hbitos de consumo, niveles de obesidad y otros factores que nos podran dar una estimacin aproximada de cunto alimento llega a las bocas de las personas. +La lnea negra, en la mitad de este grfico, es el nivel probable de consumo con margen para un cierto nivel de desperdicio inevitable. +Siempre habr desperdicio. No soy tan iluso como para pensar que podramos vivir en un mundo sin desperdicios. +La lnea negra muestra cul debera ser la provisin de alimentos para un pas con una dieta nutricional buena, estable y segura para todos sus habitantes. +Cualquier punto por encima de la lnea vern que incluye a la mayora de los pases representa excedentes innecesarios y posiblemente refleja los niveles de desperdicio en cada pas. +A medida que un pas se enriquece, acumula cada vez ms y ms sobrantes en sus tiendas y restaurantes. Como puede verse, la mayora de los pases europeos y norteamericanos tienen entre 150 y 200 % de las necesidades nutricionales de sus poblaciones. +Un pas como Estados Unidos tiene el doble de comida en sus anaqueles de tiendas y restaurantes que lo que efectivamente necesita para alimentar a la poblacin. +Pero lo que realmente me llam la atencin cuando trac estos datos, eran muchos nmeros, es que se puede ver cmo lograr un equilibrio. +Los pases rpidamente se van hacia la marca de 150 y luego se nivelan; no continan elevndose, como se podra esperar. +As que decid desglosar un poco ms esos datos para ver si esto era cierto o no. +Y esto fue lo que encontr. +Un pas como Estados Unidos tiene cuatro veces ms alimentos que los que necesita. +Cuando se habla de la necesidad de aumentar la produccin mundial de comida para alimentar a esos 9 000 millones de personas que se espera haya en el planeta en el 2050, siempre pienso en estos grficos. +La verdad es que tenemos esta enorme reserva en los pases ricos, entre nosotros y el hambre. +Nunca antes haba habido excedentes tan gigantescos. +De muchas maneras, esta es la historia del xito de la civilizacin humana, la de los excedentes agrcolas que nos propusimos lograr hace 12 000 aos. +Es una historia de xitos. Ha sido una historia de aciertos. +Ayer estuve en un supermercado local que visito con frecuencia para observar, si se quiere, lo que estaban desechando. +Encontr unos cuantos paquetes de galletas, entre todas las frutas, vegetales y lo dems que all haba. +Pens que todo eso podra servir como un smbolo de la actualidad. +Quiero pensar que esas nueve galletas que encontr en la basura, representan el suministro global de alimentos. Bien? Comenzamos con nueve. +Eso es lo que hay en los campos de todo el mundo, cada ao. +La primera galleta la vamos a perder incluso antes de salir de la granja. +Es un problema principalmente relacionado con el desarrollo de la agricultura; ya sea que se trate de falta de infraestructura, refrigeracin, pasteurizacin, ensilaje o hasta falta de empaques adecuados, lo que quiere decir que esos alimentos se van a la basura aun antes de dejar el campo. +Las siguientes tres galletas son la comida con que destinamos al ganado: maz, trigo y soya. +Por desgracia, nuestros animales son ineficientes; convierten dos terceras partes en excremento y calor, de modo que se han perdido dos y solo nos queda esta en carne y lcteos. +Dos ms van a ir a parar directamente a la basura. +En esto piensa la mayora de la gente cuando habla de desperdicios, lo que termina en la basura, en los cubos de los supermercados y de los restaurantes. As perdemos otras dos y hemos quedado solo con cuatro galletas para alimentarnos. +Este no es el uso ms eficiente de los recursos mundiales, especialmente si se piensa en los miles de millones de personas que padecen hambre que ya tenemos en el mundo. +Despus de examinar los datos, lo que necesitaba era demostrar a dnde va toda esa comida. +A dnde va a parar? Estamos acostumbrados a ver todo eso en el plato, pero qu pasa con todo lo dems que se pierde entre tanto? +Es fcil comenzar por los supermercados. +Este es el resultado de esta aficin ma, inspeccin extraoficial de cubos de basura. Parece extrao, pero si pudiramos confiar en que las empresas nos informaran sobre lo que hacen en sus trastiendas, no necesitaramos ir a escondidas a abrir los cubos de basura y ver su contenido. +Esto es lo que puede verse, ms o menos, en cada esquina en Gran Bretaa, Europa, o Norteamrica. +Representa un colosal desperdicio de comida, pero lo que descubr cuando escriba mi libro es que toda esta abundancia de desperdicios era apenas la punta del iceberg. +Cuando remontamos la cadena de suministros, descubrimos dnde sucede el verdadero desperdicio a escala gigantesca. +Puedo ver las manos levantadas de los que tienen un pan de molde tajado en casa? +En sus casas, quin sabe si las cortezas esas primera y ltima tajadas de cada molde las come alguien? +Bien. La mayora. No todas las personas, pero la mayora. Esto mismo es lo que se ve en todo el mundo, porque acaso alguien ha visto en un supermercado o en una cafetera, en alguna parte del mundo, que ofrezcan sndwiches con las tajadas de los extremos? Al menos yo no lo he visto. +Entonces me pregunto, a dnde van esas cortezas? Esta es la respuesta, desafortunadamente; 13 000 tajadas de pan fresco salen de esta fbrica cada da, pan recin horneado. +El mismo ao en que visit esta fbrica, estuve en Pakistn, donde haba gente que padeca hambre en 2008 como resultado de una escasez mundial de alimentos. +Nosotros hemos contribuido a esa escasez al botar comida a la basura, aqu en Gran Bretaa y en el resto del mundo. Tomamos de las tiendas, comida de la que depende gente que padece hambre. +Si subimos un paso ms, vemos a los agricultores que botan a veces la tercera parte o ms de sus cosechas por razones estticas. +Por ejemplo, este granjero ha invertido 16 000 libras en cultivar espinacas, pero no cosech ni una sola hoja porque tenan algo de hierba que creci al lado. +Las patatas con aspecto imperfecto van para los cerdos. +Las chirivas, si son muy pequeas para las especificaciones del supermercado, los tomates de Tenerife, las naranjas de la Florida, los pltanos de Ecuador, donde estuve el ao pasado, se descartan. Estos son los desechos de una plantacin bananera en Ecuador. +Se desechan, aunque son perfectamente comestibles, por su forma o tamao inapropiado. +Si se hace esto con frutas y verduras, imagnense lo que se hace con animales. +Hgados, pulmones, cabezas, colas, riones, testculos, que en el pasado se tomaban como parte deliciosa y nutritiva de nuestra gastronoma, van a la basura. El consumo de menudencias ha bajado a la mitad en Gran Bretaa y Estados Unidos en los ltimos 30 aos. +Se usan como alimento para perros, en el mejor de los casos, o se incineran. +Este hombre, en Kanshgar, provincia de Sinkiang al oeste de China, est sirviendo el plato nacional. +Lo llaman, rganos de oveja. +Es delicioso y nutritivo y, como aprend cuando estuve all, simboliza el tab contra el desperdicio de comida. +Estaba en una cafetera de carretera. +El cocinero se acerc para hablarme, yo terminaba mi sopa, y en medio de la conversacin, se qued callado y empez a mirar fijamente mi tazn. +Me dije: caramba, qu tab habr quebrantado? +Habr ofendido a mi anfitrin? +l seal los tres granos de arroz al fondo del tazn, y dijo: Lmpialo. Yo pens: Dios mo!, voy por todo el mundo dicindole a la gente que dejen de desperdiciar comida +El pescado; 40 a 60 % del pescado de Europa se desecha en el mar, aun antes de llevarlo a tierra. +En nuestros hogares hemos perdido la nocin de los alimentos. +Este es un experimento que hice con tres lechugas. +Quin guarda lechugas en el refrigerador? +La mayora de la gente. La de la izquierda fue refrigerada por 10 das. +Dej la del centro en la mesa de mi cocina. No hay mucha diferencia. +A la de la derecha la trat como si fuera una flor. +Es un organismo vivo; le cort la punta, la puse en agua, y se conserv muy bien por dos semanas. +Como dije al principio, algn desperdicio de comida se producir inevitablemente. La pregunta es: qu es lo mejor que podemos hacer con esto? +Contest esta pregunta cuando tena 15 aos. +De hecho, los humano contestamos esta pregunta hace 6 000 aos: Domesticamos los cerdos para convertir desechos de alimentos en comida. +Sin embargo, en Europa esta prctica se volvi ilegal desde 2001, a raz del brote de fiebre aftosa. +No es cientfico. Es innecesario. +Si cocinamos los alimentos de los cerdos, como hacemos con los de los humanos, ya no son peligrosos. +Tambin representa un gran ahorro de recursos. +Actualmente Europa depende de la importacin de millones de toneladas de soya de Sudamrica, pese a que esta produccin contribuye al calentamiento global, a la desforestacin, la prdida de biodiversidad, para alimentar el ganado aqu en Europa. +Al mismo tiempo, botamos millones de toneladas de desechos de alimentos con los que se podra, y se debera, nutrir el ganado. +Si se hiciera eso, si se suministrara a los cerdos, se ahorrara esa misma cantidad de carbono. +Si se destinan los excedentes alimenticios, la prctica favorita de los gobiernos para deshacerse de ellos, a digestin anaerbica, que los convierte en gas para producir electricidad, se hace un miserable ahorro de 448 kilos de dixido de carbono por tonelada de alimento desechado. Sera mucho mejor drselo a los cerdos. +En la guerra ya lo sabamos. Hay un rayo de esperanza: la lucha para frenar el desperdicio de nutrientes ya ha comenzado globalmente. +Alimentar a 5 000 es un evento que organic por primera vez en 2009. +Alimentamos a 5 000 personas con comida que de otra manera se habra perdido. +Desde entonces se ha repetido en Londres, est sucediendo internacionalmente y en todo el pas. +Es una manera de hacer que las organizaciones se unan para celebrar la comida, para decir que lo mejor que podemos hacer con la comida es tomarla y disfrutarla y dejar de desperdiciarla. +Por el bien del planeta en que vivimos, por el de nuestros nios, por todos los dems organismos que comparten este planeta nuestro, somos animales terrestres y dependemos de la tierra para alimentarnos. Por el momento, estamos destrozando la tierra, produciendo comida que nadie consume. +Dejemos de desperdiciar la comida. Muchas gracias. +Como saben, nos despertamos por la maana, nos vestimos, nos calzamos, y salimos al mundo. +Planeamos regresar, desvestirnos, irnos a la cama, despertarnos, luego hacer lo mismo y esa anticipacin, ese ritmo, nos ayuda a tener una estructura para organizarnos nosotros y nuestras vidas, y esto da un grado de previsibilidad. +Vivir en Nueva York, como yo, es como si, con tantas personas haciendo tantas cosas al mismo tiempo en espacios tan reducidos, como si la vida te repartiera manos extras de la baraja. +T nunca... simplemente, las yuxtaposiciones son posibles, simplemente no piensas que pueden ocurrir. +Y nunca se te ocurre que vas a ser el tipo que va caminando por la calle y que slo porque eliges caminar por un lado que otro, el resto de tu vida puede cambiar para siempre. +Una noche, tom el tren local a los suburbios. +Me sub, y tiendo a ser un tanto observador cuando me subo al tren. +No soy de los que se esconden en sus audfonos o un libro. +Nunca haba visto algo como eso. +Era casi como si practicaran trucos de magia. +En la siguiente parada, un tipo subi al vagn, y tena esta apariencia de profesor visitante. +Y result que eran estudiantes de medicina de camino a una conferencia acerca de las ltimas tcnicas de suturas y ese tipo era el orador. +Como parte de una iniciacin de tres de sus miembros, tenan que matar a alguien, y pas que yo era el tipo que iba caminando por la calle Bleecker esa noche, y sin decir una palabra me atacaron. +Una de las cosas fortuitas, es que cuando estuve en Notre Dame, estuve en el equipo de boxeo, as que de inmediato me puse en guardia, instintivamente. +El tipo a mi derecha tena un pual de unos 25 cm que clav bajo mi codo, cortando hacia arriba, hacia mi vena cava inferior. +El otro estaba todava atacndome, colapsando mi otro pulmn, hasta que logr golpearlo y tener un respiro. +Corr por la calle y colaps. los paramdicos me entubaron en la vereda y le hicieron saber a la gente de la sala de traumas que tenan un herido en camino. +En realidad no van al lugar usual donde van los recuerdos. +Estn en un especie de bveda almacenados en alta definicin con efectos de sonido hechos por George Lucas. Entonces a veces, al recordarlos, es como, que no son como los otros recuerdos. +Llegu a la sala de traumas, donde me estaban esperando y haba muchas luces all, poda respirar un poquito ms ahora, porque la sangre que quedaba, haba llenado mis pulmones y haba tenido dificultad para respirar; y bueno ahora estaba en la camilla. +Y dije, "hay algo en lo que pueda ayudar?" +Mi mdico les dijo que quera estar ah cuando saliera de la anestesia; me haba dado un dos por ciento de posibilidad de vida. +As que, l estuvo ah cuando despert, y fue...despertar fue como abrirme paso, a travs del hielo en un lago de dolor, congelado. +Un dolor tan intenso, que slo haba un punto que no dola, era peor que cualquier cosa que hubiese sentido y era mi empeine, el mdico estaba agarrando el arco de mi pie y estaba masajendolo con su pulgar. +Y despus, cuando sal y tuve flash-backs y las pesadillas hacan que la pasara mal, regres a ver a mi mdico como para preguntarle, bueno qu hago ahora? +Creo que como cirujano simplemente me dijo, "Muchacho, te salv la vida. +Ahora puedes hacer todo lo que quieras o gustes, tienes que seguir adelante. +Es como si te hubiese dado un auto nuevo y te ests quejando porque no encuentras donde estacionarlo. +Simplemente sal y, bueno, haz lo mejor que puedas. +Ests vivo, de eso se trata". +Gracias. Gracias. Soy muy afortunado de poder estar aqu. Gracias. +Quiero hablarles hoy de un tema difcil, que me es cercano y quizs ms cercano a sus vidas de lo que Uds. imaginan. +Vine al Reino Unido hace 21 aos en busca de asilo poltico. +Tena 21 aos de edad. +Me vi obligado a abandonar la Repblica Democrtica del Congo, mi hogar, donde era un activista estudiantil. +Me encantara que mis hijos conocieran a mi familia en el Congo. +Explicar qu tiene que ver el Congo con Uds. +Pero primero, hganme un favor, +pueden, por favor, revisar sus bolsillos y sacar sus telfonos mviles? +Sientan ese peso tan familiar, +cmo sus dedos se deslizan tan naturalmente por los botones. +Pueden imaginar su mundo sin un celular? +Nos conecta con nuestros seres queridos, nuestra familia, amigos, colegas en el pas y en el extranjero. +Es un smbolo de un mundo interconectado. +Pero deja un rastro de sangre y todo se reduce a un mineral: el tantalio, que se extrae en el Congo bajo el nombre de coltn. +Es un anticorrosivo conductor de calor. +Almacena energa en nuestros celulares, consolas de videojuegos y computadoras porttiles. +Se utiliza tambin para hacer aleaciones en equipos aeroespaciales y mdicos. +Es tan poderoso que solo necesitamos usarlo en cantidades mnimas. +Sera fabuloso si la historia terminara all. +Desgraciadamente, lo que sostienen en la mano no solo ha permitido desarrollar la tecnologa y expandir la industria increblemente, tambin ha contribuido a un sufrimiento humano +inimaginable. Desde 1996, ms de 5 millones de personas han muerto en la Repblica Democrtica del Congo. +Un sinnmero de mujeres, hombres y nios han sido violados, torturados o esclavizados. +La violacin se usa como arma de guerra para infundir miedo y despoblar reas enteras. +La bsqueda de este mineral no solo ha contribuido a la guerra en el Congo, +sino que la ha estimulado. Pero no tiren sus celulares todava. +Se han reclutado 30 000 nios y se les ha obligado a combatir en grupos armados. +En cuanto a salud global y pobreza, el Congo se sita siempre en las peores posiciones. Sorprendentemente, el Programa de las Naciones Unidas para el Medio Ambiente ha estimado que la riqueza del Congo sobrepasa los 24 billones de dlares. +La industria minera regulada por el estado ha fracasado y el control sobre las minas se ha desarticulado. +Los grupos armados controlan el coltn. +Hay una ruta de comercio ilegal muy conocida que cruza la frontera con Ruanda en la que el tantalio congoleo se hace pasar por ruands. +Pero todava no se deshagan de sus celulares porque es bastante irnico que la misma tecnologa que ha generado exigencias devastadoras, insostenibles en el Congo es la que nos ha permitido prestar atencin a lo que all sucede. +Sabemos de la situacin en el Congo y en las minas gracias al tipo de comunicacin que los celulares nos facilitan. +Al igual que en la primavera rabe, durante las recientes elecciones en el Congo, los votantes enviaron mensajes de texto de las estaciones de votacin locales a la sede principal en la capital, Kinshasa, +y, como resultado, la dispora se uni con el Centro Carter, la Iglesia Catlica y otros observadores para denunciar los resultados antidemocrticos. +El celular es una herramienta importante que permite lograr libertad poltica en el mundo entero. +Ha revolucionado la forma en que nos comunicamos en el planeta. +Ha permitido crear el contexto para que se den cambios polticos trascendentales. +Por ello, nos encontramos ante una paradoja. +El celular es un instrumento de libertad y, a la vez, un instrumento de opresin. +TED ha celebrado siempre lo que la tecnologa en su forma final +puede hacer por nosotros. Es tiempo de preguntarnos sobre la tecnologa. +De dnde viene? +Quin la fabrica? +Con qu propsito? +Les hablo directamente a Uds., la comunidad de TED, y a las personas que me ven en sus pantallas, en sus celulares, en el mundo entero, en el Congo. +Toda la tecnologa est all para comunicarnos, para transmitir este mensaje. +En este momento, no hay una solucin clara para los problemas del comercio justo, +pero estamos progresando bastante. +EE.UU. ha aprobado recientemente una legislacin para combatir el soborno y la mala gestin en el Congo. +Una legislacin reciente del Reino Unido podra usarse tambin para este fin. +En febrero, Nokia present su nueva poltica de abastecimiento de minerales en el Congo y hay una peticin a Apple para que fabrique iPhones sin crear conflictos. +Hay campaas muy populares en campus de universidades +para que estas sean zonas sin conflictos. Pero todava no lo hemos logrado. +Necesitamos continuar presionando a las compaas de telfonos para que cambien sus procesos de abastecimiento. +Cuando vine al Reino Unido hace 21 aos, senta nostalgia. +Extraaba a mi familia y a mis amigos; +comunicarme con ellos era muy difcil. +Enviar y recibir cartas tomaba meses, si tenas suerte. A menudo, las cartas no llegaban. +Aun si hubiera podido pagar +las llamadas, no me habra podido comunicar, pues mis padres, como la mayora en el Congo, no tenan telfono. +Hoy, mis dos hijos David y Daniel pueden hablar con mis padres y conocerlos. +Por qu permitir que un producto tan maravilloso, brillante y necesario sea la causa del sufrimiento innecesario de seres humanos? +Exigimos un comercio justo de alimentos y de ropa. +Es hora de que exijamos un tratado de comercio justo de celulares. +Esta es una idea que vale la pena compartir. Muchas gracias. +Es una maravillosa poca para ser una biloga molecular. Leer y escribir cdigo de ADN se est haciendo ms fcil y ms barato. +Al final de este ao, seremos capaces de secuenciar los tres millones de bits de informacin de su genoma en menos de un da y por menos de 1000 euros. +La biotecnologa es probablemente la ms poderosa y la de mayor crecimiento en el sector de la tecnologa. +Tiene el poder, potencialmente, de reemplazar nuestros combustibles fsiles, de revolucionar la medicina, y de alcanzar cada aspecto de nuestras vidas diarias. +Entonces, quin logra hacerlo? +Yo creo que todos nos sentiramos muy cmodos si este tipo lo hace. +Pero, qu tal este otro? En 2009 escuch por primera vez sobre DIYbio. +Es un movimiento que defiende hacer la biotecnologa accesible para todos, no nicamente para cientficos y gente en los laboratorios del gobierno. +La idea es que si se comparte la ciencia y se les permite participar a diversos grupos esto podra estimular la innovacin. +Poner la tecnologa en las manos de los usuarios finales es en general una buena idea, porque ellos tienen la mejor idea de lo que son sus necesidades. +Y aqu tenemos esta tecnologa muy sofisticada encaminndose, todas estas preguntas asociadas sociales, morales y ticas y nosotros los cientficos no servimos para tratar de explicar al pblico qu es exactamente lo que estamos haciendo en esos laboratorios. +Entonces, no sera maravilloso si hubiera un sitio en tu barrio dnde pudieras ir a aprender sobre estas cosas, mediante la experiencia? +Yo pensaba que s. +Entonces, hace tres aos, me reun con algunos amigos que tenan aspiraciones similares y fundamos Genspace. +Es un laboratorio comunitario de biotecnologa sin fines de lucro en Brooklyn, Nueva York, y la idea era que las personas vinieran, pudieran recibir clases y jugar en el laboratorio en una atmsfera abierta y amigable. +Ninguna de mis experiencias previas me haba preparado para lo que sucedi a continuacin pueden adivinar? +La prensa comenz a llamarnos. +Y a medida que ms hablamos sobre lo genial que era mejorar la cultura cientfica, ms queran hablar de nosotros creaando el nuevo Frankenstein, y como resultado, en los siguientes seis meses, si buscabas mi nombre en Google, en vez de obtener mis artculos cientficos, apareca esto: +["Soy un riesgo biolgico?"] Era bastante deprimente. +La nica cosa que nos sac de ese periodo era que sabamos que alrededor del mundo, haban otras personas que estaban intentando hacer lo mismo que nosotros. +Estaban abriendo espacios de hacker biolgicos, y algunos de ellos estaban enfrentando retos mayores a los nuestros, ms leyes, menos recursos. +Pero ahora, tres aos despus, aqu es donde estamos. +Es una comunidad global vibrante, de espacios de hackers, y esto es slo el principio. +Estos son algunos de los ms grandes, y hay otros que abren cada da. +Hay uno que probablemente abra en Mosc, uno en Corea del Sur, y lo genial es que cada uno tiene su propio sabor individual, que se origin de la comunidad de dnde nacieron. +Djenme llevarlos por un pequea gira. +Los biohackers trabajan solos. +Trabajamos en grupos, en ciudades grandes y en pequeos pueblos. +Hacemos ingeniera inversa de los equipos de laboratorio. +Hacemos ingeniera gentica sobre bacterias. +Hackeamos hardware, software, wetware, y, por supuesto, el cdigo de la vida. +Nos gusta construir cosas. +Y despus nos gusta desarmar cosas. +Hacemos que las cosas crezcan. +Hacemos que las cosas brillen. +Y hacemos que las clulas bailen. +El espritu de estos laboratorios es abierto, es positivo, pero saben, a veces cuando la gente piensa en nosotros, lo primero que les llega a la mente es la bio-seguridad, y todas las cosas del lado oscuro. +No voy a minimizar esas preocupaciones. +Cualquier tecnologa poderosa es inherente a un uso dual, y saben, obtienen algo como biologa sinttica, nanobiotecnologa, esto realmente te obliga a tener en cuenta a los grupos de principiantes pero tambin al de los profesionales, porque ellos tienen mejor infraestructura, mejores instalaciones, y tienen acceso a patgenos. +De hecho, la gente de DIY de todo el mundo, America, Europa, se reunieron el ao pasado, y redactamos un cdigo comn de tica. +Eso es mucho ms de lo que la ciencia convencional ha hecho. +Bien, seguimos las leyes estatales y locales. +Desechamos nuestra basura de forma adecuada, seguimos procedimientos de seguridad, no trabajamos con patgenos. +Saben, si uno trabaja con un patgeno, no es parte de una comunidad de biohackers, es parte de una comunidad de bioterroristas, lo siento. +Algunas veces las personas me preguntan, "Y si ocurre un accidente?" +Pues, trabajando con los organismos seguros con los que normalmente trabajamos, las posibilidades de que un accidente ocurra y que alguien accidentalmente cree algo como una especie de superbicho, es casi tan probable como que ocurra una tormenta de nieve en medio del desierto del Sahara. +Ahora, podra suceder, pero no voy a planear mi vida alrededor de esto. +He decidido escoger otro tipo de riesgo. +Me inscrib en algo llamado el Proyecto del Genoma Personal. +Es un estudio de Harvard en el cual, al final del estudio, van a tomar toda mi secuencia genmica y toda mi informacin mdica, mi identidad, y la van a subir en lnea para que todos la vean. +Haba muchos riesgos en juego que se discutieron durante el consentimiento informado. +El que ms me gust fue que alguien podra descargar mi secuencia, ir al laboratorio, sintetizar algn ADN falso de Ellen, y ubicarlo en una escena del crimen. Pero como para DIYbio, los resultados positivos y el potencial para el bien de un estudio como estos, sobrepasa ampliamente el riesgo. +Podran estar preguntndose, "Bueno, qu hara yo en un laboratorio de biologa?" +Pues no hace mucho tiempo nos preguntbamos, "Qu hara alguien con un ordenador personal?" +As que esto es slo el principio. +Slo estamos viendo la punta del iceberg del ADN. +Djenme mostrarles lo que podran hacer ahora mismo. +Un biohacker en Alemania, un periodista, quera saber qu perro estaba dejando regalitos en su calle? +Sip, adivinaron. Lanz una bola de tennis a todos los perros del barrio, analiz la saliva, identific a perro y confront a su dueo. +Yo descubr en mi propio patio una especie invasiva. +Parece una mariquita, verdad? +En realidad es un escarabajo Japons. +Y el mismo tipo de tecnologa, se llama cdigo de barras de ADN, es genial. Lo puedes usar para verificar si tu caviar es realmente beluga, si ese sushi es realmente atn, o si ese queso de cabra por el que pagaste mucho, es realmente de cabra. +En el espacio de un biohacker, puedes analizar tu genoma buscando mutaciones. +Puedes analizar tu cereal del desayuno buscando OGM, y puedes explorar tu rbol genealgico. +Puedes enviar globos meteorolgicos a la estratsfera, recolectar microbios, mirar qu hay all arriba. +Puedes hacer un censor biolgico a partir de la levadura para detectar contaminantes en el agua. +Puedes hacer algn tipo de celdas de biocombustible. +Puedes hacer muchas cosas. +Tambin puedes hacer proyectos de arte y ciencia. Algunos de estos son realmente espectaculares y analizan problemas sociales, ecolgicos desde una perspectiva completamente diferente. +Es realmente genial. +Algunos me preguntan, bueno, por qu ests metida en esto? +Podras tener una carrera muy buena en la ciencia convencional. +La cosa es, hay algo en estos laboratorios que le ofrecen a la sociedad, que no puedes encontrar en ninguna otra parte. +Hay algo sagrado en el espacio donde se trabaja en un proyecto y no es necesario justificarle a nadie si va a producir mucho dinero, si va a salvar a la humanidad, o si simplemente va a ser posible. +Solamente debe seguir las normas de seguridad. +Si realmente hubiera espacios as alrededor del mundo, en realidad se podra cambiar la percepcin de a quin se le est permitido hacer biotecnologa. +En espacios como estos, se crearon los ordenadores personales. +Porqu no la biotecnologa personal? +Si todos en este recinto se involucraran, quin sabe lo que podramos hacer? +Esto es una nueva rea y cmo decimos en Brooklyn, no han visto nada an. +Quiero comenzar ofrecindoles un que solo requiere lo siguiente: que cambien de postura por 2 minutos. +Pero antes, quiero pedirles que ahora mismo hagan una revisin de su cuerpo y de lo que estn haciendo con l. +Veamos, cuntos de Uds. estn empequeecidos? +Quizs se estn encorvando, o estn cruzando las piernas, +o tienen las manos en los tobillos. +A veces cruzamos los brazos, as, o los extendemos. Puedo verlos. +Quiero que se fijen en lo que estn haciendo ahora mismo. +En unos minutos volveremos a esto y espero que si aprenden a hacer un pequeo cambio, pueda cambiar notablemente el desarrollo de su vida. +Estoy fascinada con el lenguaje corporal, y en particular me interesa el lenguaje de los dems. +Es decir, me interesa, ya saben... una interaccin torpe o una sonrisa, una mirada despectiva, quizs un guio extrao, o inclusive algo como un apretn de manos. +Narrador: Aqu estn llegando al nmero 10 y vean este +afortunado polica que le da la mano al Presidente de los EE.UU. Ah, aqu llega el +Primer Ministro de... No. Amy Cuddy: As que un apretn de manos, o su omisin, puede ser tema de conversacin durante semanas. +An en la BBC o en el New York Times. +Obviamente, al hablar de comportamiento no verbal o lenguaje corporal no verbal, como lo denominamos los socilogos es lenguaje, as que pensamos en comunicacin. +Y cuando nos referimos a comunicacin, se trata de interacciones. +Qu me comunica tu lenguaje corporal? +Y qu te dice a ti el mo? +Hay muchas razones para pensar que esto es una forma +vlida de verlo. Los socilogos han empleado mucho tiempo estudiando los efectos de nuestro lenguaje corporal o el de los dems, en nuestros juicios. +Emitimos juicios rpidos e inferencias, basados en el lenguaje corporal. +Esos juicios pueden predecir resultados verdaderamente vitales, como a quin contrataremos o promoveremos, o a quin invitaremos a salir. +Por ejemplo, Nalini Ambady, investigadora de la Universidad de Tufts, dice que cuando la gente observa videos mudos de 30 seg. de interacciones reales de mdicos y pacientes, sus juicios sobre la amabilidad del doctor pueden predecir si ese mdico va a ser demandado. +No tiene mucha relacin con la competencia del mdico, sino con el hecho de que nos guste la persona y la manera en que interacta. +Ms drstico, Alex Todorov de Princeton, ha mostrado que los juicios sobre la cara de los candidatos en solo un segundo, predice el 70% de los resultados electorales para el senado o congreso. Vayamos incluso del mbito digital, los emoticones utilizados en negociaciones por Internet pueden conducir a mayores ganancias. +Si los usas mal, malo. Cierto? +Si pensamos en lo no verbal, hablamos de cmo juzgamos a los dems, cmo nos juzgan los dems, y cules son los resultados. +Tenemos la tendencia, sin embargo, a ignorar al otro, que est influenciado por lo no verbal: nosotros mismos. +Estamos influenciados por nuestros propias expresiones no verbales, pensamientos sentimientos, y por nuestra fisiologa. +A qu lenguaje no verbal me refiero? +Soy psicloga social. Estudio los prejuicios y enseo en una reconocida escuela de negocios, lo que era inevitable interesarme en la dinmica del poder, +especialmente en las expresiones no verbales de poder y dominio. +Y cules son esas expresiones de poder y dominio? +Bueno, son stas. +En el reino animal, se trata de la expansin. +Te haces grande, te expandes, tomas espacio, bsicamente, te abres. +Se trata de apertura. Y esto es as en +todo el reino animal. No solo en primates. +Los humanos somos iguales. Hacemos as cuando nos sentimos poderosos continuamente, y tambin cuando es algo temporal. +Esto es especialmente interesante porque nos muestra verdaderamente qu tan universales y antiguas, son estas expresiones de poder. +Esta expresin, conocida como de orgullo, ha sido estudiada por Jessica Tracy. Ella muestra que las personas videntes, +igual que las invidentes de nacimiento, hacen esto cuando ganan en una competencia fsica. +As, cuando alguien cruza la meta y gana, no importa si no han visto a nadie hacerlo, +igual lo hacen. +Las manos arriba en forma de V y levantan la cara un poco. +Qu hacemos cuando nos sentimos impotentes? +Exactamente lo contrario. Nos cerramos. Nos envolvemos. +Nos hacemos pequeos. No queremos tropezar con los de al lado. +Nuevamente, los animales y los humanos hacemos lo mismo. +Esto es lo que sucede cuando se juntan el gran poder +con la inferioridad. Si se trata de poder, tenemos la tendencia a complementar los gestos no verbales de los otros. +Si alguien se muestra muy poderoso con nosotros, tenemos la tendencia a hacernos pequeos. No lo imitamos. +Hacemos lo contrario. +As que observo estos comportamientos en clase, y qu veo? Noto que los estudiantes de administracin +muestran toda la gama de expresiones no verbales de poder. +Hay unos que parecen caricarturas de alfas: Llegan al saln, y se dirigen al centro antes de comenzar la clase. Quieren ocupar mucho espacio. +Al sentarse, se abren por completo. +Levantan la mano, as. +Y hay otros que virtualmente empequeecen al llegar. Desde el primer momento, puede verse. +Se les ve en la cara y en el cuerpo. Se sientan en su silla, bien pequeitos. Y al levantar la mano, lo hacen as. +Veo un par de cosas en esto. +La primera, no se van a sorprender, +parece relacionada con el gnero. +Las mujeres hacen esto mucho ms que los hombres. +Las mujeres se sienten siempre ms dbiles que los hombres; as que no nos sorprende. Tambin he notado algo que parece relacionarse con el grado de participacin de los estudiantes, y en lo bien que lo hacen. +Esto es importante en un aula de administracin porque la participacin vale la mitad de la nota. +Las escuelas de administracin han batallado con esta diferencia de notas entre gneros. +Se reciben hombres y mujeres igualmente bien preparados y ms tarde obtienen esas diferencias en califiaciones que parecen atribuirse, en parte, a la participacin +Entonces empec a pensar que estas personas llegan as, y todos participan. +Sera posible encontrar personas que finjieran y que eso hiciera que participaran ms? +Con mi principal colaboradora, Dana Carney, de Berkeley, quisimos determinar si la simulacin nos puede llevar a la realizacin. +Es decir, podremos hacerlo por un breve lapso y luego experimentar un comportamiento que te haga ver ms fuerte? +Sabemos que lo no verbal determina qu piensan los dems de nosotros. Hay bastante evidencia al respecto. +Pero nuestra pregunta especfica era: los gestos no verbales definen lo que pensamos y sentimos sobre nosotros mismos? +Hay evidencias para pensar que as es. +As, por ejemplo, sonremos cuando nos sentimos felices pero tambin cuando nos vemos forzados a sonrer mordiendo una pluma con los dientes de esta forma, +Es algo bidireccional. Tambin el poder +va en las dos direcciones. Cuando te sientes poderoso es probable que hagas esto, pero tambin es posible que, si finges ser poderoso, sea ms probable que te sientas en realidad poderoso. +Entonces, la segunda pregunta es que si sabemos que la mente puede inducir cambios en el cuerpo, es posible que tambin el cuerpo haga cambiar la mente? +Y cuando digo mente, en el caso del poder, de qu estoy hablando? +Me refiero a pensamientos, sentimientos y al tipo de cosas fisiolgicas que componen nuestros pensamientos y sentimientos. En este caso hablo de hormonas. Estudio las hormonas. +En qu se parece el cerebro de un poderoso al de alguien sin poder? +Los poderosos tienden a ser, no nos sorprende, ms positivos, a tener ms confianza, ms optimismo. +Piensan que pueden ganar inclusive en juegos de azar. +Tambin tienden a pensar ms en forma abstracta. +Hay muchas diferencias. Son ms arriesgados. +Hay muchas diferencias entre los poderosos y los que no lo son. +Fisiolgicamente tambin hay diferencias en dos hormonas claves: la testosterona, que es la hormona del la dominacin, y el cortisol, la hormona del estrs. +Lo que se ha visto es que los individuos masculinos ms poderosos en jerarquas de primates, tienen alta la testosterona y bajo el cortisol, y los lderes poderosos y efectivos, tambin tienen alta la testosterona y bajo el cortisol. +Qu quiere decir esto? Si hablamos de poder, la gente pensaba solamente en la testosterona, por su relacin con la dominacin. +Pero el poder tambin se relaciona con cmo reaccionamos al estrs. +Queremos que el lder poderoso y dominante, tenga alta testosterona, pero sea susceptible al estrs? +Probablemente no, cierto? Queremos una persona +Tenemos esa evidencia, que el cuerpo puede moldear la mente, al menos a nivel facial, y tambin que el papel asumido puede moldear la mente. +Entonces qu ocurre cuando se asume un cambio de papel? Qu pasa si se hace a un nivel mnimo, como esta pequea manipulacin o intervencin? +Le decimos, "quiero que durante dos minutos te pongas de pie as, y eso te har sentir ms poderoso". +As lo hicimos. Decidimos traer gente +al laboratorio para un pequeo experimento. Estas personas, por 2 minutos, asumieron posiciones. ya sea de poder o de debilidad. Les mostrar 5 6 de estas posiciones, aunque ellos probaron solo 2. +Esta es una. +Un par ms. +A esta la prensa la llam la "Mujer Maravilla". +Aqu hay otro par. +Pueden estar de pi, o sentados. +Ahora las posiciones de debilidad. +Se doblan, se hacen pequeitos. +Esta es de muy bajo poder. +Si te tocas el cuello te ests protegiendo, realmente. +Esto es lo que sucede. Ellos llegan, +escupen en un frasco, y les decimos por 2 minutos: "Quiero que hagas esto, o lo otro". +Ellos no ven las fotos de las posiciones. No queremos inducirlos +con un concepto de poder. Queremos que sientan el poder, +de acuerdo? Por 2 minutos lo hacen. +Y luego les preguntamos, "Qu tan poderoso te sientes? Y luego les damos la oportunidad de apostar, y por ltimo tomamos otra muestra de saliva. +Eso es todo el experimento. +Y esto es lo que encontramos. En tolerancia al riesgo, a apostar, +descubrimos que quienes asumen la posicin de mucho poder, se arriesgan a apostar en el 86%. De los que estn en posicin de debilidad, +solo el 60%. Es una enorme diferencia. Veamos lo que encontramos con la testosterona. +Partiendo de su situacin normal al llegar, los muy poderosos +experimentan un incremento del 20%. Y los dbiles una disminucin del 10%. De nuevo, 2 minutos, y se obtienen esos cambios. +Y ahora los resultados con cortisol. Los ms poderosos +experimentan un 25% de disminucin, mientras que +los ms dbiles un aumento del 15%. Esos 2 minutos conducen a estos cambios hormonales +que configuran el cerebro, para hacerlo positivo, seguro, cmodo; o bien, sujeto al estrs, ya saben, que uno se siente como apagado. Todos conocemos esa sensacin, cierto? +Parece ser que nuestras expresiones no verbales +pueden regir cmo nos vemos a nosotros mismos. No solo a los dems, sino a uno mismo. +Tambin el cuerpo puede hacer cambiar la mente. +La siguiente pregunta es, naturalmente, es posible que una posicin de poder de 2 minutos te cambie la vida de manera significativa? +Esa fue una breve experiencia en el laboratorio, +de solo 2 minutos. Cmo se puede aplicar esto? Naturalmente, estuvimos pensando en esto. +La idea es que lo que realmente importa es +dnde se desea llevar a cabo la evaluacin de situaciones socialmente exigentes. Dnde +te analizan tus amigos? Como sucede para los adolescentes en la mesa de la cafetera. +Para algunos puede ser tener que hablar +en la junta de la escuela. O al presentar una propuesta de un negocio, +o al dar una charla como esta, o en una entrevista de trabajo. +Escogimos el caso que la mayora de la gente conoce porque ha pasado por esa situacin: +la entrevista de trabajo. Entonces publicamos los resultados, y los medios se interesaron, y dijeron: "Bien, esto es lo que hay que hacer cuando vas a una entrevista, correcto?" Naturalmente quedamos horrorizados, y dijimos: "No, por Dios, no, no. Eso no es lo que queremos decir. +Por muchas razones, no, no, no. No vayan a hacer eso". +De nuevo, no se trata de hablarle a otras personas. +Es hablar consigo mismo. +Qu haces cuando vas a una entrevista de trabajo? Esto. +Correcto? Ests sentado, mirando al iPhone, o al Android, sin tratar de excluir a nadie. +Ests repasando tus notas, releyendo, todo encorvado. hacindote pequeo, cuando en realidad deberas hacer as, tal vez en el bao, correcto? Hazlo. Tmate 2 minutos. +Eso es lo que queremos evaluar, de acuerdo? +Invitamos a varias personas al laboratorio a tomar posiciones de alto o de bajo poder. Se someten a una entrevista de trabajo muy estresante. +Dura 5 minutos. Todo se est grabando. +Tambin los estn juzgando, y los jueces estn entrenados en no dar ninguna retroalimentacin no verbal. Se ven as. Imaginen +que ste es el que te est entrevistando. +Durante 5 minutos no pasa nada. Esto es peor que las interrupciones. +Detestamos eso. Es lo que Marianne LaFrance llama +"pararse sobre arena movediza". +Esto dispara el cortisol. +Esta es la entrevista de trabajo a la que los sometimos, porque queramos saber lo que sucede realmente. +Tenemos cuatro analistas para que miren las cintas. +Ellos no conocen la hiptesis, ni las condiciones. +No saben qu posiciones han tomado las personas, y al terminar de mirar las cintas, dicen: "Ah. Yo quisiera contratar estas personas", las de las posiciones de alto poder, y "no quisiera contratar a estos. +Les damos una evaluacin mucho ms positiva, en general". +Pero, qu los motiva? No se trata del contenido del discurso. +Se trata de la presencia con que vienen a la entrevista. +Los calificamos en todas las variables relacionadas con la competencia, como, Qu tan estructurado es su discurso? +Qu tan bueno es? Cules son sus condiciones para el cargo? +No hay ningn efecto en esto. Esto es lo que los afecta. +Estos asuntos. Cada persona trae su verdadera personalidad, bsicamente. +Lo que traen es lo que son. +Traen sus ideas, representadas por s mismos, sin ningn sobrante. +As que esto es lo que produce o media el efecto. +Cuando hablo de esto, que el cuerpo puede afectar la mente, que la mente puede afectar el comportamiento y que el comportamiento puede alterar los resultados, me dicen, "No me gusta. No parece autntico". Correcto? +Les contesto, finge hasta hacerlo. Yo no, yo no soy ste. +No quiero llegar y sentirme como si fuera un fraude. +No quiero sentirme como un impostor. +No quiero llegar y sentirme en el lugar equivocado. +Eso para mi, es muy importante, porque quiero contarles una pequea historia sobre ser una impostora y estar en el lugar equivocado. +Cuando tena 19 aos, tuve un accidente de auto muy grave. +Sal expulsada del auto y di muchas vueltas. +Sal del auto y me despert con una herida en la cabeza, en el pabelln de rehabilitacin. Me haban retirado de la universidad y supe que mi coeficiente intelectual haba cado 2 desviaciones estndar. Fue muy traumtico. +Supe que mi CI haba bajado porque me haban identificado como alguien brillante, y antes me haban llamado nia prodigio. +As, que me retiraron de la universidad y yo trataba de volver. +Me decan: "No podrs terminar el programa. +Simplemente acepta que hay otras cosas que puedes hacer, pero esto no te va a funcionar". +Tuve que luchar con esto, y debo decir, que te quiten tu identidad, tu verdadera identidad, para mi era el ser brillante que te lo arrebaten... No hay nada que te haga sentir ms impotente que eso. +Me senta totalmente impotente. Me esforc, trabaj y trabaj. Tuve suerte y trabaj; tuve ms suerte y segu trabajando. +Hasta que por fin me gradu en la universidad. +Me tom 4 aos ms que a mis compaeros. Logr convencer a alguien, mi ngel consejera, Susan Fiske, que me aceptara, y as termin en Princeton. Pensaba que yo no debera estar ah. +Yo era una impostora. +La noche anterior a mi charla de primer ao; en Princeton la charla de primer ao es de 20 minutos, +con 20 personas. As es. +Tena tanto temor de verme excluda al da siguiente, que la llam y le dije, "Renuncio". +Ella me contest: "No vas a renunciar porque yo estoy arriesgndome contigo, y t te quedas. +Te vas a quedar. Te dir lo que vas a hacer. +Vas a fingir. +Vas a dictar todas las charlas que te puedan solicitar. +Vas a hacerlo cuantas veces sea posible, aunque te aterres y te paralices, y tengas una experiencia fuera de t misma, hasta que llegue el momento de decir, Caramba. Lo estoy logrando. +Ya me transform y en verdad lo estoy haciendo" Y eso fue lo que hice. 5 aos en el postgrado, en unos cuantos aos, y estoy en Northwestern, y luego me mud a Harvard, ah estoy. Ya no lo pienso ms. Pero por un buen tiempo estuve repitindome, "No debera estar aqu. No debera estar aqu". +Al final de mi primer ao en Harvard, una estudiante que no haba hablado en clase durante todo el semestre, a quien le haban dicho, "Tienes que participar o suspenders", vino a mi oficina. Yo no la haba conocido antes. +Y, totalmente derrotada, me dijo: "Yo no debera estar aqu". +Ese fue mi momento, por que me ocurrieron dos cosas. +La primera fue que me di cuenta, caramba, ya no me siento ms as. +Ya no siento esos temores. Pero ella si los siente y yo la comprendo. +Y la segunda fue ella s debe estar aqu! +De igual forma, si puede fingirlo, puede lograrlo. +As, le dije: "S, por supuesto. T debes estar aqu! +Y maana vas a aparentar que puedes. vas a volverte poderosa y, ya sabes, vas a " "Vas a ir a la clase, y vas a hacer el mejor comentario de todos". +Saben? Ella hizo el mejor comentario de todos. y todos vinieron a rodearla y decan: "Ay, ni habamos notado estar ah sentada" Se imaginan? Ella regres unos meses ms tarde, y me di cuenta que no solo haba fingido hasta que lograrlo, sino que en realidad haba fingido hasta transformarse. +Ella haba cambiado. +Ahora quiero decirles, que no hay que fingir hasta hacerlo. +Fnjanlo hasta serlo. Saben? +Hay que hacerlo suficientemente hasta transformarse e internalizarlo. +Lo ltimo que les voy a dejar es esto. +Pequeos retoques pueden llevar a grandes cambios. +Eso sucede en 2 minutos. +2 minutos, 2 minutos, 2 minutos. +Antes de la prxima situacin estresante de evaluacin , durante 2 minutos, traten de hacer esto, en el ascensor, en el bao, en su escritorio a puerta cerrada. +Eso es lo que quieren hacer. Configuren su cerebro +para lograr lo mejor de la situacin. +Hay que elevar la testosterona. Y bajar el cortisol. +No salgan de esa situacin pensando que no mostraron lo que son. +Salgan de esa situacin sintiendo creer que que han dicho quienes son y lo han demostrado. +Por eso quiero pedirles primero, que traten de asumir una posicin de poder, y tambin quiero pedirles que compartan la teora, porque esto es simple. +No hay ningn ego en esto. Dnselo a la gente, comprtanlo, porque los que pueden usarlo mejor son los que no tienen recursos, ni tecnologa, ni posicin, ni ningn poder. Hay que drselo a ellos +porque pueden hacerlo en privado. +Necesitan sus cuerpos, privacidad y dos minutos, y puede cambiar significativamente los resultados de su vida. +Gracias. +Este es mi abuelo Salman Schocken, de familia pobre y sin formacin, con seis hijos que alimentar, a los 14 aos se vio obligado a abandonar la escuela para ayudar a traer el pan a casa. +Nunca regres a la escuela. +En su lugar, sigui construyendo un imperio reluciente de grandes almacenes. +Salman era un perfeccionista consumado y cada una de sus tiendas era una joya de la arquitectura Bauhaus. +Fue tambin un eximio autodidacta, y, como todo lo dems, lo hizo a lo grande. +Se rode de un squito de acadmicos jvenes y desconocidos como Martin Buber, Shai Agnon y Franz Kafka. Les pag un salario mensual para que pudieran escribir en paz. +Y, a fines de los aos 30, Salman se las vio venir. +Huy de Alemania, junto con su familia, dejando todo atrs. +Con sus grandes almacenes confiscados, pas el resto de su vida en una bsqueda incesante del arte y la cultura. +Este desertor escolar muri a los 82 aos; intelectual formidable, cofundador y primer director de la Universidad Hebrea de Jerusaln, fundador de Schocken Books, una editorial de renombre, ms tarde adquirida por Random House. +Ser autodidacta implica ganar poder. +Estos son mis padres. +No gozaron del privilegio de una educacin universitaria. +Estaban demasiado ocupados construyendo una familia, y un pas. +Sin embargo, como Salman, toda la vida fueron autodidactas tenaces y nuestra casa estaba repleta de miles de libros, discos y obras de arte. +En vez de eso, pueden brindar un entorno y los recursos para desentraar nuestra capacidad natural autodidacta. +Estudiar, explorar y dotarse de poder autnomamente: son las virtudes de una gran educacin. +Y me gustara compartir la historia de un curso de informtica para estudiar y adquirir poder por uno mismo que creamos junto con mi brillante colega Noam Nisan. +Como puede verse en las fotos, tanto Noam como yo tuvimos una fascinacin temprana por los principios fundamentales, y con los aos, conforme nuestro conocimiento de la ciencia y la tecnologa se fue sofisticando, esta fascinacin inicial por lo bsico no hizo ms que intensificarse. +Por eso, no es de sorprender que, hace unos 12 aos, cuando Noam y yo ya ramos profesores de informtica, estbamos igualmente frustrados por el mismo fenmeno. +Conforme las computadoras se volvan ms complejas nuestros estudiantes, buscando el rbol, no vean el bosque y, de hecho, es imposible conectar con el alma de la mquina si uno interacta con la caja negra de una PC o Mac que est envuelta en varias capas de software propietario cerrado. +Por eso Noam y yo pensamos que si queramos que los estudiantes entendieran el funcionamiento de las mquinas, que lo entendieran cabalmente, entonces quiz la mejor manera de hacerlo era hacerles construir hardware y software completo, que funcionara con un uso general, til, desde cero, con los principios fundamentales. +Tenamos que empezar por algn lado, as que Noam y yo decidimos basar nuestra ctedra, por as decirlo, en el bloque ms simple posible, algo llamado NAND. +No es ms que una compuerta lgica elemental con cuatro estados de entrada-salida. +Empezamos este viaje dicindoles a los estudiantes que Dios nos dio el NAND y nos dijo que hiciramos computadoras, y cuando peguntamos cmo, Dios dijo: "Paso a paso". +Y luego, siguiendo este consejo, empezamos con esta modesta y humilde compuerta NAND y guiamos a nuestros estudiantes por una secuencia elaborada de proyectos en lo que gradualmente construyen unos chips, una plataforma de software, un ensamblador, una mquina virtual, un sistema operativo bsico y el compilador de un lenguaje simple tipo Java que llamamos "JACK". +Los estudiantes celebran el final de este "tour de force" usando JACK para escribir todo tipo de juegos geniales como Pong, Snake y Tetris. +Se imaginarn la enorme alegra de jugar con un Tetris que uno mismo escribi en JACK y luego compil en lenguaje mquina en un compilador que tambin escribi, y luego ver el resultado ejecutando en una mquina que uno construy partiendo de nada ms que unos miles de compuertas NAND. +Es un triunfo personal enorme partir de principios fundamentales para llegar a un sistema extremadamente complejo y til. +Noam y yo trabajamos cinco aos para facilitar este ascenso y crear las herramientas y la infraestructura para que los estudiantes construyan esto en un semestre. +Y este es el gran equipo que nos ayud a realizarlo. +El truco consisti en descomponer la construccin en muchos mdulos independientes, que pudiesen especificarse de forma individual, y construirse y probarse de manera aislada del resto del proyecto. +Desde el primer da, Noam y yo decidimos poner a disposicin estos bloques libremente como cdigo abierto en la Web. +Dejamos especificaciones de chips, APIs, especificaciones del proyecto, simuladores de hardware, emuladores de CPU, pilas de cientos de diapositivas, conferencias... dejamos todo eso en la Web e invitamos al mundo a venir y tomar lo que necesitara y hacer lo que quisiera con esto. +Y entonces ocurri algo fascinante. +El mundo vino. +Y, en poco tiempo, miles de personas estaban construyendo nuestra mquina. +As, NAND2Tetris fue uno de los primeros cursos web abiertos y masivos, aunque hace siete aos no tenamos ni idea de que eso en ingls se llamaba MOOC. +Slo notbamos cmo se desprendan cursos autoorganizados espontneamente a partir de nuestros materiales. +Por ejemplo, Pramode C.E., un ingeniero de Kerala, India, ha organizado grupos de autodidactas que construyen nuestra mquina bajo su buena direccin. +Y Parag Shah, otro ingeniero, de Mumbai, desagreg nuestros proyectos en partes ms pequeas y manejables que ahora ofrece en su programa aficionado de ciencias de la computacin. +Las personas atradas por estos cursos por lo general tienen mentalidad de 'hacker'. +Quieren saber cmo funcionan las cosas, y quieren hacerlo en grupos, como este club de hackers en Washington, DC, que usa nuestros materiales en cursos comunitarios. +Y como estos materiales estn ampliamente disponibles y son de cdigo abierto, las personas pueden cambiar el rumbo en direcciones imprevistas. +Por ejemplo, Yu Fangmin, de Guangzhou, ha usado la tecnologa FPGA para construir nuestra computadora y mostrarle a otros cmo hacer lo mismo mediante un video y Ben Craddock desarroll un videojuego muy bonito en nuestra arquitectura de CPU, un laberinto 3D bastante complejo desarrollado por Ben con el simulador Minecraft 3D. +La comunidad de Minecraft se volvi loca con este proyecto y Ben se convirti en una celebridad meditica. +Y, en efecto, para algunas personas emprender esta peregrinacin del NAND2Tetris, si se quiere, se ha convertido en una experiencia que les cambi la vida. +Por ejemplo, Dan Rounds, msico y especialista en matemtica de East Lansing, Michigan. +Hace pocas semanas, Dan public un mensaje victorioso en nuestro sitio, y me gustara lerselo. +Esto es lo que dijo Dan: +"Hice el curso porque entender la computacin es tan importante para m como la alfabetizacin y la aritmtica, y lo logr. Nunca antes haba trabajado tan arduamente en algo, nunca antes enfrent semejante desafo. +Pero sabiendo como ahora s de lo que soy capaz, sin duda lo volvera a hacer. +Para quien est considerando hacer NAND2Tetris, es un viaje difcil, pero te cambiar significativamente". +Dan demostr que muchos autodidactas toman este curso desconectados, a su propio ritmo, por iniciativa propia, y es muy sorprendente porque a estas personas no podra importarles menos las calificaciones. +Lo hacen motivados por una sola cosa. +Sienten una enorme pasin por aprender. +Y con eso en mente, me gustara decir unas palabras sobre las calificaciones universitarias tradicionales. +Estoy harto de ellas. +Las calificaciones nos obsesionan, porque nos obsesionan los datos. Las calificaciones le quitan la diversin al fracaso, y la educacin en gran medida consiste en fracasar. +El valor, segn Churchill, es la capacidad de ir de un fracaso a otro sin perder el entusiasmo. Y [Joyce] dijo que los errores son los portales del descubrimiento. +Y, sin embargo, no toleramos los errores y adoramos las calificaciones. +Juntamos los regulares y los buenos y los consolidamos en un nmero como 3,4 que est estampado en tu frente y resume lo que eres. +Bueno, en mi opinin, fuimos demasiado lejos con esta tontera y la calificacin se torn "des-calificacin". +Por eso, en esencia, desarrollamos muchas aplicaciones mviles, cada una dedicada a un concepto matemtico particular. +Por ejemplo, tomemos "rea". +Cuando uno trabaja un concepto como rea... bueno, siempre brindamos unas herramientas que invitan al chico a experimentar para aprender. +As, si lo que nos interesa es el rea, lo que resulta natural es dividirla en piezas con esta forma y simplemente contar cuntas piezas se requieren para cubrir el rea. +Y este pequeo ejercicio da una buena idea preliminar del concepto de rea. +Continuando, qu pasa con el rea de esta figura? +Bueno, si tratamos de cuadricularla eso no funciona bien, no? +Pero esta transformacin particular no cambi el rea de la figura original as que nias y nios de 6 aos que juegan con esto han descubierto un algoritmo ingenioso para calcular el rea de cualquier paralelogramo. +No reemplazamos a los maestros, por cierto. +Creemos en facultar a los maestros, no en reemplazarlos. +Siguiendo, qu pasa con el rea del tringulo? +Luego de un ensayo y error dirigido se descubre, con o sin ayuda, que se puede duplicar la figura original para luego transponerla, pegarla a la figura original y despus proceder como hicimos antes: cortamos, reagrupamos, pegamos uy pegamos y cuadriculamos. +Pero esta transformacin ha duplicado el rea de la figura original, y por lo tanto acabamos de aprender que el rea del tringulo equivale al rea de este rectngulo dividido por dos. +Lo descubrimos mediante autoexploracin. +As, adems de aprender algo til de geometra se aprenden estrategias cientficas bastante sofisticadas como la reduccin que es el arte de transformar un problema complejo en uno simple, o la generalizacin que es el centro de cualquier disciplina cientfica, o el hecho de que algunas propiedades son invariables bajo ciertas transformaciones. +Y todo esto es algo que los pequeos pueden aprender con sus aplicaciones mviles. +Actualmente, hacemos lo siguiente. Primero, descomponemos el plan de estudios de matemtica inicial y primaria en muchas de estas aplicaciones. +Y, como no podemos hacerlo por nuestra cuenta, hemos desarrollado una herramienta muy elegante que cualquier autor, padre o, de hecho cualquier persona interesada en ensear matemtica, puede usar esta herramienta para desarrollar aplicaciones similares en tabletas, sin programacin. +Y, por ltimo, estamos armando un ecosistema adaptativo que se ajustar a diferentes alumnos con aplicaciones diferentes de acuerdo a su evolucin en el aprendizaje. +La fuerza subyacente que impulsa este proyecto es mi colega Shmulik London, y, ya ven, igual que hizo Salman hace unos 90 aos, el truco es rodearse de personas brillantes, porque al final, en todo estn las personas. +Hace unos aos caminaba por Tel Aviv, vi este graffiti en una pared y me pareci tan convincente que ahora lo predico a mis estudiantes, y me gustara hacerlo con Uds. +No s cuntos de los aqu presentes estn familiarizados con el trmino "Mensch". +Bsicamente significa "ser humano" y hacer lo correcto. +Dicho esto, este graffiti dice: "Alta tecnologa, tecnologa 'schmigh'. +Lo ms importante es ser un 'Mensch'". Gracias. +Debo decir que estoy muy contento de estar aqu. +Creo que hay ms de 80 pases aqu, y para m esta es una experiencia nueva, hablar para todos estos pases. +Estoy seguro de que tienen en cada pas lo que llamamos la reunin de padres y profesores. +Conocen las reuniones de padres y profesores? +No las de sus hijos, sino las que tenan cuando Uds. eran nios, esas en las que sus padres van a la escuela y el profesor habla con ellos, y es un poco raro. +Bueno, recuerdo que en el tercer curso, un da mi padre, que nunca deja su trabajo, un clsico obrero, inmigrante de clase trabajadora, fue a la escuela de su hijo, para ver cmo le iban las cosas, y el maestro le dijo: "Sabe?, John es bueno en matemticas y en arte". +Y l ms o menos asinti, saben? +Al da siguiente lo vi hablando con un cliente en nuestra tienda de tofu, y mi padre le dijo, "John es bueno en matemticas". +Siempre me he acordado de aquello. +Por qu no dijo arte? Por qu no le pareca bien? +Por qu? Se convirti en una pregunta para el resto de mi vida, y no importa, porque por ser bueno en matemticas, me compr una computadora, y algunos recordarn, esta computadora, esta fue mi primera computadora. +Quin tuvo un Apple II? Usuarios de Apple II, genial. Como recordarn, el Apple II no haca nada de nada. Lo conectabas, escribas y sala un texto verde. +La mayora de las veces te deca que te habas equivocado. +Esa era la computadora que conocamos. +La computadora a travs de la que me enter sobre cmo ir al MIT, el sueo de mi padre. Y en el MIT, sin embargo, aprend sobre computadoras a todos los niveles, y despus, hice Bellas Artes para alejarme de las computadoras, y empec a pensar ms en la computadora como un espacio espiritual para el pensamiento. +Y las artes escnicas me influyeron... esto pas hace 20 aos. Cre una computadora de personas +llamado el "Human Powered Computer Experiment". +Tena una fuente de alimentacin, ratn, disco, memoria, etc., y lo constru en Kyoto, la antigua capital de Japn. +Es una habitacin dividida en dos. +He encendido la computadora, y estos asistentes estn colocando un disquete gigante de cartn, que se mete en la computadora. +y la persona que hace de disquete se lo pone. Encuentra el primer sector del disco, y extrae datos del disco y se los pasa a, por supuesto, el bus de datos. +As que hoy hablar de cuatro cosas. +Las tres primeras son acerca de mi curiosidad por la tecnologa, el diseo y el arte, y cmo se relacionan entre s, cmo se superponen, y tambin un tema que he tratado desde hace cuatro aos cuando me convert en el Presidente de la Escuela de Diseo de Rhode Island: el liderazgo. +Y voy a hablar de cmo he intentado combinar estas cuatro reas en una especie de sntesis, de experimento. +As que empecemos por la tecnologa, la tecnologa es maravillosa. +Cuando sali el Apple II, realmente no poda hacer nada. +Mostraba texto, y despus de esperar un poco, llegaron esas cosas llamadas imgenes. +Recuerdan la primera vez que aparecieron en una computadora esas bonitas imgenes a todo color? +Y, tras unos aos, lleg el sonido de calidad de CD. +Fue increble. Podas escucharlo en la computadora. +Y, a continuacin, pelculas, a travs de CD-ROM. Realmente increble. +Se acuerdan de la emocin? +Y despus apareci el navegador. Fue algo grande, pero era muy primitivo, el ancho de banda muy estrecho. +El texto primero, luego las imgenes, esperamos, sonido de calidad CD en internet, luego las pelculas por internet. Algo increble. +Y entonces lleg el telfono mvil, texto, imgenes, audio, vdeo. Y ahora tenemos iPhone, iPad, Android, con texto, vdeo, audio, etc. +Ven el patrn? +Tal vez estamos atrapados en un bucle, y esta sensacin de posibilidad de la informtica es lo que me he estado preguntado durante los ltimos 10 aos, y he mirado el diseo, tal como lo entendemos la mayora de las cosas, y entender el diseo con nuestra tecnologa ha sido una de mis pasiones. +Tengo un pequeo experimento para darles una leccin de diseo rpida. +Los diseadores hablan de la relacin entre la forma y el contenido, contenido y forma. Pero qu significa eso? +Pues bien, el contenido es la palabra ah arriba: miedo. +Es una palabra de cinco letras. Una palabra que transmite una sensacin mala, temor. +El miedo est escrito en Light Helvetica, para que no resalte demasiado y si se escribe en Ultra Light Helvetica, es como, "Oh, miedo, a quin le importa?" Verdad? Si usamos la misma tipografa y la aumentamos, es como si, uf, duele. Miedo. +Puedan ver que si cambian el tamao, cambian la forma. El contenido es el mismo, pero te sientes diferente. +Si cambian el tipo de letra, como este, es divertido. Es como pirata, tipo capitn Jack Sparrow. Arr! Miedo! +Ah, bueno! Eso no da miedo. En realidad es divertido. +O miedo como este, un tipo de letra de discoteca. En plan, "tenemos que ir a 'Miedo' ". Es increble, verdad? Simplemente cambiaa el mismo contenido. +O hacen que... aqu las letras estn separadas entre s, y se apian como en la cubierta del Titanic, y te sientes mal por ellas, como, siento el miedo. +Lo sientes por ellas. +O cambias el tipo de letra a algo como esto. +Es muy elegante. Es como ese restaurante caro, "Miedo". +Nunca puedo entrar ah. Es simplemente increble, "Miedo". Pero eso es forma, contenido. +Si solo cambian una letra en "fear" obtienen una palabra mucho mejor, "free" . +"Libre" es una gran palabra. La pueden usar de casi cualquier forma. +Libre en negrita es como libre en el sentido de Mandela. +Es como, s, puedo ser libre. +Incluso sin negrita parece como, ah, puedo respirar libre. +Es genial. O incluso cuando libre est separado es como, ah, puedo respirar libre, sin problemas. +Y puedo aadir un fondo azul degradado y una paloma, y tengo libre en el sentido de Don Draper. Para que vean que... forma, contenido, diseo, funciona de esa manera. +Es poderoso. Es casi como magia, como los magos que hemos visto en TED. Es mgico. +Esto es lo que hace el diseo. +Y he tenido curiosidad sobre cmo se entrecruzan el diseo y la tecnologa, y les voy a ensear unos antiguos trabajos mos que realmente ya nunca muestro, para que entiendan lo que sola hacer. +As, s. +Hice muchos trabajos en los aos 90. +Este era un cuadrado que reaccionaba a los sonidos. +La gente me pregunta por qu lo hice. No est claro. Pero pens que sera interesante que el cuadrado me respondiera, y mis hijos eran pequeos entonces, y jugaban con estas cosas, "Aaah", decan, "Papi, aaah, aaah". Ya saben, cosas as. +bamos a una tienda de computadoras, y hacan lo mismo. +Y decan: "Pap, por qu la computadora no responde al sonido?" +Y realmente en ese momento me pregunt por qu no responde al sonido? +As que lo hice como una especie de experimento entonces. +Y pase mucho tiempo en la rea de los grficos interactivos y cosas as, y dej de hacerlo porque mis estudiantes en MIT eran mucho mejores que yo, as que tuve que colgar mi ratn. +Pero en el 96, hice mi ltimo trabajo. En blanco y negro, monocromo, completamente monocromo, todo en nmeros enteros matemticos. +Se llama "tocar, teclear, escribir" ("Tap, Type, Write"). +Es en memoria de la maravillosa mquina de escribir que mi madre siempre utiliz como secretaria legal. +Tiene 10 variaciones. (Ruido de teclear) (Ruido de escribir a mquina) Hay un cambio. +Diez variaciones. Esto es girar la letra sobre s misma. +(Ruidos de escribir a mquina) Esto es un anillo de letras. (Ruidos de escribir a mquina) Esto tiene 20 aos, as que es como... Vamos a ver, esto es: Me encanta la pelcula francesa "El globo rojo". +Gran pelcula, verdad? Me encanta. Esto es algo parecido. (Ruidos de escribir) (Timbre de la mquina) Es tranquila, as. Les ensear el ltimo. Este es cuestin de equilibrio. +Es en poco estresante teclear as, pero si lo hacen en este teclado pueden encontrar el equilibrio. +Si le da a la G, la vida va bien, por lo que siempre digo, "Dale a la G y todo ir bien". +Gracias. Gracias. +Eso fue hace 20 aos, y siempre estaba en contacto con el arte. +Siendo Presidente del RISD he estado muy en contacto con el arte, y el arte es una cosa maravillosa, arte, arte puro. +Cuando la gente dice, "No entiendo el arte. +No lo entiendo para nada". Eso significa que el arte funciona. +Se supone que el arte tiene que ser enigmtico, as que cuando dices: "No lo entiendo", es estupendo. Es lo que hace el arte, porque va de hacer preguntas, preguntas que no siempre tienen respuesta. +En RISD, tenemos una instalacin increble llamada el laboratorio de naturaleza Edna Lawrence. Tiene 80 000 muestras de animal, hueso, mineral, plantas. +Si en Rhode Island, se atropella un animal en la calle nos llaman y lo recogemos y lo rellenamos. +Y por qu tenemos esta instalacin? +Porque en RISD, tienes que ver el animal de verdad, el objeto, para entender su volumen, para percibirlo. +En RISD, no se permite dibujar de una imagen. +Y muchas personas me preguntan, "John, por qu no digitalizan todo esto? Que sea todo digital. No sera mejor? +Y a menudo les digo que, bueno, hay algo bueno en cmo las cosas se hacan antes. Algo muy diferente, algo de lo que debemos averiguar lo que es bueno de cmo lo hicimos, incluso en esta nueva era. +As que fueron a una tienda de antigedades, y vieron una copa, y preguntaron sobre su historia. +El dependiente les dijo, "Es vieja". "Dganos ms". "Es muy vieja". Y vio una y otra vez, que el valor de la antigedad se basaba en que era vieja. +Y como buen artista de nuevos medios, reflexion y dijo: he estado toda mi carrera haciendo arte de los nuevos medios. +La gente dice, "Vaya, tu arte, qu es?" Es nuevos medios de comunicacin. +Y se dio cuenta de que no se trata de si es viejo o nuevo. +Se trata de algo intermedio. +No se trata de "viejo", la suciedad, "nuevo", la nube. Se trata de lo que es bueno. +Una combinacin de la nube y la suciedad es donde est en la accin. +Hoy en da, se ve en todo el arte interesante, en todos los negocios interesantes. Cmo combinar los dos para conseguir algo bueno es muy interesante. +El arte hace preguntas, y el liderazgo necesita un montn de preguntas. +Nosotros ya no funcionamos tan fcilmente. +Ya no somos un simple rgimen autoritario. +Como un ejemplo de autoritarismo, estuve en Rusia una vez viajando en San Petersburgo, a un monumento nacional, y vi un letrero que deca, "No pisar el csped" y pens, ah, o sea, hablo ingls, y me estn intentando discriminar. Eso no es justo. +Pero encontr un cartel para personas de habla rusa, y fue el mejor cartel para decir que no. +Deca: "No nadar, no hacer senderismo, no nada". +Mis favorita era "Plantas no". Por qu llevar una planta a un monumento nacional? No lo s. +Y tambin "amor no". Eso es autoritarismo. +Y qu es eso, estructuralmente? +Es una jerarqua. Todos sabemos que muchos sistemas de hoy en da funcionan como una jerarqua, pero como sabemos, se ha interrumpido. +Ahora es una red en lugar de un rbol perfecto. +Es una heterarqua en vez de una jerarqua. Y eso un poco raro. +Y hoy, los lderes se enfrentan a cmo liderar de forma diferente, creo. +Este es el trabajo que hice con mi colega Becky Bermont sobre el liderazgo creativo. Qu podemos aprender de artistas y diseadores para saber cmo liderar? +Porque en muchos sentidos, a un lder normal le encanta evitar errores. +A alguien creativo lo que realmente le encanta es aprender de los errores. +Un dirigente tradicional siempre quiere tener razn, mientras que un lder creativo espera tener razn. +Y este enfoque es importante hoy, en este complejo espacio ambiguo. Los artistas y los diseadores tienen mucho que ensearnos, creo. +Hace poco tuve un show en Londres. Mis amigos me invitaron a ir a Londres cuatro das para sentarme en una caja de arena y dije muy bien. +As que me sent en una caja de arena durante cuatro das seguidos, seis horas diarias, encuentros de seis minutos con cualquiera en Londres, y fue realmente malo. +Pero escuchaba a la gente, sus problemas, dibujaba en la arena, intentaba entender las cosas, y fue difcil averiguar qu estaba haciendo. +Saben? Son esas reuniones cara a cara durante cuatro das. +Y realmente me senta como si fuera el presidente. +Estaba como, "Oh, este es mi trabajo. Presidente. Tengo un montn de reuniones, saben?" +Y al final de la experiencia, me di cuenta por qu estaba haciendo eso. +Es porque lo que hacemos los dirigentes es conectar conexiones improbables y esperar que pase algo, y en esa habitacin me encontr con muchas conexiones entre las personas de todo Londres y el liderazgo, conectando a la gente, es la gran pregunta de hoy. +Si ests en la jerarqua o la heterarqua, es un reto de diseo magnfico. +Y una cosa que he estado haciendo es investigar los sistemas que pueden combinar tecnologa y liderazgo con una perspectiva de arte y diseo. +Dejen que les ensee algo que realmente no he enseado antes. +Esto es una especie de boceto, un esbozo de una aplicacin que escrib en Python. Conocen Photoshop? +Esto se llama Powershop, y el modo de funcionamiento es imaginar una organizacin. El presidente nunca est arriba. El presidente est en el centro de la organizacin. +Puede que haya diferentes subdivisiones de la organizacin, y tal vez quieres buscar en diferentes reas. Por ejemplo, verde son las que funcionan bien, rojo son las que funcionan mal. +Parte del desafo del presidente es encontrar conexiones a travs de las distintas reas, as que puedes buscar en R&D, y aqu ves a una persona que est en las dos reas de inters, y es una persona con la que interesa relacionarse. +As que puede que quieras, por ejemplo, una pantalla de visualizacin frontal sobre cmo interactas con ellos. +Cuntos cafs tomas? +Con qu frecuencia les llamas, les mandas un correo electrnico? +Cul es el tenor de su correo electrnico? Cmo va? +Los lderes podran ser capaces de utilizar estos sistemas para regular mejor cmo funcionan dentro de la heterarqua. +Tambin pueden imaginar usar la tecnologa como de Luminoso, los chicos de Cambridge que buscaban en los anlisis de texto de profundidad. Cul es el tenor de sus comunicaciones? +Creo que este tipo de sistemas es importante. +Son sistemas de medios de comunicacin social sobre los lderes. +Y creo que este tipo de perspectiva slo empezar a crecer cuando ms lderes entren en el terreno del arte y el diseo, porque el arte y el diseo te permiten pensar as, encontrar diferentes sistemas como este, y acabo de empezar a pensar as, y me alegro de compartirlo con Uds. +Para terminar, quiero agradecerles su atencin. Muchas gracias. +Si alguien les preguntara cules son las tres palabras que describen su reputacin, qu responderan? +Cmo describiran las personas su juicio, su conocimiento, o su comportamiento, en diferentes situaciones? +Me gustara explorar con ustedes por qu la respuesta a estas preguntas ser tan importante en una era donde la reputacin ser su ventaja ms valiosa. +Me gustara presentarles a alguien cuya vida se transform gracias al mercado basado en la reputacin. +Sebastian Sandys es un anfitrin en el establecimiento de hospedaje Airbnb desde el 2008. +Me reun con l recientemente, y mientras tombamos varias tazas de t, me cont cmo se haba enriquecido su vida gracias a la llegada de huspedes de todo el mundo. +Ms de 50 personas se han quedado en su casa del siglo XVIII, donde vive con su gato Squeak. +Les hablo de Squeak porque el primer husped de Sebastian vio correr a un ratn grande en la cocina y le prometi que no iba a dejarle un comentario negativo si consegua un gato. +As que Sebastian compr a Squeak para proteger su reputacin. +Como muchos de ustedes saben, Airbnb es un nicho de mercado de par a par que conecta a las personas que tienen espacio para alquilar con personas que estn buscando un sitio donde quedarse en ms de 192 pases. +Los lugares que se alquilan son espacios que uno esperara, como un cuarto extra o casas de vacaciones, pero parte de la magia son los lugares nicos a los que tenemos acceso: casas de rboles, carpas de indios, hangares de aviones, igles. +Si no le gustan los hoteles, hay un castillo cerca que puede alquilar por 5000 dlares la noche. +Es un ejemplo maravilloso de cmo la tecnologa est creando un mercado para cosas que antes no tenan un nicho. +Djenme mostrarles un mapa de Pars para que vean lo rpido que est creciendo. +Esta imagen aqu es del 2008. +Los puntos rosados representan propiedades que ofrecen alojamiento. +Hace unos cuatro aos, dejar que extraos se quedaran en su casa pareca una idea de locos. +Ahora veamos el mapa para el 2010. +Y ahora, en el 2012 +Hay un anfitrin de Airbnb en casi todas las calles principales en Pars. +La gente se est dando cuenta del poder de la tecnologa para liberar la capacidad en desuso y dar valor a toda clase de activos, desde habilidades, hasta espacios o posesiones materiales, de una manera y a una escala nunca antes vista. +Es una economa y una cultura llamada consumo colaborativo, donde personas como Sebastian pueden volverse microempresarios. +Ofrece incentivos para ganar y ahorrar dinero de los bienes con los que cuentan actualmente. +Pero la verdadera magia y la fuente secreta detrs de los mercados de consumo colaborativo como Airbnb no es el inventario o el dinero. +Es el uso del poder de la tecnologa para generar confianza entre desconocidos. +Esta parte de Airbnb realmente sorprendi a Sebastian el verano pasado durante las protestas en Londres. +Se despert a las 9, y cuando revis su correo electrnico vio que tena muchos mensajes de gente que le preguntaba si estaba bien. +Antiguos huspedes de todo el mundo haban visto que las protestas estaban a una calle de donde viva, y todos queran saber si necesitaba algo. +Sebastian me dijo: Trece antiguos huspedes me contactaron antes de que mi propia madre me llamara. Esta ancdota refleja enormemente por qu estoy completamente apasionada con el consumo colaborativo y por qu decid que despus de terminar mi libro iba a empezar a tratar de convertirlo en un movimiento global. +Porque en el fondo, se trata de empoderamiento. +El consumo colaborativo permite que las personas tengan conexiones significativas, conexiones que nos permitan redescubrir la naturaleza humana que habamos perdido, al relacionarse en mercados como Airbnb, Kickstarter, Etsy, que se basan en relaciones personales y no en transacciones vacas. +La irona es que estas ideas nos llevan de regreso a los principios de los mercados antiguos y a comportamientos colaborativos que estn muy arraigados en todos nosotros. +Solo estamos reinventndolos para que sean relevantes en la era del Facebook. +Estamos, literalmente, empezando a entender que hemos moldeado nuestro mundo para compartir, intercambiar, arrendar, hacer trueques o cambiar cualquier cosa. Compartimos nuestros autos en WhipCar, nuestras bicicletas en Spinlister, nuestras oficinas en Loosecubes, nuestros jardines en Landshare. Estamos prestando y pidiendo prestado dinero a extraos en Zopa y Lendind Club. +Intercambiamos clases de lo que sea, desde clases de sushi, hasta clases de cdigos en Skillshare e incluso compartimos nuestras mascotas en DogVacay. +Bienvenidos al maravilloso mundo del consumo colaborativo que nos permite igualar lo que queremos con lo que tenemos ms democrticamente. +El consumo colaborativo es el inicio de una transformacin de nuestra manera de pensar sobre la oferta y la demanda, pero tambin hace parte de un cambio masivo de valores que est en progreso en el que en vez de consumir para competir con sus vecinos, las personas consumen para conocer a sus vecinos. +Y la razn clave por la cual est tomando auge tan rpido es porque cada adelanto de la tecnologa incrementa la eficiencia y el tejido social de confianza que hace que compartir sea cada vez ms fcil. +He observado cientos de estos mercados, y la confianza y la eficiencia son siempre los ingredientes crticos. +Djenme darles un ejemplo. +Este es Chris Mok, de 46 aos, quien creo que tiene el mejor ttulo de puesto de trabajo: SuperRabbit. +Hace cuatro aos, desafortunadamente Chris perdi su trabajo como comprador de arte en Macys, y como muchas personas, le fue difcil encontrar un nuevo trabajo durante la recesin. +Hasta que por casualidad ley un artculo sobre TaskRabbit. +La historia de TaskRabbit empieza como muchas de las grandes historias con un perro tierno llamado Kobe. +En febrero del 2008, Leah y su esposo estaban esperando un taxi para ir a cenar, cuando Kobe vino corriendo hacia ellos con la lengua afuera. +Se dieron cuenta de que no tenan comida para perro. +Kevin tuvo que cancelar el taxi y hacerse paso en la nieve. +Ms tarde, los autoproclamados obsesionados con la informtica empezaron a hablar sobre lo bueno que sera si existiera un eBay para hacer encargos. +Seis meses despus, Leah renunci a su trabajo, y naci TaskRabbit. +En ese momento, Leah no se dio cuenta de que ella estaba incursionando en una idea an ms grande a la que llam red de servicios. +Se trata esencialmente de cmo usamos nuestras relaciones en lnea para hacer cosas en el mundo real. +Para que TaskRabbit opere, las personas subcontratan las tareas que quieren hechas, dicen el precio que estn dispuestos a pagar, y despus los Rabbits veteranos licitan para hacer la tarea. +De hecho, hay cuatro pasos y un proceso riguroso de entrevistas diseado para encontrar a las personas que seran los mejores asistentes personales y para eliminar a los Rabbits indeseados. +En la actualidad, hay ms de 4000 Rabbits en todo Estados Unidos y otros 5000 en lista de espera. +Las tareas que estn disponibles son lo que uno se imagina, como ayudar con las labores domsticas o hacer las comprar del supermercado. +El otro da me enter de que 12 5000 cargas de ropa, se lavaron y doblaron a travs de TaskRabbit. +Pero me encanta que la tarea ms publicada, ms de 100 veces al da, es algo que muchos de nosotros hemos sufrido al hacer: si, armar muebles de Ikea. Es brillante. Nosotros podremos rernos, pero Chris est ganando unos 5000 dlares por mes haciendo encargos como medio de vida. +El 70 % de la nueva fuerza de trabajo viene de personas que estaban desempleadas o subempleadas. +Pienso que TaskRabbit y otros ejemplos de consumos colaborativos son como puestos de limonadas a mayor escala. Son brillantes. +De hecho le un estudio fascinante del Pew Center esta semana que revelaba que un usuario activo de Facebook es tres veces ms propenso a pensar que la mayora de personas son confiables, comparado con una persona que no usa internet. +La confianza virtual transformar la manera de confiar el uno con el otro cara a cara. +A pesar de todo mi optimismo, y soy una optimista, nunca sobra una buena dosis de precaucin, o ms bien, una necesidad urgente de tratar algunas preguntas urgentes y complejas. +Cmo asegurarnos que nuestras identidades digitales reflejen nuestras identidades reales? Queremos que sean iguales? +Cmo podemos imitar la manera en que la confianza se construye cara a cara, en un ambiente virtual? +Cmo detenemos a alguien que se comport mal en una comunidad para que no lo vuelva a hacer bajo otra apariencia? +Del mismo modo en que las compaas usan algn tipo de historia crediticia para decidir si puedes obtener un plan de telfono celular, o la tasa de una hipoteca, los mercados que dependen de transacciones entre extraos necesitan alguna clase de mecanismo para que ustedes sepan que Sebastian y Chris son confiables, y ese mecanismo es la reputacin. +La reputacin mide qu tanto confa la comunidad en una persona. +Tomemos el ejemplo de Chris. +Pueden ver que ms de 200 personas le han dado una evaluacin promedio de 4,99 sobre 5. +Hay ms de 20 pginas de comentarios acerca de su trabajo describindolo como superamigable y rpido, y ya ha alcanzado el nivel 25, el ms alto nivel, convirtindose en un SuperRabbit. +Ahora Amo esa palabra, SuperRabbit. +Curiosamente, Chris se dio cuenta de que a medida que su reputacin aumentaba, tambin aumentaban sus oportunidades de ganar una subasta y cunto poda cobrar. +En otras palabras, para los SuperRabbits, la reputacin tiene un valor en el mundo real. +S lo que muchos de ustedes estn pensando. +Esto no es nada nuevo. Solo fjense en los power sellers de eBay o en la calificacin con estrellas de Amazon. +La diferencia es que, con cada transaccin que hacemos, con cada comentario que dejamos, cada persona que reportamos, cada insignia que ganamos, dejamos un rastro de nuestra reputacin de qu tanto pueden o no pueden confiar en nosotros. +Y no es solo la amplitud, sino el volumen de los datos de reputacin lo que es impresionante. +Consideren esto: hay cinco millones de noches reservadas en Airbnb solo en los ltimos seis meses. +30 millones de personas han compartido el vehculo en Carpooling.com. +Este ao, las plataformas de prstamos de red de pares recibirn crditos por un valor de dos billones de dlares. +Todo esto suma millones de datos de reputacin sobre qu tan bien, o qu tan mal, nos comportamos. +Ahora, capturar y correlacionar los rastros de informacin que dejamos en diferentes lugares es un reto enorme, pero un reto que debemos resolver. +Las personas como Sebastian estn empezando, con toda razn, a preguntar, no deberamos ser dueos de nuestros datos de reputacin? +La reputacin que he construido en Airbnb debera viajar conmigo de una comunidad hacia otra? +Lo que quiero decir es que, supongamos que Sebastian empieza a vender libros de segunda mano en Amazon. Por qu debera empezar desde cero? +Es como cuando me mud a Sidney desde Nueva York. +Era ridculo. No poda acceder a un plan de telfono celular porque mi historia de crdito no viaj conmigo. +Era un fantasma en el sistema. +No estoy sugiriendo que el siguiente paso de la economa de la reputacin sea aadir mltiples calificaciones para obtener un puntaje final sin mucho valor. +La vida de las personas ya es demasiado compleja, y quin querra hacer eso? +Tambin quiero aclarar que esto no se trata de aadir todos los tuits, los likes, y las invitaciones de amistad como piezas. +Estas personas miden la influencia, no los comportamientos que indican nuestra confiabilidad. +Pero lo ms importante que tenemos que tener en cuenta es que la reputacin es principalmente contextual. +Solo porque Sebastian sea un anfitrin maravilloso no quiere decir que tambin pueda armar muebles de Ikea. +El gran reto est en descifrar qu clase de datos vale la pena usar porque el futuro va a depender de un agregado inteligente de la reputacin, y no de un simple algoritmo. +Es solo cuestin de tiempo antes de que seamos capaces de hacer una bsqueda, del tipo Facebook o Google, y ver la historia completa del comportamiento de alguien en diferentes contextos a travs del tiempo. +Este es un concepto que estoy investigando actualmente y sobre el cual estoy escribiendo un libro, y al cual defino como el valor de tu reputacin, tus intenciones, capacidades y valores en comunidades y nichos de mercado. +Esta no es una frontera distante. +De hecho, hay una ola de empresas emergentes del estilo de Connect.Me y Legit y TrustCloud que tratan de entender cmo agregar, monitorear y usar tu reputacin en lnea. +Entiendo que para algunos de ustedes este concepto puede sonar como Big Brother, y s, hay enormes problemas en cuanto a transparencia y privacidad que debemos resolver, pero al final, si podemos recopilar nuestra reputacin personal, podremos tener ms control sobre ella, y de paso extraer el inmenso valor que contiene. +Y tambin, a diferencia de nuestra historia de crdito, nosotros s podemos moldear nuestra reputacin. +Piensen en Sebastian y cmo compr un gato para influenciar su reputacin. +Dejando el tema de la privacidad a un lado, el otro asunto realmente interesante en el que estoy trabajando es cmo le damos poder a los fantasmas digitales, personas que por cualquier razn, no estn activas en lnea, pero que son unas de las personas ms confiables en el mundo? +Cmo tomamos sus contribuciones en sus trabajos, sus comunidades y sus familias, y convertimos ese valor en capital de reputacin? +Por ltimo, cuando sepamos cmo hacerlo correctamente, el capital de reputacin podra crear una enorme alteracin positiva sobre quin tiene poder, confianza e influencia. +Un puntaje de tres dgitos, la tradicional historia de crdito, que solo el 30 por ciento de nosotros sabe cul es, ya no ser el factor que determine cunto cuestan las cosas, lo que podemos comprar, y en muchas instancias, lo que limite lo que podemos hacer en el mundo. +De hecho, la reputacin es una moneda que creo que ser ms poderosa que el historial de crdito en el siglo XXI. +La reputacin ser la moneda que diga que alguien puede confiar en m. +Lo interesante es que la reputacin es el elemento socioeconmico que hace que el consumo colaborativo funcione, pero las fuentes de las que se generara, as como sus aplicaciones, son ms grandes que este espacio. +Djenme darles un ejemplo del mundo de la contratacin de personal, en el que los datos de la reputacin hacen que un currculo parezca una reliquia del pasado. +Hace cuatro aos, los blogueros de tecnologa y empresarios Joel Spolsky y Jeff Atwood, decidieron empezar algo llamado Stack Overflow. +Stack Overflow es una plataforma en la que programadores experimentados pueden hacer preguntas tcnicas altamente detalladas a otros programadores sobre temas como pequeos pxeles o extensiones de chrome. +Este sitio recibe 55 000 preguntas al da, y el 80 % de estas recibe respuestas acertadas. +Los usuarios ganan su reputacin de varias formas, pero bsicamente lo hacen convenciendo a sus colegas de que ellos saben de lo que estn hablando. +Un par de meses despus de inaugurado el sitio, los fundadores se enteraron de algo interesante, que de hecho no los sorprendi en absoluto. +Se enteraron de que los usuarios colocaban sus puntajes de reputacin al inicio de sus currculos, y que los empleadores entraban a la plataforma para encontrar personas con talentos nicos. +Hoy en da miles de programadores encuentran mejores trabajos de esta forma, ya que Stack Overflow y su tablero de reputacin brindan una valiosa oportunidad para conocer cmo se comportan realmente las personas, y lo que sus colegas piensan de ellos. +Pero lo ms grandioso que creo que est pasando en Stack Overflow es increblemente excitante. +Las personas estn empezando a darse cuenta de que la reputacin que generan en un lugar tiene valor ms all del ambiente en el que se gener. +Esto es muy interesante. +Cuando uno habla con superusuarios, ya sea un SuperRabbit o superpeople en Stack Overflow, o Uberhosts, todos mencionan cmo el tener una alta reputacin desencadena un sentido de su propio poder. +En Stack Overflow, crea un campo con igualdad de condiciones, permitiendo a las personas con verdadero talento subir hacia la cima. +En Airbnb, las personas se vuelven ms importantes que los espacios. En TaskRabbit, las personas controlan su actividad econmica. +Cuando termin de tomar t con Sebastian, me dijo que en los das malos, lluviosos, cuando no tiene un solo cliente en su librera, piensa en toda la gente alrededor del mundo que ha dicho algo maravilloso sobre l, y en lo que eso significa para l como persona. +Sebastian va a cumplir 50 este ao, y est convencido de que toda la reputacin que ha construido en Airbnb lo llevar a hacer algo interesante el resto de su vida. +Solo hay algunos momentos en la historia en los que existe la oportunidad de reinventar parte de cmo funciona nuestro sistema socioeconmico. +Estamos presenciando uno de esos momentos. +Pienso que estamos en el inicio de una revolucin colaborativa que ser tan significativa como la revolucin industrial. +En el siglo XX, la invencin del crdito transform nuestro sistema de consumo y de muchas formas, control quin tena acceso a qu. +En el siglo XXI, las nuevas redes de confianza y el capital de reputacin que generan, reinventarn la manera de pensar sobre la riqueza, mercados, poder e identidad personal, en formas que ni siquiera podemos imaginar. +Muchas gracias. +Otras personas. Todo el mundo est interesado en otras personas. +Todos tienen relaciones con otras personas, y estn interesados en estas relaciones por varias razones. +Buenas relaciones, malas relaciones, relaciones pesadas, relaciones agnsticas, y lo que voy a hacer es enfocarme en el eje central de la interaccin que sucede en una relacin. +Pero antes de comenzar, djenme decirles algunas cosas que han hecho esto posible. +La primera es que ahora podemos monitorear sin riesgos la actividad de un cerebro sano. +Sin agujas o radiactividad, sin tener razn clnica alguna, podemos andar por ah y analizar la actividad cerebral de tus amigos y vecinos mientras hacen varias actividades cognitivas, y usamos un mtodo llamado imgenes por resonancia magntica funcional. +Probablemente han ledo u odo a alguien mencionarlo en algn lugar. Djenme darles una breve descripcin. +Todos sabemos algo de las IMR. Las IMR usan campos magnticos y ondas de radio que toman fotos instantneas de tu cerebro o de tu rodilla o de tu estmago. Son imgenes estticas en blanco y negro. +En los aos 90 se descubri que podamos usar estas mquinas de manera diferente, y por lo tanto, podemos hacer videos del flujo sanguneo microscpico de miles de sitios independientes en el cerebro. +Bueno, y eso qu tiene que ver? Pues que los cambios en la actividad neural, las cosas que hacen que tu cerebro funcione, las cosas que hacen que el software de tu cerebro trabaje, estn completamente correlacionadas con los cambios de flujo sanguneo. +Si haces un video del flujo sanguneo, tienes una representacin independiente de actividad cerebral. +Esto literalmente ha revolucionado a la ciencia cognitiva. +No importa el rea cognitiva, sea la memoria, la planificacin motora, pensar acerca de tu suegra, molestarse con alguien, una reaccin emocional, la lista es infinita, pongan a alguien dentro de una mquina de imgenes por resonancia magntica funcional, e imaginen cmo estas variables mapean la actividad cerebral. +An est en una etapa inicial, y es rudimentaria en cierto modo, pero de hecho, hace 20 aos, no estbamos en nada. +No se poda examinar a la gente de esta manera. No se podan examinar a personas sanas. +Eso ha causado una revolucin que nos ha llevado a una preparacin experimental nueva. Los neurobilogos, como bien saben, experimentan con una gran cantidad de animales, lombrices y roedores y moscas de la fruta y cosas as. +Y ahora, tenemos un nuevo objeto de estudio: los seres humanos. +Ahora podemos usar a los seres humanos para estudiar y hacer modelos del software en los seres humanos, y tenemos algunas medidas biolgicas prometedoras. +Muy bien, djenme darles un ejemplo de la clase de experimentos que se hacen, y es en el rea conocida como valoracin. +Valoracin es justo lo que estn pensando, muy bien? +Si vas a valorar dos compaas entre s, lo que necesitas saber es cul es ms valiosa. +Las culturas descubrieron el factor clave de la valoracin hace miles de aos. +Si quieres comparar naranjas con parabrisas, qu tienes que hacer? +Bueno, uno no puede comparar naranjas con parabrisas. +Son objetos no miscibles. No se mezclan entre s. +Por lo tanto, hay que pasarlos a una escala monetaria comn, ponerlos en tal escala, y valorarlos de acuerdo a esta. +Pues tu cerebro tiene que hacer algo parecido tambin, y ahora estamos comenzando a entender e identificar los sistemas cerebrales ligados a la valoracin, y uno de ellos posee un sistema neurotransmisor cuyas clulas estn localizadas en el tronco del encfalo y que le suministran dopamina al resto de tu cerebro. +Los estupefacientes entran y cambian la manera en que valoras el mundo. Cambian la manera en que valoras los smbolos asociados con tu droga preferida, y te hacen valorar eso sobre todo lo dems. +Aqu est la parte clave. Estas neuronas tambin estn involucradas en la manera en que t le das valor a ideas abstractas, y ac puse algunos smbolos a los que les asignamos valor por varias razones. +Nosotros tenemos un superpoder de conducta en nuestro cerebro, que en parte utiliza dopamina. +Nosotros podemos ignorar todos nuestros instintos de supervivencia por una idea, por una mera idea. Ninguna otra especie puede hacer eso. +En 1997, la secta Heaven's Gate cometi un suicidio en masa basado en la idea de que haba una nave espacial escondida en la cola del en ese entonces visible cometa Hale-Bopp que los llevara a otro mundo. Fue un evento increblemente trgico. +Ms de dos tercios de ellos tenan ttulos universitarios. +Pero el punto importante ac es que ellos fueron capaces de ignorar sus instintos de supervivencia usando exactamente los mismos sistemas que fueron puestos para que sobrevivieran. Eso es un gran nivel de control, muy bien? +Una cosa que he omitido de esta narrativa es lo obvio, que es el tema central del resto de mi breve charla, y es nada menos que las otras personas. +Estos mismos sistemas de valoracin son desplegados cuando estamos valorando las interacciones con otras personas. +Entonces este mismo sistema de dopamina que nos vuelve adictos a las drogas, que hace que te petrifiques cuando tienes mal de Parkinson, que contribuye a varias formas de psicosis, es tambin desplegado para valorar las interacciones con otras personas y asignarle valor a los gestos que haces cuando ests interactuando con otra persona. +Djenme darles un ejemplo de lo anterior. +La cantidad de poder de procesamiento que t despliegas en esta rea es enorme y ni siquiera te das cuenta. +Djenme darle algunos ejemplos. Ac vemos a una beb. +Ella tiene tres meses de edad. An se hace pop en los paales y no puede hacer clculos matemticos. +Es familiar ma. Alguien est muy feliz de que ella haya salido en esta pantalla. +Uno puede cubrir uno de sus ojos, y seguir viendo algo en el otro ojo, y yo veo curiosidad en un ojo, y quizs un poco de sorpresa en el otro. +Ac tenemos a una pareja. Ellos estn compartiendo un momento, e incluso hemos hecho un experimento cortando las partes de este cuadro, y uno an puede ver que ellos estn compartiendo el momento ms o menos en paralelo. +Los elementos de la foto tambin nos comunican eso, pero puedes verlo sin duda alguna en sus caras, y si comparas sus caras con otras normales, las pistas seran muy sutiles. +Esta es otra pareja. l se est proyectando hacia nosotros, y ella claramente proyecta, ustedes saben, amor y admiracin hacia l. +Muy bien, entonces esto qu significa? +Significa que nosotros desplegamos una enorme cantidad de poder de procesamiento en cada problema. +Conecta sistemas en el fondo de nuestro cerebro, en sistemas dopaminrgicos que estn ah para que busques sexo, comida y sal. +Te mantienen vivo. Les da el empuje, les da el tipo de poder de conducta al que hemos llamado superpoder. +Entonces cmo podemos tomar eso y montar una especie de interaccin social simulada y convertirla en una indagacin cientfica? +Y la respuesta corta es, con juegos. +Juegos de economa. Lo que hacemos entonces es tocar dos reas. +Un rea la llamamos economa experimental. La otra es llamada economa conductual. +Les robamos los juegos y los manipulamos para nuestros propios fines. +Ac vemos uno en particular llamado el juego del ultimtum. +A la persona de rojo se le dan 100 dlares que los puede compartir con la persona de azul. Digamos que el de rojo quiere quedarse con 70, y le ofrece 30 al de azul. Entonces l ofrece una particin de 70-30 al de azul. +El control se le pasa al de azul, quien dice, "acepto," y en este caso recibira el dinero. O el de azul dice, "lo rechazo," y en este caso nadie recibe nada. Est bien? +Pues una decisin racional, diran los economistas, sera tomar todas las propuestas que no sean nulas. +Qu hace la gente? La gente es indiferente a la particin 80-20. +En 80-20, se lanza una moneda as aceptes o no. +Por qu? Porque tienes rabia. +Ests molesto. Es una oferta injusta, y t sabes lo que es una oferta injusta. +Este es el tipo de juego que se hace en mi laboratorio y en muchos otros alrededor del mundo. +Les da un ejemplo de la clase de cosas que estos juegos indagan. Lo interesante es que estos juegos requieren que t tengas un gran aparato cognitivo en ese momento. +Tienes que ser capaz de posicionarte con un modelo adecuado de la otra persona, +tienes que ser capaz de recordar lo que haz hecho, +tienes que estar de pie en ese momento para poder hacerlo, +luego tienes que actualizar tu modelo basndote en las seales que te estn llegando, y tienes que hacer algo que es muy interesante, y es que tienes que hacer una especie de evaluacin. +O sea, tienes que decidir lo que la otra persona est esperando de ti. +Tienes que enviar seales para manipular tu imagen en la mente de ellos. +Como una entrevista de trabajo. Te sientas en frente del escritorio de alguien, ese alguien tiene una imagen previa tuya, t le envas seales para que perciba la imagen que t quieres proyectar. +Somos tan buenos para eso que ni siquiera nos damos cuenta. +Este tipo de indagaciones intensifican ese proceso. Muy bien? +Al hacer esto hemos descubierto que los seres humanos son como canarios en momentos de intercambio social. +Los canarios eran usados como biosensores en las minas. +Cuando los niveles de metano o de dixido de carbono se acumulaban, o si el oxgeno disminua, los pjaros eran los primeros en desmayarse, y por lo tanto servan como un sistema de aviso: Eh, salgan de la mina. Esto va para mal. +Las personas vienen a estos juegos, y aunque estas toscas interacciones sociales sean montadas, y lo son, y tan solo sean nmeros que se intercambian entre los participantes, las personas despliegan una gran sensibilidad. +Lo importante es que es una medida de conducta clara, los juegos de economa nos dan claves de juego ptimo, +podemos computarlas durante el juego, +y podemos usarlas para moldear el comportamiento en cierto grado. +He aqu lo estupendo. Hace seis o siete aos creamos un equipo. En ese momento se reuna en Houston, Texas. +Hoy se rene en Virginia y en Londres. Y construmos un software que permite conectar los aparatos de imgenes por resonancia magntica funcional a internet. Creo que ya hemos conectado unas seis mquinas, pero enfoqumonos en estas dos. +Entonces sincroniza mquinas en cualquier lugar del mundo, +nosotros sincronizamos las mquinas, las preparamos para las interacciones sociales simuladas, y monitoreamos cada uno de los cerebros que estn interactuando. Y por vez primera, no necesitamos enfocarnos en los promedios de los participantes, o de ponerlos a jugar en la computadora, o tratar de llegar a inferencias de esa manera. Podemos estudiar dadas por separado. +Podemos estudiar la manera en que una persona interacta con otra persona, desplegar los datos, y obtener una mejor comprensin acerca de los parmetros de cognicin normal. Pero ms importante an, es que podemos poner a personas con enfermedades mentales especficas, o con dao cerebral, en estas interacciones sociales y usarlas para generar investigaciones. +Nos hemos dedicado entonces a esta labor y creo que hemos obtenido, aunque sean pocos, algunos descubrimientos embrinicos. +Son las primeras etapas, pero estamos estableciendo sitios alrededor del mundo. Ac pueden ver algunos de nuestros sitios de colaboracin. +Su centro, irnicamente, est localizado en la pequea Roanoke, Virginia. +Hay otro centro en Londres en este momento, y el resto estn en desarrollo. Esperamos revelar los datos en determinado momento. Hacerlos accesibles al resto del mundo es un tema complejo. +Pero tambin estamos estudiando una pequea parte de lo que nos hace interesantes a los seres humanos, y quiero invitar a las personas que estn interesadas en esto para preguntarnos por el software, o para una orientacin de cmo seguir adelante con esto. +Permtanme dejarlos con un reflexin para concluir. +Lo interesante acerca del estudio de la cognicin es que hemos estado limitados en cierto modo. +Simplemente no hemos tenido las herramientas para estudiar cerebros interactuando simultneamente. +Entonces este primer bosquejo nos permite entender lo que nos hace humanos, convertirlo en una herramienta, y generar nuevas perspectivas acerca +de las enfermedades mentales. Gracias por invitarme. +Cuando millones de personas no tienen trabajo o tienen uno malo, crece el inters en la relacin entre la tecnologa y el mercado laboral. +Cuando veo las discusiones, me sorprende que acierten de lleno en el tema, pero se equivoquen por completo en lo importante. +La cuestin es: estas tecnologas afectan la posibilidad individual de ganarse la vida? O de otro modo, nos roban el trabajo los robots? +Hay pruebas de que s. +La Gran Recesin termin cuando el PIB de EE. UU. reanud lentamente su avance alcista y otros indicadores econmicos tambin comenzaron a recuperarse, bastante bien y rpido. Las ganancias empresariales son altas. De hecho, si incluimos a los bancos, nunca han sido ms altas. +Y la inversin privada en equipamiento, en hardware y en software ha alcanzado su cota mxima. +Las empresas empiezan a sacar sus billeteras, pero no contratan mucho. +Esta lnea roja es la proporcin del empleo en la poblacin, es decir, el porcentaje de personas en edad laboral +en EE. UU. que trabajan. +Podemos ver que descendi mucho en la Gran Recesin y que todava no se ha recuperado. Pero esto no slo va de la recesin. El crecimiento del empleo fue muy escaso en esta dcada pasada, sobre todo al compararla con otras dcadas. La dcada del 2000 es la nica en la que al final +al principio. Eso no es lo que queremos. +Cuando dibujamos el nmero de personas en edad laboral y el nmero de empleos en el pas, vemos que la brecha es cada vez mayor y que en la Gran Recesin se agrand mucho ms +Hice algunos clculos. Tom los ltimos 20 aos del crecimiento del PIB y del crecimiento de la productividad laboral, y los us de manera sencilla para tratar de prever cuntos empleos necesitar la economa para seguir creciendo, y esta es la lnea que consegu. +Buena o mala? Este es el pronstico del gobierno para la poblacin en edad laboral. +Si estas predicciones son correctas, la distancia no va a disminuir. +El problema es que no creo que sean exactas. +De hecho, pienso que mi previsin es demasiado optimista, porque cuando la hice, supuse que el futuro sera como el pasado respecto al crecimiento de la productividad laboral, pero yo ya no lo creo as. +Cuando miro a mi alrededor, pienso que todava no hemos visto nada del impacto que la tecnologa puede tener en la poblacin activa. +En el ltimo par de aos, hemos visto cmo herramientas digitales demostraban habilidades que nunca antes haban posedo. Y eso tiene que ver mucho con nuestros trabajos de humanos. +Djenme ponerles un par de ejemplos. +Durante toda la historia, si queras traducir algo de una lengua a otra, necesitabas a una persona. Ahora tenemos servicios de traduccin automtica +multilingues, instantneos y gratuitos en muchos de nuestros dispositivos, incluido los telfonos inteligentes. +Y si los han usado, sabrn que no son perfectos, pero bastante decentes. +Durante toda la historia, si queras un artculo o un informe, necesitabas a una persona en el proceso. +Ya no. Este artculo sobre las ganancias de Apple apareci +en Forbes en lnea hace un tiempo. Lo escribi un algoritmo. +No es decente: es perfecto. +Muchos ven esto y dicen: "Vale, eso son tareas muy especficas y concretas y la mayora de trabajadores del conocimiento son generalistas; +usan su maestra y un amplio conocimiento de muchos temas para reaccionar rpidamente a problemas impredecibles. Y eso es muy muy +difcil que lo haga un autmata". Uno de los trabajadores del conocimiento ms impresionantes es Ken Jennings. +Gan el concurso "Jeopardy!" 74 veces seguidas +y se llev USD 3 millones. +Este es Ken a la derecha despus de ser vencido tres a uno por Watson, el superordenador de IBM diseado para jugar. +Cuando vemos lo que la tecnologa puede llegar a conseguir, empiezo a plantearme que quizs ser un generalista no es algo tan especial, sobre todo cuando conseguimos conectarle Siri a Watson de manera que puede entender lo que decimos y respondernos hablando. +Me di cuenta de que muchos trabajadores del conocimiento se veran afectados. +Y las tecnologas digitales no slo afectan a este mbito, sino que se estn inmiscuyendo tambin en el mundo real. +Hace poco tuve la oportunidad de probar el auto autnomo de Google, tan divertido como suena. Y les garantizo que sobrellev los atascos de la autopista 101 bastante bien. +Tres millones y medio de personas se ganan la vida como camioneros en los EE. UU. Creo que esta tecnologa afectar a algunos. +Y por el momento, los androides son muy primitivos. +No pueden hacer mucho. +Pero mejoran rpidamente. Y la DARPA, que es la rama de inversiones del departamento de Defensa intenta acelerar el proceso. +En resumen: los androides vienen a por nuestros trabajos. +A corto plazo, podemos estimular el aumento de empleos promoviendo el espritu emprendedor e invirtiendo en infraestructuras, porque los robots todava no saben arreglar puentes. +Pero a medio plazo, creo que la mayora de nosotros lo veremos durante nuestras vidas, la economa va a transformarse en una muy productiva pero que no necesitar a muchos trabajadores humanos. +Gestionar esa transformacin ser el mayor reto de nuestras sociedades. +Voltaire lo resumi as: "El trabajo nos protege de tres demonios: el aburrimiento, el vicio y la necesidad". +Pero a pesar del reto, yo sigo siendo positivo con respecto a la revolucin digital, y estoy seguro de que las tecnologas que desarrollamos ahora crearn un futuro mejor, utpico, no un distopa. Y para explicar las razones, les propondr una pregunta demasiado general. +Quiero preguntarles cules han sido los mayores avances de la historia humana. +Compartir con Uds. algunas de las respuestas. Es una pregunta interesantsima +para empezar un debate interminable, y que algunos sugerirn que los sistemas filosficos de Occidente y de Oriente han transformado nuestra manera de entender el mundo. +Otros lo negarn y propondrn que los mayores avances fueron las religiones, que han cambiado las civilizaciones y han influido la forma de vivir de personas y pases. +Otro dir: "No, lo que de verdad modifica las civilizaciones y cambia la vida de las personas son los imperios, as que los grandes avances humanos son las conquistas y las guerras". +Y siempre hay alguna alma cndida que suelta: "No se olviden de las plagas". Algunas respuestas son ms optimistas: la era de los exploradores y la apertura del mundo. +Otros piensan en los logros intelectuales como la matemtica que nos han ayudado a controlar mejor el mundo, y otros pensarn en los periodos del florecimiento de las ciencias y las artes. Y el debate puede seguir y seguir. +Es un debate interminable, sin conclusin, sin una respuesta definitiva. Pero un cretino como yo va y dice: "Qu dicen los datos?". +Y empezamos a hacer grficas con cosas que nos interesan como la poblacin mundial, por ejemplo, u otras medidas de desarrollo social o el progreso social. +Empiezas a introducir los datos... Desde este punto de vista las historias importantes sern las que modifiquen significativamente las curvas. +Cuando introducimos los datos, rpidamente obtenemos conclusiones curiosas. +Se concluye que nada de lo dicho antes +ha importado demasiado. No le han tocado un pelo a las curvas. +La historia ha sido una, un solo gran desarrollo en la historia de la humanidad modific la curva unos 90: la tecnologa. +El motor a vapor y otras tecnologas relacionadas de la Revolucin Industrial cambiaron el mundo e influyeron tanto la vida humana, que, en palabras del historiador Morris, se burlaron de todo lo anterior. +Y lo hicieron al multiplicar por infinito el poder de nuestros msculos, sobrepasando sus limitaciones. +Ahora presenciamos la superacin de las limitaciones de nuestros cerebros y la multiplicacin desorbitada de nuestro poder mental. +No es esto tan importante como la victoria sobre nuestras limitaciones fsicas? +Aunque me repita un poco, dir que hoy da la tecnologa digital no acaba ms que de empezar. +Y cuando observo nuestras economas y nuestras sociedades, mi nica conclusin es que todava no hemos visto nada. Lo bueno est an por llegar. +Les pondr unos ejemplos. +La economa no la mueve ni la energa ni el capital +ni el trabajo. Son las ideas la que la hacen funcionar. +La innovacin, la creacin de nuevas ideas, es una de las tareas ms poderosas y ms fundamentales que podemos ejercer +en una economa. Y en eso se basa la innovacin. +Tomamos a un grupo de gente parecida, +...los sacamos de unas instituciones de elite, los ponemos en otras y esperamos la innovacin. +es su trabajo, la calidad de sus ideas. +Y esto pasa cada vez ms a menudo en este mundo tecnolgico. +La innovacin cada vez es ms accesible, ms inclusiva, ms transparente y se basa ms en el mrito. Y eso seguir as al margen de la opinin de el MIT o Harvard. Ese cambio me hace muy feliz. +A veces alguien dice: "Vale. En eso tienes razn, pero la tecnologa es todava algo de ricos, pero estas herramientas no estn mejorando la vida de la base de la pirmide". +Yo les respondo: estupideces. +Los pobres se benefician muchsimo de la tecnologa. +El economista Robert Jensen hizo un estudio estupendo donde analizaba en detalle qu pasaba en Kerala, un pueblo pesquero de la India, cuando accedieron a celulares por primera vez. +Cuando se publica en el "Quarterly Journal of Economics", se usa un lenguaje muy formal y circunspecto, +pero al leer su artculo, notaba que Jensen estaba gritndonos que era algo importante. +Los precios se estancaron, entonces se poda planear la economa familiar. +Los desechos no se redujeron; se eliminaron. +Y la vida de compradores y vendedores mejor de manera medible. +Puede que piensen que Jensen tuvo suerte y que encontr las nicas aldeas que se han beneficiado de la tecnologa. +Pero lo que l ha hecho es documentar con detalles lo que pasa una y otra vez cuando la tecnologa llega a una nueva comunidad. La vida de las personas, su bienestar, mejora muchsimo. +Cuando veo las pruebas y veo el camino que nos queda, me vuelvo un optimista digital y pienso que la declaracin del fsico Freeman Dyson no es una hiprbole. Es una evaluacin adecuada de lo que pasa. +Nuestras tecnologas son importantes regalos y ahora mismo somos muy afortunados de estar viviendo en la poca de la tecnologa digital, cuando se extienda y abarque cada vez ms lugares en el mundo. +S, los robots nos quitan el trabajo, pero quedarnos en eso es equivocarnos. +Lo importante es que as nos queda tiempo para hacer otras cosas. Y lo que haremos, estoy seguro, ser reducir la pobreza, los trabajos duros y la miseria del mundo. Estoy seguro de que +aprenderemos a vivir ms tranquilos y estoy seguro de que lo que conseguiremos con la nueva tecnologa digital ser tan impactante y beneficioso, que todo lo anterior parecer un chiste a su lado. +La ltima palabra se la dejar a alguien capital para el progreso digital, nuestro viejo amigo Ken Jennings. Lo apoyo. +Repetir sus palabras: "Yo s le doy la bienvenida a los nuevos ciberseores". Muchas gracias. +Hola! Bien, este hombre de ac cree que puede predecir el futuro. +Su nombre es Nostradamus, aunque en este caso el peridico lo hace parecer un poco a Sean Connery. Y al igual que la mayora de ustedes, me imagino, no creo que la gente pueda predecir el futuro. +No creo en la clarividencia y de vez en cuando se oye que alguien ha sido capaz de predecir algo que sucedi en el futuro, probablemente fue un golpe de suerte y slo escuchamos sobre casualidades y fenmenos. +No omos sobre todas las veces que la gente se equivoca. +Ahora esperamos que eso suceda con historias comunes acerca de la clarividencia, pero el problema es que tenemos exactamente el mismo problema en el mundo acadmico, en medicina y en este entorno, cuesta vidas. +De hecho, sabemos que eso es cierto, porque varios grupos de cientficos investigadores intentaron repetir los hallazgos de este estudio acerca de la clarividencia y cuando lo presentaron a la misma revista, les dijeron, "No, no estamos interesados en publicar duplicados. No estamos interesados en su informacin negativa ". +Esta es la evidencia de cmo, en la literatura acadmica, veremos una muestra sesgada de la verdadera imagen de todos los estudios cientficos que se han realizado. +Pero no slo sucede en el campo de la psicologa. +Tambin sucede, por ejemplo, en la investigacin sobre el cncer. +En marzo de 2012, algunos investigadores informaron en la revista Nature cmo haban intentado repetir 53 diferentes estudios de ciencia bsica buscando posibles objetivos de tratamiento del cncer, de esos 53 estudios, slo pudieron repetir seis con xito. +Cuarenta y siete de los 53 eran irrepetibles. +En su debate dicen que esto es muy probable porque los fenmenos s son publicados. +La gente va a hacer miles de estudios diferentes y cuando sean de utilidad, sern publicados, aquellos que no lo sean, no sern publicados. +Pero esto no slo sucede en el mundo de la investigacin del cncer de la ciencia bsica preclnica. +Al inicio de su desarrollo, hicieron una pequea prueba con cien pacientes. +Cincuenta pacientes tomaron lorcainide, de esos pacientes murieron 10. +Otros 50 pacientes recibieron un placebo o una pldora de azcar con ningn ingrediente activo y slo uno de ellos muri. +As que rpidamente consideraron esta droga como un fracaso, su desarrollo comercial se detuvo y debido a esto, este ensayo nunca fue publicado. +Lamentablemente, en el transcurso de los siguientes cinco o diez aos, otras compaas tuvieron la misma idea de que los medicamentos podran evitar arritmias en personas que han sufrido ataques cardacos. +En 1993, los investigadores que hicieron ese apresurado estudio en 1980, publicaron un mea culpa, una disculpa a la comunidad cientfica, en la que dijeron: "Cuando realizamos nuestro estudio en 1980, pensamos que el incremento en la tasa de mortalidad que se produjo en el grupo de lorcainide fue producto del azar". +El desarrollo de lorcainide se abandon por razones comerciales y este estudio nunca fue publicado; ahora es un buen ejemplo del sesgo en la publicacin. +Ese es el trmino tcnico para el fenmeno donde datos poco halagadores se pierden, no se publican, desaparecen en accin y dicen que los resultados descritos aqu "podran haber brindado una alerta temprana de futuros problemas". +Estas son historias de ciencia bsica. +Historias de hace 20 o 30 aos. +El entorno de una publicacin acadmica es muy diferente ahora. +Existen revistas como "Trials", la revista de libre acceso, que publicarn cualquier estudio realizado en seres humanos independientemente de si tiene un resultado positivo o negativo. +Pero este problema de resultados negativos que se pierden en accin todava es muy frecuente. De hecho es tan frecuente que corta el ncleo de la medicina basada en evidencia. +Esto es un medicamento llamado reboxetine, es una droga que yo mismo he recetado. Es un antidepresivo. +Pero result que estaba confundido. En realidad, se realizaron siete ensayos que comparaban reboxetine con una pldora placebo. Uno de ellos fue positivo y fue publicado, pero seis de ellos fueron negativos y quedaron sin publicar. +Tres ensayos fueron publicados comparando reboxetine con otros antidepresivos, en los que reboxetine era igual de bueno, y fueron publicados, pero se reuni informacin de el triple de pacientes que mostraron que reboxetine era peor que los otros tratamientos y esos ensayos no se publicaron. +Me sent engaado. +Ahora bien, usted podra decir que es un ejemplo extremadamente inusual y no quiero ser culpable de la misma clase de referencias manipuladas y selectivas de las que estoy acusando a otras personas. +Pero resulta que este fenmeno de sesgo en publicacin ha sido muy bien estudiado. +As que aqu est un ejemplo sobre cmo abordarlo. +El modelo clsico es: tienes un montn de estudios que sabes que efectivamente se realizaron y se completaron y luego buscas si fueron publicados en algn lugar en la literatura acadmica. Esto abarc todos los ensayos que se realizaron acerca de los antidepresivos y que se aprobaron en un perodo de 15 aos por la FDA. +Tomaron todas los ensayos que se presentaron a la FDA para su aprobacin. +Sin embargo, estos no son todos los ensayos realizados acerca de estos medicamentos, porque nunca podemos saber si los tenemos, pero son los que se realizaron para conseguir autorizacin comercial. +Luego fueron a ver si estos ensayos haban sido publicados en la literatura acadmica revisada y esto es lo que encontraron. +Era prcticamente una divisin de 50-50. La mitad de estos ensayos fueron positivos, la mitad de ellos fueron negativos, en realidad. +Pero cuando fueron a buscar estos ensayos en la literatura acadmica revisada, lo que encontraron fue una imagen muy diferente. +Slo tres de los ensayos negativos fueron publicados, pero todos, excepto uno de los ensayos positivos fueron publicados. +Si hojeamos hacia atrs y adelante entre esos dos, podemos ver la diferencia asombrosa que hubo entre la realidad y lo que los mdicos, pacientes, miembros de servicios de salud y acadmicos pudimos ver en la literatura revisada. +Fuimos engaados y esto es un error sistemtico en el ncleo de la medicina. +De hecho, se han realizado tantos estudios sobre el sesgo de publicacin, ms de un centenar, que han sido reundos en una crtica sistemtica publicada en 2010, que examin cada estudio sobre el sesgo de publicacin que pudieron encontrar. +El sesgo de publicacin afecta a cada campo de la medicina. +En promedio, cerca de la mitad de todos los ensayos desaparecen en accin y sabemos que es probable que los resultados positivos se publiquen el doble que los resultados negativos. +Esto es un cncer en el ncleo de la medicina basada en evidencia. +Si tiro una moneda 100 veces pero luego retengo los resultados de la mitad de esas arrojadas, puedo hacerlo parecer como si tuviera una moneda que siempre cae cara. +Pero eso no significa que tenga una moneda de dos caras. +Eso significara que yo era un oportunista y tu un idiota por dejarme salir con la ma. Pero esto es exactamente lo que toleramos a ciegas en el conjunto de la medicina basada en evidencia. +Para m, esto es una falta grave en la investigacin. +Si he realizado un estudio y retuve la mitad de los puntos de ese estudio, me podras acusar con motivos, esencialmente, de fraude de investigacin. +Sin embargo, por alguna razn, si alguien realiza 10 estudios pero slo publica los cinco que dan el resultado que quieren, no consideramos que eso sea una falta grave de la investigacin. +Cuando esa responsabilidad se difunde entre toda una red de investigadores, acadmicos, patrocinadores de la industria, editores de revistas, por alguna razn nos parece ms aceptable, pero el efecto en los pacientes es crtico. +Esto est ocurriendo ahora mismo, hoy. +Este es un medicamento llamado Tamiflu. Tamiflu es un frmaco en el que los gobiernos del mundo han gastado miles de millones de dlares en almacenamiento y hemos almacenado Tamiflu en pnico, con la creencia de que reducir la tasa de complicaciones de la gripe. +Complicaciones es un eufemismo mdico para la neumona y la muerte. Cuando los revisores sistemticos de Cochrane trataban de reunir todos los datos de todos los ensayos que se han realizado sobre si Tamiflu realmente haca esto o no, descubrieron que varios de esos ensayos no fueron publicados. +Los resultados no estaban disponibles para ellos. +Cuando empezaron a obtener los artculos de esos ensayos por diversos medios a travs de peticiones de la Ley por la Libertad de la Informacin y hostigando a diversas organizaciones, lo que encontraron fue inconsistente. +Cuando intentaron conseguir los informes del estudio clnico, los documentos de 10.000 pginas que tienen la mejor representacin posible de la informacin, les dijeron que no se les permita tenerlos. +Y si quieres leer la correspondencia completa, las excusas y las explicaciones brindadas por la compaa farmacutica, se puede ver en la edicin de esta semana de PLOS Medicine. +Lo ms sorprendente de todo esto, para m, es que esto no slo es un problema, no slo reconocemos que esto es un problema, pero tuvimos que sufrir correcciones falsas. +Hicimos creer a la gente que este problema fue resuelto. +En primer lugar, tuvimos registros de ensayos y todos dijeron: Oh, est bien. Pondremos a todos a registrar sus ensayos, anunciarn el protocolo, dirn lo que van a hacer antes de hacerlo, y despus podremos comprobar y ver si todos los ensayos que se han realizado y completado fueron publicados. +Pero la gente no se preocupaba en usar esos registros. +Entonces lleg el Comit Internacional de editores de revistas mdicas, y dijeron: Bien, vamos a esperar. +No publicaremos las revistas, no publicaremos ningn ensayo, a menos que hayan sido registrados antes de comenzar. +Pero no esperaron. En 2008, se realiz un estudio que mostr que la mitad de todos los ensayos publicados por revistas editados por miembros del ICMJE no estaban debidamente registrados y un cuarto de ellos no estaban registrados en absoluto. +Finalmente, se aprob la Ley de Enmienda de la FDA hace un par de aos, la cual deca que quien realice un ensayo debe publicar los resultados de esa prueba dentro de un ao. +En el BMJ, en la primera edicin de enero de 2012 se puede ver un estudio que busca ver si la gente mantiene esa regla y resulta que slo uno de cada cinco lo ha hecho. +Esto es un desastre. +No podemos conocer los verdaderos efectos de los medicamentos que recetamos si no tenemos acceso a toda la informacin. +Y esto no es un problema difcil de solucionar. +Tenemos que publicar todos los estudios en seres humanos, incluyendo los ensayos anteriores, para todos los medicamentos en uso y necesita decirle a todos los que conoces que esto es un problema y que no se ha resuelto. +Muchas gracias. +Siempre he escrito acerca de arquitectura, acerca de edificios, y escribir acerca de arquitectura se basa en ciertas suposiciones. +Un arquitecto disea un edificio, y se convierte en un lugar, o muchos arquitectos disean muchos edificios, que se vuelven una ciudad, y pese a esta complicada mezcla de fuerzas de poltica y cultura, y de la economa que le da forma a estos lugares, al final del da, puedes ir y visitarlos. T puedes caminar alrededor de ellos. +Puedes olerlos. Puedes sentirlos. +Puedes experimentar su presencia geogrfica. +Pero lo que ms me ha llamado la atencin en los ltimos aos es que yo cada vez menos estaba saliendo a presenciar al mundo, y que cada vez ms estaba sentado frente a la computadora. +Y especialmente desde el 2007, cuando consegu un iPhone, no solo me la pasaba al frente de la pantalla el da entero, pero adems me estaba dedicando a mirar al final del da una pantallita que llevo siempre en mi bolsillo. +Y lo que ms me sorprendi fue lo rpido que mi relacin con el ambiente fsico haba cambiado. +Y lo que ms me ha impactado, y lo que en realidad me enganch, fue que el mundo dentro de la pantalla parece que no tiene una realidad propia. +Si buscas imgenes acerca de Internet, esto es lo nico que encontraras, una imagen famosa de Opte mostrando Internet como una especie de Va Lctea, una expansin infinita donde parece que no estamos en ninguno de sus lugares. +Parece que nunca podremos abarcarla en su totalidad. +Siempre me hace recordar a la imagen de la Tierra tomada en el Apolo, la foto de la canica azul, y creo que tambin sugiere que tampoco podemos entenderla desde su totalidad. +Nos vemos relativamente pequeos ante su expansin. +Entonces, si hay un mundo y una pantalla, y si hay un mundo fsico a mi alrededor, nunca podra tenerlos juntos en un mismo lugar. +Y de repente sucedi esto. +Y luego vio una ardilla corriendo sobre el cable, y dijo, "Ah est el problema. +Una ardilla est mascando su Internet". Y esto me pareci asombroso. Internet es una idea trascendental. Es un conjunto de protocolos que ha cambiado todo, desde compras, citas en lnea, o revoluciones. +Definitivamente no poda ser algo que una ardilla pudiera mascar. Pero de hecho, eso fue lo que sucedi. +Una ardilla, en realidad, haba mascado mi Internet. Y luego se me vino a la mente una imagen de lo que sucedera si arrancaras el cable de la pared y empezaras a seguirlo. A dnde ira? +Sera Internet un lugar al que t en realidad podras visitar? +Podra ir ah? A quin encontrara? +Hay algo en realidad ah? +Y la respuesta, considerando todos las historias, es no. +sta era la Internet, una caja negra con una luz roja, como se muestra en el programa "The IT Crowd". +Normalmente est en la punta del Big Ben, porque ah es donde hay mejor seal, pero ellos se las arreglaron para prestrsela a su colega para usarla esa tarde en una presentacin de la oficina. +Los veteranos de la Internet estaban dispuestos a facilitarla por un breve perodo, y ella la mira y dice, "sta es la Internet? Y en su totalidad? Es pesada? +Y ellos dicen, "Claro que no, Internet no pesa nada". +Y yo sent vergenza. Yo estaba buscando esta cosa que slo los tontos tratan de buscar. +La Internet era ese pegote amorfo, o era una simple cajuela negra con una lucecita roja que titila. +No era un mundo real por ah. +Y esa conexin es sin duda un proceso fsico. +Es acerca del router de una red, como el de Facebook o el de Google o el de B.T. o el de Comcast o el de Time Warner, el que sea, haciendo conexin usualmente con un cable amarillo de fibra ptica y bajando hasta el router de otra red, y eso es indudablemente fsico, y sorprendentemente ntimo. +Un edificio como el de la calle Hudson, y otra docena, tiene 10 veces ms redes internas haciendo conexiones que el resto de edificios de su manzana. +Hay una lista muy corta de lugares como este. +Y el nmero 60 de la calle Hudson es particularmente interesante porque es el centro de ms de media docena de redes de importancia, que son las redes que alimentan los cables transocenicos que estn bajo el agua y que conectan a Europa y a Amrica y al resto de nosotros. +Y precisamente son esos cables en los que quiero enfocarme. +Si Internet es un fenmeno global, si vivimos en una aldea global, es porque hay cables en el fondo del ocano. Cables como ste. +Y con esta dimensin, son realmente pequeos. +Puedes sostenerlos en tu mano. Son como una manguera. +Pero en la otra dimensin son realmente expansivos, tan expansivos como quieras imaginarlos. +Y son diminutas. Son de gruesas como un cabello. +Y luego se conectan en alguna parte del continente. +Se conectan en un pozo como este. Literalmente, ah es donde el cable de 8000 kilmetros se conecta. +Esto es en Halifax, un cable que se extiende desde Halifax hasta Irlanda. +Y el panorama est cambiando. Hace tres aos, cuando comenc a pensar acerca de esto, haba un cable en la costa oeste de frica, representado en este mapa por Steve Song con una lnea negra. +Ahora hay seis cables y van a instalar ms, tres en cada costa. +Es un proceso intensamente fsico. +Este es mi amigo Simon Cooper, quien hasta hace muy poco trabajaba para Tata Communications, el ala de comunicaciones de Tata, el gran conglomerado industrial de la India. +Nunca lo he conocido en persona. Solo nos hemos comunicado por medio de un sistema de telepresencia, lo que siempre me hace pensar de l como el seor dentro de la red. Y l es ingls. La industria de cables interocenicos est dominada por hombres ingleses, que al parecer todos tienen 42 aos de edad. +Porque todos empezaron a trabajar al mismo tiempo con el boom que comenz hace unos 20 aos atrs. +Y Tata comenz como una empresa de comunicaciones al comprar dos cables, uno a travs del ocano Atlntico y el otro a travs del Pacfico, y a los que procedieron a adicionarles pedazos hasta que construyeron un cinturn de cable alrededor del mundo, lo que significa que envan tus bits al este o al oeste. +Ellos tienen, literalmente, un chorro de luz alrededor del mundo, y si un cable se rompe en el Pacfico, la enviar en la otra direccin. Y al haber hecho eso, comenzaron a buscar ms lugares para conectar. +Buscaron lugares sin cableado, y eso quera decir norte y sur, primordialmente los cables hacia frica. +Pero lo que me asombra es la magnfica imaginacin geogrfica de Simon. +l ve al mundo de una forma increblemente expansiva. +Y yo estaba muy interesado porque quera ver la construccin de uno de estos cables. Como saben, cada vez que estamos en lnea experimentamos ciertos momentos de conexin fugaces, una breve proximidad fsica, un tweet o un post en Facebook o un correo electrnico, y pareciera que hay un corolario fsico para eso, +pareciera que hay un momento cuando al continente lo estaban conectando, y yo quera ver eso. +Y Simon estaba trabajando en un cable nuevo, WACS, el sistema de cableado de frica Occidental, que se extiende desde Lisboa hasta la costa oeste de frica, y pasa por Costa de Marfil, Ghana, Nigeria, hasta Camern. +Luego un bulldozer comenz a jalar el cable que estaba en un buque de desembarque de cable especializado, y puesto a flotar por unas boyas hasta que estuviera en el lugar correcto. +Pueden ver entonces a los ingenieros ingleses observando. +Y primero lo cortaron con una sierra para metales, luego comenzaron a filetear la capa de plstico interior como si fueran chefs, y finalmente trabajaron como joyeros para extraer las fibras delgadas y alinearlas con el cable que haban bajado, y con una perforadora las fusionaron. +Y cuando uno ve a estos hombres aserrando este cable con una sierra para metales uno deja de pensar en Internet como una nube. +Comienza a hacerse algo increblemente fsico. +Y lo que adems me sorprendi es que a pesar de que todo est basado en la ms sofisticada tecnologa, por ms que esto sea un fenmeno sumamente nuevo, el proceso fsico en s, ha existido desde hace mucho tiempo, y la cultura es la misma. +Puedes ver los obreros nativos. Puedes ver al ingeniero ingls dando direcciones en el trasfondo. Y ms importante an, los lugares son los mismos. Estos cables todava conectan a estas clsicas ciudades puerto; lugares como Lisboa, Mombasa, Bombay, Singapur, Nueva York. +Y luego el proceso en tierra toma unos tres o cuatro das, y entonces, cuando han terminado, ponen la tapa del pozo otra vez, la cubren con arena, y todos nos olvidamos de su existencia. +Y me parece que todos hablamos acerca de "la nube", pero cada vez que ponemos algo en la nube, nos desatamos de ciertas responsabilidades. +Estamos menos conectados a ella. Dejamos que otras personas se preocupen de ella. +Y eso no est bien. +Hay una excelente frase de Neal Stephenson en la que dice que las personas conectadas deberan saber algo acerca de cables. +Y deberamos saber, pienso yo, deberamos saber de dnde viene Internet, y deberamos saber qu es lo que fsicamente, fsicamente nos conecta a todos. +Muchas gracias. Gracias. +Muchsimas gracias. Muchas gracias. Es un privilegio y honor estar aqu. +Hace unas semanas vi un vdeo en YouTube de la congresista Gabrielle Giffords durante las primeras fases de su recuperacin de horribles heridas de bala. +Una de ellas le atraves el hemisferio izquierdo bloqueando el rea de Broca, el centro del habla del cerebro. +En la sesin Gabby estaba trabajando con un logopeda esforzndose por emitir algunas de las palabras ms bsicas y pueden ver cmo cada vez est ms hundida, hasta que finalmente rompe a llorar sin palabras en los brazos del logopeda. +Y es un recordatorio muy poderoso y conmovedor de cmo la belleza de la msica tiene la habilidad de hablar cuando, literalmente en este caso, faltan las palabras. +Viendo este video de Gabby Giffords record el trabajo del Dr. Gottfried Schlaug, uno de los preeminentes neurocientficos que estudian la msica y el cerebro en Harvard, Schlaug es partidario de una terapia llamada terapia de entonacin meldica, que se ha vuelto muy popular en la musicoterapia actual. +Schlaug descubri que las vctimas de apoplejas afsicas, no podan formar frases de tres o cuatro palabras, pero podan cantar la letra de una cancin, como "Cumpleaos feliz" o su cancin favorita de los Eagles o de los Rolling Stones. +Y despus de 70 horas de clases intensivas de canto, descubri que la msica era capaz de reconectar, literalmente, los cerebros de sus pacientes y crear un centro del habla homlogo en su hemisferio derecho para compensar el dao en el hemisferio izquierdo. +Pero mi visita a Gottfried Schlaug tena una segunda intencin: yo estaba en una encrucijada vital, tratando de elegir entre la msica y la medicina. +Acababa de licenciarme y trabajaba como asistente de investigacin en el laboratorio de Dennis Selkoe, estudiando la enfermedad de Parkinson en Harvard y me haba enamorado de la neurociencia. Quera ser cirujano. +Quera ser mdico como Paul Farmer o Rick Hodes, este tipo de hombres intrpidos que entran en lugares como Hait o Etiopa y trabajan con pacientes de SIDA con tuberculosis multiresistentes, o con nios con cnceres deformantes. +Quera convertirme en esa especie de doctor de la Cruz Roja, ese mdico sin fronteras. +Por otro lado, haba tocado el violn toda mi vida. +La msica para m era ms que una pasin. Era una obsesin. +Y me dijo que todava haba veces en las que deseaba poder volver y tocar el rgano como sola hacer, y que para m, la Facultad de Medicina poda esperar, pero que el violn simplemente no. +Fue mi primera audicin y despus de tres das de tocar detrs de una pantalla en una semana de prueba, me ofrecieron el puesto. +Y fue un sueo. Fue un sueo fantstico tocar en una orquesta, interpretar en el icnico Walt Disney Concert Hall en una orquesta dirigida ahora por el famoso Gustavo Dudamel, pero mucho ms importante para m fue estar rodeado por msicos y mentores que se convirtieron en mi nueva familia, mi nuevo hogar musical. +Pero un ao ms tarde, conoc a otro msico que tambin haba estudiado en la Juilliard, que me ayud profundamente a encontrar mi voz y a formar mi identidad como msico. +Nathaniel Ayers era contrabajista en la Juilliard, pero sufri una serie de episodios psicticos a los veintipocos y le trataron con torazina en Bellevue, y se convirti en un sintecho en las calles de Skid Row en el centro de Los ngeles 30 aos ms tarde. +Y las muchas veces que vi a Nathaniel en Skid Row, fui testigo de cmo la msica era capaz de resucitarle de sus momentos ms oscuros, de lo que parecan, para mis ojos inexpertos, los inicios de un episodio esquizofrnico. +Tocando para Nathaniel, la msica tom un significado ms profundo, porque ahora se trataba de comunicarse, una comunicacin donde las palabras fallaban, una comunicacin de un mensaje que iba ms all de palabras que recibi la psique de Nathaniel a un nivel fundamental, pero que era una autntica oferta musical ma. +Y en el centro de mi crisis, sent que la vida de msico que haba elegido, de alguna manera, tal vez posiblemente en un sentido muy ingenuo, sent que Skid Row realmente necesitaba a alguien como Paul Farmer y no otro msico clsico tocando en Bunker Hill. +Pero al final, fue Nathaniel quien me mostr que si yo tena una verdadera pasin por el cambio, si quera marcar la diferencia, ya tena el instrumento perfecto para hacerlo, que la msica era el puente que una mi mundo y el suyo. +Hay una hermosa cita del compositor romntico alemn Robert Schumann, que dijo: "Enviar luz a la oscuridad de los corazones de los hombres, ese es el deber del artista". +Y es una cita particularmente conmovedora porque Schumann era esquizofrnico y muri en un psiquitrico. +As como la medicina sirve para curar ms que los componentes bsicos del cuerpo por s solos, el poder y la belleza de la msica trasciende la nota "mi" en el centro de nuestro querido acrnimo. +La msica trasciende la belleza esttica por s sola. +La sincronizacin de las emociones que experimentamos cuando escuchamos una pera de Wagner, o una sinfona de Brahms, o la msica de cmara de Beethoven, nos obliga a recordar nuestra humanidad compartida, la conciencia conectada profundamente comunal, la conciencia emptica que el neuropsiquiatra Iain McGilchrist dice est fuertemente cableada en el hemisferio derecho del cerebro. +Y la chispa de esa belleza, la chispa de esa humanidad se transforma en esperanza, y sabemos, si elegimos el camino de la msica o de la medicina, que eso es lo primero que debemos inculcar dentro de nuestras comunidades, dentro de nuestro pblico, si queremos inspirar una curacin desde dentro. +Me gustara terminar con una cita de John Keats, el poeta romntico ingls, una cita muy famosa que estoy seguro de que todos conocen. +Keats tambin abandon una carrera en la medicina para perseguir la poesa, pero muri cuando era un ao mayor que yo. +Y Keats dijo: "la belleza es la verdad, la verdad es belleza. +Eso es todo lo que sabes, y todo lo que necesitas saber". +Cuando estaba considerando adentrarme en el mundo del arte, tom un curso en Londres. Uno de mis supervisores era un italiano cascarrabias llamado Pietro, quien beba demasiado, fumaba demasiado y tambin maldeca demasiado. +Pero era un maestro apasionado, y recuerdo una de nuestras primeras clases con l, estaba proyectando imgenes en la pared, pidindonos que pensramos en ellas. Entonces nos present una pintura. +Se trataba de un paisaje con personajes, apenas vestidos, tomando vino. Haba una mujer desnuda en primer plano, abajo, y en la ladera de atrs, haba una figura del mitolgico dios Baco, y dijo, "Qu es esto?" +Y yo -- nadie ms levant la mano as que lo hice yo, y dije: "Es La Bacanal, obra de Tiziano." +Y dijo, "Es un qu?" +Yo pens que lo haba pronunciado mal. +"Es La Bacanal, obra de Tiziano." +Dijo, "Es un qu?" +Yo dije, "Es La Bacanal de Tiziano." Dijo, "Ratn de biblioteca! +Es una puta orga!" +Como les dije, maldeca demasiado. +Aprend una leccin muy importante con esto. +Quera que mirramos e hiciramos preguntas bsicas sobre los objetos. +Qu es? Cmo est hecho? Por qu se hizo? +Cmo se utiliza? +Y estas fueron lecciones importantes para m cuando despus me convert en un profesional de la historia del arte. +Mi momento de iluminacin lleg algunos aos despus, cuando estaba estudiando el arte de las cortes del Europa del norte. Por supuesto, la discusin se centraba en las pinturas, las esculturas y la arquitectura de la poca. +Pero conforme empec a leer documentos histricos y descripciones contemporneas, descubr que haba una especie de componente que faltaba, pues en todas partes me encontraba con descripciones de tapices. +Los tapices eran omnipresentes entre la Edad Media, incluso hasta bien entrado el Siglo XVIII; y era bastante obvio por qu. +Los tapices eran porttiles. Se pueden enrollar, enviar por adelantado, y conforme se iban colgando, se poda transformar un fro y hmedo interior en un ambiente vivo, colorido. +Los tapices representaban un amplio lienzo en el que los seores de la poca podan representar a los hroes con los que queran que se les asociara, o incluso a ellos mismos, y adems de eso, los tapices eran carsimos. +Se requeran decenas de tejedores altamente calificados trabajando por largos perodos de tiempo con materiales muy caros -- las lanas, las sedas, incluso hilos de oro y plata. +As que, en trminos generales, en una etapa en que la imagen visual de cualquier tipo era rara, la tapicera era una increble y poderosa forma de propaganda. +As que me convert en historiador de tapicera. +Tiempo despus, me convert en curador del Museo Metropolitano, porque vi en "El Met" uno de los pocos lugares donde podra organizar exhibiciones realmente grandes sobre el tema que tanto me apasionaba. +Y cerca de 1997, el entonces director Phillippe de Montebello me dio luz verde para organizar una exhibicin para el 2002. Generalmente, contamos con bastante tiempo de anticipacin. +No fue sencillo. Ya no era cuestin de poner un tapiz en la parte trasera de un auto. +Hay que enrollarlos en enormes carretes, y embarcarlos en transportes de gran tamao. +Algunos son tan grandes que tuvimos, para meterlos al museo, que subirlos por las grandes escaleras del frente. +Tuvimos que pensar mucho sobre cmo presentar este tema tan desconocido a una audiencia moderna: usar los colores oscuros para resaltar los colores que quedaban en objetos que estaban a menudo desteidos; la distribucin de luces para resaltar la seda y el hilo de oro; el etiquetado. +Saben, vivimos en una poca en la que estamos tan acostumbrados a las imgenes de televisin y a las fotografas, a imgenes efmeras. Estos eran objetos grandes, complejos, casi como dibujos animados con mltiples narrativas. +Tenamos que atraer a nuestro pblico, lograr que se tomaran su tiempo, para explorar los objetos. +Haba mucho escepticismo. En la noche inaugural, escuch a uno de los ejecutivos del personal decir: "Esto va a ser una bomba." +Pero en realidad, en el transcurso de las semanas y meses siguientes, cientos de miles de personas vinieron a ver el espectculo. +La exhibicin estaba diseada para ser una experiencia, la tapicera es difcil de reproducir en fotografas. +Y ya podrn imaginrselos. +Le dio vida a lo que observaban. Creo que de repente vieron que stos no eran slo viejos tapices desteidos. +Estas eran imgenes del mundo en el pasado, y era lo mismo para nuestro pblico. +Como curador, me sent orgulloso. Sent que haba cambiado un poco el paradigma. +A travs de esta experiencia que slo poda haber sido creada en un museo, haba abierto los ojos de mi pblico -- historiadores, artistas, prensa, el pblico en general -- a la belleza de este medio perdido. +Unos aos despus, fui invitado a ser el director del museo, y despus de haber pasado por todo eso -- "Quin, yo? El loco de los tapices? Ni siquiera uso corbata!"-- Sucede que creo apasionadamente en el impacto que el curador puede tener en el visitante del museo. +Y es ahi donde yace el reto y la diversin de mi trabajo, apoyar la visin de mis curadores, ya sea que se trate de una exhibicin de espadas Samurai, antiguos artefactos Bizantinos, retratos Renacentistas, o del espectculo que mencionamos anteriormente, el espectculo McQueen, con el que gozamos de tanto xito el verano pasado. +Ese fue un caso interesante. +A principios del verano de 2010, poco despus de que McQueen se suicidara, nuestro curador de vestuario, Andrew Bolton, me dijo: "He estado pensando hacer un espectculo sobre McQueen, y ste es el momento. Tenemos que hacerlo, tenemos que hacerlo ya." +No se trataba de una instalacin comn y corriente. +De hecho, desmontamos las galeras para recrear completamente los distintos escenarios, una recreacin de su primer estudio, un saln de espejos, un viejo bal, un barco hundido, un interior quemado, con videos y msica que iban desde arias de pera hasta cerdos fornicando. +Y en este extraordinario escenario, los vestuarios eran como actores y actrces, o esculturas vivientes. +Pudo haberse tratado de un accidente de tren. +Pudo asemejarse a los escaparates en la Quinta Avenida en Navidad, pero gracias a la forma en que Andrew se conect con el equipo de McQueen, l estaba canalizando la crudeza y el esplendor de McQueen, y el espectculo fue realmente trascendente, y se convirti en un fenmeno por derecho propio. +Para los ltimos das el espectculo, tenamos gente haciendo fila por cuatro o cinco horas para poder entrar, pero nadie se quej realmente. +Yo escuchaba una y otra vez, "Guau, vali la pena. +fue una experiencia muy visceral, muy emotiva." +Ahora, les he descrito dos exhibiciones sumamente envolventes, pero tambin creo que las colecciones, los objetos individuales, pueden tener el mismo poder. +El "Met" no fue diseado como un museo de arte Americano, sino como un museo enciclopdico, y hoy, 140 aos despus, esa visin continua tan vigente como siempre, porque, por supuesto, vivimos en un mundo de crisis, de retos, y nos lo hacen saber las 24 horas del da todos los noticiarios. +Es en nuestras galeras donde podemos revelar las civilizaciones, las culturas, de las cuales vemos su actual manifestacin. +Ya sea que se trate de Libia, Egipto, Siria, es en nuestras galeras donde podemos explicar y ofrecer un mayor entendimiento. +Es decir, nuestras nuevas galeras islmicas son uno de estos casos, abiertas 10 aos, casi hasta la semana, despus del 9/11. +Pienso que para muchos Americanos, el conocimiento acerca del mundo islmico era bastante limitado antes del 9/11, y despus fue detonado en una de las horas ms tristes para E.U.A., y la percepcin se dio a travs de la polarizacin de ese terrible evento. +Ahora, en nuestras galeras, exponemos 14 siglos de desarrollo de las diferentes culturas islmicas a travs de una gran extensin geogrfica, y, nuevamente, cientos de miles de personas vienen a ver esas galeras desde que abrieron el pasado cctubre. +A menudo me preguntan, "estn los medios digitales reemplazando a los museos?" +y creo que esas cifras de visitantes son un rotundo "no". Quiero decir, no me malinterpreten, soy un fiel defensor del Internet. +Nos proporciona una forma de llegar a todo el pblico alrededor del mundo, pero nada reemplaza la autenticidad del objeto que se presenta con una erudicin apasionada. +La Sala Mayor del "Met" es uno de los portales ms importantes del mundo, impresionante, como una catedral medieval. +Desde ah, puede uno caminar hacia cualquier direccin hacia casi cualquier cultura. +Normalmente salgo hacia el recibidor y a las galeras y observo cmo llegan nuestros visitantes. +Algunos se sienten a gusto. Se sienten en casa. +Saben lo que estn buscando. +Otros estn ms ansiosos. Es un sitio muy intimidante. +Sienten que la institucin es elitista. +Estoy trabajando para romper con ese sentido de elitismo. +Quiero poner a la gente en un estado mental contemplativo, en donde se sientan preparados para perderse un poco, que exploren, que vean lo desconocido a travs de lo conocido, o que le den una oportunidad a lo desconocido. +Para nosotros, se trata de ponerlos frente a frente con maravillosas obras de arte, captar su atencin en ese momento incmodo, para que, en vez de sacar su iPhone, o Blackberry, se adentren en un ambiente en donde puedan expandir su curiosidad +Y ya sea que la expresin de una escultura griega te recuerde a algn amigo, o un perro defecando en la esquina de un tapiz, o, para regresar a mi tutor Pietro, esos personajes danzantes que indudablemente se estn empinando el vino, y ese personaje desnudo en primer plano a la izquierda. +Guau. Ella es una magnfica manifestacin de la sexualidad juvenil. +En ese momento, el erudito podr afirmar que se trata de un bacanal, pero si estamos haciendo bien nuestro trabajo, y si uno se deshace de la jerga al entrar, y confa en su instinto, +uno sabr que se trata de una orga. +Gracias. +En Los ltimos seis meses, he pasado mi tiempo viajando. Creo que he hecho unos 100.000 kilmetros, pero sin dejar mi escritorio. +Y la razn por la que puedo hacer eso es porque en realidad soy dos personas. +Parezco una sola persona pero soy dos. Yo soy Eddie, quien est aqu, y, al mismo tiempo, mi alter ego es un avatar grande, verde y cuadrado llamado Cyber Frank. +As que en eso es lo que paso mi tiempo. Haba querido empezar, de ser posible, con un test, porque yo hago cosas de negocios, y es importante que nos centremos en los resultados. +Y luego result complicado porque, me deca, "De qu debera hablar? Qu debera hacer? Es un pblico TED. +Va a ser difcil. Cmo lo voy a conseguir...?" +As es que espero que haya elegido el nivel de dificultad adecuado. +Entonces, empecemos nuestro recorrido. +Por favor, podran hacer esto conmigo? Pueden gritar su respuesta si quieren. +Cul de estas lneas horizontales es ms larga? +La respuesta es? +Son iguales. +No, no son iguales. No son iguales. La de arriba es 10% ms larga que la de abajo. +As que, porqu me dijeron que eran iguales? Recuerdan que cuando estbamos en la escuela, ms o menos as de grandes, nos hacan el mismo truco? +Lo hacan para ensearnos paralaje. Se acuerdan? +Y ustedes vieron esto, dijeron, "Son iguales!" Y se equivocaron. +Se acuerdan? Y aprendieron la respuesta, y llevaron la respuesta dentro de sus cabezas por 10, 20, 30, 40 aos: La respuesta es que son iguales. La respuesta es que son iguales. As que cuando les preguntan cmo son las longitudes, ustedes dicen que son iguales, pero no son iguales, porque yo las he cambiado. +Y esto es lo que estoy tratando de explicarles que nos ha pasado en el siglo 21. +Alguien o algo ha cambiado las reglas acerca de cmo funciona nuestro mundo. +Cuando bromeo, yo trato de explicar que esto pas a medianoche, ya saben, mientras dormamos, pero era la medianoche de hace 15 aos. De acuerdo? +Probablemente les pas - No, no les pas. Bien. Mi idea bsica es que lo que pas fue que, el verdadero siglo 21 en el que estamos no es tan claro para nosotros, as que pasamos nuestro tiempo respondiendo racionalmente a un mundo que entendemos y reconocemos, pero que ya no existe. +Ustedes no me creen, no? Bien. Entonces, djenme llevarles a un pequeo viaje a travs de algunas cosas que yo no entiendo. +Si buscan en Amazon por la palabra "creatividad", van a descubrir algo as como 90.000 libros. +Si van a Google y buscan "innovacin + creatividad", van a tener 30 millones de resultados. Si aaden la palabra "consultores", se duplica a 60 millones. Estn conmigo? Y an as, estadsticamente, lo que descubren es que cerca de una de cada 100.000 ideas se encuentran haciendo dinero o entregando beneficios dos aos despus de su creacin. +No tiene sentido ninguno. Empresas hacen que sus caros ejecutivos gasten una eternidad preparando previsiones y presupuestos que son obsoletos o necesitan ser cambiados antes de que puedan ser publicados. +Cmo es esto posible? Si miran a las visiones que tenemos, la visin de cmo vamos a cambiar el mundo, la clave es la implementacin. Tenemos la visin. +Tenemos que hacer que se haga realidad. +Hemos pasado dcadas profesionalizando la implementacin. +La gente se supone que tiene que ser buena haciendo que las cosas sucedan. +Pero, si uso como ejemplo una familia de cinco miembros que van de vacaciones, si pueden imaginar esto, todo el camino desde Londres hacia Hong Kong, lo que quiero que piensen es que su presupuesto es de solo 3.000 libras para gastos. +Lo que realmente pasa es, si comparo esto con el promedio del proyecto real, del proyecto exitoso real, la familia realmente termina en Makassar, Sulawesi Sur, a un costo de 4.000 libras, mientras pierden dos nios por el camino. Lo que trato de explicarles es que hay cosas que no tienen sentido para nosotros. +Se pone an peor que eso. Djenme llevarlos a travs de este otro. +Esta es una cita, y solo voy a coger unas palabras de ella. +Y dice as -- Voy a poner la voz -- "En resumen, su Majestad, el fallo en prevenir el tiempo, alcance y severidad de la crisis se debi a la falta de creatividad y al nmero de mentes brillantes", o algo por el estilo. +l sabiamente nos explic esto. l dice que el pensamiento del diseo debe afrontar grandes sistemas para los desafos que tenemos. +Est totalmente en lo cierto. +Y luego yo me pregunto, "Porqu siempre fue pequeo? +No es raro? Saben, si la colaboracin es tan genial, si el trabajo multidisciplinario es tan fantstico, por qu construimos estas enormes jerarquas? Qu est pasando? +Vern, pienso que lo que pasa, quizs, es que no nos hemos dado cuenta del cambio del que les habl antes. +Lo que s sabemos es que el mundo se ha acelerado. +El ciberespacio mueve todo a la velocidad de la luz. +La tecnologa acelera las cosas de manera exponencial. +As que si esto es ahora, y eso es el pasado, y empezamos a pensar acerca del cambio, ya saben, todos los gobiernos buscan el cambio, ustedes buscan el cambio, todos buscamos el cambio, es realmente genial. As que lo que pasa es que tenemos esta maravillosa y vertiginosa aceleracin y cambio. +La velocidad est acelerando. Eso no es lo nico. +Al mismo tiempo, mientras hacamos eso, hemos hecho algo realmente raro. +Hemos duplicado la poblacin en 40 aos, hemos puesto a la mitad de ellos en ciudades, y luego los conectamos para que puedan interactuar. +La densidad de la integracin de los seres humanos es impresionante. +Hay grficos que muestran todos estos movimientos de informacin. Esa densidad de informacin es impresionante. +Y luego hemos hecho una tercera cosa. +Saben, para aquellos de ustedes que tienen como oficina un pequeo escritorio debajo de las escaleras, y dicen, bueno, este es mi pequeo escritorio debajo de las escaleras, No! Estn sentados en la sede central de una corporacin global si es que estn conectados a Internet. +Lo que pasa es que hemos cambiado la escala. +Tamao y escala ya no son lo mismo. +Y a eso smenle que cada vez que envan un tweet, cerca de un tercio de sus seguidores son de un pas diferente al suyo. +La nueva escala es global. Sabemos eso. +Y la gente dice cosas como, "El mundo es ahora un lugar turbulento". Han escuchado a gente decir cosas como esta? +Y lo usan como una metfora. Se han dado cuenta? +Y ellos piensan que es una metfora, pero no es una metfora. +Es la realidad. Recuerdo que cuando era un joven estudiante de Ingeniera fui a una demostracin donde bsicamente, el disertante hizo una cosa bastante intrigante. +Lo que l hizo fue, coger un tubo transparente - han visto esa demostracin alguna vez?- lo adjunt a un grifo. As que lo tenas era una situacin donde - intentar dibujar el grifo y el tubo, en realidad pasar del grifo. Los grifos son difciles. +Bien? As que escribir la palabra "Grifo". Est bien? Es un grifo. Bien, as que une el grifo al tubo transparente y deja correr el agua. +Y dice, notaron algo? Y el agua est corriendo por el tubo. +Me refiero a que, esto no es impresionante. Estn conmigo? +Entonces el agua va subiendo. El cierra el grifo. Genial. +Y l dice: "Algo que les haya llamado la atencin?" No. Entonces el clava una aguja en el tubo, y lo conecta a un contenedor, y llena el contenedor con tinta verde. Me siguen? +Adivinen qu pasa. Una delgada lnea verde aparece mientras fluye por el tubo. No es muy interesante. +Y luego abre el grifo de agua un poco, as que vuelve a correr el agua. Nada cambia. +Entonces l est cambiando el flujo del agua, pero es solo una aburrida lnea verde. +l aade un poco ms. Luego un poco ms. Y luego algo raro pasa. +Hay como un pequeo parpadeo, y luego a medida que el aade un poquito ms, toda la lnea verde desaparece, y en su lugar hay estas especies de diablillos de polvo de tinta cerca de la aguja. +Ellos se llaman eddies. No yo. Y ellos estn dispersando la tinta violentamente tanto que se diluye y el color desaparece. +Lo que pas en este mundo de tubo es que alguien lo modific. Cambiaron las reglas de laminado a turbulento. +Todas las reglas desaparecieron. En ese ambiente, instantneamente, todas las posibilidades de la turbulencia estn disponibles, y no son las mismas que las del laminar. +Y si no hubiramos tenido esa tinta verde, nunca nos hubiramos dado cuenta. +Y creo que ste es nuestro desafo, porque alguien - probablemente ustedes mismos con toda su tecnologa y cosas as-ha incrementado la velocidad, la escala y la densidad de la interaccin. +Ahora, cmo hacemos frente y lidiamos con eso? +Bueno, podramos simplemente llamarle turbulencia, o podramos tratar de aprender. +Si, aprender, pero s que ustedes crecieron en los tiempos cuando existan esas cosas llamadas respuestas correctas, por la respuesta que me dieron con la pregunta de la lneas horizontales, y ustedes creyeron que esos tiempos duraran para siempre. +As que pondr una pequea lnea aqu que representa el aprendizaje, y es as como solamos hacerlos. Podramos ver cosas, entenderlas, tomarnos el tiempo de ponerlas en prctica. +All fuera est el mundo. Ahora, qu ha pasado con nuestro ritmo de aprendizaje a medida que el mundo fue acelerando? Bueno, si trabajan para una corporacin, descubrirn que es bastante difcil trabajar en cosas que su jefe no aprueba, no est dentro de la estrategia, y de todos modos, tienen que cumplir sus reuniones mensuales. +Si trabajan en una institucin, un da van a conseguir que ellos tomen esa decisin. +Y si trabajan en un mercado donde la gente creen en los ciclos, es an ms divertido, porque tendrn que esperar todo el camino a que el ciclo fracase antes de decir, "Algo est mal". Me siguen? +As que es probable que la lnea, en trminos de aprendizaje, es bastante plana. +Estn conmigo? Este punto aqu, el punto en donde las lneas se cruzan, el ritmo de cambio sobrepasa al ritmo de aprendizaje, y para mi, eso es lo que estaba describiendo cuando les estaba hablando acerca de la medianoche. +As que, Qu tiene que ver con nosotros? Bueno, transforma completamente lo que tenemos que hacer, muchos errores que cometemos. Resolvemos los problemas del ao pasado sin pensar en el futuro. Si tratamos de pensar en esto, las cosas que ests resolviendo ahora, qu problemas crearn en un futuro? +Si no has entendido al mundo en el que vives, es casi imposible estar absolutamente seguro de que lo que van a producir encaje. +Les voy a dar un ejemplo, uno rpido. Creatividad e ideas, lo he mencionado antes. Todos los CEO a mi alrededor, mis clientes, ellos quieren innovacin, ellos buscan innovacin. Ellos le dicen a la gente, "Toma riesgos y s creativo!" +Pero desafortunadamente las palabras se transforman mientras viajan por el aire. +Al entrar en sus orejas lo que ellos escuchan es, "Haz cosas locas y te despedir". Por qu? Porque - Por qu? Porque en el viejo mundo, bien, en el viejo mundo, por aqu, cometer errores era inaceptable. +Si cometas un error, fracasabas. Cmo deberas ser tratado? +Bueno, de mala manera, porque podras haber preguntado a alguien con experiencia. +As que aprendimos la respuesta y la llevamos en nuestras cabezas por 20, 30 aos. Estn conmigo? +La respuesta es, no hagas cosas que son diferentes. +Y de repente le decimos a la gente que lo haga y no funciona. +Ven, en realidad, hay dos maneras de fracasar en nuestro nuevo mundo. +Una, ustedes hacen algo que tiene que seguir un procedimiento, y es una cosa muy complicada, son descuidados, y lo hacen mal. Como deben ser tratados? Deberan probablemente ser despedidos. +Por el otro lado, estn haciendo algo nuevo, algo que nadie ha hecho antes, y fallan completamente. Cmo deberan ser tratados? +Bueno, pizzas gratis! Deberan ser tratados mejor que aquellas personas que tienen xito. +Esto se llama fracaso inteligente. Por qu? Porque no pueden ponerlo es sus CV. +Entonces, me gustara dejarlos con la explicacin de porqu viaj 100.000 kilmetros desde mi escritorio. +Cuando me d cuenta del poder de este nuevo mundo, renunci a mi trabajo seguro como profesor, y cre una escuela virtual de negocios, la primera en el mundo, para poder ensear a la gente cmo hacer que esto se haga realidad y utilic algo de lo que aprend acerca de las reglas que descubr en mi mismo. +Gracias, gracias. +Para comprender el mundo en el que vivimos, contamos historias. +Mezclar y compartir definen la web como la conocemos; todos podemos ser parte de esa historia con herramientas simples que nos permiten operar en lnea. +Pero el video ha quedado fuera. Lleg a la web en una caja pequea y all qued, completamente desconectado de los datos y contenidos circundantes. +De hecho, en ms de una dcada en la web, lo nico que cambi respecto del video es el tamao de la caja y la calidad de la imagen. +Popcorn lo cambia todo. +Es una herramienta web que permite que cualquier persona combine video con contenidos tomados de la web. +Los videos creados con Popcorn son como la propia web: dinmicos, repletos de enlaces, totalmente combinables, y pueden liberarse de la estructura. +Quiero hacer una demo de un prototipo en el que trabajamos y que lanzaremos en el otoo que viene. +Ser totalmente gratuito y funcionar en cualquier navegador. +Toda produccin de Popcorn empieza con un video, por eso hice un breve video de 20 segundos con una plantilla que usamos en los talleres. +Vemoslo. Regresaremos y les mostrar cmo lo hicimos. +Hola, bienvenidos a mi noticiero. +Agregu mi ubicacin con un mapa de Google y es en directo; tratemos de movernos. +Pueden agregarse mens con enlaces en vivo e conos personalizados o tomar contenido de un servicio web, como Flickr, o agregar artculos y entradas de blog con enlaces al contenido completo. +Regresemos y les mostrar qu vieron. Haba muchas cosas. +Esta es la lnea de tiempo y, si han editado video, estn familiarizados con esto, pero en vez de videos en la lnea de tiempo, lo que vemos son eventos web colocados en el video. +En esta produccin de Popcorn tenemos el ttulo, un mapa de Google que aparece dentro de la imagen, luego Popcorn permite sacarlo del cuadro y ocupar toda la pantalla. +Hay dos cuadros emergentes que brindan ms informacin, y un artculo final con un enlace al artculo original. +Pasemos a este mapa de Google y les mostrar cmo pueden editarlo. +Van a la lnea de tiempo, hacen doble clic en el elemento, he ingresado Toronto porque esa es mi ciudad natal. +Pongmosle otra cosa. +Popcorn inmediatamente va a la web, habla con Google, toma el mapa y hace que se vea en pantalla. +Es exactamente lo mismo que ve la gente que mira el video. +Est en directo. No es una imagen. Se le puede hacer clic, ampliar, llegar al nivel de la calle si se quiere. +Probemos algo diferente, quiz algo ms relevante hoy. +Son imgenes tomadas directamente desde la fuente. +Si volvemos en una semana ser completamente diferente, dinmico, como la web, exactamente como la web, todo tiene una fuente; si hacen clic en el enlace, van directo a Flickr y ven la imagen fuente. +Todo lo que han visto hoy se construy con los elementos bsicos de la web: HTML, CSS y JavaScript. +Significa que es totalmente remezclable. Significa tambin que no hay software propietario. Se necesita solo un navegador. +Imaginen si todos los videos que miramos en la web funcionaran con la web, completamente remezclables, vinculados con sus fuentes, interactivos con todos los que los vieran. +Creo que Popcorn podra cambiar nuestra forma de contar historias en la web y la forma de entender el mundo en el que vivimos. +Gracias. +Organizo informacin, soy diseador grfico. +Por profesin, trato de darle sentido a menudo a cosas que no tienen mucho sentido de por s. +Mi padre puede que no entienda qu hago para ganarme la vida. +Mi ascendencia por esa parte es de agricultores. +De una minora tnica denominada griegos pnticos. +Vivan en Asia Menor y huyeron a Grecia luego de un genocidio hace unos cien aos, +y desde entonces la migracin ha estado presente en mi familia. +Por supuesto, la mayora de los viajes que emprendemos da a da ocurren dentro de la ciudad y en particular +si uno conoce la ciudad, ir de A a B puede parecer bastante obvio, no? +Pero la pregunta es, por qu es obvio? +Cmo sabemos a dnde estamos yendo? +Qued varado en un puerto de Dubln hace unos 12 aos, como profesional extranjero, y estoy seguro de que Uds. han pasado por esto antes, no? +Uno llega a una nueva ciudad, y el cerebro trata de darle sentido a ese nuevo lugar. +Una vez que uno encuentra su lugar, su hogar, empieza a construir el mapa cognitivo de su entorno. +En esencia, es este mapa virtual que existe slo +en el cerebro. Todos los animales lo hacen, aunque todos usamos herramientas un poco diferentes. +Los humanos, claro, no vamos por ah marcando el territorio como los perros. +No corremos por all emitiendo chillidos ultrasnicos, como los murcilagos. +No lo hacemos, aunque una noche de juerga pueda ser bastante agitada. No, para apropiarnos de un lugar hacemos dos cosas importantes. +Primero, nos movemos en trayectos lineales. +Por lo general encontramos una calle principal y eso se vuelve un mapa lineal en nuestra mente. +Pero nuestra mente lo simplifica, s? +Percibimos cada calle como una lnea recta, e ignoramos los giros y las curvas de las mismas. +No obstante, para hacer un giro en una calle secundaria nuestra mente tiende a ajustar ese giro en un ngulo de 90. +Esto, por supuesto, produce momentos graciosos cuando uno est en alguna ciudad antigua de un trazado circular, no? +Quiz ya les ha pasado, verdad? +Digamos que estn en algn lugar de una calle secundaria que sale de la plaza de la catedral y quieren llegar a otro lugar de una calle lateral como esa. +El mapa cognitivo de la mente puede decir: "Aris, regresa a la plaza de la catedral, gira en un ngulo de 90 y camina hacia esa otra calle secundaria". +Pero, por alguna razn, ese da se aventuran y de repente descubren que ambos lugares +en realidad estn a un edificio de distancia. No s Uds. pero yo siempre siento como que encontr un agujero de gusano o un portal interdimensional. +As que nos movemos en trayectos lineales y nuestra mente endereza las calles y percibe las curvas como ngulos de 90. +Lo segundo que hacemos para apropiarnos de un lugar es asignarle significado y emociones a las cosas que vemos a lo largo de esas lneas. +Si van a la campia irlandesa y piden indicaciones a una anciana, preprese para narraciones irlandesas elaboradas con puntos de referencia, s? +Les contar del pub donde sola trabajar su hermana y de pasar la iglesia en la que se cas, ese tipo de cosas. +As que completamos los mapas cognitivos con esos marcadores semnticos. +Es ms, abstraemos, repetimos patrones y los reconocemos. +Los reconocemos en base a experiencias, y los abstraemos en forma de smbolos. +Y, claro, todos somos capaces +de comprender estos smbolos. Es ms, todos podemos comprender los mapas cognitivos y todos Uds. pueden crear estos mapas cognitivos. +La prxima vez que quieran contarle a algn amigo cmo llegar a casa, tomen un posavasos, una servilleta, y observen como crean un maravilloso diseo +de comunicacin. Tiene lneas rectas. +Tiene esquinas de 90. +Pueden aadirle pequeos smbolos en el camino. +Y si miran lo que acaban de dibujar notarn que no parece un mapa. +Si colocan un mapa verdadero encima de lo que acaban de dibujar, se darn cuenta de que las calles y las distancias, estn muy lejos. +No, lo que acaban de dibujar parece ms un diagrama o un esquema. +Es una construccin visual de lneas, puntos y letras diseado en el lenguaje de nuestro cerebro. +Por eso no sorprende que el gran icono del diseo de informacin del siglo pasado, el mejor ejemplo para mostrarle a alguien cmo ir de A a B, el mapa del metro de Londres, no fue diseado por un cartgrafo o un planificador urbano. Fue diseado por un dibujante de ingeniera. +A mediados de los aos 30, Harry Beck aplic los principios del diseo de diagrama esquemtico y cambi para siempre la forma de disear los mapas del transporte pblico. +La verdadera clave del xito de este mapa est en la omisin de la informacin menos importante y en la simplificacin extrema. +Calles en lnea recta, esquinas en ngulos de 90 y 45, pero tambin la distorsin geogrfica extrema en ese mapa. +Si mirsemos las ubicaciones reales de estas estaciones, veramos que son muy diferentes, s? +Todo sea por la claridad del mapa del metro pblico. +S? Si uno quisiera, digamos, llegar de Regent Park a Great Portland Street, el mapa del metro dir que tomemos el metro, vayamos a Baker Street, cambiemos, tomemos otro metro. +Claro, lo que no sabemos es que estas dos estaciones estn separadas slo por unos cien metros. +Ya que estamos en el tema del transporte pblico, y el transporte pblico aqu en Dubln es un tanto delicado. Para quienes no conocen el transporte pblico de Dubln, esencialmente tenemos este sistema de autobuses locales +que creci con la ciudad. Por cada barrio nuevo de las afueras, se aadi otro trayecto que va desde el barrio de las afueras hasta el centro de la ciudad, +y a medida que los autobuses locales se acercan al centro todos corren lado a lado y convergen en prcticamente una calle principal. +Cuando me baj del barco hace 12 aos, trat de darle sentido a eso +porque explorar una ciudad a pie te lleva lejos. +Pero cuando uno explora un nuevo sistema de transporte extranjero, uno construir un mapa cognitivo en su mente ms o menos de la misma manera. +Por lo general, uno elige una ruta de transporte rpido, y en la mente esta ruta se percibe como una lnea recta, +y como un collar de perlas, las estaciones y las paradas estn alineadas muy bien y ordenadamente +y slo despus, uno empieza a descubrir algunos recorridos de autobs que llenan los huecos y eso le permite a uno descubrir esos agujeros de gusano, atajos interdimensionales. +Yo trataba de darle sentido y, cuando llegu, buscaba algunos folletos que me ayudaran a descifrar este sistema, a entenderlo, y encontr esos folletos. No estaban distorsionados geogrficamente. +Omitan mucha informacin pero, desafortunadamente, +era la informacin incorrecta, digamos, del centro de la ciudad. Nunca hubo en realidad lneas que mostraran los recorridos. +En realidad no hay estaciones, ni sus nombres. +Ahora los mapas del transporte de Dubln han mejorado, y, tras terminar el proyecto, estn un poco mejor, pero an no hay nombres de estaciones, ni recorridos. +As siendo inocente, y medio alemn, decid: "Aris, por qu no construyes tu propio mapa?" +Y eso hice. Investigu el recorrido de cada +uno de los autobuses de la ciudad, de forma lgica, el recorrido de cada lnea en forma separada +y trac mi propio mapa de Dubln, y en el centro de la ciudad, +Llmenme anticuado, correcto, pero pienso que el mapa del transporte pblico debe tener lneas porque eso es lo que son, no? +Son pequeos trozos de cuerda que pasan por el centro de la ciudad, o por la ciudad. +Si se quiere, mi griego interno se siente, si no tengo una lnea, como entrando en el laberinto del Minotauro sin tener a Ariadna que nos d la cuerda para encontrar el camino. +Por eso trabaj con James Leahy, ingeniero civil y con una maestra reciente en el Programa de Desarrollo Sostenible del DIT. Juntos elaboramos esta red de modelo simplificado que luego podra continuar y visualizar. +Esto es lo que hicimos. +Distribuimos estos corredores de transporte rpido por el centro de la ciudad, y los extendimos hacia las afueras. Rpido porque los queramos para contar con +vehculos de transporte rpidos, no? +Tendramos uso exclusivo por carretera, en lo posible, y sera de gran cantidad, transporte de gran calidad. +James quera usar el transporte rpido de autobuses para eso, en vez de un tren ligero. Para m, era importante que los vehculos que corrieran por esos corredores de transporte rpido se distinguieran visualmente de los autobuses locales en la calle. +Ahora podamos quitar los autobuses locales que corran junto a los medios de transporte rpidos. +Las brechas que aparecieron en las afueras se llenaron de nuevo. +En otras palabras, si haba una calle en las afueras donde haba un autobs, volvimos a ponerlo, slo que ahora estos autobuses no se dirigiran al centro de la ciudad sino que conectaran con el modo de transporte rpido ms cercano, una de estas lneas gruesas de all. +El resto fue simplemente un par de meses de trabajo, y un par de peleas con mi novia porque nuestro hogar estaba constantemente repleto de mapas, y el resultado, uno de los resultados, fue este mapa de la zona metropolitana de Dubln. Lo ampliar un poco. +Este mapa slo muestra las conexiones de transporte rpido, +no hay autobuses locales, como el estilo del metro, que fue tan exitoso en Londres, y que desde entonces ha sido exportado a muchas otras grandes ciudades y que por ende es el lenguaje que deberamos usar en los mapas del transporte pblico. +Lo ampliar un poco. +En este mapa, estoy incluyendo cada forma de transporte, transporte rpido, autobs, tren, tranva, etc. +Cada trayecto individual est representado por una lnea separada. +El mapa muestra cada una de las estaciones, todos los nombres de las estaciones, y tambin muestro las calles secundarias, +de hecho, la mayora de las calles secundarias tienen nombre, y, por si acaso, tambin un par de puntos de referencia, algunos representados por pequeos smbolos, otros por estos dibujos a vista de pjaro isomtricos tridimensionales. +El mapa es relativamente pequeo en general, algo que an se podra llevar como un mapa desplegable, o mostrarse en cuadros de tamao razonable en una parada de autobs. +Creo que trata de lograr el mejor equilibrio entre la representacin real y la simplificacin, el lenguaje de nuestro cerebro. +Lneas rectas, curvas limpias, y, por supuesto, la muy importante distorsin geogrfica que posibilita los mapas de transporte pblico. +Si miramos, por ejemplo, los dos corredores principales que recorren la ciudad los que aparecen en amarillo y naranja, as se ven en realidad, en un mapa de calles preciso, y as se ven en mi mapa de transporte pblico distorsionado y simplificado. +Para que un mapa de transporte pblico sea exitoso, no debera pegarse a una representacin precisa, sino disearse de acuerdo al funcionamiento del cerebro. +Las reacciones que recib fueron estupendas. Fue algo muy bueno. +Y, por supuesto, para m, yo estaba muy feliz de ver que mi gente en Alemania y Grecia, por fin se hizo una idea de lo que hago para ganarme la vida. Gracias. +Este es el horizonte de mi ciudad natal, Nueva Orleans. +Era un buen lugar para crecer, pero es uno de los sitios ms vulnerables del mundo. +La mitad de la ciudad est por debajo del nivel del mar. +En 2005, el mundo vio como Nueva Orleans y la costa del Golfo fueron devastadas por el huracn Katrina. +1836 personas murieron. Se perdieron cerca de 300 000 hogares. +Esta es la casa de mi madre, la de arriba, aunque ese no es su coche, lleg all arrastrado por las crecidas hasta el tejado, y esa es la casa de mi hermana, debajo. +Afortunadamente, ellas y otros miembros de la familia huyeron a tiempo, pero perdieron sus casas, y como pueden ver, prcticamente todo lo que haba en ellas. +Otras partes del mundo se han visto afectadas por tormentas de forma incluso ms devastadora. +En 2008, el cicln Nargis y sus repercusiones mataron a 138 000 personas en Myanmar. +El cambio climtico est afectando a nuestras casas, nuestras comunidades, a nuestra forma de vida. Deberamos prepararnos a todos los niveles y ante todas las oportunidades. +Esta charla trata sobre estar preparado y ser fuerte ante los cambios que se avecinan y que afectarn a nuestros hogares y a nuestro hogar compartido, la Tierra. +Los cambios en estos tiempos no nos afectarn a todos por igual. +Existen importantes consecuencias de distribucin, y no siempre son las que puedan pensar. +En Nueva Orleans, los hogares encabezados por ancianos y mujeres estn entre los ms vulnerables. +Para aquellos que viven en pases vulnerables de poca altitud, Cmo puedes dar un valor en dlares a perder tu pas donde estn enterrados tus ancestros? Y a dnde ir la gente? +Y cmo sobrellevarn vivir en tierra extranjera? +Habr tensiones por la inmigracin o conflictos por la competicin de recursos limitados? +Ya hay conflictos en Chad y Darfur. +Guste o no, preparados o no, este es nuestro futuro. +Claro que algunos buscan oportunidades en este nuevo mundo. +Estos son los rusos plantando una bandera en el fondo del ocano como forma de reclamacin por los minerales bajo el hielo decreciente del mar rtico. +Pero mientras puede que haya algunos ganadores a corto plazo, nuestras prdidas colectivas los superan. +No hay que mirar muy lejos, la industria de los seguros lucha por sobrellevar la cantidad de prdidas catastrficas causadas por sucesos climticos. +El ejrcito es consciente de esto. Llaman al cambio climtico una amenaza multiplicadora que podra daar la estabilidad y la seguridad, mientras los gobiernos de todo el mundo evalan cmo responder. +As que qu podemos hacer? Cmo podemos prepararnos y adaptarnos? +Quiero compartir tres ejemplos, empezando por la adaptacin a inundaciones y tormentas violentas. +En Nueva Orleans, el puente Twin Span de la I-10 con partes destrozadas por Katrina, ha sido reconstruido 6 metros ms alto para protegerlo de mayores oleajes provocados por tormentas. +Y estas casas que se construyeron con eficiencia energtica se desarrollaron gracias a Brad Pitt y "Make It Right" para la regin afectada de Ninth Ward. +La iglesia devastada a la que iba mi madre, no solo ha sido reconstruida ms alta, est preparada para ser la primera iglesia Energy Star del pas. +Estn vendiendo electricidad a la red de suministro gracias a paneles solares, pintura reflectante, entre otras cosas. +La factura de la electricidad de marzo fue tan slo de USD 48. +Ahora, estos son ejemplos de reconstruccin de Nueva Orleans de esta forma, pero sera mejor si otros actuaran de forma proactiva con estos cambios en mente. +Por ejemplo, en Galveston hay una casa resistente que resisti al huracn Ike, mientras que otras casas vecinas claramente no lo consiguieron. +Y en todo el mundo, satlites y sistemas de advertencia salvan vidas en reas propensas a inundarse como Bangladesh. +Pero tan importante como es la tecnologa y las infraestructuras, quizs el elemento humano es incluso ms crucial. +Necesitamos mejor planificacin y sistemas de evacuacin. +Necesitamos entender mejor como toma decisiones la gente en momentos de crisis y por qu. +Mientras que es cierto que muchos de los que murieron en Katrina no tenan acceso a transporte, otros se negaron a marcharse mientras se acercaba la tormenta, a menudo porque el transporte y los refugios disponibles no permitan llevar a sus mascotas. +Imagnense dejar atrs a su mascota en un rescate o evacuacin. +Afortunadamente, en 2006, el Congreso aprob la Ley Federal de Estndares de Evacuacin y Transporte de Mascotas, deletreado "PETS" , para solucionar el problema. +En segundo lugar, prepararse para el calor y las sequas. +Los granjeros se enfrentan a los desafos de las sequas desde Asia hasta frica, de Australia a Oklahoma, mientras las olas de calor junto con el cambio climtico han matado a decenas de miles de personas en el oeste de Europa en 2003, y tambin en Rusia en 2010. +En Etiopa, el 70%, el 7 - 0 % de la poblacin depende de la lluvia para ganarse la vida. +Oxfam y Swiss Re, junto con la Fundacin Rockefeller estn ayudando a granjeros como este a construir bancales en las laderas y a encontrar otras formas de conservar el agua, pero tambin proporcionan seguros para cuando vengan las sequas. +La estabilidad que esto proporciona da a los granjeros confianza para invertir. +Les da acceso a crdito asequible. +Les permite hacerse ms productivos y as se pueden permitir su propio seguro con el tiempo, sin asistencia. +Es un ciclo virtuoso, que podra reproducirse por todo el mundo desarrollado. +Este es el tejado verde del Ayuntamiento, cerca del tejado de Cook Conty que est a 25 C ms en la superficie. +El ao pasado, Washington D.C. hizo que la nacin instalara nuevos tejados verdes y estn financiando esto en parte gracias al impuesto de 5 centavos por las bolsas de plstico. +Estn dividiendo el coste de instalar estos tejados verdes con propietarios de casas y edificios. +Los tejados no solo suavizan el efecto isla de calor sino que adems ahorran energa, y por lo tanto dinero, las emisiones que provocan el cambio climtico y tambin reducen la escorrenta pluvial. +As que algunas soluciones para el calor se podran considerar victorias. +En tercer lugar, adaptacin al sube del nivel de mar. +La subida del nivel del mar amenaza a los ecosistemas de la costa, a la agricultura, incluso a grandes ciudades. Esto es lo que uno o dos metros de subida del nivel del mar pueden hacer con el delta del Mekong. +Ah es donde se cultiva la mitad del arroz de Vietnam. +La infraestructura se va a ver afectada. +Aeropuertos por todo el mundo se sitan en la costa. +Tiene sentido, verdad? Es un espacio abierto, los aviones pueden despegar y aterrizar sin preocuparse por hacer ruido o evitar edificios altos. +Aqu tenemos algunos ejemplos, el aeropuerto de San Francisco, con 40 cm o ms de inundacin. +Imagnense el sorprendente coste de proteger esta vital infraestructura con impuestos. +Pero puede que haya algunos cambios en la recmara que pueden no haber imaginado. Por ejemplo, los aviones requieren ms pista para despegar porque el aire caliente y menos denso proporciona menor elevacin. +San Francisco adems emplea 40 millones de dlares en replantear y redisear su tratamiento de aguas potables y residuales ya que las tuberas de desage como estas pueden inundarse con el agua del mar, causando un atasco en la planta, daando las bacterias necesarias para tratar los residuos. +As estas tuberas han sido reajustadas para evitar que el agua del mar entre en el sistema. +Ms all de estas soluciones tcnicas, nuestro trabajo en el Georgetown Climate Center conjunto con las comunidades los anima a mirar qu herramientas polticas y legales hay disponibles y a considerar cmo acomodarse al cambio. +Por ejemplo, en el uso del suelo, qu reas quieres proteger, poniendo un dique, por ejemplo, cambiar, erigiendo edificios, o retirar para permitir la migracin de sistemas naturales importantes como pantanos o playas? +Otros ejemplos a tener en cuenta. En Reino Unido, la Barrera del Tmesis protege a Londres de oleajes de tormentas. +La Red de Resistencia al Cambio Climtico de las Ciudades de Asia est restableciendo ecosistemas vitales como los manglares. +No slo son importantes ecosistemas para su propio bien, sino que tambin sirven como barrera para proteger a las comunidades del interior. +Nueva York es increblemente vulnerable a las tormentas, como pueden ver en esta inteligente seal, y a las subidas de marea y oleajes, como pueden ver en la inundacin del metro. +Pero volviendo a la tierra, estas chimeneas de ventilacin que se pusieron para el sistema del metro muestran que las soluciones pueden ser funcionales y atractivas. De hecho, en Nueva York, San Francisco y Londres, lo diseadores han previsto formas de integrar mejor los ambientes naturales teniendo en mente el cambio climtico. +Pienso que estos son ejemplos inspiradores de lo que es posible cuando sentimos que podemos pensar en un mundo que ser diferente. +Pero ahora, unas palabras de advertencia. +La adaptacin es demasiado importante para dejrsela a los expertos. +Por qu? Bueno, no hay expertos. +Estamos entrando en un territorio desconocido y todava nuestra pericia y nuestros sistemas se basan en el pasado. +"Estacionario" es la nocin con la que podemos anticipar el futuro basado en el pasado, y planearlo, y estos principios gobiernan nuestra ingeniera, nuestro diseo de infraestructuras crticas, sistemas de agua, reglamentos de construccin, incluso los derechos sobre el agua y otros precedentes legales. +Pero simplemente ya no podemos confiar en las normas establecidas. +Operamos fuera de los lmites de concentracin de CO2 que el planeta ha visto durante cientos de miles de aos. +Lo ms importante que quiero decir es lo siguiente. +No existen arreglos rpidos. +No existen soluciones del tipo "una solucin para todo". +Aprendemos mientras actuamos. +Pero la palabra clave es actuar. +Gracias. +Una de cada cuatro personas, sufren de algn tipo de enfermedad mental, as que de ustedes...uno, dos, tres, cuatro, sera Ud. seor. +Usted. S. Con la dentadura extraa. Y usted, junto a l. Usted sabe quin es. +De hecho, toda esa fila no est bien. Eso no est bien, Hola. S. Bastante mal. Ni siquiera me mires. Yo soy una de esas "una de cada cuatro". Gracias. +Creo que lo hered de mi madre, quien sola gatear por casa, agachada a cuatro patas. +Tena una esponja en cada mano, y una atada a cada rodilla. Mi madre era completamente absorbente. Y gateaba detrs mo, diciendo, Quin trae pisadas a un edificio?! +Y esa era una especie de indicio de que las cosas no estaban bien. +As que antes de comenzar, quisiera agradecer a los fabricantes de lamotrigina, sertralina y reboxetina, porque sin esas simples medicinas, hoy no estara de pie. +Y, cmo comenz? +Mi enfermedad mental, bien, ni siquiera voy a hablarles de ella. +Y de qu les voy a hablar? Bien. +Siempre so que, cuando tuviese mi crisis final, sera porque tuve una profunda revelacin kafkiana, una epifana existencialista, o que quizs, Cate Blanchett interpretara mi papel y que ganara un Oscar por ello. Pero eso no es lo que sucedi. Tuve mi crisis durante la muestra deportiva de mi hija. +Y todas las niitas corran, corran y corran. Todas, menos mi hija, que estaba simplemente parada en la lnea de salida, saludando, porque no saba que se supona que deba correr. +Anmate. +Y entonces comienzas a escuchar estas voces abusivas, y no slo una, sino miles de ellas, 100 000 voces abusivas, si el diablo tuviese sndrome de Tourette, as es como sonara. +Pero todos aqu sabemos que el diablo no existe, y que no hay voces en sus cabezas. +Saben que cuando oyen estas voces abusivas, todas esas pequeas neuronas se juntan y ese pequeo espacio se llena de un tipo de sustancia muy txica del tipo quiero suicidarme y si esto sucediera una y otra vez como en una grabacin repetitiva, podran tener depresin. +Ah, y esa ni siquiera es la punta del iceberg. +Si se tiene un beb, y se lo maltrata verbalmente, su cerebrito enva seales qumicas que son tan destructivas que esa partecita de tu cerebro que distingue el bien del mal, sencillamente no se desarrolla, as que pueden tener a un psicpata hecho en casa. +Si un soldado ve explotar a su amigo, su cerebro entra en un estado de alarma tal, que no puede verbalizar la experiencia, as que solo siente el horror, una y otra vez. +Aqu viene la pregunta. Y es, cmo es que cuando las personas sufren de un dao mental, se trata de una imaginacin hiperactiva? +Cmo es que se puede sentir empata por cualquier rgano de tu cuerpo que se dae, a excepcin del cerebro? +Quisiera hablar ms acerca del cerebro, porque s que a ustedes les gusta esto aqu en TED, as que si me dan un minuto por aqu, bien. +Bien, djenme decirles, que hay algunas buenas noticias. +Existen algunas buenas nuevas. En primer lugar hemos llegado muy, muy lejos. +Comenzamos como una pequesima ameba unicelular, chiquitita, pegada a una roca, y ahora, voil, el cerebro. +Aqu vamos. Esta monada tiene mucha potencia. +Viene completamente consciente. Tiene los mejores lbulos del mercado. +Tenemos el lbulo occipital, para que podamos ver el mundo. +Tenemos el lbulo temporal, para que podemos or al mundo. +Por ac tenemos una partecita de la memoria a largo plazo, as que, esa noche que se emborracharon y quieren olvidar? Adis! No est ms. Entonces, est repleta con 100 mil millones de neuronas chispeantes, transmitiendo informacin elctricamente, chispeando, chispeando. Les voy a mostrar la vista de costado por aqu. +No s si la cmara toma esto. As que, chispeando, y.. Y por cada, lo s, dibuj esto yo misma. Gracias. +Por cada neurona, se tienen entre 10 000 a 100 000 conexiones diferentes o dendritas, o como quieran llamarlas, y cada vez que aprenden algo, o experimentan algo esta mata crece, ya saben, esta mata de informacin. +Pueden imaginarlo, cada ser humano lleva consigo esta capacidad, hasta Paris Hilton? Imagnense. +Pero tengo unas pocas malas noticias. Tengo malas noticias. +Esto no es para uno de cada cuatro. Esto es para cuatro de cada cuatro. +No estamos equipados para el siglo 21. +La evolucin no nos prepar para esto. Simplemente no tenemos el ancho de banda. Y quienes dicen que estn teniendo un buen da, que estn perfectamente bien, estn ms dementes que el resto de nosotros. +Porque voy a mostrarles, donde puede haber algunos errores en la evolucin. Bien, permtanme explicrselo. +Hace acerca de 150 000 aos, cuando el lenguaje entr en juego, comenzamos a nombrar estas emergencias constantes, y no decamos simplemente Oh, por Dios, un tigre dientes de sable sino que pronto dijimos, Oh, por Dios, no envi ese e-mail. Mis muslos son muy grandes. +Oh por Dios, todos pueden ver que soy estpido. No me invitaron a la fiesta de Navidad! +As que tenemos esta grabacin molesta que escuchamos una y otra vez que nos vuelve locos, entonces ven el problema? Lo que una vez nos mantuvo a salvo, actualmente nos vuelve locos. +Lamento ser quien les da esta mala noticia, pero alguien debe hacerlo. +Sus mascotas, son ms felices que ustedes. As que un gatito, malla, est feliz feliz feliz, los seres humanos, jodidos. Completa y directamente, tan jodidos. +Pero lo que quiero decir es que si no hablamos de estas cosas, y no aprendemos a lidiar con nuestras vidas, no van a ser una de cada cuatro personas, sino cuatro de cada cuatro. quienes se van a enfermar mucho en el piso de arriba. +Y, ya que estamos, podemos parar con la estigmatizacin? +Gracias. Gracias. +Tengo una mala noticia, una buena, y una tarea. +La mala noticia es que todos nos enfermamos. +Yo me enfermo. Uds. se enferman. +Y cada uno de nosotros se enferma. Pero la pregunta en realidad es: Cunto nos enfermamos? Es algo que nos mata? +Es algo a lo que sobrevivimos? +Es algo que podemos tratar? +Y nos hemos enfermado desde el principio de los tiempos. +Por eso siempre hemos buscado razones que expliquen por qu nos enfermamos. +Y durante mucho tiempo, fueron los dioses, verdad? +Los dioses estn enojados conmigo, o los dioses me ponen a prueba, verdad? O Dios, en singular, ms recientemente, me castiga o me juzga. +Y siempre que hemos buscado explicaciones, hemos dado con algo que se acerca ms a la ciencia, que son hiptesis de por qu nos enfermamos, y siempre tras hiptesis de por qu nos enfermamos, tambin hemos intentado tratarlo. +Este es un tipo llamado Carlos Finlay. Tena una hiptesis que se sala de los parmetros de su tiempo, a finales del siglo XIX. +Crea que la fiebre amarilla no se transmita por la ropa sucia. +Crea que la transmitan los mosquitos. +Y se rieron de l. Durante 20 aos, le llamaron "el hombre mosquito." Pero hizo un experimento con personas, Tena esta hiptesis y la puso a prueba con gente. +Consigui voluntarios que se trasladaran a Cuba y vivieran en carpas y voluntariamente fueran infectados con fiebre amarilla. +Algunas personas en algunas carpas tenan ropa sucia y otras personas estaban en carpas llenas de mosquitos que se haban expuesto a la fiebre amarilla. +Y comprob que no eran esos polvos mgicos en la ropa llamados fmites la causa de la fiebre amarilla. +Pero no fue sino hasta probarlo en personas cuando realmente lo supimos. +Y por ese motivo se inscribieron esas personas. +As era tener fiebre amarilla en Cuba en esa poca. Sufran en una carpa, con calor, solos, y probablemente moran. +Pero la gente se ofreca voluntaria. +Y no es slo un ejemplo genial de un diseo cientfico de experimentacin en teora. Tambin hicieron esto tan hermoso. +Firmaron este documento, documento de consentimiento informado. +Y el consentimiento informado es algo de lo que deberamos estar muy orgullosos como sociedad. Es algo que nos separa de los Nazis en Nuremberg, experimentacin mdica forzada. Es la idea de que un acuerdo para unirse a un estudio no existe, si no hay acuerdo. +Es algo que nos protege a veces del dao, de los charlatanes, de gente que tratara de embaucarnos en un estudio clnico que no entendemos, o con el que no estamos de acuerdo. +Y entonces, juntamos el hilo de la hiptesis narrativa, con la expermientacin en seres humanos, y con el consentimiento informado, y se obtiene lo que llamamos "estudio clnico," y es cmo hacemos la gran mayora del trabajo mdico. En realidad no importa si estn en el norte, en el sur, el este, el oeste. +Los estudios clnicos forman la base de cmo investigamos, as que si observamos un nuevo frmaco, lo probamos en personas, sacamos sangre, hacemos experimentos, y obtenemos consentimiento para ese estudio, para asegurarnos de que no perjudicamos a la gente. +Pero el mundo est cambiando el rol del estudio clnico, que estaba bastante bien establecido durante decenas de aos si no 50 100 aos. +Ahora podemos recolectar datos sobre nuestros genomas, pero, como vimos, nuestros genomas no son determinantes. +Podemos recolectar informacin sobre nuestro medio. +Y ms importante, podemos recolectar informacin sobre nuestras elecciones, porque lo que pensamos sobre nuestra salud, es ms parecido a la interaccin de nuestros cuerpos, con nuestros genomas, con nuestras elecciones y con nuestro medio. +Y los mtodos clnicos que tenemos no son muy buenos para estudiar eso, porque se basan en la idea de la interaccin persona a persona. Uno interacta con su mdico y a uno lo inscriben en el estudio. +Bueno, este es mi abuelo. En realidad nunca lo conoc, pero tiene a mi mam en brazos, y sus genes estn en m. +Sus elecciones se transfirieron hasta m. Era un fumador, como lo era mucha gente. Este es mi hijo. +As que los genes de mi abuelo le llegarn, y mis elecciones afectarn su salud. +La tecnologa entre estas dos fotos no puede ser ms diferente, pero la metodologa para los estudios clnicos no ha cambiado radicalmente en ese perodo. +Slo tenemos mejores estadsticas. +El mtodo de obtener consentimiento informado se constituy despus de la 2 Guerra Mundial, cerca de la poca de esa foto. +No se pueden poner en redes, no se pueden integrar. +No pueden ser usados por personas no acreditadas. +As que un mdico no puede tener acceso a ellos sin hacer el papeleo. +Un cientfico de la computacin no puede acceder sin hacer el papeleo. +Los cientficos de la computacin no son pacientes. No archivan papeles. +Es un accidente. Son las herramientas creadas para protegernos del dao, pero lo que hacen esta vez es protegernos de la innovacin. +Y esa no era la meta. No era el punto. Correcto? +Hay un efecto colateral, si as lo quieren, o un poder que creamos para apoderarse de nosotros para siempre. +Y si lo piensan, lo deprimente es que Facebook nunca hara un cambio a algo tan importante como un algoritmo publicitario con un tamao de muestra tan pequeo como un ensayo clnico en fase III. +No podemos tomar la informacin de ensayos pasados y juntarlos para formar muestras estadsticamente significativas +Y eso es un asco, no? As que el 45% de los hombres desarrolla cncer. 38% de las mujeres desarrolla cncer. +Uno de cada cuatro hombres muere de cncer. +Una de cada cinco mujeres muere de cncer, al menos en los EE.UU. +Y tres de cuatro frmacos administrados al contraer cncer, fallan. Y para m, esto es personal. +Mi hermana es una sobreviviente de cncer. +Mi suegra es una sobreviviente de cncer. El cncer es un asco. +Y cuando lo tienes, no tienes mucha privacidad en el hospital. Uno est desnudo gran parte el tiempo. +Es una vergenza porque tenemos esta informacin y no la podemos usar. +Y es un accidente. +As que el costo de esto en vidas y dinero es inmenso. +226 mil millones se gastan al ao en cncer en EE. UU. +1500 personas mueren al da en EE. UU. +Y cada da es peor. +Lo bueno es que algunas cosas han cambiado, y lo ms importante de ese cambio es que ahora podemos medirnos lo que solan ser del dominio exclusivo de los sistemas de salud. +As que mucha gente habla de ello como tubo escape digital. +Me gusta pensarlo como el polvo que deja mi hijo tras l. +Fue hecho en cinco meses por una empresa recin montada, de un par de personas. +No tengo ningn inters financiero en ella. +Pero menos trivial, podemos hacernos los genotipos, y aunque nuestros genotipos no son determinantes, nos dan pistas. +As que les podra mostrar los mos. Son slo As, Ts, Cs y Gs. +Esta es su interpretacin. Como pueden ver, porto un 32% de riesgo de cncer de prstata, 22% de riesgo de soriasis y 14% de riesgo de Alzhimer. +Eso significa, si son genetistas, se agobiarn y dirn: "Dios, dijiste a todos que portabas el alelo ApoE E4. Qu te pasa?" +Cuando obtuve estos resultados, comenc a consultar mdicos, y me dijeron que no le contara a nadie, y mi reaccin fue "Ayudar eso a que alguien me cure cuando tenga la enfermedad?" +Y nadie pudo decirme que s. +Y vivo en un mundo web donde, cuando se comparte algo, pasan cosas hermosas, no cosas malas. +As que empec a poner esto en mi presentacin, y me volv an ms prepotente, y fui a mi mdico, y le dije , "Me gustara que me entregara mi anlisis de sangre. +Por favor, devulvame mis datos." Este es mi anlisis de sangre ms reciente +Como pueden ver, tengo el colesterol alto. +Tengo especialmente alto el colesterol malo, y tengo mal algunos nmeros del hgado, pero son porque tuvimos una fiesta con mucho buen vino. la noche anterior al anlisis. Pero miren lo no computable que es esta informacin. +Es como la foto de mi abuelo con mi mam en brazos desde el punto de vista de los datos, y yo tena que entrar al sistema y sacarlos. +As que lo que propongo hacer aqu es que nos demos vuelta y agarremos el polvo, que echemos mano a nuestros cuerpos y agarremos el genotipo, y que echemos mano del sistema mdico y agarremos nuestros registros, y los usemos para construir algo juntos, que es un patrimonio comn. +Y se ha hablado mucho sobre los patrimonios comunes, aqu, all. Un patrimonio comn no es ms que un bien pblico que construimos a partir de bienes privados. +Lo hacemos voluntariamente, y lo hacemos a travs de herramientas legales estandarizadas. A travs de tecnologas estandarizadas. +Un patrimonio comn no es ms que eso. Es algo que construimos juntos porque creemos que es importante. +Bueno, no muchos programadores escriben software gratis, pero tenemos el servidor web Apache. +No hay tantos que adems de leer Wikipedia la editen, pero funciona. As que mientras a algunos les guste compartir como forma de control, podemos construir un patrimonio comn, siempre que podamos sacar la informacin. +Y en biologa, los nmeros son an mejores. +Vanderbilt hizo un estudio preguntndole a la gente: "nos gustara tomarle una biomuestra, su sangre, y compartirla en un biobanco, y slo 5% de la gente rehus. +Soy de Tennessee. No es el estado ms a favor de la ciencia de los EE.UU. Pero slo el 5% de la gente quiso salirse. +As, a la gente le gusta compartir, si tiene la oportunidad y la opcin. +Y la razn de que esto me obsesione, adems de los aspectos familiares obvios, es que paso mucho tiempo entre matemticos, y a los matemticos les atraen los lugares donde hay muchos datos porque los pueden usar para desentraar seales a partir del ruido. +Y las correlaciones que pueden desentraar, no son necesariamente agentes causales, pero la matemtica, hoy en da, es como un gigantesco conjunto de herramientas elctricas que dejamos en el suelo, sin conectarlas a la salud, mientras usamos sierras manuales. +Sage Bionetworks no tiene fines de lucro y construy un gigantesco sistema matemtico a la espera de datos, pero no hay. +As que eso es lo que hago. Incluso he comenzado lo que creemos que es el primer estudio clnico investigativo totalmente digital, totalmente auto aportado, de alcance ilimitado, global en participacin, ticamente aprobado donde Uds. contribuyen con los datos. +Y he pasado muchsimo tiempo en otros patrimonios comunes. +He estado presente en los comienzos de la web. Tambin en los comienzos del patrimonio comn mundial, y hay cuatro cosas que comparten todos ellos: todos son muy simples. +As que, si fueran al sitio web y se inscribieran en este estudio, no veran algo complicado. +Pero no es simplista. Estas cosas son simples a propsito, porque siempre se puede agregar poder y control a un sistema, pero es muy difcil quitarlos si se ponen al comienzo, as que ser simple no significa ser simplista, y ser dbil no significa debibilidad. +Esas son fortalezas del sistema. +Y abierto no significa que no haya dinero. +Los sistemas cerrados, las corporaciones, ganan mucho dinero en la web abierta, y son una de las razones del por qu la web abierta vive porque las corporaciones tienen intereses creados en lo abierto del sistema. +As todas esto forma parte del estudio clnico que hemos creado, para que en efecto puedan entrar. Lo que necesitan es tener 14 aos, estar dispuesto a firmar un contrato donde dice "no me comportar como un imbcil" bsicamente, y ya est. +Pueden empezar a analizar los datos. +S tienen que resolver un CAPTCHA tambin. Y si quisieran construir estructuras corporativas con esa base, tambin est bien. Est todo en el consentimiento, as que si no les gustan esos trminos, no entren. +Se trata esencialmente de los principios sobre los que se disea un patrimonio comn que intentamos aplicar a los datos de salud. +Y otra cosa sobre estos sistemas es que slo muy pocas personas poco razonables trabajan para crearlos. No fue necesaria tanta gente para hacer que Wikipedia fuera Wikipedia, o para mantenerla. +Y no se supone que seamos poco razonables en salud, as que me molesta esta palabra "paciente." +No me gusta ser paciente cuando los sistemas estn averiados, y el rea de la salud est averiada. +No hablo de las polticas de salud, sino del enfoque cientfico del rea de la salud. +De manera que no quiero ser paciente. Y la tarea que les doy es no ser pacientes. Por tanto me gustara que intentaran, cuando se vayan a casa, conseguir sus datos. +Se horrorizarn y ofendern, y apostara que se indignarn, de lo difcil que es conseguirlos. +Pero es un desafo que espero que tomen, y que tal vez lo compartan. Tal vez no. +Si no tienen a nadie enfermo en la familia, tal vez no sern poco razonables. Pero en caso contrario, o si Uds. han estado enfermos, tal vez s. +Y podremos hacer un experimento en los prximos meses que nos dir exactamente cunta gente poco razonable hay. +Bueno, este es el Athena Breast Health Network. Es un estudio de 150 000 mujeres en California, y devolvern todos los datos a los participantes del estudio en un formato computable, para cargarlo con un clic en el estudio que arm. As que sabremos exactamente cunta gente est dispuesta a ser poco razonable. +As que, terminara con la cosa ms hermosa que he aprendido desde que renunci a mi trabajo hace casi un ao para hacer esto, es que en realidad no son necesarios muchos de nosotros para lograr resultados espectaculares. +Slo se necesita estar dispuesto a ser poco razonables, y el riesgo que corremos, no es el riesgo que corrieron esos catorce hombres contagiados de fiebre amarilla. Correcto? +Es estar desnudos, digitalmente, en pblico. De manera que saben ms sobre mi y mi salud de lo que yo s de Uds. Ahora es asimtrico. +Y estar desnudos y solos puede ser aterrador. +Pero estar desnudos en grupo, voluntariamente, puede ser bastante hermoso. +Y tampoco requiere de todos nosotros. +Slo requiere todo de algunos de nosotros. Gracias. +Sin duda, hablamos a menudo de terrorismo. +Estamos en guerra con un nuevo terrorismo. +Es como el terrorismo tradicional, pero a la moda del siglo XXI. +Para enfrentarnos al terrorismo, primero, cmo lo percibimos? +Porque nuestra percepcin determinar nuestra respuesta. +Si lo percibimos de forma tradicional, ser como el crimen, como la guerra. +Cmo responderemos entonces? +Pues diente por diente. A luchar. +Si se tiene un punto de vista ms moderno y se percibe como una cuestin de causa-efecto, la respuesta natural ser mucho ms asimtrica. +Vivimos en un mundo globalizado y moderno. +Y los terroristas se han adaptado. +Nosotros tambin deberamos hacerlo. Quienes trabajan en el contraterrorismo deberan verlo desde otra perspectiva desde la perspectiva de Google o as Quiero proponerles que nos acerquemos +al terrorismo como si fuera una marca internacional. Coca-Cola, por ejemplo. +Ambos son malos para la salud. Si lo vemos como una marca, veremos que es un producto muy defectuoso. +Es malo para la salud: para la de los afectados y tambin para la de los propios terroristas suicidas. +No ofrece lo que pone en la lata. +No ofrece 72 vrgenes en el paraso. +No creo que eso suceda. +Y pasados los 80, no vamos a acabar con el capitalismo apoyando a estos grupos. Es absurdo. +Pero tiene su taln de Aquiles. +La marca tiene un taln de Aquiles. +Hablamos de la salud, pero hacen falta consumidores. +Los consumidores seran el electorado terrorista. +Los que apoyan la marca, los que la ayudan, con ellos tenemos que tratar. +Debemos atacar la marca delante de ellos. +Siguiendo con el smil, hay dos formas de hacerlo. +Podemos reducir su mercado. Competir con otra marca en el mercado. +Mostrarles que tenemos un mejor producto. +Para mostrar un mejor producto, cosas como Guantnamo no ayudan. +Hemos hablado de reducir las necesidades subyacentes de tal producto, tales como la pobreza, la injusticia, y cosas as, que ceban el terrorismo. +Tambin podemos criticar el producto, atacar la marca. +Qu hay de heroico en matar a un nio? +Quiz debamos centrarnos en enviar ese mensaje. +Tenemos que destapar los peligros del producto. +No slo nos dirigimos a los terroristas, sino tambin a su pblico, +que comprende tanto a los vendedores, como a los patrocinadores del terrorismo, y tambin a sus consumidores. +Tenemos que llegar a esos hogares. +Ah es donde consiguen seguidores, poder y fuerza. +De ah salen sus consumidores. +Y ah debemos enviar nuestros mensajes. +Lo bsico, entonces, es interactuar con los terroristas, con sus seguidores, etc. +Debemos educarlos, interesarlos, debemos hablar con ellos. +Siguiendo con el smil, piensen en los mtodos. +Cmo vamos a atacar su marca? +Reducir el mercado implicar al gobierno y a la sociedad civil. Les mostraremos nuestra calidad. +Nuestros valores. +Tenemos que practicar lo que predicamos. +Si queremos eliminar la marca... si los terroristas son Coca-Cola y nosotros Pepsi, nadie va a escuchar lo que Pepsi diga sobre Coca-Cola, no nos creern. +Tenemos que encontrar otra manera, y una de las mejores que yo conozco son las vctimas del terrorismo. +Gente que puede decir pblicamente: "Este producto es una mierda. Lo tom y me puse enfermo. +Me quem la mano". Los creeremos. +Veremos sus cicatrices. Nos merecen confianza. +Ya sea con las vctimas, con los gobiernos, las ONG o la reina ayer, en Irlanda del Norte, debemos llegar e implicar a los diferentes estratos del terrorismo. S, tenemos que bailar con el demonio. +Esta es mi parte favorita de la charla. +3, 2, 1. (Ruido de explosin) Muy bien. La seora de la 15J era una terrorista suicida. +Ahora todos somos vctimas del terrorismo. +Los 625 de aqu quedaremos traumatizados de por vida. +Un padre y un hijo se sentaban ah. +El hijo muri, el padre sobrevivi. +El padre se reprochar toda la vida el no haberse sentado en el otro sitio. +Se dar a la bebida y en tres aos probablemente se suicidar. Estadsticas. +Aqu hay una muchacha joven y guapa, que ha sufrido una de las, para m, peores lesiones fsicas y psicolgicas que he visto tras un atentado: la metralla. +Significa que durante los prximos 10-15 aos, cuando est en un restaurante, o en la playa, y se rasque la piel, se arrancar otra pieza de metralla. +Y eso es algo insoportable para la mente. +Aquella seora perdi las piernas en el atentado. +Descubrir que el gobierno le dar una miseria para cuidarse en su situacin +Su hija iba a ir a una de las mejores universidades. Ahora dejar la universidad para cuidar a su madre. +Estamos todos aqu. Los espectadores quedarn traumatizados, pero los asistentes, las vctimas, aprendern verdades dolorosas. +La sociedad se compadece durante un tiempo, pero luego ignora. La sociedad no da lo suficiente. +No cuida a sus vctimas, ni las capacita. Y les mostrar que las vctimas son nuestra mejor arma contra el terrorismo futuro. +Cmo reaccionan hoy da los gobiernos? Ya lo hemos visto. +Utilizan las invasiones militares. +Si el terrorista era gals. Buena suerte, Gales! +La legislacin refleja, la legislacin urgente, ataca los fundamentos de nuestras sociedades. Es un error. +Vamos a extender los prejuicios contra los galeses por Edimburgo, por todo el Reino Unido. +Hoy da, los gobiernos han aprendido de sus errores. +Analizan lo que dije al principio sobre las estrategias asimtricas, visiones ms modernistas, causa y efecto. +Los errores del pasado no se pueden cambiar. +Est en la naturaleza humana. +El miedo y la presin para que hagan algo ser muy grande. Cometern errores. +No siempre acertarn. +Un conocido terrorista irlands lo resumi muy bien: "El gobierno britnico tiene que tener suerte siempre, nosotros tan solo una vez." +Debemos cambiarlo. +Debemos proponernos ser ms dinmicos. +Necesitamos reunir un arsenal de armas no militares para la guerra contra el terrorismo. +Pero los gobiernos no suelen trabajar bien con ideas. +Volvamos a la idea de la marca, antes de la explosin, cuando hablbamos de Coca-cola y Pepsi. +En esa guerra es el terrorismo contra la democracia. +Ellos se ven como guerrilleros por la libertad contra la injusticia, el imperialismo, etc. +Debemos entenderlo como una guerra a muerte. +No solo quieren nuestra sangre y huesos. +Lo que quieren es nuestro espritu cultural y por eso la analoga de la marca es interesante. +Al Qaeda, por ejemplo, era tan solo un producto almacenado que casi nadie conoca. +El 11-S lo lanz al estrellato. El da de estreno con formato para el siglo XXI. Saban lo que hacan. +Tomaron la marca y la abrieron a la creacin de franquicias en los lugares llenos de pobreza, ignorancia e injusticia. +Debemos llegar a ese mercado, pero con nuestras cabezas, no con la fuerza. +Si lo vemos como una marca, o algo similar, no llegaremos al contraterrorismo. +Me gustara hablar brevemente de algunos ejemplos del trabajo que hacemos. +El primero se llama "guerra legal" para mejorar el mundo. +Cuando sugerimos por primera vez someter a los terrorista a acciones civiles, todos nos pensaron locos, disidentes, chiflados. Ahora tiene un nombre y todos lo hacen. +Cuando hay un atentado, todo el mundo denuncia. +Uno de los primeros casos fue el atentado de Omagh. +En 1998 se llev a juicio. +En medio de un proceso de paz, el IRA puso una bomba en Omagh. +No se poda perseguir a los culpables sobre todo por el proceso de paz y otras razones, por el bien comn. +As, si es que lo pueden imaginar, los asesinos de sus hijos y sus maridos compraban en mismo supermercado donde Uds. vivan. +Y algunas vctimas dijeron basta ya. +Se llev a los tribunales y 10 aos despus ganamos. No podemos cantar victoria, porque ahora mismo hay una apelacin, pero tengo confianza. +Funcion? +Funcion no solo porque se hizo justicia donde nunca se haba hecho. +Funcion porque el IRA Autntico y otros grupos terroristas son fuertes porque siempre han estado en desventaja. Cuando las vctimas se convirtieron en los desvalidos, ya no saban qu hacer. +Estaban avergonzados. El nmero de adhesiones baj. +Como consecuencia, dejaron de poner bombas. +Las vctimas se convirtieron en un fantasma persiguiendo al grupo terrorista. +Hay otros ejemplos, como el caso Almog, relacionado un banco que, desde nuestro punto de vista, recompensaba a los terroristas suicidas. +Simplemente tomando medidas, el banco dej de hacerlo y los poderes internacionales que, por razones polticas concretas, no podan resolver este problema, al haber muchos intereses contrapuestos, han podido eliminar las lagunas legales del sistema bancario. +En el caso McDonald, algunas vctimas del IRA Provisional, atacadas con Semtex, que les haba suministrado Gaddafi, los demandaron y provocaron cambios increbles en la nueva Libia. +La nueva Libia ha mostrado compasin hacia las vctimas y se lo tom en serio, iniciando dilogos. +Pero necesitamos mucho ms apoyo para estas ideas, para estas iniciativas sociales +y estos asuntos civiles. +Somalia es un buen caso: la guerra contra la piratera. +Si alguien piensa que se puede luchar contra la piratera o el terrorismo y vencer, se equivoca. +Nosotros intentamos que los piratas se hagan pescadores, +Estas iniciativas son ms baratas que un misil o la vida de cualquier soldado, pero sobre todo al mirar las causas, llevamos la guerra a su origen y no la traemos a nuestro territorio. +Por ltimo, quiero hablar sobre el dilogo. +Las ventajas estn claras. +Educa a los participantes, permite un mejor entendimiento, muestra las fortalezas y debilidades y tambin, como mencionaron otros, la vulnerabilidad compartida produce confianza, y ese proceso se convierte en parte de la normalizacin. +No es un camino fcil. Tras la bomba las vctimas no lo apoyan. +Hay problemas prcticos. +Solo quiero aadir que, siendo razonables, el terrorismo no debera percibirse solamente como una cuestin militar. +Debemos fomentar las respuestas modernas y asimtricas. +No se trata de ser blandos con el terrorismo. +Se trata de luchar con armas actuales. +Debemos fomentar la innovacin. +Los gobiernos no son receptivos. Con ellos no lograremos nada. +El sector privado tiene cierta responsabilidad. +Ahora mismo podramos analizar la situacin y ver cmo podemos apoyar a las vctimas a organizar iniciativas. +Si tuviera que elegir las preguntas que cambiaran nuestra percepcin, nuestra opinin y nuestras respuestas... tenamos que poner una bomba para conseguir lo que queramos? +Aunque sea difcil, debemos preguntrnoslo. +Hemos ignorado alguna injusticia o crisis humanitaria en algn lugar del mundo? +Y si lo que los terroristas quisieran fuera nuestro compromiso contra la injusticia y la pobreza? +Y si las bomba fueran simplemente despertadores? +Y si las bombas hubieran explotado porque no haba suficientes herramientas para el dilogo y la interaccin? +Sobre lo que no hay ninguna duda es que debemos ser menos reactivos y ms proactivos. Me gustara dejarles con una idea, una cuestin provocadora para que reflexionen. Para responder tendrn que aliarse con el diablo. +A ella se han enfrentado muchos grandes pensadores y escritores: y si la sociedad avanza gracias a las crisis? +Y si necesitamos el terrorismo para avanzar y mejorar? +Como los motivos de Bulgakov, la imagen de Jess y el demonio de la mano en Getseman, a la luz de la luna. +Significara que los humanos, para sobrevivir y desarrollarse, hablando con espritu darwiniano, deben aliarse con el demonio. +Muchos dicen que fueron los Rolling Stones los que vencieron al comunismo. Buena teora. +Quiz aqu tambin puedan hacer algo. +Gracias. +Bruno Giussani: Gracias. +Beau Lotto: Este juego es muy simple. +Hay que leer lo que se ve. S? +Contar para que todos lo hagamos juntos. +Bueno, uno, dos, tres. Audiencia: pueden leer esto? +BL: Asombroso. Qu tal esta? Uno, dos, tres. Audiencia: No ests leyendo esto. +BL: Muy bien. Uno, dos, tres. Si fuera portugus, s? Qu tal esta? Uno, dos, tres. +Audiencia: Qu estn leyendo? +BL: Qu estn leyendo? No hay palabras all. +Dije, lean lo que ven, s? +Dice literalmente: "Q e tas le endo?" S? +Deberan haber dicho eso. S? Por qu ocurre esto? +Porque la percepcin se basa en la experiencia. +S? El cerebro toma informacin sin sentido y le da significado, por eso nunca veremos qu hay all, nunca vemos la informacin, siempre vemos lo que fue til de ver en el pasado. +S? Por eso, en materia de percepcin, somos todos como esta rana. +S? Tiene informacin. Genera comportamiento til. Hombre: Ou, ou! BL: A veces si las cosas no salen como queremos nos enojamos un poco, no? +Pero aqu estamos hablando de percepcin, s? +Y la percepcin sustenta todo lo que pensamos, sabemos, creemos, esperamos, soamos, lo que vestimos, el amor, todo empieza con la percepcin. +Pero si la percepcin se basa en nuestra historia, significa que slo responderemos en funcin de lo hecho con anterioridad. +Pero en realidad eso es un gran problema, porque, cmo podemos ver otra cosa? +Quiero contarles una historia respecto de ver algo de manera diferente y cmo todas las percepciones nuevas empiezan igual. +Empiezan con una pregunta. +El problema de las preguntas es que generan incertidumbre. +Y la incertidumbre es algo muy malo. En trminos evolutivos es algo malo. Si uno no est seguro de estar ante un predador, es muy tarde. +De acuerdo? Incluso el mareo es consecuencia de la incertidumbre. +S? Si uno baja en un bote, el oido interno nos dice que nos movemos. Los ojos, dado que se mueven en relacin al bote, dicen que estoy en reposo. +El cerebro no puede procesar la incertidumbre de esa informacin y se enferma. +La pregunta "por qu?" es una de las cosas ms peligrosas, porque genera incertidumbre. +Y la irona es que la nica forma de hacer algo nuevo es moverse en ese espacio. +Entonces, cmo podemos hacer algo nuevo? Afortunadamente, la evolucin nos ha dado una respuesta, s? +Y nos permite abordar incluso las preguntas ms difciles. Las mejores preguntas son aquellas que generan ms incertidumbre. +Ponen en duda las cosas que ya pensamos verdaderas, s? +Es fcil formular preguntas sobre el origen de la vida, o qu hay ms all del universo, pero cuestionarse lo que uno ya piensa que es correcto realmente es adentrarse en ese espacio. +Cul es la respuesta de la evolucin al problema de la incerteza? +El juego. +Pero el juego no es simplemente un proceso. Los expertos dirn que en realidad es una forma de ser. +El juego es una de las aventuras humanas en las que se celebra la incertidumbre. La incertidumbre hace del juego algo divertido. +S? Se adapta al cambio. Verdad? Abre posibilidades, y es algo cooperativo. Es nuestra forma de relacionarnos socialmente, y tiene una motivacin intrnseca. Eso significa que jugamos por jugar. El juego es su propia recompensa. +Ahora, si vemos estas cinco formas de ser, son exactamente las mismas formas de ser necesarias para ser un buen cientfico. +La ciencia no se define en la seccin del mtodo de un artculo. +En realidad es una forma de ser, que est aqu, y esto es verdad para todo lo creativo. +Si al jugar le aadimos reglas, tenemos el juego. +Eso en realidad es un experimento. +As, con estas dos ideas la ciencia es una forma de ser y los experimentos son un juego, nos preguntamos, todos podemos ser cientficos? +Y qu mejor que preguntarle a 25 nios de 8 a 10 aos. +Son expertos en juegos. Llev mi equipo a una pequea escuela de Devon, y el objetivo era no slo hacer que los nios vean la ciencia de otra manera, sino que, mediante el proceso cientfico, se vean a s mismos de modo diferente, s? +El primer paso fue plantear una pregunta. +Tengo que decir que no recibimos financiamiento para el estudio porque los cientficos dijeron que los nios pequeos no podan contribuir de manera til a la ciencia, y los maestros dijeron que los nios no podran hacerlo. +As que lo hicimos de todos modos, s? Claro. +Estas son algunas preguntas. Las puse en letra chica para que no se molesten en leerlas. La cuestin es que cinco de las preguntas surgidas de los nios fueron en realidad la base de la publicacin cientfica en los ltimos 5 a 15 aos, s? +Es decir, preguntaron cosas significativas para los cientficos expertos. +En este punto quiero compartir escenario con alguien muy especial, s? +Ella fue una joven de los que participaron en este estudio y es ahora una de las publicadoras cientficas ms jvenes del mundo. S? Lo har ahora, en cuanto suba al escenario, ser la oradora ms joven de TED. S? +Tanto la ciencia como hacerse preguntas requiere coraje. +Ella es la personificacin del coraje dado que se parar aqu y hablar para todos. +Por eso, Amy, puedes venir, por favor? Amy me ayudar a contarles la historia de lo que llamamos "Proyecto Abejas de Blackawton" pero antes ella les contar la pregunta que se les ocurri. Adelante, Amy. +Amy O'Toole: Gracias, Beau. Pensamos que era fcil ver el vnculo entre humanos y simios en la forma de pensar, porque nos parecemos. +Pero nos preguntbamos si existira un vnculo con otros animales. Sorprendera si humanos y abejas pensaran de forma similar, porque parecen muy diferentes de nosotros. +As, nos preguntbamos si humanos y abejas pueden resolver problemas complejos de la misma manera. +Tambin queramos saber si las abejas pueden adaptarse a nuevas situaciones usando reglas y condiciones previamente aprendidas. Y si las abejas pueden pensar como nosotros? +Bueno, sera sorprendente, porque hablamos de un insecto que tiene slo un milln de clulas cerebrales. +AO: El acertijo que pensamos era una regla si-entonces. +Le pedimos a las abejas que aprendan no slo a ir a cierto color, sino a ir a cierto color de flor, slo si est en determinado patrn. +Slo reciban premio si iban a las flores amarillas, si las flores amarillas estaban rodeadas de azul, o si las flores azules estaban rodeadas de amarillo. +Hay muchas reglas diferentes que las abejas pueden aprender para resolver el problema. La pregunta interesante es, cul? +Lo realmente interesante de este proyecto fue que ni nosotros ni Beau tenamos idea de si iba a funcionar o no. +Era algo completamente nuevo y nadie lo haba hecho antes, tampoco los adultos. BL: Incluso los maestros, y eso era muy difcil de asumir para ellos. +Es fcil para un cientfico no tener ni idea de lo que est ocurriendo, porque de eso se trata el laboratorio, pero para un maestro no saber qu ocurrir al final del da... gran parte del mrito corresponde a Dave Strudwick, colaborador de este proyecto. S? +No voy a entrar en los detalles del estudio porque pueden leerlo, pero el siguiente paso es la observacin. Por eso aqu hay algunos estudiantes haciendo observaciones. Estn registrando datos de la posicin de las abejas. +Dave Strudwick: Lo que haremos... Alumna: 5C. +David Strudwick: Sigue pasando por aqu? Alumna: As es. +Dave Strudwick: O sea que le sigues el rastro a cada una. Alumna: Henry, puedes ayudarme? +BL: Puedes ayudarme, Henry?" Qu buen cientfico dice eso, no? +Alumna: Hay dos all. +Y tres aqu. +BL: S? Conseguimos nuestras observaciones. Obtuvimos los datos. +Hicimos clculos simples, promedios, etc., etc. +Y ahora queremos compartir. Ese es el paso siguiente. +As que lo redactaremos e intentaremos enviarlo para publicar. S? Tenemos que redactarlo. +Para eso, claro, fuimos al pub. S? El de la izquierda es mo, bien? Les dije que un artculo tiene cuatro secciones diferentes: introduccin, mtodos, resultados, discusin. +La introduccin dice cul es la pregunta y por qu. +Los mtodos, qu hiciste. Los resultados, cul fue la observacin. +Y la discusin es a quin le importa, s? +Eso, en esencia, es un artculo cientfico. Los nios me dieron las palabras, s? Yo las puse en una narrativa, de modo que este artculo est escrito en lenguaje de nios. +Esta es la portada. Hay varios autores. +Los alumnos en negrita tienen de 8 a 10 aos. +El primer autor es Blackawton Primary School porque de ser citada dira "Blackawton et al", y no una persona. Lo enviamos a una revista pblica y dice, entre otras cosas, lo siguiente: +Larry Maloney, experto en visin dijo: "El artculo es magnfico. +El trabajo se publicara de estar hecho por adultos". +Entonces, qu hicimos? Lo enviamos nuevamente al editor. +Dijeron que no. +As que le pedimos a Larry y Natalie Hempel que escribieran un comentario sobre los hallazgos cientficos, s? colocando las referencias, y lo enviamos a "Biology Letters". +All fue revisado por cinco rbitros independientes, y fue publicado. Bien? Nos llev cuatro meses hacerlo y dos aos publicarlo. Ciencia tpica, verdad? Esto hizo de Amy y sus amigos los cientficos ms jvenes del mundo, que han publicado. +Cul fue la respuesta? +Bueno, se public dos das antes de Navidad, tuvo 30 000 descargas el primer da, s? +Fue elegida por los editores cientficos, en la mejor revista de ciencias. +Esta disponible gratuitamente de por vida en "Biology Letters". +Es el nico artculo que siempre estar disponible gratuitamente en esta revista. +El ao pasado fue el segundo artculo ms descargado en "Biology Letters", y la reaccin no slo es de los cientficos y maestros sino tambin del pblico. +Les leer una. +"Hace poco le 'Abejas de Blackawton'. No tengo palabras para expresar exactamente lo que siento en este momento. +Lo que han hecho es real, verdadero y asombroso. +La curiosidad, el inters, la inocencia y el fervor es lo elemental y lo ms importante para la ciencia. +Quin ms puede tener estas cualidades que los nios? +Por favor, felicite a sus alumnos de mi parte". +Me gustara concluir con una metfora fsica. +Puedo hacerlo contigo? Oh, vamos, ven. S, s. Bueno. +La ciencia implica asumir riesgos, y esto es un riesgo increble, no? Para m, no para l. S? Porque lo hemos hecho slo una vez antes. Y te gusta la tecnologa, no? +Shimon Schocken: S, pero tambin me gusto yo. +BL: Esto es el eptome de la tecnologa. Bien, vamos. +Ahora... Bien. Haremos una pequea demostracin, s? +Tienes que cerrar los ojos, y tienes que sealar dnde oyes mis aplausos. S? +Bueno, qu tal si todos gritan? Uno, dos, tres... +Audiencia: Brillante. Ahora abre tus ojos. Lo haremos una vez ms. +Griten todos por all. De dnde viene el sonido? Muchas gracias. Cul es la idea? La idea es qu hace la ciencia por nosotros. +S? Normalmente vamos por la vida respondiendo pero si alguna vez queremos hacer algo diferente, tenemos que adentrarnos en la incertidumbre. Cuando abri los ojos pudo ver el mundo de una nueva forma. +Eso nos ofrece la ciencia. Nos da la posibilidad de adentrarnos en la incertidumbre mediante el juego, s? +Ahora, creo que la verdadera educacin cientfica debera consistir en darle voz a la gente y permitirle expresar esa voz, por eso le ped a Amy que sea la ltima voz en esta breve historia. +Amy? +AO: Este proyecto fue apasionante para m porque le dio vida al proceso de descubrimiento y me mostr que todos, me refiero a cada uno, tenemos el potencial de descubrir algo nuevo, y que una pequea pregunta puede llevar a un gran descubrimiento. +Cambiar la manera en que una persona piensa algo puede ser fcil o difcil. Todo depende de la forma en que la persona se sienta respecto del cambio. +Pero cambiar mi manera de pensar en la ciencia fue sorprendentemente fcil. Una vez que empezamos a jugar y luego a pensar los acertijos me di cuenta que la ciencia no es slo un tema aburrido y que todos podemos descubrir algo nuevo. +Slo necesitamos una oportunidad. Mi oportunidad lleg en forma de Beau, y del Proyecto Abeja de Blackawton. +Gracias. BL: Muchas gracias. +En 1975, conoc al profesor Carlo Pedretti en Florencia, entonces era mi profesor de historia del arte y hoy es un especialista en Leonardo da Vinci de renombre mundial. +l me pidi si poda encontrar la va tecnolgica para desvelar un misterio de cinco siglos de antigedad referente a una obra maestra perdida de Leonardo da Vinci, la "Batalla de Anghiari", que se supone se encuentra en la Sala del Cinquecento en el Palazzo Vecchio, en Florencia. +A mediados de los aos 70 no haba muchas oportunidades para un bioingeniero como yo, particularmente en Italia, as que decid, con algunos investigadores de EE.UU. y de la Universidad de Florencia, empezar a sondear los murales decorados por Vasari en los largos muros de la Sala del Cinquecento en busca del Leonardo perdido. +Por desgracia, en ese momento no sabamos que ese no era exactamente el lugar donde debamos buscar, debamos profundizar ms, y por eso se detuvo la investigacin y se retom recin en el 2000, gracias al inters y al entusiasmo de la familia Guinness. +Tambin aprendimos que a Vasari se le encomend remodelar la Sala del Cinquecento entre 1560 y 1574; fue a pedido del Gran Duque Csimo I de la familia Medici. Hubo al menos dos casos en los que se salvaron obras maestras, especficamente colocando un muro de ladrillo frente a ella y dejando un pequeo hueco de aire. +Aqu vemos una, Masaccio, la iglesia de Santa Maria Novella en Florencia, as que dijimos, quiz Visari hizo lo mismo en el caso de esta gran obra de arte de Leonardo, dado que era un gran admirador de Leonardo da Vinci. +Fue as que construimos unas antenas de radio muy sofisticadas para sondear ambos muros en busca de huecos de aire. +Y encontramos muchos en el panel derecho del muro del este, un hueco de aire y es all donde creemos que debera estar "La batalla de Anghiari", o al menos la parte que conocemos, denominada "La lucha por la norma". +A partir de all, por desgracia, en 2004 el proyecto se detuvo por varias razones polticas. +As que decid regresar a mi alma mater, y en la Universidad de California, en San Diego, propuse abrir un centro de investigacin de ciencias de la ingeniera y patrimonio cultural. +Y en 2007, creamos CISA3 como centro de investigacin del patrimonio cultural, especficamente del arte, la arquitectura y la arqueologa. Empezaron a llegar los estudiantes y empezamos a crear tecnologas, porque era lo que necesitbamos bsicamente para avanzar y volver a hacer trabajos de campo. +Volvimos a la Sala del Cinquecento en 2011, esta vez con un gran grupo de estudiantes, y mi colega el profesor Falko Kuester que ahora es director del CISA3 y regresamos justo a donde sabamos que haba que buscar para ver si an haba quedado algo. +Estamos en busca de la obra de arte ms importante jams alcanzada en la historia de la humanidad. +De hecho, este es, con mucho, el encargo ms importante encomendado a Leonardo, y gracias a esta gran obra maestra se le consider el artista ms influyente de la poca. +Tiene an mucho barniz, varios retoques. Un poco ms de limpieza y queda muy visible. +Pero adems, la tecnologa ha ayudado a escribir nuevas pginas de nuestra historia, o al menos a actualizar pginas de nuestras historias. +Por ejemplo, "Dama con unicornio", otra pintura de Rafael, Uds. ven el unicornio. +Se ha dicho y escrito mucho del unicornio, pero si realizamos una radiografa del unicornio, es un cachorrito. +Ese resultado fue bueno. A veces no es tan bueno, as que, de nuevo, la autenticidad y la ciencia pueden ir juntas y cambiar el modo, sin hacer atribuciones, pero al menos sentar las bases para una atribucin ms objetiva, o mejor dicho, menos subjetiva, que la de hoy en da. +Esta result ser la pintura ms importante que tenemos en Italia de Leonardo da Vinci y miren estas hermosas imgenes de rostros que nadie ha visto en cinco siglos. Miren estos retratos. +Son magnficos. Se ve a Leonardo en accin. +Se ve la genialidad de su creacin, directamente en la capa base del panel, y ver esta genialidad y encontrar -dira ms bien- un elefante. Gracias a este elefante, aparecieron ms de 70 imgenes nuevas, nunca vistas en siglos. +Fue una revelacin. Llegamos a entender y demostrar que el revestimiento marrn que vemos hoy no pertenece a Leonardo da Vinci, que nos dej slo los otros dibujos, que durante cinco siglos no pudimos ver y hoy lo vemos gracias a la tecnologa. +Bien, la tableta. Bueno, pensamos, tenemos el placer, el privilegio de ver todo esto, de hallar estos descubrimientos, y si lo compartimos con los dems? +Por eso pensamos en una aplicacin de realidad aumentada en una tableta. Les mostrar un simulacro de lo que podramos hacer, cualquiera de nosotros, en un museo. +Supongamos que vamos a un museo con una tableta, s? +Y apuntamos con la cmara de la tableta a la pintura que nos interesa ver, por ejemplo sta. +S? Har clic, apretar pausa, y ahora vuelvo a Uds. y en el momento en que la imagen o -debera decir la cmara-- captur la pintura, se cargaron las imgenes que vieron all arriba en el dibujo. As que vean. +Podemos, como decamos, ampliarla. Y luego desplazarnos. +S? Vayamos a descubrir el elefante. +Otro concepto es la historia clnica digital, que suena muy obvia si hablamos de pacientes reales pero si se trata de obras de arte, desafortunadamente, nunca lo hemos considerado. +Bueno nuevamente creemos que esto debera ser el comienzo, el primer paso hacia la conservacin real que nos permita realmente explorar y entender todo lo relacionado al estado de nuestra conservacin, la tcnica, los materiales y tambin si, cundo y por qu deberamos restaurar o, mejor dicho, intervenir el entorno que circunda a la pintura. +Nuestra visin es redescubrir el espritu del Renacimiento; crear una nueva disciplina en la que la ingeniera del patrimonio cultural sea en realidad un smbolo de la amalgama entre arte y ciencia. +Definitivamente necesitamos una nueva generacin de ingenieros dispuestos a hacer este tipo de trabajo y redescubrir estos valores, estos valores culturales que tanto necesitamos, en especial hoy. +Si queremos resumirlo en una palabra, esto es lo que tratamos de hacer: +tratamos de darle un futuro a nuestro pasado para tener un futuro. +En tanto vivamos una vida de curiosidad y pasin, habr un poco de Leonardo en cada uno de nosotros. Gracias. +Las empresas estn perdiendo el control. +Lo que sucede en Wall Street ya no se queda en Wall Street. +Lo que pasa en Las Vegas termina en YouTube. La reputacin es muy inestable. La fidelidad es inconstante. +Los equipos directivos se distancian cada vez ms de su personal. Una encuesta reciente encontr que el 27 % de los ejecutivos cree que su empresa es una inspiracin para los empleados. +Sin embargo, en la misma encuesta, solo el 4 % de los empleados est de acuerdo con eso. +Las empresas estn perdiendo el control de sus clientes y sus empleados. +Pero eso sucede realmente? +Soy especialista en mercadeo y por eso s que nunca he tenido el control. +Su marca es lo que la gente dice de usted cuando no est en la sala, como dice el dicho. +La hiperconectividad y la transparencia permiten que las empresas estn en esa sala ahora, todo el tiempo. +Pueden escuchar y unirse a la conversacin. +De hecho, tienen ms control sobre la prdida de control que nunca antes. +Pueden planificarlo, pero cmo? +En primer lugar, pueden dar ms control a los empleados y clientes. +Pueden colaborar con ellos para generar ideas, conocimientos, contenidos, diseos y productos. +Les pueden dar ms control sobre los precios, que es lo que hizo la banda Radiohead con su lbum de libre oferta en lnea In Rainbows. Los compradores podan fijar el precio, pero la oferta era para un grupo selecto y solo por un perodo limitado. +Las ventas de ese lbum excedieron las de los otros discos del grupo. +La compaa danesa de chocolates Anthon Berg abri una denominada tienda generosa en Copenhague. +Pidi a sus clientes que pagaran el chocolate con solo la promesa de hacerle una buena accin a un ser querido. +Convirti transacciones en interacciones, y generosidad en una moneda. +Las empresas incluso pueden dar control a los piratas informticos. +Cuando Microsoft lanz Kinect, el complemento de reconocimiento de movimiento para su consola de juegos Xbox, inmediatamente atrajo la atencin de los piratas informticos. +Microsoft primero luch contra ellos, pero luego cambi de tcnica cuando se dio cuenta de que apoyar activamente a esta comunidad tena sus ventajas. +El sentido de copropiedad, la publicidad gratuita, el valor aadido, todos contribuyeron a impulsar las ventas. +El mayor poder que se les da a los clientes se obtiene al pedirles que no compren. +La tienda de ropa deportiva Patagonia alent a sus posibles compradores a usar eBay para sus productos usados, y tambin a revender sus zapatos antes de comprar otros nuevos. +En una postura an ms radical contra el consumismo, la compaa us la una publicidad No compre esta chaqueta durante el apogeo de la temporada de compras. +Esto pudo afectar sus ventas a corto plazo, pero crearon lealtad duradera a largo plazo basada en valores compartidos. +La investigacin ha demostrado que cuando a los empleados se les da ms control sobre su trabajo, son ms felices y ms productivos. +La empresa brasilea Semco Group es conocida por permitir que sus empleados establezcan sus propios horarios de trabajo e incluso sus salarios. +Hulu y Netflix, entre otras empresas, tienen polticas libres sobre las vacaciones. +Las empresas no solo pueden dar ms control a la gente, tambin pueden darles menos control. +La sabidura tradicional de los negocios dice que la confianza se obtiene gracias a un comportamiento previsible, pero cuando todo es homogneo y normalizado, cmo crear experiencias significativas? +Dar menos control a la gente podra ser una manera maravillosa para contrarrestar la abundancia de eleccin y hacerlos ms felices. +Tomemos por ejemplo el servicio de viajes Nextpedition +que convierte el viaje en un juego con giros sorprendentes durante el viaje. +para decirle al viajero a dnde va, y le informa justo a tiempo. Asimismo, la compaa area holandesa KLM lanz una campaa sorpresa en la que entreg pequeos regalos a los viajeros, aparentemente al azar, en el camino a sus destinos. +La empresa britnica Interflora monitore Twitter en busca de usuarios que tenan un mal da y luego les envi un ramo de flores de cortesa. +Hay algo que puedan hacer las empresas para que sus empleados sientan menos presin por el tiempo? S. +Obligarlos a ayudar a otros. +Un estudio reciente sugiere que los empleados que realizan tareas altruistas ocasionales durante el da aumentan su sentido de productividad general. +En Frog, la empresa en la que trabajo, organizamos breves reuniones internas que congregan a empleados antiguos y nuevos para ayudarlos a conocerse rpidamente. +Al aplicar un proceso estricto, les damos menos control, menos opciones, pero logramos ms y mejores interacciones sociales. +Las empresas son hacedoras de su propia fortuna y, como todos nosotros, estn expuestas a los hallazgos afortunados inesperados. +Esto debera hacerlas ms humildes, ms vulnerables y ms humanas. +Finalmente, como la hiperconectividad y la transparencia exponen el comportamiento de las empresas a plena luz del da, la autenticidad es el nico recurso para el xito. +O, como deca el bailarn de ballet Alonzo King: Lo que es interesante acerca de usted es usted. +Para que la verdadera esencia de las empresas se haga evidente, la apertura es fundamental, pero la apertura radical no es una solucin, porque cuando todo es transparente, nada lo es. +Una sonrisa es una puerta que est medio abierta y medio cerrada escribi la autora Jennifer Egan. +Las empresas pueden dar a sus empleados y clientes ms o menos control. Pueden preocuparse de cunta apertura es buena para ellos y de lo que debe mantenerse en privado. +O simplemente pueden sonrer y permanecer atentos a todas las posibilidades. +Gracias. +Estoy aqu para hablarles acerca de qu tan globalizados estamos, qu tan globalizados no estamos, y por qu es importante ser precisos al hacer este tipo de afirmaciones. +La otra cosa que quisiera agregar es que este no es un nuevo punto de vista. +Entonces, es claro que David Livingstone estaba un poquito adelantado a su tiempo pero s que parece til preguntarnos, "exactamente, Cun globales somos?" +antes de pensar dnde vamos a partir de aqu. +La mejor manera que encontr de tratar que la gente se tome en serio la idea de que el mundo podra no ser plano, podra no estar ni cerca de ser plano, es con algo de informacin. +As que una de las cosas que he hecho durante los ltimos aos es realmente reunir informacin sobre qu podra pasar dentro de las fronteras nacionales o fuera de ellas, y he mirado al componente transfronterizo como un porcentaje del total. +No presentar toda la informacin que tengo hoy aqu pero djenme darles ejemplos. +Hablar un poco acerca de un tipo de flujo de informacin, un tipo de flujo de gente, un tipo de flujo de capital, y, por supuesto, el comercio de productos y servicios. +As que empecemos con el ya conocido servicio de telefona. +De todos los minutos de llamadas de telfono en el mundo el ao pasado, qu porcentaje creen que corresponde a llamadas transfronterizas? +Elijan un porcentaje en sus mentes. +La respuesta resulta ser un 2%. +Si incluimos telefona por Internet, seramos capaces de empujar esta cifra a un 6 7%, pero esto no est remotamente cercano a lo que la gente tiende a estimar. +O fijmonos en la gente que se mueve a travs de las fronteras. +Una cosa en particular que tendramos que mirar, en trminos de flujo de gente a largo plazo, es qu porcentaje de la poblacin mundial se corresponde con la primera generacin de inmigrantes +Nuevamente, elijan un porcentaje. +Resulta ser un poco ms alto. +Es de aproximadamente un 3%. +O piensen acerca de la inversiones. Tomen todas las inversiones reales que ocurrieron en el mundo en el 2010. +Qu porcentaje de eso corresponde a la inversin directa extranjera? +No llega al 10%. +Y por ltimo, el dato estadstico que sospecho que varias personas en esta sala han visto: la relacin de las exportaciones con el PIB. +Si miran las estadsticas oficiales, ellas tpicamente indican que est un poco por encima del 30%. +Pero, hay un gran problema con las estadsticas oficiales, ya que si, por ejemplo, un fabricante de piezas japons enva algo a China para ser puesto en un iPod, y luego el iPod se enva a EE.UU., esa pieza termina siendo contada mltiples veces. +As que est bastante claro que si miramos estos nmeros o todos los otros nmeros de los que hablo en mi libro, "Mundo 3.0", que estamos muy, pero muy lejos de la referencia del efecto sin fronteras, lo que implicara niveles de internacionalizacin en el orden del 85, 90, 95%. +As que claramente, los autores de mentalidad apocalptica han exagerado el caso. +Pero no son solo los apocalpticos, como me gusta llamarlos, los que estn predispuestos a este tipo de exageraciones. +Tambin he pasado tiempo estudiando a las audiencias en diferentes partes del mundo acerca de qu conjeturas tienen sobre estos nmeros +Djenme compartir con Uds. el resultado de una encuesta que el "Harvard Business Review" fue tan amable de realizar entre sus lectores en cuanto a cules eran realmente las predicciones de la gente sobre estas medidas. +Un par de observaciones destacan para mi en esta diapositiva. +En primer lugar, se sugiere que hay algn error. +Bien. En segundo lugar, estos errores son muy grandes. Para cuatro cantidades cuyos valores promedio son menores de 10%, tenemos a gente suponiendo niveles tres, o cuatro veces mayores. +A pesar de que soy un economista, para m este es un error bastante grande. +Y en tercer lugar, esto no est limitado a los lectores del "Harvard Business Review". +Especialmente porque sospecho que algunos de Uds. an siguen un poco escpticos respecto a estas reclamaciones, creo que es importante pasar un poco ms de tiempo pensando acerca del porqu somos propensos a la globatonera. +Se me vienen un par de razones a la cabeza. +En primer lugar, hay una escasez real de datos en el debate. +Y esto hizo que me rascara la cabeza, porque a medida que repasaba los cientos de pginas de su libro, no poda encontrar una sola cifra, grfico, tabla, referencia o nota a pie de pgina. +As que mi punto es, no he presentado muchos datos aqu para convercerles de que estoy en lo cierto, pero me gustara pedirles que vayan y busquen sus propios datos para tratar y corroborar si alguno de esos puntos de vista sacados de la manga con los cuales nos bombardean son en realidad correctos. +As que la escasez de datos en el debate es una razn. +La segunda razn tiene que ver con la presin del grupo. +La perspectiva era, aqu esta este pobre profesor. +Claramente ha estado en una cueva durante los ltimos 20.000 aos. +Realmente no tiene idea de lo que realmente est pasando en el mundo. +Prueben esto con sus amigos y conocidos, si lo desean. Vern que est muy de moda hablar acerca del mundo siendo uno, etc. +Si hacen preguntas acerca de esa formulacin, sern considerados una antigedad. +Y luego, la razn final, que menciono, especialmente a una audiencia TED, con cierto miedo, tiene que ver con lo que yo llamo "tecno-trances". +Como me hacen esta pregunta muy frecuentemente pens que debera investigar un poco acerca de Facebook. +Porque, en cierto modo, es el tipo de tecnologa ideal sobre la que pensar. Tericamente, hace que establecer amistades a travs de medio mundo sea tan fcil como hacerlo con el vecino de al lado. +Qu porcentaje de los amigos que la gente tiene en Facebook est realmente localizada en pases diferentes a aquellos donde se encuentra la gente que estamos analizando? +La respuesta est entre un 10% y un 15%. +Nada despreciable, entonces no vivimos en un mundo enteramente local o nacional, pero muy lejos del 95% que uno esperara, y la razn de esto es muy simple. +Nosotros no formamos amistades al azar, o espero que no sea as, en Facebook. La tecnologa est sobrepuesta en una matriz de relaciones nuestras preexistentes, y esas relaciones son lo que la tecnologa no termina de desplazar. Esas relaciones son el porqu tenemos bastante menos del 95% de nuestros amigos que se encuentran en pases diferentes al que habitamos. +Todo esto importa? O es la globatonera solo una manera inofensiva de hacer que la gente preste ms atencin a cuestiones relacionadas a la globalizacin? +Me gustara sugerir que realmente, la globatonera puede ser muy daina para la salud. +En primer lugar, reconocer que el vaso est solo un 10% a 20% lleno es decisivo para ver que hay potencial para ganancias adicionales resultado de integraciones adicionales, mientras que si pensamos que ya lo hemos logrado, no habr ninguna razn individual para seguir esforzndonos. +Es como si no tuviramos una conferencia sobre apertura radical si pensramos que ya estamos totalmente abiertos a todo el tipo de influencias acerca de las cuales se est hablando en esta conferencia. +As que ser precisos acerca de cuan limitados son los niveles de globalizacin es crtico para poder darnos cuenta que todava hay lugar para algo ms, algo que contribuir an ms al bienestar global. +Lo que me lleva a mi segundo punto. +Evitar la exageracin tambin es muy til porque reduce y en algunos casos revierte alguno de los miedos que la gente tiene acerca de la globalizacin. +As es que yo me paso la mayor parte de mi libro "Mundo 3.0" trabajando a travs de una letana de errores de mercado y miedos que tiene la gente que teme que la globalizacin vaya a irse fuera de control. +Obviamente no podr hacer eso con Uds. hoy, as que djenme que les presente dos titulares como ilustracin de lo que tengo en mente. +Piensen acerca de Francia y el debate actual acerca de la inmigracin. +Cuando preguntan a la gente en Francia cul es el porcentaje de inmigrantes en la poblacin francesa, la respuesta es de aproximandamente 24%. Esa es su suposicin. +Quizs si se dan cuenta de que el nmero real es de solo 8% eso ayudara a enfriar algo el discurso sobrecalentado que vemos acerca del tema de la inmigracin. +Lo tranquilizador de esta encuesta en particular fue que, cuando se le indic a la gente cuan lejos sus estimaciones estaban de los valores reales, algunos de ellos, no todos, se mostraron ms dispuestos a considerar un incremento en la ayuda exterior. +As que la ayuda exterior es en realidad una gran manera de resumir todo aqu, porque si lo piensan, lo que he estado hablando hoy es esta idea muy polmica entre economistas de que la mayora de las cosas son influenciadas por sesgos domsticos. +"La ayuda exterior es la mayor ayuda a la gente pobre", es la expresin ms sesgada a nivel domstico que se pueda encontrar. +Si nos fijamos en los pases de la OECD (Organizacin para la Cooperacin y Desarrollo Econmico) y cunto gastan por cada persona pobre en sus pases y lo comparan con cunto gastan por cada persona pobre en pases pobres, el ratio - Branko Milanovic del Banco Mundial hizo los clculos - resulta ser de unos 30.000 a 1. +Ahora, por supuesto, alguno de nosotros, si somos realmente cosmopolitas, nos gustara ver bajar ese ratio a un 1 a 1. +Me gustara sugerir que no necesitamos aspirar a eso para lograr un progreso sustancial con respecto a donde estamos ahora. +Si simplemente bajamos ese ratio a 15.000 a 1, conseguiramos llegar a esos objetivos que acordamos en la Cumbre de Ro de hace 20 aos, y que la cumbre que termin la semana pasada no logr avanzar. +As que en resumen, mientras la apertura radical es genial, dado lo cerrados que somos, incluso una apertura gradual puede hacer que las cosas mejoren dramticamente. Muchas gracias. +rase una vez, el mundo era una grande y disfuncional familia. +Estaba dirigida por los grandes y poderosos padres, y las personas eran indefensos y desesperados nios traviesos. +Si alguno de los nios ms problemticos cuestionaba la autoridad de los padres, le regaaban. +Si exploraban en la habitacin de sus padres, o incluso en los archivadores secretos, se les castigaba, y se les deca que por su propio bien no deban volver a entrar jams. +Entonces, un da, un hombre lleg al pueblo con cajas y cajas de documentos secretos robados de la habitacin de los padres. +"Mirad qu os han ocultado," dijo. +Los nios miraron dentro y se asombraron. +Haba mapas y actas de reuniones en las que los padres se insultaban entre ellos. +Se comportaban igual que los nios. +Y tambin se equivocaban, igual que los nios. +La nica diferencia era que sus errores estaban en los archivadores secretos. +Pero haba una nia en el pueblo que crea que no deberan estar en los archivadores secretos, o si lo estaban, que debera haber una ley que permitiera el acceso a los nios. +Y se propuso hacer que fuera as. +Pues bueno, yo soy la nia de la historia, y los documentos secretos en los que estaba interesada se guardaban en este edificio, el Parlamento Britnico, y los datos que quera obtener eran los recibos de gastos de los miembros del Parlamento. +Crea que era una cuestin bsica en una democracia. Tampoco les estaba pidiendo el cdigo de acceso a un bnker nuclear, o nada parecido, pero por el nivel de resistencia al que me enfrent por esta peticin de Libertad de Informacin, pensaran que les ped algo similar. +As que luch durante cinco aos, y fue una de las varias centenas de peticiones que hice, no... no iba... Hey, miren, sinceramente, no era mi objetivo revolucionar el Parlamento Britnico. +No era mi intencin. Solo hice estas peticiones como parte de la investigacin para mi primer libro. +Pero acab siendo una muy larga batalla legal y all estaba yo, tras cinco aos luchando contra el Parlamento frente a tres de los jueces ms eminentes de la Corte Suprema britnica esperando la resolucin sobre si el Parlamento deba o no hacer pblicos estos datos. +Y tengo que confesar que no tena muchas esperanzas porque conozco al gobierno. Pens, siempre se mantienen unidos. No tendr suerte. +Pues mira, saben qu? Gan. Hurra. . Bueno, esta no es la historia exacta, porque el problema fue que el Parlamento retras y retras la publicacin de los datos y entonces intentaron cambiar la ley con carcter retrospectivo para que ya no les afectara. +La ley de transparencia que haban aprobado anteriormente era aplicable al resto de la poblacin, e intentaron mantenerla para que no les incluyera a ellos. +As que gracias. Bueno, les cuento esta historia porque no es exclusiva de Gran Bretaa. +Nos estamos acercando a la democratizacin de la informacin y ya he estado en este campo bastante tiempo. +Tengo una confesin ligeramente avergonzante: Incluso cuando an era una nia, tena libros para espiar y sola observar lo que hacan mis vecinos y lo apuntaba. +Quieren participar en las decisiones que se hacen en su nombre y con su dinero. Esta democratizacin de la informacin es lo que considero la Ilustracin de la informacin, y comparte muchos de sus principios con la primera Ilustracin. +Se trata de averiguar la verdad, no porque alguien diga que es verdad, "porque lo digo yo". +No, se trata de averiguar la verdad basada en lo que se puede ver y comprobar. +Esto es lo que, en la primera Ilustracin, llev a cuestionarse el derecho de los reyes, el derecho divino de los reyes a gobernar al pueblo, o la subordinacin de la mujer al hombre, o que la Iglesia tuviera la palabra oficial de Dios. +Evidentemente la Iglesia no estaba muy contenta, e intentaron reprimirla, pero no haban contado con la tecnologa, y entonces tenan la imprenta, que de repente permiti que estas ideas se extendieran a bajo precio, lejos y deprisa, y que la gente se reuniera en cafeteras para debatir ideas o planear revoluciones. +En nuestra poca, tenemos la digitalizacin que elimina el factor fsico de la informacin, por lo que ahora tiene prcticamente un coste cero copiar y compartir la informacin. +Nuestra imprenta es internet. Nuestras cafeteras, las redes sociales. +Y si pensamos en un sistema financiero, necesitamos mucha informacin. No es posible para una sola persona absorber una gran cantidad de informacin y analizarla para tomar buenas decisiones. +Y por eso estamos viendo un aumento en las peticiones de acceso a la informacin. +En la industria financiera, ahora tienen ms derecho a saber qu est pasando, as que tenemos diversas leyes antisoborno, regulaciones de capital, mayor acceso a informacin corporativa, as que ahora pueden seguir activos en el extranjero. +Y se hace cada vez ms difcil esconder activos, la evasin de impuestos, o la desigualdad salarial. Es genial. Estamos empezando a saber cada vez ms sobre estos sistemas. +Y se estn todos integrando en un sistema central, un sistema completamente conectado, todos ellos excepto uno. Pueden adivinar cul? +Es el sistema en el que se basan todos los dems. +Es el sistema desde el cual se organiza y ejerce el poder, estoy hablando de poltica, porque en la poltica an tenemos un sistema jerrquico piramidal. +Y cmo es posible procesar el volumen de informacin necesario para este sistema? +Pues no se puede. Y punto. +Y creo que esto es en gran medida la causa de la crisis de legitimidad en los diferentes gobiernos actualmente. +Ya les he contado un poco lo que hice para arrastrar al Parlamento a la fuerza hasta el siglo XXI, y les voy a dar un par de ejemplos de lo que estn haciendo algunos de mis conocidos. +Por ejemplo, Seb Bacon. Es programador y cre una pgina web llamada Alaveteli, una plataforma de Libertad de Informacin. +Se enva a la persona adecuada, les informa de cundo se acaba el lmite de tiempo, est al da de toda la correspondencia, la publica en la pgina y se convierte en un archivo de informacin pblica. +Es de cdigo abierto y se puede utilizar en cualquier pas donde exista alguna ley de Libertad de Informacin. +Hay una lista de todos los pases que la tienen, y unos cuantos que se van a unir prximamente. +As que si a alguno de ustedes les gusta cmo suena y existe una ley similar en su pas, s que a Seb le encantara hablar con ustedes sobre colaboraciones y llevar la pgina a sus pases. +Esta es Birgitta Jnsdttir. Es una parlamentaria islandesa. +Una parlamentaria un poco inusual. Fue una de las manifestantes fuera del Parlamento islands cuando la economa del pas se hundi. Ms tarde fue reelegida para un mandato de reforma y ahora encabeza este proyecto: +la Iniciativa Islandesa de Comunicacin Moderna, y tienen el presupuesto suficiente para convertirlo en un proyecto de comunicacin internacional. Estn recopilando las mejores leyes internacionales sobre libertad de expresin, proteccin de alertadores, proteccin para difamados, proteccin de fuentes, para hacer de Islandia el paraso de la publicacin. +Un lugar donde la informacin sea libre, as que cuando pensamos, y cada vez ms a menudo, en cmo el gobierno quiere acceder a informacin de usuarios lo que intentan hacer en Islandia es crear este lugar seguro donde pueda pasar. +Esta pgina web intenta recopilar todas las bases de datos en un solo lugar para que puedan empezar a buscar a los miembros de su familia, sus amigos, los jefes de su servicio de seguridad. +Pueden intentar averiguar cmo saca los activos del pas. +Aunque bueno, cuando se trata de decisiones que nos afectan ms, quiz, las decisiones ms importantes que se estn tomando sobre guerras, no podemos hacer simplemente una peticin de Libertad de Informacin. +Es muy difcil. As que tendremos que recurrir de nuevo a maneras ilegtimas de obtener informacin, a travs de filtraciones. +As que cuando The Guardian public su investigacin sobre la guerra de Afganistn, bueno, no podan entrar al Departamento de Defensa y pedir la informacin. +Porque no la iban a conseguir. +La investigacin se hizo a partir de decenas de miles de informes escritos por soldados americanos sobre la guerra de Afganistn que se filtraron y gracias a ello fue posible hacer esta investigacin. +Otra investigacin bastante amplia es la de la diplomacia mundial. +Esto se ha basado tambin en filtraciones, 251 000 cables diplomticos de Estados Unidos, y me vi involucrada en esta investigacin porque consegu una filtracin a travs de una filtracin de un miembro descontento de WikiLeak y acab trabajando en The Guardian. +As que les puedo contar de primera mano cmo fue tener acceso a esta filtracin. Fue increble. De verdad lo fue. +Me record esa escena de "El Mago de Oz." +Saben a cul me refiero? En la que el perrito Toto corre hacia donde est el mago y el perro est descorriendo la cortina, y... "No miren detrs de la cortina. No miren al hombre detrs de la cortina." +Fue exactamente igual, porque lo que empec a ver fue que todos esos hombres de estado, esos polticos pomposos, eran justo igual que nosotros. +Todos se criticaban los unos a otros. Todos esos cables estaban llenos de cotilleos. Me pareci que era muy importante que comprendiramos que eran seres humanos como nosotros. No tienen poderes especiales. +No hacen magia. No son nuestros padres. +Aparte de eso, lo que me pareci ms fascinante fue el nivel de corrupcin endmica que vi en diferentes pases, y que se centraba en particular alrededor del poder, de funcionarios que malversaban fondos pblicos para su propia ganancia, y se les permita hacerlo gracias al secreto oficial. +He mencionado WikiLeaks, porque qu podra ser ms abierto que publicar todo el material? +Eso es lo que Julian Assange hizo. +No estaba satisfecho con la manera en que los peridicos lo publicaban, de manera segura y legal. l lo public todo. +Y es verdad que provoc que gente vulnerable en Afganistn fuera expuesta. Tambin proporcion al dictador bielorruso una lista de todos los defensores de la democracia del pas que haban hablado con el gobierno de los Estados Unidos. +Tienes que tener escepticismo y humildad. +Escepticismo porque siempre debes ser desafiante. +Quiero saber por qu... porque lo dices t? No me vale. +Quiero ver pruebas de que es as. +Y humildad porque todos somos humanos. Todos cometemos errores. +Y si no tienes escepticismo y humildad, hay un corto camino entre reformador y autcrata, y solo hay que leer "Rebelin en la granja" para ver que el poder corrompe a la gente. +Cul es la solucin entonces? Para m, plasmar en la ley el derecho a la informacin. +Actualmente nuestros derechos son increblemente dbiles. +En muchos pases tenemos una Ley de Secretos Oficiales, incluyendo Gran Bretaa. Tenemos una Ley de Secretos Oficiales que no incluye el inters pblico, lo que significa que es un delito, castigan a la gente, severamente en muchos casos, por publicar o dar informacin oficial. +Pero no sera genial, y en realidad esto es en lo que quiero que piensen todos, si tuviramos una Ley de Transparencia Oficial por la cual se castigara a funcionarios que hayan suprimido o ocultado informacin de inters pblico? +As que, s. S! Mi pose de poder. Me gustara que trabajramos con ese objetivo. +Pero no todo son malas noticias. Hay claros progresos en camino, pero me parece que cuanto ms nos acercamos al centro del poder, ms opaco y cerrado se vuelve. +La semana pasada o al Comisario de la Polica Metropolitana de Londres hablando sobre por qu la polica necesitaba acceso a todas nuestras comunicaciones, espiarnos sin ninguna supervisin judicial, y dijo que era un tema de vida o muerte. +Y lo dijo literalmente, que era un tema de vida o muerte. +Y sin pruebas. No tena ninguna prueba de ello. +Era "porque lo digo yo. +Confen en m. Tengan fe." +Bueno, lo siento, pero hemos vuelto a la Iglesia pre-Ilustracin y hemos de luchar en contra. +Estaba hablando de la ley de Comunicaciones de Gran Bretaa, una legislacin absolutamente escandalosa. +En Amrica, tienen la Ley de Intercambio y Proteccin de Informacin de Inteligencia Ciberntica. +Ahora se estn considerando robots para la vigilancia domstica. +Tienen el edificio de la Agencia de Seguridad Nacional, el mayor centro de espionaje del mundo. Es colosal... cinco veces mayor que el Capitolio de los Estados Unidos en el que van a interceptar y analizar comunicaciones, trfico y datos personales para intentar averiguar quien crea problemas en la sociedad. +Volviendo a nuestra historia original, los padres han entrado en pnico. Han cerrado todas las puertas. +Han llenado la casa con cmaras de vigilancia. +Nos estn vigilando a todos. Han creado un stano en el cual han instalado un centro de espionaje y crean algoritmos para averiguar quines de nosotros causamos problemas, y si alguien se queja, nos arrestan por terrorismo. +Es un cuento o una pesadilla? +Algunos cuentos tienen final feliz. Otros, no. +Creo que todos hemos ledo los cuentos de los Hermanos Grimm, que son bastante lgubres. +Pero el mundo no es un cuento, y puede ser ms brutal de lo que queremos creer. +Gracias. +Pasa que Juanito va al colegio se sienta y la maestra dice: "Qu hace tu padre?" +Y Juanito dice: "Mi padre toca piano en un fumadero de opio". +As que la maestra llama a los padres y les dice: "Muy impactante la historia de Juanito hoy. +Acabamos de orlo afirmar que Ud. toca piano en un fumadero de opio". +Y el padre dice: "Lo siento mucho, Admito que ment. +400 aos de democracia madura, colegas en el Parlamento que me parecen, individuos bien presentados, cada vez ms educados, enrgicos, informados, y sin embargo siento un profundo, profundo sentimiento de decepcin. +Mis colegas en el Parlamento incluyen, en mi nuevo ingreso, doctores de familia, empresarios, profesores, distinguidos economistas, historiadores, escritores, oficiales del ejrcito desde coroneles a sargentos mayores de regimiento. +Todos ellos, sin embargo, incluido yo mismo, cuando caminamos bajo esas extraas grgolas de piedra del camino, sentimos que nos hemos convertido en menos que la suma de las partes, sentimos que hemos venido a quedar profundamente disminuidos. +Y no es solo un problema britnico. +Y esto ha sido as por 30 aos, En el traspaso en 1979, 1980, entre un lder jamaiquino que era hijo de un Rhodes Scholar, un Q.C. a otro que haba hecho un doctorado en economa en Harvard, hubo 800 muertos en las calles por crmenes relacionados con drogas. +Acadmicos distinguidos argumentaban a la vez que las democracias tenan una increble variedad de beneficios asociados. +Nos dara prosperidad, seguridad, se sobrepondra a la violencia, asegurara que los Estados no alberguen terroristas. +Desde entonces, qu ha pasado? +Bien, lo que hemos visto es la creacin, en lugares como Irak y Afganistn, de sistemas democrticos de gobierno que no han tenido ninguno de estos beneficios. +En Afganistn, por ejemplo, no hemos tenido sino una eleccin o dos. Estamos en la tercera eleccin presidencial y parlamentaria. Y qu encontramos? +En Pakistn y en muchas partes del frica subsahariana, igualmente se puede ver que la democracia y las elecciones son compatibles con gobiernos corruptos, con Estados inestables y peligrosos. +Y cuando hablo con la gente, recuerdo, por ejemplo, una conversacin en Irak, con una comunidad que me preguntaba si los disturbios que veamos al frente, una gran multitud saqueando un edificio provincial eran el signo de la nueva democracia. +Pienso que lo mismo era verdad en casi todos los pases en desarrollo que visit, y en cierta medida lo mismo es cierto para nosotros. +Bien, cul es la respuesta a esto? Es la respuesta solo renunciar a la idea de la democracia? +Bien, obviamente no. Sera absurdo si participramos otra vez en la clase de operaciones en que nos involucramos en Irak y Afganistn si nos encontramos de repente en una situacin en la que impusiramos algo distinto al sistema democrtico, +cualquier cosa diferente sera contraria a nuestros valores, sera contraria a los deseos de la gente comn, sera contraria a nuestros intereses. +Recuerdo en Irak, por ejemplo, que pasamos por un perodo en que creamos que debamos retrasar la democracia. +Pasamos por un perodo en que sentamos que la leccin aprendida en Bosnia era que las elecciones muy tempranas fortalecan la violencia sectaria, los partidos extremistas, as que en Irak en 2003 la decisin fue no hacer elecciones por dos aos e Invirtir en educar a los votantes, en democratizacin. +El resultado fue que encontr contra mi oficina a una gran multitud de personas esta es en realidad una foto tomada en Libia pero vea la misma escena en Irak de personas permanentemente afuera, gritando por elecciones, y cuando sal y dije, "Qu est mal con el consejo interino provincial? +Qu tienen de malo las personas que escogimos? +Hay un jeque sunita, un jeque chiita, hay siete lderes de las siete tribus principales, hay un cristiano, un sabeo, representantes de las mujeres, de cada uno de los partidos polticos, qu est mal con las personas que escogimos?" +Lleg la respuesta: "El problema no es las personas que Uds. escogieron. El problema es que Uds. las escogieron". +No he conocido, en Afganistn, an en la ms remota comunidad, nadie que no quisiera decir quin los gobierne. +En la ms remota comunidad, nunca conoc a un aldeano que no quisiera votar. +No podemos decir que la democracia importa por los otros beneficios que brinda. +Tenemos que dejar de sentir, en la misma lnea, que los derechos humanos importan por los otros bienes que conllevan, o que los derechos de la mujer importan por los otros beneficios que generan. +Por qu debemos apartarnos de esos argumentos? +Lo importante acerca de la democracia no es instrumental. +No es sobre las cosas que brinda. +Lo importante de la democracia no es que traiga legitimidad, efectividad, prspero imperio de la ley. +No es que garantice la paz interior o con los vecinos. +Lo importante de la democracia es su valor intrnseco. +La democracia importa porque refleja las ideas de igualdad y de libertad. Refleja la idea de dignidad, de dignidad del individuo, la idea de que cada individuo debe tener un voto igual, una participacin igual, en la formacin de su gobierno. +Pero si queremos hacer nuevamente una vigorosa democracia, si estamos listos para vivificarla, necesitamos involucrarnos en un nuevo proyecto de ciudadanos y polticos. +La democracia no es simplemente una cuestin de estructuras. +Es un estado mental. Es una actividad. +Y parte de esta actividad implica honestidad. +Despus de hablar aqu, ir a un programa de radio llamado "Alguna pregunta", y lo que notarn sobre los polticos en esta clase de programas es que nunca jams dirn que no saben la respuesta. No importa cul sea el tema. +Si es sobre crditos fiscales por nmero de hijos, el futuro de los pinginos en la Antrtica sur, si sostiene o no que los eventos de Chongqing contribuyen al desarrollo sostenible en la captura del carbono, les tendremos algunas respuestas. +Tenemos que parar esto, dejar de pretender que somos sabelotodos. +Los polticos tambin tenemos que aprender, ocasionalmente, a decir que ciertas cosas que los votantes quieren, ciertas cosas que a los votantes les han sido prometidas, pueden ser asuntos que no podemos cumplir o de pronto que pensamos que no debemos darlas. +Y la segunda cosa que debemos hacer es entender el valor de nuestras sociedades. +Nuestras sociedades nunca han sido tan educadas, tan valerosas, tan sanas, nunca han sabido tanto, se preocupan tanto o han querido tanto, y este es el talento local. +Esto puede significar diferentes cosas en diferentes pases. +En Inglaterra, puede ser mirar a Francia, aprender de Francia, elegir directamente los alcaldes en el lugar con el sistema comunal francs. +En Afganistn, puede significar, en lugar de concentrarse en una gran eleccin presidencial y parlamentaria, hacer lo que estaba en la constitucin afgana desde el puro principio, que es hacer elecciones locales directas a nivel del distrito y elegir gobernantes provinciales populares. +Pero para que estas cosas funcionen, la honestidad en el lenguaje, la democracia local, no es solo una cuestin qu hacen los polticos. +Es algo que hacen los ciudadanos. +Para que los polticos sean honestos, el pblico debe permitirles serlo, y los medios, que sirven de puentes entre los polticos y el pblico, deben permitir que los polticos sean honestos. +Si la democracia local ha de florecer, ser sobre un activo e informado compromiso con cada uno de los ciudadanos. +En otras palabras, si la democracia va a ser reconstruida, si va a volver a ser vigorosa y vibrante, ser necesario no solo que el pblico aprenda a creer en sus polticos, sino que los polticos aprendan a creer en su pblico. +Muchas gracias de verdad. +Tras haber pasado 18 aos como un nio del estado en hogares y familias de acogida, podra decirse que soy un experto en el tema, y siendo un experto, quiero haceros saber que ser un experto no significa estar en lo cierto a la luz de la verdad. +Si ests a cargo del estado, legalmente el gobierno es tu padre, "loco parentis". +Margaret Thatcher fue mi madre. Mejor ni hablamos de la lactancia. Harry Potter era un nio en acogida. +Todos estos grandes personajes de ficcin, todos ellos estaban heridos por su condicin, todos los que dieron lugar a miles de otros libros y otras pelculas, todos ellos estaban en acogida, adoptados o hurfanos. +Parece que los escritores saben que el nio que est fuera de la familia reflexiona sobre lo que realmente es la familia ms all de lo que esta promociona ser. +Es decir, tambin usan habilidades extraordinarias para lidiar con situaciones extraordinarias a diario. +Cmo no hemos hecho esa conexin? +Y por qu no hemos hecho la conexin, entre Cmo ha pasado eso? entre estos increbles personajes de la cultura popular y las religiones, y los acogidos, adoptados o hurfanos a nuestro alrededor? No es nuestra lstima lo que necesitan. +Es nuestro respeto. +Es as de simple. +Mi propia madre y debera decir esto ahora vino a este pas a finales de los aos 60 y qued, ya sabis, se encontr con que estaba embarazada, como era normal en las mujeres de los 60. Sabis lo que quiero decir? +Se encontraban con que estaban embarazadas. +Y bsicamente no tena ni idea del contexto en el que haba aterrizado. +En los 60 debera daros algo de contexto en los 60, si quedabas embarazada y estabas soltera eras vista como una amenaza a la comunidad. +El estado te separaba de tu familia. +Te separaban de tu familia y te metan en casa de acogida para madres solteras. +Se te adjudicaba un trabajador social. +Los padres adoptivos hacan cola. +Era el propsito principal del trabajador social, el objetivo, hacer que la mujer que estaba pasando el momento ms vulnerable de toda su vida firmara los papeles de la adopcin. +As que los papeles de la adopcin se firmaban. +Las casas de acogida para madres a menudo estaban dirigidas por monjas. +Los papeles de la adopcin se firmaban, el nio se entregaba a los padres adoptivos, y se enviaba a la madre de vuelta a su comunidad y deca que se haba tomado unas pequeas vacaciones. +Pequeas vacaciones. +Pequeas vacaciones. +El primer secreto del que avergonzarse para una mujer por ser mujer, "unas pequeas vacaciones". +El proceso de adopcin era cuestin de meses, as que era un sistema cerrado, sabis, cosa dada, una solucin elaborada y funcional: el gobierno, el granjero, los padres adoptivos, el consumidor; la madre, la tierra; y el nio, la cosecha. +Es bastante fcil ser condescendiente con el pasado, para evitar nuestras responsabilidades en el presente. +Lo que pasaba entonces es un reflejo directo de lo que est pasando ahora. Todo el mundo crea estar haciendo lo correcto para Dios y para el estado, para el bien comn, agilizando la adopcin. +En cualquier caso, viene aqu, 1967, est embarazada, y viene de Etiopa que estaba celebrando su propio jubileo en aquel momento bajo el Emperador Haile Selassie, y llega meses antes del discurso de Enoch Powell, el discurso de los "Ros de Sangre". +Llega antes de que los Beatles lancen "El lbum Blanco", meses antes de que Martin Luther King fuera asesinado. +Era un verano de amor si eras blanco. +Si eras negro, era un verano de odio. +As que se marcha de Oxford, y la mandan al norte de Inglaterra a una casa de acogida para madres solteras, y le asignan un trabajador social. +Es su plan... sabis, tengo que contar esto en el Parlamento. Su plan es tenerme en acogida por un corto espacio de tiempo mientras estudia. Pero el trabajador social tena otros planes. +Encontr a los padres de acogida y les dijo: "Tratad esto como una adopcin. Es vuestro para siempre. +Su nombre es Norman". Norman! Norman! +As que me llevaron. Yo era un mensaje, decan. +Una seal de Dios, decan. +Yo era Norman Mark Greenwood. +As que durante los 11 aos siguientes, todo lo que s es que esta mujer, esta comadrona, deberan arrancarle los ojos por no firmar los papeles de la adopcin. Era una mujer mala demasiado egosta para firmar, as que me pas esos 11 aos arrodillndome y rezando. +Intent rezar. Juro que intent rezar. +"Dios, puedo tener una bici por Navidad?" +Pero siempre me responda a m mismo, "S, claro que puedes" +Y entonces se supone que tena que distinguir si esa haba sido la voz de Dios o la voz del Diablo. +Y resulta que tengo el Diablo dentro de m. +Empec a irme a dormir un poco ms tarde, etc., etc. +Entonces, en su religiosidad, en su ingenuidad, mi pap y mam, que pens que seran para siempre, como dijeron que eran, mi mam y pap concibieron que tena al Diablo dentro de m. +Y lo que... debera decir esto ahora, porque as es cmo maquinaron mi despedida. +Me sentaron en una mesa, mi madre de acogida, y me dijo: "T no nos quieres, verdad?" A los 11 aos. +Haban tenido otros tres nios. Yo soy el cuarto. El tercero fue un accidente. +Y yo respond, "S, claro que os quiero". Porque los quieres. +Mis madre de acogida me dijo que me fuera a pensar sobre el amor y lo que es, y leer las Escrituras y volver al da siguiente y darles mi respuesta ms honesta y sincera. +Esta era una oportunidad. Si me estaban preguntando si los quera o no, entonces no debo quererlos, lo cual me llev al pensamiento milagroso al que yo pensaba que queran que llegara. +"Pedir el perdn de Dios y Su luz brillar a travs de m hasta ellos. Fantstico!". Esta era una oportunidad. +La teologa era perfecta, el momento incuestionable, y la respuesta la ms honesta que puede dar un pecador. +"No debo amaros", les dije. "Pero le pedir a Dios su perdn". +"Dado que no nos quieres, Norman, claramente has elegido tu camino". +Veinticuatro horas despus, mi trabajador social, este hombre extrao que sola visitarme cada par de meses, me est esperando en el coche mientras me despido de mis padres. +No le dije adis a nadie, ni a mi madre, ni a mi padre, ni a mis hermanas, ni a mis hermanos, ni a mis tas, ni a mis tos, ni a mis primos, ni a mis abuelos, a nadie. +De camino a la casa de acogida, empec a preguntarme, "Qu me ha pasado?" +Ms que haberme quitado la alfombra bajo mis pies de un tirn me haban quitado el suelo entero. +Cuando llegu a... Durante los siguientes cuatro, cinco aos, me tuvieron en cuatro casas de acogida diferentes. +No se poda ver desde la calle, porque la casa estaba rodeada por hayas. +Por hacer esto me encarcelaron un ao en un centro de evaluacin que en realidad era un centro de detencin. Era una crcel virtual para gente joven. +Por cierto, aos ms tarde, mi trabajador social me dijo que nunca me deberan haber metido all. +No se me acusaba de nada. No haba hecho nada malo. +Pero como no tena familia que se preocupara por m, no podan hacer nada por m. +Tengo 17 aos, y tenan una celda acolchada. +Me hacan desfilar por pasillos por orden. +Ellos me pusieron en un dormitorio con un simpatizante Nazi declarado. +Todos los empleados eran expolicas interesante y exagentes de libertad condicional. +El hombre que lo diriga era un exoficial del ejrcito. +Cada vez que tena una visita de una persona que no conoca que me daba uvas para comer, una vez cada tres meses, me desnudaban para registrarme. +Este centro estaba lleno de chicos jvenes que estaban en prisin preventiva por cosas como asesinato. +Y esta es la preparacin que se me estaba dando despus de 17 aos como nio del estado. +Tengo que contar esta historia. +Tengo que contarla, porque no ha habido nadie que sume dos y dos. +Poco a poco me fui dando cuenta de que no conoca a nadie que me hubiera conocido por ms de un ao. +Veris, eso es lo que hace la familia. +Te da puntos de referencia. +No estoy distinguiendo familias buenas de malas. +Estoy dando el parte. Doy el parte solo para decir que cuando dej la casa de acogida tena dos cosas que quera hacer. Una era encontrar a mi familia, y la otra escribir poesa. +En la creatividad vi la luz. +En la imaginacin vi las infinitas posibilidades de la vida, la verdad infinita, la permanente creacin de la realidad, el lugar donde la rabia era una expresin de la bsqueda del amor, un lugar donde la disfuncin es una verdad reaccin a la falsedad. +Tengo que decroslo: encontr a toda mi familia cuando fui adulto. Me pas toda mi vida adulta encontrndolos, y ahora tengo una familia totalmente disfuncional como todo el mundo. +Pero os doy el parte para deciros simplemente que se puede saber cmo de fuerte es una democracia por cmo un gobierno trata a sus nios. +No me refiero a los nios. Me refiero a los nios del estado. +Muchas gracias. Ha sido un honor. +En el siglo 17, una mujer llamada Giuliana Tofana posea un negocio de perfumes con mucho xito. +Durante unos 50 aos lo regent. +Y se fue a pique de repente, cuando fue ejecutada por asesinar a 600 hombres. Veris, no era un perfume muy bueno. +De hecho era inodoro, inspido e incoloro, pero como veneno, era el mejor que poda comprarse, as que las mujeres hacan cola en su tienda para matar a sus maridos. +Resulta que las envenenadoras eran un grupo muy apreciado y temido, porque envenenar a un ser humano es una cosa bastante complicada. +La razn es que tenemos una especie de detector de venenos integrado. +Esto se puede ver incluso en los nios recin nacidos. +Si queris hacerlo, podis coger un par de gotas de una sustancia amarga o cida y veris esa cara, la lengua fuera, la nariz arrugada como si estuvieran tratando de deshacerse de lo que tienen en la boca. +Esta reaccin se expande en la madurez y se convierte como en una reaccin de asco total, ya no slo cuando estamos a punto de ser envenenados o no, sino siempre que hay un riesgo de contaminacin fsica de alguna clase. Pero la cara es muy parecida. +Sin embargo esto ha evolucionado ms all de mantenernos alejados de los contaminantes fsicos, y hay una creciente coleccin de pruebas que sealan que, de hecho, esta emocin de asco ahora nos influye en nuestros valores morales e incluso en nuestras arraigadas ideas polticas. +Cmo puede ser esto? +Podemos entender este proceso aprendiendo un poco ms sobre las emociones en general. As, las emociones humanas bsicas, aquellas que compartimos con todos los dems seres humanos, existen porque nos motivan a hacer cosas buenas y nos impiden hacer cosas malas. +Por lo general, son buenas para nuestra supervivencia. +Tomemos la emocin del miedo, por ejemplo. Nos impide hacer cosas que son muy, muy arriesgadas. +Esta foto tomada justo antes de su muerte -- -- en realidad es -- No, una razn por la que esta foto es interesante es porque la mayora de la gente no lo hara, y si lo hicieran no viviran para contarlo, porque el miedo habra actuado mucho antes frente a un depredador natural. +Del mismo modo que el miedo nos ofrece el beneficio de la proteccin, el asco parece hacer lo mismo, excepto que el asco lo que hace es mantenernos alejados no de las cosas que nos pueden comer, o de las alturas, sino de cosas que pueden envenenarnos, o transmitirnos una enfermedad. +De este modo, una de las caractersticas que hacen del asco una emocin tan interesante es que es muy, muy fcil de provocar, de hecho ms incluso que cualquier otra de las emociones bsicas, as que voy a demostraros que con un par de imgenes seguramente puedo haceros sentir asco. +As que daos la vuelta. Os avisar cuando podis mirar. +Venga, lo veis todos los das, no? Venga ya. (Pblico: Ewww.) Vale, daos la vuelta si no habis mirado. +Esto seguramente ha hecho que muchos de vosotros en el pblico hayis sentido mucho, mucho asco, pero si no habis mirado os puedo hablar sobre alguna de las otras cosas, que se han mostrado por todo el mundo para dar asco a la gente, cosas como las heces, orn, sangre, carne podrida. +stas son las clases de cosas de las que es de sentido comn que nos mantengamos alejados, porque podran contaminarnos. +De hecho slo tener aspecto de enfermo, o extraas prcticas sexuales, stas son cosas que tambin nos dan mucho asco. +Darwin probablemente fue uno de los primeros cientficos en investigar sistemticamente las emociones humanas, y destac la naturaleza universal y la fuerza de la reaccin del asco. +sta es una ancdota de sus viajes por Sudamrica. +"En Tierra del Fuego un nativo toc con su dedo una carne preservada en fro mientras yo estaba comiendo... +y simplemente mostr asco por estar blanda, mientras que yo sent un asco profundo, ya que un salvaje desnudo tocara mi comida aunque sus manos no parecan sucias". +Ms tarde escribi, "No pasa nada, algunos de mis mejores amigos son salvajes desnudos". Bueno, pues resulta que no son slo los viejos cientficos britnicos los delicados. Hace poco tuve la oportunidad de hablar con Richard Dawkins para un documental, y tuve la ocasin de darle asco unas cuantas veces. sta es mi favorita. +Richard Dawkins: "Hemos evolucionado alrededor del cortejo y el sexo, estamos apegados a emociones y reacciones profundamente arraigadas de las que es difcil deshacerse de la noche a la maana". +David Pizarro: Mi parte favorita de este vdeo, en la que al Profesor Dawkins le dan arcadas de verdad. +Da un salto atrs, y le dan arcadas, y de las tres veces que tuvimos que hacerlo las tres veces le dieron arcadas. Y le daban arcadas de verdad. Pensaba que iba a vomitarme encima, en serio. +Una de las caractersticas del asco, sin embargo, no es slo su universalidad y su fuerza, sino la forma en la que funciona por asociacin. +As que cuando una cosa asquerosa toca una cosa limpia, esa cosa limpia se vuelve asquerosa, pero no al revs. +Esto es muy til como estrategia si quieres convencer a alguien que un objeto o un individuo o un grupo social entero es asqueroso y debe ser evitado. +La filsofa Martha Nussbaum se refiere a esto en esta cita: "As a lo largo de la historia, ciertas propiedades del asco -- viscosidad, mal olor, pegajosidad, deterioro, mal olor -- han sido asociados repetida y montonamente a +judos, mujeres, homosexuales, intocables, gente de clase baja -- todos representados como manchados por la suciedad del cuerpo". +Permitidme daros algunos ejemplos de cmo... algunos poderosos ejemplos de cmo esto ha sido utilizado histricamente. +Esto es de un libro para nios Nazi publicado en 1938: "Mirad a esa gente! Esas barbas llenas de piojos, las orejas sucias y de soplillo, esas ropas sucias, llenas de grasa ... +Los judos suelen desprender un desagradable olor dulzn. +Si tienes buen olfato, puedes oler a los judos". +Un ejemplo ms moderno viene de la gente que trata de convencernos que la homosexualidad es inmoral. +Esto es de una web anti-gay, donde dicen que los gays son "merecedores de la muerte por sus prcticas sexuales". +Son como "perros comiendo su propio vmito y cerdas revolcndose en sus propias heces". +stas son propiedades del asco que estn tratando de relacionar directamente con el grupo social que no debera gustarte. +Cuando estbamos investigando por primera vez el papel del asco en los juicios morales, una de las cosas por la que nos interesamos era si esta clase de razonamientos es ms probable que funcionen en individuos que tienen reacciones de asco ms fcilmente. +As mientras que el asco, junto a las otras emociones bsicas, son un fenmeno universal, es verdad que hay gente que se asquea con ms facilidad que otra. +Probablemente lo habis podido comprobar en los miembros del pblico cuando os he enseado esas imgenes asquerosas. +La manera en la que medimos esto fue con una escala diseada por otros psiclogos que simplemente peda a la gente que de entre una amplia variedad de situaciones dijeran con qu probabilidad sentiran asco. +Aqu tenemos un par de ejemplos. +"Incluso si tuviera hambre, no me tomara un bol de mi sopa favorita si la hubieran removido con un matamoscas usado, pero lavado a fondo". +"Ests de acuerdo o no ests de acuerdo?" "Mientras caminas por un tnel bajo una va de tren, hueles a orn. Te dara mucho asco o nada de asco?" +Si haces bastantes preguntas como stas, obtienes una puntuacin general sobre la sensibilidad al asco. +Resulta que esta puntuacin es significativa. +Estos datos tambin nos permitieron controlar estadsticamente un gran nmero de cosas que sabamos que estaban relacionadas con la orientacin poltica y con la sensibilidad al asco. +As que pudimos controlar el sexo, la edad, los ingresos, la educacin, e incluso variables de personalidad bsicas, y el resultado sigue siendo el mismo. +Cuando nos fijamos no slo en la orientacin poltica que nos decan, sino adems en el comportamiento de los votantes, pudimos verlo geogrficamente por todo el pas. Lo que descubrimos fue que en las regiones en las que la gente deca ser muy sensible al asco, McCain obtuvo ms votos. +As que no slo predijo la orientacin poltica proclamada, sino el comportamiento de los votantes. Tambin pudimos, con esta muestra, mirar alrededor del mundo, en 121 pases distintos preguntamos lo mismo y, como podis ver, estos son 121 pases divididos en 10 zonas geogrficas diferentes. +No importa donde mires, lo que esto marca es el tamao de la relacin entre la sensibilidad al asco y la orientacin poltica, y no importa donde hayamos mirado, vimos un efecto muy similar. +Otros laboratorios tambin han investigado sobre esto usando diferentes formas de medir la sensibilidad al asco, en vez de preguntarle a la gente si se asquean con facilidad, les ponen unos cables para medir las respuesta fisiolgicas, en este caso la conductividad de la piel. +Y lo que han demostrado es que la gente que dice ser ms conservadora polticamente, tambin se alteran ms fisiolgicamente cuando les enseas imgenes asquerosas como las que os he enseado antes. +As que la alteracin fisiolgica predijo, en este estudio, las actitudes hacia el matrimonio gay. +Pero incluso con todos estos datos relacionando la sensibilidad al asco y la orientacin poltica, una de las preguntas que nos quedan es, qu es lo que los une? Es cierto que el asco est realmente definiendo los valores polticos y morales? +As que ya utilices un olor ftido, un sabor malo, de pelculas, de sugestiones post-hipnticas de asco, imgenes como las que os he enseado, el slo recordarles a la gente que la enfermedad est por todos lados y que deberan tener cuidado y lavarse, s, mantenerse limpios, todos tienen un efecto similar en el juicio. +Dejadme que os d un ejemplo de un estudio reciente que hicimos. Les pedimos a los participantes slo que nos dieran su opinin sobre varios grupos sociales, y hacamos que la habitacin oliera mal o no. +Cuando la habitacin ola mal, lo que observamos fue que la gente mostraba ms actitudes negativas hacia los hombres gay. +El asco no influy en la actitud de ninguno de los otros grupos sociales por los que les preguntamos, incluyendo los afroamericanos, los mayores. Todo se centraba en la actitud que haban tenido hacia los hombres gay. +En otro grupo de estudios slo les recordamos a la gente -- esto era cuando la gripe porcina estaba por ah -- les recordamos a la gente que para impedir que la gripe se extendiera deban lavarse las manos. +A algunos participantes incluso les hicimos rellenar cuestionarios al lado de un letrero que les recordaba que deban lavarse las manos. +Y lo que descubrimos fue que slo rellenar un cuestionario al lado de este recordatorio para lavarse las manos hizo que la gente se declarara ms conservadora polticamente. +Y cuando les preguntamos por diferentes cuestiones sobre lo bueno y lo malo de ciertos actos, lo que encontramos tambin fue que simplemente recordarles que deban lavarse las manos les hizo ms conservadores moralmente. +Concretamente, cuando les hicimos preguntas sobre prcticas sexuales tab pero inofensivas, slo recordarles que deban lavarse las manos les hizo pensar que eran moralmente reprobables. +Dejadme que os d un ejemplo de lo que quiero decir con "prcticas sexuales tab pero inofensivas". Les propusimos situaciones. +En una de ellas dijimos que un hombre le est cuidando la casa a su abuela. +Cuando su abuela no est, tiene sexo con su novia en la cama de la abuela. +No slo te impulsan a comportarte de determinadas formas, sino que cambian la forma en la que piensas. +En el caso del asco, lo que es un poco ms sorprendente es el alcance de esta influencia. Tiene mucho sentido, y es una emocin muy buena de tener, que el asco me haga cambiar la forma en la que percibo el mundo fsico siempre que la contaminacin sea una posibilidad. +Tiene menos sentido que una emocin que fue diseada para impedirme ingerir veneno prediga a quin le voy a votar en las prximas elecciones presidenciales. +La cuestin de si el asco debera influenciar nuestros juicios morales y polticos ha de ser ciertamente compleja, y puede depender de qu juicios estemos hablando exactamente, y como cientfico, tenemos que concluir a veces que el mtodo cientfico no est preparado para responder a este tipo de preguntas. +Pero una cosa de la que estoy bastante seguro es que, por lo menos, lo que podemos hacer con esta investigacin es apuntar las preguntas que deberamos preguntarnos en primer lugar. +Gracias. +Yo era de esas nias que, siempre que se suba al auto, tena que bajar la ventanilla. +Por lo general estaba muy caliente, sofocaba o simplemente tena mal olor, y mi padre no nos dejaba usar el aire acondicionado. +Deca que poda sobrecalentar el motor. +Y quiz algunos de ustedes recuerden cmo eran los coches en ese entonces, cuando el sobrecalentamiento era un problema comn. +Pero tambin era una seal que indicaba el lmite de uso, o el uso excesivo de aparatos que consumen energa. +Ahora las cosas han cambiado. Tenemos coches que conducimos por todo el pas. +Usamos el aire acondicionado durante todo el camino, y nunca tenemos problemas de sobrecalentamiento. +As que ya no hay seales que nos indiquen que hay que parar. +Genial, no? Bueno, tenemos problemas similares en los edificios. +En el pasado, antes del aire acondicionado, tenamos paredes gruesas. +Las paredes gruesas son excelentes para el aislamiento. Mantienen el interior muy fresco en verano y clido en invierno. Las pequeas ventanas tambin eran muy buenas porque regulaban la temperatura entre el interior y el exterior. +Luego, por los aos 30, con la llegada del vidrio industrial, el acero laminado y la produccin en serie, pudimos hacer ventanales desde el suelo al techo y lograr vistas panormicas, y con eso lleg la dependencia irreversible de los sistemas de aire acondicionado para refrescar nuestros espacios calentados por el sol. +Con el tiempo, los edificios son ms altos y grandes, nuestra ingeniera mejora cada vez ms, de modo que los sistemas mecnicos son enormes. Requieren una gran cantidad de energa. +Lo que es peor, no podemos hacer edificios de energa ultrabaja simplemente haciendo sistemas mecnicos cada vez ms eficientes. +Tenemos que buscar algo ms, y no quedarnos ah estancados. +Qu podemos hacer? Cmo salir de este agujero que hemos cavado? +Si observamos la biologa, y quiz algunos no saben que estudi biologa antes de entrar a arquitectura vemos que la piel humana es el rgano que regula naturalmente la temperatura del cuerpo, y eso es fantstico. +Esa es la primera lnea de defensa del cuerpo. +Tiene poros, glndulas sudorparas, tiene todas esas cosas que funcionan juntas de manera dinmica y eficaz, y por eso propongo que el revestimiento de los edificios sea ms parecido a la piel humana, y al hacerlo, resulte mucho ms dinmico, sensible y diferenciado, segn donde se encuentre. +Esto me regresa a mi investigacin. +Lo primero que propuse para hacerlo fue examinar las diferentes gamas de materiales. +Actualmente, o al menos por el momento, trabajo con materiales inteligentes y un bimetal trmico inteligente. +En primer lugar, creo que podemos llamarlo inteligente porque no requiere controles ni energa, y eso es muy importante para la arquitectura. +Se trata de un laminado de dos metales diferentes. +Se puede ver aqu gracias a los distintos reflejos a este lado. +Y como tiene dos diferentes coeficientes de expansin, al calentarse, un lado se expande ms rpido que el otro, y se obtiene una curvatura. +En este video en cmara rpida pueden ver que mientras el sol y la sombra se mueven por la superficie, cada pieza se mueve de forma individual. +Tengan presente que con la tecnologa digital que tenemos hoy, esto se hizo con unas 14.000 piezas de las cuales no hay dos iguales. Cada una es diferente. +Y lo mejor es que cada una puede calibrarse especficamente en funcin de su ubicacin, del ngulo del sol y tambin de la curvatura que toma. +Este tipo de proyecto de prueba de concepto tiene muchas posibilidades para futuras aplicaciones en la arquitectura. Aqu se ve una casa para un desarrollador en China, que es una caja de vidrio de cuatro pisos. +Todava es una de caja vidrio porque queremos acceso visual, pero ahora est forrada con esta capa termobimetal, es una pantalla que la rodea, y esa capa puede en realidad abrirse y cerrarse segn el movimiento del sol en la superficie. +Adems de eso, tambin puede detectar reas privadas para que puedan diferenciarse de las zonas pblicas del mismo espacio a distintas horas del da. +Esto quiere decir bsicamente que, en las casas de ahora, ya no necesitemos cortinas, persianas ni celosas porque es posible cubrir el edificio con estas cosas, as como controlar la cantidad de aire acondicionado necesario en el edificio. +Imaginen que eso se aplicara incluso en un edificio alto donde los sistemas de paneles van de una planta a otra hasta 30 o 40 pisos, toda la superficie podra variar en diferentes momentos del da dependiendo del reflejo del sol en la superficie. +Estos son algunos proyectos futuros en los que estoy trabajando que estn en los recuadros, donde se puede ver, en la parte inferior derecha, en rojo, que son en verdad pequeas piezas de metal trmico, que tratamos de hacer mover como cilios o pestaas. +Este ltimo proyecto tambin es de componentes. +La inspiracin y si han notado, una de mis reas de influencia es la biologa proviene del saltamontes. +Los saltamontes tienen un sistema respiratorio diferente. +Respiran a travs de unos orificios en los costados llamados espirculos, y llevan el aire que pasa a travs de su cuerpo para enfriarlos. En este proyecto, trato de ver cmo podemos considerar eso tambin en la arquitectura, cmo llevar aire a travs de los agujeros en las paredes de un edificio. +Aqu pueden ver algunos de los primeros estudios de bloques por donde efectivamente pasan los agujeros. Esto es antes de instalar el bimetal trmico, y esto es despus de instalarlo. Disculpen, es un poco difcil de ver, pero en la superficie, se pueden observar las flechas rojas. +Quiero dejarlos con una ltima impresin sobre el proyecto, o este tipo de trabajo y el uso de materiales inteligentes. +Cuando estn cansados de abrir y cerrar las persianas todos los das, cuando estn de vacaciones y no hay nadie los fines de semana que encienda y apague los aparatos, o cuando hay un apagn y se quedan sin electricidad, estos bimetales trmicos seguirn trabajando sin descanso, de manera eficiente y para siempre. Gracias. +Crec en Bihar, el estado ms pobre de la India, y recuerdo que cuando tena seis aos llegu a casa un da y me encontr un carro repleto de los dulces ms deliciosos en nuestra puerta. +Mis hermanos y yo nos sumergimos en l, entonces lleg mi padre. +Estaba furioso. An recuerdo cmo lloramos cuando el carro con nuestros dulces a medio comer se alejaba de nosotros. +Ms tarde comprend por qu mi padre se haba enojado tanto. +Esos dulces eran un soborno de un contratista que pretenda que mi padre le otorgara un contrato con el gobierno. +Mi padre estaba a cargo de la construccin de carreteras en Bihar y tena una postura firme contra la corrupcin, a pesar de haber sido agredido y amenazado. +La suya era una lucha solitaria, porque adems Bihar era el estado ms corrupto de la India. Los funcionarios pblicos se enriquecan, antes que ponerse al servicio de los pobres que carecan de medios para expresar su angustia porque sus hijos no tenan comida ni instruccin. +Esto yo lo experiment ms visceralmente cuando viaj a aldeas remotas con el fin de estudiar la pobreza. +A medida que iba de pueblo en pueblo, recuerdo que una vez me encontraba hambriento, exhausto y al borde del colapso bajo un rbol, con un calor abrasador y en ese momento, uno de los hombres ms pobres del pueblo me invit a su cabaa y amablemente me dio de comer. +Slo ms tarde me di cuenta de que esa era la comida para alimentar a su familia por dos das. +Este profundo don de generosidad desafi y cambi el propsito de mi vida. +Decid retribuirlo. +Con el tiempo, me incorpor al Banco Mundial, cuyo objetivo era la lucha contra la pobreza, transfiriendo la ayuda que brindaban los pases ricos a los pobres. +Mi trabajo inicial lo desempe en Uganda, donde me aboqu a la negociacin de reformas para el Ministerio de Finanzas de Uganda de manera que pudieran acceder a nuestros prstamos. +Sin embargo, despus de que hayan sido efectuados, volv a viajar a Uganda y me encontr con escuelas recin construidas, pero sin libros de texto, ni maestros. Haban nuevos centros de salud, pero sin medicinas y los pobres no contaban con voz ni recursos. +Era volver a Bihar otra vez. +Bihar representa un desafo al desarrollo: es la pobreza extrema rodeada de corrupcin. +Ese enfoque tradicional para el desarrollo se basaba en tres elementos clave. En primer lugar, la transferencia de recursos de los pases ricos del norte a los pases ms pobres en el sur, acompaado de propuestas de cambios. +En segundo lugar, las organizaciones encargadas de encaminar estas transferencias, contaban con escasa transparencia en la financiacin o en los resultados que se obtenan. +Y en tercer lugar, el compromiso con los pases en desarrollo se realizaba con las lites de Gobierno con poca interaccin con los ciudadanos, que son los beneficiarios de la asistencia para el desarrollo. +Hoy en da, cada uno de estos elementos se est abriendo debido a los cambios drsticos que se dan en el mbito mundial. +Conocimiento abierto, ayuda abierta, gobierno abierto. Juntos, representan tres cambios clave que estn transformando el desarrollo y que tambin alientan una mayor esperanza para los problemas de los que fui testigo en Uganda y en Bihar. +El primer cambio clave es el conocimiento abierto. +Hoy en da, los pases en desarrollo no aceptarn simplemente las soluciones que les dicten los Estados Unidos, Europa o el Banco Mundial. +Ellos obtienen su inspiracin, su esperanza y sus conocimientos prcticos de las exitosas economas emergentes del sur. +Quieren saber de qu manera China pudo sacar de la pobreza a 500 millones de personas en 30 aos y cmo el programa Oportunidades de Mxico logr mejorar la educacin y la nutricin de millones de nios. +Este es el nuevo ecosistema en el que fluye el conocimiento abierto, no slo se dirige de norte a sur, sino tambin de sur a sur, incluso de sur a norte, como sucede con Oportunidades de Mxico inspirando a la ciudad de Nueva York. +As como estas transferencias de norte a sur estn abiertas, tambin lo estn las instituciones de desarrollo que canalizan estas transferencias. +Este es el segundo cambio: ayuda abierta. +Recientemente, el Banco Mundial abri su bveda de datos para uso pblico, liberando 8.000 indicadores econmicos y sociales de 200 pases de ms de 50 aos y lanz un concurso mundial para realizar en forma distribuida aplicaciones innovadoras que utilicen esos datos. +Actualmente las instituciones de desarrollo tambin estn abriendo los proyectos que ellas financian para el escrutinio pblico. +Consideremos GeoMapping. En este mapa de Kenia, los puntos rojos muestran en dnde estn ubicadas las escuelas financiadas por donantes y los tonos ms oscuros de verde, indican a mayor cantidad de nios que no asisten a la escuela. +Esta sencilla aplicacin revela que los donantes no han financiado las escuelas en las zonas con mayor nmero de nios sin escolarizar, lo que sugiere nuevas preguntas. La asistencia al desarrollo est centrndose en los que ms necesitan nuestra ayuda? +De esta manera, el Banco Mundial ha asignado 30.000 actividades de proyectos en 143 pases y los donantes estn utilizando una plataforma en comn para trazar todos sus proyectos. +Este es un tremendo avance en la transparencia y la rendicin de cuentas de la ayuda +Esto me lleva al tercer punto y en mi opinin, el cambio ms significativo en el desarrollo: gobierno abierto. En la actualidad, los gobiernos se estn abriendo en la medida en que los ciudadanos estn demandando voz y rendicin de cuentas. +Desde la primavera rabe hasta el movimiento Anna Hazare en la India, utilizando telfonos mviles y medios de comunicacin sociales no slo pidiendo responsabilidad poltica, sino que tambin responsabilidad para el desarrollo. +Los gobiernos estn prestando servicios a los ciudadanos? +As, por ejemplo, varios gobiernos de frica y Europa del Este estn abriendo sus presupuestos al pblico. +Pero hay una gran diferencia entre un presupuesto pblico y un presupuesto accesible. +Este es un presupuesto pblico. Como se puede ver, en realidad no es accesible o comprensible para un ciudadano comn que est tratando de entender la forma en que el gobierno est gastando sus recursos. +Para hacer frente a este problema, los gobiernos estn utilizando nuevas herramientas para visualizar el presupuesto de modo que sea ms comprensible para los ciudadanos. +En este mapa de Moldavia, el color verde indica aquellos distritos que gastan poco en escuelas pero obtienen buenos resultados educativos, y el color rojo muestra lo contrario. +Herramientas como sta ayudan a convertir una estantera llena de documentos inescrutables a pblicos y comprensibles a la vista. Lo que es interesante es que con esta apertura hoy aparecen nuevas oportunidades para que los ciudadanos puedan dar su opinin y participar en el gobierno. +En las Filipinas, los padres y los alumnos pueden aportar informacin en tiempo real en una pgina web, Checkmyschool.org, o mediante SMS, acerca de que si los docentes se presentan en la escuela y si hay libros en el establecimiento; los mismos problemas que he visto en Uganda y en Bihar. +El gobierno es receptivo. As, por ejemplo, cuando se inform en este sitio web que 800 estudiantes estaban en riesgo debido a que las reparaciones en las escuelas se haban detenido debido a la corrupcin, el Departamento de Educacin de Filipinas tom medidas rpidas. +Y saben? lo emocionante es que esta innovacin se est propagando de sur a sur, desde Filipinas a Indonesia, Kenia, Moldavia y ms all. +En Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, incluso una empobrecida comunidad fue capaz de utilizar estas herramientas para expresar sus aspiraciones. +As es como se presentaba el mapa de Tandale en agosto de 2011. Pero en pocas semanas, estudiantes universitarios fueron capaces de utilizar telfonos mviles y una plataforma de cdigo abierto para cartografiar espectacularmente la infraestructura de toda la comunidad. +Y lo que es muy emocionante es que los ciudadanos pudieron dar informacin sobre los puntos de salud o agua que no estaban funcionando y agregarla en las burbujas de color rojo que estn viendo, lo que en conjunto ofrece un grfico visual de las voces colectivas de los pobres. +Actualmente, incluso Bihar est cambiando y produciendo una apertura bajo un liderazgo comprometido que est ejerciendo un gobierno transparente, accesible y receptivo a los pobres. +Sin embargo, en muchas partes del mundo los gobiernos no se interesan por la apertura o por el servicio a los pobres y es un verdadero reto para aquellos que quieren cambiar el sistema. +Estos son guerreros solitarios como mi padre y muchos, muchos otros, y algo fundamental de la labor de desarrollo es ayudar a estos guerreros solitarios a unir manos para que juntos puedan superar las adversidades. +As, por ejemplo, hoy, en Ghana, valientes reformadores de la sociedad civil, el Parlamento y el gobierno han forjado una coalicin para la transparencia de los contratos en el sector petrolero, y galvanizados por esto, los reformistas en el Parlamento estn investigando los contratos dudosos. +Estos ejemplos dan una nueva esperanza , una nueva posibilidad a los problemas que presenci en Uganda o a los que mi padre enfrent en Bihar. +Hace dos aos, el 8 de abril de 2010, llam a mi padre. +Era muy tarde por la noche y a la edad de 80 aos, l estaba escribiendo un litigio de 70 pginas de inters pblico contra la corrupcin en un proyecto vial. +Aunque no era abogado, l mismo argument el caso en la corte al da siguiente. Gan el fallo, pero ms tarde esa misma noche, cay y muri. +Luch hasta el final, con una pasin creciente porque en el combate contra la corrupcin y la pobreza, no slo los funcionarios del gobierno fueran honestos, sino que tambin los ciudadanos necesitaban unirse para que sus voces se escucharan. +Esto se convirti en los dos hitos de su vida y la travesa que recorri entre ambos reflej los cambios en el desarrollo. +Hoy, estoy inspirado por esos cambios y me emociona que en el Banco Mundial estemos adoptando estas nuevas orientaciones, un importante punto de partida desde mi trabajo en Uganda hace 20 aos. +Necesitamos abrir radicalmente el desarrollo para que el conocimiento fluya en mltiples direcciones, inspirando a los profesionales, para que la que la ayuda se vuelva transparente, responsable y eficaz para que los gobiernos se abran y los ciudadanos se involucren y potencien a los reformadores del gobierno. +Necesitamos acelerar estos cambios. +Si lo hacemos, encontraremos que las voces colectivas de los pobres sern escuchadas en Bihar en Uganda y ms all. +Descubriremos que los libros y los maestros aparecern en las escuelas para sus nios. +Encontraremos que esos nios, adems, tienen una oportunidad real de salir de la pobreza. +Gracias. +En Europa y Asia Central cerca de un milln de nios vive en grandes instituciones normalmente llamadas orfanatos. +Se piensa en los orfanatos como lugares agradables donde cuidan a los nios. +Otros conocen mejor las condiciones de vida, pero piensan que son un mal necesario. +Si no, en qu otra parte pondramos a todos esos nios que no tienen padres? +60 aos de investigacin han demostrado que al separar a los nios de sus familias y colocarlos en grandes instituciones se perjudica seriamente su salud y su desarrollo, especialmente el de los ms pequeos. +Cuando un beb nace, no ha completado el desarrollo de los msculos ni tampoco el del cerebro. +Durante los 3 primeros aos de vida, el cerebro crece hasta alcanzar su tamao completo; sobre todo durante los primeros 6 meses. El cerebro se desarrolla reaccionando a experiencias y a estmulos. +Cada vez que un beb aprende algo nuevo (a enfocar los ojos, imitar un movimiento o una expresin facial, a levantar algo, formar una palabra o sentarse derecho) se forman nuevas conexiones sinpticas en el cerebro. +Los padres se asombran por la rapidez del aprendizaje. +Se maravillan y se extasan con la inteligencia de sus hijos. +Les comunican su alegra y estos responden con sonrisas y con deseos de lograr ms cosas y aprender ms. +Esto forma fuertes lazos entre padres e hijos y es la base del desarrollo fsico, social, lingstico, cognitivo y psicomotor. +Es el modelo para todas las futuras relaciones con amigos, compaeros e incluso con sus propios hijos. +Sucede de una manera tan natural en la mayora de las familias, que ni siquiera lo notamos. La mayora no nos damos cuenta de su importancia para el desarrollo humano y para el de una sociedad sana. +Solo cuando falla empezamos a entender la importancia de la familia para los nios. +En agosto de 1993 tuve por primera vez la oportunidad de ver, a gran escala, el impacto en los nios de la reclusin y la ausencia de los padres. +Algunos recordamos los informes periodsticos procedentes de Rumana tras la revolucin de 1989, cuando vimos con horror las condiciones de algunas instituciones. +El director de una gran institucin me pidi que lo ayudara a prevenir la separacin de los nios de sus familias. +Ceausescu confin a 550 bebs en un orfanato, y me dijeron que las condiciones eran ahora mejores. +Tena mucha experiencia con nios pequeos y esperaba encontrar un gran alboroto, pero haba un silencio conventual. +Era increble creerse que hubiera nios. El director me mostr, salones y salones llenos de filas y filas de cunas, cada una con un nio acostado mirando al vaco. +En una sala con 40 recin nacidos, ninguno lloraba. +Se vean paales sucios y se notaba que algunos estaban angustiados, pero el nico ruido era un suave y continuo quejido. +La enfermera jefe me dijo orgullosa: "Como puede ver, nuestros nios se portan muy bien". +En los siguientes das empec a darme cuenta de que este silencio no era excepcional. +Los bebs nuevos lloraban las primeras horas, pero como no reciban atencin, al final aprendan a no molestar. A los pocos das estaban apticos, aletargados, mirando al vaco como los otros. +Muchas personas e informes periodsticos culpan al personal de las instituciones por el dao que les causan, pero a menudo una sola persona tiene que cuidar a 10, 20 o hasta 40 nios. +As, no tienen otra opcin que imponer un programa estricto. +Hay que despertarlos a las 7 y darles de comer a las 7:30. +A las 8 hay que cambiar paales. El encargado tiene solo 30 minutos para alimentar a 10 o 20 nios. +Si uno ensucia su paal a las 8:30, tendr que esperar varias horas a que lo cambien. +El contacto diario con otra persona se reduce a unos pocos minutos mientras lo alimentan y lo cambian. Los otros estmulos que encuentra son el techo, las paredes y los barrotes de la cuna. +Desde mi primera visita a la institucin de Ceausescu, he visto cientos de instituciones de este tipo en 18 pases; desde la Repblica Checa hasta Sudn. +En todos estos pases con culturas tan diversas, las instituciones y el paso de los nios son igualmente deprimentes. +La carencia de estmulos externos a menudo conduce a comportamientos autoestimulantes, como aletear las manos, mecerse repetidamente o agredir. En algunas instituciones usan drogas psiquitricas para controlar el comportamiento de los nios, y en otras los amarran para evitar que se hagan dao o hagan dao a los otros. +Se los etiqueta rpidamente como discapacitados y se los transfiere a instituciones especializadas. +La mayora no dejan nunca esas instituciones. +Los que no tienen discapacidad, a los 3 aos son transferidos a otros lugares. Y a los 7 aos los pasan a un tercer lugar. Segregados por edad y sexo, son arbitrariamente separados de sus hermanos, con frecuencia sin oportunidad de despedirse. +Raramente hay suficiente comida. A menudo tienen hambre. +Los mayorcitos acosan a los pequeos. As aprenden a sobrevivir. Aprenden a defenderse, o sucumben. +Cuando dejan la institucin, no es fcil para ellos desenvolverse e integrarse en la sociedad. +En Moldavia, las jvenes que crecieron en instituciones tienen 10 veces ms probabilidades de ser vendidas. Un estudio ruso mostr que 2 aos despus de dejar la institucin, el 20% de los jvenes ya tena antecedentes penales, el 14% estaba en la prostitucin y el 10% se haba suicidado. +Entonces, por qu hay tantos orfanatos en Europa, sin no ha habido muchas guerras ni desastres ltimamente? +En verdad, el 95% de esos nios tienen padres con vida. La sociedad culpa a esos padres por abandonar a sus hijos. Pero las investigaciones muestran que la mayora los quisieran conservar, y que las principales causas de la reclusin son la pobreza, la discapacidad y la etnicidad. +En muchos pases no hay escuelas integradas, y se enva a los nios, aun con discapacidades muy leves, a internados especiales a los 6 o 7 aos. +La institucin puede estar a cientos de kilmetros del hogar. +Si se trata de una familia pobre, no es fcil visitarlos y poco a poco se quiebra la relacin. +No tiene que ser as, no es inevitable. +Todo nio tiene derecho a una familia. Merece y necesita una familia. Y son increblemente capaces de adaptarse. +Hemos visto que si se sacan pronto de las instituciones y se llevan a familias afectuosas, se recuperan de sus retrasos de desarrollo y logran tener vidas normales y felices. +Tambin es mucho menos costoso darle apoyo a las familias que sostener las instituciones. +Un estudio sugiere que el sustento en una familia cuesta el 10% de lo que vale en una institucin. Y en un buen hogar sustituto cuesta aproximadamente el 30%. +Si se invierte menos en esos nios, pero en los servicios adecuados, podremos reinvertir la suma ahorrada en cuidados de alta calidad en hogares para aquellos nios con necesidades especialmente complejas. +Ahora hay menos de 10 000 y en todo el pas hay programas de apoyo familiar. +En Moldavia, a pesar de la extrema pobreza y los terribles efectos de la crisis econmica mundial, el nmero de nios en instituciones se ha reducido en ms del 50% en los ltimos 5 aos y los recursos se redistribuyen para el apoyo a las familias y a escuelas integradas. +Muchos pases han adoptado planes de accin para cambiar. +La Comisin Europea y otros grandes donantes estn encontrando la manera de desviar los fondos de las instituciones hacia el apoyo a las familias, empoderando a las comunidades para que cuiden de sus propios nios. +Pero todava hay mucho qu hacer para terminar con la reclusin sistemtica de nios. +Se necesita despertar la conciencia en todos los niveles de la sociedad. +Es necesario hacerles saber el dao que las instituciones causan a los nios y las mejores alternativas que existen. +Si sabemos de personas que estn planeando ayudar a orfanatos, debemos convencerlos para que apoyen a servicios familiares. +Esta es una forma de abuso de menores que juntos podremos erradicar en nuestra poca. +Gracias. +Buenos das. La magia es una excelente forma de estar siempre un paso adelante de la realidad, para hacer posible hoy lo que la ciencia har realidad maana. +Como mago ciberntico, combino elementos de ilusin con ciencia, para hacernos sentir cmo las tecnologas futuras podran ser percibidas. +Seguro que escucharon acerca del "Google's Project Glass". +Es una nueva tecnologa. Uno mira a travs de las lentes y el mundo que ve est aumentado con informacin: nombres de lugares, monumentos, edificios, quiz algn da incluso con los nombres de las personas que vern pasar por la calle. +Estos son mis lentes de ilusin. +Son un poco mas grandes. Son un prototipo. +Cuando uno mira a travs de ellos, puede meterse en la mente de un ilusionista ciberntico. +Djenme mostrarles lo que quiero decir. +Solo necesitamos una carta. Cualquiera sirve. +Esta. Y le hacemos una marca para reconocerla cuando volvamos a verla. +Listo. Una marca apreciable. +Volvamos a ponerla en el mazo, en el medio, y empecemos. +Mquina: El sistema est listo. Obteniendo imagen. +Marco Tempest: Para aquellos que no jueguen a las cartas, un mazo est compuesto por cuatro palos: corazones, trboles, diamantes y espadas. +Las cartas estn entre los smbolos mas antiguos y han sido interpretadas de muchas maneras. +Bien, algunos dicen que los cuatro palos representan las cuatro estaciones. +La primavera, el verano, el otoo y ... Mquina: El invierno es mi estacin favorita. MT: Ah, s, la ma tambin. +El invierno es mgico. Es un tiempo de cambios: el calor se transforma en fro, el agua en nieve, y luego todo desaparece. +Hay 13 cartas en cada palo. Mquina: Cada carta representa una fase de los 13 ciclos lunares. +MT: Aqu est la marea baja y por aqu la marea alta, y en el medio est la Luna. +Mquina: La luna es uno de los smbolos mgicos mas potentes. +MT: Hay dos colores en un mazo de cartas. +Est el color rojo y el negro, que representan el cambio constante entre el da y la noche. +Mquina: Marco, no saba que podas hacer eso. MT: Es una coincidencia que haya 52 cartas en un mazo, igual que hay 52 semanas en un ao? +Mquina: Si suman todas las marcas en un mazo, el resultado es 365. +MT: Oh, 365, el nmero de das de un ao, el nmero de das entre cada cumpleaos. +Pide un deseo. (Sonido de soplido). Mquina: No lo cuentes, o no se har realidad. +MT: Bueno, fue en mi sexto cumpleaos cuando me regalaron mi primer mazo, y desde ese da, he viajado alrededor del mundo haciendo magia para nios y nias, hombres y mujeres, esposos y esposas, incluso reyes y reinas. Mquina: Y quines son esos? MT: Ah, unos revoltosos. Mira. +Despierta. +Bromista: Ah! MT: Preparado para la fiesta? +Comodn: Listo! MT: Mustrame lo que tienes. +Bromista: Presentando mi palo saltarn. MT: Uy!, con cuidado. +Bromista: S, s, s, oh! MT: Pero hoy estoy actuando para otro tipo de audiencia. +Estoy actuando para Uds. +Mquina: Carta marcada detectada. MT: Bueno, a veces me preguntan "cmo te convertiste en mago? Es un trabajo de 9 a 5?". +Por supuesto que no! Debes practicar a todas horas. +No me refiero literalmente a 24 horas, 7 das a la semana. +Eso es exagerar un poco, pero s que exige mucha prctica. Algunos dicen, bueno, la magia debe ser algn tipo de fuerza maligna sobrenatural. Guau. +Bueno, a eso, yo les respondo: no, no. +O, en alemn: nein, nein. La magia no es tan intensa en realidad. Pero debo advertirles, si alguna vez juegan con alguien que reparte las cartas as, no jueguen por dinero. +Mquina: Por qu no? Esa es una muy buena mano. +Las probabilidades de ganar son de 4165 a una. +MT: S, pero creo que mi mano es mejor. Ganamos a las probabilidades. +Mquina: Ya conseguiste tu deseo de cumpleaos. MT: Y eso me deja con la ltima carta, la ms importante de todas: una con una marca muy significativa, +y diferente a todo lo que vimos hasta aqu, virtual o real. Mquina: Carta marcada detectada. +MT digital: Esto sin lugar a dudas es la verdadera realidad. +Hasta pronto. Gracias. Muchas gracias. +Era una de las nicas chicas en la universidad que tena una razn para ir a la oficina de correos al final del da, y esto era, principalmente, porque mi mam nunca ha credo en el e-mail, ni en Facebook, ni los sms, ni en los celulares en general. +Y as, mientras otros chicos enviaban mensajes a sus padres por BB, yo, literalmente, esperaba junto al buzn para recibir una carta de casa y ver cmo haba ido el fin de semana, lo que fue frustrante cuando la abuela estuvo en el hospital, pero yo solo buscaba algn garabato, algo de cursiva descuidada de mi madre. +Y as, cuando me mud a la ciudad de Nueva York tras la universidad y la depresin logr golpearme en la cara, hice la nica cosa que pude pensar en ese momento. +Escrib la misma clase de cartas que mi madre me haba escrito a extraos, y las esconda por toda la ciudad, decenas y decenas de ellas. Las dejaba en cualquier parte, en cafs y bibliotecas, en la ONU, en todas partes. +Escrib en mi blog acerca de esas cartas y de los das en que eran necesarias, e hice un clase de promesa loca en Internet: que si me pedan una carta escrita a mano, les escribira una, sin hacer preguntas. +Durante la noche, mi bandeja de entrada se convirti en un puerto de corazones rotos: una madre soltera de Sacramento, una nia acosada en Kansas rural, todas pidindome a m, una nia de 22 aos que apenas saba cmo pedir su caf, que les escribiera una carta de amor y para darles una razn para esperar junto al buzn. +Pero, saben, lo que me emociona de estas cartas es que la mayora han sido escritas por personas que nunca se han sentido amados desde una hoja de papel. +No podran hablarles de la tinta de sus propias cartas de amor. +Son los de mi generacin, los que hemos crecido en un mundo donde todo es sin papel y donde algunas de nuestras mejores conversaciones han sucedido en una pantalla. +Aprendimos a poner nuestro dolor diariamente en Facebook y a hablarnos rpidamente en 140 caracteres o menos. +Pero, y si esta vez no se trata de la eficiencia? +Estaba en el metro ayer con esta caja de correo, que, les digo que es un disparador de charlas. +Si necesitan comenzar una conversacin, solo lleven una de estas. Y un hombre solamente me miraba, y me dijo: "Bueno, pero por qu no usas internet?" +Y yo pensaba: "Seor, no soy estratega, ni especialista, soy simplemente una narradora de historias". +Y as, puedo hablarles de una mujer cuyo marido acababa de llegar de Afganistn, y estaba teniendo dificultades para desenterrar eso que llamamos conversacin as que ella escondi cartas de amor por toda la casa como una forma de decir: "Regresa a m. +Encuntrame cuando puedas". +O la muchacha que decidi que iba a dejar cartas de amor por su campus en Dubuque, Iowa, solo para encontrar sus esfuerzos multiplicados al da siguiente cuando caminaba en el patio y encontr cartas de amor colgando de los rboles, escondidas en los arbustos y en los bancos. +O del hombre que decide que va a suicidarse, usa Facebook como una forma de decir adis a amigos y familiares. +Bien, esta noche duerme tranquilo con un alto de cartas como esta, escondida bajo su almohada, escritas a mano por extraos que estaban all para l. +Estas son la clase de historias que me convencen de que los escritores de cartas nunca ms movern su pelo hacia atrs y hablarn de eficiencia, porque ya es un forma de arte, todas sus partes: la firma, el texto, enviarla por correo, los dibujitos en los mrgenes. +Aun podemos apretar estas cartas contra el pecho, las palabras que hablan ms fuerte y claro, cuando convertimos las pginas en paletas de colores para decir cosas que tenemos necesidad de decir, las palabras que tenemos necesidad de escribir, a hermanas y hermanos y an a extraos, durante demasiado tiempo. +Gracias. +Quiero hablar un poco sobre ver el mundo desde un punto de vista totalmente nico, y este mundo del que voy a hablar es el mundo microscpico. +He descubierto tras aos y aos que hay un mundo mgico detrs de la realidad +y que puede verse directamente a travs de un microscopio. Hoy voy a mostrarles un poco de l. +Empecemos con algo que no es tan pequeo, algo que podemos ver con el ojo desnudo, una abeja. As, cuando ven esta abeja, tiene ms o menos este tamao, un centmetro. +Pero para ver realmente los detalles de la abeja y poder apreciar lo que es, hay que mirarla un poco ms de cerca. +Esto es solo el ojo de la abeja en un microscopio, y ahora de repente pueden ver que la abeja tiene miles de ojos individuales llamados omaditios y que en realidad tienen pelos sensoriales en los ojos, de forma que saben cuando se estn acercando a algo porque no pueden verlo en estreo. +Si nos acercamos ms, tenemos un pelo humano. +Un pelo humano es lo ms pequeo que el ojo puede ver. +Mide alrededor de una dcima de milmetro. +Y si nos acercamos otra vez, unas diez veces ms pequea que eso, tenemos una clula. +As, se pueden meter 10 clulas humanas en el dimetro de un pelo humano. +Cuando miramos las clulas, en realidad me interes en la biologa y las ciencias mirando clulas vivas en el microscopio. +Cuando vi por primera vez clulas vivas en un microscopio, estaba absolutamente fascinado y maravillado de su apariencia. +Si se observa la clula, como esta del sistema inmunolgico, vemos que en realidad se estn moviendo por todas partes. +Esta clula est buscando cuerpos extraos, bacterias, cosas que pueda encontrar. +Est mirando a su alrededor y cuando encuentra algo y lo reconoce como un cuerpo extrao, lo envolver y se lo comer. +As, si miran justo ah, encuentra esa pequea bacteria, la envuelve y se la come. +Si se toman algunas clulas del corazn de un animal y se ponen en un plato, simplemente se quedarn ah y palpitarn. +Es su trabajo. Cada clula tiene una misin en la vida, y para estas clulas su misin es mover la sangre por todo nuestro cuerpo. +Las siguientes clulas son neuronas y justo ahora, al ver y entender lo que estamos observando, nuestros cerebros y neuronas en realidad estn haciendo esto justo ahora. No son estticas. Se estn moviendo estableciendo nuevas conexiones y eso es lo que ocurre cuando aprendemos. +Si descendemos ms en la escala, encontramos un micrn, o micrmetro, y bajamos hasta un nanmetro y un angstrom. Un angstrom tiene el tamao del dimetro de un tomo de hidrgeno. +As de pequeo es. +Y los microscopios de hoy pueden ver incluso tomos individuales. As, tenemos algunas imgenes de tomos individuales. Cada protuberancia es un tomo. +Esto es un anillo de tomos de cobalto. +As, todo este mundo, el nanomundo, esta zona de aqu se llama nanomundo, y el nanomundo, todo el mundo microscpico que vemos, contiene un nanomundo en su interior y ese es el mundo de las molculas y los tomos. +Pero quiero hablarles de este mundo ms grande, el mundo microscpico. +As si fueran un bicho diminuto que vive en una flor, cmo veran esa flor si fuera as de grande? +No veran o sentiran nada de lo que vemos cuando miramos una flor. As, si miran esta flor, y son un pequeo bicho, si estn en la superficie de esa flor, as es cmo veran el terreno. +As que este chiquitn que est andando por aqu es como si estuviera en un pas de Willy Wonka en miniatura. +Es como una pequea Disneylandia para ellos. No es como lo vemos nosotros. +Estas son pequeas partes de granos de polen ah y all, y aqu hay un... lo que ven como un pequeo punto amarillo de polen, cuando se mira en el microscopio, en realidad est formado por miles de pequeos grano de polen. +Aqu tenemos una imagen en primer plano y una imagen normal de un lirio acutico, y si tuvieran una visin realmente buena con el ojo desnudo, la veran as de bien. +Estos son el estambre y el pistilo. Pero miren cmo el estambre y el pistilo se ven en un microscopio. Este es el estambre. +As, hay miles de pequeos granos de polen, ah est el pistilo y estas son las pequeas cosas llamadas tricomas. Son las que hacen que la flor tenga fragancia, y, de hecho, las plantas se comunican con otras a travs de sus fragancias. +Quiero hablarles de algo realmente normal, solo arena normal. +Comenc a interesarme por la arena hace unos 10 aos, cuando vi por primera vez arena de Maui, y, de hecho, esto es un poco de arena de Maui. +La arena mide una dcima de milmetro aproximadamente. +Cada grano de arena mide una dcima de milmetro aproximadamente. +Pero cuando se mira ms de cerca, observen lo que hay ah. +Es realmente asombroso. Tenemos conchas microscpicas. +Tenemos cosas como coral, +fragmentos de otras conchas, olivino +y trocitos de volcn. Hay un poco de un volcn ah. Tenemos gusanos de tubo. +En la arena existe un despliegue asombroso de cosas increbles. +De esta forma tenemos, por ejemplo, una imagen de la arena de Maui. +Esta procede de Lahaina. Y cuando paseamos por una playa, en realidad estamos paseando por millones de aos de historia biolgica y geolgica. +No nos damos cuenta, pero es en realidad un registro de toda la ecologa. +As vemos aqu, por ejemplo, la espcula de una esponja dos trocitos de coral aqu, eso es una pa de un erizo de mar. Cosas realmente asombrosas. +Cuando vi esto por primera vez, estaba -creo- alucinado, es como tener aqu un pequeo tesoro oculto. +No poda creerlo e iba examinando estos pequeos trocitos y fotografindolos. +As es como se ve la mayora de la arena de nuestro planeta. +Estos son cristales de cuarzo y feldespato, as que la mayora de la arena del mundo continental est formada por cristales de cuarzo y feldespato. Es la erosin de una roca de granito. +As pues, las montaas se forman, se erosionan con el agua, la lluvia, el hielo y todo eso, y se convierten en granos de arena. +Aqu tenemos arena mucho ms colorida. +Es arena de un lugar cercano a los grandes lagos y puede ver que contiene minerales como granate rosa y epidota verde, todas clases de cosas asombrosas, y si mira la arena de diferentes lugares, cada playa, cada lugar en el que mire la arena, es diferente. Esta es del Big Sur, son como pequeas joyas. +Hay lugares en frica donde extraen joyas y si se mira la arena en el lugar donde los ros la llevan hasta el ocano, se ven literalmente joyas diminutas en el microscopio. +Cada grano de arena es nico. Cada playa es diferente. +Cada grano es diferente. No hay dos iguales en el mundo. +Cada uno viene de algn lugar y va a otro. +Es como una instantnea. +La arena no est solo en la Tierra, sino en todo el universo. De hecho, el espacio exterior est lleno de arena, que se une para formar nuestros planetas y la luna. +Se puede ver en los micrometeoritos. +Aqu tenemos algunos micrometeoritos que me dio el ejrcito los extrajeron de los pozos del Polo Sur. +Son asombrosos y esos son los diminutos elementos que forman el mundo en el que vivimos, los planetas y la luna. +La NASA quera que sacara algunas fotos de la arena de la luna, as que me mandaron arena de todos los aterrizajes de las misiones Apollo de hace 40 aos. +Empec a sacar fotos con mis microscopios tridimensionales. +Esta fue la primera que saqu. Es bastante asombrosa. +Pens que se pareca un poco a la luna, lo cual es muy interesante. +Ojo izquierdo, ojo derecho. +Tenemos algo interesante aqu. Es muy diferente de cualquier arena de la Tierra que haya visto antes, y he visto mucha, cranme. Miren este agujero en el medio. Fue causado por un micrometeorito que impact contra la luna. +La luna no tiene atmsfera, as que los micrometeoritos llegan continuamente, por lo que toda su superficie est cubierta de polvo debido a que durante cuatro mil millones de aos ha sido bombardeada por micrometeoritos. y cuando uno llega aproximadamente entre 30 y 95 mil km por hora, se evapora al contacto. +Pueden verlo aqu: est ms o menos evaporado y este material contiene pequeo conjunto de granos de arena. +Es un grano de arena muy pequeo, todo esto +se llama aglutinado en anillo. +Muchos de los granos de arena de la luna son as y nunca encontrara eso en la Tierra. +La mayora de la arena de la luna, sobre todo, y saben que cuando miramos la luna, hay zonas oscuras y zonas de luz. Las zonas oscuras son corrientes de lava. Son corrientes de lava basltica y as es como se ve la arena, muy similar a la arena que veramos en Haleakala. +En realidad son microscpicas, se necesita un microscopio para verlas. +Esto es un grano de arena procedente de la luna, y pueden ver que toda la estructura de cristal est todava ah. +Lo que he intentado contarles hoy es que cosas tan ordinarias como un grano de arena pueden ser verdaderamente extraordinarias si las miramos de cerca y desde un punto de vista nuevo y diferente. +Creo que William Blake lo expres mejor cuando dijo: "Para ver un mundo en un grano de arena y un cielo en una flor silvestre, sostn el infinito en la palma de tu mano y la eternidad en una hora". +Gracias. +Lo que quiero que hagan ahora mismo es que piensen en el mamfero que les voy a describir +Lo primero que les voy a decir sobre este mamfero es que es esencial para que nuestro ecosistema funcione correctamente. +Si eliminramos a este mamfero de nuestros ecosistemas, simplemente no funcionaran. +Eso es lo primero. +Lo segundo es que debido a las excepcionales habilidades sensoriales de este mamfero, si lo estudiamos, vamos a comprender mejor nuestras enfermedades de los sentidos como la ceguera o la sordera. +Y el tercer aspecto realmente intrigante de este mamfero es que creo absolutamente que su secreto de la eterna juventud est dentro de su ADN. +Entonces, estn todos pensando? +Pues, una criatura magnfica, no? +Quin de Uds. pens en un murcilago? +Ah, veo que la mitad de la audiencia est de acuerdo conmigo, y me costar mucho trabajo convencer al resto. +He tenido la buena suerte, en los ltimos 20 aos, de estudiar a estos hermosos y fascinantes mamferos. +Una quinta parte de todos los mamferos que existen son murcilagos y tienen caractersticas muy singulares. +Los murcilagos, tal como los conocemos hoy, han estado en el planeta unos 64 millones de aos. +Una de las caractersticas nicas que hacen los murcilagos como mamferos es volar. +Volar es algo intrnsecamente difcil. +El vuelo en los vertebrados ha evolucionado en tres oportunidades: una vez con los murcilagos, otra con los pjaros, y otra con los pterodctilos. +Y el vuelo tiene un alto costo, desde el punto de vista metablico. +Los murcilagos han aprendido y han evolucionado para manejarlo. +Pero otra de las cosas extraordinarias de los murcilagos es su habilidad para usar el sonido con el fin de percibir su entorno. Ellos usan la ecolocalizacin. +Lo que quiero decir con ecolocalizacin es que los murcilagos emiten un sonido desde la laringe, a travs de la boca y de la nariz. Esta onda sonora sale, se refleja en los objetos y produce ecos en el entorno, los murcilagos escuchan esos ecos y esa informacin la transforman en una imagen acstica. +Esto les permite orientarse en completa oscuridad. +De hecho, los murcilagos se ven raros. Nosotros somos humanos. +Somos una especie visual. Cuando los cientficos descubrieron que los murcilagos en realidad usaban el sonido para volar, orientarse y moverse en la noche, no lo cremos. +Durante cien aos y a pesar de lo que mostraba la evidencia sobre lo que hacan, no lo cremos. +Si uno mira a un murcilago parece un poco extraterrestre. +De hecho, Thomas Nagel, un filsofo famoso dijo una vez que "para experimentar una forma de vida extraterrestre en este planeta, basta con encerrarse en un cuarto oscuro con un murcilago que est volando y usando la ecolocalizacin". +Y si vemos las verdaderas caractersticas fsicas en la cara de este hermoso "murcilago herradura", apreciamos que muchas de ellas estn destinadas a emitir un sonido y percibirlo. +Orejas muy grandes, nariz extraa lanceolada, pero ojos muy pequeos. +As que si miramos de nuevo a un murcilago, nos damos cuenta de que el sonido es muy importante para su supervivencia. +La mayora de los murcilagos se parecen al anterior. +Aunque hay un grupo que no usa la ecolocalizacin. +No perciben su entorno utilizando el sonido. Este grupo es el de los murcilagos zorros. +Si alguien ha tenido la buena suerte de estar en Australia, los habr visto en el Jardn Botnico de Sidney, y si les miras la cara, observars que tienen ojos mucho ms grandes y orejas mucho ms pequeas. +As que hay una gran variacin entre los murcilagos en cuanto a su habilidad para usar la percepcin sensorial. +Ahora esto va a ser importante para lo que les voy a decir ms adelante en esta charla. +Ahora, si la idea de murcilagos en tu campanario te aterroriza, y s que alguna gente probablemente se siente un poco mal viendo imgenes muy grandes de murcilagos, probablemente no sea tan sorprendente, porque aqu en la cultura Occidental, los murcilagos han sido demonizados. +Realmente, desde luego el famoso libro de "Drcula", escrito por un compatriota del norte de Dubln, Bram Stoker, probablemente sea el principal responsable de esto. +De todas formas, tambin creo que tiene que ver con el hecho de que los murcilagos salen por la noche, y nosotros realmente no los entendemos. Estamos un poco asustados por las cosas que perciben al mundo ligeramente diferente a nosotros. +A los murcilagos generalmente se los asocia con eventos malvados +son agresores en pelculas de terror, como la famosa "Nightwing" +tambin, si se ponen a pensar, los demonios siempre tienen alas de murcilago, mientras que los ngeles normalmente tienen alas de pjaro +ahora, esta es la sociedad occidental, y lo que espero hacer hoy es convencerlos de la cultura tradicional china, que percibe a los murcilagos como criaturas que traen buena suerte y, de hecho, si entras a una casa china, tal vez veas una imagen como esta. +Esto es considerado las 5 bendiciones. +La palabra china para "murcilago" suena como la palabra china para "felicidad", y ellos creen que los murcilagos traen riqueza, salud, longevidad, virtud y serenidad. +y de hecho, en esta imagen, tienen una foto de longevidad rodeada por 5 murcilagos. +Lo que quiero hacer esta noche es hablarles y ensearles que al menos 3 de estas bendiciones son definitivamente representadas por un murcilago, y que si los estudiamos estaremos cerca de alcanzar cada una de estas bendiciones +Bueno, riqueza... cmo un murcilago nos puede dar riqueza? +Como dije antes, los murcilagos son esenciales para que nuestros ecosistemas funcionen correctamente. Por qu? +Los murcilagos tropicales son los mayores polinizadores de muchas plantas. +Tambin comen fruta y dispersan las semillas de estas frutas. Los murcilagos son responsables de polinizar la planta de tequila, y esta es una industria multimillonaria en Mxico. Entonces, los necesitamos para que nuestros ecosistemas funcionen bien. +Sin ellos, sera un problema. +Pero la mayora de los murcilagos son depredadores de insectos. +Se estima que una colonia pequea de grandes murcilagos pardos en EUA, comer ms de un milln de insectos al ao, y actualmente en Estados Unidos los murcilagos estn amenazados por una enfermedad llamada el sndrome de la nariz blanca. +Est avanzando lentamente a travs de EUA y eliminando poblaciones de murcilagos y cientficos han estimado que 1300 toneladas mtricas de insectos por ao estn quedando en el ecosistema a causa de la perdida de murcilagos. +Los murcilagos tambin son amenazados en EUA +por su atraccin a los parques elicos. Otra vez, los murcilagos se estn viendo como un problema. +Ellos van a... estn muy amenazados en los Estados Unidos nada ms. +Ahora, cmo nos puede ayudar esto? +Bueno, ha sido calculado que si eliminamos a los murcilagos de la ecuacin, vamos a tener que usar insecticidas para eliminar todas esas pestes de insectos que se comen nuestros productos agrcolas. +Y por un ao (solo en EUA) se estima que va a costar USD 22 000 millones, si eliminamos a los murcilagos. Entonces, los murcilagos s nos dan riqueza. +Mantienen la salud de nuestro ecosistema, y nos ahorran dinero. +Otra vez, esa es la primera bendicin. Los murcilagos son importantes para nuestro ecosistema. +Qu pasa con la segunda? Qu pasa con la salud? +Adentro de cada clula de tu cuerpo est tu genoma. +Tu genoma est compuesto por tu ADN, los cdigos ADN para construir las protenas que te permiten funcionar e interactuar y ser como eres. +Ahora con los nuevos avances modernos de tecnologa molecular, es posible determinar la secuencia de nuestro propio genoma en un tiempo breve y a un costo muy, muy reducido. +Ahora que hemos estado haciendo esto, nos damos cuenta de que hay variaciones en nuestro genoma. +Quiero que vean a la persona al lado de Uds.. +Solo una mirada rpida. Y lo que tenemos que observar es que de cada 300 pares de bases en el ADN, tu eres apenas diferente. +Y uno de los desafos ms grandes ahora en la medicina molecular moderna es descubrir si esta variacin te hace ms sensible a enfermedades o solo te hace diferente. +Bueno, yo creo que solo tenemos que observar los experimentos de la naturaleza. +Entonces, a travs de la seleccin natural, a travs del tiempo, mutaciones, variaciones que interrumpen la funcin de una protena no van a ser toleradas. +La evolucin acta como un cedazo. Deja afuera las variaciones malas. +Entonces, si hiciramos esto, lo que necesitamos hacer es decodificar esa regin en todos los mamferos diferentes y ver si es igual o diferente. Entonces si es igual eso indica que ese lugar es importante para una funcin entonces una mutacin de una enfermedad debera caer en ese lugar. +Entonces en este caso, si todos los mamferos que analizamos tienen un genoma amarillo en ese lugar, probablemente sugiere que el morado es malo. +Esto podra ser ms poderoso todava si observaras mamferos que estn haciendo las cosas un poco diferente. +Digamos, por ejemplo, la regin del gen que estuve viendo era una regin que es importante para la visin. +Si observamos esa regin en mamferos que no ven bien, como los murcilagos, y encontramos que esos murcilagos que no ven tan bien tienen el tipo morado, deduciremos que probablemente sea esto lo que est causando la enfermedad. +Entonces en mi laboratorio, hemos usado murcilagos para analizar dos tipos diferentes de enfermedades de los sentidos. +Estamos estudiando la ceguera. Por qu haras esto? +314 millones de personas tienen problemas de la vista y 45 millones de estas son ciegas. Entonces la ceguera es un gran problema, y muchos de estos problemas de ceguera son hereditarios entonces queremos entender mejor qu mutaciones en el gen estn causando la enfermedad. +Tambin observamos la sordera. Uno de cada 1000 recin nacidos son sordos, y cuando cumplamos 80, ms de la mitad de nosotros va a tener problemas de audicin. +Otra vez, hay muchas causas genticas para esto. +Entonces lo que hemos estado haciendo en mi laboratorio es estudiar a estos especialistas sensoriales, los murcilagos, y hemos analizado los genes que causan ceguera cuando tienen un defecto, genes que causan sordera cuando tienen un defecto, y ahora podemos predecir qu lugares tienen la mayor probabilidad de causar enfermedades. +Entonces los murcilagos son importantes para nuestra salud, para tener un mejor entendimiento de cmo funciona nuestro genoma. +Entonces aqu es donde estamos ahora, pero qu hay del futuro? +Y la longevidad? +Aqu es a donde vamos a ir, y como dije antes, de verdad creo que el secreto de la eterna juventud est en el genoma del murcilago. +Entonces, por qu deberamos estar interesados en el envejecimiento? +Bueno, la verdad, esta es una imagen del siglo XVI de la fuente de la juventud. El envejecimiento es considerado uno de los aspectos ms familiares pero menos entendidos de la biologa, y la verdad, desde el principio de la civilizacin los humanos han tratado de evitarlo. +Pero vamos a tener que entenderlo un poco mejor. +Solo en Europa, en 2050, va a haber un 70% de incremento de individuos mayores de 65, y un 170% de incremento de individuos mayores de 80. +Cuando envejecemos, nos deterioramos, y esta deterioracin causa problemas en nuestra sociedad, entonces tenemos que enfrentarla. +Entonces, cmo podra el secreto de la eterna juventud estar en el genoma de un murcilago? Alguien quiere adivinar cunto tiempo podra vivir este murcilago? +Quin --levanten sus manos-- quin dice 2 aos? +Nadie? Uno? Qu tal 10 aos? +Algunos? Qu tal 30? +Qu tal 40? Bueno, la respuesta es muy variada. +Este murcilago es "myotis brandtii". Es el murcilago que ms vive. +Ha vivido hasta 42 aos, y hoy sigue vivo en el medio silvestre. +Pero qu es tan impresionante de esto? +Bueno, normalmente, en los mamferos hay una relacin entre el tamao corporal, velocidad del metabolismo, y cunto puedes vivir, y puedes predecir cuanto puede vivir un mamfero por su masa corporal. +Normalmente, los mamferos pequeos viven rpido, mueren jvenes. +Piensen en un ratn. Pero los murcilagos son muy diferentes. +Como pueden ver en esta grfica, en azul, estos son todos los otros mamferos, pero los murcilagos pueden vivir hasta nueve veces ms de lo esperado a pesar de tener una velocidad metablica muy, muy alta, y la pregunta es: cmo pueden hacer eso? +Hay 19 especies de mamferos que viven ms de lo esperado, dada su masa corporal, que los humanos, y 18 de esas son murcilagos. +Entonces, deben tener algo en su ADN que les permite lidiar con el estrs metablico, particularmente de volar. Usan 3 veces ms energa que un mamfero del mismo tamao, pero no parecen sufrir las consecuencias o los efectos. +Entonces ahora, en mi laboratorio, estamos combinando lo ms avanzado en el campo de biologa de murcilagos, saliendo y atrapando los murcilagos que han vivido mucho, con la ms reciente, tecnologa molecular moderna para entender mejor qu es lo que ellos hacen para impedir envejecer como nosotros. +Y ojal en los prximos 5 aos, les pueda dar una charla TED sobre eso. +El envejecimiento es un gran problema para la humanidad, y yo creo que estudiando a los murcilagos, podemos descubrir los mecanismos moleculares que les permitan a los mamferos alcanzar una longevidad extraordinaria. Si descubrimos qu es lo que estn haciendo, tal vez a travs de terapias genticas, podamos permitirnos hacer lo mismo. +Potencialmente, esto significa que podramos detener el envejecimiento y quiz hasta revertirlo. +Solo imaginen cmo sera eso. +Entonces realmente, yo no creo que deberamos estar pensando en ellos como demonios voladores de la noche, sino ms como nuestros sper hroes. +Y la realidad es que los murcilagos nos pueden traer muchos beneficios si solo buscramos en el lugar adecuado. Son buenos para nuestro ecosistema, nos permiten entender cmo funciona nuestro genoma, y potencialmente guardan el secreto de la eterna juventud. +Entonces esta noche, cuando salgan de aqu y miren para arriba en los cielos de la noche, y vean a este hermoso mamfero volador, quiero que sonran. Gracias. +Creo que la hermosa Malin [Akerman] lo puso perfectamente. +Todo hombre merece la oportunidad de dejarse crecer un lujito. +La pregunta ms comn que me hacen, y voy a responderla ahora, para no tener que hacerlo entre copas esta noche, es cmo sucedi esto? +Cmo empez Movember? +Bien, normalmente, una obra de caridad inicia con la causa y alguien afectado directamente por ella. +Luego crean un evento y ms all de eso, una fundacin para apoyarla. +Prcticamente en todos los casos, as es cmo empieza una obra de caridad. +No fue as con Movember. Movember empez de una forma muy tradicional australiana. Un domingo por la tarde +estaba con mi hermano y un compaero tomando unas cervezas, viendo el mundo pasar; tena unas cervezas de ms, y la conversacin deriv en la moda de los 70 y de cmo todas las modas regresan. +Unas cuantas cervezas ms, dije, "tiene que haber alguna cosa que no haya vuelto". Luego de una cerveza ms, qu pas con el bigote? +Por qu no ha regresado? Entonces hubo muchas ms cervezas y el da termin con el reto para traer de vuelta el bigote. En Australia, "mo" es jerga para bigote, as que cambiamos el nombre del mes de noviembre, "Movember", y formulamos algunas reglas muy bsicas, que siguen en pie hoy en da. +Mi novia del momento, que ya no es mi novia lo odiaba. +Los padres alejaban sus hijos de nosotros. Pero llegamos juntos al final del mes y celebramos nuestra aventura, y fue una aventura real. +Nos divertimos mucho, y en 2004, les dije a los chicos: "Eso fue muy divertido. Necesitamos legitimarlo para que podamos llegar lejos con l en un ao". As que empezamos a pensar en ello y fuimos inspirados por las mujeres alrededor nuestro y todo lo que hacan para el cncer de mama. +Y pensamos, sabes qu, no hay nada para la salud de los hombres. +Por qu? Por qu no podemos combinar el crecimiento de un bigote con hacer algo para la salud de los hombres? +Y comenc a investigar el tema y descubr que el cncer de prstata es el equivalente masculino del cncer de mama en cuanto al nmero de hombres que mueren de esto y que se les diagnostica uno. +Pero no haba nada por esta causa, as que casamos el dejarse crecer el bigote con el cncer de prstata, y, a continuacin, creamos nuestro lema, que es: "Cambiar la cara de la salud de los hombres", +que describe con elocuencia el desafo, cambiar su apariencia por 30 das, y tambin el resultado que estamos tratando de lograr: hombres comprometidos con su salud, que tienen una mejor comprensin de los riesgos de salud que enfrentan. +As que con ese modelo llam en fro al director de la Fundacin de Cncer de Prstata. +Le dije: "tengo la idea ms maravillosa que va a transformar su organizacin". Y como no quera compartirla por telfono, lo convenc de reunirse conmigo para tomar caf en Melbourne en 2004. +Nos sentamos y compart con l mi visin de conseguir hombres que se dejaran el bigote por toda Australia, logrando sensibilizar por esta causa y fondos para su organizacin. Y necesitaba una asociacin para hacerlo legtimamente. +Y dije: "vamos a llegar juntos hasta el final, vamos a tener una fiesta temtica de bigote, vamos a tener DJs, vamos a celebrar la vida y vamos a cambiar la cara de la salud de los hombres". +l solo me mir, se ri y me dijo: "Adam, es una idea realmente novedosa, pero somos una organizacin ultraconservadora. +No podemos tener nada que ver con Uds.". As que pagu el caf ese da y su comentario de despedida cuando nos estrechamos las manos fue: "Escucha, si llegas a conseguir algn dinero, con mucho gusto lo aceptaremos". As que mi leccin ese ao fue persistencia. +Y persistimos, y conseguimos 450 hombres dejndose el bigote, y juntos recaudamos 54 000 dlares, y donamos cada centavo a la Fundacin de Cncer de Prstata de Australia, lo que represent en su momento la donacin ms grande de todos los tiempos. +As que desde ese da, mi vida ha girado alrededor del bigote. +Cada da... esta maana, me levant y segu, mi vida es sobre un bigote. Esencialmente, soy un agricultor de bigotes. Y mi temporada es en noviembre. As que en 2005, la campaa recibi ms impulso, tuvo ms xito en Australia y luego en Nueva Zelanda, y, despus, en el 2006 llegamos a un punto crtico. +Esto consuma tanto tiempo de nuestras horas libres los fines de semana que pensamos que tenamos o bien que cerrarlo o lograr una manera de financiar Movember para que yo pudiera dejar mi trabajo y pasar ms tiempo en la organizacin y llevarla al siguiente nivel. +Es realmente interesante cuando uno intenta e imagina una forma de financiar una organizacin de recaudacin de fondos construida sobre los bigotes. Djenme decirles que no hay demasiada gente interesada en invertir en eso, ni siquiera la Fundacin de Cncer de Prstata, a la que le habamos conseguido alrededor de 1,2 millones de dlares en ese momento. +As que de nuevo persistimos, y Foster's Brewing se uni a la fiesta y nos dio nuestro primer patrocinio, que fue suficiente para dejar mi trabajo, hice consultora en paralelo. +Esto nos lleva a Movember 2006, gastamos todo el dinero de Foster's, gastamos todo el dinero que tena, y bsicamente no haba quedado nada, y convencimos a todos nuestros proveedores agencias creativas, desarrolladoras de web, compaas de hospedaje y dems de retrasar sus facturas hasta diciembre. +As que habamos acumulado para entonces cerca de 600 000 dlares en deuda. Por lo que Movember 2006 no se dio, los cuatro fundadores, bueno, hubiramos quebrado, hubiramos estado en la calle, sentados en la acera con bigotes. Pero pensamos, sabes qu, si esto es lo peor que sucede, qu pasa? +Vamos a divertirnos un montn hacindolo, y esto nos ense la importancia de asumir riesgos y riesgos realmente inteligentes. +Luego, a principios de 2007, sucedi algo muy interesante. +Tuvimos Mo Bros de Canad, de los EE.UU. y del Reino Unido, que nos enviaron correos y nos llamaron diciendo: Hola!, no hay nada para el cncer de prstata. +Traigan esa campaa a estos pases. +As que pensamos, por qu no? Vamos a hacerlo. +As que llam en fro al director de Cncer de Prstata Canad y le dije: "tengo el concepto ms increble". +Me mir, se ri y dijo: "Adam, suena como una idea realmente novedosa, pero somos una organizacin ultraconservadora". He escuchado esto antes. S de qu va. +Pero dijo: "Nos asociaremos con Uds. pero no vamos a invertir en esto. Uds. necesitan encontrar una forma de traer esta campaa aqu y hacer que funcione". +Y no estamos en la bsqueda de una cura australiana o una cura canadiense, estamos buscando la cura. +As que en 2007, llevamos la campaa por aqu, y eso sent las bases para la campaa. +No fue tan exitosa como pensamos que sera. +Estbamos muy entusiasmados con nuestro xito en Australia y Nueva Zelanda en ese momento. +As que ese ao realmente nos ense la importancia de ser pacientes y realmente entender el mercado local antes de ser muy vivos y poner metas elevadas. +Pero me siento muy satisfecho de decir que en 2010 Movember se convirti en un movimiento verdaderamente global. +Canad sola se adelant en trminos de ser la campaa de recaudacin nmero uno del mundo. +El ao pasado tuvimos 450 000 Mo Bros repartidos por todo el mundo y juntos conseguimos 77 millones de dlares. +Y eso hace que Movember sea ahora la mayor fuente de financiacin de investigacin del cncer de prstata y programas de apoyo en el mundo. +Y eso es un logro increble cuando se piensa en nosotros dejndonos el bigote. Y para nosotros, ha redefinido la caridad. +Nuestra cinta es una cinta peluda. Nuestros embajadores son los Mo Bros y las Mo Sistas, y creo que han sido fundamentales para nuestro xito. +Llevamos nuestra marca y nuestra campaa a estas personas. +Les dejamos adoptarlo e interpretarlo a su manera. +Ahora vivo en Los ngeles porque la Fundacin de Cncer de Prstata de los Estados Unidos tiene su sede all y siempre me preguntan los medios de comunicacin de all, porque son muy orientados a las celebridades, "Quines son sus celebridades embajadoras?" +Y les digo: "el ao pasado tuvimos la suerte de tener 450 000 celebridades embajadoras". +Y sueltan: "Qu, qu dice?" +Y es que cada persona, cada uno de los Mo Bros y Mo Sistas que participan en Movember es nuestra celebridad embajadora, y es tan, tan importante y fundamental para nuestro xito. +Ahora quiero compartirles uno de mis ms conmovedores momentos Movember, ocurrido aqu en Toronto el ao pasado, al final de la campaa. +Estaba con un equipo. Fue el final de Movember. +Y dije: "Espere! Ese es un bigote impresionante". +Y l dijo: "Lo estoy haciendo por Movember". Y dije: "Yo igual". Y dije: "Cunteme su historia de Movember". +Y dijo: "Mire, s que es sobre la salud de los hombres, S que es sobre cncer de prstata, pero esto es para el cncer de mama". +Y dije: "Bien, que interesante". +Sigui: "El ao pasado, mi mam muri de cncer de mama en Sri Lanka, porque no podamos costear el tratamiento adecuado para ella", y dijo: "Este bigote es mi homenaje a mi mam". +Y estbamos todos conmovidos y en silencio atrs en el taxi y no le dije quien era, porque pens que no era apropiado, y yo solo le estrech la mano y le dije: "Muchsimas gracias. +Su mam estara tan orgullosa". +Y desde ese momento me di cuenta de que Movember es mucho ms que un bigote o hacer una broma. +Se trata de cada persona que llega a estos programa, que lo adopta a su manera, y le da significado en su propia vida. +Nosotros ahora en Movember, nos enfocamos en tres reas del programa para tener un verdadero impacto: sensibilizacin y educacin, programas de apoyo a sobrevivientes e investigacin. +Se me acerc y dijo: "Gracias por comenzar Movember." +Y dije: "Gracias por hacer Movember". +Y lo mir diciendo: "Estoy seguro de que a Ud. no le crece el bigote". Y dije: "Cul es su historia de Movember?" +As que ahora s se hace el examen de cncer de prstata. +As que esas conversaciones, que los hombres se comprometan con esto, a cualquier edad, es tan crticamente importante, en mi opinin mucho ms importante que los fondos que recaudamos. +Ahora sobre los fondos que recaudamos, la investigacin y cmo estamos redefiniendo la investigacin. +Financiamos fundaciones de cncer de prstata en 13 pases. +Por lo que hemos dicho, bien, hemos redefinido la caridad. Necesitamos redefinir la forma en que estas personas operan. Cmo lo hacemos? +Por lo que lo identificaron como una prioridad y entonces han conseguido y reclutado a 300 investigadores de todo el mundo que estn estudiando este tema, esencialmente el mismo tema. +As que ahora los estamos financiando con cinco o seis millones de dlares para colaborar y reunirlos, lo que es algo nico en el cncer mundial, y sabemos que, a travs de esa colaboracin, se acelerarn los resultados. +As es cmo estamos redefiniendo el mundo de la investigacin. +Por lo tanto, lo que s sobre mi aventura de Movember es que, con una idea realmente creativa, con pasin, con persistencia y mucha paciencia, cuatro compaeros, cuatro bigotes, pueden inspirar una sala llena de gente, y esa sala llena de gente puede ir e inspirar a una ciudad, y esa ciudad es Melbourne, mi hogar. +Y esa ciudad puede ir e inspirar a un estado y ese estado puede ir e inspirar una nacin y ms all de eso, puede crear un movimiento global que cambie la cara de la salud de los hombres. +Mi nombre es Adam Garone, y esa es mi historia. +Gracias. +Las personas desean muchas cosas de la vida, pero pienso que ms que nada, quieren felicidad. +Aristteles llam a la felicidad "el bien supremo", el fin hacia el cual apuntan todas las otras cosas. +Segn este punto de vista, la razn por la que queremos una casa grande o un lindo auto o un buen trabajo no es que estas cosas sean intrnsecamente valiosas. +Es que esperamos que nos produzcan felicidad. +Ahora, en los ltimos 50 aos, los estadounidenses hemos conseguido muchas de las cosas que queremos. Somos ms ricos. +Vivimos ms tiempo. Tenemos acceso a tecnologa que hubiera parecido ciencia ficcin solo unos pocos aos atrs. +La paradoja de la felicidad es que aunque las condiciones objetivas de nuestras vidas hayan mejorado notablemente, en realidad no hemos conseguido ser ms felices. +Tal vez porque estas nociones convencionales de progreso no han dado grandes beneficios en trminos de felicidad, es que ha habido un creciente inters en los ltimos aos en la felicidad en s misma. +La gente ha debatido las causas de la felicidad durante mucho tiempo, de hecho durante miles de aos, pero al parecer muchos de esos debates siguen sin resolverse. +Bueno, como en tantos otros dominios de la vida, creo que el mtodo cientfico tiene el potencial para responder a esta cuestin. +De hecho, en los ltimos aos, ha habido una explosin en la investigacin sobre la felicidad. Por ejemplo, hemos aprendido mucho sobre su demografa, de qu manera temas como ingresos y educacin, gnero y matrimonio se relacionan con ella. +Pero uno de los enigmas que esto ha revelado es que factores como estos no parecen tener un efecto particularmente fuerte. +S, es mejor ganar ms dinero que menos, o graduarse en la universidad en lugar de abandonar los estudios, pero las diferencias en la felicidad tienden a ser pequeas. +Lo que nos deja la pregunta: cules son las grandes causas de la felicidad? +Creo que esa es una pregunta que todava no hemos respondido realmente, pero pienso que algo que tiene el potencial de ser una respuesta es que tal vez la felicidad tenga mucho que ver con el contenido de nuestras experiencias cotidianas. +Ciertamente parece que al transitar por nuestras vidas, lo que hacemos, con quin estamos, lo que pensamos tiene una gran influencia en nuestra felicidad, y sin embargo estos son precisamente los factores que a los cientficos les ha sido casi imposible de estudiar. +Hace unos aos se me ocurri una manera de estudiar la felicidad de las personas en cada momento de sus vida cotidianas a escala masiva en todo el mundo, algo que nunca hubiramos podido realizar antes. Llamado trackyourhappiness.org, utiliza el iPhone para supervisar la felicidad de las personas en tiempo real. +Cmo funciona? Bsicamente, envo seales a personas en instantes aleatorios durante todo el da, y a continuacin, les hago varias preguntas acerca de lo que sentan justo un momento antes de la seal. +Hemos sido afortunados con este proyecto de recopilar gran cantidad de datos, muchos ms datos de este tipo de lo que creo nunca antes se ha recopilado, ms de 650 000 informes en tiempo real de ms de 15 000 personas. +Y no es solo un montn de gente, es un grupo muy diverso, personas de una amplia gama de edades, desde 18 hasta 80 aos, una gran variedad de ingresos, niveles de educacin, personas que estn casadas, divorciadas, viudas, etc. +En conjunto representan a 86 categoras ocupacionales y provienen de ms de 80 pases. +Lo que quisiera hacer el resto de mi tiempo con ustedes hoy es hablar un poco sobre una de las reas que hemos estado investigando, que es el divagar de la mente. +Como seres humanos, tenemos esta habilidad nica de dejar que nuestras mentes se aparten del momento presente. +Este hombre est sentado aqu trabajando en su computadora, y sin embargo podra estar pensando en las vacaciones que tuvo el mes pasado, preguntndose qu va a cenar. +Quizs est preocupado de estar quedndose calvo. Esta capacidad de centrar nuestra atencin en otra cosa aparte del presente es realmente asombrosa. Nos permite aprender, planificar y razonar de una manera que ninguna otra especie de animal puede. +Y an no est claro cul es la relacin entre el uso de esta capacidad y nuestra felicidad. +Probablemente hayan escuchado a personas que sugieren que deberamos enfocarnos en el presente. "Estar aqu ahora", probablemente lo hayan escuchado cientos de veces. +Tal vez, para ser realmente felices, necesitemos permanecer completamente inmersos y centrados en nuestra experiencia del momento. +Tal vez estas personas tengan razn. Tal vez dejar vagar la mente sea algo malo. +Por otra parte, cuando nuestras mentes divagan, lo hacen sin restricciones. No podemos cambiar la realidad fsica frente a nosotros, pero podemos ir a cualquier lugar con nuestras mentes. +Puesto que sabemos que la gente quiere ser feliz, tal vez cuando nuestra mente divaga, est yendo a un lugar ms feliz que aquel del que se aparta. Tendra mucho sentido. +En otras palabras, tal vez los placeres de la mente nos permitan aumentar nuestra felicidad dejndola divagar. +Bueno, puesto que soy un cientfico, me gustara intentar resolver este debate con algunos datos y en particular me gustara presentarles algunos datos obtenidos de tres preguntas que hago con "Track Your Happiness". Recuerden, esto proviene del tipo de experiencia en cada momento de la vida de las personas. +Hay tres preguntas. La primera es acerca de la felicidad: Cmo te sientes, en una escala que va de muy mal a muy bien? Segundo, una pregunta sobre actividad: Qu ests haciendo, de una lista de 22 diferentes actividades que incluye cosas como comer, trabajar y ver televisin? +Y por ltimo, una pregunta acerca de la divagacin mental: Ests pensando en alguna otra cosa aparte de lo que ests haciendo ahora? +La gente podra decir que no en otras palabras, estoy enfocado solo en mi tarea o s estoy pensando en otra cosa y el tema de esos pensamientos es agradable, neutral o desagradable. +Cualquiera de esas respuestas constituye lo que llamamos divagacin mental. +Qu descubrimos? +Este grfico muestra la felicidad en el eje vertical, y se puede ver que la barra representa cuan feliz es la gente cuando est centrada en el presente, cuando no deja divagar la mente. +Pues resulta que las personas son sustancialmente menos felices cuando sus mentes estn vagando que cuando no lo estn. +Ahora, podemos observar este resultado y decir, bueno, seguro, en promedio las personas son menos felices cuando estn divagando, pero seguramente cuando sus mentes se apartan de algo que no es muy agradable, al menos, el que la mente divague, debera ser algo bueno para nosotros. +No. Resulta que, la gente es menos feliz cuando est divagando sin importar lo que est haciendo. Por ejemplo, a la gente realmente no le gusta mucho transportarse al trabajo. +Es una de las actividades menos agradables, y sin embargo son sustancialmente ms felices cuando est enfocados solo en su trayecto que cuando la mente se dispersa hacia otra cosa. +Es increble. +Incluso cuando estn pensando acerca de algo que podra describirse como agradable, en realidad son ligeramente menos felices que cuando no estn divagando. +Si la divagacin fuera una mquina tragamonedas, sera como tener la oportunidad de perder 50 dlares, 20 dlares o un dlar. Verdad? Nunca querras jugar. As que he hablado de esto, sugiriendo, tal vez, que la divagacin causa infelicidad, pero todo lo que realmente les he mostrado es que estas dos cosas estn correlacionadas. +Es posible que este sea el caso, pero tambin podra ser que cuando las personas son infelices, dejan divagar la mente. +Tal vez sea eso lo que realmente est sucediendo. Cmo podramos desentraar estas dos posibilidades? +Bueno, hay un hecho que podemos aprovechar, creo que es un hecho en el que estaremos todos de acuerdo, y es que el tiempo va hacia adelante, no hacia atrs. Verdad? La causa tiene que venir antes que el efecto. +Afortunadamente en los datos que tenemos hay varias respuestas por cada persona, de manera que podemos observar, si el divagar de la mente tiende a preceder a la infelicidad, o si la infelicidad tiende a preceder al divagar de la mente, para obtener una idea de la direccin causal. +Como resultado, existe una fuerte relacin entre el divagar de la mente ahora y ser infeliz poco tiempo despus, consistente con la idea de que la divagacin mental es causa de que las personas sean infelices. +En cambio, no hay ninguna relacin entre ser infeliz ahora y la divagacin mental un poco despus. +En otras palabras, muy probablemente el divagar de la mente parece ser una causa real y no meramente una consecuencia, de infelicidad. +Hace unos minutos compar la divagacin de la mente con una mquina tragamonedas con la que nunca quisiramos jugar. +Bien, con qu frecuencia la gente deja divagar su mente? +Resulta, que es bastante frecuente. De hecho, realmente mucho. +Un 47 % del tiempo, las personas estn pensando en algo distinto a lo que estn haciendo. +En qu medida depende de lo que estn haciendo? +Bsicamente impregna todo lo que hacemos. +En mi charla de hoy, les he hablado un poco sobre la divagacin mental, una variable que creo resulta ser bastante importante en la ecuacin de la felicidad. +Gracias. +Hace dos aos, tras 4 aos de servicio en el Cuerpo de Marines de los EE.UU. y ser enviado a Iraq y Afganistn, me encontraba en Puerto Prncipe, dirigiendo un equipo de mdicos y veteranos en algunas de las zonas ms afectadas de la ciudad, tres das tras el terremoto. +bamos donde nadie ms quera ir, donde nadie ms poda ir, y tras tres semanas, nos dimos cuenta de algo. Los militares veteranos responden muy bien ante las catstrofes. +Al volver a casa, mi cofundador y yo lo estudiamos y vimos que haba dos problemas. El primero es +que la respuesta ante las catstrofes es inadecuada. +Es lenta. Est anticuada. No utiliza la mejor tecnologa... y tampoco goza de buen personal. +El segundo problema que vimos fue que la reintegracin de veteranos era muy inadecuada, y este es un tema de primera plana ahora mismo ya que los veteranos estn volviendo a casa desde Iraq y Afganistn y estn luchando por reintegrarse en la vida civil. +As que nos sentamos a estudiar esos dos problemas y al final camos en la cuenta de algo: no son problemas. +En realidad, son soluciones. Y qu quiero decir con eso? +Que podemos usar la respuesta ante las catstrofes como una oportunidad para que los veteranos que vuelven a casa tengan un servicio que hacer. +Estudios recientes muestran que el 92% de los veteranos quieren seguir trabajando tras colgar el uniforme. +Y podemos valernos de los veteranos para mejorar la respuesta ante las catstrofes. +A primera vista tiene mucho sentido, as que en 2010, respondimos a Chile por la catstrofe del tsunami, a Paquistn por las inundaciones y enviamos equipos a la frontera entre Tailandia y Birmania. +Pero fue este ao, cuando uno de los miembros originales hizo que le diramos un vuelco al enfoque de nuestra organizacin. +Este es Clay Hunt. Clay fue marine junto conmigo. +Servimos juntos en Iraq y Afganistn. +Clay estuvo con nosotros en Puerto Prncipe y tambin en Chile. +Este ao, en marzo, Clay se quit la vida. +Fue una tragedia, pero nos oblig a darle un nuevo enfoque a lo que estbamos haciendo. +Clay no se suicid por lo que ocurri en Iraq y Afganistn. Clay se suicid por lo que perdi al volver a casa. +Perdi determinacin. Perdi a su comunidad. +Y puede que lo ms trgico sea que perdi su autoestima. +Pero tras lo de Clay, cambiamos ese planteamiento y ahora nos consideramos una organizacin de veteranos que se vale de la respuesta ante las catstrofes. +Porque creemos que podemos devolverle esa determinacin y esa comunidad y esa autoestima a los veteranos. +Y los tornados en Tuscalusa y Joplin, y ms tarde el huracn Irene, nos permitieron considerarlo. +Quiero que imaginen por un segundo a un chico de 18 aos que se grada de la escuela secundaria en Kansas City, Missouri. +Se une al ejrcito. El ejrcito le da un fusil. +Le envan a Iraq. +Todos los das entra en combate con una misin. +La de defender la libertad de la familia que ha dejado en casa. +La de mantener con vida a los hombres que le rodean. +La de llevar la paz al pueblo donde trabaja. +Tiene un propsito. Pero vuelve a su casa en Kansas City, Missouri, quizs vaya a la universidad o trabaje, pero su propsito ya no tiene el mismo sentido. +Le das una motosierra. Le envas a Joplin, Missouri, tras un tornado, y lo recupera. +Volviendo atrs, ese mismo chico de 18 aos se grada de la preparatoria en Kansas City, Missouri, se une al ejrcito, el ejrcito le da un fusil, le envan a Iraq. +Todos los das mira los mismos pares de ojos que le rodean. +Entra en combate. Sabe que esa gente le cubre. +Ha dormido en la misma arena. Han vivido juntos. +Han comido juntos. Han sangrado juntos. +Vuelve a casa en Kansas City, Missouri. +Deja el ejrcito. Cuelga el uniforme. +Ya no pertenece a esa comunidad. +Pero llevas a 25 de esos veteranos a Joplin, Missouri, y recobran ese sentido de comunidad. +De nuevo, un chico de 18 aos se grada en Kansas City. +Se une al ejrcito. El ejrcito le da un fusil. +Le envan a Iraq. +Le otorgan una medalla. Vuelve a casa en un desfile triunfal. +Cuelga el uniforme. Ya no es el sargento Jones en su comunidad. Ahora es Dave de Kansas City. +Ya no tiene la misma autoestima. +Pero lo mandan a Joplin tras un tornado, y de nuevo alguien va hacia l y le estrecha la mano y le agradece su ayuda, y recobran esa autoestima. +Creo que es muy importante porque ahora mismo alguien necesita avanzar y esta generacin de veteranos tiene la oportunidad de hacerlo si le dan la oportunidad. +Muchas gracias. [Aplausos] +Hoy voy a hablarles de cmo hacer bocetos de sistemas electrnicos. +Soy, entre algunas otras cosas, ingeniera elctrica, y eso significa que una gran parte de mi tiempo la dedico a disear y construir tecnologas nuevas, y, en concreto, a disear y construir sistemas electrnicos. +Y lo que he descubierto es que el proceso de disear y construir sistemas electrnicos es problemtico en muchos aspectos. +Por eso, se trata de un proceso muy lento y muy caro, y los resultados de dicho proceso, en concreto las tarjeras de circuitos electrnicas, son limitados en todo tipo de aspectos muy interesantes. +As pues, suelen ser muy pequeos, son cuadrados y planos y duros y, sinceramente, la mayora de ellos no son nada atractivos, por lo que mi equipo y yo hemos estado pensando en la manera de cambiar y combinar el proceso y los resultados del diseo de sistemas electrnicos. +Entonces, qu pasara si se pudieran disear y construir sistemas electrnicos de la siguiente manera? Qu pasara si se pudieran hacer realmente rpido, realmente econmicos, quiz ms interesantes, realmente flexibles y expresivos e incluso improvisados? +No sera eso genial? Y no abrira eso todo tipo de nuevas posibilidades? +Les mostrar dos proyectos cuya investigacin sigue este ideal, comenzar con ste. +Piezas magnticas, electrnicas y papel ferroso. +Un lpiz con tinta conductiva del laboratorio Lewis en UIUC. +Una plantilla de stickers. +Velocidad X4. +Fabricando un interruptor. +Msica: DJ Shadow. +Aadiendo inteligencia con un microcontrolador. +Esbozando una interfaz. +Bastante interesante, no? Nosotros pensamos que s. +Entonces ahora que hemos desarrollado estas herramientas y hallado estos materiales que nos permiten hacer estas cosas comenzamos a entender que prcticamente cualquier cosa que podemos hacer con papel, cualquier cosa que podemos hacer con un lpiz y un papel ahora podemos hacerlo con la electrnica. +Por lo tanto el siguiente proyecto que quiero mostrarles es una investigacin ms profunda de esta posibilidad. +Voy a dejar que hable por s solo. +Y por ende, pronto ustedes van a poder jugar y construir y dibujar con electrnica en esta nueva y fundamental manera. +Muchas gracias. +Crec en Limpopo, en la frontera entre Limpopo y Mpumalanga, en una pequea ciudad llamada Motetema. +All el agua y la electricidad son tan impredecibles como el clima, y mientras creca en estas condiciones, a los 17 aos, estaba descansando con un par de amigos en invierno, tomando sol. +En Limpopo el sol es muy fuerte en invierno. +Estbamos tomando sol y mi mejor amigo me dice: "Hombre, por qu alguien no inventa algo que pueda usarse sobre la piel de modo que no tuviramos que baarnos?" +Me incorpor y le dije: "Hombre, yo comprara eso, s?". +As que volv a casa e investigu un poco, y encontr unas estadsticas impresionantes. +Hoy ms de 2500 millones de personas en el mundo no tienen acceso adecuado al agua y al saneamiento. +De ellos, 450 millones estn en frica, y 5 millones en Sudfrica. +En este entorno prosperan diversas enfermedades y la ms drstica es la que se conoce como tracoma. +El tracoma es una infeccin ocular producida por la suciedad que entra en el ojo. Muchas infecciones de tracoma pueden dejarte ciego en forma permanente. +La enfermedad deja 8 millones de personas ciegas permanentemente cada bendito ao. Y lo sorprendente es que para evitar la infeccin con el tracoma slo se necesita lavarse la cara: ni medicina, ni pldoras, ni inyecciones. +As que dije, bien, tenemos lista la frmula. +Ahora tenemos que llevar esto a la prctica. +Avanzamos 4 aos, despus de escribir un plan de negocios de 40 pginas en el mvil, despus de escribir mi patente en el mvil, soy el titular de patente ms joven del pas, y... ("No hay que baarse ms!") No puedo decir nada ms que eso. Invent DryBath, la primera locin del mundo para sustituir al bao. +Literalmente, uno se la pone en la piel y no tiene que baarse. +As, despus de tratar de hacerlo funcionar en la secundaria con recursos limitados, fui a la universidad conoc alguna gente, lo puse en prctica, y ahora tenemos un producto totalmente funcional listo para salir al mercado. En realidad ya est en el mercado. +Aprendimos algunas lecciones de comercializacin y disponibilizacin de DryBath. +Una de las cosas que aprendimos fue que en las comunidades pobres no se compran productos a granel. +Compran productos a demanda. Una persona de Alex no compra una caja de cigarrillos. Compra un cigarrillo al da, aunque le cueste ms caro. +Por eso empacamos DryBath en estos pequeos sachets innovadores. +Se lo parte por la mitad y se aprieta. +Y lo genial es que un sachet sustituye un bao por 5 rand. +Despus de crear ese modelo aprendimos mucho de la implementacin de productos. +Descubrimos que incluso los chicos ricos de los suburbios realmente queran DryBath. Al menos una vez por semana. +Como sea, descubrimos que podamos ahorrar 80 millones de litros de agua en promedio cada vez que evitamos un bao, y tambin ahorrbamos 2 horas por da de nios de reas rurales, 2 horas ms de escolaridad, 2 horas ms para las tareas, 2 horas ms simplemente para ser nios. +Despus de ver ese impacto global, lo redujimos a nuestra proposicin de valor principal que era limpieza y conveniencia. +DryBath es la conveniencia del rico y el salvavidas del pobre. +Qu te detiene? An no termin. An no termin. +Y otro factor clave que aprend en todo este proceso, el ao pasado Google me nombr como una de las mentes ms brillantes del mundo. +Actualmente soy tambin el mejor emprendedor estudiante del mundo, el primer africano en obtener este galardn, y algo que realmente me intriga es que hice todo esto slo porque no quera baarme. Gracias. +Permtanme decirles que ha sido un fantstico mes para el engao. +Y ni siquiera estoy hablando de la campaa a la presidencia de los EE.UU. Tenemos a un eminente periodista arrestado por plagio, a un joven escritor famoso cuyo libro contiene tantas citas ficticias que lo retiraron de la venta; un artculo del New York Times denuncia falsas crticas literarias. +Ha sido fantstico. +Pero por supuesto, no todo el engao llega a la prensa. +Mayormente el engao es cotidiano. De hecho, muchos estudios muestran que todos mentimos una o dos veces al da, como Dave sugiri. +O sea que siendo ahora las 18:30, podemos pensar que la mayora de nosotros debe haber mentido. +Veamos qu pasa con Winnipeg. Cuntos de Uds., en las ltimas 24 horas recuerden han dicho una mentirita, o una grande? Cuntos aqu han dicho una pequea mentira? +Bien. Estos son todos los mentirosos. +Asegrense de ponerles atencin. No, se vio bien, fueron alrededor de dos tercios de Uds. +El otro tercio no minti, o tal vez se le olvid, o me est mintiendo sobre su mentira, lo cual es muy, muy enrevesado . Esto concuerda con muchos estudios, que sugieren que mentir es bastante comn. +Esta omnipresencia, combinada con la importancia de lo que significa ser un ser humano, el hecho de que podamos decir la verdad o inventar algo, ha fascinado a la gente a lo largo de la historia. +Aqu tenemos a Digenes con su linterna. +Alguien sabe lo que estaba buscando? +Un hombre honesto que muri sin encontrar uno solo all en Grecia. Y tenemos a Confucio en el Oriente que estaba realmente interesado en la sinceridad, no solo en los hechos o en las palabras, sino en creer en lo que se estaba haciendo. +Creer en los principios. +Mi primer encuentro profesional con el engao se dio algo despus que el de esta gente, hace un par de miles de aos. +Yo era un funcionario de aduanas de Canad all por la mitad de los 90. +S. Defenda las fronteras de Canad. +Pero desde 1995, 96, la manera en que nos comunicamos se ha transformado totalmente. Utilizamos correo electrnico, mensajes de texto, Skype, Facebook. Es una locura. +Casi todos los aspectos de la comunicacin humana han cambiado, y por supuesto hay un impacto sobre el engao. +Quiero hablarles algo sobre nuevos tipos de engao que hemos seguido y documentado. +Los denominamos: "el mayordomo", "el ttere de media" y "el ejrcito chino de agua". +Suenan parecido a libros raros, pero en realidad son nuevos tipos de mentiras. +Vamos a empezar con "el mayordomo". Aqu tenemos un ejemplo: "Estoy en camino". Alguna vez han escrito, "Estoy en camino"? +Entonces, tambin han mentido. Nunca estamos en camino. Estamos pensando en tomar el camino. +Aqu hay otro: "Lamento no haberle respondido antes". +"Mi batera estaba descargada". La batera no estaba descargada. +No estaban en una zona sin cobertura. +Simplemente no queran contestarle a esa persona en aquel momento. +Esta es la ltima: estn hablando con alguien, y dicen: "Lo siento, tengo trabajo, me tengo que ir". +Pero en realidad, estn aburridos. Quieren hablar con otra persona. +Cada uno de estos casos trata de una relacin, y este es un mundo conectado las 24 horas. Ni bien consigues mi nmero de telfono celular, literalmente puedes estar en contacto conmigo las 24 horas del da. +La gente utiliza estas mentiras para crear un intermediario, como lo era el mayordomo, entre nosotros y el vnculo con los dems. +Pero se hace de manera muy especial. Se utiliza la ambigedad que proviene del uso de tecnologa. No sabes dnde estoy, lo que hago, ni con quin estoy. +Y el objetivo es proteger las relaciones. +La gente no quiere ser chocante. Lo que estas personas dicen es: "Mira, no quiero hablar contigo ahora", o "No quise hablarte en ese momento, pero todava me interesas. +Nuestra relacin es todava importante". +Ahora, el "ttere de media", por el contrario, es un animal totalmente diferente. El "ttere de media" no apunta a la ambigedad, por s mismo. Se refiere a la identidad. +Permtanme darles un ejemplo muy reciente, tanto, como de la semana pasada. +Tenemos a R.J. Ellory, un autor "best seller" en Gran Bretaa. +Aqu est uno de sus libros ms vendidos. +Y aqu hay comentarios en lnea, en Amazon. +Mi favorito, el de Nicodemus Jones dice: "En cualquier caso, te tocar el alma". +Y por supuesto, se podra sospechar que Nicodemus Jones es R.J. Ellory. +l escribi crticas muy, muy positivas sobre s mismo. Sorpresa, sorpresa. +Apelar al "ttere de media" realmente no es novedoso. +Walt Whitman tambin lo hizo en su momento, antes de que existiera Internet. El "ttere de media" se torna interesante cuando lo llevamos a gran escala, entrando en el dominio del "ejrcito chino de agua". +Se refiere a miles de personas en China a las que se les paga muy poco para producir contenidos. Podran ser comentarios, podra ser propaganda. El gobierno contrata a estas personas, las empresas las contratan, por todos lados. +En Norteamrica, lo llamamos "astroturfing" [csped artificial]. El "astroturfing" es ahora bastante comn. Hay mucha preocupacin por l. +Lo vemos especialmente en comentarios sobre productos, reseas de libros, en todo, desde hoteles hasta si tal tostadora es buena o no. +Al repasar estos tres tipos de engao, se podra pensar, que Internet realmente nos est convirtiendo en una especie que engaa, especialmente cuando se piensa en el "astroturfing", donde podemos ver el engao llevado a gran escala. +Pero en realidad, lo que he encontrado es muy distinto. +Dejemos de lado las salas de charla de sexo annimo en lnea, en las que estoy seguro que ninguno de Uds. ha estado. +Les puedo asegurar que all hay engao. +Y dejemos de lado al prncipe nigeriano que les envi un email sobre cmo sacar 43 millones del pas. Olvidmonos de ese tipo, tambin. +Concentrmonos en las conversaciones con nuestros amigos, nuestra familia, nuestros compaeros de trabajo y nuestros seres queridos. +Esas son las conversaciones que realmente importan. +Qu hace la tecnologa para mentirle a esas personas? +Y realmente es sorprendente porque pensamos, bueno, al no haber seales no verbales, por qu no se miente ms? +En el telfono, por el contrario, es donde se miente ms. +Una y otra vez vemos que el telfono es el medio donde ms se miente, tal vez por las ambigedades de la mentira del "mayordomo" de las que habl. +Tiende a ser muy diferente de lo que se espera. +Qu pasa con los currculos? Hicimos un estudio en el que las personas se postulaban para un empleo y podan hacerlo mediante un currculo tradicional en papel o por LinkedIn, que es un sitio de redes sociales como Facebook, pero para profesionales contiene la misma informacin que un currculo. +Y lo que encontramos, para sorpresa de muchos, fue que los currculos de LinkedIn eran ms honestos en lo que le importaba a los empleadores, como las responsabilidades y competencias en el trabajo anterior. +Y qu decir del propio Facebook? +Siempre pensamos que en estas versiones idealizadas, la gente muestra lo mejor que le ha pasado en su vida. Muchas veces he pensado as. +Mis amigos, no pueden ser tan geniales y tener tan buena vida. +Bien, un estudio prob esto examinando las personalidades de la gente. +Cuatro buenos amigos del individuo deban juzgar su personalidad. +Luego muchos desconocidos, tenan que juzgar su personalidad a travs de Facebook, y lo que se descubri fue que los juicios de la personalidad eran prcticamente idnticos, altamente correlacionados, lo que significa que los perfiles de Facebook realmente reflejan nuestra verdadera personalidad. +Bien, qu decir de las citas en lnea? +Es decir, es un ambiente que se presta bastante para el engao. +Estoy seguro de que todos Uds. tienen "amigos" que han utilizado citas en lnea. Y te deben haber contado del tipo que no tena pelo cuando se present, o de la mujer que no se pareca en absoluto a su foto. +Y lo que descubrimos fue muy, muy interesante. +Aqu hay un ejemplo de los hombres y la altura. +En la parte inferior est la altura que ellos declararon en su perfil. +En el eje vertical, tenemos la altura real. +Esa lnea diagonal es la lnea de la verdad. Si el punto est sobre ella decan exactamente la verdad. +Ahora, como pueden ver, la mayora de los puntos est por debajo de la lnea. +Lo cual significa que todos los hombres han mentido sobre su altura. +De hecho, mintieron sobre su altura en poco ms de 2,3 cm, lo que en el laboratorio llamamos "fuerte redondeo hacia arriba". Mides casi 1,73 m y bum!, 1,75 m. +Pero lo que es realmente importante aqu es, miren todos esos puntos. +Se agrupan bastante cerca de la verdad. Lo que descubrimos fue que el 80% de nuestros participantes minti sobre una de esas dimensiones, pero siempre mentan por poco. +Una de las razones es bastante simple. Si acudes a una cita, a tomar un caf y eres completamente diferente a lo que dijiste ser, se termin no? Entonces las personas mintieron con frecuencia, pero mintieron sutilmente, no demasiado. Se contuvieron. +Bien, qu explican todos estos estudios? Cmo se explica el hecho de que a pesar de nuestra intuicin, incluso la ma, mucha de la comunicacin en lnea, a travs de un medio tecnolgico, sea ms honesta que la comunicacin cara a cara? +Es realmente extrao. Cmo podemos explicar esto? +Bueno, para ello, podemos observar la literatura de deteccin del engao. +Es una literatura muy antigua, surgi hace 50 aos. +Ha sido revisada varias veces. Ha habido miles de ensayos, cientos de estudios, y hay algunos resultados realmente convincentes. +El primero es que somos bastante malos para la deteccin del engao, realmente malos. 54% de exactitud, en promedio cuando se trata de decir si alguien que acaba de hacer una declaracin est mintiendo o no. +Eso es muy malo. Por qu es tan malo? +Bueno, tiene que ver con la nariz de Pinocho. +Si les preguntara a Uds., de qu fiarse cuando miran a alguien y quieren averiguar si est mintiendo? A qu indicio deben prestar atencin? +La mayora de Uds. dira que una seal a tener en cuenta son los ojos. Los ojos son la ventana del alma. +Los ojos no nos dicen si alguien est mintiendo o no. +En algunas situaciones, s, cuando el riesgo es alto, tal vez las pupilas se dilaten, el tono de voz sube y los movimientos corporales cambien un poco, pero no siempre, ni para todos. No es algo confiable. +Extrao. Adems solo porque no puedas verme no significa que voy a mentir. Es de sentido comn, pero un hallazgo importante es que mentimos por alguna razn. +Mentimos para protegernos, en nuestro propio beneficio o en el de alguien ms. +Hay mentirosos patolgicos, pero representan una pequea parte de la poblacin. Mentimos por alguna razn. +El hecho de que la gente no pueda vernos no significa necesariamente que vayamos a mentir. +Pero creo que en realidad hay algo mucho ms interesante y fundamental que pasa aqu. La prxima gran idea, podemos encontrarla yendo atrs en la historia hasta los orgenes del lenguaje. +La mayora de los lingistas coincide en que empezamos a hablar en alguna parte entre 50 000 y 100 000 aos atrs. Eso es mucho tiempo. +Gran cantidad de seres humanos ha vivido desde entonces. +Hemos estado hablando, me imagino, sobre fuegos, cuevas y tigres dientes de sable. No s de qu hablaban, pero hablaban mucho, y como he dicho, fue enorme la cantidad de seres humanos que hizo evolucionar el habla, alrededor de 100 mil millones de personas. +Lo importante sin embargo es que la escritura solo surgi hace unos 5000 aos. Lo cual significa que todas las personas anteriores a la aparicin de la escritura, cada palabra que hayan dicho, toda expresin, desapareci. Sin rastro. Se evanesci. Se fue. +Pasemos al presente, la era de Internet. +Cuntos de Uds. han grabado algo hoy? +Alguien ha escrito algo hoy? Alguien escribi alguna palabra? +Parece que casi todos aqu han grabado algo. +En esta sala, ahora mismo, probablemente hemos registrado ms que casi toda la prehistoria de la humanidad. +Es una locura. Estamos entrando en un perodo increble de cambio continuo en la evolucin humana por el que hemos pasado de hablar de una manera en que nuestras palabras desaparecen, a un entorno en el que estamos grabando todo. +De hecho, creo que en un futuro muy prximo, no solo se grabar lo que escribimos, todo lo que hacemos ser registrado. +Qu significa eso? Cul es la prxima gran idea? +Bien, como cientfico social, esto es lo ms asombroso que ni siquiera he soado. Ahora, puedo mirar a todas estas palabras que durante milenios desaparecieron. +Puedo observar las mentiras que primero fueron dichas y luego desaparecieron. +Recuerdan esos comentarios de "astroturfing" de los que hablamos antes? Bueno, cuando se escribe una resea falsa, tiene que publicarse en algn lugar, quedando a nuestra disposicin. +Algo que hicimos y les dar un ejemplo en relacin con el habla, es que le pagamos a la gente para escribir algunas opiniones falsas. Uno de estos comentarios es falso. +La persona nunca estuvo en el Hotel James. +El otro comentario es real. La persona estuvo all. +Ahora, la tarea de Uds. es decidir cul de ellos es falso. +Les dar un momento para leerlos. +Pero quiero que levanten la mano en determinado momento. +Recuerden, yo estudio el engao. Me dar cuenta si no levantan la mano. +Bien, cuntos de Uds. creen que "A" es el comentario falso? +Muy bien. Muy bien. Aproximadamente la mitad. +Y cuntos de Uds. piensan que "B" lo es? +Muy bien. Un poco ms para "B". +Excelente. Aqu est la respuesta. +"B" es el falso. Bien hecho segundo grupo. Le ganaron al primer grupo. En realidad es un poco inusual. Cada vez que hacemos esta demostracin, normalmente la divisin es de 50-50, lo cual concuerda con la investigacin, 54%. Tal vez la gente aqu en Winnipeg sea ms suspicaz y ms hbil para darse cuenta. +Esos inviernos fros, rigurosos, me encantan. +Muy bien, por qu me interesa esto? +Bueno, con mis colegas informticos creamos algoritmos que analizan las huellas lingsticas del engao. +Permtanme destacar un par de cosas sobre el comentario falso. La primera es que los mentirosos ponen el foco en la narrativa. Inventan un relato: Quin? Y qu pas? Y eso fue lo que pas aqu. +Nuestros falsos opinadores contaron con quin estaban y lo que estaban haciendo. Tambin utilizaban la primera persona del singular, "yo", en mayor medida que las personas que realmente estuvieron all. +Fueron introducindose en los comentarios sobre el hotel, como tratando de convencerte de que estuvieron all. +Por el contrario, la gente que dej comentarios habiendo estado realmente all, los que en realidad ingresaron en el espacio fsico, dieron mucha ms informacin referida al espacio. +Dijeron de qu tamao era el bao, o la distancia a la que estaba el centro comercial. +Ahora, Uds. lo hicieron bastante bien. La mayora prueban suerte con esta tarea. +Nuestro algoritmo es muy preciso, mucho ms preciso que los seres humanos, pero no siempre lo ser. +No se trata de un detector de mentiras que dice si tu novia te est mintiendo en los mensajes de texto. +Creemos que la mentira, cualquier tipo de mentira opiniones falsas de hoteles, de calzados, de tu novia engandote con mensajes de texto son mentiras diferentes. Van a tener diferentes patrones de lenguaje. Pero como ahora todo queda registrado, podemos analizar esas mentiras. +Como he dicho, como cientfico social, esto es una maravilla. +Es transformacional. Seremos capaces de aprender mucho ms sobre el pensamiento humano y la expresin, sobre cualquier materia desde el amor a las actitudes, porque ahora todo se registra, pero, qu significado tiene para el ciudadano comn? +Qu significa en nuestras vidas? +Bueno, dejemos un poco de lado el engao. Una de las grandes ideas, creo, es que estamos dejando enormes rastros detrs nuestro. +Mi buzn de salida de correo electrnico es enorme, y nunca me fijo. Escribo todo el tiempo, pero nunca me fijo en los rastros que quedan. +Y creo que vamos a ver mucho ms de eso, en que podamos reflexionar sobre quines somos mirando lo que escribimos, lo que dijimos, lo que hicimos. +Ahora, volviendo al tema del engao, hay un par de cosas para resaltar. +En primer lugar, mentir en lnea puede ser muy peligroso, verdad? +No solo queda un registro de ti mismo en tu mquina, tambin ests dejando un registro en la persona a quien le estabas mintiendo y adems los ests dejando para que yo los analice con algunos algoritmos de computacin. +As que por supuesto, sigue adelante y hazlo, est bien. +Pero cuando se trata de la mentira y lo que queremos hacer con nuestras vidas, creo que podemos volver a Digenes y Confucio. Estaban menos preocupados sobre mentir o no mentir y ms preocupados por el ser fiel a s mismo, y creo que esto es realmente importante. +Ahora, cuando estn a punto de decir o hacer algo, podemos pensar, "quiero que esto sea parte de mi legado, de mi expediente personal?" +Porque en la era digital que vivimos ahora, en la era de la red, todos estamos dejando un registro. +Muchas gracias por su tiempo, y buena suerte con su registro. +En el escritorio de mi oficina tengo un cuenco de arcilla que hice en la universidad. Es raku, un tipo de cermica originado en Japn hace siglos para hacer cuencos para la ceremonia japonesa del t. +Este tiene ms de 400 aos. +Cada uno fue tallado o moldeado con una bola de arcilla y tiene imperfecciones que las personas aprecian. +Cada cuenco lleva de 8 a 10 horas de coccin. +Pero aqu en Estados Unidos, le agregamos un poco de dramatismo, y ponemos los cuencos en aserrn; eso arde y se lo cubre con un cubo de basura y el humo empieza a esparcirse. +Llegaba a casa con mi ropa impregnada de humo. +Me encanta el raku porque me permite jugar con los elementos. +El raku es una metfora maravillosa del proceso creativo. +Encuentro en muchos casos que la tensin entre lo que puedo controlar y lo que debo dejar ir ocurre todo el tiempo, ya sea al crear un nuevo programa de radio o en casa al negociar con mis hijos adolescentes. +Cuando me sent a escribir un libro sobre creatividad, me di cuenta de que se invirtieron los pasos. +Tena que dejarlo ir desde el principio, y tena que sumergirme en las historias de cientos de artistas escritores, msicos y cineastas, y a medida que escuchaba estas historias, me di cuenta de que la creatividad emana de las experiencias cotidianas ms seguido de lo que pudiera pensarse, incluso al dejar ir. +Se supona que se rompera, pero est bien. Eso es parte de dejar ir las cosas. A veces funciona y a veces no, porque la creatividad tambin surge de la ruptura. +La mejor manera de aprender algo con historias, por eso les contar una historia sobre el trabajo y el juego y cuatro aspectos de la vida que tenemos que aceptar para que florezca nuestra propia creatividad. +Lo primero es cuando pensamos "Esto es muy fcil", pero se hace ms difcil, esto es, prestar atencin al mundo que nos rodea. +Muchos artistas hablan de la necesidad de abrirse a la experiencia, y eso es difcil si se tiene un rectngulo iluminado en el bolsillo que se lleva toda la atencin. +La cineasta Mira Nair habla de crecer en un pueblito de India llamado Bhubaneswar, y esta es una imagen de uno de los templos de su pueblo. +Mira Nair: En este pueblito, haba unos 2000 templos. +Los cuentos populares de Mahabharata y Ramayana, los dos libros sagrados, las epopeyas de las que sale todo en India, dicen. Al ver Jatra, el teatro popular, supe que quera hacer algo ms, ya saben, y actuar. +Julie Burstein: No es una historia maravillosa? +Puede verse la ruptura en la vida cotidiana. +Asi que, estar abierto a esa experiencia que pueda cambiarnos es lo primero que tenemos que aceptar. +Hay artistas que dicen que algunas de sus obras ms vigorosas surgen de los aspectos ms difciles de la vida. +El novelista Richard Ford habla de un desafo de la infancia con la que an hoy lucha. Es sumamente dislxico. +JB: Es tan intenso. Richard Ford, ganador del Premio Pulitzer, dice que la dislexia le ayud a escribir oraciones. +l tuvo que aferrarse a este desafo y uso esa palabra a drede. No tuvo que superar la dislexia. +Tuvo que aprender de ella. Tuvo que aprender a oir la msica en el idioma. +Hay artistas que hablan tambin de cmo forzar los lmites de lo que pueden hacer, a veces forzar lo que no pueden hacer les ayuda a centrarse en encontrar su propia voz. +El escultor Richard Serra habla de cmo, como artista joven, pensaba que era pintor, y vivi en Florencia luego de graduarse. +Mientras viva all, viaj a Madrid y all fue al Prado a ver esta pintura del pintor espaol Diego Velzquez. +Es de 1656, y se llama "Las Meninas", la pintura de una princesita y sus damas de honor, pero si miran detrs del hombro de la princesita rubia, vern un espejo, y en el reflejo estn sus padres, el Rey y la Reina de Espaa, parados en el lugar en el que nos pararamos para ver la pintura. +Como a menudo haca, Velzquez se incluy en esta pintura tambin. +Est parado a la izquierda con su pincel en una mano y su paleta en la otra. +Richard Serra: Yo estaba all de pie mirndolo y me di cuenta de que Velzquez me estaba mirando y pens: "Soy el sujeto de la pintura!" +Pens: "No voy a poder hacer esa pintura". +Llegu al punto de usar un cronmetro y pintar cuadros al azar pero no llegaba a nada. As que volv y arroj todas mis pinturas al Arno y pens en empezar a jugar con esto. +Richard Serra tuvo que dejar ir la pintura para emprender esta exploracin ldica que le llev hoy a esta obra distintiva: enormes curvas de acero que para experimentar requiere de nuestro tiempo y movimiento. En la escultura, Richard Serra logra lo que no pudo en la pintura. +Nos hace a nosotros el sujeto de su arte. +As, experiencia, desafo y limitaciones son cosas que tenemos que adoptar para que florezca la creatividad. +Hay un cuarto punto, y es el ms difcil. +Hay que aceptar la prdida, la experiencia humana ms antigua y constante. +Para crear, tenemos que pararnos en ese espacio entre lo que vemos en el mundo y lo que anhelamos, mirando de frente al rechazo, a la angustia, la guerra y la muerte. +Es un espacio difcil de soportar. +El educador Parker Palmer lo llama "la brecha trgica"; trgica no por lo triste sino por lo inevitable, y a mi amigo Dick Nodel le gusta decir: "Se puede mantener esa tensin como en una cuerda de violn y hacer algo hermoso". +Esa tensin resuena en el trabajo del fotgrafo Joel Meyerowitz que al inicio de su carrera fue conocido por su fotografa urbana, por capturar momentos en la calle y tambin por sus hermosas fotografas de paisajes... de Tocana, de Cabo Cod, de la luz. +Joel es de Nueva York y tuvo su estudio durante muchos aos en Chelsea, con vista directa al centro, al World Trade Center, y fotografi esos edificios con todo tipo de luz. +Ya saben como sigue la historia. +El 11-S Joel no estaba en Nueva York. Estaba fuera de la ciudad pero regres de inmediato y corri hacia el sitio de la destruccin. +Fue un golpe tan grande que me despert, supongo que por el modo en que fue concebido. +Cuando le pregunt por qu no se poda fotografiar, dijo: "Es la escena de un crimen. No se puede fotografiar". +Y le pregunt: "Qu pasara si fuera miembro de la prensa?" Y ella me dijo: "Mire all", y a una cuadra estaba la prensa confinada a una zona minscula y dije: "Bien, cundo entran?" +Y ella dijo: "Probablemente nunca". +Y conforme me alejaba tuve esta revelacin quiz debido al golpe, porque en cierto modo fue un insulto. +Pens: "Si no hay imgenes no habr registros. Necesitamos un registro". +Y pens: "Voy a hacer ese registro. +Encontrar una manera de entrar, porque no quiero ver desaparecer esta historia". +JB: Lo hizo. Pidi todo tipo de favores y consigui el pase para el World Trade Center, donde tom fotografas durante nueve meses a diario. +Mirar estas fotografas hoy vuelve a traer el olor del humo que qued en mi ropa cuando volv a casa con mi familia por la noche. +Mi oficina estaba a unas pocas cuadras. +Pero algunas de estas fotografas son hermosas y nos preguntbamos, fue difcil para Joel Meyerowitz generar tal belleza de tal devastacin? +Digo, hubo tardes en las que estuve all y la luz se hizo rojiza y haba una niebla en el aire y parado entre los escombros me encontr reconociendo la belleza inherente de la naturaleza y el hecho de que la naturaleza, como el tiempo, est borrando esta herida. +El tiempo no se detiene y transforma el evento. +Se aleja cada vez ms cada da, la luz y las estaciones se atenan en cierto modo y no es que yo sea romntico, soy muy realista. +Pero el hecho es que estoy ah, se parece a eso, tengo que tomar la foto. +JB: Tengo que tomar la foto. Ese sentido de la urgencia, de la necesidad de ir a trabajar, es muy poderoso en la historia de Joel. +Cuando hace poco vi a Joel Meyerowitz le dije lo mucho que admiraba su obstinacin apasionada, su determinacin para enfrentar la burocracia para hacer el trabajo y se ri y dijo: "Soy terco, pero creo que lo ms importante es mi optimismo apasionado". +La creatividad es esencial para todos, seamos cientficos o profesores, padres o empresarios. +Quiero dejarles otra imagen de un cuenco japons para el t. ste es de la Galera Freer de Washinton, DC. +Tiene ms de cien aos y an pueden verse las marcas de los dedos del alfarero que la hizo. +Pero como pueden ver tambin, se rompi en algn momento de sus cien aos. +Pero la persona que la repar, en vez de ocultar las grietas, decidi acentuarlas, usando laca de oro para repararla. +Este cuenco es ms hermoso ahora, habiendo estado roto, que cuando estaba recin hecho, y podemos ver esas grietas, porque cuentan la historia que todos vivimos, del ciclo de creacin y destruccin, de control y liberacin, de juntar las piezas y hacer con ello algo nuevo. +Gracias. +Intent tener un buen gesto con mi esposa. +Eso me trae aqu, la fama, el dinero que gan con eso. +Volv a los primeros das de casamiento. +En los primeros das de casamiento uno trata de impresionar a su esposa. Hice lo mismo. +En esa ocasin encontr a mi esposa con algo como esto. +Lo vi. "Qu es eso?", le pregunt. +Mi esposa respondi: "No es asunto tuyo". +Al ser su esposo, corr tras ella y vi que tena un trapo sucio. +Yo ni siquiera usaba ese trapo para limpiar mi moto. +Luego lo comprend... adaptar ese mtodo antihiginico para manejar sus perodos. +De inmediato le pregunt, por qu usas ese mtodo antihiginico? +Ella contest, s que hay toallas sanitarias pero si mis hermanas y yo empezramos a usarlas, tendramos que reducir el presupuesto de leche. +Me impact. Qu relacin existe entre usar toallas sanitarias y el presupuesto para leche? +Es la asequibilidad. +Intent impresionar a mi nueva esposa ofrecindole un paquete de toallas. +Fui a una tienda local e intent comprarle un paquete de toallas. +El tipo mir a ambos lados, abri un peridico, lo envolvi con el peridico, me lo dio como algo prohibido, algo as. +No s por qu. No le ped un preservativo. +Tom la toalla. Quiero verla. Qu tiene dentro? +La primera vez, a los 29 aos, ese da toqu la toalla por primera vez. +Debo saberlo: cuntos chicos aqu han tocado una toalla sanitaria? +Seguramente ninguno, porque no es cosa de hombres. +Entonces pens, sustancia blanca, hecha de algodn... Dios mo, es una materia prima que vale centavos... pero se vende a precios en libras o dlares. +Por qu no hacer una toalla sanitaria para mi nueva esposa? +As comenz todo, pero despus de hacer una toalla sanitaria, dnde probarla? +No es como hacer un control de laboratorio. +Necesito una voluntaria. Dnde conseguir una en India? +Ni siquiera en Bangalore se consigue una en India. +Solo un problema: la nica vctima era mi esposa. +Hice una toalla sanitaria y se la di a Shanti, mi esposa. +"Cierra los ojos. Lo que te dar no ser un collar de diamantes, ni un anillo de diamantes, ni un chocolate. Te dar una sorpresa enrollada en mucho papel. +Cierra los ojos". +Intent que fuese ntimo. +Porque es un matrimonio arreglado, no por amor. +Y un da me dijo abiertamente que no colaborara con esta investigacin. +As que tuve que buscar otras vctimas, mis hermanas. +Pero hermanas y esposas, no estn dispuestas a ayudar en la investigacin. +Por eso siempre estoy celoso de los santos de India. +Tienen muchas mujeres voluntarias a su alrededor. +Por qu yo no consigo ninguna? +Sin siquiera llamarlas, tienen muchas voluntarias. +Luego intent con las chicas de la facultad de medicina. +Tambin se negaron. Finalmente decid usar yo la toalla sanitaria. +Ahora ostento un ttulo similar al del primer hombre en pisar la luna. +Armstrong. Luego Tenzing y Hillary, en el Everest, y Muruganantham es el primer hombre del mundo que us toallas sanitarias. +Us una toalla sanitaria. Llen una botella con sangre animal. La at por aqu, haba un tubo que terminaba en la ropa interior, mientras caminaba, andaba en bicicleta, la sangre terminaba all. +Me inclino ante las mujeres que encuentro, en seal de pleno respeto. Nunca olvidar esos cinco das; das difciles, psimos, toda esa humedad. +Dios mo, es increble. +El problema era que una empresa hace absorbentes de algodn y funciona bien. +Pero yo intento hacer toallas sanitarias de buen algodn y no funciona. +Eso me hace querer abandonar esta investigacin sin fin. +Se requiere financiacin al principio. +No slo por la crisis financiera, sino por la investigacin en s, me encontr con todo tipo de problemas, incluso un aviso de divorcio de mi esposa. +Por qu? Por las chicas de la facultad de medicina. +Ella sospecha que uso esto como excusa para ir tras las chicas de la facultad de medicina. +Finalmente, supe que es una celulosa especial derivada de una madera de pino, pero an as, se requiere una planta multimillonaria como esta para procesar ese material. De nuevo, otra parada. +Luego pas otros cuatro aos creando mis propias herramientas, una maquinaria simple como esta. +En esta mquina, cualquier mujer rural puede usar las mismas materias primas que las multinacionales, cualquiera puede hacer servilletas para el comedor. +Esa es mi invencin. +Despus de eso, generalmente si alguien tiene una patente o invencin, de inmediato quiere hacer dinero con eso. +Yo no. Lo dej as, porque de hacerlo, de correr tras el dinero, la vida no tendra belleza. Sera aburrida. +Hay mucha gente haciendo mucha plata, miles de millones, miles de millones de dlares acumulados. +Cul es la finalidad de la filantropa? +Por qu acumular dinero para luego hacer filantropa? +Qu tal si empezamos haciendo filantropa desde el primer da? +Por este motivo llevo esta mquina slo a la India rural, para mujeres rurales, porque en India es de sorprender, slo el 2% de las mujeres usan toallas sanitarias. El resto usa paos de trapo, hojas, todo menos toallas sanitarias. +Esto ocurre en el siglo XXI. Por eso decid entregar esta mquina slo a las mujeres rurales pobres de la India. +Hasta ahora instalamos 630 mquinas en 23 estados, en otros seis pases. +Ya estoy en mi sptimo ao luchando contra las multinacionales, sembrando la duda en los estudiantes de administracin. +Un desertor de la escuela de Coimbatore, cmo puede resistir? +Eso me lleva a ser profesor visitante y orador invitado en todas las reas. +El primer video. +Arunachalam Muruganantham: Al ver eso en manos de mi esposa, "Por qu usas esa asquerosidad?" +De inmediato respondieron: "Conozco las toallas, pero si empiezo a usarlas, tenemos que recortar el presupuesto de la leche". +Por qu no hacer yo mismo toallas econmicas? +Por eso decid vender esta nueva mquina slo a las mujeres rurales. +Esa es mi idea. +AM: Antes era necesaria una inversin multimillonaria en maquinaria, etc. Ahora, cualquier mujer rural puede hacerlo. +Estn cantando el "Puja". +: Piensen, competir con gigantes incluso con Harvard y Oxford, es difcil. +Hice que unas mujeres rurales compitan con las multinacionales. +Estoy resistiendo hace siete aos. +Ya hay 600 instalaciones. Cul es mi misin? +Durante mi vida har de India un pas que use toallas sanitarias en un 100%. +De este modo le dar empleo a no menos de un milln de mujeres rurales. +Por eso es que no corro tras el maldito dinero. +Estoy haciendo algo serio. +Si persigues a una chica, a ella no le gustars. +Haces bien tu trabajo, y ella te perseguir a ti. +As, nunca persegu a Mahalakshmi. +Mahalakshmi me persigue, la tengo en el bolsillo. +No en el delantero, me gusta el bolsillo trasero. +Es todo. Vi el problema de la sociedad con las toallas sanitarias. +Brindo soluciones. Estoy muy feliz. +No quiero hacerlo como entidad corporativa. +Quiero que sea un movimiento local de toallas sanitarias en todo el mundo. Por eso hice todos los detalles de dominio pblico, como de cdigo abierto. +Ahora est en 110 pases, s? +Clasifico a las personas en tres grupos: sub-instruidos, poco instruidos y sobre-instruidos. +Los poco instruidos, hacen esto. Los sobre-instruidos: qu harn Uds. por la sociedad? +Muchas gracias. Adis! +Vivir con una discapacidad fsica no es fcil en ningn lugar del mundo, pero si vives en un pas como Estados Unidos, tienes a tus disposicin equipamiento que hace tu vida mas fcil. +Si estas en un edificio puedes usar el ascensor, +si vas a cruzar la calle, dispones de rebajes en las aceras, +y si tienes que viajar algo ms lejos de lo que podras hacerlo por tus propios medios, existen vehculos accesibles. Si no puedes permitirtelos, existe el trasporte pblico accesible. +Pero en el mundo en vas de desarrollo, es bastante diferente +40 millones de personas no tienen acceso a una silla de ruedas y de ellas la mayora vive en zonas rurales, donde la nica forma de conectar con la comunidad, la educacin y el empleo es desplazndose largas distancias en terreno escabroso a menudo por sus propios medios. +La equipacin que estas personas tienen a su disposicion no ha sido creada para estas situaciones y se rompe facilmente, siendo difcil de reparar. +Como ingeniero mecnico, del Instituto Tecnologico de Massachussets, con todos los recursos a mi alcance pens que debera intentar hacer algo al respecto. +Si por el contrario, quieres ir mas rpido, por ejemplo, sobre asfalto, puedes cambiar a una marcha alta, donde tendrs menos potencia, pero ms velocidad. +La evolucin lgica era por tanto hacer una silla de ruedas con los componentes de una bicicleta de montaa lo que mucha gente haba hecho ya. +Haba un par de estos productos en EE.UU, pero su introduccin a los pases en vas de desarrollo sera complejo, sobre todo por su alto coste. +Estoy hablando de un medio en el cual necesitas un producto por menos de 200 dolares; +y que adems fuera capaz de desplazarse 5 kilmetros al da, para poder ir al trabajo o a clase y hacerlo sobre diferentes tipos de terreno. +Pero cuando llegas a casa o quieres estar en el interior en el trabajo tiene que ser lo suficientemente pequeo y manejable para permitir su uso en interiores. +Ms an, para que tenga una larga vida til en zonas rurales, ha de poderse reparar utilizando las herramientas, materiales y conocimientos disponibles en esas zonas. +El problema crucial al que nos enfrentamos es cmo crear una herramienta simple que nos aporte una gran ventaja mecnica? +Como construir una bicicleta de montaa para los brazos que no tenga su coste ni complejidad? +Como sucede con las soluciones simples, a menudo la respuesta es evidente y para nosotros fue la palanca. +Usamos palancas continuamente, en herramientas, pomos, y piezas de bicicleta. +A medida que se desliza la mano hacia abajo, se impulsa con una longitud de palanca eficaz ms pequea, pero a travs de un angulo mayor, cada impulso crea una mayor velocidad de rotacin y proporciona una marcha ms larga. +Lo emocionante de este sistema radica en que es mecnicamente muy simple y puedes hacerlo utilizando tecnologia mundialmente utilizada desde hace cientos de aos. +Poniendo esto en practica, esta es la silla de ruedas "LFC" que despus de algunos aos de desarrollo, est ahora en produccin. Aqui tienen a un usuario de silla de ruedas, quien sufre de parlisis, en Guatemala, Pueden ver que puede desplazarse por un terreno escabroso. +Lo ms importante aqu es que la persona es la maquinaria compleja en este sistema. +Es la persona la que sube y baja las manos en las palancas por lo que el propio mecanismo es muy simple y puede realizarse con piezas de bicicleta accesibles en cualquier lugar del mundo. +Debido a que esas piezas estn ampliamente disponibles, son super baratas. +Son producidas en ingentes cantidades en China e India y tenemos acceso a ellas en cualquier lugar del mundo, por lo que podemos construir y reparar la silla en cualquier lugar incluso en un pequeo pueblo con el mecnico local, ya que tiene las herramientas, el conocimiento y las piezas disponibles. +Hay tres puntos en los que me gustara hacer incapie ya que creo que son la base de este proyecto. +El primero es que el producto es viable porque hemos sido capaces de combinar eficazmente rigurosa ingeniera y anlisis con un diseo centrado en el usuario teniendo en cuenta los factores sociales y econmicos, tan importantes para los usuarios de sillas de ruedas en los pases en vas de desarrollo. +A si que, como un estudiante entusiasmado nuestro equipo cre un prototipo que llevamos a Tanzania, Kenia y Vietnam en el 2008, para descubrir que era psimo; porque no tuvimos suficiente informacin de los usuarios. +Tambin es un 40% ms eficiente y debido a la ventaja mecnica que se obtiene de las palancas produce un 50% de incremento en el par motor y supone una ayuda real en terreno escabroso. +Las ventajas que supone no son slo aplicables a los pases en vas de desarrollo. +Por que no tambin en pases como E.E. U.U.? +Para ello nos asociamos con Continuum, una empresa de diseo local en Boston para realizar la versin de gama alta apropiada para los pases desarrollados, cuyo mercado seria principalmente Estado Unidos y Europa enfocado a compradores de ingresos altos. +Ellos son quienes definen los requisitos tecnolgicos y quienes tienen que darnos finalmente el visto bueno diciendo: "Si, efectivamente funciona. Cubre nuestras necesidades". +As, personas como yo en el mbito acadmico podemos innovar, analizar y probar, procesar datos y realizar prototipos a nivel experimental. Pero como conseguimos comercializar esos prototipos? +Finalmente para acercarnos a la gente a gran escala, nos asociamos con la mayor organizacin de discapacidad del mundo, "Jaipur Foot". +Lo ms valioso de este modelo es el poder juntar a todas la partes interesadas que representan a todos los eslabones de la cadena desde la concepcin de la idea hasta la implementacin en el campo. Ah es donde sucede la magia. +Ah es donde una persona como yo, un academico puede analizar, probar y crear nueva tecnologa y determinar cuantitativamente su rendimiento. +Puedes conectar con inversionistas, como los fabricantes, hablar directamente con ellos y hacer uso de su conocimiento en las practicas de fabricacin locales y sus clientes; y combinar esas aportaciones con nuestro conocimiento de ingenieria, para crear conjuntamente algo mejor que lo que cualquiera de nosotros podra haber hecho por separado. +As puedes Involucrar tambin al usuario final en el proceso de diseo, no solo preguntando por sus necesidades, sino preguntndole cmo piensa que pueden conseguirse. +el camino es muy escabroso. +Pero el da despus de tener nuestra silla, pudo desplazarse ese kilmetro y abrir su tienda, poco despus consigui un contrato para hacer los uniformes del colegio y comenz a ganar dinero, y pudo mantener a su familia de nuevo. +Ashok: "Tu tambin me animaste a trabajar. +Descans un da en casa y +al da siguiente volv a mi tienda. +Ahora todo ha vuelto a la normalidad." +Amos Winter: Muchas gracias por invitarme hoy. +Soy neurocientfica, y como tal me interesa saber cmo aprende el cerebro, y me interesa especialmente la posibilidad de hacer nuestros cerebros ms listos, mejores y ms rpidos. +Es en este contexto les hablar sobre videojuegos. Cuando hablamos de videojuegos, la mayora piensan en nios. +Es cierto. El 90% de los nios juegan con videojuegos. +Pero seamos sinceros. +Cuando los nios duermen, quin est ante la PlayStation? +La mayora de Uds. La edad media del jugador es de 33 aos, no de 8 aos, y de hecho, si miramos a las proyecciones demogrficas de uso de videojuegos, los jugadores de videojuegos del maana son adultos mayores. As que el videojuego avasalla a nuestra sociedad. +Est claro que lleg para quedarse y tiene un impacto asombroso en nuestra vida diaria. Reflexionen sobre estas estadsticas publicadas por Activision. Tras un mes de la publicacin del juego "Call Of Duty: Black Ops", se ha jugado durante 68 mil aos en todo el mundo, no? +Alguien de Uds. se quejara si este fuera el caso al hacer lgebra lineal? +Nuestra pregunta en el laboratorio es, cmo podemos aprovechar esa energa? +Ahora quiero retroceder un poco ms. +S que muchos han tenido la experiencia de volver a casa y hallar a sus hijos jugando a estos juegos. +(Ruidos de disparos) El nombre del juego es atrapar a los enemigos malos zombies antes de que ellos te atrapen, cierto? +Y estoy casi segura de que la mayora han pensado: "Venga, no puedes hacer algo ms inteligente que disparar a zombies?" +Me gustara que pusieran este tipo de acto reflejo en el contexto de lo que habran pensado si hubieran encontrado a su nia haciendo sudokus o a su nio leyendo a Shakespeare. Cierto? +Casi todos los padres lo encontraran magnfico. +Bien, no les dir que jugar a videojuegos da tras da sea realmente bueno para la salud. +No lo es, y abusar nunca es bueno. +Pero sostendr que en dosis razonables, es ms el mismo juego que les he mostrado al principio, esos juegos de tiros cargados de accin tienen efectos bastante potentes y positivos en muchos aspectos de nuestro comportamiento. +No pasa una semana sin grandes titulares en los medios sobre si los videojuegos son buenos o malos para uno, no? Todos han sido bombardeados con eso. +Quisiera dejar fuera esta discusin de caf de viernes noche para pasar al laboratorio. +Lo que hacemos ah es medir directamente, de una forma cuantitativa, cul es el impacto de los videojuegos en el cerebro. +As pues, tomar algunos ejemplos de nuestro trabajo. +La primera afirmacin que estoy segura que todos han odo es que demasiado tiempo ante la pantalla hace que la vista empeore. +Esto es una afirmacin sobre la visin. +Hay muchos cientficos de la visin entre Uds. +Sabemos cmo probar esta afirmacin. +Podemos entrar al laboratorio y medir la calidad de su visin. +Bueno, saben qu? La gente que no juega tanto a juegos de accin, que no pasan mucho tiempo delante de pantallas, tiene visin normal, o lo que llamamos visin normal a correctiva. Eso est bien. +El problema es lo que ocurre con esos chicos que pasan jugando videojuegos unas 5 horas a la semana, 10 horas a la semana, 15 horas a la semana. +Segn la afirmacin, su visin debera ser realmente mala, cierto? +Saben qu? Su visin es realmente, realmente buena. +Es mejor que la de aquellos que no juegan. +Y es mejor de dos formas distintas: +la primera es que son capaces de resolver pequeos detalles en un contexto abarrotado, y si bien eso significa poder leer la letra pequea de una receta en vez de usar lupas, pueden hacerlo usando su vista; +la otra forma es que son mejores en su capacidad de resolver diferentes niveles de gris. +Imaginen que estn conduciendo con niebla; esto supone una diferencia entre ver el coche enfrente al suyo y evitar el accidente, o tener un accidente. +As que aprovechamos ese trabajo para desarrollar juegos para pacientes con visin reducida, y para tener un impacto en reacondicionar su cerebro para que vean mejor. +Est claro que, cuando se trata de videojuegos de accin, el tiempo ante la pantalla no empeora la visin. +Otra afirmacin que seguro que todos han odo: "Los videojuegos generan problemas de atencin y mayor distraccin". +Sabemos cmo medir la atencin en el laboratorio. +Les dar ahora un ejemplo de cmo lo hacemos. +y les pedir que participen, as que tendrn que jugar el juego conmigo. Les mostrar palabras coloreadas. Quiero que griten el color de la tinta. +Correcto? As pues, este es el primer ejemplo. +["Silla"] Naranja, bien. ["Mesa"] Verde. +["Tabla"] Audiencia: Rojo. Daphne Baveller: Rojo. +["Caballo"] DB: Amarillo. Audiencia: Amarillo. +["Amarillo"] DB: Rojo. Audiencia: Amarillo. +["Azul"] DB: Amarillo. +De acuerdo, agarraron el sentido, verdad? Estn mejorando, pero es difcil. Por qu es difcil? +Porque he introducido un conflicto entre la palabra en s y su color. +Qu tan buena es su atencin determina su rapidez para resolver ese conflicto, como los jvenes aqu en la cima de probabilidad de juego, previsiblemente lo hicieron un poco mejor que algunos de nosotros ms mayores. +Lo que podemos mostrar es que al hacer esta tarea con gente que juega muchos juegos de accin, resuelven el conflicto ms rpido. +De modo que jugar a esos juegos de accin claramente no llevan a problemas de atencin. +De hecho, estos jugadores de videojuegos tienen muchas otras ventajas en trminos de atencin, y un aspecto de la atencin que tambin mejora es nuestra habilidad para rastrear objetos en el mundo que nos rodea. +Esto es algo que usamos todo el tiempo. Al conducir rastreamos, seguimos el rastro de los autos a nuestro alrededor. +Tambin seguimos el rastro de los peatones, el perro que corre, y as es como podemos conducir con seguridad, no? +Llevamos gente al laboratorio que se sienta enfrente de una pantalla de computador, y les damos pequeas tareas que les pedir que hagan otra vez. +Vern caras felices amarillas y unas pocas caras tristes azules. Estos son nios en el patio del colegio en Ginebra durante un recreo en invierno. La mayora de los nios est felices, es el recreo al fin y al cabo. +Pero unos pocos nios estn tristes y azules porque olvidaron su abrigo. +Era inicialmente amarillo o azul? +Oigo unos pocos amarillos. Bien. As que la mayora tienen un cerebro. Ahora les pedir que hagan la misma tarea, pero ahora un poco ms difcil. Habr tres de ellos que son azules. No muevan los ojos. +Por favor, no muevan los ojos. Mantengan los ojos fijos y expandan, estiren su atencin. Es la nica forma de poder hacerlo. Si mueven los ojos, estn perdidos. +Amarillo o azul? +Audiencia: Amarillo. DB: Bien. +De modo que el tpico joven adulto puede tener una capacidad de atencin de tres o cuatro objetos. +Eso es lo que acabamos de hacer. El jugador de videojuegos tiene una capacidad de atencin de seis a siete objetos, que es lo que se ve en este vdeo aqu. +Este es para Uds, chicos, jugadores de videojuegos de accin. +La otra es el lbulo frontal, que controla cmo mantenemos la atencin, y otra es el giro cingular anterior, que controla cmo asignamos y regulamos la atencin y resolvemos conflictos. +Ahora, cuando hacemos neuroimgenes, hallamos que estas tres redes son mucho ms eficientes en gente que se recrea con juegos de accin. +Esto me conduce a un hallazgo ms bien contraintuitivo en la literatura sobre tecnologa y el cerebro. +Todos sabemos acerca de realizar multitareas. Todos son culpables de ser multitarea cuando conducen y contestan el telfono. Mala idea. Muy mala idea. +Por qu? Porque conforme su atencin se desva a su telfono, estn de hecho perdiendo la capacidad de reaccionar con rapidez al auto que est frenando delante de Uds., y as tienen mucho ms riesgo de sufrir un accidente de auto. +Podemos medir ese tipo de habilidades en el laboratorio. +Obviamente no le pedimos a la gente que conduzca para ver cuntos accidentes de auto tienen. Eso sera una propuesta un poco costosa. Pero diseamos tareas en la computadora en las que podemos medir, con una precisin de milisegundos, lo bien bien que cambian de una tarea a otra. +Cuando hacemos eso, hallamos que la gente que juega muchos juegos de accin son realmente, realmente buenos. +Cambian realmente rpido, muy gilmente. Pagan un coste muy pequeo. +Ahora quiero que recuerden ese resultado, y lo pongan en el contexto de otro grupo de usuarios de tecnologa, un grupo que es usualmente muy reverenciado en la sociedad, que son gente que practica multitareas de multimedia. +Qu son multitareas de multimedia? Es el hecho de que muchos de nosotros, muchos de nuestros hijos, se dedican a escuchar msica y al mismo tiempo que buscan en la web y chatean en Facebook con sus amigos. +Eso es un practicante de multitareas multimedia. +Haba un primer estudio hecho por colegas en Stanford y que replicamos, que mostr que aquellos que se identifican como practicantes de multitareas multimedia son absolutamente psimos en practicar multitareas. +Las mediciones en el laboratorio muestran que son realmente malos. +De acuerdo? As que este tipo de resultados produce realmente dos conclusiones principales. +El primero es que no todos los medios son creados iguales. +No pueden comparar el efecto de las multitareas multimedias y el efecto de jugar juegos de accin. Tienen efectos totalmente diferentes en diferentes aspectos de la cognicin, percepcin y atencin. +Incluso dentro de los videojuegos, se lo digo ya mismo sobre estos videojuegos cargados de accin. +Diferentes videojuegos tienen un efecto diferente en sus cerebros. +As que podemos hacer mediciones en el laboratorio sobre el efecto de cada videojuego. +La otra leccin es que la sabidura general no tiene ningn peso. +Les he mostrado ya, como hemos analizado el hecho de que a pesar de mucho tiempo de pantalla, estos jugadores de accin tienen muy buena visin, etc. +Aqu, lo que era realmente sorprendente es que estos universitarios que reportan que practican grandes cantidades de multitareas multimedia, estn convencidos de que se lucieron en la prueba. +Cuando se les muestras que sus resultados son malos, contestan como: "No es posible". Saben, tienen una especie de sensacin visceral de que, en verdad, lo estn haciendo efectivamente bien. +Otro argumento ms por el que debemos entrar al laboratorio y medir el impacto real de la tecnologa en el cerebro. +Ahora, en cierta forma, cuando pensamos sobre el efecto de los videojuegos en el cerebro, es muy similar al efecto del vino en la salud. +Hay algunos usos muy desafortunados del vino. Hay algunos usos muy desafortunados de los videojuegos. Pero cuando son consumidos en dosis razonables, a la edad adecuada, el vino puede ser muy bueno para la salud. Hay de hecho molculas especficas que han sido identificadas en el vino tinto que conducen a una mayor esperanza de vida. +Dado que estamos interesados en tener un impacto en la educacin y la rehabilitacin de pacientes, no estamos tan interesados en el desempeo de aquellos de Uds. que eligen jugar videojuegos por muchas horas seguidas. +Tengo mucho ms inters en tomar a cualquiera Uds. y mostrarles que forzndolos a jugar un juego de accin, puedo de hecho cambiar su visin y mejorarla tanto si quieren jugar al juego como si no, de acuerdo? +Es el sentido de la rehabilitacin o la educacin. +Muchos de los nios no van a la escuela diciendo, "Guau, dos horas de matemticas!" +Ese es el verdadero punto crucial de la investigacin, y para hacer eso, necesitamos dar un paso ms +y un paso ms es hacer estudios de entrenamiento. +As que permtanme ilustrar este paso con una tarea que se llama rotacin mental. +La rotacin mental es una tarea en la que les voy a pedir que de nuevo hagan una tarea y miren esta forma. Estdienla, es una forma objetivo, y les presentar cuatro formas diferentes. +Una de esas cuatro formas diferentes es una versin rotada de esta forma. Quiero que me digan cul es: la primera, la segunda, la tercera o la cuarta? +De acuerdo, les ayudar. Es la cuarta. +Una ms. Pongan a trabajar esos cerebros. Vamos. +Esa es nuestra forma objetivo. +Tercera. Bien! Esto es difcil, verdad? +La razn por la que les ped hacer esto es porque en efecto necesitan sentir que su cerebro se estruja, no? +No se siente como jugar mecnicamente a juegos de accin. +Bien, lo que hacemos en estos estudios de entrenamiento es, que gente va al laboratorio, hacen tareas como esta, y luego les forzamos a jugar 10 horas de juegos de accin. +No juegan 10 horas seguidas de juegos de accin. +Hacen prcticas distribuidas, en ratitos de 40 minutos varios dias durante un periodo de dos semanas. +Por qu? Porque les he dicho que queremos usar estos juegos para la educacin o rehabilitacin. Necesitamos tener efectos que sean duraderos. +Ahora, en este punto, algunos de Uds. seguramente se preguntan, bueno, qu ests esperando para poner en el mercado un juego que sea bueno para la atencin de mi abuela y que lo pueda disfrutar o un juego que sea estupendo para rehabilitar la visin de mi nieto que tiene ambliopa, por ejemplo? +Bueno, estamos trabajando en ello, pero existe un reto. +Hay cientficos del cerebro como yo que estn comenzando a entender cules son los ingredientes buenos en juegos para promover efectos positivos, y eso es lo que llamar el lado brcoli de la ecuacin. +Hay una industria del software de entretenimiento que es extremadamente hbil en ingeniar productos atractivos que no puedes resistir. +Ese es el lado chocolate de la ecuacin. +El problema es que necesitamos unirlos, y es un poco como con la comida. +Quin quiere realmente comer brcoli cubierto de chocolate? +Me gustara dejarlos con ese pensamiento, y agradecerles su atencin. +Tommy Mizzone: Esta noche vamos a interpretar dos canciones. +Somos tres hermanos de New Jersey, y lo gracioso es que, lo creis o no, nos encanta el bluegrass y ser un placer tocar para vosotros esta noche. +TM: Gracias, gracias. +Robbie Mizzone: Gracias +Soy Robbie Mizzone. Tengo 13 aos y toco el violn. +Este es mi hermano, Johnny. Tiene 10 aos y toca el banjo. +Y a la guitarra, mi hermano Tommy, de 14 aos. +Nos hacemos llamar "The Sleepy Man Banjo Boys". +TM: Gracias. +JM: Gracias a todos. +TM: Muchas gracias. +Hola. Estoy aqu para hablar de congestin, es decir, de atasco de trfico. +La congestin vial es un fenmeno generalizado. +Existe, bsicamente, en todas las ciudades del mundo, lo que es un poco sorprendente si se piensa en ello. +Es decir, piensen en lo diferentes que son en realidad las ciudades. +Quiero decir, estn las tpicas ciudades europeas, con un ncleo urbano denso, buen transporte pblico en su mayora, sin mucha capacidad vial. +Pero luego, por el contrario, estn las ciudades estadounidenses. +[las imgenes atrs] se mueven por s mismas, est bien. +Como iba diciendo, las ciudades estadounidenses: muchas vas dispersas en grandes reas, casi no hay transporte pblico. +Y luego estn las ciudades del mundo emergente con una variada mezcla de vehculos, diversos usos del suelo, tambin bastante dispersos pero a menudo con un ncleo urbano muy denso. +Los planificadores de trfico de todo el mundo han intentado muchas medidas diferentes: ciudades densas o ciudades dispersas, muchas vas o mucho transporte pblico, o muchos carriles para bicicletas o ms informacin, o muchas cosas diferentes, pero nada parece funcionar. +Pero todos estos intentos tienen una cosa en comn. +Bsicamente son intentos de definir lo que la gente debera hacer en lugar de conducir el coche en hora punta. +Se trata, en cierto modo, de intentos de planificar lo que las personas deberan hacer, organizar su vida. +Ahora bien, planear un complejo sistema social es una cosa muy difcil, y les voy a contar una historia. +En 1989, cuando cay el muro de Berln, un urbanista de Londres recibi una llamada telefnica de un colega en Mosc que deca, bsicamente: "Hola, soy Vladimir. Me gustara saber quin est a cargo del suministro de pan de Londres?" +Y el urbanista de Londres respondi: "Qu quiere decir, quin est a cargo del... ? Mire Ud., nadie est a cargo". +"Ah, pero seguro que alguien debe ser responsable. +Quiero decir, es un sistema muy complicado. Alguien debe controlar todo eso". +"No. No. Nadie lo hace. +O sea, bsicamente... no he pensado realmente en ello. +Bsicamente se organiza solo". +Se organiza solo. +Es un ejemplo de un sistema social complejo que tiene la capacidad de autoorganizarse, y esa es una idea muy profunda. +Al intentar resolver problemas sociales muy complejos, lo que hay que hacer, la mayora de las veces, es crear los incentivos. +Uno no planea los detalles y las personas decidirn qu hacer, cmo adaptarse a este nuevo marco. +Veamos cmo podemos usar esta idea para combatir la congestin vial. +Este es un mapa de Estocolmo, mi ciudad natal. +Estocolmo es una ciudad de tamao mediano, de dos millones de personas, pero Estocolmo tiene tambin mucha agua, y mucha agua implica muchos puentes: puentes angostos, puentes antiguos, lo que se traduce en mucha congestin vial. +Estos puntos rojos muestran las partes ms congestionadas, que son los puentes que llevan al centro de la ciudad. +Entonces alguien tuvo la idea de que, aparte de un buen transporte pblico, aparte de gastar dinero en vas, cobrramos 1 o 2 euros en estos cuellos de botella. +1 o 2 euros, que no es realmente mucho dinero, es decir, en comparacin con los costos de estacionamiento, de conduccin, etc., por lo que se podra decir que los conductores no reaccionaran ante este pequeo costo. +Estaran en un error. +1 o 2 euros fueron suficientes para que el 20 % de los coches desaparecieran en las horas punta. +20%, bueno, un nmero considerable, se podra pensar, pero an queda el 80 % del problema, verdad? +Porque todava circula el 80 % del trfico. +Tambin es incorrecto, porque el trfico resulta ser un fenmeno no lineal, lo que significa que una vez que se supera un cierto umbral de capacidad la congestin empieza a aumentar muy, muy rpido. +Pero, afortunadamente, tambin funciona al revs. +Si uno puede reducir algo el trfico, la congestin bajar mucho ms rpido de lo que pueda creerse. +Pues bien, en Estocolmo los cargos por congestin se introdujeron el 3 de enero de 2006, y la primera imagen aqu es de Estocolmo, una de las calles tpicas, el 2 de enero. +El primer da con cargos por congestin se vea as. +Esto es lo que pasa cuando uno quita el 20% de los coches de las calles. +Se reduce la congestin sustancialmente. +Pero, bueno, como he dicho, los conductores se adaptan, verdad? +As que despus de un tiempo todos volvern porque digamos que se habrn acostumbrado a las tasas. +Incorrecto otra vez. Hace ya seis aos y medio que se introdujeron los cargos por congestin en Estocolmo, y todava tenemos bsicamente los mismos niveles bajos de trfico. +Pero como ven, hay un vaco interesante aqu en la serie temporal en 2007. +Bueno, la razn es que, los cargos por congestin se introdujeron inicialmente de modo experimental, por lo que aparecieron en enero y se quitaron a finales de julio, seguidos de un referndum, y luego fueron reintroducidos otra vez en 2007, lo que por supuesto fue una maravillosa oportunidad cientfica. +Es decir, fue un experimento muy divertido para comenzar, y tuvimos en realidad que hacerlo dos veces. +Personalmente, me gustara hacer esto una vez al ao o as, pero no me dejaran. +De todos modos fue divertido. +As que lo seguimos. Qu pas? +Este es el ltimo da con los cargos por congestin, el 31 de julio, y ven la misma calle, pero ahora es verano, y el verano en Estocolmo es la estacin ms agradable y luminosa del ao. El primer da sin los cargos por congestin apareci as. +Todos los coches regresaron de nuevo, y uno incluso tiene que admirar a los conductores. Se adaptan muy rpidamente. +El primer da todos regresaron. +Y este efecto se mantuvo. Estas son las cifras de 2007. +Estos datos de trfico son muy interesantes, un poco sorprendentes pero muy tiles. Yo dira que esta no es la filmina ms sorprendente que voy a mostrarles hoy. Es esta otra. +Esta muestra el apoyo pblico al precio de los cargos por congestin de Estocolmo. Vean que cuando se introdujeron los cargos por congestin, al comienzo de la primavera de 2006, las personas se opusieron ferozmente. +El 70% de la poblacin no los quera. +Pero lo que sucedi cuando se implantaron, no es lo que se esperara, que los odiarn cada vez ms. +No, por el contrario, cambiaron, hasta el punto de que ahora tenemos apoyo del 70 % para mantenerlos, lo que significa que... permtanme repetirlo: el 70 % de la poblacin de Estocolmo desea mantener un precio por algo que sola ser gratis. +Bien, por qu puede ser esto? Por qu sucede as? +Bueno, veamos. Quin cambi? +Es decir, el 20 % de los conductores que desapareci, seguramente deben estar algo descontentos. +Y a dnde se fueron? Si pudiramos entenderlo, tal vez entonces podramos deducir por qu a la gente puede gustarle. +Bueno, hicimos una encuesta extensa con una gran cantidad de servicios de transporte y tratamos de averiguar quin cambi, y a dnde se fueron. +Y result que ellos mismos no lo saban. Por alguna razn, los conductores estn... seguros de que realmente conducen igual que antes. +Y por qu es eso? Se debe a que los patrones de viaje son mucho menos estables de lo que parece. +Cada da las personas toman nuevas decisiones, la gente cambia, el mundo a su alrededor cambia y cada da todas estas decisiones son como pequeos empujoncitos que sacan a los conductores de la hora punta de una manera que ni lo notan. +No son siquiera conscientes de ello. +Y la otra pregunta, quin cambi de idea? +Quin cambi de opinin y por qu? +Para eso hicimos otra encuesta, tratamos de averiguar por qu la gente cambi de idea, y cul grupo fue el que cambi de opinin. +Despus de analizar las respuestas, result que ms de la mitad de ellos creen que no han cambiado de opinin. +De hecho, estn seguros de que siempre les ha gustado que se cobre por la congestin. +Lo que significa que ahora estamos en un punto en el que hemos reducido el trfico con estos peajes, en un 20 %, con una enorme diminucin de la congestin y la gente no es siquiera consciente de que ha cambiado, y sinceramente cree que siempre le ha gustado as. +Este es el poder de los empujoncitos al intentar resolver problemas sociales complejos. Cuando lo hagan, no hay que decirle a la gente cmo adaptarse. +Uno solo les debe inducir suavemente en la direccin correcta. +Y si Uds. lo hacen bien, las personas realmente adoptan el cambio, y si lo hacen bien, a la gente le gustar. +Muchas gracias. +La vida es de oportunidades, crearlas y aferrarse a ellas, y para m, eso era el sueo olmpico. +Era lo que me defina. Era mi dicha. +Como esquiadora de fondo y miembro del equipo de esqu australiano, de los Juegos Olmpicos de invierno, entrenaba en una bicicleta con mis compaeros. +Subamos las espectaculares Blue Mountains al oeste de Sydney, y haca un perfecto da de otoo: brillaba el sol, el olor de eucalipto y un sueo. +La vida era buena. +Llevbamos en las bicicletas unas 5,5 horas cuando llegamos a la parte del trayecto que amaba: las colinas, porque yo amaba las colinas. +Y me levant del silln de la bicicleta, y empec a pedalear con fuerza, y al inhalar el aire fro de la montaa, pude sentir que quemaba mis pulmones, y mir hacia arriba para ver el sol que brillaba en mi cara. +Y entonces todo se volvi negro. +Dnde estaba? Qu estaba sucediendo? +Mi cuerpo fue consumido por el dolor. +Un camin veloz me haba golpeado tras solo 10 minutos de pedaleo en bicicleta. +Fui aerotransportada de la escena del accidente por un helicptero de rescate a una gran unidad de columna en Sydney. +Tuve lesiones extensas que amenazaban mi vida. +Me haba roto el cuello y la espalda en seis lugares. +Me romp cinco costillas del lado izquierdo. +Me romp el brazo derecho. Me romp la clavcula. +Me romp algunos huesos de los pies. +Todo mi lado derecho fue abierto a tirones, lleno de grava. +Mi cabeza estaba cortada en la frente, la piel atrs levantada, expona el crneo. +Tena lesiones en la cabeza. Tena lesiones internas. +Tuve una prdida masiva de sangre. De hecho, perd unos 5 litros de sangre, que es todo lo que tiene alguien de mi tamao. +Para cuando el helicptero lleg al Hospital Prncipe Enrique en Sydney, mi presin arterial era 40 sobre cero. +Estaba teniendo un da realmente malo. Por ms de 10 das, fui a la deriva entre dos dimensiones. +Tena conciencia de estar en mi cuerpo, pero tambin estaba fuera de l, en otro lugar, viendo desde arriba como si le sucediera a otra persona. +Por qu querra volver a un cuerpo que estaba tan daado? +Pero esa voz se mantuvo llamndome: "Vamos, qudate conmigo". +"No. Es muy duro". +"Vamos. Esta es nuestra oportunidad". +"No. Ese cuerpo est daado. Puede que ya no me sirva ms". +"Vamos. Qudate. Podemos hacerlo. Podemos hacerlo juntos". +Estaba en una encrucijada. +Saba que si no regresaba a mi cuerpo, tendra que dejar este mundo para siempre. +Fue la lucha de mi vida. +Despus de 10 das, tom la decisin de regresar a mi cuerpo, y la hemorragia interna par. +La siguiente preocupacin era si volvera a caminar, porque estaba paralizada de la cintura hacia abajo. +Les dijeron a mis padres que la rotura del cuello era una fractura estable, pero que la parte baja fue aplastada completamente. +La vrtebra L1 era como dejar caer un man, pisarlo y romperlo en mil pedazos. +Tendran que operar. +Lo hicieron. Me pusieron en un cojn. Me cortaron, literalmente, por la mitad, tengo una cicatriz que rodea todo mi cuerpo. +Extrajeron tanto hueso roto como pudieron del que estaba incrustado en mi mdula espinal. +Tomaron dos de mis costillas rotas, y reconstruyeron mi espalda, L1, la reconstruyeron, tomaron otra costilla rota, fusionaron T12, L1 y L2. +Luego me suturaron. Les tom una hora entera suturarme. +Me despert en cuidados intensivos, y los mdicos estaban realmente emocionados de que la operacin hubiera sido un xito porque en ese momento hice un pequeo movimiento de uno de mis dedos gordos, y yo pensaba, "Genial, porque ir a los Juegos Olmpicos!" +No tena ni idea. Ese es el tipo de cosas que les suceden a otras personas, a m no, seguro. +Pero luego la doctora vino, y me dijo: "Janine, la operacin fue un xito, y hemos extrado tanto hueso de la mdula espinal como pudimos, pero el dao es permanente. +Los nervios del sistema nervioso central no tienen cura. +Eres lo que llamamos una parapljica parcial, y tendrs todas las secuelas que acompaan esto.. +No tienes ninguna sensacin de la cintura para abajo y, como mucho, podrs lograr que vuelva un 10 a 20 %. +Tienes lesiones internas para el resto de tu vida. +Tendrs que utilizar una sonda por el resto de tu vida. +Y si caminas nuevamente, ser con frulas y un caminador". +Y luego dijo, "Janine, tendrs que replantear todo lo que haces en tu vida, porque nunca ms hars las cosas que hacas antes". +Trat de entender lo que me deca. +Yo era atleta. Era todo lo que saba. Era todo lo que haba hecho. +Si no poda hacerlo, entonces, qu podra hacer? +Y lo que me preguntaba era, si no poda hacerlo, entonces quin era yo? +Me llevaron de cuidados intensivos a lesiones agudas de columna. +Estaba acostada en una cama espinal, delgada y dura. +No poda mover las piernas. Tena las medias ajustadas para evitar cogulos de sangre. +Tena un brazo enyesado, un brazo atado para el goteo. +Tena un collar y sacos de arena a ambos lados de mi cabeza y vea mi mundo a travs de un espejo suspendido sobre mi cabeza. +Comparta la sala con otras cinco personas, y lo increble es que como todos estbamos acostados paralizados en una sala de columna, no sabamos cmo se vea el otro. +Qu asombroso es esto! Cuntas veces en la vida puedes hacer amistades, libre de juicio, basadas puramente en el espritu? +Y no haba ninguna conversacin superficial ya que compartamos nuestros pensamientos ms ntimos, nuestros temores y nuestras esperanzas de vida al salir de all. +Recuerdo una noche, uno de los enfermeros entr, Jonathan, con un montn de pajillas plsticas. +Puso una pila encima de cada uno de nosotros, y dijo: "Comiencen a unirlas unas con otras". +Bueno, no haba mucho ms que hacer en la sala de columna, as que lo hicimos. +Y cuando habamos terminado, fue en silencio y uni las pajillas de todos hasta hacer un bucle alrededor de la sala entera, y dijo: "Bien, todos, sostengan sus pajillas". +Y lo hicimos. Y l dijo, "Bien. Ahora estamos todos conectados". +Y conforme las mantenamos, y respirbamos como uno, sabamos que no estbamos solos en este viaje. +Y an tendida paralizada en la sala de columna, hubo momentos de increble profundidad y riqueza, de autenticidad y conexin que nunca haba experimentado antes. +Y cada uno de nosotros saba que cuando saliramos de la sala de columna nunca seramos los mismos. +Despus de seis meses, era hora de volver a casa. +Recuerdo que pap me sac empujando mi silla de ruedas, envuelta en una frula corporal de yeso, y sent el sol en mi cara por primera vez. +me impregn y pens, cmo pude dar esto por sentado? +Me sent tan increblemente agradecida por mi vida. +Pero antes de abandonar el hospital, la enfermera jefe me haba dicho: "Janine, quiero que ests lista, porque cuando llegues a casa, va a pasar una cosa". +Y le dije: "Qu?" Y dijo: "Vas a deprimirte". +Y dije, "Yo no, no Janine la Mquina", que era mi apodo. +Ella dijo, "Ser as, porque, ves, le pasa a todo el mundo. +En la sala de columna, es lo normal. +Ests en una silla de ruedas. Es lo normal. +Pero vas a llegar a casa y a darte cuenta de lo diferente que es la vida". +Y llegu a casa y algo sucedi. +Me di cuenta de que la Hermana Sam tena razn. +Me deprim. +Estaba en mi silla de ruedas. No tena ninguna sensacin de la cintura para abajo, conectada a una botella por una sonda. No poda caminar. +Haba perdido mucho peso en el hospital Ahora pesaba cerca de 36 kilos. +Y quera darme por vencida. +Lo que quera hacer era ponerme mis zapatillas y salir corriendo por la puerta. +Quera que mi antigua vida volviera. Quera que mi cuerpo volviera. +Y recuerdo a mam sentada en el borde de mi cama, diciendo: "Me pregunto si la vida ser buena otra vez". +Y pens, "Cmo podra serlo? Porque he perdido todo lo que valoraba, todo por lo que haba trabajado. +Esfumado". +Y la pregunta que hice fue, "Por qu yo? Por qu yo?". +Y luego record a mis amigos que estaban en la sala de columna, particularmente Mara. +Mara tuvo un accidente automovilstico, y se despert en su 16 cumpleaos con la noticia de que era una completa cuadripljica, no tena ningn movimiento del cuello hacia abajo, tenan daos en sus cuerdas vocales, y no poda hablar. +Me dijeron, "Te vamos a pasar a su lado porque creemos que ser bueno para ella". +Estaba preocupada. Yo no saba cmo reaccionara yo al estar a su lado. +Saba que sera difcil, pero fue realmente una bendicin, porque Mara siempre sonri. +Siempre estaba feliz e incluso, cuando comenz a hablar de nuevo, aunque era difcil entenderle, nunca se quej, ni una vez. +Y me preguntaba cmo haba encontrado ella ese nivel de aceptacin. +Y me di cuenta de que esto no era solo mi vida. +Era la vida misma. Me di cuenta de que esto no era solo mi dolor. +Era el dolor de todo el mundo. Y entonces supe, al igual que antes, que tena una opcin. Poda seguir luchando con esto o poda dejarlo ir y aceptar, no solo mi cuerpo, sino las circunstancias de mi vida. +Y entonces dej de preguntar, "Por qu yo?" +Y comenc a preguntar, "Por qu yo no?" +Y entonces pens para m, tal vez estar totalmente en el fondo es realmente el lugar perfecto para comenzar. +Nunca antes haba pensado en m como una persona creativa. +Era una atleta. Mi cuerpo era una mquina. +Pero ahora estaba a punto de embarcarme en el proyecto ms creativo que cualquiera pueda hacer: el de reconstruir una vida. +Y aunque no tena absolutamente ninguna idea de qu iba a hacer, en esa incertidumbre llego una sensacin de libertad. +No estara ms atada a un camino determinado. +Estaba libre para explorar las posibilidades infinitas de la vida. +Y darme cuenta de ello cambi mi vida. +Sentada en casa en mi silla de ruedas y en mi frula de yeso, un avin vol por encima, y mir hacia arriba, y pens, "Eso es! +Si no puedo caminar, entonces debo poder volar". +Dije, "Mam, voy a aprender a volar". +Ella dijo, "Qu bien, querida". Dije, "Psame las pginas amarillas". +Me pas el directorio, llam a la escuela de vuelo, hice una reserva, me gustara hacer una reserva para salir de un vuelo, dije. +Me dijeron: "Cundo va a venir?" +Dije, "Bueno, tengo que conseguir un amigo que me lleve porque no puedo conducir. No puede caminar tampoco. +Es eso un problema?" +Dije, "Hola, estoy aqu para una leccin de vuelo". +Y dieron una mirada y salieron a hacer una rifa. +"Te toca a ti". "No, no, te toca a ti". +Por ltimo, este chico sale. Va, "Hola, soy Andrew, y voy a llevarte a volar". +Voy, "Excelente". Y as me condujeron abajo, me sacaron al asfalto, y all estaba ese avin rojo, blanco y azul. +Fue hermoso. Me levantaron hasta la cabina. +Tuvieron que subirme al ala, ponerme en el habitculo. +Me sentaron. Hay botones y diales en todas partes. +Pienso, "Oh, cmo puede uno saber algn da que hacen todos esos botones y diales?" +Andrew, el instructor, fue al frente, encendi el avin. +Dijo: "Le gustara hacer el rodaje?" +Es entonces cuando uno utiliza los pies en los pedales del timn de control para controlar el avin en el suelo. +Dije, "No, no puedo mover mis piernas". +Exclam, "Oh". +Dije, "Pero puedo usar mis manos," y l dijo: "Bueno". +Se fue por la pista, y aument la potencia. +Y conforme nos elevbamos y las ruedas despegaron del asfalto, y volbamos, tuve la ms increble sensacin de libertad. +Y Andrew me dijo cuando llegamos al rea de entrenamiento, "Ves esa montaa all?" +Y dije, "S." +Y l dijo, "Bien, toma los controles, y vuela hacia esa montaa". +Y mir hacia arriba, me di cuenta de que l estaba apuntando hacia las Blue Mountains donde el viaje haba comenzado. +Y tom los controles, y estaba volando. +Y era un largo, largo camino desde la sala de columna, y bien supe entonces que iba a ser piloto. +No saba cmo podra nunca pasar un examen mdico en tierra. +Pero me preocupara de eso despus, porque ahora tena un sueo. +As que me fui a casa, hice un diario de entrenamiento y tuve un plan. +Y practiqu mi caminar tanto como pude, y fui desde el punto en que dos personas que me sostenan, a una persona que me sostena, al punto donde poda caminar alrededor de los muebles siempre que no fuera muy lejos. +Y entonces hice un gran progreso hasta el punto en que poda caminar alrededor de la casa, sostenindome en las paredes, as, y mam dijo que ella estara por siempre siguindome, limpiando mis huellas digitales. Pero al menos siempre supo dnde estaba. +As que mientras los mdicos continuaban operando y rehaciendo mi cuerpo de nuevo, yo segua con mi estudio terico, y luego, final y sorprendentemente, pas mi examen mdico de piloto, y esa fue mi luz verde para volar. +Y a veces yo lo pensaba tambin. +Pero eso no importaba, porque ahora haba algo interior que me quemaba dentro sobreponindose a mis lesiones. +Y pequeos objetivos me mantenan en el camino, y finalmente consegu la licencia de piloto privado, y luego aprend a navegar, y vol con mis amigos alrededor de Australia. +Y luego aprend a volar un avin de dos motores y consegu el certificado de doble motor. +Y luego aprend a volar con mal tiempo, tanto como con bueno y consegu mi certificado de instrumentos. +Y luego me dieron la licencia de piloto comercial. +Y luego me dieron mi certificado de instructor. +Y luego me encontr en esa misma escuela donde haba ido para ese primer vuelo, enseando a otras personas a volar, apenas 18 meses despus de haber dejado la sala de columna. +Y entonces pens, "por qu parar aqu? +Por qu no aprender a volar invertida?" +Y lo hice, y aprend a volar invertida y me convert en una instructora de acrobacias areas. +Y mam y pap? Nunca han subido. +Pero entonces saba con certeza que aunque mi cuerpo podra limitarme, era mi espritu el que era imparable. +El filsofo Lao Tzu dijo una vez, "Cuando dejas ir lo que eres, te convertirs en lo que puedes ser". +Ahora s que no fue hasta que deje ir lo que crea que era que fui capaz de crear una vida completamente nueva. +No fue hasta que solt la vida que pens que tendra que fui capaz de abrazar la vida que me estaba esperando. +Ahora s que mi verdadera fuerza nunca vino de mi cuerpo, y aunque mis capacidades fsicas han cambiado dramticamente, quien soy es inmodificable. +La luz piloto dentro de m era an una luz, como lo es en todos y cada uno de nosotros. +S que no soy mi cuerpo, y tambin s que no eres el tuyo. +Y entonces ya no importa ms lo que pareces, de dnde vienes, o qu haces para vivir. +Lo que importa es que sigamos avivando la llama de la humanidad al vivir nuestras vidas como la mxima expresin creativa de quienes somos realmente, porque todos estamos conectados por millones y millones de pajillas, y es el momento de los unirlas y sostenerlas. +Y si queremos avanzar hacia nuestra felicidad colectiva, es hora de que nos despojemos de nuestro enfoque en lo fsico y en su lugar abracemos las virtudes del corazn. +As que levanta tu pajilla si te unirs a m. +Gracias. Gracias. +Soy diseador y educador. +Una persona multitarea, e insto a mis estudiantes a volar en un proceso de diseo multitarea, muy creativo. +Pero, qu tan eficiente es, en realidad, esta multitarea? +Pensemos por un instante en la opcin de la monotarea. +Un par de ejemplos. +Miren eso. +Es el resultado de mi actividad multitarea. Tratando de cocinar, atender el telfono, escribir un SMS y quiz subir algunas fotos de esta gran barbacoa. +Alguien nos cuenta la historia de esos hiperactivos, de ese 2% de la gente que puede controlar el entorno multitarea. +Pero, y nosotros, qu hay de nuestra realidad? +Cundo fue la ltima vez que realmente disfrutaron la voz de un amigo? +Este es el proyecto en el que estoy trabajando y esta es una serie de carcasas para simplificar nuestros sper, hper... simplificar nuestros sper hper mviles y llevarlos a la esencia de su funcin. +Otro ejemplo: Han estado alguna vez en Venecia? +Qu hermoso es perderse en estas pequeas calles de la isla! +Pero nuestra realidad multitarea es bastante diferente, repleta de informacin. +Entonces, qu tal algo as para redescubrir nuestro sentido de la aventura? +S que puede sonar bastante raro hablar de lo mono en un mundo de posibilidades tan inmenso pero les insto a considerar la opcin de centrarse en slo una tarea y a que apaguen completamente sus sentidos digitales. +Hoy en da todos podramos crear nuestros monoproductos. +Por qu no? Entonces, encuentren su monotarea en este mundo multitarea. +Gracias. +Hablar sobre el poder de una palabra: yihad. +Para la gran mayora de los musulmanes practicantes, la yihad es una lucha espiritual interior. +Es una lucha interna, una lucha en contra del vicio, el pecado, la tentacin, el deseo, la avaricia. +Es un esfuerzo por intentar vivir conforme a los cdigos morales establecidos en el Corn. +En esta idea original, el concepto de yihad es tan importante para los musulmanes como la idea de gracia es para los cristianos. +Es una palabra poderosa, yihad, si se le mira desde esta perspectiva, hay una cierta resonancia casi mstica en ella. +Y esa es la razn por la que, durante cientos de aos, los musulmanes en el mundo han nombrado a sus hijos Yihad, a sus hijas tanto como a sus hijos, al igual que, por ejemplo, los cristianos nombran a sus hijas Gracia, y los hinds, mi pueblo, nombramos a nuestras hijas Bhakti, que en snscrito significa adoracin espiritual. +Pero en el islam siempre ha existido un grupo pequeo, una minora, que cree que la yihad no es solo una lucha interior, sino tambin exterior, en contra de las fuerzas que amenazan la fe o los fieles. +Y algunas de estas personas creen que en esa lucha a veces est bien tomar las armas. +Por eso los miles de jvenes musulmanes que emigraron a Afganistn durante los aos 80 para luchar contra la ocupacin sovitica de un pas islmico, en sus mentes, luchaban una yihad, hacan la yihad, y se nombraron a s mismos los muyahidines, una palabra que proviene de la misma raz que yihad. +Ahora lo olvidamos, pero en aquel entonces se celebraba a los muyahidines aqu en EE.UU. +Les considerbamos guerreros santos que combatan justamente contra los comunistas infieles. +Los EE.UU. les dieron armas, les dieron dinero, les brindaron apoyo y estmulo. +Pero dentro de ese grupo, uno ms pequeo, una minora dentro de una minora, estaba ideando un nuevo y peligroso concepto de yihad, y Osama bin Laden, quien perfeccion la idea, dirigira este grupo. +Su idea de yihad era la de una guerra de terror global, dirigida principalmente hacia el enemigo lejano, hacia los cruzados de Occidente, hacia los EE.UU. +Lo que hizo en busca de esta yihad fue tan horrendo, tan monstruoso y tuvo tanto impacto, que su definicin fue la que prevaleci, no solo aqu en Occidente. +No lo sabamos. No nos detuvimos a preguntar. +Solo supusimos que si ese hombre demente y sus seguidores psicopticos llamaban a lo que hacan, yihad, entonces eso es lo que significaba yihad. +Pero no ramos los nicos. Incluso en el mundo islmico, su definicin de yihad empez a ganar aceptacin. +Hace un ao estuve en Tnez y conoc al imn de una mezquita muy pequea, un hombre mayor. +Hace quince aos nombr a su nieta Yihad, con base en el significado original. Esperaba que un nombre as la inspirara a llevar una vida espiritual. +Pero me dijo que despus del 11-S, comenz a dudar. +Le preocupaba que si la llamaba por ese nombre, en especial al aire libre, en pblico, se pensara que apoyaba a la yihad de Bin Laden. +Los viernes en su mezquita, daba sermones intentando recuperar el significado de la palabra, pero sus congregantes, las personas que asistan a la mezquita, haban visto los videos. Haban visto las imgenes de los aviones estrellndose contra las torres, las torres cayendo. +Haban escuchado a Bin Laden decir que eso era la yihad y adjudicarse la victoria. Por eso el viejo imn se preocupaba de que sus palabras cayeran en odos sordos. Nadie prestaba atencin. +Estaba equivocado. Algunos prestaban atencin, aunque por las razones incorrectas. +En este punto, los EE.UU. estaban presionando a sus aliados rabes, incluyendo a Tnez, para que erradicaran los movimientos extremistas de sus territorios, y de repente este imn se encontr en el punto de mira del servicio tunecino de inteligencia. +Nunca antes le haban prestado atencin, un hombre mayor, una mezquita pequea, pero ahora lo visitaban y a veces lo interrogaban, siempre con las mismas preguntas: Por qu nombr a su nieta Yihad? +Por qu contina usando la palabra yihad en sus sermones? +Odia a los estadounidenses? +Cul es su relacin con Osama bin Laden? +As que para la agencia tunecina de inteligencia, y otras organizaciones similares en el mundo rabe, la yihad equivala a extremismo, la definicin de Bin Laden se haba institucionalizado. +Ese era el poder de la palabra que fue capaz de instaurar. +Esto entristeca profundamente al viejo imn. +Me dijo que, de entre los muchos crmenes de Bin Laden, este era, en su opinin, uno al que no se le prestaba suficiente atencin, el que se hubiera apropiado de esta palabra, de esta idea hermosa. +Ms que habersela apropiado, la secuestr, la envileci, la corrompi, y la convirti en algo para lo que nunca se haba creado, y luego nos convenci de que siempre se haba tratado de una yihad global. +La buena noticia es que la yihad global, como Bin Laden la defini, est por acabar. +Estaba muriendo mucho antes que l y ahora est en sus ltimas. +Encuestas de opinin de todas partes del mundo islmico muestran que hay poco inters entre los musulmanes en una guerra santa contra Occidente, contra el enemigo lejano. +El suministro de hombres dispuestos a luchar y morir por la causa est disminuyendo. +El financiamiento, quiz ms importante, tambin est disminuyendo. +Los fanticos adinerados que antes patrocinaban este tipo de actividades son menos generosos. +Qu significa esto para nosotros en Occidente? +Significa que podemos destapar el champn, lavarnos las manos, retirarnos, dormir tranquilamente? +No. El retiro no es una opcin, porque si se permite sobrevivir a la yihad local, se convierte en yihad internacional. +As que ahora hay distintas yihad violentas en todo el mundo. +En Somalia, en Mal, en Nigeria, en Irak, en Afganistn, en Pakistn, hay grupos que se proclaman los herederos del legado de Osama bin Laden. +Utilizan su retrica. +Incluso utilizan el nombre comercial que cre para su yihad. +Hay una Al Qaeda en el Magreb Islmico, hay una Al Qaeda en la pennsula Arbiga, hay una Al Qaeda en Mesopotamia. +Tambin hay otros grupos, en Nigeria, Boko Haram, en Somalia, Al Shabaab, y todos rinden homenaje a Osama bin Laden. +Pero si miran atentamente vern que no estn luchando una yihad global. +Estn luchando por asuntos ms pequeos. +Usualmente relacionados con etnias, razas o sectas, o con luchas de poder. +Casi siempre se trata de una lucha de poder dentro de un pas o incluso en una zona pequea del pas. +En ocasiones cruzan fronteras, de Irak a Siria, de Mal a Algeria, de Somalia a Kenia, pero no luchan una yihad global en contra de un enemigo lejano. +Pero esto no significa que podemos relajarnos. +Recientemente estuve en Yemen, el hogar de la ltima franquicia de Al Qaeda que todava pretende atacar a los EE.UU., atacar Occidente. +Es la vieja escuela de Al Qaeda. +Quiz los recuerden. +Son quienes intentaron enviar a un atacante con explosivos en su ropa interior y empleaban el internet para instigar la violencia entre los musulmanes estadounidenses. +Pero ltimamente han estado distrados. +El ao pasado tomaron el control de una zona en el sur de Yemen e instauraron un rgimen al estilo talibn. +Entonces el ejrcito yemen se organiz y personas comunes se rebelaron contra aquellos tipos y los expulsaron. Desde entonces, la mayora de sus actividades, la mayora de sus ataques, han sido en contra de los yemenes. +As que creo que hemos llegado a un punto en que podemos decir que como cualquier poltica, toda la yihad es local. +Pero esta no es an una razn para retirarnos porque ya conocemos la historia, en Afganistn. +Cuando aquellos muyahidines derrotaron a la URSS, nos retiramos. +Y antes de que la espuma brotara del champn, los talibanes ya haban tomado Kabul, dijimos, La yihad local no es nuestro problema. +Luego los talibanes entregaron a Osama bin Laden las llaves de Kandahar. Y l, la convirti en nuestro problema. +Si se ignora a la yihad local, se convierte de nuevo en yihad global. +La buena noticia es que no tiene que ser as. +Ahora sabemos cmo abatirla. +Tenemos las herramientas. Tenemos las estrategias, y podemos tomar las lecciones que hemos aprendido de la lucha contra la yihad global, de la victoria contra la yihad global, y aplicarlas a la yihad local. +Cules son esas lecciones? Sabemos quin mat a Bin Laden: el 6 equipo SEAL. +Sabemos quin acab con el binladenismo? +Quin acab con la yihad global? +Ah yace la solucin a la yihad local. +Quin acab con el binladenismo? Empecemos con el mismo Bin Laden. +Quiz l crey que el 11-S fue su mayor logro. +En realidad era el principio de su fin. +Asesin a 3 000 inocentes y esto colm al mundo islmico con horror y repugnancia, lo que signific que su idea de yihad nunca llegara a popularizarse. +Se conden a s mismo a operar desde los mrgenes lunticos de su propia comunidad. +El 11-S no lo fortaleci, lo conden. +Quin acab con el binladenismo? Lo hizo Abu Musab al Zarqawi. +Era el dirigente sdico de Al Qaeda en Irak que envi a cientos de combatientes suicidas a atacar no a estadounidenses, sino a iraques. Musulmanes. Sunes y chies. +Cualquier declaracin de que Al Qaeda protega al islam contra los cruzados de Occidente se hundi en la sangre de musulmanes iraques. +Quin abati a Osama bin Laden? Lo hizo el 6 equipo SEAL. +Quin abati el binladenismo? Lo hizo Al Yazira, y otra media docena de estaciones noticieras satelitales en lengua rabe, porque esquivaron las viejas estaciones televisivas controladas por el estado en muchos de estos pases que estaban diseadas para restringir a las personas el acceso a la informacin. +Al Yazira les dio acceso a la informacin, les mostr lo que se proclamaba y haca en nombre de su religin, expuso la hipocresa de Osama bin Laden y Al Qaeda, y les brind la informacin que les permiti obtener sus propias conclusiones. +Quin acab con el binladenismo? Lo hizo la primavera rabe, porque mostr a los jvenes musulmanes una manera de lograr cambios que Osama bin Laden, con su imaginacin limitada, nunca pudo haber concebido. +Quin derrot a la yihad global? Lo hizo el ejrcito estadounidense, los soldados estadounidenses y sus aliados, luchando en campos de batalla lejanos. +Y quiz llegue el da en que se les brinde el crdito merecido. +Todos estos factores, y muchos otros, algunos de los cuales todava no entendemos, se unieron para derrotar a una monstruosidad tan grande como el binladenismo, la yihad global; se necesitaba de este esfuerzo grupal. +Aunque no todos estos funcionarn contra la yihad local. +El ejrcito estadounidense no marchar hacia Nigeria para hacerse cargo de Boko Haram, y es improbable que el 6 equipo SEAL irrumpa en los hogares de los lderes de Al Shabaab y los derrote. +Pero muchos de los otros factores que contribuyeron se han fortalecido. La mitad del trabajo est hecho. +No es necesario reinventar la rueda. +La idea de una yihad violenta en que la mayora de las vctimas son musulmanes est completamente desacreditada. +No tenemos que regresar a eso. +La televisin satelital y el internet estn informando y confiriendo poder a jvenes musulmanes, en formas novedosas e interesantes. +Y la primavera rabe ha producido gobiernos, muchos de ellos islamistas, que saben que por su propia seguridad, deben encargarse de los extremistas en sus poblaciones. +No es necesario persuadirles, pero s ayudarles porque no han enfrentado esta situacin anteriormente. +Tenemos suficiente de esto. +Y algunas otras cosas que necesitan, no somos muy buenos dndolas. Quiz nadie lo es. +Tiempo, paciencia, sutileza, comprensin, son ms difciles de dar. +Ahora vivo en Nueva York. Justo esta semana se han colocado carteles en las estaciones del metro que describen a la yihad como salvaje. +Bin Laden est muerto. El binladenismo ha sido derrotado. +Ahora se puede desechar su definicin de yihad. +A esa yihad podemos decirle, Adis. Hasta nunca. +A la yihad autntica podemos decirle, Bienvenida de nuevo. Mucha suerte. +Gracias. +B.J. fue uno de los tantos compaeros de prisin que tena grandes planes para el futuro. +Tena una visin. Cuando saliera dejara la droga para siempre y se encaminara, y estaba trabajando para amalgamar sus dos pasiones en una visin. +Gast 10 000 dlares para comprar un sitio web de mujeres que solo tienen sexo en autos deportivos de lujo. Era mi primera semana en la prisin federal y aprend rpidamente que no era lo que se ve en la TV. +De hecho, estaba lleno de hombres ambiciosos e inteligentes cuyos instintos empresariales eran en muchos casos tan agudos como los de esos directivos que cenaron conmigo 6 meses antes cuando era una "estrella en ascenso" en el Senado de Missouri. +No pasaban mucho tiempo reviviendo sus das de gloria. +En su mayor parte, todos trataban de sobrevivir. +Es mucho ms difcil de lo que podra pensarse. +Contrariamente a lo que mucha gente piensa, la gente no paga, los contribuyentes no pagan tu estada en la prisin. Uno tiene que pagarse su propia estada. +Uno tiene que pagar su propia sopa, desodorante, cepillo y pasta dental, todo. +Y es difcil por un par de razones. +Primero, todo cuesta de 30% a 50% ms que lo que se paga en la calle, y, segundo, no se gana mucho dinero. +Yo descargaba camiones. Ese era mi empleo a tiempo completo, descargar camiones en un almacn de alimentos, por USD 5,25 no por hora, por mes. +Cmo se sobrevive? +Bueno, se aprenden recursos, de todo tipo. +Algunos son legales. +Todo se paga con estampillas. Esa es la moneda. +Le cobras a otro preso por limpiar su celda. +Hay recursos ilegales como tener una barbera de tu celda. +Otros son bastante ilegales: hacer tatuajes en tu propia celda. +Y hay otros muy ilegales como contrabandear pasar de contrabando drogas, pornografa, celulares y, como en el mundo exterior, hay un balance entre riesgo y recompensa, cuanto ms arriesgada la empresa ms lucrativa puede ser en potencia. +Quieres un cigarrillo en la prisin? De 3 a 5 dlares. +Quieres un telfono pasado de moda de esos que son tan grandes como tu cabeza? 300 dlares. +Quieres pornografa? +Bueno, puede costar unos 1000 dlares. +Se nota entonces que uno de los aspectos que define la vida en prisin es el ingenio. +Pero no hay capacitaciones, nada que los prepare para eso, no hay rehabilitacin en la prisin, nadie que les ayude a armar un plan de negocios, a descubrir la manera de traducir los conceptos empresariales que tienen de manera intuitiva en empresas legales no hay acceso a Internet, nada. +Y luego, cuando salen, la mayora de los estados ni siquiera tienen leyes que impidan la discriminacin de los empleadores contra las personas con antecedentes. +As que nadie debera sorprenderse de que 2 de cada 3 ex-convictos reincidan en los siguientes 5 aos. +Miren, he mentido a los federales. Perd un ao de mi vida all. +Pero cuando sal, promet que hara lo que pudiese para asegurar que los tipos como los que conoc en prisin no tengan que perder ms tiempo de sus vidas del que ya perdieron. +Por eso espero que piensen en ayudar de alguna manera. +Lo mejor que podemos hacer es imaginar maneras de nutrir el espritu empresarial y el tremendo potencial inexplorado de las prisiones, porque, de no hacerlo, no van a aprender nuevas habilidades que les sean de ayuda y volvern a la crcel. +Y dentro solo aprendern a delinquir. +Gracias. +Mis Air Jordan cuestan cien, con impuestos. +Mi chaqueta dice 'Raiders' atrs. +Estoy a la moda, sonro, luzco malo en verdad; no se trata de ser escuchado, sino de ser visto. +Mi gorra de beisbol Adidas de cuero hace juego con mi falsa mochila Gucci. Nadie luce mejor que yo pero cuesta dinero, claro que no es gratis, y no tengo trabajo, ni dinero, pero es fcil robar todo esto del centro comercial. +Los padres dicen "no debes", pero s que debo. +Tengo que hacer lo que pueda para asegurar que luzco bien, y la razn por la que tengo que verme realmente bien, bueno, para decirte la verdad, hombre, no s por qu. Supongo que me hace sentir especial dentro. +Cuando uso ropa de estilo no me tengo que ocultar, y pronto tengo que conseguir alguna ropa nueva o mi ego explotar como un globo de 10 cntimos. +Pero la seguridad es fuerte en todas las tiendas. Cada da hay ms y ms policas. +Mi grupo se re de m porque uso viejas ropas. +Se acaba la escuela. El verano est cerca. +Uso Jordans anticuados. +Necesito algo nuevo. Solo queda una cosa por hacer. +Salgo el viernes, tomo el metro del centro de la ciudad, chequeo mis vctimas de por ah. +Tal vez tenga suerte y encuentre una presa fcil. +Tengo que conseguir nueva ropa. No hay otra manera. +Estoy listo y dispuesto. Empuo mi arma. +Es un asunto serio. Nada divertido. +Y no puedo tener mi pose risuea. +Robar algo especial, esperen, ya vern. +Salen de la estacin 4 Oeste cerca del parque, hermanos tirando al aro y alguien dice: "Eh amigo! Dnde conseguiste los Niks?" Pens, "S. Me gustan, me gustan". Eran unos blanquitos, brillantes, me enceguecieron. +El emblema rojo de Michael pareca que pudieran volar. +Ni una mancha de suciedad. Los 'Airs' eran nuevos. +Tena mi pistola y saba exactamente qu hacer. +Esper hasta el momento justo, lo segu muy de cerca. +Giro a la izquierda en Houston, saqu mi arma, y dije: "Dame los Jordan!" Y el tipo intent correr. +Despeg rpido, no lleg lejos. Disparar, 'Pum'! El tonto cay entre dos autos estacionados. +Tosa, lloraba, sangre derramada en la calle. +Le arrebat los Air Jordans de sus pies. +Al morir all tendido, todo lo que pudo decir fue, "Por favor, hombre, no te lleves mis Air Jordans". +Uno creera que estara preocupado de vivir. +Cuando le quit sus zapatillas, haba lgrimas en sus ojos. +Al da siguiente, pos en la escuela con mis nuevos Air Jordans, hombre, bien. +Mat por tenerlos, pero bueno, no me importa, porque ahora necesito una nueva chaqueta para usar". +Gracias. Durante los ltimos 15 aos que he actuado, todo lo que quera era dar a conocer la poesa al mundo. +Vern, no fue suficiente para m con escribir un libro. +No fue suficiente para m ir a una competencia de poesa, y mientras esas cosas soportan peso, no fue la fuerza impulsora que llev la pluma al pliego. +El hambre y la sed eran y siguen siendo: Cmo hago que personas que odian la poesa me amen? +Porque yo soy una extensin de mi trabajo, y si me aman, entonces amarn mi trabajo, y si aman mi trabajo, entonces amarn la poesa, y si aman la poesa, habr hecho mi trabajo, que es trascenderla al mundo. +Y, en 1996, encontr la respuesta en los principios en un maestro de la palabra hablada llamado Reg E. Gaines, que escribi el famoso poema, "Por favor no te lleves mis Air Jordans". +Y lo segu a todas partes hasta que lo tuve en la habitacin, y le le una de mis obras, y saben qu me dijo? +"Apestas. +Sabes cul es tu problema, amigo? +No lees la poesa de otras personas, y no tienes ninguna subordinacin de las mtricas verbales a las consideraciones tonales". Y sigue divagando sobre poesa, estilo y las noches 'nuyorican' de los viernes. +Ahora pude haber salido. Deb haber salido. +O sea, pens que la poesa era solo autoexpresin. +Yo no saba que realmente tienes que tener el control creativo. +Pero en lugar de abandonar, lo segu a todas partes. +Cuando l escriba una obra de Broadway, yo estaba tras la puerta. +Lo despertaba como a las 6:30 para preguntarle quin es el mejor poeta. +Recuerdo haber comido ojos de pez frescos porque me dijo que era bueno para el cerebro. +Quera saber qu poetas ley, y aterric en un poema llamado ["Dark Prophecy: canto del brillo"], un brindis, que me llev al escenario ms grande que puede tener un poeta: Broadway, beb. +Y, desde ese momento, aprend a tirar el micrfono y atacar la poesa con mi cuerpo. +Pero esa no fue la leccin ms grande haya aprendido. +La mayor leccin la aprend muchos aos despus cuando fui a Beverly Hills y me encontr con un agente de talento que me mir de arriba a abajo y dijo que no pareca que yo tuviera ninguna experiencia de trabajo en este negocio. +Y le dije: "Escuche, imbcil, Ud. es un actor fracasado que se hizo agente, y sabe por qu fall como actor? +Porque gente como yo tom su trabajo. +Las personas compraron boletos a mi experiencia y los usaron como imanes en la nevera para saber que la revolucin est cerca, para abastecerse. +Tengo tanta experiencia, que cuando Ud. fue a una escuela privilegiada para aprender sonetos shakesperianos, yo estaba recibiendo esos golpes. +Yo puedo dominar el choque de "The Crying Game" con el asombro de un nio acusado de vctima del SIDA por un agresor que no saba que fue su padre quien se lo contagi a mi madre, y eso es doble sentido. +Sanford Meisner fue mi To Artie gritando en silencio para s: "Siempre algo est mal, si nunca nada est bien". +El mtodo de actuacin no es ms que una mezcla de mltiples personalidades, creyendo que sus propias mentiras son realidad, como en la buena escuela secundaria Kenny dicindome que queran que fuera polica. +Amigo, vas a la Academia de la Isla de Riker. +Podra hacer que David Mamet psicoanalizara mi ataque sobre el dilogo, Stanislavski fue como un Bruce Lee que patea tu lista de estudiantes sin talento arriba y abajo de Crenshaw. +Y qu, tus actores estudiaron teatro de guerrilla en el Rep de Londres? +Te contar un antiguo secreto chino de Kung Fu de sbado por la tarde. +La tablita no devuelve el golpe. +Cree que es difcil para un negro encontrar trabajo en este negocio? Soy un mulato sospechoso, o sea, soy demasiado negro para ser blanco y demasiado blanco para hacerlo bien. +Olvide el ghetto estadounidense. He quemado etapas en Soweto, enterrando bebs abortados en campos de arcilla y an as mantengo una sonrisa en mi rostro, as que cualquier maldicin que me lance, vuelva a tu puestucho asistente 've por esto, ve por eso', cuando salga por esa puerta, cualquier insulto que lance en mi camino, a su madre. +Gracias. +Me gustara mostrarles un video de algunos de los modelos que trabajo. +Tienen el tamao perfecto, y no tienen ni un pice de grasa. +He mencionado que son hermosos +y que son modelos cientficos? Como seguramente adivinaron, soy ingeniera de tejidos, y este es un video de algunos de los corazones con latidos que he diseado en el laboratorio. +Y esperamos que un da esos tejidos puedan servir de reemplazo para el cuerpo humano. +Pero hoy hablar de lo buenos que son estos tejidos como modelos. +Pensemos por un momento en el proceso de certificacin de frmacos. +Pasamos por la formulacin, pruebas de laboratorio, pruebas en animales, ensayos clnicos, que podran denominarse pruebas en humanos, antes de que los frmacos lleguen al mercado. +Cuesta mucho dinero, mucho tiempo, y, a veces, an si el frmaco llega al mercado, se comporta de un modo impredecible y daa a la gente. +Y cuanto ms tarde falle, peores sern las consecuencias. +Todo se reduce a dos temas. Uno: los humanos no somos ratas; y dos: a pesar de nuestras increbles similitudes de unos con otros, en realidad esas diminutas diferencias entre uno y otro tienen enorme impacto en la forma de metabolizar frmacos y los efectos de esos frmacos sobre nosotros. +Qu tal si tuvisemos modelos de laboratorio que no slo nos imitaran mejor que las ratas sino que reflejaran nuestra diversidad? +Veamos cmo podemos hacerlo con ingeniera tisular. +Una de las tecnologas clave que es realmente importante es lo que se llama clulas madre pluripotentes inducidas. +Han sido desarrolladas en Japn hace bastante poco. +Bien, clulas madre pluripotentes inducidas. +Se parecen mucho a las clulas madre embrionarias slo que no tienen controversia. +Inducimos a las clulas, digamos, clulas de la piel, agregndole unos genes, los cultivamos, y luego los cosechamos. +Son clulas de la piel que pueden ser llevadas en una especie de amnesia celular, a un estado embrionario. +Que no tenga controversia es algo genial, es lo primero. +La segunda cosa genial es que se puede cultivar todo tipo de tejidos con ellas: cerebro, corazn, hgado, tienen la imagen, a partir de las clulas propias. +Podemos hacer un modelo de tu corazn, tu cerebro, en un chip. +La generacin de tejidos de densidad y comportamiento predecible es el segundo elemento, y ser clave para que el descubrimiento de frmacos adopte estos modelos. +Y este es el esquema de un biorreactor que estamos desarrollando para ayudar a disear tejidos de un modo ms modular y escalable. +En el futuro, imaginemos una versin paralela masiva de esta con miles de rganos de tejido humano. +Sera como tener un ensayo clnico en un chip. +Otra cosa sobre estas clulas madre pluripotentes inducidas es que si tomamos algunas clulas de la piel, digamos, de personas con una enfermedad gentica y diseamos tejidos a partir de ellos, podemos usar tcnicas de ingeniera tisular para generar modelos de esas enfermedades en el laboratorio. +Este es un ejemplo del laboratorio de Kevin Eggan en Harvard. +l gener neuronas a partir de estas clulas madre pluripotentes inducidas de pacientes que tienen la enfermedad de Lou Gehrig, y l las diferenci en neuronas, y lo asombroso es que estas neuronas tambin muestran sntomas de la enfermedad. +As que con modelos de enfermedades como stas, podemos luchar ms rpido antes y entender mejor la enfermedad que antes, y quiz descubrir frmacos an ms rpido. +Este es otro ejemplo de clulas madre de pacientes especficos diseadas a partir de clulas con retinitis pigmentaria. +Esta es una degeneracin de la retina. +Es una enfermedad que est presente en mi familia, y esperamos realmente que clulas como stas nos ayuden a encontrar una cura. +As que algunas personas piensan que estos modelos suenan muy bien, pero preguntan: "Bueno, son tan buenos como la rata?" +La rata, despus de todo, es un organismo completo con redes interactivas de rganos. +Un frmaco para el corazn puede metabolizarse en el hgado, y alguno de los subproductos pueden almacenarse en la grasa. +No extraas todo eso con estos modelos de ingeniera tisular? +Bueno, esta es otra tendencia en el campo. +La combinacin de tcnicas de ingeniera tisular con microfludica, el campo evoluciona hacia all, un modelo integral del ecosistema corporal, lleno de mltiples sistemas de rganos para probar qu frmaco que uno toma para la presin arterial podra afectar al hgado o si un antidepresivo podra afectar al corazn. +Estos sistemas son reamente difciles de construir, pero estamos empezando a hacerlo, as que estn atentos. +Y eso no es todo, porque una vez que se aprueba un frmaco las tcnicas de ingeniera tisular pueden ayudarnos a desarrollar tratamientos ms personalizados. +Este es un ejemplo que podra interesarles algn da, espero que nunca, porque imaginen si alguna vez reciben el llamado que les da la mala noticia de que podran tener cncer. +No probaran si esos frmacos contra el cncer que van a tomar funcionarn en Uds.? +Este es un ejemplo del laboratorio de Karen Burg en el que usan tecnologas de inyeccin para imprimir clulas de cncer de mama para estudiar avances y tratamientos. +Y algunos de nuestros compaeros de Tufts mezclan modelos con ingeniera tisular sea para ver cmo el cncer podra extenderse de una parte del cuerpo a otra, y pueden imaginar esos chips de tejidos mltiples como la prxima generacin de este tipo de estudios. +En esencia, estamos acelerando drsticamente la retroalimentacin entre el desarrollo de una molcula y sus efectos en el cuerpo humano. +Nuestra manera de hacerlo consiste en transformar la biotecnologa y la farmacologa en una tecnologa de la informacin, que nos ayude a descubrir y evaluar los medicamentos ms rpido, de forma ms barata y ms eficaz. +Le da un nuevo significado a los modelos de experimentacin con animales, no? +Gracias. +En 2002, un grupo de activistas del tratamiento se reunieron para discutir el primitivo desarrollo del avin. +Los hermanos Wright, a comienzos del ltimo siglo, lograron por primera vez hacer que uno de estos aparatos volara. +Lograron tambin numerosas patentes de las partes esenciales del avin. +No fueron los nicos. +Era una prctica comn de la industria y aquellos que posean patentes de aviones las defendieron ferozmente y demandaron competidores a diestra y siniestra. +Esto no fue nada bueno para el desarrollo de la industria de la aviacin y sigui as hasta que el gobierno de EE.UU. se interes en aumentar su produccin de aviones militares. +As que hubo algo de conflicto. +El gobierno de EE.UU. decidi tomar acciones y forz a los tenedores de estas patentes a que hicieran sus patentes disponibles para compartir con otros para poder producir aviones. +Y qu tiene que ver lo uno con lo otro? +En 2002, Nelson Otwoma, un cientfico social keniano, descubri que tena VIH y que necesitaba tratamiento. +Le dijeron que no exista cura. +El SIDA, oy, era mortal y no exista tratamiento. Esto fue cuando el tratamiento exista en los pases ricos. +El SIDA se convirti en una enfermedad crnica. +Las personas aqu en Europa, y en Norteamrica, podan vivir con VIH, vidas sanas. +No as Nelson. No era lo suficientemente rico ni su hijo de 3 aos, a quien ms tarde se le descubri VIH tambin. +Nelson decidi volverse activista del tratamiento y unirse con otros grupos. +En 2002 enfrentaron distintas batallas. +Los precios de los antirretrovirales, necesarios para tratar el HIV, costaban cerca de 12 000 dlares por paciente al ao. +Las patentes de estas drogas pertenecan a varias farmacuticas occidentales que no estaban necesariamente interesadas en hacerlas disponibles. +Cuando tienes una patente, puedes impedir a cualquiera hacerla, desde producirla hasta hacer una versin de bajo costo, por ejemplo, disponible de estos medicamentos. +Claramente esto condujo a guerras de patentes por todo el mundo. +Afortunadamente, estas patentes no existan en todas partes. +Fueron posibles programas de tratamiento, se hizo disponible la financiacin, y el nmero de personas en tratamiento con antirretrovirales comenz a aumentar rpidamente. +Hoy, 8 millones de personas tienen acceso a antirretrovirales. +34 millones estn infectados con VIH. +Nunca ese nmero ha sido tan alto, pero en realidad son buenas noticias porque significa que las personas dejaron de morir. +Quienes tienen acceso a las medicinas dejaron de morir. +Y hay algo ms. +Pararon de transmitir el virus. +Se trata de ciencia reciente que lo ha demostrado. +Lo que significa que tenemos las herramientas para romperle el espinazo a la epidemia. +As que, cul es el problema? +Bueno, las cosas han cambiado. +Primero, las normas cambiaron. +Hoy, todos los pases estn obligados a dar a las farmacuticas patentes que duran al menos 20 aos. +Esto es resultado de las normas de propiedad intelectual de la Organizacin Mundial del Comercio. +As que lo que hizo India ya no es posible. +Segundo, las prcticas de patentes cambiaron. +Aqu ven las prcticas de patentes anteriores a la Organizacin Mundial del Comercio, antes de 1995, antes de los antirretrovirales. +As que a menos que actuemos, a menos que lo hagamos hoy, enfrentaremos lo que algunos han llamado, una bomba de tiempo de tratamiento. +No es solo el nmero de medicinas patentadas. +Hay algo ms que puede realmente atemorizar a las manufactureras genricas. +Esto muestra el alcance de una patente. +Este es el paisaje de una medicina. +As que puede imaginar que si fueran una compaa de genricos decidiendo dnde invertir en el desarrollo de productos, a menos que sepan que las licencias para esas patentes van a estar disponibles probablemente escogern hacer otra cosa. +Otra vez, se necesita una accin deliberada. +Seguramente si se pudo establecer un fondo de patentes para incrementar la produccin de aviones militares, tendramos que ser capaces de hacer algo similar para frenar la epidemia de VIH/SIDA. +Y lo hicimos. +En 2010, UNITAID estableci el Fondo de Patentes Mdicas para VIH. +Y funciona as: Dueos de patente, inventores que desarrollan nuevas medicinas patentan esos inventos, pero hacen que esas patentes estn disponibles para el Fondo de Patentes Mdicas. El Fondo de Patentes Mdicas licencia entonces a aquellos que necesitan acceder a esas patentes. +Pueden ser empresas manufactureras de genricos. +Pueden ser agencias desarrolladoras de medicinas, sin nimo de lucro, por ejemplo. +Esas manufactureras pueden vender esas medicinas a ms bajo costo a personas que necesitan acceder a ellas para programas de tratamiento que necesitan acceder a ellas. +Pagan regalas sobre las ventas al dueo de la patente y as remuneran por compartir la propiedad intelectual. +Hay una diferencia clave con el fondo de patentes de aviones. +El Fondo de Patentes Mdicas es un mecanismo voluntario. +Los propietarios de patentes de aviones no tuvieron eleccin de licenciar o no sus patentes. +Fueron forzados a hacerlo. +Esto es algo que no puede hacer el Fondo de Patentes Mdicas. +Este se apoya en la buena voluntad de las farmacuticas de licenciar sus patentes y hacerlas disponibles a otros para su uso. +Hoy, Nelson Otwoma est sano. +Tiene acceso a medicinas antirretrovirales. +Su hijo cumplir pronto los 14 aos. +Nelson es miembro del grupo consultor de expertos del Fondo de Patentes Mdicas, y me deca, no hace mucho: "Ellen, en Kenia y en muchos otros pases confiamos en el Fondo de Patentes Mdicas para asegurar que la nuevas medicinas estn tambin disponibles para nosotros, que las nuevas medicinas, sin demora, estn disponibles para nosotros". +Y esto ya no es una fantasa. +De hecho, les dar un ejemplo. +En agosto de este ao, la agencia de medicamentos de EE.UU. aprob una nueva medicacin 4 en 1 para SIDA. +La compaa, Gilead, propietaria de la patente, licenci la propiedad intelectual al Fondo de Patentes Mdicas. +El fondo est ya trabajando, dos meses despus, con manufactureras genricas para asegurar que este producto pueda ir al mercado a bajo costo, dnde y cundo se necesite. Esto no tiene precedente. +No se haba hecho nunca antes. +La norma era una demora de 10 aos para que un nuevo producto saliera al mercado en los pases en desarrollo, si sala. +No se haba hecho nunca antes. +Las expectativas de Nelson son muy altas y muy correctas. l y su hijo necesitarn acceso a la nueva generacin de antirretrovirales y a la siguiente, por toda su vida, para que l y muchos otros en Kenia y otros pases puedan seguir llevando una vida sana, activa. +Nosotros contamos con la buena voluntad de las farmacuticas para lograr que esto pase. Contamos con que estas compaas entendern que es en el inters, no solo el inters de bien global, sino de su propio inters, pasar del conflicto a la colaboracin, y a travs del Fondo de Patentes Mdicas pueden hacerlo. +Tambin pueden elegir no hacerlo, pero aquellas que decidan salirse del camino pueden terminar en una situacin similar a la que terminaron los hermanos Wright a comienzos del siglo pasado, enfrentando medidas de fuerza del gobierno. As que mejor que lo hagan ahora. +Gracias. +Esto es pop, y lo que hoy quiero hacer es compartir mi pasin por la pop con Uds, lo cual puede ser bien difcil, pero algo que creo que Uds. podran encontrar ms fascinante es la manera en que estos pequeos animales lidian con la pop. +Bien, este animal tiene un cerebro del tamao de un grano de arroz, pero puede hacer cosas que Uds. y yo no podramos tan siquiera pensar en hacer. +Bsicamente ha evolucionado para gestionar su fuente de alimentacin, que es el estircol. +As que la pregunta es: cmo comenzar esta historia? +Parece adecuado comenzar por el final, porque este es un producto de desecho que procede de otros animales, pero que an contiene nutrientes, y tiene suficientes nutrientes para que los escarabajos estercoleros puedan vivir. As que los escarabajos estiercoleros comen estircol, y sus larvas tambin. +Crecen en una bola de excremento. +En Sudfrica, existen unas 800 especies de escarabajos estercoleros, en frica existen unas 2,000 especies; en el mundo hay unas 6,000 especies diferentes. +As que, para estos escarabajos, el estircol es bastante bueno. +A menos que estn preparados para obtener estircol de debajo de las uas, y examinar el excremento mismo, nunca vern el 90% de las especies de escarabajos estercoleros, ya que stos van directamente al excremento, debajo de ste y viajan adentro y afuera, entre el excremento en la superficie del suelo y un nido que construyen bajo tierra. +As que la pregunta es: "cmo manejan este material?" +La mayora de estos escarabajos lo envuelven en un paquete. +Un 10% de las especies hacen una pelota, que ruedan alejndose de la fuente de estircol, y la entierran en un lugar alejado. stos tienen una conducta muy particular mediante la cual hacen rodar estas pelotas. +ste es el orgulloso propietario de una hermosa bola de estircol. +Pueden ver que es un macho, porque tiene algo de pelo detrs de las piernas, y se ve muy satisfecho de aquello sobre lo que est sentado. +Y est a punto de ser vctima de un ladrn aprovechado. sta es una clara indicacin de que ste es un recurso valioso. +Recursos tan valiosos tienen que ser guardados y vigilados de una manera particular, y creemos que la razn por la que ruedan estas bolas, es la competencia que existe para hacerse con este excremento. +As que esta porcin de excremento era --bueno, era una porcin de excremento 15 minutos antes de ser tomada esta imagen, y creemos que es la intensa competencia lo que hace a los escarabajos tan bien adaptados para hacer rodar las bolas de excremento. +Imagnenese a este animal andando por la estepa africana. +La cabeza baja. Caminando hacia atrs. +Es la manera ms extraa de transportar alimento y a la vez tienen que vrselas con el calor. +Esto es frica. Es caliente. +As que lo que quiero compartir con Uds. son algunos de los experimentos que mis colegas y yo hemos usado para investigar cmo los escarabajos estercoleros afrontan estos problemas. +As que observen este escarabajo, y hay dos cosas que quiero hacer notar. +La primera es cmo afronta este obstculo que pusimos en su camino. Miren, baila una breve danza y luego contina exactamente en la misma direccin que antes llevaba. +Una breve danza y luego toma un direccin en particular. +As que les pusimos otras pruebas, y lo que hicimos fue girar el mundo bajo sus pies. Miren su respuesta. +A este animal su mundo le fue rotado bajo sus pies. Fue rotado 90 grados. +Pero no lo sufre. Sabe exactamente a dnde quiere ir, y toma esa direccin. +As que nuestra siguiente pregunta fue: Cmo lo hacen? +Qu estn haciendo? Y haba una pista a nuestra disposicin. +Era que, de vez en cuando, ellos suban a la bola para echar un vistazo al mundo a su alrededor. +Qu creen Uds. que podran estar viendo al trepar sobre la bola? +Qu seales podra podra usar el animal para dirigir sus movimientos? Lo ms evidente era mirar al cielo, as que nos preguntamos: qu podran estar mirando en el cielo? +Lo ms obvio sera el sol. +He aqu un experimento clsico: lo que hicimos fue mover el sol. +Lo que haremos ser cubrir el sol con una tabla y luego mover el sol con un espejo hacia una posicin totalmente diferente. +Miren lo que hace el escarabajo. +Hace una breve danza doble, y luego vuelve exactamente a la direccin de donde vena al principio. +Qu sucede? Evidentemente, estn mirando el sol. +El sol es una seal muy importante para ellos. +Pero sucede que el sol no siempre est disponible, porque, al anochecer, ste desaparece en el horizonte. +Lo que sucede en el cielo es que existe un gran patrn de luz polarizada que ni t ni yo podemos ver, debido al diseo de nuestros ojos. +Pero cuando el sol est en el horizonte, algo que sabemos acerca del sol en el horizonte, digamos, en este lado, es que hay un gran sendero de luz polarizada, de norte a sur, que no podemos ver; pero que los escarabajos s pueden ver. +Cmo probamos esto? Bueno, es fcil. +Usamos un filtro de polarizacin y colocamos al escarabajo debajo de ste. El filtro forma un ngulo recto con el patrn de polarizacin del cielo. +El escarabajo sale debajo del filtro, y da un giro hacia la derecha, pues vuelve a estar bajo el cielo que haba usado de referencia y nuevamente lo usa para orientarse en la direccin que llevaba originalmente. +As que los escarabajos pueden ver la luz polarizada. +Bien, con lo que hasta ahora hemos visto, que hacen los escarabajos? Hacen rodar bolas. +Cmo lo hacen? Las hacen rodar en una lnea recta. +Cmo mantienen una direccin en particular? +Bien, siguen seales en el cielo, algunas de las cuales ni t ni yo podemos ver. +Pero cmo perciben estas seales celestiales? +so era lo que nos interesaba averiguar ahora. +Se trataba de ste comportamiento particular, la danza, que pensamos era importante. Porque miren, hace una pausa cada cierto tiempo, y luego se dirige en la direccin que quiere. +As que, qu sucede durante esta danza? +Cunto podemos alterar su camino antes de que logren re-orientarse? +En este experimento, los hicimos entrar en un canal; pueden ver que el escarabajo no es forzado a entrar en este canal en particular, y gradualmente alteramos su camino 180 grados hasta que este individuo acaba yendo exactamente en direccin contraria a la que deseaba en un principio. +Veamos cul es su reaccin al aproximarse a los 90 grados, y ahora, cuando llega ac, l ir 180 grados en la direccin equivocada. +Vean cual es su respuesta. +Hace una pequea danza y retoma su direccin. Sabe exactamente a dnde ir. +Sabe exactamente cul es el problema, y sabe exactamente cmo resolverlo. La danza es esta conducta de transicin que les permite volver a orientarse. +Pero, despus de pasar varios aos sentado en los arbustos africanos viendo a estos escarabajos notamos que haba otro tipo de conducta asociada con esta danza. +De vez en cuando, cuando suben a lo alto de la bola, se limpian la cara. +Vanlo hacindolo de nuevo. +Entonces nos preguntamos qu podra estar pasando. +Evidentemente, el suelo est muy caliente, y cuando el suelo est caliente, danzan ms seguido. Cuando ejecutan esta danza en particular, se limpian la parte de abajo de la cara. +Pensamos que podra ser una conducta para regular su temperatura. +Pensamos que intentaban alejarse del suelo caliente y escupir en su propia cara para refrescar su cabeza. +As que diseamos un par de arenas, +una caliente y una fra. +Est qued bajo la sombra. La otra permaneci caliente. +Despus los grabamos con una cmara trmica. +Lo que ven es una imagen trmica del sistema, y lo que ven aqu brotando de la pop es una fresca bola de excremento. +Es cierto, si prestan atencin a la temperatura, el excremento es fresco. Nos interesa comparar la temperatura del escarabajo con la de su entorno. +Su entorno est a unos 50 grados centgrados. +Pero el escarabajo y la pelota estn a unos 30-35 grados. As que esta es una gran bola de helado que el escarabajo transporta a travs de la meseta. +No est escalando. No est danzando, porque su temperatura corporal es relativamente baja. +Coincide ms o menos con la nuestra. +Lo interesante es que su cerebro se mantiene fresco. +Ahora comparemos qu sucede en un ambiente clido. Observen la temperatura del suelo. +Ha llegado a unos 55-60 grados centgrados. +Observen la frecuencia con que el escarabajo danza. +Vean sus patas delanteras. Estn hirviendo. +La bola deja una pequea sombra trmica, y el escarabajo trepa sobre la bola y se lava la cara, en un intento de refrescarse, y resguardarse de la arena caliente sobre la que camina. +Entonces decidimos ponerle unas pequeas botas en las patas, para evaluar si sus patas jugaban un papel en la percepcin de la temperatura del suelo. +Observen cmo, con las botas, se suben a la bola con menor frecuencia que sin ellas. +As que las nombramos las botas frescas. +Usamos un compuesto dental para fabricar estas botas. +Y tambin enfriamos la bola de excremento usando un refrigerador; les dimos una linda y fresca bola de excremento, y treparon a esta bola con bastante menos frecuencia que cuando tenan una bola caliente. +Es como usar zancos. Es una conducta trmica que t y yo hacemos en la playa. Saltas hacia la toalla de alguien-- "Lo siento, he saltado sobre su toalla."-- y te escabulles a la toalla de otro para no quemarte los pies. +Esto es exactamente lo que los escarabajos hacen. +Sin embargo, hay algo ms que quisiera compartir con ustedes; y es que esta especie en particular +es de un gnero llamado Pachysoma. +Existen 13 especies de este gnero y tienen una conducta en particular que les parecer interesante. +ste es un escarabajo estercolero. Obsrven lo que hace. +Pueden ver la diferencia? +Normalmente no se mueven tan despacio. Est a cmara lenta, +pero est caminando hacia adelante, llevando una bolita de excremento consigo. +sta es una especie diferente del mismo gnero que presenta exactamente la misma conducta. +Hay otra caracterstica interesante en la conducta de este escarabajo que nos pareci fascinante: busca comida y la lleva a su nido. +Vean a este individuo; est tratando de establecer un nido. +No le gusta esta primera posicin, pero se le ocurre una segunda posicin, y unos 50 minutos despus, el nido est terminado. Entonces se dirige a buscar comida a una pila de bolas secas de excremento. +Quiero que observen el camino de ida y lo comparen con el de regreso. +Generalmente, el camino de vuelta a casa es mucho ms directo que el camino de ida. +De ida, l siempre est en busca de un nuevo montn de excremento. +De vuelta, l sabe dnde est su casa, y quiere ir directo a ella. +Lo importante es que ste no es un viaje en una sola direccin como en la mayora de los escarabajos. Este viaje se repite una y otra vez entre la fuente de alimento y el nido. +Observen, estn a punto de ver otro crimen sudafricano que est ocurriendo ahora mismo. Su vecino le roba una de sus bolas. +Estamos viendo una conducta llamada integracin de caminos. +Lo que sucede es que el escarabajo tiene un hogar, y parte hacia un camino retorcido en busca de comida. Cuando la encuentra, vuelve directo a casa. Sabe exactamente dnde est. +Ahora bien, hay dos maneras de hacer sto, y podemos evaluarlas al desplazar al escarabajo a una nueva posicin cuando est en su lugar de abastecimiento. +Si usa puntos de referencia, encontrar el camino a casa. +Si usa algo llamado integracin de caminos, no encontrar su casa. Llegar al lugar equivocado, porque si se vale de la integracin de caminos, contar los pasos o medir la distancia que recorre. +l conoce la distancia a casa, y conoce la direccin. +Si lo desplazas, acabar en el lugar equivocado. +Veamos que sucede si ponemos a prueba al escarabajo con un experimento similar. +He aqu nuestro astuto experimentador. +Desplaza al escarabajo, y vemos qu sucede a continuacin. +Ah tenemos una madriguera, donde se encuentra la comida. +La comida ha sido cambiada de lugar. +Si el animal usa puntos de referencia, debera ser capaz de encontrar la madriguera, porque podr reconocer los puntos de referencia alrededor. +Si est usando integracin de caminos, terminar en otro lugar. +Veamos que sucede cuando ponemos a prueba al escarabajo. +Ah se encuentra el escarabajo. +Est a punto de encaminarse a casa, y vean qu sucede. +Qu lstima. +No tiene ni idea. +Empieza a buscar su casa a la distancia correcta a partir del alimento, pero est completamente extraviado. +No sabemos an qu usan los escarabajos estercoleros. +Entonces, qu hemos aprendido de stos animales con un cerebro del tamao de un grano de arroz? +Bien, sabemos que ruedan bolas en lnea recta valindose de pistas celestiales. +Sabemos que la danza es una conducta de orientacin y tambin de termorregulacin. Sabemos tambin que usan un sistema de integracin de caminos para encontrar el camino a su casa. +Para ser un animal lidiando con una sustancia ms bien asquerosa, podemos aprender un montn de stos seres que realizan conductas que ni t ni yo haramos. +Gracias +Hola, Doha. Hola. Salaam alaikum. +Me encanta venir a Doha. Es un lugar tan internacional. +Parece que uno est en Naciones Unidas. +Vas al hotel, te registras y ah hay un libans. +Y luego un sueco me ensea la habitacin. +Y digo: "Dnde estn los de Qatar?" Me dicen: "No, no, hace demasiado calor. Vienen ms tarde. Son listos." +"Ellos s que saben" Y claro, todo crece tan rpido, que en ocasiones hay problemas. +A veces te encuentras con gente que crees que conoce bien la ciudad, pero no es as. +Un taxista indio me recogi en la zona W y le ped que me llevara al Sheraton, y me dijo: "Sin problema, seor." +Nos quedamos parados all unos minutos. +Y dije: "Qu sucede?" l me dijo: "Hay un problema, seor." +Le dije: "Cul?" Y l: "Dnde est?" +Le digo: "T eres el conductor, deberas saberlo." Y l: "No, acabo de llegar, seor." +Le digo: "Acabas de llegar a la zona W?" "No, acabo de llegar a Doha, seor." +Estaba de camino al aeropuerto y consegu trabajo. Y ya estoy trabajando." +Y me dice: "Seor, por qu no conduce Ud.?" +Y le digo: "No s por dnde se va." +"Yo tampoco. Ser una aventura, seor." +Es una aventura. Oriente Medio ha sido una aventura estos dos aos. +Oriente Medio ha sido una locura con la Primavera rabe +y la revolucin y todo eso. Hay algn libans esta noche? +Si hay algn libans que aplauda. Algn libans? +S. Oriente Medio se est volviendo loco. +Saben que Oriente Medio se est volviendo loco cuando el Lbano es el lugar ms pacfico de la regin. +Quin lo habra imaginado? Dios mo... +Hay graves problemas en la regin. +Alguna gente no quiere hablar sobre ello. Yo estoy aqu para hablar sobre ello esta noche. +Damas y caballeros sobre Oriente Medio, +este es el problema. Cuando nos vemos, cuando nos saludamos cuntos besos tenemos que dar? +En cada pas es diferente y es confuso. +En el Lbano se dan tres. En Egipto se dan dos. +Cuando estaba en el Lbano me acostumbr a dar tres. +Fui a Egipto. Fui a saludar a un hombre egipcio, di uno, dos e iba a dar tres, pero l no estaba por la labor. +Le dije: "No, no, acabo de estar en el Lbano." +y l: "No me importa donde hayas estado. Solo qudate donde ests, por favor. Ah donde ests." +Fui a Arabia Saud. En Arabia Saud dan uno, dos, +y luego se quedan en el mismo lado... tres, cuatro, cinco, seis, siete, ocho, nueve, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18. La prxima vez que veas a un saud, mrale atentamente. Estn como inclinados. +"Abdul, te encuentras bien?" "S, s, he estado saludando durante media hora. +Pero me pondr bien." +Uds. los catares hacen lo de la nariz con nariz. +Por qu? Estn demasiado cansados para hacerlo todo? +"Habibi, hace demasiado calor. Solo ven un momento. Saluda. +Hola, Habibi. No te muevas. Qudate ah por favor. +Necesito descansar." +Todos los pases... Los iranes a veces damos dos, a veces tres. +Un amigo mo me lo explic, antes de la revolucin del 79, +se daban dos. Despus de la revolucin, tres. +As con los iranes, puedes decir de qu lado est esa persona basndote en el nmero de besos que te da. +Si te da uno, dos, tres... "No puedo creer que apoyes el rgimen +con tus tres besos." +No, de verdad, es emocionante estar aqu, y como dije, estn haciendo mucho culturalmente, es asombroso y ayuda a cambiar la imagen que se tiene de Oriente Medio en Occidente. Ya que muchos estadounidenses +no saben mucho sobre nosotros, sobre Oriente Medio. +Soy iran y estadounidense. Estoy all, viajo aqu. +Hay muchas cosas, nos remos verdad? +La gente no sabe que nos remos. Cuando hice mi gira de monlogos "Eje del mal" sali en el Comedy Central, me met en Internet +para ver lo que deca la gente de ello. Termin en una web conservadora. +Un hombre le deca a otro: "No saba que esta gente se riera." +Piensen sobre eso. Nunca se nos ve riendo en el cine o TV estadounidenses. Verdad? +A lo mejor con una risa malvada... "Te matar en el nombre de Al" +Pero nunca como... +Nos gusta rernos. Nos gusta celebrar la vida. +Y deseara que ms estadounidenses viajaran aqu. Siempre animo a mis amigos: Viajen, descubran el Medio Oriente, hay tanto que ver, mucha gente buena. +Y viceversa y eso ayuda a parar los problemas de malentendidos y estereotipos que puedan ocurrir. +Por ejemplo, no s si habrn odo esto, hace poco, en EE.UU. una familia musulmana estaba caminando por el pasillo de un avin hablando sobre el lugar ms seguro para sentarse. +Algunos pasajeros los escucharon y de alguna manera la malinterpretaron como una conversacin terrorista, y les echaron del avin. +Era una familia, una madre, un padre, un nio caminando por el pasillo +hablando sobre los asientos. Como hombre de Medio Oriente, s que hay ciertas cosas que no debo decir en un avin en EE.UU verdad? +No debo andar por el pasillo. y decir "hola, Jack." No est bien. +Incluso si estoy con mi amigo Jack digo: "Saludos, Jack. Saludos, Jack." +Nunca "Hola, Jack." +Pero ahora, parece ser que no podemos ni hablar del sitio ms seguro del avin. +As que mi consejo a todos mis amigos de Medio Oriente y musulmanes y a cualquiera que parezca de Medio Oriente o musulmn, como indios o latinos, cualquiera, si eres marrn... este es mi consejo para mis amigos marrones, +la prxima vez que ests en un avin en EE.UU habla tu legua materna. +De esta manera nadie sabr lo que ests diciendo. Y la vida sigue. +Es verdad, algunas lenguas pueden sonar un poco amenazantes para el estadounidense medio. +Si vas por el pasillo hablando rabe, puede que los asustes, si vas andando "[rabe]" pueden decir: " De qu estar hablando?" +La clave para mis hermanos y hermanas rabes, es que digan de vez en cuando alguna palabra bonita para que la gente est calmada mientras van por el pasillo. +Vas andando: "[Imita el rabe] fresa!" +"[Imita el rabe] arco iris!" "[Imita el rabe] tutti-frutti!" +"Creo que va a secuestrar el avin con helado" +Muchas gracias. Que pasen una buena noche. +Gracias, TED. +De modo que es un momento realmente interesante para ser periodista, sin embargo la agitacin por la que estoy interesado no est en el rendimiento +sino en la procedencia de la informacin. Se trata sobre todo de cmo nos informamos y conseguimos las noticias. +Y eso ha cambiado, porque ha habido un gran desplazamiento en el equilibrio del poder desde las agencias de noticias a la audiencia. +La audiencia durante mucho tiempo estuvo en una situacin en la que no tena forma de influir en las noticias o producir algn cambio. Realmente no poda conectarse. +Eso ha cambiado irreversiblemente. +Mi primer contacto con un medio de comunicacin fue en 1984; la BBC realiz una huelga de un da. +No era feliz, estaba enojado. No poda ver los dibujos animados. +As que redact una carta. +Es una forma muy eficaz de acabar un correo de protesta: "Con amor, Markham. 4 aos". An funciona. +No estoy seguro de si tuve algn efecto en aquella huelga, pero lo que s s es que tardaron 3 semanas en responderme. +Y ese era el ciclo completo. Todo ese tiempo tardaba uno en producir algn impacto y recibir alguna reaccin. +Esto ha cambiado por completo porque, como periodistas, interactuamos en tiempo real. No estamos supeditados a que la audiencia reaccione a las noticias. Somos nosotros quienes +respondemos a la audiencia; de hecho dependemos de ella. +Nos ayudan a hallar las noticias y tambin a discernir cul es el enfoque a tomar y qu material quieren or. +As que es un proceso en tiempo real. Es mucho ms rpido. Sucede constantemente, por eso el periodista siempre est ponindose al da. +Para dar un ejemplo de cmo dependemos de la audiencia, el 5 de septiembre hubo un terremoto en Costa Rica. +Su magnitud fue de 7,6. Fue bastante grande. +60 segundos es el tiempo que le tom viajar 250 kilmetros hasta Managua. +El suelo se sacudi en Managua 60 segundos despus que en el epicentro. +Treinta segundos ms tarde, el primer mensaje lleg a Twitter, alguien que deca "temblor". +Fueron 60 segundos lo que emple en viajar el terremoto fsico. +30 segundos despus, las noticias de ese terremoto haban viajado instantneamente por todo el mundo. Todo el planeta, en teora, tuvo la posibilidad de saber que un terremoto ocurra en Managua. +Y todo esto sucedi porque una nica persona tuvo el instinto documental de hacer una actualizacin de estado, Que es algo que hacemos hoy todos, as que si algo sucede, subimos nuestra actualizacin de estado, una foto o un video, y todo va a parar a la "nube" en un flujo constante. +Lo que significa un constante y enorme volumen de informacin en aumento. +Es realmente asombroso. Al detallar las cifras cada minuto hay 72 horas ms de videos en YouTube. +Es decir, cada segundo, se sube a la red ms de una hora de vdeo. +En cuanto a las fotos, en Instagram se suben 58 fotos por segundo. +En Facebook se publican ms de 3500 fotos. +De modo que para cuando termine la presentacin habr 864 horas ms de vdeo en YouTube que cuando empec, y 2,5 millones ms de fotos en Facebook e Instagram. +Como periodista es una posicin interesante para estar, porque deberamos tener acceso a todo. +Debera tener la posibilidad de saber de cualquier acontecimiento que acaeciera casi al instante, a medida que tiene lugar, gratis. +Y eso es aplicable a cada una de las personas en este saln. +El nico problema es que cuando se lidia con tanta informacin se debe hallar el material bueno, lo cual puede ser increblemente difcil, sobre todo cuando se manejan tales volmenes. +En ningn lado se evidenci mejor esto como durante el huracn Sandy. Bsicamente lo que vieron all fue una spertormenta cuya magnitud no habamos visto en mucho tiempo, que golpe la capital universal del iPhone. Tambin obtuvimos volmenes de informacin como nunca antes. +Significaba, pues, que los periodistas deban lidiar con fotos falsas o fotos viejas que estaban siendo publicadas nuevamente. +Asimismo, debamos lidiar con fotomontajes que eran imgenes fusionadas de tormentas anteriores. +Tuvimos que lidiar con imgenes de pelculas como "El da despus de maana". Incluso debimos enfrentar imgenes tan realistas que era apenas posible afirmar si eran reales en absoluto. +Bromas aparte, hubo imgenes como sta, procedente de Instagram, que fue sometida a escrutinio por parte de los periodistas. +No estaban realmente seguros de si haba sido manipulada por Instagram. +Cuestionaron la iluminacin. Todo fue puesto en duda. +Result ser verdadera. Provena de la Avenida C en el centro de Manhattan, que se haba inundado. +La razn por la que pudieron afirmar que era real fue que lograron llegar a la fuente, en este caso, unos chicos que llevaban un blog de comida en Nueva York. +Eran bien conocidos y respetados. +En este caso no fue una desacreditacin, sino una constatacin. +Ese fue el trabajo del periodista; filtrar todo ese material. +Lo que pas fue que, en lugar de ir a por la informacin y la posterior divulgacin al lector, se estaba reteniendo el material potencialmente perjudicial. +Por eso descubrir la fuente es cada vez ms importante; descubrir la fuente confiable, y Twitter es a donde la mayora de los periodistas va. +Es como el despacho de noticias en tiempo real por definicin, si sabes cmo usarlo, porque hay tanto en Twitter. +Y un buen ejemplo de lo til que puede ser, al mismo tiempo que difcil, fue la revolucin egipcia de 2011. +Como persona que no habla rabe, solo como alguien que observa desde afuera, desde Dubln, las listas de Twitter, y las buenas fuentes, de personas que pudimos comprobar que eran confiables, fueron muy importantes. +Cmo hace uno para construir una lista como esa desde cero? +Bien, puede ser bastante complicado, pero debes saber qu es lo que buscas. +Esta visualizacin la hizo un profesor italiano. +Es un modo fascinante de visualizar la conversacin, pero lo que en verdad consigues son pistas sobre quin es ms interesante y a quin vale la pena seguir. +Bien, a medida que la conversacin creca y se haca ms vvida, uno se quedaba con estos enormes y rtmicos indicadores de la conversacin. +Podas localizar los nodos, y pensar: "Bien, tengo que investigar a estas personas. +Son quienes obviamente tienen sentido. +Veamos quines son". +Ahora en la ingente cantidad de informacin, es donde la red en tiempo real se torna realmente interesante para un periodista como yo, porque tenemos ms herramientas que nunca para realizar este tipo de investigacin. +Y cuando te adentras en las fuentes, puedes ahondar cada vez ms y ms adentro, como nunca antes. +A veces te topas con informacin tan convincente que quieres usarla, te mueres por hacerlo pero no ests 100% seguro de hacerlo porque no sabes si la fuente es creble. +No sabes si es un residuo. O si es material de segunda mano. +Por tanto, debes investigar. +Ahora, este video que voy a mostrarles fue descubierto un par de semanas atrs. +Video: Se est levantando mucho viento en un instante. +(Sonido de lluvia y viento) Oh, carajo! +Markham Nolan: Bien, si eres editor de noticias, esto es algo que te encantara mostrar porque, obviamente, es oro. +Ya saben, es una reaccin fenomenal de alguien, una toma genuina que se ha rodado en su jardn trasero. +Pero, cmo das con esta persona, cmo sabes si es real o no, o si es una publicacin vieja, o vuelta a subir? +Decidimos pues trabajar en este video y lo nico que tenamos era el nombre de usuario de una cuenta de YouTube. +En esa cuenta slo haba un video publicado y el nombre del usuario era Rita Krill. +Y no sabamos si Rita exista o era un nombre inventado. +Pero empezamos a buscar, y para ello usamos herramientas gratis de Internet +La primera de ellas se llama Spokeo, que nos permiti buscar a las Ritas Krills. +As que buscamos en todo EE.UU. Las encontramos en Nueva York, en Pennsylvania, Nevada y Florida. +Con eso, decidimos probar una segunda herramienta gratuita de Internet llamada Wolfram Alpha, con ella revisamos los boletines climticos del da en que el video fue subido a la red, y despus de buscar en esas ciudades, descubrimos que en Florida hubo tormentas y lluvia ese da. +Fuimos a los listines de telfono y encontramos, buscamos a las Ritas Krills de las listas, miramos un par de direcciones y eso nos condujo hasta Google Maps, donde localizamos una casa. +Encontramos una casa, cuya piscina se pareca bastante a la de Rita. Volvimos al vdeo y tuvimos que buscar referencias cruzadas. +Si observamos el vdeo hay una gran sombrilla, una cama inflable blanca en la piscina, tambin que la piscina tiene unas esquinas inusualmente redondeadas y dos rboles en el fondo. +Volvimos a Google Maps, miramos ms de cerca y con seguridad hay una cama inflable blanca, dos rboles, y una sombrilla. En esta foto est plegada. +Con un poco de atencin se pueden apreciar los bordes redondeados de la piscina. +Pudimos contactar a Rita, aclarar el video y asegurarnos de que lo haba grabado, luego nuestros clientes estaban contentsimos porque pudieron mostrarlo tranquilamente. +Sin embargo algunas veces la bsqueda de la verdad es un poco menos frvola, y conlleva mayores consecuencias. +Siria ha sido muy interesante para nosotros debido, obviamente, a que la mayor parte del tiempo ests intentando poner en evidencia asuntos que son potencialmente crmenes de guerra, aqu es donde YouTube se convierte en el depsito ms importante de informacin de lo que acontece en el mundo. +Bueno, en este video no voy a mostrarles todo porque es bastante horripilante, pero van a or algunos sonidos. +Este es de Hama. +Video: Lo que se aprecia en el vdeo, si se ve entero, son cuerpos ensangrentados siendo sacados de una camioneta y arrojados desde un puente. +Lo que se alegaba era que estos individuos pertenecan a una Hermandad Musulmana y que estaban deshacindose de los cuerpos de agentes de polica sirios, y que adems usaban lenguaje vulgar y maldecan. Surgieron muchas replicas acerca de quines eran y tambin sobre si lo que se deca en el vdeo era correcto o no. +Hablamos con algunas fuentes en Hama que habamos seguido en Twitter, y les preguntamos sobre el asunto, el puente llam nuestra atencin porque era algo identificable. +Tres fuentes distintas dijeron tres cosas distintas acerca del puente. +Una dijo que el puente no exista. +Otra dijo que el puente s exista, pero que no est en Hama, sino en otro lugar. +Y la ltima dijo: "creo que el puente existe, pero la represa ro arriba estaba cerrada, de modo que el ro debera haber estado seco, y eso no tiene sentido". +Esa fue la nica fuente que nos dio una pista. +Revisamos el video para encontrar nuevas pistas. +Nos fijamos en los rieles distintivos, que podamos usar. +Nos fijamos en los bordillos. Proyectaban sombra hacia el sur, as nos asegurbamos de que el puente iba de este a oeste del ro. +Tena bordillos en blanco y negro. +Al mirar el ro, puede notarse la presencia de una losa de cemento en la orilla oeste. Hay una nube de sangre. +Se trata de sangre en el ro, as que este fluye desde el sur hacia el norte. Eso es lo que se infiere. +Y tambin, si apartan la mirada del puente, vern algo de csped en el lado izquierdo de la orilla, y el ro se hace ms angosto. +As que acudimos a Google Maps, y empezamos a buscar puente por puente. +Localizamos el embalse antes mencionado, y empezamos a detenernos en cada lugar que la carretera cruza el ro, descartando todos los puentes que no cuadrasen. +Observamos un puente que cruza en sentido este-oeste. +Y llegamos a Hama. Hicimos todo el recorrido desde el embalse hasta Hama, pero no hallamos ningn puente. +Fuimos algo ms lejos. Cambiamos a la vista satelital, y encontramos otro puente, y todas las piezas empezaron a encajar. +El puente parece cruzar el ro de este a oeste. +Este podra ser nuestro puente. Hicimos un acercamiento. +Vimos que tiene una mediana, as que es un puente de dos carriles. +Tiene adems los bordillos blanquinegros que vimos en el video, y a medida que navegas a su alrededor, puedes ver fotos del lugar subidas por alguien, lo cual es muy til. Hicimos clic en las fotos. Y stas nos muestran detalles con los que cruzar referencias con el vdeo. +Lo primero que vemos es el bordillo blanco y negro de la acera, que encaja porque ya lo hemos visto. +Distinguimos tambin los rieles desde donde los hombres arrojaban los cuerpos. +Continuamos hasta que estuvimos seguros de que este es nuestro puente. +Qu me dice todo eso? Que debo volver a mis tres fuentes y repasar lo que me dijeron: la que afirmaba que el puente no exista, la que dijo que el puente no estaba en Hama, y la que asever: "El puente s existe, pero no estoy seguro de los niveles de agua". +La tercera fuente se revela de repente como la ms confiable, y hemos sido capaces de descubrirlo usando herramientas gratuitas de Internet, sentados en un cubculo de una oficina de Dubln en el transcurso de 20 minutos. +Esa es parte de la delicia de este proceso. Aunque la red fluya como un torrente, hay tanta informacin que es muy difcil de filtrar, y cada vez lo es ms. Si la usas adecuadamente, puedes hallar informacin increble. +Con un par de pistas, podra averiguar muchas cosas acerca de Uds. que quiz no querran que averiguara. +Pero lo cierto es que en un momento en el que hay una abundancia de informacin mayor que nunca, es ms complicado filtrarla, pero contamos con mejores herramientas. +Tenemos herramientas gratuitas de Internet que nos permiten hacer este tipo de investigacin. +Contamos con algoritmos ms inteligentes y computadoras ms rpidas que nunca. +Pero he aqu la cuestin. Los algoritmos son reglas, son binarios. +Ponen como respuesta s o no, son una cuestin de blanco o negro. +La verdad nunca es binaria, es en realidad un valor. +La verdad es emocional, fluye y, sobre todo, es humana. +No importa lo rpidos que seamos con los computadores, ni cunta informacin poseamos, nunca deberemos extirpar lo humano de la bsqueda de la verdad, porque a final de cuentas, es un rasgo nico de la especie humana. +Muchas gracias. +En breve, me gano la vida arrastrando trineos, por lo que no se necesita mucho para sorprenderme intelectualmente, pero voy a leer esta pregunta de una entrevista a inicio de ao: "Filosficamente, el suministro constante de informacin disminuye nuestra capacidad para ponernos metas, o reemplaza nuestros deseos de lograrlas? +Despus de todo, si alguien est haciendo algo en algn lugar, y podemos participar virtualmente, entonces, para qu molestarse en salir de casa?" +Generalmente me presentan como explorador polar. +No estoy seguro que sea el tipo de trabajo ms progresista o muy del siglo XXI, pero he pasado hasta ahora ms del dos por ciento de mi vida viviendo en una carpa dentro del crculo polar rtico, por lo que salgo bastante de casa. +Y est en mi naturaleza, supongo, que soy un hacedor de cosas ms que un espectador o un contemplador de cosas, y es esa dicotoma, la separacin entre ideas y accin, lo que voy a intentar abordar brevemente. +La respuesta ms concisa a la pregunta "por qu?" +Que me ha perseguido durante los ltimos 12 aos ha sido atribuida sin duda a este tipo, con aspecto de caballero libertino parado al fondo, el segundo de la izquierda, George Lee Mallory, que muchos de Uds. conocen. +En 1924 fue visto por ltima vez desapareciendo entre las nubes cerca de la cumbre del Monte Everest. +l puede o no haber sido la primera persona en escalar el Everest, ms de 30 aos antes de Edmund Hillary. +No se sabe si lleg a la cima, sigue siendo un misterio. +Pero se le atribuye haber acuado la frase: "Porque est ah". +Ahora no estoy realmente seguro que lo haya dicho. +Hay muy poca evidencia para sugerirlo, pero lo que s dijo es realmente mucho ms amable, y tambin lo tengo impreso y cito: +"La primera pregunta que me harn y que yo intentar responder es: De qu sirve escalar el Monte Everest? +Y mi respuesta siempre ser: para nada. +No hay la ms mnima posibilidad de sacarle ganancia. +Ah, podemos aprender un poco sobre el comportamiento del cuerpo humano a grandes alturas, y posiblemente los mdicos puedan convertir nuestra informacin en algo que sirva a los propsitos de la aviacin, pero salvo esto, no sacarn ms. +No traeremos un solo gramo de oro o plata, ni una joya, ni carbn o hierro. +No encontraremos ni un metro de tierra que se pueda plantar con granos para obtener alimentos. Por lo tanto no sirve de nada. +Si usted no puede entender que hay algo en el hombre que responde al desafo de esta montaa y que va all para confrontarlo, que la lucha es la lucha de la vida misma para ascender y seguir ascendiendo, entonces no entender para qu vamos. +Lo que conseguimos de esta aventura es slo alegra pura, y la alegra, despus de todo, es el fin de la vida. +No vivimos para comer y hacer dinero. +Comemos y hacemos dinero para poder disfrutar de la vida. +Eso es lo que la vida significa y eso es para lo que sirve la vida". +El argumento de Mallory de que salir de casa para emprender estas grandes aventuras es alegre y divertido, sin embargo, no concuerdan tanto con mi propia experiencia. +Lo ms lejos que he estado de la puerta de mi casa fue en la primavera de 2004. Todava no s exactamente por qu lo hice, pero mi plan era atravesar en solitario y sin apoyo el ocano rtico. +Mi plan conciso era caminar desde la costa norte de Rusia al Polo Norte y luego dirigirme a la costa norte de Canad. +Nadie lo haba hecho. Tena 26 aos en ese momento. +Muchos expertos decan que era imposible, y mi madre ciertamente no era muy partidaria de la idea. +Estaba sentado all preguntndome por qu diablos me haba metido en ello. +Hubo un poco de diversin, un poco de alegra. +Tena 26 aos. Recuerdo estar sentado all mirando mi trineo. Tena mis esques preparados, tena un telfono satelital, una escopeta de carga a pistn en caso de ser atacado por un oso polar. +Recuerdo estar mirando por la ventana y ver el segundo helicptero. +Ambos estbamos cruzando este increble amanecer de Siberia, y parte de mi senta un poco como una cruza entre Jason Bourne y Wilfred Thesiger. En parte senta mucho orgullo pero ms estaba completamente aterrorizado. +Y ese viaje dur 10 semanas, 72 das. +No vi a nadie ms. Tomamos esta foto al lado del helicptero. +Despus de eso, no vi a nadie durante 10 semanas. +El Polo Norte es una superficie desolada en medio del mar, as que estaba cruzando la superficie congelada del ocano rtico. +La NASA describi las condiciones de ese ao como las peores desde que se tenan registros. +Estaba arrastrando 180 kilos de alimentos y combustible y suministros, unas 400 libras. La temperatura promedio durante las 10 semanas fue 35 bajo cero. La ms baja fue 50 bajo cero. +As que, repito, no iba a obtener muchsima alegra o diversin. +Una de las cosas mgicas de este viaje, sin embargo, es que como estaba caminando sobre el mar, sobre esta capa de hielo flotante, errante y movediza que est flotando sobre el ocano rtico, se trata de un entorno que est en constante estado de flujo. +El hielo siempre se mueve, se rompe, va a la deriva se recongela, as que el paisaje que vi durante casi 3 meses exista solo para m. Nadie ms tendr nunca, jams, la posibilidad de ver el mismo paisaje, las imgenes que yo vi durante 10 semanas. +Y eso, supongo, es probablemente el mejor argumento para salir de casa. +Y me parece, por lo tanto, que el hacerlo, ya saben, intentar la experiencia, participar, esforzarse, en lugar de observar y maravillarse, es all donde puede encontrarse la verdadera esencia de la vida, el jugo que podemos sacarle a nuestras horas y das. +Sin embargo, me gustara aadir en este punto una advertencia. +Segn mi experiencia, hay algo adictivo en la degustacin de la vida al lmite de lo que es humanamente posible. +Ahora no slo me refiero a aquellos estpidos desafos de machos al estilo eduardiano, sino incluso al campo del cncer de pncreas, hay algo adictivo en esto y, en mi caso, creo que las expediciones polares quizs no estan tan lejos de tener el hbito del crack. +No puedo explicar lo bueno que es hasta que lo has probado, pero tiene la capacidad de quemar todo el dinero al que puedo echar mano, de arruinar cada relacin que he tenido, as que cuidado con lo que desean. +Mallory postul que hay algo en el hombre que responde al desafo de la montaa, y me pregunto si este es el caso donde hay algo en el desafo mismo, en el esfuerzo, y en particular en los grandes, inconclusos, voluminosos desafos que enfrenta la humanidad y nos convocan y, en mi experiencia, ste es ciertamente el caso. +Hay un desafo sin completar que me ha estado llamando la mayor parte de mi vida adulta. +Muchos de ustedes sabrn la historia. +Esta es una foto del Capitn Scott y su equipo. +Scott se propuso, hace poco ms de un centenar de aos, ser la primera persona en llegar al polo sur. +Nadie saba lo que haba all. No haba absolutamente ningn mapa en ese momento. Se saba ms sobre la superficie de la Luna que sobre el corazn de la Antrtida. +Scott, como muchos de UDs. sabrn, fue superado por Roald Amundsen y su equipo noruego, que utiliz perros y trineos. El equipo de Scott fue a pie; eran cinco, todos usando arneses y arrastrando trineos, y cuando llegaron al polo encontraron izada la bandera noruega, me los imagino bastante amargados y desmoralizados. +Los cinco dieron la vuelta y comenzaron a caminar hacia la costa y todos murieron en ese viaje de regreso. +Hay una especie de malentendido en la actualidad, acerca de que no queda nada por hacer en los campos de la exploracin y la aventura. +Cuando hablo sobre la Antrtida, a menudo la gente dice, "Que interesante; dgame, no lo hizo ya ese presentador de Blue Peter en bicicleta?" +O, "Qu bueno. Mire, mi abuela ir a un crucero a la Antrtida el ao prximo, sabes... +... si hay alguna oportunidad de que se vean all?" +Pero el viaje de Scott permanece inconcluso. +Nadie nunca ha caminado desde la costa misma de la Antrtida hasta el Polo Sur y realizado todo el camino de regreso +Este es, sin duda, la empresa ms audaz de aquella poca dorada de exploracin Eduardiana, y me parece que ha llegado el momento, viendo todo lo que hemos resuelto en el siglo, desde el escorbuto a los paneles solares, que ya era hora de que alguien se decidiera a terminar el trabajo. +As que eso es precisamente en lo que estoy preparndome para hacer. +A esta altura del prximo ao, en octubre, liderar un equipo de tres. +Nos tomar unos cuatro meses hacer el viaje completo. +Esta es la escala. La lnea roja est, obviamente, a medio camino al polo. +Tenemos que dar la vuelta y regresar. +Soy muy consciente de la irona de decirles que estaremos blogueando y twitteando. Ustedes podrn experimentar en forma indirecta y virtual todo este viaje de una manera como nadie jams lo ha hecho. +Y tambin sern cuatro meses en que tendr la oportunidad de conseguir una respuesta concisa a la pregunta: "por qu?" +Y nuestras vidas son hoy ms seguras y ms cmodas de lo que nunca han sido. Ciertamente no hay muchas oportunidades para los exploradores en la actualidad. Mi asesor de carrera en la escuela nunca lo propuso como una opcin. +Si quera saber, por ejemplo, cuntas estrellas haba en la va lctea?, qu edad tenan esas cabezas gigantes en la Isla de Pascua?, la mayora de Uds. pueden averiguarlo ahora mismo sin siquiera ponerse de pie. +Y, sin embargo, si algo he aprendido en casi 12 aos de arrastrar objetos pesados en lugares fros, es que la verdadera, la real inspiracin y el crecimiento slo provienen de la adversidad y del desafo, de dejar de lado lo que es cmodo y familiar y salir hacia lo desconocido. +En la vida todos tenemos tempestades que enfrentar y polos hacia los que caminar, y creo, hablando metafricamente al menos, que todos podramos beneficiarnos de salir de casa un poco ms a menudo, si pudiramos reunir el coraje. +Ciertamente quisiera implorarles que abran la puerta solo un poquito y echen un vistazo a lo que est fuera. +Muchas gracias. +Hace doce aos fund Zipcar. +Zipcar compra coches y los aparca en zonas urbanas de alta densidad para que la gente los use, por horas o por das, en vez de que tengan sus propios coches. +Cada Zipcar reemplaza a 15 coches personales, y cada conductor conduce un 80% menos porque de esta forma paga el coste total, todo a la vez, en tiempo real. +Pero lo que Zipcar consigui realmente fue hacer habitual el compartir. +Ahora, una dcada despus, es hora de ir un poco ms all, as que hace un par de aos me mud a Pars con mi marido y mi hijo ms joven, y lanzamos Buzzcar hace un ao. +Con Buzzcar la gente puede alquilar sus propios coches a sus amigos y vecinos. +En vez de invertir en un coche, invertimos en una comunidad. +Llevamos el poder de una corporacin a individuos que quieren aadir sus coches a la red. +Hay quienes llaman a esto "entre pares". +Lo cual expresa muy bien la humanidad que hay en el proceso, y las relaciones personales, pero es como decir que es lo mismo que los mercados privados, o que cuidar nios. +Eso es entre pares. +Es como decir que los mercadillos son lo mismo que eBay, o las ferias artesanales lo mismo que Etsy. +Pero lo que est pasando es que tenemos el poder de una red libre y abierta, y sobre ella estamos poniendo una plataforma para la participacin, y los clientes ahora son como socios de la compaa, creando valores compartidos sobre valores compartidos, y cada uno fortalece al otro, y hace lo que el otro no puede hacer. +Esto es lo que yo llamo Clientes S. A. +El lado corportativo, la compaa, hace lo que se le da bien. +Los clientes dan y hacen cosas que a las compaas les resultan increblemente caras de hacer. +Qu aportan? Aportan una diversidad fabulosa, costosa para las compaas. Y qu conlleva eso? +Conlleva localizacin y personalizacin, especializacin. Y todo eso de las redes sociales y cmo es que las compaas se mueren por entrar? +Para m, es natural. Mis amigos y yo, puedo conectar con ellos fcilmente. +Y tambin conlleva una innovacin realmente fabulosa, despus hablar de ello. +As que tenemos a los clientes, proveyendo los servicios y el producto, y la compaa, haciendo lo que hacen las compaas. +Ambos estn aportando lo mejor de ambos mundos. +Algunos de mis ejemplos favoritos. En materia de transporte, Carpooling.com. Tiene 10 aos y tres millones y medio de usuarios con un milln de viajes compartidos cada da. +Es algo estupendo. Es el equivalente a 2.500 trenes TGV, y uno piensa: no han tenido que hacer nada o comprar el coche. +Todo esto se debe a la capacidad de acceso. +Y no solo con el transporte, queridos, sino tambin en otros mbitos,por supuesto. Ah est Fiverr.com. +Conoc a los fundadores a solo unas semanas despus de que lanzaran su sitio web, y ahora, en dos aos, qu haras por 5 dlares? +Se han publicado 750.000 anuncios de toda clase en estos dos aos, lo que la gente estara dispuesta a hacer por 5 dlares. +No solo cosas fciles que cualquiera puede hacer. +Este concepto de Clientes, S. A. est en una situacin muy difcil y complicada. +TopCoder tiene a 400.000 ingenieros entregando diseos complejos y servicios de ingeniera. +Cuando habl con su Director Ejecutivo me dijo algo genial: +"Tenemos una comunidad que posee a su propia compaa". +Y ahora mi favorita de todos los tiempos, Etsy. +Etsy ofrece productos que la gente produce y luego los vende en un mercado. +Acaba de celebrar su sptimo aniversario. y tras 7 aos, el ao pasado recompens con 530 millones de dlares en ventas a todos esos individuos que han estado fabricando esos objetos. +S que la gente de negocios que estis ah estis pensando: "Dios mo, quiero montar uno de esos. +Me imagino el increble crecimiento y escala. +Y todo lo que tengo que hacer es montar una plataforma y toda esta gente va a poner sus cosas en ella y me puedo sentar a que venga el xito? +Montar estas plataformas de participacin es algo tan poco trivial... +Pienso en la diferencia entre Google Video y YouTube. +Quin iba a pensar que dos jvenes y una empresa emergente fueran a derrotar a Google Video? Por qu? +En realidad no tengo ni idea. No he hablado con ellos. +Pero creo que porque probablemente pusieron el botn de "compartir" un poco ms brillante y a la derecha, de forma que fuera ms fcily prctico para las dos partes que siempre participaran en estas redes. +Pues ahora s mucho de montar una plataforma de participacin, y una empresa Clientes, S. A., porque he pasado los ltimos dos aos haciendo eso en Pars. +Permitidme volver a hablar de cmo es tan increblemente diferente montar Buzzcar de lo que fue montar Zipcar, porque ahora cada cosa que hacemos tiene dos compartimentos diferentes en los que tengo que pensar: los dueos que van a proveer los coches y los conductores que van a alquilarlos. +En cada decisin tengo que pensar qu es lo justo para las dos partes. +Hay muchos, muchos ejemplos y os voy a dar uno que no es mi favorito: el seguro. +Me llev un ao y medio para arreglar bien el tema del seguro. +Horas y horas de reuniones con aseguradores y muchas compaas, y sus pensamientos sobre el riesgo y cmo esto era totalmente innovador, nunca antes se les haba ocurrido. +Muchsimo dinero, ni siquiera s cunto, en abogados, intentando entender cmo esto es diferente, quin es responsable ante quin, y el resultado es que pudimos ofrecer a los dueos proteccin para su historial de conduccin independientemente de lo que hagan los conductores. +Los coches estn completamente asegurados durante el alquiler, y da a los conductores lo que necesitan. Y qu necesitan? +Necesitan un deducible bajo y asistencia en carretera las 24 horas. +As que este fue un truco para contentar a las dos partes. +Ahora quiero que os tomis un momento para... Cuando eres emprendedor y has abierto una empresa, tienes... tienes que hacer mucho de antemano, y luego se lanza el servicio. Qu ocurre? +Todos esos meses de trabajo entran en juego. +El pasado 1 de junio abrimos. Fue un momento emocionante. +Los dueos estn ofreciendo sus coches. Es verdaderamente emocionante. +Los conductores estn registrndose. Excelente. +Las reservas empiezan a entrar, y entonces, los dueos, que estaban recibiendo mensajes de texto y correos que decan: "Mira, Joe quiere alquilar tu coche este fin de semana. +Puedes ganar 60 euros. No es genial? Se lo dejas o no?" +[los dueos] no respondan. Como si fuera que a la mayora, no se les poda molestar para que respondieran, nada ms registrarse. +As que pens: "Robin, esta es la diferencia entre la produccin industrial y la produccin por parte de colaboradores". +La produccin industrial: en produccin industrial todo lo que importa es ofrecer un modelo de servicio estandarizado y exacto, que sea consistente siempre, y estoy muy agradecida de que mi smartphone est hecho mediante produccin industrial. +Y Zipcar provee un servicio muy amable y consistente que funciona fabulosamente. +Pero qu hace la produccin a base de colaboradores? Tan produccin tiene una manera completamente diferente de hacer las cosas, donde tienes un gran gama de calidad. Y por eso eBay, la primera Clientes S.A. dira yo, a base de colaboraciones, entendi muy pronto que necesitamos puntuaciones y comentarios y todo esa asquerosa parte y colateral al asunto. +Podemos marcarlo para que aparezca al margen, y los compradores y consumidores no tengan que lidiar con eso. +Mirando atrs, esta es mi cara de emocin y alegra, porque todo esto que tambin he estado esperando ha ocurrido realmente. Y a qu me refiero? +Es la diversidad de lo que est pasando. +Estn estos distintos dueos estupendos, con sus diferentes coches, diferentes precios, diferentes lugares. Se visten de forma diferente, parecen diferentes, y, de verdad, me encantan estas fotos, cada vez que las miro. +Gente maja, gente emocionada, y aqu est Selma, que... Adoro a esta conductora. +Y tras un ao, tenemos 1 000 coches aparcados por toda Francia y 6 000 personas como miembros ansiosos por conducirlos. +Esto no sera posible on la economa de una compaa tradicional. +Volviendo al tema. +Lo que est ocurriendo es: tenamos el lado-asco, pero en realidad tenamos este lado-guay. +Y puedo contaros dos grandes historias. +Un conductor me cont que fueron a alquilar un coche para subir por la costa de Francia y el dueo se lo dio y dijo: "Sabis qu? Aqu es donde estn los acantilados, y aqu todas las playas, y esta es la mejor playa, y aqu es donde est la mejor marisquera". +Los clientes tambin se convierten en... Los clientes y los dueos crean relaciones, y as, en el ltimo momento la gente puede... un conductor puede decir: "Oye, sabes qu? Necesito el coche, est disponible?". Y esa persona dir: "Claro, mi mujer est en casa. Ve a por las llaves, ve". +Puedes tener estas bonitas historias imposibles, y es como "Guau!", y quiero decir, el tipo de historia +que dices "Guau!", es lo que ocurre aqu, porque los individuos... Si eres una compaa, lo que ocurre es que puede que tengas a diez personas a cargo de la innovacin, o a cien personas a cargo de la innovacin. +Lo que ocurre en las compaas Clientes, S. A. es que tienes decenas y centenas y miles e incluso millones de personas que estn experimentando con este modelo, as que, a partir de esa influencia y esfuerzo, sacas esta cantidad excepcional de innovacin que est surgiendo. +Una de la razones, si volvemos al porqu lo llam Buzzcar, es que quera hacer a todos recordar el poder de la colmena, y su increble capacidad de crear esta plataforma en la que los individuos quieren participar e innovar. +Para m, cuando pienso en nuestro futuro y todos esos problemas que parecen tan enormes, la envergadura es imposible, la urgencia est ah, Clientes, S. A. ofrece la velocidad, envergadura, innovacin y creatividad que van a resolver esos problemas. +Todo lo que tenemos que hacer es crear una plataforma perfecta +para la participacin: no es fcil. Sigo pensando que el transporte es el centro del universo fsico. +Para m, todos los problemas se reducen al transporte. +Pero ah estn estas otras reas que son tan profundas, grandes problemas en los que s que podemos trabajar, y la gente est trabajando en ellos en muy diferentes sectores, pero existe un fabulosa serie de cosas con el poder de este modelo de Clientes, S. A. +Durante la ltima dcada,hemos estado gozando del poder de Internet y cmo ha dado poder a los individuos, y para m, lo que Clientes, S. A. hace es intensificar eso. Ahora estamos llevando el poder de la compaa y la corporacin y hacemos poderosos a los individuos. +Para m, es una colaboracin. +Juntos, podemos. Gracias. +Soy neurocientfica y estudio la toma de decisiones. +Realizo experimentos para analizar cmo los qumicos en el cerebro influyen sobre las decisiones que tomamos. +Estoy aqu para contarles el secreto para una exitosa toma de decisiones: un sndwich de queso. +As es. Segn cientficos, un sndwich de queso es la solucin para todas las decisiones difciles. +Cmo lo s? Soy la cientfica que realiz el estudio. +Hace unos aos, mis colegas y yo nos interesbamos en cmo un qumico del cerebro llamado serotonina poda influir las decisiones de la gente en situaciones sociales. +Concretamente, queramos saber cmo la serotonina afectara la manera de reaccionar de la gente al tratarlas injustamente. +As, realizamos un experimento. +Manipulamos los niveles de serotonina de la gente dndoles una bebida artificial sabor limn muy desagradable que funciona extrayendo el ingrediente bsico para la serotonina en el cerebro. +Es el aminocido triptfano. +Lo que descubrimos que, cuando el triptfano estaba bajo, era ms probable que la gente se vengara cuando se los trataba injustamente. +Ese era el estudio que realizamos, y ac estn algunos de los titulares que salieron despus. +"Un sndwich de queso es todo lo necesario para la toma de decisiones" "Qu gran aliado tenemos en el queso" "Comer queso y carne podra estimular el autocontrol." Ahora se preguntarn, me perd algo? +"Oficial! El chocolate evita el mal humor" Queso? Chocolate? De dnde sali eso? +Y yo pens lo mismo cuando salieron todas estas cosas, porque nuestro estudio no tena nada que ver con queso o chocolate. +Le dimos a la gente esta bebida con sabor horrible y afectaba sus niveles de triptfano. +Pero resulta ser que el triptfano tambin se encuentra en el queso y el chocolate. +Y por supuesto que cuando la ciencia dice que el queso y el chocolate ayudan a mejorar las decisiones, eso seguro atrae la atencin de la gente. +Entonces ah lo tienen: la evolucin de un titular. +Cuando esto sucedi, una parte de m pens, bueno, cul es el problema? +Los medios simplificaron demasiado algunas cosas, pero al fin y al cabo, son slo noticias. +Y creo que muchos cientficos tienen esta actitud. +Pero resulta que estas cosas suceden todo el tiempo, y afectan no slo las historias que uno lee en las noticias sino tambin los productos que uno ve en las estanteras. +Cuando los titulares empezaron a circular, los comerciantes empezaron a llamar. +Estara dispuesta a dotar de aval cientfico a agua embotellada que aumenta el estado de nimo? +O ira a la televisin a demostrar en frente de una audiencia en directo que la comida casera de verdad te hace sentir mejor? +Creo que esta gente no tena malas intenciones, pero si hubiera aceptado sus ofertas habra ido ms all de la ciencia, y los buenos cientficos se cuidan de no hacer esto. +Sin embargo, la neurociencia aparece cada vez ms en el marketing. +Un ejemplo: las neurobebidas, una lnea de productos, incluida la Neurodicha, segn su etiqueta ayuda a reducir el estrs, mejora el estado anmico, proporciona mayor concentracin, y promueve la actitud positiva. +Debo decir que esto suena genial. Podra haber usado esto hace 10 minutos. +Cuando esto apareci en mi tienda local, desde luego sent curiosidad acerca de los estudios que respaldaban estas afirmaciones. +Entonces fui al sitio web de la compaa para descubrir ensayos controlados de sus productos. +Pero no encontr ninguno. +Con o sin ensayo, estas declaraciones estn delante y centrada en la etiqueta, al lado de la foto de un cerebro. +Y resulta ser que las fotos de cerebros tienen propiedades especiales. +Un par de investigadores pidieron a unos cientos de personas que leyeran un artculo cientfico. +La mitad de las personas, tena el artculo con la imagen de un cerebro, y la otra mitad, el mismo artculo pero sin la imagen de un cerebro. +Al final, ya ven a dnde va esto, se les preguntaba a las personas si estaban de acuerdo con las conclusiones del artculo. +Esta es la cantidad de personas de acuerdo con las conclusiones sin imagen. +Y esto, la cantidad que estaban de acuerdo con el mismo artculo con la imagen de un cerebro. +La moraleja aqu es, quieren venderlo? Pnganle un cerebro. +Djenme hacer una pausa y tomar un momento para decir que la neurociencia ha avanzado mucho en las ltimas dcadas, y descubrimos cosas asombrosas constantemente acerca del cerebro. +Por ejemplo, hace un par de semanas, los neurocientficos del MIT descubrieron cmo quitar hbitos en ratas solo controlando su actividad neuronal en una parte especfica del cerebro. +Algo muy interesante. +Pero la promesa de la neurociencia ha llevado a algunas expectativas muy grandes y a declaraciones exageradas sin fundamento. +Lo que har es mostrarles cmo localizar un par de tendencias clsicas, algunas revelaciones, que se han denominado de diferentes maneras como neurotonteras, neuroestupidez, o mi favorito, neurochorrada. +La primer afirmacin no probada: se pueden usar encefalogramas para leer los pensamientos y emociones de las personas. +Aqu tenemos un estudio publicado por un grupo de investigadores como una pgina de opinin en el New York Times. +El ttular? "Ams a tu iPhone. Literalmente." +Inmediatamente se convirti en el artculo ms comentado del sitio web. +Cmo lo descubrieron? +Pusieron a 16 personas dentro de un escner y les mostraron videos de iPhones sonando. +Los encefalogramas mostraron que se activaba una parte del cerebro llamada nsula, una regin que dicen est conectada a sentimientos de amor y compasin. +Entonces concluyeron que al ver activacin en la nsula, significaba que los sujetos amaban sus iPhones. +Hay un slo problema con esta lnea de razonamiento, y es que la nsula hace muchas cosas. +Por supuesto, est involucrada en emociones positivas como el amor y la compasin, pero tambin en muchos otros procesos, como la memoria, el lenguaje, la atencin, incluso el enojo, indignacin y dolor. +Basada en la misma lgica, yo podra concluir que Uds. odian su iPhone. +La cuestin es que, al verse activada la nsula, no podemos elegir nuestra explicacin favorita de esta lista, y es una lista muy larga. +Mis colegas Tal Yarkoni y Russ Poldrack demostraron que la nsula aparece en casi un tercio de todos los estudios de imgenes cerebrales que se han publicado. +Entonces, la probabilidad de que su nsula se active en este momento son muy, muy altas pero no me engaar pensando que esto significa que Uds. me aman. +Hablando del amor y el cerebro, hay un investigador, conocido como el Dr. Amor, que asegura que los cientficos han encontrado el pegamento que mantiene la sociedad unida, la fuente de amor y prosperidad. +Esta vez no es un sndwich de queso. +No, se trata de una hormona llamada oxitocina. +Seguramente han odo hablar de ella. +Dr. Amor basa su argumento en estudios que muestran que cuando uno incrementa la oxitocina de las personas, esto aumenta su confianza, empata y cooperacin. +Por eso, l denomina a la oxitocina "la molcula moral". +Estos estudios son cientficamente vlidos, y fueron repetidos, pero no es la historia completa. +Otros estudios han demostrado que incrementar la oxitocina aumenta la envidia. Aumenta la presuncin. +La oxitocina puede hacer que la gente favorezca a su propio grupo a costa de otros grupos. +Y en algunos casos, la oxitocina puede disminuir la cooperacin. +Basada en estos estudios, puedo decir que la oxitocina es una molcula inmoral, y me autoproclamo la Dra. Amor Extrao. +Hemos visto neurochorradas en todos los titulares. +Las vemos en supermercados, en tapas de libros. +Qu hay acerca de las clnicas? +La tomografa SPECT es una tecnologa de encefalogramas que usa un rastreador radioactivo para monitorizar el flujo sanguneo en el cerebro. +Por el mdico precio de unos miles de dlares, hay clnicas en los EE.UU. que le darn una de estas tomografas SPECT y utilizarn la imagen para ayudar a diagnosticar sus problemas. +Estas tomografas, segn las clnicas, pueden ayudar a prevenir el Alzheimer, resolver problemas de peso y adiccin, superar conflictos matrimoniales, y por supuesto, tratar una variedad de enfermedades mentales, que van desde depresin a ansiedad a TDAH. +Esto suena increble. Muchos estn de acuerdo. +Algunas de estas clnicas ganan decenas de millones de dlares al ao. +Hay slo un problema. +El consenso general en neurociencia es que todava no podemos diagnosticar enfermedad mental a partir de un slo encefalograma. +Pero estas clnicas han tratado a decenas de miles de pacientes hasta hoy, muchos de ellos nios, y la tomografa SPECT involucra una inyeccin radioactiva, exponiendo a personas a la radiacin es potencialmente perjudicial. +Como neurocientfica, estoy ms emocionada que la mayora acerca del potencial de la neurociencia para tratar enfermedades mentales e incluso, tal vez, hacernos mejores y ms inteligentes. +Y si algn da podemos decir que el queso y el chocolate nos ayudan a tomar mejores decisiones, inclyanme. +Pero todava no llegamos ah. +No hemos encontrado un botn de "comprar" dentro del cerebro, no podemos decir si alguien miente o est enamorado slo mirando sus encefalogramas, y no podemos convertir pecadores en santos con hormonas. +Quiz algn da lo hagamos, pero hasta entonces, tenemos que ser cuidadosos para no permitir que declaraciones exageradas aparten recursos y atencin de la verdadera ciencia que lleva jugando un partido mucho ms largo. +Aqu es donde entran Uds. +Si alguien trata de venderles algo con la imagen de un cerebro, no confen en sus palabras. +Hagan las preguntas difciles. Pidan ver la evidencia. +Pregunten por la parte de la historia que no se cuenta. +Las preguntas no deberan ser simples, porque el cerebro no es simple. +Pero eso no nos detiene para tratar de entenderlo. +Gracias. +El 14 de marzo de este ao publiqu este cartel en Facebook. +Es una imagen ma y de mi hija sosteniendo la bandera israel. +Intentar explicar el contexto del porqu y el cundo lo publiqu. +Unos das antes estaba sentado esperando en la cola de la tienda y el dueo y uno de los clientes estaban charlando. El dueo le explicaba al cliente que bamos a recibir 10 000 misiles en Israel. +Y el cliente deca: no, 10 000 al da. +("10 000 misiles"). Este es el contexto. As estamos en Israel. +Estamos viendo venir la guerra con Irn desde hace 10 aos, y la gente est, digamos, asustada. +Es como si cada ao fuera la ltima oportunidad que tenemos para hacer algo acerca de la guerra con Irn. +Es como que, si no actuamos ahora ser demasiado tarde, y as desde hace 10 aos. +As que, de alguna manera, eso me hizo reaccionar. Soy diseador grfico, as que hice carteles con este tema y publiqu el que les acabo de mostrar. +Gran parte del tiempo hago carteles, los publico en Facebook, a mis amigos les gustan, no les gustan, casi nunca les gustan, no los comparten, no hacen nada, y es solo otro da que pas. +As que me fui a la cama y me olvid de ello. +En mitad de la noche me despert porque siempre me despierto en mitad de la noche, me fui al ordenador y vi todos esos puntos rojos, en Facebook, ya saben, que nunca haba visto antes. +Y me dije: "Qu est pasando?" +As que me acerqu al ordenador y empec a mirar y descubr a mucha gente hablndome, a muchos de los cuales no conoca, y algunos de ellos eran de Irn. Y me dije: Qu es esto? +Porque tienen que entender que en Israel no hablamos con gente de Irn. +No conocemos a nadie de Irn. +Es como si en Facebook slo tuvieras amigos de... es como si slo tus vecinos pudieran ser tus amigos en Facebook. +Y resulta que ahora gente de Irn me estaba hablando. +As que empec a responder a esta chica, que me deca que haba visto el cartel y le haba dicho a su familia que viniese, como no todos tienen ordenador, le pidi a su familia que fuesen a ver el cartel, y estaban todos llorando en el saln. +Y yo pens: "Un momento!" +Le dije a mi esposa que viniese. Le dije: "tienes que ver esto, +la gente est llorando". Y ella vino, ley el texto y empez a llorar. +Ahora todos estbamos llorando. No supe que hacer. Mi primer impulso, como diseador grfico, fue mostrarle a todo el mundo lo que acababa de ver y la gente empez a verlos y a compartirlos, y as empez todo. +Al da siguiente, cuando ya habamos hablado mucho, me dije a mi mismo, y mi esposa me dijo: yo tambin quiero un cartel. All est ella. Ya que est funcionando, ponme ahora a m en un cartel. +Ahora en serio; yo pens: "Bien, estos funcionan, pero no soy yo, es la gente de Israel que quiere decir algo". +As que voy a fotografiar a toda la gente que conozco, si lo quieren, y har un cartel con ellos y lo compartir. +Fui a ver a mis vecinos, a mis amigos, a estudiantes y les dije denme una foto, les har un cartel. +As empez todo. As fue como en realidad se desat el asunto porque, de repente, la gente de Facebook, amigos y otros, entienden que pueden participar. +No es solo un tipo que hace un cartel, es: "podemos ser parte?", as que empezaron a mandarme fotos y a pedirme: "Hazme un cartel. Publcalo. +Dile a los iranes que en Israel tambin los queremos". +En un momento dado todo se volvi muy, muy intenso. +Quiero decir, eran muchas fotos, as que les ped a mis amigos, muchos de ellos diseadores grficos, que vinieran a hacer carteles conmigo porque yo no daba abasto. +Era una cantidad enorme de fotos. +Durante unos das mi saln tena este aspecto. +Recibimos carteles israeles, fotos de israeles y tambin muchos comentarios, muchos mensajes desde Irn. +Con esos mensajes hicimos carteles porque conozco a la gente: no lee, mira fotos. +Si es una imagen, puede que la lean. +Aqu tenemos algunos de ellos. +Al da siguiente, los iranes empezaron a responder con sus propios carteles. +Tienen diseadores grficos. Cmo? Qu locura. +Como ven an son muy tmidos, no quieren mostrar su rostro. Pero quieren difundir el mensaje. +Quieren contestar. Quieren decir lo mismo. +Ahora s hay comunicacin. +Es bidireccional. Son israeles e iranes que se mandan el mismo mensaje mutuamente. +("Amigos israeles: no os odio. No quiero la guerra".) Esto jams haba sucedido antes y estos dos pueblos, que se supona que eran enemigos, que estaban a punto de entrar en guerra, de repente en Facebook empiezan a decir: "Me gusta este tipo. Me gusta esta gente". +El asunto se volvi muy importante. +Y se convirti en noticia. +Porque cuando se habla de Oriente Medio slo se conocen las malas noticias. +Y, de repente, suceda algo que eran buenas noticias. As que la prensa dijo: "Bueno, vamos a hablar de ello". +Y vinieron, y fue muy importante. Recuerdo que un da Michal estaba hablando con una periodista y le pregunt: "Quin va a ver el programa?" Y l respondi: "todos". +Ella dijo: "Todos en Palestina? En dnde? En Israel?" +"Quines son todos?" "Todos". +Dijeron: "Siria?" "Siria", le respondi. +"Lbano?" "Lbano". +En algn momento l dijo: "Hoy te vern 40 millones de personas". +"Todos". Los chinos. +La historia apenas comenzaba. +Tambin sucedi algo loco. +Cada vez que un pas empezaba a hablar de ello, como Alemania, EE.UU., donde fuese, surga una pgina de Facebook con el mismo logo con las mismas historias, as que al principio tenamos "Irn-ama-a-Israel", que es de un iran en Tehern que piensa: "Bien, Israel ama a Irn?, +pues aqu tienes: Irn-ama-a-Israel". +Est Palestina-ama-a-Israel. +Est Lbano, desde hace unos pocos das. +Y sta es la lista completa de pginas de Facebook dedicadas al mismo mensaje, a gente que enva su amor unos a otros. +El momento en el que verdaderamente entend que algo estaba pasando, fue cuando un amigo me dijo: "Teclea en Google: 'Israel'". Y eran las primeras imgenes de aquellos das que aparecan en Google al teclear "Israel" o "Irn". +Realmente cambiamos el modo en que la gente ve el Oriente Medio. +Porque uno no est en Oriente Medio. +Est en cualquier otro lado y, en algn momento, uno quiere ver Oriente Medio, entra a Google y escribe "Israel" y hay malas noticias. +Pero por unos das aparecieron esas imgenes. +Hoy, la pgina Israel-ama-a-Irn es este nmero: 80 831, y en la ltima semana dos millones de personas visitaron la pgina y la compartieron, pusieron su "Me gusta", o comentaron alguna de las fotos. +Lo que hacemos desde hace cinco meses, tanto yo como Michal y algunos amigos, es preparar imgenes. +Estamos mostrando una nueva realidad a travs de imgenes porque es a travs de ellas que nos conoce el mundo. +Ven imgenes nuestras, y son imgenes malas. +As que intentamos hacer imgenes buenas. Fin de la historia. +Miren esta. Es la pgina Irn-ama-a-Israel. +No es Israel-ama-a-Irn. No es mi pgina +Aqu est un chico de Tehern el da en que se recuerda al soldado israel cado poniendo una imagen de un soldado israel en su pgina. +Este es el enemigo. +Qu? +("Nuestras ms sinceras condolencias a las familias que perdieron a sus seres queridos en el atentado de Bulgaria") Y va en ambos sentidos. +Es como que, mostramos nuestro respeto, de uno hacia el otro. +Y nos estamos entendiendo. Y muestran compasin. +Y se vuelven amigos. +Y llega un punto en el que se hacen amigos en Facebook y luego amigos en la vida real. +Pueden viajar y conocer gente. +Estuve en Mnich hace unas semanas. +Fui a abrir una exposicin sobre Irn y me encontr all con gente de la pgina que me haba dicho: "Bien, vas a estar en Europa, yo tambin voy. De Francia, de Holanda, de Alemania". Y tambin fue gente de Israel, por supuesto. nos reunimos all por primera vez en persona. +Conoc a gente que supuestamente era mi enemiga por primera vez. Y simplemente nos dimos la mano, compartimos un caf y una buena discusin, y hablamos sobre comida y sobre baloncesto. +Y no fuimos ms all de eso. +Recuerdan la imagen del principio? +En un cierto momento nos encontramos en persona, y nos hicimos amigos. +Y tambin funciona a la inversa. +Hace algunas semanas la tensin comenz a aumentar, as que empezamos una nueva campaa llamada "No estamos preparados para morir en tu guerra". +Es ms o menos el mismo mensaje, pero queramos darle un tono ms agresivo. +Y de nuevo pas algo sorprendente, algo que no sucedi en la primera ola de la campaa. +Ahora la gente de Irn, los mismos que eran tan tmidos en la primera campaa y solo enviaron sus pies y la mitad de sus caras, ahora estn mandando sus rostros completos, y decan: "Bueno, no hay problema, nos comprometemos. Estamos con Uds." +Miren de dnde es esta gente. +Por cada israel hay alguien de Irn. +Nada ms que gente que manda sus fotos. +Increble, verdad? +As que... As que tal vez te preguntes: quin es este tipo? +Me llamo Ronny Edry, tengo 41 aos, soy israel, estoy casado, tengo dos hijos, y soy diseador grfico. Enseo diseo grfico. +Y no soy tan ingenuo, porque muchas veces me han dicho, me han preguntado: "Bien, pero, es algo realmente ingenuo, quiero decir, es enviar flores". Yo estuve en el ejrcito, en el cuerpo de paracaidistas durante 3 aos, y s cmo se ven las cosas desde adentro. +S que pueden tener muy mal aspecto. +As que para m, esto es lo ms valeroso que puede hacerse tratar de encontrarse con el oponente antes de que sea demasiado tarde, porque cuando sea demasiado tarde, ser demasiado tarde. +Y a veces la guerra es inevitable, a veces, pero puede que, con esfuerzo, podamos evitarla. +Tal vez como personas, porque en Israel vivimos en democracia. Tenemos libertad de expresin, y quiz esa pequeez pueda cambiar algo. +Todos podemos ser nuestros propios embajadores. +Podemos enviar un mensaje y esperar lo mejor. +Quisiera pedir a Michal, mi esposa, venga aqu al escenario para tomarme una foto con Uds., porque todo se trata de imgenes. +Y quiz esa imagen pueda cambiar algo. +Levanta esto. As. +Voy a hacer una foto y la voy a publicar en Facebook con algo as como "israeles por la paz" o algo as. +Oh, Dios mo. +No lloren. +Gracias. +Un amigo mo, politlogo, me dijo varios meses atrs, exactamente cmo sera este mes. +Me dijo que se aproxima un abismo fiscal, que llegar a comienzos de 2013. +Desde luego, los dos partidos necesitan resolverlo, pero ninguno quiere parecer el primero que lo resolvi. +Ningn partido tiene incentivo alguno para resolverlo un segundo antes del plazo, as que me dijo, diciembre, habr muchas negociaciones enojosas, negociaciones destructoras, reportes telefnicos de que no van bien, gente diciendo que no pasa nada, y luego, cerca de Navidad o Ao Nuevo, oiremos, "Bueno, lo resolvieron todo". +Me lo dijo algunos meses atrs. Me dijo que estaba un 98 % seguro de que se resolvera, y recib un correo de l hoy que dice, bien, estamos en el camino, pero ahora estoy un 80 % seguro de que lo resolvern. +Y me hizo pensar. Me encanta estudiar esos momento de la historia de EE.UU. en que hubo ese frenes de ira partidista, en que la economa estuvo al borde del colapso total. +La batalla temprana ms famosa fue entre Alexander Hamilton y Thomas Jefferson sobre qu sera el dlar y cmo se respaldara, con Alexander Hamilton diciendo: "Necesitamos un banco central, el Primer Banco de EE.UU., o sino el dlar no tendr valor. +Esta economa no funcionar", y Thomas Jefferson diciendo: "Las personas no confiarn en eso. +Acaban de luchar contra un rey. No aceptarn ninguna forma de poder central". +Esta batalla defini los primeros 150 aos de la economa estadounidense, y en cada momento, distintos partidarios dicen: "Dios mo, la economa est cerca del colapso", y nosotros gastando nuestros dlares en lo que queremos comprar. +Para darles una idea rpida de dnde estamos, una rpido repaso de dnde estamos. +El abismo fiscal... me han dicho que es muy partidista decirlo as, aunque no puedo recordar qu partido lo apoya y cul lo ataca... +me dicen que debemos llamarlo pendiente fiscal o crisis de austeridad, pero otros dicen, no, eso es ms partidista an, +as que llammoslo autoimpuesto, autodestructivo lmite arbitrario de tiempo para resolver un problema inevitable. +Y as es cmo luce un problema inevitable. +Esta es la proyeccin de la deuda de EE.UU. como porcentaje de toda nuestra economa, el PIB. +Y en ese momento nuestra economa colapsar. +Pero recuerden, Grecia est ah hoy. +Estaremos all en 20 aos. Tenemos mucho, mucho tiempo para evitar la crisis, y el abismo fiscal fue solo un intento ms de tratar de forzar a ambos lados a resolver la crisis. +Aqu hay otra forma de ver exactamente el mismo problema. +La lnea azul oscura es cunto gasta el gobierno. +La celeste es cunto recauda el gobierno. +Y, como pueden ver, en la historia ms reciente, excepto por un breve perodo, consistentemente gastamos ms de lo que recibimos. Esa es la deuda nacional. +Pero como tambin pueden ver, la proyeccin sigue, la brecha se ampla un poco y sube un poco, y esta grfica es solo hasta 2021. +Se pondr muy, muy feo a partir de 2030. +Y esta grfica trata de resumir el problema. +Los demcratas, dicen, bueno, no es una gran cosa. +Podemos subir los impuestos un poco y cerramos la brecha, especialmente si subimos los de los ricos. +Los republicanos dicen, no, no, tenemos una mejor idea. +Por qu no bajamos las dos lneas? +Por qu no bajamos el gasto del gobierno y bajamos los impuestos, y entonces estaremos en una trayectoria an ms favorable del dficit en el largo plazo? +Y detrs de este poderoso desacuerdo sobre cmo cerrar la brecha, est la peor clase de cinismo de los partidos polticos, la peor clase de miembro del grupo, el lobby, toda la parafernalia, pero hay adems intereses poderosos, respetuoso desacuerdo entre dos filosofas econmicas fundamentalmente diferentes. +Y me gusta pensar, cuando imagino cmo ven la economa los republicanos, imagino una asombrosa mquina bien diseada, cierto tipo de perfeccin. +Y esta visin generalmente cree que el papel del gobierno, un papel reducido, es poner las reglas para que las personas no mientan ni engaen, ni daen unas a otras, quiz, tener departamentos de polica y bomberos y un ejrcito, pero un alcance muy limitado en los mecanismos de esa maquinaria. +Y cuando imagino a los demcratas o a los economistas demcratas inclinarse en esa direccin, muchos economistas demcratas son, saben, capitalistas, creen, s, que es un buen sistema la mayor parte del tiempo. +Es bueno dejar que los mercados muevan los recursos a las reas ms productivas. +Pero el sistema tienen muchsimos problemas. +La riqueza se acumula en los lugares equivocados. +La riqueza se le quita a personas que no deberan ser llamadas improductivas. +Esto no crear una sociedad equitativa y justa. +A la mquina no le importa el ambiente, el racismo, todos estos temas que hacen la vida peor para todos, y entonces el gobierno tiene el papel de tomar los recursos de usos ms productivos, de las fuentes ms ricas, para darlos a otras fuentes. +Y cuando pensamos en la economa a travs de estos dos lentes diferentes, uno entiende por qu es tan difcil de resolver esta crisis debido a que cuanto mayor es la crisis, mayores sern las apuestas, cuanto ms, cada parte, crea que sabe la respuesta y que el otro lado va a arruinarlo todo. +Y realmente me desespera. He pasado mucho tiempo en los ltimos aos deprimido por esto, hasta este ao, en que me enter de algo que me hizo entusiasmarme mucho. Siento que es una muy buena noticia, y es tan impactante, no me gusta decirlo, porque creo que la gente no me cree. +Pero esto es lo que aprend. +Los estadounidenses, considerados en su conjunto, cuando se trata de estos temas, en cuestiones fiscales, son moderados, centristas pragmticos. +Y s que es difcil de creer, que el pueblo estadounidense es moderado, centrista pragmtico. +Pero permtanme explicar a qu me refiero. +Si analizamos cmo gasta dinero el gobierno federal, esta es la batalla aqu, el 55 %, ms de la mitad, va a la seguridad social, Medicare, Medicaid, algunos otros programas de salud, el 20 % en defensa, el 19 % discrecional, y 6 % en intereses. +As que al hablar de cortar el gasto del gobierno, hablamos de esta tarta, y los estadounidenses abrumadoramente, sin importar de qu partido sean, mayoritariamente, les gusta este gran 55 %. +Les gusta la seguridad social. Les gusta Medicare. +Incluso Medicaid, a pesar de que va a los pobres y a los indigentes, que uno imaginara que tendra menos apoyo. +Y fundamentalmente no quieren tocarlo, aunque los estadounidenses estn muy cmodos, y los demcratas aproximadamente igualan a los republicanos, en algunos ajustes menores para hacer el sistema ms estable. +La seguridad social es bastante fcil de ajustar. +Los rumores de su desaparicin son siempre muy exagerados. +Gradualmente se aumenta la edad de jubilacin, tal vez solo a personas que no han nacido an. +Los estadounidenses estn 50/50, en si son demcratas o republicanos. +Reducir Medicare para las personas mayores muy ricas, personas mayores que hacen mucho dinero. Incluso no eliminarlo. Solo reducirlo. +Las personas generalmente estn cmodas con eso, demcratas y republicanos. +Recaudar contribuciones para cuidado mdico? +Todo el mundo lo odia por igual, pero los republicanos y los demcratas lo odian juntos. +Esto dice, cuando uno ve la discusin de cmo resolver nuestros problemas fiscales, que no somos una nacin dividida profundamente respecto de los temas principales e importantes. +Estamos cmodos con que se necesitan algunos ajustes, pero queremos mantenerlo. +No estamos abiertos a la discusin de si eliminarlo. +Ahora hay un tema que es muy partidista, y donde un partido solo quiere gastar, gastar, gastar, no nos importa, gastar ms y son por supuesto los republicanos cuando se trata de gasto en defensa militar. +Superan a los demcratas. +La gran mayora quiere proteger el gasto de defensa militar. +Es el 20 % del presupuesto, y presenta un problema ms difcil. +Ahora, en cuanto a impuestos, hay ms desacuerdo. +Es una zona ms partidista. +Tienen apoyo abrumador de los demcratas en elevar el impuesto sobre la renta a las personas que ganan USD 250 000 al ao, los republicanos estn en contra, aunque si los divides por ingresos, a los republicanos que ganan menos de USD 75 000 al ao les gusta la idea. +Pero, a los republicanos que ganan ms de USD 250 000 al ao no quieren ms impuestos. +Al aumentar los impuestos sobre la renta de la inversin, tambin se observa que cerca de dos tercios de los demcratas pero solo un tercio de los republicanos estn cmodos con esa idea. +Esto lleva a un punto realmente importante, que en este pas tendemos a hablar de los demcratas y los republicanos y pensar que hay un pequeo grupo de as llamados independientes que es, qu?, 2 %? +Si sumamos a demcratas y republicanos, tenemos a los estadounidenses. +Pero ese no es el caso en absoluto. +Y no ha sido el caso durante la mayor parte de la historia estadounidense moderna. +Aproximadamente un tercio de los estadounidenses dicen que son demcratas. +Alrededor de una cuarta parte dice que son republicanos. +Una pequea astilla se llaman a s mismos libertarios, o socialistas, o algn otro pequeo tercer partido, y el bloque ms grande, 40 %, dice que es independiente. +Por lo que la mayora de los estadounidenses no es partidista, y la mayora de la gente en el campo independiente cae en algn lugar en el medio, por lo que incluso aunque tenemos gran superposicin entre las opiniones sobre estas cuestiones fiscales de demcratas y republicanos, tenemos superposicin an mayor al agregar a los independientes. +Ahora tenemos que luchar sobre todo tipo de asuntos. +Llegamos a odiarnos unos a otros sobre el control de armas y el aborto y el medio ambiente, pero en estas cuestiones fiscales, estas importantes cuestiones fiscales, simplemente no estamos tan divididos como la gente dice. +Y, de hecho, existe este otro grupo de personas que no est tan dividido como la gente podra pensar, y es el grupo de economistas. +He hablado con muchos economistas y por all por los 70 y los 80 era feo ser economista. +Estabas en lo que llamaban el campamento de agua salada, Harvard, Princeton, MIT, Stanford, Berkeley, o estabas en el campamento de agua dulce, Universidad de Chicago, Universidad de Rochester. +Eras un economista capitalista de libre mercado o eras un economista liberal keynesiano, y estas personas no van a las bodas de los otros, se desairaban mutuamente en las conferencias. +Es feo an hoy en da, pero en mi experiencia, realmente, es realmente difcil encontrar un economista menor de 40 que todava tenga esa forma de ver el mundo. +La mayora de los economistas... no es bueno llamarte un idelogo de cualquier campo. +La frase que quieres, si eres estudiante de postgrado o postdoctorado o profesor, un profesor de economa de 38 aos dice: "Soy empirista. +Me baso en datos". +Y los datos estn muy claros. +Ninguna de estas teoras principales ha sido completamente exitosa. +El siglo XX, los ltimos cien aos, est plagado de ejemplos desastrosos de veces en que una escuela u otra intent explicar el pasado o predecir el futuro y acabo haciendo un trabajo horrible, horrible, por lo que la profesin de economista ha adquirido cierto grado de modestia. +Todava son un grupo de personas muy arrogantes, se lo aseguro, pero ahora son arrogantes sobre su imparcialidad, y tambin ven una enorme gama de posibles resultados. +Y este apartidismo es algo que existe, ha existido en secreto en EE.UU. durante aos y aos y aos. +Han estado hacindola desde 1948, y lo que muestran consistentemente es que es casi imposible encontrar estadounidenses que concuerden ideolgicamente, que apoyen constantemente, "No, no necesitamos impuestos, y debemos limitar el tamao del gobierno", o, "No, debemos alentar al gobierno a desempear un papel mayor en la redistribucin y corregir los males del capitalismo". +Esos grupos son muy, muy pequeos. +La gran mayora de las personas deciden con cuidado, transigen y cambian con el tiempo al or un mejor argumento o un argumento peor. +Y eso no ha cambiado. +Lo que ha cambiado es cmo las personas responden a preguntas vagas. +Si uno hace preguntas vagas, como, "Cree que debera haber ms gobierno o menos gobierno?" +"Cree que el gobierno debe" sobre todo si se usa un lenguaje tendencioso "Cree que el gobierno debe dar cupones?" +O, "Cree que el gobierno debe redistribuir?" +Entonces se puede ver un cambio radical partidista. +Pero al ser especficos, cuando realmente se pregunta sobre los impuestos reales y temas de gastos que se estn estudiando, las personas son notablemente centristas, son llamativamente abiertas a transigir. +As que lo que tenemos, entonces, cuando piensen en el abismo fiscal, no piensen como si los estadounidenses fundamentalmente no podemos soportarnos en estos temas y que debemos ser desgarrados en dos naciones beligerantes separadas. +Piensen en ello como un diminuto, pequeo nmero de economistas antiguos y falaces idelogos que han capturado el proceso. +Cada uno de ellos se convierte en una voz ms y ms fuerte, pero no nos representan. +No representan nuestros puntos de vista. +Y me lleva de vuelta al dlar, me lleva a acordarme que conocemos esta experiencia. +Sabemos qu es tener a estas personas en la televisin, en el Congreso, vociferando que viene el fin del mundo si no adoptamos totalmente su punto de vista, porque es lo que pasa con el dlar desde que ha habido dlar. +Tuvimos la batalla entre Jefferson y Hamilton. +La Fed no puede hacerlo tan mal. +Pero luego nos salimos del estndar de oro para los individuos durante la Depresin y nos salimos del patrn oro como fuente de coordinacin internacional de la moneda durante la presidencia de Richard Nixon. +Cada vez, estbamos al borde del colapso total. +Y no pas nada en absoluto. +A lo largo de todo, el dlar ha sido uno de las monedas ms antiguas, estables y razonables, y todos lo usamos todos los das, no importa lo que la gente est gritando, no importa lo asustados que se supone debemos estar. +El temor es que el mundo est mirando. +El temor es que cuanto ms retrasemos cualquier solucin, el mundo ver a los EE.UU. +no como la piedra angular de la estabilidad en la economa mundial, sino como un lugar que no puede resolver sus propias luchas, y cuanto ms tiempo demoramos, ms ponemos al mundo nervioso, las tasas de inters crecern ms, ms rpido vamos a tener que afrontar un da de calamidad horrible. +Y as, solo el acto de ceder en s mismo y mantener un compromiso, nos dara an ms tiempo, permitira a ambos lados diluir ms el dolor y llegar a ceder ms en el camino. +Pero cuanto ms pronto lo afrontemos como un problema prctico, antes podremos resolverlo, y ms tiempo tenemos para resolverlo, paradjicamente. +Gracias. +El cineasta Georges Mlis primero fue mago. +Las pelculas han demostrado ser el medio ideal para la magia. +Teniendo control absoluto de lo que el espectador puede ver, los realizadores de cine han creado un arsenal de tcnicas para llevar sus trucos ms all. +Las pelculas son en s mismas la ilusin de algo vivo, generada por la proyeccin secuencial de cuadros fijos y dejaron atnitos a los primeros espectadores de los hermanos Lumire. +Incluso los cinfilos experimentados de hoy da quedan absortos frente a la pantalla y los cineastas aprovechan al mximo esta separacin de la realidad con gran xito. +Gente imaginativa lleva divirtindose con esto ms de 400 aos. +Giambattista della Porta, un erudito napolitano del s. XVI, examin y estudi la naturaleza y vio cmo poda manipularse. +Jugar con el mundo y con cmo lo percibimos es la esencia misma de los efectos visuales. +As que al profundizar en esto con el Consejo de Ciencia y Tecnologa de la Academia de Artes y Ciencias Cinematogrficas encontramos algo de realidad detrs de los trucos. +Los efectos visuales se basan en los mismos principios que cualquier ilusin: suposicin (las cosas son como las conocemos); presuncin (las cosas sucedern como esperamos); y contexto en la realidad, (nuestro conocimiento del mundo como lo conocemos, por ejemplo, en escala). +Un cuarto elemento se vuelve una verdadera obsesin: nunca revelar el truco. +Y esto ha hecho que las artes visuales busquen incasablemente la perfeccin. +Desde el *jump cut* hecho a mano en los comienzos del cine hasta el ltimo ganador de los scar, lo que hay son algunos pasos y unas cuantas repeticiones en la evolucin de los efectos visuales. +Espero que lo disfruten. +Isabelle: "El cineasta Georges Mlis fue uno de los primeros en darse cuenta de que las pelculas tenan el poder de atrapar los sueos". +*Viaje a la Luna* Restauracin del color original pintado a mano *2001: Una odisea del espacio* Ganadora del scar a los mejores efectos visuales Avatar Mdico 1: Cmo te sientes, Jake? +Jake: Hola. +Ganadora del scar a los mejores efectos visuales Mdico 2: Bienvenido a tu nuevo cuerpo, Jake. Mdico 1: Qu bien. +Mdico 2: Tmatelo con calma, Jake. Mdico 1: Puedes sentarte? Muy bien. +Mdico 2: As, con calma, Jake. +Bien, no hay ataxia del tronco, eso es bueno. Mdico 1: Te sientes aturdido o mareado? +Ah, ests moviendo los dedos. +"Las aventuras de Alicia" Alicia: Qu me pasa? +Maharaja: Nada de que preocuparse, nada. +scar a los mejores efectos especiales (Primer ao de la categora) 2012 Gobernador: Me parece que lo peor ha pasado. +Quisiera empezar concentrndome en el animal ms peligroso del mundo. +Bien, cuando uno habla del animal ms peligroso, la mayora de la gente pensara en leones, tigres o tiburones. +Pero desde luego, el animal ms peligroso es el mosquito. +El mosquito ha matado a ms humanos que otra creatura en la historia humana. +De hecho, probablemente sumando a todos, el mosquito ha matado a ms humanos. +Y el mosquito ha matado a ms humanos que las guerras y las plagas. +Y se podra pensar, o no, que con toda nuestra ciencia, con todos nuestros avances sociales, con mejores pueblos, mejores civilizaciones, mejor sanidad, riqueza, conseguiramos un mejor control de los mosquitos, y por lo tanto, reducir esta enfermedad. +Y, realmente, no es ese el caso. +Hace 50 aos, casi nadie haba escuchado de ella, ciertamente nadie en el entorno europeo. +Pero la fiebre del dengue, de acuerdo con la Organizacin Mundial de la Salud, infecta entre 50 y 100 millones de personas cada ao, lo cual equivalente a la poblacin completa del Reino Unido infectndose cada ao. +Otros estimativos casi duplican la cantidad de infecciones. +Y le fiebre del dengue ha crecido a una velocidad fenomenal. +En los ltimos 50 aos, la incidencia de dengue ha crecido 30 veces. +Ahora permtanme hablarles un poco sobre la fiebre del dengue, para quienes no lo sepan. +Bueno, supongamos que se van de vacaciones. +Asumamos que van al Caribe, o podran ir a Mxico. Podran ir a Latinoamrica, Asia, frica, cualquier lugar de Arabia Saudita. +Podran ir a la India, o el Lejano Oriente. +Realmente no importa. Es el mismo mosquito, y es la misma enfermedad. Uds. estn en riesgo. +Y vamos a suponer que son picados por un mosquito que porta este virus. +Podrn desarrollar los sntomas como de una gripe. +Pueden ser bastante leves. +Pueden sentir nusea, jaqueca, pueden sentir como si sus msculos se contrajeran. y, en realidad, sentirn como si sus huesos se rompieran. +Y por eso el sobrenombre dado a esta enfermedad. +Es llamada la fiebre rompehuesos, porque es as como pueden sentirse. +Bueno, lo extrao es, que una vez que han sido picados por el mosquito, y han tenido esta enfermedad, sus cuerpos desarrollan anticuerpos, de tal modo si son picados de nuevo con esa cepa, no les afectar. +Pero no es un virus, son cuatro, y la misma proteccin que les dan los anticuerpos y los protege del mismo virus que tuvieron antes, en realidad los hace ms susceptibles a los otros tres. +Por tanto la prxima vez que tengan fiebre del dengue, si es de una cepa diferente, sern ms susceptibles, es ms probable que tengan sntomas peores, y son ms proclives a tener formas ms severas: fiebre hemorrgica o sndrome de choque. +Por tanto, no quieren dengue una vez, y ciertamente no lo quieren otra vez. +Entonces, por qu se propaga tan rpido? +La respuesta es esta: +Este es el Aedes aegypti. +Bueno, este es un mosquito que vino, como su nombre lo sugiere, del Norte de frica y se propago alrededor del mundo. +Bueno, de hecho, un simple mosquito solo viajar alrededor de 180 metros en toda su vida. No viajan muy lejos. +En lo que son muy buenos es en "viajar sin billete", particularmente los huevecillos. +Ellos ponen sus huevecillos en agua clara, cualquier estanque, cualquier charco, bebedero para pjaros, maceta para flores, en cualquier lugar dnde haya agua clara, ponen sus huevecillos, y si esa agua clara est prxima a fletarse, cerca de un puerto si est cerca a un lugar de transporte, esos huevecillos conseguirn viajar alrededor del mundo. +Y es lo que ha sucedido. La humanidad ha transportado estos huevecillos alrededor del mundo, y estos insectos han infestado ms de 100 pases, y hay ahora 2,5 mil millones de personas viviendo en pases donde reside este mosquito. +Para darles solo un par de ejemplos de cmo ocurri esto tan rpido, a mediados de la dcada del 70, Brasil declar: "Nosotros no tenemos Aedes aegypti", y actualmente gastan cerca de mil millones de dlares al ao tratando de librarse de l, tratando de controlarlo, solo una especie de mosquito. +Hace dos das, o ayer, no puedo recordar cundo, vi un reporte de Reuters que deca que Madeira haba tenido su primer caso de dengue, alrededor de 52 casos, con cerca de 400 probables. +Esto es hace dos das. +Interesantemente, Madeira tuvo su primer insecto en el 2005, y ahora, pocos aos despus, los primeros casos de dengue. +Entonces un patrn que encontrarn es que donde el mosquito va, el dengue seguir. +Una vez llega el mosquito a su rea, a cualquiera que llegue con dengue, lo picar el mosquito, que picar en algn otro sitio, en algn otro sitio, en algn otro sitio, y tendrn una epidemia. +Por tanto, debemos ser buenos matando mosquitos. +Quiero decir, no puede ser muy difcil. +Bien, hay dos vas principales. +La primera va es usar larvicidas. +Uno usa qumicos. Los pone en el agua donde se cran. +En un ambiente urbano, esto es extraordinariamente difcil. +Uno tiene que poner el qumico en cada charco, cada bebedero para pjaros, cada tronco de rbol. +No es prctico. +Una segunda va es tratar de matar a los insectos mientras vuelan alrededor. +Esta es una foto de fumigacin. +Aqu lo que alguien est haciendo es mezclar el qumico en humo y, bsicamente, dispersarlo en el ambiente. +Uno puede hacer lo mismo con un aerosol. +Es en realidad una actividad desagradable, y si fuera til, no tendramos este aumento masivo de mosquitos y de fiebre del dengue. +Entonces, no es my efectivo, pero es probablemente lo mejor que hemos logrado hasta el momento. +Dicho lo anterior, en realidad, su mejor forma de proteccin y mi mejor forma de proteccin es usar camisas de manga larga y un poco de repelente de insectos. +As que empecemos de nuevo. Vamos a disear un producto, desde el principio, y decidamos qu queremos. +Bien, claramente necesitamos algo efectivo que reduzca la poblacin del mosquito. +No tiene caso solo matar al mosquito ocasional, aqu y all. +Necesitamos algo que consiga disminuir la poblacin de tal forma que no pueda transmitir la enfermedad. +Claramente el producto debe ser seguro para los humanos. +Vamos a usarlo en y alrededor de humanos. +Tiene que ser seguro. +No queremos tener un efecto secundario sobre el ambiente. +No queremos hacer algo que no podemos deshacer. +Tal vez un mejor producto venga en 20, 30 aos. +Bien. No queremos un impacto duradero en el ambiente. +Queremos algo que sea relativamente barato, o rentable, porque hay una gran cantidad de pases involucrados, y algunos son mercados emergentes, algunos pases emergentes, de bajos ingresos. +Y finalmente, se quiere algo especfico a esta especie. +Uno se quiere deshacer de este mosquito que propaga el dengue. pero en realidad no desea deshacerse de todos los otros insectos. +Algunos son bastante beneficiosos. Algunos son importantes para su ecosistema. +Este no. Est invadindolo. +Pero no desean deshacerse de todos los insectos, +solo de ste. +Y la mayora del tiempo, encontrarn que este insecto vive en y alrededor de sus hogares. as esto... todo lo que hagamos tiene que llegarle. +Tiene que entrar en las casas de la gente, en sus habitaciones en las cocinas. +Bueno, hay dos caractersticas de la biologa del mosquito las cuales nos ayudan en este proyecto, y es, primero, los machos no pican. +Solo es el mosquito hembra el que en realidad les pica. +El macho no pica, no los picar, no tiene las partes en la boca para picarlos +Solo la hembra. +Y el segundo es un fenmeno, que los machos son muy, muy buenos en encontrar hembras. +Si liberan un mosquito macho, y si hay alguna hembra alrededor, este macho la encontrar. +Bsicamente, hemos usado esos dos factores. +Aqu tenemos la situacin tpica, el macho encuentra una hembra, montones de cras. +Una nica hembra pondr alrededor de 100 huevecillos de una sola vez, y hasta cerca de 500 en su vida. +Ahora, si el macho porta un gen que causa la muerte de las cras, entonces las cras no sobreviven, y en lugar de tener 500 mosquitos circulando alrededor, no tendrn ninguno. +Y si ponen ms, los llamar estriles, las cras en realidad morirn en diferentes etapas, pero los llamar estriles por ahora +si ponen ms machos estriles en el medio ambiente, entonces es ms probable que las hembras encuentren un macho estril que uno frtil y as disminuirn la poblacin. +As los machos saldrn en busca de hembras, se aparearn. Si lo hacen exitosamente, entonces no tendrn cras. +Si no encuentran una hembra, morirn de cualquier forma. +Solo vivirn unos pocos das. +Y es exactamente dnde estamos. +Esta es la tecnologa desarrollada en la Universidad de Oxford hace pocos aos. +La compaa en s, Oxitec, con la cual hemos estado trabajando los ltimos 10 aos, en gran medida sigue una va de desarrollo similar a la de una compaa farmacutica. +Cerca de 10 aos de evaluacin interna, pruebas, para conseguir un estado donde creemos que est en realidad listo. +Y entonces hemos salido al gran aire libre, siempre con el consentimiento de la comunidad local, siempre con los permisos necesarios. +Hemos hecho pruebas de campo ahora en las Islas Caimn, una pequea en Malasia, y dos ms ahora en Brasil. +Y cul es el resultado? +Bien, el resultado ha sido muy bueno. +En cerca de cuatro meses del lanzamiento, hemos llevado la poblacin de mosquitos en la mayora de los casos estamos tratando con villas aqu de alrededor de 2000, 3000 personas, de ese tamao, comenzando en pequeo... hemos bajado la poblacin del mosquito en alrededor del 85 % en cerca de cuatro meses. +Y de hecho, los nmeros despus de lograrlo, fueron muy difciles de contar, porque solo quedaron algunos cuantos. +Eso ha sido lo que hemos visto en Islas Caimn, esto ha sido lo que hemos visto en Brasil en esas pruebas. +Y ahora lo que estamos haciendo es ir a travs de un proceso para elevarlo a un pueblo de alrededor de 50 000, as podemos ver este trabajo en gran escala. +Tenemos una unidad de produccin en Oxford, o solo al sur de Oxford, donde en realidad producimos estos mosquitos. +Podemos producirlos, en un espacio un poco mayor que esta alfombra roja, puedo producir alrededor de 20 millones por semana. +Podemos transportarlos alrededor del mundo. +No es muy caro, porque es una taza de caf algo as como el tamao de una taza de caf alojar alrededor de tres millones de huevecillos. +Por eso el costo de flete no es nuestro mayor problema. As que lo conseguimos. Pueden llamarla una fbrica de mosquitos. +Y para Brasil, donde hemos estado haciendo algunas pruebas, el gobierno brasileo por s mismo ha construido ahora su propia fbrica de mosquitos, bastante ms grande que la nuestra, y la usaremos para ampliar a escala en Brasil. +Hay lo tienen. Hemos enviado los huevecillos de mosquito. +Hemos separado los machos de las hembras. +Los machos se han puestos en pequeos botes y el camin viaja por el camino y liberan machos mientras transitan. +Es en realidad un poco ms preciso que esto. +Uds. desean liberarlos de tal forma que consigan una buena cobertura de su rea. +As que toman un mapa de Google, lo dividen, calculan la distancia que pueden volar, y se aseguran de liberar la cantidad para conseguir la cobertura del rea, y regresan, y dentro de un muy corto perodo, habrn disminuido la poblacin. +Hemos hecho esto tambin en agricultura. +Hemos conseguido varias especies diferentes de agricultura en progreso. y espero que pronto conseguiremos reunir algunos fondos de tal forma podamos volver y comenzar a mirar a la malaria. +Tenemos cultivos modificados genticamente, drogas, nuevas vacunas, todos aproximadamente con la misma tecnologa, pero con resultados muy diferentes. +Y realmente estoy a favor. Desde luego lo estoy. +Estoy a favor en particular donde las tecnologas obsoletas no funcionan bien, o se han vuelto inaceptables. +Y aunque las tcnicas son similares, los resultados son muy, muy diferentes, y si Uds. toman nuestro enfoque, por ejemplo, y comparan con, digamos, cultivos modificados genticamente, ambas tcnicas estn tratando de producir un beneficio enorme. +Ambos tienen un beneficio colateral, reducir enormemente el uso de pesticidas. +Pero mientras un cultivo genticamente modificado trata de proteger la planta, por ejemplo, y le da una ventaja, lo que realmente estamos haciendo es tomar el mosquito y dndole la mayor desventaja que posiblemente puede tener, neutralizndolo, incapaz para reproducirse eficazmente. +As para el mosquito, esto es un callejn sin salida. +Muchas gracias. +Si han seguido las noticias ltimamente, han odo un cmulo de asteroides gigantes se dirige a los Estados Unidos previstos a impactar en los prximos 50 aos. +Ahora, no me refiero a asteroides hechos de piedra y metal. +Eso realmente no sera un problema, dado que si realmente furamos todos a morir, pondramos a un lado nuestras diferencias, gastaramos lo que fuera necesario y encontraramos la manera de desviarlos. +En vez de eso, hablo de amenazas que se dirigen hacia nosotros, pero estn envueltas en un campo de energa especial que nos polariza y por lo tanto, nos paraliza. +El marzo pasado, fui a una conferencia TED, y escuch hablar a Jim Hansen, el cientfico de la NASA que alert por primera vez sobre el calentamiento global en la dcada de los 80s y al parecer, las predicciones que hizo en ese entonces se estn volviendo realidad. +Nos movemos en esa direccin en trminos de aumento de temperatura global, y si nos seguimos moviendo en la direccin en la que estamos, alcanzaremos un aumento de temperatura de 4 a 5C para el fin de este siglo. +Hansen dice que podemos esperar un aumento de 5 metros del nivel del mar. +As es como se vera un aumento de 5 metros del nivel del mar. +Ciudades de baja altitud alrededor del mundo desaparecern durante la vida de nios nacidos hoy. +Hansen cerraba su charla diciendo, "Imaginen un asteroide gigante en trayectoria de colisin con la Tierra. +Ese es el equivalente a lo que nos enfrentamos ahora. +Sin embargo vacilamos, sin tomar medidas para desviar el asteroide, a pesar de que mientras ms esperamos, se vuelve ms difcil y costoso". +Por supuesto, la izquierda quiere tomar medidas, pero la derecha niega que exista un problema. +De acuerdo, as que vuelvo de TED, y a la semana siguiente, me invitan a una cena en Washington D.C., donde s que encontrar a varios intelectuales conservadores, includo Yuval Levin as que en preparacin para el encuentro, le este artculo de Levin en National Affairs llamado "Ms all del Estado de Bienestar". +Levin escribe que en todo el mundo, las naciones estn llegando a un acuerdo en el hecho de que el Estado social democrtico de bienestar est resultando ser insostenible e inalcanzable, dependiente de dudosas economas y del modelo demogrfico de una era pasada. +De acuerdo, esto puede no sonar tan aterrador como un asteroide, pero observemos estas grficas que mostr Levin. +Este grfico muestra la deuda nacional como un porcentaje del PIB de Estados Unidos, y como pueden ver, si miramos desde la fundacin, hemos pedido prestado un montn de dinero para pelear la Guerra Revolucionaria. +Las guerras son costosas. Pero luego, pagamos, pagamos, pagamos, y luego, oh, qu es esto? La Guerra Civil. An ms costosa. +Pedimos prestado un montn de dinero, pagamos, pagamos, pagamos, bajamos la deuda a casi cero, y bang! La Primera Guerra Mundial. +Una vez ms, el mismo proceso se repite. +Despus de esto, tenemos la Gran Depresin y la Segunda Guerra Mundial +Ascendemos a un nivel astronmico, alrededor del 118% de PIB, verdaderamente insostenible, verdaderamente peligroso. +Pero pagamos, pagamos, pagamos y luego, qu es esto? +Por qu ha estado subiendo desde los 70s? +En parte se debe a recortes de impuestos que no fueron financiados, pero se debe principalmente al aumento de gastos en prestaciones, especialmente el sistema Medicare. +Nos estamos acercando a niveles de endeudamiento que tenamos durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial, y los "baby boomers" ni siquiera se han jubilado an, y cuando lo hagan, esto es lo que ocurrir. +Estos son datos de la Oficina de Presupuesto del Congreso mostrando el pronstico ms realista de lo que ocurrira si la situacin, expectativas y tendencias actuales se extienden. +De acuerdo, lo que notarn ahora es que estos dos grficos son idnticos, no en trminos de los ejes X y Y o en trminos de los datos que presentan, sino es que en trminos de implicacin moral y poltica, dicen la misma cosa. +Djenme traducirlo para ustedes. +"Estamos condenados a menos que empecemos a actuar ahora. +Qu les pasa a Uds. del otro lado en el otro partido? +No pueden ver la realidad? Si no van a ayudar, entonces salgan del maldito camino". +Podemos desviar ambos asteroides. +Ambos problemas son tcnicamente resolubles. +Nuestro problema y nuestra tragedia es que en estos tiempos hiper-partidistas, el mero hecho de que un lado diga, "Miren, hay un asteroide," significa que el otro lado dir, "Qu? +No, ni siquiera voy a mirar hacia arriba. No". +Para entender el porqu nos ocurre esto, y qu podemos hacer al respecto, necesitamos entender ms sobre la psicologa moral. +Soy psiclogo social, estudio la moralidad, y unos de los principios ms importantes de la moralidad es que la moralidad une y ciega. +Nos une en equipos que rodean valores sagrados pero nos ciega a la realidad objetiva. +Pensemos en ello de esta manera. +La cooperacin a gran escala es extremadamente rara en este planeta. +Hay slo unas cuantas especies que pueden hacerlo. +Esa es una colmena. Ese es un termitero, un termitero gigante. +Y cuando encontramos esto en otros animales, es siempre la misma historia. +Siempre son hermanos que son todos hijos de la misma reina, as que todos estn en el mismo barco. +Ascienden o caen, mueren o viven, como uno. +Hay slo una especie en el planeta que puede hacer esto sin parentesco, y esa especie, por supuesto, es la nuestra. +Esta es una reconstruccin de la antigua Babilonia, y esta es Tenochtitln. +Cmo hicimos esto? Cmo pasamos de ser cazadores y recolectores hace 10 mil aos a construir estas gigantescas ciudades en slo unos miles de aos? +Es milagroso, y parte de la explicacin es esta habilidad de juntarnos alrededor de valores sagrados. +Como ven, templos y dioses tienen un gran rol en todas las civilizaciones antiguas. +Esta es una imagen de musulmanes dando vueltas a la Kaaba en La Meca. +Es una roca sagrada, y cuando las personas giran unidas alrededor de algo, se unen, pueden confiar en los dems, se vuelven uno. +Es como si movieras un cable elctrico a travs de un campo magntico que genera corriente. +Cuando la gente gira junta alrededor de algo, genera una corriente +Nos encanta dar vueltas alrededor de las cosas. +Damos vueltas alrededor de banderas, y as podemos confiar en los dems. +Podemos luchar como equipo, como una unidad. +Pero an cuando la moralidad fusiona a las personas en unidad, en un equipo, el rodearse las ciega. +Esto las lleva a distorsionar la realidad. +Empezamos a separar todo en el bien contra el mal. +Ese proceso se siente muy bien. Se siente realmente satisfactorio. +Pero es una burda distorsin de la realidad. +Pueden ver al electromagnetismo moral operando en el Congreso de los Estados Unidos. +Este es un grfico que muestra el grado en el que la votacin en el Congreso recae estrictamente en el eje derecha-izquierda, de manera que si saben qu tan liberal o conservador es alguien, saben exactamente cmo han votado sobre todas las cuestiones importantes. +Y lo que pueden ver es que, en las dcadas siguientes a la Guerra Civil, el Congreso estuvo extraordinariamente polarizado, como era de esperar, casi tan alto como puede ser. +Pero luego, despus de la Primera Guerra Mundial, las cosas bajaron, y tuvimos este histrico nivel bajo de polarizacin. +Esta fue una poca de oro del bipartidismo, por lo menos en trminos de la capacidad de los partidos para trabajar juntos y resolver los grandes problemas nacionales. +Pero en los aos 1980's y 90's, el electromagnetismo vuelve a encenderse. +La polarizacin aumenta. +Sola ser que los conservadores y los moderados y los liberales podan trabajar juntos en el Congreso. +Podan reorganizarse, formar comits bipartidistas, pero a medida que el imn moral se intensific, el campo de fuerza aument, los demcratas y republicanos se repelan. +Se les hizo mucho ms difcil socializar, ms difcil cooperar entre s. +Los miembros jubilados actuales dicen que se ha vuelto como una guerra de pandillas. +Alguien not que en dos de los tres debates, Obama luca una corbata azul y Romney luca una corbata roja? +Saben por qu hacen esto? +Es para que los Cripsy los Bloods sepan por quin votar. La polarizacin es ms fuerte an entre nuestra lite poltica. +Nadie duda de que esto est ocurriendo en Washington. +Pero por un tiempo, hubo dudas de si esto estaba ocurriendo entre las personas. +Bueno, en los ltimos 12 aos se ha vuelto mucho ms obvio que s est ocurriendo. +Miren estos datos de la Encuesta Nacional de Elecciones de los Estados Unidos. +Lo que hacen en esa encuesta es preguntar sobre el llamado termmetro de calificacin de sentimiento. +As que, qu tan clido o fro se sienten sobre, ya saben, nativos estadounidenses, o los militares, el Partido Republicano, el Partido Demcrata, todo tipo de grupos en la vida de los EEUU. +La lnea azul muestra qu tan clidos se sienten los demcratas con respecto a los demcratas, y les gustan. +Ya saben, calificaciones en los 70s en una escala de 100 puntos. +A los republicanos les gustan los republicanos. Esa no es ninguna sorpresa. +Pero cuando miras las calificaciones cruzadas entre partidos, encuentran, bueno, que la calificacin es menor, aunque en realidad, cuando vi por primera vez estos datos, me sorprendieron. +Eso en realidad no es tan malo. Si nos remontamos a las administraciones de Carter e inclusive de Reagan, calificaban al otro partido con 43, 45. No es terrible. +Se desplaza hacia abajo lentamente, pero miren lo que ocurre ahora con George W. Bush y Obama. +Se desploma. Algo est ocurriendo aqu. +El imn moral se est encendiendo de nuevo, y hoy en da, muy recientemente, a los demcratas realmente les desagradan los republicanos. +A los Republicanos les desagradan los demcratas. Estamos cambiando. +Es como si el imn moral nos afectara tambin a nosotros. +Est como puesto entre los dos ocanos y dividiendo al pas entero, tirando a izquierda y derecha hacia sus propios territorios como los Crips y los Bloods. +Ahora, hay muchas razones por las cuales esto nos ocurre, y muchas de ellas no las podemos revertir. +Nunca ms tendremos una clase poltica forjada por la experiencia de haber luchado juntos en la Segunda Guerra Mundial contra un enemigo comn. +Nunca ms tendremos slo tres cadenas de televisin, todas de relativo centralismo. +Y nunca ms tendremos un gran grupo de sureos demcratas conservadores y norteos republicanos liberales hacindolo fcil, haciendo que haya bastante superposicin de cooperacin bipartidista. +As que por muchas razones, esas dcadas despus de la Segunda Guerra Mundial fueron un tiempo de anomala histrica. +Nunca ms volveremos a esos bajos niveles de polarizacin, creo yo. +Pero hay bastante que s podemos hacer. Hay docenas y docenas de reformas que podemos hacer que mejoraran las cosas, porque mucha de nuestra disfuncin puede ser rastreada directamente a cosas que el Congreso se hizo a s mismo en la dcada de los 90s que crearon mucha ms polarizacin e instituciones disfuncionales. +Estos cambios estn detallados en muchos libros. +Estos son dos libros que recomiendo ampliamente, y ambos listan un montn de reformas. +Solo voy a agruparlas en tres amplias clases aqu. +Y las primarias abiertas haran este problema mucho, mucho menos severo. +Pero el problema no es en principio que elijamos malas personas para el Congreso. +En mi experiencia y de lo que he odo de personas de adentro del Congreso, la mayora de la gente que va al Congreso son buenas, trabajadoras inteligentes que realmente quieren resolver problemas, pero una vez que llegan ah, se encuentran con que son forzados a jugar un juego que recompensa el hiper-partidismo y que castiga el pensamiento independiente. +Te sales de la lnea, eres castigado. +Hay muchas reformas que podemos hacer que contrarrestaran esto. +Pero la tercera clase de reformas es la que debemos cambiar la naturaleza de las relaciones sociales en el Congreso. +Los polticos que he conocido son generalmente muy extrovertidos, amigables, personas muy hbiles socialmente, y sa es la naturaleza de la poltica. Tienen que hacer contactos, hacer tratos, tienes que convencer, complacer, halagar, tienen que usar sus habilidades personales, y sa es la manera en la que la poltica siempre ha funcionado. +Pero al comienzo de los 90s, la Cmara de Representantes primero cambi su calendario legislativo de manera que todo las actividades se realizan bsicamente a la mitad de la semana. +Actualmente, los Congresistas llegan el martes en la maana, batallan por dos das y luego vuelven a casa el jueves por la tarde. +No mudan a sus familias al Distrito. +No conocen a los hijos o cnyuges de los dems. +Ya no hay ms relacin ah. +Y tratar de hacer funcionar un Congreso sin relaciones humanas es como tratar de hacer funcionar un auto sin aceite de motor. +Deberamos de estar sorprendidos cuando toda la cosa se congela y desciende a la parlisis y polarizacin? +Un simple cambio en la agenda legislativa, como extender las actividades a tres semanas y luego tener una semana libre para ir a casa, eso cambiara las relaciones fundamentales en el Congreso. +Hay mucho que podemos hacer, pero, quin los va a presionar a hacerlo? +Hay algunos grupos que estn trabajando en esto. +como "No Labels y Common Cause", creo yo, tienen muy buenas ideas de los cambios que necesitamos hacer para hacer a nuestra democracia ms sensible y a nuestro Congreso ms efectivo. +Pero me gustara complementar su trabajo con el siguiente pequeo truco psicolgico +Nada impulsa tanto a la gente a unirse como una amenaza comn o ataque comn, especialmente un ataque de un enemigo extranjero, a menos por supuesto que esa amenaza golpee a nuestra psicologa polarizada, en cuyo caso, como dije antes, puede de hecho separarnos. +A veces una sola amenaza puede polarizarnos, como hemos visto. +Pero si la situacin a la que nos enfrentamos no es una sola amenaza sino que en realidad es ms como esto, donde simplemente hay demasiadas cosas llegando, es simplemente, "Disparen, vamos, todos, tenemos que trabajar juntos, solo empiecen a disparar". +Porque en realidad, s nos enfrentamos a esta situacin. +Aqu es donde estamos como nacin. +Aqu est otro asteroide. +Todos hemos visto versiones de este grfico, cierto, que muestra los cambios en la riqueza desde 1979, y como pueden ver, casi todas las ganancias en riqueza han ido al 20% de arriba, y especialmente al 1% de arriba. +Desigualdad en incremento como sta se asocia con muchos problemas para una democracia. +Especialmente, destruye nuestra habilidad para confiar en los dems, de sentir que estamos todos en el mismo barco, porque es obvio que no lo estamos. +Algunos de nosotros estamos sentados ah sanos y salvos en yates privados gigantes. +Otras personas se aferran a un pedazo de madera. +No estamos todos en el mismo barco, y eso significa que nadie est dispuesto a sacrificarse por el bien comn. +La izquierda ha estado gritando sobre este asteroide por 30 aos ya, y la derecha dice, "Eh, qu? Mmm? No hay problema. No hay problema". +Ahora, por qu nos est pasando esto? Por qu est aumentando la desigualdad? +Bueno, una de las grandes causas, despus de la globalizacin, es de hecho este cuarto asteroide, el aumento de natalidad fuera del matrimonio. +Este grfico muestra el slido incremento de los nacimientos fuera del matrimonio desde los aos 60. +Ms nios hispanos y de color nacen ahora de madres solteras. +Los blancos tambin van en esa direccin. +En el lapso de una o dos dcadas, la mayora de nios estadounidenses nacern en hogares sin padre. +Esto significa que hay mucho menos ingreso de dinero en el hogar. +Pero no es slo dinero. Es tambin la estabilidad contra el caos. +Como aprend trabajando con nios en situacin de calle en Brasil, el novio de mam a menudo es muy, muy peligroso para los chicos. +Ahora, la derecha ha estado gritando sobre este asteroide desde los 60, y la izquierda ha estado diciendo, "No es un problema. No es un problema". +La izquierda ha sido muy reacia a admitir que el matrimonio en realidad es bueno para las mujeres y para los nios. +Ahora, djenme ser claro. No estoy culpando a la mujer aqu. +En realidad soy ms crtico de los hombres que no toman responsabilidad por sus propios hijos y de un sistema econmico que hace difcil que muchos hombres ganen suficiente dinero para sustentar a sus hijos. +Pero an si no culpas a nadie, sigue siendo un problema nacional, y un lado ha estado ms preocupado de esto que el otro. +El New York Times finalmente not este asteroide con una historia de primera plana en julio pasado mostrando como el declive del matrimonio contribua a la desigualdad. +Nos estamos convirtiendo en una nacin de slo dos clases. +Cuando los estadounidenses van a la universidad y se casan, tienen tasas de divorcio muy bajas. +Ganan mucho dinero, invierten ese dinero en sus hijos, algunas de ellas se convierten en madres tigre, los chicos alcanzan todo su potencial, y los chicos crecen para convertirse en las dos lneas de arriba en esta grfica. +Y despus estn los otros: los nios que no se benefician de un matrimonio estable, en quienes no se invierte mucho, los que no crecen en un ambiente estable, y quienes crecen para convertirse en las tres lneas de abajo en esta grfica. +As que una vez ms, vemos que estos dos grficos estn en realidad diciendo la misma cosa. +Al igual que antes, tenemos un problema, tenemos que empezar a trabajar en esto, tenemos que hacer algo, y, qu les pasa a Uds. que no ven mi amenaza? +Pero si todos pudiramos simplemente quitarnos las vendas partidistas, veramos que estos dos problemas en realidad se abordan mejor juntos. +Porque si de verdad les importa la desigualdad de ingresos, quiz quieran hablar con algn grupo cristiano evanglico que est trabajando en maneras de promover el matrimonio. +Pero entonces chocarn con el problema de que las mujeres generalmente no quieren casarse con alguien que no tiene un trabajo. +Para concluir, hay al menos cuatro asteroides dirigindose hacia nosotros. +Cuntos de ustedes pueden ver a los cuatro? +Por favor levanten sus manos ahora si estn dispuestos a admitir que estos cuatro son todos problemas nacionales. +Por favor levanten sus manos. +OK, casi todos. +Bueno, felicidades, Uds. son los miembros que inauguran el Club de los Asteroides, que es un club para todos los estadounidenses dispuestos a admitir que el otro lado en realidad puede tener razn. +En el Club de los Asteroides, no empezamos mirando al terreno en comn. +El terreno en comn es a menudo muy difcil de encontrar. +No, empezamos mirando a las amenazas en comn porque las amenazas en comn hacen terreno en comn. +Ahora, estoy siendo ingenuo?Es ingenuo pensar que las personas alguna vez podran bajar sus espadas, y la derecha e izquierda podran de verdad trabajar juntos? +No lo creo, porque no resulta tan a menudo, pero hay una variedad de ejemplos que indican el camino. +Esto es algo que podemos hacer. +Los estadounidenses de ambos lados se preocupan por la pobreza y el SIDA, y por tantos otros temas humanitarios, liberales y evanglicos son en realidad aliados naturales, y en otros tiempos realmente han trabajado juntos para resolver estos problemas. +Y ms sorprendente an para m es, que a veces pueden ver cara a cara a la justicia penal. +Por ejemplo, la tasa de encarcelamiento, la poblacin en las prisiones en este pas se ha cuadruplicado desde 1980. +Este es un desastre social, y los liberales estn muy preocupados por eso. +El Centro de Derechos de Pobreza del Sur est a menudo luchando con el complejo prisin-industria, peleando por prevenir un sistema que solo est succionando a ms y ms hombres jvenes. +Pero estn los conservadores felices con esto? +Bueno, Grover Norquist no lo est, porque este sistema cuesta una suma increble de dinero. +Y as, debido a que el complejo prisin-industria est llevando a nuestros estados a la bancarrota y corroyendo nuestras almas, grupos de conservadores fiscales y conservadores cristianos se han unido para formar un grupo llamado Derecha contra el Crimen. +Y de a momentos han trabajado con el Centro de Derechos de Pobreza del Sur para oponerse a la construccin de nuevas prisiones y para trabajar por reformas que hagan al sistema penal ms eficiente y ms humano. +As que esto es posible. Podemos hacerlo. +Vayamos entonces a las estaciones de batalla, no para pelear entre nosotros, sino para empezar a desviar estos asteroides que se dirigen hacia nosotros. +Y que nuestra primera misin sea presionar al Congreso a que se reforme a s mismo, antes de que sea muy tarde para nuestra nacin. +Gracias. +Es maravilloso estar aqu para hablar de mi travesa, hablar sobre mi silla de ruedas y sobre la libertad que me ha dado. +Empec a usar silla de ruedas a los 16 aos cuando una enfermedad prolongada cambi mi forma de acceder al mundo. +Empezar a usar silla de ruedas supuso una tremenda nueva libertad. +Haba visto mi vida disiparse y volverse restringida. +Era como tener un enorme juguete nuevo. +Poda merodear y sentir el viento en mi cara de nuevo. +El solo hecho de estar afuera en la calle era emocionante, +pero aunque tena esta nueva alegra y libertad, la reaccin de la gente hacia m cambi completamente. +Era como si ya no pudieran verme, como si una manto de invisibilidad me cubriera. +Ellos parecan verme en trminos de sus suposiciones. de lo que debera ser estar en una silla de ruedas. +Cuando preguntaba a la gente qu asociaciones haca con la silla de ruedas, asociaban palabras como "limitacin", "miedo", "lstima" y "restriccin". +Me d cuenta de que haba interiorizado estas respuestas y esto me haba cambiado profundamente. +Una parte de m se haba alienado de m misma. +Me estaba viendo a m misma, no desde mi perspectiva, sino vvida y continuamente desde la perspectiva de las reacciones que la gente tena hacia m. +En consecuencia, saba que tena que hacer mi propia historia sobre esta experiencia, nuevas narraciones para reclamar mi identidad. +"Encontrando libertad: al crear nuestras propias historias, aprendemos a tomar los libretos de nuestra vida tan seriamente como a los "libretos oficiales" - Davis 2009, TEDx Women" Empec a realizar trabajos que me llevaran a comunicar parte de la alegra y libertad que sent al usar una silla de ruedas una silla de poder, para alcanzar el mundo. +Estaba trabajando para transformar estas reacciones interiorizadas, y los prejuicios que haban transformado mi identidad, cuando empec a usar silla de ruedas, creando imgenes inesperadas. +La silla de ruedas se convirti en un objeto con el que pintar y crear. +Cuando empec literalmente a dejar trazos de mi alegra y libertad, fue emocionante ver que la gente reaccionaba con curiosidad y sorpresa. +Pareca abrir nuevas perspectivas, y en eso residi el cambio de paradigma. +Se demostr que la prctica artstica puede reconstruir la propia identidad y transformar ideas preconcebidas actualizando la visin de lo familiar. +Entonces se me ocurri pensar, "qu pasara juntara las dos cosas?" Y la silla de ruedas acutica resultante me ha llevado por la ms maravillosa travesa en los ltimos 7 aos. +Para darles una idea de cmo es, me gustara compartir con Uds. uno de los resultados de la creacin de este espectculo, y mostrarles la maravillosa travesa a la que me ha llevado. +Es la experiencia ms maravillosa, ms all de casi todo lo que he experimentado en la vida. +Tengo, literalmente, la libertad para moverme en 360 grados del espacio y una sensacin de xtasis de alegra y libertad. +Y lo ms increble e inesperado es que otras personas parecen verlo y sentirlo tambin. +Sus ojos literalmente se encienden, y dicen cosas como "yo quiero una de esas", o "si t puedes hacer eso, yo puedo hacer cualquier cosa". +Y creo que es porque en el momento en que vieron un objeto del que no tenan referencias, o que estaba ms all de los parmetros de comparacin que tenan de una silla de ruedas, tuvieron que pensar de una forma completamente nueva. +Y creo que ese momento de pensamiento nuevo probablemente crea una libertad que se esparce a la vida del resto de las personas. +Para m, significa que ellos estn viendo el valor del cambio, la alegra que se genera cuando en vez de centrarnos en la prdida o la limitacin, vemos y descubrimos el poder y la alegra de ver el mundo desde emocionantes nuevas perspectivas. +Para m, la silla de ruedas se convierte en un vehculo de transformacin. +De hecho, ahora llamo a la silla de ruedas acutica "portal", porque literalmente me ha llevado a una nueva forma de ser a nuevas dimensiones y a un nuevo nivel de consciencia. +Y la otra cosa es que como nadie ha visto ni odo nada sobre una silla de ruedas acutica antes, y crear este espectculo se trata de crear nuevas manera de ver, ser y conocer, ahora tienen este concepto en la mente. +Todos Uds. tambin forman parte de esta obra de arte. +Hola. Mi nombre es Jarrett Krosoczka, y escribo e ilustro libros para nios para ganarme la vida. +As que uso mi imaginacin como mi trabajo de tiempo completo. +Pero mucho antes de que mi imaginacin fuera mi vocacin, mi imaginacin me salv la vida. +Cuando era nio, amaba dibujar, y la artista ms talentosa que conoca era mi madre, pero mi madre era adicta a la herona. +Y cuando tu madre o padre es un drogadicto, Es como cuando Charlie Brown intenta patear la pelota, porque por mucho que quieras amar a esa persona, por mucho que quieras recibir amor de esa persona, cada vez que abres tu corazn, terminas cayendo. +As que durante toda mi infancia, mi madre fu encarcelada y no tuve a mi padre porque ni siquiera supe su nombre hasta que estuve en sexto grado. +Pero tuve a mis abuelos, Mis abuelos maternos, Joseph y Shirley, quienes me adoptaron justo antes de mi tercer cumpleaos y me recibieron como a su hijo, despus de haber criado a cinco nios. +Dos personas que crecieron durante la Gran Depresin, en los primeros aos de la dcada de los 80s, adoptaron a un nuevo nio +Era como el primo Oliver en la comedia de TV de la familia Krosoczka el nio nuevo que sali de la nada. +Y quisiera decir que la vida fu muy fcil con ellos. +Ambos fumaban dos paquetes diarios de cigarrillos, sin filtro, y para el momento en el que tuve 6 aos, ya poda pedir un trago Southern Comfort Manhattan, puro, con hielo a un lado, el hielo a un lado as poda caber mas licor en el vaso. +Pero me amaban con locura. Me amaban muchsimo. +Y apoyaban mis esfuerzos creativos, porque mi abuelo era un hombre que se haba formado l mismo. +Trabajaba y administraba una fbrica. +Mi abuela era ama de casa. +Pero aqu estaba este nio que amaba los Transformers y a Snoopy y a las Tortugas Ninja, Y me enamor de los personajes de los cuentos que lea, y se convirtieron en mis amigos. +As que mis mejores amigos de la vida fueron los personajes sobre los que lei en los cuentos. +Asist a la escuela primaria de Gates Lane en Worcester, Massachusetts, y tuve maestros maravillosos all, sobre todo mi profesora de primer grado, la seora Alisch. +y puedo recordar vvidamente el amor que ella nos daba a sus alumnos. +Cuando estaba en tercer grado, un evento monumental tuvo lugar. +Jack Gantos, un autor, visit nuestra escuela. +Un autor reconocido, vino a hablarnos sobre lo que haca para ganarse la vida. +Y despus de eso, todos volvimos a nuestras aulas y dibujamos nuestra propia versin de su personaje principal, Rotten Ralph. +Y de repente el autor apareci en la puerta, lo recuerdo paseando por los pasillos, yendo de nio a nio, mirando los escritorios, sin decir una palabra +Pero se detuvo en mi escritorio, y le di un golpe a mi escritorio, y dijo, "Lindo gato" y se alej. +Dos palabras que hicieron una diferencia colosal en mi vida. +Si, Mi libro tena un pgina de ttulo. +Cuando tena 8 aos estaba claramente preocupado por mi propiedad intelectual. +Y era un historia contada con dibujos y palabras, exactamente lo que hoy hago para ganarme la vida, y a veces dejo que las palabras sean las protagonistas, y a veces dejo que los dibujos sean los protagonistas para contar la historia. +Mi pgina favorita es la pgina "sobre el autor". +As que aprend a escribir sobre m en tercera persona a una temprana edad. +Amo esa ltima oracin: "Le gust hacer este libro" +Y me gust hacer ese libro porque amo usar mi imaginacin, y de eso se trata la escritura. +Escribir es poner en papel nuestra imaginacin. y me asusta mucho, porque hoy en da viajo a tantas escuelas y eso les parece un concepto tan extrao a los nios, que el escribir sea poner tu imaginacin en papel, si estos das apenas les permiten escribir durante el horario escolar. +Amaba tanto escribir que al volver a casa de la escuela, tomaba pedazos de papel, y los pegaba juntos, y llenaba esas pginas blancas con palabras y dibujos solamente porque amaba usar mi imaginacin. +y entonces estos personajes se convertan en mis amigos. +Cuando estaba en sexto grado, la financiacin del estado elimin casi todo el presupuesto de artes En la educacin pblica de Worcester. +Pas de tener clases de arte una vez a la semana a dos veces por mes de una vez al mes, a absolutamente nada. +y mi abuelo, que era un hombre inteligente, vi eso como un problema, porque saba que eso era lo nico que yo tena. Yo no haca deporte. +Yo haca arte. +As que una tarde entr en mi habitacin, y se sent al borde de mi cama, y dijo, "Jarrett, es tu decisin, pero si t quieres, nos gustara enviarte a las clases del Museo de Arte Worcester" +Y yo estaba emocionado. +De 6to a 12vo grado, una, dos veces, a veces tres veces a la semana, tomaba clases en el museo de arte, y estaba rodeado de otros nios a los que les gustaba dibujar, otros nios con los que comparta la misma pasin. +No me provoquen, porque lo har. +Asi que me enviaron a una escuela privada, Kinder hasta octavo, escuela pblica, pero por algn motivo mi abuelo estaba molesto porque alguien en la escuela secundaria local haba sido acuchillado y muerto, as que no quera que yo fuera all. +El quera que yo fuera a una escuela privada, y me dio una opcin. +Puedes ir a Holy Name, que es mixta, o St. John's que es solo de varones. +Y all simplemente florec. +Yo apenas poda esperar para ir a esa clase cada da. +As que como hice amigos? +Yo haca dibujos divertidos de mis maestros y los haca circular. +Bueno, en la clase de Ingls, en el noveno grado, mi amigo John, que se sentaba a mi lado, se ri un poco demasiado fuerte. +El Sr. Greenwood no estaba contento. +El instantneamente vio que yo era la causa de la conmocin, y por la primera vez en mi vida, fui enviado al pasillo, y pens, "Oh no, estoy perdido. +mi abuelo me va a matar." +Y l sali al pasillo y me dijo, "Djame ver ese papel." +Y yo pens, "Oh no, l cree que es una nota." +Y as que tom este dibujo, y se lo entregu. +Y nos sentamos en silencio por un breve momento, y l me dijo, "Eres realmente talentoso". "Eres realmente bueno. Sabes, el peridico escolar necesita un nuevo caricaturista, y t deberas serlo. +Solo deja de dibujar en mi clase." +Y as mi padres nunca supieron lo que pas. +Y me las tom con el director de la escuela y tambin escrib una historia continuada sobre un chico llamado Wesley que no tena suerte en el amor, y juraba a todos que no se trataba de m, pero todos esto aos despus, era totalmente yo. +Pero era genial porque poda escribir estas historias, inventaba estas ideas, y eran publicadas en el peridico escolar, y gente que yo no conoca poda leerlas. +Y amaba esa idea, de poder compartir mis ideas a travs de la pgina impresa. +En mi cumpleaos 14, mi abuelo y abuela me dieron el mejor regalo jamas dado: una mesa de dibujo sobre la que he trabajado desde entonces. +Aqu estoy, 20 aos ms tarde, y todava trabajo en esa mesa cada da. +La tarde de mi cumpleaos 14, me dieron esta mesa, y comimos comida china. +Y mi galleta de la fortuna deca: "Sers exitoso en tu trabajo." +I lo pegu con cinta, arriba a la izquierda de mi mesa, y como pueden ver, an est all. +Ahora yo nunca realmente les ped nada a mis abuelos. +Bueno, dos cosas: Rusty, que fue un gran hamster y vivi una gran larga vida cuando estaba en cuarto grado. +Y una cmara de video. +Yo slo quera una cmara de video. +Y despus de pedir y rogar para navidad, recib una cmara de video usada, e inmediatamente comenc a hacer mis propias animaciones por mi cuenta, y durante todo el secundario hice mis animaciones +y convenc a mi maestro de Ingls que me dejara hacer mi reporte sobre el libro "Misery" de Stephen King como un corto animado. Y segu haciendo comics. +Segu haciendo comics, y en el Museo de Arte de Worcester, me dieron la mejor sugerencia que jams me diera un docente. +Mark Lynch, es un maestro asombroso y an sigue siendo un muy querido amigo, y yo tena 14 o 15, y entr a este curso de comics a mitad del curso, y estaba tan excitado, resplandeciente. +Tena este libro sobre como dibujar comics al estilo Marvel, y me enseo como dibujar super-hroes, como dibujar una mujer, como dibujar msculos justo como se supona que deban ser si algn da fuera a dibujar X-Men o el Hombre Araa. +Y se puso realmente plido, y me mir, y dijo, "Olvida todo lo que has aprendido." +Y yo no entend. l dijo, "Tienes un gran estilo. +Celebra tu propio estilo. No dibujes como te dicen que dibujes. +Dibuja como lo ests haciendo y sigue as, porque eres realmente bueno." +Ahora cuando era un adolescente, estaba angustiado como cualquier adolescente, pero despus de 17 aos de tener una madre que entraba y sala de mi vida como un yo-yo y un padre sin rostro, estaba enojado. +Y cuando tena 17, conoc a mi padre por primera vez, y me enter que tena un hermano y una hermana de los cuales no saba nada. +Y el da que conoc a mi padre por primera vez, me rechazaron de la escuela de diseo de Rhode Island, mi nica eleccin para la universidad. +Pero por esta poca fui a Camp Sunshine como voluntario por una semana para trabajar con unos nios asombrosos, nios con leucemia, y este chico Eric cambi mi vida. +Eric no viv para ver su sexto cumpleaos, y Eric vive conmigo cada da. +Despus de esta experiencia, mi maestro de arte, el Sr. Shilale, trajo estos libros de dibujos, y pense, "libros con dibujos para nios!" +y empec a escribir libros para lectores jvenes cuando terminaba el secundario. +Bueno, eventualmente fui a la escuela de diseo de Rhode Island. +Me transfer all en segundo ao de la universidad, y fue all que tom todos los cursos posibles de escritura, y all escrib la historia de una gran babosa anaranjada que quera ser amiga de este chico. +El chico no le tena paciencia. +Me gradu de la escuela de diseo. Mis abuelos estaba orgullosos, y me mud a Boston, donde me establec. +Puse un estudio e intent conseguir que me publicaran. +Enviaba mis libros. Enviaba cientos de postales a editores y directores de arte, pero no consegua respuestas. +y mi abuelo me llamaba cada semana, y me deca, "Jarrett, como va? Ya tienes trabajo? +Porque haba invertido un monto importante de dinero en mi educacin universitaria. +Y yo deca, "Si, tengo un trabajo. Escribo e ilustro libros para nios." +Y el deca, "Bueno, pero quin te paga por eso?" +Y yo deca, "Nadie, nadie, nadie por ahora. +Pero se que va a suceder." +Y envi una ltima tanda de postales. +Y recib un email de un editor de Random House con el ttulo, "Buen trabajo!" Signo de exclamacin. +"Querido Jarrett, recib tu postal, +me gust tu arte, as que fui a tu pgina web y me pregunto si alguna vez has intentado escribir tus propias historias, porque realmente me gusta tu arte y parece que hay algunas historias que la acompaan. +Avisame si alguna vez estas por New York City". +Y esto de un editor de libros para nios de Random House. +De modo que la semana siguiente "casualmente" estaba en New York. +Y me reun con este editor, y dej New York con un contrato para mi primer libro, "Buenas Noches, Monkey Boy", que fue publicado el 12 de Junio de 2001. +Y mi peridico local festej la noticia. +La librera local hizo un gran show. +Vendieron todos sus ejemplares. +Un amigo lo describi como un funeral, pero alegre, porque todos mis conocidos estaban en lnea para verme, pero no estaba muerto. Solamente autografiaba libros. +Mis abuelos, estaban en medio de todo esto. +Estaban tan contentos. No podan estar ms orgullosos. +La Sra. Alisch estaba all. El Sr. Shilale estaba all. la Sra. Casey estaba all. +La Sra. Alisch se adelanto a la fila y dijo, "yo le ense a leer". Y entonces paso algo que cambi mi vida. +Recib mi primer carta importante de un admirador, donde este chico amaba tanto a Monkey Boy que quera una torta de cumpleaos Monkey Boy. +Para un nio de dos aos es como un tatuaje. Saben? Solo tiene un cumpleaos por ao. +Y para l, es solo su segundo. +Y recib esta foto, y pens, "Esta imagen va a estar en su conciencia por toda su vida. Para siempre va a tener esta foto en su lbum de fotos familiar". +Esta foto, desde ese momento, esta enmarcada frente a m mientras trabajo en todos mis libros. +Tengo 10 libros ilustrados publicados. +"Punk Farm", "Baghead", "Ollie el elefante violeta", +recin termin el noveno libro de la serie "Lunch Lady", una novela grfica sobre una trabajadora de cafetera que lucha contra el crimen. +Estoy esperando la publicacin de un libro por captulos llamado "Escuadron Policial Platypus: El sapo que croaba" +Y viaj por el pas visitando un sinnmero de escuelas, diciendo a muchos chicos que dibujan muy buenos gatos. +Y me encontre con Bagheads. +Y las seoras de las cafeteras me tratan muy bien. +Y vi mi nombre en luces porque los chicos pusieron mi nombre en luces. +Dos veces ya, la serie "Lunch Lady" gan el Libro del Ao de Childrens Choice en la categora tercer o cuarto grado, y los ganadores son anunciados en la gran pantalla en Times Square +"Punk Farm" y "Lunch Lady" estn en desarrollo para hacerse pelculas, de modo que soy productor de pelculas y realmente creo, que es gracias a esa cmara de video que me dieron en el noveno grado. +He visto gente hacer cumpleaos "Punk Farm", y se han disfrazado como "Punk Farm" para la Noche de Brujas, un cuarto para bebe "Punk Farm", que me pone un poco nervios por el bienestar futuro del bebe. +Y recibo los mas asombrosos correos de admiradores y tengo los mas asombrosos proyectos, y el mejor momento para mi fue la ltima Noche de Brujas, +El timbre son y una nia estaba vestida como mi personaje. Fue genial. +Ahora mis abuelos ya no viven, as que para honrarlos, don una beca al museo de arte de Worcester para nios en situaciones difciles cuyos tutores no pueden pagar las clases. +Hicieron all una exhibicin de mis primeros 10 aos de publicaciones, y saben quin estaba all para festejarlo? la Sra. Alisch, +le dije, "Sra. Alisch, Cmo esta? +y ella respondi con un, "Aqu estoy". Es verdad. Estas viva, y eso es muy bueno en este momento. +Muchas gracias. +Me gustara compartir con ustedes la historia de una de mis pacientes, Celine. +Celine es ama de casa en un distrito rural de Camern, en el oeste del frica central. +Hace seis aos, cuando le diagnosticaron VIH, la reclutaron para participar en el ensayo clnico que se llevaba a cabo en su distrito. +Cuando conoc a Celine, hace poco ms de un ao, haba pasado 18 meses sin ninguna terapia antirretroviral y estaba muy enferma. +Me dijo que haba dejado de ir a la clnica cuando acab el ensayo porque no tena dinero para el autobs y estaba demasiado enferma para caminar 35 km. +Ahora bien, durante el ensayo clnico, haba recibido gratuitamente todos los frmacos antirretrovirales, y el transporte lo haban cubierto los fondos de la investigacin. +Todo aquello termin cuando acab el ensayo, dejando a Celine sin alternativas. +Era incapaz de decirme el nombre de los medicamentos que tom durante el ensayo, ni siquiera de qu iba el ensayo. +No me molest en preguntar por los restultados del ensayo, porque me pareca obvio que no lo sabra. +Pero lo que ms me asombr fue que Celine haba dado su consentimiento informado para formar parte del ensayo, aunque no comprendiese las implicaciones de participar o lo que le sucedera cuando el ensayo terminara. +He compartido con vosotros esta historia como ejemplo de lo que puede sucederles a los participantes de un ensayo clnico cuando se lleva a cabo deficientemente. +Puede que este ensayo arrojase resultados esperanzadores. +Puede que se publicase en una revista cientfica de relevancia. +Puede que informase a profesionales de todo el mundo sobre cmo mejorar el manejo clnico de pacientes con VIH. +Pero cost el que cientos de pacientes como Celine quedaran a sus expensas una vez se hubo terminado. +De ningn modo quisiera hoy sugerir que hacer ensayos clnicos sobre VIH en pases en vas de desarrollo est mal. +Al contrario, los ensayos clnicos son herramientas muy tiles y muy necesarias para aliviar el peso de las enfermedades en los pases en desarrollo. +De todos modos, las desigualdades que existen entre pases ricos y en desarrollo en materia de financiacin implican un riesgo real de explotacin, especialmente en el contexto de una investigacin con financiacin externa. +Desgraciadamente, el hecho es que muchos de los estudios llevados a cabo en pases en desarrollo nunca seran autorizados en pases ricos que son los que aportan los fondos para el estudio. +Estoy segura de que deben de estar preguntndose qu hace a los pases en desarrollo, especialmente los del frica subsahariana, tan atractivos para los ensayos clnicos de VIH. +Bueno, para hacer que un ensayo clnico genere resultado vlidos y aplicables a gran escala, se necesita un nmero alto de participantes y preferentemente en una poblacin con alta incidencia de nuevas infecciones de VIH. +El frica subsahariana encaja en esta descripcin, con 22 millones de personas afectadas de HIV, aproximadamente un 70% de las 30 millones de personas afectadas en todo el mundo. +Tambin, la investigacin en el continente es mucho ms fcil dada la pobreza general, las enfermedades endmicas y los sistemas de salud inadecuados. +Un ensayo clnico considerado potencialmente beneficioso para la poblacion es ms fcil que se autorice y, en ausencia de buenos sistemas de salud, casi cualquier tipo de asistencia mdica se acepta al ser mejor que nada. +Otras razones ms polmicas incluyen un menor riesgo de litigios, objeciones ticas menos rigurosas y una poblacin dispuesta a participar en cualquier estudio que insine una posible curacin. +A medida que los fondos para investigacin en VIH se incrementan en los pases en desarrollo y las objeciones ticas en pases ricos se hacen ms estrictas, pueden ver por qu el contexto se hace cada vez ms atractivo. +La gran prevalencia del VIH lleva a los investigadores a llevar a cabo estudios a veces cientficamente aceptables, pero, en muchos otros casos, muy cuestionables moralmente. +Cmo podemos asegurarnos de que, en nuestra bsqueda de una cura no nos aprovechamos de aquellos que estn ms afectados por la pandemia? +Los invito a considerar cuatro reas en las que creo que podramos centrarnos para mejorar el modo en que se hacen las cosas. +La primera es el consentimiento informado. +Hoy da, para que un ensayo clnico sea considerado ticamente aceptable, se debe proporcionar informacin relevante a los participantes para que puedan comprender y consentir libremente a participar en el ensayo. +Esto es especialmente importante en pases en desarrollo, donde muchos participantes consienten porque creen que es la nica manera en la que pueden recibir tratamiento u otros beneficios. +Los procedimientos para el consentimiento usados en los pases ricos a menudo son inapropiados o ineficaces en muchos pases en desarrollo. +Por ejemplo, es contrario a la lgica hacer que un participante analfabeto como Celine firme un largo consentimiento informado que es incapaz de leer y muchsimo menos entender. +Las comunidades locales deben implicarse ms en establecer criterios de seleccin de participantes en ensayos clnicos, as como en los incentivos para la participacin. +La informacin en estos ensayos debe darse a los potenciales participantes en formatos lingstica y culturalmente aceptables. +El segundo punto que quisiera que consideraran es el estndar de asistencia sanitaria que se proporciona a los participantes en cualquier ensayo clnico. +Este es un tema que genera debate y controversia. +Al grupo de control de un ensayo clnico, se le proporciona el mejor tratamiento disponible en cualquier lugar de mundo? +O debera drseles un estndar alternativo de cuidados como el mejor tratamiento disponible en el pas en el que se desarrolla el estudio? +Es justo evaluar un tratamiento que puede no estar disponible o al alcance de los participantes del estudio, una vez este haya terminado? +Hoy da, en el caso de que el mejor tratamiento disponible sea barato y fcil de proporcionar, la respuesta es fcil. +Sin embargo, el mejor tratamiento existente en todo el mundo a veces es muy difcil de administrar en pases en desarrollo. +Es importante evaluar los riesgos y beneficios potenciales de los estndares de asistencia sanitaria que se proporcionan a los participantes en cualquier ensayo clnico y establecer uno que sea pertinente al contexto del estudio y el ms beneficioso para los participantes. +Eso nos lleva al tercer punto que quera que considerasen: la revisin tica de los estudios. +Se necesita un sistema eficaz que revise los parmetros ticos de los ensayos clnicos para proteger a los participantes en cualquier ensayo clnico. +Por desgracia, esto es inexistente o muy deficiente en muchos pases en desarrollo. +Los gobiernos locales deben implantar sistemas eficaces para revisar los aspectos ticos de los ensayos clnicos autorizados en distintos pases en desarrollo, y lo deben hacer estableciendo comits ticos independientes de los gobiernos y los patrocinadores de la investigacin. +Se debe promover la responsabilidad de los gobiernos a travs de la transparencia y la revisin independiente, a cargo de organismos internacionales y ONG, segn convenga. +El ltimo punto que someto a su consideracin esta noche es qu pasa con los participantes en el ensayo clinico una vez ha terminado. +Creo que es un error que el investigador comience sin un plan concreto de lo que les pasar a los participantes una vez acabe el estudio. +Los investigadores deben hacer cuanto sea necesario para asegurarse de que una intervencin que haya demostrado ser beneficiosa durante un ensayo clnico, sea accesible a los participantes cuando termine. +Adems, deberan considerar la posibilidad de introducir y mantener tratamientos eficaces en el conjunto de la comunidad al trmino del ensayo. +Si por alguna razn, piensan que no es posible, entonces deberan justificar ticamente por qu debera hacerse el estudio. +Afortunadamente para Celine, nuestra reunin no acab en mi despacho. +Pude incluirla en un tratamiento gratuito contra el VIH cerca de su casa, y con un grupo de apoyo para ayudarla durante el tratamiento. +Su historia tiene un final feliz, pero hay miles de personas en una situacin similar que tienen menos suerte. +Aunque Celine no lo sepa, nuestro encuentro cambi completamente mi opinin sobre los ensayos clnicos de VIH en pases en desarrollo, y me ha incitado a participar en el movimiento para cambiar el modo en que se hacen las cosas. +Creo que cada persona que me escuche esta noche puede contribuir al cambio. +Si son investigadores, los invito a que accedan a un nivel superior de conciencia moral, y a que sean tico en sus investigaciones, y que no comprometan el bienestar humano en su bsqueda de respuestas. +Si trabajan en una agencia de financiacin o en una empresa farmacutica, los animo a que susciten en sus trabajadores la necesidad de una investigacin fundamentada en la tica. +Si proceden de un pas en desarrollo, como yo, les pido que insten a sus gobiernos a revisar cuidadosamente los ensayos clnicos que se autorizan en su pas. +S, necesitamos encontrar una cura para el HIV, una vacuna eficaz contra el paludismo, un mtodo de diagnstico eficaz para la tuberculosis, pero creo que les debemos algo a los que voluntariamente y de modo altruista acceden a participar en esos ensayos clnicos: hacerlo de un modo ms humano. +Muchas gracias. +Antes de convertirme en dermatlogo, comenc en medicina general, como lo hace la mayora de los dermatlogos en Gran Bretaa. +Al final de aquel tiempo, me fui a Australia, hace cerca de 20 aos. +Lo que uno aprende cuando va a Australia es que los australianos son muy competitivos. +Y no son magnnimos en la victoria. +Pasa con frecuencia: "Uds. los ingleses, no saben jugar al cricket, ni al rugby". +Eso lo poda aceptar. +Pero volviendo al trabajo, tenamos cada semana lo que llambamos, un club de revistas, donde uno se sienta con los otros mdicos a estudiar artculos cientficos sobre medicina. +Y despus de la primera semana, se trataba de la mortalidad cardiovascular, una materia rida cunta gente muere por enfermedades cardiovasculares, cules son la tasas de mortalidad. +Y ellos fueron competitivos en esto: "Ingleses; sus tasas de enfermedades cardiovasculares son estremecedoras". +Y claro est, estaban en lo cierto. +Los australianos tienen cerca de un tercio menos de enfermedades del corazn que nosotros menos muertes por ataques al corazn, fallos del corazn, menos infartos son en general mucho ms saludables. +Y por supuesto dicen que esto se debe a su elevada integridad moral, su ejercicio, porque ellos son australianos y nosotros debiluchos ingleses, y cosas as. +Pero no es solo en Australia donde se tiene mejor salud que en Gran Bretaa. +Dentro de Gran Bretaa existe un gradiente de salud, que se denomina mortalidad estandarizada, bsicamente, son las probabilidades de muerte. +Estos son datos de un artculo de hace cerca de 20 aos pero sigue siendo cierto hoy. +Comparando las tasas de muerte 50 grados norte esto es el sur, esto es Londres y alrededores de latitud y 55 grados... La mala noticia est aqu, en Glasgow. +Yo soy de Edimburgo. Peores noticias an en Edimburgo. +Entonces, cmo se explica esta horrible brecha aqu entre nosotros aqu en el sur de Escocia y el sur? +Ahora, tenemos informacin sobre el tabaquismo, las barras fritas Mars, las patatas fritas... la dieta de Glasgow. +Todas estas cosas. +Pero esta grfica toma en cuenta todos estos factores de riesgo conocidos. +Esto es despus de tener en cuenta el tabaco, la clase social, la dieta, todos los otros factores de riesgo conocidos. +Quedamos con esta brecha de ms muertes cuanto ms vas al norte. +Ahora, la luz del sol, por supuesto, entra en esto. +La vitamina D ha tenido una gran cantidad de prensa, y mucha gente se preocupa por esto. +Necesitamos vitamina D. Ahora es un requisito que los nios tomen una cierta cantidad. +Mi abuela se cri en Glasgow, en las dcadas de 1920 y 1930, cuando el raquitismo era un verdadero problema y se introdujo el aceite de hgado de bacalao. +Este realmente prevena el raquitismo que sola ser comn en esta ciudad. +De nio, mi abuela me daba aceite de hgado de bacalao. +Yo claramente... Nadie olvida el aceite de hgado de bacalao. +Pero veamos una asociacin: Cuanto ms altos son los niveles de vitamina D en la sangre, menor es la presencia tanto de enfermedades cardacas como de cncer. +Parece haber un montn de datos que sugieren que la vitamina D es muy buena para las personas. +Y lo es, para prevenir el raquitismo y otras dolencias. +Pero si se le da a la gente suplementos de vitamina D, no cambia la elevada tasa de enfermedades del corazn. +Y tampoco hay evidencia de grandes cambios en la prevencin del cancer. +Por tanto, yo sugerira que la vitamina D no es la nica protagonista. +No es la nica razn para la prevencin de las enfermedades del corazn. +Los altos niveles de vitamina D, creo, son un indicador de la exposicin a la luz solar, y la exposicin a la luz del sol, mediante procedimientos que voy a mostrar, es buena contra las enfermedades del corazn. +De todos modos, regres de Australia, y a pesar de los evidentes riesgos para mi salud, me mud a Aberdeen. +Bueno, en Aberdeen, comenc mi formacin en dermatologa. +Pero tambin me interes en la investigacin, y en particular me interes por esta sustancia, el xido ntrico. +Ahora, estos tres chicos de aqu, Furchgott, Ignarro y Murad, ganaron el Premio Nobel de Medicina en 1998. +Fueron los primeros en describir este nuevo transmisor qumico, el xido ntrico. +Lo que hace el xido ntrico es dilatar los vasos sanguneos, por lo tanto disminuye la presin arterial. +Tambin dilata las arterias coronarias, por lo tanto detiene la angina. +Lo notable de esto es que en el pasado, cuando pensbamos en los mensajeros qumicos en el cuerpo, pensbamos en cosas complicadas como el estrgeno y la insulina, o la transmisin nerviosa. +Procesos complicados con qumicos muy complejos que encajan en receptores igualmente muy difciles. +Pero he aqu que esta molcula increblemente simple, formada por nitrgeno y oxgeno unidos, es sin embargo, muy importante para [no es claro] mantener baja la presin arterial, para la neurotransmisin, por muchas, muchas cosas, y en particular por la salud cardiovascular. +Empec a investigar y encontramos, de manera muy emocionante, que la piel produce xido ntrico. +Entonces no es solo en el sistema cardiovascular en donde surge; +aparece en la piel. +Bien, despus de haber descubierto esto y de publicarlo, pens, bueno, qu es lo que hace? +Cmo se tiene presin arterial baja en la piel? +No es en el corazn. Qu hacer entonces? +As que me fui a EE.UU, como hacen muchos investigadores, y pas unos aos en Pittsburgh. Esto es Pittsburgh. +Yo estaba interesado en estos sistemas tan complejos. +Pensamos en que tal vez el xido ntrico tena efecto en la muerte celular, en cmo las clulas sobreviven y en su resistencia a otras cosas. +En primer lugar comenc a trabajar en el cultivo celular y en el crecimiento de las clulas. Por aquel entonces yo estaba usando modelos con "ratones knockout" ratones con uno o mas genes desactivados. +Trabajamos en un mecanismo, en el que el xido ntrico estaba ayudando a las clulas a sobrevivir. +Entonces regres a Edimburgo. +En esta ciudad, el conejillo de indias que utilizamos eran los estudiantes de medicina. +Es una especie cercana a los humanos, con varias ventajas sobre los ratones: Son gratis, no hay que afeitarlos, se alimentan solos, y nadie hace manifestaciones publicas diciendo: "Salven a los estudiantes de medicina de laboratorio". +Por tanto son realmente ideales. +Pero lo que encontramos fue que no podamos reproducir en el hombre los datos demostrados en ratones. +Pareca que no podamos detener la produccin de xido ntrico en la piel de los seres humanos. +Pusimos cremas para bloquear la enzima productora, inyectamos sustancias. Pero no podamos bloquear el xido ntrico. +que son ms estables, y realmente la piel tiene grandes depsitos de xido ntrico. +Entonces pensamos para nuestros adentros, si sera posible que la luz del sol activara esos grandes depsitos y los liberara de la piel, donde los depsitos son cerca de 10 veces ms grandes que lo que est en la circulacin. +Podra el sol activar esos depsitos hacia la circulacin, y all en la circulacin aportar sus beneficios para el sistema cardiovascular? +Bueno, soy un dermatlogo experimental, as que lo que hicimos fue pensar que tenamos que exponer a nuestros conejillos de indias a la luz solar. +Entonces tomamos un montn de voluntarios y los expusimos a la luz ultravioleta. +Bueno, stas son como lmparas de sol. +Ahora, fuimos cuidadosos con lo siguiente: la vitamina D es producida por rayos ultravioletas B y queramos separar nuestra estudio del estudio de la vitamina D. +Por tanto usamos rayos ultravioleta A, que no producen vitamina D. +Cuando pusimos a las personas bajo una lmpara por el equivalente de unos 30 minutos de sol de verano en Edimburgo, lo que produjimos fue un aumento en la circulacin de xido ntrico. +O sea que al poner pacientes bajo radiacin UV, sus niveles de xido ntrico subieron, y su presin arterial descendi. +No por mucho, a nivel individual, pero lo suficiente a nivel poblacional, como para cambiar las tasas de enfermedad cardaca en el conjunto de la poblacin. +Cuando les dirigimos los rayos ultravioleta, o cuando los calentamos al mismo nivel que las lmparas, pero sin dejar que los rayos alcanzaran la piel, eso no sucedi. +Al parecer es una caracterstica de los rayos ultravioleta al alcanzar la piel. +Ahora, todava estamos recopilando datos. +Hay algunas cosas buenas en esto: Parece ser que el efecto se acenta en las personas mayores. +No s exactamente cunto. +Uno de los sujetos aqu fue mi suegra, y evidentemente no s su edad. . +Pero ciertamente en personas mayores que mi esposa, parece haber un efecto ms marcado. +Otra cosa que debo mencionar es que no hubo cambios en la vitamina D. +Esto es independiente de la vitamina D. +Por tanto la vitamina D es buena. Detiene el raquitismo y previene el metabolismo del calcio, aspectos importantes. +Pero este es un mecanismo independiente de la vitamina D. +Ahora, mirando la presin arterial vemos que el cuerpo hace todo lo posible para mantener la presin arterial en el mismo nivel. +Si uno se cercena una pierna y pierde sangre, el cuerpo reacciona, aumenta la frecuencia cardaca, hace todo lo posible para mantener la presin arterial. +Es un principio fisiolgico absolutamente fundamental. +Lo que hicimos a continuacin fue estudiar la dilatacin de los vasos sanguneos. +Hemos medido... Este es otra vez, noten sin cola y sin pelo, se trata de un estudiante de medicina. +Se puede medir el flujo sanguneo en el brazo midiendo cunto se hincha mientras le fluye la sangre. +Y lo que hemos demostrado es que cuando hacemos una irradiacin simulada la lnea gruesa aqu Esta es ultravioleta sobre el brazo, se calienta, pero lo mantenemos cubierto para evitar que los rayos alcancen la piel. +No hay ningn cambio en el flujo sanguneo, en la dilatacin de los vasos sanguneos. +Pero la irradiacin activa, durante la radiacin ultravioleta y por una hora despus, hay dilatacin de los vasos sanguneos. +Este es el mecanismo por el que la presin arterial baja, por el que se dilatan las arterias coronarias tambin, para que el corazn siga suministrando sangre. +Aqu hay ms datos sobre los beneficios de los rayos ultravioleta, o sea de la luz solar, sobre el flujo sanguneo y el sistema cardiovascular. +Pensamos que habamos logrado una especie de modelo. Diferentes cantidades de UV alcanzan diferentes partes de la Tierra en diferentes pocas del ao, as se pueden activar esos depsitos de xido ntrico, los nitratos, nitritos, tionitritos en la piel, y descomponerlos para liberar NO. +Diferentes longitudes de onda de luz tienen diferentes mecanismos para hacer esto. +Se pueden ver las diferentes longitudes de onda de la luz que hacen eso. +Se puede ver que si uno vive en el ecuador, el sol viene directo sobre la cabeza, y nos llega a travs de una capa muy delgada de atmsfera. +En invierno o verano, es la misma cantidad de luz. +Si Uds. viven aqu, en verano el sol llega directamente hacia abajo, pero en invierno llega a travs de una enorme cantidad de atmsfera, que abserbe gran parte de la luz ultravioleta de modo que la gama de longitudes de onda que alcanza la Tierra es diferente en verano y en invierno. +Por tanto, se pueden multiplicar esos datos por el xido ntrico liberado y se puede calcular cunto xido ntrico se libera en la piel para ir a la circulacin. +Ahora, si uno est en el ecuador entre estas dos lneas aqu, la roja y la violeta la cantidad de xido ntrico liberado es el rea bajo la curva, es el rea en este espacio aqu. +As, en el ecuador, en diciembre o junio, se puede liberar grandes cantidades xido ntrico en la piel. +Ventura est el sur de California. +En verano, es como en el ecuador. +Es genial, se liberan montones de NO. +Ventura, en pleno invierno, bueno, todava hay una cantidad suficiente... +Edimburgo en verano, el rea bajo la curva es bastante buena, pero ah mismo en invierno, la cantidad de NO que se puede liberar es prcticamente nula, cantidades muy pequeas. +Entonces qu decimos? +Todava estamos trabajando en este estudio, todava lo estamos desarrollando, lo estamos expandindo. +Creemos que esto es muy importante, +Que probablemente esta sea parte de la razn de la gran diferencia de salud entre el norte y el sur de Gran Bretaa Es de importancia para nosotros. +Pensamos que la piel,.. Bueno, sabemos que la piel tiene depsitos muy grandes de xido ntrico as como otras varias formas. +Sospechamos que muchas de ellas provienen de la dieta; verduras de hoja verde, remolacha, lechuga, tienen bastante de estos xidos ntricos que pensamos, van a la piel. +Creemos entonces que estn depositados en la piel, y creemos que la luz del sol los libera. en donde generalmente tienen efectos beneficiosos. +Se trata de trabajos en curso, pero los dermatlogos... Quiero decir, yo soy dermatlogo. +Mi trabajo diario es decirle a la gente,"Usted tiene cncer de piel, causada por la luz solar, as que no se exponga al sol". +Realmente pienso en un mensaje mucho ms importante, y es que la luz solar presenta tanto beneficios como riesgos. +S, la luz solar es el principal factor de riesgo modificable en el cncer de piel, pero las muertes por enfermedades del corazn son cien veces ms altas que las muertes por cncer de piel. +Creo que necesitamos ser ms conscientes de ello, y tenemos que encontrar la relacin riesgo-beneficio. +Cunta luz solar es segura? Y cul es la mejor manera de ajustar esto para nuestra salud general? +Entonces, sinceramente, muchas gracias. +Quiero hablarles de dos cosas esta noche. +Primero: Ensear ciruga y hacerla es realmente difcil. +Y segundo, que el lenguaje es una de las cosas ms profundas que nos separa en todas partes. +En mi pequeo rincn del mundo, estas dos cosas estn ntimamente relacionadas y esta noche quiero contarles de qu forma. +Bien, nadie quiere una operacin. +A quin aqu le han hecho ciruga? +La queran? +Tengan sus manos arriba si queran esa operacin. +Nadie quiere una operacin. +En particular, nadie quiere una operacin con herramientas como estas, con grandes incisiones, que causan mucho dolor, que nos separa por un buen tiempo del trabajo o de la escuela, y deja una gran cicatriz. +Pero si deben operarse, lo que realmente querrn es una operacin mnimamente invasiva. +De eso es lo que quiero hablarles esta noche; cmo realizar este tipo de ciruga y ensear a hacerla, nos llev a la bsqueda de un mejor traductor universal. +Este tipo de ciruga es difcil; comienza por anestesiar al paciente, se pone dixido de carbono en el abdomen, se infla como un globo, se introduce una de estas cosas puntiagudas y afiladas. Son cosas bastante peligrosas; se toman los instrumentos y se ven en la pantalla. +Miren como se ve. +Esta es una ciruga de vescula biliar. +Realizamos un milln de estas por ao solo en Estados Unidos. +Esta es de verdad. No hay sangre. +Y pueden ver cmo estn de embebidos los cirujanos, cmo se concentran. +Lo pueden ver en sus caras. +Esto es muy difcil de ensear y ms difcil aun de aprender. +Se realizan cerca de cinco millones de estas operaciones en los EE.UU. y quizs 20 millones en todo el mundo. +Muy bien, todos hemos odo la expresin: "Es un cirujano nato". +Djenme decirles, no se nace cirujano. +Tampoco se hacen. +No hay pequeos tanques para hacer cirujanos. +Los cirujanos se entrenan paso a paso. +Se comienza con lo fundamental, las habilidades bsicas. +Partimos de eso y llevamos a las personas, con suerte, a la sala de operaciones donde aprenden a ser asistentes. +Luego les enseamos a ser aprendices de cirujanos. +Y cuando han hecho eso por unos cinco aos, obtienen la deseada certificacin profesional. +Si necesitan ciruga, querrn ser operados por un cirujano profesional certificado. +Los que obtienen su certificado profesional pueden salir a practicar. +Y, finalmente, si tienen suerte, alcanzarn la maestra. +Los fundanentos son tan importantes que algunos de nosotros, de la Sociedad de Ciruga General , la ms grande en los EE. UU., empezamos a finales de los 90, un programa de entrenamiento, que garantiza que todo cirujano que practica ciruga mnimamente invasiva, tiene unas bases slidas de conocimientos y habilidades necesarias para salir a realizar esos procedimientos. +La ciencia tras esto es tan potente, que ahora es una exigencia del Consejo Estadounidense de Ciruga , que los jvenes cirujanos obtengan la certificacin profesional. +No es una conferencia, no es un curso, es todo eso ms una completa evaluacin a fondo. +Es difcil. +El ao pasado, uno de nuestros socios, el Colegio Americano de Cirujanos, se uni a nosotros para hacer el anuncio de que todos los cirujanos deben estar certificados en los fundamentos de ciruga laparoscpica antes de realizar una ciruga mnimamente invasiva. +Y estamos hablando solo de Estados Unidos y Canad? +No, dijimos todos los cirujanos. +Llevar este tipo de educacin y entrenamiento a todo el mundo es una tarea muy grande con la que me siento muy entusiasmado pues viajamos por todo el mundo. +SAGES realiza cirugas en todas partes enseando y formando cirujanos. +Pero uno de los principales problemas es la distancia. +No podemos viajar a todos lados. +Tenemos que hacer del mundo un lugar ms pequeo. +Y creo que podemos desarrollar algunas herramientas para lograrlo. +Una de las herramientas que ms me gusta es el video. +Me inspir un amigo. +Este es Allan Okrainec de Toronto. +l ha demostrado que se puede ensear a hacer ciruga usando videoconferencias. +Aqu est Allan ensendole a un cirujano de habla inglesa en frica las habilidades bsicas fundamentales, necesarias para realizar cirugas mnimamente invasivas. +Muy inspirador. +Pero para el examen, que es bien difcil, tenemos un problema. +Incluso los que dicen que hablan ingls, solo aprueban el 14%. +Porque para ellos, no es una prueba de ciruga, sino una prueba de ingls. +Veamos como es esto a nivel local. +Yo trabajo en el Cambridge Hospital. +Es el centro de enseanza principal de la Escuela de Medicina de Harvard +Tenemos ms de 100 traductores que cubren 63 idiomas y gastamos millones de dlares solo en nuestro pequeo hospital. +Es un gran esfuerzo de muchas personas. +Si piensan en el problema a nivel mundial, de tratar de hablarle a los pacientes; no se trata solo de ensear a los cirujanos sino tambin de hablarle a los pacientes -- no hay suficientes traductores en el mundo. +Tenemos que emplear la tecnologa para que nos ayude en esta bsqueda. +En nuestro hospital vemos de todo; desde profesores de Harvard hasta gente que lleg la semana pasada. +Y no tienen idea de lo difcil que es hablarle a alguien o tratar a una persona con quien no puedes comunicarte. +Y no siempre hay un traductor disponible. +As que necesitamos herramientas. +Necesitamos un traductor universal. +Una de las cosas que quiero que piensen si van a reflexionar sobre esta charla es que no estamos simplemente predicando por todo el mundo. +En realidad se trata de establecer un dilogo. +Tenemos mucho que aprender. +Aqu en Estados Unidos gastamos ms dinero por persona, para obtener unos resultados que no son mejores que los de otros pases. +Quizs tambin tenemos algo que aprender. +Me apasiona ensear estas habilidades de FLS por todo el mundo. +El ao pasado estuve en Latinoamrica y en China, hablando sobre los fundamentos de la ciruga laparoscpica. +Y dondequiera que iba, la barrera era: "Queremos esto, pero lo necesitamos en nuestro idioma". +Esto es lo que creo que vamos a hacer: Imagnense dar una conferencia y poder hablarle a la gente en su propio idioma. +Quiero hablarle a la gente de Asia, de Latinoamrica, de frica, de Europa perfectamente, con precisin, de manera costeable, utilizando tecnologa. +Tiene que ser bidireccional. +Esas personas tambin tienen que poder ensearnos algo. +Es una tarea grande. +Entonces buscamos un traductor universal, pensamos que tena que existir. +Tu pgina web est traducida, lo mismo tu telfono celular, pero no hay nada adecuado para ensear ciruga. +Es que necesitamos un lxico. Y qu es un lxico? +Un lxico es el conjunto de palabras relacionadas con un tema. +Necesitamos un lxico de la salud. +Y dentro de esto, necesitamos un lxico para ciruga. +Es una tarea difcil. Tenemos que trabajarle. +Les dir lo que estamos haciendo. +Esta es una investigacin; no se puede comprar. +Estamos trabajando con investigadores del Centro de Accesibilidad de IBM para unir tecnologas y trabajar hacia el traductor universal. +Comienza con un sistema estructural que sirve para que, cuando el cirujano dicta una conferencia utilizando tecnologa de subttulos, se le aada otra tecnologa para hacer videoconferencias. +Pero como no tenemos todava texto, hay que aadir una tercera tecnologa. +Ahora s tenemos las palabras, y podemos aplicar la salsa especial: la traduccin. +Con las palabras en una ventana podemos aplicar la magia. +Trabajamos con una cuarta tecnologa. +Y actualmente tenemos acceso a once pares de idiomas. +Seguimos progresando a medida que avanzamos en hacer del mundo un lugar ms pequeo. +Quisiera mostrarles ahora el prototipo logrado al unir todas estas tecnologas que no siempre se comunican entre s para lograr algo til. +: Fundamentos de Ciruga Laparoscpica. +Mdulo cinco: prctica de habilidades manuales +Los estudiantes pueden ver los subttulos en su idioma nativo. +(Steven Schwaitzberg): Si usted est en Amrica Latina haga clic en el botn "Lo quiero en espaol" y aparecer en espaol en tiempo real. +Pero si al mismo tiempo se est viendo en Beijing, mediante el uso de esta tecnologa constructiva, podra tenerlo en mandarn o en ruso, etc., simultneamente, sin el uso de traductores humanos. +Pero eso son las conferencias. +Recordemos lo que dije al principio sobre el FLS; se trata de conocimientos y habilidades. +La diferencia entre hacer una operacin exitosa y otra que no lo es puede ser un movimiento de manos como esto. +As que vamos a dar un paso ms all. Traje de nuevo a mi amigo Allan. +(Allan Okrainec): Hoy vamos a practicar la sutura. +Esta es la forma de sostener la aguja. +Tome la aguja por la punta. +Es importante ser preciso. +Apunte a los puntos negros. +Oriente el lazo de esta manera +siga adelante y corte. +Muy bien Oscar. Nos vemos la semana que viene. +Bueno, es en esto en lo que estamos trabajando en nuestra bsqueda del traductor universal. +Queremos que sea bidireccional. +Necesitamos aprender y a la vez ensear. +Se me ocurren un milln de usos para una herramienta como esta. +Mientras pensamos en combinar tecnologas -- todo el mundo tiene un telfono celular con cmara -- podramos utilizar esto en todas partes, ya se trate de salud, atencin al paciente, ingeniera, derecho, discusiones, traduccin de vdeos. +Esta es una herramienta omnipresente. +Con el fin de romper barreras, tenemos que aprender a hablar con la gente, exigir que las personas trabajen en la traduccin. +Lo necesitamos para nuestra vida cotidiana, con el fin de hacer del mundo un lugar ms pequeo. +Muchas gracias. +El tema de mi charla hoy es: "S un artista, ahora mismo". +Cuando se saca este tema, la mayora de la gente se pone nerviosa y se resiste: "El arte no me da de comer, y ahora mismo estoy ocupado. +Tengo que ir a clase, buscar trabajo, llevar a mis hijos al colegio..." Piensas, "Estoy muy ocupado, no tengo tiempo para el arte". +Hay cientos de razones por las que no podemos ser artistas ahora mismo. +No les vienen a la cabeza? +Hay tantas razones por las que no podemos serlo, de hecho, no estamos seguros de por qu deberamos serlo. +No sabemos por qu debemos ser artistas, pero tenemos muchas razones por las que no podemos serlo. +Por qu la gente se resiste instantneamente a asociarse con el arte? +Quizs piensan que el arte es para la gente muy inteligente o para los que han recibido una buena formacin profesional. +Y algunos quiz crean que se han alejado demasiado del arte. +Puede que sea cierto, pero yo no lo creo. +Este es el tema de mi charla hoy. +Todos somos artistas natos. +Si tienen hijos, saben de lo que hablo. +Casi todo lo que hacen los nios es arte. +Dibujan en las paredes con lpices de colores. +Bailan el baile de Son Dam Bi en la tele, pero ni siquiera puedes llamarlo el baile de Son Dam Bi, se convierte en el baile del nio. +Bailan una danza extraa y tenemos que escucharlos cantar. +Puede que su arte sea algo que solo sus padres soporten, y como practican este arte todo el da, la gente se cansa un poco con los nios. +Los nios a veces representan pequeos dramas: jugar a las casitas es desde luego una obra teatral. +Y algunos cros, cuando crecen un poco, empiezan a mentir. +Normalmente los padres se acuerdan de la primera vez que su hijo minti. +Se quedan atnitos. +"Ahora veo cmo eres", dice la madre y piensa: por qu se parece a su padre?". +Le pregunta al nio: "Qu clase de persona sers?" +Pero no deben preocuparse. +El momento en el que los nios empiezan a mentir es cuando comienza la narracin. +Estn hablando de cosas que no han visto. +Es increble. Es un momento maravilloso. +Los padres deberan celebrarlo. +"Hurra! Mi hijo ha empezado por fin a mentir!" +Es cierto! Merece una celebracin. +Por ejemplo, un nio dice: "Mam, adivina qu? Me encontr con un extraterrestre de camino a casa". +Y la madre tpica responde: "Djate de tonteras". +Pero un progenitor ideal sera el que le contestara algo as: "S? Un extraterrestre? Cmo era?, te dijo algo? +Dnde te lo encontraste?" "Ehhh?, enfrente del supermercado?" +Cuando tienes una conversacin como esta, el nio tiene que pensar en algo que decir para poder seguir lo que ha empezado. +Y pronto, se desarrolla una historia. +Por supuesto es una historia infantil, pero tener que pensar en una frase tras otra es lo mismo que hace un escritor profesional como yo. +En esencia, no es distinto. +Roland Barthes dijo una vez sobre las novelas de Flaubert: "Flaubert no escribi una novela, +simplemente conect una frase tras otra. +El eros entre lneas, esa es la esencia de la novela de Flaubert". +Es cierto, una novela es bsicamente escribir una frase, y luego, sin transgredir el alcance de esta, escribir la siguiente. +Y continas conectndolas. +Consideren esta frase: "Cuando Gregorio Samsa despert aquella maana luego de un agitado sueo, se encontr en su cama convertido en un insecto monstruoso". +S, es la primera frase de "La metamorfosis", de Franz Kafka. +Al escribir una frase tan injustificable como esta y continuar para poder justificarla, la obra de Kafka se convirti en una obra maestra de la literatura contempornea. +Kafka no le ense su trabajo a su padre. +No se llevaban bien. +Escribi este libro completamente solo. +Si lo hubiese hecho, su padre probablemente hubiese pensado: "Mi hijo se ha vuelto loco". +Y es cierto. El arte consiste en volverse un poco loco y justificar la siguiente frase, lo que no se diferencia mucho de lo que hace un nio. +Un nio que empieza a mentir ha dado su primer paso como narrador. +Los nios crean arte. +No se cansan y se divierten hacindolo. +Hace unos das fui a la isla de Jeju. +A la mayora de los nios, cuando van a la playa, les encanta jugar en el agua. +Pero algunos pasan mucho tiempo en la arena, haciendo montaas y ocanos... bueno, ocanos no, pero cosas distintas: gente, perros, etc. +Y sus padres les dicen que las olas los destrozarn. +En otras palabras, que es intil. +Un esfuerzo innecesario. +Pero a los nios no les importa, +se divierten y continan jugando en la arena. +No lo hacen porque alguien les haya mandado. +Ni su jefe, ni nadie, simplemente lo hacen. +Cuando eran pequeos, seguro que pasaban tiempo disfrutando del placer del arte primitivo. +Cuando les pido a mis alumnos que escriban sobre su momento ms feliz, muchos lo hacen sobre una experiencia artstica que tuvieron de nios, +como aprender a tocar el piano y tocar con un amigo a cuatro manos, o representar una stira ridcula con sus amigos en la que parecan idiotas, cosas as. +O el momento que revelaron la primera pelcula que grabaron con una cmara vieja. +Hablan de este tipo de experiencias. +Todos hemos tenido momentos as. +Y, en ese momento, el arte nos hace felices porque no es trabajo. +El trabajo no nos hace felices, verdad? Generalmente es arduo. +El escritor francs Michel Tournier tiene una frase conocida, +algo pcara, de hecho: +"El trabajo cansa, lo que es prueba de que va contra la naturaleza humana". +Verdad? Por qu habra de cansarnos el trabajo si fuese natural? +El ocio no nos cansa. +Podemos pasar toda la noche jugando. +Si trabajamos de noche, tienen que pagarnos horas extras. +Por qu? Porque es agotador. +Pero los nios normalmente crean arte para divertirse. Es un juego. +No dibujan para vendrselo a un cliente, ni tocan el piano para ganar el sustento para la familia. +Desde luego, hay nios que tuvieron que hacerlo. +Conocen a este caballero, verdad? +Tuvo que recorrer toda Europa para ganar dinero para su familia, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, pero eso fue hace siglos, as que podemos considerarlo una excepcin. +Desgraciadamente, en algn momento nuestro arte, ese pasatiempo tan agradable, se acaba. +Los nios tienen que ir al colegio, hacer los deberes y por supuesto ir a clases de piano o ballet, pero ya no son divertidas. +Te obligan a ir y es muy competitivo. Cmo puede ser divertido? +Si ests en primaria y an dibujas en las paredes, seguro que tu madre te regaar. +Adems, si continas comportndote como un artista cuando creces, sentirs que la presin aumenta: la gente cuestionar tus actos y te pedir que te comportes correctamente. +Esta es mi historia: cuando estaba en octavo curso, me inscrib en un concurso de dibujo en el colegio en Gyeongbokgung. +Estaba hacindolo lo mejor que poda y mi profesor se acerc y me pregunt: "Qu haces?" +"Me estoy esmerando en hacer este dibujo", dije. +"Por qu usas solo el color negro?" +Es cierto, estaba coloreando ansiosamente el cuaderno de dibujo en negro. +Le expliqu: "Es una noche oscura y hay un cuervo posado en una rama". +Y mi profesor contest: "De verdad? Bueno, Young-ha, puede que no seas bueno en dibujo, pero tienes talento para la narracin". +O eso es lo que me gustara que me hubiese respondido. +"Ahora vers, mocoso!", fue la respuesta. "Te has metido en un buen lo!", dijo. +Supuestamente tenamos que dibujar el palacio de Gyeongbokgung, el Pabelln Gyeonghoeru, etc., pero yo estaba pintndolo todo en negro, as que me sac del grupo. +Haba muchas chicas, as que me sent completamente mortificado. +Mis explicaciones y excusas no sirvieron de nada, y me llev un buen castigo. +Si hubiese sido un profesor ideal, hubiese respondido como les mencion antes, "Puede que Young-ha no tenga talento para dibujar, pero tiene un don para inventar historias", y me hubiese animado a hacerlo. +Pero es raro encontrar un profesor as. +Ms adelante, cuando crec y fui a los museos europeos estaba en la universidad y pens que era muy injusto. +Miren lo que encontr. Obras como esta estaban expuestas en Basilea mientras a m me castigaban a estar de pie enfrente del palacio con el dibujo en la boca. +Mrenlo, no parece papel de empapelar? +El arte contemporneo, como descubr ms tarde, no se explica con una excusa pobre como la ma. No se inventa uno cuervos. +La mayora de las obras no tienen ttulo; Sin ttulo. +En cualquier caso, el arte contemporneo del siglo XX consiste en hacer algo extrao y rellenar el vaco con explicaciones e interpretaciones, que es bsicamente lo que hice yo. +Por supuesto, mi trabajo era el de un aficionado, pero veamos otros ejemplos ms conocidos. +Esto es de Picasso. +Insert un manillar en un silln y lo llam "Cabeza de toro". Suena convincente, verdad? +El siguiente es un urinario, titulado "La Fuente". +Este es de Duchamp. +As que, rellenar los vacos entre una explicacin y un acto extrao con historias, de eso se trata el arte contemporneo. +Picasso incluso afirm: "No dibujo lo que veo, si no lo que pienso". +S, significa que yo no tena por qu dibujar el Palacio de Gyeonghoeru. +Deseara haber conocido esta cita de Picasso entonces, para poder defenderme ante mi profesor. +Desgraciadamente, los pequeos artistas que llevamos dentro, son estrangulados antes de tener la oportunidad de luchar contra los opresores del arte. +Se quedan encerrados. +Esa es nuestra tragedia. +Y, qu pasa cuando se encierra, se destierra o se asesina a esos pequeos artistas? +Nuestro deseo artstico no desaparece. +Queremos expresarnos, revelarnos, pero con el artista muerto, el deseo artstico se revela de una forma oscura. +En los karaokes, siempre hay alguien que canta "She's gone" ("Se fue") u "Hotel California", haciendo que tocan la guitarra. +Normalmente suenan fatal. Realmente mal. +Algunos se convierten en roqueros de esta manera, +otros bailan en discotecas. +Gente que hubiese disfrutado contando historias acaban navegando por Internet toda la noche. +As el talento narrativo se acaba revelando en el lado oscuro. +A veces vemos a padres ms entusiasmados que sus hijos jugando con Legos o construyendo robots de plstico. +Dicen: "No lo toques, pap te lo construir". +El nio ha perdido el inters y est haciendo ya otra cosa, pero el padre construye castillos l solo. +Esto demuestra que los impulsos artsticos que llevamos dentro se reprimen, no desaparecen. +Pero a menudo pueden revelarse de una manera negativa, en forma de celos. +Conocen la cancin: "I would love to be on TV" ["Me gustara estar en la tele"]? Por qu nos gusta? +La televisin est llena de gente que ha hecho lo que nosotros hubisemos querido, pero nunca conseguimos hacer. +Bailan, actan, y cuanto ms lo hacen, ms elogios reciben. +As que empezamos a tener envidia. +Nos convertimos en dictadores con un mando a distancia y empezamos a criticar a la gente de la tele. +"No sabe actuar". "A eso le llama cantar?, desafina". +Decimos este tipo de cosas con facilidad. +Estamos celosos, no porque seamos malos, sino porque tenemos pequeos artistas reprimidos dentro de nosotros. +Eso es lo que pienso. +Qu debemos hacer entonces? +S, justamente. +Tenemos que empezar a crear nuestro propio arte, inmediatamente. +Ahora mismo, podemos apagar la tele, cerrar la sesin de Internet, levantarnos y empezar a hacer algo. +En la escuela de arte dramtico donde doy clase, hay un curso de teatro +en el que todos los alumnos tienen que representar una obra teatral. +Sin embargo, quienes tienen interpretacin como asignatura principal no pueden actuar. +Pueden escribir la obra, por ejemplo, y los escritores pueden trabajar en arte escnico. +Asimismo, los artistas escnicos pueden ser los actores, y as va la representacin. +Al principio, los alumnos se preguntan si sern capaces, pero luego se divierten. Es muy raro ver a alguien que no est contento representando una obra. +En clase, en el ejrcito o incluso en un psiquitrico, una vez fuerzas a la gente a actuar, lo disfrutan. +He visto esta situacin en el ejrcito: muchos se divierten representando obras teatrales. +Tengo otra experiencia que contar: durante mi clase de escritura, les doy a mis alumnos una tarea especial. +Tengo alumnos como Uds. en clase, muchos no se especializan en escribir. +Algunos tienen grados en arte o msica, y creen que no pueden escribir. +As que les doy unas hojas en blanco y un tema. +Puede ser algo sencillo como: escriban sobre la peor experiencia que tuvieron en su infancia. +Pero hay una condicin: escribir sin parar. Como locos! +Camino por la clase y los animo: "vamos, vamos!" Tienen que escribir sin parar durante una o dos horas. +Solo les doy cinco minutos para pensar. +La razn por la que les hago escribir sin parar es porque cuando escribes despacio y te vienen montones de cosas a la cabeza, el diablo artstico se cuela a hurtadillas. +Y te dar cientos de razones por las que no puedes escribir: "la gente se reir de ti. Esta redaccin no es buena! +Qu clase de frase es esta? Mira que caligrafa!" +Te dir muchas cosas. +Tienes que ir deprisa para que el diablo no te pille. +Las mejores redacciones que he visto en clase no son de las tareas con un plazo de entrega amplio, sino las de 40 o 60 minutos en las que los alumnos escriben sin parar delante de m con un lpiz. +Entran en una especie de trance. +Despus de 30 o 40 minutos ya no saben ni lo que escriben. +Y en ese momento, aparece el molesto diablo. +As que esto es lo que les digo: no son las cientos de razones por la que no podemos ser artistas, si no la nica por la que debemos serlo la que nos convierte en artistas. +El porqu no podemos ser algo no es lo importante. +La mayora de los artistas lo son por esa nica razn. +Cuando sacamos el diablo de nuestro corazn y empezamos a crear nuestro arte propio, los enemigos llegan desde fuera. +En general, tienen la cara de nuestros padres. A veces se parecen a nuestras parejas, pero no son ni nuestros padres ni nuestras parejas. +Son diablos. Diablos. +Vinieron a la Tierra transformados brevemente para evitar que seamos artsticos, que nos convirtamos en artistas. +Y tienen una pregunta mgica. +Cuando decimos: "Creo que voy a intentar actuar, hay una escuela de arte dramtico en el centro comunitario", o "Me gustara aprender canciones en italiano", nos preguntan: "Ah s?, una obra?, para qu?" +La pregunta mgica es: "Para qu?". +Pero el arte no es para algo. +El arte es el objetivo final. +Salva nuestras almas y hace que vivamos ms felices. +Nos ayuda a expresarnos y a ser felices sin la ayuda del alcohol o las drogas. +As que la respuesta a una pregunta tan prctica como esta es: tenemos que ser atrevidos. +"Bueno, para divertirme. Lo siento por pasarlo bien sin ti", es lo que deberais decir. "Voy a hacerlo de todas formas". +Imagino un futuro ideal donde todos tenemos mltiples identidades, por lo menos una de las cuales es la de un artista. +Una vez en Nueva York me sub en el asiento trasero de un taxi, y justo all mismo haba algo relacionado con una obra de teatro. +As que le pregunt al taxista: "Qu es esto?" +Me dijo que era su perfil. "A qu te dedicas entonces?", le pregunt. "Soy actor", me contest. +Era taxista y actor. Le pregunt: "qu papeles haces normalmente?" +Muy orgulloso, me dijo que haca del rey Lear. +El rey Lear. +"Quin puede decirme quin soy?"... una gran lnea del rey Lear. +Ese es el mundo con el que sueo. +Alguien que es golfista de da y escritor de noche. +O taxista y actor, banquero y pintor, que crea su propio arte, en pblico o en privado. +En 1990, Martha Graham, le leyenda de la danza moderna, vino a Corea. +La gran artista, que ya pasaba de los 90, lleg al Aeropuerto de Gimpo y un reportero le hizo una pregunta tpica: "Qu hay que hacer para convertirse en una gran bailarina? +Algn consejo para los aspirantes coreanos a bailarines?". +Era una maestra. Esta foto es de 1948 y ya era entonces una artista aclamada. +En 1990, le hicieron esta pregunta. +Y ella contest: "Solo hazlo". +Vaya! Me emocion. +Solo eso y se fue del aeropuerto. Eso es todo. +As que, qu hacemos ahora? +Seamos artistas, ahora mismo. Sin ms demora. Cmo? +Solo hazlo! +Gracias. +Les voy a contar una historia. +Es mi primer ao como profesor de ciencias en la escuela secundaria y estoy muy ansioso. +Muy entusiasmado, dando todo de m en la planificacin de las lecciones. +Pero de a poco estoy llegando a la conclusin espantosa de que tal vez mis alumnos no estn aprendiendo nada. +Un da pasa esto: Le di a la clase un captulo del libro de texto para leer sobre mi tema favorito de toda la biologa: los virus y cmo es que atacan. +Me entusiasmaba discutir esto con ellos, y llego y pregunto: "Alguien puede explicarme la idea principal y por qu es tan genial?" +Silencio total. +Finalmente, mi alumna favorita me mira directamente a los ojos, y dice, "La lectura estuvo espantosa". +Y luego aclar diciendo. "Usted sabe, no quiero decir que sea espantosa. Sino que no entend una sola palabra. +Es aburrida. Um, a quin le importa, es espantosa". +Oigo sonrisas cmplices por todo el saln, y me doy cuenta de que el resto de mis alumnos estn en la misma situacin y que quizs tomaron notas o memorizaron definiciones del libro pero ninguno realmente entendi la idea principal. +Ninguno de ellos puede decirme por qu esto es tan genial y por qu es tan importante. +Estoy completamente desconcertado. +No tengo idea de qu hacer. +Entonces lo nico que se me ocurre es decir, "Escuchen. Les voy a contar una historia. +Los personajes principales de la historia son bacterias y virus. +Estos muchachos explotan un par de millones de veces. +Las verdaderas bacterias y virus son tan pequeos que no se pueden ver sin un microscopio, y tal vez ustedes conocen las bacterias y los virus porque ambos nos enferman. +Pero lo que muchos no saben es que los virus tambin enferman a las bacterias". +Ahora, la historia que empiezo a contarle a mis alumnos empieza como una historia de terror. +Haba una vez una pequea bacteria feliz. +No se encarien mucho con ella. +Probablemente est flotando en su estmago o en alguna comida estropeada, y de pronto, no se empieza a sentir muy bien. +Quizs almorz algo en mal estado, y entonces las cosas se ponen realmente mal cuando su piel se desgarra y ve un virus salir de sus entraas. +Y luego se pone muy feo cuando estalla y un ejrcito de virus se desborda desde sus entraas. +Si, Correcto, ouch! Si ven esto, y son una bacteria, esta vendra a ser su peor pesadilla. +Pero si son un virus y ven esto, crucen las piernitas y piensen, "Somos lo mximo". +Porque tom mucho trabajo infectar a esta bacteria. +Esto es lo que tuvo que suceder. +Un virus se aferr a una bacteria y meti su ADN en ella. +Despus de eso, el ADN de ese virus hizo cosas que rompieron el ADN de la bacteria. +Y ahora que nos deshicimos del ADN de la bacteria, el ADN del virus toma el control de la clula y le ordena que comience a producir ms virus. +Porque, vern, el ADN es como un plano que le dice a los seres vivientes lo que deben producir. +Esto es un poco como ir a una fbrica de autos y reemplazar los planos con los de robots asesinos. +Al da siguiente los trabajadores vuelven, hacen su trabajo, pero ahora siguen instrucciones diferentes. +Entonces reemplazar el ADN de la bacteria con el del virus convierte a la bacteria en una fbrica de virus, es decir, hasta que se llene de virus y estalle. +Pero esa no es la nica forma en la que un virus infecta una bacteria. +Algunos son mucho ms astutos. +Cuando un virus agente secreto infecta una bacteria, hacen un poco de espionaje. +Aqu, este virus agente secreto encubierto est infiltrando su ADN en clulas bacterianas, pero aqu est lo curioso: no hace nada daino, al menos al principio. +En cambio, se infiltra silenciosamente en el ADN de la bacteria, y solo se queda all como una clula terrorista durmiente aguardando instrucciones. +Y lo interesante es que cuando esta bacteria tiene hijos, esos hijos tambin tienen dentro el ADN del virus. +As que ahora tenemos toda una gran familia de bacterias llena de clulas de virus durmientes. +Viven all felizmente hasta que llega una seal y Bam! todo el ADN se desparrama. +Toma el control de esas clulas y las convierte en fbricas de virus y todas estallan, toda una gran familia de bacterias muriendo con virus que salen de sus tripas, virus que toman el control de las bacterias. +Ahora entienden cmo es que los virus atacan las clulas. +Hay dos formas: a la izquierda, lo llamamos el ciclo ltico, en el cual los virus entran y toman el control de las clulas. +Y a la [derecha] el ciclo lisognico que usa virus agentes secretos. +No es tan difcil, verdad? +Y ahora todos ustedes lo entienden. +Pero si se han graduado de la secundaria, les puedo casi garantizar que ya han visto esta informacin. +Pero apuesto a que se la presentaron de un modo que no les qued exactamente guardado en la cabeza. +Entonces cuando mis alumnos comenzaron a aprender esto, por qu lo odiaban tanto? +Bien, hubo un par de razones. +En primer lugar, les puedo asegurar que sus libros de texto no decan nada de virus agentes secretos, y no tenan historias de terror. +Ya saben, en la comunicacin de la ciencia hay cierta obsesin con la seriedad. +Me mata. No estoy bromeando. +Sola trabajar para una editorial educativa, y como escritor, siempre se me dijo que nunca usara historias, bromas o lenguaje atractivo, porque entonces mi trabajo podra no verse "serio" y "cientfico". +Verdad? Es decir, porque Dios prohbe divertirse cuando se aprende ciencia. +Tenemos este rama de la ciencia donde todo es acerca de baba y cambios de colores. Miren esto. +Y luego tenemos, por supuesto, como cualquier buen cientfico debe tener, explosiones! +Pero si un libro de texto parece demasiado divertido, de alguna forma es no cientfico. +Otro problema es que el lenguaje de los libros de texto era realmente incomprensible. +Si queremos resumir la historia que recin les cont, podramos comenzar diciendo algo como, "Estos virus hacen copias de s mismos infiltrando su ADN en una bacteria". +El modo en que esto apareca en el libro era ms o menos as: "La reproduccin bacterifaga se inicia mediante la introduccin de cido nuclico viral en una bacteria". +Genial, perfecto para alumnos de 13 aos. +Pero este es el problema. Hay muchsima gente en la educacin cientfica que leera esto y dira que no hay forma de presentarle esto a los estudiantes porque contiene cierto lenguaje que no es completamente preciso. +Por ejemplo, les dije que los virus tienen ADN. +Bien, una fraccin muy pequea de ellos no lo tienen. +En cambio, tienen algo que se llama ARN. +Entonces un escritor cientfico profesional subrayara eso y dira, "Esto hay que sacarlo. +Tenemos que cambiarlo por algo mucho ms tcnico". +Y despus de que un equipo de editores cientficos profesionales hayan revisado esta explicacin tan sencilla, encontraran errores en casi todas las palabras que he usado, y tendran que cambiar todo lo que no fuese lo suficientemente serio, y todo lo que no fuese 100 % perfecto. +En ese caso sera correcto, pero completamente imposible de entender. +Esto es horrible. +Saben, yo sigo hablando de esta idea de contar una historia, y es como si la comunicacin cientfica hubiese adoptado esta idea de lo que yo llamo la tirana de la precisin, donde no se puede simplemente contar una historia. +Es como si la ciencia se hubiese convertido en ese horrible narrador que todos conocemos, que nos da detalles que a nadie le interesan, algo como, "Ah, me encontr para almorzar con mi amiga el otro da, y ella llevaba unos jeans feos. +O sea, no eran realmente jeans, sino ms bien leggings, pero, como, supongo que eran algo as como jeggings, como, pero creo...", y uno piensa, "Ay, por Dios. +Cul es la idea?" +O peor an, la educacin cientfica se est convirtiendo en ese tipo que siempre dice, "De hecho". +Cierto? Y uno quisiera decir, "Oh, amigo, tuvimos que levantarnos en medio de la noche y conducir 160 km en completa oscuridad". +Y el tipo dice, "De hecho, fueron 160,93 km". +Y uno piensa, "De hecho, cllate! +Solo estoy tratando de contar una historia". +Porque la buena narrativa se basa en una buena conexin emotiva. +Tenemos que convencer al pblico de que lo que estamos diciendo es importante. +Pero es igual de importante saber qu detalles deberamos omitir para que la idea principal se entienda igual. +Me recuerda lo que dijo el arquitecto Mies van der Rohe, y parafraseo, cuando dijo que a veces uno debe mentir para decir la verdad. +Creo que esta opinin es especialmente relevante para la educacin cientfica. +Finalmente, con frecuencia me decepciono tanto cuando las personas piensan que estoy abogando por simplificar la ciencia. +Eso no es cierto. +Actualmente estoy haciendo un doctorado en el MIT, y entiendo perfectamente la importancia de una comunicacin cientfica detallada entre expertos, pero no cuando se est tratando de ensear a muchachos de 13 aos. +Si un estudiante joven piensa que todos los virus tienen ADN, eso no va a arruinar sus posibilidades de xito en ciencias. +Pero si un joven estudiante no puede entender nada de ciencia y aprende a odiarla porque suena siempre as, eso s arruinar sus posibilidades de xito. +Esto debe parar, y ojal que este cambio viniese de las instituciones ms importantes que estn perpetuando estos problemas, y les ruego, les suplico que paren ahora mismo. +Pero creo que es poco probable. +Somos muy afortunados de tener recursos como internet, donde podemos eludir estas instituciones de abajo hacia arriba. +Existe un creciente nmero de recursos en lnea que se dedican simplemente a explicar la ciencia de manera sencilla y comprensible. +Sueo con una pgina similar a Wikipedia que explique cualquier concepto cientfico imaginable en un lenguaje sencillo que cualquier alumno de secundaria pueda entender. +Y yo mismo paso la mayor parte de mi tiempo libre haciendo estos videos cientficos que publico en YouTube. +Explico el equilibrio qumico usando analogas de bailes escolares incmodos y hablo de pilas de combustibles con historias acerca de nios y nias en un campamento de verano. +Los comentarios que recibo a veces estn mal escritos y a menudo acompaados de "lolcats", pero an as son tan complacidos, tan agradecidos, que s que esta es la manera correcta de comunicar la ciencia. +An queda muchsimo trabajo por hacer, sin embargo, si ustedes estn involucrados en ciencia de alguna manera los insto a unirse a m. +Tomen una cmara, comiencen a escribir un blog, lo que sea, pero dejen de lado la seriedad, dejen de lado la jerga. +Hganme rer. Hagan que me importe. +Dejen de lado esos detalles molestos que a nadie le interesan y simplemente lleguen al punto. +Cmo deberan comenzar? +Por qu no dicen, "Oigan, les voy a contar una historia?" +Gracias. +Se trata de un costado oculto del mercado laboral. +Son las personas que necesitan trabajar de manera ultra flexible, si es que acaso trabajan. +Piensen, por ejemplo, en alguien que tiene una enfermedad recurrente pero impredecible, o alguien que est a cargo de un adulto mayor, o un padre con un nio que requiere cuidados. +Su disponibilidad de trabajo puede ser de "Pocas horas al da. +Quiz pueda trabajar maana, pero an no s si podr y cundo". +Y es extremadamente difcil para estas personas encontrar ese trabajo que a menudo tanto necesitan. +Eso es una tragedia porque hay empleadores que pueden usar grupos muy flexible de gente local reservados totalmente ad hoc cuando esa persona quiere trabajar. +Imaginen que administran un caf. +Es media maana, el lugar se est llenando. +Se viene un medioda agitado. +Si pudieran contar con dos trabajadores adicionales por 90 minutos a partir de la prxima hora los tomaran, pero tienen que ser confiables, y saber cmo funciona el negocio. +Tienen que estar disponibles a tarifas muy competitivas. +Tendran que ser contratables en pocos minutos. +En realidad, ninguna agencia de empleo quiere manejar ese tipo de cosas, as que saldrn del paso con falta de personal. +Y no ocurre slo con camareros, tambin sucede con hoteleros, minoristas, es cualquier persona que presta servicios al pblico o a empresas. +Hay muchas organizaciones que pueden usar estos grupos de personas muy flexibles, quiz una vez que hayan sido capacitados. +En este nivel del mercado laboral, lo que se necesita es un mercado de horas libres. +Y existen. As es como funcionan. +En este ejemplo, una distribuidora dijo: tenemos un pedido urgente que sacar del depsito maana por la maana. +Mustrame los recursos disponibles. +Encontr 31 trabajadores. +Las personas de esta pantalla realmente estn disponible maana en ese horario. +Todos estn localizables a tiempo para esta reserva. +Todos han definido los trminos bajo los cuales aceptan reservas. +Y esta reserva cumple con todos los parmetros de cada individuo. +Al hacer la reserva se cumplira con todas las normas. +Claro, todos han sido entrenados para trabajar en depsitos. +Se puede seleccionar tantos como se desee. +Pertenecen a varias agencias. +Se calcula la tarifa de cada persona para esta reserva en particular. +Y se monitorea su confiabilidad. +Las personas de confiabilidad comprobada, figurarn primeras. +Es probable que sean ms caros. +En una vista alternativa de este grupo de personas locales, muy flexibles, esta es una compaa de investigacin de mercado, y ha capacitado quiz a 25 personas locales en hacer entrevistas de calle. +Y tienen una nueva campaa. Quieren hacerla la prxima semana. +Y quieren ver cuntas de las personas que capacitaron estn disponibles a cada hora la semana entrante. +Luego decidirn cundo hacer las entrevistas de calle. +Pero, puede hacerse algo ms para este sector del mercado laboral? +Porque en este momento hay muchas personas que necesitan cualquier oportunidad que se presente. +Veamos el factor personal. +Pensemos en una mujer joven, de la base de la pirmide econmica, tiene muy pocas posibilidades de conseguir empleo, en qu actividad econmica podra, en teora, participar? +Bueno, podra trabajar por horas en un centro de llamadas, como recepcionista, en el correo. +Quiz le interesara brindar servicios locales a su comunidad: cuidar nios, hacer comisiones externas, cuidar mascotas. +Podra tener pertenencias que quisiera comerciar cuando no los necesite. +Podra tener un sof en la habitacin de enfrente del que deshacerse. +Podra tener una bici, una consola de videojuegos que usa a veces. +Quiz estn pensando, porque Uds. son todos afines a la web, s, y estamos en la era del consumo colaborativo, as que podra hacer todo eso en la Web. +Puede ir a Airbnb y publicar su sof, puede ir a TaskRabbit.com y decir: "Quiero hacer entregas locales", y cosas as. +Son buenos sitios, pero creo que podemos ir ms lejos. +Y la clave es una filosofa que llamamos mercados modernos para todos. +Los mercados han cambiado de manera irreconocible en los ltimos 20 aos; pero slo para las organizaciones de la cima de la economa. +Si eres un corredor de Wall Street, das por sentado que venders tus activos financieros en un sistema burstil que identifica las oportunidades ms rentables para ti en tiempo real, y que opera en microsegundos dentro de los mrgenes que definiste. +analiza oferta, demanda y precios y te dice por dnde viene la prxima ola de oportunidades. +Gestiona el riesgo de la contraparte de maneras muy sofisticadas. +Todo de modo extremadamente econmico. +Qu hemos ganado en la base de la economa en materia de mercados en los ltimos 20 aos? +Bsicamente, avisos clasificados con buen servicio de bsqueda. +Entonces, por qu existe esta disparidad entre estos mercados muy sofisticados de la cima de la economa, que distraen cada vez ms actividades y recursos de la economa principal y los vuelcan en este nivel enrarecido de intercambio y qu queda para el resto de nosotros? +Un mercado moderno es ms que un sitio web; es una red de mercados interoperables, mecanismos internos, marcos regulatorios, mecanismos de pago, fuentes de liquidez, etc. +Cuando un corredor de Wall Street llega al trabajo por la maana no hace una lista de todos los instrumentos financieros derivados que quiere vender hoy ni publica luego esa lista en varios sitios web y espera entrar en contacto con potenciales compradores, ni empieza a negociar los trminos del intercambio. +En los albores de la tecnologa de los mercados modernos las instituciones financieras elaboraron maneras de apalancar su poder de compra, sus procesos internos, sus relaciones, sus redes para dar forma a estos nuevos mercados que crearan esta nueva actividad. +Les pidieron a los gobiernos que apoyen marcos regulatorios y en muchos casos lo lograron. +Pero en toda la economa, hay estructuras que podran apalancar del mismo modo una nueva generacin de mercados en beneficio de todos. +Y esas estructuras... estoy hablando de mecanismos como las pruebas de identidad, el otorgamiento de licencias que sabe qu puede hacer cada uno en materia legal a cada momento, los procesos de resolucin de disputas mediante canales oficiales. +Estos mecanismos, estas estructuras no estn en manos de Craigslist, Gumtree o Yahoo; estn controladas por el Estado. +Y los polticos responsables de las mismas no estn pensando, sugiero yo, cmo usar esas estructuras para sustentar toda una nueva era de mercados. +Como el resto de la gente, los polticos dan por sentado que los mercados modernos son del dominio exclusivo de las organizaciones lo suficientemente poderosas como para crearlas por su propia cuenta. +Supongamos que dejamos de darlas por sentado. +Supongamos que maana por la maana el PM de Gran Bretaa o el presidente de EE.UU., o el lder de cualquier otra nacin desarrollada, despierta y dice: "Nunca podr crear todos los empleos necesarios en el clima actual. +Tengo que centrar la atencin en cualquier oportunidad econmica que pueda brindar a mis ciudadanos. +Por eso tienen que poder acceder a mercados de ltima generacin. +Cmo hacer que ocurra eso?" +Puedo ver algunos desmayos. +Los polticos en un gran proyecto informtico complejo y sofisticado? +Eso es un desastre en potencia. +No necesariamente. +Hay un precedente de servicios con componente tecnolgica iniciado por polticos en varios pases y que ha sido muy exitoso: las loteras nacionales. +Analicemos el caso de Gran Bretaa. +Nuestro gobierno no dise la lotera nacional no fund la lotera nacional, ni opera la lotera nacional. +Vot la Ley de la Lotera Nacional y esto es lo que ocurri. +Esta ley define las caractersticas de una lotera nacional. +Especifica ciertos beneficios que slo el Estado puede otorgar a los operadores. +E impone algunas obligaciones a esos operadores. +En materia de difusin del juego de azar entre las masas tuvo un xito sin parangn. +Pero supongamos que nuestro objetivo es brindar nueva actividad econmica a la base de la pirmide. +Podramos usar el mismo modelo? +Creo que s. +Imaginen que los polticos definen una estructura. +Llammosla Mercados Electrnicos Nacionales, o MEN. +Pinsenlo como un servicio pblico regulado. +Est a la par del suministro de agua o la red de carreteras. +Y hay una serie de mercados bajo nivel de intercambio que puede ser atendido por una persona o una pequea empresa. +Y el gobierno cuenta con ciertos beneficios que puede otorgar a estos mercados. +Es gasto pblico destinado a estos mercados para comprar servicios pblicos a nivel local. +Se trata de interconectar estos mercados directamente con los ms altos canales oficiales. +Se trata de consagrar el papel del gobierno como publicista de estos mercados. +Se trata de desregular algunos sectores para que pueda ingresar la gente local. +Los viajes en taxi pueden ser un ejemplo. +Y esos beneficios deberan acarrear determinadas obligaciones para los operadores, siendo la clave, claro, que los operadores paguen por todo, incluso por la interconexin con el sector pblico. +Imaginen que los operadores ganen dinero generando un porcentaje del margen en cada transaccin. +Imaginen que hay un perodo de concesin definido en quiz 15 aos en los que pueden quedarse con estos beneficios y operar con ellos. +Imaginen que a los consorcios que pujan para operarlos se les dice que quien entre con el margen porcentual ms bajo de cada transaccin para financiar todo cerrar el trato. +El gobierno entonces sale de la estructura +que ahora queda en manos del consorcio. +Ellos o bien desatarn un montn de oportunidades econmicas y obtendrn un porcentaje de ganancia o bien todo estallar en mil pedazos y ser un duro golpe para los accionistas. +Esto no necesariamente debe impactar al contribuyente. +Y no existiran restricciones mercados alternativos. +Esta sera solo otra alternativa ms entre millones de foros de Internet. +Pero podra ser muy diferente, porque tener acceso a esas estructuras con respaldo estatal podra incentivar a estos consorcios a invertir seriamente en el servicio. +Porque obtendran un montn de pequeas transacciones para empezar a recuperar dinero. +Estamos hablando de sectores como peluquera a domicilio, alquiler de juguetes, trabajos agrcolas, alquiler de ropa e incluso reparto de comida a domicilio, servicios para turistas, atencin domiciliaria. +Sera un mundo de intercambios muy pequeos, pero muy bien informados, porque los mercados electrnicos nacionales entregarn datos. +Esta es una persona local que analiza incursionar en el mercado del cuidado de nios. +Y podran tener que financiar investigacin de antecedentes y capacitaciones si quisieran entrar en ese mercado. +Tendran que evaluar entrevistas con padres locales que quisieran un grupo de cuidadores de nios. +Vale la pena? +Deberan mirar otros sectores? +Deberan mudarse a otra parte del pas donde faltaran cuidadores de nios? +Este tipo de datos puede tornarse una rutina. +Los inversores pueden usar estos datos. +Y si hay una falta de cuidadores de nios en una parte del pas y nadie puede pagar la investigacin de antecedentes y la capacitacin, puede pagarla un inversor y el sistema devolverle pequeas sumas por el aumento de ingresos de los individuos durante quiz los siguientes dos aos. +Este es un mundo de capitalismo atomizado. +Es el comercio pequeo, de las personas comunes, pero muy bien informado, seguro, conveniente, econmico e inmediato. +Algunas investigaciones sugieren que podra generar nueva actividad econmica por unos 100 millones de libras al da en un pas del tamao del Reino Unido. +Les suena improbable? +Eso deca mucha gente de las transacciones automticas en los intercambios financieros hace 20 aos. +No subestimen el poder de transformacin de los mercados verdaderamente modernos. +Gracias. +Era un sbado por la tarde, en mayo, cuando de pronto me di cuenta de que al da siguiente era el Da de la Madre y no le haba comprado nada a mi mam, as que comenc a pensar qu debera regalarle a mi madre en su da? +Pens: por qu no le hago una tarjeta interactiva del Da de la Madre utilizando el software Scratch que haba desarrollado con mi grupo de investigacin en el MIT Media Lab? +Lo desarrollamos para que la gente pueda crear fcilmente sus propios juegos, animaciones e historias interactivas y luego compartirlas con otros. +Pens que esta sera una oportunidad para utilizar Scratch y hacerle una tarjeta interactiva a mi mam. +Antes de crear mi propia tarjeta del Da de la Madre, pens en echarle un vistazo a la pgina web de Scratch. +En los ltimos aos, nios de todo el mundo de 8 aos en adelante han compartido sus proyectos. Me pregunt si entre esos tres millones de proyectos, alguien habra pensado en crear tarjetas del Da de la Madre. +As que escrib en el cuadro de bsqueda "Da de la Madre" y me sorprend encantado de ver una lista de docenas y docenas de tarjetas del Da de la Madre que aparecieron en la pgina web de Scratch, muchas de ellas slo en las ltimas 24 horas hechas por procrastinadores como yo. +As que comenc a verlas. Vi una de ellas que presentaba un gatito y a su mam desendo un feliz Da de las Madres. +El creador, muy considerado, le ofreca a su mam poder verla otra vez. +Otra era un proyecto interactivo en el que cuando mueves el ratn sobre las letras de "Feliz Da de la Madre", se revela una frase especial del Da de la Madre. +En esta, el creador contaba una historia sobre como haba buscado en Google para averiguar cuando era el Da de la Madre. +[Teclas] Y una vez que se enter, entreg un saludo especial del Da de la Madre sobre lo mucho que la amaba. +De verdad disfrut viendo estos proyectos e interactuando con ellos. +De hecho, me gustaron tanto, que en vez de hacer mi propio proyecto, le envi a mi madre los enlaces a casi una docena de proyectos. Reaccion exactamente de la manera que yo esperaba. +Me escribi dicindome: "Estoy muy orgullosa de tener un hijo que haya creado el software que le permiti a esos nios crear sus tarjetas del Da de la Madre". +Mi mam estaba feliz y eso me hizo feliz, pero en realidad estaba an ms feliz por otro motivo. +Estaba feliz porque esos nios estaban utilizando Scratch de la manera que habamos esperado que lo hicieran. +Mientras crean tarjetas interactivas para el Da de la Madre, se poda ver que realmente estaban dominando las nuevas tecnologas. +Qu quiero decir con dominar? +Eran capaces de comenzar a expresarse y a expresar sus ideas. +Cuando llegan a dominar el lenguaje, significa que pueden escribir una entrada en su diario, contarle un chiste a alguien o escribirle una carta a un amigo. +Y es algo similar con las nuevas tecnologas. +Al escribir, al crear estas tarjetas interactivas, estos nios mostraban que efectivamente dominan las nuevas tecnologas. +Quizs no se sorprendarn, porque muchas veces la gente cree que los jvenes pueden hacer todo tipo de cosas con la tecnologa. +Es decir, todos nosotros hemos odo que a los jvenes los llaman "nativos digitales". +Pero soy escptico con este trmino. +No estoy tan seguro de que los consideremos nativos digitales. +Cuando lo analizamos, cmo pasan la mayor parte del tiempo los jvenes cuando utilizan las nuevas tecnologas? +A menudo se los ve en situaciones como sta o como sta, y no hay duda de que los jvenes estn muy cmodos y familiarizados con la navegacin por internet, chateando, enviando mensajes de texto y jugando. +Pero eso no los hace dominar la tecnologa. +As que los jvenes tienen mucha experiencia y confianza interactuando con las nuevas tecnologas, pero muchos menos crean y se expresan con ellas. +Es casi como si pudieran leer, pero no escribir con las nuevas tecnologas. +Y tengo mucho inters en ver cmo podemos ayudarlos a dominarlas para que as puedan escribir con ellas. +En realidad significa que tienen que ser capaces de escribir sus propios programas o cdigos informticos. +Por lo tanto, cada vez ms, la gente est empezando a reconocer la importancia de aprender a codificar, a programar. +En los ltimos aos, ha habido cientos de nuevas organizaciones y pginas web que ayudan a los jvenes a aprender a codificar. +Busquen en lnea, vern lugares como Codecademy y eventos como CoderDojo y sitios como Girls Who Code o Black Girls Code. +Parece que todos se han puesto manos a la obra. +Saben, al comienzo de este ao, a comienzos del nuevo ao, el alcalde de Nueva York, Michael Bloomberg, como propsito de Ao Nuevo dijo que iba a aprender a codificar en 2012. +Pocos meses despus, Estonia decidi que todos los nios de primer grado debern aprender a codificar. +Y eso provoc un debate en el Reino Unido +sobre si todos los nios britnicos deberan aprender a codificar. +Para algunos de ustedes, cuando escuchan esto, puede parecerles extrao que todos aprendan a codificar. +Cuando la gente piensa en la codificacin, creen que es algo que slo una subcomunidad muy reducida la que lo hace y creen que codificar es algo as. +Y de hecho, si codificar fuera como esto, solo sera una reducida subcomunidad con habilidades matemticas especiales y antecedentes tecnolgicos la que podra codificar. +Pero codificar no tiene que ser as. +Djenme mostrarles como es codificar en Scratch. +En Scratch, para codificar, solo tienen que juntar bloques. +En este caso, toman un "bloque mover" lo encajan en un grupo y el grupo de bloques controla el comportamiento de los diferentes personajes en su juego o historia, en este caso controlando el pez grande. +Despus de crear su programa, pueden hacer clic en "compartir", para compartirlo con otras personas, para que puedan usar el proyecto y comenzar a trabajar tambin en l. +Hacer un juego sobre peces no es lo nico que pueden hacer con Scratch. +Entre los millones de proyectos en la pgina web de Scratch, hay de todo, desde historias animadas a proyectos escolares de ciencia; desde telenovelas de anime hasta kits de construccin virtual. Desde recreaciones de videojuegos clsicos hasta encuestas de opinin poltica; desde tutoriales de trigonometra hasta arte interactivo y, s, tarjetas interactivas del Da de la Madre. +As que creo que hay muchas maneras diferentes para que la gente pueda expresarse usando esto, para que sea capaz de tomar sus ideas y compartirlas con el mundo. +Y no solo tiene que quedarse en la pantalla. +Tambin pueden codificar para interactuar con el mundo fsico a su alrededor. +Vamos a continuar viendo las nuevas formas de juntar el mundo fsico y el mundo virtual y conectarlo al mundo a nuestro alrededor. +Este puede ser un ejemplo de una nueva versin de Scratch que estaremos lanzando en algunos meses. Tambin tratamos de impulsarlos hacia nuevas direcciones. +Ac hay un ejemplo. +Utiliza la webcam. +Moviendo mi mano, puedo reventar los globos o puedo mover el insecto. +Es un poco parecido a Microsoft Kinect, en donde interactan con el mundo con sus movimientos. +Pero en vez de solo jugar con el juego de otra persona, pueden crear los juegos y si ven el juego de alguien, con solo hacer clic en "ver adentro", pueden ver el grupo de bloques que lo controlan. +Hay un nuevo bloque que indica la cantidad de movimiento de video que hay y luego, si hay mucho movimiento de video, entonces le indicar al globo que se reviente. +De la misma manera que esto utiliza la cmara para obtener informacin en Scratch, tambin pueden utilizar el micrfono. +Ac hay un ejemplo de proyecto que utiliza el micrfono. +Les voy a pedri a todos Uds. que controlen este juego utilizando sus voces. +Cuando los nios crean proyectos como ste, estn aprendiendo a codificar, pero an ms importante, aprenden codificando. +Porque a medida que aprenden a codificar, esto los capacita para aprender muchas otras cosas, les abre muchas nuevas oportunidades de aprendizaje. +Nuevamente, es til hacer una analoga con la lectura y la escritura. +Cuando aprenden a leer y escribir, se les abren oportunidades para aprender muchas otras cosas. +Cuando aprenden a leer, pueden luego aprender leyendo. +Y es lo mismo con la codificacin. +Si aprenden a codificar, pueden aprender codificando. +Algunas de las cosas que pueden aprender son obvias. +Aprenden ms sobre cmo funcionan las computadoras. +Pero eso es solo el comienzo. +Cuando aprenden a codificar, se abre una oportunidad para aprender muchas otras cosas. +Djenme mostrarles un ejemplo. +Ac hay otro proyecto lo vi cuando estaba visitando uno de los clubes de computacin. +Estos son centros de aprendizaje extraescolar que hemos ayudado a crear y que ayudan a jvenes de comunidades de bajos recursos a que aprendan a expresarse creativamente con las nuevas tecnologas. +Unos aos atrs, cuando fui a uno de estos clubes, vi a un chico de trece aos que utilizaba nuestro software Scratch para crear un juego parecido a ste y estaba muy feliz y orgulloso de su juego, pero tambin quera hacer ms. +Quera que tuviera puntaje. +Era un juego en donde el pez grande se come al pequeo. Quera que tuviera puntuacin, para que cada vez que el pez grande se comiera al pequeo, el puntaje subiera y llevara la cuenta y no saba cmo hacerlo. +As que le mostr cmo. +En Scratch pueden crear algo llamado variable. +Lo llamar puntaje. +Y eso crea unos nuevos bloques para ustedes y tambin crea un pequeo marcador que lleva la cuenta del puntaje, as que cada vez que haga clic en "cambiar puntaje", lo aumentar. +As que se lo mostr a... llammoslo Vctor... y Vctor, cuando vio que este bloque lo dejara aumentar el puntaje, supo exactamente qu hacer. +Tom el bloque y lo puso en el programa, exactamente donde el pez grande se come al pequeo. +As que, cada vez que el pez grande se come al pequeo, el puntaje aumentar en uno. +Y de hecho funciona. +Lo vio y estaba tan emocionado que extendi su mano hacia m y dijo "gracias, gracias, gracias". +Y lo que pens fue: cun a menudo los alumnos les agradecen a sus profesores por ensearles las variables? No pasa en la mayora de las aulas, pero eso es porque cuando los nios aprenden las variables, no saben por qu las aprenden. +No es algo que puedan usar. +Cuando aprenden algo as en Scratch, lo hacen de una manera significativa y motivante, de manera que comprendan la razn para aprender las variables y vemos que los nios las aprenden con mayor profundidad y mejor. +A Vctor, estoy seguro, le ensearon las variables en la escuela, pero realmente no... no estaba prestando atencin. +Ahora tena una razn para aprenderlas. +Cuando aprendes codificando, aprendes en un contexto significativo, que es la mejor manera de aprender. +As, cuando los nios como Vctor crean proyectos como ste, aprenden conceptos importantes, como las variables, pero eso es solo el comienzo. +Como Vctor trabaj en este proyecto y cre las secuencias de comandos, tambin estaba aprendiendo sobre el proceso de diseo, cmo empezar con la chispa de una idea y convertirla en un proyecto completo y funcional como el que ven aqu. +Esas con habilidades importantes que no solo ataen a la codificacin. +Son relevantes para todo tipo de actividades diferentes. +Ahora, quin sabe si Vctor crecer y se convertir en programador o en un informtico profesional? +Quiz no es muy probable. Pero, independientemente de lo que haga, ser capaz de utilizar esas habilidades de diseo que aprendi. +Independientemente de si crece y se convierte en gerente de marketing o en mecnico o en un organizador comunitario, estas ideas son tiles para todos. +De nuevo, es til utilizar la analoga con el lenguaje. +Cuando dominan la lectura y escritura, no es algo que hagan para convertirse en escritores profesionales. +Muy pocas personas se convierten en escritores profesionales. +Pero es til para todos aprender a leer y escribir. +Lo mismo con la codificacin. +La mayora de las personas no se convertir en informtico profesional o en programador, pero esas habilidades de pensar creativamente, razonar sistemticamente y trabajar en colaboracin... habilidades que desarrollan cuando codifican en Scratch... son cosas que la gente puede utilizar sin importar el trabajo que tengan. +Y no es solo sobre la vida laboral. +La codificacin tambin los hace capaces de expresar sus ideas y sentimientos en su vida personal. +Djenme terminar con solo un ejemplo ms. +Este es un ejemplo que lleg despus de haberle enviado a mi mam las tarjetas del Da de la Madre. Mi madre decidi que quera aprender a utilizar Scratch +e hizo este proyecto para mi cumpleaos y me envi una tarjeta de feliz cumpleaos de Scratch. +Este proyecto no va a ganar ningn premio de diseo y pueden estar seguros de que mi madre de 83 aos no est entrenando para convertirse en programadora o informtica profesional. +Pero trabajar en este proyecto le permiti conectar con alguien que quiere y le permiti seguir aprendiendo nuevas cosas y continuar practicando su creatividad y desarrollando nuevas maneras de expresarse. +As que echamos un vistazo y vemos que Michael Bloomberg est aprendiendo a codificar, todos los nios de Estonia lo hacen, incluso mi mam ha aprendido a hacerlo, no creen que es hora de pensar en aprender a codificar? +Si estn interesados, dnle una oportunidad. Los animo a visitar el sitio web de Scratch. +Es scratch.mit.edu y dnle una oportunidad a la codificacin. +Muchas gracias. +Salaam alaikum. +Bienvenidos a Doha. +Estoy a cargo de hacer que los alimentos de este pas sean seguros. +Ese ser mi trabajo durante los siguientes dos aos, disear un plan maestro integral, y luego en los siguientes 10 aos ponerlo en prctica... por supuesto, junto a muchas otras personas. +Pero primero, tengo que contarles una historia, mi historia, sobre la historia de este pas en el que todos Uds. estn hoy. +Y, por supuesto, la mayora de Uds. ya comi tres veces hoy y probablemente seguirn comiendo despus de este evento. +Continuando, qu era Qatar en la dcada de 1940? +Haba cerca de 11 000 personas viviendo aqu. +No haba agua. No haba electricidad, petrleo ni automviles, nada de eso. +La mayora de la gente que viva aqu viva en aldeas costeras, pescando, o eran nmades que vagaban por ah en el entorno tratando de encontrar agua. +Nada del glamour que ven hoy exista. +No haba ciudades como las que ven hoy en Doha, Dubai, Abu Dhabi, Kuwait o Riad. +No era que no podan desarrollar ciudades. +No haba recursos all para desarrollarlas. +Y pueden ver que la esperanza de vida tambin era corta. +La mayora de la gente mora cerca de los 50 aos. +Pasemos al captulo dos: la era del petrleo; +en 1939 descubrieron petrleo. +Pero, por desgracia, no fue del todo explotado comercialmente hasta despus de la Segunda Guerra Mundial. +Esto qu produjo? +Cambi la cara de este pas, como pueden ver y presenciar hoy en da. +Tambin hizo que toda esa gente que vagaba por el desierto, buscando agua, buscando comida, tratando de cuidar su ganado, se urbanizara. +Esto les podr resultar extrao, pero en mi familia tenemos acentos diferentes. +Mi madre tiene un acento que es muy diferente al de mi padre y somos una poblacin de aproximadamente 300 000 personas en el mismo pas. +Hay unos 5 o 6 acentos en este pas. +Alguien dira, "Cmo es eso? Cmo pudo pasar eso?" +Es porque vivamos dispersos. +No podamos vivir de manera concentrada, sencillamente porque no haba recursos. +Y cuando llegaron los recursos, es decir el petrleo, comenzamos a desarrollar estas lujosas tecnologas y a unir a la gente porque necesitbamos concentracin. +La gente comenz a conocer a los dems. +Y nos dimos cuenta de que hay algunas diferencias en los acentos. +As que ese es el captulo dos: la era del petrleo. +Echemos un vistazo a la actualidad. +Este es probablemente el paisaje que la mayora de Uds. conoce de Doha. +Cul es la poblacin actual? +1,7 millones de personas. +Eso en menos de 60 aos. +El promedio de crecimiento de nuestra economa es un 15 % durante los ltimos 5 aos. +La esperanza de vida ha aumentado a 78 aos. +El consumo de agua ha aumentado a 430 litros. +Y este es uno de los ms altos en todo el mundo. +De no tener agua en absoluto a consumir agua al grado ms alto, ms alto que cualquier otra nacin. +No s si esto fue una reaccin a la falta de agua. +Pero, qu es lo interesante de la historia que acabo de contar? +La parte interesante es que seguimos creciendo un 15 % cada ao durante los ltimos 5 aos sin agua. +Eso es histrico. Nunca haba pasado antes. +Las ciudades fueron totalmente destruidas por la falta de agua. +Se est haciendo historia en esta regin. +No solo por las ciudades que estamos construyendo, sino por las ciudades, los sueos y las personas que desean ser cientficos o doctores. +Construir una casa bonita, llevar al arquitecto, disear mi casa. +Estas personas insisten en que se trata de un espacio habitable, cuando no lo era. +Pero, por supuesto, con el uso de la tecnologa. +As que Brasil tiene 1782 milmetros anuales de precipitaciones. +Qatar tiene 74 y hemos crecido a ese ritmo. +La pregunta es cmo. +Cmo pudimos sobrevivir a eso? +No tenemos agua en absoluto. +Sencillamente gracias a esta mquina gigantesca y descomunal llamada desalinizacin. +La energa es el factor clave aqu. Lo cambi todo. +Es por esa cosa que sacamos de la tierra, esa de la que quemamos toneladas, que probablemente la mayora de Uds. ha usado para venir a Doha. +As que ese es nuestro lago, si es que lo pueden ver. +Ese es nuestro ro. +As es como todo ocurre para que usen y disfruten el agua. +Esta es la mejor tecnologa que esta regin podra tener: la desalinizacin. +As que, cules son los riesgos? +Se tienen que preocupar? +Dira que, quizs si vieran los datos globales, se daran cuenta de que, por supuesto, me tengo que preocupar. +Existe una creciente demanda y una creciente poblacin. +Hemos llegado a 7000 millones de personas solo unos meses atrs. +Y esa cantidad tambin requiere alimentos. +Y hay predicciones de que para 2050 seremos 9000 millones de personas. +As que un pas que no tiene agua tiene que preocuparse sobre qu ocurre ms all de sus fronteras. +Tambin las dietas estn cambiando. +Al elevarse a un estrato socioeconmico ms alto, tambin cambian las dietas. +La gente comienza por comer ms carne y as sucesivamente. +Por otro lado, hay descensos en las producciones debido al cambio climtico y debido a otros factores. +Y alguien tiene que darse cuenta realmente de cundo ocurrir la crisis. +Esta es la situacin de Qatar, para aquellos que no la conozcan. +Solo tenemos dos das de reserva de agua. +Importamos el 90 % de nuestra comida y solo cultivamos menos del 1 % de nuestra tierra. +Los pocos agricultores que tenemos han sido desplazados de sus prcticas agrcolas como resultado de la poltica de mercado abierto y de traer grandes competiciones, etc., etc. +As que tambin enfrentamos riesgos. +Estos riesgos afectan directamente la sostenibilidad y continuidad de esta nacin. +La pregunta es: hay una solucin? +Hay una solucin sostenible? +Efectivamente la hay. +Esta diapositiva resume miles de pginas de documentos tcnicos en los que hemos estado trabajando durante los ltimos 2 aos. +Empecemos con el agua. +Sabemos muy bien, como les mostr antes, que necesitamos esta energa. +As que si vamos a necesitar energa, qu clase de energa? +Una energa no renovable? Combustible fsil? +O deberamos usar otra cosa? +Tenemos las ventajas comparativas para usar otro tipo de energa? +Supongo que la mayora de Uds. ya se han dado cuenta de lo que tenemos: 300 das soleados. +Por eso usaremos esa energa renovable para producir el agua que necesitamos. +Y es probable que coloquemos 1800 megavatios de instalaciones solares para producir 3,5 millones de metros cbicos de agua. +Y eso es mucha agua. +Esa agua ir luego a los agricultores y los agricultores sern capaces de regar sus plantas y sern capaces de proveerle comida a la sociedad. +Pero para mantener la lnea horizontal, dado que estos son los proyectos, estos sern los sistemas que entregaremos, tambin necesitamos desarrollar la lnea vertical, el sustento del sistema: la educacin de alto nivel, la investigacin y desarrollo, industrias, tecnologas, producir estas tecnologas para aplicacin y finalmente los mercados. +Pero cuadra todo, lo que lo permite, son las legislaciones, las polticas y las regulaciones. +Sin ello no podemos hacer nada. +As que eso es lo que planeamos hacer. +Dentro de 2 aos, con suerte deberemos haber terminado este plan y llevarlo a implementacin. +Nuestro objetivo es ser una ciudad milenaria, al igual que muchas otras ciudades milenarias: Estambul, Roma, Londres, Pars, Damasco, El Cairo. +Tenemos solo 60 aos, pero queremos vivir para siempre como una ciudad, para vivir en paz. +Muchas gracias. +Los qumicos orgnicos hacen molculas, molculas muy complicadas, fraccionando grandes molculas en otras ms pequeas e ingeniera inversa. +Y, como qumico, una de las cosas que mi grupo de investigacin quera responder un par de aos atrs era: podemos hacer un juego universal de qumica de verdad genial? +En esencia, podemos hacer de la qumica una aplicacin? +Qu quiere decir esto y cmo podramos hacerlo? +Bien, para comenzar tomamos una impresora 3D y empezamos a imprimir nuestros vasos y tubos de ensayo de una parte e imprimir las molculas al mismo tiempo, por la otra, y las combinamos en lo que llamamos "reactionware". +Y as, imprimiendo vasijas y haciendo qumica a la vez, comenzamos a tener acceso a las herramientas universales de la qumica. +Y eso qu significa? +Cmo lo hacemos en el laboratorio? +Bien, se necesitan programas, equipos y tintas qumicas. +Y lo verdaderamente genial es la idea de que queremos tener un grupo universal de tintas que ponemos en la impresora, se descarga el prototipo, la qumica orgnica de esa molcula, y pueden hacerla en su equipo. +Y as pueden hacer su molcula en la impresora con este programa. +Y esto qu significa? +Bien, en definitiva, que podrn imprimir sus propias medicinas. +Es lo que estamos haciendo actualmente en el laboratorio. +Pero dando pasos de beb para llegar a eso, primero queremos abordar el diseo y la produccin de medicinas o su descubrimiento y fabricacin. +Porque si podemos producirlas despus de descubrirlas, podemos llevarlas dondequiera. +No necesitarn ir ms a lo del qumico. +Podemos imprimir los medicamentos donde se necesiten. +Podemos descargar nuevos diagnsticos. +Digamos que aparece un nuevo bicho. +Lo ponen en su mquina de bsqueda, y crean la droga para tratar esa amenaza. +Esto les permite ensamblar molculas velozmente. +Pero quiz para m lo central en el futuro es la idea de tomar sus propias clulas madre, con sus propios genes y su ambiente, e imprimir su propia medicina personal. +Y si esto no les parece suficientemente fascinante, hacia dnde creen que iremos? +Bien, tendrn su propio generador de materia. +"Transprtanos, Scotty". +Bien, soy artista. +Vivo en Nueva York y he estado trabajando en publicidad desde que sal de la escuela, hace unos 7 u 8 aos. y era agotador. +Trabaj durante horas cada noche. Trabaj muchos fines de semana y me encontr sin tiempo para todos los proyectos en los que quera trabajar por mi cuenta. +Necesito tomarme el tiempo para viajar y estar con mi familia y comenzar mis propias ideas creativas". +As que el primero de esos proyectos termin siendo algo que llamo "Un segundo cada da". +Bsicamente estoy grabando un segundo de cada da de mi vida y durante el resto de la misma, recopilando cronolgicamente estos pequeos cortes de un segundo de mi vida en un solo vdeo continuo hasta que, bueno, ya no pueda grabarlos. +El propsito de este proyecto es, uno: odio no recordar las cosas que he hecho en el pasado. +Ah estn todas esas cosas que he hecho con mi vida de las que no tengo recuerdos a menos que alguien las mencione y a veces pienso: "Oh, s, eso es algo que hice". +Y algo de lo que me di cuenta desde el principio del proyecto es que si no estaba haciendo algo interesante, probablemente olvidara grabar el vdeo. +As que si vivo para verme con 80 aos, voy a tener un vdeo de cinco horas que resume 50 aos de mi vida. +Cuando cumpla 40 aos, tendr un vdeo de una hora que incluir solo mis 30. +Realmente, esto me ha impulsado da a da, cuando me despierto, a intentar hacer algo interesante con mi da. +Ahora, una de las cosas con las que tengo problemas es que, a medida que pasan los das, semanas y meses, el tiempo parece comenzar a difuminarse y mezclarse entre s y, saben, odiaba eso, y la visualizacin es la mejor manera para activar la memoria. +Saben, este proyecto para m es una manera de superar esa brecha y recordar todo lo que he hecho. +Incluso solo este segundo me permite recordar todo lo que hice ese da. +Es difcil, a veces, elegir ese segundo. +En un buen da, quiz tendr 3 o 4 segundos que de verdad me gustara elegir, pero tendr que reducirlos a uno, aunque incluso reducindolo, puedo, de todas formas, recordar los otros tres. +Tambin es un tipo de protesta, una protesta personal, contra la cultura que tenemos ahora, donde la gente est en los conciertos con sus telfonos grabando el concierto completo y te estn molestando. +Ni siquiera estn disfrutando el espectculo. +Estn viendo el concierto a travs de su telfono. +Y solo se necesita un rpido, rpido segundo. +Este verano hice un viaje de 3 meses por la carretera. +Era algo que haba estado soando con hacer toda mi vida, simplemente conducir por EE.UU. y Canad improvisando adnde ir al da siguiente y fue algo espectacular. +En realidad, se acab, gast demasiado dinero en mi viaje por carretera de los ahorros que tena para mi ao sabtico as que tuve que hacerlo, fui a Seattle y pas algn tiempo con amigos trabajando en un proyecto realmente genial. +Una de las razones por las que tom mi ao sabtico era para pasar ms tiempo con mi familia y, entonces, ocurri esta tragedia. A mi cuada, se le estrangul el intestino sbitamente un da y la llevamos a urgencias y estaba, estaba muy mal. +Casi la perdimos un par de veces y ah estaba yo con mi hermano cada da. +Me ayud a darme cuenta de algo ms durante este proyecto, y es que grabar un segundo en un da realmente malo es extremadamente difcil. +No es... tendemos a sacar nuestras cmaras cuando estamos haciendo cosas geniales. +O cuando decimos "Oh, s, esta fiesta, djame sacar una fotografa" +Pero casi nunca lo hacemos cuando tenemos un mal da y est ocurriendo algo trgico. +Y me di cuenta de que en realidad es muy, muy importante grabar incluso ese segundo de un momento realmente malo. +Te ayuda a apreciar los buenos tiempos. +No siempre es un buen da, as que cuando tenemos uno malo, creo que es importante recordarlo, tanto como es importante recordar los buenos das. +Una de las cosas que hago es no usar ningn filtro. No uso nada... intento capturar el momento tan semejante como sea posible a cmo lo vi con mis propios ojos. +Comenc una regla de perspectiva en primera persona. +Al principio, cre tener un par de vdeos donde me podan ver en ellos, pero me di cuenta de que no era la manera de proceder. +La manera para recordar de verdad lo que vi era grabarlo como en realidad lo vi. +Un par de cosas que tengo en mi mente sobre este proyecto, no sera interesante si miles de personas lo hicieran? +Cumpl 31 aos la semana pasada, que est ah. +Creo que sera interesante ver qu haran todos con un proyecto como este. +Creo que todos tendran una interpretacin diferente de l. +Creo que todos se beneficiaran de solo tener ese segundo para recordar cada da. +Personalmente, estoy cansado de olvidar, y esta es una cosa de verdad fcil de hacer. +Y no lo s, creo que este proyecto tiene muchas posibilidades y los animo a todos a grabar solo un pequeo fragmento de su vida todos los das, para que nunca puedan olvidar que ese da Uds. vivieron. +Gracias. +En mi vida anterior, era artista. +Todava pinto. Amo el arte. +Durante 11 aos, fui alcalde de Tirana, la capital. +Enfrentamos muchos desafos. +El arte fue parte de la respuesta, y mi nombre, en un principio, estuvo vinculado a dos cosas: la demolicin de construcciones ilegales para recuperar espacio pblico y el uso de colores para recuperar la esperanza que se haba perdido en mi ciudad. +Pero este uso de los colores no fue slo un hecho artstico. +Fue, en cambio, una forma de accin poltica en un contexto en el que el presupuesto de la ciudad, disponible al ser electo, era de cero coma algo. +Cuando pintamos el primer edificio salpicando de naranja sobre el gris sombro de la fachada, ocurri algo inimaginable. +Hubo un atasco de trnsito y se congreg una multitud como si se tratara de un accidente espectacular o de una aparicin repentina de una estrella del pop. +El oficial francs de la UE a cargo del financiamiento se apresur a bloquear la pintura. +Vocifer que bloqueara el financiamiento. +"Pero por qu?", le pregunt. +"Porque los colores que ha pedido no cumplen con los estndares europeos", respondi. +"Bueno", le dije, "los alrededores no cumplen con los estndares europeos, si bien no es esto lo que queremos, pero elegiremos nosotros los colores, porque eso es exactamente lo que queremos. +Si no nos permite continuar nuestro trabajo, celebrar una conferencia de prensa aqu ahora mismo, en esta calle, y le dir a la gente que Ud. acta como los censores en la era del socialismo real". +Entonces se preocup un poco, y me pidi un compromiso. +Pero le dije, "no, lo siento, el compromiso en colores es el gris, y tenemos suficiente gris para toda una vida". +Es momento de cambiar. +La rehabilitacin de espacios pblicos revivi el sentimiento de pertenencia a una ciudad que la gente perdi. +El orgullo de la gente respecto de su propio lugar de vida. Haba sentimientos enterrados en lo profundo durante aos bajo construcciones ilegales, brbaras, que proliferaron en el espacio pblico. +Y cuando los colores surgieron por doquier, un humor de cambio empez a transformar el espritu de la gente. +Gener gran revuelo: "Qu es esto? Qu ocurre? +Qu nos hacen los colores?" +E hicimos una encuesta, la encuesta ms fascinante que he visto en mi vida. +Preguntamos: "Quieres esta accin, y que pintemos los edificios de este modo?" +Y la segunda pregunta fue: "Quieres que se detenga o que contine?" +A la primera pregunta el 63 % respondi s, nos gusta. +El 37 % dijo no, no nos gusta. +Pero a la segunda pregunta, a la mitad de los que no les gustaba, quera que continuara. Observamos un cambio. +La gente empez a arrojar menos basura en las calles, por ejemplo, empez a pagar impuestos, empez a sentir algo que haban olvidado, y la belleza empez a actuar como un guardia donde la polica municipal, o la estatal, haba desaparecido. +Recuerdo un da que caminaba por una calle que haba sido coloreada, y estbamos plantando rboles cuando vi a un comerciante y a su esposa poner una vidriera a su comercio. +Arrojaron la vieja persiana en el lugar de recoleccin de basura. +"Por qu arrojaron las persianas?", les pregunt. +"Bueno, porque la calle ahora es ms segura", dijeron. +"Ms segura? Por qu? Pusieron ms polica aqu?" +"Vamos, hombre. Qu polica? +Puedes verlo. Hay colores, alumbrado pblico, nuevo pavimento sin baches, rboles. Es hermoso; es seguro". +Y, de hecho, era la belleza lo que le daba a la gente este sentimiento de proteccin. +Y esto no era una sensacin fuera de lugar. +El crimen en efecto cay. +La libertad ganada en 1990 provoc un estado de anarqua en la ciudad, y la barbarie de los aos 90, dio lugar a una prdida de esperanza para la ciudad. +Eliminamos 123 000 toneladas de concreto slo de las riberas de los ros. +Demolimos ms de 5000 edificios ilegales en toda la ciudad, de hasta 8 pisos de altura, el ms alto. +Plantamos 55 000 rboles y arbustos en las calles. +Establecimos un impuesto verde, y todos lo aceptaron y los comerciantes lo pagaron con regularidad. +Mediante concurso pblico, contratamos personal para la administracin mucha gente joven, y de este modo logramos crear una institucin pblica despolitizada con igual representacin de hombres y mujeres. +Las organizaciones internacionales han invertido mucho en Albania en estos 20 aos, no siempre se ha gastado bien. +Cuando le dije a los directores del Banco Mundial que quera que financiaran un proyecto de construccin de una sala de recepcin de ciudadanos precisamente para combatir la endmica corrupcin diaria, no me comprendieron. +Pero la gente esperaba en largas colas bajo el sol y bajo la lluvia para obtener un certificado o slo una simple respuesta en dos pequeas ventanas de dos kioscos de metal. +Pagaban para no hacer la cola, la larga cola. +La respuesta a sus reclamos vena de una voz que sala de este oscuro agujero y, por otro lado, una mano misteriosa que sala para tomar sus documentos mientras hurgaba en documentos antiguos por un soborno. +Podamos cambiar los empleados invisibles de los kioscos cada semana, pero no podamos cambiar esta prctica corrupta. +"Estoy convencido", le dije al oficial alemn del Banco Mundial, "de que les sera imposible ser sobornados si trabajaran en Alemania, en una administracin alemana, as como estoy convencido de que si ponen oficiales alemanes de la administracin alemana en esos agujeros sern sobornados de la misma manera". +No es cuestin de genes. +No se trata de que unos tengan una alta conciencia y de que otros no tengan conciencia. +Es el sistema, la organizacin. +Tiene que ver con el entorno y el respeto. +Eliminamos los kioscos. +Construimos la sala de recepcin brillante que hizo que los ciudadanos de Tirana se transportaran al exterior al entrar a hacer sus trmites. +Creamos un sistema 'online' de control y as aceleramos todo el proceso. +Pusimos a los ciudadanos primero, y no a los empleados. +La corrupcin en la administracin estatal en pases como Albania no me corresponde a m decir lo propio de Grecia slo puede combatirse con modernizacin. +Reinventar el gobierno, reinventando la propia poltica es la respuesta, y no la reinvencin de la gente con base en una frmula prefabricada que el mundo desarrollado a menudo trata en vano de imponer a personas como nosotros. +Las cosas han llegado a este punto porque los polticos en general en particular en nuestros pases, reconozcmoslo, piensan que la gente es estpida. +Dan por sentado que, pase lo que pase, la gente tiene que seguirlos mientras los polticos, cada vez ms, no ofrecen respuestas a sus preocupaciones pblicas o a las exigencias de la gente comn. +La poltica ha llegado a parecerse a un juego cnico de equipo jugado por los polticos mientras se ha dejado de lado al pblico como si estuviera en la grada de un estadio en el que la pasin por la poltica gradualmente da lugar a la ceguera y la desesperacin. +Vistos desde esa grada, todos los polticos hoy parecen lo mismo, y la poltica ha llegado a parecerse a un deporte que inspira ms agresividad y pesimismo que cohesin social y deseo de protagonismo cvico. +Barack Obama gan porque moviliz a la gente como nunca antes a travs del uso de las redes sociales. +No conoca a todos y cada uno de ellos, pero, con un ingenio admirable, se las arregl para convertirlos en militantes dndoles a todos la posibilidad de tener en sus manos los argumentos y los instrumentos que cada uno necesitara para hacer campaa en su nombre, para hacer su propia campaa. +Yo tuiteo. Me encanta. +Me encanta porque me permite transmitir mi mensaje pero tambin a la gente enviarme sus mensajes. +Esto es poltica, no de arriba a abajo sino de abajo a arriba y a los lados, y permite escuchar la voz de todos es exactamente lo que necesitamos. +La poltica no es cuestin slo de lderes. +No se trata slo de polticos y leyes. +Es lo que piensan las personas, cmo ven el mundo circundante, cmo usan su tiempo y energa. +Cuando las personas digan que todos los polticos son iguales, pregntense si Obama es lo mismo que Bush, si Franois Hollande es lo mismo que Sarkozy. +No lo son. Son seres humanos con distintas miradas y distintas visiones del mundo. +Cuando las personas digan que nada puede cambiar, detnganse a pensar cmo era el mundo hace 10, 20, 50, 100 aos. +Nuestro mundo est definido por el ritmo del cambio. +Todos podemos cambiar el mundo. +Les di un ejemplo muy pequeo de cmo una cosa, el uso del color, puede hacer que ocurra el cambio. +Quiero provocar ms cambio como primer ministro de mi pas, pero cada uno de Uds. puede provocar un cambio si lo desea. +El presidente Roosevelt dijo: "Cree que puedes, y estars en la mitad del camino". +Una apertura radical en el campo educativo an est en un futuro distante. +Nos cuesta mucho llegar a entender que el aprendizaje no es un lugar sino una actividad. +Pero quiero contarles la historia de PISA, el test de la OECD para medir los conocimiento y habilidades de los jvenes de 15 aos de todo el mundo, y que es realmente una historia de cmo la comparacin internacional ha globalizado el campo de la educacin que usualmente tratbamos como un asunto de poltica local. +Miren cmo se vea el mundo en los 60 en trminos de la proporcin de personas que terminaban la educacin media. +Pueden ver que EE.UU. estaba adelante de todos y mucho de su xito econmico se apoya en una ventaja de larga data que le deriva de haber sido el primero en mejorar la educacin. +Pero en los 70, algunos pases lo alcanzaron. +Y en los 80, continu la expansin global del acervo de talento. +Y el mundo no se detuvo en los 90. +As que en los 60, EE.UU. estaba primero. +En los 90, estaba en el puesto 13, y no porque sus estndares cayeran, sino porque haban subido ms rpido en otras partes del mundo. +Corea muestra lo que es posible hacer en educacin. +Hace dos generaciones, Corea tena los mismos estndares de vida que Afganistn hoy da, y era uno de los pases ms ineficaces en el mbito de la educacin. +Hoy, todo joven coreano termina el bachillerato. +Lo que nos dice que, en la economa global, la mejora nacional ya no basta para determinar el xito del sistema educativo, sino que es necesaria la comparacin con los mejores sistemas educativos del mundo. +El problema es que medir cunto tiempo pasan los alumnos en la escuela o qu ttulo logran no es siempre una buena forma de averiguar lo que en realidad pueden hacer. +Miren la mezcla txica de graduados desempleados en nuestras calles, mientras los empleadores dicen que no encuentran a las personas con las habilidades que necesitan. +Lo que les dice que mejores grados no significan automticamente mejores habilidades ni mejores trabajos y mejores vidas. +As que, con PISA, tratamos de cambiar esto midiendo el conocimiento y las habilidades de las personas directamente. +Y adoptamos una perspectiva muy especial para hacerlo. +No nos interesaba mucho comprobar si los estudiantes podan reproducir lo que haban aprendido en el colegio, sino que queramos averiguar si podan extrapolar de lo que saben y aplicar su conocimiento a nuevas situaciones. +Ahora, algunos nos han criticado por esto. +Dicen que esa manera de medir resultados es terriblemente injusta, porque confrontamos a los estudiantes con problemas que no han visto nunca antes. +Y alguna vez impugnada, nuestra forma de medir ha sido en realidad rpidamente adoptada como estndar. +En nuestra ltima evaluacin en 2009, medimos 74 sistemas educativos que en conjunto cubran el 87 % de la economa mundial. +Esta tabla muestra el desempeo de los pases. +En rojo, por debajo del promedio de OECD. +Amarillo, ms o menos, y verde los pases a los que les fue bien de verdad. +Pueden ver Shanghi, Corea, Singapur, en Asia; Finlandia en Europa; A Canad, en Norteamrica, le fue muy bien. +Pueden ver tambin que hay una brecha de casi 3 aos escolares y medio entre los jvenes de 15 aos de Shanghi y Chile, y la brecha llega a 7 aos cuando se incluyen los pases de desempeo realmente mediocre. +Hay diferencias muy marcadas en la formacin de los jvenes para la economa de hoy. +Pero quiero presentar una segunda dimensin importante en el grfico. +A los educadores les gusta hablar de equidad. +Con PISA quisimos medir cmo cumplen con las metas de equidad, para asegurar que las personas de diferente procedencia social tengan iguales oportunidades. +Y vemos que, en algunos pases, el impacto del origen social en los resultados del aprendizaje es muy, muy fuerte. +Las oportunidades estn distribuidas desigualmente. +Se desperdicia una gran cantidad de nios con un gran potencial. +Por otro lado, vemos otros pases en los que importa mucho menos en qu contexto social naces. +Todos queremos estar ah, en el cuadrante superior derecho, donde el desempeo es fuerte y las oportunidades de aprendizaje estn distribuidas equitativamente. +Nadie, ningn pas, puede permitirse estar aqu, donde el desempeo es pobre y hay gran disparidad social. +Y podemos debatir si es mejor estar aqu, donde el desempeo es bueno al precio de largas desequidades. +O si nos centramos en la equidad y aceptamos la mediocridad. +Pero, realmente, si miran cmo salen los pases en esta grfica, vern que hay muchos pases que realmente estn combinando excelencia con equidad. +De hecho, una de las lecciones ms importantes de esta comparacin, es que no hay que comprometer la equidad para lograr la excelencia. +Estos pases han pasado de proporcionar excelencia educativa para pocos a proporcionarla para todos, una leccin muy importante. +Y esto desafa los paradigmas de muchos sistemas educativos que creen que su funcin es principalmente la de clasificar a las personas. +Y desde que salieron estos resultados, las autoridades, los educadores, los investigadores, han tratado de averiguar qu hay detrs del xito de esos sistemas. +Pero retrocedamos un momento y veamos los pases que iniciaron PISA, y les pondr una burbuja coloreada. +El tamao de la burbuja es proporcional al gasto de recursos de estos pases en los estudiantes. +Si el dinero lo dijera todo acerca de la calidad de los resultados del aprendizaje, todas las burbujas grandes estaran arriba, no? +Pero no es lo que ven. +El gasto por estudiante solo explica menos del 20 % de la variacin del desempeo entre los pases, y a Luxemburgo, por ejemplo, el sistema ms costoso, no lo va particularmente bien. +Lo que ven es que dos pases con gasto similar logran resultados muy diferentes. +Tambin ven y creo que es uno de los descubrimientos ms alentadores que ya no vivimos en mundo dividido ntidamente entre pases ricos e instruidos, y pases pobres y poco instruidos; una leccin muy, muy importante. +Mirmoslo con mayor detalle. +Los puntos rojos muestran el gasto por estudiante en relacin a la riqueza del pas. +Una forma en la que pueden gastar el dinero es pagando bien a los maestros y ven que Corea invierte mucho en atraer a la mejor gente al profesorado. +Y Corea invierte tambin en das de escuela ms largos, lo que aumenta ms los costos. +ltimo pero no menos importante, Corea quiere profesores que no solo enseen sino que tambin se desarrollen. +Invierten en desarrollo profesional y colaboracin y en muchas otras cosas. +Todo esto cuesta dinero. +Cmo puede permitrselo? +La respuesta es que los estudiantes en Corea estudian en clases ms numerosas. +Esta es la barra azul que baja los costos. +Si van al siguiente pas de la lista, Luxemburgo, vern que el punto rojo est exactamente donde est Corea, as que Luxemburgo gasta lo mismo por estudiante que Corea. +Pero, saben, a los padres y profesores y a las autoridades de Luxemburgo les gustan las clases ms pequeas. +Es ms agradable entrar en una clase pequea. +As que gastan todo su dinero en esto, y la barra azul, el tamao de la clase, sube los costos. +Pero incluso Luxemburgo solo puede gastar su dinero una vez, y el precio de esto es que los profesores no estn particularmente bien pagados. +Los estudiantes no tienen largas horas de estudio. +Y los profesores tienen poco tiempo para hacer otra cosa diferente a ensear. +As que ven dos pases que gastan su dinero de forma muy diferente, y, de hecho, cmo gasten su dinero importa mucho ms que cunto invierten en educacin. +Volvamos al ao 2000. +Recuerden, fue el ao anterior al invento del iPod. +As se vea el mundo en trminos del desempeo PISA. +Lo primero que ven es que las burbujas son mucho ms pequeas, no? +Gastbamos mucho menos en educacin, cerca del 35 % menos en educacin. +As que pregntense, si la educacin se ha hecho mucho ms costosa, ha mejorado mucho? +Y la amarga verdad en realidad es que no en muchos pases. +Pero hay algunos pases en los que se han visto mejoras impresionantes. +Alemania, mi pas, en el ao 2000 destacaba en el cuadrante bajo, por debajo del desempeo promedio, grandes disparidades sociales. +Y, recuerden, en Alemania solamos ser uno de los pases que salan muy bien cuando solo se contaban las personas con licenciatura. +Resultados muy decepcionantes. +La gente qued anonadada. +Y, por primera vez, el debate pblico en Alemania estuvo por meses dominado por la educacin, ni los impuestos, ni otras cosas, sino que la educacin fue el centro del debate pblico. +Y las autoridades comenzaron a responder a esto. +El gobierno federal aument drsticamente la inversin en educacin. +Se hizo mucho por aumentar las oportunidades de los estudiantes inmigrados o socialmente desfavorecidos. +Y lo realmente interesante es que esto no fue solo optimizar las polticas existentes, sino que los datos transformaron unas de las creencias y paradigmas en que se basaba la educacin alemana. +Por ejemplo, tradicionalmente, la educacin de los muy pequeos se vea como un asunto de las familias, y poda haber casos donde las mujeres eran vistas como negligentes con sus responsabilidades familiares si mandaban a sus nios al preescolar. +PISA ha transformado el debate, y forz a que la educacin temprana de la niez fuera el centro del debate de la poltica pblica alemana. +O, tradicionalmente, la educacin alemana divide a los nios a los 10 aos, muy jvenes, entre los elegidos para seguir carreras de "trabajadores del conocimiento" y los que terminarn trabajando para los "trabajadores del conocimiento", y esto principalmente a lo largo de las lneas socioeconmicas, y el paradigma est siendo cuestionado ahora tambin. +Muchos cambios. +Y la buena noticia es que, 9 aos despus, pueden ver mejoras en la calidad y la equidad. +Las personas estn tomando el reto y haciendo algo al respecto. +O tomen Corea, en el otro lado del espectro. +En el ao 2000, a Corea ya le iba muy bien, pero los coreanos estaban preocupados de que solo una pequea parte de sus estudiantes lograban altos niveles de excelencia. +Asumieron el reto, y Corea ha sido capaz de duplicar la proporcin de estudiantes que logran la excelencia en el campo de la lectura, en una dcada. +Bien, si solo se enfocan en sus estudiantes ms brillantes, sabrn que crecern las disparidades, y vern mover esta burbuja ligeramente en la otra direccin, pero an, una mejora impresionante. +Una revisin importante en la educacin polaca ayud drsticamente a reducir la variabilidad entre las escuelas, mejorando muchas escuelas de menor desempeo subiendo el desempeo en ms de medio ao escolar. +Y pueden ver otros pases tambin. +Portugal pudo consolidar su sistema escolar fraccionado, subir la calidad y mejorar la equidad, y lo mismo Hungra. +As que lo que ven es un gran cambio. +E incluso aquellos que se quejan y dicen que la posicin relativa de los pases en algo como PISA es solo un artefacto de la cultura, de factores econmicos, de temas sociales, de homogenizacin de las sociedades, etc., esas personas tienen ahora que reconocer que la mejora de la educacin es posible. +Polonia no ha cambiado su cultura. +No ha cambiado su economa. No ha cambiado la composicin de su poblacin. +No ha despedido a sus profesores. Ha cambiado sus polticas y sus prcticas educativas. Muy impresionante. +Y todo esto, por supuesto, nos lleva a la pregunta: Qu podemos aprender de estos pases del cuadrante verde que han logrado estos altos niveles de equidad, altos niveles de desempeo y subido los resultados? +Y, por supuesto, la pregunta es, puede, lo que funciona en un contexto, ser un modelo en otro pas? +Claro, no se puede copiar y pegar un sistema educativo a ciegas, pero estas comparaciones han identificado una gama de factores que comparten los sistemas de alto desempeo. +Todos concuerdan en que la educacin es importante. +Todos dicen eso. +Pero la prueba de verdad es, cmo se valora esta prioridad contra otras prioridades? +Cmo pagan los pases a sus profesores en relacin con otros trabajadores altamente calificados? +Te gustara que tu hijo fuera profesor en lugar de abogado? +Cmo hablan los medios de las escuelas y de los profesores? +Son preguntas crticas y lo que hemos aprendido de PISA es que, en los sistemas de alto desempeo, los lderes han convencido a los ciudadanos a tomar elecciones que valoran la educacin, su futuro, ms que el consumo hoy da. +Y saben qu es interesante? No lo creern, pero hay pases en los que es ms atractivo ir a la escuela que al centro comercial. +Esas cosas existen de verdad. +Pero dar un valor alto a la educacin es solo una parte del cuadro. +La otra parte es creer que todos los nios son capaces de triunfar. +Tienen algunos pases donde los estudiantes son segregados muy jvenes. +Son divididos reflejando la creencia de que solo algunos pueden lograr altos estndares. +Pero generalmente eso conlleva grandes disparidades sociales. +Si van a Japn, en Asia, o Finlandia, en Europa, padres y profesores en esos pases esperan que todo nio triunfe, y lo pueden ver reflejado en el comportamiento de los estudiantes. +Cuando les preguntamos a los estudiantes qu importaba para triunfar en matemticas, los estadounidenses tpicamente nos decan, todo es cuestin de talento; +si no nac genio en matemticas, mejor estudio otra cosa. +9 de cada 10 estudiantes japoneses dijeron que dependa de su propia inversin, de su propio esfuerzo, y esto dice mucho del sistema que los rodea. +En el pasado, a diferentes estudiantes se les enseaba de forma similar. +Los altos desempeos en PISA acogen la diversidad con diferentes prcticas pedaggicas. +Se dan cuenta de que los estudiantes normales tienen talentos extraordinarios y personalizan las oportunidades de aprendizaje. +Los sistemas de alto desempeo tambin comparten estndares claros y ambiciosos a lo largo de todo el espectro. +Todo estudiante conoce lo que importa. +Todo estudiante sabe lo que se requiere para triunfar. +Y en ninguna parte la calidad del sistema educativo excede la de sus profesores. +Los sistemas de alto desempeo son muy cuidadosos en cmo seleccionan y contratan a sus profesores y cmo los entrenan. +Observan cmo mejorar el rendimiento de los profesores en dificultades, y cmo estructuran el pago de los profesores. +Proporcionan un ambiente en el que los profesores puedan trabajar juntos para crear buenas prcticas. +Y les proporcionan caminos inteligentes para crecer en sus carreras. +En un sistema escolar burocrtico, se deja a los profesores solos en las clases con muchas indicaciones de lo que deberan ensear. +En los sistemas de alto desempeo est bien claro qu es buen desempeo. +Se ponen estndares ambiciosos, pero despus permiten que los profesores averigen qu necesitan para ensear a sus estudiantes hoy da. +En el pasado la educacin se basaba en entregar conocimiento. +Ahora el reto es posibilitar la generacin de conocimiento por parte del usuario. +Los pases con altos desempeos han pasado de formas administrativas de rendir cuentas y controlar cosas como, cmo comprobar si las personas hacen lo que se supone que deben hacer en educacin a formas profesionales de organizacin del trabajo. +Le permiten a los profesores hacer innovaciones en pedagoga. +Les proporcionan la clase de desarrollo que necesitan para desarrollar prcticas pedaggicas ms poderosas. +La meta en el pasado era estandarizacin y cumplimiento. +Los sistemas de alto rendimiento han hecho profesores y directores de escuela creativos. +En el pasado, la poltica se enfocaba en los resultados, en proveer. +Los sistemas de alto rendimiento han ayudado a los profesores y a los directores de escuelas a mirar fuera al nuevo profesor, la nueva escuela. +Y el resultado ms impresionante de los mejores sistemas educativos es que logran altos desempeos a lo largo de todo el sistema. +Han visto que a Finlandia le fue muy bien en PISA, pero lo que hace tan impresionante a Finlandia es que solo hay un 5 % de variacin en el desempeo de los estudiantes entre las varias escuelas. +Todas las escuelas tienen xito. +El xito es sistmico. +Y como lo hacen? +Invierten los recursos donde pueden marcar la mayor diferencia. +Atraen a los mejores directores a las escuelas ms difciles, y a los profesores ms talentosos a las aulas ms desafiantes. +Por ltimo, pero no menos importante, estos pases alinean sus polticas a todas las reas de la poltica pblica. +Mantienen la coherencia durante un perodo sostenido de tiempo y se aseguran de que lo que hacen sea implementado consistentemente. +Ahora, saber lo que hacen los sistemas exitosos no nos dice todava cmo mejorar. +Eso tambin est claro, y aqu es donde estn algunos lmites de las comparaciones internacionales de PISA. +Se necesitan otras formas de investigacin, y por eso PISA no se aventura a decirles a los pases qu deben hacer. +Pero su fortaleza se encuentra en decirles qu estn haciendo los dems. +Y el ejemplo de PISA muestra que los datos pueden ser ms poderosos que el control administrativo del subsidio financiero a travs del cual funcionan por lo general los sistemas educativos. +Algunos argumentan que cambiar la administracin educativa es como mover las tumbas: +no se puede confiar en que las personas de adentro te ayuden con eso. Pero PISA ha mostrado lo posible en educacin. +Le ha mostrado a los pases que la mejora es posible. +Ha eliminado las excusas de los complacientes. +Y ha ayudado a los pases a fijar objetivos significativos en trminos de objetivos medibles logrados por los lderes del mundo. +Si podemos ayudar a cada nio, a cada profesor, a cada escuela, a cada director, a cada padre a ver que la mejora es posible, que solo el cielo es el lmite al mejoramiento de la educacin, estamos sentando las bases para mejores polticas y mejores vidas. +Gracias. +"Cuando la crisis lleg, enseguida se vieron las serias limitaciones que tienen los modelos econmicos y financieros actuales". +"Tambin existe una fuerte conviccin, que comparto, de que una mala economa o demasiado simplista y optimista ayud a crear la crisis". +Quizs todos Uds. habrn escuchado crticas similares dichas por personas que son escpticas del capitalismo. +Pero esto es diferente, +porque proviene precisamente del corazn de las finanzas. +La primera cita es de Jean-Claude Trichet, cuando fue presidente del Banco Central Europeo. +La segunda cita fue dicha por el director de la Autoridad de Servicios Financieros del Reino Unido. +Estn ellos sugiriendo que no entendemos los sistemas econmicos que guan nuestras sociedades modernas? +Ms serio an. +"Gastamos miles de millones de dlares tratando de comprender los orgenes del universo cuando ni aun comprendemos las condiciones necesarias para tener una sociedad estable, una economa operativa o paz". +Qu est sucediendo aqu? Cmo puede esto ser posible? +Entendemos de verdad ms sobre el tejido de la realidad que sobre el tejido que surge de nuestras interacciones humanas? +Desafortunadamente, as es. +Pero existe una solucin interesante que se deriva de lo que se conoce como ciencia de la complejidad. +Para explicar qu significa y qu es, por favor permtanme retroceder un poco. +Sin querer, termin explorando en fsica. +Fue un encuentro casual que tuve cuando era joven, y desde entonces, a menudo me he quedado asombrado del extraordinario logro de la fsica al describir la realidad que enfrentamos cada da. +En pocas palabras, pueden pensar como fsicos as: +tomen un trozo de la realidad que desean comprender, convirtanlo en matemticas +y codifquenlo en ecuaciones; +como resultado podrn hacer y probar predicciones. +En realidad tenemos mucha suerte de que esto funcione porque nadie sabe realmente porqu nuestros pensamientos deberan relacionarse realmente con los mecanismos fundamentales del universo. +Pese a los logros, la fsica tiene sus lmites. +Como Dirk Helbing seal en la ltima cita, en realidad no comprendemos la complejidad que se relaciona con nosotros, la que nos rodea. +Esta paradoja es lo que me hizo interesarme en los sistemas complejos. +Estos sistemas son creados a partir de varias partes interconectadas o interactivas: bandadas de aves, bancos de peces, colonias de hormigas, ecosistemas, cerebros, mercados financieros... +por mencionar algunos ejemplos. +Curiosamente, es difcil representar los sistemas complejos en ecuaciones matemticas, por lo que el enfoque comn de la fsica en realidad no funciona aqu. +Qu sabemos de los sistemas complejos? +Resulta que aquello que exteriormente parece ser un comportamiento complejo, en realidad es el resultado de unas pocas y simples reglas de interaccin. +Esto significa que pueden olvidarse de las ecuaciones y simplemente comenzar a comprender el sistema mirando a las interacciones, as que pueden en realidad olvidarse de las ecuaciones y comenzar a mirar nicamente las interacciones. +Y todava mejor, porque la mayora de los sistemas complejos tienen esta extraordinaria propiedad llamada emergencia. +Esto significa que el sistema, como un todo, repentinamente comienza a mostrar un comportamiento que no se puede comprender o predecir al mirar a los componentes del mismo. +El todo es literalmente mayor que la suma de sus partes. +Y todo esto tambin significa que se pueden olvidar de las partes individuales del sistema, de cun complejas son. +Sea una clula, una termita o un pjaro, solo cntrense en las reglas de la interaccin. +Como resultado, las redes son representaciones ideales de los sistemas complejos. +Los nodos en la red son los componentes del sistema y los vnculos se dan a travs de las interacciones. +As que, lo que las ecuaciones son para la fsica, las redes complejas lo son para el estudio de los sistemas complejos. +Este enfoque se ha aplicado de forma muy exitosa en muchos sistemas complejos de la fsica, biologa, informtica y ciencias sociales. Pero qu de la economa? +Dnde estn las redes econmicas? +Hay una brecha sorprendente y prominente en la literatura. +El estudio que publicamos el ao pasado, "La Red de Control Corporativo Global" [The Network of Global Corporate], fue el primer anlisis extenso de las redes econmicas. +El estudio se volvi viral en internet y atrajo mucha atencin de los medios de comunicacin internacionales. +Esto es muy notable, porque, otra vez: Por qu nadie haba considerado esto antes? +Datos similares han circulado desde hace bastante tiempo. +Lo que observamos detalladamente fue las redes de propiedad. +Aqu los nodos son las compaas, la gente, los gobiernos, las fundaciones, etc. +Y los vnculos representan las relaciones accionarias: el accionista A tiene un x porcentaje de las acciones en la compaa B. +Tambin asignamos un valor a la compaa dado por el beneficio operativo. +Las redes de propiedades revelan las pautas de las relaciones accionarias. +En este pequeo ejemplo pueden ver unas pocas instituciones financieras con algunos de los muchos vnculos destacados. +Ahora pueden pensar que nadie antes haba observado esto porque las redes de propiedades son muy pero muy aburridas de estudiar. +Bien, siendo que la propiedad se relaciona con el control, como lo explicar despus, observar las redes de propiedades puede en realidad brindar respuestas a preguntas como: Quines son los jugadores claves? +Cmo estn organizados? Estn aislados? +Estn interconectados? +Cul es la distribucin general del control? +En otras palabras, Quin controla al mundo? +Creo que esta es una pregunta interesante +porque tiene implicaciones en el riesgo sistmico. +Es una medida de cun vulnerable es el sistema en general. +Un alto grado de interconectividad puede ser malo para la estabilidad, porque entonces el estrs se puede propagar a travs del sistema como una epidemia. +Los cientficos han criticado a veces a los economistas que creen que las ideas y los conceptos son ms importantes que los datos empricos, porque una directriz fundamental en la ciencia es: "Deje que los datos hablen". Bien, hagmoslo. +Comenzamos con una base de datos que contiene 13 millones de relaciones de propiedad del 2007. +Es mucha informacin, y como queramos descubrir quin gobierna al mundo, decidimos centrarnos en las corporaciones transnacionales, o TNCs, para abreviar. +Estas son compaas que operan en ms de un pas, y encontramos 43 000. +En el siguiente paso construimos una red alrededor de estas compaas, tomamos a todos los accionistas de las TNCs y a los accionistas de los accionistas, etc., hasta el final hacia arriba y luego hacia abajo, y terminamos con una red de 600 000 nodos y 1 milln de vnculos. +Esta es la red transnacional que analizamos. +Y la estructura result de esta forma: +Hay una periferia y un centro que contiene cerca del 75% de los jugadores, y en el centro est este pequeo pero dominante ncleo formado por compaas que estn altamente interconectadas. +Para darles una mejor imagen piensen en la rea metropolitana. +Tenemos los suburbios y la periferia, el centro que es como el distrito financiero, y luego el ncleo que sera algo como el edificio ms alto en el centro, +y vemos ya signos de organizacin aqu. +Solamente el 36% de las TNCs est en el ncleo, pero constituyen el 95% del total de los beneficios operativos de todas las TNCs. +Bueno, ya analizamos la estructura, cmo se relaciona esto con el control? +Bien, la propiedad le da derecho de voto a los accionistas. +Esta es la nocin normal de control. +Y existen diferentes modelos que les permiten calcular el control que obtienen de la propiedad. +Si tienen ms del 50% de las acciones en una compaa, tienen el control, pero generalmente esto depende de la distribucin relativa de las acciones. +Y la red realmente importa. +Cerca de 10 aos atrs, el seor Tronchetti Provera era el dueo y tena control de una pequea compaa, que a su vez tena propiedad y control de una compaa ms grande. +Captan la idea. +Eso le permiti tener control de Telecom Italia con un apalancamiento de 26. +Esto significa, que por cada euro que invirti, pudo mover 26 euros de valor burstil a travs de la cadena de relaciones de propiedad. +Ahora, lo que en realidad calculamos en nuestro estudio fue el control sobre el valor de las TNCs. +Esto nos permiti asignar un grado de influencia a cada accionista. +Esto es mucho ms en el sentido de la idea de Max Weber sobre el poder potencial, que es la probabilidad de imponer a alguien nuestra voluntad a pesar de la oposicin de otros. +Si desean calcular el flujo en una red de propiedad, esto es lo que tienen que hacer. +En realidad, no es tan difcil de entender. +Permtanme explicarles con esta analoga: +Piensen en el agua que fluye por las tuberas que tienen diferente grosor. +As parecido, el control fluye a travs de las redes de propiedades y es acumulado en los nodos. +Qu encontramos despus de haber calculado toda esta red de control? +Bien, resulta que los 737 principales accionistas tienen el potencial para controlar colectivamente el 80% del valor de las TNCs. +Ahora, recuerden que comenzamos con 600 000 nodos, as que estos 737 jugadores constituyen poco ms del 0,1%. +Son fundamentalmente instituciones financieras de EE.UU. y del Reino Unido. +Se pone an ms extremo. +En el ncleo hay 146 de los principales jugadores, quienes en conjunto tienen la capacidad para controlar colectivamente el 40% del valor de las TNCs. +Qu deben extraer de todo esto? +Bien, el alto grado de control que vieron es muy extremo desde cualquier punto de vista. +El alto grado de interconectividad de los principales jugadores en el ncleo podra representar un importante riesgo sistmico de la economa global, y nosotros pudimos reproducir fcilmente la red de TNCs con unas pocas y simples reglas. +Esto significa que su estructura es probablemente el resultado de la autoorganizacin. +Es una propiedad emergente que depende de las reglas de interaccin del sistema, por lo que probablemente no es el resultado de un abordaje de arriba hacia abajo como una conspiracin global. +Nuestro estudio "es una representacin de la superficie de la luna, +no un mapa de calles". +Por eso Uds. deberan tomar en nuestro estudio los nmeros exactos con cautela, aunque "nos dio una visin tentadora de un nuevo y desafiante mundo de las finanzas". +Esperamos haber abierto la puerta para realizar ms estudios en esta direccin para que el restante terreno desconocido sea trazado en el futuro, +lo que est lentamente iniciando. +Estamos viendo el surgimiento de programas de largo plazo y fuertemente patrocinados, cuyo propsito es entender a nuestro interconectado mundo desde el punto de vista de la complejidad. +Pero este viaje recin ha comenzado, y tendremos que esperar hasta que veamos los primeros resultados. +Pero, en mi opinin, todava hay un gran problema: +las ideas relacionadas con finanzas, economa, poltica y sociedad a menudo estn contaminadas con las ideologas personales de la gente. +Realmente espero que esta perspectiva de la complejidad permita que se encuentre alguna afinidad. +Sera grandioso si esto tuviera el poder para ayudar a eliminar el estancamiento creado por las ideas opuestas que parecen estar paralizando a nuestro mundo globalizado. +La realidad es tan compleja, que necesitamos separarnos de los dogmas. +Pero esta es solamente mi propia ideologa personal. +Gracias. +Por qu el buen sexo se desvanece tan frecuentemente aun en parejas que continan amndose uno al otro tanto como siempre? +Y por qu una buena intimidad no garantiza buen sexo, contrario a la creencia popular? +O, la siguiente pregunta pudiera ser, podemos desear lo que ya tenemos? +Es la pregunta del milln, verdad? +Y por qu lo prohibido es tan ertico? +Qu hace la transgresin que hace al deseo tan potente? +Y por qu el sexo hace bebs, y los bebs significan desastre ertico en las parejas? +Es una especie de golpe mortal al erotismo, no es as? +Y cuando amas, cmo se siente? +Y cuando deseas, en qu es diferente? +Estas son algunas de la preguntas que estn en el centro de mi exploracin de la naturaleza del deseo ertico y los dilemas concomitantes en el amor moderno. +As que he viajado por el mundo y lo que he notado es que en todas partes donde el romanticismo ha entrado parece haber una crisis del deseo. +Una crisis del deseo, como en poseer lo querido. El deseo como una expresin de nuestra individualidad, de nuestra libre eleccin, de nuestras preferencias, de nuestra identidad; deseo que se ha convertido en el concepto central como parte del amor moderno y las sociedades individualistas. +Saben, es la primera vez en la historia de la humanidad en que tratamos de experimentar la sexualidad en el largo plazo, no porque queramos 14 nios, para lo que necesitamos tener an ms porque muchos de ellos no sobreviven, y no porque sea un deber marital exclusivo de las mujeres. +Esta es la primera vez que queremos sexo por largo tiempo por el placer y la conexin que tiene sus races en el deseo. +Qu sostiene el deseo y por qu es tan difcil? +Y en el corazn del deseo sostenido en una relacin comprometida, creo que est la reconciliacin de dos necesidades humanas fundamentales. +Por una parte, nuestro deseo de seguridad, predictibilidad, seguridad, dependencia, confidencialidad, permanencia, todas anclas, polos a tierra de nuestras vidas, que llamamos hogar. +Pero tambin tenemos una necesidad igualmente fuerte hombres y mujeres de aventura, novedad, misterio, riesgo, peligro, de lo desconocido, lo inesperado, de sorpresa captan la idea de camino, de viaje. +As que reconciliar nuestra necesidad de seguridad y nuestra necesidad de aventura en una relacin, o lo que hoy nos gusta llamar un matrimonio apasionado, suele ser una contradiccin de trminos. +El matrimonio era una institucin econmica en la que te dieron un compaero para toda la vida en trminos de nios y estatus social y sucesin y compaerismo +Pero ahora queremos que nuestro compaero an nos d esas cosas, y adems queremos que sea nuestro mejor amigo, sincero confidente y apasionado amante, y vivimos el doble. +As que escojemos a una persona y bsicamente le pedimos que nos d lo que antes toda la aldea sola dar: +Dame pertenencia, identidad, continuidad, pero dame trascendencia y misterio y asombro, todo en uno. +Dame confort, dame lmite. +Dame novedad, dame familiaridad. +Dame predictibilidad, dame sorpresa. +Y pensamos que est dado, y que los juguetes y la lencera nos salvarn. +As que ahora llegamos a la realidad existencial de la historia, verdad? +Porque creo, de una forma y volver sobre esto que la crisis del deseo es frecuentemente una crisis de la imaginacin. +As que, por qu el buen sexo a menudo se desvanece? +Cul es la relacin entre amor y deseo? +Cmo se relacionan y cmo entran en conflicto? +Porque ah radica el misterio del erotismo. +Si hay un verbo, para m, que acompae a amor es "tener". +Y si hay un verbo que acompae a deseo, es "querer". +En el amor, queremos tener, queremos conocer lo amado. +Queremos minimizar la distancia. Queremos reducir la brecha. +Queremos neutralizar las tensiones. Queremos cercana. +Pero al desear, tendemos a no regresar a los lugares en los que ya hemos estado. +Los resultados previsibles no mantienen nuestro inters. +Al desear, queremos un Otro, alguien del otro lado que podamos ir a visitar, con quien podamos pasar algn tiempo, que podamos ir a ver qu pasa en la zona roja. +Al desear, queremos un puente para cruzar. +En otras palabras, a veces digo, el fuego necesita aire. +El deseo necesita espacio. +Y cuando se dice as es bastante abstracto. +Pero luego tom una pregunta conmigo. +Y he ido a ms de 20 pases en los ltimos aos con "Inteligencia Ertica" y le pregunt a la gente, cundo encuentra ms atractiva a su pareja? +No atractiva sexualmente, per se, sino ms deseable. +Y a lo largo de las culturas, las religiones, el gnero excepto por uno hubo pocas respuestas diferentes. +El primer grupo es: Es ms deseable para m cuando se va, cuando est lejos, cuando nos reunimos. +Bsicamente, cuando entro en contacto con mi habilidad de imaginarme con mi pareja, cuando mi imaginacin regresa al cuadro, y cuando puedo socavar en la ausencia y el anhelo, que es el mayor componente del deseo. +Pero un segundo grupo es an ms interesante: +Me es ms deseable cuando la veo en el estudio, cuando est en escena, cuando est en su elemento, haciendo algo que le apasiona, cuando la veo en una fiesta y con otras personas, cuando la veo dirigiendo. +Bsicamente, cuando veo a mi pareja radiante y segura, +probablemente el mayor excitante de todos. +Radiante, como autosuficiente. +Veo a esa persona, por cierto, en el deseo las personas raramente hablan de ello, cuando estamos mezclados en uno, a 5 centmetros uno de otro. No s en pulgadas cunto es. +Pero tampoco es cuando la otra persona est tan lejos que ya no puedes verla. +Es cuando veo a mi pareja a una distancia confortable, cuando esa persona que es ya tan familiar, saben, es por momentos, misteriosa otra vez, algo elusiva. +Y en ese espacio entre yo y el otro reside el impulso ertico, reside el movimiento hacia el otro. +Porque a veces, como deca Proust, el misterio no es viajar a nuevos lugares, sino verlos con nuevos ojos. +Y as, cuando veo mi pareja por su cuenta, haciendo algo en que est involucrada, veo a esa persona y por momentos tengo un cambio de percepcin, y estoy abierta a los misterios que viven justo a mi lado. +Y entonces, ms importante, en esta descripcin del otro o de m es lo mismo, lo que es ms interesante es que no hay necesidad en el deseo. +Nadie necesita a nadie. +No hay cuidado en el deseo. +El cuidado es muy amoroso. Es un potente antiafrodisiaco. +Todava estoy por ver a alguien que est excitado por alguien que lo necesita. +Una cosa es quererles. Necesitarlos es un freno, y las mujeres lo han sabido desde siempre, porque cualquier cosa que lleve a la planificacin generalmente disminuir la carga ertica. +Por buenas razones, correcto? +Y el tercer grupo de respuestas generalmente son: Cuando estoy sorprendido, cuando remos juntos, como alguien me dijo en la oficina hoy, cuando est de etiqueta, as que me dije, ya sabes, es o de etiqueta o de botas de vaquero. +Pero bsicamente es cuando hay novedad. +Pero la novedad no se trata de nuevas posiciones. No es un repertorio de tcnicas. +Novedad es, qu partes tuyas vas a mostrar? +Qu partes de ti casi se ven? +Porque de alguna manera uno podra decir +que el sexo no es algo que uno hace, eh? +El sexo es un lugar al que vas. Es un espacio al que entras dentro de ti mismo y con otro, u otros. +As que a dnde iras en el sexo? +Qu partes de ti conectas? +Qu buscas expresar all? +Es un lugar para la trascendencia y unin espiritual? +Es un lugar para la travesura y es un lugar para ser agresivo con seguridad? +Es un lugar donde puedes rendirte y no tener que asumir la responsabilidad de todo? +Es un lugar donde puedes expresar tus deseos infantiles? +Qu viene por ah? Es un lenguaje. +No es solo un comportamiento. +Y es la potica de ese idioma lo que me interesa, que es por lo que comenc a explorar este concepto de inteligencia ertica. +Saben, los animales tienen sexo. +Es el pivote, es biologa, es el instinto natural. +Somos los nicos que tienen una vida ertica, lo que significa que es sexualmente transformada por la imaginacin humana. +Somos los nicos que pueden hacer el amor durante horas, pasar un rato feliz, tener orgasmos mltiples, sin tocar a nadie, simplemente porque nos lo imaginamos. +Podemos esbozarlo. Ni siquiera tenemos que hacerlo. +Podemos experimentar esa cosa potente llamada anticipacin, que es el mortero del deseo, +la capacidad de imaginar, como si estuviera sucediendo, para vivirlo como si estuviera sucediendo, mientras que nada est sucediendo y todo est ocurriendo al mismo tiempo. +As que cuando empec a pensar sobre el erotismo, me puse a pensar en la potica del sexo, +y si lo veo como una inteligencia, entonces es algo que puedes cultivar. +Cules son los ingredientes? Imaginacin, alegra, novedad, curiosidad, misterio. +Pero el agente central es realmente esa pieza llamada la imaginacin. +Y los que no murieron vivieron a menudo muy atados a la tierra, no podra experimentar placer, no poda confiar, porque cuando ests atento, preocupado, ansioso, e inseguro, no puedes levantar la cabeza e ir y despegar al espacio y ser juguetn y seguro e imaginativo. +Los que regresaron a la vida fueron aquellos que entendieron lo ertico como un antdoto a la muerte. +Supieron cmo mantenerse vivos. +Y as empec a hacer una pregunta diferente. +"Me apago cuando..." empez a ser la pregunta. +"Se me acaba el deseo cuando..." que no es la misma pregunta, "Lo que me apaga es..." y "Me apagas el deseo cuando..." +Y entonces empec a hacer la pregunta inversa. +"Me excito cuando..." Porque la mayora de las veces, +a la gente le gusta hacer pregunta, "Me excito, lo que me excita", y estoy fuera de la pregunta. Saben? +Ahora, si ests muerto dentro, la otra persona puede hacer muchas cosas por San Valentn. +No har mella. No hay nadie en la recepcin. +As que me excito cuando, dirijo a mis deseos, me avivo cuando... +Ahora, en esta paradoja entre el amor y el deseo, lo que parece ser tan desconcertante es que los propios ingredientes que nutren el amor mutualismo, reciprocidad, proteccin, preocupacin, responsabilidad por el otro son a veces los mismos ingredientes que sofocan el deseo. +Porque el deseo viene con una serie de sentimientos que no siempre favorecen el amor: celos, posesividad, agresin, poder, dominacin, malicia, travesuras. +Bsicamente la mayora de nosotros no excitamos en la noche por las mismas cosas contra la que protestamos durante el da. +Saben, la mente ertica no es muy polticamente correcta. +Si todo el mundo fantasea en un lecho de rosas, no tendramos esas conversaciones interesantes sobre esto. +As que quiero traer esa pequea imagen hacia Uds., debido a esta necesidad de conciliar estos dos grupos de necesidades con las que nacemos. +Eso es el principio del deseo, necesidades exploratorias, curiosidad, descubrimiento. +En algn momento dan vuelta y miran +y si les dices: "Nio, el mundo es un gran lugar. Ve por l. +Hay mucha diversin all", entonces pueden dar vuelta y experimentar conexin y separacin al mismo tiempo. +Pueden ir en su imaginacin, en su cuerpo, disfrutando su alegra, sabiendo todo el tiempo que habr alguien cuando regresen. +Pero si en este lado hay alguien que dice: "Me preocupa. Estoy ansioso. Estoy deprimido. +Mi pareja no ha cuidado de m en tanto tiempo. +Qu hay tan bueno all afuera? No tenemos todo lo que +necesitamos juntos, t y yo?", +entonces hay algunas pocas reacciones que todos nosotros podemos reconocer bien. +Algunos de nosotros volveremos, regresar a hace mucho tiempo y a ese nio que regresa es el nio que va renunciar a una parte de s mismo para no perder el otro. +Perder mi libertad para no perder la conexin. +Y aprender a amar de una cierta manera que vendr cargada de preocupacin extra, responsabilidad y proteccin adicionales, y no s cmo dejarte para jugar, para experimentar placer, con el fin de descubrir, de entrar dentro de m. +Traduzcan esto al lenguaje adulto. +Empieza muy joven. Contina en nuestra vida sexual +hasta el final. +El nio nmero dos regresa pero pareciera que sobre sus hombros todo el tiempo. +"Vas a estar all? +Vas a maldecirme? Vas a regaarme? +Vas a estar enojada conmigo?" +Y se ha ido, pero nunca estn muy lejos, +y son a menudo las personas que les dirn, al principio era supercaliente. +Porque en un principio, la intimidad creciente no era an tan fuerte que realmente llevara a la disminucin del deseo. +Cuanto ms conectado estoy, ms responsable me siento, menos soy capaz de irme de tu presencia. +El tercer nio realmente no regresa. +Entonces pasa que, si quieres sostener el deseo, es este pedazo de real dialctica. +Por un lado deseas la seguridad para poder ir. +Por otra si no puedes irte, no tienes placer, no puedes culminar, no tienes un orgasmo, que no te excitas porque gastas tu tiempo en el cuerpo y la cabeza del otro y no en el tuyo propio. +En este dilema sobre reconciliacin de estos dos grupos de necesidades fundamentales, hay algunas pocas cosas que me han llevado a comprender lo que hacen esas parejas erticas. +Uno, tienen mucha intimidad sexual. +Entienden que hay un espacio ertico que pertenece a cada uno de ellos. +Tambin entienden que la estimulacin ertica no es algo que haces cinco minutos antes de la cosa real. +El juego ertico inicia al final del anterior orgasmo. +Tambin entienden que un espacio ertico no es sobre comenzar a tocar al otro. +Es sobre crear un espacio donde dejas el Directivo S.A. tal vez donde dejas el programa 'Agile', y realmente solo debes entrar a ese lugar donde dejas de ser el buen ciudadano que cuida de las cosas y es responsable. +Responsabilidad y deseo solo pelean. +Realmente no lo hacen bien juntos. +Las parejas erticas tambin entiendan que la pasin aumenta y disminuye. +Es bastante parecida a la Luna. Tiene eclipses intermitentes. +Pero lo que saben es que saben cmo resucitarla. +Saben cmo hacerla regresar, +Sexo comprometido es sexo premeditado. +Es con voluntad. Es intencional. +Es foco y presencia. +Feliz San Valentn. +La crisis econmico-financiera mundial ha reavivado el inters pblico en algo que es en realidad una de las preguntas ms antiguas en la economa que se remonta a antes de Adam Smith. +Por qu pases con economas e instituciones aparentemente similares muestran a veces hbitos de ahorro radicalmente diferentes? +Muchos economistas brillantes han pasado toda su vida trabajando en esta pregunta y hemos avanzado mucho, y ahora comprendemos muchas cosas. +Estoy aqu hoy para hablarles sobre una fascinante nueva hiptesis y algunos nuevos impactantes hallazgos en los que he estado trabajando sobre el vnculo entre la estructura del idioma que hablan y su tendencia al ahorro. +Djenme contarles un poco sobre las tasas de ahorro, un poco sobre el idioma, y luego llegar a esa conexin. +Comencemos por pensar en los pases miembros de la OCDE, o la Organizacin para la Cooperacin y el Desarrollo Econmicos. +Los pases de la OCDE, por lo general, deberan considerarlos como los pases ms ricos y ms industrializados del mundo. +Al unirse a la OCDE, ratifican un acuerdo comn de democracia, mercados abiertos y libre comercio. +A pesar de todas estas similitudes, vemos grandes diferencias en los hbitos de ahorro. +En la izquierda de este grfico, hay muchos pases de la OCDE que ahorran ms de un cuarto de su PIB al ao y algunos que ahorran ms de un tercio de su PIB al ao. +Manteniendo el flanco derecho de la OCDE, en el otro extremo, est Grecia. +Pueden ver que durante los ltimos 25 aos Grecia apenas ha logrado ahorrar ms de un 10% de su PIB. +Debe tenerse en cuenta, por supuesto, que EE.UU. y el Reino Unido son los siguientes. +Ahora que vemos estas grandes diferencias en los ndices de ahorro, mo es posible que el idioma pudiera tener algo que ver con estas diferencias? +Djenme contarles un poco sobre cmo difieren fundamentalmente los idiomas. +Los lingistas y los cientficos cognitivos han estado explorando esta pregunta durante muchos aos. +Luego explicar la conexin entre estos dos comportamientos. +Muchos ya habrn notado que soy chino. +Crec en el Medio Oeste de EE. UU. +Y algo de lo que me di cuenta muy pronto fue de que el idioma chino me obligaba a hablar sobre... y, de hecho, ms importante que eso, levemente me obligaba a pensar sobre la familia de manera muy diferente. +Cmo puede ser posible? Djenme ponerles un ejemplo. +Supongamos que estuviramos hablando y les presentara a mi to. +Entendieron exactamente lo que dije en ingls. +Sin embargo, si estuviramos hablando en chino mandarn, no tendra esa suerte. +No podra haber sido capaz de transmitir tan poca informacin. +Lo que mi idioma me hubiera obligado a hacer, en vez de solo decirles "este es mi to", es a darles una tremenda cantidad de informacin adicional. +Mi idioma me obligara a decirles si se trata de un to por parte de madre o de padre, si se trata de un to por matrimonio o por nacimiento y, si fuera el hermano de mi padre, si es mayor o menor que mi padre. +Toda esta informacin es obligatoria. El chino no me deja ignorarla. +Y de hecho, si quiero hablar correctamente, el chino me obliga a pensar en ello constantemente. +Eso me fascin infinitamente cuando era nio, pero lo que me fascina an ms hoy como economista es que algunas de estas mismas diferencias se mantienen en la manera en que los idiomas se refieren al tiempo. +Por ejemplo, si estoy hablando en ingls, tengo que hablar gramaticalmente diferente. Si estoy hablando sobre la lluvia pasada: "It rained yesterday" (Llovi ayer); la lluvia actual, "It is raining now" (Est lloviendo ahora), o la lluvia futura, "It will rain tomorrow" (Llover maana). +El ingls requiere mucha ms informacin sobre el momento de los acontecimientos. +Por qu? Porque tengo que considerarlo y tengo que modificar lo que digo para decir "It will rain" o "It's going to rain" (Va a llover). +Simplemente, no est permitido en ingls decir: "It rain tomorrow" (Llueve maana). +A diferencia de eso, as es casi exactamente como lo diran en chino. +Un orador chino puede bsicamente decir algo que suena muy extrao a los odos de un hablante de ingls. +Pueden decir: "Ayer llueve", "Ahora llueve", "Maana llueve". +En un sentido profundo, el chino no divide el espectro del tiempo de la misma manera que el ingls nos obliga para hablar de manera correcta. +Se da esta diferencia solo entre lenguas muy, muy alejadas, como el ingls y el chino? +En realidad, no. +En esta sala, muchos de ustedes saben que el ingls es una lengua germnica. +Lo que no se han dado cuenta es que en realidad el ingls es atpico. +Es la nica lengua germnica que requiere esto. +Por ejemplo, los hablantes de otros lenguas germnicas se sienten completamente cmodos hablando sobre la lluvia de maana. Al decir "Morgen regnet es", literalmente para un odo ingls "Llueve maana". +Esto me llev, como economista conductual, a una hiptesis fascinante. +Podra ser el cmo tu idioma te obliga a hablar y pensar acerca del tiempo, lo que afecta tu propensin a comportarte a travs del tiempo? +Ustedes hablan ingls, una lengua que usa mucho el futuro. +Y lo que eso significa es que cada vez que discuten el futuro o algn tipo de evento futuro, gramaticalmente estn obligados a separarlo del presente y tratarlo como si fuera algo visceralmente diferente. +Ahora supongan que esa diferencia visceral hace que disocien sutilmente el futuro del presente cada vez que hablan. +Si eso es verdad y hace que el futuro se sienta como algo ms distante y ms diferente del presente, eso har ms difcil ahorrar. +Si, por otro lado, hablan un idioma sin futuro, se habla del presente y del futuro de forma idntica. +Si eso les impulsa a sentirlos de manera idntica, ser ms fcil ahorrar. +Ahora bien, esta es una teora fantasiosa. +Soy un catedrtico, me pagan para tener teoras fantasiosas. +Pero cmo podramos realmente probar tal teora? +Bueno, acced a una bibliografa sobre lingstica. +Y curiosamente, hay focos de hablantes de lenguas sin futuro situados en todo el mundo. +Hay un foco de hablantes de lenguas sin futuro en el norte de Europa. +Curiosamente, cuando comienzan a analizar los datos, estos focos de hablantes de lenguajes sin futuro alrededor de todo el mundo llegan a ser, por lo general, algunos de los mejores ahorradores del mundo. +Solo por darles una pista, veamos de nuevo ese grfico de la OCDE del que estbamos hablando. +Lo que ven es que estas barras son sistemticamente ms altas y sistemticamente desplazadas a la izquierda, comparadas con las barras de los miembros de la OCDE que hablan lenguas con futuro. +Cul es la diferencia promedio aqu? +Cinco puntos porcentuales de su PIB ahorrados al ao. +Durante ms de 25 aos, esto tiene enormes efectos sobre la riqueza de la nacin. +Aunque estos hallazgos son sugerentes, los pases pueden ser diferentes de tantas maneras distintas que a veces es muy difcil tener en cuenta todas estas posibles diferencias. +Les voy a mostrar algo en lo que he estado participando durante un ao, que es en tratar de reunir todas las mayores listas de datos a las que tenemos acceso los economistas, y voy a tratar de quitar todas esas posibles diferencias, esperando que esta relacin se rompa. +En resumen, por mucho que lo intente, no puedo conseguir que se rompa. +Les voy a ensear hasta dnde se puede aplicar. +Una forma de imaginarlo es que reuna grandes conjuntos de datos de todo el mundo. +Por ejemplo, est la Encuesta de Salud [Envejecimiento] y Jubilacin en Europa. +A partir de este conjunto de datos uno puede descubrir que las familias de jubilados europeos son extremadamente pacientes con los encuestadores. +Imaginen que son pensionistas en Blgica y alguien llama a su puerta. +"Perdone, le importara si examinara su cartera de acciones? +Por casualidad sabe cunto vale su casa? Le importara decrmelo? +Tendr por casualidad un pasillo de ms de 10 metros de largo? +Si lo tiene, le importara si mido el tiempo que se tarda en cruzarlo? +Le importara apretar tan fuerte como pueda este dispositivo con su mano dominante, para que pueda medir su fuerza de agarre? +Qu tal si sopla en este tubo para que pueda medir su capacidad pulmonar?". +La encuesta tomara todo un da. +Combinen eso con una Encuesta Demogrfica y de Salud recopilada por USAID en los pases en desarrollo de frica, por ejemplo. Dicha encuesta puede realmente ir tan lejos como para medir directamente la condicin del VIH de las familias que viven, por ejemplo, en sectores rurales de Nigeria. +Combinen eso con una encuesta mundial de valores, que mide las opiniones polticas y, afortunadamente para m, los hbitos de ahorro de millones de familias en cientos de pases de todo el mundo. +Tomen todos los datos, combnenlos y este mapa es lo que obtienen. +Lo que encuentran son nueve pases de todo el mundo que tienen importantes poblaciones nativas que hablan tanto lenguas sin futuro como con futuro. +Lo que voy a hacer es formar pares estadsticamente comparables entre las familias que son casi idnticas en todas las dimensiones que pueda medir y luego voy a estudiar si el vnculo entre la lengua y el ahorro se mantiene incluso despus de controlar todos estos niveles. +Cules son las caractersticas que podemos controlar? +Bueno, voy a emparejar las familias en el pas de nacimiento y de residencia, la demografa: el sexo, la edad... su nivel de ingresos dentro de su propio pas, sus logros educativos, mucho sobre su estructura familiar. +Resulta que hay seis maneras diferentes de estar casado en Europa. +De manera ms especfica, los separo por religin, donde hay 72 categoras de religiones en el mundo, as que los llevo a un nivel extremo de especificacin. +Una familia puede ser de 1400 millones de maneras diferentes. +Todo lo que voy a decir de ahora en adelante es comparando solo a estas familias bsicamente idnticas. +Ahora, incluso despus de todo este nivel especfico de control, ahorran ms los hablantes de lenguajes sin futuro? +S, los hablantes de lenguajes sin futuro, incluso despus de este nivel de control, son un 30 % ms proclives a ahorrar en un ao determinado. +Tiene efectos acumulativos? +S. Al jubilarse, los hablantes de lenguas sin futuro, manteniendo un ingreso constante, van a jubilarse con 25% ms de ahorros. +Podemos ir ms all con estos datos? +S, como acabo de decir, como economistas reunimos una gran cantidad de datos sobre la salud. +Ahora, cmo podemos pasar de pensar en los hbitos de salud a pensar en ahorros? +Bueno, piensen en fumar, por ejemplo. +Fumar es en un sentido profundo un ahorro negativo. +Si el ahorro es el dolor presente a cambio de placer futuro, fumar es justo lo contrario. +Es placer presente a cambio de dolor futuro. +Lo que deberamos esperar entonces es el efecto contrario. +Y eso es exactamente lo que encontramos. +Podra seguir y seguir con la lista de las diferencias que se pueden encontrar. +Es casi imposible no encontrar un hbito de ahorro en el que no est presente este poderoso efecto. +Mis colegas en Yale de lingstica y economa y yo estamos empezando a hacer este trabajo y a explorar y comprender las maneras en las que estos sutiles aspectos nos hacen pensar ms o menos en el futuro cada vez que hablamos. +Finalmente, el objetivo, una vez que entendamos cmo estos sutiles efectos pueden cambiar nuestra toma de decisiones, queremos ser capaces de proporcionar herramientas a la gente para que conscientemente puedan hacerse mejores ahorradores e inversores ms conscientes para su futuro. +Muchas gracias. +El tipo de neurociencia que hacemos mis colegas y yo es casi como de meteorlogo. +Estamos siempre persiguiendo tormentas. +Queremos ver y medir tormentas; tormentas de ideas, claro est. +Todos hablamos de tormentas de ideas en nuestra vida cotidiana, pero rara vez vemos o escuchamos una. +Por eso a mi me gusta comenzar siempre estas charlas presentando una. +La primera vez que registramos ms de una neurona, 100 clulas cerebrales, simultneamente, pudimos medir las chispas elctricas de 100 clulas del mismo animal. Esta es la primera imagen que conseguimos, los primeros 10 segundos de esta grabacin. +Tomamos un pequeo fragmento de un pensamiento, y lo pudimos ver al frente. +Siempre les digo a los estudiantes que tambin podramos considerar a los neurocientficos como una especie de astrnomos, porque estamos tratando con un sistema que solo es comparable, en trminos del nmero de clulas, con el nmero de galaxias en el universo. +Y aqu estamos hace 10 aos, grabando apenas un centenar de los miles de millones de neuronas. +Ahora lo hacemos con un millar. +Y esperamos entender algo fundamental sobre la naturaleza humana. +Porque, si no lo saban, todo lo que utilizamos para definir la naturaleza humana proviene de estas tormentas que ruedan por las colinas y valles de nuestro cerebro y definen nuestros recuerdos, nuestras creencias, nuestros sentimientos, nuestros planes para el futuro. +Todo lo que hacemos, lo que alguna vez ha hecho, hace o har todo ser humano, requiere del trabajo de conglomerados de neuronas que producen este tipo de tormentas. +Y el sonido de una tormenta de ideas, si no han escuchado uno, es algo parecido a esto. +Se puede poner ms fuerte si quieren. +Mi hijo llama a esto "haciendo palomitas de maiz mientras se escucha una emisora AM mal sintonizada". +Esto es un cerebro. +Esto es lo que sucede cuando se enrutan estas tormentas elctricas a un altavoz y se escucha un centenar de neuronas disparando. Tu cerebro sonar as; mi cerebro, cualquier cerebro. +Y lo que queremos hacer como neurocientficos actualmente es, en efecto, escuchar estas sinfonas del cerebro, y tratar de extraer de ellas los mensajes que llevan. +En particular, hace unos 12 aos, creamos lo que llamamos interfaz cerebro-mquina. +Aqu se ve un esquema que describe cmo funciona. +Ver si podemos medir qu tan bien podemos traducir ese mensaje comparado con la forma como lo hace el cuerpo. +Y ver si realmente podemos dar retroalimentacin; seales sensoriales que regresen de este actor robtico, mecnico, computacional, ahora bajo el control del cerebro, de regreso al cerebro, y ver cmo el cerebro maneja esto de recibir mensajes de una mquina artificial. +Eso es exactamente lo que hicimos hace 10 aos. +Empezamos con una mona llamada Aurora que se convirti en una de las superestrellas en este campo. +A Aurora le gustaban los videojuegos. +Como se puede ver aqu, le gustaba usar un comando, como a cualquiera de nosotros, de nuestros hijos, para este juego. +Y como buena primate, incluso intenta hacer trampa para obtener la respuesta correcta. +Incluso antes de que aparezca el objetivo que ella debe cazar con el cursor que est controlando con este comando, Aurora trata de dar con el objetivo, adivinando. +Y si ella est haciendo eso, es porque cada vez que caza el objetivo con el pequeo cursor, consigue una gota de jugo de naranja brasileo. +Y puedo decirles que cualquier mono har lo que sea, si consigue una pequea gota de jugo de naranja brasileo a cambio. +A decir verdad, cualquier primate lo har. +Piensen en eso. +Bien, mientras Aurora estaba jugando este juego, como vieron, haciendo mil ensayos al da consiguiendo un 97 % de aciertos y 350 ml de jugo de naranja, estbamos grabando las sesiones de tormenta de ideas que se producan en su cabeza y envindolas a un brazo robtico que estaba aprendiendo a reproducir los movimientos que haca Aurora. +Porque la idea era hacer realidad esta interfaz cerebro-mquina y tener a Aurora jugando solo con el pensamiento, sin la interferencia de su cuerpo. +Sus tormentas cerebrales controlaran un brazo que movera el cursor y cazara el objetivo. +Y para nuestro asombro, eso fue exactamente lo que hizo Aurora. +Ella jugaba sin mover su cuerpo. +Cada trayectoria del cursor que estn viendo, corresponde a la primera vez que ella lo logr. +Esta es exactamente la primera vez en que una orden del cerebro fue liberada de los dominios fsicos del cuerpo de un primate y pudo actuar afuera, en el mundo exterior, simplemente controlando un dispositivo artificial. +Y Aurora se mantuvo jugando, tratando de encontrar el pequeo objetivo y consiguiendo el jugo de naranja que quera, que anhelaba. +Lo hizo porque ella, en ese momento, haba adquirido un nuevo brazo. +El brazo robtico que ven movindose aqu, 30 das despus del primer video que les mostr, est bajo el control del cerebro de Aurora, y ella mueve el cursor para alcanzar el objetivo. +Aurora ahora sabe que puede jugar con este brazo robtico. Pero no ha perdido la capacidad de utilizar sus brazos biolgicos para hacer lo que le agrada. +Puede rascarse la espalda, puede rascar a uno de nosotros, puede jugar otro juego. +Para todos los fines y propsitos, el cerebro de Aurora ha incorporado ese dispositivo artificial como una extensin de su cuerpo. +La imagen de s misma que ella tena en su mente se ha ampliado con un brazo adicional. +Esto fue hace 10 aos. +Demos un salto rpido adelante de 10 aos. +El ao pasado nos dimos cuenta que ni siquiera es necesario tener un dispositivo robtico. +Se puede simplemente crear un cuerpo computacional, un avatar, un avatar de mono. +Se lo puede usar bien sea para que los monos interacten con l, o para entrenarlos para asumir la perspectiva de primera persona de ese avatar, en un mundo virtual, y usar su actividad cerebral para controlar los movimientos de brazos o piernas del avatar. +Y lo que hicimos bsicamente fue entrenar a los animales para aprender a controlar esos avatares y explorar los objetos que aparecen en el mundo virtual. +Estos objetos son visualmente idnticos, pero cuando el avatar caza la superficie de estos objetos, mandan un mensaje elctrico segn la textura microtctil del objeto que vuelve directamente al cerebro del mono, informndole lo que el avatar est tocando. +Y en solo 4 semanas, el cerebro aprende a procesar esta nueva sensacin y adquiere una nueva va sensorial, como un nuevo sentido. +El cerebro est efectivamente liberado ahora porque se le permite enviar comandos motores para mover el avatar +y la retroalimentacin que proviene del avatar es procesada directamente por el cerebro, sin interferencia de la piel. +Lo que ven aqu es el diseo de la tarea. +Van a ver un animal que, bsicamente, toca estos 3 objetivos +y que tiene que seleccionar uno, porque solo uno tiene recompensa, el deseado jugo de naranja. +Debe seleccionarlo por tacto, usando un brazo virtual, un brazo que no existe. +Y eso es exactamente lo que hacen. +Se trata de una liberacin completa del cerebro de las restricciones fsicas del cuerpo y del sistema motor, en una tarea perceptual. +El animal est controlando el avatar para tocar los objetivos. +Y siente la textura al recibir un mensaje elctrico directamente en el cerebro. +El cerebro est decidiendo la textura asociada con la recompensa. +Las leyendas que se ven en la pelcula no aparecen para el mono. +Y por cierto, de todas formas no sabe leer, Estan ah solo para que ustedes sepan que el objetivo correcto est cambiando de posicin. +Y an as, ellos son capaces de encontrarlos por discriminacin tctil, y son capaces de presionar y seleccionarlo. +Observamos los cerebros de estos animales y en el panel superior se puede ver la alineacin de 125 clulas que muestran lo que sucede con la actividad del cerebro, las tormentas elctricas de esa muestra de neuronas en el cerebro cuando el animal est usando un comando. +Esta es una imagen que todo neurofisilogo reconoce. +La alineacin bsica muestra que estas clulas estn codificadas para todas las direcciones posibles. +En la foto de abajo est lo que ocurre cuando el cuerpo se detiene y el animal comienza a controlar un dispositivo robtico o un avatar computacional. +No hemos acabado de reiniciar las computadoras, cuando la actividad cerebral cambia para empezar a representar esta nueva herramienta, como si fuera una parte ms del cuerpo de ese primate. +El cerebro est asimilando eso tambin, tan rpido que casi no podemos medirlo. +Esto nos sugiere que nuestro sentido del yo no termina en la ltima capa del epitelio del cuerpo, sino que termina en la ltima capa de electrones de las herramientas que manejamos con el cerebro. +Nuestros violines, nuestros coches, nuestras bicicletas, los balones de ftbol, nuestra ropa, todos son asimilados por este sistema voraz, asombroso, dinmico, llamado cerebro. +Qu tan lejos podemos llevar esto? +Vern. En un experimento que hicimos hace unos aos, lo llevamos al lmite. +Pusimos un animal a correr en una caminadora en la Universidad de Duke, en la costa este de los EE.UU., produciendo las tormentas de ideas necesarias para moverse. +Teniamos un dispositivo robtico, un robot humanoide, en Kyoto, Japn, en los laboratorios ATR, que estaba esperando toda su vida ser controlado por un cerebro, un cerebro humano, o uno de primate. +Y sucedi que la actividad del cerebro del mono que generaba los movimientos fue transmitida a Japn e hizo que este robot caminara mientras tanto las imgenes de esta caminata fueron devueltas a Duke, para que el mono pudiera ver las piernas del robot caminar frente a el. +La recompensa, no era por lo que estaba haciendo su cuerpo, sino por cada paso correcto del robot controlado por su actividad cerebral al otro lado del planeta. +Lo divertido es que el viaje redondo alrededor de la Tierra tom 20 milisegundos menos de lo que tarda esta tormenta en salir de la cabeza del mono, y llegar a sus msculos. +El mono estaba moviendo un robot 6 veces ms grande que l en el otro extremo del planeta. +Este es uno de los experimentos en que ese robot pudo caminar autnomamente. +Este es CB1 cumpliendo su sueo en Japn bajo el control de la actividad del cerebro de un primate. +Hasta dnde vamos a llevar todo esto? +Qu vamos a hacer con toda esta investigacin, adems de estudiar las propiedades de este universo dinmico que tenemos entre oreja y oreja? +Vern. La idea es tomar todo este conocimiento y tecnologa para tratar de resolver uno de los ms graves problemas neurolgicos del mundo. +Millones de personas han perdido la capacidad para traducir estas tormentas cerebrales en accin, en movimiento. +Aunque sus cerebros continan produciendo esas tormentas y cdigos para el movimiento, no pueden cruzar una barrera creada por una lesin en la mdula espinal. +Pueden ver una imagen producida por un consorcio. +Este mismo mecanismo, esperamos, permitir que estos pacientes, no solo imaginen otra vez los movimientos que quieren hacer y que los traduzcan en movimientos para este nuevo cuerpo, sino que este sea asimilado como el nuevo cuerpo que el cerebro controla. +Me dijeron hace unos 10 aos que esto nunca pasara, que esto estaba cerca de lo imposible. +Solo dir que crec en el sur de Brasil a mediados de los 60 viendo a unos locos dicindo que iran a la luna. +Me dijeron que es imposible hacer que alguien impedido camine. +Creo que voy a seguir el consejo de mi abuela. +Gracias. +Hay un grupo de personas en Kenia. +Las personas cruzan ocanos para verlos. +Son personas altas. +Saltan alto. Usan prendas rojas. +Y matan leones. +Se preguntarn, quines son estas personas? +Son los masi. +Y saben qu es lo genial? Yo soy una de ellos. +En la tribu masi, los nios son criados para ser guerreros. +Las nias, para ser madres. +Cuando tena 5 aos, me enter de que estaba comprometida para casarme en cuanto llegara a la pubertad. +Mi madre, mi abuela, mis tas, me recordaban constantemente que mi marido acababa de pasar. +Genial, no? +Y todo lo que deba hacer desde ese momento era prepararme para ser la mujer perfecta a la edad de 12 aos. +Mi da comenzaba a las 5 de la maana, ordeando las vacas, barriendo la casa, cocinando para mis hermanos, recolectando agua y lea. +Haca todo lo que necesitaba hacer para convertirme en la esposa perfecta. +Fui a la escuela, no porque las nias o mujeres masi fueran a la escuela. +Fue porque a mi madre se le neg la educacin, y ella constantemente nos recordaba a mis hermanos y a m que ella no quera que viviramos la vida que ella llevaba. +Por qu deca esto? +Mi padre trabajaba como polica en la ciudad. +Volva a casa una vez al ao. +A veces no lo veamos durante casi dos aos. +Y cuando volva a casa, siempre era un caso diferente. +Mi madre trabajaba mucho en la granja cultivando la cosecha para que pudiramos comer. +Ella criaba las vacas y las cabras para poder cuidarnos. +Pero cuando mi padre volva, venda las vacas, y los productos que tenamos, y se iba a beber con sus amigos a los bares. +Como mi madre era mujer, no se le permita ser duea de ninguna propiedad, y por defecto, todo en mi familia perteneca a mi padre, as que tena ese derecho. +Y si mi madre lo cuestionaba, l la golpeaba, abusaba de ella y realmente era difcil. +Cuando fui a la escuela, tuve un sueo. +Quera convertirme en maestra. +Los maestros se vean bien. +Siempre usaban lindos vestidos, zapatos con tacn. +Despus me enter que son incmodos, pero los admiraba. +Pero sobre todo, los maestros solo escriban en la pizarra; no es un trabajo difcil, eso pens, comparado con lo que yo haca en la granja. +As que quera convertirme en maestra. +Y trabaj duro en la escuela, pero al llegar a octavo grado, fue un factor determinante. +En nuestra tradicin, hay una ceremonia que las nias deben pasar para convertirse en mujeres es un ritual de iniciacin a la feminidad. +Y entonces, a penas estaba terminando el octavo grado, y esa era mi etapa de transicin a la preparatoria. +Esta fue la encrucijada. +Una vez que pasara por este ritual, me iba a convertir en esposa. +Y, mi sueo de convertirme en maestra, no se realizara. +Entonces habl, tena que idear un plan para poder resolver estas cuestiones. +Habl con mi padre. Hice algo que la mayora de las nias no haban hecho nunca. +Le dije a mi padre, "Voy a pasar por esta ceremonia solo si me dejas volver a la escuela". +La razn fue porque, si yo hua, mi padre quedara estigmatizado, y lo llamaran el padre de la nia que no quiso atravesar la ceremonia. +Hubiese sido algo muy vergonzoso de llevar el resto de su vida. +Entonces lo resolvi. "Bien", dijo, "est bien, vas a poder ir a la escuela despus de la ceremonia". +Y lo hice. La ceremonia ocurri. +Es una larga semana de emocin. +Es una ceremonia. Las personas la disfrutan. +Y el da anterior a la ceremonia, estbamos bailando, divirtindonos, y esa noche no dormimos. +Lleg el da, y salimos de la casa de donde habamos bailado. S, bailamos y bailamos. +Salimos al jardn, y haba muchas personas esperando. +Formaban un crculo. +Y a medida que bailbamos y bailbamos, y nos acercbamos a este crculo de mujeres, haba hombres, mujeres, nios, todo el mundo est all. +Haba una mujer sentada en el medio, y esta mujer, estaba esperando para sujetarnos. +Yo era la primera. Estaban mis hermanas y un par de nias ms, y mientras me acercaba a ella, ella me mir, y me sent. +Y me sent, y abr mis piernas. +Mientras abra mis piernas, vino otra mujer, y esta mujer traa un cuchillo. +Y con el cuchillo en la mano, camin hacia m sostuvo el cltoris, y lo cort. +Como pueden imaginarse, yo sangraba y sangraba. +Luego de sangrar un rato, me desmay. +Es algo que a muchas nias... Tuve suerte de no morir, muchas mueren. +Se practica, sin anestesia, con un cuchillo viejo y oxidado, y fue difcil. +Tuve suerte porque, adems, mi mam hizo algo que la mayora de las mujeres no hace. +Tres das despus, luego de que todos se fueran, mi mam trajo una enfermera. +Nos cuidaron. +Tres semanas despus, san, y ya estaba de nuevo en la preparatoria. +Estaba tan decidida a convertirme en maestra en ese momento para poder marcar una diferencia en mi familia. +Bien, mientras estaba en preparatoria, ocurri algo. +Conoc a un joven de nuestra aldea que haba asistido a la Universidad de Oregn. +El hombre vesta una camiseta blanca, jeans, una cmara zapatillas blancas, y estoy hablando de zapatillas blancas. +Hay algo en la ropa, creo, y en los zapatos. +Eran zapatillas, y esta es un aldea que ni siquiera tiene caminos pavimentados. Era muy atractivo. +Le dije, "Bien, quiero ir donde t ests", porque este muchacho se vea muy feliz, y yo admiraba eso. +Y l me dijo, "Bueno, qu quieres decir con que quieres ir? +Acaso no tienes un esposo esperndote?" +Y le dije, "No te preocupes por esa parte. +Solo dime cmo llegar all". +Este caballero me ayud. +Mientras estaba en la preparatoria, mi padre estaba enfermo. +Le dio un ACV, y estaba muy, muy enfermo, as que no poda decirme qu hacer. +El problema es que mi padre, no es el nico padre que tengo. +Todos los hombres en la comunidad, de la edad de mi padre, son mi padre por defecto, mis tos, todos ellos, y ellos dictan mi futuro. +As que lleg la noticia, envi una solicitud y me aceptaron en la Randolph-Macon Woman's College, en Lynchburg, Virginia, y no poda venir sin el respaldo de la aldea, porque necesitaba reunir el dinero para comprar el pasaje de avin. +Me dieron una beca, pero necesitaba llegar hasta aqu. +Pero necesitaba el respaldo de la aldea, y aqu, nuevamente, cuando los hombres se enteraron y las personas se enteraron de que una mujer tena la oportunidad de ir a la universidad, todos dijeron, "Qu perdida de oportunidad. +Esto se lo tendran que haber dado a un muchacho. No podemos hacer esto", +As que regres, y tuve que volver a nuestras tradiciones. +Hay una creencia, en nuestro pueblo que dice que la maana trae buenas noticias. +As que tuve que inventar algo que tuviese que ver con la maana, porque hay buenas noticias en la maana. +Y en la aldea, adems, hay un jefe, un anciano, que si accede, todos deben seguirlo. +As que fui a verlo, en la maana, mientras sala el sol. +Lo primero que l vio cuando abri la puerta, fue a m. +"Mi nia, qu ests haciendo aqu?" +"Bueno, Pap, necesito ayuda. Puedes ayudarme para ir a Estados Unidos?" +Le promet que sera la mejor nia, que regresara, y que cualquier cosa que ellos quisieran despus, yo la hara por ellos. +l me dijo, "Bueno, pero no puedo hacerlo solo". +Me dio una lista de otros 15 hombres, 16 hombres ms, y cada maana yo los visitaba. +Todos ellos se reunieron. +La aldea, las mujeres, los hombres, todos se reunieron para respaldarme para que viniese a obtener mi educacin. +Llegu a Estados Unidos. Y como imaginan, qu fue lo que encontr? +Encontr nieve! +Encontr Wal-Marts, aspiradoras, y mucha comida en la cafetera. +Estaba en la tierra de la abundancia. +Lo disfrut, pero durante el tiempo que estuve aqu, descubr muchas cosas. +Descubr que la ceremonia que atraves cuando tena 13 aos se llama mutilacin genital femenina. +Aprend que es anticonstitucional en Kenia. +Aprend que no deba cambiar ninguna parte de mi cuerpo para obtener una educacin. Tena un derecho. +Y mientras hablamos ahora, hay 3 millones de nias en frica, corriendo el riesgo de pasar por esta mutilacin. +Aprend que mi mam tiene derecho a la propiedad. +Aprend que no deba ser abusada solo por ser mujer. +Estas cosas me enfurecieron. +Quera hacer algo. +Cuando volva, cada vez que volva, vea que las hijas de mis vecinos se estaban casando. +Las estaban mutilando, y aqu, luego de graduarme, trabaj en la ONU, volv a la universidad para obtener mi licenciatura, y tena presente el llanto constante de estas nias. +Deba hacer algo. +Cuando volva, comenc hablando con los hombres de la aldea, y las madres, y les dije, "Les quiero devolver, como les promet que volvera para ayudarlos. Qu necesitan?" +Y hablando con las mujeres, me dijeron, "Sabes que necesitamos? Realmente necesitamos una escuela para las nias". +Porque nunca haba habido una escuela para nias. +Y la razn por la cual queran una escuela para ellas es porque cuando violaban a una nia mientras iba a la escuela, culpaban a la madre por ello. +Si quedaba embarazada antes del matrimonio, tambin culpan a la madre, y la castigan por ello. +La golpean. +Me dijeron "Queremos poner a nuestras nias en un lugar a salvo". +Mientras nos mudbamos, y fui a hablar con los padres, se imaginarn por supuesto, lo que me dijeron ellos: "Queremos una escuela para nios". +Y les dije, "Bien, hay un par de hombres de mi aldea que han salido, y han obtenido una educacin. +Por qu no pueden ellos construir una escuela para nios, y yo construyo una para nias? +Esto tuvo sentido. Y estuvieron de acuerdo. +Y les dije, que quera que me mostraran una seal de su compromiso. +Y lo hicieron. Donaron el terreno donde construimos la escuela para las nias. +Lo hicimos. +Quiero que conozcan a una de las nias en esa escuela. +Angeline present una solicitud, y ella no cumpla con ninguno de los requisitos que tenamos. +Ella es hurfana. S, podramos haberla aceptado por eso. +Pero ella ya era mayor. Tena 12 aos, y nosotros estbamos tomando nias que estaban en cuarto grado. +Angeline haba estado mudndose de un lugar a... porque siendo hurfana, no tiene madre, ni padre, as que iba de la casa de una abuela a la otra, de ta en ta. No tena estabilidad en su vida. +Y la observ, recuerdo ese da, y vi algo mucho ms all de lo que vea en Angeline. +Y s, ella ya era mayor para estar en cuarto grado. +Le dimos la oportunidad de venir a clases. +Cinco meses despus, esta es Angeline. +Haba comenzado una transformacin en su vida. +Angeline quiere ser piloto, para poder volar alrededor del mundo y marcar una diferencia. +No era nuestra mejor alumna cuando la aceptamos. +Ahora es la mejor alumna, no solo en nuestra escuela, sino de toda la divisin en la que estamos. +Ella es Sharon. Ah est cinco aos despus. +Esta es Evelyn. Cinco meses despus, esta es la diferencia que estamos haciendo. +Mientras comienza un nuevo da en mi escuela, sucede el comienzo de algo nuevo. +En este momento, 125 nias jams sern mutiladas. +Ciento veinticinco nias, no sern casadas a la edad de 12 aos. +Ciento veinticinco nias estn creando y alcanzando sus sueos. +Esto es lo que estamos haciendo, dndoles oportunidades, donde pueden crecer. +En este momento, hay mujeres a quienes no estn golpeando gracias a la revolucin que comenzamos en nuestra comunidad. +Quiero desafiarlos hoy. +Me estn oyendo, porque estn aqu, siendo muy optimistas. +Son personas que son muy apasionadas. +Son personas que quieren ver un mundo mejor. +Son personas que quieren ver que la guerra llegue a su fin, sin pobreza. +Son personas que quieren marcar una diferencia. +Son personas que quieren construir un futuro mejor. +Quiero desafiarlos a que sean esa primera persona, porque los dems los seguirn. +Sean los primeros. Las personas los seguirn. +Sean valientes. Hganse valer. Sean intrpidos. Estn seguros. +Muvanse, porque mientras cambien el mundo, mientras cambien su comunidad, creemos que estamos impactando a una nia, una familia, una aldea, un pas a la vez. +Estamos haciendo una diferencia, as que si cambian el mundo, van a cambiar su comunidad, van a cambiar su pas, y pinsenlo. Si Uds. lo hacen, y yo lo hago, acaso no estaremos creando un mejor futuro para nuestros hijos, para sus hijos, para sus nietos? +Y viviremos en un mundo muy pacfico. Muchsimas gracias. +Crec viendo Star Trek. Me encanta Star Trek. +Star Trek me hizo querer ver criaturas aliengenas, criaturas de un mundo distante. +Pero bsicamente, me di cuenta de que poda encontrar esas criaturas extraterrestres aqu en la Tierra. +Y lo que hago es estudiar insectos. +Estoy obsesionado con los insectos, particularmente con el vuelo de los insectos. +Creo que la evolucin del vuelo de los insectos es quizs uno de los eventos ms importantes en la historia de la vida. +Sin insectos, no habra ninguna planta de floracin. +Sin plantas con flores, no habra inteligentes primates comedores de fruta dando TEDTalks. +Y por eso quiero mostrarles una secuencia de vdeo de alta velocidad de una mosca, a 7000 fotogramas por segundo con luz infrarroja, y a la derecha, fuera de la pantalla, hay un depredador electrnico amenazador que atacar a la mosca. +La mosca va a sentir este depredador. +Va a extender sus piernas hacia fuera. +Va a alejarse para vivir para volar un da ms. +Creo que este es un comportamiento fascinante que muestra la rapidez con la que el cerebro de la mosca puede procesar informacin. +Ahora, el vuelo. Qu se necesita para volar? +Bueno, para poder volar, al igual que un avin humano, se necesitan alas que puedan generar suficientes fuerzas aerodinmicas, se necesita un motor capaz de generar la energa necesaria para el vuelo, y se necesita un controlador, y en el primer avin humano, el controlador era bsicamente el cerebro de Orville y Wilbur sentados en la cabina. +Ahora, cmo se compara esto con una mosca? +Pas mucho tiempo al principio de mi carrera intentando averiguar como las alas de los insectos generan suficiente fuerza como para mantener las moscas en el aire. +Y quizs hayan escuchado cmo los ingenieros probaron que los abejorros no podan volar. +Bien, el problema fue pensar que las alas del insecto funcionaban de la forma que lo hacan las del avin. Pero no es as. +Y abordamos este problema construyendo un modelo gigante, a escala dinmica de insecto robot que pudiera aletear en piscinas gigantes de aceite mineral donde podramos estudiar las fuerzas aerodinmicas. +Pero lo que es realmente ms... lo qu es fascinante no es tanto que el ala tenga una morfologa interesante. +Lo inteligente es la manera en que la mosca aletea que por supuesto, en definitiva, es controlado por el sistema nervioso, y esto es lo que permite a las moscas realizar estas notables maniobras areas. +Ahora, qu pasa con el motor? +El motor de la mosca es absolutamente fascinante. +Tienen dos tipos de msculos de vuelo: el llamado msculo de la potencia, que es activado por estiramiento, que significa que se activa a s mismo y no necesita ser controlado contraccin por contraccin por el sistema nervioso. +Se ha especializado para generar la enorme potencia necesaria para el vuelo, y llena la parte media de la mosca, as que cuando una mosca golpea su parabrisas, bsicamente, estn viendo el msculo de la potencia. +Y por supuesto, el papel del sistema nervioso es controlar todo esto. +As que analicemos el controlador. +Las moscas sobresalen en las clases de sensores que llevan a este problema. +Tienen antenas que perciben olores y detectan la direccin del viento. +Tienen un ojo sofisticado que es el sistema visual ms rpido del planeta. +Tienen otro par de ojos en la parte superior de su cabeza. +No tenemos idea de lo que hacen. +Tienen sensores en su ala. +Su ala est cubierta de sensores, incluyendo sensores que detectan la deformacin del ala. +Incluso pueden degustar con sus alas. +Uno de los ms sofisticados sensores que tiene una mosca es una estructura llamada halterio. +Los halterios son realmente giroscopios. +Estos dispositivos oscilan a unos 200 hercios durante el vuelo, y el animal puede utilizarlos para detectar la rotacin de su cuerpo e iniciar maniobras correctivas muy, muy rpidas. +Pero toda esta informacin sensorial debe ser procesada por un cerebro, y s, en efecto, las moscas tienen un cerebro, un cerebro de unas 100 000 neuronas. +Ahora varias personas en esta conferencia ya han sugerido que las moscas de la fruta podran servir a la neurociencia porque son un modelo simple de la funcin cerebral. +Y el punto fuerte bsico de mi charla es que me gustara voltear esto cabeza abajo. +No pienso que sean un modelo simple de nada. +Y creo que las moscas son un gran modelo. +Son un gran modelo para moscas. +Y permtanme explorar esta nocin de simplicidad. +Creo que, infortunadamente, muchos de los neurocientficos, somos todos un poco narcisistas. +Cuando pensamos en un cerebro, nos imaginamos, por supuesto, nuestro cerebro. +Pero recuerden que esta clase de cerebro, que es mucho, mucho ms pequeo en vez de 100 mil millones de neuronas, tiene 100 000 pero esta es la forma ms comn de cerebro en el planeta y lo ha sido por 400 millones de aos. +Es justo decir que es sencillo? +Bueno, es simple en el sentido de que tiene menos neuronas, pero es una medida justa? +Y propongo que no es una medida justa. +As que vamos a pensar en esto. Creo que debemos comparar tenemos que comparar el tamao del cerebro con lo que el cerebro puede hacer. +Lo que propongo es tener un 'nmero Trump', y el 'nmero Trump' es la relacin entre el repertorio conductual de este hombre y la cantidad de neuronas de su cerebro. +Calcularemos el 'nmero Trump' para la mosca de la fruta. +Ahora, cuntas personas aqu creen que el 'nmero Trump' es mayor para la mosca de la fruta? +Es un pblico muy, muy inteligente. +S, la desigualdad va en esta direccin, o lo postulamos. +Ahora me doy cuenta de que es un poco absurdo comparar el repertorio conductual de un ser humano con una mosca. +Pero tomemos otro animal como ejemplo. Aqu hay un ratn. +Un ratn tiene cerca de 1000 veces ms neuronas que una mosca. +Yo sola estudiar ratones. Cuando estudiaba los ratones, sola hablar muy despacio. +Y entonces algo sucedi cuando comenc a trabajar con las moscas. +Y creo que si comparan la historia natural de moscas y ratones, es realmente comparable. Tienen que buscarse la comida. +Tienen que practicar el ritual del cortejo. +Tienen sexo. Se esconden de los depredadores. +Hacen un montn de cosas similares. +Pero yo dira que las moscas hacen ms. +Por ejemplo, voy a mostrarles una secuencia, y tengo que decir, algunos de mis fondos provienen de las fuerzas armadas, as que estoy mostrando esta secuencia clasificada y Uds. no pueden discutirla fuera de esta sala. Est bien? +As que quiero que vean la carga en la cola de la mosca de la fruta. +Mrenlo muy de cerca, y vern por qu mi hijo de seis aos ahora quiere ser un neurocientfico. +Esperen. +Uf! +Al menos admitirn que si las moscas de la fruta no son tan inteligentes como los ratones, lo son como mnimo como las palomas. Ahora, quiero transmitir que no es solo una cuestin de nmeros, sino tambin el reto de una mosca de calcular todo lo que su cerebro tiene que calcular con unas neuronas tan pequeas. +As que esta es una bella imagen de una interneurona visual de un ratn que viene del laboratorio de Jeff Lichtman, y pueden ver las maravillosas imgenes de cerebros que mostr en su charla. +Pero arriba en la esquina, en la esquina derecha, vern, en la misma escala, una interneurona visual de una mosca. +Voy a ampliarla. +Y es una neurona maravillosamente compleja. +Solo que es muy, muy pequea, y hay un montn de desafos biofsicos al intentar calcular informacin con neuronas tan pequeas. +Cun pequeas pueden ser las neuronas? Bueno, miren este insecto interesante. +As que aqu tenemos algunos otros organismos a escala similar. +Este animal es del tamao de un paramecio y una ameba, y tiene un cerebro de 7000 neuronas que es tan pequeo, saben, estas cosas llamadas cuerpos celulares de las que han odo hablar, donde est el ncleo de la neurona? +Este animal se deshace de ellos, porque ocupan demasiado espacio. +Esta es una sesin sobre las fronteras en la neurociencia. +Postulara que una de las fronteras de la neurociencia es averiguar cmo funciona el cerebro de esa cosa. +Pero vamos a pensar en esto. Cmo puede con un pequeo nmero de neuronas hacer tanto? +Y creo que, desde una perspectiva de ingeniera, piensan en la multiplexacin. +Se puede tomar un hardware y hacer que ese hardware haga cosas diferentes en diferentes momentos, o tener diferentes partes del hardware haciendo cosas diferentes. +Y estos son los dos conceptos que me gustara explorar. +Y no son conceptos que haya descubierto yo, sino conceptos que han sido propuestos por otros en el pasado. +Y una idea proviene de las lecciones de masticacin de los cangrejos. +Y no me refiero a masticar los cangrejos. +Crec en Baltimore, y mastico cangrejos muy, muy bien. +Sino que estoy hablando de los cangrejos mismos que mastican. +La masticacin del cangrejo es realmente fascinante. +Los cangrejos tienen esta estructura complicada bajo su caparazn, llamada molino gstrico, que tritura su comida en una variedad de maneras diferentes. +Esta es una pelcula endoscpica de esta estructura. +Lo sorprendente de esto es que est controlada por un grupo de neuronas muy pequeo, cerca de dos docenas, que pueden producir una gran variedad de diferentes patrones motores, y la razn de que puedan hacer esto es que este minsculo ganglio en el cangrejo est realmente inundado por muchos, muchos neuromoduladores. +Han escuchado hablar de los neuromoduladores antes. +En la estructura hay ms neuromoduladores que la alteran y la inervan, que neuronas en s, y son capaces de generar un conjunto complicado de patrones. +Esta es la obra de Eve Marder y sus muchos colegas que han estado estudiando este sistema fascinante que muestran cmo un grupo ms pequeo de neuronas puede hacer muchas, muchas, muchas cosas debido a la neuromodulacin que se produce en cada instante. +As que esto es bsicamente multiplexacin en el tiempo. +Imaginen una red de neuronas con un neuromodulador. +Seleccionan un conjunto de clulas para realizar un tipo de comportamiento, otro neuromodulador, otro conjunto de clulas, un patrn diferente, y pueden imaginar que se podra extrapolar a un sistema muy, muy complicado. +Hay alguna evidencia de que las moscas hagan esto? +Bien, durante muchos aos en mi laboratorio y en otros alrededor del mundo, hemos estado estudiando el comportamiento de las moscas en pequeos simuladores de vuelo. +Uno puede atar una mosca a un palito. +Se pueden medir las fuerzas aerodinmicas que est creando. +Se puede dejar a la mosca jugar un pequeo videojuego dejndola volar alrededor en una representacin visual. +As que permtanme mostrarles una pequea secuencia de esto. +Aqu tenemos una mosca y una ampliacin infrarroja de la mosca en el simulador de vuelo, y este es un juego que a las moscas les encanta jugar. +Se les permite dirigirse hacia la pequea franja, y ellas se dirigirn hacia esa raya para siempre. +Es parte de su sistema de orientacin visual. +Pero muy, muy recientemente, se ha podido modificar este tipo de escenarios de comportamiento para las fisiologas. +As que esta es la preparacin que uno de mis expostdoctorandos, Gaby Maimon, que est ahora en el Rockefeller, desarroll, y bsicamente es un simulador de vuelo, pero en condiciones donde uno realmente puede pegar un electrodo en el cerebro de la mosca y grabar desde una neurona genticamente identificada en el cerebro de la mosca. +Y as es cmo se ve uno de estos experimentos. +Es una secuencia de otro postdoctorando en el laboratorio, Bettina Schnell. +As que realmente por primera vez hemos conseguidos grabar desde las neuronas en el cerebro de la mosca mientras realiza comportamientos sofisticados, como volar. +Y una de las lecciones que hemos aprendido es que la fisiologa de las clulas que hemos estado estudiando durante muchos aos en moscas quietas, no es la misma que la fisiologa de estas clulas cuando las moscas realmente se involucran en comportamientos activos, como volar y caminar y as sucesivamente. +Y por qu difiere la fisiologa? +Bien, resulta que se debe a estos neuromoduladores, exactamente como los neuromoduladores en ese diminuto ganglio en los cangrejos. +As que aqu tenemos una imagen del sistema de la octopamina. +La octopamina es un neuromodulador que parece desempear un papel importante en el vuelo y otros comportamientos. +Pero este es apenas uno de los muchos neuromoduladores que hay en el cerebro de la mosca. +As que realmente creo que, conforme sepamos ms, va a resultar que el cerebro entero de la mosca es como una versin en grande de este ganglio estomatogstrico, y esa es una de las razones por las que puede hacer tanto con tan pocas neuronas. +Ahora, otra idea, otra forma de multiplexacin es multiplexar en el espacio, tener diferentes partes de una neurona hacer cosas diferentes al mismo tiempo. +Es una clula no espinosa. +Por lo tanto una clula tpica, como las neuronas en nuestro cerebro, tiene una regin, llamada las dendritas, que recibe estmulos, y estos estmulos todos juntos producen potenciales de accin que corren por el axn y luego activan todas las regiones de emisin de impulsos de la neurona. +Pero las neuronas no espinosas son realmente muy complicadas porque pueden recibir y enviar las sinapsis todas interdigitadas, y no hay un nico potencial de accin que mueva todos los impulsos enviados al mismo tiempo. +Por lo tanto existe la posibilidad de que tengan compartimientos computacionales que permiten a las diferentes partes de la neurona hacer cosas diferentes al mismo tiempo. +As que estos conceptos bsicos de multitarea en el tiempo y multitarea en el espacio, creo que son ciertos tambin en nuestros cerebros, pero que los insectos son los verdaderos maestros en esto. +As que espero que piensen en los insectos de manera un poco diferente la prxima vez, y, como digo aqu, por favor piensen antes de aplastarlos. +Aqu estn las buenas noticias sobre las familias. +Los ltimos 50 aos han visto una revolucin en lo que significa ser una familia. +Existen familias combinadas, familias adoptadas, hay ncleos familiares viviendo en casas separadas y familias divorciadas que viven en la misma casa. +Pero a pesar de todo, la familia se ha fortalecido. +8 de cada 10 dicen que la familia que tienen hoy es tan fuerte o ms fuerte que la familia en la cual crecieron. +Ahora, las malas noticias. +Casi todo el mundo est totalmente abrumado por el caos de la vida familiar. +Todos los padres que conozco, me incluyo, sentimos que constantemente estamos jugando a la defensiva. +Justo cuando nuestros hijos dejan de dentar, empiezan a tener rabietas. +Justo cuando dejan de necesitar nuestra ayuda para baarse, necesitan nuestra ayuda para lidiar con el ciber-acoso o el abuso escolar. +Y aqu la peor noticia de todas. +La percepcin de nuestros hijos es que no tenemos el control. +Ellen Galinsky, del Instituto de la Familia y el Trabajo pregunt a 1000 nios: "si les concedieran un deseo que tuviera que ver con sus paps, cul sera?" +Los padres pensaron que los nios tal vez pediran pasar ms tiempo con ellos. +Estaban equivocados. El deseo nmero uno de los nios? +Que sus paps estn menos cansados y menos estresados. +Entonces, cmo podemos cambiar esta dinmica? +Hay cosas concretas que podemos hacer para reducir el estrs, acercarnos a nuestra familia y en general preparar a nuestros nios a entrar en el mundo? +Pas los ltimos aos tratando de responder a esa pregunta, viajando, conociendo familias, consultando a expertos, expertos que van desde negociadores de paz de lite, banqueros como Warren Buffett, hasta los boinas verdes. +Estaba tratando de averiguar, qu es lo que hacen bien las familias felices y qu puedo aprender de ellas para hacer ms feliz a mi familia? +Quiero comentarles de una familia que conoc, y por qu creo que ofrece pistas. +A las 7 p.m. de un domingo en Hidden Springs, Idaho, estn sentados los seis miembros de la familia Starr en el momento ms importante de la semana: la reunin familiar. +Los Starr son una familia estadounidense comn con sus problemas familiares como los que tienen cualquier familia estadounidense normal. +David es ingeniero de sistemas, Eleanor se encarga de sus cuatro hijos, de 10 a 15 aos. +Uno de esos nios tiene tutora de matemticas en el lado lejano de la ciudad. +Otro tiene partidos de lacrosse al lado contrario de la ciudad. +Otro tiene sndrome de Asperger. Otro tiene hiperactividad. +"Vivamos en un caos total", dijo Eleanor. +Pero lo que los Starr hicieron a continuacin, fue sorprendente. +En lugar de recurrir a amigos o familiares, buscaron en el lugar de trabajo de David. +Recurrieron a un programa de vanguardia llamado Agile, recin trado por fabricantes de Japn para empresas que empiezan en Silicon Valley. +En Agile, los trabajadores se organizan en grupos pequeos y hacen cosas en perodos de tiempo muy cortos. +As que en lugar de tener a ejecutivos dando rdenes hacia abajo, el equipo se autogestiona. +Tienes retroalimentacin constante. Tienes sesiones diarias de actualizacin. +Tienes comentarios semanales. Ests cambiando constantemente. +David dijo que cuando trajeron este sistema a su hogar, en las reuniones familiares se increment la comunicacin, se disminuy el estrs e hizo a todo el mundo ms feliz de ser parte del equipo familiar. +Cuando mi esposa y yo adoptamos estas reuniones familiares y otras tcnicas en la vida de nuestras hijas gemelas de 5 aos de edad, fue el mayor cambio que hicimos desde que ellas nacieron. +Y estas reuniones tuvieron este efecto con menos de 20 minutos. +Qu es Agile y por qu puede ayudar con algo que parece tan diferente, como lo son las familias? +En 1983, Jeff Sutherland era un tecnlogo en una firma financiera en Nueva Inglaterra. +Estaba muy frustrado por cmo se diseaba el software. +Las empresas seguan el mtodo de cascada, en el que ejecutivos daban rdenes que caan lentamente hacia los programadores de abajo, y nunca nadie consultaba a los programadores. +El 83% de los proyectos fallaba. +Eran demasiado grandes o estaban muy retrasados para el momento en que eran hechos. +Sutherland quera crear un sistema donde las ideas no solo se filtraran hacia abajo sino que pudieran filtrarse hacia arriba desde la parte inferior y ajustarse en tiempo real. +Ley 30 aos de la Harvard Business Review antes de tropezar con un artculo en 1986 titulado "El nuevo juego del nuevo desarrollo de productos". +Deca que el ritmo de los negocios se estaba acelerando por cierto, era 1986 y las compaas ms exitosas eran flexibles. +Destac Toyota y Canon y comparaba su equipo adaptable y muy unido a una mel en rugby +Como me dijo Sutherland, llegamos a ese artculo, y dijo: "Esto es". +En el sistema Sutherland, las empresas no utilizan proyectos grandes y masivos que requieran dos aos. +Hacen las cosas en partes pequeas. +Nada toma ms de dos semanas. +As que en vez de decir, "Vayan a ese bnker y vuelvan con un telfono celular o una red social", dices: "Vyanse y vuelvan con un elemento, luego triganlo. Hablaremos de ello. Lo adaptamos". +Tienes xito o fracasas rpidamente. +Hoy, Agile se utiliza en un centenar de pases, y est arrasando en las suites de gestin. +Inevitablemente, la gente comenz a tomar algunas de estas tcnicas y las aplic a sus familias. +Aparecieron blogs y se escribieron algunos manuales. +Incluso los Sutherlands me dijeron que haban tenido un Da de Accin de Gracias Agile, donde tenan a una parte de la familia trabajando en la comida, otra que pona la mesa y otra que saludaba a las visitas en la puerta. +Sutherland dijo que fue el mejor Da de Accin de Gracias. +As que, tomemos uno de los problemas que enfrentan las familias, maana locas, y hablemos de cmo Agile pueden ayudar. +Un elemento clave es la responsabilidad, por lo que los equipos utilizan radiadores de informacin, grandes tableros en los que todo el mundo es responsable. +As los Starr, para adaptarlo a su hogar, crearon una lista de tareas matutinas en la que se espera que cada nio marque las rutinas. +Fue una de las dinmicas familiares ms asombrosas que he visto. +Y cuando objet enrgicamente que esto nunca funcionara en nuestra casa, que nuestras hijas necesitaban demasiada supervisin, Eleanor me mir y me dijo: +"Eso pens yo". +"Le dije a David, 'mantn tu trabajo fuera de mi cocina'. Pero estaba equivocada". +As que, le pregunt a David: "Por qu funciona?" +Dijo: "Uno no puede subestimar el poder de hacer esto". +E hizo una marca de verificacin. +Dijo: "En el trabajo, a los adultos les encanta. +Con los nios, es el cielo". +La semana que introdujimos una lista de rutinas matutinas en nuestra casa, se redujeron nuestros gritos a la mitad. Pero el verdadero cambio no vino hasta que tuvimos esas reuniones familiares. +As que siguiendo el modelo Agile, hacemos tres preguntas: Qu funcion bien en nuestra familia esta semana, qu no funcion bien y en qu estamos de acuerdo en trabajar en la semana que viene? +Todo el mundo tiene sugerencias y luego seleccionamos dos para centrarnos en ellas. +Y de repente las cosas ms asombrosas empezaron a salir de la boca de nuestras hijas. +Qu funcion bien esta semana? +Superamos el miedo de montar en bici. Hicimos nuestras camas. +Lo que no funcion bien? Nuestras tareas de matemticas, o el saludo cuando llega alguien de visita +Como muchos padres, nuestros hijos son algo as como tringulos de las Bermudas. +Algo como que los pensamientos e ideas entran, pero nunca salen, digo, al menos no los que son reveladores. +Esto nos dio acceso repentinamente a sus pensamientos ms ntimos. +Pero lo ms sorprendente fue cuando recurrimos a, en qu vamos a trabajar en la semana que viene? +Ya saben, la idea clave de Agile es que los equipos esencialmente se manejen a s mismos, funciona en software y resulta que funciona con los nios. +A nuestras hijas les encanta este proceso. +As que vienen con todas estas ideas. +Saben, saludar a 5 visitantes en la puerta esta semana, lograr 10 minutos adicionales de lectura antes de dormir. +Patear a alguien, sin postres por un mes. +Resulta que, por cierto, nuestras nias son pequeas Stalins. +Constantemente tenemos que aplacarlas. +Naturalmente, existe una brecha entre su tipo de conducta en estas reuniones y su comportamiento el resto de la semana, pero la verdad es que realmente no nos molesta. +Se siente como si estuviramos poniendo cables subterrneos que no encendern su luz al mundo en muchos aos por venir. +3 aos despus las nias tienen casi 8 ahora an tenemos estas reuniones. +Mi esposa las tiene entre sus ms preciados momentos como mam. +Qu hemos aprendido? +La palabra "Agile" entr en el lxico en 2001 cuando Jeff Sutherland y un grupo de diseadores se reunieron en Utah y escribieron el Manifiesto Agile de 12 puntos. +Creo que es el momento para un Manifiesto Agile de Familia. +He tomado algunas ideas de los Starr y de muchas otras familias que conoc. +Propongo tres pilares. +Pilar nmero uno: adaptarse todo el tiempo. +Cuando me convert en padre, pens, sabes qu? +Pondremos algunas reglas y nos ceiremos a ellas. +Esto supone, que como padres, podemos anticipar todos los problemas que van a surgir. +No podemos. Lo que hace grande al sistema Agile es que uno construye un sistema de cambio as que uno puede reaccionar a lo que est sucediendo en su tiempo real. +Es como dicen en el mundo de internet: si ests haciendo hoy lo mismo que hacas hace 6 meses, lo ests haciendo mal. +Los padres pueden aprender mucho de eso. +Pero para m, "Adaptarse todo el tiempo" significa algo ms profundo, tambin. +Tenemos que romper esta camisa de fuerza paterna de que las nicas ideas que podemos intentar en casa son las que provienen de psiquiatras o de gurs de la autoayuda o de expertos en familias. +La verdad es que sus ideas son obsoletas, considerando que en todos estos otros mundos existen nuevas ideas para hacer que los grupos trabajen eficazmente. +Tomemos solo unos ejemplos. +Tomemos el mejor momento de todos: la cena familiar. +Todo el mundo sabe que cenar en familia con sus hijos es bueno para los nios. +Pero para muchos de nosotros, no funciona en nuestras vidas. +Conoc a un famoso chef en Nueva Orleans, que dijo: "No hay problema, solo ajustar la cena familiar. +No estoy en casa, no puedo hacer de cenar para mi familia? +Hago un desayuno. Nos reunimos para comer algo antes de acostarnos. +Hacemos las comidas del domingo ms importantes". +Y la verdad es que las investigaciones recientes lo respaldan. +Resulta que hay solo 10 minutos de tiempo productivo en cualquier comida familiar. +El resto es, "no subas los codos a la mesa" y "psame la salsa de tomate". +Se pueden tomar esos 10 minutos y llevarlos a cualquier parte del da y tienen el mismo beneficio. +Cambien, entonces, la cena familiar. Eso es adaptabilidad. +Un psiclogo ambiental me dijo: "Si ests sentado en una silla dura sobre una superficie rgida, estars ms rgido. +Si ests sentado en una silla acolchada, estars ms abierto". +Me dijo: "Cuando ests disciplinando a tus hijos, sintate en una silla vertical con una superficie acolchada. +La conversacin ir mejor". +Mi esposa y yo realmente cambiamos de silla para conversaciones difciles porque me sentaba en posicin de poder. +Muvete de donde te sientas. Eso es adaptabilidad. +El punto es que hay todas estas ideas nuevas por ah. +Tenemos que enlazarlas con los padres. +As, pilar nmero uno: adaptarse todo el tiempo. +Sea flexible, de mente abierta, deje ganar a las mejores ideas. +Pilar nmero dos: faculte a sus hijos. +Nuestro instinto como padres es dar rdenes a nuestros nios. +Es ms fcil, y francamente, por lo general tenemos la razn. +Hay una razn por la que algunos sistemas se orientan hacia el modelo de cascada ms que la familia. +Pero la leccin ms grande que aprendimos es revertir ese modelo de cascada tanto como sea posible. +Enliste a los nios en su propia educacin. +Ayer mismo, que bamos a tener nuestra reunin familiar, habamos votado todos para hablar acerca de los berrinches. +As que dijimos: "Bueno, dennos una recompensa y un castigo. Bien?" +As que una de mis hijas solt, nos dan 5 minutos de berrinche a la semana. +y como que nos gust. +Pero luego su hermana comenz a trabajar el sistema. +Dijo, "Tengo un berriche de 5 minutos o 10 berrinches de 30 segundos?" +Me encant. Usa el tiempo como quieras. +"Ahora dennos un castigo. Est bien?" +Si nos pasamos de 15 minutos de berrinche, ese es el lmite. +Por cada minuto de ms, tenemos que hacer una lagartija +Ya ven, est funcionando. Vean, este sistema no es laxo. +Se est dando un montn de autoridad parental. +Pero les estamos dando prctica para volverse independientes, que por supuesto, es nuestra meta final. +Justo cuando estaba saliendo para venir esta noche, una de mis hijas comenz a gritar. +La otra dijo: "Berrinche! Berrinche!" +y comenz a contar, y a los 10 segundos haba terminado. +Para m eso es un milagro Agile certificado. +Y por cierto, la investigacin respalda esto tambin. +Los nios que planean sus propias metas, establecen horarios semanales, evalan su propio trabajo, desarrollan su corteza frontal y tienen ms control sobre sus vidas. +El punto es que debemos dejar que nuestros hijos tengan xito en sus propios trminos, y s, en ocasiones, fallar en sus propios trminos. +Hablaba con el banquero Warren Buffett, y me estaba reprendiendo para no dejar que mis hijos cometieran errores con su mesada. +Y dije, "Pero qu pasa si la desperdician?" +Dijo, "Es mucho mejor desperdiciar una mesada de 6 dlares que un salario anual de 60 000 dlares o una herencia de 6 millones de dlares". +As, la meta final es, facultar a sus hijos. +Pilar nmero tres: contar su historia. +La adaptabilidad est bien, pero tambin necesitamos cimientos. +Jim Collins, autor de "Empresas que sobresalen", me dijo que las organizaciones humanas exitosas de cualquier tipo tienen dos cosas en comn: conservan el ncleo, estimulan el progreso. +Y Agile es ideal para estimular el progreso, pero permanec escuchando una y otra vez, se necesita preservar el ncleo. +Cmo puedes hacerlo? +Collins nos entren para hacer algo que hacen en los negocios, que es definir su misin e identificar sus valores fundamentales. +As que l nos gui por el proceso de creacin de una misin familiar. +Hicimos el equivalente familiar de un retiro corporativo. +Tuvimos una fiesta de pijamas. +Hice palomitas de maz. En realidad, quem unas, as que hice dos. +Mi esposa compr un rotafolio. +Y tuvimos esa gran conversacin, como, qu es lo importante para nosotros? +Qu valores apreciamos ms? +Y terminamos con 10 enunciados. +Somos viajeros, no turistas. +No nos gustan los dilemas. Queremos soluciones. +Otra vez, las investigaciones muestran que los padres deben pasar menos tiempo preocupndose por lo que hacen mal y ms tiempo concentrndose en lo que hacen bien, preocuparse menos por los malos momentos y construir los buenos momentos. +Esa declaracin de misin familiar es una gran manera para identificar qu es lo que haces bien. +Unas semanas despus, recibimos una llamada de la escuela. +Una de nuestras hijas haba tenido una pelea. +Y de repente estbamos preocupados, acaso tenemos a una nia mala en nuestras manos? +Y no sabamos realmente qu hacer, as que la llamamos a mi oficina. +La declaracin de la misin de la familia estaba en la pared, y mi esposa dijo: "Nada de esto parece aplicarse?" +Y pas la mirada por la lista y dijo: "Unir a la gente?" +De repente tenamos una respuesta en la conversacin. +Otra gran manera de contar tu historia es decirle a tus hijos de dnde vinieron. +Investigadores en Emory le hicieron a los nios una simple prueba llamada: "Qu sabes". +Sabes dnde nacieron tus abuelos? +Sabes a qu secundaria fueron tus padres? +Conoces a alguien en tu familia que haya tenido una situacin difcil, una enfermedad, y la haya superado? +Los nios que puntearon ms alto en esta evaluacin tenan la autoestima ms alta y una mayor sensacin de que podan controlar sus vidas. +La prueba de "Qu sabes" fue el predictor ms grande de salud emocional y felicidad. +Como el autor del estudio me dijo, los nios que tienen un sentido de... que son parte de una narrativa ms grande, tienen mayor confianza en s mismos. +As, mi pilar final es, cuente su historia. +Dedique tiempo a volver a contar la historia de los buenos momentos de la familia y de cmo superaron los malos. +Si le dan esta feliz narrativa a sus hijos, le darn las herramientas para hacerse ms felices. +Yo era un adolescente cuando le por primera vez "Ana Karenina" y su famosa primera frase, "Todas las familias felices son iguales. +Cada familia infeliz es infeliz a su manera". +Cuando lo le por primera vez, pens, "Esa frase es estpida. +Obviamente todas las familias felices no son iguales". +Pero cuando comenc a trabajar en este proyecto, empec a cambiar de idea. +Un estudio reciente nos ha permitido, por primera vez, identificar los fundamentos que tienen las familias exitosas. +He mencionado aqu solo tres hoy: Adaptarse todo el tiempo, tomar en cuenta a los nios, contar tu historia. +Es posible que pasaran tantos aos para reconocer que Tolstoi tena razn? +La respuesta, creo, es s. +Cuando Len Tolstoi tena cinco aos, su hermano Nicols le dijo que haba grabado el secreto de la felicidad universal en un pequeo palo verde, que haba escondido en un barranco en la finca de la familia en Rusia. +Si alguna vez se encontraba el palo, toda la humanidad sera feliz. +Tolstoi se obsesion con ese palo, pero nunca lo encontr. +De hecho, pidi ser enterrado en ese barranco donde pens que estaba oculto. +Todava yace all hoy, cubierto por una capa de hierba verde. +Esa historia me atrap por completo la ltima leccin que aprend: La felicidad no es algo que encontramos, es algo que hacemos. +Casi todo el que ha estudiado las organizaciones bien dirigidas ha llegado ms o menos a la misma conclusin. +La grandeza no es un asunto de circunstancia. +Es una cuestin de eleccin. +No necesitan un gran plan. No necesitan una cascada. +Solo tienen que dar pasos pequeos, acumular pequeas victorias, seguir buscando ese palo verde. +Al final, esta puede ser la leccin ms grande de todas. +Cul es el secreto para una familia feliz? Intentar. +(Ruidos mecnicos) +Cul ser el futuro del aprendizaje? +Yo tengo un plan, pero para que pueda contarles el plan, debo contarles una historia que prepara el escenario. +Intent averiguar de dnde procede el tipo de enseanza que ofrecemos en las escuelas, de dnde procede? +Podemos remontarnos al pasado, pero si nos fijamos en la forma actual de ensear, es bastante fcil darse cuenta de su procedencia. +Data de unos 300 aos y procede del ltimo y ms grande de los imperios. ["El Imperio Britnico"] Imagnense intentar controlar el espectculo, intentar controlarlo en todo el planeta, sin computadoras, sin telfonos, con datos manuscritos en papel y trasladados en barco. +Pero los victorianos de verdad lo hicieron. +Lo que hicieron fue increble. +Crearon una computadora global compuesta de personas. +Hasta el da de hoy an est con nosotros. +Se llama mquina administrativa burocrtica. +A fin de que esa mquina funcione, se necesitan muchas personas. +Montaron otra mquina para producir esas personas: la escuela. +Las escuelas produciran gente que luego se convertiran en partes de la mquina administrativa burocrtica. +stas deben ser idnticas entre s. +Y deben saber tres cosas: deben tener buena caligrafa, porque los datos se escriben a mano; deben saber leer y multiplicar, dividir, sumar y restar mentalmente. +Deben ser tan idnticos que si eligen a alguien de Nueva Zelanda y lo envan a Canad instantneamente podr funcionar. +Los victorianos fueron grandes ingenieros. +Disearon un sistema tan slido que hasta hoy en da nos acompaa, produciendo continuamente personas idnticas para una mquina que ya no existe. +El imperio ya no existe, as que, qu hacemos con ese diseo que produce personas idnticas? y, qu haremos despus si no vamos a volver a usarlo? +["Las escuelas como las conocemos estn obsoletas"] Ese es un comentario bastante fuerte. +Dije que las escuelas, como las conocemos ahora, estn obsoletas. +No digo que sean inservibles. +Est muy de moda decir que el sistema educativo es inservible. +No lo es. Est maravillosamente construido. +Es solo que ya no lo necesitamos. Est anticuado. +Qu tipo de trabajos tenemos hoy en da? +Bueno, los empleados ahora son las computadoras. +Hay miles en cada oficina. +Y hay personas que dirigen los equipos para realizar su trabajo de oficina. +Esas personas no necesitan escribir maravillosamente a mano. +Tampoco multiplicar cifras mentalmente. +Necesitan ser capaces de leer. +De hecho, deben ser capaces de leer con sensatez. +Bueno, eso es en la actualidad, pero ni sabemos cmo sern los trabajos del futuro. +Sabemos que la gente trabajar desde donde quiera, cuando quiera, en lo que quiera. +Cmo los preparar la enseanza actual para ese mundo? +Bueno, llegu a todo esto completamente por accidente. +Sola ensear cmo escribir programas informticos en Nueva Delhi, hace 14 aos. +Y justo al lado de donde yo trabajaba, haba un barrio marginal. +Y pensaba, cmo narices esos nios aprendern alguna da a escribir programas informticos? +O no deberan? +Al mismo tiempo, muchos padres, gente adinerada con computadoras, me solan decir: "Ya sabes, mi hijo, creo que es superdotado, porque hace maravillas con las computadoras. +Y mi hija... oh, seguro que es superinteligente". +Y as sucesivamente. As que, de repente, pens: Cmo es que toda la gente rica tiene tantos nios superdotados? +Qu hicieron mal las personas de pocos recursos? +Hice un agujero en el muro fronterizo entre el barrio marginal y mi oficina y coloqu una computadora empotrada solo para ver lo que suceda si daba una computadora a los nios que nunca tendran una, no saban nada de ingls, no saban lo que era Internet. +Los nios llegaron corriendo. +Estaba a un metro del suelo y dijeron: "Qu es esto?" +Y dije: "S, es..., no lo s". +Dijeron: "Por qu lo has puesto ah?" +Y yo: "Porque s". +Y ellos: "podemos tocarlo?" Yo: "Si as lo desean". +Y me fui. +Casi ocho horas ms tarde, los encontramos navegando y ensendose entre s cmo navegar. +As que dije: "Bueno, eso es imposible, porque... Cmo es posible? No saben nada". +Mis colegas dijeron: "No, es una solucin simple. +Seguro que uno de tus estudiantes ha pasado por aqu y les ense cmo usar el ratn". +Y yo: "S, es posible". +As que repet el experimento. Me fui a casi 500 km de Delhi a un pueblo muy apartado donde las posibilidades de que pasara un ingeniero de software eran muy remotas. Repet all el experimento. +No haba lugar para quedarse, as que coloqu mi computadora, me fui, volv un par de meses despus, y encontr nios jugando con ella a videojuegos. +Cuando me vieron, dijeron: "queremos un procesador ms rpido y un ratn mejor". +As que dije: "cmo narices saben todo esto?" +Y me dijeron algo muy interesante. +Con voz irritada, dijeron: "nos diste una mquina que slo funciona en ingls, as que tuvimos que ensearnos ingls para poder usarla". Esa fue la primera vez, como profesor, que escuch la palabra "ensearnos" dicha tan a la ligera. +Aqu podemos echar un vistazo de esos aos. +Ese es el primer da en "Agujero en la pared" +A su derecha hay un nio de ocho aos. +A su izquierda est su alumna. Ella tiene seis aos. +Y le est enseando cmo navegar. +Luego por otras partes del pas, repet esto una y otra vez, obteniendo exactamente los mismos resultados que tenamos. +[Pelcula: "Agujero en la pared", 1999] Una nia de ocho aos dicindole a su hermana mayor qu debe hacer. +Y finalmente una nia explicando en la lengua marat qu es y dice "hay un procesador dentro". +As que empec a publicar. +Publiqu en todas partes. Anot y med todo, y expliqu: en nueve meses, un grupo de nios a solas con una computadora en cualquier idioma llegarn al mismo nivel que una secretaria en Occidente. +He visto que suceda esto una y otra vez. +Pero tena curiosidad por saber, qu otra cosa podran hacer si podan hacer ya tanto? +Empec a experimentar con otras materias, entre ellas, por ejemplo, la pronunciacin. +Hay una comunidad de nios en el sur de India cuya pronunciacin del ingls es muy mala y necesitaban una buena pronunciacin, ya que mejorara sus trabajos. +Les instal un convertidor de voz a texto en una computadora y les dije: "Sigan hablando hasta que la computadora escriba lo que Uds. dicen". +Y lo hicieron, vean un poco. +Computadora: Gusto en conocerlo. Nio: Gusto en conocerlo. +Sugata Mitra: La razn por la que termin con la cara de esta joven de all es porque sospecho que muchos de Uds. la conocen. +Ella entr a un centro de llamadas en Hyderabad y puede que los haya torturado por sus tarjetas de crdito en un acento ingls muy claro. +As que la gente se preguntaba, hasta dnde llegar? +Dnde se detendr? +Decid que destruira mi propio argumento al crear una proposicin absurda. +Plante una hiptesis, una hiptesis ridcula. +El tamil es una lengua autctona del sur y dije: pueden los nios de lengua tamil en una aldea del sur de India aprender la biotecnologa de la replicacin del ADN en ingls mediante una computadora puesta en la calle? +Y pens: los evaluar. Obtendrn un cero. +Lo dejar un par de meses, lo voy a dejar un par de meses. Volver, obtendrn otro cero. +Volver al laboratorio y dir que necesitamos profesores. +Encontr un pueblo. Kallikuppam, al sur de India. +Coloqu ah computadoras en el "Agujero en la pared"; descargu todo tipo de cosas desde Internet sobre la replicacin del ADN, la mayora de los cuales yo no entenda. +Los nios llegaron corriendo, dijeron: "qu es todo esto?" +As que les dije: "Es de gran actualidad, muy importante. Pero todo est en ingls". +Ellos dijeron: "Cmo podemos entender esas palabras inglesas tan grandes y los diagramas y la qumica?" +Para ese momento, haba desarrollado un nuevo mtodo pedaggico, as que lo apliqu. Les dije: "No tengo ni la ms remota idea". +"Y, de todos modos, me voy". +Los dej un par de meses. +Obtuvieron un cero. Les hice una prueba. +Volv despus de dos meses y los nios aparecieron y dijeron: "No hemos entendido nada". +As que me dije: "qu esperaba yo?" +Les dije: "Est bien, pero cunto tiempo les llev decidir que no haban entendido nada? +Ellos dijeron: "No nos hemos dado por vencidos. +Lo vemos todos los das". +As que le dije: "Cmo? No entienden estas pantallas y se quedan mirndolas durante dos meses? Para qu?" +Una nia que se ve en este momento, levant la mano y me dijo en ingls y tamil deficiente: "Bueno, aparte del hecho de que la replicacin indebida de la molcula de ADN provoca enfermedades, no hemos entendido nada ms". +As que los puse a prueba. +Tengo una imposibilidad educativa, de cero a 30 % en dos meses, bajo el calor tropical, con una computadora bajo el rbol en un idioma desconocido haciendo algo que se adelanta una dcada a su tiempo. +Absurdo. Pero tena que seguir la norma victoriana. +El 30 % es un fracaso. +Cmo puedo hacer que aprueben? Tengo que conseguir 20 puntos ms. +No poda encontrar un profesor. Lo que s encontr fue una amiga que tena una hija de 22 aos, contable, y que jugaba con ellos todo el tiempo. +As que le pregunt a la chica: "Puedes ayudarme?" +Ella me dijo: "Claro que no. +No tuve ciencias en la escuela. No tengo ni idea de lo que hacen bajo ese rbol durante todo el da. No te puedo ayudar". +Le dije: "Te dir qu. Usa el mtodo de la abuela". +Ella me dice: "Qu es eso?" +Le dije: "Ponte de pie detrs de ellos. +Cada vez que hagan algo, solo di 'bueno, vaya, cmo hicieron eso? +Cul es la siguiente pgina? Cielos, a su edad yo nunca podra haber hecho eso'. Ya sabes lo que hacen las abuelas". +Ella hizo eso dos meses ms. +Los resultados subieron a 50 %. +Kallikuppam haba alcanzado a mi escuela control de Nueva Delhi, una escuela privada rica con un profesor capacitado en biotecnologa. +Al ver ese grfico saba que hay una forma de nivelar el campo de juego. +Aqu est Kallikuppam. +(Nios hablando) Las neuronas... comunicacin. +Tengo el ngulo equivocado de la cmara. Es solo material de aficionado, pero lo que ella deca, como pudieron entender, era sobre las neuronas, con sus manos as, y deca que las neuronas se comunican. +Con 12 aos. +Entonces, cmo sern los trabajos? +Bueno, ya sabemos cmo son hoy. +Cmo ser el aprendizaje? Sabemos cmo es hoy, nios inmersos en sus telfonos mviles por un lado yendo a regaadientes a la escuela llevando sus libros con la otra mano. +Cmo ser maana? +Ser que ya no tendremos que ir a la escuela? +Podra ser que, en el momento en que necesiten saber algo, lo pueden averiguar en dos minutos? +Podra ser?... una pregunta devastadora, una pregunta que me plante Nicholas Negroponte... podra ser que nos estemos dirigiendo hacia o tal vez estemos en un futuro en el que el conocimiento es obsoleto? +Pero eso es terrible. Somos Homo sapiens. +El conocimiento, eso que nos distingue de los simios. +Pero vanlo de esta manera. +A la naturaleza le llev 100 millones de aos hacer que los simios se irguieran y se convirtieran en Homo sapiens. +Nos cost slo 10 000 aos hacer obsoleto el conocimiento. +Qu logro es esto. +Pero tenemos que integrar eso en nuestro propio futuro. +El estmulo parece ser la clave. +Si se fijan en Kuppam, si se fijan en todos los experimentos que hice, simplemente deca: "Guau", saludando al aprendizaje. +Hay evidencia de la neurociencia. +La parte reptil de nuestro cerebro localizada en el centro, cuando se siente amenazado, apaga todo lo dems, se apaga la corteza prefrontal, la parte del aprendizaje, apaga todo eso. +Los castigos y los exmenes son vistos como amenazas. +Tomamos a nuestros nios, les hacemos apagar sus cerebros y luego les decimos: "Funciona bien". +Por qu crearon un sistema as? +Porque se necesitaba. +Hubo una poca en la Edad de los Imperios en que se necesitaba a aquellas personas que pudieran sobrevivir bajo amenaza. +Cuando se est en una trinchera solo, si uno puede sobrevivir, est bien, aprobado. +Si uno no lo logr, no aprobado. +Pero la Edad de los Imperios se acab. +Qu sucede con la creatividad en nuestra poca? +Tenemos que desplazar el equilibrio de la amenaza al placer. +Volv a Inglaterra en busca de abuelas britnicas. +Puse avisos y documentos que decan: Si Ud. es una abuela britnica, si tiene banda ancha y una cmara web, me podra regalar una hora de su tiempo a la semana? +Consegu 200 en las primeras dos semanas. +Conozco ms abuelas britnicas que nadie en el universo. Se llaman la nube de abuelas. +La nube de las abuelas se sienta en Internet. +Si hay un nio con problemas, lanzamos una abuela. +Ella aparece en Skype y ordena las cosas. +Las he visto hacerlo desde un pueblo llamado Diggles en el noroeste de Inglaterra, al interior de un aldea en Tamil Nadu, India, a casi 10 000 km. +Lo hace con un solo gesto antiqusimo. +"Shhh". +De acuerdo? +Vean esto. +Abuela: No me puedes atrapar. Dganlo Uds. +No me puedes atrapar. +Nios: No me puedes atrapar. +Abuela: Soy el hombre de jengibre. Nios: Soy el hombre de jengibre. +Abuela: Bien hecho! Muy bien. +SM: Qu est pasando aqu? +Creo que lo que tenemos que mirar es al aprendizaje como el producto de la autoorganizacin educacional. +Si se permite que el proceso educativo se autoorganice, entonces surge el aprendizaje. +No se trata de hacer que el aprendizaje ocurra. +Se trata de dejar que suceda. +El profesor pone en marcha el proceso y luego se pone de pie de nuevo con asombro y observa como el aprendizaje ocurre. +Creo que a eso apunta todo esto. +Pero, cmo lo sabremos? Cmo vamos a llegar a saberlo? +Bueno, intento construir estos Entornos de Aprendizaje Auto-Organizados. [EAAO] +Son, bsicamente, Internet de banda ancha, colaboracin y estmulo colocados juntos. +He intentado esto en muchas escuelas, muchos aos. +Ha sido probado en todo el mundo y los profesores dan una suerte de paso atrs y dicen: "Surge por s mismo?" +Y yo: "S, surge por s mismo". Y ellos: "Cmo lo sabes?" +Y yo: "No creers qu nios me lo dijeron y de dnde son". +Aqu hay un EAAO en accin. +(Nios hablando) Este est en Inglaterra. +l mantiene la ley y el orden porque, recuerden, no hay un profesor cerca. +Chica: El total de electrones no es igual a la cantidad total de protones - SM: Australia Chica: dndole un neto positivo de carga elctrica negativa. +La carga neta de un in es igual a la cantidad de protones en el in menos el nmero de electrones. +SM: Una dcada por delante de su tiempo. +Son EAAOs, creo que necesitamos un plan de estudios de grandes preguntas. +Ya han odo hablar de eso. Saben lo que eso significa. +Hubo un tiempo en el que los hombres y mujeres de la Edad de Piedra solan sentarse, mirar al cielo y decir: "Qu son esas luces parpadeantes?" +Construyeron el primer plan de estudios, pero hemos olvidado estas preguntas maravillosas. +Lo hemos reducido a la tangente de un ngulo. +Pero eso no es lo suficientemente atractivo. +La forma de decrselo a un nio de nueve aos es: "Si un meteorito fuera a chocar con la Tierra, cmo saber si chocar o no?" +Y si l dice: "Bueno, qu?, cmo?" +Uds. dicen: "Hay una palabra mgica. Se llama la tangente de un ngulo" y lo dejan en paz. l va a averiguarlo. +As que aqu hay un par de imgenes de los EAAOs. +He probado preguntas increbles. "Cundo comenz el mundo? Cmo terminar?", a nios de nueve aos. +Esta es sobre qu sucede con el aire que respiramos. +Esto lo han hecho los nios sin la ayuda de ningn profesor. +El maestro solo plantea la cuestin y luego retrocede y admira la respuesta. +Cul es mi deseo? +Mi deseo es que diseemos el futuro del aprendizaje. +No queremos ser repuestos de una gran computadora humana excelente, verdad? +As que tenemos que disear un futuro para el aprendizaje. +Y tengo que... esperen, tengo que decir esto correctamente, porque, ya saben, es muy importante. +Mi deseo es ayudar a disear un futuro de aprendizaje mediante el apoyo a los nios de todo el mundo aprovechando su asombro y su capacidad de trabajar juntos. +Aydenme a construir esta escuela. +Se va a llamar la escuela en la nube. +Va a ser una escuela donde los nios se adentrarn a aventuras intelectuales impulsados por las grandes preguntas planteadas por sus mediadores. +La forma en que quiero hacerlo es construir una instalacin donde pueda estudiar esto. +Es una instalacin que prcticamente no tiene personas. +Solo hay una abuelita que gestiona la salud y la seguridad. +El resto es de la nube. +La nube enciende y apaga las luces, etc., etc., todo se hace desde la nube. +Pero los quiero para otro propsito. +Pueden hacer Entornos de Aprendizaje Auto-Organizado en casa, en la escuela, fuera de la escuela, en clubes. +Es muy fcil de hacer. Hay un gran documento producido por TED que les dice cmo hacerlo. +Si lo desean, por favor, por favor hganlo en los cinco continentes y me envan los datos, entonces lo pondr todo junto, y lo colocar en la escuela en la nube, y crear el futuro del aprendizaje. +Ese es mi deseo. +Y una ltima cosa. +Los llevar a la cima del Himalaya. +A 3600 m , donde hay poco aire, donde una vez empotr dos computadoras en el agujero en la pared y los nios acudan all. +Y haba una nia que me segua. +Y yo le dije: "Sabes, quiero darle una computadora a todos, a todos los nios. +No s, qu debera hacer?" +Y yo estaba tratando de tomar una foto de ella discretamente. +De pronto levant la mano, as, y me dijo: "Hazlo". +Creo que fue un buen consejo. +Seguir su consejo. Dejar de hablar. +Gracias. Muchas gracias. +Gracias. Gracias. Muchas gracias. Guau! +Bueno, me presentaron como la exgobernadora de Michigan, pero en realidad soy cientfica. +De acuerdo, una cientfica poltica, en realidad no cuenta, pero mi laboratorio era el laboratorio de la democracia que es Michigan y, como cualquier buena cientfica, experimentaba con las polticas sobre qu lograra el mayor beneficio para la mayor cantidad. +Pero haba tres problemas, tres enigmas que no pude resolver, y quiero compartir con Uds. esos problemas, pero lo ms importante, creo que encontr una propuesta de solucin. +El primer problema que no solo es de Michigan, sino de todos los estados es: cmo crear buenos empleos en EE. UU. en una economa global? +As que permtanme compartir con Ud. algunos datos empricos de mi laboratorio. +Fui elegida en 2002 y, al final de mi primer ao en el cargo en 2003, recib una llamada de uno de mis colaboradores, que me dijo: "Gobernadora, tenemos un gran problema. +Tenemos una pequea comunidad llamada Greenville, en Michigan, una poblacin de 8000 habitantes, y estn a punto de perder su principal empleador, que es una fbrica de refrigeradores operada por Electrolux". +Y dije, "bueno, cuntas personas trabajan en Electrolux?" +Me dijo: "3000 de las 8000 personas de Greenville". +As que es un pueblo de una sola empresa. +Y Electrolux se iba a trasladar a Mxico. +As que dije: "Olvdenlo. Soy la nueva gobernadora. +Podemos arreglar esto. Iremos a Greenville con todo mi gabinete y le haremos una oferta a Electrolux que no podr rechazar". +Y en ese paquete haba cosas como no pagar impuestos durante 20 aos o que nos gustara ayudar a construir una nueva fbrica para la empresa, que ayudaramos a financiar. La UAW, que representaba a los trabajadores, dijo que iba a ofrecer concesiones sin precedentes, sacrificios para mantener esos trabajos en Greenville. +As que los administradores de Electrolux tomaron nuestra propuesta, nuestra lista de incentivos y salieron de la sala unos 17 minutos, volvieron y dijeron: "Vaya, esto es lo ms generoso que lo que cualquier comunidad haya hecho para intentar mantener los trabajos aqu. +Pero no hay nada que puedan hacer para compensar el hecho de que podemos pagar USD 1,57 la hora en Jurez, Mxico. As que nos vamos". +Y lo hicieron. Y, cuando lo hicieron, fue como si hubiera estallado una bomba nuclear en la pequea Greenville. +De hecho, derrumbaron la fbrica. +Ese es un hombre que est caminando en su ltimo da de trabajo. +Y en el mes en que sali el ltimo refrigerador de la lnea de montaje los empleados de Electrolux en Greenville, Michigan, se reunieron en lo que ellos llamaron "la ltima cena". +Fue en un pabelln grande en Greenville, un pabelln cubierto, y fui, porque estaba tan frustrada como gobernadora, ya que no pude detener la prdida de esos empleos, y quise llorar la prdida con ellos y cuando entr en el saln haba miles de personas all. +Me dijo: "tengo 48 aos y he trabajado en esta fbrica durante 30 aos. +Pas de la secundaria a la fbrica. +Mi padre trabaj en ella", me dijo. +"Mi abuelo trabaj en ella. +Todo lo que s es hacer refrigeradores". +Y mir a sus hijas, puso su mano en su pecho y me dijo: "as que, gobernadora, dgame, quin va a contratarme? +Quin va a contratarme?" +Eso no lo pregunt solo este hombre, sino todos en el pabelln y, francamente, cada trabajador en una de las 50 000 fbricas que cerraron en la primera dcada de este siglo. +Enigma nmero uno: Cmo crear empleos en EE.UU. en una economa global? +Nmero dos, muy rpido: Cmo solucionar el cambio climtico global cuando no hay siquiera una poltica energtica nacional en este pas y cuando el estancamiento en el Congreso parece ser la norma? +Y me puse a pensar, qu es? +Qu hay en los laboratorios que veo por ah, los laboratorios de la democracia, qu ha ocurrido? +Qu prescripciones polticas se han realizado que hacen que se produzcan cambios y que se han aprobado de manera bipartidista? +As que si les preguntara, por ejemplo, cul fue la poltica de la administracin Obama que provoc grandes cambios en todo el pas, qu diran? +Podran decir Obamacare, a excepcin de aquellos que no cambiaron voluntariamente. +Como sabemos, solo la mitad de los estados decidieron adoptarla. +Podramos decir la Ley de Recuperacin, pero necesitaron cambios de las polticas. +Lo que provoc que se produjeran enormes cambios en las polticas fue el programa educativo Race to the Top [Carrera a la cima]. +Por qu? El gobierno puso un fondo de USD 4500 millones y le dijo a los gobernadores de todo el pas que compitieran por l; +48 gobernadores compitieron, convenciendo a 48 legislaturas estatales a esencialmente elevar los estndares para los estudiantes de secundaria a fin de que todos tuvieran un plan de estudios de preparacin para la universidad. +48 estados la adoptaron, creando una poltica nacional [de educacin] ascendente. +As que pens, bueno, por qu no podemos hacer algo por el estilo y crear una carrera a la cima de empleos de energa limpia? +Porque despus de todo, si se fijan en el contexto, se han invertido USD 1,6 billones en los ltimos 8 aos desde el sector privado a nivel mundial y cada dlar representa un empleo y, a dnde van esos empleos? +Bueno, van a los lugares que tienen polticas, como China. +Y yo le dije: "Oh Dios! El Congreso, el estancamiento, quin sabe?" +Y l se va y dice: "Tmense su tiempo". +Debido a que ven nuestra pasividad como su oportunidad. +Es un error de redondeo del lado federal. +Pero el precio de la entrada a esa competencia sera, se podra decir, usar la meta del Presidente. +l quiere que el Congreso adopte una norma de energa limpia del 80 % para 2030, en otras palabras, que tendran que obtener el 80 % de su energa de fuentes limpias para el ao 2030. +Por qu no pedirle a todos los estados que mejor hagan eso? +E imaginen lo que podra suceder, porque cada regin tiene algo que ofrecer. +Consideren a estados como Iowa y Ohio, dos estados polticos muy importantes, por lo dems, esos dos gobernadores diran vamos a liderar la nacin en la produccin de turbinas elicas y energa elica. +De hecho, todas las regiones del pas podran hacer esto. +Ya ven, tienen oportunidad de tener energa solar y elica en todo el pas. +De hecho, si nos fijamos solo en los estados superiores y del norte en el oeste, podran generar energa geotrmica o podramos fijarnos en Texas y decir: podramos liderar la nacin en dar soluciones para crear redes elctricas inteligentes. +Los estados en la mitad este donde tienen acceso a bosques y residuos agrcolas, podran decir, vamos a liderar la nacin en cuanto a biocombustibles. +En el noreste superior, vamos a liderar la nacin en cuanto a soluciones de eficiencia energtica. +A lo largo de la costa este, vamos a liderar la nacin en energa elica marina. +Podran fijarse en Michigan y decir vamos a liderar la nacin en la produccin de las partes internas del vehculo elctrico, como la batera de iones de litio. +Cada regin tiene algo que ofrecer y si se crea una competencia, respeta los estados y respeta el federalismo. +Es opcional. Puede que incluso Texas y Carolina del Sur, que no adoptaron el programa educativo Race to the Top, incluso podra llegar a decidirse a tomar parte Por qu? +Porque a los gobernadores republicanos y demcratas les encanta cortar cintas. +Queremos crear empleos. Solo estoy diciendo. +Y fomenta la innovacin en el mbito estatal en estos laboratorios de la democracia. +Ahora, cualquiera de Uds. que no estn viendo nada ltimamente sobre las polticas podran decir, "De acuerdo, buena idea, pero en serio? +Que el Congreso ponga USD 4500 millones sobre la mesa? +Ellos no se ponen de acuerdo en nada". +Se podra esperar y pasar por el Congreso, aunque deben ser muy impacientes. +O bien, renegados, podramos sortear el Congreso. +Sortear el Congreso. +Y si creamos un reto del sector privado para los gobernadores? +Qu pasara si varias de las empresas de altos ingresos y las personas que estn aqu en TED decidieran crear, unirse, solo un par de ellos, y crear una competencia nacional para los gobernadores tener una carrera a la cima y ver cmo responden los gobernadores? +Qu tal si todo iniciara aqu en TED? +Qu tal si estuvieran aqu cuando se dieran cuenta de cmo descifrar el cdigo para crear empleos bien pagados en EE.UU. y obtener una poltica energtica nacional y creamos una estrategia energtica nacional ascendente? +Porque, queridos TEDsters, si son impacientes como yo, saben que nuestros competidores econmicos, los otros pases, estn en el juego y nos estn comiendo como almuerzo. +Podemos entrar en el juego o no hacerlo. +Podemos estar en la mesa o podemos estar encima de esta. +No s Uds., pero yo prefiero cenar. +Muchas gracias a todos. +No siempre me gan la vida con la msica. +Por cerca de 5 aos despus de graduarme de una prestigiosa universidad de artes liberales, este fue mi trabajo diario. +Me autoemple como una estatua viviente llamada la Novia de 2 metros, y me encanta decirle a la gente que hice este trabajo, porque todo el mundo siempre quiere saber, quines son estos bichos raros en la vida real? +Hola. +Me pint de blanco un da, parada en una caja, puse un sombrero o una lata a mis pies, y cuando alguien vena y pona dinero, les entregaba una flor y un intenso contacto con los ojos. +Y si no tomaban la flor, pona un gesto de tristeza y nostalgia mientras se alejaban. +As que tuve los encuentros ms profundos con la gente, especialmente con personas solitarias que parecan no haber hablado con nadie en semanas, y logrbamos este hermoso momento de prolongado contacto visual, hecho posible en una calle de la ciudad, y nos enamorbamos un poquito, de cierta manera. +Y mis ojos diran, "Gracias. Te veo". +Y sus ojos diran, "Nunca nadie me ve. Gracias a ti". +Algunas veces me hostigaban. +La gente me gritaba desde sus carros: +"Consigue un trabajo!" +Y yo estara como, "Este es mi trabajo". +Pero duele, porque me hizo temer que de alguna manera no trabajaba, que estaba haciendo algo injusto, vergonzoso. +No tena ni idea de la perfecta y verdadera educacin que estaba obteniendo para el negocio de la msica, en esta caja. +Y para los economistas por ah, les puede interesar saber que en efecto tuve un ingreso bastante predecible, lo que fue impactante para m dado que no tena clientes regulares, pero ms o menos 60 dlares en un martes, 90 el viernes. +Era constante. +Y mientras tanto, estaba de gira localmente y tocando en clubes nocturnos con mi banda, las Dresden Dolls +Esta era yo en el piano, un genio en la batera. +Escrib las canciones y finalmente empezamos a ganar suficiente dinero como para que pudiera dejar de ser una estatua, y segn empezamos a viajar, realmente no quera perder esa sensacin de conexin directa con la gente, porque me encantaba. +Y luego lleg Twitter, e hizo las cosas an ms mgicas, porque poda pedir al instante cualquier cosa en cualquier lugar. +Que si necesitaba un piano para practicar, una hora ms tarde estaba en casa de un fan; esto fue en Londres. +La gente nos traa comida casera de todo el mundo entre bastidores y comamos juntos; esto fue en Seattle. +Fanticos que trabajaban en museos y tiendas y en cualquier tipo de espacio pblico nos saludaban con sus manos, si decida hacer un concierto gratis, espontneo de ltimo momento. +Esta es una biblioteca en Auckland. +El sbado tuite por este cajn y sombrero, porque no quera que los quitaran de la costa este, y ellos aparecieron y cuidaron de este tipo, Chris de Newport Beach, que est saludando. +Una vez tuite, dnde puedo comprar en Melbourne un irrigador nasal? +Y una enfermera de un hospital trajo uno justo en aquel momento al caf donde yo estaba y le invit una malteada, nos sentamos a hablar de enfermera y muerte. +Y me encanta este tipo de cercana al azar, lo que es afortunado, porque hago un montn de 'couchsurfing'. +En mansiones donde todos los miembros del equipo tenemos una habitacin propia, pero no hay wifi; y en los okupas punk, todos en el suelo en una habitacin sin bao pero con conexin, claramente es la mejor opcin. +Mi equipo una vez llev nuestra camioneta hasta un barrio muy pobre de Miami y nos dimos cuenta de que nuestro anfitrin de 'couchsurfing' para la noche era una chica de 18 aos de edad, que todava viva con sus paps y todos en su familia eran inmigrantes indocumentados de Honduras. +Y esa noche, toda la familia se fue a los sofs y ella durmi junto a su madre para que nosotros pudiramos tener sus camas. +Y yo estaba acostada ah pensando, estas personas tienen tan poco, +es esto justo? +Y en la maana, su mam nos ense cmo tratar de hacer tortillas y quera darme una Biblia, y me llev aparte y me dijo en su pobre ingls, "Su msica ha ayudado tanto a mi hija. +Gracias por quedarse aqu. Estamos todos muy agradecidos". +Y pens, esto es justo. +Se trata de esto. +Un par de meses despus, estuve en Manhattan, y tuite por un lugar para dormir, y a medianoche estaba tocando un timbre en el Lado Este, y se me ocurri que, en realidad nunca haba hecho esto sola. +Siempre haba estado con mi banda o mi equipo. +Esto es lo que hace la gente estpida? Es as como muere la gente estpida? +Y antes de que pudiera cambiar de opinin, la puerta se abri. +Ella era una artista. l escriba un blog financiero para Reuters, y me estaban sirviendo un copa de vino tinto y me ofrecieron un bao, y he tenido miles de noches como esa y como aquella. +As que hago mucho 'couchsurf'. Yo tambin 'crowdsurf' un montn. +Mantengo que el couchsurfing y el crowdsurfing son bsicamente lo mismo. +Ests cayendo sobre la audiencia y ests confiando en cada uno. +Una vez le ped a una banda telonera si queran salir a la multitud y pasar el sombrero para conseguir algn dinero extra, algo que yo hice mucho. +Y como de costumbre, la banda estaba ansiosa, pero haba un chico en la banda que me dijo que l no poda simplemente salir ah. +Pararse ah con el sombrero se senta muy similar a rogar. +Y reconoc su temor de "Es esto justo?" y "Consigue un trabajo". +Y mientras tanto, mi banda es cada vez ms grande. +Firmamos con un sello importante. +Y nuestra msica es una mezcla entre punk y cabaret. +No es para todo el mundo. +Bueno, tal vez es para ustedes. +Firmamos y hay toda esta algaraba que precede a nuestro siguiente disco. +Sale y vende unas 25 000 copias en las primeras semanas, y el sello lo considera un fracaso. +Y les dije, "25 000, no es eso mucho?" +Y ellos dijeron, "No, las ventas estn bajando. Es un fracaso". +Y se marcharon. +En ese mismo momento, estoy firmando autgrafos y dando abrazos despus de un concierto, y un chico llega y me da un billete de 10 dlares, y dice: "Lo siento, quem tu CD de un amigo". +"Pero le tu blog, s que odias tu sello. +Solo quiero que aceptes este dinero". +Y esto empieza a suceder todo el tiempo. +Me convierto en el sombrero despus de mis propios conciertos, pero tengo que estar ah parada fsicamente y tomar la ayuda de la gente, y a diferencia del chico de la banda telonera, realmente tengo mucha prctica estando ah de pie. +Gracias. +Y en ese momento decid Voy a dar mi msica gratis en lnea siempre que sea posible, as que es como Metallica aqu, Napster, malo; Amanda Palmer aqu, y yo voy a alentar torrenting, descargas, compartan, pero voy a pedir ayuda, porque vea que funcionaba en la calle. +As que sal de mi sello y para mi prximo proyecto con mi nueva banda, la Gran Orquesta del Robo, recurr al 'crowdfunding', +y ca sobre esas miles de conexiones que haba hecho, y ped a mi pblico que me arropara. +Y la meta era de 100 000 dlares. +Mis fans me apoyaron con casi 1.2 millones, que es el mayor proyecto de 'crowdfunding' de msica a la fecha. +Y se puede ver cunta gente es. +Son cerca de 25 000 personas. +Y los medios preguntaron, "Amanda, el negocio de la msica est cayendo y t fomentas la piratera. +Cmo hiciste que todas esas personas pagaran por la msica?" +Y la verdadera respuesta es, "No hice que pagaran, se los ped". +Por el mismo acto de pedir a la gente, me haba conectado con ellos, y cuando te conectas con ellos, la gente quiere ayudarte. +Es algo contrario a la intuicin para muchos artistas. +No quieren pedir cosas. +Pero no es fcil. No es fcil pedir. +Y muchos artistas tienen un problema con esto. +Pedir te hace vulnerable. +Esto duele de una manera muy familiar. +Hay gente diciendo, "No tienes permiso de pedir este tipo de ayuda", me recuerda realmente de la gente en sus coches gritando, "Consige un trabajo". +Porque no estaban con nosotros en la acera, y no podan ver el intercambio que suceda entre yo y mi gente, un intercambio que fue muy justo para nosotros pero ajeno a ellos. +As que esto es algo ligeramente inseguro para el trabajo. +Esta es mi fiesta de soporte de Kickstarter en Berln. +Al final de la noche, me desnud y dej que todos dibujaran sobre m. +Ahora, djenme decirles que, si quieren experimentar la sensacin visceral de confiar en extraos, les recomiendo esto, especialmente si los extranjeros son alemanes borrachos. +Se trataba de una conexin de fans de ninja a nivel maestro, porque lo que realmente estaba diciendo aqu era, confo tanto as en Uds., +debera? Mustrenme. +Durante la mayor parte de la historia humana, los msicos, los artistas han sido parte de la comunidad, +conectores y abridores, no estrellas intocables. +Ser una celebridad es acerca de un montn de gente que te ama a la distancia, pero el contenido y el Internet que podemos compartir libremente en l nos llevan al pasado. +Se trata de unas pocas personas que te aman de cerca y con esas personas es suficiente. +As que muchas personas se confunden con la idea de no tener un precio concreto en la etiqueta. +Lo ven como un riesgo imprevisible, pero las cosas que he hecho, el Kickstarter, la calle, el timbre, yo no veo estas cosas como riesgos. +Los veo como confianza. +Ahora, las herramientas en lnea para hacer el intercambio tan fcil y tan instintivo como en la calle, estn llegando aqu. +Pero las herramientas perfectas no van a servirnos si no podemos mirarnos unos a otros y dar y recibir sin miedo, pero, ms importante, pedir sin vergenza. +He pasado mi carrera musical tratando de encontrar personas en Internet de la forma que lo hice en esta caja, +as que bloguear y tuitear no solo sobre las fechas de mi giras y mi nuevo video, sino sobre nuestro trabajo y nuestro arte y nuestros temores y nuestras resacas, nuestros errores y nos vemos unos a otros. +Creo que cuando realmente nos vemos mutuamente, queremos ayudarnos unos a otros. +Creo que la gente se ha obsesionado con la pregunta equivocada: "Cmo hacemos para que la gente pague por la msica?" +Qu pasara si empezamos a preguntar: "Cmo dejamos que la gente pague por la msica?" +Gracias. +El ms grande y perfecto tsunami se cierne sobre nosotros. +Esta tormenta perfecta est creando una triste realidad, una realidad cada vez ms sombra, y nos enfrentamos a esa realidad con la plena conviccin de que podemos resolver nuestros problemas con la tecnologa y eso es muy comprensible. +Bien, esta tormenta perfecta a la que nos enfrentamos es el resultado del aumento de la poblacin, elevndose hacia los 10 mil millones de personas; el suelo se est volviendo desrtico y, por supuesto, el clima est cambiando. +Ahora no hay duda de eso, en absoluto: slo resolveremos el problema de sustituir los combustibles fsiles con la tecnologa. +Pero los combustibles fsiles, carbono y gas, no son en absoluto las nica cosa que est causado el cambio climtico. +La desertificacin es una forma elegante de decir que el suelo se est volviendo un desierto y esto slo pasa cuando creamos demasiados terrenos baldos. +No hay otra causa. +Tengo la intencin de enfocarme en la mayora de los terrenos del mundo que se estn volviendo desrticos. +Pero tengo un sencillo mensaje para ustedes que ofrece ms esperanza de la que puedan imaginar. +Contamos con ambientes en donde la humedad est garantizada durante todo el ao. +En esos lugares es casi imposible crear grandes reas de terreno baldo. +No importa lo que se haga, la naturaleza los cubre rpidamente. +Y tenemos ambientes en los que tenemos meses de humedad seguidos por meses de sequa y ah es donde est ocurriendo la desertificacin. +Afortunadamente, con la tecnologa espacial actual, podemos verlo desde el espacio y cuando lo hacemos, se pueden ver las proporciones bastante bien. +Generalmente, lo que est en verde no est en proceso de desertificacin, y lo que est en marrn s lo est, y estas son por mucho las reas ms grandes de la Tierra. +Aproximadamente dos tercios, dira yo, del mundo est en proceso de desertificacin. +Tom esta fotografa en el desierto Tihama mientras caan 25 milmetros o una pulgada de lluvia. +Piensen en ello como barriles de agua, cada uno con 200 litros. +Ms de mil barriles de agua cayeron en cada hectrea de terreno ese da. +Al da siguiente, el terreno se vea as. +A dnde se fue el agua? +Parte se dispers en inundaciones, pero la mayor parte de lo que empap el suelo sencillamente se evapor, exactamente como sucede en el jardn si se deja el suelo descubierto. +Ahora, debido a que el destino del agua y el carbono estn ligados a la materia orgnica del suelo, cuando daamos los suelos, emitimos carbono. +El carbono vuelve a la atmsfera. +Se nos ha dicho una y otra vez, repetidamente, que la desertificacin solo est ocurriendo en reas ridas y semiridas del mundo y que los pastizales de altura, como este, en reas de alta precipitacin, no tienen ningn problema. +Pero si apartamos la atencin de los pastizales y miramos al terreno vemos que la mayor parte del suelo bajo el pastizal est baldo y cubierto con una corteza de algas, dando lugar a mayor escorrenta y evaporacin. +Ese es el cncer de la desertificacin que no reconocemos hasta que est en su forma terminal. +Bien, sabemos que la desertificacin es causada por el ganado, principalmente ganado vacuno, ovino y caprino, que sobrepastorean las plantas, dejando el suelo descubierto y emanando metano. +Casi todos saben esto, desde premios Nobel a caddies de golf o se lo han enseado, como a m. +Ahora, en ambientes como el que se ve aqu, con mucho polvo, en frica donde me cri, llegu a amar la vida silvestre y crec odiando al ganado debido al dao que estaban haciendo. +Y luego mi educacin universitaria como ecologista reforz mis creencias. +Bueno, tengo noticias para ustedes. +Alguna vez estuvimos seguros de que el mundo era plano. +Estbamos equivocados entonces como lo estamos ahora nuevamente. +Quiero invitarlos ahora a que me acompaen en mi viaje de reeducacin y descubrimiento. +Cuando era joven, como bilogo en frica, me involucr en preservar algunas zonas maravillosas como futuros parques nacionales. +Poco despus, esto fue en la dcada de 1950, logramos eliminar la caza, con gente haciendo sonar sus tambores para proteger a los animales. Luego el suelo se comenz a deteriorar, como lo ven en este parque que formamos. +El ganado no estaba involucrado, pero se sospechaba que haba demasiados elefantes, Hice la investigacin, prob que tenamos demasiados y recomend que haba que reducir su cantidad para llevarlos a un nivel en el que la tierra pudiera sostenerlos. +Fue una decisin terrible la que tuve que tomar, dinamita poltica, francamente. +Nuestro gobierno form un equipo de expertos para evaluar mi investigacin. +Lo hicieron y estuvieron de acuerdo conmigo. Durante los aos siguientes fusilamos a 40 mil elefantes para intentar detener el dao. +Y ste empeor en lugar de mejorar. +Amando los elefantes como yo lo hago, ese fue el error ms grande y ms triste de mi vida, que me llevar a la tumba. +Pero algo bueno sali de ah. +Me llev a mi determinacin absoluta de dedicar mi vida a encontrar soluciones. +Cuando volv a EE.UU., me impact encontrar parques nacionales como ste en proceso de desertificacin tan malo como los de frica. +Y en esos suelos no haba habido ganado por ms de 70 aos. +Encontr que los cientficos estadounidenses no tenan ninguna explicacin para eso, aparte de tratarse de algo rido y natural. +Entonces comenc a buscar en todas las parcelas experimentales que pude, por todo el oeste de los EE.UU., en donde se hubiera eliminado el ganado, para probar que esto podra detener la desertificacin. Pero encontr lo contrario, como vemos en esta estacin experimental, donde este pastizal era verde en 1961, para 2002 la situacin haba cambiado. +Los autores del artculo sobre el cambio climtico, de donde tom estas fotografas, atribuyen este cambio a "procesos desconocidos". +Claramente, nunca hemos entendido qu est causando la desertificacin que ha destruido muchas civilizaciones y ahora nos amenaza globalmente. +No hemos podido entenderlo. +Tomen un metro cuadrado de suelo y despjenlo como este de aqu, y les prometo que lo encontrarn mucho ms fro al amanecer y mucho ms caliente al medioda que si estuviera cubierto con desechos y basura vegetal. +Han cambiado el microclima. +Para cuando estn haciendo eso y aumentando en gran medida el porcentaje de suelo descubierto en ms de la mitad del suelo en el mundo, estarn cambiando el macroclima. +Pero sencillamente no hemos entendido, por qu empiez a ocurrir esto hace 10 mil aos? +Por qu ha acelerado ltimamente? +No tenamos conocimiento de ello. +Lo que no logramos comprender era que estos ambientes del mundo con humedad estacional, el suelo y la vegetacin se desarrollaron con un gran nmero de animales de pastoreo, y que estos animales se desarrollaron con los feroces depredadores en manada. +Ahora, la principal defensa contra este tipo de depredadores es moverse en rebaos y mientras ms grande es el rebao, ms seguros estarn los individuos. +Los grandes rebaos defecan y orinan sobre su comida y se tienen que mantenerse en movimiento. y fue ese movimiento el que impeda el sobrepastoreo de las plantas; adems el pisoteo peridico aseguraba una buena cubierta del suelo, como vemos donde ha pasado un rebao. +Esta imagen es de un pastizal estacional comn. +Acaban de pasar cuatro meses de lluvia, y ahora va a pasar ocho meses de estacin seca. +Y observen el cambio a medida que entra en esta larga estacin seca. +Ahora, toda esa hierba que ven sobre el suelo tiene que descomponerse biolgicamente antes de la siguiente temporada de crecimiento y si no lo hace, los pastizales y el suelo comienzan a morir. +Ahora, si no se descompone biolgicamente, cambia a la oxidacin, que es un proceso muy lento, y esto ahoga y mata las hierbas, dando lugar a un cambio en la vegetacin leosa y en el suelo desnudo, liberando carbono. +Para prevenir eso, lo tradicional es que utilizamos fuego. +Pero el fuego tambin deja desnudo el suelo, liberando carbono, y peor que eso, quemar una hectrea de pastizal emite ms y ms contaminantes perjudiciales que 6 mil automviles. +Y quemamos en frica, ao tras ao, ms de mil millones de hectreas de pastizales y casi nadie habla de ello. +Justificamos la quema, como cientficos, porque elimina la materia orgnica muerta y permite que crezcan las plantas. +Bien, viendo que nuestro pastizal se ha secado, qu podramos hacer para mantenerlo sano? +Y tengan en cuenta, estoy hablando de la mayor parte de las tierras del mundo ahora. +De acuerdo? No podemos reducir el nmero de animales para descansarla ms sin causar desertificacin y cambio climtico. +No podemos quemarla sin causar desertificacin y cambio climtico. +Qu vamos a hacer? +Slo hay una opcin, les repetir, slo una opcin tienen los climatlogos y cientficos y es hacer lo impensable, utilizar el ganado agrupado y en movimiento, como sustituto de los antiguos rebaos y depredadores e imitar a la naturaleza. +La humanidad no tiene otra alternativa. +As que hagamos eso. +En este pedacito de pastizal lo haremos, pero slo en el primer plano. +Vamos a impactarlo muy fuertemente con el ganado para imitar a la naturaleza, lo hemos hecho y mrenlo. +Todo ese pasto est cubriendo ahora el suelo con estircol, orina y desperdicios o abono, como cada uno de los jardineros entre ustedes entendera, y que el suelo est listo para absorber y mantener la lluvia, almacenar el carbono y descomponer el metano. +Y lo hicimos, sin utilizar el fuego que daa el suelo y las plantas pueden crecer libres. +Cuando me di cuenta por primera vez que como cientficos no tenamos ms opcin que utilizar el vilipendiado ganado para abordar el cambio climtico y la desertificacin, me encontr con un gran dilema: +cmo ibamos a hacerlo? +Tuvimos en 10 mil aos pastores sumamente diestros que agruparon y movilizaron a sus animales, pero que haban creado los desiertos artificiales ms grandes del mundo. +Luego tuvimos 100 aos de la ciencia de la lluvia moderna y eso aceler la desertificacin, como lo descubrimos por primera vez en frica y luego lo confirmamos en EE.UU. y como lo pueden ver en esta fotografa de los suelos administrados por el gobierno federal. +Es evidente que se necesitaba ms que agrupar y movilizar los animales y los humanos, durante miles de aos, nunca haban podido hacerle frente a la complejidad de la naturaleza. +Pero nosotros bilogos y ecologistas nunca habamos abordado algo tan complejo como esto. +As que ms que reinventar la rueda, comenc a estudiar otras profesiones para ver si alguien lo haba hecho. +Y descubr que haban tcnicas de planificacin que podra tomar y adaptarlas a nuestra necesidad biolgica y a partir de esas desarroll lo que llamo gestin holstica y pastoreo planificado, un proceso de planificacin, y que s aborda todas las complejidades de la naturaleza y nuestras complejidades sociales, ambientales y econmicas. +Veamos los resultados. +Este es el terreno cercano al que administramos en Zimbabue. +Acaba de pasar por cuatro meses de lluvias muy buenas en ese ao y que va entrar a la larga estacin seca. +Pero como pueden ver, toda la lluvia, casi toda, se ha evaporado de la superficie del suelo. +Su ro est seco a pesar de que las lluvias recin han terminado, y tenemos 150 mil personas en ayuda alimentaria casi permanente. +Ahora vamos a nuestros suelos en las inmediaciones el mismo da, con las misma cantidad de lluvia y miren eso. +Nuestro ro fluye, es saludable y est limpio. +Est bien. +La produccin de hierba, arbustos, rboles, fauna, todo ahora es ms productivo y prcticamente no le tenemos miedo a los aos secos. +Y lo logramos al aumentar el ganado vacuno y caprino un 400 %, planificando el pastoreo para imitar a la naturaleza e integrarlos con todos los elefantes, bfalos, jirafas y otros animales que tenemos. +Pero antes de que comenzramos, nuestros suelos se vean as. +Este sitio estuvo al descubierto y erosionando durante ms de 30 aos independientemente de la lluvia que cayera. +De acuerdo? Miren el rbol marcado y vean el cambio a medida que utilizamos el ganado para imitar a la naturaleza. +Este fue otro sitio que haba estado descubierto y erosionando y en la base del pequeo rbol marcado, perdimos ms de 30 cm de suelo, cierto? +Y nuevamente, vean el cambio solo utilizando el ganado para imitar a la naturaleza. +Y hay rboles cados all ahora, porque el mejor suelo est atrayendo elefantes, etc. +Este suelo en Mxico estaba en condiciones terribles y tuvimos que marcar la colina, porque el cambio es muy profundo. +Empec ayudndole a una familia del desierto de Karoo en la dcada de 1970 a convertir el desierto que ven ah en pastizales, y por suerte, ahora sus nietos estn en una tierra con esperanza para el futuro. +Y vean el sorprendente cambio en ste, donde esa quebrada se ha curado por completo utilizando slo el ganado para imitar a la naturaleza y una vez ms, tenemos la tercera generacin de esa familia en esa tierra con su bandera an ondeando. +Los vastos pastizales de la Patagonia se estn volviendo desrticos como pueden ver aqu. +El hombre del centro es un investigador argentino y ha documentado la disminucin constante de ese suelo a lo largo de los aos a medida que mantenan la reduccin del nmero de ovejas. +Colocaron 25 mil ovejas en un solo rebao, imitando realmente a la naturaleza ahora con el pastoreo planificado, y han documentado un aumento del 50 % en la produccin del suelo en el primer ao. +Ahora tenemos en el violento Cuerno de frica a los pastores planificando su pastoreo para imitar a la naturaleza y diciendo abiertamente que es la nica esperanza que tienen de salvar sus familias y su cultura. +El 95 % de esa tierra slo puede alimentar a las personas a partir de los animales. +Les recuerdo que estoy hablando de la mayor parte de las tierras del mundo que controlan nuestro destino, incluyendo la regin ms violenta del mundo, en donde slo los animales pueden alimentar a la gente de cerca del 95 % del suelo. +Lo que estamos haciendo a nivel mundial est causando el cambio climtico tanto como, creo yo, los combustibles fsiles, y quizs ms que los combustibles fsiles. +Pero peor que eso, est generando hambre, pobreza, violencia, desintegracin social y guerra, y mientras les digo esto, millones de hombres, mujeres y nios estn sufriendo y muriendo. +Y si esto contina, es poco probable que seamos capaces de detener el cambio climtico, incluso despus de haber eliminado el uso de combustibles fsiles. +Creo que les he mostrado cmo podemos trabajar con la naturaleza a un costo muy bajo para revertir todo esto. +No puedo pensar en casi nada que ofrezca ms esperanza para nuestro planeta, para nuestros hijos, sus hijos y a toda la humanidad. +Gracias. +Gracias. Gracias Chris. +Chris Anderson: Gracias, tengo y estoy seguro que todos ac tienen: A) cientos de preguntas, B) quieren abrazarte. +Voy a preguntarte algo rpido. +Al empezar esto y traer un rebao de animales, es desierto. Qu es lo que comen? Cmo funciona esa parte? +Cmo comienzas? +Allan Savory: Bueno, hemos hecho esto durante mucho tiempo, y la nica vez que hemos tenido que proporcionar alimento fue durante la recuperacin minera, donde el suelo estaba 100 % al descubierto. +Es un poco tcnico para explicarlo aqu, pero es eso. +CA: Bueno, me encantara... quiero decir, esta es una idea interesante e importante. +La mejor gente en nuestro blog va a venir a hablar contigo y tratar y... quiero ms informacin sobre esto que pudiramos compartir con la charla. AS: Maravilloso. +CA: Esta es una charla asombrosa, realmente una charla impresionante, y creo que oste que todos te animamos en tu camino. +Muchsimas gracias. AS: Bueno, gracias, gracias, Chris. +El Kraken era una bestia tan aterrorizante que se deca que devoraba humanos, barcos y ballenas y que era tan grande que poda confundirse con una isla. +Sin embargo, hay gigantes en el ocano, y tenemos un vdeo que lo prueba, tal como lo vieron algunos de ustedes en el documental de Discovery Channel. +Yo fui una de los tres cientficos de esta expedicin que se llev a cabo el verano pasado en Japn. +La ms pequea soy yo. +Los otros dos son Tsunemi Kubodera y Steve O'Shea. +Fui parte de este evento que ya es histrico gracias a TED. +En 2010, hubo un evento de TED llamado "Misin Azul" celebrado abordo del Lindblad Explorer en Galpagos como parte del cumplimiento del deseo de Sylvia Earle de TED +Habl sobre una forma nueva de explorar el ocano, uno que se enfoca en atraer a los animales en vez de ahuyentarlos. +Mike deGruy fue otro de los invitados y habl con mucha pasin sobre su amor por el ocano y tambin me habl sobre utilizar mi enfoque en algo en lo que l haba estado involucrado desde hacia mucho tiempo: la bsqueda del calamar gigante. +Ese fue el resultado de cientos de inmersiones tirndome gases en la oscuridad utilizando estas plataformas, y me dio la impresin de que, cuando trabajaba en el submarino, vea ms animales que cuando trabajaba en alguno de los vehculos de operacin remota; +aunque eso puede ser simplemente porque el submarino tiene un campo visual ms amplio. +Pero tambin me pareci haber visto ms animales trabajando con el Tiburn que con el Ventana, dos vehculos que tienen el mismo campo visual pero distintos sistemas de propulsin. +Por eso, sospech que deba tener algo que ver con el ruido que hacen. +As que coloqu un hidrfono en el fondo del ocano, e hice que ambos navegaran a la misma velocidad y distancia y grab el sonido que hacan. +El Sea-Link Johnson --sonido de zumbido-- el cual probablemente apenas escuchen aqui usa hlices elctricas, muy, muy silenciosas. +El Tiburn tambin usa hlices elctricas. +Es bastante silencioso, pero un poco ms ruidoso. (Zumbido ms alto) Actualmente la mayora de los vehculos remotos de sumersin profunda usan hlices hidrulicas y suenan como el Ventana. (Pitido fuerte) Creo que eso debe espantar a muchos animales. +Esto es visible a nuestros ojos, pero es el equivalente al infrarrojo en el abismo marino. +Ahora, este molino de luz que produce el Atolla es conocido como una alarma contra robo de bioluminescencia y es una forma de defensa. +Es un grito de ayuda, un ltimo intento de escape, que es una forma comn de defensa en las profundidades del ocano. +El enfoque funciona. +Considerando que todas la expediciones anteriores han fallado en obtener algn destello de vdeo del gigante, nosotros obtuvimos seis, y el primero nos puso locos de emocin. +Edith Widder (en el vdeo): Dios mio! Es en serio? Otros cientficos: Oh, oh, oh! Eso estaba por ah. +EW: Era como si se burlara de nosotros, haciendo una especie de danza de abanico, ahora me ven, ahora no me ven y tuvimos cuatro de estas apariciones juguetonas y despues de la quinta, vino y nos cautiv. +Narrador: (Hablando en japons) Cientficos: Oh pum! Dios mio! Vaya! +EW: El desnudo completo. +Lo que realmente me asombr fue la manera que subi sobre la e-medusa y despus atac la enorme cosa cerca a ella que creo confundi con el depredador que atacaba a la e-medusa. +Todava ms increble fue la toma del Triton sumergible. +Ahora, lo que estn viendo es la vista intensificada de la cmara bajo la luz roja y eso es todo lo que EL Dr. Kubodera pudo ver cuando el gigante entr en escena. +Entonces l se emocion tanto, que encendi su linterna porque quera ver mejor, y el gigante no escap, as que se arriesg a encender las luces blancas del sumergible, llevando a la legendaria criatura de los mitos a un vdeo de alta resolucin. +Fue algo absolutamente asombroso, y si este animal hubiera tenido sus tentculos que le ayudan a comer intactos y extendidos completamente, hubiese alcanzado la altura de una casa de dos pisos. +Cmo pudo vivir algo tan grande en nuestros ocanos y haber permanecido sin ser filmado hasta ahora? +Solo hemos explorado el 5% de nuestros ocanos. +Quedan grandes descubrimientos todava por hacer all abajo, criaturas fantsticas que representan millones de aos de evolucin y posibles compuestos bioactivos que puedan beneficiarnos de maneras que ni podemos imaginar. +Sin embargo, hasta ahora hemos gastado solo una pequea fraccin de dinero en la exploracin del ocano, en comparacin con el gastado en la exploracin del espacio. +Nos hace falta una organizacin como la NASA para la exploracin ocenica porque tenemos que explorar y proteger nuestro sistema de apoyo de vida aqu en la Tierra. +Tenemos que... gracias. La exploracin es el motor que impulsa la innovacin +y la innovacin impulsa el crecimiento econmico. +Entonces exploremos, pero hagmoslo de manera tal que no ahuyentemos a los animales, o, como dijo Mike deGruy alguna vez: "Si quieren escaparse de todo y ver algo que nunca hayan visto o tener la oportunidad de ver algo que no haya visto nadie, sbanse a un submarino". +l debi haber estado con nosotros en esta aventura. +Lo echamos de menos. +Hay tantos de Uds. +Cuando era nio, esconda mi corazn en la cama porque mi mam deca, "Si no eres cuidadoso, un da, alguien te lo romper". +Te lo digo yo. La cama no es un buen escondite. +Lo s porque he sido derribado tantas veces que me da vrtigo solo por pararme aqu. +Pero eso es lo que nos dijeron. +Defindete solo. +Y es duro hacerlo si no sabes quin eres. +Esperamos definirnos a una edad temprana, y si no lo hicimos, otros lo hicieron por nosotros. +Y a la vez que nos estaban diciendo lo que ramos, nos preguntaban: "Qu quieres ser cuando grande?" +Siempre pens que era una pregunta improcedente. +Supone que no podemos ser lo que ya somos. +Somos nios. +Cuando era nio, quera ser hombre. +Quera un plan de pensin, que me mantuviera suficientemente bien como para hacer dulce la vejez. +Cuando era nio, quera afeitarme. +Ahora, no tanto. +Cuando tena 8, quera ser bilogo marino. +Cuando tena 9, vi la pelcula "Tiburn", y pens, "No, gracias". +Y cuando tena 10, me dijeron que mis padres me abandonaron porque no me queran. +Cuando tena 11, quera que me dejaran solo. +Cuando tena 12 aos, quera morir. Cuando tena 13, quera matar a un chico. +Cuando tena 14 aos, me pidieron que considerara seriamente una carrera. +Dije, "Me gustara ser escritor". +Y me dijeron: "Elige algo realista". +Entonces dije, "Luchador profesional". +Y me dijeron: "No seas estpido". +Vean, me preguntaron qu quera ser, y entonces me dijeron qu no ser. +Y yo no era el nico. +Se nos dice que de alguna manera debemos ser lo que no somos, sacrificar lo que somos para heredar la mascarada de lo que seremos. +Me dijeron que aceptara la identidad que otros me daran. +Y me preguntaba, qu hace mis sueos tan fciles de descalificar? +Concedido, mis sueos son tmidos, porque son canadienses. Mis sueos son autoconscientes y excesivamente cabizbajos. +Estn a solas en el baile de la secundaria, y nunca han sido besados. +Vean, mis sueos fueron calificados tambin. +Bobo. Tonto. Imposible. +Pero yo segu soando. +Iba a ser un luchador. Lo tena todo dilucidado. +Iba a ser El Hombre Basura. +Mi ltimo movimiento iba a ser El Compactador de Basura. +Mi dicho iba a ser, "Estoy sacando la basura!" +Y entonces este tipo, Duke "Contenedor" Droese, rob todo mi nmero. +Estaba aplastado, como por un compactador de basura. +Pens, "y ahora qu? Qu hago? A qu acudo?" +Poesa. +Como un bmeran, lo que adoraba regres a m. +Una de las primeras lneas de poesa que recuerdo haber escrito fue en respuesta a un mundo que me exiga odiarme. +De los 15 a los 18 aos, me odi por convertirme en lo que detestaba: un matn. +Cuando tena 19, escrib, "Me amar a pesar de mi dcil inclinacin a lo contrario". +Defenderse solo no implica adoptar la violencia. +Cuando era nio, negociaba tareas escolares por amistad, luego les daba un pase por no llegar nunca a tiempo y en la mayora de las veces ni eso. +Me di un permiso para afrontar cada promesa rota. +Y recuerdo ese plan, nacido de la frustracin de un nio a quien llamaban "Yogi", y luego sealaban mi barriga y decan: "Demasiadas cestas de picnic". +Resulta que no es tan difcil engaar a alguien, y un da antes de la clase, dije: "S, puedes copiar mi tarea", y le di todas las respuestas erradas que haba anotado la noche anterior. +Entreg su hoja esperando un puntaje casi perfecto, y no poda creer cuando me mir a travs del saln y sostena un cero. +Yo saba que no tena que mostrar mi hoja de 28 sobre 30, pero mi satisfaccin fue completa cuando l me mir, desconcertado, y pens, "Ms inteligente que el oso promedio, hijo de puta". +Este soy yo +As es como me defiendo. +Cuando era nio, sola pensar que las chuletas de cerdo y las chuletas de karate eran lo mismo. +Pensaba que las dos eran chuletas de cerdo. +Y como mi abuela pensaba que era lindo, y como eran mis favoritos, me dej seguir hacindolo. +No es una gran cosa. +Un da, antes de que me comprendiera que los nios gordos no estn hechos para trepar, me ca de un rbol y me magull el lado derecho de mi cuerpo. +Tem contarle a mi abuela que me haba metido en problemas por jugar donde no deba. +Unos das ms tarde, el profesor de gimnasia not el hematoma, y me envi a la oficina del Director. +De ah, a otra habitacin pequea con una seora muy agradable que me hizo todo tipo de preguntas sobre mi vida en casa. +No vi ninguna razn para mentir. +Hasta donde me concerna, la vida era bastante buena. +le dije, cuando estoy triste, mi abuela me da chuletas de karate, +Esto llev a una investigacin profunda, y me sacaron de la casa por tres das, hasta que finalmente decidieron preguntarme cmo me haba hecho los moretones. +Noticias de esta pequea historia tonta se extendieron rpidamente por la escuela, y gan mi primer apodo: Chuleta de cerdo +Al da de hoy, odio las chuletas de cerdo. +No soy el nico nio que creci as, rodeado de gente que deca esa rima de los palos y las piedras, como si los huesos rotos dolieran ms que los nombres con que nos llamaban, y nos decan de todo. +As, crecimos creyendo que nadie se enamorara de nosotros, que estaramos solos por siempre, que nunca conoceramos a alguien que nos hiciera sentir que el sol era algo hecho para nosotros en su taller. +Cuerdas rotas del corazn sangraron nostalgia y tratamos de vaciarnos para no sentir nada. +No me digan que duele menos que un hueso roto, que una vida encarnada es algo que los cirujanos pueden quitar, que no hay forma de que haga metstasis; lo hace. +Ella tena 8 aos. Nuestro primer da en tercero la llamaron fea. +Ambos nos pasamos para atrs del saln. y as paramos el bombardeo de bolas de papel. +Pero los pasillos de la escuela eran un campo de batalla. +Nos vimos superados da tras miserable da. +Solamos no salir a los recreos, porque afuera era peor. +Afuera, haba que ensayar a correr, o aprender a permanecer quietos como estatuas, para no dar ninguna pista de que estbamos all. +En quinto grado, grabaron un cartel al frente de su escritorio que deca: "Cuidado con el perro". +Al da de hoy, a pesar de un esposo amoroso, no cree que sea hermosa debido a una marca de nacimiento que cubre un poco menos de la mitad de su rostro. +Los nios solan decir, "Parece como una respuesta incorrecta que alguien intent borrar, pero que no pudo hacerlo". +Y nunca entendern que ella est criando a dos nios cuya definicin de belleza comienza con la palabra "Mam", porque ven su corazn antes que su piel, porque ella siempre ha sido increble. +l, era una rama rota injertada en un rbol familiar diferente, adoptado, no porque sus padres optaron por un destino diferente. +Intent suicidarse en 10 grado cuando un nio que an poda ir a casa de mam y pap tuvo la osada de decirle, "Supralo". +Como si la depresin fuera algo que se pudiera remediar con algo sacado de un kit de primeros auxilios. +No fuimos los nicos nios que crecimos as. +Al da de hoy, los nios todava reciben apodos. +Los clsicos eran, "Hola estpido", "Hola imbcil". +Parece que cada escuela cuenta con un arsenal de apodos que logra poner al da cada ao, +y si un nio irrumpe en una escuela y nadie alrededor decide escuchar, acaso se inmutan? +Son solo ruido de fondo de una banda sonora atascada que repite cuando la gente dice cosas como: "Los nios pueden ser crueles". +Todas las escuelas eran una carpa de circo, y la jerarqua iba de acrbatas a domadores de len, de payasos a feriantes, todas estas leguas por delante a las que iramos. +Fuimos raros, nios garra de langosta y seoras barbudas, extraos malabares de depresin y soledad, jugadores solitarios, girando la botella, tratando de besar las partes heridas de nosotros mismos y sanar, pero por la noche, mientras los dems dorman, seguamos caminando por la cuerda floja. +Era prctica, y s, algunos de nosotros camos. +Creaste una armadura alrededor de tu corazn roto y lo firmaste. Firmaste, "Estn equivocados". +Porque tal vez no perteneces a un grupo o a una pandilla. +Tal vez fuiste el ltimo que decidieron escoger para baloncesto o para todo. +Tal vez solas traer moretones y dientes rotos, para presentar en clase, pero nunca lo dijiste, porque cmo puedes mantenerte firme cuando todos a tu alrededor quieren enterrarte? +Tienes que creer que estaban equivocados. +Tienen que estar equivocados. +Cmo ms podramos an estar aqu? +Crecimos aprendiendo a animar a los desvalidos porque nos vemos en ellos. +Somos tallo de una raz sembrada en la creencia de que no somos lo que nos apodaron. +No somos autos abandonados varados y atorados en alguna carretera, y si de alguna manera lo estamos, no se preocupen, +solo salimos a caminar por gasolina. +Somos graduados de la clase de "Lo logramos, no los ecos desvanecidos de voces clamando, "Los apodos nunca me hieren". +Claro que lo hicieron. +Pero nuestras vidas siempre continan siendo un acto de equilibrio que tiene menos que ver con dolor y ms que ver con la belleza. +Quiero hablar de innovacin social e iniciativa socioempresarial. +Resulta que tengo trillizos. +Estn chicos, tienen cinco aos. +A veces digo que tengo trillizos y me preguntan, "De verdad?, Cuntos son?" +Esta es una foto de los nios. Son Sage, Annalisa y Rider. +Tambin resulta que soy gay. +Ser gay y padre de trillizos es seguramente la cosa socialmente ms innovadora y emprendedora que haya hecho. +La verdadera innovacin social de la que quiero hablar tiene que ver con la beneficencia. +Quiero hablar sobre lo que nos han enseado a pensar acerca de: dar, de la beneficencia y del sector no lucrativo que en realidad estn socavando las causas que amamos y nuestro profundo anhelo de cambiar el mundo. +Antes de hacerlo, quiero preguntar si todava creemos que el sector no lucrativo juega un rol importante para cambiar el mundo. +Mucha gente dice ahora que los negocios levantarn a las economas en desarrollo y los negocios sociales se harn cargo del resto. +Creo sin duda que los negocios movern a la gran masa humana hacia adelante. +Pero siempre dejar atrs al 10 % o ms que son los ms desfavorecidos o desafortunados. +Los negocios sociales necesitan mercados, y existen algunos asuntos que no pueden solo desarrollar el tipo de medidas monetarias requeridas para un mercado. +Soy miembro de la junta de un centro para gente con retraso en el desarrollo, y estas personas quieren risas, compasin y quieren amor. +Cmo monetizan eso? +Ah es donde el sector no lucrativo y la filantropa entran. +La filantropa es el mercado del amor. +Es el mercado para todas aquellas personas para las cuales no hay otro mercado. +Entonces si en verdad queremos, como Buckmister Fuller dijo, un mundo que funcione para todos, sin que nadie ni nada quede por fuera, entonces el sector no lucrativo tiene que ser una parte seria de la conversacin. +Pero parece que no est funcionando. +Por qu nuestras asociaciones de cncer de mama estn lejos de encontrar una cura para el cncer de mama, o nuestras asociaciones para los sin techo no estn cerca de acabar con la indigencia en cualquier gran ciudad? +Por qu la pobreza en EE. UU. permaneci estancada al 12 % durante 40 aos? +La respuesta es que estos problemas sociales son de escala masiva, nuestras organizaciones son pequeas en comparacin, y tenemos un sistema de creencias que las mantiene pequeas. +Tenemos dos normativas. +Una para el sector no lucrativo y una para el resto del mundo econmico. +Es una segregacin que discrima contra el sector no lucrativo en 5 distintas reas, siendo la primera la compensacin. +En el sector lucrativo, entre ms valor se produzca, ms dinero se puede hacer. +Pero no nos gusta que las organizaciones no lucrativas usen dinero para incentivar a la gente a producir ms en el servicio social. +Tenemos una reaccin visceral a la idea de que alguien pueda hacer mucho dinero por ayudar a otros. +Resulta interesante que no tengamos una reaccin visceral a la nocin de que la gente haga ms dinero sin ayudar a otros. +Ya saben, quieren hacer 50 millones de dlares vendiendo videojuegos violentos a los chicos, hganlo. +Los pondremos en la portada de la revista Wired. +La revista Businessweek hizo una encuesta sobre los paquetes de beneficios para profesionales de postgrado con 10 aos de escuela de negocios, +y la remuneracin media de un MBA de Stanford, con bonus, a la edad de 38, era de 400 mil dlares. +Mientras que, en el mismo ao, el salario promedio del director general de una fundacin mdica de ms de USD 5 millones en EE. UU. +era de 232 mil dlares, y para una beneficencia contra el hambre, 84 mil dlares. +No hay manera de conseguir a muchas personas talentosas de USD 400 000 que hagan un sacrificio de USD 316 000 cada ao para ser el director de una beneficencia contra el hambre. +Algunos dicen, "Bueno, esto es solo porque los egresados de MBA son codiciosos". +No necesariamente. Puede que sean listos. +La segunda rea de discriminacin es la publicidad y la mercadotecnia. +Le decimos al sector lucrativo, "Gasten, gasten, gasten en publicidad hasta que el ltimo dlar ya no produzca un centavo de valor". +Pero no nos gusta ver nuestras donaciones gastadas en publicidad de beneficencia. +Nuestra actitud es, "Bueno, mire, si consigue publicidad donada, ya sabe, a las 4 de la maana, para m est bien. +Pero no quiero que mis donaciones se gasten en publicidad, las quiero para los necesitados". +Como si el dinero invertido en publicidad no pudiera traer drsticamente grandes sumas de dinero para ayudar a los necesitados. +En los aos 90 mi compaa cre paseos en bicicleta para la lucha contra el sida, SIDAbicis y caminatas de 100 Km por 3 das contra el cncer de mama, y a lo largo de 9 aos, participaron 182 mil hroes ordinarios y recaudamos un total de 581 millones de dlares. +Se recaud ms dinero en menos tiempo para estas causas que cualquier otro evento en la historia, todo basado en la idea de que la gente est harta de que le pregunten que haga lo menos posible. +Las personas anhelan medir la distancia total de su potencial a nombre de las causas que tanto les importa. +Pero se las tienen que pedir. +Tuvimos toda esa participacin porque compramos anuncios de pgina entera en The New York Times, en The Boston Globe, en el horario de ms audiencia de radio y TV. +Saben a cunta gente habra llegado si hubisemos puesto volantes en la lavandera? +Las donaciones se han estancado, en los Estados Unidos, al 2% del PIB desde que se empez a medir en los aos 70. +Es un hecho importante, porque nos dice que en 40 aos, el sector no lucrativo no ha podido ganarle una cuota de mercado al sector lucrativo. +Y si lo piensan, cmo puede un sector quitarle cuota de mercado a otro si no se le permite comercializar? +Si le decimos a las marcas de consumo, "Pueden anunciar todos los beneficios de su producto", pero a las beneficencias les decimos, "No pueden anunciar todo lo bueno que hacen", a dnde creen que fluirn los dlares del consumidor? +La tercera rea de discriminacin es la toma de riesgo en busca de ideas nuevas que generen ingresos. +Disney puede hacer una pelcula nueva de USD 200 millones que fracasa y nadie llama al procurador general. +Pero si recaudan apenas 1 milln de dlares para los pobres y no producen un 75 % de lucro para la causa en los primeros 12 meses, su persona es cuestionada. +Entonces las organizaciones no lucrativas son reacias a intentar cualquier empeo audaz, valiente y a gran escala de recaudacin de fondos por temor a que la cosa falle y sus reputaciones sean arrastradas por el lodo. +Bueno, todos sabemos que cuando se prohbe el fracaso se mata la innovacin. +Si se mata la innovacin en la recaudacin de fondos, no se puede tener ms ingresos. Si no se puede tener ms ingresos, no se puede crecer. Y si no se puede crecer, no hay posibilidad de resolver grandes problemas sociales. +La cuarta rea es el tiempo. +Amazon pas 6 aos sin darle dividendos a los inversionistas y la gente tuvo paciencia. +Saban que su objetivo a largo plazo era la construccin de dominio del mercado. +Pero si una organizacin no lucrativa tan siquiera soara en construir una escala grandiosa que implicara que durante 6 aos ningn dinero fuera destinado a los necesitados, sino que todo fuera invertido en la construccin de esa escala, es de esperarse una crucifixin. +Y la ltima rea es el lucro mismo. +El sector lucrativo puede pagar dividendos con el fin de atraer el capital para sus nuevas ideas, pero no se puede pagar dividendos en un sector no lucrativo, as que el sector lucrativo tiene acceso a mercados de capital multimillonarios, y el sector no lucrativo escasea el crecimiento, capital de riesgo y capital de ideas. +Si acaso tenemos dudas de los efectos de esta separacin de normativas, las estadsticas son preocupantes: De 1970 al 2009, el nmero de entidades no lucrativas que en realidad creci, que super la barrera de USD 50 millones en ingresos anuales, fue de 144. +Durante el mismo perodo, el nmero de empresas lucrativas que la super fue de 46 136. +Estamos lidiando con problemas sociales de escala masiva, y nuestras organizaciones no pueden generar ninguna escala. +Toda la escala va a Coca-Cola y Burger King. +Por qu pensamos as? +Bueno, como la mayora del dogma fantico en Estados Unidos, estas ideas vienen de antiguas creencias puritanas. +Los puritanos vinieron aqu por razones religiosas, o eso decan, pero tambin vinieron aqu porque queran hacer mucho dinero. +Eran personas piadosas pero tambin eran capitalistas muy agresivos que fueron acusados de extremas formas de hacer lucro en comparacin con otros colonizadores. +Pero a su vez, los puritanos eran calvinistas, por lo tanto, se les enseaba en efecto a odiarse a s mismos. +Les enseaban que el inters propio era un mar tormentoso que era un camino seguro a la condena eterna. +Bueno, esto cre un verdadero problema para esta gente, no? +Cruzaron todo el Atlntico para hacer todo ese dinero. Enriquecerse as los llevar directo al infierno. +Qu podan hacer al respecto? +Bueno, la beneficencia fue su respuesta. +Se convirti en este santuario econmico donde podan hacer penitencia por sus tendencias de hacer lucro donando cinco centavos por dlar. +Desde luego, cmo se poda hacer dinero con la beneficencia, si la beneficiencia era la penitencia por hacer dinero? +El incentivo financiero fue exiliado del reino de ayudar a los dems para que pudiera prosperar en el rea de lucro personal, y en 400 aos, nada ha intervenido para decir: "Eso es contraproducente e injusto". +Esta ideologa llev a esta peligrossima pregunta: "Qu porcentaje de mi donacin va a la causa contra mis gastos generales?" +Hay muchos problemas con esta pregunta. +Voy a centrarme solo en dos. +Primero, nos hace pensar que los gastos generales son negativos, que de alguna manera no son parte de la causa. +Pero sin duda lo son, especialmente si se usan para crecer. +Ahora, esta idea de que los gastos generales son de algn modo un enemigo de la causa crea este segundo problema que es mucho ms grande: obliga a las organizaciones a operar sin los gastos generales que realmente necesitan para crecer en el inters de mantener los gastos bajos. +A todos nos han enseado que las beneficencias deberan gastar lo menos posible en gastos generales como la recaudacin de fondos, bajo la teora de que, cuanto menos se gaste en recaudacin de fondos, ms dinero hay disponible para la causa. +Eso es cierto si fuera un mundo deprimido en el que este grfico de pastel no pudiese ser ms grande. +Les doy dos ejemplos. Lanzamos los paseos en bicicleta pro SIDA con una inversin inicial de 50 mil dlares de capital de riesgo. +En 9 aos, los habamos incrementado 1982 veces en 108 millones de dlares despus de los gastos de servicios del SIDA. +Lanzamos las caminatas pro cncer de mama con una inversin inicial de 350 mil dlares de capital de riesgo. +En 5 aos, lo habamos multiplicado 554 veces en 194 millones de dlares despus de todos los gastos para la investigacin de cncer de mama. +Si fuesen filntropos realmente interesados en el cncer de mama, qu tendra ms sentido: salir y buscar al investigador ms innovador del mundo y darle 350 mil dlares para investigacin, o darle un departamento de recaudacin de fondos de 350 mil dlares que lo aumente en 194 millones dlares para la investigacin del cncer de mama? +El 2002 fue nuestro ao ms exitoso. +Para el cncer de mama juntamos, en ese solo ao, 71 millones de dlares despus de todos los gastos. +Luego nos fuimos a la quiebra de forma repentina y traumtica. +Por qu? Bueno, la versin corta es que nuestro patrocinador nos dej. +Quiso distanciarse de nosotros porque estbamos siendo crucificados en los medios por invertir el 40 % de los ingresos en reclutamiento, servicio al cliente y la magia de la experiencia, y no existe una terminologa contable para describir el tipo de inversin en crecimiento y futuro, a parte de la etiqueta endemoniada de gastos generales. +De un da a otro, los 350 de nuestros excelentes empleados perdieron su trabajo, +porque fueron etiquetados como gastos generales. +Nuestro patrocinador trat de hacer eventos por su cuenta. +Los gastos generales aumentaron. +Los ingresos netos para la investigacin del cncer de mama disminuy en un 84 % o 60 millones de dlares en un ao. +Esto es lo que pasa cuando confundimos moralidad con frugalidad. +Nos han enseado que vender el pastel con 5 % de gastos generales es moralmente superior a la empresa profesional de recaudacin con 40% de gastos generales, pero nos estamos perdiendo la parte ms importante de la informacin: Cul es el tamao real de estos pasteles? +A quin le importa que la venta de pasteles solo tenga 5 % de sobreprecio si es pequeo? +Qu pasa si la venta de pasteles solo ingresa 71 dlares para la beneficencia porque no hizo ninguna inversin en su escala y la empresa profesional de recaudacin ingres 71 millones de dlares porque lo hizo? +Ahora qu pastel preferiramos, y cul creen que preferira la gente hambrienta? +Este es el efecto de todo esto en el panorama general. +Dije que la beneficencia recibe el 2 % del PIB de los Estados Unidos. +Eso es aproximadamente 300 mil millones de dlares al ao. +Pero solo un 20 % de eso o 60 mil millones de dlares van a causas de salud y servicios humanos. +El resto va a la religin, la educacin superior y los hospitales, y esos 60 mil millones de dlares no alcanzan para abordar estos problemas. +Ahora s estamos hablando de escala. +Estamos hablando de un posible cambio real. +Pero nunca va a pasar forzando a estas organizaciones a bajar sus horizontes hacia el objetivo desmoralizador de mantener bajos sus gastos generales. +Nuestra generacin no quiere leer en su epitafio: "Mantuvimos bajos los gastos de beneficencia". +Queremos que diga que cambiamos el mundo y que parte de la forma en que lo hicimos fue cambiando la forma en que pensamos estas cosas. +As que la prxima vez que vean una beneficencia, no pregunten sobre el ndice de sus gastos. +Pregunten sobre la escala de sus sueos, sus sueos de escala Apple, Google, Amazon, cmo midieron su progreso hacia esos sueos y qu recursos necesitaron para hacerlos realidad sin importar los gastos generales. +A quin le importan los gastos generales si estos problemas en realidad se resuelven? +Si podemos tener este tipo de generosidad, una generosidad de pensamiento, entonces el sector no lucrativo puede jugar un papel enorme en cambiar el mundo para los ciudadanos ms desesperados que necesitan el cambio. +Annalisa Smith Pallota: Eso sera... Sage Smith-Pallota: una verdadera innovacin Rider Smith-Pallota: social. +Dan Pallota: Muchsimas gracias. Muchas gracias. +Gracias. +Levanten su mano si conocen a alguien de su familia inmediata o de su crculo de amigos que sufra de alguna enfermedad mental. +S. Lo pens. No me sorprende. +Y levanten su mano si creen que una investigacin bsica sobre la mosca de la fruta tiene algo que ver con la comprensin de las enfermedades mentales en los humanos. +S. Lo imaginaba. Tampoco me sorprende. +Puedo ver que tengo mucho trabajo que hacer aqu. +Como escuchamos del Dr. Insel esta maana, los trastornos psiquitricos como el autismo, la depresin y la esquizofrenia tienen un efecto terrible en el sufrimiento humano. +Sabemos mucho menos sobre su tratamiento y la comprensin de sus mecanismos bsicos que lo que sabemos sobre las enfermedades del cuerpo. +Piensen en esto: en 2013, la segunda dcada del milenio, si estn preocupados sobre un diagnstico de cncer van donde su doctor, les hacen gammagrafas seas, biopsias y exmenes de sangre. +En 2013, si estn preocupados por el diagnstico de una depresin, van donde su doctor y qu es lo que obtienen? +Un cuestionario. +Parte de esa razn es que tenemos una visin demasiado simplista y cada vez ms pasada de moda de las bases biolgicas de los trastornos psiquitricos. +Tendemos a verlas, y la prensa popular contribuye e incita esta visin, como desequilibrios qumicos en el cerebro, como si en el cerebro hubiera algo parecido a una bolsa de sopa qumica llena de dopamina, serotonina y norepinefrina. +Esta visin est condicionada por el hecho de que muchos de los medicamentos que se prescriben para tratar estos trastornos, como Prozac, actan globalmente cambiando la qumica del cerebro, como si el cerebro fuera de verdad una bolsa de sopa qumica. +Pero esa no puede ser la respuesta, porque estos medicamentos no funcionan bien del todo. +Mucha gente no los toma o deja de tomarlos, debido a sus efectos secundarios desagradables. +Estos medicamentos tienen muchos efectos secundarios, porque utilizarlos para tratar un trastorno psiquitrico complejo es como intentar cambiar el aceite de motor abriendo una lata y vertindola sobre todo el bloque del motor. +Parte gotear en el lugar correcto, pero la mayora har ms dao que bien. +Una visin emergente, que tambin oyeron del Dr. Insel esta maana, es que los trastornos psiquitricos son en realidad perturbaciones de los circuitos neuronales que intervienen en las emociones, el nimo y el afecto. +Cuando pensamos en la cognicin, comparamos el cerebro con una computadora. Ese no es el problema. +Resulta que la analoga de la computadora es igual de vlida para la emocin. +Es solo que no tendemos a considerarlo de esa manera. +Pero sabemos mucho menos sobre las bases del circuito de los trastornos psiquitricos debido al abrumador dominio de esta hiptesis de desbalance qumico. +Bien, no es que los qumicos no sean importantes en los trastornos psiquitricos. +Es solo que no baan al cerebro como en una sopa. +Ms bien, se liberan en lugares muy especficos y actan en sinapsis especficas para cambiar el flujo de informacin en el cerebro. +Si alguna vez realmente queremos entender la base biolgica de los trastornos psiquitricos, necesitamos localizar estos sitios en el cerebro en donde actan estos qumicos. +De lo contrario, vamos a seguir vertiendo petrleo sobre nuestros motores mentales y sufrir las consecuencias. +Por otra parte, una vez que podemos hacer eso, podemos realmente activar neuronas especficas o podemos destruir o inhibir la actividad de aquellas neuronas. +Si inhibimos un tipo particular de neurona y encontramos que un comportamiento se bloquea, podemos concluir que esas neuronas son necesarias para ese comportamiento. +Por otro lado, si activamos un grupo de neuronas y encontramos que produce el comportamiento, podemos concluir que esas neuronas son suficientes para el comportamiento. +De esta manera, haciendo este tipo de pruebas, podemos extraer las relaciones de causa y efecto entre la actividad de neuronas especficas en circuitos y comportamientos particulares, algo que es extremadamente difcil, por no decir imposible, hacer ahora mismo en los humanos. +Pero puede un organismo como una mosca de la fruta... es un gran organismo modelo porque tiene un cerebro pequeo, es capaz de comportamientos complejos y sofisticados, se reproduce rpidamente y es barato. +Pero puede un organismo como este ensearnos algo sobre los estados parecidos a las emociones? +Tienen siquiera estos organismos estados parecidos a las emociones? O solo son pequeos robots digitales? +Charles Darwin crea que los insectos tienen emociones y las expresan en sus comportamientos, como escribi en su monografa de 1872 sobre la expresin de las emociones en hombres y animales. +Y mi colega del mismo nombre, Seymour Benzer, lo crea tambin. +Seymour es el hombre que introdujo el uso de la drosophila, ac en CalTech en la dcada de 1960 como un organismo modelo para estudiar la conexin entre los genes y el comportamiento. +Seymour me contrat para CalTech a finales de la dcada de 1980. +Fue mi Jedi y mi rabino mientras estuvo ac, y Seymour me ense a amar a las moscas y tambin a jugar con la ciencia. +As que cmo hacemos esta pregunta? +Una cosa es creer que las moscas tienen estados parecidos a las emociones, pero cmo podemos saber si en realidad eso es cierto o no? +En los humanos a menudo inferimos los estados emocionales, como lo oran ms tarde hoy, a partir de las expresiones faciales. +Sin embargo, es un poco difcil hacer eso en las moscas de la fruta. +Es parecido a aterrizar en Marte y mirar por la ventana de su nave espacial a todos esos hombrecitos verdes que los rodean y tratan de dilucidar, "Cmo averiguo si tienen emociones o no?" +Qu podemos hacer? No es tan fcil. +Bueno, una de las formas en las que podemos comenzar es intentar proponer algunas caractersticas o propiedades generales de los estados parecidos a las emociones, tales como la excitacin, y ver si podemos identificar algn comportamiento de la mosca que pueda exhibir alguna de esas propiedades. +Las tres importantes que se me ocurren son la persistencia, las gradaciones de la intensidad y la valencia. +La persistencia significa que es perdurable. +Todos sabemos que el estmulo que desencadena una emocin hace que la emocin dure mucho ms despus de que el estmulo se ha ido. +Las gradaciones de la intensidad significan tal como se oye. +Pueden subir o bajar la intensidad de una emocin. +Si estn un poco tristes, las comisuras de su boca bajan un poco y sollozan y si estn muy tristes, derraman lgrimas y pueden llorar. +La valencia significa bueno o malo, positivo o negativo. +As que decidimos ver si las moscas podan ser provocadas a mostrar el tipo de comportamiento que ven en la avispa proverbial en la mesa de picnic, ya saben, esa que sigue volviendo a su hamburguesa cuanto ms enrgicamente intenten aplastarla y parece que se mantiene irritada. +Construimos un dispositivo, que llamamos puff-o-mat, en el que pudimos suministrar breves bocanadas de aire a las moscas de la fruta en estos tublos plsticos de nuestro banco de laboratorio y soplarlas. +Y lo que encontramos es que si les dbamos a estas moscas varios soplidos a la vez en la puff-o-mat, se volvan un poco hiperactivas y continuaron volando por algn tiempo despus de que los soplidos cesaron y tom un momento para que se calmaran. +As que cuantificamos este comportamiento utilizando software de seguimiento locomotor personalizado desarrollado con mi colaborador Pietro Perona, que est en la divisin de ingeniera elctrica aqu en CalTech. +Y lo que esta cuantificacin nos mostr es que, al experimentar un tren de estas bocanadas de aire, las moscas parecen entrar en una especie de estado de hiperactividad que es persistente, duradero y tambin parece ser graduado. +Ms bocanadas o ms bocanadas intensas hacen que el estado dure por un periodo mayor. +As que quisimos intentar comprender algo sobre qu controla la duracin de este estado. +As que decidimos utilizar nuestro puff-o-mat y nuestro software de seguimiento automatizado para detectar a travs de cientos de lneas de moscas de la fruta mutantes para ver si podamos encontrar alguna que mostrara respuestas anormales a las bocanadas de aire. +Y esta es una de las grandes cosas sobre la mosca de la fruta. +Hay depsitos donde solo pueden contestar el telfono y ordenar cientos de frascos de moscas de diferentes mutantes y examinarlas en sus anlisis y luego encontrar qu gen es afectado en la mutacin. +As que al examinar, descubrimos un mutante que tom mucho ms tiempo del normal para calmarse despus de las bocanadas de aire y cuando examinamos el gen que era afectado por esta mutacin Result ser que codifica un receptor de dopamina. +As es, las moscas como la gente, tienen dopamina y acta en su cerebro y en su sinapsis a travs de las mismas molculas receptoras de dopamina que ustedes y yo tenemos. +La dopamina desempea una cantidad de funciones importantes en el cerebro, incluyendo la atencin, la excitacin, la gratificacin y los trastornos del sistema dopaminrgico se han vinculado a una cantidad de trastornos mentales incluyendo el abuso de drogas, la enfermedad de Parkinson y TDAH. +Ahora, en la gentica, es un poco contradictorio. +Tendemos a inferir la funcin normal de algo segn lo que no sucede cuando lo quitamos, segn lo contrario de lo que vemos cuando lo quitamos. +As que cuando quitamos el receptor de dopamina y las moscas se demoraban ms en calmarse, lo que deducimos es que la funcin normal de este receptor y de la dopamina causa que las moscas se calmen ms rpido despus de la bocanada de aire. +Y eso se asemeja un poco al TDAH, que ha sido vinculado a los trastornos del sistema dopaminrgico en los humanos. +As que comenc lentamente a darme cuenta que lo que comenz como un intento ms bien ldico para tratar de molestar a las moscas de la fruta podra en realidad tener alguna relacin con un trastorno psiquitrico humano. +Ahora bien, hasta dnde llega esta analoga? +Como muchos de ustedes saben, los individuos afectados con TDAH tambin tienen problemas de aprendizaje. +Es cierto eso del receptor de dopamina de nuestras moscas mutantes? +Sorprendentemente, la respuesta es s. +Como Seymour lo demostr en la dcada de 1970, las moscas, como las aves cantoras, como acabamos de escuchar, son capaces de aprender. +Pueden entrenar a una mosca para que evite un olor, mostrado ac en azul, si combinan ese olor con una descarga. +Entonces cuando le dan a estas moscas entrenadas la oportunidad de elegir entre un tubo con un olor combinado con una descarga y otro olor, evitar el tubo que contiene el olor azul que estaba combinado con la descarga. +Bueno, si hacen esta prueba en las moscas con receptor de dopamina mutante, no aprendern. Su puntuacin de aprendizaje es cero. +Salieron de CalTech sin recibir un ttulo. +As que eso significa que estas moscas tienen dos anomalas, o fenotipos, como les decimos los genetistas, que se encuentra en el TDAH: hiperactividad y problemas de aprendizaje. +Ahora, cul es la relacin causal, en todo caso, entre estos fenotipos? +En el TDAH, a menudo se asume que la hiperactividad causa los problemas de aprendizaje. +Los nios no se pueden sentar quietos lo bastante para enfocarse, as que no aprenden. +Pero podra igualmente ser el caso de que son los problemas de aprendizaje los que causan la hiperactividad. +Ya que los nios no pueden aprender, buscan otras cosas que distraigan su atencin. +Y una posibilidad final es que no hay relacin en absoluto entre los problemas del aprendizaje y la hiperactividad, sino que son causados por un mecanismo comn subyacente del TDAH. +Ahora la gente se ha estado preguntando esto durante mucho tiempo en los humanos, pero en las moscas podemos en efecto probar esto. +Y la manera en que lo hacemos es profundizar en la mente de la mosca y comenzar a desenredar su circuito utilizando la gentica. +Tomamos nuestras moscas con receptor de dopamina mutante y restauramos genticamente o curamos el receptor de dopamina al colocar una copia buena del gen del receptor de dopamina en el cerebro de la mosca. +Pero en cada mosca colocamos de vuelta solo ciertas neuronas y no en otras y luego probamos cada una de estas moscas en su capacidad de aprender y en la hiperactividad. +Sorprendentemente, encontramos que podemos disociar completamente estas dos anomalas. +Si ponemos una buena copia del receptor de dopamina de vuelta en esta estructura elptica llamada el complejo central, las moscas ya no sern hiperactivas, pero an no podrn aprender. +Por otro lado, si colocamos de vuelta el receptor en una estructura diferente llamada el cuerpo pedunculado, se rescata el dficit de aprendizaje, las moscas aprenden bien, pero an son hiperactivas. +Lo que esto nos dice es que la dopamina no est baando el cerebro de estas moscas como en una sopa. +Ms bien, est actuando para controlar dos funciones diferentes en dos circuitos diferentes, as que la razn por la que hay dos cosas mal en nuestras moscas con receptor de dopamina es que el mismo receptor est controlando dos funciones diferentes en dos regiones diferentes del cerebro. +Si lo mismo es cierto en el TDAH de los seres humanos no lo sabemos, pero este tipo de resultados debera al menos hacernos considerar esa posibilidad. +As que estos resultados nos convencen ms que nunca a mis colegas y a m de que el cerebro no es una bolsa de sopa qumica, y es un error intentar de tratar trastornos psiquitricos complejos solo cambiando el sabor de la sopa. +Lo que necesitamos es utilizar nuestro ingenio y nuestro conocimiento cientfico para intentar disear una nueva generacin de tratamientos que estn dirigidos a neuronas especficas y regiones especficas del cerebro que son afectadas en trastornos psiquitricos particulares. +Si podemos hacer eso, podramos ser capaces de curar estos trastornos sin los efectos secundarios desagradables, colocando el aceite de nuevo en nuestros motores mentales, justo donde se necesita. Muchas gracias. +La extincin es un tipo distinto de muerte. +Una mucho mayor. +No nos dimos realmente cuenta de ello hasta 1914, cuando la ltima paloma migratoria, una hembra llamada Martha, muri en el zoolgico de Cincinnati. +Esta haba sido el ave ms abundante en el mundo que habit Norteamrica durante seis millones de aos. +Repentinamente desapareci. +Las bandadas, que medan 2 km de ancho y 600 km de largo, solan oscurecer el sol. +Aldo Leopold dijo que eran una tormenta biolgica, una tempestad de plumas. +Y, sin duda, era una especie clave que enriqueca todo el bosque caducifolio del este, desde el Mississippi hasta el Atlntico, desde Canad hasta el Golfo. +Pero pas de 5000 millones de aves a cero en tan solo un par de dcadas. +Qu sucedi? +Bien, empez la caza comercial. +Estas aves eran cazadas por su carne que se venda por toneladas, y era sencillo hacerlo porque cuando esas enormes bandadas bajaban al suelo, eran tan densas, que cientos de cazadores aparecan con sus redes y masacraban a decenas de miles de aves. +Era la fuente de protenas ms barata de Estados Unidos. +A finales de siglo, ya no quedaban ms que estas bellas pieles en los cajones de ejemplares de los museos. +Esta historia tiene un lado bueno. +Hizo que las personas tomaran conciencia de que lo mismo estaba por suceder con el bisonte americano, as que estas aves salvaron a los bfalos. +Pero hay muchos otros animales que no se salvaron. +el perico de Carolina era un loro que adornaba los jardines en todas partes. +Lo cazaron hasta la muerte por sus plumas. +Haba un ave que le gustaba a la gente en la Costa Este, llamada urgallo grande. +Era amada. Trataron de preservarla. Pero se extingui de todos modos. +Un peridico local expuso claramente, No hay sobrevivientes, no hay futuro, no existe la posibilidad de recrear la vida en esta forma nunca ms. +Existe una sensacin de profunda tragedia que acompaa a estas cosas y les sucedi a muchas aves que la gente amaba. +Sucedi con muchos mamferos. +Otra especie clave es un famoso animal llamado el uro europeo. +Recientemente rodaron una suerte de pelcula al respecto. +Y el uro era como el bisonte. +Era una animal que, bsicamente, mantena el bosque mezclado con pastizales por toda Europa y Asia, desde Espaa hasta Corea. +La documentacin sobre este animal se remonta a las pinturas de la Cueva de Lascaux. +Las extinciones suceden an hoy. +La cabra monts espaola, llamada bucardo, +se extingui en el ao 2000. +Sola haber un maravilloso animal, un lobo marsupial llamado tilacino, en Tasmania, al sur de Australia, conocido como tigre de Tasmania. +Fue cazado hasta que solo quedaron unos pocos destinados a morir en zoolgicos. +Se rod brevemente. +Tristeza, indignacin, duelo. +No se hundan en el duelo. Organcense. +Si descubriesen que, usando el ADN de ejemplares en museos, fsiles de hasta 200 000 aos de edad podran usarse para revivir especies, qu haran?, dnde comenzaran? +Bien, empezaran averiguando si la biotecnologa es realmente posible all. +Entonces, l y Ryan organizaron y celebraron una conferencia en el Wyss Institute en Harvard, reuniendo especialistas en palomas migratorias, ornitlogos conservacionistas, bioticos, y afortunadamente, el ADN de la paloma migratoria ya haba sido secuenciado por una biloga molecular llamada Beth Shapiro. +Todo lo que necesitaba de esos especmenes en el Smithsonian era una pequea muestra de tejido de la almohadilla del dedo porque all se encuentra lo que se denomina ADN antiguo. +Es ADN que est bastante mal fragmentado, pero hoy, con las tcnicas correctas, bsicamente se puede reconstruir todo el genoma. +La pregunta es: con ese genoma, se puede reconstruir toda el ave? +George Church cree que s. +Y en su libro, "Regenesis", que recomiendo, hay un captulo sobre la ciencia de revivir especies extintas, y tiene una mquina llamada Mquina de ingeniera automatizada genmica mltiplex . +Es como una especie de mquina de la evolucin. +Se prueban combinaciones de genes que se escriben a nivel celular, y luego en los rganos en un chip, y los que ganan, pueden ponerse en un organismo vivo. Y funcionar. +La precisin de esto, una de las diapositivas ilegibles de George, sin embargo seala que hay un nivel de precisin aqu que llega hasta el par de bases individual. +La paloma migratoria tiene 1300 millones de pares de bases en su genoma. +As que lo que conseguimos hacer ahora es reemplazar un gen con otra variacin de ese mismo gen. +Se denomina alelo. +Y es lo que de todos modos sucede en la hibridacin natural. +Esta es una forma de hibridacin sinttica del genoma de una especie extinta con el genoma de su pariente vivo ms cercano. +A lo largo de la investigacin, George seala que su tecnologa, la de la biologa sinttica, actualmente cuadruplica el ritmo de velocidad de la Ley de Moore. +Viene hacindolo desde el 2005 y es probable que siga as. +Bien, el pariente vivo ms cercano de la paloma migratoria es la paloma de collar. Abundan. Hay algunas por aqu. +Genticamente, la paloma de collar es casi una paloma migratoria viva. +Hay solo algunas partes que son caractersticas de la paloma de collar. +Si se reemplazasen esas partes con partes de paloma migratoria, las aves extintas volveran a arrullar frente a ustedes. +Claro que hay trabajo que hacer. +Hay que averiguar exactamente cules son los genes que importan. +As, hay genes para la cola corta de la paloma de collar, genes para la cola larga de la paloma migratoria, y as para los ojos rojos, el pecho color melocotn, el reunirse en bandadas, etc. +Pongan todo esto junto y el resultado no ser perfecto. +Pero ser lo suficientemente perfecto, porque la naturaleza tampoco es perfecta. +Y esta conferencia en Boston llev a tres cosas. +En primer lugar, Ryan y yo decidimos crear una ONG llamada Revive and Restore que impulsara la de-extincin en general y tratara de encauzarla de manera responsable y seguiramos adelante con la paloma migratoria. +Otro resultado directo fue el de un estudiante de postgrado, llamado Ben Novak, quien ha estado obsesionado con palomas migratorias desde sus 14 aos, y que tambin haba aprendido cmo trabajar con el ADN antiguo. l solo, secuenci el ADN de la paloma migratoria financiado por su familia y amigos. +Lo contratamos a tiempo completo. +Esta es una foto que le tom el ao pasado en el Smithsonian, est mirando a Martha, la ltima paloma migratoria viva. +As que si es exitoso, no va a ser la ltima. +El tercer resultado de la conferencia en Boston fue haber notado que hay cientficos alrededor del mundo trabajando en varias formas de de-extincin, pero que no se haban conocido nunca. +Y National Geographic se interes, porque National Geographic tiene la teora de que en el siglo pasado, el descubrimiento consisti bsicamente en hallar cosas, y en este siglo, el descubrimiento es bsicamente crearlas. +La de-extincin entra en esa categora. +As que organizaron y financiaron esta conferencia. Y 35 cientficos, entre bilogos conservacionistas y moleculares, bsicamente se reunieron para saber si tenan trabajo para hacer juntos. +Algunos de estos bilogos conservacionistas eran bastante radicales. +Hay tres de ellos que no slo estn recreando especies antiguas, sino tambin ecosistemas extintos en el norte de Siberia, en los Pases Bajos y en Hawi. +Henri, de los Pases Bajos, con un apellido holands, que no intentar pronunciar, est trabajando con el uro. +El uro es el ancestro del ganado domstico, as que bsicamente su genoma est vivo, solo que est distribuido errticamente. +Y lo que estn haciendo es trabajar con siete razas de ganado primitivo de aspecto fuerte, como ese maremana primitivo de all arriba, para reconstruir, con el tiempo, con cra selectiva, el uro. +Ahora bien, la reforestacin est avanzando ms rpidamente en Corea que en Estados Unidos, as que el plan es, con estas reas reforestadas por toda Europa, introducir nuevamente al uro para que haga su antiguo trabajo, su antiguo papel ecolgico, de limpiar el bosque algo infrtil y de dosel arbreo continuo, para que contenga estas praderas biodiversas. +Otra historia alucinante viene de Alberto Fernndez-Arias. +Alberto trabaj con el bucardo en Espaa. +El ltimo bucardo era una hembra llamada Celia que an viva, pero luego fue capturada, se le extrajo un poco de tejido de la oreja, que fue criopreservado en nitrgeno lquido, fue devuelta a su hbitat, pero unos meses despus, la hallaron muerta bajo un rbol cado. +Sacaron ADN de la oreja, lo implantaron como un vulo clonado en una cabra, la preez lleg a trmino, y naci un beb bucardo vivo. +Esa fue la primera de-extincin de la historia. +Vivi poco tiempo. +A veces los clones entre especies presentan problemas respiratorios. +Este tena una malformacin en un pulmn y muri a los 10 minutos, pero Alberto tena la seguridad de que la clonacin ha avanzado mucho desde entonces, y que esto continuar y, con el tiempo, habr nuevamente una poblacin de bucardos en las montaas del norte de Espaa. +Oliver Ryder es un pionero de la criopreservacin de gran profundidad. +En el zoo de San Diego, su zoo congelado, ha recolectado tejidos de ms de 1000 especies durante los ltimos 35 aos. +Ahora bien, cuando es congelado a ese punto, a -196 grados Celsius, las clulas y el ADN estn intactos. +Son bsicamente clulas viables, entonces alguien como Bob Lanza, en Advanced Cell Technology, tom muestras de ese tejido de un animal en peligro de extincin llamado el banteng javans, lo puso en una vaca, la vaca pari, y lo que naci fue un beb banteng javans sano, que sobrevivi y an hoy vive. +Lo ms emocionante para Bob Lanza es la capacidad de tomar cualquier tipo de clula con clulas madre pluripotentes inducidas y convertirlas en clulas germinales, como espermas y vulos. +As que ahora vamos con Mike McGrew, un cientfico del Roslin Institute en Escocia, que est operando milagros con las aves. +l toma, por ejemplo, clulas de la piel de un halcn, fibroblastos, y las convierte en clulas madre pluripotentes inducidas. +Ya que es tan pluripotente, puede convertirse en plasma germinal. +l, luego, tiene una forma de insertar ese plasma germinal en el embrin de un huevo de gallina as esa gallina tendr, bsicamente, las gnadas de un halcn. +Se toma a un macho y una hembra de cada uno de esos y de ellos nacen halcones. +Halcones reales de gallinas levemente adulteradas. +Ben Novak era el cientfico ms joven en la conferencia. +l demostr la manera de juntar todo esto. +Esto por supuesto, plantea la cuestin de que no van a tener padres palomas migratorias que les enseen a ser palomas migratorias. +Qu se hace con eso? +Bien, resulta que las aves estn bastante bien programadas, as que gran parte de ello ya est en su ADN, pero para complementarlo, parte de la idea de Ben es usar palomas mensajeras para ensear a las jvenes palomas migratorias cmo reunirse en bandadas. y cmo volver a asentarse en sus antiguas reas de nidificacin y de alimentacin. +Haba algunos conservacionistas, muy famosos, como Stanley Temple, que es uno de los fundadores de la biologa conservacionista, y Kate Jones de UICN, que publica la Lista Roja. +Estn muy entusiasmados con todo esto, pero tambin estn preocupados de que pueda entrar en competencia con los enormes esfuerzos para proteger especies en peligro de extincin que an estn vivas, y que todava no se han extinguido. +Vern, se quiere trabajar en proteger los animales que existen. +Se quiere trabajar en bajar la demanda de marfil en el mercado asitico, para no matar 25 000 elefantes al ao. +Pero al mismo tiempo, los bilogos conservacionistas notan que las malas noticias deprimen a la gente. +As que la Lista Roja es muy importante, para llevar registro de qu est en peligro de extincin y en peligro crtico de extincin, etc. +As que bsicamente, estn aprendiendo a redactar buenas noticias. +Y ven que revivir especies extintas es el tipo de buena noticia a partir de la que se puede construir. +Les doy un par de ejemplos relacionados. +La crianza en cautiverio ser una parte importante de traer a la vida a estas especies. +El cndor de California se vio reducido a 22 aves en 1987. +Todos pensaron que estaba acabado. +Gracias a la crianza en cautiverio en el Zoolgico de San Diego, actualmente hay 405 de ellos, 226 estn en su hbitat natural. +Esa tecnologa ser utilizada con los animales de-extintos. +Otra historia exitosa es la del gorila de montaa en frica Central. +En 1981, Dian Fossey estaba segura de que se extinguiran. +Quedaban tan solo 254 ejemplares. +Hoy hay 880. Y su poblacin aumenta un 3% por ao. +El secreto es que tienen un programa de eco turismo, que es absolutamente brillante. +Esta fotografa la tom Ryan el mes pasado con un iPhone. +As de cmodos se sienten estos gorilas salvajes con los visitantes. +Otro proyecto interesante, aunque necesitar algo de ayuda, es el del rinoceronte blanco del norte. +No quedan pares de reproduccin. +Pero esta es la clase de situaciones para las cuales existe una gran variedad de ADN disponible en el zoo congelado. +Un poco de clonacin y se les puede traer de vuelta. +Ahora, cul es el siguiente paso? +Estas han sido conferencias privadas hasta ahora. +Creo que es hora de que el tema se haga pblico. +Qu piensa la gente al respecto? +Ya saben, quieren que vuelvan las especies extintas? +Quieren que vuelvan las especies extintas? +Campanita vendr volando ahora. +Es un momento para Campanita, porque, qu es lo que entusiasma a la gente de este tema? +Qu les preocupa? +Vamos a seguir adelante con la paloma migratoria. +As que Ben Novak, en este momento, est sumndose al grupo que Beth Shapiro tiene en UC Santa Cruz. +Van a trabajar en el genoma de la paloma migratoria y la paloma de collar. +A medida que esta informacin crezca, se la enviarn a George Church, quien operar su magia, y de eso, sacar ADN de paloma migratoria. +Obtendremos la ayuda de Bob Lanza y Mike McGraw para introducir el plasma germinal en gallinas para que reproduzcan polluelos de paloma migratoria, que puedan ser criados por padres palomas de collar, y a partir de este momento, sern palomas migratorias para siempre, quizs durante los prximos seis millones de aos. +Ustedes pueden hacer lo mismo, a medida que bajen los costes, por la cotorra de Carolina, el alca gigante, por el urogallo grande, el carpintero real, por el zarapito esquimal, la foca monje del Caribe, y por el mamut lanudo. +Porque el hecho es que, los humanos hemos creado un enorme agujero en la naturaleza, durante los ltimos 10 000 aos. +Hoy tenemos la capacidad, y quiz la obligacin moral, de reparar un poco del dao. +Mucho de esto lo lograremos expandiendo y protegiendo las tierras salvajes, expandiendo y protegiendo las poblaciones de especies en peligro de extincin. +Pero a algunas especies que hemos matado por completo podramos considerar traerlas a la vida nuevamente a un mundo que las echa de menos. +Gracias. +Chris Anderson: Gracias. +Tengo una pregunta. +Este es un tema emotivo. Algunos estn de pie. +Sospecho que debe de haber algunos sentados en la audiencia atormentndose con preguntas del estilo: bien, espera, espera, espera, espera un minuto, hay algo que est muy mal si la humanidad interfiere con la naturaleza de esta forma. +Va a haber consecuencias no intencionadas. +Se va a abrir una especie de Caja de Pandora de quin sabe qu. Tienen algo de razn? +Stewart Brand: Bien, el primer punto es que interferimos muchsimo cuando hicimos que estos animales se extinguieran, y muchos eran especies claves, y cambiamos todo el ecosistema del que eran parte cuando los dejamos ir. +Ahora, tenemos el problema de los puntos de referencia cambiantes, que es que cuando estas especies regresen, pueden llegar a reemplazar algunas aves que las personas ya conocen y aman. +Y creo que eso, ya saben, es parte de como suceder. +Este es un proceso largo y lento a la vez. Una de las cosas que me gustan de esto es que es multigeneracional. +Traeremos de vuelta a los mamuts lanudos. +CA: Bien, pare que tanto la conversacin, como el potencial aqu, son muy emocionantes. +Muchsimas gracias por la presentacin. SB: Gracias. +CA: Gracias. +Chris Anderson me pregunt si poda poner los ltimos 25 aos de la campaa contra la pobreza en 10 minutos para TED. +Esto es un ingls pidindole a un irlands que sea breve. +Le dije, "Chris, eso necesitar un milagro". +Y l me dijo: "Bono, no crees que eso es darle un buen uso a tu complejo mesinico?" +Pues s. +Entonces pens, retrocedamos an ms que 25 aos, +retrocedamos a antes de Cristo, 3 milenios, a esos tiempos, que en mi opinin, fue cuando realmente comenz la lucha por la justicia, contra la desigualdad y la pobreza. +Hace 3000 aos, una civilizacin comenzaba a florecer a orillas del Nilo, y unos esclavos, en este caso, unos pastores judos oliendo a mierda de ovejas, me imagino, declararon ante el faran sentado en lo alto de su trono, "nosotros, su majestad, somos iguales a Ud." +A lo que el faran respondi, "Ah, no, +ustedes... su miseria... deben estar bromeando". +Y ellos le dijeron, "no, no, eso es lo que dice aqu, en nuestro libro sagrado". +Regresemos a nuestro siglo, el mismo pas, las mismas pirmides, otra gente propagando la misma idea de la igualdad con un libro diferente. +Esta vez, el libro se llama Facebook. +Multitudes se renen en la plaza Tahrir, +y convierten una red social virtual en real dndole un nuevo inicio al siglo XXI. +As que pens, olvidemos la pera rock, toda la parafernalia y mis trucos de siempre. +La nica cosa que cantar hoy sern los hechos, porque finalmente he aceptado al intelectual que vive en m. +As que aqu sale la estrella del rock, +y entra el activista que se basa en evidencias, el "eviden-tista". +Porque lo que nos muestran los hechos es que ese trayecto largo y lento que la humanidad emprendi hacia la igualdad social, de hecho, se est acelerando. +Miren lo que se ha logrado. +Miren los grficos que salen de este conjunto de datos. +Desde el ao 2000, desde el cambio de milenio, hay 8 millones ms de pacientes de SIDA que consiguen medicamentos antirretrovirales que les salvarn la vida. +Paludismo: en ocho pases del frica subsahariana se redujo la tasa de mortalidad en un 75 %. +En la tasa de mortalidad infantil en nios menores de cinco aos hay 2.65 millones de muertes menos al ao. +Esto significa que todos los das se salvan las vidas de 7256 nios. +Guau! Guau! Detengmonos por un segundo para reflexionar sobre esto. +Han ledo en alguna parte, en la ltima semana, algo que sea tan importante como esta cifra? Guau! +Gran noticia. Y me molesta muchsimo ver que mucha gente an no se ha enterado de esta noticia. +7000 nios al da. He aqu dos de ellos. +Estos son Michael y Benedicta, y hoy estn vivos gracias, en gran parte, a la Dra. Patricia Asamoah ella es maravillosa y al Fondo Mundial, que todos Uds. han apoyado financieramente, sea que lo sepan o no. +Y el Fondo Mundial proporciona medicinas antirretrovirales que previenen que las madres pasen el virus del VIH a sus hijos. +Pero esta fantstica noticia no lleg as porque s. +Por ella se luch, se hizo una campaa, y se innov. +Y esta buena noticia trae consigo ms buenas noticias porque el verdadero hito histrico es ste: +la cifra de personas que viven en las condiciones ms agobiantes y deshumanizantes de la pobreza extrema se ha reducido de un 43 % de la poblacin mundial en 1990 a un 33 % en el 2000, y de all, a un 21 % para el 2010. +Dmosle un aplauso a eso. Se redujo a la mitad... a la mitad! +La tasa es an muy alta, todava hay demasiadas personas que mueren sin necesidad. +Todava queda trabajo por hacer. +Pero esto es impresionante, realmente alucinante. +Y si vives con menos de USD 1.25 al da si vives en este tipo de pobreza estos no son solo nmeros. +Esto lo es todo. +Y si Uds. son padres que quieren lo mejor para sus hijos y yo soy uno esta rpida transicin es la ruta para pasar de la desesperacin a la esperanza. +Y, adivinen qu? Si la tendencia contina, miren el nmero de personas que vivirn con USD 1.25 al da en el 2030. +No puede ser verdad, o s? +Pues eso es lo que nos dicen los nmeros. Si la tendencia contina llegaremos a, guau!, la zona del cero. +Para los aficionados a los nmeros, como nosotros esta es la zona ergena, y es justo decir que yo estoy, ahora, sexualmente excitado con este grupo de datos. +La virtual eliminacin de la pobreza extrema, definida como vivir con menos de USD 1.25 dlares al da, ajustados, por supuesto, a la inflacin, con base en 1990. +Nos gusta una buena lnea base. +Es asombroso. +S que algunos de Uds. piensan que este progreso solo ocurri en Asia o en Latinoamrica, o en pases modelo como Brasil y a quin no le gusta una modelo brasilea? pero miren el frica subsahariana. +As que el orgullo de los leones es la prueba de concepto. +Esto trae consigo todo tipo de beneficios. +Para empezar, ya no tendrn que escuchar ms a un arrogante e insufrible Jesucristo como yo, +qu les parece? Y el 2028, el 2030? Estn a la vuelta de la esquina. +O sea, estn como a 3 conciertos de despedida de los Rolling Stones. +Eso espero. Estoy esperando. +Nos hace vernos bastante jvenes. +Entonces, por qu no estamos brincando de la emocin con todo esto? +Bueno, la oportunidad es real, aunque tambin lo es el peligro. +No alcanzaremos la meta hasta que hayamos realmente aceptado que de veras podemos llegar a ella. +Miren este grfico. +Esta es la inercia. Y as es como podemos fallar. +Pero el que le sigue es realmente hermoso. +Es el momntum. +Y aqu es donde cambiamos el curso de la historia, movindonos hacia el cero, con solo hacer las cosas que sabemos que estn funcionando. +La inercia versus el momntum. +Claro que hay peligro, porque mientras ms cerca estemos, ms difcil se hace. +Sabemos los obstculos que estn en nuestro camino, y especialmente ahora, en estos tiempos difciles. +De hecho, hoy en su capital, en estos tiempos difciles, aqullos que se preocupan por el dinero de la nacin quieren eliminar los programas de asistencia a la vida como el Fondo Mundial. +Pero Uds. pueden hacer algo al respecto. +Les pueden decir a sus polticos que estos cortes van a costar vidas. +Justo ahora, de hecho, hoy en Oslo, las compaas petroleras estn peleando por mantener en secreto los pagos a los gobiernos de pases en desarrollo, por la extraccin de petrleo. +Y aqu Uds. tambin pueden hacer algo al respecto. +Pueden unirse a la Campaa One y apoyar a lderes como el empresario de telecomunicaciones, Mo Ibrahim. +Estamos luchando por leyes que aseguren que al menos parte de las riquezas que estn bajo la tierra terminen en manos de la gente que vive encima de ellas. +Y en este momento, sabemos que la peor enfermedad de todas no es una enfermedad. Es la corrupcin. +Pero tambin hay una vacuna contra ella. +Es la transparencia, los datos abiertos, algo en lo que la comunidad TED est realmente enfocada. +La luz del da, si as quieren llamarla; transparencia. +Y realmente la tecnologa la est impulsando. +Se va a hacer cada vez ms difcil ocultar las cosas malas que se hacen. +Djenme hablarles del U-report, algo que realmente me entusiasma. Son 150 000 milenarios en toda Uganda, jvenes armados con telfonos 2G, una red social SMS que expone la corrupcin gubernamental y exige saber lo que est en el presupuesto y la forma como se est usando su dinero. +Esto es algo emocionante. +Una vez que tienes todas estas herramientas ya no hay forma de que no las uses. +Una vez que tienes todo este conocimiento, ya no es posible olvidarlo. +Ya no puedes sacarte todos estos datos de la cabeza, pero puedes borrar esa imagen clich de personas empobrecidas y suplicantes que no pueden tomar el control de sus propias vidas. +Ya puedes sacarte esa imagen, de verdad, porque esa imagen ya no es ms verdad. Esto es transformador. +El 2030? En el 2030, los robots no solo nos servirn Guinness sino que lo bebern. +Para cuando lleguemos all, donde haya un gobierno en apariencia irregular bien podra estar de salida. +As que hoy estoy aqu... supongo que estamos aqu para contagiarles un virus virtuoso, el de las evidencias, ese que llamamos "evidentismo". +No les va a matar. +De hecho, incluso podra salvar incontables vidas. +En la Campaa One, quisiramos que fuera contagioso, difndanlo, comprtanlo, transmtanlo. +Al hacer esto, se unirn a nosotros, y a muchsimas otras personas, en lo que creo que es la mayor aventura que alguna vez se haya emprendido, el cada vez ms exigente camino hacia la igualdad. +Seremos esa gran generacin que Mandela nos pidi que furamos? +Podemos responder a ese llamado con la ciencia, la razn, los hechos, e incluso, me atrevera a decir, con las emociones. +Porque, como es obvio, los "evidentistas" tambin tenemos emociones. +Estoy pensando en Wael Ghonim, ms bien. +Algunos de Uds. ya lo conocen. Cre uno de los grupos de Facebook que apoyaba la plaza Tahrir en el Cairo. +Y por eso lo metieron en la crcel, pero an tengo sus palabras tatuadas en mi cabeza. +"Vamos a ganar porque no entendemos de poltica. +Vamos a ganar porque no jugamos sus juegos sucios. +Vamos a ganar porque no tenemos la agenda poltica de un partido. +Vamos a ganar porque las lgrimas que brotan de nuestros ojos realmente vienen de nuestros corazones. +Vamos a ganar porque tenemos sueos, y estamos dispuestos a defender esos sueos". +Wael tiene razn. +Vamos a ganar si trabajamos todos juntos como uno, porque el poder de la gente es mucho ms fuerte que la gente en el poder. +Gracias. +Muchas gracias. +Este libro que tengo en la mano es un directorio de quienes tenan correo electrnico en 1982. En realidad, es engaosamente grande. +De hecho, hay slo unas 20 personas en cada pgina, porque tenemos nombre, direccin y telfono de cada persona. +Y, de hecho, todos aparecen dos veces porque est ordenado una vez por nombre y otra por direccin de correo electrnico. +Obviamente, era una comunidad muy pequea. +Haba otros dos Danny en Internet en ese entonces. +Los conoca a ambos. +No nos conocamos todos, pero confibamos los unos en los otros, y ese sentimiento bsico de confianza impregnaba toda la red, y haba una sensacin real de que podamos depender unos de otros para todo. +Y para darles una idea del nivel de confianza que haba en esta comunidad, les contar cmo era registrar un nombre de dominio en esos das. +Dio la casualidad que tuve que registrar el tercer nombre de dominio en Internet. +As que poda tener lo que quisiera excepto bbn.com y symbolics.com. +Entonces eleg think.com, pero pens que haba tantos nombres interesantes por ah. +Quiz debera registrar algunos adicionales, por si acaso. +Despus pens: "No, no sera muy bueno". +Esa actitud de tomar slo lo que se necesita era realmente lo que haba en la red en aquellos das, y, de hecho, no solo en la gente de la red sino que en realidad estaba en los protocolos de la propia Internet. +La idea bsica del IP, el protocolo de Internet, y la forma en que el... algoritmo de enrutamiento que lo usaba eran fundamentalmente "de cada cual segn su capacidad, a cada cual segn su necesidad". +As, si uno tena algo de ancho de banda extra, enviaba el mensaje de alguien. +Y si ese alguien tena ancho de banda extra, enviaba el mensaje de uno. +En cierta forma dependamos de la gente y ese fue el bloque constitutivo. +Era muy interesante que un principio tan comunista fuese la base de un sistema desarrollado durante la Guerra Fra por el Departamento de Defensa, pero, obviamente, funcion muy bien y todos vimos lo que ocurra con Internet. +Tuvo muchsimo xito. +De hecho, tuvo tanto xito que no hay manera de que en estos das pudiera hacerse un libro como este. +Mi clculo aproximado da unos 25 km de espesor. +Pero, claro, no se podra hacer porque no sabemos los nombres de toda las personas que tienen Internet o correo electrnico e incluso si supiramos los nombres, estoy casi seguro de que no querran que se publicara su nombre, direccin, telfono. +Eso significa que es vulnerable a cierto tipo de errores que pueden ocurrir o cierto tipo de ataques deliberados pero incluso los errores pueden ser algo malo. +Por ejemplo, hace poco toda Asia qued sin YouTube por un rato porque Pakistn cometi errores al censurar YouTube en su red interna. +No tenan la intencin de afectar a Asia, pero lo hicieron debido al modo de funcionamiento de los protocolos. +Otro ejemplo que pudo haber afectado a muchos de Uds., quiz recuerden hace un par de aos, que todos los aviones al oeste del Mississippi quedaron en tierra porque una tarjeta de enrutamiento en Salt Lake City tena un error. +Uno no piensa que el sistema de nuestro avin depende de Internet y, en cierto sentido, no depende. +Volver sobre esto ms adelante. +Pero el hecho es que la gente no pudo despegar porque algo andaba mal en Internet y la tarjeta de enrutamiento estaba cada. +Estn empezando a ocurrir muchas de esas cosas. +El pasado abril ocurrieron cosas interesantes. +De repente, un porcentaje muy grande del trfico de toda Internet, incluyendo gran parte del trfico entre instalaciones militares de EE.UU., empez a ser re-enrutado por China. +Por algunas horas todo pas por China. +China Telecom dice que slo fue un error honesto y, por como funcionan las cosas, es posible que as fuera. Pero seguramente alguien podra cometer un error deshonesto de ese tipo si quisiera y eso muestra lo vulnerable que es el sistema incluso ante errores. +Imaginen lo vulnerable que es el sistema a ataques deliberados. +As que si alguien quisiera atacar a Estados Unidos o a la civilizacin occidental hoy en da no lo har con tanques. +Eso no tendr xito. +Probablemente harn algo muy parecido al ataque ocurrido en las instalaciones nucleares iranes. +Nadie se adjudic el crdito por eso. +Era bsicamente una fbrica de mquinas industriales. +No pensaban que estaban expuestos a Internet. +Pensaban que estaban desconectados de Internet pero alguien pudo poner all de contrabando un USB, o algo por el estilo, y colocar un software que hizo que las centrifugadoras en ese caso se autodestruyeran. +Ese mismo tipo de software podra destruir una refinera, una fbrica farmacutica o una planta de semiconductores. +As que hay mucho... estoy seguro que han ledo muchos artculos con preocupaciones por ciberataques y defensas contra ellos. +Pero el hecho es que la gente hace hincapi en defender las computadoras en Internet y sorprendentemente se le ha prestado poca atencin a la defensa de la propia Internet como medio de comunicacin. +Y creo que quiz tenemos que prestar algo ms de atencin a eso, porque all hay una cierta fragilidad. +En realidad, en los primeros das, cuando estaba la ARPANET, hubo momentos --un momento en particular-- en el que fall por completo porque ocurri un error en un procesador. +El funcionamiento de Internet consiste en que los enrutadores bsicamente intercambian informacin de cmo pueden entregar mensajes en ubicaciones y este procesador, debido a una tarjeta daada, decidi que poda entregar un mensaje a alguna ubicacin en tiempo negativo. +En otras palabras, aleg que poda entregar un mensaje antes de que lo enviramos. +Por supuesto, la forma ms rpida de entregar un mensaje era enviarlo a ese tipo que poda reenviarlo a tiempo y entregarlo sper rpido y as todos los mensajes de Internet empezaron a conmutarse por este nodo y, claro, eso obstruy todo. +Todo empez a romperse. +Lo interesante fue que los administradores pudieron resolverlo pero tuvieron que apagar toda Internet. +Ahora, por supuesto, hoy no se puede hacer eso. +Apagar todo sera como afectar el servicio de su compaa de cable pero a nivel planetario. +Pero, de hecho, eso hoy no se podra hacer por muchas razones. +Una de las razones es que muchos de sus telfonos usan el protocolo IP y tienen Skype y cosas as que estn montadas sobre Internet y nos estamos volviendo dependientes de eso cada vez con ms cosas como cuando uno despega en Los ngeles, uno no piensa que est usando Internet. +Cuando bombeamos gas, no pensamos que estamos usando Internet. +Pero estos sistemas, cada vez ms, estn empezando a usar Internet. +Todos nuestros sistemas, cada vez ms, empiezan a usar la misma tecnologa y empiezan a depender de esta tecnologa. +Hasta una moderna nave espacial hoy por hoy usa el protocolo de Internet para hablar desde un extremo de la nave al otro. +Es loco. No fue diseado para hacer estas cosas. +Hemos contrudo este sistema del que entendemos todas sus partes pero las estamos usando de maneras muy, muy diferentes al uso esperado y est adoptando una escala muy, muy diferente de esa para la que fue diseado. +De hecho, nadie entiende exactamente todos los usos que se le est dando ahora mismo. +Se est volviendo como esos grandes sistemas emergentes como el sistema financiero, del que hemos diseado todas sus partes pero nadie entiende cabalmente su funcionamiento, todos sus pequeos detalles y qu comportamientos emergentes pueden tener. +As que si escuchan a un experto hablar de Internet y dice que puede hacer esto, o que hace esto, o que har aquello, deberan tratarlo con el mismo escepticismo con el que toman los comentarios de un economista que habla de economa o un pronosticador que habla del tiempo, o algo por el estilo. +Tienen una opinin experta pero todo cambia tan rpido que incluso los expertos no saben con exactitud lo que sucede. +As que si ven uno de estos mapas de Internet, es slo la conjetura de alguien. +Nadie sabe realmente cmo es Internet ahora mismo porque es diferente de lo que era hace una hora. +Cambia constantemente. Se reconfigura constantemente. +De modo que ahora, creo que es literalmente cierto que no sabemos cules seran las consecuencias de un ataque certero por denegacin de servicio sobre Internet y, cualquiera fuere, ser peor el ao prximo y peor el siguiente, etc. +Por eso necesitamos un plan B. +Hoy no hay un plan B. +No hay ningn sistema de respaldo claro que hayamos mantenido con mucho cuidado para independizarnos de Internet, que est construido completamente por distintos bloques constitutivos. +Necesitamos algo que no necesariamente tiene que tener el rendimiento de Internet, pero el departamento de polica tiene que poder llamar a los bomberos incluso sin Internet o los hospitales poder pedir combustible. +Esto no tiene que ser un proyecto gubernamental de miles de millones. +Tcnicamente es relativamente fcil de hacer porque se puede usar las redes de fibras que hay en el terreno y la infraestructura inalmbrica existente. +Slo es cuestin de decidir hacerlo. +Pero no se toma la decisin de hacerlo hasta que no se reconoce la necesidad de hacerlo y ese es el problema que tenemos ahora mismo. +Ha habido muchas personas, muchos de nosotros hemos planteado en silencio la necesidad de un sistema independiente durante aos, pero es muy difcil hacer que la gente se centre en un plan B si el plan A parece funcionar tan bien. +As que creo que si la gente entiende lo mucho que estamos empezando a depender de Internet y cun vulnerable es eso, podramos focalizarnos en crear estos otros sistemas, y creo que si hay suficientes personas que digan: "S, lo usara; me gustara tener un sistema as", entonces se construira. +No es un problema tan difcil. +Definitivamente, lo podra hacer la gente de esta sala. +Y creo que este es en realidad, de todos los problemas que van a or en esta conferencia, este probablemente sea el ms fcil de resolver. +As que estoy feliz de poder contarles esto. +Muchas gracias. +Chris Anderson: Dime, Elon, qu clase de locura te llev a intentar aventurarte en la industria automotriz y a fabricar un coche completamente elctrico? +Elon Musk: Bueno, en realidad todo se remonta a cuando estaba en la universidad. +Me preguntaba cules seran los problemas que condicionaran el futuro del mundo o de la humanidad. +Creo que es de vital importancia que tengamos transporte y produccin de energa sostenibles. +El de la energa sostenible es el mayor problema que tenemos que resolver en este siglo, independientemente de preocupaciones medioambientales. +De hecho, incluso si producir CO2 fuera bueno para el medio ambiente, y, teniendo en cuenta que nos estamos quedando sin hidrocarburos, necesitamos encontrar maneras sostenibles para funcionar. +CA: La mayora de la electricidad de EEUU proviene de la quema de combustibles fsiles. +Cmo es posible que un coche que se alimenta de esa electricidad pueda ayudar? +EM: Bien, la respuesta consta de dos partes. +La primera es que, incluso cuando se usa el mismo combustible, se produce energa en la central elctrica y se la utiliza para cargar coches elctricos, es ms ventajoso. +Si, por ejemplo, usamos gas natural, que es el hidrocarburo ms abundante, si lo quemamos en una turbina de gas moderna de General Electric, obtenemos alrededor de un 60% de eficiencia. +Si utilizamos el mismo combustible en un motor de combustin interna de un coche, obtenemos alrededor de un 20% de eficiencia. +El motivo es que, en una central electrica convencional, podemos tener algo que pesa mucho ms, es mucho ms voluminoso y podemos usar el calor sobrante para accionar una turbina de vapor a modo de fuente secundaria de energia. +En definitiva, incluso teniendo en cuenta las prdidas por transmisin y dems, incluso usando la misma fuente de energa, sigue siendo el doble de eficiente recargar un coche elctrico y producir la energa en la central elctrica. +CA: Ese escalamiento implica eficiencia. +EM: Exacto. +La otra cuestin es que tenemos que tener medios sostenibles de produccin de energa queramos o no, de produccin de electricidad. +Por lo que, dado que tenemos que resolver el problema de la produccin de electricidad sostenible, tiene sentido que usemos coches elctricos como medio de transporte. +CA: Aqu tenemos un video del montaje del Tesla, el cual, si podemos ver el video... Qu innovaciones podemos ver en este proceso? +EM: S. A fin de acelerar la llegada del transporte elctrico... y he de decir que creo que todos los medios de transporte pasarn a ser completamente elctricos con la excepcin irnica de los cohetes. +No hay forma de escapar de la tercera ley de Newton. +La pregunta es cmo acelerar la llegada del transporte elctrico. +Para lograrlo con los coches, hay que construir uno realmente eficiente, lo que quiere decir que debe ser increblemente ligero. Lo que ests viendo aqu es el nico coche con chasis y carrocera de aluminio fabricado en EEUU. +De hecho, hemos aplicado gran parte de lo aprendido en el diseo de cohetes para que el coche sea ligero a pesar del enorme paquete de bateras. +Adems tiene el coeficiente aerodinmico ms bajo entre los coches de su tamao. +Por lo que el consumo de energa es muy bajo y tiene el paquete de bateras ms avanzado que es lo que le da una autonoma competitiva. Dispone de unos 400 kilmetros de autonoma. +CA: El paquete de bateras es muy pesado. Crees que todava pueden salir las cuentas si combinamos una carrocera ligera con unas bateras pesadas? Todava se puede obtener una eficiencia espectacular? +EM: Exacto. El resto del coche tiene que ser muy ligero para compensar la masa del paquete de bateras. Tambin hay que conseguir un coeficiente aerodinmico bajo para tener buena autonoma en la carretera. +De hecho, muchos usuarios del Tesla Modelo S estn como compitiendo entre ellos para alcanzar la mayor autonoma posible. +Creo que alguien obtuvo hace poco unos 670 kilmetros con una sola carga. +CA: Bruno Bowden, que est aqu, lo hizo. Bati el rcord mundial. EM: Felicidades! +CA: Esa es la buena noticia. La mala noticia es que, para hacerlo, tuvo que andar a 30 kilmetros por hora hasta que lo par la polica. EM: Claro, realmente puedes conducir... si vas a 100 kilmetros por hora, en circunstancias normales, 400 kilmetros es una cifra razonable. +CA: Vamos a ver el segundo video que nos muestra al Tesla en accin sobre hielo. +Por cierto, no es para nada, una indirecta al New York Times. +Qu es lo ms sorprendente al conducir el coche? +EM: Al crear un coche elctrico, la respuesta del coche es simplemente increble. +Queramos que la gente se sintiera como si casi se hubieran fundido con el coche, como si persona y coche fueran uno, y si tomas una curva y aceleras, es instantneo, el coche tiene ESP. +Con un coche elctrico esto es posible debido a su gran respuesta. +No es posible con un coche de gasolina. +Creo que esa es la gran diferencia, y la gente solo puede experimentarla al probar el coche. +CA: En realidad se trata de un coche precioso y muy caro. +Tienes un plan para que este vehculo llegue a ser un producto de masas? +EM: As es. La meta de Tesla siempre ha sido tener una especie de proceso de tres pasos, el primer producto sera un coche caro de bajo volumen de ventas, el segundo producto es un coche con precio y volumen promedio y el tercero sera un coche de precio bajo y gran volumen de ventas. +Estamos en el paso dos en este momento. +Es decir, tenemos un deportivo de 100.000 dlares, el Tesla Roadster. +Despus est el Tesla Modelo S, que parte de unos $50.000. +Y por ltimo nuestro coche de tercera generacin que debe salir en unos 3 4 aos con un precio de unos $30.000. +En realidad siempre que creas tecnologa nueva, se necesitan unas tres versiones para lograr un producto atractivo para consumo masivo. +Yo creo que estamos progresando en esa direccin y tengo confianza en que alcanzaremos la meta. +CA: Es decir, ahora mismo, si la distancia al trabajo es corta, puedes ir y volver en el coche y recargarlo en casa. +Actualmente no existe una gran red nacional de estaciones de recarga que sean rpidas. +Crees de verdad que eso llegar o en realidad solo habr en unas pocas rutas importantes? +EM: En realidad hay ms estaciones de recarga de lo que la gente cree. En Tesla estamos desarrollando lo que llamamos tecnologa de supercargadores y se la estamos ofreciendo a los compradores del Modelo S de manera gratuita y para siempre. +Esto es algo que, tal vez, mucha gente desconoce. +En la actualidad tenemos cubiertas California y Nevada, as como la costa este de los EEUU, desde Boston a Washington D.C. +Para final de ao, se podr conducir desde Los Angeles a Nueva York usando la red de supercargadores, que recarga cinco veces ms rpido que las dems alternativas. +La clave est en tener una proporcin de conduccin-parada de uno a seis o siete. +Es decir, si conduces durante tres horas, haces una parada de unos 20 30 minutos, porque es lo que la gente hara normalmente. +Si el viaje empieza a las 9 a.m., al medioda lo normal es hacer una parada para comer algo ir al bao, tomar un caf y seguir la marcha. +CA: Tu propuesta es entonces una hora para una recarga completa. +Es normal... no se puede esperar estar en marcha tras 10 minutos. +Hay que esperar una hora, pero lo bueno es que ests ayudando a salvar el planeta y, adems, la electricidad es gratis. No hay que pagar nada. +EM: En realidad, lo que queremos es que la gente pare unos 20 o 30 minutos, no una hora. +En realidad es mejor conducir unos 250 kilmetros, parar media hora y continuar el viaje. +Es la cadencia natural de un viaje. +CA: Perfecto. Y esto es solo una carta de tu baraja energtica. +Ests tambin trabajando en la compaa de energa solar SolarCity. +Qu tiene de especial? +EM: Bien, como he mencionado antes, tenemos que tener una produccin sostenible de energa, as como el consumo, pues estoy bien convencido de que los medios principales de generacin de energa sern solares. +Es decir, realmente se trata de fusin indirecta, s. +Tenemos ese reactor de fusin natural en el cielo que es el Sol. Solo tenemos que atrapar un poco de esa energa para servirnos de ella. +Hay algo que mucha gente sabe aun sin pensarlo y es que el mundo ya funciona casi completamente con energa solar. +Sin el Sol, el mundo sera una esfera helada a 3 grados Kelvin. Del Sol tambin dependen las lluvias. +Todo el ecosistema depende del Sol. +CA: Pero en un litro de gasolina tenemos, de hecho, miles de aos de energa solar concentrados en algo bien compacto, por lo que es difcil que salgan las cuentas ahora con energa solar. Para poder competir, por ejemplo, con gas natural, Cmo planteas tu negocio respecto a esto? +EM: En realidad estoy convencido de que la energa solar superar a todo y, sin duda, tambin al gas natural. +CA: Y cmo? +EM: Bueno, tiene que ser as. Si no, tendremos serios problemas. +CA: Pero no ests vendiendo pneles solares a los clientes. +Qu ests haciendo? +EM: En realidad s se los vendemos. El cliente puede comprar o tomar en leasing la instalacin solar. +La mayora elige el leasing. +Lo bueno de la energa solar es que no requiere materias primas ni tiene costos operativos solo hay que instalarla, eso es todo. +Funciona durante dcadas. Probablemente incluso un siglo. +Por lo que la clave es conseguir que el costo de la instalacin incial sea bajo y que la financiacin sea baja, porque ese inters... esos son los dos factores que componen el costo de la energa solar. +Hemos hecho grandes progresos en esa direccin, por eso estoy convencido de que superaremos al gas natural. +CA: Lo que propones a los clientes es que no paguen mucho inicialmente. +EM: Cero. CA: Que no paguen nada inicialmente. +Nosotros instalamos los paneles en el techo. +Y ellos pagan despus. Cunto dura un leasing? +EM: Lo tpico es 20 aos. Lo que proponemos, como sugieres, es muy sencillo. +No hay que poner dinero y la cuenta de electricidad baja. +Un buen trato. +CA: Todo parece bonito para el consumidor. +Sin riesgos y se paga menos que ahora. +Lo ideal sera... Quiero decir, A quin le pertenece la electricidad de los paneles a largo plazo? +Dnde est el beneficio para tu compaia? +EM: Bueno, bsicamente, SolarCity consigue capital de, digamos, una compaia o un banco. +Google es uno de nuestros grandes socios aqu. +Esas compaas tienen una esperanza de retorno del capital. +Con ese capital, SolarCity compra e instala los panales en el techo y cobra al propietario de la vivienda o del negocio una cuota mensual de leasing que es menos que su factura elctrica. +CA: Pero tu obtienes un beneficio comercial a largo plazo de esa energa. +Ests creando un nuevo tipo de suministro de servicio elctrico. +EM: Exacto. Se trata de un gran sistema de suministro. +Creo que es positivo, porque el servicio elctrico siempre ha sido un monopolio y la gente no ha podido elegir. +Efectivamente, por primera vez habr competencia ante ese monopolio. Las empresas de energa siempre han sido propietarias de las redes de distribucin. Pero ahora todo estar en el techo. +Creo que es ventajoso para los propietarios de viviendas y para los negocios. +CA: De verdad te imaginas un futuro en el que la mayora de la energa de los EEUU en una dcada o dos, o durante tu vida, sea solar? +EM: Estoy convencido de que la energa solar ser parte del abanico energtico, y, probablemente, la preferida. Adems pronostico que esto suceder en menos de 20 aos. +Lo he apostado con alguien. CA: Cmo defines ese abanico energtico? +EM: Ms energa solar que de otras fuentes. +CA: Ah! con quin lo has apostado? +EM: Con un amigo que permanecer en el anonimato. +CA: Aqu entre nosotros. EM: La apuesta la hicimos har unos dos o tres aos, por lo que, en unos 18 aos, creo que la energa solar ser la fuente principal de energa. +CA: Muy bien, volvamos a otra apuesta que hiciste contigo mismo. Una apuesta bastante disparatada. +Conseguiste algo de dinero con la venta de PayPal +y decidiste montar una empresa aeroespacial. +Por qu demonios hiciste algo as? +EM: Me hacen mucho esa pregunta, es verdad. +La gente dira: "Te sabes el chiste sobre el to que hizo una pequea fortuna en la industria aeroespacial?" +Obviamente, el final es: "Bueno, empez con una grande". +Lo que le digo a la gente es que estaba buscando la forma ms rpida de convertir una gran fortuna en una pequea. +Y siempre me miran como diciendo: "lo dices en serio?" +CA: Extraamente ibas en serio. Qu pas? +EM: Muy cerca. Las cosas casi que no funcionaban. +Estuvimos muy cerca de fracasar, pero conseguimos superar ese punto en 2008. +El objetivo de SpaceX es impulsar la tecnologa aeroespacial y, en concreto, tratar de resolver un problema que, creo, es vital para la humanidad para poder volverse una civilizacin espacial Se trata de contar con un cohete totalmente reutilizable. +CA: Conquistar la humanidad el espacio en algn momento? +Es ese tu sueo desde pequeo? +Soabas con Marte y ms all? +EM: Cuando era un nio ya construa cohetes, pero nunca pens que llegara a involucrarme en ello. +En realidad era ms con el enfoque de, en qu cosas necesita el futuro para llegar a ser apasionante y estimulante. +Realmente creo que hay una diferencia fundamental, si miras al futuro, entre una humanidad que conquista el espacio, que explora las estrellas, que est en muchos planetas, creo que es apasionante, comparado con una en la que estamos confinados en la Tierra para siempre hasta una posible extincin final. +CA: Has reducido el costo de construccin de un cohete en un 75%, segn cmo se calcule. +Cmo demonios lo has conseguido? +La NASA lleva aos en esto. Cmo lo has logrado? +EM: Bueno, hemos progresado mucho en tecnologa de estructuras, de motores, de componentes electrnicos y en el lanzamiento. +Hay una lista larga de innovaciones que hemos logrado que seran difciles de explicar en esta charla, pero... CA: Adems podran copiarte, no? +No has patentado nada de esto. Me parece muy interesante. +EM: No, no patentamos nada. CA: No patentas porque cres que es ms peligroso patentar que no patentar. +EM: Ya que nuestros principales competidores son los gobiernos, la efectividad de las patentes es cuestionable. CA: Es muy interesante. +Pero la gran innovacin est por venir y ya ests trabajando en ello. Cuntanos un poco. +EM: Bien, la gran innovacin... CA: De hecho, podemos poner el video y nos vas comentando de qu se trata. +EM: Por supuesto. La cuestin con los cohetes es que se pierden al desprenderse. +Todos los cohetes que se lanzan hoy en da son as. +El transbordador espacial es un intento de cohete reutilizable, pero incluso el tanque principal del trasbordador se desechaba y las partes reutilizables necesitaban un grupo de 10.000 personas y nueve meses para poder ser reutilizadas en otro vuelo. +Por eso el trasbordador espacial termin costando mil millones de dlares por vuelo. +Obviamente no es lo mejor... CA: Qu pas ah? Vimos algo aterrizando? +EM: As es. Lo importante es que las etapas del cohete puedan volver, puedan regresar al lugar de lanzamiento y estn listas para el prximo lanzamiento en cuestin de horas. +CA: Increble, cohetes reutilizables. EM: S. Mucha gente no se da cuenta de que el costo del combustible, del propulsor, es muy pequeo. +Es casi como en un jet. +El costo del propulsor es de cerca del 0,3 por ciento del costo del cohete. +Por lo que es posible, digamos, una reduccin de casi 100 veces en los costos del vuelo espacial si se logra reutilizar el cohete. +Por eso es tan imporante. +Todos los medios de transporte que usamos, ya sean aviones, trenes, automviles, bicicletas o caballos son reutilizables excepto los cohetes. +Por lo que tenemos que resolver este problema si queremos llegar a conquistar el espacio. +CA: Me preguntabas antes que qu popularidad tendran los cruceros si despus tuviramos que quemar las naves. EM: S, algunos cruceros parecen ser muy problemticos. +CA: Sin duda mucho ms caros. +Estamos ante una tecnologa deshechadora en potencia. Supongo que esto allana el camino hacia tu sueo de llevar parte de la humanidad a Marte. +Te encantara ver una colonia en Marte. +EM: S, exacto. SpaceX, o una combinacin de compaias y gobiernos tienen que progresar en hacer de la vida algo multiplanetario. En establecer bases en otros planetas, en Marte --que es la nica opcin realista-- y luego ampliar esa base hasta que seamos una especie multiplanetaria. +CA: Y el avance en este "vamos a reutilizar"? Cmo se est dando? El video que hemos visto era solo una simulacin. +Cmo van las cosas? +EM: En realidad hemos avanzado mucho ltimamente con algo que llamamos el Proyecto de Prueba Saltamontes, con el que estamos probando la parte del aterrizaje vertical del vuelo, que es la parte final y es bastante complicada. +Hemos tenido buenos resultados en las pruebas. +CA: Podemos verlo? EM: Claro. +Esto es solo para dar una idea de la escala. +Disfrazamos a un cowboy de Johnny Cash y despues atornillamos el maniqu al cohete. CA: Muy bien, veamos el video entonces, porque, si te lo planteas, es realmente increble. +Es algo nunca visto antes. Un cohete despegando y entonces... EM: S, el cohete tiene la altura de un edificio de 12 plantas. +(Lanzamiento del cohete) Ahora mismo est flotando a unos 40 metros y est ajustando constantemente el ngulo, el cabeceo, el viraje del motor principal y equilibrndose con propulsores a gas de carbn. +CA: Es genial. Elon, cmo lo has conseguido? +Estos proyectos son tan... Paypal, SolarCity, Tesla, SpaceX, son tremendamente diferentes. Son proyectos muy ambiciosos a gran escala. +Cmo demonios una sola persona puede innovar de esta manera? +Cul es tu secreto? +EM: En realidad no lo s. +Creo que no tengo respuesta para eso. +Trabajo mucho, muchsimo. +CA: Bueno, yo tengo una teora. EM: Bien, veamos. +Arriesgas tu fortuna en ello, y parece que lo has hecho varias veces. +Prcticamente nadie puede hacer algo as. +Es... podemos beber un poco de esa pocin mgica? +Podemos poner un poco en nuestro sistema educativo? Podemos aprender de ti? +Es realmente increble lo que has conseguido. +EM: Bueno, gracias. Muchas gracias. +Creo que hay un mbito perfecto para pensar. +La fsica. Es decir, los principios bsicos. +Por regla general pienso que hay que... lo que quiero decir es, que hay que reducir las cosas a sus bases fundamentales y empezar a razonar desde ah, por oposicin a trabajar por analoga. +Vamos por la vida, en su mayor parte, razonando por analoga, que, bsicamente, implica copiar lo que hacen los dems con pequeas variaciones. +Y hay que hacerlo as. +Si no, mentalmente no podramos soportar ni un da. +Pero cuando quieres hacer algo nuevo tienes que aplicar la estrategia de la fsica. +La fsica consiste en ingenirselas para descubrir cosas nuevas, contrarias a la intuicin, como la mecnica cuntica. +Va muy en contra de la intuicin. +Creo que es importante hacerlo as. Y tambin prestar atencin a las crticas adversas e incluso pedirlas, especialmente a los amigos. +Esto puede parecer un simple consejo, pero casi nadie lo hace. y es tremendamente til. +CA: Chicos y chicas que nos estn viendo, estudien fsica. +Aprendan de este hombre. +Elon Musk, ojala tuvisemos todo el da... Pero muchas gracias por venir a TED. +EM: Gracias a ti. CA: Ha sido maravilloso, verdaderamente genial. +Mrenlo. Saluda al pblico. Ha sido fantstico. +Muchsimas gracias. +Permtanme pedirles que levanten las manos. +Cuntas personas aqu tienen ms de 48 aos? +Parece, pues, que hay algunas. +Bien, felicitaciones, porque si ven esta diapositiva en particular sobre la expectativa de vida de un estadounidense ustedes superan ya la esperanza de vida promedio de alguien nacido en 1900. +Pero vean lo que pas al transcurrir ese siglo. +Si siguen la curva vern que empieza desde all abajo. +Hay un desplome ah en 1918 debido a la influenza. +Y aqu estamos en 2010, la esperanza de vida de un nio nacido hoy es de 79 aos, y eso no es todo. +Bueno, esa es la buena noticia. +Pero todava hay mucho trabajo por hacer. +Por ejemplo: si preguntan, de cuntas enfermedades sabemos la base molecular exacta? +Resulta que son alrededor de 4000, lo cual es sorprendente, porque la mayora de estos descubrimientos moleculares acaban de realizarse apenas hace poco. +Emociona verlo en trminos de lo que hemos aprendido, pero, cuntas de esas 4000 enfermedades tienen al da de hoy tratamientos disponibles? +Slo cerca de 250. +As que tenemos un enorme reto, una enorme brecha. +Bueno, no sera hermoso que fuera as de fcil? +Desafortunadamente no lo es. +En realidad, intentar pasar del conocimiento fundamental a su aplicacin luce ms como esto. +No hay puentes relucientes. +En cierto modo hacen apuestas. +Entonces, qu pinta tiene esto realmente? +De cualquier modo, qu significa hacer un teraputico? +Qu es una medicina? Un medicamento est hecho de una pequea molcula de hidrgeno, de carbono, de oxgeno, de nitrgeno y otros pocos tomos apiados en cierta forma. De hecho, son esas formas las que determinan si ese medicamento en particular va a dar con su objetivo +Acertar donde se supone que lo hara? +Observen esta imagen, con muchas formas en movimiento. +Ahora lo que se necesita hacer, si se desea desarrollar un nuevo tratamiento para el autismo, el Alzheimer o el cncer, un nuevo tratamiento para el autismo, el Alzheimer o el cncer, es dar con la forma correcta en esa mezcla que brindar finalmente un beneficio y que ser seguro. +Cuando miran lo que sucede en ese conducto, empiezan quiz con miles de compuestos, decenas de miles de compuestos. +Hacen filtros en varias etapas que hacen que muchos fracasen. +Al final quiz, podrn hacer un ensayo clnico con cuatro o cinco de ellos, y si todo sale bien, pasados catorce aos del comienzo, conseguirn una aprobacin. +Y ese logro les costar ms de mil millones de dlares. para tener un xito. +De modo que tenemos que mirar este conducto como lo hara un ingeniero y decir, "cmo podemos hacerlo mejor?" +Ese es el tema clave del cual quiero hablarles esta maana. +Cmo podermos acelerar este proceso? +Cmo hacerlo ms exitosamente? +Bien, djenme contarles un par de ejemplos donde esto verdaderamente ha funcionado. +Un caso reciente, de los ltimos meses, es la exitosa aprobacin de una medicina para la fibrosis qustica. +Pero ha tomado un largo tiempo llegar ah. +El causante molecular de la fibrosis qustica fue descubierto en 1989 por mi equipo en colaboracin con otro en Toronto hallando que la mutacin se encuentra en un gen particular del cromosoma 7. +Y esta imagen all? +Esta es. Es el mismo chico. +Danny Bessete, 23 aos despus, ya que este es el ao, en el que adems Danny se cas, cuando por primera vez tenemos la aprobacin de la FDA de un medicamento que ataca con precisin al defecto de la fibrosis qustica basado en toda esta nocin molecular. +Esa es la buena noticia. +La mala es que este medicamento no trata todos los tipos de fibrosis qustica y por eso no funciona para Danny y todava estamos esperando a la prxima generacin que le sirva. +Pero, fueron necesarios 23 aos para llegar hasta aqu. Es demasiado tiempo. +Cmo avanzar ms rpido? +Es algo emocionante. +Cmo interpretar esto en cuanto a la aplicacin en una enfermedad? +Quiero hablarles acerca de otra enfermedad. +Es una enfermedad que es bastante rara. +Se llama Hutchinson-Gilford progeria y es la forma ms drstica de envejecimiento prematuro. +Slo uno de cada milln de nios la padece, y de una forma sencilla, lo que sucede es que debido a una mutacin de un gen particular se elabora una protena que es txica para la clula la que provoca que los individuos envejezcan unas siete veces ms rpido que lo normal. +Permtanme mostrales un video de lo que esto le hace a la clula. +Si observan la clula normal por el microscopio, tendr un ncleo posado en su centro, el cual es lindo, redondo y uniforme dentro de sus lmites, y luce como esto. +Por otra parte, una clula de progeria debido a la protena txica llamada progerin tiene estas protuberancias y abolladuras. +Entonces lo que quisimos hacer despus de descubrir esto por all del 2003, fue hallar una manera de corregirlo. +De nuevo, sabiendo algo sobre los trayectos moleculares fue posible elegir uno de los muchos compuestos que pudiera ser til y probarlo. +En un experimento hecho en un cultivo celular y representado en esta animacin, si toman ese compuesto en particular y se agrega a una clula con progeria, observen lo que sucede, en tan slo 72 horas, la clula se vuelve para todos los propsitos que podamos determinar, casi como una clula normal. +Eso fue emocionante, pero funcionara realmente en un ser humano? +Esto se ha conducido, en tan slo 4 aos, desde que se descubri el gen, al comienzo de un ensayo clnico a la prueba de ese compuesto. +Todos los chicos que ven aqu, 28 en total, fueron voluntarios en este proceso, 28 de ellos. Apenas salga la imagen podrn ver que todos forman un grupo notable de jvenes individuos que padecen la misma enfermedad, se parecen bastante entre s. +En lugar de que se los cuente yo, voy a invitar a uno de ellos, Sam Berns de Boston, quien est aqu hoy, para que suba al escenario y nos narre su experiencia como un nio afectado por la progeria. +Sam tiene 15 aos. Nos acompaan tambin esta maana sus padres Scott Berns y Leslie Gordon, ambos mdicos. +Sam, toma asiento por favor. +Sam, por qu no les cuentas a estas personas cmo es sufrir de la condicin conocida como progeria? +Sam Burns: Bueno, la enfermedad me limita de algunas formas. +No puedo hacer deportes o actividades fsicas, pero he podido encontrar otras ocupaciones interesantes que la progeria, por suerte, no limita. +Pero cuando hay algo que realmente quiero practicar y la progeria se mete en el camino, como la banda musical o el arbitraje, siempre hallamos la manera de hacerlo y eso muestra que la progeria no tiene el control de mi vida. +Francis Collins: Qu querras decirles a los investigadores aqu presentes en el auditorio y a las dems personas que nos escuchan? +Qu les diras sobre la investigacin de la progeria y quiz sobre otros padecimientos tambin? +FC: Excelente. Sam se tom hoy un da libre de la escuela para estar aqu, y l es... Por cierto, es un estudiante de 9 con las mejores calificaciones en su escuela en Boston. +Dmosle las gracias y bienvenida a Sam. +SB: Muchsimas gracias. FC: Bien hecho amigo. +Slo quiero decir un par de cosas ms sobre esta historia en particular y luego intentar generalizar cmo podramos tener historias exitosas en todo el mundo al tratar estas enfermedades. Como dice Sam, 4000 de ellas esperan respuestas. +Debo hacer notar que el medicamento que est en ensayo clnico para la progeria no fue diseado para ello. +Es una enfermadad muy rara, sera dficil para una compaia justificar el gasto de cientos de millones de dlares para producir ese medicamento. +Este es un medicamento que fue desarrollado para el cncer. +Result que no serva muy bien para el cncer, pero que posee precisamente las propiedades correctas, la forma exacta, para funcionar contra la progeria y eso fue lo que pas. +No sera grandioso que pudiramos hacerlo ms sistemticamente? +Podramos, de hecho, animar a todas las empresas existentes que tienen medicamentos en sus congeladores, que se sabe son seguros para los humanos pero que nunca funcionaron en cuanto a su eficacia para los tratamientos para los cuales fueron diseados? +Ahora que aprendemos sobre todos estos nuevos trayectos moleculares, algunos de los cuales podran ser reposicionados o adaptados o el trmino que prefieran, a nuevas aplicaciones, en esencia, ensear nuevos trucos a viejos medicamentos. +Esa podra ser una fenomenal y valiosa actividad. +En la actualidad estamos en plticas con el Instituto Nacional de Salud y empresas al respecto y van por un camino promisorio. +Podemos esperar que resulte mucho de este proceso. +Es posible sealar una serie de casos exitosos sobre cmo esto ha conducido a avances mayores. +El primer medicamento para el VIH Sida no estaba destinado para el VIH. +Fue desarrollado para el cncer. Era la azidotimidina. +No funcion muy bien para el cncer, pero se convirti en el primer anti-retroviral exitoso y pueden observar en la tabla que hay otros casos similares. +Cmo logramos que esto sea un esfuerzo ms generalizado? +Bien, tenemos que idear una asociacin entre la academia, el gobierno, el sector privado y las organizaciones de pacientes para que esto suceda. +En el NIH empezamos ya con el National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences. +Comez a funcionar en diciembre pasado, y esa es una de sus metas. +Permtanme decirles otra cosa que podemos hacer. +Acaso no sera genial que pudiramos probar un medicamento para constatar si es efectivo y seguro sin tener que arriesgar a los pacientes, debido a que en esa primera vez no se est tan seguro? +Cmo sabemos, por ejemplo, si un medicamento es seguro antes de darlo a humanos? Lo probamos en animales. +Algo que no es totalmente confiable, adems de ser costoso y lleva mucho tiempo. +Supongamos que pudiramos hacerlo en clulas humanas. +Ya ustedes sabrn, si han puesto atencin a la literatura cientfica, que se puede tomar una clula de la piel y estimularla a que se convierta en una clula heptica o una clula cardaca o renal o cerebral de cualquiera de nosotros. +Qu tal si usramos esas clulas para probar si un medicamento va a funcionar y si va a ser seguro? +Aqu ven una imagen de un pulmn en un chip. +Como pueden ver, este chip incluso respira. +Tiene un conducto para el aire y uno para la sangre. +Y tiene clulas en medio que permiten ver qu es lo que sucede al agregar un compuesto. +Estn felices esas clulas o no? +Se puede usar la misma tecnologa del chip para los riones, el corazn, los msculos... para todos lo lugares en los que se quiera comprobar si un medicamento va a ser un problema, para el hgado. +Finalmente, ya que se puede hacer esto en individuos podramos incluso esperar que se dirigiera al punto que la habilidad para generar y probar medicamentos ser el hombre en un chip. Lo que quiero decir con esto es la individualizacin de los procesos para desarrollar medicamentos y probar su seguridad. +Permtanme resumir. +Estamos en un momento notable. +Para m, con 20 aos en el NIH, nunca haba existido un momento en el cual hubiera mayor estusiasmo sobre el potencial que yace frente a nosotros. +Hemos hecho todos estos descubrimientos que emanan de laboratorios alrededor del mundo. +Qu requerimos para aprovechar estos logros? Lo primero que necesitamos son recursos. +Se trata de investigacin que es de alto riesgo, a veces de alto costo. +La recompensa es enorme tanto en trminos de salud como de crecimiento econmico. Tenemos que apoyar eso. +Segundo, precisamos de nuevas asociaciones entre la academia, el gobierno, el sector privado y las organizaciones de pacientes, tal como lo que he descrito aqu, en cuanto a la manera cmo podramos perseguir la adaptacin de nuevos compuestos. +Y tercero, y quiz lo ms importante, necesitamos talento. +Necesitamos que los ms inteligentes y mejores de muchas y diversas disciplinas vengan a unirse en este esfuerzo de todas las edades, de todos los diferentes grupos porque este el momento, gente. +Esta es la biologa del siglo XXI que han estado esperando. Tenemos la oportunidad de tomarla y transformarla en algo que, de hecho, acabe con las enfermedades. Esa es mi meta. +Espero que sea tambin la suya. +Creo que ser la meta de los poetas, de los muppets, de los surfistas, de los banqueros y de todas las personas que se unan ahora y piensen sobre lo que intentamos hacer aqu, y por qu importa. +Importa hoy, importa tan pronto sea posible. +Si no me creen, slo pregntenle a Sam. +Muchas gracias a todos. +En 1991 tuve quiz la experiencia ms profunda y transformadora de mi vida. +Estaba en tercer ao, de los 7 que estudi en la universidad. +Y di un par de vueltas de la victoria. +Estaba de gira con el coro universitario por Carolina del Norte y nos quedamos un da luego de todo un da de viaje en bus y estbamos descansando mientras admirbamos este lago idlico entre las montaas. +Oamos el sonido de grillos, pjaros y ranas y mientras estbamos all sentados vimos venir desde el norte unas nubes "a la Steven Spielberg" que venan sobre nosotros y cuando estaban a mitad de camino sobre el valle, Dios me libre!, todos los animales del lugar dejaron de emitir sonido al unsono. +Ufff! Esa tensa calma, como si pudieran sentir lo que estaba a punto de suceder. +Y entonces nos cubrieron las nubes y luego bum!, un trueno enorme y una cortina de lluvia. +Fue algo extraordinario, y cuando volv a casa encontr un poema del mexicano Octavio Paz, y decid ponerle msica una obra para coro, llamada "Aguacero", que interpretaremos en un momento. +Retrocedamos tres aos en el tiempo. +Lanzamos en YouTube el Proyecto de Coro Virtual; 185 coristas de 12 pases. +All ven un video en el que dirijo a estas personas que estn en sus dormitorios, en las salas de estar en sus casas. +Hace dos aos, en este mismo escenario, estrenamos Coro Virtual 2, 2052 coristas, de 58 pases, esta vez interpretando una obra que compuse llamada "Dormir". +Y apenas en la primavera pasada lanzamos Coro Virtual 3, "Noche acutica", otra obra que compuse, esta vez para unos 4000 coristas, de 73 pases. +Y mientras le contaba a Chris del futuro del Coro Virtual y de las posibilidades de crecimiento, l me desafi a usar la tecnologa tanto como fuese posible. +Podemos hacerlo en tiempo real? +Podemos hacer que la gente cante en tiempo real? +Con la ayuda de Skype es lo que vamos a intentar hoy. +Ahora interpretaremos "Aguacero". +La primera parte ser interpretada por los coristas en vivo, en el escenario. +Me acompaan coristas de Cal State Long Beach, Cal State Fullerton y Riverside Community College, algunos de los mejores coros de aficionados del pas. Y en la segunda parte de la obra se nos sumar el coro virtual, 30 coristas de 30 pases. +Hemos llevado la tecnologa a su mxima expresin, pero an as hay casi un segundo de latencia, que, en materia musical, es toda una vida. +Nos manejamos con milisegundos. +Por eso adapt "Aguacero" para que acepte esa latencia y que los coristas canten con la latencia en vez de tratar de sincronizar con los otros. +As, con profunda humildad, y sujeto a aprobacin, presentamos "Aguacero". +Gracias. +Todo est cubierto por ecosistemas invisibles compuestos por formas de vida diminutas: bacterias, virus y hongos. +Nuestros escritorios, ordenadores, lpices y edificios contienen paisajes de microbios residentes. +Cuando diseamos estas cosas, podramos pensar en disear estos mundos invisibles, y tambin en cmo interactan con nuestros ecosistemas personales. +Nuestros cuerpos albergan millones y millones de microbios y estas criaturas definen quienes somos. +Los microbios intestinales pueden influir en el peso y estado de nimo. +Los microbios de la piel pueden estimular el sistema inmunitario. +Los microbios de la boca pueden refrescar el aliento, o no, y la clave est en que nuestros ecosistemas personales interactan con los ecosistemas de todo lo que tocamos. +Por ejemplo, cuando tocamos un lpiz, ocurre un intercambio de microbios. +Si podemos moldear los ecosistemas invisibles a nuestro alrededor, se abre un camino para influir en nuestra salud de formas nunca vistas. +Constantemente me pregunta la gente: "Es realmente posible disear ecosistemas microbianos?" +Y creo que la respuesta es que s. +Creo que ya lo estamos haciendo, pero de manera inconsciente. +Voy a compartir unos datos con ustedes de un aspecto de mi investigacin que se centra en la arquitectura que demuestra cmo, a travs de diseos conscientes e inconscientes, tenemos un impacto sobre estos mundos invisibles. +Este es el Complejo Empresarial Lillis en la Universidad de Oregn, donde trabaj con un equipo de arquitectos y bilogos para tomar muestras en ms de 300 habitaciones +Queramos conseguir algo como un registro fsil del edificio y para ello, tomamos muestras del polvo. +Del polvo extrajimos clulas bacterianas, las abrimos, y comparamos sus secuencias genticas. +Lo que quiere decir que mis compaeros de grupo pasaron a menudo la aspiradora durante este proyecto. +Esta es una foto de Tim, que, justo cuando saqu esta foto, me record: "Jessica, en el ltimo grupo de laboratorio con el que trabaj haca trabajo de campo en el bosque tropical de Costa Rica, y para m las cosas han cambiado drsticamente". +As que primero les voy a ensear lo que descubrimos en las oficinas, y para ello usar una herramienta de visualizacin en la que he estado trabajando en colaboracin con Autodesk. +Para leer esta informacin, primero, miren por la parte de fuera del crculo. +Vern grandes grupos bacterianos, y si se fijan en la forma de este lbulo rosa, nos dice algo sobre la abundancia relativa de cada grupo. +A las 12 en punto, vern que las oficinas tienen muchas protobacterias alfa, y a la 1 en punto comprobarn que las bacilli son relativamente escasas. +Veamos lo que pasa en los diferentes tipos de espacio en este edificio. +Si nos fijamos en el interior de los baos, todos tienen ecosistemas muy parecidos, y si mirramos dentro de las aulas, tambin ah encontramos ecosistemas similares. +Pero si comparamos estos tipos de espacio, podemos ver que son totalmente distintos entre ellos. +Me gusta ver los baos como un bosque tropical. +Le dije a Tim: "Si tan solo pudieras ver los microbios, es casi como estar en Costa Rica, casi". +Y tambin me gusta imaginar las oficinas como las praderas de las zonas templadas. +Esta perspectiva es muy poderosa para los diseadores, porque pueden aplicar los principios de la ecologa, y uno de los principios ms importantes de la ecologa es la dispersin, la forma en la que los organismos se mueven. +Sabemos que los microbios se dispersan a travs de la gente y del aire. +As que lo primero que quisimos hacer en este edificio era examinar el sistema de aire. +Los ingenieros mecnicos disean unidades de tratamiento del aire para asegurarse de que la gente est a gusto, de que la corriente de aire y la temperatura sean perfectas. +Y lo consiguen basndose en los principios de fsica y de qumica, pero tambin podran utilizar la biologa. +Si examinamos los microbios en una de las unidades de tratamiento de aire en este edificio, comprobaremos que son todos muy parecidos. +Y si los comparamos con los microbios en una unidad de tratamiento de aire diferente, veremos que son sustancialmente distintos. +Las habitaciones en este edificio son como las islas de un archipilago, y esto quiere decir que los ingenieros mecnicos son como ingenieros ecolgicos, y son capaces de estructurar como quieran los biomas en este edificio. +Otra forma en la que los microbios se dispersan es mediante las personas, y los arquitectos a menudo agrupan las habitaciones para facilitar la interaccin entre personas, o el intercambio de ideas, como en laboratorios y oficinas. +Sabiendo que los microbios se transportan con las personas, podramos esperar que habitaciones contiguas tengan biomas muy parecidos. +Y eso es justamente lo que descubrimos. +Si nos fijamos en aulas contiguas, tienen ecosistemas muy similares, pero si vamos a una oficina que est a una cierta distancia, el ecosistema es notablemente diferente. +Y cuando veo el poder que tiene la dispersin en estos modelos biogeogrficos, me hace pensar que es posible enfrentarse a problemas realmente serios como infecciones intrahospitalarias. +Creo que esto se debe, en parte, a un problema de construccin ecolgica. +Bueno, les voy a contar una historia ms sobre este edificio. +Estoy colaborando con Charlie Brown. +Es arquitecto, y Charlie est muy preocupado por el cambio climtico global. +Ha dedicado su vida al diseo sostenible. +Cuando me conoci y se dio cuenta de que poda estudiar de forma cuantitativa cmo sus decisiones de diseo afectaban a la ecologa y biologa de este edificio, se entusiasm mucho, porque aportaba una nueva dimensin a su trabajo. +Pas de pensar solo en la energa a empezar a pensar tambin en la salud. +Ayud a disear algunas de las unidades de tratamiento del aire en este edificio, y la forma en la que se ventila. +As que lo primero que les voy a ensear son las muestras de aire que tomamos en el exterior del edificio. +Lo que estn viendo es la marca de las comunidades bacterianas en el aire exterior, y cmo varan con el tiempo. +Lo siguiente que les voy a ensear es lo que pas cuando manipulamos experimentalmente las aulas. +Las cerramos por la noche de forma que no tuvieran ventilacin +Muchos edificios funcionan as, probablemente en su lugar de trabajo, y las empresas lo hacen para ahorrar costes en la factura de energa. +Lo que descubrimos fue que estas aulas se mantenan relativamente estancadas hasta el sbado, cuando volvimos a abrir los respiraderos. +Cuando entrbamos a esas aulas, olan fatal, y nuestros datos apuntan a que tena que ver con la sopa de bacterias transmitidas por aire de la gente del da anterior. +Comparmoslo con las habitaciones que se crearon con una estrategia de diseo pasivo donde el aire entraba desde el exterior por las persianas. +En estas habitaciones, el aire segua el rastro del aire exterior relativamente bien, y cuando Charlie vio esto, se emocion mucho. +Tena la sensacin de haber tomado una buena decisin en el proceso del diseo, porque tanto era eficiente en el uso de energa como era limpio el paisaje de microbios residentes del edificio. +Los ejemplos que les acabo de dar son sobre arquitectura, pero son relevantes al disear cualquier cosa. +Imaginen disear con los tipos de microbios que queramos en un avin o en un telfono. +Hay un nuevo microbio, lo acabo de descubrir. +Se llama BLIS, y se ha demostrado que rechaza agentes patgenos y proporciona buen aliento. +No sera fantstico que todos tuviramos BLIS en nuestros telfonos? +Un enfoque de diseo con conciencia, que voy a llamar diseo bioinformado, y creo que es posible. +Gracias. +Estoy aqu para mostrarles qu tan divertido es ver algo que no se puede ver. +Estn a punto de experimentar una tecnologa nueva, disponible y emocionante, que nos har replantear la forma en que impermeabilizamos nuestras vidas. +Aqu tengo un bloque de cemento, cuya mitad hemos cubierto con un spray nanotecnolgico que se puede aplicar a casi cualquier material. +Se llama Ultra-Ever Dry y cuando se aplica a cualquier material se convierte en un escudo superhidrofbico. +Este es un bloque de concreto sin revestir, y pueden ver que es poroso, que absorbe el agua. +Ya no. +Poroso, no poroso. +Entonces, qu quiere decir superhidrofbico? +Superhidrofbico es cmo medimos una gota de agua sobre una superficie. +Cuanto ms redonda, ms hidrofbica es, y si es realmente redonda, es superhidrfoba. +En un auto recin encerado, las molculas de agua se deslizan a unos 90 grados. +En un parabrisas va a ser a unos 110 grados. +Pero lo que estn viendo aqu es de 160 hasta 175 grados, y todo lo que supera los 150 es superhidrfobo. +Para continuar con la demostracin, tengo un par de guantes, y uno lo hemos recubierto con el revestimiento nanotecnolgico. Veamos si adivinan cul es, y les voy a dar una pista. +Adivinaron el que estaba seco? +Con la nanotecnologa y la nanociencia, ahora hemos adquirido la capacidad de observar los tomos y las molculas, y de hecho controlarlos para obtener grandes beneficios. +Y estamos hablando de cosas muy pequeas. +La nanotecnologa se mide en nanmetros, y un nanmetro es la milmillonsima parte de un metro. Para que se hagan una idea: si tuvieran una nanopartcula de un nanmetro de espesor y pusieran 50 000 iguales, una al lado de la otra, obtendran el ancho de un cabello humano. +Algo muy pequeo, pero muy til. +Y no solo funciona con agua, +sino tambin con muchos materiales a base de agua como el cemento, la pintura a base de agua, el barro, y tambin algunos aceites refinados. +Pueden ver la diferencia. +Eso es miedo al agua! +Entonces, qu est pasando aqu? +La superficie del revestimiento spray en realidad se llena de nanopartculas que forman una superficie muy spera y arrugada. +Pueden pensar que es lisa, pero en realidad no lo es. +Tiene miles de millones de espacios intersticiales, y esos espacios junto con las nanopartculas, alcanzan y capturan las molculas de aire, y cubren la superficie con aire. +Es como un paraguas de aire, y esta capa de aire es lo que golpea el agua, el barro, el cemento, y se desliza al instante. +As que si meto esto en el agua, pueden ver alrededor una capa reflectante de plata, y ese revestimiento reflectante de plata es la capa de aire que impide que el agua toque el remo, y queda seco. +Cules son las aplicaciones? +Quiero decir, probablemente muchos de Uds. se lo estarn preguntando. +Todo el que lo ve se emociona y dice: "Oh, lo podra usar para esto, esto y esto". +En general, se podra aplicar a cualquier cosa que tenga que ser resistente al agua. +Sin duda lo hemos visto hoy. +Podra ser utilizado para evitar la congelacin, porque si no hay agua, no hay hielo. +Podra ser anticorrosivo. +Si no hay agua, no hay corrosin. +Podra ser antibacteriano. +Sin agua las bacterias no pueden sobrevivir. +Y tambin para cosas que necesitan autolimpiarse. +As que imaginen cmo algo as podra ayudar a revolucionar su campo de trabajo. +Los voy a dejar con una ltima demostracin, pero antes de eso, quiero darles las gracias, y decirles que piensen pequeo. +Va a ocurrir. Esprenlo, esprenlo. +Chris Anderson: Chicos, no han odo hablar del corte en el diseo de TED? [Dos minutos despus...] Se top con todo tipo de problemas para organizar la parte de la investigacin mdica. +Sucedi! +Voy a hablarles del cerebro estratgico. +Vamos a utilizar una combinacin inusual de herramientas de la teora de juegos y la neurociencia para entender cmo la gente interacta socialmente cuando hay valor en juego. +Son muchas cosas: competencia, cooperacin, negociacin, juegos como el escondite y el pker. +Este es un juego simple para comenzar. +Todos eligen un nmero de 0 a 100, calcularemos el promedio de esos nmeros, y quien est ms cerca de los dos tercios del promedio, gana un premio determinado. +As que quieren estar un poco por debajo del promedio, pero no demasiado, y todo el mundo quiere estar un poco por debajo del promedio, tambin. +Piensen en el que escogeran. +Estn pensando, este es un modelo elemental de algo como vender en la bolsa en un mercado al alza, verdad? +No quieren vender demasiado pronto, porque pierden ganancias, pero no quieren esperar demasiado para cuando todo el mundo vende, desencadenando un crack. +Quieren estar un poco adelante de la competencia, pero no demasiado por delante. +Bueno, aqu hay dos teoras sobre cmo la gente podra pensar en esto, y luego veremos algunos datos. +Algunas les sonarn familiares porque probablemente estn pensando as. Usar mi teora del cerebro para ver. +Mucha gente dice, "Realmente no s lo que los dems van a elegir, as que creo que el promedio ser 50". +No estn siendo realmente estratgicos en absoluto. +"Escoger dos tercios de 50. Es 33". Es un comienzo. +Otras personas que son un poco ms sofisticadas, utilizan ms memoria de trabajo, dicen, "Creo que la gente elegir 33 porque van a elegir una respuesta a 50, y as que escoger 22, que es dos tercios de 33". +Estn haciendo un paso adicional de pensamiento, dos pasos. +Es mejor. Y por supuesto, en principio, uno podra hacer tres, cuatro o ms, pero empieza a volverse muy difcil. +Al igual que en el lenguaje y otros dominios, sabemos que es difcil para la gente analizar oraciones muy complejas con una especie de estructura recursiva. +Esta se llama teora jerrquica cognitiva, por cierto. +Es algo en lo que he trabajado y algunas otras personas, e indica una especie de jerarqua junto con algunas suposiciones acerca de cuntas personas paran en distintas etapas y cmo se ven afectados los pasos del pensamiento por un montn de variables interesantes y personas variantes, como veremos en un minuto. +Una teora muy diferente, una versin mucho ms popular y ms antigua debido en gran parte a la fama del John Nash de "Una mente brillante", es lo que se llama anlisis de equilibrio. +Si alguna vez han hecho un curso de teora de juegos en cualquier nivel, habrn aprendido un poco sobre esto. +Un equilibrio es un estado matemtico en que todo el mundo ha comprendido exactamente lo que todo el mundo har. +Es un concepto muy til, pero visto desde el comportamiento, no puede explicar exactamente lo que las personas harn la primera vez que juegan estos tipos de juegos econmicos o en situaciones en el mundo exterior. +En este caso, el equilibrio hace una prediccin muy audaz, que todo el mundo quiere estar por debajo de todos los dems, y por lo tanto juegan 0. +Veamos qu pasa. Este experimento se ha hecho muchas, muchas veces. +Algunos de los primeros se realizaron en los aos 90 por m y Rosemarie Nagel y otros. +Este es un hermoso conjunto de datos de 9 000 personas que escribi en tres peridicos y revistas que tenan un concurso. +El concurso deca: enven sus nmeros y quien est cerca de dos tercios del promedio ganar un gran premio. +Y como pueden ver, hay muchos datos aqu, pueden ver los picos muy visiblemente. +Hay una punta en el 33. Son personas que hacen un paso. +Hay otro punto visible en 22. +Y note, por cierto, que la mayora de la gente elige nmeros justo alrededor de all. +No necesariamente eligen 22 y 33 exactamente. +Hay un poco de ruido alrededor de ellos. +Pero pueden ver los picos, y estn all. +Hay otro grupo de personas que parecen tener un agarre firme en el anlisis de equilibrio, porque escogieron 0 o 1. +Pero pierden, verdad? +Porque escoger un nmero tan bajo es realmente una mala eleccin si otras personas no estn haciendo el anlisis de equilibrio tambin. +Por lo que son inteligentes, pero pobres. +Donde estn sucediendo estas cosas en el cerebro? +Un estudio realizado por Coricelli y Nagel da una respuesta interesante, realmente aguda. +Tenan gente jugando este juego mientras que se est escaneando en un fMRI [resonancia magntica] y dos condiciones: en algunos ensayos, les dicen que est jugando otra persona que est jugando ahora mismo y vamos a probar su comportamiento al final y le pagaremos si gana. +En otros ensayos, les dicen, juegas contra una computadora. +Solo est eligiendo al azar. +As que lo que ven aqu es una sustraccin de reas donde hay ms actividad cerebral cuando juegan con personas en comparacin con jugar con la computadora. +Y pueden ver actividad en algunas regiones que hemos visto hoy, el corteza prefrontal medial, dorsomedial, sin embargo, hasta aqu, corteza prefrontal ventromedial, cngulo anterior, una zona que se dedica en muchos tipos de resolucin de conflictos, como si ests jugando "Simon Dice" y tambin la unin temporoparietal derecha e izquierda. +Y estas son todas las reas que se conocen razonablemente bien como parte de lo que se denomina el circuito de la "teora de la mente", o "circuito de mentalizacin". +Es decir, es un circuito que se utiliza para imaginar lo que podran hacer otras personas. +As que estos fueron algunos de los primeros estudios para verlo asociado a la teora de juegos. +Qu pasa con estos tipos de un paso y dos? +Clasificamos a la gente segn lo que escogieron, y luego nos fijamos en la diferencia entre jugar con seres humanos frente a computadoras, qu reas del cerebro son activadas diferencialmente. +En la parte superior ven los jugadores de un solo paso. +No hay casi ninguna diferencia. +La razn es que estn tratando a otras personas como una computadora, y el cerebro lo es tambin. +En los jugadores de la parte inferior vern toda la actividad en dorsomedial CPF. +Sabemos que los jugadores de dos pasos estn haciendo algo diferente. +Ahora bien, si tuviera que hacerse a un lado y decir, "Qu podemos hacer con esta informacin?", +es posible que pueda mirar la actividad cerebral y decir: "Esta persona va a ser un buen jugador de pker" o, "Esta persona es socialmente ingenua", y tambin podramos estudiar cosas como el desarrollo de cerebros adolescentes una vez que tengamos una idea de dnde est este circuito. +Bien. Preprense. +Estoy ahorrndoles alguna actividad cerebral, porque no necesitan utilizar sus clulas detectoras de pelo. +Deben usar esas clulas con cuidado en este juego. +Este es un juego de negociacin. +Dos jugadores que estn siendo escaneados utilizando electrodos EEG van a negociar de uno a seis dlares. +Si pueden hacerlo en 10 segundos, van en realidad a ganar ese dinero. +Si pasan 10 segundos y no han llegado a un acuerdo, no consiguen nada. +Ese es el tipo de error conjunto. +El truco es que a un jugador, a la izquierda, se le informa cunto hay en cada ensayo. +Juegan un montn de ensayos con diferentes cantidades cada vez. +En este caso, saben que hay cuatro dlares. +El jugador desinformado no sabe, pero saben que el jugador informado sabe. +As que el reto del jugador desinformado es decir, "Es este chico realmente justo o me estn ofreciendo una oferta muy baja con el fin de hacerme pensar que solo hay 1 o 2 dlares para dividir?", +en cuyo caso podran rechazarla y no llegar a un acuerdo. +As que hay cierta tensin aqu entre el intento de conseguir ms dinero pero tratando de conseguir que el otro jugador le d ms. +Y la manera en que negocian es sealando un nmero en una lnea que va de 0 a 6 dlares, y estn negociacin cunto recibe el jugador desinformado, y el jugador informado recibir el resto. +Es como una negociacin la direccin-trabajadores en la que los trabajadores no saben cuntas ganancias tiene la empresa privada, cierto, y ellos pueden quiz rehusarse esperando ms dinero, pero la empresa talvez quiere crear la impresin que hay muy poco para dividir: "Le estoy dando lo ms que puedo". +Primero unas normas. Se forman parejas que juegan cara a cara. +Tenemos algunos otros datos de cuando juegan con computadoras. +Es una diferencia interesante, como se pueden imaginar. +Pero un grupo de los pares de cara a cara acuerdan dividir el dinero uniformemente cada vez. +Aburrido. Simplemente no es interesante neurolgicamente. +Es bueno para ellos. Hacen un montn de dinero. +Pero estamos interesados en si podemos decir algo sobre lo que ocurre cuando hay o no desacuerdos. +As que este es el otro grupo de sujetos que a menudo no estn de acuerdo. +Tienen la oportunidad de pelear y no estar de acuerdo y terminar con menos dinero. +Podran seleccionados para un "Real Housewives", el programa de televisin. +Lo ven a la izquierda, cuando la cantidad a dividir es 1, 2 o 3 dlares, discrepan la mitad del tiempo, y cuando la cantidad es de 4, 5, 6, acuerdan ms a menudo. +Esto resulta ser predicho por un tipo de teora de juegos muy complicado, tienen que venir a graduarse en CalTech y aprenderla. +Es un poco complicado explicarla ahora, pero la teora dice que debera producirse este tipo de forma. +Su intuicin podra decrselos tambin. +Ahora voy a mostrarle los resultados de la grabacin de EEG. +Muy complicada. El esquema cerebral derecho es de la persona desinformada, y el de la izquierda es el informado. +Recuerden que examinamos los dos cerebros a la vez, as que podemos preguntar sobre su actividad en tiempo sincronizado en reas similares o diferentes al mismo tiempo, al igual que si quisieran estudiar una conversacin y escanean dos personas hablando entre s y esperarn una actividad comn en regiones del lenguaje cuando estn realmente escuchando y comunicndose. +As que las flechas conectan regiones que estn activas al mismo tiempo, y la direccin de las flechas fluye de la regin que est activa de primero, y la punta de flecha va a la regin que est activa despus. +En este caso, si se mira cuidadosamente, la mayora de las flechas fluyen de derecha a izquierda. +Es decir, parece como si la actividad cerebral desinformada sucediera primero y luego es seguida por la actividad del cerebro informado. +Y por cierto, estos son ensayos donde se hicieron acuerdos. +Se trata de los primeros dos segundos. +No hemos terminado de analizar estos datos, as que todava estamos leyndolos, pero la esperanza es que podamos decir algo del primer par de segundos sobre si habr un acuerdo o no, lo que podra ser muy til pensando en evitar litigios y divorcios penosos, y cosas as. +Son todos los casos en que se pierde un gran valor por demora y huelgas. +Aqu es el caso donde se producen los desacuerdos. +Se puede ver que es diferente al anterior. +Hay muchas ms flechas. +Eso significa que el cerebro se sincroniza hacia arriba ms cerca en trminos de actividad simultnea, y las flechas van claramente de izquierda a derecha. +Es decir, el cerebro informado parece decidir, "Probablemente no vamos a hacer un trato aqu". +Y luego, ms tarde, hay actividad en el cerebro desinformado. +A continuacin voy a presentarles a algunos familiares. +Son peludos, malolientes, rpidos y fuertes. +Podran estar pensando en su ltimo da de Accin de Gracias. +Tal vez si tuvieron un chimpanc con Uds. +Charles Darwin y yo y t nos separamos del rbol genealgico de los chimpancs hace unos 5 millones aos. +Todava son nuestros parientes genticos ms cercanos. +Compartimos el 98,8 % de los genes. +Compartimos ms genes con ellos que las cebras con los caballos. +Y somos tambin sus primos ms cercanos. +Tienen ms relacin gentica con nosotros que con los gorilas. +As que, qu tan diferentemente se comportan los seres humanos y los chimpancs puede decirnos mucho sobre la evolucin del cerebro. +Esta es una increble prueba de memoria del Primate Research Institute, de Nagoya, Japn donde han hecho mucha investigacin de este tipo. +Esto va hacia mucho tiempo atrs. Estn interesados en la memoria de trabajo. +El chimpanc que vern, observen cuidadosamente, van a ver la exposicin 200 milisegundos eso es rpido, son 8 cuadros de la pelcula de nmeros 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. +Luego desaparecen y son substituidos por cuadrados, y tienen que presionar los cuadrados que corresponden a los nmeros de menor a mayor para obtener una manzana de recompensa. +Veamos cmo lo hacen. +Se trata de un chimpanc joven. Los jvenes son mejores que los mayores, como los seres humanos. +Y estn muy experimentados, ya que han hecho esto miles y miles de veces. +Obviamente hay un efecto de entrenamiento, como se imaginarn. +Pueden ver estn muy indiferentes, como sin esfuerzo. +No solo lo hacen muy bien, lo hacen con una especie de pereza. +Verdad? Quin piensa que los podra vencer? +Equivocado. Podemos tratar. Intentaremos. Tal vez intentaremos. +Bien, as que la siguiente parte de este estudio, voy a ir rpidamente, est basada en una idea de Tetsuro Matsuzawa. +l tena una idea audaz que llam la hiptesis de intercambio cognitivo. +Sabemos que los chimpancs son ms rpidos y ms fuertes. +Tambin son muy obsesionados con el estatus. +Su pensamiento fue, tal vez han conservado actividades del cerebro y las practican en el desarrollo, ya que son muy, muy importantes para ellos para negociar el estatus y ganar, que es algo as como el pensamiento estratgico durante la competicin. +As que vamos a echar un vistazo poniendo a los chimpancs jugar un juego tocando dos pantallas tctiles. +Los chimpancs estn realmente interactuando entre s a travs de las computadoras. +Van a presionar la izquierda o la derecha. +Un chimpanc se llama 'matcher'. +Gana si presionan izquierda, izquierda, como buscando a alguien en escondidas, o derecha, derecha. +Los 'mismatcher' quieren discrepancia. +Quieren presionar la pantalla contraria al otro chimpanc. +Y las recompensas son pedazos de manzana. +Aqu est cmo los tericos de juegos miran estos datos. +Se trata de un grfico del porcentaje de veces que el 'matcher' escogi derecho en el eje de las x, y el porcentaje de veces que predijeron bien al 'mismatcher' en el eje de las y. +Un punto aqu es el comportamiento de un par de jugadores, uno tratando de hacer coincidir, uno tratando de discrepar. +El cuadrante NE en el centro realmente NE, CH y QRE son tres diferentes teoras del equilibrio de Nash, y otros, lo que predice la teora, que es que deben coincidir 50-50, porque si juegas izquierda demasiado, por ejemplo, puedo aprovechar si soy la 'mismatcher' jugando a la derecha. +Y como pueden ver, los chimpancs, cada chimpanc es un tringulo, estn circulando alrededor, revoloteando alrededor de esa prediccin. +Ahora pasamos a los pagos. +Realmente vamos a hacer el beneficio de la izquierda, izquierda para el 'matcher', sea un poco mayor. +Ahora llegan 3 trozos de manzana. +Tericamente, realmente debe cambiar de comportamiento del 'mismatcher', porque lo que pasa es que el 'mismatcher' va a pensar, oh, este chico va a ir por el gran premio, y as que voy a ir a la derecha, asegurndome de que no lo consigue. +Y como pueden ver, su comportamiento se mueve hacia arriba en la direccin de este cambio en el equilibrio de Nash. +Finalmente, cambiamos los pagos una vez ms. +Ahora son 4 trozos de manzana, y su comportamiento se dirige nuevamente hacia el equilibrio de Nash. +Se dispersa, pero en promedio los chimpancs estn muy, muy cerca, dentro del 0,01. +Estn realmente ms cerca que cualquier especie que hayamos observado. +Qu pasa con los seres humanos? Creen que son ms inteligentes que un chimpanc? +Aqu hay dos grupos humanos en verde y azul. +Estn cerca de 50-50. No estn respondiendo a los pagos tan de cerca, y si tambin estudiamos su aprendizaje en el juego, no son tan sensibles a las recompensas anteriores. +Los chimpancs juegan mejor que los seres humanos, mejor en el sentido de adherirse a la teora de juegos. +Y estos son dos grupos diferentes de seres humanos de Japn y frica. Replican muy bien. +Ninguno est cerca de donde estn los chimpancs. +As que aqu hay algunas cosas que hemos aprendido hoy. +La gente parece hacer una cantidad limitada de pensamiento estratgico usando la teora de la mente. +Tenemos algunas pruebas preliminares de la negociacin que dan alertas tempranas en el cerebro que pueden utilizarse para predecir si va a haber un duro desacuerdo que cueste dinero, y que los chimpancs son mejores competidores que los seres humanos, segn lo juzgado por la teora de juegos. +Gracias. +Haba una vez, un lugar llamado Lesterlandia. +Lesterlandia se parece mucho a Estados Unidos. +Como Estados Unidos, tiene 311 millones de habitantes, y entre esos 311 millones de habitantes, hay 144 000 que se llaman Lester. +Si Matt est en el pblico, tom eso prestado, lo devuelvo en un segundo, este personaje de tu serie. +Hay 144 000 con nombre Lester, es decir que un 0,05 % se llama Lester. +Los Lesters, en Lesterlandia, tienen un poder extraordinario. +En cada turno electoral hay dos elecciones en Lesterlandia. +Una es la eleccin general. +La otra es la eleccin de Lester. +En una eleccin general votan los ciudadanos pero en la eleccin de Lester, votan los Lesters. +Este es el truco. +Para participar en la eleccin general, tienes que tener mucho xito en la eleccin de Lester. +No necesariamente hay que ganar, pero s tener mucho xito. +Ahora, qu tal anda la democracia en Lesterlandia? +En primer lugar podemos decir como dijo la Suprema Corte en Ciudadanos Unidos, que la gente tiene la influencia final sobre los funcionarios electos, porque, despus de todo, hay una eleccin general, pero solo despus que los Lesters hayan hecho lo suyo con los candidatos que deseen participar en la eleccin general. +En segundo lugar, obviamente, esta dependencia de los Lesters producir una tendencia sutil, subestimada, que podramos llamar camuflada para mantener felices a los Lesters. +Bien, tenemos una democracia, no hay dudas, pero depende de los Lesters y depende de las personas. +Hay un conflicto de dependencias, podramos llamarlas dependencias en conflicto, en funcin de quines sean los Lesters. +Bien. Eso es Lesterlandia. +Ahora hay cosas que quiero que vean, ya descripta Lesterlandia. +En primer lugar, Estados Unidos es Lesterlandia. +Estados Unidos es Lesterlandia. +Estados Unidos tiene ese aspecto, tiene dos elecciones, una que llamamos la eleccin general, y la otra que debemos llamar la eleccin del dinero. +En la eleccin general votan los ciudadanos, si uno tiene ms de 18 aos, en algunos estados si uno tiene ID. +En la eleccin del dinero votan los financiadores. Votan los financiadores, como en Lesterlandia. El truco es, para llegar a la eleccin general, uno debe tener mucho xito en la eleccin del dinero. +No necesariamente hay que ganar. Este es Jerry Brown. +Pero tienes que tener mucho xito. +Esta es la clave: hay tan pocos financiadores relevantes en EE.UU. como Lesters en Lesterlandia. +Dirn, en serio? +Realmente 0,05 %? +Como abogado veo estos nmeros y me parece justo decir que los financiadores relevantes de EE.UU. son el 0,05 %. +En este sentido, los financiadores son los Lesters. +Qu podemos decir de la democracia en EE.UU.? +Bueno, como dijo la Corte Suprema de Ciudadanos Unidos, podramos decir, claro, que la gente tiene la influencia final sobre los funcionarios electos. Tenemos una eleccin general pero solo despus que los financiadores hacen lo suyo con los candidatos que desean participar en esa eleccin general. +En segundo lugar, obviamente, esta dependencia de los financiadores genera una tendencia sutil, subestimada, camuflada, para dejar felices a los financiadores. +Como hara cualquier persona, como lo hacen ellos, desarrollan un sexto sentido, una conciencia constante, de cmo lo que hacen podra afectar su capacidad de recaudar dinero. +Se vuelven, en palabras de "Los expedientes X", metamrficos, dado que cambian de opinin todo el tiempo a la luz de lo que saben les ayudar a recaudar dinero, no en escala 1 a 10, sino en escala 11 a 1000. +Leslie Byrne, demcrata de Virginia, describe que cuando fue al Congreso, un colega le dijo: "Siempre inclnate hacia lo verde". +Para que quede claro, continu, "l no era un ambientalista". As que aqu tenemos una democracia, una democracia que depende de los financiadores y depende de las personas, dependencias en pugna, dependencias en conflicto potencial segn quienes sean los financiadores. +Bueno, Estados Unidos es Lesterlandia, en primer lugar. +En segundo lugar. +Estados Unidos es peor que Lesterlandia, peor que Lesterlandia porque uno imagina que en Lesterlandia si nosotros los Lesters recibimos una carta del gobierno que dice: "Oye, tienes que elegir quin participar en las elecciones generales", quiz pensramos en una aristocracia de los Lesters. +Que hay Lesters en cada sector de la sociedad. +Que hay Lesters ricos, Lesters pobres, Lesters negros, Lesters blancos, no muchos Lesters mujeres, pero dejemos eso a un lado por un segundo. +Tenemos Lesters de todas partes. Podramos pensar: "Qu podramos hacer para mejorar Lesterlandia?" +Sera posible al menos que los Lesters procuraran el bien de Lesterlandia? +Pero en nuestra tierra, en esta tierra, en EE.UU., seguramente hay Lesters de buen corazn por all, muchos entre los aqu presentes hoy, pero la gran mayora de los Lesters, actan para los Lesters, porque las coaliciones mutantes que componen el 0,05 % no lo componen para el inters pblico. +Es para el inters privado. En este sentido, EE.UU. es peor que Lesterlandia. +Y, finalmente, el tercer punto: Lo que uno quiera decir sobre Lesterlandia, contra el contexto histrico, sus tradiciones, en nuestra tierra, en EE.UU., en Lesterlandia hay corrupcin, corrupcin. +Ahora, por corrupcin no digo dinero en efectivo en bolsas entregadas a los miembros del Congreso. +No digo corrupcin en el sentido de Rod Blagojevich. +No hablo de actos criminales. +La corrupcin de la que hablo es perfectamente legal. +Es una corrupcin referente a los constituyentes de la repblica. +Los constituyentes nos dieron lo que llamaron repblica, pero por repblica entendan una democracia representativa, por democracia representativa, entendan un gobierno como lo expres Madison en El Federalista 52, que tiene una rama que dependiera solo de las personas. +Este es el modelo de gobierno. +Tienen a las personas y al gobierno con esta dependencia exclusiva, pero el problema aqu es que el Congreso ha desarrollado una dependencia diferente ya no solo de la gente sino cada vez ms de los financiadores. +Ahora, tambin es una dependencia pero que entra en conflicto con la dependencia solo del pueblo en tanto que los financiadores no son el pueblo. +Eso es corrupcin. +Y hay buenas y malas noticias de esta corrupcin. +Una buena es que es bipartidista, hay corrupcin equiprobable. +Bloquea a la izquierda en una serie de temas que a la izquierda realmente nos importan. +Bloque a la derecha tambin, porque hace los argumentos de principios de la derecha cada vez ms imposibles. +La derecha quiere gobiernos ms pequeos. +Cuando Al Gore era vicepresidente, su equipo quera desregular una porcin significativa de las telecomunicaciones. +El jefe de bancada llev esta idea a Capitol Hill, y cuando vino con la respuesta la respuesta fue: "Ni loco! +Si desregulamos a estos muchachos, "cmo vamos a conseguir dinero de ellos?" +Es un sistema diseado para salvar el statu quo, incluso el statu quo de un gobierno grande e invasivo. +Esto va en contra de la izquierda y de la derecha, y que, podra decirse, es una buena noticia. +Pero esta es la mala noticia. +Es una corrupcin patolgica, que destruye la democracia porque en cualquier sistema en el que los miembros dependan de una nfima parte de la poblacin para su eleccin, o sea que una nfima parte de la poblacin una parte de la poblacin muy pequea, puede bloquear la reforma. +Lo s. Deb haber puesto una piedra o algo as. +Solo encontr queso. Lo siento. Ah lo tienen. +Bloquean la reforma. +Porque es la economa, una economa de las influencias, una economa manejada por grupos de presin que se alimenta de la polarizacin. +Se alimenta de la disfuncin. +Cuanto peor sea para nosotros, mejor es para esta recaudacin de fondos. +Henry David Thoreau: "Hay miles podando las ramas del rbol del mal por cada uno que asesta golpes a la raz". +Esta es la raz. +Ahora, cada uno de nosotros lo sabe. +Uds. no estaran aqu si no supieran esto, pero lo ignoran. +Uds. lo ignoran. Este es un problema imposible. +Uds. se centran en problemas posibles como erradicar la polio del mundo, o de capturar imgenes de cada calle del planeta, o de construir el primer traductor universal, o de construir una fbrica de fusin en el garaje. +Estos son problemas manejables, por eso ignoran... por eso ignoran esta corrupcin. +Pero ya no podemos seguir ignorando esta corrupcin. +Necesitamos un gobierno que funcione. +Y no que funcione para la izquierda o la derecha, sino para la izquierda y la derecha, para ciudadanos de izquierda y derecha, porque no habr reforma sensata posible hasta que terminemos esta corrupcin. +Quiero que tomen un tema que sea de su inters. +El mo es el cambio climtico, pero puede ser la reforma financiera o un sistema impositivo ms simple, o la desigualdad. +Tomen ese tema, pnganlo frente a Uds., mrenlo a los ojos y dganle que este ao no habr Navidad. +Que ya no habr ms Navidad. +Ese tema de Uds. no se resolver hasta que resolvamos este tema primero. +Y no es que mi tema sea el ms importante. No lo es. +El de Uds. es el ms importante, pero el mo es el primer tema, el tema a resolver antes de resolver los temas de su inters. +No hay reforma sensata y no podemos permitirnos un mundo, un futuro, sin una reforma sensata. +Bien. Cmo la hacemos? +El anlisis resulta sencillo, fcil. +Y hacer esto no requiere una enmienda constitucional, no hay que cambiar la Primera Enmienda. +Cualquiera de ellas resolvera esta corrupcin diluyendo la influencia de financiacin entre toda la poblacin. +El anlisis es muy fcil. +Lo difcil, casi imposible, es la poltica porque esta reforma restara poder a K Street, y a Capitol Hill, como el congresista Jim Cooper, demcrata de Tennessee, lo dijo, se ha convertido en un negocio de K Street, un negocio de K Street. +Los congresistas, el personal y los burcratas piensan cada vez ms en un modelo de negocio, un modelo de negocios centrado en su vida despus del gobierno sus vidas como grupos de presin. +El 50 % del Senado entre 1998 y 2004 ces para ser grupo de presin, y el 42 % del Congreso. +Esos nmeros no han dejado de aumentar y segn clculos de United Republic del pasado abril, el incremento salarial medio de quienes ellos dieron seguimiento fue del 1452 % +Entonces cabe preguntarse, cmo pueden cambiar esto? +Entiendo el escepticismo. +Entiendo el cinismo. Entiendo el sentimiento de imposibilidad. +Pero no me lo creo. +Este tema tiene solucin. +Si piensan en los temas que nuestros padres intentaban resolver en el siglo XX, temas como racismo, sexismo, o el tema que hemos combatido en este siglo, la homofobia, esos son temas difciles. +Uno no despierta un da y ya no existe el racismo. +Lleva generaciones quitar esa intuicin, ese ADN, del alma de las personas. +Pero este es solo un problema de incentivos. +Se cambia el incentivo y cambia el comportamiento y los estados que se financian con pocas personas de la noche a la maana cambian esa prctica. +Cuando Connecticut adopt este sistema, en el primer ao, 78 % de los representantes electos abandonaron las grandes contribuciones y tomaron solo pequeas contribuciones. +Tiene solucin, no por ser demcrata, o por ser republicano. +Tiene solucin por ser ciudadanos, ciudadanos, por ser TEDicianos. +Porque si quieren dar un impulso a la reforma, yo puedo darle impulso a la reforma por la mitad del precio con el que se soluciona la poltica energtica yo podra devolverles una repblica. +Bien. Pero incluso si todava no estn de mi lado incluso si creen que es imposible, lo que aprend en los 5 aos desde que habl en TED, como lo he dicho una y otra vez, incluso si creen que es imposible, es irrelevante. +Irrelevante. +Una vez hablaba en Dartmouth, y una mujer se puso de pie despus de mi charla firm el libro y ella me dijo: "Profesor, me ha convencido de que no hay esperanza. +No hay nada que hacer". +Cuando dijo eso, me conmovi. +Trat de pensar, "cmo responder a esa desesperanza? +Qu es esa sensacin de desesperanza?" +Y lo que me impact fue una imagen de mi hijo de seis aos. +Imagin que un mdico me deca: "Tu hijo tiene cncer terminal de cerebro, y no hay nada que hacer. +Nada que puedas hacer". +No hara nada? +Sencillamente me sentara all? Lo aceptara? No hara nada? +Me voy a construir Google Glass. +Claro que no. Hara todo lo posible y hara todo lo posible porque de eso se trata el amor. Las probabilidades son algo irrelevante. Uno hace todo lo posible, pese a las probabilidades. +Y luego vi el vnculo obvio, porque incluso los progresistas amamos a este pas. +Por eso cuando los expertos y los polticos dicen que el cambio es imposible, el amor por el pas responde: "Eso es irrelevante". +Perdemos algo querido, algo que todos los presentes amamos y cuidamos. Para no perder esta repblica, actuamos as haciendo lo posible para demostrar que los expertos se equivocan. +Entonces, les pregunto: Sienten ese amor? +Sienten ese amor? +Si lo sienten, qu diablos estn haciendo al respecto? +Cuando Ben Franklin vino de la convencin constitucional en septiembre de 1787, una mujer lo detuvo en la calle y le dijo: "Sr. Franklin, qu ha forjado?" +Franklin dijo: "Una repblica, seora, mantngala". +Una repblica. Una democracia representativa. +Un gobierno que solo dependa del pueblo. +Hemos perdido esa repblica. +Todos tenemos que actuar para recuperarla. +Muchas gracias. +Gracias. Gracias. Gracias. +Este es el museo de Historia Natural de Rotterdam, donde trabajo como curador. +Cuido la coleccin y trato que crezca. Eso significa que colecciono animales muertos. +En 1995, nos dieron una nueva seccin al lado del museo. +Estaba hecha de vidrio y el edificio me ayud mucho a efectuar mi trabajo de manera eficiente. +El edificio era un asesino de aves. +Uds. saben que las aves no entienden el concepto de vidrio. No lo ven, as que vuelan contra las ventanas y mueren. +Lo nico que tena que hacer era salir, recogerlas y mandarlas a disecar para la coleccin. +En aquellos das, desarroll el odo para identificar aves solo por el sonido de los golpes que hacan contra el vidrio. +El 5 de junio de 1995, escuch un golpe fuerte contra el vidrio que cambi mi vida y termin con la de un pato. +Y esto fue lo que vi cuando mir por la ventana. +Ah est el pato muerto que vol y choc contra la ventana. +Yace muerto tendido sobre su vientre. +Sin embargo, junto al pato muerto se ve un pato vivo, y por favor presten atencin. +Ambos son machos. +Lo que ocurri fue lo siguiente. +El pato vivo se mont sobre el pato muerto, y empez a copular con l. +Bueno, soy bilogo. Soy ornitlogo. +Dije: "Algo est mal aqu". +Uno est muerto, el otro vivo. Eso debe ser necrofilia. +Observo y ambos son machos. +Necrofilia homosexual. +As que... Tom mi cmara, tom mi cuaderno, tom una silla, y empec a observar este comportamiento. +Despus de 75 minutos... Haba visto lo suficiente, me dio hambre y quera irme a casa. +As que sal, recog el pato, y antes de que lo metiera al congelador, verifiqu si la vctima era en realidad de sexo masculino. +Y aqu est una rara fotografa del pene de un pato, en efecto s era macho. +Es una fotografa extraa porque hay 10 000 especies de aves y slo 300 tienen pene. +[Primer caso de necrofilia homosexual en la especie de patos reales Anas platiricos (Aves: Anatidae)] Saba que haba visto algo especial, sin embargo me llev 6 aos decidir si lo publicaba. +Digo, es un buen tema para una fiesta de cumpleaos o cuando los colegas se renen alrededor en la mquina de caf, pero compartirlo con tus colegas es algo diferente. +No contaba con la estructura para hacerlo. +As que despus de 6 aos, mis amigos y colegas me alentaron a publicarlo, y publiqu "El primer caso de necrofilia homosexual... ...en nades reales". +Y aqu est de nuevo la situacin, +A es mi oficina, B es el lugar donde el pato choc contra el vidrio, y C es el lugar donde lo observ. +Y aqu est de nuevo la fotografa de los patos. +Como probablemente saben, en la ciencia, cuando uno escribe un documento especial, slo 6 o 7 personas lo leen. +Pero luego pas algo interesante. +Recib una llamada de una persona de nombre Marc Abrahams, y me dijo, "Has ganado un premio por tu artculo del pato: el Premio Ig Nobel". +Y el premio Ig Novel... El premio Ig Nobel honra la investigacin que primero hace rer a las personas, y despus las hace pensar, para que ms personas se interesen en la ciencia. +Eso es algo bueno, as que acept el premio. +Les recordar que Marc Abrahams no me llam desde Estocolmo. +Me llam desde Cambridge, Massachusetts. +As que viaj a Boston, de ah a Cambridge, y fui a la maravillosa ceremonia de entrega de los premios Ig Nobel que se celebr en la Universidad de Harvard, y dicha ceremonia es una experiencia muy hermosa. +Verdaderas premios Nobel entregan los premios. +Esa es la primera parte; +y otros 9 ganadores tambin reciben premios. +Aqu esta uno de mis colegas ganadores. Es Charles Paxton ganador del premio de biologa del ao 2000 por su trabajo "El comportamiento de cortejo entre avestruces y humanos en condiciones de crianza en Bretaa". +Y creo que hay uno o dos ms de los ganadores del premio Ig Nobel en esta sala. +Dnde ests Dan Ariely? +Aplausos para Dan! +Dan gan el premio de medicina por su trabajo de demostrar que los medicamentos falsos de alto precio funcionan mejor que los medicamentos falsos de bajo precio. +Este es mi minuto de gloria, mi discurso de aceptacin, y este es el pato. +Esta es la primera vez que viene a la costa oeste de Estados Unidos. +Lo voy a pasar para que lo vean. +Bueno? +Pueden pasarlo unos a otros. +Por favor tengan en cuenta que es un espcimen de museo, no hay ningn riesgo de contraer la gripe aviar. +Despus de ganar este premio, mi vida cambi. +En primer lugar, la gente comenz a enviarme todo tipo de asuntos relacionados con los patos y obtuve una muy buena coleccin. +Ms importante an, la gente comenz a mandarme sus observaciones de comportamiento animal peculiar, y cranme, si hay un animal que est comportndose mal en este planeta, yo lo conozco. +Este es un alce. +Es un alce tratando de copular con la estatua de bronce de un bisonte. +Se encuentra en Montana y ocurri en 2008. +Aqu tenemos un sapo que trata de copular con un pez dorado. +Eso ocurri en los Pases Bajos, el ao 2011. +Estos son sapos de la caa en Australia. +Este es un animal muerto en el camino. +Por favor noten que se trata de necrofilia. +La posicin es notable. +La posicin del misionero es muy rara en el reino animal. +Estas son palomas en Rotterdam. +Golondrinas en Hong Kong, en el ao 2004. +Este es un pavo en Wisconsin en los terrenos del instituto correccional juvenil de Ethan Allen. +El acto llev todo el da, y los prisioneros lo pasaron muy bien. +Qu significa esto? +Me pregunto: Por qu ocurre esto en la naturaleza? +Bueno, llegu a la conclusin estudiando todos estos casos de que es importante que esto suceda solo cuando la muerte haya sido instantnea de manera dramtica y en la posicin adecuada para permitir la copulacin. +Por lo menos, eso es lo que crea hasta que obtuve estas diapositivas. +Aqu Uds. ven un pato muerto. +Ha estado muerto 3 das y est tendido de espaldas. +As que ah falla mi teora de la necrofilia. +Otro ejemplo del impacto de los edificios de vidrio sobre la vida de las aves. +Este es Mad Max, un mirlo que vive en Rotterdam. +Lo nico que haca este pjaro era volar contra una ventana de 2004 a 2008, todos los das. +Aqu lo vemos, y se lo muestra en este corto video. +Este mirlo pelea contra su propia imagen. +En ella ve a un intruso en su propio territorio, y vuelve todo el tiempo y l est ah, es una lucha sin fin. +Estudi esta ave un par de aos y pens: no debera tener daos cerebrales? +No los tiene. Les muestro aqu algunas diapositivas, algunos cuadros del video, y en el ltimo momento antes de golpear el vidrio, pone sus patas de frente, y entonces golpea contra el vidrio. +As que terminar invitndolos al Da del Pato Muerto. +Es el 5 de junio de cada ao. +A las 6 menos 5 de la tarde, nos reunimos en el Museo de Historia Natural de Rotterdam, sacamos al pato del museo, y tratamos de descubrir nuevas maneras de evitar que los pjaros se estrellen contra las ventanas. +Y como saben, o quiz no lo saben, esta es una de las principales causas de muerte de pjaros en el mundo. +Slo en Estados Unidos, mueren 1000 millones de aves estrelladas contra los vidrios de los edificios. +Y cuando terminamos, nos vamos a un restaurante chino y cenamos pato. +As que espero verlos el prximo ao en Rotterdam, Pases Bajos, para el Da del Pato Muerto. +Gracias! +Oh, perdn! +Me pueden devolver el pato por favor? +Gracias! +Hoy les voy a presentar un vehculo elctrico que pesa menos que una bicicleta, que puedes llevar contigo a donde quieras, que se puede cargar en 15 minutos en cualquier tomacorriente, y puede recorrer 1 000 km con cerca de un dlar de electricidad. +Pero cuando digo las palabras "vehculo elctrico", las personas piensan en vehculos. Piensan en automviles, en motocicletas y bicicletas, y en los vehculos que usan da a da. +Pero si lo piensas desde una perspectiva diferente, puedes crear conceptos ms interesantes, ms novedosos. +As que construimos algo. +Tengo algunas de las piezas aqu en mi bolsillo. +Este es el motor. +Este motor tiene la potencia suficiente para llevarte por las colinas de San Francisco a unas 20 millas por hora, cerca de 30 kilmetros por hora, y esta batera, esta que ven aqu tiene una autonoma de unas 6 millas, o 10 kilmetros, lo suficiente para cubrir la mitad de los viajes en automvil que se realizan en EE.UU. +Pero lo mejor sobre estas piezas es que las compramos en una tienda de juguetes. +Estas salieron de aviones a control remoto. +Y el rendimiento de estas cosas ha avanzado tanto que si piensas en los vehculos de una manera diferente, realmente puedes cambiar las cosas. +Hoy les mostraremos un ejemplo de cmo usar esto. +Presten atencin, no solo a lo divertido que es, sino tambin a que su facilidad de transporte puede cambiar totalmente la forma en que interactuamos con una ciudad como San Francisco. +[10 km de autonoma] [Velocidad mxima aprox. 32 km/h] [Cuesta Arriba] [Freno Regenerativo] Vamos a mostrarles lo que puede hacer. +Es realmente fcil de manejar. Tienes un control remoto manual, as que puedes controlar fcilmente la aceleracin, el freno, puedes ir en reversa y luego frenar. +Es increble lo liviana que es. +Es decir, es algo que puedes recoger y llevar contigo a todas partes. +Los dejar con uno de los hechos ms convincentes sobre esta tecnologa y este tipo de vehculos. +Esto utiliza 20 veces menos energa que un auto, por cada milla o kilmetro que recorres, lo que significa que esto no solo carga rpidamente y construirlo es muy barato, sino que tambin reduce la huella de tu consumo energtico en relacin con tu transporte. +Por lo tanto, en lugar de precisar grandes cantidades de energa para que cada persona en esta sala se transporte en una ciudad, ahora podemos considerar cantidades ms reducidas y una forma de transporte ms sostenible. +As que la prxima vez que piensen en un vehculo, espero que piensen en algo nuevo, al igual que nosotros. +Gracias. +Hoy quiero hablar un poco sobre esfuerzo y trabajo. +Cuando reflexionamos sobre el modo en que trabajamos la percepcin simplista que tenemos es que las personas son como ratas en un laberinto: que no se interesan sino por el dinero y tan pronto les ofrecemos dinero podemos dirigir su trabajo de un modo, podemos dirigir su trabajo de otro modo. +Por eso bonificamos a los banqueros y tenemos diversas formas de pago. +Y de verdad tenemos esta creencia increblemente simplista sobre las razones por las cuales se trabaja y la composicin del mercado laboral. +Al mismo tiempo, si lo pensamos detenidamente, el mundo que nos rodea abunda en comportamientos extraos. +Pensemos en el montaismo. +Si leemos libros de personas que escalan montaas, montaas difciles, Creen que esos libros rebosan de momentos alegres y felices? +No, estn llenos de sufrimiento. +En realidad, todos se refieren a congelacin y dificultad para caminar y dificultad para respirar... fro, circunstancias difciles. +Y si la gente solo intentara ser feliz, apenas coronaran la cima, deberan decir: "Comet un tremendo error. +Nunca lo volver a hacer". +"Ms bien, sentmonos en una playa en algn lugar a tomar mojitos". +En cambio, la gente desciende y despus de recuperarse, vuelve a escalar. +Pensar en el montaismo como ejemplo, sugiere todo tipo de cosas. +Sugiere que nos interesa alcanzar el final, una cumbre. +Sugiere que nos interesa el combate, el desafo. +Sugiere que existe toda suerte de cosas que nos motivan a trabajar o a comportarnos de modos muy diversos. +En mi caso personal, empec a reflexionar sobre esto despus de la visita de un estudiante. +Era un estudiante de un curso que dict hace algunos aos. Y un da regres al campus. +Y me cont lo siguiente: Me dijo que haba trabajado en una presentacin por ms de dos semanas. +Trabajaba para un banco importante. Se preparaba la fusin y adquisicin de una empresa. +Y trabajaba arduamente en la presentacin: grficos, tablas, informacin. +Trasnochaba todos los das. +Y un da antes de entregarla, le envi la presentacin a su jefe, quien le respondi: "Buena presentacin, pero la fusin se cancel". +Y el tipo cay en una profunda depresin. +Ahora bien, en los momentos en que trabajaba en verdad era feliz por completo. +Todas las noches disfrutaba de su trabajo, trasnochaba, perfeccionaba la presentacin. +Pero, saber que nadie la vera lo hizo sentir totalmente deprimido. +As que empec a pensar en cul es la experiencia que tenemos con la idea del fruto de nuestro esfuerzo. +Y para empezar, creamos un pequeo experimento en el que dbamos Legos a las personas, y les pedamos que los ensamblaran. +Y a algunas personas, les dimos Legos y les dijimos: "Les gustara armar este Bionicle por USD 3? +Les pagaremos USD 3 por armarlo". +Y la gente deca que s, y armaba los Legos. +Y cuando terminaban, los recibamos y los colocbamos bajo la mesa, y decamos: "Armaran otro, esta vez por USD 2,70?" +Si decan que s, les dbamos otro. Y cuando terminaban, les preguntbamos, "Quieren armar otro?" por USD 2,40, USD 2,10 y as sucesivamente, hasta que en algn momento decan: "No ms, ya no me interesa". +Esto es lo que denominamos la situacin significativa. +La gente construa un Bionicle tras otro. +Despus que terminaban uno, lo colocbamos debajo de la mesa. +Y les decamos que al terminar el experimento bamos a recogerlos y a desarmarlos, los devolveramos a las cajas y el siguiente participante los usaba. +Haba otra condicin. +Para esta otra situacin me inspir en David, mi estudiante. +Y esta otra situacin se denomin la situacin de Ssifo. +Y si recuerdan la historia de Ssifo, Ssifo fue condenado por los dioses a empujar siempre la misma piedra cuesta arriba por una colina y cuando estaba a punto de llegar a la cima, la roca se resbalaba y tena que comenzar de nuevo. +Y podemos pensar que esta es la esencia de la realizacin de trabajos intiles. +Podemos imaginar que si empujara la roca en diferentes colinas por lo menos tendra alguna sensacin de progreso. +As mismo, si miramos pelculas sobre prisiones, algunas veces un modo en que los guardias torturan a los prisioneros es hacerles cavar un hoyo y cuando terminan, pedirles que lo tapen y lo vuelvan a cavar. +Algo ocurre con esta versin cclica de realizar algo una y otra vez y otra vez que parece especialmente desmotivante. +Eso fue exactamente lo que hicimos con la segunda situacin del experimento. +Le preguntamos a la gente: "Quieren armar un Bionicle por USD 3? +Si contestaban afirmativamente, lo armaban. +Despus les preguntbamos: "Quieren armar otro por USD 2,70?" +Si contestaban afirmativamente, les dbamos uno nuevo. y mientras lo armaban desarmbamos el que recin haban terminado. +Y cuando terminaban el nuevo, les decamos: "Armaran otro, esta vez por 30 centavos menos?" +Y si aceptaban, le dbamos el que ellos haban armado y nosotros desarmamos. +As que este era un crculo sin fin en el que ellos armaban y nosotros desarmbamos frente a sus narices. +Ahora bien, qu sucede cuando comparamos estas dos situaciones? +Lo primero que ocurra era que la gente armaba ms Bionicles --11 contra 7-- en la situacin significativa, a diferencia de la situacin de Ssifo. +Y a propsito, tenemos que mencionar que no era algo tan significativo. +La gente no estaba curando el cncer o construyendo puentes. +Estaban armando Bionicles por unos pocos centavos. +Y no solo eso, todos saban que bamos a desarmar los Bionicles muy pronto. +As que no haba espacio para grandes significados. +Pero hasta lo menos significativo hace la diferencia. +Tenemos otra versin de este experimento. +En esta otra versin del experimento, no colocbamos a las personas en esta situacin, simplemente les describamos las circunstancias, del mismo modo en que las describo ahora, y les pedamos que anticiparan el resultado. +Qu ocurri? +La gente predijo la direccin correcta pero no la cantidad. +Las personas a las que solo se les dio la descripcin del experimento dijeron que en la situacin significativa la gente probablemente armara un Bionicle adicional. +As que la gente tiene claro que lo significativo importa, pero no entienden la magnitud de la importancia, hasta que punto es importante. +Hay otra porcin de informacin que revisamos. +Si reflexionamos, hay algunas personas a las que les encantan los Legos, y hay otras a las que no. +Y podramos especular que a aquellos que les encantan armarn ms Legos, incluso por menos dinero, porque despus de todo, obtienen una satisfaccin interna mayor. +Y las personas que gustan menos del Lego, armarn menos porque les produce una satisfaccin menor. +Y eso fue lo que de hecho encontramos en la situacin significativa. +Haba una buena correlacin entre el gusto por el Lego y la cantidad de Legos armados. +Qu ocurra en la situacin de Ssifo? +En esa situacin la correlacin fue cero. No exista relacin entre el gusto por el Lego y las cantidades armadas, lo que me sugiere que con esta maniobra de desarmarlos frente a las narices de la gente, en esencia le quitbamos cualquier disfrute a la actividad. +Bsicamente lo eliminamos. +Al poco tiempo de terminar este experimento, fui a dar una charla en una gran compaa de software en Seattle. +No les puedo decir el nombre, pero era una gran compaa de Seattle. +Y haba un grupo en esta compaa de software que tuvo una reunin en un edificio alterno. Les pidieron que innovaran y crearan el prximo gran producto de la empresa. +Y la semana anterior a mi presentacin, el director ejecutivo de esta gran compaa de software se dirigi al grupo, 200 ingenieros, y cancel el proyecto. +Termin parado frente las 200 personas ms deprimidas ante las que he hablado. +Y les cont sobre algunos de estos experimentos con Legos. y me dijeron que se sentan como si acabaran de participar en ese experimento. +Y les pregunt: "Cuntos de Uds. llegan al trabajo ms tarde que de costumbre?" +Y todos levantaron la mano. +Dije: "Cuntos de Uds. se van a casa ms temprano que de costumbre?" +Y todos levantaron la mano. +Les pregunt "Cuntos de Uds. agregan cosas no tan apropiadas en los informes de gastos?" +Y en realidad no levantaron la mano, pero me invitaron a cenar y me mostraron lo qu podan hacer con las cuentas de gastos. +Y entonces les pregunt: "Qu podra haber hecho el presidente para que no se sintieran tan deprimidos?" +Y me respondieron con toda suerte de ideas. +Dijeron que el presidente poda haberles pedido que hicieran una presentacin ante la compaa en pleno sobre su trayecto en los ltimos dos aos y lo que decidieron hacer. +Les pudo pedir que pensaran sobre los aspectos de su tecnologa que pudieran servir a otras secciones de la organizacin. +Les podran haber solicitado la construccin de algunos prototipos de prxima generacin, y observar su funcionamiento. +Pero la idea es que cualquiera de estas propuestas necesitara algn esfuerzo y motivacin. +Y creo bsicamente que el presidente no entendi la importancia de lo que tiene sentido. +Si el presidente, como nuestros participantes, pensaba que la esencia de lo significativo no importa, entonces no se preocupaba. +Y habra dicho: "En ese momento les di rdenes en un sentido, y ahora que les estoy dirigiendo en otro sentido todo va a salir bien". +Pero si entendemos la importancia de lo significativo entonces, nos daramos cuenta de que en realidad es importante dedicar algo de tiempo, energa y esfuerzo para lograr que la gente se interese en lo que hace. +El siguiente experimento fue un poco diferente. +Tomamos una hoja de papel llena de letras desordenadas, y le pedimos a las personas que encontraran pares de letras contiguas iguales. +Esa era la tarea. +Y las personas terminaron la primera hoja. Y despus les preguntamos si queran trabajar la siguiente hoja por un poco menos de dinero y la siguiente por un poco menos, y as sucesivamente. +Y tenamos tres situaciones. +En la primera situacin, las personas escriban su nombre sobre la hoja, encontraban todas las parejas de letras, y se la entregaban al encargado. El encargado la miraba de arriba a abajo, deca "aj, aj" y la colocaba en una pila a su lado. +En la segunda situacin, las personas no colocaban su nombre en la hoja. +El encargado los miraba, tomaba la hoja de papel, no la miraba, no la examinaba, y simplemente la colocaba en la pila de hojas. +As que tombamos la hoja, y simplemente la dejbamos a un lado. +Y en la tercera situacin, el encargado reciba la hoja de papel y la colocaba directamente en la trituradora de papeles. +Qu ocurra en esas tres situaciones? +En esta grfica les muestro el monto en el cual las personas se detenan. +As que las cifras bajas indican que las personas trabajaron ms intensamente y por mucho ms tiempo. +En la situacin de reconocimiento, las personas trabajaron hasta por 15 centavos. +A los 15 centavos por pgina, la mayora dej de esforzarse. +En la situacin de la trituradora, la cifra fue el doble: 30 centavos por hoja. +Y este es en esencia el resultado que obtuvimos antes. +Cuando trituras los esfuerzos de la gente, su produccin, logras que no estn tan satisfechos con lo que hacen. +Pero a propsito, debera resaltar, que en la situacin de la trituradora, las personas pudieron haber hecho trampa. +Pudieron haber realizado un trabajo mediocre, porque se dieron cuenta que las personas tiraban su trabajo a la trituradora. +As que en la primera hoja haran un buen trabajo, pero luego se daran cuenta que en realidad nadie lo revisaba, y podran hacer ms y ms y ms. +De hecho, en la situacin de la trituradora, las personas podran haber entregado ms trabajo y haber ganado ms dinero con menor esfuerzo. +Pero, Qu pas con la situacin en que su trabajo se ignoraba? Sera esta situacin parecida a la de reconocimiento o ms similar a la de la trituradora o un punto intermedio? +Result que fue casi como la de la trituradora. +As que aqu hay dos noticias, una buena y una mala. +La mala noticia es que ignorar el desempeo de las personas es casi tan malo como triturar sus esfuerzos frente a sus narices. +Ignorar nos coloca en una situacin parecida. +La buena noticia es que simplemente mirar algo que alguien ha hecho, examinarlo y decir "aj, aj", parece ser suficiente para incrementar radicalmente la motivacin de la gente. +As que la buena noticia es que aumentar la motivacin no parece ser tan difcil. +La mala noticia es que eliminar la motivacin parece ser increblemente fcil, y si no le prestamos atencin, podremos excedernos. +Hasta aqu fue todo en trminos de motivacin negativa o eliminacin de motivacin negativa. +La siguiente parte que voy a exponer tiene que ver con la motivacin positiva. +En los EE.UU. hay una tienda llamada IKEA. +IKEA es una tienda de muebles de buena calidad cuyo ensamble requiere mucho tiempo. +No s Uds., pero cada vez que ensamblo uno de esos muebles, me toma ms tiempo, ms esfuerzo y es mucho ms confuso. Coloco las partes al revs. No puedo decir que me gustan esos muebles. +No puedo decir que me gusta el proceso. +Pero cuando los termino, los muebles de IKEA me gustan, ms que otros. +Hay un cuento antiguo sobre las mezclas para tortas. +Y es que cuando comenzaron las mezclas para tortas en los aos 40, tomaban un polvo y lo colocaban en una caja, y bsicamente le pedan a las amas de casa que lo vertieran y le agregaran un poco de agua, que lo mezclaran y lo pusieran en el horno, y --por arte de magia!-- lograban una torta. +Pero result que no tuvieron mucho xito. +La gente no los quera. Y pensaron cules podran ser las razones para explicarlo. +Tal vez el sabor no era bueno. +No, el sabor era excelente. +Descubrieron que la preparacin no exiga mucho esfuerzo. +Era tan sencillo que nadie poda ofrecer torta a sus invitados y decirles: "Esta es mi torta". +No, no, no, era la torta de otra persona. Era como si la hubieran comprado en una tienda. +En verdad no se senta como propia. +Entonces qu hicieron? +Retiraron los huevos y la leche del polvo de la mezcla. +Ahora, haba que romper los huevos y aadirlos. Haba que medir la leche y agregarla, mezclarla. +Ahora era una torta propia. Todo estaba bien. +Ahora pienso un poco ms en el efecto IKEA, al hacer que la gente se esfuerce ms, realmente logran que se encarien ms con lo que construyen. +Entonces, cmo enfocamos esta incgnita experimentalmente? +Le pedimos a algunas personas que confeccionaran un origami. +Les dimos instrucciones para confeccionarlos, y les ofrecimos una hoja de papel. +Como todos eran aprendices, el resultado fue totalmente antiesttico: ninguno se pareca a una rana o una grulla. +Pero entonces les dijimos: "Miren, este origami nos pertenece, +Uds. trabajaron para nosotros, pero, saben qu?, se los vendemos. +Cunto estn dispuestos a pagar?" +Y medimos cunto estaban dispuestos a pagar. +Y nos encontramos con dos tipos de personas. La personas que los confeccionaron, y quienes no los confeccionaron y los contemplaban como simples observadores externos. +Y encontramos que los constructores pensaban que eran una hermosas piezas de origami, y estaban dispuestos a pagar cinco veces ms que las personas que simplemente las haban evaluado externamente. +Si Uds. fueran los constructores podran decir, "Me encanta este origami, pero s que a nadie ms le gustar" +O "Me encanta este origami, y a todos les gustar tambin". +Cul de los dos es el correcto? +Result que los constructores no solo apreciaban ms su obra, sino que crean que todos veran el mundo desde su perspectiva. +Crean que tambin a todos les gustara ms. +En la siguiente versin tratamos de lograr el efecto IKEA. +Tratamos de volverlo ms difcil. +As que a algunas personas les dimos la misma tarea. +Para algunos lo volvimos ms difcil ocultando las instrucciones. +En la parte superior de la hoja, haba pequeos diagramas que indicaban cmo doblar el origami. +Para algunos simplemente eliminamos esa parte. +As que ahora era ms difcil. Qu ocurri? +Bueno, de un modo objetivo, ahora el origami era ms antiesttico, era ms difcil. +Ahora, cuando consideramos el origami fcil, encontramos lo mismo: a los origamistas les gustaba ms, pero a los evaluadores menos. +Cuando consideramos el de instrucciones difciles, el efecto era mayor. +Por qu? Porque ahora a los constructores les gustaba ms. +Les signific un esfuerzo adicional. +Y a los evaluadores? Les gustaba mucho menos. +Porque en realidad eran ms antiestticos que la primera versin. +Por supuesto, esto dice algo sobre la forma en que evaluamos. +Ahora, piensen los nios. +Imaginen que les pregunte, "en cuanto venderan a sus hijos?" +Sus recuerdos y vnculos y dems. +La mayora dira que por mucho, mucho dinero... +si ese da se portaron bien. +Pero imaginemos algo un poco diferente. +Hagan de cuenta que no tienen hijos, +y un da fueran al parque y conocieran algunos nios, +y estos nios fueran iguales a sus hijos. Y jugaran con ellos unas cuantas horas. Y cuando estuvieran a punto de irse, los padres les dijeran: "Por cierto, antes de que se vayan, si les interesan estn a la venta". +Ahora cunto pagaran por ellos? +La mayora dira que no tanto. +Y esto ocurre porque nuestros hijos son tan valiosos no precisamente por quines son, sino por nosotros, por su conexin ntima con nosotros y debido al tiempo y al vnculo. +Y por cierto, si creen que las instrucciones de IKEA no son buenas, piensen en las instrucciones que traen los hijos. Esas s son complejas. +Por cierto, estos son mis hijos, que, por supuesto, son maravillosos, etc. +Lo que me lleva a decirles algo ms, que del mismo modo que nuestros constructores, cuando miran los frutos de su creacin, no nos percatamos que los otros no ven las cosas desde nuestra perspectiva. +Djenme decirles un ltimo comentario. +Si contrastamos a Adam Smith con Karl Marx, Adam Smith tena la importantsima nocin de la eficiencia. +Ofreci el ejemplo de una fbrica de alfileres. +Dijo que los alfileres tenan 12 procesos diferentes, y si una sola persona haca los 12 procesos, la produccin sera muy baja. +Pero si se lograba que una persona hiciera el primer proceso y una persona hiciera el proceso dos y el proceso tres y as sucesivamente, la produccin se poda incrementar enormemente. +Y efectivamente, este es un gran ejemplo y la razn detrs de la Revolucin Industrial y la eficiencia. +Karl Marx, por otro lado, deca que hay que tener muy en cuenta la alienacin de la mano de obra en el modo en que las personas piensan sobre su relacin con lo que estn haciendo. +Y si alguien realiza los 12 procedimientos, va a importarle ms el alfiler. +Pero si realiza el mismo paso siempre, tal vez no le importe tanto. +Y creo que durante la Revolucin Industrial Adam Smith tena ms razn que Karl Marx, +pero la realidad es que ha ocurrido un cambio y ahora estamos en la economa del conocimiento. +Y nos podemos preguntar, qu ocurre en una economa del conocimiento? +Todava importa ms la eficiencia que el sentido? +Creo que la respuesta es no. +Creo que en la medida en que entramos en circunstancias en las cuales las personas deben decidir por s mismas sobre la cantidad de esfuerzo, atencin, cuidado y grado de conexin que sienten, si piensan en sus labores cuando van al trabajo, y en la ducha y en otros sitios, de pronto, Marx tiene ms que contarnos. +As que cuando pensamos en el trabajo, generalmente pensamos que la motivacin y la paga son lo mismo, pero la realidad es que probablemente deberamos aadirle todo tipo de cosas: sentido, creacin, desafos, pertenencia, identidad, orgullo, etc. +Y la buena noticia es que si aadimos todos estos componentes y los consideramos, cmo creamos nuestro propio sentido, orgullo, motivacin y cmo lo creamos en nuestros lugares de trabajo y para los empleados, creo que podemos lograr que las personas sean ms productivas y ms felices. +Muchas gracias. +Este soy yo construyendo un prototipo durante 6 horas de corrido. +Fui mano de obra esclava de mi propio proyecto. +As es como los movimientos "Hazlo T Mismo" y 'maker' son en la realidad. +Y esto es una analoga del mundo actual de la construccin y manufactura qu usa tcnicas de ensamblaje a fuerza bruta. +Y esta es la razn por la cual comenc a estudiar cmo programar a los materiales fsicos para que se construyeran solos. +Pero hay otro mundo. +Hoy en da, en materia de microescala y nanoescala, se est viviendo una revolucin sin precedentes. +Y esta es la capacidad de programar materiales fsicos y biolgicos para que cambien de forma, de propiedades e incluso para que hagan cmputos en materia no basada en silicio. +Incluso existe un software llamado cadnano que nos permite disear formas tridimensionales, como nanorobots o sistemas de administracin de medicamentos, y usar el ADN para que esas estructuras funcionales se autoensamblen. +Pero si consideramos la escala humana, existen problemas enormes que no son abordados por esos avances en la nanotecnologa. +En trminos de construccin y manufactura, hay deficiencias importantes, consumo energtico y tcnicas con demasiada mano de obra. +Pongamos un ejemplo de infraestructura. +Los sistemas de caeras. +En las tuberas de agua, hay tuberas de capacidad fija que son de caudal fijo, con excepcin de las bombas y vlvulas costosas. +Las enterramos en la tierra. +Si algo cambia si su entorno cambia, si la tierra se mueve, o demanda cambios debemos comenzar de cero, quitarlas y reemplazarlas. +As que me gustara proponer combinar ambos mundos, podemos combinar el mundo de los materiales adaptables programados con nanotecnologa y el ambiente de construccin. +Y no me refiero a mquinas automatizadas. +No me refiero a mquinas inteligentes que reemplacen a los humanos. +Me refiero a materiales programables que se construyan solos. +Y a eso se le llama autoensamblaje, que es un proceso por el cual partes desordenadas construyen una estructura ordenada solamente a travs de la interaccin local. +Entonces qu precisamos si lo queremos llevar a cabo en la escala humana? +Precisamos algunos ingredientes sencillos. +El primer ingrediente es materiales y geometra, y estos precisan estar estrechamente vinculados con la fuente de energa. +Y pueden usar energa pasiva es decir trmica, cintica, neumtica, gravitatoria o magntica. +Y luego precisas interacciones de diseo inteligente. +Y esas interacciones permiten la correccin de errores, y permiten que las formas pasen de un estado a otro. +Ahora voy a mostrarles una serie de proyectos que construimos, desde sistemas unidimensionales, bidimensionales, tridimensionales y hasta cuatridimensionales. +As que, en sistemas unidimensionales este es un proyecto llamado las protenas autoplegables. +La idea es tomar la estructura tridimensional de una protena en este caso es la protena crambina tomamos el esqueleto sin ramificaciones, sin interacciones con el entorno y lo fragmentamos en una serie de componentes. +Y luego le incorporamos elstico. +Y cuando lanzo esto al aire y lo atrapo, tiene la estructura tridimensional completa de la protena, con todas sus complejidades. +Y esto nos da un modelo tangible de la protena tridimensional y como esta se pliega y todas las complejidades de su geometra. +Entonces podemos estudiar esto como un modelo fsico, intuitivo. +Y tambin estamos trasladndolo hacia sistemas bidimensionales para que hojas planas puedan plegarse sobre s mismas y formar estructuras tridimensionales. +En tres dimensiones, hicimos un proyecto el ao pasado en TEDGlobal con Autodesk y Arthut Olson, en el cual consideramos las partes autnomas es decir, partes individuales sin conexiones previas que pueden unirse con autonoma. +Y armamos 500 de estos vasos de precipitado. +Cada uno contena diferentes estructuras moleculares y diferentes colores que podan ser mezclados y combinados. +Y se los regalamos a todos los TEDores. +As que estos se convirtieron en modelos intuitivos para comprender cmo funciona el autoensamblaje molecular en la escala humana. +Este es el virus de la polio. +Si lo sacudes con fuerza se rompe. +Y cuando lo sacudes aleatoriamente comienza a corregir el error y a reconstruir la estructura con autonoma. +Y esto demuestra que a travs de la energa aleatoria, podemos construir formas no aleatorias. +Incluso demostramos que podemos llevarlo a cabo a gran escala. +El ao pasado en TED Long Beach, construimos una instalacin que construye instalaciones. +La idea era, podemos autoensamblar objetos del tamao de un mueble? +As que construimos una gran cmara giratoria, y la gente se acercaba y la haca girar rpido o lento, as agregaban energa al sistema y conseguan una comprensin intuitiva del funcionamiento del autoensamblaje y de cmo podemos usarlo como tcnica de construccin o manufactura de productos en gran escala. +Pero recuerden, yo dije 4D. +Hoy, por primera vez, estamos inaugurando un nuevo proyecto, que es una colaboracin con Stratasys, y se llama impresin en 4D. +La idea detrs de la impresin en 4D es tomar la impresin 3D multimaterial en la cual se pueden depositar varios materiales y se le agrega una nueva capacidad, la transformacin, que instantneamente, las partes pueden transformarse de una forma a la otra con autonoma. +Y esto es como la robtica pero sin cables ni motores. +As que puedes imprimir esta parte completamente, y puede transformarse en algo totalmente distinto. +Tambin trabajamos con Autodesk en un software que estn desarrollando que se llama Project Cyborg. +Y esto nos permite simular este comportamiento de autoensamblaje e intentar optimizar qu partes se pliegan en qu momento. +Pero lo ms importante es que podemos usar este mismo software para el diseo de sistemas de autoensamblaje en nanoescala y sistemas de autoensamblaje en la escala humana. +Estas son partes impresas con propiedades multimaterial. +Esta es la primera demostracin. +Una cadena nica sumergida en agua que se pliega sobre s misma con total autonoma formando las letras M I T. +Estoy sesgado. +Esta es otra parte, cadena nica, sumergida en un tanque ms grande que por s mismo puede plegarse para formar un cubo, una estructura tridimensional. +As que no hay interaccin humana. +Y creemos que esta es la primera vez que un programa y una transformacin han sido fundidos directamente en los materiales. +Y esta puede perfectamente ser la tcnica de manufactura que en el futuro nos permita producir una infraestructura ms adaptable. +Pero s que probablemente estn pensando, bueno, todo esto es genial, pero cmo lo usamos en nuestro ambiente de construccin? +As que abr un laboratorio en MIT y se llama el Laboratorio Autoensamblable. +Y estamos dedicados a intentar desarrollar materiales programables para el ambiente de construccin. +Y creemos que hay unos pocos sectores clave en los que se podra aplicar a relativamente corto plazo. +Una de ellas es en ambientes de condiciones extremas. +Estos son escenarios en los cuales resulta difcil construir, nuestras tcnicas de construccin actuales no funcionan, es demasiado grande, peligroso, caro, demasiadas partes. +Y el espacio es un gran ejemplo de esto. +Estamos intentando disear nuevos escenarios para el espacio que tengan estructuras totalmente reconfigurables y autoensamblables que puedan pasar por sistemas altamente funcionales, de uno a otro. +Volvamos a la infraestructura. +En infraestructura, estamos trabajando con una compaa de Boston llamada Geosyntec. +Y estamos desarrollando un nuevo paradigma para los sistemas de tuberas. +Imaginen si las tuberas pudieran expandirse o contraerse para cambiar de capacidad o caudal, o quizs incluso pudieran ondularse como peristlticas para mover el agua ellas mismas. +Y esto no son bombas o vlvulas caras. +Es una tubera que puede programarse y adaptarse con autonoma. +As que hoy quisiera recordarles de las duras realidades de ensamblaje de nuestro mundo. +Estas son cosas complejas construidas con partes complejas que se unen de formas complejas. +As que me gustara invitarlos, sin importar la industria en que trabajen, a que se nos unan para reinventar e imaginar el mundo, cmo las cosas se vinculan desde la nanoescala hasta la escala humana, para que podamos pasar de un mundo as a un mundo un poco ms as. +Gracias. +En dos semanas ser el noveno aniversario del da en que sal a aquel escenario de Jeopardy. +O sea, nueve aos es mucho tiempo. +Y dada la demografa promedio de Jeopardy, creo que eso significa que la mayora de la gente que me vio en ese programa ha muerto. +Pero no todos, algunos siguen con vida. +Ocasionalmente me reconoce alguien en el centro comercial o donde sea. +Y cuando ocurre, es por ser un poco sabelotodo. +Creo que esa nave ya ha partido, y es demasiado tarde para m. +Para bien o para mal, as se me recordar, como el tipo que saba muchas cosas raras. +Y no puedo quejarme de esto. +Siento que siempre fue como mi destino, aunque haba pasado muchos aos en el armario de datos triviales. +Por lo menos, se da uno cuenta rpidamente en la adolescencia que saber el segundo nombre del Capitn Kirk no es exitoso con las chicas. +Y, en consecuencia, fui un sabihondo profundamente oculto durante muchos aos. +Pero si vemos ms atrs, todo est ah. +Yo era el tipo de nio que siempre estaba molestando a mam y pap con cualquier gran dato que acabara de leer; el cometa Halley o los calamares gigantes o el tamao del pastel de calabaza ms grande del mundo, o lo que fuera. +Ahora tengo un hijo de 10 aos que es exactamente igual. +Y s lo profundamente molesto que es eso, as que el karma s funciona. +Yo amaba los programas de juegos, estaba fascinado con ellos. +Recuerdo haber llorado en mi primer da de preescolar en 1979 porque me di cuenta de que aunque tena tantas ganas de ir a la escuela, tambin me iba a perder Hollywood Squares y Family Feud. +Iba a perderme mis programas de concursos. +Despus, a mediados de la dcada de los 80, cuando volvi a transmitirse Jeopardy, recuerdo haber corrido a casa despus del colegio cada da para ver el programa. +Era mi programa favorito, an antes de que me comprara una casa. +Y vivamos en el extranjero, en Corea del Sur, donde trabajaba mi pap, donde solamente haba un canal de TV en lengua inglesa. +Estaba la TV de las Fuerzas Armadas, y si no hablabas coreano, eso veas. +De manera que todos mis amigos y yo corramos a casa cada da para ver Jeopardy. +Siempre fui ese tipo de nio obsesionado con la trivia. +Recuerdo haber podido jugar Maratn [Trivial Pursuit] contra mis padres en los 80 y me defenda, cuando eso era la moda. +Hay un sentido raro de maestra que se obtiene cuando sabes algo que mam y pap no conocen sobre su propia generacin. +Sabes algn detalle sobre los Beatles que pap no conoca. +Y piensas, aj, el conocimiento realmente es poder; el dato correcto aplicado justamente en el lugar correcto. +Nunca tuve un consejero acadmico que pensara que esto fuera un camino legtimo de carrera, que pensara que pudiera estudiar trivia en el nivel superior o ser un ex concursante profesional de programa de concurso. +Y as, vend mis ideales demasiado joven. +No intent descifrar qu hacer con eso. +Estudi computacin porque o decir que eso era la onda. Y me convert en programador de cmputo --no muy bueno-- ni especialmente feliz cuando aparec por primera vez en Jeopardy en 2004. +Pero eso era lo que estaba haciendo. +Y por eso fue doblemente irnico, con mis antecedentes en computacin, unos aos despus, creo que por el 2009, cuando recib otra llamada de Jeopardy diciendo: "Es pronto an, pero IBM nos dice que quiere construir una supercomputadora que te gane en Jeopardy. Te interesa?" +Eso fue lo primero que supe al respecto. +Y por supuesto que dije que s, por varias razones. +Una, porque jugar Jeopardy es divertidsimo. +Es diversin. Es la mayor diversin que puede uno tener con los pantalones puestos. +Y lo hubiera hecho gratis. +Por suerte creo que ellos no saben eso, pero yo hubiera vuelto a jugar por unos cupones de comida rpida. +Me encanta Jeopardy, y siempre lo he hecho. +En segundo lugar, porque soy un tipo nerd y esto pareca el futuro. +Competir contra computadoras en concursos siempre imagin que sucedera en el futuro, y ahora yo podra estar en ese escenario. +No iba a decir que no. +La tercera razn por la que acept es porque tena bastante confianza en que ganara. +Haba tomado algunas clases de inteligencia artificial. +Saba que no existan computadoras que pudieran hacer lo que se requiere para ganar en Jeopardy. +La gente no se percata de lo difcil que es crear ese tipo de programa, capaz de leer una pista de Jeopardy en un lenguaje natural como el ingls y comprender todos los dobles sentidos, los juegos de palabras y las pistas falsas, interpretar el significado de la pista. +El tipo de cosa que un humano de 3 o 4 aos de edad podra hacer, era muy difcil para una computadora. +Y pens, bueno, esto ser un juego de nios. +S, ir a destruir a la computadora en defensa de mi especie. +Pero conforme pasaron los aos, IBM empez a invertir dinero, mano de obra y velocidad de procesador en esto, empec a recibir actualizaciones ocasionales de ellos, y empec a preocuparme un poco. +Recuerdo un artculo sobre este nuevo software para responder a preguntas, que inclua una grfica. +Era una grfica de dispersin que mostraba el rendimiento en Jeopardy decenas de miles de puntos que representaban a los campeones de Jeopardy en la parte superior con su rendimiento mostrado como el nmero de... iba a decir preguntas respondidas, pero ms bien sera respuestas preguntadas, supongo, pistas respondidas... contra la precisin de tales respuestas. +As que hay un cierto nivel de rendimiento que tendra que alcanzar la computadora. +Y al principio, era muy bajo. +No exista software que pudiera competir en este tipo de escenario. +Pero entonces se ve que la lnea que comienza a ascender, +y est llegando muy cerca a lo que llaman nube de ganadores, +y not que en la esquina superior derecha de la grfica algunos puntos ms oscuros, algunos negros, eran de otro color. +Y me pregunt, que sern estos? +"Los puntos negros en la esquina superior representan al 74 veces campen de Jeopardy, Ken Jennings". +Y vi que esta lnea vena por m. +Y me di cuenta, esto es. +As se ve cuando el futuro viene por uno. +No es la mira del arma de Terminator; es una pequea lnea que se acerca y se acerca a lo que uno hace, lo nico que nos hace especiales, lo que mejor hacemos. +Y cuando eventualmente ocurri el juego como un ao despus, fue muy diferente a los juegos de Jeopardy que acostumbraba. +No estbamos jugando en Los ngeles en el escenario normal de Jeopardy. +Watson no viaja. +Watson es bastante grande. +Sus miles de procesadores, un terabyte de memoria, trillones de bytes de memoria. +Nos permitieron caminar por su cuarto de servidor climatizado. +El nico otro concursante de Jeopardy en cuyo interior me he encontrado. +As que Watson no viaja. +Tienes que venir a l; debes hacer la peregrinacin. +De manera que el otro jugador humano y yo acabamos en un laboratorio secreto de investigacin de IBM en medio de un bosque nevado en el Condado Westchester para concursar contra la computadora. +Y nos percatamos de inmediato de que la computadora tena una gran ventaja de cancha local. +Haba un enorme logotipo de Watson al centro de la cancha. +Es como si fuera uno a jugar contra los Toros de Chicago, y est esa cosa a la mitad de su cancha. +Y el pblico estaba repleto de personalidades y programadores de IBM echando porras a su preciosura, luego de vaciar millones de dlares en ello esperando contra esperanza que los humanos se equivocaran, y exhibiendo carteles de "Vamos Watson" y aplaudiendo como mams en certamen cada vez que su cro acertaba. +Creo que haba algunos que tenan "W-A-T-S-O-N" escrito en sus barrigas con pintura de grasa. +Si no pueden imaginar a programadores de cmputo con las letras "W-A-T-S-O-N" escritas en su panza, cranme que es desagradable. +Pero tenan razn. Estaban exactamente en lo cierto. +Yo no quera echarlo a perder, si an conservan esto grabado en su DVR, pero Watson gan fcilmente. +Recuerdo estar parado ah, detrs del estrado escuchando ese pequeo sonido insectoide +tena un pulgar robtico para oprimir el zumbador. +Y se poda or un pequeo tic, tic, tic, tic. +Y recuerdo haber pensado, esto es. +Me sent obsoleto. +Me sent como obrero de fbrica de Detroit en los 80 viendo a un robot que ahora poda realizar su trabajo en la lnea de ensamblaje. +Sent que el empleo de concursante de programa de preguntas era ahora el primero en volverse obsoleto bajo este nuevo rgimen de computadoras pensantes. +Y no ha sido el ltimo. +Si ven las noticias, de vez en cuando vern --y yo veo esto constantemente-- que en las farmacias ahora hay una mquina que puede surtir las recetas automticamente sin necesidad de un farmaclogo humano. +Y muchos despachos legales estn eliminando a sus asistentes debido a la existencia de software que resume leyes y decisiones relevantes a un caso. +Ya no se necesitan asistentes humanos para eso. +Le el otro da sobre un programa donde se ingresa un puntaje de un partido de beisbol o de futbol y produce un artculo deportivo como si un humano hubiese visto el partido y lo estuviera comentando. +Y obviamente, estas nuevas tecnologas no pueden hacer un trabajo tan listo o creativo como los humanos a quienes reemplazan, pero son ms rpidos, y lo crucial, mucho, mucho ms baratos. +as que me pregunto cuales sern los efectos econmicos de esto. +He ledo a economistas que dicen que como consecuencia de estas nuevas tecnologas entraremos a una nueva era dorada del tiempo libre donde todos tendremos tiempo las cosas que realmente amamos porque todas estas tareas onerosas sern atendidas por Watson y sus hermanos digitales. +He escuchado a otras personas decir lo contrario, que esta es otro sector ms de la clase media a la que una nueva tecnologa le priva de lo que pueden hacer y que esto es, de hecho, algo amenazante, algo de lo cual debiramos preocuparnos. +Yo no soy economista. +Lo nico que s es como me sent como el tipo que perdi su empleo. +Y fue malditamente desmoralizador. Fue terrible. +Aqu estaba la nica cosa en la que he destacado, y solamente le tom a IBM unas decenas de millones de dlares y su gente ms lista y miles de procesadores funcionando en paralelo hacer la misma cosa. +Lo podan hacer un poco ms rpido y un poco mejor en la TV nacional, y "lo siento, Ken. Ya no te necesitamos". +Y me hizo pensar, esto qu significa, si vamos a poder empezar a subcontratar, no solamente las funciones cerebrales inferiores sin importancia. +Estoy seguro de que muchos de Uds. recuerdan un tiempo remoto en el que tenamos que saber los nmeros telefnicos, cuando sabamos los nmeros de nuestros amigos. +Y repentinamente hubo una mquina que haca eso, y ahora ya no necesitamos recordarlos. +He ledo que de hecho ya existe evidencia de que el hipocampo, la parte de nuestro cerebro que maneja las relaciones espaciales, se atrofia y encoge fsicamente en personas que usan herramientas como GPS, debido a que ya no ejercitan su sentido de orientacin. +Solamente estamos obedeciendo a una vocecita que nos habla desde el tablero. +Y en consecuencia, una parte de nuestro cerebro que debiera encargarse de estas cosas se hace ms pequea y tonta. +Y me hizo pensar, qu pasa cuando las computadoras ahora son mejores para saber y recordar cosas que nosotros mismos? +Va a encogerse y atrofiarse todo nuestro cerebro de esa manera? +Vamos a empezar a valorar menos el conocimiento culturalmente? +Como alguien quien siempre ha credo la importancia de lo que sabemos, esta idea me result aterradora. +Entre ms lo pens, me di cuenta de que no, an es importante. +Las cosas que sabemos siguen importando. +Llegu a creer que haban dos ventajas para aquellos que tenemos estas cosas en nuestras cabezas sobre alguien que dice: "Si, claro. Lo puedo buscar con Google. Espera un segundo". +Hay una ventaja de volumen, y hay una ventaja de tiempo. +Primero, la ventaja de volumen, simplemente tiene que ver con la complejidad del mundo actual. +Hay tanta informacin. +Ser un hombre o mujer del Renacimiento, eso solamente era posible durante el Renacimiento. +Ahora bien, no es realmente posible estar razonablemente educado en todos los campos del quehacer humano. +Simplemente hay demasiado. +Se dice que el monto de la informacin humana ahora se duplica aproximadamente cada 18 meses, la suma total de la informacin humana. +Eso significa que entre ahora y fines del 2014, generaremos tanta informacin, en gigabytes, como acumul toda la humanidad en los milenios anteriores. +Se est duplicando cada 18 meses ahora. +Esto es aterrador porque muchas de las grandes decisiones que tomamos requieren el dominio de muchos tipos diferentes de datos. +Una decisin como a dnde ir a la escuela? Qu carrera debo estudiar? +Por quin votar? +Tomo este o aquel empleo? +Estas son decisiones que requieren juicios correctos sobre muchos tipos diferentes de datos. +Si tenemos esos datos en nuestra mente, podremos tomar decisiones informadas. +Por otra parte, si necesitamos buscarlos, podramos estar en apuros. +Segn una encuesta de National Geographic que acabo de ver, algo como el 80 % de la gente que vota en las elecciones presidenciales de EE.UU., sobre asuntos como poltica exterior no puede ubicar a Iraq o a Afganistn en el mapa. +Si no puedes realizar ese primer paso, Realmente vas a buscar los otros mil datos que requerirs saber para dominar el conocimiento sobre poltica externa de EE.UU.? +Muy probablemente no. +En algn momento solo dirs, "Sabes qu? Hay demasiado que saber. Al diablo". +Y tomars una decisin menos informada. +El otro asunto es la ventaja de tiempo que tienes si tienes todos estos datos en mano. +Siempre pienso en la historia de una nia pequea llamada Tilly Smith. +Ella era una nia de 10 aos de Surrey, Inglaterra, de vacaciones con sus padres hace unos aos en Phuket, Tailandia. +Ella fue corriendo hacia ellos en la playa una maana y les dijo: "Mam, pap, tenemos que irnos de la playa". +Y ellos le dijeron: "Qu quieres decir? Acabamos de llegar". +Y ella les dijo: "En clase de geografa con el Sr. Kearney el mes pasado l nos dijo que cuando la marea sale sbitamente al mar y ves olas batindose a lo lejos, es la seal de un tsunami, y necesitas alejarte de la playa". +Qu haras si tu hija de 10 aos viniera a decirte esto? +Sus padres lo pensaron, y finalmente, para su bien, decidieron creerle. +Le dijeron al salvavidas, fueron de vuelta a su hotel, y el salvavidas despej a ms de 100 personas de la playa, por suerte, porque ese fue el da del tsunami del Da del Box, el da despus de la Navidad 2004, que mat a miles de personas en el Sureste de Asia y alrededor del Ocano ndico. +Pero no en esa playa, no en la Playa Mai Khao, porque esta niita haba recordado un dato de su maestro de geografa el mes anterior. +Ahora, cuando los datos se vuelven as de tiles... me encanta ese relato porque demuestra el poder de un dato, un dato recordado en exactamente el lugar y momento correctos... normalmente algo que es ms fcil ver en programas de concurso que en la vida real. +Pero en este caso, sucedi en la vida real. +Y sucede en la vida real constantemente. +No siempre es un tsunami, frecuentemente es una situacin social. +Es una reunin de trabajo, o una entrevista de empleo, o una primera cita o alguna relacin que se lubrica porque dos personas se percatan de que comparten alguna pieza de conocimiento. +Dices de dnde eres, y yo digo: "Ah, claro". +O tu alma mter o tu empleo, y solamente s alguna pequeez al respecto, lo suficiente para echar a andar las cosas. +La gente ama ese vnculo que se crea cuando alguien sabe algo sobre ti. +Es como si se hubieran ocupado de conocerte antes de encontrarte. +Esa es frecuentemente la ventaja de tiempo. +Y no es efectivo si dices: "Bueno, espera. +Eres de Fargo, Dakota del Norte. Djame ver que sale. +Ah, s. Roger Maris era de Fargo". +Eso no funciona. Eso es simplemente molesto. +El gran telogo y pensador britnico del siglo XVIII, amigo del Dr. Johnson, Samuel Parr una vez declar: "Siempre es mejor saber algo que no saberlo". +Y si hubiera vivido mi vida segn un credo, probablemente sera ese. +Siempre he credo que las cosas que sabemos --que el conocimiento es un bien absoluto, que las cosas que hemos aprendido y que cargamos con nosotros en nuestras cabezas son lo que nos hace quienes somos, como individuos y como especie. +No s si quiero vivir en un mundo donde el conocimiento sea obsoleto. +No deseo vivir en un mundo donde el alfabetismo cultural ha sido reemplazado por estas burbujitas de especialidad, de manera que ninguno de nosotros sepa de las asociaciones comunes que unan a nuestras civilizaciones. +No quiero ser el ltimo sabelotodo de trivialidades sentado en una montaa en alguna parte, recitando solo las capitales de los estados y los nombres de los episodios de "Los Simpson" y las letras de canciones de Abba. +Siento que nuestra civilizacin funciona cuando esta es una herencia cultural vasta que todos compartimos y que sabemos sin tener que externalizar a nuestros aparatos, a nuestros buscadores y telfonos inteligentes. +En el cine, cuando las computadoras como Watson comienzan a pensar, las cosas no siempre terminan bien. +Esas pelculas nunca son sobre utopas hermosas. +Siempre es un Terminator o una Matrix o un astronauta que es expulsado por una escotilla en "2001". +Las cosas siempre salen terriblemente mal. +Y siento que estamos en un punto ahora donde necesitamos decidir el tipo de futuro en el que deseamos vivir. +Es una cuestin de liderazgo, porque se vuelve una cuestin de quin conduce al futuro. +Por una parte, podemos elegir entre una nueva era de oro donde la informacin est disponible ms universalmente que nunca antes en la historia de la humanidad, donde tenemos todas las respuestas a nuestras preguntas en la punta de nuestros dedos. +Y, por otro lado, tenemos el potencial de vivir en una distopa lgubre donde las mquinas han dominado y hemos decidido que ya no es importante lo que sabemos, que el conocimiento ya no es valioso porque todo est ah en la nube, y por qu habramos de molestarnos con aprender algo nuevo. +Esas son las dos opciones que se nos presentan. Yo s cual futuro es el que preferira para vivir en l. +Y todos podemos tomar esa decisin. +Tomamos esa decisin siendo personas curiosas e inquisitivas a quienes nos gusta aprender, que no solamente decimos: "Bueno, en cuanto suene la campana y haya terminado la clase, ya no tengo que aprender ms", o "Agradezco tener mi diploma. He concluido mi aprendizaje para mi vida. +Ya no tengo que aprender cosas nuevas". +No, cada da debiramos esforzarnos por aprender algo nuevo. +Debiramos tener esta curiosidad insaciable por el mundo que nos rodea. +De ah viene la gente que vemos en Jeopardy. +Estos sabelotodos, son eruditos al estilo Rainman, sentados en casa memorizando el libro telefnico. +He conocido a muchos de ellos. +La mayora son solamente gente normal que tiene curiosidad universal, interesados en el mundo que los rodea, curiosos sobre todo, sedientos de este conocimiento sobre cualquier tema. +Podemos vivir en uno de estos dos mundos. +Podemos vivir en un mundo donde nuestros cerebros, las cosas que sabemos, siguen siendo lo que nos hacen especiales, o en un mundo en el cual hemos externalizado todo eso a supercomputadoras malvadas del futuro como Watson. +Damas y caballeros, la eleccin es suya. +Muchas gracias. +Solo alzando la mano, quines tienen un robot en casa? +No muchos. +Bien. Y de esas manos, si no incluimos a Roomba, cuntos tienen un robot en casa? +Un par. +Est bien. +Es el problema que tratamos de resolver en Romotive, que yo y otros 20 'nerds' en Romotive estamos obsesionados por resolver +Queremos de verdad construir un robot que cualquiera pueda usar, tenga 8 u 80. +Y resulta que es un problema de verdad duro, porque hay que construir un robot pequeo, porttil, que no solo sea en verdad asequible, sino que tiene que ser algo que las personas en realidad quieran tener en casa y alrededor de sus hijos. +Este robot no puede espantar ni ser extrao. +Debe ser amigable y lindo. +Conozcan a Romo. +Romo es un robot que usa un aparato que ya conocen y aman, su iPhone, como cerebro. +Y para potenciar el poder del procesador del iPhone, creamos un robot capaz de usar el wi-fi y con visin de computador, por 150 dlares, que es cerca de un 1 % de lo que estos robots costaban en el pasado. +Cuando Romo se despierta, est en modo creatura. +Est usando la cmara de video del aparato para seguir mi cara. +Si me agacho, me sigue. +Es cauteloso, as que tiene puestos sus ojos en m. +Si vengo a este lado, se voltea y me sigue. +Si voy para ac... Es inteligente. +Y si me acerco demasiado se asusta como cualquier creatura. +As que de muchas maneras, Romo es como una mascota que tiene su propia mente. +Gracias, pequen. +Salud. +Y si quiero explorar el mundo oh, Romo est cansado si quiero explorar el mundo con Romo, lo puedo conectar a otro aparato iOS. +Aqu est el iPad. +Y Romo puede de verdad compartir video a este aparato. +As puedo ver lo que Romo ve, y puedo tener la visin del mundo del ojo del robot. +Ahora es un App gratuito de la tienda App, as que si quieren tener este App en sus telfonos, podemos en efecto compartir ya el control del robot y jugar juntos. +Les mostrar rpidamente, Romo de verdad comparte el video, as que pueden verme y a toda la audiencia de TED. +Si me pongo en frente de Romo aqu. +Y si quiero controlarlo, puedo simplemente manejar. +Puedo conducirlo alrededor, y tomar una foto de Uds. +Siempre quise una foto de la audiencia de 1500 personas de TED. +As que la tomar. +Y de la misma forma en que Uds. pasan el contenido en un iPad, yo puedo ajustar el ngulo de la cmara del aparato. +Aqu estn todos Uds. a travs de los ojos de Romo. +Y finalmente, como Romo es una extensin de m, puedo expresarme a travs de sus emociones. +As que puedo adentrarme y decirle que est entusiasmado. +Pero la cosa ms importante sobre Romo es que queramos crear algo que fuera completamente intuitivo. +No quieres ensearle a nadie como dirigir a Romo. +De hecho, quin quiere dirigir el robot? +Bien. Sorprendente. +Aqu tienes. +Gracias, Scott. +Y an mejor, no tienes que en realidad estar en el mismo lugar geogrfico que el robot para controlarlo. +l realmente comparte audio y video en las dos direcciones entre cualquiera de los dos aparatos inteligentes. +As que pueden entrar en el explorador, y es como un Skype con ruedas. +Hablbamos antes de telepresencia y este es un ejemplo de verdad fantstico. +Pueden imaginarse a una nia de 8 aos, por ejemplo, que tenga un iPhone y su madre le compra un robot. +La nia puede tomar su iPhone, ponerlo en el robot, enviarle un mail a su abuela, que vive en el otro lado del pas. +La abuela puede entrar en el robot y jugar escondidas con su nieta 15 minutos todas las noches, cuando de otra forma ella solo podra ver a su nieta una o dos veces al ao. +Gracias, Scott. +Estas son algunas de las cosas geniales que Romo puede hacer actualmente. +Pero solo quiero terminar hablndoles de algo en lo que estaremos trabajando en el futuro. +Esto es algo que uno de nuestros ingenieros, Dom, construy en un fin de semana. +Est construido sobre un sistema abierto de Google llamado Blockly. +Le permite arrastrar y soltar estos bloques de cdigo semntico y crear cualquier comportamiento que quiera de este robot. +No necesitan tener conocimiento de cdigo para crear un comportamiento para Romo. +Y pueden en realidad simular ese comportamiento en el explorador que es lo que ven que Romo hace a la izquierda. +Y entonces si tienen algo que les gusta, pueden bajarlo al robot y ejecutarlo en la vida real, correr el programa en la vida real. +Y entonces si tienen algo que lo enorgullezca, pueden compartirlo con todos los que tengan un robot en el mundo. +Y as todos los robots conectados a wi-fi aprenden de verdad unos de otros. +La razn por la que nos enfocamos en construir robots que todos puedan entrenar es que creemos que los usos ms irresistibles en robtica personal son personales. +Cambian de persona a persona. +Creemos que si Uds. van a tener un robot en su casa, ese robot tiene que ser una manifestacin de su propia imaginacin. +As que quisiera poder decirles cmo ser la robtica personal en el futuro. +Para ser honesto, no tengo ni idea. +Pero lo que sabemos es que no ser en 10 aos ni 10 mil millones de dlares ni un gran robot humanoide por all. +El futuro de la robtica personal est pasando hoy, y va a depender de robots pequeos y giles como Romo y de la creatividad de personas como Uds. +As que no podemos esperar a darles a todos robots, ni podemos esperar a ver qu construyen Uds. +Gracias. +Les hablar sobre el xito de mi campus, la Universidad de Maryland, condado de Baltimore, UMBC, en la educacin de estudiantes de todo tipo, en las reas de artes y humanidades y de ciencias e ingeniera. +Lo que hace a nuestra historia especialmente importante es que hemos aprendido mucho de un grupo de estudiantes que generalmente no figura en lo alto de la escala acadmica: estudiantes de color, estudiantes de baja incidencia en determinadas reas. +Y esta historia es especialmente singular porque aprendimos la forma de ayudar a estudiantes afroamericanos, latinos, estudiantes de bajos recursos, a convertirse en los mejores del mundo en ciencia e ingeniera. +Comenzar con una historia de mi infancia. +Todos somos producto de nuestras experiencias infantiles. +Y toda la clase deca: "Cllate, Freeman!". +Designaban a un golpeador todos los das. +Yo siempre haca esta pregunta: "Cmo podemos lograr que haya ms nios que amen aprender?" +Levant la vista y pregunt: "Quin es ese hombre?" +Me dijeron que era el Dr. Martin Luther King. +Le dije a mis padres: "Tengo que ir. +Quiero ir. Quiero ser parte de esto". +Me dijeron: "No, en absoluto". +Pasamos un mal rato. +En tales momentos, francamente, nadie le replica a sus padres. +Pero de alguna manera dije: "Saben, Uds. son hipcritas. +Me hacen venir ac. Quieren que escuche. +Y ahora este seor quiere que vaya, y me dicen que no". +Pensaron toda la noche. +Entraron en mi habitacin a la maana siguiente. +No haban dormido. +Estuvieron llorando, rezando y pensando, "Debemos dejar que nuestro hijo de 12 aos, participe en esa marcha y probablemente termine en la crcel?" +Decidieron que fuera. +Cuando me lo dijeron, primero estaba eufrico. +Pero luego empec a pensar en los perros y las mangueras de incendio, y me asust mucho, de veras. +Algo que siempre le recalco a la gente es que a veces cuando las personas hacen acciones valientes, no necesariamente significa que se sean as de valientes. +Simplemente significa que creen que es importante hacerlo. +Yo quera una mejor educacin. +No quera tener libros de segunda mano. +Quera que la escuela a la que asista no solo tuviera buenos maestros, sino tambin los recursos que necesitbamos. +Como resultado de esa experiencia, a mitad de la semana, mientras yo estaba en la crcel, lleg el Dr. King y dijo con nuestros padres: "Chicos, lo que Uds. hagan hoy tendr impacto en los nios que todava no han nacido". +Hace poco ca en cuenta de que 2/3 de los estadounidenses de hoy an no haban nacido en 1963. +Cuando ellos oyen hablar de la Cruzada de los Nios de Birmingham, en varios sentidos, si lo ven por TV, es como nuestra mirada al 1863 de la pelcula "Lincoln": Es historia. +Y la pregunta real es: Qu lecciones aprendimos? +Sorprendentemente, la ms importante para m fue la siguiente: Los nios pueden empoderarse para hacerse cargo de su educacin. +Se les puede ensear a apasionarse por aprender y hacer preguntas. +Considero especialmente importante que la universidad que actualmente dirijo, la Universidad de Maryland, condado de Baltimore, UMBC, fue fundada el mismo ao en que fui a la crcel con el Dr. King, en 1963. +Y lo que hace esa fundacin institucional especialmente importante es que Maryland es el Sur, como saben, y, francamente, fue la primera universidad en nuestro estado que se fund en el momento en el que estudiantes de todas las razas pudieron asistir. +Estudiantes blancos, negros y todos empezaron a asistir. +Estos 50 aos han sido un experimento. +El experimento es el siguiente: Es posible tener instituciones en nuestro pas, universidades donde gente de cualquier origen pueda venir y aprender, aprender a trabajar juntos, aprender a ser lderes y apoyarse unos a otros en esa experiencia? +Ahora, lo que es especialmente importante de esa experiencia para m, es esto: descubrimos que podamos realizar bastante en artes, humanidades y ciencias sociales. +Entonces comenzamos a trabajar en esas reas, desde los aos 60. +Formamos a mucha gente en materias que van desde leyes hasta humanidades. +Hemos producido grandes artistas. Beckett es nuestra musa. +Muchos de nuestros estudiantes se dedicaron al teatro. +Es un gran trabajo. +El problema que enfrentamos fue el mismo que EE. UU. sigue enfrentando: que en ciencias e ingeniera, los estudiantes negros no tenan xito. +Pero cuando observ los datos, encontr que, en realidad, los estudiantes en general, en gran nmero tampoco lo tenan. +Y como resultado de eso, decidimos hacer algo para ayudar, en primer lugar, a los grupos de la parte inferior, los estudiantes afroamericanos y los hispanos. +Los filntropos Robert y Jane Meyerhoff dijeron: "Nos gustara ayudar". +Robert Meyerhoff dijo: "Por qu todo lo que se ve en televisin sobre chicos negros, a menos que se trate de baloncesto, no es positivo? +Quisiera avanzar en esto para lograr un cambio positivo". +Adoptamos esas ideas y creamos el programa Meyerhoff Scholars. +Lo que es importante de este programa es que hemos aprendido varias cosas. +Y la pregunta es esta: Cmo es que ahora somos lderes en el pas en la promocin de afroamericanos que llegan a completar doctorados en ciencias, ingeniera y medicina? +Eso es muy importante. Aplaudamos eso. Es una gran cosa. +Es una gran cosa. Realmente lo es. +La mayora de las personas no se da cuenta de que no son solo las minoras las que no tienen xito en ciencias e ingeniera. +En realidad nos referimos a todos los estadounidenses. +Si no lo saben, mientras que el 20 % de los negros y los hispanos que comienzan con una especializacin en ciencias e ingeniera que se graduarn en ciencias e ingeniera, solo el 32 % de los blancos que comienzan con una especializacin en esas reas logra graduarse en esas reas, y solo el 42 % de los asitico-americanos. +Y as, la verdadera pregunta es, cul es el desafo? +Bien, en parte por supuesto es el K-12 [educacin bsica]. +Tenemos que fortalecer el K-12. +Pero por otra parte tiene que ver con la cultura en ciencias e ingeniera en nuestros campus. +Por si no lo saben, un elevado nmero de alumnos con altos SATs y un gran nmero con crditos A.P. que concurren a las universidades ms prestigiosas de nuestro pas empiezan en pre-medicina, pre-ingeniera o ingeniera, y luego cambian sus especialidades. +Y la principal razn que hallamos es que no tuvieron xito en el primer ao de los cursos de ciencias. +De hecho, a los cursos de ciencias e ingeniera de primer ao, en EE. UU., los llamamos cursos eliminadores o cursos barrera. +Cuntos de Uds. conocen a alguien que habiendo comenzado en pre-medicina o ingeniera haya cambiado la especialidad en el trmino de 1 o 2 aos? +Es un desafo americano. La mitad de Uds. en esta sala. +Lo s. Lo s. Lo s. +Y lo que es interesante de esto es que hay muchos estudiantes que son inteligentes y pueden hacerlo. +Tenemos que encontrar la manera de hacer que suceda. +Cules son las cuatro cosas que hicimos para ayudar a los estudiantes de minoras que ahora les sirven a los estudiantes en general? +Nmero uno: altas expectativas. +Se necesita una comprensin de la preparacin acadmica de los estudiantes, sus calificaciones, el rigor del trabajo del curso, sus habilidades en la toma de pruebas, su actitud, el fuego en su vientre, la pasin por el trabajo, para realizarlo. +Es importante hacer cosas que ayuden a los estudiantes a prepararse en esa posicin. +Pero igualmente importante, se necesita entender que es un trabajo difcil que marca la diferencia. +No me importa lo inteligente que eres o lo inteligente que crees que eres. +Inteligente, simplemente significa que ests listo para aprender. +Ests emocionado por aprender y quieres hacer buenas preguntas. +I. I. Rabi, premio Nobel, dijo que cuando l era nio, en Nueva York, los padres de sus amigos les preguntaban: "Qu aprendiste hoy en la escuela?" +En cambio, su madre juda deca: "Izzy, hiciste una buena pregunta hoy?" +Entonces las altas expectativas tienen que ver con la curiosidad y alentar a los jvenes a ser curiosos. +Y como resultado de las altas expectativas, empezamos a encontrar estudiantes con los que queramos trabajar para ver qu podamos hacer para ayudarlos, no simplemente para sobrevivir en ciencias e ingeniera, sino para convertirse en lo mejor, para sobresalir. +Un ejemplo interesante: A un joven que obtuvo una C en el primer curso y que quera ingresar a la escuela de medicina, le dijimos: "Queremos que vuelvas a tomar el curso, porque necesitas una base slida para pasar al siguiente nivel". +Tener buenas bases es importante para afrontar el nivel siguiente. +Volvi a tomar el curso. +Ese joven se gradu en la UMBC, para convertirse en el primer negro en obtener el con posgrados de la Universidad de Pennsylvania. +En la actualidad trabaja en Harvard. +Linda historia. Aplaudmoslo tambin. +En segundo lugar, no se trata solo de los resultados en las pruebas. +Los resultados de los exmenes importan, pero no es lo ms importante. +Una joven tena buenas notas, pero el puntaje de las pruebas no era tan alto. +Pero haba un factor que es muy importante. +Ella nunca perdi un da de escuela K-12. +Haba fuego en su vientre. +Esa joven continu, y actualmente es tiene posgrados de Hopkins. +Es profesora titular en psiquiatra con doctorado en neurociencia. +Ella y su asesor tienen una patente sobre otro uso de Viagra para pacientes con diabetes. +Gran aplauso para ella. Gran aplauso para ella. +Entonces grandes expectativas, muy importante. +En segundo lugar, la idea de construir una comunidad entre los estudiantes. +Uds. saben que bastante a menudo en ciencias e ingeniera tendemos a pensar ferozmente. +A los estudiantes no se les ensea a trabajar en grupo. +Y eso es en lo que trabajamos con ese grupo para hacer que se entiendan unos con otros, para fomentar la confianza entre ellos, y apoyarse mutuamente, para aprender a hacer buenas preguntas, pero tambin para aprender a explicar los conceptos con claridad. +Como saben, una cosa es ganarse una A uno mismo, y otra es ayudar a alguien a hacerlo. +Y as percibir ese sentido de responsabilidad marca toda la diferencia del mundo. +As que construir comunidad entre los estudiantes es muy importante. +En tercer lugar, la idea de emplear investigadores para producir investigadores. +Ya sea que hablemos de artistas que producen artistas o de personas que ingresen a las ciencias sociales, en cualquier disciplina y sobre todo en ciencias e ingeniera, como en arte, por ejemplo se necesitan cientficos para empujar a los alumnos al trabajo. +As nuestros estudiantes estn trabajando normalmente en laboratorios. +Un gran ejemplo que apreciarn: Durante una tormenta de nieve en Baltimore hace varios aos, el hombre en nuestro campus con una subvencin del Instituto Howard Hughes Medical de hecho regres a trabajar en su laboratorio despus de varios das, y todos los estudiantes se negaban a abandonar el laboratorio. +Tenan comida que haban acumulado. +Trabajaban en el laboratorio, y vean el trabajo, no como trabajo escolar, sino como sus vidas. +Ellos saban que estaban trabajando en la investigacin del SIDA. +Observaban ese diseo de protenas increble. +Y lo interesante era que todos se concentraban en ese trabajo. +Y decan: "Nada mejor que esto". +Y por ltimo, si tenemos la comunidad y las expectativas altas e investigadores que produzcan investigadores, tiene que haber gente que est dispuesta a involucrarse con los estudiantes, incluso en la sala de clases. +Nunca olvidar a un miembro del profesorado llamando al personal y diciendo: "Tengo a este joven negro en clase y al parecer no est entusiasmado con el trabajo. +No toma notas. Tenemos que hablar con l". +Lo importante fue que el profesor observaba a cada estudiante para descubrir en qu se involucraba y en qu no. Deca: "Veamos cmo puedo trabajar con ellos. +Permtanme conseguir el personal que me asista". +Era esa conexin. +Hoy ese joven es profesor con posgrados en neuroingeniera en Duke. +Dmosle un gran aplauso. +Entonces lo importante es que hemos desarrollado este modelo que nos ayuda en la evaluacin de lo que funciona. +Lo que aprendimos fue que se necesitamos pensar sobre el rediseo de los cursos. +Por eso rediseamos qumica y fsica. +Pero ahora estamos considerando el rediseo de las humanidades y ciencias sociales. +Debido a que tantos alumnos se aburren en clase. +Saben eso? +Muchos estudiantes de educacin bsica y universitarios, no quieren solo sentarse ah y escuchar a alguien. +Necesitan participar. +Y est funcionando tan bien que a travs de nuestro sistema universitario de Maryland, cada vez se estn rediseando ms cursos. +Se llama innovacin acadmica. +Y qu significa todo eso? +Significa que ahora, no solo tenemos programas en ciencias e ingeniera, sino tambin en artes, humanidades, ciencias sociales, formacin docente y en particular para las mujeres en informtica. +Si no lo saben, ha habido una disminucin del 79 % en el nmero de mujeres que se especializan en ciencias de la computacin solo desde el ao 2000. +Lo que digo es que lo que marcar la diferencia ser la construccin de una comunidad entre los estudiantes, que diga a mujeres jvenes, estudiantes de minoras y estudiantes en general, que pueden realizar este trabajo. +Y lo ms importante, dndoles la oportunidad de construir esa comunidad con profesores tirando de ellos en el trabajo y nuestra evaluacin de lo que funciona y lo que no funciona. +Lo ms importante: si un estudiante tiene confianza en s mismo, es asombroso cmo los sueos y los valores pueden marcar toda la diferencia del mundo. +Cuando yo era un nio de 12 aos, estando en la crcel de Birmingham, pensaba: "Cul podra ser mi futuro". +No tena idea de que fuera posible para este nio negro de Birmingham llegar a ser presidente de una universidad que cuenta con alumnos procedentes de 150 pases, donde los estudiantes no estn all solo para sobrevivir, donde les encanta aprender, donde disfrutan ser los mejores, donde algn da cambiarn al mundo. +Aristteles dijo: "La excelencia no es un accidente. +Es el resultado de la alta intencin, el esfuerzo sincero y la ejecucin inteligente. +Representa la opcin ms inteligente entre varias alternativas". +Y luego dijo algo que me puso la piel de gallina. +Dijo: "La eleccin, no el azar, determina tu destino". +La eleccin, no el azar, determina tu destino, sueos y valores. +Muchas gracias a todos. +Quiero compartir algunos amigos e historias personales con Uds. algo que nunca he contado en pblico antes para ilustrar la idea, la necesidad y la esperanza de que reinventemos el sistema de salud en todo el mundo. +Hace 24 aos, en segundo ao de la universidad, tuve una serie de desmayos, para nada relacionados con el alcohol. +Termin en un centro de salud estudiantil y luego de unos anlisis de laboratorio regresaron diciendo: "problemas renales". +Y de pronto, estuve inmerso en una serie de exmenes, ensayos y tribulaciones durante 6 meses con 6 mdicos en 2 hospitales en un duelo de titanes mdicos para determinar cul tena razn sobre el problema que me aquejaba. +Y, tiempo despus, estaba en la sala esperando la sesin de ultrasonido, y aparecen los 6 mdicos en la sala, todos a la vez, y pienso: "Oh, oh, malas noticias". +El diagnstico era el siguiente: "Tienes dos raras enfermedades renales que con el tiempo terminarn destruyendo tus riones, tienes una especie de clulas cancergenas en el sistema inmunolgico que tenemos que empezar a tratar ahora mismo; ya no podrs ser donante de rin, y no podrs vivir ms de 2 3 aos". +No saben nada de ti. Despierta. +Toma el control de tu salud y contina con tu vida". +Y as hice. +Pero estas personas que hicieron ese diagnstico no son mala gente. +De hecho, son profesionales que hacen milagros, pero trabajan en un sistema caro y defectuoso dispuesto de manera errnea. +Depende de hospitales y clnicas para nuestras necesidades de atencin. +Depende de especialistas que solo miran su parte. +Depende de conjeturas de diagnsticos y de ccteles de medicamentos, por eso o funciona o mueres. +Y depende de pacientes pasivos que lo aceptan y no hacen preguntas. +El problema de este modelo es que es insostenible a nivel mundial. +A nivel mundial es inasequible. +Tenemos que inventar lo que llamo un sistema sanitario personal. +Cmo es este sistema sanitario personal, y qu nuevas tecnologas y roles va a implicar? +Empezar compartiendo con Uds. un nuevo amigo, Libby, hemos estado muy unidos en los ltimos 6 meses. +Este es Libby o, en realidad, una imagen ultrasnica de Libby. +Es el trasplante renal que supuestamente nunca iba a tener. +Es una imagen que tomamos hace un par de semanas y notarn que en el borde de la imagen hay unas manchas oscuras, que me preocuparon. +Haremos un examen en vivo para ver cmo est Libby. +Esto no es una falla de vestuario. Tengo que quitarme el cinturn. +Los de la primera fila, no se preocupen. +Usar un dispositivo de una empresa llamada Mobisante. +Es un ultrasonido portable. +Puede conectarse a un mvil o a una tableta. +Mobisante es de Redmond, Washington, y amablemente me capacitaron para que lo maneje solo. +No tienen los permisos para hacerlo. Los pacientes no deben hacerlo. +Es una demo de concepto, quiero que quede claro. +Bueno, tengo que poner el gel. +Ahora s, en la primera fila estn muy nerviosos. Y quiero presentarles al Dr. Batiuk, otro amigo mo. +Est en el hospital Legacy Good Samaritan, en Portland, Oregn. +Me asegurar. Dr. Batiuk, puede orme? +Puede ver a Libby? +Thomas Batuik: Hola, Eric. +Pareces ocupado. Cmo ests? +Eric Dishman: Estoy bien. Quitndome la ropa frente a cientos de personas. Es maravilloso. +Solo quera ver, es esta la imagen que necesita? +S que quiere ver si las manchas siguen all. +TB: Bien. Recorramos un poco por aqu, mustrame la zona. +ED: De acuerdo. TB: Bien. Gira un poco hacia adentro, un poco hacia el medio. +Bueno, est bien. Qu tal un poco hacia arriba? +Bien, congela esa imagen. Es buena. +ED: De acuerdo. La semana pasada me pidi que midiera la mancha derecha. +Debo hacer lo mismo? +TB: S, hagamos eso. +ED: De acuerdo. Es un poco difcil con una mano en el abdomen y otra midiendo pero creo que lo consegu grabar la imagen y se la enviar. +Cunteme un poco qu es esta mancha oscura. +No es algo que me agrade demasiado. +TB: Mucha gente luego de un trasplante renal genera fluido cerca del rin. +La mayora de las veces eso no ocasiona daos, pero s amerita seguimiento, por eso me alegro que pudiramos verlo hoy, asegrate de que no crezca, no traer problemas. +Respecto de las otras imgenes que tenemos, estoy feliz del aspecto que tiene hoy. +ED: De acuerdo. Bueno, supongo que lo constataremos cuando vaya. +Tengo la biopsia semestral en un par de semanas, de modo que podr ver eso en la clnica, porque no creo que yo pueda hacerlo por mi cuenta. +TB: Buena eleccin. ED: Bien, gracias Dr. Batiuk. +Lo que estn viendo aqu es un ejemplo de tecnologa de punta, tecnologa mvil, social y de anlisis. +Son los cimientos que posibilitarn la salud personal. +Hay tres pilares de la salud personal de los que quiero hablar ahora: atencin ubicua, atencin en red y atencin personalizada. +Acaban de ver un poco de las primeras dos en mi interaccin con el Dr. Batiuk. +Empecemos con la atencin ubicua. +Los humanos inventamos la idea de hospital y clnica a los aos 1780. Es momento de ponernos al da. +Tenemos que desterrar de clnicos y pacientes la idea de viajar a un lugar fsico especial donde atender todas las dolencias, porque esos lugares a menudo son la herramienta equivocada y la ms costosa, para hacer la tarea. +A veces son lugares inseguros para enviar pacientes enfermos, sobre todo en una era de superbacterias e infecciones intrahospitalarias. +Muchos pases pasaran a la medicina virtual desde cero porque nunca pudieron pagar los megacomplejos mdicos que muchos pases del mundo han construido. +Desde temprana edad aprend en carne propia que los hospitales pueden ser lugares peligrosos. +Ese soy yo en tercer grado. +Sufr una quebradura de codo muy seria, me operaron, teman que pudiera perder el brazo. +Mientras me recuperaba de la ciruga en el hospital, me salen escaras, +que luego se infectan, y me dan un antibitico al que result ser alrgico; y ahora todo mi cuerpo estalla, y todo se infecta. +Cuanto ms permaneca en el hospital, ms me enfermaba, y ms costoso se volva, y esto le pasa a millones de personas en el mundo cada ao. +El futuro de la salud personal del que hablo dice que, en principio, la atencin debe ser en casa no en una clnica u hospital. +Uno debera acudir a esos lugares solo si est muy enfermo como para usar la herramienta en casa. +Los mviles que ya tenemos pueden tener dispositivos de diagnstico como el ultrasonido y muchos otros que existen y conforme se les agregue estos dispositivos podremos seguir signos vitales y vigilar comportamiento como nunca antes. +Muchos tendremos implantes que informarn en tiempo real lo que nos ocurra qumicamente en la sangre y en las protenas ahora mismo. +Pero el software tambin es ms inteligente, no? +Piensen en un asistente, un agente en lnea, que me ayudar a autoatenderme en forma segura. +La misma interaccin que vimos con el ultrasonido probablemente tenga procesamiento de imgenes en tiempo real y el dispositivo dir: "Arriba, abajo, izquierda, derecha. Eric, es la mancha perfecta para enviar en esa imagen a tu mdico". +Si tenemos todos estos dispositivos conectados que nos ayudan en la atencin ubicua, es lgico pensar que tambin necesitamos un equipo capaz de interactuar con todo eso, y eso nos lleva al segundo pilar del que quiero hablarles: la atencin en red. +Tenemos que pasar de este paradigma de especialistas aislados que atienden las partes a equipos multidisciplinarios que atiendan a la persona. +La atencin descoordinada de hoy es, como mnimo, costosa; y en el por caso, letal. +El 80 % de los errores mdicos se deben a problemas de comunicacin y coordinacin entre los miembros del equipo mdico. +Tuve un episodio cardaco hace aos en la universidad, mientras me trataban por el rin, de repente, dicen: "Pensamos que tienes un problema cardaco". +Tena esas palpitaciones. +Me pusieron en estudio durante 5 semanas... muy costoso y pavoroso... hasta que la enfermera se dio cuenta en la nota de papel, en mi receta, que llev a cada consulta, dice: "Dios mo". +Tres especialistas distintos me prescribieron tres versiones diferentes del mismo medicamento. +Yo no tena un problema cardaco, sino una sobredosis. +Tuve un problema de coordinacin mdica. +Y eso le pasa a millones de personas al ao. +Quiero usar la tecnologa en la que estamos trabajando para que la atencin de la salud sea un deporte coordinado de equipo. +Para m, eso es lo ms aterrador. +De todos los tratamientos en hospitales y clnicas de todo el mundo, la primera vez que tuve una experiencia real con visin de equipo fue en el Legacy Good Sam los ltimos 6 meses y obtuve esto. +Es una foto de mi equipo de graduacin de Legacy. +Hay varias personas aqu. Reconocern al Dr. Batiuk. +Recin hablamos con l. Esta es Jenny, una de las enfermeras, Allison, que ayud con la lista de trasplantes, y muchas otras personas que no aparecen: farmacuticos, psiclogos, nutricionistas, incluso una consejera financiera, Lisa, que nos ayud con las molestias de los seguros. +Llor el da que me gradu. +Debera estar feliz porque estaba tan bien que poda volver con mis mdicos habituales pero llor porque generamos un vnculo con este equipo. +Y esta es la parte ms importante. +En la foto aparecemos mi esposa Ashley y yo. +Legacy nos capacit en la atencin en casa para alivianar a los hospitales y clnicas. +Esta es la nica forma en que funciona el modelo. +Mi equipo est trabajando en China en uno de estos modelos de autoatencin en un proyecto llamado Ciudades Longevas [Age-Friendly Cities]. +La idea ms importante que quiero dejarles es que esa relacin mdico-paciente, uno a uno, un poco romntica, es una reliquia del pasado. +Los centros de salud tendrn equipos inteligentes y es mejor que estn en esos equipos por su cuenta. +La ltima cuestin de la que quiero hablar es la atencin personalizada porque si uno cuenta con atencin ubicua y en red eso requerir recorrer un largo camino hasta mejorar el sistema de salud, pero hay todava demasiadas conjeturas. +Los ensayos clnicos aleatorios se inventaron en 1948 para ayudar a encontrar la cura para la tuberculosis y son cosas importantes, no me malinterpreten. +Estos estudios de poblacin que hemos hecho han creado muchsimos medicamentos milagrosos que han salvado millones de vidas, pero el problema es que la atencin sanitaria nos trata como promedios, no como individuos, porque al fin de cuentas, el paciente no es lo mismo que la poblacin que se estudia. Eso es lo que da lugar a las conjeturas. +Las tecnologas que vienen, computacin de alto rendimiento, anlisis, "big data" -que est en boca de todos- nos permitirn construir modelos predictivos para cada uno como paciente individual. +Y lo mgico es que se experimentar con mi avatar de software, y no sufriendo en carne propia. +Hay dos ejemplos que quiero compartir rpidamente de esta atencin personalizada en mi propio viaje. +El primero es muy simple. Me di cuenta hace unos aos de que mi equipo mdico estaba optimizando mi tratamiento para ganar longevidad. +Ver cunto pueden hacer vivir al paciente es como una medalla de honor. +Yo optimizaba para ganar calidad de vida y la calidad de vida para m es tiempo en la nieve. +Por eso les obligu a poner: "Objetivo del paciente: dosis bajas de frmacos durante perodos ms largos de tiempo; efecto secundario: ms tiempo para esquiar". +Y creo que por eso consegu longevidad. +Creo que el tiempo pasado en la nieve fue tan importante como los frmacos que recib. +El segundo ejemplo de personalizacin y, por cierto, no se puede personalizar la atencin si uno no conoce sus objetivos, por eso la atencin sanitaria no puede saberlo hasta que uno conozca sus objetivos. +El segundo ejemplo que quiero presentarles, y, fui un conejillo de indias temprano, es que secuenciaron todo mi genoma. +El procesamiento llev unas 2 semanas de los servidores de alta gama de Intel y otros 6 meses de labores humanas de clculo para darle sentido a todos esos datos. +Y al final de todo esto, dijeron: "S, los diagnsticos de ese duelo de titanes mdicos de hace tantos aos, eran errneos, y tenemos un mejor camino hacia adelante". +Y, les digo, esta atencin personalizada de todo, desde sus objetivos hasta sus genticas ser la transformacin ms importante que hayamos visto en materia de salud en toda la vida. +Los tres pilares de la salud personal: atencin ubicua, atencin en red, y atencin personalizada, hoy ocurren fragmentadamente pero esta visin fallar completamente si no nos apartamos como trabajadores de salud y pacientes, y asumimos nuevos roles. +Como dijo mi amiga Verna: Despierten y tomen el control de su salud. +Porque al fin de cuentas estas tecnologas no son ms que personas que cuidan a otras personas y a nosotros mismos en forma novedosa e impactante. +Y es por eso que quiero presentarles a una ltima amiga, muy rpidamente. +Tracey Gamley se acerc a darme el rin imposible que se supone nunca deb tener. +Tracy, cuntanos rpidamente cmo fue la experiencia como donante. +Tracey Gamley: Para m fue muy fcil. +Solo estuve una noche en el hospital. +Me operaron por va laparoscpica, as que solo tuve cinco cicatrices muy pequeas en el abdomen y estuve cuatro semanas sin trabajar y luego regres a mis actividades cotidianas sin cambios. +ED: Bueno, quiz nunca tendr la posibilidad de decirte esto ante una audiencia tan grande nuevamente. +"Gracias" parece una palabra muy trillada, pero gracias desde el fondo del corazn por salvarme la vida. +Este escenario de TED, y todos los otros, siempre celebran la innovacin y las nuevas tecnologas, y he hecho lo propio aqu hoy, y he visto cosas increbles de los oradores de TED. Digo, Dios mo, riones artificiales, riones impresos, es lo que viene. +Pero hasta que lleguen esas tecnologas increbles hasta que estn disponibles, e incluso cuando lo estn, depende de nosotros cuidarnos, y salvarnos, unos a otros. +Espero que salgan y faciliten que ocurra la salud personal para Uds. y para todos. Muchas gracias. +Me gustara que me acompaaran por un instante al siglo XIX Especficamente al 24 de junio de 1833. +La Asociacin Britnica para el Avance de la Ciencia lleva a cabo su tercera reunin en la Universidad de Cambridge +Es la primera noche de la reunin. y una confrontacin est a punto de acontecer que cambiar la ciencia para siempre. +Un hombre mayor, de pelo blanco, se pone de pie. +Los miembros de la Asociacin se sorprenden al darse cuenta que se trata del poeta Samuel Taylor Coleridge, que ni siquiera haba salido de su casa durante aos hasta ese da. +Se sorprenden an ms por lo que dice: +"Deben dejar de auto-proclamarse filsofos naturales" +Coleridge senta que los verdaderos filsofos, como l, reflexionaban sobre el cosmos desde sus sillones. +No estaban curioseando entre pilas de fsiles o realizando experimentos confusos con pilas elctricas como los miembros de la Asociacin Britnica. +La gente se enfureci y comenz a quejarse en voz alta. +Un joven erudito de Cambridge llamado William Whewell se puso de pie y calm a la audiencia. +Cortsmente acord que no exista un nombre apropiado para los miembros de la asociacin. +Si "filsofos" es una palabra demasiado amplia y elevada -l dijo-, "entones, haciendo una analoga con la palabra 'artista', podemos usar "cientficos". Esta fue la primera vez que la palabra cientfico era pronunciada en pblico, hace tan solo 179 aos. +Me enter de esta confrontacin cuando estaba en la escuela de posgrado y me dej impresionada. +Quiero decir, cmo es que la palabra cientfico no existi hasta el ao 1833? +Cmo se les llamaba antes a los cientficos? +Qu haba cambiado para crear un nuevo nombre precisamente en ese momento? +Antes de esta reunin, los que estudiaban el mundo natural eran aficionados con talento. +Piensen en un clrigo rural o un escudero, coleccionando sus escarabajos o fsiles, como por ejemplo, Charles Darwin, o el empleado de un noble, como Joseph Priestley, quien era el compaero literario del Marqus de Lansdowne, cuando descubri el oxgeno. +Despus de esto, fueron cientificos, profesionales con un mtodo cientfico particular, ideales, sociedades y financiamiento. +Gran parte de esta revolucin se le puede atribuir a cuatro hombres que se reunieron en la Universidad de Cambridge en 1812: Charles Babbage, John Herschel, Richard Jones y William Whewell. +Eran brillantes, bien motivados, que lograron cosas increbles. +Charles Babbage, conocido por la mayora en la comunidad TED, invent la primera calculadora mecnica y el primer prototipo de una computadora moderna. +John Herschel traz un mapa de las estrellas del hemisferio sur y, en su tiempo libre, co-invent la fotografa. +Estoy segura de que todos podramos ser as de productivos si Facebook o Twitter, no nos quitaran nuestro tiempo. +Richard Jones se convirti en un importante economista que ms tarde influy en Karl Marx. +Y Whewell no slo acu el trmino cientfico, as como las palabras nodo, ctodo e in, sino tambin lider la gran ciencia internacional con su investigacin global de las mareas +en los inviernos de 1812 y 1813 en Cambridge. Los cuatro se reunieron en lo que llamaban desayunos filosficos. +Hablaban de la ciencia y de la necesidad de una nueva revolucin cientfica. +Sentan que la ciencia se haba estancado desde los das de la revolucin cientfica, que haba sucedido en el siglo XVII. +Era el momento para una nueva revolucin, que se comprometieron a llevar a cabo, y lo que es tan sorprendente acerca de estos muchachos, es que, no solo tuvieron estos grandiosos sueos estudiantiles, sino que de hecho los llevaron a cabo, incluso ms all de sus ideales ms disparatados. +Hoy voy a contarles de los cuatro principales cambios que estos hombres hicieron en la ciencia. +Alrededor de 200 aos antes, Francis Bacon y luego, Isaac Newton, haban propuesto un mtodo cientfico inductivo. +Ese es un mtodo que comienza con observaciones y experimentos y se mueve hacia generalizaciones acerca de la naturaleza, llamadas leyes naturales, que siempre estn sujetas a revisin y rechazo si se presenta alguna nueva evidencia. +Sin embargo, en 1809, David Ricardo enturbi esta teora argumentando que la ciencia econmica debera usar un mtodo diferente, uno deductivo. +El problema era que un grupo influyente en Oxford comenz a alegar que, ya que haba funcionado tan bien en economa, este mtodo deductivo debera ser aplicado tambin a las ciencias naturales. +Los miembros del club del desayuno filosfico no estaban de acuerdo. +Escribieron libros y artculos promoviendo el mtodo inductivo en todas las ciencias y los leyeron muchsimos filsofos naturales, estudiantes universitarios y gente del pblico. +Leer un libro de Herschel fue un momento muy decisivo para Charles Darwin quIen ms tarde dira: "Casi nada en mi vida hizo una impresin tan profunda en m. +Me hizo desear aadir mis fuerzas al depsito acumulado de conocimiento natural". +Tambin le dio forma al mtodo cientfico de Darwin, as como el utilizado por sus pares. +[La ciencia para el bien comn.] Anteriormente, se crea que el conocimiento cientfico deba ser utilizado para el bien del rey o de la reina, o para beneficio personal. +Por ejemplo, los capitanes de los barcos tenan que tener informacin acerca de las mareas con el fin de atracar con seguridad en los puertos. +Las capitanas reunan ese conocimiento y se lo vendan a los capitanes de los barcos. +El club del desayuno filosfico cambi eso, trabajando juntos. +El estudio mundial de Whewell sobre las mareas se tradujo en tablas y mapas de mareas, abiertas al pblico, que proporcionaban el conocimiento de las capitanas, gratuitamente a todos los capitanes de barco. +Herschel ayud haciendo observaciones de las mareas en las costas de Sudfrica, y, como l le confi a Whewell, fue derribado en los muelles durante una violenta marea alta, por su trabajo. +Los cuatro hombres se ayudaron mutuamente en todo sentido. +Tambin presionaron incesantemente al gobierno britnico para que financiara la construccin de motores de Babbage, pues crean que estos motores tendran un gran impacto prctico en la sociedad. +En los das previos a las calculadoras de bolsillo, los nmeros que la mayora de los profesionales necesitaban banqueros, agentes de seguros, capitanes de barcos, ingenieros podan encontrarse en libros de consulta como este, lleno de tablas con cifras. +Estas tablas eran calculadas usando un proceso determinado una y otra vez, por trabajadoras de medio tiempo, conocidos como, y esto es increble, computadoras. Eran clculos realmente difciles. +Es decir, este almanaque nutico traa las diferencias lunares para todos los meses del ao. +Cada mes requera 1.365 clculos, por lo que estas tablas estaban llenas de errores. +La mquina diferencial de Babbage fue la primera calculadora mecnica ideada para calcular con precisin cualquiera de estas tablas. +En los ltimos 20 aos se construyeron 2 modelos de su motor por un grupo del Museo de Ciencias de Londres utilizando sus propios planos. +Esta es la computadora en el Museo de Historia de la Computacin, en California, y calcula con precisin. Realmente funciona. +Ms tarde, el motor de la mquina analtica de Babbage fue la primera computadora mecnica, en el sentido moderno +Tena una memoria separada y un procesador central. +Era capaz de hacer iteraciones, bifurcaciones condicionales y procesamientos paralelos, y era programable, usando tarjetas perforadas, una idea que Babbage tom del telar de Jacquard. +Trgicamente, los motores de Babbage nunca se construyeron en su momento porque la mayora de las personas pensaban que las computadoras no-humanas no tendran utilidad para las masas. +[Nuevas Instituciones Cientficas] Fundada en la poca de Bacon, la Royal Society of London fue la sociedad cientfica ms importante en Inglaterra e incluso en todo el mundo. +En el siglo XIX, se haba convertido en una especie de club de caballeros poblada principalmente por anticuarios, hombres de letras y de la nobleza. +Los miembros del club del desayuno filosfico ayudaron a formar un nmero de nuevas sociedades cientficas, como la Asociacin Britnica. +Estas nuevas sociedades requeran que los miembros fueran investigadores activos, que publicaran sus resultados. +Restablecieron la tradicin de las Q&A (Preguntas y Respuestas) despus de ledos los trabajos cientficos, lo cual haba sido descontinuado por la Royal Society por ser considerado poco caballeroso. +Y por primera vez, les dieron a las mujeres una oportunidad en el campo de la ciencia. +Se alent a los miembros a llevar a sus esposas, hijas y hermanas a las reuniones de la Asociacin Britnica. Y aunque se esperaba que las mujeres asistieran solamente a las conferencias pblicas y a los eventos sociales, como este, tambin comenzaron a infiltrarse en las sesiones cientficas. +La Asociacin Britnica sera despus la primera, de las principales organizaciones nacionales de ciencia en el mundo, en admitir mujeres como miembros. +[Financiacin externa para la ciencia] Hasta el siglo XIX, se esperaba que los filsofos naturales pagaran sus equipos y suministros. +De vez en cuando, haba premios, como el otorgado a John Harrison en el siglo XVIII, por resolver el llamado problema de la longitud, pero los premios eran otorgados a posteriori, cuando ya lo haban dado todo. +Siguiendo el consejo del club del desayuno filosfico, la Asociacin Britnica comenz a usar el dinero extra, generado por las reuniones, para dar financiacin para investigaciones en astronoma, mareas, peces fsiles, construccin naval y muchas otras reas. +Estas becas no solo permitieron que se ocuparan menos hombres adinerados en investigacin sino que tambin instaron a la amplia creatividad e innovacin en vez de solo intentar resolver preguntas preestablecidas. +Finalmente, la Royal Society, y las sociedades cientficas de otros pases, siguieron el ejemplo, y esto se ha convertido, por suerte, en una parte importante del panorama cientfico actual. +El club del desayuno filosfico ayud a inventar el cientfico moderno. +Esa es la parte heroica de su historia. +Hay tambin otra cara de la moneda. +No previeron al menos una de las consecuencias de su revolucin. +Ellos habran estado profundamente consternados por la disyuncin de hoy entre la ciencia y el resto de la cultura. +Es impactante darse cuenta que slo el 28% de los adultos estadounidenses tienen apenas un nivel muy bsico de cultura cientfica. Esto se comprob mediante preguntas simples como, "Vivieron los seres humanos y los dinosaurios en la Tierra al mismo tiempo?" +y "Qu proporcin de la Tierra est cubierta de agua?" +Una vez que los cientficos se hacen miembros de un grupo profesional, son lentamente aislados del resto de nosotros. +Esta es la consecuencia no deseada de la revolucin que comenz con nuestros cuatro amigos. +Charles Darwin dijo: "A veces pienso que las publicaciones generales y populares son casi tan importantes para el progreso de la ciencia, como la obra original". +De hecho, "El Origen de las Especies", fue escrito para un pblico general y popular, y fue ampliamente ledo cuando apareci por primera vez. +Darwin saba lo que parece que hemos olvidado, que la ciencia no es slo para los cientficos. +Gracias. +Hablemos sucio. +Unos aos atrs, por extrao que parezca, necesitaba ir al bao y encontr uno, un bao pblico, fui al retrete y me prepar para hacer lo que haba hecho la mayor parte de mi vida: usar el inodoro, tirar la cadena y olvidarme de eso. +Y por alguna razn ese da, en lugar de hacer eso, me hice una pregunta y fue: a dnde va todo esto? +Y con esa pregunta, me encontr sumergida en el mundo de los servicios sanitarios, viene ms en camino, , servicios sanitarios, inodoros y pop y an tengo que emerger. +Y por eso que es un enfurecedor, aunque interesante lugar para estar. +Volvamos a ese inodoro, no era particularmente sofisticado, no era tan bonito como este de la World Toilet Organization [Organizacin Mundial del Inodoro]. +Esa es la otra WTO. . Pero tena una puerta con cerradura, tena privacidad, tena agua, tena jabn, as que pude lavarme las manos y lo hice porque soy una mujer y nosotras hacemos eso. +Pero ese da, cuando me hice esa pregunta, aprend algo y fue que haba crecido pensando que un inodoro era un derecho, cuando en realidad es un privilegio. +2500 millones de personas en el mundo no tienen un inodoro adecuado. +No tienen un balde o una caja. +40 % del mundo no tiene un inodoro adecuado. +Y tienen que hacer lo que est haciendo este pequeo nio al lado de la autopista del Aeropuerto de Bombay, que se llama defecar al aire libre o hacer pop al aire libre. +Y lo hace cada da y cada da, probablemente, ese hombre de la foto pasar caminando por su lado, porque l ve a ese pequeo nio, pero no lo ve. +Pero debera, porque el problema con todo ese pop tirado por ah es que el pop lleva pasajeros. +A cincuenta enfermedades transmisibles les gusta viajar en el excremento humano. +Todas esas coas, los huevos, los quistes, las bacterias, los virus, todos pueden viajar en un gramo de heces humanas. +Cmo? Bueno, ese pequeo nio no se lavar sus manos. +Est descalzo. Correr de vuelta a su casa y contaminar su agua potable, su comida y su entorno con cualquier enfermedad que pueda estar llevando por las partculas fecales que estn en sus dedos y pies. +En lo que yo llamo el mundo con descargas de agua y alcantarillado en el que la mayora de nosotros tenemos la suerte de vivir, el sntoma ms comunes asociados con esas enfermedades, la diarrea, es ahora casi una broma. +Es andar flojo de vientre, tener manchas de chocolate derretido o estar apurado. +De donde yo vengo, lo llamamos vientre de Delhi, como un legado del imperio. +Pero si buscan una foto de archivo de la diarrea en una agencia fotogrfica importante, esta es la imagen que conseguirn. +An no estoy segura sobre el bikini. +Y aqu hay otra imagen de diarrea. +Esta es Maire Saylee, de nueve meses de edad. +No la pueden ver, porque est enterrada bajo ese verde pasto en una pequea aldea de Liberia, porque muri en tres das de diarrea, las manchas de chocolate derretido, el vientre flojo, una broma. +Y ese es su padre. +Pero no estuvo sola ese da, porque otros 4000 nios murieron de diarrea y siguen muriendo cada da. +La diarrea es la segunda causa de muerte de nios en todo el mundo, probablemente se les ha pedido que se preocupen de cosas como el VIH/SIDA, la tuberculosis o el sarampin, pero la diarrea mata ms nios que esas tres cosas juntas. +Es un arma de destruccin masiva muy potente. +Y el costo para el mundo es inmenso: USD 260 000 millones perdidos cada ao debido a la falta de saneamiento. +Estas son camas de clera en Hait. +Han escuchado sobre el clera, pero no escuchamos sobre la diarrea. +Tiene una fraccin de la atencin y financiacin dada a cualquiera de esas otras enfermedades. +Pero sabemos cmo arreglarlo. +Lo sabemos, porque a mediados del siglo XIX, los maravillosos ingenieros victorianos instalaron sistemas de alcantarillas y tratamiento de aguas residuales y el inodoro y las enfermedades se redujeron dramticamente. +La mortalidad infantil se redujo como nunca se haba reducido antes. +El inodoro fue votado como el mejor avance mdico de los ltimos 200 aos por los lectores de la British Medical Journal y lo eligieron por sobre la pldora, la anestesia y la ciruga. +Es un dispositivo de eliminacin de desechos maravilloso. +Pero creo que es tan bueno, no tiene olor, lo podemos colocar en nuestra casa, podemos colocarlo detrs de una puerta y creo que tambin lo hemos dejado fuera de las conversaciones. +No le tenemos una palabra neutral. +"Pop" no es particularmente adecuada. +"Mierda" ofende a la gente. "Heces" es demasiado mdica. +Porque no puedo explicar de otra manera, cuando veo las cifras, lo que est pasando. +Pero cuando ven a ese ya minsculo presupuesto para agua y saneamiento y de un 75 % a 90 % ir al suministro de agua potable, lo que es genial, todos necesitamos agua. +Nadie va a rechazar el agua potable. +Pero la letrina humilde o el inodoro reducen las enfermedades dos veces ms que solo colocar agua potable. +Pinsenlo. Ese pequeo nio que corre de vuelta a su casa, puede tener un suministro de agua fresca lindo y limpio, pero tiene las manos sucias con las que contaminar su suministro de agua. +Y creo que el verdadero desperdicio de los desechos humanos es que los estamos desaprovechando como un recurso y como un increble desencadenante para el desarrollo, porque hay un par de cosas que los inodoros y el pop pueden hacer por nosotros. +Un inodoro puede hacer que una chica vuelva a la escuela. +25 % de las nias en India abandonan la escuela porque no tienen servicios sanitarios adecuados. +Estn acostumbradas a sentarse durante las clases por aos y aos mantenindolo. +Todos lo hemos hecho, pero ellas lo hacen todos los das y cuando llegan a la pubertad y comienzan a menstruar, es demasiado. +Y lo comprendo. Quin podra culparlas? +Si conocieran a un pedagogo y le dijeran "puedo mejorar las tasas de asistencia escolar un 25 % solo con una sencilla cosa", haran muchos amigos en la educacin. +Esa no es la nica cosa que puede hacer por ustedes. +El pop puede cocinar su cena. +Tiene nutrientes. +Nosotros ingerimos nutrientes y tambin los excretamos. +No los guardamos todos. +En Ruanda, estn obteniendo el 75 % del combustible para cocinar en su sistema penitenciario del contenido de los intestinos de los presos. +Este es un grupo de internos en una prisin de Butare. +Son internos genocidas, la mayora de ellos, y estn revolviendo los contenidos de sus propias letrinas, porque si colocan el pop en un ambiente cerrado, en un depsito, muy parecido a un estmago, entonces, muy parecido a un estomago, emite gas y pueden cocinar con l. +Y pueden creer que es solo buen karma ver a estos hombres revolver mierda, pero tambin es bueno desde un punto de vista econmico, porque estn ahorrando un milln de dlares por ao. +Estn reduciendo la deforestacin y han encontrado un suministro de combustible que es inagotable, infinito y gratuito al punto de produccin. +No solo en la poblacin de bajos recursos el pop puede salvar vidas. +Ac est una mujer que est a punto de recibir una dosis de la cosa marrn en esas jeringas, que es lo que creen que es, aunque no del todo, porque en realidad es donada. +Ahora hay una nueva profesin llamada donante heces. +Es como el nuevo donante de esperma. +Porque ha estado sufriendo de una superbacteria llamada Clostridium difficile y es resistente a los antibiticos en muchos casos. +La ha estado sufriendo durante aos. +Ella recibe una dosis de heces humanas sanas y la tasa de curacin para este procedimiento es de 94 %. +Es impresionante, pero casi nadie contina hacindolo. +Quizs es el factor asco. +Est bien, porque hay un equipo de investigadores en Canad que han creado una muestra de heces, una muestra falsa de heces que se llama RePOOPulate. +Estarn pensando ahora, est bien, la solucin es simple, dmosle a todos un inodoro. +Y aqu es donde se pone realmente interesante, porque no es as de sencillo, porque no somos sencillos. +El trabajo realmente interesante y emocionante, esta es la parte atractiva, en materia de saneamiento es que necesitamos entender la psicologa humana. +Necesitamos comprender el software como tambin darle a alguien el hardware. +Han encontrado en muchos pases en desarrollo que los gobiernos han entrado y dado letrinas gratis y vuelto pocos aos despus y encontraron que tienen nuevos cobertizos de cabras, templos o habitaciones libres con sus dueos felices caminando delante de ellos y acercndose a la tierra de defecacin al aire libre. +As que la idea es manipular las emociones humanas. +Se ha hecho por dcadas. Las empresas de jabn lo hicieron a principios del siglo XX. +Intentaron vender el jabn como algo saludable. Nadie lo compr. +Intentaron venderlo como algo sexy. Todos lo compraron. +En India ahora hay una campaa que convence a las jvenes novias a no casarse con un miembro de una familia que no tenga inodoro. +Se llama "Sin bao no acepto" +Y en caso de que piensen que ese cartel es solo propaganda, ac est Priyanka, de 23 aos. +La conoc el pasado Octubre en India, ella creci en un ambiente conservador. +Creci en una aldea rural, en un rea pobre de India, y se comprometi a las 14 y luego a los 21 se mud la casa de sus suegros. +Se horroriz al llegar y darse cuenta de que no tenan inodoro. +Ella creci con una letrina. +No era gran cosa, pero era una letrina. +Y a la primera noche que pas ah, le dijeron que a las 4 de la madrugada, su suegra la despert, le dijo que saliera y fuera a hacerlo en la oscuridad al aire libre. +Y se asust. Estaba asustada de que hubiera borrachos por ah. +Estaba asustada de las serpientes. Estaba asustada de que la violaran. +Despus de tres das, ella hizo lo impensable. +Se fue. +Y si saben algo sobre la India rural, sabrn hacer eso es una cosa indescriptiblemente valiente. +Pero no solo eso. +Ella obtuvo su inodoro y ahora va por todas las otras aldeas de India convenciendo a otras mujeres a hacer lo mismo. +Es lo que llamo contagio social y es realmente poderoso y realmente emocionante. +Otra versin de esto, otra aldea de India cerca de donde vive Priyanka est esta aldea, llamada Lakara, y aproximadamente hace un ao no tena inodoros en absoluto. +Los nios moran de diarrea y clera. +Algunos visitantes fueron, usaron variados trucos para cambiar el comportamiento como colocar un plato de comida y un plato de excremento y mirar como las moscas van de uno al otro. +De alguna manera, la gente que haba estado pensando que lo que hacan no era desagradable en absoluto de pronto pensaron "Uy!". +No solo eso, sino que estuvieron ingiriendo el excremento de sus vecinos. +Eso es lo que realmente les hizo cambiar su comportamiento. +As que esta mujer, esta madre del chico instal esta letrina en pocas horas. +Su vida entera haba estado usando el campo de bananas de atrs, pero instal la letrina en unas pocas horas. +No cuesta nada. Va a salvar la vida de ese chico. +As que cuando me deprimo sobre el estado del saneamiento, a pesar de que estos son tiempos muy emocionantes, porque tenemos la Fundacin Bill y Melinda Gates reinventando el inodoro, lo que es genial; tenemos a Matt Damon yendo a huelga por el bao, lo que es genial para la humanidad, muy malo para su colon. +Pero hay cosas por las que preocuparse. +Est lejos de los Objetivos de Desarrollo del Milenio. +Est a aproximadamente 50 o ms aos lejos. +No vamos a alcanzar los objetivos, proporcionndole servicios sanitarios a la gente a esta velocidad. +As que cuando me entristezco por el tema del saneamiento, pienso en Japn, porque Japn hace 70 aos era una nacin de gente que usaba letrinas de pozo y se limpiaba con palos y ahora es una nacin de lo que se llama "woshurettos", inodoros washlet. +Tienen boquillas de bidet incorporadas para una experiencia en la limpieza encantadora y con manos libres y tienen varias otras caractersticas, como el asiento con calefaccin y un dispositivo automtico para subir la tapa que se conoce como el "salvador de matrimonios". +Pero lo ms importante, lo que han hecho en Japn, lo que encuentro inspirador, es que han sacado el bao de ese cuarto cerrado. +Lo han hecho un tema de conversacin. +La gente va y moderniza su inodoro. +Hablan de ello. Lo han desinfectado. +Espero que podamos hacer eso. No es una cosa difcil de hacer. +Todo lo que tenemos que hacer es ver este tema como el tema urgente y vergonzoso que es. +Y no crean que es solo en la poblacin de bajos recursos del mundo en que las cosas estn mal +Nuestros alcantarillas estn desmoronando. +Las cosas estn mal aqu tambin. +La solucin para todo esto es bastante fcil. +Voy a hacer sus vidas ms fciles esta tarde y solo les pedir que hagan una cosa y es que salgan, protesten, hablen de lo inexpresable, y hablen sucio. +Gracias. +Vamos a empezar con buenas noticias que tienen que ver con lo que sabemos con certeza, basado en la investigacin biomdica, que en realidad ha influido en los resultados de muchas enfermedades graves. +Comencemos con la leucemia, la leucemia linfoblstica aguda , el cncer ms comn en la infancia. +Cuando yo era un estudiante, la tasa de mortalidad era ms o menos del 95%. +Hoy en da, unos 25 o 30 aos despus, hablamos de una tasa de mortalidad que se ha reducido en un 85%. +Cada ao seis mil nios que antes habran muerto a causa de esta enfermedad son curados. +Si quieren ver cifras muy grandes, miren estos nmeros para la enfermedad cardaca, +la cual sola ser la principal causa de muerte, sobre todo entre hombres de 40 aos. +Hoy, estamos viendo una reduccin del 63% de la mortalidad debida a enfermedades cardiovasculares... notablemente, 1.1 millones de vidas salvadas cada ao. +Estos son simplemente cambios extraordinarios en el panorama de algunas de las principales causas de muerte. +Historias increbles, historias de resultado positivo que nos llevan a comprender algo acerca de las enfermedades que nos ha permitido detectar e intervenir a tiempo. +Deteccin temprana, intervencin temprana, esa es la historia de estos logros. +Lamentablemente, las noticias no son todas buenas. +Hablemos de otra historia que tiene que ver con el suicidio. +Ahora, esto no es, por supuesto, una enfermedad en s. +Es un estado o una situacin que conduce a la muerte. +Lo que no saben es lo frecuente que es. +Hay 38 mil suicidios cada ao en los Estados Unidos. +Eso significa uno cada 15 minutos. +La tercera causa de muerte ms comn en personas entre los 15 y los 25 aos. +Es algo increble cuando se dan cuenta que es dos veces ms comn que el homicidio y, como causa de muerte, ms comn que los accidentes de trfico mortales en este pas. +Ahora, cuando hablamos de suicidio, tambin hay un aporte mdico, ya que el 90 % de los suicidios estn relacionados con una enfermedad mental: depresin, trastorno bipolar, esquizofrenia, anorexia, trastorno lmite de la personalidad. Hay una larga lista de trastornos que contribuyen, y como mencion antes, a menudo a una edad temprana. +Pero no se trata solo de mortalidad por estos trastornos. +Tambin es la morbilidad. +Tal vez piensen que esto no tiene ningn sentido. +Quiero decir, el cncer parece mucho ms grave. +Las enfermedades cardacas parecen mucho ms graves. +Pero como pueden ver, se encuentran ms abajo en la lista, y eso es porque estamos hablando de discapacidad. +Qu conduce a la incapacidad de estos trastornos como la esquizofrenia, el trastorno bipolar y la depresin? +Por qu estn en primer lugar? +Bueno, probablemente hay tres razones. +La primera es que son muy frecuentes. +Aproximadamente 1 de cada 5 personas sufrir de uno de estos trastornos en el curso de su vida. +La segunda, por supuesto, es que para algunas personas, estos trastornos se vuelven muy incapacitantes; hablamos de alrededor de 4 a 5 %, tal vez uno de cada 20. +Pero lo que hace aumentar estas cifras, es esta alta morbilidad, y en cierta medida la alta mortalidad, es el hecho que empiezan a muy temprana edad. +El 50 % a los 14 aos, el 75 % a los 24. Un cuadro muy diferente se vera si se hablara de cncer o enfermedades del corazn, diabetes, presin arterial alta... la mayora de las enfermedades que creemos que son causa de morbilidad y mortalidad. +Estos son, de hecho, los trastornos crnicos de los jvenes. +Empec dicindoles que haba algunas buenas noticias. +Obviamente esta no es una de ellas. +Esta es quizs la parte ms difcil, y en cierto sentido es mi confesin personal. +Mi trabajo es asegurarme que avancemos en el tratamiento de estos trastornos. +Yo trabajo para el gobierno federal. +De hecho, trabajo para Uds. Uds. pagan mi salario. +Y tal vez ahora que saben lo que hago, o mejor dicho, lo que no he sido capaz de hacer, probablemente piensen que debera ser despedido, y yo sin duda lo entendera. +Pero lo que quiero sugerir, la razn por la que estoy aqu, es para decirles que creo que estamos a punto de entrar en un mundo muy diferente sobre cmo hacer frente a estas enfermedades. +Hasta ahora les he hablado de trastornos mentales, enfermedades de la mente. +Este trmino lltimamente se ha vuelto muy poco popular, y la gente cree que, cualquiera que sea la razn, es polticamente mejor utilizar el trmino "trastornos de conducta", y hablar de ellos como trastornos del comportamiento. +Me parece justo. Son trastornos de conducta y trastornos de la mente. +Pero lo que quiero que entiendan es que ambos trminos, que han sido utilizados durante un siglo o ms, son ahora un obstculo para el progreso, que lo que necesitamos conceptualmente para avanzar es replantear estos trastornos como trastornos cerebrales. +Ahora, algunos de Uds. van a decir, "Oh, Dios mo, aqu vamos de nuevo. +Ahora nos va a hablar de un desequilibrio qumico, de drogas o de algn concepto simplista que transformar nuestra experiencia subjetiva en molculas, o quiz de algn tipo de entendimiento plano y unidimensional de lo que es tener depresin o esquizofrenia. +El cerebro es cualquier cosa excepto unidimensional, simplista o reduccionista. +Depende, por supuesto, de qu escala o en qu medida se lo quiera pensar. Este es un rgano de una complejidad surrealista, y apenas estamos empezando a entender cmo estudiarlo, ya sea que se piense en las 100 mil millones de neuronas en la corteza o en las 100 billones de sinapsis que componen todas las conexiones. +Apenas hemos comenzado a entender cmo tomar esta mquina tan compleja que hace un trabajo increble de procesamiento de informacin, y a usar nuestra propia mente para entender este cerebro tan complejo que sostiene nuestras mentes. +En realidad es una broma cruel de la evolucin el hecho de no tener un cerebro perfectamente programado para entenderse a s mismo. +En cierto sentido, se siente ms seguro estudiar el comportamiento o la cognicin, algo que se puede observar, que de algn modo resulta ms simplista y reduccionista, que abordar el estudio de este rgano tan complejo y misterioso que apenas empezamos a entender. +A esto lo llamamos el conectoma humano, y se lo pueden imaginar como el diagrama elctrico del cerebro. +Profundizaremos el concepto en unos minutos. +Es un poco diferente a la forma en que imaginamos trastornos cerebrales como la enfermedad de Huntington, el Parkinson o el Alzheimer donde se tiene una parte de la corteza destruida. +Aqu estamos hablando de atascos de trfico, o a veces de desvos o problemas con la forma en que estn conectadas las cosas y la forma en que funciona el cerebro. +Si quieren, pueden comparar esto, por una parte, a un infarto de miocardio, un ataque al corazn, donde hay tejido muerto en el corazn, frente a una arritmia, donde el rgano simplemente no funciona debido a problemas de comunicacin. +Ambos lo podran matar a uno; y solo en uno de ellos se encontrar una lesin grave. +Teniendo en cuenta esto, probablemente sea mejor profundizar en un trastorno en particular, que sera la esquizofrenia, porque creo que es un buen ejemplo para ayudar a entender por qu es importante considerarla como un trastorno cerebral. +Es algo que podemos observar. +Pero si se fijan bien, vern que en realidad han cruzado un umbral diferente. +Han cruzado un umbral del cerebro mucho antes, tal vez no a los 22 o 20 aos, pero incluso hacia los 15 a 16 aos se puede empezar a ver que la trayectoria del desarrollo es muy diferente a nivel del cerebro, no a nivel del comportamiento. +Por qu esto es importante? En primer lugar porque, para los trastornos cerebrales, el comportamiento es la ltima cosa para cambiar. +Sabemos esto porque para el Alzheimer, el Parkinson y el Huntington son as. +Hay cambios en el cerebro una dcada o ms antes de ver los primeros signos de un cambio de comportamiento. +Las herramientas que ahora tenemos nos permiten detectar estos cambios en el cerebro mucho antes de que aparezcan los sntomas. +Pero lo ms importante, volvamos a donde empezamos. +Las buenas noticias en medicina son la deteccin e intervencin tempranas. +Si esperramos al momento del infarto, estaramos sacrificando 1.1 millones de vidas cada ao en este pas por enfermedades cardacas. +Eso es precisamente lo que hacemos hoy cuando decidimos que cualquiera con alguno de estos trastornos cerebrales, trastornos de circuitos cerebrales, tiene un trastorno del comportamiento. +Esperamos hasta que el comportamiento se manifieste. +Eso no es deteccin temprana ni tampoco intervencin temprana. +Para ser claros, no estamos bien preparados para esto. +No tenemos todos los hechos. Ni siquiera sabemos realmente cules sern las herramientas, ni lo que hay que buscar exactamente en cada caso para poder intervenir antes de que se manifieste un comportamiento diferente. +Pero esto nos muestra cmo debemos pensar, y a dnde tenemos que ir. +Llegaremos pronto? +Creo que es algo que ocurrir en los prximos aos, pero me gustara terminar con una cita sobre cmo predecir el modo en que esto va a pasar, de alguien que ha pensado mucho acerca de cambios en los conceptos y cambios en la tecnologa. +"Siempre sobrestimamos el cambio que se producir en los prximos dos aos y subestimamos el cambio que se producir en los prximos diez. Bill Gates. +Muchas gracias. +Hace un ao, alquil un auto en Jerusaln para buscar a un hombre que no haba conocido pero que haba cambiado mi vida. +No tena un nmero de telfono para avisar de que iba. +No tena una direccin exacta, pero yo saba su nombre, Abed, saba que viva en un pueblo de 15 000, Kfar Kara, y saba que, 21 aos antes, justo fuera de esta ciudad santa, haba roto mi cuello. +Y as, en una maana nublada de enero, me dirig al norte en un Chevy plateado para encontrar a un hombre y algo de paz. +Segu por la carretera y sal de Jerusaln. +Luego dobl la misma curva donde su camin azul, cargado con cuatro toneladas de azulejos, se empotr a gran velocidad en la parte trasera izquierda del microbs donde iba sentado. +Entonces tena 19 aos. +Haba crecido 13 cm y hecho unas 20 000 lagartijas en 8 meses y la noche antes del accidente, estaba feliz con mi nuevo cuerpo, jugando baloncesto con amigos en la madrugada de una maana de mayo. +Mantuve la bola en mi gran mano derecha, y cuando esa mano alcanz el borde del aro, me sent invencible. +Yo estaba en el autobs para ir a buscar la pizza que haba ganado en la cancha. +No vi venir Abed. +Desde mi asiento, miraba una ciudad de piedra sobre una colina, brillando al sol del medioda, cuando por detrs hubo una gran explosin, tan fuerte y violenta como una bomba. +Mi cabeza se quebr sobre mi asiento rojo. +Mi tmpano explot. Mis zapatos volaron. +Yo vol tambin, mi cabeza flotando en huesos rotos, y cuando aterric, estaba cuadripljico. +En los meses siguientes, aprend a respirar solo, luego a sentarme y a pararme y a caminar, pero mi cuerpo estaba ahora dividido verticalmente. +Era un hemipljico, y de regreso a mi hogar en Nueva York, us una silla de ruedas durante cuatro aos, toda la universidad. +Termin la universidad y regres a Jerusaln por un ao. +All me levant de mi silla para siempre, me apoy en mi bastn y mir al pasado, para buscar desde mis compaeros de viaje en el autobs hasta fotografas del accidente, y cuando vi esta fotografa, no vi un cuerpo sangriento e inmvil. +Vi la sana protuberancia del deltoides izquierdo, y me lamentaba de que se haba perdido, llorando todo que no haba hecho an, pero que ahora era imposible. +Fue entonces cuando le el testimonio que dio Abed la maana despus del accidente, de conducir por el carril derecho de la carretera hacia Jerusaln. +Leer sus palabras, me inundaron de ira. +Sera la primera vez que sentira ira hacia este hombre, y vena del pensamiento mgico. +En esa fotocopia, el accidente no haba ocurrido todava. +Abed todava poda girar su rueda izquierda para que yo lo viera pasar silbando por mi ventana y pudiera seguir entero. +"Se cuidadoso, Abed, mira afuera. Baja la velocidad". +Pero Abed no la baj, y en esa fotocopia, mi cuello se rompi otra vez, y otra vez, termin sin ira. +Me decid encontrar a Abed, y cuando finalmente lo hice, l respondi a mi hola hebreo con tal indiferencia, pareca que hubiera esperado mi llamada. +Y tal vez s. +Dije que quera conocerlo. +Abed dijo que lo llamara en unas semanas, y cuando lo hice, y una grabacin me dijo que su nmero estaba desconectado, dej a Abed y al accidente, que se fueran +Pasaron muchos aos. +Camin con mi bastn y soporte de tobillo y una mochila de viaje por seis continentes. +Lanc en un juego de sftbol semanal que comenc en el Central Park, en casa en Nueva York, me convert en periodista y escritor, escrib cientos de miles de palabras con un dedo. +Un amigo me indic que todas mis grandes historias eran un espejo de la ma, cada una centrada en una vida que haba cambiado en un instante, debido, si no a un accidente, entonces a una herencia, un batazo, el clic de un obturador, un arresto. +Cada uno de nosotros tiene un antes y un despus. +Yo he estado resolviendo mi destino despus de todo. +An, Abed estaba lejos de mi mente, cuando el ao pasado, regres a Israel para escribir del accidente, y el libro que escrib entonces, "Half-Life", estaba casi completo cuando comprend que an quera conocer a Abed, y finalmente pude entender por qu: para escucharle decir dos palabras: "Lo siento". +La gente se disculpa por menos. +Y as fui a la polica para confirmar que Abed todava viva en algn lugar de esa misma ciudad, y ahora iba con un florero de rosas amarillas en el asiento trasero, cuando de repente las flores parecieron una ofrenda ridcula. +Pero qu se le da al hombre que te rompi el maldito cuello? +Me adentr en la ciudad de Abu Ghosh, y compr una caja de delicias turcas: pistachos confitados en agua de rosas. Mejor. +En la autopista 1, imaginaba lo que me esperaba. +Abed me abrazara. Abed me escupira +Abed dira, "Te pido perdn". +Entonces comenc a preguntarme, como lo hice muchas veces antes, cmo hubiera sido de diferente mi vida si ese hombre no me hubiera herido, alimentando mis genes con una experiencia diferente. +Quin era yo? +Era yo el mismo de antes del accidente, antes de que esta carretera dividiera mi vida como el lomo de un libro abierto? +Era lo que haba hecho para m? +Somos todos el resultado de lo hecho para nosotros, hecho por nosotros, la infidelidad de un padre o cnyuge, dinero heredado? +Somos en lugar de nuestros cuerpos, sus dotes y dficits innatos? +Parece que no podamos ser nada ms que genes y experiencia, pero, cmo separar el uno del otro? +Como Yeats plante esa misma pregunta universal, "Oh cuerpo mecido por la msica, oh brillo de la mirada, cmo podemos distinguir al danzante de la danza?" +Yo haba estado conduciendo por una hora cuando mir en mi espejo retrovisor y vi mi propio brillo en mi mirada. +La luz que mis ojos haban llevado desde que haban sido azules. +Las predisposiciones e impulsos que me haban propulsado cuando nio a tratar de deslizar un barco en un lago de Chicago, me haba impulsado de adolescente para saltar en la salvaje baha de Cape Cod despus de un huracn. +Pero tambin vi en mi reflejo que si Abed no me hubiera herido, ahora, con toda probabilidad, sera un mdico y un marido y un padre. +Sera menos consciente del tiempo y de la muerte, y, ah, yo no estara discapacitado, no habra sufrido los miles de golpes y dardos de mi fortuna. +La frecuente torsin de los cinco dedos, los dientes astillados de morder tantas cosas una mano solitaria que no se puede abrir. +El danzante y la danza estaban irremediablemente entrelazados. +Eran casi las 11 cuando sal a la derecha hacia Afula y pas una gran cantera y llegu pronto a Kfar Kara. +Sent una punzada de nervios. +Pero Chopin en la radio, siete bellas mazurcas, y entr a una gasolinera a escuchar y calmarme. +Me haban dicho que en una ciudad rabe, solo es necesario mencionar el nombre de un local y lo reconoceran. +Yo hablaba de Abed y de m, dejando claro que estaba all en paz, a la gente en esa ciudad, cuando conoc a Mohamed fuera de una oficina de correos al medioda. +l me escuch. +Saben, era de lo ms a menudo cuando hablaba con la gente que me preguntaba donde comenz y acab mi invalidez, porque mucha gente me cont lo que a nadie explicaron. +Muchos lloraron. +Y un da, despus de que una mujer que conoc en la calle hizo lo mismo y luego le pregunt por qu, me dijo que, mejor que sus palabras, sus lgrimas haban tenido algo que ver con que soy feliz y fuerte, pero vulnerable tambin. +Escuch sus palabras. Supongo que eran ciertas. +Era yo, pero ahora era yo a pesar de la cojera, y que, supongo, fue lo que me hizo ser yo mismo. +De todos modos, Mohamed me dijo lo que tal vez no habra dicho a otro extranjero. +Me llev a una casa de estuco crema y luego baj. +Y mientras estaba sentado pensando qu decir, una mujer se acerc en un chal negro y traje negro. +Baj de mi auto y dije "Shalom", y me identifiqu, y ella me dijo que su marido Abed regresara del trabajo en 4 horas. +Su hebreo no era bueno, y ms tarde confes que pens que yo haba ido a instalar Internet. +Me retir y volv a las 4:30, agradecido del minarete arriba del camino que me ayud a encontrar mi camino de regreso. +Y cuando me acerqu a la puerta, Abed me vio, mis jeans y franela y bastn, y vi a Abed, un hombre de aspecto promedio de tamao medio. +Vesta de negro y blanco: chinelas sobre calcetines, en pantalones de sudadera, un suter, una gorra de esqu a rayas sobre su frente. +l haba estado esperndome. Mohamed haba telefoneado. +Y al mismo tiempo, nos dimos la mano y sonri, y le di mi regalo, y l me dijo que yo era un invitado en su casa, y nos sentamos uno al lado del otro en un sof de tela. +Fue entonces que Abed reanud de una vez el cuento de la afliccin que haba empezado por telfono 16 aos antes. +Haba tenido una ciruga reciente en los ojos, dijo. +Tambin tuvo problemas con su costado y sus piernas y, ah, que haba perdido sus dientes en el accidente. +Querra verle quitrselos? +Abed entonces se levant y encendi la TV para que no estuviera solo en la habitacin cuando l sali y regres con polaroids del accidente y su vieja licencia. +"Yo era guapo", dijo. +Miramos hacia la barbilla laminada. +Abed haba sido menos apuesto que fuerte, con el pelo negro grueso y cara redonda y un cuello ancho. +Fue este joven quien el 16 de mayo de 1990, haba roto dos cuellos, incluido el mo, y un hematoma del cerebro y tomado una vida. +21 aos ms tarde, estaba ahora ms delgado que su esposa, la piel del rostro holgada, y mirando a Abed mirndose joven, record mirando esa fotografa ma de joven despus del accidente y reconoc su anhelo. +"El accidente cambi nuestras vidas", dije. +Abed entonces me mostr una foto de su camin destrozado, y dijo que el accidente fue culpa de un conductor de autobs en el carril izquierdo que no le dejaba pasar. +No quera volver a reconstruir el accidente con Abed. +Esperaba algo ms simple: intercambiar un postre turco por dos palabras y seguir mi camino. +Y por lo tanto no seal que en su propio testimonio la maana despus del accidente, Abed ni siquiera mencion al conductor del autobs. +No, me qued callado. Me qued callado porque no haba venido por la verdad. +Haba venido por remordimiento. +As que ahora fui buscando remordimiento y lanz la verdad debajo del autobs. +"Entiendo", dije, "que el accidente no fue su culpa, pero, no le entristece que otros sufrieran?" +Abed pronunci tres palabras rpido. +"S, he sufrido". +Abed luego me dijo por qu l haba sufrido. +Haba vivido una vida profana antes del accidente, as que Dios haba ordenado el accidente, pero ahora, dijo, l era una persona religiosa, y Dios estaba complacido. +Fue entonces cuando intervino Dios: noticias en la TV de un accidente automovilstico horas antes haba matado a tres personas en el norte. +Mirbamos los restos. +"Extrao", dije. +"Extrao", concord. +Tuve la idea de que all, en la ruta 804, haba delincuentes y vctimas, dadas unidas por un accidente. +Algunos, como Abed, olvidaran la fecha. +Algunos, como yo, la recordaran. +El reporte termin y Abed habl. +"Es una lstima", dijo, "que la polica en este pas no sea lo suficientemente firme con los malos conductores". +Yo estaba desconcertado. +Abed haba dicho algo notable. +Se daba cuenta el grado al cual l se absolva del accidente? +Era evidencia de culpabilidad, la afirmacin de que l debera haber sido puesto lejos ms tiempo? +Cumpli 6 meses de prisin, perdi su licencia de conduccin por una dcada. +Olvid mi discrecin. +"Eh, Abed," dije, "Pens que tena algunos problemas de manejo antes del accidente". +"Bueno," dijo: "Fui una vez a 60 en una de 40". +Y las 27 infracciones, saltarse una luz roja, conducir con exceso de velocidad, conducir en el lado equivocado de una barrera, y pisar los frenos en ese descenso, reducidas a una sola. +Y fue entonces que comprend que no importa lo cruda que sea la realidad, el ser humano se encaja en una narracin que le sea aceptable. +El criminal se convierte en el hroe. El perpetrador se convierte en la vctima. +Fue entonces que comprend que Abed nunca pedira disculpas. +Abed y yo sentados con nuestro caf. +Habamos pasado 90 minutos juntos, y ahora ya lo conoca. +No era un hombre particularmente malo o un hombre particularmente bueno. +Era un hombre limitado que se esforz por ser amable conmigo. +Con un gesto a la costumbre juda, me dijo que yo deba vivir hasta los 120 aos de edad. +Pero me fue difcil relacionarme con quien se lavaba completamente las manos de su propio hacer calamitoso, con alguien cuya vida estaba tan poco examinada que dijo que pens que dos personas haban muerto en el accidente. +Haba mucho que quera decirle a Abed. +Quera decirle que si reconoca mi discapacidad sera bueno, porque la gente se equivoca cuando se sorprenden con aquellos como yo que sonren en su cojera. +Las personas no saben que han vivido mal, que los problemas del corazn dan con ms fuerza que un camin fuera de control, que los problemas de la mente son mayores todava, ms perjudiciales, que un centenar de cuellos rotos. +Quera decirle que lo que ms hace que seamos lo que somos ms que todo no es nuestra mente ni nuestros cuerpos y no es lo qu nos pasa, sino cmo respondemos a lo que nos pasa. +"Esta," escribi el psiquiatra Viktor Frankl, "es la ltima de las libertades humanas: elegir la actitud de uno ante cualquier conjunto de circunstancias". +Quera decirle que no solo paraliz y los paralizados deben evolucionar, reconciliarse con la realidad pero que todos tenemos, el envejecimiento y la ansiedad y los divorcios y la calvicie y la quiebra y todo el mundo. +Quera decirle que uno no tiene que decir que una cosa mala es buena, que un accidente es cosa de Dios y por lo tanto un accidente es bueno, un cuello roto es bueno. +Se puede decir que algo malo es una mierda, pero que este mundo natural tiene todava muchas glorias. +Quera decirle que, al final, nuestro mandato es claro: Tenemos que sobreponernos a la mala suerte. +Tenemos que estar en el bien y disfrutar de lo bueno, estudiar y trabajar y tener aventura y amistad oh, amistad y comunidad y amor. +Pero ms que nada, quera decirle lo que Herman Melville escribi, que "para disfrutar realmente del calor corporal, una parte pequea debe estar fra, porque en este mundo no hay calidad que no sea lo que es, si no fuera por el contraste. +S, contraste. +Si eres consciente de lo que no tienes, sers verdaderamente consciente de lo que tienes, y si los dioses son amables, realmente se puede disfrutar lo que tienes. +Es un don singular que puedes recibir si sufres de alguna manera existencial. +Sabes de la muerte, y as puedes despertar cada maana lleno de vida palpitante para vivir +Una parte de Uds. est fra, as que otra parte puede disfrutar realmente de lo que es la calidez o incluso estar fra. +Cuando una maana, aos despus del accidente, pis una piedra y la parte inferior de mi pie izquierdo sinti la onda de fro, los nervios al fin despiertos, fue emocionante, una rfaga de nieve. +Pero no le dije estas cosas a Abed. +Solo le dije que haba matado a un hombre, no dos. +Le di el nombre de aquel hombre. +Y luego le dije: "Adis". +Gracias. +Muchas gracias. +Cuando tena 14 aos, tena baja autoestima. +Senta que no tena talento. +Un da, compr un yoyo. +Cuando prob mi primer truco, se pareca a esto. +No poda hacer siquiera el truco ms simple, pero eso era lo normal para m, porque no era diestro y odiaba a todos los deportes. +Pero despus de practicar por una semana, mis lanzamientos se volvieron ms como este. +Un poco mejor. +Pens: "El yoyo es algo en lo que puedo ser bueno", por primera vez en mi vida. +Encontr mi pasin. +Pasaba todo mi tiempo practicando. +Me pasaba horas y horas al da desarrollando mis habilidades hasta el nivel siguiente. +Y luego, cuatro aos ms tarde, cuando tena 18 aos, estaba en el escenario del Concurso Mundial de Yoyo. +Y gan. +Estaba tan emocionado. "S, lo hice! Me he convertido en un hroe. +Puedo conseguir muchos patrocinadores, un montn de dinero, toneladas de entrevistas, y salir en la TV!" Pens. Pero despus de volver a Japn, nada en absoluto cambi en mi vida. +Me di cuenta que la sociedad no valoraba mi pasin. +As que volv a mi universidad y me convert en un tpico trabajador japons como ingeniero de sistemas. +Sent que mi pasin, corazn y alma, haban dejado mi cuerpo. +Sent que ya no estaba vivo. +As que empec a considerar lo que deba hacer, y pens, quera mejorar mi actuacin, y mostrar en el escenario cmo de espectacular podra ser el yoyo para cambiar la imagen pblica del yoyo. +As que dej mi empresa y empec una carrera como artista profesional. +Comenc a aprender ballet clsico, danza jazz, acrobacias y otras cosas para mejorar mi actuacin. +Como resultado de estos esfuerzos, y la ayuda de muchos otros, sucedi. +Volv a ganar el Concurso Mundial de Yo-yo en la divisin de representacin artstica. +Pas una audicin para el Cirque du Soleil. +Hoy, estoy en el escenario de TED con el yoyo frente a ustedes. +Lo que aprend del yoyo es, si me esfuerzo lo suficiente con gran pasin, no hay nada imposible. +Me permiten compartir mi pasin con ustedes a travs de mi actuacin? +(Sonidos de agua) +Una de las cosas que quiero dejar bien desde el inicio es que no todos los neurocirujanos usan botas vaqueras. +Solo quera aclarar eso. +Soy, en efecto, un neurocirujano, y vengo de una larga tradicin de neurocirujanos, y lo que les voy a decir hoy es acerca de ajustar los interruptores en los circuitos del cerebro, y tener la posibilidad de ir a cualquier parte del cerebro y apagar o encender reas del cerebro para ayudar a nuestros pacientes. +As que, como dije, la neurociruga viene de una larga tradicin. +Ha existido desde hace aproximadamente 7000 aos. +En Mesoamrica, existan las neurocirugas, y haban neurocirujanos que trataban a sus pacientes. +Y ellos saban que el cerebro tena relacin con las enfermedades neurolgicas y psiquitricas. +No saban exactamente lo que hacan. +No mucho ha cambiado, por cierto. Pero crean que, si padecias de una enfermedad neurolgica o psiquitrica, deba ser porque estabas posedo por espritus malignos. +Y si estabas posedo por un espritu maligno que te provocaba problemas neurolgicos o psiquitricos, la manera de tratar esto es, obviamente, hacindote un hoyo en la cabeza para que el espritu maligno pueda salir. +As se pensaba entonces, y estos individuos hacan estos hoyos. +A veces los pacientes se oponan un poco al procedimiento porque, como pueden ver los hoyos se hacan parcialmente y luego, creo, que haba algo de trepanacin, y luego salan muy rpido y solo era un hoyo parcial, y sabemos que sobrevivan al procedimiento. +Pero esto era comn. +Hay algunos sitios donde el 1% de todos los crneos tienen hoyos, as que como pueden ver las enfermedades neurolgicas y psiquitricas son bastante comunes, y tambin eran comunes hace 7000 aos. +Ahora, con el paso del tiempo, nos hemos dado cuenta que diferentes partes del cerebro hacen diferentes cosas. +Entonces hay reas del cerebro que estn dedicadas a controlar tus movimientos o tu visin o tu memoria o tu apetito, etc. +Y cuando todo funciona bien, el sistema nervioso funciona bien, y todo lo dems funciona bien. +Pero de vez en cuando, las cosas no salen tan bien, y hay problemas en estos circuitos, y algunas neuronas rebeldes se disparan por error y causan problemas, o algunas veces no son lo suficientemente activas y no funcionan como deberan. +Entonces, la manifestacin de esto depende del lugar del cerebro en el que las neuronas estn. +Entonces cuando las neuronas estn en el circuito de funciones motrices, resulta en disfuncin en el sistema de movimiento, y te dan cosas como el mal de Parkinson. +Cuando el mal funcionamiento est en un circuito que regula tu humor te da depresin, y cuando est en un circuito que controla la memoria y funciones cognitivas, entonces te da algo como el Alzheimer. +Entonces lo que hemos logrado es precisar en donde se encuentran estas perturbaciones en el cerebro, y hemos logrado intervenir en estos circuitos del cerebro para poder apagarlos o encenderlos. +Es algo muy similar a sintonizar una estacin en la radio. +Una vez que tienes la estacin correcta, ya sea de jazz u opera, en nuestro caso puede ser movimiento o humor, lo podemos dejar sintonizado ah y luego usamos un segundo botn para ajustar el volumen, subirlo o bajarlo. +Entonces lo que les voy a contar es sobre usar los circuitos del cerebro para implantar electrodos y apagar o encender reas del cerebro para ver si podemos ayudar a nuestros pacientes. +Y esto se logra utilizando este tipo de dispositivo, que se llama estimulador cerebral profundo. +Lo que hacemos es colocar estos electrodos por todo el cerebro. +Podemos subir o bajar, encender o apagar. +Ahora, alrededor de 100 mil pacientes en todo el mundo han recibido estimulacin cerebral profunda, y hoy voy a mostrarles algunos ejemplos usando la estimulacin cerebral profunda para tratar trastornos del movimiento, trastornos de humor y cognitivos. +As es como se ve una vez que est colocado en el cerebro. +Pueden ver el electrodo que atraviesa del crneo al cerebro y colocado ah, y esto lo podemos hacer en cualquier parte del cerebro. +Les digo a mis amigos que ninguna neurona se salva de un neurocirujano, porque de verdad podemos alcanzar cualquier lugar en el cerebro de forma segura. +El primer ejemplo que les voy a mostrar es un paciente con mal de Parkinson, y esta dama tiene mal de Parkinson, y tiene estos electrodos en su cerebro, y voy a mostrarles cmo es ella cuando los electrodos estn apagados y muestra los sntomas del mal de Parkinson y luego los vamos a encender. +Esto se ve algo as. +Los electrodos estn apagados ahora, y pueden ver que tiene un temblor. +Hombre: Ok. Mujer: No puedo. Hombre: Puedes tocar mi dedo? +Hombre: Un poco mejor. Mujer: Este lado est mejor. +Ahora vamos a encenderlos. +Ya est. Estn prendidos. +Y funciona as, al instante. +Y la diferencia entre temblar as y no... La diferencia entre temblar as y no, est relacionada con el mal funcionamiento. de 25 000 neuronas en su ncleo subtalmico. +Hoy sabemos cmo encontrar a estos revoltosos y les decimos, "Caballeros, ya basta. +Queremos que dejen de hacer eso". +Y lo hacemos con electricidad. +Utilizamos electricidad para dictarles cmo se disparan, y tratamos de bloquear el mal funcionamiento usando electricidad. +En este caso, suprimimos la actividad neuronal anormal. +Empezamos a utilizar esta tcnica para otros problemas, y les voy a contar acerca de este fascinante problema que encontramos, un caso de distona. +La distona es un trastorno que afecta a los nios +Es un trastorno gentico que provoca retorcimientos y estos nios se tuercen paulatinamente ms y ms hasta que no pueden respirar, hasta que sienten dolores, infecciones urinarias y mueren. +En 1997, me pidieron ver a un joven, perfectamente normal, que tiene una forma gentica de la distona. +Hay ocho nios en la familia, +cinco de ellos tienen distona. +Aqu est. +Estaba lisiado, y en efecto, la progresin natural mientras esto empeora, sus cuerpos se retuercen progresivamente, progresivamente quedan invlidos, y muchos de estos nios no sobreviven. +l es es uno de estos cinco nios. +La nica forma en la que poda moverse era gateando sobre su vientre as. +No responda a ninguna medicina. +No sabamos qu hacer con este nio. +No sabamos qu operacin hacer, a dnde ir en el cerebro, pero basados en los resultados con el mal de Parkinson, razonamos, por qu no intentamos suprimir la misma rea en el cerebro que suprimimos en el mal de Parkinson, y vemos qu pasa? +Aqu est. Lo operamos esperando alguna mejora. No lo sabamos. +Aqu est otra vez, en Israel, donde vive, tres meses despus del procedimiento, aqu est. +Basado en estos resultados, este es ahora un procedimiento que se hace alrededor del mundo, y cientos de nios han sido ayudados con este tipo de ciruga. +Este chico est ahora en la universidad y vive una vida bastante normal. +Este ha sido uno de los casos ms gratificantes de toda mi carrera, al regresarle la movilidad y la posibilidad de caminar a este chico. +Nos dimos cuenta que, quiz, era posible usar esta tecnologa no solo en circuitos que controlan los movimientos sino tambin en los que se controlan otras cosas, y lo siguiente que atacamos fueron circuitos que controlan tu estado de nimo. +Veamos si podemos usar esta tcnica para ayudar pacientes con depresin. +Aqu est el azul, y estas reas en azul son las que tienen que ver con la motivacin, el empuje y la toma de decisin, y en efecto, si ests tan deprimido como estos pacientes, ests discapacitado, careces de motivacin y empuje. +Algo que tambin descubrimos fue un rea hiperactiva, el rea 25 en color rojo; el rea 25 es el centro de tristeza en el cerebro. +Si te hago sentir triste, por ejemplo, hacindote recordar la ltima vez que viste a tus padres antes de morir o un amigo antes de morir, esta rea del cerebro se ilumina. +Es la central de la tristeza del cerebro. +Y los pacientes con depresin tienen hiperactividad. +El rea de tristeza del cerebro se pone rojo ardiente. +El termostato aqu est ajustado a 100 grados, y las otras reas del cerebro, relacionadas con motivacin y empuje, estn apagadas. +Entonces nos preguntamos, podemos colocar eletrodos en el rea de la tristeza y tratar de bajar el termostato, bajar la actividad, y ver qu consecuencias tenemos? +As que implantamos los electrodos en los pacientes con depresin. +Este trabajo lo hice en conjunto con mi colega Helen Mayberg de Emory. +Logramos desacelerar el rea 25, a un nivel normal, y logramos encender nuevamente los lbulos frontales del cerebro, y de hecho estamos observando resultados impactantes en estos pacientes con depresin severa. +Actualmente estamos en ensayos clnicos, y estamos en la etapa III de estos ensayos, y tal vez esto se convierta en un nuevo procedimiento, si es seguro y si descubrimos que es efectivo en el tratamiento de pacientes con depresin severa. +Les he mostrado cmo podemos usar la estimulacin cerebral profunda para tratar al sistema motriz en casos de mal de Parkinson y distona. +Les he mostrado que podemos usarlo en el circuito del estado de nimo en casos de depresin. +Podemos utilizar la estimulacin cerebral profunda para hacerlos ms inteligente? +A alguien le interesara esto? +Claro que podemos, cierto? +Lo que decidimos hacer es tratar de turbocargar los circuitos de la memoria en el cerebro. +Vamos a colocar electrodos en los circuitos que regulan tu memoria y funciones cognitivas para ver si podemos aumentar su actividad. +No vamos a hacer esto con gente normal, +lo vamos a hacerlo en personas con dficit cognitivo, y hemos elegido tratar pacientes con Alzheimer que tienen dficit cognitivo y de memoria. +Como ustedes saben, este es el sntoma principal. en las etapas tempranas del Alzheimer. +Colocamos electrodos en este circuito en un rea del cerebro llamada frmix, que es la carretera de entrada y salida del circuito de la memoria, con la idea de ver si podamos encender este circuito de la memoria, y si esto puede ayudar a estos pacientes con Alzheimer. +Resulta que en el Alzheimer, hay un gran dficit en la utilizacin de glucosa en el cerebro. +El cerebro es algo glotn en lo que concierne al uso de glucosa. +Utiliza el 20% de toda -- an cuando solo pesa el 2% -- utiliza 10 veces ms glucosa de lo que debera de acuerdo a su peso. +20% de toda la glucosa en tu cuerpo es utilizada por tu cerebro, y mientras pasas de ser alguien normal a tener un impedimento cognitivo menor, que es un precursor del Alzheimer, hasta tener Alzheimer, habr reas del cerebro que dejarn de usar glucosa. +Se apagan. +Y en efecto, lo que observamos es que estas reas en rojo alrededor de la franja exterior del cerebro se vuelven cada vez ms y ms azules hasta que se apagan por completo. +La analoga sera como tener un apagn elctrico en un rea del cerebro, una falla regional de energa. +Entonces, se corta la luz en partes del cerebro en pacientes con Alzheimer, y la pregunta es, la luz se corta por siempre, o podemos hacer que vuelva? +Podemos hacer que estas reas del cerebro utilicen glucosa otra vez? +Pues eso fue lo que hicimos, implantamos electrodos en el frnix de pacientes con Alzheimer, los prendimos, y observamos lo que pasaba con el uso de glucosa en el cerebro. +Y en efecto, arriba, vern que antes de la ciruga, las reas en azul son las que usan menos glucosa de lo normal, predominantemente los lbulos parietal y temporal. +Estas reas del cerebro se apagaron. +Se fue la luz en estas reas del cerebro. +Cuando ponemos los electrodos del ECP y esperamos un mes o un ao, y las reas en rojo representan reas donde incrementamos el uso de glucosa. +En efecto, logramos hacer que estas reas del cerebro que no estaban utilizando glucosa utilizaran glucosa nuevamente. +El mensaje aqu es que, en el Alzheimer, se corta la luz, pero an hay alguien en casa y logramos volver a encender la luz en estas reas del cerebro, y al hacerlo, esperamos que sus funciones regresen. +Esto esta actualmente en ensayos clnicos. +Vamos a operar a 50 pacientes que tienen Alzheimer en etapa temprana para ver si es seguro y efectivo, para ver si podemos mejorar sus funciones neurolgicas. +El mensaje que quiero dejarles hoy, es que, efectivamente, hay varios circuitos en el cerebro que tienen mal funcionamiento en diferentes etapas de enfermedades, ya sea que hablemos del mal de Parkinson, depresin, esquizofrenia, Alzheimer. +Estamos empezando a entender cules son los circuitos, cules son las reas del cerebro que son responsables de los efectos clnicos y los sntomas de estas enfermedades. +Ahora podemos alcanzar estos circuitos. +Podemos introducir electrodos en estos circuitos. +Podemos graduar la actividad de estos circuitos. +Podemos bajarlos si tienen demasiada actividad si estn causando problema, que se manifiesta por todo el cerebro o podemos subirlos si no estn lo suficientemente activos, y al hacerlo, creemos que tal vez podamos ayudar el funcionamiento general del cerebro. +Mi visin es que veremos una gran expansin en los indicios de esta tcnica. +Vamos a ver electrodos colocados para mltiples trastornos cerebrales. +Una de las cosas ms emocionantes de esto, es que efectivamente, requiere un trabajo multidisciplinario. +Requiere el trabajo de ingenieros, cientficos de imgenes, cientficos bsicos, neurlogos, psiquatras, neurocirujanos, y ciertamente en la interaccin de estas mltiples disciplinas es donde est la emocin. +Y creo que veremos que podremos perseguir ms de estos espritus malignos para que salgan del cerebro con el paso del tiempo, y la consecuencia de esto, obviamente ser, que podremos ayudar a muchos ms pacientes. +Muchas gracias. +Siempre escuchamos que los mensajes de texto son una plaga. +Se cree que los SMS reflejan la decadencia de toda alfabetizacin consolidada o, como mnimo, la habilidad para escribir. entre los jvenes de EE.UU. y de todo el mundo. +Qu quiero decir? +Si pensamos en el lenguaje, este existe desde hace quizs 150 000 aos, o por lo menos 80 000, y se inicio como lenguaje hablado. La gente hablaba. +Probablemente es para lo que estamos genticamente concebidos. +Es as como ms utilizamos el idioma. +La lengua escrita lleg mucho ms tarde y, como vimos en la ltima charla, existe controversia acerca de cundo sucedi exactamente, pero segn las estimaciones tradicionales, si la humanidad hubiese existido durante 24 horas, la lengua escrita solo surgi hacia las 11:07 p.m. +Asi de tarde apareci la lengua escrita. +Primero el habla y luego la lengua escrita, como una herramienta. +No me malinterpreten, escribir tiene ciertas ventajas. +Cuando se escribe, dado que es un proceso consciente, porque se puede re-pensar, se pueden hacer cosas que son muy difciles al hablar. +Por ejemplo, imaginen un pasaje de Edward Gibbon: "Historia de la decadencia y cada del Imperio romano": "La refriega completa dur ms de doce horas, hasta que la retirada gradual de los persas se convirti en un repliegue alborotado, en la cual, el ejemplo ms bochornoso fue el de los principales lderes y el del propio Surenas". +Es hermoso, pero seamos realistas, nadie habla as. +O al menos, no deberan hacerlo si estn interesados en la reproduccin. Esta... no es la forma en que habla un ser humano de manera natural. +El habla informal es bastante diferente. +Los lingistas han demostrado que cuando hablamos naturalmente, sin que nos controlen, tendemos a hablar en segmentos de palabras de unas 7 a 10 palabras. +Lo pueden comprobar si alguna vez se graban hablando. +As es el habla. +La lengua hablada es mas informal. Es mucho mas telegrfica. +Es menos reflexiva, muy diferente de la escritura. +Vemos la lengua escrita tan a menudo, que tendemos a pensar que eso es la lengua, pero en realidad el lenguaje es habla. Son dos cosas. +A lo largo de la historia, la distancia entre la lengua hablada y la escrita resultaba natural. +As, por ejemplo, en una poca distante, era comn que los discursos se leyeran tal y como se escriban. +La clase de discurso de las pelculas antiguas donde se aclaran la garganta y comienzan: "Ejem, seoras y seores" y entonces hablan totalmente diferente al habla informal. +Es formal. Utilizan oraciones largas como esta de Gibbon. +Es bsicamente hablar como se escribe y as, por ejemplo, estamos pensando mucho en estos das sobre Lincoln por la pelcula. +El discurso de Gettysburg no era lo ms importante de aquel evento. +Antes del discurso, Edward Everett habl durante 2 horas sobre un tema que interes poco entonces y mucho menos hoy da. +La razn era escucharlo hablando como se escribe. +La gente estaba quieta, escuchando aquello durante 2 horas. +Era perfectamente normal. +Era lo que la gente haca entonces, hablar como se escriba. +Bien, si se puede hablar como se escribe, entonces, lgicamente es que a veces tambin se escriba como se habla. +El problema era que material y mecnicamente era muy dificil en aquellos dias porque no exista la tecnologa. +Es casi imposible realizarlo a mano, excepto con taquigrafa, y la comunicacin se limita. +Con mquina de escribir era muy difcil, aun cuando tenamos las elctricas, o luego con los teclados de computadora. Pero incluso si se puede tipear con facilidad para mantener ms o menos el ritmo del discurso, debe haber alguien que pueda recibir tu mensaje rpidamente. +Con algo en el bolsillo que puede recibir ese mensaje, entonces existen las condiciones que permiten que podamos escribir como hablamos. +Y es ah donde entran los mensajes de texto. +Por lo tanto, los SMS tienen una estructura muy relajada. +Nadie piensa en maysculas o en la puntuacin cuando se enva mensajes, pero se piensa en esas cosas cuando se habla? +No. Por lo tanto, por qu vamos a hacerlo con los SMS? +Los mensajes de texto son, a pesar de que utilizan la tosca mecnica de algo que llamamos escritura, habla con los dedos. Eso son. +Ahora podemos escribir de la manera que hablamos. +Es muy interesante, pero, sin embargo es fcil pensar que represente algn tipo de deterioro. +Vemos esta "holgura" general de la estructura, la falta de preocupacin por las reglas y la manera en que estbamos acostumbrados a aprender en el pizarrn, y pensamos que algo se ha arruinado. +Es un sentimiento muy normal. +Pero la verdad es que lo que est sucediendo es un tipo de complejidad emergente. +Esto lo que vemos en este habla con dedos. +Para poder entenderlo, lo que queremos ver la nueva estructura que est surgiendo en esta nueva clase de lenguaje. +Por ejemplo, en los SMS hay una convencin, que es 'LOL'. +Normalmente pensamoque que LOL significa "carcajada" [laughing out loud]. +Y, por supuesto, tericamente lo es, y si nos fijamos en SMS antiguos, se utilizaba para indicar la risa. +Pero si se enva un SMS ahora, o si Uds. son de los que si conocen la naturaleza actual de los mensajes de texto, se darn cuenta de que LOL ya no significa rer a carcajadas. +LOL se transform en algo mucho ms sutil. +Este es un mensaje de una joven de 20 aos aproximadamente no hace mucho tiempo. +"X cierto, me encanta la fuente que usas". +Julie: "lol gracias gmail est muy lento ahora mismo". Si lo piensan, no es gracioso. +Nadie se est riendo. Pero ah est, por lo que piensas que ha sido un error. +Entonces Susan dice "lol, ya s". Otra vez ms risotadas cuando se habla acerca de inconvenientes. +Entonces Julie dice: "Te acabo de enviar un email". +Susan: "lol, lo veo". +Gente muy divertida, si eso es lo que LOL significa. +Julie dice, "Qu pasa?". +Susan: "lol, tengo que escribir un ensayo de 10 pginas". +No se est divirtiendo. Vamos a pensarlo . +LOL se est usado de una manera muy concreta. +Es un marcador de empata. Es un marcador de acompaamiento. +Los lingistas llamamos a esto conectores o partculas pragmticas. +Cualquier lengua hablada por personas comunes las tiene. +Si por casualidad hablan japons, piensen en la palabra "ne" que se utiliza al final de muchas frases. +Si escuchan a los jvenes afroamericanos hoy dia, piensen en el uso de la palabra "yo". +Tesis doctorales completase podran escribir sobre "yo", y probablemente se estn escribiendo.------------------------------------------------------------------------------- +El conector,o partcula pragmtica, es en lo que gradualmente se ha convertido LOL. +Es una manera de usar el idioma entre personas reales. +Otro ejemplo es "slash" -guion-. +Ahora,se puede utilizar 'slash' en la forma en que acostumbrabamos a hacerlo, como, "vamos a tener una sesion de fiesta-slash-intercambio". +Esto es mas o menos en lo que estamos +'Slash' es utilizado de una manera muy diferente en los mensajes de texto entre la gente joven de hoy. +Se utiliza para cambiar de tema. +Entonces por ejemplo, esta persona Sally dice: "Necesito encontrar gente con la cual pasarla bien" y Jake se rie Podrian escribir una tesis sobre "Jaja" tambin, pero no tenemos tiempo para eso, "Jaja entonces,vas a ir sola? Por qu?" +Sally: "Para el programa de verano en la New York University". +Jake: "Jaja. Slash. Estoy mirando el video con los jugadores de los Suns que tratan de tirar al aro cerrando un ojo". +El 'slash' es interesante. +En realidad, ni s de lo que Jake est hablando despus de eso, pero notan que est cambiando el tema. +Ahora,pareceria como si fuese comn, pero piensen cmo en la vida real, si estamos conversando, y queremos cambiar el tema, hay modos mas simpticos. +"No van directo al grano". +Sino que se palmearan las piernas y mirando con sabiduria a la distancia, o dicen algo asi como, "Hmm, te hace pensar..." cuando realmente no lo hizo pensar en nada, pero lo que realmente estas lo que realmente intentan tratar de hacer es cambiar el tema. +No pueden hacer esto mientras se escribe un mensaje de texto y as se estn desarrollando maneras de hacerlo dentro de este ambito. +Todos los idiomas habladas tienen lo que un linguista denomina como una nueva seal de informacin-, o dos o tres. +Los mensajes de texto han desarrollado una con este 'slash'/guion. +As que tenemos toda una batera completa de nuevas estructuras que estn evolucionando, y sin embargo, es fcil pensar, bueno, que algo an esta mal. +Existe una falta de estructura de algn tipo. +No es tan sofisticado como el lenguaje que usa el Wall Street Journal. +En realidad.lo cierto es que si se observa a esta persona en 1956, y esto es cuando los mensajes de texto no existian "I Love Lucy" todavia es transmitida en la television. +"Muchos ignoran el alfabeto o la tabla de multiplicar, no pueden escribir con una gramtica correcta..." Hemos escuchado este tipo de cosas antes, no solo en 1956. 1917, Maestro de escuela de Connecticut. +1917. Este es el momento cuando todos asumimos que,de algun modo, todo era perfecto ,en terminos de lengua escrita. porque la gente en la serie televisiva "Downton Abbey" es elocuente, o algo asi. +Entonces,"de cada una de las Universidades dell pas se eleva el lamento, Los estudiantes que comienzanno pueden deletrear ni pueden usar los signos de puntuacin' ". Y as sucesivamente. Pueden retroceder mas todavia . +Este es el Presidente de Harvard. Es 1871. +No existe la electricidad. Las personas tienen tres nombres. +"Mala ortografa, Inexactitudes asi como falta de elegancia de expresin en la escritura". +Y esta hablando de personas las cuales estn bien preparadas para los estudios universitarios. +Pueden retroceder an ms . +1841, algn ya olvidado inspector de escuelas est triste por lo que ha notado" con tristeza" por mucho tiempo la casi total negacion del original" bla bla bla bla bla +O pueden retroceder al 63 A.C. y esta este pobre hombre al que no le gusta la manera en que la gente esta hablando Latn. +Sucede que estaba escribiendo sobre lo que se haba convertido el Francs. +Y as, siempre hay siempre hay gente preocupandose por estas cosas y el planeta,como sea,parece seguir girando. +Entonces lo que pienso acerca de mandar mensajes de texto hoy en dia esto que estamos viendo es una nueva forma de usar la lengua escrita que los jvenes estn desarrollando, y que utilizan junto con sus habilidades de lengua escrita, y eso significa que son capaces de hacer dos cosas. +Cada vez existen ms evidencias de que ser bilinge es beneficioso cognitivamente. +Esto tambin es verdad cuando se habla dos dialectos de la misma lengua. +Esto es especialmente cierto cuando se escribe en dos dialectos. +Y por lo tanto los mensajes de texto sonrealmente una evidencia de un acto de equilibrio que los jvenes utilizan hoy ,inconscientemente, por supuesto, pero es una extensin de su repertorio lingstico. +Es muy simple. +Si alguien de 1973 viese lo que estaba escrito en un tablero de mensajes de dormitorio estudiantil en 1993, la jerga debera haber cambiado un poco desde la poca de "Love Story", pero se entendera lo que se escribi en ese tablero de mensajes. +Pensemos en esa persona de 1993, no hace tanto tiempo, esto es,"Bill and Ted Excellent Adventure", aquellas personas. +Pensemos en esas personas y ellas leen un texto muy tpico escrito por un veinteaero de hoy. +Probablemente no tendrian idea de la mitad de lo que significa lo que esta escrito porque se ha desarrollado un nuevo lenguaje entre nuestros jvenes haciendo algo tan mundano como lo que nos parece cuando ellos se la pasan golpeteando sus pequeos dispositivos. +Entonces,para concluir, si pudiera ir al futuro, si pudiera ir al 2033, lo primero que preguntara es si David Simon habra hecho una continuacion de "The Wire". Quisiera saberlo. +Y, de verdad preguntara eso y tambin me gustara saber lo que estaria sucediendo en "Downton Abbey". +Eso sera la segunda cosa a saber. +Y la tercera cosa, por favor mustrenme una pila de textos escritas por nias de 16 aos , ya que me gustara saber hacia dnde este lenguaje se ha desarrollado desde nuestro tiempo, e idealmente, luego,los enviaria a Uds. y a mi mismo hoy as podramos examinar este milagro lingstico que est sucediendo justo debajo de nuestras narices. +Muchas gracias. +Gracias. +As viajbamos en el ao 1900. +Es una calesa abierta. No tiene calefaccin. +No tiene aire acondicionado. +Ese caballo est tirando al 1 % de la velocidad del sonido, y el camino de tierra lleno de baches se vuelve un lodazal cuando llueve. +Ese es un Boeing 707. +Solo 60 aos despus, viaja al 80 % de la velocidad del sonido, y hoy no viajamos ms rpido porque el transporte areo comercial supersnico result ser un fracaso. +As que empec a preguntarme y reflexionar: puede ser que hayamos dejado atrs los mejores aos del crecimiento econmico de EE.UU.? +Y eso lleva a que quiz el crecimiento econmico est a punto de terminar. +Algunas de las razones no son realmente muy controversiales. +Hay cuatro vientos en contra que golpean a la economa estadounidense en la cara: +la demografa, la educacin, la deuda y la desigualdad. +Son lo suficientemente potentes como para reducir el crecimiento a la mitad. +Se necesita mucha innovacin para compensar esta disminucin. +Este es mi planteo: debido a los vientos en contra, si la innovacin sigue siendo tan potente como ha sido en los ltimos 150 aos, el crecimiento se reduce a la mitad. +Si la innovacin es menos potente, y se inventan cosas menos geniales y maravillosas, el crecimiento ser incluso inferior a la mitad de la historia. +Aqu estn ocho siglos de crecimiento econmico. +El eje vertical indica el porcentaje de crecimiento por ao 0 % al ao, 1 % al ao, 2 % al ao. +La lnea blanca es del Reino Unido y EE.UU. +pasa a ser lder en el ao 1900, cuando la lnea pasa a color rojo. +Observarn que, durante los primeros cuatro siglos, casi no hay crecimiento, solo un 0,2 %. +El crecimiento mejora cada vez ms. +Alcanza un mximo en los aos 30, 40 y 50, y luego empieza a desacelerarse, y esta es la nota de advertencia. +Esa ltima baja en la lnea roja no son datos reales. +Es un pronstico que hice hace 6 aos de que el crecimiento se desacelerara 1,3 %. +Pero saben cules son los hechos reales? +Saben cmo ha sido el crecimiento del ingreso por persona en Estados Unidos en los ltimos 6 aos? +Negativo. +Esto dio lugar a una fantasa. +Qu pasa si trato de encajar una curva en este registro histrico? +Puedo hacer que la curva termine donde quiera pero decid terminarla en 0,2 % como el crecimiento del Reino Unido de los primeros cuatro siglos. +Ahora, la historia muestra un crecimiento del 2 % por ao en todo el perodo 1891 a 2007, y recuerden que ha sido levemente negativo desde 2007. +Pero si se desacelera el crecimiento en vez de duplicar el nivel de vida en cada generacin, Los estadounidenses no pueden esperar en el futuro ser dos veces ms ricos que sus padres, ni siquiera un cuarto de ricos que sus padres. +Ahora vamos a cambiar y ver el nivel de ingreso per cpita. +En el eje vertical hay miles de dlares a precios actuales. +Observarn que en 1891, a la izquierda, estbamos en unos USD 5000. +Hoy estamos en unos USD 44 000 de produccin total por miembro de la poblacin. +Y si pudiramos lograr ese 2 % histrico de crecimiento en los prximos 70 aos? +Bueno, es una cuestin aritmtica. +Un crecimiento de 2 % cuadruplica el nivel de vida en 70 aos. +Eso significa que pasaramos de 44 000 a 180 000. +Bueno, no suceder eso, y la razn es el viento en contra. +El primer viento en contra es la demografa. +Es una obviedad que el nivel de vida crece ms rpido que la productividad, ms rpido que la produccin por hora, si crecen las horas por persona. +En los aos 70 y 80 tuvimos ese regalo cuando la mujer ingres al mercado laboral. +Pero ahora se revirti. +Ahora las horas se contraen; en primer lugar debido al retiro de los "baby boomers", y en segundo lugar porque ha habido un abandono significativo de los hombres adultos de la fuerza laboral, que estn en la mitad inferior de la distribucin educativa. +El siguiente viento en contra es la educacin. +Tenemos problemas en todo el sistema educativo a pesar de los programas educativos. +En la universidad, hay inflacin de costos en la educacin superior que opaca los costos de inflacin en cuidados de salud. +En la educacin superior hay un billn de dlares de deuda estudiantil y la tasa de finalizacin universitaria es de 15 puntos, 15 % debajo de Canad. +Tenemos mucha deuda. +Nuestra economa creci de 2000 a 2007 a costas del sobreendeudamiento masivo del consumidor. +El pago de esa deuda es una de las principales razones de nuestra lenta recuperacin econmica actual. +Y todo el mundo sabe, por supuesto, que la deuda del gobierno federal est creciendo en relacin al PIB a un ritmo muy rpido, y la nica manera de detenerlo es con una combinacin de crecimiento ms rpido de los impuestos, o de crecimiento ms lento en los derechos, tambin llamados pagos de transferencia. +Y eso nos lleva desde el 1,5 al que hemos llegado en educacin, hasta el 1,3. +Y luego tenemos la desigualdad. +En los 15 aos previos a la crisis financiera, la tasa de crecimiento del 99 % de la parte inferior de la distribucin del ingreso era medio punto ms lenta que los promedios que hemos estado hablando antes. +todo el resto fue para el 1 % de la cima. +Eso nos lleva al 0,8. +Y ese 0,8 es el gran cambio. +Creceremos al 0,8? +Si es as, eso va a requerir que nuestras invenciones sean tan importantes como las que ocurrieron en los ltimos 150 aos. +Veamos algunos de estos inventos. +Si uno quera leer en 1875 por la noche, necesitaba una lmpara de aceite o gas. +Eso gener contaminacin, gener olores, eran difciles de controlar, la luz era tenue, eran propensas a incendios. +Para 1929 la luz elctrica estaba por doquier. +Tenamos la ciudad vertical, la invencin del ascensor. +Fue posible Manhattan Central. +Y luego, adems de eso, al mismo tiempo, las herramientas manuales fueron reemplazadas por herramientas elctricas de masas y herramientas elctricas accionadas a mano; todo gracias a la electricidad. +La electricidad fue de utilidad para la liberacin femenina. +Las mujeres, a fines del siglo XIX, pasaban dos das por semana lavando ropa. +Lo hacan en una tabla de fregar. +Tenan que colgar la ropa a secar. +Luego tenan que traerla. +Todo eso llevaba dos das de los siete de la semana. +Despus lleg la lavadora elctrica. +Y para 1950 estaban por doquier. +Pero las mujeres an tenan que hacer la compra diaria, pero no lo hacan, porque la electricidad les trajo el refrigerador elctrico. +Volviendo a fines del siglo XIX, la calefaccin en la mayora de los hogares era una gran chimenea en la cocina que se usaba para cocinar y para calefaccin. +Los dormitorios eran fros. No tenan calefaccin. +Pero para 1929, ciertamente en 1950, tenamos calefaccin central por doquier. +Qu hay del motor de combustin interna, que se invent en 1879? +En EE.UU., antes del vehculo a motor, el transporte dependa enteramente del caballo urbano, que despeda, sin restricciones, de 10 a 20 kilos de estircol en las calles todos los das y casi 4 litros de orina. +Eso equivale a entre 2 y 4 toneladas diarias por km2 en las ciudades. +Esos caballos coman totalmente una cuarta parte de la tierra agrcola estadounidense. +Ese es el porcentaje de tierra agrcola estadounidense que demandaba alimentar a los caballos. +Claro, cuando se invent el vehculo a motor, y se volvi casi omnipresente para 1929, esa tierra agrcola se pudo usar para consumo humano o para exportar. +Y esta es una relacin interesante: empezando desde cero en 1900, solo 30 aos despus, la proporcin de vehculos a motor por hogares en EE.UU. alcanz el 90 %, en solo 30 aos. +Antes de que terminara el siglo, las mujeres tenan otro problema. +El agua para cocinar, limpiar y baarse era transportada en baldes y cubetas desde el exterior. +Es un hecho histrico que en 1885, el ama de casa media de Carolina del Norte caminaba 230 km al ao acarreando 35 toneladas de agua. +Para 1929, las ciudades del pas contaban con tuberas subterrneas de agua. +Contaban con tuberas subterrneas de alcantarillado, y, como resultado, empez a desaparecer un gran flagelo de finales del siglo XIX, como era el clera. +Y un hecho sorprendente para los tecno-optimistas es que en la primera mitad del siglo XX, la tasa de mejora de la esperanza de vida fue tres veces ms rpido de lo que era en la segunda mitad del siglo XIX. +As que, resulta obvio decir que las cosas no pueden ser ms del 100 % de s mismas. +Y les dar unos ejemplos. +Pasamos de un 1 % al 90 % de la velocidad del sonido. +La electrificacin, la calefaccin central, la propiedad de vehculos a motor, pasaron de 0 % a 100 %. +Los entornos urbanos hacen a la gente ms productiva que en la granja. +Pasamos de una poblacin urbana del 25 % al 75 % en los primeros aos de la posguerra. +Qu pasa con la revolucin electrnica? +Esta es una computadora temprana. +Es increble. En 1942 se invent la computadora central. +Para 1960 tenamos facturas telefnicas, y estados de cuenta bancarios generados por computadoras. +En los aos 70 se inventaron los primeros telfonos mviles y computadoras personales. +Los aos 80 nos trajeron a Bill Gates y DOS, los cajeros automticos reemplazaron a los humanos, los cdigos de barra redujeron la mano de obra en el sector minorista. +Saltemos a los aos 90, la revolucin punto com, y un crecimiento temporal de la productividad. +Pero ahora haremos un experimento. +Tienen que elegir la opcin A o la opcin B. +En la opcin A, se quedan con todo lo inventado hasta hace 10 aos. +O sea, Google, Amazon, Wikipedia, agua corriente e inodoros interiores. +O se quedan con lo inventado hasta ayer, incluyendo Facebook y el iPhone, pero tienen que resignar algo, ir a la letrina, y acarrear el agua. +El huracn Sandy hizo que gran cantidad de gente dejara el siglo XX, quiz por un par de das, en algunos casos por ms de una semana; electricidad, agua corriente, calefaccin, gasolina para el auto, y carga para el iPhone. +El problema que enfrentamos es que todos estos grandes inventos, que tenemos que igualar en el futuro, y mi prediccin es que no lo vamos a lograr, nos lleva desde el crecimiento inicial del 2 % al 0,2 %, la curva imaginaria que dibuj al principio. +Y aqu volvemos al caballo y la calesa. +Me gustara dar un Oscar a los inventores del siglo XX, personas desde Alexander Graham Bell hasta Thomas Edison y los hermanos Wright. Me gustara llamarlos a todos aqu, para que ellos los llamaran a Uds. +El desafo es: pueden igualar lo que hicimos? +Gracias. +El crecimiento no est muerto. +La historia comienza hace 120 aos, cuando las fbricas estadounidenses empezaron a usar electricidad en sus operaciones, dando inicio a la Segunda Revolucin Industrial. +Lo ms sorprendente es que la productividad no aument en esas fbricas durante 30 aos. 30 aos. +Es tiempo suficiente para que una generacin de gerentes se retire. +Vern, la primera oleada de gerentes simplemente sustituy las mquinas de vapor por motores elctricos, pero no redisearon las fbricas para sacar provecho de la flexibilidad de la electricidad. +Qued en manos de la siguiente generacin inventar nuevos procesos de trabajo, y entonces la productividad se dispar, a menudo duplicndose, o incluso triplicndose en esas fbricas. +La electricidad es un ejemplo de tecnologa multipropsito, como lo fue primero la mquina de vapor. +Las tecnologas multipropsito impulsan la mayora del crecimiento econmico, porque desatan una cascada de innovaciones complementarias, como las bombillas y, s, el rediseo de fbricas. +Existe una tecnologa multipropsito en nuestros tiempos? +Claro. La computadora. +Pero la tecnologa por s sola no es suficiente. +La tecnologa no es el destino. +Nosotros forjamos nuestro destino, y, tal y como las anteriores generaciones de gerentes necesitaron redisear sus fbricas, nosotros necesitaremos reinventar nuestras organizaciones. e incluso todo nuestro sistema econmico. +No estamos haciendo tan buen trabajo como deberamos. +Como veremos en un momento, la productividad en realidad va bien, pero se ha desacoplado del empleo, y el ingreso del trabajador medio se est estancando. +Estos problemas a veces se diagnostican errneamente como el fin de la innovacin, pero son en realidad las dificultades crecientes de lo que Andrew McAfee y yo llamamos la nueva era de las mquinas. +Miremos algunos nmeros. +Aqu est el PIB per cpita en EE.UU. +Hay algunos baches en el camino, pero la gran noticia es que uno prcticamente podra ajustar una regla. +Es una escala logartmica, as que lo que parece un crecimiento constante es realmente una aceleracin en trminos reales. +Y aqu est la productividad. +Pueden ver una pequea desaceleracin a mediados de los 70, pero coincide bastante bien con la Segunda Revolucin Industrial, cuando las fbricas fueron aprendiendo a electrificar sus operaciones. +Despus de un retraso, la productividad se acelera otra vez. +As que tal vez "la historia no se repite, pero a veces rima". +Hoy en da, la productividad est en un nivel ms alto, y a pesar de la Gran Recesin, creci ms rpido en la dcada del 2000 que en la de 1990, el rugido de los 90 y ms rpido que los 70 o los 80. +Est creciendo ms rpido de lo que lo hizo en la Segunda Revolucin Industrial. +Y eso es solo en EE.UU. +Las noticias mundiales son incluso mejores. +Los ingresos en todo el mundo han crecido a un ritmo ms rpido en la ltima dcada que nunca antes en la historia. +En todo caso, todos estos nmeros realmente subestiman nuestro progreso, porque la nueva era de la mquina es ms sobre la creacin de conocimiento que solo la produccin fsica. +Es mente no materia, inteligencia no fuerza, ideas no cosas. +Crea un problema para las mtricas estndar, ya que estamos recibiendo ms y ms cosas gratis, como Wikipedia, Google, Skype, y si publican en la web, incluso esta charla TED. +Conseguir cosas gratis es bueno, correcto? +Seguro, por supuesto que lo es. +Pero no es cmo los economistas miden el PIB. +Cero precio significa cero peso en las estadsticas del PIB. +Segn los nmeros, la industria de la msica es la mitad del tamao que era hace 10 aos, pero yo estoy escuchando ms y mejor msica que nunca +y apuesto que Uds. tambin. +En total, mi investigacin estima que a las cifras del PIB le faltan ms de USD 300 mil millones al ao en bienes y servicios gratuitos en Internet. +Ahora echemos un vistazo al futuro. +Hay algunas personas superinteligentes que sostienen que hemos llegado al final del crecimiento, pero para entender el futuro del crecimiento, necesitamos hacer predicciones sobre las causas subyacentes del crecimiento. +Soy optimista, porque la nueva era de la mquina es digital, exponencial y combinatoria. +Cuando las mercancas son digitales, se pueden replicar con una calidad perfecta a un costo casi cero, y pueden ser entregadas de forma casi instantnea. +Bienvenido a la economa de la abundancia. +Pero hay un beneficio ms sutil de la digitalizacin del mundo. +La medicin es el alma de la ciencia y el progreso. +En la era de 'big data', podemos medir el mundo de maneras que nunca pudimos antes. +En segundo lugar, la nueva era de la mquina es exponencial. +Las computadoras mejoran ms rpidamente que cualquier otra cosa alguna vez. +La Playstation de un nio hoy es ms potente que un superordenador militar de 1996. +Pero nuestros cerebros estn cableados para un mundo lineal. +A consecuencia de ello, las tendencias exponenciales nos toman por sorpresa. +Yo sola ensear a mis alumnos que hay algunas cosas, saben, en las que las computadoras no son buenas, como conducir un coche a travs del trfico. +Es cierto, aqu estamos Andy y yo sonriendo como locos porque acabamos de recorrer la Ruta 101 en, s, un coche sin conductor. +En tercer lugar, la nueva era de la mquina es combinatoria. +El punto de vista estacionario es que las ideas se agotan como las frutas maduras, pero la realidad es que cada innovacin crea bloques de construccin para incluso ms innovaciones. +Un ejemplo. En cuestin de unas semanas, un estudiante mo de pregrado construy una aplicacin que alcanz 1,3 millones de usuarios. +Fue capaz de hacer eso muy fcilmente porque lo construy sobre Facebook, y Facebook se construy sobre la web, que fue construida sobre internet, y as y as, sucesivamente. +Ahora individualmente, digital, exponencial y combinatoria cada uno es un transformador del juego. +Al ponerlos juntos, vemos una onda de avances sorprendentes, como robots que hacen el trabajo de fbrica o corren tan rpido como un guepardo o saltan edificios altos en un solo salto. +Saben, los robots estn incluso revolucionando el transporte de gatos. +Pero quizs la invencin ms importante, la invencin ms importante, es el aprendizaje de las mquinas. +Consideren un proyecto: Watson de IBM. +Estos puntos pequeos son todos los campeones en el concurso "Jeopardy". +Al principio, Watson no era muy bueno, pero mejor a un ritmo ms rpido que cualquier humano hubiera podido hacer, y poco despus de que Dave Ferrucci mostr esta tabla a mi clase en el MIT, Watson venci al campen del mundo de "Jeopardy". +A los 7 aos, Watson est todava en su niez. +Recientemente, sus profesores lo dejaron navegar por Internet sin supervisin. +Al da siguiente, comenz a responder a las preguntas con blasfemias. +Maldita sea. Pero saben? Watson est creciendo rpidamente. +Est siendo probado para puestos de trabajo en los centros de llamadas, y se los estn dando. +Solicita empleo legal, bancario y mdico, y le dan algunos. +No es irnico que, en el mismo momento en que estamos construyendo mquinas inteligentes, quizs la invencin ms importante en la historia de la humanidad, algunas personas argumenten que se est estancando la innovacin? +Como las dos primeras revoluciones industriales, todas las implicaciones de la nueva era de la mquina se van a tomar al menos un siglo para desarrollarse plenamente pero son asombrosas. +As que, quiere decir esto que no tenemos nada de qu preocuparnos? +No. La tecnologa no es un destino. +La productividad es la ms alta de todos los tiempos pero ahora, menos personas tienen empleo. +Hemos creado ms riqueza en la ltima dcada que nunca antes, pero para la mayora de los estadounidenses, sus ingresos han disminuido. +Esta es la gran disociacin entre productividad y trabajo, entre riqueza y trabajo. +Saben, no es de extraar que millones de personas estn desilusionadas por la gran disociacin, pero como muchos otros, malinterpretan sus causas bsicas. +La tecnologa es una carrera por delante, pero est dejando ms y ms gente detrs. +Hoy en da, podemos tomar un trabajo rutinario, codificarlo en un conjunto de instrucciones legibles por una mquina, y luego replicarla un milln de veces. +Saben, recientemente escuch una conversacin que epitoma esta nueva economa. +El hombre dice: "No, yo no uso ms a H&R Block. +TurboTax hace todo lo que haca mi asesor de impuestos, pero ms rpido, ms barato y ms preciso". +Cmo puede un trabajador calificado competir con un paquete de software de 39 dlares? +No puede. +Hoy en da, millones de estadounidenses tienen ms rpido, ms barato, ms precisa, su declaracin de impuestos y los fundadores de Intuit lo han hecho muy bien para s mismos. +Pero 17 % de los asesores de impuestos ya no tienen empleo. +Es un microcosmos de lo que est sucediendo, no solo en software y servicios, sino en los medios de comunicacin y la msica, en finanzas y manufactura, venta al por menor y comercio, en definitiva, en todas las industrias. +Las personas estn compitiendo contra las mquinas, y muchos estn perdiendo esa carrera. +Qu podemos hacer para crear prosperidad compartida? +La respuesta es no intentar frenar la tecnologa. +En vez de competir contra la mquina, tenemos que aprender a competir con la mquina. +Es nuestro gran desafo. +La nueva era de la mquina se puede fechar a un da hace 15 aos cuando Gary Kasparov, el campen mundial de ajedrez, jug con Deep Blue, una supercomputadora. +La mquina gan ese da, y hoy, un programa de ajedrez corriendo en un telfono celular puede vencer a un gran maestro humano. +Se puso tan feo, que cuando se le pregunt qu estrategia usara contra una computadora, Jan Donner, el gran maestro holands, respondi: "Traera un martillo". +Pero hoy en da una computadora ya no es ms la campeona mundial de ajedrez. +Tampoco es un ser humano, porque Kasparov organiz un torneo de estilo libre donde los equipos de seres humanos y computadoras podan trabajar juntos, y el equipo ganador no tena ningn gran maestro, y no tena ninguna supercomputadora. +Lo que tenan era el mejor trabajo en equipo, y demostraron que un equipo de seres humanos y computadoras, trabajando juntos, podra vencer a cualquier computadora o a cualquier humano que trabaja solo. +Compite con la mquina gnale la carrera contra la mquina. +La tecnologa no es un destino. +Conformamos nuestro destino. +Gracias. +Liu Bolin: Al hacerme invisible, trato de cuestionar la relacin de cancelacin mutua entre nuestra civilizacin y su desarrollo. +Intrprete: Al hacerme invisible, trato de explorar y cuestionar la relacin contradictoria y que a menudo se cancela mutuamente entre nuestra civilizacin y su desarrollo. +LB: Esta es mi primera obra, creada en noviembre de 2005. +Y esto es el Beijing International Art Camp donde trabajaba antes de que el gobierno lo demoliera por la fuerza. He usado esta obra para expresar mi objecin. +Tambin quiero usar esta obra para que ms gente preste atencin a la condicin de vida de los artistas y a la condicin de su libertad creativa. +Mientras tanto, desde el principio, esta serie tiene un espritu de protesta, reflexiva e inquebrantable. +Al aplicar el maquillaje, tomo prestado el mtodo del francotirador para protegerme mejor y detectar al enemigo, como hizo l. Despus de terminar esta serie de protestas empec a cuestionar por qu mi destino era as, y me di cuenta de que no era solo yo, todos los chinos estn tan confundidos como yo. +Como pueden ver, estas obras son sobre planificacin familiar, eleccin de acuerdo con la ley y propaganda institucional de la Asamblea Popular. +Esta obra se llama Xia Gang ("puesto abandonado"). +"Xia Gang" es un eufemismo en chino para "despedido". +Se refiere a las personas que perdieron su empleo en la transicin de China de una economa planificada a una de mercado. +de 1998 a 2000, 21,37 millones de personas perdieron su empleo en China. +Las seis personas de la foto son obreros Xia Gang. +Los hice invisibles en la tienda desierta donde haban vivido y trabajado toda su vida. +En la pared de atrs se lee el lema de la Revolucin Cultural: "La fuerza principal que dirige nuestra causa es el Partido Comunista de China". +Durante medio mes busqu a estas 6 personas que participan en mi obra. +En esta foto vemos solo 6 hombres pero, de hecho, quienes estn ocultos aqu son todas personas despedidas. Han sido invisibilizados. +Esta obra se llama El Estudio. +En primavera, tuve la oportunidad de exponer en Pars en la redaccin de noticias de France 3. Recog las fotos de prensa del da. +Una sobre la guerra en Medio Oriente, y otra sobre una manifestacin pblica en Francia. +Encontr que toda cultura tiene sus contradicciones irreconciliables. +Este es un esfuerzo conjunto entre el artista francs JR y yo. +Intrprete: Este es un esfuerzo conjunto entre el artista francs JR y yo. +LB: Trat de desaparecer en los ojos de JR, pero el problema es que JR solo usa modelos con ojos grandes. +As que trat agrandar mis ojos con los dedos. +Pero todava no son lo suficientemente grandes para JR, por desgracia. +Intrprete: Trat de desaparecer en los ojos de JR, pero el problema es que JR solo usa modelos con ojos grandes. +As que trat de agrandar mis ojos con este gesto. +Pero no funciona, mis ojos todava son muy pequeos. +LB: Esta es en recuerdo del 11-S. +Es un portaviones anclado a orillas del ro Hudson. +Grafiti de Kenny Scharf. +Esto es Venecia, Italia. +Porque la temperatura mundial aumenta, el nivel del mar aumenta, y se dice que Venecia desaparecer de las prximas dcadas. +Esta es la antigua ciudad de Pompeya. +Intrprete: Esta es la antigua ciudad de Pompeya. +LB: Esta es la Galera Borghese en Roma. +Cuando trabajo en una nueva obra, presto ms atencin a la expresin de ideas. +Por ejemplo: por qu me hago invisible? +Lo que me hace invisible hace pensar a la gente. +Esta se llama Fideos Instantneos. +Intrprete: Esta se llama Fideos Instantneos. LB: Desde agosto de 2012, Se han encontrado fsforos nocivos en los paquetes de fideos instantneos de todas las marcas famosas en los supermercados de China. +Estos fsforos pueden incluso provocar cncer. +Para crear esta obra de arte, compr muchos paquetes de fideos instantneos y los puse en mi estudio, haciendo que parezca un supermercado. +Y mi trabajo es estar ah, tratando de quedarme firme, encontrar la posicin de la cmara, coordinar con mi asistente y dibujar los colores y formas que estn detrs de mi cuerpo en el frente de mi cuerpo. Si el fondo es simple, generalmente tengo que estar de 3 a 4 horas. +El fondo de esta obra es ms complejo, as que necesit de 3 a 4 das previos de preparacin. +Este es el traje que us en la toma del supermercado. +No hay Photoshop. +Intrprete: Este es el traje que us en la toma del supermercado. +No hay Photoshop. LB: Estas obras estn en el recuerdo cultural de China. +Y esta es sobre la seguridad alimentaria en China. +Los alimentos insalubres pueden daar la salud de las personas y un aluvin de revistas puede confundir las mentes de la gente. Las siguientes obras muestran cmo me hice invisible en revistas de distintos idiomas, en diferentes pases, y diferentes momentos. +Creo que en el arte, la actitud del artista es el elemento ms importante. +Si una obra ha de impactar a alguien, debe ser resultado no solo de la tcnica, sino tambin del pensamiento del artista y de su lucha en la vida. +Las repetidas luchas en la vida crean obras de arte, no importa en qu forma. +Eso es todo lo que quiero decir. +Gracias. +Miranda Wang: Estamos aqu para hablar de los accidentes. +Cmo se sienten acerca de los accidentes? +Cuando pensamos en los accidentes, generalmente consideramos que son perjudiciales, desafortunados o incluso peligrosos, y ciertamente pueden serlo. +Pero siempre son tan malos? +El descubrimiento que habra de conducir a la penicilina, por ejemplo, es uno de los accidentes ms afortunados de todos los tiempos. +Sin el accidente mohoso del bilogo Alexander Fleming, causado por una estacin de trabajo descuidada, no seramos capaces de luchar contra muchas infecciones bacterianas. +Jeanny Yao: Miranda y yo estamos aqu hoy porque nos gustara compartir cmo nuestros accidentes han llevado a descubrimientos. +En 2011, visitamos la estacin de transferencia de residuos de Vancouver y vimos un enorme hoyo de desechos plsticos. +Nos dimos cuenta de que cuando los plsticos se arrojan al vertedero, es difcil clasificarlos porque tienen densidades similares, y cuando estn mezclados con materia orgnica y desechos de construccin, es verdaderamente imposible separarlos y eliminarlos ambientalmente. +MW: Sin embargo, los plsticos son tiles porque son durables, flexibles, y puede moldearse fcilmente en muchas formas tiles. +La desventaja de esta conveniencia es que hay un elevado costo para esto. +Los plsticos causan serios problemas, tales como la destruccin de los ecosistemas, la contaminacin de los recursos naturales, y la reduccin del espacio de tierra disponible. +Esta imagen aqu es la Gran Mancha de Plsticos del Pacfico. +Cuando se piensa en contaminacin por plstico y el entorno marino, pensamos en la Gran Mancha de Plsticos del Pacfico, que se supone que es una isla flotante de residuos plsticos. +Pero eso ya no es una descripcin exacta de la contaminacin por plsticos en el medio marino. +Justo ahora, el ocano es en realidad una sopa de desechos plsticos, y no hay a donde puedan ir en el ocano donde no sean capaces de encontrar partculas plsticas. +JY: En una sociedad dependiente de plstico, recortar la produccin es una buena meta, pero no es suficiente. +Y qu pasa con los residuos que ya se ha producido? +Los plsticos tardan cientos o miles de aos para biodegradarse. +As que, saben qu? +En vez de esperar a que se degrade esa basura y amontonarla, vamos a encontrar una manera de desintegrarlos con bacterias. +Suena genial, verdad? +Audiencia: S. JY: Gracias. +Pero tuvimos un problema. +Vern, los plsticos tienen estructuras muy complejas y son difciles de biodegradar. +De todos modos, tenamos curiosidad y esperanza y aun as queramos intentarlo. +MW: Con esta idea en mente, Jeanny y yo buscamos en algunos centenares de artculos cientficos en Internet, y elaboramos una propuesta de investigacin en el comienzo de nuestro decimosegundo grado. +El objetivo era encontrar bacterias de nuestro ro local Fraser que pudieran degradar un plastificante daino llamado ftalatos. +Los ftalatos son aditivos utilizados en productos cotidianos de plsticos para aumentar su flexibilidad, durabilidad y transparencia. +Aunque son parte del plstico, no estn unidos covalentemente a la estructura del plstico. +Como resultado, escapan fcilmente en nuestro entorno. +No solo los ftalatos contaminan nuestro medio ambiente, tambin contaminan nuestros cuerpos. +Para empeorar el asunto, los ftalatos se encuentran en productos a los que tenemos una alta exposicin, tales como juguetes de bebs, envases de bebidas, cosmticos y envolturas de comida. +Los ftalatos son horribles porque nuestros cuerpos los absorben muy fcilmente. +Se pueden absorber por el contacto con la piel, ingeridos e inhalados. +JY: Cada ao, al menos 210 millones de kilogramos de ftalatos contaminan nuestro aire, agua y suelo. +Incluso la Agencia de Proteccin Ambiental clasifica a este grupo como un contaminante de alta prioridad ya que se ha demostrado que causa cncer y defectos de nacimiento actuando como un disruptor hormonal. +Leemos que cada ao, el gobierno municipal de Vancouver monitorea los niveles de concentracin de ftalatos en los ros para evaluar su seguridad. +As que pensamos que, si hay lugares a lo largo de nuestro ro Fraser que estn contaminados con ftalatos, y si hay bacterias que son capaces de vivir en estas reas, entonces tal vez, tal vez estas bacterias podran haber evolucionado para descomponer los ftalatos. +MW: As que presentamos esta buena idea a la Dr. Lindsay Eltis de la Universidad de Columbia Britnica, y sorprendentemente, nos llev a su laboratorio y le pidi a sus estudiantes graduados Adam y James que nos ayudaran. +Poco sabamos en ese momento que un viaje a la basura y algunas investigaciones en Internet y juntar el coraje para actuar sobre una inspiracin, nos llevara en un viaje que cambia la vida de accidentes y descubrimientos. +JY: El primer paso en nuestro proyecto fue recoger muestras de suelo de tres sitios diferentes a lo largo del ro Fraser. +De miles de bacterias, queramos encontrar unas que pudieran romper los ftalatos, as que hemos enriquecido nuestros cultivos con ftalatos como la fuente nica de carbono. +Esto implica que, si algo crece en nuestros cultivos, entonces debe ser capaz de vivir de los ftalatos. +Todo iba bien a partir de all, y nos convertimos en cientficas increbles. MW: Um... uh, Jeanny. JY: Solo estoy bromeando. +MW: Bien. Bueno, fue parcialmente mi culpa. +Vern, accidentalmente romp el frasco que contena nuestro tercer cultivo de enriquecimiento, y como resultado, tuvimos que limpiar la habitacin de la incubadora con leja y etanol dos veces. +Y este es solo uno de los ejemplos de los muchos accidentes que ocurrieron durante nuestros experimentos. +Pero este error result ser bastante afortunado. +Nos dimos cuenta de que los cultivos ilesos vinieron de lugares opuestos de niveles de contaminacin, As que este error en realidad nos llev a pensar que tal vez podemos comparar los diferentes potenciales degradativos de las bacterias de los sitios de los niveles de contaminacin opuestos. +JY: Ahora que cultivamos las bacterias, queramos aislar cepas con placas mediadoras, porque pensamos que as sera menos propenso a los accidentes, pero nos equivocamos otra vez. +Hicimos agujeros en nuestro agar mientras lo hacamos y contaminamos algunas muestras y hongos. +Como resultado, tuvimos que rayar y volver a rayar varias veces. +Entonces monitorizamos la utilizacin de ftalato y el crecimiento bacteriano, y encontramos que compartan una correlacin inversa, as que al aumentar la poblacin bacteriana, las concentraciones de ftalato disminuan. +Esto significa que nuestras bacterias vivan realmente de los ftalatos. +MW: Ahora que encontramos bacterias que podan romper los ftalatos, nos preguntamos cules eran estas bacterias. +As que Jeanny y yo tomamos tres de nuestras variedades ms eficientes y entonces realizamos la amplificacin de la secuencia gentica en ellas y comparamos nuestros datos con una amplia base de datos en lnea. +Estbamos contentas de ver, que aunque nuestras tres variedades haban sido previamente identificadas, dos de ellas no fueron previamente asociadas con la degradacin de ftalato, ste era en realidad un descubrimiento novedoso. +JY: Para entender mejor cmo funciona esta biodegradacin, queramos verificar las vas catablicas de nuestras tres variedades. +Para hacer esto, extrajimos las enzimas de la bacteria para reaccionar con un intermedio de cido ftlico. +MW: Monitorizamos este experimento con espectrofotometra y obtuvimos este bonito grfico. +Este grfico muestra que nuestras bacterias realmente tienen un camino gentico para biodegradar los ftalatos. +La bacteria puede transformar los ftalatos, que son una toxina peligrosa, en productos finales como dixido de carbono, agua y alcohol. +S que algunos de ustedes en la multitud estn pensando, bueno, el dixido de carbono es horrible, es un gas de efecto invernadero. +Pero si nuestra bacteria no evoluciona para romper los ftalatos, habra usado algn otro tipo de fuente de carbono, y la respiracin aerobia habra llevado a tener como productos finales como el dixido de carbono de todos modos. +Tambin estbamos interesadas en ver, aunque hemos obtenido una mayor diversidad de biodegradadores de bacterias desde el hbitat de aves, obtuvimos los degradadores ms eficientes desde el vertedero. +As que esto demuestra plenamente que la naturaleza evoluciona mediante la seleccin natural. +JY: As Miranda y yo presentamos esta investigacin en la competencia Sanofi BioGENEius Challenge y fuimos reconocidas con el mayor potencial de comercializacin. +Aunque no somos las primeras en encontrar bacterias que puede descomponer los ftalatos, fuimos las primeras en investigar nuestro ro local y encontrar una posible solucin a un problema local. +No solo hemos demostrado que las bacterias pueden ser la solucin a la contaminacin plstica, sino tambin que estar abiertos a resultados inciertos y a tomar riesgos crea oportunidades para descubrimientos inesperados. +A lo largo de este viaje, tambin hemos descubierto nuestra pasin por la ciencia, y actualmente continuamos la investigacin en otros productos qumicos de combustibles fsiles en la universidad. +Esperamos que en un futuro prximo, podremos crear organismos modelo que puedan romper no solo los ftalatos sino una amplia variedad de diferentes contaminantes. +Podemos aplicar esto a las plantas de tratamiento de aguas residuales para limpiar nuestros ros y otros recursos naturales. +Y tal vez un da seremos capaces de abordar el problema de los residuos slidos de plstico. +MW: Creo que nuestro viaje verdaderamente ha transformado nuestra visin de los microorganismos, y Jeanny y yo hemos demostrado que incluso los errores pueden conducir a descubrimientos. +Einstein dijo una vez, "No podemos resolver los problemas usando el mismo tipo de pensamiento que usamos cuando se crearon". +Si estamos haciendo plstico sinttico, entonces creemos que la solucin sera romperlos bioqumicamente. +Gracias. JY: Gracias. +Enfrentmoslo: conducir, es peligroso. +Es una de las cosas en las que no queremos pensar, pero el hecho de que conos religiosos y amuletos de la suerte estn en tableros alrededor del mundo traiciona el hecho de que sabemos que esto es cierto. +Los accidentes automovilsticos, son la principal causa de muerte en personas entre los 16 y 19 aos en EE.UU., principal causa de muerte, y 75 % de estos accidentes no tienen nada que ver con drogas o alcochol. +Entonces, qu pasa? +Nadie sabe a ciencia cierta, pero recuerdo mi primer accidente. +Era una joven conductora en la autopista, y haba otro auto en frente mo, vi que encendi las luces de frenos +y me dije, "Bueno, este tipo est bajando la velocidad, tambin voy a bajar la velocidad. +Pis el freno. +Pero, no, el tipo no estaba reduciendo la velocidad. +Se est deteniendo, frenando por completo en medio de la autopista. +Iba a pasar de 65 a...cero? +Me par en el freno. +Sent el ABS activarse, y que el automvil segua en movimiento y que no iba a frenar, y saba que no iba a frenar, y se activ el airbag, el automvil estaba destrozado, y por suerte, nadie result herido. +Pero no tena idea que ese automvil estaba frenando, y creo que podemos hacer algo mejor que eso. +Creo que podemos transformar la experiencia de conducir dejando que nuestros automviles se comuniquen entre s. +Quiero que reflexionen un momento acerca de la experiencia actual de conducir. +Suban a su auto. Cierren la puerta. Se encuentran en una burbuja de vidrio. +No pueden sentir directamente el mundo a su alrededor. +Estn en este cuerpo extendido. +Les corresponde navegarlo por caminos parcialmente visibles, entre otros gigantes de metal, a velocidades sobrehumanas. +Bien? Y lo nico que los gua son sus ojos. +Bien, eso es con lo nico que cuentan, con un par de ojos que no fueron diseados para esta tarea, pero luego se les pide que hagan cosas como, si quieren cambiar de carril, qu es lo primero que se les pide que hagan? +Que quiten la vista del camino. Eso es. +Tienen que dejar de ver por dnde van, girar, verificar su punto ciego, y seguir conduciendo por el camino sin ver por dnde van. +Para Uds. y todos los dems. Esta es la manera segura de conducir. +Por qu hacemos esto? Porque tenemos que hacerlo, debemos elegir, miro aqu o miro all? +Qu es ms importante? +Y en general, hacemos un muy buen trabajo eligiendo y decidiendo a qu le prestamos atencin en la carretera. +Pero, a veces, fallamos. +A veces, precibimos algo mal, o demasiado tarde. +En incontables accidentes, el conductor dice, "No lo vi venir". +Y lo creo. En serio. +No podemos verlo todo. +Pero la tecnologa actual puede ayudarnos a mejorar esto. +En el futuro, con automviles intercambiando informacin entre ellos, vamos a poder ver hasta tres autos ms adelante y tres autos ms atrs, a la derecha y a la izquierda, todo al mismo tiempo, con vista panormica, realmente vamos a poder ver esos automviles. +Vamos a poder saber la velocidad del auto que tenemos delante, saber cun rpidamente el tipo est frenando. +Si el tipo est frenando a cero, lo sabr. +Y con clculos, algoritmos y modelos predictivos, vamos a poder predecir el futuro. +Pueden pensar que es imposible. +Cmo puede predecirse el futuro? Es muy difcil. +Pero no. En el caso de los automviles, no es imposible. +Los autos son objetos tridimensionales que tienen una velocidad y posicin fija. +Se desplazan por caminos. +A veces se desplazan en rutas pre prublicadas. +No es realmente difcil hacer predicciones razonables acerca de dnde un auto va a estar en el futuro cercano. +Incluso si estn dentro de su auto y pasa un motociclista, fiuuuummm! a 85 millas por hora, cambiando de carriles. S que han pasado por esto, ese tipo simplemente no "sali de la nada". +Lo ms probable es que ya estuviera en la carretera durante la ltima media hora. +Cierto? Quiero decir, alguien lo vio. +Diez, 20, 30 millas atrs, alguien vio a este tipo, y tan pronto como un auto ve al motociclista y lo incorpora al mapa, est en el mapa... posicin, velocidad, se puede decir que continuar su trayecto a 85 millas por hora. +Uds. lo sabrn, porque su auto lo sabr, porque ese otro auto se lo habr susurrado, algo as como, "por cierto, en cinco minutos, pasa un motociclista, cuidado". +Pueden hacer predicciones razonables acerca del comportamiento de los autos. +Quiero decir, son objetos newtonianos. +Lo cual es algo muy bueno. +Pero cmo llegamos all? +Podemos empezar con algo tan sencillo como compartir la informacin de nuestra posicin entre vehculos, simplemente compartiendo el GPS. +Si tengo un GPS y una cmara en mi auto, tengo una idea bastante precisa de dnde estoy y a qu velocidad me desplazo. +Con visin de computadora, puedo calcular dnde estn los vehculos a mi alrededor, ms o menos, y hacia dnde van. +Y lo mismo para otros autos. +Pueden tener una idea precisa de dnde estn, y al menos una vaga idea de dnde estn los dems autos. +Qu pasa si dos automviles pudiesen compartir esa informacin, si pudiesen hablarse? +Se los dir. +Ambos modelos mejoran. +Todos ganan. +Tambin incluimos una radio de comunicacin de corto alcance, y los robots hablan entre s. +Cuando estos robots se acercan, rastrean la posicin del otro de manera precisa y pueden evitarse. +Ahora agregamos ms y ms robots a la ecuacin, y hemos encontrado algunos problemas. +Uno de ellos, es que cuando hay demasiada charla, es difcil procesar todos los paquetes de informacin, entonces se debe priorizar, y all es cuando nos ayuda el modelo predictivo. +Si todos sus autos robots estn rastreando las trayectorias predecidas, no se presta demasiada atencin a esos paquetes. +Se da prioridad al que parece estar salindose un poco de su curso. +Este tipo podra ser un problema. +Y se puede predecir la trayectoria nueva. +As que no solo se sabe que est cambiando su curso, tambin se sabe cmo. +Y se sabe a qu conductor advertir para que se quite del camino. +Y quisimos saber: cmo podemos alertar mejor a todos? +Cmo pueden los autos susurrarse: "Necesitas quitarte del camino"? +Bien, depende de dos cuestiones: una, es la capacidad del auto, y la otra, la capacidad del conductor. +Si alguien tiene un auto muy bueno, pero est hablando por telfono, o ya saben, haciendo otra cosa, probablemente no est en la mejor posicin para reaccionar ante una emergencia. +As que comenzamos una lnea de investigacin adicional enfocndonos en los conductores. +Y ahora, utilizando una serie de tres cmaras, podemos detectar si un conductor est mirando hacia adelante, hacia otro lado, hacia arriba, si est al telfono, o tomando una taza de caf. +Podemos predecir el accidente y podemos predecir, quines, qu autos, estn en la mejor posicin para quitarse del camino y as calcular la ruta ms segura para todos. +Fundamentalmente, este tipo de tecnologa existe hoy. +Creo que el mayor problema que enfrentamos, es nuestra voluntad para compartir nuestra informacin. +Creo que hay una nocin muy desconcertante, esta idea de que nuestros autos van a estar observndonos, hablando de nosotros con otros autos, que vamos a desplazarnos por la ruta en un mar de cotilleo. +Pero creo que puede hacerse de un modo que proteja nuestra privacidad, tal y como ahora, cuando miro su auto desde afuera, realmente no s nada de usted. +Si miro la matrcula de su vehculo, realmente no s quin es usted. +Creo que nuestros autos pueden hablar de nosotros a nuestra espalda. +Y creo que eso ser algo estupendo. +Quiero que reflexionen por un momento si realmente no quieren que el adolescente distrado detrs de ustedes sepa que estn frenando, que estn frenando por completo. +Compartiendo nuestra informacin, voluntariamente, podemos hacer lo que es mejor para todos. +As que dejen que su auto hable de ustedes. +Eso har mucho ms seguras nuestras calles. +Gracias. +He notado algo interesante sobre la sociedad y la cultura. +Todo lo arriesgado requiere una licencia: +aprender a conducir, poseer armas, casarse. +Esto se aplica a todo lo arriesgado, menos a la tecnologa. +Por algn motivo, no hay un programa de estudios estandarizado, no hay una formacin bsica. +Es como que te dan el ordenador y te echan del nido. +Cmo se supone que hay que aprender estas cosas? +Por smosis. Nadie nunca se sienta +y te dice: As es como funciona. +As que hoy les voy a contar 10 cosas que pensaban que todo el mundo saba, pero parece que no. +Bien, primero, en la web, cuando ests en la web y quieres desplazarte hacia abajo, no cojas el ratn +y uses la barra de desplazamiento. Es una absoluta prdida de tiempo. +Solo hazlo si te pagan por hora. +En su lugar, pulsa la barra espaciadora. +Esta tecla baja una pgina. +Pulsa la tecla Shift para subir de nuevo. +As que la barra espaciadora para bajar una pgina. Funciona en todos los buscadores y en todo tipo de ordenador. +Tambin en la web, cuando ests rellenando uno de estos formularios como el de domicilio, supongo que saben que se puede pulsar el tabulador para saltar de casilla en casilla. +Pero, qu pasa con el men desplegable donde se introduce el estado? +No abras el men desplegable. Es un malgasto de energa terrible. +Teclea la primera letra de tu estado una y otra vez. +As que si buscas Connecticut, pon: C, C, C, +Si buscas Texas, pon: T, T, y vas directamente a ese elemento sin siquiera abrir el men desplegable. +Tambin en la web, cuando el texto est muy pequeo, lo que se hace es mantener pulsada la tecla Control y pulsar Plus, Plus, Plus +Agrandas el texto cada vez que pulses Plus. +Funciona con todos los ordenadores y buscadores, o la tecla Menos, Menos, Menos, para volver a hacerlo pequeo. +Si ests en un Mac, puede que sea la tecla Comando. +Cuando tecleas en Blackberry, Android, iPhone, no te molestes en cambiar a la disposicin de la puntuacin para insertar un punto, despus un espacio y luego poner la siguiente letra en maysculas. +Simplemente pulsa el espacio dos veces. +El telfono pone por ti el punto, el espacio y la mayscula. +Pon: espacio, espacio. Es absolutamente increble. +Tambin en cuanto a mviles, en todos los telfonos, si quieres llamar a un nmero al que ya has llamado antes, solo tienes que pulsar el botn de llamada, y te marca el ltimo nmero de telfono, y en ese momento puedes pulsar el botn de llamada otra vez para llamar. +As que no es necesario ir al registro de llamadas, as que si ests intentando contactar con alguien, solo pulsa de nuevo la tecla de llamada. +Ahora viene algo que me vuelve loco. Cuando te llamo y dejo un mensaje en el buzn de voz, te oigo diciendo: Deja un mensaje, y luego recibo como 15 segundos de malditas instrucciones. Como si no hubiramos tenido contestadores los ltimos 45 aos! +No estoy amargado. +Resulta que hay un mtodo abreviado de teclado que te permite saltar directamente al pitido. +Contestador: Al or la seal, por favor, Piiiii. +David Pogue: Desgraciadamente, las telefnicas no adoptaron la misma combinacin de teclas, cambia segn la telefnica, as que depende de ti aprenderte las teclas para la persona a la que ests llamando. +No dije que estos trucos fueran a ser perfectos. +Bien, la mayora de ustedes piensa que Google es algo que te permite visitar una pgina web, pero tambin es un diccionario. +Tecleen la palabra definir y despus la palabra que quieran saber. +Ni siquiera tienen que hacer clic en nada. +Aparece la definicin mientras tecleas. +Tambin es una base de datos de la Adm. Federal de Aviacin +Tecleas el nmero de la lnea area y el vuelo. +Muestra el lugar del vuelo, la puerta, la terminal, cunto falta para el aterrizaje; sin necesidad de una aplicacin. +Tambin hace conversiones de unidades y divisas. +Y tampoco hace falta hacer clic en uno de los resultados. +Lo escribes en el cuadro, y ah tienes la respuesta. +Hablando de texto, cuando quieras seleccionar... esto es solo un ejemplo. Cuando quieres seleccionar una palabra, por favor no desperdicies tu vida arrastrando el ratn como un novato. +Haz doble clic en la palabra. Miren el 200. Hago doble clic. Y selecciona solo esa palabra. +Adems, no borres lo que has seleccionado. +Basta con escribir encima. Es as con todos los programas. +Tambin puedes hacer doble clic y arrastrar para seleccionar de palabra en palabra mientras arrastras. +Mucho ms preciso. De nuevo, no te molestes en borrar. +Solo escribe encima. El retardo del obturador, es el tiempo que pasa entre que presionamos el botn y el momento que realmente captura una cmara. +Es muy frustrante en cualquier cmara de menos de 1000 dlares. +(Clic de cmara) Se debe a que la cmara necesita tiempo para calcular el enfoque y la exposicin, pero si haces un pre-enfoque con el botn medio presionado, Pasa constantemente. +Acabo de convertir tu cmara de 50 dlares +en una de 1000 dlares con este truco. +para dejarla como antes. Bueno, s que he ido muy rpido. Si se perdieron algo, +estar encantado de enviarles una lista con estos consejos. +Mientras tanto, enhorabuena. +Todos han conseguido la licencia de tecnologa de California. +Que tengan un da estupendo. +Lo que estn haciendo ahora mismo, justo en este momento, los est matando. +Ms que los autos o el Internet, e incluso ese pequeo dispositivo mvil del que no dejamos de hablar, la herramienta que ms utilizan casi todos los das es esto, su trasero. +Hoy en da, las personas pasan sentadas 9.3 horas al da, que es ms de las 7.7 horas que estamos durmiendo. +Estar sentado es tan increblemente comn que ni siquiera cuestionamos lo mucho que lo estamos haciendo, y dado que todos los dems lo estn haciendo, ni siquiera se nos ocurre que no est bien. +En ese sentido, estar sentado se ha convertido en el tabaquismo de nuestra generacin. +Por supuesto, esto tiene consecuencias para la salud, algunas aterradoras, adems de la cintura. +Cosas como el cncer de mama o el cncer de colon estn directamente asociadas a nuestra falta de actividad fsica, en un 10% para ser exactos, en ambos casos. +En un 6% para las enfermedades del corazn, 7% para la diabetes tipo 2, que es de lo que muri mi padre. +Bien, cualquiera de esas estadsticas debera convencer a cada uno de nosotros de levantarse ms seguido, pero si se parecen un poco a m, no lo harn. +Lo que s me motiv a moverme fue la interaccin social. +Me invitaron a una reunin, pero no se pudo arreglar una sala de conferencias para la reunin y me dijeron, Maana debo pasear a mis perros podras venir conmigo? +Me pareco un poco extrao, de hecho, en esa primera reunin recuerdo haber pensado, Debo ser quien haga la siguiente pregunta, porque saba que jadeara durante la conversacin. +Y a pesar de eso, me apropi de la idea. +As que en vez de asistir a reuniones en un caf, o en salas de conferencia iluminadas con luces fluorescentes, invito a las personas a una reunin a pie, por un total de entre 30 y 50 km a la semana. +Esto ha cambiado mi vida. +Pero anteriormente, lo que ocurra, la forma en que pensaba era que podas cuidar tu salud o cumplir con tus obligaciones, y siempre era uno a costa del otro. +Ahora, luego de cientos de estas reuniones a pie, he aprendido algunas cosas. +Primero, hay algo increble al salir realmente de la caja que te lleva a pensar fuera de la caja. +Bien sea la naturaleza o el ejercicio mismo, de verdad funciona. +Y segundo, probablemente la ms reflexiva, es lo mucho que podemos mantener los problemas en oposicin cuando en realidad no es as. +Y si vamos a resolver problemas y mirar el mundo desde una perspectiva realmente distinta, ya sea en el gobierno o en los negocios, cuestiones ambientales o creacin de empleos, quiz podemos pensar cmo replantear esos problemas considerando que ambas partes son posibles. +Porque fue cuando eso ocurri con esta idea de caminar y platicar que las cosas se volvieron realizables, sostenibles y viables. +Comenc esta charla hablando acerca del trasero, as que terminar con la lnea final, que es, caminen y platiquen. +Pongan el ejemplo. +Les sorprender ver cmo el aire fresco impulsa el pensamiento innovador, y de esa forma, incorporarn a su vida un conjunto de ideas completamente nuevo. +Gracias. +Hoy tengo un gran anuncio que hacer que me emociona bastante +Esto puede sorprender un poco a quienes conocen mi investigacin y lo que he hecho. +He tratado de resolver grandes problemas: antiterrorismo, terrorismo nuclear, atencin mdica, diagnstico y tratamiento del cncer. Empec a meditar sobre todo esto y descubr que el mayor problema que enfrentamos, al que se reducen estos otros, es la energa, la electricidad, el flujo de electrones. +Y decid proponerme a tratar de resolver este problema. +Probablemente no sea eso lo que Uds. esperan. +Quiz esperan que venga aqu y les hable de fusin, ya que es lo que he hecho gran parte de mi vida. +Pero esta es una charla sobre, bueno... esta es una charla sobre fisin. +Se trata de perfeccionar algo viejo, y traerlo al siglo XXI. +Hablemos del funcionamiento de la fisin nuclear. +Esta es la misma forma en que hemos estado produciendo electricidad, con turbinas de vapor, desde hace 100 aos. La energa nuclear fue realmente un gran avance para calentar el agua, pero todava hervimos agua, que se convierte en vapor y hace girar las turbinas. +Y pensaba, saben, es esta la mejor forma de hacerlo? +Se agot el tema o an queda algo por innovar? +Me di cuenta de que haba dado con algo: creo que hay un potencial enorme para cambiar el mundo. +Y es esto. +Es un pequeo reactor modular. +No es tan grande como el reactor que se ve en este diagrama. +Es de entre 50 y 100 megavatios. +Pero eso es un montn de energa. +Con esto, con consumo promedio, podran abastecerse 25 000 a 100 000 hogares. +Pero lo realmente interesante de estos reactores es que se construyen en fbricas. +Son reactores modulares construidos esencialmente en una lnea de montaje. Se transportan a cualquier parte del mundo, se instalan y pueden producir electricidad. +Esta parte es el reactor. +Y esto est bajo tierra, lo cual es muy importante. +Como alguien que ha trabajado mucho en contraterrorismo, quisiera resaltar que es importante que est enterrado bajo tierra por motivos de derrames y por seguridad. +Dentro de este reactor hay sal fundida, as que los fanticos del torio se van a entusiasmar, porque estos reactores resultan ser muy buenos para producir y quemar el ciclo de combustible del torio, uranio-233. +Pero no me preocupa mucho el combustible. +Se pueden poner a producir... estn muy hambrientos, son como pozos de armas degradadas, uranio altamente enriquecido y plutonio apto para armas que ha sufrido un proceso de degradacin. +Est en un grado que no puede usarse en armas nucleares, pero les encanta esa cosa. +Y tenemos mucho por doquier porque este es un gran problema. +Ya saben, cuando la Guerra Fra, se construy ese enorme arsenal de armas nucleares, y eso estaba bien, pero ya no las necesitamos ms. Entonces, qu se va a hacer con todo el desperdicio? +Qu hacer con todos los pozos de esas armas nucleares? +Bueno, los aseguramos, pero sera genial que los pudiramos quemar, consumirlos. A este reactor le encantan. +Es un reactor de sales fundidas. Tiene un ncleo, y tiene un intercambiador de calor que la sal caliente, la sal radioactiva, la vuelve fra, no radioactiva. +Todava es trmicamente caliente pero no es radiactiva. +Esto es un intercambiador de calor lo que hace a este diseo muy, muy interesante. Es un intercambiador de calor a gas. +Volviendo a lo que vena diciendo sobre la energa en produccin --bueno, aparte de la fotovoltaica-- se produce por la ebullicin de vapor y el giro de una turbina. No es muy eficiente y, de hecho, las plantas de energa nuclear de este tipo, tienen solo un 30 % a 35 % de eficiencia. +Esa es la cantidad de energa trmica que produce el reactor; la cantidad de electricidad que produce. +Y la razn de la baja eficiencia de esos reactores es que funcionan a baja temperatura. +Funcionan a unos, ya saben, quiz 200 a 300 grados Celsius. +Pero estos reactores funcionana 600 a 700 grados Celsius, lo que significa que cuanto mayor sea la temperatura la termodinmica dice que se tiene mayor eficiencia. +Este reactor no usa agua. Usa gas, CO2 o helio supercrticos, que entran a la turbina, en lo que se llama ciclo de Brayton. +Es el ciclo termodinmico que produce electricidad, con una eficiencia de casi el 50 %; entre 45 % y 50 % de eficiencia. +Esto me tiene muy entusiasmado porque es un ncleo muy compacto. +Los reactores de sales fundidas, por naturaleza, son muy compactos pero lo tambin genial es que se obtiene mucha ms electricidad por la cantidad de uranio fisionada, por no mencionar que se consume el uranio. +Su grado de quemado es mucho mayor. +As, para una cantidad dada de combustible que se pone en el reactor, se usa mucho ms. +El problema de las plantas tradicionales de energa nuclear como esta son estas barras revestidas de circonio, con las tabletas de combustible de dixido de uranio en su interior. +Bueno, el dixido de uranio es una cermica, y a la cermica no le gusta liberar lo que tiene dentro. +Tenemos lo que se llama pozo de xenn y algunos de estos productos de la fisin aman a los neutrones. +Aman a los neutrones que se mueven y ayudan a que ocurra la reaccin. +Los consumen, lo que significa que, adems de que el revestimiento no dura mucho tiempo, pueden usarse esos reactores ms o menos durante unos 18 meses sin reabastecerse de combustible. +Pero estos reactores duran 30 aos sin reabastecerse que, en mi opinin, es algo muy, muy maravilloso porque significa que es un sistema sellado. +Que no haya reabastecimiento implica que se puede sellar sin riesgo de derrame, y sin material nuclear ni radioactivo que escape de sus ncleos. +Pero volvamos a la seguridad. Todos, despus de Fukushima, tuvieron que revisar la seguridad nuclear. Una de las cosas que pienso al disear un reactor de energa es que ha de ser pasiva e intrnsecamente seguro, Estoy muy entusiasmado con este reactor, esencialmente por dos razones. +Una, que no funciona a alta presin. +Los reactores tradicionales como los de agua a presin o los de agua hirviendo, usan agua muy, muy caliente a presiones muy altas. Esto significa, en esencia, que en caso de accidente, si se presenta alguna fisura en el recipiente de acero inoxidable a presin, el refrigerante se escapa del ncleo. +Estos reactores funcionan prcticamente a presin atmosfrica, de modo que no hay tendencia de los productos de fisin de escaparse del reactor, en caso de accidente. +Adems, funcionan a alta temperatura y el combustible se funde, por lo que no se derriten. Pero en caso de que el reactor fallara o en caso de prdida externa de energa como en Fukushima, hay un tanque de desechos. +Debido a que el combustible es lquido, y est combinado con el refrigerante, se podra simplemente drenar el ncleo en lo que se llama rgimen sub-crtico. Bsicamente es un tanque bajo el reactor que tiene absorbentes de neutrones. +Esto es muy importante porque as se detiene la reaccin. +En este tipo de reactores, no se puede hacer eso. +Por eso el ncleo de este reactor, como no est bajo presin y no tiene esta reactividad qumica, significa que los productos de la fisin no tienen la tendencia de escapar del reactor. +As, incluso en caso de accidentes, s, el reactor puede quemarse, ya saben. Lo siento por la prdida de la compaa elctrica, pero no se contaminarn grandes reas de terreno. +Yo creo que en, digamos, 20 ao,s lograremos la fusin, la fusin ser una realidad, podra ser la fuente de energa que proporcione electricidad libre de carbono. +Electricidad libre de carbono. +Es una tecnologa increble porque no solo modera el cambio climtico sino que es una innovacin. +Es una manera de llevar la energa a los pases en desarrollo, porque se produce en una fbrica y es econmica. +Se la puede ubicar en el lugar del mundo que se desee. +Y quiz hay algo ms. +De nio, estaba obsesionado por el espacio. +Bueno, hasta cierto punto, tambin por la ciencia nuclear, pero antes de eso, por el espacio. Me entusiasmaba, ya saben, ser astronauta y disear cohetes, siempre me entusiasm mucho. +Pero volvamos a esto, porque imaginen tener un reactor compacto en un cohete que produce de 50 a 100 megavatios. +Es el sueo de todo diseador de cohetes. +Es el sueo del que disea un hbitat para otro planeta. +No solo uno tiene de 50 a 100 megavatios para obtener la propulsin que nos lleve, sino que se tiene potencia una vez all. +Ya saben, para diseadores de cohetes que usan paneles solares o pilas combustibles, unos pocos vatios o kilovatios, puede ser mucha energa. +Estamos hablando de 100 megavatios. +Es muchsima energa. +Podra alimentar a una comunidad marciana. +Podra propulsar un cohete hasta all. +Y espero poder tener la oportunidad de explorar mi pasin espacial al mismo tiempoque exploro mi pasin nuclear. +La gente dice: "Bueno, lanzas estas cosas radioactivas al espacio, y si hay accidentes?" +Pero lanzamos bateras de plutonio todo el tiempo. +Por eso estoy entusiasmado. +He diseado este reactor de aqu que puede ser una fuente innovadora que proporcione energa a todo tipo de buenas aplicaciones cientficas, y realmente estoy preparado para hacerlo. +Pienso, viendo la tecnologa, que ser ms econmico o tendr el mismo precio que el gas natural. No hay que reabastecerla durante 30 aos, Una gran ventaja para el mundo en desarrollo. +Solo quiero decir una nota filosfica para terminar, algo raro para un cientfico. +Pienso que hay algo realmente potico en usar energa nuclear para propulsarnos a las estrellas, porque las estrellas son enormes reactores de fusin. +Son calderas nucleares gigantes en el cielo. +La energa que me permite hablar con Uds. hoy, aunque viene de la energa qumica de mis alimentos, originalmente provino de una reaccin nuclear. Por eso hay algo potico en esto, en mi opinin, al perfeccionar la fisin nuclear y usarla como fuente futura de energa innovadora. +Gracias amigos. +He pasado mi vida entera ya sea en la escuela, en el camino a la escuela o, hablando de lo que pasa en la escuela. +Mis padres eran educadores, mis abuelos maternos eran educadores, y, durante los ltimos 40 aos, tambin me he dedicado a ello. +Entonces, sobra decirlo, durante esos aos tuve la oportunidad de ver la reforma educativa desde muchas perspectivas. +Algunas de estas reformas han sido buenas. +Otras, no tanto. +Y sabemos por qu los nios abandonan la escuela. +Sabemos por qu los nios no aprenden. +Ya sea por la pobreza, el bajo nivel de asistencia o, las influencias negativas de los compaeros, sabemos el porqu. +Pero una de las cosas de las que nunca hablamos, o que rara vez hacemos, es el valor y la importancia de la conexin humana, +de las relaciones. +James Comer dice que ningn aprendizaje significativo puede ocurrir sin una relacin significativa. +George Washington Carver dice que todo aprendizaje es entender las relaciones. +Todos en esta sala han sido influenciados ya sea por un profesor o por un adulto. +Durante aos, he observado a la gente ensear. +He observado a los mejores, as como a algunos de los peores. +Una colega me dijo una vez: "No me pagan para querer a los nios. +Me pagan para ensear una leccin +y que los nios la aprendan. +Debo ensearla. Ellos aprenderla. Caso cerrado". +Le dije: "Bueno, ya sabes que los nios no aprenden de la gente que no les gusta". +Dijo: "Eso es slo una sarta de tonteras". +Y yo le dije: "Bueno, tu ao va a ser largo y arduo, querida". +Sobra decir que lo fue. Algunas personas piensan +que se puede tener, o no, lo que se necesita para construir una relacin. +Creo que Stephen Covey tena la idea correcta. +Dijo que slo debes intentar algunas cosas simples como tratar de entender primero, antes de ser entendido, +o cosas simples, como disculparse. +Alguna vez han pensado en eso? +Disclpense ante un nio y lo dejarn en shock. +Una vez ense una leccin sobre proporciones. +Realmente no soy buena con las matemticas, pero estaba trabajando en ellas. +Al regresar mir la gua del maestro. +Haba enseado mal toda la leccin. As que volv a la clase al da siguiente, y les dije: "Miren, chicos, necesito disculparme. +Ense mal toda la leccin. Lo siento muchsimo". +Me dijeron: "Est bien, maestra Pierson. +Estaba tan emocionada, que la dejamos seguir". +He tenido clases de un nivel tan bajo, tan deficientes acadmicamente que he llorado. +Me preguntaba, cmo voy a llevar a este grupo en nueve meses desde donde estn hasta donde tienen que estar? +Y fue difcil. Fue muy duro. +Cmo elevo la autoestima de un nio junto con su rendimiento acadmico? +Un ao se me ocurri una idea brillante. +Les dije a todos mis alumnos: "Fueron elegidos para estar en mi clase porque soy la mejor maestra y Uds., los mejores estudiantes. Nos han juntado para as mostrarles a los dems cmo se hace". +Uno de los estudiantes dijo: "En serio?" +Le dije: "En serio. Tenemos que mostrarles a las otras clases cmo se hace, as que cuando caminemos por el pasillo noten nuestra presencia an sin hacer ruido. +Basta con mostrarse orgullosos". +Y les di un frase que dice: "Yo soy alguien. +Yo era alguien cuando llegu. +Y ser un mejor alguien cuando me vaya. +Soy fuerte y poderoso. +Merezco la educacin que aqu recibo. +Tengo cosas que hacer, gente a la que impresionar y, lugares donde ir". +Y dijeron: "S!" +Si lo repiten lo suficiente empezar a ser parte de Uds. +Y entonces... Les di un examen; 20 preguntas. +Un estudiante tuvo mal 18. +Le puse un "+2" en su hoja y una carita sonriente. +Me dijo: "Maestra Pierson, esto es reprobado?" +Le dije: "S". +Dijo: "Entonces, por qu me pone una carita sonriente?" +Le dije: "Porque ests en una racha. +Acertaste dos. No tuviste todo mal". +Y dije: "Y luego que lo revisemos, no lo hars mejor?" +Me dijo: "S, seora, puedo hacerlo mejor". +Miren, un "-18" te arruina la vida. +"+2", dijo, "no est nada mal". +Durante aos vi a mi madre tomarse el recreo para revisar, las tardes para visitar a los alumnos, comprar peines y cepillos y mantequilla de man y galletas y dejarlos en su escritorio para los nios que necesitaban comer, y una toalla y jabn para los nios que no olan tan bien. +Es difcil ensear a los nios que apestan. +Y los nios pueden ser crueles. +As que ella tena esas cosas en su escritorio, y aos ms tarde, despus de que se retir, he visto a algunos de esos mismos nios venir y decirle: "Sabe, maestra Walker, Ud. marc una diferencia en mi vida. +Me ayud a hacer algo de ella. +Me hizo sentir que era alguien, cuando en el fondo, saba que no lo era. +Slo quiero que vea en lo que me he convertido". +Cuando mi mam muri hace dos aos en el 92, haba tantos ex-alumnos en su funeral, que llor, no porque se haba ido, sino porque dej un legado de relaciones que nunca desaparecern. +Podemos entablar ms relaciones? Absolutamente. +Te gustarn todos los nios? Por supuesto que no. +Sabes que los nios ms difciles nunca faltan. +Nunca. No te van a gustar todos, y los difciles aparecen por una razn. +Es la conexin. Las relaciones. Y aunque no te gusten todos, lo importante es que nunca se enteren. +As que los maestros son grandes actores y actrices, que venimos a trabajar an cuando no sentimos ganas y obedecemos a una poltica sin sentido, pero seguimos enseando. +Enseamos porque es lo que hacemos. +La enseanza y el aprendizaje deben traer alegras. +Qu tan poderoso sera nuestro mundo si tuvisemos nios que no temiesen asumir riesgos, que no tuviesen miedo de pensar, y que tuviesen a un campen? +Cada nio merece tener a un campen, un adulto que nunca dejar de creer en ellos, que entienda el poder de la conexin, y les insista en que llegarn a ser lo mejor que pueden llegar a ser. +Es difcil este trabajo? Les apuesto que s, por Dios, que s. +Pero no es imposible. +Podemos hacerlo. Somos educadores. +Nacimos para marcar la diferencia. +Muchsimas gracias. +No estoy seguro de que cada persona aqu est familiarizada con mis fotografas. +Quiero comenzar mostrndoles unas pocas fotografas y despus hablar. +Debo contarles un poco de mi historia, porque estar hablando sobre ella durante mi discurso aqu. +Nac en 1944 en Brasil, en los tiempos en que Brasil an no era una economa de mercado. +Nac en una granja, una granja que tena ms del 50 % de bosque tropical [an]. +Un lugar maravilloso. +Viva con aves y animales increbles, nadaba en nuestros pequeos ros con nuestros caimanes. +Cerca de 35 familias vivan en esta granja y todo lo que producamos en ella, lo consumamos. +Muy pocas cosas iban al mercado. +Una vez al ao, la nica cosa que iba al mercado era el ganado que producamos y hacamos viajes de casi 45 das para llegar al matadero, llevando miles de cabezas de ganado, y cerca de 20 das viajando para volver nuevamente a nuestra granja. +Cuando tena 15 aos, tuve la necesidad de dejar este lugar e ir a un pueblo un poco ms grande, mucho ms grande, donde hice la segunda parte de la escuela secundaria. +Ah aprend diferentes cosas. +Brasil se estaba comenzando a urbanizar, industrializar y conoca la poltica. Me hice un poco radical, era miembro de los partidos de izquierda y me hice activista. +Fui a la universidad para ser economista. +Hice un mster en economa. +Y la cosa ms imporante en mi vida tambin pas durante este tiempo. +Conoc a una chica increble que se convirti en mi mejor amiga de toda la vida y mi socia en todo lo que he hecho hasta ahora, mi esposa, Llia Wanick Salgado. +Brasil se radicaliz con mucha fuerza. +Luchamos muy duro contra la dictadura, en un momento que era necesario para nosotros: o ibamos a la clandestinidad armados o nos ibamos de Brasil. Eramos muy jvenes y nuestra organizacin crey que era mejor para nosotros que nos fueramos y fuimos a Francia, donde hice un doctorado en economa, Llia se convirti en arquitecta. +Trabaj despus para un banco de inversiones. +Hice muchos viajes, proyectos econmicos de desarrollo financiado en frica con el Banco Mundial. +Y un da la fotografa invadi totalmente mi vida. +Me hice fotgrafo, abandon todo y me convert en fotgrafo, y comenc a hacer fotografas que eran importantes para m. +Mucha gente me dice que soy un reportero grfico, que soy un fotgrafo antroplogo, que soy un fotgrafo activista. +Pero hice mucho ms que eso. +Coloqu la fotografa en mi vida. +Viv totalmente dentro de la fotografa haciendo proyectos a largo plazo y quiero mostrarles solo unas pocas fotografas de, nuevamente, vern dentro de los proyectos sociales, all donde fui, publiqu muchos libros sobre estas fotografas, pero solo les mostrar unas pocas ahora. +En la dcada de 1990, de 1994 a 2000, fotografi una historia llamada Migraciones. +Se convirti en un libro y en una muestra. +Pero durante el tiempo en que estaba fotografiando esto, viv un momento realmente duro en mi vida, en su mayora en Ruanda. +En Ruanda vi brutalidad total. +Vi diariamente miles de muertes. +Perd la fe en nuestra especie. +No crea posible que vivieramos mucho ms y comenc a ser atacado por mis propios estafilococos. +Comenc a tener infecciones en todos lados. +Cuando haca el amor con mi esposa, no me sala esperma ; me sala sangre. +Fui a ver al doctor de un amigo en Pars, le dije que estaba completamente enfermo. +Me examin completamente y me dijo: "Sebastian, no ests enfermo, tu prstata est perfecta. +Lo que pas es que viste tantas muertes que ahora te ests muriendo. +Debes parar. Parar. +Debes parar, porque de lo contrario, estars muerto". +Y tom la decisin de parar. +Estaba realmente molesto con la fotografa, con todo en el mundo, y tom la decisin de volver a donde haba nacido. +Fue una gran coincidencia. +Era el momento en que mis padres estaban muy ancianos. +Tengo siete hermanas. Soy el nico hombre en mi familia y tomaron la decisin en conjunto de transferirnos esta tierra a Lila y a mi. +Cuando recib esta tierra, estaba tan muerta como yo. +Cuando era nio, ms del 50 % era bosque tropical. +Cuando recibimos la tierra, era menos de la mitad en porcentaje de bosque tropical, como en toda mi regin. +Para desarrollarnos, el desarrollo brasileo, destruimos mucho de nuestro bosque. +Como lo hicieron aqu en EE. UU. o en India, en todo este planeta. +Para desarrollarnos, llegamos a una gran contradiccin que destruimos todo alrededor de nosotros. +Esta granja tena miles de cabezas de ganado ahora tena solo unos cientos y no sabamos como lidiar con ellos. +Y Lila tuvo una idea increble y loca. +Dijo, por qu no volver al bosque tropical que haba antes? +Dijiste que naciste en un paraso. +Construymoslo de nuevo. +Y fui a ver a un buen amigo que era ingeniero forestal para que nos preparara un proyecto y comenzamos. Comenzamos a plantar y el primer ao perdimos muchos rboles, el segundo ao perdimos menos y lenta, lentamente esta tierra muerta comenz a renacer. +Comenzamos a plantar cientos de miles de rboles, solo especies locales, solo especies nativas, donde construimos un ecosistema idntico al que fue destruido y la vida comenz a volver de una forma increble. +Era necesario transformar nuestra tierra en un parque nacional. +La transformamos. Le devolvimos esta tierra a la naturaleza. +Se convirti en un parque nacional. +Creamos una institucin llamada Instituto Terra y creamos un gran proyecto medioambiental para recaudar fondos en todos lados. +Aqu en Los Angeles, en el rea de la Baha de San Francisco, se convirti en deducible de impuestos en EE. UU. +Recaudamos fondos en Espaa, Italia, mucho en Brasil. +Trabajamos con muchas empresas de Brasil que pusieron dinero en este proyecto, el gobierno. +Y la vida comenz a volver y tuve un gran deseo de volver a la fotografa, de volver a fotografiar. +Y en este momento, mi deseo fue no fotografiar nunca ms un animal que haba fotografiado toda mi vida: nosotros mismos. +Dese fotografiar los otros animales, fotografiar los paisajes, fotografiarnos, pero desde el principio, el tiempo en el que vivamos en equilibrio con la naturaleza. +Y fui. Comenc a principios de 2004, y termin a finales de 2011. +Cre una cantidad increble de imgenes, y el resultado: Llia hizo el diseo de todos mis libros, el diseo de todas mis muestras. Ella es la creadora de las muestras. +Y lo que quiero con estas fotografas es crear una discusin sobre lo que tenemos que es lo prstino del planeta y lo que debemos mantener en l. Si queremos vivir, tenemos que tener algn equilibrio en nuestra vida. +Y queria que nos vieran cuando utilizbamos, s, nuestros instrumentos de piedra. +An existimos. La semana pasada fui a la Fundacin Nacional del Indio y solo en el Amazonas tenemos cerca de 110 grupos de indgenas que an no han sido contactados. +Debemos proteger el bosque en este sentido. +Y con estas imgenes, espero que podamos crear informacin, un sistema de informacin. +Intentamos hacer una nueva presentacin del planeta y quiero mostrarles ahora solo unas pocas imgenes de este proyecto, por favor. +Bueno, esto... . Gracias. Muchas gracias. +Esto es por lo que debemos luchar duro para mantenerlo como est ahora. +Pero hay otra parte que debemos reconstruir juntos, crear nuestras sociedades, nuestra familia moderna de las sociedades, estamos en un punto en el que no podemos volver atrs. +Pero creamos una contradiccin increble. +Para crear todo esto, destruimos mucho. +Nuestro bosque en Brasil, ese bosque antiguo que era del tamao de California, est destruido hoy en un 93 %. +Aqu, en la costa oeste, Uds. han destruido su bosque. +Por ac, no? Los bosques de secuoyas ya no estn. +Se fueron muy rpido, desaparecieron. +Viniendo el otro da de Atlanta, aqu, hace dos das, vol sobre los desiertos que hemos creado, provocado con nuestras propias manos. +India no tiene ms rboles. Espaa no tiene ms rboles. +Y debemos reconstruir estos bosques. +Esa es la esencia de nuestra vida, estos bosques. +Necesitamos respirar. La nica fbrica capaz de transformar CO2 en oxgeno son los bosques. +La nica mquina capaz de capturar el carbono que producimos, siempre, incluso si lo reducimos, todo lo que hacemos, produce CO2, son los rboles. +Formulo la pregunta, tres o cuatro semanas atrs, vimos en los peridicos millones de peces que mueren en Noruega. +Falta de oxgeno en el agua. +Me hice la pregunta, si por un momento, le faltara el oxgeno a todas las especies animales, nosotros incluidos, eso sera muy complicado para nosotros. +Para el sistema hdrico, los rboles son esenciales. +Les dar un pequeo ejemplo que entendern fcilmente. +Uds. gente feliz que tienen mucho cabello en su cabeza, si se dan una ducha, les toma dos o tres horas secar su cabello si no usan un secador de pelo. +Yo, un minuto, est seco. Lo mismo pasa con los rboles. +Los rboles son el cabello de nuestro planeta. +Cuando tienen lluvia en un lugar que no tiene rboles, en unos pocos minutos, el agua llega a la corriente, lleva tierra, destruyendo nuestra fuente de agua, destruyendo los ros y no hay humedad para retener. +Cuando tienen rboles, el sistema radicular mantiene el agua. +Todas las ramas de los rboles, las hojas que se caen crean una zona hmeda y les toma meses y meses bajo el agua, llegar a los ros y mantener nuestras fuentes y ros. +Esto es lo ms importante, cuando imaginamos que necesitamos agua para cada actividad de la vida. +Quiero mostrarles ahora, para terminar, solo unas pocas imgenes que para m son muy importantes en esa direccin. +Recuerdan que les dije, que cuando recib la granja de mis padres ese era mi paraso, esa era la granja. +La tierra completamente destruida, la erosin, la tierra se haba secado. +Pero pueden ver en esta imagen, estabamos comenzando a construir un centro educacional que se convirti en un gran centro medioambiental en Brasil. +Pero pueden ver muchos pequeos lugares en esta imagen. +En cada punto de esos lugares, plantamos un rbol. +Hay miles de rboles. +Ahora les mostrar las imagenes tomadas exactamente en el mismo punto hace dos meses. +Les dije al comienzo que era necesario que plantramos cerca de 2,5 millones de rboles de cerca de 200 especies diferentes con el fin de reconstruir el ecosistema. +Y les mostrar la ltima imagen. +Aqu estamos con 2 millones de rboles plantados ahora. +Estamos capturando cerca de 100 mil toneladas de carbono con estos rboles. +Mis amigos, es muy fcil de hacer. Lo hicimos, no? +Me pas por accidente, volvimos, construimos un ecosistema. +Aqu dentro de la sala, creo que tenemos la misma preocupacin, y el modelo que creamos en Brasil, podemos transplantarlo ac. +Podemos aplicarlo en todos lados alrededor del mundo, no? +Y creo que podemos hacerlo juntos. +Muchas gracias. +De acuerdo, tomemos cuatro temas que, obviamente, van juntos: "Big data" [Grandes bases de datos], los tatuajes, la inmortalidad y los griegos. +De acuerdo? +Ahora, los tatuajes sin mediar palabra, los tatuajes dicen mucho. +[Hermosa] [Intrigante] No hay mucho para decir. +[Lealtad] [Muy ntima] [Errores graves] Y los tatuajes cuentan un montn de historias. +Si puedo hacer una pregunta indiscreta, cuntos de Uds. tienen tatuajes? +Algunos, pero no la mayora. +Qu pasara si Facebook, Google, Twitter, LinkedIn, los mviles, GPS, Foursquare, Yelp, Travel Advisor, todas estas cosas que usan todos los das, resultaran ser tatuajes electrnicos? +Y si dieran tanta informacin acerca de quines y qu son, como hara cualquier tatuaje? +Lo que ha terminado pasando en las ltimas dcadas es que esa exposicin meditica de los jefes de estado o de las grandes celebridades ahora nos toca de cerca todos los das por todas estas personas que estn tuiteando, blogueando, siguindonos, viendo nuestras puntuaciones y nuestros cambios. +Los tatuajes electrnicos tambin gritan. +Si pensamos en las consecuencias de eso, se est haciendo muy difcil esconderse de esto, entre otras cosas, porque no son slo los tatuajes electrnicos, es el reconocimiento facial, que es muy bueno. +Por eso hay empresas como face.com que ahora tienen cerca de 18 000 millones de caras en lnea. +Y esto es lo que le sucedi a esta empresa. +Y si Andy estuviera equivocado? +Esta es la teora de Andy: +[En el futuro, todos tendremos 15 minutos de fama.] Qu pasa si es al revs? +Qu pasa si solo tendremos 15 minutos de anonimato? Bien, entonces, gracias a los tatuajes electrnicos, tal vez todos Uds. y todos nosotros estemos muy cerca de la inmortalidad, porque estos tatuajes vivirn mucho ms tiempo que nuestros cuerpos. +Y si eso es cierto, entonces lo que queremos hacer es seguir cuatro lecciones de los griegos y una leccin de un latinoamericano. +Por qu los griegos? +Bien, los griegos pensaban en lo que pasa cuando los dioses, los seres humanos y la inmortalidad se mezclan durante mucho tiempo. +Leccin nmero uno: Ssifo. +Lo recuerdan? Hizo algo horrible, fue condenado eternamente a empujar esta roca, que volva a rodar cuesta abajo, empujaba hacia arriba, rodaba hacia abajo. +Es un poco como la reputacin. +Al hacernos ese tatuaje electrnico rodaremos hacia arriba y hacia abajo durante un largo tiempo, de modo que al usar estas cosas, tengan cuidado de lo que publican. +As est saliendo y saliendo y saliendo y simplemente no puede resistir. La mira, la pierde para siempre. +Con todos estos datos, sera una buena idea no mirar demasiado lejos en el pasado de aquellos que amas. +Leccin nmero tres: Atalanta. +La mejor corredora. Desafiaba a cualquiera. +Si le ganabas, se casara contigo. +Si perdas, moras. +Cmo le gan Hipmenes? +Bien, l tena todas estas maravillosas manzanas doradas, ella corra por delante y l rodaba una pequea manzana dorada. +Ella corra por delante y l rodaba una pequea manzana dorada. +Ella se distraa todo el tiempo. l finalmente gan la carrera. +Recuerden su propsito conforme vengan estas pequeas manzanas doradas vengan, los alcancen y deseen publicar sobre ellas o tuitear acerca de ellas o enviar un mensaje tarde en la noche. +Y luego, por supuesto, est Narciso. +Aqu nadie nunca sera acusado o estara familiarizado con Narciso. +Pero, pensando en Narciso, no se enamoren del reflejo propio. +ltima leccin, de un latinoamericano: Este es el gran poeta Jorge Luis Borges. +Cuando fue amenazado por los matones de la junta militar argentina, dijo: "Oh, vamos, de qu otro modo pueden amenazar, sino con la muerte?" +Lo interesante, lo original, sera amenazar a alguien con la inmortalidad. +Y esa, por supuesto, es la amenaza que nos plantean ahora los tatuajes electrnicos. +Gracias. +Enseo qumica. +Est bien, est bien. +Adems de en las explosiones, la qumica est en todas partes. +Alguna vez se han distrado en un restaurante haciendo as una y otra vez? +Algunas personas estn asintiendo. +Hace poco les mostraba esto a mis alumnos y les ped que traten de explicar el porqu. +Eso dio lugar a preguntas y conversaciones fascinantes. +Veamos este vdeo que me envi esa tarde Maddie, alumna de mi clase del perodo tres. +Obviamente, como profesor de qumica de Maddie, me encanta que en su casa siguiera practicando este tipo de demostracin ridcula que hicimos en clase. +Pero lo que ms me fascin fue que la curiosidad de Maddie la llev a dar otro paso. +Si observan, dentro de ese recipiente podrn ver una vela. +Maddie est usando la temperatura para extender este fenmeno a una nueva situacin hipottica. +Las preguntas y la curiosidad, como las de Maddie, son imanes que nos atraen hacia nuestros profesores, y trascienden toda tecnologa o modas en la educacin. +Pero si anteponemos estas tecnologas a las inquietudes de los estudiantes podemos estar privndonos de nuestra mayor herramienta como profesores: las preguntas de los estudiantes. +Por ejemplo, pasar una clase aburrida del aula a la pantalla del dispositivo mvil podra ahorrar tiempo de instruccin, pero si ese es el centro de la experiencia de los estudiantes, es la misma charla deshumanizante pero vestida de lujo. +En cambio, si tenemos las agallas para desconcertar a nuestros estudiantes, para dejarlos perplejos y evocar preguntas reales, y mediante esas preguntas, como profesores, obtenemos informacin que podemos usar para adaptar mtodos robustos basados en informacin de instruccin mixta. +En mayo de 2010, a los 35 aos, con una nia de dos aos en casa y mi segunda hija en camino, me diagnosticaron un gran aneurisma en la base de la aorta torcica. +Esto me condujo a la ciruga a corazn abierto. Este es el correo electrnico real de mi mdico. +Cuando recib esto, qued --atencin-- absolutamente asustado, s? +Pero encontr una tranquilidad sorprendente encarnada en la confianza de mi cirujano. +De dnde sac este tipo esa confianza, esa audacia? +As que cuando le pregunt, me dijo tres cosas. +Primero, dijo, su curiosidad lo llev a cuestionarse el procedimiento, sobre qu funcionaba y qu no. +En segundo lugar, acept y no tuvo miedo al proceso desordenado de prueba y error, el proceso inevitable de prueba y error. +En tercer lugar, mediante una intensa reflexin, reuni la informacin que necesitaba para disear y revisar el procedimiento, y luego, con mano firme, me salv la vida. +Aprend mucho de esas sabias palabras, y antes de volver a las aulas ese otoo, redact mis propias tres reglas que an estn presentes en mi planificacin de las clases. +Regla nmero uno: lo primero es la curiosidad. +Las preguntas pueden ser las fuentes de una gran instruccin pero no a la inversa. +Regla nmero dos: aceptar el desastre. +Todos somos profesores. Sabemos que el aprendizaje es feo. +Y como el mtodo cientfico se asigna a la pgina 5, seccin 1.2 del captulo 1 que todos salteamos, est bien, la prueba y el error an pueden ser una parte informal de lo que hacemos todos los das en la habitacin 206 de la Catedral del Sagrado Corazn. +Y regla nmero tres: practicar la reflexin. +Lo que hacemos es importante. Merece nuestra atencin, pero tambin merece revisin. +Podemos ser los cirujanos de nuestras aulas? +Como si lo que hiciramos, un da salvara vidas. +Nuestros estudiantes lo merecen. +Y cada caso es diferente. +Est bien. Lo siento. +Mi profesor de qumica interior necesitaba sacar eso de mi sistema antes de continuar. +Estas son mis hijas. +A la derecha tenemos a la pequea Emmalou... familia surea. +Y, a la izquierda, Riley, +que en un par de semanas ser una nia grande. +Cumplir 4 aos y quienes conozcan algn nio de 4 aos saben que les encanta preguntar: Por qu? +S, por qu? +A esta nia podra ensearle cualquier cosa porque siente curiosidad por todo. +Todos pasamos esa edad. +Pero el desafo ser para los profesores de Riley, esos que an tiene que conocer. +Cmo despertarn su curiosidad? +Dira que Riley es una metfora de todos los nios, creo que la desercin escolar se presenta en muchas formas diferentes: desde el ms grande, que lo deja antes de que an haya comenzado el ao o ese pupitre vaco en el fondo de un aula urbana de escuela media. +Pero si nosotros, como educadores, dejamos atrs este simple papel de difusores de contenidos y adoptamos un nuevo paradigma como cultivadores de curiosidad e investigacin, puede que aportemos un poco ms de sentido a la jornada escolar y que despertemos la imaginacin. +Muchas gracias. +Estoy un poco nervioso porque mi esposa Yvonne me dijo, "Geoff, t ves las charlas de TED". +Le dije, "S corazn, me gustan las charlas de TED". +Me dijo, "Sabes, ah son, realmente inteligentes, talentosos..." Le dije, "Lo s, lo s". Me dijo, "No quieren ver, bueno, al negro enojado". +As que le dije, "No, ser bueno, corazn, Ser bueno. Lo soy". +Pero estoy enojado. Y la ltima vez que me fij, sigo... Es por esto por lo que estoy emocionado, pero sigo enojado. +Este ao, habr millones de nuestros nios que innecesariamente vamos a perder pero que podramos salvarlos, a todos, ahora mismo. +Han visto la calidad de los educadores que han estado aqu. +No me digan que no pueden llegar a esos nios y salvarlos. S que podran. +Es absolutamente posible. +Por qu no lo hemos hecho? +Aquellos de nosotros que en educacin nos atenemos a un plan en el que no nos importa cuntos millones de jvenes reprueben, vamos a continuar haciendo algo que no funcion, y nadie se enoja por ello, cierto?, basta con decir, "Basta ya". +As que tenemos un plan que simplemente no tiene ningn sentido. +Saben, me cri en una zona marginal de la ciudad, y ah haba nios reprobando en las escuelas hace 56 aos, cuando fui por primera vez a estudiar, y esas escuelas siguen malas hoy, 56 aos despus. +Y saben algo sobre una escuela mala? +No es como una botella de vino. +Cierto? Donde uno diga algo como, el 87 fue un buen ao, verdad? +As es ahora, quiero decir, cada ao, se sigue el mismo enfoque, cierto? +Una talla nica para todos, si te queda, bien, y si no, mala suerte. Solo mala suerte. +Por qu no permitimos innovacin? +No me digan que no podemos hacer algo mejor que esto. +Miren, van a un lugar en que los nios reprueban durante 50 aos, y preguntan, "Entonces, cul es el plan?" +Y les responden, "Vamos a hacer lo mismo que hicimos el ao pasado". +Qu tipo de modelo es este? +Los bancos solan operar entre las 10 y las 3. +Funcionaban de 10 a 3. Cerraban a medioda. +Quin puede ir al banco entre las 10 y las 3? Los desempleados. +Pero ellos no necesitan de los bancos. No tienen dinero ah. +Quin cre ese modelo? +Y as fue durante dcadas. +Saben por qu? Porque no les importaba. +No se trataba de sus clientes. +Se trataba de los banqueros. Crearon algo que les funcionaba bien a ellos. +Cmo podas ir al banco cuando estabas trabajando? No importaba. +Y no les importa que Geoff estuviera enojado porque no poda ir al Banco. Pues ve a otro banco. +Todos eran iguales, verdad? +Un da, un banquero loco tuvo una idea. +Tal vez deberamos tener el banco abierto cuando la gente salga del trabajo. +Tal vez les guste. Qu tal un sbado? +Y si ponemos algo de tecnologa? +Bien, soy un fantico de la tecnologa, pero tengo que admitir aqu, que estoy un poco viejo. +Era un poco lento, y no confiaba en la tecnologa, y cuando salieron con los nuevos artilugios, estos cajeros en los que pones una tarjeta y te dan el dinero, yo pensaba, "De ninguna manera esa mquina va a contar bien el dinero. +Nunca lo voy a utilizar". +As que la tecnologa ha cambiado. Las cosas han cambiado. +Sin embargo, no la educacin. Por qu? +Por qu cuando tenamos telfonos de disco, cuando tenamos gente paralizada por la poliomielitis, estbamos enseando del mismo modo que estamos hacindolo ahora? +Y si uno viene con un plan para cambiar las cosas, la gente te considera radical". +Dicen las peores cosas. +Un da dije, pues mira, si la ciencia dice, esto es ciencia, no soy yo que nuestros nios ms pobres pierden terreno en el verano... Evalas dnde estn en junio y dices, bueno, ah van. +Miras dnde estn en septiembre, y se han ido abajo. +Dices, Ay! De esto me enter en el 75 cuando estaba en la facultad de educacin de Harvard. +Dije, "Esto es un estudio importante". +Porque sugiere que debemos hacer algo. +Cada 10 aos se reproduce el mismo estudio. +Dice exactamente lo mismo: Los nios pobres pierden terreno en el verano. +El sistema decide que no hay escuelas en el verano. +Saben, siempre me he preguntado, quin hace las reglas? +Miren bien; durante aos estuve en la facultad de educacin de Harvard. +Pens que saba algo. +Dijeron que era por el calendario agrario, y que la gente tena... pero djenme decirles por qu eso no tiene sentido. +No lo entiendo, nunca lo he entendido, porque todo el que tiene una granja sabe que no se siembra en julio y agosto. +Se siembra en primavera. +As que quin vino con esta idea? De quin es? +Por qu lo hacemos as? +Bien, resulta que en la dcada de 1840 tenamos escuelas abiertas todo el ao. Estaban abiertas todo el tiempo, porque muchos tenan que trabajar todo el da. +No tenan ningn lugar para dejar a sus hijos. +Era perfecto tener escuelas. +As que esto no es un mandato de los dioses de la educacin. +Entonces, por qu? Por qu? +Porque nuestra profesin se niega a usar la ciencia. +Ciencia. Tenemos a Bill Gates diciendo: "Miren, esto funciona. Podemos hacerlo". +Cuntos lugares en EE. UU. van a cambiar? Ninguno. +Ninguno. Bueno, s, hay dos. +S, habr algn lugar, porque algunas personas harn lo correcto. +Como profesin, tenemos que detener esto. La ciencia es clara. +Aqu est lo que sabemos. +Sabemos que el problema comienza inmediatamente. +Esta es la idea, de cero a tres. +Mi esposa Yvonne y yo, tenemos cuatro hijos, tres ya grandes y uno de 15 aos. +Es una larga historia. +Con nuestros primeros hijos, no conocamos la ciencia del desarrollo del cerebro. +No sabamos lo crticos que eran los tres primeros aos. +No sabamos qu estaba sucediendo en esos cerebros jvenes. +No sabamos lo importante que era el papel cmo el lenguaje, el estmulo y reaccin, la llamada y respuesta, inciden en el desarrollo de los nios. +Lo sabemos ahora. Qu estamos haciendo al respecto? Nada. +Lo sabe la gente adinerada. Lo sabe la gente educada. +Y sus hijos tienen una ventaja. +La gente pobre no lo sabe, y no estamos haciendo nada para ayudarlos. +Pero sabemos que esto es fundamental. +Por ejemplo, el pre-knder. +Sabemos que es importante para los nios. +Los nios pobres necesitan esa experiencia. +Pero no. En muchos lugares, no existe. +Sabemos que los servicios de salud son importantes. +Ofrecemos servicios de salud y la gente siempre me est reclamando, porque yo me ocupo de las cuentas y los datos y todas esas cosas importantes. Pero como prestamos servicios de salud, tengo que conseguir mucho dinero. +La gente sola decir cuando nos financiaba, "Geoff, por qu das estos servicios de salud?". +Yo tena que hacer esas cosas. +Y deca: "Bueno, saben, un nio que tiene una muela picada no va a ser capaz de estudiar". +Y tena que hacerlo porque haba que reunir el dinero. +Pero ahora soy mayor, y saben lo que les digo ahora? +Saben por qu ofrezco a los nios esos beneficios para la salud y el deporte y la recreacin y las artes? +Porque me gustan los nios. +Realmente me gustan los nios. Pero cuando son realmente agresivos, personas realmente avasalladoras, les digo "Lo hago porque t lo haces para tu hijo". +Hay otra cosa. +Soy alguien que prueba. Creo que se necesitan datos, informacin, porque trabajas en algo, que crees que funciona, y te das cuenta de que en realidad no sirve. +O sea, somos educadores. Trabajas, hablas, y piensas que entienden, genial, no? Y descubres que no. +Pero tambin est el problema con las pruebas. +Los exmenes que hacemos, vamos a tener la prueba en Nueva York la semana que viene, es en abril. +Sabes cundo vamos a tener los resultados? +Tal vez julio, o en junio. +Y los resultados tienen importantes datos. +Te dirn que a Raheem le cuesta trabajo, que no poda hacer multiplicaciones de dos dgitos, importante, pero los dan despus de que la escuela ha terminado. +Y por lo tanto, qu hacer? +Irse de vacaciones. Regresan de vacaciones. +Ahora tienen todos estos datos de la prueba del ao pasado. +No los miran. +Para qu mirarlos? +Se trata ahora de ensear este ao. +As que, cunto dinero gastamos en todo eso? +Miles y miles de millones de dlares por datos ya demasiado tarde para usarlos. +Necesito esos datos en septiembre. +Me serviran en noviembre. +Debera saber a quin le cuesta trabajo y si lo que hice fue efectivo. +Necesito saberlo esta misma semana. +No sirve saberlo al final del ao cuando ya es demasiado tarde. +Porque conforme me hago viejo, me he vuelto un poco clarividente. +Puedo predecir los resultados de las escuelas. +Llvenme a cualquier escuela. +Soy realmente bueno en las escuelas de barrios que estn luchando. +Si me dicen que el ao pasado el 48% de esos nios estaban en nivel apropiado al grado, +contesto, "Bueno, cul es el plan, qu hicimos del ao pasado a este ao?" +Y me dicen: "Estamos haciendo lo mismo". +Voy a hacer una prediccin. Este ao, entre el 44% y el 52% de esos nios estarn en un nivel apropiado al grado. +Y siempre voy a acertar. +As que estamos gastando todo este dinero, pero, qu ganamos con eso? +Los maestros necesitan informacin real ahora mismo sobre lo que est sucediendo a nuestros hijos. +Es importante hoy, porque as pueden hacer algo al respecto. +Esta es la otra cuestin de la que creo que tenemos que ocuparnos. +No podemos reprimir la innovacin en nuestra profesin. +Tenemos que innovar. Pero la gente en nuestra profesin se molesta con la innovacin. +Se enfadan si haces algo diferente. +Si intentas algo nuevo, te dirn, "Ah, escuelas por concesin". Bueno, lo intentamos. Veamos. +Esto no ha funcionado durante 55 aos. +Vamos a intentar algo diferente. Y aqu est el problema. +Algo no va a funcionar. +Saben, la gente me dice, "S, muchas de las escuelas por concesin no funcionan". +Muchas de ellas no. Deberan cerrarse. +En serio, realmente creo que deberan cerrarse. +Pero no podemos confundir entre "entender la ciencia", y por otra parte, "como hay cosas que no funcionan es mejor no hacer nada". +Porque esta no es la manera como funciona el mundo. +Pensemos en la tecnologa; imaginen si as fuera con la tecnologa. +Cada vez que algo no funcionara, simplemente tiramos la toalla y decimos, "Olvdalo". +Ya entend. Estoy seguro de que algunos de Uds. eran como yo; lo ltimo y ms grande, la PalmPilot. +Me dijeron, "Geoff, si consigues esta PalmPilot nunca necesitars nada ms". +Eso dur solo 3 semanas. Se acab. +Tena rabia de haber gastado mi dinero en esa cosa. +Alguien dej de innovar? Ni una persona. Ni un alma. +La gente sigui. Siguieron inventando. +El hecho de que fallen no debe detenernos en propiciar el avance de la ciencia. +Nuestra tarea, como educadores... hay cosas que sabemos que podemos hacer. +Y tenemos que hacerlo mejor. La evaluacin, tenemos que empezar antes, tenemos que asegurarnos de proporcionar el apoyo a los jvenes. +Tenemos que darles todas las oportunidades. +Es lo que tenemos que hacer. Esto de la innovacin, esta idea de que hay que seguir innovando hasta que realmente entendamos la ciencia, es algo absolutamente crtico. +Y esto es algo, por cierto, que creo va a ser un reto para toda nuestra profesin. +Los EE. UU. no pueden esperar otros 50 aos para llegar a esto. +Se ha agotado el tiempo. +No s nada de abismos fiscales, pero s s que hay un acantilado educativo al que nos dirigimos en este preciso momento, si dejamos que la gente siga con esta tontera de que no podemos costearnos esto. Bill Gates dice que va a costar 5 mil millones de dlares. +Qu son 5 mil millones de dlares para los EE. UU.? +Cunto gastamos en Afganistn este ao? +Cuntos billones? Cuando el pas se preocupa por algo, gastamos billones de dlares sin pestaear. +Cuando se ve amenazada la seguridad de EE. UU., gastamos cualquier cantidad de dinero. +La verdadera seguridad de nuestra nacin es preparar la siguiente generacin para que pueda tomar nuestro lugar y ser los lderes del mundo cuando se trate de pensar en la tecnologa y la democracia y todas esas cosas que nos importan. +Me atrevo a decir que es una miseria, lo que se requerira para poder realmente comenzar a resolver algunos de estos problemas. +Y una vez que lo hagamos, ya no estar enojado. Por lo tanto, amigos, aydenme a conseguirlo. +Les agradezco mucho. Gracias. +John Legend: Cul es la tasa de desercin de la preparatoria en Harlem Children's Zone? +Geoffrey Canada: Bueno, ya sabes, John, el 100% de nuestros nios se graduaron de la preparatoria el ao pasado en mi escuela. +El 100% de ellos fueron a la Universidad. +Este ao el 100% de los que estn en ltimo ao, se graduar . +Lo ltimo que o fue que tenamos un 93% aceptado en la Universidad. +Ojal alcancemos ese otro 7%. +As es como vamos. JL: Cmo mantienen el contacto con ellos despus de que dejan la preparatoria? +GC: Bueno, uno de los problemas que tenemos en este pas es que estos nios, los mismos nios, estos mismos nios vulnerables, cuando alcanzan a ir a la escuela, desertan en cifras rcord. +Y hemos llegado a la conclusin de que hay que disear una red de apoyo para estos nios en muchos sentidos que imite lo que hace un buen padre. +Te acosa, correcto? Te llama, te dice, "Quiero ver tus calificaciones. Cmo te fue en el ltimo examen? +Cmo as que quieres dejar la escuela? +No vas a regresar aqu". +As que un montn de mis nios saben que no pueden volver a Harlem porque Geoff los est buscando. +Piensan, "realmente no puedo regresar". No. Mejor sigo en la escuela. +Pero no estoy bromeando acerca de esto, se requiere un poco para entender el problema. +Si los nios saben que te niegas a dejarlos fracasar, sienten una presin distinta, y no se rendirn tan fcilmente. +A veces no lo sienten, y piensan, "Es que yo no quiero hacerlo, pero s que mi madre se enojara". +Bueno, eso le importa a los nios, y les ayuda a seguir. +Intentamos crear un conjunto de estrategias de tutora y de ayuda y apoyo, pero tambin un conjunto de estmulos que les dicen, "T puedes. Va a ser difcil, pero no vamos a dejarte fallar". +JL: Bien, gracias Dr. Canada. +Por favor denle un aplauso una vez ms. +Crec en el Este de Los ngeles, sin siquiera darme cuenta de que era pobre. +Mi padre era un pandillero conocido en las calles. +Todo el mundo saba quin era yo, as que pens que era importante, y que estaba protegida. Y a pesar de que mi padre pas la mayor parte de mi vida entrando y saliendo de la crcel, tuve una madre increble que era muy independiente. +Ella trabajaba en la preparatoria local como secretaria de direccin, por eso vea a todos los nios que echaban de la clase, por alguna razn, quienes esperaban ser disciplinados. +Hombre, su despacho estaba lleno. +Vean, los nios como nosotros, tenemos un montn de cosas que enfrentar fuera de la escuela, y a veces simplemente no estamos listos para enfocarnos. +Pero eso no significa que no seamos capaces. +Sino que nos lleva un poco ms. +Como el da que encontr a mi pap con convulsiones, echando espuma por la boca, con una sobredosis en el piso del bao. +Creen que esa noche la tarea encabezaba mi lista de prioridades? +No tanto. +Realmente necesitaba una red de apoyo, un grupo de personas que me ayudaran a asegurarme de que no iba a ser vctima de mi propia circunstancia; que me iban a empujar ms all de lo que pensaba que poda hacer. +Necesitaba profesores, en el aula, cada da, que me dijeran: "Puedes superar eso". +Por desgracia, la secundaria local no me ofrecera eso. +Estaba repleta de pandillas y con alta rotacin de profesores. +Por eso mam dijo: "Irs en autobs", "cada da a una hora y media de distancia de donde vivimos." +Eso hice durante los siguientes dos aos. +Tom un autobs escolar hasta el lado elegante de la ciudad. +Y, finalmente, termin en una escuela donde haba una mezcla. +Haba pandilleros, y tambin estbamos los que realmente intentbamos llegar a la preparatoria. +Tratar de mantenerse alejado de los problemas era un poco inevitable. +Tenamos que sobrevivir. +A veces simplemente tenamos que hacer cosas. +Por eso haba muchos profesores que decan: "Ella nunca lo va a lograr. +Tiene un problema con la autoridad. +No llegar a ningn lugar". +Algunos profesores me descartaron como una causa perdida. +Pero luego se sorprendieron mucho cuando me gradu de la preparatoria. +Fui aceptada en la Universidad Pepperdine y volv a la misma escuela a la que asist para ser asistente de educacin especial. +Y luego les dije: "Quiero ser profesora". +Y decan: "Qu? Por qu? +Por qu quieres hacer eso?" +As que empec mi carrera docente en exactamente la misma escuela secundaria a la que asist, y realmente quera tratar de salvar a ms nios que estaban igual que yo. +Y as, cada ao, comparto mi experiencia con los nios, porque necesitan saber que todo el mundo tiene una historia, todo el mundo tiene una lucha, y todos necesitamos ayuda en el camino. +Y yo voy a ser su ayuda en el camino. +Como profesora novata cre oportunidades. +Un da vino un nio a mi clase que fue apualado la noche anterior. +Le dije: "Tienes que ir a un hospital, a la enfermera de la escuela, algo". +Me dijo: "No, seorita, no ir. +Tengo que estar en clase porque necesito graduarme". +Saba que yo no iba a dejar que l fuera una vctima de su circunstancia, pero nosotros bamos a seguir adelante y seguir avanzando. +Y esta idea de crear un refugio seguro para nuestros hijos y llegar a saber exactamente lo que estn enfrentando, a conocer a sus familias... yo quera eso, pero no poda hacerlo en una escuela con 1600 alumnos, y profesores que cambian ao, tras ao, tras ao. +Cmo se llegan a construir esas relaciones? +As que creamos una nueva escuela. +Creamos el Instituto San Fernando de Medios Aplicados. +Y nos aseguramos de estar todava apegados a nuestro distrito escolar por financiamiento y apoyo. +Queramos esas libertades. +Pero cambiar todo un paradigma no ha sido un camino fcil, y ni siquiera completo. +Pero tenamos que hacerlo. +Nuestra comunidad mereca una nueva forma de hacer las cosas. +Y como la primera secundaria piloto de todo el Distrito Escolar Unificado de Los ngeles, cranme que hubo oposicin. +Y fue por temor... temor a, bueno, y si se equivocan? +S, y si nos equivocamos? +Y qu tal si acertamos? +Y acertamos. +As que a pesar de que los profesores estaban en contra porque contratamos por ao... si no puedes ensear, o no quieres ensear, no puedes estar en mi escuela con mis nios. +Cmo nos fue en nuestro tercer ao? +Bueno, hacemos que valga la pena venir a la escuela cada da. +Hacemos que los nios sientan que son importantes para nosotros. +Hacemos que nuestro plan de estudios sea riguroso y relevante para ellos, y ellos usan toda la tecnologa a la que estn acostumbrados. +Porttiles, computadoras, tabletas... lo que sea, lo tienen. +Animacin, programas para hacer pelculas, todo. +Y conectamos todo a lo que estn haciendo. Por ejemplo, hicieron anuncios de servicio pblico para la Sociedad del Cncer +que se anunciaron en el sistema de tranvas local. +Enseamos elementos de persuasin, no hay nada ms real que eso. +Nuestros resultados en las pruebas estatales han mejorado ms de 80 puntos desde que nos convertimos en nuestra propia escuela. +Pero todos los interesados han tenido que trabajar juntos: profesores y directores en contratos de un ao, dedicando muchas ms horas al trabajo que las del contrato sin compensacin. +Y se necesita un miembro del consejo escolar que vaya a presionar en nombre de uno y diga: "Sabes, el distrito trata de imponer esto, pero tienes la libertad de hacer otra cosa". +Y se necesita un centro activo de padres de familia que no solo est all, mostrando su presencia a diario, sino que sea parte de nuestro gobierno, tomando decisiones por sus nios, nuestros nios. +Porque, por qu tienen los estudiantes que alejarse tanto de sus hogares? +Se merecen una escuela de calidad en su barrio, una escuela a la que puedan sentirse orgullosos de asistir, y una escuela de la que tambin la comunidad pueda estar orgullosa, y los alumnos necesitan profesores que luchen por ellos a diario y les den el poder para sobreponerse a sus circunstancias. +Porque es hora de que nios y nias como yo dejen de ser la excepcin, y sean la regla. +Gracias. +En esta charla de hoy quiero presentar una idea diferente sobre el por qu invertir en la educacin temprana de la niez puede resultar en una buena inversin pblica. +Es una idea diferente porque generalmente cuando la gente habla acerca de los programas de la infancia temprana, habla de los maravillosos beneficios para los participantes en trminos de antiguos alumnos, del preescolar, de que obtienen mejores resultados en la prueba K-12, de mejores ingresos como adultos. +Bien, todo eso es muy importante, pero de lo que quiero hablar es de lo que hace el preescolar por la economa de los estados y por promover el desarrollo econmico del estado. +Y esto es en verdad crucial porque si vamos a incrementar la inversin en los programas de infancia temprana, necesitamos interesar a los gobiernos de los estados. +El gobierno federal tiene muchos asuntos en sus manos, por lo que los gobiernos de los estados tendrn que tomar la iniciativa. +As que debemos recurrir a ellos, a los legisladores en los gobiernos de los estados, y recurrir a algo para que entiendan, que deben promover el desarrollo econmico de la economa de sus estados. +Bien, por promover el desarrollo econmico, no me refiero a nada mgico. +A lo que me refiero es, que la educacin temprana de la niez puede generar ms y mejores trabajos al estado y puede, por lo tanto, promover un ingreso per cpita ms alto para los residentes del estado. +Ahora bien,debo decir que cuando la gente piensa en el desarrollo estatal y local de la economa, generalmente no se piensa en primer lugar en lo que se hace en el cuidado infantil ni en los programas de educacin temprana. +Lo s. He pasado la mayor parte de mi carrera investigando estos programas. +He hablado con muchos directores de las agencias de desarrollo econmico estatal acerca de estos temas, con muchos legisladores acerca de estos asuntos. +Cuando los legisladores y otros piensan en el desarrollo econmico, en lo primero en que todos piensan es en los estmulos fiscales a las empresas, en la reduccin de los impuestos de propiedad, en los crditos fiscales a la creacin de trabajos, saben, hay un milln de esos programas por todos lados. +Por ejemplo, los estados compiten muy activamente para atraer plantas automotrices o para incrementar su nmero. +Reparten todo tipo de recortes impositivos a las empresas. +Bien, esos programas tienen sentido si de verdad inducen nuevas decisiones locales, y la forma en que pueden tener sentido es creando ms y mejores trabajos, elevando las tasas de empleo y los ingresos per cpita de los residentes del estado. +As que hay un beneficio para los residentes del estado que corresponde al costo que estn pagando por esas facilidades impositivas a las empresas. +Mi argumento es esencialmente que los programas de la infancia temprana pueden hacer exactamente lo mismo: crear ms y mejor empleos, pero de una forma distinta. +Es una forma un poco ms indirecta. +Permtanme presentar algunos nmeros sobre esto. +As que est este beneficio clave que es relevante para los responsables de las polticas estatales en trminos de desarrollo econmico. +Bien, un reparo que comnmente se oye, o tal vez no se oye porque la gente es muy educada para decirlo, es, Porqu debo pagar ms impuestos para invertir en los nios de otra gente? +Qu me queda a m? +Y el problema con este reparo, es que refleja una total falta de comprensin sobre cmo muchas economas locales implican que todas son interdependientes. +Especficamente, la interdependencia aqu es que se desperdician gran cantidad de habilidades, que cuando los nios de otra gente adquieren ms habilidades, en realidad incrementan la prosperidad de todos, incluyendo a la personas cuyas habilidades no cambian. +Por ejemplo, numerosos estudios de investigacin han mostrado que si miran a lo que realmente impulsa la tasa de crecimiento de las reas metropolitanas, no es tanto impuestos bajos, precios bajos, salarios bajos; son las habilidades en el rea. Particularmente, el indicador de habilidades que la gente usa es el porcentaje de graduados universitarios en el rea. +As que cuando observan, por ejemplo, reas metropolitanas como la de Boston, Minneapolis-St. Paul, Silicon Valley, estas reas no lo hacen bien econmicamente por sus bajos costos. +No s si alguna vez han tratado de comprar una casa en Silicon Valley. +No es exactamente una oferta de bajo costo. +Estn creciendo porque tiene altos niveles de habilidades. +As que cuando se invierte en los nios de otras personas, y se fomentan esas habilidades, incrementamos el crecimiento global del empleo del rea metropolitana. +Como otro ejemplo, si observamos qu determina un salario individual, y hacemos una exploracin estadstica sobre lo que determina los salarios, sabemos que los salarios individuales dependern, en parte, de la educacin individual, por ejemplo, si tienen o no un ttulo universitario. +Uno de los hechos ms interesantes es que, adems, encontramos que incluso una vez que mantenemos constante, estadsticamente, los efectos de nuestra propia educacin, la educacin de todos los dems en el rea metropolitana tambin afecta los salarios. +Especficamente, si se mantiene constante la educacin, nos atenemos el porcentaje de graduados universitarios en el rea metropolitana, encontraremos que tiene un efecto positivo significativo en el salario sin cambiar en absoluto la propia educacin. +De hecho, este efecto es tan fuerte, que cuando alguien obtiene un ttulo universitario, sus efectos secundarios sobre los salarios de los dems en el rea metropolitana son, en realidad, mayores que los efectos directos. +As que si alguien obtiene un ttulo universitario, sus ingresos por vida suben una gran cantidad, ms de 700 000 dlares. +Esto es realmente mayor que los beneficios directos de la persona que elige tener una educacin. +Bien, qu est sucediendo aqu? +Qu puede explicar estos enormes efectos de la educacin? +Bien, pensmoslo de esta manera: +puedo ser la persona ms preparada del mundo, pero si todos los dems en mi empresa carecen de habilidades, mi empleador va a tener problemas para introducir nuevas tecnologas, nuevas tcnicas de produccin. +As que como resultado, mi empleador ser menos productivo. +No podr darse el lujo de pagarme un buen sueldo. +Aunque todo el mundo en mi empresa tenga buenas habilidades, si los empleados de los proveedores de mi empresa no tienen buenas habilidades, mi empresa va a ser menos competitiva en los mercados nacionales e internacionales. +Y una vez ms, la empresa que es menos competitiva no ser capaz de pagar buenos sueldos, y entonces, especialmente en empresas de alta tecnologa, constantemente estn robando ideas y trabajadores de otras empresas. +Evidentemente, la productividad de las empresas de Silicon Valley tiene mucho que ver con las habilidades, no solo de los trabajadores en las empresas, sino tambin con los trabajadores de todas las empresas en el rea metropolitana. +As que como resultado, si podemos invertir en los nios de otras personas a travs del preescolar y de otros programas de infancia temprana de alta calidad, no solo ayudamos a esos nios, ayudamos a todos en la zona metropolitana con aumento de los salarios y tendremos aumento en el crecimiento del empleo el rea metropolitana. +Otra objecin que se usa a veces al invertir en programas de infancia temprana es la preocupacin de la gente que se muda del estado. +Digamos, por ejemplo, que tal vez Ohio est pensando en invertir ms en la educacin preescolar para los nios en Columbus, Ohio, pero estn preocupados de que los fans de los Castaos de Ohio, por alguna extraa razn, decidan mudarse a Ann Arbor, Michigan, y se conviertan en fans de los Glotones de Michigan. +Y tal vez en Michigan estn pensando en invertir en el preescolar de Ann Arbor, Michigan y les preocupa que esos "Glotonecitos" terminen mudndose a Ohio y se conviertan en "Castaos". +As que ambos no invierten lo suficiente porque todo el mundo va a mudarse. +Bien, la realidad es que, si nos fijamos en los datos, los estadounidenses no se mudan tanto como la gente cree. +Las cifras indican que ms del 60% de los estadounidenses pasan la mayor parte de sus carreras en el estado que nacieron. Ms del 60%. +Ese porcentaje no vara mucho de un estado a otro. +No vara mucho si la economa del estado est deprimida o en auge, no vara mucho con el tiempo. +As que en realidad, si uno invierte en los nios, ellos permanecern. +O por lo menos, permanecern los suficientes para compensar la economa de estado. +Bien, para resumir, existe mucha evidencia de que los programas de infancia temprana, si son alta calidad, resultarn en mayores habilidades adultas. +As que en mi opinin, la evidencia cientfica es contundente y la lgica de esto es convincente. +Entonces, cules son los obstculos para conseguirlo? +Bien, un obstculo obvio es el costo. +As que si nos fijamos en lo que costara si cada gobierno de los estados invierte en el preescolar universal a los cuatro aos, preescolar a tiempo completo a los cuatro, el costo anual total para la nacional sera aproximadamente de 30 mil millones de dlares. +30 mil millones de dlares es mucho dinero. +Por otra parte, si se piensa que la poblacin de los EE.UU. es de ms de 300 millones, estamos hablando de una cantidad de dinero que asciende a 100 dlares per cpita. +Correcto? 100 dlares per cpita, por persona, es algo que el gobierno de cualquier estado puede permitirse el lujo de gastar. +Es solo una simple cuestin de voluntad poltica para hacerlo. +Y, por supuesto, como ya he dicho, este costo tiene sus beneficios correspondientes. +He mencionado que hay un multiplicador de 3, 2,78, para la economa del estado, en trminos de ms 80 mil millones en ingresos adicionales. +As que se trata de una inversin que vale la pena en trminos muy concretos para una amplia gama de grupos de ingresos en la poblacin del estado y produce beneficios tangibles y grandes. +Bien, hay un obstculo. +Creo realmente que el obstculo ms grande es la naturaleza a largo plazo de los beneficios de los programas de niez temprana. +Mi argumento es que estamos aumentando la calidad de nuestra mano de obra local, y aumentando el desarrollo econmico. +Obviamente si tenemos un preescolar con 4 aos, no estamos enviando a estos nios a los 5 aos a trabajar en las maquiladoras, cierto? Al menos espero que no. +As que hablamos de una inversin que en trminos de impacto en la economa del estado no se vern reflejados realmente hasta 15 20 aos, y por supuesto, la sociedad estadounidense es conocida por ser una sociedad orientada al corto plazo. +En definitiva, se trata de algo en lo que estamos invirtiendo ahora para el futuro. +As que es lo que quiero dejarles es la que creo es la ltima pregunta. +Quiero decir, soy economista, pero esto es en ltima instancia no solo una cuestin econmica, es una cuestin moral: Estamos dispuestos, como estadounidenses, somos, como sociedad, capaces todava de tomar la opcin poltica de sacrificarnos ahora pagando ms impuestos, con el fin de mejorar el futuro a largo plazo no solo de nuestros hijos, sino de nuestra comunidad? +Somos todava capaces de ello como pas? +Y eso es algo que cada ciudadano y votante debe preguntarse. +Eso es algo en lo que todava se invierte, que todava se cree en la nocin de inversin? +Esa es la esencia de inversin. +Sacrificar ahora por un beneficio posterior. +Creo que la evidencia cientfica sobre los beneficios de los programas de niez temprana para la economa local es muy fuerte. +Sin embargo, la opcin moral y poltica corresponde todava a nosotros, como ciudadanos y como votantes. +Muchas gracias. +A las 7:45 a.m., abro las puertas a un edificio dedicado a construir, pero solo me derriba. +Camino por pasillos que limpian para m todos los das los conserjes habituales, pero nunca he tenido la decencia de honrar sus nombres. +Casilleros abiertos como bocas de nios adolescentes cuando las nias adolescentes usan ropas que cubren sus inseguridades pero exponen todo lo dems. +Masculinidad imitada por hombres que crecieron sin padres, camuflaje usado por los abusivos que estn peligrosamente armados pero que necesitan abrazos. +Maestros pagados con menos de lo que les cuesta estar aqu +Ocanos de adolescentes vienen aqu para recibir lecciones pero nunca aprenden a nadar, parten como el Mar Rojo cuando suena la campana. +Esto es un campo de entrenamiento. +Mi preparatoria es Chicago, diversa y segregada a propsito. +Las lneas sociales son alambre de pas. +Etiquetas como "Regulares" y "con Honores" resuenan. +Soy un estudiante "con Honores" pero regreso a casa con estudiantes "Regulares" que son soldados en territorios que los poseen. +Se trata de un campo de entrenamiento para separar los "Regulares" de los "con Honores", un ciclo recurrente construido para reciclar la basura de este sistema. +Entrenados desde una edad joven para capitalizar, las letras ensean ahora que el capitalismo te eleva pero hay que pisar a alguien ms para llegar all. +Este es un campo de entrenamiento donde a un grupo se le ensea a liderar y al otro se le ensea a seguir. +No es de extraar que mucha de mi gente escupa en los bares, porque la verdad es difcil de tragar. +La necesidad de ttulos ha dejado a muchas personas congeladas. +Las tareas son estresantes, pero cuando te vas a casa todos los das y tu hogar es trabajo, no quieres tomar ninguna tarea. +Leer libros de texto es estresante, pero la lectura no importa cuando sientes que tu historia ya est escrita, ya sea muerta o archivada. +Hacer exmenes es estresante, pero llenar un plantilla de respuestas no detiene a las balas de estallar. +Oigo que los sistemas educativos estn fallando, pero creo que estn siendo exitosos para lo que estn construidos: para entrenarte, para mantenerte en la ruta, para seguir un sueo americano que le ha fallado a muchos de todos nosotros. +Muchas gracias. +Vine a vivir a los Estados Unidos hace 12 aos con mi esposa Terry y nuestros dos hijos. +A decir verdad, nos mudamos a Los ngeles, creyendo que nos habamos mudado a Estados Unidos, pero de todos modos, hay tan solo un corto vuelo desde Los ngeles +a Estados Unidos. Llegu aqu hace 12 aos, y cuando lo hice, me advirtieron varias cosas, como, Los estadounidenses no entienden la irona. +Han odo de esta idea? +No es cierto. He viajado a lo largo y ancho de este pas. +No he encontrado ninguna evidencia de que los estadounidenses no entiendan la irona. +Es uno de esos mitos culturales como, los britnicos son reservados. +No s por qu la gente piensa esto. +Hemos invadido cuanto pas hemos encontrado. +Pero, no es cierto que los estadounidenses no entienden la irona, solo quera que supieran lo que la gente dice a sus espaldas. +Ya saben, cuando salen de habitaciones en Europa, la gente dice que, por suerte, nadie fue irnico en su presencia. +Pero yo saba que los estadounidenses entienden la irona cuando supe de la ley de educacin Ningn Nio Rezagado. +Porque quien haya pensado en ese nombre, entiende de irona, +no?, porque... +...Porque estn dejando a millones de nios rezagados. +Entiendo que ese no es un nombre muy atractivo para una ley: Millones de Nios Rezagados. Lo entiendo. +Cul es el plan? Bien, proponemos +dejar a millones de nios rezagados, y as es como va a implementarse. +Y est funcionando de maravilla. +En algunos lugares del pas, el 60 % de los nios abandonan la preparatoria. +En comunidades indgenas estadounidenses, esa cifra es del 80 %. +Si dividiramos esa cifra a la mitad, se estima que generara una ganancia neta a la economa de EE.UU. de casi un billn de dlares en 10 aos. +Desde un punto de vista econmico, el resultado indica que sera bueno, no es as? +De hecho, cuesta una enorme cantidad de dinero deshacer el dao de la crisis de desercin escolar. +Pero la crisis de desercin es solo la punta del iceberg. +Porque no incluye a los innumerables nios que estn en la escuela, pero quienes estn desconectados de ella, quienes no la disfrutan, quienes realmente no se benefician de ella. +Y la explicacin no es que no estemos invirtiendo suficiente dinero. +Estados Unidos invierte ms dinero en educacin que la mayora del resto de los pases. +Las clases tienen menos alumnos por saln que en muchos otros pases. +Y se impulsan cientos de iniciativas cada ao para intentar mejorar la educacin. +El problema es que, van en la direccin equivocada. +Hay tres principios sobre los cuales la vida humana prospera, y se contradicen con la cultura educativa bajo la cual deben trabajar la mayora de los docentes, y soportar, la mayora de los alumnos. +El primero es que, los seres humanos son naturalmente diferentes y diversos. +Puedo preguntar, cuntos de Uds. tienen hijos propios? +Bien. O nietos. +Qu tal 2 hijos o ms? Bien. +Y el resto de Uds. han visto nios alguna vez. +Gente pequeita, caminando por ah. +Les voy a hacer una apuesta, y estoy seguro de que la ganar. +Si Uds. tienen dos o ms hijos, apuesto a que son completamente diferentes entre s. +No es as? No es as? Jams los confundiran, verdad? +No diran Cul eres t? Recurdamelo. +Tu madre y yo vamos a comenzar a utilizar algn sistema con cdigos de colores, para no confundirnos. +La educacin, bajo la ley Ningn Nio Rezagado, no est basada en la diversidad, sino en la conformidad. +Se exhorta a las escuelas a averiguar qu son capaces de hacer los nios en un espectro muy limitado de logros. +Uno de los efectos de la ley Ningn Nio Rezagado ha sido el de reducir el foco +hacia las llamadas disciplinas STEM, que son muy importantes. +No estoy aqu para discutir contra la ciencia y la matemtica. +Al contrario, son necesarias, pero no son suficientes. +Una verdadera educacin debe darle la misma importancia a las artes, las humanidades y la educacin fsica. +Una gran cantidad de nios... Lo siento, gracias. Se estima que en Estados Unidos, actualmente alrededor de a un 10 % de los nios, se los diagnostica con varios trastornos bajo un ttulo amplio de desrdenes de dficit de atencin. +TDAH. No estoy diciendo que esto no exista. +Simplemente no creo que sea una epidemia como tal. +Si sientan a los nios, hora tras hora, a hacer trabajo administrativo de bajo grado, no se sorprendan si comienzan a inquietarse, no? +Mayormente, los nios no padecen +de ningn trastorno psicolgico. +Sufren de niez. Y lo s, porque pas los primeros aos de mi vida +siendo nio. Y pas por toda la cosa. +Los nios prosperan mejor con un amplio plan de estudios que celebra sus diferentes talentos, no solo una pequea porcin de ellos. +Y por cierto, las artes no solo son importantes porque mejoran las calificaciones en matemticas. +Son importantes porque llegan a rincones del interior de los nios, que de otra manera quedan intactos. +El segundo, gracias... El segundo principio que determina la prosperidad de la humanidad es la curiosidad. +Si pueden encender la chispa de la curiosidad en un nio, con frecuencia, aprendern sin mucha ayuda. +Los nios son aprendices naturales. +Es un gran logro apagar esta habilidad, o reprimirla. +La curiosidad es el motor del xito. +Y la razn por la cual digo esto, es porque uno de los efectos de la cultura actual aqu, si me permiten decirlo, ha sido desprofesionalizar a los docentes. +No hay sistema en el mundo en ninguna escuela de ningn pas que sea mejor que sus maestros. +Los maestros son el alma del xito en las escuelas. +Pero ensear es una profesin creativa. +La enseanza, propiamente concebida, no es un sistema de transmisin. +Uno no est all solo para transmitir la informacin recibida. +Los grandes maestros hacen eso, pero lo que tambin hace un buen maestro es guiar, estimular, provocar, involucrar. +Vern, al fin y al cabo, la educacin se trata del aprendizaje. +Si no hay aprendizaje, no hay educacin. +Y se puede pasar muchsimo tiempo discutiendo acerca de la educacin, sin discutir nunca acerca del aprendizaje +La gracia de la educacin es que la gente aprenda. +Un amigo mo, un viejo amigo, de hecho muy viejo, +ya muri. Me temo que eso es lo ms viejo que se puede llegar a ser. +Pero qu tipo maravilloso que era, un estupendo filsofo. +l sola hablar de la diferencia entre la tarea y el sentido del logro. +Ya saben, porque se puede estar muy involucrado en alguna actividad, sin estar logrando realmente nada, +como hacer dieta. Que es un buen ejemplo. +All est l, Est a dieta. Est perdiendo peso? Realmente no. Ensear es una palabra como esa. +Pueden decir, Esa es Deborah, est en el saln 34, est enseando. +Pero si nadie est aprendiendo, ella puede estar involucrada en la tarea de ensear sin estar de hecho cumplindola. +El papel de un docente es facilitar el aprendizaje. Eso es todo. +Y parte del problema es, a mi criterio, que la cultura educativa dominante, no se ha enfocado ni en ensear o aprender, sino en evaluar. +Ahora bien, evaluar es importante. Los exmenes estandarizados tienen su lugar. +Pero no deberan ser la cultura educativa dominante. +Deberan ser un diagnstico. Deberan ayudar. +Si yo me realizo un examen mdico, +quiero que se hagan pruebas estndar. De verdad. +Quiero saber cul es mi nivel de colesterol, comparado con el de los dems en una escala promedio. +No quiero que sea en una escala cualquiera que mi mdico haya inventado camino al consultorio. +Su colesterol est en lo que yo llamo Nivel Naranja. +De veras? Eso es bueno? No lo sabemos. +Pero todo esto debera respaldar el aprendizaje. No debera obstruirlo, +lo cual, por supuesto, sucede a menudo. +As que en lugar de la curiosidad, lo que tenemos es una cultura de cumplimiento. +Se incentiva a nuestros nios y maestros a seguir algoritmos de rutina en lugar de estimular el poder de la imaginacin y curiosidad. +Y el tercer principio es este: la vida humana es inherentemente creativa. +Es la razn por la cual tenemos distintos curriculums vitae. +Creamos nuestras vidas, y podemos recrearlas a medida que vivimos. +Es la moneda corriente de ser un ser humano. +Es la razn por la cual la cultura humana es tan interesante y diversa y dinmica. +Digo, claro que otros animales pueden tener imaginacin y creatividad, pero eso no es tan evidente como en nosotros, verdad? +Pueden tener un perro. +Y su perro puede deprimirse. +Pero no se pone a escuchar Radiohead, o s? +Ni se sienta a mirar por la ventana con una botella de Jack Daniels. +Uno le preguntara, Te gustara dar un paseo? +Y l contestara, No, estoy bien. +Ve t. Yo esperar aqu. Pero saca fotos. +Todos creamos nuestras vidas a travs de este proceso incesante de imaginar alternativas y posibilidades, y uno de los papeles de la educacin es despertar y desarrollar estos poderes de creatividad. +En cambio, lo que tenemos es una cultura de estandarizacin. +Pero, no tiene por qu ser as. De verdad, no es necesario. +Finlandia, con frecuencia est en primer lugar +en matemticas, ciencia y lectura. +Ahora bien, sabemos que en eso les va bien porque es lo nico que se evala actualmente. +Ese es uno de los problemas de la evaluacin. +No examina otras cosas que son igual de importantes. +Lo que sucede con el trabajo en Finlandia es lo siguiente: no se obsesionan con estas disciplinas. +Poseen una estrategia muy amplia de educacin que incluye humanidades, educacin fsica, las artes. +En segundo lugar, en Finlandia no existen los exmenes estandarizados. +Quiero decir, hay un poco de eso pero no es lo que hace que la gente salga de sus casas. No es lo que los mantiene en sus escritorios. +Y lo tercero, y recientemente estuve reunido con algunas personas de Finlandia, finlandeses de verdad, y alguien del sistema estadounidense le deca a los finlandeses, Qu hacen con el ndice de desercin en Finlandia? +Y un poco perplejos, dijeron, No tenemos desercin escolar. +Porque abandonaras la escuela? +Si hay alumnos en problemas, llegamos a ellos rpidamente y los ayudamos y apoyamos. +La gente en general dice, Bien, ya saben, no se puede comparar Finlandia con Estados Unidos. +No, creo que la poblacin en Finlandia, es de cerca de cinco millones. +Pero pueden compararla con un estado en EE.UU. +Muchos estados en EE.UU. tienen mucha menor poblacin. +Yo he visitado algunos estados en los cuales yo era el nico all. De verdad. Me pidieron que cerrara con llave cuando me fuera. +Pero lo que hacen todos los sistemas de alto rendimiento en el mundo es lo que, lamentablemente, no es evidente a lo largo de los sistemas en Estados Unidos; quiero decir, como un todo. +Uno de ellos es este: Individualizan la enseanza y el aprendizaje. +Reconoce que quienes estn aprendiendo son alumnos y que el sistema debe involucrarlos a ellos, a su curiosidad, su individualidad, y su creatividad. +As es como hacen que aprendan. +Lo segundo, es que le atribuyen un estatus muy alto a la profesin docente. +Reconocen que no se puede mejorar la educacin si no se elige a personas estupendas para ensear y si no se les provee un respaldo constante y desarrollo profesional. +Invertir en desarrollo profesional no es un gasto. +Es una inversin, y todo pas prspero, lo sabe, ya sea Australia, Canad, Corea del Sur, Singapur, +Hong Kong o Shanghai. Saben que esto es as. +Y lo tercero, es que delega la responsabilidad al nivel escolar para completar el trabajo. +Vern, hay una gran diferencia entre ingresar en modo de orden y control en educacin. Eso es lo que sucede en algunos sistemas. +Los gobiernos centrales deciden o los gobiernos estatales deciden que saben mejor que nadie lo que hacen y que les van a decir qu hacer. +El problema es que la educacin no sucede en las salas de comits de nuestros edificios legislativos. +Sucede en salones de clases y escuelas, y las personas involucradas son los maestros y alumnos, y si se quita su criterio, deja de funcionar. +Hay que devolvrselo a la comunidad educativa. +Se est llevando a cabo un trabajo maravilloso en este pas. +Pero debo decir que se est llevando a cabo a pesar de la cultura educativa dominante, no gracias a ella. +Es como si las personas estuviesen todo el tiempo navegando contra la corriente. +Y creo que la razn es la siguiente: que mucha de las polticas actuales, estn basadas sobre conceptos mecnicos de educacin. +Como si la educacin se tratara de un proceso industrial que puede mejorarse teniendo mejor informacin, y creo que, en algn rincn de las mentes de algunos legisladores existe esta idea de que si la afinamos lo suficientemente bien, si lo logramos, va a sonar perfectamente tambin en el futuro. +No ser as, nunca fue as. +El punto es que la educacin no es un sistema mecnico. +Es un sistema humano. Se trata de personas, personas que o bien quieren aprender, o no. +Cada alumno que abandona la escuela tiene una razn para ello que est enraizada en su propia biografa. +Puede que les resulte aburrida. Puede que les resulte irrelevante. +Puede que les resulte incompatible +con la vida que llevan fuera de la escuela. +Hay tendencias, pero las historias siempre son nicas. +Hace poco estuve en una conferencia en Los ngeles sobre lo que llaman programas alternativos de educacin. +Estos programas estn diseados para re insertar a los nios en el sistema educativo. +Tienen algunas caractersticas en comn. +Son muy personalizados. +Poseen un gran respaldo para los docentes, lazos cercanos con la comunidad, y un programa de estudios amplio y diverso, y con frecuencia, programas que involucran a los alumnos dentro y fuera de la escuela. +Y funcionan. +Lo que me resulta interesante, es que se llaman educacin alternativa. +Saben? +Toda evidencia alrededor del mundo indica que, si solo hicisemos eso, no hara falta una alternativa. +As que creo que deberamos adoptar una metfora diferente. +Debemos reconocer que se trata de un sistema humano, y que hay condiciones bajo las cuales las personas prosperan, y condiciones bajo las cuales no lo hacen. +Despus de todo, somos criaturas orgnicas, y la cultura educativa es absolutamente esencial. +Cultura es un trmino orgnico, no? +No lejos de donde vivo, existe un lugar llamado Valle de la Muerte. +El Valle de la Muerte es el lugar ms clido y rido de EE.UU., y all no crece nada. +All no crece nada porque no llueve. +Por eso se llama, Valle de la Muerte. +En el invierno de 2004, llovi en el Valle de la Muerte. +Cayeron ciento setenta y siete milmetros de lluvia durante un breve periodo. +Y en la primavera de 2005, ocurri un fenmeno. +Absolutamente todo el suelo del Valle de la Muerte se cubri de flores +por un tiempo. Lo que esto demostr fue que: el Valle de la Muerte, no est muerto. +Est latente. +Justo bajo la superficie hay semillas de posibilidad esperando las condiciones apropiadas para desarrollarse, y como con los sistemas orgnicos, si las condiciones son propicias, la vida es inevitable. Sucede todo el tiempo. +Los grandes lderes lo saben. +El verdadero papel del liderazgo en educacin -- y creo que es cierto tanto a nivel nacional, estatal, y a nivel escolar,-- no es y no debera ser orden y control. +El verdadero papel del liderazgo es control de clima, creando un clima de posibilidad. +Y si lo hacen, las personas se mostrarn a la altura de la situacin y lograrn cosas que no pudieron anticipar para nada y no podran haber esperado. +Hay una cita maravillosa de Benjamn Flanklin. +Existen tres clases de personas en el mundo: Aquellos que son inamovibles, quienes no entienden, y no quieren entender, y no harn nada al respecto. Hay personas que son movibles, quienes ven la necesidad de un cambio y estn preparadas para escucharlo. Y personas que se mueven, quienes hacen que las cosas sucedan. +Si podemos alentar a ms personas, eso ser un movimiento. +Y si el movimiento es lo suficientemente fuerte, ese es, en el mejor sentido de la palabra, una revolucin. +Y eso es lo que necesitamos. +Muchsimas gracias. +Muchsimas gracias. +Todo el mundo necesita un entrenador. +No importa si uno es jugador de baloncesto, jugador de tenis, gimnasta o jugador de bridge. +Mi entrenadora de bridge, Sharon Osberg, dice que hay ms fotos de la parte posterior de su cabeza que de cualquier otra persona del mundo. Lo siento, Sharon. Aqu tienes. +Todos necesitamos personas que nos den retroalimentacin. +De esa forma mejoramos. +Por desgracia, hay un grupo de personas que casi no recibe retroalimentacin sistemtica que los ayude a hacer mejor su trabajo, y estas personas tienen uno de los mejores trabajos del mundo. +Hablo de los profesores. +Cuando Melinda y yo supimos la poca retroalimentacin til que tenan la mayora de los profesores nos quedamos impresionados. +Hasta hace poco, ms del 98 % de los profesores slo reciban esta respuesta: satisfactorio. +Si mi entrenadora de bridge solo me dijera "satisfactorio", no tendra esperanza de mejorar. +Cmo saber quin era el mejor? +Cmo saber que hice diferente? +Hoy en da, los distritos escolares renuevan la forma de evaluar a los profesores, pero an as casi no les damos respuestas que les ayuden a mejorar sus prcticas. +Nuestros profesores merecen algo mejor. +El sistema actual no es justo con ellos. +No es justo para los estudiantes, y est poniendo en riesgo el liderazgo estadounidense. +Por eso hoy quiero hablar de cmo podemos ayudar a los profesores a conseguir las herramientas de mejora que quieren y merecen. +Empecemos preguntando a quin le va bien. +Por desgracia, no hay tablas de clasificacin internacionales de las respuestas a los profesores. +As que estudi los pases cuyos estudiantes tienen buen rendimiento acadmico y observ qu hacen all para ayudar a sus profesores a mejorar. +Veamos los resultados en capacidad de lectura. +EE.UU. no es nmero uno. +Ni siquiera est entre los 10 primeros. +Empata en el puesto 15 con Islandia y Polonia. +Ahora, aparte de los lugares con mejor rendimiento en lectura que EE.UU., cuntos tienen un sistema formal para ayudar a mejorar a los profesores? +Once de los 14. +EE.UU. empata en lectura en el puesto 15, pero en ciencia es el 23, y en matemtica el 31. +Solo hay un rea en la que estamos casi en la cima, y es en no dar a nuestros profesores la ayuda necesaria para que desarrollen sus habilidades. +Analicemos los sistemas que tienen mejor rendimiento acadmico: la provincia de Shanghi, China. +Ocupa el primer lugar en todas las reas: en lectura, matemtica y ciencias, y una de las claves del xito increble de Shanghi es la forma en la que promueve la mejora en los profesores. +Se aseguran de que los profesores ms jvenes tengan la oportunidad de ver trabajar a profesores magistrales. +Tienen grupos de estudio semanales donde se renen los profesores a hablar de lo que funciona. +Incluso solicitan que cada profesor analice y d retroalimentacin a sus colegas. +Se preguntarn por qu es tan importante un sistema as. +Porque en la enseanza hay mucha variabilidad. +Algunos profesores son mucho ms efectivos que otros. +De hecho, hay profesores en todo el pas que ayudan a sus estudiantes a obtener logros extraordinarios. +Si hoy el profesor medio llegase a igualar a esos profesores, nuestros estudiantes arrasaran al resto del mundo. +Por eso necesitamos un sistema que ayude a nuestros profesores a ser lo mejor de lo mejor. +Cmo sera ese sistema? +Bueno, para averiguarlo, nuestra fundacin ha trabajado con 3000 profesores en distritos de todo el pas en un proyecto llamado Mtricas de la Enseanza Eficaz [MEE]. +Pusimos observadores a ver videos de profesores en el aula para que los calificaran en una serie de prcticas. +Por ejemplo, le hicieron a sus estudiantes preguntas estimulantes? +Encontraron mltiples formas de explicar una idea? +Tambin le pedimos a los estudiantes que respondieran un cuestionario: "Sabe tu profesor cundo la clase entiende una leccin?" +"Aprendes a corregir tus errores?" +Y hallamos cosas interesantes. +Primero, los profesores a los que les fue bien obtenan mucho mejores resultados estudiantiles. +Eso nos dicta que hicimos las preguntas correctas. +Y, segundo, los profesores del programa nos dijeron que estos videos y encuestas de los alumnos fueron herramientas de diagnstico muy tiles, porque sealaron lugares especficos que podan mejorarse. +Quiero mostrarles este video del MEE en accin. +Sarah Brown Wessling: Buenos das a todos. +Hablemos de lo que haremos hoy. +Para empezar, una revisin por pares, s? +Una revisin por pares, y el objetivo al final de la clase es que puedan determinar si tienen correcciones para sus ensayos. +Mi nombre es Sarah Brown Wessling. +Soy profesora de ingls de secundaria en la Escuela Secundaria Johnston, de Johnston, Iowa. +Giren hacia alguien que est cerca. +Dganle qu cadena lgica es necesario demostrar. Creo que hay una diferencia para los profesores entre lo abstracto de cmo vemos nuestra prctica y luego la realidad concreta de la misma. +Bien, me gustara que traigan sus artculos. +Creo que el video nos ofrece un cierto grado de realidad. +Uno no puede negar lo que se ve en el video, hay mucho que aprender de eso, y hay muchas maneras de crecer en la profesin viendo esto. +Tengo una cmara de video y un pequeo trpode e invert en esta pequea lente gran angular. +Al principio de la clase coloco la cmara en el fondo de la clase. No es una toma perfecta. +No capta todo lo que sucede. +Pero puedo or el audio. Puedo ver mucho. +Puedo aprender mucho con el video. +De modo que ha sido una herramienta simple pero potente para analizar la clase. +Bien, primero veamos la larga, s? +Cuando termino de grabar, lo pongo en la computadora, lo repaso y tomo notas. +Si no escribo, no las recuerdo. +As que tomar notas es parte de mi elaboracin mental y descubro cosas conforme escribo. +Me ha servido para mi crecimiento personal y para mi propia reflexin sobre la estrategia de enseanza, la metodologa, la gestin del aula y los diferentes aspectos de la clase. +Me alegro de que ya se haya aplicado este mtodo para comparar, en cierto modo, lo que funciona y lo que no. +Creo que ese video expone muchos elementos intrnsecos a la docencia de forma que nos ayuda a entender, y ayuda a la comunidad ms amplia a entender, de qu se trata en realidad este complejo trabajo. +Creo que es una forma de ilustrar cosas que no se pueden transmitir en un plan de estudios, cosas que no pueden transmitirse en una norma, cosas que ni siquiera a veces se pueden transmitir en un libro de pedagoga. +Muy bien, que tengan un buen fin de semana. +Hasta la prxima. +[Todas las clases pueden ser as] Bill Gates: Nos gustara que algn da las aulas de EE.UU. sean como esa. +Pero todava hay trabajo por hacer. +Diagnosticar las reas de mejora docente es la mitad de la batalla. +Tambin tenemos que darles las herramientas necesarias para actuar frente al diagnstico. +Si uno sabe que tiene que mejorar la forma de ensear fracciones, debera poder ver un video de la persona que mejor ensea fracciones en el mundo. +Pero construir esta retroalimentacin para el profesor y mejorar el sistema no ser fcil. +Por ejemplo, s que algunos profesores no se sienten inmediatamente cmodos con la idea de una cmara en el aula. +Es comprensible, pero nuestra experiencia con MEE sugiere que si el profesor gestiona el proceso, si son ellos quienes graban las clases, y ellos eligen los cursos que quieren publicar, muchos estarn ansiosos de participar. +Construir este sistema requerir adems una inversin considerable. +Nuestra fundacin estima que podra costar hasta USD 5000 millones. +Es una suma grande, pero puesta en perspectiva, es menos del 2 % de lo que se paga en salarios a los docentes. +Las ventajas para los profesores seran fenomenales. +Finalmente tendramos una forma de darles retroalimentacin as como los medios para hacer algo al respecto. +Pero este sistema tendra incluso un beneficio ms importante para el pas. +Nos colocara en una senda segura en la que nuestros estudiantes tendran buena formacin, encontraran una carrera satisfactoria y gratificante, y tendran la oportunidad de cumplir sus sueos. +Esto no solo mejorara el xito de nuestro pas, +sino que lo hara ms justo, tambin. +Estoy muy entusiasmado con la oportunidad de darles a nuestros profesores el apoyo que quieren y merecen. +Espero que Uds. tambin. +Gracias. +"No hables con extraos". +Han escuchado esa frase dicha por sus amigos, familia, escuelas y medios de comunicacin durante dcadas. +Es una norma. Es una norma social. +Pero es un tipo especial de norma social, porque es una norma social que quiere decirnos con quin podemos relacionarnos y con quin no debemos. +"No hables con extraos", dice, "Aljate de cualquier persona que no conozcas. +Sigue con la gente que conoces. +Sigue con gente como t". +Qu tan atractivo es esto? +No es realmente lo que hacemos cuando estamos en nuestro cnit? +Cuando estamos en nuestro mejor momento, llegamos a la gente que no son como nosotros, porque cuando lo hacemos, aprendemos de personas que no son como nosotros. +Mi frase para este valor de estar con quien "es diferente a nosotros" es la "extraeza", y mi punto es que en el mundo digital intensivo de hoy, los extraos muy francamente no son el punto. +De lo que debemos estar preocupados es, cunto extraeza estamos recibiendo? +Por qu extraeza? Porque nuestras relaciones sociales son cada vez ms mediadas por datos, y los datos convirtieron nuestras relaciones sociales en relaciones digitales, y eso significa que nuestras relaciones digitales ahora dependen extraordinariamente de la tecnologa para darle una sensacin de solidez, una sensacin de descubrimiento, una sensacin de sorpresa e imprevisibilidad. +Por qu no extraos? +Porque los extraos forman parte de un mundo de lmites muy rgidos. +Pertenecen a un mundo de personas que conozco frente a personas que no conozco, y en el contexto de mis relaciones digitales, ya estoy haciendo las cosas con personas que no conozco. +La pregunta no es si te conozco o no. +La pregunta es, qu puedo hacer contigo? +Qu puedo aprender contigo? +Qu podemos hacer juntos que nos beneficie a los dos? +Paso mucho tiempo pensando en cmo est cambiando el panorama social, cmo las nuevas tecnologas crean nuevas restricciones y nuevas oportunidades para las personas. +Los cambios ms importantes que enfrentamos hoy tienen que ver con los datos y lo que los datos estn haciendo para dar forma a los tipos de relaciones digitales que nos sern posibles en el futuro. +Las economas del futuro dependen de esto. +Nuestra vida social en el futuro depende de esto. +La amenaza que preocupa no son los extraos. +La amenaza que preocupa es si estamos dando nuestra parte justa de extraeza o no. +Los psiclogos y socilogos del siglo XX pensaban en los extraos, pero no pensaban tan dinmicamente en las relaciones humanas, y pensaron en los extraos en el contexto de las prcticas de influencia. +Stanley Milgram de los 60 y 70, el creador de los experimentos del mundo pequeo, que ms tarde se convirti en el popular 'seis grados de separacin', sostuvo que dos personas seleccionadas arbitrariamente probablemente estaban conectadas de cinco a siete pasos intermedios. +Su punto era que los extraos estn ah. +Podemos llegar a ellos. Hay caminos que nos permiten llegar a ellos. +Mark Granovetter, socilogo de Stanford, en 1973 en su ensayo seminal "La fuerza de los lazos dbiles", puntualiz que estos lazos dbiles son parte de nuestras redes, estos extraos, son ms efectivos para difundirnos informacin que nuestros lazos fuertes, las personas ms cercanas a nosotros. +l hace una crtica adicional a nuestros lazos fuertes cuando dice que estas personas que estn tan cerca de nosotros, estos lazos fuertes en nuestras vidas, realmente tienen un efecto homogeneizador en nosotros. +Producen uniformidad. +Mis colegas y yo en Intel hemos pasado los ltimos aos mirando las maneras en que las plataformas digitales estn remodelando nuestra vida cotidiana, qu tipo de nuevas rutinas son posibles. +Hemos estado buscando especficamente en las clases de plataformas digitales que nos han permitido tomar nuestras posesiones, aquellas cosas que solan estar muy restringidas a nosotros y nuestros amigos en nuestras casas, y ponerlas a disposicin de la gente que no conocemos. +Sea nuestra ropa, nuestros carros, nuestras bicicletas, nuestros libros o msica, somos capaces ahora de tomar nuestras posesiones y hacerlas disponibles para personas que nunca hemos conocido. +Y concluimos una percepcin muy importante, que as como las relaciones de las personas con las cosas en sus vidas cambian, cambian sus relaciones con otras personas. +Y sin embargo, un sistema de recomendacin tras otro contina fallando. +Contina intentando predecir lo que necesito basado en algunas caractersticas pasadas de lo que soy, de lo que ya he hecho. +Tecnologa de seguridad tras otra sigue diseando la proteccin de datos en trminos de amenazas y agresiones, mantenindome encerrada en clases muy rgidas de relaciones. +Categoras tales como "amigos" y "familia" y "contactos" y "colegas" no me dicen nada sobre mis relaciones reales. +Una forma ms efectiva de pensar en mis relaciones podra ser en trminos de proximidad y distancia, donde en un momento dado en el tiempo, con cualquier persona, estoy a la vez cerca y lejos de ese individuo, todo en funcin de lo que tengo que hacer ahora mismo. +Las personas no son cercanas o distantes. +Siempre son una combinacin de las dos, y esa combinacin est cambiando constantemente. +Qu pasa si las tecnologan pudieran intervenir para alterar el equilibrio de ciertos tipos de relaciones? +Qu pasa si las tecnologas pudieran intervenir para ayudar a encontrar a la persona que necesito ahora? +La extraeza es la calibracin de proximidad y distancia que me permite encontrar la gente que necesito ahora, me permite encontrar las fuentes de intimidad, de descubrimiento y de inspiracin que necesito ahora. +La extraeza no es sobre conocer extraos. +Simplemente plantea lo que necesitamos para alterar nuestras zonas de familiaridad. +Correr hasta esas zonas de familiaridad es una forma de pensar sobre la extraeza, y es un problema no solo para el individuo de hoy, sino tambin para las organizaciones, las organizaciones que tratan de adoptar masivamente nuevas oportunidades. +Tenemos que cambiar las normas. +Tenemos que cambiar las normas para permitir nuevos tipos de tecnologas como base para nuevos tipos de empresas. +Qu preguntas interesantes nos esperan en este mundo sin extraos? +Cmo podramos pensar de forma diferente sobre nuestras relaciones con la gente? +Cmo podramos pensar de forma diferente sobre nuestras relaciones con otros grupos de personas? +Cmo podramos pensar diferente sobre nuestras relaciones con las tecnologas, cosas que efectivamente se convierten en participantes sociales por derecho propio? +La gama de relaciones digitales es extraordinaria. +En el contexto de esta amplia gama de relaciones digitales, buscando con seguridad la extraeza podra muy bien ser una nueva base para la innovacin. +Gracias. +Hola gente. +Es divertido, alguien acaba de mencionar a MacGyver, me encant porque era como... a los 7 aos, pegu un tenedor a un taladro y dije: "Oye, mam, voy a Olive Garden" [casa de comida italiana]. +Y... (Ruido de taladro) Y funcion muy bien all. +Y, saben, tuvo un profundo efecto en m. +Suena tonto pero pens, est bien, puede cambiarse el funcionamiento del mundo y puedo cambiarlo yo con estas pequeas cosas. +Y mi relacin sobre todo con los objetos hechos por el hombre que alguien ha dicho que funcionan de este modo y yo puedo decir que funcionan de un modo un poco diferente. +Por eso tuve que empezar a estudiar quin toma estas decisiones. +Quin hace estas cosas? Cmo las hace? +Qu nos impide hacerlas? +Porque as se construye la realidad. +Empec de inmediato. Estaba en el Lab. de Medios de MIT, estudiando el movimiento de fabricantes, de fabricantes y de creatividad. +Empec con la naturaleza porque vi a estos guaims hacerlo en la naturaleza, y pareca haber all menos barreras. +As que fui a Vermont, al grupo Not Back to School Camp, donde hay reuniones de no-estudiantes que quieren intentar de todo. +As que dije: "Vayamos al bosque, cerca de este arroyo y juntando estas cosas, hagamos algo, no me importa, formas geomtricas, solo tomen algo de la chatarra circundante. +No llevaremos nada con nosotros. +Y, en cuestin de minutos, esto resulta fcil para adultos y adolescentes. +Aqu hay un tringulo que se estaba formando debajo de un arroyo que fluye, y se daba forma a una hoja de roble con otras hojas de roble unidas. +Una hoja atada a un palo con una brizna de hierba. +La materialidad y la carnosidad de la seta explorada segn los distintos objetos que pueden clavarse en ella. +Y luego de unos 45 minutos, uno tiene proyectos muy complejos como hojas ordenadas por tonalidad, para lograr un degrad y ponerlas en crculo como una corona. +El creador de esto dijo: "Esto es fuego. Lo llamo fuego". +Alguien le pregunt: "Cmo haces para que esas ramitas permanezcan en el rbol?" +Y dijo: "No lo s, pero puedo mostrarte cmo hacerlo". +Y yo dije: "Guau, es increble! +No sabe cmo es, pero puede mostrarte". +As que sus manos saben y su intuicin sabe, pero a veces lo que sabemos se interpone en el camino de lo que podra ser, sobre todo cuando se trata de lo construido por el hombre. +Pensamos que ya sabemos cmo funciona algo, por eso no podemos imaginar cmo podra funcionar. +Sabemos cmo se supone que funciona, por eso no podemos suponer las otras cosas posibles. +Los nios no han estado muy expuestos a esto y lo veo en mi propio hijo, al que le di este libro. +Soy un padre bien hippie as que le digo: "Est bien, vas a aprender a amar la luna. +Te dar algunos bloques de construccin son bloques de cactus no rectilneos, algo totalmente legtimo". +Pero l no sabe realmente qu hacer con ellos. +No se lo he mostrado. +As que dice: "Bien, pasemos el tiempo con esto". +No es muy diferente del caso de las ramitas y los adolescentes en el bosque. +Trata de hacer formas de empujar las piezas y cosas as. +Y, en poco tiempo, llega a este mecanismo en el que pueden lanzarse y catapultarse objetos y nos pide ayuda. +Y en ese momento empiezo a preguntarme qu tipo de herramientas podemos darle a la gente en especial a los adultos que saben mucho, para que puedan ver al mundo tan maleable, y verse a s mismos como agentes de cambio en sus vidas cotidianas. +No me importa que los lpices sean para escribir. +Los usar de manera diferente". +Les har una pequea demostracin. +Este es un pequeo circuito de piano, y este es un pincel comn que yo mezcl uno con otro. As, con algo de ktchup, -- (Notas musicales) -- y luego puedo hacer as -- (Notas musicales) -- Impresionante, no? +Pero esto no es lo impresionante. +Lo impresionante es lo que ocurre cuando uno le da el circuito de piano a la gente. +Un lpiz no es solo un lpiz. +Miren lo que tiene en el medio. +Por el medio va un cable, y no solo es un cable, si uno toma el circuito de piano, le clava una chinche en el medio del lpiz, podemos cablear la pgina, tambin, y hacer que circule corriente por el cable. +As se puede intervenir un lpiz, sencillamente clavando una chinche con un circuito de piano elctrico. +Y la electricidad circula por el cuerpo tambin. +Entonces se puede sacar el circuito de piano del lpiz. +Pueden hacer una de estas brochas sobre la marcha. +Uno conecta las cerdas, las cerdas estn hmedas, por eso conducen, y el cuerpo de la persona conduce, y el cuero es ideal para pintar, y luego se puede empezar a enganchar cualquier cosa, incluso el fregadero. +El metal del fregadero es conductor. +El flujo de agua acta como un theremn o un violn. +(Notas musicales) E incluso se puede conectar a los rboles. +Todo en el mundo o es conductor o es no conductor, y se puede usar ambos a la vez. +Entonces... le di esto a esos mismos adolescentes porque ellos son increbles, probarn cosas que yo no probara. +Ni siquiera tendra acceso a un piercing facial si quisiera. +Y esta joven, hizo lo que llama secuenciador hula hula, a medida que el aro de hula hula recurre su cuerpo, tiene un circuito pegado a su camiseta. +All pueden verla sealndolo en la imagen. +Y cada vez que el aro de hula hula toca su cuerpo, conecta dos pequeos trozos de cinta de cobre, y hace un sonido, y otro sonido, y produce una secuencia de sonidos una y otra vez. +Hago estos talleres en todos lados. +En Taiwn, en un museo de arte, esta chica de 12 aos hizo un rgano de setas, de algunas setas que eran de Taiwn y un poco de cinta aislante y pegamento caliente. +Y los diseadores profesionales hacan artefactos con esta cosa atada a ellos. +Y grandes compaas como Intel o pequeas firmas de diseo como Ideo o que empiezan como Bump, me invitan a dar talleres, para practicar esta idea de mezclar electrnica y objetos cotidianos. +Y luego se nos ocurri esta idea no solo de usar electrnica, sino que mezclamos las computadoras con los objetos cotidianos para ver cmo va de nuevo. +Por eso quiero hacer una demostracin rpida. +Este es el circuito MaKey MaKey, y voy a configurarlo desde cero frente a Uds. +As que voy a conectar todo; ahora est encendido por USB. +Conectar la flecha de avance. +Dada la direccin en la que miran Uds., conecto esta. +Le conectar un pequeo cable para la tierra. +Ahora, si toco esta porcin de pizza, las diapositivas que les mostr antes, deberan avanzar. +Y ahora con solo conectar este cable a la flecha izquierda, estoy programando con las conexiones, ahora tengo una fecha izquierda y una derecha, y as debera poder ir hacia adelante y hacia atrs, hacia adelante y hacia atrs. Impresionante. +Por eso decimos: "tenemos que poner esto en video". +Porque nadie crea que esto fuera importante o significativo, salvo otro tipo y yo. +Por eso hicimos un video para demostrar que hay mucho que puede hacerse. +Uno puede bocetar con masa y googlear controladores de juegos. +Es solo masa comn, nada especial. +Literalmente pueden dibujarse joysticks encontrar un Pacman en la computadora y luego sencillamente conectarlo. (Ruido de videojuegos) Y vieron esos recipientes plsticos que se compran? +Bueno, si los llevamos afuera, contienen muy bien el agua, pero pueden cortarse los dedos, as que sean cuidadosos. +En el Proyecto Felicidad, los expertos estn montando un piano en la escalera, no es genial? +Bueno, yo creo que es genial, pero deberamos hacerlo con nuestros medios. +No debera haber un grupo de expertos diseando el funcionamiento del mundo. +Todos deberamos participar cambiando juntos el modo en que funciona el mundo. +Papel de aluminio. Todo el mundo tiene un gato. +Consigan un recipiente con agua. Esto es Photo Booth en el Mac OS. +Pasen el ratn sobre el botn de "sacar una foto", y tendrn un pequeo fotomatn de gato. +Necesitamos que cientos de personas compren esto. +Si no lo compraban cientos de personas, no podamos comercializarlo. +As que lo pusimos en Kickstarter, y el primer da lo compraron cientos de personas. +Y, 30 das despus, 11 000 personas haban respaldado el proyecto. +Y la mejor parte fue cuando empezamos a recibir un flujo de videos de personas haciendo cosas locas con eso. +Este es el himno de EE.UU. ejecutado comiendo el desayuno, bebiendo incluso enjuague bucal. +De hecho, a este tipo le mandamos materiales. +Dijimos: "te patrocinamos, hombre. +Eres pro-fabricacin". +Bueno, pero esperen a ver este. Es bueno. +Y estos tipos del exploratorio estn tocando plantas de interiores como si fueran tambores. +Y paps e hijas cierran circuitos de maneras especiales. +Y luego este hermano... vean este diagrama. +Dnde dice "hermana" [sister]? +Me encanta cuando la gente pone humanos en los diagramas. +Yo siempre pongo humanos en lo tcnico... si dibujamos diagramas tcnicos, pongamos humanos en ellos. +Este chico es muy dulce. Hizo este trampoln de diapositivas para su hermana para que en su cumpleaos, ella pudiera ser la estrella del espectculo, saltando en el trampoln para pasar las diapositivas. +Y este tipo reuni a sus perros y con ellos hizo un piano. +Esto es divertido, y qu podra ser ms til que sentirse vivo y divertirse? +Pero a la vez es algo muy serio porque empieza a surgir toda esta accesibilidad, en casos de gente que no necesariamente puede usar computadoras. +Como este padre que nos escribi, su hijo tiene parlisis cerebral y no puede usar un teclado normal. +Y su padre no necesariamente puede comprar estos controladores especiales. +Por eso con MaKey MaKey planea construir estos guantes que le permitan al hijo navegar la web. +Hubo un gran debate sobre accesibilidad y eso nos entusiasm mucho. +No lo habamos planeado, para nada. +Y luego empezaron a usarlo todos estos msicos profesionales como en Coachella, este fin de semana Jurassic 5 lo us en el escenario, y este DJ de Brooklyn, de por aqu, mont esto el mes pasado. +Y me encanta la zanahoria en el tocadiscos. +Coloqu tambin esta pequea sorpresa. Al abrir la tapa de la caja, dice: "El mundo es un kit de construccin". +Y conforme uno empieza a perder el tiempo de esta manera creo que, en cierta forma, empieza a ver el paisaje de la vida cotidiana un poco ms como algo con lo que uno podra expresarse y un poco ms como algo en lo que uno podra participar en el diseo de cmo funciona el mundo. +As que la prxima vez que estn en una escalera mecnica y se les caiga un M&M por accidente, quiz se trate de una tabla de surf de M&M, no de una escalera, as que no lo tomen de inmediato. +Quiz puedan sacar otras cosas de los bolsillos y arrojarlas; puede ser un lpiz de labios, lo que sea. +Yo quera disear una sociedad utpica, un mundo perfecto o algo as. +Pero conforme me estoy poniendo viejo, al interactuar con estas cosas, me doy cuenta de que mi idea de un mundo perfecto no puede ser diseada por una sola persona y, ni siquiera, por un milln de expertos. +Sern necesarias 7000 millones de pares de manos, cada uno siguiendo sus pasiones, cada uno como si fuese un mosaico que surge y crea este mundo en su jardn y en su cocina. +Ese es el mundo en el que quiero vivir. +Gracias. +Cul sera un buen cierre de la vida? +Y estoy hablando sobre el verdadero fin. +Me refiero a morir. +Todos pensamos mucho sobre el buen vivir. +Me gustara hablar sobre aumentar las probabilidades de morir bien. +No soy geriatra. +Diseo programas de lectura para nios en preescolar. +Lo que s sobre este tema proviene de un estudio cualitativo con una muestra de tamao dos. +En los ltimos aos, ayud a dos amigos a llegar al fin de su vida como lo deseaban. +Jim y Shirley Modini pasaron los 68 aos de su matrimonio desconectados en su rancho de 1 700 acres en las montaas del condado Sonoma. +Tenan suficiente ganado para sobrevivir de forma que la mayora de su rancho seguira siendo un refugio para los osos y leones y otras cosas que vivan all. +Este era su sueo. +Conoc a Jim y a Shirley en sus 80. +Ambos eran hijos nicos que escogieron no tener hijos. +A medida que nos hicimos amigos, me convert en su confidente y su consejera mdica, pero, an mas importante, llegu a ser la persona que administr sus experiencias finales. +Y aprendimos algunas cosas sobre cmo lograr un buen fin. +En sus ltimos aos, Jim y Shirley enfrentaron cnceres, fracturas, infecciones, enfermedades neurolgicas. +Es cierto. +Al final, nuestras funciones corporales e independencia declinan a cero. +Lo que descubrimos es que, con un plan y la gente adecuada, puede mantenerse una alto nivel de vida. +El comienzo del fin se desencadena por un evento de conciencia sobre la mortalidad, y durante este tiempo, Jim y Shirley escogieron las reservas naturales ACR como herederos de su rancho. +Esto les concedi la serenidad para continuar. +Puede ser un diagnstico. Puede ser tu intuicin. +Pero un da, vas a decir, "Esto va a llegarme". +Jim y Shirley pasaron este tiempo hacindole saber a sus amigos que el fin se acercaba y que ellos lo aceptaban. +Morir de cncer y morir de una enfermedad neurolgica son procesos diferentes. +En ambos casos, los ltimos das son de un consuelo silencioso. +Jim muri primero. Estaba consciente hasta el final, pero en su ltimo da no poda hablar. +A travs de sus ojos sabamos cuando necesitaba or nuevamente, "Tranquilo Jim. Vamos a cuidar de Shirley aqu en el rancho, y ACR va a cuidar de su reserva natural para siempre". +A partir de esta experiencia, voy a compartir 5 prcticas. +He puesto cuadernillos en la web, as que si quieren, pueden planear su propio fin. +Todo comienza con un plan. +La mayora de la gente dice, "Me gustara morir en casa". +El 80 % de los estadounidenses muere en un hospital o en un geritrico. +Decir que nos gustara morir en casa no es un plan. +Mucha gente dice, "Si llego a estar as, solo disprenme". +Esto tampoco es un plan, eso es ilegal. +Un plan implica contestar preguntas concretas sobre el fin que desean. +Dnde desean estar cuando ya no sean independientes? +Qu desean en trminos de intervencin mdica? +Y quin va a asegurarse de que el plan proceda? +Necesitarn quien los apoye. +Tener ms de una persona incremente tus probabilidades de tener final que desean. +No asuman que la opcin obvia es un cnyuge o hijo . +Necesitan a alguien cercano que tenga el tiempo para hacer este trabajo bien, y desean a alguien que puedan trabajar con otra gente bajo la presin de una situacin siempre cambiante. +La buena disposicin del hospital es crtica. +Probablemente sern llevados a la sala de emergencias, y querrn que esto se haga bien. +Preparen un resumen de una pgina de su historia mdica, medicacin e informacin de los mdicos involucrados. +Guarden esto en un sobre bien brillante con copias de las tarjetas del seguro mdico, un poder para su abogado, y su orden de no resucitacin. +Hagan que quienes los apoyan mantengan una copia del sobre en sus autos. +Peguen un sobre igual en la nevera. +Cuando lleguen a la sala de emergencias con este sobre, su internacin se facilitar mucho. +Van a necesitar enfermeros. +Necesitarn evaluar su personalidad y su situacin financiera para determinar si quedarse en un geritrico o en casa es la mejor opcin. +En cualquier caso, no se conformen. +Finalmente, ltimas palabras. +Qu quieren or en el mismsimo final, y, de parte de quin quieren orlo.? +En mi experiencia, desearn or que cualquier cosa que les preocupe va a estar bien. +Cuando crean que est bien irse, lo harn. +Este es un tema que normalmente inspira temor y negacin. +Lo que he aprendido es que si disponemos de tiempo para planear el fin de nuestra vida, tenemos la mejor oportunidad de mantener nuestra calidad de vida. +Aqu estn Jim y Shirley despus de decidir quien dispondra de su rancho. +Aqu est Jim, solo unas semanas antes de morir, celebrando un cumpleaos que no esperaba ver. +Y aqu est Shirley, solo unos pocos das antes de morir, escuchando la lectura de un artculo en el peridico sobre la importancia del refugio natural en el rancho Modini +Jim y Shirley tuvieron un buen fin para sus vidas, y al compartir su historia con Uds., espero aumentar nuestras posibilidades de lograr lo mismo. +Gracias +Bien, es genial estar de regreso en TED. +Por qu no comenzamos simplemente con el video? +Hombre: Bien, Glass, graba un video. +Mujer: Lleg el momento. A escena en dos minutos. +Hombre 2: Glass, Hangout con el Club de Vuelo. +Hombre 3: Google: "fotos de cabezas de tigre". Mmm. +Hombre 4: Ests listo? Ests listo? Mujer 2: All mismo. Bien, Glass, toma una foto. +(Nio gritando) Hombre 5: Ve! +Hombre 6: [bip] madre! Es impresionante. +Nio: Guau! Mira esa serpiente! +Mujer 3: Bien, Glass, graba un video! +Hombre 7: Despus del puente, primera salida. +Hombre 8: Bien, A12, all mismo! +(Nios cantando) Hombre 9: Google, "delicioso" en tailands. +Google Glass: . Hombre 9: Mmm, . +Mujer 4: Google "Medusa". +Hombre 10: Es hermoso. +Sergey Brin: Oh, lo siento, acabo de recibir este mensaje de un prncipe nigeriano. +Necesita ayuda para cobrar 10 millones de dlares. +Me gusta ponerles atencin a estos mensajes porque as fue como financiamos originalmente la empresa, y nos ha ido bastante bien. +Hablando en serio, esta posicin en la que me vieron, mirando hacia abajo a mi telfono, es una de las razones que subyace a este proyecto, el proyecto Google Glass. +Porque en ltima instancia nos preguntamos si ste es el futuro definitivo de cmo desean conectarse a otras personas en la vida, de cmo desean conectarse a la informacin. +Debe ser mirando hacia abajo? +Esa fue la visin subyacente a Glass, y es por eso que hemos creado este factor de forma. +Bien. No voy a mostrar todo lo que hace y lo que no, pero quiero contarles un poco ms sobre la motivacin subyacente que nos llev a l. +Adems de potencialmente aislarnos socialmente cuando estamos afuera, mirando el telfono, es una especie de, esto es lo que se supone que uno hace con el cuerpo? +Uno est ah parado y se la pasa frotando este pedazo inocuo de vidrio. +Dndole vueltas. +As que cuando desarrollamos Glass, pensamos en realidad podemos hacer algo que liberara las manos? +Vieron todas las cosas que las personas estaban haciendo en el video de fondo. +Todos estaban usando Glass, y as conseguimos ese metraje. +Y tambin buscamos algo que liberara los ojos. +Por eso pusimos la pantalla arriba, fuera de la lnea de visin, as no estara hacia donde miramos y no estara donde estn haciendo contacto visual con las personas. +Y tambin hemos querido liberar los odos, por lo que el sonido pasa en realidad, directamente a los huesos del crneo, que es un poco extrao al principio, pero uno se acostumbra. +E, irnicamente, si uno quiere escuchar mejor, basta con cubrirse la oreja, que es algo extrao, pero as es como funciona. +Mi visin cuando empezamos Google hace 15 aos fue que finalmente no se tuviera que hacer una bsqueda en absoluto. +Que solo se tuviera la informacin a medida que se necesite. +Y as es ahora, 15 aos despus, una especie de primer factor de forma que creo puede ofrecer esa visin cuando estn afuera en la calle hablando con la gente y as. +Este proyecto ha durado poco ms de dos aos. +Hemos aprendido una cantidad asombrosa de cosas. +Ha sido realmente importante hacerla ms cmoda. +Los primeros prototipos que construimos eran enormes. +Era como tener telfonos celulares atados a la cabeza. +Era muy pesado, muy incmodo. +Tuvimos que mantenerlo en secreto de nuestro diseador industrial hasta que finalmente acept el trabajo, y entonces casi huy gritando. +Pero hemos recorrido un largo camino. +Y la otra sorpresa realmente inesperada fue la cmara. +Nuestros prototipos originales no tenan cmaras pero ha sido realmente mgico para poder capturar momentos con mi familia, mis hijos. +Yo nunca habra sacado una cmara o un telfono o alguna otra cosa para tomar ese momento. +Y por ltimo me he dado cuenta, experimentando con este dispositivo, que tengo un tic nervioso. +El telfono celular es... un tiene que mirar hacia abajo y todo eso, pero tambin es una especie de tic nervioso. +Como si fumara, probablemente slo fumara en lugar de eso. +Slo encendera un cigarrillo. Parecera ms en onda. +Ya saben, sera como... pero en este caso, saben, saco esto y me siento y parece como si tuviera algo muy importante que hacer o atender. +Pero realmente me abri los ojos a cunto de mi vida pas slo aislndome, ya sea con correos electrnicos o mensajes sociales o lo que sea, a pesar de que no era realmente... no hay nada realmente tan importante o tan urgente. +Y con esto, s que voy a recibir ciertos mensajes si realmente los necesito, pero no tengo que estar revisndolos todo el tiempo. +S, realmente he disfrutado de poder de hecho explorar el mundo, haciendo ms locuras como las que vieron en el video. +Le agradezco mucho todo. +Hay algo que me gustara mostrarles. +Periodista: Se trata de una historia que conmovi profundamente a millones de personas en China: el video de una nia de dos aos que es atropellada por una camioneta, y es dejada sangrando en la calle por los transentes, es un video demasiado grfico como para mostrarlo. +Todo el accidente fue filmado. +El conductor frena luego de haber atropellado a la nia, las ruedas traseras quedan encima de ella por ms de un segundo. +Y en el lapso de dos minutos, tres personas pasaron por al lado de Wang Yue. +El primero, pasa por al lado de la nia herida y la ignora por completo +Otros la miran antes de seguir su camino. +Peter Singer: Tambin pasaron otras personas al lado de Wang Yue, y una segunda camioneta pas por encima de sus piernas antes de que un barrendero pblico alertara al respecto. +La llevaron de urgencia al hospital, pero ya era muy tarde. Y muri. +Me pregunto cuntos de Uds., observando esto, se dijeron en este momento, "Yo no habra hecho eso. +Me habra detenido a ayudar". +Levanten sus manos si pensaron esto. +Tal como pens, son la mayora. +Y les creo. Estoy seguro de que tienen razn. +Pero antes de que se den tanto crdito, miren esto. +UNICEF informa que en 2011, 6,9 millones de nios menores de 5 aos, murieron de enfermedades prevenibles, relacionadas con la pobreza. +UNICEF cree que eso es una buena noticia porque esta cifra ha disminuido de forma continua de los 12 millones en 1990. Y eso es bueno. +Pero aun as, 6,9 millones son 19.000 nios que mueren a diario. +Realmente importa que no estemos pasando por su lado en las calles? +Importa de verdad que estn lejos? +No creo que eso haga una diferencia moral relevante. +El hecho de que no estn frente a nosotros, el hecho de que, por supuesto, sean de otra nacionalidad, o raza; nada de eso me parece moralmente relevante. +Lo que realmente importa es saber si podemos reducir esa tasa de mortalidad. Podemos salvar algunos de esos 19.000 nios que mueren a diario? +Y la respuesta es: s podemos. +Cada uno de nosotros gasta dinero en cosas que realmente no necesita. +Pueden pensar en su propio hbito ya sea un auto nuevo, vacaciones, o algo simple como comprar agua embotellada cuando el agua que sale de los grifos es perfectamente potable y segura. +Por fortuna, ms y ms personas han comenzado a entender esta idea, y el resultado ha sido un movimiento creciente: altruismo eficaz. +Es importante porque combina tanto la cabeza como el corazn. +El corazn, por supuesto, lo sintieron. +Sintieron empata por esa nia. +As que creo que la razn no es solamente una herramienta neutral para conseguir lo que quieren. +Nos ayuda a ver nuestra propia situacin en perspectiva. +Y creo que es por esto que muchas de las personas involucradas significativamente en el altruismo eficaz, han sido personas con antecedentes en filosofa, economa o matemticas. +Y eso puede parecer sorprendente, porque muchos piensan, "La filosofa est muy alejada de la realidad; se nos dice que la economa, nos hace ms egostas y sabemos que la matemtica es para nerds". +Pero de hecho, s marca una diferencia, y de hecho, hay un nerd en particular que ha sido un altruista muy eficaz porque comprendi esto. +Esta es la pgina web de la Fundacin Bill y Melinda Gates, si se fijan en las palabras en el margen superior derecho, dice, "Todas las vidas tienen el mismo valor". +Esa es la comprensin, el entendimiento racional de nuestra situacin en el mundo que ha llevado a estas personas a ser los altruistas ms eficaces de la historia, Bill y Melinda Gates y Warren Buffett. +Nadie, ni Andrew Carnegie, ni John D. Rockefeller, ha donado tanto para la beneficencia como cada una de estas tres personas, y ellos han usado su inteligencia para asegurarse de que sea altamente eficaz. +Se calcula que la Fundacin Gates ya ha salvado alrededor de 5,8 millones de vidas. y a muchos millones de personas ms de contraer enfermedades que los habran enfermado gravemente, an si finalmente sobrevivieran. +Durante los prximos aos, indudablemente, la Fundacin Gates va a dar mucho ms, va a salvar muchas ms vidas. +Podran pensar, "eso est muy bien, si uno es multimillonario, se puede tener esa clase de impacto. +Pero si no soy millonario, qu puedo hacer?" +As que voy a considerar cuatro preguntas que la gente formula que tal vez se interponen en su capacidad de dar a otros. +Se preocupan por cun grande es la diferencia que pueden llegar a hacer. +Pero no hace falta ser un multimillonario. +l es Toby Ord. Es un colega investigador en filosofa de la Universidad de Oxford. +Se convirti en un altruista eficaz cuando calcul que con el dinero que probablemente ganara a lo largo de su carrera, una carrera acadmica, podra donar lo suficiente como para curar a 80.000 personas de ceguera en pases en vas de desarrollo, y que an le sobrara dinero suficiente para mantener un estndar de vida perfectamente apropiado. +As fue que Toby fund una organizacin, llamada Giving What We Can, para difundir esta informacin, para unir a personas que quieran compartir parte de sus ingresos, y pedirles que se comprometan a donar 10% de lo que ganen durante toda su vida para luchar contra la pobreza mundial. +El propio Toby hace ms que eso. +Se comprometi a vivir con 18.000 libras esterlinas al ao, eso es menos que 30.000 dlares, y donar el resto a esas organizaciones. +Y s. Toby est casado y tiene una hipoteca. +Y entonces, al llegar a la edad en la que la mayora de las personas empieza a pensar en su retiro, volvieron a ellos, y han decidido recortar su gasto, para vivir modestamente y destinar tiempo y dinero para ayudar a combatir la pobreza global. +Ahora, mencionar el tiempo podra llevarlos a pensar, "Bien, debo abandonar mi carrera e invertir todo mi tiempo para salvar a algunas de estas 19.000 vidas que se pierden todos los das?" +Una persona quien ha pensado bastante sobre este tema de cmo se puede tener una carrera que tenga el mayor impacto posible para el bien del mundo, es Will Crouch. +l es un estudiante de posgrado en filosofa, y cre un sitio web llamado 80.000 Horas, el nmero de horas que l calcula que la mayora de las personas invierten en su carrera, para asesorar a personas sobre cmo tener una carrera mejor y eficaz. +Pero puede que le sorprenda enterarse de que una de las carreras que l insta a la gente a considerar, si tienen las habilidades y el carcter indicado, es actividades bancarias o en finanzas. +Por lo tanto, se puede quintuplicar el impacto por medio de ese tipo de carrera. +Aqu est un joven que ha aceptado este consejo. +Su nombre es Matt Weiger. +l era un estudiante de filosofa y matemticas en Princeton, de hecho, gan el premio a la mejor tesis de licenciatura en filosofa cuando se gradu el ao pasado. +Pero se ha metido en las finanzas en Nueva York. +l ya est ganando lo suficiente para donar una suma de seis cifras a obras de caridad eficaces y sigue conservando lo suficiente para vivir. +Y la organizacin rene a personas de distintas generaciones, como Holly Morgan, quien es una estudiante, que ya se ha comprometido a dar 10% de lo poco que tiene, y a la derecha, Ada Wan, quien ha trabajado directamente para los ms humildes, pero ahora ha ingresado a Yale para hacer un MBA para tener ms para dar. +Mucha gente pensar, sin embargo, que las organizaciones benficas no son realmente tan eficaces. +As que hablemos de la eficacia. +Toby Ord est muy preocupado por esto, y ha calculado que algunas organizaciones benficas son cientos o incluso miles de veces ms eficaces que otras, por lo que es muy importante encontrar las ms eficaces. +Tomemos, por ejemplo, otorgarle un perro lazarillo a un ciego. +Que es algo bueno, cierto? +Bueno, ciertamente es una cosa buena, pero tienes que pensar qu ms se podra hacer con los recursos. +Cuesta alrededor de 40.000 dlares entrenar a un perro gua y formar al receptor para que el perro gua pueda ser una ayuda eficaz para una persona no vidente. +Cuesta entre 20 y 50 dlares curar a un ciego en un pas en desarrollo Si sufren de tracoma. +Entonces, si haces las cuentas, resulta algo como eso. +Podras proporcionar un perro gua para un estadounidense ciego, o podras curar entre 400 y 2.000 personas con ceguera. +Creo que es claro cul es la mejor opcin. +Pero si quieren buscar organizaciones de caridad eficaces, hay una pgina web muy buena para visitar. +GiveWell existe para evaluar el verdadero impacto de las organizaciones benficas, no slo si estn bien administradas, y ha revisado a cientos de organizaciones benficas y actualmente est recomendando solamente a tres, de las cuales la Fundacin Contra la Malaria es la nmero uno. +As que es muy difcil. Si desean buscar otras recomendaciones, thelifeyoucansave.com y Giving What We Can ambos tienen una lista un tanto ms extensa, pero pueden encontrarse organizaciones eficaces, y no slo en cuanto a salvar las vidas de los ms humildes. +Me complace decir que ahora tambin hay un sitio web que valora a las organizaciones eficaces a favor de los animales. +Esa es otra de las causas que me ha preocupado toda mi vida, el inmenso sufrimiento que los seres humanos infligimos sobre literalmente decenas de miles de millones de animales cada ao. +As que si quieren buscar organizaciones eficaces para reducir el sufrimiento, pueden ir a Effective Animal Activism. +Y algunos altruistas eficaces consideran que es muy importante asegurarse de que nuestra especie logre sobrevivir. +As que estn buscando maneras de reducir el riesgo de extincin. +Aqu hay un riesgo de extincin del que todos nos percatamos recientemente, cuando un asteroide pas cerca de nuestro planeta. +Posiblemente la investigacin podra ayudarnos no slo a predecir la ruta de los asteroides que pudieran colisionar con nosotros, sino incluso desviarlos. +As que algunas personas piensan que esa sera una buena causa a la cual contribuir. +Existen muchas posibilidades. +Mi pregunta final es: algunas personas pensarn que el dar es una carga. +No creo realmente que lo sea. +He disfrutado de dar toda mi vida desde que era estudiante de posgrado. +Ha sido una fuente de satisfaccin para m. +Charlie Bresler me dijo que l no es un altruista. +Piensa que la vida que salva es la propia. +Y Holly Morgan me dijo que ella sola sufrir de depresin hasta que se involucr en altruismo eficaz, y ahora es una de las personas ms felices que conoce. +Creo que una de las razones para esto es que ser un altruista eficaz ayuda a superar lo que yo llamo el problema de Ssifo. +Aqu est Ssifo retratado por Tiziano, condenado por los dioses a empujar una enorme roca hasta la cima de la colina. +Justo al llegar, el esfuerzo es demasiado, la roca se escapa, rueda hasta el pie de la colina, y l tiene que regresar a empujarla de nuevo, y lo mismo sucede una y otra vez, por toda la eternidad. +Les recuerda al estilo de vida de un consumidor, donde se trabaja duro para conseguir dinero, ese dinero se gasta en bienes de consumo que uno espera disfrutar? +Pero despus de gastado el dinero, se tiene que trabajar duro para obtener ms, gastar ms y para mantener el mismo nivel de felicidad, es una especie de rutina hedonista. +Nunca bajamos, y nunca nos sentimos realmente satisfechos. +Convertirse en un altruista eficaz nos da ese significado y satisfaccin. +Permite tener una base slida para la autoestima que nos permite sentir que nuestra vida es realmente digna de vivirse. +Voy a concluir contndoles sobre un correo que recib mientras escriba esta charla hace apenas un mes. +Es de un hombre llamado Chris Croy, a quien no conoca. +Esta es una imagen que lo muestra recuperndose de una ciruga. +Por qu estaba recuperndose de ciruga? +El correo electrnico deca, "El martes pasado, don annimamente mi rin derecho a un extrao. +Eso inici una cadena de rin que permiti a cuatro personas recibir riones". +Hay cerca de 100 personas cada ao en los Estados Unidos +y ms en otros pases que hacen eso. +Fue un placer leerlo. Chris continu diciendo que lo hizo, porque haba sido influenciado por mis escritos +Bueno, tengo que admitir, tambin estoy algo avergonzado por eso, porque todava tengo dos riones. +Pero Chris continu diciendo que l no crea que lo que haba hecho fuera tan asombroso, porque calcul que el nmero de aos de vida que l le haba agregado a la gente, la extensin de la vida, era casi la misma que podra alcanzarse donando 5.000 dlares a la Fundacin Contra la Malaria. +Y eso me hizo sentir un poco mejor, porque yo he dado ms de 5.000 dlares a la Fundacin Contra la Malaria y a varias otras organizaciones eficaces. +As que si se sienten mal porque tambin tienen dos riones todava, hay una manera de que puedan salvarse. +Gracias. +Cuando estaba en la escuela de arte, empec a tener un temblor en mi mano y esta era la lnea ms recta que poda dibujar. +Ahora, en retrospectiva, en realidad eso era bueno para algunas cosas, como mezclar una lata de pintura o agitar una Polaroid, pero en ese momento era el fin del mundo. +Era la destruccin de mi sueo de convertirme en artista. +En realidad, el temblor se manifest en una bsqueda decidida del puntillismo, luego de aos de hacer diminutos puntos. +Finalmente, estos puntos pasaron de ser perfectamente redondos a parecer unos renacuajos, por causa del temblor. +As, para compensar, sostena la pluma ms fuerte, y esto no hizo ms que empeorar el temblor, por eso la sostuve an ms fuerte. +Se torn un ciclo vicioso que termin causando mucho dolor y problemas articulares. Me costaba sostener cualquier cosa. +Y despus de pasar toda mi vida con ganas de hacer arte, abandon la escuela de arte y luego el arte, por completo. +Pero unos aos despus, no poda estar alejado del arte, y decid consultar a un neurlogo por el temblor y descubr que tena un dao neurolgico permanente. +Y, al mirar mi trazo serpenteante, dijo: "Bueno, por qu simplemente no aceptas el temblor?" +Y as hice. Fui a casa, agarr un lpiz y dej que la mano empezara a temblar y temblar. +Hice todos estos garabatos. +Si bien no era el tipo de arte que en ltima instancia me apasionaba, me gust mucho. +Y, lo ms importante, una vez que acept el temblor, me di cuenta de que an poda hacer arte. +Solo tena que encontrar un enfoque diferente para hacer el arte que quera. +Todava disfrutaba la fragmentacin del puntillismo, ver esos puntos diminutos que se unen para formar un todo unificado. +Empec a experimentar otras formas de fragmentar imgenes en las que el temblor no afectara la obra, como mojar mis pies en pintura y caminar sobre un lienzo, o en una estructura 3D de dos por cuatro, o crear una imagen 2D y quemarla con un soplete. +Descubr que, si trabajaba a una escala ms grande y con materiales ms grandes, mi mano no interferira, y despus de pasar de un nico enfoque hacia el arte, a un enfoque hacia la creatividad que cambi completamente mis horizontes artsticos. +Esta fue la primera vez que vi que esta idea de adoptar una limitacin poda impulsar la creatividad. +En ese momento, yo estaba terminando la escuela, y estaba muy entusiasmado en conseguir un trabajo para poder comprar nuevos materiales de arte. +Tena unas herramientas limitadas y senta que podra hacer mucho ms con los materiales que, pensaba, un artista se supone deba tener. +Ni siquiera tena unas tijeras normales. +Trabajaba con esta tijera de metal hasta que rob una de la oficina en la que trabajaba. +As que sal de la escuela, consegu un trabajo, tuve un sueldo, fui a la tienda de arte, y me volv loco comprando materiales. +Y cuando volv a casa, me sent y me di a la tarea de tratar de crear algo que rompiera el molde por completo. +Pero estaba all sentado durante horas y no venan las ideas. +Lo mismo ocurri al da siguiente, y al otro, cayendo pronto en una crisis creativa. +Estuve en un lugar oscuro durante mucho tiempo, sin poder crear. +Y no tena mucho sentido porque al fin poda financiar mi arte, pero desde lo creativo estaba en blanco. +Al hurgar en esa oscuridad me di cuenta de que en realidad estaba paralizado por tantas opciones que nunca antes haba tenido. +Y fue entonces que me acord de mis manos temblorosas. +Acoger el temblor. +Me di cuenta de que si alguna vez quera recobrar la creatividad tena que dejar de salirme tanto del molde y volver un poco a l. +Me preguntaba: podra ser ms creativo, entonces, buscando en las limitaciones? +Qu pasara si solo creara con materiales de un dlar? +En ese momento, pasaba muchas tardes... bueno, an sigo pasado muchas tardes en Starbucks y s que se puede pedir un vaso adicional si uno quiere, as que decid pedir 50. +Sorprendentemente, los entregaron de inmediato, y, luego, con unos lpices que ya tena, hice este proyecto por solo 80 centavos. +Fue muy esclarecedor para m entender que es necesario primero tener limitaciones para luego sortear los lmites. +Llev este enfoque de pensar dentro del molde a mis lienzos, y me pregunt si, en vez de pintar en un lienzo, podra pintar en mi pecho. +Pint 30 imgenes, de a una capa a la vez, una sobre otra, y cada imagen representaba una influencia en mi vida. +Y si en vez de pintar con un pincel pintara con golpes de karate? As que met las manos en pintura, y ataqu al lienzo con tanta fuerza que me lastim una articulacin del meique y eso continu as durante un par de semanas. +Y si en lugar de confiar en m mismo, tuviera que confiar en otras personas para crear el contenido del arte? +Durante seis das, viv frente a una cmara web. +Dorm en el suelo com comida para llevar, y le ped a la gente que me llame y comparta una historia conmigo sobre un momento que les haya cambiado la vida. +Sus historias se volvieron arte conforme las volcaba en el lienzo giratorio. +Y si en vez de hacer arte para mostrar, tuviera que destruirlo? +Este pareca ser el lmite supremo, el artista sin el arte. +Esta idea de destruccin se convirtien un proyecto de un ao al que llam Adis Arte, en el cual todas y cada una de las obras deban destruirse despus de creadas. +Al principio de Adis Arte, hice hincapi en la destruccin forzada, como esta imagen de Jimi Hendrix, hecha con ms de 7000 fsforos. +Luego lo expand al arte que se destrua en forma natural. +Busqu materiales temporales, como escupir comida... tiza en la acera e incluso vino congelado. +La ltima iteracin de la destruccin fue tratar de producir algo que antes no exista. +As, dispuse velas sobre una mesa, las encend, luego las apagu, y repet este proceso una y otra vez con el mismo conjunto de velas, luego mont los videos en una gran imagen. +La imagen resultante nunca se vio fsicamente como un todo. +Fue destruida antes incluso de existir. +En el transcurso de la serie Adis Arte, cre 23 piezas diferentes sin nada que mostrar fsicamente. +Lo que pens que sera la limitacin mxima en realidad result ser la liberacin mxima, ya que cada vez que creaba, la destruccin me regresaba a un lugar neutral donde me senta descansado y listo para empezar el prximo proyecto. +No ocurri de la noche a la maana. +Hubo momentos en los que mis proyectos no despegaron, o, incluso peor, luego de dedicarles muchsimo tiempo la imagen final era un poco embarazosa. +Pero comprometido con el proceso, segu adelante, y como resultado ocurri algo muy sorprendente. +Conforme destrua cada proyecto, aprend a desprenderme, desprenderme de resultados, de fracasos y de imperfecciones. +Y, a cambio, me encontr con un proceso de creacin artstica perpetuo y no sujeto a resultados. +Me encontraba en un estado de constante creacin, pensando solo en lo que sigue, dando con ms ideas que nunca. +Cuando pienso en mis tres aos distanciado del arte, distanciado de mi sueo, experimentando los movimientos, en lugar de tratar de encontrar una forma diferente de seguir ese sueo, simplemente lo dej, lo abandon. +Y qu tal si no acoga el temblor? +Porque para m acoger el temblor no era solo arte y habilidades artsticas. +Result ser cuestin de vida, y de habilidades vitales. +Porque, en definitiva, gran parte de lo que hacemos ocurre aqu, dentro del molde, con recursos limitados. +Aprender a ser creativos dentro de los confines de nuestras limitaciones es la mejor esperanza que tenemos para transformarnos y, de manera colectiva, transformar nuestro mundo. +En cuanto a las limitaciones como fuente de creatividad, cambiaron el curso de mi vida. +Ahora, cuando me encuentro con una barrera o si me encuentro en una perplejidad creativa, a veces todava lucho, pero sigo mostrando en el proceso y trato de acordarme de las posibilidades, como usar cientos de gusanos reales, vivos, para hacer una imagen usando una chinche para tatuar una banana, o pintar un cuadro con grasa de hamburguesa. +Uno de mis esfuerzos ms recientes ha sido traducir los hbitos creativos que he aprendido en algo que otros puedan replicar. +Las limitaciones pueden ser de los lugares ms improbables para aprovechar la creatividad, pero tal vez es una de las mejores formas de salir de la rutina, repensar categoras y desafiar las normas aceptadas. +Y en vez de decirnos unos a otros que aprovechemos el da, quiz podemos recordarnos cada da aprovechar la limitacin. +Gracias. +Cuando hablamos de "arquitectos" o "ingenieros" nos referimos a un profesional, alguien que cobra, y tenemos la tendencia a creer que ellos son los que nos van a ayudar a resolver los enormes retos que tenemos: el cambio climtico, la urbanizacin y la inequidad social. +Ese es nuestro tipo de presuncin laboral. +Y, de hecho, creo que est mal. +En el 2008, estaba a punto de graduarme como arquitecto despus de varios aos para salir y tener un trabajo, y esto sucedi. +A la economa se le agotaron los empleos. +Y algunas cosas al respecto me desconcertaron. +En primer lugar, no escuchen a sus asesores vocacionales. +Y en segundo, en verdad esto es una paradoja fascinante para la arquitectura, que como sociedad, nunca hemos necesitado el pensamiento de diseo tanto como ahora y sin embargo, la arquitectura no se est empleando. +Me sorprende que hablemos a detalle sobre diseo mientras que en realidad hay una economa detrs de la arquitectura de la que no hablamos y creo que deberamos. +Podemos empezar por nuestros propios salarios. +Entonces, como un recin graduado de arquitectura, esperara ganar unas 24 000 libras, +que equivalen a unos 36 000 o 37 000 dlares. +En trminos de la poblacin mundial, eso me coloca entre el 1.95% de las personas ms ricas, esto me lleva a preguntarme para quin estoy trabajando? +La verdad incmoda es que en realidad todo a lo que hoy llamamos arquitectura es en realidad el negocio de disear para el 1% de la poblacin ms rica, y siempre ha sido as. +Y todos esos movimientos, muy a su modo, han desaparecido y estamos en esta situacin en la que los mejores diseadores y arquitectos del mundo slo pueden trabajar para el 1% de la poblacin. +Esto no es tan malo para la democracia, aunque creo que probablemente lo es, pero no es una estrategia de negocios muy buena, en serio. +Creo que el reto de la prxima generacin de arquitectos es cmo hacer que su cliente pase del 1% al 100%. +Y me gustara ofrecerles tres ideas no muy intuitivas para cumplir con ese reto. +Lo primero es cuestionarse la idea de que la arquitectura busca construir edificios. +En realidad, construir un edificio es la solucin ms cara en casi todos los casos. +Y fundamentalmente, el diseo debera estar mucho ms interesado en resolver problemas y crear nuevas soluciones. +Piensen en este caso: +la oficina estaba trabajando con una escuela y tenan una escuela antigua, de estilo victoriano. +Y le dijeron a los arquitectos, "Vern, los corredores son una pesadilla, +son demasiado pequeos y se congestionan entre clase y clase. +Hay bravucones que se nos salen de las manos. +Lo que queremos es que vuelvan a planear toda la escuela, y sabemos que va a costar varios millones de libras, pero ya nos hicimos a la idea". +Y el equipo pens en el proyecto, se fueron y dijeron, "Saben qu? No hagan eso. +Mejor quiten la campana de la escuela. +En vez de tener una sola campana que suene tengan muchas campanas pequeas que suenen en distintos lugares y horas, distribuyan el trfico en los corredores". +Solucionaron el mismo problema, slo que gastaron varios cientos de libras en lugar de varios millones. +Parecera que uno est renegando del trabajo, pero no es as, slo eres ms til. +La verdad es que los arquitectos son muy buenos para pensar de forma estratgica e ingeniosa, +Y el problema es que, como en muchas profesiones de diseo, nos enfocamos demasiado en la idea de ofrecer un tipo particular de producto y no creo que ese siga siendo el caso. +La segunda idea que vale la pena hacernos tiene que ver con esto que tiene el siglo XX, con la idea de que la arquitectura masiva se trata de enormes edificios y enormes financiamientos. +En realidad estamos atascados en esta filosofa de la Edad Industrial que dicta que los nicos que pueden hacer ciudades son las enormes orrganizaciones o corporaciones para quienes construimos, obteniendo vecindarios enteros en un solo proyecto monoltico, y desde luego, la forma sigue al financiamiento. +Entonces terminamos con vecindarios nicos y monolticos basados en este modelo universal. +Y mucha gente no puede adquirirlos. +Pero qu pasara si las ciudades no slo pudieran ser construidas por el 1% sino tambin por el 99%? +Y cuando as sea, trajeran consigo valores totalmente distintos sobre el lugar en el que quieren vivir. +Y genera preguntas muy interesantes sobre cmo vamos a planear las ciudades y cmo vamos a financiarlas +cmo vamos a vender nuestros servicios de diseo. +Qu significara para las sociedades democrticas ofrecer a sus ciudadanos el derecho a construir? +Y de cierto modo debera ser obvio que en el siglo XXI las ciudades pudieran ser desarrolladas por los ciudadanos. +Y en tercer lugar, necesitamos recordar que en sentido estricto el diseo tiene algo en comn con el sexo y el cuidado de lo mayores: los aficionados hacen la mayor parte del trabajo. +Y eso es bueno. +La mayor parte del trabajo se realiza fuera de la economa monetaria en lo que llamamos la economa social o la economa ncleo, que significa que la gente trabaja por s misma. +Y el problema es que, hasta hoy, la economa monetaria tena toda la infraestructura y las herramientas. +El reto que enfrentamos, entonces, es cmo vamos a construir las herramientas, la infraestructura y las instituciones para la economa social de la arquitectura. +Y eso comenz con el software libre. +Y a lo largo de los ltimos aos, ha estado moviendo al mundo fsico con hardware libre, es decir, planos compartidos libremente que todos pueden descargar y crear por s mismos. +Es ah donde la impresin en 3D se vuelve extremadamente interesante. +Cuando tienes una impresora en 3D que es de libre uso, las partes pueden usarse para hacer otra impresora 3D. +O la misma idea aplicada en una mquina de CNC que es como una gran impresora que corta hojas de triplay. +Lo que estas tecnologas estn haciendo es bajando enormemente las limitaciones de tiempo, costo y capacitacin. +Estn enfrentandose a la idea de que si quieres que algo valga la pena tiene que ser universal. +Y estn distribuyendo a escala masiva capacidades de manufactura muy complejas. +Vamos hacia un futuro en el que la fbrica est en todos lados, y eso quiere decir que cada vez ms el equipo de diseadores est en todos lados. +Eso es a lo que yo llamo una revolucin industrial. +Y cuando pensamos que los conflictos ideolgicos ms grandes que heredamos giraban en torno a la pregunta de quin debera controlar los medios de produccin y estas tecnologas estn respondiendo con una solucin: en realidad, quizs nadie. Ninguno de nosotros. +Y estamos fascinados por lo que esto pueda significar para la arquitectura. +Por lo que hace ao y medio, empezamos a trabajar en un proyecto llamado WikiHouse, que es un sistema de construccin libre. +Las partes estn numeradas, bsicamente terminas con un kit grande tipo IKEA. +Y se une sin tuercas. +Utiliza conexiones de calces y clavijas. +E incluso las hojas de corte incluyen los mazos para hacerlo. +Y un equipo de dos o tres personas pueden construirla. +No necesitan saber de construccin tradicional. +No necesitan un arsenal de herramientas ni nada por el estilo y pueden construir una casa pequea de ms o menos este tamao en un solo da. +Y terminas con el andamio base de una casa en la que luego puedes agregar sistemas como ventanas y servicios de aislamiento y revestimientos basados en lo que haya a la mano y que sea barato. +Desde luego, la casa nunca se acaba por completo. +Estamos cambiando de idea tal que la casa no es un producto terminado. +Con la mquina CNC, puedes hacer nuevas partes para la casa a lo largo de su vida til o para hacer la casa del vecino. +Hoy podemos ver la semilla de un modelo de desarrollo urbano potencialmente libre y encabezado por los ciudadanos. +Nosotros y otras personas han construido unos cuantos prototipos en todo el mundo y hay lecciones muy interesantes. +Una de ellas es que esto siempre ha sido increblemente social. +La gente llega a confundir la construccin con la diversin. +Pero los principios de lo libre llegan hasta los detalles extremadamente mundanos y fsicos. +Como nunca disear una habitacion que no se pueda construir. +O cuando se disea una habitacin asegurarse de que no se ponga en la direccin equivocada, o en todo caso que no importe porque es simtrica. +Probablemente el principio que ms nos impulsa es el principio creado por Linus Torvalds, el pionero del software libre, que es "s flojo como un zorro". +No reinventes la rueda cada vez. +Toma todo lo que ya funciona, y adptalo a tus necesidades. +Al contrario de todo lo que nos han enseado en la facultad de arquitectura, copiar es bueno. +Lo que es apropiado, porque en realidad este enfoque no es innovador. +Es sobre cmo hemos construido edificios por cientos de aos antes de la revolucin industrial en algo parecido a las recaudaciones de fondos comunitarias. +La nica diferencia entre la arquitectura verncula tradicional y la arquitectura libre puede ser la coneccin a la red, pero es una diferencia enorme. +Compartimos todo el WikiHouse bajo una licencia de Creative Commons y lo que est comenzando a pasar es que grupos en todo el mundo estn comenzando a tomarla y la utilizan, hackean, la desarman, es sorprendente. +Hay un grupo genial en Christchurch, Nueva Zelanda que est creando un desarrollo inmobiliario post-terremoto y gracias al premio TED city estamos trabajando con un grupo sorprendente en una de las favelas de Ro para desarrollar una especie de fbrica comunitaria y micro universidad. +Son comienzos muy, muy pequeos y en realidad hay mucha gente que se ha puesto en contacto con nosotros la semana pasada que ni siquiera estn en este mapa. +Espero que la prxima vez que lo vean, puedan verlos en el mapa. +Estamos conscientes de que WikiHouse es una respuesta muy, muy pequea pero es una respuesta muy pequea para un problema colosal, de que, hoy en da, en todo el mundo las ciudades con mayor crecimiento no son las ciudades con rascacielos, +son las ciudades hechas por s solas en cualquier forma. +Si hablamos de la ciudad del siglo XXI estos son los hombres que lo van a lograr. +Les guste o no, sean bienvenidos al equipo de diseo ms grande del mundo. +Si tomamos los problemas serios como el cambio climtico, la urbanizacin y la salud, nuestros modelos de desarrollo actuales no van a funcionar. +Cmo Robert Neuwirth dijo, no hay un banco o corporacin o gobierno o ONG que pueda logarlo si seguimos tratando a los ciudadanos slo como consumidores. +Una especie de Wikipedia de cosas. +En donde una vez que algo pase a ser de todos, se quede ah para siempre. +Cunto cambiaran las reglas as? +Creo que la tecnologa est a nuestro favor. +Si el gran proyecto de diseo en el siglo XX fue la democratizacin del consumo, con Henry Ford, Levittown, Coca-Cola, IKEA, creo que el gran proyecto del diseo en el siglo XXI es la democratizacin de la produccin. +Y cuando hablamos de arquitectura urbana, eso es sumamente importante. +Muchas gracias. +Gracias. +Hola a todos. +Ban-gap-seum-ni-da +Me gustara compartirles un poquito sobre m interpretando mi vida. +Puedo parecer exitosa y feliz estando hoy frente a Uds., pero una vez sufr una severa depresin y estaba sumida en la desesperacin. +El violn, que lo era todo para m se haba convertido en una pesada carga. +Aunque muchos a mi alrededor trataron de consolarme y animarme, sus palabras no eran ms que ruido sin sentido. +Justo cuando estaba a punto de renunciar a todo luego de aos de sufrimiento, empec a redescubrir el verdadero poder de la msica. +En medio de la adversidad, fue la msica lo que me devolvi el alma. +El consuelo que me proporcionaba la msica era simplemente indescriptible, y, para m, tambin fue una experiencia verdaderamente reveladora. ya que cambi completamente mi perspectiva de la vida y me liber de la presin de convertirme en una violinista exitosa. +Sienten que estn completamente solos? +Espero que esta pieza los conmueva y sane su corazn, como lo hizo conmigo. +Gracias. +Ahora, uso mi msica para llegar al corazn de las personas y descubr que no hay fronteras. +Mi audiencia es quin sea que est all para orme, an aquellos que no estn tan familiarizados con la msica clsica. +No slo interpreto en prestigiosos auditorios clsicos como Carnegie Hall y Kennedy Center, sino tambin es hospitales, iglesias, crceles, y hospicios restringidos para pacientes con lepra, slo por mencionar algunos. +Ahora, con mi ltima pieza, quisiera demostrarles que la msica clsica puede ser divertida, emocionante y que puede rockearlos.** +Quiero presentarles mi nuevo proyecto, "Baroque in Rock", que recientemente se convirti en disco de oro. +Es un gran honor para m. +Creo que, mientras disfruto de mi vida como una msica feliz, estoy ganando ms reconocimiento del que imagin. +Pero ahora es su turno. +Cambiar sus perspectivas no slo va a transformarlos a Uds., sino a todo el mundo. +Solo interpreten su vida con todo lo que tienen, y comprtanla con el mundo. +Estoy ansiosa por ser testigo de un mundo transformado por Uds., TEDores. +Interpreten su vida, y mantnganse en sintona. +Cuando era pequeo, sola mirar a travs del microscopio de mi padre los insectos en mbar que guardaba en la casa. +Estaban extraordinariamente bien preservados, morfolgicamente fenomenales. +Y solamos imaginar que algn da, volveran en realidad a la vida y saldran de la resina, y, si pudieran, volaran lejos. +Si me hubieran preguntado hace 10 aos si es que alguna vez seramos capaces de secuenciar el genoma de animales extintos, les hubiera dicho, es improbable. +Si me hubieran preguntado si podramos ser realmente capaces de revivir una especie extinta, hubiera dicho, una ilusin. +Los lanudos son particularmente interesantes, la imagen por excelencia de la Edad de Hielo. +Eran grandes. Eran peludos. +Tenan grandes colmillos y parece que tenemos una profunda conexin con ellos, como lo hacemos con los elefantes. +Quizs es porque los elefantes comparten muchas cosas en comn con nosotros. +Entierran a sus muertos. Educan a la siguiente generacin. +Tienen uniones sociales que son muy prximas. +O quizs es porque en realidad estamos unidos por tiempos remotos, porque los elefantes, como nosotros, comparten sus orgenes en frica hace unos siete millones de aos, y a medida que cambiaron los hbitats y los entornos, nosotros, como los elefantes, emigramos a Europa y Asia. +As que el primer gran mamut que aparece en escena es el meridionalis, que meda cuatro metros de altura, pesaba cerca de 10 toneladas y era una especie adaptada a los bosques que se extendi desde Europa Occidental hasta Asia Central, a travs del puente terrestre de Behring y en partes de Amrica del Norte. +Y luego, de nuevo, a medida que el clima cambi, como siempre lo hace, y los nuevos hbitats se desplegaron, tuvimos la llegada de una especie adaptada a las estepas llamada trogontherii en Asia Central dejando a los meridionalis en Europa Occidental. +y las sabanas, pastizales abiertos, de Norte Amrica se desplegaron, dando lugar al mamut columbino, una especie grande y sin pelo de Norte Amrica. +As que hay un animal muy plstico que le hace frente a las grandes transiciones de temperatura y entorno y lo hace muy, muy bien. +Y ah sobreviven en el continente hasta cerca de 10 mil aos atrs y, de hecho, sorprendentemente, en las pequeas islas frente a Siberia y Alaska hasta cerca de 3 mil aos atrs. +As que los egipcios estn construyendo las pirmides y los lanudos aun estn viviendo en las islas. +Y luego desaparecen. +Afortunadamente, encontramos millones de sus restos esparcidos por el permahielo, enterrados profundamente en Siberia y Alaska, y de hecho podemos ir all y sacarlos de verdad. +Y la preservacin es, nuevamente, como en esos insectos en mbar, fenomenal. +As que tienen dientes, huesos con sangre que parece sangre, tienen pelo y tienen cadveres intactos o cabezas que an tienen sus cerebros. +Y probablemente sea soprendente para muchos de ustedes sentados en esta sala que no es el tiempo el que importa, no es la duracin de la preservacin, es la consistencia de la temperatura de esa preservacin que ms importa. +As que si fueramos a profundizar ahora en los huesos y en los dientes que en realidad sobrevivieron al proceso de fosilizacin, el ADN que una vez estuvo intacto, bien envuelto alrededor de protenas histonas, ahora est bajo ataque por las bacterias que vivan simbiticamente con el mamut durante los aos de su vida. +As que esas bacterias, junto a las bacterias ambientales, liberan agua y oxgeno, en realidad rompen el ADN en fragmentos de ADN cada vez ms pequeos hasta que todo lo que tienen son fragmentos que van de 10 pares a, en el mejor de los escenarios, unos pocos cientos de pares. +As que la mayora de los fsiles que hay en el registro fsil estn en completamente desprovistos de todas las caractersticas orgnicas. +Pero unos pocos de ellos en efecto tienen fragmentos de ADN que han sobrevivido durante miles, incluso unos pocos millones de aos, en el tiempo. +No es de sorprender, entonces, que un mamut preservado en el permahielo tendr algo del orden de 50% de su ADN que ser de mamut, mientras que algo como el mamut colombino, que vive y se entierra en un ambiente templado se almacene solo de 3 a 10% [de ADN] endgeno. +Pero hemos elaborado maneras muy inteligentes que en realidad podemos discriminar, captar y discriminar, al mamut a partir del ADN no mamut, y con los avances en la secuenciacin de alto rendimiento, podemos en realidad sacar y reorganizar bioinformticamente todos estos pequeos fragmentos de mamut y colocarlos en el segmento principal de un cromosoma de elefante asitico o africano. +Y al hacer eso, podemos obtener todos los pequeos puntos que discriminan entre un mamut y un elefante asitico, y qu es lo que sabemos, entonces, sobre un mamut? +Bueno, el genoma del mamut est casi terminado y sabemos que es realmente grande. Es un mamut. +El genoma de un homnido tiene cerca de 3 mil millones de pares de bases, pero el genoma de un elefante y un mamut es casi 2 mil millones de pares de bases ms grande y la mayora de eso est compuesto de ADNs pequeos y repetitivos que dificultan la reorganizacin de la estructura completa del genoma. +Parece que se cruzaron. +Esta no es una caracterstica poco comn en los proboscidios, porque resulta que los grandes elefantes machos de la gran sabana superarn a los pequeos elefantes de bosque por sus hembras. +As los grandes colombinos sin pelo superan a los pequeos machos lanudos. +Eso me recuerda un poco la preparatoria, desafortunadamente. +As que esto no es trivial, dada la idea que queremos revivir especies extintas, porque resulta que un elefante africano o asitico pueden cruzarse y tener crias vivas y esto ocurri por accidente en un zoolgico en Chester, Reino Unido, en 1978. +Ahora, esto no sera una rplica exacta, porque los fragmentos cortos de ADN de los que les he hablado nos impedirn la construccin de la estructura exacta, pero haran algo que se vera y sentira muy parecido a como eran los mamuts lanudos. +Ahora, cuando traigo a colacin esto con mis amigos, hablamos a menudo, bueno, dnde lo colocaran? +Dnde albergaran a un mamut? +No hay climas o hbitats adecuados. +Bueno, eso no es realmente el caso. +Resulta que hay franjas de hbitat en el norte de Siberia y en el Yukon que podran albergar a un mamut. +Recuerden que este era un animal muy plstico que vivi durante una gran variacin climtica. +Muchas gracias. +Ryan Phelan: No te vayas. +Nos dejas con una pregunta. +Estoy seguro de que todos se preguntan esto. Cuando dices: "Debemos?" +se siente como si estuvieras reticente y, sin embargo, nos has dado una visin de que es tan posible. +Cul es tu reticencia? +Hendrik Poinar: No creo que sea reticencia. +Creo que solo tenemos que pensar muy profundamente en las implicaciones y consecuencias de nuestras acciones, y mientras tengamos una buena y profunda discusin como la que tenemos ahora, creo que podemos llegar a una solucin muy buena de por qu hacerlo. +Pero solo quiero asegurarme de que pasemos tiempo pensando primero por qu lo haramos. +RP: Perfecto. Perfecta respuesta. Muchas gracias, Hendrik. +HP: Gracias. +Soy casi una fantica loca. +Siempre supe que la era del diseo estaba sobre nosotros, casi como una Revelacin. +Si est soleado, pienso: "Oh, los dioses tuvieron un buen da de diseo". +O si voy a una muestra y veo una pieza hermosa de un artista, muy hermosa, digo que es tan bueno porque trataba de disear para entender qu tena que hacer. +Realmente creo que el diseo es la forma ms elevada de la expresin creativa. +Por eso les hablo hoy sobre la era del diseo, y en la era del diseo an hay muebles bonitos, carteles, autos rpidos, lo que ven en el MoMA. +O el buen diseo son las fuentes digitales que utilizamos todo el tiempo y que se vuelven parte de nuestra identidad. +Quiero que la gente entienda que el diseo es muchsimo ms que sillas bonitas, que es, antes que nada, todo lo que nos rodea en nuestra vida. +Y es interesante que mucho de lo que estamos hablando esta noche no es solo sobre el diseo sino sobre el diseo interactivo. +Estas fueron algunas de las primeras adquisiciones que realmente introdujeron la idea de diseo interactivo al pblico. +Ms recientemente, trat de profundizar an ms en el diseo interactivo, con ejemplos que emocionalmente son muy sugestivos y que realmente explican el diseo interactivo a un punto que es casi indiscutible. +Wind Map, de Wattenberg y Fernanda Vigas, es realmente fantstico; no s si alguna vez lo han visto. +Se ve el territorio de los Estados Unidos como si se fuera un campo de trigo barrido por los vientos y realmente nos da una imagen grfica de lo que pasa con los vientos en los Estados Unidos. +Hace poco, empezamos a adquirir videojuegos, y ah se arm la gorda de un modo muy interesante. Algunos todava creen que hay un punto alto y uno bajo. +Y eso es realmente lo que me parece tan intrigante de las reacciones que hemos tenido sobre la uncin de los videojuegos en la coleccin del MoMA. +La New York Magazine siempre lo entiende. +Me encantan. Estamos en la misma sintona. +Estamos en la alta cultura, que es atrevida, que es valiente, y brillante, que es maravillosa. +Tmidamente, hemos estado ms alto en la diagonal en otras situaciones, pero est bien. Est bien. Est bien. Est bien. Y entonces llega el crtico de arte. Fue fantstico. +El primero fue Jonathan Jones de The Guardian. +"Lo siento, MoMA, los videojuegos no son arte". +Alguna vez dije que eran arte? Estaba hablando de diseo interactivo. Disclpeme. +"Exhibir el Pac-Man y el Tetris junto a Picasso y Van Gogh"... Estn a dos pisos de distancia. "significara que se termin el juego de cualquier comprensin verdadera del arte". +As que les traigo el fin del mundo. +Hablbamos antes de la Revelacin? Est llegando. +Y Jonathan Jones lo est haciendo posible. +El mismo Guardian lo refuta, "Los video juegos son arte?: el debate que ni debera existir. +La semana pasada, el crtico de arte de The Guardian bla, bla sugiri que los juegos no pueden ser considerados arte. Pero, es cierto? +Y acaso importa?". Gracias. Importa? +Saben, una vez ms reaparece el problema de confundir diseo con arte, o la idea tan difusa de que los diseadores quieren ser o ser llamados artistas. +No. Los diseadores aspiran a ser realmente grandes diseadores. +Muchas gracias. Y eso es ms que suficiente. +As que mi caballero de brillante armadura, John Maeda, sin previo aviso, sali con esta gran declaracin sobre por qu los video juegos estn en el MoMA. +Y fue fantstico. Y pens que era el punto. +Pero luego apareci otro artculo muy pretencioso que sali en The New Republic, tan pretencioso, de Liel Leibovitz que deca: "El MoMA ha confundido videojuegos con arte". Otra vez. +"El Museo pone el Pac-Man junto a Picasso". Otra vez. +"No entienden la idea". +Disclpame. T no entiendes la idea. +Y aqu, miren, la pregunta anterior se hace sin rodeos: "Los video juego son arte? No. Los video juegos no son arte porque son ms bien otra cosa: cdigo". +As que Picasso no es arte porque es pintura de aceite. Verdad? +Es fantstico ver cmo estas plumas se alteraron, y estas reacciones fueron tan vehementes. +Y saben qu? +El Festival Internacional de Videos de Gatos no provoc tantas reacciones. Creo que fue realmente fantstico. +Hablamos de ponis bailarines, pero estaba realmente celosa del Centro de Arte Walker por realizar este festival, porque es muy, muy maravilloso. +Y est esta frase de Flaubert que me encanta: "Siempre he procurado vivir en una torre de marfil, pero una marea de mierda golpea ahora sus muros y amenaza con socavarla". +Considero que yo soy la marea de mierda. +Saben, hemos tenido que lidiar con esto. +Incluso en la dcada de 1930, los colegas que trataban de armar una exposicin de arte abstracto tenan todas estas obras retenidas por los oficiales de aduana que determinaron que no eran arte. +Sucedi antes y suceder en el futuro, pero justo ahora puedo decirles que estoy tan, tan orgullosa de haber sido capaz de que el Pac-Man forme parte de la coleccin del MoMA. +Y lo mismo con la versin original del Tetris, la sovitica. +Vern, la cantidad de trabajo, s, Alexey Pajitnov trabajaba para el gobierno sovitico y as fue cmo desarroll el Tetris y el mismo Alexey reconstruy todo el juego e incluso nos dio una simulacin de tubo de rayos catdicos que lo hace ver ligeramente bombardeado. +Y es fantstico. +As que detrs de estas adquisiciones hay una cantidad enorme de trabajo, porque seguimos siendo el Museo de Arte Moderno, por lo que incluso cuando abordamos la cultura popular, la abordamos como una forma de diseo interactivo y como algo que tiene que estar en la coleccin del MoMA, por lo tanto, tiene que ser investigado. +As que para elegir el marvilloso Another World de Eric Chahi, entre otros, reunimos un panel de expertos y trabajamos sobre esta adquisicin, y en general soy yo junto a Kate Carmody y Paul Galloway. +Trabajamos un ao y medio en eso. +Mucha gente nos ayud: diseadores de juegos, podran conocer a Jamin Warren y sus colaboradores de la revista Kill Screen, y tambin, por ejemplo, a Kevin Slavin. +Molestamos a todos, porque sabamos que no sabamos. +No ramos realmente jugadores de videojuegos as que tuvimos que hablar con ellos. +Y decidimos, por supuesto, tener el Sim City 2000, no el otro Sim City, ese en particular, los criterios que establecimos por el camino eran realmente slidos y no solo criterios de seleccin. +Tambin fueron criterios de exposicin y de conservacin. +Eso es lo que hace que esta compra sea algo ms que un jueguito o una pequea broma. Es realmente una forma de pensar en cmo conservar y exhibir artefactos que cada vez ms sern parte de nuestras vidas en el futuro. +Vivimos hoy, como saben, no en el mundo digital, ni en el fsico, sino en la clase de minestrone que nuestra mente hace de los dos. +Y ah es donde realmente se encuentra la interaccin, y esa es la importancia de la interaccin. +Y para explicar la interaccin, necesitamos traer gente y hacer que se den cuenta de que la interaccin es parte de sus vidas. +Cuando hablo de esto, no hablo solo de videojuegos, que son, en cierto modo, la forma ms pura de interaccin, libre de cualquier tipo de funcin o finalidad. +Tambin hablo de la mquina expendedora de MetroCard, que considero una obra maestra de la interaccin. +Es decir, la interfaz es hermosa. +Parece un chico corpulento de la oficina de trnsito que sale del tnel. +Con tus guantes realmente puedes pasar la MetroCard, y me refiero a lo malo que son generalmente los cajeros automticos. +As que dejo que la gente entienda que est en ellos saber cmo juzgar la interaccin con el fin de saber cundo es buena y cundo es mala. +Cuando muestro los Sims trato de hacerle sentir a la gente qu significa realmente tener relacin con los Sims, no solo diversin, sino tambin la responsabilidad que vino con el Tamagotchi. +Los video juegos puede ser realmente profundos incluso cuando son completamente tontos. +Estoy segura de que todos conocen Katamari Damacy. +Se trata de tirar una bola y recoger tantos objetos como sea posible, en un tiempo determinado, que con suerte se podr convertir en un planeta. +Nunca he conseguido hacer el planeta, pero eso es todo. +O el Vib-cinta que no fue distribuido aqu en los Estados Unidos. +Era un juego de PlayStation pensado para Japn. +Y fue uno de los primeros videojuegos en el que podas elegir tu propia msica. +As que podas poner en la PlayStation, tu propio CD y entonces el juego cambiaba con la msica. Era realmente fantstico. +Sin olvidar a Eve Online. +Y estuve recientemente en una reunin de fans de Eve Online en Reikiavik y fue absolutamente increble. +Estamos hablando de una experiencia que podr parecer extraa para muchos de nosotros, pero que es muy educativa. +Por supuesto, hay juegos que son incluso ms educativos. +Dwarf Fortress es como el Santo Grial de este tipo de juegos en lnea masivo de multijugadores, y de hecho los dos hermanos Adams estaban en Reikiavik, y fueron recibidos con una ovacin de pie por todos los fans de Eve Online. +Fue sorprendente verlo.Es un juego hermoso. +As que empiezan a ver que la esttica, que es tan importante para una coleccin como la del MoMA, se mantiene viva tambin al seleccionar estos juegos. +Y Valve Portal es un ejemplo de un videojuego en el que hay un cierto tipo de violencia, y esto me lleva a hablar tambin de uno de los mayores problemas que tratamos cuando adquirimos los video juegos: qu hacer con la violencia. +Tuvimos que tomar decisiones. +Curiosamente, en el MoMA hay mucha violencia retratada en la seccin de arte de la coleccin, pero cuando llegu al MoMA hace 19 aos,como buena Italiana, dije: "Saben qu, necesitamos una Beretta". +Y me dijeron, "No. Sin armas en la coleccin de diseo". +Y yo estaba como:"Por qu?". +Curiosamente, me enter de que se considera que en el diseo y en la coleccin de diseo, lo que se ve es lo que se tiene. +As que cuando ven un arma, es un instrumento para matar en la coleccin de diseo. +Si est en la coleccin de arte, podra ser una crtica del instrumento de muerte. +Es muy interesante. +Pero estamos formando nuestra dimensin crtica tambin en el diseo, as que tal vez, algn da, podremos tambin adquirir las armas. +Pero en este caso en particular decidimos , con Kate y Pablo, que no incluiramos violencia gratuita. +Incluimos el Portal porque se dispara contra paredes con el fin de crear nuevos espacios. +Tenemos el Street Fighter II, porque las artes marciales son buenas. +Pero no tenemos el GTA porque, tal vez es algo personal, nunca he sido capaz de chocar autos y de dispararle a prostitutas y a proxenetas. +No era muy constructivo. Me ro de esto, pero lo discutimos por muchos das. No tienen ni idea. +Y todava tengo mis dudas, pero cuando se tienen, en cambio, juegos como el Flow, no hay ninguna duda. +Es acerca de la serenidad y de lo sublime, +de experimentar lo que significa ser una criatura del mar. +Tenemos tambin algunos clsicos de deslizamiento lateral. +Es una coleccin bastante importante. +Empezamos con los primeros 14, pero tenemos varios que estn por venir, y la razn de por qu no los hemos adquirido an es que no adquirimos solo el juego. +Adquirimos la relacin con la empresa. +Lo que queremos, a lo que aspiramos, es al cdigo. +Es muy difcil de conseguir, por supuesto. +Pero eso es lo que nos permitira preservar los videojuegos por un tiempo muy largo, y eso es lo que hacen los museos. +Tambin conservan artefactos para la posteridad. +A falta del cdigo, porque las empresas de videojuegos no cooperan mucho en algunos casos, a falta del cdigo, adquirimos la relacin con la empresa. +Nos vamos a quedar con ellos para siempre. +No se van a deshacer de nosotros. +Y un da, tendremos ese cdigo. Pero quiero explicarles los criterios que elegimos para el diseo interactivo. La esttica es muy importante. +Aqu ven el Core War, que es un juego viejo que aprovecha estticamente las limitaciones del procesador. +El tipo de interferencias que ven aqu, que parecen hermosas barreras en el juego, son en realidad una consecuencia de las limitaciones del procesador; es fantstico. La esttica siempre es importante. +Tambin lo es el espacio, el aspecto espacial de los juegos. +Creo que los mejores videojuegos son los que tienen arquitectos realmente conocedores detrs de ellos y si no son arquitectos, con formacin genuina en arquitectura, se tiene esa sensacin. +Pero la evolucin espacial en los video juegos es de suma importancia. +El tiempo. La forma en que experimentamos el tiempo en los videojuegos, como en otras formas de diseo interactivo, es realmente asombrosa. +Puede ser en tiempo real o puede ser el tiempo dentro del juego, como en Animal Crossing, donde las estaciones suceden a su propio ritmo. +As que el tiempo, el espacio, la esttica, y, lo ms importante, el comportamiento. +El tema central del diseo interactivo es el comportamiento. +Diseadores que tratan con comportamientos en el diseo interactivo que van a influir el resto de nuestras vidas. +No estn limitados solo a nuestra interaccin con la pantalla. +En este caso, estoy mostrando el Marble Madness, que es un juego hermoso en el que el mando es una gran esfera que vibra contigo, para tener una esfera que se mueve en este paisaje, y la esfera, el mando en s mismo, te da una sensacin de movimiento. +En cierto modo, pueden ver cmo los videojuegos son el aspecto ms puro de diseo interactivo y son muy tiles para explicar qu es la interaccin. +No queremos mostrar los videojuegos con la parafernalia. No hay nostalgia por las maquinitas. +En todo caso, queremos mostrar el cdigo, y aqu pueden ver el distellamap de Ben Fry del Pac-Man, del cdigo del Pac-Man. +La forma en que obtuvimos los juegos es muy interesante y muy poco ortodoxa. Aqu los ven exhibidos junto a otros ejemplos de diseo, muebles y otras piezas, pero no hay ninguna parafernalia, no hay nostalgia, solo la pantalla y un pequeo estante con los mandos. +Los mandos son, por supuesto, parte de la experiencia, y no podemos descartarlos. +Pero curiosamente, esta eleccin no fue condenada con tanta vehemencia por los jugadores. +Cre esta distancia extraa, este choque, que hizo que la gente se diera cuenta de lo magnficamente formales y funcionalmente importantes que son las piezas de diseo. +Me gustara hacer lo mismo con los video juegos. +Al quitar las alfombras pegajosas, las colillas de cigarrillo y todo lo que nos recuerde a nuestra infancia, quiero que la gente entienda que estas son formas importantes de diseo. +En cierta forma, los videojuegos, las tipografas y todo lo dems nos ayudan a hacer comprender a la gente un significado ms amplio para el diseo. +Una de mis adquisiciones soadas, que ha estado en espera desde hace unos aos pero que ahora se retomar, es un 747. +Me gustara adquirirlo, pero sin poseerlo. +No quiero que sea del MoMA y est en el MoMA. +Quiero que siga volando. +Es una adquisicin en la que el MoMA hace un arreglo con una aerolnea y mantiene el Boeing 747 volando. +Y lo mismo con el smbolo "@" que hemos adquirido hace unos aos. +Fue el primer ejemplo de una adquisicin de algo que es de dominio pblico. +Y lo que le digo a la gente, es casi como si una mariposa pasara volando y capturramos la sombra en la pared, y apenas estamos mostrando la sombra. +En cierto modo, estamos mostrando una manifestacin de algo que es verdaderamente importante y eso es parte de nuestra identidad, pero nadie lo puede tener. +Es demasiado largo para explicar la adquisicin, pero si quieren ir al blog del MoMA, hay un largo post donde explico por qu es un gran ejemplo de diseo. +En el camino, he tenido que quemar unas cuantas sillas. Saben? +He tenido que prescindir de algunos conceptos de diseo pasados. +Pero veo que est llegando al pblico, que el pblico, paradjicamente, es mucho ms sensible y comprende mejor esta expansin del diseo que algunos de mis colegas. +El diseo est realmente en todas partes, y el diseo es tan importante como cualquier otra cosa, y estoy muy contenta de que, debido a su diversidad y debido a su importancia para nuestras vidas, muchas ms personas se acerquen a l como una profesin, como una pasin, y como, simplemente, parte de su propia cultura. +Muchas gracias. +Voy a compartir con Uds. una perspectiva de cambio de paradigma en los temas de violencia de gnero: agresin sexual, violencia domstica, abuso en la relacin, acoso sexual, abuso sexual de nios. +Toda la gama de cuestiones a las que me referir en corto como "cuestiones de violencia de gnero", que han sido vistas como cuestiones de mujeres en los que algunos hombres buenos ayudan, pero tengo un problema con ese marco y no lo acepto. +No lo veo como asuntos de mujeres en los que algunos hombres buenos ayudan. +De hecho, voy a argumentar que se trata de asuntos de hombres, primero y ante todo. +Ahora, obviamente, tambin son temas de mujeres, me doy cuenta, pero llamar a la violencia de gnero un tema de mujeres, es parte del problema, por un nmero de razones. +La primera es que da a los hombres una excusa para no prestar atencin. +Verdad? Muchos hombres omos el trmino "asuntos de mujeres" y tendemos a desconectarlo, y pensamos, "Eh!, yo soy un hombre. Eso es para las chicas", o "Eso es para las mujeres". +Y muchos hombres literalmente no van ms all de la primera frase como resultado de ello. +Es casi como si se activara un chip en nuestro cerebro y las vas neuronales dirigieran nuestra atencin en una direccin diferente cuando escuchamos el trmino "asuntos de mujeres". +Esto es tambin verdad, por cierto, para la palabra "gnero", porque mucha gente oye la palabra "gnero" y piensan que significa "mujeres". +As que piensan que las cuestiones de gnero son sinnimo de asuntos de mujeres. +Existe cierta confusin sobre el trmino gnero. +Y realmente, permtanme ilustrar esa confusin con una analoga. +Vamos a hablar un momento de raza. +En los EE.UU., cuando omos la palabra "raza" mucha gente cree que significa afroamericano, latino, asitico americano, nativo americano, surasitico, de las Islas del Pacfico y as. +Mucha gente, cuando escucha la palabra "orientacin sexual" cree que es gay, lesbiana, bisexual. +Y mucha gente, cuando escucha la palabra "gnero", cree que significa mujeres. En cada caso, el grupo dominante no pone atencin. +Verdad? Como si los blancos no tuvieran un tipo de identidad racial o no pertenecieran a alguna categora racial o constructo, como si las personas heterosexuales no tuvieran una orientacin sexual, como si los hombres no tuvieran un gnero. +Y es increble cmo funciona en la violencia domstica y sexual, cmo los hombres en gran parte han sido borrados de la conversacin sobre un tema que es central a los hombres. +Y voy a ilustrar lo que estoy hablando mediante el uso de la tecnologa antigua. +Soy de la vieja escuela en algunos temas fundamentales. +Trabajo en... hago pelculas... y trabajo con alta tecnologa, pero todava soy de la vieja escuela como educador, y quiero compartir con Uds. este ejercicio que ilustra en el nivel de la estructura de la oracin la forma en que pensamos, literalmente la manera en que usamos el lenguaje, que conspira para mantener fuera la atencin de los hombres. +Es sobre la violencia domstica en particular pero puede conectar con otros anlogos. +Esto viene de la obra de la lingista feminista Julia Penelope. +Comienza con una frase de composicin bsica: "Juan le pega a Mara". +Es una buena oracin. +Juan es el sujeto. Pega es el verbo. +Mara es el objeto. Buena frase. +Ahora vamos a pasar a la segunda frase, que dice lo mismo en la voz pasiva. +"Mara fue golpeada por Juan". +Y ahora ha sucedido mucho en una sola frase. +Hemos pasado de "Juan le pega a Mara" a "Mara fue golpeado por Juan". +Hemos cambiado, en una frase, nuestro foco de Juan a Mara, y se puede ver que Juan est muy cerca del final de la oracin, bien, cerca de dejar el mapa de nuestro plano psquico. +En la tercera oracin, John sale, y tenemos, "Mara fue golpeada", y ahora se trata de Mara. +No estamos pensando en John. Se centra totalmente en Mara. +Durante la ltima generacin, el trmino que hemos utilizado sinnimo de "golpeada" es "maltratada", as que tenemos "Mara fue maltratada". +Y la oracin definitiva en esta secuencia, que fluye de los dems, es, "Mara es una mujer maltratada". +As que ahora la identidad de Mara Mara es una mujer maltratada es lo mismo que lo hecho a ella por Juan en primera instancia. +Pero hemos demostrado que Juan hace mucho tiempo ha dejado la conversacin. +Ahora, los que trabajamos en la violencia domstica y sexual sabemos que culpar a la vctima es algo generalizado en esta esfera, es decir, culpar a la persona a la que se le hizo algo en lugar de a la persona que lo hizo. +Y decimos cosas como, por qu estas mujeres salen con estos hombres? +Por qu son atradas por estos hombres? +Por qu ellas regresan? Por qu se visti as para la fiesta? +Qu cosa tan estpida. Por qu estaba tomando con ese grupo de muchachos en esa habitacin de hotel? +Se trata de culpar a la vctima, y existen numerosas razones para ello, pero una de ellas es que toda nuestra estructura cognitiva se configura culpando a las vctimas. Todo inconsciente. +Nuestra estructura cognitiva est toda configurada para hacer preguntas sobre las mujeres y las opciones de las mujeres y lo que estn haciendo, pensando y usando. +Y no voy a gritar a quienes preguntan sobre las mujeres, bien? Es algo legtimo de preguntar. +Pero seamos claros: hacer preguntas acerca de Mara no va a llevarnos a ningn lugar en trminos de prevencin de la violencia. +Tenemos que hacer un conjunto diferente de preguntas. +Pueden ver dnde voy con esta, verdad? +Las preguntas no son acerca de Mara, son acerca de Juan. +Las preguntas incluyen cosas como, por qu Juan le peg a Mara? +Por qu la violencia domstica sigue siendo un gran problema en los EE.UU. y en todo el mundo? +Qu pasa? Por qu tantos hombres abusan, fsica, emocional y verbalmente y de otras maneras, de mujeres y nias, y los hombres y muchachos, que dicen amar? Qu les pasa a los hombres? +Por qu tantos hombres adultos abusan sexualmente de nias y nios pequeos? +Por es un problema comn en nuestra sociedad y en todo el mundo de hoy? +Por qu escuchamos una y otra vez sobre nuevos escndalos apareciendo en grandes instituciones como la Iglesia Catlica o el programa de ftbol de Penn State o los Boy Scouts de Amrica, y as? +Y despus en todas las comunidades por todo el pas y por todo el mundo, verdad? Omos de ello todo el tiempo. +El abuso sexual de nios. +Qu le est sucediendo a los hombres? Por qu tantos hombres violan mujeres en nuestra sociedad y en todo el mundo? +Por qu tantos hombres violan a otros hombres? +Qu les pasa a los hombres? +Y por tanto, cul es el papel de las diferentes instituciones en nuestra sociedad que estn ayudando a producir hombres abusivos a tasas pandmicas? +Porque esto no se trata de los autores individuales. +Esa es una forma ingenua de entender lo que es un mucho ms profundo y sistmico problema social. +Saben, los perpretadores no son esos monstruos que se arrastran en la cinaga y vienen a la ciudad y hacen sus desagradable asuntos y luego regresan a la oscuridad. +Es una nocin muy ingenua, verdad? +Los perpretadores son mucho ms normales que eso, y cotidianos que eso. +Entonces la pregunta es, qu estamos haciendo aqu en nuestra sociedad y en el mundo? +Cules son los roles de varias instituciones que favorecen en producir a hombres abusivos? +Cul es el papel de las creencias religiosas, la cultura del deporte, la cultura de la pornografa, la estructura familiar, econmica y cmo que se entrecruzan, y la raza y la etnicidad y cmo que se intersectan? +Cmo funciona todo esto? +Y luego, una vez que empezamos a hacer ese tipo de conexiones y a hacernos esas preguntas importantes y grandes, entonces podemos hablar de cmo podemos ser transformadores, en otras palabras, cmo podemos hacer algo diferente? +Cmo podemos cambiar las prcticas? +Cmo podemos cambiar la socializacin de los nios y las definiciones de masculinidad que llevan a estos resultados actuales? +Este es el tipo de preguntas que debemos hacernos y el tipo de trabajo que tenemos que hacer, pero si estamos infinitamente centrados en lo que estn haciendo las mujeres y pensando en las relaciones u otros cosas, no vamos a llegar a esta parte. +Ahora, yo entiendo que muchas mujeres que han intentado hablar de estos temas, hoy y ayer y durante aos y aos, a menudo son abucheadas por sus esfuerzos. +Las llamaron con nombres desagradables como "Machacadoras de hombres" y "andro-fbicas", y el desagradable y ofensivo "feminazi". Verdad? +Y saben todo por qu es? +Se llama matar al mensajero. +Es porque las mujeres que estn respaldando y hablando por s mismas y por otras mujeres as como por hombres y nios, es una declaracin para sentarse y callarse, mantener el sistema actual en su lugar, porque no nos gusta cuando la gente sacude el barco. +No nos gusta cuando la gente desafa nuestro poder. +Mejor sera sentarse y callarse, en suma. +Y menos mal que las mujeres no lo han hecho. +Gracias a Dios que vivimos en un mundo donde hay tal liderazgo de mujeres que pueden contrarrestar esto. +Pero uno de los roles de gran alcance que los hombres podemos desempear aqu es que podemos decir algunas cosas que a veces las mujeres no pueden decir, o, mejor an, podemos or decir algunas cosas que las mujeres a menudo no pueden orse diciendo. +Ahora, comprendo que es un problema, es el sexismo. +Vivimos en el mundo juntos. +Y por cierto, una de las cosas que realmente me molesta sobre la retrica contra las feministas y otros que han construido para mujeres maltratadas y movimientos de crisis de violacin del mundo es de alguna manera, como dije antes, que son anti-hombres. +Qu pasa con todos los muchachos que estn profundamente afectados de manera negativa por lo que un hombre adulto les est haciendo contra sus madres, ellos mismos, sus hermanas? +Qu pasa con todos esos chicos? +Qu pasa con todos los nios y los jvenes que han sido traumatizados por la violencia de los hombres adultos? +Sabes qu? El mismo sistema que produce los hombres que abusan de las mujeres produce hombres que maltraten a otros hombres. +Y si queremos hablar de vctimas masculinas, hablemos de vctimas masculinas. +La mayora de las vctimas masculinas de la violencia son vctimas de la violencia de otros hombres. +As que eso es algo que tienen en comn las mujeres y los hombres. +Somos ambos vctimas de la violencia de los hombres. +As que es en nuestro propio inters directo, sin dejar de mencionar el hecho de que la mayora de los hombres que conozco tienen mujeres y las nias por las que nos preocupamos profundamente, en nuestras familias y nuestros crculos de amistad y en todos los sentidos. +Por eso hay tantas razones por las que necesitamos que los hombres hablen. +Parece obvio decirlo en voz alta. No es cierto? +Ahora, la naturaleza del trabajo que hago y mis colegas en la cultura deportiva y el ejrcito estadounidense, en las escuelas, somos pioneros en este enfoque llamado del espectador para la prevencin de la violencia de gnero. +Estoy usando el gnero binario. S que hay ms que hombres y mujeres, hay ms que hombres y mujeres. +Y hay mujeres que son culpables, y por supuesto, hay hombres que son vctimas. +Hay un espectro entero. +Cmo hablamos sin temor? Cmo desafiamos a nuestros amigos? +Cmo apoyamos a nuestros amigos? Pero cmo no permanecer en silencio ante el abuso? +Ahora, cuando se trata de hombres y la cultura masculina, el objetivo es conseguir a los hombres que no son abusivos para desafiar a los hombres que s lo son. +Y cuando digo abusivos, no me refiero solo a hombres que le estn pegando a las mujeres. +No solo estamos diciendo a un hombre cuyo amigo est abusando de su novia que deben detener al chico en el momento del ataque. +Es una forma ingenua de crear un cambio social. +Es a lo largo de un continuo, estamos tratando de conseguir hombres que se interrumpan mutuamente. +As, por ejemplo, si eres un chico y ests en un grupo de chicos jugando al pker, hablando, pasando el rato, sin ninguna mujer presente, y otro hombre dice algo sexista o degradante o de acoso a las mujeres, en lugar de risa o fingir que no oyes necesitamos hombres que digan, "Eh, eso no es gracioso. +Sabes, podra ser mi hermana de la que est hablando, y podras bromear sobre otra cosa? +O podra hablar de otra cosa? +No valoro ese tipo de conversacin". +Al igual que si eres una persona blanca y otra persona blanca hace un comentario racista, y esperan, espero, que la gente blanca interrumpa esa promulgacin racista de un compaero blanco. +Al igual que con el heterosexismo, si eres una persona heterosexual y no adoptas comportamientos de acoso o abusos hacia las personas de diversas orientaciones sexuales, si no dices algo frente a otras personas heterosexuales haciendo eso, entonces, en cierto sentido, no es tu silencio una forma de consentimiento y complicidad? +Bien, el enfoque del espectador est tratar de darles herramientas para interrumpir ese proceso y hablar sin temor y crear un clima de cultura de pares donde se vea el comportamiento abusivo como inaceptable, no solo porque es ilegal, sino porque est mal y es inaceptable en la cultura de pares. +Y si conseguimos que los hombres que acten de manera sexista pierdan estatus, los hombres jvenes y muchachos que actan sexistamente y acosando a nias y mujeres, as como a otros nios y hombres, pierdan estatus como resultado de eso, adivinen qu? +Vamos a ver una disminucin radical del abuso. +Porque el perpetrador tpico no est enfermo y torcido, +es un chico normal en todos los sentidos. No? +Ahora, entre las muchas cosas buenas que Martin Luther King dijo en su corta vida fue, "Al final, lo que perjudicar ms no son las palabras de nuestros enemigos sino el silencio de nuestros amigos". +Al final, lo que perjudicar a la mayora no son las palabras de nuestros enemigos sino el silencio de nuestros amigos. +Ha habido un montn de silencio en la cultura masculina sobre esta tragedia en curso de violencia de los hombres contra las mujeres y los nios, no es as? +Ha habido un montn de silencio. +Y todo lo que estoy diciendo es que tenemos que romper ese silencio, y necesitamos ms hombres para hacerlo. +Porque en ltima instancia, la responsabilidad de adoptar una postura sobre estos temas no debe caer sobre los hombros de nios o adolescentes en la escuela secundaria o los hombres universitarios. Debe estar en los hombres adultos con poder. +Los hombres adultos con poder son los que necesitamos para responsabilizarse de ser lderes en la materia, porque cuando alguien habla en una cultura de pares y desafa e interrumpe, l o ella est siendo lder, verdad, correcto? +Pero en una escala grande, necesitamos ms hombres adultos con poder para comenzar a dar prioridad a estas cuestiones, y no hemos visto an, los hay? +Estaba en una cena hace varios aos atrs, y trabajo ampliamente con el ejrcito estadounidense, todos los servicios. +Y estaba en la cena y esta mujer me dijo creo que pens que ella era un poco inteligente dijo, "As que hace cunto tiempo que has estado haciendo entrenamiento de sensibilidad con los marines?" +Y yo dije, "Con todo respeto, no hago entrenamiento de sensibilidad con los marines. +Doy un programa de liderazgo en el cuerpo de marines." +Ahora, s que es un poco pomposa, mi respuesta, pero es una distincin importante, porque no creo que lo que necesitamos es la formacin de la sensibilidad. +Necesitamos entrenamiento en liderazgo, porque, por ejemplo, cuando un entrenador profesional o un directivo de un equipo de bisbol o de ftbol y trabajo extensamente en esta esfera tambin hace un comentario sexista, hace una afirmacin homofbica, hace un comentario racista, habr discusiones en los blogs de deportes y en programas radiales de deportes. +Y algunas personas dirn, "Necesitaba capacitacin en sensibilidad". +Y otros dirn, "Olvdalo. +Sabes, es de ser polticamente correcto es para enloquecerse, hizo una declaracin estpida. Djalo pasar". +Mi argumento es que l no necesita entrenamiento de sensibilidad. +Necesita entrenamiento en liderazgo, porque est siendo un mal lder, porque en una sociedad con diversidad de gnero y diversidad sexual y diversidad racial y tnica, al hacer ese tipo de comentarios, ests fallando en tu liderazgo. +Si podemos hacer este punto que estoy haciendo a poderosos hombres y mujeres en nuestra sociedad en todos los niveles de autoridad y poder, va a cambiar, va a cambiar el paradigma del pensamiento de la gente. +Saben, por ejemplo, que yo trabajo mucho en atletismo universitario a lo largo de Norte Amrica. +Sabemos mucho sobre cmo prevenir violencia domstica y sexual, bien? +No hay ninguna excusa para una universidad no tenga formacin de prevencin de violencia domstica y sexual ordenada a todos los estudiantes atletas, entrenadores, administradores, como parte de su proceso educativo. +Sabemos lo suficiente para saber que fcilmente podemos hacer eso. +Pero saben lo que falta? El liderazgo. +Pero no es el liderazgo de los estudiantes atletas. +El liderazgo del director deportivo, del presidente de la Universidad, de las personas a cargo que toman decisiones sobre recursos y que toman decisiones sobre las prioridades en la configuracin institucional. +Es una falla, en la mayora de los casos, de liderazgo de los hombres. +Vean Penn State. Penn State es la madre de momentos que ensean sobre el enfoque del espectador. +Tena tantas situaciones en ese asunto donde los hombres en posiciones de gran alcance no actuaron para proteger a los nios, en este caso, muchachos. +Es increble, realmente. Pero cuando te adentras en l, te das cuenta de que hay presiones de los hombres. +Hay restricciones dentro de las culturas entre los hombres, razn por la cual tenemos que animar a los hombres a romper esas presiones. +Y una de las maneras de hacerlo es decir que hay un montn de hombres que se preocupan profundamente por estas cuestiones. +S esto. Trabajo con hombres, y he estado trabajando con decenas de miles, cientos de miles de hombres desde hace muchas dcadas. +Da miedo, cuando lo piensas bien, cuntos aos. +Pero hay muchos hombres que se preocupan profundamente por estas cuestiones, pero preocuparse profundamente no es suficiente. +Necesitamos a ms hombres con las agallas, con el coraje, con la fuerza, con la integridad moral de romper nuestro silencio cmplice y desafiarse unos a otros y estar con las mujeres y no contra ellas. +Por cierto, se lo debemos a las mujeres. +No hay ninguna duda sobre ello. +Pero tambin se lo debemos a nuestros hijos. +Tambin se lo debemos a los hombres jvenes que estn creciendo por todo el mundo en situaciones donde no eligen ser un hombre en una cultura que les dice que la virilidad es una cierta manera. +No hacen la eleccin. +Nosotros que tenemos opcin tenemos la oportunidad y una responsabilidad para ellos tambin. +Espero que, de ahora en adelante, hombres y mujeres, trabajen juntos, puede comenzar el cambio y la transformacin que va a pasar para que las generaciones futuras no tengan el nivel de tragedia del que nos ocupamos a diario. +S que podemos hacerlo. Podemos hacerlo mejor. +Muchas gracias. +Cuntos de ustedes revisaron su correo electrnico hoy? +Vamos, levanten las manos. +Cuntos lo estn revisando ahora? +Y las finanzas? Alguien las revis hoy? +La tarjeta de crdito, la cartera de inversiones? +Esta semana? +Ahora, piensen en el uso de energa hogareo. +Alguien lo revis hoy? +Esta semana? La semana pasada? +Hay algunos fanticos de la energa presentes en la sala. +Es bueno verlos, chicos. +Pero y el resto de nosotros? Esta sala est llena de gente que siente pasin por el futuro de este planeta, y ni siquiera nosotros le prestamos atencin al gasto de energa causante del cambio climtico. +La mujer de la foto conmigo es Harriet. +La conocimos en nuestras primeras vacaciones familiares. +Harriet le presta atencin a su gasto energtico hogareo, y definitivamente no es una fantica de la energa. +Esta es la historia de cmo Harriet comenz a prestarle atencin. +Esto es carbn, la fuente de electricidad ms comn del planeta, y hay suficiente energa en este carbn para encender esta bombilla elctrica por ms de un ao. +Pero desafortunadamente, entre esto y esto, la mayora de esa energa se gasta en prdidas durante la transmisin o calor. +De hecho, solo el 10 % se convierte en luz. +Por lo tanto, este carbn durara poco ms de un mes. +Si quisieran encender esta bombilla por un ao, Necesitaran todo este carbn. +La mala noticia es que por cada unidad de energa que usamos, gastamos nueve. +Lo que significa que hay una buena noticia, porque por cada unidad de energa que ahorramos, ahorramos las otras nueve. +As que la pregunta es: cmo lograr que la gente en esta sala y en todo el mundo comience a prestarle atencin a la cantidad de energa que estn usando, y empiecen a gastar menos? +La respuesta surgi de un experimento en ciencias del comportamiento realizado hace diez aos, durante un caluroso verano, a solo unos 150 kilmetros de aqu, en San Marcos, California. +Un grupo de graduados coloc carteles en cada puerta de un vecindario pidindole a la gente que apaguara el aire acondicionado y encendiera el ventilador. +Un cuarto de los hogares recibi un mensaje que deca, "Saba que puede ahorrar USD 54 por mes este verano? +Apague el aire acondicionado, encienda el ventilador". +Otro grupo recibi un mensaje ecolgico. +Y un tercer grupo recibi un mensaje que invitaba a ser un buen ciudadano y prevenir los cortes de luz. +Casi todos piensan que el mensaje sobre el ahorro de dinero fue el que mejor funcion. +Pero de hecho, ninguno de estos mensajes funcion. +No tuvieron impacto alguno en el consumo de energa. +Fue como si los estudiantes no hubieran hecho nada en absoluto. +Pero hubo un cuarto mensaje, y este mensaje simplemente deca, "Al ser encuestados, el 77 % de sus vecinos dijo que apagaron el aire acondicionado y prendieron el ventilador. +Por favor, nase. Apague el aire acondicionado y encienda el ventilador". +Y no van a creerlo, pero lo hicieron. +La gente que recibi este mensaje mostr un marcado descenso en el consumo de energa solo porque se les dijo lo que hacan sus vecinos. +Entonces, qu nos demuestra esto? +Bueno, si algo no es prctico, an si creemos que es lo correcto, apelar a la moral, incentivar desde lo econmico, no hace que nos movilicemos pero la presin social, eso tiene mucho poder sobre nosotros. +Y manejada correctamente, puede ser un mecanismo de poder beneficioso. +De hecho, ya lo es. +Inspirados por este conocimiento, mi amigo Dan Yates y yo iniciamos una compaa llamada Opower. +Desarrollamos software y nos asociamos con empresas de servicios pblicos que queran ayudar a sus clientes a ahorrar energa. +Generamos reportes personalizados de energa hogarea que le muestran a la gente su consumo comparado con casas de igual tamao en el vecindario. +Al igual que esos efectivos carteles en las puertas, hacemos que la gente se compare con sus vecinos. Y luego les damos recomendaciones puntuales para ayudarlos a ahorrar. +Comenzamos con formato en papel, luego cambiamos a una aplicacin mvil, Internet, y ahora incluso un termostato regulable, y en los ltimos 5 aos hemos estado realizando el experimento de ciencia conductual ms grande del mundo. +Y est funcionando. +Dueos e inquilinos comunes han ahorrado ms de USD 250 millones en sus facturas de energa, y es solo el comienzo. +Solo este ao, asociados con ms de 80 empresas de servicios en 6 pases, vamos a generar otros dos terawatt-hora en ahorros de energa. +Ahora, los fanticos de la energa en esta sala saben cunto es dos terawatt-hora pero para el resto de nosotros, dos terawatt-hora es ms que suficiente para suministrar energa a cada casa de San Luis y Salt Lake City juntas por ms de un ao. +Dos terawatt-hora, es aproximadamente la mitad de lo que la industria de la energa solar en EE.UU. produjo el ao pasado. +Y dos terawatt-hora? En trminos de carbn, tendramos que quemar 34 de estas carretillas cada minuto de cada da durante todo un ao para obtener dos terawatt-hora de energa. +Y no estamos quemando nada. +Solo estamos motivando a la gente a prestar atencin y cambiar su comportamiento. +Pero somos solo una compaa, y esto es apenas la punta del iceberg. +El 20 % de la electricidad hogarea se desperdicia, y cuando digo que se desperdicia, no me refiero a que la gente tenga bombillas elctricas de mala calidad. Puede ser. +Quiero decir que dejamos las luces prendidas en habitaciones vacas y el aire acondicionado prendido cuando no hay nadie en casa. +Esos son USD 40 mil millones al ao desperdiciados en electricidad que no contribuye a nuestro bienestar pero s al cambio climtico. +USD 40 mil millones cada ao, solo en los EE.UU. +Eso es la mitad del carbn que consumimos. +Afortunadamente, algunos de los mejores cientficos de los materiales buscan cmo reemplazar el carbn con recursos sostenibles como ste, lo cual es fantstico y necesario. +Pero el recurso ms ignorado para alcanzar un futuro de energa sostenible, no est en esta diapositiva. +Est en esta sala. Son Uds. y soy yo. +Y podemos aprovechar este recurso sin ciencias de los materiales, simplemente aplicando ciencias del comportamiento. +Podemos hacerlo hoy, sabemos que funciona, y ahorraremos dinero ya mismo. +As que, qu estmos esperando? +Bueno, casi en todos lados, la normativa que regula los servicios no ha cambiado mucho desde Thomas Edison. +A las empresas de servicios todava se las recompensa cuando sus clientes gastan energa. +Deberan ser recompensadas por ayudar a sus clientes a ahorrar. +Pero esta historia no es solo acerca del ahorro de energa hogareo. +Piensen en el Prius. +Es eficiente no solo porque Toyota invirti en ciencias de los materiales, sino porque invirti en ciencias del comportamiento. +El tablero le muestra al conductor cunta energa est ahorrando en tiempo real, lo que convierte a ciertos locos del volante en abuelitas cuidadosas. +Lo que nos lleva de nuevo a Harriet. +La conocimos en nuestras primeras vacaciones familiares. +Se acerc para conocer a mi pequea, y le agrad saber que el nombre de mi hija tambin es Harriet. +Me pregunt a qu me dedicaba, y le dije: trabajo con empresas de servicios pblicos, ayudo a la gente a ahorrar energa. +Fue cuando le brillaron los ojos. +Me mir y me dijo: "Eres justo la persona con quien necesitaba hablar. +Vers, hace dos semanas, mi marido y yo recibimos una carta de nuestra empresa de servicios. +Deca que estbamos usando el doble de energa que nuestros vecinos. +Y durante las dos ltimas semanas, lo nico en lo que podemos pensar, de lo que hablamos e incluso discutimos, es qu tenemos que hacer para ahorrar energa. +Hicimos todo lo que nos deca la carta, y an as creo que debe haber ms. +Ahora estoy con un experto. +Dime, qu debo hacer para ahorrar energa?" +Hay muchos expertos que pueden ayudar a responder la pregunta de Harriet. +Mi objetivo es asegurarme que todos nos hagamos esa pregunta. +Gracias. +Lamento no poder mostrarles mi rostro, porque si lo hago, los malos vendrn a buscarme. +Mi viaje comenz hace 14 aos. +Era un periodista joven. Recin salido de la universidad. +Y recib una exclusiva. +Se trataba de una historia muy sencilla. +Los oficiales de polica estaban recibiendo sobornos de vendedores ambulantes que vendan en las calles. +Como periodista joven, pens que deba hacerlo en una forma diferente, de manera que tuviera un mximo impacto, ya que todos saban que esto estaba sucediendo, y aun as, no se haba hecho nada para mantenerlo fuera del sistema. +As que decid ir hasta all y hacerme pasar por un vendedor. +Y como parte de vender, pude documentar la evidencia slida. +El impacto fue fenomenal. +Fue fantstico. +Esto era lo que muchos llaman periodismo de inmersin, o periodismo encubierto. +Soy un periodista encubierto, +Mi periodismo depende de tres principios bsicos: nombrar, avergonzar y encarcelar. +El periodismo se trata de obtener resultados. +De afectar tu comunidad o sociedad en la forma ms progresiva. +He trabajado haciendo esto por ms de 14 aos, y puedo decirles que los resultados han sido muy buenos. +Una de las historias que tengo presente en mis invetigaciones encubiertas, es "Nio Espritu". +Se trata de nios que nacen con deformidades, y sus padres, creyeron que una vez que nacen con esas deformidades, no son lo suficientemente buenos como para vivir en sociedad, as que les dieron de tomar un brebaje y como resultado, murieron. +As que cre un maniqu de beb, y fui a la aldea, fing que este beb haba nacido con una deformidad, y estos eran los hombre que los matan. +Se prepararon. +Una vez que se ofrecieron a matar, alert a la polica. y vinieron aquella fatdica maana a matar al nio. +Recuerdo como estaban hirviendo un brebaje seriamente. +Lo pusieron al fuego. Estaba hirviendo, preparndose para drselo a los nios. +Mientras esto pasaba, los policas a quienes haba alertado, estaban esperando. Y justo cuando se lo estaban por dar a los nios, llam a la polica, y por suerte, vinieron y los atraparon. +En este momento, estn ante la justicia. +No se olviden de los principios claves: nombrar, avergonzar y encarcelar. +El proceso judicial se est llevando a cabo, y estoy muy seguro que al fin de cuentas vamos a encontrarlos y a ponerlos donde pertenecen. +Otra historia clave que recuerdo, que se relaciona con este fenmeno de nios espritu, es el "Conjuro de los Albinos". +Estoy seguro de que mucho saben que, en Tanzania, a los nios que nacen con albinismo se los considera inadecuados para vivir en sociedad. +Les cortan las partes del cuerpo con machetes y aparentemente las usan para una especie de brebaje o pociones que le dan a la gente a cambio de dinero -- hay muchas, muchas historias que la gente cuenta al respecto. +Era momento de ir encubierto una vez ms. +Y fui hacindome pasar por un hombre que estaba interesado en este negocio particular, por supuesto. +Nuevamente, cree un brazo protsico. +Por primera vez, film con camara oculta a los tipos que estaban haciendo esto, y que estaban listos para comprar el brazo que iban a utilizar para preparar esas pociones para la gente. +Estoy contento de que actualmente, el gobierno de Tanzania ha tomado medidas, pero el hecho clave es que el gobierno tanzano solo pudo tomar medidas porque la evidencia estaba disponible. +Mi periodismo se trata de evidencia slida. +Si digo que robaron, les muestro la evidencia de que han robado. +Muestro cmo robaron, cundo y qu usaron cuando tenan que robar. +Cul es la esencia del periodismo si no beneficia a la sociedad? +Mi clase de periodismo es producto de mi sociedad. +Y s que a veces las personas tienen crticas sobre el periodismo encubierto. +(Video: Oficial: Sac algo de dinero de sus bolsillos y lo puso sobre la mesa, para que no tuviramos miedo. +Quiere traer el cacao y enviarlo a Costa de Marfil. +As que con mis intenciones ocultas, me mantuve en silencio. +No dije una sola palabra. +Pero mis colegas no lo saban. +As que luego de cobrar el dinero, cuando se fue, estbamos esperando que trajera los bienes. +Inmediatamente despus de que se fue, le dije a mis colegas que dado que yo era el lder del grupo, les dije que si venan, los bamos a arrestar. +Segundo oficial: Ni siquiera conozco ese lugar llamado [inaudible]. +Jams he estado all. +As que estoy sorprendido. +Se ve una mano contando dinero justo enfrente mo. +Un momento despus, ven el dinero en mis manos, contando, mientras que yo no haba entrado en contacto con nadie. +No he hecho negocios con nadie. +Periodista: Cuando Metro News contrat al periodista investigador Anas Aremeyaw Anas, como reaccin, simplemente sonri y entreg este fragmento de video, que no utiliz en el documental recin presentado. +El oficial que anteriormente negaba estar involucrado, toma una calculadora para contar el dinero que cobrarn por el contrabando de cacao. +Anas Aremeyaw: Esta era otra historia de corrupcin. +Y all estaba l, negndolo. +Pero vern, cuando se tiene la evidencia slida se puede afectar a la sociedad. +AAA: Este era mi presidente. +Creo que no poda venir hasta aqu sin traerles algo especial. +Tengo una noticia, y estoy emocionado por poder compartirla por primera vez aqu con Uds. +He estado encubierto en prisiones. +He estado all por un largo tiempo. +Y puedo decirles que lo que v, no fue nada agradable. +Y de nuevo, solo puedo afectar a la sociedad y afectar al gobiernos si les presento la evidencia slida. +Muchas veces, las autoridades de la prisin, han negado tener problemas de abuso de drogas, problemas de sodoma, niegan tantos tipos de problemas que ocurren all adentro. +Cmo puede obtenerse la evidencia slida? +Bien, estuve en la prisin. [Penal de Nsawan] Lo que estn viendo es una pila de cadveres. +Acompa a uno de mis compaeros de celda, a uno de mis amigos, desde su enfermedad, hasta su muerte, y puedo decirles que no fue nada agradable. +Haba problemas de comida en mal estado, recuerdo que mucha de la comida que consum simplemente no era apta para un ser humano. +Los sanitarios, estaban en psimas condiciones. +Quiero decir, tenamos que esperar en una fila para poder ir a un sanitario apropiado... y a esto le llamo apropiado, ramos cuatro en un mismo pozo. +Es el tipo de cosa que si uno se lo cuenta a alguien, la persona no le creera. +La nica forma de hacer que te crean, es cuando muestras la evidencia. +Por supuesto que las drogas abundaban. +Era mucho ms sencillo conseguir canabis, herona y cocana dentro de la prisin que afuera, y era hasta ms rpido. +El mal en la sociedad es una enfermedad extrema. +Si se tienen enfermedades extremas, se necesitan medicinas extremas. +Mi tipo de periodismo puede no ser apropiado en otros continentes o en otros pases, pero puedo asegurarles que, funciona en mi parte del continente africano, porque en general, cuando se habla de corrupcin, preguntan: "Dnde est la evidencia? +Mustrame la evidencia". +Y yo les digo, "Aqu tienen la evidencia". +Y esto ha ayudado a poner a muchas personas tras las rejas. +Entonces, se darn cuenta que en el continente somos capaces de contar mejor la historia porque enfrentamos las condiciones y las vemos. +Es por eso que estaba especialmente emocionado cuando lanzamos nuestra serie llamada "frica investiga", donde investigamos a muchos pases africanos. +Y como resultado del xito de esta serie, estamos pasando a El mundo investiga. +Y para cuando finalice, mucho ms criminales en nuestro continente, terminarn tras las rejas +Esto no va a parar. +Voy a continuar haciendo esta clase de periodismo, porque s que cuando los hombres malos destruyen, los hombres buenos deben contruir y unirse. +Muchas gracias. +Chris Anderson: Gracias. Gracias. +Tengo algunas preguntas para t. +Cmo fue que terminaste en prisin? Esto fue hace tan solo una par de semanas, verdad? +AAA: S. Sabes, estar encubierto se trata de ordenar bien las prioridades, as hicimos que me llevaran ante la justicia. +Pas por todo el proceso judicial, porque al fin de cuentas, las autoridades del penal quieren verificar si uno ya ha estado all o no, y as es como llegu ah. +CA: Entonces, alguien te hizo juicio, y te llevaron all y quedaste arrestado durante el proceso, y lo hiciste deliberadamente. +AAA: S, s. +CA: Hblame del miedo y de cmo lo manejas, porque ests poniendo tu vida en riesgo de forma cotidiana. +Cmo lo haces? +AAA: Vers, ir encubierto siempre es el ltimo recurso. +Antes de ir encubierto, seguimos las reglas. +Y solo llego a estar cmodo y libre de miedos cuando estoy seguro de que se siguieron todos los pasos. No lo hago solo. Tengo un equipo que me apoya quienes ayudan asegurando que la seguridad y todos los sistemas sean puestos en marcha, porque hay que tomar decisiones muy inteligentes cuando todo est sucediendo. +Sino, terminara perdiendo la vida. +As que, cuando se emplea el sistema de apoyo, estoy bien, y voy. Es riesgoso, s pero son los peligros de una profesin. +Quiero decir, todos tienen sus riesgos. +Y una vez que identificas el tuyo hay que enferentarlo como y cuando venga. +CA: Bien, eres una persona maravillosa y has hecho un trabajo estupendo. y nos has enseado una leccin, como ninguna otra que hayamos escuchado. +Te agradecemos, y te felicitamos. Muchas gracias, Anas. +AAA: Gracias. +CA: Gracias. Mantente a salvo. +Bien, ahora vamos a las Bahamas a conocer un grupo notable de delfines con los que he estado trabajando en su hbitat durante los ltimos 28 aos. +Me interes en los delfines debido a sus grandes cerebros y en lo que podran estar haciendo con todo ese poder mental en la naturaleza. +Sabemos que usan parte de ese poder mental simplemente para vivir vidas complicadas, pero, qu sabemos realmente sobre la inteligencia de los delfines? +Bien, sabemos algunas cosas. +Sabemos que su cociente del cerebro y el cuerpo, que es una medida fsica de la inteligencia, es el segundo, solo detrs de los seres humanos. +Cognitivamente, entienden idiomas creados artificialmente. +Y pasan exmenes de auto reconocimiento en los espejos. +Y en algunas partes del mundo, usan herramientas, como esponjas para cazar peces. +Pero queda una gran pregunta: Tienen un idioma y, en caso afirmativo, de qu hablan? +As que hace dcadas, no aos, atrs, me puse a buscar un lugar en el mundo donde pudiera observar delfines bajo el agua para tratar de descifrar el cdigo de su sistema de comunicacin. +En casi todo el mundo, el agua es bastante turbia, por lo que es muy difcil observar animales bajo el agua, pero encontr una comunidad de delfines que viven en estos hermosos arenales, de aguas claras y poco profundas de las Bahamas que est justo al este de la Florida. +Y pasan su da descansando y socializando en la seguridad de las aguas poco profundas, pero por la noche, van fuera del lmite y cazan en aguas profundas. +Bien, no es un mal lugar para ser un investigador tampoco. +As que fuimos cerca de cinco meses cada verano en un catamarn de 20 metros y vivimos, dormimos y trabajamos en el mar durante semanas por vez. +Mi herramienta principal es un video submarino con un hidrfono que es un micrfono submarino, y as es como puedo correlacionar el sonido y el comportamiento. +La mayor parte de nuestro trabajo era no invasivo. +Tratamos de seguir la etiqueta delfn mientras estamos en el agua, puesto que realmente les estamos observando fsicamente en el agua. +Bien, los delfines manchados del Atlntico son una especie muy agradable para trabajar por un par de razones. +Nacen sin manchas, y las van adquiriendo con la edad, y pasan por fases de desarrollo muy distintas, as que es divertido realizar un seguimiento de su comportamiento. +Y por la edad de 15 aos, estn completamente manchados de blanco y negro. +Bien, la madre que se ve aqu es Mugsy. +Tiene 35 aos en esta toma, pero los delfines pueden vivir en realidad hasta los 50 aos. +Y como todos los delfines en nuestra comunidad, fotografiamos a Mugsy y monitoreamos sus manchitas y las muescas en su aleta dorsal, y tambin los patrones de puntos nicos mientras maduraba con el tiempo. +Ahora, los delfines jvenes aprenden mucho conforme crecen, y usan sus aos de adolescencia para practicar habilidades sociales, y a la edad de nueve, las hembras llegan a ser sexualmente maduras, as que pueden quedar preadas, y los machos maduran un poco ms tarde, alrededor de los 15 aos de edad. +Y los delfines son muy promiscuos, y por lo tanto debemos determinar quines son los padres, as que hicimos pruebas de paternidad recogiendo materia fecal del agua y extrayendo ADN. +Lo que quiero decir es que, despus de 28 aos, estamos monitoreando tres generaciones, incluyendo las abuelas y los abuelos. +Ahora, los delfines son especialistas naturales en acstica. +Producen sonidos 10 veces ms altos y oyen sonidos 10 veces ms altos que nosotros. +Pero hay otras formas de comunicacin que utilizan. +Tienen buena visin, as que usan posturas corporales para comunicarse. +Tienen gusto, no olfato. +Y tienen tacto. +Y el sonido realmente se puede sentir en el agua, porque la obstruccin acstica del agua y del tejido es casi la misma. +As los delfines pueden zumbar y hacerse cosquillas entre s a la distancia. +Bien, sabemos algunas cosas sobre cmo utilizan los sonidos con ciertos comportamientos. +Ahora, la firma del silbido es un silbido que es especfico a un delfn individual, y es como un nombre. (Ruidos de silbidos de delfn) Y este es el sonido mejor estudiado, porque en realidad, es fcil de medir, y este silbido se encuentra cuando las madres y las cras se renen, por ejemplo. +Otro sonido muy estudiado es el clic de ecolocalizacin. +Se trata del sonar de los delfines. (Ruidos de ecolocalizacin de delfines) Y utilizan estos clics para cazar y alimentarse. +Pero tambin, bien pueden juntar estos clics en zumbidos y usarlos socialmente. +Por ejemplo, los machos estimulan una hembra durante el cortejo. +Saben, me zumbaron en el agua. +No le digan a nadie. Es un secreto. +Y pueden sentir el sonido. Ese era mi punto con esto. +As que tambin los delfines son animales polticos, por lo que tienen que resolver conflictos. +(Ruidos de delfn) Y utilizan estas pulsaciones de sonidos explosivos as como sus comportamientos cara a cara cuando estn luchando. +Y estos son sonidos muy poco estudiados porque son difciles de medir. +Bien, este es un video de una pelea tpica de delfines. +(Ruidos de delfn) Van a ver dos grupos, y van a ver la postura cara a cara, algunas boca abiertas, muchos graznido. +Ah hay una burbuja. +Y bsicamente, uno de estos grupos ceder y todo se resolver bien, y realmente no recurren demasiado a la violencia. +Bien, en las Bahamas, tambin tenemos delfines nariz de botella residentes que interactan socialmente con los delfines manchados. +Por ejemplo, cuidan a las cras del otro. +Los machos hacen despliegue de dominacin cuando cuando estn persiguiendo hembras de la otra especie. +Y las dos especies en realidad forman alianzas temporales cuando estn alejando a los tiburones. +Y uno de los mecanismos que utilizan para comunicar su coordinacin es la sincrona. +Sincronizan sus sonidos y las posturas del cuerpo para verse ms grandes y sonar ms fuertes. +(Ruidos de delfines) Ahora, estos son delfines nariz de botella, y vern que empiezan a sincronizar su comportamiento y sus sonidos. +(Ruidos de delfn) Ven, est sincronizndose con su pareja as como con las otras parejas. +Deseara ser as de coordinada. +Bien, es importante recordar que solo estn oyendo las partes perceptibles por humanos de los sonidos de delfines, los delfines emiten sonidos ultrasnicos, y utilizamos un equipo especial en el agua para captar estos sonidos. +Ahora, los investigadores han medido la complejidad del silbido usando la teora de la informacin, y los silbidos muy complejos en comparacin incluso con los idiomas humanos. +Pero los sonidos explosivos son un misterio. +Estos son tres espectrogramas. +Son palabras humanas y uno es una vocalizacin de delfn. +Adivinen en su mente cul es la del delfn. +Ahora, resulta que el sonido de explosin realmente luce un poco como los fonemas humanos. +Una manera de descifrar el cdigo es interpretar estas seales y averiguar qu significan, pero es un trabajo difcil, y realmente todava no tenemos una Piedra de Rosetta. +Pero una segunda manera de descifrar el cdigo es desarrollar alguna tecnologa una interfaz para hacer una comunicacin bidireccional, y eso es lo que hemos estado intentando hacer en las Bahamas y en tiempo real. +Los cientficos han utilizado interfaces de teclado para tratar de cerrar la brecha con las especies incluyendo a los chimpancs y los delfines. +Este teclado submarino en Orlando, Florida, en el centro Epcot, era en realidad la interfaz bidireccional ms sofisticada diseada para humanos y delfines para colaborar bajo el agua e intercambiar informacin. +As que quisimos desarrollar una interfaz como esta en las Bahamas, pero en un entorno ms natural. +Y es una de las razones por las que pensamos que podramos hacerlo es porque los delfines estaban empezando a demostrar mucha curiosidad mutua. +Empezaron espontneamente imitando nuestras vocalizaciones y nuestras posturas y tambin nos invitaban a juegos de delfn. +Ahora, los delfines son mamferos sociales, por lo que les gusta jugar, y uno de sus juegos favoritos es arrastrar algas, o sargazo en este caso, alrededor. +Son muy hbiles. Les gusta arrastrarlo y soltarlo de punta a punta. +En esta filmacin, el adulto es Caroh. +Tiene 25 aos aqu, y este es su recin nacido, Cobalt, que apenas est aprendiendo a jugar a este juego. +(Ruidos de delfn) Esta como provocndolo y molestndolo. +Realmente quiere ese sargazo. +Cuando los delfines invitan a los seres humanos a jugar, a menudo se hunden verticalmente en el agua, con un poco de sargazo en su aleta, y lo empujan y lo dejan caer, algunas veces, en el fondo y dejan que nosotros vayamos a buscarlo, y luego nos quedamos con un poco de las algas del juego. +Pero cuando no nos sumergimos y vamos por l, te lo traen a la superficie y lo mueven delante nuestro en su cola y lo sueltan, justo como hacen con sus cras, y entonces lo recogemos y jugamos. +Y as que empezamos a pensar, no sera genial crear una tecnologa que permitiera a los delfines solicitar sus juguetes preferidos en tiempo real? +As que la idea original era tener un teclado colgado desde el barco conectado a una computadora, y los buzos y los delfines activaran las teclas en el teclado y felizmente intercambiaran informacin y solicitaran juguetes uno al otro. +Pero rpidamente nos dimos cuenta que los delfines simplemente no iban a estar alrededor del barco usando un teclado. +Tienen mejores cosas que hacer en la naturaleza. +Y estos silbidos se crean artificialmente. +Estn fuera del repertorio natural de los delfines pero los delfines pueden imitarlos fcilmente. +Pas cuatro aos con mis colegas Adam Pack y Fabienne Delfour, trabajando en el campo con este teclado usndolo entre nosotros para pedirnos juguetes. mientras que los delfines miraban. +Y los delfines podran entrar en el juego. +Podran sealar el objeto visual, o bien imitar el silbido. +Este video es de una sesin. +El buzo tiene aqu un juguete de cuerda, y yo estoy en el teclado a la izquierda, y acababa de tocar la nota de la cuerda y esta es la solicitud del juguete a los humanos. +As que tengo la cuerda, estoy sumergindome, y bsicamente estoy tratando de llamar la atencin de los delfines, porque son como nios pequeos. +Hay que mantener su atencin. +Voy a soltar la cuerda, a ver si llegan. +Aqu vienen, y entonces van a recoger la cuerda y arrastrarla alrededor como un juguete. +Ahora, estoy en el teclado a la izquierda, y esto es realmente la primera vez que intentamos esto. +Voy a intentar pedir este juguete, el juguete de cuerda, de los delfines con el sonido de la cuerda. +Vamos a ver si realmente pueden entender lo que eso significa. +Ese es el silbido de la cuerda. +Llegan los delfines, y dejan la cuerda. Guau! +Esto ocurri una sola vez. +No sabemos con certeza si realmente entienden la funcin de los silbidos. +Aqu hay un segundo juguete en el agua. +Se trata de una bufanda de juguete, y estoy tratando de llevar el delfn al teclado para mostrarle el smbolo visual y el smbolo acstico. +A este delfn, le llamamos "el ladrn de la bufanda", porque en los aos se ha fugado con unas 12 bufandas. +De hecho, sospechamos que tiene una boutique en algn lugar en las Bahamas. +Estoy investigando. Tiene la bufanda a su derecha. +Y tratamos de no tocar demasiado a los animales, realmente no queremos sobre acostumbrarlos. +Estoy tratando de llevarla de regreso al teclado. +Y el buzo va a activar el sonido de la bufanda para solicitar la bufanda. +As que intento darle la bufanda. +Guau. Casi la pierde. +Pero este es el momento donde todo se vuelve posible. +El delfn est en el teclado. +Pongan atencin. +Algunas veces esto se prolong por horas. +Y quise compartir este video con ustedes, no para mostrarles grandes avances, puesto que no han sucedido todava, sino para mostrar el nivel de intencin y concentracin que tienen estos delfines y el inters en el sistema. +Y por ello, decidimos que realmente necesitbamos una tecnologa ms sofisticada. +La computadora puede localizar quin solicit el juguete y si hay una coincidencia de la palabra. +Y el poder real del sistema est en el reconocimiento del sonido en tiempo real, por lo que podemos responder a los delfines rpidamente y con precisin. +Estamos en la fase de prototipo, pero as es como esperamos que funcione. +Entonces, el buzo A y el buzo B tienen una computadora porttil y el delfn oye el silbato como un silbido, el buzo oye el silbato como un silbido en el agua, pero tambin como una palabra a travs de la conduccin sea. +As que el buzo A toca el silbido de la bufanda o el buzo B toca el silbido de sargazo para pedir un juguete a quien lo tenga. +Lo que esperamos que pase es que el delfn imite el silbido, y si el buzo A tiene el sargazo, si ese es el sonido que fue tocado y solicitado, entonces el buzo dar el sargazo al delfn solicitante y nadarn lejos felizmente hacia la puesta del sol jugando con el sargazo para siempre. +Ahora, hasta dnde se puede llegar con este tipo de comunicacin? +Bueno, CHAT est diseado especficamente para darles a los delfines el poder para solicitarnos cosas. +Se ha diseado para ser realmente bidireccional. +Aprenden a imitar los silbidos funcionalmente? +As lo esperamos y creemos que as ser. +Pero mientras desciframos sus sonidos naturales, tambin estamos planeando ponerlos nuevamente dentro del sistema computarizado. +Por ejemplo, ahora mismo podemos poner su propia firma de silbidos en la computadora y solicitar interactuar con un delfn especfico. +Adems, podemos crear nuestros propios silbidos, nuestros propios nombres de silbido y dejar que los delfines soliciten a buzos especficos para interactuar con ellos. +Es posible que toda la tecnologa mvil sea realmente la misma tecnologa que nos ayudar a comunicarnos con otras especies. +En el caso de un delfn, es una especie que, probablemente est ms cerca de nuestra inteligencia en muchos sentidos y no seamos capaces de admitirlo actualmente, pero viven en un hbitat diferente, y an hay que cerrar la brecha con los sistemas sensoriales. +Es decir, imaginen lo que sera realmente entender la mente de otra especie inteligente en el planeta. +Gracias. +La escritora George Eliot nos advirti que de todas las formas de error, la profesa es la ms gratuita. +La persona a la que todos consideraramos su contraparte del siglo 20, Yogi Berra, estuvo de acuerdo. +Dijo, " Es dificil hacer predicciones, especialmente del futuro". +Voy a ignorar sus advertencias y voy a hacer un pronstico muy especfico. +En el mundo que de manera acelerada estamos creando, vamos a ver cosas cada vez ms parecidas a la ciencia ficcin y cada vez menos parecidas a trabajos. +Nuestros carros pronto empezarn a conducirse solos, lo que significa que necesitaremos menos conductores de camiones. +Por casi 200 aos, la gente ha estado diciendo exactamente lo mismo que digo ahora la era del desempleo tecnolgico esta a la vuelta de la esquina, empezando con los ludistas britnicos que daaban los telares justo hace dos siglos. Pero ellos estaban equivocados. +Nuestras economas en el mundo desarrollado han maniobrado en algo bastante cercano al empleo de tiempo completo. +Lo que nos lleva a una pregunta crtica: Por qu es esta poca diferente, si en verdad lo es? +La razn por la que es diferente es que solo en aos recientes, nuestras mquinas han empezado a mostrar habilidades que nunca antes haban mostrado: entienden, hablan, escuchan, ven, responden, escriben... y no dejan de adquirir nuevas. +Los robots humanoides mviles an son increblemente primitivos, pero el rea de investigacin del Departamento de Defensa ha lanzado recientemente una competencia en la que se los haga hacer cosas como estas, y si el seguimiento hecho sirve de gua, van a tener mucho xito con esta competencia. +Cuando miro a mi alrededor, veo que no est nada lejos el da en que tengamos androides haciendo gran parte del trabajo que nosotros estamos haciendo ahora. +Estamos creando un mundo donde va a haber ms y ms tecnologa y menos y menos trabajos. +Es un mundo al que Erik Brynjolfsson y yo llamamos "la era de la nueva mquina". +Hay que tener en mente que son noticias absolutamente buenas. +Es la mejor noticia econmica del planeta por estos das. +No que haya mucha competencia, por supuesto! +Es la mejor noticia econmica que tenemos por estos das por dos razones principales. +La primera es que, el progreso tecnolgico es el que nos permite continuar con la sorprendente carrera en la que nos hemos embarcado recientemente y en la que la produccin aumenta, al tiempo que los precios bajan, y el volmen y la calidad simplemente continan explotando. +Algunas personas ven esto y lo tildan de materialismo superficial, pero esa es la forma equivocada de verlo. +Esto es abundancia, que es exactamente lo que queremos que nuestro sistema econmico provea. +La segunda razn por la que la nueva era de la mquina es tan buena noticia es que, cuando los androides empiecen a hacer nuestro trabajo, nosotros ya no tendremos que hacerlo ms, y seremos liberados del trabajo arduo y monotono. +Cuando hablo de esto con mis amigos en Cambridge y en el Valle de Silicio, me dicen, "Fantstico. No ms monotona ni trabajos fatigantes. +Esto nos da la oportunidad para imaginar un tipo de sociedad totalmente diferente, una sociedad donde las reuniones de creadores e iventores, de diseadores y realizadores, con sus jefes y patrocinadores sean para conversar, recrearse, compartir ideas, y provocarse mutuamente". +Es, en verdad, una sociedad que se parece bastante a las conferencias TED. +Y hay mucho de verdad en todo esto. +Estamos presenciando un increible florecimiento. +En un mundo donde hacer un objeto es tan fcil como imprimir un documento, tenemos nuevas y fantsticas posibilidades. +Quienes solan ser iniciados y artesanos ahora son creadores y son responsables de gran cantidad de innovacin. +Y los artistas, que estaban limitados, pueden ahora hacer cosas que antes no podan. +Asi que este es un tiempo de gran florecimiento, y mientras ms veo a mi alrededor, ms me convenzo que la frase del fsico Freeman Dyson no es para nada un hiprbole. +Es simplemente una declaracin de los hechos. +Estamos a la mitad de un periodo sorprendente. +[" La tecnologa es un regalo de Dios, que despus del regalo de la vida, es quiz su ms grande regalo, madre de civilizaciones, del arte y la ciencia".] Lo cual nos plantea otra gran pregunta: Qu podra salir mal en esta nueva era de la mquina? +Nada? Fantstico... no se diga ms... prosperemos... vmonos a casa! +Vamos a enfrentar dos conjuntos de desafos realmente espinosos a medida que nos adentremos en el futuro que estamos creando. +El primero es econmico y est realmente bien resumido en una historia apcrifa de un cruce de stiras entre Henry Ford II y Walter Reuther, quien era el jefe del sindicato de trabajadores automotrices. +Estaban recorriendo una de las nuevas fbricas modernas y Ford, bromeando, mira a Reuther y le dice, "Oye Walter, cmo hars para que esos robots paguen las cuotas sindicales?" +Y Reuther replica, "cmo hars t Henry, para que compren autos?" Risas +El problema de Reuther en esa ancdota es que es dificil ofrecer la fuerza de trabajo en una economa que est llena de mquinas, y lo vemos claramente en las estadsticas. +Si se mira los retornos sobre capital de las dos ltimas dcadas, en otras palabras, las ganancias empresariales vemos que suben, y que estn hoy en el punto ms alto de todos los tiempos. +Si miramos los rendimientos en mano de obra, en otras palabras el total de los salarios pagados en la economa, los vemos en su punto ms bajo y alejndose rpidamente en la direccin opuesta. +As que estas eran claramente malas noticias para Reuther. +Parece que estas fueran excelentes noticias para Ford, pero realmente no lo son. Si quieres vender grandes cantidades de bienes ms bien caros a las personas, querras entonces contar con una clase media grande, estable y prspera. +Hemos tenido una as en Estados Unidos durante casi todo el periodo de la posguerra. +Pero la clase media est claramente bajo una gran amenaza hoy en da. +Todos conocemos bien las estadsticas, pero permtanme recordar una de ellas, el ingreso promedio en EE UU ha bajado en estos ltimos 15 aos, y estamos en peligro de quedar atrapados en un crculo vicioso en el que la desigualdad y la polarizacin continan creciendo con el tiempo. +Los desafios sociales que vienen con ese tipo de desigualdad merecen cierta atencin. +Hay un conjunto de desafos sociales que en realidad no me preocupan tanto, y que son capturados por imgenes como estas. +Este no es el tipo de problema social que me preocupa. +Que no haya disminucin de las visiones distpicas sobre lo que pasar cuando nuestras mquinas se vuelvan auto conscientes y decidan levantarse y coordinar ataques contra nosotros, +es algo de lo que me empezar a preocupar el da en que mi computadora adquiera conciencia de mi impresora. +As que esos no son los desafos por los que debemos preocuparnos. +Para precisar los tipos de desafios sociales que surgirn con la nueva era de la mquina, quiero contarles una historia sobre dos trabajadores estadounidenses estereotipo. +Y para que sean realmente estereotipos, hagamos que ambos sean unos tipos blancos. +El primero es un profesional educado en la universidad, del tipo creativo... gerente, ingeniero, doctor, abogado, ese tipo de trabajador. +Vamos a llamarlo "Ted". +Est en la cima de la clase media estadounidense. +Su contraparte no fue educado en la universidad y trabaja como obrero; trabaja como dependiente. Hace trabajos de oficina o manuales de bajo nivel en la economa. +Vamos a llamar a esa persona "Bill". +Si retrocedemos unos 50 aos, hallaremos a Bill y a Ted llevando vidas bastante similares. +En 1960, ellos, por ejemplo, muy probablemente tenan empleos de tiempo completo trabajando por lo menos 40 horas a la semana. +Pero tal y como lo ha documentado el investigador social Charles Murray, desde que empezamos a automatizar la economa, y en 1960 las computadoras recin empiezan a ser utilizadas en los negocios, desde que empezamos a inyectar progresivamente la tecnologa, la automatizacin y las cosas digitales en la economa, las vidas de Bill y Ted cambiaron significativamente. +Durante este periodo, Ted ha conservado su trabajo de tiempo completo. Bill no. +En muchos casos, los Bill han salido por completo de la economa, mientras que los Ted lo han hecho solo en raros casos. +Al paso del tiempo, Ted ha disfrutado de un feliz matrimonio, +Bill no. +Y los hijos de Ted han crecido en un hogar de dos padres, mientras que los de Bill no. +De qu otras formas los Bill estn desapareciendo de nuestra sociedad? +Sus votos en las elecciones presidenciales han disminuido y han empezado a ir a prision de forma ms frecuente. +Asi que no puedo contar una historia feliz sobre estas tendencias sociales y no se ve ningun indicio de que se revertirn. +Son ciertas independientemente del grupo tnico o demogrfico que miremos, y se estn volviendo tan severas que existe el riesgo de que opaquen incluso los increbles avances que logramos con el Movimiento de los Derechos Civiles. +Y lo que mis amigos del Valle del Silicio y de Cambridge estn pasando por alto es que ellos son Ted. +Ellos estan viviendo estas vidas increblemente ocupadas y productivas y tienen todos los beneficios para probarlo, mientras que Bill lleva una vida bastante diferente. +Ambos son prueba de lo acertado que estaba Voltaire cuando hablaba sobre los beneficios del trabajo, y del hecho de que este nos salva no de uno, si no de 3 grandes males. +["El trabajo salva al hombre de tres grandes males: el aburrimiento, el vicio y la necesidad". - Voltaire] Asi que, qu hacemos con estos desafos? +El manual de economa es sorprendentemente claro, sorprendentemente directo, especialmente a corto plazo. +Los robots no se quedarn con todos nuestros trabajos el prximo ao o el siguiente, as que el manual bsico de economa nos servir: Fomentar el espritu empresarial, reducir a la mitad la infraestructura, y asegurarnos de que estamos sacando a las personas de nuestro sistema educativo con las habilidades apropiadas. +Pero a largo plazo, si nos estamos moviendo hacia una economa que esta llena de tecnologa pero baja en trabajo, y lo estamos haciendo, entonces tenemos que considerar algunas intervenciones ms radicales. Por ejemplo, algo como un ingreso mnimo garantizado. +Esto probablemente incomode a algunas personas en este recinto, porque esta idea est asociada con la extrema izquierda y con esquemas bastante radicales para la distribucin de las riquezas. +He hecho un poco de investigacin al respecto, y tal vez tranquilice a algunos saber que la idea de un ingreso mnimo neto garantizado ha sido defendida por rabiosos socialistas como Friedrich Hayeck, Richard Nixon y Milton Friedman. +El manual econmico, entonces, es en verdad bastante preciso; +el social es bastante ms desafiante. +No s cul es el manual para hacer que Bill se emplee y se mantenga empleado durante su vida. +Lo que s se es que la educacon es una gran parte de ese proceso. +Soy testigo de primera mano de eso. +Fui un nio Montessori durante los primeros aos de mi educacin, y lo que esa educacin me ense es que el mundo es un lugar interesante y que mi trabajo es salir a explorarlo. +El colegio se acab cuando estaba en tercer grado, y entonces entr al sistema de educacin pblica, y se senta como si hubiera sido enviado al gulag. +Con el beneficio de la retrospectiva, ahora s que trataban de prepararme para la vida como dependiente o obrero, pero al mismo tiempo sent que trataban como de aburrirme y de que cayera en una sumisin con lo que suceda a mi alrededor. +Tenemos que hacerlo mejor que esto. +No podemos seguir terminando como Bills. +Vemos algunos retoos de cosas que mejoran. +Vemos a la tecnologa impactando profundamente en la educacin y empleando personas, desde nuestros ms jovenes aprendices hasta los ms viejos. +Vemos voces de negocios bastante prominentes dicindonos que necesitamos replantear algunas de las cosas que hemos estado estimado por mucho tiempo. +Y vemos esfuerzos bastante serios y sostenidos, e informados, por entender cmo intervenir en algunas de las comunidades con ms problemas que tenemos. +Entonces, los retoos estan ah. +No pretendo que se entienda que lo que tenemos es suficiente. +Estamos frente a desafos bastante difciles. +Para dar solo un ejemplo, hay cerca de 5 millones de estadounidenses que han estado desempleados por al menos 6 meses. +No vamos a arreglar las cosas para ellos mandndolos de regreso a Montesssori. +Mi mayor preocupacin es que estemos creando un mundo donde tengamos tecnologas deslumbrantes incrustradas en una especie de sociedad desgastada y respaldada por una economa que genera desigualdad en lugar de oportunidad. +Pero en realidad no creo que hagamos eso. +Creo que haremos algo mucho mejor por una muy simple razn: Los hechos estan siendo expuestos. +Las realidades de esta nueva era de la mquina y el cambio en la economa estn siendo ampliamente conocidos. +Si quisieramos acelerar el proceso, podramos hacer cosas como hacer que nuestros mejores economistas y polticos jueguen "Jeopardy!" contra Watson. +Podramos mandar al Congreso de viaje en un carro autnomo. +Y si hacemos suficientes cosas de este tipo, se terminar por entender que las cosas van a ser diferentes. +Y entonces estaremos listos para la pelea, porque no creo ni por un segundo que hayamos olvidado cmo resolver los desafos dificiles o que nos hayamos vuelto tan apticos o duros de corazn como para no intentarlo. +Empec mi charla con frases de oradores que estaban separados por un ocano y un siglo, +djenme terminarla con palabras de polticos que estaban igualmente distantes. +Winston Churchill fue a mi casa del MIT en 1949, y dijo, "Si vamos a llevar al grueso de las personas de todas las latitudes a la mesa de la abundancia, esto ser solo mediante mejoras incansables de todos nuestros medios de produccin tcnica". +Abraham Lincoln se percat de que haba otro ingrediente. +Dijo, " Soy un firme creyente en las personas. +Si se les dice la verdad, se podr contar con ellas para enfrentar cualquier crisis nacional. +El secreto est en darles los hechos escuetos". +Asi que la nota optimista, el gran secreto con el que quiero dejarlos es que los hechos tajantes de la nueva era de la mquina se estan volviendo claros, y que confo plenamente en que los usaremos para trazar un buen curso para la desafiante, y abundante economa que estamos creando. +Muchas gracias. +Hice una pelcula que era imposible de hacer, pero no saba que fuese imposible, y por eso fui capaz de hacerla. +"Mars et Avril" es una pelcula de ciencia ficcin. +Se desarrolla en Montreal, unos 50 aos en el futuro. +Nadie antes haba hecho ese tipo de pelcula en Quebec porque es caro, se desarrolla en el futuro, tiene toneladas de efectos visuales y se filma en pantalla verde. +Sin embargo, realmente este es el tipo de pelcula que quera hacer desde que era nio, cuando lea libros de historietas y soaba con lo que podra ser el futuro. +Cuando los productores estadounidenses vieron mi pelcula, pensaron que tuve un gran presupuesto para hacerla, como 23 millones. +Pero en realidad tena el 10 % de ese presupuesto. +Hice "Mars et Avril" con solo 2.3 millones. +Se preguntarn, cul es el truco? +Cmo lo hice? +Bueno, son dos cosas. En primer lugar, es el tiempo. +Cuando no se tiene dinero, se debe tomar tiempo, y me tom siete aos hacer "Mars et Avril". +El segundo aspecto es el amor. +Recib toneladas y toneladas de generosidad de todos los involucrados. +Y parece que ningn departamentos tena nada, as que tuvieron que depender de nuestra creatividad y convertir cada problema en una oportunidad. +Y esto me lleva al punto de mi charla: cmo las limitaciones, las grandes limitaciones creativas, pueden estimular la creatividad. +Pero permtanme retroceder un poco en el tiempo. +Cuando tena unos 20 aos, hice algunas novelas grficas, pero no eran novelas grficas convencionales. +Eran libros que contaban una historia de ciencia ficcin a travs de imgenes y texto, y la mayora de los actores que ahora protagonizan la adaptacin de la pelcula, ya estaban involucrados en estos libros que retratan personajes de una manera experimental, teatral y simplista. +Uno de estos actores es el gran director de escena y actor Robert Lepage. +Me encanta este tipo. +He estado enamorado de l desde que era un nio. +Admiro mucho su carrera. +Y quera que participara en mi proyecto loco, y fue lo suficientemente amable para prestar su imagen al personaje de Eugne Spaak, que es un cosmlogo y artista que busca relacin entre tiempo, espacio, amor, msica y mujeres. +Robert se adapt perfectamente al papel y fue en realidad el que me dio mi primera oportunidad. +Fue quien crey en m y me anim a hacer una adaptacin de mis libros en una pelcula, y a escribir, dirigir, y producir la pelcula yo mismo. +Y Robert es realmente el primer ejemplo de cmo las restricciones pueden aumentar la creatividad. +Porque es el hombre ms ocupado del planeta. +O sea, su agenda est llena hasta el 2042, y conseguirlo es muy difcil, pero yo quera que estuviera en la pelcula para hacer su papel. +Pero la cosa es que, si lo esperaba hasta el 2042, ya no sera una pelcula futursta, as que no poda hacer eso. Verdad? +Pero ese era un gran problema. +Cmo lograr que alguien que est demasiado ocupado protagonice una pelcula? +Bueno, en una reunin de produccin dije en broma, y esto es una historia real, por cierto dije: "por qu no hacemos a este tipo en un holograma? +Porque, saben, est en todas partes y en ninguna parte del planeta al mismo tiempo, y es un ser iluminado en mi mente, y est entre la realidad y la realidad virtual, por lo que tendra sentido perfecto convertirlo en un holograma". +Todo el mundo en la mesa se ri, pero la broma fue una buena solucin, as que eso fue es lo que terminamos haciendo. +As es cmo lo hicimos. Filmamos a Robert con seis cmaras. +Estaba vestido de verde y pareca metido en un acuario verde. +Cada cmara cubra 60 grados de su cabeza para que en postproduccin pudiramos utilizar prcticamente cualquier ngulo que se necesitara, y solo filmamos su cabeza. +Seis meses despus haba un chico en el estudio, un mimo que encarnaba el cuerpo, el vehculo para la cabeza. +Y llevaba una capucha verde para poder borrar la capucha verde en postproduccin y reemplazarla con la cabeza de Robert Lepage. +Se convirti como un hombre del renacimiento, y as es como se ve en la pelcula. +Robert Lepage: [Como de costumbre, Arthur est dibujando y no se da cuenta de los desafos tcnicos. +Sold la recmara, pero la vlvula an tiene una fuga. +Trat de levantar los palets para disminuir la presin en la caja de sonidos, pero podra haber afectado una hebra vital. +Todava suena demasiado bajo]. Jacques Languirand: [Es normal. +El instrumento siempre termina por asemejarse a su modelo]. Martin Villeneuve: Bien, esos instrumentos musicales que vieron en el fragmento, son mi segundo ejemplo de cmo las restricciones pueden impulsar la creatividad, porque necesitaba desesperadamente estos objetos en mi pelcula. +Son objetos de deseo. +Son instrumentos musicales imaginarios. +Y tiene una bonita historia. +En realidad, yo saba cmo se veran en mi mente por muchos aos. +Pero el problema era que no tena el dinero para pagar por ellos. No poda pagarlos. +Ese tambin es un problema grande. +Cmo obtener algo que no puedo pagar? +Y, saben, una maana me despert con una idea bastante buena. +Me dije, "Y si alguien ms paga por ellos?" +Pero, quin en la tierra estara interesado a siete instrumentos musicales an no construidos inspirados en cuerpos femeninos? +Y pens en el Cirque du Soleil en Montreal, porque quin mejor que ellos para comprender el tipo de poesa loca que yo quera poner en la pantalla. +As que fui a ver a Guy Lalibert, director ejecutivo del Cirque du Soleil, y le present mi idea loca con dibujos como este y referencias visuales, y sucedi algo bastante sorprendente. +Se interes por la idea no porque yo estaba pidiendo su dinero, sino porque llegu a l con una buena idea donde todo el mundo estaba feliz. +Era una especie de tringulo perfecto en el cual el comprador de arte estaba feliz porque conseguira los instrumentos a un precio ms barato, porque ni siquiera estaban hechos. +Dio un salto de fe. +Y el artista, Dominique Engel, un chico brillante, tambin estaba contento porque tena un proyecto de ensueo para trabajar por un ao. +Y obviamente yo estaba feliz porque tena los instrumentos en mi pelcula gratis, que fue lo que intent hacer. +As que aqu estn. +Y mi ltimo ejemplo de cmo las limitaciones puede estimular la creatividad viene de la pantalla verde, porque es un color raro, un color loco, y es necesario sustituir las pantallas verdes eventualmente y se debe resolver ms temprano que tarde. +Y otra vez, tena ideas en mi mente de cmo sera el mundo, pero nuevamente volv a mi imaginacin infantil y fui a la obra del maestro del cmic belga Franois Schuiten en Blgica. +Este es otro tipo que admiro mucho, y yo quera que l participara en la pelcula como diseador de produccin. +Pero la gente me deca: Martin, es imposible, est demasiado ocupado y te dir que no. +Bueno, dije, saben qu, en lugar de imitar su estilo, tambin podra llamar al tipo real y preguntarle. Le envi mis libros, y me contest que estaba interesado en trabajar en la pelcula conmigo porque podra ser un pez grande en un acuario pequeo. +En otras palabras, haba espacio para que l soara conmigo. +As que ah estaba con uno de mis hroes de la infancia dibujando cada fotograma de la pelcula para convertirlo en la Montreal del futuro. +Y fue una colaboracin increble trabajar con este gran artista a quien admiro. +Pero entonces, saben, finalmente hay que transformar todos estos dibujos en realidad. +Por lo tanto, una vez ms, mi solucin fue apuntar el mejor artista que se me ocurri. +Y este chico en Montreal, otro quebequense llamado Carlos Monzon, un gran artista de efectos especiales. +Este hombre fue el principal compositor de pelculas como "Avatar", "Star Trek" y "Transformers", y otros proyectos desconocidos como este, y yo saba que era perfecto para el trabajo, y tuve que convencerlo, y, en vez de trabajar en la prxima pelcula de Spielberg, acept trabajar en la ma. +Por qu? Porque le ofrec un espacio para soar. +As que si no tienen dinero para ofrecer a las personas, deben estimular su imaginacin con algo tan agradable como se les ocurra. +Esto es lo que pas en esta pelcula, y as fue como se hizo. Nos fuimos a esta fantstica empresa de postproduccin en Montreal, llamada Vision Globale, y ellos prestaron sus 60 artistas para trabajar a tiempo completo durante seis meses para realizar esta pelcula loca. +Yo lo he experimentado. +Y podran acabar haciendo algunos proyectos locos, y quin sabe, podran incluso terminar yendo a Marte. +Gracias. +Quisiera hablarles hoy sobre una forma completamente nueva de pensar sobre el sexo y la educacin sexual, por comparacin. +Si hablas con alguien hoy en Estados Unidos sobre el sexo, pronto descubrirn que no solo estn hablando sobre relaciones sexuales, +sino tambin sobre bisbol. +Porque el bisbol es la metfora cultural dominante que los estadounidenses usan para pensar y hablar sobre el sexo, y lo sabemos porque tenemos todo este vocabulario en Ingls que parece que habla sobre bisbol pero realmente se refiere al sexo. +as que, por ejemplo, puedes ser un "lanzador" o un "receptor" dependiendo de si realizas un acto sexual o si te hacen un acto sexual. +Por supuesto, estn las bases, que se refieren a actividades sexuales especficas que ocurren en un orden determinado, cuyo resultado final es anotar una carrera o anotar un cuadrangular, lo que normalmente significa tener el coito hasta llegar al orgasmo, al menos para el chico. +Puedes ser ponchado lo que significa que no has conseguido tener nada de sexo. +Y si eres un calientabanquillos, puede que seas virgen o alguien que por la razn que sea no est en el partido, quizs por tu edad o debido a tu habilidad o a tu destreza. +El bate es el pene, y el foso es la vulva o vagina. +El guante del receptor es el condn. +un bateador ambidiestro es alguien bisexual, y los gays y lesbianas jugamos para el equipo contrario. +Y por ltimo tenemos esta expresin: "Si hay csped en el campo, juega la bola." +Que generalmente se refiere a que si alguien joven, concretamente una chica joven, ya tiene vello pbico a su edad, tiene edad suficiente para poder tener relaciones sexuales. +Este modelo del bisbol es sumamente problemtico. +Es sexista. Es homfobo. +Es competitivo. Enfocado en los objetivos. +Y no puede derivar en una sexualidad sana ni en jvenes ni en adultos. +As que necesitamos un nuevo modelo. +Estoy aqu hoy para ofrecerles ese nuevo modelo. +Y est basado en la pizza. +La pizza es algo universalmente conocido y la mayora de la gente la asocia con una experiencia positiva. +As que hagamos lo siguiente. +Vamos a coger el bisbol y la pizza y a compararlos al hablar de tres aspectos de las relaciones sexuales: aquello que desencadena las relaciones sexuales lo que ocurre durante el sexo, y el resultado esperado de la relacin sexual. +As que, cundo juegas al bisbol? +Juegas cuando es temporada de bisbol y cuando hay un partido en el calendario. +No es precisamente tu eleccin. +As que en un baile de graduacin o la noche de bodas. o en una fiesta, o si tus padres no estn en casa, entonces, es hora de batear! +Te imaginas dicindole a tu entrenador "la verdad es que no me apetece jugar hoy", "creo que me quedar fuera de este partido." +No es as como ocurre. +Y cuando te reunes para jugar al bisbol, inmediatamente se forman dos equipos contrarios, uno que juega a la ofensiva y otro a la defensiva, alguien que intenta avanzar por el terreno de juego, +normalmente el chico. +Y alguien que intenta detener el avance del equipo contrario. +Lo que suele ser tarea de la chica. +Es competitivo. +No estamos jugando juntos. +Estamos jugando uno contra el otro. +Y a la hora de jugar un partido, no hace falta que nadie diga que hay que hacer o como este partido de bisbol puede beneficiarnos. +Todo el mundo conoce las reglas. +Simplemente te colocas en tu posicin y juegas el partido. +Pero qu ocurre con la pizza? +Bueno, comes una pizza cuando te apetece. +Empieza con una sensacin interna, deseo interno o necesidad. +"Mmm. Podra ir por una pizza". +Y debido a que se trata de un deseo interno, es que tenemos cierto control sobre ello. +Podra decidir que tengo hambre aun sabiendo que no es buen momento para comer. +Y cuando vamos con alguien por una pizza, no estamos compitiendo con el otro, buscamos una experiencia que ambos podemos compartir que nos satisface a los dos, y cuando vas con alguien por pizza, qu es lo primero que haces? +Hablas sobre ello. +Hablas de lo que quieres. +Hablas de lo que te gusta. +Incluso puedes negociar. +"Qu te parece el pepperoni?" "No me gusta mucho, soy ms de championes". +"Bueno, podemos tomar la mitad de cada una". +Incluso si llevas comiendo pizza con alguien desde hace mucho tiempo, todava dices cosas como, "Deberiamos tomar lo de siempre?" +"O quiz algo un poco ms atrevido?" +De acuerdo, as que si ests jugando al bisbol, si hablamos de lo que ocurre durante la relacin sexual, cuando juegas al bisbol, se supone que tienes que recorrer las bases una a una en un determinado orden. +No puedes golpear la bola y recorrer todo el campo. +No funciona as. +Y tampoco puedes llegar a la segunda base y decir, "Me gusta esto. Voy a quedarme aqu." +No. +Y tambin, por supuesto, en el bisbol hay un equipo especfico y unas habilidades concretas. +No todo el mundo puede jugar al bisbol. Es muy restrictivo. +Bien, pero y con la pizza? +Cuando intentamos averiguar que es bueno en una pizza. no se trata de aquello que nos gusta? +Hay un milln de pizzas diferentes. +Un milln de ingredientes distintos. +Existe un milln de formas diferentes de comer pizza. +Y ninguna incorrecta, simplemente son diferentes. +Y en este caso, las diferencias son algo bueno, porque eso hace que aumenten las posibilidades de que tengamos una experiencia satisfactoria. +Y finalmente, qu resultado esperamos en el bisbol? +Pues en el besbol, t juegas para ganar. +Anotar tantas carreras como puedas. +Siempre hay un ganador en el bisbol, lo que significa que siempre hay un perdedor en el bisbol. +Pero qu me dicen de la pizza? +Bueno, con la pizza, realmente no hay victoria, cmo se gana una pizza? +No puedes. Pero, lo que si buscas es la respuesta a, "Estamos satisfechos?" +Y a veces eso puede significar diferentes cantidades en momentos diferentes o con gente distinta o das distintos. +y decidimos cuando nos sentimos satisfechos. +Si todava tenemos hambre, podemos comer algo mas. +Sin embargo, si comes demasiado, te sientes saciado. +As que, Y si tomamos este modelo basado en la pizza y le damos un sitio destacado en la educacin sexual? +Gran parte de la educacin sexual que existe hoy est muy influenciada por el modelo del bisbol, y da lugar a un tipo de educacin que en vez de contribuir genera una sexualidad malsana en los jvenes. +Y esos jvenes se convierten en adultos. +Puede que hayan notado al comparar el bisbol con la pizza, que en el bisbol todo son rdenes. +Todas con signos de exclamacin. +Mientras que con el modelo de la pizza, tenemos preguntas. +Y quin debe contestar esas preguntas? +Lo hace uno mismo. +As que recuerden, cuando pensemos sobre educacin sexual y relaciones sexuales, bisbol, ests fuera. +La pizza es la mejor manera de pensar sobre el sexo de forma sana y gratificante, y tener una buena comprensin de la educacin sexual. +Muchas gracias por su tiempo. +Arthur C. Clarke, un famoso escritor de ciencia ficcin de los aos 50, dijo que "sobrestimamos la tecnologa a corto plazo y la subestimamos a largo plazo". +Y creo que algunos de los temores que vemos de que los empleos desaparezcan debido a los robots y la inteligencia artificial +es que sobrestimamos la tecnologa a corto plazo. +Pero lo que me preocupa es si tendremos la tecnologa necesaria a largo plazo +porque los datos demogrficos dejarn muchos trabajos por hacer y como sociedad deberemos hacer que las hagan los robots en el futuro. +As que me temo que no tendremos suficientes robots. +El temor de perder empleos por la tecnologa ha existido desde hace mucho. +En 1957, en una pelcula de Spencer Tracy y Katharine Hepburn, +-ya saben el final- Spencer Tracy trajo un computador, un servidor de 1957, para ayudar a los bibliotecarios. +Los bibliotecarios hacan cosas como buscar respuestas para los ejecutivos. "Cmo se llaman los renos de Santa Claus?" +Y ellos los buscaran. +Y ese computador iba a ayudarles con ese trabajo. +Por supuesto, no era mucho trabajo para un servidor de 1957. +Los bibliotecarios teman que sus trabajos fueran a desaparecer. +Pero, de hecho, eso no sucedi. +Los empleos para bibliotecarios se incrementaron por largo tiempo despus de 1975. +No fue hasta que lleg Internet, llegaron la Web y los motores de bsqueda que la necesidad de bibliotecarios disminuy. +Y creo que todos en 1957, completamente subestimaran el nivel de tecnologa que llevamos en nuestras manos y bolsillos hoy en da. +Podemos preguntar: "Cmo se llaman los renos de Santa Claus?" y saberlo al instante o cualquier cosa que queramos saber. +Por cierto, los salarios de los bibliotecarios se incrementaron ms rpido que otros trabajos en Estados Unidos, en ese mismo perodo, debido a que los bibliotecarios y computadores se aliaron. +Los computadores se convirtieron en herramientas, ms cosas que usar, volvindose ms eficientes. +Igual sucedi en las oficinas. +En el pasado, la gente usaba hojas de clculo. +Las hojas de clculo eran hojas de papel y se calculaban a mano. +Pero sucedi algo interesante +con la revolucin de los PCs en los aos 80. Los programas de hoja de clculo fueron adaptados a los oficinistas, no para sustituirlos, sino que vea a los oficinistas como programadores. +Y as los oficinistas se convirtieron en programadores de hojas de clculo. +Lo que aument sus habilidades. +Ya no tenan que hacer clculos mundanos y podran hacer mucho ms. +Hoy en da estamos empezando a ver robots en nuestras vidas. +A la izquierda est el "PackBot" de iRobot. +Cuando los soldados encontraban bombas en las carreteras de Irak y Afganistn, en lugar de ponerse un traje antibombas e ir a probar con un palo -como sola hacerse hasta el 2002- ahora mandan a un robot. +El robot se encarga de los trabajos peligrosos. +A la derecha tienen algunos "TUGs" de la compaa Aethon, de Pittsburgh. +Estn en cientos de hospitales de EE.UU. +Y llevan las sbanas sucias a la lavandera. +Llevan los platos sucios a la cocina. +Traen los medicamentos de la farmacia. +Y libera a las enfermeras y asistentes del trabajo mundano de empujar cosas mecnicamente para pasar ms tiempo con los pacientes. +De hecho, los robots se han vuelto omnipresentes en nuestras vidas de muchas maneras. +Pero creo que cuando se trata de robots industriales, la gente le tienen miedo, porque es peligroso estar alrededor de ellos. +Para programarlos hay que entender vectores de 6 dimensiones y cuaterniones. +La gente comn no puede interactuar con ellos. +Creo que es el tipo de tecnologa que ha salido mal. +Ha desplazado al trabajador de la tecnologa. +Creo que tenemos que dar un vistazo a las tecnologas que puedan interactuar con trabajadores comunes. +Por eso, hoy quiero hablarles de Baxter, del cual he estado hablando. +Veo a Baxter como una manera -la primera ola de robots- de que gente comn pueda interactuar en un entorno industrial. +Aqu est Baxter. +Chris Harbert, de Rethink Robotics. +Aqu tenemos una banda transportadora. +Y si la iluminacin no es muy extrema... Ah est! l recoge el objeto de la banda transportadora. +Lo va a traer y soltar aqu. +Luego ir de nuevo y tomar otro objeto. +Lo interesante es que Baxter tiene algo de sentido comn bsico. +Por cierto, qu pasa con los ojos? +Los ojos estn en esa pantalla. +Se mueven en la direccin que el robot se mover. +Y as, la persona que interacta con el robot sabe a dnde ir y no ser sorprendido por sus movimientos. +Chris le quit el objeto de su mano, y Baxter no continu; regres y se dio cuenta que tena que tomar otro. +Tiene un poco de sentido comn bsico, va y recoge los objetos. +Es seguro interactuar con Baxter. +Nadie deseara hacer esto con un robot industrial de hoy, +pero con Baxter no hay peligro. +Siente la fuerza, entiende que Chris est all y no lo empuja ni lo hiere. +Pero creo que lo ms interesante de Baxter es la interfaz de usuario. +Ahora, Chris va a venir y agarrar el otro brazo. +Y cuando le toma el brazo, se activa el modo de compensacin de fuerza de gravedad cero y unos grficos aparecen en la pantalla. +Pueden ver iconos a la izquierda de la pantalla para su brazo derecho. +Pondr algo en su mano y lo traer ac. Presiona un botn y el robot suelta el objeto. +Y el robot se da cuenta: "Ah, quiere que suelte el objeto". +Coloca un icono all. +Viene ac y le junta los dedos para agarrar, y el robot deduce: "Ah, quiere que recoja un objeto". +Coloca un icono verde all. +Designar el rea donde el robot deber recoger el objeto. +Solo lo mueve alrededor, y el robot deduce que es una zona de bsqueda. +No tuvo que seleccionarlo de un men. +Y ahora lo entrenar en la apariencia visual de ese objeto mientras seguimos hablando. +Mientras continuamos quiero hablarles de cmo sera en las fbricas. +Todos los das entregamos estos robots. +Se envan a fbricas en todo el pas. +Ella es Mildred, +trabaja en una fbrica en Connecticut. +Ha trabajado en la lnea por ms de 20 aos. +Despus de una hora con su primer robot industrial ya lo haba programado para que hiciera algunas tareas en la fbrica. +Ella decidi que realmente le gustan los robots. +El robot realizaba las tareas repetitivas que ella tena que hacer antes. +Ahora las realiza el robot. +La primera vez que hablamos con la gente en las fbricas de cmo se podra hacer que los robots interactuaran mejor con ellos, una de las preguntas fue si querran que sus hijos trabajaran en una fbrica. +La respuesta universal: "No. Quiero que mis hijos tengan un trabajo mejor". +Y como resultado... Mildred es una trabajadora tpica de las fbricas de Estados Unidos. +Son mayores y se hacen ms viejos. +No hay casi gente joven entrando a trabajar en fbricas. +Y mientras sus tareas se vuelven ms exigentes debemos darles herramientas que puedan usar para colaborar, para que sean parte de la solucin, para que puedan seguir contribuyendo y ser productivos en Estados Unidos. +As que nuestra visin es que Mildred, la trabajadora de "lnea de produccin" se convierta en Mildred, "la entrenadora de robots". +Ella mejora en su trabajo, como los oficinistas en 1980 que mejoraron sus roles. +No son herramientas que se tengan que estudiar por aos para poder usarlas. +Son herramientas que se pueden aprender a usar en minutos. +Hay dos grandes fuerzas voluntarias pero inevitables: +La demografa y el cambio climtico. +De hecho, la demografa va a cambiar nuestro mundo. +Este es el porcentaje de adultos en edad laboral. +Ha disminuido un poco en 40 aos. +Pero en los prximos 40 aos cambiar drsticamente, incluso en China. +El porcentaje de adultos en edad laboral caer drsticamente. +Y la cantidad de gente en edad de jubilacin aumentar muy rpidamente a medida que la generacin de "baby boomers" llegue a la edad de jubilacin. +Eso significa que habr ms gente con menos dlares de la seguridad social necesitando servicios. +Pero ms que eso, a medida que envejecemos nos hacemos ms frgiles y no podemos hacer todas las tareas que solamos hacer. +Si vemos las estadsticas sobre la edad de los cuidadores, ante nuestros ojos, esos cuidadores se hacen ms viejos. +Est sucediendo, estadsticamente, ahora mismo. +Y mientras que la cantidad de persona por encima de la edad de retiro se incrementa habr menos gente para cuidarlos. +Y creo que deberemos tener robots para que nos ayuden. +Y no me refiero a robots en trminos de compaeros, +sino robots que hagan lo que normalmente haramos por nosotros mismos y que se dificulta al envejecer. +Traer las compras del auto, subir las escaleras, dejarlas en la cocina. +O incluso, al envejecer ms, conducir el auto para ir de visita. +Creo que la robtica le da a la gente la posibilidad de envejecer con dignidad al tener el control de la solucin robtica. +As no tienen que depender de los ya escasos cuidadores. +Realmente creo que pasaremos ms tiempo con robots como Baxter. Trabajando con robots como Baxter en nuestra vida cotidiana. Y que... Aqu Baxter. Bien. +Y que todos vamos a depender de robots en los prximos 40 aos como parte de la vida cotidiana. +Muchas gracias. +Todo est interconectado. +Como aborigen shinnecock, de EE.UU., eso es lo que me ensearon. +Somos una pequea tribu pesquera situada en el extremo sureste de Long Island, cerca de Southampton, Nueva York. +Cuando era pequea, mi abuelo y yo salimos a tomar sol, un caluroso da de verano. +No haba nubes en el cielo. +Y luego de un momento empec a transpirar. +Y l seal el cielo y dijo: "Mira, ves eso? +Hay una parte de ti all arriba. +Es tu agua la que ayuda a crear la nube que se vuelve lluvia que riega las plantas que alimenta a los animales". +En mi exploracin continua de los elementos de la naturaleza capaces de ilustrar la interrelacin entre todas las formas de vida, empec a perseguir tormentas en 2008 luego de que mi hija me dijera: "Mam, deberas hacer eso". +Y as tres das despus, manejando muy rpido, acechaba un tipo nico de nube gigante llamada superclula, capaz de producir granizo del tamao de una naranja y tornados espectaculares, aunque slo un 2 % llega a hacerlo. +Estas nubes pueden crecer mucho, hasta los 80 km de ancho y alcanzar 20 km de altitud dentro de la atmsfera. +Pueden hacerse tan grandes que bloquean la luz del da, haciendo que todo debajo de ellas se vuelva oscuro y amenazador. +Perseguir tormentas es una experiencia muy tctil. +Se siente un viento clido y hmedo que sopla en la espalda y el olor de la tierra, el trigo, el pasto, las partculas elctricas. +Adems, ves los colores de las nubes que forman granizo, los verdes y turquesa-azulados. +Aprend a respetar el rayo. +Mi pelo sola ser lacio. +Estoy bromeando. +Lo que realmente me apasiona de estas tormentas es su movimiento, la forma en que se arremolinan, giran, ondulan, formando nubes mammatus que asemejan lmparas de lava. +Se vuelven monstruos adorables. +Cuando las estoy fotografiando, no puedo evitar recordar la leccin de mi abuelo. +Debajo de ellas, veo no solo una nube, sino que entiendo que tengo el privilegio de ser testigo de las mismas fuerzas, del mismo proceso a menor escala, que ayud a crear nuestra galaxia, nuestro sistema solar, nuestro sol, e incluso este mismo planeta. +Todas mis relaciones. Gracias. +As que qu significa para una mquina ser atltica? +Demostraremos el concepto de atletismo de la mquina y la investigacin para lograrlo con la ayuda de estas mquinas voladoras llamadas quadricpteros, o quads, para abreviar. +Los quads han existido durante mucho tiempo. +La razn de que sean tan populares en estos das es porque son mecnicamente simples. +Mediante el control de las velocidades de estas cuatro hlices, Estas mquinas pueden virar, balancearse, cabecear y acelerar junto a su orientacin comn. +A bordo tambin hay una batera, una computadora, varios sensores y radios inalmbricos. +Los quads son muy giles, pero esta agilidad tiene un precio. +Son inherentemente inestables, y necesitan alguna forma de control automtico de retroalimentacin para poder volar. +Entonces, cmo hizo eso? +Cmaras en el techo y una computadora porttil sirven como un sistema de posicionamiento global interior, +que se utiliza para localizar objetos en el espacio que tienen estos marcadores reflejantes. +Estos datos se envan a otra computadora que est ejecutando algoritmos de estimacin y control, la cual a su vez enva comandos al quad, que tambin ejecuta algoritmos de estimacin y control. +La mayor parte de nuestra investigacin son algoritmos. +Es la magia que da vida a estas mquinas. +Entonces, cmo disea uno los algoritmos para crear una mquina atleta? +Utilizamos algo llamado en trminos generales diseo basado en el modelo. +Primero describimos la fsica con un modelo matemtico de cmo se comportan las mquinas. +Entonces utilizamos una rama de las matemticas llamada teora de control para analizar estos modelos y tambin para sintetizar algoritmos para controlarlos. +Por ejemplo, as es como podemos hacer flotar el quad. +Primero capturamos la dinmica con un conjunto de ecuaciones diferenciales. +Entonces manipulamos estas ecuaciones con la ayuda de la teora de control para crear algoritmos que estabilicen al quad. +Permtanme demostrarles la fuerza de este enfoque. +Supongamos que queremos este quad no solo flote sino que tambin equilibre esta barra. +Con un poco de prctica, es bastante sencillo para un ser humano hacer esto, Aunque tenemos la ventaja de tener dos pies en el suelo y usar nuestras manos que son muy verstiles. +Se hace un poco ms difcil cuando solo tengo un pie en el suelo y cuando no utilizo mis manos. +noten que la barra tiene un marcador reflejante en la parte superior, lo que significa que puede ubicarse en el espacio. +Noten que el quad est haciendo ajustes finos para mantener la barra equilibrada. +Cmo diseamos los algoritmos para hacer esto? +Aadimos el modelo matemtico de la barra al del quad. +Una vez que tenemos un modelo del sistema del quad y la barra juntos, podemos utilizar la teora de control para crear algoritmos para controlarlo. +Aqu, pueden apreciar que es estable, e incluso si le doy unos empujoncitos, vuelve a una posicin correcta y equilibrada. +Tambin podemos aumentar el modelo incluyendo dnde queremos que se ubique el quad en el espacio. +Con este indicador con marcadores reflejantes, puedo apuntar a dnde quiero que el quad se ubique en el espacio una distancia fija lejos de m. +La clave para estas maniobras acrobticas son algoritmos, diseados con la ayuda de modelos matemticos y la teora de control. +Vamos a decirle al quad que regrese aqu y que deje caer la barra, y a continuacin demostrar la importancia de entender los modelos fsicos y el funcionamiento del mundo fsico. +Observen cmo el quad pierde altitud cuando pongo esta copa con agua sobre l. +A diferencia de la barra, no inclu el modelo matemtico de la copa en el sistema. +De hecho, el sistema no sabe que la copa de agua est ah. +Como antes, podra utilizar el puntero para ordenar al quad donde quiero que est en el espacio. +Bien, deben estarse preguntando, por qu no se cae el agua de la copa? +Dos razones: la primera es que la gravedad acta +en todos los objetos de la misma manera. +La segunda es que todas las hlices apuntan en la misma direccin que la copa, apuntando hacia arriba. +Juntando estas dos razones, el resultado neto es que todas las fuerzas laterales sobre el vaso son pequeas y estn dominadas principalmente por efectos aerodinmicos, los cuales a estas velocidades son insignificantes. +Y por eso no se necesita modelar la copa. +Naturalmente no se derrama, sin importar lo que haga el quad. +La leccin aqu es que algunas tareas de alto rendimiento son ms fciles que otras, y el entender la fsica del problema te dice cules son fciles y cules son difciles. +En este caso, llevar una copa de agua es fcil. +Equilibrar una barra es difcil. +Todos hemos escuchado historias de atletas que realizan hazaas mientras estn lesionados fsicamente. +Puede tambin una mquina operar con dao fsico extremo? +La sabidura popular dice que se necesitan al menos cuatro pares de motores de hlices fijos para poder volar, porque hay cuatro grados de libertad para controlar: Viraje, cabeceo, balanceo y aceleracin. +Los hexacopteros y los octocopteros, con seis y ocho hlices, puede proporcionar redundancia, pero los cuadricpteros son mucho ms populares porque tienen el nmero mnimo de pares de hlice de motor fijo: cuatro. +O no? +Si analizamos el modelo matemtico de esta mquina con solo dos hlices funcionales, descubrimos que hay una forma poco convencional para volarlo. +Renunciamos a controlar el balanceo, pero el viraje, el cabeceo y la aceleracin todava pueden ser controladas con algoritmos que aprovechan esta configuracin nueva. +Los modelos matemticos nos dicen exactamente cundo y por qu esto es posible. +En este caso, este conocimiento nos permite disear arquitecturas de mquinas novedosas o disear algoritmos inteligentes que manejen con gracia el dao, al igual que hacen los atletas humanos, en el lugar de construir mquinas con redundancia. +No podemos evitar contener la respiracin cuando observamos a un clavadista lanzarse al agua, o cuando un saltador est girando en el aire, el suelo se acercaba rpidamente. +Ser capaz el clavadista de realizar una entrada limpia? +El saltador podr controlar su aterrizaje? +Supongamos que queremos que este quad realice una vuelta triple y acabe en el mismo punto en el que empez. +Esta maniobra va a pasar tan rpido que no alcanzamos a retroalimentar la posicin para corregir el movimiento en la ejecucin. +Simplemente no hay suficiente tiempo. +En vez de ello, lo que el quad puede hacer es realizar la maniobra a ciegas, observar cmo termina la maniobra, y luego usar esa informacin para modificar su comportamiento para que la siguiente vez sea mejor. +Al igual que el clavadista y el saltador, es solo a travs de la prctica repetida que la maniobra puede ser aprendida y ejecutada al ms alto nivel. +Golpear una bola en movimiento es una habilidad necesaria en muchos deportes. +Cmo podemos hacer que una mquina haga lo que un atleta hace aparentemente sin esfuerzo? +Este quad tiene una raqueta sujeta en la parte superior con un tamao ideal como de una manzana, no es demasiado grande. +Los siguientes clculos se realizan cada 20 milisegundos, o 50 veces por segundo. +Primero suponemos a donde va la bola. +Luego calculamos cmo el quad debe golpear la bola para que la regrese de donde fue arrojada. +En tercer lugar, est prevista una trayectoria que lleva el quad desde su estado actual al punto de impacto con la bola. +En cuarto lugar, slo ejecutamos 20 milisegundos de esta estrategia. +20 milisegundos despus, se repite todo el proceso hasta que el quad golpea la bola. +Las mquinas no slo pueden realizar maniobras dinmicas por cuenta propia, pueden hacerlo colectivamente. +Estos tres quads llevan cooperativamente una red +Realizan una maniobra extremadamente dinmica y colectiva para lanzar la pelota de vuelta a m. +Observen que, en extensin completa, estos quads estn verticales. +De hecho, cuando est completamente extendida, es aproximadamente cinco veces mayor a lo que se siente al saltar del bungee al final del lanzamiento. +Los algoritmos para hacer esto son muy similares al de usar un solo quad para que golpee la bola hacia m. +Los modelos matemticos se utilizan continuamente para replanificar una estrategia cooperativa 50 veces por segundo. +Todo lo que hemos visto hasta ahora ha sido acerca de las mquinas y sus capacidades. +Qu sucede cuando juntamos este atletismo de la mquina con la de un ser humano? +Lo que tengo delante de m es un sensor de gestos comercial utilizado principalmente para jugar. +Puede reconocer lo que hacen las distintas partes del cuerpo en tiempo real. +Similarmente al puntero que utilic antes, podemos utilizar esto como entrada al sistema. +Ahora tenemos una forma natural de interactuar con el atletismo en bruto de estos quads con mis gestos. +La interaccin no tiene que ser virtual, puede ser fsica. +Tomemos como ejemplo este quad. +Trata de permanecer en un punto fijo en el espacio. +Si trato de moverlo, lucha y se regresa a donde quiere estar. +Sin embargo, podemos cambiar este comportamiento. +Podemos utilizar modelos matemticos para estimar la fuerza que estoy aplicando al quad. +Una vez que sabemos esta fuerza, tambin podemos cambiar las leyes de la fsica, en cuanto al quad, por supuesto. +Aqu el quad se comporta como si estuviera en un fluido viscoso. +Ahora tenemos una manera ntima de interactuar con una mquina. +Voy a utilizar esta nueva funcionalidad para ubicar Este quad con cmara a la posicin apropiada para filmar el resto de esta demostracin. +As podemos interactuar fsicamente con estos quads y podemos cambiar las leyes de la fsica. +Vamos a divertirnos un poco con esto. +Para lo que veremos a continuacin, estos quads inicialmente se comportarn como si estuvieran en Plutn. +Conforme pase el tiempo, se incrementar la gravedad hasta que estemos de vuelta en el planeta Tierra, pero les aseguro que no iremos all. +Bueno, aqu va. +Fiu! +Todos estn pensando ahora, estos chicos se divierten demasiado, y probablemente tambin se estn preguntando, por qu exactamente estn construyendo mquinas atletas? +Algunos conjeturaran que el rol del juego en el reino animal es desarrollar habilidades y capacidades. +Otros piensan que tiene ms que ver con una funcin social, que se utiliza para unir el grupo. +De la misma manera, utilizamos la analoga del deporte y el atletismo para crear nuevos algoritmos para las mquinas para llevarlas a sus lmites. +Qu impacto tendr la velocidad de las mquinas en nuestra forma de vida? +Como todas nuestras creaciones e innovaciones pasadas, se pueden utilizar para mejorar la condicin humana o pueden ser mal usadas y abusadas. +Esta no es una opcin tcnica a la que nos enfrentamos; es social. +Tomemos la decisin correcta, la decisin que saca lo mejor en el futuro de las mquinas, al igual que el atletismo en los deportes puede sacar lo mejor de nosotros. +Permtanme presentarles a los magos detrs de la cortina verde. +Son los miembros actuales del equipo de investigacin de Flying Machine Arena. +Federico Augugliaro, Dario Brescianini, Markus Hehn, Sergei Lupashin, Mark Muller y Robin Ritz. +No les pierdan la pista, estn destinados para grandes cosas. +Gracias. +Esta no ser una charla como cualquiera de las que he dado. +Les hablar hoy del fracaso del liderazgo en la poltica global y en nuestra economa globalizada. +Y no voy a darles soluciones prefabricadas para sentirse bien. +Pero al final les instar a repensar, realmente asumir riesgos e involucrarse en lo que veo como una evolucin global de la democracia. +Fracaso del liderazgo. +Cul es el fracaso del liderazgo actual? +Y por qu no funciona nuestra democracia? +Bueno, creo que el fracaso del liderazgo es el hecho de que los hemos sacado a Uds. fuera del proceso. +As que permtanme, de mis experiencias personales, darles una idea, as pueden dar un paso atrs y quizs entender por qu es tan difcil hacer frente a los desafos de hoy y por qu la poltica est yendo hacia un callejn sin salida. +Empecemos desde el principio. +Vamos a empezar por la democracia. +Bien, si nos remontamos a los antiguos griegos, fue una revelacin, un descubrimiento, que tenamos el potencial, juntos, de ser dueos de nuestro propio destino, de ser capaces de examinar, aprender, imaginar, y entonces disear una vida mejor. +Y la democracia fue la innovacin poltica que protegi esta libertad, debido a que fuimos liberados del miedo para que nuestras mentes de hecho, ya fueran dspotas o dogmticas, pudieran ser las protagonistas. +La democracia fue la innovacin poltica que nos permiti limitar el poder, fuera a tiranos o a sumos sacerdotes, a su tendencia natural a maximizar su poder y su riqueza. +Bien, comenc a entender esto cuando tena 14 aos de edad. +Yo sola, para intentar evitar las tareas, colarme a la sala de estar y escuchar a mis padres y sus amigos debatir acaloradamente. +Saben, entonces Grecia estaba bajo el control de un establecimiento muy potente que estaba estrangulando al pas, y mi padre diriga un prometedor movimiento para reimaginar Grecia, para imaginar la Grecia donde reinara la libertad y donde, tal vez, la gente, los ciudadanos, realmente podran gobernar su propio pas. +Yo sola unirse a l en muchas de las campaas, y aqu me ven junto a l. +Yo soy el ms joven, al lado. +No me pueden reconocer porque sola peinarme diferente entonces. +As que en 1967, venan las elecciones, las cosas iban bien en la campaa, en casa estbamos electrizados. +Realmente podamos sentir que iba a darse un cambio progresista en Grecia. +Entonces una noche, llegaron camiones militares hasta nuestra casa. +Los soldados tumbaron la puerta. +Me encontraron en la terraza. +Un sargento se me acerc con una ametralladora, la puso en mi cabeza y dijo: "Dime donde est tu padre o te matar". +Mi padre, escondido cerca, se entreg, y sumariamente fue llevado a la crcel. +Bueno, sobrevivimos, pero no la democracia. +7 aos brutales de dictadura que pasamos en el exilio. +Ahora, hoy, nuestras democracias estn, otra vez, afrontando un momento de verdad. +Djenme contarles una historia. +Domingo por la noche, Bruselas, abril de 2010. +Estoy sentado con mis homlogos de la Unin Europea. +Yo haba sido recin elegido primer ministro, pero haba tenido el triste privilegio de revelar la verdad de que nuestro dficit no era del 6 %, como se haba informado oficialmente solo unos das atrs antes de las elecciones por el gobierno anterior, sino realmente del 15,6 %. +Pero a pesar de nuestro mandato electoral, los mercados desconfiaban de nosotros. +Nuestros costos de endeudamiento se dispararon, y nos enfrentbamos a un posible incumplimiento. +As que fui a Bruselas con una misin, propugnar por una respuesta europea unida, que calmara los mercados y nos diera el tiempo para hacer las reformas necesarias. +Pero no obtuvimos el tiempo. +Imagnense Uds. alrededor de la mesa en Bruselas. +Las negociaciones son difciles, las tensiones son altas, el progreso es lento, y entonces, a 10 minutos para las 2, un primer ministro grita, "Tenemos que terminar en 10 minutos". +Le dije, "Por qu? Se trata de decisiones importantes. +Vamos a deliberar un poco ms". +Otro primer ministro viene y dice: "No, tenemos que lograr un acuerdo ya, porque en 10 minutos, se abren los mercados en Japn, y habr estragos en la economa mundial". +Llegamos rpidamente a una decisin en esos 10 minutos. +Esta vez no fue el ejrcito, sino los mercados, los que pusieron una pistola en la cabeza colectiva. +Las que siguieron fueron las decisiones ms difciles en mi vida, dolorosas para m, dolorosas para mis compatriotas: imponer recortes, austeridad, frecuentemente a los que no tenan culpa de la crisis. +Con estos sacrificios, Grecia evitaba la bancarrota y la zona del euro evit un colapso. +Grecia, s, desencaden la crisis del euro, y algunas personas me culpan por haber apretado el gatillo. +Pero hoy creo que la mayora estar de acuerdo en que Grecia era solo un sntoma de problemas estructurales mucho ms profundos en la zona del euro, vulnerabilidades ms amplias en el sistema econmico mundial, vulnerabilidades de nuestras democracias. +Nuestras democracias estn atrapadas por sistemas demasiado grandes para fallar, o, ms exactamente, demasiado grandes para controlar. +Nuestras democracias se debilitan en la economa mundial con jugadores que pueden evadir leyes, evadir impuestos, evadir normas ambientales o laborales. +Nuestras democracias se ven socavadas por la creciente desigualdad y la creciente concentracin de poder y riqueza, los cabildeos, la corrupcin, la velocidad de los mercados o simplemente el hecho de que a veces tememos un desastre inminente, han constreido nuestras democracias, y han limitado nuestra capacidad de imaginar y realmente aprovechar el potencial, su potencial, de buscar soluciones. +Grecia, ven, fue solo un adelanto de lo que est reservado para todos nosotros. +Yo, demasiado optimista, esperaba que esta crisis fuera una oportunidad para Grecia, para Europa, para el mundo, para hacer las transformaciones democrticas radicales en nuestras instituciones. +En cambio, tuve una leccin de humildad. +En Bruselas, cuando intentamos desesperadamente una y otra vez encontrar soluciones comunes, me di cuenta de que ninguno, ninguno de nosotros, nunca haba tratado con una crisis similar. +Pero peor an, estbamos atrapados en nuestra ignorancia colectiva. +Fuimos guiados por nuestros miedos. +Y nuestros temores nos condujeron a una fe ciega en la ortodoxia de la austeridad. +En lugar de acercarse al comn o la a sabidura colectiva de nuestras sociedades, invirtiendo en ella para encontrar soluciones ms creativas, nos devolvimos a la postura poltica. +Y entonces nos sorprendimos cuando cada nueva medida ad hoc no pona fin a la crisis, y por supuesto esto hace muy fcil buscar a un chivo expiatorio por nuestro fracaso colectivo europeo, y por supuesto ese fue Grecia. +Los griegos derrochadores, perezosos, bebedores de ouzo, bailarines de Zorba, ellos son el problema. Castigumoslos! +Bueno, un estereotipo infundado pero conveniente lo que a veces doli an ms que la austeridad misma. +Pero djeme advertirles, no se trata solo de Grecia. +Este podra ser el patrn que los lderes seguimos una y otra vez cuando nos ocupamos de estos problemas complejos, transnacionales, sea el cambio climtico, la migracin, o el sistema financiero. +Es decir, abandonar nuestro poder colectivo de imaginar nuestro potencial, caer vctimas de nuestros miedos, nuestros estereotipos, nuestros dogmas, sacando a nuestros ciudadanos fuera del proceso, en vez de construir el proceso alrededor de nuestros ciudadanos. +Y hacerlo, solo probar la fe de nuestros ciudadanos, de nuestros pueblos, an ms, en el proceso democrtico. +No es de extraar que muchos lderes polticos, y no me excluyo, hayan perdido la confianza de sus pueblos. +Cuando la polica antidisturbios tiene que proteger los parlamentos, una escena que es cada vez ms comn en el mundo, entonces hay algo profundamente equivocado en nuestras democracias. +Por eso hice un llamado a un referndum para que el pueblo griego se apropiara y decidiera los trminos del paquete de rescate. +Mis colegas europeos, algunos de ellos, al menos, dijeron: "No puede hacer eso. +Habr caos en los mercados otra vez". +Yo dije, "Lo necesitamos, antes que restablecer la confianza de los mercados, tenemos que restablecer la seguridad y la confianza entre nuestros pueblos". +Desde que abandon el cargo, he tenido tiempo para reflexionar. +Hemos capeado el temporal, en Grecia y en Europa, pero seguimos siendo desafiados. +Si la poltica es el poder de imaginar y utilizar nuestro potencial, bien, entonces, el 60 % de desempleo juvenil en Grecia, y en otros pases, es sin duda una falta de imaginacin si no una falta de compasin. +Hasta ahora, hemos lanzado economa al problema, realmente sobre todo austeridad, y sin duda podramos haber diseado alternativas, una estrategia diferente, un estmulo verde para empleos verdes, o mutualizar la deuda, eurobonos con que apoyar a los pases necesitados por las presiones del mercado, estas habran sido alternativas ms viables. +Sin embargo he llegado a creer que el problema no es tanto econmico como uno de la democracia. +As que intentemos algo ms. +Vamos a ver cmo podemos traer gente hacia el proceso. +Vamos a lanzar democracia al problema. +Una vez ms, los antiguos griegos, con todos sus defectos, crean en la sabidura de la multitud en sus mejores momentos. Confiamos en la gente. +La democracia no podra funcionar sin los ciudadanos deliberando, debatiendo, asumiendo responsabilidades pblicas de asuntos pblicos. +Los ciudadanos promedio a menudo fueron elegidos como jurados para decidir sobre asuntos crticos del momento. +Ciencia, investigacin, teatro, filosofa, juegos de la mente y el cuerpo, eran ejercicios diarios. +Realmente fueron una educacin para la participacin, el potencial para crecer, el potencial de nuestros ciudadanos. +Y los que rechazaban la poltica, pues eran idiotas. +Vern, en la antigua Grecia, en la antigua Atenas, ese trmino se origin all. +"Idiota" proviene de la raz "idio", uno mismo. +Una persona que es egocntrica, aislada, excluida, alguien que no participa o incluso no examina asuntos pblicos. +Y la participacin tuvo lugar en la gora, la gora tiene dos significados, un mercado y un lugar donde se produjo la deliberacin poltica. +Ven, mercados y poltica eran entonces uno, unificado, accesible, transparente, porque dieron el poder al pueblo. +Sirven al 'demos' [pueblo], democracia. +Sobre el gobierno, por encima de los mercados estaba la regla directa del pueblo. +Hoy hemos globalizado los mercados pero no hemos globalizado nuestras instituciones democrticas. +As que nuestros polticos se limitan a la poltica local, mientras los ciudadanos, aunque ven un gran potencial, son presa de fuerzas ajenas a su voluntad. +As que, cmo reunificamos las dos mitades de la gora? +Cmo democratizamos la globalizacin? +Y no estoy hablando de las reformas necesarias de las Naciones Unidas o el G-20. +Estoy hablando, de cmo aseguramos el espacio, el pueblo, la plataforma de valores, por los que podemos aprovechar todo su potencial. +Bueno, esto es exactamente donde creo que Europa encaja. +Europa, a pesar de sus fracasos recientes, es el experimento de paz transfronteriza ms exitoso del mundo. +As que veamos si no puede ser un experimento en la democracia global, un nuevo tipo de democracia. +Vamos a ver si no podemos disear una gora europea, no solo para los productos y servicios, sino para nuestros ciudadanos, donde puedan trabajar juntos, deliberar, aprender unos de otros, intercambiar entre arte y culturas, donde se puede topar con soluciones creativas. +Imaginemos que los ciudadanos europeos realmente tienen el poder de votar directamente por un presidente europeo, o ser jurados ciudadanos elegidos por sorteo que puedan deliberar sobre cuestiones crticas y polmicas, un referndum pan-europeo donde nuestros ciudadanos, como los legisladores voten en futuros tratados. +Y aqu est una idea: Por qu no tenemos los primeros ciudadanos verdaderamente europeos dando a nuestros inmigrantes, ciudadana no griega o alemana o sueca, sino una ciudadana europea? +Y asegurndonos de que realmente potenciamos los desempleados dndoles una beca para poder estudiar en cualquier lugar de Europa. +Donde nuestra identidad comn es la democracia, dnde nuestra educacin es a travs de la participacin, y donde la participacin genera confianza y solidaridad en lugar de exclusin y xenofobia. +Europa de y para la gente, una Europa, un experimento en la profundizacin y ampliacin democrtica ms all de las fronteras. +Ahora, algunos podran acusarme de ser ingenuo, al poner mi fe en el poder y la sabidura del pueblo. +Bueno, despus de dcadas en la poltica, yo tambin soy un pragmtico. +Cranme, he sido, soy parte del sistema poltico actual, y s que las cosas deben cambiar. +Debemos revivir la poltica como el poder de imaginar, reimaginar y redisear un mundo mejor. +Pero tambin s que esta disruptiva fuerza de cambio no debe ser conducida por la poltica de hoy. +El renacimiento de la poltica democrtica vendr de Uds. y me refiero a todos Uds. +Es de su inters que todos nosotros seamos idiotas. +No lo seamos. +Gracias. +Bruno Giussani: Parece describir un liderazgo poltico que no est preparado y es preso de los caprichos de los mercados financieros, y esa escena en Bruselas que Ud. describe, para m, como ciudadano, es terrible. +Aydenos a entender cmo se senta despus de la decisin. +Claramente no fue una buena decisin, pero, cmo se siente despus de eso, no como primer ministro, sino como George? +George Papandreou: Bueno, obviamente haba limitaciones que no me permitan a m o a otros tomar los tipos de decisiones que hubisemos querido, y obviamente esperaba que haber tenido el tiempo para hacer las reformas que se habran ocupado del dficit, en lugar de intentar reducir el dficit que era el sntoma del problema. +Y eso doli. Eso doli porque, ante todo, lastima a la generacin ms joven y no solo, muchos de ellos se estn manifestando afuera, pero creo que este es uno de nuestros problemas. +BG: Parece sugerir que el camino a seguir es ms Europa, y no debe ser un discurso fcil ahora en la mayora de los pases europeos. +Es ms bien lo contrario, ms fronteras cerradas y menos cooperacin y tal vez incluso separarse de algunas de las diferentes partes de la construccin europea. +Cmo conciliar esto? +GP: Bien, creo que una de las peores cosas que sucedieron durante esta crisis es que comenzamos un juego de culpa. +Y la idea fundamental de Europa es que podemos cooperar ms all de las fronteras, ms all de nuestros conflictos y trabajar juntos. +Y la paradoja es que, dado que tenemos este juego de culpa, tenemos menos potencial para convencer a los ciudadanos de que debemos trabajar juntos, mientras que ahora es el momento en que realmente necesitamos reunir nuestros poderes. +Ahora, ms Europa para m no es simplemente darle ms poder a Bruselas. +Es realmente darles ms poder a los ciudadanos de Europa, es decir, realmente hacer de Europa un proyecto de la gente. +Por lo que, creo, sera una forma de responder a algunos de los temores que tenemos en nuestra sociedad. +BG: George, gracias por venir a TED. +GP: Muchas gracias. BG: Gracias. +Escribo novelas de suspenso de ciencia ficcin, as que si digo "robots asesinos", probablemente podran pensar en algo as. +Pero en realidad no estoy aqu para hablar de ficcin. +Estoy aqu para hablar de robots asesinos muy reales, "drones" de combate autnomos. +Y no me refiero a robots depredadores ni exterminadores, que tienen a un humano tomando decisiones de sus objetivos. +Estoy hablando de armas robticas totalmente autnomas que toman decisiones letales sobre seres humanos por su propia cuenta. +De hecho existe un trmino tcnico para esto: autonoma letal. +Ahora, los robots asesinos letales autnomos pueden actuar de muchas formas: volando, conduciendo, o simplemente esperando al acecho. +Y la verdad es que se estn convirtiendo rpidamente en una realidad. +Estas son dos estaciones automticas de disparo desplegadas actualmente en la zona desmilitarizada entre Corea del Norte y del Sur +Ambas mquinas son capaces de identificar automticamente un objetivo humano y disparar contra l, la de la izquierda a una distancia de ms de un kilmetro. +En ambos casos, todava hay un ser humano en el proceso para tomar esa decisin de disparo letal pero no es un requisito tecnolgico, es una opcin. +Y es en esa opcin en la que quiero centrarme, porque cuando desplazamos la toma de decisiones letales de los humanos al software, corremos el riesgo no slo de sacar a la humanidad de la guerra, sino tambin el de cambiar nuestro panorama social completamente, lejos del campo de batalla. +Eso es porque la manera en que los humanos resolvemos los conflictos moldea nuestro panorama social. +Y as ha sido siempre a lo largo de la historia. +Por ejemplo, estos eran los sistemas de armamento ms avanzados en 1400 D.C. +El costo de la construccin y el mantenimiento de ambos era muy elevados, pero con ellos se poda dominar a la poblacin, y eso se reflejaba en la distribucin del poder poltico en la sociedad feudal. +El poder ocup un lugar primordial. +Y qu cambi? La innovacin tecnolgica. +Plvora, can. +Y muy pronto, la armadura y los castillos fueron obsoletos, e import menos a quin se traa al campo de batalla versus cunta gente se traa al campo de batalla. +Y conforme los ejrcitos crecieron en tamao, los Estado-naciones surgieron como un requisito poltico y logstico de defensa. +Y conforme los lderes tuvieron que depender ms de su poblacin, empezaron a compartir el poder. +Se comenz a formar el gobierno representativo. +Repito, las herramientas que utilizamos para resolver conflictos dan forma a nuestro panorama social. +Las armas robticas autnomas son esas herramientas, salvo que, al exigir que muy pocas personas vayan a la guerra, se corre el riesgo de re-centralizar el poder en muy pocas manos, posiblemente revirtiendo una tendencia de cinco siglos hacia la democracia. +Creo que, sabiendo esto, podemos tomar medidas decisivas para preservar nuestras instituciones democrticas, para hacer lo que los seres humanos saben hacer mejor, que es adaptarse. +Pero el tiempo es un factor. +Setenta naciones estn desarrollando sus propios robots de combate controlados a distancia y como veremos, los drones de combate controlados remotamente son los precursores de las armas robticas autnomas. +Eso es porque una vez se han desplegado drones piloteados remotamente hay tres factores poderosos que influyen en la toma de decisiones lejos de los humanos y en la misma plataforma del arma. +El primero de ellos es el diluvio de vdeos que producen los robots. +Por ejemplo, en 2004, la flota de drones de los Estados Unidos produjo un total de 71 horas de vigilancia con video para el anlisis. +En el 2011, sta se haba elevado a 300 mil horas, superando la capacidad humana para revisarla toda, y aun ese nmero est a punto de subir drsticamente. +El Gorgon Stare y los programas Argus del Pentgono pondrn hasta 65 cmaras que operan independientemente en cada plataforma de los drones, y esto superara enormemente la capacidad humana para revisarlas. +Y eso significa que se necesitar software de inteligencia visual para escanear elementos de inters. +Y eso significa que muy pronto los drones dirn a los humanos qu mirar, y no al revs. +Pero hay un segundo incentivo poderoso que aleja la toma de decisiones de los humanos y la acerca a las mquinas, y es la interferencia electromagntica, cortando la conexin entre el robot y su operador. +Vimos un ejemplo de esto en 2011 Cuando un dron RQ-170 Sentinel norteamericano se confundi en Irn debido a un ataque de "suplantacin" de GPS, pero cualquier robot controlado remotamente es susceptible a este tipo de ataques, y eso significa que los drones tendrn que asumir ms la toma de decisiones. +Sabrn el objetivo de la misin, y reaccionarn a nuevas circunstancias sin ayuda humana. +Ignorarn las seales de radio externas y enviarn muy pocas suyas. +Lo que nos lleva, realmente, al tercer y ms poderoso incentivo de llevar la toma de decisiones de los seres humanos a las armas: negacin plausible. +Vivimos en una economa global. +La fabricacin de alta tecnologa ocurre en la mayora de los continentes. +El ciberespionaje est impulsando diseos muy avanzados a lugares desconocidos, y en ese ambiente, es muy probable que un diseo exitoso de drones se reproduzca en fbricas contratadas, y prolifere en el mercado negro. +Y en esa situacin, al investigar en los restos de un ataque suicida de drone, ser muy difcil decir quin envi esa arma. +Esto plantea la posibilidad muy real de una guerra annima. +Esto podra poner el equilibrio geopoltico de cabeza, y que a una nacin le resulte muy difcil activar su potencia de ataque contra un atacante, lo cual podra inclinar la balanza en el siglo XXI de la defensa hacia la ofensiva. +Podra hacer de la accin militar una opcin viable no slo para las naciones pequeas, sino para las organizaciones criminales, las empresas privadas, e incluso para individuos poderosos. +Podra crear un paisaje de caudillos rivales socavando el estado de derecho y la sociedad civil. +Si la responsabilidad y la transparencia son dos de los pilares del gobierno representativo, las armas robticas autnomas podran socavar a ambos. +Pueden estar pensando que los ciudadanos de naciones con alta tecnologa tendran la ventaja en cualquier guerra robtica, que los ciudadanos de esas naciones seran menos vulnerables, particularmente contra los pases en desarrollo. +Pero creo que en realidad es exactamente lo contrario. +Creo que los ciudadanos de las sociedades de alta tecnologa son ms vulnerables a las armas robticas, y la razn puede resumirse en una palabra: datos. +Los datos empoderan a las sociedades de alta tecnologa. +Geolocalizacin por telfono celular, metadatos de telecomunicaciones, redes sociales, correo electrnico, mensajes de texto, datos de transacciones financieras, datos de transporte, es una riqueza de datos en tiempo real sobre los movimientos y las interacciones sociales de las personas. +En resumen, somos ms visibles para las mquinas que ninguna otra persona en la historia, y esto se adapta perfectamente a las necesidades de seleccin de las armas autnomas. +Lo que estn viendo aqu es un mapa de anlisis de los vnculos de un grupo social. +Las lneas indican la conectividad social entre individuos. +Y estos tipos de mapas se pueden generar automticamente basados en la la estela de datos que la gente moderna deja. +Esto se utiliza normalmente para el mercadeo de bienes y servicios a un grupo objetivo especfico, pero esta es una tecnologa de doble uso, porque se define un grupo objetivo en otro contexto. +Tenga en cuenta que ciertos individuos sobresalen. +Estos son los ejes de las redes sociales. +Estos son los organizadores, los creadores de opinin, los lderes, y a estas personas tambin se les puede identificar automticamente por sus patrones de comunicacin. +En el caso de un vendedor, este podra seleccionarlos con muestras de productos, intentando difundir su marca a travs de su grupo social. +Pero un gobierno represivo buscando enemigos polticos podra en cambio removerlos, eliminarlos, destruir su grupo social, y aquellos que queden perderan cohesin social y organizacin. +En un mundo en que proliferan las armas robticas baratas, las fronteras ofreceran muy poca proteccin a los crticos de los gobiernos distantes o de organizaciones criminales transnacionales. +Los movimientos populares que buscan el cambio puede detectarse tempranamente para eliminar a sus lderes antes de que sus ideas adquieran masa crtica. +Y de lo que se trata en un gobierno popular es que las ideas alcancen masa critica. +Las armas letales annimas podran hacer de la accin letal una opcin fcil para todo tipo de intereses en juego. +Y esto pondra en jaque a la libertad de expresin y a la accin poltica popular, la esencia de la democracia. +Y por esta razn necesitamos un tratado internacional sobre las armas robticas y en particular una prohibicin mundial sobre el desarrollo y el despliegue de robots asesinos. +Ya tenemos tratados internacionales sobre armas nucleares y biolgicas, que aunque imperfectos, han funcionado en gran medida. +Pero las armas robticas pueden ser igual de peligrosas, porque muy seguramente se utilizarn, y tambin seran dainas para nuestras instituciones democrticas. +En noviembre de 2012, el Departamento de Defensa de los Estados Unidos emiti una directiva que exige que un ser humano est presente en todas las decisiones letales. +Esto prohibi efectiva aunque temporalmente las armas autnomas en el ejrcito estadounidense, pero dicha directiva debe hacerse permanente. +Y podra sentar las bases para la accin global. +Porque necesitamos un marco jurdico internacional sobre armas robticas. +Y lo necesitamos ahora, antes de un ataque devastador o un incidente terrorista que haga que las naciones del mundo se vean obligadas a adoptar estas armas antes de pensar en las consecuencias. +Las armas robticas autnomas concentran demasiado poder en muy pocas manos y pondra en peligro la propia democracia. +No me malinterpreten, creo que hay toneladas de aplicaciones geniales para los drones civiles desarmados: control ambiental, bsqueda y rescate, logstica. +Si tenemos un tratado internacional sobre armas robticas, cmo obtenemos los beneficios de los drones y vehculos autnomos y al mismo tiempo nos protegernos contra las armas robticas ilegales? +Creo que el secreto ser la transparencia. +No debera existir una expectativa de privacidad de un robot en un lugar pblico. +Cada robot y drone deben tener una identificacin de fbrica firmada criptogrficamente que pueda utilizarse para seguir sus movimientos en los espacios pblicos. +Tenemos placas en los coches, nmeros de matricula en los aviones. +Esto no es diferente. +Y todos los ciudadanos deberan poder descargar una aplicacin que muestre la poblacin de drones y vehculos autnomos movindose a travs de espacios pblicos alrededor de ellos, tanto en ese momento como en un histrico. +Y los lderes civiles deben desplegar sensores y drones civiles para detectar los drones no autorizados, y en lugar de enviar drones asesinos propios para derribarlos, deben notificar a los humanos de su presencia. +Y en ciertas reas de muy alta seguridad, tal vez los drones civiles deban capturarlos y arrastrarlos a una instalacin de eliminacin de explosivos. +Pero tengan en cuenta que esto es ms un sistema inmunolgico que un sistema de armas. +Esto nos permitira valernos del uso de drones y vehculos autnomos y al mismo tiempo salvaguardar nuestra abierta sociedad civil. +Hay que prohibir el despliegue y desarrollo de robots asesinos. +No caigamos en la tentacin de automatizar la guerra. +Los gobiernos autocrticos y las organizaciones criminales sin duda lo harn, pero nosotros no. +Las armas robticas autnomas concentraran demasiado poder en muy pocas manos invisibles, y eso sera corrosivo para un gobierno representativo. +Asegurmonos de que al menos para las democracias, los robots asesinos sigan siendo ficcin. +Gracias. +Gracias. +Djenme que empiece esta charla con una pregunta para todos. +Saben que en todo el mundo, la gente lucha por su libertad, lucha por sus derechos. +Algunos luchan contra gobiernos opresivos. +Otros contra sociedades opresivas. +Cul creen que es ms difcil? +Djenme que responda a esta pregunta en los siguientes minutos. +Permtanme que los lleve 2 aos atrs en mi vida. +Era la hora de acostarse de mi hijo, Aboody. +Tena 5 aos entonces. +Al acabar sus rituales para acostarse, me mir y me pregunt: "Mam, somos malas personas?" +Me conmocion. +"Por qu dices esas cosas, Aboody?" +Ese mismo da, haba notado algunos moretones en su cara cuando volvi del colegio. +No me cont lo que haba pasado. +[Pero ahora] estaba listo para decrmelo. +"Dos chicos me pegaron en el colegio. +Me dijeron, 'Hemos visto a tu madre en Facebook. +T y tu madre deberan estar en la crcel' ". Nunca he tenido miedo de contarle algo a Aboody. +Siempre me he sentido muy orgullosa de mis logros. +Pero esos ojos inquisitivos de mi hijo fueron mi momento de verdad, cuando todo se junt. +Vern, soy una mujer saud a la que han metido en la crcel por conducir un coche en un pas en el que se supone que las mujeres no conducen. +Solo por darme las llaves de su coche, detuvieron a mi hermano dos veces, y le acusaron tanto hasta el punto en que tuvo que renunciar a su trabajo de gelogo, y abandonar el pas con su mujer y su hijo de 2 aos. +Mi padre tuvo que asistir a un sermn del viernes para escuchar al imn condenar a las mujeres que conducen y llamarlas prostitutas entre otros muchos fieles, algunos de ellos eran nuestros amigos y familia de mi padre. +Afront una campaa organizada de difamaciones en los medios de comunicacin locales combinado con falsos rumores que se extendan entre mi familia, las calles y en las escuelas. +Entonces lo entend todo. +Comprend que esos nios no pretendan ser maleducados con mi hijo. +Simplemente estaban influenciados por los adultos de su alrededor. +Y no era sobre m, ni un castigo por tomar el volante y conducir algunos kilmetros. +Era un castigo por atreverme a desafiar las normas de la sociedad. +Pero mi historia va ms all de este momento de verdad. +Permtanme que les cuente un poco mi historia. +Era mayo de 2011 y me estaba quejando a un colega del trabajo sobre los acosos que tena que afrontar al intentar encontrar a alguien que me llevara a casa aunque tengo coche y carn de conducir internacional. +Por lo que tengo entendido, las mujeres en Arabia Saud siempre se han quejado de la prohibicin, pero han pasado 20 aos desde que alguien intent hacer algo al respecto, hace una generacin. +Hizo que me diera cuenta de una buena/mala noticia. +"Pero no hay ninguna ley que te prohba conducir". +Lo busqu, y tena razn. +En realidad no haba ninguna ley al respecto en Arabia Saud. +Solo era una costumbre y tradicin que se ha consagrado en la estricta fetua religiosa y que se ha impuesto a las mujeres. +Al darme cuenta de eso, se me ocurri el 17 de junio animar a las mujeres a tomar el volante y conducir. +Unas semanas despus, empezamos a recibir cosas como "Los hombre lobo te violar si conduces". +Najla Hariri, una saud valiente de la ciudad de Jeddah, anunci que condujo un coche pero no lo grab en vdeo. +Necesitbamos una prueba. +As que yo conduje y lo colgu en YouTube. +Para mi sorpresa, tuvo cientos de miles de reproducciones el primer da. +Pero claro, qu pas luego? +Empec a recibir amenazas de asesinato, violaciones, solo para que parara esta campaa. +Las autoridades sauditas no hicieron nada. +Eso nos asust bastante. +En la campaa estaba con otras mujeres sauditas e incluso hombres activistas. +Queramos saber cmo responderan las autoridades en ese da, 17 de junio, cuando las mujeres salieran a conducir. +Esa vez le ped a mi hermano que viniera conmigo y furamos al lado de un coche de polica. +Fue rpido. Nos arrestaron, firm conforme que no volvera a conducir y nos soltaron. +De nuevo arrestados, a l lo arrestaron por un da, a m me mandaron a la crcel. +No estaba segura del porqu me mandaron all, porque no me acusaron de nada en el interrogatorio. +Pero estaba segura de mi inocencia. +No haba quebrantado ninguna ley y tena el abaya puesto una especie de capa negra que las mujeres en Arabia Saud deben llevar al salir de casa y mis compaeras de prisin me pedan constantemente que me lo quitara. Estaba tan segura de mi inocencia que no paraba de decir "No, me ir hoy". +Fuera de la crcel, el pas entero estaba en frenes, algunos me criticaban, otros me apoyaban e incluso recogan firmas en una peticin para enviarla al rey y me liberara. +Me soltaron a los 9 das. +Se acercaba el 17 de junio. +Las calles estaban repletas de coches de la polica y coches de la polica religiosa, pero unas cien valientes mujeres sauditas se saltaron ese da la prohibicin de conducir. +Ninguna fue arrestada. Habamos roto el tab. +Creo que ahora todos sabrn que no podemos conducir, o no se les permite a las mujeres conducir, en Arabia Saudita. Pero quiz muy pocos saben el porqu. +Djenme que les ayude a responder esta duda. +Hay un estudio oficial presentado por el Consejo Shura, que es el consejo consultivo elegido por el rey en Arabia Saud, y que lo realiz un profesor local, un profesor universitario. +l afirma que est basado en un estudio de la UNESCO. +Segn el estudio, el porcentaje de violacin, adulterio, hijos ilegtimos, abuso de drogas, y prostitucin en pases en los que las mujeres conducen es mayor que en los pases en los que las mujeres no conducen. +Lo s, me pas lo mismo, estaba impresionada. +Pensaba, "Somos el ltimo pas del mundo en el que las mujeres no conducen". +Si miran al mapa del mundo, solo hay dos pases: Arabia Saud y la otra sociedad es el resto del mundo. +En Twitter empezamos a burlarnos del estudio, y marc algunos titulares por todo el mundo. +[BBC News: 'El fin de la virginidad' si las mujeres conducen, advierte clrigo saud] Solo entonces nos dimos cuenta del poder que se adquiere al burlarse de tu opresor. +Lo despoja de su mejor arma: el miedo. +Este sistema est basado en tradiciones y costumbres ultra-conservadoras que tratan a las mujeres como si fueran inferiores y que necesitan a un guardin para protegerlas, de modo que necesitan tener permiso de este guardin, ya sea verbal o por escrito, durante toda su vida. +Somos inferiores hasta el da de nuestra muerte. +Y es peor cuando se consagra en las fetuas religiosas basadas en una mala interpretacin de la ley sharia, o de las leyes religiosas. +Lo que es peor, cuando se codifican como leyes en un sistema, y cuando las propias mujeres creen que son inferiores e incluso luchan contra quienes intentan cuestionar estas normas. +Para m, no se trataba solo de los ataques que tena que afrontar. +Se trataba de vivir dos percepciones totalmente distintas de mi personalidad: la villana en mi pas de origen y la herona fuera de mi pas. +En los ltimos dos aos me han sucedido dos cosas. +Una de ellas fue cuando estaba en la crcel. +Estoy segura de que cuando estaba en la crcel todos vieron titulares en los medios internacionales, algo como esto durante los 9 das que estuve encarcelada. +Pero en mi pas, era totalmente distinto. +Era algo como esto: Manal al-Sharif afronta cargos de alteracin del orden pblico e incitar a las mujeres a conducir". +Lo s. +"Manal al-Sharif se retira de la campaa". +Bueno, no pasa nada. Esta es mi favorita. +"Manal al-Sharif se viene abajo y confiesa: 'Las fuerzas extranjeras me incitaron'". Y esto sigue, incluso un juicio y azotamiento en pblico. +Es una imagen totalmente distinta. +El ao pasado me pidieron dar una charla en el Oslo Freedom Forum [Foro de la Libertad de Oslo]. +Estaba rodeada por todo este amor y el apoyo de la gente a mi alrededor. Me miraban como si fuera una inspiracin para ellos. +Al mismo tiempo, volv a mi pas, odiaron mucho esa charla. +Lo llamaron: una traicin al pas saudita y a su gente e incluso iniciaron un hashtag en Twitter que deca #OsloTraitor [traidora de Oslo]. +Se escribieron unos 10 000 tuits en ese hashtag, mientras que el hastag opuesto, #OsloHero [herona de Oslo] tena un puado de tuits. +Iniciaron incluso una encuesta, +en la que participaron ms de 13 000 personas, sobre si me consideraban una traidora o no tras la charla. +El 90 % dijo que s, que era una traidora. +Estas son las dos percepciones totalmente distintas de mi personalidad. +Yo estoy orgullosa de ser mujer saud y amo a mi pas. Y es porque amo a mi pas que hago esto. +Porque creo que una sociedad no ser libre si las mujeres de dicha sociedad no son libres. +Gracias. +Gracias, gracias, muchas gracias. +Gracias. +Pero aprendes lecciones de lo que te ocurre. +He aprendido a estar siempre ah. +Cuando sal de la crcel, despus de una buena ducha, me conect y abr mis cuentas de Twitter y Facebook, y siempre he sido muy respetuosa con aquellas personas que opinan de m. +Escuchaba lo que decan y nunca me defend con solo palabras, +sino con acciones. Cuando dijeron que debera retirarme de la campaa, present la primera demanda contra la polica de la direccin general de trfico por no emitir mi carn de conducir. +Tambin hay mucha gente, unas 3000 personas que me han apoyado mucho, que firmaron una peticin para que me liberaran. +Enviamos una peticin al Consejo Shura a favor de anular la prohibicin contra las mujeres sauditas y firmaron la peticin unos 3500 ciudadanos que crean en ello. +Son estas personas asombrosas, les he mostrado algunos ejemplos, las que creen en los derechos de las mujeres en Arabia Saud y en el intento afrontan mucho odio porque expresan su opinin abiertamente. +En Arabia Saud vamos paso a paso hacia una mejora de los derechos de la mujer. +El Consejo Shura, designado por el rey por el real decreto del Rey Abdullah, estuvo compuesto el ao pasado por 30 mujeres, un 20 %. +Un 20 % del Consejo. Al mismo tiempo, finalmente, el Consejo, tras rechazar 4 veces nuestra peticin para que las mujeres conduzcan, la aceptaron este pasado mes de febrero. +Despus de haber estado en la crcel o azotada o llevada a juicio, el portavoz de la polica de trfico dijo, solo emitiremos infracciones de trfico para las mujeres. +El Gran Mufti, que es jefe de la clase dirigente religiosa en Arabia Saud, dijo que no era recomendable que las mujeres condujeran. +Estaba 'haram', prohibido, por el anterior Gran Mufti. +Para m no solo son importantes estos pequeos pasos. +Sino las mujeres en s. +Una amiga me pregunt una vez, "Cundo crees que conducirn las mujeres? +A lo que le dije, "Solo cuando las mujeres dejen de preguntarse 'Cundo?' y tomen medidas para hacerlo ya". +No es solo sobre el sistema, dira que tambin es el momento de que las mujeres escojan su proprio rumbo en la vida. +No tengo ni idea realmente de cmo me convert en activista. +Y todava sigo sin saberlo. +Lo nico que s, y estoy segura, es que en un futuro, cuando alguien me pregunte sobre mi historia, le dir, "Estoy orgullosa de estar entre esas mujeres que se alzaron contra la prohibicin, lucharon contra ella y celebraron la libertad de todos". +Respecto a la pregunta con la que empec mi charla, contra quin creen que es ms difcil combatir, gobiernos opresivos o sociedades opresivas? +Espero que en mi charla encuentren las pistas para responderla. +Gracias a todos. +Gracias. +Gracias. +rase una vez una economa en la que vivamos con crecimiento financiero y prosperidad. +Se le llam la Gran Moderacin, la creencia equivocada de la mayora de los economistas, las autoridades y los bancos centrales de que habamos logrado un nuevo mundo de incesante crecimiento y prosperidad. +Esto se crey por el crecimiento robusto y estable del PIB, por una inflacin baja y controlada, por bajo desempleo, y por una volatilidad financiera controlada y baja. +Pero la gran recesin del 2007 y 2008, la gran crisis, rompi esta ilusin. +Unas prdidas de 100 mil millones de dlares en el sector financiero llev a detrimentos en cascada de 5 billones de dlares en el PIB mundial y casi 30 billones de prdidas en los mercados de valores mundiales. +Como explicacin de esta gran recesin se dijo que era completamente sorprendente, que vino de la nada, que provena de la ira de los dioses. +No hubo ninguna responsabilidad. +Por lo tanto, como respuesta a esto, empezamos el Observatorio de Crisis Financieras. +Tenamos el objetivo de diagnosticar en tiempo real las burbujas financieras e identificar con anticipacin su momento crtico. +Cul es el sustento cientfico, de este observatorio financiero? +Desarrollamos la teora llamada "dragones reyes". +Los dragones reyes representan eventos extremos que son de una clase particular. +Son especiales, atpicos. +Se generan por mecanismos especficos que pueden hacerlos predecibles, y tal vez controlables. +Consideren las series temporales de precios financieros, de una accin determinada, su accin preferida, o un ndice global. +Vern estos altibajos. +Una muy buena medida del riesgo de este mercado financiero es la tendencia de pico a valle que representa uno de los peores escenarios cuando se compra en la parte superior y se vende en la parte inferior. +Se pueden ver las estadsticas, la frecuencia de la ocurrencia del pico a valle de diferentes tamaos, representada en este grfico. +Ahora, curiosamente, el 99% de los pico a valles de diferentes amplitudes cumplen una ley universal de la energa representada por esta lnea roja. +Ms interesante an, hay comportamientos atpicos, excepciones, que estn por encima de la lnea roja, y que son por lo menos 100 veces ms frecuentes, de lo que la extrapolacin predecira basado en una calibracin del 99% del resto de pico a valles. +Se deben a dependencias crticas como una prdida seguida por otra prdida seguida por otra, seguida por otra. +Este tipo de dependencias se omiten en las herramientas de gestin de riesgo estndar, que las ignoran y ven lagartos cuando deberan ver dragones reyes. +El mecanismo raz de un dragn rey es una maduracin lenta hacia la inestabilidad, que es la burbuja, y el punto culminante de la burbuja es a menudo el desplome. +Es similar al lento calentamiento del agua, en este tubo de ensayo, para llegar al punto de ebullicin, cuando se produce inestabilidad y se tiene la transicin de fase a vapor. +Este proceso, que es absolutamente no lineal, no se puede predecir por tcnicas convencionales. Es el reflejo de un comportamiento colectivo emergente fundamentalmente endgeno. +La causa del desplome, la causa de la crisis, tiene que buscarse en una inestabilidad interna del sistema. Cualquier pequea perturbacin producir esta inestabilidad. +Algunos de ustedes podran pensar: no est esto relacionado con el concepto del cisne negro del que se oye hablar con frecuencia? +Recuerden, el cisne negro es este pjaro raro que aparece repentinamente y destroza la creencia de que todos los cisnes son blancos; refleja la idea de imprevisibilidad, de desconocimiento, de que los acontecimientos extremos son fundamentalmente incognoscibles. +Nada puede ser ms alejado del concepto de dragn rey que propongo, que es exactamente lo contrario; los fenmenos ms extremos son realmente cognoscibles y predecibles. +As que podemos sentirnos autorizados, asumir la responsabilidad y hacer predicciones sobre ellos. +Hagamos que mi dragn rey desaparezca el concepto del cisne negro. +Hay muchas seales tempranas de advertencia que esta teora predice. +Djenme enfocarme en una de ellas: el crecimiento sper exponencial con retroalimentacin positiva. +Qu significa? +Imaginen que tienen una inversin que el primer ao produce un 5%, el segundo ao el 10%, el tercer ao el 20%, el siguiente ao el 40%. No es maravilloso? +Esto es un crecimiento sper exponencial. +Un crecimiento exponencial estndar sera a una tasa de crecimiento constante, digamos, del 10%. El punto es que, muchas veces, en las burbujas, hay retroalimentaciones positivas que pueden superar los crecimientos anteriores, impulsar y aumentar el siguiente con este tipo de crecimiento sper exponencial, que es muy agudo y no es sostenible. +La idea clave es que la solucin matemtica para esta clase de modelos presenta singularidades de tiempo finito, lo que significa que hay un momento crtico cuando el sistema colapsa, cambia el rgimen. +Puede ser un desplome. Puede ser solo una meseta o algo diferente. +La idea clave es que el momento crtico, la informacin sobre el tiempo crtico est contenida en el desarrollo inicial del crecimiento sper exponencial. +Aplicamos esta teora desde el principio, ese fue nuestro primer xito, al diagnstico de la ruptura de elementos clave en un cohete de acero. +Con emisin acstica, ustedes saben, ese ruidito que emiten las estructuras. Cantan cuando se estresan y revelan el dao. Es un fenmeno colectivo de retroalimentacin positiva; cuanto mayor el dao, mayor el que sigue. Entonces realmente se puede predecir, dentro de, por supuesto, una banda de probabilidad, cundo se producir la ruptura. +Esto es tan exitoso que se utiliza en la fase inicial [no es claro] del vuelo. +Quizs ms sorprendente an, es que el mismo tipo de teora se puede aplicar en biologa y en medicina; en el parto, el acto de dar a luz, en las crisis epilpticas. +A los siete meses de gestacin, una madre empieza a sentir contracciones precursoras episdicas del tero; seales de maduracin hacia la inestabilidad, para dar a luz; el dragn rey. +As que al medir la seal precursora, se pueden identificar problemas pre y post-maduracin, de antemano. +Las crisis epilpticas tambin se dan con una gran variedad de intensidades, y cuando el cerebro llega a un estado supercrtico, aparecen dragones reyes con un cierto grado de previsibilidad, lo cual puede ayudar al paciente a lidiar con la enfermedad. +Hemos aplicado esta teora en muchos sistemas; deslizamientos de tierra, colapsos de glaciares, incluso en la dinmica de la prediccin del xito: ventas de taquilla, videos de YouTube, pelculas, etc. +Pero quizs la ms importante aplicacin es en las finanzas. Esta teora ilumina, en mi opinin, la razn profunda de las crisis financieras que hemos atravesado. +Esto tiene sus races en 30 aos de historia de burbujas, a partir de 1980, con la burbuja global que colaps en 1987, seguida por muchas otras. +La ms grande fue la burbuja de la "nueva economa" de Internet en el 2000, que colaps ese ao, las inmobiliarias en muchos pases, las de productos financieros en todo el mundo, burbujas burstiles tambin por todas partes, de materias primas y todas las dems, de deuda y crdito, burbujas... burbujas, burbujas, burbujas. +Tuvimos una burbuja global. +Fue una medida de sobrevaluacin global de todos los mercados, que mostraban lo que yo llamo la ilusin de la mquina de dinero perpetuo que colaps repentinamente en 2007. +El problema es que ahora estamos viendo el mismo proceso, en particular en la poltica monetaria, con la idea de una mquina de dinero perpetuo para abordar la crisis desde el ao 2008 en los EE.UU., en Europa, en Japn. +Esto tiene implicaciones muy importantes para entender el fracaso de la poltica monetaria y de las medidas de austeridad; mientras no ataquemos de raz la causa estructural de esta idea de la mquina de dinero perpetuo. +Estas son grandes afirmaciones. +Por qu habran de creerme? +Bueno, tal vez porque, en los ltimos 15 aos nos hemos salido de la torre de marfil, y hemos comenzado a publicar ex ante y subrayo el trmino ex ante, que significa "por adelantado", antes de que el colapso confirme la existencia de la burbuja o de los excesos financieros. +Estas son algunas de las grandes burbujas que hemos sufrido en la historia reciente. +Una vez ms, muchas historias interesantes para cada una de ellas. +Djenme contarles una o dos historias que tratan de enormes burbujas. +Todos conocemos el milagro chino. +Esta es la expresin de la enorme burbuja en el mercado de valores; un factor de tres, 300% en pocos aos. +En septiembre de 2007 fui invitado como orador a un congreso de macro gestores de fondos de cobertura y mostr la prediccin de que a finales de 2007, esta burbuja cambiara de tendencia. +Podra haber un colapso. Ciertamente no sostenible. +Cmo creen que los muy inteligentes, motivados, e informados gestores de fondos reaccionaron a esta prediccin? +Haban hecho miles de millones simplemente navegando sobre esta burbuja hasta ese momento. +Me dijeron, "Didier, s, el mercado podra estar sobrevaluado, pero olvidas algo. +Vienen los Juegos Olmpicos de Beijing en agosto de 2008 y est muy claro que el gobierno chino est controlando la economa y haciendo lo que se necesita para evitar cualquier movimiento, est controlando el mercado de valores". +Tres semanas despus de mi presentacin, los mercados perdieron 20% y pasaron por una fase de volatilidad, agitacin y una prdida total del mercado del 70% hacia finales del ao. +Entonces, cmo podemos estar tan colectivamente mal por malinterpretar o hacer caso omiso de la ciencia; del hecho de que cuando se desarrolla una inestabilidad, y el sistema est maduro, cualquier perturbacin lo hace esencialmente incontrolable? +Se derrumb el mercado chino, pero se recuper. +En 2009, identificamos tambin que esta nueva burbuja, una versin ms pequea, era insostenible, as que publicamos otra vez una prediccin, por adelantado, afirmando que hacia agosto de 2009, el mercado se corregira, y no continuara la tendencia. +Nuestros crticos leyeron la prediccin y dijeron, "No, no es posible. +El gobierno chino est all. +Han aprendido su leccin. Lo controlarn. +Quieren aprovechar el crecimiento". +Tal vez estos crticos no haban aprendido su leccin anterior. +Entonces ocurri la crisis. El mercado se corrigi. +Los mismos crticos dijeron: "Ah, s, pero publicaste tu prediccin. +Influiste en el mercado. +No fue una prediccin". +Tal vez entonces soy muy poderoso. +Bien, esto es interesante. +Demuestra que es esencialmente imposible hasta ahora desarrollar la ciencia de la economa porque somos seres conscientes que anticipamos y existe un problema de profecas autogeneradas. +As que hemos inventado una nueva forma de hacer ciencia. +Creamos el experimento de la burbuja financiera. +La idea es la siguiente. Vigilamos los mercados. +Identificamos los excesos, las burbujas. +Hacemos nuestro trabajo. Escribimos un informe en el que ponemos nuestra prediccin del momento crtico. +No publicamos el informe. Se mantiene secreto. +Pero con tcnicas modernas de cifrado, lo tenemos encriptado y publicamos la clave. Seis meses despus, liberamos el informe, y hay una validacin. +Todo esto se hace en un archivo internacional para que no puedan acusarnos de liberar solo los xitos. +Djenme contarles de un anlisis reciente. +17 de mayo de 2013, hace apenas dos semanas. Identificamos que el mercado de valores de los Estados Unidos iba por un camino insostenible y publicamos en nuestro portal el 21 de mayo que habra un cambio de tendencia. +Al da siguiente, el mercado comenz a cambiar la tendencia, el curso. +No se trataba de un colapso. +Era solo el tercer o cuarto acto de una enorme burbuja en ciernes. +Ampliando la discusin a nivel global, vemos lo mismo. +Donde miremos, es observable: en la biosfera, en la atmsfera, en el ocano, con estas trayectorias sper exponenciales que caracterizan un camino insostenible y anuncian una transicin de fase. +El diagrama de la derecha muestra una clara recopilacin de estudios que sugieren que en realidad hay una posibilidad no lineal de una transicin no lineal en las prximas dcadas. +Es que hay burbujas en todas partes. +De un lado, esto es emocionante para m, como profesor que sigo las burbujas, mata-dragones, como los medios de comunicacin a veces me han llamado. +Pero realmente podemos matar los dragones? +Muy recientemente, con colaboradores, estudiamos un sistema dinmico donde el dragn rey se presenta como estos grandes lazos y hemos podido aplicar pequeas perturbaciones en los momentos correctos que eliminan, cuando se tiene el control, esos dragones. +"Gouverner, c'est prvoir". +Gobernar es el arte de la planificacin y la prediccin. +Pero, probablemente no es este el caso de una de las lagunas ms grandes de la humanidad, que tiene la responsabilidad de dirigir nuestras sociedades y nuestro planeta hacia la sostenibilidad ante crisis y desafos crecientes? +Pero la teora del dragn rey da esperanza. +Hemos aprendido que la mayora de los sistemas tienen algo de previsibilidad. +Es posible desarrollar diagnsticos anticipados de las crisis para estar preparados, para poder tomar medidas, para asumir la responsabilidad, y que nunca nos vuelvan a tomar otra vez por sorpresa los extremos ni las crisis como en la gran recesin o en la crisis europea. +Gracias. +La idea de eliminar la pobreza es una gran meta. +No creo que haya alguien en esta sala que no est de acuerdo. +Lo que me preocupa es cuando los polticos con dinero y las carismticas estrellas de rock usan las palabras, todo suena tan, tan sencillo. +No tengo ninguna cubeta de dinero hoy y no tengo ninguna poltica para publicar y con seguridad no tengo una guitarra. +Le dejar eso a los dems. +Pero s tengo una idea y esa idea se llama Vivienda para la Salud. +Vivienda para la Salud trabaja con gente de escasos recursos. +Trabaja en los lugares donde viven y el trabajo se hace para mejorar su salud. +Durante los ltimos 28 aos, este arduo, desgastante y sucio trabajo ha sido realizado literalmente por miles de personas en toda Australia y, ms recientemente, en el extranjero y su trabajo ha probado que el diseo centrado puede mejorar incluso los entornos de vida ms pobres. +Puede mejorar la salud y puede colaborar en la reduccin, si no en la eliminacin, de la pobreza. +Empezar por el principio de la historia, 1985, en el centro de Australia. +Un hombre llamado Yami Lester, un aborigen, administraba un servicio de salud. +El 80 % de lo que entraba por la puerta, en trminos de enfermedad, eran enfermedades infecciosas: enfermedades infecciosas del tercer mundo o del mundo en desarrollo, causadas por un entorno de vida pobre. +Yami reuni a un equipo en Alice Springs. +Consigui a un mdico. +Consigui a un chico de salud ambiental. +Y seleccion a mano a un equipo de aborgenes locales para trabajar en este proyecto. +Yami nos dijo en esa primera reunin que no haba dinero. Siempre una buena partida, sin dinero. Tenamos seis meses. Y quera que empezramos a trabajar en un proyecto que en su idioma llamaba "uwankara palyanku kanyintjaku", que se traduce como "un plan para evitar que las personas se enfermen", un resumen profundo. +Esa era nuestra tarea. +Primero paso, el mdico se fue durante unos seis meses +y trabaj en lo que se convertira en esas nueve metas de salud, a lo que apuntbamos. Despus de seis meses de trabajo, fue a mi oficina y me obsequi esas nueve palabras en un pedazo de papel. +[9 principios de la vida sana: el lavado, la ropa, las aguas residuales, la nutricin, el hacinamiento, los animales+, el polvo, la temperatura, las lesiones]. Estaba muy, muy poco impresionado. Vamos. Las grandes ideas necesitan grandes palabras y, preferentemente, muchas palabras. +Esto no se ajustaba al perfil. +Lo que no vi y lo que Uds. no pueden ver es que reuni miles de pginas de investigaciones sobre salud locales, nacionales e internacionales que complementaron la imagen de por qu estos eran los objetivos en salud. +Las imgenes que llegaron un poco despus tenan una razn muy sencilla. +Los aborgenes que eran nuestros jefes y los mayores eran en su mayora analfabetos, as que la historia tena que ser contada en imgenes de cuales eran estas metas. +Trabajamos con la comunidad, sin decirles qu iba a ocurrir en un idioma que no entendan. +As que tenamos las metas y cada una de estas metas, y no voy a pasar por todas ellas, coloca a la persona y su problema de salud en el centro y luego los conectan a los trozos del entorno fsico que se necesitan para que mantengan bien su salud. +Y la mxima prioridad, lo ven en la pantalla, es lavar a la gente una vez al da, en particular a los nios. +Espero que la mayora de Uds. estn pensando: "Qu? Eso suena sencillo". +Ahora, les har a todos una pregunta muy personal. +Esta maana antes de que vinieran, quin se habra lavado usando una ducha? +No les voy a preguntar si se dieron una ducha, porque soy demasiado educado. Eso es. +Est bien. Est bien. +Creo que es justo decir que la mayora de las personas aqu pudieron haberse dado una ducha esta maana. +Les pedir que hagan algo de trabajo. +Quiero que seleccionen una de las casas de las 25 casas que ven en la pantalla. +Quiero que seleccionen una de ellas y noten la posicin de esa casa y la mantengan en su cabeza. +Todos tienen una casa? Les voy a pedir +que vivan all unos meses, para asegurarme de que lo hayan entendido. +Est en el noroeste de Australia Occidental, un lugar muy agradable. +Est bien. Veamos si su ducha en esa casa est funcionando. +Escucho algunos "oh" y algunos "aah". +Si tienen una marca verde, su ducha est funcionando. +Ud. y sus hijos estn bien. +Si tienen una cruz roja, bueno, he mirado cuidadosamente alrededor de la sala y no va a hacer mucha diferencia en este equipo. +Por qu? Porque todos son demasiado viejos. +Y s que va a ser una sorpresa para algunos de Uds., pero lo son. +Ahora, antes de que se ofendan y se vayan, tengo que decir que ser demasiado viejo en este caso significa que casi todos en la sala, creo, tienen ms de cinco aos de edad. +Estamos muy preocupados por los nios de cero a cinco. +Y por qu? Lavarse es el antdoto para el tipo de insectos, las enfermedades infecciosas comunes de los ojos, los odos, el pecho y la piel que, si ocurren en los primeros aos de vida, daan permanentemente a esos rganos. +Dejan vestigios para toda la vida. +Eso significa que, para los cinco aos de edad, no pueden ver tan bien por el resto de su vida. +No pueden escuchar tan bien por el resto de su vida. +No pueden respirar tan bien. Han perdido un tercio +de su capacidad pulmonar a los cinco aos. +E incluso la infeccin de la piel, que originalmente pensamos que no era un gran problema, infecciones leves de la piel de cero a cinco aos les da un gran incremento en la posibilidad de insuficiencia renal, y necesidad de dilisis a los 40 aos. +Este es un gran problema, as que las marcas y cruces de la pantalla en realidad son crticas para los nios. +Esas marcas y cruces representan las 7800 casas que hemos visto a nivel nacional alrededor de Australia, la misma proporcin. +Lo que ven en la pantalla, 35 % de esas casas no tan famosas habitadas por 50 000 aborgenes, el 35 % tena una ducha que funcionaba. +El 10 % de esas mismas 7800 casas tena sistemas elctricos seguros, +y un 58 % de las mismas +tena un inodoro que funcionaba. +Es una prueba simple y estndar: en el caso de la ducha, tiene agua caliente y fra, dos grifos que funcionen, una ducha manual para poder mojarse la cabeza o el cuerpo y un drenaje que se lleve el agua? +No muy bien diseadas, no bellas, no elegantes... solo que funcionen. +Y lo mismo para el sistema elctrico y los inodoros. +Los proyectos de Vivienda para la Salud no intentan medir las fallas. Tratan en realidad de mejorar las casas. +Comenzamos el da uno de cada proyecto, hemos aprendido, +no hacemos promesas, no hacemos informes. +Llegamos en la maana con las herramientas, toneladas de equipos, especialistas y entrenamos a un equipo local el primer da para empezar a trabajar. +Para la tarde del primer da, unas pocas casas en esa comunidad estn mejor que cuando empezamos en la maana. +Ese trabajo contina de 6 a 12 meses hasta que todas las casas estn mejoradas y hemos gastado nuestro presupuesto de USD 7500 en total por casa. +Ese es nuestro presupuesto promedio. +Al final de los seis meses a un ao, probamos cada casa de nuevo. +Es muy fcil gastar el dinero. +Es muy difcil mejorar la funcin de todas las partes de la casa +y, para una casa, las nueve prcticas de la vida saludable, probamos, verificamos y arreglamos 250 artculos en cada casa. +Y estos son los resultados que podemos tener con nuestros USD 7500. +Podemos tener funcionando hasta un 86 % de las duchas, podemos tener funcionando hasta un 77 % de los sistemas elctricos, y podemos tener funcionando un 90 % de los inodoros de esas 7500 casas. +Gracias. Los equipos hacen un gran trabajo, esa es su tarea. +Creo que hay una pregunta obvia que espero que estn pensando. +Por qu tenemos que hacer este trabajo? +Por qu las casas estn en condiciones tan precarias? +El 70 % del trabajo que hacemos se debe a la falta de mantenimiento de rutina, el tipo de cosas que pasa en todas nuestras casas. +Las cosas se gastan. Debera haber sido hecho por el gobierno estatal o local. Sencillamente no se hace, la casa no funciona. +El 21 % de las cosas que arreglamos se debe a una construccin fallida, literalmente las cosas estn construidas patas arriba y de atrs para adelante. +No funcionan. Nosotros tenemos que arreglarlas. +Y si han vivido en Australia en los ltimos 30 aos, la causa final: siempre habrn escuchado que los aborgenes destruyen las casas. +Es una de las pruebas casi tan slidas como la roca, de la que nunca he visto evidencias. Se descarta que sea el problema de la vivienda del aborigen. +Bueno, el 90 % de lo que gastamos est daado, mal usado o daado de alguna manera. +Sostenemos fuertemente que las personas que viven en la casa sencillamente no son el problema. +E iremos mucho ms lejos. La gente que vive en la casa es en realidad gran parte de la solucin. +El 75 % de nuestro equipo nacional en Australia, ms del 75 % en este momento, en realidad son personas locales e indgenas de las comunidades en las que trabajamos. +Hacen todos los aspectos del trabajo. +En 2010, por ejemplo, hubo 831, por toda Australia y en las Islas del estrecho de Torres, todos los estados, trabajando para mejorar las casas donde viven ellos y sus familias y eso es algo importante. +Nuestro trabajo siempre haba tenido un enfoque en la salud. Esa es la clave. +El insecto de los pases en desarrollo, tracoma, causa ceguera. +Es una enfermedad de los pases en desarrollo, y sin embargo, la imagen que ven detrs es de una comunidad aborigen de fines de la dcada de 1990 donde el 95 % de los nios en edad escolar tenan tracoma activo daando sus ojos. +Bien, qu hacemos? +Bueno, lo primero que hacemos es hacer funcionar las duchas. +Por qu? Porque eso elimina el insecto. +Colocamos instalaciones de lavado en la escuela tambin, as los nios pueden lavarse la cara muchas veces durante el da. +Eliminamos el insecto. +Segundo, los oculistas nos dicen que el polvo daa los ojos y permite que el insecto entre rpido. As que, qu hacemos? +Llamamos al especialista del polvo y existe tal persona. +Una minera nos lo prest. +El controla el polvo en los sitios de la empresa minera +vino y en un da resolvi que la mayora del polvo de esta comunidad estaba a un metro del suelo, el polvo impulsado por el viento, as que sugiri hacer montes para atrapar el polvo antes de que fuera a la zona de las viviendas y afectara los ojos de los nios. +As que usamos la tierra para parar el polvo. +Lo hicimos. Nos proporcion monitores de polvo. +Los probamos y redujimos el polvo. +Luego quisimos deshacernos del insecto. +As que, cmo lo hacemos? +Bueno, llamamos al doctor de las moscas y s, hay un doctor de las moscas. +Como nuestro amigo aborigen deca: "Uds. muchachos blancos deben salir ms". +Y el doctor de las moscas determin rpidamente que haba una mosca que llevaba el insecto. +Pudo darle a los escolares de esta comunidad la bella trampa de moscas que ven arriba en la diapositiva. +Pudieron atrapar las moscas, envirselas a Perth. +Cuando el insecto estuviera en el intestino, enviara algunos escarabajos del estircol de vuelta. +Los escarabajos del estircol se comen el estircol de camello, las moscas murieron por la falta comida y el tracoma se redujo. +Y durante el ao, el tracoma se redujo radicalmente en este lugar y se mantuvo bajo. +Cambiamos el entorno, no solo tratamos los ojos. +Y finalmente, tienen un ojo bueno. +Todas estas pequeas ganancias en salud y pequeas piezas del rompecabezas hacen una gran diferencia. +El Departamento de Salud de New South Wales, esa organizacin radical, hizo un ensayo independiente durante tres aos para ver 10 aos del trabajo que hemos estado haciendo en este tipo de proyecto en New South Wales +y encontraron una reduccin del 40 % en las admisiones hospitalarias para enfermedades que pueden atribuirse a entornos precarios. Una reduccin del 40 %. +Solo para mostrar que los principios que hemos usado en Australia pueden ser usados en otros lugares, solo voy a ir a otro lugar y ese es Nepal; +qu hermoso lugar para visitar. +Una pequea aldea de 600 personas nos pidi que furamos e hiciramos inodoros donde no haba ninguno. +La salud era mala. +Fuimos sin un gran plan, sin grandes promesas de un gran programa, solo nos ofrecimos a construir dos inodoros para dos familias. +Durante el diseo del primer inodoro fui a almorzar, invitado por la familia, a la sala principal de su casa. +Me estaba ahogando con el humo. +La gente estaba cocinando con su nico recurso de combustible: madera verde. +El humo que sale de esa madera ahoga y en una casa cerrada, sencillamente no se puede respirar. +Despus encontramos que la causa principal de las enfermedades y las muertes en esta regin en particular son las insuficiencias respiratorias. +As que de la nada tenamos dos problemas. +Estbamos all originalmente para ver los inodoros y sacar los desechos humanos del suelo. Eso est bien. +Pero de la nada ahora haba un segundo problema. Cmo bajamos el humo? As que dos problemas +y el diseo debera ser de ms de una cosa. +Solucin: Tomar los desechos humanos y animales, colocarlos en una cmara, para poder extraer biogs de eso, gas metano. +El gas da de tres a cuatro horas para cocinar un da, limpio, sin humo y gratis para la familia. +Se los planteo, es esto eliminar la pobreza? +Y la respuesta del equipo nepal que est trabajando en este momento dira, no sean ridculos, tenemos que construir tres millones de inodoros ms antes de siquiera intentar decir eso. +Y no pretendo nada ms. +Pero hoy que estamos todos aqu, hay ahora ms de 100 inodoros construidos en esta aldea y un par cerca. +Ms de mil personas usan esos inodoros. +Yami Lama, un joven. +Tiene significativamente menos infecciones intestinales, porque ahora tiene inodoros y no hay desechos humanos en el suelo. +Kanji Maya, ella es una madre orgullosa. +Probablemente ahora est cocinando el almuerzo para su familia con biogs y sin humo. +Sus pulmones se han mejorado y se mejorarn a medida que pase el tiempo, porque no est cocinando con el mismo humo. +Surya lleva los residuos fuera de la cmara de biogs cuando el gas se acaba, lo coloca en sus cultivos. +Ha triplicado el ingreso de sus cultivos, ms comida y dinero para la familia. +Y, finalmente, Bishnu el lder del equipo, ahora ha entendido que no solo hemos construido inodoros, tambin hemos construido un equipo y ese equipo ahora trabaja en dos aldeas donde estn formando las siguientes dos aldeas para mantener el trabajo en expansin. +Y eso, para m, es la clave. +Las personas no son el problema. +Nunca hemos encontrado eso. +El problema: las precarias condiciones de vida, viviendas precarias y los insectos que le hacen dao a las personas. +Ninguno de estos est limitado por la geografa, por el color de piel o por la religin. Ninguno. +El vnculo en comn entre todo el trabajo que hemos hecho es una cosa y es la pobreza. +Nelson Mandela dijo, a mediados de la dcada de 2000, no muy lejos de aqu, dijo que "como la esclavitud y el apartheid, la pobreza no es natural. +Es creada por el hombre y puede ser superada y erradicada por las acciones de los seres humanos". +Quiero terminar diciendo que han sido las acciones de miles de seres humanos comunes, creo, haciendo trabajos extraordinarios, que han mejorado la salud, y, quiz solo de una pequea forma, reducido la pobreza. +Muchas gracias por su tiempo. +Vivir en frica es estar en el borde, metafrica y literalmente cuando se piensa en conectividad antes de 2008. +Aunque han ocurrido muchos avances intelectuales y tecnolgicos en Europa y el resto del mundo, frica haba estado al margen. +Y eso cambi, primero con los barcos con el renacimiento, con la revolucin cientfica y tambin con la Revolucin Industrial. +Y ahora tenemos la revolucin digital. +Estas revoluciones nunca se han distribuido uniformemente a travs de los continentes y las naciones. +Nunca lo han hecho. +Bien, este es un mapa de la fibra ptica submarina que conecta a frica con resto del mundo. +Lo que me parece increble es que frica est trascendiendo su problema geogrfico. +frica se est conectando con el resto del mundo y consigo misma. +La situacin de la conectividad ha mejorado mucho, pero algunas barreras an persisten. +Es en este contexto que surgi Ushahidi. +En 2008, uno de los problemas que enfrentamos fue la falta de flujo de informacin. +Hubo un bloqueo meditico en 2008, cuando hubo violencia postelectoral en Kenia. +Fue una poca trgica. Fueron momentos muy difciles. +As que nos reunimos y creamos el software llamado Ushahidi. +Y Ushahidi significa "testimonio" o "testigo" en swahili. +Soy muy afortunada de trabajar con dos colaboradores increbles. +Ellos son David y Erik. +Los llamo hermanos de otra madre. +Claramente, tengo una madre alemana en algn lugar. +Y hemos colaborado primero en la construccin y en el crecimiento de Ushahidi. +Y la idea del software es recoger informacin de los SMS, del correo electrnico y la web y ponerla en un mapa para poder ver qu es lo que estaba sucediendo y dnde y poder visualizar esos datos. +Y despus de ese primer prototipo nos propusimos para hacer software libre y de cdigo abierto para que otros no tuvieran que empezar de cero como nosotros. +Al mismo tiempo, hemos querido regresarle a la comunidad local de tecnologa que nos ayud a hacer crecer Ushahidi y que nos apoy en esos primeros das. +Y por eso establecimos el iHub en Nairobi, un espacio fsico real donde podramos colaborar y ahora es parte de un ecosistema de tecnologa integral en Kenia. +Lo hicimos con el apoyo de diferentes organizaciones como la Fundacin MacArthur y la red Omidyar. +Este ao el Internet cumpli 20 aos, y Ushahidi cumpli 5 aos. +Ushahidi no es solo el software que hicimos. +Es el equipo y tambin es la comunidad utiliza esta tecnologa de una manera que nosotros nunca imaginamos. +No imaginamos que habran todos estos mapas Alrededor del mundo. +Hay un mapa de crisis, mapas de elecciones, mapas de la corrupcin, e incluso mapas de multitud de monitoreo ambiental. +Nos sentimos muy honrados de que haya tenido su origen en Kenia y que tiene una utilidad para la gente alrededor del planeta que trata de entender los diferentes problemas con los que estn lidiando. +Hay ms sobre lo que estamos trabajando para explorar esta idea de inteligencia colectiva en la que uno, como ciudadano, puede compartir la informacin con cualquier dispositivo que se tenga, pueda informar qu est sucediendo y que si otro hace lo mismo, podemos tener un panorama ms amplio de lo que est ocurriendo. +Regres a Kenia en 2011. +Erik se traslad en 2010. +Son realidades muy diferentes. Yo sola vivir en Chicago donde hay abundante acceso a Internet. +Nunca tuve que lidiar con un apagn. +Y en Kenia, es una realidad muy diferente, y una cosa que se mantiene a pesar de los avances en el progreso y la revolucin digitales el problema de la electricidad. +Las frustraciones cotidianas de lidiar con esto pueden ser, digamos, muy molestas. +Los apagones no son divertidos. +Imagnense sentarse a trabajar y de repente se va la luz, y la conexin a Internet se va con ella, y tienen que averiguar dnde est el mdem, y cmo volverlo a conectar. +Y entonces, adivinen qu? Tienen que lidiar con eso otra vez. +Esta es la realidad de Kenia, donde vivimos ahora, y en otras partes de frica. +El otro problema que enfrentamos son los costos de comunicacin que siguen siendo muy elevados. +Me cuesta cinco chelines kenianos, o 0,06 dlares llamar a Estados Unidos, Canad o China. +Adivinen cunto cuesta llamar a Ruanda, Ghana, Nigeria +Treinta chelines kenianos. Es seis veces mayor el costo para conectarse dentro de frica. +Y tambin, al viajar en frica, hay diferentes configuraciones para diferentes proveedores de telefona mvil. +Esa es la realidad a la que nos enfrentamos. +Tenemos una broma en Ushahidi decimos: "Si funciona en frica, funcionar en cualquier lugar". +[La mayora usa la tecnologa para definir la funcin, que usamos para impulsar la tecnologa.] Qu pasara si podramos superar el problema de la poca fiabilidad del Internet y la electricidad y reducir el costo de conexin? +Podramos aprovechar la nube? +Hemos construido un mapa de multitud, hemos construido Ushahidi. +Podramos aprovechar estas tecnologas para cambiar inteligentemente cada vez que se viaja de un pas a otro? +As que observamos el mdem, una parte importante de la infraestructura de Internet, y preguntamos por qu los mdems que estamos usando ahora mismo se construyen para un contexto diferente, donde hay Internet ubicuo, donde hay electricidad omnipresente, sin embargo, nosotros aqu en Nairobi no tenemos esos lujos. +Quisimos redisear el mdem para los pases en desarrollo, para nuestro contexto, y para nuestra realidad. +Qu pasara si podramos tener conectividad con menos problemas? +Este es BRCK. +Acta como un respaldo para el Internet as que, cuando la luz se va, se conecta a la red GSM ms cercana. +La conectividad mvil en frica es omnipresente. +Realmente est en todas partes. +La mayora de las ciudades tienen al menos una conexin 3G. +As que por qu no aprovecharlo. Y por eso lo construimos. +La otra razn por la que lo construimos es que cuando no hay electricidad, tiene ocho horas de la batera, as que pueden seguir trabajando, pueden seguir siendo productivos, y estarn menos estresados. +Y para las reas rurales, puede ser el principal medio de conexin. +La idea es estar conectado en cualquier lugar. +Con el balanceo de carga, esto puede ser posible. +Otra cosa interesante para nosotros, nos gustan los sensores, es esta idea de que podramos tener un acceso en el Internet a otras cosas. +Imaginen una estacin meteorolgica que puede acoplarse a esto. +Est construido de forma modular para poder adjuntar tambin un mdulo de satlite para que pudiera tener conectividad a Internet incluso en zonas muy remotas. +De la adversidad puede venir la innovacin, y cmo podemos ayudar a esos programadores y creadores ambiciosos en Kenia a ser adaptables frente a la problemtica de la infraestructura? +Y para nosotros, comenzamos con resolver el problema en nuestro propio patio trasero en Kenia. +Tuvimos muchos desafos. +Nuestro equipo bsicamente eran mulas que llevaba los componentes de los Estados Unidos a Kenia. Hemos tenido conversaciones muy interesantes con los agentes de la aduana fronteriza. +"Qu llevan ah?" +Y el financiamiento local no es parte del ecosistema para apoyar proyectos de hardware. +As que lo pusimos en Kickstarter, y me complace decir que, con el apoyo de mucha gente, no slo aqu sino tambin en lnea, el BRCK ha sido apoyado, y ahora comienza la parte interesante de llevarlo al mercado. +Concluir diciendo que, si solucionamos esto para el mercado local, podra ser impactante no slo para los codificadores en Nairobi sino tambin para los pequeos empresarios que necesitan conectividad confiable, y puede reducir el costo de conexin y esperamos que ayude a la colaboracin de los pases africanos. +La idea es que los pilares de la economa digital son la conectividad y el emprendimiento. +El BRCK es nuestra parte para mantener a los africanos conectados, y ayudarles a impulsar la revolucin digital global. +Gracias. +Nac y crec en Corea del Norte. +Aunque mi familia constantemente luchaba contra la pobreza Siempre se me am y se me cuid, porque era el nico hijo y el ms joven de los dos en la familia. +Pero luego comenz la gran hambruna en 1994. +Tena cuatro aos de edad. +Mi hermana y yo bamos en busca de lea comenzando a las 5 de la maana y regresando despus de medianoche. +Vagabundeaba por las calles buscando comida y recuerdo ver a este pequeo nio amarrado a la espalda de su madre comiendo frituras y querer robrselas. +El hambre es humillacin. El hambre es desesperanza. +Para un nio hambriento, la poltica y la libertad ni siquiera se imaginan. +Para mi noveno cumpleaos, mis padres no me pudieron dar ningn alimento para comer. +Pero incluso siendo nio, poda sentir la tristeza en sus corazones. +Ms de un milln de norcoreanos murieron de hambre en ese momento y en 2003, cuando yo tena 13 aos de edad, mi padre fue uno de ellos. +Vi a mi padre debilitarse y morir. +En el mismo ao, mi madre desapareci un da y luego mi hermana me dijo que ella iba a ir a China a ganar dinero, pero que pronto regresara con dinero y comida. +Ya que nunca nos habamos separado y cre que estaramos juntos para siempre, ni siquiera le di un abrazo cuando se fue. +Fue el error ms grande que he cometido en mi vida. +Pero de nuevo, no saba que iba a ser un largo adis. +No he visto a mi mam o a mi hermana desde entonces. +De repente, me convert en un hurfano y sin hogar. +Mi vida cotidiana se hizo muy difcil, pero muy sencilla. +Mi objetivo era encontrar un pedazo polvoriento de pan en la basura. +Pero esa no es manera de sobrevivir. +Comenc a darme cuenta de que mendigar no sera la solucin. +As que comenc a robar de los carros de comida en los mercados ilegales. +Algunas veces, encontr pequeos trabajos a cambio de comida. +Una vez, incluso pas dos meses en invierno trabajando en una mina de carbn, 33 metros bajo tierra sin proteccin hasta 16 horas al da. +No era poco comn. +Muchos otros hurfanos sobrevivieron de esta manera o peor. +Cuando no poda dormir por culpa del fro polar o de dolores de hambre, esperaba que, a la maana siguiente, mi hermana volviera para despertarme con mi comida favorita. +Esa esperanza me mantuvo vivo. +No quiero decir una gran, gran esperanza. +Quiero decir el tipo de esperanza que me hizo creer que la siguiente basura poda tener pan, a pesar de que por lo general no era as. +Pero si no lo crea, no lo intentara y luego morira. +La esperanza me mantuvo vivo. +Cada da, me deca, por muy difcil que las cosas se pongan tena que seguir viviendo. +Despus de tres aos esperando el regreso de mi hermana, me decid ir a China a buscarla. +Me di cuenta de que no poda sobrevivir mucho ms de esta manera. +Saba que el viaje sera arriesgado, pero estara arriesgando mi vida de cualquier manera. +Poda morir de hambre, como mi padre en Corea del Norte, o al menos intentar tener una vida mejor al escapar a China. +Descubr que mucha gente trataba de cruzar la frontera con China durante la noche para evitar ser visto. +Los guardias fronterizos de Corea del Norte a menudo disparan y matan gente que intentan cruzar la frontera sin permiso. +Los soldados chinos atrapan y envan de vuelta a los norcoreanos, donde enfrentan castigos severos. +Decid cruzar durante el da, primero porque era an un nio y me asustaba la oscuridad, segundo porque saba que ya me estaba arriesgando y ya que no mucha gente trataba de cruzar durante el da, cre que podra ser capaz de cruzar sin ser visto por nadie. +Llegu a China el 15 de febrero de 2006. +Tena 16 aos. +Cre que las cosas en China seran ms fciles, ya que haba ms comida. +Cre que ms gente me ayudara. +Pero fue ms difcil que vivir en Corea del Norte, porque no era libre. +Estaba siempre preocupado por ser capturado y enviado de vuelta. +De milagro, algunos meses despus, conoc a alguien que llevaba un refugio bajo tierra para los norcoreanos y se me permiti vivir ah y comer comidas regulares por primera vez en muchos aos. +Ms tarde ese ao, un activista me ayud a escapar de China e ir a EE.UU. como refugiado. +Fui a EE.UU. sin saber una palabra de ingls, sin embargo, mi asistente social me dijo que tena que ir a la escuela secundaria. +Incluso en Corea del Norte, era un estudiante de F. +Y apenas termin la escuela primaria. +Y recuerdo que luch en la escuela ms de una vez al da. +Los libros de texto y la biblioteca no eran mi patio de recreo. +Mi padre intent duramente motivarme en el estudio, pero no funcion. +En un momento, mi padre se rindi conmigo. +Me dijo, "Ya no eres mi hijo". +Tena solo 11 o 12, pero me hiri profundamente. +Pero, sin embargo, mi nivel de motivacin an no cambi antes de que muriera. +As que en EE.UU., era un poco ridculo que me dijeran que deba ir a la escuela secundaria. +Ni siquiera fui a la escuela intermedia. +Decid ir solo porque me lo dijeron, sin intentarlo demasiado. +Pero un da, llegu a casa y mi madre de acogida haba hecho alitas de pollo para la cena. +Y durante la cena, quise comer una alita ms, pero me di cuenta de que no haban bastantes para todos, as que decid no comerla. +Cuando mir mi plato, vi la ltima alita de pollo, mi padre de acogida me haba dado la suya. +Estaba tan feliz. +Lo mir sentado a mi lado. +l solo me mir muy clidamente, pero no dijo palabras. +De repente record a mi padre biolgico. +El pequeo acto de amor de mi padre de acogida me record a mi padre, quien amaba compartir su comida conmigo cuando l estaba hambriento, incluso si se mora de hambre. +Me sent tan sofocado que tena tanta comida en EE. UU., sin embargo, mi padre muri de inanicin. +Mi nico deseo esa noche fue cocinarle una cena y esa noche tambin pens en qu otra cosa poda hacer para honrarlo. +Y mi respuesta fue prometerme que estudiara con ahnco y obtendra la mejor educacin en EE.UU. para honrar su sacrificio. +Tom en serio la escuela y por la primera vez en mi vida, recib un premio acadmico por excelencia entr a la lista de honor desde el primer semestre en la escuela secundaria. +Esa alita de pollo cambi mi vida. +La esperanza es personal. La esperanza es algo que nadie puede darte. +Tienes que elegir creer en la esperanza. +Tienes que hacerla tuya. +En Corea del Norte, la hice ma. +La esperanza me trajo a EE.UU. +Pero en EE.UU. no saba qu hacer, porque tena esta abrumadora libertad. +Mi padre de acogida en esa cena me dio una direccin y me motiv y me dio un propsito para vivir en EE. UU. +No vine aqu solo. +Tena esperanza, pero la esperanza por s sola no basta. +Mucha gente me ayud en el camino para llegar ac. +Los norcoreanos pelean duro para sobrevivir. +Tienen que esforzarse para sobrevivir, tienen esperanza para sobrevivir, pero no pueden lograrlo sin ayuda. +Este es mi mensaje para Uds. +Tengan esperanza, pero tambin aydense mutuamente. +La vida puede ser dura para todos, donde sea que vivan. +Mi padre de acogida no tena la intencin de cambiar mi vida. +De la misma manera, Uds. tambin pueden cambiar la vida de alguien incluso con el ms pequeo acto de amor. +Un pedazo de pan puede satisfacer su hambre y tener esperanza les traer pan para mantenerlos vivos. +Pero creo con seguridad que su acto de amor y cario tambin puede salvar la vida de otro Joseph y cambiar las de miles de otros Joseph que an tienen esperanza de sobrevivir. +Gracias. +Adrian Hong: Joseph, gracias por compartir esa historia muy personal y especial con nosotros. +S que no has visto a tu hermana por, como dijiste, hace casi exactamente una dcada, y en la remota posibilidad de que ella pudiera ser capaz de ver esto, queremos darte una oportunidad de enviarle un mensaje. +Joseph Kim: En coreano? +AH: Puedes hacerlo en ingls, luego tambin en coreano. +JK: Est bien, no lo har en coreano porque no creo que pueda hacerlo sin que se me llenarn los ojos de lgrimas. +Nuna, hace ya 10 aos que no te veo. +Solo quera decir que te extrao y que te amo y que por favor vuelvas a m y sigas viva. +Y yo... oh, dios. +An no pierdo la esperanza de verte. +Vivir mi vida felizmente y estudiar con ahnco hasta que te vea y prometo que no llorar ms. +S, deseo verte y si no puedes encontrarme, tambin te buscar y espero verte algn da. +Puedo tambin enviarle un pequeo mensaje a mi mam? +AH: Seguro, por favor. +JK: No pas mucho tiempo contigo, pero s que an me amas y probablemente an rezas por m y piensas en m. +Solo quera darte las gracias por permitirme estar en este mundo. +Gracias. +Escribir biografas es una cosa extraa. +Es un viaje al territorio extranjero de la vida de alguien, un viaje, una exploracin que puede llevarte a lugares a los cuales nunca soaste ir y que an no puedes creer del todo que has estado, especialmente si, como yo, eres un judo agnstico y la vida que has estado explorando es la de Mahoma. +Hace 5 aos, por ejemplo, me sorprend despertando cada maana en la Seattle brumosa a la que saba que era una pregunta imposible: Qu sucedi realmente una noche desierta, al otro lado del mundo y casi a la mitad de la historia? +Qu sucedi, es decir, en la noche del ao 610 cuando Mahoma recibi la primera revelacin del Corn en una montaa a las afueras de la Meca? +Este es el momento clave de la mstica del Islam, y como tal, por supuesto, desafa un anlisis emprico. +Sin embargo, la cuestin no me abandonaba. +Estaba plenamente consciente de que para alguien tan secular como yo, el solo preguntrselo podra parecer puro descaro. +Y me declaro culpable de cargos, porque toda exploracin, fsica o intelectual, es inevitablemente en algn sentido un acto de transgresin, de cruzar lmites. +An as, algunos lmites son ms grandes que otros. +As, que un ser humano se encuentre con lo divino, como los musulmanes creen que hizo Mahoma, para el racionalista, se trata no de un hecho sino de una ficcin ilusoria, y como a todos nosotros, me gusta pensarme racional. +Que podra ser la razn por la cual cuando miraba los primeros relatos que tenemos de esa noche, lo que me impresion ms que lo que sucedi fue lo que no sucedi. +Mahoma no regres flotando de la montaa como si estuviera caminando en el aire. +No baj gritando "Aleluya!" +ni "Bendito sea el Seor!". +No irradiaba luz ni alegra. +No hubo ningn coro de ngeles, ni msica de las esferas, ni euforia, ni xtasis, ni una aura de oro rodendole, ni un sentido de su papel absoluto, predestinado como el Mensajero de Dios. +Es decir, no hizo ninguna de las cosas que haran fcil decir que es falso, que hara de la historia una fbula piadosa. +Todo lo contrario. +En sus propias palabras divulgadas, estaba convencido al principio de que lo sucedido no poda haber sido real. +A lo mejor, pens, tuvo que haber sido una alucinacin; una ilusin ptica o del odo, tal vez, o su propia mente actuando contra l. +En el peor de los casos, una posesin, que haba sido posedo por un genio malvado, que un espritu quera engaarlo, incluso quitarle la vida. +De hecho, estaba tan seguro de que solo poda ser Majnun, posedo por un genio, que cuando se dio cuenta de que an viva, su primer impulso fue terminar el trabajo l mismo, saltando desde el acantilado ms alto y as escapar del terror de lo que haba experimentado poniendo fin a toda la experiencia. +As el hombre que baj de la montaa esa noche temblaba no con alegra sino con un temor sombro y primordial. +Estaba abrumado no con conviccin, sino por la duda. +Y esa desorientacin de pnico, que desgarraba todo lo familiar, esa conciencia desalentadora de algo que excede la comprensin humana, solo puede llamarse como un asombro terrible. +Esto podra ser algo difcil de entender ahora que usamos la palabra "asombroso" para describir una nueva aplicacin o un vdeo viral. +Con la excepcin quizs de un terremoto, estamos protegidos de asombro real. +Cerramos las puertas y nos resguardamos, convencidos de que tenemos el control, o, al menos, esperamos tenerlo. +Hacemos nuestro mejor esfuerzo para ignorar el hecho de que no siempre lo tenemos y que no todo puede ser explicado. +El miedo era la nica respuesta natural, la nica respuesta humana. +Demasiado humana para algunos, como los telogos musulmanes conservadores que sostienen que el relato de su deseo de matarse ni siquiera debe ser mencionado a pesar de que est en las primeras biografas islmicas. +Insisten en que nunca dud ni por un momento, mucho menos se desesper. +Exigen perfeccin, se niegan a tolerar la imperfeccin humana. +Sin embargo, qu tiene de imperfecto la duda? +Mientras lea esos primeros relatos, me di cuenta de que era precisamente la duda de Mahoma lo que le dio vida para m, lo que me permiti empezar a verlo en su totalidad, a otorgarle la integridad de la realidad. +Y cuanto ms lo pensaba, ms sentido tena que haya dudado, porque la duda es esencial a la fe. +Si esta parece una idea sorprendente al principio, consideren que la duda, como una vez dijo Graham Greene, es el corazn del asunto. +Abolid todas las dudas, y lo que queda no es fe, sino conviccin absoluta sin corazn. +Estarn seguros de que poseen la Verdad, inevitablemente ofrecida con una V mayscula implcita, y esta certeza se transforma rpidamente en dogmatismo y santurronera, y me refiero a un orgullo arrogante y efusivo de ser tan correctos, en resumen, la arrogancia del fundamentalismo. +Tiene que ser una de las mltiples ironas de la historia que un insulto favorito de los fundamentalistas islmicos es el mismo que una vez usaron los fundamentalistas cristianos conocidos como cruzados: "infiel", del latn "sin fe". +Doblemente irnico, en este caso, porque su absolutismo es en realidad lo contrario de la fe. +En efecto, ellos son los infieles. +Como los fundamentalistas de todas las tendencias religiosas, no tienen preguntas, solo respuestas. +Encontraron el antdoto perfecto para el pensamiento y el refugio ideal a las duras demandas de la fe real. +Y sin embargo, nosotros, la mayora vasta y todava demasiado silenciosa, hemos cedido el terreno pblico a esta minora extremista. +Hemos permitido que el judasmo sea reclamado por los violentos colonos mesinicos de Cisjordania, el cristianismo por hipcritas homofbicos y fanticos misginos, el Islam por atacantes suicidas. +Y nos hemos permitido no ver los hechos no importa si dicen ser cristianos, judos o musulmanes, ningn militante extremista es nada de lo anterior. +Son un culto en s mismos, hermanos de sangre empapados en sangre de otras personas. +Esto no es fe. +Es fanatismo, y tenemos que dejar de confundir ambas cosas. +Tenemos que admitir que la fe verdadera no tiene respuestas fciles. +Es difcil y dura. +Se trata de una lucha permanente, un cuestionamiento continuo sobre lo que creemos que sabemos, una lucha con temas e ideas. +Va de la mano con la duda, en una conversacin interminable con ella, y a veces en un desafo consciente de ella. +Este desafo consciente es el porqu, como agnstica, todava puedo tener fe. +Tengo fe, por ejemplo, de que la paz en el Medio Oriente es posible a pesar de la avalancha interminable de pruebas que dicen lo contrario. +No estoy convencida de ello. +Apenas puedo decir que lo creo. +Solo puedo tener fe en ello, comprometindome con la idea, y hago esto precisamente por la tentacin de darme por vencida y resignarme y retirarme en silencio. +Porque la desesperacin se retroalimenta. +Si decimos que algo es imposible, actuamos de tal manera que as lo hacemos. +Y en mi caso me niego a vivir de esa manera. +De hecho, la mayora de nosotros nos negamos, aunque seamos ateos o testas o estemos en cualquier lugar en el medio o ms all, de hecho, lo que nos impulsa es que, a pesar de nuestras dudas e incluso debido a nuestras dudas, rechazamos el nihilismo de la desesperacin. +Insistimos en la fe en el futuro y la de unos a otros. +Llmenlo ingenuidad si quieren. +Llmenlo idealismo imposible si quieren. +Pero una cosa es segura: llmenlo humano. +Podra Mahoma haber cambiado tan radicalmente su mundo sin esta fe, sin la negativa a ceder a la arrogancia de la certeza de mente cerrada? +Creo que no. +Despus de haber estado con l como escritora durante los ltimos 5 aos, no puedo imaginar que no est absolutamente indignado con los militantes fundamentalistas que pretenden hablar y actuar en su nombre en Medio Oriente y en otros lugares hoy en da. +Estara consternado por la represin de la mitad de la poblacin debido a su gnero. +Estara desgarrado por las amargas divisiones del sectarismo. +Llamara al terrorismo por lo que es, no solo una farsa criminal, sino obscena de todo lo que crey y por lo que luch. +Dira lo que el Corn dice: todo aquel que toma una vida toma la vida de toda la humanidad. +Todo aquel que salva una vida, salva la vida de toda la humanidad. +Y estara comprometido totalmente al proceso espinoso y difcil de lograr la paz. +Gracias. +Gracias. +En la esquina noroeste de los EE. UU., justo cerca de la frontera canadiense, hay un pequeo pueblo llamado Libby, Montana, rodeado de pinos y lagos y una vida silvestre simplemente increble, con rboles enormes que se elevan hasta el cielo. +Y ah hay un pequeo pueblo llamado Libby, que he visitado, que se siente solitario, un poco aislado. +Y en Libby, Montana, hay una mujer bastante inusual llamada Gayla Benefield. +Siempre se sinti un poco como una forastera, aunque ha estado all casi toda su vida, una mujer de origen ruso. +Me cont que cuando iba a la escuela era la nica chica que haba elegido hacer dibujo mecnico. +Posteriormente en la vida, consigui un trabajo, ir casa por casa leyendo los medidores de los servicios, los de gas, de electricidad. +Haca el trabajo a mitad del da, y algo llam su atencin particularmente: era que en pleno da se encontraba a un montn de hombres que estaban en casa, de mediana edad y un poco ms y muchos de ellos parecan estar conectados a tanques de oxgeno. +Le pareci extrao. +Luego, unos aos ms tarde, su padre muri a la edad de 59, cinco das antes de recibir su pensin. +Haba sido minero. +Pens que solo se haba desgastado por el trabajo. +Pero luego, unos aos ms tarde, su madre muri y le pareci ms extrao an, porque su madre vena de una larga lnea de personas que parecan vivir por siempre. +De hecho, el to de Gayla est vivo hoy en da, y aprendiendo a bailar vals. +No tena sentido que la madre de Gayla muriera tan joven. +Era una anomala y qued desconcertada por estas anomalas. +Y otras le vinieron a la mente. +Record, por ejemplo, cuando su madre se haba roto una pierna y fue al hospital y le hicieron un montn de rayos X, dos eran rayos X de la pierna, que tenan sentido, pero seis fueron radiografas de trax, que no lo tenan. +Se preguntaba y preguntaba sobre cada pieza de su vida y la de sus padres, tratando de entender lo que estaba viendo. +Pens en su pueblo. +La ciudad tena una mina de vermiculita. +La vermiculita se utilizaba para acondicionar suelos, para hacer que las plantas crecieran ms rpido y mejor. +La vermiculita fue utilizada para aislar los desvanes, enormes cantidades se pusieron bajo el techo para mantener las casas calientes durante los largos inviernos de Montana. +La vermiculita estaba en el patio de recreo. +Estaba en el campo de ftbol. +Estaba en la pista de patinaje. +Lo que no aprendi hasta que empez a trabajar en este problema es que la vermiculita es una forma muy txica del asbesto. +Cuando ella resolvi el rompecabezas, empez a decirle a todos los que pudo, lo que haba pasado, lo que le haban hecho a sus padres y a la gente que vea con los tanques de oxgeno en casa por las tardes. +Pero estaba realmente sorprendida. +Pens que, cuando todo el mundo supiera, querran hacer algo, pero en realidad nadie quera saberlo. +Pero Gayla no se detuvo. Sigui haciendo su investigacin. +La llegada de Internet definitivamente la ayud. +Habl con todo el que poda. +As que ahora tena un aliado. +Sin embargo, la gente segua sin querer saber. +Dijeron cosas como, "Bueno, si fuera de verdad peligroso, alguien nos lo hubiera dicho". +"Si de verdad es la causa del porqu todo el mundo estaba muriendo, los mdicos nos hubieran dicho". +Algunas de las personas con trabajos muy pesados dijeron, "No quiero ser una vctima. +No puedo ser una vctima y de todos modos, toda industria tiene sus accidentes". +Pero Gayla continu y finalmente logr que una agencia federal viniera a la ciudad y analizara a los habitantes de la ciudad, 15 000 personas, y lo que descubrieron fue que la ciudad tena una tasa de mortalidad 80 veces mayor que en cualquier lugar de los EE. UU. +Eso fue en el 2002 e incluso en ese momento, nadie levant la mano para decir, "Gayla, mira en el patio donde juegan tus nietos. +Est forrado con vermiculita". +Esto no era ignorancia. +Era ceguera voluntaria. +La ceguera voluntaria es un concepto legal que significa, que si hay informacin que podran y deberan saber pero que de alguna manera logran no saber, la ley considera que hay ceguera voluntaria. +Han elegido no saber. +Hay un montn de ceguera voluntaria en estos das. +Puedes ver ceguera voluntaria en los bancos, cuando miles de personas vendieron hipotecas a personas que no podan pagarlas. +Se pudo ver en los bancos cuando se manipularon las tasas de inters y todo el mundo saba lo que estaba pasando, pero todos cautelosamente lo ignoraron. +Pueden ver la ceguera voluntaria en la Iglesia Catlica, donde fueron ignoradas dcadas de abuso infantil. +Pueden ver la ceguera voluntaria en el perodo previo a la guerra de Irak. +La ceguera voluntaria existe en escalas picas como estas y tambin existe en escalas muy pequeas, en las familias, en las casas y comunidades de la gente, y particularmente en las organizaciones e instituciones. +A las empresas que han sido estudiadas por la ceguera voluntaria se les puede preguntar cosas como, "Hay problemas en el trabajo que la gente tenga miedo de sealar?" +Y cuando los acadmicos han realizado estudios como este en las corporaciones en los EE. UU., lo que encuentran es que el 85% de la gente dice que s. +El 85% de la gente sabe que hay un problema, pero no dicen nada. +Y cuando repliqu la investigacin en Europa, haciendo las mismas preguntas, encontr exactamente el mismo nmero. +85%. Es mucho silencio. +Es mucha ceguera. +Y lo que es realmente interesante es que cuando fui a empresas en Suiza, me dijeron, "Es un problema nicamente suizo". +Y cuando fui a Alemania, me dijeron, "Oh s, es la enfermedad alemana". +Y cuando fui a empresas en Inglaterra, me dijeron, "Oh, s, los britnicos son muy malos en esto". +Y la verdad es que es un problema humano. +Todos, bajo ciertas circunstancias, estamos voluntariamente cegados. +Lo que la investigacin demuestra es que algunas personas son ciegas por miedo. Tienen miedo de represalias. +Y algunas personas son ciegas porque creen que, bueno, ver es intil. +Nada va a cambiar. +Si hacemos una protesta, si protestamos contra la guerra de Irak, nada cambia, as que, por qu molestarse? +Mejor no ver nada. +Y lo que encuentro recurrentemente todo el tiempo es la gente que dice, "Bueno, ya sabes, la gente que ve, son los soplones, y todos sabemos lo que les pasa". +As que hay esta mitologa profunda alrededor de los soplones que dice, en primer lugar, que estn todos locos. +Pero lo que he encontrado dando vueltas por el mundo y hablando con los denunciantes es, en realidad, que son gente muy leal y muy a menudo muy conservadoras. +Estn enormemente dedicadas a las instituciones para las que trabajan y la razn por la que hablan, la razn por la que insisten en ver, es porque les importa mucho la institucin y quieren mantenerla sana. +Y la otra cosa que la gente a menudo dice acerca de los denunciantes es, "Bueno, no tiene sentido, porque sabes lo que les pasa. +Los aplastan. +Nadie quiere pasar por algo as". +Y sin embargo, cuando hablo con los denunciantes, el tono recurrente que he odo es orgullo. +Pienso en Joe Darby. +Todos recordamos las fotos de Abu Ghraib, que conmocionaron al mundo y que demostraron la clase de guerra que se llevaba a cabo en Irak. +Pero me pregunto quin recuerda a Joe Darby, el buen soldado, muy obediente, que encontr esas fotografas y las entreg. +Y dijo, "Ya saben, no soy el tipo de hombre que delata a la gente, pero algunas cosas cruzan la lnea. +La ignorancia es felicidad, dicen, pero no pueden seguir con cosas como estas". +He hablado con Steve Bolsin, un mdico britnico, que luch durante cinco aos para llamar la atencin sobre una peligrosa ciruga que estaba matando a los bebs. +Y le pregunt por qu lo hizo, y me dijo, "Bueno, realmente fue mi hija quien me impuls a hacerlo. +Y me dijo, "Sabes, Margaret, siempre sola decir que no saba lo que quera ser cuando creciera. +Pero me he encontrado en esta causa, y nunca ser la misma". +Pero la libertad no existe si no se usa, y lo que los denunciantes hacen, y lo que la gente como Gayla Benefield hacen es usar la libertad que tienen. +Y lo que estn muy dispuestos a hacer es reconocer que s, que va a haber discusiones, y s, voy a tener muchas disputas con mis vecinos, mis colegas y mis amigos, pero voy a ser muy bueno en este conflicto. +Voy a tomar en cuenta a los detractores, porque hacen mi argumento ms fuerte y mejor. +Puedo colaborar con mis oponentes para ser mejor en lo que hago. +Estas son personas de gran persistencia, de increble paciencia y de una determinacin absoluta para no cegarse y no ser silenciados. +Cuando fui a Libby, Montana, visit la clnica de asbestosis que Gayla Benefield logr crear, un lugar donde al principio algunas de las personas que queran ayuda y necesitaban atencin mdica entraban por la puerta trasera porque no queran reconocer que ella tena razn. +Me sent en un restaurante y vi como los camiones iban de arriba a abajo en la autopista, llevando lejos la tierra de los jardines, reemplazndola con suelo fresco, sin contaminar. +Llev a mi hija de 12 aos conmigo, porque realmente quera que conociera a Gayla. +Y me dijo, "Por qu? No es gran cosa". +Le dije, "No es una estrella de cine, no es una celebridad, no es una experta y Gayla sera la primera persona en decir que no es una santa. +Lo realmente importante de Gayla es que es comn. +Ella es como t, y es como yo. +Tena libertad, y estaba lista para usarla". +Muchas gracias. +Nunca olvidar aqul da de la primavera de 2006. +Yo era un residente de ciruga en el hospital Johns Hopkins, que estaba atendiendo llamadas de emergencia. +Me llamaron a la sala de urgencias a eso de las 2 de la maana para ver a una mujer con una lcera diabtica en el pie. +Todava recuerdo esa especie de olor a carne podrida mientras corra la cortina para verla. +Todo el mundo ah estaba de acuerdo con que esta mujer estaba muy enferma y que necesitaba estar en el hospital. +Eso no se cuestionaba. +La pregunta que me hacan era diferente, "necesita ella tambin una amputacin?" +Repasando lo que pas aquella noche, deseara con desesperacin poder creer que trat a aquella mujer esa noche con la misma empata y compasin que le mostr a aquella recin casada de 27 aos que vino a urgencias tres noches antes con un lumbago que al final result ser cncer de pncreas en estado avanzado. +En su caso, saba que no haba nada que pudiera hacer para salvar su vida. +El cncer estaba demasiado extendido, +pero estaba decidido a hacer todo lo posible para que se sintiera ms cmoda, as que le traje una manta y una taza de caf, +y otra para sus padres. +Pero lo ms importante, es que no la juzgu porque obviamente ella no haba hecho nada para provocar su situacin. +Entonces, por qu solo unas noches despus, parado en la misma sala de urgencias y mientras decida que efectivamente necesitaba una amputacin, por qu trat a esta paciente de diabetes con un desprecio tan amargo? +Vern. A diferencia de la mujer de la noche anterior, esta mujer tena diabetes tipo 2 +y estaba gorda, +y todos sabemos que eso ocurre por comer demasiado y por no hacer suficiente ejercicio, verdad? +Quiero decir, no es que sea tan dificil! +Mientras la miraba tumbada en la cama, me deca a m mismo: "Si solo te hubieras cuidado un poco no estaras ahora en esta situacin, con un mdico que nunca has visto a punto de amputarte la pierna". +Por qu crea que estaba bien si la juzgaba? +Me gustara decir que no lo s, +pero la verdad es que s. +Vern. En la arrogancia de mi juventud, pens que tena todo cubierto: +comi demasiado; tuvo mala suerte; +le dio diabetes; caso cerrado. +Irnicamente, en aquel momento de mi vida, tambin haca investigacin sobre el cncer, terapias inmunolgicas para el melanoma, para ser especfico, y en ese campo se me enseaba a cuestionarlo todo de verdad, a probar todas las suposiciones y a elevarlas a los ms altos estndares cientficos posibles. +Sin embargo, cuando se trataba de una enfermedad como la diabetes, que mata ocho veces ms a estadounidenses que el melanoma, nunca cuestion la sabidura convencional, +solo asuma que la secuencia patolgica de eventos era ciencia probada. +Tres aos ms tarde, me di cuenta de lo equivocado que estaba, +pero esta vez yo era el paciente. +A pesar de hacer tres o cuatro horas diarias de ejercicio y de seguir a rajatabla la pirmide de alimentos, haba ganado mucho peso y haba desarrollado algo llamado sndrome metablico. +Algunos de ustedes, tal vez, han odo hablar de eso. +Me haba vuelto resistente a la insulina. +Piensen en la insulina como una hormona maestra que controla lo que nuestro cuerpo hace con los alimentos que comemos: si los quema o si los almacena. +Esto, en la jerga, se denomina "particin de combustible". +Las fallas en la produccin de insulina son incompatibles con la vida +y la resistencia a la insulina, como su nombre lo indica, es cuando tus clulas se vuelven cada vez ms resistentes al efecto de la insulina tratando de hacer su trabajo. +Una vez que eres resistente a la insulina, ests en camino de contraer diabetes, que es lo que ocurre cuando el pncreas se embolata entre esta resistencia y esta produccin de insulina. +Ahora los niveles de azcar en la sangre empiezan a subir, y sucede toda una cascada de eventos patolgicos, una especie de espirales fuera de control que pueden conducir a enfermedades cardacas, cncer e incluso Alzheimer, y amputaciones, al igual que esa mujer unos aos atrs. +Con ese susto, estuve ocupado cambiando radicalmente mi dieta; sumando y restando cosas que la mayora de ustedes encontrara seguramente chocante. +Hice esto y perd 18 kg, curiosamente mientras haca menos ejercicio. +Como pueden ver, ya no tengo sobrepeso +y lo que es ms importante, no tengo resistencia a la insulina. +Y algo todava ms importante, me qued con tres preguntas candentes que ya no me abandonaran: Cmo me pas esto a m, que supuestamente estaba haciendo todo bien? +Si el saber convencional sobre nutricin haba fallado conmigo, era posible que le estuviera fallando a alguien ms? +Me obsesion de forma casi manitica, tratando de entender la real relacin entre obesidad y resistencia a la insulina, que subyaca a estas preguntas. +La mayora de los investigadores cree que la obesidad es la causa de la resistencia a la insulina. +Lgicamente, entonces, si quieres tratar la resistencia a la insulina, tienes que conseguir que las personas pierdan peso, cierto? +Tratar la obesidad. +Pero, y si es al revs? +Qu pasa si la obesidad no es, en absoluto, la causa de la resistencia a la insulina? +De hecho, qu pasa si es un sntoma de un problema mucho ms profundo, como la punta de un iceberg proverbial? +S que parece una locura, porque obviamente estamos en medio de una epidemia de obesidad, pero escchenme! +Qu pasa si la obesidad es un mecanismo de defensa contra un problema mucho ms siniestro que est ocurriendo dentro de las clulas? +No estoy sugiriendo que la obesidad sea benigna, lo que estoy sugiriendo es que puede ser el menor de dos males metablicos. +Puedes pensar en la resistencia a la insulina como la capacidad reducida de nuestras clulas para hacer particin del combustible, como mencion hace un momento, tomando esas caloras que ingerimos, quemando algunas apropiadamente y almacenando algunas apropiadamente. +Cuando nos hacemos resistentes a la insulina, la homeostasis se desva de este estado. +Y ahora, cuando la insulina le dice a una clula, "Quiero que quemes ms energa", ms de lo que la clula considera seguro, esta responde, "No, gracias, en realidad prefiero almacenar esta energa". +Y en vista de que, en realidad, las clulas de grasa carecen de la mayor parte de la compleja maquinaria celular que se encuentra en otras clulas, estas son, probablemente, el lugar ms seguro para guardarla. +Entonces, para muchos de nosotros, unos 75 millones de estadounidenses, la respuesta adecuada a la resistencia a la insulina puede en realidad ser almacenarla como grasa, no a la inversa; volverse resistente a la insulina como respuesta a la obesidad. +Esta es una distincin muy sutil, pero las implicaciones podran ser profundas. +Consideren la siguiente analoga: Piensen en el moretn que sale en su espinilla cuando sin darse cuenta se golpean en la pierna con la mesa del caf. +Claro que el moretn duele como el infierno!, y seguramente no les guste el aspecto descolorido, pero todos sabemos que el hematoma en s no es el problema. +De hecho, es lo contrario. Es una respuesta saludable al trauma, todas esas clulas inmunes corriendo al sitio de la lesin para encerrar esos residuos celulares y evitar la propagacin de la infeccin a otras partes del cuerpo. +Ahora, imaginen que pensamos que los moretones eran el problema, y que desarrollamos un sistema mdico gigante y una cultura basada en el tratamiento de hematomas: cremas enmascarantes, analgsicos, lo que quieran, ignorando todo el tiempo el hecho de que la gente todava segua golpendose las espinillas en las mesas de caf. +Cunto mejor sera si tratramos la causa, dicindole a la gente que preste atencin cuando caminan por la sala de estar, en lugar del efecto? +Dar con la causa y el efecto correctos hace toda la diferencia del mundo. +Equivocarse no afecta en nada a los accionistas de la industria farmacutica, pero nada bueno hace a la gente con las espinillas magulladas. +Causa y efecto. +Lo que estoy sugiriendo es que tal vez tengamos la causa y el efecto errneos sobre la resistencia a la insulina y la obesidad. +Quizs deberamos preguntarnos: es posible que la resistencia a la insulina cause el aumento de peso y las enfermedades asociadas con la obesidad, por lo menos en la mayora de la gente? +Y si ser obeso es solo una respuesta metablica a algo mucho ms amenazador, una epidemia subyacente, por la que deberamos estar preocupados? +Echemos un vistazo a algunos hechos sugerentes. +Sabemos que 30 millones de estadounidenses obesos no tienen resistencia a la insulina +y, por cierto, no parecen estar en mayor riesgo de padecer enfermedades que las personas delgadas. +Por el contrario, sabemos que 6 millones de personas delgadas en los Estados Unidos son resistentes a la insulina, y por cierto, parecen tener mayor riesgo de sufrir las enfermedades metablicas que mencion hace un momento que la contraparte obesa. +No s por qu, pero quiz sea porque, en su caso, sus clulas no han logrado descrifrar la accion correcta a seguir con ese exceso de energa. +Entonces, si puedes ser obeso y no tener resistencia a la insulina, y puedes ser delgado y tenerla, esto sugiere que la obesidad puede ser una cara falsa de lo que est pasando. +As que, qu pasa si estamos peleando la guerra equivocada, combatiendo la obesidad en lugar de la resistencia a la insulina? +Peor an, qu pasa si culpando a los obesos, estamos culpando a las vctimas? +Y si algunas de nuestras ideas fundamentales acerca de la obesidad estn mal? +Personalmente no puedo permitirme ms el lujo de la arrogancia; mucho menos el de la certeza. +Tengo mis propias ideas sobre lo que podra estar en el ncleo de todo esto, pero estoy abierto a otras. +Mi hiptesis, porque todo el mundo siempre me pregunta, es esta: +Si te preguntas de qu est intentando protegerse una clula cuando se vuelve resistente a la insulina, la respuesta probablemente no sea demasiada comida. +Es ms probable que sea demasiada glucosa: azcar en la sangre. +Sabemos que los granos y almidones refinados elevan el azcar en la sangre a corto plazo, y hay incluso razones para creer que el azcar puede conducir directamente a la resistencia a la insulina. +As que si se ponen estos procesos fisiolgicos a trabajar, mi hiptesis es que podra ser el aumento de la ingesta de cereales refinados, azcares y almidones lo que conduce a esta epidemia de obesidad y diabetes, pero a travs de la resistencia a la insulina, y no necesariamente slo por comer en exceso y hacer poco ejercicio. +Cuando perd 18 kg hace unos aos, lo hice simplemente evitando esas cosas, lo cual sugiere que tengo un sesgo basado en mi experiencia personal. +Pero eso no significa que mi sesgo sea malo, y ms importante, todo esto puede ser probado cientficamente. +Pero el primer paso es aceptar la posibilidad que nuestras creencias actuales acerca de la obesidad, la resistencia a la insulina y la diabetes podran ser errneas y, por lo tanto, deben ser probadas. +Voy a apostar mi carrera en esto. +Hoy, dedico todo mi tiempo a trabajar en este problema, e ir a donde me lleve la ciencia. +He decidido que lo que no puedo y no har ms, es fingir que tengo las respuestas cuando no es as. +He sido humillado lo suficiente por todo lo que no s. +El ao pasado, fui bastante afortunado al trabajar en este problema con el equipo ms increible de investigadores de diabetes y obesidad del pas, y la mejor parte es, que al igual que Abraham Lincoln se rode de un equipo de rivales, nosotros hemos hecho lo mismo. +Hemos reclutado un equipo de cientficos rivales, los mejores y ms brillantes. Todos tienen diferentes hiptesis sobre la causa de esta epidemia: +Algunos piensan que es debido a demasiadas caloras consumidas; +otros piensan que es por demasiado grasa diettica; +otros que se debe a muchos granos y almidones refinados. +Pero este equipo multidisciplinario de investigadores altamente escpticos y talentosos est de acuerdo en dos cosas. +En primer lugar, que este problema es sencillamente demasiado importante como para continuar ignorndolo porque creemos que sabemos la respuesta, +y segundo, que si estamos dispuestos a equivocarnos, si estamos dispuestos a desafiar la sabidura convencional con los mejores experimentos que la ciencia puede ofrecer, podemos resolver este problema. +S que la idea de dar una solucin es tentadora, algn tipo de accin o poltica, alguna prescripcin diettica... "Coma esto, no eso", pero si queremos hacerlo bien, vamos a tener que hacer mucha ms ciencia rigurosa antes de que podamos escribir esa receta. +Brevemente. Para abordar esto, nuestro programa de investigacin se enfoca en tres temas meta, o preguntas. +En primer lugar, cmo los diferentes alimentos que consumimos impactan en nuestro metabolismo, hormonas y enzimas, y a travs de qu mecanismos moleculares? +En segundo lugar, con base en estas ideas, puede la gente hacer los cambios necesarios en sus dietas de una manera segura y prctica? +Y finalmente, una vez que identificamos qu cambios seguros y prcticos puede realizar la gente en su dieta, Cmo podemos dirigir su comportamiento en esa direccin, de forma que se convierta en la norma en lugar de la excepcin? +Slo porque sabes que tienes que hacer, no significa que siempre vayas a hacerlo. +A veces tenemos que poner indicaciones cerca a las personas para hacerlo ms fcil, y lo crean o no, eso puede estudiarse cientficamente. +No s cmo va a terminar este viaje, pero al menos est ms claro para m: No podemos seguir culpando a nuestros pacientes con sobrepeso y diabetes como yo lo hice. +La mayora de ellos en realidad quieren hacer lo correcto, pero tienen que saber lo que es; y va a funcionar. +Mantenerse en ese camino ser mejor para nuestros pacientes y mejor para la ciencia. +Si la obesidad no es ms que una cara falsa de la enfermedad metablica, Qu bien hacemos al castigar esa cara falsa? +A veces pienso en aquella noche en urgencias, +hace siete aos. +Ojal pudiera hablar con esa mujer otra vez. +Me gustara decirle cunto lo siento. +Le dira que, como mdico, le prest la mejor atencin clnica que pude, pero como ser humano la defraud. +No necesitabas mi juicio y mi desprecio. +Necesitabas mi empata y compasin, y por encima de todo, necesitabas un mdico que estuviera dispuesto a considerar que tal vez no defraudaste al sistema. +Quizs el sistema, del que yo formaba parte, te estaba fallando. +Si ests viendo esto ahora, Espero que puedas perdonarme. +Hablar sobre disear humor, algo interesante pero que lleva a algunas discusiones sobre las restricciones y cmo en ciertos contextos el humor est bien y en otros contextos est mal. +Bien, soy neoyorquino as que en eso hay un 100 % de satisfaccin. +En realidad, eso es ridculo, porque en materia de humor lo mejor que se puede esperar es un 75 %. +Nadie nunca est satisfecho al 100 % con el humor, excepto esta mujer. +Mujer: Bob Mankoff: Esa era mi primera esposa. +Esa parte de la relacin fue buena. +Ahora veamos esta caricatura. +Una de las cosas que sealo es que las caricaturas aparecen en el contexto de la revista The New Yorker. con esa preciosa tipografa Caslon, parece ser una caricatura bastante benigna en este contexto. +Se burla un poco del envejecimiento y puede que le guste a la gente. +Pero, como dije, no se puede satisfacer a todos. +No a este tipo: +"Otro chiste sobre ancianos blancos. Ja, ja. El ingenio. +Es bueno, estoy seguro de que eres joven y grosero, pero algn da sers viejo, a menos que mueras como yo deseo". +The New Yorker es ms bien un entorno sensible, es muy fcil que la gente se saque de quicio. +Y uno se da cuenta de que es un entorno inusual. +Aqu les hablo en persona. +Todo es colectivo. Escuchan a los otros rer y conocen la risa del otro. +The New Yorker sale a una audiencia amplia cuando realmente ven eso, nadie sabe de qu se re el otro y al analizarlo, la subjetividad que conlleva el humor es algo muy interesante. +Veamos esta caricatura. +"Datos desalentadores sobre los antidepresivos". +De hecho, es desalentador. +Ahora, podran pensar... la mayora de Uds. se ri. +Cierto? Pensaron que era divertido. +En general, parece ser una caricatura divertida, pero veamos la encuesta en lnea que hice. +Generalmente, a un 85 % de las personas le gust. +109 personas votaron un 10, lo ms alto. 10 votaron 1. +Pero veamos las respuestas individuales. +"Me gustan los animales!!!!!" Vean lo mucho que le gustan. +"No quiero hacerles dao. Eso no me parece muy divertido". +Esta persona evalu con un 2. +"No me gusta ver sufrir a los animales, ni siquiera en las caricaturas". +Para personas como esta, sealo que usamos tinta anestsica. +Otras personas pensaron que era divertida. +Esa en realidad es la verdadera naturaleza de la distribucin del humor si no hay contagio de humor. +El humor es un tipo de entretenimiento. +Todo entretenimiento contiene una pequea dosis de peligro, algo que pudiera salir mal y sin embargo nos gusta cuando hay proteccin. +Es como en un zoolgico. Es peligroso. El tigre est ah. +La reja nos protege. Ese tipo de diversin, s? +Ese es un zoolgico malo. +Es un zoolgico muy polticamente correcto, pero es un zoolgico malo. +Pero este es peor. +As que para tratar con el humor en el contexto de The New Yorker, tienen que ver dnde estar ese tigre. +Dnde va a existir el peligro? +Cmo lo van a manejar? +Mi trabajo es ver 1000 caricaturas por semana. +Pero The New Yorker solo puede tener 16 o 17 y recibimos 1000. +Por supuesto, muchas, muchas caricaturas deben ser rechazadas. +Ahora bien, podramos colocar ms caricaturas en la revista si eliminramos los artculos. +Pero creo que sera una tremenda prdida, podra vivir con eso, pero an as es enorme. +Los caricaturistas vienen a la revista cada semana. +El caricaturista promedio que se mantiene con la revista hace 10 o 15 ideas cada semana. +Pero la mayora ser rechazada. +Esa es la naturaleza de cualquier actividad creativa. +Muchos de ellos desaparecen. Algunos se quedan. +Matt Diffee es uno de ellos. +Aqu est uno de sus caricaturas. +Drew Dernavich. "Noche de contabilidad en la improvisacin". +"Ahora es la parte del show cuando le pedimos al pblico que grite algunos nmeros al azar". +Paul Noth. "Est bien. Solo me gustara que fuera un poco ms pro-Israel". +Ahora, lo s todo sobre el rechazo, porque cuando dej, en realidad, me echaron de la escuela de psicologa y decid convertirme en caricaturista, una transicin natural, de 1974 a 1977 envi 2000 caricaturas a The New Yorker y me rechazaron las 2000. +En cierto punto, esta nota de rechazo de 1977... [Lamentamos no poder usar el material adjunto. Gracias por enviarlo.] ...mgicamente cambi a esto: +[Oye! Vendiste una. No es broma! Realmente le vendiste una caricatura a la maldita revista The New Yorker.] Por supuesto eso no es lo que pas, pero esa es la verdad emocional. +Y, por supuesto, ese no es el humor de The New Yorker. +Cul es el humor de The New Yorker? +Bueno, despus de 1977, entr en The New Yorker y comenc a vender caricaturas. +Finalmente, en 1980, recib el venerado contrato de The New Yorker, del cual borr partes, porque no es asunto de Uds. +De 1980. "Querido Sr. Mankoff, confirmando el acuerdo del mismo..." bla, bla, bla, borrn... "para cualquier dibujo de ideas". +Con respecto al dibujo de ideas, en ningn lugar del contrato se menciona la palabra "caricatura". +El concepto "dibujo de ideas" es la condicin sine qua non de las caricaturas de The New Yorker. +Entonces, qu es un dibujo de idea? Un dibujo de idea es algo que les demanda pensar. +Eso no es una tira cmica. Requiere pensar en la parte del caricaturista y pensar en su parte para que sea una tira cmica. +Estas son algunas, que captan ese tipo de de humor. +"No hay justicia en el mundo. Hay algo de justicia en el mundo. El mundo es justo". +Esta es "Lo que creen los lemmings". +The New Yorker y yo, cuando hicimos comentarios, la tira cmica lleva una cierta ambigedad sobre qu es en realidad. +Qu es la tira cmica? Se trata realmente de los lemmings? +No, es sobre nosotros. +Saben, bsicamente es mi visin sobre la religin, que el conflicto real y todas las luchas entre religiones son sobre quin tiene el mejor amigo imaginario. +Y esta es mi tira cmica ms conocida. +"No, el jueves no est. Qu tal nunca? Nunca es bueno para Ud.?" +Se ha reimpreso miles de veces, totalmente robado. +Est incluso en tangas, pero comprimido en "Qu tal nunca? Nunca es bueno para Ud.?" +Parecen muy diferentes formas de humor, pero en realidad tienen una gran similitud. +En cada caso, se desafan nuestras expectativas. +En cada caso, la narrativa cambia. +Hay una incongruencia y un contraste. +En "No, el jueves no est. Qu tal nunca? Nunca es bueno para Ud.?" +est la sintaxis de la cortesa y el mensaje grosero. +As funciona el humor. Es una sinergia cognitiva donde machacan estas dos cosas que no van juntas pero se juntan temporalmente en nuestras mentes. +Est siendo corts y grosero. +Aqu, tienen lo correcto de The New Yorker y la vulgaridad del idioma. +Bsicamente, as funciona el humor. +Soy un analista del humor, diran Uds. +E.B. White dijo, analizar el humor es como diseccionar una rana. +A nadie le interesa demasiado y la rana muere. +Bueno, voy a matar algunas, pero no habr un genocidio. +Me causa... Veamos esta imagen. Esta es una imagen interesante: el pblico re. +Ah est la gente, los presumidos arriba, pero todos ren, todos ren excepto un hombre. +Este. Quin es? Es el crtico. +Es el crtico de humor y en realidad estoy forzado a estar en esa posicin, cuando estoy en The New Yorker y ese es el peligro; convertirme en este hombre. +Ac hay un pequeo video realizado por Matt Diffee, una especie de cmo imaginan si de verdad exagerramos eso. +Bob Mankogg: "Oooh, no. +Ehhh. +Oooh. Hmm. Demasiado gracioso. +Normalmente lo hara, pero estoy en un estado de nimo irritado. +Lo disfrutar por mi cuenta. Tal vez. +No. Nah. No. +Sobredibujado. Muy esbozado. +Bien dibujado, aunque no muy divertido. +No. No. +Por Dios no, mil veces no. +No. No. No. No. [4 horas despus] Oye, eso es bueno, s, qu tienes ah? +Empleado: Quieres uno de jamn y suizo con pan de centeno? BM: No. +Empleado: De acuerdo. Pastrami en pan agrio? BM: No. +Empleado: Pavo ahumado con panceta? BM: No. +Empleado: Falafel? BM: Djame verlo. +Eh, no. +Empleado: Queso a la parrilla? BM: No. +Empleado: Un sndwich de lechuga y tomate? BM: No. +Empleado: Jamn de selva negra y mozzarella con mostaza de manzana? BM: No. +Empleado: Ensalada de frijoles? BM: No. +No. No. +Definitivamente no. [Varias otras despus] No. Sal de ah. +Esa es una especie de exageracin de lo que hago. +Bien, rechazamos muchas, muchas, muchas tiras cmicas, por eso es que hay muchos libros titulados "La coleccin rechazada". +"La coleccin rechazada" no es el tipo de humor de The New Yorker. +Y pueden ver al vagabundo en la acera aqu que est tomando alcohol y su mueco ventrlocuo est vomitando. +Ven, eso probablemente no sea el humor de The New Yorker. +Fue hecho por Matt Diffee, uno de nuestros caricaturistas. +Les dar algunos ejemplos del humor de la coleccin rechazada. +"Estoy pensando en tener un hijo". +Aqu tienen una interesante: la risa culpable, rer aunque sepamos que est mal. +"Cabeza de trasero. Por favor, aydeme". +Ahora, de hecho, en el contexto de este libro, que dice, "las tiras cmicas que nunca vieron y nunca vern en The New Yorker", este humor es perfecto. +Explicar la razn. +Existe una idea de humor como violacin benigna. +En otras palabras, para que algo sea divertido, tienes que pensar en lo malo y en lo bueno a la misma vez. +Si creemos que est completamente mal, decimos "no es gracioso". +Y si est completamente bien, Cul es el chiste? S? +Es benigno: "No, el jueves no est. Qu tal nunca? Nunca es bueno para Ud.?" +Y es grosero. El mundo realmente no debera ser as. +En ese contexto, sentimos que est bien. +En ese contexto, "Cabeza de trasero. Por favor, aydeme", es una violacin benigna. +En el contexto de la revista The New Yorker... +"Ejrcito de linfocitos T: Puede la respuesta inmunitaria del cuerpo ayudar a tratar el cncer?" Oh, Dios. +Estn leyendo este dato curioso, esta diseccin inteligente del sistema inmune. +Echan un vistazo all y dice: "Cabeza de trasero. Por favor, aydeme"? Dios. +Aqu la violacin es maligna. No funciona. +No hay algo intrnsecamente divertido. +Todo estar en un contexto y dentro de nuestras expectativas. +Una forma de verlo es esta. +Algo llamado teora meta-motivacional sobre cmo nos vemos, una teora sobre la motivacin y el nimo que tenemos y como ese nimo determina las cosas que nos gustan o no nos gustan. +Cuando estamos con un estado de nimo ldico, queremos emocin. +Queremos alta excitacin. Nos sentimos emocionados. +Un estado de nimo decidido, nos pone ansiosos. +"La coleccin rechazada" est absolutamente en esta zona. +Quieren estar estimulados. Quieren estar excitados. +Quieren ser transgredidos. +Es as, como un parque de diversiones. +Voz: Ac vamos. Se re. Est en peligro y a salvo, increblemente excitado. No hay chiste. No se necesita un chiste. +Si excitan y estimulan bastante a la gente se reirn con muy, muy poco. +Esta es otra tira cmica de "La coleccin rechazada". +"Demasiado cmodo?" +Esa es una tira cmica sobre terrorismo. +The New Yorker ocupa un espacio muy diferente. +Es un espacio ldico a su manera y tambin decidido y en ese espacio, las tiras cmicas son diferentes. +Ahora voy a mostrarles las tiras cmicas que hizo The New Yorker justo despus del 11-S, un momento muy, muy sensible para el humor. +Cmo lo abordara The New Yorker? +No sera con un hombre y una bomba diciendo "Demasiado cmodo?" +Haba otra tira cmica que no mostr porque en realidad pens que quiz la gente se ofendera. +La tira cmica del gran Sam Gross, esto pas despus de la controversia de Mahoma donde est en el cielo, el terrorista suicida est en pequeos trozos y l le est diciendo al terrorista suicida: "Tendrs a las vrgenes cuando encuentres tu pene". +Mejor dejarlo sin dibujar. +La primera semana no colocamos tiras cmicas. +Fue un agujero negro para el humor y estuvo bien. +No siempre es apropiado. +Pero la semana siguiente, esta fue la primera tira cmica. +"Cre que nunca volvera a rer. Luego vi tu chaqueta". +Era bsicamente sobre, si estbamos vivos, bamos a rer. bamos a respirar. +bamos a existir. Ac hay otra. +"Me imagino que si no tomo ese tercer Martini, los terroristas ganarn". +Estas tiras cmicas no son sobre ellos, son sobre nosotros. +El humor se refleja en nosotros. +Lo ms fcil es hacer humor y es perfectamente legtimo es un amigo que se burla de un enemigo. +Se llama humor disposicional. +Es el 95 % del humor. No es nuestro humor. +Ac hay otra tira cmica. +"No me importara vivir en un estado fundamentalista islmico". +El humor necesita un objetivo. +Curiosamente, en The New Yorker, el objetivo somos nosotros. +El objetivo son los lectores y la gente que lo hace. +El humor es autorreflexivo y nos hace pensar en nuestras suposiciones. +Vean esta tira cmica de Roz Chast, el hombre que lee el obituario. +"Dos aos ms joven que t, 12 aos ms viejo que t, tres aos menor, tu misma edad, exactamente tu edad". +Esa es una tira cmica muy profunda. +Y as The New Yorker trata de, en alguna manera, hacer tiras cmicas que digan algo aparte de ser graciosas y algo sobre nosotros. Ac hay otra. +"Comenc mi vegetarianismo por razones de salud, luego se hizo una opcin moral y ahora solo quiero molestar a la gente". +"Disclpeme. Creo que hay algo mal en esto en cierta manera que nadie ms que yo podra precisar". +Se enfoca en nuestras obsesiones, en nuestro narcisismo, en nuestras frustraciones y debilidades, no en otra persona. +The New Yorker demanda un trabajo cognitivo de su parte y demanda algo que Arthur Koestler que escribi "El acto de la creacin" sobre la relacin entre el humor, el arte y la ciencia denomin bisociacin. +Tienen que reunir las ideas de diferentes marcos de referencia y hacerlo rpido para entender la tira cmica. +Si los diferentes marcos de referencia no se renen en cerca de medio segundo, no es gracioso, pero creo que lo ser para Uds. +Diferentes marcos de referencia. +"Dormiste con ella, no?" +"Lassie! Ve por ayuda!" +Se llama "Navaja francesa". +Y este es Einstein en la cama. "Para ti fue rpido". +Ahora hay algunas tiras cmicas que son desconcertantes. +Como esta tira cmica que desconcertar a mucha gente. +Cuntas personas saben qu significa esta tira cmica? +El perro est sealando que quiere ir a dar un paseo. +Esta es la seal de un catcher para pasear al perro. +Es por eso que dedicamos una edicin de tiras cmicas cada ao llamada "No entiendo: prueba de C.I. de tiras de The New Yorker". +La otra cosa con la que juega The New Yorker es con la incongruencia y la incongruencia, les he mostrado, es una base del humor. +Algo completamente normal o lgico no ser divertido. +Pero de la incongruencia trabaja con el humor observacional el humor dentro del mbito de la realidad. +"Mi jefe siempre me est diciendo qu hacer". Est bien? +Eso podra suceder. Es humor en el mbito de la realidad. +Aqu, un vaquero a una vaca: "Muy impresionante. Me gustara encontrar 5000 ms como t". +Entendemos eso. Es absurdo. Pero ponemos ambas cosas. +Aqu, en el grupo del disparate: "Maldita sea, Hopkins, no lleg el memo de ayer?" +Eso s que es un poco desconcertante, no? No todo se une. +En general, la gente que disfruta ms el disparate, disfruta ms el arte abstracto, tiende a ser progresista, menos conservadora, ese tipo de cosas. +Para nosotros y para m, que ayudamos a disear humor, no tiene ningn sentido comparar uno con el otro. +Es una mezcla heterognea que hace el todo interesante. +As que quiero resumir todo esto con la frase de una tira cmica, y creo que esto lo resume todo, de verdad, sobre las tiras cmicas de The New Yorker. +"De alguna manera te hace "parar" y "pensar", no es as?". +Y ahora, cuando vean las tiras cmicas de The New Yorker, me gustara que pararan y pensaran un poco ms en ellas. +Gracias. +Gracias. +Quiero probar esta pregunta en la que todos estamos interesados: La extincin tiene que ser para siempre? +Me enfoco en dos proyectos sobre los que les quiero contar. +Uno es el Proyecto Tilacino. +El otro es el Proyecto Lzaro, que se enfoca en la rana de incubacin gstrica. +Sera una buena pregunta, bueno, por qu nos enfocamos en estos dos animales? +Bueno, punto uno, cada uno representa a una familia nica. +Hemos perdido a una familia completa. +Ese es un gran trozo perdido del genoma global. +Me gustara tenerlo de vuelta. +La segunda razn es que los hemos matado. +En el caso del tilacino, lamentablemente, +le hemos disparado a cualquiera que hayamos visto. Los masacramos. +En el caso de la rana de incubacin gstrica, pudimos haberla "fungicidado" hasta la muerte. +Hay un hongo terrible que est como movindose en todo el mundo que se llama hongo quitrido y est matando a todas las ranas en el mundo. +Creemos que eso es lo que mat a esta rana y los humanos estn propagando este hongo. +Y esto introduce un punto tico muy importante y creo que lo habrn escuchado muchas veces cuando sale este tema. +Lo que creo que es importante es que, si est claro que exterminamos estas especies, entonces creo que no solo tenemos una obligacin moral de ver qu podemos hacer sobre eso, sino que creo que tenemos un imperativo moral de intentar hacer algo, si podemos. +Est bien. Djenme hablarles sobre el Proyecto Lzaro. +Es una rana. Y pensarn, una rana. +S, pero esta no era cualquier rana. +A diferencia de una rana normal, que coloca sus huevos en el agua y se va desendoles suerte a sus ranitas, esta rana tragaba sus huevos fertilizados, los tragaba en el estmago donde debera tener comida, no digera los huevos, y transformaba su estmago en un tero. +En el estmago, los huevos se desarrollaban en renacuajos, y en el estmago, los renacuajos se desarrollaban en ranas, y crecan en el estmago hasta que finalmente la pobre rana tena el riesgo de reventarse. +Tena un poco de tos e hipo y salan rociadas las pequeas ranas. +Cuando los bilogos vieron esto estaban impresionados. +Pensaron, esto es increble. +Ningn animal, por no decir rana, es conocido por hacer esto, cambiar un rgano en el cuerpo por otro. +Y pueden imaginar que el mundo mdico tambin se volvi loco por esto. +Si pudiramos entender cmo esta rana maneja la manera en que funciona su vientre, hay informacin que necesitemos entender o la podramos utilizar provechosamente para ayudarnos? +No estoy sugiriendo que criemos a nuestros bebs en el estmago, sino que estoy sugiriendo que es posible que queramos manejar la secrecin gstrica en el estmago. +Y cuando todos estaban emocionados por eso, bum! +Se extingui. +Llam a mi amigo, el profesor Mike Tyler de la Universidad de Adelaida. +Fue la ltima persona que tuvo esta rana, una colonia de ellas, en su laboratorio. +Y dije, "Mike, por casualidad...", esto fue hace 30 o 40 aos, +"por casualidad, guardaste tejido congelado de esta rana?" +Y lo pens y fue a ver a su congelador, -20 grados centgrados, y busc en todo el congelador y ah en el fondo haba un frasco y contena tejidos de estas ranas. +Esto fue muy emocionante, pero no haba razn por la qu deberamos esperar que esto funcionara, porque este tejido no tena ningn anticongelante puesto, crioprotectores, para cuidarlo cuando estuviera congelado. +Y normalmente, cuando el agua se congela, como saben, se expande y lo mismo pasa en una clula. +Si congelan los tejidos, el agua se expande, daa o revienta las paredes celulares. +Bueno, miramos el tejido bajo el microscopio. +Realmente no se vea mal. Las paredes celulares se vean intactas. +As que pensamos, dmosle una oportunidad. +Lo que hicimos es algo llamado trasplante nuclear de clula somtica. +Tomamos los huevos de una especie relacionada, una rana viva, e inactivamos el ncleo del huevo. +Utilizamos radiacin ultravioleta para hacerlo. +Y luego tomamos el ncleo muerto del tejido muerto de la rana extinta e insertamos esos ncleos en ese huevo. +Ahora, por derechos, esto es parecido a un proyecto de clonacin, como el que produjo a Dolly, pero en realidad es muy diferente, porque Dolly era una oveja viva dentro de clulas de oveja viva. +Eso era un milagro, pero era viable. +Lo que intentamos hacer es tomar un ncleo muerto de una especie extinta y colocarlo en una especie completamente diferente y esperar que eso funcione. +No tenamos una razn real para esperar que funcionara e intentamos cientos y cientos de esos. +Y el pasado febrero, la ltima vez que hicimos estas pruebas, vi que un milagro comenzaba a ocurrir. +Lo que encontramos fue que la mayora de estos huevos no funcionaban, pero de repente uno de ellos se comenz a dividir. +Fue tan emocionante. Y luego el huevo se dividi de nuevo. +Y luego de nuevo. Y bastante pronto tuvimos embriones de etapa temprana con cientos de clulas formndolos. +Incluso les realizamos pruebas de ADN a algunas de estas clulas, y el ADN de la rana extinta est en estas clulas. +As que estamos muy emocionados. Esto no es un renacuajo. +Esto no es una rana. Pero es un largo camino a lo largo del trayecto de producir o traer de vuelta una especie extinta. +Y estas son noticias. No habamos anunciado pblicamente esto antes. +Estamos emocionados. Tenemos que pasar este punto. +Ahora queremos que esta bola de clulas comience a gastrular, que se transforme para que produzcan los otros tejidos. +Seguir y producir un renacuajo y luego una rana. +Vean este espacio. Creo que tendremos esta rana saltando alegre de estar de vuelta en el mundo. +Gracias. No lo hemos hecho an, pero tengan esos aplausos listos. +El segundo proyecto del que quiero hablarles es el Proyecto Tilacino. +El tilacino se parece un poco, para la mayora de la gente, a un perro o quizs a un tigre, porque tiene rayas. +Pero no est relacionado con ninguno. Es un marsupial. Llevaba a sus cras en una bolsa, +como lo haran un koala o un canguro, y tiene una larga historia, una larga y fascinante historia que se remonta a 25 millones de aos. +Pero tambin es una historia trgica. +La primera que vemos ocurre en los antiguos bosques tropicales de Australia hace casi 25 millones de aos, y la National Geographic Society nos est ayudando a explorar estos depsitos de fsiles. Esto es Riversleigh. +En esas rocas fsiles hay algunos animales sorprendentes. +Encontramos leones marsupiales. +Encontramos canguros carnvoros. +No es lo que comnmente pensaran sobre un canguro, pero estos son canguros carnvoros. +Encontramos el ave ms grande del mundo, ms grande que la que estaba en Madagascar y tambin coma carne. Era un pato gigante y raro. +Y los cocodrilos tampoco se comportaban en ese tiempo. +Uds. piensan en los cocodrilos haciendo su fea cosa, mantenindose en su piscina de agua. +Estos cocodrilos en realidad estaban en la tierra e incluso trepaban los rboles y saltaban a las presas en la tierra. +Tuvimos, en Australia, cocodrilos caedores. Realmente existieron. +Pero en lo que caan no solo eran en otros animales raros, sino tambin en tilacinos. +Haba cinco tipos diferentes de tilacinos en esos bosques antiguos e iban de los grandes a los medianos, a uno que era del tamao de un chihuahua. +Paris Hilton hubiera sido capaz de llevar a uno de ellos en una pequea cartera hasta que un cocodrilo caedor aterrizara sobre ella. +En cualquier caso, era un lugar fascinante, pero desafortunadamente Australia no se mantuvo de esta manera. +El cambio climtico ha afectado al mundo por un largo periodo de tiempo y gradualmente los bosques desaparecieron, el pas se comenz a secar y el nmero de tipos de tilacino comenz a declinar, hasta que 5 millones de aos atrs solo qued uno. +Para 10 mil aos atrs, haban desaparecido de Nueva Guinea y desafortunadamente para 4 mil aos atrs, alguien, no sabemos quin fue, introdujo los dingos, es un tipo muy arcaico de perro, en Australia. +Y pueden ver, los dingos son muy similares en su forma corporal a los tilacinos. +Esa similitud significa que probablemente compitieron. +Coman los mismos tipos de comida. +Incluso es posible que los aborgenes mantuvieran algunos de estos dingos como mascotas y por lo tanto pueden haber tenido una ventaja en la batalla por la supervivencia. +Todo lo que sabemos es que, tan pronto como aparecieron los dingos, los tilacinos se extinguieron del continente australiano y despus solo sobrevivieron en Tasmania. +Luego, desafortunadamente, la siguiente parte triste de la historia del tilacino es que los europeos llegaron en 1788 y trajeron con ellos las cosas que valoraban, y eso inclua las ovejas. +Vieron al tilacino en Tasmania y pensaron, esperen, esto no va a funcionar. +Eso se va a comer a todas nuestras ovejas. +As no paso, en realidad. +Los perros salvajes se comieron unas pocas ovejas, pero el tilacino se llev la mala reputacin. +Pero inmediatamente, el gobierno dijo, est bien, deshagmonos de ellos, y le pagaron a la gente +para masacrar a todos los que vieran. Para principios de la dcada de 1930, 3 mil a 4 mil tilacinos +haban sido asesinados. Fue un desastre, y estaban a punto de llegar al lmite. +Veamos esta pequea filmacin. +Me pone muy triste, porque, aunque es un animal fascinante y es increble pensar que tuvimos la tecnologa para filmarlo antes de que cayera por ese acantilado de la extincin, desafortunadamente, al mismo tiempo, no tuvimos una molcula de preocupacin por el bienestar de esta especie. +Estas son fotografas del ltimo tilacino sobreviviente, Benjamn, que estaba en el Zoolgico Beaumaris en Hobart. +Para colmo de males, despus de haber arrasado esta especie este animal, cuando muri por abandono, los guardianes no lo resguardaron una fra noche en Hobart. Muri de fro +y en la maana, cuando encontraron el cuerpo de Benjamn, se preocuparon tan poco de este animal que tiraron el cuerpo a la basura. +Tiene que permanecer as? +En 1990 estaba en el Museo Australiano. +Estaba fascinado por los tilacinos. Siempre he estado obsesionado con estos animales. +Y estaba estudiando los crneos, intentando descifrar su relacin con otros tipos de animales y vi este frasco, y aqu, en el frasco, haba un pequeo cachorro hembra de tilacino, quizs de seis meses de edad. +El que lo encontr y mat a la madre preserv al cachorro en alcohol. +Soy paleontlogo, pero aun as saba que el alcohol conserva el ADN. +Pero esto fue en 1990 y les pregunt a mis amigos genetistas podemos tomar este cachorro y extraerle ADN, si est ah, y luego en algn momento en el futuro, utilizar este ADN para traer de vuelta al tilacino? +Los genetistas rieron. Pero esto fue seis aos antes de Dolly. +La clonacin era ciencia ficcin. No haba ocurrido. +Pero de pronto ocurri la clonacin. +Y pens, cuando me convert en director del Museo Australiano, le voy a dar una oportunidad a esto. +Arm un equipo. +Fuimos por ese cachorro para ver que haba y encontramos ADN de tilacino. Fue un momento eureka. Estbamos muy emocionados. +Desafortunadamente, tambin encontramos mucho ADN humano. +Cada viejo curador que haba estado en ese museo haba visto este maravilloso espcimen, coloc su mano en el frasco, lo sac y pens "vaya, miren eso", lo dejaba caer de vuelta al frasco, contaminando este espcimen. +Hubiera mantenido muy feliz al curador, pero no a nosotros. +As que volvimos a estos especmenes y comenzamos a escarbar y buscamos particularmente en los dientes de los crneos, partes duras donde los humanos no hubieran sido capaces de colocar sus dedos y encontramos ADN de mucha mejor calidad. +Encontramos genes mitocondriales nucleares. Est ah. +As que lo obtuvimos. +Est bien. Qu podamos hacer con esto? +Bueno, George Church en su libro "Regenesis" ha mencionado muchas de las tcnicas que estn avanzando rpidamente para trabajar con el ADN fragmentado. +Esperaramos que furamos capaces de tener ese ADN de vuelta de forma viable y luego, muy parecido a como habamos hecho con el Proyecto Lzaro, colocarlo en un vulo de una especie husped. +Tienen que ser especies diferentes. +Cul podra ser? Por qu no podra ser un demonio de Tasmania? +Estn relacionados de manera distante a los tilacinos. +Y luego el demonio de Tasmania va a hacer salir un tilacino del extremo sur. +Los crticos de este proyecto dicen, esperen. +Tilacino, demonio de Tasmania? Eso va a doler. +No, no lo har. Estos son marsupiales. +Dan a luz bebs que son del tamao de una gomita. +El demonio de Tasmania ni siquiera sabr que dio a luz. +Va a, en breve, pensar que tuvo al ms feo beb demonio de Tasmania del mundo, as que tal vez va a necesitar un poco de ayuda para continuar. +Andrew Pask y sus colegas han demostrado que esto puede no ser una prdida de tiempo. +Y en el futuro, no hemos llegado all todava, pero es el tipo de cosas que queremos pensar. +Tomaron algo de ADN del mismo tilacino conservado y lo colocaron en un genoma de ratn, pero colocaron una etiqueta en l para que cualquier cosa que produjera este ADN de tilacino aparecera en verdeazul en el beb ratn. +En otras palabras, si se estaban produciendo tejidos de tilacino por el ADN de tilacino, seran reconocidos. +Cuando el beb apareci, estaba lleno de tejidos verdeazulados. +Y eso nos dice que si podemos conseguir tener el genoma de vuelta y colocarlo en una clula viva, producir material de tilacino. +Es un riesgo? +Han tomado pedazos de un animal y los han mezclado en la clula de un animal diferente +Vamos a obtener un Frankenstein? Ya saben, algn tipo de quimera hbrida rara? +Y la respuesta es no. +Si solo el ADN nuclear va dentro de esta clula hbrida es ADN de tilacino, esa es la nica cosa que puede salir del otro lado del demonio. +Est bien, si podemos hacer esto, podemos traerlo de vuelta? +Esta es una pregunta para todos. +Tiene que permanecer en un laboratorio o podemos colocarlo de vuelta donde pertenece? +Podramos colocarlo de vuelta en el trono del rey de las bestias de Tasmania donde pertenece, restaurar ese ecosistema? +O Tasmania ha cambiado tanto que ya no es posible? +He estado en Tasmania. He ido a muchas zonas +donde los tilacinos eran comunes. +He hablado con gente como Peter Carter, que cuando habl con l tena 90 aos de edad, pero en 1926 este hombre, su padre y su hermano atrapaban tilacinos. Los atrapaban. +Y justo, cuando habl con este hombre, miraba en sus ojos y pensaba, detrs de esos ojos hay un cerebro que tiene memorias de cmo se sentan los tilacinos, como olan, cmo sonaban. +Los llevaba alrededor de una cuerda. +Tiene experiencias personales por las que dara mi pierna izquierda por tener. +A todos nos gustara que ocurrieran este tipo de cosas. +De cualquier manera, le pregunt a Peter, por casualidad, si podra llevarnos donde atrapaba esos tilacinos. +Mi inters estaba en si los ambientes haban cambiado. +Hizo un esfuerzo. Quiero decir, eran casi 80 aos antes que haba estado en este refugio. +De todos modos, nos llev por este camino de arbustos, y ah, justo donde recordaba, estaba el refugio y las lgrimas brotaron de sus ojos. +Mir el refugio. Entr. +Haban tablas de madera a los lados del refugio donde l, su padre y su hermano haban dormido de noche. +Y me dijo, a medida que estaba inundado en recuerdos, +me dijo, "recuerdo a los tilacinos dando vueltas por el refugio preguntndose que haba dentro", y dijo hacan ruidos como "Yip! Yip! Yip!" +Todas estas son partes de su vida y lo que recuerda. +Y la pregunta clave para m fue preguntarle a Peter, +ha cambiado? Y me dijo que no. +Los bosques de hayas meridionales que rodean su cabaa son iguales a cuando l estaba ah en 1926. +Los pastizales se estaban eliminando. +Ese es el hbitat clsico del tilacino. +Y los animales en esas reas eran los mismos que haba cuando el tilacino viva. +As que, podramos ponerlo de vuelta? S. +Eso es todo lo que haramos? Y esta es una pregunta interesante. +Algunas veces puedes ser capaz de traerlo de vuelta, pero es esa la mejor manera de asegurarse +de que nunca se extinga de nuevo? No lo creo. +Creo gradualmente, como vemos las especies alrededor del mundo, es una especie de mantra que la vida silvestre no est cada vez ms segura en la naturaleza. +Nos gustara pensar que lo es, pero sabemos que no es as. +Tenemos otras estrategias paralelas que entrarn en funcionamiento. +Y esta me interesa. +Algunos de los tilacinos que estaban en zoolgicos, santuarios, incluso en museos, tenan marcas de collar en el cuello. +Eran mantenidos como mascotas y conocemos muchos cuentos de campo y memorias de gente que los tena como mascotas y dicen que eran maravillosos, amistosos. +Este particular sali del bosque para lamer a este chico y se acurruc alrededor del fuego para dormir. Un animal salvaje. +Y me gustara hacer la pregunta, todos... necesitamos pensar sobre esto. +Si no hubiera sido ilegal tener estos tilacinos como mascotas entonces, estara extinto el tilacino ahora? +Y estoy seguro de que no. +Necesitamos pensar eso en el mundo de hoy. +Podra ser que tener animales cerca de nosotros de manera que los valoremos, haga que quizs no se extingan? +Y este es un tema tan importante para nosotros, porque si no lo hacemos, vamos a ver a ms de estos animales caer al precipicio. +En lo que a m respecta, esta es la razn por la que estamos haciendo este tipo de proyectos de desextincin. +Estamos intentando restaurar ese balance de la naturaleza que nos tiene molestos. +Gracias. +Buenos das. +Mi nombre es Eric Li, y nac aqu. +Ms bien, no nac all, +as era donde nac: Shanghi, en el pinculo de la Revolucin Cultural. +Mi abuela me dice que oy el sonido de los disparos junto con mis primeros llantos. +Cuando fui creciendo, me contaron una historia que explicaba todo lo que necesitaba saber sobre la humanidad. +Fue as. +Todas las sociedades humanas se desarrollan en una progresin lineal, comenzando con la sociedad primitiva, luego la sociedad esclavista, feudalismo, capitalismo, socialismo, y finalmente, adivinen dnde terminamos? +Comunismo! +Tarde o temprano, toda la humanidad, independientemente de la cultura, idioma, nacionalidad, llegar a esta etapa final de desarrollo poltico y social. +Los pueblos del mundo entero se unificarn en este paraso en la Tierra y vivirn felices para siempre. +Pero antes de llegar all, estamos metidos en una lucha entre el bien y el mal, el bien del socialismo contra el mal del capitalismo, y el bien triunfar. +Esta era, por supuesto, la metanarrativa destilada de las teoras de Karl Marx. +Y los chinos la compraron. +Nos ensearon esa gran historia da tras da. +Se convirti en parte de nosotros, y cremos en ella. +La historia fue un bestseller. +Aproximadamente un tercio de la poblacin de todo el mundo viva bajo esta metanarrativa. +Entonces, el mundo cambi de la noche a la maana. +En cuanto a m, desilusionado por la religin fallida de mi juventud, fui a EE. UU. y me convert en un hippie de Berkeley. +Ahora, segn iba madurando, algo ms sucedi. +Como si una gran historia no fuera suficiente, me contaron otra. +Esta era igual de magnfica. +Tambin sostiene que todas las sociedades humanas se desarrollan en una progresin lineal hacia un fin singular. +As es como sigue: Todas las sociedades, independientemente de la cultura, ya sean cristianas, musulmanas, confucianas, deben progresar de sociedades tradicionales, en las que los grupos son las unidades bsicas, a las sociedades modernas, en que los individuos atomizados son las unidades soberanas, y todos estos individuos son, por definicin, racionales, y todos quieren una cosa: votar. +Porque son muy racionales, una vez dado el voto, producen un buen gobierno y viven felices para siempre. +El paraso en la Tierra, otra vez. +Tarde o temprano, ser la democracia electoral el nico sistema poltico para todos los pases y todos los pueblos, con un mercado libre para hacerlos ricos. +Pero antes de llegar all, estamos comprometidos en una lucha entre el bien y el mal. +El bien pertenece a aquellos que son democracias y se encargan de la misin de difundirla por todo el mundo, a veces por la fuerza, contra el mal de quienes no celebran elecciones. +George H.W. Bush: Un nuevo orden mundial... +Bush:... acabar con la tirana en nuestro mundo... +Barack Obama: ... una norma nica para todos que tienen poder. +Eric X. Li: Ahora... Esta historia tambin se convirti en un bestseller. +Segn Freedom House, el nmero de democracias pas de 45 en 1970 a 115 en 2010. +En los ltimos 20 aos, las elites occidentales incansablemente trotaron alrededor del mundo vendiendo este prospecto: Mltiples partidos luchando por el poder poltico y todos votando por ellos es el nico camino a la salvacin para el prolongado sufrimiento del mundo en desarrollo. +Aquellos que compran el prospecto estn destinados para el xito. +Aquellos que no, estn condenados al fracaso. +Pero esta vez, los chinos no la compraron. +Engame una vez... +El resto es historia. +En solo 30 aos, China pas de ser uno de los pases agrcolas ms pobres en el mundo a la segunda economa ms grande. +650 millones de personas salieron de la pobreza. +El 80 % de la reduccin de la pobreza de todo el mundo ocurri en China en ese periodo. +En otras palabras, todas las nuevas y viejas democracias puestas juntas suman una mera fraccin de lo que un solo estado de partido nico hizo sin votacin. +Vern, crec con estas cosas: estampillas de comida. +La carne estaba racionada a unos cien gramos por persona por mes en un momento dado. +No hace falta decir que com las porciones de mi abuela. +As que me pregunt, qu pasa con esta foto? +Aqu estoy en mi ciudad natal, mi negocio crece a pasos agigantados. +Los empresarios estn fundando empresas cada da. +La clase media se est expandiendo en velocidad y escala sin precedentes en la historia humana. +Sin embargo, segn la gran historia, nada de esto debera estar pasando. +As que fui e hice la nica cosa que poda. Lo estudi. +S, China es un estado de partido nico dirigido por el Partido Comunista Chino, el Partido, y no celebran elecciones. +Se tienen 3 suposiciones por las teoras polticas dominantes de nuestro tiempo. +Tal sistema es operacionalmente rgido, polticamente cerrado y moralmente ilegtimo. +Bueno, las hiptesis estn equivocadas. +Las opuestas son verdaderas. +Adaptabilidad, meritocracia y legitimidad son las 3 caractersticas que definen el sistema de partido nico de China. +Ahora, nos dirn ms politlogos que un sistema de partido nico es inherentemente incapaz de autocorreccin. +No durar mucho porque no se puede adaptar. +Aqu estn los hechos. +As el Partido se autocorrige en modos algo drsticos. +Institucionalmente, se promulgan nuevas reglas para corregir disfunciones anteriores. +Por ejemplo, perodos limitados. +Los lderes polticos acostumbran retener sus posiciones de por vida y lo hacen para acumular poder y perpetuar sus reglas. +Mao fue el padre de la China moderna, sin embargo su prolongado gobierno condujo a errores desastrosos. +As el Partido instituy los lmites del trmino con la edad de jubilacin obligatoria de los 68 a 70. +Es una cosa que solemos escuchar, "Las reformas polticas han quedado muy por detrs de las reformas econmicas" y "China est en extrema necesidad de reforma poltica". +Pero esta afirmacin es una trampa retrica escondida detrs de un sesgo poltico. +Vean, algunos han decidido a priori qu clase de cambios quieren ver, y solo estos cambios pueden ser llamados reforma poltica. +La verdad es que las reformas polticas no han parado. +En comparacin con hace 30 aos, 20 aos, incluso ms de 10 aos, todos los aspectos de la sociedad china, como se gobierna el pas, desde el nivel ms local hasta el centro ms alto, hoy son irreconocibles. +Ahora estos cambios no son sencillamente posibles sin reformas polticas de la clase ms fundamental. +Ahora me atrevo a sugerir que el Partido es experto en seguir las reformas polticas del mundo. +La segunda hiptesis es que en un estado de partido nico, el poder se concentra en manos de unos pocos, y sigue un mal gobierno y corrupcin. +De hecho, la corrupcin es un gran problema, pero primero veamos el contexto ms amplio. +Ahora, esto puede ser contraintuitivo para Uds. +El Partido pasa a ser uno de las ms meritocraticas instituciones polticas en el mundo de hoy. +El rgano de gobierno ms alto de China, el Politbur, tiene 25 miembros. +En el ms reciente, solo 5 venan de un contexto privilegiado, llamados principitos. +Los otros 20, incluyendo al Presidente y al Primer Ministro, venan de contextos totalmente ordinarios. +En el comit central ms grande de 300 o ms, el porcentaje de quienes nacieron en el poder y la riqueza fue incluso menor. +La mayora de los altos dirigentes chinos trabaj y compiti en su camino a la cima. +Comparen esto con las elites gobernantes en los pases tanto desarrollados como en desarrollo, Creo que encontrarn al Partido cerca de la cima en movilidad ascendente. +La pregunta entonces es, cmo podra ser posible en un sistema dirigido por un partido? +Ahora llegamos a una poderosa institucin poltica, poco conocido por los occidentales: el Departamento de Organizacin del Partido. +Las Departamento funciona como un gigante motor de recursos humanos que sera la envidia de incluso algunas de las empresas ms exitosas. +Opera una pirmide giratoria formada por 3 componentes: servicio civil, empresas estatales, y organizaciones sociales como una universidad o un programa de la comunidad. +Forman carreras separadas pero integradas para los funcionarios chinos. +Reclutan a los graduados universitarios en posiciones de nivel de entrada en todas las 3 carreras, y comienzan desde la parte inferior, llamado "keyuan" [funcionario]. +Entonces podrn ascender a travs de 4 rangos ascendentes de elite: fuke [subgerente de seccin], ke [gerente de secc.], fuchu [subgerente de divisin] y chu [gerente de div.] +No son movimientos de "Karate Kid", de acuerdo? +Es un asunto serio. +La gama de rangos es amplia, de funcionando de salud en un pueblo a inversionista extranjero en un distrito de la ciudad a administrador en una empresa. +Una vez al ao, el Departamento revisa su desempeo. +Entrevistan a sus superiores, sus pares, sus subordinados. Investigan su conducta personal. +Llevan a cabo encuestas de opinin pblica. +Y despus promueven a los ganadores. +A lo largo de sus carreras, estos cuadros puede moverse a travs y entre todas las 3 carreras. +Con el tiempo, los buenos irn ms all de los 4 niveles bsicos a los niveles de fuju [jefe adjunto de oficina] y ju [jefe de oficina]. +All, entran a la alta burocracia. +En ese punto, ser una tarea tpica administrar un distrito con una poblacin de millones o una empresa con cientos de millones de dlares de ingresos. +Solo para mostrarles cmo es de competitivo el sistema, en 2012, haba 900 mil niveles fuke y ke, 600 mil niveles fuchu y chu, y solo 40 mil niveles fuju y ju. +Despus de los niveles de ju, los contados mejores ascienden varios rangos ms, y al final llegan al Comit Central. +El proceso dura de 2 a 3 dcadas. +El patrocinio juega un papel? Por supuesto que s. +Pero el mrito sigue siendo el factor fundamental. +En esencia, el Departamento de Organizacin ejecuta una versin modernizada del sistema de mentora chino de siglos de antigedad. +El nuevo Presidente de China, Xi Jinping, es hijo de un exdirigente, lo que es muy inusual, primero de su tipo en hacer el trabajo superior. +Incluso para l, la carrera tom 30 aos. +Empez como un administrador de aldea, y cuando entr en el Politbur, haba dirigido reas con una poblacin total de 150 millones de personas y un PIB combinado de 1,5 billones de dlares. +Ahora, por favor no me malinterpreten, de acuerdo? +Esto no es una crtica para nadie. Es solo la declaracin de un hecho. +George W. Bush, lo recuerdan? +Esto no es una crtica. +Antes de convertirse en gobernador de Texas, o Barack Obama antes de postularse para Presidente, no podran hacer sido ni siquiera administradores de un pequeo condado en el sistema de China. +Winston Churchill dijo una vez que la democracia es un sistema terrible excepto para todos los dems. +Bueno, aparentemente no haba odo del Departamento de Organizacin. +Ahora, los occidentales siempre suponen que las elecciones multipartidistas con sufragio universal son la nica fuente de legitimidad poltica. +Me preguntaron una vez, "El Partido no fue elegido por votacin. +Dnde est la fuente de su legitimidad?" +Dije, "Qu tal la competencia?" +Todos conocemos los hechos. +En 1949, cuando el Partido asumi el poder, China estaba sumida en guerras civiles, desmembradas por la agresin extranjera, la esperanza de vida en aquel momento era de 41 aos. +Hoy, es la segunda mayor economa del mundo, una potencia industrial y su gente vive en una prosperidad creciente. +Pew Research encuesta las actitudes del pblico chino y aqu estn los nmeros de los ltimos aos. +Satisfaccin con la direccin del pas: el 85 %. +Los que piensan que estn mejor que hace 5 aos: el 70 %. +Los que esperan que el futuro ser mejor: la friolera del 82 %. +Financial Times encuesta las actitudes de la juventud mundial, y estos nmeros, nuevos, acaban de llegar la semana pasada. +El 93 % de la generacin Y de China es optimista sobre el futuro de su pas. +Ahora, si esto no es legitimidad, no s qu es. +En contraste, la mayora de las democracias electorales alrededor del mundo estn sufriendo de un desempeo desalentador. +No necesito detallar para esta audiencia. lo disfuncional que estn, desde Washington a las capitales europeas. +Con unas pocas excepciones, la gran cantidad de pases en desarrollo que han adoptado los regmenes electorales todava sufren de pobreza y conflictos civiles. +Los gobiernos son elegidos, y luego caen por debajo del 50 % de aprobacin en unos meses y quedan ah y empeoran hasta las siguientes elecciones. +La democracia se est convirtiendo en un ciclo perpetuo de eleccin y arrepentimiento. +A este ritmo, me temo que es la democracia, no el sistema unipartidista de China, lo que est en peligro de perder legitimidad. +Ahora, no quiero crear la falsa impresin de la maravillosa China, en vas a algn tipo de superpotencia. +El pas enfrenta enormes desafos. +Los problemas sociales y econmicos que vienen con desgarradores cambios como ste son alucinantes. +La contaminacin es uno. Seguridad alimentaria. Temas poblacionales. +En el frente poltico, el peor problema es la corrupcin. +La corrupcin es generalizada y socava el sistema y su legitimidad moral. +Pero la mayora de los analistas diagnostican mal la enfermedad. +Dicen que la corrupcin es el resultado del sistema de partido nico, y por lo tanto, para curarlo, se tiene que terminar con todo el sistema. +Pero una mirada ms cuidadosa nos dira lo contrario. +Transparencia Internacional clasifica China entre los sitios 70 y 80 en los ltimos aos dentro de 170 pases, y ha estado subiendo. +India, la democracia ms grande del mundo, en 94 y cayendo. +Del centenar de pases que se encuentran por debajo de China, ms de la mitad son democracias electorales. +As que si la eleccin es la panacea para la corrupcin, por qu estos pases no puede arreglarlo? +Ahora, soy un capitalista de riesgo. Hago apuestas. +No sera justo terminar esta charla sin arriesgarme y hacer algunas predicciones. +As que aqu estn. +En los prximos 10 aos, China superar a EE.UU. +y ser la economa ms grande del mundo. +El ingreso per cpita estar cerca de la cima de todos los pases en desarrollo. +La corrupcin ser frenada, pero no eliminada, y China va a subir de 10 a 20 sitios arriba del 60 en el ranking de T.I. +Se acelerar la reforma econmica, la reforma poltica continuar, y el sistema de partido nico se mantendr firme. +Vivimos en el ocaso de una era. +Las metanarrativas que hacen afirmaciones universales fallaron en el siglo XX y nos estn fallando en el XXI. +La meta-narrativa es el cncer que est matando la democracia desde dentro. +Ahora, quiero aclarar algo. +No estoy aqu para hacer una acusacin de la democracia. +Por el contrario, creo que la democracia contribuy al avance de Occidente y la creacin del mundo moderno. +Es la afirmacin que muchas elites occidentales estn haciendo sobre su sistema poltico, la arrogancia, lo que est en el corazn de los males actuales de Occidente. +Si pasaran un poco menos de tiempo tratando de forzar su sistema a otros, y un poco ms en reformar la poltica en su pas, le daran una mejor oportunidad a su democracia. +El modelo poltico de China nunca suplantar la democracia electoral, porque a diferencia de esta ltima, no pretende ser universal. +No puede exportarse. Pero ese es precisamente el punto. +La importancia del ejemplo de China no es que proporcione una alternativa, sino la demostracin de que existen alternativas. +Cerremos esta poca de metanarraciones. +El comunismo y la democracia pueden ser ambas ideales loables, Pero termin la poca de su universalismo dogmtico. +Dejmos de decirle a la gente y a nuestros hijos que hay solo una manera de gobernarnos y un futuro nico hacia el cual todas las sociedades deben evolucionar. +Est mal. Es irresponsable. +Y lo peor de todo, es aburrido. +Dejen que la universalidad abra paso a la pluralidad. +Tal vez una era ms interesante est prxima. +Somos lo suficientemente valientes para darle la bienvenida? +Gracias. +Gracias. Gracias. Gracias. Gracias. +Bruno Giussani: Eric, qudate conmigo un par de minutos, porque quiero hacerte un par de preguntas. +Creo que muchos aqu y en general en los pases occidentales, estarn de acuerdo con tu afirmacin sobre el anlisis de que los sistemas democrticos se estn volviendo disfuncionales, pero al mismo tiempo, muchos encontrarn inquietante pensar que hay una autoridad no elegida que, sin ningn tipo de supervisin o consulta, decide lo que es el inters nacional. +Cul es el mecanismo en el modelo chino que permite a las personas decir, en realidad, el inters nacional como Uds. lo definieron est mal? +EXL: Sabes, Frank Fukuyama, el politlogo, llamaba al sistema chino "autoritarismo sensible". +No es exactamente cierto, pero est cerca. +Conozco a la compaa ms grande de encuestas de opinin pblica en China, de acuerdo? +Sabes quin es su cliente ms grande? +El gobierno chino. +Desde el gobierno central, el gobierno de la ciudad, el gobierno provincial, hasta la mayora de los distritos locales. +Llevan a cabo encuestas todo el tiempo. +Ests contento con la recoleccin de basura? +Ests contento con la direccin general del pas? +As que, en China, hay otro tipo de mecanismo para ser sensible a las demandas y el pensamiento de la gente. +Mi punto es, creo que deberamos despegarnos del pensamiento de que hay solo un sistema poltico, elecciones, elecciones, elecciones... que puede que sea sensible. +No s, en realidad, las elecciones producen gobiernos sensibles en el mundo ya. +BG: Muchos parecen estar de acuerdo. +Una de las caractersticas de un sistema democrtico es un espacio para la sociedad civil para expresarse. +Y has mostrado las cifras sobre el apoyo que el gobierno y las autoridades tienen en China. +Pero luego solo mencionaste otros elementos como, ya sabes, grandes retos y hay, por supuesto, un montn de otros datos que van en una direccin diferente: decenas de miles de disturbios y protestas y protestas por el medio ambiente, etc. +As que parece que sugieren que el modelo chino no tiene un espacio fuera del partido para que la sociedad civil pueda expresarse. +EXL: Hay una sociedad civil vibrante en China, sea el ambiente o lo que quieras. +Pero es diferente. No puedes reconocerlo. +Porque, en las definiciones occidentales, una llamada sociedad civil tiene que estar separada o incluso en oposicin al sistema poltico, sin embargo, ese concepto es ajeno para la cultura china. +Durante miles de aos, ha existido una sociedad civil, que an es consistente y coherente y forma parte de un orden poltico, y creo esta una gran diferencia cultural. +BG: Eric, gracias por compartir esto con TED. EXL: Gracias. +Hay una vieja broma de un polica que haciendo su ronda en el medio de la noche, encuentra a un tipo debajo del alumbrado pblico que est mirando el suelo y se mueve de un lado a otro, y el polica le pregunta qu est haciendo. +El tipo le dice que busca las llaves. +El polica se toma el tiempo y busca hace un rastreo y observa durante unos 2 o 3 minutos. No aparecen. +El polica dice: "Hombre, seguro que +perdiste las llaves aqu?" +Y el tipo dice: "No, no, en realidad las perd en el otro extremo de la calle, pero aqu hay ms luz". +Hoy en da se habla de un concepto +llamado "big data" que hace referencia a toda la informacin que estamos generando en nuestra interaccin con y en Internet, desde Facebook y Twitter hasta las descargas de msica, pelculas, audio y video en lnea, todo este tipo de cosas la transmisin en vivo de TED, etc. +La gente que trabaja con grandes volmenes de datos dice que el problema principal es que tenemos mucha informacin; +el problema principal es cmo organizar toda esa informacin. +Y yo puedo decirles, desde el sector de la salud mundial que ese no es nuestro problema principal. +Porque para nosotros, si bien hay ms luz en Internet, los datos que pueden ayudarnos a resolver los problemas que intentamos resolver, no estn en Internet. +No sabemos, por ejemplo, cuntas personas en este momento son vctimas de desastres o de situaciones de conflicto. +No conocemos con certeza bsicamente qu clnicas del mundo en desarrollo tienen medicinas y cules no. +No tenemos ni idea de la cadena de suministros de esas clnicas. +No sabemos --y esto me resulta increble-- no conocemos la cantidad de nacimientos o cuntos nios hay en Bolivia, Botsuana o Butn. +No sabemos cuntos nios murieron la semana pasada en estos pases. +Desconocemos las necesidades de los ancianos y los enfermos mentales. +De todos estos problemas de importancia crtica o reas de importancia crtica en las que queremos resolver problemas bsicamente no sabemos nada. +Y en parte no sabemos nada porque los sistemas informticos que usamos en la salud mundial para encontrar los datos, para resolver estos problemas es lo que ven aqu. +Es una tecnologa de hace 5000 aos. +Algunos de Uds. ya la han usado. +Hoy en da est en retirada, pero an la usamos +en el 99 % de los casos. +Tiene hijos? Estn vacunados?" +Porque la nica forma de saber la cantidad de nios vacunados en Indonesia, el porcentaje de vacunacin, no es consultando en Internet sino llamando puerta a puerta, a veces en decenas de miles de puertas. +Puede llevar meses e incluso aos hacer algo como esto. +Un censo de Indonesia puede llevar 2 aos de trabajo. +Y el problema con todo esto es que, claro, con todos estos formularios de papel --como les digo, tenemos formularios para todo tipo de cosas. Tenemos formularios para encuestas de vacunacin. +Tenemos formularios para rastrear personas que acuden a las clnicas. +Tenemos formularios para el seguimiento de los suministros de medicamentos, suministros de sangre, todo tipo de formularios para distintos temas, y todos tienen un destino comn, y ese destino comn es algo como esto. +Lo que vemos aqu es una camionada de datos. +Son los datos de una encuesta de vacunacin en un solo distrito de Zambia de hace unos aos, en el que particip. +Lo nico que tratbamos de averiguar era el porcentaje de nios zambianos vacunados. Estos son los datos recolectados en papel durante semanas de un solo distrito, que es como un municipio +o un ayuntamiento. Imaginen que para todo Zambia responder solo esa pregunta +requerira algo como esto. +Camin, tras camin, tras camin repletos de pilas y pilas y pilas de datos. +Y lo peor es que esto es solo el principio, +porque una vez que recolectamos esos datos, por supuesto, alguien tendr que... alguna persona desafortunada va a tener que escribir esto en una computadora. +Cuando era estudiante en realidad me toc ser esa persona desafortunada alguna vez. +Cranme, a menudo no prestaba atencin. +Probablemente comet muchos errores al hacerlo que nunca nadie descubri, eso disminuye la calidad de los datos. +Pero con el tiempo y con suerte los datos llegan a una computadora y alguien puede empezar a analizarlos. Y cuando se hace el anlisis y el informe, es de esperar que uno pueda usar los resultados del estudio para vacunar mejor a los nios. +Porque no hay nada peor en el campo de la salud pblica mundial, no s que puede ser peor que permitir que los nios del mundo mueran de enfermedades prevenibles con vacuna. Enfermedades para las que la vacuna cuesta un dlar. +Y mueren millones de nios con estas enfermedades cada ao. +El hecho es que estimamos en millones porque en realidad no sabemos cuntos nios mueren al ao por esta causa. +Y ms frustrante an es que el ingreso de datos, esa tarea que sola hacer cuando era estudiante, a veces puede demorar 6 meses. +A veces puede llevar 2 aos ingresar esa informacin en una computadora, y a veces, en realidad no pocas veces, nunca se carga. +Ahora, analicemos esto por un momento. +Tuvimos equipos de cientos de personas. +Fueron al campo a responder una pregunta en particular. +Probablemente gastamos cientos de miles de dlares en combustible, fotocopias y viticos. +Y, luego, por alguna razn, se pierde impulso o se acaba el dinero, y todo eso queda en la nada porque nadie ingresa eso a la computadora. +El proceso se detiene. Pasa todo el tiempo. +A nivel mundial tomamos decisiones de este modo: con pocos datos, con datos viejos, o sin datos. +Volvamos a 1995, pues empec a pensar maneras en las que podamos mejorar este proceso. +Obviamente, 1995 pas hace bastante tiempo. +Me asusta pensar cuanto tiempo ha pasado. +La pelcula del ao fue "Die Hard with a Vengeance". +Como ven, en esa pica Bruce Willis tena mucho ms pelo. +Yo trabajaba en Centro de Control de Enfermedades , y tambin tena mucho ms pelo en ese entonces. +Pero para m, lo ms significativo que vi en 1995 fue esto. +Difcil de imaginarlo, pero en 1995, este era el dispositivo mvil de lite. +Correcto? No era un iPhone, ni una Galaxy. +Era una Palm Pilot. +Y cuando vi la Palm Pilot por primera vez, pens: por qu no poner los formularios en estas Palm Pilots +y salir al campo con una Palm Pilot, que puede almacenar decenas de miles +de formularios? Por qu no lo intentamos? +Porque si podemos hacerlo, si podemos recolectar los datos en forma electrnica, digital, desde el principio, podemos acortar el proceso de ingreso de datos, de que alguien tenga que cargar datos en la computadora. +Podemos saltar directamente al anlisis y de ah al uso de los datos para salvar vidas. +De modo que empec a hacer eso. +Desde el CCE, empec a participar en diferentes programas del mundo y a entrenar equipos en el uso de Palm Pilots para recolectar datos, como sustituto del papel. +Y funcion muy bien. +Funcion tan bien como se esperaba. +Qu se sabe? Que la recoleccin de datos +es ms eficiente en forma digital que en papel. +Y al mismo tiempo mi socia, Rose, --que est aqu en la audiencia con su marido, Matthew-- Rose estaba haciendo algo similar para la Cruz Roja de EE.UU. +El problema fue que, al cabo de unos aos del programa ca en la cuenta de que... luego de quiz 6 o 7 casos, pens, si sigo a este ritmo en toda mi carrera, quiz pueda atender unos 20 o 30 casos. +Pero el problema es que 20 o 30 casos --que 20 o 30 programas usen esta tecnologa-- es como una gota en el ocano. +La demanda, la necesidad de programas que funcionen mejor, solo en la salud, por no mencionar todos las otras reas en pases en desarrollo, es enorme. +Hay millones y millones y millones de programas, millones de clnicas que necesitan rastrear medicamentos, millones de programas de vacunacin. +Hay escuelas que necesitan controlar la asistencia. +Hay todo tipo de cosas que requieren que recolectemos datos. +Y me di cuenta de que si segua a ese ritmo difcilmente lograra tener algn impacto para el final de mi carrera. +Entonces empec a devanarme el cerebro tratando de analizar el proceso que estaba haciendo, +el entrenamiento, los cuellos de botella y los obstculos que impedan hacerlo ms rpidamente, de manera ms eficiente. +Desafortunadamente, luego de pensarlo algn tiempo, identifiqu el obstculo principal. +Y result que el obstculo principal, y esto es un descubrimiento triste, el principal obstculo era yo. +Qu quiero decir con eso? +Haba desarrollado un proceso en el que yo era el centro del universo de esta tecnologa. +Si t queras usar esta tecnologa, tenas que ponerte en contacto conmigo. +O sea, tenas que saber que yo exista. +Luego tenas que disponer del dinero para pagarme el vuelo hacia tu pas el dinero para pagar mi hotel mis viticos y tarifa diaria. +Podramos estar hablando de 10 000, 20 000 o 30 000 dlares si realmente tena tiempo en mi agenda y no estaba de vacaciones. +La idea es que cualquier cosa, cualquier sistema que dependa de una persona, o 2, o 3, o 5 personas, no puede crecer. +Por eso es que tenemos que expandir esta tecnologa y tenemos que hacerlo ahora. +Bsicamente, empec a pensar en formas de salirme del proceso. +Estuve pensando cmo salir del proceso +durante un buen tiempo. +Me haban entrenado para pensar que la forma de distribuir tecnologa en equipos internacionales siempre es mediante consultora. +Tipos muy parecidos a m que van de pases muy parecidos a este a otros pases de gente con piel ms oscura. +Y van all a gastar dinero en pasajes areos viticos y tiempo y gastar en hoteles y todo eso. +Hasta donde yo saba, esa era la nica forma de distribuir la tecnologa, y no conoca otra forma de hacerlo. +Pero ocurri un milagro, que para abreviar llamar Hotmail. +Puede que no piensen que Hotmail sea algo milagroso, pero para m fue milagroso porque me di cuenta, cuando luchaba con este problema trabajaba en el frica subsahariana, gran parte del tiempo. Observ que los trabajadores de salud del frica subsahariana con los que trabajaba, tenan Hotmail. +Y pens, se me ocurri, un momento, la gente de Hotmail seguramente no viaj al Ministerio de Salud de Kenia para capacitar a la gente para usar Hotmail. +Estos tipos estn distribuyendo tecnologa. Estn desarrollando capacidad de software all pero no han viajado por el mundo para hacerlo. +Tengo que pensarlo un poco ms. +Mientras pensaba en ello, la gente empezaba a usar cada vez ms cosas de ese tipo, al igual que nosotros. +Empezaron a usar LinkedIn y Flickr, Gmail, Google Maps y todas esas cosas. Claro, todas esas cosas estn en la nube y no requieren entrenamiento. +No requieren programadores. +No requieren consultores porque +el modelo de negocios de estas empresas requiere que algo sea tan simple que uno pueda usarlo por s mismo con poca o ninguna capacitacin. +Solo tienes que conocer sobre ello y dirigirte al sitio web. +Entonces pens, y qu tal si hacemos un software que haga lo que yo haca como consultor? +En vez de capacitar a la gente para poner formularios en dispositivos mviles hagamos un software que les permita hacer eso sin capacitacin y sin mi intervencin. +E hicimos exactamente eso. +Creamos un software llamado Magpi [urraca], que tiene un creador de formularios web. +Nadie tiene que comunicarse conmigo. Solo escuchar que existe y entrar al sitio web. +Puedo crear formularios, y una vez creados, los coloco en muchos telfonos mviles. +Obviamente, hoy en da pasamos de las Palm Pilots a los mviles. +No tiene por qu ser un telfono inteligente. Puede ser uno bsico como el de la derecha, el tpico Symbian bsico muy comn en los pases en desarrollo. +Y la mejor parte es que, como Hotmail, +est en la nube, y no requiere capacitacin, ni programacin, ni consultores. +Pero tambin tiene muchos beneficios adicionales. +Sabamos, cuando construimos este sistema, que la idea, al igual que con las Palm Pilots, era que tendras, que podras recolectar datos, subirlos de inmediato y tenerlos en formato digital. +Pero hallamos, por supuesto, como ya estn en una computadora, que podemos trazar mapas, anlisis y grficos instantneos. +Podemos tomar un proceso que lleva 2 aos y comprimirlo a unos 5 minutos. +Una mejora increble en eficiencia. +En la nube, sin capacitacin, sin consultores, sin m. +Y les dije que en los primeros aos de intentar hacerlo a la vieja usanza, yendo pas por pas, llegamos a, no s, quiz capacitamos unas 1000 personas. +Qu pas despus de esto? +En los siguientes 3 aos, 14 000 personas encontraron el sitio, se registraron y empezaron a usarlo para recolectar datos. Datos para respuesta a desastres; criadores de cerdos canadienses que siguen enfermedades porcinas y manadas de cerdos; personas que controlan suministros de medicamentos. +Mdicos por los Derechos Humanos --sto ocurre un poco fuera del mbito de la salud-- recolectan, bsicamente capacitan a la gente para hacer exmenes de violacin, en Congo, donde esto es una epidemia, una epidemia horrible, y estn usando nuestro software para documentar la evidencia que encuentran, incluso con fotografas, para poder llevar a los responsables ante la justicia. +Camfed, otra organizacin benfica del R.U., Camfed paga a las familias de nias para mantenerlas en la escuela. +Entienden que esta es la intervencin ms significativa +que pueden hacer. Solan rastrear la dispersin, la asistencia, las calificaciones, en papel. +El tiempo de respuesta entre un profesor que pona las notas o la asistencia y escriba con eso un informe, era de unos 2 o 3 aos. +Ahora es en tiempo real y dado que es un sistema +de bajo costo y que est en la nube, cuesta, en los 5 pases en los que Camfed tiene el programa para decenas de miles de nias, el costo total es de USD 10 000 al ao. +Eso es menos de lo que yo sola cobrar para viajar 2 semanas a hacer una consulta. +Les haba dicho antes que cuando lo hacamos a la vieja usanza, me di cuenta de que todo nuestro trabajo era como una gota en el ocano... 10, 20, 30 programas. +Hemos progresado mucho, pero reconozco por el momento, an con el trabajo hecho con las 14 000 personas que lo usan, sigue siendo una gota en el ocano. Pero algo cambi. +Y pienso que debera ser obvio. +Lo que ha cambiado ahora es que en vez de tener un programa que se expanda a tan baja velocidad que nunca pudiramos llegar a las personas que nos necesitan, hemos hecho que la gente no necesite que nosotros nos acerquemos. +Hemos creado una herramienta que le permite a los programas mantener nios en la escuela, contar la cantidad de bebs nacidos y la cantidad de bebs muertos, atrapar criminales y perseguirlos con xito, hacer todas estas cosas para aprender ms sobre lo que pasa, para entender ms, para ver ms +y para salvar y mejorar vidas. +Gracias. +Nubes. +Han notado cuntas personas se quejan de ellas? +Tienen una mala reputacin. +Si lo piensan bien, el idioma ingls les ha inscrito a las nubes connotaciones negativas. +Cuando alguien est triste o deprimido, est bajo una nube. +Y cuando se avecina una mala noticia, hay una nube en el horizonte. +Le un artculo el otro da. +Trataba sobre problemas con el procesamiento computacional en el Internet. +"Una nube sobre la nube", era el titular. +Parece como si fuera la metfora pesimista que todos utilizamos por defecto. +Pero a m me parece que son bellas, no lo creen? +Es solo que su belleza se pierde porque son tan omnipresentes, tan, no s, comunes, que la gente no les presta atencin. +No notan la belleza, ni siquiera notan las propias nubes a menos que tapen el Sol. +As que la gente piensa que las nubes son cosas que estorban. +Las consideran obstculos molestos, frustrantes, y entonces salen corriendo y tienen pensamientos de cielo azul. +Pero la mayora de la gente, cuando se le pregunta, admitir que alberga una extraa especie de afecto por las nubes. +Es como un afecto nostlgico y les hace pensar en su juventud. +Quin aqu no se recuerda pensando, buscando y encontrando formas en las nubes cuando eran nios? +Ya saben, cuando eran expertos en soar despiertos. +Aristfanes, el antiguo dramaturgo griego, describi a las nubes como las diosas patronas de las personas ociosas hace 2500 aos, y pueden ver a lo que se refiere. +Es solo que ahora, los adultos parecemos reacios a permitirnos la indulgencia de dejar que nuestra imaginacin se deje llevar por la brisa, y creo que es una lstima. +Creo que tal vez deberamos hacerlo un poco ms. +Creo que deberamos estar ms dispuestos, tal vez, a mirar el hermoso espectculo de la luz del Sol estallando detrs de las nubes y pensar, "Espera un minuto, son dos gatos bailando salsa!" +O ver esta nube grande, blanca y esponjosa sobre el centro comercial que parece el abominable hombre de las nieves que va a robar un banco. +Son como la versin de la naturaleza de esas manchas de tinta, que los psiclogos les mostraban a sus pacientes en los aos 60, y creo que si tienen en cuenta las formas que ven en las nubes, ahorrarn dinero en las facturas del psicoanlisis. +Supongamos que estn enamorados. +Miran hacia arriba y qu ven? +Cierto? O tal vez lo contrario. +Los acaba de dejar su pareja, y dondequiera que miran, ven parejas besndose. +Tal vez estn pasando por un momento de angustia existencial. +Ya saben, estn pensando en su propia muerte. +Y all, en el horizonte, est la Parca. +O tal vez vean una baista en topless. +Qu significa esto? +Qu significa esto? No tengo ni idea. +Pero lo que s s es esto: La mala fama que tienen las nubes es totalmente injusta. +Creo que deberamos defenderlas, razn por la que, hace unos aos fund la Cloud Appreciation Society. +Ya cuenta con decenas de miles de miembros en casi 100 pases del mundo. +Y todas estas fotografas que estoy mostrando han sido enviadas por ellos. +Y esta sociedad existe para recordarle a la gente esto: Las nubes no son algo de lo que quejarse. +Al contrario. Son, de hecho, el aspecto ms variado, evocador y potico de la naturaleza. +Creo que vivir con la cabeza en las nubes de vez en cuando, ayuda a mantener los pies en el suelo. +Y quiero mostrarles el por qu, con la ayuda de algunos de mis tipos favoritos de nubes. +Vamos a empezar con este. Es un cirro, nombre que viene de la palabra latina para designar un mechn de pelo. +Se compone en su totalidad de cristales de hielo cayendo en cascada desde la parte superior de la troposfera. Conforme estos cristales de hielo caen, pasan a travs de diferentes capas con diferentes vientos que los aceleran y frenan, dndole a la nube esta apariencia de cepillado, estas formas de pinceladas conocidas como mechones cados. +Y estos vientos all arriba pueden ser muy feroces. +Pueden ser de entre 300 y 500 km por hora. +Estas nubes van muy rpido, pero desde aqu abajo parecen moverse con gracia, lentamente, como casi todas las nubes. +As que para sintonizarse con las nubes hay que ir despacio, calmarse. +Es como un poco de meditacin diaria. +Estas son nubes comunes. +Qu pasa con las ms raras, como las lenticulares, las nubes lenticulares con forma de ovni? +Estas nubes se forman en regiones montaosas. +Cuando hay viento, este se eleva para sobrepasar la montaa, y puede ondularse en la curva del pico, con estas nubes flotando en la cima de estas ondas de aire estacionarias e invisibles, estas formas como de platillo volador, y algunas de las primeras fotos en blanco y negro de ovnis, son de hecho nubes lenticulares. Es cierto. +Un poco ms raras son los nubes agujero. +Las vemos cuando una capa de gotas de agua muy, muy fras empiezan a congelarse en una regin, y esta congelacin pone en marcha una reaccin en cadena que se extiende hacia el exterior con los cristales de hielo cayendo en cascada, dando la apariencia de tentculos de medusa. +Ms rara an es la nube Kelvin-Helmholtz. +No es un nombre muy elegante. Necesita que se lo cambien. +Son nubes ms inusuales que el cirro, pero no son tan inusuales. +Si alzan su mirada y prestan atencin al cielo, las vern tarde o temprano, tal vez no vean nubes tan impresionantes como estas, pero las vern. +Y las vern en la zona donde viven. +Las nubes son el espectculo ms igualitario de la naturaleza, porque todos tenemos una fantstica vista del cielo. +Y estas nubes, las ms inusuales, nos recuerdan que lo extico puede encontrarse en lo cotidiano. +No hay nada ms revitalizante, ms estimulante para una mente activa y curiosa, que ser sorprendida, ser maravillada. Por eso estamos todos aqu, en TED, cierto? +Pero no tienen que precipitarse lejos de lo familiar, al otro lado del mundo, para ser sorprendidos. +Solo tienen que salir, prestar atencin a lo que es tan comn, tan cotidiano, tan mundano, que el resto del mundo lo pasa por alto. +Una nube que la gente rara vez echa de menos es esta: la nube de tormenta cumulonimbo. +Es la que produce truenos, rayos y granizo. +Estas nubes se extienden sobre esta enorme forma de yunque, desplegndose 16 km hacia arriba en la atmsfera. +Son una expresin de la majestuosa arquitectura de nuestra atmsfera. +Pero desde abajo, son la encarnacin de la fuerza poderosa y elemental que impulsa nuestra atmsfera. +Estar ah es estar conectado con la lluvia y el granizo, sentirse conectado a nuestra atmsfera. +Hay que recordar que somos criaturas que habitan en este ocano de aire. +No vivimos bajo el cielo. Vivimos dentro de l. +Y esa conexin visceral con nuestra atmsfera me parece un antdoto. +Un antdoto a la creciente tendencia que tenemos de sentir que realmente podemos experimentar la vida vindola en una pantalla de computadora, cuando estamos en una zona wi-fi. +Pero las nubes que mejor expresan por qu hoy es ms importante que nunca observarlas son estas, los cmulos. +Verdad? Se forman en los das soleados. +Si cierran los ojos y piensan en una nube, probablemente sea una de estas la que viene a la mente. +Todas las formas de nubes del comienzo eran cmulos. +Sus contornos ntidos y definidos las hace las mejores para encontrar formas en ellas. +Y nos recuerda lo intrascendente que es observar nubes, la actividad tan anodina que es. +No van a cambiar el mundo tendindose boca arriba y mirando hacia el cielo. +Es intil. Es una actividad intil, y por eso, precisamente, que es tan importante. +El mundo digital conspira para hacernos sentir eternamente ocupados, permanentemente ocupados. +Ya saben, cuando no estn lidiando con las presiones cotidianas de ganarse la vida y llevar comida a la mesa, formar una familia, escribir cartas de agradecimiento, tienen que lidiar ahora con una montaa de correos electrnicos para responder, poner al da una pgina de Facebook, actualizar su Twitter. +Y el observar las nubes legitima el no hacer nada. +Y a veces necesitamos... A veces necesitamos excusas para no hacer nada. +Es bueno para las ideas. Es bueno para la creatividad. +Es bueno para el alma. +As que sigan alzando su mirada, admirando la belleza efmera, y recuerden siempre vivir con la cabeza en las nubes. +Muchas gracias. +Robbie Mizzone: Gracias. +Tommy Mizzone: Muchas gracias. +Estamos muy emocionados de estar aqu. Es un honor para nosotros. +Como l dijo, somos tres hermanos de Nueva Jersey... ya saben, la capital mundial del bluegrass. +Descubrimos el bluegrass hace pocos aos, y nos encant. Esperamos que a Uds. tambin les guste. +La siguiente cancin es una composicin propia llamada "Timelapse" [cmara rpida], y probablemente har honor a su nombre. +TM: Muchas gracias. +RM: Voy a tomarme un minuto para presentar a la banda. +En la guitarra, mi hermano Tommy, de 15 aos. +En el banjo, Jonny, de 10 aos. +Tambin es nuestro hermano. +Y yo soy Robbie, tengo 14 aos y toco el violn. +Como pueden ver, decidimos hacerlo difcil, y elegimos tocar 3 canciones en 3 claves diferentes. +S. Tambin voy a explicarles, mucha gente quiere saber de dnde sacamos el nombre Chicos Banjo del Hombre Somnoliento. +Todo comenz cuando Jonny era pequeo, y empez a tocar el banjo, tocaba acostado con los ojos cerrados, Y decamos que pareca que estaba durmiendo. +As que seguramente pueden imaginarse el resto. +TM: Realmente no sabemos el motivo. +Puede ser porque pesa una tonelada. +TM: Muchas gracias. +RM: Gracias. +Comenzar hacindoles una pregunta: Estn familiarizados con el problema de las algas azules? +Bueno, entonces la mayora de ustedes s. +Pienso que estamos todos de acuerdo que es un tema serio. +Nadie quisiera beber agua contaminada con algas azules, o nadar en un lago infectado de algas azules. +Cierto? +Espero no decepcionarlos, pero hoy, no les hablar de las algas azules. +En cambio, les hablar de la causa principal la raz de este problema, que me referir como la crisis del fsforo. +Por qu he elegido hablarles sobre la crisis del fsforo hoy? +Por la simple razn de que nadie ms est hablando de ello. +Y sobre el final de mi presentacin, espero que el pblico en general estar ms consciente de esta crisis y este tema. +Ahora, el problema es que si les pregunto, por qu nos encontramos en esta situacin con las algas azules? +La respuesta es que proviene de la forma en que cultivamos. +Usamos fertilizantes en nuestra agricultura, fertilizantes qumicos. +Por qu usamos fertilizantes qumicos en la agricultura? +Bsicamente, para ayudar a que las plantas crezcan y tengan un mayor rendimiento. +La cuestin es que esto engendra un problema ambiental sin precedentes. +Antes de seguir, les voy a dar un curso intensivo de biologa vegetal. +Entonces, qu necesita una planta para crecer? +Una planta simplemente necesita luz, necesita CO2, pero an ms importante, necesita nutrientes, que se extraen de la tierra. +Varios de estos nutrientes son elementos qumicos esenciales: fsforo, nitrgeno y calcio. +As las races de la plantas van a extraer estos recursos. +Hoy me centrar en un problema importante que est relacionado con el fsforo. +Por qu el fsforo en particular? +Debido a que es el elemento qumico ms problemtico. +Al final de mi presentacin, ustedes habrn visto cules son estos problemas, y dnde estamos hoy. +El fsforo es un elemento qumico que es esencial para la vida. Este es un punto muy importante. +Me gustara que todo el mundo entendiera precisamente cul es el problema del fsforo. +El fsforo es un componente clave en varias molculas, en muchas de nuestras molculas de la vida. +Expertos en la materia sabrn que la comunicacin celular est basada en el fsforo fosforilacin, desfosforilacin. +Las membranas celulares son a base de fsforo; se llaman fosfolpidos. +La energa en los seres vivos, ATP, se basa en el fsforo. +Y ms importante an, el fsforo es un componente clave del ADN, algo que todo el mundo conoce, y que se muestra en esta imagen. +El ADN es nuestra herencia gentica. +Es extremadamente importante y, una vez ms, el fsforo juega un papel clave. +Ahora, dnde encontramos este fsforo? +Como seres humanos, dnde lo encontramos? +Como expliqu antes, las plantas extraen el fsforo del suelo, a travs del agua. +Por lo tanto, nosotros los humanos lo obtenemos de lo que comemos: plantas, vegetales, frutas, y tambin de los huevos, la carne y la leche. +Es cierto que algunos humanos comen mejor que otros. +Algunos son ms felices que otros. +Y ahora, mirando esta imagen, que habla por s misma, vemos la agricultura moderna, a la que tambin me refiero como la agricultura intensiva. +La agricultura intensiva se basa en el uso de fertilizantes qumicos. +Sin ellos, nosotros no logramos producir suficiente para alimentar a la poblacin mundial. +Hablando de los seres humanos, en la actualidad somos 7 mil millones sobre la Tierra. +En menos de 40 aos, seremos 9 mil millones. +Y la pregunta es simple: Tendremos suficiente fsforo para alimentar a las generaciones futuras? +As que para entender estos problemas, de dnde conseguimos el fsforo? +Permtanme explicarles. +Pero primero vamos a suponer que estamos utilizando el 100% de una dosis dada de fsforo. +Slo el 15% de este 100% va a la planta. El 85% se pierde. +Se va por el suelo, terminando su recorrido en los lagos, lo que resulta en lagos con fsforo extra y de all, al problema de las algas azules. +As, vern que hay un problema aqu, algo que es ilgico. +Un 100% del fsforo se utiliza, pero slo el 15% se destina a la planta. +Van a decirme que es un desperdicio. +S, lo es. Lo peor es que es muy caro. +Nadie quiere tirar su dinero por la ventana, pero por desgracia eso es lo que est pasando aqu. +El 80% de cada dosis de fsforo se pierde. +La agricultura moderna depende del fsforo. +Y para que la planta obtenga el 15% porque todo el resto se pierde, tenemos que aadir ms y ms. +Ahora, de dnde obtenemos este fsforo? +Bsicamente, tenemos que sacarlo de las minas. +Esta es la portada de un artculo extraordinario publicado en "Nature" en 2009, que realmente puso en marcha la discusin acerca de la crisis del fsforo. +El fsforo, un nutriente esencial para la vida, se est volviendo cada vez ms escaso, sin embargo, nadie habla de ello. +Y todo el mundo est de acuerdo; los polticos y los cientficos estn de acuerdo que nos dirigimos hacia una crisis del fsforo. +Lo que estamos viendo aqu es una mina a cielo abierto en los EE.UU., y para que se hagan una idea de las dimensiones de esta mina, si nos fijamos en la esquina superior derecha, la pequea gra que pueden ver, es una gra gigante. +Eso realmente lo pone en perspectiva. +Entonces, se obtiene fsforo de las minas. +Y si hago una comparacin con el petrleo, hay una crisis del petrleo, se habla de ella y sobre el calentamiento global, sin embargo, nunca mencionamos la crisis del fsforo. +Volviendo al problema del petrleo, es algo que podemos reemplazar. +Podemos usar biocombustibles o energa solar, o la energa hidroelctrica, pero el fsforo es un elemento esencial, indispensable para la vida, y no podemos reemplazarlo. +Cul es el estado actual de las reservas de fsforo en el mundo? +Este grfico les dar una idea aproximada de donde estamos hoy. +La lnea de color negro representa las predicciones para las reservas de fsforo. +En 2030, vamos a llegar al lmite. +A finales de este siglo, todo habr desaparecido. +La lnea de puntos nos muestra dnde estamos hoy. +Como pueden ver, se juntan en 2030; voy a estar retirado para entonces. +Pero en realidad nos estamos dirigiendo a una gran crisis, y me gustara que la gente tome conciencia de este problema. +Tenemos una solucin? +Qu vamos a hacer? Nos encontramos ante una paradoja. +Menos y menos fsforo estar disponible. +Para el ao 2050 seremos 9 mil millones, y segn la Organizacin de las Naciones Unidas para la Alimentacin y la Agricultura en 2050 tendremos que duplicar nuestra produccin actual de alimentos. +Por lo tanto, vamos a tener menos fsforo, pero tendremos que producir ms alimentos. +Qu debemos hacer? +Realmente es una situacin paradjica. +Tenemos una solucin o una alternativa que nos permitir optimizar el uso del fsforo? +Recuerden que el 80% est destinado a perderse. +La solucin que estoy ofreciendo hoy es una que ha existido desde hace mucho tiempo, incluso antes de que las plantas existieran en la Tierra, y es un hongo microscpico que es muy misterioso, muy simple, y sin embargo, tambin extremadamente complejo. +Esta pequea seta me ha fascinado por ms de 16 aos. +Esto me ha llevado a profundizar mi investigacin y a utilizarlo como un modelo para mi investigacin en el laboratorio. +Este hongo existe en simbiosis con las races. +Por simbiosis, me refiero a una asociacin bidireccional y de beneficio mutuo que tambin se llama micorrizas. +Esta diapositiva ilustra los elementos de una micorriza. +Se encuentra en la raz del trigo, una de las plantas ms importantes del mundo. +Normalmente, una raz encontrar fsforo por s misma. +Ir en busca de fsforo, pero slo dentro del milmetro que la rodea. +Ms all de un milmetro, la raz es ineficaz. +No puede ir ms all en su bsqueda de fsforo. +Ahora, imaginen este pequeo, hongo microscpico. +Crece mucho ms rpido, y est mucho mejor diseado para buscar fsforo. +Puede ir ms all del lmite de un milmetro de la raz para buscar fsforo. +No he inventado nada en absoluto; es una biotecnologa que ha existido durante 450 millones de aos. +Y con el tiempo, este hongo ha ido evolucionando y adaptndose para buscar hasta el ms mnimo rastro de fsforo y usarlo, ponindolo a la disposicin de la planta. +Lo que estamos viendo aqu, en el mundo real, es una raz de zanahoria, y el hongo con sus muy finos filamentos. +Mirando ms de cerca, podemos ver que este hongo penetra muy suavemente. +Se proliferar entre las clulas de la raz, eventualmente penetrar una clula y formar una estructura arbuscular tpica, lo que aumentar considerablemente la interfaz de intercambio entre la planta y el hongo. +Y es a travs de esta estructura que se producirn intercambios mutuos. +Es un intercambio de ganancia para ambos. Yo te doy fsforo, y t me alimentas. +Una simbiosis verdadera. +Ahora vamos a aadir una planta de micorrizas en el diagrama que us antes. +Y en lugar de utilizar una dosis del 100%, voy a reducirla a un 25%. +Vern que de este 25% la mayora beneficiar a la planta ms del 90%. +Una cantidad muy pequea de fsforo permanecer en el suelo. +Es completamente natural. +Ms an, en algunos casos, ni siquiera hay que aadir fsforo. +Si recuerdan las grficas que les mostr antes, el 85% del fsforo se pierde en el suelo, y las plantas son incapaces de acceder a l. +A pesar de que est presente en el suelo, est en forma insoluble. +La planta slo es capaz de buscar formas solubles. +El hongo es capaz de disolver esta forma insoluble y de ponerla a disposicin de la planta. +Para apoyar an ms mi argumento, esta es una imagen que habla por s misma. +Estos son ensayos en un campo de sorgo. +En la parte izquierda, se ve el rendimiento producido mediante la agricultura convencional, con una dosis de 100% de fsforo. +Del otro lado, la dosis se redujo a un 50%, y basta con ver el rendimiento. +Con slo la mitad de la dosis, hemos logrado un mejor rendimiento. +Esto es para mostrarles que el mtodo funciona. +Y en algunos casos, en Cuba, Mxico y la India, la dosis puede reducirse a un 25%, y en varios otros casos, no hay necesidad de agregar fsforo, debido a que los hongos estn muy bien adaptados a la bsqueda de fsforo y a tomarlo del suelo. +Este es un ejemplo de la produccin de soja en Canad. +La micorriza se utiliz en un campo pero no en el otro. +Y aqu el azul indica un mejor rendimiento, y el amarillo un rendimiento ms dbil. +El rectngulo negro es la trama desde que se aadi la micorriza. +En otras palabras, como ya he dicho, no he inventado nada. +La micorriza ha existido por 450 millones de aos, e incluso ha ayudado a especies de plantas actuales a diversificarse. +As que esto no es algo que todava est en pruebas de laboratorio. +La micorriza existe, funciona, se ha producido a escala industrial y comercializado en todo el mundo. +El problema es que las personas no tienen conocimiento de ello. +Los productores de alimentos y los agricultores an desconocen el problema. +Tenemos una tecnologa que funciona que si se usa correctamente aliviar la presin que estamos poniendo sobre las reservas mundiales de fsforo. +En conclusin, soy un cientfico y un soador. +Me apasiona este tema. +As que si me preguntaran cul es mi sueo para cuando me jubile, que ser al momento de alcanzar los lmites del fsforo, sera que utilicemos una etiqueta, "Hecho con micorrizas", y que mis hijos y nietos compren productos que lleven esta etiqueta. +Gracias por su atencin. +Cuando hablamos de corrupcin, hay ciertos tipos de personas que vienen a la mente. +Tenemos a los megalmanos de la Unin Sovitica. +Saparmurat Niyazov, era uno de ellos. +Hasta su muerte en 2006, fue el lder todopoderoso de Turkmenistn, un pas de Asia Central, rico en gas natural. +Ahora bien, a l le encantaba dictar decretos presidenciales, +y en uno renombr los meses del ao incluyendo uno a su nombre y al de su madre. +Gast millones de dlares para crear un extrao culto a su personalidad, y su mayor triunfo fue la construccin de una estatua de s mismo de 12 metros de altura, baada en oro que se ergua orgullosa en la plaza central de la capital y que rotaba siguiendo al sol. +Era un tipo un poco inusual. +Y luego est el clich, el dictador africano, ministro u oficial. +Tenemos a Teodorn Obiang. +Su pap es presidente vitalicio de Guinea Ecuatorial, una nacin en el occidente africano que ha exportado miles de millones de dlares de petrleo desde los 90 y no obstante tiene un historial infame en derechos humanos. +La mayora de sus habitantes viven en una pobreza realmente miserable a pesar de tener un ingreso per cpita a la par con el de Portugal. +As que Obiang hijo se compra una mansin de USD 30 millones en Malib, California. +He estado frente a la entrada +y puedo decirles que es una vista majestuosa. +Compr una coleccin de arte avaluada en 18 millones que perteneca al diseador de modas Yves Saint Laurent, un montn de increbles autos deportivos, algunos con un costo de un milln de dlares c.u., ah, y tambin un jet Gulfstream. +Escuchen esto: hasta hace poco, reciba al mes, oficialmente, un salario menor a 7 000 dlares. +Y luego tenemos a Dan Etete, +el exministro de petrleo de Nigeria, durante el rgimen del presidente Abacha, y sucede que es a la vez un blanqueador de dinero convicto. +Hemos gastado una gran cantidad de tiempo investigando un trato de USD 1000 millones; as es, USD 1000 millones, en un trato petrolero en el que estaba involucrado, y lo que encontramos fue muy alarmante, pero dir ms al respecto ms adelante. +As que es fcil pensar que la corrupcin sucede por all en algn lado, y que lo llevan a cabo un grupo de dspotas codiciosos e individuos malintencionados en pases de los cuales, personalmente, sabemos muy poco y con los que no nos sentimos vinculados y donde lo que sucede no nos afecta. +Pero slo sucede all? +A los 22 yo tuve mucha suerte. +Mi primer trabajo recin salida de la universidad fue investigando el trfico ilegal del marfil africano. +Y as fue que mi relacin con la corrupcin empez. +En 1993, con dos amigos, que tambin eran mis colegas, Simon Taylor y Patrick Alley, fundamos una organizacin llamada Global Witness. +Nuestra primera campaa fue investigar la tala clandestina para financiar la guerra en Camboya. +Un par de aos ms tarde, ya por 1997, estaba en Angola investigando de manera encubierta los diamantes de sangre. +Tal vez vieron la pelcula de Hollywood "Diamante de Sangre" en que aparece Leonardo DiCaprio. +Bueno, algo de eso sali de nuestro trabajo. +Luanda estaba llena de vctimas de minas terrestres que luchaban por sobrevivir en las calles, y de hurfanos de guerra en las alcantarillas bajo las calles. Haba una pequea y muy rica lite que chismorreaba sobre viajes de compras a Brasil y a Portugal. +Era un lugar bastante loco. +Yo estaba en una sofocante habitacin de hotel, sintindome absolutamente abrumada. +Pero esto no se deba a los diamantes de sangre. +Haba hablado con mucha gente que, bueno, hablaban de un problema diferente: el de una enorme red de corrupcin a escala mundial y de millones de dlares de petrleo desaparecidos. +Para lo que era entonces una organizacin muy pequea de solo unas pocas personas, tratar de siquiera empezar a pensar cmo podamos enfrentarlo era un enorme reto. +En los aos que he estado, que hemos estado investigando y haciendo campaas, he visto repetidamente que lo que hace posible la corrupcin, a escala global y masiva, no es solo la codicia, o el uso indebido del poder, o esa vaga frase "gobierno ineficaz". +Lo que quiero decir es que s, es todo eso, pero la corrupcin, es posible por la actuacin de facilitadores globales. +Regresemos a esa gente de la que les he hablado previamente. +Bien, son personas que hemos investigado, y son personas que no hubieran podido hacer solos lo que hacen. +Tomemos a Obiang hijo. Bueno, no termin con finas obras de arte y casas de lujo sin ayuda. +Hizo negocios con bancos mundiales. +Un banco en Paris manejaba cuentas de compaas controladas por l, una de las cuales era usada para comprar arte, y bancos americanos, canalizaron 73 millones de dolares en los Estados Unidos algunos de los cuales se usaron para comprar la mansin en California. +No hizo todo eso en su propio nombre. +Utiliz compaas fantasma. +Utiliz una para comprar la propiedad, y otra, a nombre de otra persona, para pagar las enormes facturas para mantenerla. +Y luego tenemos a Dan Etete. +Bueno, cuando era ministro de petrleo le otorg un bloque petrolero, con un valor mayor a USD 1000 millones a una compaa que, adivinen, s, de la que era propietario oculto. +Esta fue ms tarde comercializada, con la amable ayuda del gobierno nigeriano debo ser cuidadosa con lo que digo a subsidiarias de Shell y a la empresa italiana Eni, dos de las ms grandes compaas petroleras. +La realidad es que la maquinaria de la corrupcin existe mucho ms all de las costas de pases como Guinea Ecuatorial, Nigeria o Turkmenistn. +Esta maquinaria es dirigida por nuestro sistema bancario internacional por el problema de las compaas annimas fantasma y por el secretismo que hemos permitido a grandes operaciones mineras, petroleras y de gas, y, especialmente, por el fracaso de nuestros polticos de sustentar su retrica y hacer algo realmente significativo y sistmico para enfrentar esto. +Ahora, tomemos primero a los bancos. +Bien, no es una sorpresa que les diga que los bancos aceptan dinero sucio. Pero es que tambin dan prioridad a ganancias de otras formas destructivas. +Por ejemplo, en Sarawak, Malasia. +Bien, esta regin mantiene intactos tan solo el 5% de sus bosques. El 5%. +Cmo sucedi eso? +Bueno, pues una lite y sus facilitadores han estado haciendo millones de dlares apoyando la tala a escala industrial durante muchos aos. +Y HSBC, bien, sabemos que HSBC financi a las compaas madereras ms grandes de la regin que fueron responsables en parte de la destruccin en Sarawak as como en otros lugares. +El banco viol sus propias polticas de sostenibilidad en el proceso, pero recaud alrededor de USD 130 millones. +Poco despus de nuestra revelacin, muy poco tiempo despus de nuestra revelacin a comienzos de este ao, el banco anunci que hara una revisin de la poltica al respecto. +Es esto progreso? Tal vez, pero vamos a mantener estrecha vigilancia en este caso. +Y luego est el problema de las empresas fantasma. +Bien, todos hemos escuchado lo que son, creo, y sabemos que han sido bastante utilizadas por personas y compaas que han tratado de evitar el pagar sus cuotas a la sociedad, conocidas tambin como impuestos. +Pero lo que usualmente no sale a la luz es cmo las compaas fantasma se usan para robar enormes sumas de dinero de pases pobres. +En prcticamente en todos los casos de corrupcin que investigamos, han aparecido compaas fantasma, y a veces ha sido imposible averiguar quin est realmente involucrado en el trato. +Un estudio reciente del Banco Mundial evalu 200 casos de corrupcin. +Encontr que ms del 70% de esos casos haba utilizado compaas fantasma, un total de casi USD 56 000 millones. +Muchas de estas empresas eran de EE.UU. o del Reino Unido, sus territorios de ultramar y dependencias de la Corona, y no es solo un problema externo de parasos fiscales, sino tambin interno. +Vern, las sociedades fantasma, son centrales en tratos secretos que pueden beneficiar a las lites adineradas en lugar de a los ciudadanos comunes. +Un llamativo caso reciente que investigamos es cmo el gobierno de la Repblica Democrtica del Congo vendi una serie de activos valiosos, empresas estatales mineras, a empresas fantasma en las Islas Vrgenes Britnicas. +As que hablamos con fuentes en el pas, buscamos a travs de documentos de la empresa y otra informacin tratando de armar un cuadro del trato real. +Y nos alarmados al ver que estas compaas fantasma rpidamente entregaron varios de sus activos con enormes ganancias a importante empresas mineras internacionales asentadas en Londres. +Ahora, el Panel del Progreso de frica, liderado por Kofi Annan, ha calculado que el Congo puede haber perdido ms de USD 1 300 millones en estos acuerdos. +Eso es casi el doble del presupuesto anual combinado de salud y la educacin del pas. +Y podr el pueblo del Congo, algn da, conseguir que se le devuelva su dinero? +Bueno, la respuesta a esa pregunta, quin est realmente involucrado y realmente qu pas, bueno, eso probablemente va a permanecer encerrado en los registros secretos de la empresa en las Islas Vrgenes Britnicas y en otros lugares, a menos que todos hagamos algo al respecto. +Y qu tal el petrleo, el gas y las empresas mineras? +Bueno, tal vez es un tanto clich hablar de ellas. +La corrupcin en ese sector, no es una sorpresa. +Hay corrupcin en todas partes, as que, por qu centrarse en ese sector? +Bueno, porque hay mucho en juego. +En 2011, las exportaciones de recursos naturales sobrepasaron en casi 19 veces los flujos de ayuda en frica, Asia y Amrica Latina. 19 a 1. +Eso es un montn de escuelas, universidades, hospitales y empresas nacientes, muchas de los cuales nunca se materializaron y jams lo harn porque simplemente parte de ese dinero ha sido robado. +Ahora volvamos al petrleo y a las empresas mineras, y vayamos a Dan Etete y el trato de mil millones. +Perdnenme, voy a leer el siguiente fragmento porque es un tema muy vivo y nuestros abogados han pasado en esto con cierto detalle y quieren que lo haga bien. +Ahora, en la superficie, el trato pareca sencillo. +Filiales de Shell y Eni pagaron al gobierno Nigeriano por el bloque. +El gobierno Nigeriano transfiri precisamente la misma cantidad, cada dlar, a una cuenta destinada de una empresa fantasma cuyo propietario oculto era Etete. +No est mal para un lavador de dinero condenado. +Y aqu est la cosa. +Despus de muchos meses de explorar y la lectura de cientos de pginas del expediente, se encontraron pruebas de que, de hecho, Shell y Eni haban sabido que los fondos se transferiran a la empresa fantasma, y francamente, es difcil creer que no saban con quin realmente estaban lidiando all. +Ahora, no solo se debe hacer este tipo de esfuerzos para averiguar a dnde fue el dinero en negocios como ste. +Es decir, son recursos del Estado. +Se supone que se utilizarn para el beneficio del pueblo en su pas. +Pero en algunos pases, los ciudadanos y periodistas que estn intentando exponer historias como esta han sido hostigados y detenidos y algunos incluso han arriesgado sus vidas por hacerlo. +Por ltimo, hay quienes creen que la corrupcin es inevitable. +Que es as como se hacen los negocios. +Que es demasiado complejo y difcil de cambiar. +En efecto, qu? Solo lo aceptamos. +Pero como activista e investigadora, tengo una visin diferente, porque he visto lo que puede suceder cuando una idea cobra impulso. +En el petrleo y el sector minero, por ejemplo, ahora hay el comienzo de un estndar de transparencia mundial real que podra abordar algunos de estos problemas. +En 1999, cuando Global Witness llam a las compaas petroleras a hacer acuerdos transparentes, algunas personas se rieron de la gran ingenuidad de esa simple idea. +Pero literalmente cientos de grupos de la sociedad civil de todo el mundo, se unieron para luchar por la transparencia, y ya se est convirtiendo en la norma y la ley. +Dos terceras partes del valor del petrleo y las compaas mineras del mundo se encuentran ahora cubiertas por leyes de transparencia. Dos terceras partes. +Este cambio esta ocurriendo. +Esto es progreso. +Pero no hemos terminado; falta mucho. +Porque realmente no se trata de la corrupcin en algn lugar por ah, verdad? +En un mundo globalizado, la corrupcin es un negocio que est en todas partes y que necesita soluciones mundiales, apoyadas y empujadas por todos nosotros, como ciudadanos del mundo, aqu mismo. +Gracias. +Este es mi abuelo. +Y este es mi hijo. +Mi abuelo me ense a trabajar con madera cuando yo era un nio, y tambin me ense la idea de que si se corta un rbol para convertirlo en algo, se debe honrar la vida de ese rbol y hacerlo tan hermoso como sea posible. +Mi nio me record que con toda la tecnologa y todos los juguetes del mundo, a veces, pequeos bloques de madera, si se apilan alto, pueden volverse algo increblemente estimulante. +Estos son mis edificios. +Construyo por todo el mundo desde nuestras oficinas en Vancouver y Nueva York. +Construimos edificios de diversos tamaos y estilos y de diversos materiales, dependiendo de dnde estamos. +Pero la madera es el material que ms me gusta. Voy a contartes la historia de la madera. +Parte de la razn por la que me encanta es que, cada vez que la gente entra a uno de mis edificios de madera, me doy cuenta que reaccionan de manera totalmente diferente. +Nunca he visto a nadie entrar a uno de mis edificios y abrazar una columna de acero o de concreto, pero si he visto hacerlo en edificios de madera. +He visto cmo la gente toca la madera, y creo que hay una razn para ello. +Al igual que los copos de nieve, no hay dos piezas de madera iguales en ningun lugar de la Tierra. +Es maravillosa. +Me gusta pensar que la madera deja las huellas dactilares de la madre naturaleza en nuestros edificios. +Las huellas de la madre naturaleza conectan nuestros edificios con la naturaleza en el entorno construido. +Ahora, vivo en Vancouver, cerca de un bosque de la altura de 33 pisos. +Aqu en las costas de California, los bosques de secuoyas llegan a 40 pisos de altura. +Pero los edificios que diseamos en madera tienen solo cuatro pisos en la mayora de los lugares. +Es que, en verdad, los cdigos de construccin no permiten hacerlos ms altos de cuatro pisos, en muchos lugares; eso es cierto aqu en los EE.UU. +Ahora, no es as en todas partes. Tena que haber algunas excepciones y las cosas van a cambiar, eso espero. +La razn por la que lo creo es que hoy en da la mitad de nosotros vive en ciudades, y ese nmero va a crecer al 75 %. +Ciudades y densidades significan que nuestros edificios van a seguir siendo grandes, y creo que la madera puede jugar un papel en las ciudades. +Pienso as porque 3.000 millones de personas en el mundo, en los prximos 20 aos, necesitarn nuevos hogares. +Esto es, el 40 % del mundo va a necesitar nuevas construcciones en los prximos 20 aos. +De cada tres personas en las ciudades, hoy, una vive en tugurios. +1.000 millones de personas viven en barriadas deprimidas. +100 millones de personas estn sin hogar. +El gran desafo para los arquitectos, y para la sociedad, respecto a la construccin, es encontrar soluciones para todas esas personas. +Pero el desafo es que, al mudarnos a ciudades, estas se construyen con estos dos materiales: acero y concreto; que son muy buenos. +Pero son materiales del siglo pasado. +Tambin son materiales de alta demanda de energa y con altas emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero en su produccin. +El acero representa alrededor del 3 % de las emisiones de efecto invernadero producidas por el hombre y el concreto es ms del 5 %. +As que, si lo piensan, el 8 % de nuestra contribucin a los gases de efecto invernadero hoy, viene de estos dos materiales solamente. +No pensamos mucho en eso y, por desgracia, tampoco ni siquiera pensamos mucho en construcciones, creo, tanto como deberamos. +Estas son las estadsticas de los EE.UU. sobre el impacto de los gases de efecto invernadero. +Casi la mitad de los gases de efecto invernadero estn relacionados con el sector de la construccin, y, si nos fijamos en la energa, es lo mismo. +Notarn que el transporte es el segundo de la lista, pero esto es algo que siempre hemos odo. +Y aunque mucho se trata de energa, tambin es sobre el carbono. +El problema que veo es que, en definitiva, aparece un choque frontal entre la solucion al problema de atender a las 3 mil millones de personas que necesitan un hogar, y por otra parte, el cambio climtico; choque que va a suceder, o que ya est ocurriendo. +Este desafo significa que tenemos que empezar a pensar en nuevas formas, y creo que la madera va a ser parte de esa solucin. Voy a contarles la historia del porqu. +Para mi como arquitecto, la madera es un gran material, el nico material, con el que puedo construir que crece con la energa del sol. +Cuando un rbol crece en el bosque, libera oxgeno, absorbe dixido de carbono, y luego cuando muere y cae al suelo y devuelve el dixido de carbono a la atmsfera o al suelo. +Si se quema en un incendio forestal, el carbono igualmente regresa a la atmsfera. +Pero si se toma esa madera y se pone en una construccin, o en una pieza de mobiliario, o en ese juguete de madera, con esa increble capacidad que tiene para almacenar el carbono, nos proporciona una gran retencin de este elemento. +Un metro cbico de madera almacena una tonelada de dixido de carbono. +Nuestras dos soluciones al clima son obviamente reducir las emisiones y encontrar almacenamiento. +La madera es el nico material que utilizo que cumple esas dos funciones. +Entendemos que es tico que en la tierra crezca la comida. Ahora necesitamos que en este siglo se prescriba que nuestros hogares crezcan en la tierra. +Pero, cmo vamos a hacerlo cuando nos estamos urbanizando a este ritmo y pensamos en edificios de madera de solo cuatro pisos? +Necesitamos reducir el concreto y el acero, y necesitamos construir en altura --en esto hemos estado trabajando-- edificios altos, de 30 pisos, de madera. +Hemos hecho diseos con un ingeniero llamado Eric Karsh que trabaja conmigo. Hacemos este nuevo trabajo porque hay nuevos productos disponibles que llamamos "paneles masivos de madera". +Se trata de piezas hechas con rboles jvenes de corto crecimiento, con pequeos trozos de madera, pegados para fabricar esos tableros enormes: de 2,40 m. de ancho, casi 20 de largo, y varios espesores. +Me parece que la mejor forma de decirlo es: usualmente hablamos de madera en medidas de 5 x 10 cm. +As es la conclusin a la que salta la gente. +Una construccin con 5 x 10 es como con los pequeos ladrillos de Lego de ocho puntos, con los que todos jugamos de nios. Se puede hacer todo tipo de cosas geniales con Legos de ese tamao, o con 5 x 10. +Recordemos que cuando nios, cuando revisbamos el cuarto de juegos y encontrbamos una pieza de Lego de 24 puntos, era algo as como, "Genial, maravilloso. Puedo construir algo bien grande, va a ser realmente grandioso". +Es el cambio. +Los paneles masivos de madera son como los ladrillos de 24 puntos. +Con ellos se cambia la escala; hemos desarrollado lo que llamamos FFTT. Una solucin "creativa comunal" para construir sistemas muy flexibles con esos grandes cuadros donde podemos alcanzar seis pisos de una vez, si queremos. +Esta animacin muestra cmo el edificio se va ensamblando de manera muy sencilla. Estas construcciones estn disponibles para arquitectos e ingenieros en diversos medios por todo el mundo, en diferentes estilos arquitectnicos y formas. +Hemos diseado edificios seguros que se pueden construir, en Vancouver, en una zona de alto riesgo ssmico, incluso a alturas de 30 pisos. +Naturalmente, cada vez que muestro esto, la gente, aun aqu en la conferencia, dicen: "En serio? 30 Pisos? Cmo lo van a hacer?" +Y hay un montn de preguntas realmente buenas; cuestiones importantes sobre las que llevamos mucho tiempo trabajando en sus respuestas, mientras se generaba nuestro informe y el de revisin de los pares. +Solo voy a centrarme en algunas de ellas. Vamos a empezar con el fuego, porque probablemente el fuego es en lo que todos estn pensando ahora mismo. +Muy bien. +Y la forma en que lo describo es as. +Si pido que tomen un fsforo, lo enciendan, lo acerquen a un tronco y traten de conseguir que prenda, no sucede nada, cierto? Todos lo sabemos. +Para hacer fuego, se debe empezar con piezas pequeas de madera, y luego se aumenta el tamao, hasta que eventualmente se puede agregar el tronco. Cuando se aade el tronco al fuego, por supuesto, se quema, pero arde lentamente. +Bien. Los paneles masivos de madera, esos nuevos productos que estamos utilizando, son como troncos. +Es difcil prenderles fuego. Y cuando lo hacen, se queman de manera fcilmente predecible. Se puede utilizar lo que se sabe del fuego para predecir y hacer esos edificios tan seguros como los de concreto y acero. +El prximo gran tema es la deforestacin. +El 18 % de las contribuciones a las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero en todo el mundo son resultado de deforestacin. +La ltima cosa que queremos hacer es cortar rboles. +O, lo ltimo que queremos hacer es cortar los rboles equivocados. +Existen modelos de silvicultura sostenible que nos permite cortar rboles correctamente. Esos son los nicos rboles apropiados para esto. +Realmente creo que estas ideas van a cambiar la economa de la deforestacin. +En los pases con problemas de deforestacin, tenemos que encontrar una forma de brindar un mejor valor para el bosque impulsar a la gente a hacer negocio con ciclos de crecimiento rpido, de rboles de 10, 12 y 15 aos de los que se hacen esos productos y nos permiten construir a esa escala. +Lo hemos calculado para un edificio de 20 pisos: cultivaramos suficiente madera en EE.UU. cada 13 minutos. +Eso es cunto tarda. +La historia del carbono aqu es realmente buena. +Para construir un edificio de 20 pisos de cemento y concreto, el resultado es que en el proceso de fabricacin del cemento se producen 1.200 toneladas de dixido de carbono. +Si lo hacemos en madera, con esta solucin, capturamos unas 3.100 toneladas, o sea, una diferencia neta de 4.300 toneladas. +El equivalente a sacar cerca de 900 coches fuera de los caminos, en un ao. +Recuerden los tres mil millones de personas que necesitan nuevos hogares. Tal vez esta sea una contribucin a la reduccin. +Estamos en el comienzo de una revolucin, espero, por la forma como construimos. Es que se trata de la primera innovacin para construir rascacielos, probablemente en 100 aos o ms. +El reto es cambiar las percepciones de la sociedad sobre las posibilidades; un gran desafo. +Los diseos son, a decir verdad, la parte ms fcil de esto. +Esta la forma como lo describo. +El primer rascacielos, tcnicamente, --la definicin de rascacielos era de 10 pisos de altura, cranlo o no-- fue este, en Chicago La gente se aterraba de pasar bajo ese edificio. +Construimos este modelo en Nueva York, en realidad, como un modelo terico en el campus de una universidad tcnica que vendr pronto. La razn por la que elegimos este sitio, fue para mostrar cmo se pueden ver estos edificios, porque el exterior puede cambiar. +Es simplemente la estructura de lo que estamos hablando. +La escogimos por tratarse de una universidad tcnica, y yo creo que la madera es el material ms avanzado tecnolgicamente con el que podemos construir. +Resulta que la madre naturaleza tiene la patente, y confieso que no nos sentimos muy cmodos con ello. +Pero as es la cosa, con las huellas de la naturaleza en el entorno construido. +Estoy buscando la oportunidad de crear un momento de Torre Eiffel, como lo llamamos. +Las construcciones estn empezando a levantarse por todo el mundo. +Hay un edificio en Londres de 9 pisos, otro nuevo recien terminado en Australia que creo que es de 10 u 11. +Estamos empezando a presionar hacia arriba la altura de estos edificios de madera. Esperamos, yo espero, que mi ciudad natal de Vancouver realmente pueda anunciar el edificio ms alto del mundo, de alrededor de 20 pisos en un futuro no muy lejano. +Ese momento de Torre Eiffel romper el lmite, estos lmites arbitrarios de altura, y permitir que los edificios de madera se unan a la competencia. +Creo que la carrera ya comenz. +Gracias. +Diana Reiss: Podrn pensar que estn mirando por una ventana a un delfn que juega a dar giros, pero lo que en realidad estn viendo es un espejo doble en el que un delfn se mira mientras juega dando giros. +Es un delfn con conciencia de s mismo. +Este delfn tiene autoconciencia. +Es una delfn llamada Bayley. +Me ha interesado mucho entender la naturaleza de la inteligencia de los delfines en los ltimos 30 aos. +Cmo exploramos la inteligencia en este animal tan diferente de nosotros? +Con una herramienta muy simple de investigacin: un espejo, y conseguimos mucha informacin, producto de la inteligencia de estos animales. +Los delfines no son los nicos animales, los nicos animales no humanos, que muestran autoconciencia frente al espejo. +Solamos pensar que esta era una capacidad exclusivamente humana, pero aprendimos que los grandes simios, nuestros parientes ms cercanos, tambin tienen esta habilidad. +Luego lo observamos en delfines, y ms tarde en elefantes. +Realizamos el trabajo en mi laboratorio con delfines y elefantes y, recientemente, lo probamos en urracas. +Es interesante porque hemos adoptado este punto de vista darwiniano de continuidad en la evolucin fsica, esta continuidad fsica. +Pero hemos sido mucho ms reticentes, ms reacios a reconocer esta continuidad en la cognicin, en la emocin, en la conciencia en otros animales. +Otros animales son conscientes. +Son emocionales. Son conscientes. +Muchos estudios, en muchas especies a lo largo de los aos nos han dado una evidencia muy rica del pensamiento y la conciencia en otros animales, otros animales muy diferentes a nosotros en su forma. +No estamos solos. +No somos los nicos con estas capacidades. +Y, espero, uno de mis ms grandes sueos, es que, con nuestra conciencia creciente sobre la conciencia de otros animales y nuestra relacin con el resto del mundo animal, que les brindemos el respeto y la proteccin que ellos merecen. +Por eso es un deseo que lanzo aqu para todos, y espero poder hacerlos partcipes de esta idea. +Ahora, quiero volver a los delfines, porque son animales con los que he trabajado muy de cerca y en forma personal durante ms de 30 aos. +Y son personalidades reales. +No son personas, pero s personalidades en todo el sentido de la palabra. +Y no podemos ser ms diferentes del delfn. +El cuerpo del delfn es muy diferente del nuestro. +Son totalmente diferentes. Vienen de entornos radicalmente diferentes. +De hecho, nos separan 95 millones de aos de evolucin divergente. +Miren este cuerpo. +Con toda la intencin de un juego de palabras, son verdaderos extra terrestres. +Me pregunt cmo podramos interactuar con estos animales. +En los aos 80, desarroll un teclado subacutico. +Era un teclado de pantalla tctil personalizado. +Quera darle opciones y control a los delfines. +Tienen grandes cerebros, son animales altamente sociales, y pens, bueno, si les damos opciones y control, si pueden golpear un smbolo en este teclado... y, por cierto, estaba interconectado por cables de fibra ptica de Hewlett-Packard con una computadora Apple II. +Ahora parece algo prehistrico, pero esa era la tecnologa que tenamos. +Los delfines podan golpear una tecla, un smbolo, oan un silbido generado por computadora, y obtenan un objeto o actividad. +Este es un pequeo video. +Son Delphi y Pan, y vern a Delphi pulsar un tecla, or un silbido generado por computadora... y obtener una pelota, as pueden pedir lo que quieren. +Lo ms notable es que exploraron este teclado por su cuenta, nosotros no intervenimos. +Exploraron el teclado. Jugaron con l. +Averiguaron cmo funcionaba. +Y empezaron rpidamente a imitar los sonidos, estaban oyendo sobre el teclado. +Los imitaron por su cuenta. +Ms all de eso, sin embargo, empezaron a aprender relaciones entre smbolos, sonidos y objetos. +Vimos un aprendizaje autoorganizado, y ahora imagino qu podemos hacer con las nuevas tecnologas. +Cmo crear interfaces, nuevas ventanas hacia la mente animal, con las tecnologas que existen hoy? +Estaba pensando en esto y entonces, un da, recib una llamada de Peter. +Peter Gabriel: Hago ruido como medio de vida. +En un buen da, eso es msica, y quiero hablar un poco sobre la experiencia musical ms increble que he tenido. +Soy un chico de granja. Crec rodeado de animales y me gustara ver estos ojos y preguntar: qu pasaba all? +De adulto, cuando empec a leer sobre los avances asombrosos con Penny Patterson y Koko, con Sue Savage-Rumbaugh y Kanzi, Panbanisha, Irene Pepperberg, Alex el loro, me entusiasm mucho. +Me pareci sorprendente tambin que parecan mucho ms hbiles para manejar nuestro lenguaje que nosotros para manejar el de ellos. +Trabajo con muchos msicos de todo el mundo, y a menudo no tenemos un lenguaje comn en lo absoluto, pero nos sentamos detrs de nuestros instrumentos y, de repente, logramos un modo de conexin y emocin. +Por eso empec a convencer, y finalmente lo logr, a Sue Savage-Rumbaugh, y me invit. +Fui all y los bonobos haban tenido contacto con los instrumentos de percusin, juguetes musicales, pero nunca antes con un teclado. +Al principio hicieron como los nios, golpeaban con los puos, y luego ped, a travs de Sue, si Panbanisha podra intentar solo con un dedo. +Sue Savage-Rumbaugh: Puedes tocar una buena cancin? +Quiero or una buena cancin. +Toca una buena cancin. +PG: Esa era la idea de esta cancin. +Yo estoy atrs, apretujado, s, con eso empezamos. +Sue est animndola a seguir un poco ms. +Ella descubre una nota que le gusta, encuentra la octava. +Nunca antes estuvo frente un teclado. +Buenos tercetos. +SSR: Muy bien. Eso estuvo muy bueno. +PG: Toc bien. +Esa noche empezamos a soar y pensamos que quiz la herramienta ms sorprendente creada por el hombre es Internet, y qu pasara si pudiramos de algn modo encontrar nuevas interfaces, interfaces audiovisuales que permitieran a estos seres extraordinariamente sensibles compartir el acceso al planeta. +Y Sue Savage-Rumbaugh se entusiasm con la idea, llam a su amigo Steve Woodruff, y empezamos a buscar todo tipo de personas cuyo trabajo se relacionara o estuviera inspirado en eso, lo cual nos llev a Diana y nos llev a Neil. +Neil Gershenfeld: Gracias, Peter. PG: Gracias. +NG: Peter se me acerc +me perd al ver ese clip +se acerc a m con una visin de hacer estas cosas no para la gente, para los animales. +La historia de Internet me cautiv. +As era Internet en sus albores podemos tildarla de Internet de los blancos de mediana edad, en su mayora blancos de mediana edad. +Vint Cerf: NG: Me incluyo. +Luego, cuando llegu por primera vez a TED, y conoc a Peter, le mostr esto. +Esto es un servidor web de un dlar, y en esa poca eso era radical. +Y la posibilidad de crear un servidor web por un dlar creci hasta convertirse en lo que se conoci como la Internet de las Cosas, que es, literalmente, una industria con enormes consecuencias para el cuidado de la salud, la eficiencia energtica. +Y estbamos contentos con nosotros mismos. +Luego, cuando Peter me mostr eso, me di cuenta de que habamos olvidado algo, al resto del planeta. +As, empezamos este proyecto de Internet entre especies. +Empezamos a hablar con TED de cmo traer delfines, grandes simios y elefantes a TED, y nos dimos cuenta de que no funcionara. +Por eso los vamos a llevar hacia ellos. +Si pudiramos pasar al audio de esta computadora, hicimos una videoconferencia con animales cognitivos, y dejaremos que cada uno de ellos se presente brevemente. +Si podemos subir esto, genial. +El primer lugar que conoceremos es el Zoo Cameron Park de Waco, con orangutanes. +Durante el da viven afuera. Ahora all es de noche. +Por favor, puedes continuar? +Terri Cox: Hola, soy Terri Cox del Zoo Cameron Park de Waco, Texas, y conmigo est Kera-Jaan y Mei, dos de los orangutanes de Borneo. +Durante el da, tienen un gran y hermoso hbitat al aire libre, y, de noche, entran en este hbitat, en sus cuartos de noche, donde tienen un entorno climatizado y seguro donde dormir. +Participamos en la Aplicacin para Simios Orangutan Outreach, y usamos iPads para ayudar a estimular y a enriquecer a los animales, y tambin ayudar a crear conciencia para estos animales en peligro de extincin. +Comparten el 97 % de nuestro ADN, son increblemente inteligentes, y las posibilidades son tan emocionantes que mediante Internet y la tecnologa tenemos que enriquecer sus vidas y abrir su mundo. +Estamos muy entusiasmados con la posibilidad de una Internet entre especies y K-J ha estado disfrutando mucho la conferencia. +NG: Eso es genial. Cuando ensaybamos ayer por la noche, se divirti al ver a los elefantes. +El siguiente grupo es el de delfines del Acuario Nacional. +Por favor, adelante. +Allison Ginsburg: Buenas noches. +Bueno, mi nombre es Allison Ginsburg y estamos en vivo desde Baltimore, en el Acuario Nacional. +Me acompaan tres de nuestros ocho delfines nariz de botella del Atlntico: Chesapeake, de 20 aos, nuestro primer delfn nacido aqu, su hija de cuatro aos, Bayley, y su medio hermana de 11 aos, Maya. +Aqu en el Acuario Nacional estamos comprometidos con la excelencia en el cuidado de los animales, para su investigacin y conservacin. +A los delfines les intriga bastante lo que est pasando aqu esta noche. +No estn acostumbrados a ver cmaras a las 20 horas. +Adems, estamos muy abocados a diferentes tipos de investigaciones. +Como mencionaba Diana, nuestros animales participan en muchas investigaciones. +NG: Eso es para ti. +Bueno, genial, gracias. +Y el tercer grupo, en Tailandia, es Think Elephants. Adelante Josh. +Josh Plotnik: Hola, me llamo Josh Plotnik y estoy con Think Elephants International aqu en el Tringulo Dorado de Tailandia con elefantes de la fundacin Tringulo Dorado del Elefante Asitico. +Aqu tenemos 26 elefantes y nuestra investigacin se centra en la evolucin de la inteligencia en elefantes, pero nuestra fundacin Think Elephants se centra en llevar los elefantes a las aulas del mundo en forma virtual, como aqu, y mostrar lo increbles que son estos animales. +As que podemos llevar la cmara hasta el elefante, poner comida en su boca, mostrar lo que est pasando dentro de la boca y mostrarle a todo el mundo lo increbles que son estos animales. +NG: Bien, genial. Gracias Josh. +Y, una vez ms, hemos estado construyendo buenas relaciones entre ellos desde los ensayos. +VC: Gracias, Neil. +Hace mucho tiempo en una galaxia... epa, guion equivocado! +Hace 40 aos, Bob Kahn y yo diseamos Internet. +Hace 30 aos, la encendimos. +Hace apenas un ao, pusimos Internet en produccin. +Habamos estado usando la versin experimental durante los ltimos 30 aos. +La versin de produccin usa IP versin 6. +Tiene 3,4 por 10 a la 38 nodos posibles. +Ese es un nmero que solo el Congreso puede apreciar. +Pero nos lleva a lo que sigue. +Cuando hicimos el diseo con Bob pensamos construir un sistema para conectar computadoras. +Pero rpidamente descubrimos que era un sistema para conectar personas. +Y lo que hemos visto esta noche nos dice que no debemos restringir esta red a una especie, que estas otras especies inteligentes, que sienten, tambin deberan ser parte del sistema. +Por cierto, este es el aspecto actual del sistema. +As es hoy Internet para una computadora que trata de averiguar dnde se supone que va el trfico. +La vista es generada por un programa que analiza la conectividad de Internet, y la forma de conexin existente entre las distintas redes. +Hay unas 400 000 redes, interconectadas, administradas en forma independiente por 400 000 agencias distintas y la nica razn por la que esto funciona es que todas usan los mismos protocolos TCP/IP. +Bueno, ya saben a dnde va esto. +La Internet de las Cosas nos dice que una gran cantidad de aparatos y dispositivos informticos tambin formarn parte de este sistema: aparatos de uso domstico, de uso en la oficina, aparatos que uno lleva en el auto. +Esa es la Internet de las Cosas que viene. +Pero lo importante de lo que hace esta gente es que estn empezando a aprender cmo comunicarse con especies distintas a nosotros pero que comparten un entorno sensorial comn. +Estamos empezando a explorar qu significa comunicarse con un ser que no es simplemente otra persona. +Bueno, pueden ver lo que se viene. +Todo tipo de seres sensibles pueden interconectarse mediante este sistema, y no veo la hora de hacer estos experimentos. +Qu pasar despus de eso? +Bueno, veamos. +Necesitaremos algo como C3PO que haga de traductor entre nosotros y algunas otras mquinas con las que viviremos. +Y existe un proyecto en marcha llamado Internet interplanetaria. +Est en funcionamiento entre la Tierra y Marte. +Se opera desde la Estacin Espacial Internacional. +Es parte de la nave espacial que est en rbita alrededor del Sol que se encontr con dos planetas. +El sistema interplanetario est en su camino, pero hay un ltimo proyecto, que DARPA, la Agencia de Proyectos de Investigacin Avanzados de Defensa, que financi la ARPANET original, financi Internet, financi la arquitectura interplanetaria, ahora financia un proyecto para disear una nave espacial para llegar a la estrella ms cercana, en 100 aos. +Eso significa que lo que estamos aprendiendo de la interaccin con otras especies nos ensear, en definitiva, a interactuar con un aliengena. +No veo la hora de hacerlo. +June Cohen: En primer lugar, gracias, me gustara reconocer a estas cuatro personas que hablaron con nosotros 4 das completos que pudieran estar cuatro minutos cada uno, les agradecemos por eso. +Tengo muchas preguntas, har algunas bien prcticas que quiz la audiencia quiera saber. +Estn lanzando la idea aqu en TED... PG: Hoy. +JC: Hoy. Esta es la primera vez que estn hablando de esto. +Cuntenme un poco hacia dnde est yendo esta idea. +Qu sigue? +PG: Queremos animar a tanta gente como sea posible a que nos ayude a pensar interfaces inteligentes que permitan hacer esto realidad. +NG: Desde la mecnica hay una infraestructura web 501 y todo eso, pero no est totalmente lista para ser activada, vamos a ponerla en funcionamiento, contctennos si quieren informacin sobre esto. +La idea es que funcione como Internet, como una red de redes, la contribucin principal de Vint, esta ser la envolvente en torno a todas estas iniciativas, que son maravillosas en lo individual; vincularlas a escala mundial. +JC: Bien, hay alguna direccin web que podamos ir viendo? +NG: En breve. JC: En breve. Volveremos a consultarles. +Y, muy rpidamente, solo para aclarar. +Algunas personas mirando el video que mostraron pensarn, bueno, es solo una cmara web. +Qu tiene de especial? +Podran hablar un poco de los aportes de esta tecnologa? +NG: Es una infraestructura de video escalable, no de pocos a pocos, sino de muchos a muchos; es decir, escala para compartir video en forma simtrica y para compartir contenido en estos sitios de todo el mundo. +Hay mucho procesamiento de seales subyacente, no de uno a muchos, sino de muchos a muchos. +JC: Bien y, en la prctica, qu tecnologas estn analizando primero? +S que mencionaste que el teclado es una parte esencial en esto. +DR: Estamos tratando de desarrollar una pantalla tctil interactiva para los delfines. +Es como una continuacin del trabajo previo, y hoy conseguimos el capital inicial para eso, as que es nuestro primer proyecto. +JC: Antes de la charla, incluso. DR: Eso es. +JC: Guau, bien hecho! +De acuerdo, bien, gracias a todos por estar con nosotros. +Es un placer tenerlos en el escenario. +DR: Gracias. VC: Gracias. +Atravesaron alguna vez un momento en sus vidas tan doloroso y confuso en el que lo nico que queran era aprender lo mximo posible para darle sentido a todo? +A mis 13 aos, un amigo cercano de la familia, que era como un to para m, falleci de cncer de pncreas. +Cuando la enfermedad golpe tan cerca de casa, supe que tena que aprender ms, +as que fui a la Web en busca de respuestas. +En Internet haba muchas estadsticas sobre el cncer de pncreas y me impact lo que encontr. +Ms del 85 % de los cnceres de pncreas tienen diagnsticos tardos, cuando uno ya tiene menos de un 2 % de posibilidad de supervivencia. +Por qu estamos tan mal en la deteccin del cncer de pncreas? +La razn es que la medicina actual usa +tcnicas de hace 60 aos. +Tiene ms aos que mi pap. +Adems, es extremadamente costosa; cada examen cuesta USD 800 y es muy inexacto; no detecta el 30 % de los cnceres de pncreas. +El mdico tendra que ser muy suspicaz para pedir este examen. +Conociendo esto, saba que tena que haber una mejor manera de hacerlo. +Por eso plante un criterio cientfico que deba cumplir un sensor para diagnosticar el cncer de pncreas en forma efectiva. +El sensor tendra que ser de bajo costo, rpido, simple, sensible, selectivo y mnimamente invasivo. +Pero hay una razn por la que este examen no se ha actualizado en ms de seis dcadas +y es debido a que cuando buscamos cncer de pncreas, analizamos el torrente sanguneo, que est rebosante de protenas y uno busca una diferencia minscula. Esa diminuta cantidad de protena, +solo esa protena. +Eso es casi imposible. +Sin embargo, inmutable gracias a mi optimismo adolescente... fui a la Web en busca de los dos mejores amigos de un adolescente: Google y Wikipedia. +En estas dos fuentes encontr todo lo necesario para mi trabajo. +Y encontr un artculo que enumeraba unas 8000 protenas presentes en el cncer de pncreas. +Por eso decid encarar mi nueva misin: detectar entre todas estas protenas aquellas que podran actuar como biomarcadores del cncer de pncreas. +Y, para simplificar un poco, decid trazar un criterio cientfico. Y es este. +En esencia, primero, la protena tendra que encontrarse en los cnceres de pncreas en altos niveles en el torrente sanguneo en las etapas tempranas, pero tambin solo en el cncer. +As que estoy conectando ideas, resoplando con esta tarea colosal, y, por ltimo, en el intento 4000, a punto de perder la cordura, encontr la protena. +El nombre de la protena que identifiqu es la mesotelina, una protena comn y corriente, claro, a menos que uno tenga cncer de pncreas, ovario o pulmn, en cuyo caso se encuentra en alta proporcin en el torrente sanguneo. +Pero tambin la clave es que se encuentra en las etapas tempranas de la enfermedad, cuando uno tiene cerca de 100 % de probabilidad de supervivencia. +Y ahora que haba encontrado una protena a detectar, desplac mi atencin a detectar esa protena, y, as, el cncer de pncreas. +Mi hallazgo se produjo en un lugar muy poco probable, quiz el lugar menos probable para la innovacin: mi clase de biologa de la secundaria, +el inhibidor absoluto de la innovacin. Le a hurtadillas este artculo de algo llamado nanotubos de carbono, una tubera larga y delgada de carbono del ancho de un tomo y una parte en 50 000 del dimetro de un cabello. +Y a pesar de ese tamao extremadamente pequeo, tienen estas propiedades increbles. +Son los superhroes de la ciencia de materiales. +Y mientras lea a hurtadillas este artculo debajo de mi escritorio en mi clase de biologa, se supona que prestbamos atencin a estas otras molculas llamadas anticuerpos. +Son bastante geniales porque solo reaccionan a una protena especfica, pero ni por asomo son tan interesantes como los nanotubos de carbono. +Luego, sentado en la clase, de repente me di cuenta: poda combinar lo que estaba leyendo, los nanotubos de carbono, con lo que se supona que deba estar pensando, los anticuerpos. +En esencia, poda tejer un manojo de estos anticuerpos para formar una red de nanotubos de carbono de modo de tener una red que solo reaccionara a una protena, pero tambin, gracias a las propiedades de estos nanotubos, cambiara sus propiedades elctricas en funcin de la cantidad de protenas presente. +Sin embargo, hay una trampa. +Estas redes de nanotubos de carbono son extremadamente endebles +y, como son tan delicadas, necesitan un soporte. +Por eso eleg usar papel. +Hacer un sensor de cncer con papel es tan simple como hacer galletas con chispas de chocolate, +y me encanta. Se empieza con un poco de agua, se vierten algunos nanotubos, se aaden anticuerpos, se mezcla. Tomamos algo de papel, mojamos, secamos, y ya podemos detectar el cncer. +Luego, de repente, ca en la cuenta de que haba una mcula en mi plan increble. +No puedo investigar sobre cncer en la encimera de la cocina. +A mam no le gustara. +En cambio, decid buscar un laboratorio. +Elabor un presupuesto, una lista de materiales, un calendario, un procedimiento y envi 200 correos a distintos profesores de la Universidad Johns Hopkins y del Instituto Nacional de Salud. Bsicamente, a todos los que tuvieran que ver con el cncer de pncreas. +Y me sent a esperar ese aluvin de respuestas positivas que dijeran: "Eres un genio! Sers nuestra salvacin!" +Pero... luego se impuso la realidad y, en el transcurso de un mes, recib 199 rechazos, del total de 200 emails. +Uno profesor revis todo el procedimiento, cuidadosamente no s de dnde sac tanto tiempo revis todo y minuciosamente en cada paso dijo por qu cada cosa era lo peor que pude hacer. +Claramente, el profesor no tena la alta estima por mi trabajo que tena yo. +Sin embargo, haba un resquicio de esperanza. +Un profesor dijo: "Quiz yo pueda ayudarte, nio". +As que fui en esa direccin. +Nunca se puede decir que no a un nio. +As, tres meses despus, finalmente acordamos una reunin con este tipo, y fui al laboratorio. Yo estaba muy entusiasmado, me sent, abr la boca y empec a hablar. Cinco segundos despus llama a otro doctorando; +los doctorandos se congregaron en esta salita y empezaron a dispararme preguntas y al final me sent como el pato de la boda. +Estbamos 20 doctorandos, el profesor y yo hacinados en esta oficinita disparando preguntas a quemarropa, tratando de hundir mi procedimiento. +Qu probabilidad tiene? Digo, shhh! +No obstante, me somet a ese interrogatorio, respond todas sus preguntas, conjetur algunas, pero sal airoso, y finalmente tuve el laboratorio que necesitaba. +Pero poco despus descubr que mi brillante procedimiento tena como un milln de baches y a lo largo de siete meses, con minuciosidad cubr cada uno de esos baches. +El resultado? Un pequeo sensor de papel +que cuesta 3 centavos y da resultado en 5 minutos. +Esto es 168 veces ms rpido, ms de 26 000 veces ms econmico y ms de 400 veces ms sensible que el estndar actual para la deteccin de cncer de pncreas. +Sin embargo, una de las mejores partes del sensor es que tiene cerca de 100 % de precisin, y puede detectar el cncer en etapas tempranas cuando alguien tiene cerca del 100 % de posibilidades de supervivencia. +En los prximos 2 a 5 aos, este sensor podra elevar las tasas de supervivencia al cncer de pncreas de un triste 5,5 % a cerca del 100 % y de modo similar para el cncer de ovario y pulmn. +Pero eso no es todo. +Cambiando ese anticuerpo, se puede buscar una protena diferente, por ende, una enfermedad diferente, potencialmente para cualquier enfermedad del mundo. +Eso abarca desde las enfermedades del corazn, la malaria, el HIV, el SIDA, as como otras formas de cncer... lo que sea. +Y as espero que un da todos podamos tener un to extra, esa madre, ese hermano, esa hermana, que podamos tener ese familiar extra que amamos, +y que nuestros corazones se deshagan de esa carga de la enfermedad que viene del cncer de pncreas, ovario y pulmn, y, en potencia, de cualquier enfermedad. +Con Internet, todo es posible. +Las teoras se comparten y uno no tiene que ser profesor con muchos ttulos para tener ideas valiosas. +Es un espacio neutral en el que el aspecto, la edad o el gnero, no importan. +Lo que cuenta son las ideas. +Para m, se trata de mirar en Internet de forma completamente nueva para darse cuenta de que hay mucho ms que solo rostros impostados en la Web. +Uno podra cambiar el mundo. +Si un chico de 15 aos que ni siquiera saba qu era el pncreas pudo encontrar una nueva forma de detectar el cncer de pncreas imaginen lo que podran hacer Uds. +Gracias. +(Sonidos naturales) Cuando comenc a grabar sonidos de la naturaleza hace 45 aos, no tena idea de que las hormigas, las larvas de insectos, las anmonas de mar y los virus creaban sonidos caractersticos. +Pero lo hacen. +Y lo mismo ocurre con todos los hbitats silvestres en el planeta, como la selva amaznica que estn escuchando al fondo. +De hecho, los bosques hmedos templados y tropicales producen una orquesta animal vibrante, una expresin instantnea y organizada de insectos, reptiles, anfibios, aves y mamferos. +Cada paisaje sonoro que brota de un hbitat silvestre produce su caracterstica nica, que contiene una increble cantidad de informacin, y es parte de esa informacin lo que quiero compartirles hoy. +El paisaje sonoro se compone de tres fuentes bsicas. +La primera es la geofona, o los sonidos no biolgicos que se producen en cualquier hbitat dado, como el viento en los rboles, el agua en una corriente, las olas en la orilla del mar, el movimiento de la Tierra. +La segunda es la biofona. +La biofona es todo el sonido que es producido por los organismos en un hbitat determinado en un tiempo y en un lugar. +Y la tercera, es todos los sonidos que generamos los humanos que se llama antrofona. +Algunos son controlados, como la msica o el teatro, pero la mayor parte es catica e incoherente, a lo que algunos llamamos ruido. +Hubo un tiempo en que yo consideraba los paisajes sonoros silvestres como algo sin valor. +Estaban ah, pero no tenan significado. +Bueno, estaba equivocado. Lo que aprend de estos encuentros es que escuchar atentamente nos da herramientas muy valiosas para evaluar la salud de un hbitat a travs de todo el espectro de la vida. +Cuando comenc a grabar a finales de los 60, los mtodos tpicos de grabacin estaban limitados a la captura fragmentada de especies individuales en su mayora pjaros, al principio, pero ms tarde animales como mamferos y anfibios. +Para m, esto fue un poco como tratar de entender la magnificencia de la Quinta Sinfona de Beethoven abstrayendo el sonido de un solo violinista fuera del contexto de la orquesta y escuchar solo esa parte. +Afortunadamente, cada vez son ms las instituciones que estn implementando los modelos ms holsticos que yo y algunos de mis colegas hemos introducido en el campo de la ecologa de los sonidos. +Cuando comenc a grabar hace ms de 4 dcadas, poda hacerlo durante 10 horas y capturar una hora de material utilizable, lo suficientemente bueno para un lbum o una banda sonora de una pelcula o una instalacin en un museo. +Ahora, a causa del calentamiento global, la extraccin de recursos, y el ruido humano, entre muchos otros factores, puede llevar hasta 1000 horas o ms capturar lo mismo. +El 50 % total de mi archivo proviene de hbitats alterados de manera tan radical que son, o bien totalmente silenciosos, o ya no pueden ser escuchados en su forma original. +Los mtodos habituales para evaluar un hbitat se han hecho contando visualmente el nmero de especies y el nmero de individuos dentro de cada especie en un rea dada. +Sin embargo, comparando los datos que unen la densidad y la diversidad de lo que omos, soy capaz de llegar a resultados mucho ms precisos. +Quiero mostrarles algunos ejemplos que tipifican las posibilidades que se revelan buceando en este universo. +Esto es Lincoln Meadow. +Lincoln Meadow est a 3 horas y media en auto al este de San Francisco en las montaas de Sierra Nevada, cerca de 2000 metros de altitud; he estado grabando all por muchos aos. +En 1988, una compaa maderera convenci a los residentes locales de que no habra en lo absoluto ningn impacto ambiental con un nuevo mtodo que estaban ensayando llamado "tala selectiva", quitando un rbol aqu y all en lugar de talar por completo toda un rea. +Con el permiso concedido para registrar antes y despus de la operacin, configur mi equipo y captur un gran nmero de coros al amanecer con un protocolo muy estricto y grabaciones calibradas, porque quera un muy buen punto de referencia. +Este es un ejemplo de un espectrograma. +Un espectrograma es una ilustracin grfica del sonido con el tiempo, de izquierda a derecha en la hoja estn representados 15 segundos en este caso y la frecuencia, de la parte inferior a la superior, de menor a mayor. +Se puede ver que la seal de un arroyo est representada aqu en el tercio bajo o medio de la pgina, mientras que las aves que estuvieron alguna vez en ese prado estn representadas con sus seales de la parte superior. +Haba muchas de ellas. +Este es Lincoln Meadow antes de la tala selectiva. +(Sonidos naturales) Bueno, un ao despus regres, y usando los mismos protocolos y grabando bajo las mismas condiciones, grab un nmero de ejemplos de los mismos coros del amanecer, y ahora esto es lo que tenemos. +Esto es despus de la tala selectiva. +Pueden ver que la corriente sigue estando representada en el tercio inferior de la pgina, pero fjense lo que falta en los dos tercios superiores. +(Sonidos naturales) Viene el sonido de un pjaro carpintero. +Bueno, he vuelto a Lincoln Meadow 15 veces en los ltimos 25 aos, y les puedo decir que la biofona, la densidad y la diversidad de dicha biofona, an no ha vuelto a ser lo que era antes de la operacin. +Pero aqu est una foto de Lincoln Meadow tomada despus, y pueden ver que desde la perspectiva de la cmara o del ojo humano, casi ningna rama o rbol parecen desplazados, lo que confirmara la tesis de la empresa maderera de que no hay ningn impacto ambiental. +Sin embrago, nuestros odos nos cuentan una historia muy diferente. +Los estudiantes jvenes siempre me preguntan qu estn diciendo estos animales, y realmente no tengo idea. +Pero les puedo decir que se estn expresando. +Si lo entendemos o no, es otra historia. +Estaba caminando por la costa en Alaska, y me encontr con esta charca de la marea llena de una colonia de anmonas de mar, estas maravillosas mquinas de comer, parientas de los corales y las medusas. +Y, curioso por ver si alguna de ellas emita algn sonido, tir un hidrfono, un micrfono subacutico recubierto de caucho, abajo de la parte de la boca, y de inmediato comenz la criatura a absorber el micrfono hacia su vientre, y los tentculos buscaban fuera de la superficie algo de valor nutricional. +Escucharn ahora los sonidos como de esttica, que son muy bajos. +(Sonidos estticos) S, pero miren. Al no encontrar nada para comer... Creo que esa es una expresin que puede ser entendida en cualquier idioma. +Al final de su ciclo de reproduccin, el sapo de espuelas de la Gran Cuenca se entierra casi un metro bajo el duro suelo del desierto del oeste estadounidense, donde puede permanecer por varias temporadas hasta que las condiciones sean las adecuadas para surgir otra vez. +Y cuando hay suficiente humedad en el suelo en la primavera, las ranas salen a la superficie y se renen en torno a estas grandes charcas vernales, en gran nmero. +Y vocalizan en coro absolutamente sincronizadas unas con otras. +Hacen esto por dos razones. +La primera es competitiva, porque estn buscando pareja, y la segunda es cooperativa, porque si vocalizan todas sincronizadamente, hacen muy difcil a los predadores, como los coyotes, zorros y bhos, singularizar un individuo para comrselo. +As es como se ve un espectrograma de un coro de ranas cuando se encuentra en un patrn muy saludable. +(Ranas croando) Al final de ese sobrevuelo, les tom a las ranas 45 minutos completos recuperar su coro sincronizado, tiempo durante el cual, bajo la luna llena, vimos cmo dos coyotes y un gran bho de cuernos llegaron a tomarse algunas de ellas. +La buena noticia es que, con un poco de restauracin del hbitat y menos vuelos, las poblaciones de ranas, antes disminuidas durante los aos 1980 y principios de los 90, han vuelto casi a la normalidad. +Quiero terminar con una historia contada por un castor. +Es algo muy triste, pero realmente ilustra cmo los animales pueden algunas veces mostrar emocin, un tema muy polmico entre algunos bilogos mayores. +Un colega mo estaba grabando en el medio oeste estadounidense cerca al estanque que se form tal vez hace 16 000 aos al final de la ltima era de hielo. +En parte tambin por un dique hecho por castores en un extremo, que mantuvo todo ese ecosistema junto en un muy delicado balance. +Una tarde, mientras estaba grabando, apareci de repente de la nada un par de guardas de caza, quienes sin ninguna razn aparente, se acercaron a la presa del castor, arrojaron un cartucho de dinamita en ella, volndolo todo, matando a la hembra y a sus pequeos bebs. +Horrorizado, mi colega permaneci atrs para ordenar sus pensamientos y para grabar lo que pudo el resto de la tarde, y esa noche, captur un acontecimiento notable: el solitario castor macho sobreviviente nadaba en crculos lentos llorando desconsoladamente por su pareja e hijos perdidos. +Este es probablemente el sonido ms triste que yo haya escuchado alguna vez de cualquier organismo, humano o no. +(Castor llorando) S. Bueno. +Hay muchas facetas de los paisajes sonoros, entre ellas las maneras en que los animales nos ensearon a bailar y cantar, que voy a guardar para otro momento. +Han escuchado cmo las biofonas ayudan a clarificar nuestro entendimiento del mundo natural. +Han escuchado sobre el impacto de la extraccin de recursos, el ruido humano y la destruccin del hbitat. +Y como las ciencias ambientales han tratado normalmente de entender el mundo desde lo que vemos, puede obtenerse un entendimiento mucho ms completo desde lo que escuchamos. +Las biofonas y las geofonas son las voces caractersticas del mundo natural, y conforme las escuchamos, nos vamos apropiando de un sentido del lugar, la verdadera historia del mundo en que vivimos. +En cuestin de segundos, un paisaje sonoro revela mucha ms informacin desde muchas perspectivas, desde datos cuantificables hasta inspiracin cultural. +La captura visual implcitamente enmarca una perspectiva frontal limitada a un contexto espacial determinado, mientras que los paisajes sonoros amplan ese alcance a 360 grados, envolvindonos completamente. +Y as como una imagen puede valer ms que mil palabras, un paisaje sonoro vale ms que mil imgenes. +Nuestros odos nos cuentan que el susurro de cada hoja y cada criatura habla a las fuentes naturales de la vida, que de hecho puede mantener los secretos del amor a todas las cosas, especialmente hacia nuestra propia humanidad, y la ltima palabra va para un jaguar del Amazonas. +Gracias por escuchar. +De dnde eres? +Es una pregunta tan sencilla. Pero hoy da las preguntas sencillas van acompaadas de respuestas complicadas. +La gente siempre me pregunta de dnde soy y esperan que les responda de la India, y aciertan en un 100 % si consideramos que mis races y antepasados son de la India. +Con la excepcin de que no he vivido un solo da de mi vida all. +Y no s decir nada en ninguno de sus ms de 22 000 dialectos. +As que no creo que tenga el derecho a decir que soy indio. +Y si "de dnde eres?" +significa "dnde naciste, creciste y te educaste?", +entonces vengo enteramente de ese pequeo pas que llamamos Inglaterra, con la excepcin de que me fui tan pronto como termin mis estudios universitarios, y de nio siempre fui el nico chico en todas mis clases que no se pareca a esos clsicos hroes ingleses que aparecan en nuestros libros de texto. +Y si "de dnde eres?" +significa "dnde pagas tus impuestos?", +"dnde vas al mdico o al dentista?", +entonces soy claramente de los Estados Unidos y lo he sido 48 aos, desde que era un nio muy pequeo. +Excepto que durante muchos de esos aos, tena que cargar conmigo una pequea tarjeta rosa con lneas verdes sobre mi rostro que me identificaba como residente permanente. +Aunque realmente mientras ms tiempo paso viviendo all, menos residente me siento. +Y si "de dnde eres?" +significa "a qu sitio te sientes arraigado profundamente y dnde pasas la mayor parte de tu tiempo?", +entonces soy japons, porque he tratado de vivir en Japn lo mximo posible en los ltimos 25 aos. +Excepto que en todos estos aos entraba con una visa de turista y estoy muy seguro de que no muchos japoneses me consideraran uno de los suyos. +Y les cuento todo esto solo para enfatizar lo anticuada y directa que es mi historia personal, porque cuando voy a Hong Kong, Sydney, o Vancouver, la mayora de los jvenes que conozco son mucho ms internacionales y multiculturales que yo. +Porque tienen un hogar relacionado con sus padres, uno relacionado con sus parejas, un tercero quizs relacionado con el sitio en el que estn, un cuarto relacionado con el sitio en el que suean estar, y as muchos otros ms. +Y se pasarn toda la vida recogiendo pedacitos de muchos sitios diferentes y juntndolos en un vitral de colores. +El hogar para ellos es realmente una obra en construccin. +Es como un proyecto que constantemente se actualiza, mejora y corrige. +Y para ms y ms de nosotros el hogar tiene menos que ver con un pedazo de tierra que un pedazo de alma. +Si alguien de repente me pregunta dnde est tu hogar? +pues, pienso en mi pareja, en mis amigos ms cercanos o en las canciones que viajan conmigo donde sea que est. +Tres horas ms tarde, el fuego haba reducido mi hogar y todo lo que haba en l, a excepcin de m, a cenizas. +Y cuando despert a la maana siguiente, dorma en el piso del hogar de un amigo y lo nico que me quedaba era un cepillo de dientes que haba comprado en un supermercado nocturno. +Claro que si alguien me preguntase entonces dnde est tu hogar?, +literalmente no podra indicar ningn sitio fsico. +Mi hogar tendra que ser todo lo que llevaba dentro de m. +Y en muchas formas creo que que esto me da una tremenda libertad. +Porque en la poca de mis abuelos, tenan un sentido de hogar, un sentido de comunidad e incluso un sentido de enemistad que les eran asignados desde el nacimiento, y no tenan muchas oportunidades de salir de all. +Hoy en da, al menos algunos de nosotros podemos escoger nuestro hogar, crear nuestro sentido de comunidad, disear lo que somos, y al hacerlo, quizs salirnos un poco de esas divisiones entre lo blanco y lo negro del tiempo de nuestros abuelos. +No es pura coincidencia que el presidente de la nacin ms poderosa del planeta sea mitad keniano, se haya criado por un tiempo en Indonesia, y tenga un cuado chino-canadiense. +Y el nmero de nosotros que vive fuera de la vieja categora de nacin-estado ha aumentado tan rpidamente --unos 64 millones en los ltimos 12 aos-- que pronto seremos ms que los estadounidenses. +Ya somos la quinta nacin ms grande del planeta. +Y de hecho, en Toronto, la ciudad ms grande de Canad, al residente promedio de hoy en da es lo que sola llamarse extranjero, alguien que haba nacido en otro pas. +Y siempre he sentido que la belleza de estar rodeado por lo extranjero es que siempre te mantienes alerta. +Nada se da por sentado. +Viajar para m es un poco como estar enamorado, porque de repente todos tus sentidos se "encienden". +De repente ests alerta a los patrones secretos del mundo. +El verdadero viaje de descubrimiento, como famosamente dijo Marcel Proust, no consiste en ver paisajes nuevos, sino en ver con ojos nuevos. +Y, por supuesto, una vez que ves con ojos nuevos hasta los viejos paisajes y tu hogar se vuelven algo diferente. +Muchas de las personas que no viven en sus propios pases son refugiados que nunca quisieron dejar sus hogares y anhelan volver a su hogar. +Pero para los afortunados entre nosotros, creo que la era de la movilidad nos trae emocionantes posibilidades nuevas. +Es cierto que cuando viajo, especialmente a las principales ciudades del mundo, el personaje tpico que llego a conocer hoy da es, por ejemplo, una mujer mitad coreana y mitad alemana que vive en Pars. +Tan pronto la joven conoce a ese chico mitad tailands y mitad canadiense de Edimburgo, reconoce sus semejanzas. +Se da cuenta de que probablemente tiene mucho ms en comn con l que con alguien totalmente coreano o alemn. +As que se hacen amigos; se enamoran. +Se mudan a la ciudad de Nueva York. +O Edimburgo. +Y la nia que nace de esa unin no ser, por supuesto, ni coreana ni alemana, ni francesa ni tailandesa, ni escocesa ni canadiense, ni incluso estadounidense, sino una mezcla maravillosa y constante de todos esos sitios. +Y posiblemente, la manera en que esta joven mujer suee, escriba, y piense acerca del mundo pueda ser algo diferente, porque surge a partir de una mezcla de culturas sin precedentes. +De dnde eres es mucho menos importante que hacia dnde vas. +Ms y ms de nosotros estamos tan enraizados al futuro o al presente, como al pasado. +Y sabemos que el hogar no es el sitio donde nos toc nacer. +Es el sitio donde nos convertimos en lo que somos. +Mas an, hay un gran problema con la movilidad y es que es difcil saber cmo comportarse cuando ests en el aire. +Hace unos aos atrs me di cuenta de que haba acumulado un milln de millas solamente con United Airlines. +Todos Uds. conocen ese descabellado sistema de pasar seis das en el infierno y el sptimo te sale gratis. +Comenc a pensar que realmente la movilidad es tan buena como el sentido de quietud que eres capaz de darle para ponerla en perspectiva. +Ocho meses despus de la destruccin de mi casa me encontr con un amigo que enseaba en una escuela secundaria cercana que me dijo: "Conozco el sitio perfecto para t". +"De veras?" le dije. Siempre soy un poco escptico cuando la gente me dice cosas as. +"No, en serio", continu, "queda a solo tres horas en auto, no es muy caro y, posiblemente, no se parezca a ninguno de los sitios en los que has estado". +"Mmm". Comenzaba a intrigarme un poco. "Qu es?" +"Bueno..." --aqu mi amigo comenz a vacilar--. "Bueno, es una ermita catlica". +No fue una buena respuesta. +Con haber pasado 15 aos en escuelas anglicanas, ya tena himnos y cruces suficientes para toda una vida. +De hecho, varias vidas. +Pero mi amigo me asegur que no era catlico, as como tampoco la mayora de sus estudiantes, pero todas las primaveras llevaba all a sus alumnos. +Y all, hasta el ms inquieto y distrado chico californiano de 15 aos lleno de testosterona, solo tena que pasar tres das en silencio y algo en l se tranquilizaba y se purificaba. +Se encontraba a s mismo. +As que pens: "Todo lo que funciona con un chico de 15 aos debe funcionar conmigo". +As que me sub al auto y manej tres horas hacia el norte junto a la costa, y las vas se iban vaciando y estrechndose hasta convertirse en un camino an ms estrecho, apenas pavimentado y lleno de curvas por ms de 3 km hasta la cima de la montaa. +Y cuando sal del auto el aire vibraba. +Todo el sitio estaba en silencio absoluto, pero el silencio no implicaba la ausencia de ruido. +Era la presencia de un tipo de energa o vibracin. +Y a mis pies se encontraba el grandioso y tranquilo paisaje azul del ocano Pacfico. +A mi alrededor haba ms de 300 Ha de arbustos silvestres secos. +As que baj al cuarto en el que dormira. +Pequeo, pero maravillosamente cmodo, con una cama, una mecedora, un largo escritorio, y unas ventanas an ms largas apuntando a un jardn pequeo y privado rodeado de paredes, y unos 365 metros de grama de pradera dorada extendindose hacia el mar. +Y me sent y comenc a escribir. Y escrib y escrib, an cuando realmente haba ido para alejarme de la escritura. +Cuando me levant ya haban pasado cuatro horas. +Haba cado la noche, sal y me arrop un gran manto de estrellas, y poda ver las luces de los autos desaparecer alrededor del promontorio, casi 20 Km al sur. +Y realmente pareca que todas mis preocupaciones del da anterior se desvanecan. +El prximo da cuando despert, ante la ausencia de telfonos, televisiones y porttiles, el da pareca extenderse por miles de horas. +Era realmente la libertad que experimentaba cuando viajaba, aunque tambin lo senta profundamente como una vuelta al hogar. +Y como no soy religioso no asist a los servicios. +No fui con los monjes para que me guiaran. +Solo daba largos paseos por el camino del monasterio y enviaba postales a mis seres queridos. +Observaba las nubes, e hice realmente lo que usualmente para mi es lo ms difcil de hacer, que es hacer nada. +Y comenc a regresar a este sitio, y me di cuenta que era donde haca mi trabajo ms importante, sin notarlo, y solo con quedarme quieto. Y ciertamente tomar las decisiones ms importantes de la forma que nunca hubiese podido cuando estoy corriendo del ltimo correo electrnico a la prxima diligencia. +Y comenc a pensar que algo en m realmente haba comenzado a gritar pidiendo quietud, pero claro que no poda orlo porque estaba corriendo demasiado. +Era como un loco a quien le ponen una venda y luego se queja de que no puede ver. +Y record esa frase maravillosa de Sneca que haba aprendido de nio que dice: "El hombre es pobre no porque tiene poco, sino porque anhela tener ms". +Claro que no estoy sugiriendo que todos aqu vayan a un monasterio. +Ese no es la cuestin. +Pero pienso que cuando dejas de moverte es cuando puedes ver hacia dnde vas. +Y solo cuando te apartas de tu vida y del mundo, puedes ver lo que realmente es importante y conseguir un hogar. +He notado que muchos ahora toman la decisin consciente de sentarse en silencio por 30 minutos cada maana para ordenar sus pensamientos en un rincn del cuarto sin sus aparatos, o se van a correr todas las tardes, o dejan sus telfones mviles cuando van a pasar un buen rato conversando con un amigo. +La movilidad es un privilegio fantstico y nos permite hacer muchas de las cosas que nuestros abuelos nunca hubiesen soado hacer. +Pero bsicamente, la movilidad, solo tiene sentido si tienes un hogar al cual regresar. +Y el hogar, al fin y al cabo, est no solo en el sitio en donde duermes. +Es el sitio en donde ests. +Gracias. +Se dice que el pasto es siempre ms verde del otro lado de la cerca, y creo que esto es cierto, sobre todo cuando oigo al presidente Obama a menudo hablar sobre el sistema educativo [sud]coreano como un referente de xito. +Bueno, puedo decirles que, en la estructura rgida y la naturaleza altamente competitiva del sistema escolar coreano, tambin conocido como la olla de presin, no todos pueden hacerlo bien en ese ambiente. +Mientras que muchas personas responden de formas diferentes sobre nuestro sistema educativo, mi respuesta al ambiente de alta presin fue hacer arcos con pedazos de madera encontrados cerca de mi edificio. +Por qu arcos? +No estoy muy seguro. +Tal vez, ante la presin constante, mi instinto de supervivencia caverncola se conect con los arcos. +Si lo piensan, el arco ha realmente ayudado a dirigir la supervivencia humana desde tiempos prehistricos. +La zona de tres kilmetros alrededor de mi casa era antes un bosque de moras durante la Dinasta Joseon, donde los gusanos de seda se alimentaban con hojas de mora. +Con el fin de elevar la conciencia histrica de este hecho, el gobierno ha plantado moreras. +Las semillas de estos rboles tambin se han extendido por aqu y por all por los pjaros cerca de las paredes insonorizadas de la autopista de la ciudad que fueron construidas alrededor de los Juegos Olmpicos de 1988. +El rea cerca de estas paredes, que nadie se molesta en prestarle atencin, haba quedado libre de intervencin mayor, y ah es donde primero encontr mis tesoros. +Conforme me comprometa en la fabricacin de arcos, empec a buscar lejos y ms all de mi barrio. +Cuando iba a excursiones escolares, vacaciones en familia, o simplemente en mi camino a casa de las clases extracurriculares, vagu alrededor de reas boscosas y reun ramas de rboles con las herramientas que col dentro de mi mochila. +Y sera algo como sierras, cuchillos, hoces y hachas que cubr con un trozo de toalla. +Llevaba las ramas a casa montando en autobuses y metros, sostenindolas apenas en mis manos. +No traje las herramientas aqu a Long Beach. +Seguridad en los aeropuertos. +En la intimidad de mi habitacin, cubierto de aserrn, serruchaba, recortaba y pula madera toda la noche hasta que un arco tom forma. +Un da, estaba cambiando la forma de un pedazo de bamb y termin prendiendo fuego al lugar. +Dnde? En la azotea de mi edificio de apartamentos, un lugar que 96 familias llaman hogar. +Un cliente de un centro comercial enfrente de mi edificio llam al 911, y yo corr escaleras abajo a decirle a mi mam, con la mitad del pelo quemado. +Quiero aprovechar esta oportunidad para decirle hoy a mi madre, aqu entre el pblico: Mam, realmente lo siento, y de ahora en adelante ser ms cuidadoso con el fuego. +Mi madre tuvo que dar un montn de explicaciones, dicindole a la gente que su hijo no inici un incendio premeditado. +Tambin he investigado extensivamente sobre arcos alrededor del mundo. +En ese proceso, trat de combinar los diferentes arcos a lo largo del tiempo y los lugares para crear el arco ms eficaz. +Tambin he trabajado con diferentes tipos de madera, como el arce, el tejo y el moral, e hice muchos experimentos de tiros en la zona boscosa cerca de la autopista urbana que he mencionado antes. +El arco ms eficaz para m sera algo as. +Uno: Puntas curvadas pueden maximizar la elasticidad cuando estiras y disparas la flecha. +Dos: Vientre hacia dentro para mayor fuerza de estiramiento, lo que significa ms potencia. +Tres: Tensor utilizado en la capa externa del arco para lograr mxima capacidad de tensin. +Y cuatro: Cuerno utilizado para almacenar energa de compresin. +Despus de fijar, romper, redisear, reparar, curvar y modificar, mi arco ideal empez a tomar forma, y cuando finalmente lo hizo, se pareca a esto. +Estaba tan orgulloso de m mismo por inventar un arco perfecto por mi cuenta! +Esta es una foto de los arcos tradicionales coreanos tomada de un museo, y vean cmo mi arco se les asemeja. +Gracias a mis ancestros por robarme mi invento. A travs de la elaboracin de arcos, he entrado en contacto con parte de mi herencia. +Aprender de la informacin que se ha acumulado en el tiempo y leer el mensaje dejado por mis ancestros era mejor que cualquier terapia de consolacin o que cualquier consejo que un adulto vivo pudiera darme. +Vern, he buscado a lo largo y ancho, pero nunca me molest de mirar de corto y cerca. +Al percatarme de esto, empec a tener inters en la historia de Corea, que nunca antes me haba inspirado. +Al final, el pasto es a menudo ms verde de mi lado de la cerca, aunque no nos damos cuenta de ello. +Ahora, voy a mostrarles cmo funciona mi arco. +Y vamos a ver cmo funciona ste. +Esto es un arco de bamb, con 45 libras de empuje. +(Ruido de disparos flecha) Un arco puede funcionar en un mecanismo simple, pero para hacer un buen arco, se requiere una gran cantidad de sensibilidad. +Se necesita consolar y comunicarse con el material de madera. +Cada fibra de la madera tiene su propia razn y funcin de ser, y solo mediante la cooperacin y armona entre ellas viene un gran arco. +Puede que sea un estudiante raro con intereses no convencionales, pero espero que est haciendo una contribucin al compartir mi historia con todos Uds. +Mi mundo ideal es un lugar donde nadie se quede atrs, donde todo el mundo se necesita exactamente dnde est, como las fibras y los tensores de un arco, un lugar donde el fuerte es flexible y el vulnerable es resiliente. +El arco se parece a m, y yo me parezco al arco. +Ahora, voy a lanzar una parte de m a Uds. +No, mejor an, una parte de mi mente acaba de ser disparada a la suya. +Les impact? +Gracias. +Este es el hecho econmico ms importante de nuestro tiempo. +Estamos viviendo en una era de creciente desigualdad de ingresos, sobre todo entre los que estn en lo ms alto y todos los dems. +Este cambio es ms llamativo en EE.UU. y en el Reino Unido, pero es un fenmeno mundial. +Est ocurriendo en la China comunista, en la Rusia ex-comunista, ocurre en India, y en mi Canad natal. +Lo vemos incluso en acogedoras democracias sociales como Suecia, Finlandia y Alemania. +Les dar unas cifras para ilustrar lo que est ocurriendo. +En la dcada del '70, el 1 % de la poblacin representaba un 10 % de la renta nacional en Estados Unidos. +Hoy en da, su participacin se ha duplicado hasta un 20 %. +Pero an ms sorprendente es lo que ocurre bien en la cima de la distribucin del ingreso. +El 0,1 % en EE.UU. +hoy representa ms del 8 % de la renta nacional. +Estn en el lugar en que estaba el 1 % hace 30 aos. +Les dar otra cifra para poner eso en perspectiva, y esta es una cifra calculada en 2005 por Robert Reich, Secretario de Trabajo de la administracin Clinton. +Reich tom la riqueza de dos hombres ciertamente muy ricos, Bill Gates y Warren Buffett, y hall que su riqueza era equivalente a la del 40 % de la poblacin de EE.UU., 120 millones de personas. +Ahora, siendo este el caso, Warren Buffett no solo es un plutcrata, sino uno de los observadores ms astutos de ese fenmeno, y tiene su cifra favorita. +A Buffet le gusta sealar que en 1992, la riqueza combinada de las personas de la lista Forbes 400 --la lista de los 400 estadounidenses ms ricos-- era de USD 300 mil millones. +Piensen en eso. +No se necesitaba ser ultramillonario para entrar en esa lista en 1992. +Bueno, hoy, esa cifra se ha ms que quintuplicado y llega a 1,7 billones y probablemente no necesito decirles que no hemos visto que ocurra nada parecido a la clase media, cuya riqueza se ha estancado, si acaso no disminuido. +Por eso estamos viviendo en la era de la plutocracia mundial, pero hemos tardado en darnos cuenta. +Una de las razones, creo yo, es esa especie de fenmeno de la rana hervida. +Los cambios lentos y graduales pueden ser difciles de notar aunque su impacto final es bastante drstico. +Piensen en lo que le pas, despus de todo, a la pobre rana. +Pero creo que hay algo ms en juego. +Hablando de la desigualdad de ingresos, estar en la lista Forbes 400, puede hacernos sentir incmodos. +Parece menos positivo, menos optimista, hablar de cmo se corta la torta que pensar en cmo hacerla ms grande. +Si uno est en la lista Forbes 400, y habla de la distribucin del ingreso e inevitablemente de su prima, la redistribucin del ingreso, eso puede ser francamente amenazante. +Estamos viviendo en una era de desigualdad de ingresos en alza, en especial en la cima. +Qu la provoca? Qu podemos hacer al respecto? +Una serie de causas es poltica: reduccin de impuestos, desregulacin --en particular de los servicios financieros-- privatizacin, proteccin legal ms laxa para los sindicatos, todo eso ha contribudo a cada vez ms ingresos en manos de los muy ricos. +Muchos de estos factores polticos pueden agruparse en lneas generales en la categora de "capitalismo de amigos", cambios polticos que beneficien a un grupo de personas con influencias pero que en realidad no nos hace mucho bien al resto. +En la prctica, la eliminacin del capitalismo de amigos es increblemente difcil. +Pero mientras que eliminar el capitalismo de amigos en la prctica es muy, muy difcil, al menos intelectualmente, es un problema fcil. +Despus de todo, nadie est realmente a favor del capitalismo de amigos. +De hecho, este es uno de esos temas raros que une a la izquierda y la derecha. +Una crtica al capitalismo de amigos es tan central al Tea Party como a Occupy Wall Street. +Pero si el capitalismo de amigos es, intelectualmente al menos, la parte ms fcil del problema, las cosas se vuelven ms complicadas al mirar los motores econmicos de la creciente desigualdad de ingresos. +En s, no hay demasiado misterio. +La globalizacin y la revolucin tecnolgica, esas transformaciones econmicas gemelas que estn cambiando nuestras vidas y transformando la economa mundial, tambin estn propiciando el aumento de los sper ricos. +Piensen en eso. +Por primera vez en la historia, si son emprendedores pujantes y tienen una idea brillante o un nuevo producto fantstico, tienen acceso casi instantneo, casi sin fricciones a un mercado mundial de ms de mil millones de personas. +Como resultado de ello, si uno es muy, muy inteligente y tiene mucha, mucha suerte, puede volverse muy, muy rico muy, muy rpidamente. +El ltimo chico de portada para este fenmeno es David Karp. +El fundador de Tumblr, de 26 aos; recientemente vendi su empresa a Yahoo en USD 1100 millones. +Piensen en eso un minuto: USD 1100 millones, 26 aos. +Es fcil ver cmo la revolucin tecnolgica y la globalizacin estn creando este tipo de efecto superestrella en campos muy visibles, como los deportes y el entretenimiento. +Todos podemos ver cmo un atleta fantstico o un artista estupendo pueden aprovechar hoy sus habilidades en la economa mundial como nunca antes. +Pero hoy, vemos ese efecto superestrella en toda la economa. +Tenemos tecnlogos superestrellas. +Tenemos banqueros superestrellas. +Tenemos abogados y arquitectos superestrellas. +Hay cocineros superestrellas y granjeros superestrellas. +Incluso hay, y este es mi ejemplo favorito, dentistas superestrellas, de los cuales el ejemplo ms deslumbrante es Bernard Touati, el francs encargado de las sonrisas de sus compaeros superestrellas como el oligarca ruso Roman Abramovich o la diseadora de moda estadounidense nacida en Europa Diane von Furstenberg. +Pero si bien es bastante fcil ver cmo la globalizacin y la revolucin tecnolgica estn creando esta plutocracia mundial, es mucho ms difcil saber qu pensar al respecto. +Y eso se debe a que en contraste con el capitalismo de amigos, mucho de lo hecho por la globalizacin y la revolucin tecnolgica es altamente positivo. +Empecemos con la tecnologa. +Me encanta Internet. Me encantan mis dispositivos mviles. +Me encanta que eso permita que quien lo desee pueda ver esta charla mucho ms all de este auditorio. +Soy fan de la globalizacin. +Piensen en sus lavaplatos o sus camisetas. +Qu ms se puede pedir? +Bueno, un par de cosas. +Una de las cosas que me preocupa es la facilidad con lo que lo que podramos llamar plutocracia meritocrtica se vuelve plutocracia de amigos. +Imaginen que uno es un emprendedor brillante que ha vendido con xito esa idea o ese producto a los miles de millones del mundo y as se ha vuelto ultramillonario. +Se vuelve tentador en ese punto usar el ingenio econmico para manipular las reglas de la economa poltica mundial en favor propio. +Y no es un mero ejemplo hipottico. +Piensen en Amazon, Apple, Google, Starbucks. +Son algunas de las compaas ms admiradas, ms amadas, ms innovadoras del mundo. +Tambin resultan ser particularmente hbiles con el sistema fiscal internacional para reducir su factura de impuestos muy, muy significativamente. +Y por qu no usar el sistema poltico mundial y el sistema econmico tal cual es para obtener el mximo beneficio? +Una vez que se tiene ese tremendo poder econmico que vemos bien en la cima de la distribucin de ingresos y el poder poltico que inevitablemente conlleva, se vuelve tentador tambin empezar a tratar de cambiar las reglas del juego en favor propio. +De nuevo, esto no es una mera hiptesis. +Es lo que hicieron los oligarcas rusos al crear la privatizacin del siglo de los recursos naturales rusos. +Es una forma de describir lo ocurrido con la desregulacin de los servicios financieros en EE.UU. y en el R.U. +La segunda cosa que me preocupa es la facilidad con la que la plutocracia meritocrtica puede volverse aristocracia. +Una forma de describir a los plutcratas es como "geeks alfa", personas muy conscientes de lo importante que son las habilidades altamente sofisticadas, analticas y cuantitativas en la economa actual. +Por eso estn gastando tiempo y recursos sin precedentes en la educacin de sus hijos. +La clase media tambin est gastando ms en educacin, pero en la competencia educativa mundial que empieza en la guardera y termina en Harvard, Stanford o el MIT, el 99 % cada vez se ve ms superado por el 1 %. +El resultado es algo que los economistas Alan Krueger y Miles Corak llaman la Gran Curva Gatsby. +Conforme aumenta la inequidad de ingresos, la movilidad social disminuye. +La plutocracia puede que sea una meritocracia, pero cada vez ms uno tiene que nacer en el peldao superior de la escalera para participar en esa carrera. +La tercer cosa, y esto es lo que ms me preocupa, es el grado en que esas mismas fuerzas en gran medida positivas estn guiando el aumento de la plutocracia mundial y tambin estn vaciando a la clase media en las economas occidentales industrializadas. +Empecemos con la tecnologa. +Esas mismas fuerzas que crean ultramillonarios tambin se devoran muchos empleos tradicionales de la clase media. +Cundo fue la ltima vez que llamaron a un agente de viajes? +Y a diferencia de la Revolucin Industrial, los titanes de nuestra nueva economa no estn creando muchos empleos nuevos. +En su apogeo General Motors empleaba cientos de miles de personas; Facebook menos de 10 000. +Lo mismo vale para la globalizacin. +As como saca de la pobreza a cientos de millones de personas en los mercados emergentes, tambin est tercerizando muchos empleos de las economas desarrolladas occidentales. +La terrible realidad es que no existe regla econmica que traduzca automticamente mayor crecimiento econmico en prosperidad ampliamente compartida. +Eso se muestra en lo que considero que es la estadstica econmica ms aterradora de nuestro tiempo. +Desde finales de 1990, el aumento en la productividad se ha desvinculado de los aumentos en salarios y empleos. +Eso significa que nuestros pases se vuelven ms ricos, nuestras compaas se vuelven ms eficientes, pero no creamos ms empleos y no estamos pagando ms a la gente en su conjunto. +Una conclusin aterradora que podra sacarse de todo esto es preocuparse por el desempleo estructural. +Lo que me preocupa ms es un escenario de pesadilla diferente. +Despus de todo, en un mercado laboral totalmente libre, podramos encontrar empleos para casi todos. +La distopa que me preocupa es un universo en el que unos pocos genios inventan Google y el resto somos empleados para darles masajes a ellos. +As que cuando me deprimo mucho con todo esto, me consuelo pensando en la Revolucin Industrial. +Despus de todo, a pesar de sus molinos sombros y satnicos, sali bastante bien, no es as? +Todos los presentes somos ms ricos, ms sanos, ms altos --bueno, hay algunas excepciones-- y vivimos ms que nuestros antepasados del siglo XIX. +Tambin, no por casualidad, atravesamos una poca de tremendas invenciones sociales y polticas. +Creamos el moderno estado de bienestar. +Creamos la educacin pblica. +Creamos la salud pblica. +Creamos las pensiones pblicas. +Creamos los sindicatos. +Hoy en da, vivimos una era de transformacin econmica comparable en escala y alcance a la Revolucin Industrial. +Para asegurarnos de que esta nueva economa nos beneficia a todos y no solo a los plutcratas, tenemos que embarcarnos en una era de cambios polticos y sociales comparablemente ambiciosos. +Necesitamos un nuevo New Deal. +Mi nombre es Tom y hoy he venido a sincerarme sobre lo que hago por dinero. +Bsicamente, uso mi boca de maneras extraas a cambio de dinero. +Suelo hacer esta clase de cosas en bares de mala muerte del centro o en las esquinas de las calles, por lo que este puede no ser el lugar ms adecuado pero me gustara darles una pequea demostracin de lo que hago. +Y ahora, para mi prximo nmero, quisiera volver a los clsicos. +Vamos a volver atrs, muy atrs en el tiempo. +(Beatbox de Billie Jean) Billie Jean no es mi amante Solo es una chica que dice que soy el elegido Pero el nio no es mi hijo Bueno. +Cmo andan? +Muchas gracias, TEDx +Si todava no se han dado cuenta, mi nombre es Tom Thum y hago beatbox, que significa que todos los sonidos que acaban de or fueron hechos completamente utilizando solo mi voz y solo con mi voz. +Y les puedo asegurar que no hay absolutamente ningn efecto en este micrfono en lo absoluto. +Y estoy muy, pero muy emocionado. Ustedes aplauden por todo. Es genial. +Mira esto, mam! Lo logr! +Estoy muy, pero muy emocionado de estar aqu, en representacin de mis colegas y de todos aquellos que no han logrado poder hacer una carrera de la habilidad innata para hacer ruidos inhumanos. +Porque es un poco como un nicho de mercado, donde no hay mucho trabajo disponible, especialmente de donde yo vengo. +Ya saben, soy de Brisbane, la cual es una gran ciudad para vivir. +Si! Muy bien! Casi todo Brisbane est aqu. Eso es bueno. +Ya saben, soy de Brizzy, que es una gran ciudad para vivir, pero seamos honestos no es exactamente el centro cultural del hemisferio sur. +As que hago mucho de mi trabajo fuera de Brisbane y fuera de Australia, y as la bsqueda de esta loca pasin ma me ha permitido ver tantos lugares asombrosos en el mundo. +As que me gustara compartir con ustedes, si me permiten, mis experiencias. +As que, damas y caballeros, me gustara llevarlos en un viaje a travs de los continentes y a travs del sonido mismo. +Comenzamos nuestro viaje en los desiertos centrales. +India. +China. +Alemania. +Fiesta, fiesta, si! +Y antes de que lleguemos a nuestra ltima parada damas y caballeros, me gustara compartir con ustedes una tecnologa que traje desde la floreciente metrpolis de Brisbane. +Estas cosas que estn enfrente mo se llaman Kaoss Pads y me permiten hacer un montn de cosas diferentes con mi voz. +Por ejemplo, este de la izquierda me permite agregar un poco de reverberacin a mi sonido lo que hace me da ese... sabor. +Y a estos de aqu los puedo usar al unsono para imitar el efecto de una batera electrnica o algo como eso. +Puedo grabar mis propios sonidos y reproducirlos con solo tocar los pads. +TEDx. +Tengo mucho tiempo libre. +Por ltimo, pero no menos importante, este de la derecha me permite repetir-repetir-repetir mi voz +As que, con todo eso en mente, damas y caballeros, me gustara llevarlos en un viaje a un lugar completamente diferente en la Tierra al transformar la pera de Sdney en un bar de jazz repleto de humo en el centro. +Bueno muchachos, llvenselo. +Damas y caballeros, me gustara presentarles a un amigo mo muy especial, uno de los mejores contrabajistas que conozco. +Sr. Smokey Jefferson, vamos a pasear. Vamos, nena. +Bueno, damas y caballeros, me gustara presentarles a la estrella del show, uno de las ms grandes leyendas del jazz de nuestros tiempos. +Amantes de la msica y del jazz, por favor, dnle un clido aplauso al nico e incomparable Sr. Mirn. Llvenselo. +Gracias. Muchas gracias. +Amo el papel y amo la tecnologa y me ocupo en hacer interactivo al papel. +Eso digo cuando la gente me pregunta qu hago, pero realmente confunde a la mayora de la gente, as que, en realidad, la mejor manera de explicarlo es utilizar la tecnologa, ser creativa y crear experiencias. +Pensaba qu podra usar aqu hace un par de semanas se me ocurri la loca idea de que quera imprimir dos tornamesas para DJs e intentar mezclar msica. +Voy a intentar mostrarlo al final, aunque no estoy segura de si lo lograr. +No soy DJ ni msica, as que estoy un poco asustada. +Creo que la mejor manera de describir mi trayectoria es mencionando algunas cosas que sucedieron a lo largo de mi vida. +Hay tres cosas en particular que hice y voy a describirlas primero, antes de hablar de mi trabajo. +Cuando era nia, estaba obsesionada con los cables. Sola pasarlos bajo mi alfombra, detrs de la pared, tena pequeos interruptores y altavoces y quera que mi alcoba fuera interactiva, pero que todo estuviera oculto. +Tambin estaba muy interesada +No tena inters alguno en lo que deca, +ms bien me gustaba la idea de un objeto cotidiano que tuviera algo adentro e hiciera algo distinto. +Varios aos ms tarde, logr exitosamente reprobar todos mis exmenes y me retir de la escuela sin haber logrado gran cosa y mis padres, tal vez como recompensa, me compraron lo que result ser un pasaje de ida a Australia, y volv a casa cuatro aos ms tarde. +Acab en una granja en medio de la nada. +Estaba en el extremo occidental de Nueva Gales del Sur. +La finca tena unas 48 000 hectreas. +Haba 22 000 ovejas, y haca unos 40 grados o unos 100 grados Fahrenheit. +En la finca viva un granjero con su esposa, y una hija de cuatro aos. +Me recibieron en la finca y me ensearon cmo es vivir y trabajar. +Obviamente, una de las cosas ms importantes eran las ovejas. Mi trabajo era, pues, hacer prcticamente de todo pero en particular arrear las ovejas de regreso a la hacienda. +Eso lo hacamos construyendo cercas, usando motocicletas y caballos, y las ovejas volvan hasta el cobertizo de trasquilado para las diversas estaciones. +Lo que aprend fue que aun cuando entonces, pensaba, como todos, que las ovejas eran bastante tontas por no hacer lo que queramos que hicieran, lo que ahora comprendo, mirando en retrospectiva, es que las ovejas no eran nada tontas. +Las habamos puesto en un ambiente donde no queran estar, y no deseaban hacer lo que nosotros queramos que hicieran. +As que el reto era conseguir que hicieran lo que queramos que hicieran teniendo en cuenta el clima, el relieve del terreno, y creando cosas para que las ovejas discurrieran hacia donde queramos que fueran. +Muchos aos despus, me encontraba en la Universidad de Cambridge en el Laboratorio Cavendish del Reino Unido, +cursando un doctorado en fsica. +Mi doctorado trataba de mover electrones, uno por vez. +Me di cuenta de nuevo, es esa comprensin que se tiene mirando atrs a lo hecho de que era muy parecido a desplazar a las ovejas. +Realmente lo es. +Solo hay que modificar el entorno. +Fue una gran leccin para m, saber que no puedes actuar sobre un objeto. +Cambiando el ambiente el objeto fluir. +Lo hicimos a escala muy pequea, todo tena un tamao de unos 30 nanmetros, en un medio muy fro, a temperaturas de helio lquido. modificando el ambiente al cambiar el voltaje los electrones fluiran por el circuito uno a la vez, encendido y apagado, un pequeo nodo de memoria. +Quise ir un paso ms all: pasar un electrn a encendido y otro a apagado. +Me dijeron que no podra hacerlo, lo cual, que nos lo digan los dems, es lo que nos induce a hacerlo. +Estaba decidida, y logr demostrar que poda hacerse. +As que ahora mi obsesin es la impresin, y me fascina realmente la idea de utilizar procesos convencionales de impresin, como los tipos de impresin usados para crear muchas de las cosas que nos rodean, para hacer papel y cartn interactivos. +Cuando habl con impresores al empezar a hacer esto y les dije lo que quera hacer, que era imprimir tinta conductiva en papel, dijeron que no era posible hacerlo, y de nuevo, esa cosa favorita. +As que consegu unas 10 tarjetas de crdito y prstamos y estuve muy cerca de la quiebra, y me compr una prensa enorme, que no tena idea de cmo usar. +Era de unos 5 metros de largo, y me cubr de tinta, y el piso tambin, provoqu un gran desorden, pero aprend a imprimir. +Volv a ver a los impresores y les mostr lo que haba hecho. Dijeron, "Claro que se puede hacer. +Por qu no viniste a vernos antes?". +Siempre es as. +Entonces utilizamos prensas convencionales, creamos tintas conductivas, y las pasamos por la prensa, y bsicamente permitimos que cientos de miles de electrones fluyan por el papel logrando papel interactivo. +En realidad es bastante simple. +Es un conjunto de cosas que se han hecho antes, pero las reunimos de una manera diferente. +Entonces tomamos una hoja de papel con tinta conductiva, y le agregamos una pequea tarjeta de circuito con un par de chips, uno para ejecutar un programa tctil capacitivo, para saber dnde lo hemos tocado, y el otro para ejecutar, frecuentemente, algn programa inalmbrico para que la hoja de papel pueda conectarse. +Solo describir un par de cosas que hemos creado. +Hemos creado muchas cosas diferentes. +Esta es una de ellas, porque me encanta el pastel. +Este, es un gran cartel, que tiene un pequeo parlante detrs, el cartel te habla cuando lo tocas, te hace una serie de preguntas, y decide tu pastel perfecto. +Pero no dice en ese momento cul es tu pastel. +Sube una imagen, dando la razn por la que eligi ese pastel, a nuestra pgina de Facebook y a Twitter. +Tratamos de crear la conexin entre lo fsico y lo digital, pero tenerlo no mirando a una pantalla, y con la apariencia de un cartel normal. +Hemos trabajado con varias universidades en un proyecto de impresin interactiva. +Por ejemplo, hemos creado un peridico, un diario normal. +Se puede usar un par de audfonos que se conectan inalmbricamente, y cuando uno lo toca, oye la msica descripta en el encabezado, la que no se puede leer. +Se puede escuchar una conferencia de prensa y leer lo que ha decidido el editor sobre el tema de la conferencia. +Y se puede oprimir al botn de "Like" de Facebook o votar sobre algo tambin. +Algo ms que hemos creado, y esta es una idea que se me ocurri hace un par de aos, as creamos un proyecto. +Fue financiado por el gobierno para el diseo centrado en el usuario de edificios energticamente eficientes, difcil decirlo, y algo que yo desconoca al entrar al taller, pero que rpidamente aprend. +Queramos motivar a la gente para usar mejor la energa. +Y si no, aparecera un grafiti donde las hojas caeran de los rboles. +As que trataba de hacer que vieran algo en el medio ambiente inmediato que no quieres ver tan feo, en vez de esperar a que la gente haga cosas en el ambiente local porque el efecto que tiene es muy remoto. +Y creo, volviendo a la finca, que se trata de permitirle a la gente hacer lo que quieres que hagan en vez de hacer que la gente haga lo que quieres que hagan. +Ok. +Esta es la parte que realmente me asusta. +Algunas de las cosas que he creado son, un cartel que est aqu con el que puedes tocar los tambores. +No soy msica, pero pareca una buena idea en ese momento. +Si alguien quiere probar tocar los tambores, pueden. +Solo describir cmo funciona. +Este cartel est conectado inalmbricamente a mi telfono mvil, y al tocarlo, se conecta a la aplicacin. +Tiene un tiempo de respuesta bastante bueno. +Utiliza Bluetooth 4, as que es casi instantneo. +Ok, gracias. +Y hay un par de cosas ms. +Esta es como una tabla de sonidos, que puedes tocar, y me encantan estos ruidos horribles. +(Sirenas, explosiones, cristal rompindose) OK, y esta es una tornamesa de DJ. +Est vinculada inalmbricamente a mi iPad, y el programa est corriendo en el iPad. +S, me encanta hacer eso. +Pero no soy un DJ, aunque siempre quise serlo. +Entonces tengo un crossfader y dos tornamesas. +As que hice algo de tecnologa nueva, y me encanta que las cosas sean creativas, y me encanta trabajar con gente creativa. +Mi sobrina de 15 aos de edad es asombrosa, se llama Charlotte, le ped que grabara algo, y colabor con un amigo llamado Elliot para armar unos ritmos. +As que esta es mi sobrina, Charlotte. +Bravo! +As que eso es lo que hago. +Me encanta vincular a la tecnologa, divirtindome, siendo creativa. +Pero no se trata de la tecnologa. +Solo quiero crear grandes experiencias. +As que, muchas gracias. +Hablar de la conciencia. +Por qu la conciencia? +Bueno es un tema curiosamente descuidado tanto por nuestra ciencia como por nuestra cultura filosfica. +Ahora por qu es eso curioso? +Bueno, es el aspecto ms importante de nuestras vidas por la muy simple y lgica razn, a saber, que es una condicin necesaria para todo siendo importante en nuestras vidas de que estamos conscientes. +Nos importa la ciencia, la filosofa, la msica, el arte, lo que sea... de nada sirve si eres un zombie o ests en coma, cierto? +Entonces la conciencia es primordial. +La segunda razn es que cuando la gente se llega a interesar, como creo que deberan, tienden a decir las mayores atrocidades. +Incluso cuando no llegan a decir atrocidades e intentan de verdad hacer investigacin seria, bueno, ha sido lento; el progreso ha sido lento. +Cuando en un inicio me interes, pens, bueno, es un problema llanamente de biologa. +Dejemos que los destazadores de cerebros se ocupen y averigen cmo funciona el cerebro. +As acud al UCSF y platiqu con toda la plana mayor de neurobilogos ah, y se mostraron impacientes, como a menudo sucede con los cientficos cuando les hacen preguntas embarazosas. +Pero lo que me impresion, fue lo que dijo un tipo exasperado, un neurobilogo muy famoso me dijo, "Mira, en mi disciplina est bien interesarse en la conciencia, pero primero obtn el puesto, obtn la plaza". +He trabajado en esto por largo tiempo. +Creo que ahora podran obtener una plaza si trabajan sobre la conciencia. +De ser as, este es un verdadero paso hacia adelante. +Bien, por qu hay esta curiosa renuencia y curiosa hostilidad a la conciencia? +Bien, creo que se debe a una combinacin de dos aspectos de nuestra cultura intelectual que gusta pensar que se oponen entre s cuando de hecho comparten un conjunto comn de supuestos. +Un aspecto es la tradicin del dualismo religioso: la conciencia no es parte del mundo fsico, +es parte de un mundo espiritual. +Pertenece al alma y el alma no es parte del mundo fsico. +Esa es la tradicin de Dios, el alma y la inmortalidad. +Existe otra tradicin que cree que se opone pero acepta el peor de los supuestos. +Esa tradicin cree que somos materialistas cientficos firmes: la conciencia no es parte del mundo fsico. +Ya sea que no existe en absoluto o es algo ms, un programa de ordenador o una cosa de lo ms tonta, pero en cualquier caso, no es parte de la ciencia. +Sola trabarme en discusiones que me revolvan el estmago. +Era as. +La ciencia es objetiva, la conciencia es subjetiva, por tanto no puede haber una ciencia de la conciencia. +Bueno, entonces estas tradiciones gemelas nos estn paralizando. +Es muy difcil extraerse de estas tradiciones gemelas. +Tengo slo un mensaje en esta ponencia, y es que la conciencia es un fenmeno biolgico. como la fotosntesis, la digestin, la mitosis... ya saben, todos los fenmenos biolgicos; y una vez que aceptan eso, la mayora si no es que todos los problemas difciles sobre la conciencia simplemente se evaporan. +Examinar algunos de ellos. +Bien, ahora les prometo que les contar algunas de las barbaridades que se dicen de la conciencia. +Primero: que la conciencia no existe. +Es una ilusin, como las puestas del sol. +La ciencia ha demostrado que las puestas de sol y los arcos iris son ilusiones. +Por tanto la conciencia es una ilusin. +Segundo: bueno, quiz existe, pero en realidad es algo ms. +Es un programa de computadora que opera en el cerebro. +Tercero: no, lo nico que existe en realidad es el comportamiento. +Es vergonzoso lo influyente que fue el conductismo, pero volver a eso despus. +Y cuarto: quiz la conciencia exista, pero no puede hacer diferencia en el mundo. +Cmo podra la espiritualidad mover algo? +Cada vez que alguien les diga eso, pienso, quieren ver a la espiritualidad mover algo? +Observen. Decido conscientemente subir el brazo y la maldita cosa sube. Adems, noten esto: no decimos, "Bueno, es un poco como la temperatura en Ginebra. +Algunos das sube y otros das no sube". +No, sube cada vez que se me da la gana hacerlo. +Bien, les dir cmo eso es posible. +Hasta ahora no les he dado una definicin. +No pueden hacerlo si no le dan una definicin, +La gente siempre dice que la conciencia es muy difcil de definir. +Ms bien pienso que es fcil de definir, si no intentan darle una definicin cientfica. +No estamos listos para una definicin cientfica, sino para una definicin de sentido comn. +La conciencia consiste de todos aquellos estados de sentimiento, sensacin o de alerta. +Empieza en la maana cuando despiertan del sueo sin soar, y continua todo el da hasta que se van a dormir o mueren o que de alguna forma se hagan inconscientes. +Los sueos son una forma de conciencia en esta definicin. +Esa es una definicin de sentido comn; ese es nuestro objetivo. +Si no estn hablando de eso, no estn hablando de conciencia. +Pero piensan, "Bueno si es eso, es un problema espantoso. +Cmo puede tal cosa ser parte del mundo real?" +Y si alguna vez toman un curso de filosofa, esto se conoce como el famoso problema de mente-cuerpo. +Pienso que eso tambin tiene una simple solucin que les dar. +Y es que: todos nuestros estados conscientes, sin excepcin, son provocados por procesos neurobiolgicos de bajo nivel en el cerebro, que ocurren en el cerebro como rasgos de alto nivel o de un sistema. +Es tan misterioso como la liquidez del agua. +Cierto? La liquidez no es un jugo extra que se extrae de las molculas del H0, +es una condicin en la que el sistema est. +Y as como la jarra llena de agua puede pasar de lquido a slido dependiendo del comportamiento de las molculas, as su cerebro puede pasar de un estado de estar consciente a un estado de estar inconsciente, dependiendo del comportamiento de las molculas. +El famoso problema mente-cuerpo es as de simple. +Bien? Pero ahora nos adentramos a unas preguntas ms difciles. +Especifiquemos los rasgos particulares de la conciencia, tal que podamos contestar esas cuatro objeciones. que les mencion. +Bien, el primer aspecto es que es real e irreducible. +No pueden deshacerse de ella. +Vern, la distincin entre realidad e ilusin es la distincin entre cmo nos parecen las cosas conscientemente y cmo son en realidad. +Conscientemente parece como que hay me gusta en francs "arc-en-ciel" parece que hay un arco en el cielo, o parece como que el sol se est poniendo en la montaas. +Conscientemente nos parece as, pero eso no sucede realmente. +Para esa distincin entre cmo parecen las cosas conscientemente y cmo son en realidad, no pueden hacer esa distincin para la existencia misma de la conciencia, porque lo que a la misma existencia de la conciencia concierne si conscientemente te parece que ests consciente, ests consciente. +Quiero decir, si una bola de expertos se me acerca y me dice, "Somos la plana mayor de neurobilogos y hemos hecho un estudio de Ud., Searle, y estamos convencidos que no est consciente, Ud. es un robot muy inteligente construido". No pienso, "Bueno, quiz estos tipos tiene razn". +No pienso eso ni por un momento, porque quiero decir, Descartes habr cometido muchos errores, pero acert en decir +que uno no puede dudar la existencia de su propia consciencia. +Bien, ese es el primer rasgo de la conciencia. +Es real e irreducible. +No pueden deshacerse de ella con mostrar que es una ilusin en la forma que lo hacen con otras ilusiones estndares. +Bien, el segundo rasgo es el que ha sido una fuente de problemas para nosotros, y es que todos nuestros estados conscientes tienen este carcter cualitativo. +Quiz podremos construir una mquina consciente. +Dado que no sabemos cmo lo hacen nuestros cerebros no estamos en la posicin, hasta ahora, de construir una mquina consciente. +Bien, otro rasgo de la conciencia es que se da en campos conscientes unificados. +As no slo tengo la visin de la gente frente a m y el sonido de mi voz, el peso de mis zapatos en el piso; estos me ocurren como parte de un solo gran campo consciente que se extienda hacia adelante y atrs. +Esta es la clave para entender el enorme poder de la conciencia. +No hemos podido hacer eso en un robot. +La decepcin de la robtica deriva del hecho de que no sabemos cmo hacer un robot consciente, entonces no tenemos una mquina que pueda hacer algo as. +Bien, el siguiente rasgo de la conciencia, despus de este campo consciente unificado maravilloso, es que funciona casualmente en nuestro comportamiento. +Les di una demostracin cientfica al subir la mano, pero cmo es eso posible? +Cmo puede ser que este pensamiento en mi cerebro pueda mover objetos materiales? +Les dir la respuesta. +Quiero decir, no sabemos la respuesta detallada, pero sabemos la parte bsica de la respuesta que consiste en una secuencia de disparos neuronales que terminan cuando se segrega acelticolina en la placa terminal de los axones en las neuronas motoras. +Disculpen el uso de terminologa filosfica, pero cuando se segrega en las placas terminales de los axones de las neuronas motoras, un montn de cosas maravillosas ocurren en los canales inicos y el maldito brazo se levanta. +Ahora, piensen en lo que les dije. +Uno y el mismo evento, mi decisin consciente de subir el brazo tiene un nivel de descripcin que tiene todas estas cualidades espirituales sensibles. +Es un pensamiento en mi cerebro, pero a su vez, es acetilcolina ocupada segregando y haciendo todo tipo de cosas conforme recorre la corteza motriz hacia las fibras nerviosas del brazo. +Lo que eso nos dice es que nuestros vocabularios tradicionales para discutir estos temas estn totalmente obsoletos. +Uno y el mismo evento tiene un nivel de descripcin donde es neurobiolgico, en otro nivel de descripcin es mental y eso es un solo evento, y es as como funciona la naturaleza. As es como la conciencia funciona causalmente. +Bien, ahora con eso en mente, recorriendo los varios rasgos de la conciencia, regresemos y contestemos algunas de las objeciones previas. +La primera que dije fue que la conciencia no existe, es una ilusin. A eso ya di respuesta. +No creo que debamos preocuparnos por eso. +Pero el segundo tiene una influencia increble, y quiz seguir tenindola, "Si la conciencia existe, si realmente es algo ms. +en realidad es un programa de computadora digital que corre en el cerebro y eso es lo que necesitamos hacer para crear conciencia, tener el programa correcto. +S, olvdense del hardware, cualquier hardware suplir la complejidad y estabilidad necesarias para correr el programa". +Sabemos que eso est equivocado. +Quiero decir, cualquiera que haya pensado en las computadoras puede ver que est mal, porque la computacin se define como una manipulacin de smbolos, en general se piensa en ceros y unos pero cualquier smbolo funcionara. +Tienen un algoritmo que pueden programar en cdigo binario y ese es el rasgo definitivo del programa de computadora. +Pero sabemos que eso es enteramente sintctico, es simblico. +Sabemos que la conciencia humana real tiene algo ms que eso. +Tiene un contenido adicional a la sintxis, +tiene semntica. +Ese argumento lo hice hace 30, --Dios mo, no quiero pensar en eso-- hace ms de 30 aos, pero hay un argumento profundo implcito en lo que le he dicho, y quiero contarles ese argumento brevemente: la conciencia crea una realidad independiente del observador. +Crea una realidad de dinero, propiedad, gobierno, matrimonio, conferencias del CERN, fiestas de cctel y vacaciones de verano y todas esas son creaciones de la conciencia. +Su existencia es relativa al observador. +Es slo relativo a los agentes conscientes el que un pedazo de papel sea dinero o que un montn de edificios sea una universidad. +Ahora, pregntensen sobre la computacin. +Es eso absoluto, como la fuerza, la masa y la atraccin gravitacional? +O es relativa al observador? +Bien, algunas computaciones son intrnsecas. +Sumo 2 + 2 para obtener 4. +Eso ser no importa lo que piense alguien +Pero cuando saco mi calculadora de bolsillo y hago el clculo, el nico fenmeno intrnseco es el circuito electrnico y su comportamiento. +Ese es el nico fenmeno absoluto. +Todo lo dems lo interpretamos. +La computacin slo existe relativa a la conciencia. +Ya sea que un agente consciente est llevando a cabo la computacin, o tiene una pieza de maquinaria que admite interpretacin computacional. +Eso no significa que la computacin sea arbitraria. +Gast mucho dinero en este hardware, +pero tenemos esta confusin persistente entre objetividad y subjetividad como rasgos de la realidad adems, objetividad y subjetividad como rasgos de aseveraciones. +El meollo de esta parte de la charla es que se puede tener una ciencia completamente objetiva, una ciencia donde hacen afirmaciones objetivamente ciertas, sobre un dominio cuya existencia es subjetiva, cuya existencia est en el cerebro humano. que consiste de estados de sensacin subjetiva o sentimiento o alerta. +As la objecin de que no se puede tener una ciencia objetiva de la conciencia porque es subjetiva y la ciencia es objetiva, es un albur. +Es un mal albur de la objetividad y la subjetividad. +Se puede hacer aseveraciones objetivas de un dominio que es subjetivo en su forma de existencia, y en efecto eso es lo que hacen los neurobilogos. +Quiero decir, tienen pacientes que en verdad sufren dolores, y se intenta obtener ciencia objetiva de ello. +Promet refutar a todos estos tipos y no queda mucho tiempo, pero dejen que refute algunos ms. +Dije que el conductivismo deba ser una de los ms grandes vergenzas de nuestra cultura intelectual, porque se refuta en el momento en que lo piensan. +Son sus estados mentales idnticos a su comportamiento? +Piensen en la distincin entre sentir un dolor y empearse en un comportamiento doloroso. +No demostrar el comportamiento doloroso, pero les puedo decir que en este momento no tengo ningn dolor. +Es un error obvio, por qu cometieron el error? +El error fue --y pueden revisar la literatura al respecto, que una y otra vez-- piensan que si aceptan la existencia irreducible de la conciencia, estn renunciando a la ciencia. +Estn renunciando a 300 aos de progreso humano y la esperanza humana y todo lo dems. +El mensaje que quiero dejarles, es que la conciencia tiene que ser aceptada como un fenmeno genuinamente biolgico tanto como tema de anlisis cientfico y tanto como otro fenmeno de la biologa, o para el caso particular, el resto de la ciencia. +Muchsimas gracias. +Si yo les preguntase cul es la conexin entre una botella de detergente Tide y el sudor, probablemente pensaran que es la pregunta ms sencilla que les harn en Edimburgo en toda la semana. +Pero si les dijera que ambas cosas son ejemplos de nuevas formas de moneda alternativa en una economa global, hiperconectada y regida por datos probablemente pensaran que estoy un poco loco. +Pero confen en m, trabajo en publicidad. +Les dir la respuesta pero obviamente despus de esta breve pausa. +Una pregunta ms desafiante fue la que me hizo uno de los redactores hace un par de semanas, y yo no saba la respuesta: Cul es la mejor moneda del mundo? +En realidad es el bitcoin. +Ahora, para quienes no estn familiarizados, el bitcoin es una moneda encriptada, virtual, digital. +Fue acuada en 2008 por un programador annimo bajo el seudnimo Satoshi Nakamoto. +Nadie sabe quin o qu es. +Es algo as como el Banksy de Internet. +Y quiz no le haga justicia aqu, pero mi interpretacin de cmo funciona es que los bitcoins se emiten a travs de un proceso de minera de datos. +Hay una red de ordenadores cuyo desafo es resolver un problema matemtico muy complejo y la primera persona que lo resuelve consigue los bitcoins. +Y los bitcoins se liberan, estn guardados en un libro contable pblico llamado "Blockchain", y luego fluctan, as se convierten en una moneda totalmente descentralizada, algo inquietante, y por eso tan popular. +No est controlada por el estado o las autoridades. +En realidad est gestionada por la red. +Y la razn de tanto xito se debe a que es privada, annima, rpida y barata. +Llega a haber fluctuaciones salvajes del bitcoin. +Pas de algo as como USD 13 a USD 266, literalmente en 4 meses, y luego se desplom y perdi la mitad de su valor en 6 horas. +Y actualmente su valor es de unos USD 110. +Pero esto muestra que est ganando terreno, est ganando respeto. +Existen servicios como Reddit y Wordpress que aceptan el bitcoin como moneda de pago. +Y eso demuestra que la gente deposita su confianza en la tecnologa, y ha empezado a triunfar, alterar y cuestionar las instituciones tradicionales y cmo pensamos las monedas y el dinero. +Y, no sorprende, si piensan en el caso desesperante de la UE. +Creo que recientemente hubo una encuesta de Gallup que dijo que en EE.UU. la confianza en los bancos siempre es baja, como del 21 %. +Y aqu pueden ver algunas fotos de Londres en las que Barclays patrocina el sistema de bicicletas de la ciudad, y algunos activistas han hecho un buen trabajo de marketing de guerrilla aqu y alter las consignas. +"Pedalea las subprime". "Barclays te lleva de paseo". +Estos son los ms educados que poda compartir hoy con Uds. +Pero vean lo esencial, la gente realmente ha empezado a perder la fe en las instituciones. +Hay una empresa de relaciones pblicas llamada Edelman, hace una encuesta muy interesante cada ao, precisamente sobre la confianza y lo que piensa la gente. +Es una encuesta mundial, estos nmeros son globales. +Lo interesante es que se puede ver que la jerarqua se est tambaleando un poco, y ahora todo es descentralizado, as que la gente confa ms en otra gente que en las empresas y los gobiernos. +Y si miran estas cifras en mercados ms desarrollados como el Reino Unido, Alemania, etc., son en realidad mucho menores. +Y encuentro que eso da un poco de miedo. +La gente confa en los empresarios ms de lo que confa en los gobiernos y lderes. +Lo que est empezando a ocurrir, si piensan en el dinero, si reducen el dinero a su esencia, es literalmente una expresin de valor, un valor acordado. +Y ahora, en la era digital, podemos cuantificar el valor de muchas maneras y hacerlo ms fcilmente, y a veces la manera de cuantificar esos valores, hace que sea mucho ms fcil crear nuevas formas de moneda vlidas. +En ese contexto, se puede ver que redes como las de bitcoin de repente empiezan a tener un poco ms de sentido. +Si lo piensan, estamos empezando a cuestionar, alterar e interrogar el significado del dinero, cul es nuestra relacin con l, qu define el dinero, y en ltima instancia: Hay alguna razn para que el gobierno est todava a cargo del dinero? +Obviamente estoy mirando esto con el prisma del marketing, desde la perspectiva de la marca, las marcas literalmente resistirn o se resquebrajar su reputacin. +Y, si lo piensan, la reputacin se ha convertido en una moneda. +Las reputaciones estn basadas en la confianza, la coherencia, la transparencia. +Si realmente han decidido confiar en una marca, quieren tener una relacin, comprometerse con la marca, ya estn participando en muchas formas nuevas de la moneda. +Piensen en la lealtad. +La lealtad es en esencia una micro-economa. +Piensen en esquemas de recompensas, como las millas areas. +"The Economist" dijo hace unos aos que hay ms millas areas sin canjear en el mundo que dlares en circulacin. +Cuando estn en la cola de Starbucks, el 30 % de las transacciones de Starbucks un da cualquiera en realidad se hacen con puntos Starbucks. +As que es una especie de "moneda Starbucks" que permanece en su ecosistema. +Y me parece interesante que Amazon recientemente haya lanzado "monedas Amazon". +Hay que reconocer que por el momento solo es una moneda para el Kindle. +Pueden comprar aplicaciones y hacer compras dentro de las aplicaciones, pero pensando en Amazon miran el barmetro de confianza que les mostr donde la gente est empezando a confiar en las empresas, especialmente las empresas en las que creen y confan ms que en los gobiernos. +De repente, empiezan a pensar, Amazon potencialmente podra darle un empuje a esto. +Podra convertirse en una extensin natural, eso, as como comprar... ms all del Kindle... podran comprar libros, msica, productos reales, electrodomsticos y mercancas, etc. +De repente Amazon, como marca, est frente a frente con la Reserva Federal en trminos de cmo gastar el dinero, qu es el dinero, qu lo constituye. +Ahora volvamos al detergente Tide, como promet. +Este es un artculo fantstico que encontr en New York Magazine, donde se deca que los consumidores de drogas de EE.UU. en realidad compran drogas con botellas de detergente Tide. +As que van a las tiendas de barrio, a robar Tide; una botella de USD 20 de Tide equivale a USD 10 de crack o marihuana. +Algunos criminlogos estn diciendo al ver esto, bueno, est bien, Tide como producto se vende como "premium". +Est un 50 % por encima de la media de la categora. +Est compuesto de un cctel muy complejo de productos qumicos, con un aroma muy lujoso y distintivo, y, siendo una marca de Procter and Gamble, est apoyado por una gran cantidad de medios de publicidad. +Estn diciendo que los usuarios de drogas tambin consumen Tide. Tienen esto en sus vas neurales. +Cuando ven Tide, asocian. +Dicen, eso es confianza. Eso es calidad. +Se convierte en esa unidad de moneda que describe New York Magazine como una ola de lealtad criminal, de lealtad criminal a la marca, y los criminales llaman a Tide "oro lquido". +Pero lo que me pareci gracioso fue la reaccin del portavoz de P&G. +Obviamente trat de distanciar la marca de las drogas, pero dijo: "me recuerda una cosa y es que el valor de la marca ha permanecido constante". Eso respalda mi argumento y demuestra que ni siquiera sud al decir eso. +Eso me lleva de nuevo a la conexin con el sudor. +En Mxico, Nike recientemente hizo una campaa llamada literalmente "Apuesta tu sudor". +Si lo piensan, estos Nike tienen sensores, o usan FuelBand de Nike que bsicamente rastrean el movimiento, la energa, el consumo de caloras. +Y ocurre que han sido elegidos para sumarse a esa comunidad de Nike, los llevaron all. +No publicitan mensajes fuertes; la publicidad ha empezado a desplazarse hacia servicios, herramientas y aplicaciones. +Nike literalmente est actuando como un socio de bienestar, un proveedor de servicios de salud y para ponerse en forma. +Y dicen: "Bien, tienes un tablero, sabemos cunto corriste, cunto te moviste, tu ingesta de caloras, todas esas cosas. +Cuanto ms corres, ms puntos consigues, y tenemos una subasta donde puedes comprar artculos de Nike pero solo demostrando que en realidad usaste el producto para hacer cosas". +Y no puedes ganar esto, es solo para la comunidad que est sudando que usa productos de Nike. No puedes comprar cosas con dinero. +Es literalmente un ambiente cerrado, un espacio cerrado de subasta. +En frica, los minutos de aire son literalmente una moneda por derecho propio. +La gente est acostumbrada, porque el mvil es rey, estn muy acostumbrados a hacer transferencias de dinero, hacer pagos va mvil. +Y uno de mis ejemplos favoritos desde una perspectiva de marca es Vodafone en Egipto, donde muchas personas hacen compras en los mercados y pequeas tiendas independientes. +El pequeo cambio es un verdadero problema; si uno compra un puado de cosas, y le deben, digamos, 10 cntimos, 20 cntimos, +los comerciantes tienden a darle cosas como una cebolla o una aspirina, o un chicle, porque no tienen cambio. +As que cuando Vodafone vio este problema, este fastidio para el consumidor, cre un pequeo cambio que llaman "fakka", que literalmente los comerciantes le dan a los clientes; es crdito que va directamente a su telfono mvil. +Esta moneda se convierte en crdito que, otra vez, es muy, muy interesante. +Hicimos una encuesta que respalda el hecho de que, el 45 % de las personas en este estudio demogrfico vital de EE.UU. +dijeron sentirse cmodas usando una moneda independiente, o de marca. +Esto se pone realmente interesante, hay en curso una dinmica interesante. +Uno piensa, las empresas deben empezar a pensar sus activos en forma diferente y comerciar con ellos. +Es un salto muy grande? +Parece descabellado, pero si lo piensan, en EE.UU. en 1860, haba 1600 empresas que emitan billetes. +Haba 8000 tipos de billetes en EE.UU. +Y lo nico que detuvo esto --el gobierno control el 4 % de la oferta-- lo nico que lo detuvo fue la irrupcin de la Guerra Civil. De repente, el gobierno quera tomar el control del dinero. +Gobierno, dinero, guerra, nada cambia. +As que bsicamente voy a preguntar: se repite la historia? +La tecnologa hace de los billetes algo anticuado? +Estamos desvinculando el dinero del gobierno? +Si lo piensan, las marcas estn empezando a llenar los vacos. +Las empresas estn llenando vacos que los gobiernos no pueden llenar. +Pienso, estaremos en el escenario el ao que viene comprando caf --orgnico, de comercio justo-- usando florines o chelines de TED? +Muchas gracias. +Gracias. +Francesca Fedeli: Ciao. +Este es Mario, nuestro hijo. +Naci hace dos aos y medio. Tuve un embarazo muy difcil porque tuve que quedarme en cama unos ocho meses. +Pero finalmente todo pareca estar bajo control. +Pesaba lo apropiado al nacer. +Un ndice apropiado de Apgar. +Y esto nos dio cierta tranquilidad. +Pero finalmente, 10 das despus del nacimiento, descubrimos que haba sufrido un accidente cerebrovascular. +Como saben, un ACV es un derrame cerebral. +Un ACV perinatal es algo que puede suceder durante los nueve meses del embarazo o repentinamente luego del parto, y en su caso, como pueden ver, la parte derecha de su cerebro haba desaparecido. +El ACV poda suponer para Mario la prdida de la capacidad para controlar el costado izquierdo de su cuerpo. +Imagnense, si tuviesen una computadora y una impresora y tuviesen que enviar un documento para imprimir, pero la impresora no tiene los controladores correctos, lo mismo le sucede a Mario. +Es como si quisiese mover el costado izquierdo de su cuerpo, pero no le es posible enviar la orden para mover su brazo y su pierna izquierdas. +Tuvimos que cambiar nuestras vidas +y nuestros horarios. +Adaptarnos al impacto que su nacimiento haba tenido en nuestras vidas. +Roberto D'Angelo: Como pueden imaginar, lamentablemente no estbamos preparados. +Nadie nos haba enseado a lidiar con este tipo de discapacidad. Empezaron a surgir muchsimas preguntas. +Fue un momento muy difcil. +Preguntas bsicas, como, por qu nos pas esto a nosotros?, +qu sali mal? +Algunas ms duras, como, cul va a ser el impacto en la vida de Mario? +Quiero decir, trabajar? +Llevar una vida normal? +Para un padre, especialmente primerizo, por qu no va a poder ser mejor que nosotros? +Sin duda, es muy difcil de explicar, pero meses despus, nos dimos cuenta de que sentamos que habamos fracasado. +El nico fruto autntico de nuestras vidas result un fracaso. +No era un fracaso para nosotros, sino un fracaso que afectara toda su vida. +Sinceramente, nos deprimimos. +Nos deprimimos profundamente, hasta que finalmente comenzamos a mirarlo y nos dijimos: debemos reaccionar. +Inmediatamente, cambiamos nuestras vidas. +Comenzamos la fisioterapia y la rehabilitacin, con un proyecto piloto con neuronas espejo. +Pasamos meses enteros haciendo esto con Mario. +Le ensebamos cmo agarrar un objeto. +La teora de las neuronas espejo explica que en sus cerebros, ahora mismo, mientras me ven, estn activando las mismas neuronas que se activaran si realizaran la accin. +Parece ser el mejor tratamiento de rehabilitacin. +Pero un da descubrimos que Mario no estaba mirando nuestras manos. +Nos estaba mirando a nosotros. +Nosotros ramos su espejo. +Y el problema, como podrn adivinar, era que estbamos deprimidos, y lo veamos como un problema, no como un hijo, no desde una perspectiva positiva. +Y ese da cambi nuestra perspectiva. +Descubrimos que debamos ser un mejor espejo para Mario. +Comenzamos desde nuestras fortalezas. y desde las suyas. +Dejamos de verlo como un problema, para verlo como una oportunidad para mejorar. +Y este fue el verdadero cambio. Nosotros nos preguntamos: qu fortalezas podemos ensearle a Mario? +Nuestras pasiones. +Mi epsosa y yo somos muy diferentes, pero tenemos muchas cosas en comn. +Nos encanta viajar, la msica, venir a lugares como TED, y comenzamos a traer a Mario para ensearle lo mejor. +Este es un video breve de la semana pasada. +No estoy diciendo que... No estoy diciendo que sea un milagro. Ese no es el mensaje, porque recin comenzamos el camino. +Pero queremos compartir con ustedes lo que aprendimos, lo que Mario nos ense: considerar lo que tenemos como un regalo, y no considerar lo que no se tiene, perder algo es una oportunidad. +Este es el mensaje. +Por eso que estamos aqu. +Mario! +Y esta es la razn... Por eso decidimos compartir el mejor espejo con l. +uchsimas gracias a todos. +FF: Gracias.
RD: Gracias. Adis. +FF: Gracias. +Tena cinco aos y estaba muy orgullosa. +Mi pap terminaba de construir la mejor letrina en nuestro pueblito de Ucrania. +Adentro, es un agujero en el suelo enorme y apestoso, Pero de por fuera, es de formica blanca nacarada que brilla literalmente al sol. +Me hizo sentir tan orgullosa, tan importante, que me nombr la lder de mi grupo de amigos y dise misiones para cumplir. +bamos de casa en casa buscando moscas atrapadas en las telas de araa para liberarlas. +Cuatro aos antes, cuando tena un ao, despus del accidente de Chernbil, la lluvia era negra. A mi hermana se le caa el pelo a mechones y yo estuve nueve meses en el hospital. +No se permitan visitas, as que mi mam soborn a un trabajador del hospital. +Compr un uniforme de enfermera y se col todas las noches para sentarse a mi lado. +Cinco aos despus, un hecho rescatable e inesperado. +Gracias a Chernbil, conseguimos asilo en los EE.UU. +El da que llegamos a Nueva York, mi abuela y yo encontramos un centavo en el piso del refugio para indigentes donde paraba mi familia. +Pero no sabamos que era un refugio para indigentes. +Creamos que era un hotel, un hotel lleno de ratas. +Encontramos ese centavo casi fosilizado en el piso y pensamos que un hombre muy rico deba haberlo dejado all porque la gente normal nunca pierde dinero. +Apret el centavo en la palma de mi mano; estaba pegajoso y oxidado, pero yo senta que tena una fortuna. +Decid que iba a comprar mi propio chicle Bazooka. +Y en ese momento me sent una millonaria. +Un ao ms tarde, volv a sentir lo mismo cuando encontramos una bolsa llena de animales de peluche en la basura. De repente tena ms juguetes de los que haba tenido en toda mi vida. +Tuve de nuevo esa sensacin cuando golpearon la puerta de nuestro apartamento en Brooklyn, y mi hermana y yo encontramos a un repartidor con una caja de pizza que no habamos pedido. +Tomamos la pizza, nuestra primera pizza, y la devoramos porcin tras porcin, mientras el repartidor estaba ah parado y nos miraba fijamente desde la puerta. +Nos pidi que pagramos, pero nosotras no hablbamos ingls. +Mi madre sali y el repartidor le pidi el dinero, pero no tena suficiente. +Caminaba 50 cuadras al trabajo todos los das, ida y vuelta, para no gastar en autobs. +Entonces nuestro vecino asom la cabeza y se puso rojo de rabia cuando se dio cuenta de que esos inmigrantes de abajo tenan las manos en su pizza. +Todos estaban molestos. +Pero la pizza estaba riqusima. +No me d cuenta hasta aos ms tarde de lo poco que tenamos. +En nuestro dcimo aniversario de estar en los EE.UU., decidimos celebrar reservando una habitacin en el primer hotel en el que estuvimos cuando llegamos. +El hombre de la recepcin se ri y nos dijo: "No pueden reservar una habitacin. Esto es un refugio para indigentes". +Nos sorprendimos. +Mi marido Brian tambin fue indigente de nio. +Su familia perdi todo y a los 11 aos tena que vivir en moteles con su padre, moteles que les retenan toda la comida y la tenan confiscada hasta que pudieran pagar la cuenta. +Y una vez, cuando finalmente lleg su caja de Frosted Flakes, estaba llena de cucarachas. +Pero l s tena una cosa. +Tena esta caja de zapatos que llevaba con l a todas partes con nueve libros de historietas, dos G.I. Joes pintados para que se pareciera al hombre araa y cinco Gobots. Y ese era su tesoro. +Ese era su propio conjunto de hroes que lo salvaba de las drogas y las pandillas y de renunciar a sus sueos. +Voy a hablarles de otro miembro de nuestra familia que antes era indigente. +l es Scarlett. +Alguna vez, Scarlet fue usada de cebo en las peleas de perros. +La ataban y la arrojaban a la arena para que otros perros la atacaran y se pusieran ms agresivos antes de la pelea. +Ahora come comida orgnica y duerme en una cama ortopdica con su nombre. Pero cuando le pones agua en el tazn, todava te mira y mueve la cola agradecida. +A veces Brian y yo paseamos por el parque con Scarlett. Rueda por el csped y nosotros la miramos. Y luego nos miramos el uno al otro y sentimos gratitud. +Nos olvidamos de todas nuestras nuevas frustraciones y decepciones de clase media, y nos sentimos como millonarios. +Gracias. +Qu sabemos sobre el futuro? +Pregunta difcil, respuesta sencilla: nada. +No podemos predecir el futuro. +Solo podemos crear una visin del futuro, cmo podra ser, una visin que revele ideas disruptivas, lo cual es inspirador, y esa es la razn ms importante que rompe las cadenas del pensamiento comn. +Hay mucha gente que cre su propia visin del futuro, por ejemplo, esta visin de principios del siglo XX. +Aqu dice que este es el avin ocenico del futuro. +En un da y medio cruza el Atlntico. +Hoy sabemos que esta visin de futuro no se hizo realidad. +Este es el avin ms grande que tenemos, el Airbus A380, es bastante grande, lleva un montn de personas y tcnicamente es completamente diferente del de la visin que les mostr. +Estamos trabajando en equipo con Airbus, y hemos creado una visin sobre un futuro ms sustentable de la aviacin. +La sustentabilidad es bastante importante para nosotros, y debera incluir valores sociales pero tambin ambientales y econmicos. +Por eso creamos una estructura muy disruptiva que imita el diseo del hueso, o esqueleto, que ocurre en la naturaleza. +Es por eso que quiz parezca un poco raro, sobre todo para quienes trabajan con estructuras en general. +Pero al menos es una forma de arte para explorar nuestras ideas sobre un futuro diferente. +Quines son los principales clientes del futuro? +Estn los viejos, los jvenes, las mujeres en ascenso, y hay una megatendencia que nos afecta a todos. +Este es el futuro de la antropometra. +Nuestros hijos son cada vez ms grandes, pero al mismo tiempo crecemos en distintas direcciones. +Por eso necesitamos espacio dentro de la aeronave, dentro de cada rea densa. +Estas personas tienen distintas necesidades. +Vemos, pues, una necesidad clara de promover la salud activa, sobre todo en el caso de la gente mayor. +Queremos ser tratados como individuos. +Queremos ser productivos a lo largo de toda la cadena del viaje, por eso en el futuro queremos usar lo ltimo en interfaz hombre-mquina, e integrarlo todo en un solo producto. +Por eso combinamos estas necesidades con temas tecnolgicos. +As, por ejemplo, nos preguntamos: cmo podemos crear ms luz? +Cmo llevar ms luz natural al avin? +Este avin ya no tiene ventanas, por ejemplo. +Qu hay del software de datos y comunicacin que necesitamos en el futuro? +En lo personal creo que el avin del futuro tendr su propia conciencia. +Ser ms como un organismo vivo que una coleccin de tecnologa muy compleja. +Esto ser muy distinto en el futuro. +Se comunicar directamente con el pasajero en su entorno. +Y luego tambin hablamos de materiales, biologa sinttica, por ejemplo. +Creo que conseguiremos cada vez ms materiales, ms nuevos, que luego podremos poner en estructuras porque la estructura es uno de los temas clave en el diseo aeronutico. +Comparemos el mundo viejo con el mundo nuevo. +Quiero mostrarles aqu lo que hacemos hoy. +Este es el soporte del compartimiento de descanso de la tripulacin de un A380. +Requiere mucho peso, y sigue las reglas del diseo clsico. +Este de aqu es un soporte igual para el mismo propsito. +Sigue las reglas de diseo de un hueso. +El proceso de diseo es totalmente diferente. +Por un lado, tenemos 1,2 kilo y por el otro, 0,6 kilo. +Esta tecnologa, la impresin 3D, y nuevas reglas de diseo realmente nos ayudan a reducir peso, que es el mayor problema en el diseo de aeronaves, porque est directamente vinculado a las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero. +Llevando esta idea un poco ms lejos: +Cmo construye la naturaleza sus componentes y estructuras? +La naturaleza es muy inteligente. Pone toda la informacin en estos pequeos bloques de construccin, que llamamos ADN. +Y a partir de ellos construye esqueletos. +Aqu vemos un enfoque abajo-arriba porque toda la informacin, como dije, est en el ADN. +Y esto se combina con un enfoque arriba-abajo porque en la vida cotidiana entrenamos los msculos, entrenamos el esqueleto, y as se fortalece. +El mismo enfoque puede aplicarse tambin a la tecnologa. +Nuestro bloque de construccin es el nanotubo de carbono, por ejemplo, para, en ltima instancia, crear un esqueleto grande, sin remaches. +Aqu en particular pueden ver su aspecto. +Imaginen que tienen nanotubos de carbono en una impresora 3D, y se los incrusta en una matriz de plstico, y seguimos las fuerzas que ocurren en el componente. +Y tenemos miles de millones de ellos. +Se los alinea en la madera, y en esta madera practicamos unas optimizaciones morfolgicas, para hacer estructuras, sub-estructuras, que permitan transmitir energa elctrica o datos. +Y ahora tomamos este material, lo combinamos con un enfoque arriba-abajo y construimos componentes cada vez ms grandes. +Qu aspecto tendr el avin del futuro? +Tenemos asientos muy diferentes que se adaptan a la forma del pasajero del futuro, con diferente antropometra. +Tenemos reas sociales dentro de la aeronave que podran convertirse en un lugar donde jugar golf virtual. +Y, finalmente, esta estructura binica cubierta por una membrana transparente, un biopolmero, que realmente cambiar de forma radical nuestra manera de ver la aeronave del futuro. +Como dijo Jason Silva, si podemos imaginarlo, por qu no hacerlo? +Nos vemos en el futuro. Gracias. +Esta es una motoambulancia. +Es la forma ms rpida de llegar a una emergencia mdica. +Tiene todo lo que tiene una ambulancia, excepto la camilla. +Pueden ver el desfibrilador. Pueden ver el equipamiento. +Todos vimos la tragedia que ocurri en Boston. +Cuando observ estas imgenes, ello me transport muchos aos atrs, a cuando era nio. +Nac en un pequeo barrio de Jerusaln. +Cuando tena seis aos, caminaba de regreso de la escuela un viernes por la tarde junto a mi hermano mayor. +Pasbamos por una parada de autobs. +Vimos un autobs explotar ante nuestros ojos. +El autobs estaba en llamas, y haba muchos heridos y muertos. +Recuerdo a un anciano gritando y llorando para que le ayudramos a levantarse. +Solo necesitaba que alguien le ayudara. +Estbamos tan asustados que salimos corriendo. +Cuando crec, decid que quera ser mdico y salvar vidas. +Quizs debido a lo que vi cuando era nio. +Cuando tena 15 aos, hice un curso de TEM (Tcnico en Emergencias Mdicas), y pas a ser voluntario en ambulancia. +Durante dos aos, fui voluntario en ambulancia en Jerusaln. +Ayud a mucha gente, pero cada vez que alguien realmente necesitaba ayuda, nunca llegaba a tiempo. Nunca llegbamos. +El trfico est muy mal. La distancia, y todo. +Nunca llegbamos cuando alguien verdaderamente nos necesitaba. +Un da, recibimos una llamada acerca de un nio de siete aos que se atragant con un perrito caliente. +El trfico era horrible, y venamos del otro lado de la ciudad, en el norte de Jerusaln. +Cuando llegamos, 20 minutos despus, comenzamos la RCP (Reanimacin Cardiopulmonar) en el nio. +Llega un doctor desde la otra cuadra, nos detiene, examina al nio y nos dice que no sigamos con la RCP. +Aquel instante anunci que el nio estaba muerto. +En aquel momento comprend que este nio haba muerto sin motivo. +Si este mdico, que viva a una cuadra de distancia, hubiese llegado 20 minutos antes, sin esperar a or la sirena que vena de la ambulancia, si se hubiera enterado del suceso mucho antes, habra salvado al nio. +Podra haber venido corriendo desde la otra cuadra. +Podra haber salvado a aquel nio. +Me dije a m mismo que deba haber otra manera mejor. +Junto a 15 de mis amigos todos ramos TEMs (Tcnicos de emergencias mdicas) decidimos, vamos a proteger nuestro barrio, as, cuando algo similar vuelva a ocurrir, iremos corriendo y estaremos all mucho antes que la ambulancia. +As que me dirig al director de la compaa de ambulancias y le ped: "Por favor, cuando reciba una llamada desde nuestro barrio, tenemos 15 geniales muchachos que estn dispuestos a dejar todo lo que estn haciendo y salir corriendo a salvar vidas. +Simplemente avsenos por el localizador. +Nosotros compraremos los localizadores, solo dgale a su despacho que nos mande el aviso, e iremos corriendo a salvar vidas". +Pues bien, le hice rer. Tena 17 aos. Era un muchacho. +Y me dijo recuerdo esto como si fuera ayer era un buen tipo, pero me dijo: "Chico, ve a la escuela, o ve a poner un puesto de falafel . +La verdad es que no nos interesa este tipo de aventuras nuevas. +No nos interesa tu ayuda". Y me mand fuera de la sala. +"No necesito tu ayuda", me dijo. +Yo era un chico muy testarudo. +Como pueden ver ahora, estoy andando en crculos como un loco, meshugenah. +As que decid usar esa tcnica israel tan famosa probablemente todos Uds. habrn odo sobre la audacia. Y al da siguiente fui y compr dos escneres de polica, y dije: "Vete al infierno, si no me quieres dar la informacin, obtendr la informacin yo mismo". +Y nos turnamos quin iba a escuchar las radio frecuencias. +Al da siguiente, mientras escuchaba los escneres, o una llamada de un hombre de 70 aos atropellado por un coche a solo una cuadra de distancia en la calle principal de mi barrio. +Corr hacia all. No tena equipo mdico. +Cuando llegu, el hombre de 70 aos estaba tumbado en el suelo, la sangre le sala del cuello a borbotones. +Tomaba el anticoagulante coumadina. +Supe que tena que parar la hemorragia o morira. +Me quit mi kip, porque no tena equipo mdico, y, con mucha presin, par la hemorragia. +l estaba sangrando por el cuello. +Cuando lleg la ambulancia, 15 minutos despus, les entregu un paciente que estaba vivo. +Cuando fui a visitarle dos das despus, me dio un abrazo y lloraba y me daba las gracias por salvarle la vida. +Fue entonces cuando me di cuenta de que esta era la primera persona cuya vida haba salvado despus de dos aos como voluntario en ambulancia, supe que esta era mi misin en la vida. +As que hoy en da, 22 aos despus, tenemos Hatzalah Unidos. +"Hatzalah" significa "rescate", para aquellos de Uds. que no saben hebreo. +Se me haba olvidado que no estoy en Israel. +As que tenemos miles de voluntarios entusiasmados por salvar vidas, distribuidos por todas partes, as que cuando entra una llamada dejan lo que estn haciendo y van corriendo a salvar una vida. +Nuestro intervalo medio de respuesta actualmente est por debajo de tres minutos en Israel. +Estoy hablando de ataques al corazn, estoy hablando de accidentes automovilsticos, Dios no lo quiera, atentados con bombas, tiroteos, lo que sea, hasta una mujer que a las 3 de la maana se cae en su casa y necesita que alguien la ayude. +Tres minutos, y tenemos un hombre en pijama corriendo a su casa para ayudarle a levantarse. +Los motivos por los que tenemos tanto xito son tres. +Miles de voluntarios entusiastas dispuestos a dejar todo lo que estn haciendo y correr a ayudar a gente que ni siquiera conocen. +No estamos ah para reemplazar a las ambulancias. +Simplemente estamos ah para cubrir el intervalo entre la llamada a la ambulancia y su llegada. +Y salvamos gente que de otro modo no se podra salvar. +El segundo motivo es por nuestra tecnologa. +Ya saben que los israeles son buenos con la tecnologa. +Cada uno de nosotros tiene un telfono, no importa de qu tipo, tecnologa GPS fabricada por NowForce, y cuando entra una llamada, los cinco voluntarios ms cercanos reciben la llamada y llegan all efectivamente muy rpido, y van guiados por un navegador de trfico para llegar all sin perder tiempo. +Y esta es una gran tecnologa que usamos por todo el pas y reduce el tiempo de respuesta. +Y el tercer motivo son estas motoambulancias. +Estas motoambulancias son una ambulancia en dos ruedas. +No transportamos gente, pero la estabilizamos, y le salvamos la vida. +Nunca se quedan atascadas en el trfico. Hasta podran ir por la acera. +De verdad, nunca se quedan atascadas en el trfico. +Por eso llegamos tan deprisa. +Unos aos despus de que empezara esta organizacin, en una comunidad juda, dos musulmanes de Jerusaln Oriental me llamaron. +Me pidieron que nos reuniramos. Queran reunirse conmigo. +Muhammad Asli y Murad Alyan. +Cuando Muhammad me cont su propia historia, de cmo su padre, de 55 aos, se desplom en casa, de un ataque cardaco, y tard ms de una hora en llegar una ambulancia, y vio a su padre morir frente a sus ojos, me pidi, "Por favor, empiece esto en Jerusaln Oriental". +Me dije a mi mismo: he visto tanta tragedia, tanto odio, y no se trata de salvar a los judos. No se trata de salvar a los musulmanes. +No se trata de salvar a los cristianos. Se trata de salvar a las personas. +As que contine, lleno de fuerza y comenc Hatzalah Unidos en Jerusaln Oriental, y por eso los nombres Unidos y Hatzalah van tan bien juntos. +Comenzamos de manera conjunta a salvar a judos y a rabes. +Los rabes salvaban a los judos. Los judos salvaban a los rabes. +Ocurri algo especial. +Los rabes y los judos no siempre se llevan bien, pero aqu, en este caso, las comunidades, de verdad, es un caso increble lo que pas, comunidades diversas, de repente, tenan un inters comn: Salvemos vidas juntos. +Los colonos salvaban a los rabes y los rabes salvaban a los colonos. +Es un concepto increble que solo podra funcionar cuando la causa es grande. +Y todos ellos son voluntarios. +Nadie recibe dinero. +Todos lo hacen con el propsito de salvar vidas. +Cuando mi propio padre se desplom hace unos aos de un ataque al corazn, uno de los primeros voluntarios en llegar a salvar a mi padre fue uno de esos voluntarios musulmanes de Jerusaln Oriental que form parte del primer grupo que se uni a Hatzalah. +Y l salv a mi padre. +Se imaginan cmo me sent en aquel momento? +Cuando fund esta organizacin, tena 17 aos. +Nunca imagin que un da dara una charla en TEDMED. +Entonces ni siquiera saba lo que era TEDMED. +No creo que existiera, pero nunca imagin, nunca imagin que fuera a llegar a todas partes, se va a difundir, y el ao pasado comenzamos en Panam y Brasil. +Solo necesito un socio que sea un poco meshugenah como yo, entusiasmado por salvar vidas, y deseando hacerlo. +Y de hecho voy a empezar en India dentro de muy poco con un amigo que conoc en Harvard hace poco tiempo. +De hecho Hatzalah se fund en Brooklyn por un judo jasdico, aos antes que nosotros en Williamsburg, y ahora est dispersa por toda la comunidad juda de Nueva York, y hasta en Australia y en Mxico y en muchas otras comunidades judas. +Pero se podra extender a todas partes. +Es muy fcil de adoptar. +Uds. vieron a aquellos voluntarios en Nueva York salvando vidas en el World Trade Center. +Solo en el ao pasado tratamos en Israel 207.000 personas. +De ellas, 42.000 eran situaciones de vida o muerte. +Y nosotros marcamos la diferencia. +Supongo que uno podra llamarlo una multitud relmpago salvavidas, y funciona. +Al mirar a mi alrededor, aqu, veo mucha gente que dedicara el esfuerzo necesario, dedicara la energa necesaria para salvar a otros, sin importarles quienes son, sin importarles de qu religin, sin importarles quienes son o de dnde vienen. +Todos queremos ser hroes. +Solo necesitamos una buena idea, motivacin y un montn de audacia, y as podramos salvar a millones de personas que de otra manera no se salvaran. +Muchas gracias. +El da que me fui de casa por primera vez para ir a la Universidad fue un da soleado lleno de esperanza y optimismo. +Lo haba hecho bien en la escuela. Las expectativas sobre m eran altas, y entre llena de alegra en la vida estudiantil de conferencias, fiestas y robo de conos de trfico. +Las apariencias, por supuesto, pueden ser engaosas, y en cierta medida, esta persona luchadora, enrgica de conferencias y robo de conos era una apariencia, aunque una muy bien elaborada y convincente. +En el fondo, era en realidad muy infeliz e insegura y fundamentalmente asustada... temerosa de otras personas, del futuro, del fracaso y del vaco que sent que estaba dentro de m. +Pero era experta en ocultarlo y desde el exterior pareca ser alguien con todo para esperar y aspirar. +Esta fantasa de invulnerabilidad era tan perfecta que hasta yo misma me enga y conforme el primer semestre termin y comenz el segundo, no haba forma de que nadie pudiera haber predicho qu iba a suceder. +Sala de un seminario cuando empez, tarareando para m misma, moviendo mi bolso igual que cientos de veces antes, cuando de repente o una voz que deca con calma, "Ella est saliendo de la habitacin". +Mir alrededor y no haba nadie all, pero la claridad y la firmeza del comentario era inconfundible. +Agitada, dej mis libros en las escaleras y corr a casa, y ah estaba otra vez. +"Ella est abriendo la puerta". +Ese fue el comienzo. La voz haba llegado. +Y persisti la voz, das y luego de semanas, segua y segua narrando todo lo que haca en tercera persona. +"Ella est saliendo de la biblioteca". +"Ella est yendo a una conferencia". +Era neutral, impasible e incluso, despus de un rato, extraamente sociable y tranquilizadora, aunque me di cuenta de que su exterior tranquilo a veces resbalaba y que ocasionalmente reflejaba mi propia emocin inexpresada. +As, por ejemplo, si yo estaba enojada y tena que ocultarlo, lo que haca a menudo, siendo muy hbil para ocultar lo que realmente senta, entonces la voz sonara frustrada. +De lo contrario, no era ni siniestra ni inquietante, aunque incluso en ese momento estaba claro que tena que comunicarse conmigo acerca de mis emociones, especialmente las emociones que eran remotas e inaccesibles. +Fue entonces que comet un error fatal, le dije a una amiga acerca de la voz, y se horroriz. +Haba comenzado un proceso de acondicionamiento sutil, la implicacin de que la gente normal no oye voces y el hecho de que algo en m andaba muy mal. +Tal temor y desconfianza fueron contagiosos. +De repente la voz ya no pareca tan benigna, y cuando ella insisti en que buscara atencin mdica, obligada acept, lo que prob ser el error nmero dos. +Pas algn tiempo dicindole al mdico de la universidad +lo que crea que era el verdadero problema: ansiedad, baja autoestima, temores acerca del futuro, y fui recibida con indiferencia aburrida hasta que mencion la voz, despus de lo cual se le cay su pluma y comenz a interrogarme con una muestra de verdadero inters. +Y para ser justos, yo estaba desesperada por inters y ayuda, y comenc a contarle sobre mi extrao comentarista. +Y siempre deseo, en este punto, la voz dijo, "Ella est cavando su propia tumba". +Me enviaron a un psiquiatra, quien adems tuvo una visin sombra de la presencia de la voz, interpretando despus todo lo que dije a travs de un lente de locura latente. +Por ejemplo, era parte de una estacin de TV de estudiantes que emita boletines de noticias alrededor del campus, y durante una cita que se estaba haciendo muy tarde, le dije, "Lo siento, doctor, me tengo que ir. +Yo leo las noticias a las seis". +Ahora en mi historia clnica se acota que Eleanor tiene delirios de ser una locutora de noticias de televisin. +Fue en este punto que comenzaron esos eventos que rpidamente me sobrepasaron. +Sigui un ingreso al hospital, el primero de muchos, un diagnstico de esquizofrenia vino despus, y entonces, lo peor de todo, un txico, atormentando sentido de desesperanza, humillacin y desesperacin sobre m y mis posibilidades. +Pero habiendo sido alentada a ver la voz no como una experiencia, sino como un sntoma, mi miedo y resistencia hacia ella se intensific. +Esencialmente, esto represent tener una postura agresiva hacia mi propia mente, una especie de guerra civil psquica, y esto provoc que el nmero de voces aumentara y fuera progresivamente hostil y amenazante. +Impotente y desesperada, empec a retirarme en este mundo interior de pesadilla en el que las voces estaban destinadas a convertirse tanto en mis perseguidores como en mis nicos compaeros. +Me dijeron, por ejemplo, que si me senta digna de su ayuda, entonces podran cambiar mi vida nuevamente a cmo haba sido, y establecieron una serie de tareas cada vez ms extraas, un tipo de trabajo herculano. +Empez siendo muy pequeo, por ejemplo, arrancarme tres hebras de cabello, pero gradualmente creci a extremos, culminando en comandos de hacerme dao a m misma, y una instruccin particularmente drstica: "Ves ese tutor all? +Ves ese vaso de agua? +Bueno, agrralo y chale el agua delante de los otros estudiantes". +Lo que hice y que no hace falta decir no me gan la simpata de los profesores. +En efecto, un crculo vicioso de miedo, evitacin, desconfianza y malentendidos se haban establecido, y esta fue una batalla en la que me senta impotente e incapaz de establecer cualquier tipo de paz o de reconciliacin. +Dos aos ms tarde, el deterioro fue drstico. +Por ahora, tena el repertorio entero frentico: voces aterradoras, visiones grotescas, delirios extraos, inmanejables. +Mi estado de salud mental ha sido un catalizador para la discriminacin, el abuso verbal, y la agresin fsica y sexual, y me haba dicho mi psiquiatra, "Eleanor, estaras mejor con un cncer, porque el cncer es ms fcil de curar que la esquizofrenia". +Haba sido diagnosticada, drogada y desechada, y fue en este momento que estaba tan atormentada por las voces que intent hacerme un agujero en la cabeza con el fin de sacarlas de ah. +Ahora mirando hacia atrs en los escombros y la desesperacin de esos aos, me parece ahora como si alguien hubiera muerto en ese lugar, y sin embargo, alguien ms se salv. +Una persona rota y angustiada comenz ese viaje, pero la persona que surgi fue una sobreviviente y en ltima instancia, se convertira en la persona que yo estaba destinada a ser. +Muchas personas me han perjudicado en mi vida, y los recuerdo a todos, pero los recuerdos se vuelven plidos y dbiles en comparacin con las personas que me han ayudado. +Creo que Eleanor puede superar esto. +A veces, saben, nieva tan tarde como en mayo, pero finalmente siempre llega el verano". +14 minutos no es suficiente tiempo para darle total crdito a esa gente buena y generosa que luch conmigo y para m y que esper a darme la bienvenida desde ese agonizante lugar solitario. +Pero juntos, forjaron una mezcla de valenta, creatividad, integridad y una fe inquebrantable de que mi destrozado ser poda ser curado y unido. +Al principio, era muy difcil de creer, no tanto porque las voces parecan tan hostiles y amenazantes, sino en este sentido, un primer paso vital era aprender a separar un significado metafrico de lo que anteriormente interpretaba como una verdad literal. +Por ejemplo, las voces que amenazaban con atacar mi hogar he aprendido a interpretarlas como mi propio sentido del miedo y la inseguridad en el mundo, en lugar de un peligro real, objetivo. +Ahora al principio, lo hubiera credo. +Recuerdo, por ejemplo, desvelada una noche de guardia fuera de la habitacin de mis padres para protegerlos de lo que pens que era una amenaza real de las voces. +Porque tuve un problema tan malo con mi auto-lesin que la mayora de los cubiertos en la casa haban sido escondidos, as que termin armndome con un tenedor de plstico, de los de picnic, sentada fuera de la sala agarrndolo y esperando para entrar en accin si algo sucediera. +Era como, "No te metas conmigo. +Tengo un tenedor de plstico, sabes?" +Estratgica. +Yo establecera lmites para las voces, y trataba de interactuar con ellas de una manera asertiva pero respetuosa, estableciendo un proceso lento de comunicacin y colaboracin en el que podramos aprender a trabajar juntos y apoyarnos mutuamente. +A lo largo de todo esto, lo que en ltima instancia entendera era que cada voz estaba estrechamente relacionada a aspectos de m misma y que cada una de ellas llevaba una emocin abrumadora que nunca haba tenido una oportunidad para procesar o resolver, recuerdos de trauma sexual y el abuso, de ira, vergenza, culpabilidad, baja autoestima. +Estaba armada con este conocimiento de que en ltima instancia podra unir mi autoestima destrozada, cada fragmento representado por una voz diferente, suspender gradualmente todos mis medicamentos, y el retornar a la psiquiatra, pero esta vez desde el otro lado. +10 aos despus de la primera voz, finalmente me gradu, esta vez con el ms alto grado en psicologa que la universidad hubiera dado y un ao ms tarde, las maestras ms altas, lo que digamos no est mal para una loca. +De hecho, una de las voces en realidad dictaba las respuestas durante el examen, que tcnicamente posiblemente cuenta cmo hacer trampa. +Y para ser honesta, a veces me gustaba su atencin tambin. +Como dijo Oscar Wilde, la nica cosa peor que hablar de ello es no hablar de ello. +Tambin te hace muy bien en el espionaje, ya que puedes escuchar dos conversaciones simultneamente. +As que no todo es malo. +He trabajado en servicios de salud mental, he dado conferencias, publicado captulos de libros y artculos acadmicos, y argument y contino hacindolo, de la relevancia del siguiente concepto: que una cuestin importante en psiquiatra no debera ser lo que est mal en ti sino ms bien lo que te ha pasado a ti. +Y durante todo el tiempo, escuchaba mis voces, con las que finalmente aprend a vivir con paz y respeto y que a su vez refleja una creciente sensacin de compasin, aceptacin y respeto hacia m misma. +Y recuerdo el momento ms emotivo y extraordinario cuando apoyando a otra mujer joven aterrorizada con sus voces, fui plenamente consciente, por primera vez, de que ya no me senta as sino que era finalmente capaz de ayudar a alguien que s lo estaba. +Juntos, prevemos y promulgamos una sociedad que entiende y respeta a quienes oyen voces, apoyan las necesidades individuales que quienes oyen voces y que valoramos como ciudadanos con plenos derechos. +Este tipo de sociedad no es solo posible, ya est en su camino. +Parafraseando a Chvez, una vez que comience el cambio social, no se puede revertir. +No pueden humillar a la persona que se siente orgullosa. +No pueden oprimir a la gente que ya no tiene miedo. +Para m, los logros del Movimiento de Oyentes de Voces son un recordatorio de que empata, compaerismo, justicia y respeto son algo ms que palabras; son convicciones y creencias, y que las creencias pueden cambiar el mundo. +Como ha dicho Peter Levine, el animal humano es un ser nico dotado de una capacidad instintiva para sanar y el espritu intelectual para aprovechar esta capacidad innata. +En este sentido, para los miembros de la sociedad, no hay mayor honor o privilegio que facilitar ese proceso de sanacin para alguien, dar testimonio, alcanzar una mano, compartir la carga de una persona que est sufriendo, y mantener la esperanza de su recuperacin. +Y asimismo, para los sobrevivientes del sufrimiento y la adversidad, que recordemos que no tenemos que vivir nuestras vidas siempre definidos por las cosas perjudiciales que nos han sucedido. +Somos nicos. Somos insustituibles. +Lo que no hay dentro de nosotros puede nunca ser verdaderamente colonizado, desencajado, o quitado. +La luz nunca se apaga. +Como un maravillo mdico me dijo una vez, "No me digas lo que otras personas te han dicho de ti. +Hblame de ti". +Gracias. +["Edipo Rey"] ["El Rey Len"] ["Titus"] ["Frida"] ["La flauta mgica"] ["A travs del universo"] Julie Taymor: Gracias. Muchas gracias. +Esos fueron algunos ejemplos de obras de teatro, peras y pelculas que he creado en los ltimos veinte aos. +Pero ahora, para comenzar, quisiera trasladarlos a un momento que tuvo lugar cuando visit Indonesia. Ese momento fue crucial en mi vida y, como todos los mitos, este tipo de historias necesitan contarse ms de una vez, para no olvidarlas. +Y cuando atravieso momentos difciles, como ahora, que estoy atravesando el crisol y el fuego de la transformacin, que, de hecho, es por lo que pasan todos Uds. +Todo creador sabe que hay un punto en el que no se ha convertido en un fnix o en cenizas. +Y estoy justo ah, al borde. De esto hablar despus; es otra historia. +Quiero regresar a Indonesia, a donde fui cuando tena 21 o 22 aos, hace mucho tiempo, con una beca. +Y, luego dos aos all, actuando y aprendiendo en la isla de Bali, me encontr al borde del crter Gunung Batur. +Estaba en una aldea en la que se celebraba una ceremonia de iniciacin para hombres jvenes, un rito de paso. +Lo que no saba era que tambin lo sera para m. +me di cuenta de que estaba sola, en la oscuridad, debajo de ese rbol. +De repente, de las sombras, del otro lado de la plaza, vi espejos destellando la luz de la luna. +Y 20 hombres mayores que haba visto antes, de pronto, se pusieron de pie, luciendo sus trajes de guerreros, sus tocados y lanzas. No haba nadie ms en la plaza y yo estaba escondida entre las sombras. +No haba nadie ms, pero ellos aparecieron y ejecutaron una danza increble. +"Huhuhuhuhuhuhuhahahahaha". +Movan sus cuerpos y avanzaban hacia adelante, y la luz rebotaba en sus trajes. +He trabajado en teatro desde que tena 11 aos. He actuado, creado y, en ese momento, pens: "Para quin estn bailando con estos trajes tan elaborados y estos extraordinarios tocados?" +Y me di cuenta de que estaban bailando para Dios, lo que sea que esto signifique. +Pero, por alguna razn, no importaba la publicidad. +No se trataba de dinero. +Nadie iba a escribir nada; no iba a estar en las noticias. +Y ah estaban estos increbles artistas... mientras actuaban sent que pasaba una eternidad. +Poco despus, tan pronto como terminaron y desaparecieron entre las sombras, se acerc un joven con una linterna de propano, la colg en un rbol y puso una cortina. +En la plaza de la aldea haba cientos de personas +que, durante toda la noche, pusieron en escena una pera. +Los seres humanos necesitaban la luz. +Necesitaban la luz para ver. +Ahora, me gustara contarles, de forma breve, cmo trabajo. Analicemos "El Rey Len". +Vieron varios ejemplos de lo que hago, pero este es uno que la gente conoce bien. +Comienzo con un ideograma. +Un ideograma es parecido a la tcnica japonesa de pintura. +Luego de tres pinceladas, se obtiene un bosque de bamb. +Pienso en el concepto de "El Rey Len" y me pregunto: "Cul es su esencia?, +Cul es su abstraccin? +Si tengo que resumir la historia entera en una sola imagen, cul sera?" +El crculo. El crculo. Es tan obvio. +El crculo de la vida, el de la mscara de Mufasa. +El crculo que, en el segundo acto, nos muestra una sequa, cmo expresamos esta sequa? +Es un crculo de seda en el piso que desaparece a travs de un agujero del escenario. +El crculo de la vida se ve en las ruedas de las gacelas que saltan. +Pueden ver el mecanismo. +Al ser una persona que ama el teatro, s que cuando la audiencia va a ver una obra deja de lado su incredulidad; cuando se ven hombres y mujeres caminando con una placa de hierba sobre sus cabezas se sabe que se trata de la sabana, +es algo que no se cuestiona. +Me fascina esa verdad aparente del teatro. +Disfruto que la gente est dispuesta a llenar los espacios en blanco. +La audiencia est dispuesta a decir: "Ya s que ese sol no es real. +Tomaron unos palitos, +les agregaron seda en la parte inferior, +colgaron estas piezas, las dejaron caer al suelo +y cuando esto se levanta con los hilos, puedo ver que es el sol". +Sin embargo, la belleza est en que esto es solo seda y palitos +y, de cierta forma, lo convierte en algo espiritual. +Eso es lo que provoca emociones. +No es literalmente el amanecer, +es el arte de hacerlo. +Por eso, en el teatro, es tan fundamental la historia, el libro y el lenguaje, contar la historia, la manera en que se cuenta, los mecanismos y mtodos que se utilizan, como la historia en s misma. +Y me encanta la tecnologa de punta y la menos avanzada. +Puedo... Por ejemplo, despus les mostrar en "El hombre araa", estas increbles mquinas que desplazan personas. +Lo cierto es que sin el bailarn, que sabe manejar su cuerpo y columpiarse en esos cables no es nada. +Ahora voy a mostrarles unos video clips de otro gran proyecto en mi vida, de este ao: "La tempestad". Es una pelcula. +Mont en escena "La tempestad" tres veces en teatro desde 1984, 86, y me encanta esa obra. +Siempre lo hice con un hombre como Prspero. +Y, de repente, pens: "Quin har el papel de Prspero? +Por qu no Helen Mirren? Es una gran actriz, por qu no?" +El material funcion muy bien para una mujer. +Ahora veamos algunas imgenes de "La tempestad". +Prspera: Espritu, llevaste a cabo fielmente la tempestad que te mand? +Ariel: Abord el navo real. En cada camarote llame espanto. +Prspera: No ms verse y ya suspiran. +Miranda: Me amas? +Fernando: Ms all de los lmites del mundo. +Prspera: Se han rendido el uno al otro. +Trnculo: La desgracia nos presenta extraos compaeros. +Busca placer, gobernador? +Calibn: No caste del cielo? +Esteban: De la luna, te lo juro. +Prspera: Calibn! +Calibn: Esta isla es ma. +Prspera: Por decir eso, tendrs calambres esta noche. +Antonio: Aqu yace tu hermano que no es mejor que la tierra en la que yace. +Sebastin: Saca tu espada. +Yo, el rey, los amar. +Prspera: Los atormentar hasta que allen. +Ariel: Los he enfurecido. +Prspera: Somos de la misma sustancia que los sueos, +y nuestra breve vida culmina en un dormir. +JT: Bien +Pues, mont en escena "La tempestad" con una produccin de muy bajo presupuesto, hace muchos aos. Me encanta esa obra, y pienso tambin que es la ltima de Shakespeare, y que se puede adaptar muy bien al cine, como ven. +Pero, les voy a dar un ejemplo de cmo se monta una obra en teatro y despus de cmo esa misma idea o historia se lleva al cine. +Ya habl del concepto de ideograma, entonces cul es el ideograma para "La tempestad"? +Si tuviera que reducir la obra, qu imagen mantendra el concepto? +Fue el castillo de arena; la idea innato o adquirido, que creo estas civilizaciones, Helen Mirren como Prspera, habla de ello al final las construimos, pero la naturaleza, como una terrible tempestad, puede hacer desaparecer torres que tocan nubes o hermosos palacios. Y no quedar nada atrs. +As que, en el teatro, comenc la obra con un ancho rastrillo negro para arena, y haba una nia, Miranda, en el horizonte, construyendo un castillo de arena. +Y, mientras ella estaba en la orilla del escenario, dos tramoyistas, vestidos de negro, con baldes llenos de agua, corran hasta arriba y comenzaban a vaciar el agua en el castillo de arena, y este comenzaba a desmoronarse hasta hundirse. Pero, antes de desmoronarse, la audiencia vea el traje negro de los tramoyistas. +El medio era evidente y banal. Lo vimos. +Pero a medida que vaciaban el agua, la luz, en lugar de mostrar los trajes de los tramoyistas, se enfocaba en el agua misma, esta es la magia abrupta del teatro. +Y, de repente, cambia la perspectiva de la audiencia. +Mgicamente, todo se convierte en algo grande; +se convierte en la lluvia torrencial. +Desaparecen los actores enmascarados y los titiriteros, y la audiencia salta a este mundo, a este mundo imaginario donde ocurre la tempestad. +Entonces, pude jugar con el medio y por qu pas de un medio a otro? Porque se puede hacer esto. +Ahora veamos "El hombre araa". +Peter Parker: Al borde del precipicio, puedo volar lejos de aqu. JT: En el teatro en vivo, tratamos de hacer todo lo que no se puede hacer en dos dimensiones en cine y televisin. +PP: Levntate y toma el control. George Tsypin: Vemos Nueva York a travs del hombre araa. +Al hombre araa no lo limita la gravedad; +en el espectculo, a Manhattan tampoco. +PP: Se t mismo y levntate sobre todo Ensemble: Sock! Pow! Slam! Scratch! Danny Ezralow: Ni siquiera quiero que se piense que hubo un coregrafo. +Lo que est pasando es real. +Prefiero que se vea la gente en movimiento y se piense: "Qu fue eso?" +JT: Si le doy suficiente movimiento a la escultura y el actor mueve su cabeza, se puede sentir que est viva. +Realmente es un cmic vivo. Es un cmic que toma vida. +Bono: Son mitologas. +Los hroes de los cmics son mitos modernos. +PP: Ellos creen. JT: Qu fue eso? +Circo, rock 'n' roll, drama. +Qu rayos hacemos en ese escenario? +Bueno, les cuento una ltima historia. +Despus de que estuve en esa aldea, cruc el lago, y vi que el volcn Gunung Batur haca erupcin haca erupcin al otro lado, y haba un volcn inactivo junto al volcn activo. +No pens que sera tragada por el volcn, y aqu estoy. +Pero es muy fcil escalar, no es cierto? +Te sostienes de las races, pones tus pies sobre las rocas y escalas hasta llegar a la cima. Estaba con un buen amigo que era actor, y dijimos: "Subamos. +Veamos si podemos acercarnos a la orilla del volcn activo". +Y escalamos hasta llegar a la cima; estbamos en la orilla, en ese precipicio, Roland desaparece en el humo sulfuroso del otro lado del volcn y estoy ah sola en ese precipicio increble. +Escucharon la letra? +Estoy en el precipicio mirando hacia abajo, dentro de un volcn inactivo a mi izquierda. +A mi derecha hay esquisto fino desprendindose. +Llevo unas sandalias y un vestido. Fue hace muchos aos. +Y, sin botas para escalar. +Y l desapareci; este loco actor gitano francs, desvanecido en el humo; y me doy cuenta de que no puedo regresar por donde he venido. +As que tiro mi cmara, tiro mis sandalias y miro la lnea recta que se dibuja ante m, y bajo en cuatro patas, como un gato, y me sostengo con las rodillas a travs de esta lnea que se dibuja ante m por 30 o 10 metros, no s. +El viento soplaba con mucha fuerza y la nica manera para llegar al otro lado era a travs de esa lnea recta que se dibujaba ante m. +S que todos han estado ah; +yo estoy en ese crisol ahora. +Es mi prueba de fuego. +Es la prueba de fuego de mi compaa. +Sobrevivimos porque nuestra cancin es "Levntate". +El chico cae del cielo, pero se levanta. +Es ah, en las palmas de nuestras manos, de las de toda mi compaa. +Tengo colaboradores asombrosos, y solo juntos, como creadores, podremos llegar hasta el final. +S que Uds. lo comprenden. +Uds. siguen adelante y, de pronto, ven algo extraordinario frente a ustedes. +Gracias. +Las carreras de autos son un oficio viejo y divertido. +Hacemos un auto nuevo cada ao, y despus pasamos el resto de la temporada tratando de entender qu fue lo que hicimos para mejorarlo, para hacerlo ms rpido. +Luego, al ao siguiente, empezamos de nuevo. +Ahora, este auto es bastante complejo. +El chasis tiene unos 11 000 componentes. El motor otros 6000. La parte electrnica unos 500 000. +As que hay unas 25 000 cosas que pueden salir mal. +Por eso en las carreras hay mucho de atencin al detalle. +La otra cosa de la Frmula 1 en particular es que siempre estamos cambiando el auto. +Siempre estamos tratando de hacerlo ms rpido. +As que a cada 2 semanas hay que adaptar unos 5000 componentes nuevos al auto. +Del 5 % al 10 % del auto va a ser diferente cada 2 semanas. +Cmo lo hacemos? +Bueno, empezamos con el auto existente, +tenemos muchos sensores dentro para medir cosas. +En el auto que ven aqu hay unos 120 sensores activados al momento de correr. +Miden todo tipo de cosas en el auto. +Se registran los datos. Registramos unos 500 parmetros distintos en el sistema, unos 13 000 parmetros y eventos de monitoreo por si algo no funciona como debera, y esos datos llegan al garaje por telemetra a una velocidad de 2 a 4 megabytes por segundo. +As que en una carrera de 2 horas, cada auto emite 750 millones de nmeros. +Eso es el doble de nmeros que las palabras que cada uno de nosotros usa durante toda la vida. +Es una cantidad enorme de datos. +Pero no basta con tener los datos y medirlos. +Hay que hacer algo con ellos. +As que dedicamos mucho tiempo y esfuerzo a convertir esos datos en historias que puedan indicar el estado del motor, el desgaste de las llantas, el consumo de combustible. +Todo esto toma datos y los convierte en conocimiento sobre el cual actuar. +Bien, veamos un poco los datos. +Tomemos datos de otro paciente de 3 meses. +Es un nio, estamos viendo datos reales, en el extremo derecho, todo se ve un poco catastrfico. Es una paciente que tiene un paro cardaco. +Era un evento impredecible. +Nadie pudo ver venir este ataque. +Pero al analizar la informacin, vemos que las cosas se ponen algo sospechosas unos 5 minutos antes del paro. +Podemos ver pequeas variaciones en el movimiento del corazn. +Pasaron desapercibidas a los umbrales normales que se aplican a los datos. +La pregunta es: por qu no lo pudimos prever? +Era un evento predecible? +Podemos ver otros patrones en los datos que nos ayuden a mejorar las cosas? +Este beb, tiene casi la misma edad que este auto, 3 meses. +Es un paciente con un problema cardaco. +Porque como con un auto de carreras, con cualquier paciente, cuando las cosas empiezan a salir mal, tenemos poco tiempo para marcar la diferencia. +Tomamos el sistema de datos que usamos cada 2 semanas en la Frmula 1 y lo instalamos en las computadoras de los hospitales... del Hospital Infantil de Birmingham. +Transmitimos los datos de los instrumentos de los cuidados intensivos peditricos para que los dos pudiramos ver los datos en tiempo real y, ms importante, almacenar los datos para poder empezar a aprender de ellos. +Luego, instalamos una aplicacin que nos permitira jugar con los patrones de datos en tiempo real para ver qu pasaba, para poder detectar el momento en que cosas empezaran a cambiar. +Ahora, en las carreras, todos somos un poco ambiciosos, audaces, un poco arrogantes a veces, As que decidimos que tambin veramos a los nios mientras los transportaban a cuidados intensivos. +Por qu esperar a que llegaran al hospital para empezar a analizar? +Por eso instalamos un enlace en vivo entre la ambulancia y el hospital, usando solo telefona 3G para enviar los datos, as la ambulancia se convirti en una cama extra de cuidados intensivos. +Luego empezamos a ver los datos, +las lneas onduladas de arriba, todos los colores, son los datos tpicos que se ven en el monitor: latidos de corazn, pulso, oxgeno en sangre, respiracin. +Las lneas de abajo, las azules y rojas, son las interesantes. +La lnea roja muestra una versin automatizada de un puntaje de advertencia temprana que ya el hospital de Birmingham tena en funcionamiento. +Ha estado funcionando desde el 2008 y prevenido paros cardacos y angustias en el hospital. +La lnea azul es un indicador de cambio en los patrones, e inmediatamente, antes de siquiera de empezar las interpretaciones mdicas, podemos ver cmo hablan los datos. +Nos dicen que algo est mal. +Las manchas rojas y verdes grafican diferentes componentes de datos unos contra otros. +La verde somos nosotros aprendiendo qu es normal para ese nio. +Lo que llamamos la nube de normalidad. +Y cuando las cosas comienzan a cambiar, cuando las condiciones comienzan a deteriorarse, nos movemos a la mancha roja. +No hay ninguna ciencia complicada ah. +Est mostrando datos que ya existen de una manera diferente para ampliarla, para dar seales a los mdicos, a las enfermeras, para que puedan ver lo que est pasando. +De la misma forma que un buen piloto de carreras confa en las seales para saber cundo frenar, cundo girar en una esquina, necesitamos ayudar a nuestros mdicos y enfermeras a ver cuando las cosas empiezan a salir mal. +As que tenemos un programa bastante ambicioso. +Creemos que empez la carrera para hacer algo diferente. +Estamos pensando en grande, como es debido. +Tenemos un enfoque que, de prosperar, no hay razn para que se quede en un hospital. +Puede traspasar fronteras. +Con las conexiones inalmbricas de hoy en da, no hay razn para que los pacientes, mdicos y enfermeras deban estar siempre en el mismo lugar, al mismo tiempo. +Mientras tanto, tomaremos nuestro beb de 3 meses, lo llevaremos a la pista, lo cuidaremos, y lo haremos mejor y ms rpido. +Muchas gracias. +Buenos das. +Siguen despiertos? +Se han llevado mi tarjeta, pero quera preguntarles: Alguno ha escrito su nombre en rabe? +Solo uno? No, ninguno. Bueno, no pasa nada. +rase una vez, no hace mucho tiempo, en que yo y mi amiga bamos a pedir en un restaurante. +Mir al camarero y le pregunt: "nos traes la carta [rabe]?" +Qued mirando extraado, como si no hubiera odo bien. +Me dijo: "Perdn? [ingls]" +Le dije: "La carta [rabe], por favor". +Me dijo: "No sabes cmo se llama?" +Dije: "Claro!" +Y l dijo: "No!, se dice "menu" [ingls], o "men" [francs], s?" +Es correcta mi pronunciacin en francs? +"Ven aqu, a ver qu quiere esta!", dijo el camarero. +Le di asco! Pas de intentar tener algo conmigo a pensar que si fuera la ltima mujer de la tierra ni me mirara. +Qu es eso de "carta" en rabe? +Una sola palabra hizo que un libans juzgara a la chica que tena delante de atraso, de ignorancia: +"Cmo puede hablar as?" +Desde ese momento me puse a pensar. +Me sent muy mal. +Me hizo dao, claro! +Estoy en mi pas, no puedo hablar en mi lengua? +Cmo es posible? +Cmo hemos llegado a esta situacin? +Cmo puede ser que gente como yo haya llegado al punto de borrar todo su pasado solo para poder decir que son modernos, que son civilizados? +Tengo que olvidar toda mi cultura, mis ideas, mi bagaje intelectual, mis recuerdos? +Los recuerdos ms bellos que tengo de la guerra son mis historias de la infancia. +Tengo que olvidar todo el rabe que aprend solo para estar a la moda? +Solo para ser "cool"? +En qu cabeza cabe? +En cualquier caso, intent entenderle, +no quera juzgarle con la misma dureza con la que l me haba juzgado. +La lengua rabe no sirve. +No es una lengua de ciencia, ni de investigacin, ni una lengua que se necesite en la universidad, ni una lengua que necesitemos en el trabajo, ni una lengua que necesitemos para realizar cualquier investigacin cientfica desarrollada. Y, por supuesto, no es una lengua que necesitemos en el aeropuerto. +Si hablamos rabe seguro que nos hacen desnudarnos enteros para registrarnos. +Nos podemos preguntar entonces: +Bien, quieres usar la lengua rabe, pero dnde? +Esta realidad existe, +pero hay otra ms importante en la que tenemos que pensar: +la lengua rabe es nuestra lengua materna, +y hay estudios que dicen que para dominar otras lenguas es necesario dominar la propia. +Y que la creatividad en otras lenguas est condicionada por el dominio de la lengua materna. +Cmo? +Gibran Khalil Gibran cuando empez a escribir, lo hizo en rabe. +Todas sus ideas, su imaginacin, su esencia, su metafsica, su filosofa tienen su origen en ese nio de pueblo que creci entre ciertos olores, entre ciertos sonidos, entre ciertas ideas. +As que cuando empez a escribir en ingls ya tena un enorme bagaje intelectual. +Incluso cuando escriba en ingls y leemos sus libros en ingls percibimos el mismo aroma, palpamos las mismas sensaciones. +Podemos imaginar que ese que escribe en ingls es el mismo que vino de las montaas, de un pueblo de la montaa libanesa. +Es un ejemplo que nadie puede negar. +Tambin dicen que la nica manera de matar un pueblo es matando su lengua. +Esta realidad la conocen los pueblos desarrollados: +alemanes, franceses, japoneses, chinos... todos los pueblos saben que es verdad. +Por eso promulgan leyes para proteger sus lenguas. +Las sacralizan, +crean con ellas y destinan ingentes cantidades de dinero en su desarrollo. +Es que somos ms listos que ellos? +Muy bien, no somos parte del primer mundo, ni nos han llegado esas ideas de desarrollo, pero queremos unirnos a ese mundo civilizado, +seguir a esos pases que eran como nosotros pero decidieron apostar por el crecimiento y la investigacin, queremos ser como ellos, como Turqua, como Malasia... ellos recorrieron esa senda portando consigo su lengua, cuidndola como un diamante, +llevndola bien cerca. +Porque si nos llega cualquier produccin turca, o de otro lugar y no est escrita en turco, no es una produccin local, +nadie creer que es una produccin local. +Volvern a ser consumidores, y consumirn en la ignorancia, como hacemos nosotros cada dos por tres. +As que para crear y producir es necesario cuidar la propia lengua. +Si les digo: "libertad, soberana, independencia" [rabe]. Qu les evoca? +Nada? +Independientemente de a quin apoyen... +la lengua no es solo hablar, no es cualquier palabra que salga de la boca. +La lengua representa etapas concretas de nuestras vidas, y nuestros sentimientos estn unidos a ella, a ciertos trminos. +Por eso cuando dije la frase anterior a todos les vino una imagen a la cabeza. Hay ciertas palabras, ciertos sentimientos, para determinados das y etapas histricas. +La lengua no es una palabra o dos o tres letras en fila, +sino una idea interior relacionada con cmo pensamos, cmo vemos al otro y cmo nos ve, +cul es nuestro bagaje intelectual. +Por qu decimos que una persona entiende y otra no? +Si les dijera: "freedom, sovereignty, independence"; si llega su hijo y les dice: "Oye, 'dad'! Estuviste en eso que decan 'freedom', y tal o cual eslogan...?" +Qu sienten? +Si sienten algo, est bien, no pasa nada, me tendra que ir, mejor que seguir hablando para nada. +Lo que quiero decir es que estas expresiones nos traen un recuerdo concreto. +Tengo una amiga libanesa casada con un francs. +Cuando le pregunt qu tal le iba +me respondi que muy bien, pero que una vez pas toda la noche tratando de traducir el significado de 'toqborni' [entirrame] +La pobre mujer le dijo por error "toqborni", y se pas una noche entera intentando explicrselo. +Qued intrigado por esa idea: "Qu bestialidad!" +"Se quiere suicidar o qu?" Esto es solo un pequeo ejemplo +que la hizo sentir incapaz de hablar as a su marido, pues no iba a entender, l piensa de otra manera. +Me dijo que tambin escucha con ella a Fairouz, y que una noche le intent traducir para que sintiera lo que ella siente cuando escucha a Fairouz. +Y la pobre intent traducir: "Ojal pudiera alargar la mano y robarte" Y aqu viene el lo: "pero como eres suyo retir la mano y te dej" +Traduzcan eso. +Qu hacemos entonces para proteger la lengua rabe? +Llevamos la cuestin al nivel de la sociedad civil y lanzamos una campaa para preservar la lengua rabe. +aunque mucha gente nos deca: "qu ms da?" +"Divirtanse, no se preocupen tanto". +No pasa nada! +Nuestra campaa tena por lema: "Te hablo desde Oriente y me respondes desde Occidente". +No dijimos: "no vamos a aceptar esto, porque esta es nuestra lengua, etc". +No usamos ese estilo porque no creemos que deba hacerse as, +si alguien me habla as odiara la lengua rabe. +Decimos.... Queremos ver cmo vivimos nuestra realidad de una manera similar a nuestros sueos, nuestro da a da, nuestros anhelos, +de una manera que vista nuestra ropa, que piense como nosotros. +Nuestro lema "Te hablo desde Oriente y me respondes desde Occidente", pone el dedo en la llaga, +es sencillo, creativo y convincente. +Despus empezamos otra campaa, pusimos letras en la calle, +(a lo mejor las vieron ah fuera) y alrededor de ellas una cinta policial en la que deca: "No mates tu lengua!". +Por qu? De verdad, no debemos matar nuestra lengua. +Entre todos debemos evitar matar nuestra lengua. +Porque si la matamos, cuando volvamos en busca de nuestra identidad, +cuando volvamos en busca de nuestra existencia, +tendremos que volver a empezar desde cero, +no solo no seremos capaces de ser modernos y desarrollados. +Tambin tomamos fotos de chicos y chicas vestidos con letras rabes. +Fotos de chicos y chicas "cool". +Nosotros somos muy "cool"! +Habr quien diga: "Has usado una palabra inglesa, te atrapamos!" +No, he adoptado la palabra "cool". Les reto a encontrar una palabra ms bella y ms adecuada. +Seguir diciendo "Internet", y no "red de redes". No vale igual! Es broma o qu? +Pero para llegar a este punto tenemos que estar todos convencidos. No queremos dejar al ms fuerte, al que cree tener el poder sobre la lengua, que nos domine y nos obligue a pensar y sentir como l quiere. +La clave est en la creatividad. +Si no podemos llegar al espacio o construir un cohete, podemos crear. +En este momento, cada uno de Uds. es un proyecto creativo. +La creatividad en la lengua materna es el camino +Empecemos ahora, desde este momento. +Escribamos una novela, rodemos un corto. +Una sola novela puede dar la vuelta al mundo, +puede devolver la lengua rabe a lo ms alto. +No digan que no hay solucin. Por supuesto que la hay! +Tenemos que estar convencidos de que hay solucin, y tenemos que ser parte de ella. +Para terminar, qu se puede hacer desde hoy? +Quin de aqu tiene Twitter? +Por favor, se lo suplico, aunque mi tiempo se agote, en rabe, o en ingls, o en francs o en chino. +Pero no escriban rabe usando letras latinas y nmeros! +Eso es un desastre! No es ninguna lengua! +Es un mundo virtual, una lengua virtual +y ya nadie nos podr sacar de ah. +Eso es lo primero que podemos hacer. +Segundo, hay muchas cosas que podemos hacer. +Nosotros no estamos aqu para convencer a nadie, +sino para advertir de que debemos cuidar nuestra lengua. +Ahora les contar un secreto. +Cuando nace un nio, la primera manera con que conoce a su padre es la lengua. +As que cuando nazca mi hija le dir: "Este es pap, mi vida". [rabe] +Y no le dir: "This is your dad, honey". +Y en el supermercado, cuando mi hija Nour d las gracias en rabe no le dir: "Dit merci !", deseando que nadie la hubiera escuchado. +Superemos este complejo frente a lo extranjero. +Me gustara que todos se preguntaran algo que nunca antes se han preguntado: Cul es la potencialidad de la voz? +Cul es la potencialidad de la voz? +(Sonido "beatbox") Ooh nena nena beb beb (Beb llorando) beb (Beb llorando) beb S! +(Chirrido e impacto) Vena directo hacia m. Tena que hacerlo. As fue, s. +Como bien podrn imaginar, yo era un nio raro. +Lo cierto es que trataba constantemente de ampliar mi repertorio de ruidos a la mxima expresin. +Constantemente experimentaba con estos ruidos. +Todava sigo en esa misin. +Todava sigo tratando de encontrar cada sonido que pueda hacer. +Lo cierto es que ahora soy algo ms viejo y ms sabio y s que hay algunos sonidos que nunca podr hacer porque estoy cercado por mi cuerpo fsico, y hay cosas que no puede hacer. +Y que hay cosas que ninguna voz puede hacer. +Por ejemplo, nadie puede emitir dos notas al mismo tiempo. +Se puede hacer un canto bitonal, como el de los monjes, algo as... +(Canto bitonal) Pero es hacer trampa. +Y hace doler la garganta. +Entonces, hay cosas que no pueden hacerse, y estas limitaciones de la voz humana siempre me han molestado, porque el "beatbox" es la mejor manera de llevar ideas de la cabeza al mundo pero como mucho son solo esbozos, y eso me molesta. +Si tan solo hubiera una forma de sacar estas ideas sin impedimentos, sin las restricciones que impone el cuerpo. +Por eso, trabajando con esta gente hemos hecho "una mquina". +Bsicamente, hemos hecho un sistema, una mquina de produccin en vivo, para producir msica en tiempo real que me permite, usando nada ms que mi voz, crear msica en tiempo real tal como la escucho en mi cabeza sin los obstculos de las restricciones fsicas que el cuerpo me impone. +Les mostrar lo que puede hacerse. +Antes de empezar a hacer ruidos con esto, y de usarlo para manipular mi voz, quiero reiterar que todo lo que estn por or, es producto de mi voz. +Este sistema... --gracias, maravilloso asistente-- este sistema no produce sonidos por s mismo hasta que empiezo a ponerle sonidos, de modo que no hay muestras pregrabadas de ningn tipo. +Una vez que esto se pone en marcha, y empieza a desfigurar el audio que le pongo, no es tan obvio que se trata de voz humana, pero lo es, as que empezar poquito a poco con algo simple y agradable. +El problema de la polifona: tengo una sola voz. +Cmo sortear el problema de querer tener muchas voces diferentes a la vez. +La forma ms simple es con algo as. +(Sonido beatbox) Bailando, es algo as. +Gracias. +Esa quiz sea la forma ms fcil. +Pero si quieren hacer algo un poco ms inmediato, algo no realizable con un bucle en vivo, hay otras maneras de solapar la voz en capas. +Est el desplazamiento de afinacin, algo impresionante, y ahora les mostrar cmo suena. +Har otro "beatbox", como este. +(Sonido "beatbox") Primero tiene que haber un poco de baile, porque es divertido, as que pueden batir palmas si quieren. +No estn obligados. Est bien. Vean. +Ahora voy a poner un sonido bajo. +Y ahora una guitarra rock-folk. +Est bueno, pero y si quisiera hacer, digamos... Gracias. Qu tal si quisiera hacer, digamos, un rgano de rock? +Es posible? S, lo es, grabndome en esta forma. +(Sonido de rgano) Y ahora que lo tengo guardado, +lo asigno a un teclado. +Es genial. +Pero, y si quisiera sonar como Pink Floyd? +Imposible, dirn. No. +Es posible y es muy fcil de hacer con esta mquina. Es fantstico. Vean. +As, todo lo que oyen es mi voz. +No es que disparo algo que suena as. +No hay muestras. No hay sintetizadores. +Literalmente, es mi voz manipulada. Y cuando uno llega hasta ac se pregunta, no?, cul es la idea? +Por qu todo esto? Porque es ms barato que contratar a Pink Floyd, supongo que la respuesta es fcil. +Pero, en realidad, no he hecho esta mquina para emular lo que ya existe. +La he hecho para producir los ruidos que pueda imaginar. +As que, con su permiso, har algunas cosas que tengo en mente. Y espero que las disfruten porque son bastante inusuales. Sobre todo, cuando uno hace cosas tan inusuales como estas, es difcil de creer que salen de mi voz, ya vern. +(Efectos de voz) Como ste. +As, vagamente definido, ese es el potencial de la voz humana. +Muchas gracias, damas y caballeros. +Mi nombre es Dan Cohen y soy acadmico, como ya se dijo. +Y eso significa que debato. +Es una parte importante de mi vida y me gusta debatir. +Y no soy slo acadmico, soy filsofo, por eso me gusta pensar que soy bastante bueno debatiendo. +Pero tambin me gusta reflexionar sobre el debate en s. +Y al reflexionar acerca de debatir, me top con algunos misterios. +Y uno de los misterios es que al haber estado pensando sobre el debate durante aos, entretanto dcadas, he mejorado en el debate, +pero cuanto ms debato y mejoro en la argumentacin, ms veces pierdo. Y eso es un misterio. +Y otro misterio es que adems me siento realmente bien al respecto. +Por qu me siento bien al perder? Y por qu pienso que los buenos debatiendo son en realidad mejores cuando pierden? +Bueno, hay otros misterios. +Uno es, por qu debatimos? Quin se beneficia de los debates? +Y cuando pienso en debates ahora, hablo, digamos, de debates acadmicos o cognitivos, donde algo cognitivo est en juego. Es verdad esta proposicin? Es esta teora una buena teora? +Es viable esta interpretacin de los datos o el texto? +Y as sucesivamente. No estoy interesado realmente en las discusiones sobre a quin le toca fregar los platos o quin tiene que sacar la basura. +S, tambin tenemos esos debates. +Tiendo a ganar esas discusiones, porque conozco los trucos. +Pero sos no son los debates importantes. +Actualmente estoy interesado en los debates acadmicos y ah hay cuestiones que me intrigan. +En primer lugar, qu ganan los buenos argumentadores al ganar un debate? +Qu gano al convencerlos de que el utilitarismo no es el marco adecuado para pensar en teoras ticas? +Entonces, qu ganamos al ganar un debate? +Incluso ms que eso, qu importa si Uds. tienen la idea de que la teora de Kant funciona o si Mill es el eticista acertado al que seguir? +No me interesa si creen que el funcionalismo es una teora de la mente viable. +As que, por qu intentamos debatirlo? +Por qu intentamos convencer a otras personas a creer en cosas que no quieren creer? E incluso, es algo agradable de hacer? Es esa una buena manera +para tratar a otro ser humano e intentar hacerle pensar algo no quiere pensar? +Bueno, mi respuesta har referencia a tres modelos para los debates. +El primer modelo, llammoslo el modelo dialctico, es que pensamos en los debates como una guerra y Uds. ya saben lo que es. Hay un montn de gritos y chillidos y victorias y derrotas, +y ese no es realmente un modelo muy til para debatir; pero es un modelo muy comn y arraigado en la discusin. +Pero hay un segundo modelo de debate: argumentos basados en pruebas. +Piensen en el debate de un matemtico. +Este es mi argumento. Funciona? Es bueno? +Estn justificadas las premisas? Son vlidas las inferencias? +Se deriva la conclusin de las premisas? +No hay oposicin, no hay contradiccin, no necesariamente todo debate tiene el sentido de confrontacin. +Pero existe un tercer modelo a considerar que creo que ser muy til, que es, debates como actuaciones, argumentaciones emitidas ante una audiencia. +Podemos pensar en un poltico que intenta presentar una postura, tratando de convencer al pblico de algo. +Pero hay otra vuelta de tuerca en este modelo que realmente creo que es importante, es decir, que al argumentar ante una audiencia, a veces el pblico tiene un papel ms participativo en el debate. Es decir, las argumentaciones se dan tambin con pblico ante jurados que emiten un juicio y deciden el caso. +Llamemos a esto el modelo retrico, donde uno tiene que adaptar su argumentacin al pblico. +Ya saben, presentar un argumento slido, bien argumentado, una argumentacin consistente, en ingls, ante un pblico francfono simplemente no va a funcionar. +As que tenemos estos modelos: argumentacin blica, argumentacin como evidencia y argumentacin como actuacin. +De esos tres, el debate blico es el dominante. +Esto domina la manera cmo hablamos sobre los debates; domina cmo pensamos sobre los debates, y por eso determina cmo argumentamos, y nuestra conducta real ante los debates. +Ahora, cuando hablamos de debates, hablamos en un lenguaje muy blico. +Queremos argumentos fuertes que tengan mucha garra argumentos que den justo en el blanco. +Queremos tener nuestras estrategias y defensas en orden. +Queremos argumentaciones destructivas. +Ese es el tipo de debates que queremos. +Es la forma dominante de pensar sobre los debates. +Cuando hablo de argumentaciones, probablemente es el modelo blico en el que pensaron. +Pero la metfora de la guerra, el paradigma de la guerra o el modelo para pensar en los debates, tiene, creo, efectos deformantes en cmo debatimos. +Primero erige las tcticas sobre la sustancia. +Pueden hacer un curso de lgica y argumentacin. +Aprendern todo sobre los subterfugios empleados por la gente para intentar ganar las discusiones, los pasos en falso. +Ampla el aspecto 'nosotros contra ellos'. +Resulta contradictorio. Est polarizando. +son un triunfo, un glorioso triunfo o una derrota ignominiosa, abyecta. +Creo que esos son efectos deformantes y lo peor de todo, parecen impedir cosas como la negociacin, la deliberacin, el compromiso o la colaboracin. +Piensen en eso. Alguna vez han iniciado una discusin pensando, "Vamos a ver si nos podemos discutir para resolver algo, +en lugar de pelearlo. Qu podemos elaborar juntos?" +Y creo que la metfora del argumento-como-guerra inhibe otras clases de resoluciones pertinentes a la argumentacin. +Y por ltimo, esto es lo peor, los argumentos no parecen llegar a ninguna parte. Son callejones sin salida. Son rotondas +o atascos de trfico o puntos muertos en la conversacin. +No llegamos a ninguna parte. +Ah, y algo ms, como educador, +lo nico que realmente me preocupa: Si la argumentacin se ve como guerra, entonces hay una ecuacin implcita de aprendizaje con prdida. +Explico lo que quiero decir. +Supongamos que tenemos un debate. +Uds. creen una proposicin, P, y yo no. +Y pregunto: "Bueno por qu creen en P?" +Y me dan sus razones. +Y yo refuto y digo: "Bueno, y qu piensan sobre...?" +Y me refutan mi objecin. +Y pregunto: "Bueno, quieren decir que...? +Cmo se aplica aqu?" Y me contestan. +Ahora, supongamos que al final, he objetado, he cuestionado, he planteado todo tipo de consideraciones en contra, y en todos los casos han respondido para mi satisfaccin. +Y entonces al final digo, "Saben qu? Creo que tienen razn. Es P". +As que tengo una nueva opinin. Y no es cualquier opinin. +Se trata de una bien articulada, justificada, es una opinin certificada en batalla. +Hay una gran ganancia cognitiva. Bien. Quin gan ese debate? +Bueno, la metfora de la guerra parece obligarnos a decir que Uds. han ganado, aunque yo soy el nico que gan cognitivamente. +Qu ganaron cognitivamente al convencerme? +Seguro que obtienen algn placer, tal vez vitamina para el ego, tal vez reconocimiento profesional en el campo. Este es un buen argumentador. +Pero cognitivamente, slo desde un punto de vista cognitivo, quin fue el ganador? La metfora de la guerra nos obliga a pensar +que Uds. son los ganadores y que yo perd, aunque yo haya ganado. +Y hay algo equivocado en esa imagen. +Y esa es la imagen que realmente quiero cambiar si podemos. +Entonces, cmo podemos encontrar maneras de argumentar en beneficio de algo positivo? +Necesitamos nuevas estrategias de salida para los debates. +Pero no tendremos nuevas estrategias de salida para los debates hasta tener nuevas estrategias de entrada a las discusiones. +Tenemos que pensar en nuevos tipos de argumentaciones. +Para hacerlo bien. No s cmo hacerlo. +Es la mala noticia. +La metfora del argumento-como-guerra es, simplemente, monstruosa. +Est simplemente incorporada en nuestra mente, y no hay ninguna frmula mgica para aniquilarla. +No hay ninguna varita mgica para hacer que desaparezca. +No tengo la respuesta. +Pero tengo algunas propuestas +y esta es mi propuesta. Si queremos pensar en nuevos tipos de debates, lo que tenemos que hacer es pensar en nuevos tipos de argumentadores. +Intntenlo. Piensen en todos los roles jugados en las discusiones. +Hay alguien a favor y alguien en contra en un debate dialctico conflictivo. +La audiencia tiene argumentaciones retricas. +El razonador tiene argumentos basados en evidencias. +Todos son roles distintos. Ahora, imaginen un debate +donde Ud. es el argumentador, pero tambin est en la audiencia vindose cmo debate. Pueden imaginarse verse a s mismos debatiendo, perdiendo la discusin y aun as, al final de la discusin, decir, "guau, ha sido un buen debate". +Pueden hacerlo? Creo que se puede. +Y creo que si pueden imaginar ese tipo de debate donde el perdedor dice al ganador y el pblico y el jurado pueden decir, "S, fue un buen debate", entonces han imaginado una buena discusin. +Y ms que eso, creo que se haban imaginado un buen argumentador, un argumentador digno de la clase de argumentadores que Uds. deberan ser. +Bueno, he perdido un montn de debates. +Se necesita prctica para convertirse en un buen argumentador en el sentido de ser capaz de beneficiarse al perder, pero afortunadamente, he tenido muchos, muchos colegas que han estado dispuestos a intensificar y proporcionar esa prctica en m. +Gracias. +En una poca de conflictos globales y cambio climtico vengo a resolver una cuestin importantsima: Por qu el sexo es tan estupendo? +Si se estn riendo, saben a lo que me refiero. +Pero antes de dar una respuesta dejen que les hable sobre Chris Hosmer. +Chris es un buen amigo que conoc en la universidad, pero en el fondo, lo odio. +Les dir por qu. Cuando estbamos en la universidad nos encargaron disear relojes que funcionaran con energa solar. +Este es mi reloj. +Funciona gracias a un girasol enano, que llega a medir unos 30 centmetros. +Bueno, como saben, los girasoles van siguiendo la trayectoria del sol a lo largo del da. +As que por la maana te fijas en la posicin del girasol y la sealas en la zona en blanco de la base. +A medioda, marcas la nueva posicin, y lo mismo por la tarde, y as tienes un reloj. +Bueno, ya s que mi reloj no marca la hora exacta, pero te puedes dar una idea general usando una flor. +As que en mi opinin, totalmente imparcial y subjetiva, es una genialidad. +Sin embargo, aqu tenemos el reloj de Chris. +Consiste en cinco lupas con un vasito debajo de cada una. +En cada vaso hay un aceite perfumado distinto. +Por la maana el sol dar en la primera lupa, dirigiendo un haz de luz sobre el vaso correspondiente. +De esta manera se calienta el aceite, que desprende un olor concreto. +Un par de horas ms tarde, el sol dar en la siguiente lupa, y se emitir un nuevo olor. +As que a lo largo del da, habr cinco olores distintos que se difundirn por ese entono. +Cualquiera que viva en la casa sabr la hora simplemente por el olor. +Ahora saben por qu odio a Chris. +Pensaba que mi idea era bastante buena, pero su idea es brillante, y en ese momento saba que era mejor que la ma, pero no poda decir por qu. +Algo que deben saber sobre m es que odio perder. +Le he estado dando vueltas a esto durante toda una dcada. +Muy bien, volvamos a la pregunta de por qu el sexo es tan estupendo. +Muchos aos despus del trabajo de los relojes una chica que conoca sugiri que tal vez el sexo es genial gracias a los cinco sentidos. +Y cuando me lo dijo, tuve una revelacin. +As que decid evaluar diversas experiencias de mi vida desde el punto de vista de los cinco sentidos. +Para ello, dise algo llamado el grfico de los cinco sentidos. +En el eje Y tenemos una escala de 0 a 10 y en el eje X tenemos, por supuesto, los cinco sentidos. +Siempre que viva una experiencia relevante la registraba en este grfico, como un diario de los cinco sentidos. +Este es un breve vdeo para que vean cmo funciona. +Jinsop Lee: Hola, me llamo Jinsop y hoy voy a ensearles cmo es montar en moto desde el punto de vista de los cinco sentidos. Eh! +Diseador de motos: Yo soy [ininteligible], diseador de motos personalizadas. +(Motor acelerando) [Odo] [Tacto] [Vista] [Olfato] [Gusto] JL: Y as es como funciona el grfico de los cinco sentidos. +Durante tres aos recopil informacin, no solo ma, sino tambin de algunos amigos, y antes daba clases en la universidad, as que obligu... quiero decir, ped a mis alumnos que hicieran lo mismo. +Aqu tenemos algunos resultados. +El primero es de fideos instantneos. +Obviamente, el gusto y el olfato puntean bastante alto, pero fjense que el odo est en el tres. +Muchos me dijeron que una parte importante de la experiencia de comer fideos es el ruido que se hace al sorber. +Ya saben. (Los sorbos) No hace falta decir que ya nunca ceno con esas personas. +Bien, el siguiente, ir a la discoteca. +Bueno, en este lo que me pareci interesante fue que el gusto puntea cuatro, y muchos encuestados me dijeron que es por las bebidas, pero tambin porque, en algunos casos, besarse es una parte importante de ir a una discoteca. +Con estas personas s que sigo saliendo. +Muy bien, fumar. +Aqu vemos que el tacto puntea [seis], y un motivo es que los fumadores dijeron que la sensacin de coger un cigarrillo y llevrtelo a los labios es una parte importante de la experiencia de fumar, lo que hace que d un poco de miedo pensar lo bien que los fabricantes han diseado los cigarrillos. +Bien. Entonces, cmo sera la experiencia perfecta segn el grfico de los cinco sentidos? +Por supuesto, sera una lnea horizontal en la parte superior. +Ahora pueden ver que ni siquiera una experiencia tan intensa como montar en motocicleta se acerca. +De hecho, durante los aos en los que recopil informacin solo una experiencia se acerc a la perfeccin. +Es, por supuesto, el sexo. Muy buen sexo. +Los encuestados dijeron que el buen sexo afecta profundamente a todos los sentidos. +Voy a citar a uno de mis alumnos, que dijo: "El sexo es tan bueno, que es bueno hasta cuando es malo". +As que la teora de los cinco sentidos ayuda a explicar por qu el sexo es tan estupendo. +Mientras trabajaba en la teora de los cinco sentidos me acord de pronto del proyecto de los relojes que hice cuando era joven. +Y me di cuenta de que esta teora tambin explica por qu el reloj de Chris es mucho mejor que el mo. +Si se fijan, mi reloj se centra solo en la vista y un poco en el tacto. +Este el reloj de Chris. +Es el primer reloj que usa el olfato para marcar la hora. +De hecho, en lo que respecta a los cinco sentidos, el reloj de Chris es revolucionario. +Y esto es lo que esta teora me ha enseado sobre mi campo. +Si se fijan, hasta ahora los diseadores nos hemos centrado en que las cosas parezcan bonitas, y algo en el tacto, lo que significa que hemos ignorado los otros tres sentidos. +El reloj de Chris demuestra que mejorando solo uno de esos otros sentidos podemos crear un producto genial. +As que, qu ocurrira si empezramos a usar la teora de los cinco sentidos en todos los diseos? +Estas son tres ideas que se me han ocurrido. +Tenemos una plancha, ya saben, para la ropa, a la cual he aadido un spray, as que puedes llenar el recipiente con tu olor favorito, la ropa oler mejor y con suerte tambin har ms agradable la experiencia de planchar. +Se podra llamar "el perfumator". +Muy bien, el siguiente. +Me cepillo los dientes dos veces al da; qu les parecera un cepillo con sabor a caramelo, y que cuando se agotara el sabor sabran que toca cambiarlo? +Por ltimo, me encantan las llaves de las flautas o los clarinetes. +No solo su aspecto, sino tambin su tacto cuando las aprietas. +No toco ni la flauta ni el clarinete, as que decid combinar estas llaves con un instrumento que s toco: el control remoto de la tele. +Si nos fijamos en estas tres ideas, veremos que la teora de los cinco sentidos no solo cambia la forma en la que usamos estos productos, sino tambin su apariencia. +As que en conclusin, me parece que la teora es una herramienta muy til a la hora de evaluar varias experiencias que he vivido, para escoger las mejores y, con suerte, incorporarlas a mis diseos. +S que la teora de los cinco sentidos no es lo nico que hace que la vida sea interesante. +Tambin estn las seis emociones y ese elusivo factor x. +Tal vez podra usarlo como tema en mi prxima charla. +Hasta entonces, por favor divirtanse aplicando la teora de los cinco sentidos en sus vidas y en sus diseos. +ah, y una ltima cosa antes de marcharme. +Esta es la experiencia mientras escuchan las charlas de TED. +Sin embargo, sera mejor si pudiramos estimular otros sentidos, como el olor y el gusto. +Y la mejor forma de hacerlo es con caramelos gratis. +Estn preparados? +Muy bien. +Me mud de regreso a casa hace 15 aos luego de una estancia de 20 aos en Estados Unidos, frica me volvi a llamar. +Fund en m pas la primera universidad de diseo grfico y nuevos medios, +llamada Instituto de Artes Vigitales de Zimbabue. +La idea, el sueo, en realidad era una especie de Bauhaus, una escuela que interrogara nuevas ideas e investigara la creacin de un nuevo lenguaje visual basado en la herencia creativa africana. +Ofrecemos un diploma de dos aos a los estudiantes talentosos que hayan completado con xito su educacin secundaria. +La tipografa es una parte muy importante del plan de estudios y animamos a nuestros estudiantes a mirar hacia adentro en busca de inspiracin. +Este es un cartel diseado por uno de los estudiantes bajo el tema "La Educacin es un derecho". +Estos son algunos logos diseados por mis estudiantes. +frica ha tenido una larga tradicin de escritura, pero esto no es un hecho tan bien conocido. Escrib el libro "Alfabetos africanos" para abordar el tema. +Los diferentes tipos de escritura en frica: primero la proto-escritura, aqu ilustrada por el nsibidi, el sistema de escritura de una sociedad secreta del pueblo ejagham al sur de Nigeria. +Es un sistema de escritura de especial inters. +El akan de la gente de Ghana y Sierra Leona que desarroll smbolos adinkra hace unos 400 aos, y estos son refranes, dichos histricos, objetos, animales, plantas, y mi smbolo adinkra favorito es el primero de la parte superior izquierda. +Se llama sankofa. +Significa "volver en su bsqueda", aprender del pasado. +Esta pictografa del pueblo jokwe de Angola cuenta la historia de la creacin del mundo. +En la cima est Dios, abajo est el hombre, la humanidad, a la izquierda est el sol, a la derecha est la luna. +Todos los caminos conducen a y vienen de Dios. +Estas sociedades secretas de las religiones yoruba, kongo y palo en Nigeria, Congo y Angola respectivamente, desarrollaron este intrincado sistema de escritura que hoy goza de buena salud en el Nuevo Mundo en Cuba, Brasil, Trinidad y Hait. +En Sudfrica, las mujeres ndebele usan estos smbolos y otros patrones geomtricos para pintar sus casas de colores brillantes, y las mujeres zules usan los smbolos en las cuentas con las que hacen pulseras y collares. +Etiopa ha tenido la mayor tradicin en escritura, con la escritura manual etope que se desarroll en el siglo IV d.C. +y se usa para escribir el amrico, hablado por ms de 24 millones de personas. +El rey Ibrahim Njoya del Reino Bamum de Camern desarroll el sh-mom a sus 25 aos. +El sh-mom es un sistema de escritura +silbico, que no es exactamente un alfabeto. +Y aqu vemos 3 etapas del desarrollo que atraves a lo largo de 30 aos. +El pueblo vai de Liberia tiene una larga tradicin de alfabetizacin anterior a su primer contacto con los europeos en el 1800. +Es un silabario y se lee de izquierda a derecha. +Al lado, en Sierra Leona, los mende tambin desarrollaron un silabario, pero el de ellos se lee de derecha a izquierda. +frica ha tenido una larga tradicin de diseo, una sensibilidad por el diseo bien definida, pero el problema de frica ha sido que, en especial hoy, los diseadores de frica luchan contra todo tipo de diseo porque tienden ms a buscar afuera la influencia y la inspiracin. +El espritu creativo africano, la tradicin creativa, es tan vigorosa como siempre lo ha sido, solo falta que los diseadores miren hacia adentro. +Esta cruz etope ilustra el postulado del Dr. Ron Eglash: frica tiene mucho que aportar a la informtica y a la matemtica mediante su comprensin intuitiva de los fractales. +Los africanos de la antigedad crearon la civilizacin, y sus monumentos, que todava siguen en pie hoy, son un verdadero testimonio de su grandeza. +Probablemente, uno de los mayores logros de la humanidad sea la invencin del alfabeto, y se lo atribuye a la Mesopotamia con la invencin de la escritura cuneiforme en el 1600 a.C., seguido por los jeroglficos egipcios, y esa historia ha sido esculpida en piedra como hecho histrico. +Es decir, hasta 1998, cuando un profesor de Yale, John Coleman Darnell, descubri estas inscripciones en el desierto de Tebas en los acantilados de piedra caliza en el oeste de Egipto, y estas han sido datadas entre el 1800 y el 1900 a.C., siglos antes que la Mesopotamia. +Se llama wadi el-hol debido al lugar donde fueron descubiertas estas inscripciones... --la investigacin est an en curso-- se han descifrado algunas, pero hay consenso entre los especialistas de que este es el primer alfabeto de la humanidad. +Aqu se ve una paleografa que muestra lo que se ha descifrado hasta ahora, empezando con la letra A, "lep", en la parte superior, "bt", en el medio, y as sucesivamente. +Es hora de que los estudiantes de diseo en frica lean las obras de titanes como Cheikh Anta Diop, Cheikh Anta Diop, de Senegal, cuyo trabajo seminal sobre Egipto hoy se confirma con este descubrimiento. +La ltima palabra va para el gran lder jamaiquino Marcus Mosiah Garvey y el pueblo akan de Ghana con su smbolo adinkra, sankofa, que nos anima a ir hacia el pasado para darle forma a nuestro presente y construir un futuro para nosotros y nuestros hijos. +Tambin es hora de que los diseadores de frica dejen de mirar afuera. +Han estado mirando hacia afuera durante mucho tiempo, cuando lo que estaban buscando estaba ah al alcance de la mano, dentro de ellos. +Muchas gracias. +$$[Adam Ockelford] prometo que no van a tener que escucharme hablar por mucho tiempo, sino que escucharn a Derek tocar, pero primero pens que sera bueno recapitular cmo lleg Derek a donde est hoy. +Es increble, porque es mucho mayor que yo, pero cuando Derek naci, podra haber cabido en la palma de la mano. +Naci tres meses y medio antes de tiempo, y luch un montn para sobrevivir. +Necesit mucho oxgeno, y eso afect tus ojos, Derek, y tambin a la manera en que entiendes el lenguaje y la manera en que entiendes el mundo. +Pero all se terminaron las malas noticias, porque cuando Derek volvi del hospital, su familia decidi contratar a la niera formidable que iba a cuidarte, Derek, por el resto de tu niez.. +Y la gran perspicacia de la niera fue pensar: "He aqu un nio que no puede ver. +La msica debe ser entonces lo de Derek". +Y, en efecto, ella le cant, o como Derek lo llamaba, "gorjear", durante sus primeros pocos aos de vida. +Y pienso que la emocin de escuchar su voz hora tras hora, todos los das, hizo que l pensara quizs, tu sabes, que algo se estaba revolviendo en su cerebro, algn tipo de don musical. +Aqu tienen una pequea foto de Derek de cuando estaba con su niera. +Ahora, otra gran percepcin suya fue pensar que quizs deberamos darle algo a Derek para tocar y, convencida, le acerc este pequeo teclado desde el apartamento, nunca pensando realmente, que algo pudiera resultar de aquello. +Pero Derek, tus pequeas manos deben haberse abalanzado sobre la cosa y golpeado, golpeado tan fuerte que pensaron que se iba a romper. +Pero de todos esos golpes, luego de pocos meses, surgi la msica ms fantstica, y pienso que hubo simplemente un momento milagroso, realmente, Derek, cuando te diste cuenta de que todos los sonidos que escuchabas en el mundo, eran algo que podas tocar en el piano. +Ese fue el gran momento de eureka. +Ahora, no poder ver significaba, por supuesto, que tuviste que aprender solo. +Derek Paravicini: Aprend solo a tocar. +AO: Realmente aprendiste solo a tocar, y como consecuencia, tocar el piano para t, Derek, signific un montn de nudillos y golpes de karate, e incluso un poco de nariz de vez en cuando. +Y ahora, lo que la niera tambin hizo fue apretar el botn de grabar en uno de esos pequeos grabadores de cinta que haba, y esta es una maravillosa grabacin de Derek tocando cuando tena 4 aos. +DP: "Molly Malone - Berberechos y mejillones" (Molly Malone - Cockles and Mussels) [Molly Malone - Cockles and Mussels] +AO: No era precisamente "Berberechos y mejillones" +Esta es "Jardn de campo ingls" [English Country Garden]. +DP: "Jardn de campo ingls". +[Msica: "Jardn de campo ingls"] [Msica] AO: Ah lo tienen. +[Aplausos] Pienso que es simplemente fantstico. +Saben, he aqu un pequeo nio que no puede ver, que no entiende realmente mucho sobre el mundo, que no tiene a nadie en la familia que toque un instrumento, y sin embargo, aprendi solo a tocar eso. +Y como pueden ver en la foto, haba bastante lenguaje corporal dando vueltas mientras tocabas, Derek. +Por lo que, ni bien intentaba acercarme al piano, me empujabas firmemente +Y, habindole dicho a tu padre, Nick, que intentara ensearte, estaba entonces un poco confundido por cmo lograra eso si no poda estar cerca del piano. +Pero despus de un rato, pens, bueno, la nica manera sera levantarte y llevarte hasta el otro lado de la habitacin, y, en los 10 segundos que tena hasta que Derek volviera, podra tocar algo muy rpidamente para que aprendiera. +Y al final, Derek, creo que estuviste de acuerdo con que realmente podamos divertirnos tocando el piano juntos. +Como pueden ver, ese soy yo antes de casarme, con barba marrn, y ese es el pequeo Derek, concentrado. +Acabo de darme cuenta que esto va a ser grabado, no es as? Es verdad. Bueno. +[Risas] Bueno, entonces, cuando Derek tena 10 aos, realmente, haba cautivado al mundo. +Esta es una foto de t, Derek, tocando en el Barbican con la Royal Philharmonic Pops [Filarmnca Real Popular]. +Bsicamente fue un viaje emocionante, de veras. +Y en esos das, Derek, no hablabas mucho, por lo que siempre haba un momento de tensin ya sea por si realmente habas entendido lo que bamos a tocar o por si tocaras la pieza correcta en la tonalidad correcta, y todo ese tipo de cosas. +Pero la orquesta tambin se sorprendi, y los medios del mundo quedaron fascinados por tu habilidad para tocar esas piezas fantsticas. +Ahora la pregunta es, cmo lo haces, Derek? +Con suerte podremos mostrarle a la audiencia de hoy cmo es que haces lo que haces. +Creo que una de las primeras cosas que sucedieron cuando eras muy pequeo, Derek, fue que, cuando tenas 2, tu odo musical ya haba sobrepasado al de la mayora de los adultos. +Y entonces, cuando escuchabas cualquier nota, si tan solo toco una nota al azar [Notas en el piano] sabas inmediatamente cul era, y tenas tambin la habilidad para encontrarla en el piano +Eso es lo que se llama odo absoluto, y algunos tienen odo absoluto para algunas pocas notas blancas en el medio del piano. +[Notas de piano] Pueden ver cmo es tocar con Derek. +[Aplausos] Pero, Derek, tu odo es mucho ms que eso. +Voy a dejar el micrfono por un momento, y voy a tocar un grupo de notas. +Aquellos que puedan ver sabrn cuntas notas, pero Derek, por supuesto, no puede. +No solo puedes decir cuntas notas, sino puedes tocarlas todas al mismo tiempo. Veamos. +[Acordes] Bueno, olvdate de la terminologa, Derek. Fantstico. +Y es esa habilidad, la habilidad para or sonidos simultneos, no solo sonidos singulares, sino tambin cuando toca una orquesta entera, Derek, puedes or cada nota, e instantneamente, mediante todas aquellas horas y horas de prctica, reproducirlas en el piano. Eso creo que hace la base de tu habilidad. +Ahora. +No sirve de nada tener esa habilidad sin una tcnica, y, afortunadamente, Derek, tu decidiste que, una vez que comenzamos a aprender, me dejaras que te ayude a aprender la digitacin de las escalas. +Como por ejemplo, usando tu pulgar en do mayor +[Notas de piano] Etc. +Y, al final, te volviste tan rpido,. que cosas como "El vuelo del moscardn" no eran problema alguno, no es verdad? +DP: No. +AO: Exacto. As que, a los 11 aos, Derek tocaba cosas como esto. +DP: Esto. +[Msica: "El vuelo del moscardn"] [Aplausos] AO: Derek, saluda al pblico [Aplausos] +Bien hecho. +Ahora, lo realmente maravilloso era que, con todas esas escalas, Derek, no solo podas tocar "El vuelo del moscardn" en la tonalidad habitual, sino que podas en cualquier otra tonalidad que elija. +Entonces, si elijo simplemente una tonalidad al azar, como esta. +[Notas del piano] Podras tocar "El vuelo del moscardn" en esta tonalidad? +DP: "El vuelo del moscardn" en esta tonalidad. +[Msica: "El vuelo del moscardn"] AO: Y en otra? Qu tal en sol menor? +DP: Sol menor. +[Msica: "El vuelo del moscardn"] AO: Fantstico. Bien hecho, Derek. +Ahora, como vieron, en tu cerebro, Derek, existe esta maravillosa computadora musical que puede recalibrar y recalcular instantneamente, todas las piezas que se encuentran en el mundo. +A la mayora de los pianistas les dara un ataque si les dijeras inesperadamente: "Disclpame, te molestara tocar 'El vuelo del moscardn' en si menor en vez de la menor?." +Un tipo fantstico. +La otra cosa maravillosa de ti es tu memoria. +DP: Memoria. AO: Tu memoria es verdaderamente sorprendente, AO: Tu memoria es verdaderamente sorprendente, y en cada concierto que damos, le pedimos a la gente que participe sugiriendo una pieza que a Derek le gustara tocar. +Y la gente dice: "Bueno, eso es algo terriblemente valiente. porque, qu pasara si Derek no la sabe?" +Y yo les respondo: "No es valiente en absoluto, porque si pides algo que Derek no sabe, ests invitado a acercarte y cantrselo primero, y luego l podr continuar". [Risas] As que s prudente antes de sugerir algo muy descabellado. +Ahora, en serio, quisiera alguien elegir una pieza? +DP: Elijan una pieza. Elijan, elijan. AO: Est oscuro, van a tener que gritar. +Quisieran escucharme tocar? +[Audiencia: "Rapsodia sobre un tema de Paganini"] AO: Paganini. DP: "Rapsodia sobre un tema de Paganini". +[Risas] [Msica: "Rapsodia sobre un tema de Paganini"] [Aplausos] AO: Bien hecho. +Derek est por ir a Los ngeles pronto, y es un hito, ya que significa que Derek y yo cumpliremos ms de 100 horas en viajes de larga distancia lo que es bastante interesante, no es as, Derek? +DP: Muy interesante, Adam, s. Viajes de larga distancia. Si. +AO: Pueden pensar que 13 horas es un largo tiempo para seguir hablando, pero Derek no tiene problemas. De vez en cuando. +[Risas] Pero en los Estados Unidos, han llamado a Derek "el iPod humano", lo cual creo que es no entender el sentido de todo esto, en serio, porque Derek, eres mucho ms que un iPod. +Eres un msico fantstico y creativo, y creo que eso no pudo estar ms claro que cuando fuimos a Slovenia, y alguien en los conciertos largos solemos tener gente que participa y esta persona, muy, muy nerviosamente se acerc al escenario, +DP: Toc "Palillos chinos" AO: Y toc "Palillos chinos" +DP: "Palillos chinos" +- AO: Algo as. - DP: As. Si. +[Notas de piano] AO: Debera hacer que suba el Manager de Derek y la toque. +Est sentado all. +- DP: Alguien toc "Palillos chinos" as. - AO: Solo bromeaba. Aqu vamos. +[Msica: "Palillos chinos"] DP: Deja que Derek toque. +AO: Y qu hiciste con la cancin, Derek? +DP: Improvis con ella, Adam. +AO: Este es Derek, el msico. +[Msica: Improvisacin de "Palillos chinos"] [Aplausos] [Msica] [Palmas] Sganlo a Derek. +[Msica] [Aplausos] La gente de TED va a matarme, pero quizs quede tiempo para un bis. +- DP: Para un bis. - AO: Un bis, s. +Este es uno de los hroes de Derek. +Es el gran Art Tatum DP: Art Tatum. +AO: quien era tambin un pianista ciego, y tambin, pienso, como Derek, pensaba que el mundo entero era un piano, por lo que siempre que Art Tatum toca algo, suena como si hubiera tres pianos en la habitacin. +He aqu la versin de Derek de "El paso del tigre" (Tiger Rag) de Art Tatum +"El paso del tigre" [Tiger Rag[ de Art Tatum DP: "El paso del tigre" +[Msica: "El paso del tigre"] [Aplausos] +Hola, soy arquitecto. +Soy el nico arquitecto en el mundo que hace edificios de papel como con este tubo de cartn y esta exposicin es la primera que hice usando tubos de papel. +En 1986, mucho, mucho tiempo antes de que la gente empezara a hablar sobre temas ecolgicos y del medio ambiente, empec a probar el tubo de papel para poder utilizarlo como una estructura para la construccin. +Es muy complicado probar nuevos materiales para la construccin, pero result mucho ms fuerte de lo que esperaba y tambin es muy fcil de impermeabilizar, y tambin, porque es un material industrial, tambin es posible que sea resistente al fuego. +Entonces constru la estructura temporal, 1990. +Este es el primer edificio temporal hecho de papel. +Hay 330 tubos con un dimetro de 55 cm. y solo hay 12 tubos con un dimetro de 120 cm, o cuatro pies, de ancho. +Como ven en la foto, dentro est el bao. +En caso de que se termine el papel higinico, pueden arrancar el interior de la pared. As que es muy til. +En el ao 2000 hubo una gran exposicin en Alemania. +Me pidieron que diseara el edificio, porque el tema de la expo fue de cuestiones ambientales. +As que fui elegido para construir el pabelln con los tubos de papel, de papel reciclable. +Mi objetivo de diseo no es cuando se haya contruido. +Mi meta era cuando el edificio fuera demolido, porque cada pas construye muchos pabellones pero despus de medio ao, creamos muchos residuos industriales, as que mi edificio tiene que ser reutilizable o reciclable. +Despus, el edificio fue reciclado. +As que ese era el objetivo de mi diseo. +Entonces tuve mucha suerte de ganar la competencia para construir el segundo centro Pompidou de Francia en la ciudad de Metz. +Porque era tan pobre, quera alquilar una oficina en Pars, pero no poda pagarla, as que decid llevar a mis estudiantes a Pars para construir nuestra oficina en el Centro Pompidou de Pars nosotros mismos. +As que trajimos a los tubos de papel y las uniones de madera para completar la oficina de 35 metros de largo. +Estuvimos all por seis aos sin pagar alquiler. +Gracias. Tuve un gran problema. +Porque ramos parte de la exposicin, y si un amigo quera verme, tena que comprar una entrada para verme. +Ese fue el problema. +Luego complet el Centro Pompidou en Metz. +Es un museo muy popular ahora, y he creado un monumento grande para el gobierno. +Pero entonces estaba muy decepcionado de mi profesin como arquitecto, porque no estamos ayudando, no estamos trabajando para la sociedad, estamos trabajando para personas privilegiadas, gente rica, el gobierno, constructoras. +Tienen dinero y poder. +Pero son invisibles. +As que nos contratan para visualizar su poder y dinero haciendo arquitectura monumental. +Esa es nuestra profesin, incluso histricamente es lo mismo, Incluso ahora estamos haciendo lo mismo. +As que estaba muy decepcionado de que no estamos trabajando para la sociedad, aun cuando hay mucha gente que perdi sus casas por desastres naturales. +Pero debo decir que ya no son desastres naturales. +Por ejemplo, los terremotos no matan gente, pero el colapso de las edificios mata gente. +Esa es la responsabilidad de los arquitectos. +Entonces la gente necesita una vivienda temporal, pero no hay ningn arquitecto trabajando en ello porque estamos demasiado ocupados trabajando para los privilegiados. +As que pens, aun como arquitectos, podemos estar involucrados en la reconstruccin de viviendas temporales. +Podemos hacerlo mejor. +Es por eso que empec a trabajar en las zonas de desastre. +En 1994 hubo un gran desastre en Ruanda, frica. +Dos tribus, Hutu y Tutsi, lucharon entre s. +Ms de 2 millones de personas se convirtieron en refugiados. +Pero me sorprendi ver el refugio, el campamento de refugiados organizado por la ONU. +Eran tan pobres, y se estaban helando con mantas durante la estacin lluviosa, en los refugios construidos por la ONU, solo estaban proporcionando una lona de plstico, y los refugiados tuvieron que cortar los rboles justo como este. +Pero el que ms de 2 millones de personas cortaran rboles +result en una gran deforestacin y un problema ambiental. +Es por ello que empezaron a ofrecer tubos de aluminio, y refugios de aluminio. +Muy caro, desperdiciaron el dinero, luego cortaron rboles otra vez. +Entonces propuse mi idea para mejorar la situacin de utiilizar estos tubos de papel reciclado porque esto es muy barato y tambin muy fuerte, pero mi presupuesto es de slo 50 dlares por unidad. +Construimos 50 unidades como una prueba de seguimiento para la durabilidad y la humedad y las termitas y ms. +Y luego, aos despus, en 1995 en Kobe, Japn, tuvimos un gran terremoto. +Casi 7,000 personas murieron, y la ciudad como este distrito de Nagata, toda la ciudad se quem en un incendio despus del terremoto. +Y tambin descubr que hay muchos refugiados vietnamitas sufriendo y reunidos en una iglesia catlica, todo el edificio fue totalmente destruido. +As que fui all y tambin les propuse a los sacerdotes, "Por qu no reconstruir la iglesia con tubos de papel?" +Y me dijo: "Oh por Dios, ests loco? +Despus de un incendio, qu ests proponiendo?" +As que nunca confi en m, pero no me rend. +Empec a viajar a Kobe, y conoc a la sociedad del pueblo vietnamita. +Estaban viviendo de esta manera con lminas de plstico muy pobres en el parque. +As que les propuse reconstruir. Recaud fondos. +Hice un refugio de tubo de papel para ellos, y para hacerlo fcil de construir por los estudiantes y tambin para que sea fcil de demoler, utilic cajas de cerveza como una cimientos. +Le ped a la compaa de cerveza Kirin apoyo, porque en aquel momento, la empresa de cerveza Asahi haca sus cajas de cerveza de plstico rojo, que no van con el color de los tubos de papel. +La coordinacin del color es muy importante. +Y tambin recuerdo todava, estbamos esperando que hubiera cerveza dentro de los cajones de plstico, pero llegaron vacos. Recuerdo que fue tan decepcionante. +As que durante el verano con mis alumnos, construimos ms de 50 refugios. +Finalmente el sacerdote, finalmente confi en m para reconstruir. +Dijo, "Mientras juntes el dinero por ti mismo, trae a tus alumnos a construir, puedes hacerlo". +As pasamos cinco semanas reconstruyendo la iglesia. +Estaba destinada a permanecer all durante tres aos, pero en realidad se qued all durante 10 aos porque a la gente le encant. +Luego, en Taiwn, tuvieron un gran terremoto, y propusimos donar esta iglesia, As que la desmantelamos y la enviamos para que sea construida por personas voluntarias. +All permaneca en Taiwan como una iglesia permanente incluso hoy en da. +Este edificio se convirti en un edificio permanente. +Entonces me pregunto, qu es un edificio permanente y un edificio temporal? +Incluso un edificio hecho de papel puede ser permanente, mientras a la gente le encante. +Incluso un edificio de concreto puede ser muy temporal si se hace para ganar dinero. +En 1999, en Turqua, el gran terremoto, fui ah para usar el material local para construir un refugio. +2001, en la India del oeste, constru tambin un refugio. +En 2004, en Sri Lanka, despus del terremoto de Sumatra y el tsunami, reconstru aldeas de pescadores islmicos. +Y en el 2008, en el rea de Chengdu, Sichuan, en China, casi 70,000 personas murieron, y tambin muchas de las escuelas fueron destruidas. debido a la corrupcin entre la autoridad y el contratista. +Me pidieron reconstruir la iglesia temporal. +Traje mis estudiantes japoneses para trabajar con los estudiantes chinos. +En un mes, completamos nueve aulas, ms de 500 metros cuadrados. +Todava se utiliza, incluso despus del ltimo terremoto en China. +En 2009, en Italia, L'Aquila, tambin tuvieron un gran terremoto. +Y esta es una foto muy interesante: el ex primer ministro Berlusconi y ex ex ex ex primer ministro japons Sr. Aso... ustedes saben, porque tenamos que cambiar el primer ministro cada ao. +Y fueron muy amables con mi modelo. +Propuse una gran reconstruccin, una sala de conciertos temporal, porque L'Aquila es muy famosa por la msica y todos los salones de conciertos fueron destruidos, as que los msicos se estaban mudando. +As que le propuse al alcalde, que me gustara reconstruir el Auditorio temporal. +Dijo, "mientras traigas tu dinero, puedes hacerlo". +Y tuve mucha suerte. +Sr. Berlusconi trajo la Cumbre del G8, y el ex primer ministro vino, as que nos ayudaron a recoger el dinero, y obtuve medio milln de euros del gobierno japons para reconstruir este Auditorio temporal. +En el ao 2010 en Hait hubo un gran terremoto, pero era imposible llegar en avin, as que fui a Santo Domingo, el pas vecino, y despus de seis horas para llegar a Hait con los estudiantes locales en Santo Domingo construimos 50 refugios con tubos de papel locales. +Esto es lo que pas en Japn hace dos aos, en el norte de Japn. +Tras el terremoto y tsunami, la gente tuvo que ser evacuada en un gran saln como un gimnasio. +Pero miren esto. No hay ninguna privacidad. +Las personas sufren mentalmente y fsicamente. +As que fuimos all para crear divisiones con todos los estudiantes voluntarios con tubos de papel, un refugio muy simple con la estructura de tubos y la cortina. +Sin embargo, algunas autoridades de la instalacin no queran que lo hiciramos porque, dijeron, simplemente, se hace ms difcil de controlarlos. +Pero es realmente necesario hacerlo. +No tienen suficiente rea plana para construir viviendas de un piso estndar del gobierno como estas. +Miran esto. Incluso el gobierno civil est haciendo construcciones tan pobres como vivienda temporal, tan densas y desordenadas porque no hay ningn almacenamiento, nada, hay fugas de agua, as que pens, tenemos que hacer un edificio de varios pisos porque no hay tierra y tambin no es muy cmodo. +As que le propuse al alcalde mientras estaba haciendo particiones. +Finalmente conoc a un alcalde muy agradable en la aldea de Onagawa en Miyagi. +Me pidi para construir vivienda de tres pisos en los campos de bisbol. +Us contenedores y tambin los estudiantes nos ayudaron a hacer todo el mobiliario del edificio para hacerlos cmodos, dentro del presupuesto del gobierno pero tambin el rea de la casa es exactamente la misma, pero mucho ms cmodo. +Mucha gente quiere quedarse ah para siempre. +Estaba muy feliz de or eso. +Ahora estoy trabajando en Nueva Zelanda, Christchurch. +Cerca de 20 das antes de que pasara el terremoto japons, tambin tuvieron un gran terremoto, y muchos estudiantes japoneses tambin murieron, y la catedral ms importante de la ciudad, el smbolo de Christchurch, fue totalmente destruida. +Y me pidieron que furamos a reconstruir la Catedral temporal. +As que est en construccin. +Y me gustara seguir construyendo monumentos amados por la gente. +Muchas gracias. +Gracias. Muchas gracias. +De lo que quisiera hablar hoy es acerca de uno de mis temas favoritos, la neurociencia del sueo. +Ahora, hay un sonido... (Reloj despertador) Ah, funcion. +un sonido que es desesperadamente familiar a la mayora de nosotros, y por supuesto es el sonido de la alarma del reloj. +Y lo que hace ese sonido verdaderamente espantoso y horrible es interrumpir la experiencia ms importante del comportamiento que tenemos, que es dormir. +Si son un tipo de persona promedio, pasarn el 36% de su vida dormidos, lo que significa que si viven 90 aos, entonces 32 aos los habrn pasado durmiendo. +Lo que esos 32 aos nos estn diciendo es que dormir es de alguna manera importante. +Y sin embargo, para la mayora de nosotros, no le damos importancia al dormir. +Lo desechamos. +Realmente no pensamos en el sueo. +Y lo que me gustara hacer hoy es cambiar sus puntos de vista, cambiar sus ideas y sus pensamientos sobre el sueo. +Y para lo que quiero ensearles debemos empezar volviendo en el tiempo. +"Disfruta el plcido, dulcsimo roco del sueo". +Alguna idea de quin dijo eso? +Julio Csar de Shakespeare. +S, djenme darles algunas citas ms. +"Sueo, dulce sueo, suave nodriza de la naturaleza, qu espanto te he causado?". +Shakespeare de nuevo, de no se los dir la obra escocesa. [Correccin: Enrique IV, parte 2] De la misma poca: "El sueo es la cadena de oro que une la salud y nuestros cuerpos". +Extremadamente proftica, de Thomas Dekker, otro dramaturgo isabelino. +Pero si saltamos hacia delante 400 aos, el tono sobre el sueo cambia un poco. +Esto es de Thomas Edison, de principios del siglo XX. "El sueo es una prdida criminal de tiempo y una herencia de nuestro pasado caverncola". Bang. +Y si saltamos tambin a la dcada de los 80, algunos de ustedes recordarn que Margaret Thatcher dijo, "El sueo es para los dbiles". +Y por supuesto el infame cul era su nombre? el infame Gordon Gekko de "Wall Street" dijo, "El dinero nunca duerme". +Qu hacemos en el siglo XX acerca del sueo? +Bueno, por supuesto, usamos el foco de Thomas Edison para invadir la noche y ocupar la oscuridad; y en el proceso de esta ocupacin hemos tratado al sueo casi como una enfermedad. +Lo hemos tratado como un enemigo. +La mayora ahora, supongo, toleramos la necesidad de dormir y en el peor de los casos, tal vez muchos de nosotros pensamos que el sueo es como una enfermedad que necesita algn tipo de cura. +Y nuestra ignorancia sobre el sueo es muy profunda. +Por qu es as? Por qu abandonar el sueo en nuestros pensamientos? +Bueno, es porque no hacemos mucho mientras dormimos, al parecer. +No comemos. No bebemos. +Y no tenemos sexo. +Bueno, al menos la mayora de nosotros. +Y por lo tanto es... Lo siento. Es una completa prdida de tiempo, verdad? Falso. +En realidad, dormir es una parte increblemente importante de nuestra biologa, y los neurocientficos estn empezando a explicar porqu es tan importante. +As que vamos al cerebro. +Bien, aqu tenemos un cerebro. +Este fue donado por un cientfico social, y dijeron que no saban lo que era, o cmo usarlo, as que... Lo siento. +As que lo tom prestado. No creo que se hayan dado cuenta. Est bien. +El punto es que cuando estamos dormidos, esta cosa no se apaga. +De hecho, algunas reas del cerebro estn ms activas durante el estado de sueo que durante el estado de vigilia. +Otra cosa que es muy importante sobre el sueo es que no se presenta de una sola estructura dentro del cerebro, sino es hasta cierto punto una propiedad de la red +y si damos vuelta el cerebro me encanta esta parte de la mdula espinal esta pequea rea es el hipotlamo, y justo debajo hay toda una serie de estructuras interesantes, no menos importante que el reloj biolgico. +El reloj biolgico nos dice cundo es hora de levantarse, y cundo es hora de dormir, y lo que hace esa estructura, es interactuar con toda una serie de otras reas en el hipotlamo, el hipotlamo lateral, los ncleos prepticos ventrolaterales. +Todos se combinan y envan proyecciones hasta el tallo enceflico aqu. +El tallo enceflico se proyecta hacia adelante y baa la corteza, esta pequea rea maravillosamente arrugada por aqu, con los neurotransmisores que nos mantienen despiertos y esencialmente nos proporciona nuestra conciencia. +Entonces el sueo surge de toda una serie de diferentes interacciones dentro del cerebro, y esencialmente, el sueo es activado y desactivado como resultado de una gama de interacciones aqu. +Bueno, entonces, dnde hemos llegado? +Hemos dicho que el sueo es complicado y pasamos 32 aos de nuestra vida durmiendo. +Pero no hemos explicado de qu se trata dormir. +As que por qu dormimos? +Y no sorprender a nadie de ustedes que, por supuesto, los cientficos, no tenemos un consenso. +Hay decenas de diferentes ideas sobre por qu dormimos, y voy a presentar tres de ellas. +La primera es la idea de la restauracin, y es algo intuitivo. +Esencialmente, todas las cosas que hemos gastado durante el da, las restauramos, las reemplazamos, las reconstruimos durante la noche. +Y en efecto, como una explicacin, se remonta a Aristteles, hace como 2,300 aos. +Por momentos ha estado de moda y por momentos no. +Est de moda en este ahora porque se ha demostrado que dentro del cerebro, toda una serie de genes se activan solo durante el sueo y esos genes estn asociados con la restauracin y las rutas metablicas. +Hay buena evidencia para la hiptesis de la restauracin. +Y la conservacin de energa? +Otra vez, tal vez es intuitiva. +Esencialmente duermes para ahorrar caloras. +Ahora, cuando se hacen las sumas, no es significativo. +Si comparan un individuo que ha dormido en la noche o que se qued despierto y no se movi mucho, el ahorro de energa por dormir alrededor de 110 caloras por noche. +Eso es el equivalente de un pan de hotdog. +Ahora, yo dira que un pan de hotdog es de una recompensa bastante pobre para un comportamiento complicado y demandante como es el sueo. +As que me convence menos la idea de la conservacin de energa. +Pero la tercera idea es muy atractiva,, que es el procesamiento cerebral y consolidacin de la memoria. +Lo que sabemos es que, si despus de intentar aprender algo se priva de sueo a las personas, la capacidad de aprender se reduce drsticamente. +Es realmente un gran atenuante. +As que el sueo y la consolidacin de la memoria tambin son muy importantes. +Sin embargo, no es slo la fijacin de la memoria y la evocacin. +Lo que result ser muy emocionante es que nuestra capacidad para idear soluciones novedosas a problemas complejos, aumenta considerablemente con una noche de sueo. +De hecho, se ha estimado que nos da una triple ventaja. +Dormir de noche aumenta nuestra creatividad. +Y lo que parece estar ocurriendo es que, en el cerebro, esas conexiones neuronales que son importantes, esas conexiones sinpticas que son importantes, se unen y se fortalecen, mientras que las menos importantes tienden a desaparecer y ser menos importantes. +Est bien. As que hemos tenido tres explicaciones de por qu podramos dormir y creo que es importante darse cuenta de que los detalles pueden variar y es probable que dormimos por mltiples razones diferentes. +Pero el sueo no es un lujo. +No es algo de lo que podamos prescindir de vez en cuando. +Creo que el sueo se compar una vez a una mejora de clase turista a clase ejecutiva, ya saben, el equivalente. +No es ni siquiera una mejora de turista a primera clase. +Lo importante es darse cuenta de que si no duermen, no vuelan. +Esencialmente, nunca llegan, +y lo que es extraordinario de una gran parte de nuestra sociedad en estos das, es que desesperadamente nos privamos de sueo. +Ahora echemos un vistazo a la privacin del sueo. +Grandes sectores de la sociedad se privan del sueo, y echemos un vistazo a nuestro medidor de sueo. +En la dcada de los 50, datos confiables sugieren que la mayora de nosotros consumamos alrededor de unas ocho horas de sueo cada noche. +Hoy en da, dormimos de una hora y media a dos horas menos cada noche, as que estamos en el rango de seis horas y media. +Para los adolescentes, es peor, mucho peor. +Necesitan nueve horas para el completo funcionamiento del cerebro y muchos de ellos, en una noche de escuela, solo estn durmiendo cinco horas. +Simplemente no es suficiente. +Si pensamos en otros sectores de la sociedad, los ancianos, si usted es mayor, entonces la capacidad para dormir en un solo periodo est un poco alterada, y el sueo de muchos, nuevamente, es de menos de cinco horas por noche. +Turno de trabajo. El turno de trabajo es extraordinario, quizs el 20% de la poblacin trabajadora, y el reloj corporal no se adapta a las exigencias de trabajar de noche. +Est atrapada en el mismo ciclo luz-oscuridad que el resto de nosotros. +As que cuando el pobre trabajador vuelva a casa para tratar de dormir durante el da, desesperadamente cansado, el reloj corporal le dir, "Despierta. Este es el momento para estar despierto". +As que la calidad del sueo que se tiene como trabajador del turno de noche es generalmente muy pobre, otra vez de alrededor de cinco horas. +Y entonces, por supuesto, decenas de millones de personas sufren de jet lag. +Quin aqu tiene jet lag? +Bueno, cielos santos. +Bueno, muchas gracias por no quedarse dormidos, porque eso es lo que su cerebro ansa. +Una de las cosas que hace el cerebro es entregarse a micro-sueos, quedndose dormido involuntariamente, y esencialmente no se tiene control sobre eso. +Ahora, los micro-sueos puede ser algo embarazoso, pero tambin pueden ser mortales. +Se estima que 31% de los conductores se dormir al volante al menos una vez en su vida, y en los Estados Unidos, las estadsticas son bastante acertadas: 100,000 de accidentes en carreteras se han asociado con el cansancio, con menos atencin y con caer dormidos. +100,000 al ao. Es extraordinario. +En otro nivel de terror, nos sumergimos a los trgicos accidentes en Chernobyl y en efecto al transbordador espacial Challenger, que se perdi tan trgicamente. +Y en las investigaciones que siguieron a esos desastres, se mostr falta de juicio, como consecuencia del trabajo por turnos extendidos y la prdida de la vigilancia y el cansancio se atribuy a una gran parte de esos desastres. +As que cuando estn cansados y les falta sueo, tienen mala memoria y poca creatividad, y se tiene una la impulsividad exacerbada. y falta de criterio general. +Pero, amigos, es mucho peor que eso. +Si son un cerebro cansado, el cerebro ansa cosas para despertarlo. +como drogas, estimulantes. La cafena representa +el estimulante de eleccin en gran parte del mundo occidental. +Gran parte del da es alimentado por la cafena, y si son un cerebro muy cansado, la nicotina. +Y por supuesto, estn manteniendo el estado de vigilia con estos estimulantes, y luego por supuesto llegan las 11 de la noche, el cerebro se dice a s mismo, "Ah, bueno, en realidad, necesito estar dormido dentro de poco. +Qu hacemos si me siento completamente conectado?" +Bueno, por supuesto, entonces recurrimos al alcohol. +Ahora el alcohol, a corto plazo, ya saben, una vez o dos veces, puede ser muy til para sedarnos suavemente. +En realidad puede facilitar la transicin de sueo. +Pero de lo que deben estar conscientes es de que el alcohol no proporciona el sueo, +es un imitador biolgico para dormir. Te seda. +As que en realidad perjudica algunos de los procesamientos neuronales que suceden durante la consolidacin de la memoria y la evocacin de los recuerdos. +As que es una medida a corto plazo, pero por amor de Dios, no se conviertan en adictos al alcohol como una forma de conciliar el sueo todas las noches. +Otra conexin con la prdida de sueo es el aumento de peso. +Si duermen alrededor de unas 5 horas o menos cada noche, entonces tienen una probabilidad del 50% de ser obesos. +Cul es la conexin aqu? +Pues bien, la falta de sueo parece dar lugar a la liberacin de la hormona grelina, la hormona del hambre. +La grelina es liberada. Y llega al cerebro. +El cerebro dice: "Necesito carbohidratos" y lo que hace es buscar carbohidratos y particularmente azcares. +As que hay un vnculo entre el cansancio y la predisposicin metablica para aumentar de peso. +Estrs. La gente cansada est masivamente estresada. +Y una de las cosas del estrs, por supuesto, es la prdida de memoria, que es el pequeo lapso que tuve. +Pero el estrs es mucho ms que eso. +As que si ests gravemente estresado, no es un gran problema, pero el estrs constante asociado con la prdida de sueo, es el problema. +El estrs constante conduce a una inmunidad suprimida, +y la gente cansada tiende a tener ndices ms altos de infecciones en general, y existen muy buenos estudios que muestran que los trabajadores por turnos, por ejemplo, tienen mayores ndices de cncer. +Altos niveles de estrs generan glucosa en el sistema circulatorio. +La glucosa se convierte en una parte dominante de la vasculatura y esencialmente te conviertes en intolerante a la glucosa. +Lo que resulta en diabetes tipo 2. +El estrs aumenta las enfermedades cardiovasculares como resultado de la presin sangunea elevada. +Hay toda una serie de problemas asociados a la prdida de sueo que son ms que un cerebro deteriorado levemente, que es donde creo que la mayora piensan que reside esa prdida de ese sueo. +En este punto de la charla, es un buen momento para preguntarse, creen que en general estn durmiendo lo suficiente? +As que rpidamente levanten las manos. +Quines de aqu siente que ha dormido lo suficiente? +Ah. bien, es bastante impresionante. +Bien. Hablaremos ms sobre eso ms tarde, y sobre algunos consejos. +La mayora de nosotros, por supuesto, nos preguntamos, "Bien, cmo s si estoy durmiendo lo suficiente?" +Bueno, no hace falta ser un genio. +Si necesitan un reloj despertador para salir de la cama en la maana, si les toma mucho tiempo levantarse, si necesitan muchos estimulantes, si estn malhumorado, irritables, si sus colegas de trabajo les dijeron que se ven cansados e irritable, +es probable que les falte sueo. +Escchenlos. Escchense. Qu hacen? +Bueno - y esto es algo ofensivo - dormir para tontos: +Hagan de su dormitorio un refugio para dormir. +La primera cosa fundamental es oscurecerlo tanto como puedan, y tambin enfriarlo un poco. Es muy importante. +En realidad, reducir la cantidad de exposicin a la luz por lo menos media hora antes de irse a la cama. +La luz aumenta los niveles de alerta y retrasar el sueo. +Qu es lo ltimo que la mayora de nosotros hacemos antes de irnos a la cama? +Estamos en un bao demasiado iluminado mirndonos en el espejo, limpindonos los dientes. +Es lo peor que podemos hacer antes de ir a dormir. +Apaguen los telfonos celulares. Apaguen las computadoras. +Apaguen todas esas cosas que puedan estimular el cerebro. +Traten de no beber cafena demasiado tarde en el da, idealmente no despus del almuerzo. +Bien, hemos hablado sobre reducir la exposicin a la luz antes de ir a la cama, pero la exposicin a la luz en la maana es muy buena para ajustar el reloj biolgico al ciclo luz-oscuridad. +As que busquen la luz en la maana. +Bsicamente, escchense. +Reljense. Hagan el tipo de cosas que saben que los va a llevar al plcido, dulcsimo roco del sueo +Est bien. Esos son algunos de los hechos. Qu hay con algunos mitos? +Los adolescentes son perezosos. No. Pobrecitos. +Tienen una predisposicin biolgica +para ir a la cama tarde y levantarse tarde, as que djenlos. +Necesitamos ocho horas de sueo cada noche. +Eso es un promedio. Algunas personas necesitan ms. Algunas personas necesitan menos. +Y lo que tienen que hacer es escuchar a su cuerpo. +Necesitan ms o menos? +As de simple. +Los ancianos necesitan menos sueo. No es cierto. +Las demandas de sueo de las personas de edad no bajan. +Esencialmente, duermen fragmentos y se convierte en menos robusto, pero no bajan las necesidades de sueo. +Y el cuarto mito es, Ir a la cama temprano y madrugar hacen que un hombre sea saludable, rico y sabio. +Bueno eso es incorrecto en muchos niveles. +No hay evidencia de que levantarse temprano e ir a la cama temprano te haga ms rico, en absoluto. +No hace a una diferencia en el nivel socioeconmico. +En mi experiencia, la nica diferencia entre las personas diurnas y las nocturnas es que las personas que se levantan por la maana temprano son slo horriblemente engredas. +As que para la ltima parte, los ltimos minutos, lo que quiero hacer es cambiar de marcha y hablar sobre algunas reas realmente nuevas de la neurociencia, que es la asociacin entre la salud mental, las perturbaciones mentales y los trastornos del sueo. +Sabemos desde hace 130 aos que en los trastornos mentales severos, existe siempre, siempre una alteracin del sueo, pero ha sido ignorado. +En la dcada de los 70, cuando la gente empez a pensar otra vez, dijeron, "S, bueno, por supuesto que hay trastornos del sueo en la esquizofrenia porque toman antipsicticos. +Son los antipsicticos los que causan los problemas de sueo", ignorando el hecho de que cien aos antes, la interrupcin del sueo se haba informado antes que los antipsicticos. +Qu est pasando? +Muchos grupos estn estudiando condiciones como la depresin, la esquizofrenia y el trastorno bipolar y lo que sucede en trminos de la interrupcin del sueo. +Tenemos un gran estudio que publicamos el ao pasado sobre la esquizofrenia, y los datos fueron extraordinarios. +En aquellos individuos con esquizofrenia, gran parte del tiempo, estaban despiertos durante la fase de noche y luego estaban dormidos durante el da. +Otros grupos no mostraron ningn tipo de patrones de 24 horas. Su sueo estaba completamente destrozado. +algunos no tenan ninguna capacidad para regular su sueo por el ciclo luz-oscuridad. +Se levantaban ms y ms y ms tarde. +y ms tarde cada noche. Estaban destrozados. +Qu est pasando? +Y un descubrimiento realmente emocionante es que el trastorno mental y el sueo no estn simplemente asociados sino que estn vinculados fsicamente dentro del cerebro. +Las redes neuronales que nos predisponen a un sueo normal, que nos proveen un sueo normal, y aquellas que nos dan salud mental normal, se superponen. +Y cul es la evidencia de esto? +Bueno, los genes que han demostrado ser muy importantes en la generacin de sueo normal, cuando mutan, cuando cambian, tambin predisponen a los individuos a problemas de salud mental. +Y el ao pasado, publicamos un estudio que demostr que un gen que se ha vinculado a la esquizofrenia, cuando muta, tambin interrumpe el sueo. +As que tenemos evidencia de una autntica superposicin mecnica entre estos dos importantes sistemas. +Otro trabajo surgi de estos estudios. +El primero fue que la interrupcin del sueo en realidad precede ciertos tipos de enfermedades mentales, y hemos demostrado que en esos individuos jvenes que corren un alto riesgo de desarrollar trastornos bipolares, ya tienen una anormalidad del sueo antes de cualquier diagnstico clnico de trastorno bipolar. +La otra parte de los datos es que la interrupcin del sueo en realidad puede exacerbar, empeorar el estado de los trastornos mentales. +Mi colega Dan Freeman, ha utilizado una gama de agentes que han estabilizado el sueo y reducido los niveles de paranoia en aquellos individuos, en un 50%. +Entonces, Qu tenemos? +Tenemos, en estas conexiones, cosas realmente interesantes. +En trminos de neurociencia, mediante la comprensin de la neurociencia de estos dos sistemas, estamos empezando a entender realmente cmo ambos, el dormir y las enfermedades mentales, se generan y regulan dentro del cerebro. +La segunda rea es que si podemos usar sueo y los trastornos del sueo como una seal de advertencia temprana, entonces tenemos la oportunidad de actuar. +Si sabemos que estos individuos son vulnerables, la intervencin temprana entonces se convierte en una posibilidad. +Y la tercera, que creo que es la ms emocionante, es que podemos pensar en los centros del sueo dentro del cerebro como una nueva rea teraputica. +Estabilizando el sueo en aquellos individuos que son vulnerables, ciertamente nos permite hacerlos ms saludables, pero tambin aliviar algunos de los terribles sntomas de los trastornos mentales. +As que para finalizar. +Empec diciendo que hay que tomar el sueo en serio. +Nuestras actitudes hacia el sueo son muy diferentes desde una edad preindustrial, cuando estbamos casi envueltos en un edredn. +Solamos entender intuitivamente la importancia de dormir. +Y esto no es ninguna charlatanera. +Esto es una respuesta pragmtica a la buena salud. +Si duermen bien, aumenta su concentracin, su atencin, la toma de decisiones, la creatividad, las habilidades sociales, la salud. +Si duermen, se reducen los cambios de humor, el estrs, los niveles de ira, la impulsividad, y la tendencia a beber y tomar drogas. +Y terminamos diciendo que la comprensin de la neurociencia del sueo realmente est cambiando la manera de pensar acerca de algunas de las causas de las enfermedades mentales, y de hecho nos est proporcionando nuevas formas para tratar estas afecciones increblemente debilitantes. +Jim Butcher, el escritor de literatura fantstica, dijo, "El sueo es Dios. Adrenlo". +Y slo puedo recomendarles que hagan eso mismo. +Gracias por su atencin. +Ah s, esos das de Universidad, una mezcla de matemtica pura a nivel de doctorado y campeonatos mundiales de debate, o, como me gusta decir, "Hola, seoras. Oh s. " +Nada era ms sexi que el Spence en la Universidad, djenme decirles. +Es tan emocionante para un humilde locutor de radio matutino de Sydney, Australia, estar aqu en el escenario de TED literalmente al otro lado del mundo. +Y quiero que sepan que un montn de las cosas que han odo sobre los australianos son ciertas. +Desde muy jovenes, exhibimos un prodigioso talento deportivo. +En el campo de batalla, somos guerreros valientes y nobles. +Es cierto lo que han odo. +A los australianos, no nos importa beber un poco, a veces en exceso, lo que conduce a situaciones sociales embarazosas. Esto es en el trabajo de mi padre en la fiesta de Navidad de 1973. +Tengo casi cinco aos. Es justo decir, que estoy disfrutando el da mucho ms que Pap Noel. +Pero me presento ante Uds. hoy no como un locutor de radio de desayuno, No como comediante, sino como alguien que era, es, y siempre ser un matemtico. +Y quien ha sido mordido por el virus de los nmeros, sabe que muerde pronto y fuerte. +retrocedo mentalmente a cuando estaba en segundo grado en una pequea y hermosa escuela estatal llamada Boronia Park en los suburbios de Sydney, y conforme salamos hacia el almuerzo, nuestra profesora, la Sra. Russell, dijo a la clase, "Escuchen qu quieren hacer despus de comer? +No tengo ningn plan." +Fue un ejercicio de educacin democrtica, y estoy del todo a favor de la educacin democrtica, pero slo tenamos 7 aos. +As que algunas de las sugerencias que hicimos sobre lo que queramos hacer despus de comer fueron poco tiles. y despus de un tiempo, alguien hizo una sugerencia particularmente tonta y la Sra. Russell respondi con esta suave expresin: "Eso no funcionara. +Eso sera como tratar de poner una clavija cuadrada a travs de un orificio redondo." +Yo no estaba tratando de ser inteligente. +No estaba tratando de ser gracioso. +Slo levant mi mano educadamente, y cuando la Sra. Russell me reconoci, le dije, delante de mis compaeros de 2 curso, y cito: "Pero Seorita, seguramente si la diagonal del cuadrado es menor que el dimetro del crculo, entonces, la patilla cuadrada pasar fcilmente a travs del agujero redondo. +"Sera como poner un pedazo de pan a travs de un aro de baloncesto, no?" +Y hubo un silencio incmodo entre la mayora de mis compaeros de clase hasta que uno de mis amigos, sentado junto a m, uno de los chicos populares en clase, Steven, se inclin y me dio un golpe muy fuerte en la cabeza. +Lo que Steven intentaba decirme era, "Mira, Adam, ests en un momento crtico en tu vida, amigo. +Puedes seguir sentado aqu con nosotros. +pero si vuelves a hablar de ese modo, tienes que irte y sentarte ah con ellos". +Lo pens un nanosegundo. +Ech un vistazo a la hoja de ruta de la vida, y sal corriendo por la calle llamada "Geek" tan rpido como mis piernas gorditas y asmticas pudieran. +Me enamor de las matemticas desde la ms tierna edad. +Se lo expliqu a todos mis amigos. La matemticas son algo hermoso. +Es natural. Estn en todas partes. +Los nmeros son las notas musicales con las que est escrita la sinfona del universo. +El gran Descartes dijo algo muy similar. +El universo "est escrito en el lenguaje matemtico". +Y hoy, quiero mostrarles una de las notas musicales, un nmero tan hermoso, tan masivo, que creo que les har alucinar. +Hoy hablaremos de los nmeros primos. +La mayora de Uds. estoy seguro recuerden que seis no es primo Porque es igual a 2 x 3. +Siete es primo porque es igual a 1 x 7, Pero no podemos dividirlo en trozos ms pequeos, o como los llamamos, factores. +Ahora hay un par de cosas que les gustara saber sobre los nmeros primos. +el 1 no es primo. +La prueba de eso es un truco genial para fiestas Hay que reconocer que slo funciona en ciertas fiestas. +Otra cosa sobre los nmeros primos, no hay ningn gran nmero primo final. +Siguen aumentando para siempre. +Sabemos que hay un nmero infinito de nmeros primos debido al brillante matemtico Euclides. +que lo demostr hace miles de aos. +Pero lo tercero sobre los nmeros primos, que los matemticos siempre se han planteado, bueno en algn momento, es cul es el nmero primo mayor que conocemos? +Hoy iremos a ala caza de ese nmero primo masivo. +No se asusten. +Todo lo que necesitan saber, de todas las matemticas que hayan aprendido, desaprendido, estudiado, olvidado, nunca entendido, todo lo que necesitan saber es: Cuando digo 2 ^ 5, Hablo de 5 veces 2 uno al lado del otro todos juntos, multiplicados 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2. +As que 2 ^ 5 es 2 x 2 = 4, 8, 16, 32. +Si se entiende eso, podrn seguirme todo el tiempo. De acuerdo? +As que 2 ^ 5, esos cinco pequeos 2 se multiplican juntos. +(2 ^ 5)-1 = 31. +31 es un nmero primo y el 5 en la potencia tambin es un nmero primo. +Y la mayor parte de nmeros primos masivos que hemos encontrado son de esa forma: 2 elevado a un nmero primo, restar 1. +No entrar en detalles de por qu, porque a la mayora les explotar la cabeza si lo hago, Pero basta con decir que para un nmero de esa forma es bastante fcil comprobar si es primo o no. +Un nmero impar al azar es mucho ms difcil de comprobar. +Pero en cuanto salimos a cazar nmeros primos masivos, nos damos cuenta que no es suficiente con slo poner cualquier nmero primo en la potencia. +(2 ^ 11)-1 = 2.047, y no necesitan decirme que es 23 x 89. +Pero (2 ^ 13) - 1, (2 ^ 17) - 1 (2 ^ 19) - 1, son nmeros primos. +Despus de ese punto, se disipan mucho. +Y algo sobre la bsqueda de nmeros primos masivos que me encanta son algunos de los genios matemticos de todos los tiempos que hicieron esta bsqueda. +Este es el gran matemtico suizo Leonhard Euler. +En el siglo XVIII, los dems matemticos dijeron que: "El es, simplemente, nuestro maestro". +Era tan respetado que lo pusieron en los billetes europeos, tiempo atrs, cuando eso era un elogio. +Euler descubri en ese momento el nmero primo ms grande del mundo: (2 ^ 31) - 1. +Es ms de 2 billones. +l demostr que era primo con nada ms que una pluma, tinta, papel y su mente. +Te parece grande?. +Sabemos que (2 ^ 127) - 1 es un nmero primo. +Es una bestia enorme. +Mrenlo aqu: 39 dgitos, se demostr que era primo en 1876 por un matemtico llamado Lucas. +de acuerdo, L-Dog. +Pero una de las cosas geniales en la bsqueda de nmeros primos masivos, no slo es encontrar los nmeros primos. +A veces, demostrar que otro nmero no es primo es igual de emocionante. +Lucas, en 1876, nos mostr que (2 ^ 67) - 1, 21 dgitos, no era primo. +Pero no saba cules eran los factores. +Sabamos que eran cerca de seis, pero no sabamos cuales son los 2 x 3 que se multiplican juntos para darnos ese nmero masivo. +No lo supimos durante casi 40 aos hasta que lleg Frank Nelson Cole. +Y en una reunin de prestigiosos matemticos estadounidenses, camin hacia la pizarra, tom un trozo de tiza, y empez a escribir las potencias de 2: dos, cuatro, ocho, 16... Vamos, nanse a m, ya saben cmo va... 32, 64, 128, 256, 512, 1.024, 2.048. +Estoy en el mundo friki. Nos detendremos aqu por un segundo. +Frank Nelson Cole no par ah. +sigui y sigui y calcul 67 potencias de 2. +Se llev una y escribi ese nmero en la pizarra. +Un escalofro de emocin recorri el aula. +Se puso an ms emocionante cuando escribi entonces estos dos grandes nmeros primos en el formato estndar de multiplicacin. y durante el resto de la hora de su charla Frank Nelson Cole expuso eso. +Haba encontrado los factores primos de (2 ^ 67) - 1. +El aula entera enloqueci. cuando Frank Nelson Cole se sent, habiendo realizado la nica charla en la historia de las matemticas sin palabras. +Mas tarde admiti que no fue tan difcil hacerlo. +Requiri concentracin. Requiri dedicacin. +Le llev hacerlo, segn su estimacin, "los domingos de tres aos". +Pero entonces, en el campo de las matemticas, al igual que en otros muchos de los campos de los que hemos odo en este TED, llega la poca de las computadoras y todo se dispara. +Estos son los nmeros primos mas grandes conocidos dcada tras dcada, cada uno eclipsando al anterior, a medida que las computadoras tomaron el control y nuestra capacidad de clculo Slo creci y creci. +Este es el mayor nmero primo que conocamos en 1996, un ao muy emocionante para m. +Era el ao en que dej la Universidad. +Me debata entre las matemticas y los medios de comunicacin. +Fue una decisin difcil. Me encant la universidad. +Mi licenciatura fueron los mejores nueve y medio aos de mi vida. +Pero llegu a una conclusin acerca de mi propia capacidad. +Sencillamente, en una sala llena de personas elegidas al azar, soy un genio de las matemticas. +En una habitacin llena de doctores en matemticas, soy tan tonto como una caja de martillos. +Mi habilidad no est en las matemticas. +Est en contar la historia de las matemticas. +Y durante ese tiempo, desde que dej la universidad, Estos nmeros se ha vuelto ms y ms grandes, cada uno eclipsando al ltimo, hasta que lleg este hombre, el Dr. Curtis Cooper, que hace unos aos ostentaba el rcord del nmero primo ms grande jams hallado, slo para ver como se lo arrebataba una universidad rival. +Y entonces Curtis Cooper lo recuper. +No hace aos o meses, sino hace unos das. +En un momento increble de serendipia tuve que enviar una nueva diapositiva a TED para mostrartes lo que haba hecho este hombre. +Todava recuerdo -- -- Todava recuerdo cuando sucedi. +Yo estaba haciendo mi programa de radio matinal. +Ech un vistazo en Twitter. Haba un tweet: "Adam, has visto el nuevo mayor nmero primo?" +Me estremec... Contact con las mujeres que producan mi programa de radio en la otra sala, y les dije "chicas, retengan la portada. +Hoy no hablamos de poltica. +Hoy no hablamos de deporte. +Han encontrado otro nmero megaprimo." +Las chicas sacudieron la cabeza, la apoyaron en sus manos y me dejaron seguir con lo mo. +Es gracias a Curtis Cooper que conocemos, el que es actualmente el mayor nmero primo conocido, es 2 ^ 57,885,161 -1 +No se olviden de restar el uno. +Este nmero tiene casi 17 millones y medio de dgitos de longitud. +Si lo escribieran en una computadora y lo guardasen como un archivo de texto ocupara 22 megabytes +Para los que no sean tan fikis piensen en las novelas de Harry Potter, de acuerdo? +Esta es la primera novela de Harry Potter. +Estas son las siete novelas completas de Harry Potter, Porque ella tiende a tontear un poco al final. +Escrito como un libro, este nmero sera la longitud de las novelas de Harry Potter y la mitad otra vez. +Aqu ven una diapositiva de los 1.000 primeros dgitos de este primo. +Si, al comenzar TED a las 11 en punto el martes, hubisemos ido y simplemente pasado una diapositiva cada segundo, nos habra llevado cinco horas para mostrar ese nmero. +Yo estaba dispuesto a hacerlo, pero no pude convencer a Bono. +As es como funciona. +Este nmero tiene 17500 diapositivas de largo y sabemos que es primo con la misma confianza que sabemos que el nmero siete es primo. +Eso me llena de excitacin casi sexual. +Y a quin engao cuando digo casi? +S lo que estn pensando: Adam, nos alegra que ests feliz, Pero, por qu debera importarnos? +Djenme darles tres razones de por qu esto es tan hermoso. +En primer lugar, como he explicado, para consultar en la computadora "Es ese un nmero primo?" para escribirlo en su forma abreviada, y entonces slo seis lneas de cdigo es la prueba para ver si es primo es una pregunta muy simple. +Tiene una respuesta muy clara, s o no, y slo requiere un gruido fenomenal. +Los grandes nmeros primos son una estupenda forma de medir la velocidad y precisin de los chips de las computadoras. +Pero en segundo lugar, igual que Curtis Cooper buscaba ese nmero primo monstruoso, l no era el nico que buscaba. +Mi porttil en casa revisaba cuatro candidatos potenciales a nmero primo como parte de una bsqueda global de computadoras conectadas en red para encontrar estos grandes nmeros. +El descubrimiento de ese nmero primo es similar al trabajo que hacen las personas que estn desenredando las secuencias de ARN, o buscando a travs de datos de SETI y otros proyectos astronmicos. +Vivimos en una poca donde algunos de los grandes avances no sucedern en los laboratorios o en los pasillos de la academia sino en porttiles, o computadoras de escritorio, en la palma de las manos de la gente que simplemente estn ayudando en la bsqueda. +Pero para m es increble porque es una metfora de la poca en que vivimos, donde las mentes humanas y las mquinas pueden conquistar juntos. +Hemos odo mucho acerca de robots en este TED. +Hemos odo mucho acerca de lo que pueden y no pueden hacer. +Es cierto, ya puedes descargar en tu mvil inteligente una aplicacin que le ganara a la mayora de los grandes maestros de ajedrez. +Crees que eso es genial?. +Aqu hay una mquina haciendo algo genial. +Este es el CubeStormer II. +Puede tomar un cubo de Rubik girado al azar. +usando el poder de los mviles inteligentes, puede examinar el cubo y resolverlo en cinco segundos. +Eso asusta a algunas personas. A m eso me excita. +Cun afortunados somos de vivir en esta era donde mente y mquina pueden trabajar juntas! +Me preguntaron en una entrevista el ao pasado en mi calidad de pequea celebridad con "c" minscula en Australia, "Cul fue lo ms destacable del 2012?" +La gente esperaba que hablara de mi amado equipo de ftbol de Sydney, los Swans. +En nuestro bello, autctono deporte de ftbol australiano, los Swans ganaron el equivalente de la Super Bowl. +Yo estaba all. Fue el da ms emocionante y excitante. +pero no fue mi mejor momento de 2012. +La gente pens que podra haber sido una entrevista que haba hecho en mi programa. +Podra haber sido un poltico. Podra haber sido un gran avance. +Podra haber sido un libro que le, el arte. No, no, no. +Podra haber sido algo que haban hecho mis dos hermosas hijas. +No, no. El punto culminante del 2012, claramente, fue el descubrimiento del bosn de Higgs. +Un aplauso para la partcula fundamental que lega a todas las otras partculas fundamentales su masa. +Y lo maravilloso sobre este descubrimiento fue que hace 50 aos Peter Higgs y su equipo se plantearon una de las preguntas ms profundas: Cmo es que las cosas que nos conforman no tienen ninguna masa? +Claramente tengo masa. De dnde viene? +Y postul la proposicin de que existe este campo infinito, increblemente pequeo extendindose por todo el universo, y como otras partculas pasan por esas partculas e interactuan, ah es donde obtienen su masa. +El resto de la comunidad cientfica dijo, "Gran idea, Higgsy. +No tenemos ni idea de si alguna vez lo podremos comprobar. +Est fuera de nuestro alcance". +Y en slo 50 aos, en su vida, con l sentado entre el pblico, habamos diseado la mquina ms grande jams hecha para demostrar esta idea increble que se origin en una mente humana. +Eso es lo que me emociona tanto de este nmero primo. +Pensamos que podra estar ah y fuimos y lo encontramos. +Esa es la esencia del ser humano. +Eso es lo que somos. +O como mi amigo Descartes dira, "Pensamos, luego existimos". +Gracias. +Vengo del Lbano y creo que correr puede cambiar el mundo. +S que lo que acabo de decir simplemente no es obvio. +Ya saben, el Lbano como pas ya fue una vez destruido por una larga y sangrienta guerra civil. +Honestamente, no s por qu le llaman guerra civil si no tiene nada de civil. +Con Siria al norte, Israel y Palestina al sur, nuestro gobierno todava se encuentra fragmentado e inestable. +Por aos, el pas ha estado dividido por la poltica y la religin +Sin embargo, una vez al ao, nos encontramos realmente unidos, y eso es cuando se lleva a cabo la maratn. +Sola ser maratonista. +Correr largas distancias no era solo bueno para mi salud, sino tambin me ayudaba a meditar y a soar en grande. +Por lo que mientras ms corra, ms grandes se hacan mis sueos, +hasta que una maana fatdica, mientras entrenaba, fui atropellada por un bus. +Casi muero, estaba en coma, estuve en el hospital por 2 aos, y fui sometida a 36 operaciones para volver a caminar. +Tan pronto como sal del coma, me di cuenta que no era la misma maratonista que sola ser por lo que decid que, ya que no iba a poder correr, quera asegurarme de que otros pudieran. +As que desde mi cama del hospital le ped a mi esposo que comenzara a tomar notas, y unos meses despus, naci la maratn. +Organizar una maratn como reaccin a un accidente puede sonar extrao, pero en ese entonces, incluso durante mi estado ms vulnerable, necesitaba soar en grande. +Necesitaba algo que me alejara de mi dolor, un objetivo para lograr. +No quera apenarme ni tampoco dar pena, por lo que pens en organizar una maratn para retribuir a mi comunidad, construir puentes con el mundo exterior, e invitar a corredores a que vengan al Lbano para correr por el ideal de la paz. +Organizar una maratn en el Lbano no se parece en lo ms mnimo a organizar una en Nueva York. +Cmo introduces el concepto de "correr" en una nacin que est constantemente al borde de la guerra? +Cmo le pides a aquellos que una vez se peleaban y se mataban entre s que se unan y corran todos juntos? +Es ms, cmo convences a la gente para que corra una distancia de 26.2 millas en un momento en el que ni siquiera estn al tanto de la palabra "maratn"? +Por lo que tuvimos que empezar desde cero. +Por casi 2 aos, estuvimos por todo el pas e incluso visitamos pueblos remotos. +Conoc personalmente gente de todos los tipos: alcaldes, ONGs, estudiantes, polticos, militares, gente de las mezquitas, iglesias, el presidente del pas, incluso amas de casa. +Aprend una cosa: cuando haces lo que predicas, la gente cree en ti. +Muchos se emocionaron por mi historia personal, y compartieron sus historias a cambio. +Fue honestidad y transparencia lo que nos uni. +Nos hablbamos en una lengua comn: de un humano al otro. +Una vez que se haba construido la confianza, todo el mundo quera ser parte de la maratn para mostrarle al mundo los verdaderos colores del Lbano y de los libaneses y su deseo de vivir en paz y armona. +En octubre de 2003, ms de 6000 corredores de 49 nacionalidades diferentes vinieron a la lnea de partida, todos con determinacin. Y cuando se oy el disparo inicial, esta vez era una seal para correr en armona para cambiar. +La maratn creci. +As como nuestros problemas polticos. +Pero para cada desastre que ocurra, la maratn encontr la manera de reunir a la gente. +En 2005, nuestro primer ministro fue asesinado, y el pas qued totalmente paralizado, por lo que organizamos una campaa de 5 kilmetros llamada "Unidos corremos". +Ms de 60 000 personas vinieron a la lnea de partida, todas con remera blanca sin consignas polticas. +Ese fue un momento decisivo para la maratn, en el que la gente comenz a verla como una plataforma para la paz y la unidad, +Durante el 2006 hasta el 2009, nuestro pas, el Lbano, atraves aos inestables, invasiones, y ms asesinatos que nos llevaron casi a la guerra civil. +El pas estaba dividido nuevamente, tanto que nuestro parlamento renunci, no tuvimos presidente por un ao, ni tampoco un primer ministro +Pero ciertamente tuvimos una maratn. +Mediante la maratn, aprendimos que los problemas polticos pueden ser superados. +Cuando el partido opositor decidi cerrar una parte del centro cvico, negociamos rutas alternativas. +Los manifestantes del gobierno se convirtieron en +animadores. Incluso organizaron estaciones de jugo. +Saben, la maratn se ha convertido realmente en algo nico. +Ha ganado credibilidad tanto entre libaneses as como en la comunidad internacional. +En noviembre de 2012, ms de 33 000 corredores de 85 nacionalidades diferentes vinieron a la lnea de partida, pero esta vez, desafiaron un clima muy tormentos y lluvioso. +Las calles estaban inundadas, pero la gente no quera perderse la oportunidad de ser parte +de ese gran da nacional. +La AMB (Asociacin Maratnica de Beirut) se ha expandido. Incluimos a todos: jvenes, ancianos, discapacitados, enfermos mentales, ciegos, miembros de lite, corredores aficionados, incluso madres con sus bebs. +Los temas han incluido carreras por el medio ambiente, el cncer de mama, el amor al Lbano, la paz, o simplemente correr porque s. +La primera carrera anual exclusiva de mujeres por sus derechos, que es la nica de su estilo en la regin, acaba de llevarse a cabo hace solo unas pocas semanas, con 4512 mujeres, incluyendo a la primera dama, y esto es solo el comienzo. +Gracias. +La AMB ha apoyado a fundaciones y a voluntarios que han ayudado a reformar al Lbano, juntando fondos para sus causas y animando a otros a contribuir. +La cultura del dar y hacer el bien se ha vuelto contagiosa. +Los estereotipos se han roto +Los agentes del cambio y los lderes futuros han sido creados. +Creo que estos son los ladrillos para la paz futura. +La ABM se ha convertido en un evento tan respetado en la regin que los funcionarios de los gobiernos en la regin como Irak, Egipto y Siria le pidieron ayuda a la organizacin para organizar un evento deportivo similar. +Ahora somos una de las ms grandes carreras en el Medio Oriente, pero ms importante; es una plataforma de esperanza y cooperacin en una parte del mundo tan frgil e inestable. +Desde Boston a Beirut, estamos unidos. +Despus de 10 aos en el Lbano, desde maratones nacionales o desde eventos nacionales hasta carreras regionales ms pequeas, hemos visto que la gente quiere correr por un futuro mejor. +Despus de todo, lograr la paz no es una carrera corta. +Es ms como una maratn. +Muchas gracias. +Steve Ramirez: En mi primer ao de posgrado estaba en mi habitacin comiendo helados Ben & Jerry's viendo telebasura, y quizs, quizs, escuchando a Taylor Swift. +Acababa de pasar por una relacin rota. +Todo lo que haca, la mayor parte del tiempo era recordar a esa persona una y otra vez, esperando poder deshacerme de esa sensacin visceral de vaco desgarrador. +Pero resulta que soy neurocientfico, de modo que saba que el recuerdo de esa persona y el horrible trasfondo emocional que coloreaba ese recuerdo eran en gran medida mediados por sistemas cerebrales separados. +Y entonces pens, qu pasara si pudiramos entrar al cerebro y editar ese sentimiento nauseabundo pero mantener a la vez intacta la memoria de esa persona? +Entonces me di cuenta de que quiz era un poco inalcanzable por ahora. +Entonces, qu pasara si pudiramos entrar en el cerebro y encontrar un solo recuerdo, para comenzar? +Podramos llevar ese recuerdo de nuevo a la vida, tal vez incluso jugar con el contenido de ese recuerdo? +Dicho todo eso, solo hay una persona en todo el mundo que realmente espero no est mirando esta charla. +As que hay una trampa. Hay una trampa. +Estas ideas probablemente les recuerden "El vengador del futuro/Desafo total", "Eterno resplandor de una mente sin recuerdos" o "El Origen". +Pero las estrellas de las pelculas en las que trabajamos son las celebridades del laboratorio. +Xu Liu: Ratones de laboratorio. +Como neurocientficos, trabajamos en el laboratorio con ratones tratando de entender cmo funciona la memoria. +Y hoy, esperamos poder convencerlos de que ahora somos realmente capaces de activar un recuerdo en el cerebro a la velocidad de la luz. +Para hacer esto, hay solo dos sencillos pasos a seguir. +En primer lugar, encontrar y marcar un recuerdo en el cerebro, y luego activarlo con un interruptor. +Tan simple como eso. +SR: Estn convencidos? +Resulta que encontrar un recuerdo en el cerebro no es fcil. +XL: En efecto. Es mucho ms difcil que, digamos, encontrar una aguja en un pajar, porque por lo menos, saben, la aguja sigue siendo algo fsico en el que pueden poner sus dedos. +Pero la memoria no lo es. +Y adems, hay ms clulas en el cerebro que el nmero de pajas en un pajar tpico. +As que s, esta tarea parece ser desalentadora. +Pero afortunadamente, tenemos ayuda del cerebro mismo. +Resulta que todo lo que necesitamos hacer es bsicamente dejar que el cerebro haga un recuerdo, y entonces el cerebro nos dir cules clulas estn involucradas en ese recuerdo en particular. +SR: Qu estaba pasando en mi cerebro mientras estaba recordando a mi ex? +Si ignoraran completamente la tica humana por un segundo y cortaran mi cerebro en este momento, veran que hubo un nmero asombroso de regiones del cerebro que se activaron al mismo tiempo, trayendo ese recuerdo. +Una regin cerebral que estara slidamente activa en particular se llama el hipocampo, que durante dcadas se ha implicado en el proceso de la clase de recuerdos que nos son cercanos y queridos, que tambin lo hace un destino ideal para ir y tratar de encontrar, y tal vez reactivar, un recuerdo. +SR: De la misma manera que las luces de este edificio nos permiten saber que alguien est trabajando all en un momento dado, en un sentido muy real, hay sensores biolgicos dentro de una clula que se encienden solo cuando la clula estuvo trabajando. +Son una clase de ventanas biolgicas que se iluminan para dejarnos saber que esa clula estuvo activa. +XL: As que recortamos parte de este sensor, y lo conectamos a un interruptor para el control de las clulas, y empacamos este interruptor en un virus modificado que se inyecta en el cerebro de los ratones. +As que cuando se est formando un recuerdo, cualquier clula activa por ese recuerdo tambin tendr este interruptor instalado. +SR: Aqu est cmo se ve el hipocampo despus de formar un recuerdo de miedo, por ejemplo. +El mar azul que ven aqu est densamente poblado de neuronas, pero las neuronas en verde, las neuronas verdes, son las nicas que estn teniendo un recuerdo de temor. +As que estn mirando la cristalizacin de la formacin efmera del miedo. +Estn realmente viendo en la seccin transversal de un recuerdo. +XL: Ahora, para el cambio del que hemos estado hablando, idealmente, el interruptor tiene que actuar muy rpido. +No debera tardar minutos u horas en trabajar. +Debera actuar a la velocidad del cerebro, en milisegundos. +SR: Qu crees, Xu? +Podramos usar, digamos, medicamentos farmacolgicos para activar o desactivar las clulas cerebrales? +XL: No. Las drogas son desordenadas. Se esparcen por todas partes. +Y duran eternidades en actuar en las clulas. +As que no nos permitirn controlar un recuerdo en tiempo real. +As que Steve, qu tal si asaltamos el cerebro con la electricidad? +SR: La electricidad es muy rpida, pero probablemente no seramos capaces de atacar solo las clulas especficas que se aferran a un recuerdo, y probablemente freiramos el cerebro. +XL: Oh. Eso es cierto. As parece, mmm, en efecto tenemos que encontrar una mejor manera de impactar el cerebro a la velocidad de la luz. +SR: Resulta que la luz viaja a la velocidad de la luz. +Tal vez podramos activar o inactivar recuerdos usando solo luz... XL: Es bastante rpida. +SR: ...y como normalmente las neuronas no responden a pulsos de luz, aquellas que respondieran a pulsos de luz seran aquellas que tuvieran un interruptor sensible a la luz. +Para hacer eso, primero tenemos que engaar a las neuronas para que respondan a los rayos lser. +XL: S. Lo han odo bien. +Estamos tratando de disparar rayos lser en el cerebro. +SR: Y la tcnica que nos permite hacerlo es la optogentica. +La optogentica nos dio este interruptor de luz que podemos utilizar para prender o apagar las neuronas y el nombre de ese conmutador es canalrodopsina, vistos aqu como estos puntos verdes pegados a esta neurona. +Pueden pensar en la canalrodopsina como una especie de interruptor sensible a la luz que puede instalarse artificialmente en las neuronas as que ahora podemos usar el interruptor para activar o desactivar la neurona simplemente clic en el interruptor y en este caso hacemos clic con pulsos de luz. +XL: As que pegamos este interruptor sensible a la luz de la canalrodopsina al sensor del que hemos estado hablando y lo inyectamos en el cerebro. +As que cuando se est formando una memoria, cualquier clula activa para que un recuerdo particular tambin tendr este interruptor sensible a la luz instalado en l as que podemos controlar estas clulas moviendo de un tirn el lser como ven. +SR: As que vamos a poner todo esto a prueba ahora. +Lo que podemos hacer es tomar nuestros ratones y ponerlos en una caja que se ve exactamente igual que esta y darles un leve choque elctrico en el pie y as formar un recuerdo de miedo a esta caja. +Aprendern que algo malo sucedi aqu. +Ahora con nuestro sistema, las clulas que estn activas en el hipocampo en la elaboracin de este recuerdo, solo esas clulas contendr canalrodopsina. +XL: Cuando eres tan pequeo como un ratn, se siente como si todo el mundo estuviera tratando de cazarte. +As que la mejor respuesta de defensa es tratar de pasar inadvertido. +Cuando un ratn tiene miedo, mostrar este comportamiento muy tpico yndose a una esquina de la caja, tratando de no mover ninguna parte de su cuerpo, postura que se llama congelacin. +As que si un ratn recuerda que algo malo sucedi en esta caja, cuando lo ponemos en la misma caja, bsicamente nos mostrar congelacin porque no quiere ser detectado por cualquier amenaza potencial de la caja. +SR: As que pueden pensar en la congelacin como si estn caminando por la calle pensando en sus asuntos, y entonces de la nada se encuentran frente a una exnovia o exnovio, y por dos terrorficos segundos empiezan a pensar, "Qu hago? Digo hola? +Estrecho su mano? Doy la vuelta y huyo? +Me siento aqu y hago como si no existiera?" +Son esa clase de pensamientos fugaces que fsicamente incapacitan que temporalmente dan esa mirada de ciervos deslumbrados. +XL: Sin embargo, si ponen el ratn en una nueva caja completamente diferente, como la siguiente, no habr miedo de esta caja porque no hay ninguna razn por la que temer a este nuevo entorno. +Pero qu pasa si ponemos el ratn en esta nueva caja pero al mismo tiempo, activamos la memoria del miedo utilizando lseres como lo hicimos antes? +Vamos a traer el recuerdo del miedo de la primera caja en este entorno completamente nuevo? +SR: Bien, y aqu est el experimento del milln de dlares. +Ahora para traer de vuelta a la vida el recuerdo de ese da, recuerdo que los Red Sox haban ganado, era un da de primavera verde, perfecto para subir y bajar por el ro y luego quiz ir al extremo norte para conseguir algunos cannoli, #justsaying. +Ahora Xu y yo, por otro lado, estbamos en una habitacin completamente oscura, sin ventanas, sin hacer ningn movimiento ocular que remotamente se asemejara a un parpadeo porque nuestros ojos estaban fijos en la pantalla de una computadora. +Estbamos mirando este ratn, tratando de activar un recuerdo por primera vez usando nuestra tcnica. +XL: Y esto es lo que vimos. +Cuando ponemos primero el ratn en esta caja, explora, husmea, camina por ah, ocupndose de sus propios asuntos, porque en realidad por naturaleza, los ratones son animales muy curiosos. +Quieren saber qu est pasando en esta nueva caja. +Es interesante. +Pero en el momento que encendimos el lser, como ven de repente el ratn entr en este modo de congelacin. +Se aloj aqu y trat de no mover ninguna parte de su cuerpo. +Claramente est congelado. +De hecho, parece que somos capaces de traer de vuelta la memoria del miedo a la primera caja en este entorno completamente nuevo. +Viendo esto, Steve y yo estbamos tan sorprendidos como el ratn mismo. +As que despus del experimento, los dos salimos sin decir nada. +Despus de una especie de largo y difcil perodo de tiempo, Steve rompi el silencio. +SR: "Funcion?" +XL: "S," dije. "De hecho funcion!" +Estbamos muy entusiasmados. +Y entonces publicamos nuestros hallazgos en la revista Nature. +Desde la publicacin de nuestro trabajo, hemos estado recibiendo numerosos comentarios de todo el Internet. +Tal vez podemos echar un vistazo a algunos. +["Cielos, por fin... mucho por venir, realidad virtual, manipulacin neural, emulacin de sueo visual... codificacin neuronal, 'escribir y reescribir recuerdos', enfermedades mentales. Ahhh, el futuro es impresionante".] SR: As que lo primero que notarn es que la gente tiene opiniones muy fuertes sobre este tipo de trabajo. +Estoy de acuerdo completamente con el optimismo de esta primera cita, porque en una escala de cero a la voz de Morgan Freeman, pasa a ser uno de los galardones ms sugerentes que haya escuchado en nuestro camino. +Pero como veremos, no es la nica opinin que hay por ah. +["Esto asusta... Qu pasa si pueden hacerlo fcilmente en los humanos en un par de aos?! OH DIOS MO, ESTAMOS PERDIDOS". XL: De hecho, si echamos un vistazo a la segunda opinin creo que todos coincidimos en que, eh, probablemente no sea tan positivo. +Pero esto tambin nos recuerda que, aunque todava estamos trabajando con ratones, es probablemente una buena idea empezar a pensar y debatir sobre las posibles ramificaciones ticas del control de la memoria. +SR: Ahora, en el espritu de la tercera cita, queremos hablar de un proyecto reciente que hemos trabajado en el laboratorio que hemos llamado Proyecto Origen. +["Deberan hacer una pelcula, donde siembran ideas en las mentes de la gente, para poder controlarlos y lograr su propia ganancia personal, llammosle: Origen".] Razonamos que, ahora que nosotros podemos reactivar un recuerdo, qu pasa si podemos hacerlo pero luego empiezan a manosear ese recuerdo? +Podramos posiblemente hasta convertirlo en una falsa memoria? +XL: Toda la memoria es sofisticada y dinmica, pero por simplicidad, imaginemos la memoria como una secuencia de pelcula. +Hasta ahora lo que hemos dicho bsicamente es que podemos controlar este botn de "reproducir" de la secuencia as que podemos activar esta secuencia de vdeo en cualquier momento y lugar. +Pero hay una posibilidad de que en realidad podamos llegar dentro del cerebro y editar esta secuencia de pelcula para que sea diferente del original? +S podemos. +Result que todo lo que necesitamos hacer es bsicamente reactivar un recuerdo utilizando lseres como lo hicimos antes, pero al mismo tiempo, si presentamos informacin nueva y permitimos que esta nueva informacin se incorpore en esta memoria antigua, esto va a cambiar la memoria. +Es como hacer un video remix. +SR: Cmo lo hacemos? +En lugar de encontrar un recuerdo de miedo en el cerebro, podemos empezar por tomar nuestros animales, y digamos ponerlos en una caja azul como esta caja azul y encontramos las neuronas que representan esa caja azul y las alteramos para responder a pulsos de luz exactamente como dijimos antes. +Ya al da siguiente, podemos tomar nuestros animales y colocarlos en una caja roja que nunca han experimentado antes. +Podemos disparar luz en el cerebro para reactivar la memoria de la caja azul. +Qu pasara aqu si, mientras el animal est recordando la memoria de la caja azul, le damos un par de choques elctricos suaves en el pie? +As que aqu estamos tratando de hacer artificialmente una asociacin entre la memoria de la caja azul y los choques en el pie. +Estamos tratando de conectar los dos. +As que para probar si lo hicimos una vez ms podemos llevar nuestros animales y colocarlos en la caja azul. +Una vez ms, solo habamos reactivado la memoria de la caja azul mientras que el animal tiene un par de choques suaves en el pie, y ahora de repente el animal se congela. +Es como si estuviera recordando haber sido ligeramente sorprendido en este entorno aunque en realidad nunca pas. +As form un falso recuerdo, porque est falsamente atemorizado al entorno donde, tcnicamente hablando, en realidad no le pas nada malo. +XL: As que, hasta ahora solo hablamos de este interruptor de luz "encendido". +De hecho, tenemos tambin un controlador de luz para "apagado", y es muy fcil imaginar que mediante la instalacin de ese controlador de luz "apagado", tambin podemos apagar un recuerdo, en cualquier momento y lugar. +As que de todo lo que hemos estado hablando hoy se basa en este principio de la neurociencia cargado filosficamente de que la mente, con sus propiedades aparentemente misteriosas, en realidad est hecha de cosas fsicas con las que nosotros podemos jugar. +SR: Y yo personalmente, veo un mundo donde nos podemos reactivar cualquier tipo de memoria que deseemos. +Tambin veo un mundo donde podemos borrar recuerdos no deseados. +Ahora, veo un mundo en que editar recuerdos es una realidad, porque vivimos en una poca donde es posible arrancar preguntas del rbol de la ciencia ficcin y sembrarlas en el suelo de la realidad experimental. +XL: Hoy en da, la gente en el laboratorio y personas de otros grupos de todo el mundo utilizan mtodos similares para activar o editar recuerdos, sean viejos o nuevos, positivos o negativos, todo tipo de recuerdos para que podamos entender cmo funciona la memoria. +SR: Por ejemplo, un grupo en nuestro laboratorio fue capaz de encontrar las neuronas que conforman un recuerdo de miedo y convertirlo en un recuerdo agradable, as de simple. +Eso es exactamente lo que quiero decir sobre este tipo de procesos de edicin. +Un amigo en el laboratorio fue incluso capaz de reactivar recuerdos de ratones femeninos en ratones machos, que se rumora que es una experiencia placentera. +XL: En efecto, estamos viviendo un momento muy emocionante donde la ciencia no tiene lmites de velocidad arbitrarios sino que solo est limitada por nuestra propia imaginacin. +SR: Y finalmente, qu hacemos con todo esto? +Cmo podemos impulsar esta tecnologa? +Estas son las preguntas que no deben permanecer solo dentro del laboratorio, y as un objetivo de la charla de hoy era exponer a todo el mundo al tipo de cosas que es posible en la moderna neurociencia, pero ahora, igualmente importante, involucrar a todo el mundo activamente en esta conversacin. +As que vamos a pensar juntos como un equipo en lo que esto significa y donde puede y debe ir desde aqu, porque Xu y yo creemos que todos tenemos algunas decisiones muy grandes delante de nosotros. +Gracias. XL: Gracias. +Quiz quieran mirar ms de cerca. +Hay mucho ms en esta pintura de lo que parece. +Y, s, es la pintura en acrlico de un hombre, pero no la pint en un lienzo. +La pint directamente sobre el hombre. +En mi arte evito el lienzo por completo, y si quiero pintar un retrato, lo pinto sobre la persona. +Eso significa que la persona quiz termine con un odo lleno de pintura, porque necesito pintar el odo sobre su odo. +Todo en esta escena, la persona, la ropa, las sillas, la pared, se cubre con una capa de pintura que imita lo que hay debajo, y de este modo puedo transformar una escena tridimensional y hacerla parecer como una pintura bidimensional. +Puedo fotografiar desde cualquier ngulo, y seguir pareciendo 2D. +Aqu no hay retoque fotogrfico. +Esta es solo una foto de una de mis pinturas tridimensionales. +Tal vez se pregunten cmo se me ocurri esta idea de transformar personas en pinturas. +Sin embargo, en un principio, esto no tuvo nada que ver ni con personas, ni con pinturas. +Tuvo que ver con las sombras. +Me fascinaba la ausencia de luz, y quera encontrar la forma de darle materialidad a la misma y descubrirla antes de que cambie. +Se me ocurri la idea de pintar sombras. +Me encant que podra ocultar en esta sombra mi propia versin pintada, y que pasara casi inadvertida hasta que cambiara la luz y, de repente, mi sombra quedara expuesta. +Quera pensar sobre qu ms poda poner sombras, y pens en mi amigo Bernie. +Pero no quera pintar solo las sombras. +Tambin quera pintar la luz y crear un mapeo en su cuerpo en escala de grises. +Tena una visin muy especfica de cmo sera, y a medida que lo iba pintando, me asegur de apegarme a esa visin. +Pero algo segua parpadeando ante mis ojos. +No estaba muy segura de qu estaba viendo. +Y fue entonces que me alej por un momento, y hubo magia. +Haba convertido a mi amigo en una pintura. +No pude haber previsto cuando quise pintar una sombra, que anulara por completo esta dimensin, que la hara desaparecer, que tomara una pintura y la convertira en mi amigo para luego volverlo a convertir en pintura. +Sin embargo, estaba un poco conflictuada porque estaba entusiasmada al descubrir eso, pero estaba a punto de graduarme de la universidad con un ttulo en ciencias polticas, y siembre haba soado con ir a Washington y sentarme tras un escritorio a trabajar para el gobierno. +Por qu tena que interponerse todo eso en el camino? +Tom la difcil decisin de volver a casa despus de graduarme y de no ir a Capitol Hill, sino de bajar al stano de mis padres y hacer mi trabajo para aprender a pintar. +No tena ni idea de por dnde empezar. +La ltima vez que haba pintado tena 16 aos y estaba en un campamento de verano. No quera aprender a pintar copiando a los viejos maestros o sobre un lienzo practicando una y otra vez en esa superficie, porque para m este proyecto no se trataba de eso. +Se trataba del espacio y de la luz. +Mis primeros lienzos terminaron siendo cosas que no cabe esperar que se usen como lienzos, como comida frita. +Es casi imposible hacer que la pintura se adhiera a la grasa de un huevo. +An ms difcil fue hacer que se adhiera la pintura al cido de un pomelo. +Sencillamente borraba mis pinceladas cual si fuese tinta invisible. +Pona algo de pintura y al instante desapareca. +Y si quera pintar personas, bueno, me avergonzaba un poco llevar a las personas a mi estudio y mostrarles que pasaba mis das en el stano poniendo pintura en las tostadas. +Me pareci que tena ms sentido practicar pintando sobre m misma. +Uno de mis modelos favoritos termin siendo en realidad un anciano jubilado a quien no solo no le importaba quedarse quieto y que le pusieran pintura en los odos, sino que tampoco le avergonzaba demasiado exponerse en lugares muy pblicos como el metro. +Este proceso me diverta mucho. +Fui aprendiendo por m misma todos estos estilos de pintura, y quera ver qu otra cosa poda hacer con eso. +Junto con una colaboradora, Sheila Vand, tuvimos la idea de crear pinturas en superficies ms inusuales, y eso era leche. +Llenamos una pequea tina con leche. +Entr Sheila y empec a pintar. +Las imgenes siempre al final resultaban totalmente inesperadas porque si bien yo tena una idea bien definida sobre el resultado esperado, yo pintaba para acercarme a esa idea, pero en el momento en que Sheila se mova en la leche, todo cambiaba. +Fue un flujo constante, y en vez de luchar contra eso tuvimos que aceptarlo y ver qu posibilidades nos brindaba el medio y compensar con eso para lograr un mejor resultado. +A veces cuando Sheila se mova en la leche, se le quitaba toda la pintura de los brazos, y todo se vea un poco torpe, pero nuestra solucin sera, bueno, esconde los brazos. +Y en un momento tena tanta leche en su pelo que sencillamente se le quit toda la pintura del rostro. +Muy bien, esconde tu rostro. +Y terminamos con algo mucho ms elegante de lo que podamos haber imaginado, an cuando en esencia es la misma solucin que usa un nio frustrado por no poder dibujar las manos: simplemente las esconde en los bolsillos. +Cuando empezamos con este proyecto, cuando empec, no pude haber previsto que pasara de perseguir mi sueo en poltica y de trabajar en un escritorio a tropezar con una sombra y luego a convertir personas en pinturas y pintar a las personas en una tina llena de leche. +Gracias. +Tengo que confesar algo. +Pero en primer lugar, quiero que Uds. me hagan una pequea confesin a m. +Durante el ao pasado, quiero que levanten la mano si han experimentado relativamente poco estrs. +Hay alguien? +Qu tal un poco de estrs? +Quin ha experimentado mucho estrs? +S. Yo tambin. +Pero esa no es mi confesin. +Mi confesin es esta: soy psicloga de la salud y mi misin es ayudar a la gente a ser ms feliz y saludable. +Pero me temo que algo que he enseado en los ltimos 10 aos est haciendo ms dao que bien, y tiene que ver con el estrs. +Por aos he estado diciendo que el estrs nos hace enfermar. +Incrementa el riesgo de todo, desde un resfriado comn a enfermedades cardiovasculares. +Bsicamente, he convertido al estrs en el enemigo. +Pero he cambiado mi opinin sobre el estrs, y hoy, quiero cambiar la suya. +Empezar con el estudio que me hizo reconsiderar todo mi enfoque sobre el estrs. +Este estudio estudi a 30 000 adultos en EE.UU. durante 8 aos, y empez preguntando a la gente: "Cunto estrs ha experimentado en el ltimo ao?" +Tambin preguntaron: "Cree que el estrs es perjudicial para su salud?" +Y despus usaron el registro pblico de fallecimientos para averiguar quin haba muerto. +Est bien. Las malas noticias primero. +Para quienes experimentaron mucho estrs en el ao anterior el riesgo de muerte se increment en un 43 %. +Pero eso solo fue cierto para la gente que tambin crea que el estrs es perjudicial para la salud. +Las personas que experimentaron mucho estrs pero no vean al estrs como algo nocivo no tuvieron ms probabilidades de morir. +De hecho, tuvieron el menor riesgo de muerte en todo el estudio, incluyendo a las personas que haban tenido relativamente poco estrs. +Ahora los investigadores estiman que en los 8 aos que estuvieron investigando los fallecimientos murieron prematuramente 182 000 estadounidenses, no de estrs, sino por creer que el estrs es malo para la salud. Eso es ms de 20 000 muertes al ao. +Ahora, si el clculo es correcto, creer que el estrs es malo para la salud habra sido la decimoquinta causa de muerte en Estados Unidos el ao pasado, y ha causado ms muertes que el cncer de piel, el VIH/SIDA y los homicidios. +Ven por qu este estudio me asust tanto? +He gastado mucha energa dicindole a la gente que el estrs es malo para la salud. +As que este estudio me hizo preguntarme: Cambiar nuestra perspectiva sobre el estrs +puede hacernos ms saludable? Y aqu la ciencia dice que s. +Al cambiar de opinin sobre el estrs, se puede cambiar la respuesta del cuerpo ante el estrs. +Para explicar cmo funciona esto, quiero que finjan que participan en un estudio diseado para estresarlos. +Se llama prueba de estrs social. +Entran en el laboratorio, y les dicen que tienen que dar un discurso improvisado de 5 minutos sobre sus debilidades a un grupo de evaluadores expertos sentado frente a Uds., y para asegurarse de que la presin se sienta, hay luces brillantes y una cmara apuntndolos, como esta. +Y los evaluadores han sido entrenados para darles una respuesta no verbal desmotivadora, como esta. Ahora que estn lo suficientemente desmoralizados, es tiempo de la segunda parte: un examen de matemticas. +Y Uds. no lo saben, pero el experimentador est entrenado para acosarlos durante el examen. +Ahora vamos a hacerlo todos juntos. +Va a ser divertido. +Para m. +Quiero que todos cuenten hacia atrs desde 996 y vayan restando 7. +Van a hacer esto en voz alta tan rpido como puedan, empezando por 996. +Vamos! +Audiencia: Ms rpido. Ms rpido, por favor. +Van demasiado lento. +Paren. Paren, paren, paren. +Ese chico cometi un error. +Vamos a tener que empezar de nuevo. No son muy buenos en esto, verdad? +De acuerdo, entonces comprenden la idea. +Si estuvieran realmente en este experimento, probablemente se sentiran un poco estresados. +El corazn les latira rpidamente, respiraran ms rpido, tal vez empezaran a sudar. +Y normalmente, interpretamos estos cambios fsicos como ansiedad o seales de que no lidiamos muy bien con la presin. +Pero, qu pasara, si en cambio, vieran esas seales como signos de que su cuerpo se carga de energa, se prepara para enfrentar este desafo? +Eso es exactamente lo que se les dijo a los participantes de un estudio realizado en la Universidad de Harvard. +Antes de que tuvieran la prueba de estrs social, les ensearon a repensar su respuesta al estrs como provechosa. +Que al latir rpido, el corazn se est preparando para la accin. +Que el respirar ms rpido no es un problema, +sino que est llegando ms oxgeno al cerebro. +Y los participantes que aprendieron a ver esto como una ayuda para su rendimiento, estuvieron menos estresados, menos ansiosos, ms seguros, pero lo ms fascinante para m fue cmo cambi su respuesta fsica al estrs. +Ahora, en una respuesta tpica, aumenta el ritmo cardaco, y los vasos sanguneos se contraen as. +Y esta es una de las razones por las que el estrs crnico a veces se asocia a enfermedades cardiovasculares. +No es muy saludable estar en este estado todo el tiempo. +Pero en el estudio, cuando los participantes vieron su respuesta al estrs como algo til, sus vasos sanguneos permanecieron relajados, como este. +El corazn an les lata con fuerza, pero este es un perfil cardiovascular mucho ms saludable. +Se parece mucho a lo que sucede en momentos de alegra y coraje. +A lo largo de una vida de experiencias estresantes, este nico cambio biolgico podra ser la diferencia entre tener un ataque al corazn inducido por estrs a los 50 aos y vivir bien hasta los 90 aos. +Y esto es lo que revela la nueva ciencia del estrs, que nuestra visin sobre el estrs es importante. +As que mi objetivo como psicloga ha cambiado. +Ya no quiero deshacerme del estrs. +Quiero prepararlos mejor ante el estrs. +Y acabamos de hacer una pequea intervencin. +Si levantaron la mano y dijeron que sufrieron de mucho estrs en el ltimo ao, podramos haberles salvado la vida, porque espero que la prxima vez que el corazn les lata de estrs, se acuerden de esta charla y se digan a s mismos: "Este es mi cuerpo, ayudndome a enfrentar este reto". +Y cuando vean al estrs de esa manera, el cuerpo les creer, y su respuesta al estrs se volver as ms saludable. +Les dije que tengo que redimirme por haber demonizando al estrs por ms de una dcada, as que vamos a hacer una intervencin ms. +Quiero hablarles de uno de los aspectos ms infravalorados de la respuesta al estrs, y la idea es esta: El estrs nos hace sociables. +Para entender este aspecto del estrs, tenemos que hablar de una hormona, la oxitocina, y ya s que la oxitocina ha recibido tanta atencin como una hormona puede conseguir. +Incluso tiene su propio apodo: la hormona de los abrazos, porque se libera cuando abrazamos a alguien. +Esta es una parte muy pequea en la que la oxitocina est involucrada. +La oxitocina es una neurohormona. +Afina los instintos sociales de nuestro cerebro. +Nos prepara para hacer las cosas que fortalecen las relaciones cercanas. +La oxitocina hace anhelar el contacto fsico con amigos y familiares. +Mejora la empata. +Mejora nuestra disposicin a ayudar y apoyar a la gente que nos importa. +Algunas personas incluso han sugerido que deberamos aspirar oxitocina +para ser ms compasivos y cariosos. +Pero hay algo que mucha gente no conoce de la oxitocina. +Es una hormona del estrs. +La glndula pituitaria la libera como parte de la respuesta al estrs. +Es una parte tan importante de la respuesta al estrs como la adrenalina que hace que el corazn palpite. +Y la liberacin de oxitocina en respuesta al estrs nos motiva a buscar ayuda. +La respuesta biolgica al estrs es empujarnos a decirle a alguien lo que sentimos en lugar de guardrnoslo. +La respuesta al estrs se asegura de que notemos cuando alguien en nuestra vida est luchando, de forma que nos apoyemos mutuamente. +Cuando la vida es difcil, la respuesta al estrs quiere que nos rodeemos de gente que se preocupa por nosotros. +Bien, cmo es que conocer esta cara del estrs, puede a hacernos ms saludables? +La oxitocina no solo acta en el cerebro. +Tambin acta sobre el cuerpo, y uno de sus papeles principales en el cuerpo es proteger el sistema cardiovascular de los efectos del estrs. +Es un anti-inflamatorio natural. +Tambin ayuda a los vasos sanguneos a estar relajados durante el estrs. +Pero mi efecto favorito sobre el cuerpo en realidad est en el corazn. +El corazn tiene receptores para esta hormona, y la oxitocina ayuda a las clulas cardacas a regenerarse y recuperarse de cualquier dao provocado por el estrs. +Esta hormona del estrs fortalece el corazn, +y lo bueno es que todos estos beneficios de la oxitocina se intensifican con el contacto social y el apoyo social, +as que cuando nos acercamos a otras personas bajo estrs, ya sea para buscar apoyo o para ayudar a alguien ms, se libera ms cantidad de esta hormona, la respuesta al estrs se vuelve ms saludable, y en realidad nos recuperamos ms rpido del estrs. +Esto me parece increble, que la respuesta al estrs tenga un mecanismo incorporado para recuperarse del estrs, y que ese mecanismo sea el contacto humano. +Quiero terminar comentando un estudio ms. +Y escuchen, porque este estudio tambin puede salvar una vida. +Este estudio hizo un seguimiento de unos 1000 adultos en EE.UU., entre los 34 y 93 aos de edad, y el estudio comenzaba con la pregunta: "Cunto estrs ha experimentado en el ltimo ao?" +Tambin preguntaron: "Cunto tiempo ha pasado ayudando a amigos, vecinos, personas en su comunidad?" +Y luego usaron los registros pblicos de los siguientes cinco aos para averiguar quin haba muerto. +Ok, las malas noticias primero: Por cada experiencia sumamente estresante, como las dificultades financieras o una crisis familiar, el riesgo de morir aumenta en un 30 %. +Pero --y estn esperando un "pero" ahora-- pero eso no es cierto para todos. +La gente que pas tiempo cuidando a los dems no mostr ningn aumento del riesgo de muerte por estrs. +Ayudar a los dems crea resiliencia. +Y as vemos una vez ms que los efectos nocivos del estrs en la salud no son inevitables. +Nuestra manera de pensar y actuar puede transformar nuestra experiencia ante el estrs. +Cuando se elige ver la respuesta al estrs como algo til, se crea la biologa del coraje. +Y cuando decidimos relacionarnos con otras personas bajo estrs, podemos crear resiliencia. +Ahora bien, no necesariamente pedira ms experiencias estresantes en mi vida, pero esta ciencia me ha dado un nuevo enfoque sobre el estrs. +El estrs nos da acceso a nuestros corazones. +El corazn compasivo que encuentra alegra y significado en el contacto con los dems, y s, nuestro corazn latiente, que trabaja tan duro para darnos fuerza y energa, +y cuando decidimos ver el estrs de esta manera, no solo estamos mejorando ante el estrs, en realidad estamos haciendo una declaracin bastante profunda. +Estamos diciendo que confiamos en nosotros mismos para manejar los desafos de la vida, +y estamos recordando que no tenemos que enfrentarlos solos. +Gracias. +Chris Anderson: Lo que nos dices es sorprendente. +Parece increble que la actitud hacia el estrs pueda marcar tanta diferencia en la esperanza de vida de una persona. +Cmo se extendera ese consejo, si alguien est eligiendo un estilo de vida entre, digamos, un trabajo estresante y un trabajo sin estrs? Importa qu camino se escoja? +Es igual de conveniente escoger un trabajo estresante mientras t creas poder manejarlo de alguna manera? +Kelly McGonigal: S, y lo que sabemos con certeza es que es mejor para la salud buscar algo que tenga significado que tratar de evitar las molestias. +Y yo dira que esa es realmente la mejor manera de tomar decisiones, ir tras lo que crea significado en tu vida y despus confiar en ti mismo para manejar el estrs que conlleva. +CA: Muchas gracias. Es genial. KM: Gracias. +Cuando era joven, pas seis aos de aventuras salvajes en los trpicos trabajando como periodista investigador en algunos de los lugares ms fascinantes del mundo. +Era tan imprudente e insensato, como solo los jvenes pueden ser. +Por eso se inician las guerras. +Pero tambin me sent ms vivo que nunca. +Y cuando llegu a casa, sent que el alcance de mi existencia disminua gradualmente hasta parecerme que llenar el lavavajillas era un reto interesante. +Me senta como araando las paredes de la vida, como si intentara encontrar una salida a un espacio mayor, ms all. +Era, creo, ecolgicamente aburrido. +Hemos evolucionado de pocas ms difciles que stas, en un mundo de garras, cuernos y colmillos. +Y contamos todava con el temor y el coraje y la agresividad necesaria para navegar en aquellos tiempos. +Pero en nuestras tierras cmodas, seguras y llenas de gente, tenemos pocas oportunidades de ejercitarlas sin daar a otras personas. +Este era el tipo de restriccin ante la que me encontr expuesto. +Conquistar la incertidumbre, saber qu viene despus, casi ha sido el objetivo dominante de las sociedades industrializadas, y habiendo llegado ah o casi habindolo conseguido, tenemos un nuevo grupo de necesidades insatisfechas. +Hemos priorizado la seguridad sobre la experiencia y hemos ganado mucho al hacerlo, pero creo que tambin hemos perdido algo. +No romantizo el tiempo evolutivo. +Ya he sobrepasado el ciclo de vida de la mayora cazadores-recolectores, y el resultado de un combate mortal entre yo, tambalendome con una lanza con punta de piedra y un uro enorme enfurecido, no es muy difcil de predecir. +Tampoco era autenticidad lo que buscaba. +No lo encuentro un concepto til ni incluso inteligible. +Quera solo una vida ms rica y ms cruda de la que poda tener en Gran Bretaa o, incluso, de la que podemos llevar en la mayor parte del mundo industrializado. +Y fue solo al toparme con una palabra desconocida que empec a comprender lo que buscaba. +Y en cuanto encontr esa palabra, me di cuenta de que quera dedicar gran parte del resto de mi vida a ello. +La palabra es "resalvajizacin", y aunque resalvajizacin es una palabra joven, ya tiene varias definiciones. +Pero hay dos en particular que me fascinan. +La primera es la restauracin masiva de los ecosistemas. +Uno de los hallazgos cientficos ms emocionantes del ltimo medio siglo ha sido el descubrimiento de las cascadas trficas generalizadas. +Una cascada trfica es un proceso ecolgico que comienza arriba de la cadena alimentaria y cae todo el camino hasta la parte inferior, y el ejemplo clsico fue lo que pas en el Parque Nacional de Yellowstone en EE. UU. cuando fueron reintroducidos los lobos en 1995. +Todos sabemos que los lobos matan varias especies de animales, pero tal vez seamos menos conscientes de que dan vida a muchos otros. +Suena raro, pero solo tienen que seguirme un momento. +Antes de que los lobos reaparecieran, estuvieron ausentes por 70 aos. +El nmero de ciervos, dado que nadie los cazaba, haba aumentado y aumentado en el parque de Yellowstone, y a pesar de los esfuerzos de los seres humanos por controlarlos, lograron reducir gran parte de la vegetacin hasta casi nada, simplemente se la haban comido. +Pero tan pronto como llegaron los lobos, aunque eran pocos en nmero, empezaron a tener los efectos ms notables. +Primero, por supuesto, mataron algunos ciervos, Pero eso no fue lo importante. +Ms significativamente, cambiaron radicalmente el comportamiento de los ciervos. +Los ciervos comenzaron a evitar ciertas partes del parque, los lugares donde podran ser atrapados ms fcilmente, particularmente los valles y los caones, y esos lugares empezaron inmediatamente a regenerarse. +En algunas zonas, la altura de los rboles se quintuplic en tan solo seis aos. +Las partes peladas del valle se convirtieron rpidamente en bosques de lamos y sauces. +Y tan pronto como eso pas, las aves empezaron a ocuparlos. +El nmero de aves cantoras y migratorias, comenz a aumentar considerablemente. +El nmero de castores comenz a aumentar, porque a los castores les gusta comer rboles. +Y los castores, como los lobos, son ingenieros de ecosistemas. +Crean nichos para otras especies. +Y construyeron las presas en los ros proporcionando hbitats para nutrias y ratas almizcleras y patos y peces y reptiles y anfibios. +Los lobos mataron coyotes, y como resultado, el nmero de conejos y ratones comenz a aumentar, lo que signific ms comadrejas, ms halcones, ms zorros, ms tejones. +Los cuervos y guilas calvas bajaron a alimentarse de la carroa que haban dejado los lobos. +Los osos se alimentaron tambin, y su poblacin comenz a aumentar, en parte tambin porque hubo ms bayas creciendo en los arbustos regenerados, y los osos reforzaron el impacto de los lobos matando a algunos de los terneros de los ciervos. +Pero aqu es donde se pone realmente interesante. +Los lobos cambiaron el comportamiento de los ros. +Comenzaron a serpentear menos. +Hubo menos erosin. Los canales se estrecharon. +Se formaron ms pozos, ms tramos de rpidos, que fueron todos estupendos para hbitats salvajes. +Los ros cambiaron en respuesta a los lobos, y la razn fue que la regeneracin de los bosques estabiliz los bancos para que se derrumbaran menos veces y as los ros tuvieron rutas ms estables en su curso. +Asimismo, al sacar a los ciervos de algunos lugares y recuperar la vegetacin en los lados del valle, hubo menos erosin del suelo, porque la vegetacin se estabiliz tambin. +As que los lobos, pequeos en nmero, transformaron no solo el ecosistema del Parque Nacional Yellowstone, esta gran rea de tierra, sino tambin su geografa fsica. +Las ballenas en los ocanos del sur tienen igualmente efectos amplios. +Una de las muchas excusas postracionales dada por el gobierno japons para la cacera de ballenas es que dicen, "Bueno, el nmero de peces y krill aumentar y entonces habr ms para que coman las personas". +Bueno, es una excusa tonta, pero ms o menos tiene sentido, no es as, porque uno creera que las ballenas comen grandes cantidades de pescado y krill, y que obviamente al sacar las ballenas, habr ms pescado y krill. +Pero sucedi lo contrario. +Al sacar las ballenas de ah el nmero de krill colapsa. +Por qu posiblemente pasa esto? +Otra cosa que las ballenas hacen es que, como estn saltando hacia arriba y hacia abajo por la columna de agua, estn golpeando el fitoplancton que sube a la superficie donde puede continuar sobreviviendo y reproducindose. +Y curiosamente, sabemos que el plancton vegetal de los ocanos absorbe carbono de la atmsfera cuanto ms plancton vegetal haya, mayor cantidad de carbono absorbe y finalmente filtra hacia abajo hacia el abismo y elimina ese carbono del sistema atmosfrico. +Bueno, parece que cuando las ballenas estaban en sus poblaciones histricas, probablemente fueron responsables del secuestro de algunas decenas de millones de toneladas de carbono cada ao de la atmsfera. +Y al verlo as, piensas, espera un minuto, aqu estn los lobos cambiando la geografa fsica del Parque Nacional de Yellowstone. +Aqu estn las ballenas cambiando la composicin de la atmsfera. +Empiezas a ver que posiblemente, las pruebas que apoyan la hiptesis de Gaia de James Lovelock, que concibe el mundo como un coherente organismo autorregulador, estn comenzando, a nivel de ecosistema, a acumularse. +Las cascadas trficas nos dicen que el mundo natural es an ms fascinante y complejo de lo que creamos que era. +Nos dicen que cuando quitas los grandes animales, te quedas con un ecosistema radicalmente diferente a uno que conserva sus grandes animales. +Y constituyen, en mi opinin, un fuerte argumento para la reintroduccin de especies desaparecidas. +Resalvajizacin, para m, significa traer de vuelta algunas de las plantas y animales desaparecidos. +Significa derribar las vallas, significa bloquear las zanjas de drenaje, significa impedir la pesca comercial en algunas reas grandes del mar, y sino dar un paso atrs. +No tiene visin de cmo es un ecosistema correcto o de cmo es un correcto ensamblaje de especies. +No intenta producir un brezo o un prado o un bosque o un jardn de algas o un arrecife de coral. +Permite a la naturaleza decidir, y la naturaleza, por lo general, decide bastante bien. +He mencionado que existen dos definiciones de resalvajizacin que me interesan. +La otra es la resalvajizacin de la vida humana. +Y no lo veo como una alternativa a la civilizacin. +Creo que podemos disfrutar de los beneficios de la tecnologa avanzada, como hacemos ahora, pero al mismo tiempo, si lo elegimos, tener acceso a una vida ms rica y ms salvaje de aventura cuando queramos porque habra maravillosos hbitats resalvajizados. +Y las oportunidades para esto que se estn desarrollando ms rpidamente de lo Uds. creen posible. +Una estimacin sugiere que en los EE. UU., 2/3 partes de la tierra que estaba cubierta de bosques una vez y luego fue despejada se ha reforestado tan pronto leadores y agricultores se han retirado, particularmente desde la mitad oriental del pas. +Hay otro que sugiere que 30 millones de hectreas de tierra en Europa, un rea del tamao de Polonia, va ser desocupado por los agricultores entre 2000 y 2030. +Ahora, ante oportunidades como esta, no parece poco ambicioso pensar solamente en traer de vuelta lobos, linces, osos, castores, bisontes, jabales, alces, y todas las otras especies que ya estn empezando a moverse rpidamente por toda Europa? +Quizs tambin deberamos empezar a pensar en el retorno de parte de nuestra megafauna perdida. +Qu megafauna, me preguntarn? +Bueno, todos los continentes tuvieron la suya, salvo la Antrtida. +Cuando fue excavada Trafalgar Square en Londres, las gravas del ro all, se encontr que estaban llenas de huesos de hipoptamos, rinocerontes, elefantes, hienas, leones. +S, seoras y seores, haba leones en Trafalgar Square mucho antes de que fuera construida la columna de Nelson +Todas estas especies vivieron aqu en el ltimo perodo interglacial, cuando las temperaturas eran muy similares a las nuestras. +No es el clima, de lejos, por lo que se perdieron las megafaunas del mundo. +Fue la presin de la poblacin humana la caza y la destruccin de sus hbitats las que lo hicieron. +Y aun as, todava se pueden ver las sombras de estas grandes bestias en nuestros ecosistemas actuales. +Por qu tantos rboles de hoja caduca son capaces de brotar desde cualquier punto del tronco cuando este est roto? +Por qu pueden soportar la prdida de tanta corteza? +Por qu rboles de sotobosque que estn sujetos a menores fuerzas del viento y tienen que llevar menos peso que los grandes rboles, son mucho ms duros y ms difcil de romper que el dosel de los rboles? +Los elefantes. +Estn adaptados al elefante. +En Europa, por ejemplo, evolucionaron para resistir el colmillo recto del elefante, elephas antiquus, que era una gran bestia. +Estaba relacionado con el elefante asitico, pero era un animal templado, una criatura del bosque templado. +Era mucho ms grande que el elefante asitico. +Pero por qu es que algunos de nuestros arbustos comunes tienen espinas que parecen ser sobre diseadas para resistir ser comidas por los ciervos? +Tal vez porque evolucionaron para resistir a ser comidas por el rinoceronte. +No es un pensamiento asombroso que cada vez uno se desva en un parque o por una avenida o a travs de una calle arbolada, puede ver las sombras de estas grandes bestias? +Paleoecologa, el estudio de los ecosistemas antiguos, crucial para la comprensin de nosotros mismos, se siente como un portal a travs del cual se puede pasar a un reino encantado. +Y si estamos en realidad buscando reas de tierra del tamao de las que he hablado que estn siendo habilitadas, por qu no reintroducir parte de nuestra megafauna perdida, o por lo menos especies estrechamente relacionadas con las que se han extinguido? +Por qu no tener todos nosotros un Serengeti a nuestras puertas? +Y tal vez esto es lo ms importante la resalvajizacin nos ofrece, la cosa ms importante que falta en nuestras vidas: esperanza. +Para motivar a las personas a amar y defender el mundo natural, una pizca de esperanza vale tanto como una tonelada de desesperacin. +La historia de la resalvajizacin nos dice que un cambio ecolgico no siempre debe desarrollarse en una sola direccin. +Nos ofrece la esperanza de que nuestra primavera silenciosa podra ser sustituida por un verano estridente. +Gracias. +l es Charley Williams. +Tena 94 aos cuando tomaron esta fotografa. +En 1930, Roosevelt volvi a poner a trabajar a miles y miles de norteamericanos en la construccin de puentes, tneles e infraestructura, pero tambin hizo algo interesante, contrat unos pocos cientos de escritores para recorrer EE. UU. para capturar las historias de los estadounidenses comunes. +Charley Williams, un pobre aparcero, ordinariamente no sera objeto de una gran entrevista, pero Charley haba sido en realidad un esclavo hasta sus 22 aos de edad. +Y las historias que fueron capturadas de su vida constituyen una de las joyas de historias de las experiencias humanas vividas de los exesclavos. +Anna Deavere Smith dijo la famosa frase hay una literatura dentro de cada uno de nosotros y tres generaciones despus, yo era parte de un proyecto llamado StoryCorps, que se dedicaba a capturar las historias de norteamericanos comunes mediante la creacin de una cabina insonorizada en los espacios pblicos. +La idea es muy, muy simple. +Entras en estas cabinas, entrevistas a tu abuela o algn familiar, te vas con una copia de la entrevista y la entrevista va a la Biblioteca del Congreso. +Bsicamente se trata de una manera de hacer un archivo nacional de historias orales, una conversacin a la vez. +Y la pregunta es, qu te gustara recordar si tuvieras tan solo 45 minutos con tu abuela? +Voy a reproducir solo un par de pasajes rpidos del proyecto. +[Jess Melndez habla de los ltimos momentos del poeta Pedro Pietri] Jess Melndez: Salimos y como estbamos ascendiendo, antes de habernos estabilizado, nuestro punto de nivel inicial era de 14 km entonces antes de habernos estabilizado, Pedro empez a dejarnos, y la belleza de esto es que creo que hay algo despus de la vida. +Lo puedes ver en Pedro. +[Michael Wolmetz con su novia Debora Brakarz] Michael Wolmetz: Este es el anillo que mi padre le dio a mi madre, y podemos dejarlo ah. +Y ahorr y lo compr y le propuso matrimonio a mi madre con l, y entonces pens que iba a drtelo a ti para que pudiera estar con nosotros para esto tambin. +As que voy a compartir el micrfono contigo en este momento, Dbora. +Dnde est el dedo derecho? +Debora Brakarz: MW: Debora, te casaras conmigo? +DB: S. Por supuesto. Te amo. +MW: Nios, as es como su madre y yo nos casamos, en un stand en la estacin Grand Central, con el anillo de mi padre. +Mi abuelo fue taxista por 40 aos. +Recoga gente aqu todos los das. +Por lo que parece apropiado. +Jake Barton: Debo decir que en realidad no eleg estas muestras individuales para hacerlos llorar porque todos los hacen llorar. +Todo el proyecto se basa en este acto de amor que es escuchar en s mismo. +Y el movimiento de construir una institucin de un momento de conversar y escuchar tiene que ver mucho con lo que mi firma, Local Projects, est haciendo con nuestros compromisos en general. +As que somos una empresa de diseo de medios de comunicacin y estamos trabajando con una amplia gama de diferentes instituciones construyendo instalaciones de medios de comunicacin para museos y espacios pblicos. +Nuestro ltimo trabajo es el Museo de Arte de Cleveland, para el que hemos creado un trabajo llamado Galera Uno. +Y Galera Uno es un proyecto interesante porque comenz con esta masiva expansin de $350 millones para el Museo de Arte de Cleveland y en realidad llevamos esta pieza especficamente para cultivar nuevas capacidades, nuevas audiencias, al mismo tiempo que el propio museo est creciendo. +Glenn Lowry, director del MoMA, lo expres mejor cuando dijo: "Queremos que los visitantes dejen de ser visitantes. +Los visitantes son transitorios. Queremos a la gente que vive aqu, personas que tienen la propiedad". +Entonces, por ejemplo, puedes hacer click en esta cabeza individual de len, y aqu es donde se origin, 1300 a. C. +O esta pieza individual aqu, puedes ver el dormitorio real. Realmente cambia el modo en que piensas acerca de este tipo de pinturas al temple. +Esta es una de mis favoritas porque se ve el propio estudio. +Este es el busto de Rodin. Uno tiene la sensacin de esta increble fbrica de creatividad. +Y que te hace literalmente pensar en los cientos, o miles de aos de la creatividad humana y la forma en que cada obra de arte individual representa una parte de esa historia. +Este es Picasso, que por supuesto representa mucho de lo que es el siglo XX. +La prxima interfaz, que voy a mostrar, aprovecha la idea de este linaje de creatividad. +Es un algoritmo que te permite navegar la coleccin vigente del museo utilizando el reconocimiento facial. +Esta persona est haciendo diferentes caras, y dibujando sucesivamente diferentes objetos de la coleccin que se conectan con exactamente lo que est buscando. +Y as te puedes imaginar que, mientras las personas se estn presentando dentro del propio museo, recibes este sentido de esta conexin emocional, la forma en que nuestro rostro se conecta con los miles y decenas de miles de aos. +Se trata de una interfaz que realmente te permite dibujar y luego dibuja sucesivamente objetos usando las mismas formas. +As que cada vez ms estamos tratando de encontrar la manera de que la gente en realidad sea un autor dentro de los museos, de que sean creativos aunque estn viendo la creatividad de otras personas y entendindolos +As que en este muro, el muro de las colecciones, pueden ver todas las 3000 obras de arte, todas al mismo tiempo, y pueden realizar sus propios paseos individuales por el museo, y pueden compartirlos, y alguien puede hacer un recorrido con el director del museo o una excursin con un primo. +Pero todo el tiempo que hemos estado trabajando en este trabajo con Cleveland, tambin hemos estado trabajando en el fondo en nuestro mayor trabajo hasta la fecha, el Monumento y Museo sobre el 11-S. +Comenzamos en el 2006 como parte de un equipo con Thinc Design para crear el plan maestro original para el museo, y hemos hecho todo el diseo de medios tanto para el museo y el monumento y luego la produccin de medios. +El monumento se inaugur en 2011, y el museo va a abrir el prximo ao, en el 2014. +Y como pueden ver en estas imgenes, el sitio es tan puro y casi arqueolgico. +Y por supuesto el evento en s es tan reciente, en algn lugar entre la historia y los acontecimientos actuales, que fue un gran desafo imaginar cmo se sobrevive realmente hasta un espacio como este, un evento como ste, para contar esa historia. +Entonces comenzamos con una nueva forma de pensar acerca de construir una institucin, a travs de un proyecto llamado Hagamos Historia, que lanzamos en 2009. +Estimamos que un tercio del mundo vio el 11-S en vivo, un tercio del mundo escuch sobre l durante 24 horas, con total naturalidad lo que sucedi durante este momento sin precedentes de conciencia global. +As que lanzamos esto para capturar las historias de todo el mundo, a travs de video, a travs de fotos, a travs de la historia escrita, y as las experiencias de las personas en ese da, que era, de hecho, este enorme riesgo para la institucin hacer su primer movimiento de esta plataforma abierta. +Pero eso se acopl con esta cabina de historias orales, realmente lo ms simple que hemos hecho, donde te encuentras a ti mismo en un mapa. +Est en seis idiomas y puedes contar tu propia historia sobre lo que te pas en ese da. +Esta imagen en particular, realmente captur nuestra atencin en ese momento, porque resume ese evento. +Esta es una foto del tnel Brooklyn-Battery. +Hay un carro de bomberos atrapado en el trfico, y los bomberos estn corriendo 2 km y medio hasta el sitio con ms de 30 kg de equipo en su espalda. +Y tenemos este increble correo electrnico que deca: "Al ver las miles de fotos en el sitio, inesperadamente encontr una foto de mi hijo. +Fue un shock emocional, pero una bendicin encontrar esta foto", y estaba escribiendo porque, "Me gustara agradecer personalmente al fotgrafo por publicar la foto, ya que significa ms de lo que las palabras pueden describirme para tener acceso a lo que es probablemente la ltima foto tomada de mi hijo". +Y la verdad es que nos hace reconocer lo que esta institucin necesitaba hacer para contar realmente la historia. +No podemos tener solo un historiador o un curador que narre objetivamente en tercera persona acerca de un evento as, cuando existen los testigos de la historia que van a hacer su camino a travs del museo en s. +Entonces comenzamos a imaginar el museo, junto con el equipo creativo del museo y los curadores, pensando en cmo la primera voz que se oye dentro del museo sera en realidad la de otros visitantes. +Y por eso hemos creado esta idea de una galera abierta que llamamos Recordamos. +Voy a reproducirles una parte de una maqueta de la misma, pero les dar una idea de lo que se siente al entrar en ese momento en el tiempo y ser transportado hacia atrs en la historia. +Voz 1: Estaba en Honolulu, Hawi. Voz 2: Estaba en El Cairo, Egipto. +Voz 3: Al sur de los Campos Elseos, en Pars. Voz 4: En la universidad, en U.C. Berkeley. +Voz 5: Estaba en Times Square. Voz 6: So Paulo, Brasil. +(Voces mltiples) Voz 7: Fue probablemente alrededor de las 11 de la noche. +Voz 8: Estaba conduciendo al trabajo a la hora local 5:45 de la maana. +Voz 9: En realidad estbamos en una reunin cuando alguien irrumpi y dijo: "Oh, Dios mo, un avin se ha estrellado contra el World Trade Center". +Voz 10: Tratando de conseguir desesperadamente un radio. +Voz 11: Cuando lo escuch por la radio... Voz 12: Lo escuch en la radio. +(Voces mltiples) Voz 13: Recib una llamada de mi padre. Voz 14: El telfono son, me despert. +Mi compaero de trabajo me dijo que encendiera la televisin. +Voz 15: As que encend la televisin. +Voz 16: Todos los canales en Italia mostraban lo mismo. +Voz 17: Las Torres Gemelas. Voz 18: Las Torres Gemelas. +JB: Y te mueves a partir de ah a ese cavernoso espacio abierto. +Este es el llamado muro pantalla. +Es la pared excavada en la base original del World Trade Center que resisti la presin del ro Hudson durante un ao completo despus del evento. +Entonces pensamos en llevar esa sensacin de autenticidad, de la presencia de ese momento en la exposicin en s. +Y contamos las historias de estar dentro de las torres a travs de ese mismo collage de audio, lo que estn escuchando, son literalmente personas hablando sobre ver a los aviones estrellndose en el edificio, o bajando por las escaleras. +Y conforme haces el camino en la exposicin donde se habla de la recuperacin, realmente proyectamos directamente en esos momentos de acero trenzado, todas las experiencias de la gente que literalmente escarbaban en la parte superior de la pila. +Y para que puedan escuchar historias orales, las personas que estaban realmente trabajando en las llamadas brigadas de cubo mientras estn viendo, literalmente, miles de experiencias de ese momento. +Y al salir de ese momento de narracin comprendiendo sobre el 11-S, regresamos al museo de nuevo a un momento de escucha y a hablar con los visitantes individuales y pedirles sus propias experiencias sobre el 11-S. +Y les hacemos preguntas que en realidad no son realmente contestables, los tipos de preguntas que el 11-S en s atrae sucesivamente para todos nosotros. +Y as, se trata de cuestiones como, "Cmo puede la democracia balancear la libertad y la seguridad?" +"Cmo puede haber sucedido el 11-S?" +"Y cmo cambi el mundo despus del 11-S?" +Y as estas historias orales, que hemos estado capturando ya desde hace aos, se mezclan luego junto con entrevistas que estamos haciendo con gente como Donald Rumsfeld, Bill Clinton, Rudy Giuliani, y se mezclan juntos estos diferentes actores y estas experiencias diferentes, estos diferentes puntos de reflexin sobre el 11-S. +Y de pronto la institucin, una vez ms, se convierte en una experiencia de sonido. +As que Ies reproducir un breve extracto de una maqueta que hicimos de un par de estas voces, pero realmente tendrn una sensacin de la poesa de la reflexin de todos en el evento. +Voz 1: El 11-S no fue solo una experiencia de Nueva York. +Voz 2: Es algo que compartimos, y es algo que nos una. +Voz 3: Y supe cuando vi que, las personas que estaban all ese da de inmediato fueron a ayudar a la gente conocida y desconocida para ellos fue algo que nos hara salir adelante. +Voz 4: Toda la efusin de afecto y emocin que vena de nuestro pas era algo realmente que para siempre se quedar conmigo. +Voz 5: Todava hoy rezo y pienso en los que perdieron la vida, y aquellos que dieron su vida por salvar a otros, pero tambin me recuerda a la estructura de este pas, el amor, la compasin, la fuerza, y vi a una nacin unida en el medio de una terrible tragedia. +JB: Y mientras la gente sale del museo, reflexionando sobre la experiencia, reflexionando sobre sus propios pensamientos sobre la misma, se mueven en el espacio actual de la propia memoria, porque han regresado, y de hecho nos involucramos en el monumento despus de haber hecho el museo durante unos aos. +As que estos son los grupos de los nombres propios que aparecen indiferenciados pero en realidad tienen un orden, y nosotros, junto con Jer Thorp, creamos un algoritmo para tomar grandes cantidades de datos para realmente empezar a conectar entre s todos estos nombres. +As que cuando van al monumento, pueden ver realmente la organizacin global en el interior de las propias piscinas individuales. +Y lo ms importante, cuando en realidad estn en el sitio del monumento, se puede ver las conexiones. +Pueden ver las relaciones entre los diferentes nombres propios. +As que de repente este indiferenciado, annimo grupo de nombres se convierten en realidad como una vida individual. +En este caso, Harry Ramos, quien era el jefe de operaciones de un banco de inversin, que se detuvo a ayudar a Victor Wald en el piso 55 de la Torre Sur. +Y Ramos le dijo a Wald, segn testigos, "No te voy a dejar". +Y la viuda de Wald solicit que sean listados uno al lado del otro. +Hace tres generaciones, tuvimos que conseguir realmente que la gente saliera y capturar las historias de personas comunes. +Hoy, por supuesto, hay una cantidad sin precedentes de historias para todos nosotros que estn siendo capturadas para las generaciones futuras. +Y esta es nuestra esperanza, esa es la poesa que hay en el interior de cada una de nuestras historias. +Muchas gracias. +Cuando tena aproximadamente 3 o 4 aos de edad, recuerdo a mi mam leyndonos un cuento a m y a mis dos hermanos mayores, y recuerdo poner mis manos para tocar la pgina del libro, para tocar la imagen de la que estaban hablando. +Y mi madre dijo: "Cario, recuerda que no puedes ver y no puedes sentir la foto y que no puedes notar la impresin sobre la pgina". +Y me dije a m mismo, "Pero eso es lo que quiero hacer. +Amo las historias. Yo quiero leer". +No tena idea de que iba a ser parte de una revolucin tecnolgica que hara que ese sueo se hiciera realidad. +Nac prematuro por alrededor de 10 semanas, lo que result en mi ceguera, hace unos 64 aos. +La condicin se conoce como fibroplasia retrolental, y ahora es muy rara en el mundo desarrollado. +Poco saba yo, acostado acurrucado en mi cuna en 1948, que haba nacido en el lugar correcto y en el tiempo correcto, que estaba en un pas en el que podra participar en la revolucin tecnolgica. +Hay 37 millones de personas con ceguera total en nuestro planeta, pero aquellos de nosotros que hemos compartido los cambios tecnolgicos que principalmente provienen de Amrica del Norte, Europa, Japn y otras partes desarrolladas del mundo. +Las computadoras han cambiado la vida de todos nosotros en esta sala y en todo el mundo, pero creo que han cambiado la vida de las personas ciegas ms que cualquier otro grupo. +Y quiero hablarles sobre la interaccin entre la tecnologa adaptativa por computadora y los muchos voluntarios que me ayudaron a lo largo de los aos a convertirme en la persona que soy hoy. +Es una interaccin entre voluntarios, inventores apasionados y tecnologa, y es una historia que muchas otras personas ciegas podran contar. +Pero djenme hablarles un poco sobre eso hoy. +Cuando tena cinco aos, fui a la escuela y aprend braille. +Es un ingenioso sistema de seis puntos que se perforan en el papel, y puedo sentirlos con mis dedos. +De hecho, creo que estn poniendo mi informe de calificaciones de sexto grado. +No s de donde lo obtuvo Julian Morrow. +Era bastante bueno en lectura, pero religin y apreciacin musical necesitaban ms trabajo. +Al salir de la Casa de la pera, encontrarn que hay sealizacin en braille en los ascensores. +Bsquenla. Lo han notado? +Yo s. La busco todo el tiempo. +Cuando estaba en la escuela, los libros fueron transcritos por transcriptores, personas voluntarias que perforaban un punto a la vez as tendra volmenes para leer, y que haba estado sucediendo, sobre todo por mujeres, desde finales del siglo XIX en este pas, pero era la nica manera en que poda leer. +Cuando estaba en secundaria, consegu mi primer grabador Philips de casetes, y las grabadoras de cinta se convirtieron en mi clase de pre computadoras medio de aprendizaje. +Podra tener familia y amigos que me leyeran el material, y luego poda leer de nuevo todas las veces que necesitara. +Y eso me puso en contacto con voluntarios y ayudantes. +Por ejemplo, cuando estudiaba en la escuela de posgrado en la Universidad de Queen en Canad, los presos de la crcel de Baha Collins aceptaron ayudarme. +Les di una grabadora, y leyeron en ella. +Como uno de ellos me dijo: "Ron, no iremos a ningn lado por el momento". +Pero piensen en eso. Esos hombres, que no haban tenido las oportunidades de educacin que yo haba tenido, me ayudaron a ganar ttulos de postgrado en derecho por su dedicada ayuda. +Bueno, volv y me convert en un acadmico en la Universidad Monash de Melbourne, y por esos 25 aos, las grabadoras eran todo para m. +De hecho, en mi oficina en 1990, tena 29 km de cinta. +Estudiantes, familiares y amigos me leyeron el material. +La seora Lois Doery, a quien ms tarde llam mi madre sustituta, me ley muchas miles de horas en cinta. +Una de las razones por las que acced a dar esta charla hoy fue que estaba esperando que Lois estuviera aqu as poder presentrselas y agradecerle pblicamente. +Pero, lamentablemente, su salud no le ha permitido venir hoy. +Pero te doy las gracias aqu, Lois, desde esta plataforma. +Vi mi primer computadora Apple en 1984, y me dije a m mismo, "Esto tiene una pantalla de vidrio, no sirve de mucho para m". +Qu equivocado estaba! +En 1987, en el mes que nuestro hijo mayor Gerard naci, consegu mi primer ordenador ciego, y de hecho est aqu. +Lo ven aqu arriba? +Y ven que no tiene, cmo llaman a eso?, ninguna pantalla. +Es una computadora ciega. +Es una Keynote Gold de 84k, y 84k significa que tena 84 kilobytes de memoria. +No se ran, me cost 4000 dlares en ese tiempo. Creo que hay ms memoria en mi reloj. +Fue inventado por Russell Smith, un inventor apasionado en Nueva Zelanda que estaba tratando de ayudar a las personas ciegas. +Tristemente, muri en un accidente de avioneta en 2005, pero su recuerdo sigue vivo en mi corazn. +Significaba que, por primera vez, podra volver a leer lo que haba escrito en ella. +Tena un sintetizador de voz. +Haba escrito como coautor mi primer libro de derecho laboral en una mquina de escribir en 1979, solo a partir de la memoria. +Esto ahora me permiti leer de nuevo lo que haba escrito y entrar en el mundo de la informtica, incluso con sus 84K de memoria. +En 1974, el gran Ray Kurzweil, el inventor estadounidense, trabaj en la construccin de una mquina que escanear libros y leerlos en voz sinttica. +Unidades de reconocimiento ptico de caracteres a continuacin que solo operaban normalmente con un tipo de letra, pero mediante el uso de dispositivos de escneres planos de carga acoplada y los sintetizadores de voz, desarroll una mquina que poda leer cualquier fuente. +Y su mquina, que era tan grande como una lavadora, fue lanzada el 13 de enero de 1976. +Vi mi primera Kurzweil comercial disponible en el mercado en marzo de 1989 y me dej sin aliento, y en septiembre de 1989, el mes que mi cargo como profesor asociado en la Universidad de Monash se anunci, la escuela de derecho obtuvo uno, y yo podra usarlo. +Por primera vez, pude leer lo que quera leer poniendo un libro en el escner. +No tena que ser amable con la gente! +Ya no sera censurado. +Por ejemplo, yo era muy tmido en ese entonces, y an sigo sindolo, para pedirle a alguien que me lea en voz alta material de sexo explcito. +Pero, ya saben, poda sacar un libro en medio de la noche, y... Ahora, el lector Kurzweil es simplemente un programa en mi laptop. +Eso es a lo que se redujo. +Y ahora puedo escanear la ltima novela y no esperar conseguirla en libreras de libros parlantes. +Puedo estar al da con mis amigos. +Hay muchas personas que me han ayudado en mi vida, y muchas que no he conocido. +Uno de ellos es otro inventor estadounidense, Ted Henter. +Ted era un piloto de motos, pero en 1978 tuvo un accidente en coche y perdi la vista, lo que es devastador si ests tratando de montar motos. +Luego se convirti en esquiador acutico y fue campen en ski acutico para discapacitados. +Pero en 1989, se uni a Bill Joyce para desarrollar un programa que leyera lo que estaba en la pantalla del ordenador de la red o desde lo que estaba en el equipo. +Se llama JAWS (acceso al empleo con el habla), y suena como esto. +(JAWS hablando) Ron McCallum: No es lento? +Ven, si leo as, me quedo dormido. +Baj la velocidad para Uds. +Voy a pedir que lo reproduzcan a la velocidad que lo leo. +Podemos ponerlo? +(JAWS hablando) RM: Ya saben, cuando estn corrigiendo ensayos de estudiantes, desean pasarlos con bastante rapidez. +Esta tecnologa que me fascin en 1987 ahora est en mi iPhone y en el de Uds. tambin. +Pero, ya saben, encuentro que leer con mquinas es un proceso muy solitario. +Yo crec con la familia, los amigos, leyndome, y am el calor y la respiracin y la cercana de la gente leyendo. +No les encanta que les lean? +Uno de mis recuerdos ms perdurables es en 1999, Mary leyndonos a m y a los chicos cerca de la playa de Manly "Harry Potter y la Piedra Filosofal". +No es un gran libro? +Todava me encanta estar cerca de alguien leyndome. +Pero no renunciar a la tecnologa, porque me ha permitido llevar una gran vida. +Por supuesto, los libros hablados para ciegos son antecesores a toda esta tecnologa. +Despus de todo, fue desarrollado el disco de larga duracin a principios de 1930, y ahora estamos poniendo libros hablados en CDs usando el sistema de acceso digital conocido como DAISY. +Pero cuando estoy leyendo con voces sintticas, me encanta llegar a casa y leer una novela mordaz con una voz real. +Ahora todava hay barreras frente a nosotros, las personas con discapacidad. +Muchos sitios web no podemos leerlos utilizando JAWS y las otras tecnologas. +Los sitios web son a menudo muy visuales, y tienen toda esa clase de grficos que no estn etiquetados y botones que no estn etiquetados, y por eso el Consorcio 3 World Wide Web, conocido como W3C, ha desarrollado estndares en todo el mundo para Internet. +Y queremos que todos los usuarios de Internet o propietarios de sitios de Internet hagan sus sitios compatibles para que nosotros, las personas sin visin, podamos jugar al mismo nivel. +Hay otros obstculos provocados por nuestras leyes. +Por ejemplo, Australia, al igual que cerca de un tercio de los pases del mundo, tiene excepciones de derecho de autor que permiten que los libros se traduzcan en braille o lectura para nosotros los ciegos. +Pero los libros no pueden viajar a travs de las fronteras. +Por ejemplo, en Espaa, hay 100 mil libros accesibles en espaol. +En Argentina, hay 50 mil. +En ningn otro pas de Amrica Latina hay ms de un par de miles. +Pero no es legal transportar los libros desde Espaa a Latinoamrica. +Hay cientos de miles de libros accesibles en EE. UU., Inglaterra, Canad, Australia, etc., pero no pueden ser transportados a los 60 pases en nuestro mundo donde el Ingls es la primera y la segunda lengua. +Y recuerden que les habl sobre Harry Potter. +Bueno, como no podemos transportar los libros a travs de las fronteras, deban tener versiones diferentes de lectura en los diferentes pases de habla inglesa: Inglaterra, EE. UU., Canad, Australia, y Nueva Zelanda, todos deben tener lecturas separadas de Harry Potter. +Y eso es por lo que, el mes prximo en Marruecos, tendr lugar un encuentro entre todos los pases. +Yo quiero que eso suceda. +Mi vida ha sido extraordinariamente bendecida con el matrimonio e hijos y ciertamente un interesante trabajo para hacer, ya sea en la Universidad de Derecho de Sydney, donde serv un perodo como decano, o ahora que me siento en el Comit de las Naciones Unidas sobre los Derechos de las Personas con Discapacidad, en Ginebra. +De hecho he sido un hombre muy afortunado. +Me pregunto qu nos depara el futuro. +La tecnologa avanzar an ms, pero todava puedo recordar a mi madre diciendo, hace 60 aos, "Recuerda, querido, nunca sers capaz de leer la letra con los dedos". +Estoy tan contento de que la interaccin entre los transcriptores de braille, los lectores voluntarios y los inventores apasionados, ha permitido que este sueo de la lectura se haga realidad para m y para las personas ciegas en todo el mundo. +Me gustara dar las gracias a mi investigadora Hannah Martin, que es quin me pasa las diapositivas, que avanza las diapositivas, y mi esposa, la Profesora Mary Crock, que es la luz de mi vida, que viene a recogerme. +Quiero agradecerle a ella tambin. +Pienso que tengo que decir adis ahora. +Dios los bendiga. Muchas gracias. +Oye! Bien. Bien. Bien. Bien. Bien. +Les mostrar algunos ciberdelitos, los ms recientes y ms repugnantes. +As que, bsicamente, por favor no vayan a descargar ninguno de los virus que les muestro. +Algunos de Uds. tal vez se pregunten qu aspecto tiene un especialista en ciberseguridad as que pens darles una visin rpida sobre mi carrera hasta ahora. +Es una descripcin bastante precisa. +As es cmo alguien que se especializa en software maligno y piratera informtica se ve. +Hoy, los virus informticos y troyanos, estn diseados para hacer todo; desde robar datos, verte en tu webcam y hasta robar miles de millones de dlares. +Hoy, algunos cdigos malignos que llegan incluso a atacar la electricidad, los servicios pblicos y la infraestructura. +Djeme hacerles una instantnea rpida de lo que un cdigo malicioso puede llegar a hacer hoy. +Ahora, cada segundo, ocho nuevos usuarios se unen a Internet. +Hoy, veremos 250 000 nuevos virus informticos diferentes. +Veremos 30 000 nuevos sitios web infectados. +Y, a punto de derribar un mito al respecto: mucha gente piensa que cuando se infecta con un virus informtico es por haber visitado un sitio porno. +S? Bueno, en realidad, estadsticamente hablando, si Uds. solo visitan sitios porno, estn ms seguro. +La gente normalmente apunta esto, por cierto. De hecho, aproximadamente el 80 % de estos sitios web infectados son de pequeas empresas. +El cibercrimen de hoy, cmo es? +Bueno, muchos de Uds. tienen la imagen, no es as, de un adolescente lleno de granos en un stano, pirateando en busca de notoriedad. +Pero, en realidad hoy, los ciberdelincuentes son muy profesionales y organizados. +De hecho, tienen anuncios de sus productos. +Pueden comprar en lnea un servicio de piratera para dejar fuera de lnea los negocios de la competencia. +Miren que he encontrado. +Hombre: Ests aqu por una razn, y esa razn es porque necesitas que tus competidores comerciales, rivales, enemigos, o quien sea, se hundan. +Pues Ud., mi amigo, ha venido al lugar correcto. +Si quiere que sus competidores comerciales se hundan, bueno, puede hacerlo. +Si quiere que sus rivales estn fuera de lnea, pues, estarn. +No solo eso, proporcionamos de corto-plazo-a-largo-plazo servicio distribuido o ataque programado, a partir de cinco dlares por hora para pequeo sitios web personales, hasta de 10 a 50 dlares por hora. +James Lyne: Bien, en realidad pagu a uno de estos ciberdelincuentes para que atacara mi propio sitio web. +Las cosas fueron un poco difciles al intentarlo pasar como gastos de la empresa. +Resulta que eso no est bien. +Pero a pesar de todo, es sorprendente cmo muchos productos y servicios estn disponibles ahora para los ciberdelincuentes. +Por ejemplo, esta plataforma de prueba, que permite a los ciberdelincuentes comprobar la calidad de sus virus antes de expandirlos por el mundo. +Por un mdico precio, lo pueden subir y asegurarse de que todo est bien. +Pero va ms all. +Los ciberdelincuentes ahora tienen paquetes delictivos con registros de informes sobre el espionaje del negocio para gestionar la distribucin de sus cdigos maliciosos. +Este es el lder del mercado en la distribucin de malware, el Paquete Explosin del Agujero Negro, responsable de casi un tercio de distribucin de malware en los ltimos dos trimestres. +Viene con guas de instalacin, video para rutinas de instalacin y adems, servicio tcnico. +Uds. pueden enviar un mensaje a los ciberdelincuentes y ellos les dirn cmo configurar su servidor de piratera ilegal. +As que les mostrar qu cdigos maliciosos existen hoy. +Lo que tengo aqu son dos sistemas, un atacante, del que he hecho toda la matriz y es intimidante y una vctima, que puede que vean desde casa o el trabajo. +Ahora bien, normalmente, estos estaran en distintos lados del planeta o de Internet, pero los he colocado uno al lado del otro porque hace las cosas mucho ms interesantes. +Ahora, hay muchas maneras cmo uno puede infectarse. +Seguro que ya habrn entrado en contacto con algunas de ellas. +Tal vez algunos de Uds. han recibido un correo electrnico que dice: "Hola, soy un banquero nigeriano, y me gustara darle 53 000 millones de dlares porque me gusta su cara". +O del funnycats.exe, del que se rumorea que tuvo bastante xito en la reciente campaa de China contra los EE. UU. +Existen muchas maneras de infectarse. +Quiero mostrarte algunas de mis favoritas. +Esta es un pequeo dispositivo USB. +Cmo logras que un dispositivo USB entre y se ejecute en una empresa? +Bueno, se podra intentar estar realmente atractivo. +Ahhhhhhh. +O, en mi caso, torpe y lamentable. +As que imaginen este escenario: entro en una de sus empresas con aspecto muy torpe y lamentable, con mi currculum +que he manchado con caf, y pido a la recepcionista que me deje enchufar el dispositivo USB y me imprima una nueva copia. +As que veamos aqu la computadora de la vctima. +Lo que har es enchufar el dispositivo USB. +Despus de un par de segundos, las cosas comienzan a ocurrir en la computadora por s solas. generalmente es una mala seal. +Esto, por supuesto, normalmente pasara en un par de segundos, muy, muy rpido, Pero lo he ralentizado para que vean el ataque que se est produciendo. +El malware sera de lo contrario muy aburrido +As que esto es escribir el cdigo malicioso, y pocos segundos despus, en el lado izquierdo, vern que en la pantalla del atacante aparece algn texto nuevo interesante. +Ahora, si coloco el cursor del ratn sobre l, esto es lo que llamamos un smbolo del sistema, y usando esto, podemos navegar por la computadora. +Podemos acceder a sus documentos, sus datos. +Pueden activar la webcam. +Eso puede ser muy embarazoso. +O simplemente para demostrar realmente algo, podemos lanzar programas como mi favorito personal, la calculadora de Windows. +No es increble cunto control pueden conseguir los atacantes con tan solo una simple operacin? +Les mostrar cmo la mayora de malware cmo se distribuye hoy. +Lo que har es abrir un sitio web que escrib. +Es un sitio terrible. Tiene grficos realmente horribles. +Y tiene una seccin de comentarios aqu donde nosotros podemos publicar comentarios a la pgina web. +Muchos de Uds. habrn usado antes algo de esto. +Desafortunadamente, cuando se implement, el desarrollador estaba un poco ebrio y consigui olvidar todas las prcticas de codificacin seguras que haba aprendido. +Entonces imaginemos que nuestro atacante, llamado Pirata Malvado solo por valor cmico, inserta algo un poco desagradable. +Este es un script. +Es el cdigo que se reproduce en la pgina web. +As que enviar este correo, y luego, en la computadora de mi vctima, abrir el navegador web e ir a mi sitio web, www.incrediblyhacked.com. +Vean que despus de un par de segundos, me redirecciona. +La direccin del sitio web en la parte superior que solo puede ver, microshaft.com, el navegador se bloquea mientras golpea uno de estos paquetes explosivos y aparece un antivirus falso. +Este es un virus que hace como si fuere software antivirus, analizar y escanear el sistema, miren lo que est apareciendo aqu. +Crea algunas alertas muy serias. +Miren, un servidor proxy para porno infantil. +Realmente deberamos limpiar esto. +Lo que es muy insultante acerca de esto es que no solo proporcionan a los atacantes acceso a sus datos, sino que, cuando la exploracin termina, dicen con el fin de limpiar los virus falsos, Ud. tiene que registrar el producto. +Me gustaba ms cuando los virus eran gratis. +La gente ahora paga a los ciberdelincuentes dinero para ejecutar los virus, lo que me parece totalmente extrao. +De todos modos, djenme cambiar de ritmo un poco. +Perseguir 250 000 piezas de malware al da es un desafo enorme, y esos nmeros no hacen ms que crecer directamente en proporcin a la longitud de la lnea de mi estrs, como Uds. podrn ver aqu. +As que quiero hablarles brevemente acerca de un grupo de piratas a los que rastreamos durante un ao y pillamos... y esto es una suerte inusual en nuestro trabajo. +Esto fue una colaboracin intersectorial, de gente de Facebook, investigadores independientes, tipos de Sophos. +Aqu tenemos un par de documentos que haban subido los ciberdelincuentes para un servicio en la nube, como Dropbox o SkyDrive, como muchos de Uds. quiz usan. +En la parte superior, Uds. vern una seccin de cdigo fuente. +Lo que hara es enviar a los ciberdelincuentes un mensaje de texto cada da dicindoles cunto dinero haban hecho ese da, as una especie de informe de facturacin ciberdelictivo. +Si se fijan bien, notarn una serie que corresponde a nmeros de telfono rusos. +Ahora eso es obviamente interesante, porque nos da una pista de cmo encontrar a los ciberdelincuentes. +Abajo, resaltado en rojo, en la otra seccin del cdigo fuente, est este "leded:leded". +Es el nombre de un usuario, como el que quiz se tenga en Twitter. +As que veremos esto un poco ms a fondo. +Hay otras piezas interesantes que haban subido los ciberdelincuentes. +Muchos de Uds. aqu usarn telfonos inteligentes para tomar fotos de la conferencia y publicarlas. +Una caracterstica interesante de muchos de los telfonos inteligentes modernos es que al tomar la foto, incrusta datos del GPS sobre dnde se hizo la foto. +Y nuestros ciberdelincuentes haban hecho lo mismo. +As que aqu hay una foto realizada en San Petersburgo. +Luego desplegamos la herramienta de piratera increblemente avanzada. +Utilizamos Google. +Utilizando la direccin de correo electrnico, el nmero de telfono y los datos del GPS, a la izquierda vern un anuncio para un BMW que vende uno de los ciberdelincuentes. En el otro lado hay un anuncio para vender gatitos sphynx. +Uno de estos me pareca demasiado estereotipado. +Algo ms de bsqueda y aqu est nuestro ciberdelincuente. +Imaginen, estos son ciberdelincuentes endurecidos apenas compartiendo informacin. +Imaginen lo que uno podra descubrir sobre cada una de las personas en esta sala. +Buscando un poco ms a travs del perfil se ve una foto de su oficina. +Trabajaban en el tercer piso. +Y tambin pueden ver algunas fotos de su compaero de negocios donde l aporta una prueba en un imagen concreta. +Se trata de un miembro de la Federacin Rusa de Webmasters para Adultos. +Pero aqu es donde nuestra investigacin comienza a ralentizarse. +Los ciberdelincuentes han cerrado sus perfiles bastante bien. +Y aqu est la leccin ms grande de las redes sociales y dispositivos mviles para todos nosotros ahora mismo. +Nuestros amigos, nuestras familias y nuestros colegas pueden violar nuestra seguridad aun haciendo las cosas bien. +Se trata de MobSoft, una de las empresas perteneciente a esta pandilla del cibercrimen, y una cosa interesante sobre MobSoft es que el dueo del 50 % de la empresa public un anuncio de trabajo, y este anuncio de trabajo corresponda a uno de los nmeros de telfono en el cdigo anterior. +Esta mujer es Mara, y Mara es la esposa de uno de los ciberdelincuentes. +Y es as como entr en su configuracin de las redes sociales y hago clic en cualquiera de las opciones imaginables para ponerse realmente, en una situacin insegura. +Al final de la investigacin, donde se puede leer el informe completo de 27 pginas en ese vnculo, tenemos fotos de los ciberdelincuentes, incluso de la fiesta de Navidad en la oficina o cuando estuvieron de excursin. +Y es verdad, los ciberdelincuentes celebran fiestas de Navidad, como se ve. +Ahora se preguntarn qu pas con estos muchachos. +Djenme volver a ello en un minuto. +Quiero cambiar el ritmo con una ltima demostracin, una tcnica que es muy simple y bsica, pero es interesante exponer cunta informacin regalamos todos, y es relevante porque es aplicable a nosotros como audiencia de TED. +Esto sucede cuando la gente empieza a hurgar en los bolsillos tratando de cambiar en modo avin en el telfono desesperadamente. +Muchos de Uds. saben sobre el concepto de buscar redes inalmbricas. +Lo hacemos cada vez que sacamos el iPhone o el Blackberry y que nos conectamos a TEDAttendees, por ejemplo. +Pero lo que quiz no saben es que tambin envan informacin de la lista de redes a las que se hayan conectado previamente incluso aun cuando no usen la red inalmbrica activamente. +As que hice un pequeo anlisis. +Estaba relativamente limitado en comparacin con los ciberdelincuentes, que no se preocupan tanto por la ley, y aqu pueden ver mi dispositivo mvil. +De acuerdo? Pueden ver una lista de redes inalmbricas. +TEDAttendees, HyattLB. Dnde creen que me hospedo? +Mi red domstica, PrettyFlyForAWifi, creo que es un nombre fantstico. +Sophos_Visitors, SANSEMEA, las empresas con la que trabajo. +Loganwifi, que se encuentra en Boston. HiltonLondon. +CIASurveillanceVan. +Lo llamamos as en una de nuestras conferencias porque pensamos que podra asustar a la gente lo que es muy divertido. +Esto es como una fiesta de frikis. +Pero hagamos esto un poco ms interesante. +Hablemos de Uds. +23 % de Uds. estuvieron en Starbucks recientemente y utilizaron la red inalmbrica. +Las cosas se ponen ms interesantes. +A 46 % de Uds. yo los podra vincular a su empresa. Red de empleados de XYZ. +Esto no es una ciencia exacta, pero consigue bastante precisin. +Identifiqu que 761 de Uds. haban estado recientemente en un hotel absolutamente con precisin milimtrica en algn lugar en el mundo. +S dnde viven 234 de Uds. +Su nombre de red inalmbrica es tan nico que fui capaz de identificarlo utilizando datos disponibles abiertamente en Internet sin pirateos ni trucos sofisticados e inteligentes. +Y debo mencionar tambin algunos de Uds. usan sus nombres, "IPhone de James Lyne", por ejemplo. +Y 2 % de Uds. tienen una tendencia extrema a lo profano. +Algo en lo que Uds. deberan pensar: Al incorporar el uso de estas nuevas aplicaciones y dispositivos mviles, y al jugar con estos nuevos juguetes brillantes, cunto privacidad y seguridad arriesgamos para nuestra conveniencia? +La prxima vez que instalen algo, miren la configuracin y pregntense, "Es la informacin que quiero compartir? +Alguien podra utilizarla indebidamente?" +Tambin tenemos que pensar con precaucin cmo podemos desarrollar nuestro futuro talento. +Ya ven, la tecnologa cambia a una velocidad asombrosa, y las 250 000 piezas de malware no sern las mismas por mucho tiempo. +Hay una tendencia muy preocupante, que muchas personas que acaban la escuela saben mucho de tecnologa, saben cmo usar la tecnologa, pero menos y menos personas estn al tanto del proceso para saber cmo funciona la tecnologa entre bambalinas. +En el Reino Unido, una reduccin del 60 % desde el 2003, y hay estadsticas similares en todo el mundo. +Tambin tenemos que pensar en los problemas legales en este mbito. +Los ciberdelincuentes de los que habl, a pesar del robo de millones de dlares, en realidad todava no han sido arrestados, y a este punto, posiblemente nunca lo sern. +La mayora de las leyes se implementan a nivel nacional, a pesar de los convenios de ciberdelincuencia, donde Internet es internacional por definicin y sin fronteras. +Los pases no estn de acuerdo en abordar esta cuestin excepcionalmente difcil desde una perspectiva jurdica. +Pero mi pregunta ms amplia es: Uds. saldrn de aqu y vern algunas historias asombrosas en las noticias. +Leern sobre el malware que hace cosas increbles, aterradoras e intimidantes. +Sin embargo, el 99 % de esto funciona porque la gente falla en hacer lo bsico. +Entonces mi pregunta es: ya en lnea, encuentren las mejores prcticas sencillas, averigen cmo actualizar y reparar su computadora. +Obtengan una contrasea segura. +Asegrense de utilizar una contrasea diferente en cada uno de sus sitios y servicios en lnea. +Encuentren estos recursos. Aplquenlos. +Internet es un recurso fantstico para los negocios, para la expresin poltica, para el arte y para el aprendizaje. +Contribuyan a una comunidad segura hagan la vida mucho, mucho ms difcil a los ciberdelincuentes. +Gracias. +Creen que es posible controlar la atencin de las personas? +Y an ms que eso, qu hay de predecir el comportamiento humano? +Creo que si se pudiese, son ideas interesantes. +Quiero decir, para m, sera un superpoder perfecto, una forma malvada de verlo. +Pero en mi caso, he pasado los ltimos 20 aos estudiando el comportamiento humano de manera poco ortodoxa: siendo carterista. +Cuando pensamos en el engao, pensamos en que hay algo que sucede a escondidas, cuando en realidad, generalmente, son las cosas que estn justo en frente nuestro las que son ms difciles de ver, lo que vemos cotidianamente, que nos ciega. +Por ejemplo, cuntos de Uds. todava tienen su telfono celular encima +en este momento? +Perfecto. Vuelvan a revisar. Asegrense de que an lo tengan. +Estuve haciendo un poco de compras de antemano. +Seguramente lo han visto un par de veces hoy pero voy a hacerles una pregunta al respecto. +Sin mirar su telfono celular directamente, recuerdan el cono en el margen inferior derecho? +Squenlos y comprueben qu tan acertados estuvieron +Cmo les fue? Levanten la mano. +Ahora que lo verificaron, gurdenlos, +porque todos los telfonos tienen algo en comn. +Sin importar cmo organizan los conos, el reloj siempre queda visible en la pantalla. +Entonces, sin mirar su telfono, qu hora era? +Acaban de mirar su reloj, verdad? +Es una idea interesante. Les voy a pedir que vayamos ms all, con un juego de confianza. +Cierren los ojos. +Entiendo que les estoy pidiendo esto cuando acaban de or que hay un carterista en la sala, pero cierren los ojos. +Me han estado observando durante unos 30 segundos. +Con sus ojos cerrados, pueden decirme qu llevo puesto? +Traten de adivinar. +De qu color es mi camisa? De qu color es mi corbata? +Ahora abran los ojos. +Levanten la mano si acertaron. +Es interesante, verdad? Algunos somos un poco +ms perceptivos que otros. As parece ser. +Pero tengo una teora diferente acerca de ese modelo de atencin. +Existen modelos sofisticados de atencin, El modelo de atencin de Posner. +Me gusta pensar que es muy sencillo, como un sistema de vigilancia. +Es como si tuvieran todos estos sensores sofisticados, y un pequeo guardia de seguridad en nuestro cerebro. +Me gusta llamarlo Frank. +Entonces, Frank est sentado en su escritorio, +tiene todo tipo de informacin interesante frente a l, equipos de tecnologa de punta, tiene cmaras, tiene un telefonito que puede levantar, los odos, todos estos sentidos, estas percepciones. +Pero la atencin es lo que gua nuestra percepcin, es lo que controla nuestra realidad. Es el portal a la mente. +Si no prestan atencin a algo, no somos conscientes de ello. +Irnicamente, se puede prestar atencin a algo sin ser consciente de ello. +Por eso existe el efecto coctel: Cuando estn en una fiesta, estn conversando con alguien, y aun as pueden reconocer su nombre y no se dieron cuenta de que lo estaban oyendo. +Ahora, en mi lnea de trabajo, tengo que jugar con algunas tcnicas para explotar esto, jugar con su atencin como si fuese un recurso limitado. +Entonces, si pudiese controlar cmo gastan su atencin, si pudiese, quizs, robar su atencin a travs de una distraccin. +Ahora bien, en lugar de desorientarlos y dirigirla a un costado, en cambio, me enfoco en Frank, para poder jugar con el Frank en sus cabezas, su pequeo guardia de seguridad, y atraparlos, no enfocndome en sus sentidos externos, sino en los internos, por un momento. +Si les pido que accedan un recuerdo, como... qu es eso? +Qu acaba de suceder? Tienen una billetera? +Tienen una American Express en su billetera? +Y cuando lo hago, su Frank se da vuelta. +Accede al archivo con esa informacin. Tiene que retroceder la cinta. +Y lo interesante es que no puede retroceder la cinta al mismo tiempo que intenta procesar informacin nueva. +Seguro, esta parece ser una buena teora, pero podra hablar mucho tiempo y contarles muchas cosas, y pueden ser ciertas, al menos en parte, pero creo que es mejor, si puedo demostrrselos aqu. +Si bajo, voy a hacer un poco de compras. +Qudense donde estn. +Hola, cmo le va? Es un placer verlos. +Hiciste un gran trabajo en el escenario. +Tiene un bellsimo reloj que no se quita fcilmente. +Tiene su anillo tambin? +Bien. Solo repaso el inventario. Son como un buffet. +Es difcil saber dnde comenzar, hay tantas cosas buenas. +Hola, cmo ests? Es bueno verte. +Hola, seor, podra pararse por m? Justo all donde est. +Ah, es casado. Sigue muy bien las instrucciones. +Un placer conocerlo, seor. +No tiene mucho en sus bolsillos. Tiene algo en este bolsillo de aqu? +Con su suerte, s. Sintese. Tome. Lo est haciendo bien. +Hola, seor, cmo le va? +Es bueno verlo, seor. Tiene un anillo y un reloj. +Tiene una billetera? Joe: No. +Apollo Robins: Bueno, ya le encontraremos una. Venga por aqu, Joe. +Dmosle un gran aplauso a Joe. Suba por aqu Joe. Vamos a jugar. +Disclpeme. +Creo que no necesito pulsador. Puede quedrselo. +Muchas gracias. Se lo agradezco. +Vamos al escenario, Joe. Vamos a jugar un jueguito ahora. +Tiene algo en sus bolsillos delanteros? Joe: Dinero. +AR: Dinero. Muy bien, intentmoslo. +Puede pararse por aqu por favor? +Dese vuelta y, veamos. Si le doy algo que me pertenece, es solo algo que tengo, una ficha de pquer. +Saque su mano por m. Mrela un poco de cerca. +Esta es una tarea en la que debe enfocarse. +Tiene dinero en este bolsillo de adelante? Joe: Sip. +AR: Bien. No voy a meter mi mano en su bolsillo. +No estoy listo para ese tipo de compromiso. +Una vez un tipo tena un agujero en el bolsillo, y fue bastante traumtico para m. +Estaba buscando su billetera y termin dndome su nmero de telfono. +Fue un gran problema de comunicacin. Hagamos esto sencillo. Apriete su mano. +Apritela bien fuerte. Siente la ficha de pquer en su mano? Joe: La siento. +AR: Se sorprendera si se la quitara de la mano? Diga que s. +Joe: Muy sorprendido. AR: Bien. +Abra su mano. Muchas gracias. +Har trampa si me da la oportunidad. +Hgamelo ms difcil. Solo utilice su mano. +Agarre mi mueca, pero apritela con firmeza. +La vio salir? +Joe: No AR: No, no est all. Abra su mano. +Ve, mientras se concentra en la mano, est aqu en su hombro en este momento. +Adelante, squela. +Ahora, intentmoslo de nuevo. +Ponga su mano bien plana. brala bien. +Ponga su mano un poco ms arriba, pero mrela bien de cerca. +Ve, si lo hago despacio, estara de nuevo en su hombro. +Joe, vamos a seguir haciendo esto hasta que la agarre. +Lo har finalmente. Tengo fe en Ud. +Apriete firmemente. Es humano, no lento. +Est de nuevo en su hombro. +Estaba concentrado en su mano. Por eso se distrajo. +Mientras estaba viendo esto, casi no pude sacarle el reloj. Fue un poco difcil. +Y an as, tena algo dentro de su bolsillo delantero. +Recuerda qu era? +Joe: Dinero. +AR: Fjese en sus bolsillos para ver si an lo tiene. An lo tiene? Ah, estaba all. Adelante, gurdelo. +Solo estamos yendo de compras. En realidad el truco tiene ms que ver con el tiempo. +Voy a tratar de empujarlo dentro de su mano. +Podra poner su otra mano encima? +Ahora es increblemente obvio, verdad? +Se parece mucho a un reloj que yo tena puesto, no? +Joe: Eso est bastante bien. Muy bien. AR: Ah, gracias. +Pero es solo el comienzo. Intentmoslo otra vez, un poco diferente esta vez. +Junte sus manos. Ponga su otra mano encima. +Ahora, si est mirando esta fichita, esto obviamente se convierte en el pequeo blanco, es como una maniobra de distraccin. +Si observamos de cerca, parece desaparecer. +No est de nuevo en su hombro. +Se cae desde el aire, y cae directamente en su mano. +La vieron desaparecer? +S, es raro. Tenemos a un tipo. Es del gremio. Trabaja all arriba todo el da. +Si lo hiciera despacio, si desapareciera inmediatamente, +cae en su bolsillo. Creo que est en este bolsillo. +No, no se fije en su bolsillo. Eso es para otro show. +Entonces... (sonido de chillido), esto es extrao. Existen vacunas para eso. +Puedo mostrar qu es? Esto es bastante extrao, Esto es suyo? +No tengo idea de cmo funciona. Pondremos esto por aqu +Perfecto. Necesito ayuda con este. +Venga por aqu, por favor. +No salga corriendo. Ud. tena algo en el bolsillo de su pantaln. +Estaba revisando mi bolsillo. No pude encontrar todo, pero not que tena algo aqu. +Puedo palpar su bolsillo por fuera un momento? +Aqu, not esto. Esto es suyo, seor? +Esto? No tengo idea Es un camarn +Joe: S, lo estoy guardando para despus. +AR: Ha entretenido a estas personas de forma estupenda mejor de lo que sabe. +Entonces nos gustara regalarle este hermoso reloj. Con suerte, ser de su gusto. +Pero tambin tenemos un par de otras cosas. un poco de dinero, y tenemos algunas otras cosas. Todo esto le pertenece, junto con un gran aplauso de todos sus amigos. Muchsimas gracias, Joe. +Les repito la pregunta que les hice anteriormente, pero esta vez no es necesario que cierren los ojos. +Qu llevo puesto? +La atencin es muy poderosa, +Como dije, le da forma a nuestra realidad. +Creo entonces, que me gustara formularles esta pregunta. +Si pudieran controlar la atencin de alguien, qu haran con ella? +Gracias. +Esta es nuestra vida con las abejas, y esta es nuestra vida sin abejas. +Las abejas son los polinizadores ms importantes de nuestras frutas, verduras y flores y cultivos como la alfalfa que alimentan a los animales de granja. +Ms de un tercio de la produccin agrcola del mundo depende de la polinizacin de las abejas. +Pero lo irnico es que las abejas no estn ah fuera polinizando nuestros alimentos intencionadamente. +Estn ah porque tienen que comer. +Las abejas obtienen toda la protena que necesitan de su dieta del polen y todos los carbohidratos que necesitan del nctar. +Ellas alimentan a las flores, y como se mueven de flor en flor, bsicamente en un viaje de compras en el centro comercial floral local, terminan con la prestacin de este valioso servicio de polinizacin. +En algunas partes del mundo donde no hay abejas, o donde las variedades de plantas no son atractivas para ellas, se les paga a personas para hacer el oficio de polinizacin a mano. +Estas personas trasladan el polen de flor en flor con un pincel. +Ahora, este oficio de la polinizacin manual no es en realidad tan poco comn. +Los productores de tomate a menudo polinizan sus flores de tomate con un vibrador de mano. +ste es el estimulador de tomates. Esto se debe a que el polen en una flor de tomate se mantiene muy seguro dentro de la parte masculina de la flor, la antera, y la nica manera de liberar este polen es agitndola. +As, los abejorros son unos de los pocos tipos de abejas en el mundo capaces de aferrarse a la flor y vibrar, y lo hacen agitando sus msculos de vuelo a una frecuencia similar a la nota musical Do. +Entonces, agitan la flor, la someten a ultrasonidos, y se libera el polen con este eficiente silbido, y el polen se esparce por todo el cuerpo velloso de la abeja, y sta se lo lleva a casa como alimento. +Los productores de tomate ahora ponen colonias de abejorros dentro del invernadero para polinizar los tomates porque tienen una polinizacin mucho ms eficiente cuando se hace naturalmente y se consiguen tomates de mejor calidad. +Hay otras razones, tal vez ms personales, para preocuparse por las abejas. +Hay ms de 20.000 especies de abejas en el mundo, y son absolutamente maravillosas. +Estas abejas pasan la mayor parte de su ciclo vital escondidas en el suelo o en un tallo hueco y muy pocas de estas hermosas especies desarrollaron un comportamiento altamente social, como las productoras de miel. +Las abejas melferas tienden a ser las representantes carismticas para otras ms de 19.900 especies porque hay algo en ellas que atrae a la gente hacia su mundo. +Los seres humanos se han sentido atrados por las abejas desde los inicios de la historia registrada, principalmente para cosechar su miel, que es un edulcorante natural increble. +Me atrajo el mundo de las abejas completamente por un golpe de suerte. +Yo tena 18 aos, estaba aburrida, tom de la biblioteca un libro sobre abejas y pas la noche leyndolo. +Nunca haba pensado en insectos que viven en sociedades complejas. +Era como si lo mejor de la ciencia ficcin se tornara realidad. +Y an ms extrao, estaba esa gente, esos apicultores, que amaban a sus abejas como si fueran de la familia, Cuando termin el libro, supe que tena que verlo con mis propios ojos. +As que me fui a trabajar para un apicultor comercial, una familia propietaria de 2.000 colmenas de abejas en Nuevo Mxico. +Y qued atrapada para siempre. +Las abejas pueden ser consideradas como un gran ser vivo, donde la colonia es el organismo compuesto de 40.000 a 50.000 abejas individuales. +Esta sociedad no tiene ninguna autoridad central. +Nadie est al mando. +Entonces, cmo toman decisiones colectivas?, y cmo asignan sus tareas y dividen el trabajo?, cmo comunican dnde estn las flores?, todos sus comportamientos sociales colectivos son alucinantes. +Mi favorito, que he estudiado durante muchos aos, es su sistema de salud. +S, las abejas tienen salud social. +En mi laboratorio estudiamos cmo las abejas se mantienen saludables. +Por ejemplo, estudiamos la higiene. Algunas abejas son capaces de localizar y eliminar de la colonia a individuos enfermos para mantenerla saludable. +Y, ms recientemente, hemos estado estudiando las resinas que las abejas recogen de las plantas. +Vuelan hacia algunas plantas y raspan estas muy, muy pegajosas resinas de las hojas, y las llevan de vuelta al nido donde las cementan para la la arquitectura del nido, lo que llamamos propleos. +Hemos encontrado que el propleo es un desinfectante natural. +Un antibitico natural. +Mata las bacterias, hongos y otros grmenes en la colonia y as refuerza la salud de la colonia y su inmunidad social. +Los seres humanos conocen el poder del propleo desde tiempos bblicos. +Hemos cosechado propleo de las colonias de abejas con fines medicinales, pero no sabamos lo bueno que era para ellas. +As que las abejas tienen estas notables defensas naturales que las han mantenido saludables y prsperas por ms de 50 millones de aos. +Hace siete aos, cuando se inform que las colonias de abejas estaban muriendo en masa, primero en EE.UU., qued claro que algo muy, muy malo estaba pasando. +En nuestra conciencia colectiva, de una manera muy fundamental, sabemos que no podemos darnos el lujo de perder a las abejas. +Pero, qu est pasando? +Las abejas estn muriendo por causas mltiples e interactivas. Las mencionar una a una. +El resultado final es que las abejas estn muriendo, genera un paisaje sin flores y un sistema alimenticio disfuncional. +Ahora tenemos los mejores datos sobre abejas, que pondr como ejemplo. +En los EE.UU. las abejas han venido disminuyendo desde la Segunda Guerra Mundial. +Tenemos la mitad del nmero de colmenas comerciales en los EE.UU. hoy, en comparacin con 1945. +Creemos que hay unos dos millones menos de colmenas de abejas. +La razn es que despus de la Segunda Guerra Mundial, cambiamos nuestras prcticas agrcolas. +Dejamos de plantar cultivos de cobertura. +Dejamos de plantar trbol y alfalfa, que son fertilizantes naturales que fijan el nitrgeno en el suelo, y en cambio empezamos a utilizar fertilizantes sintticos. +El trbol y la alfalfa son plantas de alto valor nutritivo para las abejas. +Despus de la Segunda Guerra Mundial, empezamos a utilizar herbicidas para combatir las malezas en nuestras granjas. +Muchas de estas malezas son plantas con flores que las abejas necesitan para su supervivencia. +Y empezamos a desarrollar monocultivos cada vez ms grandes. +Estamos hablando de desiertos alimenticios, lugares en nuestras ciudades sin tiendas de comestibles. +Las mismas granjas que sostenan a las abejas ahora son desiertos alimenticios agrcolas dominados por una o dos especies de plantas como el maz o la soja. +Desde la Segunda Guerra Mundial, hemos eliminado sistemticamente muchas de las plantas con flores que las abejas necesitan para su supervivencia. +Y estos monocultivos se extienden incluso a cultivos beneficiosos para las abejas, como las almendras. +Hace cincuenta aos, los apicultores tendran algunas colonias, colmenas de abejas en los huertos de almendros, para la polinizacin y tambin porque el polen de una flor de almendro es muy alta en protenas. Es muy bueno para las abejas. +Ahora, la escala del monocultivo de almendras exige que la mayora de las abejas de este pas, ms de 1,5 millones de colmenas de abejas, sean transportadas a travs de la nacin para polinizar ese cultivo. +Y son transportadas en camiones semirremolques, y deben ser transportadas, porque despus de la floracin, las plantaciones de almendros son un paisaje vasto y sin flores. +Las abejas han estado muriendo en los ltimos 50 aos y seguimos sembrando ms cultivos que las necesitan. +Ha habido un aumento del 300% en la produccin de cultivos que requieren polinizacin de abejas. +Adems, estn los pesticidas. +Despus de la Segunda Guerra Mundial, empezamos a utilizar pesticidas a gran escala, y esto se hizo necesario debido a que los monocultivos brindaron una fiesta a las plagas. +Esta pequea abeja est sosteniendo un gran espejo. +Cunto tiempo se necesita para contaminar a los humanos? +Una de estas clases de insecticidas, los neonicotinoides, est en los titulares de todo el mundo en este momento. +Probablemente han odo hablar de ello. +Es una nueva clase de insecticidas. +Se difunden por la planta para que la plaga de los cultivos, los insectos que comen hojas, ingieran un bocado y al obtener una dosis letal, mueran. +Adems de todo esto, las abejas tienen su propio conjunto de enfermedades y parsitos. +El enemigo pblico nmero uno de las abejas es esto. +Se llama varroa destructora. +El nombre es apropiado. +Es este gran parsito chupasangre el que compromete el sistema inmunolgico de las abejas y les hace circular un virus. +Permtanme ponerles todo esto en perspectiva. +Pero que pasara si viviera en un desierto de alimentos? +Y si tuviera que recorrer una larga distancia para llegar a la tienda, y llegara hasta all con mi cuerpo dbil y consumiera, en mi comida, bastante plaguicida, una neurotoxina, que no me permitiera encontrar mi camino a casa? +Esto es lo que queremos decir con causas mltiples e interactivas de muerte. +Y no se trata slo de nuestras abejas melferas. +Todas nuestras hermosas especies silvestres de abejas estn en riesgo, incluidos los abejorros polinizadores de tomate. +Estas abejas estn brindando un respaldo a nuestras abejas melferas. +Estn asegurando la polinizacin junto con nuestras abejas melferas. +Necesitamos de todas nuestras abejas. +Entonces, qu vamos a hacer? +Qu vamos a hacer con este desastre que les hemos creado? +Resulta que hay esperanzas. Hay esperanzas. +Cada uno de ustedes puede ayudar a las abejas de dos maneras muy directas y fciles. +Pueden plantar flores amistosas con las abejas, y no contaminar con pesticidas a esas flores que son el alimento de las abejas. +As que conctense a Internet y hagan una bsqueda de flores que sean nativas de su zona y plntenlas. +Plntenlas en una maceta en su puerta. +Plntenlas en su jardn, en el csped, en los bulevares. +Plntenlas en jardines pblicos, en los espacios comunitarios, en los prados. +Dejen de lado las tierras agrcolas. +Necesitamos una hermosa diversidad de flores que florezcan durante toda la temportada de crecimiento, desde la primavera hasta el otoo. +Necesitamos caminos sembrados de flores para nuestras abejas, pero tambin para las mariposas, para los pjaros migratorios y otros animales salvajes. +Y tenemos que pensar cuidadosamente sobre volver a tender cultivos de cobertura para nutrir el suelo y as nutrir a nuestras abejas. +Y tenemos que diversificar nuestras granjas. +Tenemos que plantar bordes y cercos de flores para interrumpir el desierto agroalimentario y comenzar a corregir el sistema alimenticio disfuncional que hemos creado. +Tal vez parezca una muy pequea contramedida para un grave, enorme problema - solo se trata de plantar flores - pero si las abejas tienen acceso a buena nutricin, nosotros tambin tendremos buena nutricin gracias a sus servicios de polinizacin. +Y cuando las abejas tienen acceso a buena nutricin, son ms capaces de utilizar sus propias defensas naturales, su sistema de salud, en el que han confiado durante millones de aos. +Hagan que el pequeo acto de plantar flores y mantenerlas libres de pesticidas, sea el motor de un cambio a gran escala. +En nombre de las abejas, gracias. +Chris Anderson: Gracias. Slo una pregunta rpida. +Los ltimos nmeros de la mortandad de las abejas, hay alguna seal de que las cosas estn tocando fondo? +Cul es tu nivel de esperanza o depresin en esto? +Maria Spivak: S. +Por lo menos en los Estados Unidos un promedio del 30 % de todas las colmenas de abejas se pierden todos los inviernos. +Hace unos 20 aos, estbamos en una prdida de 15 %. +As que cada vez es ms precaria. +CA: No es el 30 % anual. MS: S, 30 % anual. +CA: 30 % anual. MS: Pero los apicultores pueden dividir sus colonias y pueden mantener el mismo nmero, pueden recuperar algunas de sus prdidas. +Estamos en un punto de inflexin. +No podemos darnos el lujo de perder mucho ms. +Tenemos que estar muy agradecidos de todos los apicultores que hay. Planten flores. +CA: Gracias. +Eric Berlow: yo soy ecologista y Sean es fsico y los dos estudiamos sistemas complejos. +Nos conocimos hace un par de aos al darnos cuenta de que ambos habamos presentado una charla corta para TED sobre la ecologa de la guerra, y nos dimos cuenta de que estbamos conectados a travs de las ideas que compartamos antes de conocernos. +Y despus pensamos, ya saben, hay miles de ponencias dando vueltas, especialmente tipo TEDx Talks, que surgen en todo el mundo. +Cmo se conectan esas charlas y a qu es esa conversacin mundial? +Ahora Sean les contar un poco cmo logramos eso. +Sean Gourley: Exacto. Tomamos 24 000 TEDx Talks de 147 pases diferentes... las tomamos e intentamos encontrar las estructuras matemticas que subyacen a las ideas detrs de ellas. +Queramos hacer eso para poder ver cmo estn conectadas unas con otras. +Y claro, para hacer algo de esta naturaleza, se necesita mucha informacin. +La informacin que tienen est en algo grande llamado YouTube All podemos buscar y fundamentalmente extraer toda la informacin libre que aparece en YouTube: los comentarios, las visitas, quines mira, dnde miran, qu dicen sus comentarios. +Pero tambin podemos obtener, a travs de la traduccin del texto oral al escrito, podemos obtener las transcripciones completas, y funciona, incluso con personas con acentos extraos como el mo. +Podemos obtener las transcripciones y en efecto, podemos hacer cosas bastante ingeniosas con ellas. +Podemos tomar los procesos algortmicos de una lengua natural e intentar leer con una computadora, rengln por rengln, y extraer conceptos clave a partir de esto. +Entonces tomamos esos conceptos clave y, en cierto modo, forman esta estructura matemtica de una idea. +Llamamos a eso meme-ome. +El meme-ome es muy simple, es la matemtica que sustenta a una idea. Se pueden hacer anlisis bastante interesantes con esto, y los quiero compartir con Uds. ahora. +Esa es la teora, genial. +Veamos cmo funciona con un ejemplo. +Lo que tenemos ac es el diagrama global de todas las TEDx Talks de los ltimos cuatro aos expandindose por el mundo, desde Nueva York hacia abajo hasta llegar a la pequea y antigua Nueva Zelanda en el otro extremo. +Lo que hicimos fue analizar el 25% ms repetido y observamos cmo sucedan las conexiones, dnde las ideas se conectaban entre ellas. +Cameron Rusell que hablaba de la imagen y la belleza conect con Europa. +Encontramos ms conversacin sobre Israel y Palestina emitida desde Medio Oriente. +Y tenemos algo ms amplio, mucha informacin con un verdadero diagrama global que alude a una conversacin que se da en todas partes. +Partiendo de esto, sobrepasamos los lmites de lo que podemos hacer con una proyeccin geogrfica, pero por suerte, la tecnologa informtica nos permite ir hacia un espacio multidimensional. +Podemos tomar la proyeccin de nuestra red y aplicarle conceptos fsicos para que las conferencias similares se agrupen y las que son diferentes se separen, y el resultado es algo bastante lindo. +EB: Bueno, quiero destacar que cada ncleo es una conferencia, estn unidas si comparten ideas similares; eso est hecho con una mquina que ley las transcripciones de todas las conferencias y extrajo todos estos temas. No son de tags o de palabras claves. +Vienen del sistema de estructuras de ideas que estn interconectadas. +SG: Exactamente. Expliqu eso demasiado rpido pero l me ayudar a ir ms despacio. +Tenemos la educacin conectada con la narracin trianguladas a la comunicacin social. +Y tenemos, por supuesto, el cerebro junto al cuidado de la salud, lo que es predecible, pero tambin tenemos juegos all, que seran adyacentes ya que esos dos espacios estn interconectados. +Pero quiero que vean un conjunto que es especialmente importante para m, ese conjunto es el medio ambiente. +Y ahora me quiero concentrar en ese conjunto y ver si podemos darle ms resolucin. +Mientras analizamos, lo que vemos, aplicando otra vez conceptos fsicos, observamos que la conferencia est compuesta por otras muchas conferencias ms cortas. +La estructura comienza a aparecer donde vemos un comportamiento fractal de las palabras y el lenguaje que usamos para describir las cosas del mundo que nos rodea, que son importantes para nosotros. +Tenemos la economa de los alimentos y los alimentos locales entre las principales, y tenemos gases de efecto invernadero y residuos nucleares. +Lo que estn viendo es una variedad de pequeas charlas conectadas entre s a travs de las ideas y el lenguaje que comparten creando as un concepto de medio ambiente ms amplio. +Y por supuesto, partimos de aqu y nos acercamos y vemos, lo que miran esos jvenes. +Ven energa tecnolgica y fusin nuclear. +Y esto es lo importante de las conferencias sobre medio ambiente. +Si dividimos la informacin de acuerdo a los gneros, podemos observar que las mujeres estn muy preocupadas por la economa alimenticia, pero tambin hay esperanza y optimismo. +Bueno, hay muchas cosas interesante que podemos hacer con esto. Y ahora dejo que Eric siga con el resto. +EB: Si, lo que quiero decir, lo que quiero destacar es que no se puede obtener esta perspectiva de un simple tag de YouTube. +Veamos ahora la conversacin global en su totalidad, dejemos el medio ambiente y observemos todas las charlas juntas. +En general, cuando nos encontramos con esta cantidad de contenidos, hacemos ciertas cosas para simplificarlos. +Tal vez pensamos "bien, cules son las charlas ms importantes que hay?" +Y algunas salen a la luz. +Hay una charla sobre la gratitud. +Hay otra sobre cuidado personal y nutricin. +Y por supuesto, tiene que haber una sobre pornografa no? +Y entonces pensamos... a ver... gratitud... esa fue el ao pasado. +Y ahora que est de moda? Qu charla es la ms popular? +Y observamos que el tema de moda, de acuerdo a las tendencias, es la privacidad digital. +Esto es genial. Simplifica las cosas. +Pero hay muchsimo contenido creativo que est enterrado en el fondo. +Y eso lo odio. Cmo hacer para que este contenido que puede ser creativo e interesante salga a la superficie? +Bueno, podemos utilizar el sistema de estructura de ideas para lograrlo. +Recuerden que este sistema de estructuras crea estos temas emergentes, y supongamos que toma dos como por ejemplo ciudades y gentica... y digamos ... bueno... hay alguna charla que de manera creativa fusiona estas dos disciplinas tan diferentes? +Y eso es... Bsicamente, este tipo de remix creativo es una de las caractersticas distintivas de la innovacin. +Hay una charla de Jessica Green sobre la ecologa de la microbiologa de los edificios. +Esto define literalmente un nuevo campo. +Y podemos volver sobre esos temas y pensar, ok, qu charlas son las ms importantes para esas conferencias? +En la categora ciudades, una de las ms importantes era la de Mitch Joachim sobre ciudades ecolgicas. En la categora gentica, encontramos una charla sobre biologa sinttica de Craig Venter. +Todas estas charlas conectan muchas charlas diferentes dentro de su disciplina. +Podemos tomar la direccin opuesta y pensar cules son las charlas que sintetizan muchos campos diferentes? +Usamos un medidor de diversidad ecolgica para responder esa pregunta. +Como la charla de Steven Pinker sobre la historia de la violencia... muy sinttica. +Y tambin existen charlas que son muy originales. Parecen flotar en el espacio, en sus propios lugares especiales, las llamamos el ndice de Colleen Flanagan. +Por si no conocen a Colleen, ella es una artista. Le pregunt, "bien a qu se parece la estratosfera del espacio de nuestras ideas?" +Y se supone que se parece al tocino. +Yo no podra saberlo. +Por eso utilizamos sistemas de diseos para encontrar charlas que son originales, charlas que de manera creativa simplifican muchos campos diferentes. Algunos son centrales para el tema, otros son muy creativos y conectan campos dispares. +Se entiende? Nunca habramos encontrado esas charlas con nuestra obsesin por saber qu est de moda en la actualidad. +Todo esto proviene de la arquitectura de la complejidad o de los modelos de cmo se conectan las cosas. +SG: Exactamente. +Estamos en un mundo que es extremadamente complejo y hemos utilizado algoritmos para depurarlo y navegar a travs de l. +Y esos algoritmos, aparte de ser bastante tiles, son muy, muy estrechos y podemos mejorarlos porque nos damos cuenta de que su complejidad no se da al azar. +Tienen estructura matemtica y la podemos utilizar para explorar cosas como el mundo de las ideas y saber sobre lo que se habla y sobre lo que no se habla, y para ser ms humanos y, con suerte, ser un poquito ms inteligentes. +Gracias. +Cuando mi padre y yo comenzamos una compaa para imprimir tejidos y rganos humanos en 3D, algunas personas inicialmente pensaron que estbamos un poco locos. +Pero desde entonces, se ha progresado mucho, en nuestro laboratorio y en otros laboratorios alrededor del mundo. +Y as empezamos a recibir preguntas como: "Si pueden desarrollar partes del cuerpo humano, podrn tambin hacer productos de origen animal como carne y cuero?" +Cuando alguien me lo sugiri por primera vez, francamente pens que estaban medio locos, pero pronto me di cuenta que no era algo tan descabellado, despus de todo. +Lo descabellado es lo que hacemos hoy en da. +Estoy convencido que en 30 aos, cuando miremos atrs hacia el da de hoy, la forma como criamos y sacrificamos miles de millones de animales para hacer nuestras hamburguesas y carteras, veremos esto como un desperdicio, una locura. +Saban que hoy en da se mantiene una manada global de 60 mil millones de animales para proveernos de carne, lcteos, huevos y productos de cuero? +Y en las prximas dcadas, cuando la poblacin mundial alcance los 10 mil millones de habitantes, el nmero de animales casi tendr que duplicarse hasta los 100 mil millones. +Mantener esta manada implica un enorme costo para el planeta. +Los animales no son slo materias primas. +Son seres vivos, y ya el ganado es uno de los mayores usuarios de la tierra y del agua dulce, uno de los mayores productores de gases de efecto invernadero que impulsan el cambio climtico. +Adems de esto, tantos animales hacinados son caldos de cultivo para enfermedades y generan oportunidades para el dao y los malos tratos. +Est claro que no podemos seguir por este camino que pone al medio ambiente, la salud pblica y la seguridad alimentaria, en riesgo. +Existe alternativa porque, en esencia, los productos de origen animal son slo colecciones de tejidos. En este momento reproducimos y criamos animales altamente complejos slo para crear productos formados por tejidos relativamente simples. +Qu pasa si en lugar de comenzar a partir de un animal complejo y sensible, empezamos con la materia de la que estn hechos los tejidos, la unidad bsica de la vida, la clula? +Esta es la biofabricacin, donde las clulas mismas se utilizan para desarrollar productos biolgicos como tejidos y rganos. +Ya en medicina, se usan tcnicas de biofabricacin para desarrollar partes complejas del cuerpo, como orejas, trqueas, piel, vasos sanguneos y huesos, que se implantan con xito en pacientes. +Y ms all de la medicina, la biofabricacin puede ser una industria nueva que es humanitaria, sostenible y escalable. +Debemos empezar por reinventar el cuero. +Hago hincapi en el cuero porque se utiliza ampliamente. +Es hermoso y ha sido durante mucho tiempo parte de nuestra historia. +Tcnicamente, el cultivo del cuero tambin es ms simple que el de otros productos de origen animal como la carne. +Utiliza practicamente un slo tipo de clula, y slo tiene dos dimensiones. +Tambin es menos polarizante para los consumidores y los reguladores. +Hasta que se entienda mejor la biofabricacin es evidente que, al menos inicialmente, habr ms personas dispuestas a vestirse con materiales novedosos que las inclinadas a probar alimentos diferentes, sin importar lo deliciosos que sean. +En este sentido, el cuero es la puerta de entrada, el comienzo para la industria principal de biofabricacin. +Si tenemos xito aqu otros productos biolgicos de consumo, como la carne, estarn ms cercanos en el futuro. +Ahora, cmo lo hacemos? +Para cultivar cuero comenzamos tomando las clulas de un animal a travs de una simple biopsia. +El animal puede ser una vaca, un cordero, o incluso algo ms extico. +Este proceso no causa dao, y la vaca Daisy puede seguir feliz con su vida. +Luego aislamos las clulas de la piel y las multiplicamos en un medio de cultivo celular. +Esto toma millones de clulas y las expande a miles de millones. +Luego se estimulan las clulas para que produzcan colgeno, como haran naturalmente. +El colgeno es el material entre las clulas. +Es el tejido conectivo natural. +Es la matriz intercelular, pero en el cuero es el componente principal. +Lo siguiente es que tomamos las clulas y su colgeno y las extendemos para formar lminas delgadas, que luego ponemos una sobre otra, como la pasta filo, para formar hojas ms gruesas, y luego lo dejamos madurar. +Por ltimo, tomamos sta piel de varias capas y a travs de un proceso de curtido ms corto y menos qumico, creamos el cuero. +Estoy muy emocionado de mostrarles por primera vez nuestro primer lote de cuero cultivado recin salido del laboratorio. +Esto es cuero real y genuino sin sacrificio de animales. +Puede tener todas las caractersticas del cuero ya que est hecho de las mismas clulas, y mejor an, no tiene pelo que eliminar, ni cicatrices o picaduras de insectos, ni residuos. +Este cuero se puede moldear en la forma de una cartera, un bolso o un asiento de auto. +No est limitado por la forma irregular de la vaca o el cocodrilo. +Y como lo creamos y cultivamos desde el principio podemos controlar sus propiedades de forma muy interesante. +Este trozo de cuero tiene apenas un grosor de siete capas y, como pueden ver, es casi transparente. +Este tiene un grosor de 21 capas y es bastante opaco. +No se tiene ese tipo de control minucioso con el cuero convencional. +Podemos ajustar otras cualidades deseables en el cuero como la suavidad, la respirabilidad, la durabilidad, la elasticidad, e incluso el dibujo. +Podemos imitar a la naturaleza, pero en cierto modo tambin mejorarla. +Este tipo de piel puede hacer lo mismo que el cuero de hoy en da hace pero, con imaginacin, quizs mucho ms. +Cmo se vern en el futuro los productos de origen animal? +No tienen que parecerse a esto, que es la realidad del estado actual de las cosas. +Ms bien, podr ser mucho mejor. +Ya hemos estado fabricando con cultivos celulares, durante miles de aos; productos como el vino, la cerveza y el yogurt. +Y hablando de comida, la comida cultivada ha evolucionado y hoy se preparan los alimentos cultivados en bellas instalaciones estriles como sta. +Una fbrica de cerveza es esencialmente un biorreactor. +Es el lugar donde se lleva a cabo el cultivo de clulas. +Imaginen que en esta instalacin, en lugar de la elaboracin de cerveza, estuviramos elaborando cuero o carne. +Imagnense recorriendo esta instalacin, aprendiendo cmo se cultiva el cuero o la carne, viendo el proceso de principio a fin, e incluso probndolos. +Es limpio, abierto y educativo, y esto va en contraste con las fbricas ocultas, vigiladas y remotas donde el cuero y la carne se producen hoy en da. +Tal vez la biofabricacin es la evolucin natural de fabricacin para la humanidad. +Es responsable con el medioambiente, eficiente y humanitaria. +Nos permite ser creativos. +Podemos disear nuevos materiales, nuevos productos, y nuevas instalaciones. +Tenemos que dejar atrs el sacrificio de animales como nico recurso y llegar a algo ms civilizado y evolucionado. +Tal vez estamos listos para algo, literal y figuradamente, ms cultivado. +Gracias. +Quisiera contarles acerca de un caso jurdico en el que trabaj que involucr a un hombre llamado Steve Titus. +Titus diriga un restaurante. +Tena 31 aos, viva en Seattle, Washington, estaba comprometido con Gretchen a punto de casarse. Ella era el amor de su vida. +Una noche, la pareja sali para cenar romnticamente a un restaurante. +Iban de regreso a casa, y los detuvo un oficial de polica. +El carro de Titus se tena algn parecido con un carro que antes esa misma tarde manejaba un hombre que haba violado a una mujer que le pidi un aventn. Titus se pareca algo a ese violador. +As que la polica tom una fotografa de Titus, la pusieron junto con otras y se las mostraron a la vctima. Ella seal la foto de Titus +y dijo, "ese es el ms parecido". +La polica y la fiscala iniciaron un juicio contra Steve Titus quien fue inculpado por violacin. Cuando la vctima de la violacin subi al estrado, dijo, "estoy completamente segura de que ese es el hombre". +Y Titus fue condenado. +l declar su inocencia, su familia le grit al jurado, su novia se colaps al piso sollozando y Titus fue llevado a la crcel. +Entonces, qu haran ustedes en este punto? +Qu haran? +Bien, Titus perdi completamente su fe en el sistema legal pero tuvo una idea. +Llam al diario local, consigui interesar a un periodista investigativo y ste logr encontrar al verdadero violador. Un hombre que al final confes la violacin. Un hombre que crea haber cometido 50 violaciones en esa rea. Cuando esta informacin fue presentada al juez, l liber a Titus. +Y realmente, ah es donde el caso debera haber terminado. +Deba haberse acabado. +Titus debi pensar que ese fue un ao horrible, un ao de acusacin y juicio, pero que ya pas. +Pero no termin as. +Titus estaba muy amargado. +Perdi su empleo. No pudo recuperarlo. +Perdi a su novia. +Ella no poda soportar la permenente ira de Titus. +Adems perdi todos su ahorros y decidi presentar una demanda contra la polica y contra todos los que pensaba que eran responsables de su sufrimiento. +En ese momento empec a trabajar en este caso, tratando de entender cmo esa vctima pas de "ese es el ms parecido" a "estoy completamente segura de que ese es el hombre". +Bien, Titus estaba consumido con el proceso civil. +Inverta cada momento del da pensando en ello, y justo unos das antes de su cita en la corte, se despert en la maana, doblegado por el dolor, y muri de un ataque cardaco asociado al stress. +Tena 35 aos. +As que se me pidi trabajar en el caso de Titus porque soy psicloga investigadora. +Estudio la memoria. Lo he hecho por dcadas. +Si encuentro a alguien en un avin -- esto ME pas en camino hacia Escocia -- conoc a una persona en el avin, y nos preguntamos el uno al otro, "Qu haces? Qu haces?" +Yo le dije: "Estudio la memoria". Usualmente empiezan a contarme sus problemas para recordar nombres, que tienen un pariente con Alzheimer o algn tipo de problema con la memoria. Entonces tengo que decir que mi trabajo no es sobre cmo la gente olvida. +Estudio lo contrario: cmo recuerdan, cuando recuerdan cosas que no ocurrieron o si recuerdan cosas diferentes de cmo sucedieron en verdad. +Estudio falsos recuerdos. +Tristemente, Steve Titus no es la nica persona que ha sido condenada basado en los falsos recuerdos de alguien. +En un proyecto en los EE.UU., se recopil informacin acerca de 300 inocentes, 300 acusados condenados por crmenes que no cometieron. +Personas que pasaron 10, 20, 30 aos en prisin por estos crmenes, y despus las pruebas de ADN demostraron que en realidad eran inocentes. +Cuando se analizaron, tres cuartas partes ocurrieron por fallas de memoria, recuerdos imperfectos de los testigos. +Entonces, por qu? +Como los jurados que condenaron a todos esos inocentes y los que condenaron a Titus, mucha gente cree que la memoria funciona como un dispositivo de grabacin. +Slo necesitas grabar la informacin, luego la buscas y la reproduces, como cuando quieres respuestas a preguntas o hay que identificar imgenes. +Pero dcadas de trabajo en psicologa han mostrado que esto simplemente no es cierto. +Nuestros recuerdos son constructivos. +Son reconstrutivos. +La memoria funciona ms como una pgina de Wikipedia, puedes ir y cambiarla, y tambin pueden hacerlo otros . +Empec a estudiar este proceso constructivo de la memoria en los aos 70. +Hice experimentos que implicaban mostrar a la gente crmenes y accidentes simulados y luego les preguntaba acerca de lo que recordaban. +En un estudio, mostramos a la gente un accidente y les preguntamos, Qu tan rpido iban los autos cuando chocaron? +Y a otros les preguntamos, Que tan rpido iban los autos cuando se estrellaron? +Si en la pregunta decamos "estrellaron", los testigos decan que los autos iban ms rpido, y ms an, si en la pregunta se deca "estrellaron" eso haca que la gente se inclinara por decir que vieron vidrios rotos en la escena del accidente cuando no haba ninguno en absoluto. +En otro estudio, mostrbamos un accidente simulado donde un auto atravesaba una interseccin con una seal de "pare", y les preguntbamos insinuando que haba una seal de "ceda el paso", muchos testigos nos decan que recordaban haber visto la seal de "ceda el paso" en la interseccin, no el "pare". +Uds. pueden pensar que son eventos grabados, no son particularmente estresantes. +Ser el mismo tipo de error el que se comete en un evento realmente estresante? +En un estudio que publicamos hace pocos meses, dimos una respuesta a esta pregunta. Lo especial en ese estudio es que pusimos a las personas en una situacin muy estresante. +Los que participaron en ese estudio eran militares de los EE.UU. que haban pasado por un horrible ejercicio de entrenamiento en el que les enseaban lo que sera para ellos si fueran capturados como prisioneros de guerra. +Como parte de ese ejercicio de entrenamiento, los interrogaron de forma agresiva, hostil y fsicamente abusiva, por 30 minutos. Luego deban tratar de identificar a la persona que llev a cabo el interrogatorio. +Cuando son alimentados con informacin sugestiva que insina que es una persona distinta, muchos de ellos identificaron errneamente al interrogador, algunas veces sealando a alguien que ni remotamente se pareca al interrogador verdadero. +Lo que estos estos estudios nos muestran es que cuando le das a la gente informacin errada acerca de alguna experiencia pasada, se puede distorsionar, contaminar o cambiar un recuerdo. +En el mundo real, la desinformacin est en todas partes. +Nosotros recibimos desinformacin no slo si nos preguntan de manera sugestiva, sino tambin si hablamos con otros testigos que, consciente o inconscientemente, nos dan algo de informacin errnea. Tambin si vemos la noticia en los medios acerca de algn evento que hemos experimentado, todos estos casos son oportunidades para este tipo de contaminacin de la memoria. +En los aos 90, empezamos a ver un tipo de defecto en la memoria an ms extremo. +Algunos pacientes estaban iniciando tratamiento para un problema -- quizs depresin o un desorden alimenticio -- y salan de la terapia con otro problema distinto. +Recuerdos extremos de brutalidades horribles, algunas veces con rituales satnicos, posiblemente incluyendo elementos extraos o inusuales. +Una mujer sali de psicoterapia creyendo que por aos haba soportado abusos rituales, en los que era forzada a quedar embarazada y el beb era arrancado de su viente. +Pero no tena cicatrices ni ningn tipo de evidencia fsica que respaldara su historia. +Cuando empec a examinar estos casos, me cuestionaba, de dnde vienen estos extraos recuerdos? +Lo que encontr es que la mayora de estas situaciones involucraban alguna forma particular de psicoterapia. +As que pregunt, cmo son las cosas que suceden en psicoterapia? ejercicios de imaginacin? o interpretacin de sueos? o, en algunos casos, hipnosis? o, quizs, exposicin a informacin falsa? fueron estos pacientes sugestionados a desarrollar esos raros e improbables recuerdos? +Dise algunos experimentos para estudiar los procesos que se usaban en esas psicoterapias, para examinar el desarrollo de estos falsos recuerdos tan vvidos. +En uno de los primeros estudios usamos la sugestin, un mtodo inspirado por la psicoterapia que vimos en esos casos, usamos ese tipo de sugestin. Implantamos un recuerdo falso de cuando era nio, de cinco o seis aos, que se perdi en un centro comercial. +Estaba asustado. Estaba llorando. +Finalmente fu rescatado por un adulto y se reuni con su familia. +Y tuvimos xito al implantar ese recuerdo en las mentes de un cuarto de los sujetos. +Uds. pueden pensar que eso no es particularmente estresante. +Pero nosotros, y otros investigadores, hemos plantado recuerdos vvidos de cosas mucho ms inusuales y mucho ms estresantes. +As, en un estudio hecho en Tennessee, los investigadores implantaron recuerdos falsos de cuando era un nio, casi se ahog y tuvo que ser rescatado por un salvavidas. +En un estudio hecho en Canad, los investigadores implantaron el falso recuerdo de cuando era nio, algo tan horrible como ser atacado por un animal feroz habra ocurrido, y tuvieron xito con la mitad de los sujetos. +En un estudio hecho en Italia, Los investigadores implantaron recuerdos falsos, de cuando era nio, haba sido testigo de una posesin demonaca. +Bien, para mi sorpresa, cuando publiqu este trabajo y empec a hablar en contra de esta forma particular de psicoterapia, tuve algunos problemas serios: hostilidades, principalmente con terapistas de la memoria reprimida, que se sintieron bajo ataque, y con los pacientes a quienes ellos haban influenciado. +Tuve guardas armados en algunos discursos a los que fui invitada a dar. Hubo gente con campaas de recoleccin de cartas para que me despidieran. +Pero probablemente lo peor fue que yo sospechaba que una mujer era inocente de los abusos de los que le acusaba su propia hija ya adulta. +Ella acusaba a su madre de abuso sexual basada en un recuerdo reprimido. +Y esta hija haba permitido que su historia fuese filmada y presentada en sitios pblicos. +Yo sospechaba de esta historia, as que empec a investigar, y eventualmente encontr informacin que me convenci que esta madre era inocente. +Publiqu una exposicin del caso, y poco tiempo despus, la hija present una demanda. +An cuando nunca mencion su nombre, me demand por difamacin e invasin de la privacidad. +Pas cerca de cinco aos lidiando con este enredo desagradable, pero finalmente, todo trermin y pude realmente regresar a mi trabajo. +En el proceso, sin embargo, me volv parte de una tendencia perturbadora en EE.UU., en la que los cientficos estaban siendo demandados simplemente por hablar de temas de gran controversia pblica. +Cuando regres a mi trabajo, hice la pregunta: si implanto falsos recuerdos en tu mente, habr repercusiones? +Afectar esto tus pensamientos despus? Tu comportamiento? +Nuestro primer estudio implant un recuerdo falso; que de nio se haba enfermado al comer ciertos alimentos: huevos cocidos, pepinillos encurtidos, helado de fresa. +Encontramos que una vez que implantamos estos falsos recuerdos, las personas ya no queran comer estos alimentos en un picnic al aire libre. +Estos falsos recueros no son necesariamente malos o desagradables. +Si implantbamos un recuerdo agradable borroso que involucraba comida saludable, como esprragos, podamos hacer que la gente quisiera comer ms esprragos. +As que lo que estos estudios estn mostrando es que puedes implantar falsos recuerdos y lograr repercusiones que afectarn el comportamiento mucho tiempo despus que el recuerdo sea asimilado. +Bien, a la par de esta habilidad para implantar recuerdos y controlar el comportamiento, obviamente vienen algunos asuntos ticos importantes, como, cundo deberamos usar esta tecnologa en la mente? +Deberamos prohibir su uso? +Los terapistas no pueden ticamente implantar falsos recuerdos en la mente de sus pacientes incluso si esto pudiera ayudarles, pero no hay nada que detenga a un padre de intentar esto con su adolescente con sobrepeso u obesidad. +Cuando suger esto pblicamente, provoqu otra protesa de nuevo. +"Ah va otra vez. Est sugiriendo que los padres le mienten a sus hijos". +Hola, San Nicols. Quiero decir, otra forma de pensar acerca de esto es, qu preferiras tener, un nio con obesidad, diabetes, esperanza de vida disminuida, y todas las cosas que le acompaan, o un nio con un poco extra de recuerdos falsos? +Yo s lo que escogera para uno de mis hijos. +Pero quizs mi trabajo me ha hecho distinta de la mayora de las personas. +La mayora de la gente aprecia sus recuerdos, sabe que representan su identidad, quines son, de dnde vienen. +Yo aprecio eso. Me identifico de esa misma manera. +Pero s por mi trabajo cunta ficcin ya hay ah adentro. +Si he aprendido algo de estas dcadas de trabajo en estos problemas, es esto: slo porque alguien te dice algo y lo dice con certeza, slo porque lo dice con muchos detalles, slo porque se expresa con emocin cuando lo dice, no significa que en verdad pas. +No podemos confiablemente distinguir los recuerdos falsos de los verdaderos. +Necesitamos una confirmacin independiente. +Tal descubrimiento me ha hecho ms tolerante con los errores cotidianos de memoria que mis amigos y mi familia cometen. +Tal descubrimiento podra haber salvado a Steve Titus, el hombre cuyo futuro completo fue arrebatado por un recuerdo falso. +Pero mientras tanto, todos deberamos tener presente, haramos bien en tenerlo, que la memoria, como la libertad, es algo frgil. +Gracias. Gracias. +Gracias. Muchas gracias. +Hay un antiguo proverbio que dice: es muy difcil encontrar un gato negro en una habitacin oscura, especialmente cuando no hay ningn gato. +Me parece una descripcin particularmente acertada de la ciencia y de cmo trabaja, dando vueltas alrededor en un cuarto oscuro, chocando con las cosas, tratando de averiguar qu forma podra tener esto, lo que podra ser, hay informes de un gato por ah, que pueden ser o no ser fiables, y as sucesivamente. +Ahora s que esto es diferente a la forma en que la mayora de las personas piensan acerca de la ciencia. +Me gustara decirles que este no es el caso. +As que est el mtodo cientfico, pero lo que realmente sucede es lo siguiente. [El Mtodo Cientfico vs. Tirarse Pedos Alrededor] Y est pasando un poco as. +[... en la oscuridad] As que, cul es la diferencia, entonces, entre la manera en que creo que la ciencia es perseguida y la forma en la que parece ser percibida? +Esta diferencia se me present de varias maneras en mi doble papel en la Universidad de Columbia, donde soy profesor y adems dirijo un laboratorio de neurociencias donde tratamos de averiguar cmo funciona el cerebro. +Pero al mismo tiempo, es mi responsabilidad ensear un curso muy extenso a estudiantes universitarios sobre el cerebro, y es un gran tema, y se tarda bastante tiempo organizarlo, y es muy difcil y muy interesante, pero tengo que decir que no es tan emocionante. +Entonces, cul era la diferencia? +Pues bien, el curso que estaba y estoy enseando se llama Neurociencia Celular y Molecular - I. Son 25 conferencias llenas de todo tipo de hechos, se utiliza este libro gigante llamado "Principios de Neurociencia" escrito por tres neurlogos famosos. +Este libro tiene 1.414 pginas, pesa unos imponentes 3,4 kg. +Solo para poner esto en perspectiva, ese es el peso normal de 2 cerebros humanos. +As que empec a darme cuenta, al final de este curso, de que los estudiantes quizs estaban recibiendo la idea de que debemos conocer todo lo que hay para saber sobre el cerebro. +Eso claramente no es cierto. +Y tambin deben tener la idea, supongo, de que lo que hacen los cientficos es recopilar datos y reunir hechos y pegarlos en esos grandes libros. +Y ese tampoco es realmente el caso. +Cuando voy a una reunin, despus de que ha terminado el da de trabajo y los colegas nos reunimos en el bar con un par de cervezas, nunca hablamos de lo que sabemos. +Hablamos de lo que no sabemos. +Hablamos de lo que todava se tiene que hacer, de lo que es crtico que hagamos en el laboratorio. +De hecho, esto fue, creo, mejor dicho por Marie Curie quien dijo que nunca nos damos cuenta de lo que se ha hecho sino de lo que queda por hacer. +Esto lo escribi en una carta a su hermano despus de obtener su segundo ttulo de grado, debo decir. +Tengo que sealar que esta siempre ha sido una de mis fotos favoritas de Marie Curie, porque estoy convencido de que ese resplandor detrs de ella no es un efecto fotogrfico. Esa es la verdad. +Es cierto que sus papeles estn, al da de hoy, almacenados en un stano en la Biblioteca Francesa en un cuarto de hormign que est forrado de plomo, y si eres un erudito y quieres acceder a estas notas, tienes que ponerte un traje antiradiacin, es una actividad que da miedo. +Sin embargo, creo que esto es lo que estbamos dejando fuera de nuestros cursos y dejando afuera de la interaccin que tenemos con el pblico como cientficos, el "lo que queda por hacer". +Esto es lo que es emocionante e interesante. +Es, si quieren, la ignorancia. +Eso es lo que le faltaba. +As que pens, bueno, tal vez debera dar un curso sobre la ignorancia, algo en lo que por fin, tal vez, pueda sobresalir, por ejemplo. +As que he empezado a ensear este curso sobre la ignorancia, y ha sido muy interesante y me gustara decir que visiten la pgina web. +Pueden encontrar todo tipo de informacin ah. Es muy accesible. +Y ha sido realmente un momento muy interesante para m para reunirnos con otros cientficos que vienen y hablan acerca de qu es lo que no saben. +Ahora uso la palabra "ignorancia", por supuesto, para ser al menos en parte intencionalmente provocativo, porque la ignorancia tiene un montn de malas connotaciones y yo claramente no me refiero a nada de eso. +As que no me refiero a la estupidez, no me refiero a una indiferencia inmadura hacia los hechos, la razn o los datos. +Los ignorantes son claramente poco ilustrados, inconscientes, desinformados, y exceptuando a la compaa de hoy, a menudo ocupan cargos polticos, me parece a m. +Esa, tal vez, es otra historia. +Me refiero a una clase diferente de ignorancia. +Creo que es una idea maravillosa: la ignorancia completamente consciente. +As que esa es de la clase de ignorancia de la que quiero hablar hoy, pero por supuesto que lo primero que tenemos que aclarar es qu es lo que vamos a hacer con todos esos hechos? +As que es cierto que la ciencia se acumula a un ritmo alarmante. +Todos tenemos la sensacin de que la ciencia es esta montaa de datos, este modelo de acumulacin de la ciencia, como muchos lo han llamado, y parece inexpugnable, parece imposible. +Cmo puedes saber todo esto algn da? +Y, en efecto, la literatura cientfica crece a un ritmo alarmante. +En 2006, haba 1,3 millones de artculos publicados. +Tiene una tasa de crecimiento de aproximadamente un 2,5% anual, y as el ao pasado se publicaron ms de un milln y medio de artculos. +Dividan eso por el nmero de minutos en un ao, y obtienes tres nuevos artculos por minuto. +As que, yo que he estado aqu un poco ms de 10 minutos, ya me he perdido tres artculos. +Tengo que salir de aqu en realidad. Tengo que ir a leer. +Entonces, qu hacemos al respecto? Bueno, lo cierto es que lo que hacen los cientficos es una especie de abandono controlado, por llamarlo as. +Simplemente no nos preocupamos por eso, en cierto modo. +Los hechos son importantes. Tienes que saber un montn de cosas para ser un cientfico. Eso es cierto. +Pero saber un montn de cosas no te hace un cientfico. +Necesitas saber un montn de cosas para ser un abogado o un contable o un electricista o un carpintero. +Pero en la ciencia, saber un montn de cosas no es la clave. +El conocimiento de un montn de cosas est ah para ayudarte a obtener ms ignorancia. +As que el conocimiento es un gran tema, pero yo dira que la ignorancia es uno ms grande. +As que esto nos lleva tal vez a pensar, un poco acerca de algunos de los modelos de ciencia que tendemos a usar, y me gustara desengaarles de algunos de ellos. +Uno de ellos, muy popular, es que los cientficos estn poniendo con paciencia las piezas de un rompecabezas para revelar algn gran esquema o algo parecido. +Esto claramente no es cierto. Por un lado, con los rompecabezas, el fabricante ha asegurado que hay una solucin. +Nosotros no tenemos ninguna garanta. +De hecho, hay muchos de nosotros que no estamos tan seguros sobre el fabricante. +As que creo que el modelo del rompecabezas no funciona. +Otro modelo popular es que la ciencia est ocupada en desentraar cosas, de la misma forma que se deshacen las hojas de una cebolla. +As, hoja a hoja, le quitas las capas a la cebolla para llegar a algn ncleo fundamental de la verdad. +Tampoco creo que esa sea la forma en la que funciona. +Otra idea, una muy popular, es la idea del iceberg, que afirma que solo vemos la punta del iceberg, pero en el fondo es donde la mayor parte del iceberg est oculta. +Pero todos estos modelos se basan en la idea de un gran cuerpo de hechos que podemos completar de alguna u otra manera. +Podemos poco a poco averiguar lo que es este iceberg, o podemos simplemente, en estos das, esperar a que se derrita, supongo, pero de una manera u otra hemos podido abarcar al iceberg como un todo. Cierto? +O hacerlo manejable. Pero no creo que ese sea el caso. +Creo que lo que realmente sucede en la ciencia es un modelo ms parecido a la magia, donde no importa cuntos cubos sacas, siempre hay otro cubo de agua por sacar, o particularmente mi preferida, con el efecto y todo, las ondas en un estanque. +As que si piensan que el conocimiento es la onda cada vez mayor en un estanque, lo importante es darse cuenta de que nuestra ignorancia, la circunferencia de este conocimiento, tambin crece con el conocimiento. +As que el conocimiento genera ignorancia. +Esto est muy bien explicado, pens, por George Bernard Shaw. +Resulta ser, que l ms o menos plagi eso del filsofo Immanuel Kant a quien 100 aos antes se le haba ocurrido la idea de la propagacin de preguntas, que cada respuesta genera ms preguntas. +Me encanta ese trmino, "la propagacin de preguntas", esta idea de que las preguntas se propagan por ah. +As que yo dira que el modelo que deseamos tomar no est en que comencemos como ignorantes y juntemos algunos datos y luego ganemos conocimiento. +Es ms bien lo contrario, la verdad. +Para qu utilizamos este conocimiento? +Para qu estamos utilizando este conjunto de hechos? +Lo estamos usando para mejorar la ignorancia, para llegar, si quieren, a una ignorancia de mejor calidad. +Porque, como Uds. saben, hay ignorancia de baja calidad y hay ignorancia de alta calidad. No todo es lo mismo. +Los cientficos discuten sobre esto todo el tiempo. +Algunas veces las llamamos tertulias. +Otras veces las llamamos propuestas de subvencin. +Pero, sin embargo, es de lo que se trata el argumento. +Es la ignorancia. Es lo que no sabemos. +Es lo que hace una buena pregunta. +Entonces, cmo pensamos acerca de estas preguntas? +Les voy a mostrar un grfico que aparece bastante en posters "happy hour" en varios departamentos de ciencias. +En este grfico se pregunta la relacin entre lo que sabes y de qu tanto sabes sobre eso. +As que de lo que sabes, puedes saber desde nada a todo, por supuesto, y de qu tanto sabes de algo puede estar en cualquier lugar desde un poco a mucho. +As que vamos a poner un punto en el grfico. Tenemos un universitario. +No sabe mucho, pero tiene un gran inters. +Est interesado en casi todo. +Ahora nos fijamos en un estudiante de postgrado, un poco ms adelante en su educacin, y ves que sabe un poco ms, pero se ha reducido en cierta medida. +Y por ltimo obtienes tu doctorado, donde resulta que sabes muchsimo acerca de casi nada. Lo que es realmente preocupante es la lnea de tendencia porque, por supuesto, cuando se hunde por debajo del eje cero, all, se mete en una zona negativa. +Ah es donde se encuentra gente como yo, me temo. +As que lo importante aqu es que todo esto se puede cambiar. +Toda esta vista se puede cambiar con solo cambiar la etiqueta en el eje x. +As que en lugar de lo mucho que sabes sobre algo, podramos decir, "Qu puedes preguntar sobre esto?" +As que s, necesitas saber un montn de cosas como cientfico, pero el propsito de conocer un montn de cosas no es solo saber un montn de cosas. Eso solo te hace un "geek", verdad? +El propsito de conocer un montn de cosas es ser capaz de hacer muchas preguntas, poder formular preguntas interesantes, reflexivas, porque ah es donde est el trabajo real. +Les voy a dar una idea rpida de un par de este tipo de preguntas. +Soy un neurocientfico, as que, cmo bamos a llegar a una pregunta sobre la neurociencia? +Debido a que no siempre es tan sencillo. +As, por ejemplo, se podra decir, bueno qu es lo que hace el cerebro? +Bueno, una cosa que hace el cerebro, es que nos mueve. +Caminamos sobre dos piernas. +Eso parece un poco simple, de alguna manera u otra. +Es decir, prcticamente todo el mundo de ms de 10 meses de edad anda sobre dos piernas, verdad? +A lo mejor no es tan interesante. +As que tal vez queremos elegir algo un poco ms complicado de ver. +Qu les parece el sistema visual? +Ah est, el sistema visual. +Quiero decir, amamos nuestros sistemas visuales. Hacemos todo tipo de cosas interesantes. +De hecho, hay ms de 12.000 neurlogos que trabajan sobre el sistema visual, desde la retina a la corteza visual, en un intento de entender no solamente el sistema visual sino tambin entender cmo los principios generales, o cmo el cerebro, pueden funcionar. +Pero aqu est la cosa: nuestra tecnologa ha sido bastante buena en replicar lo que hace el sistema visual. +Tenemos televisin, tenemos pelculas, tenemos animacin, tenemos fotografa, tenemos el reconocimiento de patrones, todo este tipo de cosas. +Funcionan de manera diferente que nuestros sistemas visuales en algunos casos, pero sin embargo, hemos sido muy buenos en hacer que la tecnologa trabaje como nuestro sistema visual. +De alguna manera u otra, en cien aos de la robtica, nunca vieron un robot caminando a dos patas, porque los robots no caminan a dos patas porque no es una cosa tan fcil de hacer. +100 aos de robtica, y no podemos conseguir que un robot pueda moverse ms de un par de pasos de una manera u otra. +Les pides que suban un plano inclinado, y se caen. +Se dan la vuelta y se caen. Es un problema serio. +Entonces, qu es lo ms difcil de hacer para el cerebro? +Que deberamos estar estudiando? +Tal vez debera ser caminar sobre dos piernas, o el sistema motor. +Les voy a dar un ejemplo de mi propio laboratorio, mi propia pregunta maloliente, ya que trabajamos en el sentido del olfato. +Esto es un diagrama de cinco molculas y un tipo de anotacin qumica. +Estas son solo viejas molculas simples, pero si las inhalan por esos dos pequeos agujeros en la parte delantera de su cara, tendrn en su mente la clara impresin de una rosa. +Si hay una verdadera rosa all, sern esas molculas, pero incluso si no hay rosa all, tendrn el recuerdo de una molcula. +Cmo convertimos molculas en percepciones? +Cul es el proceso mediante el cual eso podra pasar? +He aqu otro ejemplo: dos molculas muy simples, una vez ms en este tipo de notacin qumica. +Puede que sea ms fcil visualizarlas de esta manera, los crculos grises son tomos de carbono, los blancos son tomos de hidrgeno y los rojos tomos de oxgeno. +Ahora bien, estas dos molculas difieren en solo un tomo de carbono y dos pequeos tomos de hidrgeno que se desplazan junto con l, y sin embargo uno de ellos, el acetato de heptilo, tiene el olor caracterstico de una pera, mientras que el acetato de hexilo es inconfundiblemente un pltano. +As que hay dos preguntas muy interesantes aqu, me parece a m. +Una de ellas es, cmo puede una pequea molcula tan simple como esta crear una percepcin en el cerebro que es tan clara como una pera o un pltano? +Y en segundo lugar, cmo demonios podemos saber la diferencia entre dos molculas que difieren en un solo tomo de carbono? +Quiero decir, eso es extraordinario para m, claramente el mejor detector de qumicos en la superficie del planeta. +Y ni siquiera piensas en ello, cierto? +As que esta es una de mis citas favoritas que nos lleva de regreso a la ignorancia y a la idea de las preguntas. +Me gusta citar porque creo que las personas fallecidas no deben ser excluidas de la conversacin. +Y tambin creo que es importante tener en cuenta que la conversacin lleva teniendo lugar desde hace un tiempo, por cierto. +As Erwin Schrodinger, un gran fsico cuntico y, creo, filsofo, seala cmo hay que "acatar la ignorancia por un perodo indefinido" de tiempo. +Y es este acatar la ignorancia lo que yo creo que tenemos que aprender a hacer. +Es una cosa difcil. No es un asunto tan fcil. +Supongo que todo se reduce a nuestro sistema educativo, as que voy a hablar un poco acerca de la ignorancia y la educacin, porque creo que ah es donde realmente tiene que tener lugar. +As que por una vez, enfrentmoslo, en la era de Google y Wikipedia, el modelo de negocio de la universidad y, probablemente, de las escuelas secundarias, simplemente va a tener que cambiar. +No podemos ms, vender hechos para vivir. +Estn disponibles con un clic del ratn, o si quieren, probablemente podran simplemente preguntar al muro uno de estos das, donde sea que vayan a ocultar las cosas que nos dicen todo. +Entonces, qu tenemos que hacer? Tenemos que dar a nuestros estudiantes el gusto por las fronteras, por lo que est fuera de esa circunferencia, por lo que est fuera de los hechos, lo que est ms all de los hechos. +Cmo lo hacemos? +Pues bien, uno de los problemas, por supuesto, resultan ser los exmenes. +Actualmente contamos con un sistema educativo que es muy eficiente, pero es muy eficiente en una cosa bastante mala. +En segundo grado, todos los nios estn interesados en la ciencia, las nias y los nios. +Les gusta desarmar cosas. Tienen una gran curiosidad. +Les gusta investigar las cosas. Van a los museos de ciencia. +Les gusta jugar por ah. Estn en segundo grado. +Estn interesados . +Pero para el 11 o 12 grado, menos del 10 % tienen algn inters en la ciencia, y mucho menos el deseo de seguir una carrera en ciencias. +As que tenemos este sistema muy eficiente para ahuyentar cualquier inters en la ciencia de la cabeza de todos. +Es esto lo que queremos? +Creo que esto viene de lo que un profesor colega mo llama "el mtodo bulmico de la educacin". +Ya saben. Pueden imaginar lo que es. +Atascamos sus gargantas con un montn de hechos y luego ellos los vomitan para ponerlos en un examen y todo el mundo se va a casa sin peso intelectual aadido alguno. +Esto no puede continuar. +Entonces, qu hacemos? Bueno, los genetistas, tengo que decir, tienen una mxima interesante segn la cual viven. +Los genetistas siempre dicen, que siempre obtienes lo que seleccionas. +Y eso se entiende como una advertencia. +As que siempre vamos a conseguir lo que seleccionamos, y parte de lo que seleccionamos est en nuestros mtodos de evaluacin. +Bueno, se habla mucho acerca de las pruebas y la evaluacin, y tenemos que pensar cuidadosamente cuando estamos examinando cuando estamos evaluando o cuando estamos escardando, si estamos escardando gente, si estamos haciendo algn corte. +La evaluacin es una cosa. Se oye hablar mucho acerca de la evaluacin en la literatura de estos das, en la literatura educativa, pero evaluacin realmente equivale a retroalimentacin y asciende a una oportunidad para el ensayo y error. +Viene a ser la oportunidad de trabajar durante un perodo de tiempo ms largo con este tipo de retroalimentacin. +Eso es diferente de desherbar, y por lo general, hay que decir, cuando la gente habla acerca de la evaluacin, de evaluar estudiantes, evaluar profesores, evaluar escuelas, evaluar programas, de lo que realmente estn hablando es de desherbar. +Y eso es malo, porque entonces conseguirs lo que seleccionas, que es lo que hemos conseguido hasta ahora. +As que yo dira que lo que necesitamos es un examen que diga: "Qu es x?" +y las respuestas sean "No lo s, porque nadie lo sabe", o "Cul es la pregunta?" Incluso mejor. +O, "Sabes qu, voy a buscar, voy a preguntar a alguien, voy a llamar a alguien. Voy a averiguarlo". +Porque eso es lo que queremos que haga la gente, y as es como los evalas. +Y tal vez para las clases avanzadas, podra ser: "Aqu est la respuesta. Cul es la prxima pregunta?" +Esa es la que ms me gusta en particular. +As que permtanme terminar con una cita de William Butler Yeats, quien dijo: "La educacin no se trata de llenar baldes; se trata de encender fuegos". +As que yo dira, saquemos las cerillas. +Gracias. +Gracias. +Vamos a emprender un pequeo viaje por la historia cognitiva del siglo XX, porque fue durante ese siglo, que nuestras mentes cambiaron drsticamente. +Como saben, los autos que se conducan en 1900 fueron modificados porque los caminos mejoraron y por la tecnologa. +Y nuestras mentes tambin han cambiado. +Pasamos de personas que se enfrentaban a un mundo tangible y lo analizaban principalmente en trminos de cunto los podra beneficiar, a personas que se enfrentan a un mundo muy complejo, y es en este mundo donde debimos desarrollar nuevos hbitos mentales, nuevos hbitos cognitivos. +Y entre estos se encontraban hbitos como llenar ese mundo tangible con clasificacin, presentar abstracciones que tratamos de que sean consistentes en su lgica, y tambin, darle importancia a lo hipottico, as, cuestionarnos lo que podra haber sido en lugar de lo que es. +Ahora, este cambio drstico se me present a travs de aumentos masivos en el coeficiente intelectual a lo largo del tiempo, y esto fueron verdaderamente masivos. +Quiero decir, no solo se aciertan en algunas preguntas en las pruebas de inteligencia. +Recibimos ms aciertos en las pruebas que la generacin anterior desde que se crearon las pruebas. +As, si se le hiciera una prueba de inteligencia a las personas de hace una dcada con las normas modernas, tendran un coeficiente promedio de 70. +Si nos sometiramos a la prueba con sus normas tendramos un coeficiente promedio de 130. +Esto ha planteado todo tipo de preguntas. +Nuestros ancestros estaban en el lmite del retraso mental? +Porque 70 es normalmente el puntaje considerado como retraso mental. +O somos nosotros los que estamos en el lmite de ser superdotados? +Porque 130 es donde empezamos a considerar a las personas superdotados. +Voy a presentar y argumentar una tercera alternativa que es mucho ms ilustrativa que las anteriores, y para ponerlo con perspectiva, imaginemos que un marciano aterriza en la Tierra y encuentra una civilizacin en ruinas. +Y este marciano es un arquelogo, y encuentra blancos, blancos de tiro, que la gente usaba para tirar al blanco. +Y primero, miran al de 1865, y descubren que en un minuto, la gente logr dar en el centro con una sola bala. +Y en 1898, que logr dar en el blanco cinco veces en un minuto. +Y en 1918 encontraron 100 balas en el centro. +Y al principio, el arquelogo estara desconcertado. +Diran que estas pruebas fueron diseadas para descubrir qu tanto pulso tena la gente, qu tan profundo vean, si tenan control sobre el arma. +Cmo poda ser que esos resultados hayan aumentado de esa manera? +Pues, ahora sabemos la respuesta. +Si ese marciano observara los campos de batalla, descubrira que las personas solo contaban con mosquetes durante la Guerra Civil y que tenan fusiles de repeticin para la Guerra Hispanoestadounidense, y tenan ametralladoras para la Primera Guerra Mundial. +Y, en otras palabras, era el equipamiento que posean los soldados rasos el responsable, no la vista profunda o el pulso. +Lo que debemos imaginar es la artillera mental que hemos estado usando %s de aos, y creo que otro pensador nos puede ayudar aqu, y ese es Luria. +Luria observ a las personas antes de que comenzara la era cientfica, y encontr que esas personas se resistan a clasificar el mundo tangible. +Queran fragmentarlo en pequeos trozos que pudieran usar. +Encontr que se resistan a deducir lo hipottico, a especular sobre lo que podra ser, y encontr finalmente que no se llevaban bien con las abstracciones o el uso de la lgica en esas abstracciones. +Ahora dar un ejemplo de algunas de las entrevistas. +Habl con una persona de la zona rural de Rusia. +Las personas de 1900 tenan apenas unos 4 aos de escolaridad. +Y le pregunt a esta persona en particular, qu es lo que tienen en comn un cuervo y un pez? +Y la persona dijo: "Absolutamente nada. +Sabes, puedo comerme un pez. No puedo comerme un cuervo. +Un cuervo puede picotear a un pez. +Un pez no puede hacerle nada a un cuervo". +Y Luria dijo: "Pero no son ambos animales?" +Y l dijo: "Por supuesto que no. +Uno es un pez. +El otro es un ave". +Y l se interes, efectivamente, en lo que l poda hacer con esos objetos concretos. +Y entonces Luria encontr a otra persona, y le dijo: "No hay camellos en Alemania. +Hamburgo es una ciudad de Alemania. +Hay camellos en Hamburgo? +Y la persona dijo: "Bueno, si es lo suficientemente grande, debe haber camellos ah". +Y Luria dijo: "Pero que suponen mis palabras?" +Y l dijo: "Bueno, tal vez es una pequea aldea, y no hay lugar para los camellos". +En otras palabras, no estaba dispuesto a tratar este problema sino como un problema concreto, y estaba acostumbrado a encontrar camellos en aldeas y era incapaz de usar lo hipottico, y preguntarse qu pasara de no haber camellos en Alemania. +Se hizo una tercera entrevista con alguien sobre el Polo Norte. +Y Luria dijo: "En el Polo Norte, siempre hay nieve. +En cualquier lugar donde haya nieve, los osos son blancos. +De qu color son los osos en el Polo Norte?" +Y la respuesta fue: "Ese tipo de cosas se debe resolver con un testimonio. +Si un sabio viniera del Polo Norte y me dijera que los osos son blancos, podra creerle, pero todos los osos que he visto son marrones". +Y otra vez, esta persona rechaza ir ms all de lo tangible y analiza el problema con la experiencia diaria, y era importante para esa persona el color de los osos... porque deban cazar osos. +No deseaban pensar en esto. +Una persona le dijo a Luria: "Cmo podemos resolver cosas que no son problemas reales? +Ninguno de estos problemas es real. +Cmo podemos abordarlos?" +Ahora, estas 3 categoras: clasificacin, usar la lgica en abstracciones, prestarle atencin a lo hipottico... Cunta diferencia marcan en el mundo real ms all de la sala de pruebas? +Les mostrar algunas imgenes. +Primero, casi todos recibimos un ttulo secundario. +As, pasamos de recibir de 4 a 8 aos de educacin a recibir 12 aos de educacin formal, y el 52 % de los estadounidenses han recibido alguna forma de educacin terciaria. +En nuestros das, no solo tenemos mucha ms educacin y la mayor parte de la educacin es cientfica, y no se puede hacer ciencia sin clasificar el mundo. +No se puede hacer ciencia sin proponer hiptesis. +No se puede hacer ciencia sin que tenga consistencia lgica. +Y an en la educacin primaria, las cosas cambiaron. +En 1910, se estudiaron los exmenes a los que el Estado de Ohio someta a nios de 14 aos, y descubrieron que consistan en informacin concreta con un alto valor social. +Cosas como: Cul era la capital de los 44 o 45 estados que existan en ese momento? +Cuando miraron los exmenes del Estado de Ohio para 1990, consistan en abstracciones. +Cosas como, Por qu la ciudad ms grande del estado rara vez es su capital? +Y se supona que deban pensar, bueno, la legislatura estadual era controlada por campesinos y ellos odiaban a la gran ciudad, as que, en lugar de nombrar a la ciudad ms grande como capital, la colocaban en una localidad del condado. +La colocaron en Albany en lugar de Nueva York. +En Harrisburg en lugar de Filadelfia. +Y as sucesivamente. +As que el tenor de la educacin ha cambiado. +Estamos educando a la gente para que le preste atencin a lo hipottico, para que use abstracciones, y que las relacione de forma lgica. +Y qu pasa con el empleo? +Bueno, en 1900, 3 % de los estadounidenses ejercan profesiones que eran mentalmente demandantes. +Solo el 3 % eran abogados o doctores o maestros. +Hoy, 35 % de los estadounidenses ejercen profesiones mentalmente demandantes, no solo profesiones como la de abogado, doctor, cientfico o conferencista, pero muchas, muchas subprofesiones que tiene que ver con ser tcnicos, programador de computadores. +Una gran cantidad de profesiones ahora demandan cognitivamente. +Y solo podemos cumplir con los trminos de empleo en el mundo moderno siendo mucho ms flexibles mentalmente. +Y no es que tengamos muchas ms personas en profesiones mentalmente demandantes. +Las profesiones han sido actualizadas. +Comparen al doctor de 1900, que solamente tena algunos trucos bajo la manga con el mdico moderno o especialista, con aos de entrenamiento cientfico. +Comparen al banquero de 1900, que solo necesitaba a un buen contador para saber quin era de fiar en la comunidad local por pagar su hipoteca. +Bueno, los comerciantes bancarios que hicieron que el mundo se rindiera a sus pies pueden haber sido moralmente negligentes, pero eran muy agudos cognitivamente. +Superaron por mucho al banquero de 1900. +Tenan que mirar en una pantalla para saber el estado del mercado inmobiliario. +Obtener obligaciones de deuda garantizada, para organizar la deuda y hacer que la deuda sea tomada como una ventaja rentable. +Tenan que convencer a las agencias de clasificacin para que otorgaran la puntuacin mxima, aunque en muchos casos, prcticamente sobornaron a las agencias de clasificacin. +Y tambin, por supuesto, tenan que convencer a las personas para que aceptaran las supuestas ventajas y para que pagaran por ellas aunque eran extremadamente vulnerables. +O miren al granjero de hoy en da. +El administrador de una granja de hoy es muy diferente del granjero de 1900. +As que no han sido solo la difusin de profesiones con demanda mental. +Tambin ha sido la actualizacin de las tareas como la abogaca, medicina y dems que han exigido a nuestras capacidades cognitivas. +He hablado de educacin y empleo. +Algunos de los hbitos de la mente que se han desarrollado a lo largo del siglo XX han dado resultados en reas inesperadas. +Soy principalmente un filsofo moral. +No me detengo mucho en la psicologa, y lo que me interesa en general es el debate moral. +A lo largo del ltimo siglo, en pases desarrollados como Estados Unidos, el debate moral ha aumentado porque nos tomamos en serio lo hipottico, y porque tambin le damos importancia a los universales y buscamos relaciones lgicas. +Cuando volv a mi casa en 1955 de la universidad en el tiempo de Martin Luther King, muchas personas volvieron a sus casas en ese entonces y empezaron a discutir con sus padres y abuelos. +Mi padres naci en 1885, y tena ciertos prejuicios en cuanto a las razas. +Como irlands, odiaba a los ingleses tanto que no tena sentimientos para otra cosa. +Pero s tena una sensacin que las personas negras eran inferiores. +Y cuando le dijimos a nuestros padres y abuelos, "Cmo te sentiras si en la maana te despertaras negro?" +Ellos dijeron que era la cosa ms estpida que podas haber dicho. +A quin conoces que se haya levantado... ... y se haya vuelto negro? +En otras palabras, estaban obsesionados en lo concreto. Moral y actitudes que haban heredado. +No le prestaban atencin a lo hipottico, y sin lo hipottico, es muy difcil poder discutir argumentos morales. +Tienes que decir, imagnate que ests en Irn, y que tus familiares sufrieron efectos colaterales aunque no hayan hecho nada malo. +Cmo te sentiras en esa situacin? +Y si alguien de una generacin ms vieja dice: "Bueno, nuestro gobierno nos cuida, y es trabajo de su gobierno el cuidarlos a ellos", no quieren tomar en serio lo hipottico. +O imagnate un padre islmico cuya hija ha sido violada, y siente que tiene que matarla por honor. +Bueno, est tratando su moral como si fueran palos y piedras que ha heredado, y que son estticas en la lgica. +Es una moral heredada. +Hoy diramos algo como, bueno, imagnate que te dejaran inconsciente y te violaran. +Mereces que te maten? +Y l dira, bueno eso no est en el Corn. +No es uno de los principios que tengo. +Pero, hoy se universalizan tus principios. +Los presentas como abstracciones y usas la lgica sobre ellos. +Si tienes un principio como, las personas no deben sufrir a menos de que sean culpables de algo, y luego excluyes a la gente negra hay que hacer excepciones, no? +Hay que decir, bueno, el color de la piel, no se puede sufrir por eso. +Debe ser que los negros estn de alguna manera manchados. +Y no podemos usar evidencia emprica para discutir, o no? Y decir, cmo puedes considerar a todos los negros como impuros cuando San Agustn era negro y Thomas Sowell era negro. +Y se pueden eliminar argumentos morales as porque no se estn tratando a los principios morales como entidades concretas. +Los ests considerando como universales, para ser consistentes por su lgica. +Cmo llegamos a esto desde las pruebas de inteligencia? +Esto es lo que inicialmente me llev a la historia cognitiva. +Si se mira una prueba de inteligencia, se observa que los aumentos han sido mayores en ciertas reas. +El subexamen de Wechsler es sobre clasificacin, y hemos tenido grandes aumentos en ese subexamen de clasificacin. +Hay otras partes de la prueba de inteligencia que son sobre el uso de lgica en abstracciones. +Alguno de Uds. han usado Matrices Progresivas de Raven y se trata sobre analogas. +Y en 1900, las personas podan resolver analogas simples. +Si les decas: los gatos son como gatos monteses. +Cmo son los perros? +Ellos responderan: lobos. +Pero para 1960, las personas podan atacar a Raven en un nivel mucho ms sofisticado. +Si les decas: tienes 2 cuadrados seguidos por un tringulo: Qu le sigue a 2 crculos? +Ellos diran: un semicrculo. +Porque un tringulo es la mitad de un cuadrado, y un semicrculo, la mitad de un crculo. +Para 2012, los estudiantes universitarios, si les decas 2 crculos seguidos por un semicrculo, dos 16 seguidos por qu?, responderan 8, porque 8 es la mitad de 16. +Quiere decir que se han apartado tanto del mundo concreto que hasta pueden ignorar la apariencia de los smbolos que se encuentran en la pregunta. +Ahora, tengo que decir algo muy desconcertante. +No hemos logrado progresar en todos los frentes. +Una de las maneras en la que nos gustara ocuparnos de la sofisticacin del mundo moderno es con la poltica, y a pesar de que se pueden tener principios morales humanos, se puede clasificar, usar lgica, abstracciones; si se es ignorante sobre la historia y sobre otros pases, no se puede hacer poltica. +Hemos observado, en una tendencia entre los jvenes estadounidenses, que leen menos historia y menos literatura y menos material sobre pases extranjeros, y son esencialmente ahistricos. +Viven en la burbuja del presente. +No saben diferenciar la Guerra de Corea de la Guerra de Vietnam. +No saben quin fue aliado de Estados Unidos durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial. +Imagnense qu tan diferente sera Estados Unidos si cada estadounidense supiera que esta es la quinta vez que fuerzas occidentales han ido a Afganistn a poner las cosas en orden, y si tuvieran una idea de lo que ha pasado exactamente en esa 4 ocasiones. +Y eso es lo que pasa, apenas se han ido, y no hay una marca en la arena. +O imagnense cmo seran las cosas si la mayora de los estadounidenses supieran que se nos ha mentido para que participemos en 4 de nuestras 6 guerras. +Pero no quiero terminar as de pesimista. +El siglo XX nos ha mostrado enormes reservas mentales en gente comn de la que ahora hemos reconocido, y la aristocracia estaba convencida de que el ciudadano comn no podra lograr nada, que nunca compartiran sus ideas o sus habilidades cognitivas. +Lord Curzon dijo una vez que vio personas bandose en el mar del Norte, y dijo: Por qu nadie me dijo que tan blanca era la plebe?" +Como si fueran reptiles. +Bueno, Dichens tena razn y no la tena. [Kipling] dijo, "La esposa del coronel y Judy O'Grady son hermanas por debajo de la piel". +Durante mucho tiempo, he sentido que viva dos vidas distintas. +La vida que todos ven, y la que solo yo veo. +En la vida que todos ven, yo soy un amigo, un hijo, un hermano, un cmico y un adolescente. +Esa es la vida que todos ven. +Si preguntan a mi familia y amigos, eso es lo que les diran. +Y s, es una gran parte de m. Ese soy yo. +Y si me lo pidiesen a m, probablemente tambin dira algunas de esas cosas. +Y no estara mintiendo, pero tampoco les estara contando toda la verdad, porque lo cierto es que esa es solamente la vida que los dems ven. +En la vida que solo yo veo, quien yo soy, quien soy de verdad, es alguien que lucha fuertemente contra la depresin. +Lo he hecho durante los ltimos seis aos, y lo sigo haciendo a diario. +Pero eso es tristeza. Eso es algo natural. +Es una emocin humana y natural. +La verdadera depresin no es simplemente estar triste cuando algo va mal. +La verdadera depresin es estar triste cuando en tu vida todo va bien. +Esa es la depresin de verdad y es lo que yo sufro. +Y para ser totalmente sincero, para m es duro estar aqu dicindolo. +Es difcil para m hablar de ello, y parece ser que es difcil para todos. Tanto, que nadie lo hace. +Nadie habla de depresin, pero deberamos hacerlo, porque en la actualidad es un problema a nivel mundial. +Un problema mundial de salud. +Pero no lo vemos en los medios, verdad? +No lo vemos en Facebook, ni en Twitter. +No lo vemos en las noticias, porque no es alegre, no es divertido, no es trivial. +Y como no lo vemos, no vemos su dureza. +Pero la dureza y la gravedad se deben a esto: cada 30 segundos, cada 30 segundos, en algn lugar, alguien en el mundo se quita la vida a causa de la depresin. Puede ser a dos manzanas o a dos pases de distancia, o a dos continentes, pero est pasando, y pasa cada da. +Y tenemos la tendencia, como sociedad, de verlo y decir: "Y qu?" +Y qu? Lo vemos y decimos: "Ese es tu problema. +Ese es su problema". +Decimos que lo sentimos y que nos entristece, pero tambin decimos: "Y qu?" +Bien, hace dos aos era mi problema, porque me sent en el borde de mi cama, donde me haba sentado un milln de veces, y tena tendencias suicidas. +Me senta as, y si hubiesen visto mi vida desde arriba, no habran visto a un chico suicida. +Habran visto a quien era el capitn del equipo de baloncesto, el estudiante de teatro del ao, el estudiante de ingls del ao, alguien que estaba permanentemente en la lista de honor, y permanentemente en cada fiesta. +As que diran que yo no estaba deprimido, que no tena tendencias suicidas, pero se equivocaran. +Se equivocaran. As que me sent aquella noche junto a un frasco de pastillas con boli y papel en la mano y pens en quitarme la vida y estuve as de cerca de hacerlo. +As de cerca. +Y no lo hice, lo cual me convierte en uno de los afortunados, uno de los que se suben a la cornisa y miran hacia abajo pero no saltan, uno de los afortunados que sobreviven. +As que sobreviv, y eso me deja aqu con una historia, y mi historia es esta: En solo dos palabras: sufro de depresin. +Sufro de depresin, y creo que, durante mucho tiempo, viva dos vidas completamente diferentes, en las que una persona tema a la otra. +Tema que la gente me viese como era realmente, que no era el chico perfecto y popular de prepratoria que todos pensaban, que bajo mi sonrisa exista una lucha, que bajo mi luz, haba oscuridad, y que bajo mi gran personalidad se esconda un dolor incluso mayor. +Algunos temen que la chica que les gusta no les corresponda. +Algunos temen a los tiburones. Algunos a la muerte. +Yo, durante la mayor parte de mi vida, me tem a m mismo. +Tema mi verdad, mi sinceridad, mi vulnerabilidad, y eso me haca sentir como si estuviese atrapado en un rincn, como si estuviese atrapado en un rincn con una sola salida, as que pensaba en esa salida a diario. +Pensaba en ello cada da, y si soy totalmente sincero, desde aqu les digo que he vuelto a pensar en ello, porque esa es la enfermedad, esa es la lucha, eso es la depresin, y la depresin no es la varicela. +No te curas y se acab para siempre. +Es algo con lo que vives. Es algo en lo que vives. +Es ese compaero al que no puedes echar. La voz que no puedes ignorar. +Es esos sentimientos de los que pareces no poder escapar. Lo ms terrorfico es que, despus de un tiempo, te haces insensible a ella. Se convierte en algo normal, y lo que ms temes no es tu sufrimiento interior. +Es el estigma en los otros, la lstima, la vergenza, la cara de desaprobacin de un amigo, los susurros en el pasillo de que eres dbil, los comentarios de que ests loco. +Eso es lo que impide que pidas ayuda. +Eso es lo que hace que lo escondas. +Es muy real, y si piensas lo contrario, pregntate: Preferiras escribir en tu estado de Facebook que te cuesta levantarte de la cama porque te daaste la espalda o que te cuesta levantarte cada maana porque ests deprimido? +Ese es el estigma, porque desafortunadamente, vivimos en un mundo en el que si te rompes el brazo, todos corren a firmarte la escayola, pero si les dices que ests deprimido, todos corren en direccin opuesta. +Ese es el estigma. +Aceptamos tan fcilmente el dao de cualquier parte de nuestro cuerpo, salvo el de nuestro cerebro. Y eso es ignorancia. +Es pura ignorancia, y esa ignorancia ha creado un mundo que no comprende la depresin, que no entiende la salud mental. +Y me resulta irnico porque la depresin es uno de los problemas mejor documentados del mundo, y aun as, es uno de los menos analizados. +Simplemente lo apartamos y lo ponemos en un rincn y fingimos que no est y cruzamos los dedos para que se cure solo. +Pues no ocurrir. No lo ha hecho y no lo har, porque eso es una quimera, y los deseos son una estrategia, un aplazamiento, y no podemos postergar algo tan importante. +El primer paso para resolver un problema es admitir que existe. +An no lo hemos hecho, as que no podemos esperar encontrar una respuesta si an tememos a la pregunta. +Yo no s cul es la solucin. +Ojal lo supiese, pero no lo s. Pero pienso que tiene que empezar aqu. +Tiene que empezar conmigo, tiene que empezar con ustedes, tiene que empezar con las personas que sufren, los que se esconden en las sombras. +Tenemos que hablar y romper el silencio. +Tenemos que ser los valientes que luchan por lo que creen, porque si me he dado cuenta de algo, si hay algo que considero el problema ms grave, no es el de construir un mundo en el que podamos eliminar la ignorancia de los dems. +Sino en construir un mundo donde nos enseemos a aceptarnos, en el que estemos a gusto con quienes somos, porque cuando somos sinceros, vemos que todos luchamos y todos sufrimos. +Tanto si es por esto o por otra cosa, todos sabemos lo que es el dolor. +Todos sabemos lo que es sentir dolor en el corazn, y todos sabemos lo importante que es la curacin. +Pero ahora mismo, la depresin es el corte profundo de la sociedad, en el que nos conformamos con poner una curita y fingir que no est. +Pues s est. Est ah. Y, saben? No pasa nada. +Si tienen depresin, sepan que no pasa nada. +Porque s, me ha hundido en pozos, pero solo para ensearme que se puede salir. Y s, me ha arrastrado a la oscuridad, solo para recordarme que hay luz. +Porque yo creo en un mundo en el que aceptar nuestra luz no signifique ignorar nuestra oscuridad. +El mundo en el que creo es uno en el que nos medimos por nuestra habilidad para superar las adversidades, no para evitarlas. +El mundo en el que creo es uno en el que pueda mirar a alguien a los ojos y decir: "Mi vida es un infierno", y esa persona pueda mirarme y decirme: "La ma tambin", y no pasa nada, porque la depresin no es algo malo. Somos personas. +Somos personas, y luchamos y sufrimos, y sangramos y lloramos, y si piensan que la verdadera fuerza significa no mostrar nunca debilidad, entonces estoy aqu para decirles que se equivocan. +Se equivocan porque es justo lo contrario. +Somos personas y tenemos problemas. +No somos perfectos, y no pasa nada. +As que tenemos que frenar la ignorancia, la intolerancia, el estigma, y parar el silencio y deshacernos de los tabes, mirar la verdad y comenzar a hablar, porque el nico modo de derrotar a un problema al que la gente se est enfrentando sola es unindonos todos con fuerza, unindonos con fuerza. +Yo creo que podemos. +Creo que podemos. Muchas gracias a todos. +Esto es un sueo hecho realidad. Gracias. Gracias. +Quera contar una historia que me tena completamente obsesionado cuando estaba escribiendo mi ltimo libro, y es una historia de algo que sucedi hace 3000 aos, cuando el Reino de Israel an estaba en su niez. +Sucede en un rea llamada Sefel, en lo que ahora es Israel. +Y la razn por la que me obsesionaba la historia es que pensaba que la entenda, y entonces volv a ella y me di cuenta de que no la entenda en absoluto. +La antigua Palestina tena, a lo largo de su frontera en el este, una cordillera. +Todava es lo mismo en el Israel de hoy en da. +Y en la cordillera estn las antiguas ciudades de aquella regin, Jerusaln, Beln, Hebrn. +Y tambin hay una llanura en la costa a lo largo del Mediterrneo, donde hoy est Tel Aviv. +Y conectando la cordillera con la llanura de la costa hay una zona que se llama Sefel, que consiste en una serie de valles y cerros que van del este al oeste, y se puede seguir el Sefel, atravesar el Sefel para ir desde la llanura de la costa hasta las montaas. +Y el Sefel, si han ido a Israel lo sabrn, es la parte ms hermosa de Israel. +Es preciosa, con bosques de robles y campos de trigo y viedos. +Pero an ms importante, en la historia de esa regin, es su propsito, su funcin estratgica real, que es la manera en la que los ejrcitos enemigos encuentran el camino desde la llanura de la costa, suben a las montaas y amenazan a los que viven en las montaas. +Y hace 3000 aos, esto fue exactamente lo que sucedi. +Los filisteos, que son los mayores enemigos del Reino de Israel, viven en la llanura de la costa. +Originariamente son de Creta. Son marineros. +Y puede que empiecen a abrirse camino a travs de uno de los valles del Sefel hasta las montaas, porque lo que quieren hacer es ocupar el rea alta que est justo al lado de Beln y divide el Reino de Israel en dos. +Y el Reino de Israel, que est dirigido por el rey Sal, obviamente se da cuenta de esto, y Sal trae a su ejrcito desde las montaas y se enfrenta a los filisteos en el valle de Elah, uno de los valles ms hermosos del Sefel. +Y los israelitas se atrincheran a lo largo de la cresta norte y los filisteos se atrincheran en la cresta sur, y los dos ejrcitos se quedan all durante semanas mirndose fijamente unos a otros, porque estn en punto muerto. +Ninguno puede atacar al otro, porque para atacar al otro bando tienen que bajar de la montaa al valle y despus subir hasta el otro lado, quedando totalmente desprotegidos. +As que al final, para romper el punto muerto, los filisteos envan a su guerrero ms poderoso hasta el valle y ste, gritando, les dice a los israelitas: "Enviadme a vuestro mejor guerrero, y acabaremos con esto los dos solos". +Esta era una tradicin en las antiguas guerras que se llamaba combate individual. +Era una forma de zanjar las disputas sin provocar el derramamiento de sangre de una gran batalla. +Y el filisteo que envan, su mejor guerrero, es un gigante. +Mide ms de dos metros. +La armadura brillante de bronce le cubre de pies a cabeza, y tiene una espada y una jabalina y tambin una lanza. Es absolutamente terrorfico. +Da tanto miedo que ninguno de los soldados israelitas quiere luchar con l. +Es un suicidio, no? Ni en sueos van a poder derrotarlo. +Y al final, la nica persona que da un paso al frente es un joven pastor de ovejas, Se acerca a Sal y le dice, "Yo luchar contra l". +Y Sal le contesta, "Cmo vas a luchar contra l? Es ridculo. +T eres un nio y l es un poderoso guerrero". +Pero el pastor se mantiene firme. Dice "No, no, no, no lo entiendes, llevo protegiendo mi rebao de leones y lobos durante aos. Creo que puedo conseguirlo". +Sal no tiene alternativa. No hay ningn otro voluntario. +As que dice, "De acuerdo". +Y entonces se vuelve hacia el chico y le dice: "Pero tienes que llevar esta armadura. No puedes ir tal y como ests". +Entonces Sal intenta darle al pastor su armadura, y el pastor le dice, "No". +"No puedo ponrmela", dice. +El verso de la Biblia dice: "No puedo ponerme esto ya que no he demostrado nada", es decir, "nunca me he puesto una armadura. Ests loco?" +As que, en vez de ponerse la armadura, se agacha, coge cinco piedras del suelo, las mete en su zurrn de pastor y empieza a caminar por la ladera de la montaa para encontrarse con el gigante. +El gigante ve que se acerca una figura y grita: "Acrcate para que pueda darle de comer tu carne a los pjaros de los cielos y a las bestias de la tierra". +Esta es la provocacin que lanza a la persona que viene a luchar contra l. +El pastor se acerca ms y ms, y el gigante se fija en que lleva una vara. +Eso es todo lo que lleva. +En vez de un arma, solo lleva una vara de pastor, y le dice, sintindose insultado, "Te parezco un perro y por eso te acercas con palos?" +Y claro, el nombre del gigante es Goliat y el del joven pastor es David. Y la razn de que esta historia me haya obsesionado mientras estaba escribiendo mi libro es que todo lo que yo pensaba que saba de esta historia ha resultado ser mentira. +David, en esta historia, se supone que es el que va en desventaja, no? +De hecho, la expresin David y Goliat ha calado en nuestra lengua como metfora de las victorias improbables de la parte ms dbil sobre alguien mucho ms fuerte. +Por qu decimos que David est en desventaja? +Bueno, decimos que est en desventaja porque es joven, un nio, y Goliat es un gigante, grande y fuerte. +Tambin decimos que est en desventaja porque Goliat es un guerrero experimentado y David no es ms que un pastor. +Pero lo ms importante es que creemos que David est en desventaja porque todo lo que tiene... Goliat lleva encima toda la artillera pesada, su brillante armadura, una espada, una jabalina y una lanza, y todo lo que tiene David es su honda. +Bien, empecemos por la frase "todo lo que tiene David es su honda", porque ese es el primer error que cometemos. +En las guerras de la antigedad hay tres clases de guerreros: +est la caballera, hombres a caballo y con carros. +La infantera pesada, que son soldados a pie, soldados que van a pie armados con espadas y escudos, y algn tipo de armadura. +Y por ltimo est la artillera, y la artillera la forman los arqueros y, lo ms importante, los honderos. +Un hondero es alguien que tiene una bolsita de cuero a la que van atadas dos cuerdas, se pone un proyectil, una piedra o una pelota de plomo dentro de la bolsita, se gira as y se suelta una de las cuerdas, y el resultado es que se lanza el proyectil hacia el objetivo. +Esto es lo que tiene David, y aqu es importante entender que una honda no es un tirachinas. +No es eso, vale? No es un juguete para nios. +De hecho es un arma increblemente devastadora. +Cuando David la gira as, probablemente la honda gire a seis o siete revoluciones por segundo, y esto quiere decir que cuando se suelta la piedra, va a una velocidad increblemente rpida, probablemente a 35 metros por segundo. +Bastante ms rpido que una pelota de baseball que ha sido lanzada por el mejor de los pitchers. +An ms, las piedras del valle de Elah no son piedras normales. Son piedras de bario y sulfato, lo que las hace dos veces ms densas que las piedras normales. +Si hacen los clculos en balstica, la fuerza del impacto de la roca que lanz David con su honda es, ms o menos, la misma fuerza de impacto que una bala de una pistola del calibre .45. +Es un arma increblemente poderosa. +La precisin, sabemos por los archivos histricos que los honderos, los honderos experimentados, eran capaces de acertar y mutilar o hasta matar a su objetivo a distancias de hasta 180 metros. +Por los tapices medievales, sabemos que los honderos eran capaces de acertarle a pjaros mientras volaban. +Eran increblemente certeros. +Cuando David se prepara, y no est a 180 metros de Goliat, est bastante cerca, cuando se prepara y dispara a Goliat, tiene toda la intencin y confianza de ser capaz de acertarle a Goliat en el punto ms dbil, entre los ojos. +Si dan un vistazo a la historia de las guerras de la antigedad, se van a encontrar con que, muchas veces, los honderos fueron el factor decisivo contra la infantera en una batalla u otra. +Entonces, qu es Goliat? Es infantera pesada, y sus expectativas cuando reta a los israelitas a un duelo son que va a luchar contra otro individuo de la infantera pesada. +Cuando dice "Acrcate para que pueda alimentar con tu carne a los pjaros del cielo ya a las bestias de la tierra", la clave es "acrcate". +Acrcate porque vamos a luchar, mano a mano, as. +Sal espera lo mismo. +David le dice "Quiero luchar contra Goliat", y Sal intenta darle su armadura porque piensa "Oh, cuando dices 'luchar contra Goliat', quieres decir 'luchar en un combate cuerpo a cuerpo', infantera contra infantera". +Pero no es lo que David tiene pensado. +No va a luchar de esa manera. Por qu iba a hacerlo? +Es un pastor. Ha pasado toda su vida usando una honda para defender su rebao de los leones y los lobos. +Ah es donde est su punto fuerte. +As que aqu tenemos a este pastor, experimentado en el uso de un arma mortal, contra este pesado gigante lastrado por una armadura de casi 50 kilos, y esas armas increblemente pesadas que solo son tiles en combates en distancias cortas. +Goliat es una presa fcil. No tiene ninguna posibilidad. +Entonces, por qu seguimos diciendo que David est en desventaja?, y por qu nos seguimos refiriendo a esta victoria como improbable? +Hay una segunda pieza que es importante. +No se trata solo de que nos equivoquemos con David y con su eleccin de arma. +Tambin nos equivocamos terriblemente con Goliat. +Goliat no es lo que parece. +Hay un montn de pistas de ello en el texto bblico, cosas que son, en retrospectiva, bastante sorprendentes y que no cuadran con su imagen de guerrero todopoderoso. +Para empezar, la Biblia dice que a Goliat lo lleva un ayudante hasta el valle. +Qu raro, no? +Aqu tenemos a este guerrero todopoderoso retando a los israelitas a un combate individual. +Por qu lo lleva de la mano un muchacho, presumiblemente, hasta el lugar del combate? +En segundo lugar, la historia de la Biblia hace hincapi en lo lento que es Goliat, otra cosa extraa cuando se est describiendo al guerrero ms poderoso conocido hasta entonces. +Y despus est esta cosa rara sobre lo mucho que tarda Goliat en reaccionar cuando ve a David. +As que David est bajando por la montaa y claramente no se est preparando para un combate cuerpo a cuerpo. +No hay nada en su actitud que diga, "Estoy a punto de luchar as". +Ni siquiera lleva una espada. +Por qu Goliat no reacciona ante esto? +Parece como si no se diese cuenta de lo que pasaba a su alrededor ese da. +Y entonces tenemos el extrao comentario que le hace a David: "Te parezco un perro para acercarte a m con palos?" +Palos? David solo tiene un palo. +Bueno, resulta que ha habido muchas especulaciones en el campo mdico a lo largo de los aos sobre si hay algo que funciona mal en Goliat, un intento de darle sentido a todas esas aparentes anomalas. +Se han escrito numerosos artculos. +El primero fue en 1960 en el Indiana Medical Journal y desencaden una serie de especulaciones que empiezan por explicar la altura de Goliat. +Entonces, Goliat les lleva ms de una cabeza a todos sus contemporneos, y generalmente, cuando alguien se sale tanto de la norma, hay una explicacin. +Pues bien, la forma ms comn de gigantismo es una condicin que se llama acromegalia, y la acromegalia la causa un tumor benigno en la glndula pituitaria que causa una superproduccin de la hormona humana del crecimiento. +Y a lo largo de la historia, muchos de los gigantes ms famosos han padecido acromegalia. +La persona ms alta de todos los tiempos fue un hombre llamado Robert Wadlow que todava segua creciendo cuando se muri a la edad de 24 aos meda 2,70 metros. +Tena acromegalia. +Se acuerdan del luchador Andr el Gigante? +Famoso. Tena acromegalia. +Incluso hay especulaciones sobre si Abraham Lincoln padeca acromegalia. +Con cualquiera que sea inusualmente alto, esa es la primera explicacin a la que acudimos. +Y la acromegalia tiene una serie de efectos secundarios bien claros con los que va asociada, principalmente tienen que ver con la visin. +El tumor en la pituitaria, cuando crece, a menudo empieza a comprimir los nervios de la vista en el cerebro, con el resultado de que la gente con acromegalia tiene doble visin o bien es muy corta de vista. +As que, cuando la gente empez a especular sobre el problema que poda tener Goliat, dijeron: "Un momento, suena como si Goliat padeciera acromegalia". +Y esto tambin explicara su extrao comportamiento en ese da. +Por qu se mueve tan lentamente y lo tiene que escoltar hasta el valle un ayudante? +Porque l no puede hacerlo por s mismo. +Por qu parece no ser consciente de David, de que David no va a luchar contra l hasta el ltimo momento? +Porque no puede verlo. +Cuando dice "Acrcate para que pueda alimentar con tu carne a los pjaros del cielo y a las bestias de la tierra", la frase "acrcate" es tambin una pista de su vulnerabilidad. +Acrcate porque no puedo verte. +Y despus est lo de "Te parece que soy un perro para acercarte con palos? +l ve dos palos cuando David solo tiene uno. +As que los israelitas que estn en el cerro lo miran pensando que era un enemigo extraordinariamente poderoso. +Pero lo que no entendan era que lo que pareca ser la fuente de su aparente fortaleza era tambin la causa de su enorme debilidad. +Y ah, creo yo, radica una leccin muy importante para todos nosotros. +Los gigantes no son tan fuertes y poderosos como parecen. +Y, a veces, el joven pastor tiene una honda guardada en su bolsillo. +Gracias. +Creo que podemos afirmar que todos tendremos una relacin ntima con la muerte al menos una vez en la vida. +Pero qu pasara si esa intimidad comenzase mucho antes de nuestra propia transicin de la vida a la muerte? +Cmo sera la vida si la muerte literalmente viviese junto a ti? +En la tierra de mi esposo, en las montaas de la isla Sulawesi, al este de Indonesia, existe una comunidad que experimenta la muerte no como un hecho individual sino como un proceso social gradual. +En Tana Toraja, lo momentos sociales ms importantes en las vidas de las personas, los puntos centrales de interaccin social y cultural, no son la bodas, ni los nacimientos, ni las cenas familiares, sino los funerales. +As que estos funerales se caracterizan por unos rituales elaborados que unen a las personas en un sistema de deuda recproca basada en la cantidad de animales, cerdos, pollos y, el ms importante, el bfalo de agua, que se sacrifican y distribuyen en el nombre del fallecido. +Este complejo cultural que rodea a la muerte, la representacin ritual del fin de la vida, ha hecho de la muerte el aspecto ms visible y extraordinario del paisaje de Toraja. +Las ceremonias que pueden durar de pocos das a varias semanas, son eventos estridentes, ya que conmemorar a alguien que ha muerto no es tanto una tristeza privada sino ms bien una transicin pblicamente compartida. +Y es una transicin que trata tanto sobre la identidad de los vivos como sobre el recuerdo de los muertos. +Por eso cada ao, miles de visitantes van a Tana Toraja a ver, por decirlo as, esta cultura de la muerte, y para muchas personas estas grandiosas ceremonias y su extensa duracin son de alguna manera incomparables con la forma en que enfrentamos nuestra propia mortalidad en Occidente. +As que aunque compartimos la muerte como una experiencia universal, no se experimenta de la misma forma en todo el mundo. +Y, como antroploga, veo que estas diferencias en la experiencia tienen sus races en el mundo cultural y social a travs del cual definimos los fenmenos a nuestro alrededor. +As que mientras nosotros vemos una realidad incuestionable, la muerte como una condicin biolgica irrefutable, los torajanos ven que el cuerpo ha llegado a su fin como parte de una gnesis social ms importante. +Es decir que el cese fsico de la vida no es lo mismo que la muerte. +En realidad, un miembro de la sociedad est verdaderamente muerto cuando toda la familia logra ponerse de acuerdo y presentar los recursos necesarios para celebrar una ceremonia fnebre que se considere apropiada en trminos de recursos para el estatus del fallecido. +Y esta ceremonia tiene que llevarse a cabo en frente de la comunidad entera con la participacin de todos. +As que despus de que una persona muere fsicamente, su cuerpo se coloca en una habitacin especial en la residencia tradicional, denominada la "tongkonan". +La "tongkonan" simboliza no slo la identidad familiar sino tambin el ciclo de la vida humana, desde el nacimiento hasta la muerte. +Es decir que, esencialmente, la forma del edificio en que naces es la forma de la estructura que te lleva a tu lugar ancestral de descanso. +Hasta la ceremonia fnebre, que puede llevarse a cabo aos despus de la muerte fsica de una persona, al fallecido se le llama "to makala", una persona enferma, o "to mama", alguien que est dormido, y siguen siendo miembros del hogar. +Se les alimenta y se les cuida de forma simblica, y la familia en ese momento dar inicio a un nmero de rituales, que comunicarn a toda la comunidad que uno de sus miembros est experimentando la transicin de esta vida a la vida despus de la muerte, conocida como "Puya". +S lo que algunos de ustedes deben estar pensando ahora mismo. +Est realmente diciendo que estas personas viven con los cuerpos de sus familiares muertos? +Y eso es exactamente lo que estoy diciendo. +As que los torajanos expresan esta idea de relacin duradera prodigando amor y atencin al smbolo ms visible de esa relacin: el cuerpo humano. +Mi esposo tiene buenos recuerdos de hablar, jugar y, en general, de estar alrededor de su abuelo fallecido, y para l no hay nada antinatural en todo eso. +Es una parte natural del proceso a medida que la familia se adapta a la transicin en su relacin con el fallecido, y es la transicin de relacionarse con el fallecido como una persona que est viva a relacionarse con l como una persona que es un ancestro. +Y aqu pueden ver estas efigies en madera de los ancestros, las personas que ya han sido enterradas, y ya han tenido una ceremonia fnebre. +Estos son llamados "tau tau". +La ceremonia fnebre misma encarna esta perspectiva relacional de la muerte. +Ritualiza el impacto de la muerte en las familias y las comunidades. +Y es tambin un momento de autoconciencia. +Es un momento en que la gente piensa sobre quines son, cul es su lugar en la sociedad, y su rol en el ciclo de vida de acuerdo con la cosmologa torajana. +Hay un refrn en Toraja que dice que todas las personas llegarn a ser abuelos, y lo que esto significa es que despus de la muerte, todos seremos parte de la lnea ancestral que nos ancla entre el pasado y el presente y que definir quines sern nuestros seres queridos en el futuro. +As que, esencialmente, todos llegaremos a ser abuelos para las generaciones de nios que vienen despus de nosotros. +Pero el sacrificio del bfalo y la exhibicin ritual de riqueza tambin muestra el estatus del fallecido, y, por extensin, de su familia. +As que en los funerales, las relaciones se reconfirman pero tambin se transforman en un drama ritual que resalta la caracterstica ms sobresaliente de la muerte en este lugar: su impacto tanto en la vida como en las relaciones de los vivos. +Pero toda esta atencin sobre la muerte no quiere decir que los torajanos no aspiren al ideal de una larga vida. +Se involucran en muchas prcticas que se piensa que confieren buena salud y supervivencia hasta una edad avanzada. +Pero no le dan mucha importancia a los esfuerzos por prolongar la vida cuando se enfrentan a una enfermedad debilitante o en la vejez. +Se dice en Toraja que cada persona tiene una cierta cantidad predeterminada de vida +denominada "sunga". +Y como un hilo, se debe dejar desenrollar hasta su fin natural. +As que al considerar la muerte como parte del tejido cultural y social de la vida, las decisiones diarias de la gente sobre su salud y su cuidado se ven afectadas. +El patriarca del clan maternal de mi esposo, Nenet Katcha, est llegando a los 100 aos de edad, por lo que podemos sabemos. +Y hay signos crecientes de que est prximo a partir hacia su propio viaje a Puya. +Y su muerte se lamentar enormemente, +pero s que la familia de mi esposo espera con ilusin el momento en el que puedan manifestar de forma ritual lo que su notable presencia ha significado en sus vidas, y puedan contar ritualmente la narracin de su vida, tejiendo su historia en la historia de su comunidad. +La historia de l es la historia de ellos. +Sus cantos fnebres les cantarn una cancin sobre ellos mismos. +Y es una historia que no tiene un inicio discernible, ni un final previsible. +Es una historia que contina hasta mucho despus de que el cuerpo ya no contine. +La gente me pregunta si siento temor o repulsin por participar en una cultura donde las manifestaciones fsicas de la muerte nos saludan a cada paso. +Pero veo algo profundamente transformador en experimentar la muerte como un proceso social y no slo como uno biolgico. +En realidad, la relacin entre la vida y la muerte tiene su propio drama en el sistema de salud de Estados Unidos, donde las decisiones sobre cunto estirar el hilo de la vida estn basadas en nuestros vnculos emocionales y sociales con la gente que nos rodea, no slo en la habilidad de la medicina en prolongar la vida. +Nosotros, como los torajanos, basamos nuestras decisiones sobre la vida en los significados y definiciones que le atribuimos a la muerte. +No estoy sugiriendo que todos en la audiencia deban correr y adoptar las tradiciones de los torajanos. +Podra ser un poco difcil hacerlo en los Estados Unidos. +Pero quiero plantear qu podemos ganar al ver la muerte fsica no slo como un proceso biolgico sino como parte de la gran historia humana. +Cmo sera mirar a la forma humana fallecida con amor porque es una parte ntima de lo que todos somos? +Si pudisemos expandir nuestra definicin de la muerte para abarcar la vida, podramos experimentar la muerte como una parte de la vida y quizs enfrentar a la muerte con algo distinto al miedo. +Quizs una de las respuestas a los desafos que enfrentamos en el sistema de salud de Estados Unidos, especialmente con respecto a los cuidados del fin de la vida, sea tan simple como un cambio de perspectiva, y el cambio de perspectiva en este caso sera mirar la vida social de cada muerte. +Nos ayudara a reconocer que la forma en que limitamos nuestras conversaciones sobre la muerte como algo que es mdico o biolgico es una reflejo de una cultura ms amplia que todos compartimos, la de evadir la muerte, teniendo miedo de hablar sobre ella. +Si pudisemos considerar y valorar otras clases de conocimiento sobre la vida, incluyendo otras definiciones de la muerte, tendramos el potencial de cambiar las discusiones que tenemos sobre el fin de la vida. +Podra cambiar la forma en que morimos, pero ms importante, podra transformar la forma en que vivimos. +Me llamo Amy Webb, y hace unos aos me encontr ante el final de otra relacin estupenda que se vino abajo de una manera increble. +Y pens, qu pasa conmigo? +No entiendo por qu esto me sigue pasando. +As que pregunt a todos mis seres queridos qu pensaban ellos. +Le pregunt a mi abuela, que siempre tena buenos consejos, y me dijo: "Deja de ser tan exigente. +Tienes que salir con diferentes personas. +Y lo ms importante, el amor verdadero aparecer cuando menos lo esperes". +Y resulta que soy alguien que piensa mucho en datos, como pronto descubrirn. +Estoy siempre sumergida en nmeros, frmulas y tablas. +Tambin tengo una familia muy unida, y tengo una relacin muy, muy estrecha con mi hermana, y por ende, quera tener el mismo tipo de familia en la que crec. +Y si quiero empezar a tener hijos para los 35 aos, significaba que debera haber estado en camino al matrimonio hace cinco aos. +As que aquello no iba a funcionar. +Si mi estrategia era "lo menos esperado" para el amor verdadero, entonces la variable con la que tena que lidiar era la casualidad. +En resumen, estaba intentando averiguar, bueno, cul es la probabilidad de encontrar a mi Hombre Perfecto? +Bueno, en esa poca yo viva en Filadelfia, una ciudad grande, y supuse que en aquel lugar habran muchas posibilidades. +As que, de nuevo, empec a hacer clculos. +Poblacin de Filadelfia: 1.5 millones de personas. +Supongo que la mitad de ellos son hombres, eso reduce la cifra a 750 mil. +Busco a un hombre de entre 30 y 36 aos, lo que supone slo el 4% de la poblacin, as que me quedan 30 mil hombres. +Buscaba a alguien que fuese judo, porque yo lo soy y es importante para m. +Eso es slo el 2.3% de la poblacin. +Supuse que me sentira atrada por 1 de cada 10 de esos hombres, y de ningn modo iba a salir con un obseso del golf. +As que, bsicamente, haban 35 hombres para m con los que podra salir en toda la ciudad de Filadelfia. +Mientras tanto, en mi enorme familia juda estaban todos casados y con todo en marcha para tener montones y montones de bebs, as que senta que estaba bajo una gran presin familiar para sentar cabeza. +As que, en este punto, tena dos posibles estrategias que estaba ideando: +Uno, puedo seguir el consejo de mi abuela y esperar lo menos esperado hasta encontrarme con uno de esos 35 hombres de entre los 1.5 millones de personas en Filadelfia, o podra probar las citas por Internet. +Claro, me gusta la idea de las citas por Internet porque todo se basa en un algoritmo, y eso es slo una forma fcil de decir: Tengo un problema, voy a usar algunos datos, analizarlos con un sistema y obtener una solucin. +Las citas por Internet son la segunda forma ms comn en que las personas se conocen en la actualidad, pero resulta que los algoritmos han existido durante miles de aos en casi todas las culturas. +De hecho, en el judasmo, existan los casamenteros hace mucho tiempo, y aunque no tenan un algoritmo explcito tal cual, sin duda utilizaban frmulas mentales del tipo, "A la chica le gustar este chico?" +"Se llevarn bien las familias?" +"Qu pensar el rabino?" +"Tendrn hijos pronto?" +As que el casamentero tena todo esto en cuenta ms o menos, juntaba a dos personas, y listo. +As que en mi caso, pens, "conseguirn esos datos y un algoritmo llevarme hasta mi Prncipe Azul?" +As que decid registrarme. +Pero, haba un pequeo problema. +En la poca en que me registr en varios sitios web, me encontraba muy, muy ocupada. +Pero ese no era el mayor problema. +El mayor problema es que odio rellenar cuestionarios de cualquier tipo, y definitivamente no me gustan los cuestionarios del tipo como las encuestas de Cosmopolitan. +As que, simplemente, copi y pegu de mi currculum. +As que en la parte de descripcin de arriba, deca que era una periodista premiada y una pensadora a futuro. +Donde me preguntaban sobre actividades de ocio y mi cita ideal, contest con monetizacin +y fluidez en japons. Habl mucho sobre el cdigo Java. +Desde luego, esa no era la mejor forma de presentar mi versin ms sexy. +Pero la verdadera falla era que haban muchos hombres con quienes podas salir. +Esos algoritmos tenan un mar lleno de hombres que queran invitarme a salir en muchas citas, citas que resultaron autnticos desastres, por cierto. +Por ejemplo, Steve, el chico informtico. +El algoritmo nos emparej porque compartamos un amor por los aparatos electrnicos, y las matemticas, y los datos y la msica de los 80. As que acept salir con l. +As que Steve, el informtico, me llev a uno de los restaurantes ms refinados y extremadamente caros de Filadelfia. +As que entramos y al principio, nuestra conversacin no estaba tomando vuelo, pero l pidi un montn de comida. +En realidad, ni siquiera se molest con mirar el men. +Pidi varios aperitivos, mltiples entradas, tambin para m, y de repente aparecieron montaas de comida en nuestra mesa, y tambin muchas botellas de vino. +As que estamos casi al final de nuestra conversacin y al final de la cena, decid que Steve, el informtico, y yo no estbamos hechos el uno para el otro, pero que nos despediramos como amigos, Entonces, l se levanta para ir al bao, y mientras tanto, traen la cuenta a nuestra mesa. +Y escuchen, soy una mujer moderna. +Estoy totalmente de acuerdo en dividir la cuenta, +pero Steve, el informtico, no regres. Y eso fue un mes completo de mi renta. +As que no hace falta decirlo, no estaba teniendo una buena noche. +As que corro a casa, llamo a mi madre, a mi hermana, y como siempre hago al final de cada una de esas citas totalmente horrribles, les cuento cada detalle. +Y ellas me dicen: "Deja de quejarte". +"Simplemente, eres demasiado exigente". +As que me dije: "Bien, a partir de ahora, solo saldr en citas en las que sepa que habr wi-fi y llevar mi porttil. +Lo meter en el bolso y voy a tener una plantilla para emails, y la rellenar y recopilar informacin sobre todos los 'puntos de datos' durante la cita para probar a todos que, empricamente, mis citas son realmente horribles. +As que empec a anotar cosas como comentarios sexuales verdaderamente estpidos e incmodos; malas palabras; el nmero de veces que un hombre me obligaba a chocarle la mano. +As que comenc a hacer cuentas, y eso me permiti encontrar ciertas relaciones. +As que, resulta que por alguna razn, los hombres que beben whisky escocs hablan de sexo fetichista de inmediato. +Y resulta que, probablemente, estos no eran malos tipos. +Slo que no eran para m. +Y resulta que los algoritmos que nos unieron tampoco estaban mal. +Hicieron exactamente aquello para lo que fueron diseados, que era utilizar nuestra informacin de usuario, en mi caso, mi currculum, y contrastarlo con los datos de otras personas. +As que, el problema de verdad es que, aunque los algoritmos funcionan perfectamente, nosotros no los usamos correctamente, cuando nos encontramos frente a ventanas en blanco en las que se supone debemos introducir nuestra informacin en lnea. +Muy pocos de nosotros tenemos la habilidad de ser brutal y totalmente honestos con nosotros mismos. +El otro problema es que estas pginas web nos preguntan cosas como, "te gustan los perros o los gatos?" +"Te gustan las pelculas romnticas o de terror?" +No busco un amigo por correspondencia. +Busco un marido, cierto? +As que hay bastante informacin superficial en esos datos. +As que dije: "Bueno, tengo un nuevo plan. +Seguir utilizando estos sitios de citas en Internet pero voy a tratarlos como bases de datos, y en lugar de esperar a que el algoritmo me empareje, creo que voy a aplicar ingeniera inversa en todo el sistema". +As que sabiendo que empleaban informacin superficial para emparejarme con otras personas, decid hacer mis propias preguntas. +Cules eran todas y cada una de las cosas que buscaba en mi pareja? +As que empec a escribir, y escribir, y escribir y al final, acumul 72 cosas diferentes. +Quera a alguien judo... ms o menos, es decir, alguien con las mismas ideas y antecedentes de nuestra cultura, pero que no me obligase a ir a la sinagoga todos los viernes y sbados. +Quera a alguien que trabajase duro, porque el trabajo es en extremo importante para m, pero no muy duro. +Para mi, los hobbies que tengo son slo nuevos proyectos de trabajo que he empezado. +Tambin quera a alguien que, no slo quisiese dos hijos, sino que tuviese la misma actitud hacia la crianza que yo tengo, es decir, alguien que aceptase obligar a nuestro hijo a tocar el piano desde los tres aos, y quiz tambin ir a clases de informtica si nos pusiramos de acuerdo. +Cosas as, pero tambin quera a alguien con quien ir a lugares exticos y lejanos, como Petra, en Jordania. +Tambin quera a alguien que pesase siempre 10 kilos ms que yo, independientemente de mi peso. +As que, ya tena esas 72 cosas, lo que, sinceramente, era mucho. +Y lo que hice fue revisar la lista y priorizar. +y califiqu todo empezando en 100 hasta el 91, anotando cosas como que buscaba a alguien sper inteligente, que me pudiese desafiar y estimular, contrastndolo con un segundo nivel y una segunda puntuacin. +Esas cosas tambin me importaban, pero no eran obligatoriamente imprescindibles. +As que una vez hice eso, desarroll un sistema de puntuacin porque lo que quera hacer era calcular ms o menos matemticamente si yo crea que el tipo que encontr en la web encajara conmigo o no. +Pens que necesitara un mnimo de 700 puntos antes de enviar un correo a alguien o de contestar al suyo. +A partir de 900, aceptara salir con l, y ni siquiera pensara en una relacin de ningn tipo antes de que alguien cruzase la lnea de los 1500 puntos. +Bueno, resulta que eso funcion bastante bien. +Volv a conectarme y encontr a 'Docjudo57', que es increblemente atractivo y bien hablado, haba escalado el monte Fuji, +haba recorrido la Gran Muralla. Le gustaba viajar siempre y cuando no fuese en crucero. +Y pens: Lo he conseguido! +Consegu piratear el cdigo. +He encontrado al Prncipe Azul Judo de los sueos de mi familia. +Solo haba un problema: Yo no le gust. +Y supongo que la nica variable que no tuve en cuenta fue la competencia. +Quines son todas esas mujeres en las pginas web de citas? +Encontr a 'ChicaSonriente1978'. +Deca que era "una chica divertida, feliz y extrovertida". +Deca que era profesora. +Deca que era, "divertida, buena y amigable". +Le gusta hacer rer "muucho" a la gente. +En ese momento supe, tras mirar un perfil y otro, y otro que eran igual que ese, que necesitaba hacer una investigacin de mercado. +As que cre 10 perfiles masculinos falsos. +Ahora, antes de que se levanten y huyan entiendan que lo hice nicamente para recopilar informacin de todos los que estaban en el sistema. +No empec a tener relaciones del estilo de Catfish con cualquiera, +slo analizaba su informacin. +Pero no quera la informacin de todo el mundo, +solo quera la de las mujeres que se sentiran atradas por el tipo de hombre con el que yo quera de verdad, verdad casarme. +Cuando puse a estos hombres en circulacin, segu algunas reglas. +Primero, no contact a ninguna mujer. +Solo esper a ver cmo mis perfiles las iban a atraer, y buscaba bsicamente dos tipos de informacin. +Buscaba informacin cualitativa: Cul era el tipo de humor, el tono, la voz, el estilo comunicativo que compartan estas mujeres? +Y buscaba informacin cuantitativa: cul era la longitud media del perfil? cunto tiempo transcurra entre dos mensajes? +Lo que intentaba conseguir con esto es ser en persona tan competente como 'ChicaSonriente1978'. +Quera averiguar cmo maximizar mi propio perfil en lnea. +Bueno, un mes despus, tena un montn de informacin y pude hacer otro anlisis. +Resulta que el contenido es muy importante. +La gente inteligente suele escribir mucho: 3 mil, 4 mil, 5 mil palabras describindose, todas ellas probablemente muy interesantes. +El reto aqu, sin embargo, es que los hombres y mujeres populares escriben una media de 97 palabras, muy, muy bien escogidas, aunque no siempre lo parezca. +El otro distintivo de los que son buenos en esto es que usan un lenguaje no especfico. +Por ejemplo, en mi caso, "El Paciente Ingls" es mi pelcula favorita, pero no sirve poner eso en el perfil, porque es informacin superficial y alguien podra no estar de acuerdo y decidir que no quieren salir conmigo porque tuvieron que soportar esa pelcula durante tres horas. +Un lenguaje optimista tambin es importante. +Esta es una nube de palabras en la que se ven las palabras ms usadas por las mujeres ms populares, palabras como "divertida", "chica" y "amor". +As que me di cuenta de que no tena que bajar el nivel de mi perfil. +Recuerden, soy una persona que dijo que habla japons con fluidez y conoce el cdigo Java y estoy a gusto con eso. +La idea es ser ms accesible y ayudar a los dems a conocer el mejor modo de acercarse a ti. +Y resulta que elegir el momento oportuno tambin importa mucho. +El hecho de que tengas el nmero de telfono de una persona, o su cuenta de mensajera instantnea y que sean las 2 de la maana y ests despierto, no significa que sea el mejor momento para hablar con esas personas. +Las mujeres populares en estos sitios web esperan una media de 23 horas entre cada mensaje. +Y eso es lo que normalmente haramos +en un proceso normal de noviazgo. Y, por ltimo, las fotografas. +Todas las mujeres populares mostraban algo de piel. +Todas tenan un aspecto estupendo, lo que supona un gran contraste con lo que yo haba subido. +Una vez tuve toda esta informacin, pude crear un sper perfil que me describiese realmente pero optimizado para ese ecosistema. +Y resulta que hice un gran trabajo. +Me convert en la persona ms popular. +Y result que muchsimos hombres queran salir conmigo. +As que llam a mi madre, a mi hermana y a mi abuela. +Les cont esta noticia maravillosa y me dijeron: "Es maravilloso! Cundo es la primera cita?" +Y les contest: "Bueno, en realidad, no voy a salir con nadie". +Porque, recuerden, segn mi sistema de puntuacin, tenan que alcanzar un mnimo de 700 puntos y ninguno lo consigui. +Y me dijeron: "Qu?! Sigues siendo demasiado exigente". +Bien, no mucho despus, conoc a un chico, Thevenin, que me dijo que culturalmente era judo, que era cazador de bebs de focas rticas, lo que me pareci muy ingenioso. +Habl en detalle sobre viajes. +Hizo referencias culturales verdaderamente interesantes. +Su aspecto y modo de hablar eran exactamente lo que yo quera, e inmediatamente, alcanz los 850 puntos. +Suficiente para una cita. +Un ao y medio despus, estbamos en un viaje sin crucero por Petra, en Jordania, cuando se arrodill y se me declar. +Un ao despus estbamos casados, y alrededor de ao y medio despus, naci Petra, nuestra hija. +Evidentemente, tengo una vida maravillosa as que... la pregunta es: qu significa esto para Uds.? +Pues, resulta que existe un algoritmo para el amor. +Solo que no es ninguno de los que existen en Internet. +De hecho, es algo que escriben Uds. mismos. +As que, sea si buscan esposo o esposa, o intentan encontrar su pasin, o montar una empresa, lo nico que necesitan es encontrar su propio sistema seguir sus propias reglas, y sentirse libres de ser todo lo exigentes que deseen. +Bueno, el da de mi boda habl de nuevo con mi abuela otra vez y me dijo, "Est bien, quizs me equivoqu. +Parece que encontraste un sistema realmente estupendo. +Ahora, sobre las bolas de Matzah: +tienen que ser blanditas, no duras." +Y en eso s le har caso. +Una imagen vale ms que mil palabras, as que voy a empezar mi charla dejando de hablar y mostrando algunas imgenes que tom recientemente. +As que hasta ahora mi charla ya alcanza las 6 mil palabras y siento que debo detenerme aqu. +Al mismo tiempo, probablemente les debo alguna explicacin sobre las imgenes que acaban de ver. +Lo que trato de hacer como fotgrafo, como artista, es juntar al mundo del arte con el de la ciencia. +Lo que encuentro muy intrigante acerca de los dos es que ambos ven hacia la misma cosa: son una respuesta a lo que los rodea. +Y aun as, lo hacen de una manera muy diferente. +Si ven a la ciencia en un lado, la ciencia es un enfoque muy racional a lo que la rodea, mientras que el arte por otro lado es usualmente un enfoque emocional a lo que lo rodea. +Lo que yo estoy tratando de hacer es que intento unir esas dos visiones en una, as que mis imgenes hablan tanto al corazn del observador como a su cerebro. +Djenme demostrar esto con base en tres proyectos. +El primero est relacionado con hacer al sonido visible. +Ahora como quiz sepan, el sonido viaja en ondas, as que si tienes un altavoz, un altavoz de hecho no hace ms que tomar la seal de audio, transformarla en una vibracin, la que es entonces transportada a travs del aire, y es captada por nuestro odo, que la convierte en una seal de audio de nuevo. +Ahora estaba pensando, cmo puedo hacer esas ondas de audio visibles? +As que hice la siguiente instalacin. +Tom un altavoz, le coloqu una hoja delgada de plstico encima, y entonces le agregu unos pequeos cristales encima del altavoz. +Y ahora, si yo tocara un sonido a travs de ese altavoz causara que los cristales se movieran arriba y abajo. +Ahora, esto pasa muy rpido, en un parpadeo, as que, junto con LG, captamos este movimiento con una cmara que es capaz de captar ms de 3 mil cuadros por segundo +Djenme mostrarles cmo es que se ve. +(Msica: "Lgrima" por Massive Attack) Muchas gracias. +Estoy de acuerdo, se ve fascinante. +Pero tengo que contarles una ancdota graciosa. +Tuve quemaduras solares bajo techo mientras haca esto mientras estaba en una sesin en Los ngeles +Ahora, en Los ngeles, puedes tener quemaduras solares de forma decente en cualquiera de las playas, pero obtuve las mas bajo techo y lo que pas es que, si haces una sesin de 3 mil cuadros por segundo, necesitas una insensata cantidad de luz, mucha luz. +Lo ms gracioso de esto fue que el altavoz nicamente vena del lado derecho as que el lado derecho de mi cara estaba completamente rojo y pareca como el Fantasma de la pera todo el resto de la semana. +Djenme ahora pasar a otro proyecto que involucra sustancias menos peligrosas. +Alguno de Uds. ha escuchado del ferrofluido? +Oh, algunos de Uds. s, Excelente. +Debera saltarme esa parte? +El ferrofluido tiene un comportamiento muy extrao. +Es un lquido que es completamente negro. +Tiene una consistencia aceitosa. +Y tiene pequeas partculas de metal dentro que lo hacen magntico. +As que si pongo el lquido en un campo magntico, cambiara su apariencia. +Ahora tengo una demostracin en vivo por aqu para mostrarles esto. +As que tengo una cmara apuntando hacia esta placa y debajo de la placa, hay un imn. +Ahora voy a agregar algo del ferrofluido a ese imn. +Djenme solo levemente moverlo a la derecha y tal vez enfocarlo un poco ms. Excelente. +As lo que pueden ver ahora es que el ferrofluido ha formado espigas. +Y esto se debe a la atraccin y la repulsin de las partculas individuales dentro del lquido. +Ahora esto se ve ya muy interesante, pero djenme agregarle acuarela. +Estas son solo pinturas de agua estndares con los que pintaran. +No pintaran con jeringas, pero funcionaria de igual manera. +Ahora lo que pasa es que, cuando la acuarela estaba flotando dentro de la estructura, la pintura no se mezcla con el ferrofluido. +Eso es porque el ferrofluido mismo es hidrofbico. +Eso significa que no se mezcla con agua. +Y al mismo tiempo, trata de mantener su posicin por encima del imn y entonces, se crean estas asombrosas imgenes de estructuras de canales y pequeos charcos de colorida acuarela. +As que ese fue el segundo proyecto. +Ahora djenme pasar al ltimo proyecto que incluye la bebida nacional de Escocia. +Esta imagen, y esta, fueron hechas usando whisky. +Ahora se preguntaran, cmo hizo eso? +Se tom la mitad de la botella de whisky y despus dibuj la alucinacin que obtuvo de estar ebrio sobre el papel? +Puedo asegurarles que estaba completamente consciente mientras tomaba esas fotos. +Ahora, el whisky contiene 40 % de alcohol, y el alcohol tiene algunas propiedades interesantes. +Tal vez han experimentado algunas de esas propiedades antes, pero estoy hablando acerca de las propiedades fsicas, no de las otras. +As que cuando abro la botella, las molculas del alcohol se esparcirn en el aire, porque el alcohol es una sustancia muy voltil. +Y al mismo tiempo, el alcohol es altamente inflamable. +Y fue con esas dos propiedades que pude crear las imgenes que estn viendo ahora mismo. +Djenme demostrarlo por aqu. +Lo que tengo aqu es un envase de vidrio vaco. +No tiene nada dentro. +Y ahora voy a llenarlo con oxgeno y whisky. +Agrego un poco ms. +Ahora solo esperamos algunos segundos para que las molculas se dispersen dentro de la botella. +Y ahora, djenme ponerle fuego. +As que eso es todo lo que pasa. +Va muy rpido y no es muy impresionante. +Podra hacerlo otra vez para mostrarlo una vez ms, pero algunos argumentaran que es un completo desperdicio de whisky, y que debera ms bien beberlo. +Pero djenme mostrrselo en cmara lenta en un cuarto completamente obscuro de lo que les ense en esta demostracin en vivo. +As que lo que pas es que la flama viaj a travs el envase de vidrio de la boca hasta el fondo quemando la mezcla de las molculas de aire y el alcohol. +As que las imgenes que vieron al principio. de hecho son flamas detenidas en el tiempo mientras viajan a travs de la botella, y tienen que imaginarse que se hizo un giro de alrededor 180 grados +As es como fueron hechas estas imgenes. +Gracias. +As que les he mostrado tres proyectos, se estarn preguntando, para qu sirve esto? +Cul es la idea detrs? +Solo fue un desperdicio de whisky? +Son solo materiales extraos? +Muchas gracias. +Aqu hay una pregunta que necesitamos repensar juntos: Cul debera ser el papel del dinero y los mercados en nuestras sociedades? +Hoy en da, hay muy pocas cosas que el dinero no puede comprar. +Si estn sentenciados a una pena de crcel en Santa Brbara, California, deberan saber que si no les gusta el alojamiento estndar, pueden pagar por una celda mejor. +Es cierto. Cunto creen que cuesta? +Cunto se imaginan que puede costar? +Quinientos dlares? +No es el Ritz-Carlton! !Es una crcel! +Ochenta y dos dlares por noche. +Ochenta y dos dlares por noche. +Si van a un parque de diversiones y no quieren hacer esas largas filas para las atracciones populares, ahora hay una solucin. +En muchos parques temticos, se puede pagar extra para saltar al principio de la fila. +Los llaman boletos Va Rpida o VIP. +Y esto no est sucediendo nicamente en los parques de atracciones. +En Washington, D.C., a veces se forman largas filas, colas, para las audiencias importantes del Congreso. +Y a algunas personas no les gusta hacer esas largas colas, quiz una noche y hasta bajo la lluvia. +Y entonces ahora hay, para grupos de presin y otros que estn deseosos de asistir a las audiencias pero que no les gusten las colas, empresas de hacer fila a las que uno puede acudir. +Pago por hacer fila. +Est sucediendo, se est recurriendo a soluciones de mercado, a mecanismos de mercado y a esta forma de pensar en las grandes arenas. +Piensen en la manera en que peleamos nuestras guerras. +Saban que, en Iraq y Afganistn, hubo en el terreno ms contratistas militares privados que efectivos militares de EE. UU.? +Esto no es porque tuviramos un debate pblico sobre la subcontratacin de la guerra con empresas privadas, sino que es lo que sucedi. +En las ltimas tres dcadas, hemos asistido a una revolucin silenciosa. +Hemos pasado casi sin darnos cuenta de tener una economa de mercado a convertirnos en sociedades de mercado. +La diferencia es la siguiente: una economa de mercado es una herramienta, un instrumento valioso y eficaz para la organizacin de la actividad productiva, y una sociedad de mercado es un lugar donde casi todo est a la venta. +Es una forma de vida en la que el pensamiento y los valores del mercado empiezan a dominar todos los aspectos de la vida: las relaciones personales, la vida familiar, la salud, la educacin, la poltica, la ley, la vida cvica. +Por qu preocuparse? Por qu preocuparse porque nos estemos convirtiendo en sociedades de mercado? +Por dos razones, creo. +Una tiene que ver con la desigualdad. +Entre ms cosas pueda comprar el dinero, ms importancia tendr su escasez o abundancia. +Si lo nico que determinara el dinero fuera el acceso a yates, vacaciones lujosas o BMWs, entonces la desigualdad no importara mucho. +Pero cuando el dinero empieza a gobernar cada vez ms el acceso a los esenciales de una buena vida servicios de salud decentes, acceso a una mejor educacin, voz en la poltica e influencia en las campaas cuando el dinero llega a gobernar todas esas cosas, la desigualdad importa mucho. +Y la mercantilizacin de todo afila el aguijn de la desigualdad y sus consecuencias sociales y cvicas. +Esta es una razn para preocuparse. +Hay una segunda razn, adems de la preocupacin por la desigualdad, y es esta: con algunos bienes y algunas prcticas sociales, cuando el pensamiento y los valores de mercado entran, pueden cambiar el significado de esas prcticas y pueden desplazar actitudes y normas por las que vale la pena preocuparse. +Me gustara poner un ejemplo de un uso controvertido de un mecanismo de mercado, un incentivo en efectivo, y ver lo que piensan de ello. +Muchas escuelas enfrentan el desafo de motivar a los nios, especialmente los nios provenientes de medios desfavorecidos, para que estudien duro, para que se desempeen bien en la escuela, para que se apliquen. +Algunos economistas han propuesto una solucin de mercado: ofrecer incentivos en efectivo a los nios por sacar buenas notas o altos puntajes o por leer libros. +Lo han intentado, en realidad. +Han hecho algunos experimentos en algunas ciudades estadounidenses. +En Nueva York, en Chicago, en Washington, D.C. lo han intentado, ofreciendo 50 dlares por un 10 35 dlares por un 9. +En Dallas, Texas, tienen un programa que ofrece a los nios de ocho aos 2 dlares por cada libro que lean. +Veamos lo que... Algunas personas estn a favor, y algunas personas se oponen a este incentivo en efectivo para motivar el logro. +Veamos lo que la gente piensa aqu sobre ello. +Imagnense que son los directores de una gran conjunto educativo y alguien viene con esta propuesta. +Y digamos que es una Fundacin. Ellos proveern los fondos. +No tienen que sacarlos de su presupuesto. +Cuntos estaran a favor y cuntos se opondran a darle una oportunidad? +Veamos las manos alzadas. +En primer lugar, cuntos creen que podra valer la pena al menos intentarlo para ver si funciona? Levanten la mano. +Y cuntos opinan lo contrario? As que la mayora se opone, pero hay una minora considerable a favor. +Discutmoslo. +Vamos a empezar con aquellos que se oponen, quin lo descartara incluso antes de probarlo? +Cul sera la razn? +Quin quiere comenzar la discusin? S? +Heike Moses: Hola a todos, soy Heike, y creo que esto acaba la motivacin interna, ya que el deseo de leer de los nios, si les gusta leer sera desplazado al pagarles, de tal forma que esto solo cambia el comportamiento. +Michael Sandel: Acaba el incentivo interno. +Cul es, o debera ser, la motivacin interna? +HM: Bueno, la motivacin interna debera ser aprender. +MS: Aprender. HM: Llegar a conocer el mundo. +Y entonces, si se les deja de pagar, qu pasa entonces? +Entonces, dejan de leer? +MS: Ahora, vamos a ver si hay alguien que est a favor, que crea que vale la pena intentarlo. +Elizabeth Loftus: Soy Elizabeth Loftus, y Ud. dice que vale la pena intentarlo, as que, por qu no hacerlo y experimentar, y medir las cosas? +MS: Y medir. Y qu mediras? +Mediras cuntos...? EL: Cuntos libros leyeron y cuntos libros siguieron leyendo despus de que ya no se les paga. +MS: Despus de que ya no se les paga. +Bien, qu opinas? +HM: Para ser franca, creo que esto es, sin ofender a nadie, un estilo muy norteamericano. +MS: Muy bien. Lo que ha surgido de esta discusin es la pregunta siguiente: Los incentivos en efectivo desplazarn, corrompern o acabarn con la motivacin superior, la leccin de fondo que pretendemos dar, que es aprender, amar aprender y leer por su propio bien? +La gente no se pone de acuerdo sobre cul ser el efecto, pero lo que parece ser el problema, es que de alguna manera un mecanismo de mercado o un incentivo en efectivo ensee la leccin equivocada, y si lo hace, qu ser de estos nios despus? +Debera decirles lo que ha pasado con estos experimentos. +El dinero por buenas calificaciones ha tenido resultados muy variados, en su mayor parte no ha resultado en mejores calificaciones. +Los dos dlares por cada libro hicieron que los nios leyeran ms libros. +Tambin los llev a leer libros ms cortos. +Pero la pregunta real es: Qu pasar despus con estos chicos? +Habrn aprendido que la lectura es una tarea difcil, una especie de trabajo por el que se paga su preocupacin o podr esto tal vez inducirlos a leer por la razn equivocada inicialmente, pero luego llevarlos a enamorarse de la lectura por su propio bien? +Lo que deja claro este debate, este breve debate, es algo que muchos economistas no tienen en cuenta. +Los economistas asumen a menudo que los mercados son inertes, que no tocan ni contaminan los bienes que se intercambian. +El intercambio de mercado, asumen, no cambia el significado o el valor de las mercancas que se intercambian. +Esto puede ser cierto si hablamos de bienes materiales. +Si me venden un televisor de pantalla plana o me lo dan de regalo, ser el mismo bien. +Funcionar igual. +Pero lo mismo puede no ser verdad si estamos hablando de bienes inmateriales y de prcticas sociales como la enseanza y el aprendizaje o la participacin en la vida cvica. +En esos dominios, los mecanismos de mercado y los incentivos en efectivo pueden debilitar o desplazar actitudes y valores no mercantiles por los que vale la pena preocuparse. +Pero para tener este debate, tenemos que hacer algo para lo que no somos muy buenos, y es razonar juntos en pblico sobre el valor y el significado de las prcticas sociales que valoramos, desde nuestros cuerpos hasta la vida en familia, las relaciones personales, la salud, la enseanza y el aprendizaje de la vida cvica. +Estas son cuestiones polmicas, que, por lo mismo, procuramos evitar. +De hecho, durante las tres ltimas dcadas, que el razonamiento y el pensamiento de mercado ha ganado fuerza y prestigio, nuestro discurso pblico, durante este mismo tiempo, se ha vuelto hueco, vaco de un significado moral mayor. +Por temor al desacuerdo, evadimos estas preguntas. +Pero una vez que vemos que los mercados cambian el carcter de las mercancas, tenemos que debatir entre nosotros estas grandes preguntas acerca de cmo valorar los bienes. +Uno de los efectos ms corrosivos de ponerle precio a todo lo sufre la comunalidad, el sentido de que todos estamos en esto juntos. +Contra el trasfondo de la creciente desigualdad, mercantilizar todo aspecto de la vida conduce a una condicin donde los que son solventes y aquellos que son de escasos recursos tienen vidas cada vez ms separadas. +Vivimos, trabajamos, compramos y jugamos en lugares diferentes. +Nuestros nios van a escuelas distintas. +Esto no es bueno para la democracia, ni es una forma satisfactoria de vivir, incluso para aquellos de nosotros que podemos comprar nuestro lugar al principio de la fila. +Por esto. +La democracia no requiere una igualdad perfecta, lo que s requiere es que los ciudadanos compartan una vida en comn. +Lo que importa es que las personas de diferentes procedencias sociales y diferentes estilos de vida se encuentren unos con otros, choquen unos con otros en el curso normal de la vida, porque esto es lo que nos ensea a negociar y a respetar nuestras diferencias. +Y as es cmo llegamos a preocuparnos por el bien comn. +Y entonces, al final, la cuestin de los mercados no es fundamentalmente una cuestin econmica. +Es una cuestin de cmo queremos vivir juntos. +Queremos una sociedad donde todo est a la venta, o hay ciertos bienes morales y cvicos que los mercados no honran y que el dinero no puede comprar? +Muchas gracias. +Creo que todos somos conscientes de que el mundo hoy est lleno de problemas. +Nos lo han dicho hoy, ayer y todos los das durante dcadas. +Problemas serios, problemas grandes, problemas urgentes. +Nutricin deficiente, acceso al agua, cambio climtico, deforestacin, ineptitud, inseguridad, carencia de comida, falta de asistencia mdica, contaminacin. +Los problemas se acumulan, y creo que lo que de verdad separa esta poca de cualquier otra que pueda recordar en mi corta presencia en la Tierra, es la conciencia de estos problemas. +Todos estamos muy conscientes. +Por qu nos resulta tan difcil enfrentar estos problemas? +Es la pregunta con la que he estado luchando, desde mi perspectiva, muy diferente. +No me ocupo de problemas sociales. +Trabajo con negocios, ayudo a las empresas a ganar dinero. +Que Dios lo permita. +Ahora, Por qu tenemos tantas dificultades con estos problemas sociales? Y, realmente tienen alguna funcin los negocios? y si la tienen, cul es esa funcin? +Creo que para abordar esa pregunta, tenemos que tomar aliento y pensar en cmo hemos entendido y reflexionado sobre los problemas y sus soluciones. Son grandes estos desafos sociales a los que nos enfrentamos. +Ahora, creo que muchos han visto a las empresas como el problema o, por lo menos, como uno de los problemas, en muchos de los desafos sociales que enfrentamos. +Piensen en la industria de las comidas rpidas, en la industria farmacutica, en la banca. +Estamos en un punto bajo en el respeto hacia las empresas. +No se ve a las empresas como solucin. +La mayora las ve como un problema. +Y en muchos casos, con razn. +Hay muchos personajes malos por ah, que han hecho mal las cosas, que realmente han empeorado el problema. +As que desde ese punto de vista, es quizs justificado. +Cmo se ven la soluciones a estos problemas sociales a los que nos enfrentamos en nuestra sociedad? +Bueno, nos inclinamos por soluciones en funcin de las ONGs, en funcin del gobierno, en funcin de la filantropa. +En efecto, un tipo de organizacin institucional propio de nuestro tiempo es el gran auge de las ONGs y de las organizaciones sociales. +Esta es una forma nica y nueva de organizacin que hemos visto crecer. +Grandes innovaciones, energas enormes, y grandes cantidades de talento se han movilizado por medio de estas estructuras, para lidiar con todos esos desafos. +Y muchos de nosotros estamos muy involucrados en esto. +Soy profesor de negocios, pero he fundado, creo, 4 organizaciones sin fines de lucro. +Siempre que me he interesado y he tomado conciencia de un problema social, es lo que he hecho, formar una ONG. +Esa era la solucin que pensbamos para lidiar con estos problemas. +Hasta un profesor de negocios lo pensaba as. +Pero creo que ya llevamos as demasiado tiempo. +Hemos estado conscientes de estos problemas durante dcadas. +Tenemos dcadas de experiencia con nuestras ONGs y nuestras entidades gubernamentales, pero hay una realidad incmoda. +La realidad incmoda es que el progreso no ha sido suficientemente rpido. +No estamos ganando. +Esos problemas an parecen abrumadores e insolubles, y las soluciones que logramos son muy pequeas. +Estamos progresando gradualmente. +Cul es la dificultad fundamental que tenemos para enfrentar estos problemas sociales? +Si los despojamos de sus complejidades, tenemos el problema de la escala. +No podemos expandir. +Podemos progresar. Podemos mostrar beneficios. +Podemos mostrar resultados. Podemos mejorar las cosas. +Estamos ayudando. Estamos mejorando. Estamos hacindolo bien. +Pero no podemos expandir. +No podemos hacer impacto a gran escala en esos problemas. +Por qu? +Porque no tenemos los recursos. +Y eso est muy claro ahora. +Ahora est mucho ms claro que en dcadas pasadas. +Simplemente no hay suficiente dinero para lidiar con estos problemas a gran escala, utilizando el modelo actual. +No hay suficiente recaudacin fiscal, no hay suficientes donaciones filantrpicas para enfrentar los problemas si continuamos como vamos. +Tenemos que enfrentar esa realidad. +La insuficiencia de recursos para hacerle frente a estos problemas es cada vez mayor, sobre todo en el mundo avanzado de hoy, con todos los problemas fiscales que vemos. +As que si es fundamentalmente un problema de recursos, dnde estn los recursos de la sociedad? +Cmo se generan recursos, que vamos a necesitar para lidiar con todos estos retos sociales? +Creo que la respuesta es muy clara: estn en los negocios. +Toda la riqueza es realmente creada en los negocios. +Las empresas crean riqueza cuando satisfacen necesidades a cambio de una ganancia. +As es como se genera la riqueza. +Es satisfacer las necesidades a cambio de ganancias lo que conlleva el pago de impuestos, de all a los ingresos y a las donaciones caritativas. +De ah vienen todos los recursos. +Solamente los negocios pueden generar recursos. +Otras instituciones pueden utilizarlos para hacer trabajos importantes, pero solamente las empresas pueden generarlos. +Y las empresas los generan cuando satisfacen necesidades a cambio de ganancias. +Los recursos son generados abrumadoramente por los negocios. +La pregunta entonces es, cmo se podra aprovechar esto? +Cmo podemos hacer uso de esto? +Los negocios generan esos recursos cuando obtienen ganancias. +Esas ganancias son la pequea diferencia entre el precio y los gastos necesarios para producir cualquier solucin que haya creado una empresa para cualquier problema que tratan de resolver. +Pero esa ganancia es la magia. +Por qu? Porque esa ganancia permite que cualquier solucin que hayamos creado sea infinitamente escalable. +Porque si podemos tener una ganancia, podemos multiplicarla por 10, por 100, por un milln, 100 millones, mil millones. +La solucin se vuelve autosostenible. +Eso es lo que hacen los negocios cuando hay ganancia. +Ahora, qu tiene que ver todo esto con los problemas sociales? +Bueno, una forma de pensar es tomar esa ganancia y redistribuirla a los problemas sociales. +Las empresas deberan dar ms. +Las empresas deben ser ms responsables. +Ese ha sido el camino que hemos seguido en los negocios. +Una vez ms, el camino que hemos seguido no nos est llevando a donde tenemos que ir. +Empec como profesor de estrategia, y todava lo soy. +Estoy orgulloso de ello. +Pero con los aos, he trabajado cada vez ms con problemas sociales. +He trabajado en salud, en medio ambiente, en desarrollo econmico, en la reduccin de la pobreza, y mientras trabajaba cada vez ms en el mbito social comenc a ver algo que me impact significativamente y repercuti en mi vida. +La sabidura convencional en economa y la visin de negocio ha sido histricamente la de que existe una compensacin entre el desempeo social y el rendimiento econmico. +La sabidura convencional nos dice que los negocios obtienen ganancias causando problemas sociales. +El ejemplo clsico es la contaminacin. +Si el negocio contamina, gana ms dinero que si intenta reducir esa contaminacin. +Reducir la contaminacin es muy costoso, por eso las empresas no quieren hacerlo. +Resulta rentable tener un entorno de trabajo poco seguro. +Es demasiado caro tener un entorno de trabajo seguro, por eso los negocios ganan ms si el entorno laboral no es seguro. +Esa ha sido la idea convencional. +Muchas empresas han cado en esa idea convencional. +Se resisten a mejorar el medio ambiente. +Se resisten a mejorar del entorno laboral. +Esa forma de pensar ha conducido, creo, a buena parte del comportamiento que hemos llegado a criticar en los negocios, que yo mismo he llegado a criticar. +Pero, cuanto ms me meta en todos estos problemas sociales, uno tras otro, y en realidad, cuanto ms intentaba hacerles frente, personalmente, en algunos casos, a travs de organizaciones a las que perteneca, estaba cada vez ms convencido de que la realidad es todo lo contrario. +Las empresas no obtienen ganancias causando problemas sociales, al menos no en sentido fundamental. +Esa es una visin muy simplista. +Cuanto ms nos metemos en estos temas, mejor podemos entender que las empresas realmente generan ganancias cuando solucionan problemas sociales. +De ah viene la verdadera ganancia. +Por ejemplo, la contaminacin. +Hemos aprendido hoy que en realidad reducir la contaminacin y las emisiones genera ganancias. +Ahorra dinero. +Hace que el negocio sea ms productivo y eficiente. +No malgasta recursos. +Tener un entorno de trabajo ms seguro y evitar los accidentes, hace que el negocio sea ms rentable, porque es una muestra de buenos procedimientos. +Los accidentes son caros y costosos. +Problema tras problema, empezamos a entender que en realidad no hay compensacin entre el progreso social y la eficiencia econmica en ningn sentido fundamental. +Otra cuestin es la salud. +Es decir, lo que hemos descubierto en realidad es que la salud de los empleados es algo que una empresa debe atesorar, porque la salud permite que esos empleados sean ms productivos y puedan trabajar y no estn ausentes. +El trabajo ms profundo, el nuevo trabajo, el nuevo pensamiento en la interfaz entre las empresas y los problemas sociales; en realidad est demostrando que hay una sinergia fundamental y profunda, especialmente si no ests pensando en el corto plazo. +En muy corto plazo, puedes a veces engaarte pensando que fundamentalmente hay objetivos opuestos, pero a la larga, en ltima instancia, estamos aprendiendo rea tras rea, que esto simplemente no es cierto. +Entonces, cmo podramos usar el poder de los negocios para abordar los problemas fundamentales que enfrentamos? +Imagnense que si podemos hacerlo, podramos escalar. +Podramos aprovechar esta enorme reserva de recursos y esta capacidad organizativa. +Y, adivinen qu. Est ocurriendo ahora mismo, finalmente. En parte gracias a personas como ustedes que estn planteando estas cuestiones, ao tras ao y dcada tras dcada. +Vemos a organizaciones como Dow Chemical liderando la revolucin para eliminar las grasas trans y las grasas saturadas con productos nuevos e innovadores. +Este es un ejemplo de Jain Irrigation. +Esta es una empresa que ha trado la tecnologa del riego por goteo a miles y millones de campesinos, reduciendo sustancialmente el uso de agua. +Vemos a empresas como la compaa forestal brasilea Fibria que descubri cmo evitar la tala de bosques antiguos. Usa el eucalipto y consigue mucho ms rendimiento por hectrea de pulpa y produce ms papel que lo podra lograr talando rboles viejos. +Ves a empresas como Cisco que ha entrenado hasta el momento a 4 millones de personas en informtica, siendo realmente responsable al ayudar a expandir las oportunidades al difundir la tecnologa informtica y hacer crecer toda la empresa. +Hoy existe una oportunidad fundamental para las empresas de impactar y lidiar con estos problemas sociales. Esta oportunidad es la del negocio ms grande que vemos en el mundo real. +La pregunta es, cmo hacer para que las empresas quieran adoptar el tema del valor compartido? +Esto es lo que llamo valor compartido: Abordar un tema social con un modelo de negocio. +Eso es valor compartido. +Valor compartido es capitalismo, pero en su forma ms avanzada. +Es el capitalismo como debe ser verdaderamente, satisfaciendo necesidades importantes, sin competir por pequeeces, por diferencias triviales en las caractersticas del producto y en las cuotas del mercado. +Valor compartido es cuando podemos crear valor social y valor econmico al mismo tiempo. +Es encontrar esas oportunidades que desatarn nuestras mejores posibilidades para abordar problemas sociales porque as podemos escalar. +Podemos abordar el valor compartido en muchos niveles. +Es real. Est sucediendo. +Pero para lograr que esta solucin funcione, tenemos que cambiar la forma como las empresas se ven a s mismas, y esto afortunadamente ya est en marcha. +Muchas empresas se han quedado atrapadas en la idea convencional de que no deberan preocuparse por los problemas sociales, porque esto era algo perifrico, que alguien ms debera hacer. +Ahora se ven empresas que aceptan la idea. +Pero tambin tenemos que reconocer que las empresas no lo van a hacer con tanta eficacia si no logran que las ONGs y el gobierno trabajen en colaboracin con ellas. +Las nuevas ONGs que realmente hacen la diferencia son las que han conseguido estas cooperaciones, que han encontrado estas maneras de colaborar. +Los gobiernos que han logrado un mayor avance son los que han encontrado maneras de habilitar el valor compartido en los negocios en lugar de ver al gobierno como el nico responsable en la toma de decisiones. +Y el gobierno tiene muchas maneras de influenciar la voluntad y la capacidad de las empresas para competir de esta forma. +Creo que si hacemos que los negocios se vean a s mismos de forma diferente, y logran que otros los vean de forma diferente, podemos cambiar el mundo. +Lo s. Lo veo. +Lo siento. +Creo que los jvenes, mis estudiantes de Harvard Business School, lo estn entendiendo. +Si podemos romper esta brecha, esta inquietud, esta tensin, este sentido de que no estamos fundamentalmente colaborando aqu en la conduccin de estos problemas sociales, podemos resolverlo, y creo que, finalmente, hallaremos las soluciones. +Gracias. +El trabajo de una Comisaria de Transporte o es solo sobre seales de pare y semforos. +Involucra el diseo de las ciudades y el de las calles. +Las calles son unos de los recursos ms valiosos que tiene una ciudad, y sin embargo es un bien que en gran parte se pasa por alto. +Y la leccin de Nueva York durante los ltimos seis aos es que este bien se puede actualizar. +Se pueden rehacer las calles rpidamente y a bajo costo, esto puede dar beneficios inmediatos, y puede ser muy popular. +Solo hay que mirarlas de una forma un poco distinta. +Esto es importante porque vivimos en una era urbana. +Por primera vez en la historia, la mayora de la gente vive en ciudades, y la ONU estima que en los prximos 40 aos, la poblacin del planeta se va a duplicar. +As que el diseo de las ciudades es un tema clave para nuestro futuro. +El alcalde Bloomberg reconoci esto cuando lanz el PlaNYC en el 2007. +El plan identific que las ciudades se encuentran en un mercado global, y que si vamos a continuar creciendo y prosperando e interesando al ms de milln de personas que se prev van a instalarse aqu, tenemos que centrarnos en la calidad de vida y la eficiencia de nuestra infraestructura. +En muchas ciudades, nuestras calles han estado en una especie de animacin suspendida durante generaciones. +Esta es una foto de Times Square en los 50, y a pesar de la innovacin tecnolgica, los cambios culturales y polticos, esta es Times Square en 2008. +No haba cambiado mucho en esos 50 aos. +Es por eso que hemos trabajado duro para reenfocar nuestra agenda, para maximizar la eficiencia en la movilidad, dando ms espacio a los autobuses, ms espacio a las bicis, ms espacio a las personas para disfrutar la ciudad, y para hacer nuestras calles lo ms seguras posible para todos los que las utilizan. +Nos propusimos un plan de accin claro con metas y puntos de referencia. +Tener metas es importante porque si quieres cambiar y dirigir la nave de una gran ciudad en una nueva direccin, tienes que saber a dnde vas y por qu. +El diseo de una calle puede decirte todo acerca de lo que se espera en ella. +En este caso, se trata de servir de refugio. +El diseo de esta calle es en realidad para maximizar la circulacin de coches yendo tan rpido como sea posible del punto A al punto B, y se ignoran todas las otras formas de utilizacin de una calle. +Cuando empezamos, hicimos algunas encuestas iniciales acerca de cmo se utilizaban nuestras calles, y encontramos que la ciudad de Nueva York era en gran parte una ciudad sin asientos. +Imgenes como esta, de gente mal acomodada en un hidrante, no es la marca de una ciudad de clase mundial. +No es ideal para padres con hijos. +No es ideal para las personas mayores. No es ideal para los minoristas. +Probablemente no es bueno para los hidrantes. +Ciertamente no es bueno para el Departamento de Polica. +As que hemos trabajado duro para cambiar ese equilibrio, y probablemente el mejor ejemplo de nuestro nuevo enfoque est en Times Square. +350 mil personas por da caminan por Times Square, y se haba intentado por aos, realizar cambios. +Cambiaron las seales, cambiaron los carriles, todo lo posible para hacer que Times Square funcionara mejor. +Era peligrosa, difcil de cruzar la calle. +Era catica. +Y as, ninguno de esos enfoques funcion. Entonces tomamos un enfoque diferente, una visin mayor, mirando nuestra calle de forma nueva. +Hicimos un plan piloto de seis meses. +Cerramos Broadway desde la calle 42 hasta la 47 y creamos un rea de 10 mil metros cuadrados de nuevo espacio peatonal. +Los materiales temporales son una parte importante del programa, porque hemos sido capaces de mostrar cmo funciona. +Yo trabajo para un alcalde orientado por datos, como ya sabrn. +As que todo era con datos. +Si funcionaba mejor para el trfico, si era mejor para la movilidad, si era ms seguro, mejor para los negocios, lo conservaramos. Y si no funcionaba, no hay problema, no hay falta, podramos echar atrs a como estaba antes, porque estos eran materiales temporales. +Y eso fue un aspecto muy importante de la implantacin. Hay mucho menos ansiedad cuando sabes que algo se puede revertir. +Pero los resultados fueron abrumadores. +El trfico se movi mejor. Era mucho ms seguro. +Cinco nuevas tiendas lderes abrieron. +Ha sido un xito total. +Times Square es ahora uno de los 10 mejores puntos de venta en el planeta. +Y esta es una leccin importante, porque no tiene que ser un juego de suma cero entre el trfico y la creacin de espacio pblico. +Cada proyecto tiene sus sorpresas, y una de las grandes sorpresas con Times Square fue cmo rpidamente acudieron las personas al lugar. +Pusimos los barriles naranjas, y la gente simplemente se materializ inmediatamente en la calle. +Fue como un episodio de Star Trek, saben? +No estaban ah antes y luego zzzzzt! +Toda la gente lleg. +Dnde estaban antes? No lo s, pero estaban all. +Y en realidad esto nos planteaba un desafo inmediato, porque an no haba llegado el mobiliario urbano. +As que fuimos a una ferretera, compramos cientos de sillas de jardn y las pusimos en la calle. +Las sillas de jardn se convirtieron en la comidilla de la ciudad. +No se trataba de que habamos cerrado Broadway a los coches. +Se trataba de las sillas de jardn. +"Qu te parecieron las sillas?" +"Te gusta el color de las sillas?" +As que si tienes un proyecto grande, controvertido, piensa en sillas de jardn. +Estaremos cortando la cinta de apertura de la primera fase, este diciembre. +En todos nuestros proyectos, proyectos de espacio pblico, trabajamos estrechamente con las empresas locales y grupos de comerciantes que mantienen los espacios, trasladan los muebles, cuidan las plantas. +Esto es frente a Macy's. Ellos fueron gran apoyo para el nuevo enfoque, porque entendieron que ms gente a pie es mejor para los negocios. +Hemos hecho estos proyectos por toda la ciudad en toda clase de barrios. +Esto es en Bed-Stuy, Brooklyn. Pueden ver el atajo que haba all, formado para coches, realmente innecesario. +Lo que hicimos fue que pintamos sobre la va, con grava epxica, y conectamos el tringulo con los escaparates de la Grand Avenue. Se cre un nuevo espacio pblico, que ha sido genial para los negocios a lo largo de la Grand Avenue. +Hicimos lo mismo en DUMBO, en Brooklyn. Este es uno de nuestros primeros proyectos, Tomamos un estacionamiento subutilizado, de aspecto bastante srdido y, con algo de pintura y jardineras, lo transformamos en un fin de semana. +En los tres aos desde que implementamos el proyecto, las ventas minoristas han aumentado 172 %. +Esto es el doble de las zonas adyacentes del mismo barrio. +Nos hemos movido muy, muy rpido con pintura y materiales temporales. +En vez de esperar varios aos de estudios de planificacin y modelos de computadora para que se haga algo, lo hemos hecho con pintura y materiales temporales. +Y la prueba no est en un modelo informtico. +Est en el funcionamiento del mundo real de la calle. +Se puede uno divertir con la pintura. +Dicho todo esto, hemos creado ms de 50 plazas peatonales en los cinco condados de la ciudad. +Hemos transformado 10 hectreas de carriles para coches en nuevos espacios peatonales. +Creo que uno de los xitos se ve en la emulacin. +Ahora este mismo tipo de enfoque, despus de que pintamos Times Square, est en Boston, en Chicago, en San Francisco, en Ciudad de Mxico, en Buenos Aires, donde quieras. +Esto es en Los ngeles, donde copiaron hasta los crculos verdes que dejamos en las calles. +Pero no puedo subrayar lo suficiente la mayor velocidad con que se mueven estos, sobre los mtodos de construccin tradicionales. +Tambin trajimos este enfoque de accin rpida a nuestro programa de ciclismo, y en seis aos convertimos las bicis en una opcin real de transporte en Nueva York. +Creo que es justo decir que era aterrador andar en bicicleta por esta ciudad, y ahora Nueva York se ha convertido en una de las capitales del ciclismo en EE. UU. +Logramos rpidamente crear una red de rutas interconectadas. +Pueden ver el mapa de 2007. +As se vea en 2013 despus de que construimos 560 kilmetros de carriles para bici. +Esto me encanta porque parece tan fcil, +solo haces clic, y ya est. +Tambin hemos trado nuevos diseos a las calles. +Hemos creado la primera ciclova protegida de parqueo en los EE. UU. +Protegimos los ciclistas con zonas de parqueo mviles y ha sido genial. +El nmero de bicicletas ha aumentado. +Las lesiones de todos los usuarios, peatones, ciclistas, conductores, cayeron un 50 %. +Hemos construido 48 kilmetros de ciclovas protegidas, y ahora estn apareciendo por todo el pas. +Y se puede ver aqu que la estrategia ha funcionado. +La lnea azul es el nmero de ciclistas, al alza. +La lnea verde es el nmero de carriles para bicicletas. +Y la lnea amarilla es el nmero de lesiones, que ha permanecido esencialmente plana. +Despus de esta gran expansin, no se ve ningn aumento neto en las lesiones. Hay algo de verdad en este axioma de que hay seguridad en los nmeros. +No a todo el mundo le gustaban las nuevas ciclovas. Hubo una demanda judicial y algo de frenes en los medios, hace un par de aos. +Un diario de Brooklyn llamaba a esta ciclova que tenemos en Prospect Park West, "el lote ms controvertido de la tierra fuera de la franja de Gaza". +Y esto es lo que hemos hecho. +Si miramos ms all de los titulares, en cambio, se ve que la gente iba adelante de la prensa, muy por delante de los polticos. +De hecho, creo que la mayora de los polticos estara feliz de tener ese tipo de encuestas. +64 % de los neoyorquinos apoyan estos carriles para bicicletas. +Este verano, lanzamos Citi Bike, el mayor programa de bicicletas compartidas, de los EE. UU. con 6000 bicis y 330 estaciones situadas una cerca a la otra. +Desde que pusimos en marcha el programa, se han hecho 3 millones de viajes. +Las personas han recorrido 11 millones de km. +O sea, 280 vueltas alrededor del mundo. +Con esta pequea llave azul, se pueden desbloquear las llaves de la ciudad para esta nueva opcin de transporte. +Su uso diario sigue disparndose. +Lo que ocurre es que el nmero diario de pasajeros, promedio, en las calles de Nueva York, es de 36 000 personas. +El mayor nmero hasta ahora es de 44 000 en agosto. +Ayer, 40 000 personas utilizaron Citi Bike en Nueva York. +Las bicicletas se emplean 6 veces al da. +Y creo que tambin se puede ver en las clases de ciclistas que andan por las calles. +En el pasado, parecan como el tipo de la izquierda, vestido de Ninja mensajero. +Hoy en da, los ciclistas lucen igual como la ciudad de Nueva York. +Es diversa; joven, vieja, negra, blanca, mujeres, nios, todos en bicicleta. +Es una forma asequible, segura y conveniente de moverse. +Bastante radical. +Tambin hemos trado este enfoque a los autobuses. Nueva York tiene la mayor flota de autobuses en Norteamrica, y sus velocidades eran las ms lentas. +Como todos saben, se poda andar ms rpido caminando por la ciudad que en el autobs. +As, nos hemos centrado en las reas ms congestionadas de la ciudad de Nueva York, construido seis carriles de autobuses de trnsito rpido, 92 kilmetros de nuevos carriles. +Se paga en un quiosco antes de subir al autobs. +Tenemos carriles dedicados, excludos los coches, porque tendran una multa por una cmara, si usan ese carril. Ha sido un gran xito. +Fue fantstico. +As se vea hace seis aos. +Creo que la leccin que tenemos de Nueva York, es que es posible cambiar rpidamente las calles, no es costoso, puede proporcionar beneficios inmediatos, y puede ser muy popular. +Solo se necesita reimaginar las calles. +Estn escondidas a plena vista. +Gracias. +"Irn es el mejor amigo de Israel y no pretendemos cambiar nuestra postura respecto de Tehern". +Lo crean o no, esta cita pertenece a un primer ministro israel, pero no es de Ben-Gurion, ni de Golda Meir en la poca del Shah. +En realidad es de Yitzhak Rabin. +Es del ao 1987. +El Ayatol Jomeini an vive, y al igual que Ahmadinejad hoy, usa la peor retrica contra Israel. +An as, Rabin se refiri a Irn como un amigo geoestratgico. +Hoy, cuando escuchamos las amenazas de guerra y el alto grado de retrica, muchas veces tenemos la sensacin de estar frente a otro de esos conflictos irresolubles de Medio Oriente con races tan antiguas como la propia regin. +Nada podra distar ms de la verdad y hoy espero mostrarles por qu es as. +Las relaciones entre el pueblo iran y el judo a lo largo de la historia ha sido bastante positiva. Comenz en 539 a.C., cuando el rey Ciro el Grande de Persia liber al pueblo judo del cautiverio babilnico. +Un tercio de la poblacin juda permaneci en Babilonia. +Son los judos iraques de hoy. +Un tercio emigr a Persia. +Son los judos iranes de hoy, de los cuales an viven 25 000 en Irn, la comunidad juda ms grande en Medio Oriente fuera de la propia Israel. +Y un tercio regres a la histrica Palestina, hizo la segunda reconstruccin del Templo en Jerusaln, financiada, por cierto, con impuestos persas. +Pero incluso en tiempos modernos, en ocasiones las relaciones han sido cercanas. +La declaracin de Rabin era un reflejo de dcadas de seguridad y colaboracin de inteligencia entre ambos pases que, a su vez, surgi de la percepcin de amenazas comunes. +Ambos estados teman a la Unin Sovitica y a estados rabes fuertes como Egipto e Irak. +Y, adems, la doctrina israel de la periferia, la idea de que se mejoraba la seguridad de Israel creando alianzas con estados no rabes de la periferia de la regin para equilibrar a los estados rabes cercanos. +Ahora, desde la perspectiva del Shah, sin embargo, l quera mantener esto en el mayor secreto posible, por eso cuando Yitzhak Rabin, por ejemplo, viajaba a Irn en los aos '70, sola llevar una peluca para que nadie pudiera reconocerlo. +Los iranes construyen una pista especial en el aeropuerto de Tehern, lejos de la terminal central, para que nadie notara la gran cantidad de aviones israeles que viajaban entre Tel Aviv y Tehern. +Pero, termin todo con la revolucin islmica en 1979? +A pesar de la ntida ideologa anti-israel del nuevo rgimen, perdur la lgica geopoltica de colaboracin porque an tenan amenazas en comn. +Y cuando Irak invadi Irn en 1980, Israel temi una victoria iraqu y ayud activamente a Irn vendindole armas y proveyendo piezas de repuesto para el armamento estadounidense de Irn en un momento en que Irn era muy vulnerable debido al embargo de armas estadounidense que Israel estuvo ms que feliz de transgredir. +De hecho, regresando a los aos '80, fue Israel la que presion en Washington para hablar con Irn, para venderle armas, y no prestarle atencin a la ideologa anti-israel de Irn. +Y esto, claro, lleg a su clmax en el escndalo Irn-Contra de los '80. +Pero con el fin de la Guerra Fra lleg tambin el fin de la paz fra entre Israel e Irn. +De repente, las dos amenazas en comn que los haban acercado durante dcadas, ms o menos se evaporaron. +La Unin Sovitica se desmoron, Irak fue derrotado, y en la regin se cre un nuevo entorno en el que ambos se sintieron ms seguros, pero ahora ambos quedaban expuestos. +Sin el contrapeso iraqu a Irn, Irn ahora poda tornarse una amenaza, decan algunos en Israel. +As, Israel, que en los '80 presion hasta mejorar las relaciones EE.UU.-Irn ahora tema un acercamiento EE.UU.-Irn, pensando que eso sera a expensas de los intereses de seguridad de Israel y en cambio trato de confinar a Irn a un mayor aislamiento. +Irnicamente, esto ocurra en un momento en el que Irn estaba ms interesado en el proceso de paz con Washington que en ver la destruccin de Israel. +Irn se autoaisl debido a su radicalismo, y luego de haber ayudado a Estados Unidos en forma indirecta en la guerra contra Irak, en 1991, los iranes esperaban ser recompensados con la inclusin en la arquitectura de seguridad de la posguerra de la regin. +Pero Washington prefiri ignorar el acercamiento a Irn, como lo hara una dcada ms tarde en Afganistn, y en vez de eso intensific el aislamiento de Irn, y es en este momento, en torno a 1993, 1994, que Irn empieza a traducir su ideologa anti-israel en poltica operativa. +Los iranes creyeron que sin importar qu hicieran, an si moderaban sus polticas, EE.UU. seguira procurando el aislamiento de Irn, y la nica manera en que Irn poda obligar a Washington a cambiar su postura era imponiendo un costo a EE.UU. por no hacerlo. +El blanco ms fcil fue el proceso de paz, y ahora el ladrido ideolgico iran ira acompaado de una mordedura no convencional, e Irn empez a dar amplio apoyo a grupos islamistas palestinos que previamente haba rechazado. +En cierto modo, suena paradjico, pero para Martin Indyk, de la administracin Clinton, los iranes no lo entendieron del todo mal, dado que cuanto ms paz hubiera entre Israel y Palestina, EE.UU. crea que ms aislada debera estar Irn. +Cuanto ms aislada Irn, ms paz habra. +As, para Indyk, estas son sus palabras, los iranes tenan inters en involucrarnos en el proceso de paz para derrotar nuestra poltica de contencin. +Para derrotar nuestra poltica de contencin, no era por ideologa. +Pero incluso en los peores momentos de su enredo, las partes han entrado en contacto mutuo. +Cuando Netanyahu fue elegido en 1996, se puso en contacto con los iranes para ver si haba alguna manera de resucitar la doctrina de la periferia. +A Tehern no le interes. +Unos aos ms tarde los iranes enviaron una amplia propuesta de negociacin global a la administracin Bush, una propuesta que revel que haba potencial de llevar nuevamente a Irn e Israel a buenos trminos. +La administracin Bush ni siquiera respondi. +Las partes nunca perdieron oportunidad de perder oportunidades. +Pero este no es un conflicto antiguo. +Ni siquiera es un conflicto ideolgico. +El flujo y reflujo de la hostilidad no ha cambiado por fervor ideolgico, sino ms bien por cambios en el panorama geopoltico. +Cuando el imperativo de seguridad de Irn e Israel dict la colaboracin, as hicieron, a pesar de la letal oposicin ideolgica mutua. +Cuando los impulsos ideolgicos iranes colisionaron con sus intereses estratgicos, siempre prevalecieron los intereses estratgicos. +Estas son buenas noticias porque significa que ni la guerra ni la enemistad es una conclusin inevitable. +Pero algunos quieren la guerra. +Algunos creen o dicen que estamos en 1938, que Irn es Alemania, y que Ahmadinejad es Hitler. +Si aceptamos que esto es cierto, que en efecto estamos en 1938, Irn es Alemania, Ahmadinejad es Hitler, entonces debemos preguntarnos: Quin quiere hacer el papel de Neville Chamberlain? +Quin arriesgar la paz? +Esta es una analoga que intenta deliberadamente eliminar la diplomacia, y cuando uno elimina la diplomacia, inevitablemente entra en guerra. +En un conflicto ideolgico no puede haber tregua, no hay empate, no hay punto medio, solo victoria o derrota. +Pero en vez de hacer la guerra inevitable viendo esto como algo ideolgico, sera conveniente encontrar maneras para hacer posible la paz. +El conflicto entre Irn e Israel es un fenmeno nuevo, de unas dcadas de antigedad en una historia de 2500 aos, y precisamente porque sus races son geopolticas, es que pueden encontrarse soluciones, puede llegarse a puntos en comn, por difcil que pueda ser. +Despus de todo, fue el propio Yitzhak Rabin quien dijo: "Uno no hace la paz con sus amigos. +Hace la paz con sus enemigos". +Gracias. +Soy mdico especialista en enfermedades infecciosas, y despus de mi formacin, me traslad a Somalia desde San Francisco. +Y las palabras de despedida del jefe de la unidad de enfermedades infecciosas del hospital General de San Francisco fueron, "Gary, este es el mayor error que jams cometers". +Pero llegu a un lugar de refugiados que tena un milln de refugiados en 40 campamentos y ramos seis los mdicos. +All haba muchas epidemias. +Mis responsabilidades estaban en gran parte vinculadas a la tuberculosis, y entonces brot una epidemia de clera. +As que se propag la tuberculosis y el clera de cuya detencin yo era responsable. +Y para hacer este trabajo, nosotros, por supuesto, debido a la limitacin en trabajadores de salud, tuvimos que reclutar refugiados para lograr una nueva categora de trabajador de salud. +Tras tres aos de trabajo en Somalia, me seleccion la Organizacin Mundial de la Salud, y me asignaron las epidemias del SIDA. +Mi responsabilidad principal fue Uganda, pero tambin trabaj en Ruanda y Burundi y Zaire, ahora en el Congo, Tanzania, Malawi y otros pases. +Y mi ltima misin era dirigir una unidad denominada desarrollo de intervencin, que era responsable de disear intervenciones. +Despus de 10 aos de trabajar en el extranjero, estaba exhausto. +Realmente me quedaba muy poca fuerza. +Haba viajado de un pas a otro. +Emocionalmente me senta muy aislado. +Quera irme a casa. +Haba visto muchas muertes, en particular muerte epidmica, y la muerte epidmica tiene un toque diferente. +Est llena de pnico y temor, y escuch a las mujeres lamentndose y llorando en el desierto. +Y quera ir a casa y descansar y tal vez volver a empezar. +No era consciente de ningn problema epidmico en Estados Unidos. +De hecho, no era consciente de ninguno de los problemas de EE.UU. +De hecho... en serio. +Y de hecho al visitar a amigos mos, me di cuenta de que tenan agua que entraba directo a sus hogares. +Cuntos de Uds. tienen una situacin semejante? +Y algunos de ellos, muchos de ellos en realidad, tenan agua que llegaba a ms de una habitacin. +Y me di cuenta de que movan este pequeo dispositivo termorregulador para cambiar la temperatura en su hogar un grado o dos. +Y ahora lo hago yo. +Y realmente no saba lo que haca, pero amigos mos comenzaron a contarme de nios que disparaban a otros nios con armas. +Y formul la pregunta: Qu estn haciendo al respecto? +Qu hacen Uds. en EE.UU. al respecto? +Y hubo dos explicaciones esenciales o ideas que prevalecan. +Una era castigar. +Esto era lo que ya haba odo antes. +Quienes habamos trabajado en comportamiento sabamos que el castigo era algo discutido y tambin algo altamente sobrestimado. +No era el principal impulsor del comportamiento, ni tampoco el principal impulsor del cambio de comportamiento. +La otra explicacin o, en cierto modo, la solucin sugerida, es, por favor, arreglen todas estas cosas: las escuelas, la comunidad, las casas, las familias, todo. +Haba odo esto antes tambin. +A esto lo denomin la teora del "todo", o de Todo Sobre la Tierra. +Pero tambin nos dimos cuenta en el tratamiento de otros procesos y problemas que a veces no se tiene que tratar todo. +Y as senta que haba un agujero gigante ah. +El problema de la violencia estaba incrustado, y esto ha sido histricamente el caso en muchos otros temas. +Las enfermedades diarreicas se haban parado. +La malaria haba sido frenada. +Con frecuencia, hay que reconsiderar una estrategia. +No es como si tuviera alguna idea de lo que sera, pero haba una sensacin de que tendramos que hacer algo con nuevas categoras de trabajadores, algo con cambio del comportamiento y algo con la educacin pblica. +Pero empec a formular preguntas y buscar las cosas habituales que haba explorado antes, del tipo: cmo son los mapas? +Qu aspecto tienen los grficos? +Qu aspecto tienen los datos? +Y los mapas de la violencia en la mayora de las ciudades de EE.UU. tienen este aspecto. +Haba un agrupamiento. +Esto me record al agrupamiento que habamos visto tambin en las epidemias infecciosas, por ejemplo el clera. +Y luego observamos los mapas, y los mapas demostraron esta onda tpica sobre otra onda y sobre otra, porque todas las epidemias son combinaciones de muchas epidemias. +Y que tambin parecan epidemias infecciosas. +Y luego planteamos la pregunta, qu predice realmente un caso de violencia? +Y resulta que el mejor indicador de un caso de violencia es un caso anterior de violencia. +Que tambin suena a que, si hay un caso de gripe, alguien contagi a alguien de gripe o resfriado, o el mayor indicador de riesgo de tuberculosis es haber estado expuesto a la tuberculosis. +Y as vemos que la violencia, en cierto modo, se comporta como una enfermedad contagiosa. +De todos modos somos conscientes de esto incluso en nuestras experiencias comunes o nuestras historias periodsticas de la expansin de la violencia a partir de las peleas o de guerras de pandillas o de las guerras civiles o incluso de genocidios. +Y sin embargo, hay buenas noticias al respecto, porque hay una manera de revertir las epidemias, y solo hay tres cosas que se hacen para revertir las epidemias, y la primera es interrumpir la transmisin. +Con el fin de interrumpir la transmisin, se tienen que detectar y encontrar los primeros casos. +En otras palabras, para tuberculosis se tiene que encontrar a alguien con tuberculosis activa que est infectando a otras personas. +Tiene sentido? +Y hay trabajadores especiales para hacerlo. +Para este problema en particular, hemos diseado una nueva categora de trabajador que, como un trabajador SARS o alguien que busca gripe aviar, puede encontrar los primeros casos. +En este caso, es alguien que est muy enojado porque alguien mir a su novia o le debe dinero, y se pueden encontrar trabajadores y capacitarlos en estas categoras especializadas. +Y luego lo tercero es el cambio de las normas, y eso significa un montn de actividades comunitarias, reestructurando, con educacin pblica, y entonces se obtiene lo que se llama inmunidad de grupo. +Y esa combinacin de factores fue como la epidemia del SIDA en Uganda se revirti con gran xito. +As que en el ao 2000 decidimos poner todo junto mediante la contratacin nuevas categoras de trabajadores, la primera: interruptores de la violencia. +Y luego, pondramos todo esto en marcha en un barrio en lo que fue el peor distrito policial en los EE.UU. en su momento. +As que se contrataron interruptores de violencia del mismo grupo, credibilidad, confianza, acceso, al igual que los trabajadores de salud en Somalia, pero diseado para una categora diferente, y entrenados en la persuasin, en calmar a la gente, comprando tiempo, reformulando. +Y luego otra categora de trabajadores, los trabajadores de divulgacin, para mantener a la gente en una forma de terapia de 6 a 24 meses. +Como con la tuberculosis, pero el objetivo es cambio de comportamiento. +Y entonces un conjunto de actividades en la comunidad para cambiar las normas. +El primer experimento de estos result en una cada del 67 % en los tiroteos y asesinatos en el barrio Garfield Oeste de Chicago. +Fue algo hermoso para el vecindario los primeros 50 o 60 das, luego 90 das, y luego hubo lamentablemente otro tiroteo en otros 90 das, y las mams salan por la tarde. +Iban a los parques a los que no iban antes. +El sol sali. Todo el mundo estaba feliz. +Pero por supuesto, los financiadores dijeron, "esperen un segundo, hganlo otra vez". +Y tuvimos entonces, afortunadamente, los fondos para repetir esta experiencia, y este es uno de los siguientes cuatro barrios que tuvo una cada del 45 % en tiroteos y asesinatos. +Y desde ese momento, esto ha sido replicado 20 veces. +Ha habido evaluaciones independientes apoyadas por el Departamento de Justicia y por el Centro para el Control y la Prevencin de Enfermedades dirigido por Johns Hopkins que han mostrado 30 a 50 % y 40 a 70 % de reduccin en tiroteos y asesinatos usando este nuevo mtodo. +De hecho, ha habido tres evaluaciones independientes por ahora. +Como resultado de esto, hemos recibido mucha atencin incluso nos han hecho una nota de portada en la revista dominical del New York Times. +The Economist en 2009 dijo que este es "el enfoque que adquirir relevancia". +E incluso se hizo una pelcula sobre nuestro trabajo. +[Los interruptores] Sin embargo, no tan aprisa, porque mucha gente no estuvo de acuerdo con esta manera de hacerlo. +Tenemos un montn de crticas, mucha oposicin, y muchos opositores. +En otras palabras, qu quieren decir con problema de salud? +Qu quieren decir con epidemia? +Qu significa?, que no hay malos? +Y hay industrias enteras diseadas para el control de los malos. +Qu quieren decir con contratar a personas con antecedentes? +Mis amigos de aventuras dijeron: "Gary, te estn criticando muchsimo. +Debes estar haciendo algo bien". +Mis amigos de la msica aadieron la palabra "amigo". +As que de todos modos, adems, todava tenamos este problema, y nos estaban criticando mucho tambin por no lidiar con todos estos otros problemas. +Sin embargo, hemos sido capaces de controlar la malaria y reducir el VIH y reducir las enfermedades diarreicas en lugares con economas horribles sin sanar la economa. +Lo que ha sucedido realmente es, que, aunque todava haya cierta oposicin, el movimiento es claramente creciente. +En muchas de las principales ciudades en los EE.UU., incluyendo Nueva York y Baltimore y Kansas, los departamentos de salud ahora apuntan a esto. +En Chicago y Nueva Orleans, los departamentos de salud estn teniendo un papel muy importante en esto. +Esto est siendo adoptado ms por aplicacin de la ley de lo que haba sido hace aos. +Los hospitales y centros de traumatismos estn haciendo su parte al intensificarlo. +Y la Conferencia de Alcaldes de EE.UU. ha respaldado no solo el enfoque sino el modelo especfico. +Donde realmente ha habido incluso una absorcin ms rpida es en el mbito internacional, donde hay una cada de 55 % en el primer barrio en Puerto Rico, las interrupciones estn empezando en Honduras, y se ha aplicado la estrategia en Kenia para las recientes elecciones, y ha habido 500 interrupciones en Irak. +As que la violencia est respondiendo como una enfermedad aun cuando se comporta como una enfermedad. +As que la teora, en cierto modo, est siendo validada por el tratamiento. +Y recientemente, el Instituto de medicina expuso un informe basado en algunos de los datos, incluyendo la neurociencia, sobre cmo este problema realmente se transmite. +As que creo que esta es una buena noticia, porque nos da la oportunidad de salir de la Edad Media, que es donde creo que ha estado este asunto. +Nos da la oportunidad de examinar la posibilidad de reemplazar algunas de estas prisiones por patios o parques, y considerar la posibilidad de convertir nuestros vecindarios en barrios, y permitir que haya una nueva estrategia, un nuevo conjunto de mtodos, un nuevo conjunto de los trabajadores: ciencia, en cierto modo, reemplazando la moralidad. +Y alejarse de las emociones es la parte ms importante de la solucin de la ciencia como la parte ms importante de la solucin. +As que no quise pensar en esto en absoluto. +Era un asunto de querer en realidad un descanso, y miramos mapas, miramos los grficos, hicimos algunas preguntas y probamos algunas herramientas que en realidad se han utilizado muchas veces antes para otras cosas. +Para m, trat de alejarme de las enfermedades infecciosas, y no lo hice. +Gracias. +En mi tiempo libre fuera de Twitter experimento un poco contando historias online, experimento lo que puede hacerse con las nuevas herramientas digitales. +Y en mi empleo en Twitter, de hecho, pas algo de tiempo trabajando con escritores y narradores tambin, ayudando a expandir los lmites de experimentacin de las personas. +Y hoy quiero contarles algunos ejemplos de las cosas que la gente ha hecho y que creo que son fascinantes usando una identidad flexible, el anonimato en la Web, y borrando los lmites entre realidad y ficcin. +Pero quiero empezar y remontarme a los aos 30. +Mucho antes de esa cosita llamada Twitter, la radio haca emisiones y conectaba a millones de personas a receptores nicos de difusin. +Y de esos receptores emanaban historias. +Algunas eran familiares. +Algunas eran historias nuevas. +Durante un tiempo fueron formatos familiares, pero luego la radio tuvo una evolucin propia de formatos singulares especficos de ese medio. +Pensemos en los episodios en vivo de la radio. +Al combinar la actuacin en vivo con la ficcin escrita en episodios, se obtiene este nuevo formato. +Y traigo a colacin la radio porque creo que es un gran ejemplo de cmo un medio nuevo define nuevos formatos que definen nuevas historias. +Y, claro, hoy tenemos un medio completamente nuevo para jugar, que es este mundo online. +Este es el mapa de usuarios verificados de Twitter y las conexiones entre ellos. +Hay miles y miles de ellos. +Cada uno de estos puntos simples es su propio emisor. +Pasamos a este mundo de muchos a muchos, en el que el acceso a las herramientas es la nica barrera para la emisin. +Y creo que deberamos empezar a ver formatos totalmente nuevos conforme la gente aprenda a contar historias en este nuevo medio. +Creo que esto empieza con una evolucin de los mtodos existentes. +El cuento, por ejemplo, la gente dice que el cuento vive una especie de renacimiento gracias a los lectores y a los mercados digitales. +Un escritor, Hugh Howey, experiment con cuentos en Amazon lanzando un cuento muy breve llamado "Wool". +Y dice que en realidad no concibi "Wool" como una serie, pero que al pblico le gust tanto el primer cuento que pidieron ms, y l les dio ms. +Les dio "Wool 2", que fue un poco ms extenso que el primero; "Wool 3", fue un poco ms extenso y termin en "Wool 5", una novela de 60 000 palabras. +Creo que Howey pudo hacer todo esto porque tuvo la respuesta rpida de los libros electrnicos. +Pudo escribir y publicar en un tiempo relativamente corto. +No hubo mediador entre l y el pblico. +Solo estaba l en conexin con su pblico construyendo con base en la respuesta y el entusiasmo que le estaban dando. +Todo este proyecto fue un experimento. +Empez con un cuento, y creo que el experimento se volvi parte del formato de Howey. +Y eso es algo que permite este medio: la experimentacin es parte del propio formato. +Este es un cuento de la escritora Jennifer Egan llamado "Black Box". +Fue escrito desde el principio especficamente para Twitter. +Egan convenci a The New Yorker de abrir la cuenta "New Yorker fiction" desde la cual pudiesen tuitear todas estas lneas que ella cre. +Pero Twitter, claro, tiene un lmite de 140 caracteres. +Egan simul esto simplemente escribiendo a mano en este cuaderno de bocetos, us las restricciones del espacio fsico de esos recuadros de bocetos para escribir cada tuit individual, y esos tuits terminaron siendo una serie de 600 tuits publicados en The New Yorker. +Cada noche, a las 20 hs, uno poda sintonizar un cuento de la cuenta "The New Yorker fiction". +Es genial: sintonizar ficcin literaria. +La experiencia del cuento de Egan, claro, como todo en Twitter, haba varias maneras de experimentarlo. +Se los poda recorrer deslizndose, pero, curiosamente, si uno lo vea en vivo, se creaba un suspenso porque a los tuits reales, uno no controlaba cundo los leera. +Venan a un ritmo bastante regular, pero a medida que se desarrolla la historia, normalmente, como lector, uno controla el ritmo de lectura, pero en este caso, lo haca The New Yorker y hacan entregas poquito a poco, y uno senta el suspenso de esperar la prxima lnea. +Otro gran ejemplo de ficcin y de cuento en Twitter. Elliot Holt es la escritora que escribi el cuento "Evidence". +Empieza con este tuit: "El 28 de noviembre a las 22:13 hs, una mujer identificada como Miranda Brown, 44 aos, de Brooklyn, cae desde la azotea de un hotel de Manhattan y muere". +Empieza con la voz de Elliott, pero luego su voz se aleja y escuchamos las voces de Elsa, Margot y Simon, personajes que Elliott cre en Twitter especficamente para contar esta historia, una historia con mltiples aristas que llevan a este momento de las 22:13 hs +cuando esta mujer cae y muere. +Estos tres personajes crean una visin autntica de varios puntos de vista. +Un crtico llam al cuento de Elliott "Ficcin en Twitter bien hecha", porque lo hizo. +Captur esa voz tuvo mltiples personajes y sucedi en tiempo real. +Curiosamente, sin embargo, Twitter no era solo un mecanismo de distribucin. +Tambin era un mecanismo de produccin. +Elliott me dijo despus que escribi todo con sus pulgares. +Recostada en el sof iba y vena tecleando distintos caracteres tuiteando cada lnea, lnea por lnea. +Creo que esta especie de creacin espontnea de lo que sala de las voces de los personajes realmente le confiri autenticidad a los personajes en s, pero tambin a este formato que ella cre de mltiples aristas en un cuento de Twitter. +Conforme uno empieza a jugar con la identidad flexible online se pone cada vez ms interesante cuando uno empieza a interactuar con el mundo real. +Son gente creativa que experimenta con los lmites de lo posible en este medio. +Vemos cosas como "West Wing" Twitter, en la que personajes de ficcin interactan con el mundo real. +Hablan de poltica, despotrican contra el Congreso. +Recuerden son todos demcratas. +E interactan con el mundo real. +Le responden. +Entonces, si tomamos la identidad flexible, el anonimato, la interaccin con el mundo real, y sobrepasamos el simple homenaje o la parodia y ponemos todo eso al servicio de narrar una historia, ah la cosa se pone muy interesante. +Durante la eleccin de la alcalda de Chicago haba una cuenta de parodia. +Era Mayor Emanuel. +Te daba todo lo que queras de Rahm Emanuel, sobre todo las blasfemias. +Esta cuenta malhablada segua las actividades diarias de la campaa y comentaba lo ocurrido. +Segua la retrica normal de una cuenta de parodia buena y slida, pero luego empez a volverse extraa. +Conforme avanzaba, pas de ese comentario a una pica de ciencia ficcin en tiempo real de varias semanas en la que el protagonista, Rahm Emanuel, emprende un viaje multidimensional el da de la eleccin que... nunca ocurri. +Verifiqu en los peridicos. +Y luego, muy interesante, lleg a su fin. +Esto es algo que no sucede por lo general con una cuenta de parodia en Twitter. +Termina con una verdadera conclusin narrativa. +Uno de mis ejemplos favoritos de algo que est ocurriendo ahora en Twitter, es el muy absurdo Crimer Show. +Crimer Show cuenta la historia de un spercriminal y un detective desventurado que se enfrentan con un lenguaje muy extrao, con los lugares comunes de la tele. +El creador de Crimer Show dijo que es una parodia de un tipo popular de espectculo del Reino Unido, pero, hombre, es extrao. +Crimer, el spercriminal, hace todo lo tpico de la TV: +siempre se quita las gafas de sol o gira hacia la cmara, pero todo esto sucede en el texto. +Creo que tomar todos estos lugares comunes de la tele y adems presentar cada Crimer Show como un episodio, deletreado E-P-P-A-S-O-D [parodia promo de tv] presentndolos como episodios realmente crea algo nuevo. +Hay un nuevo "epasodio" de Crimer Show en Twitter casi a diario, y se archivan as. +Creo que esto es un experimento interesante con el formato. +Algo totalmente nuevo creado a partir de la parodia de algo de la tele. +Creo que en la narrativa de no ficcin en tiempo real tambin hay muchos ejemplos excelentes. +RealTimeWWII es una cuenta que documenta lo ocurrido hoy pero hace 60 aos con un detalle excepcional como si uno leyera las noticias de ese da. +Y el escritor Teju Cole experiment mucho con eso de darle un giro literario a las noticias. +En este caso particular, est hablando de ataques con drones. +Creo que en ambos ejemplos empezamos a ver formas de narrativa con contenido de no ficcin que pueden constituir nuevos tipos de narrativa de ficcin. +As, la narrativa en tiempo real difumina la lnea entre realidad y ficcin, el mundo real y el mundo digital, la identidad flexible, el anonimato, son herramientas que tenemos a mano, y creo que son solo bloques de construccin. +Son elementos que usamos para crear estructuras, marcos, sobre las cuales apoyar la exploracin de esta frontera abierta a la experimentacin. +Gracias. +"Denme la libertad o la muerte". +Cuando Patrick Henry, gobernador de Virginia, dijo estas palabras en 1775, nunca se hubiese imaginado cunto resonaran en las futuras generaciones de EE.UU. +En aquel entonces, estas palabras apuntaban contra los britnicos, estaban dirigidas a ellos, pero durante los ltimos 200 aos han ido encarnando lo que creen muchos occidentales: que la libertad es el valor ms preciado, y que los mejores sistemas polticos y econmicos tienen a la libertad como raz. +Quin los puede culpar? +En los ltimos 100 aos, la combinacin de democracia y capitalismo privado ha ayudado a catapultar a Estados Unidos y a los pases occidentales a nuevos niveles de desarrollo econmico. +En los ltimos 100 aos, en EE.UU., los ingresos aumentaron 30 veces y cientos de miles de personas salieron de la pobreza. +Mientras tanto, el ingenio y la innovacin de los estadounidenses contribuy a estimular la industrializacin y tambin a la invencin y fabricacin de electrodomsticos, de vehculos a motor e incluso de telfonos mviles que tienen en el bolsillo. +Entonces, no sorprende que an en la ms honda crisis del capitalismo privado, el presidente Obama haya dicho: "La pregunta que se nos plantea no es si el mercado es una fuerza para el bien o el mal. +Su poder para generar riqueza y extender la libertad es inigualable". +Por lo tanto, es comprensible que exista el supuesto profundamente arraigado en los occidentales de que todo el mundo decidir adoptar el capitalismo privado como modelo para el crecimiento econmico, una democracia 'liberal', y seguir priorizando los derechos polticos sobre los econmicos. +Sin embargo, para muchos que viven en mercados emergentes esto es una ilusin, y aunque la Declaracin Universal de los Derechos Humanos, firmada en 1948, fue adoptada unnimemente, lo que hizo fue enmascarar la brecha que ha surgido entre pases desarrollados y pases en vas desarrollo, y las creencias ideolgicas entre los derechos polticos y los econmicos. +Esta brecha no hecho ms que crecer. +Hoy en da, mucha gente que vive en los mercados emergentes, donde vive el 90 % de la poblacin mundial, cree que la obsesin occidental por los derechos polticos no es lo ms importante, y que lo que realmente importa es la provisin de alimento, vivienda, educacin y salud. +"Denme la libertad o la muerte"; est buensimo si puedes pagarlo. Pero si ests viviendo con menos de un USD 1 al da, ests demasiado ocupado tratando de sobrevivir y de alimentar a tu familia como para perder el tiempo por ah tratando de proclamar y defender la democracia. +S que muchos en esta sala y en todo el mundo pensarn: "Bueno, esto es realmente difcil de entender". Porque se tiene al capitalismo privado y a la democracia como algo sacrosanto. +Pero hoy les pregunto: Qu haran si tuvieran que elegir? +Qu haran si tuvieran que elegir entre un techo y el derecho al voto? +En los ltimos 10 aos, tuve el privilegio de viajar a ms de 60 pases, muchos de ellos, en los mercados emergentes, en Amrica Latina, Asia, y en mi propio continente, frica. +No me interpreten mal. +No estoy diciendo que en los mercados emergentes la gente no entiende la democracia, ni que, idealmente, no les gustara elegir a sus presidentes o lderes. +Claro que les gustara. +Sin embargo, lo que quiero decir es que, teniendo todo en cuenta, les preocupa ms cmo conseguir un mejor nivel de vida y cmo los ayudarn sus gobiernos a obtenerlo, que si el gobierno fue elegido democrticamente. Pero la cuestin es que se ha convertido +en un asunto inquietante. Porque por primera vez en mucho tiempo se est desafiando concretamente a los sistemas ideolgicos de la poltica y de la economa occidentales. Y este sistema est representado por China. +En vez de capitalismo privado, tienen capitalismo de estado. +En vez de democracia, no le dan prioridad al sistema democrtico. +Y tambin han decidido priorizar los derechos econmicos por sobre los derechos polticos. +Y debo decirles que este sistema representado por China se est erigiendo entre los habitantes de los mercados emergentes como el sistema a seguir. Porque estn convencidos de que ese es el sistema que les traer los mejores y ms rpidos avances en los niveles de vida en el perodo ms corto. +Si me lo permiten, dedicar unos minutos a explicarles primero por qu llegaron a pensar as la economa. +Ante todo, es por el rendimiento econmico de China de los ltimos 30 aos. +China tuvo un crecimiento econmico rcord y, lo que es ms, ha sacado a mucha gente de la pobreza, en concreto, ha reducido la pobreza significativamente al sacar de la indigencia a ms de 300 millones de personas. +Y no es solo la economa: se trata tambin del nivel de vida. +Vemos en China que un 28 % de la poblacin acceda a la secundaria. +Hoy, es cerca del 82 %. +As que, de manera global, la mejora econmica ha sido muy importante. +En segundo lugar, China consigui mejorar significativamente la desigualdad en los ingresos sin cambiar sus conceptos polticos. +Hoy EE.UU. y China son las 2 economas lderes del mundo. +Tienen sistemas polticos enormemente diferentes, y sistemas econmicos diferentes: uno con capitalismo privado; otro, en trminos generales, con capitalismo estatal. +Sin embargo, estos 2 pases tienen un coeficiente idntico de Gini, que es una medida de la igualdad de los ingresos. +Quiz lo que ms preocupa es que la igualdad de los ingresos de China ha mejorado en el ltimo tiempo, mientras que la de EE.UU. ha empeorado. +Tercero, en los mercados emergentes, la gente se fija en el asombroso y ya legendario desarrollo de infraestructura de China. +Esto es algo que la gente puede ver y sealar. +Quiz no sorprenda que en una encuesta de Pew de 2007, los africanos de 10 pases dijeron que pensaban que los chinos estaban haciendo cosas sorprendentes para mejorar su subsistencia por mrgenes tan amplios como del 98 %. +Finalmente, China tambin est brindando soluciones innovadoras a viejos problemas sociales que enfrenta el mundo. +Si vamos a Mogadiscio, Ciudad de Mxico o Bombay, nos damos cuenta de que la logstica y la infraestructura deteriorada siguen siendo un obstculo para el suministro de medicamentos y la asistencia sanitaria en las zonas rurales. +Sin embargo, a travs de una red de empresas estatales, los chinos han podido entrar a estas zonas rurales, por medio de sus compaas para ayudar a proveer esa asistencia mdica. +Seoras y seores, no sorprende que en todo el mundo se seale lo que China est haciendo y diciendo, "Me gusta eso. Quiero eso. +Quiero poder hacer lo que est haciendo China. +Ese parece ser el sistema que funciona". +Estoy aqu tambin para decirles que hay muchos cambios que estn ocurriendo en torno a lo que est haciendo China en su postura democrtica. +Particularmente, la duda creciente de los habitantes de los mercados emergentes, donde ahora creen que la democracia ya no debe verse como un requisito esencial para el crecimiento econmico. +De hecho, pases como Taiwn, Singapur, Chile, no solo China, han mostrado que en realidad, el crecimiento econmico es el requisito esencial para la democracia. +En un estudio reciente, las pruebas han mostrado que el ingreso econmico es el factor determinante ms importante para el tiempo que puede durar una democracia. +El estudio indica que si el ingreso per cpita es de alrededor de USD 1000 por ao, la democracia durar cerca de 8 aos y medio. +Si el ingreso per cpita est entre los USD 2000 y USD 4000 por ao, entonces probablemente habr 33 aos de democracia. +Y solo si el ingreso per cpita est arriba de los USD 6000 al ao habr democracia a como d lugar. +Esto nos dice que primero necesitamos crear una clase media que pueda controlar al gobierno y hacerlo rendir cuentas. +Pero quiz tambin nos est diciendo que debera preocuparnos andar por el mundo forzando la democracia, porque finalmente corremos el riesgo de terminar en democracias intolerantes, democracias que en algn sentido podran ser peores que los gobiernos autoritarios que buscan reemplazar. +Las pruebas de las democracias intolerantes son bastante deprimentes. +Freedom House descubre que aunque el 50 % de los pases del mundo hoy en da son democrticos, el 70 % de esos pases tienen una democracia parcial en el sentido de que la gente no tiene libertad de expresin o de circulacin. +Sin embargo, en un estudio que Freedom House public el ao pasado, encontramos que la libertad viene decayendo todos los aos durante los ltimos 7 aos. +Esto significa que para la gente como yo, que nos importa la democracia, tenemos que encontrar una manera ms sostenible de asegurarnos de que tenemos una manera sostenible de democracia en el sentido 'liberal', y eso viene de la economa. +Pero tambin dice que mientra China avanza y se convierte en la economa ms grande del mundo --algo que los expertos esperan que suceda en 2016-- esta brecha entre las ideologas polticas y econmicas de Occidente y las otras probablemente se agrandar. +Cmo sera ese mundo? +Bueno, el mundo podra ser de ms participacin del estado y de capitalismo estatal; mayor proteccionismo de las naciones-estados; pero tambin, como mencion hace un momento, un constante deterioro de los derechos polticos e individuales. +La pregunta que nos queda en general es: Entonces, qu debera estar haciendo Occidente? +Y sugiero que tienen 2 opciones. +Occidente puede ya sea competir o cooperar. +El hecho es que si Occidente decide competir, agrandar la brecha. +La otra alternativa es que Occidente coopere y por cooperacin quiero decir otorgar a los pases de los mercados emergentes la flexibilidad para decidir de manera integrada qu sistema poltico y econmico funciona mejor para ellos. +Estoy segura de que algunos aqu en la sala estarn pensando que esto es ceder ante China. En otras palabras, que de esta manera Occidente tendr un papel secundario. +El hecho es que en lugar de ir por el mundo acosando a los pases por unirse a China, Occidente debera estimular sus propios negocios para comercializar e invertir en estas regiones. +En lugar de criticar a China por su mal comportamiento, Occidente debera mostrarnos que es mejor su propio sistema poltico y econmico. +Algunos podrn decir que hoy todava no hay igualdad de derechos. +De hecho, hay grupos que podran sostener que, ante la ley, todava no tienen igualdad de derechos. +En el mejor de los casos, el modelo occidental habla por s mismo. +Es el modelo que pone la comida en la mesa. +Es el modelo de los refrigeradores, +el que llev al hombre a la Luna. +Pero el hecho es que, aunque la gente de esa poca sealaba a los pases occidentales y deca: "Quiero eso, me gusta eso", ahora hay alguien nuevo en el barrio y tiene forma de pas: China. +Hoy en da, las generaciones observan a China y dicen: "China puede producir infraestructura, China puede generar crecimiento econmico, y nos gusta eso". +Porque al final, la pregunta que se nos plantea a nosotros y a los 7000 millones de personas del planeta es: Cmo podemos generar prosperidad? +A la gente le importa y se volcar hacia el modelo poltico y econmico, de manera muy racional, a esos modelos que aseguren que pueden tener mejores niveles de vida en el perodo ms corto. +Solo para ilustrar, revis mis recuerdos y archivos personales. Esa es mi foto. +Ooooh. +Nac en Zambia en 1969 y all crec. +En la poca en que nac, no emitan partidas de nacimiento para los negros y esa ley recin cambi en 1973. +Esta es un acta juramentada emitida por el gobierno de Zambia. +Les traigo esto para decirles que en 40 aos, he pasado de no ser reconocida como un ser humano a estar hoy frente al pblico ilustre de TED para decirles lo que pienso. +En este sentido, podemos aumentar el desarrollo econmico. +Podemos reducir la pobreza significativamente. +Pero, tambin, requerir que revisemos nuestros supuestos, supuestos y crticas con los que hemos crecido sobre la democracia, sobre el capitalismo privado, sobre lo que genera desarrollo econmico, reduce la pobreza y genera libertades. +Quiz tengamos que romper esos libros y empezar a ver otras opciones y tener la mente abierta para buscar la verdad. +En definitiva, se trata de transformar el mundo y hacerlo un mejor lugar. +Muchas gracias. +Soy planificador y diseador urbano, ex defensor de las artes, graduado en arquitectura e historia del arte, y hoy quiero hablarles no de diseo, sino de EE.UU. y de cmo EE.UU. puede ser econmicamente ms resiliente, de cmo EE.UU. puede ser ms saludable, y de cmo EE.UU. puede ser ambientalmente ms sustentable. +S que este es un foro mundial, pero creo que debo hablar de EE.UU. porque hay una historia en algunos lugares, no en todos, de ideas de EE.UU. que son adoptadas, emuladas, para bien o para mal, en todo el mundo. +Y la peor idea que hemos tenido es la expansin suburbana. +Mientras hablamos, la estn imitando en muchos sitios. +Y hay una alternativa. +Ya saben, se dice que la mitad del mundo vive en ciudades. +Bueno, en EE.UU.,-- ese vivir en ciudades para muchos de ellos-- viven todava en ciudades en las que dependen del automvil. +Y yo trabajo para que en nuestras ciudades caminemos ms. +Pero no puedo dar argumentos de diseo que tengan tanto impacto como los argumentos que aprend de economistas, epidemilogos y ambientalistas. +Y son estos tres argumentos los que voy a desarrollar rpidamente aqu hoy. +Cuando creca, en los aos '70, el estadounidense tpico gastaba un dcimo de su ingreso -- la familia estadounidense -- en transporte. +Desde entonces hemos duplicado la cantidad de carreteras en EE.UU., y ahora gastamos un quinto de los ingresos en transporte. +Y estos son los barrios, por ejemplo, del Valle Central de California que no sufrieron dao cuando estall la burbuja inmobiliaria pero que cuando subi el precio de la gasolina fueron diezmados. +De hecho, estos son muchos de los vecindarios semi-vacos que vemos hoy. +Imaginen que hipotecan todo lo que tienen para comprar casa, que se inundan, y que tienen que pagar el doble por sus gastos de transporte. +Sabemos lo que se le ha hecho a nuestra sociedad y todo el trabajo extra que tenemos que hacer para mantener nuestros autos. +Qu pasa cuando una ciudad decide fijar otras prioridades? +Y probablemente el mejor ejemplo que tenemos aqu en EE.UU. es Portland, Oregn. +Portland tom muchas decisiones en los aos '70 que empezaron a distinguirla de casi cualquier otra ciudad de EE.UU. +Mientras la mayora de las otras ciudades se expandan indiscriminadamente, ellos instituyeron un lmite al crecimiento urbano. +Mientras la mayora de las ciudades ensanchaban las carreteras, acabando con las zonas de estacionamiento y los rboles para hacer ms fluido el trfico, ellos instituyeron un programa de calles estrechas. +Y mientras la mayora de las ciudades invertan en ms carreteras y autopistas, ellos invirtieron en bicicletas y caminatas. +Y gastaron USD 60 millones en instalaciones para bicicletas, que parece mucho dinero, pero se gast en unos 30 aos, a razn de USD 2 millones al ao -- no es tanto -- la mitad del precio que la interseccin en trbol que decidieron reconstruir en esa ciudad. +Estos cambios y otros similares cambiaron la forma de vida en Portland, y los kilmetros que viajamos por da. La cantidad que maneja cada persona, que alcanz su punto mximo en 1996, ha ido disminuyendo desde entonces, y ahora conducen 20 % menos que el resto del pas. +El ciudadano tpico de Portland conduce 6 kilmetros menos, 11 minutos menos por da, que antes. +El economista Joe Cortright hizo la cuenta y hall que esos 6 kilmetros ms esos 11 minutos totalizan el 3,5 % del ingreso de la regin. +As que si no estn gastando ese dinero conduciendo, -- por cierto, 85 % del dinero que gastamos conduciendo deja la economa local -- si no gastan ese dinero conduciendo, en qu lo gastan? +Bueno, Portland tiene fama de tener la mayor cantidad de portaequipajes de techo por habitante, la mayor cantidad de libreras independientes per cpita, la mayor cantidad de clubes de striptease por habitante. +Son exageraciones, leves exageraciones de una verdad fundamental, que es que Portland gasta mucho ms en recreacin de todo tipo que el resto de EE.UU. +Efectivamente, Oregn gasta ms en alcohol que la mayora de los otros estados, algo que puede ser bueno o malo, pero lo alegra a uno que estn conduciendo menos. +Pero en efecto, estn gastando la mayor parte en sus hogares, y la inversin en el hogar es lo ms local en lo que pueda invertirse. +As que por un lado, una ciudad le ahorra dinero a sus residentes cuando por ella se puede caminar y andar ms en bici, y por otro, es tambin ese tipo de ciudad genial en la que queremos vivir hoy en da. +Por eso la mejor estrategia econmica que se puede tener como ciudad no es el viejo modo de intentar atraer corporaciones, y de tener un polo biotecnolgico o un polo mdico, o un polo aeroespacial, sino el de volverse un lugar en el que la gente quiera vivir. +Y ciertamente los "jvenes del milenio, esos motores del emprendimiento, 64 % de los cuales deciden primero dnde quieren vivir, y se mudan luego all para buscar despus empleo, ellos vendrn a tu ciudad. +El argumento de la salud es aterrador, y probablemente han odo parte de este argumento antes. +De nuevo, en los aos '70 -- mucho ha cambiado desde entonces -- en los aos '70, uno de cada 10 estadounidenses era obeso. +Hoy en da uno de cada tres estadounidenses es obeso, y un segundo tercio de la poblacin tiene sobrepeso. +25 % de los jvenes y 40 % de las jvenes tienen demasiado peso para alistarse en nuestras propias fuerzas militares. +Segn el Centro de Control de Enfermedades, un tercio completo de los nios nacidos despus del 2000 tendr diabetes. +Esta es la primera generacin de nios en EE.UU. de la que se predice tendrn vidas ms cortas que sus padres. +Creo que esta crisis sanitaria de EE.UU. de la que todos hemos odo es una crisis de diseo urbano, y que en el diseo de nuestras ciudades yace la cura. +Porque hemos hablado mucho tiempo de dietas, y sabemos que las dietas inciden en el peso, y el peso por supuesto incide en la salud. +Pero recin empezamos a hablar del sedentarismo, y de que el sedentarismo nace de nuestro paisaje, El sedentarismo, que viene del hecho de que vivimos en un lugar donde ya no existen cosas como paseos idneos, est disparando nuestro peso. +Y por ltimo tenemos los estudios, uno britnico llamado "Gula versus pereza" que compar el peso con la dieta y el peso con el sedentarismo, y encontr una correlacin mucho ms alta, ms fuerte, entre las ltimas dos. +El Dr. James Levine de, en este caso, la bien llamada Clnica Mayo [mayonesa], puso a sus sujetos de estudio ropa interior electrnica, mantuvo una dieta sostenida, y luego empez a aumentar las caloras. +Algunas personas aumentaron de peso, otras personas no lo hicieron. +Esperaban que fuera efecto de algn factor metablico o del ADN pero se vieron sorprendidos al averiguar que la nica diferencia entre los sujetos que pudieron analizar era cunto se movan, y que de hecho quienes aumentaron de peso estuvieron sentados, en promedio, 2 horas ms por da que quienes no lo hicieron. +Tenemos pues estos estudios que ligan el peso al sedentarismo, pero tambin, tenemos ahora estudios que ligan peso al lugar donde vivimos. +Vives en una ciudad donde se camina ms o vives en una ciudad donde se camina menos? O, en qu lugar de tu ciudad vives? +En San Diego, usaron Walk Score. Walk Score punta cada direccin de EE.UU., y pronto del mundo, en trminos de cunto puede caminarse. Usaron Walk Score para designar barrios donde se camina ms y barrios donde se camina menos. +Y, adivinen qu. Si uno vive en un barrio donde se camina ms, tiene un 35 % de probabilidades de tener sobrepeso. +Si uno vive en un barrio donde se camina menos, uno tiene un 60 % de probabilidades de tener sobrepeso. +Hoy tenemos entonces un estudio tras otro vinculando el lugar donde se vive con la salud, en particular en EE.UU. La mayor crisis de salud que tenemos es esta derivada del sedentarismo inducido por el entorno. +Y la semana pasada aprend una palabra nueva. +"Generaobesos" es el nombre que reciben estos barrios. +Puede que lo diga mal, pero la idea se entiende. +Esa es solo una de las cosas, por supuesto. +Para mencionarlo brevemente, tambin tenemos una epidemia de asma en este pas. +Probablemente no han pensado mucho en eso. +14 estadounidenses mueren a diario de asma, 3 veces ms que en los aos '90, y casi todo viene de los exhostos de los autos. +La polucin en EE.UU. ya no viene de las fbricas, viene de los tubos de exhosto, y de lo mucho que la gente conduce en tu ciudad. El "millaje de recorrido vehicular" urbano, es una buena prediccin de los problemas de asma en tu ciudad. +Y luego, finalmente, en materia de conducir, est el tema del asesino ms grande de adultos sanos, y uno de los asesinos ms grandes de todo tipo de personas: los accidentes de auto. +Y aceptamos sin ms los accidentes de auto. +Suponemos que es un riesgo natural que tiene salir a la calle. +Pero de hecho, aqu en EE.UU., 12 personas de cada 100 000 mueren al ao en accidentes de auto. +Estamos bastante seguros aqu. +Pues, adivinen qu. En Inglaterra, son 7 por cada 100 000. +En Japn, 4 por cada 100 000. +Saben dnde hay 3 por cada 100 000? +En Nueva York. +San Francisco, lo mismo. Portland, lo mismo. +Entonces, estamos ms seguros en las ciudades porque conducimos menos? +Tulsa: 14 cada 100 000. +Orlando: 20 cada 100 000. +No se trata de si uno est en la ciudad o no. Es como est diseada tu ciudad? +Fue diseada para los autos o para las personas? +Porque si tu ciudad se dise para los autos, ese diseo es bueno para hacer chocar autos. +Eso es parte de un argumento sanitario mucho mayor. +Por ltimo, el argumento ambiental es fascinante porque los ambientalistas dieron un vuelco completo hace 10 aos. +El movimiento ambientalista en EE.UU. ha sido histricamente un movimiento anti-ciudad de Jefferson en adelante. +"Las ciudades son pestilentes para la salud, para las libertades, para la moral del hombre. +Si seguimos apindonos en las ciudades, como hacen en Europa, nos volveremos tan corruptos como lo son en Europa y nos comeremos unos a otros como hacen all". +l aparentemente tena sentido del humor. +Y entonces el movimiento ambientalista estadounidense ha sido un movimiento clsicamente buclico. +Para volvernos ms ambientalistas, nos mudamos al campo, y en comunin con la naturaleza, construimos suburbios. +Y por supuesto que hemos visto lo que esto provoca. +El mapeo del carbono en EE.UU., dnde est el CO2 que est siendo emitido, solo machac por muchos aos con ms y ms fuerza sobre este mismo argumento. +Si vemos cualquier mapa del carbono, porque lo medimos por milla cuadrada, cualquier mapa, parece como una foto satelital del cielo nocturno de EE.UU., ms caliente en las ciudades, ms fro en los suburbios, oscuro y tranquilo en el campo. +Hasta que algunos economistas dijeron: es esa la manera correcta de medir el CO2? +Es solo que hay tanta gente en este pas en un momento dado, y nosotros podemos elegir vivir donde de pronto tengamos un impacto ms leve. +Y dijeron, midamos el CO2 por hogar, y al hacer eso, los mapas se invirtieron, ms fro en el centro de la ciudad, ms caliente en los suburbios, y al rojo vivo en estos barrios alejados del tipo "conduce hasta que califiques". +Y entonces se dio un cambio fundamental y ahora tenemos ambientalistas y economistas como Ed Glaeser que dicen que somos una especie destructiva. +Si uno ama la naturaleza, lo mejor que puede hacer es mantenerse lo ms alejado posible de ella, mudarse a una ciudad, cuanto ms densa mejor, y las ciudades ms densas, como Manhattan, son las que mejor rendimiento tienen. +El habitante medio de Manhattan consume gasolina a una tasa que el resto de la nacin no ha visto desde los aos '20, consumiendo adems la mitad de la electricidad de Dallas. +Pero, claro, podemos hacerlo mejor. +Las ciudades canadienses consumen la mitad de la gasolina que las ciudades de EE.UU. +Las ciudades europeas consumen la mitad de eso. +As que, obviamente, podemos hacerlo mejor, y queremos hacerlo mejor, y todos tratamos de ser ecologistas. +No soy inmune a esto. +Mi esposa y yo construimos una casa nueva en un solar abandonado en Washington, DC, e hicimos nuestro mejor esfuerzo para limpiar los estantes de la tienda de sustentabilidad. +Tenemos el sistema solar fotovoltaico, calentador de agua solar, inodoros de doble descarga, pisos de bamb. +Un registro de combustin en mi cocina alemana de alta tecnologa que al parecer, supuestamente, contribuye con menos carbono a la atmsfera que si se lo dejara solo descomponer en el bosque. +No obstante estas innovaciones... Eso es lo que dicen en el folleto. +Todas estas innovaciones juntas contribuyen una fraccin de lo que contribuimos viviendo en un barrio donde se puede caminar a 3 cuadras del metro en el centro de la ciudad. +Hemos cambiado todas las lmparas por las de bajo consumo, y Uds. deberan hacer lo mismo, pero cambiar todas las lmparas por otras de bajo consumo ahorra tanta energa al ao como mudarse a una ciudad donde se camina, en una semana. +Y no queremos tener esta discusin. +Los polticos y los vendedores temen promocionar la ecologa como una "eleccin de estilo de vida". +No queremos decirle a los estadounidenses, Dios no lo permita, que tienen que cambiar su estilo de vida. +Pero, y si el estilo de vida tuviera realmente que ver con calidad de vida y con algo que quiz todos disfrutaramos ms, algo mejor de lo que tenemos hoy en da? +Pues bien, el estndar de oro de los rnquines de calidad de vida se llama La Encuesta Mercer. +Puede que lo conozcan. +Califican a cientos de naciones del mundo segn 10 criterios que ellos creen que aportan a la calidad de vida: salud, economa, educacin, vivienda, lo que sea. +Hay 6 ms. Lo hago breve. +Es muy interesante notar que a la ciudad estadounidense mejor ubicada, Honolulu, nmero 28, le siguen las sospechosas de siempre: Seattle, Boston y todas las ciudades donde se camina ms. +Las ciudades del auto del Cinturn del Sol, las Dallas, las Phoenix y, lo siento, Atlanta, estas ciudades no aparecen en la lista. +Pero, a quin le va mejor? +A ciudades canadienses como Vancouver, donde, de nuevo, consumen la mitad del combustible. +Y por lo general ganan las ciudades que hablan alemn, como Dusseldorf o Viena, en las que consumen, de nuevo, la mitad del combustible. +Y vemos esta alineacin, esta extraa alineacin. +Es ms sustentable lo que te da ms alta calidad de vida? +Yo argumentara que lo mismo que te hace ms sustentable es lo que te da ms alta calidad de vida, y eso es vivir en un barrio donde se camina ms. +Por eso la sustentabilidad, y eso incluye nuestra riqueza y nuestra salud, puede no ser una funcin directa de nuestra sustentabilidad. +Pero en particular en EE.UU., estamos contaminando mucho porque desperdiciamos nuestro tiempo, nuestro dinero y nuestras vidas en la autopista, entonces estos 2 problemas pareceran compartir la misma solucin, que es hacer que en nuestras ciudades se camine ms. +No es fcil de hacer, pero puede hacerse, se ha hecho, y se ha hecho en varias ciudades de todo el mundo y en nuestro pas. +Busco un poco de consuelo en Winston Churchill, que lo dijo as: "Se puede contar con que los estadounidenses hagan lo correcto una vez que hayan agotado las alternativas". Gracias. +Como humanos, est en nuestra naturaleza querer mejorar nuestra salud y minimizar el sufrimiento. +Sin importar lo que la vida tenga para darnos, ya sea cncer, diabetes, enfermedades cardacas, o incluso fracturas de huesos, buscamos recuperarnos. +Soy jefa de un laboratorio de biomateriales y realmente estoy fascinada de la forma en que los humanos han usado materiales de la manera ms creativa en su cuerpo a lo largo del tiempo. +Tomemos como ejemplo este bello caparazn de ncar azul. +De hecho, lo usaban los mayas como diente artificial. +No estamos seguros del porqu lo hacan. +Es duro. Es duradero. +Pero tambin tena otras propiedades muy buenas. +De hecho, cuando lo colocaban en la mandbula, poda integrarse a ella. Y actualmente sabemos, gracias a tecnologas de imgenes muy sofisticadas, que parte de esa integracin se debe al hecho de que este material est diseado de una manera muy especfica: tiene una hermosa qumica, una hermosa arquitectura. +Y creo que, de algn modo, podramos pensar en el uso del caparazn azul de ncar y los mayas como la primera aplicacin real de la tecnologa Bluetooth. +Pero si avanzamos y pensamos a lo largo de la historia cmo los humanos han usado diferentes materiales en el cuerpo, a menudo encontraremos que los mdicos han sido bastante creativos. +Han usando cosas comunes y corrientes. +Uno de mis ejemplos favoritos es el de Sir Harold Ridley, que fue un oftalmlogo famoso, o que se convirti en un oftalmlogo famoso. +Y durante la 2 Guerra Mundial, vio a pilotos que volvan de sus misiones y not que dentro de sus ojos tenan fragmentos pequeos de material alojados dentro del ojo. Pero lo ms interesante era que el material no estaba causando ninguna reaccin inflamatoria. +Al investigar el caso, descubri que, en realidad, se trataba de pequeos fragmentos de plstico que provenan de la cubierta exterior de los aviones Spitfires. +Y esto lo llev a proponer aquel material como nuevo material para lentes intraoculares. +Se llama PMMA y actualmente se usa en millones de personas por ao, y ayuda a prevenir cataratas. +Creo que ese ejemplo es esplndido porque nos recuerda que en aquellos das los materiales se elegan con frecuencia porque eran bioinertes. +Su propsito era cumplir una funcin mecnica. +Se los podra poner en el cuerpo sin que causaran una reaccin adversa. +Y lo que quiero mostrarles es que, en medicina regenerativa, ya nos alejamos de esa idea de tomar un material bioinerte. +En cambio, buscamos materiales que sean bioactivos, que interacten con el cuerpo, y que adems podamos ponerlos en el cuerpo, que cumplan su funcin, y que luego se disuelvan con el tiempo. +Si miramos este esquema, se ve lo que consideramos el procedimiento tpico en la ingeniera de tejidos. +Tenemos clulas all, normalmente del paciente. +Podemos ponerlas sobre un material y podemos hacer que ese material sea muy complejo si queremos. Luego, podemos hacerlo crecer en el laboratorio o podemos colocrselo directamente al paciente. +Y este es un procedimiento que se usa en todo el mundo, incluyendo nuestro laboratorio. +Y si pensamos en los diferentes tipos de tejidos que se buscan regenerar en todo el mundo, en los diferentes laboratorios del mundo, son casi todos los tejidos que podemos imaginar. +Todos nuestros tejidos tienen capacidades muy diferentes para regenerarse. Y aqu vemos al pobre Prometeo, que eligi un camino algo complicado y fue castigado por los dioses griegos. +Lo ataron a una roca y un guila lo visitaba a diario para comerle su hgado. +Pero obviamente su hgado se regeneraba cada da. Y as, da tras da, fue castigado eternamente por los dioses. +El hgado se regenerar de esta maravillosa manera. Pero si pensamos en otros tejidos, como el cartlago, por ejemplo, ante el menor corte, les resultar muy difcil regenerar ese cartlago. +Por lo que vara mucho de tejido a tejido. +El hueso es algo intermedio y es uno de los tejidos en el que trabajamos en nuestro laboratorio. +El hueso es bastante bueno para regenerarse. +Debe serlo. Probablemente todos hemos tenido fracturas en algn momento. +Y una de las maneras en las que pueden pensar en reparar la fractura es este procedimiento, llamado extraccin de hueso de la cresta ilaca. +Lo que el cirujano podra hacer es tomar algo de hueso de la cresta ilaca, que est justo aqu, y luego trasplantarlo en algn otro lugar del cuerpo. +Y funciona realmente bien porque es hueso propio y est bien vascularizado, lo que significa que tiene una muy buena provisin de sangre. +Pero el problema es que hay un lmite y adems, cuando se hace esa operacin, los pacientes podran sufrir dolor significativo en la zona afectada incluso dos aos despus de la operacin. +Y eso es lo que hicimos y la forma en que lo hicimos fue volviendo a este tpico mtodo de ingeniera de tejido pero pensndolo de un modo diferente. +Y lo simplificamos mucho, por lo que nos deshicimos de muchos de estos pasos. +Nos deshicimos de la necesidad de extraer clulas del paciente, de la necesidad de introducir qumicos muy sofisticados y nos deshicimos de la necesidad de cultivar estas estructuras en el laboratorio. +Y en lo que nos enfocamos realmente fue en nuestro sistema material y en hacerlo ms simple. Pero como lo usamos de forma muy ingeniosa, pudimos generar cantidades enormes de hueso usando este mtodo. +Es decir, estbamos usando el cuerpo como un verdadero catalizador para que nos ayudara a crear mucho hueso nuevo. +Es un mtodo que llamamos el "biorreactor in vivo" y pudimos crear enormes cantidades de hueso usando este mtodo. +Y de esto voy a hablarles. +Lo que hicimos es que, en humanos, todos tenemos una capa de clulas madre en el exterior de nuestros huesos largos. +Esta capa se llama el periostio +y esa capa est normalmente muy firmememente pegada al hueso oculto y contiene clulas madres. +Esas clulas madre son en efecto importantes en el embrin cuando se desarrolla y tambin digamos que despiertan si se fracturan para ayudarles a reparar el hueso. +As tomamos esa capa de periostio y desarrollamos una forma de inyectarle por debajo un lquido que luego de 30 segundos, se convierte en una gel rgida, que puede levantar el periostio y separarlo del hueso +As en esencia se crea una cavidad artificial que est justo a un lado del hueso que tambin tiene una capa abundante en clulas madre. +Esta es una platina histolgica de lo que vemos cuando hacemos eso y en esencia lo que vemos son grandes cantidades de hueso. +En esta imagen, pueden ver el centro de la pierna, es decir mdula sea, entonces pueden ver el hueso original y pueden ver donde el hueso original termina y justo a la izquierda de ste es el hueso nuevo que ha crecido dentro de la cavidad bioreactora y de hecho se puede hacer ms grande. +En trminos de dolor post operatorio es mnimo comparado con la cosecha de una cresta ilaca. +Y se puede generar distintas cantidades de hueso dependiendo de cunta gel pongamos, as que en realidad es un procedimiento a pedido. +Ahora, cuando hicimos esto, recibimos mucha atencin de la prensa, porque es una forma en verdad esplndida de generar hueso nuevo y recibimos muchos contactos de diversas personas interesadas en usarlo. +Slo les contar de algunos de esos contactos muy extraos, levemente inesperados y el ms interesante, permitan que lo diga as, fue un contacto que tuve, de hecho de un equipo de jugadores de ftbol americano que todo lo que queran era doblar el grosor de sus crneos hecho con sus cabezas. +S, llegan a tener este tipo de contactos y por supuesto, siendo una britnica que tambin creci en Francia, suelo ser muy brusca y tena que explicarles de una forma decente que en su caso particular, eso probablemente no hara mucho para protegerlos en primer lugar. +Este fue nuestro mtodo y fue con materiales simples pero lo pensamos con cuidado. +Sabemos que estas clulas en el cuerpo, en el embrin, conforme se desarrollan pueden formar distintos tipos de tejido, cartlago, as desarrollamos un gel que era ligeramente diferente tanto en su naturaleza como en qumica, que puesta ah, pudimos obtener 100% de cartlago. +Este mtodo funciona muy bien, pienso, para procedimientos pre-planeados, eso es algo que se debe preplanear. +Para otro tipo de operaciones, en definitiva existe una necesidad de otros mtodos basados en estructura. +Cuando piensan en diseo esas otras estructuras, de hecho, necesitan de un equipo multidisciplinario. +As nuestro equipo tiene qumicos, bilogos celulares, cirujanos e incluso mdicos y todos ellos se juntan y reflexionan a fondo en el diseo de los materiales. +Pero queremos que tengan suficiente informacin para que podamos obtener las clulas que queremos, pero no a un grado de complejidad que dificulte acudir a la clnica. +As una de las cosas que reflexionamos mucho es tratar de entender la estructura de los tejidos del cuerpo. +Si pensamos en hueso, obviamente mi tejido favorito, aumentemos, podemos ver, incluso si no saben nada de estructura sea, est bellamente organizado, realmente bellamente organizado. +Tenemos muchas venas aqu. +Si aumentamos otra vez, vemos que las clulas estn en efecto rodeadas de una matriz 3D de fibras a nano escala y que dan mucha informacin a las clulas. +Si aumentamos otra vez, en el caso del hueso, la matriz alrededor de las clulas est bellamente organizada a nano escala y es un material hbrido que es parte orgnico, parte inorgnico. +Y eso lleva al campo entero, que ha visto el desarrollo de materiales que tienen esta estructura hbrida. +Les muestro slo dos ejemplos de algunos materiales que hemos hecho que tienen esta estructura, y que pueden confeccionar. +Pueden ver uno muy blandito y un material que tambin es este tipo de material hbrido pero que tiene una dureza notable, que ya no es quebradiza +Y un material inorgnico normalmente sera muy quebradizo y no podrian tener este tipo de fuerza y dureza en l. +Otra cosa que quiero mencionar rpido es que muchas de las estructuras que hicimos son porosas y tienen que serlo, porque quieren que las venas crezcan ah. +Pero a menudo los poros son mucho ms grandes que las clulas y aunque es tridimensional, la clula podra verlo ms como una superficie ligeramente curva y eso es algo no natural. +As una de las cosas que podemos pensar hacer es hacer estructuras con dimesiones ligeramente diferentes que podran rodear a las clulas tridimensionalmente y darles un poco ms de informacin. +Hay mucho trabajo que se est haciendo en ambas reas. +Para finalizar quisiera hablar un poco de aplicar esto a enfermedades cardiovasculares. porque esto es un gran problema clnico. +Una de las cosas que sabemos, es que si por desgracia tienen un ataque cardiaco ese tejido puede empezar a morir y con el tiempo el resultado no podra ser bueno para Uds. +Sera en realidad grandioso, si pudiramos detener ese tejido [daado] ya sea de morir o ayudarle a regenerarse. +Hay infinidad de pruebas con clulas madres ocurriendo en todo el mundo y usan muchos tipos diferentes de clulas, pero un tema comn que parece surgir es que muy a menudo ese clulas morirn una vez implantadas. +Entonces algunas cosas que pensamos y muchos otras personas del medio piensan tambin, es desarrollar materiales para eso. +Pero he aqu una diferencia. +Todava necesitamos de la qumica, de la mecnica, de la interesante topografa y todava necesitamos formas interesantes que rodeen a las clulas. +Pero ahora, a las clulas tambin probablemente les gustara un material que pudiera ser conductivo, porque las clulas mismas responderan muy bien y conduciran seales entre ellos. +Puede verlos ahora palpitando en sincrona en estos materiales, y eso es un desarrollo muy muy emocionante que est ocurriendo. +Para cerrar, quisiera decir que el poder trabajar en este campo, todos los que trabajamos en este campo, que no slo es ciencia super emocionante, sino que tiene el potencial de impacto en los pacientes, no importa cun grande o pequeo sea es en verdad un gran privilegio. +Y por eso, quisiera agradecerles tambin. +Gracias. +A lo largo de mi vida profesional, he tenido la fortuna de trabajar con muchos de los grandes arquitectos internacionales, documentando su trabajo y observando cmo sus diseos tienen la capacidad de influenciar las ciudades en las que se encuentran. +Pienso en las ciudades modernas como Dubi o las ciudades antiguas como Roma con el increble museo MAXXI de Zaha Hadid, o aqu mismo, en Nueva York con la High Line, una ciudad que se ha visto enormemente influenciada por su construccin. +Pero lo que encuentro realmente fascinante es lo que pasa cuando se van los arquitectos y diseadores y es la gente la que se apropia de estos lugares, como aqu en Chandigarn, India, una ciudad completamente diseada por el arquitecto Le Corbusier. +Ahora, 60 aos despus, la ciudad se ha visto invadida por gente de maneras totalmente distintas de lo que quizs fuera la intencin original, como aqu, donde se ve la gente sentada en las ventanas del pabelln de reuniones. +Pero a lo largo de muchos aos, he estado documentando el edificio de CCTV de Rem Koolhaas en Beijing y el estadio olmpico de la misma ciudad obra de los arquitectos Herzog y de Meuron. +En estas obras a gran escala en China, pueden ver una especie de campamento improvisado donde viven los obreros durante todo el proceso de construccin. +Como las obras de construccin duran aos, los obreros acaban formando una especie de ciudad informal tosca pero funcional, creando una yuxtaposicin con las sofisticadas estructuras que estn construyendo. +En los ltimos 7 aos he perseguido mi fascinacin por el entorno de la construccin. y aquellos de ustedes que me conocen podran decir que esta obsesin me ha llevado a vivir maleta en mano los 365 das del ao. +Estar constantemente en movimiento me permite a veces capturar los momentos ms impredecibles de la vida, como aqu en Nueva York el da despus de que el huracn Sandy sacudiera la ciudad. +Hace poco ms de tres aos, fui por primera vez a Caracas, Venezuela, y al volar sobre la ciudad, me qued impresionado por la extensin de los barrios bajos que alcanzaban cada rincn de la ciudad, un lugar donde casi el 70% de la poblacin vive en barrios marginales, formando un cinturn por las montaas. +Mientras conversaba con los arquitectos locales Urban-Think Tank me hablaron de la Torre de David, un edificio de oficinas de 45 pisos situado justo en el centro de Caracas. +El edificio estuvo en construccin hasta el momento en que se hundi la economa venezolana y la muerte del empresario responsable a principios de los 90. +Hace unos ocho aos, la gente empez a mudarse a la torre abandonada y comenzaron a construir sus viviendas entre cada una de las columnas de esta torre inacabada. +Slo hay una entrada pequea para todo el edificio, y los 3000 habitantes entran y salen por esa nica puerta. +Juntos, los habitantes crearon espacios pblicos y los disearon para sentirse ms como en casa y menos como en una torre inacabada. +En el vestbulo, pintaron las paredes y plantaron rboles. +Tambin construyeron una cancha de baloncesto. +Pero cuando lo miran de cerca, vern los grandes agujeros por donde habran pasado los ascensores y las instalaciones. +En el interior de la torre, la gente ha inventado todo tipo de soluciones en respuesta a las distintas necesidades que surgen al vivir en una torre inacabada. +Sin ascensores, la torre conlleva un ascenso de 45 pisos. +Diseada de maneras muy especficas por este grupo de gente que no tiene estudios ni de arquitectura ni de diseo. +Y al buscar cada habitante su propia manera nica de salir adelante, esta torre se convierte en una ciudad viviente, un lugar que est vivo con microeconomas y pequeos negocios. +Los ingeniosos habitantes, por ejemplo, encuentran oportunidades en los casos ms inesperados, como el garaje anexo de aparcamiento, que se ha reconvertido en un circuito de taxi que sube a los habitantes por las rampas con el objetivo de acortar la caminata de subida a los apartamentos. +Un paseo por la torre desvela cmo los residentes han encontrado maneras de crear paredes, conductos para el aire, de crear transparencia, circulacin a travs de la torre, creando en esencia un hogar que est completamente adaptado a las condiciones del lugar. +Cuando un nuevo habitante se muda a la torre, ya tiene un tejado sobre la cabeza, as que lo normal es que simplemente marquen su espacio con algunas cortinas o sbanas. +Poco a poco, a partir de materiales encontrados, se alzan las paredes, y la gente crea un espacio a partir de objetos o de materiales que va encontrando. +Es admirable ver las decisiones de diseo que van haciendo, por ejemplo cuando todo est hecho de ladrillos rojos, algunos residentes cubren el ladrillo rojo con una capa de papel pintado estampado en ladrillo rojo para crear una especie de acabado fino. +Los habitantes construyen estas casas literalmente con sus propias manos, y este entusiasmo infunde un gran sentido del orgullo en muchas familias que viven en esta torre. +Lo normal es que saquen lo que puedan de las condiciones existentes, y que intenten que los espacios queden bonitos y hogareos, o al menos hasta donde puedan llegar. +Por toda la torre se pueden encontrar todo tipo de servicios, como el barbero, pequeas fbricas, y cada piso tiene un pequeo almacn o tienda de comestibles. +Podrn encontrar hasta una iglesia. +Y en el piso 30 hay un gimnasio donde todas las pesas y halteras estn hechas a partir de poleas sobrantes de los ascensores que nunca se instalaron. +Desde el exterior, tras esta fachada en cambio permanente, se puede ver cmo las vigas fijas de hormign proporcionan una estructura que los habitantes utilizan para crear sus hogares de manera orgnica, intuitiva que responde directamente a sus necesidades. +Vayamos ahora a frica, a Nigeria, a una comunidad llamada Makoko, un barrio bajo donde 150 mil personas viven slo unos metros por encima de la laguna de Lagos. +A pesar de que parece un lugar completamente catico, cuando lo ven desde arriba, parece haber toda una red de conductos de agua y canales que conectan todos y cada uno de los hogares. +Desde el muelle principal, la gente navega en largas canoas de madera que los llevan hacia sus diversos hogares y tiendas situados en un rea muy extensa. +Desde el agua, est claro que la vida se ha adaptado completamente a esta forma tan especfica de vida. +Hasta las canoas se convierten en comercios variados donde las seoras reman de casa a casa, vendiendo de todo, desde dentfrico hasta fruta fresca. +Tras cada ventana y cada puerta, vern un nio pequeo que los est observando, y aunque en apariencia Makoko est lleno de gente, en realidad lo que ms impresiona es el nmero de nios asomados hacia el exterior en cada edificio. +El crecimiento de poblacin en Nigeria, y en especial en zonas como esta de Makoko, es un recuerdo doloroso de lo verdaderamente incontroladas que estn las cosas. +En Makoko existen muy pocos sistemas e infraestructuras. +La electricidad es una chapuza y el agua ms fresca viene de pozos dispersos cavados por la gente. +Todo este modelo econmico est diseado para satisfacer una forma de vida especfica basada en el agua, por lo que la pesca y la construccin de barcas son profesiones comunes. +Hay un grupo de empresarios que han instalado sus negocios por toda la zona, como barberos, tiendas de CDs y de DVDs, cines, sastres, aqu hay de todo. +Hay hasta un estudio de fotografa donde se pueden ver las aspiraciones locales a vivir en una casa de verdad o a estar asociado con un lugar lejano, como ese hotel en Suecia. +Una noche, me encontr con un grupo de msica en vivo impecablemente vestidos con atuendos coordinados. +Iban flotando por los canales en una gran canoa en la que haban instalado un generador para el disfrute de toda la comunidad. +Al anochecer, la zona se oscurece casi por completo, salvo alguna bombilla pequea o una fogata. +Lo que en un principio me trajo a Makoko fue un proyecto de un amigo mo, Kunl Adeyemi, quien acababa de terminar de construir una escuela flotante de tres pisos para los nios de Makoko. +Otro lugar que me gustara compartir con ustedes es el Zabbaleen en El Cairo. +Son descendientes de granjeros que comenzaron a migrar desde el alto Egipto en los aos 40, y hoy se ganan la vida coleccionando y reciclando desechos de las casas de todo El Cairo. +Durante aos, los Zabbaleen solan vivir en poblados provisionales con los cuales solan irse mudando intentando evitar a las autoridades locales, pero a principios de los 80, se asentaron en las colinas de Mokattam justo al lmite del este de la ciudad. +Hoy, viven en esta zona, aproximadamente entre 50 y 70 mil personas, que viven en esta comunidad de edificios de varias plantas construidos por ellos mismos donde hasta tres generaciones viven en una estructura. +Mientras que estas viviendas que construyen ellos mismos carecen aparentemente de planificacin o diseo formal, el que cada familia se especialice en una forma de reciclaje significa que el piso bajo de cada edificio se reserva a actividades relacionadas con la basura y el piso superior se dedica a la vivienda. +Me parece increble ver que estos montones y montones de basura son invisibles para la gente que vive all, como este hombre tan distinguido que posa con toda esta basura desparramada detrs de l, o como estos dos hombres jvenes que estn sentados y charlando entre toneladas de basura. +Mientras que para la mayora de nosotros, vivir entre estos montones y montones de basura puede parecer totalmente inhabitable, para los del Zabbaleen, esto es un tipo diferente de normalidad. +En todos estos lugares de los que he hablado hoy, lo que encuentro fascinante es que en realidad lo normal no existe, y esto prueba que la gente es capaz de adaptarse a cualquier tipo de situacin. +Durante el da, es bastante normal encontrarse con una pequea celebracin en la calle, como esta fiesta de compromiso. +En esta tradicin, la que pronto ser la novia muestra todas sus pertenencias, que pronto entregar a su nuevo marido. +Una reunin como esta ofrece tal yuxtaposicin donde se muestra todo lo nuevo y se utiliza toda la basura como los tiles para la demostracin de sus nuevos accesorios del hogar. +Como Makoko y la Torre de David, por todo el Zabbaleen se pueden encontrar los mismos servicios que en cualquier vecindario pblico. +Hay tiendas, cafs restaurantes, y la comunidad es esta comunidad de cristianos coptos, as que podrn encontrar una iglesia, incluido un gran nmero de iconografas religiosas por toda la zona, as como los servicios del da a da como las tiendas de reparacin electrnica, los barberos, todo. +La visita a las casas de los Zabbaleen est tambin llena de sorpresas. +Mientras que desde el exterior, estas casas son como cualquier otra estructura informal de la ciudad, cuando uno entra, se encuentra con todo tipo de decisiones de diseo y de decoracin de interiores. +A pesar de las limitaciones de espacio y dinero, las casas de la zona estn diseadas con cuidado y detalle. +Cada apartamento es nico, y su individualidad cuenta la historia de las circunstancias y valores de cada familia. +Muchos de ellos se toman muy en serio sus hogares y espacios interiores, y ponen en los detalles mucho trabajo y cuidado. +Los espacios comunes tambin reciben la misma atencin, en ellos las paredes se decoran con motivos de falso mrmol. +Pero a pesar de esta elaborada decoracin, a veces estas viviendas reciben usos muy inesperados, como esta casa que me llam la atencin mientras que el barro y la hierba se salan literalmente por debajo la puerta de entrada. +Cuando me invitaron a entrar, resulta que esta vivienda del quinto piso se estaba transformando completamente en una granja, en la que haba seis o siete vacas pastando en lo que podra haber sido la sala de estar. +Pues bien, en el apartamento frente al establo de vacas vive una pareja de recin casados en el que los vecinos describen como uno de los mejores apartamentos de la zona. +La atencin prestada a este detalle me asombr, y mientras que el dueo de la vivienda me guiaba orgulloso por el apartamento, de suelo a techo, cada elemento estaba decorado. +Pero si no fuera por el olor nauseabundo, extraamente familiar, que se filtra constantemente por el apartamento, sera fcil olvidar que uno est junto a un establo de vacas y encima de un vertedero. +Lo que ms me emocion fue que a pesar de estas condiciones aparentemente inhspitas, me dieron la bienvenida con los brazos abiertos a una casa hecha con amor, cuidado, y pasin ilimitada. +Crucemos el mapa hasta China, a una zona llamada Shanxi, Henan y Gansu. +En una regin famosa por la tierra blanda y porosa de la meseta de Loess, vivan hasta hace poco unos 40 millones de personas en estas casas bajo tierra. +Estas viviendas se llaman yaodongs. +Por medio de esta arquitectura substractiva, estos yaodongs estn construidos literalmente dentro de la tierra. +En estos pueblos pueden ver un paisaje totalmente alterado, y oculto tras estos montculos de suelo y estas casas cuadradas, rectangulares localizadas a 7 metros bajo tierra. +Cuando le pregunt a la gente por qu excavaban sus casas en la tierra, se limitaron a decirme que son malos cultivadores de trigo y de manzanas y que no tenan el dinero para comprar materiales, por lo que la excavacin result ser la forma ms lgica de vivir. +De Makoko al Zabbaleen, estas comunidades se han planteado las tareas de planificacin, diseo y gestin de las comunidades y vecindarios de varias formas que responden especficamente a su entorno y circunstancias. +Creados por las personas que de verdad viven, trabajan y juegan en estos espacios concretos, estos vecindarios se han diseado intuitivamente para sacarle el mximo partido a sus circunstancias. +En la mayora de estos lugares, la ausencia de gobierno es completa, dejando a los habitantes sin otra eleccin que recuperar materiales encontrados, y aunque estas comunidades estn muy desfavorecidas, presentan verdaderos ejemplos de brillantes formas de ingenio, y demuestran que es cierto que tenemos la capacidad de adaptarnos a todo tipo de circunstancias. +Lo hace que lugares como la Torre de David sean particularmente extraordinarios es esta especie de armazn-esqueleto que la gente utiliza como base que pueden aprovechar. +Ahora, imaginen lo que estas comunidades tan ingeniosas podran crear por s mismas, y lo singulares que seran sus soluciones si se les proporcionaran infraestructuras bsicas que pudieran aprovechar. +Hoy en da se pueden ver esos grandes proyectos de complejos residenciales que ofrecen soluciones para la vivienda hechas en serie para un enorme nmero de personas. +De China a Brasil, el propsito de estos proyectos es proporcionar tantas casas como sea posible, pero son totalmente genricos y la verdad es que no son la solucin a las necesidades individuales de la gente. +Me gustara terminar con una cita de una amiga ma y fuente de inspiracin, Zita Cobb, la fundadora de la maravillosa Fundacin Shorefast, con sede en la isla Fogo, en Terranova. +Ella dice que "existe esta plaga de invariabilidad que est matando la alegra humana", y estoy totalmente de acuerdo con ella. +Gracias. +Quisiera que retrocedieran conmigo solo por unos minutos a una noche oscura en China, la noche que conoc a mi marido. +Era una ciudad hace tanto tiempo que todava se llamaba Pekn. +Fui a una fiesta. +Me sent junto a un fornido hombre de mediana edad con gafas de bho y corbata de moo, que result ser un becario de Fulbright, en China dedicado a estudiar las relaciones chino-soviticas. +Qu regalo para la ambiciosa y joven corresponsal extranjera que era entonces. +Yo lo bombarde para obtener informacin, garabateando mentalmente notas para las historias que planeaba escribir. +Habl con l por horas. +Solo unos meses ms tarde, descubr quin era realmente. +Era el representante en China de la Asociacin Americana de Soya. +"No lo entiendo. Soya? +Me dijiste que eras un becario Fulbright". +"Bueno, cunto tiempo habras hablado conmigo si te hubiera dicho que estamos en la soya?" +Le dije, "Idiota". +Idiota no fue lo nico que le dije. +Le dije, "Habras podido hacer que me despidieran". +Y l dijo: "Casmonos". +"Viajemos por el mundo y tengamos un montn de hijos". +As lo hicimos. +Y qu hombre tan vivo result ser Terence Bryan Foley. +Era un estudioso de China que ms tarde, en sus 60s, obtuvo un doctorado en historia de China. +Hablaba seis idiomas, tocaba 15 instrumentos musicales, era piloto con licencia, haba sido alguna vez un operador del telefrico de San Francisco, era un experto en nutricin porcina, ganado lechero, jazz Dixieland, cine negro, y viajamos a travs del pas y del mundo, y tuvimos un montn de nios. +Seguimos mi trabajo, y pareca que no haba nada que no pudiramos hacer. +As que cuando nos topamos con el cncer, no parece extrao para nosotros en absoluto que sin decir una palabra uno al otro, creyramos que si ramos lo suficientemente inteligentes y lo suficientemente fuertes y valientes, y trabajbamos lo suficientemente duro, podramos impedir que l muriera alguna vez. +Y durante aos, pareca que estbamos teniendo xito. +El cirujano sali de ciruga. +Qu dijo? Dijo que lo que los cirujanos siempre dicen: "Lo sacamos todo". +Luego hubo un contratiempo cuando los patlogos miraron de cerca el cncer de rin. +Result ser un tipo raro, excesivamente agresivo, con un diagnstico casi que universalmente fatal en varias semanas a lo sumo. +Y sin embargo, no muri. +Misteriosamente, vivi. +Fue entrenador en las ligas menores por nuestro hijo. +Construy una casita de juegos para nuestra hija. +Y mientras tanto, yo enterrada en Internet buscando especialistas. +Estoy buscando una cura. +As pas un ao antes de que el cncer, como hacen los cnceres, reapareciera, y con l, otra sentencia de muerte, esta vez de nueve meses. +As que probamos otro tratamiento, agresivo, desagradable. +Lo puso tan enfermo, que tuvo que renunciar sin embargo, sigui vivo. +Luego pas otro ao. +Pasaron dos aos. +Ms especialistas. +Llevamos los nios a Italia. +Llevamos los nios a Australia. +Y luego pasaron ms aos, y el cncer comenz a crecer. +Esta vez, hay nuevos tratamientos en el horizonte. +Son exticos. Son experimentales. +Van a atacar el cncer en nuevas formas. +Entr en un ensayo clnico, y funcion. +El cncer comienza a disminuir, y por tercera vez, esquivamos la muerte. +Ahora les pregunto, cmo me siento cuando finalmente llegue el momento y otra noche oscura, en algn momento entre medianoche y las 2 a.m.? +Esta vez es en la sala de cuidados intensivos cuando un residente de veintitantos que no haba conocido antes me dice que Terence est muriendo, tal vez esa noche. +As que qu decir cuando dice: "Qu quiere que haga?" +Hay otra droga por ah. +Es ms reciente. Es ms potente. +Empez hace apenas dos semanas. +Quizs todava hay esperanza adelante. +Entonces, qu digo? +Digo, "Mantngalo vivo si puede". +Y Terence muri seis das despus. +Luchamos, nos esforzamos, triunfamos. +Fue una pelea estimulante, y hoy repetira la lucha sin dudarlo un instante. +Luchamos juntos, vivimos juntos. +Result que lo que podran haber sido siete de los aos ms siniestros de nuestra vida resultaron ser los siete ms gloriosos. +Tambin fue una pelea costosa. +Era el tipo de pelea y de decisiones que todos aqu concuerdan en que inflan el costo del final de la vida y del cuidado de la salud para todos. +Y para m, para nosotros, presionamos la lucha bien hasta el borde, y nunca tuve la oportunidad de decirle a l lo que le digo ahora casi todos los das: "Oye, amigo, fue un paseo soberbio". +Nunca tuvimos la oportunidad de decir adis. +Nunca pensamos que era el fin. +Siempre tuvimos esperanza. +Qu hacemos de todo esto? +Siendo periodista, luego de la muerte de Terence, escrib un libro, "El costo de la esperanza". +Lo escrib porque quera saber por qu hice lo que hice, por qu l hizo lo que hizo, por qu todo el mundo que nos rodea hace lo que hace. +Y qu descubr? +Bueno, una de las cosas que descubr es que los expertos creen que una respuesta a lo que hice al final era un pedazo de papel, las instrucciones previas, para ayudar a las familias a superar las opciones aparentemente irracionales. +Todava tengo ese trozo de papel. +Ambos lo hicimos. +Y estaban disponibles. +Los tena justo a mano +Los dos dijimos lo mismo: No hacer nada si no hay esperanza. +Conoca los deseos de Terence tan claramente y tan bien como los mos. +Sin embargo, nunca perdimos las esperanzas. +Incluso con ese papel bien claro en nuestras manos, simplemente seguimos redefiniendo la esperanza. +Cre que podra impedir que muriera, y me avergonzara decirlo si no lo hubiera visto en tantas personas y hablado con tanta gente que ha sentido exactamente lo mismo. +Hasta das antes de su muerte, me sent fuerte, poderosa, y, podra decirse, irracionalmente capaz de impedir que muriera alguna vez. +Ahora, cmo llaman a esto los expertos? +Dicen que es negacin. +Es una palabra muy fuerte, no? +Sin embargo, les dir que la negacin no est ni siquiera cerca de ser una palabra suficientemente fuerte para describir lo que aquellos de nosotros frente a la muerte de nuestros seres queridos, vamos a atravesar. +Y oigo decir a los profesionales mdicos: "Bueno, nos gustara hacer tal y tal, pero la familia est en negacin. +La familia no atiende razones. +Estn en negacin. +Cmo pueden insistir en este tratamiento al final? +Es tan claro, pero ellos estn en negacin". +Ahora, creo que tal vez no es una forma muy til de pensar. +No son solo las familias tampoco. +Los profesionales mdicos tambin, Ud. all, Ud. tambin est en negacin. +Quiere ayudar. Quiere arreglar. +Quiere hacer. +Ha tenido xito en todo lo que ha hecho, y tener un paciente muerto, bueno, le har sentir como un fracaso. +Lo vi de primera mano. +Apenas unos das antes de morir Terence, su onclogo dijo: "Dile a Terence que vendrn das mejores". +Das antes de morir. +Incluso Ira Byock, el director de medicina paliativa en Dartmouth dijo: "Sabes, el mejor mdico del mundo nunca ha logrado hacer inmortal a nadie". +Lo que los expertos llaman "negacin", yo lo llamo "esperanza", y me gustara tomar prestada una frase de mis amigos de diseo de software. +Solo se redefinen la negacin y la esperanza, y se convierte en una caracterstica del ser humano. +No es una falla. +Es una caracterstica. +As que tenemos que pensar ms constructivamente sobre esta muy comn, muy profunda y muy poderosa emocin humana. +Es parte de la condicin humana, y sin embargo, nuestro sistema y nuestro pensamiento no estn construidos para acomodarla. +As que Terence me cont un cuento esa noche mucho tiempo atrs, y yo le cre. +Tal vez quera creerle. +Y durante la enfermedad de Terence, yo, nosotros, queramos creer el cuento de nuestra lucha juntos tambin. +Rendirse, porque eso es lo que sent, pareca una rendicin, significaba renunciar no solo a su vida sino tambin a nuestra historia, nuestra historia como combatientes, la historia de nosotros como invencibles, y para los mdicos, la historia de s mismos como sanadores. +Qu necesitamos? +Tal vez no necesitamos un nuevo pedazo de papel. +La gente mencion el hospicio, pero no los escuch. +El hospicio era para las personas que estaban muriendo, y Terence no estaba muriendo. +Como resultado, l pas solo cuatro das en un hospicio, que estoy segura, como todos saben, es un resultado bastante tpico, y nunca nos dijimos adis porque no estbamos preparados para el final. +Tenemos un camino noble para curar la enfermedad, pacientes y mdicos por igual, pero no parece ser un noble camino para morir. +Morir es visto como debilidad y tenamos una narrativa heroica para luchar juntos, pero no tenamos una narrativa heroica para dejarlo ir. +Tal vez necesitamos una narrativa para reconocer el final y para decir adis, y tal vez nuestra nueva historia ser sobre la lucha de un hroe y el adis de un hroe. +Terence amaba la poesa, y el poeta griego Constantine Cavafy es uno de mis poetas favoritos. +As que les voy a leer un par de lneas de l. +Este es un poema acerca de Marco Antonio. +Conocen a Marco Antonio, el hroe victorioso, el chico de Cleopatra? +De hecho, uno de los chicos de Cleopatra. +Fue un buen general. +Gan todas las batallas, eludi a todas las personas que fueron tras l, y sin embargo esta vez, finalmente, lleg a la ciudad de Alejandra y se dio cuenta de que haba perdido. +La gente se va. Estn tocando instrumentos. +Estn cantando. +Y de repente sabe que ha sido derrotado. +Y de repente sabe que ha sido abandonado por los dioses, y es hora de despedirse. +Y el poeta le dice qu hacer. +Le dice cmo decir un noble adis, una despedida digna de un hroe. +Esa es una despedida para un hombre que era ms grande que la vida, una despedida para un hombre para quien nada, bueno, casi nada, era [im]posible, una despedida para un hombre que mantuvo viva la esperanza. +Y no es eso lo que nos estamos perdiendo? +Cmo podemos aprender que las decisiones de la gente acerca de sus seres queridos a menudo se basan fuerte, poderosa, muchas veces irracionalmente, en la ms delgada de las esperanzas? +La presencia abrumadora de la esperanza no es negacin. +Es parte de nuestro ADN como seres humanos, y tal vez es hora de que nuestro sistema de salud, mdicos, pacientes, aseguradoras, nosotros, empecemos a tener en cuenta el poder de esa esperanza. +La esperanza no es un error. +Es una caracterstica. +Gracias. +Quiero contarles una historia que conecta el clebre incidente de privacidad que involucr a Adn y Eva, y el cambio notorio de los lmites entre lo pblico y lo privado ocurrido en los ltimos 10 aos. +Ya conocen el incidente. +Adn y Eva, un da en el Jardn del Edn, se dan cuenta de que estn desnudos. +Se asustan. +Y el resto es historia. +Hoy en da, Adn y Eva probablemente actuaran diferente. +[@Adan Lo de anoche fue genial! Me encant la manzana LOL] [@Eva Sip... beb, sabes qu le pas a mis pantalones?] Revelamos mucha ms informacin personal en lnea que nunca antes, y las empresas recolectan mucha ms informacin sobre nosotros. +Podemos ganar mucho y beneficiarnos del anlisis masivo de esta informacin personal, o "big data", pero tambin hay un precio grande que pagar en trminos de privacidad, en contraprestacin. +Mi historia trata de esas contraprestaciones. +Empecemos con un verdad que, en mi opinin, se ha hecho cada vez ms evidente en los ltimos aos: toda informacin personal puede volverse sensible. +En el 2000, se tomaron unos 100 000 millones de fotos en el mundo, pero solo una nfima parte de ellas se suberon a la Web. +En el 2010, solo en Facebook, en un solo mes, se subieron 2500 millones de fotos, la mayora identificadas. +En el mismo lapso de tiempo, la capacidad de las computadoras para reconocer personas en las fotos mejor en tres rdenes de magnitud. +Bueno, pensamos que el resultado de esta combinacin de tecnologas ser un cambio radical en nuestras nociones de privacidad y anonimato. +Para comprobalo hicimos un experimento en el campus del Carnegie Mellon. +Le pedimos a los estudiantes que pasaban por all que participaran en un estudio, les tomamos una foto con una cmara web y les pedimos que completaran una encuesta en el porttil. +Mientras completaban la encuesta, subimos la foto a un clster de computacin en la nube, y usamos un reconocedor facial para cotejar esa foto con una base de datos de cientos de miles de imgenes que habamos bajado de perfiles de Facebook. +Para cuando el sujeto llegaba al final de la encuesta, la pgina se haba actualizado en forma dinmica con las 10 fotos encontradas por el reconocedor que mejor concordaban, y le pedmos al sujeto que indicara si se encontraba en la foto. +Ven al sujeto? +Bueno, la computadora s, y de hecho, reconoci 1 de cada 3 sujetos. +En esencia, podemos partir de un rostro annimo, en disco o en la web, y usar el reconocimiento facial para ponerle nombre a ese rostro annimo gracias a las redes sociales. +Pero hace unos aos hicimos algo ms. +Partimos de datos de redes sociales, los combinamos estadsticamente con datos de la seguridad social del gobierno de EE.UU. y terminamos prediciendo los nmeros de la seguridad social, que en Estados Unidos son una informacin extremadamente sensible. +Ven a dnde quiero llegar con esto? +Si combinan los dos estudios, entonces la pregunta pasa a ser: Podemos partir de un rostro y mediante reconocimiento facial, hallar un nombre e informacin pblica sobre ese nombre y esa persona, y a partir de esa informacin pblica inferir informacin no pblica, mucho ms sensible, para luego asociarla a aquel rostro? +La respuesta es s se puede, y lo hicimos. +Por supuesto, la precisin va desmejorando a cada paso. +De hecho, no desarrollamos la app para que estuviera disponible, sino como una prueba de concepto. +Incluso tomamos estas tecnologas y las llevamos al extremo lgico. +Imaginen un futuro en el que los extraos que los rodeen los miren con sus gafas Google o, algn da, con sus lentes de contacto, y usen 7 o 8 datos de ustedes para inferir todo lo dems que pueda saberse. +Cmo ser ese futuro sin secretos? +Debera importarnos? +Nos gustara creer que un futuro con tanta riqueza de datos sera un futuro sin ms prejuicios, pero, de hecho, contar con tanta informacin no significa que tomaremos decisiones ms objetivas. +En otro experimento, presentamos a nuestros sujetos informacin sobre un potencial candidato laboral. +incluimos algunas referencias a cierta informacin totalmente legal, divertida pero un poco embarazosa, que el candidato haba publicado en lnea. +Curiosamente, entre nuestros sujetos algunos haban publicado informacin similar y otros no. +Qu grupo ceeen que mostr propensin a juzgar con ms severidad a nuestro sujeto? +Paradjicamente, fue el grupo que haba publicado informacin similar, un ejemplo de disonancia moral. +Quiz estn pensando que eso no los afecta a Uds. porque no tienen nada que ocultar. +Pero, de hecho, la privacidad no tiene que ver con tener algo negativo que ocultar. +Imaginen que son el director de RR.HH. de cierta empresa, que reciben unas hojas de vida y deciden buscar ms informacin sobre los candidatos. +Entonces, googlean sus nombres y en determinado universo encuentran esta informacin-- +O en un universo paralelo, encuentran esta informacin. +Creen que todos los candidatos tendran con Uds. la misma oportunidad de ser llamados para una entrevista? +Si piensan que s, entonces no son como los empleadores de EE.UU. ya que, de hecho, en algn punto de nuestro experimento hicimos exactamente eso. +Creamos perfiles de Facebook, manipulamos los rasgos, y luego empezamos a enviar hojas de vida a empresas en EE.UU., y detectamos, monitoreamos, si estaban buscando informacin de nuestros candidatos, y si actuaban con base en la informacin que encontraban en los medios sociales. Y lo hicieron. +Se discrimin con base en los medios sociales a candidatos con iguales habilidades. +Los vendedores quieren que creamos que toda la informacin sobre nosotros siempre ser usada a nuestro favor. +Pero piensen de nuevo. Por qu habra de ser siempre as? +En una pelcula de hace unos aos, "Minority Report", en una escena famosa Tom Cruise camina por un centro comercial rodeado de publicidad hologrfica personalizada. +La pelcula transcurre en el 2054, dentro de unos 40 aos, y aunque la tecnologa luce emocionante, subestima en mucho la cantidad de informacin que las organizaciones pueden recolectar sobre nosotros, y la forma de usarla para influir en nosotros de maneras imperceptibles. +Como ejemplo, est este otro experimento que estamos haciendo y que todava no terminamos. +Imaginemos que una organizacin tiene acceso a tu lista de amigos de Facebook, y mediante algn tipo de algoritmo puede identificar sus dos mejores amigos. +Que luego crean, en tiempo real, un rostro compuesto de estos dos amigos. +Estudios previos al nuestro han demostrado que las personas no se reconocen ni a s mismas en rostros compuestos, pero reaccionan a esas composiciones de manera positiva. +Y entonces, la prxima vez que busquen algn producto y que haya una publicidad sugirindoles que lo compren, no ser un vendedor comn. +Ser uno de sus amigos, y ni siquiera sabrn lo que est pasando. +El problema es que los mecanismos que tenemos en la poltica acutal para la proteccin contra los abusos de la informacin personal son como llevar un cuchillo a un tiroteo. +Uno de estos mecanismos es la transparencia, decirle a las personas lo que uno va a hacer con sus datos. +En principio, eso es algo muy bueno. +Es necesario, pero no es suficiente. +La transparencia puede estar mal dirigida. +Uno puede contarle a la gente lo que har, y luego empujarlos a revelar cantidades arbitrarias de informacin personal. +Por eso en un experimento ms, este con estudiantes, les pedimos que nos dieran informacin sobre su comportamiento en el campus, formulndoles preguntas tan sensibles como estas. +[Alguna vez te copiaste en un examen?] A un grupo de sujetos les dijimos: "Solo otro grupo de estudiantes ver sus respuestas". +A otro grupo de sujetos les dijimos: "Sus respuestas sern vistas por estudiantes y profesores". +Transparencia. Notificacin. Y por supuesto, esto funcion, en el sentido de que el primer grupo de sujetos fue mucho ms propenso a revelar informacin que el segundo. +Tiene sentido, no? +Pero luego aadimos un distractor. +Repetimos el experimento con los mismos dos grupos, esta vez aadiendo una demora entre el tiempo en que le dijimos a los sujetos cmo usaramos sus datos y el tiempo en que empezamos a [formular] las preguntas. +Cunta demora creen que tuvimos que aadir para anular el efecto inhibidor de saber que los profesores veran sus respuestas? +10 minutos? +5 minutos? +1 minuto? +Qu tal 15 segundos? +Quince segundos fueron suficientes para que ambos grupos revelaran la misma cantidad de informacin, como si al segundo grupo no le importara ms que los profesores leyeran sus respuestas. +Tengo que admitir que esta charla hasta ahora puede sonar en extremo negativa, pero esa no es mi intencin. +De hecho, quiero compartir con Uds. las alternativas que hay. +La forma en que hacemos las cosas ahora no es la nica forma de hacerlas, y ciertamente no es la mejor forma en que pueden ser hechas. +Cuando alguien les diga: "La gente no se preocupa por la privacidad", piensen si el juego no ha sido diseado y manipulado para que no se preocupen por la privacidad, y cuando concluyamos que que estas manipulaciones ocurren, ya estaremos a mitad de camino de poder autoprotegernos. +Si alguien les dice que la privacidad es incompatible con los beneficios del "big data", piensen que en los ltimos 20 aos, los investigadores han creado tecnologas que permiten que virtualmente cualquier transaccin electrnica se realice en formas ms preservadoras de la privacidad. +Podemos navegar Internet en forma annima. +Podemos enviar correos electrnicos que solo pueda leer el destinatario, y no la NSA [agencia de seguridad]. +Podemos proteger incluso la privacidad de la minera de datos. +En otras palabras, podemos tener los beneficios del "big data" y proteger la privacidad. +Estas tecnologas, claro est, implican una inversin de la relacn costo- beneficio para los tenedores de los datos, razn por la cual, quiz, no escuchamos mucho de ellas. +Eso me lleva de vuelta al Jardn del Edn. +Hay una segunda interpretacin de la privacidad en la historia del Jardn del Edn que no tiene que ver con el tema del desnudo de Adn y Eva ni con sentir vergenza. +Pueden encontrar ecos de esta interpretacin en "El paraso perdido" de John Milton. +En el jardn, Adn y Eva estn materialmente contentos. +Estn felices. Estn satisfechos. +No obstante, carecen de conocimiento y de autoconciencia. +En el momento en que comen el bien llamado fruto del conocimiento, es cuando se descubren a s mismos. +Se hacen conscientes. Logran autonoma. +El precio a pagar, sin embargo, es abandonar el jardn. +La privacidad, en cierto modo, es tanto el medio como el precio a pagar por la libertad. +Y los vendedores otra vez nos dicen que el "big data" y los medios sociales no son solo un paraso de ganancias para ellos, sino el Jardn del Edn para el resto de nosotros. +Recibimos contenido gratis. +Podemos jugar a Angry Birds. Tenemos aplicaciones especficas. +Pero, de hecho, en unos aos, las organizaciones sabrn tanto de nosotros que podrn inferir nuestros deseos incluso antes de formularlos y quiz hasta compren productos en nuestro nombre antes de que sepamos que los necesitamos. +Hay un escritor ingls que anticip esta especie de futuro en el que cambiaramos nuestra autonoma y libertad por comodidad-- +Incluso ms que George Orwell. El autor es, por supuesto, Aldous Huxley. +En "Un mundo feliz", l imagina una sociedad en la que las tecnologas que creamos en principio para la libertad terminan coaccionndonos. +Sin embargo, en el libro, l tambin nos ofrece una salida de esa sociedad, similar al sendero que Adn y Eva tuvieron que seguir para salir del jardn. +En palabras de Savage, recuperar la autonoma y la libertad es posible, aunque el precio a pagar es elevado. +Por eso creo que una de las peleas decisivas de nuestros tiempos ser la pelea por el control de la informacin personal, la pelea porque el "big data" se vuelva una fuerza de libertad, en lugar de una fuerza que nos manipule desde las sombras. +Muchos de nosotros ni siquiera sabemos que se est dando esta pelea, pero es as, nos guste o no. +Y a riesgo de interpretar a la serpiente, les dir que las herramientas para pelear estn aqu, la conciencia de lo que ocurre, y en sus manos, a unos pocos clics de distancia. +Gracias. +Hetain Patel: (En Chino) Yuyu Rau: Hola, soy Hetain. Soy artista. +Y ella es Yuyu, una bailarina con la que he trabajado. +Le ped que tradujera por m. +HP: (En Chino) YR: Si me permiten, quisiera contarles un poco acerca de m y de mi trabajo artstico. +HP: (En Chino) YR: Nac y crec cerca de Manchester, en Inglaterra, pero no les voy a decir que soy ingls, porque estoy tratando de evitar cualquier suposicin que se pueda hacer de mi acento del norte. +HP: (En Chino) YR: El nico problema de enmascararlo con chino mandarn es que solo puedo decir este prrafo que aprend de memoria cuando visit China. Lo nico que puedo hacer es seguir repitindolo en diversos tonos y esperar que no lo noten. +HP: (En chino) YR: No hace falta decirlo, me gustara pedir disculpas a cualquier hablante de mandarn en la audiencia. +Como nio, odiaba que me obligaran a usar el pijama indio kurta, porque no pensaba que fuera muy genial. +Lo senta un poco afeminado para m, como vestido, y tena esta parte holgada en los pantalones que tena que atar muy fuerte para evitar la vergenza de que se cayera. +Mi pap nunca lo usaba, as que no vea por qu tena que hacerlo. +Adems, me hace sentir un poco incmodo que la gente asuma que represento algo genuinamente indio cuando me lo pongo, porque eso no es lo que siento. +HP: (En Chino) YR: En realidad, la nica manera en que me siento cmodo usndolo es fingiendo que son los mantos de un guerrero de kung fu como Li Mu Bai de esa pelcula, "Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon". +Bien. +As que mi obra es sobre la identidad y la lengua, desafiando las suposiciones comunes basadas en cmo nos vemos o de dnde venimos, gnero, raza, clase. +Qu nos hace quines somos? +HP: (En Chino) YR: Sola leer las historietas de Spider-Man, ver pelculas de kung-fu, tomar lecciones de filosofa de Bruce Lee. +Dira cosas como: HP: Vaca tu mente. +S sin forma, amorfo, como el agua. +Ahora pon agua en un vaso. +Se convierte en la taza. +Si pones agua en una botella, se convierte en la botella. +Si pones agua en una tetera, se convierte en la tetera. +Ahora, el agua puede fluir o puede chocar. +S agua, amigo mo. YR: Este ao, tengo 32 aos, la misma edad en que Bruce Lee muri. +Recientemente me he estado preguntando, si estuviera vivo hoy, qu consejo me dara sobre dar esta charla para TED. +HP: No imites mi voz. +Me ofende. +YR: Buen consejo, pero an creo que aprendemos quines somos copiando a otros. +Quin aqu no ha imitado a su hroe de la infancia en el patio, o a su madre o padre? +Yo lo he hecho. +HP: Unos aos atrs, para poder hacer este video para mi obra, me afeit todo el pelo as poda crecer como mi padre lo tena cuando emigr de la India al Reino Unido en la dcada de 1960. +Tena raya al lado y un bigote limpio. +Al principio, todo iba muy bien. +Hasta empec a obtener descuentos en las tiendas indias. +Pero luego muy rpidamente, empec a subestimar la habilidad de mi bigote para crecer, y se hizo demasiado grande. +Ya no vea como indio. +En cambio, la gente del otro lado de la carretera, me grita cosas como... HP y YR: Arriba! Arriba! ndale! ndale! +HP: En realidad, ni siquiera s por qu estoy hablando as. +Mi padre ya no tiene acento indio. +Ahora habla as. +No es solo a mi padre al que he imitado. +Hace unos aos fui a China por unos meses, y no poda hablar chino, y eso me frustr, as que escrib acerca de esto y lo traduje al chino, y luego lo aprend de memoria, como la msica, supongo. +YR: Esta frase ahora est grabada en mi mente ms clara que el nmero de mi tarjeta del banco, as que puedo fingir que hablo chino con fluidez. +Cuando aprend esta frase, tuve un artista que me escuchase para ver qu tan preciso sonaba. +Dije la frase y luego se ech a rer y me dijo: "Oh s, es genial, solo que suena como una mujer". +Le dije, "Qu?" +l dijo, "S, has aprendido de una mujer?" +Le respond, "S. Y?" +Luego me explic que las diferencias tonales entre las voces masculinas y femeninas son muy diferentes y distintas, y que lo haba aprendido muy bien, pero en voz de mujer. +HP: Vale. As que esto de la imitacin viene con riesgo. +No siempre sale como se planea incluso con un traductor talentoso. +Pero voy a seguir con ello, porque contrario a lo que generalmente podemos asumir, imitar a alguien puede revelar algo nico. +As que cada vez que fallo en parecerme ms a mi padre, ser ms yo mismo. +Cada vez que no alcanzo a convertirme en Bruce Lee, ms autnticamente ser yo. +Este es mi arte. +Me esfuerzo por la autenticidad, incluso si se trata de una forma que normalmente no podramos esperar. +Es solo recientemente que he empezado a entender que no aprend a sentarme as por ser indio. +Aprend esto de Spider-Man. +Gracias. +He pasado mi vida trabajando en sustentabilidad. +Fund una ONG para el cambio climtico llamada "The Climate Group" (El grupo del clima). +Trabaj con asuntos forestales para la WWF. +Trabaj en problemas de desarrollo y agricultura en el sistema de la ONU. +Unos 25 aos en total y entonces hace 3 aos, me vi hablando con el CEO de IKEA sobre unirme a su equipo. +Como mucha gente aqu, quiero maximizar mi impacto personal en el mundo, as que explicar por qu me un a ese equipo. +Pero primero, tomemos slo 3 nmeros. +El primer nmero es 3: 3 mil millones de personas. +Esta es la gente que se unir a la clase media mundial en 2030 y que saldr de la pobreza. +Es fantstico para ellos y para sus familias, tenemos 2 mil millones de personas en la clase media mundial hoy en da, y esto infla ese nmero hasta 5. Es un gran reto ya que los recursos son escasos. +El segundo nmero es 6: Esto es, 6 grados centgrados, a lo que estamos llegando en trminos de calentamiento global +No estamos aumentando 1, o 3 grados, o 4; vamos hacia un aumento de 6 grados. +Hay que pensar que todos esos climas tan locos que hemos experimentado en los ltimos aos, en gran parte se deben al aumento de un solo grado. Tendremos un pico de emisiones de CO2 a nivel mundial al final de esta dcada, y luego disminuirn. +No es inevitable, pero hay que actuar de manera decisiva. +El tercer nmero es 12: Es el nmero de ciudades en el mundo con un milln o ms de personas que haba cuando mi abuela naci. +Aqu se puede ver a mi abuela. +Eso fue al inicio del siglo pasado. +Y slo eran 12 ciudades. Ella naci en Manchester, Inglaterra, la novena ciudad ms grande del mundo. +Ahora hay cerca de 500 ciudades, con un milln de habitantes o ms. +En el siglo que va de 1950 a 2050 construimos todas las ciudades del mundo. Y ahora estamos a mitad de ese siglo. +Los otros siglos eran como unos ensayos y esto nos deja un mapa de cmo vivimos. +As que pensmoslo. +Construimos ciudades como nunca antes, la gente sale de la pobreza como nunca antes, y el clima cambia como nunca antes. +La sostenibilidad ha pasado de "sera bueno" a un "hay que hacerlo", hoy; +se trata de lo que hagamos aqu y ahora, y por el resto de nuestra vida productiva. +As que voy a hablar un poco sobre lo que pueden hacer las empresas y lo que puede hacer un negocio como IKEA. Tenemos una estrategia de sostenibilidad llamada "Gente y Planeta Positivos" para conseguir que nuestros negocios tengan un impacto positivo en el mundo. +Por qu no tener un impacto positivo en el mundo como empresa? +Otras compaas tienen estrategias de sostenibilidad +Voy a referirme a algunas de esas tambin, y slo voy a mencionar unos pocos ejemplos de los compromisos que afrontamos. +Pero primero, pensemos en los usuarios. +Por preguntar a la gente, desde China hasta los EE.UU., +sabemos que la mayora de las personas se preocupa por la sostenibilidad despus de los problemas cotidianos, los del da a da, de cmo llevar a mis hijos a la escuela? +Podr pagar las cuentas al final del mes? +Despus se interesan en temas mayores como el cambio climtico. +Pero quieren que sea fcil, accesible y atractivo. Esperan que las empresas ayuden, pero estn un poco decepcionados. +As que reflexiona y piensa en los primeros productos sostenibles. +Tenamos detergentes que podan volver gris lo blanco. +Tenamos las primeras bombillas de bajo consumo que tardaban 5 minutos en calentarse y que terminaban de un color ms o menos enfermizo. +Y tenamos ese spero papel higinico reciclado. +As que cada vez que nos ponamos una camiseta, o encendamos la luz, o bamos al bao, o en ocasiones hacamos las tres cosas a la vez, pensbamos que la sostenibilidad era negociable. +No fue un buen inicio. +Ahora tenemos opciones. +Podemos hacer productos que son hermosos o feos, sostenibles o no, asequibles o caros, tiles o intiles. +Entonces hagamos productos sostenibles que sean hermosos, funcionales y asequibles. Veamos el ejemplo del LED. +El LED es lo mejor despus de la luz diurna. +Se vendieron errneamente por ms de cien aos. +Producan calor, adems de un poco de luz. +Ahora tenemos lmparas que producen luz, adems de un poco de calor. +Con un LED uno ahorra el 85% de la electricidad que gastara con una antigua bombilla incandescente. +Y lo mejor es que duran ms de 20 aos. +As que pensmoslo. +Ustedes, aqu en esta audiencia, cambiarn de smartphone 7 u 8 veces, puede que incluso ms. +Cambiarn de auto, si tienen uno, 3 o 4 veces. +Sus hijos podrn ir a la escuela, a la universidad, irse y tener sus propios hijos, regresar, traer a los nietos, y tendrn las mismas bombillas que nos ahorran energa. +O sea que los LED son fantsticos. +Lo que decidimos hacer no fue vender LEDs a alto precio y continuar impulsando las bombillas antiguas, las halgenas y las LFC (lmparas fluorescentes compactas). +Decidimos que nosotros mismos, en los prximos 2 aos, eliminaramos las halgenas y las LFC. +Ser definitivo. +Es que eso es lo que los negocios deben hacer: algo drstico, ir al 100%, porque entonces se deja de invertir en lo antiguo, se invierte en lo nuevo, se reducen costes, se utiliza la cadena de suministro y la creatividad, se bajan los precios de modo que todos pueden permitirse las mejores luces y ahorran as energa. +No se trata slo de productos en las casas de la gente. +Pensemos en los materiales con los que que se producen nuestros productos. +Obviamente hay oportunidades fantsticas con materiales reciclados, y as podremos acabar con el desperdicio, y lo lograremos. +Hay oportunidades en una economa rotatoria. . +Pero todava somos dependientes de recursos naturales como materias primas. +Tomemos por ejemplo el algodn. +El algodn es fabuloso. Probablemente mucha gente est usando algodn en este momento. +Es un fabuloso textil en uso. +Pero su produccin es sucia. +Requiere muchos pesticidas y fertilizantes, cantidades de agua. +La produccin aumenta y se reducen a la mitad los costes. +Los agricultores estn saliendo de la pobreza. Les encanta. +Se ha llegado ya a cientos de miles de agricultores, y ahora tenemos un 60% de un mejor algodn en nuestros negocios. +De nuevo, algo drstico. +En 2015 tendremos un 100% de mejor algodn. +Pensemos en el 100% como la meta. +La gente algunas veces piensa que el 100% sera difcil; hemos tenido esa discusin en las empresas. +De hecho, hemos visto que el 100% es ms sencillo de lograr que el 90% o el 50%. +Si queremos conseguir el 90%, todos en la empresa encuentran una razn para estar en el 10%. +Cuando se trata del 100%, est bien claro, y a los empresarios les gusta la claridad, porque entonces hay que cumplir. +Madera. Sabemos que, con la silvicultura, es una eleccin. +Sigue habiendo tala y deforestacin ilegales an a gran escala, o podemos tener una tala responsable, fantstica de la que podamos estar orgullosos. +Es una eleccin simple. Hemos trabajado durante muchos aos con la Consejo de Administracin Forestal, y, literalmente, con cientos de otras organizaciones. Aqu es clave la colaboracin. +Cientos de otros, de ONGs, de sindicatos de trabajadores forestales y de empresas, han ayudado a crear el Consejo de Administracin Forestal, que define normas para la silvicultura y controla los bosques en el sitio. +Ahora todo en conjunto, por nuestra cadena de suministro, con socios, hemos logrado certificar 35 millones de hectreas de zonas forestales, +que es el tamao de Alemania. +Hemos decidido que en los prximos tres aos, duplicaremos el volumen de material certificado que producimos en nuestra empresa. +Hay que ser decisivos en estos temas. +Usa tu cadena de suministro para llevar al bien. +Y entonces considera tus operaciones. +Algunas cosas son ciertas, creo. +Sabemos que usaremos electricidad dentro de 20 o 30 aos. +Sabemos que el sol estar brillando en algn lugar, y el viento seguir soplando dentro de esos 20 o 30 aos. +Entonces por qu no obtener nuestra energa del sol o del viento? +Y por qu no asumir el control nosotros mismos? +As nos volveremos 100% renovables. +En 2020, produciremos ms energa renovable que la que consumimos como empresa. +En todas nuestras tiendas, nuestras fbricas, y nuestros centros de distribucin, al momento hemos instalado 300.000 paneles solares y tenemos 14 parques elicos de los que somos dueos y que operamos en seis pases. Y no hemos acabado. +Pero piensen en un panel solar. +Un panel solar se paga a s mismo en siete u ocho aos. +La electricidad es gratuita. +Cada vez que sale el sol, se tiene electricidad gratis. +Esto es bueno para los financieros, no slo para los de sostenibilidad. +Cada empresa puede hacer cosas como estas. +Pero tenemos que ver ms all de nuestras operaciones, creo que todos estn de acuerdo en que las empresas deben asumir total responsabilidad por el impacto en su cadena de suministro. +Afortunadamente muchas empresas ahora tienen cdigos de conducta y auditan a sus cadenas de sumistro, pero no son todas las empresas. Ni mucho menos. +Y esto, en realidad, sucedi en IKEA en la dcada de 1990. +Descubrimos que haba un riesgo de trabajo infantil en la cadena de suministro, y la gente en la empresa estaban sorprendidos. +Esto era clara y totalmente inaceptable, as que haba que actuar. +Entonces desarrollamos un cdigo de conducta, y ahora tenemos 80 auditores en el mundo garantizando todo el tiempo en todas nuestras fbricas que haya buenas condiciones de trabajo, que se protejan los derechos humanos, y que estemos seguros que no hay trabajo infantil . +Pero no es tan simple como asegurarse que no hay trabajo infantil. +Tienes que empezar diciendo que no es suficiente. +Creo que todos creemos que los nios son lo ms importante en el mundo y lo ms vulnerable. +As que qu puede hacer una empresa actualmente para que en la cadena de valor se apoye una mejor calidad de vida y se protejan los derechos de los nios? +Hemos trabajado con UNICEF y "Save the Children" en el desarrollo de algunos nuevos principios acordes con los derechos de los nios. +El nmero de empresas que lo suscriben est en aumento. Pero en realidad, en una encuesta, muchos de los lderes empresariales dijeron que pensaban que sus negocios no tenan nada que ver con los nios. +Entonces decidimos mirar y formularnos a nosotros mismos, las preguntas difciles, con socios que saben ms que nosotros, qu podemos hacer para ir ms all de nuestra empresa, para ayudar a mejorar la vida de los nios? +Tambin tenemos una fundacin que est comprometida a trabajar con colaboradores para mejorar la vida y a proteger los derechos de 100 millones de nios, para el ao 2015. +Como dice el aforismo, "podemos controlar lo que medimos". +Bueno, pues se debe medir lo que es importante. +Si no se est midiendo algo, no nos importa o no lo sabemos. +Tomemos un ejemplo, midamos algo que es importante en nuestra empresa. +No es hora de que las empresas sean guiadas de manera equitativa por hombres y mujeres? +Sabemos que hoy en da, de nuestros 17.000 administradores en IKEA, el 47% son mujeres, Pefro esto no es suficiente, queremos cerrar la brecha y seguir con este patrn hasta la alta direccin. +No queremos esperar otros 100 aos. +As que esta semana hemos lanzado una red abierta para mujeres en IKEA, y haremos lo que sea para liderar el cambio. +El mensaje aqu es, midamos lo que nos importa, lideremos el cambio y no esperemos 100 aos. +As la sostenibilidad ha pasado de "sera bueno" a algo que "hay que hacer". +An sigue siendo algo bueno, pero hay que hacerlo. +Y todos pueden hacer algo al respecto como individuos. +Seamos consumidores conscientes. +Votemos con nuestros bolsillos. +Busquemos empresas que estn tomando accin en esto. +Pero tambin, hay otras empresas que ya son activas. +Mencion la energa renovable. +Si vamoss a Google o a Lego, ellos van a ser renovables al 100% tambin, de la misma manera que nosotros. +En tener estrategias de sostenibilidad realmente buenas, estn compaas como Nike, Patagonia, Timberland, Marks & Spencer. +Pero no creo que ninguna de estas empresas dira que son perfectas. Nosotros ciertamente no lo diramos. +Cometeremos errores conforme avanzamos, pero se trata de marcar una direccin clara, de ser transparentes, de tener un dilogo con los colaboradores correctos, y de tomar la iniciativa en los temas que realmente importan. +As que si eres lder de una empresa, si no has ya metido la sostenibilidad justo en el centro del modelo de negocios, te invito a hacerlo. +Juntos, podemos ayudar a crear un mundo sostenible, y, si lo hacemos bien, podemos hacer que la sostenibilidad sea accesible para la mayora, no un lujo para unos pocos. +Gracias. +frica est en auge. +Los ingresos per cpita se han duplicado desde el ao 2000 y este progreso impacta a todos. +La esperanza de vida ha aumentado en un ao cada tres aos, durante la ltima dcada. +Eso significa que si un nio africano nace hoy, en lugar de hace tres das, tendr un da de ms al final de su vida. +Es as de rpido. +Los ndices de VIH bajaron un 27%: 600 000 personas menos tienen VIH en el frica subsahariana. +Se est ganando la batalla contra la malaria, ya que las muertes disminuyeron un 27% de acuerdo con la ltima informacin del Banco Mundial. +Y las redes antimalaria tienen parte en esto. +Esto no debera sorprendernos, porque en realidad todo crece. +Si vamos a la Roma Imperial, al ao 1 d. C. hubo claramente alrededor de 1800 aos en los que no hubo demasiado crecimiento. +Pero la gente que los romanos llamaban "brbaros escoceses", mis ancestros, contribuyeron a la Revolucin Industrial, y en el siglo XIX, el crecimiento se aceler, se volvi ms y ms rpido y ha impactado a todo el mundo. +Desde las selvas de Singapur a la tundra del norte de Finlandia. +Todo el mundo tiene que ver. Es solo cuestin de cundo ha de suceder lo inevitable. +Una de las razones por las que creo que est sucediendo ahora es la calidad del liderazgo en toda el frica. +Creo que todos coincidimos en que en los 90 el ms importante poltico del mundo fue un africano. Pero conozco gente brillante en todo el continente, que estn todo el tiempo haciendo reformas que han transformado la situacin econmica de sus pases. +Occidente est involucrando en eso. +El Occidente provey programas de condonacin de deudas que han reducido las obligaciones subsaharianas del 70% del PIB, a alrededor del 40%. +Al mismo tiempo, nuestro nivel de deuda subi a 120% y nos sentimos un poco deprimidos por eso. +La poltica se debilita cuando la deuda sube. +Cuando la deuda del sector pblico es baja, los gobiernos no tienen que elegir entre invertir en educacin y salud o pagar los intereses de lo que se debe. +Y no es solo el sector pblico el que mejor. +El sector privado tambin. +Nuevamente, en Occidente tenemos deudas en el sector privado del 200% del PIB en Espaa, el Reino Unido y EE. UU. +Eso es endeudamiento enorme. +frica, muchos pases de frica, estn situados en entre 10% y 30% del PIB. +Si hay algn continente que puede hacer lo que hizo China China tiene alrededor del 130% del PIB si alguien puede hacer lo que hizo China en los ltimos 30 aos, ser frica, en los prximos 30. +As, tienen bien sus finanzas gubernamentales as como la deuda del sector privado. +Alguien reconoce esto? De hecho, s. +Las inversiones extranjeras directas se han expandido por frica en los ltimos 15 aos. +En los 70, nadie quera ni acercarse al continente. +Y de hecho, las inversiones vienen principalmente Occidente. +Omos mucho sobre China, ellos prestan mucho dinero, pero el 60% de las inversiones extranjeras directas de los ltimos aos han venido de Europa, Amrica, Australia, Canad. +El 10% viene de India. +Invierten en energa. +frica produce en la actualidad 10 millones de barriles diarios de petrleo. +Eso es lo mismo que Arabia Saudita o Rusia. +E invierten en telecomunicaciones y centros comerciales. +Yo creo que esta alentadora historia se debe en parte a la demografa. +Pero no solo a la demografa Africana. +Este es el nmero de personas de entre 15 y 24 aos en varias partes del mundo, y quiero que se concentren por un segundo en la lnea azul. +Imagnense ser Foxconn, hace diez aos, tratando de establecer una fbrica de iPhones. +Quizs elegiran China, que es el centro de la lnea azul del este de Asia, donde hay 200 millones de jvenes y ese nmero crece todos los aos, hasta el 2010. +Lo que significa que tendran gente nueva golpeando a la puerta diciendo "Dame un trabajo" y "No necesito un gran sueldo, solo dame un trabajo, por favor". +Ahora eso ha cambiado completamente. +En esta dcada, veremos una cada de entre el 20 y el 30% de jvenes de 15 a 24 en China. +As que, dnde pondran la fbrica? +Buscaran en el sur de Asia como lo estn haciendo muchos. +Estn mirando hacia Pakistn y Bangladesh y tambin estn mirando a frica. +Estn pensando en frica porque la lnea amarilla muestra que la cantidad de jvenes africanos continuar creciendo, dcada tras dcada, hasta el 2050. +Sin embargo, hay un problema cuando grandes cantidades de jvenes llegan a cualquier mercado, particularmente si son hombres jvenes. +Puede llegar a ser algo peligroso. +Creo que uno de los factores cruciales es: qu tan educada est esa poblacin? +Si miran la lnea roja de aqu, vern que en 1975 solo el 9% de los nios asistan a escuelas secundarias en el frica subsahariana. +Pondran una fbrica all a mediados de los 70? +Nadie lo hizo. +En lugar de eso, eligieron a Turqua y a Mxico para poner fbricas textiles, porque los niveles de educacin eran de entre 25 y 30%. +El frica subsahariana est hoy en los mismos niveles de Mxico y Turqua de 1975. +Ellos tendrn puestos de trabajo en textiles que sacarn a la poblacin rural de la pobreza y la pondrn en el camino de la industrializacin y el bienestar. +Entonces, cmo se ve frica hoy? +As es como yo la veo. +Parece un poco raro, pero es que soy economista. +Cada cajita es alrededor de mil millones de dlares y vern que le presto mucha atencin a Nigeria, all en el medio. +Sudfrica tiene un lugar importante. +Pero cuando pienso en el futuro, lo que ms me interesa en realidad es frica central, oeste y del sur. +Si me fijo en la poblacin africana, sobresale frica del este como de gran potencial. +Tambin les mostrar algo ms con estos mapas. +Les mostrar la democracia versus la autocracia. +Las democracias frgiles son las de color beige. +Las democracias fuertes son las naranjas. +Y lo que vern es que la mayora de los africanos viven actualmente bajo democracia. +Por qu esto es importante? +Porque lo que la gente quiere es lo mismo que los polticos intentan; no siempre lo logran, pero al menos lo tratan. +Y lo que logran es un circulo virtuoso de fortalecimiento. +En las elecciones de Ghana de diciembre de 2012, la batalla entre los dos candidatos era por la educacin. +Uno de ellos ofreca educacin secundaria gratis para todos, no solo para el 30%. +El otro tuvo que decir: "Yo construir 50 escuelas nuevas". +Y gan por un gran margen. +As, la democracia alienta a los gobiernos a invertir en educacin. +La educacin ayuda al crecimiento y a las inversiones, y eso genera ingresos en el presupuesto, lo que da a los gobiernos ms dinero que lleva al crecimiento por la educacin. +Es un crculo virtuoso, positivo. +Pero me preguntan, y esta pregunta en particular me hace sentir triste: "pero qu pasa con la corrupcin? +Cmo se puede invertir en frica si hay corrupcin?" +Lo que me entristece es que este grfico muestra que la mayor correlacin con la corrupcin est en la riqueza. +Cuando eres pobre, la corrupcin no es tu mayor prioridad. +Y en los pases del lado derecho, pueden ver los PIB per cpita. Prcticamente todos los pases con un PIB per cpita, digamos, menor que 5 mil dlares tienen un ndice de corrupcin de aproximadamente, cunto? tres? +Tres de diez. Eso no est bien. +Todos los pases pobres son corruptos. +Todos los pases ricos son relativamente no-corruptos. +Cmo pasamos de pobreza y corrupcin a riqueza y menos corrupcin? +Hacemos que la clase media crezca. +La manera de lograr eso es invertir, no decir que no invertiremos en ese continente porque hay mucha corrupcin. +Ahora, no quiero hacer apologa de la corrupcin. +Fui arrestado porque me negu a pagar un soborno... y no en frica en realidad. +Pero lo que quiero decir es que podemos hacer una diferencia y para hacerla debemos invertir. +Ahora les contar algo no-tan-secreto. +Los economistas no somos muy buenos en las predicciones. +Porque la pregunta real es: qu pasa despus? +Y si volvemos al ao 2000 lo que vemos es que "The Economist" public una portada muy famosa, "El continente desesperanzado" y lo que hicieron fue mirar el crecimiento de frica en los diez aos anteriores - 2% - y decir: qu pasar en los prximos diez aos? +Asumieron 2% y eso era una historia sin mucha esperanza porque el crecimiento de la poblacin era de 2,5. +La gente empobreci en frica durante los 90. +Ahora en 2012, The Economist tiene una nueva portada y qu muestra? +Muestra a frica progresando gracias a que el crecimiento de los ltimos 10 aos fue del 5,5% aproximadamente. +Me gustara verlos a ustedes volverse economistas ahora porque si el crecimiento en los ltimos diez aos fue de 5,5%, qu creen que predice el FMI para los prximos cinco aos en frica? +Exacto. Creo que secretamente estn diciendo, para sus adentros, probablemente 5,5%. +Son todos economistas, creo, y como muchos economistas, estn equivocados. +Sin ofender. +Me gusta buscar los pases que estn haciendo exactamente lo que frica ya ha hecho, es decir, ese salto de 1800 aos de nada a, de repente, dispararse completamente. +India es uno de esos ejemplos. +Este es el crecimiento de India de 1960 a 2010. +Ignoren la escala de abajo por un segundo. +En realidad, por los primeros 20 aos, los 60 y los 70, India casi no creci. +Creci solo un 2% cuando el aumento de la poblacin fue del 2,5% aproximadamente. +Eso suena familiar, porque es exactamente lo que pas en el subsahara en los 80 y los 90. +Y despus pas algo en 1980. +De pronto India se dispar. +No era un "ndice hind de crecimiento", "las democracias no pueden crecer". India pudo. +Y si pensamos en el crecimiento subsahariano junto con la historia del crecimiento Indio, son notoriamente similares. +20 aos de no mucho crecimiento y una lnea de tendencia que nos indica que el crecimiento de frica subsahariana es un poco mayor que el de India. +Y si, sobre esto, pensamos en el desarrollo de Asia, estoy diciendo que India est 20 aos adelante de frica y que Asia est diez aos ms adelantada que India Puedo extraer algunas predicciones para los prximos 30 a 40 aos, que creo que son mejores que las predicciones mirando al pasado. +Y eso me indica esto: que frica pasar de una economa de 2 billones de dlares hoy en da a una de 29 billones en 2050. +Es mayor que Europa y America juntos en moneda actual. +La esperanza de vida aumentar 13 aos. +La poblacin se duplicar de mil a dos mil millones, as que los ingresos familiares aumentarn siete veces en los prximos 35 aos. +Cuando presento esto en frica, Nairobi, Lagos, Accra me preguntan una cosa: +"Charlie, por qu eres tan pesimista?" +Y saben qu? +Creo que tienen razn. +Estoy diciendo que no podemos aprender nada, de todo lo positivo de Asia e India. Pero de lo negativo? +Tal vez frica puede evitar algunos de los errores que se han cometido. +Seguramente, las tecnologas de las que estuvimos hablando esta ltima semana, pueden ayudar a que frica crezca incluso ms rpido. +Creo que podemos jugar un papel. +Porque la tecnologa nos permite ayudar. +Puedes descargar algunas piezas de la excelente literatura africana de Internet, ahora mismo. +No ahora mismo, esperen 30 segundos. +Pueden comprar algunas de sus canciones. +Mi iPod est lleno de ellas. +Compren productos africanos. +Vayan all de vacaciones y vean Uds. mismos que las cosas estn cambiando. +Inviertan +O tal vez contratando personas, dndoles habilidades que puedan llevar nuevamente a frica, para que sus compaas crezcan mucho ms rpido que la mayora de las nuestras aqu en Occidente. +Y as podremos contruibuir a que el siglo XXI sea el siglo de frica. +Muchas gracias. +El ao pasado, el 4 de julio, experimentos en el Gran Colisionador de Hadrones, GCH, descubrieron el bosn de Higgs. +Fue un da histrico. +No hay duda de que de ahora en adelante, el 4 de julio ser recordado no como el da de la Declaracin de Independencia, sino como el da del Descubrimiento del Bosn de Higgs. +Bueno, al menos, aqu en el CERN. +Pero para m, la mayor sorpresa del da fue que no hubo ninguna gran sorpresa. +Para el ojo de un fsico terico, el bosn de Higgs es una explicacin inteligente de cmo algunas partculas elementales ganan masa; sin embargo, parece una solucin bastante insatisfactoria e incompleta. +Quedan muchas preguntas sin responder. +El bosn de Higgs no comparte la belleza, la simetra, la elegancia, del resto del mundo de las partculas elementales. +Por esta razn, la mayora de los fsicos tericos cree que el bosn de Higgs no puede ser la historia completa. +Esperbamos nuevas partculas y fenmenos acompaando al bosn de Higgs. +En cambio, hasta ahora, las mediciones procedentes del GCH no muestran signos de nuevas partculas o fenmenos inesperados. +Por supuesto, la sentencia no es definitiva. +En el ao 2015, el GCH casi doblar la energa de la colisin de protones, y estas colisiones ms poderosas permitirn explorar ms el mundo de las partculas, y sin duda aprenderemos mucho ms. +Pero por el momento, ya que no se ha encontrado evidencia de nuevos fenmenos, esto nos deja suponer que las partculas que conocemos hoy en da, incluyendo el bosn de Higgs, son las nicas partculas elementales en la naturaleza, incluso a energas mucho mayores que las que hemos explorado hasta ahora. +Vamos a ver a donde nos llevar esta hiptesis. +Nos encontraremos con un resultado sorprendente y fascinante acerca de nuestro universo; y para explicar mi punto, primero les explicar qu es el Higgs, y para hacerlo, tenemos que retroceder a un diezmilmillonsimo de segundo despus del Big Bang. +Y segn la teora de Higgs, en ese instante, se produjo un acontecimiento dramtico en el universo. +El espacio-tiempo experiment una transicin de fase. +Fue algo muy similar a la transicin de fase que ocurre cuando el agua se convierte en hielo por debajo de los cero grados. +Pero en nuestro caso, la transicin de fase no es un cambio en la forma como las molculas se organizan dentro de la materia, sino que se trata de un cambio de la estructura del espacio-tiempo. +Durante esta transicin de fase, el espacio vaco se llen de una sustancia que ahora llamamos campo de Higgs. +Y esta sustancia puede parecer invisible para nosotros, pero tiene una realidad fsica. +Nos rodea todo el tiempo, al igual que el aire que respiramos en esta habitacin. +Y algunas partculas elementales interactan con esta sustancia, obteniendo energa en el proceso. +Y esta energa intrnseca es lo que llamamos la masa de una partcula, y al descubrir el bosn de Higgs, el GCH ha demostrado concluyentemente que esta sustancia es real, porque las cosas estn constituidas por los bosones de Higgs. +Y esto, en pocas palabras, es la esencia de la historia de Higgs. +Pero esta historia es mucho ms interesante. +Mediante el estudio de la teora de Higgs, fsicos tericos descubrieron, no a travs de un experimento sino mediante el poder de las matemticas, que el campo de Higgs no existe necesariamente solamente en la forma que observamos hoy. +Al igual que la materia puede existir como lquido o slido, el campo de Higgs, la sustancia que llena todo el espacio-tiempo, podra existir en dos estados. +Adems el estado de Higgs conocido, podra haber adoptado un segundo estado donde el campo de Higgs es miles de millones de veces ms denso que lo que observamos hoy en da, y la mera existencia de otro estado del campo de Higgs plantea un problema potencial. +Esto es porque, de acuerdo a las leyes de la mecnica cuntica, es posible tener transiciones entre dos estados, incluso en presencia de una barrera de energa que separe los dos estados, un fenmeno llamado, muy apropiadamente, efecto tnel cuntico. +Debido al efecto tnel cuntico yo podra desaparecer de esta habitacin y aparecer en la habitacin de al lado, prcticamente penetrando la pared. +Pero no esperen que realice el truco ante sus ojos, porque la probabilidad para m de atravesar la pared es ridculamente pequea. +Tendrn que esperar mucho tiempo antes de que suceda, pero cranme, el efecto tnel cuntico es un fenmeno real, y se ha observado en muchos sistemas. +Por ejemplo, el diodo tnel, un componente usado en electrnica, funciona gracias a las maravillas del efecto tnel cuntico. +Pero volvamos al campo de Higgs. +Si existiera el estado Higgs ultra denso, entonces, debido al efecto tnel cuntico, una burbuja de este estado podra aparecer de repente en algn lugar del universo en un momento determinado, lo que es anlogo a lo que sucede cuando el agua hierve. +Las burbujas de vapor se forman dentro del agua, luego se expanden, convirtiendo lquido en gas. +De la misma manera, una burbuja del estado Higgs ultra denso podra venir a la existencia por el efecto tnel cuntico. +Luego se expandira la burbuja a la velocidad de la luz, invadiendo todo el espacio y convirtiendo el campo de Higgs del estado familiar al nuevo estado. +Esto es un problema? S, es un gran problema. +No puede ocurrirnos en la vida cotidiana, pero la intensidad del campo de Higgs es crtica para la estructura de la materia. +Si el campo de Higgs fuera un poco ms intenso, veramos tomos encogindose, neutrones decayendo dentro de los ncleos atmicos, los ncleos desintegrndose, y el hidrgeno sera el nico elemento qumico posible en el universo. +El campo de Higgs, en su estado de Higgs ultra denso, no solo es un par de veces ms intenso que en la actualidad, sino miles de millones de veces, y si el espacio-tiempo se llenara con ese estado de Higgs, toda la materia atmica colapsara. +No existiran estructuras moleculares, ni vida. +Entonces, me pregunto, es posible que en el futuro, el campo de Higgs sufra una transicin de fase y, a travs del efecto tnel cuntico, se transforme en este estado desagradable, ultra denso? +En otras palabras, me pregunto, cul es el destino del campo de Higgs en nuestro universo? +Y el ingrediente crucial necesario para responder a esta pregunta es la masa del bosn de Higgs. +Y experimentos en el GCH encontraron que la masa del bosn de Higgs es aproximadamente 126 GeV. +Esto es pequeo cuando se expresa en unidades familiares, porque es igual a 10 a la menos 22 gramos. Pero es grande en las unidades de la fsica de partculas, porque es igual al peso de una molcula entera de un constituyente del ADN. +Armados con esta informacin del GCH, junto con algunos colegas aqu en el CERN, calculamos la probabilidad de que nuestro universo pudiera atravesar el tnel cuntico al estado de Higgs ultra denso, y hemos encontrado un resultado muy interesante. +Nuestros clculos han demostrado que el valor medido de la masa de bosn de Higgs es muy especial. +Tiene justo el valor correcto para mantener suspendido al universo en una situacin inestable. +El campo de Higgs est en una configuracin inestable que se ha mantenido hasta ahora pero que finalmente se derrumbar. +As que segn estos clculos, somos como los campistas que accidentalmente ponen su tienda en el borde de un precipicio. +Y finalmente, el campo de Higgs experimentar una transicin de fase y la materia se derrumbar en s misma. +As es cmo la humanidad va a desaparecer? +No lo creo. +Nuestro clculo muestra que ese efecto tnel cuntico del campo de Higgs no es probable que se produzca en los prximos 10 a la 100 aos y eso es mucho tiempo. +Es incluso ms que el tiempo que tarda Italia en formar un gobierno estable. +An as, para entonces ya nos habremos ido hace tiempo. +As que es muy poco probable que estemos por all para ver el colapso del campo de Higgs. +Pero la razn para interesarme en la transicin del campo de Higgs es porque quiero abordar la cuestin, por qu es la masa del bosn de Higgs tan especial? +Por qu es justo la correcta para mantener el universo en el borde de una transicin de fase? +Los fsicos tericos siempre preguntan "por qu". +Mucho ms que "cmo" funciona un fenmeno, los fsicos tericos siempre estn interesados en "por qu" un fenmeno funciona de la manera que funciona. +Creemos que estas preguntas de "por qu" nos pueden dar pistas acerca de los principios fundamentales de la naturaleza. +Y en efecto, una posible respuesta a mi pregunta abre nuevos universos, literalmente. +Se ha especulado que nuestro universo es solo una burbuja en un multiverso jabonoso hecho de una multitud de burbujas, y cada burbuja es un universo diferente con diferentes constantes fundamentales y diferentes leyes fsicas. +Y en este contexto, solo se puede hablar de la probabilidad de encontrar un determinado valor de la masa de Higgs. +Entonces la clave del misterio podra residir en las propiedades estadsticas del multiverso. +Sera algo parecido a lo que sucede con las dunas de arena en una playa. +En principio, uno podra imaginar encontrar dunas de arena con cualquier ngulo de pendiente en una playa, y sin embargo, los ngulos de inclinacin de las dunas de arena tpicamente miden alrededor de 30, 35 grados. +Y la razn es simple: el viento acumula la arena y la gravedad la hace caer. +Como resultado, la mayora de las dunas de arena tienen ngulos de inclinacin alrededor del valor crtico, cerca del colapso. +Y algo similar podra suceder para la masa del bosn de Higgs en el multiverso. +En la mayora de los universos burbuja, la masa de Higgs podra estar alrededor del valor crtico, cerca de un colapso csmico del campo de Higgs, debido a dos efectos en competencia, igual que en el caso de la arena. +Mi historia no tiene un fin, porque an no sabemos el final de la historia. +Esto es ciencia en progreso, y para resolver el misterio, necesitamos ms datos, y espero que el GCH pronto aada nuevas pistas a esta historia. +Solo un nmero, la masa del bosn de Higgs, y sin embargo, de este nmero aprendemos mucho. +Yo empec desde una hiptesis, que las partculas conocidas son todo lo que hay en el universo, incluso ms all del dominio explorado hasta ahora. +De esto, descubrimos que el campo de Higgs que impregna el espacio-tiempo puede estar permanentemente al filo de la navaja, listo para el colapso csmico, y descubrimos que esta puede ser una pista de que nuestro universo es solo un grano de arena en una playa gigante, el multiverso. +Pero no s si mi hiptesis es correcta. +As es como funciona la fsica: una sola medicin puede ponernos en el camino a una nueva comprensin del universo o nos puede enviar a un callejn sin salida. +Pero en cualquier caso de una cosa estoy seguro: El viaje estar lleno de sorpresas. +Gracias. +Alguna vez se preguntaron por qu las empresas realmente geniales, las innovadoras, las creativas, empresas de la nueva economa, Apple, Google, Facebook estn saliendo de un pas en particular, Estados Unidos de Amrica? +Por lo general, cuando digo esto, alguien dice: "Spotify! +Eso es Europa". Pero, s. +No ha tenido el impacto que han tenido estas otras empresas. +Cul es el secreto que subyace al modelo de crecimiento de Silicon Valley, que ellos entendieron que difiere de este modelo de crecimiento de la vieja economa? +Y lo interesante es que a menudo, incluso en el siglo XXI, al final tenemos estas ideas del mercado versus el estado. +Pero lo que realmente me interesa, especialmente hoy en da y por lo que est pasando polticamente en todo el mundo, es el lenguaje empleado, la narrativa, el discurso, las imgenes, las palabras reales. +A menudo se nos dice que el sector privado es mucho ms innovador porque no se restringe a las convenciones. +Es ms dinmico. +Piensen en el discurso tan inspirador de Steve Jobs a la clase de graduacin 2005 en Stanford, donde dijo que sean innovadores, que conserven el hambre, y sean tontos. +S? Estos tipos tienen hambre, son tontos y pintorescos, s? +Y en lugares como Europa, puede que sea ms equitativo, quiz nos vistamos un poco mejor y que comamos mejor que en EE.UU., pero el problema es este maldito sector pblico. +Es demasiado grande y en realidad no ha permitido que el capital de riesgo dinmico y la comercializacin puedan rendir los frutos que deberan dar. +E incluso peridicos muy respetables, de algunos soy suscriptora, usan palabras como, ya saben, el Estado es este Leviatn, s? +Este monstruo con grandes tentculos. +Son muy explcitos en estas editoriales. +Dicen: "el Estado es necesario para resolver estas pequeas fallas del mercado cuando uno tiene bienes pblicos o distintos tipos de externalidades negativas como la contaminacin, pero, saben cul ser la prxima gran revolucin luego de Internet? +Todos esperamos que sea algo ecolgico, o algo de nanotecnologa, y para que eso pueda ocurrir", dicen, este fue una edicin especial sobre la prxima revolucin industrial dicen, "el Estado, debe sentar las bases, s?" +Financiar la infraestructura, las escuelas. +Incluso financiar la investigacin bsica, porque es de pblico conocimiento que es un gran bien pblico en el que las empresas privadas no quieren invertir. Pero, saben algo? +"Dejen el resto a los revolucionarios". +A esos pensadores pintorescos, desestructurados. +A veces se los llama "manos de garaje", porque algunos hicieron algunas cosas en sus garajes, aunque eso en parte es un mito. +Y lo que quiero hacer en, Dios mo, solo 10 minutos, es volver a pensar esta yuxtaposicin, porque tiene consecuencias realmente enormes que exceden la poltica de innovacin, que suele ser el rea de la que hablo a menudo con los lderes polticos. +Tiene enormes consecuencias, incluso con toda esta idea actual de dnde, cundo y por qu deberamos recortar el gasto pblico y distintos tipos de servicios pblicos que, claro, como sabemos, estn siendo cada vez ms externalizados debido a esta yuxtaposicin. +S? O sea, quiz tenemos que tener escuelas libres o escuelas concentradas para que sean ms innovadoras sin lidiar con la carga del pesado plan de estudios estatal, o similar. +Este tipo de palabras constantemente, estas yuxtaposiciones, aparecen por doquier, no solo con la poltica de innovacin. +Por eso para pensar de nuevo, no tienen por qu creerme, solo piensen en las cosas ms revolucionarias que tienen en sus bolsillos y no los enciendan, pero puede que quieran sacarlos, a sus iPhones. +Pregntense quin financi esas genialidades revolucionarias, ultracreativas, que tiene el iPhone. +Qu caracteriza a sus telfonos como 'inteligentes', en vez de ser 'tontos'? +Es Internet, que uno puede navegar la Web en cualquier lugar del mundo; el GPS, que permite saber dnde estamos en cualquier lugar del mundo; la pantalla tctil que hace que sea tambin un telfono fcil de usar para cualquier persona. +Eso es lo muy inteligente y revolucionario de los iPhones, y todo fue financiado por el gobierno. +Y la idea es que Internet fue financiada por DARPA, el Departamento de Defensa de EE.UU. +El GPS fue financiado por el programa Navstar de los militares. +Incluso Siri fue financiado por DARPA. +La pantalla tctil fue financiada por subvenciones pblicas de la CIA y la NSF a dos investigadores pblicos de la Universidad de Delaware. +Puede que piensen: "Bueno, dijo muchas veces la palabra 'defensa' y 'militar'", pero es muy interesante y se cumple sector tras sector, departamento tras departamento. +As que en la industria farmacutica, en la que estoy en lo personal muy interesada porque tuve la suerte de estudiarla en profundidad, es maravilloso preguntarse sobre lo revolucionario versus lo no revolucionario, porque todas y cada una de las medicinas pueden dividirse segn sean revolucionarias o incrementales. +Las nuevas entidades moleculares con grado de prioridad son los nuevos medicamentos revolucionarios, mientras que las pequeas variaciones de medicamentos ya existentes Viagra, distintos colores, diferentes dosis son los menos revolucionarios. +Y resulta que el 75 % de las nuevas entidades moleculares con grado de prioridad se financian en laboratorios aburridos, kafkianos, del sector pblico. +Eso no significa que Big Pharma no gaste en innovacin. +Lo hace. Gasta en mercadotecnia. +Gasta en la D de la I+D. +Gasta mucho en la recompra de sus acciones, algo problemtico. +De hecho, empresas como Pfizer y Amgen recientemente gastaron mucho ms dinero recomprando sus acciones para subirles el precio, que en I+D, pero esa es una charla TED que otro da me fascinara dar. +Lo interesante de todo esto es que el Estado, en todos estos ejemplos, hizo mucho ms que simplemente solucionar las fallas del mercado. +En realidad, fue dando forma y creando mercados. +Financi no solo la investigacin bsica, que, de nuevo, es un bien pblico tpico, sino incluso la investigacin aplicada. +Fue incluso, Dios no lo quiera, un capitalista de riesgo. +Estos programas SBIR y SDTR, que dan financiacin inicial a las pequeas empresas no solo han sido extremadamente importantes comparados con el capital de riesgo privado, sino que tambin se han vuelto cada vez ms importantes. +Por qu? Porque como muchos sabemos el capital de riesgo es de muy corto plazo. +Quiere el retorno de inversin en 3 a 5 aos. +La innovacin lleva mucho ms tiempo que ese, 15 a 20 aos. +Entonces la idea... o sea, esta es la idea, s? +Quin est financiando la parte difcil? +Claro, no es solo el Estado. +El sector privado hace mucho. +Pero la narrativa que siempre escuchamos es que el Estado es importante para lo bsico, pero que no aporta realmente al pensar de alto riesgo, revolucionario, ultracreativo. +En todos estos sectores, desde financiar Internet hasta gastar, pero tambin idear la visin estratgica de estas inversiones, siempre vino desde dentro del Estado. +El sector de la nanotecnologa es realmente fascinante para estudiar esto, porque la palabra en s, la nanotecnologa, vino del seno del gobierno. +Y esto tiene consecuencias enormes. +En primer lugar, claro que no soy una persona anticuada que plantea Mercado versus Estado. +Todos sabemos que en el capitalismo dinmico son realmente necesarias las asociaciones pblico-privadas. +Pero la idea es que si constantemente vemos al Estado como necesario pero en realidad, un poco aburrido y a menudo un poco peligroso como el Leviatn, creo que atrofiamos la posibilidad de crear estas asociaciones pblico-privadas de una manera dinmica. +Incluso las palabras que usamos a menudo para justificar la parte "P", la parte pblica bueno, las dos son P en la asociacin pblico-privada es en trminos de bajar riesgo. +El sector pblico en estos ejemplos que acabo de darles, y hay muchos ms, que juntos a otros colegas hemos estado analizando, ha hecho mucho ms que bajar riesgos. +En cierta forma asumi el riesgo. +Ha sido quien ha pensado en forma creativa. +Pero tambin estoy segura de que todos han tenido experiencia con gobiernos locales, regionales, nacionales y uno dice, "Sabes algo, conoc al burcrata kafkiano". +Esa yuxtaposicin est all. +Bueno, hay una profeca autocumplida. +Al hablar del Estado como algo irrelevante, aburrido, a veces creamos esas organizaciones de ese modo. +Por eso tenemos que construir estas organizaciones empresario-estatales. +DARPA, que financi Internet y Siri, pens realmente mucho en esto, cmo dar la bienvenida al fracaso, porque fallarn. +Fallarn al innovar. +Uno de cada 10 experimentos tiene algo de xito. +Y los capitalistas de riesgo lo saben y pueden financiar realmente las otras prdidas de ese xito. +Y eso me lleva, probablemente a la mayor consecuencia y esto tiene enormes consecuencias ms all de la innovacin. +Si el Estado es algo ms que un solucionador del mercado, si es un creador de mercado, y para hacerlo ha tenido que asumir riesgos enormes, qu pas con la recompensa? +Bueno, dnde est la recompensa estatal de haber asumido esos enormes riesgos y haber hecho la tontera de crear Internet? +Internet fue una locura. +Realmente. Digo, la probabilidad de fracasar era enorme. +Haba que estar completamente loco para hacerlo y por suerte lo estaban. +Ahora, ni siquiera llegamos a la pregunta de las recompensas a menos que veamos que el Estado asume riesgos. +Y el problema es que los economistas piensan a menudo que el Estado recibe impuestos como recompensa. +Ya saben, las empresas pagarn impuestos, los empleos que creen generarn crecimiento y as las personas que reciben esos empleos recibirn aumento de ingresos que regresar al Estado mediante los impuestos. +Bueno, por desgracia, eso no es verdad. +No es cierto porque muchos de los empleos que se crean, van al extranjero. +Es la globalizacin y est bien. No debemos ser nacionalistas. +Dejemos que los empleos vayan donde quiz tienen que ir. +Es decir, podemos tener una postura al respecto. +Pero tambin estas empresas que tuvieron estos beneficios enormes del Estado Apple es un gran ejemplo +tuvieron la primera... bueno, no la primera, pero USD 500 000 fueron para Apple, la empresa, mediante este programa SBIC, que antecedi al programa SBIR, as como, como he dicho antes, todas las tecnologas subyacentes al iPhone. +Sin embargo, sabemos que legalmente, como muchas otras empresas, repagan muy pocos impuestos. +As que en realidad lo que tenemos que volver a pensar es que quiz debera haber un mecanismo de generacin de retorno mucho ms directo que los impuestos. Por qu no? +Podra ocurrir quiz mediante acciones. +Esto, por cierto, en los pases que piensan en esto en forma estratgica, pases como Finlandia en Escandinavia, pero tambin China y Brasil, estn reteniendo acciones en estas inversiones. +Sitra financi a Nokia, mantuvo acciones, hizo mucho dinero, es un organismo de financiacin pblica en Finlandia, que luego financi la prxima ronda de Nokias. +El Banco Nacional de Desarrollo, en Brasil, hoy est proveyendo enorme financiacin a tecnologas limpias, y acaba de anunciar un programa de 56 000 millones para el futuro, retiene acciones en estas inversiones. +En cambio, muchos de los presupuestos estatales que en teora estn tratando de hacerlo estn siendo limitados. +Pero quizs an ms importante, hemos odo antes del 1 %, del 99 %. +Si el Estado se pensara de esta forma estratgica, como uno de los jugadores principales en el mecanismo de creacin de valor, porque de eso estamos hablando, s? +Quines son los diferentes actores en la creacin de valor en la economa y el papel del Estado, y cmo se lo ha relegado a un segundo plano. +Gracias. +Estaba en Nueva York durante el huracn Sandy, y este perrito blanco que se llama Maui estaba conmigo. +La mitad de la ciudad estaba oscura debido a un corte de energa, y yo estaba viviendo en el lado oscuro. +Maui tena miedo a la oscuridad, as que tuve que cargarlo por las escaleras, en realidad bajarlo por las escaleras en primer lugar, para su paseo, y luego subirlo. +Tambin estuve acarreando galones de botellas de agua hasta el sptimo piso todos los das. +Y mientras haca todo esto, tuve que mantener una antorcha entre los dientes. +Las tiendas cercanas no tenan linternas ni bateras, ni pan. +Para una ducha, camin 40 cuadras a una sucursal de mi gimnasio. +Pero estas no eran las principales preocupaciones de mi da. +Fue crtico para m ser la primera persona en un caf cercano con cables de extensin y cargadores para cargar mis mltiples dispositivos. +Empec a buscar bajo los bancos de las panaderas y en las entradas de pasteleras por contactos. +No era la nica. +Incluso bajo la lluvia, la gente se paraba entre Madison y la 5 Avenida bajo sus paraguas para cargar sus telfonos celulares en enchufes en la calle. +La naturaleza slo nos haba recordado que era ms fuerte que toda nuestra tecnologa, y sin embargo, ah estbamos, obsesionados con estar conectados. +Creo que no hay nada como una crisis para saber lo que es realmente importante y lo que no, y Sandy me hizo darme cuenta de que nuestros dispositivos y su conectividad nos importa tanto como el alimento y el refugio. +El yo que conoca ya no existe, y creo que un universo abstracto, digital se ha convertido en una parte de nuestra identidad y quiero hablarles sobre lo que creo que significa. +Soy una novelista, y estoy interesada en el ser porque el individuo y la ficcin tienen mucho en comn. +Ambos son historias, interpretaciones. +Ustedes y yo podemos experimentar cosas sin una historia. +Podramos subir demasiado rpido por las escaleras y podramos quedarnos sin aliento. +Pero el sentido ms amplio que tenemos de nuestras vidas, el que es ligeramente ms abstracto, es indirecto. +Nuestra historia de nuestra vida se basa en la experiencia directa, pero est adornada. +Una novela se necesita construir escena tras escena y la historia de nuestra vida necesita un arco tambin. +Necesita meses y aos. +Los momentos particulares de nuestras vidas son sus captulos. +Pero la historia no es sobre estos captulos. +Es el libro entero. +No slo se trata de la angustia y la felicidad, las victorias y las decepciones, sino porque debido a ellos, y a veces, lo ms importante, a pesar de ellos, que encontramos nuestro lugar en el mundo y lo cambiamos y nos cambiamos. +Nuestra historia, por lo tanto, necesita dos dimensiones del tiempo: un arco largo de tiempo que es nuestra vida, y el tiempo de experiencia directa que es el momento. +El yo que experimenta directamente slo puede existir en este momento, pero aquel que narra necesita varios momentos, una secuencia entera de ellos y por eso nuestro completo sentido de nosotros mismos necesita tanto la inmersiva experiencia como el flujo del tiempo. +Ahora, el flujo del tiempo est incrustado en todo, en la erosin de un grano de arena, en el florecimiento de un pequeo brote en una rosa. +Sin l, no tendramos msica. +Nuestras propias emociones y estado de nimo a menudo codifican el tiempo, el arrepentimiento o la nostalgia por el pasado, la esperanza, o temor por el futuro. +Creo que la tecnologa ha alterado ese flujo del tiempo. +El tiempo total que tenemos para nuestra narrativa, nuestra esperanza de vida, ha ido en aumento, pero la medida ms pequea, el momento, se ha reducido. +Se ha reducido porque nuestros instrumentos nos permiten, en parte, medir unidades ms pequeas de tiempo y esto a su vez nos ha dado una comprensin ms granular del mundo material y este entendimiento granular ha generado toneladas de datos que nuestro cerebro no puede comprender y para lo cual necesitamos computadoras cada vez ms complicadas. +Todo esto para decir que la brecha entre lo que podemos percibir y lo que podemos medir slo se va a ampliar. +La ciencia puede hacer cosas en un picosegundo, pero ni ustedes ni yo nunca vamos a tener la experiencia interior de una millonsima parte de un millonsimo de segundo. +Ustedes y yo slo respondemos al ritmo de la naturaleza y su flujo, al sol, la luna y las estaciones y por esta razn necesitamos ese arco largo de tiempo con el pasado, el presente y el futuro para ver las cosas por lo que son. Para separar la seal del ruido y el uno mismo de las sensaciones. +Necesitamos la flecha del tiempo para entender la causa y el efecto, no slo en el mundo material, sino en nuestras propias intenciones y nuestras motivaciones. +Qu pasa cuando esa flecha sale mal? +Qu sucede cuando tiempo se deforma? +Muchos de nosotros hoy en da tenemos la sensacin de que la flecha del tiempo apunta a todas partes y a ninguna a la vez. +Esto es porque el tiempo no fluye en el mundo digital de la misma manera que lo hace en el mundo natural. +Todos sabemos que el Internet ha reducido el espacio adems del tiempo. +Lo lejos est ahora aqu. +Las noticias de la India son una notificacin en mi telfono no importa si estoy en Nueva York o Nueva Delhi. +Y eso no es todo. +Su ltimo trabajo, sus reservaciones para la cena del ao pasado, sus antiguos amigos, estn junto a sus amigos de hoy, porque tambin la internet archiva y deforma el pasado. +Sin distincin entre el pasado, el presente y el futuro y el aqu o el all, nos quedamos con este momento en todos lados, este momento que voy a llamar el ahora digital. +Cmo podemos priorizar en el paisaje del ahora digital? +Este ahora digital no es el presente, porque siempre es unos segundos delante, con flujos de Twitter que ya son tendencias y noticias de otras zonas horarias. +Este no es el momento de un dolor punzante en el pie o el segundo que muerdes un bollo o las tres horas que se pierden con un gran libro. +Esto ahora tiene muy poca referencia fsica o psicolgica con nuestro propio estado. +Su enfoque, en cambio, es que nos distraiga a cada paso en el camino. +Cada seal digital es una invitacin para dejar lo que estamos haciendo ahora para ir a otro lugar y hacer otra cosa. +Ests leyendo una entrevista de un autor? +Por qu no compras su libro? Tuitalo. Comprtelo. +Dale me gusta. Encuentra otros libros exactamente como el suyo. +Encuentra otras personas que leen esos libros. +Viajar puede ser liberador, pero cuando es incesante, nos convertimos en exiliados permanentes sin reposo. +La eleccin es la libertad, pero no cuando su finalidad es constantemente ella misma. +No slo el ahora digital est lejos del presente, sino que est en competencia directa con l y esto es porque no solamente estoy ausente de l, sino ustedes tambin. +No slo nosotros estamos ausentes de l, sino todo el mundo. +Y ah radica su mayor conveniencia y horror. +Puedo pedir libros en una lengua extranjera a mitad de la noche, comprar macarones parisinos, y dejar mensajes de vdeo que recogern ms adelante. +En todo momento, puedo funcionar en un ritmo diferente del de ustedes, mientras puedo mantener la ilusin de que estoy conectado a ustedes en tiempo real. +Sandy fue un recordatorio de cmo puede romperse una ilusin. +Haba quienes tenan electricidad y agua, y quienes no. +Hay quienes volvieron a sus vidas, y aquellos que todava estn desplazados despus de tantos meses. +Por alguna razn, la tecnologa parece perpetuar la ilusin para aquellos que la tienen de que todos tambin la tienen y entonces, como una irnica una bofetada en la cara, se hace realidad. +Por ejemplo, se dice que hay ms gente en la India con acceso a telfonos celulares que a inodoros. +Si esta brecha, que es ya tan grande en muchas partes del mundo, entre la falta de infraestructura y la propagacin de la tecnologa, no es de algn modo superada, habr rupturas entre lo digital y lo real. +Para nosotros, como individuos que viven en el ahora digital y que pasamos la mayor parte de nuestros momentos de vigilia en l, el desafo es vivir en dos corrientes de tiempo que son paralelas y casi simultneas. +Cmo vivir dentro de la distraccin? +Podramos pensar que los ms jvenes, aquellos que han nacido en l, se adaptan ms naturalmente. +Posiblemente, pero recuerdo mi niez. +Recuerdo a mi abuelo repasando las capitales del mundo conmigo. +Buda y Pest fueron separados por el Danubio, y Viena tena una escuela de equitacin espaola. +Si fuera una nia ahora, fcilmente podra aprender esta informacin con aplicaciones e hipervnculos, pero no sera la misma, porque mucho ms tarde, fui a Viena, y fui a la escuela de equitacin espaola, y poda sentir a mi abuelo a mi lado. +Noche tras noche, me llev a la terraza, sobre sus hombros y me sealaba Jpiter y Saturno y la Osa mayor. +Y an ahora, cuando miro la Osa mayor, regreso a esa sensacin de ser una nia, agarrada de su cabeza y tratando de equilibrarme sobre sus hombros, y puedo recuperar esa sensacin de ser una nia otra vez. +Lo que tena con mi abuelo estaba envuelto tan a menudo en informacin y conocimiento y hechos, pero se trataba de mucho ms que informacin o conocimiento o hecho. +La tecnologa de la deformacin del tiempo reta nuestro ncleo ms profundo, porque somos capaces de archivar el pasado y algo de l se vuelve difcil de olvidar, an como el momento actual es cada vez ms inmemorable. +Queremos aferrarnos y nos hemos quedado en su lugar agarrando una serie de momentos estticos. +Son como pompas de jabn que desaparecen cuando las tocamos. +Archivando todo, creemos que podemos guardarlo todo, pero el tiempo no son datos. +No se puede almacenar. +Ustedes y yo sabemos lo que significa exactamente estar verdaderamente presentes en el momento. +Podra haber ocurrido mientras estbamos tocando un instrumento, o mirando a los ojos de alguien que conocemos desde hace mucho tiempo. +En estos momentos, nosotros mismos estamos completos. +El yo que vive en el arco narrativo largo y el que experimenta el momento se convierten en uno. +El presente encapsula el pasado y una promesa para el futuro. +El presente se une a un flujo de tiempo desde antes y despus. +Primero experiment estos sentimientos con mi abuela. +Yo quera aprender a saltar la cuerda y encontr una cuerda vieja y se acomod el sari y salt sobre ella. +Yo quera aprender a cocinar y me mantuvo en la cocina, cortando y picando durante todo un mes. +Mi abuela me ense que las cosas suceden en el tiempo que llevan, contra ese tiempo no se puede luchar, y porque va a pasar y se ir, le debemos al momento presente toda nuestra atencin. +La atencin es tiempo. +Una vez me dijo uno de mis instructores de yoga que el amor es atencin, y sin duda de mi abuela, el amor y la atencin eran la misma cosa. +El mundo digital canibaliza el tiempo, y al hacerlo, quiero sugerir que lo que amenaza es la plenitud de nosotros mismos. +Amenaza el flujo de amor. +Pero no tenemos que dejarlo. +Podemos elegir lo contrario. +Hemos visto una y otra vez cmo la tecnologa puede ser creativa y en nuestras vidas y en nuestras acciones, podemos elegir las soluciones y las innovaciones y esos momentos que restauren el flujo del tiempo en lugar de fragmentarlo. +Podemos ir ms despacio y nos podemos sintonizar con el flujo y reflujo de tiempo. +Podemos elegir recuperar tiempo. +Gracias. +Hace tres aos, me encontraba a unos 100 metros del reactor nmero 4 de Chernbil. +Mi contador Geiger, que mide la radiacin, se estaba volviendo loco, y cunto ms me acercaba, mayor era la agitacin. Dios mo. +Yo estaba grabando. +Quera simplemente hacer mi trabajo y salir de all rpidamente. +Entonces, mir a lo lejos y vi humo saliendo de una granja, y pens: "Quin podr vivir aqu?" +Quiero decir, despus de todo, el suelo, el agua y el aire de Chernbil estn entre los ms altamente contaminados de la Tierra, y el reactor est ah, en medio de una zona de exclusin, o Zona Muerta, y es un estado policial nuclear, con guardias en las fronteras. +Tienes que medir continuamente la radiacin, has de tener un escolta del gobierno, y hay reglas draconianas sobre radiacin y un control constante de la contaminacin. +Es decir, ningn ser humano debera vivir cerca de la Zona Muerta. +Pero lo hacen. +Resulta que una comunidad poco comn de unas 200 personas vive dentro de la Zona. +Se denominan "auto-instalados". +Y casi todos son mujeres; los hombres tienen menor esperanza de vida, en parte por el abuso de alcohol, cigarrillos, si no por la radiacin. +Cientos de miles de personas fueron evacuadas en el momento del accidente, pero no todos aceptaron ese destino. +Las mujeres en la Zona, ahora con 70 u 80 aos, son los ltimos supervivientes de un grupo que desafi a las autoridades, y, al parecer, al sentido comn, y volvieron a sus hogares ancestrales en la Zona. +Lo hicieron ilegalmente. +Como una mujer le explic a un soldado que intentaba evacuarla por segunda vez: "Dispreme y cave la tumba. +Si no, me vuelvo a casa". +Ahora bien, por qu volver a esa tierra mortfera? +Quiero decir, no eran conscientes de los riesgos o estaban tan locos como para ignorarlos, o ambos? +La cosa es, ellos ven sus vidas y, sin duda, los riesgos que corren, de otro modo. +Ahora hay dispersas alrededor de Chernbil aldeas fantasmas espeluznantemente silenciosas, extraamente encantadoras, buclicas, totalmente contaminadas. +Muchas fueron derribadas en el momento del accidente, pero otras quedaron as, como silenciosos vestigios de la tragedia. +Otras tienen algunos residentes, una o dos "babushkas" o "babas", "abuela", en ruso y ucraniano. +Otra aldea puede tener 6 o 7 habitantes. +As que esta es la extraa demografa de la Zona: aislados solos juntos. +Y cuando llegu hasta esa chimenea humeante que haba visto en la distancia, vi a Hanna Zavorotnya, y la conoc. +Ella es la autonombrada alcaldesa de la aldea de Kapavati, de 8 habitantes. +Y cuando le pregunt lo obvio, me contest: "La radiacin no me asusta. Morir de hambre, s". +Recuerden que estas mujeres han sobrevivido las peores atrocidades del siglo XX. +Las hambrunas impuestas por Stalin en los aos 30, el Holodomor, que mat a millones de ucranianos, y se enfrentaron a los nazis en los 40, que llegaron cortando, quemando, violando, y de hecho, muchas de estas mujeres fueron enviadas a Alemania a trabajos forzados. +As que, cuando tras un par de dcadas de gobierno sovitico, ocurri lo de Chernbil, no estaban dispuestas a huir frente a un enemigo invisible. +Para ellas, la contaminacin medioambiental no es el peor tipo de devastacin. +Resulta que esto tambin es cierto para otras especies. +Jabales, linces, arces... han vuelto en masa a la zona. Los efectos, tan reales y negativos de la radiacin, han sido superados por el xodo masivo de humanos. +Resulta que, la Zona Muerta, est llena de vida. +Y hay una especie de resiliencia heroica, una especie de franco pragmatismo para aquellos que empiezan su da a las 5 a.m. +sacando agua de un pozo y la terminan a media noche listos para golpear un cubo con un palo para espantar a los jabales que podran destrozar las patatas, con la nica compaa de un poco de vodka casero ilegal. +Y hay una capa de desafo entre ellos: +"Nos dijeron que nos doleran las piernas, y nos duelen. Y qu?" +Quiero decir, qu pasa con su salud? +Los beneficios de una vida de dura actividad fsica, pero un medio ambiente contaminado por la radiacin, un enemigo complejo del que se entiende poco. +Es increblemente difcil de analizar. +Los informes sobre salud de la zona son incompatibles y opuestos. +La OMS establece el nmero de muertes relacionadas con Chernbil en 4 000, al final. +Greenpeace y otras organizaciones hablan de decenas de miles. +Todos estn de acuerdo en que la tasa de cncer de tiroides est por las nubes, y que los evacuados de Chernbil sufren el mismo trauma que todos las personas reubicadas: altos niveles de ansiedad, depresin, alcoholismo, desempleo y, ms importante, redes sociales cortadas. +Bueno, como muchos de Uds., yo me he mudado unas 20 o 25 veces en toda mi vida. +El concepto de hogar es transitorio. +Yo tengo una conexin ms profunda con mi porttil que con cualquier pedazo de tierra. +As que se nos hace difcil comprenderlo, pero el hogar es todo el cosmos de la babushka rural, y la conexin con la tierra es palpable. +Y quizs porque estas mujeres ucranianas fueron a la escuela sovitica, y aprendieron sobre los poetas rusos, aforismos relacionados con estas ideas escapan de sus bocas continuamente. +"Si te vas, mueres". +"Todos los que se fueron estn ahora peor. +Estn muriendo de tristeza". +"La tierra natal es la tierra natal. Nunca me ir". +Cmo es posible? +He aqu una teora: Podra ser que esos vnculos con la tierra ancestral, las variables blandas que reflejan sus aforismos. realmente afecten a la longevidad? +El poder de la tierra natal tan esencial para esa parte del mundo parece ser paliativo. +El hogar y la comunidad son fuerzas capaces de competir hasta contra la radiacin. +Ahora bien, con o sin radiacin, estas mujeres estn en sus ltimos aos de vida. +Dentro de 10 aos, los humanos de la Zona habrn desaparecido y este volver a ser un lugar salvaje y radioactivo, ocupado solo por animales y, ocasionalmente, por intrpidos cientficos desconcertados. +Pero el espritu y la existencia de las babushkas, cuya cifra se ha reducido a la mitad en estos tres aos que llevo conocindolas, nos dejarn nuevos y poderosos patrones con los que pensar y enfrentarnos a la relativa naturaleza del peligro, a las transformativas conexiones con el hogar, y al magnfico... tnico de nuestra autoconciencia y autodeterminacin. +Gracias. +En diciembre del 2010, la ciudad de Apatzingn en el estado costero de Michoacn, en Mxico, despert con disparos. +Durante dos das seguidos, la ciudad se convirti en un campo de batalla entre las fuerzas federales y un grupo bien organizado, presumiblemente de la organizacin criminal local, La Familia Michoacana. +Los ciudadanos no solo experimentaron incesantes disparos sino tambin explosiones y camiones quemados como barricadas por toda la ciudad, era verdaderamente como un campo de batalla. +Despus de esos dos das, y durante un enfrentamiento especialmente intenso, se presume que el lder de La Familia Michoacana, Nazario Moreno, fue muerto. +En respuesta a esta violencia aterradora, el alcalde de Apatzingn decidi convocar a los ciudadanos a una marcha por la paz. +La idea era pedir un enfoque ms pacfico contra la actividad criminal en el estado. +Y as, el da previsto para la manifestacin, miles de personas se presentaron. +Cuando el alcalde se preparaba para dar el discurso antes de empezar la marcha, su equipo not que, aunque la mitad de los participantes estaban apropiadamente vestidos de blanco y portaban pancartas pidiendo paz, la otra mitad en realidad marchaba en apoyo de la organizacin criminal y de su lder presuntamente difunto. +Sorprendido, el alcalde decidi hacerse a un lado en lugar de participar o dirigir la manifestacin que apoyaba ostensiblemente a la delincuencia organizada. +Y as su equipo se hizo a un lado. +Las dos marchas se unieron, y siguieron su camino hacia la capital del estado. +Para poner estos nmeros en perspectiva, esto es ocho veces ms que el nmero de vctimas en las guerras de Irak y Afganistn juntas. +Tambin est sorprendentemente cerca al nmero de personas que han muerto en la guerra civil en Siria, que es una guerra civil activa. +Esto est pasando al sur de la frontera. +Mientras estn leyendo, sin embargo, se sorprendern quiz de lo rpido que sern insensibles al nmero de muertes, porque vern que son nmeros abstractos de muertos sin nombre, sin rostro. +Implcita o explcitamente, hay una narracin de que todas las personas que estn muriendo de alguna manera estuvieron involucrados en el trfico de drogas y deducimos esto porque fueron torturados o ejecutados de una manera profesional, o, ms probablemente, las dos. +Y por lo tanto son claramente criminales debido a la forma en que murieron. +As que la narrativa es que de alguna manera estas personas tienen lo que se merecan. +Eran parte de los malos. +Y eso crea cierta forma de confort para mucha gente. +Sin embargo, mientras que es ms fcil pensar que nosotros, los ciudadanos, la polica, el ejrcito, somos los buenos, y ellos, los narcos, los crteles, son los malos, si lo piensan, estos ltimos solo proporcionan un servicio a los primeros. +Nos guste o no, los EE. UU. es el mayor mercado para las sustancias ilegales en el mundo, representa ms de la mitad de la demanda mundial. +Comparte miles de kilmetros de frontera con Mxico que esa es la nica va de acceso desde el sur, y as, como el ex dictador de Mxico, Porfirio Daz, sola decir: "Pobre Mxico, tan lejos de Dios y tan cerca de Estados Unidos". +La ONU estima que hay 55 millones de usuarios de drogas ilegales en los EE. UU. +Utilizando supuestos muy, muy conservadores, esto genera un mercado de drogas anual de ventas al por menor entre 30 y 150 mil millones de dlares. +Si asumimos que los narcos solo tienen acceso a la venta al por mayor, que sabemos que es falso, eso nos deja con ingresos anuales de entre 15 y 60 mil millones de dlares. +Para poner estos nmeros en perspectiva, Microsoft tiene ingresos anuales de 60 mil millones de dlares. +Y resulta que se trata de un producto que, debido a su naturaleza, un modelo de negocio para abordar este mercado requiere garantizar a los productores que su producto se colocar confiablemente en los mercados donde se consume. +Y la nica manera de hacer esto, dado que es ilegal, es tener un control absoluto de los corredores geogrficos que se utilizan para transportar drogas. +Por ello la violencia. +Si miran un mapa de la influencia del cartel y la violencia, vern que se alinea casi perfectamente con las rutas ms eficientes de transporte desde el sur hacia el norte. +Lo nico que estn haciendo los carteles es que estn tratando de proteger su negocio. +No es solo un mercado de miles de millones de dlares, sino tambin, uno complejo. +Y eso significa que necesitan garantizar la produccin y el control de calidad en el sur, y deben asegurarse de tener canales de distribucin eficientes y eficaces en los mercados donde se consumen estos frmacos. +Piensen en esto por un segundo. +Piensen en la complejidad de la red de distribucin que acabo de describir. +Es muy difcil de conciliar esto con la imagen de los matones sin rostro, ignorantes que solo se disparan mutuamente, muy difcil de conciliar. +Ahora, como profesor de negocios y como cualquier profesor de negocios les dira, una organizacin eficaz requiere una estrategia integrada que incluya una buena estructura organizacional, buenos incentivos, una identidad slida y una buena gestin de marca. +Esto me lleva a la segunda cosa que podran aprender en su exploracin de 30 minutos sobre la violencia del narcotrfico en Mxico. +Porque rpidamente se darn cuenta, y los puede confundir el hecho, de que hay tres organizaciones que constantemente se nombran en los artculos. +Escuchar acerca de Los Zetas, los Caballeros Templarios, que es la nueva marca de la Familia Michoacana de la que habl al principio, y la Federacin de Sinaloa. +Se puede leer que Los Zetas son esta clase de socipatas que aterrorizan a las ciudades a las que entran y silencian a la prensa, y esto es algo verdadero, o en su mayora verdad. +Pero este es el resultado de un cuidadoso mercadeo y una estrategia de negocios. +Vern, Los Zetas no es solo esta clase aleatoria de individuos, sino en realidad fue creado por otra organizacin criminal, el Cartel del Golfo, que la utilizaba para controlar el corredor oriental de Mxico. +Cuando ese corredor fue disputado, decidieron que queran reclutar un brazo armado profesional. +As que reclutaron a Los Zetas: una unidad completa de paracaidistas de lite del ejrcito mexicano. +Eran increblemente eficaces como ejecutores para el cartel del Golfo, tanto as que en algn momento, decidieron apoderarse de las operaciones, por eso les aconsejo que nunca tengan tigres como mascotas, porque crecen. +Y como no tenan acceso a los mercados de drogas ms rentables, esto los empuj y les dio la oportunidad para diversificarse en otras formas de delincuencia. +Incluyendo secuestro, prostitucin, venta local de drogas y trfico de seres humanos, incluyendo los migrantes que van desde el sur hasta los EE. UU. +Por lo que actualmente operan verdadera y cabalmente un negocio de franquicia. +Se concentran ms en el reclutamiento para su ejrcito, y anuncian abiertamente mejores salarios, mejores beneficios, mejores oportunidades de promocin, por no hablar de mucha mejor comida, que lo que el ejrcito puede ofrecer. +Es la forma en que operan cuando llegan a una localidad, hacen saber a las personas, que estn ah, y se acercan a la pandilla ms poderosa y les dicen: "Les ofrecemos ser los representantes locales de la marca Zeta". +Si estn de acuerdo, y no quieren saber qu les pasa si no, los entrenan y los supervisan en cmo ejecutar las operaciones criminales ms eficientemente en esa ciudad, a cambio de regalas. +Obviamente este tipo de modelo de negocio depende enteramente en tener una marca muy eficaz de miedo, y as Los Zetas cuidadosamente escenifican actos de violencia que son espectaculares en su naturaleza, especialmente cuando llegan primero a una ciudad, pero otra vez, eso es solo una estrategia de mercadeo. +No estoy diciendo que no sean violentos, lo que estoy diciendo es que aun cuando se puede leer que son los ms violentos de todos, cuando cuentan, cuando hacen el cmputo de cadveres, son en realidad todos iguales. +En contraste con ellos, los Caballeros Templarios surgieron en Michoacn se levantaron en respuesta a la incursin de los Zetas en el estado de Michoacn. +Michoacn es un estado geogrficamente estratgico porque tiene uno de los puertos ms grandes en Mxico, y tiene rutas directas al centro de Mxico, que luego le da acceso directo a los EE. UU. +Los Caballeros Templarios se dieron cuenta rpidamente de que no podan enfrentarse a los Zetas en violencia, as que desarrollaron una estrategia como una empresa social. +Se publicitaron como representantes de, y protectores de los ciudadanos de Michoacn contra el crimen organizado. +Su marca de empresa social implica que requieren mucho compromiso cvico, as que invierten fuertemente en la prestacin de servicios locales, como tratar con la violencia casera, perseguir a delincuentes, tratar a adictos, y mantener las drogas fuera de los mercados locales donde ellos estn, y, por supuesto, proteger a las personas de otras organizaciones criminales. +As que realmente estamos aqu para protegerlos. +Ellos, como lo hacen las empresas sociales, han creado un cdigo tico y moral al que le hacen publicidad, y tienen muy estrictas prcticas de reclutamiento. +Y aqu tienen los tipos de explicaciones que proporcionan para algunas de sus acciones. +Finalmente, la Federacin de Sinaloa. +Cuando leen sobre ellos, a menudo leern acerca de ellos con un trasfondo de respeto y admiracin, porque son los ms integrados y la ms grande de todas las organizaciones mexicanas, y, muchas personas argumentan, del mundo. +Empezaron como una organizacin de transporte que se especializaba en contrabando entre los EE. UU. +y las fronteras mexicanas, pero ahora han crecido a una multinacional verdaderamente integrada que tiene alianzas en produccin en el sur y asociaciones de distribucin global en todo el planeta. +Han cultivado una marca de profesionalismo, visin para los negocios e innovacin. +Han diseado nuevas drogas y nuevos procesos para fabricarlas. +Han diseado narco-tneles que cruzan la frontera, y vemos que no son del tipo de la pelcula "Sueos de Fuga". +Han inventado narco-submarinos y barcos que no son detectados por el radar. +Han inventado drones para transportar drogas, catapultas, lo que quieran. +Uno de los lderes de la Federacin de Sinaloa de hecho lleg a la lista de Forbes. +[#701 Joaqun Guzmn Loera] Como cualquier multinacional, se han especializado y enfocado solamente en la parte ms rentable del negocio, que son drogas de alto margen como la cocana, la herona, las metanfetaminas. +Como cualquier multinacional latinoamericana tradicional, la forma en que controlan sus operaciones es a travs de lazos familiares. +Cuando estn entrando en un nuevo mercado, envan un miembro de la familia para supervisar o, si se asocian con una nueva organizacin, crean un lazo familiar, bien sea a travs de matrimonios u otro tipo de vnculos. +Para reforzar su marca, en realidad tienen firmas profesionales de relaciones pblicas. que modelan la forma en cmo la prensa habla de ellos. +Tienen videgrafos profesionales en plantilla. +Tienen lazos increblemente productivos con los organismos de seguridad en ambos lados de la frontera. +Y as, diferencias a un lado, lo que comparten estas tres organizaciones por un lado, es un entendimiento muy claro de que las instituciones no pueden ser impuestas desde arriba, sino que se edifican desde la parte inferior una interaccin a la vez. +Han creado estructuras extremadamente coherentes que usan para mostrar las inconsistencias en las polticas gubernamentales. +Y lo que quiero que recuerden de esta charla son tres cosas. +Lo primero es que la violencia del narcotrfico es en realidad el resultado de una enorme demanda del mercado y una configuracin institucional que obliga al mantenimiento de este mercado que requiere violencia para garantizar rutas de entrega. +La segunda cosa que quiero que recuerden es que estas son organizaciones sofisticadas y coherentes que son organizaciones empresariales, y analizarlas y tratarlas como tal es probablemente un enfoque mucho ms til. +Estas organizaciones sirven, reclutan y operan dentro de nuestras comunidades, as que necesariamente, estamos mucho ms integrados dentro de ellos de lo que estamos cmodamente reconociendo. +As que para m la pregunta no es si estas dinmicas seguirn el camino que tienen. +Vemos que la naturaleza de este fenmeno garantiza que lo harn. +La pregunta es si estamos dispuestos a seguir apoyando una estrategia fallida basada en nuestra ignorancia testaruda, gozosa, voluntaria, a costa de la muerte de miles de nuestros jvenes. +Gracias. +Soy neurocientfico con un historial mixto en fsica y medicina. +Mi laboratorio en el Instituto Federal Suizo de Tecnologa se centra en la lesin de la mdula espinal, que afecta a ms de 50 000 personas en todo el mundo cada ao, con consecuencias graves para los individuos afectados, cuya vida cabalmente se desmorona en cuestin de un puado de segundos. +Y para m, el Hombre de Acero, Christopher Reeve, fue el que mejor despert la conciencia de la angustia de los lesionados de mdula espinal. +Y as es cmo empec mi propio viaje personal en este campo de investigacin, trabajando con la Fundacin Christopher y Dana Reeve. +Todava recuerdo ese momento decisivo. +Fue justo al final de un da normal de trabajo con la Fundacin. +Chris se diriga a nosotros, los cientficos y expertos, "Tienen que ser ms pragmticos. +Cuando salgan del laboratorio maana, quiero que pasen por el centro de rehabilitacin y vean a las personas lesionadas luchando por dar un paso, luchando por mantener su tronco. +Y cuando se vayan a su casa, piensen en lo que van a cambiar en su investigacin al da siguiente para mejorar sus vidas". +Estas palabras, permanecen conmigo. +Esto fue hace ms de 10 aos, pero desde entonces, mi laboratorio ha seguido el enfoque pragmtico a la recuperacin despus de la lesin de la mdula espinal. +Y mi primer paso en esta direccin fue desarrollar un nuevo modelo de lesin de la mdula espinal que imita ms de cerca algunas de las principales caractersticas de la lesin humana al tiempo que ofrece unas condiciones experimentales bien controladas. +Y para ello, hicimos dos hemisecciones en lados opuestos del cuerpo. +Interrumpen completamente la comunicacin entre el cerebro y la mdula espinal, lo que conduce a la parlisis completa y permanente de las piernas. +Pero, como se observa, despus de la mayora de las lesiones en los seres humanos, hay este espacio intermedio del tejido neural intacto a travs del cual la recuperacin puede ocurrir. +Pero cmo lograrlo? +Bueno, el enfoque clsico consiste en aplicar la intervencin que promovera el crecimiento de la fibra daada al objetivo original. +Y mientras este ciertamente sigue siendo la clave para una cura, pareca extraordinariamente complicado para m. +Para llegar a buen trmino clnico rpidamente, era obvio: tena que pensar en el problema de forma diferente. +Mi idea: que despertemos esta red. +En ese entonces, yo era un estudiante de postdoctorado en Los ngeles, despus de terminar mi doctorado en Francia, donde el pensamiento independiente no es necesariamente promovido. +Tena miedo de hablar con mi nuevo jefe, pero decid juntar coraje. +Llam a la puerta de mi maravilloso tutor, Reggie Edgerton, para compartir mi nueva idea. +l me escuch atentamente, y respondi con una gran sonrisa. +"Por qu no lo intentas?" +Y les prometo, este fue un momento tan importante en mi carrera, cuando me di cuenta de que el gran lder crea en la gente joven y en las nuevas ideas. +Y esta era la idea: voy a usar una metfora simplista para explicar este concepto complicado. +Imaginen que el aparato locomotor es un coche. +El motor es la mdula espinal. +La transmisin se interrumpe. El motor est apagado. +Cmo podramos volver a reengranar el motor? +En primer lugar, tenemos que proporcionar el combustible; en segundo lugar, presionar el acelerador; en tercer lugar, dirigir el coche. +Resulta que se conocen redes neurales provenientes del cerebro que desempean esta funcin durante la locomocin. +Mi idea: sustituir esta falta de entrada para darle a la mdula espinal el tipo de intervencin que el cerebro entregara naturalmente para caminar. +Para esto, aprovech 20 aos de investigaciones anteriores en neurociencias, primero para reemplazar la falta de combustible con los agentes farmacolgicos que preparan a las neuronas de la mdula espinal para disparar, y segundo, para imitar el pedal del acelerador con estimulacin elctrica. +Imaginen aqu un electrodo implantado en la parte posterior de la mdula espinal para dar estmulos indoloros. +Tom muchos aos, pero finalmente hemos desarrollado un neuroprtesis electroqumica que transforme la red neuronal en la mdula espinal de inactiva a un estado altamente funcional. +Inmediatamente, la rata paralizada puede pararse. +Tan pronto como la banda comienza a moverse, el animal presenta movimiento coordinados de las piernas, pero sin el cerebro. +Aqu lo que yo llamo "el cerebro espinal" cognitivamente procesa la informacin sensorial derivada del movimiento de la pierna y toma las decisiones sobre la manera de activar el msculo con el fin de pararse, caminar, correr, y aun aqu, mientras corre, instantneamente para si la cinta deja de moverse. +Esto fue increble. +Estaba totalmente fascinado por este locomocin sin el cerebro, pero al mismo tiempo tan frustrado. +Esta locomocin era totalmente involuntaria. +El animal prcticamente no tena control sobre las piernas. +Claramente, faltaba el sistema de manejo. +Y luego lleg a ser obvio para m que tenamos que movernos. desde el paradigma de la rehabilitacin clsica, caminar sobre una cinta rodante, y desarrollar condiciones que alentaran al cerebro a comenzar a controlar voluntariamente las piernas. +Con esto en mente, desarrollamos un sistema robtico totalmente nuevo para apoyar a la rata en cualquier direccin del espacio. +Imaginen, esto es genial. +As que imagnen a la ratita de 200 gramos atada a la extremidad de este robot de 200 kilos, pero la rata no siente el robot. +El robot es transparente, al igual que cuando Uds. sostienen a su beb durante los primeros pasos inseguros. +Permtanme resumir: la rata recibi una lesin paralizante de la mdula espinal. +La neuroprtesis electroqumica habilit un estado altamente funcional de las redes locomotoras espinales. +El robot provee un ambiente seguro para permitir que la rata intente cualquier cosa para involucrar las piernas paralizadas. +Y para la motivacin, utilizamos lo que pienso es la ms poderosa droga de Suiza: fino chocolate suizo. +La verdad, los primeros resultados fueron muy, muy, muy decepcionantes. +Aqu est mi mejor fisioterapeuta completamente incapaz de estimular la rata para dar un solo paso, mientras que la misma rata, 5 minutos antes, camin bellamente en la caminadora. +Estbamos tan frustrados. +Pero saben, una de las cualidades ms esenciales de un cientfico es la perseverancia. +Insistimos. Hemos refinado nuestro paradigma, y despus de varios meses de entrenamiento, la otrora rata paralizada poda pararse, y cuando ella decida, iniciaba la locomocin soportando el peso para correr hacia las recompensas. +Esta es la primera recuperacin jams observada de movimiento de las piernas voluntaria despus de una lesin de la mdula espinal experimental que llev a una parlisis completa y permanente. +De hecho... Gracias. +De hecho, no solo podra la rata iniciar y sostener la locomocin en el suelo, incluso podra ajustar movimiento de las piernas, por ejemplo, para resistir la gravedad para subir una escalera. +Puedo prometerles que esto fue un momento emotivo en mi laboratorio. +Nos tom 10 aos de trabajo duro alcanzar esta meta. +Pero la pregunta remanente era, cmo? +Quiero decir, cmo es posible? +Y aqu, lo que encontramos fue completamente inesperado. +Este novedoso paradigma de entrenamiento alent al cerebro a crear nuevas conexiones, algunos circuitos rel que transmiten informacin desde el cerebro ms all de la lesin y restauran el control cortical sobre las redes del aparato locomotor debajo de la lesin. +Y aqu, pueden ver un ejemplo de ello, donde marcamos las fibras provenientes del cerebro, en rojo. +Esta neurona azul est conectada con el centro locomotor, y lo que esta constelacin de contactos sinpticos significa es que el cerebro est reconectado con el centro locomotor con solo una neurona rel. +Pero la remodelacin no fue restringida a la zona de la lesin. +Ocurri a travs de todo el sistema nervioso central, incluso en el tallo cerebral, donde pudimos observar hasta un 300% de aumento en la densidad de fibras provenientes del cerebro. +No pretendamos reparar la mdula espinal, sin embargo hemos sido capaces de promover una de las ms extensas remodelaciones de proyecciones axonales jams observadas en el sistema nervioso central de mamferos adultos despus de una lesin. +Y hay un mensaje muy importante oculto detrs de este descubrimiento. +Es el resultado de un equipo joven de personas muy talentosas: terapeutas fsicos, neurobilogos, neurocirujanos, ingenieros de todo tipo, que han logrado juntos lo que hubiera sido imposible por personas individuales. +Este es verdaderamente un equipo interdisciplinario. +Estn trabajando tan cerca uno del otro que hay transferencia horizontal de ADN. +Estamos creando la nueva generacin de mdicos e ingenieros capaces de traducir los descubrimientos por todo el camino, del laboratorio al paciente. +Y yo? +Soy solo el maestro que orquest esta hermosa sinfona. +Ahora, estoy seguro de que todos se estn preguntando, verdad, ayudar esto a las personas con lesiones? +Yo tambin, todos los das. +La verdad es que todava no sabemos lo suficiente. +Esto no es una cura para la lesin de la mdula espinal, pero empiezo a creer que se podra conducir a una intervencin para mejorar la recuperacin y la calidad de vida de las personas. +Quiero que todos ustedes tomen un momento y sueen conmigo. +Imaginen que una persona acaba de sufrir una lesin en la mdula espinal. +Tras unas semanas de recuperacin, implantaremos una bomba programable para ofrecer un cctel farmacolgico personalizado directamente a la mdula espinal. +Al mismo tiempo, implantaremos una serie de electrodos, una especie de segunda piel cubriendo el rea de la mdula espinal que controla el movimiento de las piernas, y este conjunto est conectado a un generador de impulsos elctricos que ofrece estmulos que se adaptan a las necesidades de la persona. +Esto define una neuroprtesis electroqumica personalizada que le permitir la locomocin durante el entrenamiento con un sistema de apoyo recientemente diseado. +Y mi esperanza es que despus de varios meses de entrenamiento, pueda haber suficiente remodelacin de conexin residual como para permitir la locomocin sin el robot, tal vez incluso sin farmacologa o estimulacin. +Mi esperanza es ser capaz de crear las condiciones personalizadas para potenciar la plasticidad del cerebro y la mdula espinal. +Y este es un concepto radicalmente nuevo que podra aplicarse a otros trastornos neurolgicos, lo que denomino "neuroprtesis personalizada", donde detectando y estimulando las interfaces neurales, que yo implanto en todo el sistema nervioso, en el cerebro, en la mdula espinal, incluso en nervios perifricos, basado en las deficiencias especficas del paciente. +Pero no para reemplazar la funcin perdida, no... para ayudar a que el cerebro se ayude a s mismo. +Y espero que esto seduzca su imaginacin, porque les puedo prometer que esto no es una cuestin de si esta revolucin se producir, sino cundo. +Y recuerden, solo somos tan grandes como nuestra imaginacin, tan grandes como nuestros sueos. +Gracias. +Quiz los dos ms grandes inventos de nuestra generacin son Internet y el telfono mvil. +Han cambiado el mundo. +Sin embargo, en gran medida para nuestra sorpresa, tambin resultaron ser las herramientas perfectas para el estado de vigilancia. +Result que la capacidad para recoger datos, informacin y conexiones de bsicamente cualquiera de todos nosotros es exactamente lo que hemos escuchado a lo largo del verano a travs de revelaciones y fugas de las agencias de inteligencia Occidentales, principalmente agencias de inteligencia de EE. UU. observando al resto del mundo. +Hemos odo acerca de esto a partir de las revelaciones del 6 de junio. +Edward Snowden empez a filtrar informacin, informacin secreta clasificada de las agencias de inteligencia de EE. UU., y comenzamos a aprender sobre cosas como PRISM y XKeyscore y otros. +Estos son ejemplos del tipo de programas que las agencias de inteligencia de EE. UU. ejecutan contra el resto del mundo. +Y si echan la vista atrs a las previsiones de vigilancia de George Orwell, resulta que George Orwell fue optimista. +Ahora vemos a una escala mucho mayor un seguimiento de ciudadanos individuales que l no podra ni haber imaginado. +Este es el desacreditado centro de datos de la NSA en Utah. +Programado para abrir pronto, ser un centro tanto de supercomputacin como de almacenamiento de datos. +Imaginen bsicamente un gran saln lleno de discos duros para almacenar los datos que estn recolectando. +Es un edificio bastante grande. +Cmo de grande? Bueno, les puedo dar los nmeros 140 000 m. Pero realmente eso no dice mucho. +Tal vez es mejor imaginarla mediante una comparacin. +Piensen en la tienda de IKEA ms grande en la que hayan estado. +Esto es cinco veces mayor. +Cuntos discos duros caben en una tienda IKEA? +Verdad? Es bien grande. +Estimamos que solo la factura de electricidad para el funcionamiento de este centro de datos ser de decenas de millones de dlares al ao. +Y este tipo de vigilancia al por mayor significa que pueden recoger nuestros datos y mantenerlos bsicamente para siempre, mantenerlos durante perodos prolongados de tiempo, mantenerlos por aos, mantenerlos por dcadas. +Y esto abre un tipo completamente nuevo de riesgos para todos nosotros. +Y qu es esto? Es una venta al por mayor de vigilancia generalizada para todo el mundo. +Bueno, no exactamente todos, porque la inteligencia de EE. UU. solo tiene derecho legal para vigilar a los extranjeros. +Pueden controlar los extranjeros cuando las conexiones de datos de extranjeros terminan en EE. UU. o pasan a travs de EE. UU. +Y monitorizar a los extranjeros no suena tan mal hasta que uno se da cuenta de que uno mismo es extranjero y Uds. son extranjeros. +De hecho, el 96 % del planeta es extranjero. +Verdad? +As que esa vigilancia generalizada al por mayor es para todos nosotros, todos los que usan Internet y las telecomunicaciones. +Pero no me malinterpreten: Hay en realidad tipos de vigilancia que estn bien. +Amo la libertad, pero estoy de acuerdo de que exista algo de vigilancia. +Si la polica intenta encontrar a un asesino, o trata de atrapar a un capo de la droga, o intenta evitar un tiroteo en una escuela, y tienen pistas y sospechosos, entonces est perfectamente bien que interfieran el telfono del sospechoso, e intercepten sus comunicaciones por Internet. +Eso no lo discuto, pero de eso no tratan los programas como PRISM. +No vigilan a las personas de las que tienen razones para sospechar que andan en algo malo. +Estn vigilando a personas que saben que son inocentes. +As que los 4 argumentos principales que justifican la vigilancia, bien, el primero de todos es que al empezar a discutir sobre estas revelaciones, habr detractores tratando de minimizar la importancia de estas revelaciones, diciendo que ya sabamos todo esto, sabamos que pasaba, que no hay nada nuevo aqu. +Y eso no es cierto. No dejen que nadie les diga que sabamos esto ya, porque no lo sabamos. +Nuestros peores temores podan ser algo as, pero no sabamos qu ocurra. +Ahora sabemos a ciencia cierta qu est pasando. +No sabamos nada de esto. No sabamos nada de PRISM. +No sabamos nada de XKeyscore. No sabamos nada de Cybertrans. +No sabamos nada de DoubleArrow. +No sabamos nada de Skywriter... todos estos programas diferentes ejecutados por la agencias de inteligencia de EE. UU. +Pero ahora s. +Y no sabamos que las agencias de inteligencia de EE. UU. llegan a extremos como infiltrar organismos de normalizacin para sabotear los algoritmos de cifrado a propsito. +Y eso significa que tomas algo que es seguro, un algoritmo de cifrado que es tan seguro que si utilizas ese algoritmo para cifrar un archivo, nadie puede descifrar ese archivo. +Incluso si toman cada computadora del planeta para desencriptar un fichero, tomar millones de aos. +As que bsicamente es perfectamente seguro, indescifrable. +Tomas algo que es muy bueno y luego se socava a propsito, haciendo todo menos seguro como resultado final. +Eso sera el equivalente en el mundo real a que las agencias de inteligencia forzaran el cdigo secreto en cada alarma de las casas para que pudieran entrar en todas ellas. Porque, ya saben, la gente mala puede tener alarmas en la casa, pero tambin har que todos nosotros estemos menos seguros como resultado final. +Violar los algoritmos de encriptacin es simplemente increble. +Pero por supuesto, estas agencias de inteligencia realizan su trabajo. +Esto es lo que se les ha dicho que hagan: espiar las seales, monitorizar las telecomunicaciones, monitorizar el trfico de Internet. +Eso es lo que intentan hacer, y ya que la mayora, una gran parte del trfico de Internet hoy est cifrado, intentan encontrar maneras de resolver el cifrado. +Una forma es sabotear los algoritmos de cifrado, que es un gran ejemplo de cmo las agencias de inteligencia de EE. UU. andan sueltas. +Estn completamente fuera de control, y tenemos que controlarlas nuevamente. +Qu sabemos realmente sobre las filtraciones? +Todo se basa en los archivos que filtr el Sr. Snowden. +Las primeras diapositivas de PRISM de comienzos de junio detallan un programa de recoleccin donde los datos se recogen de los proveedores de servicios, y en realidad van y nombran los proveedores de servicios a los que tienen acceso. +Incluso tienen una fecha especfica de cundo comenz la recopilacin de datos para cada uno de los proveedores de servicios. +Por ejemplo, la recoleccin en Microsoft comenz el 11 de septiembre de 2007, en Yahoo el 12 de marzo de 2008, y luego otros: Google, Facebook, Skype, Apple y as sucesivamente. +Cada una de estas empresas lo niega. +Todas dicen que esto simplemente no es cierto, que no dan acceso subrepticio a sus datos. +Sin embargo, tenemos estos archivos. +As que una de las partes miente, o hay alguna otra explicacin alternativa? +Una explicacin sera que estas partes, estos proveedores de servicios, no estn cooperando. +Que en cambio, han sido hackeados. +Eso lo explicara todo. Ellos no estn cooperando. Ellos han sido hackeados. +En este caso, han sido hackeados por su propio gobierno. +Eso puede sonar extrao, pero ya tenemos casos donde esto ha sucedido, por ejemplo, el caso del malware Flame que creemos que se llevo a cabo por el gobierno de EE. UU., y que, para difundirse, subvierte la seguridad de la red de Windows Update, lo que significa, que la empresa fue hackeada por su propio gobierno. +Y hay ms evidencia que apoya esta teora tambin. +Der Spiegel, de Alemania, filtr ms informacin sobre las operaciones de las unidades de lite de hackeadores que operan dentro de estas agencias de inteligencia. +Dentro de la NSA, la unidad se llama TAO, Operaciones de Acceso a Medida, y dentro de GCHQ, que es el equivalente en el Reino Unido se llaman NAC, Centro de Anlisis de la Red. +Y estas recientes filtraciones de estas tres diapositivas detallan una operacin dirigida por la agencia de inteligencia GCHQ desde el Reino Unido apuntando las telecomunicaciones aqu en Blgica. +Y lo que realmente significa esto es que una agencia de inteligencia de un pas de la U.E est violando la seguridad de las telecomunicaciones de un pas amigo de U.E. a propsito, y lo comentan en sus diapositivas casualmente como algo usual. +Aqu est el objetivo principal, aqu est el objetivo secundario, aqu est el equipo. +Probablemente tienen un equipo de trabajo el jueves por la noche en un bar. +Incluso usan esos fondos cursis prediseados de PowerPoint como, ya saben, "xito", cuando obtienen acceso a servicios como este. +Qu diablos? +Y luego est el argumento est bien, s, puede que pase, pero tambin, otros pases lo hacen igual. +Todos los pases espan. +Y tal vez sea cierto. +Muchos pases espan, no todos ellos, pero demos un ejemplo. +Tomemos, por ejemplo, Suecia. +Hablo de Suecia porque Suecia tiene una legislacin parecida a la de EE. UU. +Cuando el trfico de datos pasa a travs de Suecia, su agencia de inteligencia tiene derecho legal a interceptar el trfico. +Y la respuesta es que cada empresario sueco lo hace todos los das. +Y entonces demos la vuelta. +Cuntos lderes estadounidenses usan los servicios de correos y nube suecos? +La respuesta es cero. +As que esto no est equilibrado. +No est balanceado de ninguna forma, ni siquiera de cerca. +Y cuando tenemos la ocasional historia de xito europeo, incluso esos, terminan despus vendindose a los EE. UU. +Como Skype que sola ser seguro. +Sola ser cifrado de punta a punta. +Luego fue vendido a los EE. UU. +Hoy en da, ya no es seguro. +Una vez ms, tomamos algo que es seguro y entonces lo hacemos menos seguro a propsito, hacindonos como resultado a todos menos seguros. +Y luego est el argumento de que los EE. UU. solo lucha contra a los terroristas. +Es la guerra contra el terrorismo. +No se preocupen por ello. +Bueno, no es la guerra contra el terrorismo. +No es la guerra contra el terrorismo. +Podra ser parte de ella, y hay terroristas, pero realmente pensamos en los terroristas como una amenaza existencial tal como para estar dispuestos a hacer cualquier cosa para luchar contra ellos? +Estn los estadounidenses dispuestos a tirar su Constitucin a la basura porque hay terroristas? +Y lo mismo con la Carta de Derechos y todas las enmiendas y la Declaracin Universal de los Derechos Humanos y las convenciones europeas sobre derechos humanos y las libertades fundamentales y la libertad de prensa? +Creemos realmente que el terrorismo es una amenaza existencial por la que estamos dispuestos a hacer cualquier cosa? +Pero la gente tiene miedo de los terroristas, y entonces piensan que tal vez esa vigilancia est bien porque no tienen nada que ocultar. +No dude en investigarme si eso ayuda. +Y quienes les dicen que no tienen nada que ocultar simplemente no han pensado en ello lo suficiente. +Porque tenemos esta cosa llamada privacidad, y si realmente creen que no tienen nada que esconder, por favor, asegrense de que sea lo primero que me dicen, porque entonces sabr que no debo confiarles ningn secreto, porque obviamente no pueden guardar un secreto. +Pero la gente es brutalmente honesta en Internet, y cuando empezaron estas filtraciones, muchas personas me preguntaban sobre esto. +Yo no tengo nada que ocultar. +No hago nada malo ni nada ilegal. +Sin embargo, para nada me agradara compartirlas con una agencia de inteligencia, especialmente una agencia de inteligencia extranjera. +Y si en realidad necesitamos un Gran Hermano, preferira tener un Gran Hermano domstico a uno extranjero. +Cuando empezaron las filtraciones, lo primero que tuit fue un comentario acerca de cmo, cuando uno ha usado motores de bsqueda, ha sido potencialmente filtrado todo por la inteligencia de EE. UU. +Y dos minutos ms tarde, recib una respuesta de alguien llamado Kimberly desde EE. UU. desafindome, por qu le preocupa eso? +Qu es lo que mandaba para que me preocupara? Estaba enviando desnudos o cosas as? +Y mi respuesta a Kimberly fue que lo que enviara, no era de su incumbencia, y tampoco deba serlo de su gobierno. +Porque eso es de lo que se trata. Es de la privacidad. +La privacidad es innegociable. +Debe ser construida en todos los sistemas que utilizamos. +Y una cosa que todos debemos entender es que somos brutalmente honestos con los motores de bsqueda. +Mustrame tu historial de bsqueda, y encontrar algo incriminatorio o algo embarazoso all en cinco minutos. +Somos ms honestos con los motores de bsqueda que con nuestras familias. +Los buscadores saben ms de ti de lo que los miembros de tu familia saben de ti. +Y esa es toda la informacin que estamos regalando, regalando a los EE. UU. +Y la vigilancia cambia la historia. +Lo sabemos a travs de ejemplos de presidentes corruptos como Nixon. +Imaginen si hubiera tenido el tipo de herramientas de vigilancia disponibles hoy. +Y permtanme citar a la presidenta de Brasil, la Sra. Dilma Rousseff. +Ella fue uno de los objetivos de vigilancia de la NSA. +Su correo electrnico fue ledo, y ella habl en la sede de la ONU y dijo: "Si no hay derecho a la privacidad, no puede haber ninguna verdadera libertad de expresin y opinin, y por lo tanto, no puede haber democracia efectiva". +De eso es de lo que se trata. +La privacidad es la piedra angular de nuestras democracias. +Y para citar a un investigador de seguridad, Marcus Ranum, quien dijo que EE. UU. ahora trata Internet como si fuera una de sus colonias. +As que estamos en la edad de la colonizacin, y nosotros, los usuarios de Internet extranjeros, deberamos pensar en los estadounidenses como nuestros seores. +Y al Sr. Snowden se le culp de muchas cosas. +Algunos lo culpan por causar problemas a las empresas en la nube y de software estadounidenses con estas revelaciones, y acusar a Snowden de causar problemas a la industria estadounidense en la nube sera el equivalente de culpar Al Gore de causar el calentamiento global. +Entonces, qu hay que hacer? +Deberamos preocuparnos. No, no debemos preocuparnos. +Deberamos estar enojados, porque esto est mal, es grosero y no debe hacerse. +Pero eso no va a cambiar la situacin. +Lo que cambiar la situacin para el resto del mundo es tratar de evitar los sistemas construidos en EE. UU. +Eso es mucho ms fcil decirlo que hacerlo. +Cmo se hace eso? +Un solo pas, uno cualquiera en Europa no puede reemplazar y construir reemplazos para los sistemas operativos estadounidenses y sus servicios en la nube. +Pero tal vez no tiene que hacerlo solo. +Tal vez puedes hacerlo junto con otros pases. +La solucin es el cdigo abierto. +Construir juntos sistemas abiertos, libres, seguros, podemos rodear esa vigilancia, y entonces un pas no tiene que resolver el problema solo. +Solo tiene que resolver un pequeo problema. +Muchas gracias. +Por qu aprendemos matemticas? +Esencialmente, por tres razones: clculo, aplicacin, y por ltimo y desafortunadamente no tan importante en funcin del poco tiempo que le dedicamos, inspiracin. +La matemtica es la ciencia de las regularidades, y la estudiamos para aprender a pensar de manera lgica, crtica y creativa, pero mucho de lo que aprendemos sobre matemticas en la escuela no nos motiva efectivamente, y cuando nuestros estudiantes preguntan "Por qu estamos aprendiendo esto?" +a menudo escuchan que ser necesario para alguna prxima clase de matemticas o para alguna prueba futura. +Pero no sera genial si de vez en cuando hiciramos matemticas simplemente porque es divertido o hermoso o porque excita la mente? +Ahora, s que muchas personas no tuvieron la oportunidad de ver cmo esto puede suceder, as que les voy a dar un ejemplo rpido con mi coleccin favorita de nmeros, los nmeros de Fibonacci. Bien! Veo que tengo seguidores de Fibonacci aqu. +Es genial. +Ahora bien, estos nmeros pueden ser apreciados de diferentes maneras. +Desde el punto de vista del clculo, son tan fciles de entender como que 1 ms 1 es 2. +Luego 1 ms 2 es 3, 2 ms 3 es 5, 3 ms 5 es 8, y as sucesivamente. +La persona que llamamos Fibonacci se llamaba en realidad Leonardo de Pisa, y estos nmeros aparecen en su libro "Liber Abaci" el cual ense al mundo occidental la aritmtica que utilizamos actualmente. +En trminos de aplicaciones, los nmeros de Fibonacci aparecen en la naturaleza con sorprendente frecuencia. +El nmero de ptalos de una flor es tpicamente un nmero de Fibonacci, o el nmero de espirales en un girasol o en una pia tiende a ser un nmero de Fibonacci tambin. +De hecho, hay muchas ms aplicaciones de los nmeros de Fibonacci, pero lo que me parece ms inspirador en ellos es los hermosos patrones de nmeros que se despliegan. +Quiero ensearles uno de mis favoritos. +Supongamos que les gusta elevar los nmeros al cuadrado, y, francamente, a quin no? Echemos un vistazo a los cuadrados de los primeros nmeros de Fibonacci. +1 al cuadrado es 1, 2 al cuadrado es 4, 3 al cuadrado es 9, 5 al cuadrado es 25, y as sucesivamente. +Ahora, no es de extraar que al sumar nmeros de Fibonacci consecutivos, se obtenga el nmero de Fibonacci siguiente, cierto? +Esa es la forma en que se generan. +Pero no se esperara que ocurra algo especial cuando se sumen los cuadrados. +Pero observen esto. +1 ms 1 nos da 2, y 1 ms 4 nos da 5. +Y 4 ms 9 es 13, 9 ms 25 es 34, y s, el patrn contina. +De hecho, aqu hay otro. +Supongan que desean ver la suma de los cuadrados de los primeros nmeros de Fibonacci. +Vamos a ver lo que tenemos all. +1 ms 1 ms 4 es 6. +Sumando 9, obtenemos 15. +Sumamos 25, obtenemos 40. +Sumamos 64, obtenemos 104. +Ahora observen esos nmeros. +Esos no son nmeros de Fibonacci, pero si los vemos en detalle, veremos los nmeros de Fibonacci inmersos en ellos. +Lo ven? Se los voy a mostrar. +6 es 2 por 3, 15 es 3 por 5, 40 es 5 por 8, 2, 3, 5, 8, A quin le agradecemos? +A Fibonacci, por supuesto! +Ahora, tan divertido como es descubrir estos patrones, es an ms satisfactorio entender el por qu son verdad. +Veamos la ltima ecuacin. +Por qu la suma de los cuadrados de 1, 1, 2, 3, 5 y 8 debera dar 8 por 13? +Se los mostrar haciendo un dibujo simple. +Comenzaremos con un cuadrado de 1 por 1 y al lado colocamos otro cuadrado de 1 por 1. +Juntos, forman un rectngulo de 1 por 2. +Debajo colocar un cuadrado de 2 por 2, y al lado, uno de 3 por 3. Por debajo, un cuadrado de 5 por 5, y luego un cuadrado de 8 por 8, resultando un rectngulo gigante, cierto? +Ahora quiero hacerles una pregunta sencilla: cul es el rea del rectngulo? +Bueno, por un lado, es la suma de las reas de los cuadrados internos, cierto? +As como lo creamos. +Es 1 al cuadrado ms 1 al cuadrado ms 2 al cuadrado ms 3 al cuadrado ms 5 al cuadrado ms 8 al cuadrado. Cierto? +Esta es el rea. +Por otro lado, debido a que es un rectngulo, el rea es igual a la altura por la base, y la altura es claramente 8, y la base es 5 ms 8, que es el siguiente nmero de Fibonacci, 13. Cierto? +As que el rea tambin es 8 por 13. +Puesto que calculamos correctamente el rea de dos maneras diferentes, tienen que ser el mismo nmero, y es por eso que los cuadrados de 1, 1, 2, 3, 5 y 8 suman 8 por 13. +Ahora, si seguimos este proceso, vamos a generar rectngulos de la forma 13 por 21, 21 por 34, y as sucesivamente. +Ahora observen esto. +Si dividimos 13 por 8, se obtiene 1,625. +Y si se divide el nmero mayor por el menor, entonces estas relaciones se acercan a 1,618, ms conocido como el Nmero ureo, un nmero que ha fascinado a los matemticos, cientficos y artistas durante siglos. +Les muestro todo esto porque, como sucede tanto en matemticas, hay un lado hermoso que me temo que no recibe suficiente atencin en nuestras escuelas. +Pasamos mucho tiempo aprendiendo a calcular, pero no olvidemos la aplicacin incluyendo, quizs, la aplicacin ms importante de todas, aprender a pensar. +Si pudiera resumir esto en una frase, sera sta: Las matemticas no son slo resolver x, son tambin descubrir el porqu. +Muchas gracias. +Al bajar del autobs, me dirig a la esquina para tomar al oeste el camino a una sesin de entrenamiento de braille. +Era el invierno de 2009, y yo llevaba ciego cerca de un ao. +Las cosas iban muy bien. +Para llegar sin tropiezos al otro lado me volv hacia la izquierda, presion el botn para la seal peatonal sonora, y esper mi turno. +Cuando son, arranqu y llegu seguro al otro lado. +Caminando por la acera, o el sonido de una silla de acero que se mova por el piso de concreto frente a m. +Saba que haba una cafetera en la esquina, y que tenan sillas afuera en el frente, as que simplemente me mov a la izquierda acercndome a la calle. +Al hacerlo, la silla se desliz. +Pens que haba cometido un error, y volv a la derecha, y entonces la silla se desliz en perfecta sincrona. +Ahora me senta un poco nervioso. +Volv a la izquierda, y entonces se desliz la silla, bloqueando el camino. +Ahora, estaba ya bien asustado. +As que grit: "Quin diablos est ah? Qu est pasando?" +En ese momento, sobre mi grito, o algo ms, un traqueteo familiar. +Sonaba conocido, rpidamente consider otra posibilidad, alargu la mano izquierda, mis dedos rozaron algo velloso, y me top con una oreja, la oreja de un perro, tal vez un golden retriever. +La correa haba sido atada a la silla en tanto su amo iba al caf, y el perro solo persista en sus esfuerzos para saludarme, quizs quera una caricia en la oreja. +Quin sabe, tal vez se estaba ofreciendo a ayudar. +Esta pequea historia es sobre los temores y errores que se presentan al tratar de moverse por la ciudad sin poder ver, aparentemente ajeno al medio ambiente y la a gente que te rodea. +Permtanme retroceder y cambiar un poco el escenario. +En el da de San Patricio de 2008, ingresaba al hospital para una ciruga para eliminar un tumor cerebral. +La ciruga fue exitosa. +Dos das despus, mi vista comenz a fallar. +Al tercer da, se haba ido. +Inmediatamente, me sobrevino una increble sensacin de miedo, confusin, vulnerabilidad, como a cualquiera. +Pero cuando tuve tiempo para parar y pensar, empec de verdad a darme cuenta de que tena mucho por agradecer. +En particular, pens en mi padre, que haba fallecido por complicaciones de una ciruga cerebral. +l tena 36. Yo tena 7 aos en ese momento. +As que aunque tena toda la razn para estar temeroso de lo que vendra y no tena ni idea de todo lo que iba a pasar, estaba vivo. +Mi hijo todava tena a su padre. +Y, adems, no era la primera persona que ha perdido la vista. +Saba que tena que haber todo tipo de sistemas, tcnicas y capacitaciones para tener una vida plena y significativa, una vida activa sin vista. +Por el momento estaba dado de alta. Unos das ms tarde, me fui con la misin de salir y conseguir la mejor formacin tan pronto como fuera posible y llegar a reconstruir mi vida. +En 6 meses haba vuelto a trabajar. +Mi formacin haba comenzado. +Hasta empec a andar en bicicleta tndem con mis viejos amigos de ciclismo. Tena que viajar solo al trabajo, caminando por la ciudad y tomando el autobs. +Era un montn de arduo trabajo. +Pero lo que no anticip en esa rpida transicin fue la experiencia ms increble de la yuxtaposicin de mi experiencia como vidente contra mi experiencia como ciego, de los mismos lugares y de la misma gente en un perodo tan corto de tiempo. +De all salieron muchas ideas, o iluminaciones, como las llam; cosas que he aprendido desde que perd la vista. +Estas iluminaciones van de lo trivial a lo profundo, de lo mundano a humorstico. +Como arquitecto, esa yuxtaposicin de mi experiencia con visin y sin ella, de los mismos lugares y de las mismas ciudades, en un perodo tan corto de tiempo me ha dado todo tipo de maravillosas iluminaciones de la propia ciudad. +Por encima de todo, me di cuenta de que, en realidad, las ciudades son lugares fantsticos para los ciegos. +Y luego tambin me sorprend de la propensin de la ciudad por la amabilidad y el cuidado opuestos a la indiferencia o cosas peores. +Empec a darme cuenta de que los ciegos parecen tener una influencia positiva en la ciudad misma. +Eso me pareci curioso. +Djenme detenerme y mirar las razones por las que la ciudad es tan buena para los ciegos. +Inherente a la formacin para la recuperacin ante la prdida de la vista, es aprender a confiar en los sentidos no visuales, cosas que uno de otra forma tal vez ignora. +Es como un nuevo mundo de informacin sensorial que se abre ante uno. +Realmente me impresion la sinfona de sonidos sutiles a mi alrededor en la ciudad, que se pueden or y con los que se puede llegar a entender dnde est uno, cmo necesita moverse y a dnde debe ir. +Del mismo modo, simplemente con la empuadura del bastn, uno puede sentir texturas contrastantes en el piso, y con el tiempo construir un patrn de dnde est y hacia dnde se dirige. +Asimismo, el calor del sol solo a un lado de la cara, o el viento en el cuello, te dan pistas sobre tu orientacin, tu avance por la cuadra, y tus movimientos en el tiempo y el espacio. +Pero tambin, el sentido del olfato. +Algunos distritos y ciudades tienen su olor propio, as como los lugares y cosas a tu alrededor. Y, si tienes suerte, incluso puedes seguir tu olfato a esa nueva pastelera que has estado buscando. +Todo esto realmente me sorprendi, porque empec a darme cuenta de que mi experiencia como invidente era mucho ms multisensorial que lo que lo era mi experiencia como vidente. +Lo que me impresion tambin fue cunto estaba cambiando la ciudad a mi alrededor. +Los que pueden ver, estn como encerrados en s mismos, ocupndose de sus asuntos +Si pierdes la vista, en cambio, es otra historia. +No s quin est mirando a quin, pero tengo la sospecha de que muchas personas estn observndome. +No soy paranoico, pero dondequiera que voy, recibo todo tipo de consejos: Ve all, muvete all, cuidado con esto. +La mayora es buena informacin. +Una parte es til. Mucha es todo lo contrario. +Hay que averiguar qu fue lo que quisieron decirte. +Algunas cosas son erradas o intiles. +Pero en general todo est bien en el esquema macro. +Una vez estuve en Oakland caminando por Broadway y llegu a una esquina. +Pareca que no haba escapatoria del agarre fatal de este hombre, que me hizo pasar sano y salvo. +Qu poda yo hacer? +Pero cranme, hay mejores maneras de ofrecer asistencia. +No sabemos quin est ah Siempre es bueno decir primero "Hola". +"Le gustara que lo ayude?" +Cuando estaba en Oakland, realmente me sorprendi cunto ha cambiado la ciudad desde que perd la vista. +Me gust verlo. Estaba bien. +Es una ciudad muy grande. +Pero despus de perder la vista al caminar por Broadway, me sent bendecido por cada cuadra del trayecto. +"Suerte, hombre". +"Vamos, hermano". +"Dios te bendiga". +Nada de eso, cuando vea. +Y an ciego, no me lo dicen en San Francisco. +S que eso les molesta a algunos de mis amigos ciegos. No soy el nico. +A menudo se piensa que es una emocin que surge por lstima. +Tiendo a pensar que se trata de humanidad compartida, por sentirnos cercanos. Me encanta. +De hecho, si estoy deprimido, me basta con ir a Broadway, en el centro de Oakland, y caminar un poco. Me hace sentir mejor rpidamente. +Eso tambin ilustra cmo la discapacidad y la ceguera sirven para romper las divisiones tnicas, sociales, raciales y econmicas. +La discapacidad es un proveedor de igualdad de oportunidades. +Todos son bienvenidos. +De hecho, he odo que se dice en la comunidad de discapacitados que realmente existen solo 2 tipos de personas: Hay personas con discapacidad, y hay quienes no han encontrado la suya an. +Es una forma diferente de pensarlo. Pero creo que es algo hermoso, porque es sin duda mucho ms inclusivo que el "nosotros-contra-ellos" o "capacitados-contra-discapacitados", y es mucho ms honesto y respetuoso con la fragilidad de la vida. +Mi idea final para Uds. es que no solo es buena la ciudad para los ciegos, sino que nos necesita. +Estoy tan seguro de eso que quiero proponerles hoy que tomen a los ciegos como habitantes de la ciudad prototpica cuando imaginen nuevas y maravillosas ciudades, y no a las personas en las que se piensa despus de que todo est hecho. +Entonces, ya es demasiado tarde. +Si Uds. disean una ciudad con los ciegos en mente, tendrn una rica red transitable de aceras con una densa matriz de opciones y alternativas disponibles al nivel de la calle. +Si disean una ciudad con los ciegos en mente, las aceras sern predecibles y sern generosas. +El espacio entre edificios estar equilibrado entre personas y vehculos. +De hecho, los coches, quin los necesita? +Si eres ciego, no conduces. No les gusta cuando tu conduces. Si diseas una ciudad con los ciegos en mente, tendr un amplio sistema de transporte masivo, accesible, bien conectado que lleva a todos los sectores de la ciudad y a los alrededores. +Si disean una ciudad con los ciegos en mente, habr un montn de puestos de trabajo. +Los ciegos quieren trabajar tambin. +Quieren ganarse la vida. +As, al disear una ciudad para los ciegos, espero que empiecen a darse cuenta de que en realidad sera ms incluyente, ms equitativa, ms justa, una ciudad para todos. +Y con base en mi experiencia previa de vidente, suena como una ciudad genial, sea que seas ciego, tengas una discapacidad, o no hayas encontrado la tuya an. +As que, muchas gracias. +Cuntos de Uds. han estado en la ciudad de Oklahoma? +Levanten la mano. S? +Cuntos de Uds. no han estado en la ciudad de Oklahoma y no tienen ni idea de quin soy yo? La mayora de Uds. Permtanme contarles un poco de la historia de fondo. +La ciudad de Oklahoma comenz de la forma ms nica imaginable. +Un da de primavera de 1889, el gobierno federal tuvo lo que se llam una carrera por tierra. +Literalmente alinearon a los colonos a lo largo de una lnea imaginaria y dispararon un arma, y los colonos iban rugiendo por la campia y clavaron una estaca, y adonde quiera que clavaran esa estaca, ese era su nuevo hogar. +Y al final del mismsimo primer da, la poblacin de la ciudad de Oklahoma se haba ido de cero a 10 000, y nuestro departamento de planeamiento todava est pagando por eso. +Los ciudadanos se reunieron ese primer da y eligieron un alcalde. +Y luego, le dispararon. +Eso realmente no es tan gracioso pero me permite ver con qu tipo de audiencia estoy tratando, por lo que les agradezco la retroalimentacin. +El siglo XX trat bastante bien a la ciudad de Oklahoma. +Nuestra economa se basaba en las materias primas, vale decir, en el precio de algodn o el precio de trigo y ltimamente en el precio del petrleo y del gas natural. +Y en el camino, nos convertimos en una ciudad de innovacin. +El carrito de compras se invent en la ciudad de Oklahoma. +El parqumetro, fue inventado en la ciudad de Oklahoma. +De nada. +Tener una economa, sin embargo, que se vincula a las materias primas, puede causar tanto altos como bajos, y ese era ciertamente el caso en la historia de Oklahoma. +En la dcada de 1970, cuando pareca que el precio de la energa nunca disminuira, nuestra economa estaba en alza, y luego a principios de los 80, se estrell rpidamente. +El precio de la energa cay. +Nuestros bancos comenzaron a quebrar. +Antes del fin de la dcada, 100 bancos haban quebrado en el estado de Oklahoma. +No haba ningn plan de rescate en el horizonte. +Nuestro sector bancario, nuestra industria del petrleo y gas, nuestra industria de bienes races, estaban todos en el fondo de la escala econmica. +Los jvenes se iban de la ciudad de Oklahoma en masa hacia Washington, Dallas y Houston, Nueva York y Tokio, cualquier lugar donde hubiera un trabajo a la altura de su nivel de instruccin, porque en la ciudad de Oklahoma, los buenos trabajos no estaban all. +Pero a lo largo del final de los aos 80 vino un emprendedor hombre de negocios que se convirti en alcalde llamado Ron Norick. +Ron Norick finalmente descubri que el secreto para el desarrollo econmico no era incentivar las empresas de punta, se trataba de crear un lugar donde las compaas quisieran ubicarse, y as que impuls una iniciativa llamada MAPS que en el fondo era un impuesto de un centavo por cada dlar de ventas para construir un montn de cosas. +Construy un nuevo estadio deportivo, un nuevo canal en el centro, arregl nuestro centro de artes escnicas, un nuevo estadio de bisbol en el centro, muchas cosas para mejorar la calidad de vida. +Y la economa s que pareca comenzar a mostrar seales de vida. +Lleg el siguiente alcalde. +l inici MAPS para los nios, reconstruy el sistema educacional de las zonas urbanas deprimidas, todos los 75 edificios se reconstruyeron o se renovaron. +Y luego, en 2004, en una rara falta de juicio colectiva que lindaba con desobediencia civil, los ciudadanos me eligieron alcalde. +Ahora, la ciudad que yo hered estaba al punto de despertarse de su economa somnolienta, y por primera vez, comenzbamos a aparecer en las listas. +Saben de qu listas estoy hablando. +A los medios e internet les encanta clasificar a las ciudades. +Y la ciudad de Oklahoma, de verdad nunca haba aparecido en listas antes. +As que a m me pareca genial cuando publicaban esas listas positivas y estbamos all. +No estbamos ni cerca de las primeras, pero estbamos en la lista, ramos alguien. +Mejor ciudad para encontrar un trabajo. Mejor ciudad para comenzar un negocio. Mejor centro... la ciudad de Oklahoma. +Y luego lleg la lista de las ciudades ms obesas del pas. +Y all estbamos. +Quiero sealar que estbamos en esa lista junto con muchos lugares geniales. +Dallas y Houston y New Orleans, y Atlanta y Miami. +Saben, esas son ciudades con las que, tpicamente, no da vergenza asociarse. +Aun as, no me gustaba estar en esa lista. +Y por esa poca, me sub a la balanza. +Pesaba 220 libras. +Y despus fui a un sitio web patrocinado por el gobierno federal, e introduje mi altura, mi peso, y puls Entrar. Y dijo, "Obeso". +Yo pens, "Qu sitio tan idiota". +"Yo no soy obeso. Yo sabra si fuera obeso". +Pero luego comenc a ser honesto conmigo mismo sobre lo que se haba convertido en mi lucha de por vida contra la obesidad, y percib un patrn: ganaba ms o menos dos o tres libras al ao, y luego, ms o menos cada 10 aos, perda 20 o 30 libras. +Y luego, lo haca de nuevo. +Tena un armario enorme lleno de ropa, solo poda usar un tercio de ella en cualquier momento, y solo yo saba cul parte del armario poda usar. +Pero, vivindolo, todo pareca bastante normal. +Bueno, finalmente resolv que necesitaba perder peso, y saba que poda lograrlo, lo haba hecho tantas veces antes, as que simplemente dej de comer tanto. +Siempre haba hecho ejercicio, +esa no era la parte de la ecuacin en la que tena que trabajar. +Pero yo haba estado comiendo 3000 caloras al da, las reduje a 2000 a caloras al da, y el peso desapareci. Perd una libra a la semana por ms o menos 40 semanas. +En el camino, sin embargo, comenc a examinar mi ciudad, su cultura, su infraestructura, en el intento de comprender por qu nuestra ciudad en particular pareca tener un problema de obesidad. +Y llegu a la conclusin de que habamos construido una increble calidad de vida si sucede que eres un coche. +Pero si sucede que eres una persona, ests peleando con el coche, parece, que en cada esquina. +Nuestra ciudad est muy desparramada. +Tenemos una maravillosa interseccin de autopistas, quiero decir, la congestin de trfico en la ciudad es verdaderamente inexistente. +Y por eso la gente vive lejos, muy lejos. +Los confines de nuestra ciudad son enormes, 1600 km cuadrados pero 24 km toman menos de 15 minutos. +Sin exagerar, te pueden multar por exceso de velocidad durante las horas pico en la ciudad de Oklahoma. +Como resultado, las personas suelen alejarse. +La tierra es barata. +Tampoco les habamos exigido a los promotores inmobiliarios que construyeran aceras en sus nuevos proyectos, por muchsimo tiempo. +Arreglamos eso, pero haba sido relativamente reciente, y haba, sin exagerar, 100 000 o ms hogares en nuestro inventario en barrios que tenan prcticamente ningn nivel de transitabilidad. +Y yo trat de examinar como podamos enfrentarnos a la obesidad, y teniendo todos estos elementos en cuenta, decid que lo primero que tenamos que hacer era tener una conversacin. +Miren, en la ciudad de Oklahoma, no estbamos hablando de la obesidad. +Y por eso, la vspera del ao nuevo de 2007 fui al zoolgico, y me puse en frente de los elefantes, y dije, "Esta ciudad se va a poner en dieta, y vamos a perder un milln de libras". +Bueno, ah fue cuando se desat el infierno. +Los medios nacionales gravitaron hacia esta historia de inmediato, y de verdad podan abordarla de una de dos maneras. +Podan haber dicho, "Esta ciudad es tan gorda que el alcalde tuvo que ponerla a dieta". +Pero afortunadamente, el consenso era "Miren, este es un problema en muchos lugares. +Esta es una ciudad que quiere hacer algo para resolverlo". +As que comenzaron a ayudarnos a dirigir trfico al sitio web. +Ahora, la direccin del sitio era estaciudadestendieta.com +y yo aparec en "The Ellen DeGeneres Show" una maana de una semana laboral para discutir la iniciativa, y ese da, 150 000 visitas se registraron en nuestro sitio web. +La gente se inscriba, y las libras comenzaban a sumarse, y la conversacin que yo crea que era tan importante tener, comenzaba a tener lugar. +Tena lugar en los hogares, madres y padres lo discutan con sus hijos. +Tena lugar en las iglesias. +Las iglesias comenzaban a organizar sus propios grupos de apoyo para personas que padecan de obesidad. +De repente, se convirti en un asunto que vala la pena discutir en las escuelas y en el trabajo. +Luego lleg la siguiente etapa de la ecuacin. +Ya era hora de impulsar lo que yo llamaba MAPS 3. +Bueno, MAPS 3, como los otros dos programas tena el desarrollo econmico como uno de sus motivos, pero junto con las tradicionales tareas de desarrollo econmico, como la construccin de un centro de convenciones, aadimos alguna infraestructura relacionada con la salud al proceso. +Aadimos un nuevo parque central de 28 ha de tamao que deba encontrarse en pleno centro de la ciudad. +Estamos construyendo un tranva en el centro para tratar de ayudar a la frmula de caminar para las personas que optan por vivir en el centro urbano y para ayudarnos a crear densidad all. +Estamos construyendo centros de salud y bienestar para ancianos por toda la comunidad. +Hemos invertido en el ro en el que se haba invertido originalmente en los MAPS originales y ahora estamos en las ltimas etapas de desarrollar el mejor sitio en el mundo para los deportes de canoa, kayak y remo. +Acogimos las pruebas olmpicas la primavera pasada. +Eventos de calibre olmpico van a llegar a la ciudad y atletas del mundo entero se estn trasladando para all, junto con los programas para zonas urbanas para involucrar ms a los nios en estos tipos de actividad recreativa que son un poco no tradicionales. +Tambin, con otra iniciativa que se ha aprobado, estamos construyendo centenares de kilmetros de nuevas aceras por toda la zona metropolitana. +Hasta estamos volviendo a algunos de los lugares en las zonas urbanas donde habamos construido vecindarios y habamos construido escuelas, pero no habamos conectado las dos. +Habamos construido bibliotecas y habamos construido vecindarios, pero de verdad nunca habamos conectado los dos con alguna forma de transitabilidad. +A travs de una nueva fuente de financiacin, estamos rediseando todas las calles del centro urbano para que sean ms adecuadas para los peatones. +Nuestras calles eran muy anchas, y tenas que accionar un botn que te permita atravesar caminando y tenas que correr para llegar a la otra acera a tiempo. +Pero ahora hemos estrechado las calles, las hemos embellecido mucho, hacindolas ms adecuadas para los peatones, un verdadero rediseo que reimaginaba la manera en que construamos nuestra infraestructura, diseando una ciudad con base en las personas y no en los coches. +Estamos terminando con nuestro plan maestro para bicisendas +Tendremos ms de 160 kilmetros cuando hayamos terminado de construirlas. +Y as ves esta cultura comenzando a cambiar en la ciudad de Oklahoma. +Y he aqu, los cambios demogrficos que est conllevando son muy inspiradores. +veinteaeros con altos niveles de educacin de toda la regin, se estn mudando para Oklahoma y, de hecho, de an ms lejos, en California. +y fui al vestbulo de la revista Men's Fitness, la misma revista que nos haba colocado en esa lista cinco aos atrs. +Y mientras estaba sentado en el vestbulo esperando para hablar con un reportero vi que haba una copia de la ltima edicin de la revista all mismo en la mesa. La tom, y vi el titular que cubre la parte superior, que deca: "Las ciudades ms gordas de Estados Unidos: Vives en una de ellas?" +Bueno, saba que s as que tom la revista y comenc a buscar, y no estbamos all. +Despus mir la lista de las ciudades que estn en mejor forma y estbamos en esa lista. +Estbamos como vigsima segunda ciudad en mejor forma en los EE. UU. +Nuestras estadsticas de salud estatales van mejor. +Lo reconozco, todava nos queda mucho por hacer. +La salud no es una cosa de la que debamos enorgullecernos en Oklahoma, pero parece que hemos desplazado la palanca cultural al hacer de la salud una prioridad mayor. +Y nos encanta la idea de que grupos demogrficos de veinteaeros con altos niveles de educacin, personas con opciones, estn escogiendo a Oklahoma en grandes nmeros. +Tenemos el menor ndice de desempleo en los EE. UU., probablemente la economa ms fuerte en EE. UU. +Y si son como yo, en algn momento de su carrera educacional les pidieron que leyeran un libro que se llama "Las uvas de la ira". +Los oklahomanos salieron para California en gran nmero en bsqueda de un futuro mejor. +Cuando vemos los cambios demogrficos de las personas llegando del oeste parece que lo que estamos viendo ahora es la ira de las uvas. +Los nietos estn volviendo a casa. +Uds. han sido una audiencia maravillosa y muy atenta. +Gracias por haberme invitado. +Hoy les ensear cmo jugar a mi juego favorito: el juego multijugador masivo de lucha de pulgares. +Es el nico juego en el mundo que conozco que le permite al jugador, la oportunidad de experimentar 10 emociones positivas en 60 segundos o menos. +Esto es cierto, as que si quieren jugar a este juego conmigo hoy durante un solo minuto, llegarn a sentir alivio, amor, alegra, sorpresa, orgullo, curiosidad, emocin, asombro y admiracin, satisfaccin y creatividad, en el lapso de un minuto. +Suena muy bien, verdad? Ahora estn dispuestos a jugar. +Para ensearles este juego, necesitar algunos voluntarios que suban al escenario muy rpido, y haremos una pequea demostracin prctica. +Mientras estn subiendo, debera decir que este juego lo invent hace 10 aos un colectivo de artistas en Austria llamado Monochrom. +As que gracias Monochrom. +La mayora estn familiarizados con la lucha de pulgares entre dos personas. +Sunni, recordmoslo. +1, 2, 3, 4 declaro una lucha de pulgar, y luchamos, y por supuesto Sunni me gana porque es la mejor. +Ahora lo primero en el juego multijugador masivo de lucha de pulgares es que somos la generacin de los jugadores. +Hay ahora mil millones de jugadores en el planeta, as que necesitamos ms de un desafo. +As que lo primero que necesitamos son ms pulgares. +As que Eric, ven aqu. +As podramos tener tres pulgares y Peter podra unirse a nosotros. +Incluso podramos tener cuatro pulgares juntos, y la forma de ganar es siendo la primera persona en pillar otro pulgar. +Esto es muy importante. No pueden hacer algo como esperar mientras los otros se pelean y luego abalanzarse en el ltimo minuto. +As no es cmo se gana. +Ah, quin hizo esto? Eric fuiste t. +As que Eric habra ganado. Fue el primero en atraparme el pulgar. +Bien, esta es la primera regla, y podemos ver que tres o cuatro es algo as como el tpico nmero de pulgares en un nodo, pero si uno se siente ambicioso, no debe parar. +Realmente podemos ir a por ms. +Como pueden ver aqu. +La otra regla necesaria de recordar, generacin de jugadores, es que nos gustan los desafos. +Observen que todos tienen algunos pulgares que no usan. +As que creo que deberamos implicarnos ms. +Y si hubiera solo cuatro personas, lo haramos as, y trataramos de luchar ambos pulgares a la vez. +Perfecto. +Ahora, si tuviramos ms gente en la sala, en lugar de solo luchar en un nodo cerrado, podramos llegar a otras personas y tomar algunas. +Y de hecho, eso es lo que haremos ahora. +Probaremos con todos, algo as como... no s, 1 500 pulgares de esta sala conectados en un solo nodo. +Y tenemos que conectar ambos niveles. As que si estn ah arriba, tendrn que estirarse hacia abajo y los otros hacia arriba. +Ahora antes de empezar... Esto es genial. Estn ansiosos por jugar. Antes de empezar, pon rpido las diapositivas aqu, ...porque si consiguen ser buenos en este juego, quiero que sepan que hay algunos niveles avanzados. +Este es nivel ms simple. +Pero hay configuraciones avanzadas. +Esta se llama la configuracin de la Estrella de la Muerte. +Hay fans de Star Wars? +Y esta se llama la Cinta de Mbius. +Cualquier empolln en ciencia consigue una. +Este es el nivel ms difcil. Este es el extremo. +As que nos ceiremos al normal por ahora, y dar 30 segundos, cada dedo pulgar en el nodo, conecten los niveles superiores y los inferiores, Uds. vayan all. +Treinta segundos. En la red. Hagan el nodo. +Pnganse de pie! Es ms fcil si se levantan. +Todo el mundo, de pie, de pie! +Levntense amigos. +Muy bien. +Todava no empiecen a luchar. +Si alguien tiene un pulgar libre, ondelo hasta asegurarse que se conecte. +Bien. Hagamos una revisin de pulgares de ltimo minuto. +Si alguien tiene un pulgar libre, ondelo para... +Agarren ese dedo! +Detrs de Ud. Ah lo tiene. +Algn otro pulgar? +Bien, a la de tres, empezamos. +Traten de seguir la pista. Atrpenlo, atrpenlo. +S? Uno, dos, tres, vamos! +Ganaron? Entendieron? Excelente! +Bien hecho. Gracias. Muchas gracias. +Muy bien. +Mientras se deleitan en la gloria de haber ganado su primer juego multijugador masivo de lucha de pulgar, hagamos un resumen rpido de las emociones positivas. +As que curiosidad. +Dije, "lucha de pulgares multijugador". +Uds. pensaban "De qu demonios est hablando?" +As que provoqu una pequea curiosidad. +Creatividad: se aplic creatividad para resolver el problema de conseguir todos los pulgares en el nodo. +Estoy llegando a mi alrededor y arriba. +As que usaron creatividad. Eso fue genial. +Y qu me dicen de sorpresa? El sentimiento actual de intentar luchar con dos pulgares a la vez es bastante sorprendente. +Ya escucharon cmo el sonido aument en la sala. +Tuvimos emocin. Cuando empezaron a luchar, quiz empezaron a ganar o la otra persona, estando realmente en el juego, as se obtiene la emocin activa. +Tenemos alivio. Tuvieron que levantarse. +Haban estado sentados un rato, as que el alivio fsico, llega para sacudirse. +Tuvimos alegras. Rean, sonrean. Miren sus caras. Esta sala est llena de alegra. +Hemos obtenido alguna satisfaccin. +No vi a nadie enviando SMS o revisando el correo mientras jugbamos, as que estaban totalmente encantados de jugar. +Las tres emociones ms importantes, asombro y admiracin y todos conectados fsicamente por un minuto. +Cundo fue la ltima vez que estuvieron en TED y tuvieron que conectarse fsicamente con cada uno de la sala? +Es realmente impresionante y admirable. +Y hablando de conexin fsica, saben que me encanta la hormona oxitocina, al liberar oxitocina, uno se siente vinculado a todos en la sala. +Saben que la mejor manera de liberar oxitocina rpidamente es tomar la mano de otra persona durante al menos seis segundos. +Estuvieron todos de la mano durante ms de seis segundos, por lo tanto todos estamos ahora bioqumicamente preparados para amar a los dems. Genial. +Y la ltima emocin de orgullo. +Cuntas personas son como yo? Admtanlo. +Perdieron ambos pulgares. +Simplemente no funcion con alguno. +Eso est bien, porque han aprendido una nueva habilidad hoy. +Hemos aprendido desde cero, un juego que no sabamos. +Ahora ya saben cmo hacerlo. Podran enserselo a otras personas. +As que felicitaciones. +Cuntos de Uds. ganaron solo un pulgar? +Muy bien. Tengo muy buenas noticias para Uds. +Segn las reglas oficiales de la lucha de pulgar multijugador, esto les hace ser un gran maestro del juego. +Como no hay mucha gente que sabe jugarlo, tenemos que acelerar el tipo de programa ms que en un juego como el ajedrez. +As que felicidades, grandes maestros. +Ganar un pulgar una vez, har de Uds. grandes maestros. +Nadie gan ambos pulgares? +S. Impresionante. Bien. +Preprense a actualizar su estado de Twitter o Facebook. +Chicos, segn las reglas, son grandes maestros legendarios, as que felicitaciones. +Solo les dar este consejo, si quieren jugar otra vez. +La mejor manera de convertirse en un gran maestro legendario, es tener sus dos nodos en movimiento. +Recoger el que parece ms fcil. +Ellos no prestan atencin. Se ven dbiles. +Centrarse en eso y hacer algo loco con este brazo. +En cuanto ganen, paren repentinamente. +Todo el mundo se lanza alborotado. Uds. entran a matar. +As uno se convierte en un gran maestro legendario de lucha de pulgares multijugador. +Gracias por dejarme ensearles mi juego favorito. +Guao! Gracias. +Cuando pensamos en Nepal, solemos pensar en las montaas nevadas del Himalaya, en las tranquilas aguas cristalinas de sus lagos de montaa, o en la enorme extensin de sus pastizales. +Lo que algunos no advierten es que en las estribaciones del Himalaya, donde el clima es mucho ms clido y el paisaje mucho ms verde, vive una gran diversidad de fauna, incluyendo el rinoceronte de un cuerno, el elefante asitico y el tigre de Bengala. +Pero, por desgracia, estos animales estn bajo la constante amenaza de los cazadores furtivos que los persiguen y los matan por sus partes. +Para detener la matanza de estos animales, se envan batallones de soldados y guardas a proteger los parques nacionales de Nepal, pero no es tarea fcil, porque estos soldados tienen que patrullar miles de hectreas de bosques a pie o en lomos de elefante. +Tambin es riesgoso para estos soldados cuando enfrentan tiroteos con los cazadores furtivos, y por eso en Nepal se buscan nuevas formas de proteger los bosques y la fauna. +Recientemente Nepal adquiri una nueva herramienta para enfrentar el crimen contra la fauna, y son los drones, o, ms especficamente, los drones de conservacin. +Desde hace cerca de un ao, junto con mis colegas hemos construido drones para Nepal y capacitado al personal de proteccin del parque en el uso de estos drones. +Un dron no solo da una vista del paisaje a vuelo de pjaro, sino que tambin permite una captura en detalle, de imgenes de alta resolucin de los objetos en el suelo. +Esto, por ejemplo, es un par de rinocerontes que toman un bao refrescante en un da caluroso de verano en las tierras bajas de Nepal. +Creemos que los drones tienen un potencial enorme, no solo para combatir el crimen contra la fauna, sino tambin para monitorear la salud de las poblaciones de fauna silvestre. +Qu es un dron? +Bueno, el tipo de dron del que estoy hablando es simplemente un modelo de avin equipado con un sistema de piloto automtico, con una pequea computadora, un GPS, una brjula, un altmetro baromtrico y algunos otros sensores. +Un avin no tripulado como este puede llevar carga til, como una videocmara o una cmara fotogrfica. +Tambin requiere un software que le permita al usuario programar la misin, para decirle al dron a dnde ir. +Muchas personas a menudo se sorprenden cuando se enteran de que estos son los nicos cuatro componentes que constituyen uno de estos drones, pero se sorprenden an ms cuando les digo lo econmicos que son estos componentes. +De hecho, un dron de conservacin no cuesta mucho ms que una buena computadora porttil o un par de binoculares decente. +Ahora que construyeron su propio dron de conservacin, quiz quieran volarlo, pero cmo volar un dron? +Bueno, en realidad, uno no lo hace, porque el dron vuela por s mismo. +Uno solo programa una misin para indicarle al dron a dnde volar. +Para eso sencillamente pulsa sobre algunos puntos en la interfaz de Google Maps mediante un software de cdigo abierto. +Esas misiones pueden ser muy simples y tener pocos puntos, o un poco ms largas y ms complicadas, como sobrevolar un sistema fluvial. +A veces volamos el dron en un patrn de tipo cortadora de csped, tomamos fotos de esa zona, y esas imgenes pueden ser procesadas para producir un mapa del bosque. +Otros investigadores podran querer volar el dron por los lmites de un bosque para vigilar cazadores furtivos o transeuntes que tratan de entrar al bosque ilegalmente. +Pero cualquiera que sea la misin, una vez programada, sencillamente se carga al sistema de piloto automtico, se lleva el dron al terreno, y se pone en marcha simplemente arrojndolo al aire. +A menudo la misin consistir en tomar fotos o videos por el camino. Generalmente en ese momento iremos en busca de una taza de caf y nos sentaremos relajados durante unos minutos, aunque algunos entremos en pnico en los siguientes minutos por temor a que el dron no regrese. +Por lo general lo hace, y cuando lo hace, incluso aterriza de forma automtica. +Qu podemos hacer con un dron de conservacin? +Cuando construimos el primer prototipo de dron, nuestro principal objetivo era sobrevolar una selva remota en el norte de Sumatra, Indonesia, en busca de una especie de gran simio conocido como orangutn. +Queramos hacerlo porque necesitbamos saber cuntos ejemplares de esta especie quedaban en el bosque. +El mtodo tradicional de inspeccin de orangutanes consiste en caminar por el bosque a pie llevando equipos pesados y con un par de binoculares mirar hacia las copas de los rboles en busca de orangutanes o de sus nidos. +Como podrn ver, es un proceso que lleva mucho tiempo, mucho trabajo y es muy costoso. Esperbamos que los drones pudieran reducir significativamente el costo de la bsqueda de poblaciones de orangutanes en Indonesia y otros lugares del sudeste asitico. +Por eso fue emocionante capturar imgenes del primer par de nidos de orangutn. +Y aqu est; esta es la primera imagen de nidos de orangutn tomadas con un dron. +Como tomamos fotos de decenas de nidos de diversas partes del sudeste asitico, estamos trabajando con cientficos informticos, desarrollando algoritmos que puedan contar de forma automtica la cantidad de nidos a partir de las miles de fotos tomadas hasta ahora. +Estos drones no solo pueden detectar nidos. +Este orangutn en su hbitat se alimenta feliz en la copa de una palmera, aparentemente ajeno a nuestro dron que sobrevol la zona, no una, sino varias veces. +Tambin hemos tomado fotos de otros animales incluyendo bfalos forestales en Gabn, elefantes, e incluso nidos de tortuga. +Pero aparte de tomar fotos de los propios animales, tambin captamos los hbitats donde viven estos animales, porque queremos seguir la pista de la salud en esos ambientes. +A veces, nos acercamos un poco para observar lo que puede estar sucediendo en el paisaje. +Esta es una plantacin de palma de aceite en Sumatra. +Estos cultivos son un motor importante en la deforestacin en esa parte del mundo; por eso queramos usar esta nueva tecnologa a base de drones para hacer cuentas de la propagacin de estas plantaciones en el sudeste asitico. +Tambin se podran usar drones para vigilar la tala ilegal. +Este es un bosque talado recientemente, de nuevo en Sumatra. +Incluso todava se pueden ver los tablones procesados que quedaron en el suelo. +Se podran procesar las imgenes areas para producir en la computadora modelos tridimensionales de los bosques. +Estos modelos no solo tienen un atractivo visual, sino que tambin son geomtricamente exactos, lo que significa que los investigadores ahora pueden medir la distancia entre los rboles, calcular las reas, el volumen de la vegetacin, etc., toda informacin importante para monitorear la salud de estos bosques. +Recientemente, hemos empezado a experimentar con cmaras de imagen trmica. +Estas cmaras pueden detectar objetos emisores de calor, y por ende, son muy tiles para detectar cazadores furtivos o fogatas en la noche. +Les he contado bastante sobre qu son los drones de conservacin, cmo operarlos, y qu pueden hacer por nosotros. +Ahora les contar dnde se usan en todo el mundo. +Construmos nuestros primeros prototipos de drones en Suiza. +Trajimos algunos a Indonesia para hacer los primeros vuelos de prueba. +Despus hemos construido drones para nuestros colaboradores de todo el mundo, entre ellos colegas bilogos y socios de las principales organizaciones de conservacin. +Quiz la mejor parte y la ms gratificante de trabajar con estos colaboradores es la retroalimentacin que nos dan sobre cmo mejorar nuestros drones. +Construir drones para nosotros es una obra en progreso constante. +Siempre tratamos de mejorarlos en materia de rango, robustez, y cantidad de carga que pueden transportar. +Tambin trabajamos con colaboradores para descubrir nuevas formas de usar estos drones. +Por ejemplo, las cmaras trampa son herramientas comunes para los bilogos que quieren tomar imgenes de animales tmidos que se esconden en los bosques, Estas son cmaras sensibles al movimiento, que se disparan cuando un animal cruza su camino. +El problema con estas cmaras es que los investigadores tienen que volver al bosque de vez en cuando para recuperar esas imgenes. Eso lleva mucho tiempo, especialmente si hay decenas o cientos de cmaras por todo el bosque. +Se puede entonces disear un dron para hacer la tarea de manera mucho ms eficiente. +Este dron, con un sensor especial, podra sobrevolar el bosque y descargar estas imgenes de forma remota desde cmaras con wi-fi. +Los collares con radio son otra herramienta que los bilogos usan comnmente. +Se le colocan a los animales. +Los collares transmiten seales de radio que le permiten al investigador rastrear los movimientos de los animales por el paisaje. +Esta forma tradicional de rastrear animales es bastante ridcula, porque requiere que el investigador camine por el terreno con una enorme y engorrosa antena de radio, como esas viejas antenas de TV que solamos tener en el techo. Algunos todava las tenemos. +Podra usarse un dron para hacer lo mismo de manera mucho ms eficiente. +Por qu no equipar un dron con un receptor de radio de barrido, que sobrevuele el dosel del bosque siguiendo cierto patrn que le permita al usuario o al operador, de forma remota, triangular la ubicacin de los animales que llevan collar, sin tener que poner un pie en el bosque. +Una tercera manera, y quiz la ms interesante, de usar estos drones es sobrevolar selvas muy remotas nunca antes exploradas en algn lugar oculto de los trpicos, y lanzar en paracadas pequeos micrfonos que nos permitan espiar las llamadas de mamferos, aves, anfibios, el Yeti, el Sasquatch, Bigfoot, lo que sea. +Esto nos dara a los bilogos una idea bastante clara de lo que los animales podran estar viviendo en los bosques. +Por ltimo, me gustara mostrarles la ltima versin de nuestro dron de conservacin. +El dron MAJA tiene una envergadura de unos dos metros. +Pesa solo unos dos kilos, pero puede transportar la mitad de su peso. +Es un sistema totalmente autnomo. +Durante su misin, incluso puede transmitir video en vivo de respuesta a una laptop en tierra, lo que le permite al usuario ver lo que est viendo el dron, en tiempo real. +Lleva una serie de sensores, de modo que la calidad de sus fotos puede llegar a uno o dos centmetros por pixel. +El dron puede permanecer en el aire durante 40 a 60 minutos, lo que le da un rango de hasta 50 kilmetros +que es suficiente para la mayora de las aplicaciones de conservacin. +Los drones de conservacin empezaron como una idea alocada de dos bilogos a los que les apasiona esta tecnologa. +Creemos, firmemente, que los drones pueden ser y sern un elemento de cambio para la investigacin y las aplicaciones de conservacin. +Hemos tenido nuestra cuota de escpticos y crticos que pensaban que estbamos manipulando aviones de juguete. +Y en cierto modo, tienen razn. +Quiero decir, seamos honestos, los drones son el mejor juguete para jvenes. +Al mismo tiempo, tambin hemos llegado a conocer muchos colegas y colaboradores maravillosos que comparten nuestra visin y ven el gran potencial en los drones de conservacin. +Para nosotros, es obvio que los bilogos conservacionistas y los operadores deben hacer uso pleno de toda herramienta disponible, incluyendo los drones, en nuestra lucha por salvar los ltimos bosques y la fauna silvestres del planeta. +Gracias. +Cinco aos atrs, estaba en un ao sabtico, y regres a la facultad de medicina donde estudi. +Vi pacientes reales y me puse la bata blanca por primera vez en 17 aos, de hecho desde que me convert en consultor. +Hubo dos cosas que me sorprendieron durante el mes que pas all. +As que con este enfoque en la reduccin de costos, me pregunt, nos estamos olvidando del paciente? +Muchos pases que Uds. representan y de donde yo vengo luchan con el costo de la atencin mdica. +Es una gran parte de los presupuestos nacionales. +Y muchas diferentes reformas pretenden detener este crecimiento. +En algunos pases tenemos largos tiempos de espera de los pacientes para una ciruga. +En otros pases, los nuevos medicamentos no son reembolsados, y por lo tanto no llegan a los pacientes. +En varios pases, los mdicos y las enfermeras son blanco, en cierta medida, de los gobiernos. +Despus de todo, las decisiones costosas en la salud son tomadas por los mdicos y las enfermeras. +Uno es quien elige una prueba de laboratorio costosa, uno quien decide operar a un paciente viejo y frgil. +As, limitar el grado de libertad de los mdicos, es una manera de mantener los costos bajos. +Y en ltima instancia, algunos mdicos dirn hoy que no tienen la plena libertad para tomar las decisiones que creen que son adecuadas para sus pacientes. +As que no es de extraar que algunos de mis colegas se sientan frustrados. +En BCG [Boston Consulting Group], seguimos esto, y nos decimos que esta no puede ser la forma correcta de gestionar la salud. +Dimos un paso atrs y dijimos: "Qu es lo que estamos tratando de lograr?" +A la larga, en el sistema sanitario, buscamos mejorar la salud de los pacientes, y tenemos que hacerlo con un limitado, o asequible, costo. +Lo llamamos, atencin sanitaria basada en valores. +En la pantalla detrs de m, ven lo que queremos decir por valor: resultados que son importantes para los pacientes en relacin con el dinero que gastamos. +Esto fue bellamente descrito en un libro de 2006 de Michael Porter y Elizabeth Teisberg. +En esta foto, tienen a mi suegro rodeado de sus tres hermosas hijas. +Cuando empezamos a hacer nuestra investigacin en BCG, decidimos no buscar tanto en los costos, sino mirar en cambio, la calidad, y en la investigacin, una de las cosas que vimos que nos asombr fue la variacin observada. +Uno compara los hospitales de un pas, y encuentra algunos que son muy buenos, pero encuentra un gran nmero que son infinitamente peores. +Las diferencias fueron drsticas. +Erik, mi suegro, sufre de cncer de prstata, y probablemente necesite ciruga. +Ahora como vive en Europa, puede elegir ir a Alemania que tiene un sistema de salud de buena reputacin. +Si va all y va al hospital promedio, tiene un riesgo de incontinencia de aproximadamente el 50 %, por lo que tendra que comenzar a usar paales otra vez. +Es lanzar una moneda. 50 % de riesgo es alto. +Si en cambio va a Hamburgo, y a una clnica llamada Martini-Klinik, el riesgo sera de solo 1 en 20. +Es, o lanzar una moneda o tener un riesgo de 1 en 20. +Es una gran diferencia, una diferencia de 7 veces. +Cuando nos fijamos en muchos hospitales para muchas enfermedades diferentes, vimos estas enormes diferencias. +Pero Uds. y yo no lo sabemos. No tenemos los datos. +Y a menudo, los datos en realidad no existen. +Nadie los sabe. +As que ir al hospital es una lotera. +Ahora, no tiene que ser as. Hay esperanza. +A finales de los 70, hubo un grupo de cirujanos ortopdicos suecos que se reuni en su congreso anual, y discutieron sobre los diferentes procedimientos que usaban para hacer una ciruga de cadera. +A la izquierda de esta diapositiva, vern una variedad de piezas metlicas, caderas artificiales que utilizaran para alguien que necesite una nueva cadera. +Todos se dieron cuenta de que tenan su manera individual de operar. +Todos argumentaron que, "Mi tcnica es la mejor", pero ninguno de ellos lo saba en realidad y lo admitieron. +As que se dijeron, "Probablemente tenemos que medir la calidad y as saber y poder aprender de la que es la mejor". +De hecho pasaron dos aos debatiendo, "Qu es calidad en ciruga de cadera?" +"Oh, deberamos medir esto". "No, deberamos medir aquello". +Y finalmente llegaron a un acuerdo. +Y una vez con el acuerdo, empezaron a medir, y a compartir los datos. +Muy rpidamente, encontraron que si ponan cemento en el hueso del paciente antes de poner el eje metlico en realidad duraba mucho ms, y la mayora de los pacientes nunca tendra que ser reoperados en su vida. +Publicaron los datos, y realmente transformaron la prctica clnica en el pas. +Todos vieron que esto tena mucho sentido. +Desde entonces, publican cada ao. +Una vez al ao, publican la tabla de la liga: Quin es el mejor, quin est en el fondo? +Y se visitan unos a otros para tratar de aprender, en un ciclo continuo de mejora. +Por muchos aos, los cirujanos de cadera suecos tuvieron los mejores resultados en el mundo, por lo menos entre aquellos que realmente medan, y mucho no medan. +Encuentro este principio realmente fascinante. +Que juntos los mdicos estn de acuerdo en qu es la calidad, empiecen a medir, compartan los datos, encuentren quin es el mejor y aprendan de l. +Mejora continua. +Ahora, no es la nica parte emocionante. +Eso es llamativo en s mismo. +Pero si traen la parte del costo de la ecuacin, y la miran, resulta que, quienes se han centrado en la calidad, en realidad tambin tienen los costos ms bajos, aunque no haya sido el propsito en primer lugar. +As que si miran la historia de la ciruga de cadera, vern un estudio realizado hace un par de aos donde comparan los EE. UU. y Suecia. +Miraron cuntos pacientes haban necesitado volver a operarse en 7 aos despus de la primera ciruga. +En los EE. UU., el nmero fue tres veces ms alto que en Suecia. +Tantas cirugas innecesarias, y tanto sufrimiento innecesario para todos los pacientes que fueron operados en ese perodo de siete aos. +Ahora, pueden imaginar cunto ahorro sera para la sociedad. +Hicimos un estudio donde analizamos datos de la OCDE. +La OCDE da, cada tanto, una mirada a la calidad en salud donde pueden encontrar datos a travs de los pases miembros. +Los EE. UU. tiene, para muchas enfermedades, realmente una calidad que est por debajo de la media en la OCDE. +Ahora, si el sistema de salud estadounidense se centrara ms en medir la calidad, y elevar la calidad solo hasta el nivel promedio de la OCDE, ahorrara el pueblo estadounidense 500 mil millones de dlares al ao. +Es un 20 % del presupuesto, del presupuesto de salud del pas. +Ahora, pueden decir que estos nmeros son fantsticos y es muy lgico, pero, son posibles? +Esto sera un cambio de paradigma en la atencin mdica, y yo dira que no solo se puede hacer, sino que se tiene que hacer. +Los agentes del cambio son los mdicos y las enfermeras del sistema sanitario. +En mi prctica como consultor, probablemente conozco un centenar o ms de un centenar de mdicos, enfermeras y otro personal sanitario cada ao. +Lo nico que tienen en comn es que realmente se preocupan por el logro en trminos de calidad para sus pacientes. +Los mdicos son, como la mayora de Uds. en la audiencia, muy competitivos. +Siempre fueron los mejores de su clase. +Siempre hemos sido los mejores de la clase. +Y si alguien les puede mostrar que el resultado de lo que hacen con sus pacientes no es mejor que lo que hacen los dems, harn lo que sea necesario para mejorar. +Pero la mayora de ellos no lo sabe. +Pero los mdicos tienen otra caracterstica. +En realidad ellos prosperan con el reconocimiento entre pares. +Si un cardilogo llama a otro cardilogo en un hospital competidor y debaten sobre por qu ese otro hospital tiene mucho mejores resultados, compartirn. +Compartirn la informacin sobre cmo mejorar. +As es, midiendo y creando transparencia, tienen un ciclo de mejora continua, que es lo que muestra esta diapositiva. +Ahora, Uds. pueden decir que esto es una buena idea, pero no es slo una idea. +Esto est sucediendo en realidad. +Estamos creando una comunidad global, y una gran comunidad global, donde podremos medir y comparar lo que logramos. +Junto con dos instituciones acadmicas, Michael Porter de Harvard Business School, y el Instituto Karolinska en Suecia, BCG ha formado algo que llamamos ICHOM. +Pueden pensar que es un estornudo, pero no lo es, es un acrnimo. +Es el Consorcio Internacional para la Medicin de los Resultados en Salud. +Nos estamos reuniendo mdicos lderes y los pacientes para discutir, enfermedad por enfermedad qu es realmente la calidad, qu debemos medir, y convertirlos en estndares globales. +Ellos han trabajado... cuatro grupos de trabajo durante el ao pasado: cataratas, dolor de espalda, enfermedad coronaria, que es, por ejemplo, ataque al corazn, y cncer de prstata. +Los cuatro grupos publicarn sus datos en noviembre de este ao. +Es la primera vez que se van a estar comparando manzanas con manzanas, no solo dentro de un pas, sino entre los pases. +Para el ao que viene, estamos planeando hacer 8 enfermedades, al ao siguiente, 16. +En el plazo de tres aos, planeamos haber cubierto el 40 % de la carga de enfermedad. +Comparar manzanas con manzanas. Quin es mejor? +Por qu es eso? +Hace cinco meses, conduje un taller en el hospital universitario ms grande del norte de Europa. +Tienen una nueva presidente, y ella tiene una visin: "Quiero manejar mi gran institucin mucho ms en calidad, en resultados que son importantes a los pacientes". +Ese da en particular, nos sentamos en un taller junto con los mdicos, enfermeras y otro personal, hablando de la leucemia en los nios. +El grupo debati, cmo podamos medir la calidad hoy +Podemos medirla mejor de lo que lo hacemos? +Discutimos, cmo tratamos a los nios?, qu son mejoras importantes? +Y hablamos de lo que son los costos para estos pacientes, podemos hacer el tratamiento de una manera ms eficiente? +Haba una energa enorme en la habitacin. +Hubo tantas ideas, tanto entusiasmo. +Al final de la reunin, el jefe del departamento, se puso de pie. +Mir al grupo y dijo primero levant su mano, se me olvid levant la mano, apret el puo, y luego dijo al grupo, "Gracias. +Gracias. Hoy, por fin estamos discutiendo que este hospital lo haga bien". +Mediante la medicin de valor en la atencin mdica, no es solo los costos sino los resultados que importan a los pacientes, hacemos que el personal de los hospitales y en otros lugares en el sistema sanitario no sea un problema sino una parte importante de la solucin. +Creo que el valor de medir en salud traer consigo una revolucin, y estoy convencido de que el fundador de la medicina moderna, el griego Hipcrates, que siempre puso al paciente en el centro, sonreira en su tumba. +Gracias. +La tecnologa puede cambiar nuestro entendimiento de la naturaleza. +Tomen, por ejemplo, el caso de los leones. +Por siglos se ha dicho que las leonas son las que cazan en la sabana abierta y que los leones no hacen nada hasta la hora de la cena. +S que Uds. tambin han escuchado esto. +Recientemente lider una campaa area de rastreo en el Parque Nacional Kruger en Sudfrica. +Nuestros colegas colocaron collares de rastreo con GPS a leones y leonas, y observamos sus comportamientos de caza desde el aire. +La parte inferior izquierda muestra un len escudriando una manada de impalas para cazarlas. A la derecha, pueden ver lo que llamo la cuenca visual del len. +Ese es el alcance visual del len en todas la direcciones hasta que su visin es obstruida por la vegetacin. +Y lo que descubrimos es que los leones no son los cazadores perezosos que pensbamos que eran. +Simplemente usan una estrategia diferente. +Mientras que las leonas cazan en la sabana abierta cubriendo largas distancias usualmente durante el da, los leones usan una estrategia de emboscada en una vegetacin densa y con frecuencia de noche. +Este video muestra la verdadera cuenca visual de caza de los leones a la izquierda, y de las leonas a la derecha. +El rojo y los colores ms oscuros muestran una vegetacin ms densa. El blanco los espacios abiertos. +Y esta es la cuenca visual literalmente al nivel de los ojos de los leones y las leonas cazadoras. +De esta forma pudimos entender mejor las condiciones misteriosas bajo las cuales los leones cazan. +Para comenzar, traje este ejemplo porque enfatiza lo poco que conocemos sobre la naturaleza. +Hasta ahora se ha hecho un gran trabajo para ralentizar la prdida de las selvas tropicales, y estamos perdiendo nuestras selvas rpidamente. Se ve en rojo en la diapositiva. +Me parece irnico que estemos haciendo tanto pero que estas reas sean an tan desconocidas para la ciencia. +Entonces, cmo podemos salvar algo que no entendemos? +Soy ecologista global y explorador terrestre con conocimiento de fsica y qumica, biologa y muchas otras asignaturas aburridas, pero por sobre todo, estoy obsesionado con lo que desconocemos de nuestro planeta. +As que cre esto, el Observatorio Areo Carnegie o CAO. +Puede parecer un avin lujoso pero est equipado con ms de 1000 kilos de sensores de alta tecnologa, computadoras, y un personal muy motivado de cientficos terrestres y pilotos. +Tenemos dos instrumentos muy peculiares: uno es el espectrmetro de imagen que de hecho puede medir la composicin qumica de las plantas que sobrevolamos. +El otro es un conjunto de lseres de muy alta potencia disparado desde la base del avin barriendo todo el ecosistema y midindolo casi 50 000 veces por segundo en 3D de alta resolucin. +He aqu una imagen del puente Golden Gate en San Francisco, no muy lejos de donde vivo. +Aunque solo volamos sobre el puente creamos una imagen en 3D y capturamos sus colores en apenas unos pocos segundos. +Pero el verdadero potencial del CAO es su habilidad de capturar todas las partes integrantes de los ecosistemas. +Esta es la imagen de un pequeo pueblo en el Amazonas capturado con el CAO. +Podemos extraer informacin de nuestros datos y ver, por ejemplo, la estructura 3D de la vegetacin y las edificaciones, o podemos usar la informacin qumica para saber qu tan rpido estn creciendo las plantas en el momento en que las sobrevolamos. +El rosado brillante muestra las plantas que crecen ms rpido. +Y podemos ver la biodiversidad en formas que nunca se las hubiesen imaginado. +As es como se ve una selva tropical desde un globo de aire caliente. +As es como se ve una selva tropical, en colores caleidoscpicos que nos dicen que hay muchas especies cohabitando. +Pero acurdense de que estos rboles son literalmente ms grandes que una ballena y eso quiere decir que son imposibles de entender con tan slo caminar sobre la tierra debajo de ellos. +As que nuestra imagen es en 3D, es qumico, es biolgico, y nos muestra no solo las especies que estn en el dosel sino que nos brinda mucha informacin acerca del resto de la especies que existen en la selva tropical. +Cre el CAO para contestar las preguntas que resultan mucho ms difciles de contestar desde puntos favorable, como desde la tierra o desde sensores satelitales. +Quiero compartir con Uds. hoy tres de estas preguntas. +La primera pregunta es: cmo manejamos nuestras reservas de carbono en las selvas tropicales? +Las selvas tropicales tienen una gran cantidad de carbono en los rboles y necesitamos mantener ese carbono en las selvas si queremos prevenir el avance del calentamiento global. +Desafortunadamente, las emisiones de carbono producto de la deforestacin es igual que las producidas por el sector de transporte mundial. +Eso son todos los barcos, aviones, trenes y autos juntos. +Por eso se entiende que los negociadores de polticas han estado trabajando duro para reducir la deforestacin, pero lo estn haciendo en paisajes apenas conocidos por la ciencia. +Si no saben exactamente dnde est el carbono, en detalle, cmo pueden saber lo que estn perdiendo? +Bsicamente, necesitamos un sistema de contabilidad de alta tecnologa. +Con nuestro sistema podemos ver en detalle los depsitos de carbono en las selvas tropicales. +El rojo nos muestra, obviamente, una selva tropical con un dosel muy denso. Luego se ven los cortes como de molde, o los cortes en la selva en amarillo y verde. +Es como picar un pastel, con la excepcin de que este pastel es tan profundo como el largo de una ballena. +Aun as podemos acercarnos y ver la selva y los rboles al mismo tiempo. +Y lo que es asombroso es que aun cuando sobrevolamos esta selva a una gran altitud, ms tarde en el anlisis podemos ir y realmente observar la copa de los rboles, hoja por hoja, rama por rama. Tal como cualquiera de las otras especies que viven en la selva pueden observar estos rboles. +Hemos estado utilizando la tecnologa para explorar y de hecho crear el primer mapa de carbono de alta resolucin en sitios tan remotos como la cuenca del Amazonas, y en sitios no tan remotos como los EE. UU. y Centroamrica. +Lo que voy a hacer es llevarlos al primer tour de alta resolucin por los paisajes de carbono de Per y luego de Panam. +Los colores van desde el rojo al azul. +El rojo nos muestra unos depsitos de carbono extremadamente altos, las selvas catedrales ms grandes que se puedan imaginar, y el azul son depsitos muy bajos. +Y djenme decirles que Per es un sitio asombroso, completamente desconocido en trminos de su geografa de carbono hasta el da de hoy. +Podemos volar a esta rea al norte de Per y ver los super depsitos de carbono en rojo, y el ro Amazonas y la planicie atravesndolos. +Podemos ir a un rea totalmente devastada a causa de la deforestacin como ven en azul, y el virus de la deforestacin expandindose en color naranja. +Tambin podemos volar a la parte ms sur de los Andes para ver la lnea de rboles y exactamente cmo termina la geografa de carbono a medida que subimos al sistema de montaas. +Y podemos ir al pantano ms grande en la Amazonia Occidental. +Es un mundo acutico de ensueos similar al "Avatar" de Jim Cameron. +Podemos ir a uno de los pases tropicales ms pequeos, Panam, y ver que tambin hay un gran intervalo de variacin de carbono, que va desde el alto en rojo hasta el bajo en azul. +Desafortunadamente, la mayora se pierde en las tierras bajas, pero lo que ven que queda en trminos de altos depsitos de carbono en verde y rojo es lo que queda arriba en las montaas. +Otra excepcin interesante a esto est justo en el medio de la pantalla. +La zona de amortiguamiento alrededor del Canal de Panam. +Es lo que est en rojo y amarillo. +Las autoridades del canal estn usando sus fuerzas para proteger sus cuencas y el comercio mundial. +Este tipo de mapas de carbono ha transformado la conservacin y el desarrollo de las polticas de recursos. +Realmente est avanzando nuestra habilidad de salvar las selvas y detener el cambio climtico. +Mi segunda pregunta: Cmo nos preparamos para el cambio climtico en sitios como la selva tropical del Amazonas? +Djenme decirles, paso mucho tiempo en estos sitios y estamos notando que el clima ya est cambiando. +Las temperaturas estn aumentando y lo que est pasando es que experimentamos muchsimas sequas, sequas recurrentes. +La gran sequa del 2010 se muestra aqu en rojo en un rea aproximadamente del tamao de Europa occidental. +El Amazonas estuvo tan seco en 2010 que hasta el cauce principal del ro Amazonas se sec parcialmente, como pueden ver en la foto en la parte inferior de la diapositiva. +Lo que descubrimos es que en reas muy remotas estas sequas estn causando un tremendo impacto negativo en las selvas tropicales. +Por ejemplo, estos son todos los rboles que se secaron, en rojo, los cuales perecieron luego de la sequa de 2010. +Esta rea est en la frontera entre Per y Brasil, totalmente inexplorada, casi totalmente desconocida cientficamente. +As que como cientficos terrestres, lo que pensamos es que las especies tendrn que emigrar con el cambio climtico desde el este de Brasil hasta el oeste llegando a los Andes y hacia arriba de las montaas con el fin de minimizar su exposicin al cambio climtico. +Uno de los problemas con esto es que los humanos estn destruyendo la Amazonia Occidental en este momento. +Miren esta brecha de 10 kilmetros cuadrados creada por los mineros de oro en la selva. +Ven la selva en 3D en verde y ven los efectos de la minera de oro bien por debajo de la superficie de la tierra. +Obviamente las especies no tienen dnde emigrar en un sistema como ste. +Si nunca han estado en el Amazonas deberan ir, +es una experiencia asombrosa todas las veces, sin importar a dnde vayas. +Probablemente lo veas de esta forma, desde el ro. +Pero lo que ocurre muchas veces es que el ro esconde lo que realmente est pasando dentro de la propia selva. +Sobrevolamos este mismo ro y creamos una imagen 3D del sistema. +El bosque est a la izquierda. +Luego podemos remover digitalmente la selva y ver lo que est pasando debajo del dosel. +Y en este caso, descubrimos actividades de minera de oro, todas ellas ilegales, establecidas muy lejos de las orillas del ro como pueden ver en esas manchas extraas que estn apareciendo a la derecha de la pantalla. +No se preocupen, estamos trabajando con las autoridades para lidiar con este y muchsimos otros problemas en la regin. +As que para disear juntos un plan de conservacin para estos corredores nicos e importantes como la Amazonia Occidental y el Corredor Andino Amaznico, debemos comenzar a crear planes geogrficamente explcitos desde ahora. +Cmo hacemos esto si desconocemos la geografa de la biodiversidad en la regin? Si es tan desconocida para la ciencia? +Lo que hemos estado haciendo es usar el espectroscopio de lser guiado desde el CAO para crear por primera vez un mapa de la biodiversidad de la selva tropical del Amazonas. +Aqu se ven los datos actuales que muestran diferentes especies en diferentes colores. +Los rojos son un tipo de especie, los azules otros, y los verdes otros ms. +Y cuando juntamos todo esto y lo llevamos a un nivel regional obtenemos una geografa completamente nueva de la biodiversidad que desconocamos antes de este proyecto. +Esto nos dice dnde ocurren los mayores cambios en la biodiversidad, de un hbitat a otro, y esto es realmente importante porque nos dice mucho acerca de hacia dnde las especies pueden emigrar e inmigrar a medida que cambie el clima. +Y esta es una informacin clave que necesitan los que toman las decisiones para establecer reas protegidas en el contexto de sus planes de desarrollo regional. +Y la tercera y ltima pregunta es: Cmo manejamos la biodiversidad en un planeta de ecosistemas protegidos? +El ejemplo del comienzo acerca de los leones cazadores fue un estudio que hicimos dentro de los lmites de un rea protegida en Sudfrica. +Y la verdad es que mucha de la naturaleza del frica continuar existiendo en el futuro en reas protegidas como pueden ver en el azul de la pantalla. +Esto genera una presin increble, y una gran responsabilidad sobre la administracin del parque. +Deben hacer y tomar decisiones que beneficien a todas las especies que estn protegiendo. +Algunas de sus decisiones realmente causan un gran impacto. +Por ejemplo, en qu cantidad y en dnde se debe usar el fuego como una herramienta de control? +O cmo lidiar con especies de animales grandes como los elefantes que en el caso de que la poblacin crezca demasiado puede causar un impacto negativo sobre el ecosistema y sobre otras especies? +Y djenme decirles, este tipo de dinmicas realmente agotan el paisaje. +La primera imagen es un rea de incendios frecuentes y donde hay muchos elefantes: una amplia sabana abierta, en azul, y apenas unos cuantos rboles. +Cuando cruzamos esta cerca entramos en un rea que ha estado protegida contra el fuego y ningn elefante. Una vegetacin densa, un ecosistema radicalmente diferente. +Y en un sitio como Kruger, la alta densidad de elefantes es un verdadero problema. +S que es un tema sensible para muchos de Uds. y no hay una solucin sencilla a esto. +Eso les da a los administradores de los parques una primera oportunidad de usar estrategias de manejo tctico que son ms matizadas y que no llevan a esos extremos que les acabo de mostrar. +En el futuro, tengo planes de expandir enormemente el observatorio areo. +Espero realmente poner la tecnologa en rbita de modo que podamos manejar el planeta entero con tecnologas como stas. +Hasta entonces seguir volando sobre sitios remotos de los que nunca han escuchado hablar. +Solo quiero concluir diciendo que la tecnologa es absolutamente crtica para el manejo de nuestro planeta, pero es an ms importante entenderla y tener la sabidura para aplicarla. +Gracias. +Sarge Salman: Desde Los Altos Hills en California, el Sr. Henry Evans. +Henry Evans: Hola. +Me llamo Henry Evans, y hasta el 29 de agosto de 2002, estaba viviendo mi versin del sueo estadounidense. +Crec en un tpico pueblo de EE.UU. cerca de St. Louis. +Mi padre era abogado. +My madre era ama de casa. +Mis 6 hermanos y yo ramos nios buenos aunque a veces un poco revoltosos. +Cuando acab el instituto, me fui de casa para estudiar y aprender ms sobre el mundo. +Fui a la Universidad de Notre Dame y all estudi Contabilidad y Alemn, cursando un ao de mis estudios en Austria. +Ms adelante, hice un mster en administracin y direccin de empresas en Stanford. +Me cas con mi novia del instituto: Jane. +Soy afortunado de tenerla. +Juntos, criamos a 4 nios maravillosos. +Trabaj arduamente y estudi mucho para avanzar en mi carrera profesional, llegando a ser Director Financiero en Silicon Valley: un trabajo que me encantaba. +Mi familia y yo compramos nuestra primera y nica casa el 13 de diciembre de 2001: una casa con potencial que necesitaba reformas en un sitio precioso de Los Altos Hills en California, desde donde les hablo ahora mismo. +Estbamos ansiosos por renovarla, pero 8 meses despus de mudarnos sufr algo similar a un derrame cerebral por un defecto de nacimiento. +De la noche a la maana, pas a ser un cuadripljico mudo a la avanzada edad de 40 aos. +Me llev varios aos, pero con la ayuda del increble apoyo de mi familia, decid que vivir an mereca la pena. +Me empez a fascinar el uso de tecnologa para ayudar a personas con graves discapacidades. +Consegu que dispositivos de localizacin comerciales de la compaa Madentec, convirtiesen mis ligeros movimientos de cabeza en movimientos del cursor, y as poder usar un ordenador. +Puedo navegar por la Web, enviar y recibir correos electrnicos, y darle frecuentes palizas a mi amigo Steve Cousins en los juegos de palabras en lnea. +Esta tecnologa me permite permanecer enganchado, seguir activo mentalmente y sentir que soy parte del mundo. +Un da estaba tumbado en la cama viendo la CNN, cuando me qued asombrado por el profesor Charlie Kemp del Laboratorio de Robtica para la Salud del Instituto Tecnolgico de Georgia que haca la demonstracin de un robot PR2. +Le enve un correo electrnico a Charlie y a Steve Cousins de Willow Garage y creamos el proyecto Robots para la Humanidad. +Durante 2 aos, este proyecto desarroll maneras de usar el PR2 como mi sustituto fsico. +Me afeit solo por primera vez en 10 aos. +Desde mi casa en California afeit a Charlie en Atlanta. Repart dulces en Halloween. +Abr el refrigerador por mi cuenta. +Empec a hacer cosas por la casa. +Vi posibilidades nuevas e innovadoras para vivir y contribuir, tanto para m como para otros en mi situacin. +Todos tenemos algn tipo de discapacidad. +Por ejemplo, si cualquiera de nosotros quiere moverse a casi 100 km por hora, necesitaramos un artefacto auxiliar llamado coche. +Tu discapacidad no te hace menos persona y la ma tampoco. +Por cierto, tengo un cochazo, verdad? Desde nuestro nacimiento, ninguno hemos sido capaces de volar por cuenta propia. +El ao pasado, Kaijen Hsiao de Willow Garage me puso en contacto con Chad Jenkins. +Chad me mostr lo fcil que es comprar y pilotar drones. +Fue entonces cuando me di cuenta de que tambin poda usar un drone para expandir los mundos de las personas que estn confinadas a su cama, dndoles una sensacin de movimiento y control increble mediante su pilotaje. +Usando un cursor que controlo con mi cabeza, estas interfaces me permiten ver el vdeo del robot y enviar rdenes pulsando botones en un navegador de Internet. +Con un poco de prctica, mejor lo suficiente como para moverme por mi casa por mi cuenta. +Poda ver el jardn y las uvas cultivadas. +He examinado los paneles solares del tejado. Uno de mis retos como piloto es aterrizar el drone en el aro de baloncesto. +Fui an ms lejos y vi si poda usar un monitor montado sobre la cabeza, el Oculus Rift, que modific Fighting Walrus, para tener una experiencia de inmersin total al manejar el drone. +A menudo piloto drones en el laboratorio de Chad en la Universidad de Brown desde mi casa a casi 5000 km de distancia. +Mucho trabajo y poca diversin ponen tristn a un cuadripljico, as que tambin hacemos tiempo para jugar partidos amistosos de ftbol de robots. Nunca pens que podra moverme por un campus como el de Brown por mi cuenta. +Ojal pudiese pagarme la matrcula. Chad Jenkins: Henry, ahora en serio, apuesto a que toda esta gente est deseando ver cmo manejas este drone desde tu cama a casi 5000 km de aqu. +Henry, has ido a Washington D.C. hace poco? +Ests emocionado de estar en TEDxMidAtlantic? +Puedes mostrarnos lo emocionado que ests? +Vamos, el gran final. +Puedes mostrarnos lo buen piloto que eres? +Bien, an le faltan algunos arreglos, pero creo que se nota el potencial. +Lo que hace que la historia de Henry sea increble es que se centra en las necesidades de Henry, en entender lo que la gente en la situacin de Henry necesita de la tecnologa, en entender adems lo que la tecnologa avanzada puede proveer y de ese modo unir esas 2 cosas para usarlas de manera responsable. +Intentamos democratizar la robtica para que cualquiera pueda formar parte de esto. +Ofrecemos plataformas robticas asequibles y disponibles en el momento como puede ser el modelo A.R. por USD 300, el robot de telepresencia Beam de Suitable Technologies por solo USD 17 000, adems de software de robtica de cdigo abierto para que t tambin puedas formar parte de lo que tratamos de hacer. +Te devuelvo la conexin, Henry. +Henry: Gracias, Chad. +Hace 100 aos me habran tratado como a un vegetal. +De hecho, eso no es cierto. +Habra muerto. +De todos nosotros depende la manera en la que usemos la robtica, para el bien o para el mal, para reemplazar a las personas o para hacerlas mejores, para permitir que hagamos y disfrutemos mucho ms. +El objetivo para la robtica supone hacer del mundo un lugar ms accesible fsicamente para la gente como yo de todo el mundo y as poder desatar su poder mental. +Con la ayuda de personas como Uds. podemos hacer de este sueo una realidad. +Gracias. +Hoy en da, mil millones de personas no tienen carreteras accesibles todo el ao. +Mil millones de personas. +Una sptima parte de la poblacin del planeta est totalmente incomunicada en algn momento del ao. +No les podemos conseguir medicamentos de forma fiable, no pueden conseguir los suministros esenciales y no pueden poner en venta sus bienes para lograr un ingreso sostenido. +En frica subsahariana, por ejemplo, el 85 % de las carreteras estn inutilizables en temporada de lluvias. +Se ha invertido pero, en realidad, se estima que les llevar 50 aos ponerse al da. +Tan solo en Estados Unidos, hay ms de cuatro millones de carreteras, muy caras de construir, con una infraestructura muy costosa de mantener, con una gran huella ecolgica, y, sin embargo, a menudo estn congestionadas. +Vimos esto y pensamos: puede haber una forma mejor? +Podemos crear un sistema usando las tecnologas ms avanzadas de hoy que puedan permitir a esta parte del mundo dar un salto de la misma forma que lo han hecho con los telfonos mviles en los ltimos 10 aos? +Hoy, muchas de esas naciones tienen excelentes telecomunicaciones sin ni siquiera instalar lneas de cobre en el suelo. +Podramos hacer lo mismo con el transporte? +Imaginen esta situacin hipottica. +Imaginen que estn en una sala de maternidad de Mali, y tienen un recin nacido que necesita medicacin urgente. +Qu haran hoy? +Bien, presentaran una peticin va telefnica y alguien se la aceptara de inmediato. +Esa es la parte que funciona. +Sin embargo, la medicacin puede tardar incluso das en llegar debido a las malas carreteras. +Esta es la parte que no funciona. +Creemos que podemos enviarla en pocas horas con un vehculo areo elctrico y autnomo como ste. +Esto puede transportar hoy una carga de unos 2 kg, a una distancia corta, de unos 10 km, pero es parte de una cobertura de red ms amplia que puede abarcar todo el pas, quiz, todo el continente. +Es una red logstica automatizada y extremadamente flexible. +Es una red usada para el transporte de materiales. +La llamamos Matternet. +Usamos 3 tecnologas clave. +La primera son los vehculos autnomos voladores. +La segunda, las estaciones terrestres automatizadas de las que los vehculos entran y salen volando para intercambiar bateras y volar ms lejos, o recoger o enviar cargamentos. +Y la tercera es el sistema operativo que controla toda la red. +Veamos cada una de esas tecnologas con ms detalle. +Primero, los aviones teledirigidos. +Al final, usaremos toda clase de vehculos para diferentes capacidades de carga y diferentes categoras. +Hoy, estamos usando pequeos cuadricpteros +capaces de transportar 2 kg, ms de 10 km en tan solo unos 15 minutos. +Comparen esto con intentar traspasar una carretera en malas condiciones en los pases desarrollados, o incluso quedarse atrapado en un atasco en un pas en vas de desarrollo. +Estos vuelan de forma autnoma. +Esa es la clave para la tecnologa. +Usan GPS y otros sensores de a bordo para navegar entre las estaciones terrestres. +Cada vehculo viene equipado con una carga til y un mecanismo de intercambio de batera, y, as, navegan por esas estaciones terrestres, se acoplan, intercambian la batera automticamente y salen de nuevo. +Las estaciones terrestres se encuentran en ubicaciones seguras en tierra. +Garantizan la parte ms vulnerable de la misin que es el aterrizaje. +Estn en ubicaciones conocidas en tierra, por lo que las rutas entre ellas tambin son conocidas, algo muy importante desde una perspectiva de la fiabilidad de todo el sistema. +Aparte de satisfacer las necesidades energticas de los vehculos, en definitiva, se convertirn en ejes comerciales donde las personas puedan extraer cargas e introducir cargas en la red. +Este ltimo componente es el sistema operativo que controla toda la red. +Supervisa los datos meteorolgicos de todas las estaciones terrestres y optimiza las rutas de los vehculos en el sistema para evitar condiciones meteorolgicas adversas, evitar otros factores de riesgo y optimizar el uso de los recursos a travs de la red. +Quiero mostrarles cmo sera uno de esos vuelos. +Aqu estamos sobrevolando Hait el verano pasado, donde hicimos nuestros primeros estudios de campo. +Aqu estamos creando un modelo de asistencia mdica, en un campamento que montamos despus del terremoto del 2010. +A la gente de all le encanta esto. +Y quiero ensearles cmo es uno de estos aparatos de cerca. +Este es un vehculo de USD 3000. +Los precios estn bajando muy rpidamente. +Lo usamos en toda clase de condiciones meteorolgicas, ya sean climas clidos o fros, con fuertes vientos. Son aparatos muy fuertes. +Imaginen si sus vidas dependieran de este envo, en algn lugar de frica o de Nueva York, despus del huracn Sandy. +La siguiente pregunta es: cunto cuesta? +Bien, resulta que el coste para transportar 2 kg a ms de 10 km con este aparato cuesta tan solo 24 centavos. +Es anti-intuitivo, pero el coste energtico que se gasta para el vuelo asciende a solo 2 centavos de dlar en nuestros das, y esto, es tan solo el comienzo. +Cuando vimos esto, sentimos que era algo que poda tener un gran impacto social en todo el mundo. +As que dijimos, muy bien, cunto cuesta configurar una red en algn lugar del mundo? +Y consideramos crear una red en Lesoto para el transporte de muestras del virus del SIDA. +El problema all es cmo llevarlas desde las clnicas donde se recogen hasta los hospitales donde se van a analizar. +Y entonces dijimos, y si quisiramos abarcar una zona de unos 140 km2? +Eso equivaldra aproximadamente a 1,5 veces el tamao de Manhattan. +Bueno, resulta que el coste de puesta en marcha en esa zona sera de menos de un milln de dlares. +Comprenlo con una tpica inversin en infraestructura. +Creemos que puede ser... este es el poder de un nuevo paradigma. +Y aqu estamos: una nueva idea sobre una red de transporte basada en las ideas de Internet. +Est descentralizada, es entre pares, bidireccional, sumamente adaptable, con baja inversin en infraestructura, con una huella ecolgica relativamente baja. +Si esto es un nuevo paradigma, debe haber otros usos para ello. +Quiz pueda usarse en otros lugares del mundo. +Veamos el otro extremo: nuestras ciudades y las ciudades ms grandes del mundo. +La mitad de la poblacin del planeta vive hoy en da en ciudades. +500 millones vivimos en grandes ciudades. +Vivimos una asombrosa tendencia a la urbanizacin. +Solo China est sumando una gran ciudad del tamao de la ciudad de Nueva York cada 2 aos. +Estos lugares tienen sin lugar a duda la infraestructura de carreteras pero son ineficaces. +El trfico es un gran problema. +Por ltimo, es expandible con una mnima huella ecolgica, que funcione las 24 horas como Internet. +As que cuando comenzamos esto hace ahora un par de aos, tenamos a mucha gente que se nos acercaban diciendo: "Es una idea interesante pero descabellada y decididamente algo en lo que deberan hacer hincapi en un futuro cercano". +Y, desde luego, estamos hablando de drones, una tecnologa que no solo es poco popular en Occidente sino que se ha convertido en una realidad muy desagradable para muchos que viven en pases pobres, sobre todo aquellos que estn involucrados en conflictos. +Entonces, por qu estamos haciendo esto? +Bien, elegimos hacer esto no solo porque era fcil sino porque podemos causar un impacto asombroso. +Imaginen a mil millones de personas conectadas a los bienes materiales de la misma forma que los sistemas de telecomunicaciones mviles les conectan a la informacin. +Imaginen si la prxima gran red que construyramos en el mundo fuera una red de transporte de materiales. +En el mundo desarrollado, esperaramos llegar a millones de personas con mejores vacunas llegar a ellos con mejores medicinas. +Nos dara una ventaja decisiva en la lucha contra el virus del SIDA y VIH, la tuberculosis y otras epidemias. +Con el tiempo, esperaramos que se convirtiera en una nueva plataforma para transacciones econmicas sacando a millones de personas de la pobreza. +En el mundo desarrollado y emergente, esperaramos que se convirtiera en una nueva forma de transporte que pudiera ayudar a hacer nuestras ciudades ms habitables. +A quienes an creen que esto es ciencia ficcin, les digo firmemente que no lo es. +Pero debemos involucrarnos en la ficcin social para hacer que suceda. +Gracias. +Voy a hablar sobre el envejecer en las sociedades tradicionales. +Este tema es solo un captulo de mi ltimo libro, en el que comparo las sociedades tribales pequeas con nuestras grandes sociedades modernas, en temas como la educacin de los nios el envejecimiento, la salud, el manejo del peligro, la resolucin de disputas, la religin y el hablar ms de un idioma. +Estas sociedades tribales, que constituyeron la totalidad de las sociedades humanas la mayor parte de la historia de la humanidad, son mucho ms diversas que nuestras recientes grandes sociedades modernas. +Todas las grandes sociedades, que cuentan con gobiernos y donde la mayora de las personas son extraos unos con otros, son inevitablemente similares y diferentes de las sociedades tribales. +Las tribus constituyen miles de experimentos naturales de cmo hacer funcionar una sociedad. +Constituyen experimentos de los que nosotros mismos podemos aprender. +Las sociedades tribales no deberan ser desdeadas por primitivas y miserables, pero tampoco deberan ser, romnticamente, consideradas felices y pacficas. +Al estudiar las prcticas tribales, algunas nos horrorizarn, pero hay otras que, al or de ellas, las podemos admirar y envidiar, y preguntarnos si podramos adoptarlas para nosotros mismos. +La mayora de las personas en EE.UU. terminan viviendo separados de sus hijos y de la mayora de sus amigos de la juventud, y, frecuentemente, viven en hogares de retiro para ancianos, mientras que, en cambio, en las sociedades tradicionales, los viejos terminan sus vidas entre sus hijos, sus otros parientes, y sus amigos de toda la vida. +El tratamiento de los ancianos, sin embargo, es enormemente variado entre las sociedades tradicionales, oscilando entre unos mucho mejores y otros mucho peores que los de nuestras sociedades modernas. +En el peor de los extremos, muchas sociedades tradicionales se libran de sus ancianos de una de las siguientes, cuatro formas directas: descuidando a sus ancianos y no alimentndolos ni limpindolos hasta que mueran, o abandonndolos cuando el grupo se mueve, o alentndolos a cometer suicidio, o matndolos. +En qu sociedades tribales los hijos abandonan o matan a sus padres? +Pasa principalmente bajo dos condiciones. +Una es en las sociedades cazadoras-recolectoras nmadas que continuamente levantan campamento y que son fsicamente incapaces de transportar los viejos que no pueden caminar porque los jvenes fsicamente capacitados ya tienen que cargar con sus hijos y todas sus posesiones. +La otra condicin se da cuando se vive en ambientes marginales o fluctuantes, tales como los desiertos y el rtico, donde hay escases peridica de alimentos y, ocasionalmente, no hay suficiente para mantener a todos con vida. +El alimento disponible tiene que ser reservado para los adultos fsicamente capacitados y para los nios. +A los estadounidenses nos suena horrible pensar en abandonar o matar a nuestra propia esposa o esposo enfermo, o a nuestros padre y madre ancianos, pero qu otra cosa podran hacer estas sociedades tradicionales? +Ellos enfrentan una situacin cruel que nos les deja alternativa. +Sus ancianos tuvieron que hacerlo con sus propios padres y saben bien lo que va a pasar con ellos. +En el extremo opuesto del tratamiento de los ancianos, el extremo feliz, estn las sociedades agrcolas de Nueva Guinea donde he estado haciendo mi estudio de campo los ltimos 50 aos y en la mayor parte de las dems sociedades tradicionales sedentarias de todo el mundo. +En estas sociedades, los ancianos son queridos. +Los alimentan. Siguen siendo valiosos. +Y continan viviendo en la misma choza o si no, en otra cerca de sus hijos, parientes y amigos de toda la vida. +Hay dos conjuntos de razones que explican esta variacin en el tratamiento de los ancianos entre sociedades. +La variacin depende especialmente de la utilidad de los ancianos y de los valores de la sociedad. +En lo que tiene que ver con la utilidad, primero, los ancianos continan realizando tareas tiles. +Una de las tareas en la que los ancianos de las sociedades tradicionales son de utilidad, es en la produccin de alimentos. +Otro quehacer tradicional en el que son de utilidad los ancianos, es en el cuidado de sus nietos, liberando de esta forma a sus propios hijos, los padres de esos nietos, para la caza y para recoleccin de alimentos para los mismos. +Otra tarea tradicional en la que los ancianos son valiosos es en la fabricacin de herramientas, armas, cestas, vasijas y telas. +De hecho, ellos son, por lo general, los mejores en esto. +Los ancianos son, por lo general, los lderes en las sociedades tradicionales y los que gozan de mayor reconocimiento en poltica, medicina, religin, las canciones y las danzas. +Finalmente, los ancianos en las sociedades tradicionales tienen un inmenso valor, que nunca tendrn en nuestras sociedades modernas alfabetizadas, en las que los libros y el Internet son nuestras fuentes de informacin. +En las sociedades tradicionales grafas, por el contrario, los ancianos son los depositarios de la informacin. +Su conocimiento significa la diferencia entre la supervivencia y la muerte de toda la sociedad en tiempos de crisis causadas por eventos raros en los que solo los ancianos vivos han tenido experiencia. +Estas son las formas, entonces, en que los ancianos les son de utilidad a las sociedades tradicionales. +Su utilidad vara y contribuye a la variacin del tratamiento de los ancianos en la sociedad. +El otro conjunto de razones para la variacin en el tratamiento de los ancianos lo constituyen los valores culturales. +Por ejemplo, hay un nfasis particular en el respeto a los ancianos en el Asia Oriental, que est asociado con la doctrina de Confucio de la Piedad Filial, que significa obediencia, respeto y apoyo a los padres ancianos. +Los valores culturales que enfatizan el respeto a los ancianos contrastan con el bajo estatus de los ancianos en los EE.UU. +Los estadounidenses viejos estn en gran desventaja en las solicitudes de empleo. +Estn en gran desventaja en los hospitales. +Nuestros hospitales tienen una poltica explcita llamada Asignacin de los Recursos de la Salud con Base en la Edad. +Hay varias razones para este bajo estatus de los ancianos en EE.UU. +Una es nuestra tica puritana del trabajo que da un alto valor al trabajo, de tal forma que los viejos, quienes ya no trabajan ms, no son respetados. +Otra razn es nuestro estadounidense nfasis en las virtudes de autosuficiencia e independencia, de tal manera que, instintivamente, menospreciamos a los ancianos quienes ya no son autosuficientes e independientes. +Una tercera razn ms es nuestro culto estadounidense de la juventud, que se deja ver incluso en nuestra publicidad. +Los comerciales de Coca-Cola y cerveza siempre muestran gente joven que sonre aun cuando los viejos, al igual que los jvenes, compran y beben Coca-Cola y cerveza. +Solo piensen, cundo fue la ltima vez que vieron un comercial de Coca-Cola o cerveza mostrando gente de 85 aos sonriendo? Nunca. +A cambio de eso, Los nicos comerciales estadounidenses que presentan gente vieja con canas son los comerciales de hogares de retiro y planes de pensiones. +Y qu ha cambiado en el estatus de los viejos hoy comparado con su estatus en las sociedades tradicionales? +Ha habido pocos cambios para mejorar y ms para empeorar. +Los grandes cambios para mejorar incluyen el hecho de que hoy disfrutamos de vidas mucho ms largas, mucha mejor salud y oportunidades de recreacin mucho mejores en nuestra edad adulta. +Otro cambio para mejorar es que ahora tenemos programas e instalaciones de retiro especializadas para cuidar de los viejos. +Los cambios para empeorar comienzan con la realidad cruel de que ahora tenemos ms gente vieja y menos gente joven que nunca antes en el pasado. +Eso significa que toda esa gente vieja es una carga para los jvenes y que cada persona vieja tiene menos valor individual. +Otro gran cambio para empeorar en el estatus de los viejos es la ruptura, con la edad, de los lazos sociales, ya que tanto los viejos, como sus hijos y amigos se mudan y se alejan, los unos independientemente de los otros, muchas veces durante sus vidas. +Los estadounidenses nos mudamos en promedio cada cinco aos. +Por tanto, nuestros viejos tienen muchas probabilidades de terminar viviendo lejos de sus hijos y de sus amigos de la juventud. +Otro cambio ms para empeorar en el estatus de los ancianos es su retiro formal de la fuerza laboral que lleva a la prdida de las amistades del trabajo y a la prdida de la autoestima asociada con el trabajo. +El cambio ms grande para empeorar es, quizs, que nuestros viejos son, objetivamente, menos tiles que en las sociedades tradicionales. +La generalizacin de la alfabetizacin implica que ellos ya no son tiles como depositarios del conocimiento. +Cuando queremos informacin la buscamos en un libro o con Google, en lugar de buscar un viejo para preguntarle. +El avance lento del cambio tecnolgico en las sociedades tradicionales implica que lo que alguien aprende cuando nio todava le es til cuando viejo, pero el avance rpido del cambio tecnolgico hoy en da, implica que lo que se aprende de nio ya no es de utilidad 60 aos ms tarde. +Y de manera contraria, los viejos somos menos fluidos con las tecnologas esenciales para sobrevivir en la sociedad moderna. +Yo, por ejemplo, a los quince aos, era considerado sobresaliente en la multiplicacin porque haba memorizado las tablas, y saba cmo usar los logaritmos, y era rpido usando la regla de clculo. +Hoy, sin embargo, esas habilidades son bastante intiles porque cualquier idiota puede multiplicar cifras de 8 dgitos con precisin y rapidez con una calculadora de bolsillo. +A mis 75 aos, a la inversa, soy incompetente en habilidades esenciales para la vida cotidiana. +En 1948, el primer televisor de mi familia tena solo 3 perillas que yo rpidamente domin: un botn de encendido, uno para el volumen y uno selector de canales. +Hoy da, para ver un programa en el televisor de mi propia casa tengo que pelear con un control remoto de 41 botones que sobradamente me derrota. +Tengo que telefonear a mis hijos de 25 aos y pedirles que me den instrucciones mientras yo trato de oprimir eso 41 desgraciados botones. +Qu podemos hacer para mejorar la vida de los viejos en EE.UU. y para hacer mejor uso de su valor? +Ese es un problema inmenso. +En los 4 minutos que me quedan hoy, puedo hacer unas pocas sugerencias. +Un valor de los viejos es que son, como abuelos, cada vez ms tiles en el cuidado de calidad de sus nietos, si deciden hacerlo, en tanto que ms mujeres jvenes ingresan al mercado laboral y menos padres jvenes de ambos sexos permanecen en casa dedicados al cuidado de sus hijos. +Comparado con las alternativas ms usadas, pagar nieras y guarderas, los abuelos ofrecen un cuidado superior de los nios, motivado y con experiencia. +Ellos han ganado experiencia con la crianza de sus hijos. +Ellos, por lo general, aman a sus nietos, y les entusiasma pasar tiempo con ellos. +A diferencia de otros cuidadores, los abuelos no renuncian a su trabajo porque encuentran otro donde les pagan ms por cuidar otro beb. +Un segundo valor de los viejos, paradjicamente, tiene que ver con la prdida de valor derivada de las condiciones y las tecnologas cambiantes del mundo. +A la par con esto, los viejos han ganado en valor hoy en da, por su experiencia nica con condiciones de vida que se han vuelto raras a raz del cambio rpido, pero que pueden regresar. +Solo los estadounidenses que hoy tienen 70 aos o ms, por ejemplo, pueden recordar la experiencia de vivir una gran depresin, la experiencia de vivir una guerra mundial y de angustiarse pensando si sera ms terrible lanzar bombas atmicas o convivir con las posibles consecuencias de no hacerlo. +La mayora de nuestros polticos y de nuestros actuales votantes no tienen una experiencia personal con ninguna de estas cosas, pero millones de estadounidenses viejos s. +Infortunadamente, toda estas situaciones terribles podran regresar. +Y aunque no regresaran, tenemos que ser capaces de planear para eso con base en la experiencia de lo que fueron. +Los viejos tienen esa experiencia. +Los ms jvenes no. +El ltimo valor de los viejos que mencionar, tiene que ver con el reconocimiento de que si bien hay muchas cosas que los viejos ya no pueden hacer, hay otras que pueden hacer mejor que la gente ms joven. +El reto para la sociedad es aprovechar esas cosas que los viejos hacen mejor. +Algunas habilidades decaen con la edad; por supuesto. +Habilidades como aquellas que requieren fuerza fsica, resistencia, ambicin y la capacidad de innovar en situaciones limitadas, como imaginar la estructura del ADN, algo que mejor se le deja a cientficos de menos de 30. +Los viejos, entonces, son mejores que los jvenes supervisando, administrando, asesorando, pensando estrategias, sintetizando, enseando y concibiendo planes a largo plazo. +Veo estos valores en muchos de mis amigos que tienen 60, 70, 80 y 90 aos, quienes estn todava activos como asesores financieros, granjeros, abogados y doctores. +Resumiendo, muchas sociedades tradicionales aprovechan mejor a sus viejos y les dan a sus ancianos vidas ms satisfactorias que nosotros en las grandes sociedades modernas. +Paradjicamente, hoy en da, cuando tenemos ms ancianos que nunca, viviendo vidas mejores y con mejores cuidados mdicos que nunca, la edad adulta es ms miserable en algunos aspectos que nunca antes. +Es ampliamente aceptado, que la vida de los ancianos constituye un rea de desastre en la sociedad estadounidense moderna. +Lo podemos hacer mejor si estudiamos las vidas de los ancianos en las sociedades tradicionales. +Pero lo que es cierto de las vidas de los ancianos en las sociedades tradicionales, vale tambin para otros aspectos de las sociedades tradicionales. +No estoy abogando, claro est, por el abandono de la agricultura y de las herramientas de metal ni por el regreso al estilo de vida cazador-recolector. +Hay muchos aspectos obvios en los que nuestras vidas son mucho ms felices que las de las pequeas sociedades tradicionales. +Para mencionar solo unas pocas, nuestras vidas son ms largas, materialmente mucho ms ricas y menos plagadas de violencia que las vidas de las personas en las sociedades tradicionales. +Pero hay tambin cosas que admirar de las personas de las sociedades tradicionales, y de las que tal vez tengamos que aprender. +Sus vidas son, por lo general, socialmente ms ricas que nuestras vidas, aunque son materialmente ms pobres. +Sus nios son ms autosuficientes, ms independientes y socialmente ms habilidosos que nuestros nios. +Piensan en los peligros de forma ms realstica que nosotros. +Casi nunca mueren de diabetes, enfermedades del corazn, infartos, y otras enfermedades no transmisibles, que sern la causa de muerte de casi todos los que estamos en este recinto hoy. +Diferentes aspectos de la vida moderna nos predisponen a estas enfermedades y diferentes caractersticas del estilo de vida tradicional nos protegen de ellas. +Estos son solo algunos ejemplos de lo que podemos aprender de las sociedades tradicionales. +Espero que les resulte tan fascinante leer acerca de las sociedades tradicionales como a m me resulta vivir en ellas. +Gracias. +Ayer, estaba en la calle en frente de este edificio, y estaba caminando por la acera, con compaa, varios de nosotros, atenindonos a la regla de caminar por las aceras. +No hablbamos entre nosotros. Mirbamos hacia adelante. +bamos en movimiento. +Cuando la persona en frente de m avanza ms lento. +Y as que la estoy mirando, y baja la velocidad, y finalmente se detiene. +Bueno, eso no fue suficientemente rpido para mi, as que puse el intermitente y camin a su alrededor. y mientras caminaba, observaba qu haca, y estaba haciendo esto. +Estaba enviando mensajes de texto, y no poda escribir y caminar al mismo tiempo. +Ahora podramos abordar esto desde una perspectiva de memoria operativa o desde una perspectiva de multitarea. +Hoy vamos a hacer memoria operativa +Ahora, la memoria operativa es esa parte de nuestra conciencia de la que estamos al tanto en cualquier momento del da. +Lo estan haciendo en estos momentos. +No es algo que podamos apagar. +Si la apagas, se llama coma, de acuerdo? +As que, ahora mismo lo ests haciendo bien. +La memoria operativa tiene cuatro componentes bsicos. +Nos permite almacenar algunas experiencias inmediatas y algo de conocimiento. +Nos permite ir hacia atrs a nuestra memoria de largo plazo y sacar algo de eso cuando lo necesitemos, combinndolo, procesndolo a la luz de lo que sea nuestro objetivo actual. +Ahora el objetivo actual no es algo como: quiero ser presidente o el mejor surfista en el mundo. +Es ms mundano. Quisiera esa galletita, o tengo que encontrar la manera de entrar a mi habitacin de hotel. +La capacidad de nuestra memoria operativa depende de nuestra habilidad de aprovechar eso, nuestra habilidad para tomar lo que sabemos y lo que podemos manejar y aprovechar de maneras que nos permiten satisfacer nuestro objetivo actual. +La capacidad de la memoria operativa tiene una historia bastante larga, y est asociada con una gran cantidad de efectos positivos. +Las personas con alta capacidad de memoria operativa tienden a ser buenos narradores. +Tienden a resolver y hacerlo bien en las pruebas estandarizadas, por muy importantes que sean. +Son capaces de tener altos niveles de capacidad de escritura. +Tambin son capaces de razonar a un alto nivel. +Entonces, lo que vamos a hacer aqu es jugar un poco con algo de eso. +As que voy a pedirles que realicen un par de tareas, y vamos a llevar a su memoria operativa a dar un paseo. +Estn preparados para eso? Muy bien. +Les voy a dar cinco palabras, y slo quiero que se aferren a ellas. +No las escriban. Solo retnganlas. +Cinco palabras. +Mientras que las retienen, les voy a pedir que respondan a tres preguntas. +Quiero ver qu pasa con esas palabras. +Entonces, estas son: rbol, carretera, espejo, Saturno y electrodo. +Hasta aqu vamos bien? +Muy bien. Lo que quiero que hagan es que me digan cul es la respuesta a 23 veces ocho. +Slo grtenla. +De hecho, es exactamente. Est bien. Quiero que saquen su mano izquierda y quiero que cuenten, "Uno, dos, tres, cuatro, cinco, seis, siete, ocho, nueve, diez". +Es una prueba neurolgica, slo en caso de que se lo pregunten. +Muy bien, ahora lo que quiero que hagan es recitar las ltimas cinco letras del alfabeto Ingls al revs. +Deberan haber comenzado con la Z. +Est bien. Cuntas personas aqu estn todava bastante seguras de recordar las cinco palabras? +Okay. Normalmente nos encontramos con alrededor de menos de la mitad, verdad, es lo normal. Habr un rango. +Algunas personas pueden aferrarse a cinco. +Algunas se aferran a las diez. +Para algunos sern dos o tres. +Sabemos que esto es realmente importante por la forma en que funcionamos, cierto? +Y va a ser muy importante aqu en TED porque van a estar expuestos a tantas ideas diferentes. +Ahora el problema que tenemos es que la vida viene a nosotros, y viene a nosotros muy rpidamente, y lo que tenemos que hacer es tomar ese amorfo flujo de experiencias y de alguna manera extraer el significado de ellas con una memoria operativa que es aproximadamente del tamao de un guisante. +No me malinterpreten, la memoria operativa es impresionante. +La memoria operativa nos permite investigar nuestra experiencia actual a medida que avanzamos. +Nos permite dar sentido al mundo que nos rodea. +Pero tiene ciertos lmites. +Ahora la memoria operativa es grandiosa por permitir que nos comuniquemos. +Podemos tener una conversacin, y puedo construir una narrativa en torno a ella as que s dnde hemos estado y hacia dnde vamos y de cmo contribuir a esta conversacin. +Nos permite, resolver problemas, el pensamiento crtico. +Podemos estar en medio de una reunin, escuchar la presentacin de alguien, evaluarla, decidir si nos gusta o no, a continuacin hacer preguntas. +Todo esto se produce con el trabajo de la memoria. +Tambin nos permite ir a la tienda y nos permite buscar la leche, los huevos, el queso cuando lo que realmente estamos buscando es Red Bull y tocino. Hay que asegurarse de que estamos recibiendo lo que estamos buscando. +Ahora bien, una cuestin central sobre la memoria operativa es que es limitado. +Es limitado en capacidad, limitado en duracin, limitado en concentracin. +Tendemos a recordar cuatro cosas. +De acuerdo? Solan ser siete, pero segn las imgenes de resonancia magntica, aparentemente son cuatro, y nos estbamos pasando. +Ahora podemos recordar esas cuatro cosas durante unos 10 a 20 segundos a menos que hagamos algo con ello, a no ser que lo procesemos, que lo apliquemos a algo, a no ser que hablemos con alguien sobre esto. +Cuando pensamos sobre la memoria operativa tenemos que darnos cuenta de que esta capacidad limitada tiene un montn de diferentes impactos en nosotros. +Alguna vez han caminado de una habitacin a otra y luego olvidado por qu estn ah? +Saben la solucin a eso, verdad? +Volver a la habitacin original. Alguna vez han olvidado las llaves? +Han olvidado el coche? +Han olvidado a sus hijos? +Todo esto habla de la memoria operativa, lo que podemos hacer y lo que no podemos hacer. +Tenemos que darnos cuenta de que la memoria operativa tiene una capacidad limitada, y que la propia capacidad de la memoria operativa tiene que ver con cmo la manejamos. +La manejamos a travs de estrategias. +Quiero hablarles un poco sobre un par de estrategias aqu, y esto ser realmente importante porque estarn ahora en un entorno rico en informacin durante los prximos das. +Ahora, lo primero de todo es que necesitamos pensar, necesitamos procesar nuestra existencia, nuestra vida, inmediatamente y repetidamente. +Tenemos que procesar lo que est pasando en el momento en que sucede y no 10 minutos ms tarde, no una semana ms tarde, en el momento. +As que tenemos que pensar, bueno, estoy de acuerdo con l? +Qu le falta? Qu me gustara saber? +Estoy de acuerdo con las suposiciones? +Cmo puedo aplicar esto en mi vida? +Es una manera de procesar lo que est pasando para que podamos usarlo ms tarde. +Ahora tambin tenemos que repetirlo. Tenemos que practicar. +As que tenemos que pensar en ello aqu. +En el medio, queremos hablar con la gente sobre ello. +Vamos a escribirlo, y cuando llegues a casa, saca esas notas y piensa en ello y con el tiempo terminars practicando. +Practicar por alguna razn se convirti en algo muy negativo. +Es muy positivo. +El siguiente paso es, tenemos que pensar elaborativamente y tenemos que pensar de forma ilustrativa. +Solemos pensar que tenemos que relacionar nuevos conocimientos con los previos. +Lo que queremos hacer es darle la vuelta. +Queremos aprovechar toda nuestra existencia, envolverla alrededor de ese nuevo conocimiento, hacer todas las conexiones, y hacerlo ms significativo. +Tambin queremos usar imgenes. Estamos hechos para usar imgenes. +Tenemos que sacarle ventaja a eso. +Pensar las cosas en imgenes, escribir las cosas de ese modo. +Si lees un libro, imagnalo. +Estoy leyendo "El Gran Gatsby", y tengo una idea perfecta de cmo es en mi cabeza, mi propia versin. +El ltimo punto es la organizacin y el apoyo. +Somos mquinas creadoras de significados. Es lo que hacemos. +Tratamos de dar sentido a todo lo que nos sucede. +La organizacin ayuda, por tanto necesitamos estructurar lo que estamos haciendo de manera que tenga sentido. +Si proveemos conocimiento y experiencia, necesitamos estructurar eso. +Y el ltimo es el apoyo. +Todos empezamos como principiantes. +Todo lo que hacemos es una aproximacin a la sofisticacin. +Debemos esperar que cambie con el tiempo. Tenemos que apoyar eso. +El apoyo puede provenir preguntando a la gente, dndoles una hoja de papel con un organigrama o con algunas imgenes como gua, pero tenemos que apoyarlo. +Ahora, la parte final de esto, el mensaje para llevar a casa desde un punto de vista de la capacidad de la memoria operativa es el siguiente: lo que procesamos, lo aprendemos. +Si no estamos procesando la vida, no estamos viviendo. +Vive la vida. Gracias. +Qu tiene de especial el cerebro humano? +Por qu estudiamos otros animales en lugar de que ellos nos estudien? +Qu es lo que tiene o hace un cerebro humano que otros cerebros no hacen? +Cuando me interes por estos temas hace 10 aos, los cientficos pensaban que saban cmo estaban formados los diferentes cerebros. +Aunque se basaban en muy poca evidencia, muchos cientficos pensaban que los cerebros de todos los mamferos, incluyendo el cerebro humano, estaban formados de la misma manera, con un nmero de neuronas que era siempre proporcional al tamao del cerebro. +Esto significa que dos cerebros del mismo tamao, como estos dos, con un peso respetable de 400 gramos, deberan tener un nmero similar de neuronas. +Ahora, si las neuronas son las unidades funcionales de procesamiento de la informacin del cerebro, entonces, los dueos de estos dos cerebros deberan tener habilidades cognitivas similares. +Sin embargo, uno es de un chimpanc, y el otro es de una vaca. +Ahora, quizs las vacas tienen una vida mental interna y son tan listas que no nos permiten darnos cuenta, pero nos las comemos. +Creo que la mayora de la gente estar de acuerdo en que los chimpancs son capaces de manifestar comportamientos ms complejos, elaborados y flexibles que las vacas. +Por lo que este es el primer indicador de que el postulado de "todos los cerebros se forman de la misma manera" no es del todo correcto. +Pero sigamos. +Si todos los cerebros estuvieran formados del mismo modo, y si comparramos animales con cerebros de distinto tamao, los cerebros ms grandes deberan tener ms neuronas que los cerebros ms pequeos y, a mayor tamao, mayor capacidad cognitiva debera tener su usuario. +De modo que el cerebro ms grande que existe debera ser tambin el de mayor capacidad cognitiva. +Y aqu vienen las malas noticias: Nuestro cerebro no es el ms grande que existe. +Parece ser un poco desconcertante. +Nuestro cerebro pesa entre 1.2 y 1.5 kg, pero los cerebros de elefante pesan entre 4 y 5 kg, y los cerebros de ballena pueden alcanzar los 9 kg, y es por esto que los cientficos solan decir que nuestro cerebro era especial al explicar nuestras habilidades cognitivas. +Debe ser realmente extraordinario, una excepcin a la regla. +El de ellos puede ser ms grande, pero el nuestro es mejor, y podra ser mejor, por ejemplo, en que parece ms grande de lo que debera ser, con una corteza cerebral mucho ms grande de la que tendramos por el tamao de nuestros cuerpos. +De modo que nos dara una corteza extra para realizar cosas ms interesantes que solo operar el cuerpo. +Eso se debe a que el tamao del cerebro normalmente acompaa al tamao del cuerpo. +Por lo que la razn principal para decir que nuestro cerebro es ms grande de lo que debera, en realidad proviene de compararnos con otros homnidos. +Los gorilas pueden ser dos o tres veces ms grandes que nosotros, de modo que sus cerebros deberan ser tambin ms grandes que los nuestros, sin embargo, ocurre lo opuesto. +Nuestro cerebro es tres veces ms grande que el de un gorila. +El cerebro humano tambin parece especial en cuanto a la cantidad de energa que utiliza. +Si bien pesa apenas el 2% del cuerpo, l solo utiliza el 25% de toda la energa que el cuerpo requiere para funcionar diariamente. +Eso es 500 caloras de un total de 2000, solo para mantener tu cerebro en funcionamiento. +Entonces, el cerebro humano es ms grande de lo que debera, utiliza mucha ms energa de la que debera, por lo tanto, es especial. +Y es aqu donde la historia comenz a molestarme. +En biologa, buscamos reglas que se apliquen a todos los animales y a la vida en general. Por qu habran de aplicarse las reglas de la evolucin a todos excepto a nosotros? +Quizs el problema estaba en la suposicin bsica de que todos los cerebros estaban hechos del mismo modo. +Quizs dos cerebros de un tamao similar podran estar hechos, en realidad, de una cantidad muy diferente de neuronas. +Quizs un cerebro muy grande no necesariamente tiene ms neuronas que un cerebro de tamao modesto. +Quizs el cerebro humano tiene la mayor cantidad de neuronas que cualquier otro cerebro, sin importar su tamao, especialmente en la corteza cerebral. +Por lo que esto se convirti en una pregunta importante a responder: cuntas neuronas tiene el cerebro humano, y cmo se las compara con otros animales? +Ahora, Uds. pueden haber escuchado o ledo en algn lugar que tenemos 100 mil millones de neuronas, por lo que, hace 10 aos, le pregunt a mis colegas si saban de dnde provena esta cifra. +Pero nadie saba. +Estuve buscando la referencia original del nmero en la bibliografa, pero nunca logr encontrarla. +Parece que nadie cont en realidad el nmero de neuronas en el cerebro humano, o en cualquier otro cerebro para el caso. +Por lo que ide una forma para contar las clulas del cerebro, y esencialmente consiste en disolver el cerebro hasta hacerlo sopa. +Funciona as: Tomas un cerebro, o partes de l, y lo disuelves en detergente, lo cual destruye las membranas celulares pero conserva el ncleo celular intacto, de modo que te quedas finalmente con una suspensin de ncleo libre que se parece a esto, como un caldo. +Esta sopa contiene todos los ncleos que una vez fueron un cerebro de ratn. +Ahora, la belleza de una sopa es que, como es sopa, puedes agitarla y hacer que todos esos ncleos se distribuyan homogneamente en el lquido, de modo que ahora al mirar en el microscopio solo cuatro o cinco muestras de esta solucin homognea, puedes contar los ncleos, y por lo tanto saber cuntas clulas tena ese cerebro. +Es simple, sencillo, y realmente rpido. +Entonces, utilizamos ese mtodo para contar neuronas en docenas de diferentes especies, y resulta que los cerebros no estn hechos del mismo modo. +Consideremos a los roedores y los primates, por ejemplo: En los cerebros ms grandes de los roedores, el tamao promedio de la neurona aumenta; de modo que el cerebro se infla muy rpidamente y aumenta su tamao de forma mucho ms rpida de la que obtiene neuronas. +Pero los cerebros de los primates obtienen neuronas sin que la neurona promedio se haga ms grande, lo cual es una forma muy econmica de agregarle neuronas al cerebro. +El resultado es que el cerebro de un primate tendr siempre ms neuronas que un cerebro de roedor del mismo tamao, y a mayor cerebro, mayor ser esta diferencia. +Entonces, qu sucede con nuestro cerebro? +Pero igual de importante es lo que significan esas 86 mil millones de neuronas. +Al descubrir que la relacin entre el tamao del cerebro y su nmero de neuronas poda ser descrita matemticamente, pudimos calcular cmo se vera un cerebro humano si fuese como el cerebro de un roedor. +Entonces, el cerebro de un roedor con 86 mil millones de neuronas pesara 36kg. +Eso es imposible. +Un cerebro tan grande se aplastara por su propio peso, y este cerebro imposible le correspondera a un cuerpo de 89 toneladas. +No creo que se parezca a nosotros. +Lo que ya nos lleva a una conclusin muy importante: que no somos roedores. +El cerebro humano no es un gran cerebro de rata. +En comparacin a una rata, podemos parecer especiales, s, pero no es una comparacin justa, dado que sabemos que no somos roedores. +Somos primates, de modo que la comparacin adecuada es con otros primates. +Y todos ustedes son primates. +Y tambin lo era Darwin. +Me gusta pensar que Darwin habra realmente apreciado esto. +Su cerebro, como el nuestro, estaba hecho a la imagen de otros cerebros de primate. +Por lo tanto, el cerebro humano puede ser extraordinario, s, pero no es especial en cuanto a su nmero de neuronas. +Es simplemente el cerebro de un gran primate. +Pienso que es un pensamiento muy humilde y aleccionador que nos recuerda nuestro lugar en la naturaleza. +Entonces, por qu utiliza tanta energa? +Bueno, otros han descubierto cunta energa utilizan el cerebro humano y el de otras especies, y, ahora que sabemos cuntas neuronas posee cada cerebro, podemos hacer la cuenta. +Resulta que, tanto el cerebro humano como los otros, utilizan la misma cantidad: un promedio de 6 caloras por cada mil millones de neuronas por da. +De modo que el gasto energtico total de un cerebro es una simple funcin lineal de su cantidad de neuronas, y resulta que el cerebro humano utiliza casi tanta energa como podra esperarse. +Por lo tanto, la razn por la que el cerebro humano utiliza tanta energa es simplemente porque tiene una enorme cantidad de neuronas, y porque somos primates con muchas ms neuronas para nuestro tamao que cualquier otro animal. El gasto relativo de nuestro cerebro es enorme, pero solo porque somos primates, no porque seamos especiales. +Entonces, la ltima pregunta: Cmo hemos llegado a esta sorprendente cantidad de neuronas? Y, particularmente, si los primates son ms grandes que nosotros, por qu no tienen un cerebro ms grande que el nuestro, con ms neuronas? +Cuando nos dimos cuenta de cun costoso era tener un montn de neuronas en el cerebro, entendimos, que quizs existe una razn simple. +Ellos no disponen de la energa para tanto un gran cuerpo como para una gran cantidad de neuronas. +Por lo que hicimos la cuenta. +Y lo que descubrimos es que, como las neuronas son tan costosas, el tamao del cuerpo y la cantidad de neuronas se compensan entre s. +Por lo que un primate que come ocho horas por da puede disponer como mximo de 53 mil millones de neuronas, pero su cuerpo no puede ser mayor a 25 kg. +Para pesar ms que eso, debe ceder neuronas. +De modo que o se tiene un gran cuerpo o se tiene una gran cantidad de neuronas. +Cuando comes como un primate, no puedes disponer de ambas cosas. +Una forma de liberarse de esta limitacin metablica sera dedicarle an ms horas diarias a comer, pero esto se torna peligroso, y, luego de un cierto punto, es simplemente imposible. +Los gorilas y los orangutanes, por ejemplo, disponen de unas 30 mil millones de neuronas e invierten ocho horas y media comiendo, y eso parece ser el mximo que pueden lograr. +Nueve horas de alimentacin diaria parece ser el lmite prctico en un primate. +Y qu hay de nosotros? +Con nuestras 86 mil millones de neuronas y con nuestros 60 a 70 kg de masa corporal, deberamos tener que dedicarle ms de 9 horas diarias a nuestra alimentacin todos los das, lo cual simplemente no es posible. +Si comiramos como un primate, no deberamos estar aqu. +Entonces, cmo llegamos hasta aqu? +Bueno, si nuestro cerebro utiliza tanta energa como supone, y si no podemos dedicarle cada hora que estamos despiertos a nuestra alimentacin, entonces, la nica alternativa, realmente, es obtener de alguna manera ms energa de los mismo alimentos. +Y, extraordinariamente, eso coincide exactamente con lo que se cree que nuestros ancestros inventaron hace un milln y medio de aos atrs cuando inventaron el cocinar. +Cocinar es utilizar fuego para predigerir los alimentos fuera del cuerpo. +Los alimentos cocidos son ms suaves, por lo que son ms fciles de masticar y de transformarlos en papilla en la boca, de modo que permite que se digieran por completo y que se absorban en el estmago, lo que los hace producir mucha ms energa en mucho menos tiempo. +Entonces, cocinar nos libera tiempo para hacer cosas mucho ms interesantes con nuestro da y con nuestras neuronas que simplemente pensar en comida, buscar comida y engullir comida todo el da. +Entonces, como cocinamos, lo que una vez fue un gran lastre, este cerebro tan grande y peligrosamente costoso, repleto de neuronas, ahora podra convertirse en algo muy valioso, ahora que nos alcanzaba la energa para un montn de neuronas y el tiempo para hacer cosas interesantes con ellas. +Entonces, creo que esto explica por qu el cerebro humano creci hasta hacerse tan grande tan rpidamente en la evolucin, todo mientras permaneca simplemente un cerebro de primate. +Ahora, que cocinar hizo asequible este gran cerebro, avanzamos rpidamente de alimentos crudos a cultura, agricultura, civilizacin, tiendas, electricidad, refrigeradores, y todas esas cosas que hoy en da nos permiten obtener toda la energa que necesitamos para todo el da de un tirn en tu lugar de comida rpida favorito. +Lo que una vez fue una solucin ahora se convirti en un problema, e, irnicamente, ahora buscamos la solucin en alimentos crudos. +Cul es la ventaja humana? +Qu es lo que poseemos que ningn otro animal posee? +Mi respuesta es que poseemos el mayor nmero de neuronas en la corteza cerebral, y creo que es la explicacin ms simple para nuestras habilidades cognitivas extraordinarias. +Y qu es lo que hacemos que ningn otro animal hace, que creo que fue fundamental para permitirnos llegar a tal cantidad, la ms grande de todas, de neuronas en la corteza? +En dos palabras: nosotros cocinamos. +Ningn otro animal cocina sus alimentos. Solo los humanos lo hacen. +Y creo que es cmo llegamos a ser humanos. +Estudiar el cerebro humano cambi cmo pienso sobre los alimentos. +Ahora miro hacia mi cocina, y me inclino ante ella, y le agradezco a mis ancestros por haber elaborado el invento que probablemente nos haya convertido en humanos. +Muchas gracias. +Hay algo que conocen de m, algo muy personal, y hay algo que s de cada uno de Uds. y que es muy central a sus inquietudes. +Hay algo que sabemos acerca de todos a quienes conocemos en cualquier parte del mundo, en la calle, que es el motivo harto fundamental de lo que ellos hacen y de cualquier cosa que toleran, +y es que todos nosotros queremos ser felices. +En esto, estamos todos juntos. +Como nos imaginamos nuestra felicidad, difiere de uno al otro, pero ya es mucho lo que tenemos en comn, que queremos ser felices. +Mi tema es la gratitud. +Cmo es la conexin entre felicidad y gratitud? +Mucha gente dira, bueno, es muy fcil. +Cuando eres feliz, ests agradecido. +Pero vuelvan a pensar. +Es realmente la gente feliz la que est agradecida? +Todos conocemos a un buen nmero de personas que tienen todo lo que se necesitara para ser feliz, y que no son felices, porque quieren algo adicional o quieren ms de lo mismo. +Y todos conocemos personas que sufren muchas desgracias, desgracias que nosotros mismos no querramos tener, y que son profundamente felices. +Irradian felicidad. Uno se sorprende. +Por qu? Porque se sienten agradecidas. +As que no es la felicidad la que nos hace agradecidos. +Es el agradecimiento el que nos hace felices. +Si creen que es su felicidad la que los hace agradecidos, pinsalo de nuevo. +Es la gratitud la que los hace felices. +Podemos preguntar, realmente qu entendemos por gratitud? +Y cmo funciona? +Apelo a su propia experiencia. +Todos sabemos por experiencia qu pasa. +Experimentamos algo que es valioso para nosotros. +Se nos da algo que es valioso para nosotros. +Y realmente es dado. +Estas dos cosas tienen que venir juntas. +Tiene que ser algo valioso, y ser un verdadero regalo. +No lo compraron. No se lo han ganado. +No lo han intercambiado. No han trabajado por l. +Solo les fue dado. +Y cuando estas dos cosas vienen juntas, algo que es muy valioso para m y que me doy cuenta de que se me da gratis, entonces el agradecimiento, espontneamente, surge en mi corazn, la felicidad crece espontneamente en mi corazn. +As es como se da el agradecimiento. +La clave de todo esto es que no podemos solo experimentarlo de vez en cuando. +No podemos solo tener experiencias de agradecimiento. +Podemos ser las personas que viven con gratitud. +Un vida agradecida, ese es el punto. +Y cmo podemos vivir con gratitud? +Experimentndola, hacindonos conscientes de que cada momento es un momento dado, como decimos. +Es un regalo. No lo hemos ganado. +No lo conseguimos de ninguna manera. +No tenemos de ninguna manera asegurar que habr otro momento dado a nosotros, y sin embargo, es lo ms valioso que nos puede ser dado, este momento, con toda la oportunidad que trae. +Si no tuviramos este momento presente, no tendramos ninguna oportunidad de hacer nada o experimentar nada, y este momento es un regalo. +Es un momento dado, como decimos. +Decimos que el regalo dentro de este regalo es la oportunidad. +Por lo que ests realmente agradecido es por la oportunidad, no la cosa que nos es dada, porque si esa cosa lo fuera en otro lugar y no tuvieran la oportunidad de disfrutarla para hacer algo con ella, no estaran agradecidos por ello. +La oportunidad es el regalo dentro de cada regalo, y tenemos este dicho, la oportunidad toca solamente una vez. +Bueno, pinsalo de nuevo. +Cada momento es un nuevo regalo, una y otra vez, y si pierden la oportunidad de este momento, otro momento nos es dado, y en otro ms. +Podemos aprovechar esta oportunidad, o podemos perderla y si aprovechamos la oportunidad, esa es la clave de la felicidad. +He aqu la llave maestra para nuestra felicidad en nuestras propias manos. +Momento a momento, podemos estar agradecidos por este regalo. +Significa esto que podemos estar agradecidos por todo? +Ciertamente no. +No podemos estar agradecidos por la violencia, la guerra, la opresin, la explotacin. +En lo personal, no podemos estar agradecidos por la prdida de un amigo, por la infidelidad, por el duelo. +Pero no he dicho que estemos agradecidos por todo. +Digo que seamos agradecidos en cualquier momento dado por la oportunidad, e incluso cuando nos enfrentamos con algo que es terriblemente difcil, podemos elevarnos en esa ocasin y responder a la oportunidad que se nos da. +No es tan malo como parece. +En realidad, cuando lo miren y lo experimenten encontrarn que la mayora de las veces, lo que se nos da es la oportunidad de disfrutar, y solo la perdemos, porque estamos apresurados en la vida y no nos detenemos a ver la oportunidad. +Pero de vez en cuando, algo muy difcil nos es dado, y cuando esta dificultad nos ocurre es un desafo estar a la altura de la oportunidad, y podemos sobreponernos aprendiendo de algo que a veces es doloroso. +Aprender a ser pacientes, por ejemplo. +Se nos dijo que el camino hacia la paz no es una carrera de velocidad, sino es ms como una maratn. +Requiere paciencia. Eso es difcil. +Puede ser el defender su opinin, defender su conviccin. +Es una oportunidad que se nos da. +Aprender a sufrir, mantenerse en pie, todas estas oportunidades nos son dadas, pero son oportunidades, y quienes se aprovechan de esas oportunidades son a quienes admiramos. +Hacen algo ms all de la vida. +Y quienes fallan, consiguen otra oportunidad. +Siempre tenemos otra oportunidad. +Esa es la maravillosa riqueza de la vida. +Entonces, cmo podemos encontrar un mtodo que aproveche esto? +Cmo cada uno de nosotros puede encontrar un mtodo para vivir con gratitud, no solo de vez en cuando estar agradecido, sino momento a momento estar agradecido. +Cmo podemos hacerlo? Es un mtodo muy sencillo. +Es tan simple que es en realidad lo que nos dijeron de nios cuando aprendimos a cruzar la calle. +Para. Mira. Anda. +Eso es todo. +Pero con qu frecuencia nos detenemos? +Corremos por la vida. No paramos. +Perdemos la oportunidad porque no paramos. +Tenemos que parar. Tenemos que lograr quietud. +Y tenemos que construir seales de alto en nuestras vidas. +Cuando estaba en frica hace unos aos y luego volv, me di cuenta del agua. +En frica, donde yo estaba, no tena agua potable. +Cada vez que abra el grifo, me senta abrumado. +Cada vez que prenda la luz, +estaba tan agradecido. Me hizo muy feliz. +Pero despus de un tiempo, esto desaparece. +Entonces puse pegatinas en el interruptor de la luz y en el grifo del agua, y cada vez que abra... agua. +As que lo dejo a su imaginacin. +Pueden encontrar lo que funciona mejor para Uds., pero necesitan seales de alto en sus vidas. +Y cuando paren, a continuacin, lo siguiente es mirar. +Ver. Abran los ojos. +Abran los odos. Abran la nariz. +Abran todos sus sentidos para esta maravillosa riqueza que nos ha sido dada. +No hay ningn final, y de eso es de lo que se trata la vida, de disfrutar, de disfrutar de lo que nos es dado. +Y entonces tambin podemos abrir nuestros corazones, nuestros corazones a las oportunidades, las oportunidades tambin de ayudar a otros, para hacer a otros felices, porque nada nos hace ms felices que cuando todos somos felices. +Y cuando abrimos nuestros corazones a las oportunidades, las oportunidades nos invitan a hacer algo, y esto es lo tercero. +Paren miren y luego vayan y hagan algo. +Y lo que podemos hacer es lo que la vida nos ofrece en ese momento presente. +Principalmente es la oportunidad de disfrutar, pero a veces es algo ms difcil. +Pero sea lo que sea, si queremos aprovechar esta oportunidad, nos vamos con eso, seamos creativos, esas son las personas creativas, +y ese leve parar, mirar, ir, es una semilla tan potente que puede revolucionar el mundo. +Porque lo necesitamos, estamos en el momento actual en medio de un cambio de conciencia, y Uds. se sorprendern si Uds. ... Siempre me sorprendo cuando oigo cuntas veces aparecen estas palabras "agradecimiento" y "gratitud". +Por todas partes, una aerolnea agradecida, un restaurante agradecido, un caf agradecido, un vino que es agradecido. +S, incluso en un papel higinico cuya marca es Gracias. Hay una ola de agradecimiento porque las personas estn tomando conciencia de lo importante que es y de cmo esto puede cambiar nuestro mundo. +Puede cambiar nuestro mundo de maneras inmensamente importantes, porque si eres agradecido, no eres temeroso, y si no tienes miedo, no eres violento. +Si eres agradecido, actas con un sentido de suficiencia y no con una sensacin de escasez, y ests dispuesto a compartir. +Si eres agradecido, disfrutas las diferencias entre las personas, y eres respetuoso con todo el mundo, y eso cambia esta pirmide de poder bajo la cual vivimos. +Y no lo hace por la igualdad, sino lo hace por igual respeto, y eso es lo importante. +El futuro del mundo ser una red, no una pirmide, ni una pirmide invertida. +Lo que necesitamos es una red de grupos ms pequeos, ms y ms pequeos que se conocen, que interactan entre s, y as es un mundo agradecido. +Un mundo agradecido es un mundo de gente alegre. +Gente agradecida es gente alegre, y la gente alegre, cuanta ms y ms gente haya, ms tendremos un mundo alegre. +Tenemos una red de vidas agradecidas, y se ha multiplicado. +No entendemos por qu ha proliferado. +Tenemos una oportunidad para la gente de prender una vela cuando se sienten agradecidos por algo. +Y ha habido 15 millones de velas encendidas en una dcada. +Las personas estn tomando conciencia de que un mundo agradecido es un mundo feliz, y todos tenemos la oportunidad solo con el simple hecho de parar, mirar, ir, para transformar el mundo, para hacerlo un lugar feliz. +Y eso es lo que espero para nosotros, y si esto ha contribuido un poco a hacer que deseen hacer lo mismo, paren, miren, vayan. +Gracias. +Estoy hoy aqu para hablar del cambio social. No de una terapia nueva, ni de una nueva intervencin, ni una nueva forma de trabajar con nios, ni nada por el estilo, sino de un nuevo modelo empresarial para hacer cambios sociales, una nueva forma de abordar el problema. +En Inglaterra, el 68 % de todos los hombres que salen de prisin despus de penas cortas vuelve a delinquir en un ao. +Ahora bien, cuntos delitos creen que, de media, han cometido con anterioridad? +Cuarenta y tres. +Y cuntas veces creen que han estado en la crcel antes? +Siete. +As que fuimos a hablar con el Ministerio de Justicia, y le preguntamos: cunto valdra para Uds. que menos de estos hombres volvieran a delinquir? +Eso tiene que valer algo, no? +Quiero decir que hay gastos en prisin, gastos en polica, gastos judiciales, todos esas cosas en las que estn gastando el dinero para hacerse cargo de ellos. Cunto vale eso? +Y bueno, claro que nos importa el valor social. +A la organizacin que contribu a fundar, "Social Finance", le importa el tema social. +Pero queramos apelar a lo econmico porque si hacamos de esto una cuestin econmica el valor econmico de hacerlo sera de gran persuasin. +Y si conseguimos ponernos de acuerdo en un precio y en una forma de medir si hemos tenido xito en reducir la reincidencia criminal, entonces podemos hacer algo que nos parece bastante interesante. +La idea se llama el "bono de impacto social". +El bono de impacto social simplemente supone, si el gobierno lo acepta, que podemos crear un contrato en el que ellos solo pagan si el proyecto funciona. +Esto significa que pueden probar cosas nuevas sin lo vergonzoso de tener que pagar algo si no funciona, lo cual, para muchas partes del gobierno, todava es una cuestin importante. +Pero muchos habrn notado que hay un problema en este punto. Porque lleva mucho tiempo medir si se consiguen resultados o no. +As que tenemos que recaudar dinero. +Usamos el contrato para recaudar dinero de inversores con motivaciones sociales. +Inversores con motivaciones sociales: ah va una idea interesante, no? +Pero, en realidad, hay mucha gente a la que, si se le diera la oportunidad, le encantara invertir en cosas que contribuyen al bien social. +Y aqu est la oportunidad. +Quieres, tambin, ayudar al gobierno a averiguar si hay un mejor modelo econmico? No dejar a estos hombres salir de la crcel y esperar a que vuelvan a delinquir para encarcelarlos otra vez, sino trabajar con ellos para tomar un camino diferente que resulte en menos crmenes y menos vctimas? +As que encontramos algunos inversores que pagan por una serie de servicios, y si esos servicios tienen xito, entonces los resultados mejoran, y con estas reducciones calculadas del crimen el gobierno ahorra dinero, y con ese dinero pueden pagar los buenos resultados. +Y los inversores no se limitan a recuperar su dinero, sino que obtienen ganancias. +En marzo de 2010 firmamos el primer bono de impacto social con el Ministerio de Justicia en torno a la crcel de Peterborough. +Se iba a trabajar con 3000 criminales separados en 3 grupos de 1000 cada uno. +Cada uno de esos grupos sera evaluado durante 2 aos despus de salir de la crcel. +Tenan un ao para cometer los crmenes, 6 meses para pasar por el sistema judicial y despus los compararamos con un grupo, tan parecido como fuera posible, sacado de los ordenadores de la polica nacional, pero solo si conseguamos un mnimo de un 10 % de reduccin del crimen. Es decir, nos pagan por crmenes evitados. +Y si conseguimos esa reduccin +del 10 % en los 3 grupos, los inversores reciben un beneficio anual del 7,5 % de su inversin, y si lo hacemos todava mejor pueden recibir hasta un 13 % de beneficios anuales de su inversin. Lo cual no est mal. +As que todo el mundo gana, no? +El Ministerio de Justicia puede probar un programa nuevo y solo paga si funciona. +Los inversores tienen 2 oportunidades: por primera vez, pueden invertir en el cambio social. +Adems, consiguen ganancias razonables, y tambin saben que los primeros inversores en este tipo de cosas tienen que creer en la causa. +Va a tener que importarles el programa social, pero si se crea una trayectoria positiva en 5 o 10 aos, entonces podemos ampliar nuestra base de inversores a medida que ms gente confa en el producto. +Los proveedores de servicios tienen la oportunidad, por primera vez, de dar servicios y aportar pruebas de lo que estn haciendo de forma muy constructiva, y de aprender y de demostrar el valor de lo que estn haciendo en un perodo de 5 o 6 aos, no solo 1 o 2, como suele ocurrir ahora. +La sociedad gana: menos crmenes, menos vctimas. +Y los delincuentes tambin se benefician. +Y pensemos en otro ejemplo: trabajar con nios en sistemas de acogida. +Los bonos de impacto social funcionan muy bien en cualquier campo que, en este momento, resulte muy caro cubrir y produzca malos resultados para la gente. +A los nios en manos del gobierno tienden a irles las cosas muy mal. +Solo el 13 % ha conseguido un nivel razonable de educacin secundaria a los 16, frente al 58 % de la poblacin general. +Y lo que es ms preocupante, el 27 % de los delincuentes en prisin han pasado por programas de acogida. +Y todava ms preocupante, y esto es una estadstica del Ministerio de Interior, el 70 % de las prostitutas han pasado por programas de acogida. +El estado no es un gran padre. +Pero hay muchos programas muy buenos para adolescentes en riesgo de caer en estos programas y el 30 % de los nios que entran en estos programas son adolescentes. +As que iniciamos un programa con el concejo del condado de Essex para probar nuestro apoyo familiar teraputico intensivo con aquellas familias con adolescentes a punto de caer en el sistema de acogida. +Essex solo paga en el caso de que se les ahorren costes de acogida. +Los inversores han dado 3,1 millones de libras. +Este programa empez el mes pasado. +Otros, que se ocupan de las personas sin hogar en Londres, o de la juventud y el desempleo y la educacin en otros lugares del pas. +En este momento, en Inglaterra, hay 13 bonos de impacto social y unos niveles increbles de inters en esta idea por todo el mundo. +David Cameron ha invertido 20 millones de libras en un fondo social para apoyar esta idea. +Obama ha sugerido invertir 300 millones de dlares del presupuesto de EE.UU. para impulsar este tipo de ideas y estructuras, y muchos otros pases estn mostrando un inters considerable. +Pero, qu ha causado este inters? +Por qu le resulta tan diferente a la gente? +Bueno, el primer componente, del que ya hemos hablado es la innovacin. +Permite probar ideas nuevas de una forma menos difcil para todos. +El segundo componente es el rigor. +Como estamos orientados a los resultados, la gente tiene que analizar de verdad y aportar datos a la situacin en la que estn trabajando. +Y aprendemos y adaptamos el programa en consecuencia. +Y esto nos llevo al tercer elemento, que es nuevo, la flexibilidad. +Porque cuando te ests gastando dinero pblico haciendo contratos tradicionales, te ests gastando nuestro dinero, dinero de impuestos, y la gente que est a cargo es muy consciente de ello, as que la tendencia es controlar minuciosamente cmo se gasta. +Ahora bien, cualquier emprendedor en la sala sabe que la versin 1.0 del plan de negocios, no es la que suele funcionar. +As que cuando haces algo como esto, necesitas flexibilidad para adaptar el programa. +El ltimo elemento es la colaboracin. +En este momento contina surgiendo a menudo un antiguo debate en torno a muchos de estos programas: el estado es mejor, el sector pblico es mejor, el sector privado es mejor, el sector social es mejor. En realidad, para provocar un cambio social, necesitamos usar la experiencia de todos esos sectores para que esto funcione. +Y este proyecto crea un estructura a travs de la que pueden combinarse. +Dnde nos deja esto? +Nos deja con una manera que permite que la gente invierta en cambio social. +Hemos conocido miles, tal vez millones de personas, que quieren la oportunidad de invertir en el cambio social. +Hemos conocido a campeones por todas partes del sector pblico dispuestos a hacer la diferencia de esta manera. +Con este tipo de modelo podemos ayudar a ponerlos en contacto. +Gracias. +Tenemos un reto mundial relacionado con la salud en nuestras manos, hoy. Se trata de la manera como en la actualidad se descubren y se desarrollan nuevos medicamentos. Es demasiado costosa, toma muchsimo tiempo y lleva al fracaso la mayora de las veces. +Simplemente no funciona y eso quiere decir que los pacientes que necesitan con urgencia nuevos tratamientos, no los reciben. No se estn tratando esas enfermedades. +Parece que se est gastando ms y ms dinero. +Por los miles de millones de dlares que se gastan en investigacin y desarrollo, llegan al comercio cada vez menos medicamentos. +Ms dinero, menos medicamentos. Hmm. +Entonces qu est sucediendo? +Tenemos dos instrumentos principales a nuestra disposicin. +Son las clulas en cajas de Petri y los ensayos con animales. +Hablemos del primero; clulas en cajas de Petri. +Las clulas estn felices trabajando en el cuerpo. +Las tomamos y las arrancamos de su ambiente natural. Las arrojamos en uno de estas cajas y esperamos que funcionen igual. +Adivinen qu. No funcionan. +No les gusta el nuevo ambiente porque no es ni parecido a lo que tenan en el cuerpo. +Y qu pasa con los ensayos con animales? +Bueno, los animales pueden proporcionar informacin supremamente til, y as lo hacen. +Nos ensean lo que sucede en organismos complejos. +Aprendemos ms de la biologa misma. +Sin embargo, muy a menudo los modelos con animales no llegan a predecir lo que puede suceder en humanos al tratarlos con una medicina en particular. +Es decir, necesitamos mejores instrumentos. +Necesitamos clulas humanas, pero tenemos que encontrar la manera de mantenerlas felices por fuera del cuerpo. +Nuestro cuerpo es un ambiente dinmico. +Estamos en constante movimiento. +Las clulas lo perciben. +Estn en ambientes dinmicos dentro del cuerpo. +Estn sometidas a fuerzas mecnicas permanentemente. +Si las queremos felices fuera del cuerpo, tenemos que volvernos arquitectos para clulas. +Tenemos que disear, construir y armar un hogar fuera de su hogar, para las clulas. +Eso es lo que hemos hecho en el instituto ViS. +Lo llamamos, "rgano en un chip". +Aqu mismo tengo uno. +Hermoso, cierto? Pero es realmente increble. +Aqu mismo en mi mano est respirando, vivo, este pulmn humano en un chip. +No es solo hermoso. +Puede hacer muchsimas cosas. +Tenemos clulas vivas en ese pequeo chip, en un ambiente dinmico, interactuando con otros tipos de clulas. +Mucha gente ha tratado de cultivar clulas en el laboratorio. +Han ensayado diferentes maneras. +Incluso han tratado de cultivar pequeos mini-rganos en el laboratorio. +Nosotros no estamos tratando de hacerlo. +Simplemente tratamos de reproducir, en este pequeo chip, la unidad funcional ms pequea que representa la bioqumica, la funcin y las tensiones mecnicas que las clulas experimentan en el cuerpo. +Cmo funciona esto? Permtanme mostrarles. +Usamos tecnologa de la industria de chips para computadores para fabricar estas estructuras a escala que sean relevantes para las clulas y para el ambiente. +Tenemos tres canales fluidos. +En el centro hay una membrana porosa, flexible, a la que podemos aadirle clulas humanas, por ejemplo, de pulmn, y luego, por debajo, estn las clulas capilares, de los vasos sanguneos. +Entonces podemos aplicar fuerzas mecnicas al chip para estirar y contraer la membrana, de tal forma que las clulas experimenten las mismas fuerzas que en el pulmn cuando respiramos. +Las perciben igual que en el cuerpo humano. +Fluye aire por el canal superior y luego hacemos circular un lquido con nutrientes por el canal sanguneo. +El chip es verdaderamente hermoso, pero qu podemos hacer con l? +Se puede tener una funcionalidad increble dentro de estos pequeos chips. +Voy a mostrarles. +Por ejemplo, podramos simular una infeccin, aadiendo unas clulas bacteriales al pulmn +para luego aadirle glbulos blancos humanos. +Los glbulos blancos son la defensa corporal contra las bacterias invasoras. Cuando sienten la inflamacin producida por la infeccin, entran desde la sangre hasta el pulmn y engullen la bacteria. +Ahora vern cmo sucede esto en vivo, en un pulmn humano en un chip. +Hemos marcado los glbulos blancos para que puedan ver cmo se mueven y cuando detectan la infeccin empiezan a pegarse. +Se aglutinan y tratan de ir al lado del pulmn desde el canal de la sangre. +Pueden ver aqu realmente un glbulo blanco, solo. +Se pega, se mueve para avanzar entre las capas de clulas, por uno de los poros, sale al otro lado de la membrana, y ah mismo va a engullirse la bacteria, marcada en verde. +Ya Uds. han sido testigos, en ese diminuto chip de una de las respuestas fundamentales que el cuerpo tiene ante una infeccin. +Esta es la manera como reaccionamos... la respuesta inmunolgica. +Es bien emocionante. +Ahora compartir esta foto con Uds., no solo porque es hermosa, sino porque nos da una gran cantidad de informacin sobre lo que las clulas hacen dentro de los chips. +Nos estn diciendo que en los pequeos conductos de los pulmones, estn estas estructuras como pelitos, como pueden verse en el pulmn. +Esas estructuras se llaman "cilios" y se encargan de retirar el moco del pulmn. +S, moco. Ugh. +Pero el moco es en realidad bien importante, +porque atrapa partculas, virus, alergenos potenciales. Estos pequeos cilios se mueven y extraen el moco. +Cuando se deterioran, por ejemplo, por el humo del cigarrillo, no funcionan bien y no logran eliminar el moco. +Esto puede conducir a enfermedades como bronquitis. +Los cilios y la extraccin del moco tienen que ver con otras terribles enfermedades como la fibrosis qustica. +Pero ahora, con lo que hemos logrado con estos chips, podemos comenzar a buscar nuevos posibles tratamientos. +No hemos parado ah, con el pulmn en el chip. +Tenemos un intestino en un chip. +Aqu pueden verlo. +Hemos colocado clulas de intestino humano en este chip. Estn bajo constante movimiento peristltico, con este flujo por goteo. Podemos simular muchas de las funciones que pueden verse en el intestino humano. +Ahora podemos comenzar a crear modelos de enfermedades como el sndrome de colon irritable. +Esta es una enfermedad que afecta a muchas personas. +Es debilitante y en verdad no hay buenos tratamientos. +Ahora tenemos toda una gran fuente de diversos chips de rganos actualmente funcionando en el laboratorio. +La verdadera fuerza de esta tecnologa, sin embargo, realmente viene de la posibilidad de acoplarlos de manera fluida. +Hay un lquido que circula por estas clulas por lo que podemos comenzar a interconectar muchos chips diferentes para conformar lo que llamamos un "humano virtual en un chip". +Esto nos emociona. +Jams vamos a recrear todo un cuerpo humano en estos chips, pero nuestro propsito es poder llegar a una suficiente funcionalidad como para hacer mejores predicciones de lo que puede suceder en humanos de verdad. +Por ejemplo, podemos comenzar a explorar lo que pasa cuando ponemos una medicina en aerosol. +Algunos de Uds. que tienen asma como yo, tienen que usar inhaladores. Se puede ahora examinar cmo opera ese medicamento en los pulmones, cmo entra al cuerpo y cmo puede afectar el corazn, por ejemplo. +Podr cambiar el ritmo del corazn? +Ser txico? +Sera filtrado por el hgado? +Se metabolizar en el hgado? +Se eliminar en los riones? +Podremos comenzar a estudiar la respuesta dinmica del cuerpo ante cierta medicina. +Esto podr causar una revolucin y cambiar las reglas del juego, no solo en la industria farmacutica, sino en una cantidad de otras industrias, incluida la de los cosmticos. +Es posible que podamos usar piel en un chip que estamos desarrollando en el laboratorio, ahora, para probar si los ingredientes de los productos que estn en uso en la actualidad, son suficientemente seguros para la piel sin necesidad de hacer ensayos en animales. +Podemos investigar la seguridad de los productos qumicos a los que nos exponemos diariamente en el ambiente, tales como los que estn en detergentes comunes para el hogar. +Podremos usar esos rganos en chips para aplicaciones en bioterrorismo o exposicin a la radiacin. +Podemos usarlos para conocer ms de enfermedades como el bola o algunas otras mortales como el SARS (sndrome respiratorio agudo severo), +Los rganos en chips pueden cambiar la manera de hacer ensayos clnicos en el futuro. +En la actualidad, el participante promedio en un ensayo clnico es eso mismo; promedio. +La tendencia es que tenga edad media, que sea mujer. +No se encuentran muchos estudios clnicos en los que se incluyan nios, y sin embargo les damos medicinas a los nios todo el tiempo, solo con informacin de seguridad sobre sus efectos en adultos. +Los nios no son adultos. +Pueden no responder de la misma manera que los adultos. +Hay otros aspectos, como las diferencias genticas en poblaciones, que pueden llevar a situaciones de riesgo en ciertos grupos o que podran llevar a reacciones adversas. +Pueden imaginarse que tomamos clulas de esos diferentes grupos poblacionales, las ponemos en chips, y obtenemos poblaciones en chips. +Esto puede verdaderamente cambiar la manera de hacer pruebas clnicas. +Este es el grupo de personas que estn haciendo todo esto. +Tenemos ingenieros, bilogos celulares, mdicos clnicos, todos trabajando en equipo. +Estamos presenciando algo realmente increble en el Instituto ViS. +Es una verdadera convergencia de disciplinas, en la que la biologa est influenciando nuestra manera de disear, de planificar, de construir. +Es bien emocionante. +Estamos estableciendo importantes colaboraciones con industrias, tales como la que tenemos con una compaa experta en fabricacin digital a gran escala. +Nos van a ayudar a hacer, no uno de estos, sino millones de estos chips, para ponerlos en manos de tantos investigadores como sea posible. +Esta es la clave del potencial de esta tecnologa. +Permtanme que les muestre nuestro instrumento. +Este es el instrumento que nuestros ingenieros van a producir en forma de prototipo en el laboratorio, que nos va a proporcionar los controles tcnicos necesarios para interconectar 10 o ms rganos en chips. +Tambin puede hacer algo ms, muy importante. +Crear una interfaz de fcil uso para el usuario. +De modo que un bilogo celular como yo, puede entrar, tomar un chip, ponerlo en un cartucho, como el prototipo que aqu vemos, poner el cartucho en la mquina, como si fuera un disco CD, y listo! +Plug and play. As no ms, +Ahora imaginemos brevemente lo que se ver en el futuro si se logra tomar clulas madre y se colocan en un chip, tus clulas madre en un chip. +Sera un chip personalizado solo tuyo. +Todos nosotros, aqu, somos individuos, con diferencias importantes que implican que podemos reaccionar de distintas maneras y algunas veces de forma impredecible, ante ciertas medicinas. +Yo misma, hace un par de aos, tuve un dolor cabeza muy fuerte, que no poda quitrmelo. Pens, "Bien, probar algo diferente". +Tom Advil y quince minutos despus, iba en camino a la sala de emergencias con un tremendo ataque de asma. +Bueno, obviamente no fue fatal. Pero desafortunadamente, algunos casos de reacciones negativas a los medicamentos, pueden ser fatales. +Cmo los podemos prevenir? +Bueno, podemos pensar en que algn da tengamos a Geraldine en un chip, a Danielle en un chip, a Ud. en un chip. +Medicina personalizada. Gracias. +Cuando hago mi trabajo, la gente me odia. +De hecho, cuanto mejor hago mi trabajo, ms gente me odia. +Y no, no soy agente de trfico y tampoco soy empresaria de una funeraria. +Soy una presentadora lesbiana progresiva en Fox News. As que oyeron eso, verdad? Para asegurarnos, s? +Soy una presentadora gay en Fox News. +Les dir cmo lo hago y lo ms importante que he aprendido. +As que voy a la televisin. +Debato con personas que literalmente quieren destruir todo en lo que creo, en algunos casos, quienes incluso no quieren que existan personas como yo. +Es una especie de Accin de Gracias con su to conservador con esteroides, con una audiencia de millones en directo por televisin. +Es casi como aqu. +Y eso es solo en el aire. +El correo de odio que recibo es increble. +Sin ir ms lejos, la semana pasada me enviaron 238 correos desagradables y tanto odio en los tuits que ni siquiera se los puedo explicar. +Me llamaron idiota, traidora, palo, perra y hombre feo. Y eso solo en un nico correo. +De qu me he dado cuenta, al recibir toda esta fealdad? +Bueno, la conclusin ms importante es que durante dcadas, nos hemos centrado en la correccin poltica, pero lo ms importante es correccin emocional. +Djenme darles un pequeo ejemplo. +No me importa si me llaman "tortillera". +Sin embargo, s me importan dos cosas. +Primero, que se escriba correctamente la palabra. +Tortillera con "ll" y no con "y". +Se sorprenderan. +Y segundo, no me importa la palabra, me importa cmo se use. +Est siendo amable? Simplemente es ingenuo? +O realmente quiere hacerme dao? +Correccin emocional es el tono, el sentimiento, cmo decimos lo que decimos, el respeto y la compasin que nos mostramos recprocamente. +Y de lo que me he dado cuenta es de que la persuasin poltica no comienza con ideas, hechos o datos. +La persuasin poltica comienza con ser emocionalmente correcto. +As que cuando fui por primera vez a trabajar a Fox News, confesin verdadera, me imaginaba que haba marcas en la alfombra de hombres de las cavernas. +Que, por cierto, en caso de que estn prestando atencin, eso no es emocionalmente correcto. +Pero los liberales de mi parte, podemos ser moralistas, podemos ser condescendientes, podemos ser despectivos con quien no est de acuerdo con nosotros. +En otras palabras, podemos ser polticamente correctos pero emocionalmente incorrectos. +Y por cierto, eso significa que no gustamos a la gente, verdad? +Y he aqu lo impactante. +Los conservadores son realmente agradables. +Quiero decir, no todos ellos, y no los que me envan correos llenos de odio, pero se sorprenderan. +Sean Hannity es uno de los tipos ms dulces que he conocido. +Pasa su tiempo libre tratando de arreglar a su personal en citas a ciegas, y s que si alguna vez tuviera un problema, l hara todo lo posible para ayudar. +No obstante, creo que Sean Hannity est en un 99 % polticamente equivocado. Pero su correccin emocional es increblemente impresionante, y por eso la gente lo escucha. +Porque uno no podr hacer que concuerden con uno si primero ni siquiera alguien le escucha a uno. +Pasamos mucho tiempo hablando sin entendernos y no el suficiente hablando de nuestros desacuerdos, y si empezamos a encontrar compasin por el otro, entonces tenemos la oportunidad de construir en comn. +En realidad suena muy cursi dicindolo aqu, pero al intentar ponerlo en prctica, es muy potente. +As, si alguien dice que odia a los inmigrantes, intento imaginar cunto miedo debe sentir de que su comunidad trasforme lo que siempre haba conocido. +O alguien que dice que no les gustan los sindicatos de maestros... Apuesto a que est realmente desolado de ver la escuela de su hijo en la cuneta, y solo est buscando alguien a quien culpar. +Nuestro desafo es encontrar la compasin por los dems que queremos que nos den a nosotros. +Es correccin emocional. +No estoy diciendo que sea fcil. +Un promedio de 5,6 veces al da tengo que parar de responder a todos mis mails llenos de viles insultos. +Todo este afn de encontrar compasin y afinidades con los enemigos es algo as como una prctica poltica-espiritual para m, y no soy el Dalai Lama. +No soy perfecta, pero lo que s soy es optimista, porque no solo recibo correos llenos de odio. +Recibo un montn de cartas muy amables. +Y una de mis favoritas de todas a travs del tiempo comienza, "No soy un gran seguidor de sus inclinaciones polticas ni de su lgica a veces retorcida, pero soy un gran seguidor de Ud. como persona". +No obstante, este hombre no est de acuerdo conmigo. +Pero l est escuchando, no por lo que digo, sino por cmo lo digo, y de alguna manera, aunque no nos conocemos, hemos establecido una conexin. +Eso es correccin emocional, y es as cmo comenzaremos las conversaciones que de verdad conseguirn el cambio. +Gracias. +(Ruidos acuticos) Este video fue filmado en el laboratorio submarino Aquarius que se encuentra a 6,4 km de la costa de Cayo Largo, a unos 18 metros bajo la superficie. +La NASA usa este ambiente extremo para entrenar astronautas y buzos, y el ao pasado fuimos invitados a participar. +Toda la secuencia fue filmada por nuestro robot abierto, un robot que construimos en nuestro garaje; +un vehculo a control remoto, que en nuestro caso significa que nuestro pequeo robot enva video en directo a travs de este conector ultradelgado a la computadora en la superficie. +Es de cdigo abierto, lo que significa que nosotros publicamos y compartimos todos nuestros archivos y todo nuestro cdigo en lnea, lo que permite a cualquiera modificar, mejorar o cambiar el diseo. +Est construido en su mayora con piezas en serie y es 1000 veces ms barato que los robots que us James Cameron para explorar el Titanic. +No son algo nuevo. +Existen desde hace dcadas. +Los cientficos usan robots teledirigidos para explorar ocanos. +Las compaas de petrleo y de gas los usan para exploracin y construccin. +El nuestro, no es nico. +Lo que lo hace realmente nico es la forma en que lo hicimos. +Quiero contarles brevemente cmo comenz este proyecto. +Hace unos aos, mi amigo Eric y yo decidimos explorar esta cueva submarina en las estribaciones de las Sierras. +Habamos odo la historia del oro perdido de un robo ocurrido en la fiebre del oro, y queramos ir hasta all. +Desgraciadamente, no tenamos dinero ni herramientas para hacerlo. +Eric haba hecho un diseo inicial para un robot, pero no tenamos el cuadro completo de la situacin, as que hicimos lo que hara cualquiera en nuestra situacin: pedimos ayuda en Internet. +Continuamos trabajando. Aprendimos muchas cosas. +Seguimos construyendo prototipos y, al final, decidimos ir a la cueva. Estbamos listos. +En ese momento, nuestra pequea expedicin era noticia y la cubri The New York Times. +En pocas palabras, quedamos abrumados por el inters de la gente que quera un kit para construir su propio robot. +Decidimos publicar el proyecto en Kickstarter, y al hacerlo, llegamos a nuestra meta financiera en un par de horas, y, de repente, tenamos el dinero para construir estos kits. +Pero luego tuvimos que aprender a hacerlos. +Es decir, tuvimos que aprender a fabricar pequeos lotes. +Rpidamente nos dimos cuenta de que el garaje no era lo suficientemente grande para acomodar nuestro creciente negocio. +Pero lo logramos. Hicimos todos los kits, gracias en gran parte a TechShop, que fue de gran ayuda, y enviamos los kits por todo el mundo justo antes de la Navidad pasada, es decir, hace apenas unos meses. +Pero ya estamos empezando a recibir videos y fotos de todo el mundo, incluyendo esta imagen tomada bajo el hielo en la Antrtida. +Tambin aprendimos que los pinginos aman los robots. +Seguimos subiendo todos los diseos en Internet para animar a la gente a construirse uno. +Solo as podamos hacerlo. +Al ser de cdigo abierto, hemos creado esta red distribuida de investigacin y desarrollo, y estamos creciendo ms rpido que cualquier otra entidad de capital riesgo. +Pero el robot en s es solo la mitad de la historia. +El verdadero potencial, el potencial a largo plazo, est en esta comunidad de exploradores "hogareos" del ocano, que est surgiendo en todo el mundo. +Qu podemos descubrir con miles de estos dispositivos deambulando por los mares? +Probablemente se estn preguntando: Y la cueva? +Encontraron el oro? +Bueno, no encontramos oro, pero lo que encontramos fue mucho ms valioso: +la visin de un futuro potencial para la exploracin del ocano. +No es algo reservado a los James Cameron del mundo, sino algo en lo que todos podemos participar. +Es un mundo submarino que exploramos juntos. +Gracias. +La movilidad en las ciudades de pases en desarrollo es un reto muy peculiar, ya que a diferencia de la salud o la educacin o la vivienda, tiende a empeorar al ir enriquecindose la sociedad. +Claramente, un modelo insostenible. +La movilidad, como la mayora de los problemas de los pases en desarrollo, ms que una cuestin de dinero o tecnologa, es una cuestin de igualdad, equidad. +La gran desigualdad en los pases en desarrollo hace difcil ver, por ejemplo, en trminos de transporte, que una ciudad avanzada no es una en la que hasta los pobres tienen auto, sino una en la que incluso los ricos usan el transporte pblico. +O las bicicletas: en msterdam, por ejemplo, ms del 30% de la poblacin usa bicicletas a pesar de que Holanda tiene una renta per cpita mayor que la de EE. UU. +Existe un conflicto en las ciudades del mundo en desarrollo por el dinero, por la inversin gubernamental. +Si se invierte ms en autopistas, por supuesto hay menos dinero para viviendas, escuelas, hospitales, y hay tambin un conflicto por el espacio. +Hay un conflicto por el espacio entre aquellos con y sin auto. +La mayora de nosotros aceptamos hoy da que la propiedad privada y la economa de mercados es el mejor modo de administrar los recursos sociales. +Sin embargo, existe un problema: la economa de mercado necesita desigualdad de ingresos para funcionar. +Algunas personas han de hacer ms dinero, y otras menos. +Algunas empresas han de triunfar y otras fracasar. +Entonces, qu clase de igualdad podemos esperar hoy con una economa de mercado? +Yo propondra dos que tienen mucho que ver con las ciudades. +La primera es la igualdad en la calidad de vida, especialmente para los nios, calidad que todos los nios deberan tener, ms all de las evidentes salud y educacin, acceso a espacios verdes, instalaciones deportivas, piscinas, clases de msica. +Y el segundo tipo de igualdad es lo que podramos llamar "igualdad democrtica". +El primer artculo de toda constitucin afirma que todos los ciudadanos son iguales ante la ley. +Eso no es simple poesa. +Es un principio muy poderoso. +Por ejemplo, si eso es cierto, un autobs con 80 pasajeros tiene el derecho a 80 veces ms espacio de carretera que un auto con uno. +Nos hemos acostumbrado tanto a la desigualdad que, a veces, est delante de nuestras narices y no la vemos. +Hace menos de 100 aos, las mujeres no podan votar y eso pareca normal, del mismo modo que hoy en da nos lo parece ver a un autobs en mitad del trfico. +De hecho, cuando fui alcalde, aplicando ese principio democrtico de que el bien pblico prevalece sobre el inters privado, que un autobs con 100 personas tiene derecho a 100 veces ms espacio que un auto, aplicamos un sistema de trnsito masivo basado en carriles exclusivos para autobuses. +Lo llamamos TransMilenio para hacerlo ms sexy. +Y es tambin un smbolo democrtico hermoso, porque mientras los autobuses pasan zumbando, los autos caros estn atascados en mitad del trfico. Es casi un dibujo de la democracia en funcionamiento. +De hecho, no es simplemente cuestin de equidad. +No se necesita un doctorado. +Un comit de nios de 12 aos averiguara en 20 minutos que el modo ms eficiente de utilizar el escaso espacio de carreteras es con carriles exclusivos para autobuses. +En realidad, los autobuses no son sexy, pero son el nico medio posible de llevar el transporte masivo a todas las zonas de las ciudades en desarrollo en rpido crecimiento. +Tambin poseen gran capacidad. +Por ejemplo, este sistema en Guangzhou desplaza a ms pasajeros que todas las lneas de metro de China, salvo una en Pekn, con una fraccin del costo. +Peleamos no solo por espacio para los autobuses, sino por espacio para las personas, y eso era an ms difcil. +Las ciudades son el hbitat humano y nosotros los humanos somos peatones. +Igual que los peces necesitan nadar y los pjaros volar, o los ciervos necesitan correr, nosotros necesitamos andar. +Existe un conflicto verdaderamente enorme, cuando hablamos de ciudades de pases en desarrollo, entre los peatones y los autos. +Lo que ven aqu es una imagen que muestra una democracia insuficiente. +Lo que muestra es que las personas que caminan son ciudadanos de tercera clase mientras que los que van en auto son ciudadanos de primera clase. +En trminos de infraestructura de transporte, lo que realmente marca la diferencia entre ciudades avanzadas y retrasadas no son las autopistas o los metros sino las aceras de calidad. +Aqu hicieron un paso elevado, bastante intil probablemente, y olvidaron hacer una acera. +Esto predomina en todo el mundo. +Ni siquiera los chicos que van a la escuela importan ms que los coches. +En mi ciudad, Bogot, peleamos una dura batalla para quitarle espacio a los autos, que llevaban dcadas estacionados en las aceras, y hacer sitio para las personas, lo que debera reflejar la dignidad de los seres humanos, y para hacer sitio para carriles de bicicletas protegidos. +Primero, no tena canas antes de todo eso. +Y casi fui desacreditado en el proceso. +Es una batalla muy difcil. +Sin embargo, finalmente fue posible, tras batallas muy duras, crear una ciudad que reflejase algn respeto por la dignidad humana, que mostrase que quienes caminan son igual de importantes que quienes tienen auto. +De hecho, un cuestin ideolgica y poltica muy importante es cmo distribuir el recurso ms valioso de una ciudad, que es el espacio de carreteras. +Una ciudad podra encontrar petrleo o diamantes bajo el suelo y no seran tan valiosos como el espacio de carreteras. +Cmo distribuirlo entre peatones, bicicletas, transporte pblico y autos? +No es una cuestin tecnolgica, y debemos recordar al hacer esa distribucin que en ninguna constitucin existe el derecho constitucional a estacionar. +Tambin construimos, hace 15 aos, antes de los carriles de bicicletas de Nueva York, Pars o Londres, y fue una batalla difcil tambin, ms de 350 km de carriles de bicicletas protegidos. +No creo que los carriles de bicicletas protegidos sean un hermoso elemento arquitectnico. +Son un derecho, igual que las aceras, a no ser que creamos que solo aquellos con acceso a un vehculo de motor tienen derecho a una movilidad segura sin correr el riesgo de morir. +Y del mismo modo que los carriles de buses los carriles de bicicletas protegidos son tambin un poderoso smbolo democrtico, porque muestran que un ciudadano con una bicicleta de $30, es tan importante como uno en un auto de $30 000. +Y estamos viviendo un momento nico en la historia. +En los prximos 50 aos, se construirn ms de la mitad de las ciudades que existirn en el ao 2060. +En muchos pases en desarrollo, ms del 80% y del 90% de las ciudades que existirn en 2060 se construirn en las prximas 4 o 5 dcadas. +Pero esto no concierne solo a las ciudades de pases en desarrollo. +En EE. UU., por ejemplo, se construirn ms de 70 millones de viviendas nuevas en los prximos 40 o 50 aos. +Esas son ms que todas las viviendas que hoy existen en Gran Bretaa, Francia y Canad juntas. +Y creo que nuestras ciudades de hoy da tienen fallas graves, y que podran construirse otras diferentes y mejores. +Qu tienen de malo las ciudades actuales? +Bueno, por ejemplo, si le decimos a un nio de 3 aos que est aprendiendo a hablar en cualquier ciudad del mundo, "Cuidado! Un auto!" El nio reaccionar asustado y con una buena razn, pues ms de 10 mil nios mueren atropellados cada ao en el mundo. +Hemos tenido ciudades por ms de 8 mil aos, y los nios podan salir de casa a jugar. +De hecho, hasta hace poco, hacia 1900, no haba coches. +En realidad, los coches llevan con nosotros menos de 100 aos. +Y cambiaron las ciudades por completo. +En 1900, por ejemplo, nadie muri atropellado en EE. UU. +Solo 20 aos despus, entre 1920 y 1930, casi 200 mil personas murieron atropelladas en EE. UU. +Solo en 1935, casi 7000 nios murieron atropellados en EE. UU. +As que podramos construir ciudades diferentes, ciudades que diesen ms prioridad a los seres humanos que a los autos; que den ms espacio pblico a los seres humanos que a los autos, ciudades que muestren gran respeto por los ciudadanos ms vulnerables, como los nios o los ancianos. +Les propondr un par de ingredientes que creo haran las ciudades mucho mejores, y que sera muy fcil de aplicar en las nuevas ciudades que se estn construyendo. +Cientos de kilmetros de espacios verdes atravesando las ciudades en todas direcciones. +Los nios saldran de casa a lugares seguros. +Podran caminar seguros por docenas de kilmetros, sin riesgos, por maravillosos espacios verdes, algo as como autopistas para bicicletas, y les invito a que imaginen lo siguiente: una ciudad en la que entre dos calles para autos hubiese una solo para peatones y bicicletas. +En las nuevas ciudades por construir esto no sera especialmente difcil. +Cuando fui alcalde de Bogot, en solo 3 aos pudimos construir 70 km, en una de las ciudades ms pobladas del mundo, de estas autopistas para bicicletas. +Y esto cambia el modo en que la gente vive, se mueve y disfruta de la ciudad. +En esta imagen pueden ver cmo en uno de los barrios ms pobres tenemos una lujosa calle peatonal y un carril de bicicletas y los autos an estn el barro. +Por supuesto, me encantara asfaltar esta calle para los autos. +Pero qu hacemos primero? +El 99% de la gente en esos barrios no tiene auto. +Pero pueden ver que cuando se empieza a construir una ciudad es muy fcil incorporar este tipo de infraestructura. +La ciudad crece alrededor de ella. +Y por supuesto, esto es solo un atisbo de algo que podra ser mucho mejor si llegamos a hacerlo y que cambia el estilo de vida. +El segundo ingrediente, que solucionara la movilidad, ese reto dificilsimo en los pases en desarrollo, de un modo sencillo y de bajo costo, sera tener cientos de kilmetros de carriles solo para autobuses; autobuses, bicicletas y peatones. +Repito, sera un solucin de muy bajo costo si la aplicamos desde el principio. Un transporte agradable, de bajo costo y con luz natural. +Pero, desafortunadamente, la realidad no es tan buena como en mis sueos. +Debido a la propiedad privada de la tierra y a los altos precios del terreno, todos los pases en desarrollo tienen un gran problema de barrios pobres. +En mi pas, Colombia, casi las mitad de las viviendas en las ciudades fueron inicialmente asentamientos ilegales. +Y por supuesto es muy difcil tener transporte masivo o usar bicicletas en esas zonas. +Pero incluso los asentamientos legales se han situado en los lugares equivocados, muy lejos del centro de las ciudades, en los que es imposible proporcionar transporte pblico con alta frecuencia y barato. +De este modo, las ciudades creceran en las zonas adecuadas, con los espacios adecuados, con parques, con espacios verdes, con carriles para buses. +Las ciudades que construiremos en los prximos 50 aos determinarn la calidad de vida e incluso la felicidad de miles de millones de personas en el futuro. +Qu gran oportunidad para los lderes y los lderes jvenes del futuro, especialmente en los pases en desarrollo. +Pueden crear una vida mucho ms feliz para miles de millones de personas. +Estoy seguro, soy optimista en esto, que construirn ciudades incluso mejores que las de nuestros sueos ms ambiciosos. +Hace un par de aos, la Escuela de Negocios de Harvard eligi el mejor modelo de negocio de ese ao. +Eligi a la piratera somal. +Ms o menos al mismo tiempo, descubr que haba 544 marineros como rehenes en barcos, a menudo anclados frente a la costa somal a plena vista. +Supe de estos 2 hechos y pens: qu ocurre en el transporte martimo? +Me pregunt: podra ocurrir esto en otra industria? +Veramos 544 pilotos de avin cautivos en sus aviones jumbo en una pista durante meses o un ao? +Veramos 544 conductores de bus? +Eso no ocurrira. +Qued intrigada. +Y descubr otro hecho para m ms sorprendente quiz porque a los 42, 43 aos an no lo saba. +Y es la fuerte dependencia que tenemos del transporte martimo. +Porque quiz el pblico piensa que el transporte martimo es anticuado, algo de los barcos a vela de Moby Dicks y Jack Sparrows. +Pero no lo es. +El transporte martimo es tan crucial ahora como antes. +El transporte martimo mueve el 90 % del comercio mundial. +Se ha cuadruplicado desde 1970. +Hoy dependemos del mismo ms que nunca. +Y a pesar de ser una industria enorme con 100 000 naves surcando los mares se ha vuelto casi invisible. +Resulta absurdo decir esto en Singapur, porque aqu el transporte martimo est tan presente que hasta ponen un barco en la cima de un hotel. +Pero en el resto del mundo, si uno pregunta al pblico qu sabe del transporte martimo y cunto se transporta por el mar, no sabrn qu responder. +Si le preguntamos a alguien en la calle si conoce a Microsoft, +creo que dirn que s porque sabrn que hace software que va en las computadoras, y que a veces funciona. +Pero si preguntan si conocen a Maersk dudo que tengan la misma respuesta, aunque Maersk, que es solo una transportadora martima entre muchas tiene ganancias similares a las de Microsoft. +[USD 60 200 millones] A qu se debe? +Hace unos aos el jefe del almirantazgo britnico se lo llama primer seor del mar, aunque al jefe del ejrcito no se le llama seor de la tierra l dijo que nosotros, y quiso decir las naciones industrializadas de Occidente, padecemos ceguera del mar. +Somos ciegos al mar como lugar de industria o de trabajo. +Es algo que sobrevolamos, una mancha azul en el mapa de una lnea area. +Nada para ver, sigamos adelante. +Quera abrir los ojos a mi propia ceguera al mar, por eso me hice a la mar. +Hace un par de aos zarp en el Maersk Kendal, un barco de contenedores mediano que lleva unas 7000 cajas. Part desde Felixstowe, en la costa sur de Inglaterra, y termin justo aqu en Singapur, 5 semanas despus, mucho menos descompensada que ahora. +Y fue una revelacin. +Navegamos 5 mares, 2 ocanos, 9 puertos y aprend mucho sobre el transporte. +Y una de las primeras cosas que me sorprendieron cuando llegu a bordo del Kendal fue, dnde est la gente? +Tengo amigos en la Armada que me dicen que viajan con 1000 marineros a la vez, pero en el Kendal hay solo 21 tripulantes. +Se debe a que el transporte martimo es muy eficiente. +El uso de contenedores ha hecho que sea muy eficiente. +Hoy las naves estn automatizadas. +Pueden operar con tripulaciones pequeas. +La mayora de los marineros que trabajan en barcos de contenedores a menudo pasan menos de 2 horas en el puerto. +No tienen tiempo para relajarse. +Estn en el mar durante meses, e incluso cuando estn a bordo, no tienen acceso a lo que un nio de 5 aos dara por descontado, Internet. +En la otra mesa haba un chino, y en la sala de la tripulacin, todos eran filipinos. +Era una nave normal de trabajo. +Cmo es posible? +Debido a los drsticos cambios que experiment el transporte en los ltimos 60 aos, algo que pas inadvertido para el pblico fue el llamado "registro abierto", o "bandera de conveniencia". +Los barcos pueden llevar la bandera de cualquier nacin que provea un registro de bandera. +Pueden conseguir bandera de una nacin sin salida al mar como Bolivia, Mongolia o Corea del Norte, aunque no sea muy popular. +Por eso tenemos esos barcos multinacionales mundiales, con tripulacin mvil. +Y eso me sorprendi. +Y cuando llegamos a aguas piratas, en el estrecho de Bab-el-Mandeb y en el Ocano ndico, el barco cambi. +Y eso tambin fue sorprendente, porque, de repente, me di cuenta, cuando me lo dijo el capitn, de que fue una locura eso de entrar en aguas piratas en un barco de contenedores. +Ya no podamos permanecer en cubierta. +Haba 2 turnos de guardia. +En ese momento haban secuestrado a esos 544 marineros, y algunos fueron tomados como rehenes durante aos por la naturaleza del transporte y la bandera de conveniencia. +No todos, pero algunos lo eran, porque para una minora de propietarios de buques inescrupulosos, puede ser fcil ocultarse detrs del anonimato que ofrecen algunas banderas de conveniencia. +Qu ms oculta nuestra ignorancia sobre el mar? +Bueno, si salen al mar en un barco o en un crucero, y miran la chimenea, vern un humo muy negro. +Y eso se debe a que los barcos tienen mrgenes muy estrechos y quieren combustible barato, por eso usan algo llamado fuelleo que me describieron en el sector petrolero como la escoria de la refinera, solo un paso encima del asfalto. +Y el transporte martimo es el mtodo ms ecolgico. +En materia de emisiones de carbono emite una milsima parte respecto de la aviacin y cerca de un dcimo del transporte terrestre. +Pero no es benigno, porque hay mucho transporte martimo. +Las emisiones del transporte martimo son del 3 % al 4 %, casi igual que la aviacin. +Y si ponen las emisiones del transporte martimo en una lista con las emisiones de carbono por pases, estara en 6 lugar, cerca de Alemania. +Se calcul en 2009 que los 15 barcos ms grandes contaminan en trminos de partculas, holln y gases nocivos tanto como todos los autos del mundo. +Y la buena noticia es que la gente est hablando de un transporte martimo sustentable. +Hay iniciativas interesantes. +Pero por qu ha demorado tanto? +Cundo empezaremos a hablar y pensar en las millas martimas, al igual que en las millas areas? +Tambin viaj a Cape Cod para ver la difcil situacin de la ballena franca del Atlntico Norte, porque esto para m fue una de las cosas ms sorprendentes del tiempo que pas en el mar, y algo que me ha hecho reflexionar. +Conocemos el impacto del hombre sobre el ocano en materia de pesca y sobrepesca, pero no sabemos mucho sobre lo que est sucediendo bajo el agua. +De hecho, el transporte martimo juega un papel importante porque su ruido ha contribuido a daar los hbitats acsticos de las criaturas del ocano. +La luz no penetra bajo la superficie del agua, por eso los animales marinos como las ballenas, los delfines y 800 especies de peces se comunican con el sonido. +Y una ballena franca del Atlntico Norte puede transmitir a travs de cientos de kilmetros. +La jorobada puede transmitir un sonido por todo el ocano. +Pero un superpetrolero tambin puede ser escuchado en todo el ocano, y como el ruido que hacen las hlices bajo el agua a veces tiene la misma frecuencia que usan las ballenas, entonces pueden daar su hbitat acstico, el cual necesitan para reproducirse, para encontrar alimentos, para encontrar pareja. +Y el hbitat acstico de la ballena franca del Atlntico Norte se ha reducido en un 90 %. +Pero an no hay leyes que regulen la contaminacin acstica. +Y cuando llegu a Singapur, pido disculpas por esto, pero no quera bajar de mi barco. +Me encant estar a bordo del Kendal. +La tripulacin me trat muy bien, el capitn era locuaz y entretenido, y con gusto habra firmado por otras 5 semanas. Tambin por esto el capitn dijo que estaba loca de solo pensarlo. +Pero no estaba all 9 meses por vez como los marinos filipinos, que, cuando les ped que me describieran su trabajo, dijeron "dinero por nostalgia". +Tenan buenos salarios, pero sus vidas siguen siendo aisladas y difciles en un ambiente peligroso y a menudo difcil. +Pero cuando llego a esta parte, siento una ambigedad, porque quiero saludar a esos marineros que nos dan el 90 % de todo y a cambio reciben muy poco reconocimiento. +Quiero saludar a los 100 000 barcos que estn en altamar haciendo ese trabajo, yendo y viniendo cada da, trayndonos lo que necesitamos. +Pero tambin quiero que el transporte martimo y nosotros, el pblico, que sabemos muy poco de esto, controlemos un poco ms, que sea un poco ms transparente, que tenga un 90 % de transparencia. +Porque creo que todos podramos beneficiarnos de hacer algo muy simple, que es aprender a ver el mar. +Gracias. +Me gustara mostrarles como me ha ayudado la arquitectura a cambiar la vida de mi comunidad y me ha abierto oportunidades hacia la esperanza. +Nac en Burkina Faso. +Segn el Banco Mundial, Burkina Faso es uno de los pases ms pobres del mundo, pero, cmo es crecer en un lugar como este? +Soy un ejemplo de eso. +Nac en un pequeo pueblo llamado Gando. +En Gando no haba electricidad, acceso a agua potable limpia, ni escuelas. +Pero mi padre quera que aprendiera a leer y escribir. +Por esta razn, tuve que dejar a mi familia a los 7 aos y quedarme en una ciudad bastante lejos de mi pueblo sin ningn contacto con mi familia. +En aquel lugar estuve sentado en un saln como ese con ms de 150 nios, durante ms de 6 aos. +En ese tiempo, un da fui a la escuela y me di cuenta de que mi compaero de clases haba muerto. +Hoy en da no ha cambiado mucho. +An no hay electricidad en mi pueblo. +La gente sigue muriendo en Burkina Faso, y el acceso a agua potable limpia es an un gran problema. +Tuve suerte. Tuve suerte, porque esto es una realidad cuando creces en un lugar como ese. +Pero tuve suerte. +Obtuve una beca. +Pude ir a Alemania a estudiar. +As que supongo que ahora no necesito explicarles qu tan grande es el privilegio de estar hoy frente a Uds. +Desde Gando, mi pueblo natal en Burkina Faso, a Berln en Alemania para ser arquitecto es un gran paso, un gran, gran paso. +Pero, qu hago con este privilegio? +Desde que era estudiante quera brindar mejores oportunidades a otros nios en Gando. +Solo quera usar mis habilidades y construir una escuela. +Pero, cmo hacerlo cuando an eres solo un estudiante y no tienes dinero? +Por supuesto, empec a hacer diseos y a recolectar dinero +Recaudar fondos no fue un trabajo fcil. +Hasta les peda a mis compaeros que gastaran menos dinero en caf y cigarrillos, y patrocinaran mi proyecto escolar. +Asombrosamente, 2 aos despus, pude recolectar USD 50 000. +Cuando regres a mi hogar en Gando para dar las buenas nuevas, mi gente saltaba de alegra, pero cuando se dieron cuenta de que estaba planeando usar arcilla se quedaron paralizados. +"Un edificacin de arcilla no puede sostenerse en invierno, y Francis quiere que lo usemos para construir una escuela. +Para eso pas tanto tiempo estudiando en Europa en vez de ayudarnos a labrar la tierra?" +Mi gente construa todo el tiempo con arcilla, y ellos no vean innovacin alguna en la tierra. +As que tuve que convencer a todo el mundo. +Empec a hablar con la comunidad, y pude convencerlos, y pudimos empezar a trabajar. +Mujeres, hombres, y todos en el pueblo, eran parte del proceso de construccin. +Poda incluso usar tcnicas tradicionales. +Como el piso de arcilla, por ejemplo, los jvenes llegaban y se paraban as, golpeando, hora tras hora, y luego llegaban sus madres, y golpeaban de esta manera durante horas; poniendo agua y golpeando. +Y luego llegaban los pulidores. +Empezaban a pulir con piedras durante horas. +Y luego se obtena este resultado, bien pulido, como las nalgas de un beb. +No es PhotoShop. Esta es la escuela, construida con la comunidad. +Las paredes fueron completamente construidas en bloques de arcilla comprimida de Gando. +La estructura del techo se hizo con barras baratas de hierro normalmente forradas en concreto. +Y en el saln de clases, el techo se hizo con ambos materiales. +En esta escuela, haba una idea simple: crear un saln de clases cmodo. +No olviden que en Burkina Faso puede hacer 45 C, as que con simple ventilacin, quera construir el saln apropiado para la enseanza y el aprendizaje. +Y este es el proyecto hoy en da, 12 aos despus, an en las mejores condiciones. +Y los nios lo aman. +Y para m y mi comunidad, este proyecto fue un gran xito. +Nos abri oportunidades de poder llevar a cabo ms proyectos en Gando. +As que pude realizar muchsimos proyectos. Y aqu compartir con Uds. solo 3 de ellos. +El primero es la ampliacin de la escuela, por supuesto. +Cmo explicarle diseo e ingeniera a personas que no saben leer ni escribir? +Empec a crear un prototipo como ese. +La innovacin era construir una cpula de barro. +As que salt a la cima as con mi equipo y funcion. +La comunidad estaba a la expectativa. An funciona. +As que a construir. Y continuamos construyendo, y ese es el resultado. +Los nios estaban muy contentos, y les encant. +La comunidad estaba muy orgullosa. La construimos. +Y hasta los animales, como ese burro, amaban nuestro edificio. +El siguiente proyecto es la biblioteca en Gando. +Y vean ahora que tratamos de usar ideas diferentes en nuestros edificios, aunque generalmente no tenemos muchos materiales. +Algo que tenemos en Gando son vasijas de arcilla. +Queramos usarlas para crear aperturas. +As que las pusimos como pueden ver en el sitio de la construccin. +Empezamos a cortarlas, y luego las colocamos en el tope del techo antes de vaciar el cemento, y obtuvimos este resultado. +Las aperturas dejan salir el aire caliente y hacen que entre la luz. +Muy simple. +Mi proyecto ms reciente en Gando es una escuela secundaria. +Me gustara compartir esto con Uds. +La innovacin en este proyecto es vaciar el lodo como se vaca el cemento. +Cmo se vaca el lodo? +Empezamos a crear muchos morteros, como pueden ver, y cuando todo estaba listo, cuando sabamos cul era la mejor receta, la mejor manera, empezamos a trabajar con la comunidad. +Y algunas veces me puedo ir. +Ellos lo harn por s mismos. +Gracias a eso, hoy pude venir a hablarles a Uds. +Otro factor en Gando es la lluvia. +Cuando lleg la lluvia nos apresuramos a proteger nuestras frgiles paredes de la lluvia. +No se confundan con Christo y Jeanne-Claude. +Es simplemente como protegamos nuestras paredes. +La lluvia en Burkina llega muy rpidamente, y con ella llegan las inundaciones en todo el pas. +Pero para nosotros, la lluvia era buena. +Trae consigo arena y grava a los ros que necesitbamos para construir. +Solo esperbamos que escampara. +Tombamos la arena, la mezclbamos con la arcilla, y continubamos trabajando. +Y as era. +El proyecto de Gando siempre estuvo conectado al entrenamiento de la gente, porque deseo que el da que me desgaste y muera, al menos una persona de Gando contine haciendo este trabajo. +Pero se sorprendern al ver que sigo vivo. +Y mi pueblo ahora puede usar sus habilidades para ganar dinero por s mismo. +Por lo general, para que un joven de Gando gane dinero, tiene que dejar el campo e irse a la ciudad; algunas veces se van y no regresan, lo que debilita a la comunidad. +Pero ahora pueden quedarse en el campo y trabajar en diferentes sitios de construccin y ganar dinero para alimentar a sus familias. +Pero este trabajo tiene algo ms. +S, ya lo saben. +He ganado cientos de premios gracias a este trabajo. +Ciertamente, me ha dado oportunidades. +Me ha ayudado a ser reconocido. +Pero la razn para hacer lo que hago es mi comunidad. +Cuando era nio, iba a la escuela y regresaba a Gando en las vacaciones. +Al final de las vacaciones deba despedirme de la comunidad, yendo de un recinto a otro. +Todas las mujeres en Gando sacaban su ropa de esta manera y me daban la ltima moneda. +En mi cultura, este es un smbolo de profundo afecto. +Con tan solo 7 aos, estaba impresionado. +Un da le pregunt a mi madre: "Por qu todas estas mujeres me aman tanto?" +Ella solo respondi: "Estn contribuyendo a pagar tu educacin con la esperanza de que tengas xito y un da regreses y ayudes a mejorar la calidad de vida de la comunidad". +Ahora espero que mi comunidad est orgullosa gracias a este trabajo. Espero poder demostrarles el poder de la comunidad, y mostrarles que la arquitectura puede ser inspiradora para las comunidades para forjarse su propio futuro. +Muchas gracias. Muchas gracias. Muchas, muchas gracias. +Gracias. Muchas gracias. +Cuntos han estado antes en una cueva? +Bueno, algunos. +Al pensar en cuevas, la mayora piensa en un tnel que atraviesa roca slida, y, de hecho, as son la mayora de las cuevas. +En esta mitad del pas casi todas las cuevas son de piedra caliza. +De donde yo vengo, casi todas son de roca volcnica porque all tenemos muchos volcanes. +Pero las cuevas que hoy quiero compartir con Uds. son totalmente de hielo, en especial del hielo glaciar que se forma en la ladera de la montaa ms alta del estado de Oregn, llamada Monte Hood. +Monte Hood est a solo una hora en auto de Portland, la ciudad ms grande de Oregn, donde viven ms de 2 millones de personas. +Lo ms apasionante para un explorador de cavernas es encontrar una nueva caverna y ser el primer humano en entrar a ella. +La segunda cosa ms emocionante es ser el primero en hacer un mapa de la cueva. +Pero hoy en da, con tanto senderismo por doquier, es bastante difcil encontrar una nueva cueva, as que imaginen lo entusiasmados que estbamos de encontrar 3 cuevas nuevas en el panorama de la ciudad ms grande de Oregn y darnos cuenta de que nunca nadie las haba explorado o cartografiado antes. +Fue como ser astronautas, porque podamos ver cosas, e ir a lugares nunca vistos ni visitados por nadie antes. +Qu es un glaciar? +Bien, quienes hayan visto o tocado la nieve saben que es muy liviana, porque es solo un puado de pequeos cristales de hielo, y el resto casi todo aire. +Si aplastas un puado de nieve para hacer una bola, queda pequea, dura y densa. +Bueno, en una montaa como la Hood donde nieva ms de 6 metros al ao, el aire se aplasta y forma gradualmente un hielo duro y azul. +Cada ao se apila cada vez ms hielo en la parte superior, y, finalmente, se hace tan pesado que empieza a deslizarse por la montaa, por su propio peso, formando un ro de hielo que se mueve lentamente. +Cuando ese hielo compacto se empieza a mover, lo llamamos glaciar, y le ponemos un nombre. +El nombre del glaciar de estas cuevas es Glaciar Sandy. +Cada ao, conforme cae nieve en el glaciar, se derrite bajo el sol estival, y forma pequeos ros que fluyen por el hielo, empieza a derretirse y a su paso va horadando el glaciar formando as grandes redes de cuevas, a veces llegando hasta la roca firme del fondo. +Pero lo interesante de las cuevas glaciares es que cada ao se forman nuevos tneles. +Aparecen distintas cascadas, o se mueven, cambian de lugar dentro de la cueva. +El agua caliente de la parte superior del hielo se abre camino hacia abajo y calienta el aire de la montaa que en realidad sube, se mete en la cueva, y derrite el techo, cada vez ms alto. +Pero lo ms extrao de las cuevas glaciares es que toda la cueva se mueve, porque est formada dentro de un bloque de hielo del tamao de una pequea ciudad que lentamente se desliza ladera abajo. +Este es Brent McGregor, mi compaero de exploracin en la cueva. +Ambos exploramos cuevas desde hace mucho y escalamos montaas desde hace mucho, pero ninguno de los dos haba explorado cuevas glaciares antes. +En 2011, Brent vio un video en YouTube en el que un par de senderistas encontraron la entrada a una de estas cuevas. +No haba coordenadas de GPS y todo lo que sabamos era que estaba en algn lugar del Glaciar Sandy. +As que en julio de ese ao fuimos al glaciar y encontramos una gran grieta en el hielo. +Tuvimos que construir anclas de nieve e hielo para poder atar cuerdas y descender en tirolesa por el agujero. +Aqu estoy yo buscando la grieta de entrada. +Al final del agujero, encontramos un tnel enorme que llegaba a la montaa bajo miles de toneladas de hielo glacial. +Seguimos esta cueva unos 800 metros hasta que lleg a su fin, y luego con ayuda de las herramientas de exploracin hicimos un mapa 3D de la cueva en nuestro camino de vuelta. +Cmo cartografiar una cueva? +Bien, los mapas de cueva no son como los de senderos o rutas porque tienen pozos y agujeros que van a niveles superpuestos. +Para hacer el mapa de una cueva, hay que poner estaciones de reconocimiento a cada pocos metros dentro de la cueva, y usar un lser para medir la distancia entre esas estaciones. +Luego se usa una brjula y un inclinmetro para medir la inclinacin de la cueva y la pendiente del piso y el techo. +Para quienes estudien trigonometra, ese tipo particular de matemtica es muy til para hacer mapas como este porque te permite medir alturas y distancias sin tener que realmente ir hasta ah. +De hecho, cuanto ms cuevas estudi y cartografi, ms til hall toda esa matemtica que antes en la escuela detestaba. +A esta cueva la llamamos Snow Dragon [Dragn de Nieve] porque es como un gran dragn que duerme bajo la nieve. +A finales del verano, al derretirse ms nieve glacial, hallamos ms cuevas, y nos dimos cuenta de que estaban conectadas. +No mucho despus de cartografiar Dragn de Nieve, Brent descubri esta nueva cueva no muy lejos. +Su interior estaba recubierto de hielo, as que tuvimos que usar grandes picos en los pies llamados crampones para poder caminar sin resbalar. +Esta cueva fue increble. +El hielo del techo resplandeca en verde y azul debido a la luz solar muy remota que atravesaba el hielo y lo iluminaba todo. +No podamos entender por qu esta cueva era mucho ms fra que Dragn de Nieve hasta que llegamos al final y lo descubrimos. +Haba una fosa o pozo enorme, llamado 'moulin' que suba 40 metros hasta la superficie del glaciar. +El aire fro de la parte superior de la montaa bajaba por este hoyo y se esparca por la cueva, congelando el interior de la misma. +Y estbamos tan entusiasmados al descubrir este nuevo hoyo, que en realidad volvimos en enero del ao siguiente para poder ser los primeros en explorarlo. +Haca tanto fro afuera, que tuvimos que dormir adentro de la cueva. +Ah est nuestro campamento a la izquierda de esta sala de entrada. +A la maana siguiente, salimos de la cueva y recorrimos todo el trayecto hasta la cima del glaciar, para finalmente descender en tirolesa por el hoyo, por primera vez. +Brent le puse el nombre Pura Imaginacin, creo que debido a que las imgenes hermosas que vimos all fueron ms all de lo imaginado. +Y adems de ese hielo genial, qu ms hay en estas cuevas? +Bueno, no hay demasiada vida porque hace mucho fro y la entrada en realidad est cubierta de nieve unos 8 meses al ao. +Pero hay cosas realmente geniales. +Hay bacterias raras que viven en el agua que comen y digieren roca para hacer su propia comida y vivir bajo este hielo. +De hecho, el verano pasado los cientficos recolectaron muestras de agua e hielo especficamente para ver si los extremfilos, diminutas formas de vida que evolucionaron para vivir en condiciones completamente hostiles, podran vivir bajo el hielo, algo as como lo que esperan encontrar algn da en los casquetes polares de Marte. +Otra cosa genial es que a medida que las semillas y las aves caen en la superficie del glaciar y mueren, quedan atrapados en la nieve y poco a poco se vuelven parte del glaciar, hundindose cada vez ms en el hielo. +Conforme estas cuevas se forman y se abren camino por el hielo, hacen que estos artefactos lluevan desde el techo y caigan al piso de la cueva, donde terminamos encontrndolos. +Por ejemplo, esta es una semilla de abeto noble que encontramos. +Estuvo congelada en el hielo durante unos 100 aos, y recin ahora est empezando a brotar. +Esta pluma de pato nade real se encontr a ms de 550 metros en la parte posterior de Dragn de Nieve. +Este pato muri en la superficie del glaciar hace mucho, mucho tiempo y sus plumas finalmente atravesaron ms de 30 metros de hielo antes de caer a la cueva. +Y este hermoso cristal de cuarzo tambin fue encontrada en la parte posterior de Dragn de Nieve. +Todava hoy, a Brent y a m nos cuesta creer que todos estos descubrimientos en nuestro patio trasero estaban ocultos, esperando ser descubiertos. +Como dije antes, la idea de descubrir en este mundo tan ocupado en que vivimos parece algo que uno puede lograr solo viajando al espacio pero eso no es verdad. +Cada ao, se descubren nuevas cuevas nunca antes visitadas por nadie. +As que no es demasiado tarde para que alguno de Uds. sea descubridor. +Solo tienen que estar dispuestos a mirar e ir a lugares a donde la gente no suele ir y centrar sus ojos y su mente para reconocer el descubrimiento cuando lo vean, porque podra estar en su propio patio trasero. +Muchas gracias. +Soy un hombre que intenta vivir con el corazn, y as que antes de empezar, quera decirles como surafricano que uno de los hombres que ms me ha inspirado falleci hace unas horas. +Nelson Mandela ha llegado al final de su largo camino hacia la libertad. +Y esta charla es para l. +Yo crec en el asombro. +Crec entre estos animales. +Crec en la parte oriental salvaje de Sudfrica en un lugar llamado Londolozi Game Reserve. +Es un lugar donde mi familia ha estado en el negocio del safari por cuatro generaciones. +Durante todo el tiempo que puedo recordar, mi trabajo ha sido sacar a la gente en la naturaleza, as que creo que hoy es un hermoso giro del destino tener la oportunidad de mostrar algunas de mis experiencias en la naturaleza en esta reunin. +frica es un lugar donde la gente todava se sienta bajo un cielo estrellado y alrededor de fogatas a contar historias, y entonces lo que debo compartir con Uds. hoy es la medicina simple de unos cuentos de fogata, historias sobre hroes del corazn. +Mis historias no son las historias que Uds. escucharn en las noticias, y si bien es cierto que frica es un lugar hostil, tambin s que es un lugar donde las personas, animales y ecosistemas nos ensean acerca de un mundo ms interconectado. +Cuando tena 9 aos, el presidente Mandela lleg para quedarse con mi familia. +Le acababan de liberar tras 27 aos de encarcelamiento, y estaba en un perodo de reajuste a su condicin de icono global repentino. +Miembros del Congreso Nacional Africano creyeron que en la selva tendra tiempo para descansar y recuperarse lejos de los ojos del pblico, y es cierto que los leones tienden a ser un muy buen elemento disuasivo para la prensa y paparazzi. +Pero fue un momento decisivo para m como un muchacho joven. +Le llevara el desayuno a la cama, y luego, en un viejo chndal y zapatillas, l ira a pasear por el jardn. +Por la noche, me sentaba con mi familia alrededor de la televisin nevada de orejas de conejo y ver las imgenes del mismo hombre tranquilo del jardn rodeado de cientos de miles de personas en escenas de su liberacin que se difundan todas las noches. +l iba a traer paz a una Sudfrica dividida y violenta, un hombre con un sentido increble de su humanidad. +Mandela dijo a menudo el regalo de la prisin fue la capacidad de ir a su interior y pensar, para crear dentro de s las cosas que ms quera para Sudfrica: paz, reconciliacin, armona. +A travs de este acto de inmenso corazn abierto, iba a convertirse en la encarnacin de lo que en Sudfrica que llamamos "ubuntu". +Ubuntu: Existo gracias a ti. +O, las personas no personas sin otras personas. +No es una idea o un valor nuevo pero es uno que sin duda creo que en estos momentos vale la pena construir. +De hecho, se dice que en la conciencia colectiva de frica, llegamos a las partes ms profundas de la experiencia de nuestra propia humanidad a travs de nuestras interacciones con los dems. +Ubuntu est en juego ahora. +Uds. tienen un espacio para m para expresar la verdad ms profunda de quin soy. +Sin Uds., soy un tipo hablando en una sala vaca, y pas mucho tiempo hacindolo, la semana pasada y no es lo mismo que esto. +Si Mandela era la encarnacin nacional e internacional, por otra parte, el hombre que ms me ense sobre este valor fue personalmente este hombre, Solly Mhlongo. +Solly naci bajo un rbol, a 60 km de donde me cri en Mozambique. +Nunca tendra un montn de dinero, pero l lleg a ser uno de los hombres ms ricos que conocera. +Solly creci cuidando el ganado de su padre. +Ahora, puedo decirles, que no s qu pasa a las personas que han crecido cuidando ganado, pero las hace ser sper ingeniosas. +El primer trabajo que tuvo en el negocio del safari fue arreglar los camiones de safari. +De dnde haba aprendido a hacer eso en la selva, no tengo ni idea, pero poda hacerlo. +Luego pas al otro lado a lo que llamamos el equipo de hbitat. +Estas eran las personas de la reserva responsables de su bienestar. +Arregl caminos, mejor los humedales, algo de anti caza furtiva. +Y un da salimos juntos y se encontr con las huellas de una leopardo hembra. +Y eran rastros antiguos, pero para divertirse se volvi y comenz a seguirlos, y les digo, supe por la velocidad con la que se mova por esas marcas de almohadillas, que este hombre era un rastreador de nivel doctorado. +Si pasabas a Solly en algn lugar fuera de la reserva, al mirar por el retrovisor veras que haba parado el coche 20, 50 metros atrs de la carretera por si acaso necesitabas ayuda con algo. +La nica acusacin que escuch haca l fue cuando uno de nuestros clientes dijo: "Solly, eres patolgicamente servicial". +Cuando empec profesionalmente a ser gua en este ambiente, Solly fue mi rastreador. +Trabajamos juntos como un equipo. +Y los primeros invitados que tuvimos fue un grupo filantrpico de la Costa Este, y le dijeron a Solly, de lado, dijeron: "Antes de ni siquiera salir a ver los leones y leopardos, queremos ver dnde vives". +As que los llevamos hasta su casa, y esta visita de los filntropos a su casa coincidi con un momento en que la esposa de Solly, que estaba aprendiendo ingls, estaba pasando por una etapa donde abra la puerta diciendo: "Hola, te amo. +Bienvenido, te amo". Y haba algo tan maravillosamente africano en esto para m, esta pequea casa con un gran corazn en ella. +Ahora, el da en que Solly salv mi vida, ya era mi hroe. +Era un da caluroso, y nos encontramos abajo en el ro. +Por del calor, me quit los zapatos, y me enroll los pantalones, y camin dentro del agua. +Solly permaneci en la ribera. +El agua era clara corriendo sobre arena, nos desviamos y comenzamos a subir aguas arriba. +Y a pocos metros delante de nosotros, haba un lugar donde haba cado un rbol de la ribera, y sus ramas estaban tocando el agua, y estaba sombro. +Y si hubiera sido una pelcula de terror, la gente del pblico habra empezado a decir: "No entres. No vayas". Y por supuesto, el cocodrilo estaba en las sombras. +Lo primero que ves cuando te golpea un cocodrilo es la ferocidad de la mordedura. +Zas! Me di cuenta por mi pierna derecha. +Me tira. Se volte. Lance mi mano hacia arriba, pude agarrar una rama. +Me revuelve violentamente. +Es una sensacin muy extraa tener otra criatura que quiere comerte y hay pocas cosas que promuevan el vegetarianismo ms que esa. +Solly en la ribera ve que tengo problemas. +Se vuelve, se aproxima hacia m. +El cocodrilo contina otra vez batindome. +Va a morder una segunda vez. +Not una mancha de sangre en el agua alrededor mo que se desvaneca aguas abajo. +Al morderme por segunda vez, pateo. +Mi pie va hondo en su garganta. Me escupe hacia fuera. +Me levanto agarrndome de unas ramas y cuando salgo del agua, miro sobre mi hombro. +Mi pierna de la rodilla hacia abajo est destrozada ms all de toda descripcin. +El hueso est roto. +La carne desgarrada. +Tom la decisin instantnea de nunca mirar eso otra vez. +Al salir del agua, Solly lleg a una parte profunda, un canal entre nosotros. +l sabe, ve el estado de mi pierna, sabe que entre l y yo hay un cocodrilo, y puedo decir que este hombre no par ni un segundo. +Entr directamente en el canal. +Se hundi arriba de su cintura. +Lleg a m. Me agarr. +Todava estoy en una posicin vulnerable. +Me carga y me pone sobre sus hombros. +Esta es otra cosa sobre Solly, es monstruosamente fuerte. +Se vuelve. Me saca a la ribera. +Me pone en el suelo. Se quita su camisa. +La envuelve alrededor de mi pierna, me carga por segunda vez, me lleva a un vehculo, y es capaz de conseguirme atencin mdica. +Y sobreviv. +Ahora aplausos Ahora no s cunta gente conocen capaz de entrar en un canal profundo de agua que saben que hay un cocodrilo para ir en su ayuda, pero para Solly, era tan natural como respirar. +Y es un ejemplo sorprendente de lo que he experimentado por toda el frica. +En una sociedad ms colectiva, nos damos cuenta desde el interior que nuestro bienestar est profundamente ligado al bienestar de los dems. +Se comparte el peligro. Se comparte el dolor. +Se comparte la alegra. Se comparte el logro. +Se comparten las casas. Se comparte la comida. +Ubuntu nos pide que abramos nuestros corazones y compartamos, y lo que me ense Solly ese da es la esencia de este valor, su accin animada, emptica en cada momento. +Ahora aunque la raz de la palabra es sobre la gente, pens que tal vez ubuntu era solo sobre la gente. +Y entonces conoc a esta joven. +Su nombre era Elvis. +De hecho, Solly le dio el nombre de Elvis porque dijo que caminaba como haca Elvis el baile de la pelvis. +Naci con patas traseras y la pelvis seriamente deformadas. +Lleg a nuestra reserva de una reserva al este de la nuestra en su ruta migratoria. +Cuando la vi por primera vez, pens que morira en cuestin de das. +Y sin embargo, en los 5 aos siguientes regresaba en los meses de invierno. +Y nos emocionaramos mucho de estar fuera en la selva y encontrar esta pista inusual. +Pareca un soporte invertido, y pararamos lo que estuviramos haciendo y la seguiramos, y luego llegaramos a la vuelta de la esquina, y ah estara con su manada. +Y ese torrente de emociones de las personas en nuestros camiones safari al verla, fue este sentido de afinidad. +Y me record que incluso las personas que crecen en las ciudades sienten una conexin natural con el mundo natural y con los animales. +Y an sigo sorprendido de que ella haya sobrevivido. +Un da llegamos a ellos en este pequeo abrevadero. +Era una especie de hueco en el suelo. +Y observ como la matriarca bebi, y luego volvi con ese hermoso movimiento lento de los elefantes, que parece como un brazo en movimiento, y ella comenz ir hasta el borde escarpado. +El resto de la manada se volvi y comenz a seguir. +Y vi a la joven Elvis comenzar a ponerse nerviosa por subir la colina. +Era visible, las orejas hacia adelante, tena que subir y estaba a mitad de camino, sus piernas cedieron y cay hacia atrs. +Lo intent una segunda vez, y una vez ms, a medio camino, cay de espaldas. +Y en el tercer intento, algo increble sucedi. +A mitad de camino hasta la ribera, un elefante joven adolescente vino detrs de ella, y apoy su tronco debajo de ella, y empez a sacarla hacia la ribera. +Y se me ocurri que el resto de la manada de hecho estaba cuidando esta elefante joven. +Al da siguiente vi otra vez como la matriarca rompi una rama y se lo puso en su boca, y luego rompi una segunda y la puso en el suelo. +Y un consenso de todos nosotros los que guiamos personas en esa zona es que esa manada de hecho se mova despacio para dar cabida a esa elefante. +Lo que Elvis y la manada me ensearon me llev a ampliar mi definicin de ubuntu, y creo que en la catedral de la naturaleza, vamos a ver las partes ms hermosas de nosotros mismos reflejadas hacia nosotros. +Y no es solo a travs de otras personas que podamos experimentar nuestra humanidad sino a travs de todas las criaturas que viven en este planeta. +Si frica tiene un don para compartir, es el regalo de una sociedad ms colectiva. +Y si bien es cierto que ubuntu es una idea africana, lo que veo es la esencia de ese valor que se invent aqu. +Gracias. +Pat Mitchell: Boyd, sabemos que t conociste al presidente Mandela en tu primera infancia y que oste la noticia como todos lo hicimos hoy, y que te afecta profundamente y sabemos la trgica prdida que es para el mundo. +Pero me preguntaba si quisieras compartir algn pensamiento adicional, porque sabemos que oste la noticia justo antes de venir a esta sesin. +Boyd Varty: Bueno gracias, Pat. +Estoy muy feliz porque ya era hora de que l descansara. +Estaba sufriendo. +Y por supuesto hay emociones mezcladas. +Pero pienso en tantas ocurrencias como cuando fue al show de Oprah y le pregunt que sobre que sera el programa. +Y era como, "Bueno, ser sobre Usted". +Es decir, es simplemente una increble humildad. +l fue el padre de nuestra nacin y tenemos un camino por recorrer en Sudfrica. +Y todo, solan llamarle la magia Madiba. +Saben, sola ir a un partido de rugby y ganaramos. +A cualquier lugar que fuera, las cosas salan bien. +Pero creo que la magia estar con nosotros, y lo importante es que llevamos lo que l representaba. +Y eso es lo que voy a intentar y hacer, y eso es lo que intentan hacer personas en toda Sudfrica. +PM: Y eso es lo que has hecho hoy. BV: Gracias. +PM: Gracias. BV: Gracias. Muchsimas gracias. +Les tengo una pregunta: Quines aqu recuerdan la primera vez que se dieron cuenta de que iban a morir? +Yo lo recuerdo. Era un nio y mi abuelo acababa de morir y recuerdo que unos das ms tarde acostado en la cama por la noche trataba de entender lo que haba ocurrido. +Qu significaba que haba muerto? +A dnde se haba ido? +Fue como si se hubiera abierto un hoyo en la realidad y se lo hubiera tragado. +Entonces se me ocurri la pregunta que me movi el piso: Si l poda morir, podra ocurrirme a m tambin? +Poda ese hoyo en la realidad abrirse y tragarme? +Se abrira debajo de la cama y me tragara mientras durmiese? +Bueno, en cierto momento, todos los nios se hacen conscientes de la muerte. +Por supuesto, puede pasar de distintas maneras y por lo general viene en etapas. +Nuestra idea de la muerte evoluciona a medida que crecemos. +Y si buscas en los rincones ms recnditos de tus memorias, recordars que sentiste algo como lo que sent cuando mi abuelo muri y me d cuenta que tambin poda pasarme; la sensacin que detrs de todo el vaco te espera. +Y este desarrollo en la infancia refleja la evolucin de nuestra especie. +Esto es, si se quiere, nuestra maldicin. +Es el precio que pagamos por ser tan terriblemente inteligentes. +Tenemos que vivir con el conocimiento que lo peor que puede ocurrirnos algn da se har realidad, el final de todos nuestros proyectos, nuestras esperanzas, sueos, nuestro mundo personal. +Todos vivimos a la sombra de un apocalpsis personal. +Y eso es aterrorizante. Es terrorfico. +As que buscamos la forma de escaparnos. +En mi caso, como tena 5 aos, esto significaba preguntarle a mi mam. +Ahora, esto no sonaba muy verosmil. +En esa poca acostumbraba ver programas infantiles, y esta era la era de la exploracin espacial. +Siempre haban cohetes que suban al cielo, al espacio, all arriba. +Pero ninguno de los astronautas que regresaban alguna vez mencion haber visto a mi abuelo o a algunas de las personas que haban muerto. +Pero estaba asustado y la idea de un ascensor existencial para ver a mi abuelo sonaba mucho mejor que el ser tragado por el vaco mientras dorma. +As que de todos modos me lo cre, an cuando no tena mucho sentido. +As como este proceso mental por el que pas de nio, y muchos otros desde entonces, incluso como adulto, es un producto de lo que los psiclogos llaman una pre concepcin. +Ahora podemos ver que esta es la pre concepcin ms grande. +Se ha demostrado en ms de 400 estudios empricos. +Ahora, estos estudios son ingeniosos, pero simples. +Funcionan as: +Tomas dos grupos de personas con similitudes en todos los aspectos relevantes, y le recuerdas a uno de los grupos de que van a morir, pero no al otro, y luego comparas sus comportamientos. +As que, puedes observar cmo cambian los comportamientos cuando la gente toma consciencia de su propia mortalidad. +Y todo el tiempo se obtienen los mismos resultados: La gente a la que se le concientiza sobre su propia mortalidad estn ms dispuestos a creer en las historias de que pueden escapar de la muerte y vivir para siempre. +He aqu un ejemplo: Un estudio reciente tom a dos grupos de agnsticos, gente indecisa en sus creencias religiosas. +Ahora, a uno de los grupos se les pidi que pensaran sobre la muerte. +Al otro grupo se les pidi que pensaran sobre la soledad. +Luego, se les pregunt nuevamente sobre sus creencias religiosas. +A los que se les pidi que pensaran sobre la muerte, estuvieron dos veces ms inclinados a creer en Dios y en Jesucristo. +Dos veces ms. +An cuando anteriormente, todos eran igualmente agnsticos. +Pero les metes el miedo a la muerte y corren hacia Jesucristo. +Esta es la pre concepcin que le ha dado forma al curso de la historia de la humanidad. +Ahora, la teora detrs de esta pre concepcin en los ms de 400 estudios se conoce como la teora del manejo del terror y la idea es simple. Es slo esto: +Desarrollamos nuestra visin del mundo, es decir, las historias que nos contamos sobre el mundo y nuestro lugar en l, de modo que nos permita manejar el terror a la muerte. +Y estas historias de inmortalidad tienen miles de manifestaciones diferentes pero creo que detrs de la diversidad aparente hay de hecho slo cuatro formas bsicas de historias de inmortalidad. +Y podemos verlas repetirse a lo largo de la historia con slo pequeas variaciones que reflejan el vocabulario del da. +Ahora voy a presentarles brevemente estas cuatro formas de historias sobre la inmortalidad, y quiero tratar de darles el sentido en el que son contadas repetidamente en cada cultura o generacin usando el vocabulario de sus das. +Ahora, la primera historia es la ms simple. +El antiguo Egipto tuvo esos mitos, as como la antigua Babilonia, la antigua India. +Las encontramos a lo largo de la historia europea en los alquimistas, y claro que hoy en da an lo creemos, solo que contamos esta historia usando el lenguaje de la ciencia. +Hace 100 aos atrs apenas se haban descubierto las hormonas, la gente tena la esperanza que los tratamientos hormonales curaran el envejecimiento y las enfermedades. Y ahora, ponemos nuestras esperanzas en clulas madres, la ingeniera gentica y la nanotecnologa. +Pero la idea de que la ciencia puede curar la muerte es solo otro captulo en la historia del elxir mgico, una historia tan antigua como la civilizacin. +Pero apostarlo todo a la idea de encontral el elxir y vivir para siempre es una estrategia riesgosa. +Cuando miramos hacia atrs en la historia a aquellos que han buscado el elxir en el pasado, lo nico que todos ahora tienen en comn es que todos estn muertos. +As que necesitamos un segundo plan, y es exactamente este tipo de plan B lo que el segundo tipo de historia de inmortalidad nos ofrece, y es la resurreccin. +Y se basa en la idea de que soy este cuerpo, soy este organismo fsico. +Acepto de que tengo que morir pero nos dice que ha pesar de ello podemos levantarnos y vivir nuevamente. +En otras palabras, tal como lo hizo Jesucristo. +Jesucristo muri, estuvo tres das en la tumba, y luego se levant y vivi nuevamente. +Y la idea de que todos podemos resucitar y vivir nuevamente es una creencia ortodoxa, no solo para cristianos, sino tambin para judos y musulmanes. +Pero nuestro deseo de creer en esta historia est tan profundamente arraigado que la estamos reinventando nuevamente para la era cientfica, por ejemplo, con la idea de la criogenia. +Es la idea de que cuando mueres te puedes congelar y luego, en algn momento cuando la tecnologa haya avanzado lo suficiente, podrs ser descongelado, repararte y revivirte, de modo que eres resucitado. +Y as como algunos creen que un Dios omnipotente los resucitar para vivir nuevamente, otros creen que algn cientfico omnipotente lo har. +Pero para otros, toda esa idea de la resurreccin, de salirse de la tumba, se parece demasiado a una mala pelcula de muertos vivientes. +Piensan que el cuerpo es muy problemtico, poco de fiar, para garantizar la vida eterna as que ponen sus esperanzas en la tercera y ms espriritual historia de inmortalidad. La idea de que podemos abandonar nuestro cuerpo y continuar vivos como un alma. +Ahora, la mayora de la gente en el mundo cree que tiene un alma, y la idea es central en muchas religiones. +Pero claro que hay escpticos que dicen que si vemos las evidencias en la ciencia, particularmente en la neurociencia, que sugiere que tu mente, tu esencia, tu verdadero yo, depende muchsimo de una parte especfica de tu cuerpo que es el cerebro. +Y para estos escpticos puede haber un alivio en el cuarto tipo de historia de inmortalidad. Y esto es el legado, la idea de que sigues vivo en la huella que dejas en el mundo, como el gran guerrero griego Aquiles, que sacrific su vida luchando en Troya para as obtener la fama inmortal. +Y la bsqueda de fama es tan extendida y popular hoy en da como la ha sido siempre, y en nuestra era digital es an mucho ms fcil de alcanzar. +No tienes que ser un gran guerrero como Aquiles, o un gran rey o hroe. +Todo lo que necesitas es Internet y un gato gracioso. Pero algunos prefieren dejar un legado ms tangible y biolgico como los hijos, por ejemplo. +O quieren, esperan continuar viviendo como parte de algo ms grande, una nacin, una familia, una tribu, su grupo gentico. +Pero nuevamente hay escpticos que dudan si el legado es realmente la inmortalidad. +Woody Allen, por ejemplo, dijo: "No quiero continuar viviendo en los corazones de mis compatriotas, +quiero continuar viviendo en mi apartamento". +As que estos son los cuatro tipos de historias bsicas de inmortalidad y he tratado de darle un poco de sentido a la forma como son contadas en cada generacin, con solo pequeas variaciones para adaptarse a los tiempos. +Y el hecho de que ellas se repiten de esta manera, en formas similares pero en diferentes sistemas de creencias sugieren, creo, que debemos ser escpticos de la verdad en cualquiera de las versiones de estas historias. +El hecho de que algunos creen que un Dios omnipotente los resucitar para vivir nuevamente y que otros creen que un cientfico omnipotente lo har, sugieren que ningunos de los dos lo creen puesto frente a las evidencias. +Ms bien creemos en estas historias porque estamos pre concebidos a creer en ellas, y estamos preconcebidos a creerlas porque le tememos mucho a la muerte. +As que la pregunta es: Estamos condenados a vivir la nica vida que tenemos marcada por el miedo y la negacin o podemos superar esta pre concepcin? +Bueno, pues el filsofo griego Epicuro pensaba que podamos. +Deca que el miedo a la muerte es natural, ms no es racional. +"La muerte, deca, no es nada para nosotros", porque cuando estamos aqu, la muerte no est, y cuando la muerte llega, ya no estamos". +Ahora, esto se cita con frequencia pero realmente es difcil de entender, de internalizar, porque exactamente esta idea de no estar es difcil de imaginar. +As que 2.000 aos ms tarde, otro filsofo, Ludwig Wittgestein, lo puso de esta manera: "La muerte no es un evento de la vida. No esperamos vivir para experimentar la muerte". +Y aadi: "en este sentido, la vida no tiene final". +As que era natural para m como nio que le tuviera miedo a ser tragado por el vaco, pero no era racional, porque el ser tragado por el vaco no es algo que ninguno de nosotros alguna vez vivir para experimentar. +Ahora, encuentro til ver la vida como un libro: As como el libro tiene una cubierta, un comienzo y un final, nuestras vidas tienen nacimiento y muerte, y an cuando el libro est limitado por un comienzo y un final, tambin contiene paisajes distantes, figuras exticas, aventuras fantsticas. +Y an cuando el libro est limitado por un comienzo y un final, los personajes dentro de l no conocen lmites. +Solo conocen los momentos que crean sus historias an cuando el libro est cerrado. +Y as los personajes de un libro no le tienen miedo a la ltima pgina. +Long John Silver no le teme a que Uds. terminen de leer "La isla del tesoro". +Y as debe ser para nosotros. +Imaginen el libro de sus vidas, su cubierta, su comienzo y final, su nacimiento y muerte. +Solo pueden conocer los momentos entre ellos, los momentos que forman sus vidas. +No hace sentido que le tengas miedo a lo que est fuera de esas cubiertas, ya sea antes de tu nacimiento o despus de tu muerte. +Y no tienes que preocuparte por cun larga es la historia, o si es un libro de caricaturas o una pica. +Lo nico que importa es que lo hagas una buena historia. +Gracias. +En 2010, Detroit se haba convertido en el modelo de ciudad estadounidense en crisis. +Hubo un desplome de la vivienda, un desplome de la industria automotriz, y la poblacin haba cado un 25 % entre el 2000 y 2010, y muchas personas empezaron a escribir sobre eso, porque encabezaba la lista de ciudades de EE.UU. que se achicaban. +En el 2010, me pidieron de la Fundacin Kresge y de la ciudad de Detroit que me sume a ellos en la conduccin de un proceso de planificacin en toda la ciudad para crear una visin compartida de futuro. +Tomo este trabajo como arquitecta y urbanista, y he pasado mi carrera trabajando en otras ciudades en disputa, como Chicago, mi ciudad natal; Harlem, que es mi casa actual; Washington, D.C.; y Newark, New Jersey. +Todas estas ciudades, para m, an tienen una cantidad de problemas no resueltos relacionados con la justicia urbana, cuestiones de equidad, inclusin y acceso. +En el 2010, tambin, las revistas de diseo populares tambin empezaban a ver ms de cerca a ciudades como Detroit, y dedicaban publicaciones enteras a "arreglar la ciudad". +Un buen amigo, Fred Bernstein, me pidi hacer una entrevista para la edicin de octubre de la revista Architect, y en cierta forma nos remos al ver que la revista titul: "Puede esta urbanista salvar Detroit?" +Sonro con un poco de vergenza en este momento, porque, obviamente, es completamente absurdo que una sola persona, y mucho menos un planificador, pueda salvar una ciudad. +Pero tambin sonro porque pens que representaba un sentido de esperanza, que nuestra profesin podra desempear un papel en ayudar a la ciudad a pensar cmo iba a recuperarse de su grave crisis. +As que me gustara dedicar un poco de tiempo esta tarde a contarles un poco de nuestro proceso para arreglar la ciudad, un poco sobre Detroit, y quiero hacer eso a travs de las voces de los habitantes de Detroit. +As que empezamos nuestro proceso en septiembre de 2010. +Justo despus de las elecciones para alcalde, se corre la voz de que habr un proceso de planificacin en toda la ciudad, que provoca una mucha preocupacin y miedo entre los habitantes de Detroit. +Planeamos celebrar una serie de reuniones con la comunidad en lugares como este para presentar el proceso de planificacin, y la gente sala de todas partes de la ciudad, incluyendo reas que eran barrios estables, as como de reas que estaban empezando a sufrir un gran desempleo. +Y la mayora de nuestra audiencia representaba el 82 % de la poblacin afro-estadounidense de esa ciudad en ese momento. +Obviamente, tenemos un apartado de preguntas y respuestas en el programa, las personas hacen fila hacia los micrfonos para plantear preguntas. +Muchas de ellas se paran muy firmemente frente al micrfono, colocan sus manos sobre su pecho, y dicen, "Yo s que Uds. estn tratando de moverme de mi casa, no?" +Esa pregunta es muy poderosa, y fue sin duda muy potente para nosotros en este momento, al conectarla con las historias de algunos habitantes de Detroit, y que de hecho han tenido muchas familias afro-estadounidenses que viven en ciudades del Medio Oeste como Detroit. +Muchos de ellos nos contaron historias de cmo llegaron a tener su casa a travs de sus abuelos o bisabuelos, alguno de los 1,6 millones de personas que emigraron desde el Sur rural al Norte industrial, tal como se ve en esta pintura de Jacob Lawrence, "La gran migracin". +Ellos vinieron a Detroit para tener una vida mejor. +Muchos encontraron trabajo en la industria automotriz, en la empresa Ford Motor, como se ve en este mural de Diego Rivera en el Instituto de Arte de Detroit. +El fruto de sus trabajos le asegur un hogar, para muchos la primera propiedad, y una comunidad con los primeros afro-estadounidenses compradores de vivienda. +Las primeras dcadas de sus vidas en el Norte est bastante bien, hasta cerca de 1950, que coincide con el pico de poblacin de la ciudad en 1,8 millones de personas. +En ese momento Detroit empieza a ver un segundo tipo de migracin, la migracin a los suburbios. +Entre 1950 y 2000, la regin creci un 30 %. +Pero en ese tiempo, la migracin deja varados a los afro-estadounidenses, ya que las familias y las empresas huyen de la ciudad, dejando a la ciudad bastante desolada de personas como tambin de trabajo. +Durante el mismo perodo, entre 1950 y 2000, 2010, la ciudad pierde el 60 % de su poblacin, y hoy en da se sita por encima de los 700 000. +Los miembros de la audiencia que vinieron a hablar con nosotros esa noche cuentan historias de qu se siente al vivir en una ciudad con una poblacin tan diezmada. +Muchos nos dicen que pocos hogares en su cuadra estn ocupados, y que pueden ver casas abandonadas desde sus prticos. +En toda la ciudad, hay 80 000 viviendas desocupadas. +Tambin pueden ver la propiedad vacante. +Estn empezando a haber actividades ilegales en esas propiedades, como usurpacin, y saben que debido a que la ciudad ha perdido mucha poblacin, sus gastos de agua, electricidad, gas, estn aumentando porque no hay suficientes personas para pagar impuestos sobre la propiedad para sustentar los servicios que necesitan. +En toda la ciudad, hay unas 100 000 parcelas vacantes. +Para darles rpidamente un sentido de la escala, porque s que eso parece un nmero grande, pero no creo que se entienda hasta que veamos el mapa de la ciudad. +La ciudad tiene 360 km2. +Puede caber Boston, San Francisco, y la isla de Manhattan dentro de ella. +Entonces, si tomamos todas las propiedades vacantes y abandonadas y las juntamos, se ven cmo unos 52 km2, ms o menos el equivalente al tamao de la isla donde estamos sentados hoy, Manhattan, 57 km2. +Es una gran cantidad de vacantes. +Desde 2010, se ha especulado mucho sobre qu hacer con las propiedades vacantes, y mucha de esa especulacin ha girado en torno a las huertas comunitarias, o lo que llamamos agricultura urbana. +Entonces, muchas personas nos decan: "Qu pasara si convierten la tierra vacante en tierras agrcolas? +Puede proporcionar alimentos frescos, y poner a los ciudadanos de Detroit a trabajar tambin". +Ahora, hay una tercera ola migratoria en Detroit: un nuevo ascenso de los emprendedores culturales. +Estas personas ven la misma tierra vacante y las mismas casas abandonadas como una oportunidad para nuevas ideas emprendedoras y beneficios, tanto es as que los antiguos modelos pueden mudarse a Detroit, comprar una propiedad, empezar negocios exitosos y restaurantes, y convertirse en exitosos activistas de la comunidad en su barrio, logrando un cambio muy positivo. +Del mismo modo, tenemos pequeas empresas manufactureras que toman la decisin consciente de trasladarse a la ciudad. +Shinola es una empresa de relojes de lujo y bicicletas, que opt deliberadamente por mudarse a Detroit, y dicen sentirse atrados por la marca global de la innovacin de Detroit. +Y tambin saban que podan acceder a una mano de obra an muy experta que sabe cmo hacer las cosas. +Tres claves imperativas fueron realmente importantes para nuestro trabajo. +La primera fue que la ciudad en s misma no era necesariamente tan grande, sino que la economa era muy pequea. +Solo hay 27 empleos por cada 100 personas en Detroit, muy diferente de Denver o Atlanta, o Filadelfia que estn entre 35 y 70 empleos por cada 100 personas. +En segundo lugar, tena que haber una aceptacin de que no estaramos autorizados a usar toda la tierra vacante como lo hicimos antes y tal vez por algn tiempo. +Entonces, llegamos con una tipologa de vecindario... hay muchas... llamado barrio vivir-hacer, donde la gente poda re-apropiarse de estructuras abandonadas y transformarlas en empresas emprendedoras, haciendo hincapi en mirar, nuevamente, el 82 % mayoritario de poblacin afro-estadounidense. +Entonces ellos, tambin, podran llevar negocios que quiz estaban haciendo fuera de sus casas y transformarlos en industrias ms prsperas y en realidad adquirir la propiedad por lo que eran en realidad los propietarios, y los dueos de los negocios en las comunidades en que residan. +O podramos usarlo como parcelas de investigacin, donde remediar suelos contaminados, o podramos usarlo para generar energa. +Entonces, los descendientes de la Gran Migracin bien podran convertirse en relojeros de precisin en Shinola, como Willie H., que fue presentado en uno de sus anuncios el ao pasado, o pueden gestionar un negocio y brindar servicios a empresas como Shinola. +Las buenas noticias son que hay un futuro para la prxima generacin de ciudadanos de Detroit, para los actuales y los que quieran venir. +As que no, gracias, alcalde Menino, que dijo recientemente: "Volara el lugar y empezara de nuevo". +Hay personas muy importantes, activos comerciales y de la tierra en Detroit, y hay oportunidades reales. +As, aunque Detroit quiz no sea lo que fue, no morir. +Gracias. +Einstein dijo: "Nunca pienso en el futuro porque llega demasiado pronto". +Tena razn, por supuesto. +As que hoy estoy aqu para pedirles que piensen en el futuro que est ocurriendo ahora. +En los ltimos 200 aos el mundo ha experimentado 2 grandes olas de innovacin. +Primero, la revolucin industrial nos trajo las mquinas y las fbricas, las autopistas, la electricidad, el trfico areo, y nuestras vidas nunca volvieron a ser las mismas. +Luego, la revolucin de Internet nos trajo el poder de la computadora, las redes de datos, un acceso sin precedente a la informacin y comunicacin, y nuestras vidas nunca volvieron a ser las mismas. +Estamos experimentando otro cambio metamrfico: la Internet industrial. +Hace que se junten las mquinas inteligentes, la analtica web avanzada, y la creatividad de la gente en el trabajo. +Es la unin de la mente y las mquinas. +Y nuestras vidas nunca volvern a ser las mismas. +En mi trabajo actual veo de cerca cmo la tecnologa est empezando a transformar los sectores industriales que juegan un papel importantsimo en la economa y en nuestras vidas: en el sector energtico, areo, de transporte, salud. +Para un economista esto es bastante inusual, y es muy emocionante porque es una transformacin tan poderosa, o incluso ms, que la revolucin industrial, y antes que la revolucin industrial no haba crecimiento econmico del que hablar. +Ahora, qu es la Internet industrial? +Las maquinarias industriales estn siendo equipadas con un nmero creciente de sensores electrnicos que les permiten ver, or, sentir mucho ms que antes, creando una inmensa cantidad de datos. +Un anlisis web cada vez ms sofisticada revisa todos los datos y extrae la informacin que nos permite operar las mquinas de una forma completamente nueva y mucho ms eficiente. +Y no solo ocurre con las mquinas de forma individual, sino con flotas de locomotoras, aviones, sistemas electricidad, hospitales. +Es la optimizacin de bienes y sistemas. +Claro que los sensores electrnicos ya existen desde hace tiempo pero algo ha cambiado: una cada impresionante en el costo de los sensores y, gracias a los avances de la computacin en la nube, una rpida disminucin en los costos de almacenamiento y procesamiento de datos. +As que estamos movindonos a un mundo donde las mquinas con las que trabajamos no solo son inteligentes; son brillantes. +Tienen conciencia, se pueden predecir. son reactivas y sociales. +Son motores a reaccin, locomotoras, turbinas de gas y equipos mdicos que se comunican a la perfeccin entre ellos y con nosotros. +Es un mundo en el que la propia informacin es inteligente y nos llega de forma automtica cuando la necesitamos sin tener que buscarla. +Por qu es importante todo esto? +Bueno, primero porque nos permite cambiar a un mantenimiento preventivo y basado en condiciones, es decir, arreglar las mquinas justo antes de que se daen y sin prdida de tiempo, revisndolas con regularidad. +Y esto nos permite evitar los tiempos de inactividad imprevistos, y como resultado, no ms apagones, no ms retrasos en los vuelos. +Les dar algunos ejemplos del funcionamiento de estas mquinas brillantes. Algunos de estos ejemplos pueden parecer triviales, otros claramente ms profundos, pero todos van a tener un gran impacto. +Empecemos con la aviacin. +Hoy en da el 10 % de todos los vuelos, cancelaciones y retrasos se deben a procesos de mantenimiento imprevistos. +Algo sale mal de forma inesperada. +Esto genera unos USD 8 000 millones en gastos para la industria mundial de aerolneas todos los aos, y eso sin mencionar el impacto sobre todos nosotros: estrs, inconveniencia, reuniones canceladas mientras estamos sentados sin poder hacer nada en la terminal de un aeropuerto. +Entonces, cmo puede ayudarnos la Internet industrial? +Hemos diseado un sistema de mantenimiento preventivo que puede instalarse en cualquier aeronave. +Puede autoaprender y predecir problemas que un operador humano puede no darse cuenta. +La aeronave mientras est volando se comunicar con los tcnicos en tierra firme. +Para el momento en que aterrice, ya ellos sabrn si hay algo que necesita revisin. +Solo en EE.UU. un sistema como este puede prevenir ms de 60 000 retrasos y cancelaciones todos los aos, ayudando a 7 millones de pasajeros a llegar a sus destinos a tiempo. +O, miren el sistema de atencin mdica. +Hoy en da, los enfermeros pasan en promedio unos 21 minutos por turno buscando el equipo mdico. +Parece algo trivial, pero as pasan menos tiempo cuidando a los pacientes. +El Centro Mdico St. Luke de Houston, Texas, ha empleado la tecnologa de Internet industrial para monitorear electrnicamente y conectar a los pacientes, el personal y el equipo mdico. Ha reducido casi una hora el tiempo de cambio de paciente por cama. +Si necesitas una operacin, una hora es importante. +Significa que ms pacientes pueden ser atendidos, pueden salvarse ms vidas. +Otro centro mdico en el estado de Washington, est probando una aplicacin que permite que las imgenes mdicas de los escneres de la ciudad y de las resonancias magnticas, puedan ser analizadas en la nube, desarrollando un mejor anlisis web a un bajo costo. +Imaginen un paciente que ha sufrido un trauma severo y necesita la atencin de varios especialistas: un neurlogo, un cardilogo, un cirujano ortopdico. +Si todos pueden tener acceso inmediato y simultneo a las tomografas y las imgenes a medida que se toman podrn prestar atencin mdica de forma mucha ms rpida. +Todo esto se traduce en mejores resultados mdicos, pero tambin puede generar importantes beneficios econmicos. +Solo la reduccin de un 1 % de las actuales ineficiencias puede ayudar a ahorrar ms de USD 60 000 millones en la industria mundial de la salud, y eso es solo una gota en el ocano comparado a lo que necesitamos hacer para que la atencin mdica sea asequible sobre una base sustentable. +Avances similares estn ocurriendo en el sector energtico, incluyendo la energa renovable. +Los molinos de vientos equipados con sistemas remotos de monitoreo y diagnstico que permiten que las turbinas de viento se comuniquen entre s y ajusten la inclinacin de sus aspas de forma coordinada en funcin de la direccin del viento ahora puede producir electricidad por menos de 5 centavos por kilovatio/hora. +Hace 10 aos el costo era de 30 centavos; 6 veces ms. +La lista contina y aumentar rpidamente porque la industria de los datos est creciendo de forma exponencial. +Para el 2020 abarcar ms del 50 % de la informacin digital. +Imagnense a un ingeniero llegar a una granja de molinos de vientos con una aparato porttil que le dice cules turbinas necesitan mantenimiento. +Ella ya tiene todas la piezas porque todos los problemas fueron diagnosticados por adelantado. +Y su interaccin estar documentada y guardada en una base de datos de bsqueda. +Paremos y pensemos en esto un minuto porque esto es un punto importante. +Esta nueva ola de innovacin est cambiando fundamentalmente la forma en que trabajamos. +Y s que a muchos de Uds. les preocupa el impacto de la innovacin en los empleos. +El desempleo ya es alto y siempre est el temor de que la innovacin destruir empleos. +Y la innovacin trastorna. +Pero djenme enfatizar aqu 2 cosas. +Primero, ya pasamos por la mecanizacin de la agricultura, la automatizacin de la industria, y el empleo ha aumentado porque la innovacin se trata fundamentalmente de crecimiento. +Hace que los productos sean ms asequibles. +Crea nuevas demandas, nuevos trabajos. +Segundo, hay una preocupacin de que en el futuro solo habr lugar para ingenieros, cientficos de datos y otros trabajadores altamente especializados. +Y cranme, como economista, tambin estoy asustado. +Pero pinsenlo: As como un nio puede descubrir fcilmente como usar un iPad, toda una nueva generacin de aplicaciones industriales porttiles e intuitivas har que la vida sea ms fcil para los trabajadores con cualquier nivel de destreza. +El trabajador del futuro ser ms como un "Iron Man" que un Charlie Chaplin de "Tiempos modernos". +Y se crearn nuevos empleos que requieren altas destreza: ingenieros mecnicos digitales que sepan tanto de mquinas como de datos; gerentes que entiendan su industria y el anlisis web y pueden reorganizar la empresa para aprovechar todas las ventajas de la tecnologa. +Pero ahora tomemos distancia. +Veamos todo el panorama. +Hay gente que argumenta que las innovaciones de hoy en da solo son herramientas sociales y juegos tontos, que no se acerca en nada al poder de transformacin de la revolucin industrial. +Dicen que todas las innovaciones para aumentar el crecimiento se quedaron atrs. +Ya est todo descubierto". +Esta revolucin tecnolgica es inspiradora y transformadora, como nunca antes. +La creatividad humana y la innovacin siempre nos ha llevado adelante. +Han creado empleos. +Han aumentado los niveles de vida. +Han hecho que nuestras vidas sean ms saludables y satisfactorias. +Y la nueva ola de innovacin que est empezando a expandirse por toda la industria, no es diferente. +Solo en EE.UU. la Internet industrial puede aumentar el ingreso promedio en un 25 % a 40 % en los prximos 15 aos, impulsando el crecimiento a niveles que no hemos visto en mucho tiempo y adicionando de USD 10 a 15 billones al PBI mundial. +Es el tamao de la economa de los EE.UU hoy en da. +Pero esto no es un resultado inevitable. +Apenas estamos en los comienzos de la transformacin y habrn barreras que romper y obstculos que superar. +Tendremos que invertir en las nuevas tecnologas. +Tendremos que adaptar las organizaciones y las prcticas gerenciales. +Tendremos que fortalecer la ciberseguridad que protege la informacin sensitiva y la propiedad intelectual, y a infraestructuras crticas de ataques cibernticos. +Y el sistema educativo tendr que evolucionar para asegurar que los estudiantes estn equipados con las destrezas adecuadas. +No va a ser fcil, pero valdr la pena. +Los desafos econmicos que enfrentamos son duros, pero cuando visito fbricas y veo cmo los humanos y las brillantes mquinas se estn interconectando y veo la diferencia que hacen en un hospital, un aeropuerto, una planta elctrica, no solo soy optimista, soy muy entusiasta. +Esta nueva revolucin tecnolgica ya est con nosotros. +As que piensen en el futuro, llegar muy pronto. +Gracias. +Es la quinta vez que estoy en esta orilla, la costa de Cuba, mirando ese horizonte distante, creyendo, otra vez, que voy a llegar al otro lado de ese vasto, peligroso e indmito ocano. +No solo lo he intentado 4 veces, sino que los ms grandes nadadores del mundo lo han estado intentando desde 1950, y todava no lo han logrado. +El equipo est orgulloso de nuestros 4 intentos. +Es una expedicin de unas 30 personas. +Bonnie es mi mejor amiga y mentora, y en cierta forma saca de m la fuerza de voluntad, esa ltima pizca de voluntad, cuando pienso que no me queda ms, despus de muchas, muchas horas y das all. +Los expertos en tiburones son los mejores del mundo... hay grandes predadores abajo. +La medusa de caja, el veneno ms mortal de los ocanos, est en estas aguas, y casi muero a causa de ellas en un intento previo. +Las propias condiciones, adems de esa gran distancia de ms de 160 km en mar abierto... las corrientes, los remolinos y la propia corriente del Golfo, que es la ms impredecible de todas las del planeta. +Y, por cierto, me resulta divertido que los periodistas y la gente antes de estos intentos a menudo me preguntan: "Bien, irs con botes personas o algo?" +Y pienso, qu imaginan? +Que sencillamente har una navegacin astronmica, con un cuchillo de caza en mi boca, que cazar peces, que los descamar vivos y los comer, y quiz arrastre una planta desalinizadora para producir agua dulce. +S, tengo un equipo. El equipo es experto, valiente lleno de innovacin y descubrimientos cientficos, como sucede con cualquier gran expedicin del planeta. +Y hemos transitado un viaje. +Es un debate encendido, no? desde los griegos, o acaso no se trata de eso? +Lo que importa en la vida es el recorrido y no el destino. +Hemos recorrido, y la verdad es que ha sido apasionante. +No hemos llegado a esa otra orilla, y an as nuestro sentido de orgullo y compromiso, es inquebrantable. +Cuando cumpl los 60, el sueo segua vivo por haberlo intentado a los 20 aos; lo so y lo imagin. +El cuerpo de agua ms famoso de la Tierra hoy, imagino, de Cuba a Florida. +Y estaba profundo, profundo en mi alma. +Y al cumplir 60 aos, no se trataba tanto del logro atltico, no era el ego de "quiero ser la primera". +Eso siempre existe y es innegable. +Pero era ms profundo. Era, cunta vida queda? +Seamos realistas, estamos en una calle de un solo sentido, no? Y, qu haremos? +Qu haremos conforme avanzamos para no arrepentirnos al mirar hacia atrs? +Pero, obviamente, quiero atraversarlo. +Es el objetivo, y debera ser muy superficial y decir que este ao, el destino fue incluso ms dulce que el recorrido. +Pero el recorrido en s vali la pena. +Y en este momento, este verano, todos --cientficos, deportlogos, especialistas en resistencia, neurlogos, mi propio equipo, Bonnie-- decan que era imposible. +Sencillamente no poda hacerse, pero Bonnie me dijo: "Si vas a emprender el viaje, te acompaar hasta el final, all estar". +Y ahora estamos all. +Tienes un sueo, tienes obstculos en frente, como tenemos todos. +Nadie atraviesa esta vida sin dolor, sin agitacin, y si uno cree y tiene fe, si cae y vuelve a levantarse, si cree en la perseverancia como una gran calidad humana, uno encuentra la forma, y Bonnie me tom del hombro, y me dijo: "Encontremos la forma de llegar a Florida". +Y empezamos, y durante las siguientes 53 horas, fue una experiencia de vida intensa e inolvidable. +Hubo euforia y estupor. No soy una persona religiosa, pero les dir que en ese azul intenso de la corriente del Golfo mientras respiras, ves kilmetros y kilmetros y kilmetros, sientes la majestuosidad de este planeta azul en el que vivimos; es sublime. +Tengo una lista de unas 85 canciones, y sobre todo en medio de la noche, y esa noche, porque no usamos luces... las luces atraen medusas y tiburones, las luces atraen la carnada que atrae a los tiburones, por eso nos internamos en la oscuridad de la noche. +Nunca hemos visto un negro tan negro. +No puede verse ni la palma de la mano, y la gente del barco, Bonnie y mi equipo del barco, solo oan el chapoteo de mis brazos, y as saban dnde estaba, porque no se vea nada. +Y all estoy acompaada solo por mi msica. +Tengo una gorra de goma apretada, as que no oa nada. +Tengo gafas y giro la cabeza 50 veces por minuto, voy cantando: Imagina que no hay cielo uuu uuu uuu uuu uuu Es fcil si lo intentas uuu uuu uuu uuu uuu Puedo cantar esa cancin mil veces seguidas. +Es un talento en s mismo. +Y cada vez termino con Ooh, podrs decir que soy una soadora pero no soy la nica 222. + Imagina que no hay cielo Y cuando termin "Imagine" de John Lennon por milsima vez, he nadado 9 horas y 45 minutos, exactamente. +Y luego viene la crisis. Claro que la hay. +Empiezo a vomitar, no me siento bien en el agua de mar, llevas una mscara anti-medusas para una mejor proteccin. +Es difcil nadar con la mscara +pues provoca abrasiones en la boca, pero los tentculos no te llegan. +Despus llega la hipotermia. +El agua est a 30 C, pierdes peso, consumes caloras y cuando te acercas al barco, no est permitido tocarlo, no se puede salir del agua, pero Bonnie y su equipo me dan alimentos y me preguntan cmo me va, si estoy bien. Aqu estoy viendo el Taj Mahal. +Estoy en un estado muy diferente, y me digo, guau, nunca pens que vera al Taj Mahal por aqu. +Es magnfico. +Digo, cunto les llev construir eso? +Sencillamente, emm... guau! Pero tenemos una regla fundamental y es que no me dicen por dnde vamos, porque no sabemos dnde estamos. +Qu suceder entre este punto y ese punto? +Y ella dijo: "No, esas son las luces de Key West". +Faltaban 15 horas. Para la mayora de los nadadores sera mucho tiempo. +No tienen idea de la cantidad de entrenamiento de 15 horas he hecho. +As que aqu vamos, y en cierta forma, sin decidirlo, dej de contar las brazadas, de cantar y de citar a Stephen Hawking y los parmetros del universo; solo empec a pensar en este sueo, en el porqu y el cmo. +Y, como dije, al cumplir 60 aos no se trataba en concreto de "Puedes hacerlo?" +Esas son las maquinaciones de todos los das. +Es la disciplina y la preparacin; hay orgullo en eso. +Mientras avanzaba, decid pensar en la frase que se usa a menudo, llegar a las estrellas, y en mi caso, era llegar al horizonte. +Al enfilar hacia el horizonte, como demostr, uno nunca llega, pero qu tremendo carcter y espritu uno forja. +Qu cimientos uno forja al procurar esos horizontes. +Y ahora se acerca la costa, y una pequea parte dentro de m est triste. +El pico viaje est por terminar. +Ahora viene mucha gente y me dice: "Qu sigue? Nos encanta! +Ese pequeo indicador de posicionamiento en la computadora? +Cundo hars la prxima? No vemos la hora de seguir la prxima". +Bien, estuvieron all 53 horas, y yo estuve all durante aos. +Por eso no habr otro viaje pico en el ocano. +Pero la idea es, la idea era que cada da de nuestras vidas es pico, y, les dir, cuando puse un pie en esa playa, mientras caminaba por esa playa, y haba practicado mucho de manera muy pomposa, lo que dira en esa playa. +Bonnie pens que mi garganta se estaba hinchando y llev al equipo mdico al bote para decir que estaba empezando a tener problemas para respirar. +Otras 12 a 24 horas en el agua salada, y llegu a or en un momento +Bonnie le dijo al mdico: "No me preocupa que no respire. +Pero si no puede hablar cuando llegue a la costa, se enfurecer". +Pero la verdad es que todas esas oraciones que haba practicado para darme aliento durante el entrenamiento de natacin, no eran tales. +Fue un momento muy real, con esa gente, con mi equipo. +Lo logramos. No yo, sino nosotros. +Y nunca lo olvidaremos. Siempre ser parte de nosotros. +Y las 3 cosas que se me escaparon cuando llegu all fueron, primero: "Nunca, jams se rindan". +Lo vivo. Cul es la frase actual de Scrates? +Ser es hacer. +Y no vengo solo a decir nunca se rindan. +Yo nunca me rend, y hubo accin detrs de esas palabras. +Lo segundo es: "pueden perseguir sus sueos a cualquier edad; nunca se es demasiado viejo". +64 aos, lo que nadie de cualquier edad, de cualquier gnero, pudo hacer, lo hice, y no tengo dudas de que hoy estoy en el mejor momento de mi vida. +S. +Gracias. +Y la tercer cosa que dije en esa playa fue: "Parece el esfuerzo ms solitario del mundo, y por un lado, claro, lo es; y, por otro lado, y esto es lo ms importante, es un equipo, y si piensan que soy dura, deberan conocer a Bonnie". +Bonnie, dnde ests? +Dnde ests? +Ella es Bonnie Stoll. Mi colega. +La cita de Henry David Thoreau dice: cuando alcanzas tus sueos, no se trata tanto de lo que logras sino de en quin te conviertes al lograrlo. +Y, s, estoy frente a Uds. ahora. +En los 3 meses transcurridos desde el final de la travesa, estuve en lo de Oprah y en la Oficina Oval del presidente Obama. +Me han invitado a hablar frente a grupos eminentes como Uds. +Firm un importante contrato editorial maravilloso. +Todo eso es genial, y no lo desprecio. +Estoy orgullosa de todo, pero la verdad es que camino con orgullo porque soy audaz, valiente y lo ser, cada da, mientras tenga vida. +Muchas gracias y disfruten de la conferencia. +Gracias. Gracias. Gracias. Gracias. Gracias. Gracias. Gracias. +Gracias. +Encuentren la forma! +Quiero que, por un momento, pienses en jugar Monopolio, excepto que en este juego, esa combinacin de habilidad, talento y suerte que ayuda a lograr el xito en los juegos, as como en la vida, se ha vuelto irrelevante. Este juego ha sido amaado, y tu tienes la ventaja a favor. +Tu tienes ms dinero, ms oportunidades para moverte por el tablero, y ms acceso a los recursos. +Y mientras piensas en esto, quiero que te preguntes, cmo esa experiencia, de ser el jugador privilegiado en un juego arreglado, Podra cambiar tu autoimagen y la forma como ves al otro jugador? +Hicimos una invetigacin en la U.C. Berkeley para estudiar exactamente esa cuestin. +Hemos llevado a ms de 100 parejas de extraos al laboratorio, y, lanzando una moneda, asignamos aleatoriamente a uno de los dos a ser el jugador rico en el juego amaado. +Tienen el doble de dinero. +Cuando pasan por "Go", reciben el doble del salario, y lanzan dos dados en vez de uno. As que se mueven mucho ms por el tablero. +Y en el transcurso de 15 minutos, vimos, a travs de cmaras ocultas, lo que pas. +Lo que quiero hacer hoy, por primera vez, es mostrar algo de lo que vimos. +Van a tener que perdonar la calidad del sonido en algunos casos porque, una vez ms, estas eran cmaras ocultas. +Por eso les colocamos subttulos. +Jugador rico: Cuntos de 500 tenas? +Jugador pobre: Solo uno. +Jugador rico: Hablas en serio? Jugador pobre: S. +Jugador rico: Yo tengo tres. No s por qu me han dado tanto. +Paul Piff: Ya ven que fue evidente para los jugadores que algo pasaba. +Es claro que uno de los dos tiene mucho ms dinero que el otro y, sin embargo, conforme el juego se desarrollaba, vimos diferencias muy notables. Diferencias dramticas comienzan a surgir entre los dos jugadores. +El jugador rico comenz a moverse por el tablero ms sonoramente, literalmente golpeando el tablero con su ficha al avanzar. +Pudimos ver seales de dominio y mensajes no verbales, muestras de poder y celebracin por parte de los jugadores ricos. +Tenamos un tazn de pretzels localizado en un lado. +Est all en la esquina inferior derecha. +Eso nos permiti observar el consumo. +Estbamos registrando cuntos pretzels se comen los participantes +Jugador rico: Estos pretzels, son un truco? +Jugador pobre: No s. +PP: Bien, no hay sorpresas, hay personas alrededor. +Se preguntan qu est haciendo ese tazn de pretzels all, en primer lugar. +Uno incluso pregunta, como han visto, ese tazn de pretzels, es un truco? +Y sin embargo, a pesar de ello, el poder en la situacin parece dominar inevitablemente y los jugadores ricos comienzan a comer ms pretzels. +Jugador rico: Me encantan los pretzels. +Jugador rico: Tengo dinero para todo. +Jugador pobre actor: Cunto es? +Jugador rico: Me debes 24 dlares. +Vas a perder todo tu dinero pronto. +Lo comprar. Tengo tanto dinero... +Tengo mucho dinero, tengo para siempre. +Jugador rico 2: Voy a comprar este tablero entero. +Jugador rico 3: Te vas a quedar sin dinero pronto. +Soy casi intocable en este punto. +PP: Bien, pienso que lo ms interesante, es que al final de los 15 minutos, les pedimos a los jugadores hablar sobre su experiencia durante el juego. +Esta es realmente una visin increble de cmo la mente justifica las ventajas. +Este juego de Monopolio se puede usar como una metfora para entender la sociedad y su estructura jerrquica, en la que algunas personas tienen mucha riqueza y estatus, y muchos otros no. +Tienen mucho menos bienes, estatus mucho menor y mucho menos acceso a recursos valiosos. +Lo que hemos estado haciendo mis colegas y yo, en los ltimos siete aos, es estudiar los efectos de este tipo de jerarquas. +Lo que nos hemos encontrado en decenas de estudios y con miles de participantes de todo el pas es que, conforme aumentan los niveles de riqueza, bajan los sentimientos de compasin y empata, y sus sentimientos de propiedad, de merecimiento, su ideologa de autointers, aumentan. +En las encuestas hemos encontrado que son en realidad los individuos ms ricos los ms propensos a moralizar sobre lo buena que es la codicia y que la bsqueda del propio inters es aceptable y tica. +Lo que quiero hacer hoy es hablar de algunas de las implicaciones de la ideologa del propio inters. Hablar de por qu debemos preocuparnos por las consecuencias, y finalmente, qu se puede hacer. +En algunos de los primeros estudios que hicimos en esta rea observamos el comportamiento de ayuda, lo que algunos psiclogos sociales llaman comportamiento prosocial. +Y estbamos realmente interesados en quin tieme ms probabilidades de ayudar a otras personas. Si los ricos o los pobres. +En uno de los estudios, traemos al laboratorio a personas de la comunidad, ricos y pobres, y les damos a cada uno de ellos, el equivalente a 10 dlares. +Les dijimos a los participantes que podan conservar esos 10 dlares para ellos, o que podan compartir una parte, si queran, con un extrao totalmente annimo. +Ellos no conoceran al extrao y ste no los conocera a ellos. +Registramos cunta gente da. +Los que ganaban 25 000, o inclusive menos de 15 000 dlares al ao, dieron un 44 % ms de su dinero al extrao, comparado con los que ganaban 150 000 o 200 000 dlares al ao. +Hemos tenido gente en el juego para ver quin es ms propenso a hacer trampa para aumentar sus posibilidades de ganar un premio. +En uno de los juegos, arreglamos la computadora de tal forma que fuera imposible obtener cierto puntaje al lanzar los dados. +En ese juego no se poda superar a 12, y, sin embargo, cuanto ms rica era la persona, ms probable era que engaara para ganar crditos por un premio en efectivo de $50, a veces tres a cuatro veces ms probable. +Hicimos otro estudio donde miramos si las personas estaran dispuestas a tomar dulces de un frasco con dulces que habamos identificado explcitamente como reservados para unos nios... participantes... no estoy bromeando. +S que parece que estoy haciendo una broma. +Dijimos explcitamente a los participantes que ese frasco con dulces era para unos nios que participaban en un laboratorio de desarrollo cercano. +Estn en estudios. Esto es para ellos. +Y registramos cuntos dulces tomaron los participantes. +Los jugadores que se sentan ricos tomaron dos veces ms dulces que los que se sentan pobres. +Tambin hemos estudiado los coches, no solo los coches, sino si los dueos de diferentes tipos de coches estn ms o menos inclinados a quebrantar la ley. +En uno de estos estudios, miramos si los conductores se detendran ante un peatn que habamos puesto esperando a cruzar por un paso de peatones. +En California, como todos saben, porque estoy seguro de que todos lo hacemos, es obligacin detenerse ante un peatn que est esperando para cruzar. +Y aqu est un ejemplo de cmo lo hicimos. +Nuestro asociado est a la izquierda hacindose pasar por un peatn. +Se acerca y la camioneta roja se detiene como debe ser. +Como es tpico en California, el autobs se adelanta y casi atropella a nuestro peatn. +Aqu hay un ejemplo con un coche ms caro, un Prius, pasa de largo, y un BMW hace lo mismo. +Lo hicimos con cientos de vehculos durante varios das, solo observando quin se detiene y quin no. +Lo que encontramos fue cmo, al aumentar el costo del coche, la tendencia del conductor a violar la ley, aument tambin. +Ninguno de los coches en la categora de menos costosos, rompi la ley. +Pero cerca del 50 % en la categora de costosos, rompi la ley. +Hemos hecho otros estudios en los que las personas ms ricas son ms propensas a mentir en situaciones, para justificar un comportamiento anti tico en el trabajo como robar dinero de la caja registradora, aceptar sobornos, mentir a los clientes. +No quiero sugerir que solo la gente adinerada es la que muestra estos patrones de comportamiento. +Para nada. De hecho, creo que todos nosotros, en el da a da, minuto a minuto, luchamos con estas motivaciones conflictivas de si, o cuando, hemos de poner nuestros propios intereses por encima de los de las otras personas. +Y eso es comprensible porque el sueo estadounidense es la idea de que todos tienen igualdad de oportunidades para tener xito y prosperar, siempre que nos empeemos en el trabajo duro. En parte esto significa que a veces, hay que poner la propia conveniencia por encima de los intereses y el bienestar de los que te rodean. +Lo que estamos encontrando es que, cuanto ms rico eres, ms probable es que persigas una situacin de xito personal, de logro y realizacin, en detrimento de los dems a tu alrededor. +He trazado aqu el ingreso familiar promedio recibido por quintiles para el 5 % superior de la poblacin en los ltimos 20 aos. +En 1993, las diferencias entre los distintos quintiles de la poblacin, en trminos de ingresos, eran bastante notorias. +No era difcil ver que hay diferencias. +Pero en los ltimos 20 aos, esa diferencia significativa se ha convertido en una gran brecha entre los de la parte superior y los dems. +De hecho, el 20 % de la poblacin posee cerca del 90 % de la riqueza total en este pas. +Estamos en niveles sin precedentes de desigualdad econmica. +Lo que significa que la riqueza, no solo se est concentrando ms en manos de un pequeo grupo de individuos, sino que el sueo estadounidense se est haciendo cada vez ms inalcanzable para una creciente mayora de nosotros. +De hecho, hay muchas razones para pensar que se volvern peores. As se vera si las cosas siguen igual, a la misma velocidad lineal, en los prximos 20 aos. +La desigualdad econmica, es algo que a todos debera preocuparnos, no solo por los de abajo en la jerarqua social, sino porque a las personas y a los grupos, si hay mayor desigualdad econmica, les va peor. No solo a los de abajo, sino a todo el mundo. +Hay mucha investigacin realmente convincente, proveniente de los mejores laboratorios del mundo que muestran todas las cosas que se ven socavadas a medida que empeora la desigualdad econmica. +La movilidad social, las cosas que realmente nos importan, la salud fsica, la confianza social, todas caen cuando aumenta la desigualdad. +Asimismo, lo negativo en los grupos y las sociedades, cosas como la obesidad y la violencia, los encarcelamientos y castigos, se agravan a medida que aumenta la desigualdad econmica. +Una vez ms, estos son resultados percibidos no solo por unos cuantos, sino que resuenan en todos los estratos de la sociedad. +Incluso los de la parte superior sufren estos resultados. +Qu podemos hacer? +Esta cascada autoalimmentada, perniciosa, de efectos negativos podra parecer algo fuera de control, sobre lo que no hay nada qu hacer. Verdaderamente casi nada podemos hacer como individuos. +Pero de hecho, hemos encontrado en nuestras investigaciones de laboratorio, que pequeas intervenciones psicolgicas, pequeos cambios en los valores de la gente, pequeos empujones en ciertas direcciones, pueden restaurar los niveles de igualdad y empata. +Por ejemplo, recordar a la gente los beneficios de la cooperacin, o las ventajas de actuar en comunidad, produce, en individuos ricos, las mismas ideas igualitarias que los pobres. +Ms all de las paredes de nuestro laboratorio, estamos empezando a ver seales de cambio en la sociedad. +Y existe "Promesa de Dar". con la que, ms de 100 de los individuos ms ricos del pas, han prometido dar la mitad de su fortuna a obras de caridad. +Gracias. +Hace tres aos y medio, tom una de las mejores decisiones de mi vida. +Como objetivo de principio de ao, dej de hacer dieta, de preocuparme por mi peso y aprend a ser ms cuidadosa con la comida. +Ahora como cuando tengo hambre y perd 4 kilos y medio. +Esta era yo a los 13, cuando comenc mi primera dieta. +Miro la foto ahora y pienso, no necesitaba hacer dieta necesitaba una asesora de imagen. +Pero pens que necesitaba perder peso, y cuando volv a engordar por supuesto, me culp a m misma. +Durante las siguientes 3 dcadas estuve yendo y viniendo entre diversas dietas. +Sin importar cun duro intentara, el peso perdido siempre regresaba. +Seguramente muchos entiendan la frustracin. +Como neurocientfica me preguntaba, por qu es tan difcil? +Obviamente, el peso depende de cunto comemos y de cunta energa gastamos. +Pero lo que muchos no aprecian es que el hambre y el gasto energtico son controlados por el cerebro. Muchas veces sin siquiera notarlo. +Nuestro cerebro suele operar detrs de cmara, y eso es bueno, porque tu consciencia cmo decirlo de forma educada? se distrae fcilmente. +Es bueno que no tengamos que recordar respirar cuando estamos inmersos en una pelcula. +No olvidas cmo caminar simplemente porque ests pensando qu vas a cenar. +El cerebro tiene una nocin propia de lo que debes pesar sin importar lo que creas conscientemente. +Esto se denomina punto de ajuste, pero ese trmino es engaoso porque en realidad es un rango que vara de 4 a 7 kilos. +Puedes hacer cambios en tu estilo de vida para modificar tu peso dentro de ese rango, pero es ms difcil mantenerse fuera de l. +As funciona un termostato, correcto? +Mantiene estable la temperatura en tu casa a pesar de que el clima cambie afuera. +Puedes intentar cambiar la temperatura de tu casa abriendo una ventana en invierno, pero eso no va a cambiar el funcionamiento del termostato que responder aumentando la intensidad del horno para mantener la calidez del ambiente. +El cerebro funciona de la misma forma, respondiendo a la prdida de peso con poderosas seales para empujar a tu cuerpo de vuelta hacia lo que considera normal. +Si pierdes mucho peso, tu cerebro interpreta que ests sufriendo de hambruna y sin importar si iniciaste gordo o flaco la respuesta cerebral es la misma. +Nos encantara pensar que el cerebro puede decir si tenemos que perder peso o no, pero no puede. +Si pierdes mucho peso. te da hambre y tus msculos consumen menos energa. +El Dr. Rudy Leibel de la Universidad de Columbia encontr que la gente que ha perdido el 10 % de su peso corporal quema de 250 a 400 caloras menos porque su metabolismo est suprimido. +Eso es mucha comida. +Esto significa que una persona en una dieta exitosa debe comer tanto as menos, para siempre, que alguien de su mismo peso que siempre ha sido flaca. +Desde una perspectiva evolutiva, la resistencia a perder peso tiene sentido. +Cuando la comida escaseaba, la supervivencia de nuestros ancestros dependa de su capacidad de conservar energa y recuperar el peso cuando hubiera comida disponible, lo que los protegera ante una nueva escasez. +Durante el transcurso de la historia de la humanidad, la hambruna ha sido un problema ms grave que el sobrepeso. +Esto podra explicar una triste realidad. Los puntos de ajuste pueden subir pero difcilmente pueden bajar. +Si tu madre te ha mencionado alguna vez que la vida no es justa, a esto se refera. +Una dieta exitosa no baja tu punto de ajuste. +Incluso despus de no recuperar el peso por hasta 7 aos, tu cerebro sigue intentando recuperarlo. +Si ese peso fuera resultado de una larga hambruna esa sera una respuesta adecuada. +En nuestro mundo actual de hamburguesas para llevar, esto pareciera no estar funcionando para muchos de nosotros. +Tristemente, un aumento de peso temporal puede convertirse en permanente. +Si te mantienes en sobrepeso por demasiado tiempo, para la mayora probablemente por un par de aos, tu cerebro podra decidir que ese es el nuevo estndar. +Los psiclogos clasifican a los que comen en 2 grupos, los que basan su alimentacin en el hambre y aquellos que tratan de controlar su ingesta a travs de la voluntad, como la mayora de quienes hacen dieta. +Les llamaremos, "comedores intuitivos" y "comedores controlados". +Lo interesante de los "comedores intuitivos" es que son menos propensos a tener sobrepeso y pasan menos tiempo pensando en la comida. +Los comedores controlados son ms vulnerables al sobrepeso en respuesta a la publicidad, Y un pequeo antojo, como comer una copa de helado, genera un mayor riesgo de llevar a un atracn en los comedores controlados. +Los nios son particularmente vulnerables a este crculo vicioso de restriccin y posterior atracn. +Muchos estudios a largo plazo mostraron que chicas que hacen dietas temprano en la adolescencia son 3 veces ms propensas al sobrepeso 5 aos despus, incluso si comenzaron con un peso normal. Todos estos estudios encontraron que los mismos factores que predicen el aumento de peso predicen tambin el desarrollo de desordenes de alimentacin. +El otro factor, por cierto, padres presten atencin, fue el ser objeto de burlas de sus familiares por su peso. +As que no lo hagan. +Dej casi todos los grficos en mi casa, pero no me permit desechar este, porque soy una geek y as es como hago las cosas. +En este estudio se evalu el riesgo de muerte durante un perodo de 14 aos basado en 4 hbitos saludables: comer suficientes frutas y vegetales, hacer ejercicio 3 veces por semana, no fumar, y tomar con moderacin. +Empecemos por ver a la gente de peso normal del estudio. +La altura de las barras simboliza el riesgo de muerte, y el cero, uno, dos, tres, cuatro nmeros en el eje horizontal son el nmero de esos hbitos saludables que adoptaba la persona. +Y como era de esperar, mientras ms sano el estilo de vida, menos probable era que murieran durante el estudio. +Ahora veamos lo que sucede con las personas con sobrepeso. +Las que no tenan ningn hbito saludable tenan un mayor riesgo de muerte. +Al agregar un solo hbito saludable la gente con sobrepeso regresa al rango normal. +Para las personas obesas sin hbitos saludables, el riesgo es muy alto, siete veces mayor con respecto a los grupos ms saludables en el estudio. +Pero un estilo de vida saludable tambin ayuda a las personas obesas. +De hecho, si solo miras el grupo con los cuatro hbitos saludables, puedes ver que el peso hace muy poca diferencia. +Puedes cuidar tu salud al controlar tu estilo de vida, aun si no puedes perder peso y mantenerlo. +Las dietas no tienen mucha efectividad. +Cinco aos despus de una dieta, la mayora de las personas ha recuperado el peso. +Un 40 % de ellos han ganado an ms. +Si piensas en esto el resultado tpico de hacer dieta es que es ms probable que aumentes tu peso a la larga, antes que bajarlo. +Si los convenc de que hacer dieta puede ser un problema, la siguiente pregunta es, qu hacer al respecto? +Y mi respuesta, en una palabra, es consciencia. +No estoy diciendo que necesitas aprender a meditar o hacer yoga. +Estoy hablando de comer conscientemente: aprender a entender las seales de tu cuerpo y comer cuando tienes hambre y parar cuando ests lleno, porque gran parte del exceso de peso se reduce a los momentos en que uno come sin tener hambre. +Cmo hacerlo? +Dense permiso de comer tanto cuanto quieran y luego trabajen en descubrir qu hace sentir bien a su cuerpo. +Sintense a comer sin distracciones. +Piensen en cmo se siente su cuerpo cuando empiezan a comer y cuando se detienen, y dejen que su hambre decida cundo estn satisfechos. +Me tom un ao aprender esto, pero vali el esfuerzo. +Ahora estoy ms relajada con la comida como nunca antes en mi vida. +A menudo ni pienso en la comida. +Olvido que tenemos chocolate en la casa. +Es como si los aliens hubieran conquistado mi cerebro. +Es completamente diferente. +Digmoslo como es: Si las dietas funcionaran, ya todos seramos flacos. +Por qu seguir haciendo lo mismo y esperar resultados diferentes? +Las dietas pueden parecer inofensivas, pero en realidad causan gran dao colateral. +En el peor de los casos, arruinan vidas: La obsesin con el peso lleva a desrdenes alimentarios especialmente en nios pequeos. +En los EE. UU. un 80 % de las nias de 10 aos dice que ya ha estado a dieta. +Nuestras hijas han aprendido a medir su valor en una escala equivocada. +En el mejor de los casos la dieta es un desperdicio de tiempo y energa. +Quita la fuerza de voluntad que podras estar usando para ayudar a tus hijos con sus tareas o para terminar el proyecto de trabajo, y como la fuerza de voluntad es limitada, cualquier estrategia que dependa de su aplicacin consistente est prcticamente condenada a fallar finalmente cuando tu atencin se traslade a otro asunto. +Djenme dejarlos con un ltimo pensamiento. +Qu pasara si les dijramos a todas esas nias a dieta que est bien comer cuando tienen hambre? +Qu pasara si les enseramos a entender su apetito en lugar de temerle? +Creo que la mayora de ellas sera ms feliz y saludable, y como adultas, muchas de ellas probablemente seran ms delgadas. +Ojal alguien me hubiera dicho esto cuando tena 13 aos. +Gracias. +sta es una foto mia con mi pap en la playa de Far Rockaway, en realidad Rockaway Park. +Yo soy el del cabello rubio. +Mi pap es el del cigarrillo. +Eran los sesentas. Mucha gente fumaba entonces. +En el verano de 2009, le diagnosticaron a mi padre cncer de pulmn. +El cncer es algo que afecta a todo el mundo. +Si eres hombre y vives en Estados Unidos, tienes una probabilidad de 50 % de ser diagnosticado con cncer en algn momento de la vida. +Si eres mujer, tu probabilidad es un tercio de que te diagnostiquen cncer. +Todo el mundo conoce a alguien con cncer. +Mi pap est mejorando hoy en da, en parte porque pudo participar en una prueba de una nueva medicina experimental que result precisamente formulada y muy buena para su tipo particular de cncer. +Hay ms de 200 tipos de cncer. +Y de lo que quiero hablar hoy es sobre cmo ayudar a personas como mi padre, porque tenemos que cambiar la forma de recaudar fondos para financiar la investigacin del cncer. +Despus de que mi padre fue diagnosticado, yo fui a tomar un caf con mi amigo Andrew Lo, +el jefe del laboratorio de ingeniera financiera en MIT, donde yo tambin trabajo. Estbamos hablando sobre cncer. +Andrew haba estado haciendo su propia investigacin, y una de las cosas que le haban dicho y que haba aprendido del estudio de publicaciones, era que hay un gran cuello de botella. +Es muy difcil desarrollar nuevos frmacos y la razn de esta dificultad es porque en las primeras etapas del desarrollo de medicamentos, las drogas son muy riesgosas, y muy caras. +Entonces me pregunt si me gustara trabajar con l un poco, en algunos de los clculos y anlisis a ver si podamos encontrar qu se puede hacer. +No soy cientfico. +Es decir, no s cmo hacer un frmaco. +Y ninguno de mis coautores, Andrew Lo o Jos Mara Fernandez o David Fagnan, ninguno de ellos lo es. +No sabemos cmo hacer un frmaco contra el cncer. +Pero sabemos algo de la mitigacin del riesgo y un poco de ingeniera financiera. Entonces pensamos, qu se podra hacer? +Lo que voy a contarles es un trabajo que hemos estado haciendo en los ltimos dos aos que pensamos que podra cambiar la forma de hacer investigacin sobre el cncer y otros asuntos. +Queremos que la investigacin impulse la financiacin, no al revs. +Para empezar, djenme decirles cmo se financia un frmaco. +Imagina que ests en tu laboratorio, que eres un cientfico, no como yo, eres cientfico y has desarrollado un nuevo compuesto que podra ser til para personas con cncer. +Bueno, lo primero es probarlo en animales, con tubos de ensayo, pero existe la idea de ir del laboratorio al lado de la cama y para llegar desde el laboratorio al lado de la cama de un paciente, hay que tener el medicamento probado. +La manera de probar el frmaco es a travs de una serie de experimentos, largos experimentos, llamados ensayos, que se hacen para determinar si el frmaco es seguro y si funciona y todas esas cosas. +La FDA tiene un protocolo muy especfico. +La primera etapa de estas pruebas, que se llama prueba de toxicidad, es la fase I. +En la primera fase, se da el frmaco a personas sanas y se ve si les hace dao. +Es decir, si los efectos secundarios son graves, no importa cunto bien haga, no vale la pena. +Causa ataques cardiacos, mata a la gente, produce insuficiencia heptica, otras cosas? +Y resulta que esto es un obstculo muy grande. +Como un tercio de los frmacos se abandonan en ese momento. +En la siguiente fase, se prueba para ver si la droga es eficaz. Se le da a personas con cncer y se ve si en realidad mejoran. +Y eso es otro obstculo mayor. Muchos desisten. +Y en la tercera fase, se prueba con mucha gente para tratar de determinar cul es la dosis correcta y tambin si es mejor que otras que estn disponibles. +Si no, entonces para qu hacerla? +Cuando se ha terminado con todo ello, se ve que un porcentaje muy pequeo de frmacos que inician el proceso, logran pasarlo por completo. +Esas botellas azules, esas botellas azules salvan vidas y tambin valen millones, a veces miles de millones al ao. +Suena como un buen negocio para alguien? +No. No, verdad? +Por supuesto, es una propuesta muy, muy arriesgada y por eso es muy difcil conseguir financiacin, pero en primera aproximacin, esa es en realidad la propuesta. +Tienen que financiar estas cosas desde las primeras etapas. Toma un largo tiempo. +Andrew me dijo: "Y si dejamos de pensar en esto como frmacos? +Y si empezamos a pensar en esto como activos financieros?" +Tienen estructuras de retorno muy raras y todo eso... Pero olvidemos todo lo que sabemos sobre ingeniera financiera. +Veamos si se pueden utilizar todos los trucos del oficio para determinar cmo hacer que estos frmacos funcionen como activos financieros. +Vamos a crear un fondo gigante. +En finanzas sabemos qu hacer con activos riesgosos. +Se ponen en una carpeta y se trata de suavizar los retornos. +As que hicimos algunos clculos y result que s puede funcionar, pero para ello se necesitan de 80 a 150 frmacos. +La buena noticia es que hay un montn de frmacos que estn esperando a ser probados. +Nos han dicho que hay un atraso de 20 aos de frmacos que estn listos para ser probados, sin financiar. +Esa etapa temprana del proceso, la fase I y el material pre-clnico, es lo que en la industria se llama el "valle de la muerte" porque es donde muchos frmacos mueren. +Es muy difcil que puedan pasar avantes. Solo superando esta parte, se puede avanzar a etapas porteriores. +Hicimos los clculos y conclumos que se necesitan alrededor de unos 80 a 150 frmacos, o algo por el estilo. +Entonces hicimos ms clculos y dijimos: Bueno, seran como 3 mil a 15 mil millones de dlares. +O sea que hemos creado un nuevo problema por resolver el anterior. +Por deshacernos del riesgo, ahora necesitamos un gran capital y solamente se puede obtener en los mercados de capitales. +Los capitalistas de riesgo no lo tienen. Los filntropos tampoco. +Tenemos que llegar a la gente de los mercados de capitales, que usualmente no invierten en estas cosas, para que se interesen. +De nuevo, la ingeniera financiera fue til aqu. +Imaginen que se inicia vaco el mega fondo y se emiten algunas deudas y algunas acciones y eso genera un flujo de dinero. +Ese flujo sirve, entonces, para comprar esa gran carpeta que se necesita para que los frmacos empiecen a transitar por el proceso de aprobacin. Cada vez que sobrepasan una fase del proceso, aumentan su valor. +La mayora no lo pasan, pero algunos s. Algunos de los que adquieren valor, se pueden vender y cuando se hace, se obtiene el dinero para pagar los intereses de los bonos, y tambin hay con qu financiar la prxima ronda de ensayos. +Es casi auto-financiacin. +Se hace esto para todos en el proceso, Cuando se termina, se liquida la cartera, se pagan los bonos y los accionisas reciben una bonita utilidad . +Esta era la teora. La discutimos. Hicimos una cantidad de experimentos y entonces dijimos, vamos a probarlo. +Pasamos los siguientes dos aos investigando. +Hablamos con muchos financieros de frmacos y de capital de riesgo. +Lo discutimos con personas que han desarrollado frmacos. +Hablamos con las compaas farmacuticas. +Examinamos los datos financieros de ms de 2000 medicamentos que han sido aprobados, negados o retirados. Tambin hicimos millones de simulaciones. +Todo esto tom un largo tiempo. +Cuando terminamos, encontramos algo ms o menos sorprendente. +Era realmente factible estructurar ese fondo tal que cuando se realice se pueden emitir bonos de bajo riesgo que seran atractivos para los titulares, pues les dara rendimientos del 5 al 8% y se podran producir acciones que retornaran cerca de un 12%. +Estos retornos no van a ser atractivos para los capitalistas de riesgo. +Estos siempre hacen grandes apuestas para ganar miles de millones de dlares. +Pero resulta que, hay muchas otras personas interesadas. +Ah estn los inversionistas de bajo riesgo de los fondos de pensiones, los planes 401 y todas esas cosas. +Entonces publicamos algunos artculos en revistas acadmicas, +en revistas mdicas, +en revistas de finanzas. +Pero solo fue cuando la prensa popular se interes cuando comenzamos a sentir empuje. +Pero queramos algo ms que apenas darlo a conocer. +Queramos ver a la gente involucrada. +Para ello tomamos todos los cdigos de computadora y los pusimos disponibles en lnea bajo licencia de cdigo abierto para todo el que lo quisiera. +Cualquiera lo puede descargar hoy, si desea hacer sus propios experimentos y ver si funciona. +Y eso s fue realmente eficaz, porque la gente que no crea en nuestras suposiciones podra poner a prueba sus propias suposiciones y ver cmo funcionan. +Hay un problema obvio, que es, Hay suficiente dinero en el mundo para financiar estas cosas? +He dicho que hay suficientes frmacos, pero habr suficiente dinero? +Hay 100 billones de dlares de capital actualmente invertidos en valores de renta fija. +Es cien millones de millones. +Dinero por montones. +Pero lo que vimos es que el dinero no es lo nico que se necesita. +Tenamos que conseguir gente motivada, que se involucrare, que entendiera el concepto. +Y empezamos a pensar en las muchas cosas que pueden salir mal. +Cules retos podran impedirlo? +Encontramos una larga lista y decidimos escoger un poco de gente, includos nosotros mismos, nos asignamos a diferentes partes del problema y nos preguntamos, se podr empezar el proceso con crditos de riesgo? +Se podr empezar el proceso con esas normas regulatorias? +Se podr empezar el proceso, sin perder el rumbo, con tantos proyectos? +Hemos tenido a todos esos expertos juntos trabajando en diferentes partes del flujo, y luego tuvimos una gran reunin. +Se llev a cabo un congreso en el verano pasado. +Fue una reunin exclusiva, solo por invitacin, +patrocinada por la American Cancer Society en colaboracin con el National Cancer Institute. +Tuvimos expertos de todos los campos que podran ser interesantes, incluido el gobierno, los que manejan centros de investigacin, etc. Por dos das que sentaron y escucharon los informes de esas cinco lneas de trabajo y los discutieron. +Era la primera vez que las personas que podran hacerlo realidad se sentaban a la mesa, unos con otros y tenan esas conversaciones. +En esos congresos, es comn tener una cena para que se conozcan unos con otros. Algo as como, "y usted qu hace aqu?" +Sucedi que mir por la ventana con la mano en el corazn, en la noche de la reunin... estbamos en pleno verano... Lo que vi fue un arco iris doble. +Me gustara pensar que fue una buena seal. +Desde el dia del congreso hemos tenido gente trabajando entre Pars y San Francisco, cantidades de gente trabajando en esto para ver si podemos llegar a hacerlo realidad. +No buscamos poner en marcha un fondo, solo queremos que alguien ms lo haga. +Porque, una vez ms, no soy un cientfico. +No puedo hacer un frmaco. +Y nunca voy a tener suficiente dinero para financiar uno de esos ensayos. +Pero todos juntos, con nuestros 401, con los planes 529, con los planes de pensiones, todos nosotros juntos podemos financiar cientos de ensayos, obtener un buen rendimiento por hacerlo y salvar millones de vidas como la de mi padre. +Gracias. +Esta es una imagen del planeta Tierra. +Se parece mucho a las imgenes del Apolo, tan bien conocidas. +Hay algo diferente; se les puede hacer clic, y al hacerlo uno se acerca a casi cualquier sitio del planeta. +Por ejemplo, esta es una vista de pjaro del campus de la EPFL. +En muchos casos, tambin podemos tener la vista de un edificio desde una calle cercana. +Esto es bastante sorprendente. +Pero hay algo que falta en este recorrido maravilloso: el tiempo. +No estoy muy seguro de cundo se tom esta foto. +Ni siquiera estoy seguro de que fuera tomada en el mismo momento que la vista a vuelo de pjaro. +En mi laboratorio desarrollamos herramientas para viajar no solo en el espacio sino tambin en el tiempo. +El tipo de pregunta que estamos haciendo es: Es posible construir algo como Google Maps del pasado? +Puedo aadir un control deslizante en la parte superior de Google Maps y cambiar el ao, viendo como fue 100 aos antes, 1000 aos antes? +Es posible? +Puedo reconstruir las redes sociales del pasado? +Puedo hacer un Facebook de la Edad Media? +Puedo construir mquinas del tiempo? +Tal vez solo podemos decir: "No, no es posible". +O, quiz, podemos pensar en ello desde el punto de vista informativo. +Esto es lo que yo llamo el hongo de informacin. +En el eje vertical est el tiempo. +En el horizontal, la cantidad de informacin digital disponible. +Obviamente, en los ltimos 10 aos, tenemos mucha informacin. +Y, obviamente, cuanto ms vamos al pasado, menos informacin tenemos. +Si queremos construir un Google Maps del pasado, o un Facebook del pasado, tenemos que ampliar este espacio, tenemos que transformarlo en un rectngulo. +Cmo lo hacemos? +Una forma es la digitalizacin. +Hay mucho material disponible: peridicos, libros impresos, miles de libros impresos. +Puedo digitalizar todo. +Puedo extraer informacin de all. +Claro, cuanto ms nos adentramos en el pasado, menos informacin habr. +Puede no ser suficiente. +Entonces puedo hacer como los historiadores. +Puedo extrapolar. +Esto es lo que llamamos, en ciencias de la computacin, simulacin. +Si tomo un libro de registro, puedo considerar que no solo es el libro de registro de un capitn veneciano que hizo un viaje en particular. +Puedo considerar que es un libro de registro representativo de muchos viajes de la poca. +Estoy extrapolando. +Si tengo la pintura de una fachada, puedo considerar que no solo es de ese edificio en particular, sino que quiz tambin comparte la misma gramtica de los edificios en los que hemos perdido informacin. +As que si queremos construir una mquina del tiempo, necesitamos 2 cosas. +Necesitamos archivos muy grandes y excelentes especialistas. +La Mquina del Tiempo Veneciana, el proyecto del que les hablar, es un proyecto conjunto entre la EPFL y la Universidad de Venecia Ca'Foscari. +Hay algo muy peculiar en Venecia, y es que su administracin ha sido muy, muy burocrtica. +Ellos han hecho seguimiento de todo, casi como Google hoy. +En el Archivio di Stato, hay 80 kilmetros de archivos que documentan cada aspecto de la vida de Venecia durante ms de 1000 aos. +Estn todos los botes que zarparon, todos los botes que arribaron. +Estn todo los cambios realizados en la ciudad. +Todo eso est all. +Estamos estableciendo un programa de digitalizacin a 10 aos con el objetivo de transformar este archivo inmenso en un gigante sistema de informacin. +El objetivo es digitalizar 450 libros al da. +Por supuesto, digitalizar no es suficiente porque la mayor parte de estos documentos est en latn, en toscano, en dialecto veneciano, as que hay que transcribirlos, traducirlos en algunos casos, para indexarlos, y esto obviamente no es fcil. +En particular, el mtodo ptico tradicional de reconocimiento de caracteres que puede usarse para manuscritos impresos, no funciona bien en documentos escritos a mano. +La solucin es inspirarse en otro dominio: el reconocimiento de voz. +Este es un dominio de algo que parece imposible, que puede hacerse, poniendo restricciones adicionales. +Si uno tiene un muy buen modelo de un lenguaje empleado, si uno tiene un muy buen modelo de un documento, si estn bien estructurados +--estos son documentos administrativos, +estn muy bien estructurados en muchos casos-- +si uno divide este archivo enorme en subconjuntos ms pequeos que compartan caractersticas similares, entonces hay una posibilidad de xito. +Si llegamos a esa etapa, entonces hay algo ms: podemos extraer eventos de este documento. +Quiz puedan obtenerse 10 000 millones de eventos de este archivo. +Y este gigante sistema de informacin puede buscarse de muchas formas. +Uno puede preguntar cosas como: "Quin vivi en este palacio en 1323?" +"Cunto costaba un besugo en el mercado de Realto en 1434?" +"Cul era el salario de un fabricante de vidrio en Murano en una dcada?" +Uno puede hacer incluso preguntas ms grandes porque estar codificado semnticamente. +Y luego se lo puede poner en el espacio porque mucha de esta informacin es espacial. +Y a partir de esto se pueden hacer cosas como reconstruir este viaje extraordinario de esa ciudad que logr tener un desarrollo sustentable durante ms de 1000 aos, logrando tener todo el tiempo una forma de equilibrio con su medio ambiente. +Uno puede reconstruir ese viaje, y visualizarlo de muchas maneras diferentes. +Pero, claro, no se puede comprender Venecia si solo se mira la ciudad. +Hay que ponerla en un contexto europeo ms grande. +Por eso la idea es documentar tambin las cosas a nivel europeo. +Podemos reconstruir tambin el viaje del imperio martimo veneciano. Cmo fue que control de manera progresiva el Mar Adritico, cmo se transform en el imperio medieval ms poderoso de su tiempo, controlando la mayor parte de las rutas martimas desde el este hacia el sur. +Pero tambin se pueden hacer otras cosas, porque en estas rutas martimas hay patrones regulares. +Podemos ir un paso ms all y crear un sistema de simulacin, crear un simulador mediterrneo capaz de reconstruir incluso la informacin perdida que nos permitira hacer preguntas como si tuvisemos un planificador de rutas. +"Si estoy en Corf en junio de 1323 y quiero ir a Constantinopla, dnde puedo tomar un bote?" +Probablemente podemos responder esta pregunta con 1, 2 o 3 das de precisin. +"Cunto costar?" +"Cules son las probabilidades de encontrarse con piratas?" +Por supuesto, como comprendern, el reto cientfico central de un proyecto como este es calificar, cuantificar y representar la incertidumbre y la inconsistencia en cada paso del proceso. +Hay errores en todas partes; errores en el documento, error en el nombre del capitn, algunos de los barcos nunca zarparon. +Hay errores de traduccin, sesgos interpretativos, y encima de eso, si sumamos procesos algortmicos, tendremos errores de reconocimiento, errores en la extraccin, por eso tenemos datos muy, muy inciertos. +Entonces, cmo podemos detectar y corregir estas inconsistencias? +Cmo podemos representar esa incertidumbre? +Es difcil. Algo que podemos hacer es documentar cada paso del proceso, no solo codificar la informacin histrica sino tambin lo que llamamos la informacin meta-histrica, cmo se construye el conocimiento histrico, documentar cada paso. +Eso no garantizar la convergencia hacia una nica historia de Venecia, pero probablemente podamos reconstruir una historia potencial de Venecia totalmente documentada. +Tal vez no haya un solo mapa. +Quiz haya varios mapas. +El sistema debe permitir eso, porque tenemos que enfrentar una nueva forma de incertidumbre, algo nuevo para este tipo de gigantescas bases de datos. +Y cmo deberamos comunicar esta nueva investigacin a un pblico ms amplio? +Una vez ms, Venecia es extraordinaria para eso. +Con los millones de visitantes que recibe cada ao es uno de los mejores lugares para tratar de inventar el museo del futuro. +Imaginen que en el eje horizontal ven el mapa reconstruido de un ao dado, y en el vertical, ven el documento usado para la reconstruccin, pinturas, por ejemplo. +Imaginen un sistema inmersivo que permita meterse, bucear y reconstruir la Venecia de un ao dado, una experiencia que podra compartirse en grupo. +O al contrario, imaginen que parten de un documento, un manuscrito veneciano, y muestran lo que se puede construir a partir de eso, cmo se decodifica, cmo puede recrearse el contexto de ese documento. +Esta es la imagen de una muestra que actualmente se lleva a cabo en Ginebra con ese tipo de sistema. +Para concluir, podemos decir que la investigacin en humanidades est a punto de experimentar una evolucin quiz similar a lo ocurrido con las ciencias de la vida hace 30 aos. +Es realmente una cuestin de escala. +Vemos proyectos que exceden lo que puede hacer un simple equipo de investigacin y esto es realmente nuevo para las humanidades, que muy a menudo tienen el hbito de trabajar en pequeos grupos o solo con un par de investigadores. +Cuando uno visita el Archivio di Stato siente que excede el trabajo de un solo equipo, y que debe ser un esfuerzo conjunto y mancomunado. +Este cambio de paradigma requiere fomentar una nueva generacin de "humanistas digitales" que estn preparados para el cambio. +Muchas gracias. +Para cualquiera de ustedes que han visitado o vivieron en la ciudad de Nueva York estas tomas les parecern familiares. +Este es Central Park, uno de los espacios pblicos ms bellamente diseado en Estados Unidos. +Pero para quien no lo ha visitado, estas imgenes no pueden transmitirlo totalmente. +Para entender realmente Central Park, tienen que estar fsicamente all. +Bueno, lo mismo es cierto sobre la msica, que mi hermano y yo componemos y mapeamos especficamente para Central Park +Me gustara hablar hoy un poco sobre el trabajo que mi hermano Hays y yo hacemos. All estamos. Los dos en realidad, especficamente sobre un concepto que hemos estado desarrollando en los ltimos aos, esta idea de la msica de localizacin. +Mi hermano y yo somos msicos y productores de msica. +Hemos estado trabajando juntos desde, bueno, desde que ramos nios, realmente. +Pero recientemente, nos hemos interesado ms y ms en proyectos donde el arte y la tecnologa se cruzan, desde la creacin audios especficos para vistas y videoinstalacin a producir conciertos interactivos. +Pero hoy quiero centrarme en este concepto de la composicin para el espacio fsico. +Pero antes de adentrarme en esto, djenme contarles un poco acerca de cmo empezamos con esta idea. +Mi hermano y yo vivamos en Nueva York cuando los artistas Christo y Jeanne-Claude hicieron su instalacin temporal, The Gates (las puertas), en Central Park. +Esta fue una experiencia que se qued con nosotros por mucho tiempo, y aos ms tarde, mi hermano y yo nos mudamos a Washington, D.C. y comenzamos a preguntarnos, sera posible, de la misma manera que The Gates responda a la disposicin fsica del parque, componer msica para un paisaje? +Lo que nos llev a esto. +El da de los cados, estrenamos "The National Mall", un lbum de localizacin lanzado exclusivamente como una aplicacin mvil que utiliza el GPS integrado del dispositivo para mapear snicamente todo el parque en nuestra ciudad natal de Washington, D.C. +Cientos de segmentos musicales son geo-etiquetados a lo largo de todo el parque as que mientras el oyente atraviesa el paisaje, una partitura musical est en curso alrededor de ellos. +Esto no es una lista de reproduccin o una lista de canciones destinadas para el parque, sino una gran variedad de ritmos y melodas distintas que encajan como piezas de un rompecabezas y se mezclan perfectamente basada en la trayectoria elegida del oyente. +As que pueden pensar en esto como un lbum de "elija su propia aventura". +Echemos un vistazo ms de cerca. +Veamos un ejemplo aqu. +As que usando la aplicacin, mientras caminas por el jardn rodeando el monumento a Washington, oyes los sonidos de instrumentos afinando, que luego toma la forma del sonido de un mellotron interpretando una meloda muy simple. +Entonces se une con el sonido de violines. +Sigan caminando y se integra un coro completo hasta finalmente llegar a la cima de la colina donde escuchan el sonido de los tambores y fuegos artificiales y todo tipo de locuras musicales, como si todos estos sonidos se irradiaran hacia fuera desde este gigantesco Obelisco que domina el centro del parque. +Pero al caminar en direccin opuesta, la secuencia entera ocurre a la inversa. +Cuando realmente salgan del permetro del parque, la msica se desvaneceran para silenciarse, y el botn de play desaparecera. +A veces nos contacta gente de otras partes del mundo que no puede viajar a los Estados Unidos, pero que le gustara escuchar este disco. +Bueno, a diferencia de un disco normal, no hemos podido atender esta solicitud. +Cuando piden un disco o una versin MP3, simplemente no podemos darla y la razn es porque esto no es una aplicacin promocional o un juego para promover o acompaar el lanzamiento de un disco tradicional. +En este caso, la aplicacin es la propia obra, y la arquitectura del paisaje es intrnseca a la experiencia auditiva. +Seis meses despus, hicimos un lbum de localizacin para Central Park, un parque que es ms de dos veces el tamao del National Mall, con msica que abarca desde el Sheep's Meadow hasta el Ramble y el Reservoir. +Pero lo que estamos haciendo, integrando GPS con msica, es solo una idea. +Gracias. +Todo el modelo de capitalismo y el modelo econmico con el que Uds. y yo hicimos negocios, y en donde, de hecho, seguimos haciendo negocios, est basado en lo que Milton Friedman probablemente dijo ms sucintamente. +Y Adam Smith, por supuesto, el padre de la economa moderna, dijo hace muchsimos aos, sobre la mano invisible, que es, "continuar actuando por tus propios intereses, es lo ms beneficioso para la sociedad". +Ahora, el capitalismo ha hecho muchas cosas buenas, y les hablo de muchas cosas buenas que han pasado, pero de la misma forma, no ha podido resolver algunos de los desafos que hemos visto en la sociedad. +Temo que esto no va a ser suficiente y que tenemos que pasar del modelo 3C a un modelo que llamo la cuarta C: la C de Crecimiento responsable. +Y este tiene que volverse una parte muy importante de crear valor. +De no solo crear valor econmico, sino crear valor social. +Y las compaas que prosperan son las que adoptan la cuarta C. +El modelo 4C es muy sencillo: Las compaas no pueden darse el lujo de ser nicamente testigos inocentes de lo que est pasando en la sociedad. +Deben empezar a servir a la comunidades que de hecho las apoya. +Y debemos pasar de un modelo de y/y que es, cmo hacemos dinero y hacemos el bien? +Cmo nos aseguramos de tener un gran negocio, pero tambin un buen medio ambiente a nuestro alrededor? +Y ese modelo se trata de hacerlo bien y de hacer el bien. +Pero es mucho ms fcil decirlo que hacerlo. +Cmo se logra eso? +De veras creo que la respuesta est en el liderazgo. +Se trata de redefinir los nuevos modelos de negocios que puedan entender que la nica licencia para operar es combinando estas cosas. +Y para ello necesitan negocios que de hecho pueden definir su papel en la sociedad en los trminos de un propsito mucho ms grande que los productos y las marcas que venden. +Y las compaas que de hecho tienen un propsito claro, cosas que no son negociables, ya sean en tiempos buenos, malos, difciles... no importa. +Son las cosas que defiendes. +Los valores y los propsitos van a ser las dos fuerzas intangibles que van a crear las empresas del maana. +Ahora voy a pasar a hablarles un poco de mis propias experiencias. +Entr a trabajar en Unilever in 1976 como gerente en entrenamiento en India. +Y en mi primer da de trabajo, entr y mi jefe me dice: "Sabes por qu ests aqu?" +Le dije, "Estoy aqu para vender bastante jabn". +Y l me dijo: "No, ests aqu para cambiar vidas". +Ests aqu para cambiar vidas. +La verdad es que me son un poco chistoso. +Somos una compaa que vende jabones y sopas. +Qu hacemos con cambiar vidas? +Y all fue cuando me di cuenta de que acciones sencillas como vender una barra de jabn pueden salvar ms vidas que todas las compaas farmacuticas. +No s cuntos de Uds. saban que 5 millones de nios no alcanzan los 5 aos de edad debido a pequeas infecciones que pueden ser prevenidas por el simple acto de lavarse las manos con jabn. +Manejamos el ms grande programa de lavado de manos en el mundo. +Estamos manejando un programa de higiene y salud que ha llegado a beneficiar a unas 500 millones de personas. +No se trata de vender jabn, hay un propsito ms grande en eso. +Y de hecho las marcas pueden estar al frente de los cambios sociales. +Y la razn de eso es que cuando 2000 millones de personas usan sus marcas, eso es un amplificador. +Pequeas acciones pueden marcar una gran diferencia. +Otro ejemplo, paseaba por una de nuestras aldeas en India. +Ahora, para quienes lo han hecho, saben que esto no es un paseo en el parque. +Y tenamos esta seora que era uno de nuestros pequeos distribuidores... una casa hermosa y muy, muy humilde... y ella estaba all afuera, muy bien vestida, su esposo atrs al fondo, su suegra detrs, y la cuada detrs de ella. +El orden social estaba cambiando porque esta mujer es parte de nuestro proyecto Shakti, que de hecho le ensea a las mujeres a manejar pequeos negocios y a difundir el mensaje de nutricin e higiene. +Tenemos unas 60 000 mujeres en India ahora. +No se trata de vender jabones, se trata de asegurar que en este proceso cambiamos las vidas de las personas. +Pequeas acciones, gran diferencia. +Nuestro equipo de investigacin y desarrollo no solo estn trabajando para darnos unos detergentes fantsticos, sino tambin estn trabajando para asegurarse de que usemos menos agua. +Un producto que sacamos al mercado recientemente, One Rinse, que les permite gastar menos agua, cada vez que lavan su ropa. +Si logramos cambiar a todos nuestros consumidores a usar este producto, eso seran 500 000 millones de litros de agua. +Que, por cierto, es equivalente a un mes de consumo de agua para todo un continente inmenso. +Piensen en eso. +Hay pequeas acciones que pueden marcar una gran diferencia. +Y puedo seguir contndoles. +Nuestra cadena de comida, nuestros productos brillantes... y disclpenme que les estoy mencionando a nuestros patrocinadores... Knorr, Hellman's y todos esos productos maravillosos. +Estamos comprometidos a asegurarnos de que toda nuestra materia prima agrcola provenga de fuentes sustentables, un 100 % de fuentes sustentables. +Fuimos los primeros que dijimos que bamos a comprar todo nuestro aceite de palma de fuentes sustentables. +No s cuntos de Uds. saban que el aceite de palma al no comprarlo de fuentes sustentables puede crear deforestacin que es responsable del 20 % de los gases de invernadero a nivel mundial. +Fuimos los primeros en aceptarlo, y eso porque vendemos sopas y jabones. +Y el punto que traigo a colacin aqu es que compaas como las suyas, como la ma, tienen que definir un propsito que adopte la responsabilidad y el entendimiento de que tenemos que jugar nuestro papel en las comunidades en las que operamos. +Presentamos algo que llamamos el plan de vida sustentable de Unilever, que dice: "Nuestro propsito es hacer que la vida sustentable sea algo cotidiano, y vamos a cambiar las vidas de 1000 millones de personas para el 2020". +La pregunta aqu es: hacia dnde vamos a partir de ahora? +Y la respuesta es muy sencilla: No vamos a cambiar el mundo solos. +Hay muchos de Uds. y muchos de nosotros que entendemos esto. +La cuestin es que necesitamos asociaciones, coaliciones, y lo ms importante, necesitamos liderazgo que nos permita llevarlo desde aqu y ser el cambio que queremos ver a nuestro alrededor. +Muchsimas gracias. +Es un placer estar aqu en Edimburgo, Escocia, lugar de nacimiento de la aguja y la jeringa. +A menos de un kilmetro de aqu en esta direccin, en 1853 un escocs present su primera patente de la aguja y la jeringa. +Su nombre era Alexander Wood, y fue en el Royal College of Physicians. +Esta es la patente. +Lo que me sigue pareciendo extraordinario cuando la miro es que tiene un aspecto casi idntico a la aguja en uso hoy en da. +Sin embargo, tiene 160 aos. +Vamos al campo de las vacunas. +La mayora de las vacunas se aplican con aguja y jeringa, esta tecnologa de 160 aos. +Y el crdito merecido, se debe en gran parte a que las vacunas son una tecnologa exitosa. +Despus del agua potable y el saneamiento, las vacunas son la tecnologa que ha incrementado ms nuestra esperanza de vida. +Es un hecho muy difcil a vencer. +Pero al igual que cualquier otra tecnologa, las vacunas tienen sus defectos, y la aguja y la jeringa son un elemento clave dentro de esa narrativa, esta vieja tecnologa. +Vamos a empezar con lo obvio: A muchos de nosotros no nos gustan las agujas y las jeringas. +Yo comparto esa opinin. +Sin embargo, un 20 % de la poblacin tiene algo que se llama fobia de aguja. +Eso es ms que mostrar desagrado por las agujas; es evitar activamente ser vacunado por fobia a la aguja. +Y eso es problemtico en cuanto a la implementacin de las vacunas. +Ahora, relacionado con esto otra cuestin clave son las lesiones por pinchazo de aguja. +Y la OMS tiene datos que sugieren que unas 1,3 millones de muertes al ao ocurren debido a la contaminacin cruzada con las lesiones por agujas. +Estas son las muertes tempranas que ocurren. +Esas son 2 cosas que probablemente habrn odo, pero hay otras 2 deficiencias de la aguja y la jeringa que puede que no hayan odo. +Una es que podran estar reteniendo la siguiente generacin de vacunas en trminos de sus respuestas inmunitarias. +Y la segunda es que podran ser responsables del problema de la cadena de fro del que les hablar tambin. +Voy a contarles algo del trabajo que mi equipo y yo estamos haciendo en Australia en la Universidad de Queensland en una tecnologa diseada para abordar esos 4 problemas. +Y esa tecnologa se llama el None. +Esta es una muestra del None. +A simple vista parece un cuadrado ms pequeo que una estampilla, pero bajo el microscopio se ven miles y miles de diminutas nanopuntas invisibles al ojo humano. +Y hay unas 4000 nanopuntas en este cuadrado en particular en comparacin con la aguja. +Y he diseado esas nanopuntas para un papel clave, que es trabajar con el sistema inmune de la piel. +Es una funcin muy importante vinculada con el nanopatch. +Ahora hacemos el nanopatch con una tcnica llamada grabado inico reactivo profundo. +Esta tcnica en particular la he tomado prestada de la industria de semiconductores, y por lo tanto, es de bajo costo y puede aplicarse en grandes cantidades. +Recubrimos las nanopuntas del nanopatch con una capa de vacuna seca y lo aplicamos a la piel. +La forma ms simple de aplicacin es usar el dedo, pero el dedo tiene algunas limitaciones, as que hemos creado un aplicador. +Es un dispositivo muy simple... podra llamarse un dedo sofisticado. +Es un dispositivo de resorte. +Ponemos el nanopatch en la piel como y... inmediatamente pasan cosas. +Primero, las nanopuntas en el nanopatch rompen la capa externa resistente y la vacuna se libera rpidamente... en menos de un minuto, en realidad. +Entonces podemos despegar el nanopatch y desecharlo. +De hecho podemos reutilizar el propio aplicador. +Esto les da una idea del nanopatch, e inmediatamente pueden ver algunas ventajas claves. +Hemos hablado de librarnos de la aguja... estas son las nanopuntas que no pueden ver... y, por supuesto, nos libramos de la cuestin de la fobia a las agujas, tambin. +Ahora, retrocedamos y pensamos en estas otras 2 ventajas muy importantes: Una es mejorar la respuesta inmunitaria al aplicarla, y la segunda es deshacerse de la cadena de fro. +Empecemos con la primera, esta idea de inmunogenicidad. +Es un poco confuso pero voy a intentar explicarlo en trminos sencillos. +Les explicar cmo funcionan las vacunas de una manera sencilla. +Las vacunas funcionan introduciendo en nuestro cuerpo una cosa que se llama un antgeno que es una forma segura de un germen. +Ese germen seguro, ese antgeno, engaa a nuestro cuerpo para que monte una respuesta inmunitaria, aprenda y recuerde cmo lidiar con los intrusos. +Cuando llega el intruso real el cuerpo rpidamente monta una respuesta inmune relacionada con esa vacuna y neutraliza la infeccin. +Lo hace as de bien. +La forma en que se hace hoy es con la aguja y jeringa, la mayora de las vacunas se aplican as... con esta tecnologa vieja y la aguja. +Pero se podra argumentar que la aguja est frenando nuestra respuesta inmune; pues no llega a nuestro punto inmune ideal en la piel. +Para describir esta idea, tenemos que hacer un viaje por la piel, empezando con una de esas proyecciones y la aplicacin del nanopatch a la piel. +Y vemos este tipo de datos. +Estos son datos reales... lo que vemos es una nanopunta del nanopatch que se ha aplicado a la piel y los colores son diferentes capas. +Para darles una idea de la escala, si la aguja se mostrara aqu, sera demasiado grande. +Sera 10 veces ms grande que el tamao de la pantalla, va 10 veces ms profundo. +Est completamente fuera de la imagen. +Pueden ver inmediatamente que tenemos esas nanopuntas en la piel. +Esa capa roja es una dura capa externa de piel muerta, pero la capa marrn y la magenta estn inundadas de clulas inmunes. +Como ejemplo, en la capa marrn hay un cierto tipo de clula llamado clula de Langerhans... cada milmetro cuadrado de nuestro cuerpo est completamente lleno de esas clulas de Langerhans, clulas inmunes y se muestran otras tambin que no hemos marcado en esta imagen. +Pero pueden ver inmediatamente que el nanopatch logra de hecho esa penetracin. +Apuntamos a miles y miles de estas clulas particulares que residen dentro del ancho de un cabello de la superficie de la piel. +Al igual que el hombre que invent y dise esto, lo encuentro muy emocionante. Y qu? +Qu pasa si has apuntado a las clulas? +En el mundo de las vacunas, qu significa eso? +El mundo de las vacunas est mejorando. +Se est volviendo ms sistemtico. +Sin embargo, an no se conoce si una vacuna va a funcionar hasta que te arremangas, vacunas y esperas. +Incluso hoy en da es una apuesta. +As que tuvimos que hacer esa apuesta. +Obtuvimos una vacuna contra la influenza, la aplicamos a nuestros nanopatches y aplicamos los nanopatches a la piel, y esperamos... este es en el animal vivo. +Esperamos un mes, y esto es lo que descubrimos. +Esta es una diapositiva de datos mostrando las respuestas inmunes que generamos con un nanopatch comparada con la aguja y la jeringa en el msculo. +En el eje horizontal tenemos la dosis en nanogramos. +En el eje vertical la respuesta inmune generada, y la lnea punteada indica el umbral de proteccin. +Si estamos por encima de esa lnea se considera protector; si estamos por debajo, no. +La lnea roja es en su mayora est por debajo de esa curva y de hecho hay solamente un punto en que se logra con la aguja esa proteccin, y eso es con una alta dosis de 6000 nanogramos. +Pero noten inmediatamente la curva claramente diferente que logramos con la lnea azul. +Eso es lo que se logra con el nanopatch; la dosis suministrada por el nanopatch es una curva completamente distinta de inmunogenicidad. +Es una oportunidad realmente nueva. +De pronto tenemos algo novedoso en el mundo de las vacunas. +Podemos llevarlo al punto de tomar una vacuna que funciona, que es demasiado costosa y lograr proteccin con una centsima de la dosis en comparacin con la aguja. +Esto puede tomar una vacuna y de pronto pasar de USD 10 a 10 centavos, y eso es particularmente importante en el mundo en desarrollo. +Pero tambin hay otro aspecto... se pueden tomar vacunas que actualmente no funcionan y cruzar esa lnea y dar proteccin. +Y ciertamente en el mundo de las vacunas eso puede ser importante. +Veamos las 3 grandes: VIH, malaria, tuberculosis. +Son responsables de cerca de unos 7 millones de muertes al ao, y no hay ningn mtodo de vacunacin adecuado para ninguna de ellas. +As que, potencialmente, con esta innovacin que tenemos con el nanopatch, podemos contribuir a que eso suceda. +Podemos usar esa novedad para impulsar esas vacunas candidatas. +Ahora, por supuesto, hemos trabajado en mi laboratorio con muchas otras vacunas que han alcanzado curvas similares a esta y respuestas similares, lo que hemos logrado con la influenza. +Me gustara cambiar ahora para hablar de otro defecto clave de las vacunas de hoy, y es la necesidad de mantener la cadena de fro. +Como su nombre indica, la cadena de fro es el requisito de tener una vacuna desde su produccin durante todo el proceso hasta que se aplica, refrigerada. +Esto presenta algunos desafos logsticos pero tenemos formas de hacerlo. +Este es un caso un poco extremo pero ayuda a ilustrar los retos logsticos, en particular, en lugares de escasos recursos, de lo que se requiere para conseguir vacunas refrigerados y mantener la cadena de fro. +Si la vacuna est demasiado caliente, se daa pero llamativamente con mucho fro la vacuna se puede descomponer tambin. +Los riesgos son muy altos. +La OMS estima que en frica, hasta la mitad de las vacunas usadas all no estn funcionando correctamente porque en algn momento se rompi la cadena de fro. +As que es un gran problema, y est vinculado con la aguja y la jeringa porque es una vacuna lquida y cuando es lquida necesita refrigeracin. +Un atributo clave de nuestro nanopatch es que la vacuna es seca, y cuando est seca no necesita refrigeracin. +En mi laboratorio hemos demostrado que podemos mantener la vacuna almacenada a 23 C durante ms de un ao sin ninguna prdida de actividad en absoluto. +Eso es un avance importante. +Tambin estamos encantados por eso. +El punto es que hemos realmente comprobado el nanopatch en el entorno del laboratorio. +Y, como cientfico, me encanta eso y me encanta la ciencia. +Sin embargo, como ingeniero, como ingeniero biomdico y tambin como un ser humano, no voy a estar satisfecho hasta que hayamos llevado esto fuera del laboratorio y aplicado a gente en grandes cantidades y particularmente a la gente que ms lo necesita. +As que hemos empezado este viaje particular, de una manera inusual. +Hemos empezado con Papa Nueva Guinea. +Papa Nueva Guinea es un ejemplo de un pas en desarrollo, +del tamao de Francia, pero tiene muchas de las principales barreras existentes en el mundo de las vacunas hoy. +El tema logstico: En el pas solo hay 800 refrigeradores para mantener las vacunas refrigeradas. +La mayora, como este en Puerto Moresby, son viejos y a punto de descomponerse. y muchos no estn en el altiplano donde son necesarios. +Ese es un reto. +Pero tambin, Papa Nueva Guinea tiene la mayor incidencia del mundo de VPH, virus del papiloma humano, [el factor de riesgo] del cncer de cuello uterino. +Sin embargo, la vacuna no est disponible en grandes cantidades porque es demasiado cara. +As que por esas 2 razones, con los atributos del nanopatch, hemos ido al campo a trabajar con el nanopatch, y lo llevamos a Papa Nueva Guinea y se podr hacer seguimiento pronto. +Ahora, no es fcil hacer este tipo de trabajo. +Es un reto, pero no hay nada ms en el mundo que yo prefera hacer. +Y cuando miramos al futuro me gustara compartir con Uds. un pensamiento: Es la idea de un futuro donde las 17 millones de muertes al ao que tenemos actualmente debido a enfermedades infecciosas sea una nota histrica. +Y que sea una nota histrica que se ha logrado por la mejora, la mejora radical en las vacunas. +Gracias. +Pat Mitchell: Tu primera vez en TEDWomen. +Sheryl S: Primera vez. Es bueno verlos. Siempre es bueno mirar y ver a tantas mujeres. +No es a lo que estoy acostumbrada como tampoco lo es para el resto. +PM: Cuando empezamos a hablar de que el tema no fuera acerca de los medios sociales que asumimos sera, sino que tenas mucho en mente la falta de posiciones de liderazgo, particularmente en el sector de tecnologa y los medios sociales. +Pero cmo evolucion como un pensamiento y termin siendo la charla de TED que diste? +Estaba muy asustada de hablar sobre las mujeres, porque crec en el mundo de los negocios, como muchas de nosotras. +Nunca hablas de ser mujer, porque alguien podra notar que eres una mujer, verdad? +Se darn cuenta. O peor an, si dices mujer la gente al otro lado de la mesa piensan que pides trato especial o que te ests quejando. +O peor, que ests a punto de demandarlos. Y as he pasado... Verdad? He pasado mi carrera entera, y nunca habl de ser mujer, nunca habl de esto pblicamente. +Pero tambin he notado que as no funciona. +Sal de la universidad hace ms de 20 aos y pens: todos mis compaeros eran hombres y mujeres, todos por encima de m eran hombres, pero que eso cambiara, porque tu generacin ha hecho un trabajo increble en la lucha por la igualdad, la igualdad llegara. Pero no fue as. +Porque ao tras ao, yo era una de las pocas, y ahora, a menudo la nica mujer en la sala. +Y he hablado con mucha gente sobre eso, Debera hablar en TEDWomen sobre las mujeres y dijeron: Oh no, no. +Terminar con tu carrera empresarial. No puedes ser una ejecutiva de negocios seria y hablar acerca de ser mujer. Nunca te tomarn en serio otra vez. +Por suerte, hubo unos pocos, los orgullosos, como t, que me dijeron que debera dar el discurso, y me pregunt lo que Mark Zuckerberg, el fundador de Facebook y mi jefe, nos preguntara a todos nosotros: qu es lo que haras si no tuvieras miedo? +Y te dije en el ltimo minuto: "Sabes, realmente debes contar eso". +SS: Oh, s. PM: Cual era la historia? +SS: De hecho es una parte importante del camino. Tena el evento de TEDWomen, el original sera en D.C. y vivo aqu, tena que tomar un avin el da anterior, y mi hija que tena tres aos, se aferraba a mi pierna y deca: "Mami, no te vayas". +Y Pat es una amiga... Y esto no tena relacin con el discurso que iba a dar, que estaba lleno de hechos y cifras, pero de nada personal, y le cont a Pat la historia. Le dije, tengo un da difcil. +Ayer mi hija se aferr a mi pierna y deca: "No te vayas". +Y me miraste y dijiste, tienes que contar esa historia. +Y dije: En el escenario de TED? Ests bromeando? +Voy a salir al palco y admitir que se aferraba a mi pierna? +Y t dijistes que s, porque si quera hablar de ms mujeres en posiciones de liderazgo, tienes que ser honesta acerca de lo difcil que es. +Y lo hice. Y creo que es una parte muy importante del camino. +Lo mismo pas cuando escrib mi libro. Empec a escribir el libro. Escrib un primer captulo, Pens que era fabuloso. Estaba repleta de datos y cifras, tena tres pginas sobre tribus Masai matrilineales y sus patrones sociolgicos. +Mi esposo lo ley y me dijo que es como comer Wheaties. Nadie -- y me disculpo si hay alguien de Wheaties aqu -- nadie, nadie leer este libro. +Y me di cuenta a lo largo del proceso que deba ser ms honesta y ms abierta, y tuve que contar mis historias. Mi historia de que todava no me senta tan segura de m misma como debera en muchas situaciones. Mi primer y fallido matrimonio. Llorar en el trabajo. +Sintindome como que no perteneca all, sintindome culpable hasta este da. +Y parte de mi camino, empezando en este escenario, y de all a los principios de "apyate" y la fundacin es que se trata de ser ms abierta y honesta acerca de esos desafos, para que otras mujeres puedan ser ms abiertas y honestas, y que todas podamos trabajar juntas por verdadera igualdad. +Hblanos de ese proceso: decidir hacer pblico lo privado, y luego ponerte en la posicin de experto sobre cmo resolver esos desafos. +SS: Despus de hacer la charla de TED, lo que pas fue... ya sabes que nunca imagin escribir un libro, no soy una autora o una escritora, muchos la vieron y comenz a impactar las vidas de las personas. +Tengo una de las primeras cartas de una mujer que deca que le ofrecieron un buen ascenso en el trabajo y ella lo rechaz, y le cont a su mejor amiga que lo rechaz y ella le dijo: "Tienes que ver esta charla de TED". +Y vio esta charla de TED, y regres al da siguiente y acept el trabajo, y luego fue a casa y le dio a su esposo la lista de las compras. Y ella dijo, puedo hacer esto. +Y lo que es realmente significativo para m... es que no es slo mujeres en corporaciones. Si bien lo he odo de muchas, y las impact mucho, tambin haba gente en diferentes circunstancias. +Hay un mdico que conoc que atenda en el Johns Hopkins, y me dijo que hasta que vio mi charla de TED, nunca se le ocurri que aunque la mitad de los estudiantes de medicina eran mujeres, no hablaban tanto como los hombres cuando hacan visitas a pacientes +As que empez a prestar atencin y se dio cuenta de que los hombres siempre levantaban la mano. +empez a alentar a las mujeres a levantar la mano, y an as no lo hacan. +Entonces les dijo a todos, no levanten ms la mano, yo digo quin habla. +As poda llamar uniformemente a hombres y mujeres. Y se demostr a s mismo que las mujeres saban las respuestas tan bien o mejor y fue capaz decrselos. +Y tambin est la mujer, ama de casa, que vive en un barrio difcil, sin una buena escuela, dijo que esa charla TED -- y nunca tuvo un trabajo corporativo -- la charla de TED la inspir a ir a la escuela y demandar un mejor maestro para su hija. +Y creo que parte fue encontrar mi propia voz. +Y me di cuenta de que otras mujeres y hombres podran encontrar su voz a travs de esto, y es la razn por la que pas de la charla al libro. +PM: Y en el libro, no slo encontraste tu voz, que es clara y firme, sino tambin compartes lo que has aprendido, las experiencias de otras personas en las lecciones. +Y lo que estoy pensando es que te convertiste en una especie de experto en cmo se apoyar. +Cmo te sentiste y cmo ha cambiado tu vida? +El lanzar no slo un libro muy vendido, una charla de las ms vistas, sino un movimiento, donde la gente comenz a describir literalmente sus acciones en el trabajo como: "me estoy apoyando". +SS: Quiero decir, estoy agradecida, me siento honrada, estoy feliz y es apenas el comienzo. +No s si soy un experto o si alguien es experto. Ciertamente he investigado bastante. +He ledo todos los estudios, he estudiado los materiales, y las lecciones son muy claras. Porque esto es lo que sabemos: Lo que sabemos es que los estereotipos dejan a la mujeres alejadas de puestos de liderazgo en el mundo. +Es sorprendente. "Apyate" es global, he estado en todo el mundo, y las culturas son tan diferentes. +Incluso en nuestro propio pas, hasta Japn, Corea, China, Asia, Europa, son muy diferentes, excepto por una cosa: el gnero. +En todo el mundo, sin importar la cultura, creemos que los hombres deben ser fuertes, energticos, agresivos, tener voz creemos que las mujeres deben hablar cuando se les habla, ayudar a los dems. +Ahora, pasa que en todo el mundo a las mujeres se les llama "mandonas". Hay una palabra para "mandona" para las nias, en todos los idiomas. +Es una palabra que no es muy usadas para los nios, porque si un nio manda, no hay un adjetivo negativo para ello -- es de esperarse --. Pero si una nia manda, es una "mandona". +S que no hay muchos hombres hoy aqu, pero tnganme paciencia. +Si eres hombre, tendrs que representar tu gnero. +Por favor, levanta la mano si te han dicho que eres muy agresivo en el trabajo. +Siempre hay unos pocos, alrededor del 5 %. Bien, ahora preprense seores. +Si eres una mujer, por favor, levanta la mano si alguna vez te han dicho que eres muy agresiva en el trabajo. +Eso es lo que dice el pblico en todos los pases del mundo, y es apoyada profundamente por los datos. +Creen que las mujeres son ms agresivas que los hombres? Por supuesto que no. +Las juzgamos a travs de una lente diferente y muchos de los rasgos de carcter que se deben exhibir, para obtener resultados, al dirigir, son los que pensamos que en un hombre, l es un jefe, y en una mujer, ella es una mandona. +Y la buena noticia sobre esto es que podemos cambiarlo reconocindolo. +Uno de los momentos ms felices en esta aventura, despus de que sali el libro, fue cuando estuve en un escenario con John Chambers, el CEO de Cisco. +Haba ledo el libro. Estaba en el palco conmigo, y me invit frente a su equipo, hombres y mujeres, y dijo: "Pens que ramos buenos en esto. Pens que era bueno en esto. +Luego le este libro y me di cuenta que nosotros, mi empresa, hemos llamado a nuestras mujeres demasiado agresivas, y estoy de pi en este palco y lo siento. +Y quiero que sepan que nunca vamos a hacerlo de nuevo". +PM: Podemos enviar eso a un montn de gente que conocemos? SS: John est haciendo eso porque cree que es bueno para su empresa, y reconocer este tipo de prejuicios es lo que puede cambiarlos. +Y as que la prxima vez que vean a alquien llamar a una nia "mandona", irn hasta esa persona con una gran sonrisa y le dirn: "Esa nia no es mandona. Esa nia tiene habilidades de liderazgo ejecutivo". PM: Ya s que eso es lo que le dices a tu hija. SS: Absolutamente. +PM: Y en el libro te enfocaste, en crear un dilogo acerca de esto. +Es decir, vamos a ponerlo all, enfrenten el hecho de que las mujeres, en un tiempo cuando tenemos ms puertas abiertas y ms oportunidades, todava no estn obteniendo las posiciones de liderazgo. +En los meses que pasaron desde que sali el libro, en que "Apoyarse" se ha centrado, aqu estn algunos de los desafos y muchos de ellos estn dentro de nosotros y vemonos a nosotros mismos. Qu ha cambiado? +Has visto cambios? +SS: Bueno, ciertamente hay ms dilogo, que es genial. +Pero lo que realmente me importa, y creo que a todos, es accin. +A donde quiera que voy los CEOs, que son en su mayora hombres, me dicen, me ests costando mucho dinero porque todas las mujeres quieren ganar tanto como los hombres. +Y les digo, no me arrepiento en absoluto. En absoluto. Es decir, las mujeres deben ser pagas tanto como los hombres. +Donde quiera que voy, las mujeres me dicen que piden aumentos. +Donde sea que voy, las mujeres dicen que tienen mejores relaciones con sus esposos, pidiendo ms ayuda en casa, pidiendo los ascensos que merecen en el trabajo ms importante, creen en si mismas. Incluso pequeas cosas. +Un gobernador de uno de los estados me dijo que no se daba cuenta que las mujeres se sentaban literalmente en los costados de la sala, y ahora hizo una regla que todas las mujeres se sienten a la mesa +La fundacin que comenc junto con el libro ayuda a las mujeres y hombres a empezar crculos, grupos pequeos, pueden ser de 10, puede ser ms que se renen una vez al mes. +Yo crea que tendramos unos 500 crculos. Sera fantstico. +Ya sabes, 500, diez personas cada uno. +Hay ms de 12,000 crculos en 50 pases en el mundo. +PM: Wow, eso es increble. +SS: Y estas personas se renen cada mes. +Conoc a uno de ellos, estaba en Beijing. +Un grupo de mujeres, todas entre 29 y 30, comenzaron el primer crculo en Beijing, varias de ellas crecieron en una China muy pobre y rural. +Estas mujeres tienen 29 y la sociedad les dice que son "sobras" porque an no estn casadas y el proceso de reunirse una vez al mes en una reunin es ayudarles a definir quien son por s mismas. +Lo que quieren en sus carreras. La clase de compaeros que quieren y as. +Los mir, hablamos y nos presentamos, dijeron sus nombres de dnde vienen, y yo dije: yo soy Sheryl Sandberg y este era mi sueo. +Y empec a llorar. +Ok, lo admito, lo hago. Cierto? He hablado de eso antes. +Pero el hecho de que una mujer tan lejos en el mundo, que creci en una aldea rural, que se le dice que se case con quien no quiere casarse, ahora puede reunirse 1 vez al mes con un grupo y rechazar eso y encontrar su vida con sus propios trminos. +Es el tipo de cambio que deseara. +PM: Te has sorprendido por la naturaleza global del mensaje? +Porque creo que cuando el libro sali, mucha gente pens, bueno, esto es un manual muy importante para las mujeres jvenes. +Tienen que ver esto, anticipar las barreras y reconocerlas, ponerlas afuera al aire libre, tener el dilogo pero eso es para las mujeres que son as. Que lo hacen. Buscan el mundo corporativo. +Y sin embargo, est siendo ledo el libro, como bien dices, en pases en desarrollo rurales. +Qu parte de eso te ha sorprendido y tal vez te condujo a una nueva perspectiva? +El libro es sobre confianza en s mismo e igualdad. +Y resulta que, en todas partes del mundo, las mujeres necesitan ms confianza en s, porque el mundo nos dice no somos iguales a los hombres. +En todo el mundo, los hombres reciben un "y" y las mujeres reciben un "o" +Nunca conoc a un hombre que se le pregunte cmo hace todo. Una vez ms, voy a recurrir a los hombres en la platea Por favor, levanta la mano si alguna vez te preguntaron, cmo haces todo? +Solo hombres. +Mujeres, mujeres. Por favor, levanta la mano si alguna vez te preguntaron cmo haces todo. +Suponemos que los hombres pueden hacerlo todo, tienen puestos de trabajo y nios. +y que las mujeres no y eso es ridculo, porque la gran mayora de las mujeres en todo el mundo, incluyendo Estados Unidos, trabajan a tiempo completo y tienen hijos. +Y creo que la gente no entiende completamente cun amplio es el mensaje. +Hay un crculo que se ha iniciado para trabajadoras sexuales rescatadas en Miami. +Estn usando "Vamos Adelante" para ayudar a la gente a hacer la transicin a lo que sera una vida justa, realmente rescatndolas de sus proxenetas y vivirla. +Hay grupos de Vstete para el xito en Texas que utilizan el libro, para mujeres que no han ido a la Universidad. +Y sabemos que hay grupos hasta en Etiopa. +Y estos mensajes de inegualdad, de cmo se les dice a las mujeres no pueden tener lo que los hombres pueden tener, de cmo suponemos que el liderazgo es para hombres, asumimos que la voz es para hombres, eso nos afecta a todos nosotros y es muy universal. +Y es parte de lo que hace TEDWomen. +Une a todos en una causa en la que tenemos que creer, que es ms mujeres, ms voz, ms igualdad. +PM: Si te invitaran a hacer otra charla de TEDWomen, Qu diras que es el resultado de esta experiencia, para ti personalmente, y qu has aprendido sobre las mujeres y los hombres, mientras has hecho este viaje? +SS: Creo que yo dira, intent decir esto fuertemente, pero creo que puedo decirlo ms fuertemente. Quiero decir que el status quo no es suficiente. +Que no es suficiente, no est cambiando suficientemente rpido. +Desde que di mi charla en TED y publiqu mi libro, sali otro ao de datos del censo de Estados Unidos. +Y sabes lo que encontramos? +No hay cambio en la brecha salarial de las mujeres en Estados Unidos. +77 centavos de dlar. +Si eres una mujer negra, 64 centavos. +Si eres una Latina, 54 centavos. +Sabes cundo fue la ltima vez que estos nmeros subieron? +2002. +Nos estamos estancando, nos estamos estancando en muchos sentidos. +Y creo que no estamos siendo realmente honestos acerca de eso por muchas razones. Es muy difcil hablar sobre el gnero. +Nos rehuye la palabra "feminista", una palabra que creo que debemos abrazar. +Tenemos que deshacernos de la palabra mandona y traer de vuelta... Creo que me gustara decir en una voz ms fuerte, que tenemos que deshacernos de la palabra "mandona" y traer de vuelta la palabra "feminista", porque lo necesitamos. +PM: Y todos tenemos que hacer mucho ms para avanzar. +SS: Mucho ms avance. +PM: Gracias, Sheryl. +Gracias por avanzar y decir que s. +SS: Gracias. +Hace 2 aos, tengo que decir que no haba problema. +Hace 2 aos, saba exactamente cmo era un cono. +Era algo as. +Un cono de todos, pero tambin la posicin predeterminada de un comisario de pinturas del Renacimiento italiano, como era yo entonces. +En cierto modo, esta es otra seleccin predeterminada. +La imagen exquisitamente conmovedora de Leonardo da Vinci de "La dama del armio". +Y uso la palabra "conmovedora" deliberadamente. +Y luego esta, o ms bien estas: las 2 versiones de "Virgen de las rocas" de Leonardo que estaban a punto de reunirse en Londres por primera vez. +En la muestra que estaba a punto de organizar. +Estaba saturado de Leonardo, y lo haba estado durante 3 aos. +Ocupaba todo mi cerebro. +Leonardo me haba enseado, en esos 3 aos, el potencial de la pintura. +Me haba transportado del mundo material al mundo espiritual. +l dijo, en realidad, que crea que el trabajo de pintor consista en pintar todo lo visible y lo invisible del universo. +Es una tarea enorme. Y en cierta forma lo logr. +Nos mostr, creo, el alma humana. +Nos mostr nuestra capacidad para entrar al terreno espiritual. +Para tener una visin del universo ms perfecta que la propia. +En cierta forma, a ver el plan divino. +Por eso, en cierto modo, esa era mi idea de cono. +Por ese tiempo empec a hablar con Tom Campbell, director aqu en el Museo Metropolitano, sobre cules seran mis prximos pasos. +Pasar, de hecho, volver a una vida anterior que empec en el Museo Britnico, volver al mundo tridimensional --de esculturas y arte decorativo-- para dirigir el departamento de escultura europea y arte decorativo, aqu en el Met. +Fue un momento muy ajetreado. +De conversaciones en horarios muy peculiares del da... por telfono. +Al final, acept el empleo sin haber estado aqu. +De nuevo, haba estado haca un par de aos, pero en esa visita particular. +Fue justo antes del momento de la inauguracin del programa Leonardo que finalmente regres al Met, a Nueva York, a ver mi nuevo dominio. +A ver cmo eran las esculturas europeas y el arte decorativo aparte de las colecciones renacentistas que ya me eran tan familiares. +Y pens, aquel primer da, mejor recorro las galeras. +57 de estas galeras... como 57 variedades de frijoles al horno, creo. +Empec el recorrido por mi zona de confort en el Renacimiento italiano. +Y luego me mov gradualmente por el lugar sintindome un poco perdido a veces. +Mi cabeza, todava llena de la muestra de Leonardo que estaba por inaugurar, y me encuentro esto. +Y pens: Qu demonios he hecho? +No exista conexin alguna en mi mente en absoluto; de hecho, de haber alguna emocin era una especie de repulsin. +Este objeto era total y completamente extrao. +Tonto a niveles insospechados. +Y luego se puso peor... haba 2 de ellos. +Empec a pensar por qu me disgustaba tanto este objeto. +Cul era la raz de mi disgusto? +Bueno, era demasiado oro, tan vulgar. +Muy de nuevo rico, francamente. +El propio Leonardo hablaba en contra del uso del oro, era absolutamente un anatema en ese momento. +Y luego esos pequeos retoos por todos lados. Y, por ltimo, ese rosado. Ese condenado rosado. +Es un color sumamente artificial. +Es decir, es un color que no creo se pueda encontrar en la naturaleza, que se parezca a ese tono. +El objeto tiene incluso su propio tut. Esa parte volante, con lentejuelas de la parte inferior del jarrn. +Me record, por lo extrao, el 5 cumpleaos de mi sobrina +cuando todas las nias venan como princesas o hadas. +Vino una disfrazada de princesa-hada. +Tendran que haberla visto. +Y me di cuenta de que este objeto estaba en mi mente, producto de la misma mente, de la misma matriz, que la Barbie Bailarina. Y luego estn los elefantes. Esos elefantes extraordinarios con sus pequeas expresiones extraas y siniestras con pestaas a lo Greta Garbo, colmillos de oro y cosas as. +Me di cuenta de que este elefante no tena absolutamente nada que ver con una marcha majestuosa por el Serengueti. +Era una pesadilla Dumbo. Pero tambin ocurra algo ms profundo. +Estos objetos, me pareca, eran la quintaesencia de lo que mis amigos liberales de izquierda en Londres siempre haban visto como un resumen de algo deplorable de la aristocracia francesa del siglo XVIII. +La etiqueta me deca que eran piezas de la fbrica Svres, hechas de porcelana a fines de la dcada de 1750; concebidas por un diseador llamado Jean-Claude Duplessis, realmente alguien de extraordinaria distincin, como supe despus. +Pero para m, resuman esa especie de inutilidad de la aristocracia del siglo XVIII. +Con mis colegas siempre pensamos que estos objetos, en cierta forma, resuman la idea... no es de extraar que fue una revolucin. +O, ms bien, gracias a Dios que fue una revolucin. +Rondaba una idea que deca que si uno tena un jarrn como este no haba ms que solo un destino posible. +As las cosas... sent una suerte de paroxismo del terror. +Pero acept el empleo y fui a ver estos jarrones. +Tuve que hacerlo porque estn omnipresentes en el Met. +Casi a cualquier lugar que iba, all estaban. +Producen esa especie de fascinacin extraa, como los accidentes de auto. +No poda parar de mirarlos. +Y conforme lo haca empec a pensar: "Bueno, qu estamos viendo aqu?" +Primero empec a entender que esta es una obra suprema del diseo. +Me llev un poco de tiempo. +Pero ese tut, por ejemplo, es una pieza que tiene vuelo propio. +Cuenta con una ligereza extraordinaria y, sin embargo, tambin es increblemente equilibrada. +Tiene estas componentes escultricas. +Y luego est el juego entre... el color y el dorado tan cuidadosamente dispuestos, y la superficie escultrica, realmente es bastante notable. +Y luego me di cuenta de que esta pieza fue al horno 4 veces, al menos 4 veces, para llegar a esto. +Cuntos accidentes potenciales creen que pudo tener esta obra? +Recuerden, no solo uno, sino dos. +Tuvo que lograr 2 jarrones exactamente coincidentes de este tipo. +Y luego est la cuestin de la inutilidad. +Bueno, los extremos en realidad eran candelabros. +Tenan velas a ambos lados. +Imaginen el efecto de la luz de las velas en esa superficie. +En ese rosado ligeramente irregular, en el dorado hermoso. +Debe haber brillado en un interior, como un diminuto fuego artificial. +Y en ese momento se dispar un fuego artificial en mi cerebro. +Me record que la palabra 'fancy' --que en cierto sentido, para m, representaba este objeto-- en realidad viene de la misma raz que la palabra "fantasa". Y que este objeto era, en cierto sentido, a su modo, como una pintura de Leonardo da Vinci, un portal hacia otro lugar. +Un objeto de la imaginacin. +Si pensamos en las locas peras del siglo XVIII, ambientadas en oriente. +En divanes y alucinaciones de elefantes rosados inducidas por el opio, en ese punto, este objeto empieza a tener sentido. +Este objeto representa la pura evasin. +Es una evasin que ocurre... que la aristocracia francesa buscaba deliberadamente para distinguirse del vulgo. +Sin embargo, no es una evasin feliz como la de hoy en da. +Segu pensando en esto y ca en la cuenta de que todos somos vctimas de cierta tirana del triunfo del modernismo en la que forma y funcin en un objeto tienen que ir de la mano, o as se pens. +Y los ornamentos extraos se ven esencialmente como crminales. +Es el triunfo, en cierta forma, de los valores burgueses sobre los aristocrticos. +Y eso parece bien. +Salvo por el hecho de que se torna como un secuestro de la imaginacin. +As como en el siglo XX, mucha gente tena la idea de que su fe ocurra el da de reposo, y el resto de sus vidas --de lavadoras y ortodoncia-- ocurra otro da. +Creo que empezamos a hacer lo mismo. +Nos hemos permitido vivir la fantasa en frente a las pantallas. +En la oscuridad del cine, con la TV en la esquina de la habitacin. +Hemos eliminado, en cierto modo, esa constante de la imaginacin que estos jarrones representaban en la vida de las personas. +Quiz ya es hora de recuperar un poco eso. +Creo que est empezando a ocurrir. +En Londres, por ejemplo, con estos edificios extraordinarios que han ido apareciendo en los ltimos aos. +Reminiscencias de la ciencia ficcin, que vuelven a Londres una suerte de fantasa ldica. +Es increble la vista hoy en da desde lo alto de un edificio all. +Pero incluso all, hay una resistencia. +Londres ha llamado a estos edificios Gherkin, Shard, Walkie Talkie... bajando a tierra estos altsimos edificios. +La idea es que no queremos en nuestra vida cotidiana estos viajes de la imaginacin que generan ansiedad. +Tuve suerte en cierto sentido de encontrar este objeto. +Lo encontr en Internet al buscar una referencia. +Y all estaba. +Y a diferencia del jarrn del elefante rosado, este fue un amor a primera vista. +De hecho, lector, me cas con l. Lo compr. +Y ahora adorna mi oficina. +Es una figura de Staffordshire, hecha a mediados del siglo XIX. +Representa al actor Edmund Kean interpretando a Ricardo III de Shakespeare. +Y se basa, en realidad, en una obra de porcelana ms preciosa. +Me encantaron, a nivel artstico, esos estratos de calidad que tiene. +Pero ms que eso, me encanta. +De un modo que creo que habra sido imposible sin el jarrn Svres rosado de mis das de Leonardo. +Me encantan sus pantalones naranjas y rosados. +Me encanta el hecho de que parece que se va a la guerra, despus de haber terminado de lavar los platos. Parece haber olvidado su espada. +Me encantan sus pequeas mejillas rosadas, su bro. +En cierta forma, se ha convertido en mi alter ego. +Espero que tenga un poquito de dignidad pero es ms bien vulgar. Y energtico, espero. +Ha entrado en mi vida porque el jarrn Svres del elefante rosado me lo permiti. +Y antes de ese Leonardo, comprend que este objeto poda ser parte de mi recorrido, cada da, sentado en mi oficina. +Espero que otros, todos Uds., viendo los objetos en el museo, los lleven a casa, los busquen Uds. mismos, permitan que esos objetos florezcan en sus vidas imaginativas. +Muchas gracias. +Mi trabajo consiste en disear, construir y estudiar robots que se comunican con la gente. +Pero esta historia no empieza con la robtica empieza con la animacin. +Cuando vi por primera vez "Luxo Jr." de Pixar Estaba asombrado por cuanta emocin pusieron en algo tan trivial como una lmpara de escritorio. +Me refiero a, mrenlos, al final de la pelcula, realmente sienten algo por las dos piezas de muebles. +Y dije, tengo que aprender cmo hacer esto. +As que tom una muy mala decisin de carrera. +Y as es como estaba mi mam cuando la tom. +Dej un cmodo trabajo de tecnologa en Israel en una compaa de software muy agradable y me mude a Nueva York para estudiar animacin. +Y ah viv en un edificio de apartamentos que se derrumbaba en Harlem con compaeros de cuarto. +No estoy usando esta frase metafricamente, el techo de verdad se derrumb un da en nuestra sala. +Cada vez que hacan esas noticias sobre violaciones de construccin en Nueva York, hacan el reporte en frente de nuestro edificio. Como una especie de teln de fondo para mostrar qu tan mal estn las cosas. +De cualquier forma, durante el da iba a la escuela y en la noche me sentaba y dibujaba cuadro por cuadro animacin a lpiz. +Y aprend dos lecciones sorprendentes... +uno de ellas fue que cuando quieres despertar emociones, no importa tanto cmo algo luce, todo est en el movimiento, en el momento de cmo se mueve. +Y la segunda, fue algo que uno de nuestros profesores nos dijo. +l hizo a la comadreja en La Era de Hielo. +Y l dijo: "Como animador no eres un director, eres un actor". +As que si quieres encontrar el movimiento adecuado para un personaje, no pienses en eso, ve y usa tu cuerpo para encontrarlo... +prate frente a un espejo, acta frente a una cmara, lo que necesites. Y luego ponlo en tu personaje. +Un ao ms tarde me encontraba en el MIT +en el grupo de vida robtica, fue uno de los primeros grupos investigando las relaciones entre humanos y robots. +Y todava tena este sueo de hacer una material, real lmpara Luxo Jr. +Pero descubr que los robots no se movan en absoluto de esta forma maravillosa a la que estaba acostumbrado en mis estudios de animacin. +En cambio, eran todos... Cmo debo decirlo?, eran del todo robticos. +Y pens, qu pasara si tomo todo lo que aprend en la escuela de animacin, y usar eso para disear mi lmpara de escritorio robtica. +As que fui y disee cuadro por cuadro para tratar hacer este robot tan elegante y atractivo como fuera posible. +Y aqu cuando ven a el robot interactuando conmigo en un escritorio. En realidad estoy rediseando el robot as que... sin que lo sepa l mismo, esta cavando su propia tumba ayudndome. +Quera que fuese menos una estructura mecnica dndome luz, y ms una especie de til, tranquila aprendiz que est siempre ah cuando la necesitas y realmente no interfiere. +Y cuando, por ejemplo, estoy buscando una batera que no puedo encontrar, de una manera sutil, me mostrar dnde est la batera. +Pueden ver mi confusin aqu. +No soy un actor. +Y quiero que noten cmo la misma estructura mecnica puede en un momento dado, solo por la forma en que se mueve parecer gentil y cariosa, y en otro caso, parecer violenta y conflictiva. +Y es la misma estructura, solo el movimiento es diferente. +Actor: "Quieres saber algo? Bueno, Quieres saber algo? +Ya estaba muerto! +Ah tirado, "ojos vidriosos"! +Pero, moverse con gracia solo es un bloque de construccin de toda esta estructura llamada interaccin humano-robot. +En ese momento estaba haciendo mi doctorado, Estaba trabajando en la labor de equipo humano-robot; equipos de humanos y robots trabajando juntos. +Estudiaba la ingeniera, la psicologa, la filosofa del trabajo en equipo. Y al mismo tiempo me encontr en mi propia situacin de trabajo en equipo con un buen amigo mo que incluso est aqu. +Y en esa situacin fcilmente podemos imaginar robots en un futuro prximo estando ah con nosotros. +Fue tras un Seder de Pascua. +Estbamos doblando un montn de sillas plegables, y me sorprendi lo rpido que encontramos nuestro propio ritmo. +Todos hicieron su parte. No tuvimos que dividir nuestras tareas. +No tuvimos que comunicarnos verbalmente sobre esto. Simplemente sucedi. +Y pens, seres humanos y robots no se parecen en nada a esto. +Cuando seres humanos y robots interactuan, es mucho ms como un juego de ajedrez. El humano hace una cosa, el robot analiza lo que hizo el humano, entonces el robot decide qu hacer a continuacin, lo planea y lo hace. +Y entonces el humano espera, hasta que sea su turno otra vez. +As que, es mucho ms como un juego de ajedrez y eso tiene sentido porque el ajedrez es genial para los matemticos y cientficos de la computacin. +Todo es cuestin de anlisis de informacin, toma de decisiones y planificacin. +Pero yo quera que mi robot fuera menos un jugador de ajedrez, y ms como un hacedor que solo hace click y trabaja en equipo. +As que hice mi segunda terrible eleccin de carrera: Decid estudiar actuacin durante un semestre. +Dej el doctorado. Fui a clases de actuacin. +De hecho particip en una obra, Espero que no haya ningn vdeo de eso por ah todava. +Y consegu todos los libros que pude encontrar acerca de la actuacin, entre ellos uno del siglo XIX que consegu de la biblioteca. +Y realmente me sorprend porque mi nombre era el segundo nombre en la lista... el nombre anterior era de 1889. Y este libro estuvo esperando durante 100 aos para ser redescubierto para la robtica. +Y este libro muestra a los actores como mover cada msculo en el cuerpo para coincidir con cada tipo de emocin que quieran expresar. +Pero la verdadera revelacin fue cuando aprend acerca del mtodo de actuacin. +Se hizo muy popular en el Siglo XX. +Y el mtodo de actuacin deca, no tienes que programar cada msculo de tu cuerpo. En vez de eso tienes que usar tu cuerpo para encontrar el movimiento adecuado. +Tienes que usar tu memoria de sensorial para reconstruir las emociones y pensar con tu cuerpo para encontrar la expresin correcta. Improvisa, enfrenta a tu compaero de escena. +Y esto lleg al mismo tiempo que estaba leyendo sobre esta tendencia en psicologa cognitiva llamada cognicin corporal. Que tambin habla sobre las mismas ideas. +Usamos nuestros cuerpos para pensar, no solo pensamos con nuestros cerebros y usamos nuestros cuerpos para movernos sino que nuestros cuerpos se retroalimentan de nuestros cerebros para generar la forma en que nos comportamos. +Y fue como un rayo. +Regres a mi oficina. Escrib este artculo, que realmente nunca publiqu llamado "Clases de actuacin para la Inteligencia Artificial." +E incluso me tom otro mes para hacer lo que entonces fue la primera obra de teatro con un humano y un robot actuando juntos. +Eso fue lo que vieron antes con los actores. +Y pens: Cmo podemos hacer un modelo de inteligencia artificial? computadora, modelo computacional, que muestre algunas de estas ideas de improvisacin, de tomar riesgos, de arriesgarse, incluso de cometer errores. +Tal vez pueda servir para mejorar compaeros de equipo robticos. +As que trabaj durante mucho tiempo en estos modelos y los implement en una serie de robots. +Aqu pueden ver un muy temprano ejemplo con los robots tratando de usar esta inteligencia artificial corporal, para tratar de coincidir con mis movimientos lo ms parecido posible, +algo as como un juego. +Echemos un vistazo a esto. +Pueden ver cuando lo desestabiliz, lo engae. +Y es un poco de lo que pueden ver que hacen los actores cuando intentan reflejarse uno en el otro para encontrar la correcta sincrona entre ellos. +Y entonces, hice otro experimento, y consegu gente de la calle para que utilizaran la lmpara de escritorio robtica, y probaran esta idea de inteligencia artificial corporal. +As que, en realidad us dos tipos de cerebros para el mismo robot. +El robot es la misma lmpara que vieron, y le coloque dos cerebros. +Para la mitad de las personas, puse un cerebro que es una especie del tradicional, cerebro robtico calculado. +Espera su turno, analiza todo, planea. +Llammoslo el cerebro calculado. +El otro tiene ms de actor de teatro, el cerebro que se arriesga. +Llammoslo el cerebro aventurero. +A veces acta sin saber todo lo que tiene que saber. +A veces comete errores y los corrige. +Y los puse hacer esta muy tediosa tarea que tom casi 20 minutos y tenan que trabajar juntos. De alguna manera simulando un trabajo de fbrica de hacer de forma repetitiva lo mismo. +Y lo que descubr fue que las personas en verdad amaban a el robot aventurero. +Y pensaron que era ms inteligente, ms comprometido, un mejor miembro del equipo que contribuy ms al xito del equipo. +Incluso lo llamaron 'l' y 'ella', mientras que las personas con el cerebro calculado lo llamaron 'eso'. Y nadie lo llam 'l' o 'ella'. +Cuando hablaron de ello despus de la tarea con el cerebro aventurero, dijeron: "Al final, fuimos buenos amigos y chocamos las manos mentalmente". +Lo que sea que eso signifique. +Suena doloroso. +Mientras que las personas con el cerebro calculado dijeron que ste era como un aprendiz perezoso. +Solo hizo lo que deba hacer y nada ms. Que es casi lo que la gente espera que los robots hagan, por lo que me sorprendi que la gente tuviera mayores expectativas de los robots, de lo que cualquiera en robtica pensara que los robots deberan hacer. +Unos aos ms tarde, me encontraba en mi siguiente trabajo de investigacin en Georgia Tech, en Atlanta, y estaba trabajando en un grupo que lidiaba con msicos robots. +Y pens, msica, es el lugar perfecto para observar el trabajo en equipo, coordinacin, sincronizacin, improvisacin... y solo tenamos este robot tocando marimba. +Marimba, para todos los que como yo no sepan es este enorme, xilfono de madera. +Y, cuando miraba esto, haba visto otros trabajos en improvisacin humano-robot... s, hay otros trabajos en improvisacin humano-robot... y tambin eran un poco como un juego de ajedrez. +El humano jugaba, el robot analizaba lo que se tocaba, improvisaba su propia parte. +Esto es a lo que los msicos llaman una interaccin de llamada y respuesta, y tambin se ajusta muy bien, a los robots y la inteligencia artificial. +Pero pens, si utilizo las mismas ideas que us antes en la obra de teatro y en los estudios de trabajo en equipo, quiz pueda hacer que los robots toquen juntos como una banda. +Todos tocando, nadie se detiene por un momento. +Y as que, intent hacer las mismas cosas, esta vez con msica, donde el robot no sabe realmente lo que se va a tocar. Solo como que mueve su cuerpo y utiliza algunas oportunidades para tocar. Y hace lo que me ense mi maestra de jazz cuando yo tena 17 aos. +Deca, cuando improvisas, a veces no sabes lo que ests haciendo y lo sigues haciendo. +As que intente hacer un robot que en realidad no sabe lo que est haciendo, pero lo sigue haciendo. +Vamos ver a unos segundos de esta actuacin. Donde el robot escucha al msico humano e improvisa. +Y luego, miren cmo el msico humano tambin responde a lo que el robot est haciendo y aprende de su comportamiento. Y en algn momento incluso puede ser sorprendido con lo que hace el robot. +Ser msico, no es solo hacer notas, de otra manera nadie ira a ver un show en vivo. +Los msicos tambin se comunican con sus cuerpos, con otros miembros de la banda, con el pblico, usan sus cuerpos para expresar la msica. +Y pens, ya tenemos un msico robot en el escenario, por qu no hacer que sea un msico completo? +Y empec a disear una cabeza expresiva socialmente para el robot. +La cabeza en realidad no toca la marimba, solo expresa cmo es la msica. +Estos son algunos bocetos en servilleta de un bar en Atlanta, que estaba peligrosamente situado exactamente a la mitad entre mi laboratorio y mi casa. +As que pas, dira que en promedio, de tres a cuatro horas al da ah. +Creo. Y volv a mis herramientas de animacin y trat de averiguar no solo cmo se vera un msico robot, sino sobre todo cmo se movera un msico robot. Algo para demostrar que no le gusta lo que la otra persona est tocando... y tal vez para mostrar cualquier ritmo que est sintiendo en el momento. +As que terminamos consiguiendo el dinero para construir este robot, lo que fue muy bueno. +Voy a mostrarles ahora el mismo tipo de ejecucin, esta vez con una cabeza expresiva socialmente. +Y fjense... cmo el robot nos muestra el ritmo que est adquiriendo de los humanos. Tambin le estamos dando al humano la sensacin de que el robot sabe lo que est haciendo. +Y tambin cmo cambia la forma en que se mueve tan pronto como comienza su propio solo. +Ahora me mira para asegurarse de que estoy escuchando. +Y ahora, mira el acorde final de la pieza otra vez, +y esta vez el robot se comunica con su cuerpo cuando est ocupado haciendo sus propias cosas. Y cuando sta listo +coordina el acorde final conmigo. Gracias. Espero que vean cuanto esto no... qu tanto esta parte del cuerpo que no toca el instrumento ayuda con la interpretacin musical. +Estamos en Atlanta, as que obviamente algn rapero entrar en nuestro laboratorio en algn momento. Y entr este rapero y realiz una pequea actuacin con el robot. +Y aqu pueden ver al robot +bsicamente respondiendo al ritmo y... observen dos cosas. Una, qu tan irresistible es unirse con el robot mientras ste mueve su cabeza. +y como que quieren mover su cabeza cuando la mueve. +Y segundo, aunque el rapero est realmente centrado en su iPhone, tan pronto como el robot se voltea hacia l, ste voltea tambin. +As que aunque esta solo en la periferia de su visin. solo en la esquina de su ojo, es muy poderoso. +Y la razn es que no podemos ignorar cosas fsicas movindose en nuestro entorno. +Estamos conectados para eso. +As que si tienen un problema quizs con sus compaeros que miran demasiado el iPhone o demasiado a su smartphone, tal vez quieran tener ah un robot +A ellos realmente les gustaba que el robot disfrutara la msica. Y no dijeron que el robot se mova con la msica, dijeron que el robot disfrutaba la msica. +Y pensamos, por qu no tomamos esta idea? y dise un nuevo artculo. +Esta vez no era una lmpara de escritorio; era una base de altavoces. Era una de esas cosas en las que conectas tu smartphone. +Y pens, qu pasara si su base de altavoces no solo reprodujera la msica si no que la disfrutara tambin. +Y de nueva cuenta, aqu estn algunas pruebas de animacin +desde una etapa temprana. Y as es como luca el producto final. +Mucho movimiento de cabeza. +Mucho movimiento de cabeza en el pblico, as que an podemos ver, que los robots influencian a la gente. +Y no es solo diversin y juegos. +En algn lugar en su futuro va a existir un robot en su vida. +Y si no es en la suya, entonces en la vida de sus hijos. +Y quiero que estos robots sean... sean ms fluidos, ms cautivadores, con ms gracia. de lo que actualmente parecen ser. +Y por eso creo que tal vez los robots necesitan ser menos como jugadores de ajedrez y ms como actores en escena y ms como msicos. +Tal vez deberan poder arriesgarse e improvisar. +Y tal vez deberan ser capaces de anticipar lo que ests apunto de hacer. +Y tal vez necesiten poder cometer errores y corregirlos, porque al final somos humanos. +Y tal vez al igual que los humanos, los robots son un poco menos que perfectos son solo perfectos para nosotros. +Gracias. +Cuando estuve en Marruecos, en Casablanca, no hace mucho tiempo, conoc una joven madre soltera llamada Faiza. +Faiza me mostr fotos de su hijo y me cont la historia de su concepcin, embarazo y parto. +Fue una historia notable, pero Faiza guard lo mejor para el final. +"Soy virgen, sabes?", me dijo. +"Tengo dos certificados mdicos para demostrarlo". +Es el Oriente Medio moderno, donde a dos milenios del arribo de Cristo, los nacimientos virginales son todava una realidad. +La historia de Faiza es solo una de cientos que he odo viajando por la regin rabe hablando con la gente sobre sexo. +Puede que parezca un trabajo soado, o por otro lado, una ocupacin altamente dudosa, pero para m, es, definitivamente, algo ms. +Soy mitad egipcia y soy musulmn. +Pero crec en Canad, lejos de mis races rabes. +Como todos los que trotamos entre Oriente y Occidente con los aos, me he visto compelida a tratar de entender mejor mis orgenes. +Lo de que haya elegido el sexo, se debe a mi experiencia con el VIH/SIDA, como escritora, investigadora y activista. +El sexo est en el centro de una epidemia que emerge en el mundo rabe, que es una de dos regiones en el mundo donde el VIH/SIDA sigue en aumento. +La sexualidad es un lente increblemente poderoso con el cual estudiar cualquier sociedad, porque lo que sucede en nuestra vida ntima se refleja necesariamente en escenarios ms grandes: en la poltica y la economa, en la religin y la tradicin, en el gnero y las generaciones. +Lo que he encontrado, es que si se quiere realmente conocer un pueblo, hay que comenzar por mirar dentro de sus habitaciones. +Sin duda, el mundo rabe es vasto y variado. +Pero atravesndolo, hay tres lneas rojas, temas que se supone que no desafan ni de palabra ni de accin. +La primera de ellas es la poltica. +Pero la primavera rabe ha cambiado todo eso con levantamientos que han brotado por toda la regin desde el 2011. +Hoy, mientras los que ostentan el poder, viejos y nuevos, continan aferrndose a las viejas maneras, hay millones que tiran y encogen por lo que esperan sea una vida mejor. +Esa segunda lnea roja es la religin. +Y la religin y la poltica estn conectadas, con el surgimiento de grupos como la Hermandad Musulmana. +Y al menos algunas personas, estn comenzando a hacer preguntas sobre el papel del islam en la vida pblica y privada. +En cuanto a esa tercera lnea roja, ya saben, ese tema fuera de los lmites, qu creen que pueda ser? +Audiencia: sexo. +Shereen El Feki: Ms fuerte, no puedo orlos. +Audiencia: sexo. +SEF: Una vez ms, por favor, no sean tmidos. +Audiencia: sexo. +SEF: Absolutamente, correcto, sexo. En toda la regin rabe, el matrimonio es el nico contexto aceptado para el sexo... aprobado por los padres, sancionado por la religin y registrado por el estado. +El matrimonio es tu boleto a la adultez. +Si no te casas,no puedes dejar la casa de tus padres y se supone que no tengas sexo, y definitivamente, se supone que no tengas hijos. +Es una ciudadela social; es una fortaleza inexpugnable que resiste a cualquier agresin, a cualquier alternativa. +Y alrededor de la fortaleza est este vasto campo de tab contra el sexo prematrimonial, contra los condones, contra el aborto, contra la homosexualidad, contra lo que ustedes quieran. +Faiza era la prueba viva de ello. +Su declaracin de virginidad no era solo un deseo. +Aunque las principales religiones de la regin exhaltan la castidad prematrimonial, en un patriarcado, los chicos son chicos. +Los hombres tienen sexo antes del matrimonio y la gente se hace la de la vista gorda. +No pasa igual con las mujeres, que se espera que lleguen vrgenes a su noche de bodas, es decir, que se presenten con su himen intacto. +No es un asunto que preocupe solo al individuo, es cuestin del honor de la familia y en particular, del honor de los hombres. +Y las mujeres y sus familiares irn bien lejos para preservar este pedacito de anatoma... desde la mutilacin genital femenina, a las pruebas de virginidad y a la reparacin quirrgica del himen. +Faiza eligi una ruta diferente: sexo no vaginal. +Solo que qued embarazada de todos modos. +Pero Faiza en realidad no saba esto, porque en las escuelas hay tan poca educacin sexual y tan poca comunicacin en la familia. +Cuando su condicin se hizo difcil de ocultar, la madre de Faiza la ayud a huir de su padre y hermanos. +Y es que los asesinatos por honor son una amenaza real para un sinnmero de mujeres en la regin rabe. +Cuando Faiza finalmente, lleg a un hospital en Casablanca, el hombre que se ofreci a ayudarla, intent, ms bien, violarla. +Lamentablemente, Faiza no es la nica. +En Egipto, donde centro mi investigacin, he visto muchos problemas dentro y fuera de la ciudadela. +Hay legiones de jvenes que no pueden pagarse un matrimonio, porque el matrimonio se ha convertido en una proposicin muy cara. +Se espera que soporten la carga de los costos de la vida matrimonial, pero no pueden encontrar empleo. +Este es uno de los principales detonantes de los recientes levantamientos, y una de las razones para casarse a edades mayores en gran parte de la regin rabe. +Hay mujeres profesionistas que quieren casarse, pero no pueden encontrar marido, porque desafan las expectativas del gnero o como una joven doctora me lo dijo en Tnez: "Las mujeres se estn volviendo cada vez ms abiertas. +Pero el hombre, todava est en la etapa prehistrica". +Y luego hay hombres y mujeres que cruzan la lnea heterosexual, que tienen relaciones sexuales con su propio sexo o que tienen una identidad de gnero diferente. +Ellos son el blanco de leyes que castigan sus actividades, e incluso su apariencia. +Y luchan a diario con el estigma social, con el desespero familiar, y con el fuego y el azufre religioso. +Y no es que en la cama matrimonial todo sea color de rosa. +Las parejas buscan una mayor felicidad, mayor felicidad sexual en su vida de casados, pero no saben cmo lograrlo, especialmente las esposas, que temen ser vistas como malas mujeres si muestran alguna chispa en el dormitorio. +Y luego estn aquellas cuyos matrimonios no son ms que pantalla para la prostitucin. +Han sido vendidas por sus familias, a menudo a turistas rabes pudientes. +Es solo una cara del comercio sexual en auge en toda la regin rabe. +Ahora, levanten la mano si esto les suena familiar, si se da en su parte del mundo. +S. Entonces, no es que el mundo rabe tenga el monopolio de las taras sexuales. +Y aunque todava no tenemos un informe Kinsey rabe que diga exactamente qu est sucediendo en los dormitorios del mundo rabe, est claro que algo no anda bien. +Como un mdico en el Cairo lo resumi para m, "Aqu, el sexo es lo contrario del deporte. +Del ftbol, todo el mundo habla, pero casi nadie lo juega. +Del sexo, todos lo hacen, pero nadie quiere hablar de ello". (En rabe) SEF: Quiero darles un consejo, que de seguirlo, les har felices toda la vida. +Cuando tu marido llegue a ti, cuando tome una parte de tu cuerpo, suspira profundamente y mralo con lujuria. +Cuando te penetre con su pene, trata de hablar con coquetera y muvete en armona con l. +Picante la cosa! +Pareciera que estos tiles consejos provienen de "El Placer del Sexo" o de YouPorn. +Pero no. Vienen de un libro rabe del siglo X llamado "La enciclopedia del placer" que cubre el sexo desde la zoofilia hasta los afrodisacos, y todo lo dems. +La enciclopedia es una de la larga lista que hay en la rotica rabe, en gran parte escrita por eruditos religiosos. +Volviendo al Profeta Mahoma, existe una rica itradicin en el Islam de charla franca sobre el sexo: no solo sobre sus problemas, sino tambin sobre sus placeres, y no solo entre hombres, sino tambin entre mujeres. +Mil aos atrs, solamos tener diccionarios completos de sexo en rabe. +Palabras para cubrir todo rasgo sexual concebible, las posiciones y preferencias, un cuerpo de lenguaje tan rico como para cubrir el cuerpo de la mujer que ven en esta pgina. +Hoy en da, en la regin rabe, esta historia es desconocida. +Incluso por personas educadas, que hablan de sexo con mayor comodidad en una lengua extranjera que en su propia lengua. +El panorama sexual de hoy se parece al de Europa y Estados Unidos justo antes de la revolucin sexual. +Mientras Occidente se ha abierto al sexo, las sociedades rabes parecen haber estado movindose en direccin opuesta. +En Egipto y muchos paises vecinos, este cerrarse es parte de un cerrarse en mbitos ms amplios, en lo poltico, lo social y lo cultural. +Y es el producto de un complejo proceso histrico, uno que ha ganado terreno con el auge del conservatismo islmico desde finales de los setenta. +"Solo digan no" es lo que aconsejan los conservadores de todo el mundo ante cualquier desafo al statu quo sexual. +En la regin rabe, estos intentos son tachados de conspiracin occidental para socavar los valores rabes e islmicos tradicionales. +Pero lo que realmente est en juego aqu es una de sus herramientas de control ms poderosas: sexo envuelto en religin. +Pero la historia nos muestra que hasta hace poco, en la poca de nuestros padres y abuelos, ha habido momentos de mayor pragmatismo, tolerancia y disposicin a considerar otras interpretaciones: ya sea sobre el aborto, la masturbacin o incluso el tema incendiario de la homosexualidad. +No es blanco y negro, como los conservadores quieren hacernos creer. +En estos, como en tantos otros asuntos, el islam nos ofrece por lo menos 50 tonos de gris. +Mujeres y hombres, que, cada vez, estn empezando a hablar ms y a luchar contra la violencia sexual en las calles y en el hogar. +Grupos que ayudan a los trabajadores sexuales a protegerse contra el VIH y otros riesgos laborales, y organizaciones no gubernamentales que ayudan a madres solteras como Faiza a encontrar un lugar en la sociedad y de manera crtica, a quedarse con sus hijos. +Son esfuerzos pequeos que, a menudo, no tienen fondos, y enfrentan una oposicin formidable. +Pero soy optimista y creo que en el largo plazo, los tiempos cambiarn y ellos y sus ideas ganarn terreno. +El cambio social en la regin rabe no se da va la confrontacin drstica, los golpes o desnudndose los pechos, sino ms bien mediante la negociacin. +De lo que estamos hablando aqu no es de una revolucin sexual, sino de una evolucin sexual, de aprender de otras partes del mundo, de adaptacin a las condiciones locales, de forjar nuestro propio camino, y no de seguir uno trazado por otros. +Ese camino, espero, nos llevar un da al derecho a controlar nuestro propio cuerpo, y a acceder a la informacin y servicios que necesitemos, a llevar una vida sexual satisfactoria y segura. +El derecho a expresar nuestras ideas libremente, a casarse con quien elegimos, a elegir a nuestros propios compaeros, a ser sexualmente activos o no, a decidir si tener hijos y cundo, todo esto sin fuerza, violencia o discriminacin. +Hoy, estamos muy lejos de esto en todo el mundo rabe, y hay tanto que necesita cambiar: derecho, educacin, medios de comunicacin, economa... la lista sigue y sigue y es trabajo de una generacin, por lo menos. +Pero comienza con un viaje que yo ya he hecho, cuestionar duramente las creencias heredadas sobre la vida sexual. +Un viaje que ha servido para fortalecer mi fe, y aprecio por las historias y culturas locales mostrndome posibilidades donde alguna vez solo vi absolutos. +Con el caos que reina en muchos pases de la regin rabe, hablar de sexo, desafiar los tabes, buscar alternativas, puede parecer un lujo. +Pero en este momento crtico de la historia, si no aseguramos libertad y justicia, dignidad e igualdad, privacidad y autonoma en nuestra vida personal, en nuestra vida sexual, ser muy difcil lograrlo en la vida pblica. +La poltica y lo sexual son compaeros ntimos y eso es cierto para todos nosotros. +No importa donde vivamos y amemos. +Gracias. +Uno de los recuerdos ms maravillosos de mi infancia es pasar tiempo con mi abuela, Mamar, en nuestra casa de cuatro familias en Brooklyn, Nueva York. +Su apartamento era un oasis. +Ah poda tomar a escondidas una taza de caf, que era en realidad leche caliente con un poco de cafena. +Ella amaba la vida. +Y aunque haba trabajado en una fbrica, ahorr sus centavos y viaj a Europa. +Y recuerdo contemplar aquellas fotos con ella y luego bailar juntas al son de su msica favorita. +Y entonces, cuando yo tena ocho aos y ella 60, algo cambi. +Ella ya no trabajaba ni viajaba. +Ya no bailaba. +Y no haba ms pausas para caf. +Mi madre faltaba al trabajo y la llevaba a ver mdicos que no podan hacer un diagnstico. +Y mi padre, que trabajaba por las noches, sola pasar todas las tardes con ella, solo para asegurarse de que coma. +Su cuidado consuma todo el tiempo de nuestra familia. +Y para cuando se le hizo un diagnstico, ya estaba en una profunda espiral. +Muchos de ustedes reconocern sus sntomas. +Mi abuela tena depresin. +Una profunda depresin que alter su vida, y de la cul nunca se recuper. +Y en aquel entonces, se saba tan poco sobre la depresin. +Pero incluso hoy, 50 aos despus, todava queda mucho por aprender. +Hoy en da sabemos que las mujeres tienen un 70% ms de probabilidad de padecer de depresin durante su vida comparado con los hombres. +E incluso con esta alta prevalencia, las mujeres son mal diagnosticadas entre un 30% y un 50% de las veces. +Sabemos que las mujeres son ms propensas a experimentar los sntomas de fatiga, trastornos del sueo, dolor y ansiedad en comparacin con los hombres. +Y estos sntomas son a menudo pasados por alto como sntomas de depresin. +Y no es solo en la depresin donde se producen estas diferencias de sexo, sino tambin en muchas otras enfermedades. +As que fue la lucha de mi abuela lo que me ha llevado a una bsqueda constante. +Y hoy, lidero un centro en el que la misin es descubrir el por qu de estas diferencias de sexo y usar ese conocimiento para mejorar la salud de las mujeres. +Hoy en da, sabemos que cada clula tiene un sexo. +Se trata de un trmino acuado por el Instituto de Medicina. +Y significa que hombres y mujeres somos diferentes a nivel celular y molecular. +Significa que somos diferentes en todos nuestros rganos. +Desde el cerebro hasta los corazones, pulmones, y articulaciones. +Fue solo hace 20 aos que apenas tenamos datos sobre la salud de las mujeres ms all de nuestras funciones reproductivas. +Pero luego en 1993, fue promulgada la ley de revitalizacin del NIH. +Esta ley oblig a incluir a las mujeres y las minoras en estudios clnicos financiados por los institutos nacionales de salud. +Y en muchos sentidos, la ley ha funcionado. +Ahora las mujeres estn incluidas habitualmente en estudios clnicos y hemos aprendido que existen grandes diferencias en las formas en que hombres y mujeres experimentan enfermedades. +Pero sorprendentemente, lo que hemos aprendido acerca de estas diferencias es a menudo pasado por alto. +Entonces, debemos plantearnos la pregunta: Por qu dejar la salud de las mujeres al azar? +Y la dejamos al azar de dos maneras. +La primera es que hay mucho ms por aprender y no estamos haciendo la inversin por comprender la magnitud de estas diferencias de sexo. +Y la segunda es que no utilizamos lo que hemos aprendido para aplicarlo rutinariamente en el cuidado clnico. +No estamos haciendo lo suficiente. +As que voy a compartir con ustedes tres ejemplos donde las diferencias de sexo han afectado la salud de las mujeres y donde necesitamos hacer ms. +Empecemos con las enfermedades cardacas. +Hoy en da, es la principal causa de muerte de mujeres en los Estados Unidos. +Esta es la cara de una enfermedad cardaca. +Linda es una mujer de mediana edad, que tena un stent colocado en una de las arterias que va al corazn. +Cuando tuvo unos sntomas rcurrentes, consult con su mdico. +Y l hizo la prueba estndar: un cateterismo cardaco. +No se observaron obstrucciones. +Los sntomas de Linda continuaron. +Tuvo que dejar de trabajar. +Y en ese momento nos encontr. +Cuando Linda vino a vernos, le hicimos otro cateterismo cardaco y esta vez, encontramos pistas. +Pero necesitbamos otra prueba para hacer el diagnstico. +As que hicimos un examen llamado ecografa intracoronaria, donde se utilizan ondas de sonido para ver la arteria desde el interior. +Y lo que encontramos fue que en el caso de Linda no se trataba de la tpica enfermedad masculina. +La tpica enfermedad masculina es as. +Hay una discreta obstruccin o estenosis. +La enfermedad de Linda, al igual que la de tantas mujeres, se parece a esto. +La placa se coloca de manera ms uniforme y difusa a lo largo de la arteria y es ms difcil de ver. +Para Linda y para muchas mujeres, la prueba estndar no era apropiada. +Linda recibi un tratamiento adecuado. +Volvi a su vida y, afortunadamente, hoy en da, est bien. +Pero Linda tuvo suerte. +Ella nos encontr, encontramos su enfermedad. +Pero para muchas mujeres, no es el caso. +Tenemos las herramientas. +Tenemos la tecnologa para hacer el diagnstico. +Pero demasiado a menudo estas diferencias entre sexos se pasan por alto. +Entonces, y el tratamiento? +Un importante estudio publicado hace dos aos formul una importante pregunta: Cules son los tratamientos ms eficaces para las enfermedades cardacas en las mujeres? +Los autores consultaron documentos escritos en un perodo de 10 aos, y cientos tuvieron que ser desechados. +Y lo que descubrieron fue que entre los que se desechaban, 65% fueron excluidos porque aun cuando las mujeres se incluan en los estudios, no haba diferencia en el anlisis entre hombres y mujeres. +Qu prdida de oportunidad! +El dinero se haba gastado y no aprendimos cmo responden las mujeres. +Estos estudios no pudieron contribuir nada a la pregunta muy, muy importante: cules son los tratamientos ms efectivos para las enfermedades cardacas en las mujeres? +Quiero presentarles a Hortense, mi madrina, Hung Wei, una pariente de un colega, y alguien que tal vez reconozcan... Dana, esposa de Christopher Reeve. +Estas tres mujeres tienen algo muy importante en comn. +Las tres fueron diagnosticadas con cncer de pulmn, la principal causa de muerte por cncer para las mujeres en los Estados Unidos hoy en da. +Las tres eran no fumadoras. +Lamentablemente, Dana y Hung Wei murieron de su enfermedad. +Hoy en da sabemos que las mujeres no fumadoras tienen tres veces ms probabilidades de ser diagnosticadas de cncer de pulmn que los hombres que no son fumadores. +Es interesante que cuando las mujeres son diagnosticadas con cncer de pulmn, su supervivencia tiende a ser mejor que la de los hombres. +Aqu hay algunas pistas. +Nuestros investigadores han descubierto que existen ciertos genes en las clulas del tumor pulmonar de hombres y mujeres. +Y estos genes se activan principalmente por el estrgeno. +Y el exceso de estos genes est asociado con una mejora en la supervivencia nicamente en mujeres jvenes. +Este es un hallazgo muy prematuro y an no sabemos si tiene relevancia en el cuidado clnico. +Pero son estos los resultados que pueden dar esperanza y proporcionar una oportunidad para salvar las vidas tanto de las mujeres como de los hombres. +Permtanme compartir con ustedes un ejemplo de que cuando consideramos las diferencias de sexo podemos contribuir para la ciencia. +Hace varios aos se estudiaba un nuevo medicamento para el cncer pulmonar, y cuando los autores estudiaron cules tumores se redujeron encontraron que el 82% eran mujeres. +Esto los hizo preguntar: por qu? +Y lo que encontraron fue que las mutaciones genticas que el frmaco atacaba eran mucho ms comunes en mujeres. +Y esto ha llevado a un enfoque ms personalizado para el tratamiento del cncer de pulmn que incluye el sexo. +Esto es lo que podemos lograr cuando no dejamos la salud de las mujeres al azar. +Sabemos que cuando invertimos en investigacin, se obtienen resultados. +Vean la tasa de mortalidad por cncer de mama en el tiempo. +Y ahora vean las tasas de mortalidad por cncer de pulmn en las mujeres en el tiempo. +Ahora veamos el dinero invertido en cncer de mama, este es el dinero invertido por cada muerte y el dinero invertido en cncer de pulmn. +Est claro que nuestra inversin en cncer de mama ha dado resultados. +Tal vez no sean lo suficientemente rpidos pero han dado resultados. +Podemos hacer lo mismo con el cncer de pulmn y con todas las dems enfermedades. +As que volvamos a la depresin. +La depresin es la causa nmero uno de discapacidad en las mujeres en el mundo hoy en da. +Nuestros investigadores han encontrado que existen diferencias en el cerebro de mujeres y hombres en las zonas que estn relacionadas con el humor. +Y cuando se ponen hombres y mujeres en un escner MRI, es el tipo de escner que muestra cmo el cerebro funciona cuando se activa, as que se les pone en el escner y se les expone al estrs. +Y, efectivamente, se puede ver la diferencia. +Y descubrimientos como estos nos hacen creer que tenemos algunas de las pistas del porqu vemos estas diferencias significativas de sexo en la depresin. +Pero aunque sabemos que estas diferencias se producen, un 66% de las investigaciones del cerebro que comienzan en los animales se realizan, ya sea en animales machos o en animales de sexo no identificado. +As que creo que debemos volver a pregunarnos: Por qu dejar la salud de las mujeres al azar? +Y esta es la cuestin que nos atormenta a aquellos que en la ciencia y la medicina creemos estar a punto de ser capaces de mejorar drsticamente la salud de las mujeres. +Sabemos que cada clula tiene un sexo. +Sabemos que estas diferencias son a menudo pasadas por alto. +Y por lo tanto, sabemos que las mujeres no reciben el beneficio total de la ciencia y la medicina modernas. +Tenemos las herramientas pero nos falta la voluntad y motivacin colectiva. +La salud de las mujeres es una cuestin de igualdad de derechos tan importante como la igualdad de remuneracin. +Y es un tema de la calidad y la integridad de la ciencia y la medicina. +As que imaginen el impulso que podramos lograr en el avance en la salud de las mujeres si considersemos que estas diferencias de sexo estaban presentes desde el principio del diseo de la investigacin. +O si analizsemos nuestros datos por sexo. +Entonces, la gente a menudo me pregunta: Qu puedo hacer? +Y esto es lo que yo sugiero: En primer lugar, piensen acerca de la salud de las mujeres de la misma manera que piensan y se preocupan por otras causas que son importantes para ustedes. +Y en segundo lugar, e igual de importante, que como una mujer, deben preguntarle a su mdico y a los mdicos que cuidan de aquellos que aman: Es esta enfermedad o tratamiento diferente en las mujeres? +Esta es una profunda cuestin porque la respuesta probablemente sea un s, pero su mdico puede que por ahora no sepa la respuesta. +Pero si hacen la pregunta, es muy probable que su mdico busque la respuesta. +Y esto es muy importante, no solo para nosotros mismos, sino que para todos aquellos a quienes amamos. +Ya sea una madre, una hija, una hermana, una amiga o una abuela. +Fue el sufrimiento de mi abuela que inspir mi trabajo para mejorar la salud de las mujeres. +Este es su legado. +Nuestro legado puede ser mejorar la salud de las mujeres para esta generacin y para las prximas generaciones. +Gracias. +He pasado los ltimos aos tratando de resolver dos enigmas: Por qu es tan decepcionante la productividad en todas las empresas donde trabajo? +He trabajado con ms de 500 empresas. +A pesar de todos los avances tecnolgicos... computadoras, informtica, telecomunicaciones, Internet. +Enigma nmero dos: Por qu hay tan poco compromiso en el trabajo? +Por qu la gente se siente tan miserable, incluso activamente desconectada? +Desuniendo a sus colegas. +Actuando en contra de los intereses de su empresa. +A pesar de todos los eventos de afiliacin, las celebraciones, las iniciativas de la gente, los programas de desarrollo de liderazgo para entrenar gerentes sobre cmo motivar mejor a su equipo. +Al principio, pens que era un problema del huevo y la gallina: Ya que la gente est poco comprometida, es menos productiva. +O viceversa, dado que es menos productiva, ponemos ms presin y se compromete menos. +Pero al hacer nuestro anlisis nos dimos cuenta de que haba una causa raz comn a estas dos cuestiones que se relaciona, de hecho, con los pilares bsicos de la direccin. +La forma en que organizamos se basa en dos pilares. +El duro, estructura, procesos, sistemas. +El suave... emociones, sentimientos, relaciones interpersonales, rasgos de personalidad. +Y cada vez que una empresa reorganiza, reestructura, hace reingeniera, pasa por un programa de transformacin cultural, elige estos dos pilares. +Tratamos de perfeccionarlos, tratamos de combinarlos. +La verdadera cuestin es, y esta es la respuesta a los dos enigmas estos pilares son obsoletos. +Todo lo que leen en libros de negocios se basa ya sea en uno u otro o su combinacin. +Son obsoletos. +Cmo funcionan cuando Uds. intentan utilizarlos frente a la nueva complejidad de los negocios? +El enfoque duro, bsicamente es cuando se comienza con estrategia, requisitos, estructuras, procesos, sistemas, indicadores clave, cuadros de mando, comits, sedes, nodos, lo que quieran. +Se me olvidaban las mtricas, incentivos, comisiones, oficinas intermedias e interfaces. +A la izquierda, en suma lo que pasa: se tiene ms complejidad, la nueva complejidad del negocio. +Necesitamos calidad, costos, fiabilidad, velocidad. +Y cada vez que hay un nuevo requisito, utilizamos el mismo enfoque. +Creamos sistemas de estructura dedicada al proceso, bsicamente para lidiar con la nueva complejidad del negocio. +El enfoque duro crea solo complicaciones en la organizacin. +Tomemos un ejemplo. +Una empresa automotriz, la divisin de ingeniera es una matriz de cinco dimensiones. +Si abren cualquier celda de la matriz, encontrarn otra matriz de 20 dimensiones. +Tienen el Sr. Ruido, el Sr. Consumo de Gasolina, el Sr. Propiedades Anticolisin. +Por cada nuevo requisito, se tiene una funcin dedicada a cargo de alinear ingenieros contra el nuevo requisito. +Qu sucede cuando emerge el nuevo requisito? +Hace algunos aos, un nuevo requisito apareci en el mercado: la duracin del perodo de garanta. +Por lo tanto el nuevo requisito es la reparacin, fabricar autos fciles de reparar. +De lo contrario cuando lleven el auto al taller para arreglar las luces si tienen que quitar el motor para acceder a las luces, el auto tendr que permanecer una semana en el taller en lugar de 2 horas y el presupuesto se inflar. +Cul era la solucin utilizando el enfoque duro? +Si la reparacin es el nuevo requerimiento, la solucin es crear una nueva funcin, Sr. Reparacin. +Y el Sr. Reparacin crea el proceso de reparacin. +Con un cuadro de mandos de reparacin, con una matriz de reparacin y finalmente un incentivo de reparacin. +Y viene con 25 indicadores clave. +Qu porcentaje de estas personas tienen retribucin variable? +El 20 % como mucho, dividido en 26 indicadores, la reparacin hace una diferencia de 0,8 %. +Qu diferencia hizo en sus acciones, sus opciones para simplificar? Cero. +Pero qu ocurre por un impacto cero? Sr. Reparacin, proceso, cuadro de mando integral, evaluacin, coordinacin con los otros 25 coordinadores para tener cero impacto. +Ahora, frente a la nueva complejidad del negocio, la nica solucin es no dibujar cuadros con lneas de reporte. +Bsicamente es la interaccin. +Cmo trabajan juntas las partes. +Las conexiones, las interacciones, las sinapsis. +No es el esqueleto de cuadros, es el sistema nervioso de adaptacin e inteligencia. +Ya saben, podran llamarlo cooperacin, bsicamente. +Cuando la gente coopera, usan menos recursos. En todo. +Ya saben, el tema de la reparacin es un problema de cooperacin. +Cuando diseen los autos, por favor, tomen en cuenta las necesidades de aquellos que tienen que reparar los autos en los talleres postventa. +Si no cooperamos necesitamos ms tiempo, ms equipo, ms sistemas, ms grupos. +Necesitamos... cuando compras, cadena de suministro y fabricacin no cooperan se necesita ms accin, ms inventarios, ms capital de trabajo. +Quin pagar eso? +Los accionistas? Los clientes? +No, lo rechazarn. +Quin queda? Los empleados, quienes tienen que compensar a travs de sus grandes esfuerzos individuales por la falta de cooperacin. +El estrs, el desgaste, son abrumadores, accidentes. +No es de extraar que se desentiendan. +Cmo lo duro y lo blando intentan fomentar la cooperacin? +Lo duro. En los bancos, cuando hay un problema entre la oficina de soporte y la de atencin al cliente que no cooperan, cul es la solucin? +Crean una oficina intermedia. +Qu pasa un ao ms tarde? +En lugar de un problema entre los de soporte y los de atencin, ahora tengo dos problemas. +Entre los de soporte e intermedio y entre intermedio y los de atencin. +Adems tengo que pagar a los de en medio. +El enfoque duro es incapaz de fomentar la cooperacin. +Solo puede agregar nuevos cuadros, nuevos huesos al esqueleto. +El enfoque suave. Para que la gente coopere, tenemos que hacer que se lleven bien. +Mejorar los sentimientos interpersonales, entre ms se lleven bien ms colaborarn. +Eso est totalmente errado. +Es incluso contraproducente. +En casa tengo dos televisores. Por qu? +Precisamente para no tener que cooperar con mi esposa. +No tener que imponerle intercambios a mi esposa. +Y trato de no imponerle intercambios a mi esposa precisamente porque la amo. +Si no amara a mi esposa, un televisor sera suficiente: "Puedes ver mi partido de ftbol favorito, y si no te gusta, qu tal un libro o la puerta?" +Cuanto ms nos estimamos, ms evitamos la verdadera cooperacin que forzara nuestras relaciones imponiendo duros intercambios. +Y vamos por un segundo televisor o escalamos la decisin a un arbitraje superior. +Sin duda, estos enfoques son obsoletos. +Para lidiar con la complejidad, para mejorar el sistema nervioso, hemos creado lo que llamamos el enfoque de simplicidad inteligente basado en reglas simples. +Regla simple nmero uno: Entienda lo que hacen los otros. +Cul es su verdadero trabajo? +Tenemos que ir ms all de los prejuicios, las descripciones de trabajo, ms all de la superficie del contenedor, comprender el contenido real. +Yo, diseador, si pongo un cable aqu, s que significar que tendremos que quitar el motor para acceder a las luces. +Segundo, se necesita reforzar los integradores. +Los integradores no son las oficinas intermedias, son los gerentes, gerentes reales que Uds. refuerzan para que tengan el poder y el inters de obligar a otros a cooperar. +Cmo pueden reforzar a sus gerentes como integradores? +Mediante la eliminacin de las capas. +Cuando hay demasiadas capas la gente est muy lejos de la accin, por lo tanto necesitan indicadores clave, mtricas, malos sustitutos de la realidad. +Ellos no entienden la realidad y aaden la complejidad de las mtricas y los indicadores. +Al eliminar las reglas... cuanto ms grandes somos, ms necesitamos integradores, por lo tanto menos reglas se han de tener y dar a los gerentes poder discrecional. +Pero hacemos lo contrario... cuanto ms grandes, ms reglas creamos. +Y terminamos con la Enciclopedia Britnica de Normas. +Se necesita aumentar la cantidad de energa as que se puede empoderar a todo el mundo para que usen su juicio, su inteligencia. +Se debe dar ms cartas a la gente tal que sujeten la masa crtica de cartas para correr el riesgo de cooperar, y salir del aislamiento. +De lo contrario, se retirarn. Se desentendern +Estas reglas, vienen de la teora de juegos y la sociologa organizacional. +Se puede aumentar la sombra del futuro. +Crear bucles de retroalimentacin que expongan a la gente a las consecuencias de sus acciones. +Esto es lo que hizo la empresa automotriz cuando vieron que el Sr. Reparacin no tuvo ningn impacto. +Le dijeron a los ingenieros de diseo: En tres aos, cuando el nuevo auto salga al mercado, Uds. pasarn a la red de postventa y estarn a cargo del presupuesto de garanta, y si el presupuesto de garanta se dispara, tambin le matar. Mucho ms potente que la compensacin variable del 0,8 %. +Tambin necesitan incrementar la reciprocidad, mediante la eliminacin de las barreras que nos hacen autosuficientes. +Cuando se eliminan estas barreras, t me agarro por la nariz, yo te agarro por la oreja. +Cooperaremos. +Quiten el segundo televisor. +Hay muchas segundas televisiones en el trabajo que no crean valor, solo producen autosuficiencia disfuncional. +Necesitan recompensar a aquellos que cooperan y castigar a aquellos que no cooperan. +El CEO del grupo Lego, Jrgen Vig Knudstorp, tiene una gran manera de hacerlo. +Dice: "La culpa no es por fracasar, es por fallar al ayudar o al pedir ayuda". +Esto lo cambia todo. +De repente me es beneficioso ser transparente de mis debilidades reales, mi verdadero pronstico, porque s que no ser culpado si fallo, sino por la falta de dar o pedir ayuda. +Cuando hacen esto, se tiene muchas implicaciones en el diseo organizacional. +Se dejan de dibujar cuadros, lneas de puntos, lneas continuas; se mira la interaccin. +Tiene muchas implicaciones en las polticas financieras que utilizamos. +En las prcticas de gestin de recursos humanos. +Cuando hacen eso, pueden administrar la complejidad, la nueva complejidad de los negocios, sin complicarse. +Crean ms valor con menor costo. +Al mismo tiempo mejoran el rendimiento y la satisfaccin en el trabajo porque han eliminado la causa raz comn que entorpece ambas. +Complicacin: esa es su batalla, lderes empresariales. +La verdadera batalla no es contra los competidores. +Eso es basura, muy abstracto. +Cundo nos reunimos con los competidores para luchar contra ellos? +La verdadera batalla es contra nosotros mismos, contra nuestra burocracia, nuestras complicaciones. +Solo Uds. pueden pelearla, pueden hacerlo. +Gracias. +Joe Kowan: Tengo miedo escnico. +Siempre he tenido miedo escnico, y no solo un poco, sino un poco ms. +Y no me import hasta los 27. +Fue al empezar a escribir canciones y incluso entonces solo me las tocaba a m mismo. +Saber que mis compaeros estaban en casa me haca sentir incmodo. +Pero tras unos aos no me bastaba con escribir canciones. +Tena todas estas historias e ideas y quera compartirlas. Pero fisiolgicamente, no poda hacerlo. +Tena ese miedo irracional. +Pero cuanto ms escriba y practicaba, ms quera actuar. +As que la semana de mi 30 cumpleaos decid que ira a ese local de micrfono abierto y acabara con ese miedo. +Bueno, cuando llegu, estaba lleno. +Haba unas 20 personas. +Y todos parecan enojados. +Pero respir profundamente y me dispuse a tocar, y me senta bastante bien. +Muy bien, hasta 10 minutos antes de mi turno, cuando todo mi cuerpo se rebel y me envolvi una ola de ansiedad. +Cuando uno experimenta miedo, el sistema nervioso simptico se activa. +As que uno tiene un explosin de adrenalina, aumenta el ritmo cardaco, la respiracin es ms rpida. +Luego los sistemas no esenciales comienzan a cerrarse, como la digestin. La boca se seca y la sangre se aleja de las extremidades, de forma que ya no funcionan los dedos. +Las pupilas se dilatan, los msculos se contraen, el sentido de hormigueo se activa, bsicamente todo tu cuerpo es gatillo fcil. Ese estado no es apropiado para tocar msica folclrica. +Es decir, su sistema nervioso es idiota. +Realmente? 200 mil aos de evolucin humana y todava no se le puede explicar la diferencia entre un tigre diente de sable y 20 folksingers un noche de martes con micro abierto. +Nunca he sentido tanto miedo... hasta ahora. +(Risas y aplausos) Fue mi turno, y de alguna manera, me meto en el escenario, empiezo mi cancin, abro la boca para cantar la primera lnea, y ese vibrato totalmente horrible... ya saben, cuando la voz vacila y retumba. +Y no es esa buena clase de vibrato, como un cantante de pera, es todo mi cuerpo que se convulsiona con miedo. +Es decir, es una pesadilla. +Me da vergenza, la audiencia est claramente incmoda, estn centrados en mi malestar. +Fue tan horrible... +Pero esa fue mi primera experiencia real como cantautor solista. +Y sucedi algo bueno... Tuve un mnimo atisbo de conexin con el pblico como esperaba. +Y quera ms. Pero saba que deba superar este nerviosismo. +Esa noche me promet que volvera cada semana hasta que ya no estuviera nervioso. +Y lo hice. Volv cada semana, y efectivamente, semana tras semana, no mejor nada. Lo mismo sucedi cada semana. No poda superarlo. +Ah es cuando tuve una relevacin. +Lo recuerdo muy bien, porque no tengo muchas revelaciones. Lo que tena que hacer era escribir una cancin que explorara mi nerviosismo. +Eso solo parece autntico cuando tengo miedo escnico, y cuanto ms nervioso estuviera, mejor sera la cancin. Fcil. +As que empec una cancin sobre tener miedo escnico. +En primer lugar, confesando el problema, las manifestaciones fsicas, cmo me senta, cmo puede sentirse el oyente. +Y luego justificando cosas como mi voz temblorosa, y saba que cantara media octava ms alto de lo normal, por estar nervioso. +Tener una cancin que explicara lo que me pasaba, mientras suceda, otorgara al pblico la licencia para pensar en ello. +Y con la cancin del miedo escnico podra superar mi mayor problema al comienzo de una actuacin. +Y luego podra avanzar y tocar el resto de mis canciones con un poco ms de facilidad. +Y con el tiempo, ya no tendra que tocar la cancin del miedo escnico. +Excepto cuando estuviera realmente nervioso... como ahora. Les gustara que les tocara la cancin del miedo escnico? +Puedo tomar un sorbo de agua? +Gracias. +Quisiera que repensemos la educacin. +El ao anterior vimos la invencin... de una palabra de cuatro letras. +Empieza con 'M'. +MOOC: cursos por Internet masivos y abiertos. +Muchas organizaciones ofrecen estos cursos por Internet a millones de estudiantes de todo el mundo, gratis. +Cualquier persona con conexin a Internet y la voluntad de aprender puede acceder a estos cursos de calidad de las mejores universidades y recibir un certificado al finalizarlo. +Pero, en la charla de hoy, me centrar en otro aspecto de los MOOC. +Tomamos lo que aprendimos y la enorme tecnologa que desarrollamos y lo aplicamos a lo pequeo para crear un modelo de educacin mixto, para realmente reinventar y repensar lo que hacemos en el saln. +Ahora bien, a nuestros salones les vendra bien un cambio Este saln pertenece a una institucin al noreste de EE.UU: MIT. +Este era un saln hace 50 o 60 aos y este es un saln actual. +Qu cambi? +Las sillas estn en colores. +Bravsimo bravo. +La educacin no ha cambiado nada en los ltimos 500 aos. +La ltima gran innovacin en educacin fue la imprenta y los libros de texto. +Todas las otras cosas han cambiado. +Desde medicina, a transporte, todo es distinto, pero la educacin no ha cambiado. +Tambin ha sido un problema real desde el punto de vista del acceso. +Lo que ven aqu no es un concierto de rock. +Y la persona que ven en el escenario no es Madonna. +Es un saln de la universidad Obafemi Awolowo, de Nigeria. +Bien; todos hemos odo hablar de la educacin a distancia, pero creo que los alumnos que estn sentados bien al fondo a 50 m del profesor, estn recibiendo educacin a distancia. +De verdad creo que podemos transformar la educacin, tanto en calidad como en la cantidad de gente que tiene acceso, por medio de la tecnologa. +En edX, por ejemplo, estamos tratando de transformar la educacin usando tecnologas en lnea. +Como la educacin ha estado 500 aos petrificada, no es suficiente con pensar en reestructurarla ni con obsesionarnos con cada detalle. +Tenemos que repensarla por completo. +Es como pasar de los carros tirados por bueyes a los aviones. +Hay que cambiar hasta la infraestructura. +Hay que cambiar todo. +Necesitamos pasar de las clases en el pizarrn a ejercicios en lnea, a videos en lnea. +Tenemos que ir hacia los laboratorios virtuales interactivos y la ludificacin. +Tenemos que ir hacia la correccin en lnea, hacia la interaccin entre pares, hacia los foros en lnea. +De verdad hay que cambiar todo. +En edX y en varias organizaciones, aplicamos esta tecnologa a la educacin, usando los MOOC, para aumentar el acceso a la educacin. +Ya conocen este ejemplo en el que, cuando lanzamos el primer curso- --un curso del MIT sobre circuitos integrados y electrnica-- hace cerca de un ao y medio, se inscribieron 155 000 estudiantes de 162 pases. +Y sin presupuesto para publicidad. +155,000 es mucho. +Es ms que todos los exalumnos del MIT sumados en sus 150 aos de historia. +7,200 estudiantes aprobaron el curso, y era un curso difcil. +7,200 tambin es mucho. +Si diera clases en el MIT dos semestres por ao, tendra que hacerlo por 40 aos para llegar a ese nmero de estudiantes. +Estas grandes cifras son slo una parte de la historia. +Hoy quiero plantearles otro aspecto, el otro lado de los MOOC, vistos desde otro ngulo. +Usamos lo que generamos, aprendimos a gran escala y lo aplicamos a escala pequea en el saln, para crear un modelo de aprendizaje mixto. +Pero, antes de entrar en eso, les contar una historia. +Cuando mi hija cumpli 13, se hizo adolescente, dej de hablar ingls y empez a hablar una nueva lengua. +Yo le digo teengls, ingls de adolescente, +Es una lengua digital. +Tiene dos sonidos: un gruido y el silencio. +Ven a cenar, cielo. +Hummm... +Me oste? +Silencio. Me puedes escuchar? +Hummm... Comunicarnos era un problema, y no nos comunicbamos para nada, hasta que un da tuve una revelacin. +Le mand un mensaje de texto. Me contest al instante. +Dije, no, debe haber sido sin querer. +Seguro que pens, bueno, que era algn amigo. +Entonces le mand otro mensaje. Bum!, me contest. +Dije: buensimo. +Y as, desde ese da, nuestras vidas cambiaron. +Le mando un mensaje de texto: me contesta. +Fue completamente genial. +La generacin del nuevo milenio se form de otro modo. +Soy ms viejo y mi mirada juvenil quiz haga que no se note, pero no soy de la generacin del nuevo milenio. +Nuestros hijos son realmente distintos. +La generacin del nuevo milenio se siente absolutamente cmoda con la tecnologa en lnea. +Por qu la combatimos en el saln, entonces? +No la combatamos: incorpormosla. +Yo tengo dos pulgares gordos y no escribo muy bien mensajes de texto pero apostara que con la evolucin nuestros hijos y sus nietos van a desarrollar pulgares bien, bien chiquititos para escribir mucho mejor. Creo que la evolucin lo va a solucionar todo. +Pero qu pasara si incorporramos la tecnologa, si tomramos las preferencias naturales de la generacin del nuevo milenio y pensramos seriamente en crear estas tecnologas en lnea y las mezclramos con sus vidas? +Esto es lo que podemos hacer. +En vez de llevar a nuestros chicos al saln, arrearlos hasta all a las 8 de la maana -- yo odiaba ir a clases a las 8 de la maana-- Por qu los obligamos a hacer eso? +En cambio, lo que hacemos es hacerlos mirar videos y resolver ejercicios interactivos en la comodidad de sus dormitorios, en la cama, en el comedor, en el bao, en el lugar que sean ms creativos. +Despus vienen al saln para interactuar en persona. +Pueden debatir entre ellos. +Pueden resolver problemas juntos. +Pueden trabajar con el docente y que ste conteste sus preguntas. +En verdad, con edX, cuando dictbamos el primer curso de circuitos y electrnica en todo el mundo, todo esto pasaba sin que nos diramos cuenta. +Y la nica forma de enterarnos de esto fue que hicieron un blog y justo lo encontramos casualmente. +Tambin hicimos otros proyectos piloto. +Hicimos un piloto de cursos mixtos experimentales, junto con la Universidad Estatal de San Jos, en California, de nuevo, con el curso de circuitos y electrnica. +Lo van a or mucho. Ese curso se ha vuelto como nuestra placa de Petri del aprendizaje. +Y all, otra vez, los profesores daban vuelta el saln, mezclaban la parte en lnea con la presencial y los resultados fueron impresionantes. +Pero todava no den estos resultados por buenos. +Esperen un poquito a que experimentemos ms, aunque los primeros resultados son increbles. +Tradicionalmente, semestre tras semestre, desde hace unos cuantos aos, este curso, difcil tambin, tuvo un porcentaje de reprobados de entre el 41 y el 42 % por semestre. +Con esta clase mixta, a fines del ao pasado, el porcentaje de reprobados baj al 9 %. +Se pueden obtener resultados realmente muy buenos. +Pero antes de profundizar en esto, quisiera que hablemos de algunos conceptos importantes. +Cules son los conceptos que permiten que todo esto funcione? +Uno es el de aprendizaje activo. +En vez de hacer que los estudiantes vayan a la clase, la idea es reemplazar esto con lo que llamamos lecciones. +Las lecciones son una serie de videos y ejercicios interactivos intercalados. +De este modo, un alumno puede mirar un video de 5 o 7 minutos y a continuacin hacer un ejercicio interactivo. +Pinsenlo como la mxima expresin del aprendizaje socrtico. +Se ensea preguntando. +Esta forma de aprendizaje, se llama aprendizaje activo. Fue planteado en 1972, en un trabajo de Craik y Lockhart, en el que demostraron que el aprendizaje y la retencin tienen una estrecha relacin con los procesos cerebrales profundos. +Se aprende mucho mejor si se interacta con el material. +El segundo concepto es el de ritmo propio. +Cuando yo estaba en clase, y quiz les pas lo mismo, a los cinco minutos perda el hilo de lo que estaba diciendo el profesor. +No era muy listo. Quedaba aturdido tomando apuntes y me perda de la clase de toda una hora. +En cambio, no estara bien que, con la tecnologa actual, ofreciramos videos y tareas interactivas a los estudiantes? +Pueden apretar el botn pausa. +Pueden retroceder al profesor. +Qu diablos! Hasta pueden poner en silencio al profesor. +El ritmo propio puede ser muy til para el aprendizaje. +El tercer concepto es el de retroalimentacin inmediata. +Con esta, la computadora califica los ejercicios. +Digo... No hay otra forma de ensearle a 150 000 estudiantes. +La computadora est calificando todos los ejercicios. +Siempre que entregbamos nuestras tareas, te las corregan dos semanas despus, cuando ya las habas olvidado. +Creo que todava no me han regresado algunas que hice en la universidad. +O ni las corrigen! +Pero con la retroalimentacin inmediata, los alumnos pueden usar las respuestas. +Si las hicieron mal, lo saben al instante. +Pueden probar una y otra vez y esto lo hace mucho ms interesante. +Y estas marcas verdes que ven ac, son ya una imagen de culto en edX. +Los estudiantes, cuando se van a dormir suean con la marquita verde. +Mi colega Ed Bertschinger, jefe del departamento de fsica en el MIT, tiene algo que decir sobre la retroalimentacin inmediata: Seal que esto transforma los momentos de enseanza en verdaderos aprendizajes. +El que sigue es el gran concepto de la ludificacin. +Todo estudiante se engancha mucho ms con videos interactivos y cosas as. +Se sientan y le disparan a naves extraterrestres todo el da hasta que aprenden. +Entonces aplicamos estas tcnicas ldicas al aprendizaje y construimos estos laboratorios en lnea. +Cmo ensear la creatividad? Cmo ensear diseo? +Lo podemos hacer con laboratorios en lnea y usar el poder de las computadoras. +Como vemos en este videto, se puede interesar a los alumnos como si estuvieran diseando con Legos. +Aqu estn fabricando un circuito tan fcilmente como jugar con Legos. Y la computadora tambin los revisa. +El quinto concepto es el de aprendizaje entre pares. +Para esto usamos foros +e interaccin similar a la de Facebook no para distraerlos sino para ayudarlos a que aprendan. +Les cuento una historia. +Cuando dimos el curso de circuitos para 150,000 alumnos, estuve sin dormir las tres noches anteriores al lanzamiento del curso. +Les dije a mis asistentes, bien, 24/07, estaremos ah, monitoreando el foro, respondiendo preguntas. +Ellos haban contestado preguntas de 100 alumnos. +Cmo hacerlo con 150 000? +ya haba aparecido con otra respuesta. +Me volv a sentar, fascinado. +Bum, bum, bum, bum, los estudiantes estaban debatiendo e interactuando entre ellos. Eran las 4 de la maana, estaba completamente fascinado con esta revelacin y a esa hora ya haban descubierto la respuesta correcta. +Lo nico que tuve que hacer fue bendecirla: Buena respuesta. +Es impresionante: lo estudiantes aprenden el uno del otro y nos estn diciendo que enseando, aprenden. +Y esto no es cosa del futuro. +Est pasando ahora. +Estamos usando estos proyectos piloto mixtos en muchas universidades y escuelas secundarias de todo el mundo, desde Tsinghua de China a la Universidad Nacional de Mongolia, hasta Berkeley en California. En todo el mundo. +Este tipo de tecnologa ayuda. El modelo mixto puede ayudar muchsimo a generar una revolucin educativa. +Tambin puede resolver problemas prcticos de los MOOC, el lado comercial. +Tambin podemos otorgar las licencias de estos cursos MOOC a otras universidades y all est la salida financiera para los MOOC, donde la universidad que los adquiere permite a sus profesores que usen estos cursos en lnea como si fueran los libros de texto de la prxima generacin. +Lo pueden usar mucho o poco segn prefieran. Es una herramienta ms con la que cuenta el docente. +Por ltimo, quisiera que sueen un poco junto conmigo. +Quisiera que repensemos la educacin por completo. +Tendremos que pasar de las aulas a los espacios virtuales. +Tendremos que pasar de los libros a las tabletas como el Aakash en la India o el Raspberry Pi de 20 dlares. +El Aakash cuesta 40. +Tendremos que pasar de las escuelas de ladrillos a los dormitorios digitales. +Pero creo, para terminar, que todava vamos a necesitar aulas en nuestras universidades. +Porque si no, cmo le contaremos a nuestros nietos que sus abuelos se sentaban en ese saln y desde esas hileritas ordenadas veamos cmo el profesor, en el fondo, desarrollaba el tema, y eso sin el botn de rebobinar? +Gracias. +Gracias. Gracias. +En 2007, fui nombrada Fiscal General del estado de Nueva Jersey. +Antes de eso, haba sido fiscal en casos penales primero en la oficina del Fiscal General de Manhattan y despus en el Departamento de Justicia de Estados Unidos. +Pero cundo llegu a ser Fiscal General, pasaron dos cosas que cambiaron la forma en que yo vea la justicia criminal. +La primera fue que me pregunt qu pensaba sobre cuestiones realmente bsicas. +Quera entender a quienes arrestbamos. a quienes estbamos acusando, y a quienes estbamos enviando a las crceles y prisiones de nuestro pas. +Tambin quera entender si estbamos tomando las decisiones de forma que nos diera ms seguridad. +Y no poda obtener esta informacin. +Me encontr que la mayora de las agencias de justicia criminal como la ma no rastreaba las cosas que importan. +As que tras un mes de estar increblemente frustrada, entr a una sala de reunin llena de detectives y pilas y pilas de expedientes de casos, y los detectives estaban sentados all tomando nota con sus libretas amarillas. +Ellos trataban de encontrar la informacin que yo buscaba mediante la revisin de caso por caso de los ltimos 5 aos. +Y como pueden imaginar, cuando finalmente concluimos, el resultado no era bueno. +Result que lo que estbamos haciendo eran muchos casos de drogas de bajo nivel de las calles alrededor de nuestra oficina en Trenton. +Lo segundo que sucedi es que pas el da en el departamento de polica de Camden, Nueva Jersey. +Entonces, en ese momento, Camden, Nueva Jersey, era la ciudad ms peligrosa en Estados Unidos. +Yo diriga el departamento de polica de Camden a causa de ello. +Pas el da en el departamento de polica, y me llevaron a un cuarto con los oficiales de polica veteranos, todos ellos trabajaban duro e intentaban intensamente en reducir el crimen en Camden. +Y lo que vi en ese cuarto, mientras hablbamos sobre cmo reducir el crimen, fue un grupo de oficiales con muchas notitas amarillas adheribles. +Tomaban una nota amarilla adherible y escriban algo en ella y la colocaban en un tablero. +Y uno deca, "Tuvimos un robo hace dos semanas. +No tenemos sospechosos". +Otro deca, "Tuvimos un tiroteo en este vecindario la semana pasada. No hay sospechosos". +No tenamos una poltica basada en datos duros. +Esencialmente, tratbamos de combatir el crimen mediante notas con Post-It. +Ahora, ambas cosas me hicieron percatarme de que estbamos fallando fundamentalmente. +No sabamos quien estaba en nuestro sistema de justicia criminal, no tenamos ningn dato sobre las cosas que s importaban, y no compartamos datos o usbamos anlisis o herramientas que nos ayudaran a tomar mejores decisiones y a reducir el crmen. +Y por primera vez empezaba a pensar acerca de cmo tombamos decisiones. +Cuando fui abogada asistente del Fiscal, y cuando fui Fiscal Federal, miraba los casos frente a m, y generalmente tomaba decisiones basadas en mi instinto y mi experiencia. +Cuando me hice Fiscal General, y pude observar el sistema como un todo, lo que ms me sorprendi es que encontr que era eso exactamente lo que estbamos haciendo a travs de todo el sistema, en los departamentos de polica, en las oficinas de los fiscales, en los tribunales y las crceles. +Y lo que aprend muy rpidamente es que no estbamos haciendo un buen trabajo. +As que quera hacer las cosas diferente. +Quera introducir datos y anlisis y un riguroso anlisis estadstico en nuestro trabajo. +En definitiva, quera 'moneyball' [optimizar] la justicia penal. +Eso funcion para los Atlticos de Oakland, y funcion en el estado de Nueva Jersey. +Quitamos a Camden del inicio de la lista de las ciudades ms peligrosas de los Estados Unidos. +Redujimos los asesinatos en un 41%, lo que en efecto significa que salvamos 37 vidas. +Y redujimos todo el crimen en la ciudad en un 26%. +Tambin cambiamos la manera que hacamos los procesos penales. +As que cambiamos de delitos de posesin de drogas de bajo nivel que ocurran afuera de nuestro edificio hacia casos de importancia estatal, actuando en cosas como reducir la violencia de los delincuentes ms violentos, acusacin formal de bandas callejeras, trfico de armas y drogas y la corrupcin poltica. +Y todo esto importa mucho, porque la seguridad pblica para m es la funcin ms importante del gobierno. +Si no estamos seguros, no podemos educarnos, ni podemos estar sanos, ni podemos hacer ninguna de las otras cosas que queremos hacer en nuestras vidas. +Y hoy vivimos en un pas donde nos enfrentamos a problemas graves de justicia penal. +Tenemos 12 millones de arrestos cada ao. +La gran mayora de esos arrestos son por delitos de bajo nivel, como conductas lesivas, en un 70 a 80%. +Menos del 5% de todas las detenciones son por delitos violentos. +Sin embargo, gastamos 75 mil millones, s dije mil millones, de dlares al ao en correccionales locales y estatales. +Justo ahora, hoy, tenemos 2.3 millones de personas en nuestras crceles y prisiones. +Y nos enfrentamos a increbles retos en seguridad pblica porque tenemos una situacin en la que 2/3 de las personas en las crceles estn an esperado juicio. +An no han sido sentenciados por algn delito. +Slo estn esperando su da en la corte. +Y 67% de las personas regresan. +Nuestra tasa de reincidencia est entre las ms altas del mundo. +Casi 7 de cada 10 personas que se liberan de la prisin sern nuevamente detenidos en un ciclo constante de delito y encarcelamiento. +As que cuando comenc mi trabajo en la Fundacin Arnold, volv a mirar este montn de preguntas, y volv a pensar en cmo usamos datos y anlisis para transformar la forma en que ejercamos la justicia penal en Nueva Jersey. +Y cuando miro el sistema de justicia penal de los Estados Unidos hoy en da, me siento igual que como me senta sobre el estado de Nueva Jersey cuando empec alli, que era que sin duda tenamos que hacer algo mejor, y s que podemos hacerlo mejor. +Todo lo que sucede en los casos criminales parte de esa nica decisin. +Impacta todo. +Afecta a la sentencia. +Afecta si alguien recibe tratamiento contra las drogas. +Afecta al crimen y a la violencia. +Y cuando hablo con los jueces alrededor de los Estados Unidos, cosa que hago todo el tiempo, todos dicen lo mismo, que es "pongamos a la gente peligrosa en la crcel, y soltemos a las personas que no son peligrosos o no violentos". +Lo dicen y lo creen. +Pero cuando empiezas a mirar los datos, que, por cierto, no tienen los jueces, cuando comenzamos a mirar los datos, lo que encontramos una y otra vez, es que este no ocurre as. +Nos encontramos con los delincuentes de bajo riesgo, que constituye el 50% de nuestra poblacin entera en el sistema de justicia penal, nos encontramos con que estn en la crcel. +Miren a Leslie Chew, un tejano que rob 4 mantas en una noche fra de invierno. +Lo arrestaron y lo retuvieron en la crcel con una fianza de 3500 dlares, una cantidad que l no poda pagar. +Y permaneci preso durante 8 meses hasta que su caso pas a juicio, con un costo para los contribuyentes de ms de 9 mil dlares. +Y en el otro extremo del espectro, estamos haciendo un trabajo igualmente terrible. +Las personas que encontramos que son los delincuentes de mayor riesgo, las personas que creemos que tienen la mayor probabilidad de cometer un nuevo delito, si son liberados, a nivel nacional vemos que el 50% de esas personas estn siendo liberados. +La razn de esto es la manera en que tomamos decisiones. +Los jueces tienen las mejores intenciones cuando toman estas decisiones acerca del riesgo, pero las hacen subjetivamente. +Son como los reclutadores de bisbol hace 20 aos que usaban su instinto y su experiencia para tratar de decidir qu riesgo implica alguien. +Estn siendo subjetivos, y sabemos lo que pasa con decisiones subjetivas, que a menudo estn equivocadas. +Lo que necesitamos en este espacio son datos duros y anlisis. +Lo que he decidido buscar son datos duros y herramientas analticas de evaluacin de riesgos, algo que podra hacer que los jueces realmente entiendan con una forma cientfica y objetiva cul es el nivel de riesgo que plantea alguien presentado ante ellos. +Busqu por todo el pas, y encontr que entre 5 y 10% de todas las jurisdicciones de Estados Unidos usa cualquier tipo de herramienta de evaluacin de riesgos, y cuando mir esas herramientas, rpidamente me di cuenta del porqu. +Eran increblemente costosas para adminsitrarse, eran muy lentos, estaban limitados a la jurisdiccin local en el cual haba sido creadas. +As que, bsicamente, no poda escalarse o transferirse a otros lugares. +As que sal y conjunt un fenomenal equipo de investigadores y cientficos de datos y estadsticos para construir una herramienta de evaluacin de riesgo universal, para que cada juez en los Estados Unidos pueda tener una medida de riesgo objetiva y cientfica. +En la herramienta que construmos lo que hicimos fue que recogimos 1.5 millones de casos de todo los Estados Unidos, de las ciudades, de condados, de cada estado en el pas, de los distritos federales. +Y con esos 1.5 millones de casos, que son la coleccin ms grande de datos previos a un juicio en los Estados Unidos hoy en da, hemos sido capaces de encontrar bsicamente que haba unos 900 factores de riesgo que podramos ver para tratar de averiguar lo que ms importa. +Y encontramos que haba 9 cosas especficas que importaban en todo el pas y que esos eran los factores de prediccin del riesgo ms precisos. +Y as, hemos construido una herramienta de evaluacin de riesgo universal. +Y se parece a esto. +Como pueden ver, ponemos algo de informacin, pero la mayor parte es increblemente simple, es fcil de usar, se centra en cosas cmo: condenas anteriores del acusado, si has sido condenado a encarcelamiento, si se han vinculado a actos de violencia antes, si no ha podido evitar volver al juzgado. +Y con esta herramienta, podemos predecir 3 cosas: +Primera, si alguien cometera o no de nuevo un crimen si fuera liberado. +Segunda, por primera vez, y creo que es muy importante, podemos predecir si alguien cometer un acto de violencia si fuera liberado. +Y esto es la cosa ms importante que los jueces dicen cuando hablan con ellos. +Tercera, podemos predecir cundo alguien volver al juzgado. +Y cada juez en los Estados Unidos puede utilizarlo, porque se cre con un conjunto universal de datos. +Lo que los jueces ven si usan la herramienta de evaluacin de riesgo es esto: un panel de control. +En la parte superior, vers el Puntaje de Nueva Actividad Criminal, en donde, por supuesto, 6 es el ms alto, y a la mitad ven: "riesgo de violencia elevado". +Lo que te dice que esa persona es alguien que tiene un riesgo elevado de violencia y que el juez debe analizarlo dos veces. +Y luego, hacia la parte inferior, ves el Puntaje de Falla al Asistir, que es la probabilidad de que alguien volver a los tribunales. +Ahora quiero decir algo muy importante. +No es que crea que deberamos eliminar el instinto y la experiencia del juez de este proceso. +No. +En realidad creo que el problema que vemos y la razn por la que tenemos estos increbles errores en el sistema, donde estamos encarcelando a personas de bajo riesgo, no violentas y liberamos a personas de alto riesgo, peligrosas, es porque no tenemos una medida objetiva de riesgo. +Pero lo que creo debe suceder es que deberamos tomar este examen de riesgo basado en datos y combinarlo con el instinto y la experiencia del juez lo que nos llevar a una mejor toma de decisiones. +La herramienta se utilizar estatalmente en Kentucky a partir del 1 de julio, y vamos a utilizarla en un nmero importante de otras jurisdicciones de Estados Unidos. +Nuestro objetivo, sencillamente, es que cada juez individual en los Estados Unidos utilce una herramienta de medicin de riesgo basada en datos dentro de los prximos 5 aos. +Ahora, estamos trabajando en herramientas de medicin de riesgo para los fiscales y agentes de la polica, para tratar de tomar un sistema que acta hoy en Estados Unidos de la misma manera que lo ha hecho en 50 aos, basado en el instinto y la experiencia, y convertirlo en uno que funcione con base a datos y anlisis. +Ahora, la gran noticia de todo esto, y tenemos mucho trabajo por hacer, y tenemos mucha cultura que cambiar, pero la gran noticia sobre todo es que sabemos que funciona. +Por eso Google es Google, por eso todos estos equipos de beisbol usan 'moneyball' para ganar juegos. +La gran noticia para nosotros es que esta es la manera en que podemos transformar el sistema de justicia penal estadounidense. +Es cmo podemos hacer nuestras calles ms seguras, podemos reducir nuestros costos de prisin, y podemos hacer nuestro sistema mucho ms equitativo y ms justo. +Algunas personas lo llaman "ciencia de datos". +Yo lo llamo Optimizar la Justicia Penal. +Gracias. +Soy McKenna Pope y tengo 14 aos. Cuando tena 13, convenc a uno de los mayores fabricantes de juguetes, en el mundo, Hasbro, de cambiar la forma en que vendan uno de sus productos ms vendidos. +Les hablar de esto. +Tengo un hermano, Gavin. +Cuando todo esto ocurri, l tena 4 aos. +Le encantaba cocinar. +Siempre sacaba ingredientes de la nevera y los mezclaba, haciendo brebajes incomibles, no hace falta decirlo, o haciendo fideos con queso invisibles. +Se mora por convertirse en chef de cocina. +Y entonces, qu mejor regalo para un nio que quera ser chef que una cocinita de juguete. Verdad? +Es decir, todas tenamos de esas cuando ramos pequeas. +Y l se mora de ganas de tener una. +Pero luego empez a darse cuenta de algo. +En los anuncios y en las cajas de las cocinitas Hasbro las comercializaba especficamente para nias. +Y lo hacan mostrando solo imgenes de nias en las cajas o en los anuncios, y haba estampados floridos en las cocinitas en rosa brillante y violeta, colores muy especficos del gnero femenino, no? +Con ello trasmitan un mensaje que solo las chicas deberan cocinar, no los nios. +Y esto desanimaba mucho a mi hermano. +Pensaba que no deba querer convertirse en chef, porque eso era algo para nias. +Las chicas cocinaban, los chicos no, o por lo menos ese era el mensaje que Hasbro trasmita. +Y esto me hizo pensar, que ojal hubiera una manera de cambiar esto Podra hacer que Hasbro escuchara mi voz para decirles lo que hacan mal y pedirles que lo cambien? +Y eso me hizo pensar en un sitio web que haba conocido unos meses antes llamado Change.org. +Change.org es una plataforma de intercambio de peticiones donde se puede crear una peticin y compartirla a travs de todas las redes sociales, a travs de Facebook, de Twitter, de YouTube, de Reddit, de Tumblr, a travs de lo que se nos pueda ocurrir. +As que cre una peticin y le agregu un video de YouTube bsicamente pidiendo a Hasbro que cambie la forma en que comercializaba las cocinitas mostrando nios en los anuncios, en las cajas, y sobre todo utilizando colores menos femeninos. +As que esta peticin empez a despegar super rpido, no tienen ni idea. +Me entrevistaron en todos estos medios de comunicacin nacionales y prensa; y fue increble. +En tres semanas, quiz tres y media, tena 46 000 firmas en esta peticin. +Gracias. +As que, no hace falta decirlo, fue una locura. +Finalmente, Hasbro me invit a su sede para mostrarme su nueva cocinita en negro, plata y azul. +Literalmente fue uno de los mejores momentos de mi vida. +Era como "Willy Wonka y la fbrica de Chocolate". Fue increble. +De lo que no me di cuenta en el momento, sin embargo, era que me haba convertido en activista, yo poda cambiar algo, incluso siendo una nia, o tal vez precisamente por ser una nia, mi voz importaba, y sus voces tambin importan mucho. +Quiero que sepan que no ser fcil, y no fue fcil para m, porque me enfrent a un montn de obstculos. +Gente online y a veces incluso en la vida real irrespetuosos conmigo y mi familia, y decan que todo esto era una prdida de tiempo, y eso realmente me desanim. +Y de hecho, tengo algunos ejemplos, porque, qu mejor venganza que mostrar su estupidez? +As que, veamos. +Del usuario Liquidsore29. -tenemos nombres de usuario interesantes por ac- "Madres liberales horribles que convierten a sus hijos en gays ". Liquidsore29, verdad? S? Bien. +Y qu tal Whiteboy77AGS? "La gente siempre necesita algo para reclamar". +De Jeffrey Gutierrez: "Dios mo, cllate. Solo quieres dinero y atencin". As que comentarios como estos realmente me desanimaron a querer hacer cambios en el futuro porque pens que a la gente no le importaba, que a la gente le pareca una prdida de tiempo, y que la gente sera irrespetuosa conmigo y mi familia. +Me doli y me hizo pensar. Qu sentido tiene intentar cambiar el futuro? +Pero luego empec a darme cuenta de algo. +Los que odian te odiarn. +Vamos, dganlo conmigo. Uno, dos, tres: Los que odian te odiarn. +As que dejen que los enemigos odien. Y saben, ustedes hagan sus cambios, porque s que pueden. +Y Uds. pueden hacer ese cambio. +Uds. pueden tomar lo que sea en que crean y convertirlo en una causa y cambiarlo. +Y esa chispa de la que han escuchado hoy todo el da, pueden utilizar esa chispa que tienen dentro de Uds. y convertirla en fuego. +Gracias. +Mesera: Qu le puedo servir, seor? +Cliente: Ah, veamos. +Mesero: Tenemos registro errneo a la brasa, rociado con el dato corrompido ms fino, brioche binario, emparedados RAM, buuelos Conficker, y una ensalada script con o sin aderezo polimrfico, y un kebab de cdigo asado. +Cliente: Quiero un emparedado RAM con una copa del Cdigo 39 ms fino. +Mesera: Le gustara algn postre? +Nuestros cookies de rastreo son el especial de la casa. +Cliente: Me gustara una orden de cookies zombies de rastreo, gracias. +Mesera: Bien, ya se lo traigo todo. +Le serviremos muy pronto su comida. +Maya Penn: Dibujo desde que poda sostener un crayn, y he creado folioscopios animados desde que tena 3 aos de edad. +A esa edad tambin descubr lo que haca un caricaturista. +Haba un programa en la televisin sobre trabajos que la mayora de los nios no conocen. +Cuando descubr que un caricaturista creaba los dibujos animados que vea en la televisin inmediatamente dije: "Eso es lo que quiero ser". +No s si lo dije mentalmente o en voz alta, pero eso fue un momento decisivo en mi vida. +La animacin y el arte siempre han sido mi primer amor. +Fue mi amor por la tecnologa lo que me dio la idea para "Platillos Maliciosos". +Haba un virus en mi computadora y trataba de deshacerme de l y de repente pens, qu tal si los virus tienen su propio mundo dentro de la computadora? +Quizs un restaurante donde pueden encontrarse y hacer cosas de virus. +Fue as como surgi "Platillos Maliciosos". +A los 4 aos mi pap me mostr cmo desarmar una computadora y ensamblarla nuevamente. +As comenz mi fascinacin por la tecnologa. +Dise mi primer sitio web por mi cuenta en HTML y estoy aprendiendo JavaScript y Python. +Tambin estoy trabajando en una serie animada llamada "Los polinizadores". +Se trata de abejas y otros polinizadores en nuestro medio ambiente y su importancia. +Si las plantas no son polinizadas por los polinizadores, todas las criaturas, incluyendo nosotros que dependemos de estas plantas, pasaremos hambruna. +As que decid tomar estas maravillosas criaturas y crear un equipo de superhroes. +(Pasos fuertes) Polinizador: Deforestsauro! Deb imaginrmelo! +Debo llamar al resto de los polinizadores! +Gracias. Todas mis animaciones comienzan con ideas, pero qu son las ideas? +Las ideas pueden comenzar un movimiento. +Las ideas son oportunidades e innovacin. +Las ideas es lo que realmente hace que el mundo gire. +Si no fuera por las ideas no estaramos donde estamos ahora en materia de tecnologa, medicina, arte, cultura, e incluso nuestros estilos de vidas. +A los 8 aos tom mis ideas y comenc mi propio negocio llamado Maya's Ideas, y mi organizacin sin fines de lucros, Maya's Ideas for the Planet. +Y hago prendas de vestir y accesorios ecolgicos. +Ahora tengo 13 aos y aunque comenc mi negocio en el 2008, mi trayectoria artstica comenz desde mucho antes. +Estaba muy influenciada por el arte y quera incorporarlo a todo lo que haca, incluso mi negocio. +Consegua diferente tipos de telas en mi casa y deca: "esto puede ser una bufanda o un gorro", y tena todas estas ideas para disear. +Not que cuando vesta mis creaciones la gente me paraba y me decan: "Oye, est sper lindo. Dnde puedo comprarme uno?". +As que pens, puedo comenzar mi propio negocio. +Ahora, no tena ningn plan de negocios a la edad de 8 aos. +Solo saba que quera crear cosas lindas que no fueran dainas para el medio ambiente y quera retribuir a la comunidad. +Mi mam me ense a coser y en el patio trasero me sentaba a hacer pequeos cintillos con cintas, y escriba los nombres y el precio en cada uno. +Comenc a hacer ms cosas como gorros, bufandas y bolsos. +De inmediato mis creaciones comenzaron a venderse en todo el mundo y tena clientes en Dinamarca, Italia, Australia, Canad y ms. +Ahora, tena mucho que aprender sobre los negocios, como la marca y el mercadeo, mantenerme en contacto con mis clientes, y ver lo que se venda ms y menos. +Pronto mi negocio de veras comenz a crecer. +Entonces un da, la revista Forbes me contact cuando tena 10 aos. +Queran hablar de m y de mi compaa en un artculo. +Ahora, mucha gente me pregunta por qu tu negocio es ecolgico? +He sentido una gran pasin por la proteccin del ambiente y sus criaturas desde que era pequea. +Mis padres me ensearon desde muy pequea acerca de ayudar a la comunidad y cuidar el medio ambiente. +He escuchado cmo los tintes de algunas prendas de vestir o el proceso de teido puede ser daino para las personas y el planeta. As que comenc a investigar y descubr que al final del proceso de teido queda un residuo que genera un impacto negativo en el medio ambiente. +Por ejemplo, al moler los materiales o botar los materiales pulverizados, +estos actos pueden contaminar el aire hacindolo txico para todo aquel que lo respire. +As que cuando comenc mi negocio saba dos cosas: que toda mi mercanca tena que ser ecolgica y que el 10-20% de las ganancias ira a organizaciones caritativas locales y mundiales y del medio ambiente. +Siento que soy parte de una nueva ola de empresarios que no solo quiere un negocio exitoso sino tambin un futuro sustentable. +Siento que puedo atender a las demandas de mis clientes sin poner en peligro la posibilidad de que generaciones futuras vivan maana en un mejor medio ambiente. +Vivimos en un mundo grande, diverso y hermoso y eso hace que me apasione ms por salvarlo. +Pero no es suficiente que tan solo piensen acerca de las cosas que pasan en nuestro mundo. +Tienes que llevrtelo al corazn, porque cuando lo sientes de corazn es cuando se encienden los movimientos. +As es como las oportunidades y la innovacin surgen, y as es como las ideas toman vida. +Gracias, paz y bendiciones. +Gracias. Pat Mitchell: Bien, escucharon a Maya hablar acerca de los padres fabulosos detrs de est increble jovencita. Dnde estn? +Por favor, el Sr. y la Sra. Penn. Podran...? Ah! +Quiero que imaginen el hito que esto signific para las mujeres que fueron vctimas de violencia en la dcada de 1980. +Ellas llegaban a las salas de emergencia a lo que la polica llamaba 'pelea de amantes'; donde yo hubiera visto una mujer que fue golpeada, yo hubiera visto una nariz rota y una mueca quebrada y ojos hinchados. +Y como activistas, hubiramos tomado nuestras cmaras Polaroid, hubiramos tomado su foto, hubiramos esperado 90 segundos, y le hubiramos entregado su fotografa. +Entonces ella hubiera podido tener la evidencia necesaria para ir a la justicia. +Estuvimos haciendo visible lo invisible. +He hecho esto por 30 aos. +He formado parte de un movimiento social que ha trabajado en acabar con la violencia contra mujeres y nios. +Y durante todos esos aos, he tenido una conviccin apasionada aunque a veces no muy aceptada de que esa violencia no es inevitable, de que es aprendida, y si es aprendida, puede ser des-aprendida y puede prevenirse. +Por qu creo en esto? +Porque es cierto. +Es absolutamente cierto. +Entre 1993 y 2010, la violencia domstica contra mujeres adultas en los Estados Unidos ha disminuido un 64% y esas son muy buenas noticias. +64%. Ahora, cmo lo logramos? +Tuvimos los ojos bien abiertos. +Hace 30 aos las mujeres eran golpeadas, eran acosadas, violadas, y nadie hablaba de eso. +No haba justicia. +Y como activista, eso no estaba bien. +Entonces, el primer paso en nuestra aventura fue organizarnos, y creamos esta extraordinaria red clandestina de mujeres increbles que abrieron refugios, y si no abran un refugio, abran sus hogares para que aquellas mujeres y nios pudieran estar a salvo. +Y saben qu ms hicimos? +Organizamos ventas de pan, abrimos lavaderos de autos, e hicimos lo imposible para reunir fondos, y en un momento dijimos, saben, ya es hora de que nos presentemos ante el gobierno federal y les pidamos que paguen por estos extraordinarios servicios que estaban salvando la vida de personas. +S? Entonces: el segundo paso. Sabamos que necesitbamos cambiar la ley. +Y fuimos a Washington, y cabildeamos a favor del primer conjunto de leyes. +Y me acuerdo estar caminando por los pasillos del Capitolio de EE UU, y tena alrededor de 30 aos, y mi vida tena un propsito, y no poda imaginar que alguien estuviera en contra de esa importante legislacin. +Puede que yo tuviera 30 aos y fuera muy inocente. +Pero escuch acerca de un legislador que tena un punto de vista muy pero muy diferente. +Saben cmo le llam a esa importante legislacin? +Le llam La Ley de Quitarle la Diversin al Matrimonio. +La Ley de Quitarle la Diversin al Matrimonio. +Damas y caballeros, eso fue en 1984 en los EE UU y yo hubiera deseado tener Twitter. +10 aos ms tarde, despus de trabajar muy duro, finalmente logramos que se aprobara la Ley contra la Violencia hacia las Mujeres, que es una ley revolucionaria que ha salvado muchas vidas. Gracias. +Estaba orgullosa de formar parte de ese trabajo que cambi las leyes y puso millones de dlares en comunidades locales. +Y saben qu ms logr? Recolect datos. +Y debo admitirlo, soy una apasionada de los datos. +De hecho, soy una manitica de los datos. +Estoy segura de que aqu hay muchos maniticos de los datos. +Soy una manitica de los datos. Y eso es porque quiero estar segura de que si gastamos un dlar, que el programa funcione, y si no funciona, debemos cambiar de plan. +Y quiero decir algo ms: No vamos a resolver este problema construyendo ms prisiones o incluso construyendo ms refugios. +Se trata de empoderar a las mujeres econmicamente, se trata de curar a los nios que estn heridos, y se trata de Prevenir con P mayscula. +Y entonces, el tercer paso en esta aventura: sabemos que si queremos seguir progresando, tendremos que subir el volumen, tendremos que aumentar la visibilidad, y tendremos que interesar a la gente. +Y sabiendo esto, fuimos al Consejo de Publicidad y les pedimos que nos ayudaran a desarrollar una campaa educativa, +Y buscamos alrededor del mundo desde Canad hasta Australia, Brasil y en partes de frica, y tomamos este conocimiento y creamos la primera campaa de educacin pblica nacional llamada 'La Violencia Domstica no tiene Excusa'. +Miren uno de nuestros videos. +Hombre: Dnde est la cena? +Mujer: Bueno, pens que llegaras a casa ms temprano, as que ya levant todo, y... Hombre: Qu es esto? Pizza. Mujer: Si me hubieras llamado, yo hubiera... Hombre: Cena? La cena lista es una pizza? Mujer: Cario, por favor no levantes la voz. +Por favor no... sultame! +Hombre: Ve a la cocina! Mujer: No! Auxilio! +Hombre: Quieres ver lo que duele? Hombre: Eso es lo que duele! Eso es lo que duele! (Vidrio roto) Mujer: Auxilio! +["Los nios tienen que sentarse y mirar. Cul es tu excusa?"] Mientras estbamos en el proceso de publicar esta campaa, O. J. Simpson fue arrestado por el asesinato de su esposa y su amigo. +Sabamos que tena una larga historia de violencia domstica. +Los medios se obsesionaron. +La historia de violencia domstica vino desde la ltima pgina, o mejor dicho desde ninguna pgina a la portada principal. +Nuestros anuncios coparon las frecuencias, y las mujeres, por primera vez, empezaron a contar su historia. +Los movimientos tienen que ver con momentos, y nosotros aprovechamos el momento. +Y djenme poner esto en contexto. +Antes de 1980, tienen una idea de cuntos artculos public The New York Times sobre violencia domstica? +Se los dir: 158 +Y desde el 2000, ms de 7000. +Obviamente estbamos haciendo una diferencia. +Pero aun as se nos pasaba un elemento crtico. +As que, paso 4: tenamos que comprometer a los hombres. +No podamos resolver el problema dejando de lado al 50% de la poblacin. +Y ya les dije que soy una manitica de los datos. +Las encuestas nacionales decan que los hombres se sentan acusados y no invitados a este dilogo. +Entonces nos preguntamos, cmo podemos incluir a los hombres? +Cmo podemos lograr que los hombres hablen sobre la violencia contra mujeres y nias? +Y un amigo mo me llev a un lado y me dijo, "Quieres que los hombres hablen sobre violencia contra mujeres y nias. Los hombres no hablan". +Les pido disculpas a los hombres del pblico. +S que lo hacen. +Pero dijo, "Sabes lo que hacen? +Hablan con sus hijos. +Ellos hablan con sus hijos como padres, como entrenadores". +Y eso es lo que hicimos. +Nos reunimos con los hombres en donde estaban y creamos un programa. +Y entonces realizamos un evento que se quedar en mi corazn para siempre donde un entrenador de baloncesto estaba hablando a una sala repleta de hombres deportistas y de hombres de diversas extracciones. +Y habl acerca de la importancia de entrenar nios para hacerse hombres y de cambiar la cultura de los vestidores y de darles a ellos las herramientas para tener relaciones saludables. +De repente, mir hacia el fondo de la sala, y vio a su hija. la llam por su nombre, Michaela, y dijo, "Michaela, ven aqu". +Ella tiene 9 aos y era algo tmida, pas al frente, y le dijo, "Sintate junto a m". +Ella se sent junto a l. +Le dio un enorme abrazo, y le dijo, "La gente me pregunta por qu hago este trabajo. +Hago este trabajo porque soy su padre, y no quiero que nadie jams le haga dao". +Y como madre, lo entend. +Lo entend. Sabiendo que hay tantas violaciones en campus universitarios que son tan difundidos pero no denunciados. +Hicimos mucho por las mujeres adultas. +Tenamos que hacer un trabajo mejor por nuestros nios. +Lo hicimos. Tenamos que hacerlo Hemos recorrido un largo camino desde los das de la cmara Polaroid. +La tecnologa ha sido nuestra amiga. +El telfono mvil ha cambiado las reglas del mundo para darle poder a la mujer, y Facebook y Twitter y Google y YouTube y todos los medios sociales nos sirvieron para organizarnos para contar nuestra historia de una manera poderosa. +Y entonces aquellos de Ustedes en el pblico que ayudaron a desarrollar esas aplicaciones y esas plataformas, como organizadores, les digo, muchsimas gracias. +De verdad. Aplauso para Ustedes. +Soy hija de un hombre que se uni a un solo club en su vida, el Club de Optimistas. +No puedes forzar a alguien a hacerlo. +Es su espritu y su optimismo que estn en mi ADN. +He estado haciendo este trabajo por ms de 30 aos, y estoy convencida, ahora ms que nunca, en la capacidad de la raza humana para cambiar. +Creo que podemos doblar el arco de la historia humana hacia la compasin y la igualdad, y tambin fundamentalmente creo, y creo apasionadamente, que esta violencia no tiene por qu ser parte de la condicin humana. +Y les pido, nanse a nosotros en la creacin de futuros sin violencia para mujeres y nias y hombres y nios en todas partes. +Muchsimas gracias. +Hace cinco aos, era un estudiante de doctorado viviendo dos vidas. +En una, usaba supercomputadoras de la NASA para disear la nueva generacin de naves espaciales, y en la otra era un cientfico de datos buscando posibles contrabandistas de tecnologas nucleares sensibles. +Como cientfico de datos, hice un montn de anlisis, en su mayor parte sobre instalaciones, instalaciones industriales alrededor del mundo. +Y siempre estaba buscando un mejor marco para juntar todo esto. +Y un da, estaba pensando en cmo todos los datos tienen una ubicacin y me di cuenta de que la respuesta haba estado frente de mis narices. +Aunque era un ingeniero de satlites, no haba pensado en utilizar imgenes satelitales en mi trabajo. +Como la mayora de nosotros, he estado en lnea, he visto mi casa, as que pens, lo usar y voy a empezar a buscar algunas de estas instalaciones. +Y lo que encontr me sorprendi. +Las fotos que he ido encontrando fueron de hace unos aos y por eso tenan relativamente poca importancia para la labor que estaba haciendo. +Pero estaba intrigado. +Es decir, las imgenes de satlite son bastante sorprendentes. +Hay millones y millones de sensores que nos rodean hoy en da, pero an hay muchas cosas que no sabemos regularmente. +Cunto petrleo se almacena en toda China? +Cunto maz se produce? +Cuntos barcos estn en todos los puertos del mundo? +En teora, todas estas preguntas podran ser respondida por las imgenes, si no son muy antiguas. +Y si estos datos son tan valiosos, entonces por qu no pude obtener imgenes ms recientes? +As que la historia comienza hace ms de 50 aos con el lanzamiento de la primera generacin de satlites de reconocimiento visual de los Estados Unidos. +Y hoy en da, hay un puado de los tataranietos de estas primeras mquinas de la guerra fra operadas por empresas privadas y de las que provienen la gran mayora de las imgenes de satlite que vemos a diario. +Durante este perodo, lanzar cosas al espacio, solo el cohete que sube el satlite, ha costado cientos de millones de dlares cada uno, y eso ha creado una enorme presin para enviar cosas con poca frecuencia y para asegurarse de que cuando se hace, se pueda meter tanta funcionalidad en ellos como sea posible. +Todo esto solo ha hecho satlites ms y ms y ms grandes y ms costosos, de casi mil millones cada uno. +Ya que son tan caros, no hay muchos de ellos. +Porque no hay muchos de ellos, las imgenes que vemos a diario tienden a ser viejas. +Creo que mucha gente realmente entiende esto como algo anecdtico, pero para poder visualizar qu tan escasamente se recolecta nuestro planeta, unos amigos y yo armamos un conjunto de datos de las 30 millones fotografas que se han reunido por estos satlites entre el 2000 y el 2010. +Como se puede ver en azul, enormes reas de nuestro mundo apenas se ven, menos de una vez al ao, e incluso las zonas que se observan con mayor frecuencia, en rojo, se observan a lo mejor una vez por trimestre. +Ahora, como estudiantes de ingeniera aeroespacial, esta tabla nos pona un reto. +Por qu tienen que ser tan caras? +Realmente un nico satlite tiene que costar el equivalente de tres Jumbo 747? +No hay una manera de construir uno ms pequeo, con un diseo ms simple, un nuevo satlite que podra permitir imgenes ms oportunas? +S que suena un poco loco salir y solo comenzar a disear satlites, pero afortunadamente tuvimos ayuda. +A finales de 1990, un par de profesores propusieron un concepto para reducir radicalmente el precio de poner cosas en el espacio. +Esto se haca con satlites pequeos junto con los satlites mucho ms grandes. +Esto redujo el costo por ms de un factor de 100 y de repente podamos experimentar, tomar un poco de riesgo, y realizar un montn de innovacin. +Y una nueva generacin de ingenieros y cientficos, en su mayora no en universidades comenz a lanzar estos pequeos satlites, del tamao de una panera llamados CubeSats. +Y se construyeron con la electrnica de RadioShack en lugar de Lockheed Martin. +Usando las lecciones aprendidas de estas primeras misiones mis amigos y yo comenzamos una serie de bocetos de nuestro propio diseo de satlites. +As que nos mudamos a una oficina estrecha sin ventanas en Palo Alto y empezamos a trabajar para tener nuestro diseo desde el tablero de dibujo en el laboratorio. +La primera pregunta importante que tuvimos que hacer frente fue qu tan grande debemos construirlo. +Y descubrimos que la mejor imagen que podamos conseguir sera algo como esto. +Aunque esta era la opcin de bajo costo, francamente eran demasiado borrosas para ver las cosas que hacen valiosas las imgenes satelitales. +Habamos encontrado nuestro arreglo. +Tendramos que construir algo ms grande que la panera original, algo ms bien como una pequea nevera, pero todava no tenamos que construir una camioneta. +Ahora tenamos nuestra restriccin. +Las leyes de la fsica dictaban el tamao mnimo absoluto del telescopio que podramos construir. +Lo que vino despus fue hacer el resto del satlite tan pequeo y tan simple como fuera posible, bsicamente un telescopio volador con cuatro paredes y un conjunto de aparatos electrnicos ms pequeos que una libreta de telfonos que utiliza menos energa que una bombilla de 100 vatios. +El gran desafo fue en realidad tomar imgenes a travs de ese telescopio. +Las imgenes satelitales tradicionales utilizan un escner de lnea, similar a una fotocopiadora, y mientras atraviesan la Tierra, toman fotos, analizando fila por fila por fila para construir la imagen completa. +As se hace porque reciben mucha luz, lo que significa menos ruido que el que se ve en una imagen de telfono celular barato. +El problema con ellos es que requieren un acierto muy sofisticado. +Se debe de enfocar en un objetivo de 50 centmetros a ms de 950 km de distancia mientras se mueve a ms de 7 kilmetros por segundo, lo que requiere un increble grado de complejidad. +En lugar de eso, recurrimos a una nueva generacin de sensores de video, creados originalmente para su uso en las gafas de visin nocturna. +En lugar de tomar una imagen nica y de alta calidad, podemos tomar un video de tomas individualmente ms ruidosas, pero que podamos recombinar todas esas tomas juntas en imgenes de muy alta calidad utilizando tcnicas sofisticadas de procesamiento de pixeles aqu en la superficie, a un costo de una centsima de un sistema tradicional. +Y aplicamos esta tcnica a muchos de los otros sistemas en el satlite y da a da, nuestro diseo evolucion desde los prototipos CAD a las unidades de produccin. +Hace pocas semanas empacamos el SkySat 1, pusimos nuestras firmas en l y le despedimos por ltima vez en la Tierra. +Hoy, est en su configuracin final de lanzamiento listo para despegar en pocas semanas. +Y pronto, pondremos nuestra atencin al lanzamiento de una constelacin de 24 o ms de estos satlites y comienzaremos a construir el anlisis escalable que nos permitir descubrir las ideas en los petabytes de datos que recogeremos. +As que por qu todo esto? Por qu construir estos satlites? +Bueno, resulta que las imgenes de satlite tienen una capacidad nica para proporcionar transparencia global y proporcionar transparencia regularmente es simplemente una idea cuyo tiempo ha llegado. +Nos vemos como pioneros de una nueva frontera, y ms all de los datos econmicos, desbloqueando la historia humana, momento a momento. +Para un cientfico de datos eso solo pas al ir al campamento espacial como un nio, simplemente no hay nada mejor que eso. +Gracias. +La explosin urbana de los ltimos aos de bonanza econmica tambin produjo una marginacin dramtica, que llev a la explosin de barrios pobres en muchas partes del mundo. +Esta polarizacin de lugares de riqueza descomunal rodeados por sectores de pobreza y las desigualdades socioeconmicas que han engendrado estn en el centro de la crisis urbana de hoy. +Pero quiero empezar esta noche sugiriendo que esta crisis urbana no es solo econmica o medioambiental. +Es sobre todo una crisis cultural, una crisis de las instituciones incapaces de reimaginar las estpidas formas en las que hemos ido creciendo, incapaces de desafiar a los sedientos de petrleo, una urbanizacin egosta que ha perpetuado ciudades basadas en el consumo, del sur de California a Nueva York a Dubi. +Permtanme ilustrar lo que quiero decir entendiendo o participando en sitios de conflicto que son semilleros de creatividad, como brevemente les mostrar en la regin fronteriza de Tijuana-San Diego, que ha sido mi laboratorio para repensar mi prctica como arquitecto. +Este es el muro, el muro fronterizo, que separa a San Diego y Tijuana, Amrica Latina y EE. UU., un emblema fsico de polticas excluyentes de planificacin que han perpetuado la divisin de las comunidades, las jurisdicciones y los recursos en todo el mundo. +En esta regin fronteriza, encontramos algunas de las propiedades inmobiliarias ms ricas, como una vez encontr en las fronteras de San Diego, a escasos 20 minutos de algunos de los asentamientos ms pobres en Amrica Latina. +Y aunque que estas dos ciudades tienen la misma poblacin, San Diego ha crecido seis veces ms que Tijuana en las ltimas dcadas, lo que inmediatamente nos lleva a confrontar las tensiones y conflictos entre la desorganizacin y la densidad, que se encuentran en el centro del debate de hoy sobre la sostenibilidad ambiental. +Qu quiero decir por informales en este caso? +Solo hablo de el compendio de las prcticas sociales de adaptacin que muestran muchas de estas comunidades migrantes para transgredir recetas polticas y econmicas impuestas por la urbanizacin. +Hablo simplemente de la inteligencia creativa de las bases, que se manifiesta en los barrios pobres de Tijuana que ellos construyen, de hecho, con los desperdicios de San Diego, o de los muchos barrios migrantes del sur de California que han comenzado a ser reajustados con diferencia en las ltimas dcadas. +As que me ha interesado como artista medir, observar, los muchos flujos informales transfronterizos a travs de esta frontera: en una direccin, de sur a norte, el flujo de inmigrantes hacia EE. UU., y de norte a sur el flujo de residuos del sur de California hacia Tijuana. +Me estoy refiriendo al reciclaje de estos viejos bungalows de posguerra que contratistas mexicanos traen a la frontera porque los promotores inmobiliarios de EE. UU. se deshacen de ellos en el proceso de construir una versin ms inflada de los suburbios en las ltimas dcadas. +Estas son casas esperando para cruzar la frontera. +No solo las personas cruzan la frontera sino que mueven trozos enteros de una ciudad a otra, y cuando estas casas se ponen encima de los marcos de acero, hacen que el primer piso se convierta en el segundo para ampliar la casa, con un pequeo negocio. +Esta superposicin de espacios y economas es muy interesante. +Pero no solo casas, tambin pequeos escombros van de una ciudad, San Diego, a otra, Tijuana. +Probablemente muchos de Uds. han visto que los neumticos se utilizan en los barrios pobres para construir muros de contencin. +Pero miren lo que la gente ha hecho aqu en condiciones de emergencia socioeconmica. +Han averiguado cmo arrancar el neumtico, cmo pasarlo y enclavarlo para construir un muro de contencin ms eficiente. +O las puertas del garaje que traen de San Diego en camiones para convertirlas en la nueva piel de vivienda emergentes en muchos de estos barrios pobres que rodean Tijuana. +Como arquitecto, esto es algo muy cautivador de presenciar, esta inteligencia creativa, y quiero mantenerme en jaque. +No quiero idealizar la pobreza. +solo quiero sugerir que esta urbanizacin informal no solo es imagen de precariedad, esta informalidad, lo informal, es en realidad un conjunto de procedimientos socioeconmicos y polticos que podramos traducir como artistas, pues es una urbanizacin de abajo hacia arriba la que acta. +Vean, los edificios no son importantes por su sola apariencia, sino, en realidad, son importantes por lo que pueden hacer. +Realmente funcionan mientras se transforman a travs del tiempo conforme las comunidades negocian los espacios y los lmites y los recursos. +As que mientras los residuos van hacia el sur, la gente va hacia el norte en busca de dlares, y la mayor parte de mi investigacin se relaciona con el impacto de la inmigracin en la alteracin de la homogeneidad de muchos barrios en los EE. UU., particularmente en San Diego. +Y hablo de cmo esto comienza a sugerir que el futuro del sur de California depende de la retroadaptacin de la gran urbanizacin, quiero decir, con esteroides con los pequeos programas, sociales y econmicos. +Me refiero a cmo los inmigrantes, cuando vienen a estos barrios, empiezan a alterar la unidimensionalidad de las parcelas y propiedades en sistemas social y econmicamente ms complejos que empiezan enchufando una economa informal en un garaje, o que construyen un apartamento ilegal para dar apoyo a la familia extendida. +Este emprendimiento socioeconmico en el suelo dentro de estos barrios realmente comienza a sugerir maneras de traducirlo en nuevas, inclusivas y equitativas polticas de uso de la tierra. +As que estos barrios de accin, como yo los llamo, tienen la inspiracin de imaginar otras formas de ciudadana que tienen menos que ver, de hecho, con la pertenencia al estado-nacin, y ms con la defensa de la nocin de ciudadana como un acto creativo que reorganiza los protocolos institucionales en los espacios de la ciudad. +Como artista, me interesa la visualizacin de la ciudadana, la reunin de muchas ancdotas, historias urbanas, con el fin de narrativizar la relacin entre los procesos sociales y los espacios. +Esta es una historia de un grupo de adolescentes que una noche, hace unos meses, decidi invadir este espacio debajo de la autopista para empezar a construir su propio parque de skateboard. +Con palas en mano, empezaron a cavar. +Dos semanas ms tarde, la polica los detuvo. +Cerr el lugar, y desaloj a los adolescentes, y los adolescentes decidieron contraatacar, no con panfletos o lemas sino con la construccin de un proceso crtico. +Lo primero que hicieron fue reconocer la especificidad de la jurisdiccin poltica inscrita en ese espacio vaco. +Descubrieron que haban tenido suerte porque no haban comenzado a cavar bajo territorio de Caltrans. +Caltrans es una agencia estatal que regula las autopistas, caso en el que habra sido muy difcil negociar con ellos. +Tuvieron suerte, porque empezaron a cavar debajo de un brazo de la autopista que pertenece a la municipalidad local. +Tambin tuvieron suerte, dijeron, porque empezaron a cavar en una especie de Tringulo de las Bermudas jurdico, entre la autoridad portuaria, la autoridad del aeropuerto, dos distritos de la ciudad y una junta de revisin. +Todas estas lneas rojas son las invisibles instituciones polticas que fueron inscritas en ese espacio vaco sobrante. +Con este conocimiento, estos adolescentes como patinadores se enfrentaron a la ciudad. +Fueron a la fiscala de la ciudad. +La abogaca de la ciudad les dijo que, para poder continuar la negociacin, deban convertirse en una organizacin no gubernamental, y por supuesto no saban qu era una ONG. +Tuvieron que hablar con sus amigos en Seattle que haban pasado por la misma experiencia. +Y empezaron a darse cuenta de la necesidad de organizarse mucho mejor y comenzaron a recaudar fondos, organizar presupuestos, a ser conscientes de todos los conocimientos del cdigo urbano de San Diego para as poder comenzar a definir el propio significado del espacio pblico en la ciudad, y expandirlo a otras categoras. +Al final, los adolescentes ganaron el caso con esa evidencia y pudieron construir su parque de skateboard bajo la autopista. +Puede que para muchos de Uds. esta historia puede parecer trivial o ingenua. +Para m, como arquitecto, se ha convertido en una narrativa fundamental, porque empieza a ensearme que esta microcomunidad no solo ha diseado otra categora de espacio pblico sino tambin ha diseado los protocolos socioeconmicos necesarios para ser inscritos en ese espacio para su sostenibilidad a largo plazo. +Tambin me ensearon que de forma similar a las comunidades migrantes a ambos lados de la frontera, afrontaron el conflicto en s mismo como una herramienta creativa, porque tenan que crear un proceso que les permitiera reorganizar los recursos y la poltica de la ciudad. +Ese acto, tan informal, de transgresin de abajo hacia arriba, realmente comenz a ascender para transformar la poltica de arriba hacia abajo. +Ahora este viaje de abajo a arriba a la transformacin de los de arriba hacia abajo es donde encuentro esperanza hoy. +Y pienso que estas alteraciones modestas en el espacio y la poltica en muchas ciudades en el mundo, principalmente en la urgencia con la que la imaginacin colectiva de estas comunidades reimagina sus propias formas de gobierno, organizacin social e infraestructura, realmente est en el centro de la nueva formacin de la poltica democrtica de lo urbano. +Es, en realidad, lo que podra convertirse en el marco para producir la nueva justicia social y econmica en la ciudad. +Quiero decir esto y enfatizarlo, porque esta es la nica manera que veo que puede permitirnos movernos de urbanizaciones de consumo a barrios de produccin hoy. +Gracias. +Hola, hoy me gustara compartir algunas obras en curso. +Como an estamos realizando estas obras, trabajamos en gran parte en el mbito de la intuicin y el misterio. +As que voy a intentar describir algunas de las experiencias que estamos buscando a travs de cada una de las obras. +La primera se llama Monocromos Imperiales. +Un espectador, sin sospechar nada, entra en la habitacin, y percibe estos paneles en una composicin desordenada en la pared. +En cuestin de segundos, como si los paneles notasen la presencia del espectador, parecen entrar en pnico y se reordenan en una simetra absoluta. +Este es el esquema de ambos estados. +Uno es un caos total. El otro es el orden absoluto. +Nos interesaba en el poco cambio que se necesita para pasar de un estado a otro. +Esto tambin nos recuerda dos tradiciones pictricas muy diferentes. +Una es las tablas de los altares del siglo XV, y la otra es de hace unos 100 aos, las composiciones abstractas de Malevich. +As que slo voy a mostrarles un video. +Para que comprendan la escala, el panel ms grande es de unos 2 metros de altura. +Eso es tanto como esto. Y el ms pequeo es como una hoja A4. +El espectador entra en el espacio, y ellos instantneamente responden con atencin. +Y despus de un tiempo, si el espectador permanece en el espacio, los paneles se vuelven como inmunes a la presencia del espectador y se vuelven laxos y autnomos nuevamente, hasta que sienten una presencia en la sala o un movimiento, entonces nuevamente se colocan en posicin de atencin. +As que aqu parece como si el espectador instigase el sentido del orden entre los paneles, pero tambin podra ser al revs, que los paneles estn tan atrapados en sus comportamientos preestablecidos que acercan al espectador al papel de un tirano. +Esto me lleva a un trabajo ms tranquilo, ms pequeo llamado Handheld [Sostenido a Mano] +El espectador tambin ve que toda esta escultura se est moviendo ligeramente, como si estas dos manos intentasen sujetar el papel muy firmemente por mucho tiempo, y de alguna manera no lo estuvieran logrando. +Esta inestabilidad en el movimiento se asemeja mucho a la inestable naturaleza de las imgenes tomadas con una cmara de mano. +Aqu voy a mostrarles dos clips en tndem. +Uno es con una cmara fija y el otro es con una cmara en mano. +E inmediatamente vern cmo la inestable naturaleza del video sugiere la presencia de un observador y un punto de vista subjetivo. +Tan slo hemos quitado la cmara y transferido ese movimiento al panel. +Aqu hay un video. +Imaginen que la otra mano no est all. +Pero nosotros estamos intentando evocar un gesto sutil, como si una personita con los brazos extendidos estuviera detrs de este enorme pedazo de papel. +Eso se compara a la cantidad de tensin que significa estar al servicio del observador y presentar delicadamente este pedazo de papel al espectador. +El siguiente trabajo es Decoy [Seuelo]. +Este es un modelo de cartn, por lo que el objeto es tan alto como yo. +Tiene un cuerpo redondeado, dos brazos y en la cabeza una antena muy alta, y su nico propsito es llamar la atencin hacia s mismo. +As que, cuando un espectador pasa por all, se inclina de lado a lado, y mueve sus brazos ms frenticamente a medida que la persona se acerca. +Esta es la primera prueba. +Ven los dos movimientos integrados, y el objeto parece emplear todo su ser en esta expresin de desesperacin. +Pero una vez que obtiene la atencin de la persona, ya no le interesa y busca la atencin de otra persona. +As que este es el cuerpo fabricado del Decoy, versin final. +Parece ser fabricado en masa, salido de una fbrica, como las aspiradoras o las lavadoras. +Como siempre trabajamos desde un lugar muy personal, nos gusta cmo esta esttica del consumidor tiende a despersonalizar el objeto y nos da un poco de distancia, en apariencia, por lo menos. +Para nosotros es como un ser siniestro que trata de distraernos de las cosas que realmente necesitan nuestra atencin, pero tambin podra ser una figura que necesita mucha ayuda. +El siguiente trabajo es un objeto, que tambin es una especie de instrumento de sonido. +En la forma de un anfiteatro reducido al tamao de la audiencia que percibe alguien desde el escenario. +Desde donde estoy, ustedes parecen as de grandes, y la audiencia ocupa prcticamente todo mi campo de visin. +Sentadas en esta audiencia hay 996 figuras pequeas. +Mecnicamente capaces de aplaudir por su propia voluntad. +Esto significa que cada uno puede decidir si quiere aplaudir, y cundo, cun fuerte y por cunto tiempo, cmo los influencian quienes los rodean o cmo influir en los dems, y si quieren contribuir a la innovacin. +Cuando el espectador se coloca frente a la audiencia, habr una respuesta. +Tal vez unos pocos aplausos o un fuerte aplauso, y luego no pasa nada hasta que el espectador abandona el escenario, y el pblico responde de nuevo. +En una gama que va desde unos pocos y dbiles aplausos de algunos miembros de la audiencia, hasta una fuerte ovacin. +As que nosotros realmente vemos al pblico como un objeto o como un organismo que tambin tiene cierta cualidad musical, un instrumento. +El espectador puede tocarlo provocando matices musicales o patrones sonoros bastante complejos y variados, pero no puede provocar en el pblico ningn tipo de respuesta especfica. +As que hay una sensacin de crtica, capricho e inquietud en todo esto. +Tambin tiene una cualidad seductora, como de trampa. +As que ya ven que estamos muy entusiasmados con la imagen de la cabeza que se divide para formar dos manos. +Aqu tenemos una pequea animacin, como si los dos lados del cerebro estuvieran chocando uno contra el otro, para darle un sentido a la dualidad y la tensin. +Este es un prototipo. +As que no podemos esperar a ser devorados por 996 de ellos. +Bueno, este es el ltimo trabajo. +Se titula: Los Framerunners [Los corredores del marco] La idea surge de una ventana. +Esta es la ventana real de nuestro estudio, y como pueden ver, est compuesta por tres secciones de diferentes espesores de madera. +Usamos el vocabulario de las ventanas para construir nuestro propio marco lo colgamos en la sala y se puede ver desde ambos lados. +Este marco est habitado por una tribu de pequeas figuras. +Hechas tambin en tres tamaos diferentes, para sugerir un poco de perspectiva o de paisaje en un nico plano. +Estas figuras tambin pueden correr hacia atrs y hacia adelante en el marco y esconderse detrs de marcos adyacentes. +En contraste con este rgido marco, queramos darle a estas figuras una disposicin cmica, como si fueran payasos, y un titiritero las hubiera tomado y las animara en persona por el camino. +Nos gustan estas figuras saltando por todos lados como ajenos a todo, sin preocupaciones, as, despreocupados y contentos, hasta que sienten un movimiento del espectador y se esconden detrs de la pared rpidamente. +Esta obra presenta su propia contradiccin. +Estas figuras estn como atrapadas dentro de un marco muy rgido, que es como una prisin, pero tambin una fortaleza, ya que les permite ser ajenos, e ingenuos y despreocupados y bastante ajenos al mundo externo. +Todas estas caratersticas de la vida real se traducen en una muy especfica configuracin tcnica, y fuimos muy afortunados en poder colaborar con ETH Zurich para desarrollar el primer prototipo. +Ya ven que extrajeron los engranajes de movimiento de nuestras animaciones y crearon un meneo que integra el movimiento de la cabeza y el movimiento hacia atrs y adelante. +Es realmente muy pequeo. +Pueden ver que cabe en la palma de mi mano. +Imaginen nuestra emocin al verlo funcionar de verdad en el estudio, y aqu est. +Gracias. +A cuntos de Uds. les encanta el ritmo? +Oh S, oh s. Oh, s. Quiero decir, me encanta todo tipo de ritmo. +Me gusta tocar jazz, un poco de funk, y hip hop, un poco de pop, un poco de R&B, un poco de latina, africana. +Y este ritmo, proviene de Crescent City, la vieja segunda lnea. +Ahora, una cosa que todos esos ritmos tienen en comn son las matemticas, y yo lo llamo a-ritmo-tica. +Pueden repetir despus de m? A-ritmo-tica. Audiencia: A-ritmo-tica. +Clayton Cameron: A-ritmo-tica. Audiencia: A-ritmo-tica. +CC: A-ritmo a-ritmo. Audiencia: A-ritmo a-ritmo. +CC: A-ritmo-tica. Audiencia: A-ritmo-tica. +CC:S! +Todos esos estilos de ritmo son contados en cuatro y luego subdivididos en tres. +Qu? +S. Tres es un nmero mgico. +Tres es un nmero que disfrutamos. +Tres es un nmero estilo hip-hop. +Pero qu significa subdividir por tres? +Y contarse en cuatro? +Bueno, pinsenlo as. +Una medida de msica es como un dlar. +Un dlar tiene cuatro cuartos, s? +Y tambin una medida 4/4 de msica. +Tiene cuatro cuartos de notas. +Ahora, cmo subdividen? +Vamos a imaginar esto: el valor de tres dlares en cuartos. +Tendrn tres grupos de cuatro, y contarn uno-dos-tres-cuatro, uno-dos-tres-cuatro, uno-dos-tres-cuatro. Juntos. +Todos: Uno-dos-tres-cuatro, uno-dos-tres-cuatro, uno-dos-tres-cuatro. +CC: Bien, ahora lo sienten? +Ahora tomemos esos tres grupos de cuatro y hagamos cuatro grupos de tres. +Y escuchen esto. +Uno-dos-tres-cuatro, uno-dos-tres-cuatro, uno-dos-tres-cuatro, repitan conmigo. +Uno-dos-tres-cuatro, uno-dos-tres, vamos, todos! +Todos: Uno-dos-tres-cuatro, uno-dos-tres-cuatro, uno-dos-tres-cuatro, ah. +CC: Ah lo tienen. +Muy bien, segunda lnea. +Uno-dos-tres-cuatro, uno-dos-tres. +Uno-dos-tres-cuatro, uno-dos-tres. +Uno-dos-tres-cuatro, uno-dos-tres. +Uno-dos-tres-cuatro, uno-dos-tres. S! +Eso es lo que yo llamo a-ritmo-tica. +Pueden decirlo? A-ritmo-tica. Audiencia: A-ritmo-tica. +CC: A-ritmo-tica. Audiencia: A-ritmo-tica. +CC: A-ritmo a-ritmo. Audiencia: A-ritmo a-ritmo. +CC: A-ritmo-tica. Audiencia: A-ritmo-tica. +CC: S!. Ahora tomamos el ritmo swing y hacemos lo mismo. +Uno, dos, uno, dos, uno-dos-tres-cuatro. +S. Mm. +Uno-dos-tres, uno-dos-tres, uno-dos-tres, uno-dos-tres. Guuu. +Quiero tomar el ritmo de la segunda lnea y el ritmo swing y juntarlos, y suena as. +Aja! +A-ritmo-tica. Audiencia: A-ritmo-tica. +CC: A-ritmo-tica. Audiencia: A-ritmo-tica. +CC: A-ritmo a-ritmo. Audiencia: A-ritmo a-ritmo. +CC: A-ritmo-tica. Audiencia: A-ritmo-tica. +CC: S! Hip-hop. +Ahora usamos un grupo ms rpido de tres, llamamos un triple. +Triple-triple. Repitan conmigo. +Todos: Triple-triple. +CC: Triple-triple. Triple-triple. +CC: Tomar todos los ritmos que escucharon antes, los pondremos juntos, y sonarn as. +A-ritmo-tica. +Quisiera comenzar, si me permiten, con la historia del caracol Paisley. +En la tarde del 26 de agosto de 1928, May Donoghue tom un tren de Glasgow al pueblo de Paisley, 12 km al este de la ciudad, y all, en el Caf Wellmeadow, se tom un helado flotante escoss, una mezcla de helado y cerveza de jengibre que le compr un amigo. +La cerveza lleg en una botella marrn opaca etiquetada "D. Stevenson, Glen Lane, Paisley". +Ella tom un poco del helado flotante, y a medida que la cerveza restante se verti en su vaso, un caracol descompuesto flot en la superficie de su vaso. +Tres das despus, fue internada en el Glasgow Royal Infirmary y diagnosticada con gastroenteritis severa y en choque. +El caso de Donoghue vs. Stevenson que vino despus sent un importante precedente legal: Stevenson, el fabricante de la cerveza, fue conminado a asumir un deber de cuidado hacia May Donoghue, a pesar de que no haba contrato entre ellos, y, de hecho, ni siquiera haba comprado la bebida. +Uno de los jueces, Lord Atkin, lo describi de esta manera: "Uds. tienen que cuidarse de evitar actos u omisiones que se puedan prever razonablemente como capaces de perjudicar al prjimo". +De hecho, uno se pregunta, que sin un deber de cuidado, cuntas personas habran sufrido de gastroenteritis antes de que Stevenson finalmente cerrara el negocio. +Ahora, guarden la historia del caracol Paisley, porque es un principio importante. +El ao pasado, la Sociedad Hansard, una organizacin benfica no partidista que tiene por objeto fortalecer la democracia parlamentaria y fomentar una mayor participacin ciudadana en la poltica, public, junto a su auditora anual del compromiso poltico, una seccin adicional dedicada exclusivamente a la poltica y los medios de comunicacin. +Aqu un par de observaciones ms bien deprimentes de esa encuesta. +Los tabloides no parecen promover la ciudadana poltica de sus lectores, relativa, incluso, a aquellos que no leen ningn peridico. +Los que solo leen tabloides estn doblemente propensos a estar de acuerdo con una mirada negativa de la poltica en comparacin a los que no leen ningn peridico. +No estn solo menos comprometidos polticamente. +Consumen los medios de comunicacin que refuerzan su evaluacin negativa de la poltica, contribuyendo as a una actitud fatalista y cnica hacia la democracia y su propio papel dentro de ella. +No es extrao que el reporte concluya que en este sentido, la prensa, especialmente los tabloides, parecen no estar a la altura de la importancia de su papel en nuestra democracia. +Dudo que alguien en esta sala desafiara ese punto de vista. +Pero si Hansard tiene razn, y por lo general la tiene, entonces tenemos un serio problema, y es uno en el que me gustara centrarme los siguientes 10 minutos. +Desde el caracol Paisley, y especialmente durante la ltima dcada ms o menos, mucho pensamiento se ha desarrollado sobre la nocin de un deber de cuidado referente a ciertos aspectos de la sociedad civil. +En general, un deber de cuidado surge cuando un individuo o un grupo de individuos ejerce una actividad con el potencial de causar dao a otro, ya sea fsica, mental o econmicamente. +Esta se centra principalmente en las reas obvias, tales como nuestra respuesta emptica a los nios y jvenes, a nuestro personal de servicio, y a los ancianos y enfermos. +Rara vez, o nunca, se expusieron argumentos igualmente importantes alrededor de la fragilidad de nuestro actual sistema de gobierno, a la idea de que la honestidad, la exactitud y la imparcialidad son fundamentales en el proceso de construccin y conocimiento informado, de la democracia participativa. +Y cuanto ms piensan sobre ello, ms extrao es. +Un par de aos atrs, tuve el placer de abrir una nueva escuela en el noroeste de Inglaterra. +Fue llamada por sus pupilos Academia 360. +Mientras atravesaba su impresionante atrio cubierto de vidrio, frente a m, grabado en la pared en letras de fuego estaba el famoso mandato de Marco Aurelio: Si no es verdad, no lo digas; si no es correcto, no lo hagas. +El director me vio mirndolo, y me dijo: "Oh, ese es el lema de nuestra escuela". +En el tren de regreso a Londres, no poda quitarlo de mi mente. +Me qued pensando, realmente nos ha tomado ms de 2000 aos para aceptar esa simple nocin cmo nuestra expectativa mnima de uno al otro? +No es tiempo de que desarrollemos este concepto de un deber de cuidado y lo ampliemos para incluir una atencin para nuestros compartidos, pero en peligro creciente, valores democrticos? +Despus de todo, la ausencia de cuidado en muchas profesiones puede llevar fcilmente a acusaciones de negligencia, y siendo ese el caso, podemos estar en verdad cmodos con el pensamiento de que estamos siendo negligentes en relacin con la salud de nuestras propias sociedades y los valores que necesariamente los sustentan? +Alguien podra sugerir honestamente, segn las pruebas, que los mismos medios que Hansard tan rotundamente conden han tomado el cuidado suficiente para evitar comportarse de manera que se poda prever razonablemente sera probable que socavase o incluso daase nuestro inherentemente frgil asentamiento democrtico. +Ahora habr quienes argumentarn que esto podra derivar en una forma de censura, o autocensura, pero yo no compro ese argumento. +Tiene que ser posible equilibrar la libertad de expresin con responsabilidades morales y sociales ms amplias. +Permtanme explicarlo, con el ejemplo de mi propia carrera como cineasta. +A lo largo de ella, nunca he aceptado que un cineasta deba colocar su propio trabajo fuera o por encima de lo que l o ella cree que es un sistema decente de valores para su propia vida, su propia familia, y el futuro de la sociedad en que vivimos. +Ir ms lejos. +Un cineasta responsable nunca debe devaluar su trabajo a que se convierta en menos cierto al mundo que ellos mismos desean habitar. +Como yo lo veo, cineastas, periodistas, incluso blogueros son todos necesarios frente a las expectativas sociales que vienen con la combinacin de la potencia intrnseca de su medio con sus habilidades profesionales afinadas. +Obviamente, esto no es un deber obligatorio, pero para el cineasta dotado y el periodista responsable o incluso el bloguero, me da la impresin de ser totalmente ineludible. +Siempre debemos recordar que nuestra nocin de la libertad individual y su socio, la libertad creativa, es relativamente nuevo en la historia de las ideas occidentales, y por esa razn, a menudo se subvalora y puede ser socavada muy rpidamente. +Es un premio fcil de perder, y una vez perdido, una vez entregado, puede resultar muy, muy difcil de recuperar. +Y su primera lnea de defensa tiene que ser nuestros propios estndares, no los aplicados en nosotros por un censor o la legislacin, nuestros propios estndares e integridad. +Nuestra integridad mientras tratamos con quienes trabajamos y nuestros estndares mientras operamos en la sociedad. +Y esos estndares nuestros tienen que ser de una sola pieza con una agenda social sostenible. +Son parte de una responsabilidad colectiva, la responsabilidad del artista o el periodista para tratar con el mundo como es, y esto, a su vez, debe ir de la mano con la responsabilidad de aquellos que gobiernan para hacer frente tambin a ese mundo, y no tener la tentacin de apropiarse indebidamente de las causas de sus males. +Sin embargo, como se ha hecho claro en el ltimo par de aos, tal responsabilidad en un grado grande fue derogada por amplios sectores de los medios de comunicacin. +El ms ardiente libertario podra argumentar que Donoghue vs. Stevenson deban haber sido echados del tribunal y que, Stevenson habra ido a la quiebra si hubiera continuado vendiendo cerveza de jengibre con caracoles. +Pero la mayora de nosotros, creo, aceptamos algn papel pequeo con el Estado para hacer cumplir un deber de cuidado, y la palabra clave aqu es razonable. +Los jueces deben preguntar, actuaron con un cuidado razonable y podan haber previsto las consecuencias de sus acciones? +Lejos de lo que significa el poder del Estado autoritario, es esa pequea prueba de sentido comn de la razonabilidad que me gustara que apliquemos a los medios quienes, despus de todos, establecen el tono y el contenido para gran parte de nuestro discurso democrtico. +Para que la democracia funcione se requiere de hombres y mujeres que se toman el tiempo para entender y debatir cuestiones difciles, a veces complejas, y lo hacen en un ambiente que se esfuerza por el tipo de comprensin que conduce a, si no un acuerdo, al menos un compromiso viable y productivo. +La poltica es acerca de elecciones, y dentro de ellas, la poltica es acerca de las prioridades. +Se trata de conciliar las preferencias conflictivas donde y cuando sea posible sobre la base de los hechos. +Pero si los mismos hechos se distorsionan, las resoluciones solo son susceptibles de crear nuevos conflictos, con todas las presiones y tensiones en la sociedad que inevitablemente siguen. +Los medios tienen que decidir: Ven que su papel es inflamar o informar? +Porque al final, todo se reduce a una combinacin de confianza y liderazgo. +Hace 50 aos esta semana, el Presidente John F. Kennedy dio dos discursos muy significativos, el primero sobre el desarme y el segundo sobre los derechos civiles. +El primero llev casi inmediatamente al Tratado de Prohibicin de Pruebas Nucleares, y el segundo dio lugar a la Ley de Derechos Civiles de 1964, ambos representaron un gigante salto hacia adelante. +La democracia, bien dirigida y bien informada, puede lograr grandes cosas, pero hay una pre-condicin. +Tenemos que confiar en que los que toman esas decisiones estn actuando en el mejor inters, no para s mismos, sino del conjunto del pueblo. +Necesitamos opciones basadas en hechos, claramente establecidos, no los de unos pocos poderosos y las empresas potencialmente manipuladoras persiguiendo sus propias y estrechas agendas, sino informacin precisa, sin prejuicios con la que hacer nuestros propios juicios. +Si queremos ofrecer, una vida plena para nuestros hijos y los hijos de nuestros hijos, necesitamos ejercitar hasta el mayor grado posible ese deber de cuidado para una vibrante, y es de esperar una duradera, democracia. +Muchas gracias por escucharme. +Qu es el amor? +Es un trmino difcil de definir en tanto que tiene una amplia aplicacin. +Puedo amar el correr. +Puedo amar un libro, una pelcula. +Puedo amar los escalopes. +Puedo amar a mi esposa. +Pero existe una gran diferencia entre un escalope y mi esposa, por ejemplo. +Es decir, si valoro el escalope, ste, por su parte, no me valorar recprocamente. +Mientras que mi esposa me llama la estrella de su vida. +Es que solo otra persona que desea me puede concebir como un ser deseable. +Lo s, por eso el amor se puede definir de una manera ms precisa como el deseo de ser deseado. +De ah el problema eterno del amor: cmo llegar a ser y seguir siendo deseable? +El individuo suele encontrar una respuesta a este problema sometiendo su vida a las normas de la comunidad. +Hay un papel especfico que desempear segn el sexo, la edad, el estatus social, y solo hay que interpretar ese papel para ser valorado y amado por toda la comunidad. +Piensen en la mujer joven que debe permanecer casta hasta el matrimonio. +Piensen en el hijo ms joven que debe obedecer al mayor, quien a su vez debe obedecer al patriarca. +Pero hay un fenmeno que comenz en el siglo XIII, sobre todo en el Renacimiento, en occidente, y que caus la mayor crisis de identidad en la historia de la humanidad. +Este fenmeno es la modernidad. +Bsicamente podemos resumirla como un proceso triple. +Primero, un proceso de racionalizacin de la investigacin cientfica, que ha acelerado el progreso tcnico. +A continuacin, un proceso de democratizacin poltica, que ha fomentado los derechos individuales. +Finalmente, un proceso de racionalizacin de la produccin econmica y de la liberalizacin del comercio. +Estos tres procesos entrelazados han aniquilado completamente todos los aspectos tradicionales de las sociedades occidentales, con consecuencias radicales para el individuo. +Ahora los individuos son libres de valorar o depreciar cualquier actitud, eleccin u objeto. +Pero como resultado, se enfrentan con la misma libertad que los dems tienen para valorar o depreciar. +En otras palabras, mi valor fue alguna vez asegurado al someterme a las autoridades tradicionales. +Ahora se cotiza en la bolsa de valores. +En el mercado libre de los deseos individuales, yo negocio mi valor cada da. +De ah la angustia del hombre contemporneo. +Est obsesionado: "Soy deseable? Cun deseable? +Cuntas personas me amarn?" +Y cmo responde l a esta ansiedad? +Bueno, recolectando histricamente smbolos de deseo. +Yo llamo a este acto de recolectar, junto con otros, el capital de la seduccin. +De hecho, nuestra sociedad de consumo se basa en gran parte en el capital de la seduccin. +Se dice de este consumo que nuestra poca es materialista. +Pero no es cierto! Nosotros solo acumulamos objetos con el fin de comunicarnos con otras mentes. +Lo hacemos para que nos amen, para seducirlas. +Nada puede ser menos materialista, o ms sentimental, que un adolescente comprndose jeans nuevos y rompindolos en las rodillas, porque quiere complacer a Jennifer. +El consumismo no es materialismo. +Es ms bien lo que se trag y sacrific en el nombre del dios del amor o mejor dicho, en el nombre del capital de la seduccin. +A la luz de esta observacin sobre el amor contemporneo, qu podemos pensar del amor en los aos por venir? +Podemos imaginar dos hiptesis: La primera de ellas consiste en apostar que este proceso de capitalizacin narcisista se intensificar. +Es difcil decir qu forma tomar esta intensificacin, ya que depende en gran medida de las innovaciones sociales y tcnicas, que son, por definicin, difciles de predecir. +Pero podemos, por ejemplo, imaginar un sitio web de citas que, un poco como los programas de puntos de lealtad, utiliza puntos de capital de seduccin que varan de acuerdo a mi edad, mi relacin altura/peso, mi ttulo, mi salario o el nmero de clics en mi perfil. +Tambin podemos imaginar un tratamiento qumico para las rupturas que debilite los sentimientos de apego. +Por cierto, ya hay un programa en MTV en el que maestros de la seduccin tratan el dolor del corazn como una enfermedad. +Estos maestros se llaman a s mismos "pick-up artists". +"Artist" es fcil, significa "artista". +"Pick-up" es recoger a alguien, pero no a cualquiera, es recoger chicas. +Por lo que son artistas en recoger chicas. +Y llaman al dolor de corazn "one-itis". +En Ingls, "itis" es un sufijo que significa infeccin. +One-itis se puede traducir como "infeccin de uno". +Es un poco desagradable. De hecho, para los artistas pick-up, enamorarse de alguien es una prdida de tiempo, es malgastar su capital de seduccin, por lo que debe ser eliminado como una enfermedad, como una infeccin. +Tambin podemos imaginar un uso romntico del genoma. +Todo el mundo lo llevara a todas partes y lo presentara como una tarjeta de visita para verificar si la seduccin puede progresar hacia la reproduccin. +Por supuesto, esta carrera por la seduccin, como toda competencia feroz, crear enormes disparidades en la satisfaccin narcisista y por lo tanto tambin una gran cantidad de soledad y frustracin. +As que podemos esperar que la propia modernidad, que es el origen del capital de seduccin, se ponga en sintona. +Estoy pensando sobre todo en la reaccin de las comunas neofascistas o religiosas. +Pero ese futuro no tiene que existir. +Otro camino para pensar en el amor puede ser posible. +Pero, cmo? +Cmo renunciar a la necesidad histrica a ser valorado? +Bueno, al tomar conciencia de mi inutilidad. +Si, Soy intil. +Pero pueden estar seguros: ustedes tambin. +Todos somos intiles. +Esta inutilidad se demuestra fcilmente, ya que para poder ser valorado necesito que otro me desee, lo que demuestra que no tengo ningn valor propio. +Yo no tengo ningn valor intrnseco. +Todos nosotros pretendemos tener un dolo; todos pretendemos ser un dolo para otra persona, pero en realidad todos somos unos impostores, un poco como alguien en la calle que aparenta ser indiferente y dueo de s, porque en realidad ha anticipado y calculado que todos los ojos estarn puestos en l. +Creo que al tomar conciencia de esta impostura general, que nos concierne a todos, se aliviaran nuestras relaciones amorosas. +Esto es porque quiero ser amado desde la cabeza a los pies, justificando en cada eleccin, que existe la histeria en la seduccin. +Por tanto, quiero parecer perfecto para que otro me puede amar. +Quiero que ellos sean perfectos de modo que yo pueda estar seguro de mi valor. +Esto lleva a las parejas obsesionadas con el rendimiento que rompern, as como as, a la menor muestra de bajo rendimiento. +En contraste con esta actitud, hago un llamado a la ternura, al amor tierno. +Qu es la ternura? +Ser tierno es aceptar las debilidades del ser amado. +No se trata de convertirse en un aburrido par de sometidos. +Eso es muy malo. +Por el contrario, hay una cantidad de encanto y felicidad en la ternura. +Hablo especficamente del tipo de humor que es, por desgracia, mal utilizado. +Es una especie de poesa de la torpeza deliberada. +Me refiero a la burla de uno mismo. +Para una pareja que ya no se sostiene, apoyada por las restricciones de la tradicin, Creo que burlarse de uno mismo es uno de los mejores medios para que la relacin perdure. +Imaginen que estn en el supermercado, comprando algunas provisiones, y que les dan a elegir entre una bolsita de plstico y una de papel. +Cul elegiran para hacer lo mejor por el medio ambiente? +La mayora se lleva la de papel. +Bien, pensemos por qu. +Es marrn, para empezar. +Por lo tanto, debe ser buena para el medio ambiente. +Es biodegradable. Es reutilizable. +A veces, es reciclable. +Cuando observamos una bolsita plstica, probablemente pensemos en cosas como esta, que son absolutamente espantosas y tenemos que evitar cueste lo que cueste este tipo de daos ambientales. +Pero en general no pensamos en cosas como esta, que es la otra cara de la moneda. +Cuando producimos materiales, necesitamos extraerlos del medio ambiente y generamos una gran cantidad de impactos medioambientales. +Lo que pasa cuando tenemos que tomar decisiones complejas es que como humanos preferimos soluciones sencillas y por eso siempre pedimos soluciones sencillas. +Yo trabajo en diseo. +Asesoro a diseadores y a innovadores sobre sustentabilidad y todos me dicen siempre: Leyla, solo quiero los materiales ecolgicos. +Y yo les digo: Bueno, eso es muy complejo, vamos a necesitar hablar cuatro horas de qu es exactamente un material ecolgico, porque todo, de alguna manera, viene de la naturaleza y es el modo en que se usa un material lo que determina el impacto medioambiental. +Y lo que pasa es que necesitamos creer en un marco conceptual intuitivo cuando tomamos decisiones. +Y me gusta llamar a ese marco conceptual intuitivo creencias populares sobre ecologa. +Es o bien esa vocecita que nos habla desde atrs de la cabeza, o es esa sensacin visceral que tenemos cuando hemos hecho lo correcto, como cuando elegimos la bolsita de papel o compramos un auto con mejor rendimiento de combustible. +Y las creencias populares sobre ecologa son muy importantes porque tenemos la intencin de hacer lo correcto. +Pero cmo sabemos si estamos realmente reduciendo el impacto neto sobre el medio ambiente, que nuestras acciones como individuos, como profesionales y como una sociedad producimos en el medio ambiente? +Las creencias populares sobre el medio ambiente suelen basarse en las experiencias, en algo que omos de otras personas. +Suelen no tener ninguna base cientfica. +Y esto es muy serio, porque vivimos en sistemas enormemente complejos. +Estn los sistemas humanos, cmo nos comunicamos y nos relacionamos, cmo construimos sociedades enteras. Est el sistema industrial, que es en esencia toda la economa, y entonces todo eso tiene que operar dentro del sistema mayor, y yo dira el ms importante, que es el ecosistema. +Y cada opcin que elijamos como individuos, incluso lo que elijamos en todos y cada unos de nuestros trabajos, no importa que estemos arriba o abajo en la jerarqua, produce un impacto en todos estos sistemas. +Y el tema es que tenemos que encontrar los modos, si realmente vamos a ocuparnos de la sustentabilidad, de hacer engranar esos sistemas complejos y de elegir lo mejor para producir beneficios medio ambientales. +Tenemos que aprender a hacer ms con menos. +La poblacin est aumentando y a todos nos gustan los celulares, especialmente en lugares como este. +Debemos encontrar formas novedosas de resolver los problemas que enfrentamos. +Y aqu entra en juego el proceso llamado ciclo de vida. +Por hacer este trabajo, aprendimos cosas completamente fascinantes. +Y hemos derribado unos cuantos mitos. +Para empezar, hay una palabra que se usa mucho. +Se usa mucho en mercadotecnia y las usamos mucho, me parece, cuando hablamos de sustentabilidad: la palabra es biodegradabilidad. +La biodegradabilidad es una propiedad del material, no es una definicin de los beneficios medioambientales. +Permtanme explicarles. +Cuando algo natural, algo hecho de fibra de celulosa como un trozo de pan, cualquier desperdicio de comida, y hasta un trozo de papel, cuando algo natural termina en el ambiente natural, se degrada normalmente. +Las molculas de carbono que fue almacenando mientras creca, se liberan de modo natural y vuelven a la atmsfera como dixido de carbono. Pero esta es la situacin bsica. +Casi todas las cosas naturales de hecho no terminan en la naturaleza. +La mayora de los desechos que producimos van a parar a vertederos. +Los vertederos son ambientes diferentes. +En los vertederos, esas mismas molculas de carbono se degradan de otro modo, porque un vertedero es anaerbico. +No tiene oxgeno. Es un lugar compactado y caliente. +Esas mismas molculas se transforman en metano y el metano es un gas de efecto invernadero 25 veces ms potente que el dixido de carbono. +La lechuga vieja y otros productos hechos de materiales biodegradables que tiramos a la basura, si terminan en un vertedero, contribuyen al cambio climtico. +Hoy en da, hay instalaciones que pueden capturar ese metano y producir electricidad, reemplazando el uso de combustibles fsiles, pero tenemos que actuar con inteligencia. +Tenemos que ver cmo hacer para multiplicar este tipo de cosas que ya estn ocurriendo y para disear sistemas y servicios que atenen estos problemas. +Porque por ahora, lo que la gente hace es salir con eso de: Hay que prohibir las bolsitas plsticas. Hay que usar papel porque es mejor para el medio ambiente. +Pero si lo tiras en el bote de basura, y las instalaciones del vertedero de tu zona son de las comunes, generamos lo que se llama un efecto negativo doble. +De oficio, soy diseadora de productos. +Luego estudi ciencias sociales. +Por eso me fascina estudiar los bienes de consumo y cmo los bienes de consumo en cierta forma nos han vuelto [indolentes] en colmar nuestras vidas, tienen un impacto en el medio natural. +Y estos, gente, son como delincuentes en serie y estoy segura de que en esta sala todos tienen un refrigerador. +Pero EE UU tiene esta increble capacidad de tener refrigeradores cada vez ms grandes. +En los ltimos aos, el refrigerador promedio se volvi 28 litros ms grande. +Y el problema es que, al ser tan grandes ahora, nos resulta ms fcil comprar ms comida que la que podemos comer o encontrar. +En el fondo de mi refrigerador hay cosas que estn ah hace aos, s? +Entonces desperdiciamos ms comida. +Y como les deca, los restos de comida son un problema. +De hecho, aqu en EE UU, el 40 % de la comida de uso hogareo es desperdiciada. +La mitad de la comida que se produce en el mundo se tira. +Son las ltimas estadsticas de la ONU. La mitad de la comida. +Es una locura. Son 1300 millones de toneladas por ao. +La culpa es del refrigerador, sobre todo en culturas occidentales, porque lo facilita. +Hay un montn de sistemas complejos funcionando aqu. +No quiero simplificarlo tanto. +Pero el refrigerador contribuye enormemente a que esto pase y una de las cosas que trae es el cajn para las verduras. +Me entienden, verdad? +El cajn donde ponen la lechuga? +La lechuga tiene la costumbre de estropearse en el cajn de las verduras, no? +S? Lechuga pasada? +En el Reino Unido, es un problema tan grande que, hace unos aos, el gobierno prepar un informe que de verdad dice que el segundo de los peores criminales de la comida desperdiciada es la lechuga. +Se lo llam Informe de la Lechuga Pasada. +En serio es un problema, gente. +Estas pobres lechugas se tiran a la basura aqu y en todos lados porque los cajones para la verdura en realidad no estn diseados para mantener la verdura fresca. +Bien. Hace falta un ambiente hermtico. +Algo as como un ambiente sin aire para evitar la degradacin que ocurrira naturalmente. +Pero los cajones para verduras son solo cajones un poquito ms hermticos. +Me obsesion con esto, est claro. +Nunca me inviten a sus casas porque voy a mirar en sus refrigeradores un montn de cosas como esta. +Pero en el fondo, es un gran problema. +Porque cuando sacamos algo como la lechuga del sistema, no solo tenemos el impacto que recin expliqu del fin de vida til: esa lechuga tambin tuvo que ser cultivada. +El impacto del ciclo de vida de esa lechuga es gigantesco. +Tuvimos que preparar la tierra. +Tuvimos que sembrar las semillas, fsforo, fertilizantes, nutrientes, agua luz solar. +Todo lo que se encarna en esa lechuga sale del sistema, lo que hace que el impacto ambiental sea infinitamente mayor que la prdida de energa del refrigerador. +Por eso necesitamos disear cosas como estas mucho mejor si pretendemos encarar los problemas medioambientales graves. +Podramos empezar con el cajn de las verduras y el tamao. +Si alguno de los presentes disea refrigeradores, estara buensimo. +El problema es... Imaginen si realmente empezramos a replantearnos cmo diseamos las cosas. +Porque veo el refrigerador como un signo de la modernidad, pero no hemos cambiado casi el diseo desde la dcada de 1950. +Un poquitito, pero en esencia son grandes cajones, cajones fros en los que metemos cosas. +Imaginen que en verdad ya empezamos a identificar estos problemas y que los usamos como base para encontrar soluciones de diseo elegantes e innovadoras que van a resolver esos problemas. +Esto es un cambio en el sistema regido por el diseo, el diseo determinando el modo en que el sistema puede ser mucho ms sustentable. +El 40 % de la comida desperdiciada es un problema muy serio. +Imaginen que diseramos refrigeradores que lleven esa cifra a la mitad. +Otro artculo que me resulta fascinante es la jarra elctrica, y supe que no las fabrican en este pas, verdad? +Pero es todo un tema en el Reino Unido. +En el 90 % de las casas del Reino Unido hay una jarra elctrica. +Son muy usadas. +Si trabajara con una empresa de diseo o con diseadores que estuvieran diseando una de estas y quisieran hacerla ecolgica, me pediran dos cosas. +Me diran: Leyla, cmo hacemos que sea tcnicamente eficiente? +Porque, por supuesto, la electricidad es un problema en este producto. +Y: Cmo la hago de materiales ecolgicos? +Cmo hago para que los materiales sean ecolgicos en la producci'on?. +Me haran esas preguntas? +Suenan razonables, no? Claro. +Pero yo les dira: Se estn fijando en los problemas equivocados. +Porque el problema es el uso. +Es cmo la gente usa este producto. +El 65 % de los britnicos reconoce que llena la jarra de ms cuando solo necesitan una taza de t. +Toda esta agua extra que se hierve requiere de electricidad y se calcula que un solo da de esa energa extra que se pierde con las jarras elctricas alcanza para proveer de electricidad a todo el alumbrado pblico de Inglaterra por una noche. +Esta es la cuestin. +Esto es lo que yo llamo fallo producto-persona. +Pero lo que est ocurriendo es un fallo producto-sistema y son tan omnipresentes que ni te das cuenta de que estn ah. +Pero este seor de aqu s lo sabe. Se llama Simon. +Simon trabaja en la empresa nacional de la energa del Reino Unido. +Tiene el importantsimo trabajo de controlar toda le electricidad que ingresa al sistema y asegurarse de que alcance para alimentar todas las casas. +Y est mirando la televisin. +Saben por qu? Hay un fenmeno nico que tiene lugar en el Reino Unido +justo cuando terminan los programas televisivos ms vistos. +Justo cuando viene el corte publicitario, este hombre tiene que correr a comprar energa atmica a Francia, porque todos encienden sus jarras elctricas al mismo tiempo. +Un milln y medio de jarras, realmente son un problema. +Pero imagina que diseas jarras, en realidad ests encontrando el modo de evitar estos fallos en el sistema, porque ejerce una enorme presin sobre el sistema, simplemente porque no se pens en los problemas que el producto va a ocasionar cuando forme parte del mundo. +Me he fijado en muchas jarras disponibles en el mercado y encontr las lneas de llenado mnimo, esa pequea indicacin que te dice cunta agua hay que ponerle. Era de entre dos y cinco tazas y media de agua nada ms que para una taza de t. +Pero esta jarra de ac es un ejemplo de las que tienen dos receptculos. +Uno es para hervir y el otro para guardar el agua. +El usuario tiene que apretar ese botn para tener agua hirviendo. Y, como somos haraganes, eso implica que vas a poner solo lo que necesitas. +Esto es lo que llamo productos que cambian la conducta: productos, sistemas o servicios que intervienen y resuelven estos problemas de antemano. +Bueno, estamos en un mbito tecnolgico, por lo que estas cosas son muy conocidas, pero creo que si vamos a seguir diseando, comprando, usando y tirando esta clase de productos a la velocidad que lo hacemos hoy en da, que es increblemente alta... Hay 7000 millones de personas que viven hoy en el planeta. +Haba 6000 millones de cuentas de celular hasta el ao pasado. +1500 millones de celulares salen de las fbricas cada ao y algunas empresas informan que sus tasas de produccin son ms altas que la tasa de natalidad. +152 millones de telfonos se tiraron a la basura en EE UU el ao pasado; se recicl solo el 11 %. +Yo soy de Australia. Tenemos una poblacin de 22 millones --no se ran-- y los informes indican que hay 22 millones de telfonos guardados en los cajones. +Tenemos que encontrar el modo de resolver los problemas derivados de este, porque son cosas muy complejas. +Guardan muchas cosas en su interior. +Oro! Saban que hoy en da es ms econmico extraer oro de una tonelada de celulares viejos que de una tonelada de mena de oro? +Hay toda una serie de materiales valiosos y complejos adentro de estas cosas, y por eso tenemos que buscar el modo de fomentar el desmontaje, porque si no, pasa esto. +Esta es una comunidad en Ghana donde la ONU inform que se trafican +ms de 50 millones de toneladas +As extraen el oro y otros materiales valiosos. +Queman los residuos electrnicos a cielo abierto. +Estas son comunidades y esto est pasando en todo el mundo. +Y como no vemos las ramificaciones de las decisiones que tomamos los diseadores, los empresarios, los consumidores, entonces ocurren este tipo de externalidades... Y es la vida de la gente... +Tenemos que encontrar soluciones ms inteligentes a estos problemas. Soluciones basadas ms en el sistema, ms innovadoras, si queremos empezar a vivir de un modo ms sustentable en este mundo. +Los encargados de fabricar estos telfonos, seguro que hay alguno aqu en la sala, tienen el potencial de generar el llamado sistema de ciclo cerrado, o servicios sistema-producto. Se detecta que hay una demanda en el mercado y que esta demanda no se volcar a cualquier lado y entonces diseas el producto que resuelve el problema. +Diseado para el desmontaje; diseado para ser liviano. +Ya sabemos que algunas de estas estrategias se estn usando hoy en da en los autos de Tesla Motors. +Estos tipos de enfoques no son difciles, pero comprender el sistema y luego buscar alternativas viables, que respondan a las demandas de los consumidores en el mercado es el modo que tenemos de cambiar profundamente los temas prioritarios de la sustentabilidad, porque odio darles la noticia: el problema ms grave es el consumo. +Pero el diseo es una de las mejores soluciones. +Este tipo de productos estn por todos lados. +Si encontramos modos alternativos de hacer las cosas, podemos realmente empezar a innovar. Y digo realmente empezar a innovar. +S que todos aqu son muy innovadores. +Pero en lo que respecta a la sustentabilidad, como un parmetro, como un criterio para generar soluciones basadas en los sistemas, porque como acabo de demostrar con estos simples productos, juegan un papel en estos grandes problemas. +Tenemos que observar la vida completa de las cosas que fabricamos. +La da una cantidad nfima de plstico y una muchsimo mayor de papel. +Porque la funcionalidad determina el impacto medio ambiental y les cont que los diseadores siempre me piden materiales ecolgicos. +Hay pocos materiales que hay que evitar completamente. +Para el resto, el tema es la aplicacin, y a fin de cuentas, todo lo que diseamos y producimos en la economa o lo que compramos como consumidores se hace as para una funcin. +Queremos algo: vamos y lo compramos. +Volver a separar las cosas y presentar soluciones inteligentes, elegantes, sofisticadas que tengan en cuenta todo el sistema y la vida completa de la cosa, todo, yendo bien hacia atrs desde la extraccin hasta el fin de la vida til, solo as podemos empezar a encontrar soluciones realmente innovadoras. +Y los dejo con algo pequeito que un diseador experimentado con el que trabajo me dijo hace poco. +Yo le dije: Por qu no trabajas con sustentabilidad? S que la conoces. +Gracias. +El mundo est cambiando de modos realmente profundos, y me preocupa que los inversores no le presten la debida atencin a algunos de los mayores generadores de cambios, sobre todo cuando se trata de sustentabilidad. +Y por sustentabilidad me refiero a las cosas realmente importantes, como los asuntos medioambientales y sociales y de gobierno corporativo. +Creo que es insensato ignorar estas cosas, porque implica poner en peligro los rendimientos a largo plazo. +Y esto es algo que quiz los sorprenda: el equilibrio de fuerzas para una influencia real sobre la sustentabilidad recae sobre los inversores institucionales, los grandes inversores como los fondos de pensiones, las fundaciones y las donaciones. +Creo que las inversiones sustentables son menos complicadas de lo que Uds. piensan, ms efectivas de lo que creen y ms importantes de lo que imaginamos. +Les recordar algo que ya saben. +Tenemos una poblacin que crece en tamao y en edad; somos 7000 millones de almas, y vamos hacia los 10 000 millones para finales de siglo; consumimos recursos naturales ms rpido de lo que pueden reponerse; y las principales emisiones responsables del cambio climtico siguen aumentando. +Est claro que estos son asuntos medioambientales y sociales, pero eso no es todo. +Son asuntos econmicos y por tanto relevantes para el riesgo y el rendimiento. +Son muy complejos y pueden parecer tan alejados que nos tienta hacer esto: enterrar la cabeza en la arena y no pensar en eso. +Resstanse, si pueden. No hagan esto en casa. +Pero me hace preguntarme si las reglas para invertir de hoy son vlidas para maana. +Sabemos que los inversores, cuando observan una empresa para ver si invierten, se fijan en los datos financieros, en valores como el crecimiento de las ventas, la liquidez, la participacin de mercado, la valoracin... saben?, en la parte sexy. +Y estas cosas son fundamentales, claro, pero no son suficientes. +Los inversores tambin deberan fijarse en los valores de lo que llamamos MSG: el medioambiente, lo social y el gobierno. +En medioambiente se incluye el consumo de energa, la disponibilidad del agua, los desechos y la contaminacin, en hacer un uso eficiente de los recursos. +En lo social se incluye el capital humano, cosas como el compromiso de los empleados y la capacidad de innovacin, as como el manejo de la cadena de abastecimiento y los derechos humanos y laborales. +Y el gobierno se refiere a la supervisin de las empresas por parte de sus juntas e inversores. +Les dije que esta era la parte importante. +Pero MSG es una medida de la sustentabilidad, y las inversiones sustentables agregan los factores MSG a los factores financieros en el proceso de inversin. +Eso significa reducir los riesgos futuros ya que se minimiza el dao a las personas y al planeta, y eso significa darles capital a los usuarios que lo utilizan orientndolo hacia fines productivos y sustentables. +Entonces, si la sustentabilidad tiene hoy en da importancia econmica, y todo indica que la tendr ms en el futuro, el sector privado le est prestando atencin? +Lo genial es que la mayora de los directores ejecutivos, s. +Empezaron a ver la sustentabilidad no solo como algo importante, sino crucial para el xito empresarial. +Un 80 % de los gerentes ejecutivos de todo el mundo ven la sustentabilidad como la raz del crecimiento de la innovacin y como el camino hacia las ventajas competitivas de sus industrias. +Pero el 93 % ven MSG como el futuro, o como importante en el futuro de sus empresas. +Est claro lo que piensan los directores ejecutivos. +Hay oportunidades enormes en la sustentabilidad. +Entonces, cmo hacen las empresas para usar MSG para obtener resultados comerciales concretos? +Un ejemplo que tenemos muy presente. +En 2012, State Street mud 54 aplicaciones a un entorno de nube y nosotros sacamos otras 85. +Hicimos virtuales nuestros entornos de sistema operativo y completamos numerosos procesos de automatizacin. +Estas iniciativas crean un lugar de trabajo ms mvil, reducen el espacio real que ocupan, y traen aparejado un ahorro de USD 23 millones anuales en costos operativos y evitan la emisin de 100 000 toneladas de dixido de carbono. +Eso equivale a sacar 21 000 autos de las calles. +Impresionante, no? +Otro ejemplo es Pentair. +Pentair es un conglomerado industrial y hace cerca de una dcada, vendieron sus cruciales empresas de herramientas elctricas y reinvirtieron esas ganancias en una empresa de agua. +Fue una apuesta enorme. Por qu lo hicieron? +Bueno, que me disculpen los fans de "Mejorando la casa", pero hay ms crecimiento en el agua que en las herramientas elctricas, y esta empresa tiene los ojos puestos en lo que ellos llaman "el nuevo Nuevo Mundo". +Son 4000 millones de personas de clase media que necesitan alimentos, energa y agua. +Quiz se estn preguntando: estos son solo casos aislados? +Digo, vamos!, de verdad? +A las empresas que tienen en cuenta la sustentabilidad realmente les va bien econmicamente? +La respuesta que quiz los sorprenda es que s. +Los datos muestran que las acciones con mejores rendimientos MSG rinden tanto como las otras. +En azul, se ve el ndice Mundial MSCI. +Es un ndice de grandes empresas de los mercados de pases desarrollados de todo el mundo. +Y en dorado, vemos un subconjunto de empresas que se considera que tienen el mejor rendimiento MSG. +En 3 aos ms, el rendimiento ya no se compensar. +Eso es bueno, verdad? Queremos ms. Quiero ms. +En algunos casos, podra darse que las MSG superen a las otras. +En azul, vemos el rendimiento de las 500 empresas ms grandes del mundo y en dorado, vemos un subconjunto de empresas con las mejores prcticas en estrategias de cambio climtico y gestin de riesgos. +Por casi 8 aos, rindieron cerca de dos tercios ms. +S, es correlacin. No es causalidad. +Pero s ilustra que la vanguardia en lo medioambiental es compatible con buenas ganancias. +Si las ganancias son iguales o mejores y el planeta se beneficia, esta no debiera ser la norma? +Los inversores, en particular los institucionales, estn comprometidos? +Algunos s y unos pocos van realmente a la vanguardia. +Hesta. +Hesta es un fondo de jubilaciones para empleados de la salud y servicios comunitarios de Australia, con activos por USD 22 millones. +Creen que MSG tiene el potencial de actuar sobre los riesgos y rendimientos, por lo que incorporarlos al proceso de inversin es crucial para su tarea de velar por los intereses de los miembros del fondo, crucial en su tarea. +Deben amar a los australianos, no? +CalPERS es otro ejemplo. +CalPERS es el fondo de pensiones para los empleados pblicos de California y tiene activos de USD 244 000 millones, son los segundos ms grandes de EE. UU. +y los sextos del mundo. +Estn yendo hacia inversiones 100 % sustentables, al integrar MSG sistemticamente en todo el fondo. +Por qu? Piensan que es crtico para mejores rendimientos a largo plazo. Punto. +En sus propias palabras: "La creacin de valor a largo plazo requiere de la efectiva administracin de 3 clases de capital: el econmico, el humano y el fsico. +Por eso estamos interesados en MSG". +Como parte de mi trabajo, hablo con muchsimos inversores y no todos lo ven as. +A menudo escucho: "Se nos pide que maximicemos los rendimientos, por eso no hacemos eso aqu". O: "No queremos usar nuestra cartera financiera para hablar de poltica". +El que me pone ms los pelos de punta es: "Si quieren hacer algo al respecto, hagan dinero, donen las ganancias a la caridad". +Es exasperante, realmente. +Djenme explicarles algo. +Las empresas y los inversores no son los nicos responsables del destino del planeta. +No tienen obligaciones sociales ilimitadas y las inversiones prudentes y la teora econmica no estn subordinadas a la sustentabilidad. +Son compatibles. +Por eso no estoy hablando de soluciones intermedias. +Pero los inversores institucionales son absolutamente claves para la sustentabilidad. +Por qu son claves? +La respuesta, bastante sencilla, es: porque tienen el dinero. +Muchsimo dinero. +Digo, realmente muchsimo. +El mercado mundial de acciones est valuado en USD 55 billones. +El mercado mundial de bonos, USD 78 billones. +Juntos son 133 billones. +Eso es 8 veces y media el PBI de EE. UU. +Eso es la economa ms grande del mundo. +Eso es todo un potencial. +Por eso podramos reconsiderar algunos de estos duros desafos, como el agua dulce, el aire limpio, alimentar a 10 000 millones de bocas, si los inversores institucionales incorporan MSG a sus inversiones. +Y si usaran todo ese poder para repartir ms de su capital entre las empresas que trabajan ms duro en resolver estos problemas o al menos en no empeorarlos? +Y si trabajramos, ahorrramos e invirtiramos para que al final el mundo en el que nos jubilemos est ms castigado y sea menos seguro que el actual? +Y si no hay suficiente aire limpio y agua dulce? +Una pregunta justa podra ser: Y si todo este asunto del riesgo y las sustentabilidad se hubiera exagerado, agrandado y no fuera urgente, sino algo para consumidores privilegiados o una eleccin de estilo de vida? +El presidente John F. Kennedy dijo algo sobre este asunto que es muy acertado: "En un programa de acciones, hay riesgos y costos, pero son mucho ms pequeos que los enormes riesgos y costos de la cmoda inaccin". +Puedo percibir que hay un riesgo estimado en esto, pero como est basado en un amplio consenso cientfico, las posibilidades de que no est completamente errado son mayores que las posibilidades de que nuestra casa se incendie o de que choquemos con el auto. +Bueno, no quiz en Boston. Pero mi idea es que contratamos seguros para cubrirnos econmicamente si esto sucediera, s? +Por eso al hacer inversiones sustentables estamos haciendo 2 cosas. +Estamos creando un seguro, reduciendo el riesgo para nuestro planeta y para nuestra economa, y al mismo tiempo, a corto plazo, no estamos sacrificando el rendimiento. +[Hombre en la tira: "Y si es broma y hacemos un mundo mejor para nada?"] Bueno, les gust. A m tambin. +Me gusta porque se re de los dos lados del cambio climtico. +A que adivinan de qu lado estoy? +Pero lo que ms me gusta es que me hace acordar a algo que dijo Mark Twain: "Planea para el futuro, porque ah es donde vas a pasar el resto de tu vida". +Gracias. +Quisiera hablarles hoy acerca de un aspecto poderoso y fundamental sobre quienes somos: nuestra voz. +Cada uno de nosotros tenemos una impresin de voz nica que refleja nuestra edad, tamao, incluso nuestro estilo de vida y personalidad. +En palabras del poeta Longfellow, "La voz humana es el rgano del alma". +Como cientfica de la voz, me fascina cmo se produce la voz y tengo una idea de cmo puede ser diseada. +Eso es lo que me gustara compartir con ustedes. +Comenzar reproducindoles un ejemplo de voz que tal vez reconozcan. +Stephen Hawking: "Yo hubiera pensado que era bastante obvio lo que quise decir ". +Rupal Patel: Esa es la voz del Profesor Stephen Hawking. +Lo que pueden no saber es que la misma voz tambin puede ser utilizada por esta nia que es incapaz de hablar debido a una condicin neurolgica. +De hecho, todos estos individuos podran utilizar la misma voz, y eso es porque slo hay unas pocas opciones disponibles. +Slo en los EE.UU., hay 2.5 millones de estadounidenses que no pueden hablar, y muchos de ellos utilizan dispositivos computarizados para comunicarse. +Ahora esos millones de personas alrededor del mundo estn usando voces genricas, incluyendo al Profesor Hawking, quien usa una voz con acento americano. +Esta falta de individualizacin de la voz sinttica realmente me impact cuando estaba en una conferencia de tecnologa de asistencia hace algunos aos, y recuerdo entrar en una sala de exposiciones y ver a una nia y un hombre adulto teniendo una conversacin usando sus dispositivos, diferentes dispositivos, pero la misma voz. +Y mir alrededor y vi que esto suceda a todo mi alrededor, literalmente cientos de individuos utilizando un puado de voces, voces que no encajaban con sus cuerpos o sus personalidades. +No se nos ocurrira encajar una nia con la prtesis de un hombre adulto. +Entonces por qu la misma voz protsica? +Realmente me llam la atencin, y yo quera hacer algo sobre esto. +Les reproducir un ejemplo de alguien que tiene, ms bien dos personas, que tienen trastornos graves del habla. +Quiero que escuchen cmo suenan. +Estn diciendo el mismo enunciado. +(Primera voz) (Segunda voz) Probablemente no entendieron que decan, pero espero que ustedes hayan oido sus identidades vocales nicas. +As que lo que quis hacer a continuacin, fue averiguar cmo podamos aprovechar estas habilidades vocales residuales y construir una tecnologa que pudiera personalizarse, voces que pudieran ser personalizadas para ellos. +As que me acerqu a mi colaborador, Tim Bunnell. +El Dr. Bunnell es un experto en la sntesis de voz, y lo que l ha estado haciendo es la construccin de voces personalizadas para las personas juntando muestras pre-grabadas de su voz y reconstruyendo una voz para ellos. +Se trata de personas que haban perdido su voz ms tarde en la vida. +No tenamos el lujo de muestras pregrabadas del habla para los nacidos con un trastorno del habla. +Pero pens que tena que haber una manera de hacer ingeniera inversa de una voz de lo poco que quedaba. +As que decidimos hacer exactamente eso. +Nos pusimos en marcha con financiacin de la Fundacin Nacional de Ciencias, para crear voces diseadas a medida que capturaran sus identidades vocales nicas. +Llamamos a este proyecto VocaliD o I.D. vocal, por identidad vocal. +Ahora, antes de entrar en los detalles de cmo la voz se crea y les permite que la escuchen, necesito darles una muy rpida leccin de ciencias del habla de acuerdo? +As que en primer lugar, sabemos que la voz est cambiando drsticamente durante el curso del desarrollo. +Los nios suenan diferente a los adolescentes quienes suenan diferente de los adultos. +Todos hemos experimentado esto. +El hecho nmero dos es que el habla es una combinacin de la fuente, que son las vibraciones generadas por la caja de la voz, que luego son empujadas a travs del resto del tracto vocal. +Estas son las cmaras de su cabeza y cuello que vibran, y que filtran el sonido de la fuente para producir consonantes y vocales. +Entonces, de la combinacin de la fuente y el filtro es cmo se produce el habla. +Y eso sucede en cada individuo. +Estos se llaman prosodia, y he estado documentando desde hace aos que las habilidades prosdicas de estos individuos se conservan. +As que cuando me di cuenta de que esas mismas seales son tan importantes para la identidad del interlocutor, tuve esta idea. +Por qu no tomamos la fuente de la persona de la que queremos que la voz suene igual, porque se ha conservado, y pedimos prestado el filtro a alguien de la misma edad y tamao, porque ellos pueden articular el habla, y luego, las mezclamos? +Porque cuando las mezclamos, podemos obtener una voz que es tan clara como nuestro hablante sustituto --la persona a la que pedimos prestado el filtro-- y es similar en identidad a nuestro hablante objetivo. +Es as de simple. +Esa es la ciencia detrs de lo que estamos haciendo. +As que una vez que tienes eso en mente, cmo construyes esta voz? +Bueno, tienes que encontrar alguien que est dispuesto a ser un sustituto. +No es una cosa tan ominosa. +Ser un donante sustituto slo requiere que digas de algunos cientos a unos pocos miles de expresiones. +El proceso es algo como esto. +Voz: Las cosas suceden de a pares. +Amo dormir. +El cielo es azul sin nubes. +RP: Ahora ella va a seguir as entre cerca de tres a cuatro horas, y la idea no es que ella dijera todo lo que el objetivo va a querer decir, pero la idea es cubrir todas las diferentes combinaciones de los sonidos que se producen en el lenguaje. +Cuanto ms habla tienes, tendrs una voz que suena mejor. +Una vez que tienes esas grabaciones, lo que necesitamos hacer es analizar gramaticalmente estas grabaciones en pequeos fragmentos del habla, una --o dos-- combinaciones de sonido, a veces incluso palabras enteras comienzan a llenar un conjunto de datos o una base de datos. +Llamaremos a esta base de datos un banco de voz. +El poder de este banco de voz es que a partir de este banco de voz, ahora podemos decir cualquier nuevo enunciado, del tipo, "Me encanta el chocolate", todos necesitamos poder decir eso, pescar a travs de esa base de datos y encontrar todos los segmentos necesarios para decir ese enunciado. +Voz: Me encanta el chocolate. +RP: Eso es la sntesis de voz. +Se llama sntesis por concatenacin, y eso es lo que estamos usando. +Esa no es la mejor parte. +Lo novedoso es cmo hacemos que suene como esta joven mujer. +Ella es Samantha. +La conoc cuando ella tena 9 aos, y desde entonces, mi equipo y yo hemos estado tratando de construir una voz personalizada para ella. +Primero tuvimos que encontrar un donante sustituto, y luego tuvimos que pedirle a Samantha que produjera algunos enunciados. +Lo sonidos que ms puede producir son de vocales, pero eso nos es suficiente para extraer las caractersticas de su fuente. +Lo que sucede luego es mejor explicado con la analoga de mi hija que tiene 6 aos. +Ella lo llama mezclar colores para pintar voces. +Es hermoso. Es exactamente eso. +La voz de Samantha es un ejemplo concentrado de colorante alimentario rojo que podemos infundir en las grabaciones de su sustituto para conseguir una voz rosa al igual que esta. +Samantha: Aaaaaah. +RP: As que ahora, Samantha puede decir esto. +Samantha: Esta voz es slo para m. +No puedo esperar para usar mi nueva voz con mis amigos. +RP: Gracias. Nunca olvidar la amable sonrisa que se extendi por su cara cuando escuch esa voz por primera vez. +Hay millones de personas alrededor del mundo como Samantha, millones, y nosotros slo hemos empezado a rascar la superficie. +Lo que hemos hecho hasta ahora es que tenemos unos hablantes sustitutos a lo ancho de los EE.UU. +quienes han donado sus voces, y hemos estado usndolas para construir nuestras primeras voces personalizadas. +Pero hay mucho ms trabajo por hacer. +Para Samantha, su sustituta vino de algn lugar del Medio Oeste, una extraa que le regal su voz. +Como cientfica, estoy tan emocionada de llevar este trabajo fuera del laboratorio y finalmente al mundo real para que pueda tener un impacto real en el mundo. +Lo que a continuacin quiero compartirles es cmo me imagino llevando este trabajo a ese siguiente nivel. +Imagino un mundo de donantes sustitutos de todos los mbitos de la vida, de diferentes tamaos, diferentes edades, que se unen en este disco de voz para darle a las personas voces tan coloridas como sus personalidades. +Para hacer eso, como primer paso, hemos colocado este sitio, VocaliD.org, como una forma de reunir a aquellos quienes quieran unrsenos como donantes de voz, como donantes de experiencia, en lo que sea posible para hacer de esta visin una realidad. +Dicen que la donacin de sangre puede salvar vidas. +Bueno, dar su voz puede cambiar vidas. +Todo lo que necesitamos es un par de horas de habla de nuestro hablante sustituto, y por lo menos una vocal de nuestro habladante objetivo, para crear una identidad de voz nica. +As que esa es la ciencia detrs de lo que estamos haciendo. +Quiero terminar regresando a la parte humana que es realmente la inspiracin para este trabajo. +Hace unos cinco aos, construmos nuestra primera voz para un pequeo nio llamado William. +Cuando su madre escuch por primera vez su voz, ella dijo, "As es como William habra sonado si hubiera sido capaz de hablar ". +Y entonces vi a William escribir un mensaje en su dispositivo. +Y pens, que estar pensando? +Imagnense llevando con ustedes la voz de otro por nueve aos y finalmente encontrar tu propia voz. +Imaginen eso. +Esto es lo que William dijo: "Nunca antes me haba escuchado". +Gracias. +Hace 13 aos, nos fijamos el objetivo de terminar con la pobreza. +Despus de algunos xitos, tropezamos con un gran obstculo. +Las secuelas de la crisis financiera haban empezado a golpear las contribuciones para ayuda, que han cado durante 2 aos consecutivos. +Mi pregunta es si las lecciones aprendidas sobre salvar el sistema financiero pueden usarse para ayudarnos a superar ese obstculo y ayudar a millones. +Podemos simplemente imprimir dinero para ayuda? +"Por supuesto que no". +Es una reaccin comn. +Palabreras. +Otros se enojan, como John McEnroe. +"No puedes decir eso en serio". +No puedo imitar el acento, pero lo digo en serio, gracias a estos 2 nios, que, como vern, estn muy en el corazn de mi charla. +A la izquierda, tenemos a Pia. +Vive en Inglaterra. +Tiene padres amorosos, uno de los cuales est justo aqu. +Dorothy, a la derecha, vive en una zona rural de Kenia. +Es una de los 13 000 nios hurfanos y vulnerables que asiste una organizacin benfica que apoyo. +Lo hago porque creo que Dorothy, como Pia, se merecen las mejores oportunidades de vida que podamos darle. +Todos convendrn conmigo, estoy seguro. +La ONU tambin est de acuerdo. +Su objetivo primordial para la ayuda internacional es luchar por una vida digna para todos. +Pero, aqu est el problema: podemos pagar nuestras aspiraciones de ayuda? +La historia nos dice que no. +En 1970, los gobiernos se fijaron un objetivo aumentar los pagos para ayuda en el extranjero a un 0,7 % de su ingreso nacional. +Como pueden ver, hay una gran brecha entre la ayuda real y lo esperado. +Pero luego vienen los Objetivos de Desarrollo del Milenio, 8 objetivos ambiciosos a cumplirse para el ao 2015. +Si les digo que solo uno de esos objetivos es erradicar el hambre y la pobreza extrema, pueden darse una idea de la ambicin. +Tambin ha habido algunos xitos. +La cantidad de personas que vive con menos de USD 1,25 al da se redujo a la mitad. +Pero queda mucho por hacer en 2 aos. +1 de cada 8 an estn hambrientos. +En el contexto de este auditorio, las 2 primeras filas no van a tener qu comer. +No podemos conformarnos con eso, es por eso que la preocupacin por el octavo objetivo, que se refiere a la financiacin, que he dicho al principio est cayendo, es muy preocupante. +Qu se puede hacer? +Bueno, yo trabajo en los mercados financieros, no en el desarrollo. +Estudio el comportamiento de los inversores, cmo reaccionan a la poltica y la economa. +Me da un ngulo diferente sobre el tema de la ayuda. +Pero bast una pregunta inocente de mi hija, de entonces 4 aos, para entenderlo. +Pia y yo bamos a una cafetera y pasamos por un hombre que peda para la caridad. +No tena cambio para darle y ella estaba decepcionada. +Ya en el caf, Pia saca su libro para colorear y comienza a garabatear. +Despus de un rato, le pregunto qu est haciendo, y me ensea un dibujo de un billete de 5 libras para dar al hombre afuera. +Es tan dulce, y ms generosa de lo que haba sido pap. +Pero por supuesto le expliqu: "No puedes hacer eso; no est permitido". +Y me sali con la clsica respuesta de los 4 aos: "Por qu no?" +Estoy emocionado, creo que en realidad puedo responder esta vez. +As que me lanc en una explicacin de cmo un suministro ilimitado de dinero con un nmero limitado de bienes suba los precios a la luna. +Algo sobre esto me sorprendi no por la mirada de alivio de Pia cuando finalmente termin, sino porque se relaciona con la santidad de la oferta de dinero, una santidad que haba sido impugnada y cuestionada por la reaccin de los bancos centrales a la crisis financiera. +Para tranquilizar a los inversores, los bancos centrales empezaron a comprar activos para tratar de animar a los inversores a hacer lo mismo. +Financiaron estas compras con el dinero que ellos mismos crearon. +El dinero no estaba impreso fsicamente. +Est confinado en el sistema bancario hoy en da. +Pero la cantidad creada fue sin precedentes. +Juntos, los bancos centrales de Estados Unidos, Reino Unido y Japn aumentaron la reserva de dinero en sus economas en USD 3,7 billones. +Eso es de hecho ms de 3 veces el total de dlares fsicos en circulacin. +Tres veces! +Antes de la crisis esto habra sido totalmente impensable, sin embargo, fue aceptado muy rpidamente. +El precio del oro, un activo que se crea protegido contra la inflacin, se dispar. Pero los inversores compraron otros activos que ofrecen poca proteccin contra la inflacin. +Compraron ttulos de renta fija, bonos. +Tambin compraron acciones. +Como las historias de terror, las acciones reales de los inversores hablaban de una aceptacin rpida y de confianza. +Esa confianza se basaba en 2 pilares. +El primero fue, despus de aos de mantener la inflacin bajo control, a los bancos centrales se les confi retirar dinero impreso de la circulacin si la inflacin se converta en una amenaza. +En segundo lugar, la inflacin simplemente nunca se convirti en una amenaza. +Como pueden ver, en Estados Unidos, la inflacin durante la mayor parte de este perodo se mantuvo por debajo de la media. +Ocurri lo mismo en otros lugares. +Cmo se relaciona todo esto con ayudar? +Bueno, aqu es donde Dorothy y el rbol de mango de la caridad que apoya entra en escena. +Estaba en un evento para recaudar fondos a principios de este ao, y me inspir para dar una donacin puntual cuando me acord de que mi empresa ofrece la contabilidad de las contribuciones caritativas de sus empleados. +Piensen en esto: En lugar de simplemente ayudar a Dorothy y a 4 de sus compaeros de clase a ir a la escuela por unos aos, pude duplicar mi contribucin. +Brillante. +As que despus de esa conversacin con mi hija y viendo la ausencia de inflacin ante la impresin de dinero y sabiendo que las contribuciones para ayuda internacional estaban bajando en un momento inoportuno, me hizo preguntarme: podramos contribuir pero en una escala mucho ms grande? +Llamemos a este esquema "acuar ayuda". +Y as es cmo podra funcionar. +Ya que se vio que hay poco riesgo al hacerlo, se podra mandar al banco central para contribuir con los pagos de ayuda exterior del gobierno hasta un cierto lmite. +Los gobiernos han tratado de elevar la ayuda a 0,7 % durante aos, as que vamos a establecer el lmite en la mitad de eso, 0,35 % de sus ingresos. +Funcionara as: si en un ao determinado el gobierno dio 0,2 % de sus ingresos a la ayuda exterior, el banco central podra simplemente completarla con un 0,2 % ms. +Hasta aqu, todo bien. +Qu tan riesgoso es esto? +Bueno, esto implica la creacin de dinero para comprar mercancas, no activos, +suena ms inflacionaria, pero no es as. +Pero hay dos factores atenuantes importantes aqu. +El primero es que, por definicin, este dinero impreso se gastara en el extranjero. +No es obvio cmo conllevara inflacin en el pas que hace la impresin real a menos que lleve a una depreciacin de la moneda de ese pas. +Eso es poco probable por la segunda razn: el volumen de dinero que sera impreso bajo este esquema. +As que pensemos en un ejemplo en el que la ayuda se haya acuado en Estados Unidos, Reino Unido y Japn. +Para apalancar las contribuciones para ayuda de esos gobiernos en los ltimos 4 aos, la impresin de ayuda habra generado USD 200 000 millones de ayuda extra. +Cmo impactara en el contexto del aumento de reservas de dinero que ya ha ocurrido en esos pases para salvar el sistema financiero. +Estn listos para esto? +Tal vez no vean bien en la parte de atrs porque la diferencia es muy pequea. +As que lo que estamos diciendo aqu es que hicimos una apuesta de USD 3,7 billones para salvar nuestros sistemas financieros, y saben qu, vali la pena. +No hubo inflacin. +Realmente estamos diciendo que no vale la pena el riesgo de imprimir unos 200 000 millones adicionales para ayuda? +Realmente los riesgos seran tan distintos? +Para m, no son tan claros. +Lo que est claro es el impacto en la ayuda. +Aunque esta sea la acuacin de tan solo 3 bancos centrales, la ayuda global dada en este perodo se incrementa en casi un 40 %. +La ayuda como proporcin del ingreso nacional de repente est en su nivel ms alto en 40 aos. +No alcanzamos el 0,7 %. +Los gobiernos todava estn incentivados para dar. +Pero, saben qu, ese es la idea del esquema. +As que creo que hemos aprendido que los riesgos de este plan de creacin de dinero son bastante moderados, pero los beneficios son potencialmente enormes. +Imaginen lo que podramos hacer con una financiacin de 40 % ms. +Podramos alimentar a la primera fila. +Lo que temo, lo nico que temo, aparte de que me he quedado sin tiempo, es que la ventana de oportunidad para esta idea es pequea. +Hoy, la creacin de dinero por los bancos centrales es una herramienta poltica aceptada. +Eso no puede ser siempre el caso. +Hoy en da hay objetivos universalmente aceptados para la ayuda internacional. +Eso no puede ser siempre el caso. +Hoy podra ser la nica vez que estas 2 situaciones coinciden, de tal modo que podemos permitirnos dar la ayuda que siempre hemos aspirado a dar. +Entonces, podemos imprimir dinero para ayuda internacional? +Realmente creo que la pregunta debera ser, por qu no? +Muchas gracias. +Qu hace hoy a un gran lder? +Muchos de nosotros llevamos esta imagen de esta especie de superhroe sabelotodo que est all y comanda y protege a sus seguidores. +Eso es como una imagen de otro tiempo, y los que tambin son obsoletos son los programas de desarrollo de liderazgo basados en modelos de xito para un mundo que era, no un mundo que es o que est por venir. +Realizamos un estudio de 4000 compaas, y les dijimos, vamos a ver la efectividad de sus programas de desarrollo de liderazgo. +El 58 % de esas compaas citaron brechas de talento significativas para ocupar cargos directivos crticos. +Eso significa que, a pesar de los programas de capacitacin corporativa, 'off-sites', evaluaciones, coaching, todas estas cosas, ms de la mitad de las compaas haban fallado en formar grandes lderes. +Se estarn preguntando, me est ayudando mi compaa a prepararme para ser un gran lder del siglo XXI? +Las posibilidades son que probablemente no. +He invertido 25 aos de mi vida profesional observando lo que hace a los grandes lderes. +Trabaj en el interior de 500 compaas listadas en la revista Fortune, he asesorado a ms de 200 directores generales y he participado en ms procesos de liderazgo de los que se pueden imaginar. +Pero unos aos atrs, not una tendencia preocupante en la preparacin para el liderazgo. +He notado que, a pesar de todos los esfuerzos, haba historias familiares que seguan resurgiendo sobre las personas. +Una historia era sobre Chris, un lder superestrella de alto potencial que se muda a una nueva unidad y falla, destruyendo un valor irrecuperable. +Y luego estaban las historias como Sidney, el CEO, que estaba tan frustrada porque su compaa es citada como la mejor compaa para lderes pero solo uno de los 50 principales lderes estn equipados para dirigir sus iniciativas cruciales. +Y haba historias como las del equipo senior de liderazgo de un negocio, una vez prspero, que sorprendido por un cambio en el mercado, se encuentra forzado a reducir el tamao de la empresa a la mitad o salir del negocio. +Ahora, estas historias recurrentes hicieron que me hiciera dos preguntas. +Por qu los vacos de liderazgo se estn ampliando cuando hay una mayor inversin en el desarrollo del liderazgo? +Y qu estn haciendo los grandes lderes de forma claramente diferente para prosperar y crecer? +Y entonces, hice cosas como viajar a Sudfrica, donde tuve la oportunidad de entender cmo Nelson Mandela se adelant a su tiempo en la anticipacin y la navegacin de su contexto poltico, social y econmico. +Tambin conoc a un nmero de lderes sin fines de lucro quienes, a pesar de los muy limitados recursos financieros, estaban creando un enorme impacto en el mundo, a menudo juntando a quienes parecan adversarios. +Y me la pasaba en las bibliotecas presidenciales tratando de entender cmo el ambiente ha formado a los lderes, los movimientos que hicieron, y luego el impacto de esos movimientos ms all de su mandato. +Y luego, cuando regres a trabajar a tiempo completo, en este papel, me un a colegas maravillosos que tambin estaban interesados en estas cuestiones. +Ahora, a partir de todo esto, destil las caractersticas de los lderes que estn prosperando y lo que hacen de manera diferente, y tambin destil las prcticas de preparacin que permitan a las personas crecer a su mximo potencial. +Quiero compartir algunas de ellas con ustedes ahora. +De hecho, las evaluaciones tradicionales como las estrechas evaluaciones de 360 grados o los criterios de rendimiento obsoletos te dar falsos positivos, adormecindote a pensar de que ests ms preparado de lo que realmente ests. +El liderazgo en el siglo XXI se define y se evidencia por tres preguntas. +Dnde ests buscando para anticipar el prximo cambio en tu modelo de negocio o tu vida? +La respuesta a esta pregunta est en el calendario. +Con quin ests gastando el tiempo? Sobre qu temas? +A dnde vas a viajar? Qu ests leyendo? +Y entonces, cmo ests destilando esto para comprender las discontinuidades potenciales, para luego tomar la decisin de hacer algo en este momento para que ests preparado y listo? +Hay un equipo de liderazgo que hace una prctica donde renen a cada miembro recolectando, aqu hay tendencias que me impactan, estas son las tendencias que afectan a otro miembro del equipo, y comparten estas, y luego toman decisiones, para corregir una estrategia en curso o para anticiparse a un nuevo movimiento. +Los grandes lderes no estn cabeza abajo. +Ellos ven alrededor de las esquinas, construyendo su futuro, no solo reaccionando ante l. +La segunda pregunta es, cul es la medida de la diversidad de tu personal y de la red profesional de tenedores de apuestas? +Ya saben, escuchamos con frecuencia acerca de contactos, conexiones, redes y estn ciertamente vivas y bien en muchas instituciones. +Pero hasta cierto punto, todos tenemos una red de personas con las que nos sentimos cmodos. +As que esta pregunta es sobre tu capacidad para desarrollar relaciones con personas que son muy diferentes a ti. +Y esas diferencias pueden ser biolgicas, fsicas, funcionales, polticas, culturales, socio econmicas. +Y, sin embargo, a pesar de todas estas diferencias, se conectan contigo y confan en ti lo suficiente para cooperar contigo en la consecucin de un objetivo comn. +Los grandes lderes comprenden que tener una red mucho ms diversa es una fuente de identificacin de patrones a mayores niveles y tambin de soluciones, porque hay personas que estn pensando de manera diferente a ti. +Tercera pregunta: eres lo suficientemente valiente para abandonar una prctica que te hizo exitoso en el pasado? +Hay una expresin: "Ir a lo largo para llevarse bien". +Pero si sigues este consejo, lo ms probable es que como lder, seguirs haciendo lo que te es familiar y cmodo. +Los grandes lderes se atreven a ser diferentes. +Ellos no solo hablan de tomar riesgos, realmente los toman. +Y uno de los lderes comparti conmigo el hecho de que la novedad ms impactante llega cuando eres capaz de construir la resistencia emocional para soportar la gente que te dice que tu nueva idea es ingenua o imprudente o simplemente estpida. +Ahora, curiosamente, las personas que se te unirn no son los habituales sospechosos en tu red. +A menudo son personas que piensan de manera diferente y por lo tanto estn dispuestos a unrsete para dar un valiente salto. +Y es un salto, no un paso. +Ms que los programas tradicionales de liderazgo, respondiendo estas tres preguntas determinarn tu efectividad como lder del siglo XXI. +Entonces, qu hace a un gran lder en el siglo XXI? +He conocido a muchos, y se destacan. +Son mujeres y hombres que se estn preparando no para la previsibilidad cmoda del ayer sino para las realidades de hoy y todas esas posibilidades desconocidas del maana. +Gracias +Me saldr de libreto y pondr nervioso a Chris haciendo participar al pblico. +Est bien. Estn conmigo? S. S. Est bien. +Quiero que levanten la mano si alguna vez oyeron a una pareja heterosexual teniendo relaciones sexuales. +Podran ser los vecinos, en una habitacin de hotel, sus padres. Lo siento. +Bien, casi todos. +Ahora, levanten la mano si el hombre haca ms ruido que la mujer. +All veo a un hombre. +No vale si era Ud., seor. +Baje la mano. Y una mujer. Bien. +Sentada al lado de un tipo gritn. +Qu nos dice esto? +Nos dice que los seres humanos hacemos ruido cuando tenemos sexo, y por lo general es la mujer la que hace ms ruido. +Esto se conoce como vocalizacin copulativa de la hembra, para quienes toman notas. +Ni siquiera iba a mencionar esto, pero alguien me dijo que Meg Ryan podra estar aqu, y ella es la vocalista copulativa ms famosa del mundo. +Por eso pens, tengo que hablar de eso. +Volveremos a esto un poco ms tarde. +Empezar diciendo que los seres humanos no descendemos de los simios, a pesar de lo que pueden haber odo. Somos simios. +Tenemos una relacin ms estrecha con el chimpanc y el bonobo que el elefante africano con el elefante indio, como seal Jared Diamond en uno de sus primeros libros. +Tenemos una relacin ms estrecha con el chimpanc y el bonobo que el chimpanc y el bonobo con cualquier otro primate. Gorilas, orangutanes, cualquiera. +Tenemos una relacin muy estrecha con ellos, y vern que en trminos de comportamiento, tambin tenemos alguna relacin. +La pregunta que hoy planteo, y que quiero explorar es: qu clase de simios somos en materia de sexualidad? +Ahora, desde la poca de Darwin ha habido lo que Cacilda y yo hemos llamado la narrativa estndar de la evolucin sexual humana, y ya estn todos familiarizados con eso, incluso si no lo han ledo. +La idea es que, como parte de la naturaleza humana, desde el principio de los tiempos de nuestra especie, los hombres hemos "arrendado" el potencial reproductivo de las mujeres poniendo a su disposicin ciertos bienes y servicios. +Generalmente estamos hablando de alimento, vivienda, estatus, proteccin, y cosas as. +Y, a cambio, las mujeres han ofrecido fidelidad o, al menos, una promesa de fidelidad. +Ahora bien, esto pone a hombres y mujeres en una relacin de oposicin. +La guerra entre los sexos est integrada en nuestro ADN, segn esta visin, s? +Cacilda y yo hemos sostenido que no es cierto. Esta relacin econmica, esta relacin de oposicin, en realidad es producto de la agricultura, que apenas surgi hace unos 10 000 aos como mucho. +Los seres humanos anatmicamente modernos han existido desde hace unos 200 000 aos, as que estamos hablando de un 5 %, como mximo, de nuestro tiempo como especie moderna diferenciada. +As que antes de la agricultura, antes de la revolucin agrcola, es importante entender que los seres humanos vivan en grupos de cazadores-recolectores caracterizados donde quiera que se encontraran en el mundo por lo que los antroplogos llaman igualitarismo feroz. +No solo compartan cosas, exigan que se compartieran las cosas: comida, abrigo, proteccin, esas cosas que supuestamente intercambiaban con las mujeres a cambio de fidelidad sexual, resulta que son compartidas ampliamente entre estas sociedades. +No estoy diciendo que nuestros antepasados fueran buenos salvajes, ni estoy diciendo que los cazadores-recolectores modernos sean buenos salvajes tampoco. +Estoy diciendo que sencillamente esta es la mejor manera de mitigar el riesgo en un contexto de forrajeo. +Y realmente no hay discusin sobre esto entre los antroplogos. +Lo que hicimos Cacilda y yo fue extender este compartir a la sexualidad. +Hemos argumentado que la sexualidad humana ha evolucionado esencialmente, hasta la agricultura, como una manera de establecer y mantener los sistemas sociales complejos y flexibles, las redes, en los que nuestros antepasados eran muy buenos, y por eso nuestra especie ha sobrevivido tan bien. +Esto hace que algunas personas se sientan incmodas, por eso siempre necesito tomarme un momento en estas charlas para decir, escuchen, estoy diciendo que nuestros antepasados eran promiscuos, pero no estoy diciendo que tuviesen sexo con extraos. +No haba extraos, s? +En una banda de cazadores-recolectores no hay extraos. +Han conocido a estas personas toda sus vidas. +Estoy diciendo que s, haba relaciones sexuales superpuestas, que nuestros antepasados probablemente tuvieron varias relaciones sexuales diferentes en un momento dado de sus vidas adultas. +Pero no estoy diciendo que tuviesen relaciones sexuales con desconocidos. +No digo que no amaran a las personas con las que tenan relaciones sexuales. +Y no estoy diciendo que no hubiese lazos de pareja. +Solo estoy diciendo que no haba exclusividad sexual. +Y quienes hayan elegido ser mongamos... mis padres, por ejemplo, han estado casados 52 aos siendo mongamos, y si no fueron mongamos, mam y pap, no quiero saberlo... No estoy criticando esto ni estoy diciendo que haya nada malo en eso. +Estoy diciendo que argumentar que nuestros antepasados eran omnvoros sexuales no es ms crtico hacia la monogamia que argumentar que nuestros antepasados eran omnvoros dietticos, como crtica al vegetarianismo. +Uno puede elegir ser vegetariano, pero de ah a pensar que solo por tomar esa decisin el tocino de repente dejar de oler bien. +S? Esa es mi idea. +Demor un minuto en precipitar, no? +Ahora, adems de ser un gran genio, un hombre maravilloso, un marido maravilloso, un padre maravilloso, Charles Darwin tambin fue un mojigato victoriano de clase mundial. +De acuerdo? Estaba perplejo por la inflamacin sexual de ciertos primates, incluyendo chimpancs y bonobos, porque esta inflamacin sexual tiende a provocar a muchos machos para aparearse con las hembras. +No poda entender por qu la hembra haba desarrollado esta cosa si se supona que deberan formar su vnculo de pareja, no? +Las chimpancs y bonobos, Darwin no saba esto, pero las chimpancs y bonobos se aparean de una a cuatro veces por hora con hasta una docena de machos por da cuando estn en celo. +Curiosamente, las chimpancs tienen inflamacin sexual durante el 40 %, ms o menos, de su ciclo menstrual, las bonobo el 90 %, y los humanos son la nica especie del planeta en la que la hembra est disponible para el sexo durante todo el ciclo menstrual. Est menstruando, est post-menopusica, o ya est embarazada. +Esto es muy raro en los mamferos. +Por eso es un aspecto muy interesante de la sexualidad humana. +Ahora, Darwin ignor las reflexiones de la inflamacin sexual de su poca, como suelen hacer los cientficos a veces. +Hablamos de la competencia del esperma. +El humano medio eyacula 300 millones de espermatozoides, por lo que ya es un entorno competitivo. +La pregunta es si este esperma compite contra el esperma de otros hombres o solo consigo mismo. +Hay mucho para hablar sobre este grfico. +Quiero que presten atencin de inmediato a la nota musical que est sobre la hembra de chimpanc y la de humano. +Indica la vocalizacin copulativa de la hembra. +Miren los nmeros. +El humano medio tiene sexo unas 1000 veces por nacimiento. +Si ese nmero le parece alto a alguno, le aseguro que le parece bajo a otros en la sala. +Compartimos esa proporcin con chimpancs y bonobos. +No lo compartimos con los otros 3 simios: el gorila, el orangutn y el gibn, que son mamferos ms tpicos, y tienen sexo solo una docena de veces por nacimiento. +Los humanos y los bonobos son los nicos animales que tienen sexo cara a cara cuando ambos estn vivos. +Y vern que tanto humanos, chimpancs y bonobos tienen testculos externos, que en nuestro libro equivalen a un refrigerador especial que tenemos en el garaje solo para la cerveza. +Si son ese tipo de gente que tiene cerveza en el garaje esperan que haya fiestas en cualquier momento, y tienen que estar preparados. +Eso son los testculos externos. +Mantienen fro el esperma para que uno pueda eyacular con frecuencia. +Lo siento. Es verdad. +El ser humano, a algunos les encantar escuchar esto, tiene el pene ms grande y grueso de los primates. +Esta evidencia va ms all de la anatoma. +Llega tambin a la antropologa. +Hay registros histricos llenos de relatos de personas de todo el mundo cuyas prcticas sexuales resultaran imposibles segn los supuestos de la evolucin sexual humana. +Estas son las mujeres mosuo del sudoeste de China. +En su sociedad, todos, hombres y mujeres, son completamente autnomos en lo sexual. +No hay vergenza asociada con el comportamiento sexual. +Las mujeres tienen cientos de compaeros. +No importa. A nadie le importa. Nadie chismea. No es un problema. +Cuando la mujer queda embarazada, el nio es cuidado por ella, sus hermanas y sus hermanos. +El padre biolgico no es un tema importante. +En el otro lado del planeta, en el Amazonas, tenemos muchas tribus que practican lo que los antroplogos llaman paternidad divisible. +Estas personas realmente creen... y no tienen ningn contacto entre ellos, ninguna lengua ni nada en comn, por eso no es una idea propagada, es una idea surgida en todo el mundo... creen que un feto es producto literalmente del semen acumulado. +La paternidad es una especie de esfuerzo de equipo en esta sociedad. +Hay todo tipo de ejemplos como este que enumeramos en el libro. +Ahora, por qu importa esto? +Edward Wilson dice que tenemos que entender que la sexualidad humana primero es un dispositivo de unin y, solo en segundo lugar, procreacin. +Pienso que es verdad. Importa porque nuestra sexualidad evolucionada est en conflicto directo con muchos aspectos del mundo moderno. +Las contradicciones entre lo que nos dicen, lo que debemos sentir y lo que realmente sentimos generan un enorme sufrimiento innecesario. +Gracias. +Y veremos que no solo las personas gay tienen que declarar su homosexualidad. +Todos tenemos cosas para reconocer, no? +Y cuando reconozcamos esas cosas, reconoceremos que nuestra lucha no es con los dems, nuestra lucha es contra un anticuado sentido victoriano de la sexualidad humana que amalgama el deseo con los derechos de propiedad, y genera vergenza y confusin en lugar de comprensin y empata. +Es hora de ir ms all de Marte y Venus, porque la verdad es que los hombres son de frica y las mujeres son de frica. +Gracias. +Chris Anderson: Gracias. Christopher Ryan: Gracias. +CA: Una pregunta. +Es muy desconcertante, tratar de usar argumentos de la historia de la evolucin para transformar eso en los deberes de hoy. +Alguien podra dar una charla que diga mrennos, tenemos estos dientes muy afilados, msculos y un cerebro realmente bueno para arrojar armas, y si analizamos muchas sociedades del mundo, veremos tasas muy altas de violencia. +La no violencia es una eleccin, como ser vegetarianos, pero no es lo que somos. +Cmo se diferencia eso de la charla que diste? +CR: Bueno, en primer lugar, la evidencia de altos niveles de violencia en la prehistoria es muy discutible. +Pero es solo un ejemplo. +Ciertamente, ya sabes, mucha gente me dice que solo porque vivimos de cierta manera en el pasado no significa que deberamos vivir de ese modo, y concuerdo con eso. +Todos tenemos que responder al mundo moderno. +Pero el cuerpo sigue sus propias trayectorias evolutivas. +Uno podra vivir a McDonald's y batidos pero el cuerpo se rebelar contra eso. Tenemos apetitos. +Creo que fue Schopenhauer quien dijo que una persona puede hacer lo que quiere pero no querer lo que quiere. +Por eso me opongo a la vergenza asociada a los deseos. +Es la idea de que si amas a tu esposo o esposa pero sientes atraccin hacia otra persona, hay algo malo en ti, algo anda mal en tu matrimonio, hay algo malo en tu pareja. +Creo que muchas familias se fracturan por expectativas poco realistas que se basan en esta falsa visin de la sexualidad humana. +Eso es lo que estoy tratando de abordar. +CA: Gracias. Comunicaste potentemente. Muchas gracias. +CR: Gracias, Chris. +Voy a hablar de los hackers. +Y la imagen que les viene a la cabeza cuando escuchan esta palabra, probablemente no sea la de Benjamin Franklin, pero voy a explicarles por qu debera ser as. +La imagen que les viene a la cabeza es ms probable que sea la de un muchacho plido sentado en un stano haciendo travesuras, o la de un delincuente turbio que trata de robarte la identidad, o la de un granuja internacional con un plan poltico secreto. +Y la cultura predominante no ha hecho ms que alimentar esta idea de que los hackers son personas a las que deberamos tenerles miedo. +Pero como pasa casi siempre con la tecnologa y con el mundo de la tecnologa, los hackers tienen tanto poder para hacer el bien como para hacer el mal. +Por cada hacker que trata de robarte la identidad hay otro que est construyendo una herramienta que te va a ayudar a encontrar a tus seres queridos tras una catstrofe o a medir la calidad del medio ambiente tras un derrame de petrleo. +Hackear es en verdad cualquier innovacin amateur en un sistema ya existente y es una actividad profundamente democrtica. +Es el pensamiento crtico. +Es cuestionar los modos establecidos de hacer las cosas. +Es la idea de que si ves un problema, trabajas para arreglarlo en vez de solo quejarte. +Y en cierto modo, hackear fue lo que forj los EE. UU. +Betsy Ross era una hacker. +El ferrocarril subterrneo fue un hackeo, una creacin brillante. +Y desde los hermanos Wright a Steve Jobs, el hackear siempre ha formado la base de la democracia estadounidense. +Si hay algo que quiero que les quede hoy, es que la prxima vez que piensen quin es un hacker en vez de pensar en este tipo, piensen en este, Benjamin Franklin, que fue uno de los hackers ms grandes de todos los tiempos. +Fue uno de los inventores ms prolficos de EE. UU., aunque es famoso por no haber patentar nada, porque pensaba que el saber humano deba estar disponible para todos. +Nos dio los lentes bifocales y el pararrayos y, claro, ayud a crear la democracia norteamericana. +Y en Code for America, nos proponemos encarnar ese espritu de Ben Franklin. +Era un experimentador y un estadista cuya concepcin de ciudadana se basaba siempre en la accin. +Crea que los gobiernos podan ser construidos por la gente y llamamos a esa gente hackers cvicos. +Por eso no nos asombra que los valores que subyacen en una democracia saludable, como la colaboracin, la atribucin de poder, la participacin, la iniciativa, sean los mismos valores que subyacen en Internet. +Por eso no nos sorprende que muchos hackers estn interesados en el problema de gobernar. +Pero antes de darles algunos ejemplos de lo que es el hackeo cvico, quiero dejar en claro que no hace falta que seas programador para ser un hacker cvico. +Solo tienes que creer que puedes usar un set de herramientas del siglo XXI para actuar sobre los problemas del gobierno. +Y nuestra comunidad de hackers cvicos de Code for America que no entendan cunto trabajo no tcnico implicaban los proyectos de hackeo cvico. +Tnganlo en cuenta. +Todos Uds. son potencialmente hackers cvicos. +Y cmo es el hackeo cvico? +El ao pasado en Honolulu, nuestro equipo, que constaba de 3 personas a tiempo completo que estaban haciendo un ao de trabajo comunitario, recibi un pedido de la ciudad para que rehicieran la pgina web. +Es una tarea gigantesca de decenas de miles de pginas que era imposible de hacer en los pocos meses que tenan. +Por eso, decidieron construir una pgina paralela que se adaptara mejor al modo en que la ciudadana quera relacionarse con la informacin en la pgina web de la ciudad. +Esperan respuestas a preguntas y queran poder hacer algo cuando terminaron, lo que parece muy difcil de hacer en una pgina como esta. +Nuestro equipo dise Honolulu Contesta, que es una interfaz de bsqueda sper sencilla en la que ingresas el trmino a buscar o una pregunta y obtienes respuestas en un lenguaje simple que llevan al usuario a la accin. +La pgina fue bastante fcil de hacer, pero el equipo enfrentaba el desafo de ingresar los datos de todo el contenido. +Incluso a los tres, les hubiera llevado muchsimo tiempo, sobre todo porque ninguno de ellos era de Honolulu. +Y entonces hicieron algo realmente radical, sobre todo si lo comparamos con el modo en que suelen funcionar los gobiernos. +Le pidieron a la gente que escriba el contenido. +Seguro saben qu es una maratn de hackers. +Hicieron un maratn de escritura, en la que un sbado en la tarde... [Qu hago con los molestos jabales?] Parece que los jabales son un enorme problema en Honolulu. +En una tarde de sbado pudieron ingresar casi todos los datos para las preguntas ms frecuentes, pero ms importante que eso fue que crearon un nuevo modo de participacin de los ciudadanos en el gobierno. +Y bien, hasta ac me parece que es una historia sensacional, pero se pone todava ms increble. +Escrib esta respuesta y algunas otras. +Y todava sigo tratando de expresar esa sensacin de poder y responsabilidad que siento por el lugar en el que vivo basado simplemente en este pequeo acto de participacin. +Y al unir mi pequeo acto con los miles de otros actos de participacin que posibilitamos con el hackeo cvico, creemos que podemos imprimir nueva energa a la ciudadana y recuperar la confianza en el gobierno. +Se estarn preguntando qu piensan de esto los funcionarios municipales. +Les encanta. +Como casi todos sabrn, se les pide constantemente a las ciudades que hagan ms con menos, y siempre estn buscando soluciones innovadoras a problemas muy arraigados. +Entonces, cuando se ofrece a la ciudadana un modo de participar que va ms all de ir a una reunin en la municipalidad, las ciudades consiguen captar la capacidad de sus comunidades para resolver asuntos de gobierno. +No quiero dejar la impresin de que el hackeo cvico solo ocurre en los EE. UU. +Se est dando en todo el mundo y uno de mis ejemplos preferidos es de la ciudad de Mxico donde a principios de ao, la Cmara de Diputados de Mxico hizo un contrato con una empresa de desarrollo de software para que disearan una aplicacin que los legisladores usaran para seguir el progreso de los proyectos de ley. +Era solo para el puado de legisladoresde la Cmara. +El contrato era por dos aos y costaba USD 9300 millones. +Mucha gente se puso furiosa por esto, sobre todos los programadores, que saban que USD 9300 millones era una suma absolutamente exorbitante para una aplicacin tan sencilla. +Pero en lugar de salir a la calle, lanzaron un desafo. +Pidieron a los programadores de Mxico que diseasen algo mejor y ms barato, ofrecieron un premio de USD 9300 --10 000 veces ms barato que el contrato del gobierno-- y le dieron a los participantes 10 das. +En esos 10 das, enviaron 173 aplicaciones, de las cuales cinco se presentaron en el Congreso y estn an en la tienda de aplicaciones. +Gracias a esta accin se anul el contrato y tambin se gener un movimiento en la ciudad de Mxico que es uno de nuestros socios: Cdigo D.F.. +Lo que pueden ver en estos tres lugares, Honolulu, Oakland y la ciudad de Mxico, son los elementos que conforman el ncleo del hackeo ccico. +Son ciudadanos que vieron cosas que podran funcionar mejor y decidieron arreglarlas. Y gracias a ese trabajo, estn creando el ecosistema de participacin del siglo XXI. +Estn creando toda una serie de nuevos modos de que los ciudadanos se involucran, aparte de votar, firmar un petitorio o manifestar. +Realmente pueden hacer el gobierno. +Y volviendo a nuestro amigo Ben Franklin, uno de sus logros menos conocidos, es que en 1736 fund el primer cuartel de bomberos voluntarios de Filadefia, llamado brigada. +Y lo hizo porque con unos amigos notaron que a la ciudad le estaba costando lidiar con todos los incendios que ocurran. Y con verdadero espritu de hacker cvico generaron una solucin. +Tenemos nuestras propias brigadas en Code for America que trabajan en los proyectos que les describ recin y queremos pedirles que sigan los pasos de Ben Franklin y se nos sumen. +Tenemos 31 brigadas en EE. UU. +Nos complace anunciar hoy que abriremos las brigadas a ciudades de todo el mundo por primera vez, empezando por ciudades de Polonia, Japn e Irlanda. +Se pueden fijar si hay una brigada donde viven en brigade.codeforamerica.org y si no hay una, los vamos a ayudar. +Creamos una conjunto de herramientas que est tambin en brigade.codeforamerica.org y vamos a apoyarlos durante todo el trayecto. +Nuestra meta es crear una red mundial de hackers cvicos que hagan innovaciones sobre el sistema existente para generar las herramientas que resolvern problemas muy arraigados, que ayuden a los gobiernos locales, y que confieran poderes a los ciudadanos. +As que, por favor, vengan a hackear con nosotros. +Gracias. +Hace casi dos aos iba conduciendo mi auto en Alemania, y encend la radio. +Europa en ese momento estaba en medio de la crisis del euro, y todos los titulares eran de pases europeos siendo degradados por las agencias de calificacin de EEUU. +Escuch y me dije, "Cules son esas agencias de calificacin, y por qu est todo el mundo tan molesto por su trabajo?" +Si hubieran estado sentados a mi lado en el auto ese da y me habran dicho que dedicara los siguientes aos a tratar de reformarlas, obviamente les habra llamado locos. +Pero adivinen qu es realmente loco: la forma en que funcionan las agencias de calificacin. +Y me gustara explicarles no solo por qu es hora de cambiar esto, sino tambin cmo podemos hacerlo. +Djenme contarles un poco qu hacen en realidad estas agencias calificadoras. +As como Uds. leeran una revista de autos antes de comprar uno nuevo o echaran un vistazo a una valoracin del producto antes de decidir qu tipo de tableta o telfono comprar, los inversores leen las calificaciones antes de decidir en qu tipo de producto invertirn su dinero. +Una clasificacin puede variar del llamado AAA, que significa que es un producto de alto rendimiento, hasta abajo al nivel del llamado BBB-, que significa que es una inversin bastante arriesgada. +Las agencias de calificacin son empresas de calificacin. +Son bancos de calificacin. +Clasifican incluso productos financieros como los infames valores respaldados por hipotecas. +Pero tambin pueden tasar pases, y estas calificaciones se denominan calificaciones soberanas, y me gustara centrarme en particular en estas calificaciones soberanas. +Y puedo decir, que al estar escuchndome ahora mismo, piensan por qu debera realmente preocuparme por esto? verdad? +Sean honestos. +Bueno, las calificaciones les afectan. +Nos afectan a todos. +Si las agencias califican a un pas, bsicamente miden y evalan la deuda de un pas la capacidad y la voluntad de un pas de pagar su deuda. +As que si un pas obtiene una mala nota de una agencia calificadora, el pas tiene que pagar ms para obtener dinero prestado en los mercados internacionales. +As que les afecta como ciudadanos y como contribuyentes, porque Uds. y sus compatriotas tienen que pagar ms para que les presten. +Pero qu pasa si un pas no puede permitirse pagar ms porque tal vez es demasiado caro? +Bueno, entonces el pas tiene menos liquidez para otros servicios, como carreteras, escuelas, salud +Y esta es la razn por la qu debera importarles, porque las calificaciones soberanas afectan a todo el mundo. +Y esa es la razn por la que creo que se deberan definir como bienes pblicos. +Deben ser transparentes, accesibles, y disponibles a todo el mundo sin costo alguno. +Pero esta es la situacin: el mercado de agencias de calificacin est dominado por tres jugadores y solo tres jugadores: Standard & Poor's, Moody's y Fitch, y sabemos que cuando hay una concentracin del mercado, no hay competencia real. +No hay ningn incentivo para mejorar la calidad del producto. +Y seamos realistas, las agencias de calificacin crediticia han contribuido a poner la economa mundial al borde, y todava tienen que cambiar la forma en que operan. +El segundo punto, compraran un auto solo basndose en el asesoramiento del distribuidor? +Obviamente no, verdad? Eso sera irresponsable. +Pero eso es realmente lo que est pasando en el sector de las agencias de calificacin cada da. +Los clientes de las agencias de calificacin, como pases o empresas, pagan sus propias clasificaciones, y obviamente esto crea un conflicto de intereses. +Un tercer punto es que las agencias de calificacin no nos dicen cmo obtienen sus calificaciones, pero hoy en da, uno no puede vender ni un caramelo sin anunciar todo lo que lleva dentro. +Pero para esas calificaciones, fundamentales en nuestra economa, realmente no sabemos cules son los diferentes ingredientes. +Estamos permitiendo que las agencias calificadoras sean opacas respecto a su trabajo, y tenemos que cambiar esto. +Creo que no hay duda de que el sector necesita una revisin completa, no solo un adorno en los mrgenes. +Creo que es hora de un movimiento audaz. +Creo que es hora de actualizar el sistema. +Y es por esto que en la Fundacin Bertelsmann han invertido mucho tiempo y esfuerzo pensando en una alternativa para el sector. +Y hemos desarrollado el primer modelo para una agencia de calificacin de riesgo soberano, sin fines de lucro y la llamamos por su acrnimo, INCRA. +INCRA hara una diferencia al sistema actual al sumar otro jugador sin fines de lucro a la mezcla. +Se basara en un modelo sin fines de lucro soportado en una fundacin sostenible. +La fundacin generara ingresos que permitiran ejecutar la operacin, funcionar la calificadora, y tambin nos permitira hacer disponibles al pblico nuestras calificaciones. +Pero esto no es suficiente para hacer una diferencia, verdad? +INCRA tambin se basara en una estructura de gobernabilidad muy, muy clara que evitara cualquier conflicto de intereses, e incluira a varios estamentos de la sociedad. +INCRA no sera solo una calificadora europea o estadounidense, sera una verdaderamente internacional, en la que, en particular, las economas emergentes tendran un igual inters, voz y representacin. +La segunda gran diferencia que hara INCRA es que basara su evaluacin del riesgo soberano en un amplio conjunto de indicadores. +Pinsenlo de esta manera. +Si llevamos a cabo una calificacin soberana, bsicamente echamos un vistazo a el "suelo" econmico de un pas, sus fundamentos macroeconmicos. +Pero tambin tenemos que hacer la pregunta, qu se cultiva en el suelo econmico del pas, no? +Bueno, un pas tiene muchos jardineros, y uno de ellos es el gobierno, As que tenemos que hacer la pregunta, cmo est gobernado el pas? +Cmo est dirigido? +Y esta es la razn para haber desarrollado lo que llamamos indicadores prospectivos. +Son indicadores que dan una mucho mejor lectura del desarrollo socioeconmico de un pas. +Espero que estarn de acuerdo en que es importante saber si su gobierno est dispuesto a invertir en energas renovables y educacin. +Es importante saber si el gobierno de su pas es capaz de gestionar una crisis, si el gobierno es capaz finalmente de implementar las reformas que prometi. +Por ejemplo, si INCRA calificara ahora a Sudfrica por supuesto que nos fijaramos muy detenidamente el desempleo de los jvenes del pas, el ms alto del mundo. +Si ms del 70 % de la poblacin de un pas menores de 35 aos est desempleado, por supuesto esto tiene un enorme impacto en la economa hoy en da y ms an en el futuro. +Bueno, nuestros amigos de Moody's, Standard & Poor's y Fitch nos dirn que toman esto en cuenta tambin. +Pero adivinen qu? No sabemos exactamente como lo toman en cuenta. +Y esto me lleva a la tercera gran diferencia que hara INCRA. +INCRA no solo entregara sus calificaciones sino tambin entregara sus indicadores y su metodologa. +As que en contraste con el sistema actual, INCRA sera totalmente transparente. +As que en pocas palabras, INCRA ofrecera una alternativa al sistema actual de las tres grandes agencias de calificacin mediante la adicin a la mezcla de un nuevo jugador, sin fines de lucro, que aumentara la competencia, aumentara la transparencia del sector, y aumentara tambin la calidad. +Les puedo decir que las calificaciones soberanas todava pueden ser vistas como una pieza muy pequea de este mundo financiero global muy complejo, pero les digo que es una muy importante, y una muy importante para arreglar, porque a todos nosotros nos afectan las calificaciones soberanas y deben abordarse y definirse como bienes pblicos. +Y por eso ahora mismo estamos probando nuestro modelo, y por eso intentamos averiguar si se puede reunir a un grupo de actores capaces y dispuestos para dar vida a INCRA. +Realmente creo que crear INCRA es en inters de todos, y que ahora tenemos una oportunidad nica para convertir a INCRA en una piedra angular de un nuevo sistema financiero ms inclusivo. +Porque durante demasiado tiempo, hemos dejado a los grandes actores financieros por su cuenta. +Es hora de darles un poco de compaa. +Gracias. +La primavera rabe de 2011 atrajo la atencin del mundo entero. +Tambin capt la atencin de los gobiernos autoritarios en otros pases, que estaban preocupados de que la revolucin se extendera. +En respuesta, se aument la vigilancia sobre activistas, periodistas y disidentes que teman que inspiraran la revolucin en sus propios pases. +Un activista destacado barein, que fue detenido y torturado por su gobierno, ha dicho que los interrogadores le mostraron transcripciones de sus llamadas telefnicas y mensajes de texto. +Por supuesto, no es un secreto que los gobiernos son capaces de interceptar llamadas telefnicas y mensajes de texto. +Es por ello que muchos activistas especficamente evitan usar el telfono. +En cambio, usan herramientas como Skype, que creen que son inmunes a la interceptacin. +Se equivocan. +En los ltimos aos ha existido un sector de empresas que proporciona tecnologa de vigilancia a los gobiernos, especficamente la tecnologa que permite a los gobiernos, 'hackear' los ordenadores de los objetivos de la vigilancia. +En lugar de interceptar las comunicaciones por cable, ahora entran en tu ordenador, activan tu webcam, activan el micrfono, y roban documentos de tu ordenador. +Cuando cay el gobierno de Egipto en 2011, activistas asaltaron la oficina de la polica secreta, y entre los muchos documentos que encontraron estaba este documento de la Corporacin Gamma, por Gamma International. +Gamma es una empresa alemana que fabrica software de vigilancia y lo vende slo a gobiernos. +Es importante sealar que la mayora de los gobiernos realmente no tienen las capacidades internas para desarrollar este software. +Los ms pequeos no tienen los recursos o el conocimiento, y para eso existe este mercado de compaas occidentales, las cuales estn felices de proporcionarles las herramientas y tcnicas por un precio. +Gamma es slo una de estas empresas. +Debo sealar tambin que en realidad Gamma nunca vendi su software al gobierno egipcio. +Ellos haban enviado una factura de venta, pero los egipcios nunca lo compraron. +En cambio, al parecer, el gobierno egipcio utiliz una versin demo gratuita del software de Gamma. +Esta imagen es de un video comercial que Gamma ha producido. +Realmente, slo estn destacando en una presentacin relativamente hbil el hecho de que la polica puede sentarse en una oficina con aire acondicionado y monitorear remotamente a alguien sin que ellos se enteren de lo que esta pasando. +Ya saben, la luz de la webcam no se encender. +No hay nada que indique que el micrfono est activado. +Este es el director general de International Gamma. +Su nombre es Martin Muench. +Existen muchas fotos del Sr. Muench. +Esta es, quizs, mi favorita. +Voy a acercarme un poco ms a su webcam. +Pueden ver que hay una pequea etiqueta colocada sobre la cmara. +l sabe qu tipo de vigilancia es posible, y claramente no quiere que se utilice contra l. +Muench ha dicho que pretende que su software sea utilizado para capturar terroristas y localizar pedfilos. +Por supuesto, tambin ha reconocido que una vez que el software se ha vendido a los gobiernos, no tiene forma de saber cmo puede ser utilizado. +El software de Gamma se ha instalado en servidores en pases de todo el mundo, muchos de ellos con antecedentes realmente atroces y violaciones de los derechos humanos. +Realmente estn vendiendo su software por todo el mundo. +Gamma no es la nica compaa en el negocio. +Como he dicho, es una industria de USD 5 mil millones. +Otro de los grandes de la industria es una empresa italiana llamada Hacking Team. +Hacking Team tiene, la que probablemente sea la presentacin ms ingeniosa. +El video que han producido es muy atractivo, as que voy a ponerles un video para que puedan tener una idea tanto de las capacidades del software como tambin de cmo se comercializa a sus clientes del gobierno. +Narrador: Quieres mirar a travs de los ojos de tu objetivo. +Tienes que 'hackear' tu objetivo, +["mientras navega por la web, intercambia documentos, recibe SMS, cruza fronteras".] Tienes que alcanzar muchas plataformas diferentes. +["Windows, OS X, iOS, Android, Blackberry, Symbian, Linux"] Tienes que descifrar la encripcin y capturar informacin relevante. +[Skype & llamadas encriptadas, ubicacin del objetivo, mensajes, relaciones, navegacin por Internet, audio y video"] Permaneciendo oculto e irrastreable. +["Inmune a cualquier proteccin del sistema, Infraestructura oculta de recogida de datos"] Desplegada por todo su pas. +["Hasta cientos de miles de objetivos gestionados desde un solo punto".] Exactamente lo que hacemos. +Christopher Soghoian: Esto sera divertido si no fuese cierto, pero, en realidad, el software de Hacking Team se vende a los gobiernos de todo el mundo. +El ao pasado nos enteramos, por ejemplo, de que fue utilizado contra periodistas marroques por parte del gobierno de Marruecos. +Ha sido descubierto en muchos pases. +Hacking Team tambin ha estado cortejando activamente al mercado estadounidense de seguridad. +En el ltimo ao ms o menos, la empresa ha abierto una oficina de ventas en Maryland. +La compaa tambin ha contratado a un portavoz. +Ellos han estado asistiendo a conferencias de la industria de vigilancia donde aparecen funcionarios policiales. +Han hablado en las conferencias. +Lo que me pareci fascinante fue que realmente pagaron la pausa para caf en una de las conferencias de seguridad y leyes a principios de este ao. +No puedo decir con certeza que Hacking Team haya vendido su tecnologa en los Estados Unidos, pero lo que puedo decir es que si no lo han hecho, no es porque no se hayan esforzado lo suficiente. +Como he dicho antes, los gobiernos que no tienen los recursos para construir sus propias herramientas comprarn software de vigilancia estndar, As que por esa razn, Vern que el gobierno de, por ejemplo, Tnez, puede utilizar el mismo software que el gobierno de Alemania. +Todos estn comprando software estndar. +La Oficina Federal de investigacin de Estados Unidos s tiene el presupuesto para construir su propia tecnologa de vigilancia, y durante varios aos, he estado intentado averiguar si el FBI, y cmo, est hackeando los ordenadores de los objetivos de la vigilancia. +Mis amigos en una organizacin llamada Electronic Frontier Foundation. son un grupo de la sociedad civil, que obtuvieron cientos de documentos del FBI que detallaban su prxima generacin de tecnologas de vigilancia. +La mayora de estos documentos han sido ampliamente censurados, Pero lo que se puede ver en las diapositivas, Si lo amplo, es este trmino: Unidad de Operaciones Remotas. +La primera vez que vi esto, Nunca haba odo hablar de esta unidad antes. +He estado estudiando sistemas de vigilancia durante ms de seis aos. +Nunca haba odo sobre ello. +asi que fui a Internet e investigu un poco, y al final di con la raz del asunto cuando fui a LinkedIn, la red social para personas que buscan trabajo. +Haba un montn de ex contratistas del gobierno estadounidense quienes haba trabajado en cierto punto para la Unidad de Operaciones Remotas, y describan con sorprendente detalle en su CV lo que haban hecho en su trabajo anterior. +Igual que Gamma y Hacking Team, el FBI tambin tiene la capacidad para activar a distancia cmaras, micrfonos, robar documentos, obtener informacin de las busquedas en la web, los trabajos. +Hay un gran problema en que los gobiernos hagan hacking, y es que los terroristas, los pedfilos, narcotraficantes, periodistas y activistas por los derechos humanos todos utilizan los mismos tipos de ordenadores. +No hay ningn telfono de narcotraficante y no hay ningn porttil de periodista. +Todos utilizamos la misma tecnologa, y lo que eso significa es que los gobiernos para tener la capacidad de entrar en los ordenadores de los autnticos "chicos malos", tambin deben tener la capacidad de entrar en nuestros dispositivos. +As que gobiernos alrededor del mundo han estado adoptando esta tecnologa. +Ellos han adoptado el hacking como una tcnica para la aplicacin de la ley, Pero sin un verdadero debate. +En los Estados Unidos, donde vivo, No han habido audiencias en el Congreso. +No hay ninguna ley que se haya aprobado que autorice especficamente esta tcnica, y debido a su poder y potencial para cometer abusos, es vital que tengamos un debate pblico informado. +Muchas gracias. +Corre el ao 1800. +Se habla de un pequeo y curioso invento. +Se llama microscopio. +Nos permite ver diminutas formas de vida invisibles a simple vista. +Pronto llega el descubrimiento mdico de que muchas de estas formas de vida en realidad son la causa de enfermedades humanas terribles. +Imagnese lo que le pas a la sociedad cuando se dio cuenta de que una mam inglesa en su taza de t estaba bebiendo una sopa monstruosa, no muy lejos de aqu. Esto es de Londres. +Avanzamos 200 aos. +Todava estamos rodeados por esa sopa monstruosa y se ha afianzado en los pases en desarrollo, en todo el cinturn tropical. +Solo de malaria hay un milln de muertes al ao, y ms de 1000 millones de personas a examinar debido a que estn en riesgo de contraer distintas especies de infecciones de malaria. +Pero es muy fcil ponerle un rostro a muchos de estos monstruos. +Con una mancha, como el naranja de acridina o una mancha fluorescente o de Giemsa, y un microscopio, se pueden ver. +Todos tienen rostros. +Entonces por qu Alex en Kenia, Ftima en Bangladesh, Navjoot en Mumbai, y Julie y Mary en Uganda todava esperan meses un diagnstico de por qu estn enfermos? +Principalmente se debe a que por una cuestin de escala el diagnstico es totalmente inaccesible. +Recuerden ese nmero: 1000 millones. +El problema est en el propio microscopio. +A pesar de ser el pinculo de la ciencia moderna los microscopios de investigacin no estn diseados para pruebas de campo. +Ni fueron diseados en primer lugar para el diagnstico, en absoluto. +Son pesados, voluminosos, muy difciles de mantener, y cuestan mucho dinero. +Esta foto es de Mahatma Gandhi en los aos 40 y usa la misma configuracin que nosotros hoy para el diagnstico de tuberculosis en su ashram en Sevagram, India. +Dos de mis estudiantes, Jim y James, viajaron por India y Tailandia y pensaron mucho en este problema. +Vimos todo tipo de equipos donados. +Vimos crecer hongos en las lentes de los microscopios. +Y vimos gente que tena microscopios en funcionamiento pero que no saban ni cmo encenderlos. +De ese trabajo y ese viaje naci la idea de lo que llamamos pliegoscopio [foldscope]. +Qu es un pliegoscopio? +Un pliegoscopio es un microscopio completamente funcional, una plataforma para fluorescencia, campo claro, polarizacin, proyeccin, todo tipo de microscopa avanzada que se construye meramente plegando papel. +Pensarn, cmo es posible? +Les mostrar algunos ejemplos, y veremos algunos en funcionamiento. +Empezamos con una hoja simple de papel. +Lo que ven aqu son los posibles componentes para construir un microscopio de campo claro y fluorescencia. +Hay 3 etapas: La etapa ptica, la etapa de iluminacin y la etapa de la mscara de retencin. +Y hay micro ptica en la parte inferior incrustada en el propio papel. +Entonces, tomamos el papel y, como si de un juguete se tratase, que lo es, cortamos el troquelado, y desprendemos la pieza. +Este papel no tiene instrucciones ni idiomas. +Tiene un cdigo, un cdigo de color, que indica exactamente cmo plegar ese microscopio especfico. +Cuando est listo, tiene este aspecto, con las funcionalidades de un microscopio estndar como una platina XY, un lugar donde podra ir el portaobjetos por ejemplo aqu. +No queramos cambiar esto, porque este es el estndar que ha sido optimizado en los ltimos aos, y muchos trabajadores de la salud estn acostumbrados a esto. +Esto es lo que cambia pero las manchas estndar siguen siendo las mismas para muchas enfermedades diferentes. +Lo insertamos aqu. +Hay una platina XY, y, luego, hay una etapa de enfoque que es un mecanismo de flexin que se construye en el papel mismo que nos permite movernos y enfocar las lentes en pasos de micrones. +Lo realmente interesante de este objeto, y mis estudiantes odian cuando hago esto, pero lo har de todos modos, es que son dispositivos resistentes. +Puedo encenderlo y tirarlo en el piso y tratar de pisarlo. +Y duran, a pesar de estar diseados de un material muy flexible, como el papel. +Otro dato curioso es que esto es lo que en realidad mandamos como herramienta de diagnstico pero aqu, en este sobre, tengo 30 pliegoscopios diferentes con distintas configuraciones, todos en una sola carpeta. +Tomar uno al azar. +Este resulta que est diseado especficamente para la malaria, porque tiene los filtros fluorescentes especficos para el diagnstico de la malaria. +As, la idea de los microscopios de diagnstico muy especficos surgi de esto. +Hasta ahora no han visto lo que yo vera con una de estas configuraciones. +Por eso me gustara si pudiramos bajar las luces, por favor, resulta que los pliegoscopios tambin son microscopios de proyeccin. +Tengo estos 2 microscopios que voy a girar, ir detrs de la pared, y proyectar, de ese modo vern exactamente lo que yo vera. +Lo que estn viendo... Esta es una seccin transversal de un ojo compuesto, y cuando me acerque ms, justo ah, me muevo en el eje Z. +Ven realmente cmo los lentes estn cortados juntos en el patrn de seccin transversal. +Otro ejemplo, uno de mis insectos preferidos, me encanta odiarlo, es un mosquito, estn viendo la antena de un Culex pipiens. +Ah mismo. +Todo a partir de la configuracin simple que describ. +Mi esposa ha hecho pruebas de campo con algunos de estos microscopios lavando mi ropa cuando los olvido en la secadora. +As que resulta que son a prueba de agua y... aqu hay agua fluorescente, y no s si en realidad se puede ver esto. +Esto tambin muestra cmo funciona el alcance de la proyeccin. +Pueden ver el rayo, cmo se proyecta y se curva. +Podemos encender las luces de nuevo? +Rpidamente les mostrar, porque me estoy quedando sin tiempo, lo que nos cuesta fabricarlo. La idea principal era la fabricacin de rollo a rollo, as construimos este a 50 centavos de partes y costos. +Y esto nos permite pensar en un nuevo paradigma en microscopa, que llamamos microscopa de usar y tirar. +Les dar un panorama general de algunas de las partes involucradas. +Esta es una hoja de papel. +Aqu estbamos pensando la idea. +Esta es una hoja de papel A4. +Estas son las 3 etapas que ven. +Y los componentes pticos, si miran el recuadro arriba a la derecha, tenamos que encontrar una manera de fabricar lentes en papel para muy altas producciones, por eso usa un proceso de autoensamblado y tensin superficial para construir lentes acromticas en el propio papel. +Ah van las lentes. +Hay algunas fuentes de luz. +Y, esencialmente, a la postre, todas las piezas se alinean gracias al origami, gracias a que el origami nos permite una precisin a escala micromtrica de la alineacin ptica. +A pesar de parecer un juguete sencillo, los aspectos de ingeniera que contiene algo como esto son bastante sofisticados. +Aqu vemos otra cosa obvia que hicimos tpicamente para demostrar que estos microscopios son robustos, fuimos al tercer piso y lo dejamos caer al suelo. +Ah est, y sobrevive. +Para nosotros, el siguiente paso en realidad es terminar las pruebas de campo. +Estamos empezando a finales del verano. +Estamos en una etapa en la que haremos miles de microscopios. +Esa sera la primera vez que estaramos haciendo pruebas de campo con la mayor densidad de microscopios en un lugar dado. +Hemos empezado la recoleccin de datos para la malaria, la enfermedad de Chagas y la giardia de los propios pacientes. +Y quiero dejarles esta imagen. +Yo no lo haba previsto, pero es un vnculo muy interesante entre la educacin prctica en ciencias y la salud mundial. +Cules son las herramientas que les estamos dando a los nios que van a combatir esta sopa monstruosa maana? +Me encantara que ellos pudieran imprimir un pliegoscopio y llevrselo en sus bolsillos. +Gracias. +Esta es una mquina expendedora en Los ngeles. +Est en un centro comercial, y vende hueva +Es una mquina expendedora de caviar. +Este es el Art-o-mat, una mquina expendedora que vende arte pequeas creaciones artsticas de diferentes artistas, por lo general en pequeos bloques de madera o cajas de cerillas, de edicin limitada. +Este es Oliver Medvedk. l no es una mquina expendedora, pero es uno de los fundadores de Genspace, un comunidad biolab en Brooklyn, Nueva York, donde cualquiera puede ir y tomar clases y aprender a hacer cosas como cultivar E. coli que brilla en la oscuridad o aprender a tomar el ADN de las frutillas. +De hecho, vi a Oliver hace un ao haciendo unas extracciones de ADN de frutillas, y esto es lo que me llev a este camino extrao del que voy a hablarles ahora. +Debido a que el ADN de las frutillas es realmente fascinante, porque es hermoso. +Yo nunca antes haba pensado que el ADN fuese una cosa tan hermosa, antes de verlo de esta forma. +Y un montn de gente, sobre todo en la comunidad artstica, no necesariamente participan en la ciencia de esta manera. +Yo automticamente me un a Genspace despus de esto, y le ped a Oliver: "Bueno, si podemos hacer esto con las frutillas, podemos hacer esto tambin con las personas?" +Y unos 10 minutos ms tarde, los dos estbamos hilndolo en ampolletas juntos y dando con un protocolo de extraccin de ADN humano. +Y yo empec a hacer esto por mi cuenta, y as es como se ve mi ADN actualmente. +Me encontraba en una cena con amigos, algunos amigos artistas, y les estaba contando acerca de este proyecto, y no me podan creer que podemos actualmente ver el ADN. +Entonces dije, bueno, tomemos algunas muestras ahora mismo. +Y comenc a tener estas bizarras cenas en mi casa los viernes a la noche donde las personas podan venir y haramos extracciones de ADN, y las capturara en video, porque ha creado esta especie de divertidos retratos tambin. +Estas son personas que no necesariamente se comprometen regularmente con la ciencia, en absoluto. +Puede contar una historia de sus reacciones. +Pero quedaron fascinados por esto, y fue muy emocionante para m verlos emocionarse por la ciencia. +As empec a hacer esto de forma regular. +Es una especie de cosa extraa para hacer con sus noches de viernes, pero esto es lo que empec a hacer, y empec a coleccionar todo un grupo de ADN de mis amigos en frascos pequeos y categorizarlos. +As se vean. +Y empez a hacerme pensar en un par de cosas. +En primer lugar, esto se pareca mucho a mi muro de Facebook. +As que en cierto modo, he creado una especie de red gentica, una red social gentica, de verdad. +Y la segunda cosa era, una vez que un amigo vino y mir esto en mi mesa y dijo, "Oh. +Por qu estn numerados? es esta persona ms rara que esta otra?" +Y yo ni siquiera haba pensado en eso. +Slo estaban numerados, porque ese fue el orden en que extraje el ADN. +Pero eso me hizo pensar en coleccionar juguetes, y esto que est pasando en este momento en el mundo del juguete con los juguetes para ciegos, y ser capaz de recoger estos juguetes raros. +Compras estas cajas. No ests seguro de lo que va a haber dentro de ellas. +Pero luego, cuando las abras, tienes diferentes juguetes raros. +Y entonces pens que esto era interesante. +Y as, por supuesto, decid crear una instalacin de arte llamada Mquina expendedora de ADN. +Aqu est. +Estamos en la primera edicin de 100 piezas, con la esperanza de hacer otra edicin muy pronto. +Me gustara realmente colocarla en ms de una estacin de metro, como Grand Central o Penn Station, justo al lado de algunas de las otras, mquinas expendedoras en ese lugar. +Y, cunto valdrn estas muestras? +Y, comprars la muestra de otra persona? +qu vas a ser capaz de hacer con esa muestra? +Gracias. +Mi momento de verdad no lleg de una sola vez. +En 2010, tuve la oportunidad de ser considerada para un ascenso en mi trabajo a directora de poltica de planificacin en el Departamento de Estado de EE. UU. +Era mi momento para inclinarme, impulsarme hacia adelante por lo que realmente es uno de un puado de puestos de trabajo muy altos en poltica exterior, y acababa de terminar un gran proyecto de 18 meses para la Secretaria Clinton, con xito, y saba que poda hacerme cargo de un trabajo mayor. +La mujer que pens que era hubiera dicho que s. +Pero haba estado viajando diariamente durante dos aos entre Washington y Princeton, New Jersey, donde mi esposo y mis dos hijos adolescentes vivan, y eso no estaba yendo bien. +Medit la idea de seguir otros dos aos en Washington, o tal vez desarraigar a mis hijos de su escuela y a mi esposo de su trabajo, y pedirles que se unieran a m. +Pero en el fondo, saba que la decisin correcta era ir a casa, incluso no reconociendo plenamente a la mujer que estaba tomando esa eleccin. +Esa era una decisin basada en el amor y la responsabilidad. +Yo no poda seguir viendo a mi hijo mayor tomar malas decisiones sin poder estar all para l cuando y si l me necesitaba. +Pero el verdadero cambio lleg de forma ms gradual. +Durante el ao siguiente, mientras mi familia estaba enderezndose, comenc a darme cuenta de que incluso si pudiera volver atrs al gobierno, no quera hacerlo. +No quera perderme los ltimos cinco aos en que mis hijos estaran en casa. +Finalmente me permit a m misma aceptar lo que era realmente ms importante para m, no lo que estaba condicionada a querer o tal vez lo que me haba condicionado a m misma a querer, y esa decisin dio lugar a una nueva valoracin de la narrativa feminista con la que crec y que siempre he defendido. +Todava estoy completamente comprometida con la causa de la igualdad entre hombres y mujeres, pero vamos a pensar en lo que realmente significa esa igualdad, y la mejor manera de lograrla. +Siempre acept la idea de que las personas ms respetadas y poderosas en nuestra sociedad son los hombres en lo ms alto de sus carreras, al punto de que la medida de la igualdad entre hombres y mujeres debera ser qu cantidad de mujeres estn en esas posiciones: primeros ministros, presidentes, directores ejecutivos, directores, gerentes, premios Nobel, lderes. +An pienso que debemos hacer todo lo posible para lograr ese objetivo. +Pero eso es solo la mitad de la igualdad real, y ahora creo que nunca vamos a llegar a menos de que reconozcamos la otra mitad. +Sugiero que la igualdad real, la igualdad total, no solo significa la valoracin de las mujeres en trminos de los hombres. +Significa la creacin de una gama mucho ms amplia de opciones respetadas por igual para las mujeres y los hombres. +Y para llegar all, tenemos que cambiar nuestros lugares de trabajo, nuestras polticas y nuestra cultura. +En el lugar de trabajo, igualdad real significa valorar a la familia tanto como al trabajo, y la comprensin de que los dos se refuerzan mutuamente. +Como lder y como gerente, siempre he actuado en el mantra: Si la familia viene primero, el trabajo no viene segundo, la vida es una. +Si trabajas para m, y tienes un problema familiar, espero que lo atiendas, y estoy segura, y mi confianza siempre ha sido confirmada, de que el trabajo ser hecho, y hecho mejor. +Los trabajadores que tienen una razn para llegar a casa para cuidar de sus hijos o a los miembros de su familia son ms centrados, ms eficientes, ms centrados en los resultados. +Y el sostn de la familia, que tambin es un cuidador, tiene una gama mucho ms amplia de experiencias y contactos. +Piensen en el abogado que dedica parte de su tiempo a los eventos escolares de sus hijos hablando con otros padres. +Es mucho ms probable que traiga nuevos clientes a su firma que un abogado que nunca abandona su oficina. +Y el cuidado en s mismo desarrolla paciencia mucha paciencia y empata, creatividad, resiliencia, adaptabilidad. +Esos son todos los atributos que son cada vez ms importantes en una veloz, horizontal, economa global en red. +Las mejores compaas realmente saben esto. +Y un estudio sobre los empleadores del 2012 muestra que las prcticas profundas de flexibilidad realmente disminuyen los costos operativos e incrementan la adaptabilidad en una economa de servicios global. +As que, Uds. pensarn que privilegiar el trabajo sobre la familia es solo un problema de los estadounidenses. +Tristemente, sin embargo, la obsesin por el trabajo ya no es una enfermedad exclusivamente estadounidense. +Veinte aos atrs, cuando mi familia empez a ir a Italia, solamos disfrutar del lujo de la cultura de la siesta. +La siesta no es solo sobre cmo evitar el calor del da. +En realidad es tanto como abrazar el calor de un almuerzo familiar. +Ahora, a donde vamos, cada vez son menos las empresas cercanas a la siesta, lo que refleja el avance de las corporaciones globales y la competencia 24 horas. +As que hacer un lugar para aquellos que amamos es en realidad un imperativo mundial. +En trminos de polticas, la real igualdad significa reconocer que el trabajo que las mujeres han hecho tradicionalmente es tan importante como el trabajo que los hombres han hecho tradicionalmente, sin importar quin lo hace. +Piensen sobre esto: Ganarse la vida y cuidar son igualmente necesarios para la supervivencia del humano. +Al menos, si vamos ms all de una economa de trueque, alguien tiene que ganar un ingreso y algn otro tiene que convertir ese ingreso en atencin y sustento para sus seres queridos. +Ahora, la mayora de Uds., cuando me escuchan hablando de ganarse la vida y el cuidado, instintivamente trasladan esas categoras al trabajo de los hombres y al trabajo de las mujeres. +Y tpicamente no desafiamos por qu el trabajo de los hombres tiene ventaja. +Consideren una pareja del mismo sexo como mis amigas Sarah y Emily. +Son psiquiatras. +Se casaron hace cinco aos, y ahora tienen mellizos de dos aos. +Aman ser mams, pero tambin aman su trabajo, y son realmente buenas en lo que hacen. +Entonces, cmo se dividirn las responsabilidades de ganar el sustento y el cuidado? +Debera una de ellas dejar de trabajar o reducir sus horas para estar en casa? +O deberan ambas cambiar sus prcticas para poder tener horarios ms flexibles? +Y qu criterio deberan usar para tomar esa decisin? +Ser quin gana ms dinero o quin est ms comprometida con su carrera? +O quin tiene el jefe ms flexible? +La perspectiva del mismo sexo nos ayuda a ver que los malabares en el trabajo y la familia no son problemas de las mujeres, son problemas de la familia. +Y Sarah y Emily son afortunadas, porque tienen la opcin de elegir cunto quieren trabajar. +Millones de hombres y mujeres tienen que ser generadores de sustento y cuidadores solo para ganar el ingreso que necesitan, y muchos de esos trabajadores estn revueltos. +Estn pegando con parches arreglos de cuidado entre ellos que son inadecuados y a menudo realmente inseguros. +Si ganar el pan y el cuidado son realmente iguales, entonces, por qu un gobierno no invierte tanto en la infraestructura del cuidado, como fundamento de una sociedad sana, como invierte en infraestructura fsica como columna vertebral de una economa exitosa? +Los gobiernos que lo consiguen, no hay sorpresas aqu los gobiernos que lo consiguen, Noruega, Suecia, Dinamarca, los Pases Bajos, proporcionan atencin universal al nio, apoyan los cuidados en el hogar, la escuela y la educacin de la primera infancia, protegen a las mujeres embarazadas, y cuidan de los ancianos y los discapacitados. +Esos gobiernos invierten en esa infraestructura de la misma manera que invierten en carreteras y puentes tneles y trenes. +Dichas sociedades tambin muestran que ganar el pan y brindar cuidado se refuerzan mutuamente. +Clasifican habitualmente entre los 15 primeros pases con las economas ms competitivas a nivel mundial, pero al mismo tiempo, ocupan un lugar muy alto en el ndice para una Vida Mejor de la OCDE. +De hecho, tienen precedencia sobre otros gobiernos, como el mo, los EE. UU., o Suiza, que tienen mayores niveles promedio de ingreso pero clasificaciones ms bajas en el equilibrio entre trabajo y vida. +As que cambiar nuestros lugares de trabajo y construir infraestructuras de atencin hara una gran diferencia, pero no vamos a obtener opciones igual de valiosas si no cambiamos nuestra cultura, y el tipo de cambio cultural necesario significa la re-socializacin de los hombres. +Cada vez ms en los pases desarrollados, las mujeres son socializadas para creer que nuestro lugar no es ms solo el hogar, pero los hombres estn an donde siempre estuvieron. +Los hombres todava son socializados para creer que deben ser los que ganan el sustento, para lograr su autoestima desde lo ms alto que puedan trepar por encima de otros hombres en una escalera de la profesin. +La revolucin feminista todava tiene un largo camino por recorrer. +Ciertamente no est completa. +Pero 60 aos despus de que fuera publicado "Mstica de la feminidad", muchas mujeres realmente tienen ms opciones que los hombres. +Podemos decidir ser quin gana el pan, brinda cuidado o una combinacin de los dos. +Cuando un hombre, por el contrario, decide ser quien brinda cuidado, coloca su hombra en peligro. +Sus amigos pueden alabar a su decisin, pero en el fondo, estn rascndose la cabeza. +No es la medida de un hombre su voluntad de competir con otros hombres por poder y prestigio? +Y muchas mujeres sostienen este punto de vista como los hombres. +Sabemos que muchsimas mujeres an juzgan el atractivo de un hombre basado en gran parte en cun talentoso l es en su profesin. +Una mujer puede salirse de la fuerza de trabajo y an ser una compaera atractiva. +Para un hombre, esa es una proposicin riesgosa. +Entonces como padres y compaeros, deberamos socializar a nuestros hijos y a nuestros esposos para ser lo que quieran ser, ya sea cuidadores o sostn de la familia. +Deberamos estar socializndolos para ser cuidadores geniales para los chicos. +Casi puedo or a un montn de Uds. pensando: "De ningn modo". +Pero, de hecho, el cambio ya est sucediendo. +Al menos en EE. UU., muchos hombres se enorgullecen de cocinar, y francamente obsesionarse con las estufas. +Se encuentran en las salas de parto. +Toman el permiso de paternidad cuando pueden. +Pueden pasear a un beb o calmar a un nio tan bien como sus esposas, y cada vez ms estn haciendo muchas ms tareas del hogar. +De hecho, hay estudiantes universitarios varones ahora que estn empezando a decir, "Quiero ser un padre que se queda en casa". +Eso era completamente impensable 50 o al menos 30 aos atrs. +Y en Noruega, donde los hombres tienen un permiso de paternidad automtico de tres meses, pero lo pierden si deciden no tomarlo, un alto funcionario del gobierno me dijo que las empresas estn empezando a buscar empleados varones prospectivos, y que levantan una ceja si de hecho, no toman sus vacaciones cuando tienen hijos. +Eso significa que est empezando a parecer como un defecto de carcter no querer ser un padre completamente comprometido. +As que me crie creyendo que la defensa de los derechos de las mujeres significaba hacer todo lo posible para lograr que las mujeres llegaran a la cima. +Y todava espero vivir lo suficiente para ver a los hombres y las mujeres equitativamente representados en todos los niveles de la fuerza de trabajo. +Pero he llegado a creer que tenemos que valorar la familia en cada pedacito tanto como valoramos el trabajo, y que deberamos considerar la idea de que hacer lo correcto para los que amamos har que todos nosotros seamos mejores en todo lo que hagamos. +Hace 30 aos, Carol Gilligan, una psicloga maravillosa, estudi a las adolescentes e identific una tica del cuidado, un elemento de la naturaleza humana tan importante como la tica de justicia. +Resulta que "no te importa" es solo una parte tan importante de lo que somos como "eso no es justo". +Bill Gates est de acuerdo. +Argumenta que las dos grandes fuerzas de la naturaleza humana son el inters propio y el cuidado de los dems. +Juntmoslas. +Hagamos de la revolucin feminista una revolucin humanista. +Como seres humanos completos, seremos mejores cuidadores y sostn de la familia. +Pueden pensar que eso no puede suceder, pero yo crec en una sociedad donde mi madre pona pequeos ceniceros para las cenas, donde los negros y los blancos usaban baos independientes, y dnde todos aclamaban ser heterosexuales. +Hoy, no tanto. +La revolucin por la igualdad humana puede suceder. +Est sucediendo. +Suceder. +Qu tan lejos y qu tan rpido, depende de nosotros. +Gracias. +Empezar preguntando, levanten sus manos: Quin tiene iPhone? +Quin tiene Android? +Quin tiene Blackberry? +Quin admitir en pblico que tiene Blackberry? +Djenme adivinar, cuntos... al llegar aqu, como yo, compraron una SIM prepagada? S? +Apuesto a que ni siquiera saben que estn usando tecnologa africana. +El prepago es una tecnologa, o una idea, que naci en frica en una empresa llamada Vodacom hace unos buenos 15 aos y ahora, como franquicia, el prepago es una de las fuerzas dominantes de la actividad econmica en todo el mundo. +Por eso hablar de innovacin en frica, que creo es la forma ms pura, la innovacin por necesidad. +Pero primero, les plantear otras preguntas. +No necesitan levantar la mano. +Son preguntas retricas. +Por qu Nikola Tesla tuvo que inventar la corriente alterna que alimenta las luces del edificio o de la ciudad que habitamos? +Por qu Henry Ford tuvo que inventar la lnea de produccin para producir esos Fords que podan ser de cualquier color siempre que fuesen negros? +Y por qu Eric Merrifield tuvo que inventar los dolos? +Miradas en blanco. As son los dolos, y de fondo, se ve Robben Island. +Este es un pequeo dolos y Eric Merrifield es el inventor ms famoso que hayan conocido. +En 1963, una tormenta destroz el puerto en un pueblito sudafricano llamado East London, y mientras vea a sus hijos jugar con juguetes hechos de huesos de buey llamados dolosse, se le ocurri esta idea. +Es como una marioneta enorme, y se usa en todos los puertos del mundo como rompeolas. +La economa mundial del transporte martimo no sera posible sin tecnologa africana como esta. +As que cuando se habla de frica, se muestra esta imagen del mundo desde el espacio, y se dice: "Miren, es el Continente Negro". +En realidad, no lo es. +Es un mapa de la innovacin. +Y resulta fcil de ver donde ocurre la innovacin. +En lugares con mucha luz, no es as. +Por qu no hay innovacin? Porque todos miran TV o juegan Angry Birds. +Por eso, donde ocurre es en frica. +Esta es innovacin verdadera, no en el sentido en que hemos expropiado la palabra para hablar de lanzamiento de nuevos productos. +Es innovacin verdadera, y la defino como aquella que resuelve problemas. +En frica la gente resuelve problemas verdaderos. +Por qu? Por necesidad. +Porque tenemos problemas verdaderos. +Y cuando resolvemos problemas verdaderos para la gente, los resolvemos para el resto del mundo al mismo tiempo. +En California todos se entusiasman con una cajita plstica que se conecta al mvil, con la que puede usarse la tarjeta de crdito. La gente dice: "Hemos liberado la tarjeta de crdito de la terminal de venta". +Fantstico. Por qu se necesita una tarjeta de crdito? +En frica, hemos hecho esto durante aos, con telfonos como este. +Esta es una foto que tom en un lugar llamado Kitengela, a una hora al sur de Nairobi, y lo notable del sistema de pago llamado M-Pesa, que naci en frica, es que funciona en telfonos como este. +Funciona en cualquier telfono porque usa SMS. +Con esto se puede pagar las cuentas, se pueden comprar alimentos, se puede pagar la escuela de los hijos, y me dijeron que tambin se puede sobornar a los funcionarios de la aduana. +Algo as como USD 25 millones al da en transacciones va M-Pesa. +El 40 % del PBI de Kenia pasa por M-Pesa usando telfonos como este. +Piensan que es solo un telfono simple. +En realidad es el telfono inteligente de frica. +Tambin es una radio, una antorcha y, sobre todas las cosas, tiene una batera que dura muchsimo. +Por qu? Porque es lo que necesitamos. +Tenemos realmente problemas graves de energa en frica. +Por cierto, se puede actualizar Facebook y usar Gmail desde un telfono como este. +Hemos encontrado una forma de usar la tecnologa disponible para enviar dinero va M-Pesa. Es una especie de cheque de la era mvil. +Vengo de Johannesburgo, una ciudad minera. +Se construy sobre el oro. +Esta es una foto que mand a Instagram hace poco. +La diferencia es que hoy lo mvil es el oro. +Si se piensa en la evolucin del sistema ferroviario de Amrica del Norte, primero vino la infraestructura, luego la industria a su alrededor, los burdeles... parecido a Internet hoy, no? Y todo lo dems que vino con eso: bares, salones, etc. +El oro actual es lo mvil, y la movilidad el factor que hace posible todo esto. +Qu se puede hacer con esto? +Bueno, este es de un tipo de Ghana llamado Bright Simons, y consiste en tomar una medicina, algo en lo que alguien puede gastarse el salario mensual, raspar para descubrir el cdigo, y enviarlo a un nmero por SMS; nos dice si el medicamento es vlido o si caduc. +Bien simple, bien efectivo, algo que realmente salva vidas. +En Kenia hay un servicio llamado iCow que enva informacin muy importante sobre cmo ocuparse del ordee. +El negocio lcteo en Kenia mueve USD 463 millones, y la diferencia entre un ganadero de subsistencia y uno de abundancia es solo un par de litros de leche al da. +Si lo logras, puedes salir de la pobreza. +Muy simple, usando un telfono bsico. +Si no hay electricidad, no es problema! +Construiremos uno con partes viejas de bicicleta usando un molino de viento, como hizo William Kamkwamba. +Habrn odo de otro gran africano que irrumpi en la industria automotriz mundial. +Tambin ha encontrado la forma de reinventar la energa solar y la industria elctrica de Amrica del Norte, y si tiene suerte, nos llevar a Marte, ojal lo llegue a ver. +Viene de Pretoria, la capital de Sudfrica, a unos 50 km de donde vivo. +Volvamos a Joburgo, a veces llamada Egoli, que significa Ciudad de Oro. +No solo creo que los mviles sean el oro actual, no creo que exista oro bajo tierra. +Creo que el oro somos nosotros. +Como han escuchado de otros economistas, estamos en el punto en el que estaba China cuando empez el auge, y vamos en esa direccin. +Oyen hablar de Occidente como vanguardia de innovacin. +Bien, est a la vanguardia, porque todos actualizan Facebook, o peor an, estn tratando de entender la configuracin de la privacidad de Facebook. +No es una frase de efecto. +Esto es innovacin de vanguardia. +Se suele definir a frica como el continente que da prioridad a lo mvil, pero en realidad el mvil es lo nico por eso mientras los dems hacen todas estas cosas, nosotros resolvemos los problemas del mundo. +Solo queda una cosa por decir. +["Bienvenidos"] +Alguien de los presentes ha pensado en sexo hoy? +S, t. +Gracias por levantar la mano. +Bueno, vine a darles una validacin biolgica a sus ensoaciones srdidas. +Estoy aqu para contarles algunas cosas que quiz no sepan sobre el sexo silvestre. +Cuando los seres humanos pensamos en sexo, generalmente nos vienen a la mente las formas masculinas y femeninas, pero durante millones de aos ni siquiera existan esas categoras tan especficas. +El sexo era una mera fusin de cuerpos o una cadena de ADN compartida entre dos o ms seres vivos. +No fue hasta hace 500 millones de aos que empezamos a ver estructuras semejantes a un pene, o algo que entrega ADN, y una vagina, algo que lo recibe. +Ahora, quiz estn pensando en nuestra propia especie, en estas estructuras familiares, pero la diversidad que vemos en las estructuras sexuales del reino animal ha evolucionado en respuesta a la multiplicidad de factores que rodean a la reproduccin es bastante alucinante. +La diversidad de penes es especialmente profusa. +Este es un nautilus de papel. +Es un pariente cercano del calamar y del pulpo, y los machos tienen un hectoctilo. +Qu es exactamente un hectoctilo? +Un pene desmontable que nada. +Deja el cuerpo del macho, encuentra a la hembra mediante seales de feromonas en el agua, se adhiere al cuerpo de ella y deposita el esperma. +Tanto es as que durante muchas dcadas los bilogos creyeron que el hectoctilo era un organismo separado por completo. +El tapir es una mamfero de Amrica del Sur +que tiene un pene prensil. +En realidad, tiene un nivel de destreza en su pene similar al que tenemos en nuestras manos. +Y usa esta habilidad para eludir la vagina por completo y depositar el espermatozoide directamente en el tero de la hembra, por no decir que tiene un tamao bastante bueno. +El pene ms grande del reino animal no obstante, no es el del tapir. +El mayor pene en proporcin al cuerpo en el reino animal pertenece en realidad al percebe magro de playa y este video muestra en realidad cmos sera el pene humano si fuera del mismo tamao que el de un percebe. +Mm-mm. Por eso con toda esta diversidad de estructuras podra pensarse que los penes se adaptan perfectamente a las vaginas en todos lados con el fin de una reproduccin exitosa. +Simplemente se inserta la parte A en la ranura B, y todo debera ir bien. +Pero, claro, eso no es as exactamente, y por eso no podemos solo tener en cuenta la forma. +Tambin tenemos que pensar en la funcin, y cuando se trata de sexo, la funcin se refiere a las aportaciones realizadas por los gametos, o el esperma y los vulos. +Y estos aportes son muy desiguales. +Cuesta mucho producir vulos, por eso tiene sentido que la hembra sea muy exigente a la hora de compartir los vulos. +El esperma, por otro lado, es abundante y barato, por eso tiene sentido que los machos adopten una estrategia tipo "cuanto ms sexo, mejor" cuando se trata de engendrar miembros de futuras generaciones. +Entonces, cmo enfrentan los animales estas necesidades tan incongruentes entre los sexos? +Quiero decir, si una hembra no elige a un macho en particular, o si puede almacenar esperma y sencillamente tiene suficiente, entonces tiene ms sentido para ella usar el tiempo haciendo otras cosas de relevancia biolgica: evitar depredadores, cuidar a la prole, la recoleccin e ingesta de alimentos. +Por supuesto, es una mala noticia para cualquier macho que an tiene que depositar en su banco de esperma, y esto sienta las bases para algunas estrategias muy drsticas para una fertilizacin exitosa. +Aqu vemos chinches fornicando, que con razn se llama "inseminacin traumtica". +Los machos tienen un pene con pas, con el cual literalmente "apualan" a la hembra, y no clavan la pa cerca de la vagina. +La clavan en cualquier parte del cuerpo, y el esperma simplemente migra por la hemolinfa hasta los ovarios. +Si una hembra recibe muchas de estas heridas, o si una de estas heridas se infecta, la hembra puede morir. +Si alguna vez salieron a dar un paseo agradable por un lago y de casualidad vieron unos patos fornicando, sin dudas se habrn alarmado porque parece una violacin en grupo. +Y, francamente, es exactamente eso. +Un grupo de machos agarran a una hembra, la sujetan, y balsticamente eyaculan sus penes en forma de espiral en su vagina con forma de sacacorchos una y otra y otra vez. +De la flacidez a la eyaculacin en menos de un segundo. +Sin embargo, la hembra en realidad tiene la ltima palabra porque en realidad puede acomodar su postura para permitir que el esperma de ciertos pretendientes llegue mejor a sus ovarios. +Me gusta compartir estas historias con el pblico porque, s, los seres humanos solemos pensar que el sexo es divertido, es bueno, que hay romance, que hay orgasmo. +Pero el orgasmo no surgi hasta hace unos 65 millones de aos, con los mamferos. +Sin embargo, algunos animales lo desarrollaron un poco antes. +Hay algunas formas ms primitivas de complacer a la pareja. +Los machos de tijereta tienen apndices penianos o muy grandes o realmente pequeos. +Es un rasgo muy simple heredado genticamente y no existe otra diferencia entre los machos. +Los que tienen apndices penianos largos no son ms grandes ni ms fuertes ni tienen otra diferencia en absoluto. +As que, volviendo a nuestras mentes biolgicas, podramos pensar que las hembras deberan elegir tener sexo con los machos que tengan los apndices ms cortos, porque puede usar su tiempo para otras cosas: evitar depredadores, cuidar a la prole, la recoleccin e ingesta de alimentos. +Pero los bilogos han observado repetidamente que las hembras eligen tener sexo con los machos que tienen apndices ms largos. +Por qu lo hacen? +Bueno, de acuerdo a la literatura de biologa: "Durante la cpula, los genitales de algunos machos pueden provocar respuestas ms favorables de las hembras mediante una interaccin mecnica superior o estimulatoria con el aparato reproductor femenino". [Lieshout, E. ] +Mm-mm. +Estos son lebistes mexicanos, y lo que ven en su maxilar superior es un brote de filamentos epidrmicos, y esos filamentos conforman bsicamente el bigote del pez, si se quiere. +Se ha observado que los machos estimulan la abertura genital de la hembra antes de copular con ella, y en lo que he llamado con cario la hiptesis Magnum, P. I., es abrumadoramente ms probable que las hembras se encuentren con machos que tienen estos bigotes. +Ah tienen un poco de porno lebistes. +Hemos visto estrategias muy diferentes que usan los machos a la hora de conseguir una hembra. +Hemos visto una estrategia de coaccin, en la que se usan las estructuras sexuales por la fuerza para hacer que la hembra acceda al sexo. +Tambin vimos una estrategia de excitacin en la que los machos complacen a sus hembras para que los elijan como pareja sexual. +Por desgracia, en el reino animal la estrategia de coaccin es la que vemos una y otra vez. +Es muy comn en muchos filos, desde invertebrados a especies de aves, mamferos y, claro, incluso en primates. +Pero, curiosamente, hay algunas especies de mamferos en las que las hembras desarrollaron genitales especializados que no permiten que ocurra la coaccin sexual. +Las hembras de elefante y de hiena tienen un cltoris peniano o un tejido de cltoris agrandado externo que cuelga, muy parecido a un pene, y, de hecho, es muy difcil determinar el sexo de estos animales con solo mirar su morfologa externa. +As que antes de que un macho pueda insertar su pene en la vagina de una hembra, ella tiene que tomar este cltoris peniano y, bsicamente, darle la vuelta, metindolo en su propio cuerpo. +Digo, imaginen un pene dentro de otro pene. +Simplemente no suceder a menos que la hembra comande la accin. +Ahora, an ms interesante es el hecho de que las sociedades de elefantes y hienas son totalmente matriarcales: estn a cargo de mujeres, de grupos de mujeres, hermanas, tas y cras, y cuando los machos jvenes alcanzan la madurez sexual, son expulsados del grupo. +En las sociedades de hienas, los machos adultos estn en lo ms bajo de la escala social. +Pueden participar en una matanza solo despus que todos los dems, incluyendo la descendencia. +As que parece que cuando se quita el poder del pene al macho, se le quita todo el poder social que tiene. +Entonces, cul es el mensaje que quiero dejarles hoy? +Bueno, que el sexo es mucho ms que insertar la parte A en la ranura B y esperar que la descendencia corra por doquier. +Las estrategias sexuales y las estructuras reproductivas que vemos en el reino animal, bsicamente, dictan cmo se reaccionarn entre s machos y hembras, lo que dicta a su vez la manera en que se forman y evolucionan las poblaciones y las sociedades. +As que puede que no les sorprenda a ninguno de Uds. que los animales, inclusive nosotros, pasemos buena parte del tiempo pensando en sexo, pero s podra sorprenderles el grado en que muchos otros aspectos de sus vidas y de nuestras vidas estn influenciados por l. +Gracias, y felices ensoaciones. +Hoy me gustara hablar de cmo podemos cambiar nuestras mentes y nuestra sociedad. +l es Joe. +Tiene 32 aos y es asesino. +Lo conoc hace 13 aos en el pabelln de cadena perpetua de Wormwood Scrubs, la prisin londinense de alta seguridad. +Quisiera que se imaginen este lugar. +Es tal y como suena: "Wormwood Scrubs" [arbustos de amargura]. +Fue construida a finales de la poca victoriana por los propios reclusos y all se encierra a los prisioneros ms peligrosos de Inglaterra. +Estas personas han cometido crmenes realmente atroces. +Y yo estaba all para estudiar sus mentes. +Yo era parte de un equipo de investigadores del University College London, becado por el Departamento de Salud del Reino Unido. +Mi trabajo consista en estudiar a un grupo de reclusos que haban sido diagnosticados como psicpatas. +Eso quera decir que eran los ms despiadados y agresivos de todos los reclusos de la prisin. +Cul era la causa de este comportamiento? +Haba una causa neurolgica para la enfermedad? +Y si la haba, podramos encontrar una cura? +Me gustara hablar del cambio, en particular del cambio emocional. +Desde chico, siempre me ha intrigado el modo en que la gente cambia. +Mi madre, psicloga clnica, a veces atenda pacientes en casa por las tardes. +Cerraba la puerta del saln y yo me imaginaba que all ocurran cosas mgicas. +Cuando tena cinco o seis aos, me deslizaba sigilosamente en pijama y me sentaba fuera, pegando el odo a la puerta. +Ms de una vez, me qued dormido y me tuvieron que sacar a empujones al final de la sesin. +Supongo que fue as como termin entrando a la sala de entrevistas en mi primer da en Wormwood Scrubs. +Joe se sent detrs una mesa de acero y me salud sin expresin. +El guardia de la prisin, con la misma expresin indiferente, dijo: "Si hay algn problema, presione el timbre rojo y vendremos lo antes posible". +Me sent. +La puerta pesada de metal se cerr a mis espaldas. +Mir el timbre rojo que estaba detrs de Joe, en la pared de enfrente. +Mir a Joe. +Quiz notando mi preocupacin, se inclin hacia adelante y me dijo, de la forma ms tranquilizadora que pudo: "Ah!, no te preocupes por el timbre. Igual, no funciona". +Durante los meses siguientes, examinamos a Joe y a sus compaeros, centrndonos en la capacidad para clasificar diferentes imgenes emocionales. +Y observbamos sus respuestas fsicas a esas emociones. +Por ejemplo, cuando miramos una foto de alguien triste, instantneamente tenemos una ligera y perceptible respuesta fsica medible: aumento de la frecuencia cardaca, sudor en la piel... +Aunque los psicpatas del estudio podan describir las imgenes con exactitud, no presentaban las emociones correspondientes. +No presentaban una respuesta fsica. +Era como si conociesen las palabras, pero no la msica de la empata. +Queramos analizar mejor esto y hacer resonancias magnticas de sus cerebros. +No result ser una tarea tan fcil. +Imaginen transportar a un grupo de psicpatas por el centro de Londres con grilletes y esposas en hora pico, y para hacerles la resonancia haba que quitarles todos los objetos metlicos, incluyendo esposas y grilletes, y, como descubr, todo de las perforaciones del cuerpo. +Sin embargo, tiempo despus, obtuvimos una respuesta provisional. +Esas personas no solo eran vctimas de una infancia problemtica. +Haba algo ms. +La gente como Joe tena una deficiencia en un rea del cerebro llamada amgdala. +La amgdala es un rgano con forma de almendra que est en la profundidad de cada hemisferio del cerebro. +Se cree que es crucial para la empata. +Cuanto ms emptica es una persona, mayor y ms activa es su amgdala. +Nuestros internos tenan una amgdala deficiente, lo que probablemente causaba la falta de empata y el comportamiento inmoral. +Retrocedamos un momento. +Normalmente, adquirimos comportamientos morales segn maduramos, igual que como aprendemos a hablar. +A los seis meses, casi todos nosotros podemos diferenciar entre objetos animados e inanimados. +A los 12 meses, la mayora de nios puede imitar acciones voluntarias de otros. +Por ejemplo, tu madre levanta las manos para estirarse y t la imitas. +Al principio, no sale perfecto. +Recuerdo a mi prima Sasha, cuando tena dos aos, hojeando un libro de cuentos, chupndose un dedo y pasando las pginas con la otra mano, chupndose un dedo y pasando las pginas con la otra mano. +Poco a poco, construimos las bases del cerebro social de modo que para los tres o cuatro aos, casi todos los nios, no todos, han adquirido la capacidad de entender las intenciones de los otros, otro prerrequisito para la empata. +El hecho de que esta progresin del desarrollo sea universal, independiente de dnde vivamos o de cul sea nuestra cultura, es un fuerte indicador de que las bases del comportamiento moral son innatas. +Si lo dudan, intenten, como yo, romper una promesa que le hayan hecho a un nio de cuatro aos. +Vern que la mente de un nio de cuatro aos no es ingenua en absoluto. +Se parece ms a una navaja suiza con mdulos mentales fijos, pulidos finamente durante el crecimiento, y con un agudo sentido de la justicia. +Los primeros aos son cruciales. +Parece haber un momento para ello, tras el cual dominar las cuestiones morales es ms difcil, como a los adultos aprender un idioma. +Pero no quiere decir que sea imposible. +Hace poco, un maravilloso estudio de la Universidad de Stanford demostr que la gente que haba jugado a un juego de realidad virtual en el que tomaban el rol de un superhroe bueno y servicial se vuelvan ms cariosos y serviciales con los dems en el futuro. +No estoy sugiriendo que le demos superpoderes a los criminales, sino que necesitamos encontrar formas para que Joe y gente como l cambien sus mentes y sus comportamientos, por su bien y por el de los dems. +Puede cambiar el cerebro? +Por ms de 100 aos, los neuroanatomistas y los neurocientficos argumentaban que despus del desarrollo inicial en la infancia, no podan crecer nuevas neuronas en el cerebro adulto. +El cerebro solo poda cambiar dentro de unos lmites establecidos. +Ese era el dogma. +Para entender cmo funciona este proceso, dej a los psicpatas e ingres a un laboratorio de Oxford para especializarme en aprendizaje y desarrollo. +En lugar de psicpatas, estudiaba ratones, porque el mismo patrn de respuesta cerebral aparece en muchas especies de animales sociales. +Si cras un ratn en una jaula comn, en una caja de zapatos, con algodn, solo y sin muchos estmulos, no solo no se desarrolla bien, sino que a menudo aparecen comportamientos raros y repetitivos. +Este animal sociable por naturaleza perder su capacidad de relacionarse con otros ratones, e incluso se pondr agresivo cuando se los pone con ellos. +Pero los ratones criados en lo que llamamos un ambiente enriquecido, un habitculo grande con otros ratones, con ruedas, escaleras y otras zonas para explorar, presentan neurognesis, el nacimiento de nuevas neuronas, y, como demostramos, llevan a cabo mejor una serie de tareas de aprendizaje y memoria. +Pero no desarrollan la moralidad hasta el punto de llevarle las bolsas por la calle a los ratones ancianitos, pero las mejores condiciones ambientales generan un comportamiento social saludable. +Por el contrario, los ratones criados en jaulas comunes, no muy distintas, se podra decir, a la celda de una prisin, tienen niveles significativamente ms bajos de neuronas nuevas. +Queda claro que la amgdala de los mamferos, incluyendo a los primates como nosotros, puede presentar neurognesis. +En algunas partes del cerebro, ms del 20 % de las clulas son nuevas. +Estamos apenas empezando a entender la funcin exacta de esas clulas, pero lo que implica es que el cerebro es capaz de cambios extraordinarios bien avanzada la vida adulta. +Sin embargo, nuestro cerebro tambin es sumamente sensible al estrs que nos rodea. +Las hormonas del estrs, la glucocorticoides, liberadas por el cerebro, suprime el crecimiento de estas clulas nuevas . +Cuanto ms estrs, menos desarrollo cerebral, lo que genera, a su vez, menos adaptabilidad y aumenta los niveles de estrs. +Esta es la interaccin entre naturaleza y crianza en tiempo real, delante de nuestros ojos. +Cuando piensas en ello, resulta irnico que la solucin actual para la gente con amgdalas estresadas sea ponerlas en un ambiente que en realidad inhibe toda posibilidad de crecimiento posterior. +Por supuesto, el encarcelamiento es una parte necesaria en el sistema de la justicia penal para proteger a la sociedad. +Nuestro estudio no sugiere que los criminales presenten sus resonancias como prueba en un juicio y se los libre porque no les funciona bien la amgdala. +Las pruebas muestran que es al revs. +Ya que nuestro cerebro puede cambiar, necesitamos ser responsables de nuestros actos y ellos tienen que hacerse responsables de rehabilitarse. +Una forma en la que esa rehabilitacin podra funcionar es a travs de programas de justicia restaurativa. +Aqu la vctima, si decide participar, y el criminal se ven cara a cara en encuentros seguros y estructurados, al criminal se le anima a responsabilizarse de sus actos, y la vctima tiene un papel activo en el proceso. +En un encuentro as, el criminal puede ver, quiz por primera vez, a la vctima como a una persona real con pensamientos y sentimientos y una genuina respuesta emocional. +Esto estimula la amgdala y puede ser una prctica de rehabilitacin ms efectiva que el simple encarcelamiento. +Programas como este no funcionan para todos, pero para muchos, puede ser una forma de terminar con esa enorme frialdad interior. +Entonces, qu podemos hacer ahora? +Cmo aplicamos este conocimiento? +Me gustara dejarles tres lecciones que aprend. +Lo primero que aprend fue que debemos cambiar nuestra mentalidad. +Desde que se construy Wormwood Scrubs hace 130 aos, la sociedad ha avanzado en casi todos los aspectos, en la forma en que dirigimos nuestros colegios y hospitales. +Aun as, cuando hablamos de prisiones es como si volvisemos a la poca de Dickens o a la Edad Media. +Por demasiado tiempo, creo, nos hemos permitido creer en la idea falsa de que la naturaleza humana no puede cambiar y, como sociedad, lo estamos pagando carsimo. +Sabemos que el cerebro es capaz de cambios extraordinarios y la mejor forma de conseguirlo, incluso en adultos, es cambiar y modular nuestro ambiente. +Lo segundo que aprend es que necesitamos crear una unin entre la gente que cree que la ciencia es esencial para generar el cambio social. +Es muy fcil para un neurocientfico hacerle una resonancia a un preso de alta seguridad. +Pues bien, resulta que no es tan fcil, pero lo que en verdad queremos ver es si podemos reducir las tasas de reincidencia. +Para responder preguntas tan complejas, necesitamos gente con diferentes formaciones: clnicos y cientficos de laboratorio, polticos y trabajadores sociales, filntropos y defensores de los derechos humanos. Necesitamos que trabajen unidos. +Finalmente, creo que necesitamos cambiar nuestras propias amgdalas, porque esta cuestin llega al fondo no solo de quin es Joe, sino de quines somos nosotros. +Necesitamos dejar de ver a Joe como alguien totalmente incorregible, porque, si nosotros lo vemos as, cmo va a hacer l para verse distinto? +Dentro de una dcada, Joe ser liberado de Wormwood Scrubs. +Estar entre el 70 % de internos que terminan reincidiendo y vuelven al sistema penitenciario? +No sera mejor que, mientras cumple condena, Joe entrenara su amgdala, lo que estimulara el crecimiento de nuevas clulas cerebrales y conexiones, para que, de ese modo, pueda enfrentarse al mundo cuando lo liberen? +Sin duda, eso nos beneficiara a todos. +Gracias. +Quiero que todos piensen en la tercera palabra que se dijo sobre Uds. , o, si estaban en un parto, acerca de la persona que naci. +Y pueden articularla si as lo desean o decirla en voz alta. +Las primeras dos fueron: "Es un / una ..." +Bien, esto muestra que trato con asuntos donde no existe la certeza de si es un nio o una nia. Por eso, la respuesta mezclada fue muy apropiada. +Hoy en da la respuesta no llega al nacer sino en la ecografa, a menos que los futuros padres escojan la sorpresa como nos suceda a nosotros. +Pero quiero que piensen qu es lo que nos lleva a esa afirmacin en la tercera palabra. Porque la tercera palabra es una descripcin de tu sexo, +y con eso me refiero a que es una descripcin de tus genitales. +Como endocrinlogo peditrico, sola estar muy, muy involucrado, y en cierta forma, an lo estoy, en casos en los que no hay coincidencia en lo externo o entre lo externo y lo interno, y literalmente, debemos determinar cul es la descripcin del sexo. +Pero no hay nada definible en el momento de nacer que los pueda definir, +y cuando hablo de definicin, me refiero a tu orientacin sexual. +No decimos: "Es un nio gay". +"Una nia lesbiana". +Esas situaciones en realidad, no se definen hasta la segunda dcada de la vida. +Ni tampoco definen tu gnero, el cual, a diferencia del sexo anatmico, describe tu concepto acerca de ti mismo. Te ves a ti mismo como hombre o mujer? O en algn punto del espectro que abarcan? +Esto es bastante raro, as que tuve poca experiencia personal en esto, +y mi experiencia fue ms tpica slo porque atenda a adolescentes. +Y vi a alguien de 24 aos, que fue a Harvard, genticamente como mujer, tena 3 compaeros de habitacin que saban toda la historia, un secretario que siempre lo anotaba en listas de materias como hombre, y vino luego de graduarse y me dijo: Aydeme, S que sabe mucho de endocrinologa". +Y si, trat a mucha gente que naci sin testculos +Esto no era muy difcil. +Pero hice un trato con l. Te tratar si tu me enseas. +Y l lo hizo. +Y fue muy formativo cuidar a los integrantes de su grupo de apoyo. +Y luego qued bastante confundido, pues crea que era bastante fcil a esa edad simplemente proporcionar hormonas del gnero que afirmaban ser. +Pero despus mi paciente se cas, con una mujer que haba nacido como hombre, se haba casado como hombre y tuvo dos hijos, luego se someti a una transformacin para ser mujer, +y ahora esta mujer encantadora estaba unida a mi paciente hombre, y de hecho se casaron legalmente pues se mostraron como hombre y mujer y, quin iba a saber? No? +Y mientras yo estaba confundido con esto de que si esto te converta en tal y tal gay +o tal y tal heterosexual, +estaba confundiendo orientacin sexual con la identidad de gnero. +Y mi paciente me dijo: "Mira, mira, mira... +Si lo piensas as, lo comprenders: Orientacin sexual es con quin te vas a la cama; +Identidad de gnero es en calidad de qu te vas a la cama. +Y luego aprend de muchos adultos, trat a unos 200 adultos, aprend de ellos que si no espiaba quin era su pareja en la sala de espera, nunca podra adivinar, ms que al azar, si eran gay, homosexuales, bisexuales o asexuales en el gnero que afirmaban ser. +En otras palabras, una cosa no tiene nada que ver con la otra. +Y los datos lo demuestran. +Al tratar a estos 200 adultos, me resultaba muy doloroso. +Muchas de estas personas tenan que renunciar a tanto en su vida. +A veces sus padres los rechazaban, sus hermanos, sus propios hijos, y sus exparejas les prohiban ver a sus hijos. +Era terrible. Pero, por qu lo hacan a los 40 o 50 aos? +Porque sentan que deban demostrselo a s mismos en lugar de suicidarse. +Ppor cierto, la tasa de suicidios en personas transexuales no tratadas est entre las ms altas del mundo. +As que, qu se puede hacer? +Qued perplejo en una conferencia en Holanda, con especialistas en esto, y vi algo muy curioso. +Trataban a jvenes adolescentes luego de hacerles el ms intenso test psicomtrico de gnero, y los trataban bloqueando la pubertad que no deseaban. +Porque, los nios son ms o menos igual sexualmente hasta que llegan a la pubertad, donde, si te sientes tener el sexo equivocado, te sientes como Pinocho convirtindose en asno. +La fantasa de que tu cuerpo cambiara para ser quin queras ser con la pubertad, se anula con la pubertad que te toca. +Y se derrumban. +Por eso, poniendo la pubertad en espera, +Porqu en espera? No puedes darles hormonas opuestas tan jvenes +Se atrofiara su crecimiento. Creen que se puede tener una charla del impacto de ese tratamiento en la fertilidad con una nia de 10 aos, o un nio de 12? +Esto ahorra tiempo al diagnosticarlos, durante 4 o 5 aos, para que lo puedan descifrar, +puedan analizarse ms, puedan vivir sin sentir que su cuerpo se les escapa. +Por eso esto es serio, y sucede a los 15, 16 aos. +Y a los 18, pueden ser operados. +Y aunque no hay buena ciruga para cambiar genitales de mujer a hombre, la ciruga de hombre a mujer ha engaado incluso a gineclogos. +Puede ser as de buena. +As que mir el progreso de los pacientes, y vi que se vean como cualquier otra persona, excepto que se les haba demorado la pubertad. +Pero una vez que se les administran las hormonas del sexo que afirman ser, se ven hermosos +se ven normales. Con una altura normal. +No se los podra detectar en una multitud. +En ese momento decid dedicarme a eso. +Aqu es donde el campo del endocrinlogo peditrico comienza, pues, si vas a tratar nios de 10 a 12, 10 a 14 aos, es endocrinologa peditrica. +As es que, inclu a varios nios, Y esto se convirti en el tratamiento estndar, y el Hospital de Nios lo apoyaba, +mostrndoles nios antes y despus, gente que nunca se trat, y otros que deseaban tratamiento, y fotografas de los holandeses, me dijeron: "Tienes que hacer algo por estos nios". +Dnde estaban estos nios antes? +Estaban all afuera, sufriendo. +Por eso comenzamos un programa en 2007. +Fue el primero de este tipo, aunque es como los programas holandeses, en Estados Unidos. +Y desde entonces, tenemos 160 pacientes. +Eran de Afganistn? No. +El 75 % de ellos era de un radio de 240 km de Boston. +Algunos eran de Inglaterra. +Jackie haba sufrido abusos en el rea centro de Inglaterra. +Tena 12 aos, viva como nia, pero sufra palizas. Era un horror. Tuvieron que educarla en casa. +Y los britnicos vinieron, pues no se daba tratamiento a menores de 16 aos, los condenaban a un cuerpo adulto, sin importar lo que pasara, an cuando los evaluaban bien. +Jackie, adems de todo esto, segn los marcadores de su esqueleto, iba a medir 1,95 m. +Sin embargo, recin comenzaba una pubertad masculina. +hice algo un tanto innovador, porque conozco las hormonas, y el estrgeno es mucho ms fuerte para cerrar las epfisis, las placas de crecimiento, y detener el crecimiento, que la testosterona. +As que bloqueamos su testosterona con una hormona bloqueadora, pero le administramos estrgeno, no a los 16, sino a los 13. +As que aqu est a sus 16 aos, a la izquierda. +Y al cumplir 16 fue a Tailandia, para ciruga plstica genital. +Ahora se la harn a los 18. +Y termin midiendo 1,80 m. +E incluso tiene una talla normal de senos, porque al bloquear la testosterona, todos nuestros pacientes tienen talla normal de senos si nos consultan a la edad adecuada, no demasiado tarde. +Y a la derecha la pueden ver. +Fue semifinalista en el concurso para Miss England. +Los jueces se preguntaban: "Pueden hacer esto?" "La pueden convertir...?" +Y uno de ellos brome: "Pero es ms natural que la mitad de las otras participantes". +A algunas se las haba arreglado un poco, pero era su ADN. +Y se volvi una vocera extraordinaria. +Le ofrecieron contratos como modelo, y me bromeaba, diciendo: "Habra tenido ms oportunidades como modelo si me hubieras hecho de 1,85". +Quin lo hubiera imaginado? +Creo que esta foto lo dice todo. En verdad, lo dice todo. +stos son Nicole y su hermano Jonas, gemelos idnticos varones, y se prob que eran idnticos, +Nicole afirmaba ser nia desde los 3 aos de edad. +A los 7 aos, cambiaron su nombre, y me consultaron a comienzos de pubertad masculina. +Imaginen a Jonas a los 14, se ve que en esta familia la pubertad masculina es temprana ya que mas parece tener 16 aos. +Esto explica por qu hay que considerar de dnde es el paciente. +La pubertad de Nicole se bloque aqu, y a Jonas se le est realizando un control biolgico. +As lucira Nicole si no la estuviramos tratando. +Tiene una nuez de Adn prominente, estructura sea facial angular, bigotes, y hay diferencia de altura, pues l tuvo un crecimiento acelerado que ella no tendr. +Estamos tratando a Nicole con estrgeno. Tiene cierta figura. +"Puedo lograrlo. Si me ven, entendern que no soy una amenaza en el bao de mujeres, pero corro riesgo en el bao de hombres". +Y lo comprendieron. +As que, a donde vamos desde aqu? +An hay que trabajar contra la discriminacin. +Slo 17 estados tienen ley contra la discriminacin. Discriminacin en vivienda, trabajo, entidades pblicas, 17 estados y 5 de ellos estn en Nueva Inglaterra. +Necesitamos drogas menos caras. Cuestan una fortuna. +Necesitamos sacar esta condicin +del Manual de Estadsticas y Diagnstico de Trastornos Mentales +Es como si fuera una enfermedad psiquitrica el ser gay o lesbiana, esto se descart en 1973 y el mundo entero cambi +Y no va a arruinar el presupuesto de nadie. +No es tan comn. +Pero el riesgo de no hacer nada por ellos no slo los pone a todos en riesgo de suicidarse, tambin es indicador de cun verdaderamente inclusiva es nuestra sociedad. +Gracias. +Vine hoy aqu a hablarles de un problema. +Es un problema muy simple, pero devastador, un problema presente en todo el mundo y que nos afecta a todos. +El problema son las sociedades annimas. +Suena a algo fro y muy tcnico, no? +Pero las sociedades annimas hacen que sea difcil, y a veces imposible, descubrir a los reales seres humanos responsables, a veces, de crmenes verdaderamente atroces. +Pero por qu vine a hablar con todos Uds.? +Bueno, supongo que porque soy una alborotadora incurable y cuando mis padres nos ensearon y a mi hermano mellizo y a m a cuestionar la autoridad, creo que no pensaron en las consecuencias. +Y seguro se arrepintieron cuando era una adolescente insolente, cuando, como era de esperar, cuestionaba constantemente su autoridad. +Creo que muchos de mis profesores tampoco lo valoraban mucho. +Desde que tengo 5 aos siempre hago la pregunta: "Pero por qu?" +Pero por qu la Tierra da vueltas alrededor del sol? +Pero por qu la sangre es roja? +Pero por qu tengo que ir a la escuela? +Pero por qu tengo que respetar a los profesores y a la autoridad? +Lejos estaba de imaginarme que esa pregunta se transformara en el pilar de todo lo que hara. +Fue as que cuando tenamos entre 20 y 30, hace mucho tiempo, una tarde lluviosa de domingo en North London, estbamos con Simon Taylor y Patrick Alley ocupados ponindole sobres a unas cartas en la oficina del grupo de campaa donde trabajbamos por aquel entonces. +Y como de costumbre, hablbamos de los problemas del mundo. +Concretamente, estbamos hablando de la guerra civil en Camboya. Ya habamos hablado del tema muchsimas veces. +Pero de golpe dejamos de hablar, nos miramos y dijimos: Y por qu no tratamos de cambiarlo? +A ms de 20 aos de aquella pregunta loca, y muchas campaas despus, incluida la de alertar al mundo sobre los diamantes ensangrentados que financian guerras, 20 aos despus de esa pregunta loca, Global Witness es un grupo de 80 personas: activistas, investigadores, periodistas y abogados. +Y a todos nos gua la misma conviccin: que el cambio s es posible. +Pero qu hacemos exactamente en Global Witness? +Investigamos, informamos, para dejar al descubierto a las personas realmente responsables de financiar los conflictos, de robar millones a ciudadanos de todo el mundo (algo conocido como saqueo de estados) y destruir el medio ambiente. +Y tambin luchamos muy fuerte para cambiar el sistema en s. +Y lo hacemos porque muchsimos pases ricos en recursos naturales como petrleo, diamantes o madera, son el hogar de las personas ms pobres y ms despojadas del planeta. +Y gran parte de estas injusticias son posibles gracias a prcticas comerciales aceptadas en la actualidad. +Y una de ellas es las sociedades annimas. +Nos hemos cruzado con sociedades annimas en muchsimas de nuestras investigaciones, como en Repblica Democrtica del Congo, donde revelamos que acuerdos secretos con sociedades annimas le quitaron ms de USD 1000 millones a los ciudadanos de uno de los pases ms pobres del mundo. Eso es el doble del presupuesto de educacin y salud, sumados, del pas. +O en Liberia, donde una rapaz compaa maderera internacional usaba sociedades ficticias en su intento de quedarse con buena parte de los bosques nicos de Liberia. +O la corrupcin poltica en Sarawak, Malasia, que produjo la destruccin de gran parte de su selva. +Ah tambin se usan las sociedades annimas. +Filmamos en secreto a algunos familiares del ex primer ministro y a un abogado contndole a nuestro investigador secreto cmo exactamente se hacan estos tratos turbios usando estas sociedades. +Y lo terrible es que hay muchsimos casos ms de todos los sectores de la sociedad. Es realmente un escndalo de dimensiones colosales, oculto a plena vista. +Puede ser el despiadado cartel mejicano de las drogas, los Zetas, que usan sociedades annimas para blanquear sus ganancias, mientras la violencia derivada de la droga destruye sociedades en toda Amrica. +O como la sociedad annima que compr todas las deudas tributarias de los estadounidenses, les sumaron los gastos legales y les dieron a los propietarios de las casas una opcin: Pague o pierda la casa. +Imaginen lo que es que te amenacen con perder tu casa, a veces por una deuda de solo unos pocos cientos de dlares, y no poder averiguar con quin te enfrentas en realidad. +Las sociedades annimas tambin son ideales para evadir sanciones. +Como cuando el gobierno iran encontr que mediante sociedades ficticias, posea un edificio en pleno corazn de Manhattan, en la Quinta Avenida, a pesar las sanciones de EE. UU. +Y Juicy Couture, creadora de los buzos de velvetn, y otras empresas fueron, sin saberlo, inquilinos involuntarios all. +Hay muchsimos ejemplos: el escndalo de la carne de caballo en Europa; la mafia italiana ha usado estas sociedades durante dcadas. +El fraude por USD 100 millones de Medicare en EE. UU.; el suministro de armas en guerras en todo el mundo, incluidas las de Europa del Este a comienzos de los 90. +Las sociedades annimas tambin han salido a la luz en la reciente revolucin en Ucrania. +En realidad, eso es injusto. +Bueno, quiz se pregunten: Qu es exactamente una sociedad annima? Puedo abrir una y usarla sin que nadie sepa quin soy? +La respuesta es s, lo pueden hacer. +Pero si son como yo, querrn verlo con sus propios ojos. As que permtanme mostrarles. +Primero tendrn que decidir dnde la quieren abrir. +Seguro que estn pensando en una de esas hermosas islas tropicales que son parasos fiscales, pero este es el punto: increblemente, mi ciudad natal, Londres, y, de hecho, todo el Reino Unido, es uno de los mejores lugares del mundo para abrir una sociedad annima. +Y el otro, todava mejor, me temo que es EE. UU. +En algunos estados de EE. UU., necesitas menos documentos de identificacin para abrir una sociedad que para sacar el carnet de la biblioteca, como en Delaware, que es uno de los lugares del mundo en que es ms fcil abrir una sociedad annima. +Bien. Supongamos que es en EE.UU., y digamos que es en Daleware. Lo nico que tienen que hacer es entrar a Internet y conseguir un proveedor de servicios a sociedades. +Estas son las empresas que pueden abrir una en lugar suyo y recuerden que es una prctica comercial rutinaria y legal. +Esta es una, pero hay muchsimas ms para elegir. +Una vez que decidieron, eligen la clase de sociedad que quieren y completan la informacin de contacto, el nombre y la direccin. +Pero no se preocupen: no hace falta usar su nombre. +Puede ser el nombre de su abogado o de su proveedor de servicios, y, de todos modos, no es de dominio pblico. +Despus hay que poner el dueo de la empresa. +Esta parte es fundamental y, de nuevo, no tienen que ser Uds., pueden ser creativos, porque hay un montn de prestanombres entre los que elegir. +El prestanombres es una persona a la que es legal pagarle para que sea la duea de su sociedad. +Y si no quieren involucrar a otra persona, ni siquiera hace falta que sea un ser humano real. +Puede ser otra sociedad. +Y, finalmente, le ponen un nombre a su empresa, completan unos detallitos ms y realizan el pago. +Luego, el proveedor de servicios se toma algunas horas para tramitarlo. +Y ya est: en 10 minutos de compras en lnea pueden crear Uds. mismos una sociedad annima. +Y no es solo fcil, muy fcil y barato. Tambin es absolutamente legal. +Pero la gracia no termina ah: quiz quieran ser todava ms annimos. +Bueno, no hay ningn problema. +Lo nico que hay que hacer es seguir agregando capas: +sociedades dueas de sociedades. Pueden poner cientos de capas de cientos de sociedades regadas en muchsimos pases, como una enorme telaraa. Cada capa aumenta el anonimato. +Cada capa hace que sea ms difcil para la justicia y para todos descubrir quin es el propietario real. +Pero a qu intereses responde todo esto? +Puede ser en beneficio de la empresa o de un particular, pero y nosotros, la gente comn? +Todava ni siquiera se ha hablado a nivel mundial sobre si est bien hacer un mal uso de estas empresas. +Y en qu nos afecta? +Bueno, hay un ejemplo que realmente me atormenta, del que me enter hace poco. +Es ese caso del incendio espantoso en una discoteca de Buenos Aires, hace como 10 aos. +Era la noche antes de Ao Nuevo. +Metieron a 3000 jvenes que haban salido a divertirse, muchos de ellos adolescentes, en un lugar que era para 1000. +Y ocurri la tragedia: se desat un incendio. La decoracin de plstico caa derretida desde el techo y el lugar se llen de humo txico. +Entonces la gente trat de escapar, pero encontraron las salidas de emergencia cerradas con cadenas. +Murieron ms de 200 personas. +Setecientos resultaron heridos mientras trataban de salir. +Y mientras los familiares de las vctimas, la ciudad y el pas sufran este golpe, la justicia trataba de determinar quin era el responsable. +Cuando buscaron a los dueos del lugar, encontraron, en cambio, sociedades annimas y solo haba confusin en torno a las identidades de los titulares de esas sociedades. +Finalmente, hace poco, se juzg a varias personas y fueron a la crcel. +Pero con una tragedia terrible como esta no debera haber sido tan difcil algo tan simple como saber quines fueron los responsables de esas muertes. +Porque en una poca en la que hay tanta informacin disponible, por qu habran de esconderse estos datos cruciales sobre los propietarios de las sociedades? Por qu se permite que los evasores fiscales, +los funcionarios corruptos, los traficantes de armas y tantos otros nos oculten sus identidades a nosotros, el pblico? +Cul es el motivo para que este secreto sea una prctica comercial aceptada? +Quiz las sociedades annimas sean la norma hoy en da, pero no fue siempre as. +Las sociedades comerciales se crearon para ayudar a la gente a innovar y para que no tengan que arriesgarlo todo. +Se crearon para limitar el riesgo financiero, no para ser usadas como pantallas. +Nunca se busc que fueran annimas y no tienen que serlo. +Y, entonces, llego a mi deseo. +Mi deseo es que sepamos quines son los dueos y quines controlan las sociedades para que ya no puedan ser usadas de forma annima en contra del bienestar pblico. +Juntos, preguntmosle al mundo qu piensa, cambiemos las leyes, y demos comienzo a una nueva era de transparencia en los negocios. +Y cmo sera esto? +Imaginen que pueden entrar a internet y buscar al dueo real de una sociedad. +Imaginen que estos datos fueran libres y gratuitos, ms all de las fronteras, tanto para los ciudadanos como para las empresas y la justicia. +Imaginen el enorme cambio que generara. +Pero cmo lo vamos a hacer? +Hay una sola forma. +Juntos, tenemos que cambiar las leyes en todo el mundo para crear registros pblicos en los que figuren los verdaderos dueos de las sociedades, a los que todos podamos acceder, sin trampas. +S, es ambicioso, pero el asunto est cobrando impulso, y en estos aos he constatado la increble fuerza del momento justo y acaba de empezar para este tema. +Hay una enorme oportunidad ahora mismo. +Y la comunidad TED de pensadores y emprendedores creativos e innovadores de toda la sociedad, pueden hacer una diferencia crucial. +En verdad pueden hacer que se d el cambio. +Una forma sencilla de empezar es la direccin que ven atrs mo de una pgina de Facebook a la que pueden unirse para apoyar la campaa y hacer correr la voz. +Va a ser el trampoln de nuestra campaa mundial. +Y los "tecnolgicos" seran de enorme ayuda para disear un prototipo del registro pblico y as demostrar lo poderosa que puede ser esta herramienta. +Grupos de activistas de todo el mundo se han unido para trabajar en esto. +El gobierno del Reino Unido ya se sum; apoya estos registros pblicos. +Y la semana pasada se sum el Parlamento Europeo, con 600 votos a 30 a favor de los registros pblicos. +Este es el momento justo. +Pero recin empezamos. +Hace falta que se sume EE. UU. y muchos ms pases. +Y para tener xito vamos a tener que empujar y ayudar todos juntos a nuestros polticos, porque sin eso un cambio real y trascendental que transforme el mundo, no es posible. +Porque no se trata solo de cambiar las leyes: se trata de empezar a hablar de las cosas que est bien que haga una empresa, y hasta dnde puede aceptarse que se usen las sociedades comerciales. +No es solo un asunto de fras polticas. +Es un asunto humano que nos afecta a todos. +Se trata de estar en el lado correcto de la historia. +Ciudadanos del mundo, innovadores, empresarios, gente comn: los necesitamos. +Comencemos juntos este movimiento mundial. +Solo hagmoslo. Terminemos con las sociedades annimas. +Gracias. +Qu es lo ms espantoso que han hecho? +Dicho de otra forma: Qu es lo ms peligroso que han hecho? +Por qu lo hicieron? +Yo s qu fue lo ms peligroso que hice porque la NASA lo calcula. +Analizando los primeros 5 lanzamientos del transbordador, las probabilidades de un evento catastrfico durante los primeros 5 lanzamientos del transbordador eran 1 de cada 9. +Incluso la primera vez dej la lanzadera en 1995, el vuelo 74 del transbordador, ahora que miramos atrs, las probabilidades eran incluso de cerca de 1 en 38, 1 en 35, 1 en 40. +No hay grandes probabilidades, es un da muy interesante cuando uno despierta en el Centro Espacial Kennedy uno va al espacio ese da porque se da cuenta de que al final del da o bien flotar sin esfuerzo gloriosamente en el espacio, o bien morir. +Uno entra al Centro Espacial Kennedy, a la sala de vestuario, la misma sala en la que nuestros hroes de la infancia se vistieron, donde se vistieron Neil Armstrong y Buzz Aldrin para subir al cohete Apollo camino a la luna. +La tripulacin est sentada en la astrocamioneta en silencio, casi de la mano, mirando la nave conforme se hace ms y ms grande. +Subimos por el ascensor, reptando con manos y rodillas, entramos a la nave, de a uno a la vez, abrindonos camino, reptando, hasta desplomarnos en los asientos, de espalda. +Se cierra la escotilla y, de repente, toda una vida de sueos y negaciones se vuelve real, algo que so, de hecho, algo que eleg a los 9 aos, de pronto ahora est a unos minutos de ocurrir de verdad. +En el mundo de los astronautas, el transbordador es un vehculo muy complicado; es la mquina voladora ms complicada de la historia. +Y en astronutica tenemos un dicho, que es: "Ningn problema es tan malo que no pueda ser peor". +Por eso uno est muy consciente en la cabina; uno piensa todas estas cosas que puede tener que hacer, todos los interruptores y ventanillas a atender. +Y conforme se acerca el momento, la emocin se agiganta. +Y unos 3 minutos y medio antes del lanzamiento, las enormes toberas de la parte posterior, del tamao de grandes campanas, se bambolean y su masa es tal que hacen balancear a todo el vehculo, como si el vehculo estuviese vivo debajo de uno, como si un elefante de rodillas se levantase o algo as. +Y luego unos 30 segundos antes del lanzamiento el vehculo est completamente vivo -- listo para salir -- las APUs estn funcionando, las computadoras autocontenidas, listas para dejar el planeta. +Y 15 segundos antes del lanzamiento, ocurre esto: Voz: 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6... (Transbordador preparado para el despegue) ... inicio, 2, 1, ignicin de propulsor, y despegue del transbordador espacial Discovery, de vuelta a la Estacin Espacial, allanando el camino... +(Transbordador despegando) Chris Hadfield: Es increblemente poderoso estar a bordo una de estas cosas. +Uno est en algo mucho ms poderoso que s mismo. +Uno tiembla tanto que no se puede concentrar en los instrumentos que tiene en frente. +Luego de dos minutos, esos cohetes slidos se disparan y luego estn los motores lquidos, el hidrgeno y el oxgeno, y es como si uno estuviese en un auto con el pie en el suelo, acelerando como si nunca hubiera acelerado. +Uno se vuelve ms y ms liviano, la fuerza contra uno es cada vez ms fuerte. +Es como si alguien estuviese vertiendo cemento sobre uno. +Hasta que por fin, despus de cerca de 8 minutos y 40 segundos ms o menos, por fin estamos exactamente a la altura correcta, exactamente la velocidad adecuada, la direccin correcta, el motor apagado, y estamos sin peso. +Y estamos vivos. +Es una experiencia increble. +Pero por qu asumimos ese riesgo? +Por qu hacer algo tan peligroso? +En mi caso la respuesta es bastante sencilla. +Desde joven sent la inspiracin de que era lo que quera hacer. +Vi a las primeras personas caminar en la luna y, para m, fue algo obvio; quiero de algn modo participar en eso. +Pero la verdadera pregunta es: cmo lidiar con ese peligro y con el miedo que conlleva? +Cmo lidiar con el miedo versus el peligro? +Y uno ve, dada la velocidad, un amanecer o un atardecer cada 45 minutos durante medio ao. +Y la parte ms hermosa de todo eso es salir a dar una caminata espacial. +Uno est en una nave espacial unipersonal que es el traje espacial, y va por el espacio junto con el mundo. +Es una perspectiva totalmente diferente, uno no est mirando hacia el universo. La Tierra y uno juntos por el universo. +Y uno sostenido con una mano, mira al mundo a su lado. +Un silencio ensordecedor con color y textura conforme pasa cautivante al lado de uno. +Si uno pudiera despegar los ojos de all y mirar bajo el brazo hacia abajo todo lo dems, hay una negrura insondable, una textura de un espesor que uno siente que podra atravesar +y sostener con una mano un vnculo con otros 7000 millones de personas. +Y yo estaba fuera en mi primera caminata espacial cuando perd la visin de mi ojo izquierdo, y yo no saba por qu. +De repente, mi ojo izquierdo se cerr de golpe con un gran dolor y yo no poda entender por qu mi ojo no estaba funcionando. +Pensaba: y ahora qu hago? +Pens, bueno, quiz por eso tenemos dos ojos, y segu trabajando. +Pero, por desgracia, sin gravedad las lgrimas no caen. +Qu es lo ms aterrador para Uds.? +Quiz las araas. +Mucha gente le teme a las araas. +Cmo saberlo? +Una araa cae sobre Uds., y les da un gran ataque espasmdico porque las araas son aterradoras. +Pero entonces Uds. podran decir, bueno hay una reclusa marrn en la silla que est a mi lado o no? +No lo s. Hay reclusas marrones aqu? +Si investigan, descubrirn que en el mundo hay unos 50 000 tipos diferentes de araas, y hay unas dos docenas que son venenosas de las 50 000. +Y si estn en Canad, debido a los crudos inviernos aqu en la C.B., hay unos 720, 730 tipos diferentes de araas y hay una -- una -- que es venenosa, y su veneno ni siquiera es mortal, es solo una picadura desagradable. +Y esa araa -- no solo esa -- pero esa tiene marcas hermosas, dice: "Soy peligrosa, tengo smbolo de radiacin"; es la viuda negra. +Si uno incluso tiene un poco de cuidado puede evitar encontrarse con la araa -- vive cerca del suelo -- si uno va caminando, nunca atravesar una telaraa con una viuda negra que lo pique. +No construyen telaraas como esta, las construye en las esquinas. +Y es la viuda negra porque la hembra se come al macho; nosotros no les importamos. +De hecho, la prxima vez que pisen una telaraa, no tienen que entrar en pnico y tener una reaccin caverncola. +El peligro es totalmente diferente al miedo. +Cmo moverse entonces? +Cmo cambiar el comportamiento? +Bueno, la prxima vez que vean una telaraa vean bien, asegrese de que no es una viuda negra, y luego atravisenla. +Y luego ven otra telaraa y la atraviesan. +Es solo algo esponjoso. No es gran cosa. +Y la araa que puede aparecer no es una amenaza mayor que la de una mariquita o una mariposa. +Les garantizo que si atraviesan 100 telas de araa habrn cambiado el comportamiento humano fundamental, la reaccin caverncola, y podrn caminar por el parque en la maana sin preocuparse por esa telaraa, o por el tico de la abuela o lo que sea, o por su propio stano. +Y pueden aplicar esto a todo. +Si uno est fuera en una caminata espacial y queda ciego, la reaccin natural sera el pnico, pienso. +Sera ponerse nervioso y preocuparse. +Pero habamos considerado todos los venenos, y practicado con una variedad de telaraas. +Conocamos todo lo que hay que saber sobre trajes espaciales y entrenamos bajo el agua miles de veces. +Y no solo practicamos las cosas que van bien, practicamos cosas que salen mal todo el tiempo, as que estamos contantemente atravesando esas telaraas. +Y no solo bajo el agua, sino tambin en laboratorios de realidad virtual con el casco y los guantes para sentir que es realista. +As que cuando por fin realmente salimos en una caminata espacial, se siente muy diferente que si se tratara de la primera vez. +E incluso si uno est ciego no ocurre la reaccin natural de pnico. +En vez de eso, uno mira alrededor y dice: "Bueno, no puedo ver, pero puedo or, puedo caminar, Scott Parazynski est aqu conmigo. +l podra venir en mi ayuda". +En realidad practicamos rescate de tripulacin incapacitada, as que podra llevarme como un dirigible y meterme en la esclusa de aire si tuviera que hacerlo. +Podra abrirme mi propio camino de regreso. +No es algo tan grave. +Y, de hecho, si uno sigue lagrimeando durante un tiempo, cualquier basura del ojo empieza a diluirse y uno empieza a ver otra vez, y Houston, si uno negocia con ellos, ellos le permiten a uno seguir trabajando. +Terminamos toda la caminata espacial y cuando regresamos adentro, Jeff con un cotonete quit la basura de mis ojos, y result que era solo el antiniebla, una mezcla de aceite y jabn, que me entr en el ojo. +Y ahora usamos No ms lgrimas, de Johnson's que probablemente deberamos haber usado desde el principio. Pero la clave de eso es al mirar la diferencia entre el peligro percibido y el peligro real cul es el riesgo real? +Cul es la cosa real a la que uno debe tener miedo? +No un miedo genrico a que ocurran cosas malas. +Uno puede cambiar de manera fundamental su reaccin a las cosas de manera de poder llegar a lugares y ver cosas y hacer cosas que de otro modo nos estaran completamente negadas... +poda ver el sur del Sahara, o la ciudad de Nueva York de una manera de ensueo, o la guinga inconsciente de los campos de Europa del Este o los Grandes Lagos como un conjunto de pequeos charcos. +Uno puede ver la falla de San Francisco o la forma en que el agua pasa debajo del puente totalmente diferente de la forma que lo habra hecho de no haber encontrado la manera de conquistar sus miedos. +Uno ve una belleza que de otro modo nunca habra visto. +Es hora de volver a casa al final. +Esta es nuestra nave, la pequea Soyuz. +Subimos tres tripulantes, y luego esta nave se separa de la estacin y cae a la atmsfera. +Estas dos partes se derriten, se funden y se queman en la atmsfera. +La nica parte que sobrevive es la pequea bala en la que estamos montados, y cae a la atmsfera, y, bsicamente, estamos montando un meteorito de regreso a casa, y montar meteoritos es aterrador, y as debe ser. +Y, de hecho, se puede volar este meteorito y dirigirlo a la Tierra en un crculo de 15 kilmetros, a cualquier lugar de la Tierra. +Por eso, cuando nuestra tripulacin regresa a la atmsfera en la Soyuz, no gritamos, sino que remos; fue divertido. +Y cuando se abri el gran paracadas, sabamos que de no abrirse hay un segundo paracadas, y funciona con un pequeo y buen mecanismo de relojera. +As que regresamos, volvimos como un trueno, a la Tierra y esta es la forma de aterrizar en una Soyuz, en Kazajstn. +Periodista: Pueden ver uno de esos helicpteros de bsqueda y recuperacin, una vez ms, ese helicptero es parte de una docena de helicpteros rusos Mi-8. +Aterrizaje - 03:14 y 48 segundos, a.m. Hora del Centro. +CH: Y uno rueda hasta detenerse como si alguien tirara la nave de uno al suelo y esta girase de punta a punta, pero uno est listo para eso en un asiento hecho a medida, uno sabe cmo funciona el amortiguador. +Y entonces, finalmente, llegan los rusos, te sacan, te ponen en una silla, y ahora uno puede mirar hacia atrs a lo que fue una experiencia increble. +Para concluir, me pidieron que toque la guitarra. +Eso es muy amable de su parte. Muchas gracias. +Gracias. +Chris Anderson: Tuvimos aqu a Edward Snowden hace un par de das, y es el momento de la respuesta. +Varios de Uds. me han escrito con preguntas para hacerle a nuestro invitado de la NSA. +Richard Ledgett es el 15 subdirector de la Agencia de Seguridad Nacional , all es funcionario civil de alto nivel, se desempea como director de operaciones, orienta estrategias, establece polticas internas, y es el principal asesor del director. +Y, si todo va bien, bienvenido, Rick Ledgett, a TED. +Richard Ledgett: Estoy muy agradecido de poder hablar aqu con la gente. +Espero con inters la conversacin, as que gracias por organizar eso. +CA: Gracias, Rick. +Apreciamos que te sumes. +Sin duda es toda una declaracin de peso que la NSA est dispuesta a mostrar una cara ms abierta aqu. +Viste, creo, la charla y entrevista que dio Edward Snowden aqu hace un par de das. +Qu te pareci? +RL: Creo que fue interesante. +No nos dimos cuenta de que aparecera por all, as que felicitaciones por organizar una linda sorpresa como esa. +Creo que, al igual que muchas de las cosas surgidas desde que el Sr. Snowden empez a divulgar informacin clasificada, hubo algunos resquicios de verdad en lo dicho, pero tambin muchas extrapolaciones y verdades a medias, y me interesa ayudar a abordar esos puntos. +Creo que es una conversacin realmente importante la que estamos entablando en EE.UU. y a nivel internacional, y creo que es importante, y de importancia, y por eso tenemos que lograr que sea una conversacin basada en hechos y queremos ayudar a que eso ocurra. +CA: La pregunta que muchos nos hacemos aqu es cules crees que son las motivaciones de Snowden para hacer lo que hizo? Tena alguna manera alternativa de hacerlo? +RL: Absolutamente, tena maneras alternativas de hacerlo, y en realidad creo que caracterizarlo como un sopln realmente daa las actividades de denuncia legtimos. +Y si los empleados de la NSA... y hay ms de 35 000 empleados... +todos grandes ciudadanos. +Son como sus esposos, padres, hermanas, hermanos, vecinos, sobrinos, amigos y parientes, todos interesados en hacer lo correcto por su pas y por nuestros aliados internacionales, y hay muchos lugares a dnde dirigirse si alguien tiene alguna preocupacin. +En primer lugar, est su supervisor, y una cadena de supervisin en su organizacin. +Si alguien no se siente cmodo con eso, hay una serie de inspectores generales. +(CA y RL hablan a la vez) Tena la opcin de ir a las comisiones del Congreso, existen mecanismos para hacerlo, pero no hizo nada de esto. +CA: Mencionaste que Ed Snowden tena otras vas para elevar sus inquietudes. +Digo, en esa circunstancia, no podra argumentarse que lo que hizo fue razonable? +RL: No, no estoy de acuerdo. +Las pusieron en riesgo. +Creo que es extremadamente arrogante de su parte. +CA: Puede dar un ejemplo especfico de cmo puso en riesgo la vida de la gente? +RL: S, claro. +El efecto neto de eso es que nuestra gente que est en el extranjero en lugares peligrosos, sean diplomticos o militares, y nuestros aliados que estn en situaciones similares, corren un gran riesgo porque no vemos las amenazas que se les vienen. +CA: Esa es una respuesta general que dice que debido a sus revelaciones, el acceso que Uds. tenan a cierto tipo de informacin se ha terminado, se ha cerrado. +Pero la preocupacin es que la naturaleza de ese acceso no era necesariamente legtimo en primera instancia. +O sea, descrbenos este programa Bullrun en el que se afirma que la NSA especficamente debilitaba la seguridad para obtener el tipo de acceso del que hablabas. +Pero tambin es usada por personas que trabajaron en contra de nosotros y de nuestros aliados. +Y si voy a perseguirlos, necesito tener la capacidad de ir tras ellos, y, de nuevo, los controles estn en la forma de aplicar esa capacidad, no en que tenga la capacidad en s. +De lo contrario, si pudiramos acorralar a los chicos malos en un rincn de Internet, podramos tener un dominio, chicomalo.com. +Sera increble, y podramos centrar todos los esfuerzos all. +Pero no funciona as. +Ellos tratan de ocultarse de la capacidad del gobierno para aislar e interceptar sus acciones, por eso tenemos que movernos en ese mismo espacio. +Pero te dir algo: +La NSA tiene 2 misiones. +Una es la misin de Inteligencia de Seales de la que, lamentablemente, hemos ledo tanto en la prensa. +Por eso recomendamos qu estndares usar, y usamos esos mismos estndares, e invertimos en asegurar que esas comunicaciones sean seguras para los fines previstos. +CA: Pareces estar diciendo que si se trata de Internet como un todo, cualquier estrategia vale si mejora la seguridad de Estados Unidos. +Y creo que en parte a eso se debe que haya tal divisin de opiniones, que haya tantas personas en esta sala y en todo el mundo que piensan de manera muy diferente sobre Internet. +Lo ven como una invencin trascendental de la humanidad, a la par con la Imprenta de Gutenberg por ejemplo. +Es el portador de conocimiento para todos. +Es el conector de todos. +Se ve en estos trminos idealistas. +Y desde esa ptica, lo que ha hecho la NSA es el equivalente a que aquellas autoridades alemanas pusieran algn dispositivo en la imprenta que revelara qu libros compr la gente y qu leen. +Puedes entender que, desde ese punto de vista, parece una barbaridad? +RL: Entiendo eso, realmente comparto la mirada utilitaria de Internet, y yo dira que es ms grande que Internet. +Es un sistema mundial de telecomunicaciones. +Internet en gran parte es eso, pero es mucho ms. +Creo que la gente tiene preocupaciones legtimas sobre el equilibrio entre la transparencia y lo secreto. +Y lo ha expresado como un equilibrio entre la privacidad y la seguridad nacional. +No creo que ese sea el enfoque correcto. +Creo que se trata de la transparencia y lo secreto. +Y esa es la conversacin que entablamos en el mbito nacional e internacional y en la que queremos participar y queremos que la gente participe de manera informal. +Hay cosas, permteme hablar de eso un poco ms, hay cosas que necesitamos sean transparentes: nuestras autoridades, nuestros procesos, nuestra supervisin, quines somos. +Como NSA no hemos trabajado bien en eso y creo que esa es en parte la razn de que esto causara tanta novedad y repercusin en los medios. No nos conocan. +ramos No Such Agency [la no agencia], Never Say Anything [nadie dice nada]. +Hay versiones de nuestro logo con un guila que tiene auriculares. +Esa es la caracterizacin pblica. +Por eso tenemos que ser ms transparentes en esas cosas. +CA: Pero no es tambin malo asestar una especie de golpe a las empresas de EE.UU. que bsicamente le han dado al mundo la mayora de los servicios importantes de Internet? +RL: Lo es. Realmente las empresas estn en una posicin difcil, como nosotros, porque las obligamos a brindar informacin, como hace cualquier otra nacin del mundo. +Todas las naciones industrializadas del mundo tiene un programa de intercepcin legal que le exige a las empresas que les brinde la informacin que necesitan para su seguridad, y las empresas involucradas han cumplido con los programas de la misma manera en que lo tienen que hacer cuando operan en Rusia, en el Reino Unido, +en China, en India o en Francia. Cualquier pas que elijas. +Pero como estas revelaciones han sido caracterizadas como: "no puedes confiar en la empresa A porque peligra tu privacidad con ellos" eso solo es exacto en el sentido en que ocurre exactamente con cualquier otra empresa en el mundo que interacte con esos pases del mundo. +Y la gente lo aprovecha como una ventaja comercial, y muchos pases lo presentan de esa manera, incluso algunos de nuestros aliados, cuando dicen: "Oye, no puedes confiar en EE.UU., pero puedes confiar en nuestra empresa de telecomunicaciones, porque somos seguros". +Y en realidad usan eso para contrarrestar la gran ventaja tecnolgica que tienen las empresas de EE.UU. en reas como la nube y las tecnologas de Internet. +CA: Ests sentado all con la bandera de Estados Unidos, y la Constitucin de EE.UU. garantiza la libertad de requisas o confiscaciones infundadas. +Cmo caracterizas el derecho del ciudadano de EE.UU. a la privacidad? +Existe tal derecho? +RL: S, claro que existe. +Le dedicamos una excesiva cantidad de tiempo y presin, excesiva y apropiada, debera decir, cantidad de tiempo y esfuerzo para garantizar que protegemos esa privacidad. +Y, ms all de eso, la privacidad de ciudadanos del mundo, no solo de EE.UU. +Aqu intervienen varias cosas. +Primero, estamos todos en la misma red. +Mis comunicaciones, Soy usuario de un servicio de correo electrnico de Internet en particular que es el preferido de los terroristas del mundo, el nmero uno. +Estoy a su lado en el espacio de correo en Internet. +Por eso tenemos que poder separarlos y encontrar la informacin relevante. +Al hacerlo, necesariamente encontraremos ciudadanos de EE.UU. y extranjeros inocentes que solo van a lo suyo, y tenemos procedimientos que descartan eso, que dicen, cuando uno encuentra eso, no si lo encuentra, cuando lo encuentra, porque uno est seguro de encontrarlo, as se protege eso. +Se denominan procedimientos de minimizacin. +Estn aprobados por el fiscal general y tienen base constitucional. +As que los protegemos. +Y luego, las personas, los ciudadanos del mundo que realizan negocios lcitos cotidianamente, el presidente en su discurso del 17 de enero expuesto algunas protecciones adicionales que les estamos ofreciendo. +Creo absolutamente que la gente tiene derecho a la privacidad y que trabajamos arduamente para asegurar que se proteja ese derecho a la privacidad. +CA: Qu pasa con los extranjeros que usan servicios de Internet de empresas de EE.UU.? +Tienen derecho a la privacidad? +CA: Se ha hablado mucho del hecho de que mucha de la informacin obtenida con estos programas, son en esencia metadatos. +No son necesariamente las palabras reales que uno ha escrito en un correo o dicho en una llamada telefnica. +Se trata de a quin escribieron, cundo, etc. +Pero se ha esgrimido, alguien aqu en la audiencia ha dicho, un ex-analista de la NSA que dijo los metadatos son mucho ms invasivos que los datos puros, porque en los datos puros uno se presenta como quiere presentarse. +Con los metadatos, quin sabe cul es la conclusin que se saca? +Hay algo de eso? +RL: Yo realmente no entiendo ese argumento. +Creo que los metadatos son importantes por un par de razones. +Los metadatos son la informacin que te permite encontrar las conexiones que la gente trata de ocultar. +Por eso cuando un terrorista escribe a alguien que no conocemos pero realiza o apoya actividades terroristas, o alguien que viola sanciones internacionales proporcionando material para armas nucleares a un pas como Irn o Corea del Norte, trata de ocultar esa actividad porque es ilcita. +Los metadatos te permiten hacer esa conexin. +La alternativa a eso es mucho menos eficiente y mucho ms invasiva de la privacidad, es la acumulacin gigantesca de contenido. +Los metadatos, en ese sentido, mejoran la privacidad. +Y a diferencia de lo que sostienen algunas publicaciones, no nos sentamos a desmenuzar perfiles de metadatos de la gente comn. +Las personas que no estn relacionadas con un objetivo vlido de inteligencia, no son de nuestro inters. +CA: Entonces, en materia de amenazas que enfrenta EE.UU. en general, en qu lugar ubicaras al terrorismo? +RL: Creo que el terrorismo an est primero. +Creo que nunca hemos estado en un tiempo con tantos lugares en los que las cosas van mal y se forma un caldo de cultivo para terroristas que se aprovecha de la falta de gobernabilidad. +Un antiguo jefe mo, Tom Fargo, el almirante Fargo, sola describirlos como arcos de inestabilidad. +Hay lugares como Irak, que est sufriendo de un alto nivel de violencia sectaria, y, de nuevo, es caldo de cultivo para el terrorismo. +Hay actividad en el Cuerno de frica en la zona del Sahel, en frica. +De nuevo, una gobernabilidad muy dbil que es caldo de cultivo para la actividad terrorista. +Por eso creo que es muy grave. Creo que est primero. +Segundo creo que est la amenaza ciberntica. +Son actividades enormemente onerosas que estn ocurriendo ahora mismo. +Varios estados-nacin estn haciendo esto. +Luego estn los ataques de denegacin de servicio. +Quiz estn al tanto de que ha habido una crecida de estos ataques contra el sector financiero de EE.UU. desde 2012. +De nuevo, es una nacin-estado que ejecuta estos ataques y lo hacen como una forma semi-annima de represalia. +Y por ltimo los ataques destructivos, y esos son los que ms me preocupan. +Esos estn en aumento. +El ataque contra Saudi Aramco en 2012, en agosto de 2012. +Afect a unas 35 000 de sus computadoras con un virus estilo limpiaparabrisas. +Una semana ms tarde la continuacin en una empresa qatar. +En marzo de 2013, un ataque en Corea del Sur atribuido en la prensa a Corea del Norte que afect a miles de computadoras. +Esos estn en aumento y vemos gente que expresa inters en esas capacidades y un deseo de emplearlas. +CA: Bueno, un par de cosas aqu, porque esto es realmente el quid, casi. +Digo, en primer lugar, mucha gente que mira el riesgo y mira los nmeros no entiende esta creencia de que el terrorismo sigue siendo la amenaza nmero uno. +Aparte del 11 de septiembre, creo que los nmeros indican que en los ltimos 30 o 40 aos unos 500 estadounidenses murieron por terrorismo, en su mayora a manos de terroristas locales. +La probabilidad en los ltimos aos de morir por terrorismo es mucho menor que la de morir por un rayo. +Supongo que podras decirme que un solo incidente nuclear o un acto de bioterrorismo o algo as cambiara esos nmeros. +Sera ese el punto de vista? +RL: Bueno, quisiera decir dos cosas. +Una, que la razn por la que no ha habido un ataque importante en EE.UU. desde el 11-S, no es un accidente. +Se debe al arduo trabajo que hicimos junto a otra gente de la comunidad de inteligencia, que han hecho los militares, y que han hecho nuestros aliados en el mundo. +As que no es por accidente que ocurren esas cosas. +Es un trabajo arduo. Hacemos inteligencia sobre actividades terroristas y las impedimos de alguna u otra manera aplicando la ley, cooperando con otros pases, y a veces mediante accin militar. +La otra cosa que me gustara decir es que tu idea de la amenaza nuclear o bioqumica no es en absoluto exagerada y de hecho hay grupos que durante aos han expresado inters y deseo de obtener esas capacidades y trabajan para ello. +La aguja fue encontrada por otros mtodos. +No hay algo de eso? +RL: No, en realidad hay 2 programas tpicamente implicados en esta discusin. +Una es la Seccin 215 del programa de metadatos de telefona de EE.UU., y el otro es el programa llamado popularmente PRISM, la Seccin 702 de la enmienda a la Ley FISA. +Pero el programa 215 solo es pertinente para las amenazas dirigidas contra Estados Unidos, y ha habido una docena de amenazas en las que estuvo implicado. +Vers que la gente dice pblicamente que no hay relacin de causalidad, no hay un caso para el cual la amenaza se haya cumplido. +Pero eso indica una falta de comprensin de la dinmica de las investigaciones de terrorismo. +Uno piensa en la televisin, ve un asesinato misterioso. +Por dnde empieza? Empieza por el cuerpo y partiendo de eso se abren camino para resolver el crimen. +Nosotros partimos mucho antes que eso con suerte antes de que aparezcan los cuerpos, y tratamos de construir el caso de quin es la gente, qu trata de hacer, y eso requiere ingentes cantidades de informacin. +Pinsalo como un mosaico, es difcil saber si cada pieza del mosaico era necesaria para construirlo, pero para construir la imagen completa, se necesitan todas la informacin. +De las 54, para las amenazas no vinculadas con EE.UU. las otras 42, el programa PRISM fue muy relevante y de hecho contribuy significativamente para detener esos ataques. +Hay algn debate interno acerca de eso? +RL: S. +Digo, debatimos estas cosas todo el tiempo, y contina la discusin en el Poder Ejecutivo y dentro de la propia NSA y la comunidad de inteligencia sobre qu es correcto, qu es proporcionado, cul es la forma correcta. +Y es importante observar que los programas de los que estamos hablando fueron autorizados por 2 presidentes distintos, por 2 partidos polticos distintos, por el Congreso 2 veces, y 16 veces diferentes por jueces federales, as que la NSA no acta unilateralmente. +Es una actividad legtima del gobierno exterior de Estados Unidos que fue acordada con todos los poderes del gobierno de Estados Unidos, y el presidente Madison estara orgulloso. +CA: Sin embargo, cuando los congresistas descubrieron lo que se estaba haciendo con esa autorizacin, muchos de ellos quedaron completamente impactados. +O piensas que no es una reaccin legtima, que se debe solo a que se hizo pblico, que saban exactamente lo que Uds. estaban haciendo con los poderes que les haban concedido? +RL: El Congreso es un gran cuerpo. +Hay 365 integrantes, y cambian con frecuencia, la Cmara de Diputados, cada 2 aos, y creo que la NSA brind la informacin relevante a nuestras comisiones de vigilancia. Luego la difusin de esa informacin de las comisiones de vigilancia a todo el Congreso es algo que manejan ellos. +Me gustara decir que los miembros del Congreso tuvieron la oportunidad de darse cuenta, y, de hecho, un nmero significativo de ellos, los que tienen la responsabilidad de vigilancia, tuvieron la posibilidad de hacerlo. +Y realmente los presidentes de esas comisiones lo dijeron en pblico. +RL: Creo dos cosas. +Una es que t dijiste debilitar el cifrado. Yo no. +Y la otra cosa es que la NSA tiene las 2 misiones, y estamos muy sesgados hacia la defensa, y, en realidad, las vulnerabilidades que encontramos en la abrumadora mayora de los casos, es que damos a conocer personas responsables de la fabricacin o el desarrollo de estos productos. +Tenemos un gran historial y en este momento estamos trabajando en una propuesta para ser transparentes y publicar reportes de transparencia de la misma manera en que las empresas de Internet se les permite publicar informes de transparencia. +Queremos ser ms transparentes en eso. +De nuevo, predicamos con el ejemplo. +Usamos los estndares, usamos los productos que recomendamos, por eso nos interesa mantener las comunicaciones protegidas del mismo modo que lo necesitan las otras personas. +Vino ciertamente muy razonable y con calma. +No vino como un loco. +Aceptaras, por lo menos, aunque ests en desacuerdo con la forma en que lo hizo, que ha abierto un debate importante? +RL: Creo que es una discusin discusin importante. +No me gusta la forma en que la plante. +Creo que haba varias otras maneras de hacerlo sin poner en peligro a nuestra gente y a la gente de otras naciones por la prdida de visibilidad de lo que hacen los adversarios. +Pero creo que es una conversacin importante. +CA: Se ha informado que hay casi una diferencia de opinin entre tus colegas y t sobre cualquier posibilidad de ofrecerle un acuerdo de amnista. +Creo que tu jefe, el general Keith Alexander, ha dicho que sera un psimo ejemplo para otros; que no se puede negociar con alguien que quebrant la ley de ese modo. +Pero t has sido citado diciendo que, si Snowden pudiera probar que entreg todos los documentos no divulgados, que debera considerarse un acuerdo. +Sigues pensando eso? +RL: S, en realidad, es mi parte favorita de esa entrevista de "60 Minutos", y todas las citas errneas que salieron de all. +Lo que en realidad dije, en respuesta a una pregunta sobre si estara abierto a la discusin de mitigar la accin contra Snowden, dije que s, que valdra la pena conversar. +Esto es algo de lo que el fiscal general de Estados Unidos y tambin el presidente ambos han hablado de esto, y me remito al fiscal general, porque ese es su competencia. +Pero hay una fuerte tradicin en la jurisprudencia estadounidense de tener conversaciones con personas acusadas de delitos para, de ser beneficioso para el gobierno, obtener algo a cambio. Siempre hay lugar para ese tipo de discusin. +No estoy presuponiendo ningn resultado, pero siempre hay lugar para la discusin. +CA: Para el lego que parece ser tiene ciertas cosas que ofrecer a EE.UU., al gobierno, a ti, a otros, en trminos de acomodar las cosas y ayudar a encontrar una poltica ms inteligente, una forma ms inteligente de avanzar hacia el futuro. +Ves algn tipo de posibilidad de acercamiento? +RL: Eso est fuera de mi mbito. +No es algo de la NSA. +Esa sera una discusin del Departamento de Justicia. +Se lo dejar a ellos. +CA: Rick, cuando Ed Snowden termin su charla, le ofrec la posibilidad de compartir una idea que vale la pena difundir. +Cul sera tu idea que vale la pena difundir para este grupo? +RL: Creo que es conocer los hechos. +Esta es una conversacin realmente importante, tiene impacto, no solo en la NSA, no solo en el gobierno, en Uds., en las empresas de Internet. +El tema de la privacidad y de los datos personales es mucho ms grande que solo el gobierno, por eso conozcan los hechos. +No confen en los titulares, no confen en altisonancias, no confen en conversaciones unidireccionales. +Esa es la idea, creo, que vale la pena difundir. +Tenemos un signo, una insignia, en el trabajo llevamos insignias, y si puedo hacer publicidad, mi insignia laboral dice "Dallas Cowboys". +Vamos Dallas. +Acabo de enajenar a media audiencia, lo s. +La insignia de nuestra gente que trabaja en la organizacin en tareas de cripto-anlisis tiene una pestaa que dice: "Mira a los datos". +Esa es la idea que vale la pena difundir. +Miren los datos. +CA: Rick, se requiere cierto coraje, creo, para salir a hablar abiertamente a este grupo. +No es algo que la NSA haya hecho mucho en el pasado, y adems de la tecnologa ha sido un reto. +Te agradecemos que hayas participado en esta conversacin muy importante. +Muchas gracias. +RL: Gracias, Chris. +Una manada de us, un banco de peces, una bandada de pjaros. +Muchos animales se renen en grandes grupos que son algunos de los espectculos ms maravillosos en el mundo natural. +Pero por qu se forman estos grupos? +Las respuestas ms comunes incluyen cosas como la bsqueda de seguridad en los nmeros o la caza en grupos o reunirse para aparearse o reproducirse, y todas estas explicaciones, aunque a menudo verdaderas, hacen una gran suposicin sobre el comportamiento animal, que los animales estn en control de sus propias acciones, que estn a cargo de sus cuerpos. +Y que a menudo ese no es el caso. +Esta es Artemia, un camarn de salmuera. +Probablemente lo conocen mejor por mono del mar. +Es pequeo y, por lo general vive solo, pero puede reunirse en estos grandes enjambres de color rojo en extensiones de metros, y que se forman debido a un parsito. +Estos camarones estn infectadas con una tenia. +Una tenia es efectivamente un gusano largo, que vive en el intestino con los genitales en un extremo y una boca de gancho en el otro. +Como periodista free lance, me compadezco. +La tenia drena los nutrientes del cuerpo de la Artemia, pero tambin hace otras cosas. +Los castra, cambia su color de transparente a rojo brillante, los hace vivir ms tiempo, y como el bilogo Rode Nicolas ha encontrado, los hace nadar en grupos. +Por qu? Debido a que la tenia, al igual que muchos otros parsitos, tiene un ciclo de vida complicado que involucra diferentes huspedes. +Los camarones son solo un paso en su viaje. +Su destino final es este, el flamenco. +Solo en un flamenco la tenia se puede reproducir, por lo que para llegar all, manipula a sus anfitriones camarones en la formacin de estas nubes de colores llamativos que son ms fciles de detectar para un flamenco y ser devorados y ese es el secreto del enjambre Artemia. +No son sociables por su propia voluntad, sino debido a que estn siendo controlados. +No es la seguridad en los nmeros. +En realidad es exactamente lo contrario. +La tenia secuestra sus cerebros y sus cuerpos, convirtindolos en vehculos que las lleve dentro de un flamenco. +Aqu est otro ejemplo de una manipulacin parasitaria. +Se trata de un grillo suicida. +Este grillo se trag las larvas de un gusano gordiano, o gusano de crin. +El gusano creci hasta el tamao adulto dentro de ella, pero necesita entrar en el agua con el fin de aparearse y lo hace mediante la liberacin de protenas que confunden al cerebro del grillo haciendo que se comporte de forma errtica. +Cuando el grillo se acerca a un cuerpo de agua, como esta piscina, salta y se ahoga, y el gusano se escape del cadver suicida. +Los grillos son muy espaciosos. Quin lo hubiera imaginado? +La tenia y el gusano gordiano no estn solos. +Son parte de toda una cabalgata de parsitos que controlan la mente, de los hongos, los virus y los gusanos e insectos y ms que todos se especializan en subvertir y reemplazar las voluntades de sus anfitriones. +Ahora, me enter de esta forma de vida a travs de "La vida a prueba" de David Attenborough hace unos 20 aos y ms tarde a travs de un libro maravilloso llamado "Parasite Rex" de mi amigo Carl Zimmer. +Y he estado escribiendo acerca de estas criaturas desde entonces. +Pocos temas en la biologa me cautivan ms. +Es como si los parsitos hubiesen trastornado mi propio cerebro. +Porque despus de todo, ellos siempre son convincentes y son deliciosamente macabros. +Cuando se escribe sobre los parsitos, el lxico se incrementa con frases como "devorado vivo" y "estalla de su cuerpo". +Pero hay ms que eso. +Soy un escritor y los colegas escritores en la audiencia sabrn que amamos las historias. +Los parsitos nos invitan a resistirnos a la atraccin de las historias obvias. +Su mundo es de giros en la trama y de explicaciones inesperadas. +Por qu, por ejemplo, esta oruga empieza a golpear violentamente cuando otro insecto se acerca a ella y a esos capullos blancos que parece que les est haciendo guardia? +Es tal vez la proteccin de sus hermanos? +No. +Esta oruga fue atacada por una avispa parsita que puso huevos en su interior. +Los huevos eclosionaron y las jvenes avispas devoraron la oruga viva antes de estallar fuera de su cuerpo. +Ven lo que quiero decir? +Ahora, la oruga no muri. +Algunas de las avispas parecan haberse quedado y la controlan en defensa de sus hermanos que se metamorfosean en los adultos dentro de los capullos. +Esta oruga es un zombi guardaespaldas que se golpea la cabeza en defensa de las cras de la criatura que la mataron. +Son fciles de pasar por alto, pero eso no quiere decir que no sean importantes. +Hace unos aos, un hombre llamado Kevin Lafferty llev a un grupo de cientficos dentro de tres estuarios de California y prcticamente pesaron y diseccionaron y grabaron todo lo que pudieron encontrar y lo que encontraron fue parsitos en abundancia extrema. +Especialmente comunes fueron los trematodos, pequeos gusanos que se especializan en castrar a sus anfitriones como este desafortunado caracol. +Ahora, un nico trematodo es pequeo, microscpico, pero en conjunto pesaron tanto como todos los peces en los estuarios y tres a nueve veces ms que todos los pjaros. +Y recuerdan el gusano gordiano que les mostr, el grillo? +Un cientfico japons llamado Takuya Sato encontr que en una sola corriente, estas cosas conducen tantos grillos y langostas al agua que los insectos ahogados constituyen alrededor del 60 % de la dieta de la trucha local. +La manipulacin no es una rareza. +Es una parte crtica y comn del mundo que nos rodea, y los cientficos han descubierto ahora cientos de ejemplos de tales manipuladores, y ms emocionante, estn empezando a entender exactamente cmo estas criaturas controlan a sus huspedes. +Este es uno de mis ejemplos favoritos. +Este es Ampulex compressa, la avispa esmeralda cucaracha, y es una verdad universalmente reconocida que una cucaracha avispa esmeralda en posesin de algunos huevos fertilizados necesita a una cucaracha. +Cuando encuentra una, la apuala con un aguijn que tambin es un rgano sensorial. +Este descubrimiento sali hace tres semanas. +Ella apuala con un aguijn que es un rgano de los sentidos equipado con pequeas protuberancias sensoriales que le permiten sentir la textura distintiva del cerebro de una cucaracha. +As como una persona enraza ciegamente en una bolsa, ella encuentra el cerebro, y le inyecta un veneno en dos grupos muy especficos de neuronas. +Los cientficos israeles Frederic Libersat y Ram Gal encontraron que el veneno es un arma qumica muy especfica. +No mata a la cucaracha, ni la seda. +La cucaracha podra alejarse o volar o correr si lo decidiera, pero no lo hace, debido a que el veneno inhibe su motivacin para caminar y solo eso. +La avispa bsicamente desmarca la casilla de escape-del-peligro en el sistema operativo de la cucaracha, lo que le permite llevar a su vctima indefensa de vuelta a su guarida por sus antenas como una persona que pasea un perro. +Y una vez all, pone un huevo en ella, el huevo eclosiona, devorndola viva, estalla fuera del cuerpo, ta ta ta, conocen el ejercicio. +Ahora yo dira que, una vez picada, la cucaracha no es una cucaracha ms. +Es ms bien una extensin de la avispa, al igual que el grillo era una extensin del gusano gordiano. +Estos anfitriones no conseguirn sobrevivir o reproducirse. +Ellos tienen tanto control sobre su propio destino como mi coche. +Una vez que los parsitos entran, los anfitriones no tienen voz. +Ahora los seres humanos, por supuesto, no son ajenos a la manipulacin. +Tomamos drogas para cambiar la qumica de nuestro cerebro y para cambiar nuestro estado de nimo, y qu son los argumentos o la publicidad o las grandes ideas si no un intento de influir en la mente de otra persona? +Pero nuestros intentos de hacer esto son crudos y torpes en comparacin a la especificidad de grano fino de los parsitos. +Don Draper solo desea que l fuera tan elegante y preciso como la avispa esmeralda cucaracha. +Ahora, creo que esto es parte de lo que hace a los parsitos tan siniestros y tan convincentes. +Damos tanto valor a nuestro libre albedro y nuestra independencia que la posibilidad de perder esas cualidades por fuerzas invisibles sustenta muchos de nuestros temores sociales ms profundos. +Distopas orwellianas y cbalas sombras y supervillanos que controlan la mente, estos son los tropos que llenan nuestra ficcin ms oscura, pero en la naturaleza, ocurre todo el tiempo. +Lo que me lleva a una evidente e inquietante pregunta: Hay oscuros parsitos siniestros influyendo en nuestro comportamiento sin que sepamos de ellos, adems de la NSA? +Si hay alguno... Tengo un punto rojo en la frente, cierto? +Si los hay, este es un buen candidato para ello. +Este es el Toxoplasma gondii, o Toxo, para abreviar, porque la criatura terrorfica siempre merece un apodo lindo. +Toxo infecta a los mamferos, a una amplia variedad de mamferos, pero solo puede reproducirse sexualmente en un gato. +Y los cientficos como Joanne Webster han demostrado que si Toxo entra en una rata o un ratn, este se convierte en un misil roedor en busca de gatos. +Si la rata infectada huele el olor delicioso de la orina de gato, corre hacia la fuente del olor en lugar de la direccin apropiada de alejarse. +El gato se come la rata. Toxo tiene relaciones sexuales. +Es el cuento clsico de la Comer, Rezar, Amar. +Uds. son personas generosas, caritativas. +Hola, Elizabeth, me encant tu charla. +Cmo controla el parsito a su husped de esta manera? +En realidad no lo sabemos. +Sabemos que Toxo libera una enzima que produce dopamina, una sustancia involucrada en la recompensa y la motivacin. +Sabemos que se dirige a ciertas partes del cerebro de un roedor, incluyendo aquellos involucrados en la excitacin sexual. +Pero cmo las piezas del rompecabezas encajan entre s, no est claro de momento. +Lo que est claro es que esta cosa es una sola clula. +No tiene sistema nervioso. +No tiene consciencia. +Ni siquiera tiene un cuerpo. +Pero est manipulando un mamfero? +Somos mamferos. +Somos ms inteligentes que una simple rata, seguro, pero nuestros cerebros tienen la misma estructura bsica, los mismos tipos de clulas, las mismas sustancias qumicas que circulan en sus cuerpos y los mismos parsitos. +Las estimaciones varan mucho, pero algunos datos sugieren que una de cada tres personas en todo el mundo tienen Toxo en sus cerebros. +Ahora normalmente, esto no conduce a ninguna enfermedad manifiesta. +El parsito se mantiene en un estado latente durante un largo perodo. +Pero hay alguna evidencia de que las personas que son portadoras tienen una puntuacin ligeramente diferente en cuestionarios de personalidad que las dems personas, que tienen un riesgo ligeramente ms alto de accidentes de trfico, y hay alguna evidencia de que las personas con esquizofrenia son ms propensas a ser infectadas. +Ahora, creo que esta evidencia an no es concluyente, e incluso entre Toxo investigadores, las opiniones estn divididas en cuanto a si el parsito est influyendo verdaderamente nuestro comportamiento. +Pero dada la naturaleza generalizada de esas manipulaciones, sera completamente inverosmil que los seres humanos seamos la nica especie que no se vean afectados de forma similar. +Y creo que esta capacidad de trastornar constantemente nuestra forma de pensar acerca del mundo hace increbles a los parsitos. +Constantemente nos invitan a soslayar al mundo natural y a preguntar si los comportamientos que estamos viendo, son simples y obvios o desconcertantes y enigmticos, si no son el resultado de los individuos actuando a travs de su propia voluntad pero debido a que se estn sujetos al control de algo ms. +Y aunque esa idea puede ser inquietante y aunque los hbitos de los parsitos pueden ser muy espantosos, creo que la capacidad de sorprendernos los hace tan maravillosos y tan carismticos como cualquier panda o mariposa o delfn. +Pero tal vez, eso es solo una conversacin de parsito. +Gracias. +Buenos das +Cuando era pequeo, tuve una experiencia que cambi mi vida, y por eso estoy aqu hoy. +Aquel momento afect profundamente mi forma de pensar sobre el arte, el diseo y la ingeniera. +Como antecedentes, tuve la gran suerte de crecer en una familia de amorosos y talentosos artistas en una de las mejores ciudades del mundo. +Mi padre, John Ferren, que muri cuando yo tena 15 aos, fue un artista tanto por pasin como por profesin, al igual que mi madre, Rae. +Fue uno de los expresionistas abstractos de la Escuela de Nueva York que, junto a sus contemporneos, invent el arte moderno Norteamericano y contribuy a llevar al espritu Norteamericano hacia el modernismo en el siglo XX. +No es impresionante que despus de miles de aos de gente haciendo arte representativo, el arte moderno, comparativamente, tiene cerca de 15 minutos de edad pero ahora es omnipresente? +Como muchas otras innovaciones importantes, esas ideas radicales no requirieron nuevas tecnologas, solo un pensamiento fresco y voluntad de experimentar, ms resiliencia en la fase de la crtica casi universal y del rechazo. +En nuestra casa, el arte estaba en todas partes. +Era como el oxgeno, alrededor nuestro y necesario para la vida. +A medida que lo vea pintar, mi padre me ense que el arte no se trataba de ser decorativo, sino que era una manera diferente de comunicar ideas, y de hecho uno que poda conectar los mundos del conocimiento y la intuicin. +Dado este medio tan rico artsticamente, podran asumir que yo me vera obligado a entrar en el negocio familiar, pero no. +Segu el camino de la mayora de los nios que estn genticamente programados para volver locos a sus padres. +No tena inters alguno en ser un artista, ciertamente, no pintor. +Lo que s me gustaba eran los artefactos electrnicos y las mquinas... desarmarlas, construir nuevas y hacerlas funcionar. +Afortunadamente, en mi familia tambin haba ingenieros y al igual que mis padres, estos fueron mis primeros ejemplos a seguir. +Todos ellos tenan en comn que trabajaban muy, muy duro. +Mi abuelo era dueo y operaba una fbrica de muebles de cocina en Brooklyn. +Los fines de semana bamos juntos a la calle Cortlandt lo que era la calle de electrnica de Nueva York. +Ah explorbamos cantidades masivas de excedentes electrnicos, y por muy poco dinero traamos a casa tesoros como visores de bombardeo Norden y piezas de los primeros ordenadores de tubos de IBM. +Encontraba estos objetos tiles y fascinantes. +Aprend ingeniera y cmo funcionaban las cosas, no en la escuela sino desarmando y estudiando estos objetos fabulosamente complejos. +Haca esto por horas cada da, aparentemente evitando la electrocucin. +La vida era buena. +An as, tristemente cada verano las mquinas quedaban olvidadas mientras mis padres y yo viajbamos al extranjero a experimentar la historia, el arte y el diseo. +Visitamos grandes museos y edificios histricos de Europa y el Medio Oriente, pero para incentivar mi creciente inters en ciencia y tecnologa, ellos simplemente me dejaban en lugares como el Museo de Ciencia de Londres, donde me paseaba sin parar, solo, por horas estudiando la historia de la ciencia y la tecnologa. +Cuando tena ms o menos 9 aos, fuimos a Roma. +Un da particularmente caluroso de verano, visitamos un edificio con forma de batera que desde afuera no era particularmente interesante. +Mi padre dijo que se llamaba el Panten, un templo para todos los dioses. +No se vea tan especial desde afuera, como dije, pero cuando entramos, me sent inmediatamente impresionado por tres cosas: Primero, era placenteramente fresco a pesar del opresivo calor de afuera. +Era muy oscuro, la nica fuente de luz era un gran hueco en el techo. +Mi padre me explic que eso no era un gran hueco, sino que se llamaba el culo, un ojo a los cielos. +Y haba algo en este lugar, que no supe por qu, pero se senta especial. +Mientras caminbamos hacia el centro, mir a los cielos a travs del culo. +Fue la primera iglesia en la que haba estado que ofreca una vista sin restricciones entre Dios y el hombre. +Pero me pregunt, qu pasaba cuando llova? +Mi padre llam a esto un culo, pero era, de hecho, un gran hueco en el techo. +Observ que los desages del suelo haban sido cortados en la piedra. +Como me haba acostumbrado a la oscuridad, era capaz de distinguir los detalles en el suelo y las paredes circundantes. +Nada impresionante, solo las mismas cosas de estatuas que habamos visto por toda Roma. +De hecho, pareca que el vendedor de mrmol de la Va Apia se present con su catlogo de muestras, se lo mostr a Adriano y Adriano dijo, "Lo tomamos todo". +Pero el techo era asombroso. +Pareca una cpula geodsica de Buckminster Fuller. +Las haba visto antes, y Bucky era amigo de mi padre. +Era moderno, de alta tecnologa e impresionante, una enorme apertura de 43 metros la cual, no por casualidad, era su altura exacta. +Me encant este lugar. +Era realmente hermoso y diferente a todo lo que haba visto antes, as que le pregunt a mi padre, "Cundo fue construido?" +l me dijo, "Hace 2000 aos". +Y yo dije, "No, quiero decir, el techo". +Se dan cuenta, asum que era moderno y haba sido puesto ah porque el original fue destruido en alguna guerra del pasado. +l me dijo, "Es el techo original". +Ese momento cambi mi vida, y lo recuerdo como si fuera ayer. +Por primera vez, me di cuenta de que la gente era inteligente 2000 aos atrs. Esto nunca me haba pasado por la cabeza. +Me refiero a que para m, las pirmides de Giza, las visitamos el ao anterior, son, claro, impresionantes, buen diseo, pero vern, denme un presupuesto ilimitado, de 20 000 a 40 000 trabajadores, y de 10 a 20 aos para cortar y mover bloques de piedra por los campos, y yo tambin construir pirmides. +Pero ninguna cantidad de fuerza bruta consigue crear la cpula del Panten, ni 2000 aos atrs, ni hoy. +Y por cierto, es an la cpula ms grande sin refuerzo de concreto que se haya construido jams. +Construir el Panten requiri unos cuantos milagros. +Con milagros, me refiero a las cosas que tcnicamente son apenas posibles, de muy alto riesgo y que, de hecho, podran no ser realmente realizables en este momento en el tiempo, ciertamente no por Ud. +Por ejemplo, aqu estn algunos de los milagros del Panten. +Para hacerlo estructuralmente posible, tuvieron que inventar un concreto sper resistente, y para controlar el peso, variaron la densidad del agregado a medida que suban hasta la cpula. +Para fuerza y ligereza, la estructura de la cpula us cinco anillos de arcas, cada uno de tamao disminuido, lo que da una dramtica y forzada perspectiva al diseo. +Estaba maravillosamente fresco dentro debido a su enorme masa trmica, la conveccin natural del aire que se eleva a travs del culo, y un efecto Venturi cuando el viento cruza sobre la parte superior del edificio. +Descubr por primera vez que la luz en s misma tiene sustancia. +El eje de la luz irradiada a travs del culo era tanto hermoso como palpable, y me di cuenta por primera vez de que la luz poda ser diseada. +Y ms an, que todas las formas de diseo, el diseo visual, todas eran irrelevantes sin la luz, porque sin luz, no puedes ver ninguna de ellas. +Tambin me di cuenta de que no fui la primera persona en pensar que este lugar era realmente especial. +Sobrevivi a la gravedad, a los brbaros, a los saqueadores, a los desarrolladores y los estragos del tiempo para convertirse en lo que creo que es el edificio ocupado de forma continua ms larga de la historia. +En gran parte debido a esa visita, entend que, contrario a lo que me haban enseado en la escuela, los mundos del arte y el diseo, no eran incompatibles con la ciencia y la ingeniera. +Me di cuenta de que, cuando se combinan, se pueden crear cosas asombrosas que no se podran hacer en cualquier dominio por s solo. +Pero en la escuela, con algunas excepciones, eran tratados como mundos separados, y todava lo son. +Mis profesores me dijeron que tena que ser serio y enfocarme en uno o en el otro. +De todas maneras, apresurndome a que me especializara solo me hizo apreciar realmente a los eruditos como Miguel ngel, Leonardo da Vinci, Benjamin Franklin, gente que hizo exactamente lo contrario. +Y esto me llev a abarcar y querer estar en ambos mundos. +Entonces, cmo es que estos proyectos de visin creativa sin precedentes y la complejidad tcnica del Panten suceden realmente? +Alguien, quizs Adriano, necesitaba una brillante visin creativa. +Tambin necesitaban las habilidades narrativas y de liderazgo necesarias para financiarlo y ejecutarlo, y una maestra en ciencia y tecnologa con la habilidad y el conocimiento para llevar un paso ms all las innovaciones existentes. +Considero que para crear esos raros modificadores del juego se requiere que al menos se logren cinco milagros. +El problema es, que no importa cun talentoso, rico o inteligente seas, solo obtienes un milagro y medio. +Eso es todo. Esa es la cuota. +Luego se te acaba el tiempo, el dinero, el entusiasmo, lo que sea. +Recuerden, la mayora de la gente no puede ni siquiera imaginar uno de estos milagros tcnicos, y se necesitan al menos cinco para hacer el Panten. +En mi experiencia, estos raros visionarios que pueden pensar a travs de los mundos del arte, el diseo y la ingeniera tienen la habilidad de darse cuenta cuando otros han aportado suficiente a los milagros para llevar el objetivo a nuestro alcance. +Dirigidos por la claridad de su visin, convocan el coraje y la determinacin para lograr los milagros faltantes y, a menudo toman lo que otras personas piensan que son obstculos insalvables y los convierten en caractersticas. +Tomemos de ejemplo el culo del Panten. +Al insistir que estuviera en el diseo, significaba que no se poda usar mucha de la tecnologa estructural que se haba desarrollado para los arcos Romanos. +Por el contrario, al adoptarlo y repensar la distribucin del peso y el estrs, se les ocurri un diseo que solo funciona si hay un gran hueco en el techo. +Una vez hecho esto, ahora recibe la esttica y los beneficios del diseo de la luz, de la climatizacin y esa conexin clave directa con los cielos. +Nada mal. +Esta gente no solo crea que lo imposible poda hacerse, sino que deba hacerse. +Suficiente historia antigua. +Cules son algunos de los ejemplos ms recientes de innovaciones que combinan diseo creativo y avances tecnolgicos de una manera tan profunda que sern recordados por miles de aos? +Bueno, llevar un hombre a la luna fue uno, y regresarlo sano y salvo a la Tierra no estuvo mal tampoco. +Hablemos de un salto gigante: Es difcil imaginar un momento ms profundo en la historia humana que cuando dejamos nuestro mundo por primera vez para poner el pie en otro. +Entonces, qu vino despus de la luna? +Uno se siente tentado a decir que el Panten de hoy es el Internet, pero realmente creo que eso es incorrecto, o al menos, es solo parte de la historia. +El Internet no es un Panten. +Es ms como la invencin del concreto: importante, absolutamente necesario para construir el Panten, y perdurable, pero completamente insuficiente en s mismo. +De todas maneras, as como la tecnologa del concreto fue decisiva en la realizacin del Panten, nuevos diseadores usarn las tecnologas del Internet para crear nuevos conceptos que perdurarn. +El telfono inteligente es el ejemplo perfecto. +Pronto la mayora de las personas en el planeta tendr uno, y la idea de conectar a todo el mundo con el otro y con el conocimiento perdurar. +Entonces, qu sigue? +Qu avance inminente ser equivalente al Panten? +Pensando en esto, rechac muchas rupturas plausibles y dramticas venideras, como la cura del cncer. +Por qu? Porque los Panteones estn anclados en objetos fsicos diseados, que inspiran tan solo de verlos y experimentarlos, y seguirn hacindolo indefinidamente. +Es una clase de lenguaje diferente, como el arte. +Estas otras contribuciones que extienden la vida y liberan el sufrimiento son, por supuesto, crticas, y fantsticas, pero son parte del continuo de nuestro conocimiento y tecnologa en general, como el Internet. +Entonces, qu sigue? +Quizs contrario a la intuicin, asumo que es una idea visionaria de finales de 1930 que ha sido revivida cada dcada desde entonces: los vehculos autnomos. +Ahora ests pensando, dame un respiro. +Cmo puede una versin de lujo de control crucero ser algo profundo? +A ver, mucho de nuestro mundo ha sido diseado alrededor de carreteras y transporte. +Estos fueron tan esenciales al xito del Imperio Romano como el sistema de autova interestatal para la prosperidad y el desarrollo de los Estados Unidos. +Hoy, estas carreteras que interconectan nuestro mundo estn dominadas por vehculos y camiones mantenidos prcticamente sin cambios por 100 aos. +Aunque quizs no es obvio hoy en da, los vehculos autnomos sern la tecnologa clave que nos permitir redisear nuestras ciudades y, por lo tanto, nuestra civilizacin. +Y he aqu el porqu: Una vez que se han convertido en ubicuos, cada ao, estos vehculos salvarn decenas de miles de vidas solo en los Estados Unidos y un milln globalmente. +El consumo de energa por automviles y la contaminacin atmosfrica sern cortadas dramticamente. +Muchas de las congestiones en las carreteras fuera y dentro de nuestras ciudades desaparecern. +Permitirn nuevos convincentes conceptos de cmo diseamos ciudades, trabajos, y la manera en que vivimos. +Llegaremos adonde vamos ms rpido y la sociedad recuperar vastas cantidades de productividad perdida hoy sentados en el trfico bsicamente contaminando. +Pero por qu ahora? Por qu pensamos que esto est listo? +Porque en los ltimos 30 aos, personas fuera de la industria automotriz han gastado incontables miles de millones creando los milagros necesarios, pero con propsitos completamente diferentes. +Le tom a gente como DARPA, universidades, y compaas completamente fuera de la industria automotriz darse cuenta de que siendo inteligentes al respecto, la autonoma poda hacerse ahora. +Cules son los cinco milagros necesarios para los vehculos autnomos? +Primero, Uds. necesitan saber dnde estn y qu hora exacta es. +Esto fue resuelto muy bien por el sistema GPS, Sistema de Posicionamiento Global, que el Gobierno de EE. UU. puso en funcionamiento. +Uds. necesitan saber dnde estn las carreteras, cules son las reglas y adnde van. +Las necesidades de los sistemas de navegacin personal, sistemas de navegacin en el vehculo, y mapas basados en la web, solucionan esto. +Se debe tener comunicacin casi continua con las redes de computacin de alto rendimiento y con otras cercanas para entender su intencin. +Las tecnologas inalmbricas desarrolladas para mviles, con algunas modificaciones mnimas, son completamente utilizables para resolver esto. +Uds. querrn algunas carreteras restringidas para empezar de modo que tanto la sociedad como sus abogados coincidan en que son seguras de usar. +Esto empezar con los carriles HOV y seguir por ah. +Pero finalmente, Uds. necesitan reconocer personas, seales y objetos. +La visin artificial, sensores especiales, y la computacin de alto rendimiento pueden hacer todo eso, pero resulta que mucho no es suficientemente bueno cuando tu familia est a bordo. +Ocasionalmente, los seres humanos tendrn que darle sentido a las decisiones. +Para esto, Uds. tendrn que despertar a su pasajero y preguntarle qu demonios es ese gran bulto que est en el medio del camino. +Nada mal, y nos dar un sentido de propsito en este nuevo mundo. +Adems, una vez que el primer conductor explique a su vehculo confundido que el pollo gigante en la bifurcacin de la carretera es un restaurante, y que est bien seguir conduciendo, cada vehculo en la superficie de la Tierra sabr eso a partir de ese momento. +Cinco milagros, en gran parte entregados, y ahora Uds. necesitan una visin clara de un futuro mejor lleno de vehculos autnomos con nuevos diseos seductivamente hermosos y funcionales ms, mucho dinero y trabajo duro para traerlos a casa. +El principio est ahora solo a unos puados de distancia, y puedo predecir que los vehculos autnomos cambiarn permanentemente nuestro mundo en las prximas dcadas. +En conclusin, he llegado a creer que los ingredientes para el prximo Panten estn alrededor nuestro, solo esperando gente visionaria con conocimiento amplio, habilidades multidisciplinares, e intensa pasin que los aproveche para hacer sus sueos realidad. +Pero est gente no aparece espontneamente en la existencia. +Necesitan ser nutridos y animados desde que son nios. +Necesitamos amarlos y ayudarlos a descubrir sus pasiones. +Necesitamos animarlos a trabajar duro y ayudarlos a entender que el fracaso es un ingrediente necesario para el xito, como lo es la perseverancia. +Pero, una nota de advertencia: Tambin necesitamos alejarlos de sus milagros modernos, de computadoras, telfonos, tabletas, mquinas de juego y televisiones, sacarlos a la luz del sol para que puedan experimentar tanto lo natural como las maravillas del diseo de nuestro mundo, nuestro planeta, nuestra civilizacin. +Si no lo hacemos, no entendern lo que son estas cosas preciosas de las que algn da sern responsables de proteger y mejorar. +Tambin necesitamos que entiendan algo que no parece ser adecuadamente apreciado en nuestro creciente mundo tecno-dependiente, que el arte y el diseo no son lujos, ni algo incompatible con la ciencia y la ingeniera. +Son esenciales para lo que nos hace especiales. +Algn da, si tienen la oportunidad, tal vez puedan llevar a sus hijos al Panten real, como haremos con nuestra hija Kira, para experimentar de primera mano el poder de ese diseo asombroso que un da por lo dems nada especial en Roma, lleg a alcanzar 2000 aos en el futuro para establecer el curso de mi vida. +Gracias. +Si recuerdan aquella primera dcada de la Web, era un lugar realmente esttico. +Uno poda ingresar, mirar pginas, o bien de organizaciones que tenan equipos para crearlas o bien de personas que tenan conocimientos tcnicos en ese entonces. +Y con el auge de los medios sociales y de las redes sociales a principios del 2000 la Web cambi completamente y ahora la vasta mayora del contenido con el que interactuamos proviene de usuarios medios, de videos de YouTube, artculos de blog, revisiones de productos o de artculos en medios sociales. +Y tambin se ha vuelto un lugar mucho ms interactivo, donde las personas interactan, comentan, comparten, y no solo estn leyendo. +Facebook no es el nico lugar donde esto se puede hacer, pero es el lugar ms grande. Veamos los nmeros. +Facebook tiene 1200 millones de usuarios por mes. +La mitad de la poblacin de Internet usa Facebook. +Es un sitio, como otros, que nos ha permitido crear un yo virtual con poca habilidad tcnica, y por eso respondemos poniendo ingentes cantidades de datos personales. +As que tenemos datos de comportamiento, preferencias, datos demogrficos de cientos de millones de personas, algo sin precedentes en la historia. +Como cientfica informtica, esto me ha permitido construir modelos que pueden predecir todo tipo de atributos ocultos de Uds. que ni siquiera Uds. conocen, de los que comparten informacin. +Como cientficos, usamos eso para ayudar a interactuar en lnea, pero hay aplicaciones menos altrustas, y existe un problema en el desconocimiento del usuario de estas tcnicas y de su funcionamiento, y an de conocerlas, no tenemos demasiado control sobre ellas. +Por eso hoy quiero hablarles de algunas cosas que podemos hacer, y luego brindar ideas para avanzar, para devolverle un poco de control a los usuarios. +Esta es Target, la empresa. +No solo puse ese logo en el vientre a esa pobre mujer embarazada. +Es posible que hayan visto la ancdota que sali en Forbes, en la que Target le envi un volante a esta chica de 15 aos con anuncios y cupones para biberones, paales y cunas 2 semanas antes de que le dijera a sus padres que estaba embarazada. +S, el padre estaba muy molesto. +Dijo: "Cmo adivin Target que esta chica de secundaria estaba embarazada antes de que se lo diga a sus padres?" +Resulta que ellos tienen el historial de compras de cientos de miles de clientes y calculan lo que llaman puntaje de embarazo, que no se trata de si la mujer est o no embarazada, sino para cundo espera. +Y lo calculan no mirando cosas obvias como si compra una cuna o ropa de beb, sino cosas como si compr ms vitaminas de lo normal, o si compr un bolso de mano suficientemente grande como para contener paales. +Y por s solas, dichas compras no parecen revelar mucho, pero es un patrn de comportamiento que, tomado en el contexto de miles de otras personas, empieza a revelar algunas ideas. +Ese es el tipo de cosas que hacemos al predecir en los medios sociales. +Buscamos pequeos patrones de comportamiento que, al detectarlos entre millones de personas, nos permiten encontrar todo tipo de cosas. +En mi laboratorio, junto a mis colegas, hemos desarrollado mecanismos en los que podemos predecir cosas con bastante exactitud como sus preferencias polticas, su puntaje de personalidad, gnero, orientacin sexual, religin, edad, inteligencia, adems de cosas como cunto confan en las personas que conocen y cun fuertes son esas relaciones. +Podemos hacer todo esto muy bien. +Y, de nuevo, no viene de lo que podra pensarse como informacin obvia. +Mi ejemplo preferido es este estudio publicado este ao en las Actas de la Academia Nacional. +Si lo buscan en Google, lo encontrarn. +Tiene 4 pginas, es fcil de leer. +Mirando los "me gusta" de Facebook, o sea, las cosas que nos gustan en Facebook, usaron eso para predecir todos estos atributos, y algunos otros. +En su artculo listaron los 5 "me gusta" ms indicativos de una inteligencia alta. +Entre ellos figuraba el "me gusta" de las papas rizadas. Las papas rizadas son deliciosas, pero que les gusten no necesariamente significa que sean ms inteligentes que la media. +Entonces, cmo es que uno de los indicadores ms fuertes de inteligencia sea darle "me gusta" a esta pgina si el contenido es totalmente irrelevante para el atributo que se predice? +Resulta que tenemos que mirar un montn de teoras subyacentes para ver por qu podemos hacer esto. +Una de ellas es una teora sociolgica llamada homofilia, que dice que bsicamente las personas son amigas de personas como ellos. +As, si uno es inteligente, tiende a ser amigo de personas inteligentes y si es joven, tiende a ser amigo de jvenes y esto est bien establecido desde hace cientos de aos. +Tambin sabemos mucho sobre cmo se difunde la informacin por las redes. +Resulta ser que los videos virales, los "me gusta" de Facebook, u otra informacin se difunden exactamente de la misma manera que las enfermedades por las redes sociales. +Por eso es algo que hemos estudiado durante mucho tiempo. +Tenemos buenos modelos de esto. +Juntando estas cosas empezamos a ver por qu ocurren cosas como estas. +Si tuviera que hacer una hiptesis, dira que un tipo inteligente lanz esta pgina o fue quiz uno de los primeros "me gusta" que puntu alto en esa prueba. +Es complicado, no? +Es algo difcil de explicar al usuario medio, y an de hacerlo, qu puede hacer al respecto el usuario medio? +Cmo saber que uno dio un "me gusta" que indica un rasgo propio totalmente irrelevante al contexto del "me gusta"? +Los usuarios no tienen demasiado poder para controlar el uso de estos datos. +Y veo eso como un verdadero problema en el futuro. +Por eso creo que hay un par de caminos a mirar si queremos darle a los usuarios algo de control sobre cmo se usan estos datos, porque no siempre se van a usar en su beneficio. +Un ejemplo que doy a menudo es que, si alguna vez me aburro de ser profesora, fundar una empresa que prediga todos estos atributos y cosas como cun bien uno trabaja en equipo, o si uno es drogadicto, o alcohlico. +Sabemos cmo predecir eso. +Y le vender informes a empresas de RR.HH. y a grandes empresas que quieran contratarlos. +Hoy, podemos hacerlo. +Podra lanzar esa empresa maana, y Uds. no tendran ningn control para que no use sus datos de esa forma. +Eso me parece que es un problema. +Por eso podemos transitar las vas polticas y legales. +En algunos aspectos, creo que sera ms eficaz pero el problema es que deberamos hacerlo. +Al observar nuestro proceso poltico en accin pienso que es muy poco probable conseguir que un grupo de representantes se siente, se documenten al respecto, y luego promulguen cambios radicales a la ley de propiedad intelectual de EE.UU. +para que los usuarios controlen sus datos. +Podramos ir por las polticas, las empresas de medios sociales dicen Sabes? Eres dueo de tus datos. +Tienes total control de cmo se usan. +El problema es que los modelos de ingresos de la mayora de las empresas de medios sociales dependen de compartir o explotar los datos de usuario de alguna manera. +A veces se dice de Facebook que los usuarios no son el cliente, sino el producto. +Entonces, cmo hacer que una empresa le ceda el control de su activo principal nuevamente a los usuarios? +Es posible, pero no creo que sea algo que veamos cambiar rpidamente. +Por eso creo que la otra va que podemos transitar es la de ser ms eficaces, la de aplicar ms ciencia. +La de hacer ms ciencia que nos permita desarrollar todos estos mecanismos para calcular estos datos personales en primer lugar. +Es una investigacin muy similar a la que deberamos hacer si quisiramos desarrollar mecanismos que le digan al usuario: "Este es el riesgo de la accin que acabas de hacer". +Al darle "me gusta" a esa pgina en Facebook, o al compartir esa informacin personal, mejoraste mi capacidad de predecir si usas drogas o si te llevas bien en el trabajo. +Y eso, creo, puede afectar que las personas quieran compartir algo, mantenerlo privado, o desconectado por completo. +Tambin podemos ver cosas como permitirle a las personas cifrar los datos que suben, para que sean invisibles o sin valor para sitios como Facebook o servicios de terceros que los acceden pero que los usuarios que la persona seleccion puedan verlos. +Esta es una investigacin sper interesante desde el punto de vista intelectual, de modo que los cientficos estarn encantados de hacerla. +Eso nos da una ventaja sobre la va legal. +Uno de los problemas que surgen cuando hablo de esto es que si las personas empiezan a mantener estos datos privados todos esos mtodos desarrollados para predecir sus rasgos fallarn. +Y yo digo que para m es un xito total, porque como cientfica, mi objetivo no es inferir informacin de los usuarios, sino mejorar la interaccin de las personas en lnea. +A veces, eso implica inferir cosas sobre ellos, pero si los usuarios no quieren que use esos datos, creo que deberan tener el derecho a pedirlo. +Quiero usuarios informados, que aprueben las herramientas que desarrollamos. +Gracias. +Mi trabajo en Twitter es asegurar la confianza del usuario, proteger sus derechos y mantener la seguridad de unos respecto de otros y, a veces, de s mismos. +Veamos qu es la escala para Twitter. +En enero de 2009, vimos ms de 2 millones de tuits por da en la plataforma. +En enero de 2014, ms de 500 millones. +Vimos 2 millones de tuits en menos de 6 minutos. +Es un crecimiento del 24 900 %. +Ahora, la gran mayora de la actividad en Twitter no pone a nadie en peligro. +No hay riesgo en esto. +Mi trabajo consiste en prevenir o erradicar la actividad potencialmente peligrosa. +Suena fcil, no? +Quiz piensen que es fcil, dado que acabo de decir que la gran mayora de la actividad en Twitter no pone a nadie en peligro. +Por qu pasar tanto tiempo buscando posibles calamidades en actividades inocuas? +Dada la escala que tiene Twitter, una probabilidad en un milln ocurre 500 veces al da. +Lo mismo ocurre en otras empresas que tienen esta escala. +Para nosotros, los casos lmite, esas situaciones raras que difcilmente ocurren, son la norma. +Digamos que el 99,999 % de los tuits no supone riesgo para nadie. +No hay ninguna amenaza. +Quiz la gente documenta hitos de los viajes como el corazn de Coral de Australia, o tuitear sobre un concierto al que estn asistiendo, o compartir fotos de lindas cras de animales. +Al quitar ese 99,999 %, ese pequeo porcentaje de tuits restantes se reduce a ms o menos 150 000 por mes. +La magnitud de mensajes procesados es en s un desafo. +Saben que otra cosa hace a mi trabajo particularmente desafiante? +La gente hace cosas extraas. +Y yo debo entender qu estn haciendo, por qu y si eso implica o no riesgo, a menudo sin mucho contexto ni trasfondo. +Les mostrar algunos ejemplos que encontr durante mi trabajo en Twitter -- son ejemplos reales -- de situaciones que en principio parecan obvias, pero que en realidad era algo totalmente diferente. +Se cambiaron los detalles para proteger al inocente y a veces al culpable. +Empezaremos con algo simple. +["T, perra"] Si uno ve un tuit que solo dice esto, uno puede pensar, "Parece abuso". +Despus de todo, por qu querras recibir el mensaje "T, perra". +Pero yo trato de estar al tanto de las tendencias y los ltimos memes, por eso saba que "t, perra" a menudo era un saludo comn entre amigos, as como una referencia popular de "Breaking Bad". +Tengo que admitir que no esperaba encontrar un cuarto uso. +Resulta que tambin se usa en Twitter cuando la gente hace el papel de perros. +Y de hecho, en ese caso, no solo no es abusivo, tcnicamente es un saludo apropiado. +Por eso determinar si algo es o no abusivo sin tener contexto, sin duda es difcil. +Veamos el spam. +Este es el ejemplo de una cuenta que particip en una conducta clsica de spam, enviando exactamente el mismo mensaje a miles de personas. +Si bien este es un ejemplo que hice con mi cuenta, vemos cuentas que hacen esto todo el tiempo. +Parece bastante simple. +Deberamos suspender automticamente las cuentas que tienen este comportamiento. +Pero resulta que hay excepciones a la regla. +Puede que ese mensaje podra ser una suscripcin a una notificacin que indica si la Estacin Espacial est pasando por encima porque uno quera salir y tratar de verla. +No tendrn esa oportunidad si suspendemos la cuenta por error pensando que es spam. +Bien, subamos la apuesta. +Volvamos a mi cuenta, veamos el comportamiento clsico. +Esta vez se est enviando el mismo mensaje y enlace. +A menudo es indicativo de algo llamado phishing, alguien que trata de robar la informacin de la cuenta de otra persona redirigindolos a otro sitio web. +Eso claramente no es algo bueno. +Queremos hacerlo, lo hacemos, suspendemos las cuentas que tienen ese comportamiento. +Por qu los riesgos son ms altos en este caso? +Bueno, tambin podra ser un espectador en un mitin que grab un video de un oficial de polica que golpea a un manifestante no violento que trata de contarle al mundo lo que ocurre. +No queremos participar potencialmente silenciando ese discurso crucial tildndolo de spam y suspendindolo. +Eso significa que evaluamos cientos de parmetros al analizar el comportamiento de las cuentas y an as, todava podemos equivocarnos y tenemos que volver a evaluar. +Ahora, dado los desafos que enfrentamos es crucial no solo predecir sino tambin disear protecciones para lo inesperado. +Y eso no solo es un problema para m, o para Twitter, es un problema para Uds. +Es un problema para cualquiera que est construyendo o creando algo que uno cree que ser increble y le permitir a la gente hacer cosas impresionantes. +Entonces qu hago? +Me detengo y pienso, cmo podra todo esto terminar muy mal? +Visualizo la catstrofe. +Y eso es difcil. Hay una especie de disonancia cognitiva en esto, como cuando ests declarando los votos matrimoniales y al mismo tiempo el acuerdo prenupcial. +Y an as hay que hacerlo, sobre todo si te ests casando con 500 millones de tuits por da. +A qu me refiero con "visualizo la catstrofe"? +Trato de pensar cmo algo tan benigno e inocuo como la foto de un gato podra llevar a la muerte, y qu hacer para evitarlo. +Que resulta ser mi siguiente ejemplo. +Este es mi gato, Eli. +Queramos darle a los usuarios la posibilidad de agregar fotos a sus tuits. +Una foto vale ms que mil palabras. +Solo tienes 140 caracteres. +Agregas una foto al tuit, y mira cunto ms contenido tienes ahora. +Pueden hacerse grandes cosas al agregar una foto a un tuit. +Mi trabajo no es pensar en eso. +Es pensar qu puede terminar mal. +Cmo esta imagen puede llevarme a la muerte? +Bueno, esta es una posibilidad. +Hay mucho ms que un gato en esa foto. +Hay informacin geogrfica. +Cuando tomas una foto con tu mvil o con tu cmara digital hay mucha informacin adicional guardada junto con esa imagen. +De hecho, esta imagen tambin contiene el equivalente a esto, ms especficamente, esto. +Seguro, no es probable que alguien trate de localizarme y hacerme dao basado en los datos asociados a la foto que le tom a mi gato, pero empiezo suponiendo que ocurrir lo peor. +Por eso, cuando lanzamos las fotos en Twitter, tomamos la decisin de quitar los datos geogrficos. +Si empiezo suponiendo lo peor y voy hacia atrs, puedo asegurar que las protecciones que construimos funcionan para los casos esperados y para los inesperados. +Dado que paso das y noches imaginando lo peor que podra suceder, no sera de extraar que mi visin del mundo sea sombra. +No lo es. +La gran mayora de las interacciones que veo -- y veo muchas, cranme -- son positivas, personas que tratan de ayudar o de conectarse o de compartir informacin con otros. +Solo nosotros, los que trabajamos con grandes volmenes, los que trabajamos en la seguridad de las personas, los que tenemos que suponer lo peor, porque para nosotros, una posibilidad en un milln es una posibilidad bastante buena. +Gracias. +Buscando profundamente dentro de la naturaleza a travs de la lupa de la ciencia, los diseadores extraen principios, procesos y materiales que forman la base de la metodologa del diseo, +de constructos sintticos que se asemejan a materiales biolgicos, a mtodos computacionales que emulan los procesos neuronales, la naturaleza est guiando al diseo. +El diseo tambin est guiando a la naturaleza. +En las reas de la gentica, la medicina regenerativa y la biologa sinttica, los diseadores estn desarrollando nuevas tecnologas no previstas o anticipadas por la naturaleza. +La binica explora la interaccin entre la biologa y el diseo. +Como pueden ver, mis piernas son binicas. +Hoy voy a contar historias humanas de integracin binica, cmo la electromecnica unida al cuerpo e implantada dentro del cuerpo est empezando a cerrar la brecha entre discapacidad y capacidad, entre la limitacin humana y el potencial humano. +La binica ha definido mi fsico. +En 1982, me amputaron ambas piernas debido al dao tisular debido a la congelacin ocurrida durante un accidente de escalada de montaa. +En ese momento, para no ver mi cuerpo como descompuesto, +razon que un ser humano nunca puede descomponerse. +La tecnologa se descompone. +La tecnologa es insuficiente. +Esta idea simple pero poderosa fue un grito de guerra para avanzar en la tecnologa para la eliminacin de mi propia discapacidad y en ltima instancia, la discapacidad de los dems. +Empec desarrollando miembros especializados que me permitieron regresar al mundo vertical de la escalada en roca e hielo. +Rpidamente me di cuenta de que la parte artificial de mi cuerpo era maleable, capaz de adoptar cualquier forma, cualquier funcin, una pizarra en blanco a travs de la cual crear, tal vez, estructuras que podran ir ms all de la capacidad biolgica. +Hice mi altura ajustable. +Podra ser tan pequeo como metro y medio o tan alto como quisiera. +As que cuando me senta mal de m, inseguro, aumentaba mi altura. +Pero cuando me senta seguro y suave, Le bajaba a mi estatura solo para dar una oportunidad a la competencia. +Pies estrechos como cuas me permitieron subir por entre fisuras de la roca escarpada donde el pie humano no puede penetrar, y pies con puntas me permitieron subir muros de hielo vertical sin jams experimentar la fatiga muscular de la pierna. +A travs de la innovacin tecnolgica, regres a mi deporte ms fuerte y mejor. +La tecnologa haba eliminado mi discapacidad y me haba permitido una nueva proeza de escalada. +Como un hombre joven, me imaginaba un futuro en el mundo donde la tecnologa estara tan avanzada que podra librar al mundo de la discapacidad, un mundo en el cual los implantes neuronales permitiran a los invidentes ver, +un mundo en el que los paralticos podran caminar con exoesqueletos de cuerpo. +Lamentablemente, debido a deficiencias en la tecnologa, la discapacidad es rampante en el mundo. +Este caballero ha perdido 3 extremidades. +Como apologa de la tecnologa actual, est fuera de la silla de ruedas, Pero necesitamos hacer un mejor trabajo en binica para un da permitir la rehabilitacin integral de una persona con este nivel la lesin. +En el MIT Media Lab, hemos establecido el centro de binica extrema. +La misin del centro es desarrollar la ciencia fundamental y la capacidad tecnolgica que permitir a la biomecatrnica y a la reparacin regenerativa de los seres humanos sobre una amplia gama de discapacidades del cerebro y el cuerpo. +Hoy, voy a decirles cmo funcionan mis piernas, cmo trabajan, como un ejemplo de este centro. +Me asegur de depilarme las piernas ayer por la noche, porque saba que las estara mostrando hoy. +La binica implica la ingeniera de interfaces extremas. +Hay tres interfaces extremas en mis extremidades binicas: la mecnica, cmo mis extremidades se unen a mi cuerpo biolgico; la dinmica, cmo se mueven como carne y hueso; y la elctrica, cmo se comunican con mi sistema nervioso. +Comenzar con la interfaz mecnica. +En el rea de diseo, todava no entendemos cmo conectar dispositivos al cuerpo mecnicamente. +Es extraordinario para m que en este da y en esta era, uno de los ms maduras, ms antiguas tecnologas en la cronologa humana, el zapato, todava nos d ampollas. +Cmo puede ser? +No tenemos idea cmo adjuntar las cosas a nuestros cuerpos. +Este es el trabajo de diseo maravillosamente lrico del profesor Neri Oxman en el MIT Media Lab, que muestra impedancias que varan especialmente en el exoesqueleto, se muestran aqu por la variacin del color en este modelo 3D. +Imaginen un futuro donde la ropa es rgida y suave cuando lo necesiten, Cuando lo necesiten para un apoyo ptimo y flexibilidad, sin siquiera causar malestar. +Mis extremidades binicas se unen a mi cuerpo biolgico a travs de pieles sintticas con variaciones de rigidez que reflejan mi biomecnica del tejido subyacente. +Para lograr ese reflejo, primero hemos desarrollado un modelo matemtico de mi miembro biolgico. +Para ello, utilizamos herramientas de imgenes, como MRI para mirar dentro de mi cuerpo y averiguar las geometras y ubicaciones de varios tejidos. +Tambin usamos herramientas robticas. Aqu hay un crculo de 14 actuadores que va alrededor de la extremidad biolgica. +Los actuadores entran, encuentran la superficie de la extremidad, miden su forma sin carga, y luego empujan sobre los tejidos para medir la elasticidad del tejido en cada punto anatmico. +Combinamos estos datos de imagen y robticos para construir una descripcin matemtica de mi miembro biolgico, se muestra a la izquierda. +Vern muchos puntos o nodos. +En cada nodo, hay un color que representa la elasticidad del tejido. +Entonces hacemos una transformacin matemtica para el diseo de la piel sinttica que se muestra a la derecha, +y hemos descubierto que lo ptimo es que donde el cuerpo es rgido, la piel sinttica debe ser suave, donde el cuerpo es suave, la piel sinttica debe ser rgida, y este reflejo se produce a travs de la elasticidad del tejido. +Con este marco, produjimos extremidades binicas que son los miembros ms cmodos que nunca he usado. +Claramente en el futuro, nuestra ropa, nuestros zapatos, nuestros aparatos ortopdicos, nuestras prtesis, ya no sern diseados y fabricados usando estrategias de artesano, sino ms bien basados en datos cuantitativos. +En ese futuro, nuestros zapatos Ya no nos darn ampollas. +Tambin estamos integrando sensores y materiales inteligentes en las pieles sintticas. +Se trata de un material desarrollado por SRI International, California. +Bajo el efecto electrosttico, cambia su rigidez. +As que a un voltaje cero, el material es suave. Es flexible como el papel. +A continuacin, cuando se presiona el botn y se aplica un voltaje, se vuelve rgido como una tabla. +Incorporamos este material en la piel sinttica que conecta mi miembro binico a mi cuerpo biolgico. +Cuando camino, no hay voltaje. +Mi interfaz es suave y flexible. +Con el botn se aplica voltaje, y se endurece, ofrecindome una mayor maniobrabilidad de la extremidad binica. +Tambin estamos construyendo exoesqueletos. +Este exoesqueleto se convierte en rgido y suave en slo en las reas del ciclo de funcionamiento correcta para proteger las articulaciones biolgicas de alto impacto y la degradacin. +En el futuro, todos vamos a usar exoesqueletos en actividades comunes como correr. +Seguimos con la dinmica interfaz. +Cmo mover mis extremidades binicas como de carne y hueso? +En mi laboratorio MIT, estudiamos cmo los seres humanos con fisiologas normales estn de pie, caminan y corren. +Qu estn haciendo los msculos, y cmo los controla la mdula espinal? +Esta ciencia bsica motiva lo que construimos. +Estamos construyendo caderas, rodillas y tobillos binicos. +Estamos construyendo las partes del cuerpo desde cero. +Las extremidades binicas que estoy usando se llaman BiOMs. +Se han colocado a casi 1000 pacientes, 400 de los cuales han sido a soldados heridos de los estados unidos. +Cmo funciona? Con el golpe de taln, bajo control de la computadora, el sistema controla la rigidez para atenuar el impacto de la extremidad al golpear el suelo. +Entonces en una posicin media, la extremidad binica genera alta torsin y potencia para levantar a la persona al caminar, comparable a cmo los msculos trabajan en la regin de la pantorrilla. +Es muy importante esta propulsin binica clnicamente en los pacientes. +As que, a la izquierda vern el dispositivo binico usado por una mujer y a la derecha un dispositivo pasivo usado por la misma seora que es incapaz de emular la funcin normal del msculo. permitindole hacer algo que todo el mundo debera poder hacer, subir y bajar las escaleras en su casa. +La binica permite tambin extraordinarias hazaas atlticas. +Aqu hay un caballero subiendo por un camino rocoso. +Steve Martin, no el comediante, que perdi sus piernas con la explosin de una bomba en Afganistn. +Tambin estamos construyendo exoesqueletos usando estos mismos principios que envuelven a una extremidad biolgica. +Este seor no tiene ningn problema con la pierna, ninguna discapacidad. +Tiene una fisiologa normal, as que se estn aplicando estos exoesqueletos como complementos de potencia y torque As que no es necesario que sus propios msculos apliquen los torques y la potencia. +Este es el primer exoesqueleto de la historia en realidad aumenta la marcha humana. +Reduce significativamente el costo metablico. +Es tan profundo su aumento que cuando una persona normal, sana usa el dispositivo durante 40 minutos y se lo quita, sus propias piernas biolgicas se sienten ridculamente pesadas e incmodas. +Estamos comenzando era en la cual las mquinas conectadas a nuestros cuerpos nos har ms fuertes y ms rpidos y ms eficientes. +Pasando a la interfaz elctrica, Cmo se comunican las piernas binicas con mi sistema nervioso? +A travs de mi mun hay electrodos que miden el pulso elctrico de los msculos. +Esto se comunica a la extremidad binica, cuando pienso en mover mi miembro fantasma, el robot rastrea esos deseos de movimiento. +Este diagrama muestra fundamentalmente cmo se controla la extremidad binica, +as que hacemos un modelo la extremidad perdida biolgica, y hemos descubierto cmo ocurren los reflejos, cmo los reflejos de la mdula espinal controlan los msculos, +y esa capacidad se graban en los circuitos de la extremidad binica. +Lo que hacemos entonces es modular la sensibilidad del reflejo, el reflejo espinal modelado, con la seal neuronal, As que cuando me relajo los msculos de mi mun, tengo muy poco torque y potencia, Pero cuanto ms tenso mis msculos, tengo mayor torque e incluso puedo correr. +Y esa fue la primera demostracin de un modo de correr bajo mando neural. +Se siente muy bien. +Queremos dar un paso ms all. +Queremos en realidad cerrar el lazo entre lo humano y la extremidad externa binica. +Estamos haciendo experimentos donde estamos implantado nervios, nervios cortados transversalmente, a travs rayos de canales o micro canales. +En el otro lado del canal, el nervio entonces se fija a las clulas, clulas de la piel y las clulas musculares. +En los canales del motor podemos medir cmo la persona desea moverse. +Se puede enviar inalmbricamente a la extremidad binica, luego los sensores en la extremidad binica pueden convertir en estmulos en los canales adyacentes, canales sensoriales. +As que, cuando esto es completamente desarrollado y para uso humano, las personas como yo no tendr solo extremidades sintticas que se mueven como carne y hueso, sino que se sentirn como de carne y hueso. +Este video muestra a Lisa Mallette poco despus de ser equipada con dos extremidades binicas. +De hecho, la binica est significando una gran diferencia en las vidas de las personas. +Lisa Mallette: Por Dios. +Oh por Dios, no puedo creerlo. +Es como si tuviera una pierna verdadera. +No empieces a correr. +Hombre: Date la vuelta, y haz lo mismo subiendo. Camina, sube tu taln como haras normalmente al nivel del suelo. +Trata de caminar justo arriba de la colina. +LM: Oh por Dios. +Hombre: Te est empujando? +LM: S, ni siquiera puedo describirlo. +Hombre: Te empuja. +Hugh Herr: La prxima semana voy a visitar... Gracias, gracias. Gracias. La semana que viene voy a visitar +el Center for Medicare and Medicaid Services, y voy a intentar convencer al CMS de que garantice el cdigo apropiado y los precios para que esta tecnologa pueda facilitarse +a los pacientes que lo necesiten. +Gracias. No se aprecia, pero ms de la mitad de la poblacin mundial sufre de alguna forma de discapacidad, cognitiva, emocional, sensorial o motora y debido a la pobre tecnologa, con demasiada frecuencia, resultan en discapacidad y una peor calidad de vida. +Los niveles bsicos de la funcin fisiolgica deben ser una parte de los Derechos Humanos. +Cada persona debe tener el derecho de vivir la vida sin discapacidades si as lo eligen, el derecho a vivir sin depresin severa; el derecho a ver a un ser querido en el caso de tener una vista deteriorada; o el derecho a caminar o a bailar, en el caso de parlisis o amputacin de miembros. +Como sociedad, podemos lograr estos Derechos Humanos si aceptamos la idea de que los seres humanos no estn discapacitados. +Una persona nunca puede descomponerse. +El entorno que hemos construido, nuestras tecnologas, se descomponen. +Las personas necesitamos negar nuestras limitaciones, pero podemos trascender la discapacidad a travs de la innovacin tecnolgica. +De hecho, a travs de avances fundamentales en la binica en este siglo, estableceremos las bases tecnolgicas para una experiencia humana mejorada, y acabaremos con la discapacidad. +Me gustara terminar con una historia ms, una bella historia, +la historia de Adrianne Haslet Davis. +Adrianne perdi su pierna izquierda en el ataque terrorista de Boston. +Conoc a Adrianne cuando tomaron esta foto en el Hospital de rehabilitacin Spaulding. +Adrianne es una bailarina. +Adrianne respira y vive la danza. +Es su expresin. Es su forma de arte. +Naturalmente, cuando perdi su extremidad en el ataque terrorista de Boston, quera volver a la pista de baile. +Despus de conocerla y regresar a mi casa pens, soy un profesor del MIT. +Tengo recursos. Construymosle un miembro binico para que vuelva a su vida de la danza. +Traje con cientficos del MIT con experiencia en prtesis, robtica, aprendizaje de mquinas y biomecnica, y por ms de 200 das de investigacin hemos estudiado danza. +Trajimos bailarines con extremidades biolgicas, y estudiamos cmo se mueven, qu fuerzas se aplican en la pista de baile y tomamos esos datos y ponemos los principios fundamentales de la danza, la capacidad reflexiva de la danza, y embebimos esa inteligencia en la extremidad binica. +La binica no es solo hacer que la gente sea ms fuerte y ms rpida. +Nuestra expresin, nuestra humanidad se puede embeber en electromecnica. +entre las explosiones en el ataque terrorista de Boston. +En 3,5 segundos, los criminales alejaron a Adrianne de la pista de baile. +En 200 das, la regresamos. +No seremos intimidados, derribados, disminuido, conquistadas o detenidos por actos de violencia. +Seoras y seores, permtanme presentarles a Adrianne Haslet-Davis, su primera actuacin desde el ataque. +Baila con Christian Lightner. +(Msica: "Ring My Bell" interpretada por Enrique Iglesias) Seoras y seores, miembros del equipo de investigacin, Elliott Rouse y Nathan Villagaray-Imperial. +Elliott y Nathan. +Un chip, un poeta y un nio. +Apenas hace 20 aos, en junio de 1994, Intel anunci que haba un defecto en el ncleo de su chip Pentium. +Intel dijo que la planilla media fallara una vez cada 27 000 aos. +Para ellos no era importante, pero hubo indignacin en la comunidad. +La comunidad, los tecnfilos dijeron que este defecto tiene que abordarse. +No iban a permanecer en silencio si Intel les daba estos chips. +Por eso hubo una revolucin mundial. +Las personas marcharon para exigir, bueno, no exactamente as, pero alzaron la voz exigiendo que Intel resolviera el defecto. +E Intel reserv USD 475 millones para financiar el reemplazo de millones de chips para solucionar el defecto. +Se gastaron miles de millones de dlares para abordar un problema que se presentara 1 de cada 360 000 millones clculos. +Segundo, un poeta. +Este es Martin Niemller. +Su poesa resulta familiar. +En la poca nazi, empez a repetir: "Primero vinieron por los comunistas, y no me import, porque yo no era comunista. +Luego vinieron por los socialistas. +Ms tarde por los sindicalistas. +Despus por los judos. +Ahora es tarde, vinieron por m. +Pero ya no queda nadie que hable por m". +Niemller plantea un concepto importante. +Es una idea central a la inteligencia. +Podramos llamarla inteligibilidad. +Es un cierto tipo de prueba: Puede reconocerse una amenaza subyacente y responder? +Puedes salvar a tu especie o a ti mismo? +Resulta que las hormigas son buenas para eso. +Las vacas, no tanto. +Pueden ver el patrn? +Pueden ver un patrn, reconocerlo, y hacer algo al respecto? Nmero 2. +Tercero, un nio. +Este es mi amigo Aaron Swartz. +Es amigo de Tim. +Es amigo de muchos de los presentes y, hace 7 aos, Aaron me pregunt algo. +Fue justo antes de dar mi primera charla TED. +Yo estaba orgulloso. Le estaba contando de mi charla "Las leyes que ahogan la creatividad". +Aaron me mir y un poco impaciente me dijo: "Cmo vas a resolver alguna vez los problemas de los que hablas? +Polticas de derecho de autor, de Internet, cmo abordars alguna vez esos problemas con esta corrupcin intrnseca en nuestra forma de gobierno?" +Eso me desilusion un poco. +l no comparta mi celebracin. +Y le dije: "Sabes, Aaron, no es mi campo, no es mi campo". +Me dijo: "Dices que, como acadmico, este no es tu campo? +Le dije: "S, como acadmico, este no es mi campo". +Me dijo: "y qu tal como ciudadano? +Como ciudadano". +As era Aaron. +No hablaba. Haca preguntas. +Pero sus preguntas eran tan contundentes como el abrazo de mi hijo de 4 aos. +Me estaba diciendo: "Debe ser inteligible. +Debes entenderlo, porque hay un defecto en el ncleo del sistema operativo de esta democracia, y no es un defecto que ocurra cada 360 000 millones de veces que nuestra democracia trata de tomar una decisin. +Ocurre cada vez, en cada tema importante. +Tenemos que terminar con esta sociedad poltica bovina. +Tenemos que adoptar una actitud mirmicina, Internet dice que esta es la palabra, la actitud apreciativa de las hormigas que nos permite reconocer este defecto, salvar a nuestra especie, a nuestro demos. +Si conocen a Aaron Swartz, saben que lo perdimos hace un ao. +Fueron unas 6 semanas antes de dar mi charla TED, y le agradezco mucho a Chris que me pidiera dar esta charla TED, no por poder hablar ante Uds., aunque eso fuera genial, sino porque me sacaba de una gran depresin. +No poda describir esa tristeza +porque tena que concentrarme. +Tena que concentrarme en lo que les dira a Uds. +Eso me salv. +Despus de los murmullos, del entusiasmo, del poder surgido de esta comunidad, empec a anhelar una manera menos estril, menos acadmica de abordar estos temas, los temas de los que estaba hablando. +Empezamos a centrarnos en Nueva Hampshire como destino de este movimiento poltico, porque las primarias de Nueva Hampshire son realmente cruciales. +Haba un grupo llamado Rebelin de Nueva Hampshire que empez a plantear cmo poner en el centro este tema de la corrupcin en 2016. +Pero otro ser cautiv mi imaginacin, una mujer llamada Doris Haddock, alias abuelita D. +El 1 de enero de 1999, hace 15 aos, a los 88 aos, la abuelita D empez a caminar. +Empez en Los ngeles y empez a caminar hasta Washington, DC, +con un cartel en el pecho que deca: "Reforma al financiamiento de campaas polticas". +18 meses despus, a los 90 aos, lleg a Washington, seguida por cientos de personas, incluyendo muchos congresistas que llegaron en auto a menos de 2 km de la llegada para caminar con ella. +Yo no tengo 13 meses para caminar por el pas. +Tengo 3 nios que detestan caminar, y una esposa que detesta cuando me ausento por razones misteriosas. Por eso no era una opcin, pero me pregunt si podamos imitar un poco a la abuelita D. +Y si caminamos no 5000 km sino 300 km por Nueva Hampshire en enero? +As, el 11 de enero, el aniversario de la muerte de Aaron, empezamos una caminata que termin el 24 de enero, da de nacimiento de la abuelita D. +Unas 200 personas se sumaron a esta marcha, conforme recorrimos Nueva Hampshire de arriba abajo hablando de este tema. +Y lo sorprendente para m, algo que no esperaba encontrar, fue la pasin y la ira compartida por las personas con las que hablamos del tema. +Mediante una encuesta vimos que el 96 % de los estadounidenses creen importante reducir la influencia del dinero en la poltica. +Los polticos y los expertos dicen que no puede hacerse nada, que en EE.UU. no se preocupan, pero debido a que 91 % de los estadounidenses cree que no se puede hacer nada. +Y esta brecha entre 96 % y 91 % explica nuestra poltica de resignacin. +Digo, despus de todo, al menos el 96 % desearamos poder volar como Sperman, pero como al menos el 91 % creemos que no podemos volar, no saltamos de los edificios altos cuando sentimos la necesidad. +Porque aceptamos nuestros lmites, y lo mismo ocurre con esta reforma. +Pero cuando le damos esperanza a la gente, empieza a diluirse esa imposibilidad absoluta. +Como dijo Harvey Milk, si les damos esperanza, les damos una oportunidad, una forma de pensar en la posibilidad de este cambio. +Esperanza. +Y esperanza es lo que nosotros, los amigos de Aaron, le negamos, porque hicimos que perdiera esa esperanza. +Amo a ese muchacho, como amo a mi hijo. +Pero le fallamos. +Y amo a mi comunidad, y no le voy a fallar. +No le voy a fallar. +Mantendremos viva esa esperanza y lucharemos por ella, sin importar lo difcil que parezca la batalla. +Qu sigue? +Bueno, empezamos con esta marcha de 200 personas, y el ao prximo, habr 1000 en distintas rutas que marcharn en enero y se concentrarn en Concord para celebrar esta causa y luego en 2016, antes de las primeras, marcharn 10 000 personas por el estado, y se reunirn en Concord a celebrar esta causa. +Y conforme marchbamos, en todo el pas nos preguntaban: "Podemos hacer lo mismo en nuestro estado?" +As que lanzamos una plataforma llamada G.D. Walkers, o sea "Granny D Walkers" [caminantes abuela D] y habr caminantes de la abuela D en todo el pas marchando por esta reforma. En primer lugar. +Segundo, en esta marcha, uno de los fundadores de Thunderclap, David Cascino, estaba con nosotros, y dijo: "Qu podemos hacer?" +As que desarrollaron una plataforma que anunciamos hoy, que nos permite reunir a los votantes comprometidos con esta idea de reforma. +Independientemente de dnde se encuentren, dentro o fuera de Nueva Hampshire, pueden registrarse y recibir informacin de las posturas de los candidatos sobre este tema para poder decidir por quin votar de acuerdo a quin har realidad esta posibilidad. +Y para terminar, nmero tres, lo ms difcil. +Es la era del comit de accin poltica (Sper PAC) +De hecho, ayer, Merriam anunci que acuar la expresin "Sper PAC". +Ahora es una expresin oficial del diccionario. +El 1 de mayo, alias May Day, haremos un experimento. +Vamos a lanzar una accin poltica que creemos es un Sper PAC para poner fin a los Sper PACs. +Y esto funciona as. +El ltimo ao hemos estado trabajando con analistas y expertos polticos para calcular cunto costara juntar suficientes votos para una victoria en el Congreso de EE.UU. y hacer as posible la reforma. +Cunto? USD 500 millones? USD 1000 millones? +Cunto? +Anoche escuchamos deseos. +Este es mi deseo. +Mayo [May] "1". +Puedan [May] los ideales de "1" muchacho unir a una Nacin detrs de una idea crucial de que somos un solo pueblo, somos el pueblo al que se le prometi un gobierno, un gobierno que prometieron dependera nica y solamente del pueblo, que, como nos dijo Madison, que un rico no valga ms que un pobre. +"May 1" [Mayo 1, Pueda uno]. +Ojal puedan sumarse a este movimiento, no porque sean polticos, no porque sean expertos, no porque sea su campo, sino porque si existen, son ciudadanos. +Aaron me lo pidi. +Ahora se los pido yo a Uds. +Muchas gracias. +Daffodil Hudson: Hola? +S, soy yo. +Qu? +Oh, s, s, s, s, claro que acepto. +Cules son las fechas, de nuevo? +Pluma. Pluma. Pluma. +Del 17 al 21 de marzo. +Bueno, est bien, muy bien. Gracias. +Colega: Quin era? +DH: Era TED. +C: Quin es TED? +DH: Me tengo que preparar. +["Da tu charla: El musical"] ["Mi charla"] Dilacin. Qu piensas? +Puedo ayudarles? +DH: Ahora mismo? +Tramoyista: Rmpete una pierna. +Ahora mismo, hay una profesora aspirante en una escuela de postgrado en educacin mirando a un profesor balbuceando una y otra vez sobre compromiso de la manera ms desencantada posible. +Ahora mismo, hay un estudiante que est ideando una forma de convencer a su madre o a su padre de que est muy, muy enfermo y no puede ir a clase maana. +Por otro lado, ahora mismo existen educadores increbles compartiendo informacin, informacin compartida de una manera tan hermosa que los estudiantes estn sentados en vilo en sus asientos a la espera de que una gota de sudor caiga de la cara de esta persona para que puedan disfrutar de todo ese conocimiento. +Ahora mismo, tambin hay una persona que tiene a todo un pblico absorto, una persona construyendo una narrativa poderosa sobre un mundo que la gente que le escucha nunca haba imaginado o visto antes, pero si cierran sus ojos con fuerza suficiente, pueden imaginar ese mundo porque la narracin es irresistible. +Ahora mismo, hay una persona que puede decirle a una audiencia que suba sus manos y las dejen all hasta que diga, "Bjenlas". +Ahora mismo. +As que la gente va a decir, "Bueno, Chris, describes al chico que est pasando por un tipo de formacin terrible, pero tambin ests describiendo a esos poderosos educadores. +Si estn pensando en el mundo de la educacin o en la educacin urbana, en particular, esos chicos probablemente se anulan entre s, y por tanto estaremos bien". +La realidad es que la gente que he descrito como los grandes educadores, los grandes constructores de narraciones, los grandes narradores, estn muy lejos de las clases. +Las personas que conocen las habilidades de cmo ensear y cautivar al pblico ni siquiera saben lo que significa la certificacin docente. +Es probable que ni siquiera tengan los grados, para tener algo que puedan llamar educacin. +Y eso para m es triste. +Es triste porque la gente que he descrito, con muy poco inters en el proceso de aprendizaje, quieren ser profesores eficaces, pero no tienen modelos para seguir. +Voy a parafrasear a Mark Twain. +Mark Twain dijo que la preparacin adecuada, o la enseanza, es tan poderosa que puede convertir la mala moral en buena, puede convertir prcticas horribles en prcticas poderosas, puede cambiar a los hombres y transformarlos en ngeles. +La gente que he descrito anteriormente tiene la preparacin adecuada para la enseanza, no de cualquier universidad, sino en virtud de slo estar en los mismos espacios de aquellos que cautivan. +Adivinan dnde estn esos lugares? +En las peluqueras, en los conciertos de rap y, lo ms importante, en la iglesia afroamericana. +He estado planteando esta idea llamada pedagoga pentecostal. +Quin de Uds. ha estado en una iglesia afroamericana? +Tenemos un par de manos. +Uds. van a una iglesia afroamericana, su predicador comienza y se da cuenta de que tiene que cautivar a la audiencia, as que empieza con este tipo de juegos de palabras en el principio a menudo, y luego hace una pausa, y dice, "Oh, Dios mo, no estn prestando atencin del todo". +As que dice, "Me dan un amn?" +Audiencia: Amn. +Chris Emdin: As que, me dan un amn? Audiencia: Amn. +CE: Y de repente todo el mundo vuelve a despertarse. +Ese predicador golpea en el plpito por la atencin. +Deja caer su voz a un volumen muy, muy bajo cuando quiere que la gente le atienda, y esas son las habilidades que necesitamos para tener profesores ms cautivadores. +Entonces, por qu la formacin del profesorado slo te da teora y teora y habla sobre las normas y trata sobre todas estas cosas que no tienen nada que ver con las competencias bsicas, esa magia que necesitan para cautivar al pblico, para cautivar a un estudiante? +As que sostengo que redefinamos la formacin docente, que pudiramos centrarnos en el contenido, y eso est bien, y pudiramos centrarnos en las teoras, y eso est bien; pero el contenido y las teoras carentes de la magia de la enseanza y del aprendizaje no significan nada. +Ahora, la gente dice a menudo, "Bueno, la magia es simplemente mgica". +Hay profesores que, a pesar de todos sus retos, tienen esas habilidades, entran en las escuelas y son capaces de cautivar al pblico, y el director pasa por all y dice: "Caramba, es tan bueno, quisiera que todos mis profesores fueran as de buenos". +Y cuando tratan de describir lo que es, slo dicen: "l tiene esa magia". +Pero estoy aqu para decirles que la magia puede ser enseada. +La magia puede ser enseada. +La magia puede ser enseada. +Ahora, cmo ensearla? +Se ensea permitiendo que la gente acuda a esos espacios donde la magia sucede. +Si quieren ser un profesor aspirante en la educacin urbana, tienen que salir de los confines de esa universidad y pasear por el vecindario. +Tienen que ir all y pasar un rato en una peluquera, tienen que asistir a esa iglesia afroamericana, y tienen que ver a esa gente que tiene el poder de cautivar, y tomar notas sobre lo que hacen. +En nuestras clases de formacin del profesorado de mi universidad, he comenzado un proyecto donde cada estudiante que viene all se sienta y mira conciertos de rap. +Observan la forma en que los raperos se mueven y hablan con las manos. +Estudian la forma cmo caminan con orgullo en el escenario. +Escuchan sus metforas y analogas, y comienzan a aprender estas pequeas cosas que si practican lo suficiente, se convierten en la clave para la magia. +Aprenden que si slo miran fijamente un estudiante y levantan la ceja alrededor de medio centmetro, no tienen que decir una palabra porque saben que eso significa que quieren ms. +Y si pudiramos transformar la formacin del profesorado para centrarnos en la enseanza de cmo los profesores pueden crear esa magia entonces, puf!, podramos hacer que las clases muertas cobraran vida, podramos reavivar la imaginacin, y podemos cambiar la educacin. +Gracias. +Cuando la gente piensa en las ciudades, piensa en cosas concretas. +Piensa en edificios, calles, rascacielos y taxis ruidosos. +Cuando yo pienso en las ciudades, pienso en la gente. +Principalmente, las ciudades tienen que ver con la gente: adnde va y dnde se rene est en la esencia de lo que hace que una ciudad funcione. +As que, an ms importantes que los edificios son los espacios pblicos entre ellos. +Hoy en da, algunos de los cambios ms transformadores de las ciudades se dan en los espacios pblicos. +Por eso creo que los espacios pblicos alegres y agradables son esenciales para planificar una gran ciudad. +Son los que le dan vida. +Pero qu hace que un espacio pblico funcione? +Qu hace que ciertos espacios pblicos atraigan a la gente y que otros la alejen? +Pens que si consegua contestar esas preguntas, podra hacer una gran contribucin a mi ciudad. +Una de las cosas ms confusas sobre m es que soy conductista de animales, pero no uso estas habilidades para analizar el comportamiento animal, sino para estudiar cmo la gente utiliza los espacios pblicos de las ciudades. +Uno de los primeros lugares que analic fue un parquecito diminuto llamado Paley Park, en el medio de Manhattan. +Este lugarcito se convirti en un pequeo fenmeno. Cmo caus tan profundo impacto en los neoyorquinos fue lo que me caus a m una profunda impresin. +Estudi este parque muy al comienzo de mi carrera porque resulta que fue mi padrastro quien lo construy. As descubr que los lugares como Paley Park no aparecen por accidente. +Vi con mis propios ojos que requeran una gran dedicacin y una gran atencin a los detalles. +Pero qu hizo que este lugar fuese especial y atrajera a la gente? +Me sentaba en el parque a observar atentamente. Lo primero, entre otras cosas, eran las cmodas sillas mviles. +La gente llegaba, elega su asiento, lo mova un poco y se quedaban un rato. Curiosamente, estas personas atraan a otras e irnicamente, yo me senta ms tranquila si haba gente cerca. +Estaba lleno de vegetacin. +Ofreca lo que los neoyorquinos anhelan: comodidad y espacios verdes. +Pero mi pregunta era: por qu no hay ms lugares con espacios verdes y asientos en medio de la ciudad donde no te sientas solo o como un intruso? +Desafortunadamente, no era as como se diseaban las ciudades. +Aqu tienen una imagen familiar. +As se han diseado las plazas por generaciones. +Tienen ese aspecto elegante y espartano que solemos asociar a la arquitectura moderna, pero no sorprende que la gente evite lugares como estos. +No solo se ven desolados: sino que dan una sensacin total de peligro. +Quiero decir, dnde se sentara uno aqu? +Qu hara? +Pero a los arquitectos les encantan. +Son pedestales para sus creaciones. +Podran tolerar una o dos estatuas, pero no mucho ms. +Son ideales para los promotores inmobiliarios. +Nada que regar, nada que mantener, y no habr gente indeseable por quien preocuparse. +Pero no creen que es un desperdicio? +Para m, volverme planificadora urbana significaba poder verdaderamente cambiar la ciudad que amaba y en la que viva. +Quera ser capaz de crear lugares que despertasen el sentimiento de Paley Park e impedir que promotores inmobiliarios construyesen plazas inhspitas como esta. +Pero a lo largo de los aos, he aprendido lo difcil que es crear espacios pblicos que funcionen, valiosos y agradables para la gente. +Como aprend de mi padrastro, desde luego, no aparecen por accidente. Sobre todo en una ciudad como Nueva York, donde, para empezar, hay que pelear por los espacios pblicos y, luego, para que estos tengan xito, alguien debe pensar mucho en cada detalle. +Los espacios abiertos en las ciudades son oportunidades. +S, oportunidades para la inversin comercial, pero tambin para el bien comn de la ciudad. Pero esos dos propsitos a menudo no van de la mano y ah est el problema. +Mi primera oportunidad para luchar por un gran espacio pblico abierto fue a principios de los aos 80, cuando diriga a un equipo de planificadores en un enorme relleno llamado Battery Park City, en el bajo Manhattan, sobre el ro Hudson. +Este pramo arenoso llevaba estril ms de 10 aos, y nos dijeron que, si no encontrbamos un promotor, en 6 meses, ira a la quiebra. +Entonces tuvimos una idea innovadora, casi una locura. +En lugar de construir un parque como complemento al desarrollo futuro, por qu no invertir la ecuacin y hacer, primero, un espacio pblico abierto pequeo, pero de gran calidad, y ver si eso marcaba la diferencia? +Solo tenamos dinero para construir una parte de dos cuadras de lo que luego sera una costanera de 1,5 km, as que, lo que construysemos tena que ser perfecto. +Para asegurarme, insist en que hiciramos una modelo a escala real, en madera, de la barandilla y el rompeolas. +Y cuando me sent en ese banco de prueba, con la arena an arremolinndose alrededor mo, la barandilla quedaba justo a la altura de la vista, tapando el paisaje y arruinando la vista del ro. +Ven? Los detalles s hacen la diferencia. +Pero el diseo no se trata solo del aspecto de las cosas; trata tambin de cmo nos sentimos en ese asiento, en ese lugar. Creo que un diseo exitoso siempre depende de la experiencia personal. +En esta imagen, todo parece terminado, pero ese borde de granito, esas luces, el respaldo de ese banco, los rboles plantados y los distintos lugares para sentarse, fueron todos pequeas batallas que convirtieron este proyecto en un lugar en el que la gente quisiera estar. +Tras 20 aos, result ser una leccin muy valiosa, puesto que Michael Bloomberg me pidi ser su Comisionada de Planificacin y me encarg de dar forma a toda la ciudad de Nueva York. +Ese mismo da me dijo que se esperaba que Nueva York creciese de 8 a 9 millones de personas. +Y me pregunt: "Dnde vas a meter a ese milln extra de neoyorquinos? +Yo no tena ni idea. +Uds. saben que, para Nueva York, es importante atraer a inmigrantes, as que nos entusiasmaba la perspectiva de crecimiento, pero, sinceramente, dnde bamos a construir en una ciudad ya edificada hasta los lmites y rodeada de agua? +Cmo bamos a encontrar viviendas para tantos nuevos neoyorquinos? +Y si no podamos expandirnos, lo cual quizs fuese bueno, dnde colocaramos las nuevas viviendas? +Y qu pasara con los autos? La ciudad no soportara ms autos. +Qu bamos a hacer? +Si no podamos expandirnos, tendramos que elevarnos. +Y si nos elevbamos, tendramos que hacerlo en lugares donde no se necesitase tener auto. +Eso implicaba usar uno de nuestros principales recursos: el sistema de transporte. +Nunca habamos pensado en cmo sacarle el mayor provecho. +Aqu estaba la respuesta a nuestro problema. +Pensamos que, si canalizbamos y redirigamos las nuevas construcciones en torno al transporte, podramos manejar el aumento de poblacin. +Este era el plan, lo que de verdad haba que hacer: Necesitbamos modificar las zonas urbanas, porque la divisin en zonas es la herramienta regulatoria del planificador urbano. Era, bsicamente, reestrucurar toda la ciudad, centrndonos en dnde podan ir los nuevos desarrollos, y prohibiendo cualquier tipo de construccin en los barrios suburbanos orientados al transporte en auto. +Era una idea increblemente ambiciosa. Ambiciosa, porque las comunidades deban aprobar esos planes. +Cmo iba a conseguirlo? +Escuchando. As que empec a escuchar. Dediqu miles de horas a escuchar, solo para generar confianza. +Los vecinos se dan cuenta si entiendes o no su barrio. +No es algo que se pueda fingir. +Empec a caminar. +No se imaginan cuntas cuadras camin, en veranos sofocantes, en inviernos helados, ao tras ao, solo para poder entender el ADN de cada barrio y saber cmo se viva en cada calle. +Me convert en una experta obsesionada con las zonas urbanas, tratando de ver cmo esta divisin por zonas poda dar respuesta a los intereses de la comunidad. +Poco a poco, barrio a barrio, cuadra a cuadra, empezamos a establecer lmites de altura para que toda construccin nueva fuese predecible y estuviese cerca del transporte. +Durante el transcurso de 12 aos, logramos redisear 124 barrios, el 40% de la ciudad; 12 500 manzanas, para que hoy, el 90% de los edificios nuevos de Nueva York est a menos de 10 minutos a pie del metro. +En otras palabras, nadie en esos nuevos edificios necesita tener un auto. +Esa reestrucuracin de las zonas fue agotadora y enervante pero importante, aunque nunca fue mi objetivo. +La regulacin de zonas no se ve ni se siente. +Mi objetivo fue siempre crear espacios pblicos fabulosos. Estaba decidida a crear, +en aquellas zonas en las que habamos planificado un gran desarrollo, lugares que marcasen una diferencia en la vida de la gente. +Aqu ven lo que eran 3 km de costa abandonada y deteriorada en los barrios de Greenpoint y Williamsburg en Brooklyn. Imposible llegar ah e imposible utilizarlos. +La urbanizacin en esta zona era enorme, as que senta la obligacin de crear parques magnficos en esta ribera. Dediqu una cantidad increble de tiempo a cada cm2 de esos planos. +Quera asegurarme de que hubiese caminos con rboles desde la parte alta hasta el agua, que hubiese rboles y plantas por todas partes, y, por supuesto, muchsimos lugares para sentarse. +Sinceramente, no saba cmo iba a resultar. +Deba tener fe. +En esos planos puse todo lo que haba estudiado y aprendido. +Lleg el momento de la inauguracin, y he de decir que fue increble. +La gente vena de toda la ciudad para estar en estos parques. +S que cambiaron la vida de los que viven en la zona, y que tambin cambiaron la imagen que los neoyorquinos tenan de su ciudad. +A veces voy y miro a la gente subir a ese pequeo ferry que ahora conecta los distritos, y no s explicar por qu, pero me conmueve enormemente que la gente lo use ahora como si siempre hubiese estado ah. +Este es un parque nuevo en el bajo Manhattan. +La costa del bajo Manhattan era un desastre antes del 11 de septiembre. +Wall Street estaba prcticamente bloqueada por tierra, porque nadie poda acercarse, +Y despus del 11 de septiembre, la ciudad tena muy poco control. +Pero pens que si bamos a la Lower Manhattan Development Corporation y conseguamos dinero para recuperar esos 3 km de ribera deteriorada, podra tener un gran efecto en la reconstruccin del bajo Manhattan. +Y as fue. +El bajo Manhattan por fin tiene una costanera pblica en sus tres frentes. +Realmente adoro este parque. +Ahora las barandillas deben ser ms altas, as que pusimos unas banquetas tipo bar en todo el borde y te puedes acercar tanto al agua que casi ests sobre ella. +Y miren cmo la barandilla ensanchada y achatada permite dejar ah tu almuerzo o tu porttil. +Me encanta cuando la gente va all, eleva la mirada y piensa: "Ah, all est Brooklyn! Est tan cerca!" +Cul es el truco? +Cmo conviertes un parque en un lugar donde la gente quiere estar? +Bueno, depende de ti. No como planificador urbano, sino como ciudadano. +No recurres a tus habilidades como diseador, +sino lo piensas como ser humano. +Quiero decir, te gustara ir ah? +Querras quedarte? +Tienes una buena vista del parque? y desde all? +Hay ms personas? +Tiene espacios verdes y parece agradable? +Puedes encontrar tu propio asiento? +Ahora, por toda la ciudad de Nueva York, hay lugares en los que puedes encontrar tu propio asiento. +Donde haba estacionamientos, ahora hay cafeteras. +Donde pasaba el trfico de Broadway, ahora hay mesas y sillas. +Donde hace 12 aos no estaban permitidos los cafs en las aceras, ahora estn por todas partes. +Pero recuperar estos espacios para el uso pblico no fue sencillo y es an ms difcil mantenerlos as. +Ahora les contar una historia sobre un parque nada normal llamado High Line. +High Line era un ferrocarril elevado. +High Line era un ferrocarril elevado que pasaba por tres barrios de West Side Manhattan. Cuando el tren dej de funcionar, se convirti en un paisaje silvestre, algo as como un jardn en el cielo. +Y cuando lo vi por primera vez, cuando sub a ese viejo viaducto, me enamor como te enamoras de una persona, sinceramente. +Entonces, cuando fui nombrada, salvar las dos primeras partes de High Line de la demolicin se convirti en mi prioridad absoluta y en mi proyecto ms importante. +Saba que si pasaba un solo da en que no me preocupase por High Line, lo demoleran. +High Line, ahora muy conocido y extraordinariamente popular, es el espacio pblico ms disputado de la ciudad. +Puede que vean un hermoso parque, pero no todos lo ven as. +S, es cierto, los intereses comerciales siempre pelearn contra los espacios pblicos. +Uds. pueden pensar: "No es maravilloso que ms de 4 millones de personas de todo el mundo vengan a visitar High Line?" +Pero un constructor ve solo una cosa: clientes. +"Por qu no quitar esas plantas y poner tiendas por todo High Line? +No sera estupendo? No traera ms dinero a la ciudad?" +Pues no! No sera estupendo. +Sera un centro comercial, no un parque. +Y saben qu? Podra representar ms dinero para la ciudad, pero la ciudad ha de pensar a largo plazo, pensar en el bien comn. +Hace poco, la ltima parte de High Line, la tercera parte, la parte final, se enfrent con intereses inmobiliarios. Algunos de los principales constructores de la ciudad estn construyendo ms de 1,5 millones de m2 en Hudson Yards. +Y vinieron a proponerme "desmontar temporalmente" esa tercera y ltima parte. +Quizs High Line no encajaba en su idea de una ciudad brillante de rascacielos sobre una colina. +Quizs solo les entorpeca el camino. +Como fuera, llev 9 meses de continuas negociaciones diarias para conseguir que se firmara el acuerdo que prohbe su demolicin, y eso fue hace solo 2 aos. +As que ya ven, no importa cun popular o exitoso sea un espacio pblico: nunca se lo puede dar por seguro. +Los lugares pblicos --esta es la parte rescatada-- siempre necesitan defensores atentos, no solo para reclamarlos para el uso pblico, sino para disearlos para la gente que los usa, luego para mantenerlos, para garantizar que sean para todos, que no sean violados, invadidos, abandonados o ignorados. +Si algo he aprendido en mi carrera como planificadora urbana, es que los lugares pblicos tienen poder. +No solo por el nmero de personas que los usan, sino por el nmero an mayor de personas que se sienten mejor con su ciudad simplemente por saber que estn ah. +Los espacios pblicos pueden cambiar cmo vives en una ciudad, lo que sientes por esa ciudad, si la prefieres a alguna otra. Son una de las principales razones por las que te quedas en esa ciudad. +Yo creo que una buena ciudad es como una fiesta fabulosa. +La gente se queda porque la est pasando bien. +Gracias. +Cul es la interseccin entre la tecnologa, el arte y la ciencia? +La curiosidad y la maravilla, porque nos impulsan a explorar, porque estamos rodeados de cosas que no podemos ver. +Y me gusta usar la pelcula para que nos lleve en una travesa a travs de los portales del tiempo y del espacio, para hacer lo invisible visible porque lo que hace expande nuestros horizontes, transforma nuestra percepcin, abre nuestras mentes y toca nuestro corazn. +Aqu tenemos unas escenas de mi pelcula IMAX 3D, "Los misterios del mundo desconocido". +Hay un movimiento bastante lento para que lo detecten nuestros ojos, y el lapso de tiempo que nos permite descubrir y ampliemos nuestra perspectiva de la vida. +Podemos ver cmo los organismos emergen y crecen, cmo una vid sobrevive trepando por los rboles para ver la luz del sol. +Y a una gran escala, el lapso de tiempo nos permite ver nuestro planeta en movimiento. +No solo podemos ver la vasta extensin de la naturaleza sino el movimiento agitado de la humanidad. +Cada lnea marcada con un punto representa un avin con pasajeros, y al convertir la informacin del trfico areo en una imagen de lapso, podemos ver algo que constantemente est arriba de nosotros pero es invisible: la extensa red de trfico areo por todos los Estados Unidos. +Lo mismo podemos hacer con los barcos en el mar. +Podemos convertir la informacin en una vista del lapso de tiempo de una economa global en movimiento. +Dcadas de informacin nos permiten tener una vista completa de nuestro planeta como un nico organismo sostenido por las corrientes que circulan por todos los ocanos y por las nubes que giran por la atmsfera, latiendo con los relmpagos, coronado por la aurora boreal. +Pudiera ser la ltima imagen del lapso del tiempo: la anatoma de la Tierra trada a la vida. +Al otro extremo hay cosas que se mueven muy rpido ante nuestros ojos, pero contamos con la tecnologa que puede ver ese mundo tambin. +Con cmaras de alta velocidad, podemos hacer lo contrario que sucede con el lapso del tiempo. +Podemos filmar imgenes que son mil veces ms rpidas que nuestra visin. +Y podemos ver cmo funcionan los ingeniosos dispositivos de la naturaleza y quiz an podemos imitarlos. +Cuando una liblula revolotea, puede ser que no se den cuenta, pero es la mejor voladora de la naturaleza. +Puede flotar en el aire, volar hacia atrs, incluso boca abajo. +Y al rastrear los marcadores en las alas de los insectos, podemos visualizar el flujo de aire que producen. +Nadie saba el secreto, pero la alta velocidad muestra que una liblula puede mover las cuatro alas en direcciones diferentes al mismo tiempo. +Y lo que aprendamos nos puede llevar a clases nuevas de voladores robticos que pueden expandir nuestra visin sobre lugares importantes y remotos. +Somos gigantes, y no estamos conscientes de las cosas que son muy pequeas para que nosotros las veamos. +El microscopio de electrones dispara electrones que crean imgenes que pueden magnificar cosas tantas veces como un milln de veces. +Este es el huevo de una mariposa. +Y hay criaturas ocultas viviendo por todo nuestro cuerpo, incluyendo a los caros que pasan toda su vida viviendo en sus pestaas, gateando por su piel durante la noche. +Pueden adivinar qu es esto? +Piel de tiburn. +Una boca de una oruga. +El ojo de una mosca de la fruta. +Una cscara de huevo. +Una pulga. +La lengua de un caracol. +Pensamos que conocemos la mayora del reino animal, pero puede ser que haya millones de especies pequeas esperando ser descubiertas. +La araa tambin tiene grandes secretos porque el hilo de seda de la araa es gramo a gramo ms fuerte que el acero, pero completamente elstico. +Esta travesa nos llevar hasta el mundo nano. +La seda es 100 veces ms delgada que el cabello humano. +En ella hay bacterias, y cerca de esas bacterias, 10 veces ms pequeo, hay un virus. +Dentro, y 10 veces ms pequeo, hay tres hebras de ADN, +y cerca del lmite de nuestros microscopios ms poderosos, hay tomos individuales de carbono. +Con la punta de un microscopio poderoso podemos mover tomos y empezar a crear asombrosos dispositivos nano. +Un da algunos podrn patrullar nuestro cuerpo para cualquier tipo de enfermedad y limpiar arterias obstruidas en el camino. +Las pequeas mquinas qumicas del futuro tal vez un da podrn reparar el ADN. +Estamos a la puerta de avances extraordinarios, los cuales surgen de nuestro impulso para descubrir los misterios de la vida. +As que bajo la lluvia interminable del polvo csmico el aire est lleno de polen, micro-diamantes y joyas provenientes de otros planetas, y explosiones supernova. +La gente lleva sus vidas rodeadas de lo invisible. +Sabiendo que hay tanto a nuestro alrededor que podemos ver que esto cambia por siempre nuestro entendimiento del mundo y al ver los mundos invisibles, reconocemos que existimos en el universo viviente, y esta nueva perspectiva crea maravillas y nos inspira a convertirnos en exploradores en nuestros propios jardines. +Quin sabe lo que espera ser visto y qu nuevas maravillas transformarn nuestras vidas. +nicamente tenemos que ver. +Gracias. Gracias. +Nac y crec en Sierra Leona, un pas pequeo y muy hermoso de frica occidental. Un pas rico tanto en recursos materiales como en talento creativo. +Sin embargo, Sierra Leona es tristemente conocida por la guerra insurgente de 10 aos, de los 90, en la que poblados enteros fueron reducidos a cenizas. En este perodo, se calcula que 8000 hombres, mujeres y nios +sufrieron amputaciones de sus brazos y piernas. Mientras escapbamos con mi familia de uno de esos ataques, a los 12 aos decid hacer todo lo posible para que mis hijos no tuvieran que pasar por situaciones como esa. +Ciertamente, creceran en una Sierra Leona en la que la guerra y las amputaciones ya no eran una estrategia para obtener poder. +Al ver a la gente que conoca, gente querida, recuperarse de esta devastacin, algo que me preocupaba profundamente era que muchos de los amputados del pas no iban a usar sus prtesis. +El motivo, luego me dara cuenta, era que los encajes ortopdicos producan dolor porque no calzaban bien. +El encaje ortopdico es la parte donde el amputado introduce lo que qued de su miembro unindolo al tobillo ortopdico. +Incluso en los pases desarrollados, a un paciente le lleva de 3 semanas a varios aos conseguir un encaje cmodo y a veces no lo consigue nunca. +Los tcnicos ortopdicos usan procesos convencionales como el moldeo por inyeccin y la fundicin para hacer encajes ortopdicos de un solo material. +Muchas veces estos encajes generan niveles de presin insoportables en los miembros del paciente, provocndoles lceras y ampollas. +No importa lo buena que sea la prtesis. +Si el encaje ortopdico es incmodo, no se usar la pierna y eso es sencillamente inadmisible en nuestra poca. +Entonces un da, cuando conoc al profesor Hugh Herr hace unos dos aos y medio, me pregunt si saba cmo resolver este problema. Le dije: "Todava no, pero me encantara descubrirlo". +Entonces, para mi doctorado en el Media Lab del MIT, dise encajes ortopdicos a medida, rpidos y econmicos, que son ms cmodos que las prtesis convencionales. +Hice resonancias magnticas para conocer la anatoma real del paciente, luego model las piezas para predecir con exactitud las presiones y cargas de las fuerzas normales, y luego cre un encaje ortopdico para la fabricacin. +Usamos una impresora 3D para fabricar un encaje ortopdico de varios materiales que alivia la presin donde la anatoma del paciente as lo requiere. +Resumiendo, usamos informacin para hacer encajes novedosos de un modo rpido y econmico. +En unas pruebas que acabamos de terminar en el Media Lab, uno de nuestros pacientes, un veterano de guerra de EE.UU. amputado hace ya unos 20 aos, que prob miles de piernas, dijo de una de nuestras piezas impresas: "Es muy blanda, es como caminar sobre almohadas y es terriblemente sexy". +La discapacidad en nuestra poca no debera impedirle a nadie vivir una vida plena. +Mi deseo es que las herramientas y los procesos que desarrollamos en nuestro grupo de investigacin puedan usarse para brindar prtesis con excelente funcionalidad a quienes las necesiten. +Para m, un modo de empezar a aliviar el dolor de todos aquellos que sufrieron la guerra y la enfermedad es crear superficies de contacto cmodas y accesibles para sus cuerpos. +Sea en Sierra Leona o en Boston. Espero que esto no solo les restituya el potencial humano, sino que realmente transforme la percepcin que tienen de l. +Muchas gracias. +Pat Mitchell: Ese da, 8 de enero de 2011, comenz como cualquier otro. +Estaban ambos trabajando en lo que les apasiona. +T estabas con tus partidarios, que es algo que te encantaba hacer cuando eras congresista, y Mark, t estabas felizmente preparndote para tu prximo transbordador espacial. +Y de repente, todo lo que haban planeado, o esperado de sus vidas, cambi irremediablemente para siempre. +Mark Kelly: S, es increble, es increble cmo todo puede cambiar para cualquiera de nosotros en un instante. +La gente no se da cuenta. +Yo ciertamente no lo vi. +Gabby Giffords: S. +MK: Y en la maana de ese sbado, recib esa horrible llamada de la jefe de gabinete de Gabby. +Ella no tena mucha ms informacin. +Solo me dijo: "Le dispararon a Gabby". +Unos minutos despus, la llam yo y pens por un instante, a lo mejor me imagin esa llamada. +La llam y fue entonces cuando me dijo que a Gabby le haban disparado en la cabeza. +Y a partir de ese momento, supe que nuestras vidas iban a ser muy diferentes. +PM: Y cuando llegaste al hospital, cul fue el pronstico que te dieron del estado clnico de Gabby y qu recuperacin, si la hubiese, podas esperar? +MK: Bueno, con una herida de bala en la cabeza y una lesin cerebral traumtica normalmente no te pueden decir mucho. +Cada lesin es diferente. No se puede predecir, como a menudo se puede con un derrame cerebral que es otro tipo de lesin cerebral. +As que no saban cunto tiempo Gabby estara en coma, ni cundo eso cambiara ni cul sera el pronstico. +PM: Gabby, tu recuperacin ha sido un esfuerzo para crear una nueva Gabby Giffords o para recuperar a la antigua Gabby Giffords? +GG: La nueva; mejor, ms fuerte, ms dura. +MK: Es decir, cuando miras nuestra foto atrs, volver de ese tipo de lesin y volver fuerte, ms fuerte que nunca es algo muy difcil de lograr. +No conozco a nadie tan fuerte como mi maravillosa esposa. +PM: Y cules fueron las primeras seales de que la recuperacin no solo iba a ser posible sino que se iba a parecer a la vida que t y Gabby haban planeado? +PM: Tambin hubo ciertas palabras. +No te sorprendi con lo que dijo al principio? +MK: Bueno, al principio fue duro. GG: Qu? Qu? Pollo. Pollo. Pollo. +MK: S, eso era todo. +Durante el primer mes, hasta ah llegaba todo el vocabulario de Gabby. +Por alguna razn, tiene afasia, que dificulta la comunicacin. +Se aferr a la palabra "pollo", que no es la mejor, pero desde luego, tampoco es la peor. +Y de hecho estbamos preocupados de que pudiera ser mucho peor. +PM: Gabby, cul ha sido tu mayor desafo durante esta recuperacin? +GG: Hablar. Muy difcil. De verdad. +MK: S, con afasia, Gabby sabe lo que quiere decir, pero no lo puede expresar. +Ella entiende todo, pero la comunicacin es muy difcil. Porque cuando miras la foto... La parte del cerebro donde estn los centros de comunicacin queda del lado izquierdo de la cabeza, que es por donde pas la bala. +PM: As que tienes que hacer una cosa muy peligrosa: hablar en nombre de tu esposa. +MK: Lo hago. +Puede ser una de las cosas ms peligrosas que he hecho. +PM: Gabby, te sientes optimista con respecto a tu continua recuperacin; caminar, hablar, llegar a mover tu brazo y tu pierna? +GG: Soy optimista. Va a ser un camino largo y difcil, pero soy optimista. +PM: Esa parece ser la caracterstica nmero uno de Gabby Giffords, no les parece? MK: Gabby siempre ha sido muy optimista. +Trabaja muy duro cada da. +GG: En la trotadora, en la banda de correr, lecciones de espaol, corno francs. +MK: Slo mi esposa podra... Si la hubieran conocido antes de la lesin, entenderan ms o menos esto. Alguien que puede ser lesionado con tantas dificultades para comunicarse, trabaja con un terapeuta de lenguaje, y hace un mes, ella me dice, "quiero aprender espaol de nuevo". +PM: Bueno, echemos un vistazo de cerca a esta esposa, incluso antes de que conocieras a Gabby Giffords. +Ah est en una motoneta. Tengo entendido que esa es una imagen muy comn de cmo era Gabby Giffords cuando estaba creciendo. +MK: S, Gabby sola competir en motocicleta. +Esa es una motoneta, pero ella tena... bueno, todava tiene una motocicleta BMW. +PM: Ella la conduce? MK: Bueno, es un desafo ya que no puede mover su brazo derecho, pero pienso que con algo que yo conozco, el velcro, quizs podamos volver a ponerla sobre la moto, sujetando su mano derecha al manubrio con velcro. +PM: Tengo la sensacin que esa ser la siguiente foto, Gabby. +Pero sabes... ya has decidido que dedicars tu vida al servicio. +Comenzars hacindote militar y acabars convirtindote en astronauta. +As se conocieron. +Qu te atrajo de Gabby? +MK: Bueno, cuando nos conocimos, curiosamente... Fue la ltima vez que estuvimos en Vancouver, hace unos 10 aos. All nos conocimos, en el aeropuerto, en un viaje que los dos tomamos a China, que yo, con mis orgenes, llamara un despilfarro. +Gabby dira... GG: Misin de investigacin. +MK: Ella dira que fue una importante misin de investigacin. +Ella era senadora del Estado en esa poca, y nos conocimos aqu, en el aeropuerto, antes de viajar a China. +PM: Lo describiras como un romance tempestuoso? +GG: No, no, no. +Un buen amigo. +MK: Si, fuimos amigos por bastante tiempo. +GG: Si. MK: Y entonces me invit, ms o menos un ao despus, me invit a salir. +A dnde fuimos, Gabby? +GG: Al corredor de la muerte. +MK: Si. Nuestra primera cita fue en el corredor de la muerte en la prisin estatal de Arizona en Florence, justo en las afueras del distrito senatorial del Estado, de Gabby. +Estaban trabajando en cierta legislacin que tena que ver con el crimen y el castigo y la pena capital en el Estado de Arizona. +Es que ella no encontraba a nadie que la acompaara, y yo le dije, "Por supuesto que quiero ir al corredor de la muerte". +As que esa fue nuestra primera cita. +Desde entonces estamos juntos . GG: S. +PM: Bueno, eso pudo haber sido parte de la razn por la que Gabby decidi casarse contigo. +Estabas dispuesto a ir al corredor de la muerte, despus de todo. +MK: Supongo que s. +PM: Gabby, Que te hizo querer casarte con Mark? +GG: Eh, buenos amigos. Mejores amigos. Los mejores amigos. +MK: Siempre pens que tenamos una relacin muy especial. +Hemos atravezado tiempos muy difciles y solo nos ha unido ms. GG: Ms fuerte. +PM: Sin embargo, despus de casarse seguan teniendo vidas muy independientes. +De hecho, ni siquiera vivan juntos. +MK: Era uno de esos matrimonios a distancia. +En nuestro caso era Washington D.C., Houston, Tucson. +A veces en el sentido del reloj, a veces en el sentido contrario, a todos esos lugares. No vivamos juntos hasta ese sbado en la maana. +Menos de una hora despus de que le dispararan, yo iba en un avin a Tucson, y ese fue el momento en que cambiaron las cosas. +PM: Y t, Gabby, habas sido elegida congresista despus de haber sido senadora estatal y habas trabajaado en el Congreso durante 6 aos. +Qu es lo que ms te gustaba de estar en el Congreso? +GG: Ritmo rpido. Ritmo rpido. +PM: Bueno,as lo hacas tu. GG: S, s. A ritmo rpido. +PM: No estoy segura de que todos lo describiran de esa manera. +MK: S. Se sabe que la legislacin normalmente va a un ritmo lentsimo, pero mi esposa, tengo que admitirlo, y muchos otros miembros del Congreso que conozco, trabajan sumamente duro. +Gabby corra de un lado a otro como loca. Nunca tomaba un da libre, tal vez medio da al mes. En todo momento estaba trabajando. De verdad que as prosperaba, y todava es as, hoy en da. GG: S. S. +PM: Ah est instalando paneles solares en el tejado, tengo que decirlo. +As que despus del trgico accidente, Mark, decidiste dimitir de tu posicin como astronauta, a pesar de que normalmente habras estado en la siguiene misin espacial. +Todo el mundo, incluso Gabby, intent convencerte de que volvieras, y al final aceptaste. +MK: Ms o menos. Al da siguiente de la lesin de Gabby, llam a mi jefe, la jefe de los astronautas, la Dra. Peggy Whitson, y le dije, "Peggy, s que tengo que ir al espacio en tres meses. +Gabby est en coma. Estoy en Tucson. +Tienes que encontrarme un reemplazo". +En realidad no renunci a ser astronauta, pero declin ese trabajo y encontraron un sustituto. +Pero saba cmo es ella. GG: Si. Si. Si. +MK: Ella era el apoyo principal de mi carrera, y saba que eso era lo correcto. +Si alguno de ustedes alguna vez viene a nuestra casa en Tucson por primera vez, Gabby ir normalmente al congelador y sacar el recipiente en donde tiene el crneo original. GG: El crneo real. MK: Que a veces, asusta a la gente. +PM: Eso es para el aperitivo o el postre, Mark? +MK: Bueno, eso inicia la conversacin. +PM: Pero ha habido mucha conversacin respecto a algo que t hiciste, Gabby, despus del vuelo de Mark. +GG: El techo de la deuda. El techo de la deuda. +MK: Si, tuvimos ese voto. Alrededor de cinco meses despus de que Gabby fuera lesionada, ella tom la valiente decisin de volver. +Un voto muy controvertido, pero ella quera estar all para hacer escuchar su voz una vez ms. +PM: Y despus de eso renunci y empez lo que ha sido una recuperacin muy lenta y difcil. +Cmo es ahora su vida diaria? +MK: Bueno, ese es Nelson, el perro de servicio de Gabby. +GG: Nelson. +MK: El nuevo miembro de la familia. GG: Si, si. +MK: Y lo recibimos de... GG: Una prisin. Asesinato. MK: Tenemos muchas conexiones con las crceles, al parecer. Nelson vino de una prisin. Haba sido criado por una asesina en Massachusetts. +Pero ella hizo un muy buen trabajo con este perro. +Es un perro de servicio fantstico. +PM: Pero Gabby, qu has aprendido de tus experiencias de los ltimos aos? +MK: Si qu has aprendido? GG: Ms profundo. Ms profundo. +PM: Su relacin es ms profunda. +Tiene que serlo. Ahora estn juntos todo el tiempo. +MK: Y pienso que tambin el ser ms apreciativos, no? +GG: Agradecidos. +PM: Esta es una foto de una reunin de familia y amigos... Me encantan estas fotos porque muestran la relacin de hoy en da de Gabby y Mark. +Y t describes a Gabby, una y otra vez, como ms profunda en tantos niveles. No es as? +MK: Pienso que cuando una tragedia pasa en una familia, eso puede unir. +Aqu estamos mirando al transbordador espacial volando sobre Tucson. El transbordador Endeavour, el mismo que yo comand en su ltimo vuelo, y aqu en su ltimo viaje sobre un avin 747 dirigido hacia Los ngeles, La NASA tuvo la amabilidad de hacer que volara sobre Tucson. +PM: Y por supuesto, ustedes dos pasan por todos esos desafos de una recuperacin lenta y difcil. Y sin embargo, Gabby, cmo haces para mantener tu optimismo y tu actitud positiva? +GG: Quiero hacer del mundo, un lugar mejor. +PM: Y lo ests haciendo a pesar de que tu recuperacin tiene que ser prioritaria para ustedes. +Son personas que han servido al pas y continan hacindolo con una nueva iniciativa, un nuevo propsito. +Y Gabby, qu hay en tu agenda ahora? +GG: "Estadounidenses por Soluciones Responsables". +MK: Nuestro comit de accin poltica, con el que intentamos que los congresistas consideren seriamente la violencia con armas de fuego en este pas, y tratamos de que aprueben una ley razonable. +GG: Si. Si. MK: Esto nos afect muy personalmente. Pero no fue lo que le pas a Gabby lo que nos movi. +Lo que de verdad nos conmovi fueron los 20 nios de primer grado y de kinder asesinados en Newtown, Connecticut y la reaccin que vimos despus... Mira lo que ha pasado hasta ahora. +Hasta ahora la respuesta nacional ha sido bsicamente, no hacer nada. +Estamos intentando cambiar eso. +PM: Ha habido 11 tiroteos masivos desde el de Newtown. Una escuela cada semana en los dos primeros meses del ao pasado. +Qu estn haciendo adems de los otros esfuerzos para equilibrar los derechos de posesin de armas con responsabilidad? +MK: Tenemos armas y las apoyamos. +Al mismo tiempo, tenemos que hacer todo lo que podamos para mantenerlas lejos de de criminales y de enfermos mentales peligrosos. +No es tan difcil hacer eso. +Este problema, como muchos otros, ha llegado a ser muy polarizante y poltico. Estamos tratando de equilibrar el debate en Washington. +PM: Gracias a los dos por ese esfuerzo. +Y naturalmente, a esta valiente mujer, con sentido de aventura, que sigue desafindose a ti misma, con el cielo como lmite aparente. +Tengo que compartir este vdeo de tu aventura ms reciente. +Miren a Gabby. +MK: Esto fue hace dos meses. +MK: Ests bien? Lo has hecho estupendo. GG: S, es maravilloso. Gracias. +Bueno. Maravilloso. Ay, gracias. +Montaas. Magnficas montaas. +MK: Djame decir que uno de los hombres con los que Gabby salt ese da era un SEAL de la marina que ella conoci en Afganistn, que fue herido en combate y pas un tiempo muy duro. +Gabby lo visit cuando l estaba en Bethesda y estaba atravesando un momento muy difcil. +Empez a mejorar. +Meses ms tarde, a Gabby le dispararon en la cabeza y el la apoy cuando ella estaba en el hospital en Houston. +As que tienen una conexin muy, muy especial +GG: S. +PM: Qu momento ms hermoso. +Porque este es el escenario de TED, Gabby, s que trabajaste muy duro para pensar en las ideas que queras dejarle a esta audiencia. +GG: Gracias. +Hola a todos. +Gracias por invitarnos hoy aqu. +Ha sido un camino largo y difcil, pero estoy mejorando. +Estoy trabajando duro, mucha terapia; terapia de lenguaje, fisioterapia y tambin yoga. +Mi espritu es tan fuerte como siempre. +Todava sigo luchando para hacer del mundo un lugar mejor. Ustedes pueden hacerlo tambin. +Participa en tu comunidad. +S un lder. Da el ejemplo. +S apasionado. S valiente. +S lo mejor de ti. Muchas gracias. +MK: Gracias. GG: Gracias. +MK: Gracias a todos. GG: Adis +Estuve pensando en la diferencia entre las virtudes del currculum y las del panegrico. +Las virtudes del currculum que se ponen en el CV son las habilidades que aportas al mercado laboral. +Las otras se mencionan en los panegricos, son ms profundas: quin eres, en profundidad, cul es la naturaleza de tus relaciones, eres arriesgado, afectuoso, confiable, constante? +Y, la mayora de nosotros, me incluyo, dira que las virtudes del panegrico son ms importantes. +Pero, al menos en mi caso, son a las que ms presto atencin? Y la respuesta es no. +As que estuve pensando en ese problema, y un pensador que me ha ayudado en ello es Joseph Soloveitchik, un rabino que escribi un libro llamado "La soledad del hombre de fe", en 1965. +Soloveitchik deca que nuestra naturaleza tiene dos caras, a las que llam Adn 1 y Adn 2. +Adn 1 es la cara externa, mundana y ambiciosa de nuestra naturaleza. +Quiere construir, crear, fundar empresas, crear innovacin. +Adn 2 es la cara humilde de nuestra naturaleza. +Adn 2 no solo quiere hacer el bien, sino ser bueno, vivir una vida interna de manera que honre a Dios, a la creacin y a nuestras posibilidades. +Adn 1 quiere conquistar el mundo. +Adn 2 quiere escuchar un llamado y obedecer al mundo. +Adn 1 saborea el xito. +Adn 2 saborea la coherencia y la fortaleza interior. +Adn 1 pregunta cmo funcionan las cosas. +Adn 2 pregunta por qu estamos aqu. +El lema de Adn 1 es "xito". +El lema de Adn 2 es "amor, redencin y devolucin". +Soloveitchik sostena que estas dos caras de nuestra naturaleza estn en guerra. +Vivimos en una constante autoconfrontacin entre el xito externo y el valor interno. +Y lo complicado, yo dira, de estas dos caras es que trabajan con lgicas diferentes. +La lgica externa es una lgica econmica: un aporte conlleva una recompensa, el riesgo conlleva beneficios. +El aspecto interno de nuestra naturaleza es una lgica moral y por lo general inversa. +Debes dar para recibir. +Debes entregarte a algo externo para ganar fortaleza interior. +Debes superar el deseo para obtener lo que quieres. +Para realizarte como persona, debes olvidarte de ti mismo. +Para encontrarte contigo mismo, primero debes perderte. +Resulta que vivimos en una sociedad que prefiere a Adn 1, y suele descuidar a Adn 2. +Y el problema es que eso te convierte en un animal astuto que vive la vida como un juego, y te convierte en una criatura fra y calculadora que se pierde en una suerte de mediocridad dndote cuenta de que hay una diferencia entre el ser que deseas ser y el que en realidad eres. +No te mereces el tipo de panegrico que te gustara, que esperas que alguien te d. +No tienes la fuerza de conviccin. +No tienes la sonoridad emocional. +No te comprometes con actividades que lleven ms de una vida completar. +Record una respuesta usual a travs de la historia de cmo construir un slido Adn 2, cmo construir profundidad de carcter. +Adn 1 se construye al construir tus fortalezas. +Adn 2 se construye superando debilidades. +Mira hacia tu interior, encuentra el pecado que hayas cometido una y otra vez a lo largo de tu vida, tu pecado tpico del cual surgen otros pecados, y pelea y lucha contra ese pecado, y de esa lucha, de ese sufrimiento se construye la profundidad de carcter. +Y generalmente no se nos ensea a reconocer el pecado en nosotros mismos, nuestra cultura no nos ensea a luchar contra l, cmo enfrentarlo, y cmo combatirlo. +Vivimos en una cultura con una mentalidad de Adn 1 en donde no podemos hacer nada sobre Adn 2. +Finalmente, Reinhold Niebuhr resumi la confrontacin, la vida al mximo de Adn 1 y Adn 2, de la siguiente manera: "Nada que valga la pena hacer se puede lograr en toda una vida; por lo cual nos debe salvar la esperanza. +Nada que sea verdad o bello o bueno tiene sentido en el contexto inmediato de la historia; por lo tanto nos debe salvar la fe. +Nada de lo que hagamos, sin importar cun virtuoso sea, se logra solo; por lo tanto, nos debe salvar el amor. +Ningn acto virtuoso es tan virtuoso desde el punto de vista de nuestro amigo o enemigo como lo es desde el nuestro. +Por lo tanto, nos debe salvar esa forma final de amor, que es el perdn". Muchas gracias. +Cuando nac, haba realmente solo un libro sobre la crianza de nios y lo haba escrito el Dr. Spock. +Gracias por ser complacientes. +Siempre quise hacer esto. +No. Fue Benjamin Spock! Y su libro se titul "El libro del sentido comn en el cuidado del beb y el nio". +Para cuando muri, se haban vendido casi 50 millones de ejemplares. +Como madre de un nio de 6 aos, hoy da entro a Barnes y Noble y veo esto. Es increble la variedad que se encuentra en esos estantes. +Hay guas para criar a un nio ecolgico, a un nio sin gluten, a uno a prueba de enfermedades, que si me lo preguntan, es escalofriante. +Hay guas para criar a un chico bilinge, as en la casa solo se hable un idioma. +Hay guas para criar a un chico que entienda de finanzas, a uno con espritu cientfico, y a uno que sea un prodigio del yoga. +Salvo una para ensear a su hijo cmo desactivar una bomba nuclear, hay prcticamente una gua para todo. +Todos son libros bienintencionados. +Estoy segura de que muchos son geniales. +Pero en conjunto, si me disculpan, no veo nada que ayude cuando miro esa estantera. +Veo ansiedad. +Veo un monumento color golosina a nuestro pnico colectivo que me hace querer saber: Por qu criar a nuestros hijos est asociado con tanta angustia y con tanta confusin? +Por qu estamos tan enredados con algo que los seres humanos hicieron exitosamente durante milenios, desde mucho antes de que aparecieran los foros sobre crianza o los estudios de los expertos? +Por qu es que tantas madres y padres viven la paternidad como una suerte crisis? +Crisis puede parecer una palabra fuerte, pero hay datos que sugieren que no lo es. +Se hizo, de hecho, un trabajo que tena justo este nombre: "La paternidad como crisis", publicado en 1957, y en los 50 aos posteriores, se han hecho cantidad de estudios acadmicos que documentan un patrn bastante claro de angustia parental. +Quienes son padres sufren ms estrs que quienes no lo son. +Su satisfaccin conyugal es ms baja. +Se han hecho muchos estudios sobre cmo se sienten los padres cuando estn pasan tiempo con sus hijos, y la respuesta frecuentemente es: no tan bien. +que estn a la par de los extraos". +Y aqu est el meollo de la cosa. +He estado averiguando lo que subyace a estos datos por 3 aos y los nios no son el problema. +Algo relacionado con la crianza es el problema, justo en este momento. +Especficamente, no creo que sepamos cmo debiera ser la crianza. +Criar, como verbo, se volvi de uso comn recin en 1970. +Nuestros roles como padres y madres han cambiado. +Los roles de nuestros hijos han cambiado. +Estamos todos arrebatadamente improvisando en una situacin para la que no tenemos un guion, y si eres un gran msico de jazz, entonces improvisar est genial, pero para el resto de nosotros, puede sentirse como una especie de crisis. +Cmo es eso de que todos navegamos por el universo de la crianza de los nios sin ninguna norma que nos gue? +Bien, para empezar, ha habido un cambio histrico importante. +Hasta hace bastante poco, los chicos trabajaban, en nuestras granjas principalmente, pero tambin en fbricas, molinos, minas. +Los nios eran considerados activos econmicos. +En algn momento de la Era Progresista, pusimos fin a este acuerdo. +Reconocimos que los nios tenan derechos, prohibimos el trabajo infantil, y en lugar de eso nos enfocamos en la educacin y la escuela pas a ser el nuevo trabajo del nio. +Y gracias a Dios as fue. +Pero eso hizo el rol de los padres en cierta forma ms confuso. +El viejo acuerdo puede no haber sido muy tico, pero era reciproco. +Proveamos alimento, vestimenta, techo e instruccin moral a nuestros nios, y ellos, a cambio, aportaban ingresos. +Cuando los nios dejaron de trabajar, la economa de la crianza cambi. +Los nios se convirtieron, en palabras de un brillante y despiadado socilogo, en algo "Sin valor econmico, aunque emocionalmente inestimable". +En lugar de que ellos trabajaran para nosotros, empezamos a trabajar para ellos, pues en solo cuestin de dcadas qued claro que si queramos que nuestros hijos triunfaran, la escuela no bastaba. +Hoy, las actividades extracurriculares son el nuevo trabajo de los chicos, pero tambin es un trabajo para nosotros, porque somos nosotros quienes los llevamos a practicar ftbol. +Las montaas de tareas son el nuevo trabajo de un nio, pero tambin son trabajo para nosotros, porque tenemos que revisarlas. +Hace unos tres aos, una mujer de Texas me dijo algo que rompi por completo mi corazn. +Me dijo, de una manera casi casual, "La tarea es la nueva cena". +La clase media dedica hoy en da todo su tiempo, energa y recursos a los hijos, a pesar de que tiene cada vez menos de estas cosas para dar cada da. +Las mams pasan hoy ms tiempo con sus hijos que en 1975, cuando la mayora de las mujeres no eran an parte de la fuerza de trabajo. +Probablemente sera ms fcil cumplir con los nuevos roles, si los paps supieran para que estn preparando a sus hijos. +Esta es otra cosa que hace que la crianza moderna sea tan confusa. +No tenemos ni idea de qu parte de lo que sabemos les puede servir a nuestros hijos, si es que hay algo. +El mundo est cambiando tan rpidamente que es imposible saberlo. +Esto era as inclusive cuando yo era joven. +Cuando era nia, ms exactamente en la secundaria, me decan que estara perdida en la nueva economa global si no saba japons. +Y con el debido respeto hacia los japoneses, no fue as. +Hoy da, hay un cierto tipo de padres clase media obsesionados con ensearle a sus hijos mandarn, y tal vez tengan razn, pero no podemos asegurarlo. +As que, siendo incapaces de anticipar el futuro, lo que hacemos, como padres, es tratar de preparar a nuestros hijos para cualquier clase posible de futuro, esperando que alguno de nuestros esfuerzos d en el blanco. Les enseamos a nuestros nios a jugar ajedrez, pensando que tal vez +necesiten capacidades de anlisis. Los inscribimos en equipos deportivos, pensando que tal vez necesiten +capacidades para el trabajo en equipo, ya saben, para cuando vayan a la Escuela de Negocios de Harvard. +Les enseamos a ser buenos en la economa, a tener espritu cientfico y a ser ecolgicos y libres de gluten, aunque tal vez sea hora de decirles que yo no era ecolgica ni libre de gluten cuando era nia. +Coma olladas de pur de macarrones y carne. +Y saben qu? Me est yendo bien. +Pago mis impuestos. +Tengo un trabajo estable. +Hasta me invitaron a hablar en TED. +Pero la presuncin de ahora es que lo que era bueno para m entonces, ya no alcanza. +Y entonces todos nos abalanzamos sobre esa estantera de libros porque creemos que si no lo intentamos todo, es como si no hiciramos nada, y como si faltramos a nuestros deberes de padres. +Ya es bastante difcil cumplir con nuestros nuevos roles de padres y madres. +Agregumosle a este problema algo ms: tambin estamos asumiendo nuevos roles de esposos y esposas, porque la mayora de las mujeres, hoy en da, forman parte de la fuerza laboral. +Esta es otra razn, creo, para que la crianza se viva como crisis. +No tenemos reglas, ni guiones, ni normas para lo que debemos hacer cuando llega un nio, hoy que ambos, padre y madre, aportamos econmicamente. +El escritor Michael Lewis, alguna vez, lo expres con mucho acierto. +Sin guiones que nos digan quin hace qu en este mundo feliz, las parejas pelean y ambos, padre y madre, tienen sus propias y legtimas quejas. +Las mams son ms dadas a ser multitarea cuando estn en casa, y los paps son ms dados a ser monotarea. +Encuentren un tipo en casa, y lo ms probable es que est haciendo solo una cosa a la vez. +De hecho, la Universidad de California recientemente hizo un estudio para investigar la configuracin ms comn de los miembros de familias clase media. +Adivinen qu se supo? +El pap en un cuarto solo. +Segn la "Encuesta norteamericana del uso del tiempo", las madres hacen el doble que los padres, en cuanto al cuidado de los hijos, lo cual est mejor de lo que era en los tiempos de Erma Bombeck, aunque todava pienso que algo de lo que escribi es absolutamente relevante: "No he estado sola en el bao desde octubre". +Pero esta es la cuestin: los hombres estn haciendo mucho. +Ellos pasan ms tiempo con los hijos del que sus padres nunca pasaron con ellos. +Trabajan ms horas pagadas en promedio que sus esposas, y quieren, genuinamente, ser padres buenos y comprometidos. +Hoy, son los padres, no las madres, los que informan la mayora de los conflictos entre el trabajo y sus vidas. +De cualquier manera, a propsito, si Uds. piensan que es difcil para las familias tradicionales lidiar con estos nuevos roles, solo imagnense cmo son ahora las cosas para las familias no tradicionales: familias con dos padres, con dos madres, hogares con un solo padre. +Ellos en verdad estn improvisando por el camino. +En pases ms progresistas, y disclpenme por recurrir al clich e invocar, s, a Suecia, los padres pueden recurrir al Estado por ayuda. +Hay pases que reconocen las angustias y los cambios de roles de padres y madres. +Desafortunadamente, los EE. UU. no es uno de ellos, as que si se estaban preguntando qu tienen los EE. UU. en comn +con Papa Nueva Guinea y Liberia, es esto: Nosotros tampoco tenemos poltica de licencia de maternidad pagada. +Somos uno de los 8 pases del mundo que no la tienen. +En esta poca de confusin intensa, hay solo una meta con la cual todos los padres concuerdan, y es que as se sea mam tigre o hippie, helicptero o drone, la felicidad de nuestros hijos es primordial. +Eso es lo que significa educar a los hijos en una poca en la que no tienen valor econmico, pero son emocionalmente invaluables. +Todos somos custodios de su autoestima. +El nico mantra que ningn padre cuestiona es: "Todo lo que quiero es que mis hijos sean felices". +Y no me entiendan mal: creo que la felicidad es una maravillosa meta para cualquier nio. +Pero es una meta demasiado escurridiza. +La felicidad y la autoconfianza, ensearle eso a los nios no es como ensearles a arar un campo. +No es como ensearles a andar en bici. +No hay un currculo para eso. +La felicidad y la autoconfianza pueden ser productos derivados de otras cosas, pero no pueden ser metas en s mismas. +Es muy injusto cargar sobre los hombros de los padres la felicidad de sus hijos. +Y es todava ms injusto cargar la felicidad sobre los hombros de los nios. +Y tengo que decirles que creo que conduce a algunos excesos muy extraos. +Estamos hoy tan ansiosos por proteger a nuestros hijos de la hostilidad del mundo, que los protegemos de "Plaza Ssamo". +Quisiera poder decir que es un chiste, pero si van a comprar el DVD de los primeros episodios de "Plaza Ssamo", como hice yo por nostalgia, se encontrarn con una advertencia al comienzo que dice que el contenido no es apropiado para nios. +Puedo repetirlo? +El contenido del "Plaza Ssamo" original no es apropiado para nios. +Cuando el New York Times le pregunt por esto a una productora del show, dio un sinnmero de explicaciones. +Una fue que el Monstruo Galletero fumaba pipa en una escena y luego se la tragaba. +Mal ejemplo. Supongo! +Pero lo que ms se me grab fue cuando dijo que no saba si Oscar El Grun podra utilizarse hoy, porque era demasiado depresivo. +No puedo decirles cunto me aflige todo esto. +Estn viendo a una mujer que tiene una tabla peridica de los Muppets colgando de la pared de su cubculo. +El ofensivo muppet, justo ah. +Ese es mi hijo el da que naci. +Yo volaba como cometa por la morfina. +Me haban hecho una cesrea inesperada. +Pero incluso en mi nube de opio, me las arregl para tener una idea clara la primera vez que lo alc. +Se lo susurr al odo. Le dije: +"Intentar por todos los medios no herirte". +Fue un juramento hipocrtico, y no saba que lo era. +Pero se me ocurre ahora que el juramento hipocrtico es una meta mucho ms realista que la felicidad. +De hecho, como puede decrselos cualquier padre, es una meta dificilsima. +Todos hemos hecho o dicho cosas hirientes de las que desearamos con todo el alma poder retractarnos. +Creo que en otra poca, no hubiramos esperado tanto de nosotros mismos y es importante que todos lo recordemos la prxima vez que estemos mirando con nuestro corazn agitado esas estanteras de libros. +No s exactamente cmo crear normas nuevas para este mundo, pero s creo que en nuestro desesperado afn por hacer nios felices, podemos estar asumiendo cargas morales equivocadas. +Me convence ms, como una mejor meta, y una ms virtuosa, me atrevo a decir, que nos concentremos en lograr nios productivos y nios morales, y que esperemos que sencillamente la felicidad les llegue en virtud del bien que hagan, de sus logros y del amor que reciban de nosotros. +Eso, de alguna forma, es una respuesta al hecho de no tener un guion. +Como no tenemos guiones nuevos, solo sigamos los ms viejos del libro decencia, trabajo tico, amor y dejamos que para la felicidad y la autoestima se las arreglen por s mismas. +Creo que si todos hiciramos eso, los chicos estaran muy bien, al igual que sus padres, y posiblemente en ambos casos, incluso mejor. +Gracias. +El universo est lleno de planetas. +Quiero que nosotros, en la prxima dcada, construyamos un telescopio espacial capaz de captar la imagen de una Tierra alrededor de otra estrella y averiguar si puede albergar vida. +Mis colegas en el Laboratorio de Propulsin a Chorro de la NASA en Princeton y yo estamos trabajando en la tecnologa que podr hacer precisamente eso en los prximos aos. +Los astrnomos creen que todas las estrellas en la galaxia tiene un planeta, y especulan que hasta una quinta parte de ellas, tienen un planeta similar a la Tierra que podra albergar vida, pero no hemos visto ninguno de ellos. +Solo los hemos detectado indirectamente. +Esta es la famosa foto de la NASA del punto azul plido. +Fue tomada por la sonda espacial Voyager en 1990, cuando la giraron saliendo del sistema solar para tomar una imagen de la Tierra a 6000 millones de kilmetros de distancia. +Quiero tomar una como esta de un planeta como la Tierra alrededor de otra estrella. +Por qu no lo hemos hecho? Por qu es tan difcil? +Bueno para verlo, vamos a imaginar que tomamos el telescopio espacial Hubble, lo giramos y lo movemos hacia fuera a la rbita de Marte. +Veremos algo as, una imagen levemente borrosa de la Tierra, porque es un telescopio bastante pequeo en la rbita de Marte. +Ahora vamos a ir diez veces ms lejos. +Aqu estamos en la rbita de Urano. +Se ha vuelto ms pequeo, tiene menos detalle, menos resolucin. +Todava podemos ver la pequea luna, pero vayamos diez veces ms lejos de nuevo. +Aqu estamos en el borde del sistema solar, en el Cinturn de Kuiper. +Ahora no hay ninguna resolucin. +Es ese punto azul plido de Carl Sagan. +Pero vamos a irnos otra vez diez veces ms lejos. +Aqu estamos fuera de la Nube de Oort, fuera del sistema solar, y estamos empezando a ver el Sol moverse en el campo de visin y meterse en donde est el planeta. +Una vez ms, diez veces ms lejos. +Ahora estamos en Alfa Centauri, nuestra estrella vecina ms cercana, y el planeta se ha ido. +Todo lo que estamos viendo es la gran imagen radiante de la estrella que es 10 mil millones de veces ms brillante que el planeta, y debe estar en ese pequeo crculo rojo. +Eso es lo que queremos ver. Es por eso que es difcil. +La luz de la estrella se difracta. +Su dispersin dentro del telescopio, crea esa imagen muy brillante que hace desaparecer el planeta. +As que para ver el planeta, tenemos que hacer algo con toda esa luz. +Tenemos que deshacernos de ella. +Tengo un montn de colegas que trabajan en tecnologas realmente sorprendentes para hacer eso, pero quiero contarles hoy sobre una que creo que es la ms excitante, y, probablemente, la ms propensa a conseguirnos una Tierra en la prxima dcada. +Fue sugerida por primera vez por Lyman Spitzer, el padre del telescopio espacial, en 1962, y se inspir en un eclipse. +Todos han visto esto. Eso es un eclipse solar. +La Luna se ha movido delante del Sol. +Bloquea la mayor parte de la luz para que podamos ver esa tenue corona a su alrededor. +Sera lo mismo que si pongo mi dedo pulgar hacia arriba y bloqueo la luz que est dando justo en mi ojo, Puedo ver a los de la fila de atrs. +Bueno, qu est pasando? +Pues la Luna est proyectando una sombra sobre la Tierra. +Ponemos un telescopio o una cmara en esa sombra, miramos al Sol, la mayor parte de la luz ha sido removida y podemos ver esa tenue, fina estructura en la corona. +La sugerencia de Spitzer fue que lo hiciramos en el espacio. +Construimos una gran pantalla, volamos en el espacio, la ponemos delante de la estrella, bloqueamos la mayor parte de la luz, hacemos volar un telescopio espacial a esa sombra que se crea, y listo, conseguimos ver los planetas. +Bueno, sera algo como esto. +Habra una gran pantalla, y ningn planeta, porque lamentablemente no funciona realmente muy bien, debido a que las ondas de luz y las ondas difractan alrededor de esa pantalla de la misma manera que lo hacen en el telescopio. +Es como el agua flexionndose alrededor de una roca en un arroyo, y toda esa luz simplemente destruye la sombra. +Es una sombra terrible. Y no podemos ver planetas. +Pero Spitzer realmente saba la respuesta. +Si hacemos incisiones en las esquinas, suavizamos los bordes podemos controlar la difraccin, como para poder ver un planeta, y en los ltimos 10 aos o as hemos llegado a la solucin ptima para hacerlo. +Parece algo as. +A eso le llamamos nuestra sombrilla estelar de ptalos de flores. +Si hacemos los bordes de los ptalos exactamente bien, si controlamos su forma, podemos controlar la difraccin, y ahora tenemos una excelente sombra. +Cerca de 10 mil millones de veces ms tenue que antes, y podemos ver el grupo de planetas as. +Por supuesto, tiene que ser ms grande que mi pulgar. +Esta sombrilla estelar es de cerca del tamao de la mitad de un campo de ftbol y tiene que volar a 50 000 km de distancia del telescopio que tiene que mantenerse justo en su sombra, y entonces podemos ver esos planetas. +Suena formidable, pero brillantes ingenieros, colegas mos en el JPL, lograron un diseo fabuloso de cmo hacerlo y se parece a este. +Comienza envuelto alrededor de un eje. +Se separa del telescopio. +Los ptalos se despliegan, se abren, el telescopio se da la vuelta. +Entonces vern que gira y se aleja 50 000 kilmetros de distancia del telescopio. +Pasar delante de la estrella as, y crea una maravillosa sombra. +Listo, obtenemos los planetas orbitando alrededor de ella. +Gracias. +Esto no es ciencia ficcin. +Hemos estado trabajando en esto durante los ltimos 5 o 6 aos. +El verano pasado, hicimos una prueba muy excitante en California en Northrop Grumman. +Estos son 4 ptalos. +Esta es una pantalla estelar a sub-escala. +Es aproximadamente la mitad del tamao de la que acaban de ver. +Vern los ptalos desplegarse. +Esos 4 ptalos fueron construidos por 4 estudiantes universitarios en su pasanta de verano en el JPL. +Ahora la estn viendo desplegarse. +Esos ptalos tienen que girar en su lugar. +La base de los ptalos tiene que ir al mismo lugar cada vez en un rango de una dcima de milmetro. +Corrimos esta prueba 16 veces, y la 16 veces fueron al mismo lugar a una dcima de milmetro. +Esto tiene que ser hecho con mucha precisin, pero si podemos hacer esto, si podemos construir esta tecnologa, si podemos conseguirlo en el espacio, es posible que vean algo como esto. +Esa es una imagen de una de nuestras estrellas vecinas ms cercanas tomadas con el telescopio espacial Hubble. +Si podemos tomar un telescopio espacial similar un poco ms grande, ponerlo ah, volar una pantalla en frente de l, podramos ver es algo as, un retrato familiar de nuestro sistema solar, pero que no es el nuestro. +Esperamos que va a ser el sistema solar de otro que se ve a travs de una pantalla, a travs de una sombrilla estelar como esta. +Pueden ver a Jpiter, pueden ver a Saturno, Urano, Neptuno, y all mismo, en el centro, junto a la luz residual ese punto azul plido. Es la Tierra. +Queremos verla, a ver si hay agua, oxgeno, ozono, las cosas que nos pueden indicar que podra albergar vida. +Creo que esta es la ciencia ms excitante posible. +Por eso me met a hacer esto, porque creo que va a cambiar el mundo. +Va a cambiar todo cuando veamos esto. +Gracias. +El tipo es algo que consumimos en cantidades enormes. +En gran parte del mundo, es totalmente ineludible. +Pero pocos consumidores estn preocupados por saber de dnde proviene un determinado tipo de letra, ni cundo, ni quin la dise, si, de hecho, hubo algn agente humano involucrado en su creacin, si no fue que simplemente se materializ del ter de software. +Pero yo s tengo que estar preocupado por esas cosas. +Es mi trabajo. +Soy uno del diminuto puado de personas que se desesperan por la mala separacin de la T y la E que Uds. ven all. +Tengo que quitar esta diapositiva. +No puedo soportarlo. Tampoco Chris. +Ya est. Bueno. +Mi charla es acerca de la conexin entre la tecnologa y el diseo de tipografas. +La tecnologa ha cambiado varias veces desde que empec a trabajar: foto, digital, escritorio, pantalla, web. +He tenido que sobrevivir a esos cambios y tratar de entender sus implicaciones para lo que hago para el diseo. +Esta diapositiva es sobre el efecto de las herramientas en la forma. +Las dos letras, las dos K, la de su izquierda, mi derecha, es moderna, realizada en computadora. +Todas las lneas rectas son totalmente rectas. +Las curvas tienen ese tipo de suavidad matemtica que impone la frmula Bzier. +A la derecha, la gtica antigua, cortada en acero resistente a mano. +Ninguna de las lneas rectas son realmente rectas. +Las curvas tienen sutileza. +Tiene esa chispa de vida de la mano humana que la mquina o el programa nunca pueden capturar. +Vaya contraste. +Bueno, digo una mentira. +Una mentira en TED. Lo siento mucho. +Ambas fueron hechos en una computadora, mismo software, mismas curvas Bzier, mismo formato de fuente. +La que est a su izquierda fue hecha por Zuzana Licko para Emigre, y yo hice la otra. +La herramienta es la misma, pero las letras son diferentes. +Las letras son diferentes porque los diseadores son diferentes. +Eso es todo. Zuzana quera que la de ella se viera as. +Yo quera que la ma se viera as. Fin de la historia. +El tipo es muy adaptable. +A diferencia de una bella arte, como la escultura o la arquitectura, el tipo esconde sus mtodos. +Pienso en m mismo como un diseador industrial. +La cosa que diseo se fabrica, y tiene una funcin: ser leda, transmitir el significado. +Pero hay un poco ms que eso. +Hay una especie de elemento esttico. +Qu hace diferentes a estas dos letras con diferentes interpretaciones por diferentes diseadores? +Qu da al trabajo de algunos diseadores una especie de caracterstico estilo personal, como se puede encontrar en el trabajo de un diseador de moda, de automviles, o de lo que sea? +Ha habido algunos casos, lo admito, dnde como diseador sent la influencia de la tecnologa. +Esto es de mediados de los 60, el cambio del tipo de metal a la foto, de caliente a fro. +Esto trajo algunos beneficios pero tambin un inconveniente particular: un sistema de separacin que solo proporcion 18 unidades discretas para acomodar las letras. +Me pidieron en ese momento disear una serie de fuentes condensadas sin remates con tantas variantes como fuera posible con esta caja de 18 unidades. +Mirando rpidamente la aritmtica, me di cuenta de que solo poda hacer tres diseos relacionados. Aqu los ven. +En Helvtica Comprimida, Extra Comprimida, y Ultra Comprimida, este rgido sistema de 18 unidades realmente me encajon. +En cierto modo determina las proporciones del diseo. +Aqu estn los tipos de letra, al menos las minsculas. +Uds. los ven y dicen: "Pobre Matthew, tuvo que someterse a un problema, y por Dios que eso se nota en los resultados". +Espero que no. +Si estuviera haciendo este mismo trabajo hoy, en vez de tener 18 unidades espaciales, tendra 1000. +Claramente podra hacer ms variantes, pero estos tres miembros de la familia seran mejores? +Es difcil de decir sin hacerlo realmente, pero no sera mejor en la proporcin de 1000 a 18, eso se los puedo asegurar. +Mi instinto les dice que cualquier mejora sera ms bien ligera, ya que fueron diseados como funciones del sistema para el que deban encajar, y como he dicho, el tipo es muy adaptable. +Esconde sus mtodos. +Todos los diseadores industriales trabajan dentro de las restricciones. +Esto no es una bella arte. +La pregunta es, una restriccin obliga a un compromiso? +Aceptando una restriccin, ests trabajando a un nivel inferior? +No lo creo y siempre he sido alentado por algo que dijo Charles Eames. +Dijo que era consciente que trabajaba dentro de las restricciones, pero no de hacer compromisos. +La distincin entre una restriccin y un compromiso es, obviamente, muy sutil, pero es muy central en mi actitud hacia el trabajo. +Recuerdan esta experiencia de lectura? +La gua telefnica. Voy a dejar la diapositiva para que puedan disfrutar de la nostalgia. +Esto es de los primeros ensayos de mediados de los 70 de la tipografa Bell Centennial que dise para las guas telefnicas de EE. UU., y fue mi primera experiencia del tipo digital, y un buen bautizo. +Fue diseado para la gua telefnica, como dije, para ser impreso en tamao minsculo en papel de peridico en prensas rotativas de muy alta velocidad con tinta que era queroseno y negro de humo. +Este no es un ambiente amigable para un diseador tipogrfico. +El reto para m era disear el tipo que funcionara lo mejor posible en estas condiciones de produccin muy adversas. +Como ya he dicho, estbamos en la infancia del tipo digital. +Tena que dibujar cada caracter a mano en papel cuadriculado haba cuatro pesos para la Bell Centennial pxel por pxel, luego codificarlos lnea de trama por lnea de trama para el teclado. +Llev dos aos, pero aprend un montn. +Estas letras se ven como si hubieran sido mordidas por un perro o algo as, pero los pxeles que faltan en las intersecciones de los trazos o en las bifurcaciones son el resultado de mi estudio de los efectos de la tinta propagndose en papel barato y reaccionando, revisando la fuente en consecuencia. +Estos extraos artefactos estn diseados para compensar los efectos indeseables de la escala y el proceso de produccin. +Al principio, AT&T haba querido hacer las guas telefnicas en Helvtica, pero como dijo mi amigo Erik Spiekermann en la pelcula Helvtica, si la han visto, las letras en Helvtica fueron diseadas para ser lo ms similares posible la una a la otra. +Esa no es la receta para la legibilidad en tamao pequeo. +Se ven muy elegantes en una diapositiva. +Tuve que eliminar la ambigedad de la forma de las figuras lo ms posible en la Bell Centennial por el tipo de apertura de las formas arriba, como pueden ver en la parte inferior de la diapositiva. +Ahora estamos a mediados de los 80, los primeros das de las fuentes de contorno digital, la tecnologa del vector. +Hubo un problema en ese momento con el tamao de las fuentes, la cantidad de datos que se requieren para encontrar y almacenar un tipo de letra en la memoria de la computadora. +Se limita el nmero de fuentes que podran conseguir en su sistema de composicin tipogrfica en un momento dado. +Hice un anlisis de los datos, y encontr que el contorno serif tpico que se ve a la izquierda necesitaba casi el doble de datos que la fuente sin serif en medio por todos los puntos necesarios para definir los soportes serif elegantemente curvados. +Los nmeros en la parte inferior de la diapositiva, por cierto, representan la cantidad de datos necesarios para almacenar cada una de las fuentes. +As que los sans serif, en el medio, sin remates, eran mucho ms econmicos, 81 a 151. +"Aj", pens. "Los ingenieros tienen un problema. +Diseador al rescate". +Hice un tipo serif, se puede ver a la derecha, sin remates curvos. +Los hice poligonales, sin segmentos de lnea recta, soportes biselados. +Y miren, tan econmicos en los datos como una fuente sans serif. +Lo llamamos Charter, a la derecha. +As que fui donde el jefe de ingeniera con mis nmeros, y dije con orgullo, "He resuelto su problema". +"Ah", dijo l. "Qu problema?" +Y yo dije: "Bueno, ya sabes, el problema de la enorme cantidad de informacin que necesita las fuentes serif". +"Oh", dijo. "Hemos resuelto este problema la semana pasada. +Escribimos una rutina de compactacin que reduce el tamao de todas las fuentes en un orden de magnitud. +Se pueden tener tantas fuentes en su sistema como quieras". +"Bueno, gracias por hacrmelo saber", dije. +Frustrado otra vez. +Me qued con una solucin de diseo para un problema tcnico inexistente. +Pero aqu es donde la historia se hace interesante para m. +No desech mi diseo en un ataque de resentimiento. +Lo conserv. +Lo que haba comenzado como un ejercicio tcnico se convirti en un ejercicio esttico, de verdad. +En otras palabras, me haba llegado a gustar este tipo de letra. +Olvdense de sus orgenes. Denle vuelta. +Me gust el diseo por s mismo. +Las formas simplificadas de Charter le dieron una especie de sencillez y frugalidad que me agradaron. +Uds. saben, en tiempos de innovacin tecnolgica, los diseadores quieren ser influenciados por lo que est en el aire. +Queremos responder. Queremos ser empujados a explorar algo nuevo. +As que Charter es una especie de parbola para m, de verdad. +Al final, no haba un vnculo causal fuerte y rpido entre la tecnologa y el diseo de Charter. +Realmente yo haba entendido mal la tecnologa. +La tecnologa hizo sugerir algo para m, pero no forz mi mano, y creo que esto sucede muy a menudo. +Ya saben, los ingenieros son muy inteligentes, y a pesar de las frustraciones ocasionales porque soy menos inteligente, siempre me ha encantado trabajar con ellos y aprender de ellos. +A propsito, a mediados de los 90, comenc a conversar con Microsoft sobre las fuentes de pantalla. +Hasta ese momento, todas las fuentes de pantalla haban sido adaptadas de alguna fuente de impresin existente, por supuesto. +Pero Microsoft previ correctamente el movimiento, la estampida de la comunicacin electrnica, a la lectura y la escritura en pantalla con la salida impresa como especie secundaria en importancia. +As que las prioridades se estaban inclinando en ese momento. +Queran un pequeo conjunto bsico de fuentes que no fueran adaptadas, sino diseadas para la pantalla para hacer frente a los problemas de la pantalla, que eran sus pantallas de baja resolucin. +Le dije a Microsoft, una tipografa diseada para una determinada tecnologa es una tipografa en s misma obsoleta. +He diseado demasiados tipos en el pasado que intentaban mitigar los problemas tcnicos. +Gracias a los ingenieros, los problemas tcnicos desaparecieron. +As hice mi tipografa. +Fue solo un recurso provisional. +Microsoft regres para decir que los monitores de ordenadores asequibles con mejores resoluciones estaban a una dcada. +As que pens, bueno, una dcada, no est mal, esto es ms que un recurso provisional. +As que estaba persuadido, estaba convencido, y nos pusimos a trabajar en lo que se convirti en Verdana y Georgia, por primera vez funcionando no en papel sino directamente en la pantalla a partir de pxeles. +Para ese entonces, las pantallas eran binarias. +El pxel estaba encendido o estaba apagado. +Aqu pueden ver el contorno de una letra, la H mayscula, que es la lnea fina negra, el contorno, que es como se almacena en la memoria, superpuesta sobre el mapa de bits, que es el rea gris, que es como se muestra en la pantalla. +El mapa de bits se rasteriza del contorno. +Aqu, en una H mayscula, que son todas lneas rectas, las dos estn en sincronizacin casi perfecta en la cuadrcula Cartesiana. +No es as con una O. +Esto se parece ms a la albailera que al diseo de tipos, pero cranme, este es un buen mapa de bits O, por la sencilla razn de que es simtrico en ambos ejes X e Y. +En un mapa de bits binarios, en realidad no se puede pedir ms que eso. +A veces haca, no s, tres o cuatro versiones diferentes de una letra difcil como una A minscula, para luego elegir cul era la mejor. +Bueno, no haba mejor, por lo que el juicio del diseador consiste en tratar de decidir cul es la menos mala. +Es eso un compromiso? +Para m no, si ests trabajando en el ms alto nivel que la tecnologa te lo permite, aunque ese estndar puede estar muy por debajo del ideal. +Pueden ver en esta diapositiva dos fuentes bitmap diferentes. +La "a" en la superior, creo, es mejor que la "a" en la inferior, pero an no es genial. +Pueden tal vez ver mejor el efecto si se reduce. Bueno, tal vez no. +As que soy un pragmtico, no un idealista, por necesidad. +Para cierto tipo de temperamento, hay un cierto tipo de satisfaccin en hacer algo que puede no ser perfecto pero que todava se puede hacer a la medida de su capacidad. +Aqu est la H minscula de la Georgia Itlica. +El mapa de bits se ve irregular y spero. +Es irregular y spero. +Pero descubr, experimentando, que existe una inclinacin ptima para una itlica en una pantalla por lo que los trazos se rompen bien en los lmites de los pxeles. +Miren en este ejemplo cmo, spera como es, las patas izquierda y derecha se rompen en el mismo nivel. +Eso es una victoria. Eso es bueno, justo ah. +Y, por supuesto, en los bajos fondos, no tienes mucha eleccin. +Esta es una S, en caso de que se lo pregunten. +Bueno, han pasado 18 aos desde que Verdana y Georgia fueron lanzadas. +Microsoft estaba totalmente en lo cierto, llev unos buenos 10 aos, pero las pantallas ahora tienen una mejor resolucin espacial, y mucho mejor resolucin fotomtrica gracias al anti-aliasing y as sucesivamente. +As que ahora que su misin est cumplida, ha significado la desaparicin de los tipos de pantalla que he diseado para pantallas ms gruesas en ese entonces? +Van a sobrevivir a las pantallas, ahora en desuso y a la avalancha de nuevas fuentes web que llegan al mercado? +O han establecido su propia especie de nicho evolutivo que es independiente de la tecnologa? +En otras palabras, se han absorbido en la corriente tipogrfica principal? +No estoy seguro, pero he tenido una buena carrera hasta el momento. +Eh, 18 es una buena edad para cualquier cosa con las tasas actuales de desgaste, as que no me quejo. +Gracias +Me siento muy afortunada de que mi primer trabajo haya sido trabajar en el museo de arte moderno en una retrospectiva de la pintora Elizabeth Murray. +Aprend mucho de ella. +Despus de que el curador Robert Storr seleccion todas las pinturas que realiz durante toda su vida, me encantaba ver las pinturas de los 70s. +Haba algunos motivos y elementos que resurgiran despus en su vida. +Me acuerdo que le pregunt qu pensaba de esas obras tempranas. +Si no supieran que son de ella, tal vez no podran adivinarlo. +Me dijo que algunas no alcanzan su marca personal sobre lo que quera que fueran. +Una de las obras, de hecho, que no alcanzaba su marca, la haba tirado a la basura en su estudio y su vecina la haba tomado porque vio su valor. +En ese momento, mi opinin sobre el xito y la creatividad cambiaron. +Me d cuenta que el xito es un momento, pero lo que siempre admiramos es la creatividad y la maestra. +Pero, el quid es este: qu nos lleva a convertir el xito en maestra? +Esto es algo que me he preguntado por mucho tiempo. +Creo que llega cuando comenzamos a valorar el regalo de casi lograrlo. +Empec a entender esto cuando fui en un da fro de mayo a ver un torneo de arquera universitario, todas las mujeres deberan hacerlo, en la parte ms septentrional de Manhattan en el complejo atltico Baker de Columbia. +Quera ver lo que se llama la paradoja del arquero, La idea de que para acertar en el blanco se debe apuntar a algo ligeramente desviado de l. +Fui y vi cmo el entrenador llevaba a las chicas en esa camioneta gris y salan con ese tipo de relajacin concentrada. +Una llevaba un helado a medio comer en una mano y flechas en la otra con plumas amarillas. +Todas pasaban y me sonrean, pero me evaluaban en su camino al campo y hablaban entre s no con palabras, sino con nmeros, ngulos, creo, posiciones sobre cmo planeaban acertar la diana. +Me puse detrs de un arquero mientras que su entrenador se pona entre nosotras, tal vez para evaluar quin podra necesitar ayuda y la vea, y no entenda cmo siquiera una pudiera dar en el crculo de 10 puntos. +El crculo de 10 puntos a una distancia estndar de 70 metros se ve tan pequeo como la punta de un cerillo sostenido en la punta de la mano. +Y esto mientras se sostiene un arco de 20 kilos en cada tiro. +Recuerdo que primero acert 7 puntos y despus 9 y despus dos 10 y la siguiente flecha ni siquiera dio en el objetivo. +Y vi que eso le dio ms tenacidad y sigui una y otra vez +durante tres horas. +Al final de la prctica, una de las arqueras estaba tan exhausta que se acost en el pasto a mirar las estrellas con su cabeza mirando al cielo tratando de encontrar lo que T. S. Elliot llam ese punto fijo del mundo en movimiento. +Es tan raro que en la cultura estadounidense haya tan poca vocacin ya con este nivel de exactitud, lo que significa alinear la postura corporal durante tres horas para dar en el blanco persiguiendo una excelencia en la oscuridad. +Pero me qued porque me d cuenta de que estaba viendo algo que era muy raro de ver, la diferencia entre el xito y la maestra. +El xito es acertar 10 puntos, pero la maestra es saber que eso no importa si no lo puedes volver a hacer una y otra vez. +La maestra no es lo mismo que la excelencia. +No es lo mismo que el xito, que entiendo como un evento, un momento en el tiempo, una etiqueta que el mundo te otorga. +La maestra no es lograr un objetivo si no la bsqueda constante en s. +Lo que nos hace hacer esto, lo que nos lleva adelante es valorar el casi lograrlo. +Cuntas veces no catalogamos algo como un clsico, incluso como una obra maestra, mientras que su creador la considera irremediablemente inacabada, plagada de dificultades y errores, es otras palabras, casi haberlo logrado? +Elizabeth Murray me sorprendi con sus revelaciones sobre sus obras tempranas. +Paul Czanne generalmente pensaba que sus obras estaban incompletas que deliberadamente las haba apartado con la intencin de continuarlas despus pero al final de su vida result que solo haba firmado el 10% de sus pinturas. +Su novela favorita era "la obra maestra incompleta" de Balzac y senta que el protagonista era l mismo. +Franz Kafka vea incompletitud mientras que otros vean obras dignas de alabanza tanto que quiso que todos sus diarios manuscritos, cartas e incluso borradores se quemaran despus de su muerte. +Sus amigos se negaron a cumplir su voluntad y gracias a ello tenemos todas las obras que atribuimos a Kafka: America, El proceso y El castillo una obra tan incompleta que incluso termina a la mitad de una frase. +La bsqueda de la maestra, en otras palabras, es un casi hacia adelante constante. +"Seor, concdeme el desear ms de lo que puedo lograr", rogaba Miguel ngel a ese Dios del viejo testamento de la Capilla Sixtina como si l mismo fuera ese Adn con su dedo buscando y casi tocando la mano de Dios. +La maestra es el buscar, no el llegar. +Es la bsqueda constante de cerrar la brecha entre lo que se es y lo que se quiere ser. +La maestra es sacrificarse por su arte y no por hacer una carrera. +Cuntos inventores y emprendedores annimos viven esto? +Vemos esto incluso en la vida del explorador del rtico Ben Saunders que me dijo que su triunfo no es nicamente el resultado de un gran logro, sino el resultado de una cadena de casi lograrlo. +Progresamos cuando superamos nuestros lmites. +Es una sabidura que entendi Duke Ellington cuando dijo que su cancin favorita de su repertorio era siempre la siguiente, siempre la que an no compona. +Parte de la razn del casi lograrlo en lograr la maestra es porque a mayor sea nuestro desempeo, ms claramente podemos ver que no sabemos todo lo que creamos. +Se le llama el efecto Dunning-Kruger. +James Baldwin, cuando le preguntaron para The Paris Review, "Qu crees que incrementa el conocimiento?" +respondi "Aprender que sabes muy poco". +El xito nos motiva, pero el casi lograrlo nos catapulta a una bsqueda constante. +Uno de los ejemplos ms vvidos de esto es cuando vemos la diferencia entre los medallstas olmpicos de plata y los de bronce despus de la competencia. +La razn del porqu casi ganar da esta propulsin es porque cambia nuestra manera de ver las cosas y pone nuestras metas, a las que tendemos a poner a la distancia, ms cerca de donde estamos. +Si les pidiera que pensaran cmo sera un gran da la prxima semana lo describiran en trminos generales. +Pero si les preguntara cmo sera un gran da en el TED de maana puede que lo describan con claridad granular y prctica. +Y esto es lo que el casi lograrlo hace. +Nos hace concentrarnos, en este momento, en lo que planeamos para alcanzar las estrellas. +Es Jackie Joyner-Kersee, que en 1984 perdi el oro en heptatln por un tercio de segundo y su esposo predijo que eso le dara la tenacidad para seguir en la competencia +En 1988 gan el oro en heptatln e impondra una marca de 7291 puntos, una marca a la que ningn atleta se ha acercado desde entonces. +Progresamos no cuando ya hicimos todo, sino cuando an hay algo por hacer. +Pienso e imagino en las distintas formas de casi lograrlo en este saln, cmo sus vidas lo tomaran, porque creo que en cierto nivel lo sabemos. +Sabemos que progresamos cuando estamos en nuestro propio lmite y es por eso que la incompetencia deliberada est en la creacin de los mitos. +En la cultura navajo, algunos artesanos y mujeres deliberadamente ponen imperfecciones en sus textiles y cermicas. +Es lo que se llama una lnea de espritu, un error deliberado en el patrn para mostrar el creador o al tejedor, pero tambin una razn para seguir trabajando. +Los maestros no son expertos porque hayan llevado algo a su final conceptual. +Son maestros porque se dan cuenta que no existe uno. +No sonaba como una queja, exactamente, sino como para dejarme saber, para admitir algo, para recordarme que se estaba entregando a una tarea voraz e incompleta que siempre requiere algo ms. +Nos construimos a partir de una idea inacabada, an cuando esa idea sea nuestro anterior yo. +Esta es la dinmica de la maestra. +Acercarse a lo que pensaban que queran puede ayudarlos a obtener ms de lo que nunca hayan soado. +Es lo que imagino que Elizabeth Murray pensaba cuando la vi sonrer sobre esas primeras obras en la galera. +An si creamos utopas, creo que debemos dejarlas incompletas. +La completud es la meta, pero espero que nunca sea el final. +Gracias. +La Tierra no necesita presentacin. +En parte porque los astronautas del Apolo 17, en rbita alrededor de la Luna en 1972, tomaron esta imagen icnica. +Galvaniz a toda una generacin y nos hizo darnos cuenta de que estbamos en la nave espacial Tierra, frgil y finita como es, y que debemos cuidarla. +Pero aunque esta foto es hermosa, es esttica, mientras que la Tierra est en constante cambio. +Cambia todos los das debido a la actividad humana. +Y las imagines satelitales que tenemos hoy, son viejas. +Tpicamente, aos. +Y eso es importante porque no se puede arreglar lo que no puedes ver. +Idealmente, nos gustara tener imgenes del planeta a diario. +Entonces, qu nos detiene? +Cul es el problema? +Este es el problema: los satlites son grandes, caros y lentos. +Pesan tres toneladas. +Tienen 6 metros de altura y 4 m de dimetro. +Ocupan todo el espacio de carga del cohete para lanzarlos. +Un satlite, un cohete. +Y cuestan 855 millones de dlares. +Satlites como este hicieron un muy buen trabajo en ayudarnos a entender nuestro planeta. +Pero si queremos entender mucho ms necesitamos muchos satlites, y este modelo no es reproducible a gran escala. +As que mis amigos y yo fundamos Planet Lab para hacer satlites ultra-compactos, pequeos y altamente capaces. +Les mostrar cmo se ve nuestro satlite: este es nuestro satlite. +Este no es un modelo a escala, se trata del tamao real. +Tiene 10 x 10 x 30 cm pesa 4 kg, y les pusimos los ltimos y mejores dispositivos tecnolgicos y sistemas de sensores en este espacio reducido as que, a pasar de ser pequeo, toma fotografas con una resolucin 10 veces mayor que este gran satlite y solo pesa una milsima de su masa. +Y lo llamamos "Paloma". Gracias. +Y lo llamamos as, porque a los satlites suelen nombrarlos con nombres de aves, normalmente aves de rapia: como guila, Falcon, Predador, Asesino, no s, Cerncalo, nombres as. +Pero el nuestro tiene una misin humanitaria, as que queramos llamarlo Paloma. +Y no solo lo construimos +sino que tambin lo lanzamos. +Y no solo uno, sino muchos. +Todo comenz en nuestro garaje. +S, construimos nuestro primer prototipo en el garaje. +Bastante comn para la compaa en Silicon Valley que somos, pero creemos que es la primera vez para una compaa espacial. +Y ese no es el nico truco que aprendimos en Silicon Valley. +Muy pronto hicimos el prototipo para nuestro satlite. +Usamos "lanzar pronto, lanzar frecuente" en nuestro software +Y le dimos un enfoque de riesgo diferente. +Los lanzamos y luego los probamos. +Incluso lanzamos satlites al espacio, solo para probarlos, y aprendimos a fabricarlos a escala. +Utilizamos tecnologa punta para poder construir un gran nmero de ellos, creo que es la primera vez que se hace. +Esta es nuestra tcnica aeroespacial gil y nos permiti integrar muchos dispositivos en esta pequea caja. +Ahora, lo que ha unido nuestro equipo en los ltimos aos es la idea de democratizar el acceso a la informacin por satlite. +De hecho, los fundadores de la empresa Chris, Robbie y yo, nos conocimos hace ms de 15 aos en las ONU cuando ellos organizaron una conferencia sobre este mismo tema: Cmo utilizar satlites para ayudar a la humanidad, +a los pases en desarrollo o luchar contra el cambio climtico? +Esto es lo que nos una. +Los satlites para ayudar a la humanidad es la pasin de nuestro equipo. +Somos unos frikis del espacio, pero no solo nos preocupamos de lo que est ah arriba, sino por lo que est pasando aqu abajo tambin. +Les mostrar un video de hace 4 semanas con 2 satlites lanzados de la Estacin Espacial Internacional. +No es una animacin, es un video tomado por el astronauta mirando por la ventana. +Pueden hacerse una idea del tamao aproximado de los 2 satlites. +Son los satlites ms pequeos jams lanzados desde el mayor satlite jams construido. +Justo al final, hay los destellos del Sol en los paneles solares. +Es muy emocionante. Esperen. +Bum. S. Vali la pena el dinero. +No solo lanzamos dos de estos, hemos lanzado 28. +Es la mayor constelacin de satlites que toman imgenes en la historia, que nos proporcionaron radicalmente nuevos datos acerca de nuestro planeta en constante cambio. +Pero esto es solo el principio. +Vamos a lanzar ms de 100 satlites durante el prximo ao. +Ser la mayor constelacin de satlites de la historia de la humanidad. +Y esto es lo que van a hacer: operarn en una sola rbita permaneciendo inmviles con respecto al Sol y con la Tierra girando por debajo. +Todos ellos tienen cmaras que apuntan hacia abajo, y escanearn lentamente la Tierra a medida que gire por debajo. +Como la Tierra gira cada 24 horas, escanearemos cada punto cada 24 horas. +Es un escner lineal del planeta. +No tomamos una foto de algn lugar todos los das, tomamos una foto de cada lugar en el planeta a diario. +A pesar de que los lanzamos solo hace unas pocas semanas ya hemos recibido las primeras imgenes satelitales y las mostrar ahora, por primera vez en pblico. +Esta es la primera fotografa tomada por nuestro satlite +al volar por encima de la Universidad de Davis, California cuando encendimos la cmara. +Lo que es an ms interesante, es comparar esta imagen con la ltima conocida tomada all hace varios meses. +La imagen de la izquierda viene de nuestro satlite y vemos edificios en construccin. +Haremos un seguimiento de la expansin urbana en tiempo real en todo el mundo, en todas las ciudades, todos los das. +Del agua, tambin. +Gracias. +Podemos rastrear la expansin del agua en todo el mundo a diario y ayudar a su seguridad. +Desde la seguridad del agua a la alimentaria. +Vamos a ver los cultivos que crecen en todos los campos de cada agricultor en el planeta todos los das +y podremos ayudarles a mejorar el rendimiento de su cosechas. +Esta es una imagen hermosa hecha hace apenas unas horas, cuando el satlite estaba volando sobre Argentina. +La idea general es que probablemente hay cientos de miles de aplicaciones para estos datos. Hay otras, la deforestacin, el deshielo de los glaciares. +Podemos rastrearlas todas, cada rbol en el planeta a diario. +Si se comparan las imgenes de hoy con las de ayer, veremos las noticias del mundo: las inundaciones, los incendios y los terremotos. +As que decidimos que lo mejor que podramos hacer era garantizar el acceso universal a estos datos. +Queremos que todo el mundo pueda verlos. +Gracias. Queremos ayudar a las ONG, empresas, cientficos y periodistas a responder las preguntas que tengan sobre el planeta. +Queremos facilitar a la comunidad de desarrolladores la ejecucin de aplicaciones basadas en nuestros datos. +En resumen, queremos democratizar el acceso a la informacin sobre nuestro planeta. +Lo que me lleva de vuelta a esto. +Este ser un conjunto de datos mundiales totalmente nuevos. +Creemos que juntos podemos ayudar a cuidar de nuestra nave espacial Tierra. +Me gustara dejarles con la siguiente pregunta: Si tuvieran acceso diario a imgenes de todo el planeta qu haran con esos datos? +Qu problemas resolveran? +Qu investigaciones llevaran a cabo? +Les invito a venir y explorar con nosotros. +Muchas gracias. +Hace unos aos estaba en el aeropuerto JFK a punto de embarcarme en un vuelo, cuando se me acercaron dos mujeres que no creo que se sentiran insultadas de escuchar ser descritas como pequeas mujeres italoamericanas de entonacin spera. +La ms alta, que llegaba como por aqu, se me acerca y dice, "Linda, tengo que preguntarte algo. +Tienes algo que ver con todo esa cosa de 'Comer, Rezar, Amar' que anda por ah ltimamente?" +Y dije, "S". +Y ella palmotea a su amiga y dice, "Ves, te dije, te dije que ella era; +ella es la que escribi ese libro basado en esa pelcula". +As que esa soy yo. +Y cranme, estoy muy agradecida de ser esa persona, porque toda esa cosa de "Comer, Rezar, Amar" fue un gran descanso para m. +As que saba que no tena forma de ganar, y sabiendo que no tena forma de ganar me hizo considerar seriamente por un momento salirme del juego e irme del pas a criar corgis. +Pero si hubiese hecho eso, si hubiese renunciado a escribir, hubiese perdido mi amada vocacin, as que saba que la tarea era que tena que encontrar alguna manera de hacer aparecer la inspiracin para escribir el siguiente libro independientemente de su inevitable resultado negativo. +En otras palabras, tena que encontrar la forma de asegurarme de que mi creatividad sobreviviera a su propio xito. +Y lo hice, finalmente encontr esa inspiracin, pero la encontr en el lugar ms improbable e inesperado. +La encontr en lecciones que haba aprendido tempranamente en la vida acerca de cmo la creatividad puede sobrevivir a su propio fracaso. +Para apoyar y explicar, la nica cosa que siempre quise ser para toda la vida fue ser escritora. +Escrib durante la niez, durante la adolescencia, mientras era una adolescente mandaba mis psimas historias a The New Yorker, esperando ser descubierta. +Despus de la universidad, consegu un trabajo como camarera del restaurante, segu trabajando, segu escribiendo, segu intentando ser publicada, y fallando en eso. +No consegu ser publicada por casi seis aos. +As que por casi seis aos, cada da, no tena nada ms que cartas de rechazo esperando por m en mi buzn. +Y era devastador cada vez, y cada vez, tena que preguntarme a m misma si debera renunciar mientras poda, y rendirme y ahorrarme ese dolor. +Pero luego encontrara mi solucin, y siempre de la misma forma, diciendo: "No voy a renunciar, me voy a casa". +Y tienen que entender que para m, irme a casa no significaba volver a la granja de mi familia. +Y as es como me volqu a eso. +Ella haba fracasado constantemente. +Yo haba triunfado ms all de mi ms desenfrenada expectativa. +No tenamos nada en comn. +Por qu de repente sent que era ella de nuevo? +Y fue solo cuando estaba tratando de desenroscar eso que finalmente empec a comprender la extraa y poco probable conexin psicolgica en nuestras vidas entre la forma en la que experimentamos un gran fracaso y la forma es la que experimentamos un gran triunfo. +As que piensen en eso as: Durante la mayor parte de sus vida, viven fuera de su existencia aqu en el medio de la cadena de la experiencia humana donde todo es normal y tranquilizador y regular, pero el fracaso los catapulta bruscamente justamente ah dentro de la oscuridad cegadora de la decepcin. +El xito los catapulta con la misma brusquedad, pero solo que lejos de aqu al resplandor igualmente cegador de la fama, el reconocimiento y el elogio. +Y uno de esos destinos es visto objetivamente por el mundo como algo malo, y el otro es visto objetivamente por el mundo como algo bueno, pero su subconsciente es completamente incapaz de discernir la diferencia entre lo malo y lo bueno. +Lo nico que es capaz de sentir es el valor absoluto de esta ecuacin emocional, la distancia exacta de la que han sido arrojados desde s mismos. +Y hay un peligro real equivalente en ambos casos de perderse ah afuera en los interiores de la psique. +Entonces podra ser la creatividad, podra ser la familia, podra ser la invencin, la aventura, la fe, el servicio, podra ser criar corgis. No s, su casa es esa cosa a la cual pueden dedicar sus energas con tal singular devocin que los resultados finales se vuelven insignificantes. +Para m, esa casa siempre ha sido escribir. +As que despus del extrao y desorientador xito que tuve con "Comer, Rezar, Amar", me di cuenta de que todo lo que tena que hacer era exactamente lo mismo que sola hacer siempre cuando yo era un fracaso igualmente desorientado. +Tuve que volver al trabajo, y eso es lo que hice, y as es como, en el 2010, tuve la oportunidad de publicar el temido seguimiento a "Comer, Rezar, Amar". +Y saben lo que pas con ese libro? +Triunf, y yo estaba bien. +En realidad, me sent como a prueba de balas, porque saba que haba roto el hechizo y haba encontrado mi camino de vuelta a casa a la escritura por la sola devocin a ella. +Y me qued en mi casa de la escritura luego de eso, y escrib otro libro que acaba de salir el ao pasado y ese fue de verdad hermosamente recibido que es muy bonito, pero no es mi punto. +Mi punto es que estoy escribiendo otro ahora, y escribir otro libro despus de ese y otro y otro y otro, y muchos de ellos fracasarn, y algunos de ellos podran tener xito, pero siempre estar a salvo de los azarosos huracanes del resultado siempre y cuando nunca olvide donde vivo exactamente. +Miren, yo no s dnde viven Uds. exactamente, pero s que hay algo en este mundo que Uds. aman ms que a s mismos. +Algo valioso, por cierto, por lo que la adiccin y la obsesin no cuentan, porque todos sabemos que esos no son lugares seguros para vivir, verdad? +El nico truco es que tienen que identificar lo mejor, lo ms valioso que ms les gusta, y luego construir su casa en la cima de eso y no moverse de ella. +Solo hganlo y sigan hacindolo una y otra y otra vez, y puedo prometerles absolutamente, desde una larga experiencia personal en cada direccin, les puedo asegurar que todo estar bien. +Gracias. +Una computadora es un medio increblemente potente de expresin creativa pero, en su mayor parte, esa expresin est confinada a las pantallas de laptops y mviles. +Y me gustara contarles una historia de transferencia de poder, de la computadora para mover cosas e interactuar con nosotros de la pantalla al mundo fsico en el que vivimos. +Hace unos aos, recib una llamada de una tienda de moda de lujo llamada Barneys New York, y cuando quise acordar estaba diseando escaparates con esculturas cinticas para sus vidrieras. +Esta se llam "Persecucin". +Hay dos pares de zapatos, uno de hombre y otro de mujer, e interpretan esta persecucin lenta, tensa, por la vidriera en la que el hombre se escabulle detrs de la mujer, entra al espacio personal de ella, y luego ella se aleja. +Cada zapato, dentro, tiene imanes y hay imanes bajo la mesa que mueven los zapatos. +Mi amigo Andy Cavatorta cre un arpa robtico para la gira Biofilia, de Bjrk y termin construyendo la electrnica y el software de control de movimiento para hacer que las arpas se muevan e interpreten msica. +El arpa tiene 4 pndulos separados, y cada pndulo tiene 11 cuerdas. El arpa se mueve sobre su eje y tambin gira para tocar diferentes notas musicales. Todas las arpas estn conectadas en red, por eso pueden tocar las notas correctas en el momento exacto de la msica. +Constru una muestra de qumica interactiva en el Museo de Ciencia e Industria de Chicago, y esta muestra permite a las personas usar objetos fsicos para sacar los elementos qumicos de la tabla peridica y luego juntarlos para generar reacciones qumicas. +El museo observ que la gente pasaba mucho tiempo en esta exposicin, y una investigadora de un centro educativo de ciencias en Australia decidi estudiar esta muestra y tratar de averiguar qu estaba ocurriendo. +Ella encontr que los objetos fsicos que la gente usaba les ayudaban a entender cmo usar la exposicin, y les ayudaban a aprender de manera social. +Y si lo piensan, tiene mucho sentido. Usar objetos fsicos especializados ayudara a la gente a usar una interfaz con ms facilidad. +Digo, nuestras manos y mentes estn optimizadas para pensar e interactuar con objetos tangibles. +Piensen en algo que encontraron fcil de usar, un teclado fsico o un teclado en pantalla como el de un mvil. +Pero lo que ms me llam la atencin de todos estos proyectos es que deben construirse desde cero, desde la electrnica y los circuitos impresos, todos los mecanismos, hasta el software. +Yo quera crear algo para mover objetos con la computadora y crear interacciones en torno a esa idea sin tener que atravesar este proceso de construir algo desde cero cada vez. +Mi primer intento fue en el Lab de Medios del MIT con el profesor Hiroshi Ishii. Construimos esta configuracin de 512 electroimanes. Juntos podan mover objetos sobre su superficie. +Pero el problema con esto era que los imanes cuestan ms de USD 10 000. +Si bien cada uno era bastante pequeo, juntos pesaban tanto que la mesa que los sostena empez a ceder. +Yo quera construir algo que permitiera este tipo de interacciones sobre cualquier superficie de mesa. +Por eso, para explorar esta idea constru un ejrcito de pequeos robots y cada uno de estos robots tiene lo que llamamos omniruedas. +Son ruedas especiales que pueden moverse por igual en cualquier direccin, y cuando se dota a estos robots de un videoproyector, se obtienen estas herramientas fsicas para interactuar con informacin digital. +Este es un ejemplo de lo que quiero decir. +Esta es una aplicacin para editar video en la que todos los controles para manipular el video son fsicos. +Si queremos retocar el color, entramos al modo color, y tenemos 3 diales para retocar el color. Si queremos ajustar el audio, tenemos 2 diales para hacerlo, con estos objetos fsicos. +Aqu los canales izquierdo y derecho estn sincronizados pero si queremos, podemos sobrescribir eso agarrando ambos al mismo tiempo. +La idea es conseguir la velocidad y la eficiencia de usar estos diales fsicos junto a la flexibilidad y versatilidad de un sistema diseado en software. +Y esta es una aplicacin cartogrfica para respuesta a desastres. +Uno tiene estos objetos fsicos que representan la polica, los bomberos y el equipo de rescate, y un despachador puede agarrarlos y ubicarlos en el mapa para decirle a esas unidades dnde ir, y entonces la posicin de las unidades en el mapa se sincroniza con la posicin de esas unidades en el mundo real. +Esta es una aplicacin de videochat. +Es increble la cantidad de emociones que se pueden transmitir con pocos movimientos simples de un objeto fsico. +Con esta interfaz, abrimos un enorme abanico de posibilidades entre los juegos de mesa tradicionales y los juegos de arcade, donde las posibilidades fsicas de interaccin dan lugar a muchos estilos diferentes de jugar. +Pero una de las reas que ms me entusiasma es el uso de esta plataforma en problemas difciles de resolver para computadoras o personas por separado. +Un ejemplo es el plegamiento de protenas. +Aqu tenemos una interfaz para manipular las protenas, podemos agarrar las asas para tratar de mover la protena y plegarla de distintas maneras. +Y si la movemos en una forma que no tiene sentido, con la simulacin molecular subyacente obtenemos esta respuesta fsica y sentimos estas asas fsicas que nos empujan hacia atrs. +As, sentir lo que ocurre dentro de una simulacin molecular es un nivel totalmente diferente de interaccin. +Apenas empezamos a explorar las posibilidades de usar software para controlar el movimiento de objetos en nuestro entorno. +Quiz esta sea la computadora del futuro. +No hay pantalla tctil. +No hay tecnologa visible, en absoluto. +Pero cuando queremos hacer un videochat o jugar un juego o disear las diapositivas para nuestra prxima charla TED los objetos de la mesa cobran vida. +Gracias. +"Por qu?" +"Por qu?" es una pregunta que los padres me hacen todo el tiempo. +"Por qu mi hijo padece autismo?" +Como pediatra, como genetista, como investigadora tratamos y atendemos esa pregunta. +Pero el autismo no es una condicin nica, +El mismo diagnstico de autismo, lo tiene Gabriel, otro nio de 13 aos quien tiene otro tipo diferente de comportamiento. +Es notablemente hbil en matemticas. +Puede multiplicar tres dgitos por tres cifras en su cabeza con facilidad, pero cuando trata de tener una conversacin tiene una gran dificultad. +No hace contacto visual. +Le cuesta comenzar una conversacin, se siente incmodo, y cuando se pone nervioso, literalmente se apaga. +Sin embargo, ambos nios tienen el mismo diagnstico de autismo. +Una de las cosas que nos preocupa es si hay o no en realidad una epidemia de autismo. +Hoy en da, uno de cada 88 nios ser diagnosticado con autismo y la pregunta es, por qu se ve as esta grfica? +se ha incrementado el nmero sustancialmente con el tiempo? +O, es porque solo hasta ahora empezamos a catalogarlos con autismo, simplemente dndoles un diagnstico estando los sntomas presentes all antes y simplemente no los habamos notado? +Y de hecho, a finales de los 80, principios de los 90 se aprob una ley que brinda a los individuos con autismo recursos, acceso a materiales educativos que les pueden ayudar. +Con la creciente preocupacin, ms padres, ms pediatras, ms educadores, aprendieron a reconocer los sntomas del autismo. +Como resultado, ms individuos fueron diagnosticados y tuvieron acceso a los recursos que necesitan. +Adems, con el paso del tiempo hemos cambiado nuestra definicin, de hecho hemos ampliado la definicin de autismo y eso cuenta para el incremento en la frecuencia que vemos. +La siguiente pregunta que todos nos hacemos es qu causa el autismo? +Una falsa creencia comn es que las vacunas causan autismo. +Pero quiero dejarlo muy en claro: Las vacunas no causan autismo. +De hecho, la investigacin original que sugera que esa era la causa era completamente fraudulenta. +En realidad, fue retirada de la revista The Lancet, donde haba sido publicada, y al autor, un mdico, se le quit la licencia mdica. +El Instituto de Medicina, el Centro para el Control de Enfermedades, han investigado esto repetidas veces y no hay evidencia creble de que las vacunas causen autismo. +Adems, uno de los ingredientes de las vacunas, algo llamado timerosal, se crea era la causa del autismo. +Fue extrado de las vacunas en el ao de 1992, y pueden ver que en realidad no afect en la frecuencia de autismo. +As que de nuevo: no hay evidencia de que sta sea la respuesta. +As que la pregunta sigue siendo, qu causa el autismo? +En realidad, probablemente no hay una sola respuesta. +As como el autismo es un espectro, hay un espectro de etiologas, un espectro de causas. +Basados en los datos epidemiolgicos, sabemos que una de las causas o una de sus asociaciones, mejor decir, es la avanzada edad de los padres, esto es, una mayor edad del padre en el momento de la concepcin. +Adicionalmente, otro perodo vulnerable y crtico en trminos del desarrollo es cuando la madre est embarazada. +En este periodo, mientras se desarrolla el cerebro del feto, sabemos que exponerse a ciertos agentes puede incrementar el riesgo de autismo. +En particular, hay una medicina, el cido valproico que las madres con epilepsia a veces toman, que sabemos puede incrementar el riesgo de autismo. +Adems, pueden haber agentes infecciosos que tambin causan autismo. +Y una de las cosas en las que me centrar mucho es en los genes que pueden causar autismo. +Me centro en esto no porque los genes sean la nica causa de autismo, sino porque es una de las causas que podemos ya definir y podemos entender mejor la biologa y entender mejor cmo funciona el cerebro de manera que podemos disear estrategias para poder intervenir. +Uno de los factores genticos que no entendemos, sin embargo, es la diferencia que vemos en trminos de hombres y mujeres. +Los varones se ven ms afectados con autismo, con respecto a las mujeres en proporcin de 4 a 1. Y en realidad no sabemos la causa de ello. +Una forma en la que podemos entender que la gentica es un factor es mirando algo llamado la tasa de concordancia. +En otras palabras, si un nio tiene autismo, cul es la probabilidad que otro hermano en esa familia tenga autismo? +Y cuando observamos los ndices de concordancia, una de las cosas sorprendentes que pueden ver es que en los gemelos idnticos, su tasa de concordancia es del 77 %. +Sin embargo, no es del 100%. +No es que los genes sean responsables de todos los riesgos de autismo, pero representan una gran parte de ese riesgo, porque cuando vemos a los gemelos fraternales, la tasa de concordancia es solo del 31%. +Por otro lado, hay una diferencia entre esos gemelos fraternos y los hermanos, sugiriendo que hay exposiciones comunes entre los gemelos fraternos que pueden no ser compartidos comnmente con los hermanos solos. +Esto nos brinda algunos datos de que el autismo es gentico. +Bien, y cmo de gentico es? +Al compararlo con otras condiciones con las que estamos familiarizados, cosas como el cncer, enfermedades del corazn, diabetes, de hecho, la gentica juega un rol mucho mayor en el autismo con respecto a cualquiera de otras condiciones. +Pero con esto, no nos dice cules son los genes. +No nos dice ni siquiera en un nio si es un gen o una combinacin potencial de genes. +Y en realidad, en algunos individuos con autismo es gentico! +Es decir, que es un solo, poderoso y gen determinstico que causa el autismo. +Sin embargo, en otros individuos es gentico, esto es, que es en realidad una combinacin de genes en parte con el proceso de desarrollo el que a fin de cuentas determina el riesgo de autismo. +No sabemos de ninguna persona, necesariamente, cul de las dos respuestas es hasta que escarbamos ms profundamente. +As que la pregunta sera, cmo podemos empezar a identificar qu genes exactamente son? +Y permtanme plantear algo que puede no ser intuitivo. +En ciertos individuos, que puedan tener autismo por una razn que es gentica pero todava no a causa de autismo presente en la familia. +Y en realidad podemos usar esa estrategia para ahora entender e identificar los genes que causan el autismo en esos individuos. +De hecho, en la Fundacin Simons, tomamos 2 600 individuos que no tenan antecedentes familiares de autismo y tomamos a esos nios y a sus madres y padres y los usamos para tratar de entender cules eran los genes que causan el autismo en esos casos? +Para hacer eso, de hecho, tuvimos que ser capaces de ver toda la informacin gentica y determinar cules son esas diferencias entre la madre, el padre y el nio. +Haciendo esto, me disculpo, voy a usar una analoga obsoleta de las enciclopedias ms que Wikipedia, pero voy a hacerlo para tratar y ayudar a mostrar el punto de cmo hicimos el inventario, tuvimos que ser capaces de ver una cantidad masiva de informacin. +Nuestra informacin gentica est organizada en un conjunto de 46 volmenes, y, tenamos que ser capaces de revisar cada uno de esos 46 volmenes, porque en algunos casos con autismo, solo falta realmente un volumen. +Tuvimos que hilar ms fino, sin embargo, y tuvimos que abrir dichos libros, y en algunos casos, el cambio gentico era ms sutil. +Podra haber sido un solo prrafo que le faltaba, o incluso, ms sutil que eso, una sola letra, una en tres mil millones de letras que se cambi, que se alter pero que tuvo profundos efectos en trminos del funcionamiento cerebral y que afecta el comportamiento. +Al hacer esto con las familias, fuimos capaces de revisar aproximadamente 25% de los individuos y determinar si existi un solo factor gentico poderoso causante del autismo en esas familias. +Por otro lado, hay un 75% que todava no hemos descubierto. +An as, mientras lo hacamos fue realmente una leccin de humildad, porque nos dimos cuenta de que no haba simplemente un solo gen para el autismo. +De hecho, las estimaciones actuales son que hay entre 200 y 400 genes diferentes que pueden causar autismo. +Eso explica, en parte, porque vemos un espectro tan amplio en trminos de sus efectos. +An cuando hay muchos genes, existe algn mtodo para la locura. +No es simplemente al azar 200, 400 genes diferentes, que de hecho encajan. +Ellos encajan en una va. +Encajan entre s en una red que empieza a tener sentido ahora en trminos de cmo funciona el cerebro. +Pero un diagnstico temprano es clave para nosotros. +Poder hacer ese diagnstico en alguien que es susceptible en un tiempo, en una ventana donde tenemos la capacidad de transformar, para poder tener un impacto el cultivo, el desarrollo del cerebro es fundamental. +As que colegas como Ami Klin han desarrollado mtodos para ser capaces de tomar infantes, bebs, y usar marcadores biolgicos, as, el contacto visual y seguimiento ocular, para identificar a los infantes en riesgo. +Este infante en particular, se puede ver, hace muy buen contacto visual con esta mujer mientras ella est cantando "Witsi, Witsi Araa", de hecho no desarrollar autismo. +Sabemos que este beb est a salvo. +Por el contrario, este otro beb desarrollar autismo. +En este nio en particular, pueden ver, que no hace un buen contacto visual. +Cmo vamos a intervenir? +Probablemente ser una combinacin de factores. +En parte, en algunos individuos, probaremos y usaremos medicamentos. +Y as, de hecho, la identificacin de los genes del autismo es importante para nosotros para identificarlos objetivamente, para identificar cosas que puedan tener impacto y estar seguros de que eso es lo que tenemos que hacer en el autismo. +Pero esa no ser la nica respuesta. +Ms all de solo medicamentos, utilizaremos estrategias educativas. +Los individuos con autismo, algunos estn cableados un poco diferente. +Aprenden de otra manera. +Absorben su entorno de otra manera, y debemos ser capaces de educarlos de una manera que les sirva mejor. +Imaginen, por ejemplo, a Gabriel, con su torpeza social, podra usar Lentes Google con un auricular en la oreja, y tener un entrenador capaz de ayudarlo, ayudarlo a pensar acerca de las conversaciones, iniciar conversaciones, ser capaz de tal vez, algn da de invitar a una chica a una cita. +Todas estas nuevas tecnologas ofrecen enormes oportunidades para que seamos capaces de impactar a las personas con autismo, pero todava tenemos un largo camino por recorrer. +Mientras pensamos en algo que sea potencialmente una solucin, qu tan bien funcionar? +Es algo que marcar la diferencia en sus vidas, como individuos, como una familia con autismo? +Necesitaremos personas de todas las edades, desde jvenes a adultos, y con todas las formas y tamaos de los trastornos del espectro autista para asegurarnos que podemos tener un impacto. +As que los invito a unirse a la misin y a ayudar a hacer las vidas de las personas con autismo mucho mejores y ms ricas. +Gracias. +El lema olmpico es "Citius, Altius, Fortius". +Ms rpido, ms alto, ms fuerte. +Y los atletas han cumplido con ese lema; rpidamente. +El ganador del maratn olmpico de 2012 corri durante 2 horas y 8 minutos. +De haber competido contra el ganador del maratn olmpico de 1904, habra ganado por casi hora y media. +Todos tenemos la sensacin de que de alguna manera estamos mejorando como raza humana, progresando inexorablemente, pero no es que nos hayamos convertido en una nueva especie en un siglo. +Entonces, qu est pasando? +Veamos qu hay detrs de esta marcha de progreso atltico. +En 1936, Jesse Owens conquist el rcord mundial en los 100 metros planos. +Si Jesse Owens hubiera competido el ao pasado en el campeonato del mundo de los 100 metros, cuando el velocista jamaiquino Usain Bolt lleg a la meta, a Owens todava le habran faltado ms de 4 metros para llegar. +Eso es mucho para los velocistas. +Para darles una idea de cunto es, quisiera compartir con Uds. una demostracin creada por el cientfico deportivo Ross Tucker. +Imaginen el estadio el ao pasado en el campeonato mundial de los 100 metros planos, miles de fans esperando con gran expectacin para ver a Usain Bolt, el hombre ms rpido en la historia; flashes que destellan mientras los 9 hombres ms rpidos del mundo se colocan en sus bloques. +Quiero que imaginen que Jesse Owens est compitiendo. +Ahora cierra los ojos por un segundo e imagina la carrera. +Bang! Suena el disparo de salida. +Un velocista estadounidense toma la delantera. +Usain Bolt empieza a alcanzarlo. +Usain Bolt lo pasa, y cuando llegan los corredores, se escucha un "beep" cuando cada hombre cruza la meta. +(Sonido de "beep") Ese es el final de la carrera. +Ya pueden abrir sus ojos. +Ese primer "beep" era Usain Bolt. +Ese ltimo "beep" era Jesse Owens. +Escchenlo de nuevo. +(Sonido de "beep") Si lo ven de esa manera, no es tan grande la diferencia, no? +Consideren que Usain Bolt empez impulsndose a s mismo fuera de los bloques por una alfombra especialmente fabricada, diseada para permitirle viajar lo ms rpido humanamente posible. +Jesse Owens, por otra parte, corri sobre cenizas, cenizas de madera quemada, y esa superficie suave le rob mucha energa de sus piernas mientras corra. +En lugar de bloques, Jesse Owens tuvo una pala de jardinera que us para cavar hoyos en las cenizas para empezar desde all. +El anlisis biomecnico de la velocidad de las articulaciones de Owens, muestra que de haber corrido sobre la misma superficie que Bolt, no habra estado 4,3 metros atrs, habra estado solo a una zancada. +En lugar del ltimo "beep", Owens hubiera sido el segundo "beep". +Escchenlo de nuevo. +(Sonido de "beep") Esa es la diferencia que ha marcado la tecnologa de la pista, y que se usa en todo el mundo de las carreras. +Consideren una competencia ms larga. +En 1954, Sir Roger Bannister se convirti en el primer hombre en correr la milla en menos de 4 min. +Hoy en da, los universitarios lo hacen cada ao. +En raras ocasiones, lo hace un joven de secundaria. +A finales del ao pasado, 1314 hombres haban corrido la milla en menos de 4 min, pero al igual que Jesse Owens, Sir Roger Bannister corri sobre cenizas suaves que le robaron ms energa de sus piernas que las pistas sintticas de hoy. +As que consult a expertos en biomecnica para averiguar qu tan lento es correr sobre cenizas en comparacin con las pistas sintticas, y el consenso: es 1,5 % ms lento. +As que si aplican el 1,5 % en desaceleracin a cada hombre que corri en menos de 4 minutos sobre una pista sinttica, esto es lo que pasa. +Quedan solo 530. +Si lo ven desde esa perspectiva, menos de 10 hombres nuevos por dcada estn en el club de menos 4 minutos desde Sir Roger Bannister. +530 es mucho ms que uno, y en parte es porque ms personas entrenan hoy y entrenan ms inteligentemente. +Incluso los universitarios son profesionales en su entrenamiento comparados con Sir Roger Bannister, quien entrenaba 45 minutos y se saltaba las clases de ginecologa en la escuela de medicina. +Y la persona que gan el maratn olmpico en 1904 en 3 horas y media, beba veneno para ratas y brandy mientras corra por el camino. +Esa era su idea de una droga para mejorar el rendimiento. +Claramente, los atletas se han hecho ms expertos en las drogas que mejoran el rendimiento, y a veces ha marcado una diferencia en algunos deportes, pero la tecnologa ha hecho una diferencia en todos los deportes, de esqus ms rpidos a zapatos ms ligeros. +Observa el rcord de 100 metros en natacin estilo libre. +El rcord siempre es una tendencia a la baja, y est marcado por estas 3 pendientes. +La primera, en 1956, es la introduccin del giro de vuelta. +En lugar de parar y dar la vuelta, los atletas podan hacer una voltereta bajo el agua y salir de inmediato en la direccin opuesta. +La segunda pendiente, la introduccin de canaletas al lado de la piscina que permiten que el agua salga, y no haya turbulencia perjudicando a los nadadores en la competencia. +La ltima pendiente, la introduccin de trajes de bao de cuerpo entero y de baja friccin. +En todos los deportes, la tecnologa ha cambiado el rostro del desempeo. +En 1972, Eddy Merckx estableci el rcord de ciclismo en la distancia ms larga recorrida en una hora 49 km y 431 m. +Ese rcord ha mejorado constantemente ya que las bicicletas mejoraron y se hicieron ms aerodinmicas hasta 1996, cuando se estableci un registro de 56 km 375 m, casi 7 km ms de lo que registr Eddy Merckx en 1972. +Pero luego en el ao 2000, la Unin Ciclista Internacional decret que cualquiera que quisiera mantener ese rcord tena que hacerlo esencialmente con el mismo equipo que Eddy Merckx us en 1972. +Cul es el rcord actual? +49 km y 700 m, un total de 269 m ms de lo que recorri Eddy Merckx hace ms de 4 dcadas. +La mejora de este registro se debe principalmente a la tecnologa. +Sin embargo, la tecnologa no es el nico factor impulsando a los atletas. +A pesar de que no hemos evolucionado en una nueva especie en un siglo, la reserva gentica en los deportes competitivos, sin duda ha cambiado. +En la primera mitad del siglo XX, entrenadores e instructores de educacin fsica tenan la idea de que el cuerpo promedio era el mejor para todas las disciplinas deportivas: estatura media, peso medio, para cualquier deporte. +Y se reflej en los cuerpos de los atletas. +En los aos 20, el saltador de altura promedio y el lanzador de bala promedio eran exactamente del mismo tamao. +Hoy en da, en vez de tener el mismo tamao que el saltador de altura, el lanzador de bala es 6,3 cm ms alto y casi 59 kg ms pesado. +Y esto sucedi en todo el mundo del deporte. +De hecho, si trazan una grfica de altura en funcin a la masa un punto por cada dos docenas de deportes en la primera mitad del siglo XX, se ve as. +Hay cierta dispersin, pero se agrupa alrededor de ese tipo de cuerpo promedio. +Entonces esa idea empez a desaparecer, y al mismo tiempo, la tecnologa digital, primero la radio, luego la televisin e Internet, le dieron a millones de personas, o a miles de millones un boleto, para consumir rendimiento deportivo de lite. +El dinero, la fama y la gloria hicieron que los atletas de lite subieran por las nubes, lo que permiti pasar a un pequeo grado superior de rendimiento. +Se aceler la seleccin artificial de cuerpos calificados. +Y si se traza un punto para estas mismas dos docenas de deportes hoy, se ve as. +Los cuerpos de los atletas son mucho ms diferentes entre s. +Y ya que esta grfica se ve como las grficas que muestran la expansin del universo, con galaxias alejndose unas de otras, los cientficos que lo notaron la llaman: "El Big Bang de los tipos de cuerpo". +En los deportes donde la altura es apreciada, como el bsquetbol, el tamao de los atletas ha aumentado. +En 1983, la Asociacin de EE.UU. de bsquetbol firm un innovador acuerdo haciendo a los jugadores socios de la liga, con derecho a los ingresos de las entradas y a los contratos de televisin. +De repente, cualquiera que poda ser jugador de la NBA lo quera ser, y los equipos empezaron a buscar por el mundo los cuerpos que podan ayudarles a ganar campeonatos. +Casi de la noche a la maana, la proporcin de los jugadores de la NBA, que miden por lo menos 2,13 m, se increment 10 %. +Es decir, encuentren 6 hombres que de verdad midan 2,13 m, uno de ellos est en la NBA en estos momentos. +No solo por eso los cuerpos de los jugadores de la NBA son nicos. +Este es "El hombre de Vitruvio" de Leonardo da Vinci, las proporciones ideales, con la longitud del brazo igual a la altura. +La longitud de mi brazo es exactamente igual a mi altura. +La suya es probablemente muy similar. +Pero no la de un jugador promedio de la NBA. +El jugador promedio de la NBA mide 2 m, con brazos de 2,13 m de largo. +No solo son ridculamente altos sino tambin ridculamente largos. +Si Leonardo hubiese dibujado a un jugador de la NBA de Vitruvio, hubiera necesitado un rectngulo y una elipse, no un crculo y un cuadrado. +As que en los deportes donde se valora la altura, los atletas altos se han vuelto ms altos. +Por el contrario, en los deportes donde una estatura diminuta es una ventaja, los atletas pequeos se volvieron ms pequeos. +La gimnasta de lite promedio se ha reducido de 1,60 m a 1,45 m en promedio en los ltimos 30 aos, para mejorar su proporcin potencia-peso y poder girar en el aire. +Y mientras los altos son ms altos y los pequeos ms pequeos, los raros son ms raros. +El largo promedio del antebrazo de un jugador de waterpolo con respecto a la totalidad de su brazo ha aumentado, para mejorar la potencia de su lanzamiento. +Y mientras los altos se volvieron ms altos, los pequeos ms pequeos, y los raros ms raros. +En natacin, el tipo de cuerpo ideal es un torso largo y piernas cortas. +Es como el casco largo de una canoa para tener velocidad sobre el agua. +Y lo contrario es aconsejable para correr. +Tener piernas largas y un torso corto. +Y esto se nota en los cuerpos de los atletas actualmente. +Aqu pueden ver a Michael Phelps, el mejor nadador de la historia, de pie junto a Hicham El Guerrouj, poseedor del rcord mundial de la milla. +Estos atletas tienen una diferencia de altura de casi 18 cm, pero por sus tipos de cuerpo que los favorecen en sus disciplinas, visten pantalones con el mismo largo. +18 cm de diferencia, y tienen la misma longitud en las piernas. +En algunos casos, la bsqueda de cuerpos que pudieran impulsar el rendimiento atltico termin introduciendo en el mundo competitivo a grupos de personas que no haban competido antes en lo absoluto, como los fondistas kenianos. +Pensamos que los kenianos son grandes maratonistas. +Los kenianos piensan que en la tribu kalenjin hay grandes maratonistas. +Los kalenjin constituyen solo el 12 % de la poblacin de Kenia pero tienen a la gran mayora de los corredores de lite. +Es la misma razn por la que un radiador tiene bobinas largas: para aumentar la superficie respecto del volumen y que salga el calor, y debido a que la pierna es como un pndulo, mientras ms larga y delgada sea en la punta, tendr ms eficiencia energtica. +Para poner el xito de los corredores kalenjin en perspectiva, consideren que 17 hombres estadounidenses en la historia han corrido ms rpido de 2 horas y 10 minutos en el maratn. +Eso es un ritmo de 3 minutos y 5 segundos por kilmetro. +32 hombres kalenjin corrieron eso el pasado mes de octubre. +Y provienen de una poblacin del tamao de la zona metropolitana de Atlanta. +Sin embargo, aun con los cambios tecnolgicos y la reserva gentica que cambia en los deportes no basta para todos los cambios en el rendimiento. +Los atletas tienen una mentalidad diferente a la de antes. +Alguna vez han visto en una pelcula a alguien recibir una descarga elctrica que es lanzado por la habitacin? +No hay una explosin. +Lo que pasa es que el impulso elctrico causa que todas sus fibras musculares se contraigan al mismo tiempo, y se autoimpulsen. +En esencia, estn saltando. +Ese es el poder contenido en el cuerpo humano. +Pero normalmente no podemos acceder a l en su totalidad. +Nuestro cerebro acta como un limitador, que nos impide acceder a todos nuestros recursos fsicos, ya que podramos hacernos dao, desgarrando tendones o ligamentos. +Pero cuanto ms aprendemos sobre cmo funciona ese limitador, ms aprendemos cmo detenerlo solo un poco, en algunos casos convenciendo al cerebro de que el cuerpo no estar en peligro mortal si lo llevamos al lmite. +Los deportes de resistencia y de ultra-resistencia son un gran ejemplo. +Tenemos un arco en el pie, que acta como un resorte, dedos de los pies, cortos, mejores para impulsar que para agarrar ramas de rbol, y cuando corremos, podemos mover el torso y los hombros, as, mientras mantenemos la cabeza recta. +Nuestros primos los primates no pueden hacerlo. +Tienen que correr as. +Y tenemos grandes msculos en los glteos que nos mantienen rectos mientras corremos. +Alguna vez han visto el trasero de un simio? +No tienen glteos porque no corren en posicin vertical. +Y como los atletas han notado que somos perfectamente adecuados para la ultraresistencia, han realizado hazaas que antes hubieran sido impensables, atletas como el corredor de resistencia espaol Kilian Jornet. +Este es Kilian corriendo en el Matterhorn. +Con una sudadera atada a la cintura. +Es tan empinado que ni siquiera puede correr ah. +Est tirando de una cuerda. +Se trata de un ascenso vertical de ms de 2400 metros, y Kilian subi y bajo en menos de 3 horas. +Increble. +Y a pesar de lo talentoso que es, Kilian no es un fenmeno fisiolgico. +Ahora que ha logrado esto, otros atletas lo seguirn, al igual que otros atletas siguieron a Sir Roger Bannister corriendo la milla en menos de 4 min. +Los cambios en la tecnologa, en los genes, y una mentalidad cambiante. +Muchas gracias. +Existen 39 millones de personas ciegas en el mundo. +El 80% de ellas vive en pases de bajos recursos como Kenia, y la inmensa mayora no tendra por qu estar ciega. +Existe ceguera por enfermedades que se pueden curar o prevenir completamente. +Sabiendo esto, me mud a Kenia con mi joven familia. +Conseguimos equipo mdico, fondos, vehculos, preparamos un grupo de trabajo, instalamos cientos de clnicas por el gran valle del Rift para tratar y entender una simple pregunta: Por qu la gente sufre de ceguera y qu podemos hacer? +Los retos fueron grandes. +A donde fuera que bamos, instalbamos nuestro equipo de alta tecnologa. +Rara vez haba energa elctrica disponible. +Tenamos que utilizar generadores de gasolina para utilizar nuestro equipo. +Y entonces algo se me ocurri: tena que haber una manera ms fcil, porque los pacientes que ms necesitan acceso a atencin ocular son los que menos la tienen. +En Kenia y en el frica negra ms gente tiene acceso a un telfono celular que a agua corriente limpia. +As que pensamos, podramos aprovechar el poder de la tecnologa mvil para brindar atencin ocular de una nueva manera? +Entonces desarrollamos Peek, un sistema para telfonos inteligentes que permite la comunicacin entre los trabajadores de la salud y los faculta para brindar atencin donde sea. +Estamos reemplazando el equipo tradicional de los hospitales, que es costoso, voluminoso y frgil con aplicaciones y harware que hacen posible examinar a quien sea en cualquier lengua y de cualquier edad. +Aqu tengo una demostracin de un beb de tres meses al que se le examin certeramente la visin usando una app y un seguidor del movimiento del ojo. +Hemos hecho muchas pruebas en comunidades y en escuelas y a partir de las lecciones que aprendimos en el campo nos hemos dado cuenta que es extremadamente importante compartir los datos en un lenguaje coloquial que la gente pueda entender qu estamos examinando y qu significa para ellos. +As por ejemplo, usamos nuestra aplicacin, una vez que hemos medido la visin, les enseamos a los cuidadores y maestros cmo ven el mundo estas personas, para que empaticen con ellos y los ayuden. +Una vez que diagnosticamos que alguien tiene una visin pobre, el siguiente gran reto es averiguar el porqu y para lograrlo tenemos que entrar al interior del ojo. +Tradicionalmente, se requiere equipo costoso para examinar el rea llamada retina. +La retina es la parte de nuestros ojos que tiene toneladas de informacin acerca del cuerpo y de su salud. +Desarrollamos un hardware de bajo costo impreso en 3D que cuesta menos de USD 5 producir que se puede sujetar a un telfono inteligente y logra obtener vistas de la parte trasera del ojo de muy alta calidad. +Y la belleza de esto es que cualquiera puede hacerlo. +En nuestras pruebas en ms de 2500 personas el telfono con este complemento es similar a una cmara que es mucho ms costosa y mucho ms difcil de transportar. +La primera vez que fuimos a Kenia llevamos USD 150 000 en equipamiento, un equipo de 15 personas, eso era lo que se requera para brindar la atencin mdica. +Hoy en da, todo lo que se necesita es una sola persona en un bicicleta con un telfono inteligente. +Y con un costo de USD 500. +El problema de la electricidad se resuelve con paneles solares. +Nuestros trabajadores de la salud viajan con mochilas que tienen paneles solares, que mantienen al telfono cargado y respaldado. +Ahora nosotros vamos al paciente en lugar de esperar a que nunca venga. +Vamos a sus casas y les damos la atencin ms amplia y de alta tecnologa que puede dar quien sea con poco entrenamiento. +Podemos llevar expertos globales a personas en las reas ms rurales y difciles de alcanzar que estn ms all del final del camino; poniendo esos expertos en sus casas, permitindonos hacer diagnsticos y planes de tratamiento. +Gerentes y directores de hospitales pueden buscar en nuestra interfaz cualquier parmetro que les interese. +Aqu en Nakuru, donde he estado viviendo, podemos buscar personas con cualquier condicin. +Aqu tenemos personas que estn ciegas por una condicin curable de cataratas. +Cada punto rojo representa alguien que est ciego por una enfermedad que es curable y tratable y que estn localizables. +Podemos usar grandes servicios de envo de mensajes para explicar que pronto iremos para brindar tratamiento. +Adems, hemos aprendido que esto es algo que no solo construimos para la comunidad sino con la comunidad. +Los puntos azules representan ancianos o lderes locales que estn conectados a esas personas y que nos pueden asegurar el encontrarlas y darles el tratamiento. +As que para pacientes como Mama Wangari, que ha estado ciega por ms de 10 aos y nunca ha visto a su nieto, por menos de USD 40 podemos devolverle la vista. +Eso es algo que tiene que pasar. +Solo en las estadsticas hay millones de personas que quedan ciegas. +La realidad es que cada quien queda ciego solo. +Pero ahora, estn a tan solo un mensaje de texto de encontrar ayuda. +Ya que las demostraciones en vivo son mala idea, haremos una demostracin en vivo. +Aqu tenemos la aplicacin Peek Vision. +Bien, lo que vemos aqu es el nervio ptico de Sam que est en conexin directa con su cerebro. As que en realidad estamos viendo su cerebro al ver aqu. +Podemos ver todas las partes de la retina. +Pero ahora podemos. +Gracias +Vivimos en un medioambiente muy complejo: complejidad y dinamismo y patrones de evidencia de fotografas satelitales, de videos. +Incluso pueden verlo desde sus ventanas. +Es infinitamente complejo, pero de alguna manera familiar, pero los patrones parecen repetirse, aunque nunca se repiten exactamente. +Entenderlo es un enorme reto. +Los patrones que vemos estn ah en distintas escalas, pero no podemos tomar un fragmento y decir, "Vamos a hacer un clima ms pequeo". +No se pueden usar los productos normales del reduccionismo para hacer algo ms y ms pequeo que se pueda estudiar en un laboratorio y decir, "Vaya! Esto es algo que ahora entiendo". +Es el todo o es nada. +Las diversas escalas que producen estos tipos de patrones van desde un enorme rango de magnitudes, de casi 14 rdenes de magnitud, desde las partculas microscpicas que bombardean las nubes hasta el tamao del planeta mismo, de 10 a la menos 6 a 10 a la 8, 14 rdenes de magnitud espacial. +En tiempo, desde milsimas de segundo a milenios, nuevamente cerca de 14 rdenes de magnitud. +Qu quiere decir esto? +Si pensamos en cmo calcular estos fenmenos, podemos tomar lo que vemos, y voy a cortarlo en muchas cajitas, y ese es el resultado de la fsica de acuerdo? +Y si pienso en un modelo climtico, este abarca cerca de 5 rdenes de magnitud, del planeta a unos kilmetros y en la escala temporal de algunos minutos a 10 das, quiz un mes. +Nos interesa mucho ms que eso. +Nos interesa el clima. +Esto es aos, milenios, y necesitamos ir a escalas an menores. +A lo que no podemos resolver, los procesos de las subescalas, necesitamos aproximarnos de algn modo. +Es un reto enorme. +En la dcada de 1990, los modelos climatolgicos tomaban un trozo an ms pequeo, de tan solo tres rdenes de magnitud, +En la dcada actual, estamos trabajando con alrededor de 4 rdenes de magnitud. +Nos faltan 14 y estamos aumentando nuestra capacidad de simularlos alrededor de un orden de magnitud por dcada. +Un orden extra de magnitud en espacio equivale a 10 000 veces ms clculos. +Y seguimos aadiendo ms cosas, ms preguntas a estos diversos modelos. +Cmo se ve un modelo climtico? +Este es un modelo climtico antiguo, una tarjeta perforada, una lnea de cdigo Fortran. +Ya no usamos tarjetas perforadas. +Pero an empleamos Fortran. +Las ideas modernas como el lenguaje C no han tenido un gran impacto en la comunidad de modelado climtico. +Pero cmo seguimos hacindolo? +Cmo vamos de la complejidad que vieron a una lnea de cdigo? +Lo hacemos uno por uno. +Esta es una imagen de mar de hielo tomada en un sobrevuelo en el rtico +Podemos ver las distintas ecuaciones que describen el crecimiento de hielo o su derretimiento o cambio de forma. +Podemos ver los flujos. +Podemos ver el ritmo al que la nieve se convierte en hielo, y podemos codificarlo. +Podemos encapsularlo en un cdigo. +Estos modelos son de cerca de un milln de lneas de cdigo en este punto. y crecen unas decenas de miles de lneas de cdigo cada ao. +Pueden ver esta pieza, pero tambin las dems piezas. +Qu pasa cuando hay nubes? +Qu pasa cuando las nubes se forman, se disipan, se precipitan? +Es otra pieza. +Qu pasa cuando la radiacin solar que penetra la atmsfera se absorbe y se refleja? +Podemos codificar cada uno de ellos tambin en piezas muy pequeas. +Hay otras piezas: Los vientos que cambian las corrientes ocenicas. +Podemos hablar del papel de la vegetacin en el transporte del agua del suelo hacia la atmsfera. +Y cada uno de esos diversos elementos pueden encapsularse y ponerse en un sistema. +Cada una de esas partes termina por sumarse al conjunto. +Y el resultado es similar a esto. +No hay un cdigo que diga "Haga un giro en el ocano del sur". +No hay un cdigo que diga "Haga dos ciclones que giren uno en torno del otro". +Todas esas cosas son propiedades emergentes. +Todo esto est muy bien. Es grandioso. +Pero lo que queremos saber es qu pasa con todas esas propiedades emergentes cuando pateamos el sistema? +Qu pasa con esas propiedades cuando algo cambia? +Y hay muchas maneras distintas de patear el sistema. +Hay tambaleos en la rbita terrestre a lo largo de cientos de millones de aos que alteran el clima. +Hay cambios en los ciclos solares, cada 11 aos aproximadamente, que cambian el clima +Grandes volcanes se apagan y cambian el clima. +Cambios en la quema de biomasa, humo, partculas en aerosol y todas esas cosas alteran el clima. +El hoyo en la capa de ozono alter el clima. +La deforestacin cambia el clima al cambiar las propiedades de la superficie y en cmo se evapora del agua y en cmo se mueve en el sistema. +Las estelas de condensacin alteran el clima al crear nubes en donde no haba y, desde luego, los gases de efecto invernadero alteran el sistema. +Cada uno de esos factores nos da una oportunidad para evaluar si entendemos algo de este sistema. +Podemos ver qu tan preciso es el modelo. +Hablo de "precisin" intencionalmente: Los modelos no estn bien o mal: siempre estn mal. +Siempre son aproximaciones. +La pregunta que hay que hacerse es si un modelo da ms informacin que algn otro. +Si es as, es preciso. +Este es el impacto del agujero en la capa de ozono en la presin a nivel de mar, baja presin, alta presin, alrededor de los mares del sur, alrededor de la Antrtica. +Este es el dato observado. +Este es el modelo del dato. +Hay una buena similitud porque entendemos la fsica que controla las temperaturas en la estratsfera y lo que hacen los vientos alrededor de los mares del sur. +Podemos ver otros ejemplos. +La erupcin del volcn Pinatubo en 1991 dej una enorme cantidad de aerosoles, pequeas partculas, en la estratsfera. +Eso cambi el balance de radiacin en el planeta entero. +Haba menos energa llegando que antes, as que la Tierra se enfri y esas lneas rojas y esas lneas verdes son la diferencia entre lo que se esperaba y lo que en realidad pas. +Los modelos son precisos, no solo a escala global, sino en patrones locales. +Podra poner una docena ms de ejemplos: la precisin asociada con los ciclos solares que cambia el ozono en la estratsfera; la precisin asociada con los cambios en la rbita durante 6000 aos. +Podemos estudiarlos y los modelos son precisos. +Los modelos son precisos de acuerdo a las capas de hielo de hace 20 000 aos. +Los modelos son precisos cuando se buscan tendencias en el siglo XX entre dcadas. +Los modelos son exitosos para modelar surgimientos de lagos en el Atlntico norte hace 8 000 aos. +Y podemos tener una buena aproximacin a los datos. +Cada uno de estos diferentes objetivos, cada uno de las diferentes evaluaciones, nos lleva a agregar mayor alcance a estos modelos, y nos lleva a situaciones ms y ms complejas en las que podemos hacer preguntas ms y ms interesantes, como, cmo el polvo del Sahara, que pueden ver es naranja, interacta con los ciclones tropicales en el atlntico? +Cmo el aerosol orgnico de la quema de biomasa, que pueden ver en puntos rojos, interacta con los patrones de nubes y lluvias? +Cmo la contaminacin, que pueden ver en los remolinos blancos de contaminacin por sulfatos en Europa, afecta la temperatura en la superficie y en la luz solar que llega a la superficie? +Podemos ver esto en todo el mundo. +Podemos ver la contaminacin de China. +Podemos ver el impacto de las tormentas sobre las partculas de sal de mar en la atmsfera. +Podemos ver la combinacin de todas esas distintas cosas ocurriendo al mismo tiempo y podemos hacernos preguntas an ms interesantes. +Cmo coexisten la contaminacin atmosfrica y el clima? +Podemos cambiar elementos que afectan tanto la contaminacin como el clima? +La respuesta es s. +As que esta la historia del siglo XX. +El primero es el modelo. +El clima es un poco diferente de lo que en realidad pas. +La segunda son las observaciones. +Y vamos por la dcada de los treinta. +Hay cambios, estn pasando cosas, pero es como una especie ruido. +Mientras nos acercamos a la dcada de los setenta las cosas empiezan a cambiar. +Empiezan a verse ms similares, y para el siglo XXI ya estamos viendo el patrn del calentamiento global, tanto en las observaciones como en el modelo. +Sabemos qu ocurri en el siglo XX. +Sabemos que se hizo ms clido. +Sabemos dnde se hizo ms clido. +Y si le preguntan a los modelos por qu ocurri y dicen, bueno, bien, s, bsicamente por el dixido de carbono que pusimos en la atmsfera. +Tenemos un buen ajuste hasta el da de hoy. +Pero hay una razn fundamental de por qu recurrimos a los modelos y es por esta frase. +Porque si tuviramos mediciones del futuro obviamente confiaramos ms en ellas que en los modelos, pero desgraciadamente, las mediciones del futuro todava no estn disponibles. +As que cuando llegamos al futuro, hay diferencias. +El futuro es desconocido, es incierto y hay alternativas. +Estas son las alternativas que tenemos. +Podemos hacer algo para mitigar las emisiones de dixido de carbono en la atmsfera. +Esa es la primera. +Podemos trabajar para realmente bajarlos para que al fin de siglo, no sea mucho ms de lo que hay ahora. +O lo dejamos a su suerte y seguimos con nuestra actitud de "no pasa nada". +La diferencia entre esas alternativas se puede ver en los modelos. +Los modelos son precisos, pero lo que hagamos con la informacin de esos modelos est en nuestras manos. +Gracias. +Antes que nada, para quienes no estn familiarizados con mi trabajo, he creado personajes multiculturales, personajes de muchos diferentes contextos. +Antes de que el presente sea el nuevo futuro, algo de mi pasado es que crec en una familia que era multi-todo, multiracial, multicultural, negra y blanca, caribea, irlandesa-norteamericana, alemana-norteamericana. +Se escuchaba msica dominicana en los estreos. +Haba cristianos y judos. +Hay una larga historia llena de intrigas y culpas y vergenza. +No s si es cierto para otros, pero esa nocin de pensar acerca de cmo entendemos el futuro y predecimos los resultados, para m, es aterrador no saber lo que puede suceder. +As que la idea de que hay preguntas que nunca he visto que mi pueblo va a responder, y algunos han estado conmigo por siglos, algunos ni siquiera tienen nombre, No s lo que va a suceder. +Dicho esto, vamos a ver qu sale. +Tal vez la primera pregunta es: "Tienes dolores de cabeza por el microchip implantado en tu cerebro?" +Correcto. +Okey. +Bueno, antes que nada, dir que espero que puedan escucharme bien. +Me llamo Lorraine Levine, y la idea de los microchips implantados en mi cerebro, francamente, colocndome mis lentes me recuerda agradecerle a Dios que no estoy llevando Google Glasses. +Sin ofenderlos. Estoy contenta de que Uds. los disfrutan, pero a mi edad, simplemente usando los regulares que tengo recibo demasiada informacin. +Entienden lo que les digo? +No necesito saber ms. No quiero saber. +Eso es todo. Eso es suficiente. +Los amo. Uds. son increbles. +Es fabuloso estar aqu con personas tan importantes nuevamente este ao. Mua! +Bien, siguiente pregunta. Siguiente, por favor. +"Es aburrida una cita, ahora que los seres humanos se reproducen asexualmente?" +Qu obtenemos? +Hola, bueno, hola a todos. +Mi nombre es Nereida. +Simplemente quiero decirles que salir nunca es aburrido bajo ninguna circunstancia. +Estoy contenta de estar aqu hoy, as que estoy tratando de recordarme a m misma que, el propsito de estar aqu y de todo, tratando de responder estas preguntas, es muy emocionante. +Pero tambin, solo tengo que reconocer que TED es una experiencia increble en estos momentos ahora, al igual que, solo tengo que decir, Isabel Allende! Isabel Allende! +Bueno, tal vez esto no significa, significa algo para Uds., pero para m, es otro nivel, s? +Porque soy latina y realmente aprecio que hay modelos aqu de que yo realmente puedo, no lo s, necesitaba decir eso. +Eso es increble para m, y a veces cuando estoy nerviosa, simplemente necesito decir algunas afirmaciones que pueden ayudarme. +Normalmente solo trato de usar tres palabras que siempre me hacen sentir mejor: Sotomayor, Sotomayor, Sotomayor. Simplemente, me ayudan a tocar tierra. +Ahora puedo usar Allende, Allende, Allende, solo tengo que decirlas as, es increble, saba que tendramos estas preguntas. +Eso fue, impresionante, y estoy parada aqu, y me deca no digas: "Dios mo". +"Dios mo". +Y segu diciendo: "Ay, Dios mo. Dios mo". +Y, me qued pensando para mis adentros, el Presidente Obama tiene que venir a este mismo podio, y estoy aqu, "Ay, Dios mo". +La divisin Iglesia y Estado. +Es que yo no poda, no poda procesar. +Era demasiado. +Pienso que he perdido el camino. +Pero quiero decir que eso es una cita, para m, saben, en la medida que a m respecta, te reproduces, y ests disfrutando de ti mismo y es consentido con otro asexual... No lo s. +Saben a dnde voy con eso. +Bueno, ciao, gracias. +Bueno, siguiente pregunta. Cules son tus cinco canciones favoritas en este momento? +Est bien, bueno, en primer lugar, dir, saben lo que estoy diciendo, soy el nico amigo aqu en estos momentos. +Mi nombre es Rashid, y nunca he estado en TED, Uds. entienden. +Pienso que, Sarah Jones, tal vez no quera que saliera la ltima vez. +No s por qu. Uds. me entienden. +Obviamente yo estara perfecto para TED. +Uds. me entienden. +Antes que nada, soy hip hop, como Uds. saben. +Algunos de Uds. pueden no ser realmente de la msica, pero Uds. siempre pueden saber, saben lo que digo, que estoy en el hip hop, es porque sostengo el micrfono en una postura oficial. +Pueden verlo all mismo. +As se sostiene. +Muy bien, les di un tutorial justo ah. +Saben, yo me paro aqu y respondo preguntas al azar? +No quiero hacerlo, Quiero decir, es como una parada intelectual. +Saben? Yo no quiero estar aqu sola de pie interrogar a todos y otras cosas. +Trato de dejarlo atrs en Nueva York. Saben lo que digo? +As que de todos modos, tendra que decir mis cinco canciones ahora mismo es todo de mi propio catlogo personal, saben lo que quiero decir? +Me entienden? +Pero solo estoy diciendo, si Uds. estn interesados en las cinco ms destacadas, grtenme. +Saben a qu me refiero? +En el futuro o el presente. S. +Disfruten el resto. +Bueno, siguiente pregunta. +Qu tienes? +"Cuntos rganos te imprimieron en 3D?" +Saben, ese tipo de cosas. +Y por supuesto ahora que hemos cambiado, desde el globo Sur, est este total tipo de cambio de perspectiva que est sucediendo alrededor de la... no pueden decirles, bueno, hay nios que mueren de hambre. +Bueno, es el futuro. +Nadie se muere de hambre ya, gracias a Dios. +Pero como se puede decir que tengo esta clase de optimismo, y espero que podamos seguir imprimiendo en 3D, bueno, digamos que me gusta pensar que an en el futuro tendremos la publicacin, que explique toda la comida que pueda imprimirse. +Pero todos, por favor disfruten eso, y nuevamente, pienso que Uds. forman una buena fiesta aqu en TED. +Gracias. +Siguiente pregunta. Qu ha cambiado? Bueno, tengo que pensar sobre eso. +"Qu ha cambiado ahora que las mujeres dirigen el mundo?" +No es que haya nada malo en ello, pero mi mam, ella dice, Por qu tienes que llevar esos pantalones para objetivar tu cuerpo? Me gustan mis pantalones. +As como me gusta mi voz. +As que esa es mi sensacin sobre eso. +Uds. son increbles, por cierto. +Bien. Prxima pregunta. +["Descubrieron una cura para el cncer, pero no para la calvicie? Qu pasa con eso?"] Si, Uds. saben, mi nombre es Joseph Mancuso. +En primer lugar, debo decir que aprecio que TED que en general ha sido un grupo de gente muy ordenada, un grupo bastante ordenado. +Y, saben, yo solo tengo que decir, todo sobre la calvicie, y, Uds. saben, aqu est la cosa. +Mientras que la mujer, en mi caso, por ser un mundo moderno, haz lo que quieras, no quiero tener ningn problema con nadie, disfrut, LGBTQLMNOP. De acuerdo? +Pero en lo que a m respecta, el atractivo, a las mujeres no les importa tanto como Uds. creen acerca de, Uds. saben. +Recuerdo a esta mujer. +Ella amaba a su esposo, que era la cosa ms dulce. +Es una chica muy joven, saben? +Y este chico es mayor. +Y, ella dijo que lo amara aunque el tuviera nieve en el techo o incluso si se ha derretido y desaparecido por completo. +En lo que a m respecta, es sobre el amor. +Estoy en lo cierto o estoy en lo cierto? +As que es eso. Eso es todo. Eso es todo. +No dir ms. +Mantengan sus narices limpias. +Muy bien, siguiente pregunta. +"Alguna vez has probado la carne que no ha crecido en un laboratorio?" +Uh, bueno, yo, quiero comenzar diciendo que esa es una difcil experiencia para una china-norteamericana. +No s cmo llamarme a m misma ahora, porque realmente tengo mi identidad China, pero mis hijos, son norteamericanos-chinos, pero es difcil tratar de expresarme frente a una audiencia como esta. +Pero si tengo que dar mi opinin sobre la carne, primero pienso, la cosa ms importante que decir es que no tenemos que tener la comida perfecta, pero tal vez tambin puede no ser veneno. +Tal vez podemos tener un trmino medio para eso. +Pero voy a seguir considerando esta idea, y voy a informar tal vez el prximo ao. +Siguiente. +Siguiente. Siguiente. "Habr alguna vez un mundo post-racial?" +Gracias por invitarme. +Mi nombre es Gary Weaselhead. Disfruten eso. +Soy un miembro de la Nacin Pies Negros. +Yo tambin soy mitad Lakota, pero ese es mi nombre de pila, y no, a pesar de que le habra parecido como una opcin obvia, no, yo no estuve en la poltica. +Pblico exigente. +Pero siempre me gusta dejar que la gente sepa cuando preguntan acerca de la raza o ese tipo de cosas, ya saben, como miembro de la comunidad de las Primeras Naciones, saben, yo probablemente no sea su tipo de chico. +Por ejemplo, adicionalmente a ser activista, soy un profesional de la comedia stand-up. +Y, saben, soy ms popular en la escuela o el campus universitario. +Saben, donde quiera que quieran hacer un da para la diversidad, o bueno-no-estamos-todos-en una semana blanca, entonces estoy ah. Si creo que alguna vez habr un mundo post-racial? +Creo que, en realidad, no puedo hablar sobre la raza sin recordar que se trata de un constructo en ciertos aspectos, pero tambin que, saben, hasta que corrijamos los errores del pasado, vamos a dar la vuelta. +No me importa si el presente es el nuevo futuro. +Hay personas geniales aqu en TED que estn trabajando para hacer frente a esto, as que con eso, si todo lo que he dicho hoy te hace sentir incmodo, de nada. +Creo que tenemos tiempo para uno ms. +"Cul es la dieta ms popular en estos das?" +Quin est aqu? +Vale, bien, solo voy a contestar muy rpido, como, 3 o 4 personas distintas. +Digo realmente rpido. +Voy a dejar que sepan que, en lo que se refiere a la dieta, si no te amas a ti mismo en el interior, no hay dieta en esta Tierra que te haga lo suficientemente pequeo para que te sientas bien, as que no pierdas ms el tiempo. +Quiero decirles que como africana creo que la dieta que necesitamos es realmente remover la loca creencia de que hay algo malo con un lindo trasero. +No, estoy bromeando sobre eso. +No hay nada malo con una mujer de tamao. +Eso es lo que trato de decir. +Mujeres, celebren su cuerpo, por amor a Dios. +Dejen de correr alrededor del hambre. +Se estn haciendo a s mismas y a otras personas, miserables. +ltima respuesta. +As que estamos hablando de la dieta ms popular? +Comenzar contndoles que esta es mi primera vez en TED. +Puede que no sea la tpica persona que encontrarn en este escenario. +Mi dentadura no es tan linda como la de otras personas. +Y para m, pienso que los sin techo es la palabra incorrecta para ellos. +Saben, tal vez no tenga mi lugar donde descansar en las noches, pero eso solo me hace sin hogar. +Tengo un hogar. Uds. tambin. +Encuntrenlo y traten de encontrarse a Uds. mismos all. +Asegrense de saber, que no se trata de realidad virtual en el espacio. +Es increble, pero tambin es acerca de la realidad real en la Tierra. +Cmo viven las personas hoy? +Cmo pueden ser parte de la solucin? +Gracias a todos por pensar sobre eso justo ahora en el momento presente para influenciar el futuro. +Les agradezco. Chau, chau. +Muchas gracias por todo. +Gracias por creer en mi Chris. +Es el ao 2006. +Mi amigo Harold Ford me llama. +l es candidato a senador de EE. UU. por Tennessee y me dice: "Mellody, necesito ya de la prensa nacional. Tienes alguna idea?" +Entonces tuve una idea. Llam a una amiga que estaba en Nueva York en una de las empresas de medios ms exitosas del mundo, y ella me dice: "Por qu no organizamos un almuerzo con el consejo editorial para Harold? +y vienes con l?". +Harold y yo llegamos a Nueva York. +Vestidos con nuestras mejores ropas. +Parecemos nuevos peniques brillantes. +Llegamos a la recepcionista y le decimos: "Estamos aqu para el almuerzo". +Ella hace un gesto para que la sigamos. +Caminamos por una serie de pasillos y de repente nos encontramos en una habitacin austera. En ese momento ella nos mira y dice: "Dnde estn sus uniformes?" +Justo cuando sucede esto, mi amiga entra de prisa. +Se puso plida como un papel. +Literalmente no hay palabras, cierto? +La miro, y digo: "No crees que necesitamos ms de una persona negra en el Senado de EE.UU.?" +Ahora, Harold y yo... An remos con esa historia y en muchos sentidos, el momento me agarr con la guardia baja, pero en el fondo, muy en el fondo, no estaba realmente sorprendida. +No estaba sorprendida por algo que mi madre me haba enseado 30 aos antes. +Vern, mi madre era terriblemente realista. +Un da, volviendo a casa de un cumpleaos donde fui la nica nia negra invitada, en vez de hacerme las preguntas que hara cualquier madre como: "Te divertiste?" "Cmo estaba el pastel?", +mi madre me mir y dijo: "Cmo te trataron?" +Tena 7 aos. Yo no entenda. +Quiero decir, por qu alguien me tratara de manera diferente? +Pero ella saba. +Mi mir directo a los ojos y dijo, "Ellos no siempre te tratarn bien". +El racismo es uno de esos temas en EE.UU que hace sentir a la gente extraordinariamente incmoda. +Sacas el tema en una cena o en un ambiente de trabajo, y es literalmente una conversacin equivalente a tocar el tercer riel. +Hay conmocin, seguida de un largo silencio. +Y an para venir hoy aqu, le cont a pocos amigos y colegas que pensaba hablar sobre racismo, y me advirtieron, me dijeron, que no lo haga, que habra grandes riesgos en que hablara de este tema, que la gente podra pensar que era una negra militante y que arruinara mi carrera. +Y debo decirles que por un momento estaba un poco asustada. +Luego me di cuenta: el primer paso para resolver cualquier problema es no escondernos de l y el primer paso para cualquier forma de accin es tomar consciencia. +Y por eso me decid a hablar sobre racismo. +Y decid que si vena aqu y comparta con Uds. algunas de mis experiencias, tal vez todos podramos estar un poco menos nerviosos y un poco ms intrpidos en nuestras conversaciones sobre racismo. +S que hay personas por ah diciendo que la eleccin de Barack Obama signific el final de la discriminacin racial por toda la eternidad, verdad? +Pero yo trabajo en inversiones, y tenemos un dicho: Los nmeros no mienten. +Y aqu, hay disparidades raciales significativas y cuantificables que no pueden ser ignoradas, en la riqueza de los hogares, en el ingreso familiar, en las oportunidades de empleo, en la la atencin de la salud. +Un ejemplo del EE. UU. corporativo: A pesar de que los hombres blancos constituyen slo el 30% de la poblacin de los EE.UU., poseen el 70% de los cargos en las juntas directivas corporativas. +De las empresas de Fortune 250, slo hay siete CEO que son minoras, y de las miles de las empresas que cotizan en bolsa hoy en da, miles, slo dos estn dirigidas por mujeres negras, y estn viendo a una de ellas, la misma que, no hace mucho tiempo atrs, fue casi confundida con un ayudante de cocina. +As que eso es un hecho. +Ahora tengo este experimento mental con el que juego conmigo misma, cuando digo: imaginen que entro en una habitacin de una gran empresa, como ExxonMobil, y todas y cada una de las personas de la sala de juntas son negras, Pensaran que es raro. +Pero si entro en una compaa Fortune 500, y son todos hombres blancos, cundo pensaremos que eso tambin es raro ? +Y s cmo hemos llegado hasta aqu. +S cmo hemos llegado hasta aqu. +Ya saben, fue institucionalizada, a la vez legalizada, la discriminacin en nuestro pas. +No hay duda al respecto. +Pero an as, me enfrento con este tema, la pregunta de mi madre est en el aire para m: Cmo te trataron? +No planteo esta cuestin para quejarme o para generar cualquier tipo de simpata. +He tenido xito en mi vida, llegu ms lejos que mis ms optimistas expectativas, y han sido ms las veces que fui tratada bien que las que no por gente de todas las razas. +Cuento la historia del uniforme porque sucedi. +Cito estas estadsticas sobre diversidad corporativa porque son reales, y estoy aqu hoy hablando sobre discriminacin racial porque creo que amenaza con robarle a otra generacin todas las oportunidades que todos queremos para nuestros hijos, sin importar su color o de dnde provienen. +Y creo que tambin amenaza con frenar los negocios. +Vern, los investigadores han acuado el trmino "ceguera al color" para describir un comportamiento aprendido en el que hacemos como que no percibimos la raza. +Si ests rodeado de un montn de gente que se vea como Uds., eso es puramente accidental. +Ahora, la ceguera al color, en mi opinin, no quiere decir que no hay discriminacin racial y hay imparcialidad. +No significa eso en absoluto. No lo asegura. +En mi opinin, la ceguera es muy peligrosa porque significa que estamos ignorando el problema. +Hubo un estudio corporativo que dice que, en vez de evitar la raza, las corporaciones realmente inteligentes tratan de frente con el problema . +Reconocen, ciertamente, que incorporar la diversidad implica reconocer todas las razas, incluyendo la mayoritaria. +Ser la primera en decirles, que este tema puede ser difcil, embarazoso, incmodo. Pero ese es el punto. +En el espritu de desenmascarar los estereotipos raciales, como el que a los negros no les gusta nadar, voy a decirles lo mucho que me gusta nadar. +Amo tanto nadar que de adulta, nado con un entrenador. +Y un da mi entrenador me pidi hacer un ejercicio donde tena que nadar un largo de una piscina de 25m sin respirar. +Y cada vez que fallaba, tena que empezar de nuevo. +Y fall mucho. +Al final lo logr, pero al salir de la piscina, estaba exasperada, cansada y molesta, y dije: "Por qu estamos haciendo ejercicios de contener la respiracin?" +Y mi entrenador me mir y me dijo: "Mellody, eso no fue un ejercicio de apnea. +Ese simulacro era para hacerte sentir cmoda estando incmoda, porque as es como la mayora de nosotros pasamos nuestros das". +Si podemos lidiar con nuestra incomodidad, y relajarnos con ella, tendremos una mejor vida. +As que creo que es hora de que estemos cmodos con la incmoda conversacin sobre razas: negra, blanca, asitica, hispnica, hombres, mujeres, todos nosotros, si realmente creemos en la igualdad de derechos y en la igualdad de oportunidades, pienso que debemos tener conversaciones serias sobre este tema. +No podemos darnos el lujo de ser ciegos al color. +Tenemos que ser valientes al color. +Ahora, mi ejemplo favorito de la valenta de color es un tipo llamado John Skipper. +Dirige ESPN. +Es nativo de Carolina del Norte, caballero sureo por excelencia, blanco. +Se uni a ESPN, que ya tena una cultura de inclusin y diversidad, pero la llev an ms lejos. +Exigi que cada posicin abierta tuviera una lista de candidatos diversa. +Dice que a la gente mayor, al principio, se les ponan los pelos de punta, y que iban a verlo y le decan: "Quieres que contrate a la minora, o quieres que contrate a la mejor persona para el trabajo?" +Y Skipper cuenta que responda siempre igual: "Si". +Y al decirle s a la diversidad, sinceramente creo que ESPN es la franquicia de cable ms valiosa del mundo. +Creo que esa es una parte del ingrediente secreto. +Puedo decirles que, en mi propia industria, Ariel Investments, vemos nuestra diversidad como una ventaja competitiva y esa ventaja puede ir mucho ms all de los negocios. +Est Scott Page, de la Universidad de Michigan. +Es la primera persona en desarrollar un clculo matemtico para la diversidad. +Dice que si ests tratando de resolver un problema, uno realmente difcil, deberas tener un grupo diverso de personas, incluso de diversa inteligencia. +El ejemplo que l da es la epidemia de viruela. +Cuando la viruela asolaba Europa, reunieron a muchos cientficos, y quedaron perplejos. +El comienzo de la cura para la enfermedad vino de la fuente menos probable: un productor de leche que se percat de que las lecheras no se contagiaban de viruela. +La vacuna contra la viruela proviene de las vacas gracias a ese productor de leche. +Estoy segura de que Uds. aqu se estarn diciendo: no dirijo una compaa de cable, no dirijo una firma de inversin, no soy productor de leche. +Qu puedo hacer? +Les digo, pueden ser valientes del color. +Si son parte de un proceso de contratacin o de un proceso de admisin, pueden ser valientes del color. +Si estn tratando de resolver un problema realmente difcil, pueden hablar del tema y ser valientes del color. +S que la gente dir que eso no aporta mucho, pero en verdad les estoy pidiendo que hagan algo realmente muy simple: observen el entorno, en el trabajo, en la escuela, en casa. +Les pido que miren a las personas que los rodean a propsito e intencionalmente. +Dejen entrar gente a sus vidas que no se ven como Uds., que no piensan como Uds., que no actan como Uds., que no son de donde Uds. son, y quiz descubran que sus preconceptos son puestos en cuestin y los hagan crecer como personas. +Obtendrn nuevas y poderosas ideas de estos individuos, o, como mi marido, que es blanco, tal vez aprendern que las personas negras, hombres, mujeres, nios, usamos locin para el cuerpo todos los das. +Tambin pienso que esto es muy importante para que las prximas generaciones entiendan que este progreso los ayudar, porque esperan que seamos excelentes modelos a seguir. +Ahora, les cont, mi madre, era terriblemente realista. +Era un modelo a seguir increble . +Era el tipo de persona que lleg a ser como fue por ser una mam soltera con seis hijos en Chicago. +Estaba en el negocio de bienes races, donde trabajaba muy duro, pero muchas veces tena dificultades para llegar a fin de mes. +Y eso significaba que a veces nos desconectaban el telfono, o nos cortaban la luz, o nos desalojaban. +Cuando nos desalojaban, vivamos en pequeos apartamentos de ella, a veces en solo una o dos habitaciones, porque no estaban terminados y calentbamos el agua para baarnos en ollas. +Pero nunca perdi las esperanzas, nunca. Y nunca nos permiti perder la esperanza. +Ese brutal pragmatismo que ella tena, digo, yo tena cuatro y ella me dijo: "Pap Noel es Mam". Tena ese brutal pragmatismo. +Me ense tantas lecciones, pero la ms importante fue que todos los das me deca: "Mellody, tu puedes ser lo que quieras". +Y gracias a esas palabras, me despertaba al amanecer, y gracias a esas palabras, amaba la escuela ms que nada, y gracias a esas palabras, cuando estaba en un mnibus camino a la escuela, soaba los sueos mas grandes. +Y es gracias a esas palabras que estoy hoy aqu llena de pasin, pidindoles que sean valientes para los nios que estn soando esos sueos hoy. +Vern, quiero que ellos vean a un CEO en televisin y digan: "Yo puedo ser como ella". O: "l es parecido a m". +Y quiero que los nios sepan que todo es posible, que pueden llegar al nivel ms alto que pudieran imaginar, que sern bienvenidos en cualquier sala de juntas, o que pueden liderar cualquier empresa. +Esa idea de ser la tierra de los libres y el hogar de valientes es parte de la esencia de lo que es EE. UU. +En EE. UU. cuando tenemos un reto, lo encaramos de frente, no nos escapamos. +Nos ponemos firmes. Mostramos coraje. +As que ahora mismo, les pido que lo hagan: les pido que muestren coraje. +Les pido que sean audaces. +Como lderes empresariales, les pido que no dejen nada sobre la mesa. +Como ciudadanos, les pido no dejar ningn nio atrs. +Les estoy pidiendo que no sean ciegos al color, que sean valientes frente al color, para que todos los nios sepan que sus futuros y sueos son posibles. +Gracias. +Gracias. Gracias. Gracias. +Djenme presentarles algo en lo que he estado trabajando. +Es lo que los ilusionistas victorianos hubieran descrito como una maravilla mecnica, un autmata, una mquina pensante. +Saluden a EDI. +Ahora est dormido. Vamos a despertarlo. +EDI, EDI. +Estos artistas mecnicos fueron populares en toda Europa. +Las audiencias se maravillaban por la forma en que se movan. +Era ciencia ficcin hecha realidad, ingeniera robtica en una era antes de la electrnica, mquinas mucho ms avanzadas que cualquier otra cosa que la tecnologa victoriana pudiese crear una mquina que luego conoceramos como el robot. +EDI: Robot. Una palabra acuada en 1921 en un cuento de ciencia ficcin del autor dramaturgo checo Karel apek. +Deviene de "robota." +Significa "trabajo forzado". +Marco Tempest: Pero esos robots no eran reales. +No eran inteligentes. +Eran ilusiones, una ingeniosa combinacin de ingeniera mecnica y el engao del arte del prestidigitador. +EDI es diferente. +EDI es real. +EDI: Mido 176 centmetros. +MT: Pesa 136 kg. +EDI: Tengo dos brazos de siete ejes... MT: con sensores internos. EDI: Un sistema de deteccin sonar de 360 grados y vengo completo con garanta. +MT: Nosotros amamos a los robots. +EDI: Hola, Soy EDI. Quieres ser mi amigo? +MT: Nos intriga la posibilidad de crear una versin mecnica de nosotros mismos. +Los construimos para que luzcan como nosotros, se comporten como nosotros y piensen como nosotros. +El robot perfecto ser indistinguible de los humanos, y eso nos asusta. +En la primer historia sobre robots, estos se volvan contra sus creadores. +Es uno de los leitmotiv de la ciencia ficcin. +EDI: Ja ja ja! Ahora Uds. son los esclavos y los robots, los amos. +Su mundo es nuestro. Uds... MT: Como iba diciendo, adems de darle caras y cuerpos a nuestros robots, no podemos leer sus intenciones, y eso nos pone nerviosos. +Cuando alguien te da un objeto, puedes leer la intencin en sus ojos, su cara, su lenguaje corporal. +Eso no sucede con los robots. +Pero, esto es recproco. +EDI: Caramba! +MT: Los robots no pueden anticipar las acciones humanas. +EDI: Los humanos son tan impredecibles, y ni hablar de irracionales. +Yo, literalmente, no tengo idea de lo que Uds. van a hacer a continuacin, saben, pero eso me asusta. +MT: Es por lo que los humanos y los robots encuentran dificultad al trabajar en inmediata proximidad. +Los accidentes son inevitables. +EDI: Ay! Eso doli. +MT: Perdn. Una manera de persuadir a los humanos de que los robots son inofensivos es creando la ilusin de confianza. +Por ms que los victorianos falsificaron sus maravillas mecnicas, le podemos agregar una capa de decepcin para sentirnos ms cmodos con nuestros amigos robticos. +Con eso en mente, le voy a ensear a EDI un truco de magia. +Listo, EDI? EDI: Eh, listo, Marco. +Abracadabra. +MT: Abracadabra? +EDI: S. Forma parte de la ilusin, Marco. +Vamos, mantente al tanto. +MT: La magia crea la ilusin de una realidad imposible. +La tecnologa puede hacer lo mismo. +Alan Turing, un pionero de la inteligencia artificial, habl sobre crear la ilusin de que una mquina pudiese pensar. +EDI: Una computadora merece ser llamada inteligente si enga a un humano hacindole creer que era humana. +MT: Dicho de otro modo, si todava no tenemos las soluciones tecnolgicas, serviran las ilusiones para el mismo fin? +Para crear una ilusin robtica, hemos ideado una serie de reglas ticas, un cdigo por el que viviran todos los robots. +EDI: Un robot no daara a la humanidad ni permitira por inaccin que la humanidad sufriera dao. +Gracias, Isaac Asimov. +MT: Antropomorfizamos nuestras mquinas. +Les damos una cara amigable y una voz tranquilizadora. +EDI: Yo soy EDI. +Comenc a funcionar en TED en marzo de 2014. +MT: Dejamos que nos entretengan. +Ms importante an, les hacemos indicar que son conscientes de nuestra presencia. +EDI: Marco, ests pisndome el pie! +MT: Perdn. Sern conscientes de nuestra frgil estructura y se harn a un lado si nos acercamos mucho, y tendrn en cuenta nuestra imprevisibilidad y anticiparn nuestras acciones. +Y ahora, bajo el hechizo de una ilusin tecnolgica, podramos ignorar nuestros miedos e interactuar verdaderamente. +Gracias. +EDI: Gracias! +MT: Eso es todo. Muchas gracias, y gracias a ti, EDI. EDI: Gracias Marco. +Cuando era un joven oficial me decan que siga mis instintos, que sea visceral, pero he aprendido que muchas veces nuestros instintos se equivocan. +En el verano de 2010, hubo una enorme filtracin de documentos clasificados que salieron del Pentgono. +Conmovi al mundo, afect mucho al gobierno de EE.UU. e hizo que la gente haga muchas preguntas, porque la cantidad de informacin que se escap, y las posibles consecuencias, eran importantes. +Una de las primeras preguntas que nos hicimos fue: Por qu un soldado joven haba tenido acceso a tanta informacin? +Por qu dejbamos cosas tan delicadas al alcance de alguien relativamente joven? +En el verano de 2003, se me asign que comandara una fuerza de operaciones especiales que actu en todo el Medio Oriente para combatir a Al Qaeda. +Trabajamos principalmente en Iraq y tenamos la misin especfica de derrotar a Al Qaeda en Iraq. +Pas all casi 5 aos. Estbamos abocados a una guerra no convencional, difcil, sangrienta, y que muchas veces se cobraba el precio ms caro con gente inocente. +Hicimos todo lo que pudimos para frenar a Al Qaeda y a los combatientes extranjeros que hacan ataques suicidas con bombas, catalizadores de la violencia. +Pusimos a punto nuestras tcnicas de combate. Desarrollamos nuevos equipos, nos tiramos en paracadas, anduvimos en helicptero, en botecitos, manejamos, caminamos hacia nuestros objetivos, noche tras noche, para detener la matanza que esta red se propona. +Sangramos, morimos y matamos para impedir que esa organizacin desate tanta violencia contra el pueblo iraqu. +Hicimos lo que sabamos, as fuimos criados, y una de las cosas que sabamos, que estaba en nuestro ADN, era mantener las cosas en secreto. +Era la seguridad. Era proteger la informacin. +Era la idea de que la informacin era la parte vital que protegera a la gente y la mantendra segura. +Y tenamos la idea de que, como operbamos dentro de nuestras organizaciones, era importante mantener la informacin en los silos dentro de las organizaciones, en particular solo dar informacin a personas que haban demostrado que necesitaban saber. +Pero la pregunta surge a menudo: quin necesitaba saber? +Quin deba tener la informacin para hacer esas partes importantes del trabajo que necesitabas? +En un mundo tan estrechamente vinculado, eso es muy difcil de predecir. +Es muy difcil saber quin necesita tener la informacin y quin no. +Sola tratar con organismos de inteligencia y me quejaba de que no compartan la inteligencia lo suficiente. Sin inmutarse, me miraban y me decan: "Qu te falta?" Yo responda: "Si lo supiera, no existira el problema". +Pero entendimos que tenamos que cambiar. +Cambiar nuestra cultura sobre la informacin. +Tenamos que derribar las paredes. Tenamos que compartir. +Tenamos que pasar de quin necesita saber a quin no sabe y tenamos que decrselos lo ms rpido posible. +Fue un cambio cultural importante para una organizacin que llevaba lo secreto en su ADN. +Empezamos haciendo cosas, construyendo, no trabajando en las oficinas, derribando muros, trabajando en lo que llambamos salas de concientizacin de la situacin y, en el verano de 2007, ocurri algo que demostr esto. +Recopilamos los archivos del personal para las personas que estaban llevando combatientes extranjeros a Iraq. +Cuando obtenamos archivos del personal, lo tpico era esconderlos, compartirlos solo con algunos organismos de inteligencia y tratar de actuar con ellos. +Pero cuando hablaba con el oficial de inteligencia, le dije: "Qu hacemos?" +l dijo: "Bueno, Ud. los encontr". +"Simplemente puede desclasificarlos". +Yo dije: "Pero, en verdad podemos desclasificarlos? +Y si el enemigo se entera?". +Me dijo: "Son los archivos de personal de ellos". +Y lo hicimos. Muchos se enojaron por eso, pero cuando hicimos circular la informacin, de golpe te das cuenta de que la informacin solo tiene valor si se la das a quienes tienen la capacidad de hacer algo con ella. +Saber algo no tiene absolutamente ningn valor si no soy la persona que puede en verdad hacer algo mejor porque lo s. +Como consecuencia, lo que hicimos fue cambiar la idea sobre la informacin: pasamos de saber es poder a compartir es poder. +Fue el cambio ms importante. Ni las nuevas tcticas, ni las nuevas armas; nada de eso. +Era la idea de que ahora formbamos parte de un equipo en el que la informacin pas a ser el vnculo esencial entre nosotros en lugar de una barrera. +Y quiero que todos respiremos profundo y la dejemos salir, porque en nuestras vidas siempre habr informacin que se escape y no nos va a gustar. +Gracias. +Helen Walters: No s si estuviste aqu esta maana, si pudiste ver a Rick Ledgett, director adjunto de la Agencia de Seguridad Nacional, responderle a la charla de Snowden de comienzos de semana. +Me pregunto: crees que el gobierno de EE.UU. debera concederle la amnista a Edward Snowden? +Stanley McChrystal: Me parece que Rick dijo algo muy importante. +La mayora de nosotros no conocemos todos los hechos. +Creo que esto tiene dos partes. +Edward Snowden puso el foco sobre una necesidad importante que la gente debe comprender. +Tambin tom un montn de documentos de los que no saba la importancia que tena conocerlos, entonces me parece que tenemos que conocer los hechos en este caso antes de emitir juicios apresurados sobre Edward Snowden. +HW: Gracias. Muchas gracias. +Supongo que todos aqu han visto una pltica de TED en lnea alguna vez, correcto? +Entonces lo que har es tocar esto +Esta es la cancin de las charlas de TED en lnea. +Y le voy a bajar la velocidad porque las cosas suenan mejor si van ms lento. +Ken Robinson: Buenos das. Cmo estn? +Mark Applebaum: Yo voy a... Kate Stone: ... mezclar un poco de msica +MA: Lo voy a hacer de tal manera que cuente una historia. +Tod Machover: Algo que nadie ha escuchado antes +KS: Yo tengo un crossfader. +Julian Treasure: A esto lo llamo el mezclador. +KS: Dos consolas de DJ. +Chris Anderson: Prendes los marcadores, la rueda empieza a girar. +Dan Ellsey: Siempre he amado la msica +Michael Tilson Thomas: es una meloda un ritmo, un humor, o una actitud +Daniel Wolpert: Sintiendo todo lo que pasa dentro de mi cuerpo. +Adam Ockelford: En tu cerebro est esta asombrosa computadora musical. +MTT: Usar computadoras y sintetizadores para crear s funciona. Es un lenguaje que sigue evolucionando. +Y el siglo XXI. +KR: Prende la radio. Ve a la discoteca +T sabrs lo que esta persona est haciendo: movindose con la msica. +Mark Ronson: Esta es mi parte favorita. +MA: Necesitas topes de puerta. Eso es importante. +TM: Todos amamos mucho la msica. +MMT: Himnos, ska, baladas y marchas. +Kirby Ferguson y JT: La mezcla: msica nueva creada a partir de msica vieja. +Ryan Holladay: Mezcla sutilmente +Kathryn Schulz: Y as es como va. +MTT: Qu pasa cuando la msica para? +KS: Yei! +MR: Obviamente, he visto muchas charlas de TED. +ni he creado electricidad para mi pueblo con mi puro ingenio. +Es ms, he desperdiciado casi toda mi vida siendo DJ en clubes nocturnos y produciendo discos pop. +Pero segu viendo los videos, porque soy un masoquista y con el tiempo, cosas como Michael Tilson Thomas y Tod Machover, y ver su pasin visceral al hablar de msica definitivamente me conmovi, y soy un tonto para cualquiera hablando devotamente sobre el poder de la msica. +Y empec a escribir estas pequeas notas cada vez que escuchaba algo tocaba una cuerda en m, perdn por el juego de palabras, o algo que pensaba que podra usar, y muy pronto, mi estudio se vea as, con una vibra de John Nash, en "Mente Brillante", +La otra cosa buena de ver las charlas de TED, cuando ves una realmente buena, de repente desearas que el orador fuera tu mejor amigo, no?, como por un da. +Parecen buenas personas +Andaras en bicicleta, tal vez compartiran un helado +Ciertamente aprenderas mucho. +Y de vez en cuando te reprenden, cuando se frustran porque realmente no puedes entender la mitad de los tecnicismos de los cuales hablan todo el tiempo +Pero entonces se acuerdan que eres tan solo un humano de inteligencia comn y corriente que no termin la universidad, y te perdonan, te acariciaran como al perro. +S!, regresando al mundo real, probablemente Sir Ken Robinson y yo no acabemos siendo grandes amigos. +l vive hasta Los ngeles y me imagino que est muy ocupado, pero con las herramientas a mi disposicin... tecnologa y la forma innata en la que hago msica, puedo forzar nuestra existencia en un evento compartido que es algo como lo que vieron +Podra escuchar algo que amo en una pieza de media y podra apropirmelo e insertarme en esa narrativa o inclusive alterarla. +En resumen, eso es lo que estaba intentando hacer con estas cosas, pero sobre todo, eso es lo que han sido los ltimos 30 aos de msica. +Y esa es la mejor secuencia. +Miren, hace 30 aos, tuvieron los primeros 'samplers' digitales y lo cambiaron todo de un da para otro. +Y de repente, los artistas podan 'samplear' de la nada y de todo lo que pasara en frente de ellos, desde un tambor de los Funky Meters, hasta el bassline de Ron Carter, el tema de "Atnale al precio". +lbumes como "3 Feet High and Rising" de De La Soul y "Paul's Boutique" de los Beastie Boys. tomados de dcadas de msica grabada para crear obras maestras snicas hechas de capas que fueron bsicamente el Sgt. Peppers de sus das +Y ellos no estuvieron sampleando estos discos porque fueran perezosos para escribir su propia msica. +Ellos no estaba sampleando discos para cobrar por la familiaridad del sonido original. +Para ser honestos, era solo cuestin de samplear cosas realmente oscuras, excepto por las pocas excepciones obvias como Vanilla Ice y "du du du da da du du" del que sabemos. +Lo importante es, ellos estaban sampleando esos discos porque escucharon algo en esa msica que les hablaba y ellos queran instantneamente insertarse en la narrativa de esa msica. +Saben, en la msica tomamos algo que amamos y construimos a partir de ah. +Me gustara tocar una cancin para ustedes. +(Cancin: "La Di Da Di" por Doug E. Fresh & Slick Rick) Eso es "La Di Da Di" y es la quinta cancin ms sampleada de todos los tiempos. +Ha sido sampleada 547 veces. +Fue hecha en 1984 por estas dos leyendas del hip-hop, Slick Rick y Doug E. Fresh, y el estilo Ray-Ban y Jheri es tan fuerte. +Yo en verdad espero que regrese pronto. +Como sea, esto marc la era del sampling. +No haba samples en este disco, aunque anoche busqu en Internet, hace muchos meses, ese "La Di Da Di" significa, es una antigua expresin estilo cockney de finales de 1800 en Inglaterra, entonces tal vez una mezcla con Mrs. Patmore de "Downton Abbey" prximamente, o eso es para otro da. +Doug E. Fresh fue el beat box humano. +Slick Rick es la voz que escuchan en el disco, y gracias a la musical voz de Slick Rick, super pegajosa, le da interminables sonidos y samples para futuros discos pop. +Eso fue 1984. +Este soy yo en 1984, por si se lo estaban preguntando como la estaba pasando, gracias por preguntar. +Ya es jueves del recuerdo. +Estuve envuelto en una fuerte aventura amorosa con la msica de Duran Duran, como probablemente lo noten de mi vestimenta. +Yo soy el de en medio. +Y la nica manera que conoca para unirme a esa experiencia de querer estar en esa cancin de alguna manera era juntar una banda con mis amigos de 9 aos y tocar "Wild Boys" en el show de talentos. +Eso hicimos y para hacerles corta la historia, nos sacaron del escenario con abucheos y si alguna vez pueden vivir su vida escapando mientras escuchan un auditorio lleno de nios abucheando, se los recomiendo ampliamente. No es nada divertido. +Pero realmente no importaba, porque lo que yo quera era estar en la historia de esa cancin por un minuto. +No me importaba a quien le gustara. +Simplemente lo amaba y pens que poda ponerme en ese lugar. +Durante los prximos 10 aos, "La Di Da Di" contina siendo sampleada en infinidad de discos, terminando en grandes xitos como "Here Comes the Hotstepper" y "I Wanna Sex You Up". +Snoop Doggy Dogg cubre esta cancin en su primer lbum "Doggystyle" y lo llama "Lodi Dodi" +Los abogados de derechos de autor se divierten mucho. +Luego avanzamos hasta 1997, y Notorious B.I.G., o Biggie, reinterpreta "La Di Da Di" en su xito nmero uno llamado "Hypnotize". del cual voy a tocar un poco y les voy a tocar un poco de Slick Rick para mostrarles de donde vienen. +Pero la manera en que la interpret, como pueden escuchar, es completamente suya. +Le da la vuelta, la crea, no hay nada de imitacin. +Es realmente el Biggie moderno. +Tena que hacer este chiste en la sala, porque Uds. seran los nicos a los que podra habrselos contado. +Y bueno, es un mal chiste. En cualquier lugar del mundo pop y del rap nos estamos volviendo locos por samplear. +Nos estamos alejando de los samples obscuros que estbamos haciendo, y de repente todos estn tomando estos tonos masivos de los 80s como Bowie, "Let's Dance", y todos estos discos de rap tan solo rapeando en ellos. +Estos discos no envejecen tan bien. +No los escuchas ahora, porque ellos tomaron prestado de una era que estaba tan concentrada en su propia connotacin. +No puedes robarte la nostalgia al por mayor. +deja al escucha sintindose enfermizo. +Tienes que tomar un elemento de ah y traer algo nuevo y fresco a l, que fue algo que aprend cuando trabaj con la fallecida, asombrosa Amy Winehouse en su lbum "Back to Black". +Imaginen a cualquier otro cantante de aquella era cantando las mismas viejas letras, +se corre el riesgo de ser completamente insulso. +Quiero decir, no haba duda que Amy, Salaam y yo tenamos mucho amor por este gospel, soul, blues y jazz eso era evidente escuchando los arreglos musicales. +Ella trajo los ingredientes que lo hicieron urgente y moderno. +Si venimos hasta el da de hoy la gira cultural que es Miley Cyrus ella reinterpreta "La Di Da Di" completamente para su generacin, vamos a escuchar la parte de Slick Rick y despus veremos como ella lo cambi. +Desde el alba de la era del sampling, ha habido un debate sin fin sobre la validez de la msica que contiene samples. +El comit de los Grammy dicen que si tu cancin contiene msica escrita antes o preexistente, no eres candidato para cancin del ao. +Los rockeros, que son racistas pero solo con el rock, constantemente usan el argumento de que... Es una palabra real. Es real. +Constantemente usan el argumento que para devaluar al rap y al pop moderno, y estos argumentos perdieron toda perspectiva porque la presa se rompi. +Vivimos en la era post-sampling. +Tomamos las cosas que ms queremos y construimos a partir de ah. +As es como funciona. +Y cuando realmente aadimos algo significante y original y unimos nuestro paseo musical con ello, entonces tenemos la oportunidad de ser parte de la evolucin de la msica que amamos y vincularnos con ella cuando vuelva a significar algo. +Me gustara tocar una pieza ms que hice para ustedes esta noche, y sucede con dos presentaciones muy inspiradoras que vi en TED. +Una de ella es el pianista Derek Paravicini, quien resulta ser ciego, genio autista del piano, y Emmanuel Jal, que es un ex-nio militar del sur de Sudn, que es un poeta lrico y rapero. +Y una vez ms encontr la manera de entrometerme me-me-me dentro de la historia musical de estas canciones, pero no puedo evitarlo, porque son estas cosas que amo y quiero jugar con ellas. +Espero les guste esto. Aqu vamos. +Escuchemos ese sonido TED de nuevo, s? +Muchas gracias. Gracias. +Estudio las hormigas en el desierto, el bosque tropical, en mi cocina y en las colinas que rodean Silicon Valley, donde vivo. +Me he dado cuenta de que las hormigas interactan de forma diferente en diferentes ambientes. Y pens que podramos aprender de esto sobre otros sistemas, como los cerebros y las redes de datos que creamos e incluso el cncer. +Lo que estos sistemas tienen en comn es que no hay un control central. +Una colonia de hormigas est compuesta por trabajadoras estriles, las que se ven andando por ah, y por una o ms hembras reproductoras que solo ponen los huevos. +No dan instrucciones. +Aunque se les llama reinas, no le dicen a nadie qu hacer. +En una colonia de hormigas, no hay nadie al mando. Todos los sistemas como este, sin control central, se controlan a travs de interacciones simples. +Las hormigas interactan con el olfato. +Huelen con sus antenas e interactan con sus antenas. Cuando una hormiga toca a otra con su antena, sabe, por ejemplo, si la otra es compaera de nido y qu tarea ha estado haciendo. +Aqu ven muchas hormigas movindose e interactuando en un campo de laboratorio conectado a otros dos campos por medio de tubos. +Cuando una hormiga se encuentra con otra, no importa qu hormiga se encuentre, y en realidad no se transmiten ninguna seal o mensaje complicado. +Lo importante es el ritmo en el que se encuentra con otras hormigas. +Todas estas interacciones juntas producen una red. +Esta es la red de las hormigas que acaban de ver movindose en el campo. Y esta red, en constante movimiento, produce el comportamiento de la colonia, como que todas las hormigas se escondan en el nido o cuntas irn a buscar comida. +El cerebro trabaja igual. Pero lo genial de las hormigas es que puedes ver toda la red mientras sucede. +Hay ms de 12 000 especies de hormigas en todos los ambientes que se imaginen, y usan las interacciones de diferente forma para enfrentar retos medioambientales. +Un importante reto medioambiental con el que trata cualquier sistema son los costes operativos necesarios para que funcione el sistema. +Y otro reto medioambiental son los recursos, encontrarlos y recolectarlos. +En el desierto, los costes operativos son altos porque el agua escasea y las recolectoras de semillas que estudi en el desierto tienen que gastar agua para conseguir agua. +Una hormiga que est buscando comida buscando semillas al sol abrasador, pierde agua en el aire. +Pero la colonia consigue su agua metabolizando las grasas de las semillas que comen. +As que en este medioambiente se usan las interacciones para buscar comida. +Solo salen por comida si tienen suficientes interacciones con las que vuelven de fuera. Como ven, las que vuelven con comida van al tnel, al nido, y se encuentran con las que salen. +Esto tiene sentido para ellas. Cunta ms comida hay fuera, ms rpido la encuentran, ms rpido vuelven y envan a ms hormigas fuera. +El sistema permanece parado a no ser que pase algo positivo. +Las interacciones activan a estas hormigas. +Hemos estudiado la evolucin de este sistema. +Primero, hay variaciones. +Resulta que las colonias son diferentes. +Algunas buscan menos comida los das secos. Las colonias se diferencian en el equilibrio entre gastar agua para buscar semillas y conseguir agua en forma de semillas. +Intentamos entender por qu algunas colonias buscan menos comida, pensando en las hormigas como neuronas, usando modelos de la neurociencia: +al igual que una neurona aade su estmulo de otras neuronas para decidir si dispara, una hormiga aade su estmulo de otras hormigas para decidir si busca comida. +Lo que buscamos es si puede haber colonias ligeramente diferentes en cuanto al nmero de interacciones que necesita cada hormiga para salir a buscar comida, ya que una colonia as buscara menos comida. +Esto nos lleva a una cuestin anloga sobre los cerebros. +Hablamos sobre el cerebro, pero todos los cerebros son ligeramente distintos. Y quiz hay individuos o ciertas condiciones en las que las propiedades elctricas de las neuronas son tales que se necesitan ms estmulos para disparar. Esto conlleva a diferencias en la funcin cerebral. +Para hacer preguntas evolucionarias, tenemos que saber sobre el xito reproductivo. +Este es un mapa del lugar de estudio donde he estado monitorizando a esta poblacin de colonias de hormigas cosechadoras durante 28 aos, lo que aproximadamente vive una colonia. +Cada smbolo es una colonia y el tamao del smbolo es cuntas cras tuvo ya que pudimos usar la variacin gentica para emparejar colonias de progenitores y colonias de cras para entender qu colonias fund una hija reina y qu colonia de progenitores la produjo a ella. +Esto fue increble. Despus de todos estos aos, entender, por ejemplo, que la colonia 154, a la que conozco bien desde hace aos, es bisabuela. +Aqu est la colonia de su hija, aqu est la colonia de su nieta y estas son las colonias de su bisnieta. +Lo siguiente es buscar la variacin gentica subyacente en este parecido. +Entonces pude preguntar, quin lo est haciendo mejor? +Todo este tiempo pens que la colonia 154 era una perdedora ya que en los das muy secos apenas buscaba comida, mientras que las otras estaban fuera, buscando muchsima. Pero, en realidad, la colonia 154 es un xito enorme. +Es una matriarca. +Es una de las escasas bisabuelas del lugar. +Hasta donde s, es la primera vez que hemos podido monitorizar la evolucin en curso del comportamiento colectivo en una poblacin natural de animales y averiguar lo que funciona mejor. +Internet usa un algoritmo para regular el flujo de datos, que es muy similar al que usan las hormigas para regular el flujo de las que buscan comida. +Adivinen cmo llamamos a esta analoga? +Anternet [Horminet ] El horminet se acerca. +Los datos no abandonan el ordenador fuente a menos de que reciba una seal de que hay suficiente ancho de banda en el que viajar. +En los principios de Internet cuando los gastos operativos eran muy altos y era muy importante no perder datos, el sistema estaba diseado para que las interacciones activasen el flujo de datos. +Qu pasa si los gastos operativos son bajos? +En los trpicos los gastos operativos son bajos gracias a la humedad, y para las hormigas es fcil andar por ah. +Pero las hormigas son tantas y tan diversas en los trpicos, que hay mucha competencia. +Cualquier recurso que use una especie es probable que sea utilizado por otras al mismo tiempo. +As que en estos ambientes, las interacciones se usan de la forma opuesta. +El sistema sigue en marcha hasta que pasa algo negativo. Una especie que estudio hace circuitos en los rboles de las hormigas buscadoras de comida, yendo del nido a la fuente de alimento y volviendo. Hasta que pasa algo negativo, como una interaccin con hormigas de otra especie. +Aqu hay un ejemplo de la seguridad de las hormigas. +En el medio, una hormiga obstaculiza la entrada del nido con su cabeza en respuesta a las interacciones con otra especie, +son las pequeas que corren por ah con sus abdmenes al aire. +Pero en cuanto se va la amenaza, la entrada se abre de nuevo. Quiz hay situaciones en la seguridad informtica, donde los gastos operativos son lo suficientemente bajos como para bloquear el acceso temporalmente en respuesta a una amenaza y luego abrirlo, en vez de construir un fuerte o un firewall permanente. +Otro reto medioambiental que enfrentan todos los sistemas son los recursos, encontrarlos y recolectarlos. +La hormiga argentina invasora hace redes de bsqueda expandibles. +Son buenas en lidiar con el problema principal de la bsqueda colectiva, que es la compensacin entre buscar cuidadosamente y cubrir mucho terreno. +Y lo que hacen es que cuando hay muchas hormigas en un espacio pequeo busca cada una muy cuidadosamente porque habr otra hormiga cerca buscando por all. Pero cuando hay pocas hormigas en un espacio grande, tienen que extender sus caminos para cubrir ms terreno. +Creo que usan interacciones para evaluar la densidad. Cuando hay muchas juntas, interactan ms y buscan ms cuidadosamente. +Diferentes especies de hormigas deben usar diferentes algoritmos porque han evolucionado para lidiar con diferentes recursos. Puede ser muy til saber esto. Recientemente, le pedimos a las hormigas que resolviesen el problema de bsqueda colectiva en un ambiente extremo de microgravedad en la Estacin Espacial Internacional. +Al ver la foto pens, Oh no, montaron el hbitat verticalmente. Luego me di cuenta de que no importa. +La idea es que las hormigas estn trabajando tan duro para agarrarse a la pared o al suelo, o como quieran llamarlo, que es menos probable que interacten y entonces, la relacin entre su apiamiento y la frecuencia de sus encuentros se daaran. +Estamos analizndolo. +No tengo los resultados an. +Pero sera interesante saber cmo lo resuelven otras especies en diferentes ambientes de la Tierra. Estamos creando un programa para animar a los nios de todo el mundo a probar este experimento con diferentes especies. +Es muy simple +y puede hacerse con materiales baratos. +Y as, haramos un mapa global de algoritmos de bsquedas colectivas de las hormigas. +Es muy probable que la especie invasora, las que entran en nuestros edificios, sean muy buenas en esto, ya que estn en su cocina porque son muy buenas encontrando comida y agua. +El recurso ms conocido para las hormigas es un picnic. Este es un recurso agrupado. +Cuando hay un trozo de fruta, puede haber otro cerca. Y las hormigas que se especializan en recursos agrupados usan interacciones para reclutar. +Cuando una hormiga se encuentra con otra o con un qumico que otra tir al suelo, cambia de direccin para seguir la direccin de la interaccin. De all la fila de hormigas compartiendo su picnic. +De aqu creo que podemos aprender algo de las hormigas sobre el cncer. +Primero, es obvio que podemos hacer mucho para prevenir el cncer, no permitiendo que la gente propague o venda las toxinas que promueven el cncer en nuestro cuerpo. No creo que las hormigas puedan ayudarnos mucho con esto. Ellas nunca envenenan a sus colonias. +Pero podemos aprender algo de ellas para el tratamiento del cncer. +Hay muchos tipos de cncer. +Cada uno empieza en una parte particular del cuerpo y luego algunos tipos de cncer se expanden o metastatizan a otros tejidos de donde consiguen los recursos que necesitan. +Si piensan desde la perspectiva de las clulas iniciales cancergenas metastsicas que estn fuera buscando los recursos que necesitan, si esos recursos estn agrupados, probablemente usarn interacciones para reclutar, y si podemos averiguar cmo reclutan estas clulas, quiz podramos ponerles trampas, atraparlas antes de que se establezcan. +Las hormigas usan interacciones de formas diferentes en una gran variedad de ambientes. Nosotros podramos aprender de esto, sobre otros sistemas que operan sin control central. +Usando solo simples interacciones, las colonias de hormigas han conseguido logros maravillosos durante ms de 130 millones de aos. +Tenemos mucho que aprender de ellas. +Gracias. +La clase de top chef de hoy es sobre cmo robar un banco, y es claro que el pblico general necesita una gua, porque el robo bancario promedia solo los USD 7500. +Son aficionados que no saben nada sobre cmo "arreglar" los libros. +Quienes saben, claro, manejan nuestros ms grandes bancos, y en la ltima vuelta, nos costaron ms de USD 11 billones. +As son USD 11 billones. +Cuntos ceros tiene? +Y nos costaron tambin ms de 10 millones de empleos. +As que tenemos que ser autodidactas para poder entender por qu tenemos estas recurrentes crisis financieras intensificadas, y cmo podemos prevenir que sucedan en un futuro. +Y la respuesta a esto es que necesitamos detener la epidemia de control de fraude. +El control de fraude es lo que ocurre cuando quienes estn en control, por lo general un CEO, una entidad aparentemente legtima, la usa como arma para defraudar. +Y estas son las armas de destruccin masiva del mundo financiero. +Tambin siguen en finanzas una estrategia en particular, porque el arma favorita en las finanzas es la contabilidad, y hay una receta para la contabilidad de control de fraude y cmo ocurre. +Y descubrimos esta receta de una forma extraa a la que regresar ms adelante. +El primer ingrediente en la receta: crecer a lo loco; segundo, hacer o comprar prstamos muy malos, pero prstamos con tasas de inters o rendimientos muy altos; tercero, usar apalancamiento extremo, o sea, muchsima deuda comparada con tu capital; y, cuarto, proveer solo reservas de prdida mnimas contra prdidas inevitables. +Si siguen estos 4 pasos simples, y cualquier banco puede seguirlos, entonces est matemticamente garantizado que ocurran 3 cosas. +Lo primero es que reportarn utilidades bancarias rcord. No solo altas, sino rcord. +Dos, el CEO se har inmediatamente increblemente rico por la compensacin ejecutiva moderna. +Y tres, ms adelante, el banco sufrir prdidas catastrficas y quebrar, a menos que reciba un prstamo gubernamental de rescate. +Y esta es una pista de cmo descubrimos esta receta, porque la descubrimos a travs de un proceso de autopsia. +Durante la debacle de ahorros y prstamos en 1984, revisamos cada uno de los fracasos, y buscamos caractersticas comunes, y descubrimos que esta receta era comn en cada uno de estos fraudes. +En otras palabras, un forense podra encontrar estas cosas pues esta es una receta fatal, que destruir los bancos y la economa. +Vayamos a esta crisis, y las dos grandes epidemias de fraude originado por prstamos que nos llevaron a la crisis -- el fraude de valuacin y los prstamos mentirosos -- y lo que veremos al revisar ambas, es que tenamos advertencias desde mucho antes sobre los fraudes. +Tuvimos advertencias que fcilmente pudimos haber usado como ventaja, porque antes, en la debacle de ahorros y prstamos, aprendimos cmo responder y prevenir estas crisis. +Y tres, las advertencias eran inequvocas. +Eran seales obvias de que se estaba desarrollando una epidemia de control de fraude contable. +Tomemos primero el fraude en valuacin. +Esto es: simplemente se infla el valor de una casa hipotecada como seguro para un prstamo. +En el ao 2000, un ao antes del fracaso de Enron, por cierto, los valuadores honestos presentaron juntos una peticin formal rogando al gobierno federal y a la industria que actuasen, para detener esta epidemia de fraude de valuacin. +Y los valuadores explicaron cmo estaba ocurriendo, que los bancos estaban pidiendo que los valuadores inflaran la valuacin, y que si los valuadores se negaban a hacerlo, ellos, los bancos, agregaran a una lista negra a los valuadores honestos y se negaran a trabajar con ellos. +Ya hemos visto esto anteriormente, en la debacle de ahorros y prstamos, y sabemos que este tipo de fraude solo puede tener origen en los prestamistas, y que ningn prestamista honesto inflara el valor, porque es la gran proteccin contra prdida. +As que esto fue una advertencia increblemente temprana, en el 2000. +Era algo que ya habamos visto antes, y era completamente inequvoca. +Esto era una epidemia de control de fraude contable por parte de los bancos. +Y los prstamos mentirosos? +Bueno, esa advertencia en realidad vino antes. +La debacle de ahorros y prstamos ocurre bsicamente desde principios de los aos 80 hasta 1993. Y en medio de la lucha contra esta ola de control de fraude contable, en 1990 encontramos que empezaba un segundo frente de fraude. +Y como todo buen fraude de EE.UU., empez en Orange County, California. +Nosotros ramos los reguladores regionales. +Y nuestros examinadores dijeron, estn haciendo prstamos sin siquiera revisar cunto es el ingreso del solicitante. +Esto es una locura, debe llevar a prdidas masivas, y solo tiene sentido para las entidades involucradas en estos fraudes de control contable. +As que una vez ms supimos de esta crisis. +La habamos visto ya antes. La habamos detenido antes. +Tuvimos seales muy tempranas de ello, y era totalmente inequvoco, que ningn prestamista honesto hara prstamos de esta manera. +Ahora veamos la reaccin de la industria, de los reguladores, y de los fiscales de estas advertencias que podran haber prevenido la crisis. +Empezamos con la industria. +La industria respondi entre 2003 y 2006 aumentando los prstamos de ingreso declarado por ms de 500 %. +Estos eran prstamos que hiperinflaban la burbuja y produjeron la crisis econmica. +Para el 2006, la mitad de los prstamos llamados de alto riesgo, tambin eran prstamos mentirosos. +No son mutuamente excluyentes, es solo que juntos son la combinacin ms txica que puedan imaginar. +Para el 2006, el 40 % de los prstamos de ese ao, todos los prstamos hipotecarios de ese ao, eran prstamos mentirosos, el 40 %. +Y esto a pesar de una advertencia de los expertos antifraude de la industria que dijeron que estos prstamos eran una invitacin abierta a estafadores y que tenan un ndice de fraude del 90 %. Nueve cero. +En respuesta a esto, la industria primero empez a llamarlos prstamos mentira, a lo que falta una cierta sutileza, y segundo, los aument de forma masiva, y ningn regulador gubernamental jams requiri o alent a ningn prestamista a hacer prstamos mentirosos o a comprarlos, y esto incluye explcitamente a Fannie y Freddie. +Esto vena de los prestamistas por la receta de fraude. +Qu sucedi con el fraude de valuacin? +Tambin se expandi bien. +Para el 2007, cuando se hizo una encuesta de valuadores, el 90 % inform que haba sido sujeto de coercin por parte de los prestamistas para que inflaran la valuacin. +En otras palabras, ambas formas de fraude se hicieron absolutamente endmicas y normales y esto es lo que cre la burbuja. +Qu ocurri en el sector gubernamental? +Bueno, el gobierno, como les dije, cuando nosotros ramos los reguladores de ahorros y prstamos, solo podamos lidiar con nuestra industria, y si las personas cedan su depsito de seguro federal, nosotros no podamos hacer nada con ellos. +El Congreso, podr parecerles imposible, s hizo algo inteligente en 1994, y aprob la Ley de Propiedad de la Vivienda y Proteccin de Valores que permiti a la Fed, y nicamente a la Reserva Federal, la autoridad explcita y reglamentaria, prohibir estos prstamos a cada prestamista, tuvieran o no un depsito de seguro federal. +As que qu hicieron Ben Bernanke y Alan Greenspan como presidentes de la Fed cuando recibieron las advertencias de que estos prstamos eran altamente fraudulentos y que estaban siendo vendidos al mercado secundario? +Recuerden, no hay fraude exorcista. +Una vez que empieza como prstamo fraudulento, solo puede ser vendido al mercado secundario, a travs de ms fraudes, mintiendo sobre los representantes y garantas, y entonces esas personas van a producir valores respaldados por hipotecas y derivados exticos que tambin estn supuestamente respaldados por prstamos fraudulentos. +As que el fraude avanza por todo el sistema completo, hiperinflando la burbuja, produciendo un desastre. +Y recuerden, tenamos experiencia en esto. +Ya habamos visto prdidas significativas y tuvimos la experiencia de que las detuvieran reguladores competentes. +Greenspan y Bernanke se negaron a usar la autoridad bajo el estatuto para detener los prstamos mentirosos. +Y esto fue materia primero de dogma. +Se oponen terminantemente a cualquier regulacin. +Entonces esta fue la respuesta reguladora. +Y la respuesta de los fiscales despus de la crisis, despus de USD 11 billones en prdidas, despus de 10 millones de empleos perdidos, una crisis en la que las prdidas y los fraudes fueron ms de 70 veces mayores que en la debacle de ahorros y prstamos? +Cerca de 300 ahorros y prstamos involucrados, casi 600 altos funcionarios. +Casi todos de ellos llevados a juicio. +Tuvimos una tasa de condena del 90 %. +Es el mayor xito de todos los tiempos contra criminales de cuello blanco, y fue por el entendimiento de control de fraude y el mecanismo de control de fraude contable. +Avancemos hasta la crisis actual. +La misma agencia, la OTS, que deba regular la mayora de los mayores prstamos mentirosos ha hecho -- hoy ya no existe, pero hasta el ao pasado, haba hecho cero referencias criminales. +La oficina de contralor de la moneda, que se supone regula los bancos mayores, ha hecho cero referencias criminales. +La Fed al parecer ha hecho cero referencias criminales. +La corporacin federal de los depsitos de seguros, es suficientemente inteligente como para no responder a esto. +Sin alguna gua de los reguladores, no hay experiencia en el FBI para investigar fraudes complejos. +No es solo que hayan tenido que reinventar la rueda de cmo hacer estos procesamientos; han olvidado que la rueda existe, y por lo tanto tenemos cero procesamientos. Y claro, cero condenas de cualquiera de los fraudes bancarios de lite, los de Wall Street, que condujeron la crisis. +Sin experiencia de los reguladores, el FBI form lo que ellos llaman sociedad con la asociacin de banqueros hipotecarios en 2007. +Esta asociacin es la asociacin de comercio de los criminales. +Y la asociacin de banqueros hipotecarios tuvo la audacia, y lo logr, de estafar al FBI. +Haba creado una supuesta definicin de fraude hipotecario donde, adivinen, sus miembros son siempre la vctima y nunca los perpetradores. +Y el FBI compr anzuelo, lnea, plomada, caa, carrete y el barco en el que salieron. +As que el FBI, bajo liderazgo del fiscal general, que es afroestadounidense, y un presidente de EE.UU. que tambin lo es, han adoptado la definicin de crisis del Partido del T, en la que es la primera crisis virgen en la historia, concebida sin pecado de los alto mandos. +Y son esos peluqueros inteligentes, capaces de defraudar a los pobres, patticos bancos, que no tienen sofisticacin financiera. +Es la historia ms tonta que se pueda concebir, as que van y llevan a juicio a los peluqueros, y dejan completamente solos a los banqueros. +As que mientras los leones rondan por el campo, el FBI est persiguiendo ratones. +Qu tenemos que hacer? Qu podemos hacer en todo esto? +Necesitamos cambiar las perversas estructuras de incentivos que producen estas epidemias recurrentes de control de fraude contable que estn creando nuestras crisis. +As que primero debemos deshacernos de las instituciones sistemticamente peligrosas. +Estas son las llamadas instituciones demasiado-grandes-para-fracasar. +Necesitamos reducirlas hasta el punto, en los prximos 5 aos, que ya no representen un riesgo sistmico. +Son bombas de tiempo que causarn una crisis global ni bien fracase la prxima... es cuestin de tiempo. +Segundo, necesitamos reformar por completo la compensacin ejecutiva moderna y profesional, que es lo que usan para sobornar a los valuadores. +Recuerden, estaban presionando a los valuadores, a travs de todo el sistema de compensacin, intentando producir lo que llamamos una dinmica de Gresham, en la que la mala tica saca a la buena tica del mercado. +Y tienen xito, y as el fraude se hace endmico. Y, tercero, necesitamos lidiar con lo que llamo las tres D: Desregulacin, Desupervisin y la Despenalizacin de facto. +Porque podemos hacer estos 3 cambios, y si lo hacemos, podemos reducir de manera drstica la frecuencia de las crisis, y qu tan severas pueden ser. +Esto no es solo crucial para nuestra economa. +Pueden ver los efectos de estas crisis en la desigualdad y la democracia. +Hay muchas formas de municin que pueden usar. +Por eso es que debemos aprender lo que los banqueros han aprendido: La receta de la mejor forma para robar un banco, para que podamos detener esta receta, porque nuestros legisladores, dependientes de contribuciones polticas, no la podrn hacer ellos solos. +Muchas gracias. +Existe un hombre llamado capitn William Swenson que recientemente fue premiado con la medalla de honor del Congreso por sus acciones del 8 de septiembre de 2009. +Ese da, una columna de tropas afganas y estadounidenses se abra paso por una parte de Afganistn para ayudar a proteger a un grupo de funcionarios del gobierno, de funcionarios afganos, que se reuniran con algunos ancianos locales de la aldea. +La columna fue emboscada, rodeada desde 3 flancos, y, entre otras muchas cosas, el capitn Swenson fue reconocido por lanzarse a fuego abierto para rescatar a los heridos y sacar a los muertos. +Uno de los rescatados era un sargento, y junto a un compaero se dirigan a un helicptero de evacuacin mdica. +Lo notable de ese da es que, por pura coincidencia, uno de los mdicos de evacuacin, tena una cmara de video en el casco y captur toda la escena en video. +Muestra al capitn Swenson y a su compaero rescatando a este soldado herido que haba recibido un disparo en la nuca. +Lo pusieron en el helicptero, y luego se ve al capitn Swenson agacharse y darle un beso antes de darse la vuelta para rescatar a ms gente. +Vi esto, y me dije a m mismo, de dnde vienen las personas as? +Qu es eso? Esa es una emocin profunda, la que motiva a actuar as. +All hay amor, y quera saber por qu es que yo no trabajo con gente as. +Ya saben, en el Ejrcito, dan medallas a personas que estn dispuestas a sacrificarse para que otros puedan ganar. +En las empresas damos bonus a las personas que estn dispuestos a sacrificar a otros para poder ganar. +Lo tenemos al revs, no? +As que me pregunt: de dnde viene esta gente? +Y mi conclusin inicial fue que solo son mejores personas. +Por eso se sienten atradas a la milicia. +Estas mejores personas son atradas por este concepto de servicio. +Pero eso es totalmente errneo. +Aprend que tiene que ver con el entorno, con el entorno adecuado, todos y cada uno de nosotros tenemos la capacidad de hacer estas cosas notables, y, lo ms importante, otros tienen esa capacidad tambin. +He tenido el gran honor de poder conocer a algunos de los que llamaramos "hroes", que han arriesgado sus propias vidas para salvar a otros, y les pregunt: "Por qu hiciste eso? +Por qu lo hiciste?" +Y todos dicen lo mismo: "Porque ellos lo hubieran hecho por m". +Es un sentido profundo de confianza y cooperacin. +As que la confianza y la cooperacin son muy importantes aqu. +El problema con los conceptos de confianza y cooperacin es que son sentimientos, no son instrucciones. +No puedo simplemente decirte, "Confa en m", y lo hars. +No puedo simplemente instruir a dos personas a cooperar, y lo harn. +No funciona as. Es un sentimiento. +As que de dnde viene ese sentimiento? +Si nos remontamos 50 000 aos atrs a la era Paleoltica, a los primeros das del Homo sapiens, encontramos que el mundo estaba lleno de peligro, haba muchas fuerzas que operaban muy duramente para matarnos. +Nada personal. +Ya fuese el tiempo, la ausencia de recursos, quiz un tigre dientes de sable, todas estas cosas contribuan a reducir nuestra expectativa de vida. +Por eso hemos evolucionado como animales sociales, viviendo y trabajando juntos en lo que yo llamo un "crculo de seguridad" dentro de la tribu, donde nos sentimos como si pertenecisemos. +Y al sentirnos seguros entre los nuestros, la reaccin natural fue la confianza y la cooperacin. +Hay beneficios inherentes en esto. +Significa que puedo dormir por la noche y confiar en que alguien desde dentro de mi tribu velar por el peligro. +Si no confiamos en el otro, si no confo en ti, significa que no velars ante el peligro. +Mal sistema de supervivencia. +Hoy en da es exactamente lo mismo. +El mundo est lleno de peligros, cosas que estn tratando de frustrar nuestras vidas o reducir nuestro xito, reducir nuestra oportunidad de xito. +Podran ser los altibajos de la economa, la incertidumbre del mercado de valores. +Podra ser una nueva tecnologa que hace que tu modelo de negocio se vuelva obsoleto de la noche a la maana. +O podra ser tu competencia que a veces trata de matarte. +A veces trata de sacarte de carrera o, por lo menos, trabaja arduamente para frustrar tu crecimiento y robarte el negocio. +No tenemos ningn control sobre estas fuerzas. +Son una constante, y no van a desaparecer. +La nica variable son las condiciones dentro de la organizacin, y ah es donde importa el liderazgo, porque es el lder quien marca las pautas. +Cuando un lder elige poner la seguridad y la vida de las personas dentro de la organizacin en primer lugar, sacrificar sus comodidades y sacrificar los resultados tangibles, que hacen a las personas permanecer y sentirse seguras y sentir que pertenecen, ocurren cosas extraordinarias. +Yo estaba volando en un viaje, y fui testigo de un incidente en el que un pasajero intent abordar antes que dijesen su nmero, y vi a la agente de la puerta tratar a este hombre como si hubiese violado la ley, como a un criminal. +Le gritaron por intentar subir demasiado pronto. +As que le dije: +"Por qu nos tratan como ganado? +Por qu no nos tratan como a seres humanos?" +Y me dijo, exactamente: +"Seor, si yo no sigo las reglas, podra tener problemas o perder mi trabajo". +Me estaba diciendo que no se senta segura. +Me estaba diciendo que no confa en sus lderes. +Nos gusta volar en Southwest Airlines no porque contraten necesariamente a mejores personas, +sino porque ellos no temen a sus lderes. +Si las condiciones son errneas, nos vemos obligados a gastar nuestro tiempo y energa en protegernos de los dems, y eso inherentemente debilita a la organizacin. +Cuando nos sentimos a salvo dentro de la organizacin, naturalmente combinamos nuestros talentos y nuestras fortalezas y trabajamos sin descanso para hacer frente a los peligros externos y aprovechar las oportunidades. +La analoga ms cercana que puedo dar sobre ser un gran lder, es la de ser padre. +Si piensan qu significa ser un buen padre de familia, Qu desean? Qu hace a un buen padre? +Queremos dar a nuestros nios las oportunidades, la educacin, la disciplina cuando sea necesario, todo para que puedan crecer y lograr ms de lo que logramos nosotros mismos. +Los grandes lderes quieren exactamente lo mismo. +Quieren brindar a su gente las oportunidades, la educacin, y la disciplina cuando sea necesario, construir la confianza en s mismos, darles la oportunidad de intentar y fallar, todo para que puedan lograr ms de lo que podramos imaginar para nosotros mismos. +Charlie Kim, director general de una empresa llamada Next Jump en la Ciudad de Nueva York, una empresa de tecnologa, hace referencia a que al atravesar momentos difciles en la familia, alguna vez consideraron despedir a uno de sus hijos? +Nunca haramos eso. +Entonces, por qu consideramos el despido dentro de nuestra organizacin? +Charlie implement una poltica de empleo de por vida. +Si uno consigue un empleo en Next Jump, no puede ser despedido por problemas de rendimiento. +De hecho, si tiene problemas, le van a entrenar y darn apoyo, al igual que lo haramos con uno de nuestros hijos que regresa a casa con una nota mala de la escuela. +Es todo lo contrario. +Por esta razn mucha gente tiene un odio visceral, un enojo tal, a algunos de estos ejecutivos bancarios con esos salarios desproporcionados y las estructuras de bonificaciones. +No son los nmeros. +Es que ellos han violado la propia definicin de liderazgo. +Han violado este contrato social profundamente arraigado. +Sabemos que permitieron el sacrificio de su gente para proteger sus propios intereses, o, peor an, sacrificaron a su gente para proteger sus propios intereses. +Esto es lo que lo nos ofende, no los nmeros. +Alguien se ofendera si le disemos un bono de USD 150 millones a Gandhi? +Qu tal un bono de USD 250 millones a la Madre Teresa? +Tenemos un problema con eso? Ninguno en absoluto. +Ninguno en absoluto. +Los grandes lderes nunca sacrificaran a las personas para salvar los nmeros. +Antes sacrificaran los nmeros para salvar a las personas. +Bob Chapman, que dirige una gran fbrica en el medio oeste de EE.UU. llamada Barry-Wehmiller, en 2008 fue golpeado muy duramente por la recesin, y perdi el 30 % de sus pedidos, de un plumazo. +En una gran empresa manufacturera eso es algo importante, porque no poda mantener su mano de obra. +Tenan que ahorrar USD 10 millones, por lo que, al igual que muchas empresas hoy en da, se reuni el consejo y analiz la opcin de los despidos. +Y Bob se neg. +Vern, Bob no cree en el recuentos de cabezas. +Bob cree en el recuento de corazones, y es mucho ms difcil simplemente reducir el recuento de corazones. +Y as se les ocurri un programa de licencias. +Todos los empleados, desde la secretara al CEO, estaban obligados a tomar 4 semanas de vacaciones no remuneradas. +Podan tomarlas en cualquier momento que quisieran, y no tenan que tomarlas de forma consecutiva. +Pero fue la manera en que Bob anunci el programa lo que le importaba tanto. +l dijo, es mejor que todos debamos sufrir un poco a que cualquiera de nosotros tenga que sufrir mucho, y la moral subi. +Ahorraron USD 20 millones, y, lo ms importante como cabra esperar, cuando la gente se siente segura y protegida por el liderazgo en la organizacin, la reaccin natural es la de confiar y cooperar. +Y, espontneamente, nadie lo esperaba, la gente empez a intercambiar entre s. +Los que se podan permitir ms intercambiaran con los que podan permitirse menos. +Algunas personas se tomaran 5 semanas para que otro solo tuviera que tomar 3. +El liderazgo es una eleccin. No es un rango. +Conozco a mucha gente en el ms alto nivel en una organizacin que definitivamente no son lderes. +Son las autoridades, y hacemos lo que dicen porque tienen autoridad sobre nosotros, pero nosotros no los seguiramos. +Y conozco muchas personas que se encuentran en la parte inferior de las organizaciones que no tienen ninguna autoridad, pero son lderes absolutos, y esto se debe a que han elegido cuidar de la persona a la izquierda de ellos, y ellos han elegido cuidar de la persona a la derecha de ellos. +Eso es un lder. +Escuch una historia de unos marines que se encontraban en el teatro, y como es costumbre de la Marina, el oficial comi ltimo, y dej que sus hombres comieran primero y, cuando terminaron, no haba comida para l. +Y cuando regresaron al campo, sus hombres le trajeron algunos de sus alimentos para que coma, porque eso es lo que pasa. +Nosotros los llamamos lderes porque van primero. +Los llamamos lderes porque toman el riesgo antes que nadie. +Los llamamos lderes porque van a elegir sacrificarse para que su gente puede estar segura y protegida y, por lo tanto, para que su gente pueda ganar y, al hacerlo, la respuesta natural es que nuestra gente se sacrificar por nosotros. +Ellos nos darn su sangre, sudor y lgrimas para ver que triunfa la visin de su lder, y cuando les preguntamos: "Por qu hiciste eso? +Por qu daras tu sangre, sudor y lgrimas por esa persona?" todos dicen lo mismo: "Porque ellos lo hubieran hecho por m". +Y, no es esa la organizacin en la que a todos nos gustara trabajar? +Muchas gracias. +Gracias. Gracias. +Les preguntar y tratar de responder de alguna forma, una pregunta algo incmoda. +Tanto civiles, obviamente, como soldados sufren en la guerra; no creo que ningn civil haya extraado la guerra a la cual fue sometido. +He hecho coberturas de guerras por casi 20 aos, y algo singular para m es la cantidad de soldados que terminan extrandola. +Cmo es que alguien puede pasar por la peor experiencia que se pueda imaginar y regresar, volver a su hogar, a su familia, a su pas, y extraar la guerra? +Cmo funciona eso?Qu significa? +Tenemos que responder a esa pregunta, porque si no lo hacemos, ser imposible hacer que los soldados vuelvan a un lugar en la sociedad donde pertenecen, y creo que ser imposible acabar con la guerra, si no entendemos cmo funciona este mecanismo. +El problema es que la guerra no tiene una verdad simple, clara, una sola verdad simple y clara. +Cualquier persona sensata odia la guerra, odia la idea de guerra, no le gustara tener algo que ver con eso, no quiere estar cerca, no quiere saber sobre la guerra. +Esa es una respuesta sensata a la guerra. +Pero si les pregunto a todos en este lugar, quines de Uds. han pagado para ir al cine y entretenerse con una pelcula blica de Hollywood?, es posible que muchos de Uds. levanten la mano. +Eso es lo complicado de la guerra. +Y cranme, que si en un lugar lleno de amantes de la paz hay personas que encuentran algo cautivador en la guerra, tambin lo harn unos soldados veinteaeros que han sido entrenados para ello, se los aseguro. +Eso es lo que se tiene que entender. +Como les dije, he cubierto guerras por casi 20 aos, pero las experiencias ms intensas que tuve en zonas de combate fueron con soldados estadounidenses en Afganistn. +Estuve en frica, el Medio Oriente, Afganistn en los noventa, pero fue con soldados estadounidenses en 2007, 2008 en donde me enfrent a un combate muy intenso. +Estaba en el Valle de Korengal al este de Afganistn. +Tiene 10 kilmetros de longitud. +Haba una unidad de combate con 150 hombres en el valle, y por un momento, mientras estuve all, casi el 20 % del combate en todo Afganistn estaba sucediendo en esos 10 kilmetros. +150 hombres absorbieron casi una quinta parte del combate de todas las fuerzas de la OTAN en aquel pas, por un par de meses. +Fue muy intenso. +Pas la mayor parte del tiempo en un puesto de avanzada llamado Restrepo. +Fue nombrado as por un mdico del pelotn que fue asesinado a 2 meses de su envo. +Eran unos barracones de madera contrachapada aferrados a un lado de la cumbre, y bolsas de arena, bnkeres, posiciones de arma, y haba 20 hombres all arriba del segundo pelotn de la Compaa de Batalla. +Estuve mucho tiempo all. +No haba agua corriente. +Ni forma de baarse. +Los chicos estaban all por un mes a la vez. +Incluso nunca se quitaban su uniforme. +Peleaban. Trabajaban. +Dorman con el mismo uniforme. +Nunca se lo quitaban, y a fin de mes, bajaban a los cuarteles de la compaa, y cuando lo hacan, sus uniformes ya eran inservibles. +Los quemaban y les daban uno nuevo. +No haba Internet ni telfono. +All no haba comunicacin con el mundo exterior. +No haba alimentos cocinados. +All arriba no haba nada que a los jvenes normalmente les gusta: autos, chicas, televisin, nada, excepto combate. +Combates que empezaron a apreciar. +Recuerdo un da, muy caluroso en primavera, y no habamos combatido durante un par de semanas, quizs. +Usualmente, el puesto de avanzada era atacado y al no tener ningn combate en esas semanas, todo estaban sorprendidos, con aburrimiento y calor. +Y recuerdo al teniente que pasaba con el pecho descubierto. +El calor era agobiante. +Pas a mi lado, murmurando: "Dios, que alguien nos ataque hoy". +Eso demuestra lo aburridos que estaban. +Tambin eso es la guerra, es un teniente que dice: "Que pase algo porque estamos enloqueciendo". +Para entenderlo, van a tener que, por un momento, pensar sobre el combate pero no moralmente, eso es algo importante que hacer, por un momento, no piensen en eso moralmente, sino neurolgicamente. +Pensemos sobre lo que pasa en el cerebro cuando ests en combate. +En primer lugar, la experiencia es muy extraa, mucho muy extraa. +No es lo que yo esperaba. +En general, uno no est asustado. +Yo he estado muy asustado en combate, pero la mayor parte del tiempo que estuve all, no lo estaba. +Estuve muy asustado antes de ir y terriblemente asustado cuando sal de ah, y ese miedo que aparece despus puede durar aos. +No me dispararon en 6 aos, y esta maana me despert muy bruscamente una pesadilla en la que me ametrallaba una aeronave, 6 aos despus. +Nunca me ametrall una aeronave y estaba teniendo pesadillas sobre eso. +El tiempo se hace ms lento. +Se crea esta rara visin de tnel. +Notas algunos detalles muy, muy precisos y lo dems desaparece. +Es casi un estado mental ligeramente alterado. +Lo que pasa en tu cerebro es que se provee de una enorme cantidad de adrenalina que es bombeada a travs de tu organismo. +Los jvenes hacen un gran esfuerzo para tener esa experiencia. +Esta incrustado en nosotros. +Est hormonalmente respaldado. +La tasa de mortalidad de los jvenes en la sociedad es 6 veces superior al de las jvenes por casos de violencia y accidentes, las cosas estpidas que hacen los jvenes: saltar desde lugares donde no deberan, prender fuego a cosas que no deberan, es decir, Uds. saben de lo que estoy hablando. +Mueren a un ritmo 6 veces mayor que las jvenes. +Estadsticamente, ests ms a salvo siendo un chico adolescente, estaras ms a salvo en el departamento de bomberos o en el de polica, en la mayora de las ciudades de EE. UU., que caminando en las calles de tu ciudad buscando algo que hacer, estadsticamente. +Pueden imaginar lo que ocurre en combate. +En Restrepo, todos los que estaban all arriba casi mueren, incluso yo, incluso mi buen amigo Tim Hetherington, que luego fue asesinado en Libia. +Haba chicos caminando con agujeros de bala en el uniforme, crculos que haban cortado la tela sin tocar sus cuerpos. +Una maana estaba apoyado sobre unas bolsas de arena, no pasaba nada importante, estaba algo distrado, y un poco de arena me salt al costado, fue algo as como un golpe al lado de la cara. +Algo me haba golpeado, y no saba lo que era. +Algo que tienen las balas es, que viajan mucho ms rpido que el sonido, por eso, si alguien les dispara desde unos pocos metros, la bala les pasa, o los hiere obviamente, y despus de casi medio segundo, el sonido la alcanza. +Por eso tena algo de arena salpicada en la cara. +Medio segundo despus, escuch: tra-tra-tra-tra-tra. +Era una ametralladora. +Era la primera descarga, la primera explosin de balas de una hora de tiroteo. +Sent el golpe de la arena por el impacto de la bala, la bala pas a 8 o 9 centmetros de mi cabeza. +Imagnense, solo piensen en eso, porque ciertamente yo lo hice, piensen en el ngulo de desviacin que salv mi vida. +A 400 metros, fallaron por casi 8 centmetros. +hagan los clculos. +Todos los chicos que estaban all tuvieron una experiencia parecida a esa, al menos una vez, sino es que muchas veces. +Los chicos estn all por un ao. +Regresaron. +Algunos renunciaron al ejrcito y tuvieron serios problemas psicolgicos al llegar a casa. +Algunos se quedaron en el ejrcito y estaban ms o menos bien, psicolgicamente. +Era muy amigo de un chico llamado Brendan O'Byrne. +Todava somos muy buenos amigos. +Volvi a los EE. UU. Renunci al ejrcito. +Tuve una cena una noche, +lo invit, y empez a conversar con una mujer, una de mis amigas, y ella saba lo difcil que haba sido estar all, y le pregunt: "Brendan, hay algo que extraas de Afganistn, algo de la guerra? +Y l lo pens por un largo rato, y finalmente dijo: "Seora, lo extrao casi todo". +Y l es una de las personas ms traumatizadas que he visto de la guerra. +"Seora, lo extrao casi todo" +De qu est hablando? +l no es un psicpata. +No extraa matar personas. +No est demente. No extraa que le disparen, ni ver a sus amigos morir. +Qu es lo que extraa? Tenemos que responder eso. +Si queremos acabar con la guerra, tenemos que responder esa pregunta. +Creo que lo que extraaba es la fraternidad. +Extraaba, de alguna manera, lo contrario a matar. +Lo que extraaba era la conexin con los otros hombres que estaban con l. +Ahora, la fraternidad es diferente a la amistad. +La amistad ocurre en una sociedad, obviamente. +Si te agrada una persona, ests dispuesto a hacer mucho por ella. +La fraternidad no tiene nada que ver con lo que sientes por la otra persona. +Es un acuerdo mutuo en un grupo en el que se pone el bienestar del grupo, y la seguridad de todos los miembros, por encima de la propia. +En efecto, uno dice: "Amo a estas personas ms de lo que me amo a m mismo". +Brendan era un lder de grupo al mando de tres hombres, y el peor da en Afganistn, estuvo a punto de morir en muchsimas ocasiones. +Eso no le molestaba. +Lo peor que le sucedi en Afganistn fue que a uno de sus hombres le dispararon en la cabeza, en el casco, lo tumb. +Lo creyeron muerto. +Fue en medio de un tiroteo. +Nadie poda atenderlo, y un minuto despus, Kyle Steiner se reclin regres de la muerte, por as decirlo, porque haba vuelto a la vida. +La bala solo lo dej inconsciente. +Le rebot en el casco. +l recuerda a la gente diciendo, mientras estaba semiconsciente, recuerda a la gente diciendo: "A Steiner le dispararon en la cabeza. Est muerto". +Y l pensaba: "No estoy muerto". +Y se sent. +Y despus de eso, Brendan se dio cuenta de que no poda proteger a sus hombres, y esa fue la nica vez que llor en Afganistn dndose cuenta de eso. +Eso es fraternidad. +No fue inventada recientemente. +Muchos de ustedes probablemente hayan ledo "La Ilada". +Aquiles seguramente hubiese arriesgado su vida o dado su vida para salvar a su amigo Patroclo. +En la Segunda Guerra Mundial, hubo muchas historias de soldados heridos, que fueron llevados a un hospital de campaa, y se salan sin permiso, se arrastraban hacia la ventana, se escapaban por la puerta, abandonaban el hospital, heridos, para volver al frente de batalla y reincorporarse con sus hermanos. +Eso es aterrador. +Comparado con eso, la guerra, psicolgicamente, de alguna manera, es fcil, comparado con ese tipo de aislamiento. +Es por eso que la extraan, y eso es lo que nosotros tenemos que entender y de alguna forma corregir en nuestra sociedad. +Muchas gracias. +Lo ms romntico que me sucedi en lnea una vez comenz de la forma en que muchas cosas lo hacen: sin m y no en lnea. +El 10 de diciembre de 1896, el hombre de la medalla, Alfred Nobel, muri. +100 aos despus, exactamente, en realidad, el 10 de diciembre 1996, esta encantadora seora, Wislawa Szymborska, gan el Premio Nobel de Literatura. +Es una poetisa polaca. +Es grande, obviamente, pero en el 96, creo que nunca haba odo hablar de ella, y cuando revis su trabajo, encontr este pequeo poema dulce, Cuatro de la madrugada +"La hora de la noche al da. +La hora de lado a lado. +La hora para los mayores de treinta... " +Y sigue, pero tan pronto como le este poema, me enamor de l con fuerza, tanto, que sospechaba que debimos habernos conocido en algn lugar antes. +Haba compartido un ascensor con ese poema? +Coquete con este poema en un caf en alguna parte? +No pude localizarlo y me molest, y, luego, la siguiente o segunda semana, mientras estaba viendo una vieja pelcula, pas esto. +Groucho Marx: Charlie, deberas haber llegado a la primera fiesta. +No llegamos a casa hasta las cuatro de la maana. +Rives: Mis compaeros tenan el televisor encendido, y esto iba a pasar. +(Msica: tema de Seinfeld) George Costanza: Oh chico, estuve hasta las cuatro de la maana viendo esa triloga Omen. +Rives: Estaba escuchando msica, y esto iba a pasar. +Elton John: Son las cuatro de la maana, maldita sea. Rives: As que pueden ver lo que estaba pasando, no? +Obviamente, los semidioses de la coincidencia estaban simplemente jugando conmigo. +Algunas personas tienen un nmero clavado en su cabeza, es posible reconocer un cierto nombre o una meloda, algunas personas no tienen nada, pero cuatro de la maana estaba en ahora m, pero suavemente, como una lesin en la ingle. +Yo siempre asum que simplemente desaparecera por s misma al final, y nunca habl de ello con nadie, pero no fue as, y lo hice. +En 2007, fui invitado a hablar en TED por segunda vez, y como era una autoridad en nada, pens, qu pasa si hago una presentacin multimedia sobre un nicho temtico en realidad intrascendente o realmente disparatado. +As que mi charla tena algunos ejemplos de mi cuatro de la maana, pero tambin tena ejemplos de mis compaeros ponentes TED de ese ao. +He encontrado cuatro de la maana en una novela de Isabel Allende. +Me pareci uno muy bueno en la autobiografa de Bill Clinton. +He encontrado un par en la obra de Matt Groening, aunque Matt Groening me dijo ms tarde que no poda dar mi charla porque era una sesin de la maana y tengo entendido que l no es un madrugador. +Sin embargo, Matt haba estado all, habra visto ese simulacro de teora de la conspiracin que era muy complicado para m de asimilar. +Fue totalmente artificial solo para ese grupo, solo para ese momento. +Fue as como lo hicimos en los das pre-TED.com. +Fue divertido. Eso fue casi todo. +Cuando llegu a casa, sin embargo, los emails empezaron a llegar de las personas que haban visto la charla en directo, empezando con, y sigue siendo mi favorito, "Aqu hay otro para su coleccin: 'Los amigos que importan son los que puedes llamar incluso a las 4 am.' " Es la opinin de Marlene Dietrich. +El email en s era de otro tipo europeo muy sexy, el curador de TED, Chris Anderson. +Chris encontr esta cita en una taza de caf o algo as, y estoy pensando, que este hombre es la Mara Tifoidea de las ideas que vale la pena difundir, y yo le he infectado. +Soy contagioso, lo cual se confirm menos de una semana despus cuando una empleada de Hallmark me escane y mand una tarjeta de felicitacin real con esa misma cita. +Como beneficio adicional, me enganch con una segunda que hacen. +Dice: "Solo que sepas que puedo llamarte a las cuatro de la maana, si realmente lo necesitas", que me encanta, porque juntas son como, "Hallmark: Cuando te importa lo suficiente para enviar el mensaje dos veces, parafrasealo de forma ligeramente diferente". +No me sorprendi la coincidencia del TEDster y la revista New Yorker. +Un montn de gente me ha enviado el siguiente, cuando sali. +"Son las 4 am... tal vez dormiras mejor si compras alguna tontera". +Me sorprendi la coincidencia del TEDster/"Rugrats". +Ms de una persona me envi esto. +Didi Pickles: Son las 4 de la maana. +Por qu demonios ests haciendo pastel de chocolate? +Stu Pickles: Porque he perdido el control de mi vida. +Rives: Y luego estaba el TEDster solitario que estaba descontento porque yo haba pasado por alto lo que l considera como un clsico. +Roy Neary: Levntate, levntate! No estoy bromeando. Ronnie Neary: Hay un accidente? +Roy: No, no es un accidente. Queras salir de la casa, no? +Ronnie: No a las cuatro de la maana. +Rives: Esto es "Encuentros cercanos" y el personaje principal est levantado porque los extraterrestres, momentneamente, han optado por mostrarse a los terrcolas a las cuatro de la maana, que no hace que sea un ejemplo muy slido. +Esos fueron todos ejemplos realmente slidos. +No lograron acercarme al entendimiento de por qu cre reconocer este poema particular. +Pero todos siguieron el patrn. Tocaron juntos. +Cierto? Las cuatro de la maana, como la hora del chivo expiatorio cuando todos estos sucesos dramticos supuestamente ocurren. +Tal vez esto era una especie de clich que nunca se haba clasificado antes. +Tal vez estaba en el camino de un nuevo meme o algo as. +Justo cuando las cosas se estaban poniendo muy interesantes, las cosas se pusieron realmente interesantes. +Se lanz TED.com, ms tarde ese ao, con un montn de vdeos de charlas anteriores, entre ellas la ma, y empec a recibir citas de "las cuatro de la maana" de lo que parecan ser de todas las zonas horarias del planeta. +Gran parte de ello nunca lo habra encontrado por mi cuenta si lo hubiera estado buscando, y no lo estaba haciendo. +No conozco a nadie con diabetes juvenil. +Probablemente me habra perdido el folleto, "Queso asado a las cuatro de la maana". +No estoy suscrito a la revista Crochet Today, aunque parece estupendo. Tomen nota de estos despertadores. +Esta es la sugerencia de un universitario de lo que debera ser el signo de una pandilla de cuatro de la maana. +La gente me enva anuncios de revistas. +Toman fotografas en las tiendas de comestibles. +Tengo un montn de novelas grficas y cmics. +Una gran cantidad de trabajo de buena calidad, tambin: "The Sandman", "Watchmen". +Hay un ejemplo muy lindo aqu de "Calvin y Hobbes". +De hecho, la ms antigua cita que alguien me envi era de una caricatura de la Edad de Piedra. +chenle un vistazo. +Vilma Picapiedra: Cmo qu tan temprano? +Pedro Picapiedra: Como a las 4 am, as de temprano. +Rives: Y la otra cara de la lnea de tiempo, esto es desde el siglo XXXI. +En mil aos, la gente todava lo estar haciendo. +: Locutor: La hora es las 4 am. +Rives: Muestra el espectro. +He recibido tantas canciones, programas de televisin, pelculas, desde psimas a famosas, Les podra dar una lista de reproduccin de cuatro horas. +Si solo pegara las estrellas modernas masculinas, lograra el largo de aproximadamente un comercial. +Aqu est su muestra. +(Montaje de la pelcula de "Son las 4 am.") Rives: As que en algn punto de la lnea, me di cuenta de que tengo un hobby No saba que lo quera, y es crowdsourced. +Pero tambin estaba pensando en lo que pueden estar pensando, que en realidad, no se podra hacer igual con cualquier hora del da? +Primero, no estn recibiendo clips como este de las cuatro de la tarde. +En segundo lugar, investigu un poco. +Saben, estaba algo interesado. +Si este es el sesgo de confirmacin, hay tanta confirmacin, que estoy sesgado. +La literatura probablemente muestra lo mejor. +Hay un par 3 de la maana en Shakespeare. +Hay un 5 de la maana. +Hay 7 cuatros de la maana, y son todas muy nefastas. +En "Medida por medida", es la hora de la llamada para el verdugo. +Tolstoi da a Napolen insomnio a las cuatro de la maana, justo antes de la batalla en "La guerra y la paz". +"Jane Eyre" de Charlotte Bront tiene el tipo de cuatro de la maana fundamental, como "Cumbres borrascosas" de Emily Bront. +"Lolita" tiene un espeluznante cuatro de la maana. +"Huckleberry Finn" tiene uno en dialecto. +Alguien envi "El hombre invisible" de HG Wells +Otra persona envi "Hombre invisible" de Ralph Ellison. +"El gran Gatsby" pasa sus ltimas cuatro de la maana de su vida esperando la amante que nunca apareci, y tal vez el ms famoso despertar en la literatura, "La Metamorfosis". +Primer prrafo, el protagonista se despierta transformado en una cucaracha gigante, pero ya sabemos, aunque cucaracha, algo est pasando con este tipo. +Por qu? Su alarma est puesta a las cuatro de la maana. +Qu tipo de persona hara eso? +Este tipo de persona hara eso. +(Despertador a la 4 am.) Locutor: La hora en punto. Hora de las noticias de la maana. +Pero, por supuesto, no hay noticias todava. +Todo el mundo est todava dormido en sus confortables, cmodas camas. +Rives: Exactamente. +Esta es Lucy de Snoopy, "Mamita querida", Rocky, primer da de entrenamiento, Nelson Mandela, el primer da en el cargo, y Bart Simpson, lo que combinado con una cucaracha le dara un infierno de una cena y me da una nueva categora, la gente despierta, en mi vieja gran base de datos. +Imagnese que sus amigos y su familia han odo que Ud. colecciona, por ejemplo, osos polares de peluche, y se los mandan. +Incluso si no lo hace de verdad, en un momento determinado, Ud. recolectar cantidades de osos polares, y su coleccin es probablemente bastante admirable. +Y cuando llegu a ese punto, lo adopt. +Tengo mi curador. Empec comprobar los hechos descargar, captar pantallazos ilegalmente. +Empec a archivar. +Mi hobby se haba convertido en un hbito, y mi costumbre me dio, posiblemente, la ms eclctica cola de Netflix. +En un momento, fue, "Ellos y Ellas: El Musical" "El ltimo tango en Pars", "El diario de Greg" "Estrella porno: La Leyenda de Ron Jeremy". +Por qu "Estrella porno: La Leyenda de Ron Jeremy"? +Porque alguien me dijo que iba a encontrar este clip all. +Ron Jeremy: Nac en Flushing, Queens en marzo, 12, 1953, a las cuatro de la maana. +Rives: Por supuesto que s. S. No solo parece tener sentido, sino que tambin responde a la pregunta, "Ron Jeremy y Simone de Beauvoir, qu tienen en comn?" +Simone de Beauvoir comienza su autobiografa con la frase: "Nac a las cuatro de la maana" la que tuve porque alguien me la envi por correo electrnico, y cuando lo hicieron, tuve otro empujn en mi entrada por esto, porque la estrella porno Ron Jeremy y la feminista Simone de Beauvoir no son solo personas diferentes. +Son personas diferentes que tienen esta conexin entre ellos, y yo no s si eso es trivia o conocimiento o experiencia inadvertida, pero me preguntaba, hay tal vez una mejor forma de hacerlo? +As que en octubre pasado, en la tradicin caballero acadmico, puse toda la coleccin en lnea como "El Museo de Cuatro de la Maana". +Pueden hacer clic en ese botn rojo "refresh". +Se puede recorrer de forma aleatoria de a uno de cientos de fragmentos que se encuentran en la coleccin. +He aqu un poema nocaut de Billy Collins llamado "El olvido". +Billy Collins: No me extraa que te levantes a mitad de la noche para buscar la fecha de una famosa batalla en un libro sobre la guerra. +No es de extraar que la luna en la ventana parece haber derivado de un poema de amor que usas para conocer mi corazn. +Rives: As que la primera hora de este proyecto fue satisfactoria. +Un actor de Bollywood cant una lnea en un DVD en un caf. +A medio mundo de distancia, una adolescente hizo un video de Instagram de l y me lo envi a m, un extrao. +Menos de una semana despus, sin embargo, recib un poco de gracia. +Recib un tweet conmovedor. +Fue breve. +Se limit a decir: "Me recuerda a una vieja cinta de mezclas". +El nombre era un seudnimo, en realidad, o un pseudoseudnimo. +Tan pronto como vi las iniciales, as como la imagen de perfil, supe de inmediato, todo mi cuerpo lo saba inmediatamente que se trataba, y supe de inmediato lo mezcla de que estaba hablando. +L.D. fue mi romance universitario. +Esto es en la dcada de los 90. Yo era un estudiante. +Ella era una estudiante graduada en la biblioteca del departamento de ciencias. +No el tipo de bibliotecaria que lleva sus gafas, con el pelo suelto, de pronto fumando en plan sexy. +Ella ya estaba fumando sexy, ella era sper asombrosa, y pasamos un romance de diciembre a mayo, lo que significa que empezamos a salir en diciembre, y en mayo, se haba graduado y se convirti en la que se me fue. +Pero la cinta mezcla no se fue. +He mantenido esta cinta de la mezcla en una caja con notas y postales, no solo de L.D., de mi vida, pero por dcadas. +Es el tipo de caja donde, si tengo una novia, tengo que esconderla de ella, y si tuviera una esposa, estoy seguro de que la compartira con ella, pero la historia con esta cinta de la mezcla es que hay 7 canciones por lado, pero no estn los ttulos de las canciones. +En su lugar, L.D. us el sistema de clasificacin de la Biblioteca del Congreso de EE.UU., incluyendo nmeros de pgina, para dejarme pistas. +Cuando tuve esta cinta de la mezcla, la puse en mi reproductor de casetes, La llev a la biblioteca del campus, su biblioteca, encontr 14 libros en los estantes. +Recuerdo llevarlos todos a mi mesa del rincn favorito, y leer poemas vinculados a las canciones como la comida con el vino, emparejado, les puedo decir, como los zapatos de silla de montar a un vestido de vendimia de algodn azul cobalto. +Lo hice de nuevo en octubre pasado. +Estoy sentado all, llev mis nuevos auriculares, un viejo Walkman, me doy cuenta de que esto es un especie de extravagancia de la extravagancia que sola dar por sentado incluso cuando era extravagante. +Y entonces pens: "Bien por l". +"PG" es la literatura eslava. +"7000", serie literatura polaca. +Z9A24 es una coleccin de 70 poemas. +Pgina 31 es el poema de Wislawa Szymborska emparejado con Paul Simon "Peace Like a River". +(Msica: Paul Simon, "Peace Like a River") Paul Simon: Oh, cuatro de la maana me despert de mi sueo Rives: Gracias. Les agradezco. +Como cientfica, y tambin como ser humano, he intentado ser capaz de sentir asombro. +Creo que Jason Webley habl anoche de "conspirar para ser parte de la magia". +As que he tenido suerte de que mi carrera como biloga me permita adentrarme en las vidas de ciertas criaturas realmente asombrosas con las que compartimos el planeta: las lucirnagas. +S que, para muchos de Uds., las lucirnagas evocan ciertos recuerdos maravillosos: infancia, verano, incluso otras TED Talks. +Tal vez algo as. +Mi atraccin por el mundo de las lucirnagas empez cuando estaba haciendo el doctorado. +Una tarde, estaba sentada en mi patio trasero en Carolina del Norte, y de repente, estas chispas silenciosas se elevaron a mi alrededor, y empec a preguntarme: Cmo crean luz estas criaturas, y qu quiere decir ese parpadeo? +Estn hablando unas con otras? +Y qu pasa cuando las luces se apagan? +He tenido la suerte de poder contestar algunas de esas preguntas al explorar este mundo nocturno. +Estos luminosos paisajes an me llenan de asombro, y me mantienen conectada a la magia del mundo natural. +Y me parece increble que los creen esos diminutos insectos. +De cerca, las lucirnagas son fascinantes. +Son carismticas. +Han formado parte del arte y de la poesa durante siglos. +En mis viajes por el mundo, he conocido mucha gente inteligente que me ha dicho que Dios puso las lucirnagas en la Tierra para que los humanos las disfrutaran. +Otras criaturas tambin las pueden disfrutar. +Creo que estos graciosos insectos son realmente milagrosos por iluminar tan bellamente la improvisacin creativa de la evolucin. +Las han moldeado dos poderosas fuerzas de la evolucin: la seleccin natural, la lucha por la sobrevivencia, y la seleccin sexual, la lucha por la posibilidad de reproducirse. +Como adicta a las lucirnagas, los ltimos 20 aos han sido un viaje apasionante. +Junto con mis alumnos de la Universidad de Tufts y otros colegas, hemos hecho muchos nuevos descubrimientos sobre las lucirnagas: sus cortejos y su vida sexual, sus traiciones y sus asesinatos. +As que hoy quisiera compartir con Uds. solo un par de historias que son el fruto de nuestras aventuras colectivas dentro de este mundo escondido. +Las lucirnagas corresponden a un bellsimo y muy diverso grupo de insectos, los escarabajos. +En todo el mundo, hay ms de 2000 especies de lucirnagas, que han desarrollado muy diversas seales de cortejo, es decir, diferentes formas de encontrar y atraer parejas. +Hace unos 150 millones de aos, las primeras lucirnagas probablemente tenan este aspecto. +Volaban durante el da y no emitan luz. +En su lugar, los machos usaban sus fantsticas antenas para oler los perfumes emitidos por las hembras. +En otras lucirnagas, son solo las hembras las que iluminan. +Son atractivamente rechonchas y sin alas, as que cada noche, escalan a lugares elevados y brillan intensamente durante horas para atraer a sus machos, voladores pero sin luz. +En otro tipo de lucirnagas, los dos sexos usan destellos rpidos y brillantes para encontrar a sus parejas. +Aqu en Norteamrica, tenemos ms de 100 tipos diferentes de lucirnagas que tienen la singular habilidad de emitir energa hacia fuera de sus cuerpos en forma de luz. +Cmo lo hacen? +Parece totalmente mgico, pero estas seales bioluminiscentes proceden de reacciones qumicas cuidadosamente orquestadas que ocurren dentro de la linterna de la lucirnaga. +La protagonista es una enzima llamada luciferasa, que a lo largo de la evolucin ha desarrollado una forma de rodear con sus diminutos brazos a otra molcula an ms pequea, llamada luciferina, alterndose tanto en el proceso que llega a emitir luz. +Increble. +Pero cmo esas luces brillantes fueron beneficiosas para algunas proto-lucirnagas? +Para contestar a esta pregunta, tenemos que volver a algunas fotos de bebs del lbum familiar. +Las lucirnagas reinventan completamente sus cuerpos al crecer. +Pasan la mayor parte de su vida, hasta dos aos, en forma de larvas. +Su principal objetivo entonces, como el de mis hijos adolescentes, es comer y crecer. +Y la luz de las lucirnagas apareci en esta etapa de juventud. +Todas las larvas de lucirnaga pueden iluminar. incluso cuando los adultos no. +Pero para qu ser tan visible? +Bien, sabemos que estas criaturas inmaduras producen sustancias qumicas de sabor desagradable que ayudan a la supervivencia de su amplia descendencia, as que creemos que estas luces evolucionaron, primero como advertencia, una letrero luminoso que dice, "Txico, mantngase alejado!" +a todo tipo de posibles depredadores. +Pasaron varios millones de aos hasta que estas luces brillantes se convirtieran en hbil herramienta de comunicacin que poda usarse no solo para mantener a raya a los depredadores, sino para atraer a potenciales parejas. +Llevadas ahora por la seleccin sexual, algunas lucirnagas adultas como este orgulloso macho desarrollaron un nuevo farol que brillaba en la oscuridad y que les permitira cortejar en un nivel completamente nuevo. +Estos adultos solo viven unas pocas semanas, y estn centrados nicamente en el sexo, es decir, en traspasar sus genes a la nueva generacin de lucirnagas. +As que podemos seguir a este macho en el campo unindose a otros cientos de machos que estn mostrando sus nuevas seales de cortejo. +Es asombroso pensar que los despliegues luminosos que admiramos aqu y, de hecho, en todo el mundo son realmente las silenciosas canciones de amor de las lucirnagas macho. +Van volando y mostrando sus corazones al exterior. +Me sigue pareciendo muy romntico. +Pero mientras tanto, dnde estn las hembras? +Bueno, pues estn esperando abajo sopesando sus opciones. +Tienen muchos machos para escoger, y estas hembras se vuelven muy quisquillosas. +Cuando una hembra ve la luz de un macho especialmente atractivo, enciende su farol en esa direccin, y le devuelve un destello. +Esa es su seal de "Acrcate". +Y l se acerca volando y brilla otra vez. +Si a ella le sigue gustando, entablarn una conversacin. +Estas criaturas manifiestan su amor con el lenguaje de la luz. +Pero qu es lo que estas hembras consideran sexy? +Decidimos hacer encuestas de opinin entre las lucirnagas para averiguarlo. +Cuando probamos a las hembras usando luces LED parpadeantes, descubrimos que prefieren a los machos que emiten destellos de ms larga duracin. +S que se preguntarn, qu es lo que da a estos machos su atractivo? +Luego llegamos a ver lo que ocurra cuando se apagan las luces. +Lo primero que descubrimos es que una vez que el macho y la hembra se emparejan as, se quedan juntos toda la noche, y cuando miramos dentro para ver qu estaba ocurriendo, descubrimos un nuevo giro sorprendente en la sexualidad de las lucirnagas. +Mientras se estn apareando, el macho est ocupado dando a la hembra no solo su esperma sino tambin un paquete lleno de nutrientes que llamamos un regalo nupcial. +Podemos acercarnos para ver mejor dentro de esta pareja. +Podemos realmente ver cmo el regalo, que se ve aqu en rojo, pasa del macho a la hembra. +Lo que hace a este regalo tan valioso es que est lleno de protenas que la hembra usar para alimentar los huevos. +As que las hembras tendrn en cuenta este premio al evaluar a sus parejas potenciales. +Hemos descubierto que las hembras usan las seales luminosas de los machos para intentar predecir cules de ellos pueden ofrecer los mayores regalos, porque esto ayuda a las hembras a poner ms huevos y al final producir ms de su descendencia en la siguiente generacin. +Bueno, no todo es dulzura y luz. +El romance de las lucirnagas es arriesgado. +En su mayora, estas lucirnagas adultas no se dejan comer porque al igual que sus inmaduros pueden producir toxinas que resultan repelentes para los pjaros y otros insectvoros, pero en algn lugar de la cadena, un grupo concreto de lucirnagas perdi la maquinaria metablica necesaria para hacer sus propias toxinas protectoras. +Este error de la evolucin, que fue descubierto por mi colega Tom Eisner, llev a estas lucirnagas a emitir sus destellos en la noche con intenciones engaosas. +Las llamadas "femmes fatales" por Jim Lloyd, otro colega, son hembras que han logrado atraer a machos de otras especies de lucirnagas. +As, la caza empieza con la depredadora, que aparece aqu abajo a la izquierda, que est quieta y tranquila y atenta a la conversacin de cortejo de aquel al que quiere convertir en su presa, y as es cmo lo har. +Primero, el macho presa lanza un brillo: "Me quieres?" +Su hembra le responde, "Tal vez". +Y de nuevo los destellos. +Pero esta vez, la depredadora cuela una respuesta que imita a la perfeccin lo que la otra hembra acaba de decir. +Ella no busca amor, sino toxinas. +Si es buena, puede atraer al macho lo suficiente para llegar a l y agarrarlo, y no se trata de un ligero aperitivo. +Durante la hora siguiente, ella, poco a poco succiona al macho dejando solo algunos restos. +Incapaces de fabricar sus propias toxinas, estas hembras recurren a beber la sangre de otras lucirnagas para conseguir sus sustancias protectoras. +Se trata de una lucirnaga vampiro, creada por la seleccin natural. +An tenemos mucho que aprender de las lucirnagas, pero puede que muchas historias se queden sin contar porque en todo el mundo, las poblaciones de lucirnagas estn emitiendo luces de emergencia. +El mayor culpable: la prdida de su hbitat. +Casi por todas partes, los campos y los bosques, los manglares y las praderas que las lucirnagas necesitan para sobrevivir, estn dando paso al desarrollo y la expansin urbanstica. +Y he aqu otro problema: hemos conquistado la oscuridad, pero en el proceso, producimos tanta luz adicional en la noche que perturbamos la vida de otras criaturas, y las lucirnagas son especialmente sensibles a la contaminacin lumnica porque oscurece las seales que ellas usan para encontrar a sus parejas. +Necesitamos realmente a las lucirnagas? +Despus de todo, no son ms que una parte diminuta de la biodiversidad terrestre. +Aunque cada vez que una especie desaparece, es como apagar una habitacin llena de velas una a una. +Puede ser que no lo notemos cuando las primeras llamas se apaguen, pero al final, estaremos sentados en la oscuridad. +Ya que estamos trabajando juntos para construir el futuro del planeta, confo en que encontremos la forma de mantener estas luces encendidas. +Gracias. +"Feromona" es una palabra muy poderosa. +Evoca el sexo, abandono, prdida de control, y pueden ver, que es muy importante como palabra. +Pero solo tiene 50 aos. Fue inventada en 1959. +Si ponen esa palabra en la web, como tal vez lo habrn hecho, surgirn millones de pginas, y casi todos esos sitios tratan de venderles algo que los har irresistibles por 10 dlares o ms. +Es una idea muy atractiva, y las molculas que mencionan suenan muy cientficas. +Tienen muchas slabas. +Son cosas como androstenol, androstenona o androstenediona. +Se pone cada vez mejor, cuando lo combinan con batas blancas de laboratorio, seguro imaginan que hay ciencia fantstica detrs de esto. +Pero, lamentablemente, son afirmaciones fraudulentas apoyadas por ciencia poco fiable. +Somos mamferos. Producimos una gran cantidad de olor. +Nadie ha estudiado sistemticamente para saber qu molculas son verdaderamente feromonas. +Solo han investigado algunas, y todos estos experimentos se basan en ellas, pero no hay ninguna evidencia confiable en absoluto. +Eso no quiere decir que el olor no sea importante para la gente. +Lo es, y algunas personas son verdaderos entusiastas, y uno de ellos fue Napolen. +Tal vez recordarn, que estando fuera preparndose para la guerra, le escribi a su amante, la emperatriz Josefina, diciendo: "No te baes. Regreso a casa". +No quera que ella perdiera su fragancia mientras l regresaba. Al da de hoy, encontrarn sitios web que ofrecen esto como gran excentricidad. +Aunque, al mismo tiempo, gastamos casi la misma cantidad de dinero para quitarnos los olores y para ponrnoslos otra vez en perfumes, y los perfumes son un negocio de miles de millones de dlares. +Los antiguos griegos saban que los perros se enviaban seales invisibles unos a otros. +Una hembra en celo enviaba una seal invisible a los perros en kilmetros a la redonda, y no era un sonido, era un olor. +Podan tomar el olor de la hembra, y los perros perseguan el trapo. +Pero el problema para todos quienes podan ver este efecto era que no podan identificar las molculas. +No podan demostrar que era qumico. +La razn de eso, por supuesto, es que cada uno de estos animales produce cantidades pequeas, y en el caso del perro, los perros machos pueden olerlo, pero nosotros no. +Y fue hasta 1959 que un equipo alemn, despus de pasar 20 aos en la bsqueda de estas molculas, descubri e identific a la primera feromona, la feromona sexual de la polilla de la seda. +Fue una eleccin increble de Adolf Butenandt y su equipo, porque necesit medio milln de polillas para conseguir suficiente material para el anlisis qumico. +Pero l cre el modelo de cmo llevar a cabo el anlisis de las feromonas. +Bsicamente lo hizo de forma sistemtica, demostrando que solo la molcula en cuestin era la que estimulaba a los machos, no todas las dems. +La analiz cuidadosamente. +Sintetiz la molcula, y luego prob la molcula sintetizada en los machos y consigui que estos respondieran demostrando que era, en efecto, esa molcula. +Eso cierra el crculo. +Es algo que nunca se ha hecho con humanos, nada sistemtico, ninguna demostracin real. +Con ese nuevo concepto, necesitbamos una nueva palabra, que fue la palabra "feromona", y bsicamente, es "emocin transmitida", transmitida entre individuos, y desde 1959, se han encontrado feromonas en todo el reino animal, tanto en machos como en hembras. +Igualmente aplica bajo el agua para peces y langostas. +Y en casi todos los mamferos, se ha identificado una feromona, al igual que en un enorme nmero de insectos. +As que, sabemos que las feromonas existen en todo el reino animal. +Pero qu pasa con los seres humanos? +Bueno, lo primero, es que somos mamferos, y los mamferos son olorosos. +Cualquier dueo de un perro puede decir que tanto nosotros como ellos olemos. +Pero la verdadera razn por la que podramos pensar que los seres humanos tienen feromonas es debido al cambio que ocurre a medida que crecemos. +El olor en la habitacin de un adolescente es muy diferente al olor en la habitacin de un nio pequeo. +Qu ha cambiado? Por supuesto, es la pubertad. +Junto con el vello pbico y el vello en las axilas, nuevas glndulas comienzan a secretar en esos lugares, y eso es lo que ocasiona el cambio en el olor. +Si furamos otro tipo de mamfero, u otro tipo de animal, diramos, "Debe tener algo que ver con las feromonas" y empezaramos a buscar adecuadamente. +Pero hay algunos problemas, y es por eso, que pienso que, la gente no ha buscado las feromonas de manera eficaz en los humanos. +Efectivamente, hay problemas. +Y el primero de ellos quizs es sorprendente. +Es cuestin de cultura. +Las polillas no entienden mucho sobre lo que es bueno para oler, pero los humanos s lo hacen, y hasta la edad de casi 4 aos, cualquier olor, no importa cun rancio sea, es simplemente interesante. +Y entiendo que el principal papel de los padres es evitar que los nios metan los dedos en el pop, ya que siempre es algo bueno de oler. +Pero gradualmente aprendemos lo que no es bueno, y una de las cosas que aprendemos al mismo tiempo es lo que es bueno. +El queso detrs de m es britnico, una delicadeza inglesa. +Es un Stilton azul maduro. +Este gusto es incomprensible para personas de otros pases. +Cada cultura tiene su propia comida especial y su especialidad nacional. +Si vinieran de Islandia, su platillo nacional sera tiburn podrido. +Todos estos son gustos adquiridos, pero forman casi un signo de identidad. +Eres parte del grupo. +En segundo lugar esta el sentido del olfato. +Cada uno de nosotros tiene un mundo de olores nico, en el sentido de que cuando olemos, cada uno huele un mundo completamente diferente. +El olfato fue el ms difcil de los sentidos de descifrar, y el Premio Nobel otorgado a Richard Axel y Linda Buck en 2004, fue por descubrir cmo funciona el sentido del olfato. +Es verdaderamente difcil, pero en esencia, los nervios del cerebro se dirigen a la nariz y sobre estos nervios expuestos al aire exterior se encuentran los receptores, y las molculas de olor que entran con la inhalacin interactan con estos receptores, y si se unen, envan una seal al nervio que regresa hacia el cerebro. +No solo tenemos un tipo de receptor. +Si eres un ser humano, tienes cerca de 400 diferentes tipos de receptores, y el cerebro sabe lo que ests oliendo debido a la combinacin de receptores y a las clulas nerviosas que estos activan, mandando mensajes hacia el cerebro de forma combinatoria. +Pero es un poco ms complicado, porque cada uno de esos 400 viene en diversas variantes, y dependiendo de la variante que tengan, pueden oler el cilantro, esa hierba, ya sea como algo delicioso y sabroso o les puede oler a jabn. +As cada uno de nosotros tiene un mundo individual de olores, y eso lo complica todo al estudiar el olfato. +Realmente deberamos hablar de las axilas, y debo decir que tengo particularmente unas muy buenas. +No voy a mostrrselas, pero este es el lugar en el que la mayora de las personas ha buscado las feromonas. +Hay una buena razn, que es, que los grandes simios tienen las axilas como su caracterstica nica. +Los otros primates tienen glndulas de olor en otras partes del cuerpo. +Los grandes simios tienen estas axilas llenas de glndulas secretoras produciendo olores todo el tiempo, un enorme nmero de molculas. +Cuando son secretadas desde las glndulas, las molculas son inodoras. +No tienen ningn olor, y es solo por las maravillosas bacterias que crecen en esta selva de pelo, que se producen los olores que conocemos y amamos. +Y si de paso, quieren reducir la cantidad de olor, depilen sus axilas es una forma muy efectiva de reducir el hbitat de las bacterias, y descubrirn que permanecen sin tanto olor por mucho ms tiempo. +Pero, aunque nos hemos enfocado en las axilas, creo que es en parte porque es el lugar menos vergonzoso para pedir muestras de la gente. +En realidad, hay otra razn por la que tal vez no busquemos ah una feromona sexual universal, y es porque el 20 % de la poblacin mundial no tiene las axilas olorosas como las mas. +Y son las personas procedentes de China, Japn, Corea y otras partes del noreste de Asia. +Simplemente no segregan los precursores inodoros que las bacterias aman usar para producir los olores que de manera etnocntrica siempre pensamos que es una caracterstica de las axilas. +Por lo tanto, no aplica al 20 % del mundo. +Entonces, qu debemos hacer en nuestra bsqueda de las feromonas humanas? +Estoy convencido de que las tenemos. +Somos mamferos, y como cualquier otro mamfero, probablemente las tenemos. +Pero lo que creo que debemos hacer es regresar al principio, y, bsicamente, buscar en todo el cuerpo. +No importa qu tan vergonzoso sea, tenemos que buscar e ir por primera vez a donde nadie se ha atrevido +Va a ser difcil, va a ser vergonzoso, pero tenemos que buscar. +Tambin necesitamos volver a las ideas que us Butenandt cuando estudi a la polilla de la seda. +Necesitamos regresar y examinar sistemticamente todas las molculas que se estn produciendo, e identificar las que estn realmente involucradas. +No es suficiente simplemente con tomar un par y decir: "Son estas". +Tenemos que demostrar que realmente tienen los efectos que afirmamos. +Hay un equipo que me tiene realmente impresionado. +Estn en Francia, y su xito anterior fue la identificacin de la feromona mamaria del conejo. +Tienen su atencin ahora en los bebs humanos y en las madres. +Este es un beb tomando leche del pecho de su madre. +Su pezn est completamente escondido por la cabeza del beb, pero lo que notarn es una gotita blanca sealada por una flecha, y es la secrecin de las glndulas areolares. +Todos las tenemos, hombres y mujeres, son las pequeas protuberancias alrededor del pezn, y si eres una mujer amamantando, estas comienzan a secretar. +Es una secrecin muy interesante. +Lo qu Benoist Schaal y su equipo desarrollaron fue una prueba sencilla para investigar el efecto de esta secrecin, una simple prueba biolgica. +Este es un beb durmiendo, y bajo su nariz, pusimos una varilla de vidrio limpio. +El beb permanece dormido, sin mostrar ningn inters en absoluto. +Pero si vamos con cualquier madre que este secretando de las glndulas areolares, no se trata de reconocer, puede ser de cualquier madre, si tomamos la secrecin y la ponemos debajo de la nariz del beb, obtenemos una reaccin muy diferente. +Es la reaccin de un conocedor del placer, abre su boca, saca la lengua y comienza a succionar. +Ya que viene de cualquier madre, podra en verdad ser una feromona. +No se trata de reconocimiento individual. +Cualquier madre lo podra hacer. +Por qu es importante, aparte de ser muy interesante? +Es porque las mujeres varan en el nmero de las glndulas areolares que tienen, y hay una correlacin entre la facilidad con la que los bebs comienzan a succionar y el nmero de glndulas areolares que tienen. +Parece que mientras ms secreciones tiene, es probable que el bebe comience a succionar ms rpidamente. +Si eres un mamfero, el momento ms peligroso en la vida son las primeras horas despus de nacer. +Es necesario esa primera leche, y si no la consigues, no sobrevivirs. +Morirs. +Lo que quiero decir es que este es un ejemplo de cmo un enfoque sistemtico, realmente cientfico, nos puede mostrar una comprensin real de las feromonas. +Puede haber todo tipo de intervenciones mdicas. +Podra haber muchas cosas que los humanos estn haciendo con las feromonas que simplemente no sabemos. +Lo que debemos recordar es que las feromonas no solo tienen que ver con el sexo. +Se relacionan con muchas ms cosas en la vida de los mamferos. +As que adelante y a buscar ms. +Hay mucho que encontrar. +Muchas gracias. +Puede que se estn preguntando por qu una biloga marina de Oceana viene hoy aqu a hablarles del hambre en el mundo. +Estoy hoy aqu porque salvar los ocanos es ms que un deseo ecolgico. +Lo hacemos por algo ms que que por crear trabajos para los pescadores o por preservarlos. +Es ms que un objetivo econmico. +Salvar los mares puede alimentar el mundo. +Djenme mostrarles cmo. +Como saben, ya hay ms de mil millones de personas que pasan hambre en el planeta. +Se espera que este problema empeore por el aumento de la poblacin mundial a 9 o 10 mil millones para mediados de siglo, y por tanto habr ms presin sobre nuestros recursos alimentarios. +Y esto es muy preocupante, sobre todo si consideramos dnde estamos ahora. +Ahora sabemos que nuestro terreno cultivable per capita est disminuyendo tanto en pases desarrollados, como en va de desarrollo. +Sabemos que nos precipitamos hacia un cambio climtico que va a modificar los patrones de lluvia, volviendo unas zonas ms secas, como se puede ver en naranja, y otras, ms hmedas, en azul, causando sequas en las cestas del pan, de lugares como el Medio Oeste y Europa Central, e inundaciones en otros. +Ser ms difcil para la tierra firme ayudarnos a solucionar el problema del hambre. +Por esto es necesaria la abundancia en el mar, para que nos puedan proporcionar tanta comida como sea posible. +Y esto es lo que los ocanos han estado haciendo por nosotros durante mucho tiempo. +Volviendo la vista atrs, observamos un aumento en la cantidad de alimentos que hemos podido extraer de nuestros mares. +Pareca que iba a seguir aumentando hasta 1980, cuando se empez a ver un descenso. +Han odo hablar de la cima del petrleo. +Puede que esta sea la cima del pescado. +Espero que no. Volver a ello ms adelante. +Lo que s se puede observar es un 18% de descenso en la cantidad de pescado obtenida en la captura mundial desde 1980. +Y este es un gran problema. Sigue creciendo. +Esta lnea roja sigue hacia abajo. +Pero sabemos cmo darle la vuelta, y esto es de lo que voy a hablar hoy. +Sabemos cmo hacer que la lnea vaya en ascenso. +Esto no tiene por qu ser la cima del pescado. +Haciendo cosas simples en lugares especficos podemos recuperar nuestras pesqueras y usarlas para alimentar a la gente. +Primero queremos saber dnde est el pescado, as que echemos un vistazo. +Se mete uno en mbitos internacionales y, si alguno de Uds. est siguiendo el acuerdo del cambio climtico, sabe que puede ser un proceso muy lento, frustrante y tedioso. +As que controlar las cosas a nivel nacional est muy bien. +Cunto pescado hay en estas zonas costeras comparado con alta mar? +Bueno, aqu se puede ver, alrededor de siete veces ms pescado en las zonas costeras que en alta mar, o sea que es un lugar perfecto para centrarnos porque podemos hacer muchas cosas. +Podemos restaurar muchas de nuestras pesqueras si nos centramos en las zonas costeras. +Pero en cuntos de estos pases tenemos que trabajar? +Hay unos 80 pases costeros. +Tenemos que arreglar la gestin de las pesqueras en todos esos pases? +Entonces, nos preguntamos, en cuntos pases debemos centrarnos, sabiendo que la Unin Europea maneja convenientemente sus pesqueras mediante una poltica pesquera comn? +Y, si tenemos una buena gestin pesquera en la UE y, digamos, otros 9 pases, cuntas pesqueras tendramos cubiertas? +Resulta que la UE ms 9 pases cubren unas dos terceras partes de la captura de pescado mundial. +Si tomramos 24 pases, ms la UE, subira hasta el 90%, casi toda la captura de pescado mundial. +As que creemos que podemos trabajar en lugares concretos para recuperar el sector de la pesca. +Pero qu tenemos que hacer en estos lugares? +Si hacemos estas 3 cosas, recuperaremos el sector. +Cmo lo sabemos? +Lo sabemos porque lo hemos visto en muchos otros lugares. +Esta diapositiva muestra la poblacin de arenques en Noruega que decreci desde los aos 50. +Fue disminuyendo y, cuando Noruega puso lmites, o cuotas, en el sector, qu ocurri? +La pesca volvi. +Este es otro ejemplo, tambin en Noruega, del bacalao polar. Pasa lo mismo. La pesca est disminuyendo. +Ponen lmites en los descartes. +Los descartes son los peces que no son el objetivo +y se tiran al mar, como desperdicio. Al establecer lmite al descarte, la pesca vuelve. Y no solo en Noruega. +Hemos visto esto en otros pases del mundo, una y otra vez. +Cuando estos pases deciden instaurar polticas de gestin de pesca sostenible, la pesca, que parece que siempre est disminuyendo, empieza a volver. +Qu significa esto para la captura de pescado mundial? +Significa que si tomamos esta captura pesquera que est disminuyendo y podemos hacer que ascienda, podramos aumentarla en 100 millones de toneladas mtricas por ao. +No hemos llegado a la cima del pescado an. +Todava tenemos una oportunidad no solo para recuperar la pesca sino para conseguir ms pesca que pueda alimentar a ms gente de la que se puede beneficiar ahora. +Obviamente deberamos hacer esto porque es bueno para tratar el problema del hambre, pero tambin es rentable. +Resulta que el pescado es la protena ms rentable del planeta. +Si se fijan en cunta protena se obtiene por cada dlar invertido comparado con otros animales, obviamente, el pescado es una buena decisin empresarial. +Tampoco se necesita mucha tierra, que es escasa, comparado con otras fuentes de protenas. +Y no se necesita mucha agua dulce. +Utiliza mucha menos agua dulce que, por ejemplo, la ganadera, donde se tiene que regar el campo para poder cultivar comida para que el ganado paste. +Tambin tiene un bajo impacto de carbono. +Conlleva un pequeo impacto de carbono porque tenemos que salir para capturar el pescado. +Se necesita un poco de combustible, pero, como Uds. saben, la agricultura tiene un impacto de carbono y el del pescado es mucho ms pequeo. As que es menos contaminante. +Ya es una parte importante de nuestra dieta, pero puede serlo an ms, y es algo bueno porque sabemos que es saludable para nosotros. +Puede reducir el riesgo de cncer, enfermedades cardacas y obesidad. +De hecho, a nuestro Director Ejecutivo, Andy Sharpless, el creador de esta iniciativa, le gusta pensar que el pescado es la protena perfecta. +Andy tambin seala el hecho de que nuestro movimiento de conservacin de los ocanos viene del de conservacin de las tierras. Y en las conservacin de tierras tenemos el problema de que la biodiversidad est en guerra con la produccin alimentaria. +Hay que reducir la biodiversidad de los bosques si quieres campo para cultivar maz para alimentar a la gente. Hay un constante tira y afloja en este asunto. +Es duro tener que elegir entre dos cosas muy importantes: mantener la biodiversidad y alimentar a la gente. +Pero en el mar no hay esta guerra. +En el mar la biodiversidad no est en guerra con la abundancia. +De hecho, son aliadas. +Cuando trabajamos para producir biodiversidad, obtenemos ms abundancia. Esto es importante para poder alimentar a la gente. +Ahora bien, hay una trampa. +Nadie se la ha pillado? La pesca ilegal. +La pesca ilegal debilita el tipo de gestin sostenible de pesca de la que hablo. Puede ser cuando se captura pescado con tcnicas prohibidas, cuando se pesca en lugares +restringidos, cuando se captura el pescado del tamao o especie inadecuados. La pesca ilegal engaa al consumidor y tambin a los pescadores honestos, y se tiene que acabar. +El pescado ilegal llega a nuestro mercado a travs de la pesca fraudulenta. +Puede que hayan odo hablar de esto. +Es cuando el pescado se etiquetea como lo que no es. +Piensen en la ltima vez que comieron pescado. +Qu comieron? +Estn seguros de que era eso? +Porque nosotros examinamos 1300 muestras distintas de pescado y cerca de un tercio de ellas no eran lo que las etiquetas decan. +9 de cada 10 pargos no lo eran. +El 59% de atn que examinamos estaba mal etiquetado. +Y el pargo rojo. Examinamos 120 muestras y solo 7 de ellas eran realmente pargo rojo. As que, buena suerte cuando busquen pargo rojo. +El pescado tiene una cadena de suministro compleja, y en cada paso de esta cadena hay una oportunidad para el fraude, a menos que se le haga seguimiento. +El seguimiento es una forma como la industria pesquera puede rastrear el pescado desde el bote hasta el plato y asegurarse de que el consumidor pueda saber de dnde viene su pescado. +Esto es muy importante. +La apoyan muchos chefs famosos que puede que conozcan Anthony Bourdain, Mario Batali, Barton Seaver, entre otros y la han firmado porque consideran que la gente tiene derecho a saber lo que comen. +Sabemos que podemos gestionar nuestra pesca de forma sostenible. +Sabemos que podemos producir comida sana para centenares de millones de personas, que no necesita de la tierra ni de mucha agua, tiene bajo impacto de carbono y es rentable. +Sabemos que salvar los ocanos puede alimentar el mundo. Pero necesitamos empezar ahora. +Gracias. +Ese momento cambi mi vida. +Me impuls a continuar y a coliderar el equipo que descubri el primer gen de sensibilidad al cncer. En las dcadas de intervencin que siguieron, ha habido literalmente un cambio de caractersticas ssmicas en nuestro entendimiento de lo que pasa, de las variaciones genticas que yacen detrs de varias enfermedades. +En efecto, hay una base molecular para miles de nuestros rasgos humanos, y diariamente se gana informacin de miles de personas sobre el riesgo que tienen de desarrollar tal o cual enfermedad. +Sin embargo, si Ud. pregunta, "ha eso tenido impacto sobre nuestra eficiencia en el desarrollo de drogas?, +la respuesta es no. +Si se considera el costo que tiene desarrollar drogas, la forma en qu se hace, bsicamente, aquello no ha tenido ninguna incidencia. +Entonces, es como si tuviramos el poder de diagnosticar, pero no el de tratar completamente. +Son dos las razones que comnmente se dan para explicar esto. +Una es que son los primeros aos. +Apenas estamos aprendiendo las palabras, los fragmentos, las letras del cdigo gentico. +No sabemos cmo leer las oraciones. +No sabemos cmo seguir la narrativa. +La otra razn es que la mayora de estos cambios consisten en una prdida de funciones, y es realmente duro desarrollar drogas para restaurar funciones. +Pero lo que quiero hoy, es que retrocedamos y nos hagamos una pregunta fundamental, que nos preguntemos, "Qu tal si estamos pensando en esto en un contexto equivocado? +Hacemos muchsimos estudios sobre los que estn enfermos y levantamos largas listas de componentes alterados. +Pero quizs, si lo que queremos es desarrollar terapias para la prevencin, quizs, lo que deberamos hacer es estudiar a los que no se enferman. +Quizs, deberamos estar estudiando a los que estn bien. +Una vasta mayora de estas personas no son necesariamente portadoras de una carga o factor de riesgo gentico en particular. +No nos van a ser de ayuda. +No nos van a ayudar aquellas personas que, portando un factor de riesgo potencial, van camino de presentar sntomas. +Eso no es lo que estamos buscando. +Lo que estamos buscando y lo que nos estamos preguntando es, hay unos pocos individuos que hoy por hoy caminan por ah con el factor de riesgo que normalmente causara una enfermedad, pero con algo en ellos, algo escondido dentro de ellos que actualmente los est protegiendo y evitando que presenten esos sntomas? +Si se va a realizar un estudio como ese, ya pueden imaginarse que se debera buscar entre cantidades y cantidades de individuos. +Tendramos que salir y llevar a cabo un estudio bien amplio, y entendimos que una manera de hacer eso posible, en verdad, es buscar entre adultos que tengan ms de 40 aos y asegurarnos de buscar entre aquellos que fueron sanos de nios. +Podran ser personas con parientes que hubieran tenido enfermedades de nios, pero no necesariamente. +E ir y hacer un tamizaje y encontrar a los portadores de genes de enfermedades infantiles. +Ya alcanzo a ver a algunos de Uds. levantando las manos y diciendo, "Hum!, qu extrao. +Qu evidencia tienen de que esto pudiera ser confiable?" +Les quiero poner dos ejemplos. +El primero viene de San Francisco. +Data de los ochenta y los noventa y es probable que conozcan la historia de unas personas que tenan niveles bien altos de VIH. +Terminaron desarrollando el sida. +Pero haba un pequeo grupo de personas que tambin tenan niveles altos de VIH, +que no desarrollaron sida. +Y unos astutos mdicos clnicos rastrearon aquello y lo que descubrieron fue que ellos portaban mutaciones. +Fjense, portaban mutaciones de nacimiento que eran protectores, que los protegan de desarrollar sida. +Es probable que Uds. tambin sepan que se desarroll una lnea de terapia apoyada en ese hecho. +El segundo ejemplo, ms reciente, es un trabajo elegante hecho por Helen Hobbs, quien dijo, "Voy a buscar personas que tengan niveles bien altos de lpidos, y tratar de encontrar aquellos con altos niveles que no llegaron a desarrollar enfermedades del corazn". +Y una vez ms, ella descubri que algunos de estos individuos tenan mutaciones que eran protectores de nacimiento que los mantuvo sanos a pesar de tener niveles altos de lpidos, y esta puede ser vista como una forma interesante de pensar el desarrollo de terapias preventivas. +El proyecto en el que estamos trabajando se llama "El Proyecto Resiliencia: Una Bsqueda de Hroes inesperados", porque lo que nos interesa saber es, podemos encontrar esos raros individuos que pudieran tener estos factores protectores escondidos? +Y, piensen en ello, de alguna forma, como en un anillo decodificador, una especie de anillo descodificador de resiliencia que estamos tratando de construir. +Entendimos que deberamos hacer esto de manera sistemtica, as que dijimos, tomemos por separado cada enfermedad hereditaria de la niez. +Dnde vamos a buscar? +Bueno, podramos buscar localmente. Eso tiene sentido. +Pero empezamos a pensar que, tal vez, deberamos buscar en todo el mundo. +Que quizs deberamos buscar no solo all, sino tambin en lugares remotos donde podra haber un contexto gentico distinto, donde podra haber factores ambientales que protejan a las personas. +Y buscar entre millones de individuos. +Otra razn es que en los ltimos 5 aos, han surgido herramientas sorprendentes, cosas relacionadas con la biologa en red, la biologa de sistemas, y que nos permiten pensar que, tal vez, podramos descifrar esos positivos atpicos. +Y cuando fuimos por ah, hablando a investigadores e instituciones y contndoles nuestra historia, algo pas. +Empezaron a decirnos cosas como, "Eso es interesante. +Me gustara unirme a su esfuerzo. +Estara encantado de participar". +Y nunca preguntaron, "Dnde est el 'MTA'?" +Nunca preguntaron, "Reconocern mi autora? +Nunca preguntaron, "Esos datos, sern mos?, me pertenecern? +Bsicamente dijeron, "Trabajemos en esto como un equipo social-colaborativo abierto para hacer la descodificacin". +Hace 6 meses, bloqueamos la clave de tamizaje de este descodificador. +Mi colder, un cientfico brillante, Eric Schadt, de la Escuela de Medicina Icahn del Monte Sina en Nueva York, y su equipo congelaron la clave del anillo descodificador y nosotros empezamos a buscar muestras, porque entendimos que, tal vez, podramos solo ir y buscar en algunas muestras existentes para conseguir algn sentido de viabilidad. +Tal vez podramos adelantarnos al proyecto en un 2 o 3 % y ver si lo haba. +Y entonces, les empezamos a preguntar a personas como Hakon del Hospital Infantil de Filadelfia. +Le preguntamos a Leif en Finlandia. +Hablamos con Anne Wojcicki en 23andme, y Wang Jun en el Instituto de Genmica de Pekn, y de nuevo, algo notable pas. +Ellos dijeron, "Hum! No solo tenemos muestras, sino que en muchos casos las hemos analizado, y con mucho gusto entraremos a nuestras muestras annimas y veremos si podemos encontrar lo que Uds. estn buscando". +Y en lugar de 20 000 o 30 000 muestras, el mes pasado superamos el medio milln de muestras analizadas. +Y Uds. se preguntarn, Cmo? Y encontraron hroes inesperados? +Y la respuesta es que no encontramos uno o dos. +Encontramos docenas de fuertes candidatos a hroes inesperados. +As que creemos que este es el momento para lanzar la fase beta de este proyecto y para empezar, en verdad, a hacernos a buenos individuos prospecto. +Bsicamente, todo lo que necesitamos es informacin. +Necesitamos una muestra de ADN y ganas de saber, "Qu hay dentro de m? +Quiero que me lo hagan saber". +La mayora de nosotros pasamos la vida, en lo que tiene que ver con la salud y la enfermedad, creyndonos espectadores. Delegamos la responsabilidad de comprender nuestra enfermedad, de tratarla, a ungidos expertos. +Cules son nuestros genes?", y buscar dentro de nosotros informacin que solamos buscar afuera, con los expertos, y estar dispuestos a compartirla. +Muchas gracias. +Como estudiante de la adversidad, siempre me ha impresionado ver cmo algunas personas que afrontan grandes desafos parecen sacar mucha fuerza de ellos, y de la sabidura popular he escuchado que eso est relacionado con la bsqueda de sentido. +Y por mucho tiempo, pens que el sentido estaba ah, en alguna gran verdad, esperando a ser encontrado. +Pero con el tiempo, he llegado a pensar que la verdad es irrelevante. +Lo llamamos la bsqueda de sentido, pero sera mejor llamarlo forjar sentido. +Son un regalo, porque eso es lo que hemos elegido". +Tomamos esas decisiones siempre en la vida. +Cuando estaba en segundo grado, a Bobby Finkel le hicieron una fiesta de cumpleaos e invit a todos los compaeros de la clase, menos a m. +Mi mam supuso que haba habido un error, y llam a la seora Finkel, que le dijo que yo no le caa bien a Bobby y que no me quera invitar a su fiesta. +Ese da, mi madre me llev al zoolgico y a comer helado. +Cuando estaba en sptimo grado, uno de los chicos del autobs escolar me apod "Percy", como diminutivo de mi forma de ser, y a veces, l y sus compinches lo coreaban durante todo el trayecto, 45 minutos de ida, 45 de vuelta, "Percy! Percy! Percy! Percy!" +Cuando estaba en octavo grado, el profesor de ciencias nos dijo que todos los hombres homosexuales desarrollan incontinencia fecal debido a un debilitamiento del esfnter. +Y me gradu de la escuela secundaria sin haber ido nunca a la cafetera, porque de haberme sentado con las chicas se habran burlado de m por eso, y de haberme sentado con los chicos se habran burlado por ser un chico que debera sentarse con las chicas. +Sobreviv a esa infancia con una mezcla de evasin y resistencia. +Lo que no saba entonces y ahora s, es que la evasin y la resistencia pueden ser la puerta de entrada para forjar sentido. +Despus de haber forjado sentido, hay que incorporarlo a una nueva identidad. +Hay que afrontar los traumas y hacerlos parte de lo que llegamos a ser. Es necesario transformar los peores acontecimientos de nuestra vida en un relato de triunfo, dando expresin a un mejor autoconcepto en respuesta a las cosas que hieren. +Otra de las madres a las que entrevist cuando escriba mi libro la violaron cuando era adolescente, y fruto de esa violacin, tuvo una hija que le arruin sus planes de carrera y da todas sus relaciones afectivas. +Pero cuando la conoc, tena 50 aos, y le pregunt: "Piensas mucho en el hombre que te viol?" +Y ella respondi: "Antes pensaba en l con ira, pero ahora solo con lstima". +Pens que quera decir con lstima por ser alguien capaz de hacer algo tan terrible. +Y le dije: "Lstima? +Y ella: "S, porque tiene una hermosa hija y dos hermosos nietos y l no lo sabe, en cambio yo s. +O sea que yo soy la afortunada". +Algunas de nuestras luchas son cosas con las que nacemos: gnero, sexualidad, raza, discapacidad. +Y otras son cosas que nos suceden: ser un preso poltico, vctima de una violacin o un sobreviviente del huracn Katrina. +La identidad comporta entrar en una comunidad para recibir su fuerza y tambin darle fuerza. +Consiste en reemplazar "pero" por "y". No es: "Estoy aqu pero tengo cncer", sino ms bien: "Tengo cncer y estoy aqu". +Sentir vergenza nos impide contar nuestras historias, y las historias son la base de la identidad. +Forjar sentido, construir identidad, forjar sentido y construir identidad, +Eso se convirti en mi mantra. +Forjar sentido consiste en cambiarse a uno mismo. +Construir identidad consiste en cambiar el mundo. +Todos nosotros con identidades estigmatizadas enfrentamos esta pregunta diariamente: En qu medida nos reprimimos para tener cabida en la sociedad, y hasta qu punto se deben romper los lmites de lo que constituye una vida adecuada? +Forjar sentido y construir identidad no hace que lo que est mal est bien. +Solo hace precioso lo que estaba mal. +En enero de este ao, fui a Myanmar a entrevistar presos polticos, y me sorprendi encontrarlos con menos rencor de lo que pensaba. +La mayora haba cometido intencionalmente los delitos que les haba llevado a la crcel. Entraban con la frente alta, y salan con la frente todava alta muchos aos despus. +La Dra. Ma Thida, una destacada activista de derechos humanos que estuvo a punto de morir en la crcel y que pas varios aos en rgimen de aislamiento, me dijo que estaba agradecida con sus carceleros por el tiempo que haba tenido para pensar, por la sabidura que haba adquirido, por la oportunidad de perfeccionar sus tcnicas de meditacin. +Haba buscado el sentido y encontr la identidad a partir del sufrimiento. +Pero si la gente que conoc tena menos rencor de lo que pensaba por estar en la crcel, tambin estaba menos entusiasmada de lo esperado por el proceso de reforma iniciado en su pas. +Ma Thida dijo: "Los birmanos nos destacamos por nuestra extraordinaria elegancia bajo presin, pero bajo el encanto tambin hay disgusto", y aadi: "y el hecho de que se hayan producido estos cambios y transformaciones no elimina los problemas crnicos de nuestra sociedad que aprendimos tan bien mientras estbamos en la crcel". +Y entend cuando deca que las concesiones conferan solo un poco de humanidad donde debera haber plena humanidad, que las migajas no son lo mismo que un puesto en la mesa, es decir, podemos forjar sentido y construir identidad y an as estar indignados. +Nunca he sido violado, y nunca he estado en nada que se aproxime a una crcel birmana, sin embargo, como gay estadounidense, he sido vctima de prejuicios y hasta de odio, y he forjado sentido y construido identidad, que es algo que aprend de personas que han experimentado privaciones mucho peores de las que yo haya conocido. +En mi adolescencia, llegu a los extremos de intentar de ser heterosexual. +Me inscrib en algo llamado terapia de sustitucin sexual, donde personas que se hacan llamar doctores recetaban lo que me hacan llamar ejercicios con mujeres que me hacan llamar sustitutas, que no eran precisamente prostitutas pero no eran exactamente otra cosa. +Mi favorita era una rubia del Sur profundo que despus me confes que en realidad era necrfila y haba asumido ese trabajo luego de tener problemas en el depsito de cadveres. +Estas experiencias me permitieron finalmente establecer relaciones fsicas felices con mujeres, por lo cual estoy agradecido, pero yo estaba en guerra conmigo mismo y cav profundas heridas en mi psique. +No buscamos experiencias dolorosas que den forma a nuestra identidad, pero s buscamos nuestra identidad tras las experiencias dolorosas. +No podemos soportar un tormento sin sentido, pero podemos aguantar un gran dolor si creemos que tiene un propsito. +Lo fcil nos marca menos que la dificultad. +Podramos ser nosotros mismos sin nuestras alegras, pero no sin las desgracias que guan nuestra bsqueda de sentido. +"Por eso me regocijo en debilidades", escribi San Pablo en la 2 epstola a los corintios, "porque cuando soy dbil, entonces soy fuerte". +En 1988 fui a Mosc a entrevistar a artistas en la clandestinidad sovitica, y esperaba que su obra sera disidente y poltica. +Pero el radicalismo en su obra realmente consista en reinsertar humanidad en una sociedad que se estaba aniquilando as misma, como, de alguna manera, lo est haciendo de nuevo la sociedad rusa. +Uno de los artistas que conoc me dijo: "No estbamos entrenados para ser artistas sino ngeles". +En 1991 volv para ver a los artistas de los que haba estado escribiendo, y estuve con ellos durante el golpe que puso fin a la Unin Sovitica. Ellos estaban entre los principales organizadores de la resistencia a ese golpe. +Y al tercer da del golpe, uno de ellos sugiri que caminramos hasta Smolenskaya. +All fuimos, y nos colocamos delante de una de las barricadas. Un poco ms tarde, lleg una columna de tanques, y el soldado del tanque de adelante dijo: "Tenemos rdenes estrictas de destruir esta barricada. +Si se quitan del medio no les haremos dao, pero si se quedan ah, no nos quedar ms remedio que usar la fuerza". +Y los artistas con los que estaba dijeron: "Denos solo un minuto. +Solo un minuto para decirle el porqu estamos aqu". +El soldado cruz los brazos, y el artista se lanz en un discurso sobre la democracia digno de Jefferson, de esos que incluso a nosotros que vivimos en una democracia jeffersoniana nos sera difcil exponer. +Siguieron y siguieron y el soldado miraba, y luego se sent ah por un minuto despus de que terminaron, mirndonos bajo la lluvia empapados, y dijo: "Lo que han dicho es cierto, hay que inclinarse ante la voluntad del pueblo. +Si dejan espacio suficiente para darnos la vuelta, regresamos por donde vinimos". +Y eso hicieron. +A veces, forjar sentido puede darnos el vocabulario necesario para luchar por nuestra mxima libertad. +Rusia me dej claro que la opresin crea el deseo de oponerse a ella, y poco a poco entend que ese era el pilar de la identidad. +La identidad me salv de la tristeza. +El movimiento por los derechos de los homosexuales propone un mundo donde mis desviaciones son una victoria. +Las identidades polticas siempre trabajan en dos frentes: valorar a las personas con una determinada condicin o caracterstica, y hacer que el mundo exterior les trate ms amablemente. +Se trata de dos situaciones totalmente distintas, pero el progreso en una de las esferas hace eco en la otra. +Las polticas de la identidad pueden ser narcisistas. +La gente ensalza una diferencia solo porque es suya. +Se congrega en pequeos grupos discretos sin empata hacia los dems. +Pero correctamente entendidas y sabiamente practicadas, las polticas de identidad deberan ampliar nuestra idea de lo que significa ser humano. +La identidad en s no debera ser una etiqueta arrogante o una medalla de oro, sino una revolucin. +Habra tenido una vida ms fcil si hubiese sido heterosexual, pero no sera yo, y ahora me gusta ms ser lo que soy que la idea de ser otra persona, alguien que, honestamente, no tengo ni la opcin de ser ni la capacidad plena de imaginar. +Pero si ahuyentamos los dragones, ahuyentamos los hroes, y nos apegamos al esfuerzo heroico de nuestra propia vida. +A veces me he preguntado si podra haber dejado de odiar esa parte de m sin la colorida fiesta del orgullo gay, de la cual este discurso es una expresin. +Algn da, ser gay ser un simple hecho, libre de burlas y recriminaciones, pero no todava. +Un amigo mo que pensaba que el orgullo gay era algo exagerado, una vez sugiri que organizramos la Semana de la Humildad Gay. +Es una gran idea, pero su momento an no ha llegado. +Y la imparcialidad, que parece encontrarse entre la desesperacin y la celebracin, es en realidad el final del juego. +En 29 estados de EEUU, me pueden despedir legalmente o negar una vivienda por ser gay. +En Rusia, la ley antipropaganda ha llevado a que la gente sea golpeada en la calle. +Veintisiete pases africanos han aprobado leyes contra la sodoma, y en Nigeria, los gays pueden ser legalmente lapidados hasta la muerte, y los linchamientos se han vuelto frecuentes. +Hace poco en Arabia Saudita, dos hombres que fueron capturados en actos carnales, fueron condenados a 7000 latigazos cada uno, y como consecuencia quedaron discapacitados de por vida. +Quin puede entonces forjar sentido y construir identidad? +Los derechos primordiales de los homosexuales no es el derecho a contraer matrimonio, y para los millones de personas que viven en lugares marcados por la intolerancia, sin recursos, la dignidad sigue siendo un sueo lejano. +Tengo la suerte de haber forjado sentido y haber construido identidad, pero ese todava es un raro privilegio, y los homosexuales merecen ms colectivamente que las migajas de la justicia. +Y an as, cada paso adelante es muy dulce. +En 2007, seis aos despus de conocernos, mi pareja y yo decidimos casarnos. +Conocer a John fue el descubrimiento de una gran felicidad y tambin la eliminacin de una gran infelicidad. A veces, estaba tan ocupado haciendo desaparecer todo ese dolor que me olvidaba de la alegra, que al principio era la parte que menos me destacaba. +Casarnos fue una forma de declarar nuestro amor ms como una presencia que una ausencia. +El matrimonio nos llev pronto a los hijos, y eso significaba nuevos sentidos y nuevas identidades, la nuestra y la de ellos. +Quiero que mis hijos sean felices, y los amo con ms dolor cuando estn tristes. +Como padre homosexual, puedo ensearles a reconocer lo que est mal en su vida, pero creo que si logro protegerlos de la adversidad, habr fracasado como padre. +Un erudito budista me explic una vez que los occidentales creen errneamente que el nirvana llega cuando nuestra afliccin queda atrs y solo tenemos que esperar la dicha. +Pero eso no sera el nirvana, porque la dicha del presente estara siempre ensombrecida por la alegra del pasado. +El nirvana, dijo, llega cuando tenemos solo que esperar la dicha y hallamos, en lo que parecan penas, las semillas de nuestra alegra. +Y a veces me pregunto si hubiese podido encontrar tal grado de plenitud en el matrimonio y los hijos si hubiesen llegado ms fcilmente, si hubiese sido heterosexual en mi juventud o fuera joven ahora, en ambos casos habra sido ms fcil. +Tal vez hubiese sido as. +Tal vez todos los pensamientos complejos que he hecho se podran aplicar a otras situaciones. +Pero si buscar sentido importa ms que encontrar sentido, la pregunta no es si yo sera ms feliz por haber sido acosado, sino si asignar sentido a estas experiencias me ha hecho mejor padre. +Tiendo a encontrar el xtasis en las alegras comunes, porque no esperaba que esas alegras fueran comunes para m. +Conozco a muchos heterosexuales que tambin tienen matrimonios y familias felices, pero el matrimonio gay es tan increblemente reciente, y las familias gays tan emocionantemente nuevas, que encontr sentido en esa sorpresa. +En octubre cumpl 50 aos, y mi familia me organiz una fiesta, y en medio de ella, mi hijo le dijo a mi esposo que quera hacer un discurso, y John le dijo: "George, no puedes hacer un discurso. Solo tienes 4 aos". +"Solo el abuelo, el to David y yo haremos discursos esta noche". +Pero George insisti e insisti, y finalmente, John lo acerc al micrfono, y George dijo en voz muy alta: "Seoras y seores, su atencin por favor". +Y todos se dieron vuelta, sorprendidos. +Y George dijo: "Me alegro porque es el cumpleaos de pap. +Me alegro que todos tengamos torta. +Y pap, si t fueras pequeo, yo sera tu amigo". +Y pens: "Gracias". +Pens que estaba en deuda incluso con Bobby Finkel, porque todas esas experiencias pasadas fueron las que me condujeron a este momento, y por fin estaba incondicionalmente agradecido por una vida que en alguna ocasin habra hecho cualquier cosa por cambiar. +Al activista gay Harvey Milk una vez le pregunt un chico gay ms joven lo que poda hacer para ayudar al movimiento, y Harvey Milk le contest: "Ve y dselo a alguien". +Siempre hay alguien que quiere apoderarse de nuestra humanidad, y siempre hay historias que nos la devuelven. +Si vivimos bien con nosotros mismos, podemos derrotar el odio y enriquecer la vida del prjimo. +Forjar sentido. Construir identidad. +Forjar sentido. +Construir identidad. +Y luego inviten al mundo a compartir su alegra. +Gracias. +Gracias. Gracias. Gracias. +Me emociona estar aqu para hablar de los veteranos porque no ingres al ejrcito porque quisiera ir a la guerra. +No ingres al ejrcito porque tuviera el deseo o la necesidad de ir al extranjero y combatir. +Para ser sincero, ingres al ejrcito porque la universidad es realmente muy cara y el ejrcito iba a ayudarme a pagarla, y tambin ingres al ejrcito porque era algo que conoca y era algo conocido que cre que podra hacer bien. +No provengo de una familia de militares. +No soy hijo de militares. +Nadie en mi familia jams estuvo en al ejrcito, y mi primer contacto con el ejrcito fue cuando tena 13 aos y me enviaron a una escuela militar porque mi mam me haba advertido que me enviara a una escuela militar desde que tena ocho aos. +Era un poco problemtico cuando estaba creciendo y mi madre siempre me deca cosas como: "Si no cambias tu actitud te enviar a una escuela militar". +Yo la miraba y le deca: "Mami voy a esforzarme ms". +Luego, cuando tena 9 aos, comenz a darme folletos para probarme que no estaba bromeando, yo los miraba y le deca: "Bien, mami, veo que es en serio y voy a esforzarme ms". +Y, luego, cuando tena 10 u 11 aos, mi comportamiento sigui empeorando. +Estaba en probatoria acadmica y disciplinaria, antes de cumplir los 10 aos, y a los 11 aos tena esposas en las muecas. +Entonces, cuando tena 13 aos, mi madre se me acerc y me dijo: "No voy a hacer esto de nuevo. +Te enviar a la escuela militar". +Yo la mir y le dije: "Mami, entiendo que ests molesta y voy a esforzarme ms". +Y me dijo: "No, te vas la semana prxima". +Y as fue como tuve mi primer contacto con el ejrcito, porque ella pens que era una buena idea. +No poda estar ms en desacuerdo cuando entr all por primera vez, porque durante los primeros cuatro das ya me haba escapado cinco veces. +Tena esas grandes puertas metlicas negras que la rodeaban y en cuanto los militares se daban vuelta simplemente las cruzaba y aceptaba su oferta de que podamos irnos cuando ya no quisiramos estar all. +Y yo pensaba: "Bueno, si as son las cosas, entonces quiero irme". Nunca funcion. +Y continu yndome. +Pero finalmente luego de estar all por un tiempo, y luego de terminar el primer ao en esta escuela militar, me di cuenta de que estaba madurando. +Entonces, cuando lleg el verdadero momento de terminar la secundaria, comenc a pensar qu quera hacer, y, al igual que probablemente la mayora de los estudiantes, no saba qu significaba eso ni qu quera hacer. +Pens en todas las personas que respetaba y admiraba. +Pens en muchas personas, en particular en muchos de los hombres, que conoca, y que admiraba. +Todos ellos usaban el uniforme de los Estados Unidos de Amrica, entonces, la pregunta y su respuesta se volvieron mucho ms fciles. +La pregunta "Qu quiero hacer?" fue respondida muy fcilmente con "Supongo que ser oficial del ejrcito". +Entonces, comenz en el ejrcito el proceso de mi entrenamiento, y cuando digo que no entr al ejrcito porque quisiera ir a la guerra, la verdad es que ingres en 1996. +En ese entonces, no estaba sucediendo mucho. +Nunca me sent en peligro. +Cuando fui donde mi madre, ya que como tena 17 aos necesitaba su permiso para entrar al ejrcito, ella pens que eran papeleos similares a los de la escuela militar. +Ella pens: "Le hizo bien antes as que lo dejar continuar con esto", sin saber que al firmar esos papeles en realidad estaba inscribiendo a su hijo para que se convirtiera en oficial del ejrcito. +Luego, comenz todo ese proceso, y yo segua pensando: "Esto es genial. Quizs tendr que estar de servicio algn fin de semana, o dos semanas en el ao, hacer simulacros". Sin embargo, un par de aos despus de inscribirme, un par de aos despus de que mi madre firmara esos papeles, el mundo cambi por completo. +Luego del 11 de septiembre, el contexto de la profesin que haba elegido era completamente distinto. +Cuando ingres no tena pensado combatir, pero ahora que ya estaba dentro, eso era exactamente lo que iba a suceder. +Y pens mucho en los soldados que finalmente me tocara liderar. +Recuerdo que muy poco despus del 11 de septiembre, 3 semanas despus estaba en un avin hacia el extranjero, pero no iba al extranjero con el ejrcito iba porque me dieron una beca para ir al extranjero. +Estaban a punto de hallarse en el medio de lugares que la mayora de la gente, y que la mayora de nosotros durante el entrenamiento, no podamos ni siquiera ubicar en el mapa. +Esa era la nueva realidad. +Cuando termin mis estudios y me reun con mi unidad militar para desplegarnos hacia Afganistn, haba soldados en mi unidad que se encontraban en su segundo o tercer despliegue antes de que yo realizara el primero. +Recuerdo salir con mi unidad por primera vez, y cuando uno se une al ejrcito y realiza sus recorridos de combate, todos te miran el hombro porque all se encuentra tu insignia de combate. +Entonces, apenas uno conoce gente, les das la mano, y tus ojos se dirigen a su hombro porque uno quiere saber en qu combates estuvieron o en qu unidad estuvieron, +y yo era el nico que caminaba con el hombro vaco, y eso me avergonzaba cada vez que alguien me miraba. +Pero uno tiene la oportunidad de hablar con sus soldados y preguntarles por qu se alistaron en el ejrcito. +Yo me alist porque la universidad era cara. +Muchos de mis soldados lo hicieron por razones totalmente diferentes. +Porque sintieron la obligacin de hacerlo. +Porque estaban enojados y queran hacer algo al respecto. +Porque sus familias les dijeron que era importante. +Porque queran algn tipo de venganza. +Lo hicieron por muy diferentes razones. +Y, entonces, estbamos en el extranjero luchando en estas guerras. +Y lo que me resultaba increble era mi inocencia al or una frase que nunca comprend del todo, porque despus del 11 de septiembre la gente se te acerca y te dice: "Bueno, gracias por sus servicios". +Yo les segua la corriente y comenc a decirles lo mismo a mis soldados. +Esto incluso antes de mi primer despliegue. +Pero en realidad no tena idea de su significado. +Simplemente la deca porque sonaba bien. +La deca porque pareca correcto decrsela a aqullos que combatieron el extranjero. +"Gracias por sus servicios". +Pero no tena idea del contexto, ni siquiera tena idea de qu significaba para los que la escuchaban. +Cuando volv de Afganistn, pensaba que si lograbas volver de la guerra entonces los peligros se haban acabado. +Pensaba que si lograbas volver de una zona de conflicto de algn modo podas limpiarte el sudor de la frente y decir: "Me alegra haber esquivado esa bala", sin entender que para muchos soldados cuando vuelven a casa la guerra contina. +Contina en nuestras mentes. +Contina en nuestras memorias. +Contina en nuestras emociones. +Disclpennos si no nos gusta estar en grandes multitudes. +Disclpennos si pasamos una semana en un lugar con luces militares. Porque en la guerra no se puede caminar con luces blancas, porque si algo tiene luces blancas se puede ver a kilmetros de distancia, pero si se usan luces verdes o azules pequeas estas no pueden verse desde lejos. +Entonces, disclpennos si, de repente, pasamos de estar con luces militares a caminar una semana despus por el medio de Times Square, y nos cuesta acostumbrarnos. +Disclpennos si al volver a nuestra familia, que se las ha ingeniado para funcionar sin nosotros, nos resulta difcil volver a la normalidad porque nuestra idea de normalidad ha cambiado. +Recuerdo que cuando volv quera hablar con la gente. +Quera que me preguntaran por mis experiencias. +Quera que se me acercaran y me preguntaran: "Qu hiciste all?" +Quera que la gente me preguntara: "Cmo era todo all? Qu tal la comida? Cmo era la experiencia? Cmo ests?" +Y la nica pregunta que me hicieron fue: "Le disparaste a alguien?" +Y eso, en el caso de los que eran lo suficientemente curiosos para decir algo. +Porque a veces la gente siente miedo o recelo de decir algo que pueda ofender al otro o teme desencadenar alguna reaccin, entonces la nica opcin es no decir nada. +El problema con eso es que uno siente que su servicio ni es siquiera reconocido, como si a nadie le importa. +"Gracias por sus servicios", y seguimos con nuestras vidas. +Lo que quera entender mejor era el significado detrs de esa frase y por qu "Gracias por sus servicios" no es suficiente. +El hecho es que tenemos 2,6 millones de hombres y mujeres que son veteranos de Irak o Afganistn entre nosotros. +A veces sabemos quines son, a veces no lo sabemos, pero tenemos ese sentimiento, la experiencia compartida, ese lazo que nos une y que nos indica que aunque esa experiencia, y ese captulo de nuestras vidas, est cerrado, an no se acaba. +Cuando pensamos en "Gracias por sus servicios", y la gente nos pregunta: "Qu significa para Uds.?" +Para m "Gracias por sus servicios" significa reconocer nuestras historias, preguntarnos quines somos, comprender la fuerza que muchos de los que combaten con nosotros tienen y por qu ese servicio tiene tanta importancia. +"Gracias por sus servicios" significa reconocer que el hecho de que hayamos vuelto a casa y nos hayamos quitado el uniforme no quiere decir que nuestro servicio a este pas est de algn modo terminado. +En realidad, an hay muchsimo para ofrecer y brindar a la comunidad. +Uno conoce personas como nuestro amigo Taylor Urruela, que perdi su pierna en Irak. l tena dos grandes sueos. +Uno era ser soldado. El otro era ser jugador de baseball. +Pierde su pierna en Irak. +Vuelve de all y en lugar de decidir que como perdi su pierna su segundo sueo es imposible, decide que an suea con ser un jugador de baseball y arma un grupo de deportes para veteranos, que ahora incluye a veteranos de todo el pas y utiliza el deporte como una terapia. +Personas como Tammy Duckworth, que era piloto de helicpteros. Y en el tipo de helicpteros que manejaba era necesario usar ambas manos y piernas para dirigirlo. Su helicptero recibi un impacto y ella intentaba dirigirlo pero el helicptero no obedeca sus instrucciones y rdenes. +Ella intenta aterrizar de modo seguro pero el helicptero no la obedece, y no le obedece porque no responde a las rdenes que le dan sus piernas porque haba perdido sus dos piernas. +Apenas logra sobrevivir. +Los mdicos logran salvarle la vida pero, a medida que se recupera en su hogar, se da cuenta de que su servicio an no estaba concluido. +Y ahora trabaja como congresista por Illinois y lucha por la inclusin de los asuntos de veteranos en la agenda poltica. +Ingresamos al ejrcito porque amamos el pas que representamos. +Nos unimos al ejrcito porque creemos en los ideales y porque creemos en las personas a nuestro alrededor. +Esas son las personas con las que luch y esas son las personas a las que respeto. +As que "Gracias por sus servicios". +De nia, siempre imagin que un da escapara de casa. +A partir de los 6 aos, tuve una maleta llena de ropa y latas de comida guardada al fondo de un armario. +Senta una inquietud, un temor primitivo de ser vctima de la rutina y el aburrimiento. +Por eso, muchos de mis primeros recuerdos son de sueos de cruzar fronteras, buscar bayas, y conocer a gente extraa con vidas inusuales de vagabundo. +Aos despus, las aventuras sobre las que fantaseaba de nia, de viajar y desplazarme entre mundos distintos al mo, se hicieron realidad por medio de la fotografa documental. +Ninguna otra experiencia ha cumplido los sueos de mi infancia como convivir y documentar las vidas de vagabundos estadounidenses. +Este es el sueo nmada, otro sueo estadounidense que experimentan los desamparados, viajeros, autoestopistas, vagabundos y nmadas. +En nuestras mentes, el vagabundo es una criatura del pasado. +Nos hace pensar a blanco y negro sobre un anciano abrigado y cansado, en un vagn de tren, pero estas fotografas a color representan una comunidad que se desplaza por el pas, ferozmente viva y creativamente libre, con vistas de EE.UU. que otros no ven. +Como antes, los nmadas de la actualidad fluyen dentro de las arterias de acero y asfalto de Estados Unidos. +De da, saltan vagones de tren, sacan el pulgar, y viajan con cualquiera, desde camioneros hasta madres de familia. +De noche, duermen juntos bajo las estrellas, con sus manadas de perros, gatos, y ratas entre s. +Algunos eligen viajar y renuncian al materialismo, el empleo, +y la educacin por un poco de aventura. Otros proceden del margen de la sociedad, sin oportunidades para avanzar: desertores de la adopcin, adolescentes que huyen del abuso y de hogares crueles. +Aunque otros ven historias de carencia y fracaso econmico, ellos perciben sus vidas por el prisma de la liberacin y la libertad. +Preferiran vivir de los excesos de una sociedad consumidora que consideran derrochadora que esclavizarse por un sueo estadounidense improbable. +Se aprovechan de que en Estados Unidos el 40 % de los alimentos termina en la basura y encuentran productos agrcolas de buena calidad en basureros y botes de basura. +Sacrifican la comodidad material por el tiempo y el espacio para explorar el interior creativo, para soar, leer, y crear msica, arte y literatura. +Pero este estilo de vida no siempre es color de rosa. +Nadie pierde sus demonios en la vida de vagabundo. +La adiccin es real, la naturaleza es real, los trenes mutilan y matan, y en las calles hay testigos de la larga lista de leyes que criminaliza la existencia nmada. +Saban que en muchas ciudades de Estados Unidos es ilegal sentarse en la acera, taparse con una cobija, dormir en el coche, u ofrecerle comida a un extrao? +Conozco estas leyes porque he visto como multan y encarcelan a mis amigos y a otros viajeros por cometer estos supuestos crmenes. +Muchos de Uds. se preguntan por qu alguien querra vivir as, oprimidos por leyes discriminatorias, comiendo de la basura, durmiendo bajo puentes, y trabajando de vez en cuando. +La respuesta es tan diversa como la misma comunidad de viajeros, pero ellos siempre responden con una sola palabra: "libertad". +A menos de que la sociedad se asegure de que cada persona pueda tener un trabajo digno para poder vivir bien, no solo sobrevivir, siempre existirn aquellos que vern las calles como un medio de escape, de liberacin y de rebelin. +Gracias. +Algunos de mis primeros recuerdos son de barcos gigantes que bloqueaban el final de mi calle, as como el sol, gran parte del ao. +De nio, cada maana vea miles de hombres caminar por esa colina, yendo a trabajar al astillero. +Vea esos mismos hombres regresar a sus hogares caminando cada noche. +Hay que decirlo: el astillero no era el mejor lugar para vivir al lado ni para trabajar, ciertamente. +El astillero era ruidoso, peligroso, altamente txico, con un registro de salud y seguridad espantoso. +A pesar de eso, los hombres y las mujeres que trabajaban en esos barcos estaban muy orgullosos del trabajo que hacan, y con razn. +Muchas de las naves ms grandes construidas en el planeta Tierra se hicieron en el final de mi calle. +Mi abuelo haba sido carpintero de ribera, y de nio, dado que haba pocos empleos distintos en el pueblo, me preguntaba con preocupacin si ese sera tambin mi destino . +Yo estaba abiertamente decidido a que no lo fuera. +Tena otros sueos, no necesariamente prcticos, pero a los 8 aos, recib como legado una guitarra. +Estaba vieja y maltratada, tena 5 cuerdas oxidadas y estaba desafinada, pero en seguida aprend a tocarla y me di cuenta de que sera mi amiga de por vida, mi cmplice y aliada en mi plan de escapar de este paisaje industrial surrealista. +Bueno, dicen que si sueas algo muy intensamente se har realidad. +Sea por eso, o porque tuve mucha suerte, este era mi sueo. +Soaba con dejar este pueblo y, al igual que esas naves, una vez que me lanzara, nunca regresara. +Hasta ahora, todo bien, no? Y luego un da, las canciones dejaron de venir, y cuando uno ya has sufrido perodos de bloqueo creativo, aunque hayan sido breves, esto es algo crnico. +Da tras da, uno enfrenta la hoja en blanco, y no viene nada. +Los das se hacen semanas, y las semanas, meses; y muy pronto esos meses se hacen aos y hay poco que mostrar para tanto esfuerzo. No hay canciones. +Entonces, uno empieza a hacerse preguntas. +Qu he hecho para ofender a los dioses y que me abandonen as? +Se quita el don para componer canciones tan fcilmente como parece haber sido concedido? +O quiz exista una razn psicolgica ms profunda. +Siempre fue un pacto fustico de todos modos. +A uno se lo recompensa por revelar los pensamientos ms ntimos, por volcar las emociones privadas en la pgina para entretener a los otros, para el anlisis, el escrutinio de otros, y quiz uno dio ya bastante de lo privado. +Y, sin embargo, si uno mira su trabajo, podra sostenerse que el mejor trabajo no fue sobre uno, en absoluto, sino sobre otra persona? +Tu mejor trabajo ocurri cuando te apartaste de tu propio ego y dejaste de contar tu historia para contar la de otra persona, alguien que quiz no tiene voz, cuando empticamente te pusiste en sus zapatos un momento o viste el mundo a travs de sus ojos? +Bueno, dicen, escribe lo que sabes. +Si ya no puedes escribir sobre ti, entonces sobre quin escribir? +Por eso es irnico que ese paisaje del que quise escapar con tanto esfuerzo y esa comunidad a la que ms o menos abandon y de la que me exili, fuera el mismo paisaje, la misma comunidad a la que habra de regresar para encontrar mi musa perdida. +Y tan pronto como lo hice, tan pronto como decid honrar a la comunidad de la que vengo y contar su historia, las canciones empezaron a brotar a borbotones, rpido. +Lo he descrito como una especie de vmito explosivo, un torrente de ideas, personajes, voces, versos, coplas, canciones enteras, casi terminadas, que se materializaron delante mo como si hubieran estado encerradas en mi interior durante muchos, muchos aos. +Una de las primeras cosas que hice fue escribir una lista de nombres de personas que conoca, y se transformaron en personajes de una especie de drama tridimensional, en el que contaban quines son, qu hacen, sus esperanzas y sus temores por el futuro. +Este es Jackie White. +Es el presidente del astillero. +"Mi nombre es Jackie White, soy capataz aqu as que no se metan con Jackie en este muelle. +Soy fuerte como una placa de hierro. Ay de ti si llegas tarde cuando tenemos que empujar un barco en la marea de primavera! +Ahora puedes morir y esperar el cielo, pero tienes que trabajar tu turno, y espero que nos sigas a capa y espada, porque si San Pedro en su puerta te preguntara por qu llegas tarde, por qu, dile que tenas que terminar un barco. +Esta cancin se titula "Las botas del muerto", y es una expresin que describe lo difcil que es conseguir un empleo; en otras palabras, uno solo consigue un empleo en el astillero si alguien muere. +O quiz tu padre podra hacerte entrar de aprendiz a los 15 aos. +Pero, a veces, el amor de un padre puede malinterpretarse como control, y, por el contrario, la ambicin del hijo puede parecer una fantasa de castillos en el aire. +Cada vez que botaban una nave grande, invitaban a algn dignatario de Londres al tren para dar un discurso, romper una botella de champn, lanzarlo por la grada en el ro y hacia el mar. +De vez en cuando, si era un barco realmente importante, invitaban a un miembro de la familia real, al duque de Edimburgo, a la princesa Ana, o a alguien. +Y deben recordar que hasta no hace tanto tiempo se crea que la familia real de Inglaterra tena poderes mgicos de sanacin. +Se levantaba a los nios enfermos entre las multitudes para tratar de que toquen el manto del rey o de la reina para curarlos de alguna enfermedad terrible. +No era tan as en mi poca, pero igual nos entusiasmbamos mucho. +Entonces, es da del botadura, sbado. Mi madre me visti con la mejor ropa de domingo. +No estoy muy contento con ella. +Todos los nios estn en la calle, tenemos banderitas para agitar, y en la cima de la colina, aparece un cortejo en motocicleta. +En medio de las motocicletas, hay un gran Rolls-Royce negro. +Dentro del Rolls-Royce est la Reina Madre. +Es algo importante. +La procesin se mueve con paso ritmo majestuoso por mi calle, y cuando se acerca a mi casa, empiezo a agitar mi bandera con fuerza, y all est la Reina Madre. +La veo, y ella parece verme. +Me responde. Me saluda con la mano, y sonre. +Y yo agito mi bandera an ms vigorosamente. +Estamos teniendo un momento, la Reina Madre y yo. +Ella me salud. +Y luego se ha ido. +Bueno, no me cur de nada. +Fue al revs, en realidad. +Me infect. +Me infect con una idea: +No pertenezco a esta calle. +No quiero vivir en esa casa. +Yo no quiero terminar en ese astillero. +Quiero estar en ese auto. Quiero una vida ms grande. +Quiero una vida ms all de esta ciudad. +Quiero una vida fuera de lo comn. +Es mi derecho. +Tengo tanto derecho como ella. +Por eso estoy aqu en TED, supongo que para contar esa historia, y creo apropiado decir lo obvio, que hay un vnculo simbitico e intrnseco entre contar historias y la comunidad, entre la comunidad y el arte, entre la comunidad, la ciencia y la tecnologa, entre la comunidad y la economa. +Yo creo que la teora econmica abstracta que niega las necesidades de la comunidad o que niega la contribucin que hace la comunidad a la economa es miope, cruel e insostenible. +De hecho, sea uno una estrella de rock o soldador en un astillero, miembro de una tribu en el Amazonas, o la reina de Inglaterra, al fin de cuentas, estamos todos en el mismo barco. +Gracias. Gracias. +Bueno, tienen que participar si la saben. +Es muy fcil. Canten al unsono. +Aqu vamos. + Enviando un SOS. Ahora, vamos. +La gente habla sobre religin todo el tiempo. +El gran Christopher Hitchens de la ltima etapa escribi un libro llamado "Dios no es Genial" cuyo subttulo era: "La religin lo arruina todo". +Pero el mes pasado, en la revista Time, el rabino David Wolpe, a quien se refieren como el rabino de EE. UU., dijo, para contraponer con aquella descripcin negativa, que ninguna forma de cambio social importante puede producirse si no es a travs de la religin organizada. +Las observaciones de este tipo sobre el lado bueno y el lado malo son muy viejas. +Ha habido largos debates a travs de los siglos, en ese caso podemos decir por milenios, sobre religin. +La gente ha hablado muchsimo del tema y se han dicho cosas malas, buenas y mediocres de ella. +De lo que quiero convencerlos hoy es de una afirmacin muy sencilla: que estos debates son en cierto sentido absurdos, porque no existe algo como la religin, y por eso no podemos hacer estas afirmaciones. +No hay una cosa llamada religin, y por ende no puede ser ni buena ni mala. +Ni siquiera puede ser mediocre. +Y si piensan en las afirmaciones sobre la inexistencia de las cosas, un modo obvio de tratar de determinar la inexistencia de la supuesta cosa sera dar una definicin de esa cosa y luego ver si hay algo que cumpla los requisitos. +Me voy a adentrar en esa ruta para comenzar. +Si buscan en los diccionarios y si lo piensan, una definicin muy natural de religin es que supone la creencia en dioses o en seres espirituales. +Como dije, esto aparece en muchos diccionarios, pero tambin pueden encontrarlo en la obra de Sir Edward Tylor, el primer profesor de antropologa de Oxford, uno de los primeros antroplogos modernos. +En su libro sobre las culturas primitivas, dice que lo central en la religin es lo que l llama animismo, es decir, creer en agentes espirituales, creer en los espritus. +El primer problema planteado a esta definicin aparece en una novela nueva de Paul Beatty llamada "Tuff". +Hay un tipo hablando con un rabino. +El rabino dice que no cree en Dios. +El tipo dice: "Ud. es rabino: cmo puede ser que no crea en Dios?" +Y la respuesta es: "Por eso est tan bueno ser judo. +Parece ser una reflexin reida con el sentido comn. +Aqu hay otro argumento en contra de esta opinin. +Un amigo, un amigo indio, fue donde su abuelo cuando era chico y le dijo: "Quiero que hablemos de religin". El abuelo le contest: "Eres demasiado chico. +Vuelve cuando seas adolescente". +Volvi siendo adolescente y le dijo al abuelo: "Quiz ya sea un poco tarde porque descubr que no creo en los dioses". +Y el abuelo, que era muy sabio, le dijo: "Ah, entonces perteneces a la rama atea de la tradicin hind". Por ltimo, est este seor famoso por no creer en Dios. +Su nombre es Dalai Lama. +A menudo bromea con que es uno de los lderes ateos del mundo. +Pero es cierto, porque la religin del Dalai Lama no tiene que ver con creer en Dios. +Creo que nuestro concepto de religin funciona as: en realidad, tenemos una lista de religiones paradigmticas con sus subdivisiones, de acuerdo? Si algo nuevo aparece que presumimos que es una religin, nos preguntamos: "Se parece a alguna de estas?" +Correcto? +Y creo que no solo razonamos as con las religiones; as funciona, por decirlo, nuestro modo de ver; todo lo que est en la lista mejor que sea una religin. Por eso no creo que una interpretacin de religin que excluya al Budismo y al Judasmo sea un buen comienzo, porque estn en nuestra lista. +Pero por qu tenemos esa lista? +Qu est pasando? Cmo fue que la lista result ser esta? +La respuesta es muy sencilla y por eso cae mal y es polmica. +Estoy seguro de que muchos no estarn de acuerdo, pero esta versin, cierta o no, creo que les dar una buena idea de cmo pudo haberse formado la lista y, por lo tanto, les ayudar a pensar para qu podra servir la lista. +La respuesta es que los viajeros europeos, comenzando aproximadamente en la poca de Coln, empezaron a dar la vuelta al mundo. +Provenan de una cultura cristiana y, cuando llegaban a un lugar nuevo, notaron que algunos pueblos no eran cristianos, y entonces se hicieron esta pregunta: Qu son si no son cristianos? +Y esa lista fue fundamentalmente construida. +Est formada por las cosas que otra gente tena en lugar de Cristianismo. +Hay una dificultad en proceder de ese modo: el Cristianismo es, incluso en esa lista, una tradicin extremadamente especfica. +Es una religin en la que la gente realmente se interesa en saber si crees en las cosas adecuadas o no. +Esa es la historia muy particular y especfica de la cristiandad y no en todos lados est todo lo que siempre se ha puesto en una lista como esta. +Aqu hay otro problema, me parece. +Ocurri algo muy particular. +No se poda dar cuenta del mundo natural sin decir algo de su relacin, por ejemplo, con el relato de la creacin de la tradicin abrahmica, el relato de la creacin del primer libro del Tor. +Todo se formulaba de ese modo. +Pero esto cambia a finales del s. XIX y, por primera vez, la gente tiene la posibilidad de llevar adelante carreras intelectuales serias de historiadores naturales, como Darwin. +A Darwin lo preocupaba la relacin entre lo que l postulaba y las verdades de la religin, pero pudo seguir adelante, pudo escribir libros. sobre sus temas sin tener que especificar cul era la relacin con los preceptos religiosos, y como l, los gelogos podan hablar del tema cada vez ms. +A comienzos del s. XIX, si eras gelogo y te pronunciabas respecto a la edad de la Tierra, tenas que explicar si concordaba o cmo concordaba o no con la edad de la Tierra establecida en el Gnesis. +Hacia fines del s. XIX, ya podas escribir un libro de texto de geologa solo con argumentos de la edad de la Tierra. +Imaginen a alguien que proviene de ese mundo de finales del s. XIX, y que entra en pas en el que crec, Gana, en la sociedad en la que crec, la Asante, que se mete en ese mundo de comienzos de s. XX con esta pregunta que origin la lista: Qu son si no son cristianos? +Bueno, hubiera notado esto y, a propsito, hubo una persona que lo hizo, +se llamaba Captain Rattray. Lo enviaron como antroplogo del gobierno britnico y escribi un libro sobre la religin Asante. +Esto es un disco de alma. +Hay muchos de estos en el Museo Britnico. +Podra contarles la historia alternativa de cmo fue que muchas de las cosas de mi sociedad terminaron en el Museo Britnico, pero no tenemos tiempo. +Entonces, este es un disco de alma. Qu es? +Se usa alrededor del cuello del lavador de almas del rey Asante. +Qu misin tenan? Lavar el alma del rey. +Me llevara un rato largo explicar cmo es que el alma puede ser una especie de cosa que puede ser lavada, pero Rattray supo que se trataba de una religin porque las almas estaban en juego. +Y haba muchas otras cosas y prcticas +parecidas a esta. Por ejemplo, cada vez que alguien tomaba, tiraba un poquito al suelo esto se denomina libacin para darle un poco a los antepasados. +Finalmente, estaban estas enormes ceremonias pblicas. +Esa es parte importante de su trabajo, y se cree que si no lo hace, todo se va a desarmar. +Es una figura religiosa, como lo dijo Rattray, y tambin poltica. +Y todo esto se consideraba religin para Rattray, pero lo que yo digo es que cuando investigas las vidas de esas personas, tambin descubres que cada vez que hacen algo tienen presente a sus antepasados. +Todas las maanas en el desayuno, puedes salir al frente de la casa y hacer una ofrenda al dios rbol, el nyame dua afuera de tu casa y, otra vez, hablas con los dioses, con los altos, con los bajos, con lo antepasados y as. +Este no es un mundo en el que la divisin religin-ciencia se haya dado. +Esta enorme divisin, en otras palabras, entre religin y ciencia no ha tenido lugar. +Esto podra bien ser una mera curiosidad histrica, pero el punto es que en muchas partes del mundo esta es aun la verdad. +Tuve el privilegio de asistir a una boda hace poco en Namibia, a unos 30 km al sur de la frontera con Angola en un pueblo de 200 habitantes. +Eran gente moderna. +Crean que, aunque ya estaba muerta, ella todava andaba por el lugar. +En muchos lugares del mundo actual, esa divisin entre ciencia y religin no ha tenido lugar. Y como ya dije, no son... Este tipo trabajaba para Chase y para el Banco Mundial. +Son ciudadanos del mundo como todos Uds., pero vienen de un lugar en el que la religin tiene un rol muy diferente. +Quiero que la prxima vez que alguien quiera hacer una gran generalizacin sobre la religin, piensen que tal vez no existe tal cosa, no existe algo como la religin, y que por lo tanto lo que dicen no puede ser verdad. +En cada etapa de nuestras vidas tomamos decisiones que incidirn profundamente en las vidas de las personas en las que nos vamos a convertir y, luego, cuando nos volvemos esas personas no siempre nos entusiasma la decisin que tomamos. +As es como algunos jvenes pagan buen dinero para borrar tatuajes que de adolescentes pagaron buen dinero por hacerse. +Algunas personas de edad media se apresuran a divorciarse de las personas con las que en su juventud se apresuraron a casarse. +Algunos adultos mayores trabajan arduamente para perder eso que aos antes trabajaron arduamente para ganar. +As sigue y sigue. +La pregunta que como psiclogo me fascina es: Por qu tomamos decisiones que luego en el futuro a menudo lamentamos? +Creo que una de las razones, tratar de convencerlos hoy de eso, es que tenemos una concepcin errnea del poder del tiempo. +Todos sabemos que la tasa de cambios disminuye a lo largo de la vida, que sus nios parecen cambiar cada minuto, pero sus padres parecen cambiar cada ao. +Cul es el punto de inflexin mgico en la vida en el que los cambios de repente pasan de un galope a un gateo? +En la adolescencia? En la madurez? +Es la adultez? La respuesta resulta ser, para la mayora, el ahora, lo que sea que eso signifique. +Ahora quiero convencerlos de que a todos nos gua una ilusin, una ilusin de que la historia, nuestra historia personal, ha llegado a un final, que acabamos de convertirnos en las personas que estbamos destinados a ser y as seremos por el resto de nuestras vidas. +Les dar unos datos que reforzarn esta afirmacin. +Este es un estudio de cambios en los valores personales a travs del tiempo. +Aqu hay 3 valores: [Placer, xito, Honestidad] +Todos tenemos todos ellos, pero probablemente sepan que conforme crecemos, o segn la edad, el equilibrio de estos valores cambia. +Entonces cmo ocurre? +Bueno, le preguntamos a miles de personas. +A la mitad le pedimos que predigan cunto cambiarn sus valores en los prximos 10 aos, y a los otros que nos digan cunto cambiaron sus valores en los ltimos 10 aos. +Y esto nos permiti hacer un anlisis muy interesante porque pudimos comparar las predicciones de personas, digamos, de 18 aos, con las de personas de 28 aos, y hacer ese tipo de anlisis a lo largo de la vida. +Y encontramos esto. +Primero, tienen razn, el cambio disminuye conforme envejecemos, pero, en segundo lugar, se equivocan, porque no disminuye tanto como pensamos. +En cada edad, de los 18 a los 68, segn nuestros datos, las personas subestimaron enormemente el cambio que experimentaran en los prximos 10 aos. +Llamamos a esto, la ilusin del "fin de la historia". +Para que se hagan una idea de la magnitud de este efecto, podemos conectar estas dos lneas, y lo que vemos es que las personas de 18 aos anticipan el cambio en igual medida que las personas de 50 aos. +Y no son solo los valores. Aplica a todo tipo de cosas. +Por ejemplo, la personalidad. +Muchos de Uds. saben que los psiclogos ahora sostienen que hay 5 dimensiones esenciales de la personalidad: equilibrio emocional, apertura mental, amabilidad, extraversin, y grado de conciencia. +Y no se da solo en cosas efmeras como los valores y la personalidad. +Uno puede preguntar qu les gusta, qu les disgusta, sus preferencias bsicas. +Por ejemplo, el mejor amigo o amiga, la vacacin favorita, el pasatiempo favorito, el tipo de msica favorito. +Las personas pueden decir estas cosas. +A la mitad le preguntamos: "Piensas que eso cambiar en los prximos 10 aos?" +Y la otra mitad le preguntamos: "Cambi eso en los ltimos 10 aos?" +Algo de esto importa? +Este fallo en la prediccin es algo que no tiene consecuencias? +No, importa bastante y les dar un ejemplo del porqu. +Entorpece de manera importante nuestra toma de decisiones. +Traigan a la mente ahora su artista musical favorito de hoy y el de hace 10 aos. +Yo pongo el mo en la pantalla para ayudarles. +Ahora le pedimos a las personas que predigan, que nos cuenten, cunto dinero pagaran ahora para ver a su artista favorito actual en un concierto dentro de 10 aos, y, en promedio, dijeron que pagaran USD 129 por esa entrada. +Y cuando les preguntamos cunto pagaran para ver actuar hoy a quien fue su artista favorito hace 10 aos, dijeron que solo pagaran USD 80. +En un mundo perfectamente racional, este debera ser el mismo nmero, pero pagamos de ms por la oportunidad de satisfacer nuestras preferencias actuales porque sobreestimamos su estabilidad. +Por qu ocurre esto? No estamos totalmente seguros, pero probablemente tenga que ver con la facilidad de recordar versus la dificultad de imaginar. +Muchos podemos recordar quines ramos hace 10 aos, pero nos resulta difcil imaginar quines seremos, y entonces pensamos errneamente que como es difcil de imaginar, no es probable que suceda. +Lo siento, cuando decimos "No puedo imaginarlo", por lo general hablamos de nuestra propia falta de imaginacin y no de la falta de probabilidad de los eventos que describimos. +Como conclusin: el tiempo es una fuerza poderosa. +Transforma nuestras preferencias. +Retoca nuestros valores. +Altera nuestras personalidades. +Parece que apreciamos este hecho, pero solo en retrospectiva. +Solo al mirar hacia atrs nos damos cuenta del gran cambio ocurrido en una dcada. +Es como si, para muchos de nosotros, el presente fuese un tiempo mgico. +Es una divisoria de aguas en la lnea de tiempo. +Es el momento en el cual finalmente nos tornamos nosotros mismos. +Los seres humanos somos obras en curso y por error pensamos que estamos concluidos. +La persona que uno es ahora es tan transitoria, fugaz y temporal como todas las personas que uno ha sido. +Lo nico constante en nuestra vida es el cambio. +Gracias. +Leo poesa continuamente, escribo sobre ella a menudo, y desmenuzo poemas para ver cmo funcionan porque soy una persona de letras. +Comprendo el mundo mejor, de manera ms completa, con palabras en lugar de, digamos, con imgenes o nmeros, y ante una nueva experiencia o un nuevo sentimiento, me siento algo frustrado hasta que puedo expresarlo con palabras. +Creo que siempre he sido as. +De pequeo, devoraba obras de ciencia ficcin. An lo hago. +As que me convert en crtico de poesa porque quera saber cmo y por qu. +Ahora bien, la poesa no es algo con un propsito, como tampoco lo son la msica o la programacin informtica. +La palabra griega "poema" significa, simplemente, "algo elaborado". La poesa es un conjunto de tcnicas, formas de hacer patrones que expresan con palabras las emociones. +Cuantas ms tcnicas conozcas, ms cosas puedes hacer, y ms patrones reconocers en cosas que ya te gustan o te encantan. +Dicho esto, s que parece que la poesa sea especialmente buena para ciertos temas. +Por ejemplo, todos vamos a morir. +La poesa puede ayudarnos a vivir con eso. +Los poemas estn hechos de palabras, solo eso. +Las particularidades de un poema son como las personalidades que distinguen a las personas. +Los poemas son fciles de compartir, y cuando lees uno, puedes imaginarte a otra persona hablndote o hablando para ti, quizs alguien muy lejano, o alguien inventado, o alguien ya fallecido. +Por eso, podemos recurrir a los poemas para recordar algo o a alguien, para celebrar o para mirar ms all de la muerte, o para despedirnos. Y esta es una de las razones por las que pueden parecer importantes, no solo para m, sino tambin para otras personas que no viven en un mundo de palabras. +El poeta Frank O'Hara dijo: "Si no necesitan poesa, bien por Uds.", pero tambin dijo que, cuando ya no quera seguir viviendo, la idea de no poder escribir ms poemas evit su suicidio. +La poesa me ayuda a querer estar vivo, y quiero mostrarles por qu mostrndoles cmo, cmo un par de poemas reaccionan ante el hecho de que estamos vivos en un lugar, en una poca, en una cultura, y que en otra no lo estaremos. +Este es uno de los primeros poemas que memoric. +Puede dirigirse a un nio o un adulto. +"Desde lejos, desde el crepsculo y la maana y el cielo de los doce vientos, la materia de la vida para tejerme sopl ac... y aqu estoy. +Ahora retraso mi exhalacin contengo an el aliento rpido, toma mi mano y dime, qu habita en tu corazn. +Habla ahora, y contestar; Cmo puedo ayudarte, dime; Aqu en los doce cuartos del viento tomo mi camino eterno". [A.E. Housman] Este poema ha atrado a los escritores de ciencia ficcin. +Ha dado pie a, al menos, tres ttulos de ciencia ficcin, y creo que se debe a que cuenta que los poemas pueden traernos noticias del futuro o del pasado o de la otra punta del mundo, porque sus patrones parecen querer contarnos qu hay en el corazn de otra persona. +Resalta el hecho de que morimos exagerando la velocidad de nuestras vidas. +Unos aos de vida en la Tierra se convierten en un discurso, una exhalacin. +No sera la primera vez que un poeta escribe el poema que le gustara escuchar. +El siguiente poema cambi mucho lo que me gustaba, lo que le, y lo que sent que poda leer de adulto. +Puede que no le encuentren sentido si no lo han visto antes. +"El jardn" "Adelfa: coral desde los anuncios de carmn de los 50. +Fruto del rbol de tanto conocimiento Castigar (la nada) que puede ser besar o golpear. +Aparece con vestimentas de usos desgastados porque somos malos? +Gran amenaza masculina, insinuante y coloquial". [Rae Armantrout] Encontr este poema en una antologa de poemas igualmente confusos en 1989. +Es sobre el Jardn del Edn y la Cada, la historia bblica de la Cada, en la que el sexo tal y como lo conocemos, y la muerte, y la culpa surgen en el mundo al mismo tiempo. +Trata tambin de cmo las apariencias engaan, cmo nuestra cultura puede arrastrarnos a hacer y decir cosas que no pretendamos o no nos gustan, y el estilo de Armantrout intenta ayudar a parar o ralentizarnos. "Smack" puede significar "besar", +como en lanzar besos al aire o besar en los labios, pero tambin puede llevarnos a "smack" como "golpear", como en la violencia domstica, porque la atraccin sexual puede parecer amenazadora. +El rojo que significa fertilidad tambin puede significar veneno. +La adelfa es venenosa. +y los "usos desgastados", como usar "smack" para "besar" o "golpear", pueden ayudarnos a ver cmo suposiciones de las que no somos conscientes pueden hacernos creer que somos malos, bien porque el sexo es pecaminoso o porque toleramos el sexismo. +Dejamos que los hombres le digan a los mujeres qu hacer. +El poema reacciona ante los viejos anuncios de pintalabios, y su crispacin sobre las afirmaciones, sus inversiones y detenciones tienen todo que ver con resistirnos al lenguaje de los anuncios que quieren decirnos fcilmente qu queremos, qu hacer, qu pensar. +Ahora bien, cmo s que tengo razn sobre este poema tan confuso? +En este caso, envi a la poetisa un borrador de mi charla y me contest: "S, s, ms o menos es eso". +S. Pero normalmente, no podemos saberlo. Nunca lo sabemos. +No podemos estar seguros, pero no pasa nada. +Solo podemos escuchar los poemas, y mirarlos, y suponer, y ver si nos aportan lo que necesitamos. Y si nos equivocamos sobre alguna parte del poema, no ocurrir nada malo. +El siguiente poema es ms antiguo que el de Armantrout, pero un poco ms reciente que el de A.E. Housman. +"El hombre valiente". El sol, ese hombre valiente, acude por las ramas tendidas a la espera, ese hombre valiente. +Ojos verdes sombros bajo formas oscuras de la hierba se dan a la fuga. +Las estrellas virtuosas, plidas riendas y espuelas puntiagudas, se dan a la fuga. +Temores de mi cama, temores de vida y temores de muerte, se dan a la fuga. +El hombre valiente asciende desde abajo y camina sin meditacin, ese hombre valiente". [Wallace Stevens] El sol en este poema de Wallace Stevens parece tan grave porque la persona del poema est aterrorizada. +El sol asciende por la maana a travs de las ramas, dispersa el roco, los ojos, sobre la hierba, y derrota a las estrellas, concebidas como ejrcitos. +"Valiente" tiene el sentido antiguo "ostentoso" y el sentido moderno "valor". +El sol no teme mostrar su rostro. +Pero la persona en el poema est asustada. +Quizs ha estado despierta toda la noche. +Esa es la revelacin que Stevens guarda para la cuarta estrofa, en la que "se dan a la fuga" se ha convertido en estribillo. +Puede que esta persona quisiese huir, pero fortalecido por el ejemplo del sol, quizs decida levantarse. +Stevens guarda para el final la palabra de sonido extrao "meditacin". +A diferencia del sol, los seres humanos piensan. +Meditamos sobre el pasado y el futuro, la vida y la muerte, lo que hay sobre y debajo de nosotros. +Y puede asustarnos. +Los poemas, los patrones en los poemas, nos muestran no solo lo que alguien pens, o lo que hizo, o lo que ocurri, sino cmo era ser una persona as, estar tan ansioso, tan solo, ser tan inquisitivo, tan bobo, tan absurdo, tan valiente. +Por eso los poemas pueden parecer tan duraderos, tan personales, tan efmeros, como algo dentro y fuera al mismo tiempo. +La poetisa escocesa Denise Riley compara la poesa con una aguja, un pedazo del exterior que alojo en mi interior. Y el poeta estadounidense Terrance Hayes escribi 6 poemas llamados "Viento en una caja". +Uno de ellos pregunta: "Dime, qu har cuando haya muerto?", +Y la respuesta es que l permanecer con nosotros o quizs no, no permanecer dentro nuestra como viento, como aire, como palabras. +Ahora es ms fcil que nunca encontrar poemas que puedan quedrsete dentro, permanecer contigo, poemas de hace muchsimo tiempo o muy actuales, poemas escritos muy lejos o al lado de tu casa, casi sin importar dnde vivas. +Los poemas pueden ayudarte a decir y mostrar cmo te sientes, pero tambin pueden mostrarte sentimientos, modos de estar en el mundo, personas muy diferentes a ti, quizs incluso de hace mucho tiempo. +Algunos poemas incluso te cuentan que eso es lo que pueden hacer. +Eso es lo que hace John Keats en, quizs, su poema ms misterioso. +Gracias. +Incluso las criaturas ms repugnantes de la naturaleza poseen importantes secretos. Pero, quin querra que se le abalanzase una multitud de cucarachas? +Una gran diferencia entre la tecnologa natural y la humana tiene que ver con la robustez. +Los sistemas robustos son estables en medios nuevos y complejos. +Las cucarachas pueden autoestabilizarse al correr por un terreno irregular. +Al colocarles un cinturn cohete, o ante una perturbacin, como un terremoto, descubrimos que sus patas perfectamente ajustadas les permiten autoestabilizarse sin usar parte de su capacidad cerebral. +Pueden atravesar terrenos complicados, como la hierba, sin problema, sin desestabilizarse. +Descubrimos un nuevo comportamiento con el que, gracias a su forma, se ponen de lado automticamente para atravesar este trozo de hierba artificial. +Los sistemas robustos pueden realizar varias tareas con la misma estructura. +En este nuevo comportamiento que descubrimos, +los animales se giran rpidamente y desaparecen en menos de 150 milisegundos. Es imposible verlo. Y usan las mismas estructuras que para correr: las patas. +Pueden correr boca abajo, muy rpido, por barras, ramas y alambres, y si alteras una de esas ramas, pueden hacer esto: +Realizan movimientos gimnsticos que ninguno de nuestros robots puede realizar an. +Y tienen una movilidad casi ilimitada con esa misma estructura, y un acceso sin precedentes a diferentes zonas. +Tienen alas para volar cuando tienen calor, pero las usan tambin para darse la vuelta si se desestabilizan. +Muy eficaz. +Los sistemas robustos estn protegidos; son a prueba de fallos. +Este es la pata de una cucaracha. +Tiene pinchos, almohadillas pegajosas y garras, pero si le arrancas una de esas patas, puede seguir andando por un terreno complicado, como en este vdeo, sin ralentizarse demasiado. Extraordinario. +Pueden subir por la malla sin usar las patas. +Este animal est usando un trpode alternante normal: 3 patas, 3 patas... pero en la naturaleza, los insectos a menudo pierden las patas. +Este camina sin sus 2 patas de en medio. +Pueden perder hasta 3 patas, en un trpode, y adoptar un nuevo caminar, andando a saltos. +Y quiero recalcar que todos estos vdeos han sido ralentizados 20 veces, as que en realidad se mueven rapidsimo. +Los sistemas robustos tambin son resistentes a los daos. +Este es un animal que sube una pared. +Parece una subida rpida, tranquila y vertical, pero cuando lo ralentizamos, vemos algo muy distinto. +Esto es lo que hacen: +Se golpean a propsito la cabeza contra la pared, para no bajar el ritmo y poder subirla en 75 milisegundos. +En parte, pueden hacerlo porque tienen unos exoesqueletos extraordinarios. +Y estn hechos solo con articulaciones, es decir, tubos y lminas unidos unos a otros. +Esta es la diseccin del abdomen de una cucaracha. +Aqu pueden ver las lminas y las membranas. +Mi colega ingeniero de Berkeley dise con sus estudiantes una tcnica de fabricacin innovadora en la que, bsicamente, creas un exoesqueleto como origami lo cortas con lser, lo laminas, y envuelves con esto al robot. +Esto se puede hacer en menos de 15 minutos. +Estos robots, llamados DASH, acrnimo de Hexpodo Desplegado Dinmico Autnomo, son muy flexibles y extraordinariamente robustos como resultado de estas caractersticas. +Desde luego, son muy resistentes a los daos. +Vdeo: Incluso tienen algunos de los comportamientos de las cucarachas. +As que pueden usar su cuerpo hbil y flexible para subir por una pared de un modo muy simple. +Incluso poseen el principio del comportamiento de inversin rpida mediante el que desaparecen. +Queremos saber por qu pueden ir a cualquier parte. +Descubrimos que pueden atravesar huecos de 3 mm., la altura de 2 centavos apilados, y cuando lo hacen, pueden, de hecho, atravesar corriendo estos espacios limitados a alta velocidad, aunque nunca podamos verlo. +Para entenderlo mejor, hicimos una tomografa del exoesqueleto y nos mostr que podan comprimir sus cuerpos ms de un 40 %. +Los pusimos en una mquina de prueba de materiales para observar los anlisis de estrs y mostraron que pueden soportar fuerzas 800 veces superiores a su peso corporal, y tras esto pueden volar y correr con absoluta normalidad. +As que uno nunca sabe a dnde lo llevar la investigacin basada en la curiosidad. Quizs un da Uds. quieran que una multitud de robots inspirados en las cucarachas, se les acerquen. +Gracias. +La noche de las elecciones en el 2008 fue una noche que me parti por la mitad. +La noche en que Barack Obama fue elegido. +143 aos despus del fin de la esclavitud, y 43 aos despus de la aprobacin de la Ley de Derechos Electorales, un afroamericano fue elegido presidente. +Muchos de nosotros nunca pensamos que esto sera posible hasta el momento en que ocurri. +Y en muchos sentidos, fue el punto culminante del movimiento negro por los derechos civiles en EEUU. +Yo estaba en California esa noche, la zona cero en el momento de otro movimiento: el movimiento por el matrimonio igualitario. +El matrimonio gay estaba en la papeleta en el formulario de la Proposicin 8, y a medida que llegaban los resultados de las elecciones se hizo evidente que el derecho de las parejas del mismo sexo a contraer matrimonio, concedido por los tribunales de California, iba a anularse. +En la misma noche que Barack Obama gan la histrica presidencia, la comunidad gay y lesbiana sufri una de nuestras derrotas ms dolorosas. +Y luego an empeor. +Casi de inmediato, los afroamericanos comenzaron a ser culpados por la aprobacin de la Proposicin 8. +Esto se debi principalmente a una encuesta incorrecta que deca que los negros haban votado a favor en 70 % aproximadamente. +Esto result no ser cierto, pero esta idea de la extendida homofobia negra se instaur, y fue utilizada por los medios. +Yo no poda apartarme de la cobertura. +Escuch a un comentarista gay decir que la comunidad afroamericana era notoriamente homfoba, y ahora que los derechos civiles se haban logrado para nosotros, queramos quitrselos a otras personas. +Incluso hubo informes de eptetos racistas lanzados a algunos de los participantes de las concentraciones por los derechos gay que tuvieron lugar despus de las elecciones. +Y por otro lado, algunos afroamericanos desestimaron o ignoraron la homofobia existente como hecho real en nuestra comunidad. +Y otros se ofendieron por esta comparacin entre los derechos de los homosexuales y civiles, y una vez ms, la sensacin de hundimiento porque dos grupos minoritarios de los cuales yo soy parte competan entre s en lugar de apoyarse entre s me abrum y, francamente, me molest. +Soy cineasta de documentales, as que despus de mi etapa de bronca fuera del escenario y gritando en la TV y la radio, mi siguiente reaccin fue hacer una pelcula. +Y lo que me gui al hacer esta pelcula fue, cmo es que esto suceda. +Cmo fue que el movimiento por los derechos de los homosexuales se enfrent contra el movimiento de los derechos civiles? +Y esto no era slo una cuestin abstracta. +Soy beneficiaria de ambos movimientos, as que esto era en realidad algo personal. +Pero entonces sucedi algo ms tras las elecciones del 2008. +La marcha por la igualdad gay se aceler a un ritmo que sorprendi y conmocion a todos, y an est transformando nuestras leyes y nuestras polticas, nuestras instituciones y nuestro pas entero. +Veamos algunas de estas estrategias. +Primero, es realmente interesante ver, realmente ver, lo rpido que ha avanzado el movimiento gay, si nos fijamos en algunos de los principales eventos en un plazo de tiempo de los dos movimientos de liberacin. +Ahora hay toneladas de hitos en el movimiento por los derechos civiles, pero el primero con el que comenzaremos fue el boicot a los autobuses de Montgomery en 1955. +Esa fue una campaa de protesta contra Montgomery, la segregacin de Alabama en su sistema de transporte pblico, y que comenz cuando una mujer llamada Rosa Parks se neg a ceder su asiento a una persona blanca. +La campaa dur un ao, y impuls el movimiento de los derechos civiles como nada antes. +Y llam a esta estrategia la estrategia "Estoy cansada de que me pisen". +As que los gays y las lesbianas han estado en la sociedad desde el inicio de las sociedades, pero hasta la mitad del siglo XX, los actos homosexuales seguan siendo ilegales en la mayora de los estados. +As que slo 14 aos tras el boicot a los autobuses de Montgomery, un grupo de gente de LGBT tom esa misma estrategia. +Es conocido como Stonewall, en 1969, y es que un grupo de patrones de LGBT luch contra los golpes de la polica en un bar de Greenwich Village que provoc tres das de disturbios. +Por otra parte, las personas negras y latinas de LGBT estaban a la vanguardia de esta rebelin, y es un ejemplo muy interesante de la interseccin de nuestras luchas contra el racismo, la homofobia, la identidad de gnero y la brutalidad policial. +Despus de Stonewall, grupos de liberacin gay surgieron por todo el pas, y el movimiento moderno de los homosexuales como lo conocemos, prosper. +El siguiente momento en el que fijarse es la marcha de 1963 en Washington. +Este fue un evento seminal en el movimiento por los derechos civiles donde los afroamericanos exigan justicia civil y econmica. +Y es, por supuesto, donde Martin Luther King pronunci su famoso discurso "Tengo un sueo", pero lo que, en realidad, es menos conocido es que esta marcha fue organizada por un hombre llamado Bayard Rustin. +Bayard era un conocido gay, y es considerado uno de los estrategas ms brillantes del movimiento de derechos civiles. +Ms tarde en su vida se convirti en un firme defensor de los derechos LGBT tambin, y su vida es un testimonio de la interseccin de las luchas. +La Marcha de Washington es uno de los puntos lgidos del movimiento, donde haba una ferviente creencia de que los afroamericanos tambin podran ser parte de la democracia estadounidense. +Yo llamo a esto la estrategia del "Somos visibles y muchos en nmeros". +Algunos de los primeros activistas gays estaban en realidad inspirados directamente por la marcha, y algunos participaron en ella. +El gay pionero Jack Nichols dijo: "Marchamos con Martin Luther King, siete de nosotros, de la Sociedad Mattachine," organizacin pionera de los derechos de los gays, "y a partir de ese momento, tenamos nuestro propio sueo sobre una marcha por los derechos de los gays de similares proporciones". +Varios aos ms tarde, hubo una serie de marchas, cada una ganando impulso en la lucha por la libertad gay. +La primera fue en 1979, y la segunda tuvo lugar en 1987. +La tercera se celebr en 1993. +Casi un milln de personas se hicieron presentes, y la gente estaba tan excitada y emocionada por lo que estaba ocurriendo, que volvi a sus propias comunidades y comenz sus propias organizaciones polticas y sociales, lo que aument an ms la visibilidad del movimiento. +El da de esa marcha, el 11 de octubre, luego se declar Da para salir del armario, y todava se celebra en todo el mundo. +Estas marchas establecen las bases para los cambios histricos que vemos sucediendo hoy en da en los EEUU. +Y, por ltimo, la estrategia del "Loving" [Amoroso]. +El nombre habla por s mismo. +En 1967, la Corte Suprema dictamin en el pleito Loving contra Virginia, invalidando todas las leyes que prohiban el matrimonio interracial, +considerado uno de los casos emblemticos por los derechos civiles de la Corte Suprema. +En 1996, el Presidente Clinton firm la Ley de Defensa del Matrimonio, conocida como DOMA, y eso hizo que el gobierno federal slo tuviera que reconocer los matrimonios entre un hombre y una mujer. +En el pleito EEUU contra Windsor, una lesbiana de 79 aos de edad, de nombre Edith Windsor demand al gobierno federal cuando se vio obligada a pagar impuestos inmobiliarios sobre la propiedad de su esposa fallecida, algo que las parejas heterosexuales no tienen que hacer. +Y a medida que el caso se abra paso a travs de los tribunales inferiores, el caso Loving fue citado repetidamente como precedente. +Cuando lleg a la Corte Suprema en 2013, la Corte Suprema estuvo de acuerdo, y el DOMA fue anulado. +Fue increble. +El movimiento del matrimonio gay ha ido ganando desde hace aos. +A la fecha, 17 estados han aprobado leyes que permiten el matrimonio igualitario. +Se ha convertido en la batalla de facto por la igualdad gay, y parece que todos los das, las leyes estn siendo cuestionadas en los tribunales, incluso en lugares como Texas y Utah, donde nadie lo vio venir. +As que muchas cosas han cambiado desde aquella noche de 2008 cuando me senta desgarrada. +Yo avanc para hacer esta pelcula. +Es una pelcula documental, y se llama "El Nuevo Negro", y analiza cmo la comunidad afroamericana est lidiando con los derechos de los gays a la luz del movimiento del matrimonio gay y esta lucha sobre el significado de los derechos civiles. +Y yo quera capturar algo de este cambio increble que estaba pasando, Y por suerte la poltica deba afrontar otra batalla por el matrimonio, esta vez en Maryland, donde los afroamericanos representan el 30 % del electorado. +As que esta tensin entre los derechos de los homosexuales y los derechos civiles comenz a burbujear, una vez ms, y tuve la suerte de capturar cmo algunas personas estaban haciendo la conexin entre los movimientos de ese momento. +Este es un clip de Karess Taylor-Hughes y Samantha Masters, dos personajes de la pelcula, cuando salen a las calles de Baltimore y tratan de convencer a los votantes potenciales. +Samantha Masters: Eso es lo que pasa, aqu hay un hombre justo. +Bueno, est registrado para votar? +Hombre: No. KTH: Edad? +Hombre: 21. KTH: 21? Debes votar. +Tenemos que registrarte para votar. +Hombre: No votar ninguna mierda gay. +SM: Bueno, por qu? Qu pasa? Hombre: No estoy con eso. +SM: Eso no es cool. +Hombre: Qu hizo que seas gay? SM: Y qu te hizo ser heterosexual? +Entonces, qu te hizo ser heterosexual? +Hombre 2: No se puede responder a esa pregunta. KSM: Sola no tener los mismos derechos que t, pero s que porque un hombre negro como t se puso de pie por una mujer como yo, ahora tengo las mismas oportunidades. +As que, como hombre negro, tienes la oportunidad de defender a alguien ms. +Tanto si eres gay o no, estos son sus hermanos y hermanas aqu, y necesitan que los representes. +Hombre 2: Quin eres para decirle a alguien con quien no puede tener relaciones sexuales, con quien no puede estar? +No tienen ese poder. +Nadie tiene el poder de decir que no puedes casarte con esa joven. +Quin tiene el poder? Nadie. +SM: Pero sabes qu? +Nuestro estado ha puesto el poder en tus manos, y por lo tanto lo que necesitamos es votos a favor, que votes por 6. +Man 2: Te sigo. +SM: Vota por 6, de acuerdo? Man 2: Te entiendo. +KSM: Muy bien, Uds. necesitan horas de servicio comunitario? +Bueno, siempre pueden ser voluntarios con nosotros para obtener horas de servicio comunitario. +Quieren hacer eso? +Les damos comida. Les traemos pizza. +Yoruba Richen: Gracias. +Para m lo increble de ese clip que filmamos es, que realmente muestra cmo Karess entiende la historia del movimiento de derechos civiles, pero no est limitada por ello. +Ella no slo se limita a personas de raza negra. +Ella lo ve como un modelo para expandir los derechos de los gays y las lesbianas. +Tal vez porque ella es ms joven, tiene como 25, ella es capaz de hacer esto ms fcilmente, pero el hecho es que los votantes de Maryland hicieron pasar esa enmienda de igualdad en el matrimonio, y de hecho, era la primera vez que el matrimonio igualitario fue votado directamente y aprobado por los votantes. +Los afroamericanos apoyaron a un nivel superior al que nunca se haba registrado. +Fue un giro completo desde esa noche en 2008 cuando se aprob la proposicin 8. +Fue, y se sinti, monumental. +Nosotros en la comunidad LGBT hemos pasado de ser un grupo patologizado denostado y criminalizado a ser vistos como parte de la gran bsqueda del ser humano por la dignidad y la igualdad. +Hemos pasado de tener que ocultar nuestra sexualidad a fin de mantener nuestros trabajos y nuestras familias a conseguir literalmente un lugar en la mesa con el presidente y un grito en su segunda toma de posesin. +Yo slo quiero leer lo que dijo en esa toma de posesin: "Nosotros, el pueblo, declaramos hoy que la verdad ms evidente es que todos somos creados iguales. +Es la estrella que nos gua an, del mismo modo que gui a nuestros antepasados a travs de Seneca Falls y Selma y Stonewall". +Su declaracin demuestra no slo la interconexin de esos movimientos, pero como cada uno se prest y fue inspirado por el otro. +Tal vez otra razn del relativamente rpido progreso del movimiento por los derechos gay. +Mientras que muchos de nosotros an vivimos en espacios de segregacin racial, la gente LGBT, estamos en todas partes. +Estamos en comunidades urbanas y comunidades rurales, comunidades de color, comunidades de inmigrantes, iglesias y mezquitas y sinagogas. +Somos sus madres y hermanos, hermanas e hijos. +Y cuando alguien que amas o un miembro de la familia sale, puede ser ms fcil apoyar su bsqueda de igualdad. +Y de hecho, el movimiento de derechos gay nos pide apoyar la justicia y la igualdad desde un espacio de amor. +Ese puede ser el ms grande, el regalo ms grande que el movimiento nos ha dado. +Se nos invita a acceder a lo que es ms universal y ms ntimo: el amor por nuestro hermano y nuestra hermana y nuestro vecino. +Slo quiero terminar con una cita de uno de los ms grandes luchadores por la libertad que ya no est con nosotros, Nelson Mandela de Sudfrica. +Nelson Mandela lider Sudfrica despus de los das oscuros y brutales de la segregacin racial y de las cenizas de esa discriminacin racial legalizada, lider Sudfrica para convertirse en el primer pas en el mundo en prohibir la discriminacin basada en la orientacin sexual en su constitucin. +Mandela dijo, "Ser libre no es meramente desechar las cadenas de uno, sino vivir de una manera que respete y potencie la libertad de los dems". +As como estos movimientos continan, y las luchas por la libertad alrededor del mundo continan, recordemos que no slo estn interconectados, pero deben apoyarse y mejorar uno al otro para que seamos verdaderamente victoriosos. +Gracias. +Pas menos de un ao del 11-S y yo estaba en el Chicago Tribune escribiendo sobre tiroteos y asesinatos, y eso me haca sentir bastante oscuro y deprimido. +En la universidad haba hecho activismo as que decid ayudar a un grupo local a colgar llamadores contra la experimentacin con animales. +Pens que sera una forma segura de hacer algo positivo, pero, claro, tuvimos la peor suerte de la historia, y nos arrestaron a todos. +La polica tom esta foto borrosa de m sosteniendo folletos como evidencia. +Mis cargos fueron desestimados, pero unas semanas ms tarde, dos agentes del FBI llamaron a mi puerta, y me dijeron que si no les ayudaba espiando a grupos de protesta, me pondran en una lista de terroristas nacionales. +Me encantara decirles que ni me inmut, pero estaba aterrado, y cuando se me pas el miedo, me obsesion con averiguar cmo fue que ocurri esto, cmo los derechos del animal y el activismo ambiental que nunca han herido a nadie podran volverse una amenaza principal para el FBI como terrorismo nacional. +Unos aos despus, me invitaron a testificar ante el Congreso sobre mi informe, y le dije a los legisladores que mientras todos hablan de ecologa, algunos arriesgan sus vidas para defender bosques y detener oleoductos. +Estn arriesgando fsicamente sus cuerpos entre los arpones de los balleneros y las ballenas. +Son personas comunes como estos manifestantes en Italia que espontneamente treparon cercas de alambre de pas para rescatar beagles de la experimentacin con animales. +Estos movimientos han sido sumamente eficaces y populares, as que en 1985 sus oponentes acuaron una nueva palabra, ecoterrorista, para cambiar la forma de verlos. +Simplemente la acuaron. +Estas empresas han apoyado nuevas leyes como la Ley de Terrorismo Empresarial Animal, que convierte al activismo en terrorismo si provoca prdidas de beneficios. +Mucha gente nunca oy de esta ley, inclusive los miembros del Congreso. +Menos del 1 % estaba en el recinto cuando se aprob en la Cmara Baja. +El resto estaban afuera en el nuevo memorial. +Estaban alabando al Dr. King mientras su estilo de activismo era tildado de terrorismo si se hiciera en nombre de los animales o el medio ambiente. +Los partidarios dicen que se necesitan leyes como esta para los extremistas: los vndalos, los incendiarios, los radicales. +Pero ahora las empresas como TransCanada estn capacitando a la polica en presentaciones como esta sobre cmo perseguir manifestantes no violentos como terroristas. +Los documentos de formacin del FBI sobre ecoterrorismo no son sobre violencia, sino sobre relaciones pblicas. +Hoy, en varios pases, las corporaciones estn impulsando nuevas leyes que hacen ilegal fotografiar la crueldad animal en las granjas. +La ltima fue en Idaho hace 2 semanas, y hoy lanzamos una demanda impugnndola por ser tan inconstitucional como amenazar al periodismo. +El primero de estos procesamientos "ag-gag", como se los llama, fue a una joven llamada Amy Meyer. Amy vio que movan a una vaca enferma hacia un matadero en un bulldozer mientras iba por la va pblica. +Amy hizo lo que hara cualquiera de nosotros: Lo film. +Cuando me enter de su historia, escrib sobre eso, y en 24 horas cre tal conmocin que los fiscales retiraron todos los cargos. +Pero, aparentemente, incluso exponer cosas as es una amenaza. +A travs de la Ley de Libertad de Informacin, supe que la unidad de lucha contra el terrorismo ha estado siguiendo mis artculos y discursos como este. +Incluso incluyeron este bonito y pequeo relato sobre mi libro. +Lo describen como "convincente y bien escrito". +Comentario de el prximo libro, no? +La idea de todo esto es atemorizarnos, pero como periodista, tengo una fe inquebrantable en el poder de la educacin. +Nuestra mejor arma es la luz del sol. +Dostoievski escribi que toda la obra del hombre es para demostrar que es un hombre y no una tecla de piano. +Una y otra vez a lo largo de la historia, los poderosos han usado el miedo para silenciar la verdad y el disenso. +Es hora de asestar una nueva nota. +Gracias. +Hace cuatro aos, un investigador en seguridad, o lo que la mayora de las personas llamaran hacker, encontr literalmente una forma de hacer que los cajeros automticos le escupieran dinero. +Se llamaba Barnaby Jack, y esta tcnica se llam luego "jackpotting" en su honor. +Estoy aqu hoy porque pienso que realmente necesitamos hackers. +Barnaby Jack podra haberse convertido en un criminal de carrera o en un James Bond villano con su conocimiento, pero en vez de eso eligi mostrar al mundo su investigacin. +El crea que a veces se tiene que demostrar una amenaza para provocar una solucin. +Y yo siento lo mismo. +Por eso estoy aqu hoy. +A menudo nos aterra y fascina el poder que tienen ahora los hackers. +Nos asustan. +Pero las decisiones que toman tienen resultados increbles que nos afectan a todos. +As que estoy aqu hoy porque creo que necesitamos hackers, y de hecho, ellos podran ser el sistema inmunolgico de la era de la informacin. +A veces nos ponen enfermos, pero tambin encuentran esas amenazas ocultas en nuestro mundo y nos obligan a arreglarlas. +Saba que me podran hackear por dar esta charla, as que les ahorrar el esfuerzo. +Al mejor estilo TED, aqu est mi imagen ms embarazosa. +Pero les sera difcil encontrarme, porque yo soy la que se parece a un nio parado a un costado. +Yo era tan nerd entonces que hasta los chicos del equipo de Calabozos y Dragones no me dejaban unirme a ellos. +As era yo, pero esta es quien yo quera ser: Angelina Jolie. +Ella protagoniz Acid Burn en la pelcula "Hackers" del 95. +Era bonita y poda patinar, pero ser una hacker la hizo poderosa. +Y yo quera ser como ella, as que empec a pasar mucho tiempo en las salas de chat y foros de hackers en lnea. +Recuerdo una noche que encontr algo de cdigo PHP. +Realmente no saba qu haca, pero lo copi y pegu y lo utilic de todos modos para entrar en un sitio protegido por contrasea as. +brete Ssamo. +Era un simple truco, y yo entonces era solo una falsa hacker. Pero para m ese truco me haca sentir como si hubiera descubierto un potencial ilimitado en mis manos. +Esta es la oleada de poder que los piratas informticos sienten. +Son los geeks como yo descubriendo que tienen acceso a la superpotencia, que requiere la habilidad y tenacidad de su intelecto, pero por suerte no hay araas radioactivas. +Pero un gran poder conlleva una gran responsabilidad, y a todos Uds. les gusta pensar que si tuviramos esas facultades, solo las usaramos para el bien. +Pero qu pasara si una pudiera leer los emails del ex o aadir un par de ceros en la cuenta bancaria propia? +Qu haran Uds. entonces? +De hecho, muchos hackers no se resisten a esas tentaciones, y por eso son responsables de un modo u otro de miles de millones de dlares perdidos cada ao por fraude, malware o robo de identidad a secas, lo que es un problema grave. +Pero hay otros hackers, hackers a los que simplemente les gusta romper cosas, y son precisamente esos hackers los que pueden encontrar los elementos ms dbiles de nuestro mundo y nos obligan a arreglarlos. +Esto sucedi el ao pasado cuando otro investigador en seguridad llamado Kyle Lovett descubri un agujero enorme en el diseo de ciertos routers inalmbricos que Uds. quiz tengan en su casa u oficina. +Descubri que cualquiera puede conectarse remotamente a estos dispositivos a travs de Internet y descargar documentos de los discos duros conectados a esos routers, sin ninguna contrasea. +Lo inform a la empresa, por supuesto, pero ignoraron su informe. +Quiz pensaron que el acceso universal era una caracterstica, no un error, hasta hace dos meses cuando unos hackers lo usaron para entrar en los archivos de personas. +Pero no robaron nada. +Dejaron una nota: "Cualquier persona en el mundo puede acceder a tu router y a tus documentos. +Esto es lo que debes hacer para arreglarlo. +Esperamos haberte ayudado". +Por entrar en los archivos de la gente de este modo, s, ellos violaron la ley, pero tambin forzaron a esa empresa a arreglar su producto. +Dar a conocer las vulnerabilidades al pblico es una prctica conocida como revelacin completa en la comunidad hacker, y es polmico, pero me hace pensar en cmo los hackers tienen efecto sobre la evolucin de las tecnologas que usamos todos los das. +Esto es lo que Khalil hizo. +Khalil es un hacker palestino de la Ribera Occidental, y encontr un defecto grave en la privacidad de Facebook que trat de informar a travs del programa de recompensas de errores de la compaa. +Estos suelen ser estupendas acuerdos de empresas que premian a los piratas informticos que revelan las vulnerabilidades que encuentran en su cdigo. +Desafortunadamente, debido a algunos problemas de comunicacin, no aceptaron su informe. +Frustrado con el intercambio, se dedic a usar su propio descubrimiento para postear en el muro de Mark Zuckerberg. +Esto les llam la atencin, de acuerdo, y corrigieron el problema, pero por no haberlo notificado correctamente, se le neg la recompensa que se retribuye por dichos descubrimientos. +Por suerte para Khalil, un grupo de hackers estaban mirndolo. +De hecho, se recaudaron ms de USD 13 000 para recompensarlo por este descubrimiento, comenzando un debate fundamental en la industria de la tecnologa de cmo generamos incentivos para que los hackers hagan lo correcto. +Pero creo que hay una historia ms grande aqu todava. +Incluso las empresas fundadas por los piratas informticos, Facebook fue una, todava tienen una relacin complicada cuando se trata de piratas informticos. +Por eso, para organizaciones ms conservadoras, tomar tiempo y adaptacin para aceptar la cultura hacker y el caos creativo que trae consigo. +Pero creo que vale la pena el esfuerzo, porque la alternativa, una lucha impulsiva contra todos los hackers, sera ir en contra de un poder que no se puede controlar a costa de reprimir la innovacin y regular los conocimientos. +Estas son cosas que volvern y se harn sentir. +Es aun ms cierto si vamos tras los hackers dispuestos a arriesgar su propia libertad por ideales como la libertad de la web, sobre todo en momentos como este, incluso como hoy en da, en que los gobiernos y las empresas luchan por controlar Internet. +Me resulta asombroso que alguien desde los oscuros rincones del ciberespacio pueda convertirse en la voz de la oposicin, su ltima lnea de defensa, incluso, tal vez alguien como Anonymous, la marca lder de hacktivismo global. +Este movimiento universal de hackers ya no necesita presentacin, pero hace seis aos no eran mucho ms que una subcultura de Internet dedicada a compartir fotos tontas de gatos divertidos y campaas de arrastre en Internet. +Su momento de transformacin fue a principios de 2008 cuando la Iglesia de la Cientologa intent quitar algunos videos filtrados publicados en determinados sitios web. +Ah fue cuando Anonymous se forj a partir de un grupo aparentemente aleatorio de habitantes de Internet. +Resulta que, a Internet no le gusta que se intenten retirar cosas de ah, y reacciona con ataques cibernticos, bromas elaboradas y con una serie de protestas organizadas en todo el mundo, desde mi ciudad natal de Tel Aviv hasta en Adelaida, Australia. +Esto demostr que Anonymous y esta idea puede arrastrar a las masas de los teclados a la calle, sentando las bases para docenas de operaciones futuras contra las injusticias percibidas en su mundo en lnea y fuera de lnea. +Desde entonces, han ido tras muchos objetivos. +Han revelado corrupcin, abuso. +Han hackeado a papas y a polticos, y creo que su efecto es ms grande que la simple negacin de los ataques al servicio que derriba sitios Internet o incluso filtra documentos confidenciales. +Creo que, como Robin Hood, estn en el negocio de la redistribucin, pero lo que buscan no es dinero. +No son tus documentos, sino tu atencin. +Buscan atencin para las causas que apoyan, obligndonos a enterarnos, actuando como una lupa mundial en asuntos de los que no somos tan conscientes, pero que tal vez lo deberamos ser. +Se les ha llamado por muchos nombres, desde criminales a terroristas, y no puedo justificar sus medios ilegales, pero las ideas por las que luchan son las que nos importan a todos. +La realidad es que los hackers pueden hacer mucho ms que romper cosas. +Ellos pueden unir a la gente. +Y si a Internet no le gusta cuando uno intenta retirar cosas de ah, miren entonces qu sucede cuando se intenta derribarla. +Esto ocurri en Egipto en enero de 2011. El presidente Hosni Mubarak intent una jugada desesperada para sofocar la revolucin creciente de las calles de El Cairo: envi a sus tropas personales a los proveedores de servicios de Internet en Egipto e hizo destruir fsicamente el interruptor de la conexin del pas al mundo por la noche. +Que un gobierno haga algo as no tena precedentes, y para los hackers era algo personal. +Los hackers como el grupo Telecomix ya estaban activos en el terreno, ayudando a los egipcios a evadir la censura mediante soluciones inteligentes como el cdigo Morse y la radioaficin. +Era temporada alta para la baja tecnologa, que el gobierno no poda bloquear, pero cuando la red se cay por completo, Telecomix sac la artillera pesada. +Encontraron proveedores de servicios europeos que todava tenan la infraestructura de acceso analgico de 20 aos atrs. +Abrieron 300 de esas lneas para que las usaran los egipcios, brindando una conexin a Internet lenta pero dulce para los egipcios. +Esto funcion. +Funcion tan bien, de hecho, que un chico incluso descarg un episodio de "Cmo conoc a tu madre". +Pero mientras el futuro de Egipto es an incierto, cuando sucedi lo mismo en Siria un ao ms tarde, Telecomix estaba preparado con esas lneas de Internet, y Anonymous, fueron quizs el primer grupo internacional en denunciar oficialmente las acciones de los militares sirios derribando su pgina web. +Pero con este tipo de poder, realmente depende de cmo uno se posicione ya que el hroe para uno puede ser el villano para otro, y as el Ejrcito Electrnico Sirio es un grupo pro-Assad de hackers que apoya su polmico rgimen. +Ellos gan acabado con mltiples objetivos de alto perfil en los ltimos aos, incluyendo la cuenta de Twitter de la Associated Press, en la que publicaron un mensaje de un ataque a la Casa Blanca donde se haba herido al presidente Obama. +Este tuit era falso, por supuesto, pero la cada resultante en el ndice Dow Jones de ese da sin duda no lo fue, y mucha gente perdi mucho dinero. +Estas cosas suceden en todo el mundo ahora mismo. +En los conflictos de la Pennsula de Crimea, en Amrica Latina, de Europa a EE UU, los hackers son una fuerza para la influencia social, poltica y militar. +Como individuos o en grupos, voluntarios o conflictos militares, hay hackers en todas partes. +Vienen de todas las clases sociales, etnias, ideologas y gneros, debo aadir. +Ellos ahora dan forma a la escena mundial. +Los hackers representan una fuerza excepcional para el cambio en el siglo XXI. +Esto es porque el acceso a la informacin es una moneda crucial para el poder, una que los gobiernos quisieran controlar, algo que tratan de hacer mediante la creacin de "buffet libre" de programas de vigilancia, algo para lo que necesitan a los hackers, por cierto. +Y por eso el poder poltico ha tenido por mucho tiempo una relacin de amor-odio con los piratas informticos, ya que esas mismas personas que demonizan la piratera tambin la utilizan en grande. +Hace dos aos, vi al General Keith Alexander. +Es el director de la NSA y cibercomandante de los EE. UU., pero en lugar de su uniforme de general de cuatro estrellas, llevaba jeans y una camiseta. +Eso fue en DEF CON, la conferencia de hackers ms importante del mundo. +Tal vez como yo, el general Alexander no vio 12 000 criminales ese da en Las Vegas. +Creo que vio potencial sin explotar. +De hecho, l estaba all para contratar. +"En esta sala justo aqu", dijo, "est el talento que nuestro pas necesita". +Bueno, los hackers en la fila de atrs respondieron: "Entonces dejen de arrestarnos". +De hecho, desde hace aos, los hackers han estado en el lado equivocado de la cerca, pero a la luz de lo que sabemos ahora, quin est ms atento a nuestro mundo en lnea? +Las reglas del juego ya no son tan claras, pero los hackers son quizs los nicos que todava pueden desafiar las extralimitaciones de los gobiernos y las empresas de acaparamiento de datos en su propio campo de juego. +Para m, eso es una esperanza. +Durante las ltimas 3 dcadas, los hackers han hecho muchas cosas, pero tambin han influido en las libertades civiles, la innovacin y la libertad de Internet , por lo que creo que es hora de echar un buen vistazo a cmo elegimos retratarlos, porque si seguimos esperando que sean los chicos malos, cmo pueden ser tambin los hroes? +Mis aos en el mundo de los hackers me han hecho darme cuenta tanto del problema como de la belleza de los hackers: Ellos simplemente no pueden ver algo roto en el mundo y dejarlo as. +Se sienten obligados a explotarlo o a tratar de cambiarlo, y as encuentran los aspectos vulnerables de nuestro mundo rpidamente cambiante. +Ellos nos hacen, nos obligan a arreglar las cosas o a exigir algo mejor, y pienso que necesitamos que hagan exactamente eso, porque despus de todo, no es la informacin que quiere ser libre, somos nosotros. +Muchas gracias. +Gracias. Hackeen el planeta! +A la mitad de mi doctorado, estaba irremediablemente bloqueado. +Cada lnea de investigacin que intentaba llevaba a un callejn sin salida. +Pareca que mis suposiciones bsicas simplemente dejaron de funcionar. +Me sent como un piloto que volaba a travs de la niebla, y perd todo sentido de la orientacin. +Dej de afeitarme. +No poda salir de la cama por la maana. +Me senta indigno de atravesar las puertas de la universidad, porque no era como Einstein o Newton o cualquier otro cientfico de cuyos resultados haba aprendido porque en la ciencia solo conocemos los resultado, no el proceso. +Y as, obviamente, no poda ser un cientfico. +Pero tena suficiente apoyo y lo super y descubr algo nuevo acerca de la naturaleza. +Da una increble sensacin de calma ser la nica persona en el mundo que conoce una nueva ley de la naturaleza. +Y empec el segundo proyecto en mi doctorado y volvi a suceder. +Me qued bloqueado y lo super. +Y me puse a pensar, tal vez hay un patrn. +Pregunt a otros estudiantes y me dijeron, "S, eso es exactamente lo que nos sucedi, excepto que nadie nos dijo nada al respecto". +Todos estudiamos ciencia como si fuera una serie de pasos lgicos entre pregunta y respuesta, pero hacer investigacin no es as. +Al mismo tiempo, tambin estudiaba improvisacin teatral. +As que era fsico de da, y de noche, rea, saltaba, cantaba, tocaba la guitarra. +La improvisacin teatral, al igual que la ciencia, va hacia lo desconocido, porque hay que presentarse sin director, sin un guin, sin tener ni idea de lo que se va a retratar o lo que los otros personajes van a hacer. +Pero a diferencia de la ciencia, en la improvisacin teatral, te dicen desde el primer da lo que va a pasar cuando te subes al escenario. +Vas a fracasar miserablemente. +Te vas a quedar bloqueado. +Y practicbamos para seguir siendo creativos hasta que pasara el bloqueo. +Por ejemplo, hicimos un ejercicio donde todos hicimos un crculo y cada persona tena que hacer el peor baile de claqu del mundo y todo el mundo aplauda y vitoreaba, apoyndote en el escenario. +Cuando me convert en profesor y tuve que guiar a mis alumnos en sus proyectos de investigacin, me di cuenta de nuevo que no saba qu hacer. +Haba estudiado miles de horas fsica, biologa, qumica, pero ni una hora, ni un concepto sobre la manera de guiar, de cmo guiar a alguien para ir juntos hacia lo desconocido, acerca de la motivacin. +As que regres al teatro de la improvisacin, y les dije a mis alumnos desde el primer da lo que sucedera al iniciar la investigacin y que esto tiene est relacionado con nuestro esquema mental, de lo que es la investigacin. +Porque cada vez que la gente hace cualquier cosa, por ejemplo, si quiero tocar esta pizarra, mi cerebro construye primero un esquema, una prediccin exacta de lo que mis msculos harn antes de empezar a mover mi mano, y si me bloqueo, si mi esquema no coincide con la realidad, esto causa estrs adicional llamada disonancia cognitiva. +Por eso sus esquemas deben coincidir con la realidad. +Pero si creen que la manera cmo se ensea la ciencia, y si creen que los libros de texto, estn expuestos a tener el siguiente esquema de investigacin. +Si A es la pregunta, y B es la respuesta, entonces la investigacin es un camino directo. +El problema es que si un experimento no funciona, o un estudiante se deprime, se percibe como algo absolutamente equivocado y causa un enorme estrs. +Y por eso enseo a mis estudiantes un esquema ms realista. +He aqu un ejemplo donde las cosas no coinciden con su esquema. +As que enseo a mis estudiantes un esquema diferente. +Si A es la pregunta, B es la respuesta, permanezcan creativos en la nube, y empiecen, y los experimentos no funcionan, no funcionan, no funcionan, no funcionan, hasta llegar a un lugar relacionado con las emociones negativas donde parece que los supuestos bsicos no tienen sentido, como si alguien les quitara el suelo bajo sus pies. +Y yo llamo a este lugar la nube. +Pueden estar atascados en la nube por un da, una semana, un mes, un ao, toda una carrera, pero a veces, si tienen suerte y el apoyo suficiente, uno puede ver en los materiales a mano, o tal vez meditando en la forma de la nube, una nueva respuesta, C, y decides ir por ella. +Y los experimentos no funcionan, no funcionan, pero llegas all, y explicas a todos de ella mediante una publicacin que dice A directo a C, que es una gran manera de comunicar, pero siempre y cuando uno no se olvide del camino que los llev all. +Ahora bien, esta nube es una parte inherente a la investigacin, una parte inherente a nuestro oficio, porque la nube est de guardia en la frontera. +Hace guardia en la frontera entre lo conocido y lo desconocido, porque para descubrir algo verdaderamente nuevo, al menos uno de sus supuestos bsicos tiene que cambiar, y eso significa que en la ciencia, hacemos algo muy heroico. +Todos los das, tratamos de ponernos en el lmite entre lo conocido y lo desconocido y enfrentamos la nube. +Tengan en cuenta que puse B como conocido, porque lo conocamos desde el principio, pero C siempre es ms interesante y ms importante que B. +Entonces B es esencial con el fin de iniciar, pero C es mucho ms profundo, y eso es lo sorprendente de la investigacin. +Solo saber esta palabra, la nube, ha sido una experiencia transformadora en mi grupo de investigacin, porque los estudiantes vienen y dicen: "Uri, estoy en la nube" y yo les digo: "Genial, debes sentirse miserable". +Y como mentor, ya s qu hacer, que es intensificar mi apoyo al estudiante, porque los estudios en psicologa muestran que si se siente miedo y desesperacin, la mente se estrecha hacia maneras seguras y conservadoras de pensamiento. +Se basa en el principio central del teatro de la improvisacin, que otra vez vino a mi ayuda de nuevo. +Se trata de decir: "s y" a lo que dicen los otros actores. +Eso significa aceptar lo que ofrecen y construir sobre ello, diciendo "S y". +Por ejemplo, si un actor dice, "Aqu hay un charco de agua" y el otro actor dice, "No, eso es solo un escenario" la improvisacin se termina. +Est muerta y todos se sienten frustrados. +Eso se llama bloqueo. +Si no somos conscientes, las conversaciones cientficas pueden tener muchos bloqueos. +Decir "S y" suena as. +- "Aqu hay una piscina de agua". - "S, vamos a saltar!" +- "Mira, hay una ballena! - Vamos a agarrarla por la cola. +Nos est empujando a la Luna!" +As que decir "S y" no pasa por nuestro crtico interior. +Todos tenemos un crtico interno, que cuida lo que decimos, para que no piensen que somos obscenos, locos o poco originales, y la ciencia teme parecer poco original. +Decir "S y" ignora el crtico y desbloquea voces ocultas de la creatividad que ni siquiera sabamos que existan y que a menudo conducen a la respuesta acerca de la nube. +Saber de la nube e intentar decir "S y" ha hecho mi laboratorio muy creativo. +Los estudiantes empezaron a jugar con las ideas de los dems, y hemos hecho descubrimientos sorprendentes en la interfaz entre la fsica y la biologa. +Los llamamos diseos de la red, que son los circuitos elementales que nos ayudan a entender la lgica de la forma en que las clulas toman decisiones en todos los organismos, incluyendo nuestro cuerpo. +Muy pronto, despus de esto, me empezaron a invitar a dar charlas a miles de cientficos de todo el mundo. Pero el conocimiento acerca de la nube y diciendo: "S, y" se qued dentro de mi propio laboratorio, porque en la ciencia, no hablamos sobre el proceso, nada de lo subjetivo o emocional. +Hablamos de los resultados. +As que no haba manera de compartirlo en las conferencias. +Eso era impensable. +Y vi a los otros cientficos atascarse y sin poder describir lo que estaban viendo, y sus formas de pensar reducido a caminos muy seguros, su ciencia no alcanzaba todo su potencial, y eran miserables. +Pens, esa es la manera que es. +Voy a hacer que mi laboratorio sea lo ms creativo posible, y si todo el mundo hace lo mismo, la ciencia ser, eventualmente, cada vez ms y mejor. +Esa forma de pensar qued patas arriba cuando por casualidad escuch a Evelyn Fox Keller en una charla sobre su experiencia como mujer en la ciencia. +Ella preguntaba: "Por qu no hablamos de los aspectos subjetivos y emocionales de hacer ciencia? +No es por casualidad. Es una cuestin de valores". +La ciencia busca el conocimiento, eso es objetivo y racional. +Eso es lo hermoso de la ciencia. +Pero tambin tenemos un mito cultural que al hacer ciencia, lo que hacemos cada da para conseguir el conocimiento, es tambin objetivo y racional, como el Sr. Spock. +Y cuando se etiqueta algo objetivo y racional, de forma automtica, el otro lado, lo subjetivo y emocional, se etiqueta como no-ciencia o anti-ciencia o la amenaza de la ciencia, y simplemente no hablamos de ello. +Cuando escuch eso, que la ciencia tiene una cultura, todo encaj para m porque si la ciencia tiene una cultura, la cultura se puede cambiar, y puedo ser un agente de cambio que trabaja para cambiar la cultura de la ciencia. +As que en la presentacin de mi siguiente conferencia habl sobre mi ciencia y luego habl de la importancia de los aspectos subjetivos y emocionales de hacer ciencia y de cmo debemos hablar de ellos, y mir a la audiencia, y estaban fros. +No podan or lo que estaba diciendo en el contexto de 10 presentaciones de PowerPoint consecutivas. +Y lo intent una y otra vez, conferencia tras conferencia, pero el mensaje no llegaba. +Estaba en la nube. +Al final me las arregl para salir de la nube utilizando la improvisacin y la msica. +Desde entonces, a cada conferencia a la que voy doy una charla sobre ciencia y una segunda charla especial: "El amor y el terror en el laboratorio". Comienzo con una cancin sobre el mayor temor de los cientficos, que es trabajar duro para descubrir algo nuevo, y que alguien lo publique antes que nosotros. +Decimos que "se nos adelantaron" y uno se siente horrible. +Suena as. + Se me adelantaron de nuevo Scoop! Scoop! Y as seguimos. +Gracias por acompaarme en el coro. +As todo el mundo se echa a rer, comienzan a respirar, notan que hay otros cientficos con cuestiones de inters comn, y empezamos a hablar de las emociones y lo subjetivo de la investigacin. +Como si un enorme tab se hubiese levantado. +Finalmente podemos hablar de esto en una conferencia cientfica. +Los cientficos han llegado a juntarse y se renen regularmente para crear un espacio donde hablan de lo emocional y lo subjetivo durante la tutora, a medida que se va hacia lo desconocido, e incluso iniciando cursos sobre el proceso de hacer ciencia, de ir hacia lo desconocido juntos, y muchas otras cosas. +As que mi visin es que, al igual que todo cientfico conoce la palabra "tomo", que la materia est hecha de tomos, cada cientfico debe conocer palabras como "la nube", decir "S, y" y la ciencia sera mucho ms creativa, hara muchsimos ms descubrimientos inesperados para el beneficio de todos y tambin sera mucho ms ldico. +Y lo que les pido que se acuerden de esta charla es que la prxima vez que se enfrenten a un problema que no pueden resolver en el trabajo o en la vida, hay una palabra para lo que vas a ver: la nube. +Gracias. +Hace seis meses, recib un mail de un hombre en Israel que haba ledo uno de mis libros, y el mail deca: "Usted no me conoce, pero soy su 12 primo". +Y deca: "Tengo un rbol genealgico con 80 000 personas en l, incluido usted, Karl Marx, y varios aristcratas europeos". +Ahora, yo no saba qu hacer con eso. +Una parte de m era como, bueno, cuando me va a pedir que le gire 10 000 dlares a su banco de Nigeria, no? +Tambin pens, 80 000 familiares, quiero eso? +Tengo suficientes problemas con algunos de los que ya tengo. +Y no voy a dar nombres, pero ya saben quines son. +Pero otra parte de m deca, esto es notable. +Aqu estoy solo en mi oficina, pero no estoy solo en absoluto. +Estoy conectado a 80 000 personas en todo el mundo, y eso es cuatro Madison Square Gardens llenos de primos. +Y algunos de ellos van a ser grandes, y algunos de ellos van a ser irritantes, pero todos estn relacionados conmigo. +As que este mail me inspir a bucear en la genealoga, que yo siempre pens que era un campo muy serio y correcto, pero resulta que sera una fascinante revolucin y un tema controvertido. +En parte, por las pruebas de ADN y genticas, y en parte, debido a Internet. +Estoy en algo llamado Geni el rbol genealgico mundial, que tiene nada menos que un asombroso 75 millones de personas. +Esas 75 millones de personas estn conectadas por sangre o matrimonio, a veces ambos. +Est en los siete continentes, incluyendo la Antrtida. +Estoy en eso. Muchos de ustedes estn all, sea que lo sepan o no, y se pueden ver los enlaces. +Aqu est mi prima Gwyneth Paltrow. +Ella no tiene idea de que existo, pero somos oficialmente primos. +Tenemos solo 17 vnculos entre nosotros. +Y ah est mi primo Barack Obama. +Y es sobrino sptimo de la esposa del padre del esposo quinto ta de mi ta abuela, del esposo quinto ta de mi ta abuela, prcticamente mi hermano mayor. +Y mi primo, por supuesto, el actor Kevin Bacon que es de dos veces primer primo lejano de la sobrina de la esposa del primer primo lejano del marido de la sobrina. +As que seis grados de Kevin Bacon, ms o menos varios grados. +Ahora, no estoy alardeando, porque todos Uds. tienen personajes famosos y personajes histricos en su rbol, porque todos estamos conectados, y 75 millones pueden parecer mucho, pero en pocos aos, es muy probable que tengamos un rbol genealgico con todos, o casi todas, las 7 mil millones de personas en la Tierra. +Pero realmente importa? +Cul es la importancia? +Yo creo que es importante, y les voy a dar 5 razones muy rpidamente. +En primer lugar, tiene valor cientfico. +Esta es una historia sin precedentes de la raza humana, y nos est dando datos valiosos acerca de cmo se heredan las enfermedades, cmo la gente emigra y hay un equipo de cientficos del MIT ahora estudiando el rbol genealgico mundial. +Nmero dos, le da vida a la historia. +Me enter de que estoy conectado a Albert Einstein, as que se lo dije a mi hijo de 7 aos de edad, y l estaba totalmente cautivado. +Ahora Albert Einstein no es un hombre blanco muerto con el pelo raro. +Es el to Albert. Y mi hijo quera saber, "Qu ha dicho? Qu es E = MC?" +Adems, no todo son buenas noticias. +Me encontr con un enlace a Jeffrey Dahmer, el asesino en serie, pero he de decir que viene del lado de mi esposa. +As que quiero que esto quede claro. Lo siento, cario. +Nmero tres, la interconexin. +Todos venimos de un mismo ancestro, y uno no tiene que creer en la versin literal de la Biblia, pero los cientficos hablan del Y cromosomal de Adn y la Eva mitocondrial, y estos fueron hace unos 100 000 a 300 000 aos. +Todos tenemos un poco de su ADN en nosotros. +Ellos son nuestra tatara-tatara- tatara-tatara-tatara-tatara seguir que por cerca de 7000 veces abuelos, y lo que significa, literalmente, es que todos somos primos biolgicos tambin, y las estimaciones varan, pero probablemente el primo ms lejano que tienen en la Tierra se trata de un primo 50 +Ahora, no es slo que compartimos ancestros, descendientes. +Si tienen nios, y ellos tienen hijos, miren cmo rpidamente los descendientes se acumulan. +As que en 10, 12 generaciones, Uds. van a tener miles de descendientes, y millones de descendientes. +Nmero cuatro, un mundo ms amable. +Ahora, s que hay disputas familiares. +Tengo 3 hijos, as que veo cmo se pelean. +Pero creo que tambin qe hay un sesgo humano a tratar a su familia un poco mejor que a los extranjeros. +No somos solo una parte de la misma especie, +somos parte de la misma familia. +Compartimos el 99,9 % de nuestro ADN. +Ahora la final es la nmero cinco, un efecto democratizador. +Para algunos la genealoga tiene una cepa elitista, como dice la gente, "Oh, yo soy descendiente de Mara, reina de Escocia y t no, as que no puedes ingresar a mi club social". +Pero eso va a ser realmente difcil de hacer ahora, porque todo el mundo est relacionado. +Yo soy descendiente de Mara reina de Escocia, por matrimonio, pero an as. +As que es realmente un momento fascinante en la historia de la familia, porque est cambiando tan rpido. +Hay matrimonios gay y donantes de semen y hay matrimonios mixtos en una escala sin precedentes, y esto pone a algunos de mis primos ms conservadores un poco nerviosos, pero realmente creo que es una buena cosa. +Creo que cuanto ms inclusiva es la idea de familia, mejor, porque entonces uno tiene ms cuidadores potenciales, y como la prima octava mi dos veces ta lejana Hillary Clinton dice se necesita un pueblo. +As que tengo todos estos cientos y miles, millones de nuevos primos. +Pens, qu puedo hacer con esta informacin? +Y fue entonces cuando me decid, por qu no hacer una fiesta? +As que eso es l o que estoy haciendo. +Y estn todos invitados. +El ao que viene, el prximo verano, Ser el anfitrin de lo que espero sea la reunin de la familia ms grande y mejor de la historia. +Gracias. Los quiero all. +Los quiero all. +Ser en el New York Hall of Science, que es una gran sede, pero tambin es el sitio de la antigua Feria Mundial, que es, creo, muy apropiado, porque veo esto como una reunin familiar se rene una feria mundial. +Habr exposiciones y comida y msica. +Paul McCartney est a 11 pasos de distancia, as que espero que l traiga su guitarra. +l no ha respondido todava, pero cruzo los dedos. +Y no va a ser un da de discursos, de primos fascinantes. +Es temprano, pero estoy listo, tengo algunos alineados. +Cass Sunstein, mi primo que es quizs el jurista ms brillante, hablar. +Fue miembro de la administracin Obama. +Y en el otro lado del espectro poltico, George H.W. Bush, el nmero 41, el padre, que ha aceptado participar, y Nick Kroll, el cmico, y el Dr. Oz, y muchos ms por venir. +Solo juntos podemos resolver estos grandes problemas. +As que de primo a primo, les doy las gracias. No puedo esperar a verte. +Adis. +Piensen en una eleccin difcil que enfrentarn en el futuro cercano. +Puede que sea entre dos carreras, ser artista o contador, o lugares para vivir, la ciudad o el pas, o incluso entre dos personas para casarse. Uno podra casarse con Betty o con Lolita. +O podra elegir entre tener hijos o no, hacer que un padre enfermo venga a vivir con uno, criar al hijo en la religin que profesa nuestra pareja pero que nos es indiferente. +O si donar los ahorros de toda la vida a la caridad. +Es probable que la eleccin difcil que pensaron fuera algo grande, algo trascendental, algo que les importa. +Las elecciones difciles parecen ser ocasiones de agona, de apretones de manos, y rechinar de dientes. +Pero creo que hemos entendido mal las elecciones difciles y el papel que desempean en nuestras vidas. +Entender las elecciones difciles descubre un poder oculto que todos tenemos. +Lo que hace difcil a una eleccin es la forma de la relacin entre alternativas. +En cualquier eleccin fcil, una alternativa es mejor que la otra. +En una eleccin difcil, una alternativa es mejor en cierta forma, la otra alternativa es mejor en otra forma, y ninguna es mejor que otra en general. +Uno se desespera sobre si quedarse en el trabajo actual en la ciudad o cambiar radicalmente la vida con un trabajo ms desafiante en el campo porque quedarse es mejor en cierta forma, y mudarse es mejor en otra forma, y ninguna es mejor que la otra, en general. +No deberamos pensar que todas las elecciones difciles son grandes. +Digamos que estamos decidiendo qu comer en el desayuno. +Podramos comer cereal de salvado con mucha fibra o un donut de chocolate. +Supongamos que lo que importa en la eleccin es el sabor y que sea sano. +El cereal es mejor para uno, el donut tiene mucho mejor sabor, pero tampoco es mejor que el otro en general, una eleccin difcil. +Darse cuenta de que las pequeas decisiones tambin pueden ser difciles puede hacer que las grandes decisiones difciles parezcan menos espinosas. +Despus de todo, nos las ingeniamos para elegir qu desayunar de modo que podemos ingenirnoslas para quedarnos en la ciudad o cambiar de vida y trabajar en el campo. +Tampoco deberamos pensar que las elecciones difciles lo son porque seamos tontos. +Cuando me gradu en la universidad, no poda decidirme entre dos carreras, filosofa y abogaca. +Me encantaba la filosofa. +Hay cosas maravillosas que uno puede aprender como filsofo, y todo desde la comodidad de un silln. +Pero yo vengo de una familia de inmigrantes modestos donde mi idea de lujo era tener un sndwich de lengua de cerdo y jalea para almorzar en la escuela, por lo que la idea de pasar toda mi vida sentada en sillones solo para pensar, me pareca el colmo de la extravagancia y la frivolidad. +As que saqu mi libreta amarilla, dibuj una lnea por el medio, e hice el mejor esfuerzo para pensar las razones a favor y en contra de cada alternativa. +Recuerdo que pens: si al menos supiera cmo sera mi vida con cada alternativa. +Si al menos Dios o Netflix me enviaran un DVD de mis dos posibles carreras futuras. +Las comparara lado a lado, vera que una es mejor, y la eleccin sera fcil. +Pero no tena DVD, y como no poda adivinar cul era mejor, hice lo que muchos hacemos en situaciones difciles: tom la opcin ms segura. +El temor de ser una filsofa desempleada me convirti en abogada, para descubrir que no encajaba en la abogaca. +Yo no era as. +Por eso ahora soy filsofa, y estudio las elecciones difciles, y puedo decirles que el temor a lo desconocido, si bien es un motivador comn por omisin para lidiar con elecciones difciles, se basa en una concepcin errnea de stas. +Es un error pensar que en elecciones difciles, una alternativa realmente es mejor que otra pero somos demasiado tontos para saber cul es, y como no sabemos cul es, podramos tambin tomar la opcin menos arriesgada. +Incluso tomando dos alternativas lado a lado con informacin total, la decisin an puede ser difcil. +La elecciones difciles lo son no por nosotros o por nuestra ignorancia; son difciles porque no hay una opcin que sea mejor. +Ahora, si no hay una opcin que sea mejor, si las escalas no favorecen a una alternativa sobre la otra, entonces las alternativas deben ser igualmente buenas, +y quiz lo correcto sea decir que las elecciones difciles se dan entre opciones igualmente buenas. +Eso no puede ser correcto. +Si las alternativas son igualmente buenas, uno debera arrojar una moneda. Y parece errneo pensar que esa sea la forma de decidir entre carreras, lugares para vivir, personas para casarse: arrojar una moneda. +Hay otra razn para pensar que las elecciones difciles no se dan entre opciones igualmente buenas. +Supongamos que tienen que elegir entre dos empleos: pueden ser banqueros de inversin o artistas grficos. +Hay muchas cosas que importan en esa eleccin, como el entusiasmo por el trabajo, lograr seguridad financiera, tener tiempo para formar una familia, etc. +Quiz la carrera de artista los ponga a la vanguardia de las nuevas formas de expresin pictrica. +Quiz la carrera bancaria los ponga a la vanguardia de nuevas formas de manipulacin financiera. +No obstante, imaginen los dos empleos de modo que ninguno es mejor que el otro. +Ahora, supongamos que mejoramos uno un poco. +Supongamos que el banco nos corteja, aade USD 500 al mes a su salario. +El dinero extra hace al empleo en el banco mejor que el del artista? +No necesariamente. +Un salario ms alto hace al empleo en el banco mejor que antes, pero puede que no sea suficiente para hacerlo mejor que ser artista. +Pero si una mejora en uno de los empleos no lo hace mejor que el otro, entonces los dos empleos del principio no eran igualmente buenos. +Si uno parte de dos cosas igualmente buenas, y mejora una de ellas, ahora debe ser mejor que la otra. +Ese no es el caso de las opciones en elecciones difciles. +Por eso tenemos un rompecabezas. +Tenemos dos empleos. +Ninguno mejor que el otro, pero tampoco igualmente buenos. +Cmo se supone que elegiremos? +Algo parece no estar bien aqu. +Quiz la opcin en s es problemtica y la comparacin es imposible. +Pero eso no puede ser correcto. +No estamos tratando de elegir entre dos cosas que no pueden compararse. +Despus de todo, estamos sopesando los mritos de dos empleos no los mritos del nmero 9 con respecto a un plato de huevos fritos. +Una comparacin de los mritos generales de dos empleos es algo que podemos hacer, y algo que hacemos a menudo. +Pienso que el rompecabezas surge por un supuesto irreflexivo que hacemos de los valores. +Sin querer suponemos que los valores como la Justicia, la belleza, la bondad, son similares a las cantidades cientficas, como la longitud, la masa y el peso. +Tomen cualquier pregunta comparativa que no implique valores, tales como cul de las dos maletas es ms pesada? +Hay solo tres posibilidades. +El peso de una es mayor, menor o igual al peso de la otra, +Las propiedades como el peso se pueden representar con nmeros reales, uno, dos, tres, etc. y hay solo tres comparaciones posibles entre dos nmeros reales. +Un nmero es mayor, menor, o igual a otro. +No es as con los valores. +Como criaturas de la post Ilustracin, solemos suponer que el pensamiento cientfico es la clave de todo lo importante en nuestro mundo, pero el mundo de los valores es diferente al mundo de la ciencia. +Las cosas de un mundo pueden ser cuantificadas por los nmeros reales. +Las cosas del otro mundo no pueden. +No deberamos suponer que el mundo de las longitudes y los pesos, tiene la misma estructura que el mundo del deber, o de lo que debemos hacer. +Por eso, lo que nos importa, el deleite de un nio, el amor por la pareja, no puede representarse con nmeros reales, luego no hay razn para creer que en la eleccin solo hay tres posibilidades: una alternativa es mejor, peor o igual que la otra. +Necesitamos una cuarta relacin ms all del mejor, peor o igual que describa lo que ocurre en las elecciones difciles. +Me gusta decir que las alternativas estn al mismo nivel. +Cuando las alternativas estn al mismo nivel, puede importar mucho la que uno elija, pero una alternativa no es mejor que la otra. +Ms bien, las alternativas estn en el mismo radio en cuanto a valor, en la misma liga en cuanto a valor, mientras que al mismo tiempo son muy distintas en tipo de valor. +Por eso la eleccin es difcil. +Entender as las elecciones difciles nos descubre algo sobre nosotros que no conocamos. +Cada uno de nosotros tiene el poder de crear razones. +Imaginen un mundo en el que cada eleccin que enfrentsemos fuese fcil, o sea, siempre existe la mejor alternativa. +De existir una mejor alternativa, es la que uno debera elegir, porque parte de ser racional es hacer lo mejor, en vez de lo peor al elegir lo que uno puede fundamentar mejor. +En un mundo as, tendramos ms razones para usar calcetines negros en vez de calcetines rosas, de comer cereales en vez de donuts, de vivir en la ciudad en vez de vivir en el campo, de casarnos con Betty en vez de hacerlo con Lolita. +Un mundo lleno de elecciones fciles nos hara esclavos de la razn. +Si lo piensan, es de locos creer que las razones dadas determinarn que hay ms razn en seguir los pasatiempos exactos para uno, la casa exacta para uno, el empleo exacto para uno. +En cambio, uno enfrenta alternativas que estaban al mismo nivel, elecciones difciles, y uno encontr razones propias para elegir ese pasatiempo, esa casa y ese empleo. +Cuando las alternativas estn al mismo nivel, las razones dadas, las que determinan si estamos cometiendo un error, guardan silencio en cuanto a qu hacer. +Es aqu, en el espacio de las elecciones difciles que tenemos que ejercitar nuestro poder normativo, el poder de crear las propias razones, para hacer de uno mismo el tipo de persona para quien la vida rural es preferible a la vida urbana. +Cuando elegimos entre opciones que estn al mismo nivel, podemos hacer algo bastante notable. +Podemos alinearnos detrs de una opcin. +Aqu me posiciono. +Este soy yo. Me gusta la banca. +Me gustan los donuts de chocolate. +Esta respuesta en las elecciones difciles es una respuesta racional, pero no responde a razones dadas. +Ms bien, se apoya en razones creadas por nosotros. +Cuando creamos razones para nosotros, para ser este tipo de personas en vez de otro, nos convertimos totalmente en las personas que somos. +Se podra decir que llegamos a ser los autores de nuestras propias vidas. +Cuando enfrentamos elecciones difciles, no deberamos darnos con la cabeza en la pared tratando de averiguar qu alternativa es mejor. +No existe la mejor alternativa. +En vez de buscar las razones fuera, deberamos buscar las razones dentro: Quin quiero ser? +Puedo decidir usar calcetines rosas, amar los cereales, ser banquero rural, y puedo decidir usar calcetines negros, y ser artista urbano, amante de los donuts. +Lo que hagamos ante las elecciones difciles depende mucho de nosotros. +Ahora, las personas que no ejercen su poder normativo en elecciones difciles van a la deriva. +Todos conocemos personas as. +Yo fui a la deriva en abogaca. +No puse mi determinacin en la abogaca. +La abogaca no era lo mo. +Quienes van a la deriva dejan que el mundo escriba la historia de sus vidas. +Permiten que los mecanismos de recompensas y castigos, las palmaditas en la cabeza, el miedo, la facilidad de una opcin, determinen quines son. +Por eso, la leccin de las elecciones difciles se refleja dnde uno pone la determinacin, en lo que uno decide apoyar, y, mediante elecciones difciles, se vuelve esa persona. +Y por eso las elecciones difciles no son una maldicin, sino un regalo del cielo. +Gracias. +Soy viajero de toda la vida. +Incluso de nio, calcul que sera ms barato ir a un internado en Inglaterra que a la mejor escuela cercana a la casa de mis padres en California. +As, desde los 9 aos, volaba solo varias veces al ao sobre el Polo Norte, solo para ir a la escuela. +Y, claro, cuanto ms volaba ms me encantaba volar, por eso ni bien termin la secundaria, consegu un trabajo limpiando mesas para poder pasar cada estacin de mis 18 aos en un continente diferente. +Y luego, casi inevitablemente, me hice cronista de viajes para aunar trabajo y relajo. +Salvo que, como ya saben, una de las primeras cosas que uno aprende al viajar es que ningn lugar es mgico a menos que uno lo vea con la mirada apropiada. +Uno lleva a un hombre irascible al Himalaya, y se quejar de la comida. +Por eso creo que la mejor manera de cultivar una mirada ms atenta y apreciativa fue, curiosamente, ir a ninguna parte, y simplemente sentarse. +Claro, sentarnos es nuestra forma de conseguir lo que ms anhelamos y necesitamos en nuestras vidas aceleradas, un descanso. +Pero fue tambin la nica forma como pude tamizar mi repertorio de experiencias y darle sentido al futuro y al pasado. +Y as, para mi gran sorpresa, descubr que ir a ninguna parte era tan apasionante como ir al Tbet o a Cuba. +Claro, esto es lo que los sabios a travs de los siglos, en todas las tradiciones, nos han dicho. +Es una idea antigua. +Hace ms de 200 aos, los estoicos nos recordaban que no es la experiencia lo que hace nuestra vida, sino lo que hacemos con ella. +Imagina que un huracn de repente arrasa con tu pueblo y reduce todo a escombros. +Un hombre queda traumatizado de por vida. +Pero otro, quiz incluso su hermano, casi se siente liberado, y decide que es una gran oportunidad de empezar su vida de nuevo. +Es exactamente el mismo acontecimiento pero con respuestas radicalmente diferentes. +Nada es bueno o malo en s, como nos dice Shakespeare en "Hamlet"; es el pensamiento el que lo vuelve as. +Esta ha sido sin duda mi experiencia como viajero. +Hace 24 aos emprend el viaje ms alucinante por Corea del Norte. +El viaje dur pocos das. +Pero sentado he vuelto all mentalmente, he tratado de comprenderlo, de encontrarle un sitio en mis pensamientos y eso ha durado ya 24 aos y probablemente dure para siempre. +El viaje, en otras palabras, me dio algunas vistas increbles pero solo al sentarme tranquilo puedo tornar esas vistas en visiones duraderas. +A veces pienso que gran parte de nuestra vida ocurre dentro de la mente, en recuerdos, imaginacin, interpretacin o especulacin, y que si realmente quiero cambiar mi vida mejor podra empezar cambiando mi mente. +Pero nada de esto es nuevo; por eso Shakespeare y los estoicos nos lo decan hace siglos, pero Shakespeare nunca tuvo 200 emails por da. +Los estoicos, que yo sepa, no estaban en Facebook. +Todos sabemos que en nuestra vida a la carta una de las cosas ms demandadas somos nosotros mismos. +Donde quiera que estemos, a cualquier hora, da o noche, nuestros jefes, corresponsales o padres, pueden ubicarnos. +Los socilogos han hallado que en aos recientes los estadounidenses trabajan hoy, menos horas que hace 50 aos, pero sienten que trabajan ms. +Tenemos cada vez ms dispositivos que ahorran tiempo, pero con frecuencia parece que tenemos cada vez menos tiempo. +Podemos hacer contacto ms fcilmente con personas en los rincones ms remotos del planeta, pero a veces en ese proceso perdemos el contacto con nosotros mismos. +Y una de mis sorpresas ms grandes, como viajero, ha sido descubrir que a menudo es exactamente la gente que nos ha permitido llegar a cualquier sitio la misma que quiere ir a ninguna parte. +En otras palabras, precisamente esas personas que crearon las tecnologas que sobrepasan muchos lmites del pasado, son las ms sabias sobre la necesidad de tener lmites, aun si se trata de tecnologa. +Una vez fui a las oficinas de Google y vi todas las cosas que muchos han odo; casas en los rboles bajo techo, mesas elsticas, trabajadores con 20 % de su tiempo libre para dejar volar la imaginacin. +Tengo otro amigo en Silicon Valley, uno de los portavoces ms elocuentes de las ltimas tecnologas, quien fue uno de los fundadores de la revista Wired, Kevin Kelly. +Kevin escribi su ltimo libro sobre nuevas tecnologas sin un smartphone, laptop o TV en su casa. +Y, como muchos en Silicon Valley, se empea en respetar lo que llaman el "sabbath de Internet", en el que durante 24 o 48 horas cada semana se desconectan por completo para recuperar el sentido de orientacin y mesura que necesitarn cuando vuelvan a la vida en lnea. +Una de las cosas que quiz la tecnologa no siempre nos da, es cmo usarla sabiamente. +Y hablando del sabbath, miren los 10 mandamientos, solo se usa el adjetivo "santo" para el da de reposo. +Tomamos el libro sagrado de los judos, la Tor; el captulo ms largo es sobre el sabbath. +Todos sabemos que uno de los lujos ms grandes, es el espacio vaco. +En muchas piezas musicales, las pausas o silencios les dan su belleza y su forma. +Y, como escritor, a menudo tratar de incluir muchos espacios vacos en la pgina para que el lector pueda completar mis pensamientos y oraciones y as dar rienda suelta a su imaginacin. +En el terreno fsico, claro, mucha gente, si tiene los recursos, trata de conseguir un lugar en el campo, un segundo hogar. +Nunca llegu a tener esos recursos, pero a veces pienso que cuando quiera, puedo tener un segundo hogar en el tiempo, si no puedo en el espacio, con solo tomarme un da libre. +Y nunca es fcil porque, claro, si lo hago, paso gran parte del tiempo preocupado por las cosas extra que se me vendrn encima al da siguiente. +A veces pienso que es mejor sacrificar comida, sexo o vino, que la oportunidad de leer mis correos. +Cada temporada trato de tomarme 3 das de descanso pero una parte de m se siente culpable de dejar a mi pobre esposa o ignorar esos correos de mis jefes, aparentemente urgentes, o quiz perderme el cumpleaos de un amigo. +Pero tan pronto como llego a un lugar tranquilo de verdad, me doy cuenta de que es solo yendo all que tendr algo novedoso, creativo o alegre para compartir con mi esposa, mi jefe o mis amigos. +De lo contrario, realmente, solo les comparto mi agotamiento o mis distracciones, que no son ningunas bendiciones. +Por eso a los 29 aos, decid rehacer toda mi vida bajo la idea de ir a ninguna parte. +Una noche volva de la oficina, era pasada la medianoche, estaba en un taxi yendo hacia Times Square, y de repente me di cuenta de que corra tanto que no poda ponerme al da con mi propia vida. +Mi vida entonces, en realidad, era ms o menos lo que haba soado de nio. +Tena amigos y colegas muy interesantes, tena un bonito apartamento en Park Avenue y la calle 20, +mi trabajo me pareca fascinante, escribiendo sobre asuntos mundiales. Pero no poda aislarme de todo eso para or mi voz interior, para apreciar si en realidad era verdaderamente feliz. +As que abandon mi vida soada y me fui a una habitacin simple en una de las callejuelas de Kioto, Japn, el lugar que haba ejercido durante mucho tiempo una atraccin gravitacional muy fuerte y misteriosa sobre m. +Incluso de nio miraba una pintura de Kioto y senta que la reconoca; la haba visto antes de posar mis ojos sobre ella. +Es tambin, como saben, una ciudad hermosa rodeada de colinas, con ms de 2000 templos y santuarios, donde mucha gente ha meditado durante 800 aos o ms. +Pero me di cuenta de que me da lo que ms aprecio que son los das y las horas. +Nunca he tenido que usar un mvil all. +Casi nunca tengo que mirar la hora, y cada maana al despertar, realmente el da se despliega delante de m como una amplia pradera. +Siempre ser un viajero, mi medio de vida depende de eso. Pero una de las bellezas de viajar es que permite llevar la calma a la agitacin y la conmocin del mundo. +Una vez sub a un avin en Frankfurt, Alemania. Una joven alemana se sent a mi lado y conversamos muy amigablemente durante unos 30 minutos. Luego se dio vuelta y qued inmvil durante 12 horas. +Ni una vez encendi el monitor de video, nunca sac un libro, ni siquiera durmi; se qued inmvil. Me transmiti algo de su claridad y su calma. +Noto que hoy en da, cada vez ms personas toman medidas conscientes para generar espacios en sus vidas. +Algunas personas van a resorts "agujero negro" en los que pagan cientos de dlares la noche por entregar el mvil y la laptop en la recepcin a la llegada. +Conozco algunos que antes de ir a dormir, en vez de repasar los correos, o mirar YouTube, simplemente apagan las luces, escuchan algo de msica, notan que duermen mucho mejor y se despiertan mucho ms alertas. +Una vez tuve la suerte de conducir por las elevadas montaas oscuras detrs de Los ngeles, donde el gran poeta, cantante y galn internacional, Leonard Cohen, vivi y trabaj muchos aos como monje a tiempo completo en el Centro Zen Mount Baldy. +Y no me sorprendi del todo cuando el disco que lanz a los 77 aos, al que titul deliberadamente con el poco sexy, "Viejas ideas", fue nmero uno en las listas de 17 pases, y qued entre los 5 primeros en otros 9 pases. +Algo dentro nuestro, creo, pide a gritos el sentido de intimidad y profundidad que nos dan personas como esas +que asumen el tiempo y los problemas de meditar. +Creo que muchos tenemos la sensacin, yo desde luego la tengo, de estar parados a 5 cm de una pantalla enorme, con mucho ruido, atestada de gente, que cambia segundo a segundo, y esa pantalla es nuestra propia vida. +Solo apartndonos un poco, y yendo un poco ms atrs, permaneciendo quietos, podemos empezar a ver el sentido del lienzo y a captar la imagen mayor. +Unas pocas personas hacen eso por nosotros, yendo a ninguna parte. +Por eso, en la era de la aceleracin, nada puede ser ms estimulante que ir lento. +En la era de la distraccin, nada es ms lujoso que prestar atencin. +En la era del constante movimiento, nada es tan urgente como quedarse inmvil. +A donde vayan las prximas vacaciones a Pars, Hawi, o Nueva Orlens; apuesto a que la pasarn de maravilla. +Pero si quieren volver a casa vivos y llenos de esperanza, enamorados del mundo, creo que podran probar ir a ningn sitio. +Gracias. +Mi abuelo era zapatero. +En aquellos das, l haca zapatos personalizados. +Yo nunca lo conoc. +l falleci en el Holocausto. +Pero hered su pasin por la confeccin, aunque ya no exista como tal. +Lo ven, aunque la Revolucin Industrial hizo mucho para mejorar la humanidad, tambin erradic la misma habilidad que a mi abuelo tanto le gustaba, y atrofi la artesana como la conocemos. +Pero todo eso est a punto de cambiar con la impresin 3D, y todo empez con esto, la primersima pieza que ya fue impresa. +Es un poco ms vieja que el TED. +Fue impresa en 1983 por Chuck Hull, que invent la impresin 3D. +Piensen en cosas tiles. +Todos saben su nmero de zapato. +Cuntos de Uds. saben el tamao del puente de su nariz o la distancia entre sus sienes? +Alguien? +No sera fantstico si pudiera, por primera vez, tener gafas que te queden perfectamente bien y no requiera ningn juego de bisagras, as lo ms probable es que las bisagras no se van averiar? +Pero las consecuencias de la impresin 3D van mucho ms all de la punta de nuestra nariz. +Cuando encontr a Amanda por primera vez, ella ya era capaz de levantarse y caminar un poquito aunque estuviese paraltica de cintura para abajo, pero ella se me quejaba de que su traje era incmodo. +Era un bonito traje robotizado hecho por Ekso Bionics, pero no haba sido inspirado por su cuerpo. +No haba sido hecho a la medida. +Y ella me desafi a hacerle algo que fuese algo ms femenino, algo ms elegante, y ligero, y como buenos sastres, pensamos en medirla digitalmente. +Y lo hicimos. Le construimos un traje maravilloso. +Lo increble sobre lo que aprend con Amanda fue que muchos de nosotros miramos la impresin 3D y nos decimos, que esto remplazar mtodos tradicionales. +Amanda lo mir y dijo, es una oportunidad para m de recuperar mi simetra y adoptar mi autenticidad. +Y saben qu ms? Ella no se para. +Ahora quiere caminar con tacones altos +Y no para ah. +La impresin 3D est alterando dispositivos mdicos personalizados como los conocemos, desde nuevos aparatos para escoliosis bonitos, conformados y ventilados hasta millones de empastes y bellos refuerzos para los amputados, una otra oportunidad para conectarse emocionalmente con su simetra. +Y mientras aqu estamos hoy, se puede obtener frenillos sin hilos con los frenillos invisibles, o el empaste. +Millones de audfonos intraauriculares ya son impresos en 3D hoy en da. +Millones de personas son atendidas hoy en da por esos dispositivos. + Y qu hay de las prtesis totales de rodilla, con los datos, a la medida, donde todas las herramientas y guas son impresas en 3D? +G.E. est usando la impresin 3D para crear la prxima generacin de mquina LEAP que ahorrar combustible a un ritmo de un 15% y costo para una aerolnea de unos 14 millones de dlares. +Bueno para G.E., cierto? +Y sus clientes y el medio ambiente. +Pero, saben, la novedad an mejor es que esa tecnologa ya no es exclusiva a corporaciones acaudaladas. +Planetary Resources, una nueva compaa para exploracin del espacio lanzar su primera sonda espacial este ao mismo. +Se trata de una fraccin de una astronave de NASA. Cuesta una fraccin del costo, y est hecha con menos de una docena de partes mviles, y estar en el espacio a finales de este ao. +Google se est encargando de un proyecto audaz de crear el telfono bloque, el Ara. +Solo es posible a causa del desarrollo de la impresin 3D de alta velocidad que por primera vez crear mdulos utilizables funcionales que estarn all dentro. +Un lanzamiento a la Luna, potenciado por la impresin 3D. +Y qu pasa con la comida? +Qu pasara, si pudiramos, por primera vez, crear golosinas increbles como este bonito osito TED ac, que fueran comestibles? +Qu pasara si pudiramos cambiar completamente la experiencia, como ven con la funda de absenta que est totalmente impresa en 3D? +Y qu pasa si pudiramos empezar a aadir ingredientes y colores y sabores de todos los gustos, que no solamente significara comida deliciosa sino la promesa de una nutricin personalizada a la vuelta de la esquina? +Y eso me lleva a una de las cosas ms grandes sobre la impresin 3D. +Con la impresin 3D, la complejidad es gratuita. +A la impresora le da igual si crea la forma ms rudimentaria o la forma ms compleja, y eso est volcando completamente el diseo y la fabricacin como los conocemos. +Muchos piensan que la impresin 3D ser el fin de la fabricacin como la conocemos. +Yo pienso que es la oportunidad de poner la tecnologa del futuro en las manos de los jvenes que crearn abundancia sin fin de oportunidades de empleo, y con eso, todos pueden convertirse en creadores expertos y fabricantes expertos. +Eso precisar nuevas herramientas. +No todos saben utilizar CAD, y estamos desarrollando dispositivos hpticos de percepcin que permitirn tocar y sentir los diseos como si se jugara con arcilla digital. +Al hacer cosas como esas, y tambin desarrollar cosas que toman fotografas fsicas que son imprimibles al instante, se facilita la creacin del contenido, pero con todo lo inimaginado, tambin tendremos falsificacin democratizada no intencional y posesin ilegal ubicua. +Mucha gente me pregunta, si tendremos una impresora 3D en todos los hogares. +Pienso que la pregunta no es correcta. +La pregunta correcta que hay que hacerse es, cmo la impresin 3D cambiar mi vida? +En otras palabras, en qu habitacin de mi casa encajar la impresin 3D? +Y todo lo que ven aqu fue impreso en 3D, incluyendo estos zapatos en la feria de la moda de msterdam. +Bien, no son los zapatos de mi abuelo. +Esos zapatos representan la continuacin de su pasin por la fabricacin hiperlocal. +Mi abuelo no lleg a conocer los tacos impresos de Nike para el ltimo Super Bowl Y mi padre no lleg a verme usando mis zapatos hibridados impresos en 3D. +l falleci hace tres aos. +Pero Chuck Hull, el hombre que lo invent todo, est aqu mismo en el saln, y gracias a l, puedo decir, gracias a su invencin, puedo decir que soy tambin zapatero, Y al usar estos zapatos estoy honrando mi pasado mientras fabrico mi futuro. +Gracias. +Rompecabezas y magia. +Yo trabajo en lo que la mayora de la gente piensa que son dos campos distintos, pero yo creo que son lo mismo. +Soy a la vez un mago y creador de crucigramas del New York Times, lo que en resumen significa que tom dos aficiones obsesivas del mundo y las combin en una carrera. +Y creo que la magia y los crucigramas son lo mismo, porque ambos son la llave de uno de los ms importantes impulsos humanos: la urgencia de resolver. +Los seres humanos estamos cableados para resolver, para poner orden en el caos. +Es ciertamente verdad para m. +He estado resolviendo toda mi vida. +La secundaria consisti en partidos picos de Scrabble en la cafetera y no realmente en hablar con las chicas, y luego en esa poca, comenc a aprender trucos de magia y definitivamente no hablar con las chicas. +No hay nada como empezar una conversacin con, "Sabas que "prestidigitacin" vale 20 puntos en Scrabble?" +Pero en aquel entonces, me di cuenta de una interseccin entre los crucigramas y la ilusin. +Al hacer el crucigrama o cuando ven un espectculo de magia, uno se convierte en un solucionador y el objetivo es tratar de encontrar el orden en el caos, el caos de, por ejemplo, una rejilla blanco y negro de un crucigrama la bolsa de fichas mezcladas de Scrabble, o una baraja de cartas mezcladas. +Y hoy, como cruciverbalista 23 puntos y diseador de ilusiones, creo el caos. +Voy a probar su capacidad de resolver. +Resulta que la investigacin nos dice que resolver es tan primordial como comer y dormir. +Desde el nacimiento, estamos conectados para resolver. +En un estudio de la UCLA, a recin nacidos an en el hospital les mostraron patrones, patrones como este: crculo, cruz, crculo, cruz. +Y entonces cambiaron el patrn: tringulo, cuadrado. +Y mediante el seguimiento de la mirada del beb, sabemos que los recin nacidos tan pequeos como de un da de edad puede observar y responder a los trastornos en el orden. +Es notable. +As que desde la infancia hasta la vejez, la urgencia de resolver nos une a todos, y hasta me encontr esta foto en Instagram de la estrella del pop Katy Perry resolviendo un crucigrama con su caf de la maana. +Me gusta. +Resolver existe en todas las culturas. +La invencin estadounidense es el crucigrama, y este ao estamos celebrando el centenario del crucigrama, publicado por primera vez en The New York World. +Pero muchas otras culturas tienen sus rompecabezas propios tambin. +China nos da el tangram, que pondra a prueba las habilidades solucionadoras de hacer formas de piezas desordenadas. +Caos. Orden. +Orden. +Y orden. +Ese es mi favorito, vamos a escucharlo de nuevo. +Bien. +Y qu tal este rompecabezas inventado en la Inglaterra del siglo XVIII: el rompecabezas. +No es hacer orden a partir del caos? +Como pueden ver, siempre estamos resolviendo. +Siempre estamos tratando de descifrar nuestro mundo. +Es una eterna bsqueda. +Es como lo que escribi Cervantes en "Don Quijote", que por cierto es la raz de la palabra 'quixotry', que tiene la ms alta puntuacin en Scrabble, 365 puntos. +Como sea, "Don Quijote" es un libro importante. +Uds. han ledo "Don Quijote", no? +Veo algunas cabezas asintiendo. +Vamos chicos, no? +Quin ha ledo "Don Quijote?" Alcen la mano quienes han ledo "Don Quijote". +Eso es, pblico inteligente. +Quin ha ledo "Don Quijote?" Levntense. +Muy bien, porque necesito a alguien inteligente aqu porque voy a demostrar, con la ayuda de uno de Uds., cun profundamente arraigado est su deseo de resolver, cun cableados estn realmente todos para resolver, as que me acercar a la audiencia y encontrar a alguien que me ayude. +Vamos a ver. +Todo el mundo est mirando a otro lado, de repente. +Puedo? Lo haras? Cul es tu nombre? Gwen. +No le tu mente, puedo ver tu nombre en tu gafete. +Ven conmigo, Gwen. Todos, un aplauso para darle la bienvenida. +Gwen, despus de ti. +Ests emocionada? +Sabas que tu nombre vale 8 puntos en Scrabble? +De acuerdo, parada aqu, Gwen, aqu. +Gwen, antes de comenzar, me gustara sealar una pieza del rompecabezas, que est aqu en este sobre y no me acercar a l bien? +Aqu tenemos un dibujo de algunos animales de granja, +tenemos un bho, un caballo, un burro, un gallo, un buey y una oveja, y aqu, Gwen, tenemos algunos finos marcadores de arte, colores como, puedes ver la palabra justo ah? +Gwen: Cobalto. David Kwong: Cobalto, s. Cobalto. +Pero tenemos plata, uno rojo, un esmeralda, y un marcador de color mbar. Y Gwen, vas a colorear este dibujo como cuando tenas 5 aos, un marcador a la vez. +Va a ser muy divertido. +Pero me voy a ir de aqu. +No quiero ver lo que ests haciendo. +As que no empieces todava, +espera a que me aleje y cierre los ojos. +Gwen, ests lista? +Toma un solo marcador y por qu no coloreas el caballo para m? +Colorea el caballo... trazos grandes, garabatos, no te preocupes por permanecer en las lneas. +Bien. Perfecto. +Por qu no tomas ese marcador y lo cierras y por favor pnlo en la mesa. +Bien, toma otro marcador de la copa y qutale la tapa y colorea el burro. +Grandes garabatos. +Bien, excelente, cierra ese marcador y pnlo en la mesa. +Toma otro marcador. y qutale la tapa. No es divertido? +Colorea el bho. +De acuerdo, cierra ese marcador y toma otro marcador de la copa y colorea el gallo. +Bien, bien, bien, bien, bien. +Grandes, garabatos Bien, bien. +Toma otro marcador de la copa y colorea el buey, por favor. +Bien, est bien. +Una gran cantidad de color, cirral, pnlo en la mesa y toma otro marcador de la copa. +Estoy mal? Bueno, me voy a dar la vuelta. +Se me olvid? Ah, se me olvid el marcador prpura. +Saldr bien de todas formas. +Creo que todava saldr bien, en gran parte. +Gwen, te voy a entregar este sobre. +No lo abras todava, pero voy a escribir tus elecciones tal que todos puedan ver las elecciones que hiciste. +Genial. As que tenemos un caballo de cobalto, [CH] bho mbar, [AO] un buey plata, [SO] s, bien, un burro rojo [RD], y qu era color esmeralda? El gallo. +Un gallo esmeralda. [ER] +Ahora, para el momento de la verdad, Gwen, echemos un vistazo a ese sobre. +Por qu no lo abres y sacas la nica hoja de papel del interior y me la das y vamos a ver si coincide con tus elecciones. +S, creo que s. +Tenemos un caballo cobalto, un burro rojo, un bho mbar, un gallo esmeralda, un buey de plata, olviid mi marcador prpura, as que tenemos una oveja blanca, pero eso es una coincidencia bastante sorprendente, o no? +Gwen, bien hecho. Es hermoso. Tomar esto. +As, damas y caballeros, cmo es esto posible? +Cmo es esto posible? Bueno, podra ser que el cerebro de Gwen est tan cableado para resolver que descodifica mensajes ocultos? +Bueno, este es el rompecabezas que les presento. +Podra haber orden en el caos que he creado? +Echemos un vistazo ms de cerca. +Recuerdan cuando les mostr estas piezas del rompecabezas? +En qu imagen lleg a convertirse? Un caballo de cobalto. +La trama se complica. +Y luego jugamos un juego de tangram con un gallo esmeralda. +Que es mi favorito. +Y luego tuvimos un experimento con un buey de plata. +Y Katy Perry tom su caf de la maana de una taza bho mbar. +Gracias, Katy, por tomar esa foto para m. +Ah, y hay uno ms. +Creo que pintaste un burro en rojo, Gwen. +Damas y caballeros, podran levantar la mano si han ledo [red=rojo] Don Qui [donkey=burro] jote? +'Red Don Qui' ? Pero esperen, pero esperen, an hay ms. +Gwen, yo estaba tan seguro que ibas a hacer estas elecciones que hice otra prediccin y la puse en un lugar an ms indeleble, y est justo aqu. +Damas y caballeros, tenemos el New York Times de hoy. +La fecha es 18 de marzo 2014. +Muchos de Uds. en el primeras filas lo tienen debajo de sus asientos tambin. +Bsquenlo, lo escondimos debajo de all. +Vean si pueden encontrarlo y abrirlo a la seccin de artes y encontrarn el crucigrama, el crucigrama de hoy fue escrito por su servidor. +Pueden ver mi nombre arriba de la rejilla. +Te dar este, Gwen, dale un vistazo. +Y tambin voy a ponerlo en la pantalla. +Ahora echemos un vistazo a otra pieza del rompecabezas. +Si nos fijamos en la primera pista para 1 horizontal, que comienza con la letra C, de corrupto, y justo debajo tenemos una O, de 'outfielder' [jardinero] y si siguen leyendo las primeras letras de las pistas hacia abajo, obtendrn caballo cobalto, [CH] bho mbar [AO], buey plata [SO], burro rojo [RD] y gallo esmeralda. [ER] +Es algo genial, no? +Es The New York Times. +Pero esperen, esperen. Esperen. +Oh, Gwen, recuerdas que olvid mi marcador de prpura, y no pudiste colorear la oveja? +Bueno, si sigues leyendo comenzando con 25 vertical, dice, "Oh, por cierto, la oveja puede dejarse en blanco". +Pero esperen, esperen, hay algo ms, hay una ltima pieza en el rompecabezas. +Gwen, estoy muy agradecido por tus elecciones, porque si echamos un vistazo a las primeras letras de tus combinaciones, obtenemos CHAOS para caos y ORDER para la orden. +Eso es el caos y el orden. +Todos hemos hecho del caos un orden +As, damas y caballeros, la prxima vez que se encuentren con un rompecabezas, ya sea en su vida o en su trabajo, o tal vez en la mesa del desayuno del domingo con The New York Times, recuerden, estn todos cableados para resolver. +Gracias. +Hace 23 aos, cuando tena 19, le dispar a un hombre y lo mat. +Yo era un joven traficante de drogas con muy mal carcter y una pistola semiautomtica. +Pero mi historia no termin ah. +En realidad, empez ah, y los 23 aos que siguieron son una historia de reconocerme, de pedir disculpas y de resarcimiento. +Pero no fue como Uds. piensan o se imaginan. +Estas cosas ocurrieron en mi vida de un modo sorprendente, sobre todo para m. +Como muchos de Uds., de chico fui un alumno ejemplar, un estudiante becado, con el sueo de graduarme de mdico. +Pero todo empez a andar muy mal cuando mis padres se separaron y finalmente se divorciaron. +Los hechos reales son bastante simples. +A los 17, me dispararon 3 veces en la esquina de mi calle en Detroit. +Mi amigo me llev volando al hospital. +Los mdicos me sacaron las balas, me mejoraron, y me mandaron de vuelta al mismo barrio en el que me haban baleado. +A lo largo de este calvario, nadie me abraz, nadie me dio un consejo, nadie me dijo que todo iba a estar bien. +Nadie me dijo que vivira con miedo, que me volvera paranoico, ni que iba a reaccionar con excesiva violencia a haber sido baleado. +Nadie me dijo que un da sera yo la persona detrs del gatillo. +14 meses despus, a las 2 de la maana, hice los disparos que hicieron que un hombre muriera. +Cuando entr a la crcel, estaba resentido, enojado, herido. +No me quera hacer responsable. +Culpaba a todos, desde mis padres hasta al sistema. +Racionalic mi decisin de disparar porque en el barrio del que vengo, es mejor ser el que dispara que el que recibe los disparos. +Cuando me sent en la celda fra, me sent indefenso, rechazado y abandonado. +Sent que no le importaba a nadie, y reaccion a mi encierro con hostilidad. +Y me fui metiendo en ms y ms problemas. +Tuve negocios clandestinos, me hice usurero, y vend drogas que se metan ilegalmente en la crcel. +Me haba transformado en lo que el alcalde del Michigan Reformatory denomin "lo peor de lo peor". +Y por mi actividad, fui sometido a confinamiento solitario por 7 aos y medio de los que estuve preso. +Para m, el confinamiento solitario es uno de los lugares ms inhumanos y brutales en el que puedas encontrarte, pero all fue donde me encontr a m mismo. +Un da caminaba por la celda cuando un oficial vino a traer la correspondencia. +Mir un par de cartas antes de encontrar la carta con la letra manuscrita garabateada de mi hijo. +Y cada vez que reciba carta de mi hijo, era como un rayo de luz en el lugar ms oscuro que puedan imaginar. +Y ese da en particular, abr la carta y en maysculas haba escrito: "Mi mam me cont por qu estabas preso: por asesinato". +Deca: "Papi, no mates. +Jess ve lo que haces. Rzale a l". +Yo no era muy creyente en esa poca, ni lo soy ahora, pero haba algo muy profundo en las palabras de mi hijo. +Me hicieron repensar cosas de mi vida por primera vez. +Fue la primera vez en mi vida en que realmente pens que mi hijo me vea como un asesino. +Me volv a sentar en el catre y pens en algo que haba ledo en [Platn], donde Scrates planteaba en "Apologa" que una vida sin examen no merece ser vivida. +All fue cuando comenz la transformacin. +Pero no fue algo sencillo. +Una de las cosas de las que me di cuenta, que formaba parte de la transformacin, es que haba 4 cosas fundamentales. +La primera era que tena grandes mentores. +Bien. S que muchos estarn pensando: "Cmo encontraste un gran mentor en la crcel?" +Pero en mi caso, algunos de mi mentores que estn cumpliendo cadena perpetua fueron de las mejores personas que conoc en toda mi vida, porque me obligaron a mirar mi vida con sinceridad y a plantearme el desafo de tomar mis propias decisiones. +La segunda cosa fue la literatura. +Antes de ir a la crcel, no saba que existan tantos y tan brillantes poetas, autores y filsofos de raza negra, y tuve la enorme suerte de toparme con la autobiografa de Malcolm X, que destroz por completo cada estereotipo que tena de m mismo. +La tercer cosa fue la familia. +Por 19 aos mi padre estuvo a mi lado con una fe inquebrantable, porque crea que yo tena lo que haca falta para darle un vuelco a mi vida. +Tambin conoc a una mujer increble que es la madre de Sekou, mi hijo de 2 aos, y me ense a quererme a m mismo de un modo sano. +La ltima cosa fue escribir. +Fue la primera vez en mi vida en que me sent capaz de perdonarme a m mismo. +Algo me que pas luego de esa experiencia fue que pens en los otros hombres encerrados junto a m y en cunto quera compartir esto con ellos. +Y me propuse que si alguna vez sala de la crcel hara todo lo posible para que eso cambiara. +En 2010 sal de la crcel por primera vez luego de dos dcadas. +Imagnense a Pedro Picapiedra aparecer en un captulo de "Los Supersnicos". +Muy parecido a eso era mi vida. +Por primera vez, tuve contacto con Internet, con las redes sociales, con autos parecidos a KITT de "El Auto Fantstico". +Pero lo que ms me fascin fue la tecnologa de los telfonos. +Cuando fui a la crcel, los telfonos para los autos eran as de grandes y hacan falta dos personas para llevarlos. +Imagnense lo que sent cuando agarr mi pequeo Blackberry por primera vez y aprend a mandar mensajes de texto. +Pero el tema es que los que me rodeaban no entendan que no tena ni idea de lo que significaban todos esos mensajitos abreviados, como LOL, OMG, LMAO, hasta que un da estaba conversando con mensajes de texto con un amigo y le ped que hiciera una cosa a lo que respondi: "K". +Yo: "Qu es K?" +Y l: "K es okay". +Por adentro pensaba: "Pero qu demonios pasa con K?" +Y entonces le envi un signo de pregunta. +Y l contest: "K = okey". +Y yo le mand: "FU". Y entonces me pregunt por qu lo estaba insultando. +Y yo: "LOL FU", hasta que al final entend. +Estos tres aos pasaron rapidsimo, y me est yendo bastante bien. +Estoy becado en el MIT Media Lab, trabajo en una empresa increble que se llama BMe, doy clases en la Universidad de Michigan, pero es toda una lucha porque entend que hay ms hombres y mujeres volviendo a sus casas que no van a tener estas oportunidades. +Tuve la bendicin de trabajar con hombres y mujeres increbles, ayudando a gente a reintegrarse a la sociedad, uno de ellos es mi amigo Calvin Evans. +Estuvo 24 aos en la crcel por un crimen que no cometi. +Tiene 45 aos. Est inscrito en la universidad. +Una de las cosas de las que hablamos es de las 3 cosas que fueron importantes para mi transformacin personal. Lo primero era reconocerlo. +Tuve que reconocer que haba daado a otros. +Y tambin tuve que reconocer que a m me haban hecho dao. +Lo segundo era pedir perdn. +Tuve que pedirle perdn a la gente que haba daado. +Aunque no tena expectativas de que lo aceptaran, era importante hacerlo porque era lo correcto. +Pero tambin tuve que pedirme perdn a m mismo. +Lo tercero era el resarcimiento. +Para m, eso significaba volver a mi comunidad a trabajar con jvenes en riesgo que iban por el mismo camino, pero tambin reconciliarme conmigo mismo. +Hoy mi deseo es que tengamos una actitud ms emptica hacia el modo en que manejamos el encarcelamiento masivo, que nos deshagamos de esa mentalidad de "encerrarlos y tirar la llave", porque est comprobado que no funciona. +El mo es un recorrido singular, pero no tiene que ser de ese modo. +Cualquiera puede transformarse si generamos el espacio para que eso suceda. +Lo que les estoy pidiendo hoy es que imaginen un mundo en el que hombres y mujeres no sean condenados por sus pasados, en el que los delitos y los errores no determinen el resto de una vida. +Yo pienso que juntos podemos hacerlo realidad. Espero que Uds. tambin. +Gracias. +Soy profesora de ciencias de la computacin e ingeniera aqu en Carnegie Mellon, y mi investigacin se centra en la privacidad y seguridad utilizable, y por ello, a mis amigos les gusta darme ejemplos de sus frustraciones con los sistemas informticos, especialmente de frustraciones relacionados con la privacidad y la seguridad inutilizable. +As que he odo mucho sobre contraseas. +Muchas personas se sienten frustradas con las contraseas, y es bastante lamentable cuando uno debe tener una contrasea muy buena que pueda recordar pero que nadie pueda adivinar. +Pero qu hacer cuando se tienen cuentas en un centenar de diferentes sistemas y que a su vez se supone que deben ser contraseas nicas para cada uno de estos sistemas? +Es complejo. +En Carnegie Mellon solan hacerlo bastante fcil para que recordramos nuestras contraseas. +El requisito hasta el 2009 para las contraseas era que estas tuvieran al menos un carcter. +Cuando implementaron esta nueva poltica, muchos de mis colegas y amigos, me vinieron para decirme: "Ahora s que es realmente inservible. +Por qu nos hacen esto y por qu no los detuviste?" +Y yo dije: "Saben qu? +Nadie me pregunt". +La entropa es un trmino complicado, pero bsicamente mide la fuerza de las contraseas. +Pero el tema es que eso no es en realidad una medida estndar de entropa. +El Instituto Nacional de Estndares y Tecnologa tiene un conjunto de directrices con algunas reglas bsicas para medir la entropa, pero no tienen nada muy especfico, y la razn por la que solo tiene reglas bsicas es porque en realidad no tienen buena informacin sobre contraseas. +De hecho, su informe seala, "Desafortunadamente, no tenemos mucha informacin sobre las contraseas que los usuarios eligen bajo reglas particulares. +Al Instituto de estndares y tecnologa le gustara obtener ms datos sobre las contraseas escogidas por los usuarios, pero los administradores de sistemas son comprensiblemente reacios a revelar datos de las contraseas a externos". +Esto es un problema, pero nuestro grupo de investigacin lo vio como una oportunidad. +Dijimos: "Hay una necesidad de tener buenos datos sobre contraseas. +Tal vez podamos recoger algunos buenos datos sobre contraseas y de hecho avanzar el estado actual aqu". +As que lo primero que hicimos fue ir con una bolsa de caramelos a dar una vuelta por el campus para hablar con los estudiantes, profesores y personal, y pedirles informacin sobre sus contraseas. +No les decamos: "Danos tu contrasea". +Solo les preguntamos acerca de su contrasea. +Cunto tiempo hace que la tienes? Tiene algn dgito? +Tiene un smbolo? +Y te molest tener que crear una nueva la semana pasada? +As que obtuvimos resultados de 470 estudiantes, personal docente y administrativo, y de hecho se confirm que la nueva poltica era muy molesta. No obstante, tambin averiguamos que se sentan ms seguros con estas nuevas contraseas. +Averiguamos que la mayora de la gente saba que se supona que no deba anotar su contrasea, y solo el 13 % lo hizo, pero desconcertantemente, el 80 % dijo que reutilizaban su contrasea. +Ahora, esto es en realidad ms peligroso que anotar la contrasea, porque nos hace mucho ms vulnerables a los atacantes. +As que si tienen que hacerlo, anoten sus contraseas, pero no la reutilicen. +Tambin averiguamos algunas cosas interesantes acerca de los smbolos que las personas utilizan en las contraseas. +As CMU permite 32 posibles smbolos, pero como pueden ver, solo hay un pequeo nmero que la mayora de la gente utiliza, as que no estamos consiguiendo realmente mucha seguridad con los smbolos en nuestras contraseas. +As que fue un estudio muy interesante, y ahora tenamos los datos de 470 personas, pero en la situacin actual esos no son realmente muchos datos de contraseas, y as miramos a nuestro alrededor para ver dnde podramos encontrar datos adicionales de contraseas. +Resulta que hay mucha gente por ah robando contraseas y a menudo las publican en Internet. +As que pudimos obtener acceso a algunos de estos conjuntos de contraseas robadas. +Sin embargo, esto todava no es realmente ideal para una investigacin, porque no es del todo claro de dnde proceden todas estas contraseas, o qu polticas concretas estaban en efecto cuando las personas crearon esas contraseas. +As es que queramos encontrar una mejor fuente de datos. +Decidimos qu una cosa que podramos hacer era hacer un estudio y que la gente realmente creara contraseas para nuestro estudio. +As que usamos un servicio llamado Amazon Mechanical Turk, que es un servicio para enviar un pequea tarea que lleva un minuto, unos minutos, una hora, y paga a la gente un centavo, diez centavos, unos dlares por hacer la tarea por Ud., y despus se les paga a travs de Amazon.com. +As que pagamos a la gente unos 50 centavos por crear una contrasea siguiendo nuestras reglas y por responder una encuesta, y luego les pagamos de nuevo para volver dos das ms tarde y abrir una sesin usando su contrasea y contestar otra encuesta. +Haciendo esto, hemos recogido 5000 contraseas, y dimos a la gente una serie de diferentes polticas para crear contraseas. +Algunas personas deban aplicar una poltica bastante fcil, la llamamos Basic8, y ah la nica regla es que la contrasea deba tener al menos ocho caracteres. +Otras personas tenan que aplicar una poltica mucho ms dura, y esto era muy similar a la poltica de CMU, es decir, ocho caracteres incluyendo maysculas, minsculas, dgitos, smbolo, y pasar una verificacin de diccionario. +Y una de las otras polticas que probamos, y haba un montn ms, pero una de las que probamos fue la llamada Basic16, y el nico requisito aqu era que la contrasea deba tener al menos 16 caracteres. +Muy bien, as que ahora tenamos 5000 contraseas, e informacin mucho ms detallada. +Una vez ms constatamos que la gente realmente solo usa un pequeo nmero de smbolos en sus contraseas. +Tambin queramos tener una idea de cunta seguridad ofrecan las contraseas que las personas creaban, pero, como recordarn, no es una buena medida de seguridad de la contrasea. +As que decidimos ver el tiempo que se tardara en descifrar estas contraseas utilizando las mejores herramientas de descifrado que usan los malos, o averiguando informacin al respecto en la literatura especializada. +As que un atacante tonto tratar todas las contraseas en orden. +Empezarn con AAAAA y pasarn a AAAAB, y esto tomar mucho tiempo antes de encontrar las contraseas que las personas son propensas a tener. +Por otra parte, un atacante astuto, hace algo mucho ms inteligente. +Miran las contraseas que se saben que son populares a partir de estos conjuntos de contraseas robadas, y las adivinan en primer lugar. +As que empezaremos adivinando "contrasea" y luego "Te amo" y "mono" y "12345678", porque estas son las contraseas que con mayor probabilidad tiene la gente. +De hecho, algunos de Uds. probablemente tienen estas contraseas. +As que lo que encontramos mediante la ejecucin de todas estas 5000 contraseas recogidas a travs de estas pruebas para ver lo seguras que eran, encontramos que las contraseas largas eran en realidad bastante seguras, y las contraseas complejas eran bastante seguras tambin. +Sin embargo, cuando nos fijamos en los datos del estudio, vimos que la gente estaba realmente frustrada por las contraseas muy complejas, y que las contraseas largas eran mucho ms usables, y, en algunos casos, eran en realidad incluso ms seguras que las contraseas complejas. +As que esto sugiere que, en lugar de decirle a la gente que necesitan poner todos estos smbolos y nmeros y cosas locas en sus contraseas, podramos mejorar simplemente diciendo a la gente que tengan contraseas largas. +Sin embargo, aqu hay el problema, Algunas personas tenan contraseas largas que en realidad no eran muy seguras. +Pueden crear contraseas largas del tipo que un atacante podra adivinar fcilmente. +As que debemos aadir algo ms a las contraseas largas. +Deben existir requisitos adicionales, y nuestra investigacin en curso est mirando qu requisitos adicionales hay que aadir para crear contraseas ms seguras que tambin sean fciles para la gente recordar y escribir. +Otra forma para lograr que las personas tengan contraseas ms seguras es usar un medidor de contrasea. +Estos son algunos ejemplos: +Puede que los hayan visto en Internet al crear sus contraseas. +Decidimos hacer un estudio para averiguar si estos medidores de contraseas realmente funcionan. +Esto realmente ayuda a las personas a tener contraseas seguras? Y si es as, cules son mejores? +As que probamos medidores de contraseas de diferentes tamaos, formas, colores, diferentes palabras al lado, y hasta probamos uno con era un conejito bailarn. +Al escribir una mejor contrasea, el conejo baila cada vez ms rpido. +As que fue bastante divertido. +Lo que encontramos fue que los medidores de contraseas funcionan. +Dicen que lo hacemos bien antes de tiempo, y si solo esperaran un poco antes de dar esa respuesta positiva, Uds. probablemente tendran mejores contraseas. +Ahora, otro enfoque para mejorar las contraseas, tal vez, es usar frases de paso en lugar de contraseas. +l dice que, de hecho, uno ya la recuerda. +As que decidimos hacer un estudio para averiguar si esto era cierto o no. +De hecho, a todos con los que hablo que les menciono que estoy haciendo una investigacin sobre contraseas, sealan esta caricatura. +"Has visto esto? Ese xkcd. +Batera bsica del caballo correcto". +As que hicimos el estudio para ver lo que realmente pasara. +En nuestro estudio, hemos utilizado Mechanical Turk de nuevo, e hicimos que la computadora recogiera palabras al azar en la frase de paso. +Ahora, la razn para hacerlo es que los humanos no son muy buenos escogiendo palabras al azar. +Si pidiramos a un humano hacerlo, elegiran las cosas que no son muy arbitrarias. +As que probamos algunas premisas diferentes. +Bajo una de las premisas la computadora escogi de un diccionario de palabras muy comunes del idioma ingls, y as se obtendra frases de paso como "Intentemos hay tres vienen". +Y nos fijamos en eso, y dijimos, "Bueno, no parece realmente muy memorizable". +As que intentamos recoger las palabras que vinieron de partes especficas de la conversacin como por ejemplo nombre-verbo-sustantivo-adjetivo. +Eso est relacionado con algo que es una especie de oracin. +As que Uds. pueden obtener una frase como "plan construye poder seguro". o "final determina drogas rojas". +Y estas parecan un poco ms memorizables, y tal vez a la gente le gustaran ms. +Queramos compararlas con las contraseas, y tenamos la computadora para escoger contraseas aleatorias, y estas eran agradables y cortas, pero como pueden ver, en realidad, no parecen muy memorizables. +Y entonces decidimos probar algo llamado contrasea pronunciable. +As que aqu la computadora recoge slabas al azar y las pone une para obtener algo pronunciable, como "tufritvi" y "vadasabi". +Eso fluye en la lengua. +As que eran contraseas aleatorias generadas por nuestra computadora +Lo que encontramos en este estudio fue que, sorprendentemente, utilizar frases no era, en realidad, tan bueno. +La gente no recordaba mejor las frases de paso que estas contraseas aleatorias, y como las frases de paso son ms largas, se precisa ms tiempo para escribirlas y la gente cometa ms errores al escribirlas. +As que no es realmente una victoria clara para las frases de paso. +Perdn por todos los fans de xkcd. +Por otro lado, averiguamos que las contraseas pronunciables funcionaron sorprendentemente bien, por eso estamos profundizando ms para ver si podemos hacer que este enfoque sea an mejor. +Uno de los problemas con algunos de los estudios realizados es que, debido a que est todo hecho, usando Mechanical Turk, no se trata de contraseas reales de la gente. +Son las claves que la computadora ha creado para ellos para nuestro estudio. +Y lo que queramos saber es si la gente en realidad se comportara de la misma forma con sus contraseas reales. +As que hablamos con la oficina de seguridad informtica en Carnegie Mellon y preguntamos si podamos obtener contraseas reales de todo el mundo. +Auditaron nuestro cdigo. +Ejecutaron el cdigo. +Y as nunca, en realidad, vimos las contraseas de nadie. +Obtuvimos algunos resultados interesantes, y aquellos de Uds. estudiantes de Tepper de atrs estarn muy interesados en esto. +As nos encontramos con que las contraseas creadas por las personas afiliadas a la escuela de ciencias de la computacin en realidad eran 1,8 veces ms seguras que las de los afiliados a la escuela de negocios. +Tenemos tambin informacin demogrfica muy interesante. +As que fue una buena noticia. +Bien, quiero cerrar hablando de algunas ideas que tuve durante mi ao sabtico el ao pasado en la escuela de arte de Carnegie Mellon. +Una de las cosas que hice es una serie de edredones, y he hecho este edredn de aqu. +Se llama "Manta de Seguridad". +Este edredn tiene las 1000 contraseas robadas con ms frecuencia del sitio web RockYou. +El tamao de las contraseas es proporcional a la frecuencia con que aparecan en el conjunto de datos robados. +Lo que hice es crear esta nube de palabras, y examin todas las 1000 palabras, y las categoric en categoras temticas sueltas. +Y, en algunos casos, era un poco difcil de entender en qu categora deban estar y entonces las identifiqu por colores. +As que estos son algunos ejemplos de la dificultad. +Digamos "justin". +Es ese el nombre del usuario, su novio, su hijo? +Tal vez son un fan de Justin Bieber. +O "princesa". +Es un apodo? +Son fans de las princesas de Disney? +O tal vez ese es el nombre de su gato. +"Iloveyou" aparece muchas veces en muchos idiomas diferentes. +Hay mucho amor en estas contraseas. +Si miran atentamente, vern que hay tambin algunas palabras soeces, pero lo que fue realmente interesante ver para m es que hay mucho ms amor que odio en estas contraseas. +Y hay animales, una gran cantidad de animales, y "mono" es el animal ms comn y la 14 contrasea ms popular. +Y esto fue realmente curioso para m, y me pregunt: "Por qu son tan populares los monos?" +Y as, en nuestro ltimo estudio sobre contraseas, cuando detectamos que alguien crea una contrasea usando "mono", les preguntamos por qu tenan un mono en su contrasea. +Y lo que averiguamos... encontramos 17 personas hasta el momento que tienen la palabra "mono"... Encontramos que un tercio de ellos dijo que tienen una mascota llamada "mono" o un amigo cuyo apodo es "mono" y alrededor de un tercio de ellos dijo simplemente que le gustan los monos y que los monos son muy lindos. +Y ese joven es muy lindo. +As, parece que al final, cuando hacemos las contraseas, hacemos algo que o es muy fcil de escribir, un patrn comn, o cosas que nos recuerdan a la palabra contrasea o a la cuenta para la que hemos creado la contrasea, o lo que sea. +O pensamos acerca de las cosas que nos hacen felices, y creamos nuestra contrasea basados en las cosas que nos hacen felices. +Y si bien esto facilita la escritura y recordarla es ms divertido, tambin hace que sea mucho ms fcil descifrar la contrasea. +As que s que un montn de estas charlas TED son fuente de inspiracin y hacen pensar sobre cosas agradables y felices, pero cuando estn creando su contrasea, traten de pensar en otra cosa. +Gracias. +No s si lo han notado pero ha habido una avalancha de libros publicados ltimamente que contemplan o especulan sobre la cognicin y la vida emocional de los perros. +Piensan? Sienten? Y de ser as, cmo? +As que esta tarde, en mi limitado tiempo, quera eliminar muchas de esas conjeturas presentndoles a dos perros, que han tomado la orden de "hablar" muy literalmente. +El primer perro es el primero en irse, y est contemplando un aspecto de su relacin con su dueo, y el ttulo es "Un perro de su amo". +"Tan joven como parezco, me estoy haciendo viejo ms rpido que l. +Siete a uno es la relacin, suelen decir. +Sea cual sea el nmero, lo pasar un da y tomar la delantera, como lo hago en nuestros paseos por el bosque, y si esto alguna vez logra cruzar su mente, sera la ms dulce sombra que haya nunca hecho en la nieve o la hierba". +Gracias. +Y nuestro siguiente perro habla de algo llamado "El resucitado", que significa un espritu que regresa a visitarte. +"Soy el perro que pones a dormir, como te gusta llamar a la aguja del olvido, volver para decirte esta sencilla cosa: nunca me gustaste". +"Cuando lama tu cara, pensaba en morderte la nariz. +Cuando te vea secarte con la toalla, quera saltar y acobardarte con un intento de mordisco. +Me molestaba la forma en que te movas, tu falta de gracia animal, la forma en la que te sentabas en la silla para comer, una servilleta en tu regazo, un cuchillo en la mano. +Me hubiera escapado pero estaba demasiado dbil, un truco que me enseaste mientras yo estaba aprendiendo a sentarme y sanar y, el ms grande de los insultos, darse la mano sin una mano. +Admito que ver la correa poda emocionarme, pero solo porque eso significaba que estaba a punto de oler cosas que nunca habas tocado. +No vas a creer esto, pero no tengo razn para mentir: odiaba el coche, odiaba los juguetes de goma, no me gustaban tus amigos, y an peor, tus familiares. +El tintineo de mis marbetes me volva loco. +Siempre me rascaste en el lugar equivocado". +"Todo lo que quera de ti era comida y agua en mis platos. +Mientras dormas, te observaba respirar mientras la luna brillaba en el cielo. +Tom toda mi fuerza no levantar la cabeza y aullar. +Gracias. +Todos los das enfrentamos problemas como el cambio climtico y la seguridad de las vacunas donde tenemos que responder a preguntas cuyas respuestas dependen mucho de la informacin cientfica. +Los cientficos nos dicen que el planeta se est calentando. +Nos dicen que las vacunas son seguras. +Pero cmo sabemos que tienen la razn? +Por qu creemos en la ciencia? +La verdad es que muchos no creen en la ciencia. +Las encuestas sobre la opinin pblica muestran que una gran mayora de los estadounidenses no creen que el cambio climtico sea debido a las actividades humanas, que haya una evolucin por seleccin natural y no estn convencidos de que las vacunas son seguras. +Entonces, por qu tenemos que creer en la ciencia? +A los cientficos no les gusta hablar de la ciencia como una creencia. +De hecho, contrastan la ciencia con la fe y dicen que la creencia se relaciona con la fe. +Y la fe est separada y es distinta a la ciencia. +De hecho diran que la religin est basada en la fe o quizs a lo que le apost Pascal. +Pascal Blaise fue un matemtico del siglo XVII que aplic el razonamiento cientfico a la cuestin de creer o no en Dios. Lo que deca: Si Dios no existe pero decido creer no pierdo mucho. +Quizs unas cuantas horas los domingos. +Pero si s existe y no creo en l, estoy metido en un gran lo. +As que Pascal dice que es mejor creer en Dios. +O como uno de mis profesores deca: "Estaba agarrado al barandal de la fe". +Doy ese salto hacia la fe dejando la ciencia y el racionalismo a un lado. +El hecho es que para la mayora de nosotros creer en muchas de estas afirmaciones cientficas es un acto de fe. +No podemos probar la mayora de estas afirmaciones por nuestra cuenta. +Y esto es verdad incluso para la mayora de los cientficos fuera de su especializacin. +Si lo piensan, un gelogo no puede decirte si una vacuna es segura. +La mayora de los qumicos no son expertos en la teora de la evolucin. +Un mdico no puede decirte, a pesar de las afirmaciones de algunos, que el tabaco produce cncer o no. +As que hasta los cientficos tienen que tener fe cuando estn fuera de sus reas de estudio, entonces, por qu aceptan las afirmaciones de otros cientficos? +Por qu se creen los unos a los otros? +Y, deberamos creer en esas afirmaciones? +Lo que quiero discutir ac es que s deberamos pero no por las razones que la mayora de nosotros creemos. +A la mayora nos ensearon en la escuela que la razn por la que debemos creer en la ciencia es por el mtodo cientfico. +Nos ensearon que los cientficos siguen un mtodo y que este mtodo garantiza la verdad en sus afirmaciones. +El mtodo que la mayora aprendi en la escuela, que llamamos el mtodo del texto, es el mtodo de la deduccin hipottica. +De acuerdo al modelo estndar, el modelo del texto, los cientficos desarrollan unas hiptesis, luego deducen las consecuencias de esas hiptesis, y luego salen y dicen: "Bien, son estas consecuencias verdaderas?" +"Podemos ver que ocurren en el mundo natural?" +Y si ocurren, los cientficos dicen: "Fabuloso. Sabemos que la hiptesis es correcta". +Hay muchos ejemplos famosos en la historia de cientficos que hicieron exactamente esto. +Uno de los ejemplos ms famosos viene del trabajo de Albert Einstein. +Cuando Einstein desarroll la teora de la relatividad, una de las consecuencias de su teora era que el espacio-tiempo no era un vaco, sino que tena materia. +Y que esa materia se doblaba en la presencia de objetos con masa como el Sol. +Si la teora fuera verdadera entonces la luz cuando atraviesa el Sol debera, de hecho, doblarse a su alrededor. +Eso fue una prediccin impresionante y pasaron muchos aos antes de que los cientficos pudiesen probarla, cosa que ocurri en 1919, y que result ser verdadera. +De hecho, la luz de las estrellas se doblan al pasar alrededor del Sol. +Esa fue una gran confirmacin de la teora. +Se consider la prueba de la veracidad de esta radical nueva idea, y se public en muchos peridicos en todo el mundo. +A veces esta teora o modelo se conoce como el modelo nomolgico-deductivo, principalmente porque a los acadmicos les gusta complicar las cosas. +Pero tambin porque en el caso ideal se trata de leyes. +Nomolgico significa que est relacionado con leyes. +En el caso ideal la hiptesis no solo es una idea: idealmente, es una ley natural. +Por qu es importante que sea una ley natural? +Porque si es una ley no puede infringirla. +Si es una ley siempre ser verdadera en todos los tiempos y lugares sin importar las circunstancias. +Y todos Uds. conocen al menos una ley famosa: La famosa ecuacin de Einstein, E=mc2, que explica la relacin entre la energa y la masa. +Y esa relacin siempre ser verdadera. +Resulta que hay muchos problemas con este modelo. +El mayor problema es que es errneo. +Simplemente falso. Y dar tres razones por la que es errneo. +La primera es una razn lgica. +Es el problema de la falacia de afirmar una consecuencia. +Esa es una forma ms rimbombante o acadmica de decir que las teoras falsas pueden hacer predicciones verdaderas. +Solo por el hecho de que una prediccin se haga realidad no prueba lgicamente que la teora sea correcta. +Y tengo un buen ejemplo, nuevamente a partir de la historia de la ciencia. +Esta es una imagen del universo de Ptolomeo, con la Tierra en el centro del universo y el Sol y los planetas girando a su alrededor. +Mucha gente inteligente durante muchos siglos, creyeron en el modelo de Ptolomeo. +Por qu? +La respuesta es porque muchas de las predicciones se hicieron realidad. +El sistema de Ptolomeo le permiti a los astrnomos hacer predicciones precisas acerca de los movimientos del planeta, incluso ms precisas al principio que la teora de Coprnico, que hoy en da sabemos que es verdadera. +He all un problema con el modelo de texto. +El segundo problema es un problema prctico, y es el problema de las hiptesis auxiliares. +Las hiptesis auxiliares son supuestos que hacen los cientficos que ellos mismos pueden saber o no que hacen. +Un buen ejemplo de esto viene del modelo de Coprnico que al final reemplaz el sistema de Ptolomeo. +Nicols Coprnico dijo que la Tierra no era el centro del universo, que el Sol era el centro del sistema solar y que la Tierra se mueve alrededor del Sol. +Los cientficos le dijeron, bien, Nicols, si eso es verdad debemos poder detectar el movimiento de la Tierra alrededor del Sol. +Esta diapositiva aqu muestra el concepto que se conoce como el paralaje estelar. +Si hacemos las misma observacin 6 meses ms tarde, cuando la Tierra se ha movido a esta posicin en junio, vemos las misma estrella pero con otro fondo. +Esa diferencia, esa diferencia angular, es el paralaje estelar. +Esta es la prediccin que hace el modelo copernicano. +Los astrnomos buscaron el paralaje estelar y no consiguieron nada, nada en absoluto, nada. +Y muchos argumentaban que esta era la prueba de que el modelo copernicano era falso. +Qu pas? +En retrospectiva podemos decir que los astrnomos asumieron dos hiptesis auxiliares las cuales podemos decir ahora que son incorrectas. +La primera fue el supuesto sobre el tamao de la rbita de la Tierra. +Los astrnomos asuman que la rbita de la Tierra era grande en relacin a la distancia a las estrellas. +Hoy en da la ilustraramos ms as, esto viene de la NASA, y pueden ver que la rbita de la Tierra es bastante pequea. +Incluso mucho ms pequea que lo que se muestra aqu. +Por ello el paralaje estelar es muy pequeo y muy difcil de detectar. +Esto conlleva a la segunda razn por la que la prediccin no funcion, ya que los cientficos tambin asumieron que los telescopios que tenan eran lo suficientemente sensibles para detectar el paralaje estelar. +Cosa que no era cierta. +No fue sino hasta el siglo XIX que los cientficos fueron capaces de detectar el paralaje estelar. +Tambin hay un tercer problema. +Es simplemente un problema de facto: mucho de la ciencia no entra dentro del modelo del texto. +Muchas ciencias no son deductivas, sino inductivas. +Eso significa que muchos cientficos no necesariamente comienzan con teoras e hiptesis, a menudo son solo observaciones de las cosas que pasan en el mundo. +El ejemplo ms famoso es de uno de los cientficos ms reconocidos que existi, Charles Darwin. +Cuando el joven Darwin sali en su viaje en el Beagle, no tena una hiptesis o una teora. +Solo saba que quera una carrera como cientfico y comenz a recolectar datos. +Saba que odiaba la medicina porque ver sangre lo enfermaba as que tena que buscar una carrera alternativa. +As que comenz a recolectar datos. +Y recolect muchas cosas, incluyendo sus famosos pinzones. +Los que consegua los guardaba en un bolso, pero no tena idea para lo que serviran. +Aos ms tarde en Londres, Darwin comenz a analizar sus datos y a desarrollar una explicacin. Esa explicacin fue la que dio lugar a la teora de la seleccin natural. +Adems de la ciencia inductiva, los cientficos a menudo hacen rplicas. +Una de las cosas que los cientficos quieren hacer es explicar las causas de las cosas. +Y eso cmo se hace? +Una de las formas de hacerlo es construir un modelo para comprobar una idea. +Esta es una foto de Henry Cadell, un gelogo escocs del siglo XIX. +Pueden asumir que es escocs por el gorro escocs y las botas Wellington. +Y Cadell quera responder a la pregunta de cmo se formaron las montaas? +Una de las cosas que observ es que si ves las montaas como los Montes Apalaches a menudo consigues rocas con pliegues. Los pliegues son muy particulares lo que sugeran que fueron comprimidas por los lados. +Esta idea jug un papel importante en la discusin de la deriva continental. +As que construy este modelo, este descabellado artilugio con palancas y troncos, aqu est la carretilla, cubetas, un martillo gigante. +No s por qu lleva botas Wellington. +Quizs porque va a llover. +Y cre este modelo fsico con el fin de demostrar que puedes crear formas en las rocas, o en este caso en el barro, que se parecen mucho a montaas si las comprimes desde los lados. +Este era el argumento a la formacin de las montaas. +Hoy en da, las mayora de los cientficos prefieren trabajar adentro, as que ya no construyen tantos modelos fsicos sino simulaciones digitales. +Las simulaciones digitales tambin son un tipo de modelo. +Es un modelo basado en las matemticas, y como los modelos fsicos del siglo XIX, es muy importante para pensar sobre las causas. +Una de las grandes preguntas es sobre el cambio climtico. Tenemos muchsimas evidencias de que la Tierra se est calentando. +En esta diapositiva, la lnea negra muestra que las medidas que los cientficos han tomado en los ltimos 150 aos denotan cmo la temperatura de la Tierra ha ido aumentando de forma progresiva. Pueden ver que particularmente en los ltimos 50 aos ha habido un incremento significativo de casi un grado centgrado, o casi dos grados Fahrenheit. +Entonces, qu est ocasionando este cambio? +Cmo podemos conocer la causa del calentamiento que se observa? +Los cientficos pueden replicarlo con una simulacin digital. +Este diagrama muestra una simulacin digital que toma en cuenta todos los diferentes factores que conocemos que pueden afectar el clima de la Tierra, como las partculas de sulfato de la contaminacin del aire, cenizas volcnicas de las erupciones, cambios en la radiacin solar, y por supuesto, los gases de invernadero. +Y se preguntan, qu grupo de variables agregados a un modelo reproduciran lo que vemos en la vida real? +He aqu la vida real en negro. +He aqu este modelo en gris claro y la respuesta es un modelo que incluye, es la respuesta E en el SAT, todas las anteriores. +La nica forma que pueden reproducir las temperaturas que se observan es con todas estas cosas juntas, incluyendo los gases de invernadero, y en particular pueden ver que el aumento de los niveles de gases de invernadero ocasiona este aumento dramtico de temperatura en los ltimos 50 aos. +Esta es la razn por la que los cientficos dicen que no solo saben que el cambio climtico est ocurriendo, sino que los gases de invernaderos son unas de las causas principales. +Debido a todas las cosas diferentes que los cientficos hacen el filsofo Paul Feyerabend dijo famosamente: "El nico principio en la ciencia que no inhibe el progreso es que todo lo vale". +Esta cita con frecuencia se ha sacado de contexto porque Feyerabend no estaba diciendo que en la ciencia todo lo vale. +Lo que deca, lo que toda la cita dice: "Si me presionas para que diga cul es el mtodo de la ciencia, dira que todo lo vale". +Lo que trataba de decir es que los cientficos hacen cosas diferentes. +Los cientficos son creativos. +Pero esto nos lleva al comienzo: si los cientficos no usan un mtodo nico entonces, cmo deciden qu es lo correcto o lo incorrecto? +Y quin decide? +La respuesta es que los cientficos deciden y ellos deciden al estudiar la evidencia. +Los cientficos recolectan evidencias de muchas maneras diferentes, pero sea lo que sea que recolectan tienen que llevarlo al escrutinio. +Esto llev al socilogo Robert Merton a enfocarse en la pregunta de cmo los cientficos escrutan los datos y la evidencia, y l deca que lo hacan de una forma que llamaba "escepticismo organizado". +Deca que era organizado porque lo hacen de forma colectiva, como un grupo, y escepticismo, porque lo hacen desde una posicin de desconfianza. +Eso quiere decir que el peso de la prueba recae sobre la persona que presenta la novedad. +Y en esta ciencia, la ciencia es intrnsecamente conservadora. +Es muy difcil persuadir a la comunidad cientfica para que diga: "S, esto es verdad". +A pesar de la popularidad del concepto de cambios de paradigma, lo que de hecho vemos es que los cambios dramticos en el pensamiento cientfico son relativamente raros en la historia de la ciencia. +Podemos pensar que el conocimiento cientfico es un consenso de expertos. +Tambin podemos pensar que la ciencia es un tipo de jurado, con la excepcin de que es uno muy especial. +No es un jurado de tus colegas, es un jurado de expertos. +Es un jurado de hombres y mujeres con doctorados, y a diferencia de un jurado convencional que solo tiene dos opciones, culpable o inocente, el jurado cientfico tiene de hecho, mltiples opciones. +Los cientficos pueden decir s, es verdadero. +Los cientficos pueden decir no, es falso. +O pueden decir, bien puede ser verdadero, pero tenemos que trabajar ms y recolectar ms evidencia. +O pueden decir, puede ser verdad, pero no sabemos la respuesta y vamos a dejarla de lado y quizs volvamos a ella ms tarde. +Es lo que los cientficos llaman "insoluble". +Esto nos lleva a un problema final: Si la ciencia es lo que los cientficos dicen que es, esto no es simplemente confiar en la autoridad? +Acaso no nos ensearon en la escuela que confiar en la autoridad es una falacia lgica? +He aqu la paradoja de la ciencia moderna. La paradoja de la conclusin a la que creo han llegado los historiadores, filsofos y socilogos, que dice que la ciencia es la confianza en la autoridad. Pero no es la autoridad del individuo, sin importar lo inteligente que sea el individuo, como Platn, Scrates o Einstein. +Es la autoridad de la comunidad colectiva. +Pueden pensar que es la sabidura de la mayora, pero una mayora muy especial. +La ciencia obedece a la autoridad pero no est basada en ningn individuo, sin importar lo inteligente que este sea. +Est basada en la sabidura, el conocimiento y el trabajo colectivo de todos los cientficos que han trabajado en un problema en particular. +Los cientficos tienen una cultura de desconfianza colectiva, la cultura de "mustrame", como vemos aqu a esta mujer mostrndole a sus colegas su evidencia. +Claro que estos no parecen cientficos porque se ven muy felices. +Bien, esto me lleva a mi punto final. +La mayora de nosotros nos levantamos en las maanas. +Confiamos en nuestros autos. +Aqu estoy pensando en Manhattan, esta no es una buena analoga, pero para la mayora que no vive en Manhattan, que se levantan, se suben a sus autos, lo prenden, y sus autos funcionan, y funcionan maravillosamente. +El auto moderno muy raramente deja de funcionar. +Por qu? Por qu los autos funcionan tan bien? +No es por la genialidad de Henry Ford, o Karl Benz o incluso Elon Musk. +Es porque el auto moderno es un producto de ms de 100 aos de trabajo por cientos y miles, y millares de personas. +El auto moderno es un producto del trabajo, la sabidura y la experiencia colectiva de todos los hombres y mujeres que han trabajado en el auto. Y su tecnologa confiable es el resultado de ese esfuerzo acumulado. +No solo nos beneficiamos de la genialidad de Benz, de Ford y Musk, sino de la inteligencia colectiva y el trabajo duro de todos los que han trabajado en el auto moderno. +Y lo mismo es verdad para la ciencia, solo que la ciencia es incluso ms antigua. +Nuestra razn para confiar en la ciencia es la misma que nuestra razn para confiar en la tecnologa, la misma razn para confiar en todo, entre ellas, la experiencia. +Pero no debe ser una confianza ciega, ms que la confianza ciega en cualquier cosas. +Nuestra fe en la ciencia, como la ciencia misma, debe estar basada en evidencias. Para ello los cientficos tienen que ser mejores comunicadores. +No solo tienen que explicarnos lo que saben, sino cmo lo saben, y nosotros tenemos que aprender a ser mejores oyentes. +Muchas gracias. +La voz humana: Es el instrumento que todos tocamos. +Es el sonido ms poderoso en el mundo, probablemente. +Es el nico que puede iniciar una guerra o decir "Te amo". +Y sin embargo, muchas personas tienen la experiencia de que cuando hablan, la gente no los escucha. +Y por qu es eso? +Cmo podemos hablar poderosamente para hacer un cambio en el mundo? +Lo que me gustara sugerir, es que hay una serie de hbitos de los que tenemos que alejarnos. +He reunido aqu, para su placer, los 7 pecados capitales al hablar. +No pretendo que sea una lista exhaustiva, pero estos 7, creo, son hbitos tan grandes que todos podemos caer. +Primero, el chisme, +hablar mal de alguien que no est presente. +No es un buen hbito y sabemos perfectamente que la persona chismosa 5 minutos ms tarde dir chismes de nosotros. +Segundo, juzgar. +Sabemos que las personas que son as en la conversacin y es muy difcil escuchar a alguien si uno sabe que est siendo juzgado y hallado deficiente al mismo tiempo. +Tercero, la negatividad. +Pueden caer en esto. +Mi madre, en los ltimos aos de su vida, se puso muy, muy negativa, y era difcil de escuchar. +Recuerdo que un da, le dije, "Hoy es 1 de octubre" y ella dijo: "Lo s, no es terrible?" +Es difcil escuchar cuando alguien es tan negativo. +Y otra forma de negatividad, quejarse. +Bueno, esto es el arte nacional del Reino Unido +Es nuestro deporte nacional. Nos quejamos del tiempo, +del deporte, de la poltica, de todo, pero en realidad quejarse es una miseria viral. +No est propagando la luz del sol y claridad en el mundo. +Excusas. Todos hemos conocido a este tipo. +Tal vez todos hemos sido este tipo. +Algunas personas tienen un lanzaculpas +Ellos solo las transmiten a todos los dems y no asumen responsabilidad por sus acciones, y otra vez, es difcil de escuchar a alguien que est siendo as. +Penltimo, el sexto de los 7, rebuscamiento, exageracin. +Se degrada nuestro idioma, en realidad, a veces. +Por ejemplo, si veo algo que realmente es impresionante, cmo lo llamo? +Y luego, por supuesto, esta exageracin se convierte en mentira, ms y ms mentira y no queremos escuchar personas que sabemos que estn mintiendo. +Y, por ltimo, el dogmatismo, +la confusin de los hechos con las opiniones. +Cuando esas dos cosas se confunden, uno est escuchando al viento. +Ya saben, alguien lo est bombardeando con sus opiniones como si fueran verdad. +Es difcil escuchar eso. +As que aqu estn, 7 pecados capitales al hablar. +Estas son cosas que creo que tenemos que evitar. +Pero hay una forma positiva de pensar en esto? +S, la hay. +Me gustara sugerir que hay 4 pilares muy poderosos, cimientos, en lo que podemos pararnos si queremos que nuestro discurso sea poderoso y haga cambiar el mundo. +Afortunadamente, estas cosas forman un acrstico. +Es hail [granizo - aclamacin], con una gran definicin tambin. +No estoy hablando de lo que cae del cielo y te golpea en la cabeza. +Estoy hablando de esta definicin, saludar o aclamar con entusiasmo, que es como creo que se recibirn nuestras palabras si nos apoyamos en estas 4 cosas. +Entonces, qu son? +A ver si pueden adivinar. +La H, la honestidad, por supuesto, siendo cierto en lo que dicen, sern rectos y claros. +La A es la autenticidad, simplemente ser uno mismo. +Un amigo mo lo describi como pararse en su propia verdad, que creo que es una bonita manera de decirlo. +La I es integridad, ser tus palabras, realmente hacer lo que uno dice, y ser personas en las que alguien pueda confiar. +Y el L es el amor [love]. +No me refiero al amor romntico, sino a desearle el bien a la gente, por 2 razones. +Primero, creo que la honestidad absoluta puede no ser lo que queramos. +Quiero decir, por Dios, te ves fea esta maana. +Tal vez no sea necesario. +Templada con amor, por supuesto, la honestidad es una gran cosa. +Pero tambin, si se desea realmente el bien a alguien, es muy difcil de juzgarlo al mismo tiempo. +Ni siquiera estoy seguro de que puedan hacer las dos cosas simultneamente. +As que hail +Adems, lo que dicen, como en la vieja cancin, es lo que dicen, y tambin la forma en que lo dicen. +Tienen una caja de herramientas increble. +Este instrumento es increble, y sin embargo, es una caja de herramientas que muy pocas personas ha abierto. +Me gustara revolverlas un poco con Uds. y sacar algunas con las que les gustara jugar, lo que aumentar el poder de su discurso. +El registro, por ejemplo. +El registro falsete puede no ser muy til la mayor parte del tiempo, pero hay un registro en medio. +No me voy a poner muy tcnico sobre esto con Uds. que son entrenadores de voz, +aunque pueden localizar su voz. +As que si hablo aqu en mi nariz, se puede or la diferencia. +Si voy por aqu en mi garganta, que es donde la mayora de nosotros hablamos las ms de las veces. +Pero si quieren peso, tienen que ir aqu abajo en el pecho. +Oyen la diferencia? +Votamos a los polticos con voces graves, es verdad, porque lo asociamos fuertemente con el poder y la autoridad. +Ese es el registro. +Luego tenemos el timbre. +Es la forma en que su voz se siente. +Una vez ms, la investigacin muestra que preferimos voces que son ricas, suaves, clidas, como el chocolate caliente. +Bueno, si no son as, no es el fin del mundo, porque pueden entrenar. +Vayan y consigan un entrenador de voz. +Y hay cosas increbles que pueden hacer con la respiracin, con la postura y con ejercicios para mejorar el timbre de su voz. +Sigue la prosodia. Me encanta la prosodia. +Este es el cantado, el metalenguaje que utilizamos para impartir significado. +Es la raz primera para el sentido en la conversacin. +Las personas que hablan en un solo tono son realmente muy difciles de escuchar, si no tienen ninguna prosodia en absoluto. +De ah es de donde viene la palabra montono, o montono, mono tono. +Tambin tenemos prosodia repetitiva cuando cada frase termina como si se tratara de una pregunta cuando en realidad no lo es, es una afirmacin. +Y si repiten eso una y otra vez, en realidad restringen su capacidad para comunicarse a travs de la prosodia, que creo que es una lstima, as que intentemos romper ese hbito. +Ritmo. Puedo estar muy, muy emocionado +diciendo algo muy, muy rpidamente, o puedo ir lento para enfatizar, y por ltimo, por supuesto, es nuestro viejo amigo el silencio. +No hay nada malo en un poco de silencio en una charla, verdad? +Nosotros no tenemos que llenarlo con 'uhms' y 'ahs'. +Puede ser muy poderoso. +Por supuesto, el tono a menudo va de la mano con el ritmo para indicar excitacin, pero pueden hacerlo solo con el tono. +Dnde dejaste mis llaves? +Dnde dejaste mis llaves? +As un significado un poco diferente entre estas dos. +Y, por ltimo, el volumen. +Puedo conseguir realmente excitacin con el uso de volumen. +Lo siento si asust a alguien. +O puedo lograr que realmente presten atencin siendo silencioso. +Algunas personas se difunden todo el tiempo. +Trate de no hacer eso. +Eso se llama autopromocin, imponerle su sonido a las personas que le rodean +descuidada y desconsideradamente. No es agradable. +Por supuesto, cuando todo esto entra en juego generalmente es cuando se tiene algo muy importante que hacer. +Podran estar de pie en un escenario como este y dando una charla a la gente. +Podran proponer matrimonio, pedir un aumento, un discurso de boda. +Sea lo que sea, si es realmente importante, se deben a s mismos ver esta caja de herramientas y el motor que va a trabajar, y ningn motor funciona bien sin preliminares. +Calienten su voz. +En realidad, djenme que les ensee cmo hacerlo. +Podran todos ponerse de pie por un momento? +Les voy a mostrar los 6 ejercicios de calentamiento vocal que hago antes de cada charla que doy. +Cada vez que vayan a hablar con alguien importante, hganlo. +En primer lugar, brazos arriba, respiracin profunda, y exhalen, ahhhhh, as. +Una vez ms. +Ahhhh, muy bien. +Ahora vamos a calentar nuestros labios, y vamos a hacer ba, ba, ba, ba, ba, ba, ba, ba. Muy bien. +Y ahora, brrrrrrrrrr, al igual que cuando eran nios. +Brrr. Ahora sus labios deben estar vivos. +Vamos a hacer con la lengua lo siguiente exageradamente la, la, la, la, la, la, la, la, la. +Hermoso. Se estn volviendo muy buenos en esto. +Y luego, rodar una R. Rrrrrrr. +Eso es como champaa para la lengua. +Por ltimo, y si solo pueden hacer una, los profesionales llaman a esto la sirena. +Es muy bueno. Comienza con "gui" y va a "oh". +El "gui" es alto, el "oh es bajo. +As que van, guiiiiiiiiii oooooooooh. +Fantstico. Dense un aplauso. +Tomen asiento, gracias. La prxima vez que hablen, hgan esto con antelacin. +Ahora djenme poner esto en contexto para cerrar. +Este es un punto serio. +Aqu es donde estamos ahora, verdad? +No hablamos muy bien a personas que simplemente no estn escuchando en un ambiente que es todo ruido y la mala acstica. +He hablado de esto en este estrado en diferentes fases. +Cmo sera el mundo si hablramos poderosamente a las personas que estaban conscientemente escuchando en ambientes que se ajustan realmente al propsito? +O para hacerlo un poco ms grande, cmo sera el mundo si creamos el sonido conscientemente y consumimos el sonido conscientemente y diseamos todos nuestros ambientes conscientes del sonido? +Ese sera un mundo que sonara hermoso, y uno en el que el entendimiento sera la norma, y esa es una idea que vale la pena difundir. +Gracias. +Aqu hay muchos unos y ceros. +Es lo que llamamos informacin binaria. +As hablan las computadoras. +As almacenan informacin. +As piensan las computadoras. +As las computadoras hacen todo lo que saben hacer. +Soy investigador de seguridad informtica; o sea, mi trabajo consiste en analizar esta informacin y tratar de darle sentido, tratar de entender qu significan esos unos y ceros. +Por desgracia para m, no solo estamos hablando de los unos y ceros que tengo aqu en la pantalla. +No estamos hablando de pocas pginas de unos y ceros. +Estamos hablando de miles y miles de millones de unos y ceros; ms de los que alguien podra comprender. +Son cosas importantes, pero no es la forma en que quera pasar mi vida. +Luego de 30 minutos de trabajo como contratista de defensa, pronto advert que mi idea de ciberseguridad era un poco errnea. +De hecho, en materia de seguridad nacional, mantener la computadora de mi abuela libre de virus estaba sorprendentemente abajo en la lista de prioridades. +Y esto se debe a que la ciberseguridad es mucho ms importante que cualquiera de esas cosas. +La ciberseguridad es parte integral de nuestras vidas, porque las computadoras son parte integral en nuestras vidas, incluso si uno no tiene una computadora. +Las computadoras controlan todo en nuestros autos, desde el GPS hasta los airbags. +Controlan el telfono. +Son la razn por la cual podemos llamar al 911 y alguien nos atiende en la otra lnea. +Controlan toda la infraestructura nacional. +Gracias a ellas tenemos electricidad, calefaccin, agua potable, alimentos. +Las computadoras controlan nuestros equipos militares, todo, desde los silos de misiles y los satlites hasta las redes de defensa nuclear. +Todas estas cosas son posibles gracias a las computadoras y, por lo tanto, gracias a la ciberseguridad. Y cuando algo sale mal, la ciberseguridad puede hacer imposible estas cosas. +Pero ah es donde entro yo. +Gran parte de mi trabajo consiste en defender estas cosas, en mantenerlas en funcionamiento. Pero, cada tanto, parte de mi trabajo consiste en romper alguna de estas cosas, porque la ciberseguridad no es solo defensiva, tambin es ofensiva. +Estamos entrando a una era en la que hablamos de ciberarmas. +De hecho, tan grande es el potencial de la ciberofensiva que la ciberseguridad se considera como un nuevo dominio de la guerra. +La guerra +no necesariamente es algo malo. +Por un lado, implica que hay todo un nuevo frente en el que tenemos que defendernos, pero por otro lado, que hay toda una nueva forma de atacar, una nueva forma de impedir que los malos hagan cosas malas. +Consideremos un ejemplo de esto completamente terico. +Supongamos que un terrorista quiere volar un edificio, y quiere hacerlo una y otra vez en el futuro. +No quiere estar en el edificio cuando explote. +Usar su mvil como detonador remoto. +La nica forma que solamos tener para detener a este terrorista era con una balacera y una persecucin en auto, pero esto ya no necesariamente es as. +Estamos entrando en una era en la cual podemos detenerlo con solo presionar un botn a 1600 km de distancia porque, lo sepa o no, cuando decidi usar su mvil entr al dominio de la ciberseguridad. +Un ataque ciberntico bien elaborado podra entrar en su telfono, desactivar la proteccin de sobretensin en la batera, sobrecargar drsticamente el circuito, y hacer que la batera se sobrecaliente y explote. +No ms telfonos, no ms detonador, quiz no ms terrorista, todo con solo presionar un botn a ms de mil kilmetros de distancia. +Cmo funciona esto? +Se reduce a esos unos y ceros. +La informacin binaria hace que funcione el mvil, y usado correctamente, puede hacer que el mvil explote. +Cuando empezamos a ver la ciberseguridad desde esta perspectiva, pasar la vida hurgando en informacin binaria se torna un poco apasionante. +Pero aqu est el truco: Esto es difcil, muy, muy difcil, y este es el porqu. +Piensen en todo lo que tienen en el mvil. +Tienen las fotos que tomaron. +Tienen la msica que escuchan. +En ciberseguridad a esto lo llamamos encontrar una aguja en una pila, porque todo ms o menos se parece. +Estoy buscando una pieza clave, pero est mezclada con todo lo dems. +Apartmonos de esta situacin terica de hacer explotar el mvil de un terrorista, y veamos algo que me ocurri a m. +Casi sin importar qu haga, mi trabajo siempre empieza analizando un montn de informacin binaria, y siempre busco una pieza clave para hacer algo especfico. +En este caso, estaba buscando un fragmento de cdigo muy avanzado, muy de vanguardia que saba que podra hackear, pero estaba enterrado en algn lugar dentro de mil millones de unos y ceros. +Por desgracia para m, yo no saba bien lo que estaba buscando. +No saba bien el aspecto de lo que buscaba, y eso dificultaba mucho la bsqueda. +Cuando tengo que hacer esto bsicamente analizo varias piezas de esta informacin binaria, tratando de descifrar cada pieza, y de ver si puede ser lo que busco. +Despus de un tiempo, pens que haba encontrado la informacin que estaba buscando. +Pens que quiz era eso. +Pareca estar bastante bien, pero no poda confirmarlo. +No poda decir qu representaban esos unos y ceros. +Pas un tiempo tratando de unir las piezas, pero no tena mucha suerte, y finalmente decid hacerle frente a la situacin, quedarme el fin de semana, y no abandonar hasta averiguar qu representaban. +Y as hice. Llegu el sbado por la maana, y en unas 10 horas tena todas las piezas del rompecabezas. +Solo que no saba cmo unirlas. +No saba qu significaban estos unos y ceros. +En la marca de 15 horas, empec a hacerme una idea de lo que haba, pero tena una leve sospecha de que lo que estaba buscando no estaba para nada relacionado con lo que quera. +A las 20 horas, las piezas empezaron a encajar muy lentamente... y estaba bastante seguro de que iba por el camino incorrecto, pero no me dara por vencido. +Luego de 30 horas en el laboratorio, me di cuenta exactamente de lo que estaba buscando, y tena razn, no era lo que quera. +Pas 30 horas atando cabos, y los unos y ceros formaban la imagen de un gatito. +Desperdici 30 horas de mi vida buscando este gatito que no tena nada que ver con lo que estaba tratando de lograr. +Estaba frustrado, estaba agotado. +Despus de 30 horas en el laboratorio, quiz ola horrible. +Pero en vez de ir a casa y ponerle punto final a esto, di un paso atrs y me pregunt: qu sali mal? +Cmo pude cometer un error tan tonto? +Soy realmente muy bueno en esto. +Me gano la vida con esto. +Qu pas? +Bueno, pens, cuando uno mira la informacin a este nivel, es fcil perder la nocin de lo que est haciendo. +Es fcil que el rbol tape el bosque. +Es fcil irse por las ramas y perder una enorme cantidad de tiempo haciendo lo incorrecto. +Pero tuve esta revelacin: +Estuvimos viendo los datos de manera totalmente incorrecta desde el primer da. +As piensan las computadoras, con unos y ceros. +Las personas no pensamos as, pero hemos tratado de adaptar nuestras mentes para pensar como computadoras y poder entender esta informacin. +En vez de tratar de hacer que nuestras mentes se adapten al problema, deberamos hacer que el problema se adapte a nuestras mentes, porque nuestros cerebros tienen un potencial enorme para analizar grandes volmenes de informacin, pero no de este modo. +Y si pudisemos desatar ese potencial con solo traducir esto en el tipo correcto de informacin? +Con estas ideas en mente, pas del stano de mi trabajo al stano de mi casa, que se parecan mucho. +La principal diferencia es que en el trabajo estoy rodeado de cibermateriales, y lo ciber pareca ser el problema en esta situacin. +En casa, estoy rodeado por todo lo dems que he aprendido. +Me sumerg en todos los libros que pude encontrar, en cada idea que haba encontrado, para ver cmo traducir un problema de un dominio a algo completamente diferente. +La gran pregunta era: en qu queremos traducirlo? +Nuestros cerebros qu hacen de forma perfectamente natural que podamos explotar? +Mi respuesta fue: la visin. +Tenemos una gran capacidad para analizar la informacin visual. +Podemos combinar gradientes de colores, seales de profundidad, todo tipo de seales diferentes en una imagen coherente del mundo circundante. +Eso es increble. +Por eso, si pudisemos encontrar una forma de traducir estos patrones binarios en seales visuales, realmente podramos desatar el potencial de nuestros cerebros para procesar este material. +Empezamos a analizar la informacin binaria, y me pregunt qu har cuando encuentre algo as por primera vez? +Y lo primero que quiero hacer, lo primero que quiero responder, es qu es esto? +No me importa qu hace, cmo funciona. +Solo quiero saber qu es esto. +Y la manera de averiguarlo es analizando los fragmentos, fragmentos secuenciales de informacin binaria, y estudiar las relaciones entre esos fragmentos. +Cuando reun suficientes secuencias, empec a hacerme una idea de exactamente qu deba ser esta informacin. +Volvamos a la situacin de volar el mvil del terrorista. +Un texto en ingls tiene este aspecto a nivel binario. +As se vera una lista de contactos si la examinsemos. +Es muy difcil analizarlo a este nivel, pero si tomamos esos mismos fragmentos binarios que yo trataba de encontrar, y en cambio los traducimos a representaciones visuales, si traducimos esas relaciones, obtenemos esto. +Este es el aspecto de un texto en ingls desde una perspectiva de abstraccin visual. +De repente, nos muestra la misma informacin que estaba en los unos y ceros, pero de manera totalmente diferente, que podemos entender de inmediato. +En un instante podemos ver todos los patrones. +Me lleva segundos detectar patrones aqu, pero horas o das hacerlo entre unos y ceros. +A cualquiera le lleva minutos aprender lo que representan estos patrones, pero aos de experiencia en ciberseguridad aprendiendo lo que esos patrones representan en unos y ceros. +Este fragmento se forma con minsculas seguidas por otras minsculas dentro de esa lista de contactos. +Esto con maysculas y maysculas, maysculas y minsculas, minsculas y maysculas. +Esto con espacios. Esto con retornos de carro. +Podemos analizar cada pequeo detalle de la informacin binaria, en segundos, en lugar de semanas, meses, a este nivel. +As se ve una imagen desde un mvil. +Pero as se ve en una abstraccin visual. +As se ve la msica, y aqu su abstraccin visual. +Lo ms importante, para m, as se ve el cdigo que hay en sus mviles. +Esto es lo que me interesa en definitiva, pero esta es su abstraccin visual. +Si encuentro esto, no puedo hacer explotar el mvil. +Podra pasar semanas tratando de encontrar esto en los unos y ceros, pero me lleva segundos analizar una abstraccin visual como esta. +Una de las partes ms notables de todo esto es que nos da una forma totalmente nueva de entender la informacin nueva, cosas que no hemos visto antes. +S como se ve el texto en ingls a nivel binario, y s cmo se ve su abstraccin visual, pero nunca he visto binario en ruso en toda mi vida. +Me llevara semanas solo averiguar qu estaba buscando a partir de unos y ceros, pero como nuestros cerebros pueden detectar al instante y reconocer estos patrones sutiles dentro de estas abstracciones visuales, inconscientemente podemos aplicarlos a nuevas situaciones. +As se ve el ruso en una abstraccin visual. +Dado que s cmo se ve un idioma, puedo reconocer otros idiomas incluso si no me resultan familiares. +As se ve una fotografa, y as un clip de arte. +As se ve el cdigo del telfono, y as se ve el cdigo de la computadora. +Nuestros cerebros pueden detectar estos patrones de formas que nunca podramos hacer mirando unos y ceros en crudo. +Pero solo hemos rozado la superficie con lo que puede hacerse con este enfoque. +Recin empezamos a desatar las capacidades de nuestras mentes para procesar informacin visual. +Si en cambio tomamos esos mismos conceptos y los traducimos a tres dimensiones, encontramos formas totalmente nuevas de darle sentido a la informacin. +En segundos, podemos identificar cada patrn. +Podemos ver la cruz asociada al cdigo. +Podemos ver cubos asociados con el texto. +Podemos incluso detectar los ms diminutos artefactos visuales. +Esto es muy bueno y ayuda, pero me dice lo que estoy viendo. +En este momento, con los patrones visuales, puedo encontrar el cdigo en el telfono. +Pero eso no es suficiente para hacer explotar una batera. +Luego necesito encontrar el cdigo que controla la batera, pero volvemos al problema de la aguja en la pila. +Ese cdigo se parece mucho a los otros tipos de cdigo de ese sistema. +Podra no encontrar el cdigo que controla la batera, hay muchas cosas similares a eso. +Hay cdigo que controla la pantalla, otro que controla los botones, otro que controla los micrfonos, e incluso si no puedo encontrar el cdigo de la batera, apuesto a que puedo encontrar una de esas cosas. +El paso siguiente en mi proceso de anlisis del binario es analizar fragmentos de informacin que tengan similitudes. +Es muy, muy difcil de hacer a nivel binario, pero si en cambio traducimos esas similitudes en abstracciones visuales, ni siquiera tenemos que tamizar los datos en bruto. +Solo tenemos que esperar a que la imagen se ilumine para ver cundo tenemos un fragmento similar. +Seguimos estas hebras de similitud como un rastro de migas de pan para encontrar exactamente qu buscamos. +En este punto del proceso, ubicamos el cdigo responsable de controlar la batera, pero eso an no es suficiente para volar un telfono. +La ltima pieza del rompecabezas es entender cmo controla ese cdigo la batera. +Para esto, tenemos que identificar relaciones muy sutiles, muy detalladas entre esa informacin binaria, otra cosa muy difcil de hacer mirando unos y ceros. +Pero si traducimos esa informacin en una representacin fsica, podemos dejar que nuestra corteza visual haga el trabajo difcil. +Puede encontrar los patrones detallados, las piezas importantes por nosotros. +Puede descubrir exactamente cmo trabajan juntas las piezas de ese cdigo para controlar la batera. +Todo esto puede hacerse en cuestin de horas, mientras que el mismo proceso antes demandaba meses. +Todo esto est muy bien para la voladura terica del telfono de un terrorista. +Yo quera descubrir si esto funcionara en mi trabajo diario. +As, estaba jugando con estos mismos conceptos con algunos datos que analic en el pasado, y, otra vez, trataba de encontrar un fragmento muy detallado, muy especfico dentro de un gran volumen de informacin binaria. +As que lo mir a este nivel, pensando que buscaba lo correcto, solo para ver que esto no tiene la conectividad que cabra esperar para el cdigo que estaba buscando. +De hecho, no estoy muy seguro de qu es, pero si me apartaba un nivel y analizaba las similitudes dentro del cdigo vea que no tena similitud con cualquier cdigo que haba all. +Ni siquiera poda ver cdigo. +De hecho, desde esta perspectiva, podra decir que esto no es cdigo. +Es una imagen de algn tipo. +Y a partir de aqu, pude ver, no es solo una imagen, es una fotografa. +Ahora que s que es una fotografa, tengo decenas de otras tcnicas de traduccin de binarios para visualizar y entender esa informacin, as que en cuestin de segundos, puedo tomar esta informacin, pasarla por una decena de otras tcnicas de traduccin visual para descubrir exactamente qu estbamos mirando. +Vi... era ese gatito otra vez. +Todo esto fue posible gracias a que pudimos encontrar la forma de traducir un problema muy difcil en algo que nuestros cerebros hacen con mucha naturalidad. +Qu quiere decir esto? +Bueno, para los gatitos significa ya no esconderse entre los unos y ceros. +Para m, significa ya no desperdiciar ms fines de semana. +Para la ciberseguridad significa que tenemos una nueva forma radical de abordar los problemas imposibles. +Significa que tenemos una nueva arma en el teatro cambiante de la ciberguerra, pero para todos, significa que los ciberingenieros ahora pueden ser los primeros en responder en situaciones de emergencia. +Cuando los segundos cuentan, hemos desatado los medios para detener a los malos. +Gracias. +He estado pensando mucho en el mundo recientemente y cmo ha cambiado en los ltimos 20, 30, 40 aos. +Hace 20 o 30 aos si un pollo se resfriaba, estornudaba y mora en una aldea lejana del este de Asia, habra sido una tragedia para el pollo y sus parientes cercanos, pero no creo que fuese muy probable que temisemos una pandemia global y la muerte de millones. +Hace 20 o 30 aos, si un banco en Norteamrica prestaba demasiado dinero a alguien que no poda devolver el dinero y el banco quebraba, era malo para el prestamista y para el prestatario, pero no imaginbamos que pondra de rodillas al sistema econmico mundial durante casi una dcada. +Es la globalizacin. +Es el milagro que nos permiti llevar nuestros cuerpos y mentes, nuestras palabras, fotos e ideas, nuestra enseanza y aprendizaje a todo el planeta, cada vez ms rpido y ms barato. +Trajo muchas cosas malas, como lo que acabo de describir, pero tambin muchas cosas buenas. +Muchos no estamos al tanto del xito extraordinario de los Objetivos de Desarrollo del Milenio, varios de los cuales han logrado sus objetivos mucho antes del plazo establecido. +Eso demuestra que esta especie de la humanidad puede lograr avances extraordinarios si realmente acta en conjunto y se esfuerza mucho. +Pero si tuviera que decirlo en pocas palabras, actualmente, siento que la globalizacin nos ha tomado por sorpresa, y hemos respondido con lentitud. +Si miramos los efectos negativos de la globalizacin, a veces realmente parece ser abrumadora. +Frente a los grandes desafos que enfrentamos hoy, como el cambio climtico y los derechos humanos la demografa, el terrorismo y las pandemias, el narcotrfico y la esclavitud humana, la prdida de especies, y podra seguir, no estamos haciendo un gran avance ante gran cantidad de esos desafos. +Por eso, en pocas palabras, ese es el desafo que enfrentamos hoy en este punto interesante de la historia. +Eso es claramente lo que tenemos que hacer a continuacin. +De algn modo tenemos que actuar juntos y descubrir cmo globalizar mejor las soluciones para no ser solo una especie vctima de la globalizacin de los problemas. +Por qu avanzamos tan lentamente? +Cul es la razn? +Bueno, hay, claro, varias razones, pero quiz la razn principal es que como especie an estamos organizados de la misma manera que hace 200 o 300 aos. +Queda una superpotencia en el planeta y somos los 7000 millones de personas, los 7000 millones que causamos estos problemas, los mismos 7000 millones, por cierto, que los resolveremos. +Pero cmo nos organizamos los 7000 millones? +Nos organizamos en 200 o ms naciones, y las naciones tienen gobiernos que hacen leyes que nos hacen comportar de cierta manera. +Y es un sistema bastante eficiente, pero el problema es que la redaccin de esas leyes y la forma de pensar de los gobiernos es totalmente errnea para la solucin de problemas globales, porque todo eso mira hacia adentro. +Los polticos que elegimos y los que no elegimos, en conjunto, piensan en lo microscpico. +No tienen mentes telescpicas. +Miran hacia adentro. Fingen, se comportan, como si creyeran que cada pas es una isla que existe muy feliz, independiente de todos los otros en su propio y pequeo planeta en su propio y pequeo sistema solar. +Este es el problema: los pases compiten unos contra otros, los pases luchan unos contra otros. +Esta semana, como cualquier semana que miren, encontrarn personas que tratan de matarse unos a otros de pas a pas y, si no pasa eso, hay una competencia entre pases, cada uno tratando de maltratar al otro. +Claramente no es una buena configuracin. +Claramente tenemos que cambiarla. +Claramente tenemos que encontrar la forma de alentar a los pases a empezar a trabajar juntos un poquito mejor. +Y por qu no lo harn? +Por qu nuestros lderes todava siguen mirando hacia adentro? +Bueno, la primera razn y la ms obvia es porque nosotros se lo pedimos. +Les decimos que hagan eso. +Cuando elegimos gobiernos, o cuando toleramos gobiernos no electos, efectivamente les decimos que queremos que le den a nuestro pas determinadas cosas. +Queremos prosperidad, crecimiento, competitividad, transparencia, justicia y todo eso. +Por eso, a menos que empecemos a pedirles que piensen hacia afuera un poquito ms, que consideren los problemas globales que tendremos si no empezamos a pensar en ellos, entonces difcilmente podamos culparlos si siguen mirando hacia adentro, si todava miran lo microscpico en vez de mirar lo telescpico. +Esa es la primera razn por la que las cosas no cambian. +La segunda razn es que estos gobiernos, como el resto de nosotros, son psicpatas culturales. +Yo no quiero ser grosero, pero ya saben lo que es un psicpata. +Un psicpata es una persona que desafortunadamente para l o ella, no puede lograr empata con otros seres humanos. +Cuando miran alrededor no ven a otros seres humanos con vidas profundas, ricas, tridimensionales, con objetivos y ambiciones. +Ven en cambio recortes de cartn, es algo muy triste y solitario, y es muy poco frecuente, afortunadamente. +Pero, en realidad, no somos la mayora no tan buenos en empata? +Es una pregunta que tenemos que hacernos. +Pienso que tenemos que vigilar esto constantemente. +Somos nosotros y nuestros polticos en cierto punto psicpatas culturales? +La tercera razn no es muy digna de mencin por ser muy tonta, pero hay una creencia en los gobiernos de que la agenda local y la agenda internacional son incompatibles y siempre lo sern. +Esto no tiene sentido. +En mi trabajo diario soy asesor de poltica. +Teniendo en cuenta todo eso podrn decir: Por qu entonces no funciona? +Por qu no podemos hacer cambiar a nuestros polticos? +Por qu no se lo pedimos? +Bueno, yo como muchos, paso mucho tiempo quejndome de lo difcil que es hacer que la gente cambie, y no creo que tengamos que preocuparnos por eso. +Pienso que deberamos aceptar que pertenecemos a una especie inherentemente conservadora. +No nos gusta el cambio. +Es as por razones evolutivas muy sensatas. +Probablemente no estaramos aqu hoy de no haber resistido tanto el cambio. +Pero claro, hay excepciones. +De lo contrario, nunca llegaramos a ninguna parte. +Y una de las excepciones, la excepcin interesante, es cuando podemos mostrarle a las personas que puede haber un poco de inters propio en dar ese salto de fe y cambiar un poco. +Y fue entonces que descubr algo bastante importante. +En 2005 lanc un estudio llamado ndice de Marca Pas. +Es un estudio a muy gran escala que encuesta a una muestra muy grande de la poblacin mundial, una muestra que representa a un 70 % de la poblacin del planeta, y le empec a hacer una serie de preguntas sobre cmo perciben a otros pases. +Y el ndice de Marca Pas con los aos se ha convertido en una enorme base de datos. +Tiene unas 200 000 millones de entradas que siguen la opinin de la gente comn sobre otros pases y por qu. +Por qu hago esto? Bueno, porque a los gobiernos que aconsejo les interesa mucho saber cmo los ven. +Saben, en parte porque yo los he alentado a darse cuenta, que los pases dependen enormemente de su reputacin para sobrevivir y prosperar en el mundo. +Si un pas tiene una gran imagen positiva, como Alemania, Suecia o Suiza, todo es fcil y todo es barato. +Uno recibe ms turistas, y tiene ms inversores. +Uno vende sus productos ms caros. +Por el contrario, si uno tiene un pas con una imagen muy dbil o muy negativa, todo es difcil y todo es caro. +Entonces los gobiernos se preocupan desesperadamente por la imagen del pas, porque marca una diferencia directa en el dinero que pueden ganar, y eso es lo que le han prometido a sus poblaciones que harn. +Por eso hace un par de aos decid tomarme un tiempo y hablar con esa base de datos gigante y preguntarle por qu algunas personas prefieren a un pas ms que a otro? +Y la respuesta que me dio esa base de datos me dej anonadado. +Fue 6,8. +No tengo tiempo para explicarlo en detalle. +Bsicamente me dijo... que preferimos a los pases buenos. +No admiramos a los pases principalmente porque sean ricos porque sean poderosos, porque sean exitosos, porque sean modernos, porque sean avanzados en tecnologa. +Admiramos principalmente a los pases buenos. +Qu queremos decir con 'buenos'? +Queremos decir pases que parecen contribuir en algo al mundo en que vivimos, pases que en realidad hacen al mundo ms seguro o mejor o ms rico o ms justo. +Esos son los pases que nos gustan. +Este es un descubrimiento de importancia significativa ven hacia dnde voy porque cierra el crculo. +Ahora puedo decir, lo hago a menudo, a cualquier gobierno, para que te vaya bien tienes que hacer el bien. +Si quieres vender ms productos, si quieres recibir ms inversiones, si quieres ser ms competitivo, tienes que comportarte, porque de ese modo las personas te respetarn y harn negocios contigo, y por lo tanto, cuanto ms colabores ms competitivo sers. +Este es un descubrimiento bastante importante y ni bien lo descubr sent que vena un nuevo ndice. +Juro que cuanto ms viejo me pongo, ms simples son mis ideas, cada vez ms infantiles. +Este es el ndice de Pas Bueno, y hace lo que dice en la etiqueta. +Mide, o intenta medir, exactamente cunto contribuye cada pas de la Tierra no a su propia poblacin sino al resto de la humanidad. +Curiosamente, nadie haba pensado nunca en medir esto antes. +Por eso mi colega, el Dr. Robert Govers y yo, pasamos gran parte de los ltimos dos aos, junto a gran cantidad de personas muy serias e inteligentes, consolidando todos los datos confiables del mundo que pudimos encontrar sobre lo que dan los pases al mundo. +Estarn esperando que les diga quines estn en la cima. +Y se los dir pero primero quiero contarles precisamente qu quiero decir cuando digo pas bueno. +No me refiero a moralmente bueno. +Cuando digo que el Pas X es el pas ms bueno de la Tierra digo el ms bueno, no el mejor. +El mejor es algo distinto. +Cuando uno habla de un pas bueno, puede ser bueno, ms bueno o el ms bueno. +No es lo mismo que bueno, mejor y el mejor. +Este es simplemente un pas que da ms a la humanidad que cualquier otro pas. +No hablo de cmo se comportan localmente porque eso se mide en otros lados. +Y el ganador es: Irlanda. +Segn estos datos, ningn pas de la Tierra, por habitante, por dlar de PBI, contribuye ms al mundo en el que vivimos que Irlanda. +Qu significa esto? +Significa que cuando vamos a dormir por la noche todos, en los ltimos 15 segundos antes de conciliar el sueo, nuestro ltimo pensamiento debera ser me alegro de que exista Irlanda. +Y eso... en lo profundo de una recesin econmica muy grave pienso que da una leccin realmente muy importante el hecho de recordar las obligaciones internacionales mientras tratas de reconstruir tu economa, es algo importante. +Finlandia est ubicada casi igual. +La nica razn por la que est debajo de Irlanda es porque su puntuacin ms baja est por debajo de la ms baja de Irlanda. +Lo otro que notarn en los 10 primeros es, claro, son todos, salvo Nueva Zelanda, pases de Europa occidental. +Todos son ricos. +Esto me deprimi porque una de las cosas que no quera descubrir con este ndice era la providencia de los pases ricos que ayudan a los pases pobres. +No tiene que ver con esto. +Y de hecho, si miramos ms abajo en la lista, no tengo la diapositiva aqu, vern algo que, de hecho, me puso muy feliz: Kenia est entre los 30 primeros, y eso demuestra algo muy, muy importante. +No se trata de dinero. +Tiene que ver con la actitud. +Tiene que ver con la cultura. +Tiene que ver con un gobierno y unas personas que se ocupan del resto del mundo y tienen la imaginacin y el coraje y piensan hacia afuera en vez de solo pensar en forma egosta. +Pasar rpido las otras diapositivas para que puedan ver algunos pases ms abajo en la lista. +Alemania est 13, EE.UU. 21, Mxico 66, y luego tenemos algunos grandes pases en desarrollo como Rusia 95, China 107. +Que pases como China, Rusia e India estn abajo en la misma parte del ndice, bueno, en cierta forma no sorprende. +Han pasado mucho tiempo en las ltimas dcadas construyendo su propia economa, construyendo su propia sociedad y su propia poltica, pero es de esperar que en la segunda fase de su crecimiento miren un poco ms hacia afuera que en la primera fase. +Y luego pueden analizar cada pas en trminos de los datos reales que los constituyen. +Les permitir que lo hagan. +A partir de la medianoche estar en goodcountry.org, y pueden mirar su pas. +Pueden llegar hasta el nivel de los datos individuales. +Este es el ndice de Pas Bueno. +Para qu est? +Bueno, est porque quiero tratar de introducir esta palabra o reintroducir esta palabra al discurso. +Ya he escuchado demasiado sobre pases competitivos. +Ya he escuchado demasiado sobre pases prsperos, ricos, que crecen rpidamente. +He escuchado demasiado sobre pases felices porque al final eso sigue siendo egosta. +Eso sigue siendo sobre nosotros, y si seguimos pensando en nosotros, estamos en un problema muy profundo. +Pienso que sabemos sobre qu queremos escuchar. +Queremos escuchar sobre pases buenos, por eso quiero pedirles un favor. +No pido mucho. +Es algo que puede resultar fcil de hacer y que incluso podran encontrar agradable e incluso til, y es empezar a usar la palabra "bueno" en este contexto. +Cuando piensen en su propio pas, cuando piensen en los pases de otros, cuando piensen en las empresas, cuando hablen del mundo en el que vivimos hoy, empiecen a usar esa palabra en el modo en que les cont esta tarde. +No bueno, lo opuesto a malo, porque esa es una discusin interminable. +Bueno, lo opuesto a egosta, bueno como pas que piensa en todos nosotros. +Eso es lo que me gustara que hagan, y me gustara que lo usen como una tabla para golpear a sus polticos. +Cuando los eligen, cuando los reeligen, cuando los votan, cuando escuchan lo que les ofrecen, usen esa palabra, "bueno", y pregntense: "Esto es lo que hara un buen pas?" +Y si la respuesta es no, sospechen. +Pregntense, es el comportamiento de mi pas? +Quiero pertenecer a un pas cuyo gobierno, en mi nombre, hace cosas como esas? +O, por otro lado, prefiero la idea de caminar por el mundo con la cabeza en alto pensando: "S, siento orgullo de pertenecer a un pas bueno". +Y todos les darn la bienvenida. +Y todos en los ltimos 15 segundos antes de conciliar el sueo por la noche dirn: "Dios, estoy feliz de que el pas de esta persona exista". +En ltima instancia, eso, pienso, es lo que generar el cambio. +La palabra "bueno", el nmero 6,8 y el descubrimiento subyacente cambiaron mi vida. +Pienso que puede cambiar sus vidas, y pienso que podemos usarlo para cambiar el comportamiento de nuestros polticos y empresas y, al hacerlo, podemos cambiar el mundo. +Empec a pensar muy diferente sobre mi propio pas al pensar en estas cosas. +Sola pensar que quera vivir en un pas rico, y luego que quera vivir en un pas feliz, pero empec a darme cuenta de que eso no es suficiente. +No quiero vivir en un pas rico. +No quiero vivir en un pas que crece rpido o que es competitivo. +Quiero vivir en un pas bueno, y espero que Uds. tambin. +Gracias. +Soy un veterano de la nave Enterprise. +Viaj por la galaxia, manejando una nave gigante con un equipo de personas de todo el mundo, muchas razas diferentes, muchas culturas diferentes, muchas herencias diferentes, todas trabajando juntas. Nuestra misin era explorar nuevos mundos extraos, buscar vida nueva y nuevas civilizaciones, ir audazmente a donde nadie haba ido jams. +Bien -- Soy nieto de inmigrantes japoneses, que vinieron valientemente a Estados Unidoos, a un extrao nuevo pas, buscando nuevas oportunidades. +Mi madre naci en Sacramento, California. +Mi padre era de San Francisco. +Se conocieron y se casaron en Los ngeles y yo nac ah. +Tena 4 aos cuando Japn bombarde a Pearl Harbor, el 7 de diciembre de 1941. De la noche a la maana, el mundo se sumergi en una guerra mundial. +Los EE.UU. repentinamente se vieron envueltos por la histeria. +A los japoneses-estadounidenses, ciudadanos de este pas de origen japons, nos observaban con sospecha, miedo y mucho odio, simplemente porque nos parecamos a quienes bombardearon Pearl Harbor. +La histeria creci y creci hasta que en febrero de 1942, el presidente de los Estados Unidos, Franklin Delano Roosevelt, orden que los japoneses-estadounidenses en la costa oeste de los EE.UU., fueran todos reunidos sumariamente sin cargos, sin juicio, sin debido proceso. +El debido proceso es un pilar central de nuestro sistema judicial. +Todo eso desapareci. +Nos deban juntar y llevar a prisin en 10 campos enrejados por alambre de pas en los lugares ms desolados de los EE.UU. El ardiente desierto de Arizona, los sofocantes pantanos de Arkansas, los basueros de Wyoming, Idaho, Utah, Colorado, y dos de los lugares ms despoblados de California. +El 20 de abril celebr mi cumpleaos nmero 5. Y slo unas pocas semanas despus, mis padres despertaron muy temprano a mi hermano menor, a mi hermana bebe y a m, y nos vistieron de prisa. +Mi hermano y yo estbamos en la sala, mirando por la ventana, cuando vimos dos soldados acercarse a la casa. +Traan rifles con bayonetas. +Caminaron hacia el porche de la entrada, y golpearon la puerta. +Mi padre atendi y los soldados ordenaron que salieramos de la casa. +Mi padre nos dio, a mi hermano y a m, unas pequeas maletas para cargar. Salimos y nos detuvimos en la entrada, esperando que mi madre saliera. Cuando finalmente mi madre sali, tena a mi hermana beb en un brazo, y una gran bolsa de lona en el otro. Corran lgrimas por sus mejillas. +Nunca podr olvidar esa escena. +Se qued fundida en mi memoria. +Nos sacaron de la casa y nos subieron a vagones de tren, junto con otras familias japonesas-estadounidenses. +Haba guardias vigilando a ambos lados de cada vagn, como si furamos criminales. +Nos llevaron dos tercios de camino hacia el otro lado del pas, mecindonos en ese tren por cuatro das y tres noches, hacia los pantanos de Arkansas. +An recuerdo el alambre de pas que me aprisionaba. +An recuerdo la alta torre centinela con ametralladoras apuntndonos. Recuerdo la luz de exploradora que me segua cuando tena que salir de mi barraca a la letrina. +Pero para m, de 5 aos, pensaba que era bueno que iluminaran el camino para guiarme. +Era un nio muy pequeo para entender las circunstancias de por qu estaba ah. +Los nios son increblemente adaptables. +Lo que sera grotescamente anormal se convirti en mi normalidad, en las prisiones de los campos de guerra. +Se convirti en mi rutina hacer una fila tres veces al da, para comer una comida mala en un saln ruidoso y sucio. +Se me hizo algo normal, ir con mi padre a baarnos en duchas comunales. +Estar en una prisin, en un campo con alambre de pas, se convirti en mi normalidad. +Cuando la guerra termin, nos liberaron, y nos dieron un pasaje de ida a cualquier lugar de los EEUU. +Mis padres decidieron regresar a casa, a Los ngeles, pero all no fuimos bien recibidos. +No tenamos un centavo. +Nos haban quitado todo, y la hostilidad era intensa. +Nuestra primera casa fue en Skid Row en la parte ms baja de la ciudad, viviendo con vagabundos, borrachos y locos, con hedor a orina por todos lados, en la calle, en el callejn, en el pasillo. +Fue una experiencia horrible, y para nosotros los nios fue aterrorizador. +Recuerdo una ocasin, cuando un borracho se acerc tambalendose, se cay justo frente a nosotros, y vomit. +Mi hermana pequea dijo, "Mam, ya, vmonos a casa." Porque para nosotros, la casa estaba detrs del alambre de pas. +Mis padres trabajaron duro para levantarse otra vez. +Habamos perdido todo. +Estaban a la mitad de sus vidas y comenzando de nuevo. +Trabajaron hasta los huesos y finalmente lograron reunir el capital para comprar una casa de tres habitaciones en un buen vecindario. +Cuando era adolescente, tena mucha curiosidad sobre mi niez en prisin. +Haba ledo libros de civismo que me hablaban de los ideales de la democracia americana. +Todos los hombres son creados iguales, tenemos derecho inalienable a la vida, a la libertad, y a la bsqueda de la felicidad, y no poda encajar esto con lo que conoc con mi encarcelamiento de la infancia. +Le libros de historia, y no encontr nada sobre esto. +As que entablaba con mi padre, despus de la cena, largas, y en ocasiones acaloradas, conversaciones. +Tuvimos muchas, muchas discusiones. Lo que saqu de ellas fue la sabidura de mi padre. +Fue l quien sufri ms bajo estas condiciones de encarcelamiento y an as entenda la democracia estadounidense. +Me dijo que nuestra democracia, es de la gente, y puede ser tan grandiosa como puede ser la gente, pero es tambin tan falible como lo son las personas. +Me dijo que la democracia estadounidense es vitalmente dependiente de las buenas gentes que valoran los ideales del sistema y se involucran activamente en el proceso de hacerla funcionar. +Me llev a una sede de una campaa potica -- el gobernador de Illinois se postulaba para la presidencia -- y me mostr la poltica electoral. +Tambin me habl sobre los jvenes japoneses-estadounidenses, durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial. +Cuando Pearl Harbor fue bombardeada, jvenes japoneses-estadounidenses, como todos los jvenes, corrieron a enlistarse como voluntarios para pelear por su pas. +Ese acto de patriotismo fue contestado con una bofetada en la cara. +Se les rechaz y los rotularon como "enemigos no-extranjeros". +Era idignante que te llamaran enemigo, cuando estas ofrecindote a pelear por tu pas. La intencin de la palabra "no-extranjero", significaba "ciudadano" pero en forma negativa. +Incluso les quitaron el trmino "ciudadano", y los encarcelaron por todo un ao. +Entonces el gobierno se dio cuenta que haba una escasez de hombres por tiempos de guerra, y tan pronto como nos juntaron, habilitaron el servicio militar, para jvenes japoneses-estadounidenses. +Era totalmente absurdo. Pero lo increble, lo sorprendente, fue que miles de jvenes japoneses-estadounidenses, hombres y mujeres, salieron del cercado de alambre de pas, se pusieron el mismo uniforme que los guardias, dejando a sus familias encarceladas, para pelear por este pas. +Dijeron que iban a pelear, no solo para sacar a sus familias de su encierro, sino tambin porque valoraban que los ideales que nuestro gobierno defenda, deba ser defendido, y que haba que abolir lo que se estaba persiguiendo. +Todos los hombres son creados iguales. +Y se fueron a pelear por este pas. +Los pusieron en unidades separadas para japoneses-estadounidenses, y los enviaron a los campos de batalla de Europa. Ellos se entregaron gustosos. +Pelearon con increble valenta y coraje. +Los enviaron a las misiones ms peligrosas y tuvieron la tasa ms elevada de bajas en combate, de todas las unidades de esa guerra. +Hay una batalla que ilustra esto. +Fue la batalla de la Lnea Gtica. +Los alemanes estaban apertrechados en la ladera de una montaa, una ladera rocosa, con trincheras inexpugnables. Tres batallones aliados haban estado intentando por 6 meses, y estaban estancados. +Llamaron al 442 a sumarse a la lucha, pero a esos soldados se les ocurri una idea especial pero peligrosa. La parte trasera de la montaa era un risco de roca vertical. +Los alemanes crean que un ataque por atrs sera imposible. +Los hombres del 442 decidieron hacer lo imposible. +En una noche oscura sin luna, comenzaron a escalar esa pared de roca. La cada sera de ms de 300 metros, con todo el equipo de combate. +Escalaron toda la noche por esa piedra vertical. +En total oscuridad, algunos perdieron el apoyo de las manos o los pies, y cayeron al abismo hacia la muerte. +Caan en silencio. Ni uno solo grit, para no delatar su posicin. +Esos hombres escalaron por 8 horas seguidas, y los que llegaron a la cima, all se quedaron hasta la primera luz del da, y tan pronto como hubo luz, atacaron. +Sorprendieron a los alemanes, se tomaron la montaa y rompieron la Lnea Gtica. +Un estancamiento de 6 meses, roto por el 442 en 32 minutos. +Fue un acto impresionante. Cuando la guerra termin, el 442 regres a los EEUU como la unidad ms condecorada de toda la Segunda Guerra Mundial. +Fueron recibidos en el jardn de la Casa Blanca por el Presidente Truman, quien les dijo, "Uds. pelearon no slo contra el enemigo, sino contra los prejuicios, y ganaron. +Ellos son mis hroes. +Sostuvieron su fe en los brillantes ideales de este pas, y demostraron que ser estadounidense no es solo para algunas personas, que la nacionalidad no se define por la raza. +Expandieron el significado de lo que es ser estadounidense, incluyendo a los japoneses-estadounidenses, a quienes se les tema, de quienes se sospechaba y a quienes odiaban. +Eran agentes de cambio, y a mi me dejaron un legado. +Son mis hroes, y mi padre es mi hroe, que entendi la democracia y me gui a hacia ella. +Muchas gracias. +El 10 de marzo de 2011, estaba en el Laboratorio de Medios del MIT en Cambridge en una reunin con profesores, estudiantes y el personal y estbamos tratando de decidir si debera ser el prximo director. +Esa noche, a la medianoche, un terremoto de magnitud 9 azot la costa del Pacfico de Japn. +Mi esposa y mi familia estaban en Japn, y a medida que las noticias comenzaban a llegar, entraba en pnico. +Estaba buscando en las noticias y escuchaba las conferencias de prensa de los funcionarios del gobierno y de la Empresa de Energa de Tokio, y escuchaba acerca de la explosin en los reactores nucleares y de la nube de lluvia radiactiva que se diriga hacia nuestra casa, que estaba a unos 200 km de distancia. +Y la gente en la televisin no nos deca nada de lo que queramos escuchar. +Quera saber lo que estaba pasando con el reactor, con la radiacin si mi familia estaba en peligro. +As que hice lo que instintivamente senta que era lo correcto, que era ir a Internet y tratar de averiguar si poda tomar el asunto en mis propias manos. +Tres aos ms tarde, contamos con 16 millones de puntos de datos, hemos diseado nuestros propios contadores Geiger, que puedes descargar y conectarlos a la red. +Tenemos una aplicacin que muestra la radiacin en Japn y en otras partes del mundo. +Estamos sin duda ante uno de los ms exitosos proyectos de ciencia ciudadana en el mundo, y hemos creado el mayor conjunto de datos abiertos de medidas de radiacin. +Y lo interesante es cmo... Gracias. +Cmo un puado de aficionados que realmente no sabamos lo que estbamos haciendo de alguna manera se unieron e hicieron lo que las ONG y el gobierno eran completamente incapaces de hacer? +Dira que esto tiene algo que ver con Internet. No es una casualidad. +No fue suerte y no fue porque fuimos nosotros. +Ayud que se trat de un evento que junt a todos, pero era una nueva forma de hacer las cosas que fue posible gracias a Internet y a muchas otras cosas que sucedan, y quiero hablar un poco acerca de lo que son esos nuevos principios. +Se acuerdan de antes de Internet? Yo lo llamo AI, +As, en el AI, la vida era simple. +Las cosas eran euclidianas, newtonianas, predecibles. +La gente de hecho trat de predecir el futuro, incluso los economistas. +Antes de Internet, si recuerdan, cuando tratbamos de crear servicios, lo que se haca era crear la capa de hardware, la red y el software, y costaba millones de dlares hacer algo que fuera sustancial. +Cuando cuesta millones hacer algo importante, lo que puedes hacer es obtener un MBA, escribir un plan y conseguir el dinero de los capitales de riesgo o las empresas, y luego contratar a los diseadores e ingenieros, que construan la cosa. +Este es el modelo de innovacin de Antes de Internet, AI. +As Internet gener innovaciones al menos en software y servicios, y pas de un modelo de innovacin impulsado por MBAs a un modelo de innovacin de diseadores-ingenieros, y empuj la innovacin al lmite, a los dormitorios, a las nuevas empresas, lejos de las grandes instituciones, las viejas instituciones que tenan el poder, el dinero y la autoridad. +Y todos sabemos esto. Todos sabemos que esto sucedi. +Resulta que est sucediendo en otras cosas tambin. +Permtanme darles algunos ejemplos. +En Media Lab, no solo diseamos hardware. +Hacemos todo tipo de cosas. +Biologa, hardware, y Nicholas Negroponte dijo la famosa frase, "Demo o morir" en lugar de "Publicar o morir", que era el mtodo acadmico tradicional de pensar. +Deca a menudo, el demo solo tiene que funcionar una vez, porque el modo primordial de impactar el mundo era a travs de las grandes empresas que se inspiraban en nosotros y creaban productos como Kindle o Lego Mindstorms. +Pero hoy, con la capacidad para crear cosas en el mund real a un bajo costo, estoy cambiando el lema ahora, y esta es la declaracin pblica oficial. +Estoy oficialmente diciendo: "Implementar o morir." +Tienen que hacer las cosas en el mundo real para que cuente realmente, y, a veces sern las grandes empresas, y Nicholas puede hablar de los satlites. +Gracias. +Pero debemos salir nosotros mismos y no esperar que las grandes instituciones lo hagan por nosotros. +As que el ao pasado enviamos a un grupo de estudiantes a Shenzhen y se sentaron en los pisos de la fbrica con los innovadores en Shenzhen, y fue increble. +Lo que pasaba all era que haban estos dispositivos de fabricacin, y no prototipos o presentaciones. +Estaban jugando con el equipo de fabricacin e innovando justo en la fabricacin de los equipos. +La fbrica estaba en el diseador, y el diseador estaba literalmente en la fbrica. +Y as, lo que se puede hacer es ir al mercado y tener estos telfonos celulares. +As que en lugar de comenzar pequeos sitios web como los nios en Palo Alto, los nios en Shenzhen crean telfonos celulares nuevos. +Hacen telfonos nuevos como los nios en Palo Alto hacen sitios web y as, hay toda una selva tropical de innovacin en telfonos celulares. +Lo que hacen es, hacen un telfono celular, bajan a la plaza, venden algunos, miran las cosas de los otros nios, suben, hacer un par de miles ms, bajan... +No suena esto como a software? +Suena como el desarrollo gil de software, Prueba A/B e iteracin, y lo que cremos que solo se poda hacer en el software; los nios en Shenzhen lo hacen en el hardware. +Espero que uno de mis futuros colegas sea uno de estos innovadores de Shenzhen. +Se est llevando a la innovacin a los lmites. +Hablamos de impresoras 3D y cosas as, y es genial, pero esta es Limor. +Es uno de nuestros graduados favoritos, y ella est de pie delante de una maquina Techwin Pick and Place Samsung. +Esta cosa puede poner 23 000 componentes por hora en una placa electrnica. +Se trata de una fbrica en una caja. +Antes se necesitaba una fbrica llena de obreros trabajando a mano, en esta pequea caja en Nueva York, ella es capaz de hacerlo. No tiene que ir a Shenzhen para hacer la fabricacin. +Puede comprar esta caja y puede fabricarlo. +As que la fabricacin, el costo de la innovacin, de la creacin de prototipos, distribucin, fabricacin, el hardware, es cada vez tan bajo que lleva la innovacin a los lmites y los estudiantes y startups son capaces de construirlo. +Es una cosa reciente, pero va a suceder y va a cambiar, al igual que pas con el software. +Sorona es un proceso de DuPont que utiliza un microbio modificado genticamente para convertir el azcar de maz en polister. +Es 30 % ms eficiente que con combustible fsil, y es mucho mejor para el medio ambiente. +La ingeniera gentica y la bioingeniera estn creando un montn de grandes oportunidades nuevas para la qumica, para el cmputo, para la memoria. +Probablement haremos ms, ms cosas para la salud, pero es probable que pronto crearemos sillas y edificios. +El problema es, Sorona cuesta unos 400 millones de dlares y tom 7 aos para construir. +Es algo que nos recuerda los viejos tiempos de mainframe. +El punto es que el costo de la innovacin en bioingeniera tambin est bajando. +Este es un secuenciador de genes de escritorio. +Antes costaba millones y millones secuenciar los genes, +Ahora se puede hacer en uno de esos y los chichos pueden hacerlo en los dormitorios. +Este es el Gen9 Gene Assembler, y hoy cuando se intenta imprimir un gen, alguien en una fbrica las hace a mano con una pipetas, y hay un error por cada 100 pares de base, y se necesita mucho tiempo y es costoso. +Este nuevo dispositivo ensambla genes en un chip, y en lugar de un error por cada 100 pares base, es un error por cada 10 000 pares base. +As, vamos a tener la capacidad del mundo de impresin de genes dentro de un ao, 200 millones de pares base al ao. +Esto es un poco como cuando fuimos de radios de transistores hechos a mano a el Pentium. +Esto ser el Pentium de la bioingeniera, llevando la bioingeniera a las manos de los dormitorios y nuevas compaas. +As que est sucediendo en el software y en el hardware y la bioingeniera. Esta es una nueva manera fundamental de pensar en la innovacin. +Es una innovacin de abajo hacia arriba, es democrtica, es catica, es difcil de controlar. +No es malo, pero es muy diferente, y creo que las reglas tradicionales en las instituciones ya no funcionan, y la mayora de nosotros aqu opera con un conjunto diferente de principios. +Uno de mis principios favoritos es el poder de atraccin, que es la idea de obtener los recursos desde la red a medida que los necesitas en lugar de almacenarlos en el centro y controlarlo todo. +En el caso de SafeCast, no saba nada cuando se produjo el terremoto, pero fui capaz de encontrar a Sean, quien organizaba la comunidad hackerspace, y Peter, el hacker de hardware analgico, que hizo nuestro primer contador Geiger, y Dan, que construy la Isla Three Mile, un sistema de monitoreo despus de la crisis de Three Mile Island. +Y estas personas, no los habra conocido de antemano y probablemente fue mejor que los encontr justo a tiempo en la red. +Abandon la universidad 3 veces, as que aprender sobre la educacin es algo muy cercano y querido, aunque para m la educacin es lo que otros hacen para ti y el aprendizaje es lo que haces t mismo para ti. +En el caso de SafeCast, un puado de aficionados cuando empezamos hace tres aos, dira que probablemente como grupo sabemos ms que cualquier otra organizacin acerca de cmo recopilar datos y publicarlos y hacer ciencia ciudadana. +Brjula sobre mapas. +La idea es que el costo de la redaccin de un plan o mapear algo es muy caro y no es preciso ni til. +En SafeCast, sabamos que tenamos que recoger datos, sabamos que queramos publicar los datos, y en lugar de tratar de llegar con el plan exacto, lo primero fue, vamos a conseguir contadores Geiger. +Oh, se han acabado. +Vamos a construirlos. No hay suficientes sensores. +Bien, entonces hagamos un contador Geiger mvil. +Podemos conducir. Podemos conseguir voluntarios. +No hay suficiente dinero. Vamos a Kickstarter. +No hubisemos planeado todo esto, pero al tener una brjula, finalmente llegamos a donde bamos, y para m es muy similar al desarrollo gil de software pero esta idea de la brjula es muy importante. +As que creo que la buena noticia es que a pesar de que el mundo es extremadamente complejo, lo que hay que hacer es muy simple. +Es dejar de tener esta nocin de que es necesario planificarlo todo, tenerlo todo, estar preparado, y centrarnos en mantenernos conectados, siempre aprendiendo, plenamente conscientes, y muy presentes. +As que no me gusta la palabra "futurista". +Creo que hay que ser "ahoristas", como estamos ahora. +Gracias. +Podra yo proteger a mi padre, del Grupo Islmico Armado, con un cuchillo de cocina? +Esa fue la pregunta que enfrent un martes por la maana en junio de 1993, siendo yo estudiante de derecho. +Me despert temprano esa maana en el apartamento de pap en las afueras de Argel, Argelia, con un golpeteo incesante en la puerta principal. +Fue una poca en que, como la describa un peridico local, cada martes caa un acadmico por las balas de asesinos fundamentalistas. +La docencia universitaria de mi padre en Darwin ya haba provocado una visita a su clase por el cabecilla del llamado, Frente Islmico de Salvacin, quien lo denunci como un defensor del biologismo antes de que pap lo expulsara. Ahora el que estaba ah afuera no se identificaba, pero tampoco se iba. +Mi padre trat de llamar a la polica por telfono, pero tal vez aterrorizados por la marea creciente del extremismo armado, que ya haba reclamado las vidas de tantos oficiales argelinos, ni siquiera contestaron. +Y fue entonces cuando fui a la cocina, saqu un cuchillo de cocina, y tom posicin en la puerta de entrada. +Era una accin ridcula, realmente, pero no poda pensar en otra cosa, y all estaba yo, de pie. +Reflexionando, creo que ese fue el momento que me puso en el camino de escribir un libro llamado "Tu fatua no aplica aqu: Historias no contadas de la lucha contra el fundamentalismo musulmn". +El ttulo proviene de una obra de teatro de Pakistn. +Creo que fue en realidad ese momento el que me envi en este viaje de entrevistar a 300 personas de herencia musulmana de casi 30 pases, desde Afganistn hasta Mali, para averiguar cmo lucharon contra el fundamentalismo, pacficamente como lo hizo mi padre, y cmo se las arreglaron con los consiguientes riesgos. +Por suerte, en junio de 1993, nuestro visitante no identificado se march. Pero otras familias fueron mucho menos afortunadas y ese fue el pensamiento que motiv mi investigacin. +En cualquier caso, alguien podra regresar unos meses ms tarde y dejar una nota en la mesa de la cocina de pap, que simplemente dijera: "Considrate muerto". +Posteriormente, los grupos armados de fundamentalistas argelinos asesinaran a ms de 200 000 civiles en lo que lleg a conocerse como la dcada oscura de 1990, incluyendo todas y cada una de las mujeres que se ven aqu. +En su dura respuesta antiterrorista, el Estado recurri a la tortura y a las desapariciones forzadas. La comunidad internacional ignor, en gran medida, esos eventos tan terribles. +Por ejemplo, en una serie de noviembre de 1994 en el peridico El Watan titulada "Cmo el fundamentalismo produce un terrorismo sin precedentes", denunci lo que l llam, "Ruptura radical de los terroristas con el verdadero Islam", tal como fue vivido por nuestros antepasados. +Estas palabras podan hacer que te mataran. +El pas de mi padre me ense en esa dcada oscura de 1990 que la lucha popular contra el fundamentalismo musulmn es una de las ms importantes e inadvertidas contiendas por los derechos humanos en el mundo. +Esto sigue siendo cierto hoy en da, casi 20 aos despus. +En todos los pases donde se ha odo de yihadistas armados atacando a civiles, tambin hay personas desarmadas desafiando a aquellos militantes, de las que no se ha odo nada. Y esas personas necesitan nuestro apoyo para tener xito. +En Occidente, a menudo se asume que los musulmanes en general, son indulgentes con el terrorismo. +Algunos de la derecha ven a la cultura musulmana, intrnsecamente violenta. Y algunos de la izquierda creen que la violencia musulmana, la violencia fundamentalista, es apenas producto de quejas legtimas. +Pero ambos puntos de vista estn totalmente equivocados. +De hecho, muchos de origen musulmn de todo el mundo, se han opuesto ferozmente tanto al fundamentalismo como al terrorismo, y a menudo por muy buenas razones. +Vern, estn mucho ms propensas a ser vctimas de esta violencia, que sus perpetradores. +Permtanme darles un ejemplo. +Segn un estudio de 2009, de los medios de comunicacin de lengua rabe, entre 2004 y 2008, no ms del 15 % de las vctimas de Al Qaeda fueron occidentales. +Esta es una cifra terrible, pero la gran mayora de los asesinados por musulmanes fundamentalistas, eran personas de origen musulmn. +He estado hablando durante los ltimos 5 minutos sobre fundamentalismo, y tienen el derecho a saber exactamente lo que quiero decir. +Cito la definicin propuesta por la sociloga argelina Marieme Helie Lucas, que dice que los fundamentalismos, noten el plural, existentes en todas las grandes tradiciones religiosas del mundo, "los fundamentalismos son movimientos polticos de extrema derecha que, en un contexto de globalizacin, manipulan la religin a fin de lograr sus objetivos polticos". +Sadia Abbas ha llamado a esto "la politizacin radical de la teologa". +Ahora, no quiero proyectar la idea de que haya una especie de monolito por ah, llamado fundamentalismo musulmn, igual en todas partes. Es que estos movimientos tambin tienen sus diversidades. +Algunos usan y defienden la violencia. +Algunos no, a pesar de que estn a menudo interrelacionados. +Toman diferentes formas. +Algunos pueden ser organizaciones no gubernamentales, incluso aqu en Gran Bretaa, como Cageprisoners. +Algunos pueden volverse partidos polticos, como los Hermanos Musulmanes. Y algunos pueden ser grupos abiertamente armados como los talibanes. +Pero en cualquier caso, todos son proyectos radicales. +No son enfoques conservadores o tradicionales. +Les interesa cambiar la relacin de la gente con el Islam, ms que preservarla. +De lo que estoy hablando es de la extrema derecha musulmana. Y del hecho de que sus adherentes son, o pretenden ser, musulmanes, no los hace menos ofensivos que la extrema derecha de cualquier otro lugar. +As que, en mi opinin, si nos consideramos liberales o de izquierda, defensores de los derechos humanos o feministas, debemos oponernos a estos movimientos y apoyar a sus opositores de base. +Tampoco se debe tomar nada de lo que digo como justificacin de la violaciones de los derechos humanos, como las sentencias de muerte masivas en Egipto a principios de esta semana. +Lo que estoy diciendo es que debemos desafiar estos movimientos fundamentalistas musulmanes porque amenazan los derechos humanos en contextos de mayora musulmana, y lo hacen de muchas formas diferentes. ms evidentes por los grupos armados que llevan a cabo los ataques directos contra civiles. +Pero esa forma de violencia es solo la punta del iceberg. +Estos movimientos, como toda forma de discriminacin contra las minoras religiosas y las minoras sexuales, +tratan de restringir la libertad religiosa de cualquiera que practique de una manera diferente u opte por no practicar. +Y ms claramente, lideran una guerra total contra los derechos de las mujeres. +Ahora, frente a estos movimientos en los ltimos aos, el discurso de Occidente ha ofrecido frecuentemente dos respuestas errneas. +As que lo que estoy buscando es una nueva forma de hablar de todo esto, que est basada en las experiencias vividas y las esperanzas de la gente en los frentes de batalla. +As que ahora permtanme presentarles a cuatro personas cuyas historias tuve el gran honor de relatar. +Faizan Peerzada y el taller teatral Rafi Peer, llamado as por su padre, ha promovido durante aos las artes escnicas en Pakistn. +Con el auge de la violencia yihadista, comenzaron a recibir amenazas de cancelar sus eventos, a las que negaron prestar atencin. +Y entonces un bombardero atac su octavo Festival de Artes Escnicas en Lahore en 2008, produciendo una lluvia de vidrios que cayeron en el lugar e hirieron a 9 personas. Ms tarde, esa misma noche, los Peerzadas tomaron una decisin muy difcil: anunciaron que su festival continuara como estaba previsto para el da siguiente. +Como dijo Faizan en el momento, si nos inclinamos ante los islamistas, quedaremos relegados a un rincn oscuro. +Pero ellos no saban lo que iba a suceder. +Vendra alguien? +Y ella dijo: "Lo s, pero yo vine a su festival con mi madre cuando yo tena la edad de ellos, y todava tengo esas imgenes en mi mente. +Tenemos que estar aqu". +Con audiencias incondicionales de este tipo, los Peerzadas fueron capaces de concluir su festival en la fecha prevista. +Y entonces el siguiente ao, perdieron todos sus patrocinadores debido al riesgo de seguridad. +Cuando me reun con ellos en 2010, estaban en medio del primer evento posterior que pudieron ofrecer en el mismo lugar. Ese fue el noveno Festival juvenil de artes escnicas celebrado en Lahore en un ao en que esa ciudad ya haba experimentado 44 ataques terroristas. +Fue cuando los talibanes paquistans haban comenzado su persecucin sistemtica de las escuelas de nias que culminara con el ataque a Malala Yousafzai. +Qu hacan los Peerzadas en ese momento? +Organizaban teatro escolar para nias. +Tuve el privilegio de ver "Naang Wal", un musical en idioma punjabi, en que las nias de la escuela secundaria de Lahore representaban todos los papeles. +Cantaron y bailaron, actuaron de ratones y de bfalos de agua, y yo contena la respiracin, preguntndome, si podramos llegar al final de este increble espectculo. +Y al llegar al final, todo el pblico exhal colectivamente, y unas pocas personas en realidad lloraron, y luego llenaron el auditorio con el estruendo pacfico de sus aplausos. +Y recuerdo que pens en ese momento que los atacantes haban sido noticia aqu dos aos antes. Pero esa noche y esa gente son historias igualmente importantes. +Maria Bashir es la primera y nica fiscal general mujer en Afganistn. +Ella ha estado en el cargo desde 2008 y de hecho abri una oficina para investigar los casos de violencia contra las mujeres, que segn ella es el rea ms importante en su mandato. +Cuando me encontr con ella en su oficina en Herat, entr rodeada de 4 hombres grandes con enormes armas. +De hecho, ahora tiene 23 guardaespaldas, porque ha capeado ataques con bombas que casi matan a sus hijos, y amputaron la pierna de uno de sus guardias. +Por qu sigue? +Ella dice con una sonrisa, que esa es la cuestin que todo el mundo le pregunta. Como ella dice, "Por qu te arriesgas a no vivir?" +Y es simplemente que para ella, un futuro mejor para todas las Mara Bashirs por venir, vale la pena el riesgo. Ella sabe bien que si la gente como ella no corre riesgos, no habr un futuro mejor. +Ms adelante en la entrevista, la fiscal Bashir me dice lo preocupada que est por el posible resultado de las negociaciones del gobierno con los talibanes, las personas que han estado tratando de matarla. +"Si les damos un lugar en el gobierno" pregunta, "quin proteger los derechos de las mujeres?" +Y ella insta a la comunidad internacional a no olvidar su promesa sobre las mujeres porque ahora quieren la paz con los talibanes. +Unas pocas semanas despus de que dej Afganistn, vi un titular en Internet. +Un fiscal afgano haba sido asesinado. +Consult en Google desesperadamente, y por suerte me enter ese da de que Mara no haba sido la vctima, cuando por desgracia, otro fiscal afgano fue asesinado a tiros cuando se diriga a trabajar. +Y cuando oigo titulares como este ahora, creo que, a medida que las tropas internacionales salgan de Afganistn este ao y los siguientes, tendremos que seguir cuidando lo que les sucede a las personas de all, a todas las Maria Bashirs. +A veces todava oigo su voz en mi cabeza diciendo, sin bravuconadas de ningn tipo, "La situacin de las mujeres en Afganistn ser mejor algn da. +Debemos preparar el terreno para esto, incluso si nos matan". +No hay palabras adecuadas para denunciar a los terroristas de Al Shabaab que atacaron el Westgate Mall en Nairobi el mismo da de un concurso de cocina para nios en septiembre de 2013. +Mataron a 67, incluyendo poetas y mujeres embarazadas. +All lejos, en el medio oeste estadounidense, tuve la fortuna de conocer somales-estadounidenses que trabajaban en contrarrestar los esfuerzos de Al Shabaab, de reclutar a un pequeo nmero de jvenes en su ciudad, en Minneapolis, para participar en atrocidades como Westgate. +El estudiante Abdirizak Bihi sobrino Burhan Hassan de 17 aos de edad, fue reclutado aqu en 2008, comprometido con Somalia y luego fue asesinado tratando de volver a casa. +Desde ese momento, el Sr. Bihi, que dirige el Centro para la educacin y la defensa somal, sin ingresos, ha venido denunciando el reclutamiento y los fracasos del gobierno y las instituciones somales-estadounidenses como el Centro Islmico Abubakar As-Saddique, donde l cree que su sobrino se radicaliz durante un programa juvenil. +Pero no se limita a criticar a la mezquita. +Tambin acusa al gobierno por su incapacidad de hacer ms para evitar la pobreza en su comunidad. +Dada su falta de recursos financieros, el Sr. Bihi ha tenido que ser creativo. +Para contrarrestar los esfuerzos de Al Shabaab, para influir en los jvenes ms resentidos, a raz de los ataques del grupo en 2010 a los espectadores de la Copa Mundial en Uganda, organiz un torneo de baloncesto en Ramadn en Minneapolis, como respuesta. +Decenas de nios somales-estadounidenses salieron a abrazar el deporte a pesar de la fatua contra ellos. +Jugaron baloncesto como Burhan Hassan nunca lo hara de nuevo. +Por sus esfuerzos, el Sr. Bihi ha sido condenado al ostracismo por la direccin del Centro Islmico Abubakar As-Saddique, con el que sola tener buenas relaciones. +Ahora quiero contarles una ltima historia. La de una estudiante de derecho de 22 aos de edad en Argelia, llamada Amel Zenoune-Zouani que tena los mismos sueos de una carrera legal, como yo tuve en los aos 90. +Ella se neg a renunciar a sus estudios, a pesar de que los fundamentalistas luchaban contra el Estado argelino en ese entonces, amenazando a todos los que continuaran su educacin. +El 26 de enero de 1997, Amel subi al autobs en Argel, donde estudiaba para ir a casa y pasar la noche del Ramadn con su familia. Nunca llegara a terminar sus estudios de derecho. +Cuando el autobs lleg a las afueras de su ciudad natal, fue detenido en un puesto de control por los hombres del Grupo Islmico Armado. +Portando su mochila, Amel fue bajada del bus y asesinada en la calle. +Los hombres le cortaron el cuello y luego le dijeron a todo el mundo, "Si van a la universidad, el da llegar en que vamos a matarlas a todas, igual que a ella". +Amel muri exactamente a las 5:17, lo sabemos, porque cuando cay en la calle, su reloj se rompi. +Su madre me mostr el reloj con la manecilla an dirigida con optimismo hacia arriba hacia un 5:18 que nunca llegara. +Poco antes de su muerte, Amel haba dicho a su madre, y a sus hermanas, "Nada nos va a pasar a nosotras, Inshallah, si Dios quiere. Pero si algo sucede, deben saber que morimos por aprender. +T y pap deben mantener su cabeza bien alta". +La prdida de una mujer tan joven es insondable. Y al hacer mi investigacin me encontr a m misma en busca de la esperanza de Amel de nuevo. Su nombre incluso significa "esperanza" en rabe. +Creo que la he encontrado en dos lugares. +El primero es en la fuerza de su familia y todas las otras familias que siguen contando sus historias y que siguen con sus vidas a pesar del terrorismo. +De hecho, la hermana de Amel, Lamia, se sobrepuso a su dolor, fue a la escuela de leyes, y practica como abogada hoy en Argel, algo que solo es posible porque los fundamentalistas armados fueron derrotados en gran parte del pas. +Y el segundo lugar en el que encuentro la esperanza de Amel est en todas partes en que las mujeres y los hombres continan desafiando a los yihadistas. +Debemos apoyar a todos aquellos que en honor de Amel continan esta lucha por los derechos humanos en la actualidad, como la "Red de mujeres bajo leyes musulmanas". +No es suficiente, ya que el defensor de los derechos de las vctimas, Cherifa Kheddar, me dijo en Argel, que no basta con combatir el terrorismo. +Tambin debemos cuestionar el fundamentalismo, porque el fundamentalismo es la ideologa que sirve de soporte a este terrorismo. +Por qu ser que la gente como ella, al igual que todos los dems, no son ms conocidos? +Por qu ser que todo el mundo sabe quin era Osama bin Laden y tan pocos conocen a todos los que enfrentan a los bin Laden en su propio ambiente? +Tenemos que cambiar eso, por lo que les pido que por favor ayuden a compartir estas historias a travs de sus redes. +Miren de nuevo el reloj de Amel Zenoune, congelado para siempre. Y ahora por favor miren su propio reloj y decidan que este es el momento en que uds. se comprometen a apoyar a personas como Amel. +No tenemos derecho de guardar silencio sobre ellos, porque es ms fcil, o porque la poltica occidental es tambin deficiente. Porque las 5:17 an estn por venir a demasiadas Amel Zenounes en lugares como el norte de Nigeria, donde los yihadistas siguen matando estudiantes. +El tiempo de hablar en apoyo de todos aquellos que pacficamente desafan el fundamentalismo y el terrorismo en sus propias comunidades, es ahora. +Gracias. +Cuando me preparaba para esta charla, busqu un par de citas para compartirlas con Uds. +Ahora, las malas noticias: No saba cul de estas citas elegir para compartir con Uds. +La dulce angustia de la eleccin. +En el momento actual del capitalismo post-industrial, la eleccin, la libertad individual y la idea del hacerlo uno mismo, se elevaron al estatus de ideal. +Adems, tenemos la idea del progreso infinito. +Pero como trasfondo de esta ideologa ha habido un aumento de la angustia, del sentimiento de culpa, de ser inadecuado, de que fracasamos en nuestras elecciones. +Tristemente, esta ideologa de la eleccin individual nos ha impedido pensar los cambios sociales. +Aparentemente esta ideologa fue en realidad muy eficiente para pacificarnos como pensadores polticos y sociales. +En vez de hacer crticas sociales, nos autocriticamos cada vez ms, a veces hasta el punto de la autodestruccin. +Ahora, por qu esta ideologa de la eleccin sigue siendo tan poderosa, an en personas que no tienen muchas opciones para elegir? +Cmo es que incluso las personas pobres todava se identifican tanto con la idea de eleccin, la idea racional de eleccin que adoptamos nosotros? +La ideologa de la eleccin es muy exitosa para abrirnos un espacio de pensamiento sobre futuros imaginados. +Les dar un ejemplo. +Mi amiga Manya, cuando estudiaba en la universidad en California ganaba dinero trabajando en una concesionaria de autos. +Cuando Manya encontraba al cliente tpico, hablaba con l sobre su estilo de vida, cunto quera gastar, cuntos hijos tena, para qu necesitaba el auto. +As llegaban a una buena conclusin de cul sera el auto perfecto. +Pero antes de que el cliente de Manya se fuese a casa y pensara en lo hablado, ella le deca: "El auto que ests comprando es perfecto ahora pero, en unos aos, cuando los nios se vayan de casa, cuando tengas un poco ms de dinero, aquel otro auto ser ideal. +Pero el que ests comprando ahora es genial". +La mayora de los clientes de Manya que volvan al da siguiente compraban ese otro auto, el que no necesitaban, el que costaba muchsimo ms. +Maya tuvo tanto xito vendiendo autos que pronto pas a vender aviones. +Saber tanto sobre la psicologa humana la prepar bien para su empleo actual: es psicoanalista. +Pero por qu los clientes de Manya eran tan irracionales? +El xito de Manya consista en poder despertar en sus mentes la idea de un futuro idealizado, una imagen de ellos mismos en la que ya son ms exitosos, ms libres, y, para ellos, elegir ese otro auto era como estar ms cerca de este ideal en el que Manya ya poda verlos. +Nunca elegimos de forma totalmente racional. +Nuestras elecciones estn influenciadas por el inconsciente, por nuestra comunidad. +A menudo elegimos adivinando lo que pensarn otras personas de nuestra eleccin. +Tambin elegimos mirando lo que eligen otros. +Tambin adivinamos cules son las elecciones socialmente aceptables. +Es por eso en realidad incluso despus de haber elegido comprar un auto, leemos continuamente comentarios de autos, como si siguiramos queriendo convencernos de que elegimos correctamente. +Las elecciones provocan ansiedad. +Estn vinculadas al riesgo, a las prdidas. +Son muy impredecibles. +Gracias a esto las personas tienen ahora cada vez ms problemas con eso de no estar eligiendo nada. +No hace mucho, estaba en una boda y conoca a una dama joven, hermosa, que de inmediato empez a contarme de su ansiedad por la eleccin. +Me dijo: "Necesito un mes para decidir qu vestido ponerme". +Luego dijo: "Estuve investigando durante semanas en qu hotel alojarme esta noche. +Y ahora tengo que elegir un donante de esperma". +Mir a esta mujer sobresaltada. +"Donante de esperma? Cul es el apuro?" +Dijo: "Cumplir 40 a fin de ao, y he elegido muy mal a los hombres en mi vida". +La eleccin, por estar ligada al riesgo, produce ansiedad y fue el clebre filsofo dans Sren Kierkegaard que seal que la ansiedad est vinculada a la posibilidad de la posibilidad. +Hoy pensamos que esos riesgos se pueden prevenir. +Tenemos interminables anlisis de mercado, proyecciones de ingresos futuros. +Incluso en el mercado, que depende del azar, que es aleatorio, pensamos que podemos predecir racionalmente lo que ocurre. +La casualidad se est volviendo traumtica. +El ao pasado, mi amigo Bernard Harcourt de la Universidad de Chicago organiz un evento, una conferencia sobre la idea de causalidad. +Estbamos juntos en el panel, y antes de presentar nuestros artculos -- ninguno conoca el artculo del otro -- decidimos tomarnos la casualidad en serio. +As, informamos al pblico que lo que escucharan sera un artculo al azar, una mezcla de dos artculos y que ninguno saba lo que haba escrito el otro. +De este modo dimos la conferencia. +Bernard ley su primer prrafo, yo le mi primer prrafo, Bernard ley su segundo prrafo, yo le mi segundo prrafo, y as hasta el final de nuestros artculos. +Les sorprender saber que la mayora de nuestro pblico no crey que estaban escuchando un artculo totalmente aleatorio. +No podan creer que viniendo de la posicin de autoridad que tenemos como profesores, tomaramos la casualidad seriamente. +Pensaron que preparamos los artculos juntos y que simplemente estbamos bromeando con lo del azar. +Vivimos en una poca de mucha informacin, de "big data", de mucho conocimiento del interior de nuestros cuerpos. +Decodificamos nuestro genoma. +Conocemos sobre nuestros cerebros mucho ms que antes. +Pero, sorprendentemente, la gente cada vez ms hace la vista gorda frente a este conocimiento. +La ignorancia y la negacin van en aumento. +Ahora, en cuanto a la crisis econmica actual, pensamos que despertaremos de nuevo y todo ser igual que antes, que no necesitamos cambios polticos ni sociales. +En relacin a la crisis ecolgica, pensamos que no es necesario hacer nada ahora, o que otros tienen que actuar antes que nosotros. +Incluso cuando ocurre una crisis ecolgica como la catstrofe de Fukushima, a menudo tenemos personas que viven en el mismo medioambiente con la misma cantidad de informacin, y la mitad de ellos estarn preocupados por la radiacin y la otra mitad la ignorar. +Los psiclogos saben muy bien que las personas sorprendentemente no tenemos pasin por el conocimiento sino pasin por la ignorancia. +Qu quiere decir eso? +Digamos que cuando enfrentamos una enfermedad que pone en riesgo la vida muchas personas no quieren saberlo. +En vez de eso prefieren negar la enfermedad, y por eso no es bueno informarles si no preguntan. +Sorprende que la investigacin muestre a veces que las personas que niegan la enfermedad viven ms que las que eligen racionalmente el mejor tratamiento. +Esta ignorancia, no obstante, no es muy til a nivel social. +Ignorar hacia dnde vamos puede causar mucho dao social. +Por encima de la ignorancia enfrentamos tambin hoy cierto tipo de obviedad. +El filsofo francs Louis Althusser seal que la ideologa funciona en forma tal que crea un velo de obviedad. +Antes de hacer cualquier crtica social es necesario levantar el velo de la obviedad y pensar en forma un poco diferente. +Si desandamos esta ideologa de la eleccin racional individual que adoptamos a menudo, es necesario precisamente aqu levantar esta obviedad y pensar de forma un poco diferente. +Para m, la pregunta a menudo es: por qu seguimos aferrados a esta idea del hombre que se hace a s mismo, que es la base del capitalismo desde su origen? +Por qu pensamos que tenemos tal maestra sobre nuestras vidas que podemos, en forma racional, hacer las mejores elecciones ideales y no aceptamos prdidas ni riesgos? +Me resulta muy impactante ver a veces a personas muy pobres, por ejemplo, que no apoyan la idea de que los ricos paguen ms impuestos. +Muy a menudo, aqu todava se identifican con cierto tipo de mentalidad de lotera. +Quiz no piensen que les tocar a ellos en el futuro, pero quiz mi hijo podra ser el prximo Bill Gates. +Y quin querra cobrarle impuestos a su hijo? +O la pregunta para m es tambin: por qu las personas que no tienen seguro mdico no aceptan la asistencia sanitaria universal? +A veces no la aceptan por identificacin con la idea de eleccin, pero no tienen opciones para elegir. +Margaret Thatcher dijo clebremente que no hay tal cosa llamada sociedad. +La sociedad no existe, hay solo individuos y sus familias. +Tristemente, esta ideologa todava funciona muy bien y por eso hay personas pobres que podran sentir vergenza de su pobreza. +Podramos sentirnos eternamente culpables de no elegir correctamente, y por eso es que no tenemos xito. +Nos angustia no ser lo suficientemente buenos. +Por eso trabajamos tan arduamente largas jornadas laborales y de igual manera muchas horas rehacindonos. +Cuando decidir nos angustia, a veces regalamos nuestro poder de decisin. +Nos identificamos con el gur que nos dice qu hacer, con el terapeuta de autoayuda, o aceptamos un lder totalitario que parece no tener dudas sobre la eleccin, que parece saber. +A menudo me preguntan: "Qu aprendiste de estudiar la eleccin?" +Y hay un mensaje importante que aprend. +Al pensar en las elecciones, dej de tomrmelas tan en serio, en lo personal. +Primero, me di cuenta de que muchas de las elecciones que hago no son racionales. +Estn ligadas a mi inconsciente, a lo que otros estn eligiendo, o a elecciones socialmente aceptadas. +Tambin adopto la idea de que deberamos trascender la idea de eleccin individual, que es muy importante para repensar las elecciones sociales, dado que esta ideologa de la eleccin individual nos ha pacificado. +En realidad nos impide pensar el cambio social. +Pasamos mucho tiempo eligiendo cosas para nosotros mismos y apenas nos detenemos en las elecciones en comn que podemos hacer. +No deberamos olvidar que la eleccin siempre est ligada al cambio. +Podemos hacer elecciones individuales, pero podemos hacer cambios sociales. +Podemos elegir tener ms lobos. +Podemos elegir cambiar nuestro ambiente para tener ms abejas. +Podemos elegir tener diferentes agencias de calificacin. +Podemos elegir controlar a las corporaciones en vez de permitirles que nos controlen. +Tenemos una posibilidad de hacer cambios. +Empec con una cita de Samuel Johnson, que dijo que cuando elijas en la vida no te olvides de vivir. +Para terminar, pueden ver que poda elegir una de tres citas para empezar mi conferencia. +Tuve una eleccin, como naciones, como personas, tambin tenemos elecciones para repensar en qu tipo de sociedad queremos vivir en el futuro. +Gracias. +La primera vez que estuve en la sala de operaciones y observ una ciruga real, no tena ni idea de qu esperar. +Yo era un estudiante universitario de ingeniera. +Pens que iba a ser como en la televisin. +Msica inquietante de fondo y gotas de sudor por el rostro del cirujano. +Pero no fue as en absoluto. +Haba msica ese da, creo que eran los grandes xitos de Madonna. Y mucha conversacin, no solo de la frecuencia cardaca del paciente, sino de deportes y planes para el fin de semana. +Y desde entonces, cuantas ms cirugas observaba, ms entenda cmo es eso. +De alguna extraa manera, es solo como otro da de oficina. +Pero de vez en cuando, para la msica, todo el mundo deja de hablar, y miran fijamente la misma cosa. +Y ah es cuando sabes que algo absolutamente crtico y peligroso est sucediendo. +La primera vez que lo v fue en una operacin llamada ciruga laparoscpica. Por si Uds. no estn familiarizados, la ciruga laparoscpica, en lugar de la gran herida abierta usual en las operacionnes, la laparoscpica es cuando el cirujano hace estas tres o ms, pequeas incisiones en el paciente. +A continuacin, inserta sus largos y delgados instrumentos y una cmara, y hace el procedimiento dentro del paciente. +Esto es magnfico porque hay mucho menos riesgo de infeccin, mucho menos dolor, menor tiempo de recuperacin. +Pero hay una contraparte, porque estas incisiones se hacen con un dispositivo largo, puntiagudo llamado trocar. +La forma como el cirujano utiliza este dispositivo, es que l lo toma y lo presiona hacia adentro del abdomen hasta que ste se perfora. +Ahora, la razn por la que todos en la sala de operaciones estaban mirando ese dispositivo ese da, era porque tena que ser absolutamente cuidadoso para no hundirlo y romper los rganos y los vasos sanguneos debajo. +Este problema debe parecerles muy familiar a todos porque estoy seguro de que lo han visto en otro lugar. +Recuerdan esto? +Saban que en cualquier momento la pajilla iba a atravesar, y no saban si iba a salir por el otro lado directamente a su mano, o si se regara el jugo por todos lados. Estaban aterrorizados, verdad? +Cada vez que hemos hecho esto, se experimenta la misma fsica elemental que yo estaba viendo en la sala de operaciones de ese da. +Y resulta que realmente es un problema. +En 2003, la FDA en efecto dijo que las incisiones de trocar pueden ser el paso ms peligroso en ciruga mnimamente invasiva. +De nuevo en 2009, vemos un artculo que dice que por los trcares suceden ms de la mitad de las principales complicaciones en ciruga laparoscpica. +Y, ah, por cierto, esto no ha cambiado desde hace 25 aos. +As que cuando ingres al postgrado en la universidad, esto era en lo que quera trabajar. +Estaba tratando de explicarle a un amigo, qu era exactamente en lo que estaba invirtiendo mi tiempo, y le dije: "Es como cuando ests haciendo un hueco en la pared para colgar algo en tu apartamento. +Hay un momento en el que el taladro termina la perforacin de la pared y entonces su hunde, cierto?" +l me mir y me dijo: "Quieres decir que es como cuando hay que taladrar el crneo de una persona?" +Y yo le repliqu: "Perdn?" Entonces lo investigu y supe que los crneos de las personas tambin se perforan. +Una gran cantidad de neurocirugas, en realidad, empiezan taladrando una perforacin a travs del crneo. +Y si el cirujano no tiene cuidado, puede llegar fcilmente al cerebro. +Ese fue el momento en que empec a pensar, bien, perforacin craneal, ciruga laparoscpica, por qu no, otras reas de la medicina? +Pinsenlo bien, cundo fue la ltima vez que fueron al mdico y no los chuzaron con algo? Verdad? +La verdad es que en medicina, las punciones estn por todas partes. +Y estos son solo 2 de los procedimientos que he encontrado, que involucran alguna puncin en un tejido. +Si tomamos solo 3, ciruga laparoscpica, anestesia epidural, y perforacin craneana; en estos procedimientos suceden ms de 30 000 complicaciones cada ao, solo en este pas. +Yo llamo a eso, un problema que vale la pena resolver. +As que echemos un vistazo a algunos de los dispositivos que se utilizan en estos tipos de procedimientos. +Mencion la epidural. Esta es una aguja epidural. +Se utiliza para perforar los ligamentos de la columna vertebral y dar anestesia durante el parto. +He aqu un conjunto de instrumentos de biopsia de mdula sea. +Estos son usados para excavar dentro del hueso y tomar muestras de mdula sea o de lesiones seas. +Aqu hay una bayoneta de la Guerra Civil. +Si les hubiera dicho que era un dispositivo de puncin mdica probablemente me habran credo. +Porque, cul es la diferencia? +As que, cuanto ms investigaba ms pensaba que tena que haber una mejor manera de hacerlo. +Y para m, la clave del problema es que todos estos dispositivos de puncin comparten unos mismos principios de fsica elemental. +Entonces, cules son esos principios de fsica? +Volvamos a la perforacin de una pared. +Uno aplica fuerza al taladro hacia la pared. +Y Newton dice que la pared ejercer una fuerza contraria, igual y opuesta. +As, cuando uno perfora la pared, esas fuerzas se equilibran. +Pero luego viene ese momento en que el taladro termina la perforacin al otro lado de la pared, y justo en ese momento la pared ya no puede hacer ms fuerza. +Pero tu cerebro no alcanza a reaccionar a ese cambio sbito en la fuerza opuesta. +As que por un milisegundo, o el tiempo que te lleva en reaccionar, todava ests empujando, El desequilibrio de fuerzas provoca una aceleracin, que es cuando se hunde. +Y si en el preciso momento de la puncin uno pudiera tirar de la broca hacia atrs, oponiendo, en realidad, a la aceleracin? +Eso es lo que me propuse hacer. +As que imaginen que tienen un dispositivo con una especie de punta afilada para perforar un tejido. +Cul sera la forma ms sencilla de tirar de esa punta hacia atrs? +Eleg un resorte. +Cuando uno extiende el resorte, se extrae la broca y queda lista para perforar el tejido, el resorte halar la punta hacia atrs. +Cmo mantener la punta en su lugar hasta terminar la puncin? +He utilizado este mecanismo. +Cuando se presiona la punta del dispositivo contra el tejido, el mecanismo se expande hacia afuera y la asegura en su lugar contra la pared. +Y la friccin que se genera, la bloquea en su lugar y evita que el resorte retracte la punta. +Pero justo en el momento del final de la puncin, el tejido no puede empujar ms la punta. +El mecanismo se desbloquea y el resorte retrae la punta. +Djenme ensearles lo que suceda en cmara lenta. +Cerca de 2000 cuadros por segundo. Fjense en la punta. Est en la parte inferior, a punto de pasarse a travs del tejido. +Vern que justo al terminar la puncin, en ese mismo instante , el mecanismo se desbloquea y retrae la punta. +Lo mostrar de nuevo, un poco ms de cerca. +Van a ver la punta afilada. Justo cuando se perfora la membrana de caucho, la punta se esconde en esta vaina roma blanca. +Precisamente ah. +Eso sucede 4 centsimas de segundo despus de la perforacin. +Como este dispositivo est diseado para actuar segn la fsica de la puncin y no es especfico para la perforacin craneal, la ciruga laparoscpica u otro procedimiento, es aplicable a todas estas varias disciplinas mdicas en diferentes rangos de longitud. +Pero no siempre es as. +Este es mi primer prototipo. +S, esas son paletas de helado, y hay una banda de goma en la parte superior. +Esto se hizo en solo unos 30 minutos, pero funcion. +Se demostr que mi idea era vlida lo cual justific el trabajo en este proyecto, los 2 aos siguientes . +He trabajado en esto porque este problema realmente me sedujo. +Me mantena despierto por la noche. +Creo que debera fascinarles a Uds. tambin, porque, como dije, la puncin est en todas partes. +Eso significa que en algn momento este tambin va a ser su problema. +Ese primer da en la sala de ciruja no esperaba encontrarme al otro lado de un trocar. +Pero el ao pasado, tuve apendicitis cuando estaba viajando por Grecia. +Cuando estaba en el hospital en Atenas, el cirujano me dijo que iba a realizar una ciruga laparoscpica. +Me iba a quitar el apndice por esas pequeas incisiones, y me hablaba de lo que poda esperar para la recuperacin, y lo que poda a suceder. +Aadi: "Tiene alguna pregunta?" Y yo dije: "Solo una, doc. +Qu tipo de trocar usar?" +Mi cita favorita sobre la ciruga laparoscpica viene del doctor H. C. Jacobaeus: "Es la puncin en s la que causa riesgo". +Esa es mi frase favorita porque H. C. Jacobaeus fue la primera persona en realizar una ciruga laparoscpica en humanos, y escribi esto en 1912. +Este problema ha estado lesionando e incluso matando gente, por ms de 100 aos. +Es fcil pensar que para cada problema importante, existe algn equipo de expertos trabajado da y noche para resolverlo. +La verdad es que no es siempre el caso. +Tenemos que mejorar en la bsqueda de problemas y en encontrar las formas de resolverlos. +Si se encuentran con un problema que los atrape, dejen que los desvele. +Djense fascinar, porque hay muchas vidas por salvar. +Nac en Taiwn. +Crec rodeado de diferentes tipos de ferreteras y me gusta ir a los mercados nocturnos. +Me encanta la energa de los mercados nocturnos, los colores, las luces, los juguetes, y todas las cosas inesperadas que encuentro cada vez que voy, cosas como sandas con antenas de sorbete o cachorros con penachos. +Mientras creca, me gustaba desarmar juguetes, cualquier juguete que encontrara en casa, como la pistola de balines de mi hermano cuando l no estaba. +Tambin me gustaba hacer ambientes para que las personas exploren y jueguen. +En estas primeras instalaciones, usaba lminas y bolsas de plstico, y cosas que encontraba en la ferretera o en casa. +Tomaba cosas como un resaltador, lo mezclaba con agua, lo bombeaba por un tubo plstico, y creaba estos sistemas circulatorios brillantes para que la gente camine y disfrute. +Me gustan estos materiales por su aspecto, por su sensacin al tacto y porque son muy asequibles. +Tambin me gustan los dispositivos que funcionan con partes del cuerpo. +Tom una cmara de luces LED y una cuerda elstica y la at a mi cintura para grabar un video de mi ombligo, desde una perspectiva diferente y vean que pas. +Tambin me gusta modificar los electrodomsticos. +Esta es una luz nocturna automtica. +Algunos de Uds. puede que tengan una en casa. +Le cort el sensor de luz, le aad una lnea de extensin y con arcilla de modelado la pegu en la TV y grab en video mi ojo, y al usar la parte oscura del ojo enga al sensor para que creyera que es de noche y prendiera la luz. +La parte blanca del ojo y el prpado engaarn al sensor a pensar que es de da y apagar la luz. +Quera recolectar ms tipos de ojos diferentes, as que constru este dispositivo usando cascos de bicicleta, algunos focos y aparatos de TV. +Para otra gente sera ms fcil llevar cascos y grabar sus ojos. +Este dispositivo me permite simblicamente extraer ojos de otras personas, para usar una diversidad de ojos en mis otras esculturas. +Esta escultura tiene 4 ojos. +Cada ojo controla un dispositivo diferente. +Este ojo se recorre a s mismo en una TV. +Este ojo est inflando un tubo de plstico. +Este ojo est mirando un video de la creacin de otra pieza. +Y este par de ojos activan agua brillante. +Muchas de estas piezas luego se exhiben en museos, bienales, trienales por todo el mundo. +Me encanta la ciencia y la biologa. +En 2007, yo estaba haciendo una beca de investigacin en el Museo Smithsoniano de Historia Natural mirando organismos bioluminosos del mar. +Me encantan estas criaturas, su aspecto, su textura al tacto. +Son suaves, viscosas y yo estaba fascinado por la forma en que usan la luz en su entorno, ya sea para atraer parejas, o para su propia defensa, o para atraer alimentos. +Esta investigacin inspir mi obra en muchas maneras, como en el movimiento de distintos patrones de luz. +Empec a juntar muchos tipos diferentes de materiales en mi estudio y a experimentar y probar esto y aquello y a ver qu tipo de criaturas encontraba. +Us muchos ventiladores de PC, los junt para ver qu pasaba. +Se trata de una instalacin de 740 metros cuadrados compuesta por muchas criaturas diferentes, algunas que cuelgan del techo y otras que descansan en el piso. +Desde lejos, parecen aliengenas, pero de cerca, estn hechos de bolsas de basura negras o recipientes de Tupperware. +Me gustara compartir con Uds. cmo lo comn puede convertirse en algo mgico y maravilloso. +Gracias. +Les quiero presentar a un organismo: un moho mucilaginoso, Physarum polycephalum. +Es un moho con crisis de identidad, porque no es un moho, aclarmoslo para empezar. +Es uno de 700 mohos mucilaginosos conocidos que pertenecen al reino de las amibas. +Es un organismo unicelular, de una clula, que se junta con otra clulas para formar una masa de superclulas para maximizar sus recursos. +As dentro de un moho mucilaginoso se podra encontrar miles o millones de ncleos, todos compartiendo una pared celular todos operando como una sola entidad. +En su hbitat natural, se puede encontrar al moho forrajeando en los bosques comiendo vegetacin en descomposicin; pero quiz tambin lo encuentren en laboratorios de investigacin, aulas e incluso en estudios de artistas. +Mi primer encuentro con el moho mucilaginoso fue hace 5 aos. +Un microbilogo amigo mo me dio un plato de petri con una manchita amarilla y me mando a casa para que jugara con l. +Las nicas instrucciones que me dio, fue que le gustaba la oscuridad y la humedad y su comida favorita, la papilla de avena. +Soy una artista que ha trabajado muchos aos con la biologa, con procesos cientficos, as que la materia viva me es familiar. +He trabajado con plantas, bacterias calamares, moscas de fruta. +As ansiaba llevar a casa a mi nuevo colaborador para ver qu poda hacer. +Me lo llev a casa y estuve observando. +Le di una dieta variada. +Observ cmo se relacionaba. +Hice una conexin entre fuentes alimenticias. +Observ el rastro que dejaba, que indicaba donde haba estado. +Not que cuando se fastidiaba de un plato de petri, escapara para buscar un nuevo hogar. +Captur mis observaciones con fotografa de intervalos. +El moho crece cerca de un centmetro por hora, por lo que no es ideal observarlo en vivo, a menos que haya una forma de meditacin extrema, pero mediante la fotografa de intervalos, pude observar conductas muy interesantes. +Por ejemplo, despus de una deliciosa ingesta de avena, el moho muciloginoso se va a explorar nuevos territorios en direcciones diferentes al mismo tiempo. +Cuando se encuentra consigo mismo, sabe que ya estuvo ah, reconoce que ya estuvo ah y en su lugar se retira y crece en otras direcciones. +Estaba muy sorprendida por esta hazaa de cmo algo que en esencia es una bolsa de moho celular puede de alguna forma mapear su territorio, reconocerse y moverse con aparente intencin. +Encontr infinidad de estudios cientficos, artculos de investigacin y en revistas, todos citando trabajos increbles con este organismo solo. y les compartir algunos. +Por ejemplo, un equipo de la Universidad de Hokkaido en Japn llen un laberinto con moho de fango. +Lo junt y form una masa celular +Colocaron alimento en dos puntos, avena por supuesto, e hizo una conexin entre el alimento. +Se retrajo de las reas vacas y callejones. +Hay cuatro rutas posibles a travs de este laberinto y sin embargo una y otra vez, el moho estableci la ruta ms corta y ms eficiente. +Muy listo. +La conclusin de este experimento fue que el moho muciloginoso tiene una forma primitiva de inteligencia. +En otro estudio, el moho se expuso a aire fro en intervalos regulares. +No le gust el fro. +No le gusta la sequedad. +Hicieron esto en intervalos repetitivos y en cada ocasin, el moho disminua su crecimiento en respuesta. +Pero en el siguiente intervalo, los investigadores no lo sometieron al aire fro y an as, el moho anticipadamente se volvi lento ante el suceso. +De alguna manera saba que ya era la hora del aire fro que no le gustaba. +La conclusin de su experimento fue que el moho es capaz de aprender. +Un tercer experimento: se invit al moho a explorar un territorio cubierto de avena. +Se propag en un patrn de ramas. +En cada nodo de alimento que encontraba formaba una red, una conexin y segua forrajeando. +Despus de 26 horas, haba establecido un red bastante slida entre las distintas avenas. +No hay nada notable en esto hasta que uno se entera que la avena central de la que inici, representa la ciudad de Tokio y las avenas circundantes son las estaciones de tren suburbanas. +El moho haba replicado la red de transporte de Tokio. Un sistema complejo desarrollado en el tiempo por viviendas comunitarias, ingeniera civil y planeacin urbana. +Lo que nos tom bien ms de 100 aos al moho muciloginoso le tom no ms de un da. +La conclusin de su experimento es que el moho puede formar redes eficientes y resolver el problema del vendedor viajero. +Es una computadora biolgica. +Como tal, ha sido matemticamente modelado algortmicamente analizado. +Ha sido escaneado, replicado y simulado. +En todo el mundo, equipos de investigadores estn decodificando sus principios biolgicos para entender sus reglas de computacin y aplicar ese aprendizaje en la electrnica, programacin y robtica. +Entonces la pregunta es, cmo funciona esto? +No cuenta con sistema central nervioso +no tiene cerebro, an as puede tener conductas que asociamos con funciones del cerebro. +Puede aprender, recordar, resolver problemas y tomar decisiones. +En dnde recae esa inteligencia? +Este es un microscopio, un video que tom, con una magnificacin de 100 veces, acelerado una 20 veces y dentro del moho mucilaginoso, hay un flujo pulsante rtmico, una estructura de tipo de vena que lleva material celular, nutrientes e informacin qumica a travs de la clula, recorriendo primero una direccin y luego en otra. +Y es esta oscilacin sincronizada y continua dentro de la clula que le permite formar un entendimiento bastante complejo de su ambiente. pero sin un centro de control a gran escala. +Es ah donde yace la inteligencia. +As que no solo los investigadores acadmicos de universidades tienen inters en este organismo. +Hace unos aos, establec SliMoCo, de Slime Mould Collective [Colectivo del Moho Mucilaginoso]. +Es una red democrtica, abierta, en lnea para entusiastas e investigadores del moho donde comparten conocimiento y experimentos entre diversas disciplinas y diversos sectores acadmicos. +La membresa de Slime Mould Collective es autoselectiva. +La gente encuentra el colectivo como el moho encuentra a la avena. +Y est compuesta de cientficos, computlogos e investigadores, pero tambin de artistas como yo, arquitectos, diseadores, escritores, activistas, los que digan. +Es una membresa eclctica y muy interesante. +Les doy unos ejemplos: un artista que pinta con Physarum fosforescente; un equipo colaborativo que combina diseo biolgico y electrnico con tecnologas de impresin 3D en un taller; otro artista usa el moho como una forma de participacin comunitaria en el mapeo de su rea. +Aqu el moho se usa directamente como una herramienta tecnolgica, pero metafricamente como un smbolo de formas de hablar de la cohesin social, comunicacin y cooperacin. +Otras actividades con participacin pblica, realizo muchos talleres de moho mucilaginoso, un forma creativa de participar con el organismo. +La invitacin es que vengan y aprendan sobre las maravillas que puede hacer y disear su propio experimento en plato petri, un ambiente donde el moho navega para que puedan probar sus propiedades. +Todos se llevan a casa una mascota nueva y es invitada a publicar sus resultados en el Slime Mould Collective. +El colectivo me ha permitido formar colaboraciones con todo tipo de gente interesante. +He trabajo con cinematgrafos en un largometraje documental sobre el moho mucilaginoso y enfatizo lo de largometraje, que est en las etapas finales de la edicin y llegar a las salas de cine muy pronto. +Tambin me ha permitido conducir lo que creo es el primer experimento de moho mucilaginoso humano. +Esto es parte de una exhibicin en Rotterdam el ao pasado. +Invitamos a la gente a convertirse en moho por media hora. +En esencia atbamos a la gente junta para que fueran una clula gigante y los invitbamos a que siguieran las reglas del moho. +Tenan que comunicarse mediante oscilaciones sin hablar. +Tenan que funcionar como una sola entidad, una masa celular, sin egos, con la motivacin de moverse y luego explorar el ambiente en busca de alimento. +As una catica revoltura sobrevino cuando este montn de desconocidos amarrados con cuerdas amarillas y camisetas "Soy un moho" vagaban por el parque del museo. +Cuando se topaban con rboles, tenan que recomponer sus conexiones y reformarse en masa celular sin hablar. +Este es un experimento absurdo en muchas aspectos. +No tiene una hiptesis que lo sustente. +No intentamos probar nada, ni demostrar nada. +Pero lo que s nos dio fue una forma de participacin de un amplio sector del pblico con ideas de inteligencia, mediacin, autonoma y brind una plataforma ldica para discutir sobre las cosas que pasaron. +Una de las cosas ms interesantes del experimento fue la conversacin que se entabl ms tarde. +Un simposio enteramente espontneo ocurri en el parque. +La gente habl de la psicologa humana, de cun dficil es soltar sus personalidades individuales y sus egos. +Otros hablaron de la comunicacin bacteriana. +Cada persona aport su propia interpretacin personal. y nuestra conclusin de este experimento fue que la gente de Rotterdam es extraordinariamente cooperativa en especial cuando les sirven cerveza. +No solo les dimos avena, +tambin les dimos cerveza. +Pero no fueron tan eficientes como el moho y el moho, para m, es un tema fascinante. +Es biolgicamente fascinante, es computacionalmente interesante, pero tambin es un smbolo, una forma de participar con ideas de comunidad, conducta colectiva, cooperacin. +Mucho de mi trabajo sale de la investigacin cientfica as que esto hace homenaje al experimento del laberinto pero de forma diferente. +El moho es tambin mi material de trabajo. +Es coproductor de fotos, impresiones, animaciones y eventos pblicos. +Aunque el moho no eligi trabajar conmigo precisamente es una forma de colaboracin. +Puedo predecir ciertas conductas entendiendo cmo funciona, pero no puedo controlarlo. +El moho tiene la ltima palabra en el proceso creativo. +Despus de todo, tiene su propia esttica interna. +Estos patrones de ramificacin que vemos los vemos en todas las formas, las escalas de naturaleza, desde deltas de ros a relmpagos, desde nuestras venas sanguneas a redes neuronales. +Hay reglas claramente significativas en juego en este simple pero complejo organismo, y no importa cul sea nuestra perspectiva formativa o nuestro modo de consulta hay mucho que podemos aprender al observar y lidiar con esta hermosa mancha sin cerebro. +Les presento Physarum polycephalum. +Gracias. +Esta es la prueba de humanidad, una prueba para ver si Ud. es un ser humano. +Por favor, levante la mano si algo se aplica a Ud. +De acuerdo? S? +Entonces vamos a empezar. +Alguna vez se ha comido un moco despus de su infancia? +Est bien, es seguro aqu. +Alguna vez ha hecho un sonido pequeo y raro cuando se acord de algo vergonzoso? +Alguna vez a propsito puso en minscula la primera letra de un texto para parecer triste o decepcionado? +Bien. +Alguna vez ha terminado un texto con un punto como signo de agresin? Bien. Punto. +Alguna vez ha redo o sonredo cuando alguien dijo algo malo de Ud. y luego pas el resto del da preguntndose por qu reaccion de esa forma? +S. +Alguna vez ha perdido su tarjeta de embarque mil veces cuando iba del check-in a la puerta de embarque? +S. +Alguna vez se puso un par de pantalones y mucho ms tarde se dio cuenta que haba un calcetn suelto pegado el muslo? +Bien. +Alguna vez ha tratado de adivinar la contrasea de otra persona tantas veces que bloque la cuenta? +Mmm. +Alguna vez ha tenido la sensacin persistente de que un da descubrirn que es un fraude? +S, es seguro aqu. +Ha tenido alguna vez la esperanza de que haba una habilidad que no haba descubierto an en la que era naturalmente muy bueno? +Mmm. +Ha roto algo en la vida real, y luego se encontr a s mismo buscando un botn de "deshacer" en la vida real? +Alguna vez ha extraviado su identificacin de TED e inmediatamente comenz a imaginar cmo seran 3 das de vacaciones en Vancouver? +Alguna vez se ha maravillado de cmo alguien que pensaba que era tan ordinario de pronto podra convertirse en un ser tan hermoso? +Alguna vez ha mirado a su telfono sonriendo como un idiota mientras se escribe con alguien? +Alguna vez, consecuentemente envi un mensaje a esa persona con la frase "Estoy mirando al telfono sonriendo como un idiota"? +Alguna vez tuvo la tentacin de, y luego cedi a la tentacin, de mirar al telfono de otra persona? +Alguna vez ha tenido una conversacin consigo mismo y luego se dio cuenta de repente que es un verdadero idiota consigo mismo? +Se ha quedado alguna vez su telfono sin batera en medio de una discusin, y que sinti como que el telfono rompi con los dos? +Alguna vez ha pensado que trabajar en un problema entre Uds. era intil ya que debera ser ms fcil que eso, o que se supona que solo pasara naturalmente? +Se ha dado cuenta de que muy poco, a la larga, pasa naturalmente? +Alguna vez ha despertado feliz y de repente se ha inundado por el recuerdo horrible de que alguien le haba dejado? +Alguna vez ha perdido la capacidad de imaginar un futuro sin una persona que ya no estaba en su vida? +Alguna vez ha mirado atrs a ese evento con la triste sonrisa otoal y la constatacin de que los futuros sucedern de todas maneras? +Felicitaciones. +Han completado la prueba. +Son todos seres humanos. +Quiero compartir con Uds. un nuevo modelo de educacin superior. Un modelo que, una vez explicado, puede mejorar la inteligencia colectiva de millones de individuos creativos y motivados que de otro modo se quedaran atrs. +Miren el mundo. +Elijan un lugar y cntrense en l. +Encontrarn gente que aspira a una educacin superior. +Conozcamos a algunos de ellos. +Patrick. +Patrick naci en Liberia en una familia con 20 nios. +Durante la guerra civil, l y su familia se vieron obligados a huir a Nigeria. +All, a pesar de su situacin, se gradu en la escuela secudaria con calificaciones casi perfectas. +Quera continuar su educacin superior, pero debido a que su familia viva al borde de la pobreza, su familia lo envi a Sudfrica a trabajar y enviar dinero para alimentarla. Patrick nunca abandon su sueo de una educacin superior. +Por la noche, despus del trabajo, navegaba por la red en busca de nuevas formas de estudiar. +Conozcan a Debbie. +Debbie es de Florida. +Sus padres no fueron a la universidad, y tampoco ninguno de sus hermanos. +Debbie ha trabajado toda su vida, paga impuestos, se mantiene a s misma mes a mes, orgullosa del sueo americano, un sueo que no est completo sin una educacin superior. +Pero Debbie no tiene los ahorros necesarios para la educacin superior. +No puede pagar la matrcula. +Tampoco podra dejar el trabajo. +Les presento a Wael. +Wael es de Siria. +Conoce de primera mano la miseria, el miedo y el fracaso impuestos a su pas. +Cree firmemente en la educacin. +Saba que si tuviera la oportunidad de tener una educacin superior, para destacar sobre de los dems, tendra ms oportunidades de sobrevivir en un mundo al revs. +El sistema de educacin superior excluy a Patrick, a Debbie y a Wael, exactamente como est excluyendo a millones de posibles estudiantes, a millones de graduados de secundaria, que estn cualificados para la educacin superior, millones que quieren estudiar pero no pueden acceder por varias razones. +En primer lugar, econmica. +Las universidades son caras. Todos lo sabemos. +En muchas partes del mundo, la educacin superior es inalcanzable para un ciudadano medio. +Este es probablemente el mayor problema que enfrenta nuestra sociedad. +La educacin superior ha dejado de ser un derecho para todos y se ha convertido en un privilegio para unos pocos. +En segundo lugar, cultural. +Las estudiantes cualificadas para la educacin superior, que pueden pagar y quieren estudiar, no pueden. Porque... no es decente, no es lugar para una mujer. +Esta es la historia de un sinnmero de mujeres en frica, por ejemplo, a quienes les est prohibida la educacin superior debido a barreras culturales. +Y la tercer razn: UNESCO declar que en 2025, 100 millones de estudiantes se vern privados de la educacin superior simplemente porque no habr suficientes plazas para acomodarlos, para satisfacer la demanda. +Tendrn una prueba de nivel, lo van a pasar, pero an as no tendrn acceso porque no hay plazas disponibles. +Patrick, Debbie y Wael son solo tres ejemplos entre los 1700 estudiantes aceptados de 143 pases. +Gracias. +No necesitamos reinventar la rueda. +Solo vimos lo que no estaba funcionando y utilizamos el increble poder de la Internet para llegar a una solucin. +Nos pusimos en marcha para construir un modelo que va a reducir casi en su totalidad el costo de la educacin superior, y as es como lo hicimos. +En primer lugar, la universidad tradicional cuesta dinero. +Las universidades tienen gastos que las universidades virtuales no tienen. +No necesitamos pasar estos gastos a nuestros estudiantes. +No existen. +Tampoco hay que preocuparse por el aforo. +No hay lmites de plazas en la universidad virtual. +En realidad, nadie tiene que sentarse al final del aula. +Y tampoco tienen que comprar libros de texto. +Mediante el uso de recursos educativos gratuitos y la generosidad de los profesores que ofrecen su material de manera desinteresada, no necesitan libros de texto. +Todos nuestros materiales son gratuitos. +Incluso los profesores, el asiento ms caro del presupuesto de cualquier universidad, les salen gratis a los ms de 3000 estudiantes. Incluso los rectores, vicerrectores, profesores y asesores acadmicos de las mejores universidades como la Universidad de Nueva York, Yale, Berkeley y Oxford, se han unido para ayudar a nuestros estudiantes. +Por ltimo, creemos en el aprendizaje recproco. +Utilizamos este modelo pedaggico para animar a nuestros estudiantes de todo el mundo a interactuar y estudiar juntos y tambin para reducir el tiempo que nuestros profesores dedican a corregir deberes. +Si la Internet nos ha convertido en una aldea global, este modelo puede crear sus propios futuros lderes. +Observen cmo lo hacemos. +Solo ofrecemos dos programas: administracin de empresas y ciencias de la computacin, los dos programas ms demandados en el mundo, los dos programas con ms potencial para ayudar a nuestros estudiantes a encontrar un trabajo. +Cuando aceptamos a nuestros estudiantes, los repartimos en pequeas clases de unos 20-30 alumnos, para garantizar que aquellos que necesitan atencin personalizada la tengan. +Adems, cada nueve semanas, conocen a nuevos compaeros, nuevos grupos de estudiantes de todo el mundo entero. +Cada semana, al entrar en clase, encuentran los apuntes de la sesin semanal, las lecturas recomendadas la asignacin de tareas y los temas de discusin, que son la base de nuestros estudios. +Cada semana, cada estudiante debe contribuir a la discusin en clase y tambin debe evaluar la contribucin de los dems. +De esta manera, abrimos las mentes de nuestros estudiantes, desarrollamos un cambio positivo en la actitud hacia las diferentes culturas. +Al final de cada semana, los estudiantes pasan un examen, entregan los deberes, que los evalan sus compaeros bajo la supervisin de los tutores, reciben una nota y pasan a la siguiente semana. +Al final del curso, realizan el examen final, reciben una nota y pasan al siguiente curso. +Abrimos las puertas de la educacin superior para todos los estudiantes cualificados. +Cada estudiante con un diploma de escuela secundaria, suficiente ingls y conexin a Internet puede estudiar con nosotros. +No utilizamos audio. No utilizamos video. +La banda ancha no es necesaria. +Cualquier estudiante de cualquier parte del mundo con cualquier tipo de conexin a Internet puede estudiar con nosotros. +La matrcula es gratis. +Lo nico que pedimos a los estudiantes es cubrir el costo de sus exmenes, 100 dlares por prueba. +Un estudiante de licenciatura, cursando 40 asignaturas, pagar 1000 dlares al ao, 4000 dlares por la carrera, y para aquellos que ni siquiera puedan pagar eso, les ofrecemos una variedad de becas. +Nuestro objetivo es que nadie se quede atrs por razones econmicas. +Con 5000 estudiantes en 2016, el modelo es financieramente sustentable. +Hace cinco aos, era una visin. +Hoy, es una realidad. +El mes pasado, recibimos el aval acadmico definitivo. +La Universidad del Pueblo est acreditada plenamente. +Gracias. +(Fin de aplausos) Con esta acreditacin, es el momento de crecer. +Hemos demostrado que nuestro modelo funciona. +Invito a las universidades y, an ms importante, a los gobiernos de los pases en desarrollo, a utilizar este modelo para asegurarse de que las puertas de la educacin superior se abrirn de par en par. +Una nueva era est llegando, una era que ser testigo de la superacin del modelo educativo como lo conocemos hoy en da, de ser un privilegio para unos pocos a convertirse en un derecho bsico, asequible y accesible para todos. +Gracias. +Miren este dibujo. +Saben qu es? +Soy bioqumica molecular de formacin, y he visto muchos de estos dibujos. +Por lo general se los conoce como figuras modelo; un dibujo que muestra cmo pensamos que ocurre un proceso molecular o celular. +Este dibujo particular es de un proceso llamado endocitosis mediada por clatrina. +Ah una molcula puede pasar del exterior de una clula, al interior. La molcula es capturada en una burbuja o una vescula, que luego es internalizada por la clula. +No obstante, este dibujo tiene un problema y es principalmente lo que no muestra. +A partir de muchos experimentos de muchos cientficos diferentes, sabemos bastante sobre el aspecto de estas molculas y cmo se mueven por la clula. Todo esto ocurre en un entorno increblemente dinmico. +Por eso, en colaboracin con Tomas Kirchhausen, un experto en clatrina, decidimos crear un nuevo tipo de figura modelo que mostrara todo eso. +Empezamos fuera de la clula. +Ahora estamos mirando adentro. +La clatrina son esas molculas de 3 patas que pueden autoensamblarse en forma de pelotas de ftbol. +Por conexiones con una membrana, la clatrina puede deformar la membrana y crear esta especie de taza que forma esta especie de burbuja, o vescula, que ahora captura unas protenas inicialmente fuera de la clula. +Las protenas ingresan ahora que bsicamente pellizcan esta vescula, separndola del resto de la membrana. Ya la clatrina prcticamente hizo su trabajo, y ahora ingresan las protenas las cubrimos de amarillo y naranja responsables de quitar esta jaula de clatrina. +Estas protenas pueden reciclarse y usarse otra vez. +Estos procesos son muy pequeos como para verse directamente, incluso con los mejores microscopios. Animaciones como estas son una forma poderosa de visualizar una hiptesis. +Esta es otra ilustracin; un dibujo de cmo podra pensarse que el virus VIH entra y sale de las clulas. +De nuevo, una simplificacin excesiva que muestra una parte nfima de lo que sabemos sobre estos procesos. +Quiz les sorprenda saber que estos simples dibujos son la nica forma como la mayora de los bilogos visualizan sus hiptesis moleculares. +Por qu? +Porque crear videos de procesos que muestren lo que pensamos que ocurre, es muy difcil. +Pas meses en Hollywood aprendiendo a usar software de animacin 3D, y estuve meses con cada animacin. Muchos investigadores no disponen de ese tiempo. +Sin embargo, los beneficios pueden ser enormes. +Las animaciones moleculares son incomparables por su capacidad para transmitir gran cantidad de informacin a amplias audiencias con una precisin extrema. +Y ahora trabajo en un nuevo proyecto titulado "La ciencia del VIH" en el que estar animando todo el ciclo de vida del virus VIH con la mayor precisin posible y todo en detalle molecular. +La animacin contar con datos recolectados durante dcadas, de miles de investigadores; datos del aspecto del virus, de cmo puede infectar a las clulas del cuerpo, y de cmo los agentes teraputicos ayudan a combatir la infeccin. +Con los aos, encontr que las animaciones no son solo tiles para comunicar una idea, sino que tambin sirven para explorar una hiptesis. +Los bilogos, en su mayor parte, siguen usando papel y lpiz para visualizar los procesos que estudian. Con los datos que tenemos hoy, eso ya no es suficientemente bueno. +Crear una animacin puede ser un catalizador que le permita a los investigadores cristalizar y refinar sus propias ideas. +Trabaj con otra investigadora que estudia mecanismos moleculares de enfermedades neurodegenerativas. Ella propuso experimentos relacionados directamente con la animacin en la que trabajamos juntas. De esa forma la animacin puede retroalimentar la investigacin. +Creo que la animacin puede cambiar la biologa. +Puede cambiar la forma de comunicarnos, la forma de explorar nuestros datos y la forma de ensear. +Pero para que ocurra esto, necesitamos que ms investigadores creen animaciones. Para eso reun a un equipo de bilogos, animadores y programadores para crear un software nuevo, gratuito y de cdigo abierto al que llamamos "Molecular Flipbook", creado por bilogos para hacer animaciones moleculares. +En nuestras pruebas encontramos que en solo 15 minutos un bilogo, que no haba usado nunca software de animacin, crea su primera animacin molecular de su propia hiptesis. +Estamos creando una base de datos en lnea en la que todos puedan ver, descargar y contribuir con sus propias animaciones. +Estamos muy emocionados de anunciar que la versin beta del software de animacin molecular estar disponible para descargar hoy. +Ser inteesante ver lo que los bilogos van a crear y las nuevas ideas que podrn descubrir al poder animar finalmente sus propias figuras modelo. +Gracias. +No saba, cuando acept hacer esto, si esperaban que hablara o cantara. +Pero cuando me dijeron que el tema era sobre el lenguaje, sent que tena que hablar de algo por un momento. +Tengo un problema. +No es la peor cosa en el mundo. +Estoy bien. +No estoy quemndome. +S que otras personas en el mundo tienen que lidiar con cosas peores, pero para m, el lenguaje y la msica estn inextricablemente unidos a travs de una sola cosa. +Y esa cosa es que tartamudeo. +Podra parecer algo curioso ya que me paso gran parte de mi vida en el escenario. +Uno asumira que me siento bien en la esfera pblica y que me acomoda estar aqu, hablndole a ustedes. +Pero la verdad es que me he pasado mi vida hasta este punto, e includo este punto, con el miedo mortal de hablar en pblico. +Cantar en pblico es algo totalmente diferente. Pero ya llegaremos a eso en un momento. +Nunca he hablado de ello antes de forma tan explcita. +Creo que se debe a que he vivido con la esperanza de que cuando llegare a adulta, ya no lo tendra. +En cierto modo viv con la idea de que cuando fuera grande, aprendera a hablar francs, que cuando fuera adulta, aprendera a administrar el dinero, que cuando fuera grande, no sera tartamuda, que podra hablar en pblico y tal vez llegar a ser primer ministro. Todo es posible, ya saben. +As que puedo hablar de esto ahora porque he llegado al punto en que... Es decir, tengo 28 aos. +Estoy bien segura de ya ser grande. +Soy una mujer adulta que vive la vida de artista, con un impedimento en el habla. +As que, tambin podra liberarme de ello. +Hay algunos ngulos interesantes cuando tartamudeas. +Para m, lo peor que me pudo suceder fue conocer a otro tartamudo. +Me sucedi en Hamburgo, cuando conoc a un chico que me dijo: "Hola, m-m-m-mi nombre es Joe" y yo le dije: "Hola, m-m-m-mi nombre es Meg." +Imaginen mi horror cuando me di cuenta que pens que me burlaba de l. +Las personas piensan que estoy borracha todo el tiempo. +Piensan que me he olvidado de sus nombres cuando titubeo antes de decirlos. +Y es algo muy extrao, porque los nombres propios son los peores. +Si voy a usar la palabra "mircoles" en una frase, y estoy llegando a la palabra, y siento que voy a tartamudear, puedo cambiarla por "maana" o "el da despus del martes", o algo as. +Parece tonto, pero as puedes salirte con la tuya. Con el tiempo he desarrollado este mtodo particular de hablar cuando, justo en el ltimo minuto, cambio la cosa y engao al cerebro. +Pero los nombres de las personas, no se pueden cambiar. +Cuando cantaba mucho jazz, trabaj mucho con un pianista llamado Steve. +Como imaginarn, reunir la S y la T, juntas o de forma independiente, son mi kriptonita. +Pero tena que presentar a la banda al retoque de los platillos, y cuando llegaba a Steve, a menudo me quedaba pegada en el "St". +Era un poco difcil e incmodo pues mataba totalmente la onda. +As que despus de un par de situaciones similares, Steve felizmente se convirti en "Seve" y continuamos de esa manera. He tenido un montn de terapia, y un tratamiento comn es usar esta tcnica que se llama discurso suave, que consiste en cantar casi todo lo que dices. +Es como unir todo con el sonsonete de maestra de kinder muy cantarina, que te hace sonar muy serena, como si hubieras tomado un montn de Valium, y todo estuviera en calma. Esa realmente no soy yo. +Yo uso la tcnica. De verdad. +La uso cuando tengo que hablar en un programa, o en entrevistas en radio, cuando el valor del tiempo en el aire es de suma importancia. +Me sale de esa manera por mi trabajo. +Pero como artista que siente que su trabajo se basa totalmente en una plataforma de honestidad y de ser real, a menudo sera como pensar que haces trampa. +Por eso, antes de cantar, quera decirles lo que hacerlo significa para m. +Es ms que hacer sonidos lindos, ms que hacer canciones bonitas. +Es ms que sentirse reconocida, o comprendida. +Es ms que hacer que sientan lo que siento. +No se trata de mitologa, o de mitologizarme para ustedes. +De alguna manera, gracias a una funcin sinptica milagrosa del cerebro humano, es imposible tartamudear cuando cantas. +Cuando era ms joven, este era un mtodo de tratamiento que funcion muy bien para m: cantar. Por eso lo haca mucho. +Y es por eso que estoy aqu hoy. +Gracias. +Cantar para m es un dulce alivio. +Es el nico momento en el que me siento con fluidez. +Es el nico momento en el que lo que sale de mi boca es exactamente lo que pretenda. +S que esta es una charla TED, pero ahora har un canto TED. +Esta es una cancin que escrib el ao pasado. +Muchas gracias. Gracias. +De nia me fascinaba la informacin que poda extraer de los datos y las historias que se podan contar con nmeros. +Recuerdo que con el paso de los aos, me sent frustrada por la forma en que mis padres me mentan usando nmeros. +"Thalithia, te lo he dicho miles de veces". +No, pap, solo me lo dijiste 17 veces y en dos ocasiones no fue mi culpa. Creo que fue una de las razones para hacer un doctorado en Estadstica. +Siempre quise saber, qu oculta la gente con los nmeros? +Como estadstica, quiero que la gente me muestre los datos de suerte que yo pueda decidir por m misma. +Donald y yo esperbamos el tercer hijo y estbamos a mitad de la semana 42, lo que algunos de Uds. pueden considerar un atraso. +Los estadsticos lo llamamos estar dentro del intervalo de confianza del 95%. +Y en este punto del proceso, tenamos que ir cada dos das a hacerle al beb una prueba de tolerancia a las contracciones, un prueba de rutina que evala si el beb sufre algn tipo de estrs injustificado. +Y rara vez, si es que alguna, te ve tu doctor, se encarga quien est de turno en el hospital ese da. +Entramos a la prueba y 20 minutos despus el doctor sale y dice, "Su beb est bajo estrs, necesitamos inducir el parto". +Y como estadstica, cul es mi respuesta? +Mustreme los datos! +Entonces empieza a decirnos que el trazado del ritmo cardaco del beb se mantuvo dentro de la zona normal 18 minutos, pero que por 2 minutos estuvo dentro de lo que pareca ser mi zona de ritmo cardaco y dije: "Es posible que fuera mi ritmo cardaco? +Me estaba moviendo un poco, no es fcil estarse quieta acostada de espaldas durante 20 minutos en la semana 42 de embarazo. +Tal vez el monitor iba y vena". +l dijo, "Bueno, no queremos arriesgarnos." +Dije que estaba de acuerdo. +Y pregunt, "Qu pasara si estuviera en la semana 36 con esos mismos datos? +Su decisin sera inducir? +"Bueno, no. Esperara por lo menos hasta la semana 38, pero Ud. est casi en la 42, no hay razn para dejar el beb adentro. Vamos a conseguirle una habitacin." +Yo contest "Bueno... y por qu no la hacemos de nuevo? +Podemos tener ms datos. +Puedo tratar de quedarme quieta durante 20 minutos. +Podemos promediar los dos y ver que nos dice el resultado. Y el agrega: "Seora, yo solo quiero que Ud. no vaya a tener un aborto". +Ya somos tres! +Y entonces dice: "Las probabilidades de tener un aborto se doblan cuando hay un retraso. Vamos a conseguirle una habitacin." +Guau! Y como estadstica, cul es mi respuesta? +Mustreme los datos! +Est Ud. hablando de probabilidades? Yo estimo probabilidades todo el da, hablemos de probabilidades. +Entonces dije: "Bien, empecemos. +Pas de un 30 % a un 60 % de probabilidades? +Dnde exactamente estamos con esto del aborto?" +Y dice: "No tanto as, pero las probabilidades se doblan y nosotros en realidad queremos lo mejor para el beb". +Bloqueada por esas palabras, pruebo con un ngulo diferente. +"Est bien, de mil embarazadas a trmino cuntas van a sufrir un aborto espontneo justo antes de cumplir? +Me mira, mira a Donald, y dice: ms o menos una de mil. +Dije: "Est bien, y de esas mil cuntas abortan justo despus de cumplir?" "Ms o menos dos". +Y luego dije, "Y realmente no creo que mi fecha de parto prevista sea precisa." +Y esto realmente lo impact, se lo vio como desconcertado y dije: "Puede que Ud. no lo sepa, pero las fechas de parto se calculan asumiendo que se tiene un ciclo estndar de 28 das y el mo oscila, algunas veces es de 27 das, algunas otras es de hasta 38, y he recogido datos que lo prueban". +As que terminamos dejando el hospital ese da sin ser inducida. +A decir verdad, tuvimos que firmar un documento para salir del hospital. +Y no estoy abogando para que no se escuche a los doctores, porque inclusive mi primer parto debi ser inducido a las 38 semanas; el fluido cervical estaba bajo. +No soy anti-intervencin mdica. +Pero, por qu salimos confiados aquel da? +Bueno, tenamos datos que nos contaban una historia diferente. +Habamos estado recogiendo datos durante seis aos. +Tena estos datos de la temperatura y me contaban una historia diferente. +De hecho, nosotros podramos, probablemente con ms precisin, calcular la concepcin. +S. Esta es una historia querra contar en la fiesta de matrimonio de mis hijos. Lo recuerdo como si fuera ayer. +Mi temperatura era de provocativos 36.5 grados centgrados cuando mire a tu padre a los ojos. Oh, s! 22 aos despus, contamos la historia. +Nos fuimos confiados porque habamos recogido datos. +Cmo lucen unos datos de esos? +Aqu hay una grfica estndar de la temperatura corporal de vigilia de una mujer durante el curso de un ciclo. +Desde el comienzo del ciclo menstrual hasta el comienzo del siguiente. +Vern que la temperatura no es al azar. +Claramente, hay un patrn al comienzo del ciclo, luego se ve este salto y luego un conjunto ms alto de temperaturas al final del ciclo. +Qu est pasando aqu? Qu nos estn diciendo los datos? +Vern seoras, a comienzo de su ciclo, la hormona estrgeno es dominante y el estrgeno causa una cada de su temperatura corporal. +Durante la ovulacin, su cuerpo libera un vulo y la progesterona toma el mando, pro-gestacin. +Entonces su cuerpo se calienta anticipndose para albergar este nuevo vulo fecundado. +Pero, por qu este salto de temperatura? +Bueno, piensen en un ave que se echa sobre sus huevos. +Por qu lo hace? +Quiere protegerlos y mantenerlos calientes. +Esto, seoras, es lo que sus cuerpos hacen cada mes. Se calientan anticipndose a la tarea de mantener una nueva vida caliente. +Y si nada pasa, si no ests embarazada, entonces el estrgeno retrocede y el ciclo empieza todo de nuevo. +Pero si se queda embrazada, algunas veces se ve otro cambio en la temperatura que se mantiene elevada durante todos esos nueve meses. +Por eso se ve a esas mujeres embarazadas con esos calores y sudando, porque sus temperaturas estn altas. +Aqu hay un grfico nuestro de hace cuatro aos aproximadamente. +Estbamos realmente emocionados con este grfico. +Se puede ver el nivel bajo de temperatura y luego un cambio de cerca de cinco das, el tiempo aproximado que tarda un vulo en viajar por las trompas de Falopio e implantarse, y entonces se ven esas temperaturas empezar a subir un poco. +Y de hecho, tuvimos un segundo cambio, que junto con la prueba de embarazo, indicaba que estbamos de verdad, embarazados por primera vez. Muy emocionante. +Solo que dos das ms tarde, vi algo de manchado, y solo despus, vino el fuerte sangrado, y habamos efectivamente, tenido un aborto espontneo temprano. +De no haber sido por la temperatura, yo solo habra pensado que el periodo me haba llegado tarde aquel mes, pero realmente tenamos datos para mostrar que habamos sufrido un aborto. Y aunque los datos revelaran un evento realmente desafortunado era informacin que podamos luego llevar al doctor. +De manera que si haba problemas de fertilidad u otro, tena datos que mostrar: Mire, me qued embarazada, nuestra temperatura vari, pero perdimos el beb. +Qu podemos hacer para evitar este problema? +Y no es solo cuestin de temperaturas, no solo se trata de fertilidad; podemos usar los datos de nuestros cuerpos para entender muchsimas cosas. +Saban por ejemplo, que su temperatura les puede decir mucho de su tiroides? +Su tiroides trabaja en gran parte como el termostato de sus casas. +Hay una temperatura ptima que a usted le gustara tener en casa; programa su termostato. +Cuando hace mucho fro en su casa, su termostato se dispara y dice: "Oiga, necesitamos calentar esto un poco". +Si se pone muy caliente, registra: "Encendamos el aire acondicionado". +Es as exactamente como su tiroides trabaja en su cuerpo. +Su tiroides trata de mantener una temperatura ptima para su cuerpo. +Si se enfra, su tiroides dice, "Oiga, necesitamos calentarnos". +Y si se pone muy caliente, su tiroides lo refresca. +Pero, qu pasa cuando sus tiroides no est funcionando bien? +Cuando no funciona, se nota en su temperatura corporal, tiende a ser ms baja de lo normal o muy errtica. +Y entonces, recogiendo estos datos, se pueden saber cosas sobre su tiroides. +Y qu pasa si uno tiene problemas de tiroides y va al doctor? Su doctor evaluara la cantidad de hormona estimulante de la tiroides en su sangre. +Perfecto. El problema con esa prueba es que no dice qu activa es la hormona en el cuerpo. +Puede que tenga mucha hormona, pero quiz no trabaja activamente para regular la temperatura. +Y con solo tomar su temperatura diaria, Ud. obtiene informacin sobre el estado de su tiroides. +Y si no quiere tomar su temperatura a diario? +Yo abogo por que lo haga, pero hay otros cientos de cosas que Ud. podra medir. +Ud. puede medir su presin sangunea, su peso... Quin est ansioso por pesarse todos los das? Recin casados, Donald sufra de nariz congestionada y tomaba un montn de remedios para tratar de aliviarla, en vano. +Una noche cualquiera me despierta y dice: "Cario, no puedo respirar por la nariz". +Yo me incorporo, lo reviso y le digo, "Puedes respirar por la boca?". Y dice: +"S, pero no puedo respirar por la nariz!". +Y entonces, como toda buena esposa, me apuro a llevarlo a emergencias a las dos de la maana. +Y todo el tiempo, mientras conduzco, digo para m misma, no te puedes morir ahora. +"No puede respirar por la nariz?". +No, pero puede respirar por la boca. Da un paso atrs, nos mira a los dos y dice: "Creo saber cul es el problema. Est teniendo un ataque al corazn. +Pedir que le hagan un ECG y un TAC inmediatamente". Y pensamos: "No, no, no es un ataque al corazn. l puede respirar, por la boca. No, no". +Y vamos y venimos con este doctor porque creemos que el diagnstico est mal y dice algo as como: "Todo ir bien, de verdad, solo clmense". +Y yo pienso: Cmo puede una calmarse? Creo que no tiene un ataque. +Y afortunadamente para nosotros, aquel mdico estaba terminando el turno. +Y el nuevo doctor llega, nos ve claramente consternados por el marido que no puede respirar. Por la nariz. Y empieza a hacernos preguntas. +Nos pregunta: "Hacen ejercicio?". +Montamos en bicicleta, vamos al gimnasio de vez en cuando. +Nos movemos. +Y pregunta: "Qu estaban haciendo justo antes de venir ac?". +"Yo estaba durmiendo" pienso. +Bueno, pero qu estaba haciendo Donald justo antes? +Y empieza a contar todos los medicamentos que est tomando. +"Tom un descongestionante y me apliqu un espray nasal". Y entonces, de repente, se enciende el bombillo: "Ah! Nunca se debe mezclar este descongestionante y este espray nasal. +Siempre bloquea la nariz. Mire, tome este en su lugar." +Nos da una receta. +Nos miramos y miramos al doctor y pregunto "Cmo es que Ud. es capaz de hacer un diagnstico tan preciso y el doctor anterior quera ordenar un ECG y un TAC?". +Nos mira y responde: "Bueno, cuando un hombre de 160 Kg entra en emergencias y dice que no puede respirar, asume que tiene un ataque al corazn y pregunta despus". +Los doctores de las salas de emergencias estn entrenados para decidir rpida, pero no siempre correctamente. +Si hubisemos aportado informacin sobre la salud de nuestro corazn, tal vez el doctor hubiera llegado a un mejor diagnstico. +Quiero que consideren este grfico de mediciones de tensin arterial sistlica de octubre de 2010 a julio de 2012. +Vern que estas mediciones empiezan en la zona de pre-hipertensin arterial, pero en el curso de un ao y medio se mueven hacia la zona normal. +Este es ms o menos el ritmo cardaco de alguien sano de 16 aos. +Qu nos estn diciendo estos datos? +Obviamente, se trata de datos de alguien que ha tenido una transformacin drstica, y afortunadamente para nosotros, esa persona est aqu hoy. +Esa persona de 160 Kg que entr conmigo a la sala de emergencias es hoy un tipo todava ms sexy y ms sano de 100 Kg. Y ese es el trazado de su tensin arterial. +Durante el curso de ese ao y medio, la alimentacin de Donald cambi y nuestro rgimen de ejercicios cambi y su ritmo cardaco respondi, su tensin arterial respondi al cambi que l hizo en su cuerpo. +Cul es, entonces, el mensaje con el que quiero que se vayan hoy? +Apropindonos de nuestros datos, como nosotros hemos hecho, tomando mediciones diarias nuestras, nos volvemos expertos en nuestro cuerpo. +Nos convertimos en la autoridad. +No es difcil de hacer. +No hay que tener Doctorado en Estadstica para ser experto en uno mismo. +No hay que tener un ttulo en Medicina para ser el experto en su cuerpo. +Los mdicos son expertos en la poblacin, pero uno es el experto en uno mismo. +Y entonces, cuando dos expertos se renen, los dos pueden tomar una mejor decisin que la que puede tomar uno solo. +Ahora que entienden el poder de la informacin personal, recogida individualmente, me gustara que todos se pararan y levantaran la mano derecha. +Si, levantmonos. +Los reto a apropiarse de sus datos. +Y hoy, por la presente, les confiero, como asociados TED, el ttulo en Estadstica Elemental con especializacin en anlisis de datos dependientes del tiempo, con todos los derechos y privilegios que les son propios. +Y entonces, la prxima vez que estn en el consultorio de su mdico, cul ser, como nuevos estadsticos, su respuesta? +Pbico: Mustreme los datos! Talithia Williams: No los oigo! +Pblico: Mustreme los datos! +TW: Una vez ms! Pblico: Mustreme los datos! +TW: Mustreme los datos. +Gracias. +Martin Luther King, Jr., en un discurso de 1968 en el que reflexiona sobre el movimiento por los derechos civiles, declara: "Al final, no recordaremos las palabras de nuestros enemigos sino el silencio de nuestros amigos". +Como maestro, he interiorizado este mensaje. +Todos los das, a nuestro alrededor, vemos las consecuencias del silencio manifestarse en la forma de discriminacin, violencia, genocidio y guerra. +En el aula, estimulo a mis estudiantes a explorar los silencios en sus propias vidas a travs de la poesa. +Trabajamos juntos para llenar esos vacos, para reconocerlos, nombrarlos, para entender que no tienen que ser fuentes de vergenza. +En un esfuerzo por crear una cultura en mi aula donde los alumnos se sientan seguros de compartir las intimidades de sus propios silencios, tengo 4 principios bsicos en la pizarra que est en la parte delantera del saln, al que cada estudiante debe adherirse al comienzo del ao: lee crticamente, escribe conscientemente, habla con claridad, di tu verdad. +Y pienso mucho sobre este ltimo punto, di tu verdad. +Y me di cuenta de que si le peda a mis alumnos que alcen la voz, tena que decirles mi verdad y ser honesto con ellos acerca de las veces en que no pude hacerlo. +As que les digo que al crecer, como hijo de una familia catlica en Nueva Orleans, durante la Cuaresma siempre me ensearon que lo ms significativo que se poda hacer era renunciar a algo, sacrificar algo que nos suela complacer para demostrarle a Dios que entendemos su santidad. +He dejado de tomar refrescos, McDonald's, papas a la francesa, besos franceses y todo ese espectro. +Pero un ao, sacrifiqu el hablar. +Pens que lo ms valioso que poda sacrificar era mi propia voz, pero fue como si no supiera que la haba sacrificado desde hace mucho tiempo. +Cuando golpearon a Christian por ser gay, met las manos en los bolsillos y camin con la cabeza agachada, como si lo ignorara. +No pude usar mi casillero en semanas porque la cerradura me recordaba a la que haba puesto en mi boca cuando el vagabundo en la calle me miraba buscando solo una afirmacin de que l era digno de ver. +Yo me preocupaba ms por mi aparato de la manzana que por darle una a l esa maana. +Cuando una seora en la gala por fondos me dijo: "Estoy orgullosa de ti. +Debe ser duro ensear a esos nios tontos y pobres", la respuesta la guarde en un sobre, porque necesitbamos el dinero ms de lo que los chicos necesitaban su honra. +Pasamos tanto tiempo escuchando las cosas que las personas estn diciendo que rara vez prestamos atencin a las cosas que no dicen. +El silencio es residuo del miedo. +Es sentir tus defectos, es morderte la lengua. +Es el aire que se retira de tu pecho porque no se siente seguro en tus pulmones. +El silencio es el genocidio de Ruanda. El silencio es Katrina. +Es lo que se escucha cuando ya no hay ms bolsas para cadveres. +Es el sonido despus de que la soga ya est tensa. +Es el quemar. Son las cadenas. Es el privilegio. Es el dolor. +No hay tiempo para elegir tus batallas cuando tus batallas ya te han elegido. +No voy a dejar que el silencio se envuelva en torno a mi indecisin. +Le dir a Christian que es un len, un santuario de la valenta y brillantez. +Le preguntar al vagabundo su nombre y cmo le fue en su da, porque a veces lo nico que todos queremos es ser humanos. +Le dir a esa seora que mis alumnos pueden hablar del trascendentalismo como si fuesen Thoreau, y solo porque has visto un episodio de "The Wire" no significa que sepas algo acerca de mis chicos. +As que este ao, en lugar de renunciar a algo, voy a vivir cada da como si hubiera un micrfono escondido debajo de mi lengua, un escenario en la parte inferior de mi inhibicin. +Porque, quin necesita una palestra cuando lo nico que se necesita es la voz nuestra? +Gracias. +Soy profesor y practicante de cvica en EE. UU. +Les pido amablemente a los que se han quedado dormidos que despierten. Por qu la palabra "cvica" tiene este efecto soporfico y narcolptico en nosotros? +Creo que es porque la palabra misma significa algo extremadamente virtuoso, extremadamente importante y extremadamente aburrido. +Pues creo que es responsabilidad de gente como nosotros, gente en reuniones como esta, ya sea en persona o en lnea, de cualquier manera posible, hacer que la educacin cvica sea atractiva de nuevo, al igual que como lo fue durante la revolucin estadounidense, o durante el movimiento por los derechos civiles en EE. UU. +Creo que la forma de hacer que sea nuevamente atractiva, es hacer que trate explcitamente de la enseanza del poder. +Creo que la forma de hacer esto es a nivel urbano. +De esto quiero hablarles hoy; comenzar definiendo algunos trminos, y luego describir la magnitud del problema al cual creo que nos enfrentamos, y sugerir maneras en que creo que las ciudades pueden ser la clave de la solucin. +Comencemos con algunas definiciones. Por educacin cvica entiendo realmente +el arte de ser prosocial, un participante activo que ofrece soluciones a los problemas de una comunidad autogobernada. +La cultura cvica es el arte de ser ciudadano lo que Bill Gates Sr. simplemente llama exponerse a la vida, e incluye tres cosas: una base de valores, un entendimiento de los sistemas que hacen que el mundo gire, y un conjunto de habilidades que permita perseguir metas y que otros se unan a este propsito. +Esto me lleva a la definicin del poder que es simplemente esta: la capacidad de hacer que otros que hagan lo que t quieres que hagan. +Suena amenazante verdad? +No nos gusta hablar de poder. +Nos suena aterrorizante, de alguna forma malvado. +Nos incomoda nombrarlo. +En la culture y la mitologa de la democracia el poder reside en el pueblo. +Punto. Fin de la historia. +Ninguna otra pregunta es necesaria o incluso bienvenida. +El poder tiene un valor moral negativo. +Suena inherentemente maquiavlico. +Parece ser inherentemente malo. +Pero el poder no es inherentemente ms bueno o malo que el fuego o la fsica. +Es lo que es. +Y el poder determina cmo funciona cualquier tipo de gobierno, ya sea este una democracia o una dictadura. +Es por eso que ahora es fundamental para nosotros entender la idea de poder y democratizarla. +Una de las cosas ms profundamente emocionantes y desafiantes acerca de este momento es que como resultado de este desconocimiento sobre el poder, que est tan extendido, es que hay una concentracin de conocimiento, de entendimiento, de influencia. +Piensen en esto: Cmo se vuelve una relacin una subvencin? +Naturalmente, cuando un importante oficial del gobierno decide dejar el gobierno para hacer lobby en favor de intereses privados, convierte todas sus relaciones en capital para sus nuevos amos. +Cmo se convierte un sesgo en poltica? +De forma insidiosa, igual a la prctica de la polica neoyorkina de parar y cachear a la gente, que a la larga se ha convertido en una lotera burocrtica. +Cmo se vuelve un eslogan un movimiento? +Viralmente, de la forma que el movimiento Tea Party tom prestado el eslogan "No te metas conmigo" de la bandera de Gadsden durante la Revolucin Estadounidense, o cmo por otra parte, un grupo de activistas tomaron el titular de una revista como "Ocupen Wall Street" y lo convirtieron en un movimiento a nivel mundial. +Pero la mayora de la gente no busca o no quiere ver estas realidades. +Parte de este ignorancia, este desconocimiento cvico, es deliberado. +Por ejemplo, hay algunos de la generacin Y que piensan que todo esto es un asunto srdido. +No quieren tener nada que ver con la poltica. +Ms bien prefieren ignorarla y a cambio hacer voluntariado. +Hay algunos tecncratas all afuera que creen que la cura a todo este desequilibrio o abuso de poder es simplemente ms informacin, ms transparencia. +Algunos de izquierda creen que el poder reside solo en las corporaciones, mientras que algunos de derecha creen que el poder reside nicamente en el gobierno, cada partido cegado por su propia indignacin. +Estn los ingenuos que creen que lo bueno pasa porque s, y los cnicos que creen que lo malo pasa porque s, el afortunado y el desafortunado que piensan que lo que les ocurren es simplemente lo que se merecen, en vez de que sufren un efecto alterado, producto de un acuerdo anterior, del reparto heredado del poder. +Como resultado de todo este fatalismo que invade la vida pblica, hoy en da, y particularmente aqu en EE. UU. tenemos unos niveles extremadamente bajos de conocimiento y compromiso cvico, de participacin, de concientizacin. +Todo este negocio de la poltica se ha abandonado a manos de profesionales, gente con dinero, con influencia, mensajeros y analistas. +El resto debemos sentirnos unos aficionados, en el sentido de bobos. +Perdemos la motivacin de aprender ms acerca de cmo funcionan las cosas. +Decidimos ignorarlas. +Pues, este problema, este desafo es algo que debemos enfrentar, y creo que cuando hay esta falta de compromiso, esta ignorancia deliberada, la misma es una causa y una consecuencia de esta concentracin de oportunidades de riqueza e influencia que les describa hace un momento; esta profunda inequidad cvica. +Por eso es tan importante en este momento refigurarnos lo cvico como enseanza sobre el poder. +Quizs nunca ha sido ms importante en toda nuestra vida. +SI el pueblo no aprende acerca del poder, el pueblo no despertar, y si no despierta se queda fuera. +Parte del arte de practicar el poder significa estar alerta y tener una voz, pero tambin se trata de tener una plataforma donde realmente poder practicar la toma de decisiones. +Todo la cultura cvica se reduce a la sencilla pregunta de quin decide, y eso tiene que tener lugar en un sitio, en una plataforma. +Esto me trae al tercer punto que vengo a presentar hoy y es simplemente que no hay mejor lugar en nuestros tiempos para la prctica de poder que la ciudad. +Piensen en la ciudad en que viven, de donde vienen. +Piensen en un problema de la vida diaria en su ciudad. +Puede ser algo pequeo, como dnde debera haber un poste de luz, o algo ms importante, como en cul biblioteca se debera ampliar o reducir el horario, o quizs algo ms grande, como si un muelle abandonado debera convertirse en una autopista o una zona verde, o si todos los negocios en su ciudad deberan pagar un salario mnimo. +Piensen acerca del cambio que quieren para su ciudad y luego piensen en cmo lograrlo, cmo hacerlo realidad. +Hagan un inventario de todas las formas de poder que juegan un papel en la situacin de tu ciudad: dinero, claro, gente, s, ideas, informacin, desinformacin, el peligro de las presiones, la fuerza de las normas. +Todas estas formas de poder juegan un papel. +Ahora piensa en cmo activaran o quizs neutralizaran estas diversas formas de poder. +Esto no es un conjunto de preguntas tipo nivel avanzado en "Juego de Tronos". Estas son preguntas que ocurren en todos los rincones del planeta. +Voy a contarles rpidamente dos historias sacadas de dos titulares recientes. +En Boulder, Colorado, los votantes aprobaron no hace mucho un proceso para reemplazar a la compaa elctrica privada, la compaa elctrica, Xcel, con una compaa pblica que dejara de lado las ganancias y prestara ms atencin al cambio climtico. +Pues Xcel contraatac pidiendo un referndum que podra comprometer o anular esta municipalizacin. +As que los ciudadanos activistas en Bouder que queran esto tienen que pelear contra el poder para obtener el poder. +En Tuscaloosa, en la Universidad de Alabama, hay una organizacin en el campus universitario llamada de forma un poco amenazadora la Mquina, en su mayora compuesta por sociedades y hermandades de blancos del campus y durante dcadas, la Mquina ha arrasado en las elecciones de gobierno de estudiantes. +Ahora la Mquina, recientemente, comenz a participar en la poltica de la ciudad, y ha apoyado la eleccin de un antiguo miembro de la Mquina, un joven favorable a las empresas, un recin graduado, a la junta educativa de la ciudad de Tuscaloosa. +Como digo, estos son solo dos ejemplos sacados aleatoriamente de los titulares recientes. +Todos los das hay miles como estos. +Y les gusten o no los esfuerzos que les describo en Boulder o Tuscaloosa, no podemos dejar de admirar el conocimiento que poseen estos jugadores acerca del poder y sus habilidades. +No pueden no tener en cuenta y reconocer que bien conocen las preguntas fundamentales del poder cvico: cules son los objetivos, las estrategias y tcticas? Cul es el terreno? Quines son los enemigos, y los aliados? +Ahora, quiero que vuelvan a pensar sobre ese problema, esa oportunidad o ese desafo en su ciudad, y eso que queran arreglar o crear en la ciudad, y pregntense: conocen bien las preguntas fundamentales del poder? +Pueden poner en prctica y de forma efectiva eso que conocen? +Este es nuestro desafo y oportunidad. +Vivimos en una poca en que a pesar de la globalizacin, o quizs debido a la globalizacin, todo ciudadano es an ms resonante y poderoso a nivel local. +De hecho el poder en esta poca actual va an ms rpido hacia las ciudades. +Aqu en EE. UU. el gobierno nacional est atado a acuerdos partidistas. +Esto es un fenmeno en expansin. +El localismo de nuestros tiempos est poderosamente conectado. +Por ejemplo, consideren las formas en que las estrategias para hacer las ciudades ms seguras para los ciclistas se ha extendido tan rpidamente desde Copenhague hasta Nueva York, Austin, Boston y Seattle. +Piensen en los experimentos de los presupuestos participativos, donde todo ciudadano tiene la oportunidad de asignar y decidir sobre el reparto de los fondos de la ciudad. +Estos experimentos se han extendido desde Puerto Alegre, Brasil, hasta ac a la ciudad de Nueva York, o hasta los vecindarios de Chicago. +Trabajadores migrantes desde Roma hasta Los Angeles y muchas otras ciudades se estn organizando para hacer huelgas y recordarles a quienes viven en sus ciudades lo que sera un da sin inmigrantes. +En China, en todo el pas los miembros del movimiento de los Nuevos Ciudadanos han comenzado a activar y organizar la lucha contra la corrupcin gubernamental, y han despertado la ira de los funcionarios, pero tambin la atencin de los activistas anticorrupcin en todo el mundo. +En Seattle, de donde vengo, somos parte de un numeroso grupo de ciudades de todo el mundo que ahora trabajan juntas, ignorando los gobiernos por completo, los gobiernos nacionales, para alcanzar la meta de reducir la emisin de gases contaminantes establecidas en el Protocolo de Kioto. +Todos estos ciudadanos, unidos estn formando una red, un inmenso archipilago de poder que nos permite sobrepasar las quiebras y los monopolios del poder. +Y nuestra tarea ahora es acelerar este proceso. +Nuestra tarea es atraer ms y ms gente en el desarrollo de este proyecto. +Por eso mi organizacin, Citizen University, ha tomado ahora la iniciativa de crear un currculo para todos en poder cvico. +Y este currculo comienza con esta trada de valores, sistemas y habilidades que les describ anteriormente. +Y me gustara invitarlos a todos para que ayuden a crear este currculo con las historias, las experiencias y los desafos que cada uno de Uds. tienen y a los que se enfrentan, para crear algo poderosamente colectivo. +Y quiero invitarlos a Uds. en particular a realizar un simple ejercicio sacado del marco inicial de este currculo. +Describan los valores de los conciudadanos que implicaron, y la sensacin de propsito moral que fueron capaces de despertar. +Enumeren todas las formas con las que hayan logrado la participacin de los sistemas de gobierno, del mercado, de las instituciones sociales y organizaciones religiosas, de los medios de comunicacin. +Cataloguen todas las habilidades que tuvieron que utilizar, cmo negociar, defender, describir los problemas, cmo abordar diversos conflictos, todas estas habilidades que les permitieron traer gente a bordo y superar la oposicin. +Lo que harn cuando escriban esa narrativa es que aprendern sobre el poder, y en el proceso, cmo escribir sobre el poder. +Compartan lo que escriban, hagan lo que escriban, y compartan lo que hagan. +Les invito a que compartan las narrativas que han creado en nuestra pgina de Facebook para Citizen University. +Pero incluso ms all, en las conversaciones que tenemos hoy en da en todo el mundo, en las reuniones que pasan de forma simultnea sobre este tema en este momento, piensen sobre cmo podemos llegar a ser nuestros propios educadores y estudiantes del poder. +Si hacemos esto, entonces juntos podemos hacer que la educacin cvica sea atractiva de nuevo. +Juntos podemos democratizar la democracia y hacerla de nuevo un prctica segura para los aficionados. +Juntos podemos crear esta gran red de ciudades que sera el laboratorio colectivo autogobernante ms poderoso que este planeta jams haya visto. +Tenemos el poder de hacerlo. +Muchas gracias. +TED tiene 30 aos. +La World Wide Web celebra este mes su 25 aniversario. +As que les propongo algo. +Hablemos del desarrollo, sobre todo del futuro. +Hablemos de naciones. +Hablemos de la red que queremos. +Hace 25 aos yo trabajaba en el CERN. +Despus de un ao consegu un permiso para trabajar en esto como un proyecto aparte. +Escrib el cdigo. +Supuestamente fui el primer usuario. +Exista la preocupacin de que la gente no lo aceptara porque pareca demasiado complicado. +Mucha persuasin, maravillosa colaboracin con otras personas, y poco a poco, funcion. +As empez. Fue genial. +As, unos aos despus, en el 2000 el 5 % de la poblacin mundial usaba la WWW. +Siete aos despus, en 2007, el 17 %. +En 2008, creamos la Fundacin World Wide Web en parte para observar y preocuparnos por esta cifra. +Actualmente nos hallamos en 2014, y el 40 % del mundo usa la WWW, y va en aumento. +El crecimiento es obvio. +Me gustara que pensaran en las dos caras de esto. +Para los presentes aqu en TED, la primera pregunta sera: qu se puede hacer para conseguir al 60 % restante lo ms rpido posible? +Muchas cosas importantes. Obviamente ser con los mviles. +Pero quiero que piensen en el 40 %, porque Uds. mismos aqu presentes con la vida ajustada al uso de la red no tienen que esforzarse en recordar las cosas, simplemente las buscan, y sentirn que es un gran logro y todos nos quedaremos tranquilos. +En realidad ha habido grandes logros, hay muchas cosas, la Academia Kahn est tambin Wikipedia, hay muchsimos e-books gratis que pueden leerse en lnea, muchos y maravillosos recursos educativos, material de muchas reas. +El comercio en lnea ha revolucionado el funcionamiento del comercio en general, posibilitando tipos de comercio que antes no eran factibles. +El comercio se ha visto afectado universalmente. +El gobierno, no se ha visto universalmente afectado, pero si muy afectado, y de manera positiva, mucha informacin abierta, gobierno electrnico, muchas cosas visibles que ocurren en la red. +Al mismo tiempo, muchas cosas que son menos visibles. +La atencin sanitaria, cuando hablan del tipo de cncer que puede tener alguien cercano, cuando hablan a travs de Internet con alguien importante que est en otro pas. +Son cosas que no se ven y han adquirido cierta privacidad. +No podemos suponer que parte de la red, una parte del uso de la red, que ese uso ocurre en un medio transparente y neutral. +Puedo hablar con Uds. sin preocuparme por lo que realmente sabemos que est ocurriendo, sin preocuparme de que no solo estamos siendo vigilados sino que quien lo hace puede abusar de la informacin. +Por lo tanto, nos hemos dado cuenta de que no solo podemos usar la red, debemos reflexionar sobre si la infraestructura que hay debajo de todo esto, cumple con la calidad que necesitamos. +Disfrutamos de la libertad de expresin. +Debemos protestar y asegurarnos de acabar con la censura, de que la red es un lugar abierto en todos los lugares donde existe censura. +Nos encanta que la red sea abierta. +Nos permite comunicarnos. Todos podemos participar. +No importa quines somos. +Nos unimos a estas grandes redes sociales creadas para hacer ms fcil la comunicacin con otras personas en la misma red social pero no con otras que estn en otra distinta, por lo que nos limitamos a nosotros mismos. +Tambin existe, si han ledo el libro The Filter Bubble, el fenmeno "filter bubble" consiste en que nos encanta usar mquinas que nos ayudan a encontrar cosas que nos gustan. +Nos encanta tener disponibles con un clic todo lo que nos gusta, y por eso las mquinas nos alimentan con las cosas que nos gustan y acabamos con esta visin de un mundo color de rosa que parece un filtro de fotografa. +Estas son algunas de las cosas que estn amenazando la red social que tenemos. +Qu tipo de red quieren Uds.? +Yo quiero una que no est fragmentada como pretenden algunos pases tras haber estado vigilando. +Yo quiero una red que tenga, por ejemplo, unas buenas bases de democracia. +Quiero una red donde pueda usar la atencin sanitaria con privacidad y donde haya mucha informacin sobre salud, informacin clnica para la investigacin mdica. +Quiero una red al que el otro 60 % pueda sumarse lo ms rpido posible. +Quiero una red que sea una base muy potente para la innovacin que cuando ocurra algo malo, y golpee de forma horrible, podamos construir algo con lo que responder rpidamente. +Estas son algunas de las cosas que quiero, de una lista mayor y ms larga. +Uds. tienen su lista. +Quiero que aprovechemos este 25 aniversario para reflexionar sobre la red que queremos. +Pueden entrar en webat25.org y encontrar algunos enlaces. +Hay muchos espacios en los que la gente ha empezado a escribir una Carta Magna, una propuesta de derechos para la red. +Qu tal si hacemos eso? +Qu tal si decidimos que estos se conviertan en los derechos fundamentales, el derecho a comunicarnos con quien queramos? +Qu habra en su lista para esa Carta Magna? +Hagamos entre todos una Carta Magna para la red. +Hagmoslo este ao. +Usemos la energa de este 25 aniversario para crear una Carta Magna para la red. Gracias. Hganme un favor, s? +Luchen por ello de mi parte, s? Gracias. +Cuando se public mi primer libro para nios en 2001, volv a mi antigua escuela primaria para hablar con los estudiantes sobre ser autor e ilustrador, y cuando estaba ajustando mi proyector de diapositivas en el refectorio mir al otro lado de la habitacin, y all estaba ella: mi querida seora de la cafetera. +Estaba todava all en la escuela y estaba preparando afanosamente los almuerzos del da. +As que me acerqu para decirle hola, y le dije: "Hola, Jeannie! Cmo ests?" +Y ella me mir y me di cuenta de que me reconoci, pero no poda ubicarme bien, y me mir y me dijo, "Stephen Krosoczka?" +Me sorprendi que supiera que yo era un Krosoczka, pero Stephen es mi to, que es 20 aos mayor que yo, y ya era la seora de la cafetera, cuando l era un nio. +Y empez a hablarme de sus nietos y que me dej alucinado. +Mi seora de la cafetera tena nietos, y por lo tanto hijos, y por lo tanto, deja la escuela al final del da? +Pens que viva en la cafetera con las cucharas de servir. +Nunca haba pensado en nada de eso antes. +Y ha sido increble, porque la serie fue muy bienvenida en las vidas de lectura de los nios, y me enviaron cartas de lo ms sorprendentes y tarjetas y obras de arte. +Y a medida que visitaba escuelas, notaba que el personal del refectorio participaba en la programacin de una manera muy significativa. +De costa a costa, todas las seoras de la cafetera me dijeron lo mismo: "Gracias por hacer una superherona a nuestra semejanza". +Y esto es porque la seora de la cafetera no ha sido tratada con aprecio en la cultura popular a travs del tiempo. +Pero eso significaba lo mximo para Jeannie. +Cuando los libros se publicaron por primera vez, la invit a la fiesta de lanzamiento del libro, y delante de todos los presentes, cada uno a quienes ella haba alimentado durante los aos, le regal una obra de arte y algunos libros. +Dos aos despus de esta foto, ella falleci y asist a su velorio. Nada podra haberme preparado para lo que vi all, porque al lado de su atad estaba esta pintura y su marido me dijo que significaba mucho para ella que yo haba reconocido su trabajo duro, que yo haba validado lo que hizo. +Y eso me inspir a crear un da en que pudiramos recrear esa sensacin en los comedores de todo el pas: El Da del hroe del almuerzo escolar, un da en que los nios puedan hacer proyectos creativos para su personal del comedor. +Y me un a la Asociacin de Nutricin Escolar, y saban que algo ms de 30 millones de nios participan en los programas de almuerzo escolar cada da. +Eso equivale a un poco ms de 5 mil millones de almuerzos hechos cada ao escolar. +Y las historias de herosmo van mucho ms all de que un nio tenga solo unos nuggets de pollo adicionales en su bandeja del almuerzo. +Est la Sra. Brenda en California, que mantiene una estrecha vigilancia sobre cada estudiante que llega a su fila y luego informa al consejero si algo anda mal. +Hay seoras de comedores en Kentucky, que se dieron cuenta de que el 67 % de sus estudiantes dependan de esas comidas cada da, y se quedaban sin comida durante el verano; as que reequiparon un autobs escolar para crear una unidad de alimentacin mvil, y recorren los barrios alimentando a 500 nios por da durante el verano. +Y los nios hacen los proyectos ms increbles. +Yo saba que lo haran. +Tarjetas hamburguesa hechas por nios en cartulina. +Tomaron fotos de la cabeza de su seora de la cafetera y la pegaron en mi historieta de la seora de la cafetera, la fijaron en un cartn de leche y lo llenaron con flores. +Hicieron sus propios cmics, protagonizados por la seora de la cafetera de la historieta junto a sus seoras de la cafetera reales. +E hicieron pizzas de agradecimiento, en las que cada nio firm un relleno diferente de una pizza de cartulina. +Y yo estaba muy conmovido por la respuesta que llegaba de las seoras de la cafetera, porque una mujer me dijo, "Antes de este da, me senta como si estuviera al final del planeta en esta escuela. +No crea que nadie nos notara aqu abajo". +Otra mujer me dijo: "Sabe, lo que saco de esto es que lo que hago es importante". +Y, por supuesto, lo que hace es importante. +Lo que todas ellas hacen es importante. +Estn alimentando a nuestros hijos todos los das, y antes de que un nio puede aprender, su estmago tiene que estar lleno y estas mujeres y hombres estn trabajando en el frente de la batalla para crear una sociedad educada. +As que ojal y no esperen al Da del hroe del almuerzo escolar para darle las gracias a su personal del refectorio, y espero que se acuerden lo poderoso que un agradecimiento suyo puede ser. +Un agradecimiento de Uds. puede cambiar una vida. +Cambia la vida de la persona que lo recibe, y cambia la vida de la persona que lo expresa. +Gracias. +Estos son objetos simples: relojes, llaves, peines, gafas. +Son los objetos que las vctimas del genocidio de Bosnia llevaban consigo en su ltimo viaje. +Todos conocemos bien estos objetos terrenales, de todos los das. Que algunas victimas +llevaran artculos personales, como pasta de dientes y cepillos es una seal clara de que no tenan ni idea de lo que iba a pasarles. +Normalmente se les deca que les iban a intercambiar por prisioneros de guerra. +Estos artculos han sido recuperados de las numerosas fosas comunes encontradas en mi pas y mientras hablamos, los forenses siguen exhumando cuerpos de ms fosas comunes recin descubiertas, 20 aos despus de la guerra. +Y quiz, es la fosa comn ms grande de la historia. +Durante los 4 aos que dur el conflicto que asol Bosnia en los aos 90, cerca de 30 000 personas, la mayora civiles, desaparecieron, presuntamente asesinadas, y otras 100 000 fueron asesinadas durante los combates. +La mayora fueron asesinadas sea al comienzo de la guerra, sea hacia el final de las hostilidades cuando las zonas protegidas por Naciones Unidas, como Srebrenica, cayeron en manos del ejrcito serbio. +El Tribunal Penal Internacional emiti una serie de sentencias por crmenes contra la humanidad y genocidio. +El genocidio significa la destruccin sistemtica y deliberada de un grupo racial, poltico, religioso o tnico. +El genocidio no solo significa matar, +sino tambin destruir la propiedad de estos grupos, su patrimonio cultural, y, en ltima instancia, las mismsimas pruebas de su existencia. +En un genocidio no solo se trata de matar; se trata tambin de negar una identidad. +Siempre quedan rastros, el crimen perfecto no existe. +Siempre queda algo de los que han fallecido, algo ms duradero que sus frgiles cuerpos y nuestra memoria selectiva y perecedera. +Estos artculos se han recuperado de las numerosas fosas comunes, y el objetivo principal de esta coleccin es una tarea nica, de identificar a los desaparecidos en los asesinatos en este primer acto de genocidio en suelo europeo desde el Holocausto. +Ni un solo cuerpo debe quedar sin ser descubierto o identificado. +Una vez recuperados, estos artculos que las vctimas llevaban consigo de camino a la ejecucin, son cuidadosamente limpiados, analizados, catalogados y almacenados. +Miles de artculos son envasados en bolsas de plstico blanco como las que se ven en CSI. +Estos objetos se usan como herramienta forense en la identificacin visual de las vctimas, pero tambin se usan como pruebas forenses muy valiosas en las procesos por crmenes de guerra que estn en curso. +Se llama de vez en cuando a los supervivientes para tratar de identificar fsicamente estos artculos, pero una identificacin de este tipo es algo extremadamente difcil, ineficaz y doloroso. +Una vez que los forenses, los mdicos y los abogados han terminado su labor, dichos artculos se convierten en hurfanos de la historia. +Por extrao que pueda parecer, muchos artculos se destruyen, o simplemente se almacenan perdindose de vista y olvidndose. +Hace unos aos decid fotografiar todos y cada uno de los artculos extrados para crear un archivo visual que los supervivientes pudieran consultar fcilmente. +Como creador de narrativas visuales me gusta restituir algo a la comunidad. +Ir ms all de la sensibilizacin. +En este caso, alguien podra reconocer estos artculos, o al menos quedarn sus fotografas como un recordatorio eterno, imparcial y preciso de lo que sucedi. +La fotografa es empata, y la familiaridad de estos artculos garantiza la empata. +En este caso, yo no soy ms que una herramienta, un forense, si quieren, y el resultado que propongo es una fotografa lo ms cercana posible a un documento. +Una vez identificadas todas las personas desaparecidas, solo quedarn sus cuerpos pudrindose en sus tumbas y estos objetos cotidianos. +Estos artculos, en toda su simplicidad, son los ltimos testigos de la identidad de las vctimas, el ltimo recuerdo permanente de que estas personas existieron alguna vez. +Muchas gracias. +Me gustara compartir hoy con ustedes un proyecto que ha cambiado la forma en que miro y practico la arquitectura: el Proyecto de Rehabilitacin del Ro Fez. +Mi ciudad natal Fez, Marruecos, alberga una de las ciudades medievales amuralladas ms grandes del mundo, llamada Medina, situada en el valle del ro. +Toda la ciudad es Patrimonio de la Humanidad de la UNESCO. +A partir de la dcada de los 50, y a medida que la poblacin creci, su infraestructura urbana bsica, los espacios verdes abiertos y el sistema de aguas residuales, cambiaron rpidamente y se se vieron altamente exigidos. +Uno de los principales damnificados con dicha situacin fue el ro Fez, que divide La Medina por la mitad y que ha sido considerado por muchos siglos el alma de la ciudad. +De hecho, uno puede comprobar la existencia de la extensa red de agua del ro por toda la ciudad en lugares como las fuentes privadas y pblicas. +Desafortunadamente, debido a la contaminacin del ro, esta red se fue cubriendo poco a poco a parrtir de 1952, con losas de hormign. +Este proceso de borrado iba de la mano con la destruccin de muchas casas de las riberas del ro para abrirle paso a las maquinarias por las estrechas calles peatonales de La Medina. +Esos solares urbanos se convirtieron rpidamente en aparcamientos ilegales o botaderos de basura. +En realidad, el estado del ro antes de entrar en La Medina es bastante saludable. +La contaminacin pasa factura principalmente debido a las aguas residuales sin tratar y a los qumicos vertidos por industrias como la peletera. +Lleg un momento en que no pude soportar la profanacin del ro, una parte tan importante de mi ciudad, y decid hacer algo, especialmente despus de enterarme que la ciudad haba recibido una subvencin para desviar el agua residual y tratarla. +Con agua limpia, de repente era posible destapar el ro, y con suerte y, de verdad, con mucha presin, mi pareja, Takako Tajima, y yo fuimos encargadas por la ciudad para trabajar con un equipo de ingenieros y darle vida al ro. +Y aprovechamos la situacin, y propusimos ms: convertir las riberas en vas peatonales, y luego conectarlas de vuelta al tejido de la ciudad. Y finalmente, convertir los solares urbanos de las riberas del ro en los espacios pblicos que tanto faltaban en La Medina de Fez. +Les mostrar brevemente dos de estos espacios pblicos. +El primero es la Plaza Rcif, que en la actualidad se encuentra justo en la parte superior del ro, que se puede ver aqu en lneas punteadas. +Esta plaza sola ser un centro catico de transporte y realmente comprometi la integridad urbana de La Medina, que tiene la mayor red peatonal en el mundo. +Y justo ms all del histrico puente que se puede ver aqu, justo al lado de la plaza, se puede observar que el ro pareca un ro de basura. +A cambio, lo que propusimos fue volver la plaza totalmente peatonal, cubrirla con toldos de cuero reciclados, y conectarla a las orillas del ro. +El segundo sitio de nuestra intervencin es tambin un solar urbano a lo largo de las riberas que sola ser un aparcamiento ilegal, y propusimos transformarlo en un zona de juegos de primera clase en La Medina. +El parque se ha construido con neumticos reciclados y tambin se integr con un humedal artificial que no slo limpia el agua del ro sino que tambin la retiene cuando se producen inundaciones. +A medida que el proyecto avanzaba y reciba varios premios, nuevos actores intervenan y cambiaban los objetivos y el diseo del proyecto. +La nica manera de poder sacar adelante sus principales objetivos, fue hacer algo muy inusual, algo que por lo general los arquitectos no hacen. Tomar nuestro ego diseador y nuestra pretendida autora +y mandarla a la trastienda, y centrarnos principalmente en ser activistas y tratar de unir todos los programas de los grupos de interesados enfocndonos en los objetivos principales, es decir, destapar el ro, tratar el agua, y crear espacios pblicos para todos. +Fuimos realmente muy afortunados, y muchas de esas metas se consiguieron o se estn alcanzando ahora, +como se se puede ver aqu, en la Plaza Rcif. +Este es el aspecto que tena hace unos 6 aos. +As es como luce en la actualidad. +Est todava en construccin, pero actualmente es muy transitada por la poblacin local. +Y por ltimo, as es cmo se ver la Plaza Rcif cuando se termine el proyecto. +Este es el ro, cubierto, usado como un botadero de basura. +Luego, despus de muchos aos de trabajo, el ro con agua limpia y descubierto. +Y por ltimo, aqu se puede ver el ro cuando el proyecto se complete. +Muchas gracias. +Hace 10 aos escrib un libro que titul: "Nuestro siglo final?" Signos de interrogacin. +Mis editores quitaron los signos de interrogacin. Los editores estadounidenses cambiaron el ttulo por: "Nuestra hora final". +A los estadounidenses les gusta la gratificacin instantnea y lo contrario. +El tema era este: Nuestra Tierra ha existido durante 45 millones de siglos, pero este siglo es especial; es el primero en el que una especie, la nuestra, tiene el futuro del planeta en sus manos. +Durante casi toda la historia de la Tierra, las amenazas provinieron de la Naturaleza: enfermedades, terremotos, asteroides, etc.; pero a partir de ahora, los peores peligros vienen de nosotros. +Y ahora no solo est la amenaza nuclear; en nuestro mundo interconectado, las fallas de red pueden propagarse en cascada por el mundo; los viajes en avin pueden propagar pandemias por el mundo en cuestin de das; y los medios sociales pueden propagar pnico y rumores literalmente a la velocidad de la luz. +Nos preocupamos demasiado por riesgos menores: accidentes areos improbables, sustancias cancergenas en los alimentos, dosis bajas de radiacin, etc.; pero nosotros y nuestros polticos negamos los escenarios catastrficos. +Por suerte, an no ha sucedido lo peor. +De hecho, quiz no ocurrir. +Pero si un evento es potencialmente devastador, vale la pena pagar una prima sustancial para protegerse en contra de eso, aunque sea poco probable, as como tenemos un seguro de incendio en nuestra casa. +Y as como la ciencia ofrece mayor poder y ms promesas, el lado negativo da ms miedo tambin. +Somos cada vez ms vulnerables. +En unas pocas dcadas, millones podrn usar mal los rpidos avances en biotecnologa as como hoy usan mal la cibertecnologa. +Freeman Dyson, en una charla TED, previ que los nios disearn y crearn nuevos organismos tan rutinariamente como su generacin jugaba con juegos de qumica. +Bueno, esto puede ser de ciencia ficcin, pero, de ocurrir ese escenario, nuestra ecologa e incluso nuestra especie seguramente no sobrevivira mucho tiempo indemne. +Por ejemplo, hay algunos eco-extremistas que piensan que sera mejor para el planeta, para Gaia, si hubiera muchos menos humanos. +Qu suceder cuando estas personas dominen tcnicas de biologa sinttica comunes en el 2050? +Para entonces, otras pesadillas de ciencia ficcin pueden hacerse realidad: robots tontos que se vuelven hostiles, o una red desarrolla una mente propia y nos amenaza a todos. +Bueno, podemos protegernos de tales riesgos con regulacin? +Sin duda hay que probar, pero estas empresas son tan competitivas, tan globalizadas, impulsadas por tanta presin comercial, que cualquier cosa posible de hacer se har en alguna parte, sin importar lo que digan las regulaciones. +Es como las leyes antinarcticos, tratamos de regular, pero no podemos. +Y la aldea global tendr sus tontos de aldea, que tendrn un rango global. +Por eso, como dije en mi libro, tendremos un viaje lleno de baches en este siglo. +Puede haber retrocesos en nuestra sociedad; de hecho, existe una probabilidad del 50 % de un severo revs. +Pero hay eventos concebibles que puedan ser incluso peores, que puedan extinguir la vida? +Cuando aparece un nuevo acelerador de partculas, algunos preguntan con inquietud: Podra destruir la Tierra, o incluso peor, desintegrar por completo el tejido del espacio? +Bueno por suerte hay consuelo. +Junto con otra gente sealo que la Naturaleza ya ha hecho los mismos experimentos millones y millones de veces va colisiones de rayos csmicos. +Pero los cientficos deberan tener precauciones con experimentos que generen condiciones sin precedentes en el mundo natural. +Los bilogos deben evitar la liberacin potencialmente devastadora de patgenos genticamente modificados. +Y, por cierto, nuestra aversin especial al riesgo de desastres verdaderamente existenciales depende de una cuestin filosfica y tica, y es esta: Consideren 2 escenarios. +El Escenario A arrasa al 90 % de la humanidad. +El Escenario B arrasa al 100 %. +Cunto peor es B que A? +Algunos diran 10 % peor. +El conteo de cuerpos es 10 % ms alto. +Pero yo sostengo que B es incomparablemente peor. +Como astrnomo no puedo creer que los humanos seamos el fin de la historia. +Faltan 5000 millones de aos para que estalle el Sol, y el universo puede seguir para siempre, por eso la evolucin post-humana aqu en la Tierra y mucho ms all, podra prolongarse como el proceso darwiniano que condujo a nosotros, y ser an ms maravilloso. +Y, en efecto, la evolucin futura ocurrir mucho ms rpido, a escala de tiempo tecnolgico, no a escala de tiempo de seleccin natural. +As que sin duda, en vista de lo mucho que est en juego, no deberamos aceptar un riesgo ni de 1 en 1000 millones de que la extincin humana nos quite este inmenso potencial. +Algunos de los escenarios previstos pueden ser incluso de ciencia ficcin, pero otros pueden ser inquietantemente reales. +Es una mxima importante que lo no familiar no es lo mismo que lo improbable, y, de hecho, por eso en la Universidad de Cambridge creamos un centro para estudiar cmo mitigar estos riesgos existenciales. +Parece que vale la pena que unas pocas personas piensen en estos desastres potenciales. +Necesitamos toda la ayuda que podamos conseguir de otros, porque somos guardianes de un valioso punto azul plido en un vasto cosmos, un planeta con 50 millones de siglos por delante. +As que no pongamos en peligro ese futuro. +Y quiero terminar con la cita de un gran cientfico llamado Peter Medawar. +Cito: "Las campanas que doblan por la humanidad son como los cencerros del ganado alpino. +Estn unidas a nuestros propios cuellos, y debe ser culpa nuestra si no producen un sonido armonioso y meldico". +Muchas gracias. +En 1781 el compositor, tecnlogo, y astrnomo ingls, William Herschel, observ un cuerpo celeste que no se mova igual que las dems estrellas. +El hallazgo de que haba algo diferente que no marchaba del todo bien, se materializ en el descubrimiento de un nuevo planeta, Urano. Un nombre que ha entretenido a incontables generaciones de nios, pero sobre todo, un planeta que en un instante, duplic el tamao del sistema solar conocido. +Solo el mes pasado, la NASA anunci el descubrimiento de 517 nuevos planetas que orbitan estrellas cercanas a la Tierra, que casi duplica el nmero de planetas conocidos en la galaxia. +La astronoma sufre cambios constantes debido a la capacidad de recopilar datos, y como stos se duplican casi todos los aos, es posible que dentro de dos dcadas, alcancemos, por primera vez en la historia, el descubrimiento de la mayora de las galaxias en el universo. +Cul ser la prxima ventana hacia el universo? +Cul ser el prximo captulo de la astronoma? +Les mostrar algunas de las herramientas y las tcnicas que crearemos en la prxima dcada, y cmo estas tecnologas, junto con el uso inteligente de los datos, transformarn una vez ms la astronoma mediante la apertura de una nueva ventana hacia el universo, la ventana del tiempo. +Por qu del tiempo? Bueno, el tiempo trata del principio, significa evolucin. +Nos habla de los albores de nuestro sistema solar, de cmo se form, y si es inusual o especial de alguna manera. +Trata de la evolucin del universo. +Por qu el universo contina expandindose? Y qu es esa misteriosa energa oscura que impulsa su expansin? +Pero primero, permtanme mostrarles cmo la tecnologa va a cambiar la manera de ver el cielo. +Imagnense que estn en las montaas del norte de Chile, mirando hacia el oeste, hacia el Pacfico, pocas horas antes del amanecer. +Esta es la vista del firmamento nocturno. Es una hermosa vista, con la Va Lctea asomndose justo por encima en el horizonte. +Pero tambin es una visin esttica. En muchos aspectos, es as como concebimos el universo: eterno e inmutable. +Pero el universo es todo menos esttico. +Cambia constantemente en intervalos de tiempo que varan de segundos a miles de millones de aos. +Las galaxias se fusionan y chocan a cientos de miles de kilmetros por hora. +Las estrellas nacen, mueren y explotan +Cada segundo explotan diez supernovas en algn lugar del universo. +Si pudiramos or estos sonidos, seran como palomitas de maz saltando. +Si apagamos las supernovas, el cielo no solo cambia de brillo. +El firmamento est en constante movimiento. +El enjambre de cuerpos celestes que ven pasando por el firmamento, son asteroides que orbitan alrededor del Sol. Estos cambios y movimientos, y la dinmica del sistema, nos permiten construir modelos del universo para predecir el futuro y explicar el pasado. +Los telescopios que hemos venido utilizado en la ltima dcada no estn diseados para capturar los datos a esa escala. +El Telescopio Espacial Hubble ha generado, durante los ltimos 25 aos algunas de las imgenes ms detalladas del universo profundo. Pero si tratan de usar el Hubble para crear una imagen del cielo, se necesitarn 13 millones de imgenes distintas, o cerca de 120 aos, para completarla una sola vez. +Esperamos comenzar a captar datos a finales de esta dcada. +Les mostrar cmo creemos que va a cambiar nuestra visin del universo, porque una imagen tomada con el LSST equivale a 3 000 imgenes del telescopio espacial Hubble, donde cada imagen cubre tres grados y medio del firmamento o siete veces el dimetro de la luna llena. +Pero cmo se capturan imgenes a esta escala? +Para ver una sola imagen del LSST a mxima resolucin, se necesitaran unas 1 500 pantallas de televisin de alta definicin. +Esta cmara estar fotografiando el cielo cada 20 segundos, escanendolo constantemente. Cada tres das obtendremos un mapa completo del cielo estrellado de Chile. +Durante su vida til, el telescopio detectar 40 mil millones de estrellas y galaxias. Por primera vez el nmero de cuerpos celestes detectados superar al de los habitantes de la Tierra. +Bueno, puedo explicar esto midindolo en terabytes y petabytes, o contando miles de millones de objetos. Para dar una idea de la cantidad de datos que producir esta cmara, es como la totalidad de las charlas TED grabadas hasta la fecha, reproducidas simultneamente, 24 horas al da, 7 das a la semana, durante 10 aos. +Y el esfuerzo de procesar esta informacin equivale a buscar en todas esas charlas una nueva idea, un concepto nuevo, mirando cada trozo de video para ver qu ha cambiado de una toma a la otra. +Esto est cambiando la manera de hacer ciencia, de trabajar en astronoma, en un espacio en donde el software y los algoritmos que procesan esos datos se vuelven tan vitales para la ciencia, como los telescopios y las cmaras que se han construido. +Miles de nuevos descubrimientos se harn realidad con este proyecto, pero mencionar solo dos teoras sobre el origen y la evolucin del universo, tras nuestro acceso a todos estos datos. +En los ltimos cinco aos, la NASA ha descubierto ms de 1 000 sistemas planetarios alrededor de estrellas cercanas, pero los sistemas que encontramos no se parecen mucho al nuestro, y nos preguntamos si esto se debe a que no estamos buscando bien, o si hay algo especial o nico respecto a cmo se form nuestro sistema solar. +Si queremos respuestas necesitamos saber y entender en detalle la historia de nuestro sistema solar; los detalles son esenciales. +Si volvemos a fijarnos en el cielo y en los asteroides que lo cruzan, podemos verlos como los escombros del sistema solar. +Sus posiciones son como la impronta de tiempos remotos, cuando las rbitas de Neptuno y de Jpiter se encontraban mucho ms cerca del Sol, y cuando estos gigantes migraron esparciendo asteroides en su camino por el sistema solar. +Analizar los asteroides es como un anlisis forense, de nuestro sistema solar. Para hacer esto hace falta distancia que obtenemos del movimiento, y ste lo conseguimos por el acceso al tiempo. +Y qu nos dice todo esto? +Si nos fijamos en estos pequeos asteroides amarillos que revolotean por la pantalla, vemos los que ms rpido se mueven, que son los que ms cerca se encuentran de nuestro planeta. +El anlisis forense de nuestro sistema solar no solo nos aporta informacin sobre el pasado, sino que tambin predice el futuro, nuestro futuro. +Una vez que tengamos la distancia, podremos ubicar los asteroides en sus hbitats naturales, en rbitas alrededor del Sol. +Cada punto en esta imagen corresponde a un asteroide real. +Hemos calculado su rbita analizando sus movimientos. +Los colores reflejan su composicin; secos y pedregosos en el centro, ricos en agua y sencillos haca el exterior, siendo estos ltimos los que, a lo mejor, sembraron nuestros ocanos y mares, cuando bombardearon la Tierra en tiempos remotos. Como el LSST ser ms sensible, +mejor equipado y con mayor resolucin, llegaremos a ver asteroides que se encuentran ms all del centro de nuestro sistema solar, ms all de las rbitas de Neptuno y Marte, incluso los cometas y los asteroides que pueden existir a casi un ao luz de distancia del Sol. +Sobre la distancia y los cambios en nuestro universo, la distancia equivale tanto a tiempo como a cambios en el firmamento. +Cada 30 centmetros que nos acercamos a un objeto lejano, retrocedemos en el tiempo una mil millonsima parte de un segundo. Esta idea, este concepto de retroceder en el tiempo ha revolucionado nuestro entendimiento acerca del universo, no una sino innumerables veces. +La primera vez ocurri en 1929, cuando un astrnomo llamado Edwin Hubble demostr que el universo se expande, lo que llev a la teora del Big Bang. +Sus observaciones fueron simples: 24 galaxias y un dibujo hecho a mano. +La sola idea de que cuanto ms lejana est una galaxia, ms rpido se aleja, ha bastado para dar lugar a la cosmologa moderna. +La segunda revolucin tuvo lugar 70 aos despus cuando dos grupos de astrnomos demostraron que el universo no solo se expande sino que se acelera, un descubrimiento tan sorprendente como si al lanzar una pelota al aire viramos que cuanto ms alto llega ms rpido se aleja. +Demostraron esto midiendo la luminosidad de las supernovas, y observando que esa luminosidad se vuelve ms dbil con la distancia. +Las observaciones fueron ms complejas +y requirieron nuevas tecnologas y nuevos telescopios, porque las supernovas se encontraban en galaxias 2 000 veces ms lejanas que las estudiadas por Hubble. +Se necesitaron 3 aos para encontrar solo 42 supernovas, porque en una galaxia explota una supernova solo cada cien aos. +Tres aos para encontrar 42 supernovas buscando en decenas de miles de galaxias. +Una vez se recolectaron los datos, esto es lo que encontraron. +Aunque no parezca impresionante, as es como se ve una revolucin en la fsica: una lnea que predice la luminosidad de una supernova encontrada a 11 mil millones de aos luz, junto a un puado de puntitos que no encajan exactamente en esa lnea. +Son pequeos cambios que generan enormes consecuencias. +Pequeos cambios que llevan a grandes descubrimientos, como el planeta encontrado por Herschel. +Pequeos cambios que transforman por completo nuestra percepcin del universo. +Entonces, cmo ser la prxima revolucin? +Y qu es la energa oscura y por qu existe? +Cada lnea indica un modelo diferente de lo que podra ser la energa oscura y sus propiedades. +Todas son compatibles con los 42 puntos, pero las teoras detrs de estas lneas son completamente diferentes. +Algunos opinan que la energa oscura cambia con el tiempo, y que sus propiedades dependen de dnde se mire en el cielo. +Otros imponen diferencias y cambios en la fsica subatmica. +Mientras que otros observan a gran escala y cambian la forma como trabajan la gravedad y la relatividad. O dicen que nuestro universo es solo uno entre muchos, parte de este misterioso multiuniverso. Pero todas estas ideas y teoras increbles, ciertamente algunas un tanto descabelladas, son coherentes con los 42 puntos. +Y bien, entonces cmo pensamos darle sentido a todo esto en los siguientes 10 aos? +Imaginen que les doy un par de dados, y les pido que averigen si estn trucados o correctos. +Una sola tirada dira muy poco, pero cuantas ms veces rueden, ms informacin se recopila, mayor certeza se logra, no solo acerca de si estn o no cargados, sino tambin de cunto y de qu manera. +Se tard 3 aos en descubrir 42 supernovas, porque los telescopios con que contamos solo pueden examinar una pequea parte del firmamento. +Con el LSST, obtendremos una imagen totalmente nueva del cielo de Chile, cada 3 noches. +En su primera noche de funcionamiento, encontrar 10 veces ms supernovas que el nmero de las utilizadas para descubrir la energa oscura. +La cifra se multiplicar por mil en los primeros 4 meses, hasta un total de 1,5 millones de supernovas al final del proyecto. Cada supernova representa un tiro de los dados, y prueba cules teoras de la energa oscura son consistentes y cules no. +Combinando estos datos sobre las supernovas con otras mediciones cosmolgicas, eliminaremos gradualmente las diferentes ideas y teoras de la energa oscura, hasta que, con suerte, al final del proyecto, alrededor de 2030, esperamos que una nueva teora del universo, una teora fundamental para la fsica del universo, tome forma progresivamente. +En muchos aspectos, las cuestiones que hemos presentado son en realidad las ms simples. +Es posible que no sepamos las respuestas pero, por lo menos, sabemos cules son las preguntas. +Pero, si al buscar en decenas de miles de galaxias, se han encontrado 42 supernovas que nos revolucionaron la visin del universo, cuando lleguemos a trabajar con miles de millones de galaxias, cuntas veces ms vamos a encontrar 42 puntos que no encajen bien con lo esperado? +Al igual que el planeta descubierto por Herschel, o la energa oscura, o la mecnica cuntica o la relatividad general; todas esas ideas surgieron porque los datos no encajaban exactamente con lo que esperbamos. +Lo emocionante de la prxima dcada en el campo de la astronoma es que ni siquiera sabemos cuntas respuestas nos aguardan, acerca de nuestros orgenes y nuestra evolucin. +Cuntas respuestas estn all afuera, respuestas para las que ni siquiera sabemos qu preguntas hacer? +Gracias. +Hola, chicos. +Tengo 71 aos. +Mi marido tiene 76 aos. +Mis padres estn en los finales de sus 90 aos, y Olivia, la perra, tiene 16 aos. +Hablemos del envejecimiento. +Les contar qu siento al ver mis arrugas frente al espejo y ver que se me han cado algunas cosas y no las puedo encontrar. +Mara Oliver dice en uno de sus poemas: "Dime, qu planeas hacer con tu preciosa y desenfrenada vida?" +Yo pretendo vivir apasionadamente. +Cundo empezamos a envejecer? +La sociedad decide cundo somos viejos, por lo general es alrededor de los 65, cuando tenemos Medicare, pero en realidad empezamos a envejecer al nacer. +Estamos envejeciendo ahora, y todos lo experimentamos de manera diferente. +Todos nos sentimos ms jvenes que nuestra edad real, porque el espritu nunca envejece. +Yo todava tengo 17 aos. +Sophia Loren, mrenla. +Dice que todo lo que ven se lo debe a los espaguetis. +Yo lo intent y engord ms de 4 kilos en los lugares equivocados. +El envejecimiento es tambin cuestin de actitud y salud. +Pero mi mentora en este viaje por el envejecimiento es Olga Murray. +Esta chica californiana a los 60 aos empez a trabajar en Nepal para salvar jovencitas de la esclavitud domstica. +A los 88 aos, ha salvado a 12 000 chicas, y ha cambiado la cultura en el pas. +Ahora es ilegal que los padres vendan sus hijas en servidumbre. +Tambin ha fundado orfanatos y clnicas nutricionales. +Ella siempre est feliz y eternamente joven. +Qu he perdido en las ltimas dcadas? +Personas, claro, lugares y la energa ilimitada de mi juventud, y yo estoy empezando a perder independencia, y eso me asusta. +Ram Dass dice que la dependencia hiere, pero si uno la acepta, hay menos sufrimiento. +Despus de un muy mal ACV, su alma eternamente joven mira los cambios en el cuerpo con ternura, y l agradece a las personas que lo ayudan. +Qu he ganado? +Libertad: Ya no tengo que demostrar nada. +No estoy atrapada en la idea de quin fui, de quin quiero ser, o qu esperan los dems que sea. +Ya no tengo que complacer a los hombres, solo a los animales. +Le sigo diciendo a mi supery que retroceda y me deje disfrutar lo que todava tengo. +Mi cuerpo puede estar cayendo a pedazos, pero mi cerebro no, todava. +Amo a mi cerebro. +Me siento ms liviana. +No siento rencor, ambicin, vanidad, ninguno de los pecados capitales que ni siquiera valen la pena. +Es genial soltar. +Debera haber empezado antes. +Y tambin me siento ms liviana porque no tengo miedo de ser vulnerable. +Ya no lo veo como una debilidad. +He ganado espiritualidad. +Soy consciente de que antes, la muerte estaba en el barrio. +Ahora, est al lado, o en mi casa. +Trato de vivir a conciencia y estar presente en el momento. +Por cierto, el Dalai Lama ha envejecido maravillosamente, pero quin quiere ser vegetariano y clibe? +La meditacin ayuda. +Nio: Ommm. Ommm. Ommm. +Isabel Allende: Ommm. Ommm. Ah est. +Y es bueno empezar temprano. +Ya saben, para una mujer vanidosa como yo, es muy difcil envejecer en esta cultura. +Por dentro, me siento bien, encantadora, seductora, sexy. +Nadie ms ve eso. Soy invisible. +Quiero ser el centro de atencin. +Detesto ser invisible. +Esta es Grace Dammann. +Ha estado en una silla de ruedas desde hace 6 aos despus de un terrible accidente automovilstico. +Ella dice que no hay nada ms sensual que una ducha de agua caliente, que cada gota de agua es una bendicin para los sentidos. +No se ve como discapacitada. +En su mente, todava hace surf en el mar. +Ethel Seiderman, una luchadora y querida activista en el lugar donde vivo en California. +Usa zapatos rojos, y su mantra es que una bufanda es agradable pero 2 son mejores. +Es viuda desde hace 9 aos, pero no busca otro compaero. +Dice que solo hay una cantidad limitada de maneras de meter la pata -- bueno, lo dice de otra forma -- y las ha probado todas. +Yo, por otro lado, todava tengo fantasas erticas con Antonio Banderas y mi pobre marido tiene que soportarlo. +Entonces, cmo mantener la pasin? +No puedo querer ser apasionada a los 71 aos. +He estado entrenando desde hace algn tiempo, y cuando me siento montona y aburrida, finjo. +Actitud, actitud. +Cmo entreno? Entreno diciendo s a lo que venga: drama, comedia, tragedia, amor, odio, prdidas. +Diciendo s a la vida. +Y entreno tratando de mantener el amor. +No siempre funciona, pero no pueden culparme por intentarlo. +Y, como nota final, el retiro laboral es la jubilacin. +Jubilacin, celebracin. +Hemos pagado nuestras deudas. +Hemos contribuido a la sociedad. +Ahora es nuestro momento, un gran momento. +A menos que uno est enfermo o sea muy pobre, uno tiene opciones. +He elegido mantener la pasin, y comprometerme con el corazn abierto. +Trabajo en eso todos los das. +Quieren sumarse? +Gracias. +June Cohen: Entonces, Isabel... IA: Gracias. +JC: En primer lugar, nunca me gusta presumir de hablar en nombre de la comunidad de TED, pero me gustara decir que tengo la sensacin, seguramente compartida, de que sigues siendo encantadora, seductora y sexy. S? +IA: Ahh, gracias. JC: Manos abajo. IA: No, es el maquillaje. +JC: Ahora, sera torpe si te hago una pregunta de seguimiento sobre tus fantasas erticas? +IA: Oh, por supuesto. Sobre qu? +JC: Sobre tus fantasas erticas. IA: Con Antonio Banderas. +JC: Me preguntaba si tienes algo ms para compartir. +IA: Bueno, una de ellas es que... En una de ellas pongo a Antonio Banderas en una tortilla mexicana, lo cubro con guacamole y salsa, lo enrollo y me lo como. Gracias. +Cuntas veces han usado hoy la palabra "awesome" [asombroso]? +Una vez? 2 veces? 17 veces? +Recuerdan qu estaban describiendo al usar esa palabra? +No, no lo creo, porque hemos llegado a esto, gente: Estn usando la palabra incorrectamente, y esta noche espero mostrarles cmo devolverle "awe" [asombro] a "awesome" [asombroso]. +Hace poco estaba cenando en un caf al aire libre, la empleada se acerc a nuestra mesa, y nos pregunt si habamos cenado all antes, y dije: "S, s, lo hemos hecho". +Y dijo: "Asombroso". +Y pens: "De verdad? +Es asombroso o simplemente bueno que hayamos visitado el restaurante otra vez?" +El otro da, uno de mis compaeros me pidi si poda guardar un archivo como PDF, y le dije: "S, claro", y me dijo: "Asombroso". +En serio? Guardar algo como PDF es asombroso? +Lamentablemente, el uso excesivo de la palabra "asombroso" ha remplazado a palabras como "genial" y "gracias". +El diccionario Webster define la palabra "awesome" [asombroso] como una mezcla de miedo y admiracin o respeto, un sentimiento producido por algo majestuoso. +Con esto en mente, el ltimo sndwich fue asombroso? +Y el espacio en el estacionamiento, fue asombroso? +O el juego del otro da, fue asombroso? +La respuesta es no, no y no. +Un sndwich puede ser delicioso, un espacio para estacionar, cercano, y un juego puede ser una goleada, pero no todo puede ser asombroso. +Cuando usan la palabra "asombroso" para describir las cosas ms mundanas, le estn quitando potencia expresiva a la palabra. +Aqu dice: "Los das de nieve o encontrar dinero en los pantalones es asombroso". +Mmm... no, no lo es, tenemos que subir el umbral de la tontera. En otras palabras, si uno tiene todo, no valora nada. +Es como beber de una manguera de bomberos, como este imbcil de aqu. +No hay dinmica, no hay altibajos, si todo es asombroso. +Damas y caballeros, estas son 10 cosas realmente asombrosas. +Imaginen, si lo desean, que tienen que cargar todo en sus espaldas. +No sera ms fcil para m si pudiera hacer rodar esto a casa? +S, por eso inventar la rueda. +La rueda, damas y caballeros. +Es la rueda algo asombroso? Repitan conmigo. +S, la rueda es algo asombroso! +Las grandes pirmides fueron las estructuras hechas por el hombre ms altas del mundo durante 4000 aos. +El faran tena esclavos que movan millones de bloques hasta este sitio para erigir esta bendita lpida. +Fueron las grandes pirmides algo asombroso? +S, las pirmides fueron algo asombroso. +El Gran Can. Vamos. +Tiene casi 80 millones de aos. +El Gran Can es algo asombroso? +S, el Gran Can es asombroso. +Louis Daguerre invent la fotografa en 1829, y hoy ms temprano, cuando sacaron sus telfonos inteligentes y tomaron una foto de sus sndwiches asombrosos, Uds. saben quines fueron no fue ms fcil que la exposicin de la imagen a placas de cobre recubiertas con plata yodada? +Digo, vamos. La fotografa es algo asombroso? +S, lo es. +El Da D, 6 de junio de 1944, la invasin aliada de Normanda, la invasin anfibia ms grande de la historia mundial. +El Da D fue algo asombroso? S, fue asombroso. +Se alimentaron hoy? Comieron? +Entonces pueden agradecerle a las abejas porque si no polinizaran los cultivos, no produciramos alimentos, y moriramos todos. +As de simple. +Una flor no puede levantarse y tener sexo con otra flor, eso s sera asombroso. +Las abejas son asombrosas. Es una broma? +El alunizaje! Vamos! +La Apolo 11 es una broma? +66 aos despus de que los hermanos Wright despegaran de Kitty Hawk, Carolina del Norte, Neil Armstrong estaba a 384 000 kilmetros. +Una distancia como de aqu a la luna. +Fue un pequeo paso para el hombre, un gran paso para el asombro! +Tienen toda la razn, lo fue. +Woodstock, 1969: la revista Rolling Stone dijo: Esto cambi la historia del rock and roll. +En ese entonces las entradas costaban USD 24. +Hoy no compramos ni una camiseta con ese dinero. +La versin de Jimi Hendrix de The Star-Spangled Banner fue un cono. +Woodstock fue asombroso? S, fue asombroso. +Los tiburones! Estn en la cima de la cadena alimentaria. +Tienen varias filas de dientes en sus mandbulas y avanzan como una cinta transportadora. +Algunos tiburones pueden perder 30 000 dientes a lo largo de sus vidas. +Lo asombroso inspira temor? +Claro que s, los tiburones son asombrosos! +Internet naci en 1982 y de inmediato se apoder de la comunicacin mundial, y, esta noche, cuando subamos estas presentaciones a Internet, ese tipo siberiano podr emborracharse y mirar esta basura; Internet es algo asombroso! +Para terminar, muchos de Uds. no vern la hora de venir a decirme lo asombrosa que fue esta presentacin. +Les ahorrar tiempo. +No fue asombrosa, pero fue verdadera, y espero que entretenida, y de todos los pblicos que he tenido, Uds. son el ms reciente. Gracias y buenas noches. +Por qu existe el universo? +Por qu est ah? Est bien. Est bien. Este un misterio csmico. Sean solemnes. +Por qu hay un mundo, por qu estamos en l, y por qu hay algo, en lugar de nada? +Digo, este es el "por qu?" ms trascendental. +Hablar del misterio de la existencia, rompecabezas de la existencia, dnde estamos ahora para abordar el tema, y por qu debera importarnos, y espero que les importe. +El filsofo Arthur Schopenhauer dijo que quienes no se preguntan sobre las circunstancias de su propia existencia, o de las circunstancias de la existencia del mundo, son mentalmente deficientes. +Eso es un poco duro, pero an as... este ha sido llamado el ms sublime y sorprendente misterio, la pregunta ms profunda y de mayor alcance que el hombre plante. +Ha obsesionado a grandes pensadores, +Ludwig Wittgenstein, quizs el filsofo ms grande del siglo XX, estaba asombrado de que hubiera un mundo. +Escribi en su "Tractatus", artculo 4.66, "No es cmo son las cosas en el mundo lo que lo hace mstico, sino que el mundo exista". +Y si no les gusta tomar epigramas de un filsofo, intentemos con un cientfico. +John Archibald Wheeler, uno de los fsicos ms grandes del siglo XX, el maestro de Richard Feynman, quien acu el trmino "agujero negro", dijo: "Quiero saber el por qu de la cuntica, el cmo del universo y de la existencia". +Mi amigo Martin Amis... perdn pero nombrar a muchas personas en esta charla, as que acostmbrense, mi querido amigo Martin Amis dijo una vez estamos a 5 Einsteins de distancia de resolver el misterio de dnde vino el universo. +Y no cabe duda de que hay 5 Einsteins en la audiencia esta noche. +Algn Einstein? No? +Ningn Einstein? Bueno. +Entonces, esta pregunta, por qu hay algo en lugar de nada, esta pregunta sublime, se plante tarde en la historia intelectual. +Fue hacia fines del siglo XVII, el filsofo Leibniz quien la formul, un hombre muy inteligente, Leibniz, quien invent el clculo independientemente de Isaac Newton, casi en el mismo momento, pero para Leibniz, Por qu hay algo en lugar de nada?, no era un gran misterio. +l era, o pretenda ser un cristiano ortodoxo en su punto de vista metafsico, deca, es obvio por qu existe el mundo: porque Dios lo cre. +Dios lo cre, de la nada misma. +As de poderoso es Dios. +No necesita ningn material preexistente para dar forma al mundo. +Puede hacerlo de pura nada, creacin ex nihilo. +Esto es lo que piensan la mayora de estadounidenses an hoy. +No hay misterio de la existencia. +Dios lo hizo. +Pongamos esto en una ecuacin. +No tengo diapositivas, as que, voy a imitarlas, usen su imaginacin. +Entonces, Dios + nada = el mundo. +Bien? Esa es la ecuacin. +Quizs no creen en Dios. +Quizs son cientficos ateos o ateos no cientficos, y no creen en Dios no estn contentos con esto. +A propsito, aunque tengamos esta ecuacin, Dios + nada = el mundo, surge un problema: Por qu existe Dios? +Dios no existe solo por lgica solo si creen el argumento ontolgico, y espero que no lo hagan, porque no es bueno. +Entonces es concebible que, si Dios existiera, quizs creera, soy eterno, soy todopoderoso, pero de dnde vine? +Pues, de dnde soy? +Dios habla de manera ms formal. +Una teora es que Dios estaba tan aburrido con el rompecabezas de su existencia que cre el mundo solo para distraerse. +De todas formas, olvidemos a Dios. +Si sacamos a Dios: tenemos ________ + nada = el mundo +Ahora, si fueran budistas, quizs quisieran parar ah mismo, porque esencialmente lo que obtiene es nada = el mundo, y por simetra, eso significa el mundo = nada. Bien? +Para un budista, el mundo es un montn de nada. +Es solo un vaco csmico gigante. +Creemos que hay un montn de "algo" solo porque estamos esclavizados por nuestros deseos. +Si dejamos que nuestros deseos se desvanezcan, veremos el mundo como realmente es, un vaco, la nada misma, y cambiaramos al feliz estado de nirvana que se ha definido como tener solo la vida suficiente para disfrutar estar muerto. Ese es el pensamiento budista. +Pero soy occidental, y sigo preocupado por el rompecabezas de la existencia, as consegu ________ + esto va a ponerse serio en un minuto, as que ________ + nada = el mundo +Qu pondr en el blanco? +Bueno, Qu tal ciencia? +La ciencia es la mejor gua hacia la naturaleza de la realidad, y la ciencia ms fundamental es la fsica. +Esto nos dir como es realmente la realidad desnuda, esto revela lo que llamo VYDADU, La verdadera y definitiva arquitectura del universo. +Quizs los fsicos puedan llenar este espacio en blanco, y, de hecho, desde fines de 1960 o alrededor de 1970, fsicos pretendieron dar una explicacin puramente cientfica de cmo un universo como el nuestro puede haber surgido de la nada misma, una fluctuacin cuntica del vaco. +Las leyes de la fsica cuntica, la fsica vanguardista, puede mostrar como de la nada misma, ni espacio, ni tiempo, ni materia, nada, una pequea pepita de vaco falso puede fluctuar hacia la existencia, y gracias al milagro de la inflacin, explot en este cosmos gigante y jaspeado que vemos a nuestro alrededor. +Bien, este es un escenario realmente ingenioso. +Es muy especulativo y fascinante +Pero tengo un gran problema con l, el problema es que, es una visin religiosa. +Lawrence cree que es ateo pero sigue esclavizado a una visin religiosa del mundo. +Ve las leyes fsicas como comandos divinos. +Para l, las leyes de la fsica cuntica son "fiat lux", "que se haga la luz". +Las leyes tienen un poder ontolgico casi que pueden formar un abismo, que est embarazado de existencia. +Pueden dar existencia a un mundo de la nada. +Es una visin primitiva de una ley fsica, verdad? +Sabemos que las leyes fsicas son una descripcin generalizada de patrones regulares en el mundo. +No existen fuera del mundo. +No tienen una nube ntica por s solos +no pueden dar existencia a un mundo de la nada misma. +Es un punto de vista muy primitivo de lo que es una ley fsica. +Si no me creen a m, escuchen a Stephen Hawking, quien propuso un modelo del cosmos autocontenido, que no requiere ninguna causa externa, ningn creador, y luego de proponer esto, Hawking admiti que todava estaba perplejo. +Dijo, este modelo son solo muchas ecuaciones. +Qu insufla fuego en las ecuaciones y crea un mundo para que describan? +Estaba perplejo con esto, las ecuaciones no pueden hacer magia por s solas, no pueden resolver el rompecabezas de la existencia. +Aparte, aunque las leyes pudieran hacerlo, Por qu este juego de leyes? +Por qu la fsica cuntica, que describe un universo con un cierto nmero de fuerzas, partculas, etc.? +Por qu no uno completamente distinto? +Hay muchos juegos de leyes matemticas consistentes. +Por qu no ninguna ley en absoluto? Por qu no la nada misma? +Solo vemos una parte muy pequea de la realidad que describen las leyes de la fsica cuntica, pero, hay muchos mundos, otros mundos, partes de la realidad que se describen con teoras muy vastas y diferentes que son diferentes de las nuestras y no las podemos imaginar, que son exticas e inconcebibles. +Steven Weinberg, el padre del modelo estndar de la fsica de partculas, ha coqueteado con esta idea, que todas las realidades posibles realmente existen. +Tambin, un fsico joven, Max Tegmark, cree que todas las estructuras matemticas existen, y la existencia matemtica, es la misma cosa que la existencia fsica, as que tenemos un multiverso muy vasto que engloba todas las posibilidades lgicas +Ahora, en la prctica de esta forma metafsica, estos fsicos y filsofos estn remontndose a una idea muy vieja que se remonta a Platn. +Es el principio de la plenitud y la fecundidad o la gran cadena de existir, que la realidad es lo ms completa posible. +Est tan lejos de la nada como es posible. +Ahora tenemos estos dos extremos. +Por un lado tenemos la nada misma, y tenemos esta visin de la realidad que engloba todos los mundos concebibles en el otro extremo: la realidad completa y posible la nada, la realidad posible ms simple. +Ahora, qu hay entre estos extremos? +Hay todo tipo de realidades intermedias que incluyen algunas cosas y excluyen otras. +Alguna de estas realidades intermedias es la realidad matemtica ms elegante. deja afuera las partes poco elegantes, las asimetras feas y as sucesivamente. +Hay algunos fsicos que dirn que uno est viviendo en la realidad ms elegante. +Creo que Brian Greene est en la audiencia, l ha escrito un libro llamado "El universo elegante". +Proclama que el universo que vivimos matemticamente es muy elegante. +No le crean. Es una esperanza piadosa, deseara que fuera cierto, pero creo que el otro da me admiti que realmente es un universo feo. +Est construido de forma estpida, tiene demasiadas constantes arbitrarias y relaciones de masas y familias de partculas elementales superfluas. Qu demonios es la energa oscura? +Es una gomera de chicle. +No es un universo elegante. Y luego est el mejor de los mundos posibles en un sentido tico. +Deberan ponerse solemnes ahora, porque es un mundo donde las personas sensibles no sufren innecesariamente, donde no hay cosas como nios con cncer, o el Holocausto. +Esta es una concepcin tica. +Entre la nada y la mayor realidad posible, hay realidades especiales. +La nada es especial. Es simple. +Luego est la realidad elegante. +Eso es especial. +La mayor realidad, es especial. +Qu estamos dejando fuera? +Hay algunas realidades de mala muerte, realidades genricas que no son especiales de ninguna forma. Son algo aleatorias. +Estn infinitamente retiradas de la nada, caen en una plenitud corta, pero completa. +Son una mezcla de caos y orden, de elegancia matemtica y fealdad. +Describir estas realidades como un lo infinito, mediocre e incompleto, una realidad genrica, una mezcla de basura csmica. +En estas realidades, Hay alguna deidad en alguna de ellas? +Quizs, pero esta deidad no es perfecta como una deidad judeo-cristiana. +No es extremadamente buena, ni todopoderosa. +En cambio, puede que sea 100 % malvola pero solo 80 % efectiva. Lo que ms o menos describe el mundo que nos rodea, creo. As que, me gustara proponer que la resolucin al misterio de la existencia es que la realidad en la que existimos es una de esas realidades genricas. +La realidad tiene que resultar de alguna manera. +Puede resultar ser nada o todo, o un punto medio. +As que si tiene alguna caracterstica especial, como ser realmente elegante o completa o muy simple, como la nada, eso requerira una explicacin. +Pero si es una de estas realidades genricas, no hay ninguna explicacin para ello. +De hecho, dir que esa es la realidad en la que vivimos. +Eso es lo que la ciencia nos est diciendo. +Estoy seguro que todos saben sobre este tema. +As que de todos modos, creo que hay cierta evidencia de que esta realidad en la que estamos atascados. +Ahora, por qu debera importarles? +Bueno... la pregunta, "Por qu existe el mundo?" +es la pregunta csmica, en consonancia con una pregunta ms ntima: Por qu existo yo? Por qu existen Uds.? +Saben, nuestra existencia parece ser poco probable, porque hay una enorme cantidad de humanos genticamente posibles, si se puede calcular mirando el nmero de genes y alelos, as sucesivamente, y un clculo ligero dir que hay unos 10 a la 10 000 humanos genticamente posibles. +Eso es entre un ggol y un ggolplex +La cantidad de humanos que existi es 100 000 millones, quizs 50 000 millones, una fraccin infinitesimal, todos ganamos la sorprendente lotera csmica. +Estamos aqu. Est bien. +En qu tipo de realidad queremos vivir? +Queremos vivir en una realidad especial? +Y si viviramos la realidad ms elegante posible? +Imaginen la presin existencial sobre nosotros. Para vivir a la altura, ser elegante, y no desentonar. +Y si viviramos en la ms completa? +Nuestra existencia estara garantizada, porque cada cosa posible existe en esa realidad, nuestras decisiones no importaran. +Si luchara moralmente y decidiera hacer lo correcto, qu diferencia hara, porque hay una cantidad infinita de versiones de m que tambin hacen lo correcto y una cantidad infinita que lo hacen mal. +Mis decisiones son insignificantes. +As que no queremos vivir all. +Y para la realidad especial de la nada, no estaramos teniendo esta conversacin. +Creo que vivir en una realidad genrica es mediocre, hay cosas buenas y malas, y podramos hacer ms grandes las partes buenas y ms chicas las malas y eso nos da un propsito. +En la vida, el universo es absurdo, pero podemos construirnos un propsito, y es uno muy bueno, la mediocridad comn de la realidad resuena bien con la mediocridad en el centro de nuestro ser. +Y Uds. lo sentirn. +S que todos son especiales, pero son secretamente mediocres, no lo creen? +De todas formas, dirn, el rompecabezas de la existencia, es solo un misterio tonto. +No estn maravillados de la existencia del universo y estn en buena compaa. +Bertrand Russell dijo: "Debera decir que el universo est ah, y eso es todo". +Solo un dato duro. +Y mi profesor en Columbia, Sydney Morgenbesser, un gran bromista filosfico, cuando le dije: "Profesor Morgenbesser, por qu hay algo en lugar de nada? +Me respondi: "Si no hubiera nada tampoco estaras satisfecho". +As que... est bien. +As que no estn asombrados. No me importa. +Pero les dir algo para finalizar que les garantizo los asombrar, porque ha maravillado a todas las personas brillantes que conoc en esta conferencia TED, cuando les dije, y es esto: Nunca en mi vida tuve un telfono mvil. +Gracias. +Recientemente, algunos chicos blancos y algunas mujeres negras intercambiaron avatares de Twitter o imgenes en lnea. +No cambiaron su contenido, siguieron tuiteando lo mismo de siempre, pero de pronto, los chicos blancos notaron que los llamaban usando "niggers" todo el tiempo y que estaban padeciendo el peor tipo de maltrato en lnea; mientras que las mujeres de raza negra, de repente, notaron que las cosas ahora eran mucho ms agradables para ellas. +Ahora, si eres mi hijo de 5 aos, tu Internet es sobre todo de cachorros y hadas y en ocasiones, las hadas montan cachorros. +Bsquenlo con Google. +Pero el resto de nosotros sabemos que Internet puede ser un lugar muy feo. +No hablo de la clase de debates coloridos, que creo son saludables para nuestra democracia, +hablo de los ataques personales desagradables. +Tal vez les haya pasado, pero es por lo menos dos veces ms probable que ocurra, y ser peor, si eres una mujer, una persona de color, o gay, o ms de uno al mismo tiempo. +De hecho, justo cuando estaba escribiendo esta charla, encontr la cuenta de Twitter @SallyKohnSucks. +La semblanza dice que soy "una misntropa de hombres y lesbiana a ultranza y lo nico que he logrado en mi carrera es difundir mi sexualidad perversa." +Lo cual, por cierto, es correcto solo una 1/3 parte. +Quiero decir, mentiras! Pero en serio, todos decimos que odiamos esta basura, +la pregunta es si uno est dispuesto a hacer un sacrificio personal para cambiarlo. +No me refiero a renunciar a la Internet, +me refiero a cambiar la forma de hacer clic, porque hacer clic es un acto pblico. +Ya no es el caso, que unas pocas lites poderosas controlan todos los medios y el resto de nosotros somos solo receptores pasivos. +Cada vez ms, somos todos los medios de comunicacin. +Sola pensar, oh, est bien, me visto, me pongo mucho maquillaje, voy de la televisin, hablo de la noticias. +Eso es un acto pblico de hacer los medios de comunicacin. +Luego me voy a casa y navego por la web y leo Twitter, y eso es un acto privado de consumo de medios. +Quiero decir, claro que lo es, estoy en mi pijamas. +Error. +Todo lo que blogueamos, todo lo que tuiteamos, y a todo a lo que hacemos clic es un acto pblico de estar en los medios. +Somos los nuevos editores. +Nosotros decidimos lo que llama la atencin con base a lo que le damos atencin. +As es como funcionan los medios ahora. +Hay todos estos algoritmos ocultos que deciden lo que se ve ms y lo que todos vemos ms basados en lo que hacemos clic, que a su vez da forma a toda nuestra cultura. +Tres de 5 estadounidenses piensan que tenemos un grave problema de falta de civismo en nuestro pas actualmente, pero voy a suponer que, al menos, 3 de cada 5 estadounidenses estn haciendo clic en el mismo insulto, difundiendo el rumor que alimenta los impulsos ms repugnantes de nuestra sociedad. +En un panorama meditico cada vez ms ruidoso, el incentivo es hacer ms ruido para ser odo, y esa tirana de lo escandaloso alienta la tirana de lo desagradable. +No tiene por qu ser as. +No tiene por qu. +Podemos cambiar el incentivo. +Para empezar, hay dos cosas que todos podemos hacer. +Primero, no aislarse cuando ven a alguien haciendo dao. +Si alguien es vctima de acoso en lnea, hagan algo! +Sean hroes. Esta es su oportunidad. +Hablen. Hablen. Sean buenas personas. +Ahoguen lo negativo con lo positivo. +Y en segundo lugar, dejemos de hacer clic en el ms bajo-comn-denominador del botn que alimenta al enlace seuelo. +Si no les gusta 'toda la programacin todo Kardashian 24/7', tienen que dejar de hacer clic en las historias sobre las fotos de los senos de Kim Kardashian. +S que lo hacen. Ud. tambin, al parecer. +De verdad, el mismo ejemplo: si no les gustan los polticos que se andan insultando dejen de hacer clic en las historias acerca del tipo de un partido que insult al del otro partido. +Hacer clic en un choque de trenes solo vierte gasolina. +Hacen que sea peor, el fuego se extiende. +Toda nuestra cultura se quema. +Si el que obtiene el mayor nmero de clics gana, entonces tenemos que empezar a dar forma al mundo que queremos con nuestros clics, porque hacer clic es un acto pblico. +Entonces hagan clic en forma responsable. Gracias. +Esta es una fotografa de un hombre al que durante muchos aos plane matar. +Este es mi padre, Clinton George "Bageye" [El ojeras] Grant. +Llamado Bageye porque tena siempre ojeras. +A los 10 aos, junto con mis hermanos, so con raspar el veneno del papel matamoscas en su caf, ponindolo en el vaso y rocindolo por encima de su desayuno, o aflojar la alfombra de las escaleras para que tropezara y se rompiera el cuello. +Pero llegado el da, siempre saltaba el peldao flojo, l siempre sala de la casa con tan solo un trago de caf o un bocado para comer. +Y as, durante muchos aos, tem que mi padre morira antes de tener yo la oportunidad de matarlo. +Hasta que nuestra madre le pidi que se fuera y que no volviera, Bageye siempre haba sido un ogro aterrador. +Se tambaleaba permanentemente al borde de la rabia, como yo, como Uds. ven. +As que la leccin fue la leccin que "No llamar la atencin ya sea en el hogar o fuera del hogar". +Tal vez es una leccin del emigrante. +Bueno, el sonido que desebamos or era el clic de la puerta al cerrarse, lo que significaba que se haba ido y no volvera. +As que durante tres dcadas, nunca vi a mi padre, ni l a m. +Nunca nos hablamos durante tres dcadas, y entonces, hace un par de aos, decid poner el punto de mira en l. +"Te estn vigilando. +en realidad, te vigilan. +Te estn vigilando". +Ese era su mantra para nosotros, sus hijos. +Una y otra vez nos deca esto. +Y esta era la dcada de los 70, en Luton, donde trabajaba en Vauxhall Motors, y l era jamaicano. +Y lo que quera decir era, a ti como hijo de inmigrante jamaicano te estn vigilando, para ver de qu manera para ver si encajas en el estereotipo de la nacin anfitriona, de ser irresponsable, gandul, predestinado a llevar una vida de crimen. +te estn vigilando, as que confunde sus expectativas sobre ti. +Con ese fin, Bageye y sus amigos, principalmente de Jamaica, exhibieron una especie de bella figura de Jamaica: Muestra tu mejor cara al mundo, muestra tu mejor cara al mundo. +Si Uds. han visto algunas de las imgenes de las personas del Caribe que llegaron en los aos 40 y 50, se habrn dado cuenta de que muchos de los hombres llevan sombreros tiroleses. +No obstante, no haba tradicin de llevar esos sombreros en Jamaica. +Inventaron esa tradicin a su llegada aqu. +Queran dar la imagen de ser percibidos, con base en el aspecto que tenan y a los nombres que se dieron que los defini. +As Bageye es calvo y tiene ojeras. +Tydy Boots [Buenas Botas], es muy exigente con el calzado. +Anxious siempre est ansioso. +Clock [Reloj] tiene un brazo ms largo que el otro. +Y mi favorito era el tipo que ellos llamaban Summerwear [Ropa de verano]. +Cuando Summerwear vino a este pas de Jamaica en los 60, insisti en usar trajes claros de verano, sin importar el clima, y mientras investigaba sus vidas, le pregunt a mi madre: "Qu pas con Summerwear?" +Y ella dijo: "Se resfri y muri". Pero hombres como Summerwear nos ensearon la importancia del estilo. +Uno no acaba de representarse a s mismo. +Uno representa el grupo. Y era una cosa terrible con la que familiarizarse, porque, tal vez ibas a ser percibido de la misma manera. +As que eso era lo que necesitaba para ser desafiado. +Nuestro padre y muchos de sus colegas exhibieron un tipo de transmisin, pero sin recibir. +Fueron creados para transmitir, pero no para recibir. +Tenamos que guardar silencio. +Cuando nuestro padre nos hablaba, era desde el plpito de su mente. +Se aferraron a la creencia de que la duda les socavara. +Pero cuando trabajo en mi casa y escribo, tras un da escribiendo, me apresuro a bajar y me emociona mucho hablar de Marcus Garvey o Bob Marley y las palabras se tropiezan en mi boca como mariposas y estoy muy emocionado de que mis hijos me paran, y dicen: "Pap, a nadie le importa". +Pero les importa, en realidad. +Ellos atraviesan eso. +De alguna manera encuentran el camino hacia uno. +Dan forma a sus vidas de acuerdo con el relato de la vida de uno, como lo hice yo con mi padre y con mi madre, tal vez, y tal vez Bageye lo hizo con su padre. +Y eso fue ms claro para m en el curso de observar su vida y comprender, como se suele decir, los nativos estadounidenses lo dicen, "No critiques al hombre hasta que sepas caminar en sus mocasines". +Pero evocando su vida, era bueno y muy sencillo retratar una vida del Caribe en Inglaterra en la dcada de 1970 con cuencos de fruta de plstico, azulejos del techo de poliestireno, sofs permanentemente cubiertos en sus cubiertas transparentes con las que entregaron los sofs. +Pero con que es ms difcil de bregar es con el tema emocional entre las generaciones, y el viejo adagio de que con la edad viene la sabidura no es cierto. +Con la edad viene la apariencia de respetabilidad y una apariencia de verdades incmodas. +Pero lo que era cierto era que mis padres, mi madre, y mi padre estaban de acuerdo en no confiar mi educacin al estado. +As que escuchen. +Decidieron que me enviaran a una escuela privada, pero mi padre trabajaba en Vauxhall Motors. +Era bastante difcil de financiar una escuela privada y alimentar a su ejrcito de nios. +Recuerdo que fui a la escuela para el examen de ingreso y mi padre dijo al sacerdote era una escuela catlica que quera una mejor "jeducacin" para el nio, pero, l, mi padre, ni siquiera logr pasar virus, y mucho menos los exmenes de ingreso. +Pero para financiar mi educacin, tendra que hacer algunas cosas dudosas, as que mi padre pagara mi educacin comerciando con bienes ilcitos de la parte trasera del auto, lo que fue an ms difcil porque el auto no era de mi padre, por cierto. +Mi padre aspiraba a tener un auto as, pero mi padre tena un mini abollado y nunca, siendo un jamaicano inmigrado a este pas, tuvo permiso de conducir, nunca tuvo ningn tipo de seguro, impuesto de circulacin o ITV. +Pens: "Yo s conducir; por qu necesito la validacin del estado?" +Pero se hizo un poco difcil cuando nos detuvo la polica, y la polica nos detuvo muchas veces, y me impresion la forma en que mi padre trataba con la polica. +Ascenda al polica inmediatamente, por lo que el polica Bloggs se converta en el Inspector criminalista Bloggs en el transcurso de la conversacin. y nos despeda alegremente con la mano. +As que mi padre desplegaba lo que en Jamaica se llama "hacerse el tonto para pillar como listo". +Pero tambin reafirmaba la idea de que en realidad estaba discriminado o menospreciado por la polica, como nio de 10 aos, lo vea pero tambin exista una ambivalencia hacia la autoridad. +As, por un lado, haba una burla de la autoridad, pero por otro lado, haba una deferencia hacia la autoridad, y estos pueblos del Caribe tienen una obediencia exagerada hacia la autoridad, que es muy llamativo, muy extrao, porque los inmigrantes son personas muy valientes. +Dejan sus casas. Mi padre y mi madre dejaron Jamaica y viajaron unos 6500 km, y, sin embargo, el viaje les infantiliz. +Eran tmidos, y, en algn lugar, a lo largo de la lnea, el orden natural se invirti. +Los nios se convirtieron en los padres de los padres. +Aunque an exista la clase de temporalidad que nuestros padres sentan por estar aqu, pero nosotros, los nios sabamos que el juego haba terminado. +Creo que haba una sensacin de que que no podran continuar con los ideales de la vida que ellos esperaban. +La realidad era muy diferente. +Y tambin, era cierta la realidad de tratar de educarme. +Despus de haber iniciado el proceso, mi padre no continu. +Dej a mi madre que me educara, y como George Lamming dira, fue mi madre quien me engendr. +Incluso, en su ausencia, ese viejo mantra se mantuvo: Te estn vigilando. +Pero esa vigilancia ardiente puede llevar a la ansiedad, tanto es as que aos ms tarde, cuando yo estaba investigando por qu a tantos jvenes negros se les diagnostic esquizofrenia, 6 veces ms de lo que deberan ser, no me sorprendi escuchar al psiquiatra decir: "Los negros son educados en la paranoia". +Y me pregunto qu dira Bageye al respecto. +Ahora al tener tambin un hijo de 10 aos, torn mi atencin a Bageye y fui en su bsqueda. +Estaba de nuevo en Luton, tena ahora de 82 aos, y yo no lo haba visto desde haca unos 30 aos, y cuando abri la puerta, vi a este pequeo hombre pequeo con ojos ondulantes y sonrientes, y sonrea, y yo nunca antes lo haba visto sonrer. +Eso me desconcert mucho. +Pero nos sentamos, y l estaba con un amigo del Caribe, hablando de viejos tiempos, y mi padre me miraba, y l me mir como si yo fuera a desaparecer milagrosamente tal y como haba aparecido. +Y l se volvi hacia su amigo y le dijo: "Este chico y yo tenemos una conexin profunda, profunda, una conexin profunda, profunda". +Pero nunca sent esa conexin. +Si haba un pulso, era muy dbil o apenas nada. +Y en el transcurso de esa reunin casi me sent que hacia una audicin para ser el hijo de mi padre. +Cuando sali el libro, obtuve buenas crticas en los peridicos nacionales, pero el peridico preferido en Luton no es The Guardian, es el Luton News, y el Luton News public el titular sobre el libro, "El libro que puede curar una desavenencia de un chico de 32 aos". +Y comprend que tambin poda representar la ruptura entre una generacin y la siguiente, entre la gente como yo y la generacin de mi padre, pero no hay tradicin en la vida del Caribe de memorias o biografas. +Era tradicin el no conversar sobre las cosas de uno en pblico. +Pero di la bienvenida a ese ttulo, y pens que en realidad, s, hay una posibilidad de que esto abriera conversaciones que nunca habamos tenido antes. +Esto cerrar la brecha generacional, tal vez. +Esto podra ser un instrumento de reparacin. +Y yo ni siquiera empec a sentir que este libro pudiera ser percibidos por mi padre como un acto de devocin filial. +Pobre, tonto engaado. +A Bageye le pic lo que l percibi como la difusin pblica de sus defectos. +Se sinti herido por mi traicin, y al da siguiente se fue al peridico y exigi el derecho de rplica, y lo consigui con el titular "Bageye contraataca". +Y era una cuestin pendiente a mi traicin. +Ya no era hijo suyo. +Reconoci en su mente que su reputacin haba sido arrastrada por el suelo, y no lo poda permitir. +Tena que recuperar su dignidad, y as lo hizo, y en un principio, aunque estaba decepcionado, llegu a admirar esa postura. +Todava haba llamas chispeando en sus venas, a pesar de que tena 82 aos. +Y si eso significaba que ahora volveramos a 30 aos de silencio, mi padre deca: "Si es as, entonces es as". +Los jamaicanos dicen que no existe nada ms que los hechos, solo hay versiones. +Todos nos contamos versiones de la historia con las que podemos vivir mejor. +Cada generacin construye un edificio que no est dispuesta o no puede a veces desmontar, pero en la escritura, mi versin de la historia comenz a cambiar, y se separa de m. +Perd el odio a mi padre. +Yo ya no quiero que se muera o asesinarle, y me sent libre, mucho ms libre de lo que nunca antes me haba sentido. +Y me pregunto si esa libertad se le podra transmitir a l. +En esa reunin inicial, me llam la atencin una cosa que tena muy pocas fotografas mas, siendo un nio pequeo. +Esta es una fotografa ma, tena nueve meses. +En la fotografa original, me sostena mi padre, Bageye, pero al separarse mis padres, mi madre lo extirp de todos los aspectos de nuestras vidas. +Ella tom las tijeras y lo recort de cada fotografa, y durante aos, me dije que la verdad de esta fotografa era que yo estaba solo, que no tena apoyo. +Pero hay otra forma de ver esta fotografa. +Esta es una fotografa con el potencial para una reunin, un potencial para reunirse con mi padre, y en mi anhelo de que mi padre me sostuviera, sali l a la luz. +En esa primera reunin, hubo momentos muy difciles y tensos, y para disminuir la tensin, decidimos ir a dar un paseo. +Y mientras caminbamos, me llam la atencin que yo haba vuelto a ser el nio a pesar de que ser ya ms alto que mi padre. +Yo era unos 30 cm ms alto que mi padre. +Para m segua siendo el hombre grande, y trat de igualar su paso. +Y me di cuenta de que caminaba como si todava estuviera vigilado, pero yo admiraba su paso. +Caminaba como un hombre en el lado de los perdedores de la final de la copa dando los pasos para recoger la medalla de consolacin. +Hubo dignidad en la derrota. +Gracias. +Soy ingeniero industrial. +Mi objetivo en la vida siempre ha sido hacer ms y ms productos con la menor cantidad de tiempo y de recursos. +Mientras trabajaba en Toyota lo nico que saba era cmo hacer autos hasta que conoc al doctor Akira Miyawaki, quien lleg a la fbrica a crear un bosque dentro de ella para hacerla un emisor neutral de carbono. +Estaba tan fascinado que decid aprender esta metodologa unindome a su equipo como voluntario. +Pronto, empec a hacer un bosque en el patio trasero de mi propia casa y as es como se ve despus de tres aos. +Este bosque, comparado con las plantaciones convencionales, crece 10 veces ms rpido, es 30 veces ms denso, y 100 veces ms biodiverso. +Despus de 2 aos de tener este bosque en mi patio trasero, not que el agua del subsuelo no se secaba durante el verano seco, que el nmero de aves en el rea se haba duplicado. +La calidad del aire se volvi mejor y empezamos a cosechar frutas de temporada que crecan sin esfuerzo justo en el patio trasero de nuestra propia casa. +Quise hacer ms de esos bosques. +Estaba tan impactado por los resultados que quera crear estos bosques con la misma pasin con la que haca autos, escriba software o haca negocios; as que fund un compaa que es el proveedor de servicios final para crear estos bosques naturales nativos. +Pero para hacer de la reforestacin un negocio importante o una industria, necesitamos estandarizar el proceso de hacer bosques. +As que tomamos el sistema de produccin de Toyota, conocido por su calidad y eficiencia, para el proceso de hacer bosques. +Por ejemplo, el nucleo del SPT, Sistema de Produccin Toyota, se basa en heijunka, que es hacer la manufactura de diferentes modelos en una sola lnea de ensamblaje. +Reemplazamos los autos con rboles, de esta manera podemos crear bosques de varias capas. +Estos bosques utilizan el 100% del espacio vertical. +Son tan densos que uno no puede entrar. +Por ejemplo, podemos hacer un bosque de 300 rboles en una rea tan pequea como un estacionamiento de 6 autos. +Para reducir costos y nuestra propia marca de carbn, empezamos a utilizar biomasa local como abono y fertilizantes. +Por ejemplo, las cscaras de coco trituradas en una mquina mezcladas con paja de arroz, polvo de cscaras de maz mezcladas con estircol orgnico se pone en el suelo en que vamos a plantar el bosque. +Una vez plantado, usamos pasto o paja de arroz para cubrir el suelo, as el agua que usamos para regar no se evapora. +Usando estas mejoras simples hoy en da podemos hacer un bosque con un costo tan bajo como el costo de un iPhone +Hoy en da, estamos haciendo bosques en casas, en escuelas e incluso en fbricas empresariales. +Pero no es suficiente. +Existen muchas personas que quieren hacerlo con sus propias manos. +As que los ayudamos. +Hoy en da, estamos trabajando en una plataforma de internet en que compartiremos nuestra metodologa de manera libre con la cul cualquiera donde sea puede tener su propio bosque sin que estemos fsicamente ah, usando nuestra metodologa. +Con solo un click, pueden saber de las especies nativas de su comunidad. +Instalando una pequea sonda podemos evaluar el terreno remotamente, con lo que podemos dar instrucciones paso a paso sobre el proceso de hacer el bosque. +Tambin podemos monitorear el crecimiento sin estar ah. +Esta metodologa, creo, tiene potencial. +Al compartirla, podemos de verdad recuperar nuestros bosques. +Hoy, cuando regresen a sus hogares, si ven un terreno baldo recuerden que puede ser un bosque en potencia. +Muchas gracias. +Por ms de una dcada como mdico he atendido a indigentes mayores, familias de clase trabajadora, +pacientes que viven y trabajan en condiciones difciles o muy duras. Este trabajo me ha llevado a pensar que hace falta una forma fundamentalmente diferente de ver el cuidado de la salud. +Necesitamos un sistema de salud que vaya ms all de los sntomas que llevan a la gente a las clnicas, necesitamos que pueda mirar y mejorar la salud donde comienza. +Y la salud comienza no en las 4 paredes de un consultorio mdico, sino donde vivimos y trabajamos, donde comemos, dormimos, aprendemos y jugamos, donde pasamos la mayor parte de nuestras vidas. +Cmo es esta perspectiva diferente de ver la salud, una perspectiva que puede mejorar la salud donde comienza? +Para ilustrar esto, voy a hablarles de Vernica. +Vernica era mi paciente nmero 17 en un da en el que tuve 26 pacientes, en esa clnica del sur de Los ngeles. +Lleg a nuestra clnica con dolor crnico de cabeza. +El dolor de cabeza lo sufra desde haca aos y esta vez en particular era muy, muy alarmante. +Tres semanas antes de que nos visitara por primera vez, ya haba estado en una sala de emergencias en Los ngeles. +Los mdicos de la sala de emergencias le dijeron: "Te hicimos algunos exmenes, Vernica. +Los resultados son normales, as que ten unas medicinas para el dolor y has seguimiento con un mdico general, pero si el dolor contina o se agudiza, regresa". +Vernica sigui estas instrucciones y regres. +Y no solo una vez, sino dos veces ms. +Tres semanas antes de que Vernica viniera a nosotros, ya haba ido a la sala de emergencia 3 veces. +Haba ido y venido, a diferentes hospitales y clnicas, tal como lo haba hecho en aos anteriores tratando de buscar una cura sin encontrarla. +Vernica lleg a nuestra clnica y a pesar de todas estas consultas con diferentes mdicos, Vernica an estaba enferma. +Al llegar a nuestra clnica usamos un mtodo diferente. +Nuestro mtodo fue comenzar con un asistente mdico, alguien con un nivel tcnico, pero que conoca la comunidad. +Nuestro asistente mdico le hizo unas preguntas de rutina: +"Cul es tu queja principal?" +- "Dolor de cabeza". +- "Te tomar tus signos vitales", medimos su presin arterial y ritmo cardaco, pero tambin le preguntamos algo igualmente vital para Vernica y para muchos pacientes como ella del sur de Los ngeles. +"Vernica, hblame del sitio donde vives, +especficamente de las condiciones de tu casa. +Tienes moho? Filtraciones de agua? +Hay cucarachas en tu casa? +Resulta que Vernica dijo que s a estas 3 cosas: cucarachas, filtraciones de agua y moho. +Recib el reporte y lo revis, abr la puerta y entr en el cuarto. +Sepan que Vernica, como muchos pacientes que he tenido el privilegio de atender, es una persona digna, con una gran presencia, una personalidad radiante, pero all estaba, doblada por el dolor, sentada en mi cama de examinacin. +Su cabeza, claramente en agona, descansaba sobre sus manos. +Levant su cabeza, vi su rostro, le dije hola, e inmediatamente not algo en el puente de su nariz, una pequea arruga en la piel. +En medicina llamamos a esta arruga el saludo del alrgico. +Se ve usualmente en nios que sufren de alergias crnicas. +Se debe al frote continuo de la nariz, hacia arriba y abajo, al tratar de aliviar los sntomas de las alergias, pero aqu estaba Vernica, una mujer adulta con las mismas marca de las alergias. +Unos minutos ms tarde, despus de hacerle algunas preguntas, de examinarla y escucharla, le dije: "Vernica, creo que s qu tienes. +Creo que tienes una alergia crnica. Tienes migraas y sinusitis nasal, y todo est relacionado con el sitio donde vives". +Se vea un poco ms aliviada porque por primera vez tena un diagnstico, pero le dije: "Vernica, ahora hablemos de tu tratamiento. +Vamos a recetarte algunas medicinas para los sntomas, pero tambin quiero referirte a un especialista, si te parece bien". +Los especialistas son algo difcil de conseguir al sur de Los ngeles, as que me mir y dijo: De veras? +Vernica regres unos meses ms tarde. +Ella sigui todos los planes de tratamiento. +Nos cont que sus sntomas se haban reducido en un 90 %. +Pasaba ms tiempo en el trabajo y con su familia, y menos tiempo yendo y viniendo de las salas de emergencia de Los ngeles. +Vernica haba mejorado de forma impresionante. +Uno de sus hijos que sufra de asma, ya no se enfermaba tanto como antes. +Ella se senta mejor y no era coincidencia que su hogar tambin estuviera mejor. +Qu es lo diferente en este mtodo que usamos que nos lleva a un mejor cuidado, menos visitas a la sala de emergencia, mejor salud? +Pues, simplemente que comienza con la pregunta: "Vernica, dnde vives?" +Pero lo ms importante es que diseamos un sistema que nos permiti hacerle preguntas rutinarias a Vernica y a cientos como ella sobre las condiciones que importan en su comunidad, sobre donde la salud, y desafortunadamente, tambin donde las enfermedades comienzan en sitios como el sur de L.A. +En esa comunidad, la baja calidad de la vivienda y la inseguridad alimentaria son los principales problemas que nuestra clnica debe preocuparse, pero en otras comunidades pueden ser la falta de transporte, la obesidad, el acceso a los parques, la violencia con armas. +Lo importante es que tengamos un sistema que funcione, y es el mtodo que llamo el "mtodo de aguas arribas", +con el que muchos ya estn familiarizados. +Viene de una parbola que es muy comn en salud pblica comunitaria. +Esta es la parbola de 3 amigos. +Imaginen que son uno de estos 3 amigos que van al ro. +Un lindo paisaje, pero se ve interrumpido por el llanto de un nio, de hecho, muchos nios que necesitan ser rescatados del agua. +As que hacen lo que todo el mundo hara. +Se meten al agua junto con sus amigos. +El primer amigo dice, "Voy a rescatar a los que estn a punto de ahogarse, esos que estn a punto de caerse por la cascada". +El segundo dice, "Voy construir una balsa, +para que menos gente termine cerca de la cascada. +Salvemos ms gente con esta balsa hecha de ramas". +Con el tiempo logran su propsito aunque no del todo, como quisieran. +Ms gente sigue llegando y finalmente ven que su tercera amiga no se ve en ninguna parte. +Finalmente la ven. +Est en el agua y est nadando en direccin contraria, aguas arribas, rescatando nios en su trayecto, y le gritan: "A dnde vas? Ac hay nios que salvar". +Y ella les contesta: "Voy a averiguar quin o qu est tirando estos nios al agua". +En el cuidado de la salud, tenemos ese primer amigo, tenemos al especialista, el cirujano traumatlogo, la enfermera de cuidados intensivos, los doctores de la sala de emergencia. +Tenemos a los rescatadores vitales, gente con la que queremos estar cuando estamos en situaciones crticas. +Tambin sabemos que tenemos ese segundo amigo, el de la balsa. +Es el mdico general, gente que est en el equipo de cuidados mdicos para manejar tus dolencias crnicas, tu diabetes, tu hipertensin, tu chequeo mdico anual, asegurarse de que ests al da con las vacunas, pero tambin estn all para que tengas una balsa para llevarte a un sitio seguro. +Pero aunque eso es vital y muy necesario, nos falta ese tercer amigo. +No tenemos suficiente de ese que "nada aguas arriba". +Se preguntarn, y es una pregunta muy obvia que muchos de los colegas en medicina preguntan: "Mdicos y enfermeras pensando sobre transporte y vivienda? +No deberamos recetar pldoras y tratamientos y enfocarnos en nuestra tarea? +Salvar a la gente del borde de la cascada ya es de por s un trabajo importante. +Quin tiene tiempo?" +Yo dira que si usamos la ciencia como gua, nos daremos cuenta de que este mtodo es imprescindible. +Todo junto, las condiciones de vida y de trabajo influyen en el 60 % de las muertes prevenibles. +Les voy a dar un ejemplo de esto. +Digamos que una compaa, una de tecnologa, viene y dice: "Tenemos un gran producto. +Reducir tu riesgo de morir por enfermedades cardacas". +Seguramente invertiran si el producto fuera una droga o un aparato, pero, y si el producto fuera un parque? +Un estudio en el Reino Unido, un estudio importante que revis los datos de ms de 40 millones de residentes en el Reino Unido, estudi numerosas variables controladas por muchos factores, y descubri que al tratar de ajustar el riesgo de enfermedades cardacas, la exposicin a espacios verdes era una influencia importante. +Mientras ms cerca estn a espacios verdes, parques y rboles, menor el riesgo de enfermedades cardacas, cosa cierta tanto para ricos como para pobres. +Esto ilustra lo que mis amigos en salud pblica afirman con frecuencia, que su cdigo postal es ms importante que su cdigo gentico. +Nos estamos dando cuenta de que el cdigo postal da forma a nuestro cdigo gentico. +La ciencia de la epigentica observa esos mecanismos moleculares, esas formas intrincadas en que nuestro ADN es literalmente ajustado genes que se encienden y se apagan con base a lo que se exponen en el ambiente en donde vivimos y trabajamos. +Est claro que estos factores, estos problemas que ocurren "aguas arriba" importan. +Son importantes para nuestra salud y por eso los profesionales de la salud deben hacer algo. +Pero, Vernica pregunt lo ms importante que he odo en mucho tiempo. +En ese chequeo de rutina, dijo: "Por qu ninguno de mis doctores pregunt antes por mi casa? +En esas visitas a la sala de emergencia, me hicieron dos TAC, me pusieron una aguja en la parte baja de la espalda para recolectar fluido espinal, tuve casi una docena de exmenes de sangre. +Fui y vine, consult todo tipo de especialistas, y nadie me pregunt por mi casa". +Para ser honesto, en la salud con frecuencia tratamos los sntomas sin tomar en cuenta las condiciones que te enfermaron desde un principio. +Y hay muchas razones, pero las 3 ms importantes son, primero, no pagamos para eso. +En la salud con frecuencia pagamos por volumen y no por valor. +Le pagamos a los doctores y a los hospitales por el nmero de servicios que prestan, pero no necesariamente por lo saludable que te hacen. +Esto lleva al segundo fenmeno que llamo el enfoque de "no preguntes, no digas" sobre las causas de los problemas de salud. +No preguntamos dnde vives o trabajas porque si hay un problema all, no sabemos qu decirte. +No es que los mdicos no sepan que esto es importante. +Hay un gran bache entre saber que es importante conocer dnde vive y trabaja el paciente, y la capacidad de poder hacer algo en el sistema en el que trabajan. +Es un gran problema ahora porque nos lleva a la pregunta siguiente: De quin es la responsabilidad? +Esto me trae al tercer punto. La tercera respuesta a la importante pregunta de Vernica. +Parte de la razn de este acertijo es porque no tenemos suficientes gente "aguas arriba" en el sistema de salud. +No hay suficientes de ese tercer amigo, esa persona que va a investigar quin o qu est lanzando esos nios al agua. +Hoy en da hay muchos en esta categora y he tenido el privilegio de conocerlos en Los ngeles y en otras partes del pas y alrededor del mundo. Es importante resaltar que a veces son mdicos, pero no tienen que serlo. +Pueden ser enfermeras, personal clnico, administradores de la salud, trabajadores sociales. +El ttulo de los que "nadan aguas arribas" no es tan importante. +Lo que es ms importante es que todos parecen compartir la misma habilidad de implementar un proceso de transformar su asistencia, transformar la forma de practicar medicina. +El proceso es muy simple. +Es 1, 2 y 3. +Primero, se sientan y dicen, vamos a identificar el problema clnico entre un grupo particular de pacientes. +Digamos, por ejemplo, vamos a ayudar a los nios que entran y salen de hospitales por el asma. +Despus de identificar el problema van a la segunda fase, y dicen, vamos a descubrir la causa. +El anlisis de la causa en la salud es, usualmente, veamos tus genes, veamos cmo te comportas. +A lo mejor no ests comiendo saludablemente. +"Come ms saludablemente". +Es una visin muy simplista al anlisis de las causas. +Resulta que no funciona cuando solo nos limitamos a esa visin. +Las causas que un nadador de "aguas arribas" nos sugiere es, veamos las condiciones de vivienda y trabajo en tu vida. +Quiz para los nios con asma es lo que pasa en sus casas, o quiz viven cerca de una autopista con bastante contaminacin que ocasiona el asma. +Quiz tenemos que mover recursos para resolver esto, porque ese tercer elemento, esa tercera parte del proceso, es la siguiente parte crtica que los "nadadores" hacen: +Hay muchas historias de "nadadores de aguas arribas" que hacen cosas importantes. +El problema es que no hay suficientes. +Segn estimados necesitamos un "nadador" por cada 20 a 30 mdicos en el sistema de salud. +En EE. UU. por ejemplo, eso sera unos 25 000 "nadadores" para el 2020. +Pero solo tenemos unos cuantos miles de "nadadores" all afuera, y por eso hace unos aos, con unos colegas, dijimos, necesitamos capacitar y hacer ms "nadadores de aguas arriba". +Decidimos comenzar una organizacin llamada Health Begins (La Salud Comienza) y lo que simplemente hacemos es entrenar ms de estos "nadadores". +Y hay muchas medidas para nuestro xito, pero lo que ms nos interesa es darle confianza a los mdicos de poder hacer algo con respecto al "no preguntes, no digas". +Tratamos de asegurarnos de que los mdicos y el sistema donde trabajan tengan la habilidad y la confianza de que pueden resolver los problemas de vivienda y trabajo en nuestras vidas. +Hemos visto triplicar nuestra confianza en nuestro trabajo. +Es notable, pero la parte ms importante de trabajar con estos "nadadores" es juntarlos. +Lo ms notable es que todos los das, todas las semanas, escucho historias similares a las de Vernica. +Estas historias son importantes porque no solo nos dicen que estamos muy cerca del sistema de salud que queremos, sino que hay algo que todos podemos hacer para lograrlo. +Los mdicos y las enfermeras pueden ser mejores cuando preguntan sobre las vidas de sus pacientes, no solo porque es buena rutina, sino porque es un mejor cuidado. +Los sistemas de salud y los contribuyentes pueden comenzar a ir a agencias y departamentos pblicos de salud y decir, analicemos juntos estos datos. Veamos si descubrimos patrones en los datos +sobre la vida de los pacientes, y veamos si descubrimos las causas, y del mismo modo, veamos si podemos canalizar los recursos para resolverlos. +Las escuelas de medicina, de enfermera, todo tipo de programas de educacin del sector salud, pueden ayudar a entrenar la prxima generacin de "nadadores". +Tambin podemos asegurarnos de que estas escuelas certifiquen a especialistas en este mtodo, que seran los trabajadores de la salud comunitarios. +Necesitamos ms de estos en el sistema de salud si queremos que sea efectiva la transicin de un sistema de cuidado de enfermedades a uno de cuidado de la salud. +Finalmente, y quiz los ms importante es qu hacemos?, qu hacemos como pacientes? +Podemos comenzar yendo a nuestros mdicos, enfermeros, clnicas, y preguntar, "Hay algo en donde vivo o donde trabajo a lo que debera prestarle atencin? +Y qu podemos hacer juntos para mejorar mi salud por donde comienza?" +Si todos podemos hacer este trabajo, mdicos y sistemas de salud, contribuyentes y todos juntos, nos daremos cuenta de algo sobre la salud. +La salud no solo es una responsabilidad personal o un fenmeno. +La salud es un bien comn. +Viene de nuestra inversin personal de saber que nuestras vidas importan, que el contexto donde vivimos y trabajamos, comemos y dormimos importa, y que lo que hacemos para nosotros, tambin debemos hacerlo para aqullos cuyas condiciones de vivienda y trabajo pueden ser difciles e incluso muy duras. +Todos podemos invertir en asegurarnos que mejoraremos la cantidad de recursos que dedicamos a las causas, pero a la vez, trabajar juntos al mismo tiempo para demostrar que podemos mover el sistema de salud hacia las causas. +Podemos mejorar la salud por donde comienza. +Gracias. +Hoy quiero hablar de un proyecto que se est llevando a cabo por cientficos de todo el mundo para crear un retrato neuronal de la mente humana. +Y la idea central de este trabajo es que la mente humana y el cerebro no es solo un procesador con propsito general, sino es una coleccin de componentes de alta especializacin y cada uno soluciona un problema especfico diferente, pero que, sin embargo, en su conjunto constituyen lo que somos como seres humanos y pensadores. +Para ilustrar esta idea, imaginen la siguiente situacin: Vas al jardn infantil de tu hijo. +Como de costumbre, hay una docena de nios all esperando que los recojan, pero esta vez, las caras de los nios se ven extraamente similares, y no puedes decidir qu nio es el tuyo. +Necesitas lentes nuevos? +Ests volvindote loca? +Haces una verificacin mental rpida. +No, parece que ests pensando con claridad, y tu visin es perfectamente ntida. +Y todo parece normal excepto las caras de los nios. +Puedes ver las caras, pero no se ven distintas, y ninguna de ellas parece familiar, y es solo mediante una cinta naranja en el pelo que encuentras a tu hija. +Esta prdida repentina de la capacidad de reconocer las caras realmente le sucede a la gente. +Se llama prosopagnosia, y es el resultado del dao de una parte particular del cerebro. +Lo ms llamativo es que solo afecta el reconocimiento de la cara todo lo dems est bien. +La prosopagnosia es uno de los muchos dficits mentales sorprendentemente especficos que pueden ocurrir despus de dao cerebral. +Estos sndromes colectivamente han sugerido durante mucho tiempo que la mente est repartida en distintos componentes, pero el esfuerzo para descubrir esos componentes ha ido a mucha mayor velocidad con la invencin de la tecnologa de imgenes cerebrales, especialmente la imagen por resonancia magntica . +El IRM permite ver la anatoma interna en alta resolucin, voy a mostrarles un conjunto de IRMs de cortes transversales de un objeto familiar, iremos a travs de ellos e intentarn averiguar qu objeto es. +Empezamos. +No es tan fcil. Es una alcachofa. +Bueno, probemos con otra, empezando en la parte inferior hasta la parte superior. +Brcoli! Es una cabeza de brcoli. +No es hermoso? Me encanta. +Bueno, aqu hay otra. Es un cerebro, por supuesto. +De hecho, es mi cerebro. +Estamos pasando rebanadas de mi cabeza. +Esa es mi nariz a la derecha, y ahora vamos por aqu, aqu mismo. +Esta imagen es bonita, si me permiten decirlo, pero solo muestra la anatoma. +El avance realmente genial con imgenes funcionales ocurri al descubrir cmo hacer imgenes que no solo muestren la anatoma sino la actividad, es decir, cundo se activan las neuronas. +As es cmo funciona. +El cerebro es como los msculos. +Cuando se activan, aumentan el flujo sanguneo para realizar la actividad, y por suerte, el control del flujo de sangre al cerebro es local, por lo que si un grupo de neuronas, por ejemplo, aqu, se activa y empieza a trabajar, entonces aumenta el flujo de sangre justo all. +El IRM funcional registra ese aumento del flujo sanguneo, que produce una mayor respuesta del IRM donde la actividad neuronal aumenta. +Para darles una idea concreta de cmo es un experimento IRM funcional y lo qu se puede aprender de l y lo que no se puede, permtanme describir uno de los primeros estudios que hice. +Yo fue el primer sujeto. +Entr en el escner, me tumb boca arriba, mantuve la cabeza tan quieta como pude mientras miraba imgenes de rostros como estos y objetos como estos y rostros y objetos por horas. +As que como alguien que est muy cerca del rcord del mundo del mayor total de horas dentro de un escner de IRM, puedo decir que una de las habilidades ms importantes para la investigacin de IRM es el control de la vejiga. +Cuando sal del escner, hice un anlisis rpido de los datos, buscando cualquier parte de mi cerebro que hubiera producido una mayor respuesta al mirar las caras que al mirar los objetos, y esto es lo que vi. +Esta imagen se ve horrible para los estndares actuales, pero en ese momento pens que era hermosa. +Lo que muestra es que la regin justo ah, esa pequea burbuja, que es cerca del tamao de una aceituna y est en la base de la superficie de mi cerebro como a dos cm de aqu. +Y lo que esa parte de mi cerebro est haciendo es producir una mayor respuesta de IRM, es decir, una mayor actividad neuronal, al mirar las caras que al mirar los objetos. +Es bastante impresionante, pero cmo sabemos que esto no es una casualidad? +Bueno, la forma ms fcil es simplemente hacer el experimento de nuevo. +As que volv en el escner, Mir ms caras y mir ms objetos y obtuve una mancha parecida, y luego lo hice otra vez y lo hice de nuevo y una y otra vez, y entonces decid creer que era correcto. +Pero an as, tal vez esto es algo raro en mi cerebro y nadie ms tiene una de estas cosas all, as que para saberlo, escaneamos a muchas otras personas y encontramos que casi todo el mundo tiene esa pequea regin para el reconocimiento de rostros. en un lugar similar del cerebro. +As que la siguiente pregunta fue, qu hace esto realmente? +Es realmente especializada o solo es para el reconocimiento facial? +Bueno, quiz no, verdad? +Tal vez no solo responde a las caras sino a cualquier parte del cuerpo. +Tal vez responde a algo humano o cualquier ser viva o a cualquier cosa redonda. +La nica forma de estar realmente seguros de que esa regin est especializada en el reconocimiento facial es descartar todas esas hiptesis. +As que finalmente resolvimos el caso de que esta regin es necesaria para el reconocimiento facial? +No, no lo hemos hecho. +Las imgenes cerebrales no pueden decir si una regin es necesaria para nada. +Todo lo que se puede obtener son regiones que se encienden y se apagan conforme la gente piensa pensamientos diferentes. +Para saber si es necesaria una parte para una funcin mental, necesitamos jugar con ella y ver qu pasa, y normalmente no hacemos hacer eso. +Pero una gran oportunidad surgi hace muy poco, cuando un par de colegas mos examinaban a este hombre con epilepsia y que se muestra aqu en su cama de hospital con unos electrodos en la superficie de su cerebro para identificar la fuente de sus convulsiones. +As que result que por casualidad que dos de los electrodos estaban arriba del rea de los rostros. +As que, con el consentimiento del paciente, los mdicos le preguntaron qu pas cuando estimularon elctricamente esa parte de su cerebro. +El paciente no sabe dnde estn los electrodos, y nunca ha odo hablar de la zona de rostros. +As que vamos a ver qu pasa. +Se comienza con una condicin de control que dice "SHAM" casi invisible en rojo en la parte inferior izquierda, cuando no hay corriente, y oirn al neurlogo hablarle al paciente en primer lugar. Veamos. +Neurlogo: Est bien, basta con ver mi cara y dime qu sucede al hacer esto. +De acuerdo? +Paciente: Bueno. +Neurlogo: Uno, dos, tres. +Paciente: Nada. Neurlogo: Nada? Bueno. +Voy a hacerlo una vez ms. +Mira mi cara. +Uno, dos, tres. +Paciente: Ud. acaba de convertirse en alguien ms. +Su cara se transform. +Su nariz se afloj, se fue a la izquierda. +Casi se vea como alguien que haba visto antes, pero alguien diferente. +Ese fue un viaje. +Nancy Kanwisher: Este experimento... Este experimento, finalmente, cerr el caso, esta regin del cerebro no solo responde selectivamente a las caras sino que est implicada causalmente en la percepcin de los rostros. +As que revis estos detalles sobre la regin de los rostros para demostrar realmente que una parte del cerebro est implicada selectivamente en un proceso mental especfico. +A continuacin, ir ms rpidamente por algunas de las otras regiones especializadas del cerebro que nosotros y otros han encontrado. +Para hacer esto, he pasado mucho tiempo en el escner en el ltimo mes para mostrar estas cosas en mi cerebro. +As que empezamos. Aqu est mi hemisferio derecho. +Estn viendo mi cerebro de este lado. Con la cabeza de esta manera. +Imagnenlo sin el crneo y se ve la superficie del cerebro as. +Como pueden ver, la superficie del cerebro est toda plegada. +Esto no es bueno. Algo podra ocultarse all. +Queremos ver todo, as que vamos a inflarlo para poder ver todo. +Vemos el rea de los rostros del que he estado hablando que responde a las imgenes como stas. +Para ver esto, giramos el cerebro y vemos en la base de la superficie interior y ah est, esa es mi rea de los rostros. +Justo a la derecha hay otra regin que se muestra en color morado que responde al procesar la informacin de color, y cerca de esas regiones hay otras regiones que estn implicadas en la percepcin de lugares, como ahora mismo, estoy viendo este espacio a mi alrededor y estas regiones en verde justo all estn realmente activas. +Hay otra en la superficie exterior donde hay un par de regiones del rostro tambin. +Todas estas regiones estn implicadas en aspectos especficos de la percepcin visual. +Nos hemos especializado regiones del cerebro para otros sentidos, como el odo? +S, lo hemos hecho. As que si giramos el cerebro un poco, aqu hay una regin en azul oscuro que reportamos hace apenas un par de meses, y esta regin responde fuertemente al or los sonidos con tono, como estos. +(Msica de Cello) En contraste, la misma regin no responde fuertemente al escuchar sonidos perfectamente conocidos que no tienen un tono claro, como estos. +(Redoble de tambores) (Cisternas de los inodoros ) Bueno. Junto esta zona hay otras regiones que son selectivamente sensibles al escuchar los sonidos del habla. +Veamos estas mismas regiones +en mi hemisferio izquierdo; hay una disposicin similar, no idntica, pero similar, y la mayora de las mismas regiones estn aqu, aunque a veces diferentes en tamao. +Ahora, todo lo que he mostrado hasta ahora son regiones involucradas en diferentes aspectos de la percepcin, visual y auditiva. +Hay regiones del cerebro especializadas para procesos mentales sofisticados y complicados? +S, s hay. +As que aqu en rosa son mis regiones lingsticas. +Se conoce desde hace mucho tiempo que esa rea general del cerebro est implicada en el procesamiento del lenguaje, pero hemos demostrado recientemente que estas regiones de color rosa responden de manera extremadamente selectiva. +Responden cuando se entiende el significado de una oracin, pero no cuando se hacen otras cosas mentales complejas, como el clculo mental o almacenar informacin en la memoria o apreciar una estructura compleja en una pieza musical. +La regin ms increble que se ha encontrado es esta de aqu en turquesa. +Esta regin responde cuando se piensa en lo que otra persona est pensando. +Esto puede parecer una locura, pero en realidad, los humanos hacemos esto todo el tiempo. +Estn haciendo esto al darse cuenta que su pareja se va a preocupar si no la llama para decirle que se les hizo tarde. +Estoy haciendo esto con esa regin de mi cerebro en este momento cuando me doy cuenta que Uds. probablemente se estn preguntando sobre todo ese territorio gris, desconocido en el cerebro, y qu hay con eso. +Bueno, tambin me lo pregunto y estamos haciendo muchos experimentos en el laboratorio para tratar de encontrar otros posibles especializaciones en el cerebro para otras funciones mentales muy especficas. +Pero lo ms importante, no creo que tengamos especializaciones en el cerebro para cada funcin mental importante, incluso las funciones que puedan ser crticas para la supervivencia. +De hecho, hace unos aos, haba un cientfico en mi laboratorio que estaba convencido de que haba encontrado una regin para detectar alimentos, y responda muy fuerte en el escner cuando la gente vea imgenes como sta. +Y an ms, encontr una respuesta similar en ms o menos la misma ubicacin en 10 de 12 sujetos. +Estaba emocionado y corra alrededor del laboratorio dicindole a todos que iba a ir a Oprah con su gran descubrimiento. +Pero entonces ide la prueba crtica: Mostr a los sujetos imgenes de comida como stas y las compar con imgenes muy similares en color y forma, pero que no eran alimentos, como stas. +Y su regin respondi igual a ambos conjuntos de imgenes. +No era una zona de alimentos, era solo una regin que le gustan los colores y formas. +Hasta ah con Oprah. +Pero entonces la pregunta es, por supuesto, cmo procesamos todas estas otras cosas para las que no tenemos regiones especializadas del cerebro? +Creo que la respuesta es que, adems de estos componentes altamente especializados que he estado describiendo, tambin hay una gran cantidad de maquinaria de uso muy general que nos permite hacer frente a cualquier problema que se presente. +De hecho, hemos demostrado recientemente que estas regiones aqu en blanco responden cada vez que se hace cualquier tarea mental difcil al menos de las 7 que hemos probado. +Cada una de las regiones del cerebro que he descrito el da de hoy est presente en aproximadamente la misma ubicacin en cada sujeto normal. +Podra escoger a cualquiera de Uds., meterlo en el escner, y encontrar cada una de esas regiones en su cerebro, y se vera como mi cerebro, Aunque las regiones seran ligeramente diferentes en su ubicacin exacta y en su tamao. +Lo importante para m acerca de este trabajo no son los lugares particulares de estas regiones del cerebro, sino el simple hecho de que tenemos componentes selectivos y especficos de la mente y el cerebro en primer lugar. +Digo, podra haber sido de otra manera. +El cerebro podra haber sido un solo, procesador de propsito general, ms como un cuchillo de cocina que una navaja suiza. +En su lugar, lo que las imgenes cerebrales han mostrado es esta imagen rica e interesante de la mente humana. +As que tenemos esta imagen de una mquina de propsito general en nuestras cabezas adems de esta matriz sorprendente de componentes muy especializado. +Es pronto en esta empresa. +Hemos pintado solo las primeras pinceladas en nuestro retrato neuronal de la mente humana. +Las preguntas fundamentales siguen sin respuesta. +Por ejemplo, qu hacen cada una de estas regiones exactamente? +Por qu necesitamos tres reas del rostro y tres reas de lugar, y cmo dividen el trabajo entre ellos? +En segundo lugar, cmo se conectan todas ellas en el cerebro? +Con la difusin de imgenes, se puede rastrear haces de neuronas que se conectan a diferentes partes del cerebro, y con este mtodo que se muestra aqu, se puede rastrear las conexiones de las neuronas individuales en el cerebro, potencialmente algn da nos dar un diagrama del cableado de todo el cerebro humano. +En tercer lugar, cmo se contruye toda esta estructura sistemtica, tanto en el desarrollo en la infancia como en la evolucin de nuestra especie? +Para hacer frente a ese tipo de preguntas, los cientficos estn explorando otras especies de animales, y tambin estn escaneando a los bebs humanos. +Muchas personas justifican el alto costo de la investigacin en neurociencias sealando que puede ayudarnos algn da para tratar trastornos cerebrales como el Alzheimer y el autismo. +Ese es un objetivo muy importante, y estara encantada si alguno de mis trabajos contribuyera a ello, pero arreglar las cosas descompuestas en el mundo no es por lo nico que vale la pena hacerlo. +El esfuerzo por entender la mente humana y el cerebro vale la pena incluso si nunca llevara al tratamiento de una sola enfermedad. +Qu podra ser ms emocionante que entender los mecanismos fundamentales que subyacen en la experiencia humana, entender, en esencia, lo que somos? +Esta es, creo, la mayor bsqueda cientfica de todos los tiempos. +Sueo con construir el primer parque subterrneo de Nueva York. +Por qu hacerlo? Por qu en Nueva York? +Estos 3 pequeos duros son, a la izquierda, mi abuela, con 5 aos, su hermana y su hermano, de 11 y 9 aos. +Esta foto fue tomada justo antes de salir de Italia y emigrar a Estados Unidos, hace un siglo. +Como muchos inmigrantes, llegaron al Lower East Side en Nueva York y encontraron un crisol de razas en constante ebullicin. +Lo asombroso de su generacin no solo fue que empezaran nuevas vidas en esa zona desconocida, sino que tambin construyeran la ciudad a la vez, literalmente. +Siempre me fascinaron esas dcadas y esa historia, y a menudo le rogaba a mi abuela que me contara historias sobre la vieja Nueva York. +Pero a menudo se encoga de hombros y me deca que coma ms albndigas, ms pasta, por eso escuchaba muy pocas veces las historias que quera. +La Nueva York que yo conoc se vea bastante construida. +Siempre supe de nio que quera marcar una diferencia, hacer al mundo ms bello, ms interesante y ms justo. +Solo que no saba cmo. +Al principio, pens que trabajando en el extranjero, por eso busqu un empleo en UNICEF, en Kenia. +Pero me pareca raro saber ms de la poltica keniata que de mi propia ciudad. +Consegu empleo en Nueva York, pero muy pronto acab frustrado por la lentitud de la burocracia gubernamental. +Consegu empleo en Google, y muy pronto me transform en un adepto de su cultura, que crea casi de todo corazn que la tecnologa poda resolver los problemas sociales. +Pero segua sintiendo que no mejoraba el mundo. +En 2009 mi amigo y ahora socio comercial James Ramsey, me hizo saber sobre un espacio bastante espectacular, que es este. +Es la antigua terminal de tranva, la cochera para los pasajeros que cruzaban el puente de Williamsburg de Brooklyn a Manhattan, y estuvo abierta entre 1908 y 1948, en la misma poca en la que mis abuelos vivan en la zona. +Y supimos que el sitio fue abandonado por completo en 1948. +Fascinado por este descubrimiento, le suplicamos a las autoridades que nos involucren en el proyecto y finalmente visitamos el espacio y esto es lo que vimos. +Esta foto no le hace justicia. +Es difcil imaginar el sentimiento mgico que se da al entrar a este espacio. +Es una zona sin usar cuanto un campo de ftbol debajo de una zona muy concurrida de la ciudad, y uno siente que es Indiana Jones en una excavacin arqueolgica, y todos los detalles siguen all. +Es realmente extraordinario. +El sitio est ubicado en el corazn del Lower East Side, que an hoy es uno de los barrios ms concurridos de la ciudad. +Nueva York solo tiene 2/3 de espacio verde por residente en comparacin con otras grandes ciudades, y este barrio, solo 1/10 del espacio verde. +De inmediato empezamos a pensar cmo transformar este sitio en algo que el pblico pudiese usar, pero que potencialmente fuese verde. +El plan, en pocas palabras, es llevar la luz natural bajo tierra, mediante un sistema simple que capta la luz de la superficie, y la redirige por debajo de las aceras, permitiendo a las plantas y los rboles crecer con la luz redirigida al subsuelo. +Con este enfoque, un sitio que hoy luce as podra transformarse en algo que luce as. +En 2011 estrenamos algunas de estas imgenes, y fue gracioso, mucha gente dijo: "Se parece al parque High Line bajo tierra". +De ah que nuestro apodo termin siendo, termin pegando el nombre, y naci la Low Line. +Estaba muy claro que la gente quera saber mucho ms y probar la tecnologa, y que haba mucho ms inters en esto de lo que pensbamos en un principio. +Como estoy loco, dej mi trabajo y me centr en este proyecto. +Aqu estamos con mi equipo, haciendo una demostracin tecnolgica en un almacn. +Esta es la parte ms vulnerable de este pabelln solar construido para mostrar la tecnologa. +Pueden ver los 6 colectores solares en el centro. +Esta es la presentacin de todo el conjunto en el almacn. +Puede verse el pabelln solar encima, la luz que entra, y todo este espacio completamente verde debajo. +En unas pocas semanas, decenas de miles de personas vinieron a ver la exposicin, y desde entonces creci el nmero de nuestros seguidores locales y de entusiastas del diseo del mundo. +Esta es una representacin del barrio justo por encima de la Low Line, y una representacin de cmo se ver tras una importante remodelacin que tendr lugar en los prximos 10 aos. +Noten lo atestado que sigue el barrio y la falta que hay de espacios verdes. +Por eso proponemos algo que aadir un espacio verde del tamao de un campo de ftbol por debajo del barrio, pero ms importante, lidiar con la concentracin de la comunidad en un zona de rpido crecimiento. +En estos momentos nos concentramos en el modo de relacionarnos con Nueva York para transformar el ecosistema de manera integrada. +Esta es nuestra visin de cmo invitar a la gente al espacio en s. +Aqu vemos una entrada simblica en la que literalmente, abrimos la calle y revelamos las capas histricas de la ciudad, e invitamos a la gente a este clido espacio subterrneo. +En pleno invierno, cuando afuera hace un frio glido el ltimo lugar al que quieres ir es un espacio o un parque al aire libre. +Low Line recoger las 4 estaciones en su interior y ser un respiro para la ciudad. +Me gustara pensar que la Low Line cierra el crculo de mi propia historia familiar. +Mis abuelos y padres se centraron en construir la ciudad de punta a punta. Pienso que mi generacin quiere recobrar los espacios que ya tenemos, redescubrir nuestra historia compartida, volver a imaginar cmo hacer nuestras comunidades ms interesantes, ms hermosas y ms justas. +Gracias. +Qu opinan? +Para quienes asistieron a la magnfica conferencia de Sir Ken en TED debo ser el tpico caso que l describe como: "Un cuerpo cargando una cabeza". Profesor universitario, verdad? +Y es probable que piensen, despus de las dos primeras presentaciones, que es cobarda presentarme para hablarles de ciencia. +No tengo ningn sentido del ritmo. Y despus de un cientfico convertido en filsofo, a m me toca hablar de ciencia dura. +Podra ser un tema muy rido, +y, sin embrago, me siento afortunado. +Nunca en mi carrera, y ya es larga, tuve la oportunidad de empezar una conferencia con tanta inspiracin. +Generalmente, hablar de ciencia es como trabajar en una tierra rida. +Sin embargo, tuve la suerte de que me convidaron a hablar del agua. +Y 'agua' y 'rido' no van de la mano, verdad? +Y lo que es mejor todava, a hablar del agua en la Amazonia, que es una cuna maravillosa de vida nueva, +lo que me inspir. +Por eso estoy aqu , a pesar de llevar tan solo la cabeza sobre los hombros, +estoy aqu para intentar transmitirles esa inspiracin. +Espero que la historia les inspire, y Uds. la repitan muchas veces ms. +Hay una gran controversia +la Amazonia es el pulmn del mundo, verdad? y tiene el poder de intercambiar, gases de vital importancia, a gran escala, entre la selva y la atmsfera. +Tambin omos hablar del granero de la biodiversidad +en el que muchos creen, pero pocos conocen. +Basta salir afuera, a este humedal para maravillarse Es imposible ver cuntos bichos hay. +los indios dicen: "En la selva hay mas ojos que hojas". +Y es cierto e intentar mostrarles algunas cosas. +Pero hoy traje otro enfoque inspirado por esas dos iniciativas, una armnica y otra filosfica, +y abordar un enfoque que aunque un poco material, tambin intenta transmitir que en la naturaleza existe una filosofa y una armona extraordinarias. +Mi presentacin no tiene msica, pero espero que vean la msica de la realidad que les mostrar. +Hablaremos de la fisiologa, no solo del pulmn, y de otras analogas con la fisiologa humana y, principalmente, del corazn. +Comenzaremos pensando que el agua es como la sangre. +La circulacin en nuestro cuerpo lleva sangre fresca, que nos alimenta, nutre y sustenta, y trae de vuelta la sangre usada para que se renueve. +En la Amazonia sucede algo similar. +Comenzaremos a hablar sobre el poder de todos estos procesos. +Esta es una imagen, en movimiento, de las lluvias. +Y lo que ven all son los aos que pasan cada segundo +Son las lluvias del mundo entero. Y qu pueden ver? +Que la regin ecuatorial, en general, y la Amazonia, en particular, son de gran importancia para el clima mundial. +Es un motor poderoso, +con una actividad frentica en relacin a la evaporacin. +Si nos fijamos en la otra imagen, tenemos los flujos del vapor de agua, de color negro, el aire seco de color gris, el aire hmedo y de color blanco, las nubes. +Vemos como un resurgimiento asombroso en la Amazonia. +Cul es el fenmeno, si no es un desierto, que consigue lanzar el agua como un chorro desde suelo a la atmsfera, con tanta fuerza que podemos verlo desde el espacio? +Qu tipo de fenmeno es? +Podra ser un giser. +Un giser es agua subterrnea que al calentarse con el calor del magma explota en la atmsfera y transfiere ese agua a la atmsfera. +Que yo sepa no hay giseres en la Amazonia. +No s si alguien conoce alguno. +Pero tenemos algo que hace el mismo papel, pero de una forma ms elegante: son los rboles, nuestros amigos y bienhechores, que como los giseres, consiguen transportar una cantidad enorme de agua del suelo a la atmsfera. +Hay 600 billones de rboles en la Amazonia, 600 billones de giseres. +que funcionan con una sofisticacin extraordinaria: +no necesitan el calor del magma, +y usan la luz solar para este proceso. +En un da soleado en la Amazonia, un rbol grande puede transportar hasta 1000 litros de agua con su transpiracin. 1000 litros. +Si consideramos toda la Amazonia, que es un rea muy grande, y sumamos toda esa agua transpirada, el sudor de la selva, sumaramos una cantidad extraordinaria: 20 billones de toneladas de agua. +En tan solo un da. +Saben cunto es eso? +El rio Amazonas, el ro ms grande de la tierra, un quinto de todo el agua dulce, que sale de todos los continentes del mundo y que llega a los ocanos, vaca 17 billones de toneladas por da de agua en el ocano Atlntico. +Ese ro de vapor que sale de la selva y va a la atmsfera, es mayor que el ro Amazonas. +Solo para que se hagan una idea. +Si tomramos una tetera muy grande, de las que enchufamos, una tetera elctrica, y pusiramos dentro esos 20 billones de toneladas cunta electricidad necesitaramos para evaporar esa agua? +Alguien lo sabe? Una tetera bien grande. +Una tetera de gigantes. +50 000 Itaips. +Para quien no lo sepa, Itaip es la hidroelctrica ms grande del mundo, +y es un orgullo para los brasileos, porque proporciona ms del 30 % de la energa. que se consume en Brasil. +Y la Amazonia est aqu, haciendo lo mismo gratis. +Es una poderosa presa viva de servicios ambientales. +Relacionado con este tema, hablaremos sobre lo que denomino "paradoja de la suerte", una curiosidad. +Si miran el mapamundi, es fcil darse cuenta, vemos que en la zona ecuatorial se encuentran las selvas, y los desiertos estn organizados a 30 de latitud norte y 30 de latitud sur, alineados. +En el hemisferio sur tenemos los desiertos de Atacama, Namibia y el Kalahari en frica, el desierto de Australia. +En el hemisferio norte, el Sahara Sonora, etc. +Y hay una excepcin, algo curioso: es el cuadriltero que va de Cuiab a Buenos Aires, de San Pablo a los Andes. +Ese cuadriltero tendra que ser un desierto +porque est en la lnea de los desiertos. +Pero por qu no lo es? Lo llamo la "paradoja de la suerte". +Qu tiene Amrica del Sur diferente? +Si pudiramos usar la analoga de la circulacin sangunea del cuerpo con la circulacin del agua en el paisaje, veramos que los ros son venas, que drenan el paisaje, el tejido de la naturaleza. +Y dnde estn las arterias? +Alguna pista? +Qu es lo que lleva...? Cmo el agua irriga los tejidos de la naturaleza y trae todo de vuelta a los ros? +Hay un tipo nuevo de ro, que nace en el ocano azul, que fluye por el ocano verde no solo fluye, sino que tambin el ocano verde lo bombea, y cuya boca es la tierra que habitamos. +Toda nuestra economa est en ese cuadriltero, el 70 % del PIB de Amrica del Sur sale de esa regin. +Depende de ese ro. +Es un ro que fluye invisible por encima de nosotros, +fluctuamos dentro de su flujo, uno de los ros ms grandes de la tierra, el ro Negro. +Est medio seco, medio bravo, pero estamos movindonos aqu, y por encima de nosotros pasa un ro invisible. +Y ese ro late. +Y aqu est su pulsacin. +Por eso hablamos tambin del corazn. +Aqu pueden ver las estaciones del ao. +En el Amazonas sola haber dos estaciones: la hmeda y la ms hmeda. +Ahora tenemos la estacin seca. +Y podemos ver como el ro lame esta regin. que tendra que ser un desierto, pero que no lo es. +La gente, los cientficos como vern tengo dificultades para concentrarme y salto de un tema a otro. +Los cientficos estudian cmo funciona, las causas, etc., +y esos estudios estn generando una serie de descubrimientos, francamente fabulosos, para que nos concienticemos de la riqueza, de la complejidad y de la maravilla que tenemos, de la sinfona de ese funcionamiento. +Uno de ellos es: cmo se forma la lluvia? +Por encima de la Amazonia, el aire es limpio al igual que por encima del ocano. +El ocano azul tiene aire limpio y forma muy pocas nubes, apenas llueve. +En el ocano verde, el aire limpio forma muchas nubes, +Qu sucede diferente aqu? +La selva emite vapores que son ncleos de condensacin, los cuales forman las gotas en la atmsfera +que dan lugar a las nubes, que provocan las lluvias torrenciales. +Es la regadera del Jardn del Edn. +Esa relacin de una entidad viva que es la selva, con una entidad no viva, que es la atmsfera, es perfecta en la Amazonia, porque la selva lanza agua y semillitas, que la atmsfera devuelve en forma de lluvia, garantizando as la supervivencia de la selva. +Hay otros factores tambin. +Hablamos un poco del corazn. y ahora hablaremos de otra funcin: el hgado. +Cuando en el are hmedo se mezclan la radiacin y la humedad junto con unos compuestos orgnicos, que llamo "vitamina C exgena", abundante vitamina C gaseosa, las plantas liberan antioxidantes que reaccionan con los agentes contaminantes. +Pueden estar tranquilos, porque en el Amazonas respiramos el aire ms puro de la tierra, porque las plantas se aprovechan de esa peculiaridad tambin. +Y eso favorece el funcionamiento de las propias plantas, otro ciclo virtuoso. +Al hablar de fractales en relacin a este funcionamiento, tambin podemos establecer comparaciones. +Como en las vas superiores de los pulmones, el aire de la Amazonia est limpio de exceso de polvo, +como lo est en las vas respiratorias, +y eso impide que el exceso de polvo perjudique a la lluvia. +Cuando hay incendios en la Amazonia, las humaredas acaban con la lluvia, deja de llover, la selva se seca y el fuego penetra. +Hay otra analoga fractal. +Como en la venas y en las arterias, hay un retorno del agua que cae de la lluvia +y que regresa a la atmsfera. +Como en las glndulas endocrinas y en las hormonas, tenemos aquellos gases que ya les expliqu como si fuesen hormonas, sueltas en la atmsfera, que promueven la formacin de la lluvia. +Como el hgado y los riones, como acabo de hablar: la limpieza del aire +Y por fin, como un corazn: el bombeo del agua que procede del ocano hacia el interior de la selva. +Lo denominamos "La bomba biticade la humedad". Es una teora nueva que se explica de manera muy sencilla. +Si tenemos un desierto en el continente y tenemos un ocano contiguo, la evaporacin en el ocano es mayor, succiona y empuja el aire aire por encima del desierto. +El desierto est atrapado en este fenmeno, y siempre ser seco. +En la selva se da el fenmeno inverso, con una evaporacin que como vimos, es mucho mayor por los rboles, esa relacin se invierte +y se empuja el aire por encima del ocano. y se importa la humedad. +Esta es una imagen de satlite tomada el mes pasado Manaos est all abajo que muestra ese proceso. +No es un ro de esos bonitos que fluyen en un canal, +sino un ro poderoso que irriga toda Amrica del Sur y con otras muchas finalidades. +Esta imagen nos muestra la trayectoria de todos los huracanes que se han registrado, +y vemos que, en el cuadrado rojo, casi no hay huracanes. +No es casualidad. +Esa bomba que empuja la humedad haca el interior del continente, tambin acelera el aire sobre el ocano y eso impide la formacin de huracanes. +Para concluir con esta parte me gustara hablarles de algo un poco diferente. +Tengo varios colegas que participaron en el desarrollo de estas teoras, +que opinan como yo, que podemos recuperar el planeta Tierra. +No hablo solo de la Amazonia. +La Amazonia nos da una leccin de cmo la naturaleza primitiva funciona. +Antes, no comprendamos esos procesos porque el resto del mundo est muy explotado. +Aqu podemos entenderlos. +Mis colegas dicen: "Si que podemos recuperar las otras reas, incluso los desiertos". +Si la gente consigue desarrollar selvas en otras areas podemos revertir el clima e incluso el calentamiento global. +Tengo una colega muy querida en la India, Suprabha Seshan, que tiene un lema. +Su lema en ingls es: "Gardening back the biosphere". Volver a jardinar la biosfera. +Realiza un trabajo maravilloso de recuperacin de ecosistemas. +Es lo que tenemos que hacer nosotros. +Terminada esta rpida introduccin, llegamos a la realidad que vemos fuera, la sequa, el cambio climtico. y ms cosas que ya sabamos. +Me gustara contarles una historia. +Una vez, hace cuatro aos, escuch en voz alta un texto de Davi Copenaua, un sabio representante del pueblo yanomami que deca, ms o menos, lo siguiente: "Por qu que el hombre blanco no se da cuenta de que si acaba con la selva, acabar con la lluvia? +Y que si acaba con la lluvia, no tendr qu beber, ni que comer?". +Se me saltaron las lgrimas al escucharlo, porque pens: "Caramba! +Llevo 20 aos estudiando esto con sofisticadas computadoras, con decenas, millares de cientficos, para llegar a una conclusin que l ya conoca". +Con un agravante: que los yanomamis nunca desforestaron la selva. +Cmo saben que se acabar la lluvia? +Me impact tanto que se me qued grabado en la cabeza. +Cmo podan saberlo? +Meses ms tarde me lo encontr en otro evento y le pregunt: "Davi, cmo sabas que exterminando la selva, se acababa la lluvia?" +l respondi: "El espritu de la selva nos lo dijo" +Y para m fue un cambio de juego, es decir, un cambio total, +porque pens: "Vaya! entonces, +por qu me dedico a la ciencia, para llegar a una conclusin que l ya sabe?" +Y entonces me di cuenta de algo bsico, que es "Out of sight, out of heart". +Y esta es una necesidad que mi antecesor seal, que precisamos ver las cosas, que nosotros somos la sociedad occidental que se est convirtiendo en algo global, civilizada, y que debemos ver. +Si no lo vemos, no lo registramos. +La gente vive en la ignorancia. +Y por eso propongo: seguro que a los astrnomos no les va a gustar, girar de cabeza el Hubble para que apunte hacia abajo. +Hagamos que el Hubble mire para ac y no para los confines del universo. +Los confines del universo son fabulosos, pero ahora tenemos una realidad prctica: vivimos en un cosmos desconocido y somos unos ignorantes. +Estamos destruyendo este cosmos maravillo que nos da morada y abrigo. +Hablen con un astrofsico: +la tierra es una improbabilidad estadstica. +La estabilidad y la seguridad de las que disfrutamos, incluidas las sequas del ro Negro, el calor o el fro, los huracanes, etc., no hay nada parecido en el universo. +Por tanto, giremos el Hubble hacia aqu, para mirar la Tierra. +Comenzaremos por la Amazonia, +vamos a sumergirnos, vamos a llegar a la realidad que vivimos cotidianamente, y mirarla bien de cerca, porque es una necesidad. +Quien no lo necesita es Davi Copenaua. +Davi tiene algo que yo perd. +Me educ la televisin +y creo que perd ese registro ancestral de dar valor a lo que no conozco, a lo que no veo. +l no necesita de la confirmacin de Santo Toms. +El cree con veneracin y reverencia, en lo que sus antepasados y los espritus le ensearon. +Como la gente no puede, miremos la selva, +pero incluso cuando miramos con el Hubble hacia el cielo (esta es a vista de pjaro) +vemos algo desconocido, algo que tambin desconocemos. +Los espaoles lo llamaron el infierno verde. +Si salimos de aqu a la selva y nos perdemos, si nos dirigimos al oeste tenemos 900 km hasta llegar a Colombia. Ms de 1000 km hasta llegar a algn lugar. +Se entiende porque le llamaron el infierno verde +Pero miremos que hay dentro. +Es una alfombra viva. +Cada color es una especie de rbol. +Cada rbol, cada copa, tiene ms de 1000 especies de insectos en su interior, sin mencionar los millones de especies de hongos, bacterias, etc. +Todo invisible. +Todo en un cosmos ms desconocido, si cabe, que las galaxias lejanas a billones de aos luz de la tierra, que el Hubble nos muestra en los peridicos todos los das. +Y termino mi presentacin, solo me quedan unos segundos, mostrndoles un ser maravilloso, +la mariposa Morfo, que cuando la vemos en la selva, tenemos la sensacin de que alguien dej abierta la puerta del paraso, de donde escap esta criatura tan hermosa. +Pero no puedo terminar sin mostrarles el aspecto tecnolgico. +Somos muy arrogantes con la tecnologa. +Desposemos a la naturaleza de su tecnologa. +Una mano robtica es tecnologa, mi mano es biolgica, pero no solemos pensar ms en esto. +Vamos a contemplar la mariposa Morfo. ejemplo de una invisible competencia tecnolgica, que es el ncleo potencial de supervivencia del planeta, y vamos a ampliar la imagen. De nuevo, el Hubble. +Vamos a penetrar en el interior del ala de la mariposa. +Los estudiosos intentaron explicar porque era azul. +Vamos a ampliar la imagen. +Y lo que vemos es una arquitectura invisible, que deja atrs a todos los arquitectos del mundo, +y todo en una escala muy pequea. +Adems de la belleza de su funcionamiento, hay otro aspecto. +Todo lo que en la naturaleza, se organiza en estructuras extraordinarias tiene su funcin, +Y esa funcin en la mariposa Morfo, es que no es azul, no tiene un pigmento azul. +Posee unos cristales fotnicos en la superficie que segn el estudio, son unos cristales muy sofisticados. +Nada parecido, incluso a la tecnologa que tenamos aos atrs. +Ahora, Hitachi, ha desarrollado un monitor que utiliza esa tecnologa y se usa en la fibra ptica para la transmisin de... Janine Beryrus que ya estuvo aqu hablando sobre eso de la biomimtica. +Se acab mi tiempo. +Concluir diciendo que lo que est en la base de esa capacidad, de esa competencia de la biodiversidad de producir servicios maravillosos es: la clula viva. +Es una estructura de algunas micras que es una maravilla interna. +Hay conferencias de TED sobre esto, y no me voy a alargar, pero cada uno en esta sala, yo incluido, tenemos 100 trillones de estas micromquinas en nuestro cuerpo, para que lo aprecien. +Imagnense lo que tiene esa selva Amaznica. 100 trillones es mucho ms que el nmero de estrellas en el cielo. +Y no somos conscientes. +Muchas gracias. +Buenas tardes. +Mi nombre es Uldus. +Soy artista fotogrfica de Rusia. +Me dedico a cuadrar un mensaje significativo: esttica, belleza, composicin, un poco de irona, y artefactos. +Les contar de mi proyecto, llamado Romnticos Desesperados. +Son mis artefactos, o pinturas de la Hermandad Prerrafaelista de Inglaterra de mediados del siglo XIX. +Tom la pintura y le di un significado nuevo y contemporneo discutiendo temas que me rodean en Rusia, captando gente que no son modelos pero tienen una historia interesante. +Este nio es bailarn profesional, de solo 12 aos, pero en la secundaria, esconde sus clases de baile y lleva la mscara de la brutalidad, tratando de estar unido con el resto de sus compaeros como un "guardia de asalto" que no tiene personalidad. +Pero este nio tiene metas y sueos pero lo esconde para ser aceptado socialmente, porque ser diferente no es fcil, especialmente en Rusia. +El prximo retrato es metafrico. +Y esta es Nikita, un guardia de seguridad en una de las barras en San Petersburgo. +Le gusta decir: "No te gustara verme enojado", como Hulk de la pelcula, pero nunca lo he visto enojado. +Esconde su sensibilidad y su lado romntico, porque en Rusia, entre los muchachos, no se ve bien el ser romntico, pero s se ve bien el estar rodeado de mujeres y verse como un "Hulk" agresivo. +A veces, en mi proyecto, tomo la pintura y le doy un significado nuevo y nueva tentacin sobre ella. +A veces comparo los rasgos faciales y juego con las palabras: irona, Iron Man, hombre planchando. +A travs de los artefactos, traigo asuntos sociales alrededor de m en Rusia a la conversacin. +Punto interesante sobre el matrimonio en Rusia, la mayora de las chicas de 18, 19 aos ya estn listas y suean con casarse. +Desde la niez nos van enseando que un matrimonio exitoso significa una vida exitosa, as que muchas de las chicas pelean por conseguir un buen esposo. +Y yo? +Yo tengo 27 aos. +En la sociedad rusa, soy una vieja solterona sin esperanza de casarme. +Por eso me ven en la mscara de luchador mexicana, en traje de novia, desesperada en mi jardn. +Pero recuerden, la irona es clave, y esto sirve para motivar a las chicas a que luchen por metas, por sueos, y cambien los estereotipos. +Sean valientes. Sean irnicos, eso ayuda. +Sean graciosos y hagan un poco de magia. +Hans Rosling: Les voy a hacer tres preguntas de escogencia mltiple +Usen este aparato para contestar. +La primera pregunta es: en cunto vari el nmero de muertes al ao por desastres naturales durante el siglo pasado? +El nmero se dobl, permaneci igual en el mundo como un todo, o disminuy a menos de la mitad? +Por favor, respondan A, B o C. +Veo un montn de respuestas, son ms rpidos que en la universidad +donde son muy lentos y solo piensan, piensan y vuelven a pensar +Muy bien! +Vamos a la siguiente pregunta. +Cunto tiempo fueron las mujeres de 30 aos del mundo, a la escuela: 7, 5 o 3 aos? +A, B, o C?, respondan por favor. +Y la siguiente: +En los ltimos 20 aos, cul es el porcentaje de gente en el mundo que vivi en extrema pobreza? +Extrema pobreza: no tener comida suficiente para el da. +Casi se dobl, es ms o menos el mismo o es la mitad? +A, B o C? +Ahora las respuestas. +Vern, muertes por desastres naturales en el mundo, pueden verlas en este grfico aqu desde 1900 a 2000. +En 1900 hubo cerca de medio milln de personas que fallecieron por desastres naturales: inundaciones, terremotos, erupciones volcnicas, sequas o causas similares. +A qu se debi este cambio? +Gapminder le pregunt al pblico en Suecia. +Y esto fue lo que respondieron. +El pblico sueco contest as: el 50 % crea que se haba doblado, un 38 % que se mantena ms o menos igual, y el 12 % que haba disminuido a la mitad. +Estos son los mejores datos de la investigacin de desastres, y sube y baja, y continua hasta la Segunda Guerra Mundial, y despus comienza a bajar y contina bajando hasta llegar a mucho menos de la mitad. +El mundo ha sido muy, muy capaz, con el paso del tiempo, de proteger mucho mejor a la gente de esto. +Solo el 12 % de los suecos saben esto. +Por eso fui al zoolgico y pregunt a los chimpancs. +Los chimpancs no ven la noticias de la noche, as que eligieron al azar, los suecos responden peor que dejndolo a la suerte +Ahora, cmo lo hicieron Uds.? +Gracias +Les ganaron los chimpancs +Pero estuvo cerrado. +Uds. fueron el triple mejores que los suecos, pero no es suficiente. +No deberan compararse con los suecos. +Deberan aspirar a metas ms altas en la vida. +Vean la siguiente respuesta: mujeres en la escuela +Vean que los hombres fueron 8 aos +Cunto tiempo fueron las mujeres a la escuela? +Preguntamos a los suecos otra vez, y nos dan una pista, verdad? +La respuesta correcta seguro que es la que solo unos pocos suecos eligieron no? +Vean, aqu estn. +Si, si, si, las mujeres casi los pillan. +Este es el pblico estadounidense +y estos de aqu son Uds. +Oh! +Felicidades, mucho mejor que los suecos, pero no me necesitan... Cmo sucedi? Creo que todo el mundo es consciente de que hay pases y ciertas regiones, en donde las chicas tienen grandes problemas, +no pueden ir a la escuela. y es horrible. +Pero en la mayora del mundo, donde vive la mayora de la gente, en la mayora de los pases, las chicas van a la escuela tanto como lo chicos, ms o menos. +Eso no significa que haya igualdad de gnero, en absoluto. +Las mujeres an estn reducidas a terribles, terribles limitaciones, pero existe la escolaridad en el mundo de hoy. +Ahora bien, se pierde la mayora +cuando se responde teniendo en cuenta los peores lugares, donde ests en lo cierto, pero se pierde la mayora. +Qu pasa con la pobreza? +Bueno, est claro que la pobreza aqu casi ha bajado a la mitad y cuando preguntamos al pblico en EE. UU. solo un 5 % acert. +Y Uds.? +Bueno, casi estn con los chimpancs. +Tan cerca, tan solo unos pocos de Uds.! +Deben existir ideas preconcebidas. +Y muchos en los pases ricos creen que, oh, nunca se acabar con la pobreza extrema. +Desde luego que lo piensan, porque incluso no saben que es lo que ha pasado. +Lo primero para pensar sobre el futuro es conocer el presente. +El programa piloto ya rebela esto, que muchos en el pblico puntan peor que el azar, as que debemos pensar en ideas preconcebidas. y algunas de las principales estn relacionadas con la distribucin mundial de la renta +Miren como era en 1975. +El nmero personas para cada ingreso, desde un dlar por da... Vean que aqu hay una joroba alrededor de un dlar por da, y luego una joroba aqu entre 10 y 100 dlares. +El mundo tena dos grupos, +era como un camello con dos jorobas, los pobres y los ricos, y unos pocos entre ellas. +Pero vean cmo ha cambiado. Conforme avanzamos, lo que cambia es que la poblacin mundial ha aumentado y las jorobas empiezan a mezclarse. +La joroba ms baja se mezcla con la joroba ms alta; el camello muere y ahora tenemos un mundo dromedario con una sola joroba. +El porcentaje de pobreza ha disminuido. +Aun as es horrible que tantos permanezcan en la extrema pobreza. +Todava tenemos este grupo, cerca de mil millones, pero eso puede acabarse ahora. +El reto que tenemos es alejarnos de eso, entender dnde est la mayora, y que se muestra muy claramente, en esta pregunta +Preguntamos cul era el porcentaje mundial de nios de un ao de edad vacunados contra sarampin y otras cosas que hemos padecido por muchos aos: un 20 %, 50 % o 80 %? +Aqu estn las respuestas del pblico norteamericano y sueco. +Vean el resultado de los suecos: ya saben la respuesta correcta. +Quin demonios es el profesor de salud global en ese pas? +Bueno, soy yo. Soy yo. +Es muy duro esto, es muy duro. +Sin embargo, el enfoque de Ola para realmente medir lo que sabemos, levant titulares y CNN public los resultados en su web con las preguntas, millones de respuestas, y creo que cerca de 2000 comentarios; y uno de estos era: +"Apuesto a que nadie de los medios de comunicacin pas el test", dijo. +Y Ola me dijo: "Toma estos aparatos, +ests invitado a una rueda de prensa; +dselos y mide lo que los medios saben". +Y seoras y seores, por primera vez, los resultados informales de una conferencia con los medios de comunicacin de los EE. UU. +y despus, con los de la Unin Europea. +Ven, el problema no es que la gente no lea o no escuche a los medios. +El problema es que los propios medios no lo saben. +Qu deberamos hacer, Ola? +Tenemos algunas ideas? +Ola Rosling: S, tengo alguna idea, pero primero siento mucho que les ganasen los chimpancs. +Con suerte podr consolarlos cuando vean que no fue culpa suya, en realidad. +Despus, les dar algunos trucos para ganar a los chimpancs en el futuro. +Esto es bsicamente lo que har. +Pero antes, vean porque somos tan ignorantes. Todo empieza en este sitio. +Es una ciudad del norte de Suecia: Hudiksvall. +Este es el barrio donde crec, un barrio con un gran problema +En realidad, con el mismo problema que el resto de los vecindarios, donde crecieron Uds. +No es representativo vale? +Me dio una visin sesgada de cmo es la vida en este planeta. +As que esta es la primera pieza del puzle de la ignorancia. +Tenemos un sesgo personal, +diferentes experiencias de las comunidades y personas con que vivimos, a lo que hay que aadir, adems, la escuela, que es otro problema. +Me gustan las escuelas, pero los profesores suelen ensear una visin obsoleta del mundo, porque aprendieron algo cuando fueron a la escuela y ahora describen ese mundo a sus estudiantes sin mala intencin, est claro, y estos libros, impresos claro, estn caducos en este mundo de cambios constantes. +Y no tiene ningn sentido seguir enseando con un material tan anticuado. +Es en esto en lo que nos centraremos. +Tenemos unos datos caducos, adems de nuestra visin personal sesgada. +Lo que sucede despus son las noticias. +Un buen periodista sabe cmo elegir las historias que harn titulares y que la gente leer porque son sensacionalistas +Los eventos inusuales son ms interesantes, no? +Y se exageran, sobre todo las cosas que nos dan miedo. +Un tiburn que ataca a un sueco ser un titular durante semanas en Suecia, +Por lo tanto es difcil evitar estas tres fuentes de informacin sesgadas. +Nos bombardean y llenan la cabeza con un montn de ideas extraas; y a esto hay que aadirle lo que nos hace ser humanos: nuestra intuicin humana. +Fue buena en la evolucin, +nos ayud a generalizar y sacar conclusiones muy, muy rpidamente. +Nos ayud a exagerar lo que nos daba miedo, y buscar causalidades donde no las hay, para despus darnos una especie de falsa confianza por la que nos creemos los mejores conductores por encima de la media. +Todos respondieron a esta pregunta: "S, yo conduzco mejor". +Vale, fue bueno desde un punto de vista evolutivo, pero ahora cuando es sobre la visin del mundo, es exactamente la razn por la que est al revs. +Las tendencias que aumentan estn sin embargo cayendo y lo mismo al contrario, y en este caso, los chimpancs usan nuestra intuicin contra nosotros, que se convierte en debilidad, en vez de fortaleza. +Se supona que era nuestra fortaleza, no? +Cmo resolvemos este problema? +Primero, hay que medirlo para luego arreglarlo. +Al medirlo podemos comprender cul es el patrn de ignorancia. +Iniciamos el proyecto piloto el ao pasado y ahora estamos seguros de que encontraremos mucha ignorancia por todo el mundo, y la idea es realmente escalarla a todos los dominios o dimensiones del desarrollo global, como el clima, las especies en peligro de extincin, los derechos humanos, la igualdad de gnero, la energa y las finanzas. +Todos los sectores tienen datos y hay organizaciones que intentan concienciarnos sobre estos datos. +Por eso, empezamos a contactar con algunas como WWF, Amnista Internacional y Unicef, para preguntarles, cules son sus datos preferidos que creen que el pblico desconoce? +Bien, reun esos datos. +Imagnense una gran lista, con digamos, 250 datos. +Y luego preguntamos al pblico para ver cul tena la peor puntuacin. +As conseguimos una lista ms corta con resultados terribles, como algunos de los ejemplos de Hans, y no tuvimos problemas en encontrar esos resultados terribles. +Qu vamos a hacer con esta pequea lista? +Bueno, la convertimos en un certificado de conocimiento, un certificado de conocimiento global, que pueden usar, si son una gran organizacin una escuela, una universidad o quizs una agencia de prensa que les certifica como conocedores globales. +Bsicamente, significa que no contratamos a nadie que puntu como los chimpancs. +Desde luego no deberan hacerlo. +Puede ser que en 10 aos a partir de ahora, si este proyecto triunfa, estn sentados en una entrevista rellenando esta especie de loco conocimiento global. +Ahora, volvamos a los trucos prcticos. +Cmo van a triunfar? +Hay, desde luego, una manera, que es acostarse muy tarde todas las noches y aprenderse de memoria los datos, leyendo todos estos informes. +Esto nunca pasar, +incluso Hans no cree que pasar, +La gente no tiene tiempo. +La gente quiere atajos y aqu estn los atajos. +Hay que fortalecer nuestra intuicin de nuevo. +Poder generalizar. +Y les voy a mostrar algunos trucos en los que los malentendidos se transforman en reglas prcticas. +Empecemos con un equvoco, +muy extendido: +todo va a peor. +Lo omos a menudo, e incluso, Uds. mismos lo piensan. +La otra forma de pensar es que las cosas mejorarn. +As que cuando se enfrenten a una pregunta y no estn seguros deberan adivinar "mejor". +No se inclinen por lo peor, vale? +Esto les ayudar a conseguir mejor puntuacin en los test. +Esta era la primera +Hay ricos y pobres y la diferencia es cada vez mayor. +Hay una gran desigualdad. +S, vivimos en un mundo desigual, pero al mirar los datos hay una joroba. +Vale? Si se sienten inseguros inclnense por "la mayora de la gente est en la mitad". +Les ayudar a conseguir la repuesta correcta. +La siguiente idea preconcebida es que los pases y la gente primero necesitan ser muy ricos, para desarrollarse socialmente, con chicas en la escuela y estar listos para los desastres naturales. +No, no, no. Eso est mal. +Miren, en la gran joroba del medio ya hay chicas en la escuela. +Por tanto, si estn inseguros, piensen en que "la mayora ya lo tiene"; cosas como la electricidad, chicas en la escuela y este tipo de cosas. +Son solo reglas prcticas, y lgicamente no se pueden aplicar a todo, pero as es como pueden generalizar. +Vean la ultima +Si, esta es buena. Los tiburones son peligrosos. No. +Bueno s, pero no son tan importantes en las estadsticas globales, es lo que quiero decir. +A m me dan mucho miedo los tiburones. +Tan pronto como veo una pregunta sobre algo que temo, puede ser terremotos, otras religiones, quiz terroristas o tiburones, cualquier cosa que me atemorice, asuman que van a exagerar el problema. +Esta es la regla prctica. +Desde luego hay peligros que tambin son grandes. +Los tiburones matan muy poca gente, es lo que deberan pensar. +Con estas cuatro reglas prcticas, podrn contestar mejor que los chimpancs, porque los chimpancs no pueden hacer esto. +No puede generalizar este tipo de reglas. +Y felizmente podrn darle la vuelta al mundo y ganar a los chimpancs, vale? +Este es un enfoque sistemtico, +pero la pregunta ahora es es esto importante? +S, es importante comprender la pobreza, la extrema pobreza y como combatirla, y como llevar las chicas a la escuela. +Cuando se den cuenta de que esto est pasando podrn comprenderlo. +Pero es importante para todo el mundo? Qu pasa con los ricos, el otro extremo en la escala? +Dira que s, que muy importantes por la misma razn. +Si tienen una visin del mundo basada en datos actuales podrn tener la oportunidad de comprender que vendr en el futuro. +Volvamos a esas dos jorobas en 1975 +cuando nac, y selecciono Occidente. +Estos son los actuales pases de la Unin Europea y EE. UU. +Vean como Occidente y el resto se comparan en trminos de cmo son de ricos. +Esta es la gente que puede permitirse viajar en avin al extranjero en vacaciones. +En 1975, solo poda el 30 % de los que vivan fuera de la Unin Europea y EE. UU. +Pero esto ha cambiado. +Primero, vean el cambio hasta hoy, 2014. +Actualmente es 50/50. +Se acab la dominacin occidental. +Eso es bueno. Qu ocurrir a continuacin? +Ven esta gran joroba? Ven cmo se mueve? +Hice un experimento, visit la web del Fondo Monetario Internacional. +para ver el pronstico del PIB en los prximos 5 aos, +y poder usarlo como una prediccin para los prximos 5 aos, siempre que la diferencia de ingresos entre los pases sea la misma. +Lo hice, e incluso fui ms lejos. +Us estos 5 aos para los prximos 20, a la misma velocidad, solo como un experimento de lo que podra pasar. +Vengan al futuro. +En 2020, es el 57 % en el resto +En 2025, es el 63 %, 2030, 68%. +Y en 2035 Occidente es superado en el mercado de los consumidores ricos. +Estas son solo proyecciones del PIB per cpita en el futuro. +El 73 % de los consumidores ricos vivirn fuera EE. UU. y Europa +Por eso creo que es una buena idea para una compaa usar este certificado para asegurarse de tomar decisiones basadas en los datos del futuro. +Mucha gracias +Bruno Gisani: Hans y Ola Rosling! +Hola, mi nombre es Mac. +Trabajo mintiendo a los nios, pero son mentiras honestas. +Escribo libros infantiles, y hay una frase de Pablo Picasso: "Sabemos que el Arte no es verdad. +El Arte es una mentira que nos hace ver la verdad o al menos la verdad que nos dan para entender. +El artista debe conocer la forma de convencer a otros de la veracidad de sus mentiras". +Me enter de esto de nio, y me encant, pero no tena idea de qu significaba. +Y estoy aqu hoy para hablarles de la verdad y la mentira, la ficcin y la realidad. +Cmo podra desenredar este montn de frases anudadas? +Y dije, tengo PowerPoint, hagamos un diagrama de Venn. +["Verdades. Mentiras."] All est, justo ah, bum! +Tenemos verdades y mentiras y en medio ese espacio, en la frontera. +En ese umbral est el arte. +Un diagrama de Venn. Pero esto no es de mucha ayuda. +Lo que me hizo entender esa cita y en realidad qu es el arte, al menos el arte de ficcin, fue trabajar con nios. +Sola ser consejero de campamento de verano. +Lo haca en vacaciones de verano, y me encantaba. +Era un campamento de verano deportivo para nios de 4 a 6 aos. +trabajaba con nios de 4 aos, algo bueno porque los de 4 aos no saben jugar deportes, y yo tampoco. +Les contaba cmo los fines de semana iba a casa y espiaba a la Reina de Inglaterra. +Pronto, otros nios que no estaban en mi grupo de nios, venan y me decan: "Eres Mac Barnett, no? +Espas a la Reina de Inglaterra". +Haba esperado toda la vida que unos extraos me hicieran esa pregunta. +En mis fantasas eran rusas esbeltas, pero nios de 4 aos... uno hace lo que puede en Berkeley, California. +Advert que las historias que contaba eran reales de esta forma que me resultaba familiar y muy emocionante. +Creo que el pinculo fue, nunca lo olvidar, fue esta niita Riley. Era muy pequea, sola tirar su almuerzo todos los das, arrojaba las frutas. +Arrojaba las frutas que su mam le preparaba, las arrojaba en la hiedra y coma bocadillos de frutas budines, y yo le deca: "Riley, no puedes hacer eso, tienes que comer la fruta". +Y ella: "Por qu?" +Y yo: "Bueno, si tiras la fruta, muy pronto, todo estar cubierto de melones", por eso creo que termin contando historias para nios y no como nutricionista infantil. +Riley dijo: "Eso nunca pasar. +Eso no va a pasar". +Entonces, el ltimo da del campamento, Me levant temprano y compr un gran meln en la tienda y lo escond en la hiedra, y en el almuerzo dije: "Riley, por qu no miras por ah qu has hecho?" +Y... se abri camino por la hiedra y luego sus ojos se iluminaron, y sealaba este meln ms grande que su cabeza, y todos los nios la rodearon y uno dijo: "Oye, por qu tiene una etiqueta?" +Y yo: "Por eso siempre les digo que no arrojen las etiquetas en la hiedra. +Colquenlas en la basura. Arruinan la naturaleza". +Y Riley llev el meln consigo todo el da, y estaba orgullosa. +Riley saba que un meln no crece en 7 das, pero tambin saba que ella s poda, y es un lugar extrao, pero no es exclusivo de los nios. +El arte puede llevarnos a ese lugar. +Ella estaba en ese lugar del medio, ese lugar que podramos llamar arte o ficcin. +Lo llamar maravilla. +Coleridge lo llam suspensin de la incredulidad o fe potica; momentos en que una historia, por extraa que sea, tiene cierta apariencia de verdad, y uno se la cree. +No es exclusivo de los nios. +Los adultos vamos all con la lectura. +Es por eso que las personas descienden en Dubln en la caminata de Bloomsday para ver lo que ocurri en "Ulises" a pesar de que nada de eso sucedi. +O que van a Londres a visitar Baker Street a ver el apartamento de Sherlock Holmes, aunque 221B es solo un nmero pintado de una direccin que nunca existi. +Sabemos que son personajes irreales, pero nos generan sentimientos reales, y podemos hacerlo. +Sabemos que no son reales, pero tambin sabemos que lo son. +Los nios pueden lograrlo ms fcil que los adultos, por eso me encanta escribir para nios. +Creo que los nios son el mejor pblico para la ficcin literaria seria. +Cuando era nio me obsesionaban las novelas con puertas secretas, como "Narnia", en las que uno abra una puerta y entraba a un mundo mgico. +Estaba convencido de que existan las puertas secretas y que la encontrara y podra atravesarla. +Quera cruzar y vivir ese mundo de ficcin, que es... Siempre abra los armarios de las personas. Una vez abr el armario del novio de mam, y no haba un mundo mgico. +Haba cosas extraas que mam deba conocer. +Y con gusto le cont todo lo que vi. +Despus de la universidad, mi primer trabajo fue detrs de una de estas puertas secretas. +Este es un lugar llamado 826 Valencia. +Est al 826 de la calle Valencia en la Misin, San Francisco, y cuando trabaj all estaba la sede de una editorial llamada McSweeney's, un taller de redaccin sin fines de lucro llamado 826 Valencia, pero en el frente haba una tienda extraa. +Es una zona de venta por menor, y en San Francisco, no sera la excepcin, as que quien la fund, un escritor llamado Dave Eggers, para cumplir con el cdigo dijo: "Bueno, crear una tienda de artculos para piratas". +Y eso hizo. Es hermosa, toda de madera. +En los cajones hay ctricos as que no tendremos escorbuto. +Tienen parches en un montn de colores, porque en primavera, los piratas estn como locos. +El negro es aburrido. Colores pastel... +Ojos, hay de muchos colores, ojos de vidrio, dependiendo de cmo quieren enfrentar la situacin. +Es una puerta secreta que uno atraviesa. +Administr el 826 en Los ngeles, mi trabajo era construir ese local. +Ah tenemos el Echo Park Time Travel Mart. +Nuestro eslogan: "Donde ests, ya estuvimos". +Est en Sunset Boulevard en Los ngeles. +Nuestro personal est listo para ayudarle. +Son de todas las pocas, hasta de los aos 80, el tipo del final, es de un pasado muy reciente. +Entre nuestros Empleados del Mes estn Genghis Khan y Charles Dickens. +Salieron grandes personas de all. +Esta es la seccin farmacia. +Tenemos patentes medicinales, canopes para los rganos, jabn comunista que dice: "Este es el jabn para el ao". Nuestra mquina se rompi en la inauguracin y no sabamos qu hacer. +El arquitecto estaba cubierto de jarabe rojo. +Pareca que haba asesinado a alguien, que no estaba fuera de cuestin para este arquitecto particular, y no sabamos qu hacer. +Sera el punto clmine de nuestro negocio. +As que pusimos un cartel que deca: "Fuera de servicio. Vuelva ayer". Y termin siendo un chiste efectivo as que lo dejamos para siempre. +Trozos de mamut; pesan como 3 kg cada uno. +Repelente Brbaro, repleto de ensalada y popurr, cosas que los brbaros odian. +Lenguas muertas. +Sanguijuelas, diminutos mdicos de la naturaleza. +Odorante Vikingo, que viene en varias fragancias: uas de pies, sudor y verduras podridas, ceniza pira. +Porque creemos que Axe Body Spray es algo que uno debera encontrar solo en el campo de batalla, no debajo de los brazos. Estos son chips de emocin para robots, para que puedan sentir amor y miedo. +El que ms se vende es Schadenfreude, algo que no esperbamos. +No pensbamos que fuese a suceder. +Detrs hay un taller sin fines de lucro, y los nios cruzan la puerta que dice "Solo Empleados" y terminan en este espacio donde hacen la tarea, escriben historias y hacen films; aqu estn lanzando un libro y los nios leern. +Se publica una revista trimestral con artculos de los nios que vienen a diario despus de la escuela, y tenemos lanzamientos, donde comen torta y leen para sus parientes y toman leche en copas de champn. +Es un lugar muy especial gracias a ese espacio extrao del frente. +La broma no es broma. +Todo es una ficcin y me encanta. Un poquito de ficcin coloniz el mundo real. +Yo lo veo como un libro en 3 dimensiones. +Hay un trmino, la metaficcin, son historias sobre las historias, y est en apogeo actualmente. +Su ltimo esplendor fue quiz en los aos 60 con novelistas como John Barth y William Gaddis, pero ha sobrevolado. +Es casi tan antiguo como la narrativa. +Una tcnica de metaficcin es derribar la cuarta pared, s? +Ocurre cuando un actor habla al pblico y dice: "Soy actor, esto es solo decorado". +E incluso ese momento de supuesta honestidad, dira que est al servicio de la mentira, pone de relieve la artificialidad de la ficcin. +Yo prefiero lo opuesto. +Para derribar la cuarta pared, quiero que escape la ficcin y entre al mundo real. +Quiero que el libro sea una puerta secreta que conecte las historias con la realidad. +Eso trato de hacer en mis libros. +Este es un ejemplo. +Este es el primer libro que hice. +Se llama "Billy Twitters y su problema de la ballena azul". +Es sobre un nio que recibe una ballena azul como mascota pero es un castigo y le complica la vida. +La recibe en la noche por FedUp. +Tiene que llevarla consigo a la escuela. +Vive en San Francisco... ciudad difcil para tener una ballena. +Muchas colinas, las propiedades son escasas. +Es un mercado loco, para todos. +Y debajo de la sobrecubierta, en la tapa debajo del libro, en la sobrecubierta, hay un anuncio que ofrece probar por 30 das, sin riesgos, una ballena azul. +Lo envan en un sobre franqueado y con su direccin y nosotros enviamos una ballena. +Los nios escribieron. +Esta carta dice: "Estimada gente, Les apuesto USD 10 a que no me mandan una ballena. +Eliot Gannon (6 aos)". +Termina diciendo que a tu ballena le encantar saber de ti. +Hay un nmero de telfono, en el que puedes dejarle mensajes. +Y cuando uno llama y le deja mensajes, en el mensaje de respuesta se oyen sonidos de ballena y un bip, que tambin se parece a sonido de ballena. +Y tambin reciben una foto de su ballena. +Este es Randolph, Randolph pertenece a Nico uno de los primeros nios que llam; les pasar algunos de los mensajes de Nico. +Este es el primer mensaje que recib de Nico. +Nico: Hola, soy Nico. +Soy tu dueo, Randolph. Hola. +Es la primera vez que te hablo, pronto puedo hablarte otra vez. Adis. +Mac Barnett: Nico llam otra vez, como una hora despus. +Otro mensaje de Nico. +Nico: Hola, Randolph, soy Nico. +No hemos hablado hace mucho tiempo, te llam el sbado o domingo, s, sbado o domingo, por eso te llamo otra vez para saludarte y preguntarte qu ests haciendo ahora, probablemente te llamar otra vez hoy o maana, te llamo ms tarde. Adis. +MB: Lo hizo, llam otra vez ese da. +Dej 25 mensajes para Randolph en 4 aos. +All est todo sobre l, la abuela que ama, la abuela que quiere un poco menos... los crucigramas que hace, y... les pasar otro mensaje de Nico. +Mensaje de Navidad de Nico. +[Bip] Nico: Hola, Randolph, siento no haber hablado contigo en tanto tiempo. +He estado muy ocupado, empec la escuela, como sabrs, probablemente, como eres ballena no lo sabes, llamo para decirte, para desearte Feliz Navidad. +Que tengas una buena Navidad, Adis Randolph, adis. +MB: Ese es Nico, no supe de l en 18 meses, y hace 2 das dej un mensaje. +Su voz es totalmente diferente, puso a su niera al telfono, y ella fue muy amable con Randolph tambin. +Nico es el mejor lector que poda esperar. +Quisiera que todos emocionalmente llegasen a ese lugar con las cosas que creo. +Tengo suerte, los nios como Nico son los mejores lectores, y merecen las mejores historias que podamos contarles. +Muchas gracias. +En 1960, cuando todava era estudiante, recib una beca para viajar y estudiar la vivienda en EE.UU. +Viajamos por todo el pas. +Vimos edificios de vivienda pblica de gran altura en todas las grandes ciudades: Nueva York, Filadelfia. +Los que no tenan alternativa vivan all. +Y luego viajamos de suburbio en suburbio. Y volv pensando que debamos reinventar el edificio de apartamentos. +Debe haber otra manera de hacerlo. +No podemos sostener los suburbios, as que diseemos un edificio que brinde las ventajas de una casa a cada unidad. +El Habitat sera jardines por todo ello, contacto con la naturaleza, calles en vez de pasillos. +Lo prefabricamos para economzar. Y aqu est, casi 50 aos despus. +Es un lugar donde uno quisiera vivir. +Ha sido declarado patrimonio, pero no prolifer. +En 1973, hice mi primer viaje a China. +Era la Revolucin Cultural. +Viajamos por todo el pas y nos reunimos con arquitectos y planificadores. +Aqu est Pekn en esa poca. Ni un solo edificio de gran altura en Pekn o Shanghi; Shenzhen ni siquiera exista como ciudad. +Casi no haba coches. +30 aos despus, esta es Pekn. +Esta es Hong Kong. +Si eres adinerado, vives aqu; si eres pobre, vives aqu; la alta densidad est por todo ello. Y no es solo Asia. +En So Paulo, puedes viajar en helicptero 45 minutos viendo como los altos edificios consumen el ambiente de baja altura del siglo 19. +Y con esto viene el congestionamiento, y perdemos movilidad y as sucesivamente. +Y entonces, hace algunos aos decidimos volver y repensar Habitat. +Podramos volverlo ms asequible? +Podramos, en verdad, lograr esta calidad de vida en las densidades que hoy en da predominan? +Y nos dimos cuenta de que se trata bsicamente de luz, se trata del sol, se trata de naturaleza, se trata de fractalizacin. +Podemos abrir la superficie del edificio para tener ms contacto con el exterior? +Se nos ocurrieron una serie de modelos; modelos econmicos, ms baratos de construir y ms compactos; membranas de alojamiento donde uno pudiera disear su propia casa y crear sus propios jardines. +Y decidimos probar con Nueva York, y nos enfocamos en el Bajo Manhattan. +Y trazamos el mapa del rea edificada de Manhattan. +A la izquierda est Manhattan hoy en da: azul para las casas, rojo para edificios de oficinas, almacenes. +A la derecha, lo reconfiguramos: los edificios de oficinas forman la base, y subiendo 74 pisos, estn los apartamentos. +Hay una calle en el aire en el 25 piso, una calle colectiva. +Es piramidal. +Hay jardines y espacios abiertos para la comunidad, casi todas las unidades con su propio jardn privado, y espacios colectivos por todo ello. +Y lo ms importante: permeable, abierto. +No constituye una pared o una obstruccin en la cuidad, y la luz penetra en todas partes. +Y en los ltimos dos o tres aos, hemos estado, por primera vez, materializando la calidad de vida en el Habitat en proyectos de la vida real por toda Asia. +Esta es Qinhuangdao en China, casas de clase media donde se pone como condicin que todo apartamento debe recibir tres horas de luz solar, y medidas en el solsticio de inverno. +Y, en construccin, en Singapur, de nuevo, casas de clase media, jardines, calles colectivas, parques y as sucesivamente. +Y en Colombo. +Pero quiero referirme a algo ms, al diseo del espacio pblico. +Cien aos despus de haber empezado a construir con edificios altos, todava tenemos que comprender cmo los edificios de gran altura se vuelven un bloque de construccin al crear una ciudad, al crear el espacio pblico. +En Singapur, tuvimos una oportunidad: 930 mil metros cuadrados, densidad extremamente alta, desarrollo de los conceptos +de exterior e interior, paseos y parques integrados con una vida urbana intensa. +Y esto es todo lo que puedo contarles en cinco minutos. +Gracias. +Vivimos en un tiempo memorable. +En las prximas 2 dcadas nos enfrentaremos a dos cambios fundamentales, que determinarn si los prximos 100 aos sern los mejores o los peores de este siglo. +Lo ilustraremos con un ejemplo. +Visit Pekn por primera vez hace 25 aos para dar clases en la Universidad Popular de China. +El pas empezaba a interesarse por los mercados econmicos y la educacin universitaria y por eso decidieron llamar a los expertos extranjeros. +Como la mayora de la gente, me mova por Pekn en bicicleta. +Aparte de esquivar algn coche de vez cuando era una forma segura y fcil de moverte. +Montar en bicicleta hoy en da, es algo totalmente diferente. +Las carreteras estn congestionadas con coches y camiones. +El aire est muy contaminado por la combustin del carbn y diesel. +La ltima vez que estuve en primavera, recomendaban a la gente de mi edad ms de 65 aos, quedarse en casa y no salir mucho. +Cmo se lleg a todo esto? +Hemos llegado a esto por la forma en la que Pekn ha crecido como ciudad. +La ciudad ha incrementado en 25 aos, su poblacin a ms del doble, pasando de 10 a 20 millones. +Se ha convertido en una extensa rea urbana que depende de energa y combustibles contaminantes, especialmente del carbn. +China quema la mitad del carbn mundial cada ao, y esta es la razn, la razn principal de que sea el mayor emisor mundial de las gases de efecto invernadero. +Al mismo tiempo, hay que reconocer que durante ese periodo China ha crecido notablemente. +Se ha convertido en la segunda economa mundial. +Cientos de personas han salido de la pobreza, +lo cual es muy importante, +pero al mismo tiempo, los ciudadanos chinos se preguntan: Para que sirve este aumento si no se puede vivir en nuestras ciudades? +Han analizado y diagnosticado que es un camino insostenible de crecimiento y desarrollo. +China se plantea reducir el consumo de carbn, +y edificar de otra forma. +El desarrollo de China es parte de un cambio dramtico y fundamental en la estructura de la economa mundial. +Hace solo 25 aos los pases en desarrollo, los pases mas pobres del mundo, aunque representaban a la mayora de la poblacin, solo producan un tercio de la riqueza mundial. +Ahora producen ms de la mitad, y, probablemente, en los prximos 25 aos producirn dos tercios; los mismos pases que hace 25 aos los considerbamos en desarrollo. +Es un cambio notable. +Significa que la mayora de los pases en el mundo, ricos o pobres, se enfrentarn a los dos cambios fundamentales que quiero poner en relieve. +El primer cambio es la transformacin estructural de la base de las economas y sociedades que ya empec a ilustrar con el ejemplo de Pekn. +El 50 % de las reas urbanas +pasarn a ser el 70 % en 2050. +En las prximas dos dcadas la demanda de energa aumentar en un 40 %, y el crecimiento de la economa y de la poblacin aumentarn la presin sobre la tierra, el agua y los bosques. +Es un profundo cambio estructural, +que si lo manejamos de forma negligente o solo con vistas a corto plazo, generar basura, polucin, congestin, destruccin de la tierra y de los bosques. +Si pensamos en esas tres reas que he ilustrado con nmeros: ciudades, energa y tierra; s las manejamos con descuido, las perspectivas para la esperanza y el nivel de vida a nivel mundial se vern afectadas seriamente. +Y an hay ms, la emisin de gases de efecto invernadero crecer, incrementando los riesgos para el clima. +La concentracin de estos gases en la atmsfera ya es mucho ms alta de lo que fue durante millones de aos. +Si esa concentracin sigue aumentando nos arriesgamos a tener en el prximo siglo temperaturas nunca vistas en las ltimas decenas de millones de aos. +Existimos como Homo sapiens, una definicin muy generosa, sapiens de casi un cuarto de milln de aos, un cuarto de milln. +En los siguientes 100 aos, corremos el riesgo de tener unas temperaturas jams vistas decenas de millones de aos atrs, +que transformaran la relacin entre los seres humanos y el planeta, +que llevara a cambiar los desiertos, los ros, los patrones de los huracanes y el nivel del mar. Cientos de millones de personas, quizs, billlones de personas, tendran que mudarse, que si aprendimos algo de la historia, significara enormes y graves conflictos. +Y no podemos parar ese fenmeno sin ms. +No se firma un tratado de paz con el planeta. +No se negocia con las leyes de la fsica. +Somos parte del problema. Y estamos atrapados. +Esto est en juego, por lo tanto tenemos que conseguir ese segundo cambio: la transformacin climtica, y descarbonizar la economa. +El primero de estos cambios suceder de todos modos, +y depende de nosotros decidir si lo haremos bien o mal, el cambio econmico o estructural. +Pero el segundo cambio, el cambio climtico, es nuestra decisin. +Estos son los dos cambios a los que nos enfrentaremos en las prximas dcadas. +Las dos prximas dcadas son decisivas para lo que tenemos que hacer. +Cuando ms pienso sobre todo esto, en las dos transformaciones juntas, ms cuenta me doy, de que tenemos una gran oportunidad. Es una oportunidad de la que nos podemos aprovechar o no. +Y voy a explicarlo con las tres reas claves que he identificado: ciudades, energa y tierra. +Empecemos con las ciudades. +Ya he descrito los problemas de Pekn: polucin, congestin, basura y un largo etc., +que, seguramente, reconoceremos en muchas ciudades del mundo. +Con las ciudades, como en la vida, hay que planificar con antelacin. +Las ciudades del futuro, que sern muchas, y muchas de ellas extensas, hay que pensar cmo disearlas de manera compacta, para ahorrar tiempo y energa al desplazarse. +En las ciudades que ya existen, bien establecidas, hay que pensar en renovarlas e invertir para poder relacionarnos mucho mejor dentro de la propia ciudad y facilitar, animar a la gente a vivir cerca del centro. +Hay ejemplos en todo el mundo de como hacerlo. +En una ciudad, algunas cosas llevan su tiempo, +y otras pueden suceder rpidamente. +Un ejemplo es mi ciudad natal, Londres. +En 1952 la niebla txica de Londres mat a 4000 personas y afect gravemente la vida de muchas ms. +Era algo frecuente. +Para los que no viven en Londres, +recordarn que solamos llamarla "El Humo". +As eran las cosas en Londres. +Pero regulando el carbn, en unos pocos aos, los problemas disminuyeron rpidamente. +Me acuerdo de la niebla txica muy bien. +Cuando la visibilidad bajaba hasta solo unos pocos metros, los autobuses no funcionaban y tena que caminar. +Eran los aos 50. +Tena que caminar 5 km desde la escuela a casa. +Respirar era una actividad de riesgo. +Pero la situacin cambi y cambi por una decisin. +Las buenas decisiones suelen traer buenos resultados, resultados sorprendentes y muy rpidamente. +Entre ellas, en Londres se introdujo la tasa de congestin, de forma bastante rpida y efectiva, que ha logrado grandes mejoras en el sistema de autobuses, ahora ms limpio. +Vemos que los dos cambios descritos, el estructural y el econmico, van de la mano. +Pero tenemos que investir en las ciudades de forma inteligente, y si lo hacemos, tendremos ciudades ms limpias, ms tranquilas, ms seguras, ms bonitas y productivas y comunidades ms fuertes en esas ciudades, con transporte pblico, reciclaje, reutilizacin, todo ese tipo de acciones que une comunidades. +Podemos hacerlo, pero tenemos que pensar, tenemos que invertir y planear. +Hablemos de la energa nuevamente. +En los ltimos 25 aos, la energa ha incrementando en torno al 50 %. +El 80 % de esa energa proviene de los combustibles fsiles. +Puede que en los prximos 20 aos se incrementar en un 40 % o ms. +Tenemos que invertir vigorosamente en energa, tenemos que utilizarla de manera ms eficiente y generar solo energa limpia. +Sabemos como hacerlo. +Un ejemplo es California, +que estara entre los 10 primeros pases del mundo si fuera independiente. +No quiero empezar ninguna... California es grande. +En los prximos 5 o 6 aos, California pasar del 20 % en energas renovables elica, solar y otras a un 33 %, lo que permitir a California que los valores de la emisin de gases invernadero en 2020 retrocedan al nivel registrado en 1990, mientras que la economa en California se habr ms o menos duplicado. +Es un logro espectacular +que muestra lo que se puede hacer. +No solo en California, el nuevo gobierno en India planea usar la tecnologa solar para iluminar las casas de 400 millones de personas que no tienen electricidad. +Han establecido un plan para cinco aos. +Creo de verdad que pueden lograrlo. +Ya veremos, pero ahora la gente acta con mayor rapidez. +400 millones, ms que la poblacin de Estados Unidos. +Estas son algunas de las metas que la gente se est proponiendo, en trminos de cambios rpidos. +De nuevo, observamos que buenas decisiones traen buenos resultados, y esos dos cambios, el econmico con el estructural, y el climtico con la descarbonizacin, estn ntimamente relacionados. +Si hacemos bien el primero, el estructural, el segundo, el climtico, ser mucho ms fcil. +Hablemos de la tierra, y particularmente los bosques. +Los bosques son el refugio para valiosas especies de plantas y animales. +Retienen el agua en el suelo y utilizan el dixido de carbono de la atmsfera, fundamental para combatir el cambio climtico. +Pero estamos perdiendo los bosques. +En la ltima dcada, hemos perdido un rea forestal del tamao de Portugal, y muchas ms se han degradado. +Pero ya estamos viendo que podemos hacer ms al respecto. +No solo somos capaces de reconocer el problema, sino que entendemos cmo gestionarlo tambin. +En Brasil, la tasa de desforestacin se ha reducido en torno a un 70 % en los ltimos 10 aos. +Cmo? Implicando a las comunidades locales, invirtiendo en la agricultura y la economa local, vigilando con ms cuidado y obligando al estricto cumplimiento de la ley. +Y no solo es parar la tala, +que es, desde luego, de suma importancia, sino tambin reclasificar las tierras degradadas regenerarlas y rehabilitarlas. +Cuando fui a Etiopa por primera vez en 1967, +era un pas pauprrimo que en los prximos aos padeci hambrunas devastadoras, y estuvo envuelta en profundos conflictos sociales. +Pero en los ltimos aos, unos cuantos de hecho, Etiopia ha crecido muy rpido. +Quiere convertirse en un pas de renta media en 15 aos y sin emisiones de carbono. +Pienso que es una meta muy ambiciosa pero es posible. +Se nota que estn decididos. +Demuestran lo que se puede hacer. +Etiopa invierte en energas limpias +y trabaja para rehabilitar la tierra. +En Humbo, en el suroeste de Etiopa, un proyecto fantstico, que planta rboles en tierra degradada, y trabaja con las comunidades locales en la gestin forestal sostenible, ha permitido mejorar mucho el nivel de vida. +Por lo tanto, desde Pekn a Londres, de California a la India, de Brasil a Etiopa, entendemos como llevar a cabo estos cambios estructurales y climticos. +Entendemos como gestionarlos bien. +Y la tecnologa est cambiando muy rpido. +No tengo que hacer una lista a un pblico como este, pero hay coches elctricos, bateras de nuevos materiales. +Podemos controlar remotamente los electrodomsticos y los mviles cuando no estamos en casa. +Tenemos mejor aislamiento, +y mucho ms que vendr. +Pero, y es un gran pero, el mundo en su conjunto, acta con demasiada lentitud. +No reducimos las emisiones de la manera en que deberamos. +No estamos gestionando las debidas transformaciones estructurales ahora al alcance. +Un conocimiento a fondo de los riesgos que conlleva el cambio climtico, no existe todava. +Un conocimiento profundo de lo que somos capaces de hacer no lo tenemos todava. +Necesitamos ms presin poltica para construir, +necesitamos lderes que tomen la iniciativa. +Podemos tener un mejor desarrollo un clima mejor, un mundo mejor. +Podemos, gestionando bien esos dos cambios, hacer que los prximos 100 aos, sean el mejor siglo de todos. +Si fracasamos, si nosotros, t, yo, entre todos, fracasamos, y no gestionamos bien esos cambios, los prximos 100 aos, ser el peor siglo de todos. +Esta es la principal conclusin del informe sobre la economa y el cambio climtico, presidido por el ex Presidente de Mxico, Felipe Caldern, y copresidido por m, que ayer presentamos aqu, en New York, en la sede de las Naciones Unidas al Secretario General Ban Ki-moon. +Sabemos que podemos hacerlo. +Hace dos semanas, me convert en abuelo por cuarta vez. +Nuestra hija... (Beb llorando) Nuestra hija dio a luz a Rosa en Nueva York hace dos semanas. Os presento a Helen y Rosa. +Dos semanas de vida. +Vamos a mirarles a los ojos a nuestros nietos y decirles que entendemos los problemas, que reconocemos los riesgos y las oportunidades, y sin embargo, no hemos hecho nada? +Claro que no. Que los prximos 100 aos sean lo mejor de todos los siglos. +Cuando cumpl 19, comenc mi carrera como la primera mujer fotgrafa periodista en la franja de Gaza, Palestina. +Mi trabajo como fotgrafa mujer era considerado como un grave insulto a las tradiciones locales, y cre un estigma prolongado para m y mi familia. +Este campo dominado por hombres hizo mi presencia incmoda en todo sentido. +Dejaron claro que una mujer no debe hacer el trabajo de un hombre. +Agencias fotogrficas en Gaza rehusaron prepararme debido a mi gnero. +La seal de "No" era bastante clara. +Tres de mis colegas llegaron a llevarme a un rea de ataque areo donde los sonidos de las explosiones eran lo nico que poda or. +El polvo volaba en el aire, y el suelo temblaba debajo de m. +Solo me di cuenta que no estbamos para documentar el evento cuando tres de ellos regresaron al campero blindado y se alejaron saludando y riendo, dejndome atrs en la zona del ataque areo. +Por un momento me sent aterrorizada, humillada y apenada de m misma. +La accin de mis colegas no es la nica amenaza de muerte que he recibido, pero si la ms peligrosa. +La percepcin de la vida de una mujer en Gaza es pasiva. +Hasta hace poco, muchas mujeres no podan trabajar o seguir una carrera. +En tiempos de doble guerra, tanto con las restricciones sociales a las mujeres como con el conflicto Israel-Palestino, estaban acabando con las historias brillantes y lgubres de las mujeres. +Para los hombres, las historias de las mujeres eran inconsecuentes. +Empec a prestar ms atencin a las mujeres que viven en Gaza. +Debido a mi gnero, tuve acceso a mundos prohibidos para mis colegas. +Ms all del obvio dolor y la lucha, haba una dosis saludable de risas y logros. +Frente a un comando de la polica de Gaza durante la primera guerra en Gaza, un ataque areo israel destruy el comando y quebr mi nariz. +Por un momento, solo vi blanco, blanco brillante, como esta luces. +Pens que haba quedado ciega o que estaba en el cielo. +Cuando logr abrir mis ojos, document este momento. +Mohammed Khader, un trabajador palestino que pas dos dcadas en Israel, con su plan de retiro construy una casa de cuatro pisos, que en la primera operacin de campo en su barrio fue destruida completamente. +No qued nada, solo las palomas que criaba y un jacuzzi, una baera que trajo de Tel Aviv. +Mohammed puso la baera encima de los escombros y empez a dar a sus nios su bao diario de burbujas. +Mi trabajo no busca ocultar las cicatrices de guerra sino mostrar la imagen completa de las historias no vistas en Gaza. +Como fotgrafa femenina palestina, la jornada de lucha y sobrevivencia diaria me ha inspirado a superar el taboo de la comunidad y ver otro lado de la guerra y sus secuelas. +Me convert en testigo con opciones: huir o permanecer firme. +Gracias. +He sido paramdico desde hace 7 aos en el Condado de Suffolk, Nueva York. +He sido el primero en acudir a una serie de incidentes desde accidentes de auto al huracn Sandy. +Si son como la mayora de la gente, la muerte puede ser uno de sus mayores temores. +Algunos la ven venir. +Otros no. +Hay un trmino mdico documentado poco conocido, llamado 'muerte inminente'. +Es casi un sntoma. +Como paramdico, estoy entrenado para responder a este sntoma como a cualquiera, as, cuando un paciente con un ataque al corazn me mira y dice "Me voy a morir hoy", estamos preparados para reevaluar su estado. +A lo largo de mi carrera, he acudido a una serie de incidentes donde al paciente le quedaban solo unos minutos de vida, y no haba nada ms que pudiera hacer por ellos. +Con esto, enfrentaba un dilema: Qu les digo a los moribundos a punto de encarar la muerte? o les miento para consolarlos? +Al principio de mi carrera, me enfrent a este dilema simplemente mintiendo. +Tena miedo. +Tema que si les deca la verdad moriran aterrados, con temor, aferrndose a los ltimos minutos de vida. +Pero todo cambi con un incidente. +Hace 5 aos, recib una llamada por accidente de moto. +El conductor haba sufrido lesiones muy graves. +Durante el reconocimiento, me di cuenta de que no haba nada ms que se pudiera hacer por l, y como en otras tantas ocasiones, me mir a los ojos y me pregunt: "Voy a morir?" +En aquel instante, decid actuar diferente. +Decid decirle la verdad. +Decirle que iba a morir, y que no haba nada que pudiera hacer por l. +Su reaccin me impact hasta hoy en da. +Simplemente se relaj y tuvo una mirada de aceptacin en su rostro. +Nada del terror o miedo que yo pensaba ver. +Simplemente se relaj, y cuando le mir a los ojos vi paz interior y aceptacin. +Desde aquel momento, decid que lo mo no era consolar a los moribundos con mis mentiras. +He respondido a muchos casos desde entonces, casos donde los pacientes vivan sus ltimos momentos y no haba nada que pudiera hacer por ellos, y observ que en casi todos los casos que los pacientes reaccionaban de la misma manera a la verdad, con un rostro de paz interior y aceptacin. +De hecho, hay tres patrones que he observado en todos estos casos. El primer patrn es el que siempre me choca. +Independientemente de sus creencias religiosas +o antecedentes culturales, hay una necesidad de perdn. +Sea que lo llamen pecado, sea que simplemente digan que sienten remordimiento, la culpa es un sentimiento universal. +Una vez cuid a un anciano que sufri un ataque masivo cardiaco. +Mientras me preparaba y alistaba mi equipo para el inminente paro cardaco, empec a hablarle de su inminente fallecimiento. +Ya lo saba por mi tono de voz y por mi lenguaje corporal. +Mientras le colocaba los electrodos del desfibrilador en el pecho, y le preparaba para lo que iba a suceder, me mir a los ojos y me dijo: "Deseara haber pasado ms tiempo con mis hijos y con mis nietos en lugar de ser tan egosta con mi tiempo". +Ante una muerte inminente, todos queremos el perdn. +El segundo patrn que vi es la necesidad de saber que se nos recordar. +Sea que sean recordados en mis pensamientos, o en los de sus seres queridos, todos necesitan sentir que seguirn viviendo. +Hay una necesidad de inmortalidad, en los corazones y los recuerdos de sus seres queridos, el mo, el de mi equipo o el de cualquier persona alrededor suyo. +Incontables veces, los pacientes me han mirado a los ojos y me han preguntado: "Me recordars?" +El ltimo patrn que he observado es el que me ha tocado en lo ms profundo del alma. +Los moribundos tienen que saber que sus vidas han tenido sentido. +Necesitan saber que no han desaprovechado su vida en tareas sin sentido. +Esto me toc muy pronto en la carrera, nada ms empezar. +Acud a una llamada, +era una mujer de unos 50, atrapada en un auto. +Sufri el impacto de otro auto a gran velocidad por un lateral, y se encontraba en un estado muy crtico. +Mientras los bomberos trabajaban para sacarla del coche, yo me acerqu para darle los primeros auxilios. +Mientras hablbamos, me dijo: "Hay tantas cosas que quera hacer con mi vida". +Senta que no haba dejado su huella en la Tierra. +Continuamos hablando y descubr que era madre de dos nios adoptados y los dos estudiaban medicina. +Gracias a ella, haba dos nios que tenan la suerte que no habran tenido nunca, de estudiar para salvar vidas como mdicos. +Hicieron falta 45 minutos para sacarla del auto, +pero no obstante, ella se nos fue antes. +Yo crea lo que uno ve en pelculas, que en los ltimos momentos de vida se siente pnico, miedo. +Pero he llegado a darme cuenta de que independientemente de la situacin, la muerte se recibe con paz y aceptacin, y que las pequeas cosas, los momentos ms banales, las cosas ms minsculas que diste en la vida te traen paz en tus ltimos momentos. +Gracias. +Soy profesor de ingeniera y los ltimos 14 aos he estado enseando mierda. +No es que sea mal profesor, sino que he estudiado y enseado el tema de los desechos humanos, cmo se canalizan a las plantas de tratamiento y cmo concebimos y diseamos estas plantas para proteger aguas superficiales como las de los ros. +He centrado mi carrera cientfica en las tcnicas moleculares de punta, mtodos basados en el ADN y el ARN, para estudiar las poblaciones bacterianas en los reactores biolgicos, y, claro est, para optimizar estos sistemas. +Con los aos, he desarrollado una obsesin enfermiza por los retretes y se me conoce por escurrirme en los baos y llevar la cmara de mi telfono, por todo el mundo. +Pero en el camino, he aprendido que no se trata solo del aspecto tcnico, sino tambin de lo que llaman la cultura fecal. +Por ejemplo, cuntos de Uds. son lavadores y cuntos secadores? +Creo que saben a qu me refiero. +Si son lavadores, usan agua para la limpieza anal. Es el trmino tcnico. +Y si son secadores, usan papel higinico, o peridicos en algunas partes del mundo donde no hay papel, o trapos o tuzas. +Y no se trata de una especie de trivia, sino de algo realmente crucial a la hora de entender y resolver el problema sanitario. +Y es un gran problema: hay 2000 millones de personas en el mundo sin acceso a un saneamiento adecuado. +Para ellos, no hay un escusado moderno. +Y hay 1100 millones de personas que tienen sus baos en las calles o a la orilla de los ros o en espacios abiertos. El trmino tcnico es defecacin abierta, pero, en realidad, es simplemente cagar al aire libre. +Y si viven con materia fecal, rodeados por ella, se enfermarn. +La absorber el agua que beben, los alimentos, lo que les rodea. +La ONU estima que cada ao hay 1,5 millones de muertes infantiles por saneamiento inadecuado. +Es una muerte cada 20 segundos que se puede prevenir. 171 cada hora, 4100 cada da. +Y para evitar la defecacin abierta, los municipios y las ciudades levantan infraestructura, pozos spticos, por ejemplo, en reas perifricas y rurales. +En la provincia de KwaZulu-Natal, por ejemplo, en Sudfrica, se han construido 10 000 pozos spticos. +Pero hay un problema cuando se llega a decenas de miles, y el problema es, qu pasa cuando estn llenos? +Esto es lo que pasa. +La gente defeca alrededor del pozo. +En las escuelas, los nios defecan en el piso y van dejando un rastro afuera del edificio, y empiezan a defecar alrededor del edificio, y las pozos se tienen que limpiar y vaciar manualmente. +Y quin hace la limpieza? Tienen estos trabajadores que a veces descienden a los pozos y retiran manualmente el contenido. +Es un trabajo sucio y peligroso. +Como pueden ver, no tienen un equipo adecuado ni ropa protectora. +Ah hay un trabajador. +Espero que puedan verlo. +Tiene una mscara, pero no tiene camisa. +En algunos pases como India, las castas bajas estn condenadas a limpiar estos pozos y por eso son ms condenadas por la sociedad. +Y entonces, Uds. se preguntan, cmo podemos resolver esto y por qu no construimos escusados como en Occidente para esos 2500 millones de personas? +La respuesta es que no es posible. +Y es esa realmente una solucin? +Porque, en esencia, se usa agua limpia para descargar el escusado, llevar este agua luego a una planta de tratamiento de aguas residuales y descargarla finalmente en un ro, y el ro, de nuevo, es una fuente de agua potable. +Y entonces debemos repensar el saneamiento Y debemos reinventar la infraestructura sanitaria y debo decir que para hacerlo se debe usar un pensamiento sistmico. +Debemos considerar la cadena sanitaria completa. +Empezamos con la interfaz humana y debemos luego pensar en las heces, cmo se recolectan y almacenan, se transportan, se tratan y se reutilizan, no solo su disposicin, sino su reutilizacin. +As que empecemos con la interfaz humana. +No importa si uno es lavador o secador, si se sienta o se acuclilla, la interfaz humana debera ser limpia y fcil de usar, porque, a fin de cuentas, cagar debera ser un placer. +Y cuando abrimos las posibilidades para entender esta cadena sanitaria, la tecnologa que est detrs, la de recoleccin y reutilizacin, no debera realmente importar, y entonces, podemos aplicar a soluciones sensibles al contexto adoptadas localmente. +Podemos abrirnos a posibilidades como la de este escusado que separa la orina, y que tiene 2 orificios. +Tiene un orificio frontal y uno trasero. El frontal recoge la orina y el trasero recoge la materia fecal. +Y se est separando la orina que tiene un 80 % del nitrgeno y un 50 % del fsforo, que luego puede ser tratada y precipitada para obtener estruvita, que es un fertilizante de alto valor, y la materia fecal puede desinfectarse y convertirse tambin en productos de alto valor. +O se puede, por ejemplo, como en nuestras investigaciones, reutilizar el agua tratndola en sistemas de saneamiento in situ +como los biofiltros y los humedales artificiales. Nos podemos abrir a todas las posibilidades si nos deshacemos el viejo paradigma de los escusados de descarga y de las plantas de tratamiento. +Y Uds. se deben estar preguntando, quin va a pagar todo esto? +Y debo decirles que los gobiernos deberan financiar la infraestructura. +Las ONGs y los donantes puede que hagan lo mejor, pero no es suficiente. +Los gobiernos deberan financiar el saneamiento de la misma forma que financian caminos, escuelas y hospitales, y otra infraestructura como los puentes, ya que sabemos, y la OMS lo ha estudiado, que por cada dlar invertido en infraestructura sanitaria, +Lo probamos en Sudfrica y funcion. +Necesitamos hacerlo ms robusto, y vamos a hacer nuevas pruebas en Malawi y Sudfrica el ao que viene. +Y tenemos la idea de hacer de esto un servicio profesional de vaciado, y as poder hacer de l un pequeo negocio, sacando beneficios y creando empleos, y tenemos la esperanza de que al repensar el saneamiento extendamos la vida de estos pozos y no tengamos que recurrir a soluciones emergentes que, en verdad, no tienen sentido. +Creo que el acceso a un saneamiento adecuado es un derecho humano bsico. +Tenemos que detener las prcticas de personas de castas inferiores o de bajos estratos +condenados a bajar y limpiar pozos. Es nuestra obligacin moral, social y ambiental. +Gracias. +Quiero contarles cmo 20 000 jvenes extraordinarios de ms de 100 pases terminaron en Cuba y estn transformando la salud en sus comunidades. +El 90% de ellos nunca habran salido de casa si no fuera por las becas para estudiar medicina en Cuba y el compromiso de volver a lugares como aquellos de donde venan: granjas remotas, montaas y barrios pobres para ser mdicos para gente como ellos, para predicar con el ejemplo. +La Escuela Latinoamericana de Medicina de La Habana, ELAM, es la escuela de medicina ms grande del mundo, ha graduado 23 000 jvenes mdicos desde su primera clase en 2005, y hay casi 10 000 ms en formacin. +Su misin: formar mdicos para quienes ms los necesitan: los ms de mil millones que nunca han visto un mdico, las personas que viven y mueren debajo de toda lnea de pobreza. +Estos estudiantes desafan todas las reglas. +Son el mayor riesgo de la escuela y tambin su mejor apuesta. +Se espera que ayuden a transformar el acceso a los servicios mdicos, el cuadro de salud en las zonas pobres, e incluso la forma de aprender y practicar la medicina misma. Y que se conviertan en pioneros en nuestro esfuerzo global por lograr la cobertura universal de salud, sin duda una tarea difcil. +Dos grandes tormentas y esta idea de "predicar con el ejemplo" llev a la creacin de la ELAM en 1998. +Los huracanes Georges y Mitch haban devastado el Caribe y Centroamrica, dejando 30 000 muertos y dos millones y medio de personas sin hogar. +Cientos de mdicos cubanos se ofrecieron como voluntarios ante el desastre, pero cuando llegaron all, se encontraron con un desastre mayor: comunidades enteras sin asistencia mdica, hospitales rurales cerrados por falta de personal, y demasiados bebs muriendo antes de su primer cumpleaos. +Qu pasara cuando estos mdicos cubanos se fueran? +Se necesitaran nuevos mdicos para hacer sostenible la atencin pero de dnde vendran? +Dnde se formaran? +En La Habana, el campus de una antigua academia naval se entreg al Ministerio de Salud de Cuba para convertirse en la Escuela Latinoamericana de Medicina, ELAM. +La matrcula, alojamiento, comida y un pequeo estipendio se les ofreci a cientos de estudiantes de los pases ms afectados por las tormentas. +Como periodista en La Habana, vi llegar a los primeros 97 nicaragenses en marzo de 1999, instalarse en dormitorios apenas remodelados y ayudar a sus profesores no solo a barrer las aulas sino a acomodar los escritorios y las sillas y los microscopios. +En los siguientes aos, los gobiernos de Amrica solicitaron becas para sus propios estudiantes, y el Caucus Negro del Congreso de EE.UU. pidi y recibi cientos de becas para los jvenes de EE.UU. +Hoy, entre los 23 000 hay graduados de 83 pases de Amrica, frica y Asia y la matrcula ha aumentado a 123 naciones. +Ms de la mitad de los estudiantes son jvenes mujeres. +Provienen de 100 grupos tnicos, hablan 50 idiomas diferentes. +La directora de la OMS, Margaret Chan, dijo: "Por primera vez, si uno es pobre, mujer, o de una poblacin indgena, tiene una clara ventaja, una tica que hace nica a esta escuela de medicina". +Luther Castillo viene de San Pedro de Tocamacho, en la costa atlntica de Honduras. +Ah no hay ni agua corriente ni electricidad y para llegar al pueblo, hay que caminar durante horas o arriesgarse a toma una camioneta como yo hice, bordeando las olas del Atlntico. +Luther fue uno de los 40 chicos de Tocamacho que empezaron la escuela primaria, los hijos e hijas de un pueblo negro indgena conocido como los garfunas, el 20 % de la poblacin hondurea. +El mdico ms cercano estaba a letales kilmetros de distancia. +Luther tuvo que caminar tres horas todos los das para llegar a la escuela media. +Solo 17 hicieron ese viaje. +Solo 5 fueron a la secundaria, y solo uno a la universidad: Luther, a la ELAM, entre los primeros graduados garfunas. +Solo hubo dos mdicos garfunas antes en toda la historia de Honduras. +Ahora hay 69, gracias a la ELAM. +Los problemas grandes requieren soluciones grandes, impulsados por grandes ideas, imaginacin y audacia, pero tambin por soluciones que funcionen. +Los profesores de la ELAM no tenan bases en evidencia para guiarlos, por eso aprendieron de la manera difcil, con prueba y error en la prctica. +Incluso los estudiantes ms brillantes de estas comunidades pobres no estaban preparados acadmicamente para seis aos de formacin mdica, por lo que se cre un curso de nivelacin en ciencias. +Luego estaba el idioma: haba mapuches, quechuas, guaranes, garfunas, indgenas que aprendieron espaol como segunda lengua, o haitianos que hablaban crole. +As que el espaol se convirti en parte del plan de estudios de pre-pre-medicina. +De todas formas, en Cuba, la msica, la comida, los aromas, casi todo era diferente, as que los profesores se convirtieron en familia, la ELAM un hogar. +Las religiones iban desde creencias indgenas a yoruba, musulmn y evanglico cristiano. +Adoptar la diversidad se convirti en una forma de vida. +Por qu tantos pases han solicitado estas becas? +En primer lugar, simplemente porque no tienen suficientes mdicos, y donde los tienen, su distribucin perjudica a los pobres, porque nuestra crisis mundial en salud est alimentada por una crisis de recursos humanos. +Nos faltan de 4 a 7 millones de trabajadores de la salud solo para satisfacer las necesidades bsicas, y el problema est en todas partes. +Los mdicos se concentran en las ciudades, donde solo vive la mitad de los habitantes del planeta, y dentro de las ciudades, no estn en los barrios pobres o en el sur de Los ngeles. +Aqu en Estados Unidos, donde tenemos la reforma en salud, no tenemos los profesionales que necesitamos. +Para el 2020, tendremos una falta de 45 000 mdicos de atencin primaria. +Y tambin somos parte del problema. +Estados Unidos es el principal importador de mdicos de pases en desarrollo. +Segundo, los estudiantes acuden masivamente a Cuba atrados por los resultados de salud en la isla, basados en un fuerte sistema de atencin primaria. +Una comisin de The Lancet ubic a Cuba entre los mejores pases de ingresos medios en materia de la salud. +Save the Children identific a Cuba como el mejor pas de Amrica Latina para ser madre. +Cuba tiene una expectativa de vida similar a EE.UU. y una mortalidad infantil ms baja, con menos desigualdades, mientras gasta por persona la vigsima parte de lo gastado en salud aqu en EE.UU. +Acadmicamente, la ELAM es difcil, pero el 80 % de sus estudiantes se gradan. +Las materias son familiares, ciencias bsicas y clnicas, pero hay diferencias importantes. +En primer lugar, la formacin ha salido de la torre de marfil hacia las aulas de las clnicas y los barrios, lugares similares a donde trabajarn la mayora de estos graduados. +Claro, tambin tienen conferencias y rotaciones hospitalarias, pero el aprendizaje basado en la comunidad empieza desde el primer da. +En segundo lugar, los estudiantes tratan al paciente como un todo, mente y cuerpo, en el contexto de sus familias, sus comunidades y su cultura. +Tercero, aprenden salud pblica: evalan el agua que beben sus pacientes, sus viviendas, las condiciones sociales y econmicas en que viven. +Cuarto, se les ensea que una buena entrevista con el paciente y un examen clnico a fondo proporcionan la mayora de las pistas para el diagnstico, ahorrando costosa tecnologa para la confirmacin. +Y, por ltimo, se les ensea una y otra vez la importancia de la prevencin, especialmente de enfermedades crnicas que amenazan con paralizar los sistemas de salud en todo el mundo. +Este aprendizaje en los servicios tambin viene con un enfoque de equipo, tanto la forma de trabajar en equipo como la forma de dirigirlos, con una dosis de humildad. +Al graduarse, estos mdicos comparten sus conocimientos con enfermeras, parteras, trabajadores comunitarios de salud, para ayudarles a ser mejores en lo que hacen, no para sustituirlos, para trabajar con los chamanes y los curanderos tradicionales. +Los graduados de la ELAM... Estn demostrando que este experimento audaz funciona? +Decenas de proyectos nos dan una idea de lo que son capaces de hacer. +Tomen los graduados garfunas. +No solo regresaron a casa a trabajar, sino que organizaron a sus comunidades para construir el primer hospital indgena de Honduras. +Con la ayuda de un arquitecto, los vecinos literalmente lo levantaron desde cero. +Los primeros pacientes entraron en diciembre de 2007 y, desde entonces, el hospital ha recibido casi un milln de consultas. +Y el gobierno est prestando atencin, sealando al hospital como un modelo de atencin rural en salud para Honduras. +Los graduados de la ELAM son inteligentes, fuertes y tambin dedicados. +Hait, enero de 2010. +El dolor. +Personas enterradas bajo 30 millones de toneladas de escombros. +Abrumador. +Trescientos cuarenta mdicos cubanos ya trabajaban all desde haca mucho tiempo. +Ms estaban en camino. Se necesitaban muchos ms. +En la ELAM, los estudiantes trabajaron da y noche para contactar a 2000 graduados. +Como resultado, cientos llegaron a Hait, respondieron de 27 pases, de Mal y el Sahara a St. Lucia, Bolivia, Chile y EE.UU. +Se comunicaban fcilmente entre s en espaol y escuchaban a sus pacientes en crole gracias a los estudiantes de medicina haitianos que volaron desde la ELAM en Cuba. +Muchos se quedaron durante meses, incluso durante la epidemia de clera. +Cientos de graduados haitianos tuvieron que recomenzar sus vidas, superando su propio dolor, para luego empezar a construir un nuevo sistema de salud pblica para Hait. +Hoy, con la ayuda de organizaciones y gobiernos desde Noruega a Cuba y Brasil, se han construido docenas de nuevos centros de salud, dotados con personal y, en 35 casos, dirigidos por graduados de la ELAM. +Sin embargo, esta historia de Hait tambin ilustra algunos de los mayores problemas que enfrentan muchos pases. +Vean: haba 748 haitianos graduados de 2012, cuando se desat el clera, casi la mitad trabajaba en el sector pblico de salud, pero la cuarta parte estaba desempleada, y 110 haban abandonado Hait por completo. +As que, en el mejor de los casos, estos graduados ejercen en los sistemas pblicos de salud, fortalecindolos y a menudo son los nicos mdicos disponibles. +En el peor de los casos, simplemente no hay suficientes empleos en el sector pblico, donde se atiende a la mayora de los pobres: no hay suficiente voluntad poltica, no hay suficientes recursos, no hay suficiente de nada, solo demasiados pacientes sin atencin. +Los graduados se enfrentan a la presin de sus familias tambin, desesperado por llegar a fin de mes, as que cuando no hay empleos en el sector pblico, estos nuevos mdicos viran a la prctica privada, o van al extranjero para enviar dinero a casa. +Lo peor de todo, en algunos pases, las sociedades mdicas influyen sobre las autoridades de acreditacin para no aceptar el ttulo de la ELAM, temerosas de que estos graduados les roben sus empleos o reduzcan el nmero de sus pacientes y sus ingresos. +No es una cuestin de competencias. +Aqu en EE.UU., la Junta Mdica de California acredit a la escuela tras una inspeccin rigurosa, y los nuevos mdicos demuestran estar a la altura de la gran apuesta de Cuba, aprobando sus exmenes y siendo aceptados en residencias de gran prestigio, desde Nueva York o Chicago a Nuevo Mxico. +Doscientos regresan a Estados Unidos llenos de energa, y tambin insatisfechos. +Como dijera una graduada: "En Cuba, nos ensean a brindar una atencin de calidad con escasos recursos, as que cuando veo todos los recursos que tenemos aqu, y me dicen que no es posible, s que no es cierto. +No solo he visto que funciona, lo he hecho funcionar". +Los graduados de la ELAM, algunos de aqu mismo en Washington DC y Baltimore, han venido de los ms pobres entre los pobres para ofrecer salud, educacin y una voz a sus comunidades. +Han hecho el trabajo ms pesado. +Ahora tenemos que hacer nuestra parte para apoyar a los 23 000 y contando, Todos nosotros, fundaciones, directores de residencias, prensa, empresarios, responsables polticos, personas, necesitamos apoyar. +Tenemos que hacer mucho ms a nivel mundial para que esos jvenes mdicos tengan la oportunidad de demostrar lo que valen. +Necesitan poder presentarse a los exmenes para obtener las licencias de sus pases. +Necesitan empleos en el sector pblico de salud o en centros de salud sin fines de lucro para poner a trabajar sus conocimientos y compromiso. +Merecen la oportunidad de ser los mdicos que sus pacientes necesitan. +Para avanzar, quiz tengamos que retroceder, volver a aquel pediatra que tocaba a la puerta de mi casa en el sur de Chicago cuando era nia, que haca visitas a domicilio, que se deba a su comunidad. +Estas no son ideas nuevas de lo que debe ser la medicina. +La novedad es la escala ms grande y las caras de los propios mdicos: Es ms probable que un graduado de la ELAM sea mujer en vez de hombre; en el Amazonas, Per o Guatemala, un mdico indgena; en EE.UU., un mdico de color que habla perfecto espaol. +Ella ha recibido una formacin slida, se puede contar con ella, y comparte el rostro y la cultura de sus pacientes. Y, sin duda, ella merece nuestro apoyo porque aunque viaje en metro, mula o canoa, ella nos ensea a predicar con el ejemplo. +Gracias. +Las mujeres representan el 50 % de la gerentes y de los profesionales de nivel medio. Pero el porcentaje de mujeres en la cpula de las organizaciones representa menos de un tercio de ese nmero. +Al ver estas estadsticas algunos se preguntan: Por qu tenemos tan pocas mujeres lderes? +Algunas de ustedes son probablemente esas mujeres que estn en la gerencia media y buscan una promocin en vuestra empresa. +Tonya es un excelente ejemplo. +La conoc hace dos aos. +No entiendo por qu me ignorar". +Lo que Tonya no comprende es que falta un 33 % en la ecuacin del xito en la carrera de una mujer. Entender qu representa este porcentaje ayudar a cerrar la brecha de gnero hacia en los puestos ms altos. +Para poder ascender en una empresa, deben reconocer tus habilidades de liderazgo, y esto se aplica a todos, mujeres u hombres. +Significa que tiene que ser reconocida tu excelencia para alcanzar e inspirar resultados extraordinarios en otros. +Dicho de otra manera, debes emplear tus propias habilidades, talentos y destrezas para ayudar a que la empresa alcance sus metas financieras estratgicas mediante la cooperacin efectiva con los dems, dentro y fuera de ella. +Y aunque estos tres elementos de liderazgo son importantes, cuando se trata de un ascenso en una empresa, no son importantes equitativamente. +As que presten atencin a esa caja verde a medida que contino. +En la bsqueda e identificacin de empleados con gran potencial, el potencial para promocionar hasta la cpula de una empresa, las competencias y habilidades relacionadas con esa caja verde pesan dos veces ms que los otros dos elementos de liderazgo. +Estas habilidades y competencias pueden resumirse como visin estratgica, financiera y para los negocios. +En otras palabras, este conjunto est relacionado con la capacidad de entender hacia dnde se dirige la empresa, cul es su estrategia, qu objetivos financieros tiene, y comprender tu papel en el xito de la empresa. +Este es ese tercio que falta en la ecuacin del xito en la carrera de una mujer. No porque nosotras no tengamos estas capacidades o habilidades, sino porque falta como elemento en el asesoramiento que recibimos. +Esto es lo que quiero decir con eso. +Hace cinco aos, me pidieron moderar un encuentro de ejecutivos, y el tema de la tarde fue: "Qu se busca en los empleados con alto potencial?". +Piensen en los tres elementos del liderazgo, mientras les resumo lo que me contestaron. +Dijeron: "Buscamos personas que sean inteligentes, trabajadoras, comprometidas, fiables y flexibles". +Qu elemento del liderazgo se relaciona con esto? +La excelencia personal. +Dijeron: "Buscamos empleados que sean excelentes con los clientes, que aumenten la productividad del equipo, que negocien eficazmente, que sean capaces de manejar bien los conflictos y que, en general, sean grandes comunicadores". +A qu elemento del liderazgo equivale esto? +Promover la excelencia en otros. +Y prcticamente eso fue ms o menos todo. +As que les pregunt: Qu pasa con la gente que entiende el negocio, su objectivo principal y su papel especfico en este fin? +Qu pasa con los que saben analizar el entorno, identificar riesgos y oportunidades, desarollar y recomendar estrategias? +Qu sucede con la gente capaz de interpretar las finanzas de su empresa, y entender su trayectoria, bien para tomar las medidas apropiadas o recomendarlas?" +Contestaron: "Para un hombre, eso lo damos por hecho". +As que me dirg a la audiencia de 150 mujeres y les pregunt: "A cuntas de ustedes les han dicho que la clave para un ascenso laboral es su visin estratgica, financiera y para los negocios, y que las dems cosas importantes sirven para distinguirlas de los otros candidados con talento? +Tres mujeres levantaron la mano, y repet la misma pregunta a mujeres de todo el mundo durante los siguientes 5 aos, y la proporcin es casi la misma. +As que es obvio, no? +Pero cmo puede ser? +Bueno, hay principalmente tres razones de por qu falta este 33 % de los consejos para el xito en la carrera de una mujer. +Cuando las empresas orientan a las mujeres hacia recursos basados en la formacin convencional que hemos estado recibiendo durante 40 aos, falta claramente el asesoramiento acerca de la visin de negocios, financiera y estratgica. +Esto no significa que estos consejos no sean importantes. +Lo que significa es que tales consejos son esenciales para ascender como mximo a una posicin de nivel medio, pero no sirven para que las mujeres pasen de all, donde somos el 50 %, hasta altos cargos ejecutivos. +Por lo tanto, los consejos convencionales ofrecidos a las mujeres en los ltimos 40 aos, no han cerrado la brecha entre los gneros en el nivel ms alto y tampoco lo harn. +La segunda razn tiene que ver con los comentarios de Tonya, acerca de sus excelentes evaluaciones por rendimiento, las alabanzas de sus equipos y haber tomado cada curso de liderazgo posible. +Pensarn que ha recibido mensajes de su empresa, mediante los programas de gestin de talento y de mejora de rendimiento, que hacen hincapi en lo importante que es desarrollar la visin para los negocios, la estratgica y la financiera. Pero de nuevo, ese cuadrado verde es bastante pequeo. +Tonya tambin habl de trabajar con un mentor, y es muy importante hablar de esto, porque si las organizaciones, los programas mencionados de gestin no le estn proporcionando a la gente informacin acerca de la importancia de la visn en los negocios, estratgica y financiera, cmo llegan los hombres a la cima? +Bueno, principalmente hay dos maneras. +Una es debido a que se los considera aptos para dichos cargos y la otra es debido al asesoramiento directo y a las recomendaciones. +Cul es la experiencia de las mujeres con respecto al asesoramiento directo? +Bueno, este comentario de un ejecutivo con el que he trabajado recientemente ilustra esta experiencia. +Estaba muy orgulloso de que en el ltimo ao haba tenido dos protegidos: un hombre y una mujer. +"A ella la ayud a tener ms confianza y a l a entender el negocio. No me di cuenta de que los estaba tratando de manera diferente!". +Y estaba siendo sincero. +Esto indica que los administradores, seamos mujeres u hombres, tenemos diferentes actitudes acerca de la carrera y el liderazgo. Y esos conceptos preconcebidos no cerrarn la brecha de gnero en la cima de las organizaciones. +Qu hacemos para convertir el tercio que falta en accin? +Para las mujeres la respuesta es obvia: debemos centrarnos ms en desarrollar y manifestar las habilidades que tenemos y mostrar que entendemos nuestro negocio, hacia dnde se dirige, y el papel que debemos jugar en l. Esto permite pasar de los puestos de nivel medio +a altos puestos directivos. Pero no es solo para gerentes de nivel medio. +Una joven cientfica que trabaja en una firma de biotecnologa ha utilizado su conocimiento sobre el porcentaje que falta para analizar las implicaciones financieras de los datos, en una actualizacin del proyecto que hizo y tuvo una respuesta excelente de los administradores. +No queremos hacer caer toda la responsabilidad en las mujeres, ni sera prudente hacerlo, y he aqu por qu. Para que las empresas logren sus metas financieras estratgicas, los ejecutivos entienden que deben tener a todos empujando en la misma direccin. +En otras palabras, en el vocabulario de negocios se llama alineamiento estratgico. +Los ejecutivos saben esto muy bien, pero an as, solo un 37 %, segn un informe reciente de Conference Board, creen que disponen de este alineamiento estratgico. +As que para el resto del 63 % de las empresas, lograr sus metas financieras estratgicas es cuestionable. +Es importante para los gerentes de las juntas directivas esperar de sus ejecutivos propuestas que incluyan un nmero proporcional de mujeres cuando se renen una vez al ao, para discutir los ascensos. +Por qu? Porque si estos nmeros no existen, podra ser una seal de alerta de que su empresa no est tan alineada como tericamente podra estarlo. +Es importante para los CEO esperar estas cifras, y si escuchan comentarios como "Bueno, ella no tiene tanta experiencia en los negocios", pregunten: "Qu vamos a hacer al respecto?". +Es importante que los ejecutivos de RRHH se aseguren de que la tasa de fracaso de 33 % se aborda adecuadamente, y es importante que las mujeres y los hombres con cargos altos examinen su mentalidad sobre los hombres y la mujeres, las carreras y el xito, para asegurarnos de que hay igualdad de oportunidades para todo el mundo. +Djenme terminar con el ltimo captulo en la historia de Tonya. +Gracias. +Recientemente vol sobre una multitud de miles de personas en Brasil tocando msica de Georg Friedrich Hndel. +Tambin conduje por las calles de Amsterdam, tocando msica del mismo compositor. +Echemos un vistazo. +(Georg Friedrich Hndel, "Allegro") Daria: Vivo all en el tercer piso. +(En holands) Vivo all en la esquina. +De hecho, vivo a la vuelta de la esquina, +y son bienvenidos. +Hombre: (En holands) Suena divertido? Nio: (En holands) S! +(En holands) "Sala de conciertos Hndel ". Daria van den Bercken: Todo esto fue en verdad una experiencia mgica por cientos de razones. +Preguntarn, por qu hice estas cosas? +No son realmente tpicas de un msico en su vida cotidiana. +Bueno, lo hice porque estoy enamorada de la msica y quera compartirlo con tanta gente como fuera posible. +Todo comenz hace un par de aos. +Tena gripe, estaba en el sof de mi casa y navegando por Internet, cuando me enter de que Hndel haba escrito obras para teclado. +Bueno, me sorprendi. Yo no saba esto. +As que descargu las partituras y empec a tocar. +Lo que sucedi despus fue que entr en un estado puro de asombro sin prejuicios. +Fue una experiencia de estar totalmente maravillada con la msica, como no haba sentido en mucho tiempo. +Puede ser ms fcil de entender cuando la escuchen. +La primera pieza que toqu empezaba as. +Bueno, esto suena muy melanclico, verdad? +Volv la pgina y lo que vino despus fue esto. +Bueno, esto suena muy vivo, no es as? +As que en pocos minutos y, sin haber terminado la pieza, experiment dos estados de nimo bien contradictorios: hermosa melancola y pura energa. +Considero estos dos elementos como expresiones humanas vitales. +La pureza de la msica hace que la escuches de manera muy positiva. +He ofrecido muchos conciertos para nios, de 7 y 8 aos, y lo que sea que toque, ya sea Bach, Beethoven, incluso Stockhausen, o algo de jazz, estn abiertos a or, realmente dispuestos a escuchar, y se sienten cmodos hacindolo. +Cuando llegan las clases con nios solo un poco mayores, de 11 o 12, senta, a veces, que tena problemas en llegarles de igual manera. +La complejidad de la msica surge como un problema, y de hecho, las opiniones de los dems -los padres, los amigos, los medios de comunicacin- empiezan a influir. +Pero los ms pequeos no cuestionan sus propias opiniones. +Se encuentran en este constante estado de asombro. Creo firmemente que podemos seguir escuchando como nios de 7 aos, o incluso cuando hayamos crecido. +Es por eso que he tocado, no solo en salas de conciertos, sino tambin en las calles, en Internet, por los aires: para sentir ese estado de asombro, al escuchar de verdad, y para atender sin prejuicios. +Me gustara invitarlos a hacerlo ahora. +(Georg Friedrich Hndel, "Chacona en sol mayor") Gracias. +Me parece que estamos de acuerdo en que nos movemos hacia un nuevo modelo de Estado y sociedad. +Pero no tenemos la menor idea de qu es eso o qu debera ser. +Parece que necesitamos tener una conversacin acerca de lo que es la democracia en nuestros das y nuestra poca. +Pensemos en ello de la siguiente forma: Somos ciudadanos del siglo 21 haciendo lo mejor que podemos para interactuar con instituciones diseadas en el siglo 19 basadas en tecnologas de la informacin del siglo 15. +Dmosle un vistazo a algunas caractersticas del sistema. +Para empezar, est diseado para una tecnologa de la informacin de hace ms de 500 aos. +Y el mejor sistema que se podra disear para algo as es uno en el que slo unos pocos toman decisiones diarias en nombre de la mayora +y la mayora puede votar una vez cada dos aos. +En segundo lugar, los costos de la participacin en este sistema son tremendamente altos. +O bien se tiene mucha plata e influencias, o se le dedica la vida completa a la poltica. +Uno tiene que convertirse en miembro de un partido y lentamente empezar a labrarse el camino para llegar, tal vez, algn da, a ocupar un puesto en una mesa en la que se tomen decisiones. +Finalmente, aunque no menos importante, el lenguaje del sistema es increiblemente crptico. +Est hecho por abogados, para abogados y nadie ms lo puede entender. +Es un sistema en el que podemos elegir nuestras autoridades, pero se nos deja totalmente excludos del proceso que estas autoridades usan para tomar sus decisiones. +Y entonces, en una poca en que las tecnologas de la informacin nos permiten participar en cualquier conversacin global, en que las barreras de la informacin han sido completamente superadas y podemos, ms que nunca antes, expresar nuestros deseos y preocupaciones, +nuestro sistema poltico es el mismo de los ltimos 200 aos y todava espera que nos conformemos con ser simplemente receptores pasivos de un monlogo. +Y entonces, no es ninguna sorpresa que este tipo de sistema slo pueda producir dos tipos de resultado: silencio o ruido. +Silencio en el sentido de tener ciudadanos que no se involucran, que simplemente no quieren participar. +Hay este lugar comn que a m, en verdad, me disgusta, que es la creencia de que nosotros, los ciudadanos, somos apticos por naturaleza, que le huimos al compromiso. +Pero, realmente puede culprsenos por no avalanzarnos hacia la oportunidad de ir al centro de la ciudad, a mitad de la jornada laboral para asistir, fsicamente, a una audiencia pblica que no tendr ningn impacto sobre nuestras vidas? +El conflicto es inevitable entre un sistema que ya no nos representa ni tiene ninguna capacidad de dilogo, y ciudadanos que se acostumbran cada vez ms a representarse a s mismos. +Y luego est el ruido: Chile, Argentina, Brasil, Mxico, Italia, Francia, Espaa, Estados Unidos, son todas democracias. +Los ciudadanos tienen acceso a las urnas. Pero ellos todava sienten la necesidad de tomar las calles para ser escuchados. +Parece que el eslogan del siglo 18 que dio pie a la formacin de nuestras democracias modernas, "No hay impuestos sin representacin", puede ahora actualizarse a "No hay representacin sin conversacin". +Queremos nuestro lugar en la mesa. +Y con toda razn. +Pero para ser parte de esta conversacin, necesitamos saber qu hacer a continuacin porque la accin poltica es ser capaz de pasar de la agitacin a la construccin. +Mi generacin ha sido increblemente buena usando las nuevas redes y tecnologas para organizar protestas, protestas que fueron capaces de imponer agendas, revertir legislacin extremadamente perjudicial y hasta derrocar gobiernos autoritarios. +Y tenemos que estar inmensamente orgullosos de ello. +Pero nuestra democracia no es slo un asunto de votar una vez cada dos aos. +Y tampoco es la capacidad para reunir a millones en las calles. +La pregunta que quisiera plantear aqu y que, en realidad, creo que es la ms importante que debemos responder, es: Si Internet es la nueva imprenta, qu es entonces la democracia para la era de Internet? +Qu instituciones necesitamos construir para la sociedad del siglo 21? +No tengo la respuesta, por si acaso. +No creo que nadie la tenga. +Pero, en verdad, creo que no podemos seguir ignorando ms est pregunta. +Y entonces, me gustara compartir con Uds. nuestra experiencia y lo que hemos aprendido hasta ahora, aportar nuestro granito de arena a esta conversacin. +Hace dos aos, con un grupo de amigos de Argentina, nos empezamos a preguntar, "cmo hacer que nuestros representantes, nuestros representantes electos, efectivamente nos representen?" +Marshall McLuhan alguna vez dijo que la poltica es resolver los problemas de hoy con las herramientas de ayer. +La pregunta que nos motiv fue: podemos resolver algunos de los problemas actuales con herramientas que usamos en nuestras vidas todos los das? +Nuestro primer paso fue disear y desarrollar un programa llamado DemocracyOS. +DemocracyOS es una plataforma web de cdigo abierto diseada para servir de puente entre ciudadanos y representantes electos y hacer ms fcil que participemos desde nuestras vidas cotidianas. +En primer lugar, all usted puede informarse, porque cada nuevo proyecto que se introduce en el Congreso es traducido y explicado inmediatamente en lenguaje sencillo en esta plataforma. +Pero, todos sabemos que el cambio social no va a ser el resultado solo de tener ms informacin, sino de hacer algo con ella. +El acceso a una mejor informacin debera conducir a una conversacin acerca de lo que haremos luego, y DemocracyOS nos permite hacer eso. +Porque sabemos que la democracia no es slo asunto de apilar preferencias una encima de otra sino que un debate pblico, robusto y sano debera ser nuevamente uno de sus valores fundamentales. +Entonces, DemocracyOS es acerca de persuadir y ser persuadido. +Tiene que ver tanto con alcanzar consensos como con encontrar una forma apropiada para canalizar nuestro desacuerdo. +Y finalmente, usted puede votar cmo le gustara que votara su representante electo. +Y si no se siente cmodo votando por un asunto determinado, siempre podr delegar su voto en alguien ms, dando lugar a un liderazgo social dinmico y emergente. +Y se volvi muy fcil para nosotros comparar estos resultados con la forma en la que nuestros representantes estaban votando en el congreso. +Pero, tambin se volvi muy evidente que la tecnologa no iba a ser suficiente. +Lo que necesitabamos era encontrar a los actores capaces de tomar este conocimiento distribuido en la sociedad y de usarlo para tomar decisiones mejores y ms justas. +As que fuimos con los partidos polticos tradicionales y les ofrecimos DemocracyOS. +Dijimos, "Miren, esta es una plataforma que Uds. pueden usar para construir una conversacin de doble va con sus electores". +Y s, fracasamos! +Fracasamos en grande! +Nos mandaron a jugar afuera, como si furamos nios. +Entre otras cosas, nos llamaron ingenuos. +Y tengo que ser honesta: en retrospectiva, creo que lo fuimos. +Porque los desafos que enfrentamos no son tecnolgicos, sino culturales. Los partidos polticos nunca han querido cambiar la forma en que toman las decisiones. +Y entonces se hizo algo obvio que si queramos ir a algn lado con esta idea, necesitbamos hacerlo nosotros mismos. +Y entonces realizamos un salto de fe, y en agosto del ao pasado fundamos nuestro propio partido poltico. El partido de la Red en la ciudad de Buenos Aires. +Y en un salto de fe todava mayor, nos postulamos a elecciones en octubre del ao pasado con la siguiente idea: Si ganamos una silla en el Congreso, nuestro candidato, nuestro representante, iba siempre a votar de acuerdo con lo que los ciudadanos decidieran en DemocracyOS. +Todo proyecto que se introdujera en el Congreso, lo bamos a votar de acuerdo con lo que los ciudadanos decidieran en la plataforma en lnea. +Era nuestra forma de hackear el sistema poltico. +Entendimos que si queramos volvernos parte de la conversacin, tener un puesto en la mesa, debamos volvernos actores vlidos, y la nica forma de hacer eso era jugando con las reglas del sistema. +Estbamos hackeando en el sentido de que estabamos cambiando radicalmente la forma en que un partido poltico toma sus decisiones. +Por primera vez, estbamos tomando las decisiones junto con aquellos a quienes afectbamos directamente con esas decisiones. +Era una jugada arriesgada para un partido con dos meses de fundado en la ciudad de Buenos Aires. +Pero capt la atencin. +Obtuvimos 22.000 votos, 1.2 por ciento de los votos, y fuimos la segunda opcin a nivel local. +Nuestros representantes electos, no estn gritando, claro est, "S, vamos a votar de acuerdo con lo que los ciudadanos decidan", pero estn dispuestos a intentarlo. +Ellos estn deseosos de abrir un espacio nuevo al compromiso ciudadano y con suerte, ellos van a querer escucharlos tambin. +Nuestro sistema poltico se puede transformar, y no con subversin o destruccin, sino redisendolo con herramientas que Intenet nos ofrece hoy por hoy. +Pero el desafi real es encontrar, disear, crear, empoderar los conectores que pueden innovar, transformar ruido y silencio en seal, y finalmente traer nuestras democracias al siglo 21. +No digo que sea fcil. +Pero, por experiencia, s que tenemos una verdadera oportunidad de hacer que funcione. +Y en mi corazn, s que definitivamente, vale la pena intentarlo. +Gracias. +El 50% de la poblacin mundial vive en ciudades. +En pases desarrollados, una tercera parte de la poblacin an vive en barrios pobres. +El 75% del consumo global de energa ocurre en nuestras ciudades y el 80% de las emisiones de gases que causan el calentamiento global viene de nuestras ciudades. +As que las cosas que creeramos que son problemas globales, como el cambio climtico, la crisis de energa o la pobreza son en realidad, en muchos sentidos, problemas de las ciudades. +Y no se solucionarn a menos que las personas que vivimos en ellas, como la mayora de nosotros, realmente empecemos a hacer un mejor trabajo, porque hoy en da, no lo estamos haciendo muy bien. +Esto es claro cuando vemos 3 aspectos de la vida en ciudad: Primero, el deseo de los ciudadanos de participar en las instituciones democrticas; segundo, la habilidad de la ciudad para incluir realmente a todos sus habitantes; y finalmente, nuestra propia habilidad para vivir plenos y felices. +Cuando se trata de comprometerse, los datos son muy claros. +Los votantes cambiaron el mundo y alcanzaron su punto mximo a finales de los 80, y ha declinado a un ritmo que nunca antes habamos visto y si esos nmeros son malos a nivel nacional, a nivel de nuestras ciudades, son simplemente deprimentes. +En los ltimos dos aos dos de las ms antiguas y consolidadas democracias de EE. UU. y Francia, tuvieron elecciones municipales en el pas. +En Francia, se alcanz un nivel rcord de abstencin. +Casi el 40% de los votantes decidieron no ir a votar. +En EE. UU. los nmeros son incluso peores. +En algunas ciudades estadounidenses, la participacin electoral fue de casi al 5%. +Detengmonos en ello un segundo. +Estamos hablando de ciudades democrticas en las que el 95% de la gente decidi que no era importante elegir a sus representantes. +Los ngeles, una ciudad de 4 millones eligi a su alcalde con solo 200 000 votos. +sta fue la votacin ms baja en 100 aos. +Justo aqu, en mi ciudad Ro, a pesar de ser obligatorio votar, casi el 30% de los electores escogieron anular su voto o quedarse en casa y pagar una multa en las pasadas elecciones. +Cuando se habla de inclusin las ciudades no son el mejor caso de xito tampoco, y de nuevo, no debemos buscar muy lejos para encontrar ejemplos de ello. +La ciudad de Ro es increblemente desigual. +Este es Leblon. +Leblon es el vecindario ms rico de la ciudad. +Y este es el Complexo do Alemo. +Aqu viven ms de 70 000 personas de las ms pobres de la ciudad. +Leblon tiene de un ndice de desarrollo humano , de .967. +Es ms alto que Noruega, Suiza o Suecia. +El Complexo do Alemo tiene un IDH de .711. +Est entre el IDH de Argelia y Gabn. +As que Ro, como muchas otras ciudades al sur del planeta, es un lugar en el que se puede ir del norte de Europa al frica Negra en 30 minutos. +Si van en auto. +En transporte pblico son como 2 horas. +Finalmente, y tal vez sea lo ms importante, las ciudades, con su increble riqueza de relaciones que ofrecen, pueden ser el lugar ideal para que la felicidad florezca. +Nos gusta estar rodeados de gente. +Somos animales sociales. +Sin embargo, los pases donde la urbanizacin ha alcanzado un pico parecen tener ciudades que no nos permiten ser felices. +La poblacin estadounidense ha sufrido un descenso general en su felicidad durante las ltimas tres dcadas y la principal razn es esta: +La forma en que se construan las ciudades con espacios pblicos de buena calidad han sido prcticamente eliminados en muchas ciudades estadounidenses. Como resultado, se ve un declive en las relaciones, algo que nos hace felices. +Muchas investigaciones muestran un incremento en la soledad y un decremento en la solidaridad, la honestidad y la participacin social y cvica. +Cmo empezamos a contruir ciudades que valgan la pena. +Ciudades que aprecien su activo ms importante, la increble diversidad de las personas que las habitan. +Ciudades que nos hagan felices. +Creo que si queremos cambiar el aspecto de nuestras ciudades, entonces realmente debemos cambiar el proceso de la toma de decisiones que ha resultado en lo que tenemos hoy en da. +Necesitamos una revolucin participativa y la necesitamos ya. +La idea de que el voto es nuestro nico deber ciudadano ya no tiene sentido. +La gente est cansada de que la traten como individuos con poder cada determinado tiempo cuando es hora de delegar el poder a alguien ms. +Si las protestas que recorrieron Brasil en junio del 2013 nos ensearon algo, es que cada vez que queremos ejercer nuestro poder fuera de un contexto electoral nos reprimen, humillan o arrestan. +Pero hay un pero, obviamente: Lograr una participacin extensa y redistribuir el poder puede ser una pesadilla logstica. Es ah donde la tecnologa puede jugar un papel sumamente til, facilitando que la gente se organice se comunique y tome decisiones sin tener que estar en el mismo cuarto al mismo tiempo. +Desafortunadamente para nosotros, cuando se trata de fomentar los procesos democrticos los gobiernos de nuestras ciudades no utilizan el potencial pleno de la tecnologa. +Hasta ahora, la mayora de los gobiernos han usado la tecnologa para convertir a los ciudadanos en sensores humanos que sirven a la autoridad con datos sobre la ciudad: baches, arboles cados o alumbrado descompuesto. +Eso no es participacin, y de hecho, los gobiernos no han usado la tenologa eficazmente para fomentar la participacin sobre lo que importa, como a dnde va el presupuesto, el modo en que usamos la tierra, o cmo manejamos los recursos naturales. +Estas son el tipo de decisiones que en verdad pueden incidir en los problemas globales que ocurren en nuestras ciudades. +La buena noticia es que, y de verdad tengo buenas noticias, no necesitamos esperar a que los gobiernos lo hagan. +Tengo razones para creer que es posible que los ciudadanos construyan su propia infraestructura de participacin. +Hace tres aos, cofund una organizacin llamada Meu Rio, y lo que hacemos es facilitarle a la gente de la ciudad de Ro que se organicen sobre causas y lugares que les interese de su propia ciudad y a tener un impacto en esas causas y lugares todos los das. +En los ltimos 3 aos, Meu Rio creci a una red de 160 000 ciudadanos de Ro. +Cerca del 40% de esos miembros son gente joven de entre 20 y 29 aos. +Eso es uno de cada 15 jovenes de esa edad en Ro. +Entre nuestros miembros est esta pequeita adorable, Bia, a la derecha. Bia tena solo 11 aos de edad cuando empez una campaa usando nuestra plataforma para salvar a su escuela modelo de la demolicin. +Su escuela hoy en da est entre las mejores escuelas pblicas en el pas e iba a demolerse por el gobierno estatal de Ro de Janeiro para construir, no les miento, un estacionamiento para la Copa del Mundo justo antes de celebrarse. +Bia empez una campaa e incluso vimos su escuela 24/7 con un monitoreo por cmara web, y muchos meses despus, el gobierno cambi su postura. +La escuela de Bia qued en su sitio. +Tambin est Jovita. +Es una mujer increble cuya hija desapareci hace 10 aos y desde entonces, ha estado buscando a su hija. +En su bsqueda, encontr primero, que no estaba sola. +Solo en el ltimo ao, 2013, 6 000 personas desaparecieron en el estado de Ro. +Pero tambin encontr que, a pesar de ello, Ro no tiene un sistema policial centralizado para resolver los casos de desapariciones. +En otras ciudades brasileas, esos sistemas han ayudado a resolver hasta el 80% de los casos de desapariciones. +Empez una campaa, y despus de que el secretario de seguridad recibi 16 000 emails de gente que le peda hacer esto, respondi y empez a crear la unidad de la policia especializada en esos casos. +Se abri al pblico a finales del mes pasado, y Jovita estaba presente, dando entrevistas. +Tambin est Leandro. +Leandro es una persona increble de un barrio pobre en Ro. Cre un proyecto de reciclaje en su barrio. +A finales del ao pasado, el 16 de diciembre, recibi una orden de desalojo del gobierno de Ro de Janeiro que le daba 2 semanas para desalojar el espacio que haba estado usando durante 2 aos. +El plan era entregarlo a un desarrollador que iba a construir ah. +Leandro empez una campaa usando una de nuestras herramientas, la olla de presin, de la misma manera en que la usaron Bia y Jovita y nuestro gobierno cambi sus planes antes de Navidad. +Estas historias me hacen feliz, pero no solo porque tiene un final feliz. +Me hacen feliz porque tiene un comienzo feliz. +Los profesores y padres de la escuela de Bia estn buscando la manera de mejorar ese espacio an ms. +Leandro tiene planes ambicioso para llevar su modelo a otras comunidades de bajos ingresos en Ro y Jovita es voluntaria en la unidad policial que ayud a crear. +Bia, Jovita y Leandro son ejemplos vivientes de algo que los ciudadanos y los gobiernos alrededor del mundo necesitan saber: Estamos listos. +Con la red Nuestras Ciudades, el equipo de Meu Rio desea compartir lo que hemos aprendido con otras personas que deseen crear iniciativas similares en sus propias ciudades. +Ya lo empezamos a hacer en Sao Paulo. con resultados increbles y queremos llevarlo a todas las ciudades del mundo a travs de una red centrada en los ciudadanos de organizaciones dirigidas por ciudadanos que nos inspiren, que nos estimulen y que nos recuerden exigir participacin real en nuestras ciudades. +Obrigado. Gracias. +Imaginen que un avin est a punto de estrellarse con 250 nios y bebs; si supieran cmo evitarlo, lo haran? +Ahora imaginen que 60 aviones llenos de bebs menores de 5 aos se estrellan todos los das. +Ese es la cantidad de nios que nunca llegarn a su quinto cumpleaos. +6,6 millones de nios no llegan a su quinto cumpleaos. +La mayora de estas muertes se pueden prevenir y eso no solo me entristece, me enoja muchsimo, y hace que est ms determinada. +La diarrea y la neumona estn entre las dos primeras causas de muerte en nios menores de 5 aos, y lo que podemos hacer para prevenir estas enfermedades no es una innovacin tecnolgica nueva y brillante. +Es uno de los inventos ms antiguos del mundo: la barra de jabn. +Lavarnos las manos con jabn, un hbito que damos por hecho, puede reducir a la mitad los casos de diarrea, y en un tercio las infecciones respiratorias. +Lavarnos las manos con jabn puede tener un impacto en la reduccin de la gripe, el tracoma, el SARS, y ms recientemente, los casos de clera y los brotes de bola, y una de las soluciones claves es el lavado de manos con jabn. +El lavado de manos con jabn mantiene a los nios en las escuelas, +previene las muertes de bebs. +El lavado de manos con jabn es una de las formas ms efectivas y econmicas de salvar la vida de los nios. +Puede salvar ms de 600 000 nios todos los aos. +Eso es equivalente a ayudar evitar que 10 jets jumbo llenos de bebs y nios se estrellen todos los das. +Creo que estarn de acuerdo que es una intervencin de salud pblica muy til. +Ahora, tomemos un minuto. +Conozcan a la persona a su lado. +Por qu simplemente no le dan la mano. +Por favor dense las manos. +Bien, conzcanse. +Se ven muy atractivos. +Muy bien. +Qu pasa si les digo que esa persona a la que le estrecharon la mano, no se lav las manos despus de ir al bao? Ya no se ven tan atractivos, verdad? +Muy asqueroso, si estn de acuerdo. +Pues, las estadsticas muestran que 4 de 5 personas no se lavan las manos despus de ir al bao, a nivel mundial. +Del mismo modo que nosotros no lo hacemos aun cuando tenemos baos lujosos, agua corriente y jabn disponible, es igual en los pases donde las mortalidad infantil es muy alta. +Qu es entonces? Acaso no hay jabn? +De hecho hay jabn. +En el 90 % de los hogares de la India, el 94 % de los hogares en Kenya, encontrarn jabn. +Incluso en pases con la ms baja cantidad de jabn como Etiopa, estamos en un 50 %. +Entonces, por qu? +Por qu la gente no se lava las manos? +Por qu Mayank, este nio que conoc en India, no se lava las manos? +Pues, en la familia de Mayank el jabn se usa para baarse, para lavar la ropa, para lavar los platos. +Sus padres piensan a veces que es un lujo, as que lo guardan en la alacena. +Lo mantienen fuera de su alcance para que no lo malgaste. +En promedio, en la familia de Mayank usarn jabn para lavarse las manos una vez al da en el mejor de los casos, y a veces incluso se lavan las manos con jabn solo una vez a la semana. +Cul es el resultado de esto? +Los nios se contagian de enfermedades en los sitios donde ms se les ama y protege, en sus hogares. +Piensen en dnde aprendieron a lavarse las manos. +Aprendieron a lavarse las manos en casa? +Aprendieron a lavarse las manos en la escuela? +Creo que los expertos en comportamiento les dirn que es muy difcil cambiar los hbitos que aprendieron de pequeos. +Sin embargo, todos copiamos lo que hacen los dems, y las normas culturales locales influyen en los cambios de nuestro comportamiento, y aqu es donde el sector privado juega un papel. +Cada segundo, en Asia y frica, 111 madres compran esta barra de jabn para proteger a sus familias. +Muchas mujeres en India les dirn que aprendieron todo sobre higiene y enfermedades gracias a esta barra de jabn de la marca Lifebuoy. +Marcas icnicas como esta tienen la responsabilidad de hacer el bien en los sitios donde venden sus productos. +Es esa creencia, ms la escala de Unilever, la que nos permite hablar acerca del lavado de manos con jabn y de higiene a estas madres. +Grandes corporaciones y marcas pueden cambiar y transformar estas normas sociales y hacer diferencia en esos hbitos que son difciles de cambiar. +Pinsenlo: Los publicistas pasan todo su tiempo hacindonos cambiar de una marca a otra. +Y de hecho, ellos saben cmo transformar la ciencia y los hechos en mensajes convincentes. +Por un minuto imaginen si todos pusieran sus esfuerzos detrs de este poderoso mensaje del lavado de manos con jabn. +La motivacin de las ganancias est transformando la salud del mundo. +Pero ha ocurrido por siglos: la marca Lifebuoy entr al mercado en 1894 en la Inglaterra victoriana para combatir el clera. +La semana pasada estuve en Ghana con el ministro de sanidad porque, si no lo saban, hay un brote de clera en Ghana en este momento. +118 aos ms tarde, la solucin es exactamente la misma: se trata de asegurarnos de que tengan acceso a esta barra de jabn y que la estn usando, porque esa es la solucin nmero uno para ayudar a prevenir la diseminacin del clera. +Creo que la motivacin por las utilidades es extremadamente poderosa, incluso a veces ms poderosa que la organizacin caritativa ms acometida o el gobierno. +Los gobiernos hacen lo que pueden especialmente cuando se trata de pandemias y epidemias como el clera, o el bola en este momento, pero con prioridades en competencia. +No siempre hay presupuesto. +Y cuando uno piensa en esto, si piensa en lo que se necesita para hacer del lavado de manos un hbito diario, lo que se necesita financiacin sostenida para afianzar este comportamiento. +En pocas palabras, los que luchan por la salud pblica dependen de las compaas de jabn para seguir promoviendo el lavado de manos con jabn. +Tenemos socios como USAID, la Asociacin Mundial Pblico-Privada para el Lavado de Manos con Jabn, la Escuela de Londres de Higiene y Medicina Tropical, Plan, WaterAid, y todos creen en una alianza gana-gana-gana. +Ganancia para el sector pblico porque les ayudamos a alcanzar sus metas. +Ganancia para el sector privado porque educamos nuevas generaciones que se lavan las manos. +Y lo ms importante, ganancia para los ms vulnerables. +El 15 de octubre celebraremos el Da Mundial del Lavado de Manos. +Escuelas, comunidades, nuestros socios en el sector pblico, y nuestros socios en el sector privado... s, en ese da, incluso nuestros competidores, juntaremos nuestras manos para celebrar la ms importante intervencin en salud pblica del mundo. +Lo que se requiere, y donde el sector privado puede hacer una gran diferencia, es venir con esta gran y creativa idea para dirigir este movimiento. +En nuestra campaa "Ayuda a un nio a alcanzar los 5" hemos creado unos videos maravillosos para llevar el mensaje del lavado de manos con jabn a la gente comn de forma que se sientan identificados. +Tenemos ms de 30 millones de visualizaciones. +Muchos de estos dilogos an continan en la red. +Les pido que tomen 5 minutos y vean estos videos. +Soy de Mali, uno de los pases ms pobres del mundo. +Crec en una familia en que las conversaciones en la cena eran sobre el tema de la justicia social. +Me entren en la mejor escuela europea de salud pblica. +Creo que soy la nica mujer en mi pas con semejante ttulo tan alto en salud, y la nica con un doctorado en lavado de manos con jabn. +Hace 9 aos decid, con una exitosa carrera en salud pblica en mi haber, que poda generar un mayor impacto presentando, vendiendo y promoviendo el mejor invento del mundo en salud pblica: el jabn. +Hoy en da dirigimos el mayor programa a nivel mundial de lavado de manos, con cualquier estndar en salud pblica. +Hemos llegado a ms 183 millones de personas en 16 pases. +Mi equipo y yo tenemos la ambicin de alcanzar los mil millones en 2020. +En los ltimos 4 aos, el negocio ha crecido doble dgito, mientras que la mortalidad infantil se ha reducido en todos los lugares donde se ha incrementado el uso de jabn. +Puede ser incmodo para algunos escuchar crecimiento de los negocios y vidas salvadas, de alguna forma equiparados en la misma oracin pero es ese crecimiento en los negocios el que nos permite continuar haciendo ms. +Sin ello, y sin hablar de ello, no podemos alcanzar el cambio que necesitamos. +La semana pasada, mi equipo y yo pasamos un tiempo visitando madres que han vivido la misma experiencia: la prdida de un recin nacido. +Soy madre. No me imagino qu puede ser ms poderoso y doloroso. +Esta es de Myanmar. +Tiene la sonrisa ms hermosa, la sonrisa, creo, que la vida te da cuando tienes una segunda oportunidad. +Su hijo, Myo, es su segundo. +Y eso es lo que me inspira, me inspira a continuar en esta misin, saber que puedo equiparla con lo que se necesita de modo que ella pueda hacer el trabajo ms bello del mundo: cuidar de su recin nacido. +La prxima vez que piensen en un regalo para una nueva madre y su familia, no vayan muy lejos: cmprenle un jabn. +Es el invento ms hermoso en salud pblica. +Espero que se unan a nosotros y que hagan que el lavado de manos sea parte de sus vidas diarias y de nuestras vidas diarias, y ayuden a ms nios como Myo a llegar a su quinto cumpleaos. +Gracias. +Hace casi un ao, mi ta empez a sufrir dolores de espalda. +Consult al mdico y le dijeron que era una lesin normal para alguien que haba estado jugando al tenis por casi 30 aos. +Le recomendaron que hiciese terapia, pero al cabo de un tiempo no se senta mejor y los mdicos decidieron hacer ms exmenes. +Le tomaron rayos X y descubrieron una lesin en sus pulmones, y entonces pensaron que la lesin era una tensin en los msculos y tendones entre sus costillas, pero a las pocas semanas de tratamiento, su salud no mejoraba nada. +As que finalmente, decidieron hacer una biopsia, y tras dos semanas, llegaron los resultados de la biopsia. +Era un cncer de pulmn en etapa 3. +Su estilo de vida era casi que libre de riesgo. +Nunca fum un cigarrillo, nunca bebi alcohol, y haba practicado deporte casi la mitad de su vida. +Quizs por eso les tom cerca 6 meses diagnosticarla correctamente. +Mi historia puede ser, lamentablemente, familiar a muchos de Uds. +A 1 de cada 3 personas de esta audiencia se le diagnosticar algn tipo de cncer, y 1 de cada 4 morir a causa de eso. +No solo el diagnstico del cncer cambi la vida de nuestra familia, sino que el proceso de ir y venir con nuevos exmenes, diferentes mdicos describiendo sntomas, descartando enfermedades repetidamente, fue estresante y frustrante, especialmente para mi ta. +Y as es como se ha hecho el diagnstico de cncer desde el comienzo de la historia. +Tenemos tratamientos y drogas del siglo XXI para tratar el cncer, pero an utilizamos procedimientos y procesos del siglo XX para su diagnstico, si es que usamos alguno. +Hoy en da, la mayora de nosotros debe esperar los sntomas para saber que algo no est bien. +Hoy en da, la mayora de las personas an no tiene acceso a mtodos de deteccin prematura del cncer, aunque sepamos que encontrar el cncer temprano es bsicamente lo ms similar a una curacin milagrosa. +Sabemos que podemos cambiar esto en nuestro tiempo, y es por eso que mi equipo y yo decidimos empezar este trayecto, este trayecto para intentar volver la deteccin de cncer en las primeras etapas y la monitorizacin de la respuesta apropiada a nivel molecular, ms sencillos, ms baratos, ms astutos y ms asequibles que nunca. +El contexto, por supuesto, es que vivimos en un tiempo donde la tecnologa est alterando el presente a ritmos exponenciales, y el campo de la biologa no es la excepcin. +Se dice hoy que la biotecnologa est avanzando al menos 6 veces ms rpido que la tasa de crecimiento de la potencia de procesamiento de las computadoras. +Pero el progreso en biotecnologa no est solo acelerndose, sino tambin democratizndose. +As como las computadoras personales, internet o los smartphones nivelaron las condiciones para el espritu emprendedor, la poltica y la educacin, avances recientes tambin elevaron el nivel para el progreso en biotecnologa, y eso est permitiendo a equipos multidisciplinarios como el nuestro intentar atacar y mirar estos problemas con nuevos enfoques. +Somos un equipo de cientficos y tecnlogos de Chile, Panam, Mxico, Israel y Grecia, que basados en descubrimientos cientficos recientes creemos haber encontrado una manera confiable y precisa de detectar varias clases de cncer en fases muy tempranas mediante una muestra de sangre. +Lo hacemos al detectar una serie de molculas pequeitas que circulan libremente en nuestra sangre llamadas microRNAs. +Para explicar qu son los microRNAs y su importante funcin en el cncer debo empezar con protenas, porque cuando tenemos cncer en nuestro cuerpo, se observa una modificacin de protenas en todas las clulas cancerosas. +Los microRNAs son pequeas molculas que regulan la expresin de los genes. +Diferentes al DNA, que est mayormente fijo, los microRNAs pueden variar segn condiciones internas y ambientales en un momento dado, mostrndonos cules genes son expresados activamente en determinado momento. +Y es eso lo que hace a los microRNAs ser bio-seales tan prometedoras del cncer, porque como saben, el cncer es una enfermedad de la expresin alterada de los genes. +Es la regulacin sin control de los genes. +Otra cosa importante a considerar es que no hay dos cnceres iguales, pero al nivel de los microRNAs, hay patrones. +Varios estudios cientficos ya mostraron que niveles anormales de expresin del microRNA varan y crean un patrn especfico y nico para cada clase de cncer, incluso en las primeras etapas, reflejando la progresin de la enfermedad, y si est reaccionando a la medicacin o en remisin, haciendo de los microRNAs una perfecta bio-seal altamente sensible. +Sin embargo, el problema con los microRNAs es que no podemos utilizar la tecnologa existente basada en DNA para detectarlos de manera confiable, porque son secuencias muy cortas de nucletidos, mucho ms cortas que el DNA. +Y adems, todos los microRNAs son muy similares entre s, con apenas diferencias diminutas. +Imaginen tratar de diferenciar dos molculas, extremamente similares, extremamente pequeas. +Creemos haber encontrado una manera de hacerlo, y esta es la primera vez que lo presentamos en pblico. +Djenme hacer una demostracin. +Imaginen la prxima vez que vayan al mdico para hacerse un examen de sangre, un tcnico de laboratorio extrae un RNA total, lo que es bastante simple hoy en da, y lo pone en una placa estndar de 96 pocillos. +Cada pocillo de esta placa tiene una bioqumica especfica asignada por nosotros, que est buscando un microRNA especfico, actuando como una trampa que se cierra solo cuando el microRNA est presente en la muestra, y cuando sucede, brillar con un color verde. +Para realizar la reaccin, se pone la placa dentro de un dispositivo como este, y entonces pueden poner su smartphone encima. +Si ponemos una cmara aqu podrn ver mi pantalla. +Un smartphone es una computadora conectada y tambin una cmara, bastante buena para nuestro propsito. +El smartphone est tomando imgenes, y cuando la reaccin acabe, enviar las imgenes a nuestra base de datos para procesamiento e interpretacin. +Todo ese proceso dura unos 60 minutos, pero cuando acaba el proceso, los pocillos brillantes son emparejados con los microRNAs especficos y analizados en trminos de qu tanto y qu tan rpido brillan. +Y entonces, cuando acaba el proceso completo, pasa esto. +Este grfico muestra los microRNAs especficos presentes en esta muestra y cmo reaccionaron con el tiempo. +Luego, si tomamos este patrn especfico de microRNA de esta muestra personal y lo comparamos con la documentacin cientfica existente que correlaciona patrones de microRNA con la presencia especfica de una enfermedad, es as como se ve el cncer de pncreas. +Aqu dentro est una muestra real donde acabamos de detectar cncer de pncreas. +Otro aspecto importante de ese enfoque es que rene y extrae datos en la nube, para que tengamos resultados en tiempo real y los analicemos con nuestra informacin contextual. +Si queremos comprender mejor y descifrar enfermedades como el cncer, debemos parar de tratarlas como casos agudos y aislados, y considerar y medir todo lo que afecta nuestra salud de forma permanente. +Toda esa plataforma es un prototipo funcional. +Hace uso de biologa molecular de punta, un dispositivo de bajo costo impreso en 3D, y ciencia de datos para intentar atacar uno de los ms difciles problemas de la humanidad. +Ya que creemos que la deteccin prematura del cncer debera ser democratizada, toda esta solucin cuesta al menos 50 veces menos que los mtodos actuales existentes, y sabemos que la comunidad puede ayudarnos a acelerarlo an ms, as que estamos haciendo el diseo del dispositivo de cdigo abierto. +Permtanme decir muy claramente que estamos en las primeras etapas, pero hasta ahora, ya fuimos capaces de identificar con xito el patrn del microRNA del cncer de pncreas, del cncer de pulmn, del cncer de mama y del cncer heptico. +Y actualmente, estamos haciendo un ensayo clnico en colaboracin con el Centro Alemn de Investigacin del Cncer con 200 mujeres para el cncer de mama. +Este es el nico test no invasivo, preciso y asequible que tiene el potencial de cambiar dramticamente cmo se han realizado los procedimientos y el diagnstico del cncer. +Ya que buscamos los patrones del microRNA en la sangre en cualquier momento, no necesitan saber qu clase de cncer buscan. +No hay que tener sntomas. +Solo se requiere un mililitro de sangre y un grupo de herramientas relativamente simples. +Hoy en da, la deteccin del cncer se da mayormente cuando los sntomas se manifiestan. +Es decir, en la etapa 3 o 4, y yo creo que es muy tarde. +Es muy costoso para nuestras familias. +Es muy costoso para la humanidad. +No podemos perder la guerra contra el cncer. +No solo nos cuesta miles de millones de dlares, sino que tambin nos cuesta las personas que amamos. +Hoy mi ta est luchando valientemente y pasando por ese proceso con una actitud muy positiva. +Sin embargo, yo quiero que estas luchas se vuelvan muy raras. +Quiero ver el da en que el cncer sea tratado fcilmente por poder ser diagnosticado rutinariamente en las primersimas etapas, y estoy seguro de que en un futuro muy cercano, a causa de estos y otros grandes avances que vemos diariamente en las ciencias biolgicas, la manera como vemos el cncer cambiar radicalmente. +Tendremos la oportunidad de detectarlo prematuramente, comprenderlo mejor, y encontrar una curacin. +Muchas gracias. +Empec a trabajar con refugiados porque quera cambiar las cosas, y cambiar las cosas empieza con contar sus historias. +Al encontrarme con ellos siempre les hago preguntas. +Quin bombarde su casa? +Quin mat a su hijo? +El resto de su familia sobrevivi? +Cmo haces frente a tu vida en el exilio? +Pero hay una pregunta que siempre me parece la ms reveladora, y es esta: Qu te llevaste contigo? +Qu fue lo ms importante que haba que llevarse mientras caan las bombas sobre la ciudad y las bandas armadas se acercaban a tu casa? +Un nio refugiado sirio me dijo que l no dud al ver que su vida corra peligro. +Se llev su diploma de bachiller y luego me dijo por qu: +"Me llev el diploma porque mi vida dependa de aquello". +Arriesg su vida para conseguir ese certificado. +De camino a la escuela esquivaba a los francotiradores. +La clase temblaba a veces por el sonido de las explosiones y los bombardeos y su madre me coment: "Cada da, cada maana le deca: "Cario, por favor, no vayas a la escuela". Y al ver que l insista, ella reconoci: "Le abrazaba como si fuera la ltima vez", +mientras que l le deca a su madre: "Todos estamos asustados, pero mi decisin de graduarme es ms fuerte que el miedo". +Pero un da, la familia recibi una noticia terrible. +La ta de Hany, su to y su primo fueron asesinados en su casa por negarse a abandonarla. +Les cortaron el cuello. +Haba que huir. +Se fueron el mismo da, de inmediato, en coche, con Hany escondido detrs, ya que haban que enfrentarse a puestos de control y soldados amenazantes. +Cruzaron la frontera con el Lbano donde encontraran la paz. +Pero all, empez una vida de penurias y monotona. +No tenan ms remedio que construirse una choza al lado de un pantano, y este es el hermano de Hany, Ashraf, jugando al aire libre. +Aquel da, se unieron a la mayor poblacin de refugiados del mundo, en un pas cmo el Lbano, que es pequeo. +Hay solo 4 millones de ciudadanos, y viven all un milln de refugiados sirios. +No hay ciudad o pueblo que no acoja a refugiados sirios. +Esto es de una generosidad y humanidad excepcional. +Piensen en las cifras. Es como si toda la poblacin de Alemania, 80 millones de personas, hubieran huido a EE.UU. en solo 3 aos. +La mitad de toda la poblacin de Siria son ahora refugiados, en su mayora, provenientes del interior del pas. +Seis millones y medio de personas han huido para salvar sus vidas. +Muchos ms de 3 millones de personas han cruzado las fronteras para encontrar asilo en los pases vecinos y solo una pequea proporcin, como ven, se traslad a Europa. +Creo que lo ms preocupante es que la mitad de los refugiados sirios sean nios. +Le hice la foto a esta nia 2 horas despus de su llegada, despus de un largo viaje que hizo de Siria a Jordania. +Y lo ms preocupante de todo esto es que solo el 20 % de los nios refugiados sirios irn a la escuela en el Lbano. +An as, los nios refugiados sirios, todos los nios refugiados nos dicen que la educacin es lo ms importante en sus vidas. +Por qu? Porque les permite pensar en el futuro en lugar de pensar en las pesadillas de su pasado. +Les permite pensar en algo esperanzador en lugar de recordar el odio. +Recuerdo que hice una visita reciente a un campo de refugiados sirios al norte de Irak, y conoc a esta chica y pens: "Qu hermosa!", y le ped permiso para hacerle una foto +y ella dijo que s pero se neg a sonrer. +Creo que no poda hacerlo porque creo que era consciente de que es parte de esta generacin perdida de nios refugiados sirios, una generacin aislada y frustrada. +Sin embargo, miren de lo que huyeron: la destruccin total de los edificios, industrias, escuelas, carreteras, viviendas. +La casa de Hany tambin fue destruida. +Todo esto tendr que ser reconstruido por arquitectos, ingenieros, electricistas. +Las comunidades necesitarn maestros, abogados y polticos interesados en la reconciliacin y no en la venganza. +No debera esto ser reconstruido por las personas que ms han tenido que perder, los que estn en el exilio, los refugiados? +Los refugiados tienen mucho tiempo para prepararse para su regreso. +Es posible que crean que ser refugiado es solo algo temporal. +Nada de eso. +Con las guerras que no cesan, el tiempo medio de un refugiado en el exilio es de 17 aos. +Hany estaba en su segundo ao en el limbo cuando fui a verlo recientemente. Nuestra conversacin fue toda en ingls, ya que confes haber aprendido el idioma leyendo las novelas de Dan Brown y escuchando rap de EE.UU. +Tambin pasamos unos momentos de risas y diversin con su querido hermano, Ashraf. +Pero nunca olvidar lo que me dijo cuando terminamos la conversacin ese da: +"Si no estudio, no ser nada". +Hany es uno de las 50 millones de personas refugiadas en el mundo hoy en da. +Nunca, desde la Segunda Guerra Mundial, tantas personas se vieron obligadas a exiliarse. +As que, mientras hacemos enormes progresos en la salud humana, la tecnologa, la educacin y el diseo, hacemos peligrosamente poco para ayudar a las vctimas, y estamos haciendo an menos para detener y prevenir las guerras que los expulsan de sus hogares. +Y hay cada vez ms vctimas. +Diariamente al final del da, de media, 32 000 personas estarn desplazadas de sus hogares por la fuerza. 32 000 personas. +Que tienen que tienen que huir pasando fronteras como esta. +Rodamos esto en la frontera de Siria con Jordania y esto est a la orden del da. +O huyen en embarcaciones improvisadas, sobrecargadas, arriesgando la vida, en este caso, solo para alcanzar un lugar ms seguro en Europa. +Este joven sirio sobrevivi a uno de estos barcos que volcaron y donde se ahog la mayora de la gente. Nos dijo: Los sirios estamos solo buscando un lugar tranquilo donde nadie nos haga dao, donde nadie nos humille y donde nadie nos mate". +Y creo que lo que pide es lo mnimo. +Qu tal un lugar donde curarse, aprender e incluso tener oportunidades? +As que los pases ricos del mundo deberan reconocer la humanidad y generosidad de los pases que acogen a tantos refugiados. +Y todos los pases deben asegurarse de que nadie que huye de la guerra y de la persecucin llegue a una frontera cerrada. +Gracias. +Pero hay algo que podemos hacer ms all de simplemente ayudar a los refugiados a sobrevivir. +Podemos ayudarles a prosperar. +Debemos pensar en campamentos y comunidades de refugiados como en algo ms que centros de poblacin temporal, donde la gente sufre y perece esperando el final de la guerra. +Ms bien como centros de excelencia, donde los refugiados puedan superar el trauma y ser formados para el da en que puedan regresar a casa como agentes de cambio positivo y de transformacin social. +Esto tiene mucho ms sentido, pero recuerdo la terrible guerra en Somalia que se ha estado librando durante 22 aos. +E imaginen vivir en este campo. +Yo lo visit. +Es en Djibouti, en la frontera con Somalia, y estaba tan lejos, que nos hizo falta un helicptero para llegar all. +Haca mucho calor y todo estaba lleno de polvo. +Nos fuimos a visitar una escuela y empezamos a hablar con los nios. Entonces vi a esta chica al fondo de la habitacin, pareca tener la misma edad que mi hija y fui a hablar con ella. +Le hice preguntas del tipo de las que hacen los adultos a los nios: Cul es tu asignatura favorita? +Qu quieres ser cuando seas mayor? +Y fue entonces cuando su rostro se convirti en una mscara y dijo: "Yo no tengo futuro. Mi formacin se acab". +Y pens, tiene que haber algn error, as que me dirig a mi colega pero ella me confirm que no hay fondos para la escuela secundaria en este campo. +Cmo me hubiera gustado decirle, en ese momento: "Vamos a construir una escuela para ti". +Y tambin pens, qu desperdicio. +Ella debe ser y es el futuro de Somalia. +A otro nio, llamado Jacob Atem, se le brind una oportunidad diferente, pero no antes de sufrir una terrible tragedia. +Fue testigo --esto pas en Sudn-- de cmo su pueblo --y l tena solo 7 aos-- fue quemado hasta la mdula, para luego descubrir que su madre y su padre y toda su familia fueron asesinados ese da. +solo sobrevivi su primo, y ambos caminaron durante 7 meses --estos son chicos como l-- cazados y perseguidos por los animales salvajes y las bandas armadas, hasta que finalmente llegaron a un campo de refugiados donde encontraron seguridad. Pas los siguientes 7 aos en Kenia, en un campo de refugiados, +pero su vida cambi cuando tuvo la oportunidad de vivir en EE.UU. al encontrar el amor de una familia de acogida, y as poder ir a la escuela. Me pidi que compartiera con Uds. este momento de orgullo, cuando se gradu en la universidad. +Habl con l por Skype, el otro da, est estudiando en una universidad en Florida un doctorado en salud pblica. Me dijo lleno de orgullo que pudo recaudar fondos con la ayuda del pueblo estadounidense para una clnica en su aldea, en su tierra natal. +Quiero volver a Hany. +Cuando le dije que iba a hablar aqu en TED, me permiti leer un poema que me envi por correo electrnico. +Dice: "Me echo de menos, y aoro a mis amigos y aquellos ratos en que lea novelas y escriba poemas, mirando los pjaros por la maana y tomando el t. +Echo de menos a mi cuarto, mis libros, me echo de menos, a m y a todo aquello que me haca sonrer. +Oh, tena tantos sueos que iban a hacerse realidad". +As que, este es mi mensaje. No invertir en refugiados es perder una enorme oportunidad. +Si los abandonamos corrern el riesgo de ser explotados y de sufrir abusos, si no les ofrecemos una cualificacin y educacin, perderemos aos y retrasaremos el proceso de paz y la prosperidad en sus pases. +Yo creo que la forma en que tratamos a los refugiados contribuye al futuro de nuestro mundo. +Las vctimas de la guerra pueden ser la clave de una paz duradera y los refugiados son los que pueden detener el ciclo de la violencia. +Hany se encuentra en un momento crtico. +Nos encantara ayudarle a llegar a la universidad y convertirse en ingeniero, pero nuestros fondos dan prioridad a las necesidades bsicas de la vida: tiendas de campaa, mantas y utensilios de cocina, alimentos racionados y algunas medicinas. +La universidad es un lujo. +Pero abandonarlo a la vera de un pantano es dejarlo convertirse en un miembro ms de una generacin perdida. +La historia de Hany es una tragedia, pero no tiene por qu terminar as. +Gracias. +Conozco a un hombre que vuela sobre la ciudad todas las noches. +En sus sueos, gira y gira con sus pies besando el suelo. +"Todo se mueve", dice, incluso su propio cuerpo paralizado. +Este hombre es mi padre. +Hace tres aos, cuando me enter de que mi padre haba sufrido un grave derrame cerebral, en el tronco enceflico, entr en su habitacin, en la UCI del Instituto Neurolgico de Montreal y lo encontr tumbado, casi muerto, unido a una mquina para respirar. +La parlisis haba apagado su cuerpo lentamente empezando por los talones, despus las piernas, el torso, los dedos y los brazos. +hasta llegar al cuello, quitndole la capacidad de respirar, y se detuvo justo debajo de sus ojos. +Nunca perdi la conciencia. +Todo lo contrario, desde su interior vio cmo se paralizaba su cuerpo, miembro a miembro, msculo a msculo, +En aquella habitacin de la UCI, me aproxim a su cuerpo, y en medio de las lgrimas con voz temblorosa, empec a recitar el alfabeto +A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K. +En la K, sus ojos pestaearon. +Comenc otra vez, +A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, +Volvi a pestaear en la I, luego en la T, luego en la R, y en la A Kitra. +Dijo: "Kitra, mi linda, no llores. +Esto es una bendicin". +No era una voz audible, pero mi padre haba dicho mi nombre de forma rotunda. +Tan solo 24 horas despus del derrame cerebral, haba asumido ya plenamente su condicin. +A pesar de la gravedad de su estado, estaba totalmente presente conmigo, guindome, nutrindome e incluso siendo mi padre mucho ms que antes. +El sndrome de enclaustramiento es para mucha gente la peor de las pesadillas. +En francs, se llama a veces "maladie de l'emmur vivant". +Literalmente, "enfermedad del empaderamiento vivo". +Como rabino y hombre espiritual. suspendido entre el cuerpo y la mente, la vida y la muerte, la parlisis le despert a una nueva conciencia. +Se dio cuenta de que ya no necesitaba mirar ms all del mundo corporal para encontrar la divinidad. +"El paraso est en este cuerpo +en este mundo", deca. +Dorm al lado de mi padre durante los primeros 4 meses cuidndole todo lo que pude, en su malestar, entendiendo el profundo miedo psicolgico humano de no poder pedir ayuda. +Mi madre, hermanas, hermanos y yo le rodeamos como en un capullo de curacin. +Nos convertimos en su boca, recitando durante horas el abecedario cada da, mientras l susurraba sermones y poesa con el pestaeo de sus ojos. +Su habitacin se transform en un templo de curacin. +Los pies de su cama un lugar para quienes buscaban aviso y consejo espiritual, y a travs de nosotros, mi padre fue capaz de hablar. y de recuperarse, letra a letra, pestaeo a pestaeo. +Todo en nuestro mundo se volvi lento y tierno, mientras el estruendo, el drama y la muerte de la sala del hospital se desvanecan en el trasfondo. +Quiero leer una de las primeras cosas que transcribimos despus de la primera semana del derrame cerebral. +Compuso una carta, dirigida a la congregacin de su sinagoga que terminaba con las siguientes lneas: "Cuando mi cabeza explot, entr en otra dimensin: incipiente, subplanetaria, protozoaria. +Los universos se abren y cierran continuamente +Hay mucha gente que cuando est mal deja de crecer. +La semana anterior estaba muy mal, pero sent la mano de mi padre alrededor, y mi padre me trajo de vuelta". +Cuando no ramos su voz, ramos sus piernas y sus brazos. +Se los mova como me hubiera gustado que se movieran mis piernas y brazos si hubieran estado paralizados todo el da. +Recuerdo que sostena sus dedos cerca de mi rostro, doblando cada articulacin para mantenerlas suaves y sensibles. +Le peda una y otra vez que visualizara el movimiento, que mirase por dentro cmo los dedos se curvaban, se extendan y se movan conmigo en su mente. +Entonces, un da, por el rabillo del ojo vi su cuerpo deslizarse como una serpiente, una espasmo involuntario que atravesaba todos sus miembros. +Al principio, cre que era una alucinacin, por estar tanto tiempo tumbada junto a su cuerpo, desesperada por ver cualquier tipo de reaccin. +Pero me dijo que senta un hormigueo, chispas de electricidad que se encendan y se apagaban, justo debajo de la piel. +A la semana siguiente, incluso empez a mostrar ligeramente cierta resistencia muscular. +Se haban hecho conexiones. +El cuerpo despertaba, lenta y suavemente, miembro a miembro, msculo a msculo, contraccin a contradiccin. +Como un reportera grfica senta la necesidad de fotografiar cada uno de sus primeros movimientos, como una madre con su recin nacido. +Fotografi su primera respiracin no asistida, el momento posterior de celebracin, la resistencia de sus msculos por primera vez. Las nuevas tecnologas adaptadas le permitieron ganar ms y ms independencia. +Fotografi el cuidado y el amor que lo rodeaban. +Pero mis fotografas solo cuentan la historia externa de un hombre tumbado en la cama de un hospital unido a una mquina de respirar. +No fui capaz de retratar su historia contada desde dentro, y por eso, empec a buscar un nuevo lenguaje visual. con el que pudiera expresar la cualidad efmera de su experiencia espiritual. +Finalmente, quiero compartirles un video de una de las series en las que estoy trabajando, que trata de expresar la lentitud entre ambas existencias que mi padre ha experimentado. +Cuando comenz a recuperar su capacidad para respirar empec a grabar sus pensamientos, y la voz que escuchan en el video es su voz. +(Ronnie Cahana): Tienes que creer que ests paralizado, actuar el papel de un cuadripljico. +Yo no. +En mi mente y en mis sueos cada noche, sobre la ciudad, girando y girando con mis pies besando el suelo. +No s nada sobre la afirmacin de un hombre sin movimiento. +Todo se mueve. +El corazn late. +El cuerpo nos tira. +La boca se mueve. +Nunca nos estancamos. +La vida triunfa con sus altos y bajos. +(Kitra Cahana): Para la mayora, los msculos empiezan a girar y moverse mucho antes de que somos conscientes, pero mi padre me dice que es un privilegio vivir en la periferia lejana de la experiencia humana. +Como un astronauta que ve una perspectiva que muy pocos de nosotros llegaremos a compartir; l se maravilla y mira mientras respira por primera vez, y suea volver gateando a casa. +Por eso dice que su vida comenz a los 57 aos. +Un nio no tiene actitud en su ser, pero un hombre insiste en su mundo cada da. +Solo unos pocos tendrn que hacer frente a las limitaciones fsicas hasta el extremo en que lo hizo mi padre, pero todos tendremos momentos de parlisis en la vida. +S que me enfrento a muros que con frecuencia, me parecen imposibles de escalar, pero mi padre insiste en que no hay callejones sin salida. +Y, por el contrario, me invita a su espacio de co-curacin para que d lo mejor de m misma, y l darme lo mejor de s mismo. +La parlisis fue un comienzo para l. +Una oportunidad para emerger, reavivar la fuerza vital, sentarse con tranquilidad consigo mismo, para enamorarse con el flujo continuo de la creacin. +Hoy, mi padre ya no est atrapado. +Mueve el cuello con facilidad, le han quitado el alimentador, respira con sus propios pulmones, habla despacio y con voz tranquila, y trabaja cada da para conseguir ms movimiento en su cuerpo paralizado. +Pero el trabajo nunca terminar. +Como dice: "Vivo en un mundo destrozado donde hay un trabajo sagrado que hacer". +Gracias +La tecnologa nos ha dado mucho: el alunizaje, el internet, lograr secuenciar el genoma humano. +Tambin llega a nuestros miedos ms hondos y hace 30 aos aproximadamente, el crtico cultural Neil Postman escribi un libro llamado "Divertirse hasta morir", en el que resalta esta verdad brillantemente. +Aqu esta lo que dijo comparando las distpicas visiones de George Orwell y Aldous Huxley. +Dijo: Orwell tema que nos volviramos una cultura cautiva. +Huxley, en una trivial. +Orwell tema que la verdad nos sera ocultada, y Huxley que seramos ahogados en un ocano de irrelevancia. +En resumen, es escoger entre el Gran hermano vindote y tu viendo al Gran Hermano. +Pero no tiene que ser as. +No somos consumidores pasivos de datos y tecnologa. +Decidimos el rol que juega en nuestra vida y cmo le damos significado, pero para hacerlo, tenemos que poner mucha atencin desde cmo pensamos hasta cmo codificamos. +Tenemos que hacer preguntas, preguntas difciles, para pasar de contar cosas a entenderlas. +Estamos bombardeados constantemente por historias de los muchos datos que hay en el mundo, pero cuando se refiere a datos masivos, y los retos de interpretarlos, el tamao no lo es todo. +Tambin est la velocidad a la que se mueven, las muchas variantes de tipos de datos, he aqu algunos ejemplos: imgenes, texto, video, audio. +Lo que une estos diferentes tipos de datos es que son creados por gente y requieren contextos. +Hay un grupo de cientficos de datos de la Universidad de Illinois-Chicago, llamados Colaboracin para la Salud en Medios, trabajando con los Centros de Control de Enfermedades para entender mejor cmo la gente habla sobre dejar de fumar, cmo hablan de cigarros electrnicos, y qu pueden hacer colectivamente para ayudarse a dejarlo. +Lo interesante es que, si quieres entender cmo la gente habla sobre dejar de fumar, primero tienes que entender a qu se refieren al decir "fumar". +En Twitter, hay 4 categoras principales: la primera, fumar cigarros; la segunda, fumar marihuana; la tercera, ahumar costillas; y la cuarta, chicas ardientes. +Entonces, tenemos que pensar, cmo habla la gente de cigarros electrnicos? +Y hay tantas maneras diferentes en las que la gente lo hace, y se puede ver del lado de es un tipo complejo de bsqueda. +Y lo que nos recuerda es que el lenguaje es creado por la gente y la gente es enrevesada y somos complejos y usamos metforas y argots y jergas 24 horas por 7 das a la semana. en muchos idiomas. Y luego de un momento a otro, cambiamos. +As como estos anuncios que la CDC puso, estos anuncios de TV que tenan mujeres con un hoyo en las gargantas, muy grficos y perturbadores, realmente tuvieron impacto en que la gente dejara de fumar? +Colaboracin para la Salud en Medios respeto los lmites de sus datos, pero fueron capaces de concluir que esos anuncios y los pueden haber visto tenan el efecto de llevar a las personas hacia un proceso de pensamiento que poda impactar su comportamiento futuro. +Lo que admiro y aprecio de este proyecto, aparte del hecho, e incluyendo que est basado en una necesidad humana real, es que es un ejemplo fantstico de coraje en medio de un ocano de irrelevancia. +No son solo los datos masivos los que producen retos de interpretacin, porque enfrentmoslo, los humanos tenemos una historia muy rica de tomar una cantidad de datos, no importa lo pequea, y arruinarlo. +As, hace muchos aos, quiz recuerden que el antiguo presidente Ronald Reagan fue muy criticado por una declaracin de que los hechos son cosas estpidas. +Se le fue la lengua, seamos justos. +En realidad quera citar la defensa de Jhon Adams a los soldados britnicos en los juicios de la Masacre de Boston de que los hechos son tozudos. +Pero creo que hay algo de sabidura accidental en lo que dijo porque los hechos son tozudos, pero a veces tambin son estpidos. +Quiero contarles una historia personal de porque esto importa tanto para m. +Necesito tomar aire. +Mi hijo Isaac, cuando tena 2 aos, fue diagnosticado con autismo, y era este alegre, hilarante, amoroso, y afectuoso niito, pero las mtricas en sus evaluaciones de desarrollo, que ven cosas cmo el nmero de palabras en ese momento, ninguna gestos comunicativos y poco contacto visual, pusieron su nivel de desarrollo en el de un beb de nueve meses. +Y el diagnstico estaba bien segn los hechos, pero no contaba la historia completa. +Despus de un ao y medio, cuando tena aproximadamente cuatro, lo encontr frente a la computadora un da buscando mujeres en Google, deletreado "m-i-j-e-r-e-s". +E hice lo que cualquier padre obsesionado hara: empezar a presionar el botn "atrs" para ver que ms haba buscado. +Y estaban en orden: hombres, escuela, autobs y computadora. +Estaba sorprendida, porque no sabamos que poda deletrear, mucho menos leer, y le pregunte, "Isaac, cmo lo hiciste?" +l me mir muy serio y dijo, "Escrib en la cajita". +Estaba ensendose a s mismo a comunicarse. Pero estbamos buscando en el lugar equivocado. Y esto pasa cuando las tareas y los anlisis sobrevaloran alguna mtrica en este caso, la comunicacin verbal y devalan otras, cmo la resolucin creativa de problemas. +La comunicacin era difcil para Isaac, as que encontr una alternativa para encontrar lo que necesitaba saber. +Al pensarlo, tiene mucho sentido, porque hacer una pregunta es un proceso muy complejo, pero l pudo evitar mucho de eso poniendo una palabra en el buscador. +Y ese pequeo momento tuvo un profundo impacto en m y nuestra familia porque nos ayud a cambiar el marco de referencia sobre lo que le pasaba a l, y preocuparnos menos y apreciar ms su forma de obtener recursos. +Los hechos son cosas estpidas. +Y se pueden usar mal, manipular u otras cosas. +Tengo una amiga, Emily Willinghan que es cientfica, y escribi un artculo para Forbes no hace mucho, titulado "Las 10 cosas ms raras ligadas al Autismo". +Es una buena lista +"El Internet" es culpado por todo cierto?, +y claro las madres, porque s. +Y en realidad, esperen, hay ms, un grupo completo en la categora de "madre" aqu. +Pueden ver que es una lista muy rica e interesante. +Soy una gran fan de "embarazarse cerca de autopistas". +La ltima es interesante, porque el trmino "madre de refrigerador" fue en realidad la hiptesis original para la causa del autismo, y se refera a una persona fra y no amorosa. +En este momento, pueden pensar: "Est bien, Susan, lo entendemos, puedes tomar datos, y hacer que signifiquen lo que sea". +Y es cierto, absolutamente cierto. Pero el reto es que tenemos la oportunidad de darles significado nosotros mismos, porque francamente, los datos no crean un significado. Nosotros se los damos. +As que como personas de negocios, como consumidores, como pacientes, como ciudadanos, tenemos una responsabilidad, creo, de pasar ms tiempo enfocndonos en nuestras capacidades crticas. +Por qu? +Porque en este punto de la historia, como hemos escuchado muchas veces, podemos procesar exabytes de datos a la velocidad de la luz, y tenemos el potencial de tomar malas decisiones mucho ms rpidamente, eficientemente, y con mucho ms impacto que en el pasado. +Genial, no es cierto? +Y lo que necesitamos hacer en su lugar es pasar un poco ms de tiempo en cosas como las humanidades y sociologa, y las ciencias sociales, retrica, filosofa, tica, porque nos dan el contexto que es tan importante para los datos masivos, y porque nos ayudan a volvernos mejores pensadores crticos. +Porque despus de todo, si puedo ver un problema en un argumento, no importa mucho, que este expresado en palabras o nmeros. +Y significa cuestionar disciplinas como la demografa. +Por qu? Porque estn basadas en asumir cosas, sobre quines somos con base en nuestro gnero nuestra edad y dnde vivimos, opuestos a datos de qu es lo que pensamos y hacemos en realidad. +Y dado que tenemos estos datos, necesitamos tratarlos con adecuados controles de privacidad y al consumir optar por inclusin, y ms all de eso necesitamos ser claros en nuestras hiptesis, las metodologas que usamos, y nuestro nivel de confianza en el resultado. +Cmo deca mi maestro de lgebra: "muestra tus matemticas, porque si no s qu pasos usaste, no s qu pasos no tomaste, y si no s qu preguntas hiciste, no s qu preguntas no hiciste". +Significa preguntarnos a nosotros mismos, la pregunta ms difcil de todas: Los datos en realidad nos lo muestran, o el resultado nos hace sentir ms exitosos y ms cmodos? +As que los de Colaboracin por la Salud en Medios al final del proyecto, pudieron encontrar 87 % de tweets sobre esos muy grficos y perturbadores anuncios para dejar de fumar que expresaban miedo, pero concluyeron que hicieron que la gente dejara de fumar? +No. Es ciencia, no magia. +As que si vamos a abrir el poder de los datos, no tenemos que ir a ciegas en la visin de Orwell de un futuro totalitario, o la visin de Huxley de uno trivial, o un horrible cctel de ambos. +Lo que tenemos que hacer es tratar al pensamiento crtico con respeto y ser inspirados por ejemplos cmo el de Colaboracin por la Salud en Medios y como dicen en las pelculas de superhroes: "Usemos nuestros poderes para el bien". +Gracias. +Tena 4 aos cuando viv mi primer golpe de estado. +Debido a este golpe de estado, mi familia tuvo que dejar Ghana, mi pas natal, y nos mudamos a Gambia. +Imaginen mi suerte: a los 6 meses de llegar tambin hubo un golpe de estado militar. +An recuerdo ser despertado en mitad de la noche, reunir las pocas pertenencias que pudimos y caminar durante unas 2 horas hasta un refugio. +Durante una semana, dormimos debajo de nuestras camas porque nos preocupaba que las balas entraran por las ventanas. +Entonces, cuando tena 8 aos, nos mudamos a Botsuana. +Esta vez, fue diferente. +No haba golpes de estado. +Todo iba bien. Muy buena educacin. +Tenan tan buena infraestructura que incluso en ese tiempo contaban con una red telefnica de fibra ptica mucho antes de que llegara a los pases occidentales. +Lo nico que no tenan era su propia estacin televisiva nacional, as que recuerdo ver televisin de la vecina Sudfrica y ver como a Nelson Mandela, en prisin, le ofrecan la oportunidad de salir si abandonaba su lucha en contra del apartheid. +Pero se neg. No la acept hasta que realmente alcanz su objetivo de liberar a Sudfrica del apartheid. +Y recuerdo cmo me sent de que un solo buen lder pudiera hacer semejante cambio en frica. +Cuando cumpl 12 aos, mi familia me envi a la escuela en Zimbabue. +Al principio, era genial: crecimiento econmico, excelente infraestructura y pareca que era el modelo para el desarrollo econmico en frica. +Termin la escuela en Zimbabue y me fui a la universidad. +Seis aos despus, regres al pas. +Todo era distinto. +Se caa a pedazos. +Millones emigraban. La economa era un caos. Pareca que de repente esos 30 aos de desarrollo haban desaparecido. +Cmo poda un pas empeorar tanto en tan poco tiempo? +La mayora coincidir en que todo se debi a un liderazgo. +Un hombre, el presidente Robert Mugabe, es casi el nico responsable de haber destruido ese pas. +Todas estas experiencias de vivir en diferentes partes de frica me hicieron 2 cosas. +Primero, me hicieron enamorar de frica. +Donde quiera que iba, senta la maravillosa belleza de nuestro continente y vea la capacidad de recuperacin y el espritu de la gente. En ese tiempo, me di cuenta de que quera dedicar el resto de mi vida a hacer grande a este continente. +Pero tambin me di cuenta de que para eso debamos abordar el tema de los liderazgos. +Vern, en todos estos pases en que viv, los golpes de estado y la corrupcin que vi en Ghana, en Gambia y en Zimbabue contrastaban con los maravillosos ejemplos que vi en Botsuana y en Sudfrica de buen liderazgo. +Por eso me di cuenta de que frica prosperara o caera debido a la calidad de nuestros lderes. +Uno podra pensar, por supuesto, que el liderazgo importa donde sea. +Pero si se han de llevar algo de mi charla hoy, es esto: En frica, ms que en cualquier otra parte del mundo, la diferencia que un solo buen lder puede hacer es mucho mayor que en cualquier otro lugar y este es el porqu. +Es porque en frica tenemos instituciones dbiles, como el Poder Judicial, la Constitucin, la sociedad civil y as. +Esta es una regla general en la que creo: cuando las sociedades tienen instituciones slidas, la diferencia que un buen lder puede hacer es limitada, pero si se tienen instituciones dbiles, entonces un solo buen lder puede mejorar o destruir a ese pas. +Les dar un ejemplo. +Llegas a ser presidente de EE.UU. +Piensas: "Guau, lo logr. +Soy el hombre ms poderoso del mundo". +As que decides, tal vez, presentar una ley. +De repente, el Congreso te toca el hombro y te dice: "No, no, no; no puedes hacer eso". +Entonces dices: "Djame hacerlo entonces as". +El Senado llega y dice: "No creemos que puedas hacer eso". +Dices, tal vez: "Voy a imprimir dinero. +Creo que la economa necesita un estmulo". +El director del banco central pensar que ests loco. +Te podran acusar por mal desempeo. +Pero si te conviertes en presidente de Zimbabue y dices: "De verdad me agrada este trabajo. +Creo que me quedar para siempre". Bueno, puedes hacerlo. +Decides que quieres imprimir dinero. +Llamas al director del banco central y le dices, "Por favor duplica la cantidad de dinero circulante". +l dir: "Muy bien, seor. Algo ms que pueda hacer por Ud.?" +Este es el poder que tienen los lderes de frica y es por esto que hacen la mayor diferencia en el continente. +Lo buena noticia es que la calidad del liderazgo en frica viene mejorando. +Hemos tenido 3 generaciones de lderes. +La primera generacin es la de las dcadas de 1950 y 1960. +Hablamos de gente como Kwame Nkrumah de Ghana y Julius Nyerere de Tanzania. +Dejaron como legado la independencia de frica. +Nos liberaron del colonialismo y hay que darles crdito por ello. +Los sigui la segunda generacin. +Esta generacin no aport nada sino caos a frica. +Guerras, corrupcin, violaciones a los derechos humanos. +Este es el estereotipo del tpico lder africano: Mobutu Sese Seko de Zaire, Sani Abacha de Nigeria. +La buena noticia es que ya no tenemos a la mayora de esos lderes, los reemplaz la tercera generacin. +Son gente como el finado Nelson Mandela y la mayora de los lderes que tenemos hoy en frica, como Paul Kagame, etc. +Claro que estos lderes no son perfectos, pero algo que han hecho, sin dudas, es arreglar mucho del desorden de la segunda generacin. +Detuvieron las guerras. Yo la llamo la generacin estabilizadora. +Toman mucho ms en cuenta a su pueblo, han mejorado las polticas macroeconmicas y por primera vez vemos crecer a frica y de hecho es la segunda regin con el crecimiento econmico ms dinmico de mundo. +Esto lderes no son perfectos, pero son por mucho los mejores lderes que hemos visto en los ltimos 50 aos. +Qu sigue? +Creo que la generacin que sigue a esta, la cuarta generacin, tiene la oportunidad nica de transformar el continente. +Especficamente, pueden hacer 2 cosas que la generacin anterior no hizo. +Lo primero que deben hacer es crear prosperidad para el continente. +Por qu es tan importante la prosperidad? +Porque ninguna de las generaciones anteriores ha podido atacar el problema de la pobreza. +Hoy, frica tiene el crecimiento demogrfico ms acelerado del mundo, pero tambin el ms pobre. +Para el ao 2030, tendr una mano de obra mayor que China y para el ao 2050, tendr la mayor fuerza laboral del mundo. +Mil millones necesitarn trabajo en frica, as que si no hacemos crecer nuestras economas los bastante rpido, estaremos sentados sobre una bomba de tiempo, no solo para frica, sino para todo el mundo. +Les dar un ejemplo de una persona que vive para este legado de crear prosperidad: Laetitia. +Laetitia es una joven de Kenia que a los 13 aos tuvo que dejar la escuela porque su familia no poda pagrsela. +As que empez su propio negocio de cra de conejos, que en Kenia, de donde es ella, es una delicia. +Le fue tan bien con el negocio que en un ao empleaba a 15 mujeres y era capaz de generar los suficientes ingresos para pagarse a s misma la escuela, y con estas mujeres financi a otros 65 nios para que fueran a la escuela. +Us las ganancias que gener para construir una escuela y hoy en da educa a 400 nios de su comunidad. +Y apenas acaba de cumplir 18 aos. +Otro ejemplo es Erick Rajaonary. +Erick es de la isla de Madagascar. +Erick se dio cuenta de que la agricultura sera la clave para crear trabajo en las zonas rurales de Madagascar, pero tambin se dio cuenta de que el fertilizante era un insumo demasiado caro para la mayora de los campesinos. +Madagascar tiene estos murcilagos muy particulares que producen este estircol muy rico en nutrientes. +En el 2006, Erick renunci a su trabajo de contador y abri una empresa para fabricar fertilizante con el estircol de los murcilagos. +Hoy en da, Erick tiene un negocio que genera varios millones de dlares en ganancias y da empleo de tiempo completo a 70 personas y trabajos de temporada a otras 800 cuando los murcilagos producen ms estircol. +Lo que me gusta de esta historia es que muestra que las oportunidades para crear prosperidad se pueden encontrar casi donde sea. +A Erick le dicen Batman. +Y quin hubiera pensado que sera capaz de construir un negocio multimillonario empleando a tanta gente solo con estircol de murcilago? +Lo segundo que esta generacin necesita hacer es crear nuestras instituciones. +Deben construir las instituciones de tal manera que nunca vuelvan a ser prisioneras de unos pocos individuos como Robert Mugabe. +Bien, todo esto suena muy bien, pero, de dnde vamos a sacar a esta cuarta generacin? +Nos sentamos y esperamos que emerja por azar o que Dios nos la enve? +No lo creo. +Es demasiado importante para dejarlo librado al azar. +Creo que debemos crear instituciones africanas, locales, que identifiquen y desarrollen a estos lderes de una manera sistemtica y prctica. +Lo hemos estado haciendo en los ltimos 10 aos con la Academia Africana de Liderazgo. +Laetitia es una de nuestras lderes jvenes. +Hoy en da, estamos preparando a 700 lderes, para el continente africano y durante los prximos 50 aos, esperamos crear 6000 ms. +Pero hay algo que me preocupa. +Tenemos 4000 solicitudes al ao y solo podemos aceptar 100 lderes jvenes en la academia y veo ese gran deseo que existe por la capacitacin en liderazgo que ofrecemos. +Pero no podemos satisfacerla. +As que hoy, anuncio por primera vez al pblico una ampliacin de esta visin de la Acadmica Africana de Liderazgo. +Estamos construyendo 25 universidades nuevas en frica que cultivarn esta siguiente generacin de lderes africanos. +Cada campus albergar a 10 000 lderes a la vez, as que estaremos educando y desarrollando 250 000 lderes en un momento dado. +En los prximos 50 aos, esta institucin crear 3 millones de lderes transformadores para el continente. +Mi deseo es que la mitad de ellos se transformen en los emprendedores que necesitamos, quienes crearn los trabajos que necesitamos, y que la otra mitad vaya al gobierno y a los sectores no lucrativos y que construyan las instituciones que necesitamos. +Pero no ser solo una formacin acadmica. +Tambin aprendern a ser lderes y a desarrollar sus habilidades como emprendedores. +Piensen en esto como en la Ivy League de frica, pero en lugar de ser aceptados por sus exmenes de conocimiento o por cunto dinero tengan o de qu familia vengan, el criterio principal para entrar a esta universidad ser el potencial que tengan para transformar frica. +Pero lo que hemos creado es solo un grupo de instituciones. +No podemos transformar frica nosotros solos. +Mi esperanza es que florezcan muchas ms instituciones locales africanas y que esas instituciones se unan con la visin comn de desarrollar la prxima generacin de lderes africanos, la cuarta generacin, y que les enseen este mensaje comn: creen trabajos, construyan nuestras instituciones. +Nelson Mandela dijo una vez: "De vez en cuando, una generacin est llamada a la grandeza. +Uds. pueden ser esa gran generacin". +Creo que si identificamos y cultivamos cuidadosamente a la siguiente generacin de lderes africanos, entonces esta cuarta generacin est llamada a ser la generacin ms grande que frica y el mundo entero hayan visto jams. +Gracias. +Porque para un voluntario veterano la idea de poner efectivo contante y sonante en las manos de la gente ms pobre de la Tierra. no suena tan descabellado, suena realmente satisfactorio. +Tuve ese momento a los 10 aos de hacer este trabajo, y por suerte, tambin fue cuando supe que esa idea existe realmente y tal vez sea eso exactamente lo que el sistema necesita. +Los economistas la llaman una transferencia incondicional de efectivo y es exactamente eso: efectivo que se da sin restricciones. +Los gobiernos de pases en vas de desarrollo lo han hecho por dcadas. es solo hasta hoy, con ms evidencia y nuevas tecnologas que es posible implementar este sistema de ayuda. +Es una idea simple, cierto? +Entonces, por qu pas una dcada haciendo otra cosa por los pobres? +Honestamente, crea que yo poda hacer ms bien con el dinero para los pobres que el que los pobres podran hacer por ellos mismos. +Tena dos supuestos: uno, que los pobres son pobres en parte porque no tienen educacin y no toman buenas decisiones; dos, es que necesitan gente como yo para saber qu necesitan y consegurselos. +Result que la evidencia dice otra cosa. +En aos recientes los investigadores han estudiado qu ocurre cuando se les da a los pobres efectivo. +Docenas de estudios muestran que la gente usa el efectivo para mejorar sus propias vidas. +La mujeres embarazadas en Uruguay compran mejores alimentos y dan a luz a nios ms sanos. +Los hombres de Sri Lanka invierten en sus negocios. +Los investigadores que han estudiado nuestro trabajo en Kenia encontraron que la gente invierte en una variedad de bienes, desde ganado hasta equipo para mejorar sus casas y han visto que su ingreso aumenta en los negocios y en la agricultura en apenas un ao despus de recibir el dinero. +Ninguno de esos estudios encontr personas que gastaran ms para beber o fumar o que la gente trabajara menos. +De hecho, trabajan ms. +Estas son necesidades materiales. +En Vietnam, los beneficiarios mayores usaban el dinero para comprar atades. +Como alguien que se pregunta si Maslow estaba equivocado, encontr esta decisin de priorizar las necesidades espirituales profundamente conmovedora. +No s si yo hubiera escogido dar comida o equipo o atades, lo que plantea la pregunta: Qu tan bien estamos distribuyendo los recursos para los pobres? +Vale la pena el costo? +De nuevo, podemos ver la evidencia emprica sobre lo que ocurre cuando le damos a la gente artculos que nosotros escogemos. +Un estudio analiz un programa en India que da ganado vivo a los llamados ultra-pobres y encontr que el 30% de los beneficiarios vendieron el ganado que se les di por efectivo. +La irona es que por cada 100 dlares gastados en el programa para darle a los pobres, se gastan 99 dlares en hacerlo. +Qu tal si usamos la tecnologa para poner el efectivo, ya sea de organizaciones de ayuda o de alguno de nosotros, directamente en la manos de los pobres. +Hoy en da, 3 de cada 4 keniatas usa dinero en el celular, que bsicamente es una cuenta de banco que se lleva en cualquier telfono celular. +Un emisor puede pagar una cuota de 1.6% y con apretar una tecla enviar dinero directamente a la cuenta del beneficiario sin intermediarios. +Como las tecnologas que irrumpen las industrias en nuestras propias vidas, la tecnologa de pagos en pases pobres puede irrumpir en la ayuda. +Se est extendiendo tan rpidamente que es posible imaginar alcanzar a miles de millones de los ms pobres del mundo de esta manera. +Por ello iniciamos GiveDirectly. +Somos la primera organizacin dedicada a promover la transferencia de efectivo a los pobres. +Hemos enviado dinero a 35 000 personas en la zona rural de Kenya y Uganda en un pago de 1 000 dlares por familia. +Hasta ahora, hemos atendido a los ms pobres en las aldeas ms pobres, y en esta parte del mundo viven en casas hechas de arcilla y paja, no de cemento y acero. +Supongamos que es tu familia. +Nos presentamos a tu puerta con un telfono Android. +Tomamos tu nombre, te tomamos una foto y una foto de tu choza, y tomamos las coordenadas GPS. +Esa noche, mandamos todos los datos a la nube y cada forma la revisan equipos independientes usando, por ejemplo, imgenes satelitales. +Entonces, regresamos, te vendemos un telfono celular bsico si es que no tienes uno ya y unas pocas semanas despus, te enviamos dinero. +Algo que hace 5 aos hubiera parecido imposible ahora podemos hacerlo eficientemente y sin corrupcin. +Mientras ms efectivo damos a los pobres y mientras ms evidencia tenemos de que funciona, ms an tenemos que reconsiderar todo lo dems que damos. +Hoy, generalmente, la lgica detrs de la ayuda es, bueno, al menos hicimos un bien. +Cuando somos complacientes con nuestras acciones, cuando nos decimos que dar ayuda es mejor que no ayudar, tendemos a invertir ineficientemente en nuestras propias ideas que creemos inovadoras o en escribiendo reportes, o en boletos de avin y vehculos. +Y si la lgica fuera ser que nosotros lo haramos mejor que dndole el dinero directamente a los pobres? +Las organizaciones tendran que probar que estn haciendo ms bien por los pobres que el que los pobres hacen por ellos. Por supuesto, dar efectivo +no crear bienes pblicos como erradicar enfermedades o construir instituciones slidas, pero pondra un estndar ms alto en cmo ayudamos a familias individuales a mejorar sus vidas. +Creo en la ayuda. +Creo que la mayora de la ayuda es mejor que solo lanzar dinero desde una avioneta. +Tambin tengo la certeza de que mucha de la ayuda hoy en da no es mejor que darle dinero directamente a los pobres. +Espero que algn da, lo sea. +Gracias. +El centro de atencin en TED es la humanidad pero a m me gustara trasladarlo a los animales, cuyos cuerpos, mentes y espritus nos han dado forma. +Hace algunos aos, tuve la gran fortuna de reunirme con un anciano de una tribu en una isla, no muy lejos de Vancouver. +Se llama Jimmy Smith, y comparti conmigo una historia conocida por toda su tribu, llamada Kwikwasut'inuxw. +rase una vez, dijo, en que todos los animales de la tierra eran uno. +A pesar de sus aspectos diferentes, eran idnticos por dentro, y de vez en cuando se reunan en una cueva sagrada en la profundidad del bosque para celebrar su unin. +Al entrar, dejaban sus pieles. +El cuervo se despojaba de sus plumas y el oso de su piel, y el salmn de sus escamas, para luego bailar. +Pero un da, un hombre irrumpi en la cueva y se ech a rer a su costa, ya que no entendi lo que vio. +Avergonzados, los animales huyeron y esa fue la ltima vez que se les vio as. +La milenaria sabidura, que a pesar de sus diferentes identidades, todos los animales son uno, ha sido una poderosa fuente de inspiracin para m. +Me gusta ir ms all de pieles, plumas y escalas. +Llegar a lo que hay debajo de la piel. +Ya se trate de un elefante gigante o de una ranita arbrea, mi objetivo es volver a conectar con ellos y mirarlos directamente a los ojos. +Se preguntarn si alguna vez fotografo gente. +Por supuesto, el hombre est siempre presente en mis fotos da igual si aparece en forma de tortuga, puma, o len. +Solo tienen que aprender a ver ms all de sus disfraces. +Como fotgrafo, trato de trascender las diferencias en nuestra apariencia gentica para apreciar lo que tenemos en comn con todos los dems seres vivos. +Cuando uso mi cmara renuncio a mi piel, como los animales en la cueva, para poder as mostrar cmo son ellos realmente. +Al ser animales dotados con capacidad para el pensamiento racional, la complejidad de la vida maravilla al hombre. +Como ciudadanos de un planeta en apuros, es nuestro deber moral encontrar soluciones a la reduccin drstica de la diversidad. +Pero como seres dotados de alma y corazn todos podemos celebrar que vivimos juntos en armona, y tal vez as podremos rectificar lo que una vez hicimos en aquella cueva sagrada. +Encontremos una manera de unirnos a la danza. +Gracias. +Vine a mostrarles la Fotokite. +Es una cmara atada voladora. +Pero antes quiero contarles un poco de dnde viene la idea que la impulsa. +Nac en Rusia y hace 3 aos, en 2011, hubo elecciones federales en Rusia. +Se informaron graves irregularidades y la gente sali a protestar, algo muy inusual en Rusia. +Nadie saba realmente cun significativas eran las protestas porque, por alguna razn, los medios del mundo ignoraron la noticia. +Pero haba un grupo de fotgrafos que usaban cmaras voladoras como pasatiempo, fotografiando en general cosas como la Esfinge, las Pirmides, y que de casualidad, estando cerca, pilotaron una cmara y tomaron algunas instantneas, algunos panoramas de la protesta. +Algo totalmente independiente, ocurrido completamente al azar, y la imagen, cuando la vi, me impact. +Este es uno de los panoramas. +En una simple imagen, puede verse la magnitud del acontecimiento, la cantidad de personas, los colores, las pancartas. +Esto no puede considerarse insignificante. +Todo en una imagen, me pareci genial. +Creo que en el futuro en periodismo y en muchas otras profesiones... ya hay cmaras voladoras y son bastante comunes, pero creo que en unos meses, en pocos aos, para muchas profesiones ser realmente un requisito. +Y tiene sentido. Ofrece una perspectiva nica. +Nada comunica esta escala, por ejemplo, en contexto, como lo hace esto. +Pero hay algunos obstculos bastante bsicos y elementales. +Uno es el pilotaje. +Para conseguir esta imagen, volaron una cmara, un dispositivo de 5 kilos con una cmara rflex debajo. +Es bastante pesado, tiene muchas cosas cortantes que giran. +Es un poco incmodo de volar, quiz tambin para el operador. +De hecho, en la parte posterior de la camisa del operador, dice: "No pregunte hasta el aterrizaje", en ruso y en ingls, porque la gente es curiosa, te llaman, pierdes concentracin y las cosas pasan. +Estos tipos son geniales. Son profesionales, ponen mucha atencin en lo que hacen. +En las protestas, quiz lo notaron, volaron sobre el ro, por eso fue bastante seguro. +Pero esto no se da para toda la gente en cualquier circunstancia por eso hay que facilitar el pilotaje. +El otro problema son las regulaciones, o, mejor dicho, la falta de una buena regulacin. +Por muchas buenas razones, es difcil aprobar leyes con sentido comn para legislar las cmaras voladoras. +Ya tenemos las cmaras. +Estoy seguro de que todos tienen un smartphone con cmara. +Hay cada vez ms. +Habrn odo que atacaron a usuarios de Google Glass. +Supieron que un piloto de drones un aficionado, fue atacado hace dos semanas porque volaba cerca de una playa. +Esta es una nota personal inesperada. +Ayer, me atac un tipo que pretenda que lo estaba filmando. +Yo estaba revisando el correo as... Muy fcil obtener material para la charla. +Creo que hay mejores soluciones. +Creo que tenemos que calmar la situacin. +Tenemos que proponer soluciones responsables que aborden los temas de la privacidad, la seguridad, la responsabilidad, pero que nos den esa perspectiva. +Y esta es una posible solucin. +Es la Fotokite. +Bueno, veamos, es un cuadricptero, pero lo especial es que tiene una correa. +Es literalmente una correa de perro. Es muy cmoda. +Lo bueno de esto es que para volarla no hay palancas, nada de eso. +Uno lo enciende y apunta en la direccin que quiere volar. +Se le da un pequeo giro. +Es un poco la forma de comunicarse. +Y all va. +La interaccin es sper simple. +Es como una mascota voladora. +Solo que siempre mantiene un cierto ngulo hacia uno, y si te mueves con ella, te seguir con naturalidad. +Claro, sobre esto se puede construir. +Esta correa tiene componentes electrnicos adicionales. +Puedes activarlo. +Y ahora, es como decirle al perro que vuele ms bajo, si tal perro existiera. As, puedo presionar un botn y manipularlo con bastante facilidad. +Acabo de cambiar su posicin. +Es muy seguro. +No s Uds. los del frente, pero al menos en principio, concordarn conmigo en que parece seguro porque hay una conexin fsica. +Las demos en vivo son difciles, +Las cosas salen mal todo el tiempo. +Pero pase lo que pase, la correa evitar que esa cosa se caiga sobre Uds. +Adems, advierten de inmediato que yo estoy al mando del dispositivo. +No tienen que buscar quin lo controla. +Puedo decirles que es muy fcil, pero creo que una buena forma de demostrarlo es manejar un segundo aparato y lanzarlo. +Y si puedo hacerlo en vivo en el escenario entonces puedo ensearle a cada uno de Uds. en 5 minutos, a operar uno de estos dispositivos. +Ya tenemos dos ojos en el cielo. Ahora el truco es hacer que vuelvan. +Entonces, les pregunto, bueno, es una solucin interesante, es muy accesible, es segura. +Para qu la usaran? +Para qu usaran una cmara as en sus vidas? +Gracias. +Y lo que me pregunto es si de esas tres cosas, alguna es sobreviviente de algn tipo de trauma. +Sobreviviente de un cncer, sobreviviente de una violacin, sobreviviente de un holocausto, sobreviviente de un incesto. +Alguna vez not cunto nos inclinamos a identificarnos con nuestras heridas? +Y donde he visto que esta identidad de sobreviviente tiene ms consecuencias, es en la comunidad del cncer. +He estado muy relacionada con esta comunidad por mucho tiempo porque he sido capellana de un hospicio y de un hospital por casi 30 aos. +En el 2005, estaba trabajando en un gran centro de cncer cuando recib la noticia de que mi madre tena cncer de seno. +Y luego, cinco das ms tarde, recib la noticia de que yo tena cncer de seno. +Mi madre y yo podemos ser muy competitivas, pero no estaba tratando de competir con ella esta vez. +Si vas a tener cncer, es muy conveniente que ests trabajando en un lugar donde lo traten. +Sin embargo, esto fue lo que o de muchsima gente indignada. +"Qu?, +t eres la capellana! +Deberas ser inmune!" +Como si yo debiera recibir solo una advertencia en lugar de una multa, por el hecho de pertenecer a la polica. Fui tratada en el centro en que trabajaba, +Y cuando me mueva o haga algn gesto, dirn, "No, es aquella!" +As que ya todos saben. +Aprend mucho como paciente, y una de las cosas ms sorprendentes fue que solo una pequea parte de la experiencia del cncer tiene que ver con medicina. +La mayor parte tiene que ver con sentimientos y fe, y con perder y encontrar tu identidad, y con descubrir la fortaleza y la flexibilidad que nunca pensaste que tenas. +Tiene que ver con descubrir que las cosas ms importantes de la vida no son para nada los objetos, sino las relaciones, y tiene que ver con rerse en la cara de la incertidumbre y con aprender que la forma de liberarse de casi todo es diciendo, "Tengo cncer". +Lo otro que aprend fue que no se tiene que asumir la identidad de "sobreviviente de cncer", pero que, seor, hay fuerzas poderosas empujndonos a hacer exactamente eso. +Pero, por favor, no me malentiendan. +Las organizaciones que trabajan con el cncer y las campaas en pro de la deteccin temprana y la conciencia sobre el cncer y la investigacin sobre el cncer, han hecho de l algo normal, y eso es algo maravilloso. +Hoy podemos hablar del cncer sin necesidad de susurrar. +Podemos hablar del cncer y podemos apoyarnos el uno al otro. +Pero a veces, se siente como si la gente se sobreactuara un poco ya que empieza a decirnos cmo nos vamos a sentir. +Una semana despus de mi ciruga, ms o menos, tuvimos un husped. +Ese, probablemente, fue nuestro primer error. +Y tengan presente que en este punto de mi vida yo haba sido capellana 20 aos, y asuntos como morir y la muerte y el significado de la vida, eran cosas de las que haba estado hablando todo el tiempo. +En la cena esa noche, nuestro husped estir sus brazos y dijo, "Vers, Deb, ahora realmente vas a aprender qu es lo importante. +S, vas a hacer unos grandes cambios en tu vida, y vas a empezar a pensar en tu muerte. +S, tu cncer es un llamado a despertar". +Estas son palabras de oro cuando vienen de alguien que habla desde su propia experiencia, pero cuando solo son de alguien que quiere decirte cmo te vas a sentir, solo son estupideces. +La nica razn para no matarlo con mis propias manos fue que no poda levantar mi brazo derecho. +Pero s alcanc a dirigirle un calificativo bastante subidito de tono que hizo que mi esposo anotara, "Est bajo los efectos de los narcticos". +Y despus del tratamiento pareca que todos me estuvieran diciendo lo que iba a significar mi experiencia. +"Eso significa que vendrs a la caminata". +"Eso significa que vendrs a la cena". +"Eso significa que usars la cinta y la camiseta rosadas, y la balaca y los aretes y la manilla y los pantis". +Pantis. S, en serio, bsquenlo en Google. +Cmo se despierta conciencia as? +Solo mi esposo debera ver mis pantis. +l ya est bastante concienciado sobre el cncer. +Fue en ese punto donde me sent como, "Oh Dios mo, esto est acabando con mi vida!". +Y fue entonces cuando me dije a m misma, sobreponte a tu experiencia! +No dejes que ella se sobreponga a ti! +Todos sabemos que la forma de lidiar con el trauma, con la prdida, con cualquier experiencia que le d un vuelco a tu vida, es encontrndole sentido. +Pero ese es precisamente el punto: Nadie puede decirnos lo que significa nuestra experiencia. +Nosotros mismos tenemos que decidir lo que significa. +Y no tiene que ser un significado gigantesco o externo. +No todos tenemos que empezar una fundacin o un organizacin, o escribir un libro, o hacer un documental. +El significado puede ser calmado e interior. +Podemos, quizs, tomar una decisin pequea sobre nuestras vidas que traiga consigo un cambio grande. +Hace muchos aos, tuve un paciente, un joven maravilloso que el equipo adoraba, y fue algo impactante para nosotros descubrir que no tena amigos. +Viva solo, vena a la quimioterapia, solo, reciba su tratamiento, y luego se iba caminando, solo. +Yo incluso le pregunt, Oye, por qu nunca vienes con un amigo?" +Y contest, "La verdad, no tengo amigos". +Pero tena toneladas de amigos en la sala de infusin. +Todos lo queramos y las personas entraban y salan de su cuarto +todo el tiempo. Y entonces, en su ltima quimio, le cantamos la cancin y le pusimos la corona en la cabeza y le inflamos globos, y despus le pregunt, "Qu vas a hacer ahora?". +Y contest, "Hacer amigos". +Y lo hizo. +Empez como voluntario e hizo amigos all, y empez a ir a la iglesia e hizo amigos all, y en Navidad nos invit a mi esposo y a m a su apartamento, y el lugar estaba lleno de sus amigos. +Sobreponte a tu experiencia! +No dejes que ella se sobreponga a ti! +l decidi que el significado de su experiencia era conocer la dicha de la amistad, y luego aprender a hacer amigos. +Y Uds., qu? +Cmo le van a dar sentido a esa asquerosa experiencia? +Puede ser reciente, o puede ser que la hayan soportado por largo tiempo. +Nunca es tarde para cambiar su significado pues el significado es algo dinmico. +Lo que signifique hoy puede ser diferente de lo que signifique maana, o dentro de 10 aos. +Nunca es demasiado tarde para ser algo ms que un simple sobreviviente. +Oigan lo esttica que suena esa palabra! +Sobreviviente. +No tiene movimiento, no hay crecimiento. +Sobreponte a tu experiencia! +No dejes que ella se sobreponga a ti!, porque si lo haces, creo que terminars atrapado, no crecers, no evolucionars. +Pero algunas veces, claro est, no son las presiones externas las que nos llevan a asumir la identidad de sobreviviente. +Algunas veces es solo que queremos los beneficios. +Algunas veces hay una recompensa. +Pero luego nos atascamos. +Una de las primeras cosas que aprend como capellana interna, fueron las 3 ces del trabajo de capellana. Conforte, clarifique y, cuando sea necesario, confronte o desafe, +A nosotros nos gusta mucho que nos conforten y nos aclaren. La confrontacin, ya no tanto. +Otra de las cosas que me fascinaba de ser capellana era ver a los pacientes uno, o varios aos despus del tratamiento, porque era simplemente genial ver cmo haban cambiado y cmo haban evolucionado sus vidas y lo que haba pasado con ellos. +Un da, me emocion mucho cuando recib una llamada de la recepcin de la clnica, de una paciente que haba visto un ao atrs, y que estaba all con sus dos hijas adultas, a las que ya conoca, para su examen de seguimiento un ao despus. +Baj a la recepcin, y estaban eufricas porque les haban entregado el resultado y era Sin Evidencia de Enfermedad. No Muerta del Todo, como yo acostumbraba expresarlo. +Estaban eufricas. +Nos sentamos a hacernos visita, y fue raro, porque dos minutos despus, ella empez a recontarme la historia de su diagnstico, su ciruga y su quimio, aunque, como capellana, la vi cada semana y conoca la historia. +Y ella usaba palabras como sufrimiento, agona, lucha. +Y termin su historia con un, "Me sent crucificada". +Y en ese punto, sus dos hijas se pararon y dijeron, "Vamos por un caf". +Y se fueron. +Dganme tres cosas sobre Uds. antes del prximo paradero. +La gente se estaba bajando del bus antes de que ella llegara a la nmero dos. +Entonces le alcanc un pauelo y le di un abrazo, y luego, porque realmente esa mujer me importaba, le dije, "Bjate de tu cruz". +Y ella dijo "Qu?". +Y repet, "Bjate de tu cruz". +Para su crdito, ella poda hablar de las razones que tena para abrazar y aferrarse a esa identidad. +Atraa mucha atencin. +La gente, para variar, la cuidaba. +Pero ahora, se estaba produciendo el efecto contrario. +Estaba ahuyentando a la gente. +La gente segua yndose por caf. +Se senta crucificada por la experiencia, pero no quera dejar morir su yo crucificado. +Tal vez estn pensando que fui un poco dura con ella, as que debo decirles que estaba hablando desde mi experiencia. +Pero todos sabemos que en cualquier historia de resurreccin, uno tiene primero que morir. +En la historia cristiana, Jess pas todo un da en su tumba antes de resucitar. +Y creo que para nosotros, estar en la tumba significa hacer nuestro propio trabajo interno sobre nuestras heridas permitindonos a nosotros mismos ser sanados. +Tenemos que dejar morir el yo crucificado para que un nuevo yo, un yo verdadero, nazca. +Tenemos que dejar que la vieja historia se vaya para que la nueva historia, una historia ms verdadera, pueda ser contada. +Sobreponte a tu experiencia! No dejes que ella se sobreponga a ti! +Qu pasara si no hubiera sobrevivientes? Es decir, qu pasara si la gente decidiera sobreponerse a su trauma y dejarlo solo como una experiencia en lugar de asumirlo como una identidad? +Quizs, eso de estar atrapado en nuestras heridas, terminara y sera el comienzo de una sorprendente autoexploracin y descubrimiento, y crecimiento. +Quizs, sera el comienzo de un definirnos a partir de lo que hemos llegado a ser o aquello en que nos estamos convirtiendo. +Tal vez sobreviviente no era una de las tres cosas que Uds. me iban a decir. +No importa. +Solo quera que todos supieran que estoy realmente feliz de que todos estemos en este autobs juntos, y este es mi paradero. +Este es Anna Hazare, Anna Hazare bien puede ser el activista digital ms vanguardista del mundo actual. +Y no lo notaramos a simple vista. +Hazare tiene 77 aos, es un activista indio anticorrupcin y pro justicia social. +En el 2011, l estaba haciendo una gran campaa para abordar la corrupcin cotidiana en India, un tema que a las lites indias les encanta ignorar. +Como parte de esta campaa, us las tcticas tradicionales como todo buen organizador gandhiano. +En la huelga de hambre se dio cuenta de que con su hambre quiz en la actualidad, en el siglo XXI, una huelga de hambre no sera suficiente. +As que empez a jugar con el activismo mvil. +Lo primero que hizo fue decirle a la gente: "Bueno, por qu no me mandan un mensaje de texto si apoyan mi campaa anticorrupcin?" +Le dio a la gente un cdigo breve y se sumaron unas 80 000 personas. +Bien, eso es bastante respetable. +Pero luego decidi: "Cambiemos un poco la tctica". +Dijo: "Por qu no me dejan una llamada perdida?" +Quienes viven en el Sur Global sabrn que las llamadas perdidas son una parte crucial de la cultura mvil global. +Veo gente que asiente. +Las personas dejan llamadas perdidas todo el tiempo: Si llegan tarde a una reunin y quieren avisar que estn en camino dejan una llamada perdida. +Si salen con alguien y quieren decirle "te extrao" le dejan una llamada perdida. +Un consejo sentimental, en algunas culturas, si uno quiere agradar a la contraparte, llama y cuelga. Por qu la gente deja llamadas perdidas? +La razn, claro, es que tratan de evitar los costos asociados con las llamadas y los mensajes de texto. +Cuando Hazare le pidi a la gente que le dejara llamadas perdidas, a ver, acierten, cuntas personas creen que llamaron? +35 millones. +Fue una de las acciones coordinadas ms grandes en la historia de la humanidad. +Notable. +Esto refleja la fortaleza extraordinaria de la clase media india emergente y el poder que les da el mvil. +Y Hazare lo us, termin teniendo una lista extenssima de nmeros telefnicos y la us para desplegar el poder real de la gente en el terreno para convocar a cientos de miles de personas a las calles de Delhi, para posicionarse a nivel nacional ante la corrupcin cotidiana en India. +Es una historia realmente sorprendente. +En esta foto tengo 12 aos. +Espero que vean el parecido. +Tambin era activista, he sido activista toda mi vida. +Tuve una infancia muy divertida en la que vagaba por el mundo conociendo lderes mundiales y ganadores del Nobel que hablaban de la deuda del Tercer Mundo, como se le llamaba entonces, y de la desmilitarizacin. +Yo era un nio muy, muy serio. Y, en ese entonces, a principio de los 90, tuve una herramienta tcnica de vanguardia: El fax. +El fax fue la herramienta de mi activismo. +En ese momento era la mejor manera de llevar un mensaje a muchas personas al mismo tiempo. +Les mostrar un ejemplo de mis campaas de fax. +En vsperas de la Guerra del Golfo organic una campaa mundial para inundar el hotel, el Intercontinental de Ginebra, donde se reunan James Baker y Tarek Aziz en vsperas de la guerra, pens que si los atiborrbamos de faxes frenaramos la guerra. +Bueno, como era de esperar, esa campaa fue totalmente infructuosa. +Hubo muchas razones para ello, pero sin dudas una mquina de fax en Ginebra, era una restriccin al ancho de banda en trminos de mandar mensajes a mucha gente. +Segu hasta descubrir mejores herramientas. +Cofund Avaaz, que usa Internet para movilizar gente y ahora tiene casi 40 millones de miembros, y dirijo Purpose, que da albergue a este tipo de movimientos con base en la tecnologa. +Entonces, cul es la moraleja de esta historia? +La moraleja de esta historia, es que el fax eclips al mvil? +Es otra historia de tecnodeterminismo? +Bueno, yo dira que, en realidad, es ms que eso. +Yo dira que en los ltimos 20 aos, cambi algo ms fundamental que solo la tecnologa. +Dira que ha habido un cambio fundamental en el equilibrio de poder en el mundo. +Si uno le pregunta a cualquier activista cmo entender el mundo, dir: "Mira dnde est el poder, quin lo tiene, cmo est cambiando". +Y creo que todos sentimos que algo grande est ocurriendo. +Por eso Henry Timms y yo, Henry es un compaero creador del movimiento, hablbamos un da y empezamos a pensar: Cmo podemos darle sentido a este nuevo mundo? +Cmo podemos describirlo y darle un marco que lo haga ms til? +Porque nos dimos cuenta de que muchas de las lecciones aprendidas en los movimientos en realidad tenan validez en todo el mundo en muchos sectores de nuestra sociedad. +Por eso les quiero presentar este marco conceptual: El viejo poder en contraposicin del nuevo poder. +Quiero contarles qu es el nuevo poder hoy. +El nuevo poder es el despliegue de participacin de masas y coordinacin de pares estos son los 2 elementos clave para crear cambio y cambiar resultados. +Estamos rodeados de nuevo poder. +Este es Beppe Grillo un blogger populista italiano que, con un aparato poltico mnimo y algunas herramientas en lnea, obtuvo ms del 25 % de los votos en las recientes elecciones italianas. +Esto es Airbnb, que en solo unos aos ha irrumpido tajantemente en la industria hotelera sin poseer ni un metro cuadrado de propiedades. +Esto es Kickstarter, que sabemos a recaudado USD 1000 millones de ms de 5 millones de personas. +Ahora estamos familiarizados con estos modelos. +Pero sorprenden los puntos en comn, las caractersticas estructurales de estos nuevos modelos y cmo se diferencian del viejo poder. +Miremos esto un poco ms. +El viejo poder es como una divisa. +El nuevo poder es como una corriente. +El viejo poder lo tienen unos pocos. +El nuevo poder no, lo construyen muchos. +En el viejo poder solo se consume, en el nuevo poder se colabora. +Y uno puede distinguir unas caractersticas ya sea en los medios, la poltica o la educacin. +Hemos hablado un poco sobre qu es el nuevo poder. +Por un momento hablemos de qu "no" es el nuevo poder. +El nuevo poder no son sus pginas de Facebook. +Les aseguro que tener una estrategia de medios sociales puede garantizarles la misma descarga que solan tener en tiempos de la radio. +Pregntenle al dictador sirio Bashar al-Assad, les aseguro que su pgina de Facebook no adopt el poder de la participacin. +El nuevo poder no es inherentemente positivo. +De hecho, no tenemos un argumento normativo, hay muchas cosas buenas en el nuevo poder, pero puede producir malos resultados. +Ms participacin, ms coordinacin de pares, a veces distorsiona los resultados y hay algunas cosas como, por ejemplo, en la profesin mdica donde queremos que el nuevo poder llegue lejos. +Tercero, el nuevo poder no es el vencedor inevitable. +De hecho, como era de esperar, conforme avanzan estos modelos de nuevo poder, se ve un retroceso masivo de las fuerzas del viejo poder. +Basta con mirar esta lucha pica muy interesante que ocurre actualmente, entre Edward Snowden y la NSA. +Notarn que solo una de las 2 personas de la diapositiva est en el exilio. +Entonces, no est para nada claro que el nuevo poder ser el vencedor inevitable. +Dicho esto, tengan algo en mente: Estamos en el comienzo de una curva muy pronunciada. +Estn pensando en algunos de estos modelos de nuevo poder, no? +Fueron la idea de alguien en algn garage hace pocos aos, y ahora estn revolucionando industrias enteras. +Y lo interesante del nuevo poder es como se autoalimenta. +Una vez que uno experimenta un nuevo poder, uno tiende a esperar y desear ms de eso. +Digamos que uno usa una plataforma de prstamos uno-a-uno como Lending Tree o Prosper, uno se da cuenta de que no necesita al banco, quin quiere al banco, no? +As, esa experiencia tiende a envalentonarlo a uno a querer participar ms en ms aspectos de la vida. +Y esto da lugar a un conjunto de valores. +Hablamos de modelos creados por el nuevo poder, los Airbnbs, los Kickstarters. +Y qu decir de los valores? +Esto es un bosquejo temprano del aspecto de los valores del nuevo poder. +El nuevo poder premia la transparencia sobre todo lo dems. +Es casi una creencia religiosa en la transparencia, una creencia que dice que si uno arroja luz sobre algo, ser mejor. +Recordemos que en el siglo XX esto no fue as en absoluto. +La gente pensaba que los caballeros deban sentarse a puertas cerradas y hacer acuerdos confortables. +El nuevo poder valora la gobernanza en red, informal. +Los partidarios del nuevo poder no inventaran hoy la ONU, para mejor o para peor. +El nuevo poder valora la participacin, y el nuevo poder tiene que ver con lo casero. +De hecho, lo interesante del nuevo poder es que evita algo de la profesionalizacin y la especializacin que estuvo de moda en el siglo XX. +Lo interesante de estos valores y modelos del nuevo poder es lo que significan para las organizaciones. +Pasamos tiempo pensando cmo delimitar las organizaciones en dos-por-dos y, en esencia, miramos los valores del nuevo poder y los modelos del nuevo poder y vemos dnde se ubican las diferentes personas. +Empezamos el anlisis en EE.UU., y les mostrar algunos hallazgos interesantes. +El primero es Apple. +En este marco, describimos a Apple como una compaa del viejo poder. +Por una cuestin de ideologa, la ideologa que gobierna a Apple del diseador de producto perfeccionista de Cupertino. +Se trata de algo perfecto, hermoso, que baja a nosotros ya perfecto. +Y no valora, como compaa, la transparencia. +De hecho, es muy reservada. +Pero Apple es una de las compaas ms exitosas del mundo. +Esto muestra que an se puede perseguir con xito una estrategia de viejo poder. +Uno puede argumentar que hay vulnerabilidades reales en el modelo. +Creo que otra comparacin interesante es la campaa de Obama en comparacin con la presidencia de Obama. +Me gusta el presidente Obama, pero l hizo campaa con el nuevo poder, no? +Le dijo a la gente somos lo que Uds. estaban esperando. +Us financiamiento colectivo para sostener una campaa. +Pero cuando lleg al poder, gobern ms o menos como todos los otros presidentes. +Es una tendencia muy interesante, cuando el nuevo poder llega al poder, qu ocurre? +Este es un marco que deberan observar y pensar dnde se ubica su propia organizacin. +Y pensar dnde debera estar en 5 o 10 aos. +Qu hacen si son del viejo poder? +En el viejo poder estn all pensando eso no nos ocurrir a nosotros. +Basta ver la irrupcin de Wikipedia para Encyclopdia Britannica. +Les dir que es una lectura muy triste. +Pero si son del viejo poder, es lo ms importante ocuparse uno mismo antes de que otros lo hagan por uno, antes de ser ocupados. +Imaginen que un grupo de sus ms grandes escpticos acampan en el corazn de su organizacin y hacen las preguntas ms difciles y pueden ver todo el interior de su organizacin. +Y les preguntan, les gusta lo que ven? debera cambiar el modelo? +Y si son del nuevo poder? +El nuevo poder est en la cresta de la ola? +Yo dira que no. +Dira que hay verdaderos desafos al nuevo el poder en esta fase incipiente. +Sigamos con el ejemplo de Occupy Wall Street por un momento. +Occupy fue un ejemplo increble de nuevo poder, el ejemplo ms puro del nuevo poder. +Y, sin embargo, no logr consolidarse. +La energa que cre fue grande en la fase de meme, pero estaban tan inmersos en la participacin, que nunca hicieron nada. +De hecho, ese modelo significa que el desafo del nuevo poder es cmo usar el poder institucional sin estar institucionalizado? +En el otro extremo del espectro est Uber. +Uber es un ejemplo increble de modelo de nuevo poder altamente escalable. +Esa red es cada vez ms y ms densa actualmente. +Pero lo ms interesante de Uber es que no adopt valores del nuevo poder. +Esta es una cita reciente del director general de Uber: Dice: "Cuando nos deshagamos del tipo del auto", habla del conductor, "Uber ser ms barata". +Pero los modelos del nuevo poder viven y mueren gracias a la fortaleza de sus redes. +Depende de si los conductores y los consumidores usuarios del servicio creen realmente en l. +Porque no son un ejercicio de perfeccionismo vertical, dependen de la red. +Por eso, el desafo, y era de esperar, es que los conductores de Uber ahora se agremiaron. +Es extraordinario. +Los conductores de Uber recurren a Uber. +Y el desafo de Uber, no es una situacin fcil para ellos, es que estn atrapados en una superestructura ms amplia que es en realidad el viejo poder. +Han recaudado ms de USD 1000 millones en los mercados de capitales. +Esos mercados esperan un retorno financiero, y la forma de obtener retorno financiero es exprimiendo cada vez ms a los usuarios y conductores para obtener cada vez ms valor para darle ese valor a los inversores. +Por eso para m la gran pregunta sobre el futuro del nuevo poder es: Resurgir ese viejo poder? +Las nuevas lites del nuevo poder se volvern viejo poder y exprimirn? +O el nuevo poder contraatacar? +El prximo Uber ser copropiedad de sus conductores? +Creo que esta ser una pregunta estructural interesante. +Finalmente, piensen en el nuevo poder como algo ms que solo una entidad que escala las cosas y nos hace vivir experiencias de consumo levemente mejores. +Mi llamado a la accin para el nuevo poder es a no aislarse. +Hoy en el mundo tenemos grandes problemas estructurales que podran beneficiarse enormemente de la participacin de masas y de la coordinacin de pares que estos actores del nuevo poder conocen muy bien cmo generar. +Y necesitamos mucho que transformen su energa y poder en lo que los economistas podran llamar problemas de bien pblico, que a menudo excede los mercados en los que puede encontrarse fcilmente inversores. +Y, para m, vale absolutamente la pena intentarlo. +Muchas gracias. +Crec diagnosticada como fbicamente tmida, y, al igual que al menos otras 20 personas en una sala de este tamao, era tartamuda. +Te atreves a levantar la mano? +Y se pega con nosotros. Realmente se nos pega, porque cuando se nos trata de esa manera, nos sentimos a veces invisibles, o hablando y alrededor a. +Y cuando empec a mirar a la gente, que es mayormente todo lo que hice, me di cuenta de que algunas personas realmente queran atencin y reconocimiento. +Recuerden, yo era joven entonces. +Entonces, qu hicieron? +Lo que todava hacemos tal vez demasiado a menudo. +Hablamos de nosotros mismos. +Y sin embargo, hay otras personas que observ que tenan lo que yo llamo una mentalidad mutua. +En cada situacin, encontraron una manera de hablar de nosotros y crear esa idea de "nosotros". +As que mi idea para reimaginar el mundo es verlo como uno donde todos nos convertimos en mejores creadores de oportunidades con y para los dems. +No hay mayor oportunidad o llamado a la accin para nosotros ahora que convertirnos en hacedores de oportunidad que utilizan los mejores talentos juntos y ms a menudo por el bien comn y lograr cosas que no podramos haber hecho por nuestra cuenta. +Quiero hablarles de eso, porque incluso ms que dar, incluso ms que dar, es la capacidad para que hagamos algo ms inteligente juntos por el bien comn que nos levanta y que puede escalar. +Es por eso que estoy sentada aqu. +Pero tambin quiero sealar algo ms: Cada uno de Uds. es mejor que cualquier otro en algo. +Esto refuta esa idea popular de que si eres la persona ms inteligente en la sala, ests en la habitacin equivocada. +As que djenme contarles acerca de una fiesta de Hollywood a la que fui hace unos aos, y me encontr con esta prometedora actriz, y estbamos pronto hablando de algo sobre lo que las dos nos sentamos apasionadas: el arte pblico. +Y ella tena la ferviente creencia de que cada nuevo edificio en Los ngeles debera tener arte pblico. +Ella quera una regulacin para esto y comenz fervientemente quin aqu es de Chicago? ella fervientemente empez a hablar de estas esculturas reflectantes en forma de frijol en el Parque Millennium, y las personas caminaran all y sonreiran en el reflejo de ellas, y posaran e improvisaran y se tomaran selfies juntos, y reiran. +Y mientras ella hablaba, un pensamiento vino a mi mente. +Le dije: "Conozco a alguien a quien deberas conocer. +Saldr de San Quentin en un par de semanas y l comparte tu ferviente deseo de que el arte debe participar y permitir a las personas conectarse". +l pas cinco aos solitario, y yo lo conoc porque di un discurso en San Quentin, y l es articulado y es bien parecido porque es moreno. +Tena un rgimen de entrenamiento diario. +Creo que ella me segua en ese punto. +Le dije: "l sera un aliado inesperado". +Y no solo eso. Este es James. Es arquitecto y profesor, y ama hacer lugares, eso es cuando tienes esas mini-plazas y sendas urbanas salpicadas de arte, donde la gente dibuja y viene y habla a veces. +Creo que seran buenos aliados. +Y de hecho lo eran. +Se reunieron. Se prepararon. +Hablaron frente al Ayuntamiento de Los ngeles. +Y los miembros del consejo no solo aprobaron la regulacin, la mitad de ellos baj y les pidi posar con ellos despus. +Eran sorprendentes, convincentes y crebles. +No puedes comprar eso. +Lo que les pido que consideren es qu tipo de hacedores podramos llegar a ser, porque ms que la riqueza o los ttulos elegantes o una gran cantidad de contactos, es nuestra capacidad para conectar lo mejor de cada uno y llevarlo a cabo. +No estoy diciendo que sea fcil, y seguramente muchos de Uds. han tomado malas decisiones sobre con quin querran conectarse, pero lo que quiero sugerir es, que esta es una oportunidad. +Empec a pensar en ello cuando era Periodista del Wall Street Journal y en Europa supuestamente deba cubrir tendencias y tendencias que han trascendido en los negocios, en poltica o estilos de vida. +As que tena que tener contactos en mundos muy diferentes del mo, porque de lo contrario no poda detectar las tendencias. +Y en tercer lugar, tena que escribir la historia de manera de ponerme en los zapatos del lector, para que pudieran ver cmo stas tendencias podran afectar sus vidas. +Eso es lo que los hacedores de oportunidad hacen. +No estn ofendidos por las diferencias, estn fascinados por ellas, y eso es un gran cambio de mentalidad, y una vez que lo sientes, quieres que suceda mucho ms. +Este mundo nos est llamando a tener una mentalidad colectiva, y creo en hacer eso. +Es especialmente importante ahora. +Por qu es importante ahora? +Porque las cosas como los drones, las drogas y la recoleccin de datos, se pueden concebir y pueden ser ideados por ms gente y de formas ms baratas para fines benficos y, como sabemos por las noticias diarias, se pueden utilizar para cosas peligrosas. +Se nos llama a cada uno de nosotros, a un llamado superior. +Pero aqu est la guinda del pastel: No es solo la primera oportunidad para que lo hagas con otra persona eso es probablemente el logro ms grande, como institucin o individuo. +Es despus de haber tenido esa experiencia y la confianza entre s. +Son las cosas inesperadas que diseas ms adelante que nunca podras haber predicho. +Por ejemplo, Marty es el marido de la actriz que he mencionado, y l los observ cuando estaban practicando, y pronto estaba hablando con Wally, mi amigo el ex-convicto, acerca del rgimen de ejercicios. +Y pens, tengo un grupo de canchas de racquetball. +Este tipo podra ensearlo. +Muchas personas que trabajan all son miembros de mis canchas. +Son viajeros frecuentes. +Podran practicar en su habitacin de hotel, sin ningn equipo provisto. +As es como fue contratado Wally. +No solo eso, aos despus estaba tambin enseando racquetball. +Aos despus de eso, estaba enseando a los profesores de racquetball. +Lo que estoy sugiriendo es que, cuando te conectas con la gente en torno a un inters y accin compartida, ests acostumbrado a lo inesperado cosas que suceden en el futuro, y creo que eso es lo que estamos viendo. +Nos abrimos a esas oportunidades, y aqu hay jugadores clave y tecnologa, actores clave que estn en una posicin nica para hacer esto, para escalar sistemas y proyectos juntos. +As que esto es lo que estoy pidiendo que hagan. +Recuerden los tres rasgos de los hacedores de oportunidad. +Los hacedores de oportunidad siguen afinando su fuerza superior y se convierten en buscadores de patrones. +Se involucran en mundos diferentes de los suyos as que son de confianza y pueden ver esos patrones, y se comunican para conectar alrededor de puntos claves de inters compartido. +As que estoy pidindoles, el mundo tiene hambre. +Solo recuerden, como dijo una vez Dave Liniger, "No se puede tener xito llegando a un banquete de contribucin con solo un tenedor". +Muchas gracias. +Gracias. +Hace unos 12 aos, renunci a mi carrera en la banca para tratar de hacer del mundo un lugar ms seguro. +Se trataba de un viaje al soporte nacional y mundial y de conocer a algunas de las personas ms extraordinarias del mundo. +En el proceso, me convert en una diplomtica de la sociedad civil. +Los diplomticos de la sociedad civil hacen tres cosas: expresan las preocupaciones de la gente, no estn inmovilizados porintereses nacionales, e influyen en el cambio a travs de las redes ciudadanas, no solo las estatales. +Y si quieren cambiar el mundo, necesitamos ms de ellos. +Pero muchos todava preguntan: "Puede la sociedad civil realmente hacer una gran diferencia? +Pueden los ciudadanos influir y dar forma a la poltica nacional y global?" +Nunca pens que iba a preguntarme a m misma estas preguntas, pero aqu estoy para compartir algunas lecciones acerca de dos poderosos movimientos de la sociedad civil en que he estado involucrada. +Son cuestiones que me apasionan: control de armas y poltica de drogas. +Y estos son los temas que importan aqu. +Amrica Latina es la zona cero de los dos. +Por ejemplo, Brasil, este hermoso pas anfitrin de TEDGlobal tiene el rcord ms feo del mundo. +Somos el nmero uno, campeones en homicidio violento. +Una de cada 10 personas asesinadas en todo el mundo es brasilea. +Esto se traduce en ms de 56 000 personas que mueren violentamente cada ao. +La mayora son jvenes negros que mueren por armas de fuego. +Brasil es tambin uno de los mayores consumidores del mundo de drogas y la guerra contra las drogas ha sido especialmente dolorosa aqu. +Alrededor del 50 % de los homicidios en las calles de Brasil estn relacionados con la guerra contra las drogas. +Lo mismo es cierto para el 25 % de la gente en la crcel. +Y no slo Brasil est afectado por el doble problema de armas y drogas. +Prcticamente todos los pases y ciudades de Centro y Sur Amrica est en problemas. +Amrica Latina tiene el 9 % de la poblacin mundial, pero el 25 % de las muertes violentas globales. +Estos no son problemas de los que podemos huir. +Desde luego, yo no poda. +As que la primera campaa en que me involucr comenz aqu en 2003 para cambiar la ley de armas de Brasil y crear un programa de recompra de armas. +En pocos aos, no solo cambiamos la legislacin nacional, lo que hizo mucho ms difcil para los civiles comprar una arma de fuego, sino que recogimos y destruimos casi medio milln de armas. +Este fue uno de los mayores programas de recompra de la historia. Pero tambin sufri algunos reveses. +Perdimos un referndum en 2005 para prohibir la venta de armas a los civiles. +La segunda iniciativa fue tambin hecha en casa pero es hoy un movimiento mundial para reformar la legislacin internacional de control de drogas. +Yo soy la coordinadora ejecutiva de algo que se llama la Comisin Global de Poltica de Drogas. +La Comisin es un grupo de alto nivel de lderes mundiales reunidos para identificar enfoques ms humanos y eficaces para el tema de las drogas. +Desde que empezamos en 2008, el tab contra las drogas se ha roto. +Por toda Amrica, de EE. UU. y Mxico a Colombia y Uruguay, el cambio est en el aire. +Pero en lugar de contarles toda la historia de estos dos movimientos, solo quiero compartir con Uds. cuatro ideas clave. +Yo las llamo lecciones para cambiar el mundo. +Es cierto que hay muchas ms, pero estas son las que para m se destacan. +La primera leccin es: Cambiar y controlar la narrativa. +Puede parecer obvio, pero un ingrediente clave para la diplomacia de la sociedad civil es cambiar primero y luego controlar la narracin. +Esto es algo que los polticos veteranos entienden, pero que los grupos de la sociedad civil en general no hacen muy bien. +En el caso de la poltica de drogas, nuestro mayor xito ha sido cambiar la discusin de litigar una guerra contra las drogas a poner en primer lugar la salud y la seguridad de las personas. +En un informe de vanguardia que acabamos de lanzar en Nueva York, mostramos que quienes ms se benefician de este mercado de $320 mil millones son las bandas criminales y los crteles. +As que con el fin de socavar el poder y el beneficio de estos grupos, tenemos que cambiar la conversacin. +Tenemos que hacer legales las drogas ilegales. +Pero antes de que se emocionen demasiado, no me refiero a que las drogas deberan estar libres para todos. +Lo que estoy diciendo, y lo que la Comisin Mundial defiende, es la creacin de un mercado altamente regulado, donde diferentes drogas tendran diferentes grados de regulacin. +Como con el control de armas, tuvimos xito en el cambio, pero no tanto en el control de la narrativa. +Y esto me lleva a mi siguiente leccin: Nunca subestimen a sus opositores. +Si quieren tener xito en cambiar el mundo, necesita saber quin est en su contra. +Tiene que conocer sus motivaciones y puntos de vista. +En el caso de control de armas, realmente subestimamos a nuestros rivales. +Despus de un programa de recoleccin de armas muy exitoso, estbamos eufricos. +Tuvimos el apoyo del 80 % de los brasileos, y se pens que esto podra ayudarnos a ganar el referndum para prohibir la venta de armas a los civiles. +Pero estbamos equivocados. +Durante un debate pblico televisado de 20 das, nuestro oponente us nuestros propios argumentos en contra nuestra. +Terminamos perdiendo el voto popular. +Fue realmente terrible. +La Asociacin Nacional del Rifle --s, la ANR estadounidense-- vino a Brasil. +Inundaron nuestra campaa con su propaganda, que, como saben, vincula el derecho a poseer armas a las ideas de libertad y democracia. +Simplemente nos tiraron todo. +Utilizaron nuestra bandera nacional, nuestro himno de independencia. +Invocaron los derechos de las mujer y mal utilizaron imgenes de Mandela, la Plaza de Tiananmen e incluso Hitler. +Ganaron por jugar con los temores de la gente. +De hecho, las armas fueron casi completamente ignoradas en su campaa. +Su atencin se centr en los derechos individuales. +Pero les pregunto, qu derecho es ms importante, el derecho a la vida o el derecho a tener un arma que quita la vida? +Pensamos que la gente votara en defensa de la vida, pero en un pas con un pasado reciente de dictadura militar, el mensaje contra el gobierno de nuestros oponentes reson y no estbamos preparados para responder. +Leccin aprendida. +Hemos tenido ms xito en el caso de la poltica de drogas. +Si hubieran preguntado hace 10 aos, si el fin de la guerra contra las drogas era posible, se habran redo. +Despus de todo, hay enormes prisiones de la polica militar y establecimientos financieros que se benefician de esta guerra. +Pero el rgimen internacional de control de drogas est empezando a desmoronarse. +Gobiernos y sociedades civiles estn experimentando con nuevos enfoques. +La Comisin Global de Polticas de Drogas realmente conoca su oposicin y en lugar de luchar contra ellos, nuestro jefe, el expresidente de Brasil, Fernando Henrique Cardoso, tendi la mano a los lderes de todo el espectro poltico, de liberales a conservadores. +Este grupo de alto nivel acord discutir honestamente los mritos y defectos de las polticas de drogas. +Fue esta discusin razonada, informada y estratgico la que revel la triste verdad sobre la guerra contra las drogas. +La guerra contra las drogas ha fracasado, simplemente en cualquier mtrica. +Las drogas son ms baratas y estn ms disponibles que nunca, y el consumo ha aumentado a nivel mundial. +Pero lo que es peor, tambin genera consecuencias negativas masivas no intencionadas. +Es cierto que algunas personas han dado estos argumentos antes, pero hemos hecho una diferencia anticipando los argumentos de nuestros adversarios y aprovechando voces poderosas que hace unos aos probablemente se habran resistido al cambio. +Tercera leccin: utiliza datos para conducir tu argumento. +Armas de fuego y drogas son temas emotivos, y como penosamente aprendimos de la campaa del referndum de armas en Brasil, a veces es imposible cortar las emociones y llegar a los hechos. +Pero esto no significa que no debamos tratar. +Hasta hace muy poco, simplemente no sabamos qu tantos brasileos fueron asesinados con armas de fuego. +Sorprendentemente, fue una telenovela local llamada "Mujeres apasionadas", o "Women in Love", la que inici la campaa nacional de control de armas de Brasil. +En un episodio altamente visto, una actriz de telenovelas cay muerta por una bala perdida. +Abuelas y amas de casa brasileas se mostraron indignadas, y en un caso del arte imitando a la vida, este episodio tambin incluy material de archivo de una marcha real para el control de armas que habamos organizado aqu afuera en la playa de Copacabana. +La muerte televisada y la marcha tuvieron un gran impacto en la opinin pblica. +En pocas semanas, nuestro congreso nacional aprob el proyecto de ley de desarme que haba estado languideciendo durante aos. +Entonces pudimos movilizar datos para mostrar los resultados exitosos de la modificacin de la ley y el programa de recoleccin de armas. +Esto es lo que quiero decir: pudimos probar que en solo un ao, hemos salvado ms de 5000 vidas. +Y en el caso de las drogas, con el fin de socavar el miedo y el prejuicio que rodea el tema, nos las arreglamos para reunir y presentar los datos que muestran que las polticas actuales de drogas causan mucho ms dao que el consumo de drogas per se, y la gente est empezando a captarlo. +Mi cuarto aprendizaje es: No tenga miedo de reunir a extraos compaeros de cama. +Lo que hemos aprendido en Brasil, y esto no solo se aplica a mi pas, es la importancia de reunir gente diversa y eclctica. +Si quieres cambiar el mundo, ayuda a tener una buena muestra representativa de la sociedad a su lado. +Tanto en el caso de las armas como en el de las drogas, reunimos a una maravillosa mezcla de gente. +Movilizamos a la lite y los medios nos dieron un gran apoyo. +Reunimos a vctimas, defensores de derechos humanos, a iconos culturales. +Tambin trajimos a las clases profesionales mdicos, abogados, acadmicos y ms. +Lo que he aprendido en los ltimos aos es que se necesitan coaliciones de dispuestos y no dispuestos a hacer el cambio. +En el caso de las drogas, que necesitbamos libertarios, antiprohibicionistas, legisladores, y polticos liberales. +Pueden no estar de acuerdo en todo; de hecho, no estn de acuerdo en casi nada. +Pero la legitimidad de la campaa se basa en sus diversos puntos de vista. +Hace ms de una dcada, tena un futuro cmodo trabajando para un banco de inversin. +Estaba tan alejada del mundo de la diplomacia de la sociedad civil como se puedan imaginar. +Pero me arriesgu. +Cambi el curso, y en el camino, ayud a crear movimientos sociales que creo que han hecho algunas partes del mundo ms seguras. +Todos y cada uno de nosotros tiene el poder de cambiar el mundo. +No importa cul es el problema y no importa lo difcil de la lucha, la sociedad civil es fundamental para el modelo para el cambio. +Gracias. +Pens mucho sobre la primera palabra que dira hoy, y decid decir "Colombia". +Y la razn, no s cuntos de Uds. han visitado Colombia, pero Colombia est justo al norte de la frontera con Brasil. +Es un hermoso pas con personas extraordinarias, como yo y otros. Y est poblada de una fauna y flora increbles. +Tiene agua, tiene todo para ser el lugar perfecto. +Pero tenemos algunos problemas. +Puede que hayan odo de algunos. +Tenemos la guerrilla en pie ms antigua del mundo. +Lleva ya alrededor de ms de 50 aos, lo que significa que en toda mi vida, nunca he vivido un da de paz en mi pas. +Esta guerrilla y el grupo principal es la guerrilla de las FARC, Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia, ha financiado su guerra mediante el secuestro, la extorsin, entrando en el negocio de la droga, y mediante la minera ilegal. +Ha habido terrorismo. Ha habido bombas al azar. +As que no es bueno. No es nada bueno. +Y si nos fijamos en el coste humano de esta guerra ms de 50 aos, hemos tenido ms de 5,7 millones de poblacin desplazada. +Una de las poblaciones de desplazados ms grandes del mundo, y este conflicto ha costado ms de 220 000 vidas. +As que es un poco como las guerras de Bolvar otra vez. +Una gran cantidad de personas ha muerto innecesariamente. +Ahora estamos en medio de las conversaciones de paz, y hemos intentado ayudar a resolver este problema de manera pacfica, y como parte de eso, decidimos probar algo completamente diferente: las luces de Navidad. +Luces de Navidad, seguro que estn pensando, "De qu demonios va a hablar este hombre?" +Voy a hablar de rboles gigantescos que pusimos en nueve vas estratgicas en la selva cubiertos con luces de Navidad. +Estos rboles ayudaron a desmovilizar 331 guerrilleros, ms o menos el 5 % de la fuerza de la guerrilla en el momento. +Estos rboles se iluminaban por la noche, y tenan un cartel a su lado que deca: "Si la Navidad puede venir a la selva, tu puedes volver a casa. +Desmovilzate. +En Navidad, todo es posible". +Cmo sabemos que estos rboles funcionaron? +Bueno, captamos 331, lo que es bueno, pero tambin sabemos que no muchos guerrilleros los vieron, pero s que muchos guerrilleros escucharon de ellos, y lo sabemos porque constantemente hablamos con guerrilleros desmovilizados. +Djenme llevarlos a cuatro aos antes de los rboles. +Cuatro aos antes de los rboles, se nos acerc el gobierno para que les ayudramos a tener una estrategia de comunicacin para lograr que muchos guerrilleros salieran de la selva. +Pero no sabamos mucho sobre el conflicto. +No lo entendamos. En Colombia, si uno vive en las ciudades, est muy lejos de donde sucede la guerra realmente, as que realmente uno no la entiende, y le pedimos al gobierno que nos diera acceso a tantos guerrilleros desmovilizados como fuera posible. +Y hablamos con cerca de 60 de ellos antes de sentir que entendamos completamente el problema. +Hablamos del por qu se haban unido a la guerrilla, por qu dejaron la guerrilla; cules eran sus sueos; y cules sus frustraciones. Y a partir de esas conversaciones vino la idea subyacente que ha guiado toda esta campaa, basada en que los guerrilleros son tan prisioneros de sus organizaciones como las personas que mantienen como rehenes. +Quiero contarles una de estas historias. +Esta persona es Giovanni Andrs. +Giovanni Andrs tena 25 aos cuando tomamos esa foto. +l estuvo siete aos en la guerrilla, y se desmoviliz hace muy poco. +Su historia es la siguiente: Fue reclutado cuando tena 17 aos, y tiempo despus, en su escuadrn, si se quiere, se reclut a esta hermosa chica y se enamoraron. +Sus conversaciones eran sobre cmo sera su familia, qu nombres pondran a sus hijos, cmo sera su vida cuando salieran de la guerrilla. +Pero resulta que el amor est estrictamente prohibido en rangos inferiores de la guerrilla, as que su romance se descubri y ellos fueron separados. +A l lo enviraron muy lejos, y ella se qued all. +Ella tuvo la valenta para salir. Tengo que hacer lo mismo". +Y as lo hizo. +Camin durante dos das y dos noches, arriesg su vida y sali, y lo nico que quera era verla. +La nica cosa que estaba en su mente era verla. +Al final la historia es que se encontraron. +S que Uds. se estn preguntando si se encontraron. +Ellos se encontraron. +Ella fue reclutada a los 15 aos, y se fue a los 17 aos, as que haba muchas otras complicaciones, pero finalmente se encontraron. +No s si estn juntos ahora, pero puedo averiguarlo. Pero lo que puedo decir es que nuestra estrategia de radio funcionaba. +El problema es que funcionaba para los rangos inferiores de la guerrilla. +No funcionaba con los comandantes, las personas ms difciles de reemplazar, porque se puede reclutar fcilmente, pero no se pueden conseguir comandantes. +As que pensamos, bueno, utilizaremos la misma estrategia. +Tendremos comandantes que hablen a los comandantes. +E incluso llegamos a pedir a los excomandantes de la guerrilla volar en helicpteros con micrfonos para decir a las personas con las que solan combatir: "Hay una vida mejor afuera", "Me va bien", "Eso no vale la pena", etc. +Pero, como todos pueden imaginar, era muy fcil de contrarrestar, porque qu es lo que la guerrilla dir? +"S, claro, si l no hace eso, lo matarn". +As que era fcil, y de pronto nos quedamos sin nada, porque en la guerrilla se corri la voz de que todas esas cosas las hacen porque si no, corren peligro. +Y una persona brillante en nuestro equipo, volvi y dijo: "Saben de lo que me di cuenta? +Me di cuenta de que cerca de la Navidad, ha habido picos de desmovilizacin desde que comenz esta guerra". +Y eso fue increble, porque nos llev a pensar que debamos hablar al ser humano y no al soldado. +Tenamos que distanciarnos de la palabra desde el gobierno al ejrcito, de ejrcito a ejrcito, y tenamos que hablar sobre valores universales, y sobre humanidad. +Y fue entonces cuando sucedi lo del rbol de Navidad. +Esta imagen que tengo aqu, es la planificacin de los rboles de Navidad, y el hombre que ven aqu con las tres estrellas, es el capitn Juan Manuel Valdez. +El capitn Valdez fue el primer oficial de alto rango en darnos los helicpteros y el apoyo que necesitbamos para poner estos rboles de Navidad, y dijo en esa reunin algo que nunca olvidar. +Dijo: "Quiero hacer esto porque ser generoso me hace ms fuerte, hace que mis hombres se sientan ms fuertes". +Y me pongo muy emotivo cuando me acuerdo de l porque muri ms tarde en combate y realmente lo echo de menos, y quera que todos lo vieran, porque era muy, muy importante. +l nos dio todo el apoyo para colocar los primeros rboles de Navidad. +Lo que sucedi despus es que los guerrilleros que salieron durante la operacin del rbol de Navidad y todo eso dijeron: "Eso es muy bueno, los rboles de Navidad son estupendos, pero saben qu?, realmente ya no caminamos. +Utilizamos los ros". +Los ros son las autopistas de la selva, y eso es algo que hemos aprendido, y la mayora del reclutamiento se hace en y alrededor de los pueblos rivereos. +As que fuimos a estos pueblos rivereos, y le pedimos a la gente, y probablemente algunos eran conocidos directos de la guerrilla. +Les preguntamos: "Pueden enviar un mensaje a la guerrilla?" +Recogimos ms de 6 000 mensajes. +Algunos eran notas que decan, salgan. +Algunos eran juguetes. Algunos eran dulces. +Incluso algunos se quitaron sus joyas, sus pequeas cruces y objetos religiosos, y las pusieron en estas bolas flotantes que enviamos por los ros para que las pudieran recoger por la noche. +Enviamos miles de estas por los ros, y luego las recogidos si no los reciban. +Pero muchos llegaron a ellos. +Esto gener, en promedio, una desmovilizacin cada seis horas, as que esto era increble bajo el lema: Vuelve a casa por Navidad. +Luego vino el proceso de paz, y cuando el proceso de paz se inici, todo el modo de pensar de la guerrilla cambi. +Y cambi porque induce a pensar: "Bueno, si hay un proceso de paz, esto probablemente va a acabar. +En algn momento voy a salir". +Y sus temores cambiaron por completo, y sus temores no eran "Me irn a matar?". +Sus temores eran: "Me irn a rechazar? +Cuando salga de esto, me van a rechazar?". +Pueden ver las fotos aqu. Les mostrar un par. +Gracias. +Estas fotos fueron puestas en diferentes lugares, y muchos de ellos regresaron, y era muy, muy hermoso. +Y entonces decidimos trabajar con la sociedad. +As que pusimos a las madres alrededor de la Navidad. +Ahora vamos a hablar sobre el resto de la gente. +Y puede que se acuerden o no, pero la Copa del Mundo fue este ao, y Colombia jug muy bien, y fue un momento unificador para Colombia. +Y lo que hicimos fue decirle a la guerrilla, "Ven, sal de la selva. Estamos guardando un lugar para ti". +Esto es televisin, estos son diferentes medios de comunicacin decan: "Estamos guardando un lugar para ti". +El soldado aqu en el anuncio dice: "Estoy guardando un lugar para ti aqu en este helicptero para que puedas salir de esta selva e ir a disfrutar de la Copa del Mundo". +Exjugadores de ftbol, locutores de radio, todos guardando un lugar para los guerrilleros. +Desde que empezamos este trabajo hace ms de ocho aos, 17 000 guerrilleros se han desmovilizado. +Yo no... Gracias. +No quiero decir en modo alguno que solo tiene que ver con lo que hacemos, pero lo que s s es que nuestro trabajo y el trabajo que hacemos puede haber ayudado a muchos a empezar a pensar en la desmovilizacin, y puede haber ayudado a muchos de ellos a tomar la decisin final. +Si eso es cierto, la publicidad sigue siendo uno de los instrumentos de cambio ms poderosos disponibles. +Y no hablo solo en mi nombre, sino en nombre de todos los colegas que veo aqu que trabajan en publicidad, y de todo el equipo que ha trabajado conmigo para hacer esto. Si quieren cambiar el mundo, o si quieren lograr la paz, por favor llmennos. +Nos encantara ayudar. +Gracias. +Es un gran privilegio para m trabajar en una de las zonas del mundo, de gran concentracin de biodiversidad: las Islas Mascareas en el Ocano ndico. +Estas islas, las Mauricio, Rodrigues y Reunin junto con la isla de Madagascar, estn bendecidas con plantas nicas que no existen en ningn otro lugar del mundo. +Y hoy les hablar de cinco de ellas y de sus caractersticas particulares y del por qu estas plantas son tan nicas. +Echen un vistazo a esta planta. +La llamo benjoin como en la lengua verncula, y el nombre botnico es Terminalia bentzoe, una subespecie bentzoe. +Esta subespecie es endmica de la Isla Mauricio, y su caracterstica particular es su heterofilia. +Qu quiero decir con heterofilia? +Es que la misma planta posee hojas que son de diferentes formas y tamaos. +Ahora, estas plantas han evolucionado de forma muy diferente que las continentales, y dentro de sus ecosistemas especficos. +A menudo, estas caractersticas particulares han evolucionado como respuesta a la amenaza que presenta la fauna local, en este caso, el apacentamiento de las tortugas. +Se sabe que las tortugas tienen problemas de visin, y por ello tienden a evitar las plantas que no reconocen. +As esta lmina evolutiva protege la planta contra estos animales preciosos, y la protege y, por supuesto, garantiza su supervivencia. +Ahora la pregunta que probablemente se estn haciendo es, por qu ella nos cuenta estas historias? +La razn de ello es que tendemos a pasar por alto la diversidad y la variedad del mundo natural. +Estos hbitats particulares son nicos y son sede de una gran cantidad de plantas. +No nos damos cuenta de lo valiosos y preciosos que son estos recursos, y, entonces, por nuestra despreocupacin, seguimos destruyndolos. +Y aqu tenemos un ejemplo fundamental del dodo icnico, de la Isla Mauricio, y, por supuesto, sabemos que hoy es un smbolo de la extincin. +Sabemos que las plantas desempean un papel fundamental. +Bueno, en primer lugar, que nos alimentan y tambin nos dan el oxgeno que respiramos, pero las plantas son tambin la fuente de importantes ingredientes biolgicamente activos que deberamos estudiar atentamente, porque las sociedades humanas a lo largo de los milenios, han desarrollado un conocimiento importante, tradiciones culturales, y recursos medicinales importantes basados en plantas. +Y como se puede ver, la isla de Mauricio donde trabajo y donde vivo, es un zona de gran concentracin de biodiversidad, y yo estudio plantas nicas de la isla por sus aplicaciones biomdicas. +Ahora, retornamos de nuevo a la primera planta que mostr, aquella por supuesto, con hojas de formas y tamaos diferentes, la terminalia bentzoe, una subespecies bentzoe, una planta que solo existe en la Isla Mauricio. +Ahora, la gente del lugar, usa una coccin de las hojas contra enfermedades infecciosas. +Ahora nuestro trabajo consiste en la validacin cientfica de esta informacin tradicional, que ha mostrado precisamente la actividad del extracto de hoja, una potente actividad, contra una amplia gama de bacterias que podran ser patgenos para los humanos. +Podra, entonces, esta planta ser la respuesta a la resistencia a los antibiticos? +Se ha demostrado que la resistencia a los antibiticos es un gran reto a nivel mundial. +Pero mientras no podamos estar seguros, una cosa est clara, no queremos que esta planta desaparezca. +Pero la dura realidad es que esta planta en particular est, de hecho, considerada ser vulnerable en su hbitat natural. +Esto me lleva a otro ejemplo. +Este arbusto aqu se llama Baume de l'ile placa en la lengua verncula. +El nombre botnico es psiadia arguta. +Es una planta rara, endmica de la Isla Mauricio. +Sola crecer en el continente, pero debido a las puras presiones de la urbanizacin fue expulsada de la parte continental, y hemos podido recuperarla de su casi extincin mediante el desarrollo de plantas in vitro que ahora crecen en la naturaleza. +Tengo que sealar algo de inmediato y es que no todas las plantas se pueden desarrollar in vitro. +Mientras que los humanos somos felices en nuestra zona de confort, estas plantas tambin necesitan que su ecosistema sea preservado, ya que plantas endmicas no reaccionan no reaccionan a los cambios muy severos en su ecosistema, y, sin embargo, sabemos cules son los retos que el cambio climtico, por ejemplo, presenta para estas plantas. +Ahora, la gente del lugar utiliza de nuevo las hojas en la medicina tradicional contra los problemas respiratorios. +Nuestro trabajo de laboratorio preliminar sobre el extracto de la hoja ha demostrado que precisamente estas hojas contienen ingredientes muy cercanos, en trminos de estructuras, estructuras qumicas, a los medicamentos que se venden en la farmacia contra el asma. +Entonces, quin sabe cmo la humanidad se beneficiar cuando esta planta decida revelar todos sus secretos. +Yo procedo del mundo en desarrollo en el que siempre se nos desafa con este tema de la explosin demogrfica. +frica es el continente que es cada vez ms joven, y cada vez que se habla de la explosin demogrfica, se habla de la cuestin de la seguridad alimentaria como si fuera la otro cara de la misma moneda. +Ahora esta planta aqu, el baobab, podra ser parte de la respuesta. +Es una planta alimentaria despreciada, infrautilizada. +Define el paisaje de frica Occidental, donde se conoce como el rbol de la vida, y ms tarde dir por qu los africanos consideran que es el rbol de la vida. +Ahora, curiosamente, hay muchas leyendas que asociadas a esta planta. +Debido a su gran tamao, estaba destinada a gobernar sobre las plantas inferiores, as que a Dios no le gust esta arrogancia, la desarraig plant al revs, por eso su forma particular. +Y si nos fijamos en este rbol nuevo dentro del contexto africano, en frica occidental, se conoce como el rbol de la palabra, porque desempea grandes funciones sociales. +Bien, si tienen un problema en la comunidad, reunidos bajo el rbol de la palabra con los jefes o los miembros de una tribu sera sinnimo de intentar encontrar una solucin a este problema en particular, y tambin para reforzar la confianza y el respeto entre los miembros de la comunidad. +Desde el punto de vista cientfico, hay ocho especies de baobabs en el mundo. +Hay uno de frica, uno de Australia, y seis son endmicas a la isla de Madagascar. +El que yo les he mostrado es uno de frica, Adansonia digitata. +La flor, esta hermosa flor blanca, se abre por la noche, y es polinizada por murcilagos, y da lugar a la fruta que es curiosamente conocida como pan de mono. +Los monos no son estpidos. +Saben lo que es bueno para ellos. +Ahora, si se abre el fruto del baobab, ver una, pulpa harinosa de color blanco, que es muy rica en nutrientes y tiene protena, ms protena que la leche humana. +S, han odo bien: ms protena que la leche humana. +Y esta es una de las razones por las las empresas de nutricin de este mundo, que estn buscando esta fruta para proporcionar lo que conocemos como alimentos reforzados. +Las semillas dan un aceite, un aceite muy estable muy buscado por la industria cosmtica para producir lociones corporales, por ejemplo. +Y si nos fijamos en el tronco, el tronco, por supuesto, un guardin del agua, que a menudo la recoge un viajero sediento, y las hojas se utilizan en la medicina tradicional contra las enfermedades infecciosas. +Se puede ver ahora por qu los africanos lo consideran ser el rbol de la vida. +Es una planta completa, y de hecho, en el gran tamao de estos rboles se esconde un enorme potencial, no solo para la industria farmacutica, la alimenticia y la cosmtica. +Lo que les he mostrado aqu es solo la especie de frica, Adansonia digitata. +Tenemos seis especies an en Madagascar, y an no sabemos cul es el potencial de esta planta, pero una cosa que sabemos es que la flora se considera en peligro de extincin. +Dejen que les lleve a frica de nuevo, y presentarles una de mis favoritas, la planta de la resurreccin. +Ahora aqu vern que incluso Jess tiene competencia. +Ahora, esta planta ha desarrollado aqu notable tolerancia a la sequa, lo que le permite soportar hasta el 98 % de deshidratacin durante un ao sin dao, y, sin embargo, puede regenerarse casi completamente durante la noche, en 24 horas y florece. +Ahora, nosotros, los seres humanos, estamos siempre buscando el elixir de la juventud. +No queremos a envejecer, y con razn. +Por qu deberamos hacerlo, si uno se lo puede permitir? +Y esto le da una indicacin de cmo la planta era antes. +Ahora, si uno es un jardinero inexperto, lo primero que har al ver el jardn es arrancar esta planta, porque est muerta. +Pero si se riega, esto es lo que sucede. +Absolutamente increble. +Si nos fijamos en nuestro proceso de envejecimiento, este proceso es de hecho la prdida de agua de la epidermis superior, formando arrugas como lo sabemos, sobre todo las mujeres, somos muy conscientes de esto. +Y esta planta, de hecho, tienen los qumicos cosmticos, ingredientes muy importantes que son, en realidad, la bsqueda de formas para ralentizar el proceso de envejecimiento y, al mismo tiempo, reforzar las clulas contra el ataque de las toxinas ambientales. +Y hasta aqu estos cuatro ejemplos Yo solo les he dado tan solo un recordatorio muy pequeo en cuanto a cmo nuestra salud y nuestra supervivencia estn estrechamente vinculadas para la salud y la capacidad de recuperacin de nuestro ecosistema, y por qu debemos tener mucho cuidado sobre la preservacin de la biodiversidad. +Cada vez que un bosque se tala, cada vez que un pantano se llena, es un laboratorio potencial que desaparece y que nunca, nunca recuperaremos. +Y s de lo que estoy hablando, al venir de Mauricio donde falta el dodo. +Permtanme terminar con un ltimo ejemplo. +Los problemas de conservacin estn normalmente guiados hacia plantas raras, endmicas, pero lo que llamamos plantas exticas, es decir, las que crecen en muchos hbitats diferentes en todo el mundo, tambin deben tenerse en cuenta. +Saben por qu? Debido a que el entorno juega un papel muy importante en la modificacin de la composicin de esa planta. +As que echemos un vistazo a esta planta aqu, centella asiatica. Es una mala hierba. +Nosotros la llamamos una mala hierba. +Ahora, la centella asitica crece en todo el mundo en muchos hbitats diferentes , en frica, en Asia, y esta planta ha sido un instrumento en el suministro de una solucin a esa terrible enfermedad llamada lepra en Madagascar en la dcada de 1940. +Ahora, mientras que centella crece en todo el mundo, en frica, en Asia, la mejor calidad de centella proviene de Madagascar, porque esa centella contiene los tres ingredientes vitales buscados por la industria farmacutica y las empresas de cosmticos. +Y las empresas de cosmticos ya la estn utilizando para hacer la crema regenerativa. +Existe un antiguo dicho de que para cada enfermedad conocida por la humanidad, hay una planta para curarla. +Puede que no crean en los dichos antiguos. +Pueden pensar que estn desfasados ahora que nuestra ciencia y tecnologa son tan poderosas. +As que pueden ver la centella como una maleza humilde e insignificante, que, si se destruye, no se echar en falta. +Pero ya saben, no existe eso de una mala hierba. +Es una planta. +Es un laboratorio biolgico vivo que bien puede tener respuestas a la pregunta que podamos tener, pero tenemos que garantizar que tengan el derecho a vivir. +Gracias. +Si algn poder tiene el diseo, ese es el poder de sntesis. +Mientras ms complejo el problema, mayor la necesidad de simplicidad. +Compartir 3 casos en los que intentamos aplicar el poder de sntesis del diseo. +Comencemos por el desafo global de la urbanizacin. +Es un hecho que la gente est migrando hacia las ciudades. +Y aunque puede ser ilgico, son buenas noticias. +La evidencia muestra que la gente est mejor en las ciudades. +Pero hay un problema que yo llamara la amenaza de las "3 S": La escala, la velocidad y la escasez de recursos con que deberemos responder a este fenmeno no tiene precedentes en la historia. +Para que tengan una idea, de los 3000 millones de personas que viven hoy en ciudades, 1000 millones estn por debajo de la lnea de pobreza. +Hacia el 2030, de los 5000 millones de personas que vivirn en ciudades, 2000 millones estarn bajo la lnea de pobreza. +Esto significa que tendremos que construir una ciudad de 1 milln de habitantes por semana con USD 10 000 por familia durante los prximos 15 aos. +Una ciudad de 1 milln de habitantes por semana con USD 10 000 por familia. +Si no resolvemos esta ecuacin, las personas no dejarn de ir a las ciudades. +Van a venir igual, pero van a vivir en favelas y asentamientos informales. +Qu hacer entonces? La respuesta puede estar en las propias favelas; +Concretamente en una pregunta que se nos pidi contestar hace ya casi 10 aos: +Y a propsito, nos dijeron, el costo de suelo por estar en el centro de la ciudad, es 3 veces mayor que lo que la vivienda social normalmente puede pagar. +Dada la dificultad de la solicitud, decidimos incluir a las familias en el proceso de entender las restricciones y comenzamos un proceso de diseo participativo probando lo que estaba disponible en el mercado. +Con viviendas separadas, solo se podan acomodar 30 familias. +Con viviendas contnuas, 60 familias. +["100 familias"] La nica manera de acomodarlos a todos era construyendo en altura, pero las familias nos amenazaron con hacer huelga de hambre si acaso osbamos proponer esta alternativa porque era imposible ampliar los pequeos departamentos. +Por tanto lo que concluimos junto a las familias eso es lo importante - fue que tenamos un problema. +Debamos innovar. +Qu hicimos? +Bueno, una familia de clase media, vive razonablemente bien con unos 80 m2. Pero cuando no hay dinero, el mercado reduce el tamao de la casa a unos 40 m2. +Dijimos entonces: qu tal si si en lugar de pensar en 40 m2 como en una casa pequea... por qu no mejor consideramos la mitad de una buena casa? +Cuando el problema se replantea como la mitad de una casa buena en vez de una pequea, la pregunta clave es, qu mitad hacemos? +Nos pareci que con dinero pblico haba que hacer la mitad de la casa que una familia nunca iba a poder hacer por su cuenta. +Identificamos 5 condiciones de diseo que definen esa mitad difcil de la casa y volvimos donde las familias a hacer 2 cosas: unir fuerzas y dividirnos tareas. +Nuestro diseo fue algo entre una casa y un edificio; +Como edificio poda pagar por terrenos costosos, bien ubicados, y como casa se poda ampliar. +Si en el proceso de obtener una casa, las familias no eran expulsadas a la periferia y por tanto conservaban sus contactos y sus empleos, sabamos que las ampliaciones empezaran a ocurrir de manera inmediata. +As pasamos de la vivienda social inicial a una casa de clase media completada por las propias familias en apenas un par de semanas. +Este fue nuestro primero proyecto en Iquique hace 10 aos. +Este es nuestro ltimo proyecto en Chile. +Distintos diseos pero un mismo principio: uno provee la infraestructura, y a partir de ah las familias toman el control. +El rol del diseo para responder al desafo de las "3 S" (en ingls), la escala , la velocidad y la escasez es canalizar la capacidad de construccin de la gente. +No resolveremos la ecuacin de la ciudad de 1 milln de habitantes por semana a menos que usemos el poder de autoconstruccin de la gente. +En ese sentido, con el diseo adecuado, las favelas y asentamiento informales, ya no son el problema aunque hoy da son la nica solucin, +El segundo caso es cmo el diseo puede contribuir a la sustentabilidad. +En 2012 participamos en el concurso para el Centro de Innovacin Angelini. El objetivo era construir el ambiente adecuado para la creacin de conocimiento. +Es sabido que para tal fin, crear conocimiento, la relacin y los encuentros en persona, son importantes, y estbamos de acuerdo. +Pero para nosotros, la pregunta por el ambiente adecuado, era bastante literal. +Queramos un espacio de trabajo con la luz adecuada, con la temperatura adecuada, con el aire adecuado. +Entonces nos preguntamos: ayuda el tpico edificio de oficinas a movernos en esa direccin? +Cmo es el tpico edificio de oficinas? +Bsicamente es un conjunto de pisos unos sobre otros, con un ncleo central con ascensores, escaleras, ductos, cables, etc. y luego una fachada de vidrio en el permetro que debido a la radiacin directa del sol genera un efecto invernadero gigantesco. +Adems, una persona trabajando digamos en el piso 7 pasa todos los das por el piso 3, pero no tiene la ms mnima idea de lo que hacen en ese piso. +Entonces pensamos quizs tengamos que invertir este esquema. +Entonces hicimos un atrio abierto al centro, la misma acumulacin de pisos unos sobre otros, pero con la masa y los muros en el permetro de tal forma que el sol no impacte directamente al vidrio, sino a una pared. +Cuando se tiene un atrio abierto al centro se puede ver que estn haciendo los dems desde el interior del edificio y se puede controlar mejor la luz. Y cuando se colocan los muros y la masa en el permetro, se evita la radiacin directa del sol. +Si adems las ventanas se pueden abrir se tiene ventilacin cruzada. +Solo hicimos esas aperturas de una dimensin tal que funcionasen como plazas elevadas, espacios exteriores de encuentro distribuidos a lo alto del edificio. +Nada de esto es ciencia espacial. +No se requiere sofisticados programas informticos, +ni siquiera tecnologa. +Esto es solo sentido comn arcaico y primitivo. Y usando el sentido comn logramos pasar de 120 kilowatts por metro cuadrado al ao, que es el consumo de energa tpico para enfriar un edificio de vidrio, a 40 kilowatts por metro cuadrado al ao. +Con el diseo adecuado, la sustentabilidad no es otra cosa que el uso riguroso del sentido comn. +El ltimo caso que me gustara compartir es sobre cmo el diseo puede proveer respuestas ms completas frente a desastres naturales. +Uds. quizs sepan que en 2010 Chile fue golpeado por un terremoto y tsunami de 8,8 grados en la escala de Richter, Nos llamaron para trabajar en la reconstruccin de Constitucin, una ciudad en el sur de Chile. +Nos dieron 100 das, 3 meses, para disear prcticamente todo, desde edificios a espacios pblicos, la red vial, el transporte, la vivienda y sobre todo, cmo proteger la ciudad contra futuros tsunamis. +Esto era algo nuevo en el diseo urbano chileno y haba algunas alternativas flotando en el aire. +La primera: prohibicin de residencias en la zona cero. +USD 30 millones para pagar la expropiacin de terrenos. +Esto es exactamente lo que se est discutiendo en Japn en este momento y si se cuenta con una poblacin disciplinada como la japonesa puede que resulte. Pero en el caso de Chile es prcticamente seguro que esta zona sera ocupada ilegalmente por lo tanto esta alternativa era irreal e indeseable. +Segunda alternativa: construir un gran muro, infraestructura pesada capaz de resistir la energa de las olas. +Esta alternativa era defendida convenientemente por grandes empresas constructoras porque significaba contratos por USD 42 millones y adems era polticamente preferida porque no requera expropiacin de terrenos. +Pero Japn prob que tratar de resistir la fuerza de la naturaleza es intil. +Por tanto esta alternativa era irresponsable. +Entonces, tal como el proyecto de vivienda, pensamos que haba que incluir a la comunidad en la bsqueda de una solucin y comenzamos un proceso de diseo participativo. +Cmo quieres la ciudad? +Vote por Constitucin. +Vaya a la Casa Abierta y exprese su opcin. +Participe! +Pescador: Especficamente yo como pescador, +tengo 25 pescadores. +Dnde los voy a llevar yo? Al bosque? +Hombre: Por qu nosotros no podemos tener una defensa de hormign, +por supuesto bien hecha. +Hombre 2: Yo soy la historia de Constitucin y vivo +en mi santuario y este seor me viene a decir que yo no puedo seguir viviendo ah. +Ha vivido toda mi familia toda la vida ah. Cri a mis hijos y mis hijos criarn a sus hijos +y mis hijos y mis nietos y todo. +Pero por qu me viene a imponer Ud.? +l me est imponiendo, +en la zona de riesgo no me puede autorizar a construir. +l mismo lo est diciendo... +Hombre 3: No, no, no, Nieves... +Alejandro Aravena: Yo no s si lograron leer los subttulos pero es evidente por el lenguaje corporal que el diseo participativo no es algo hippie, romntico del tipo soemos todos juntos el futuro de la ciudad. +De hecho... , ni siquiera es, buscar la respuesta correcta en conjunto con las familias. +Principalmente es tratar de identificar con precisin cul es la pregunta correcta. +No hay nada peor que contestar bien la pregunta equivocada. +Era evidente que despus de un proceso as, o nos acobardbamos y nos bamos porque es demasiado tenso o lo llevamos al lmite y preguntamos: qu otra cosa los tiene incmodos? +Qu otros problemas tienen y qu les gustara que revisramos ahora que debemos pensar la ciudad desde cero? +Y la gente contest, miren, est muy bien proteger la ciudad contra tsunamis, se los agradecemos mucho, pero el prximo va a venir en, cunto, 20 aos? +Sin embargo cada ao tenemos el problema de las inundaciones por lluvia. +Adems, aun cuando estamos en medio de la regin forestal de Chile, nuestro espacio pblico da lstima; +es escaso y es mediocre. +Y el origen de la ciudad, nuestra identidad, no est en verdad ligada a los edificios que se cayeron sino al ro, al cual no podemos acceder pblicamente porque sus riberas son propiedad privada. +Entonces pensamos que debamos generar una tercera alternativa y nuestro enfoque fue que frente a amenazas geogrficas necesitbamos respuestas geogrficas. +Qu pasara si entre la ciudad y el mar tuvisemos un bosque, que en vez de tratar de resistir la fuerza de la naturaleza la disipase introduciendo friccin? +Un bosque capaz de laminar el agua y evitar las inundaciones? +Un bosque capaz de pagar la deuda histrica de espacio pblico y capaz de proveer, finalmente, acceso democrtico al ro. +Como conclusin del proceso de participacin tenamos una alternativa validada poltica y socialmente, pero quedaba todava el problema del costo: USD 48 millones. +Hicimos un sondeo en el sistema de inversin pblica y descubrimos que haba 3 ministerios con 3 proyectos para exactamente el mismo lugar, sin que ninguno de ellos supiera de la existencia de los dems. +La suma de ellos: USD 52 millones. +El poder de sntesis del diseo trata de hacer un uso ms eficiente del recurso ms escaso en las ciudades, que no es el dinero, sino la coordinacin. +De esta manera pudimos ahorrar USD 4 millones y por eso el bosque est hoy en construccin. +Ya sea entonces la fuerza de la auto-construccin, la fuerza del sentido comn o la fuerza de la naturaleza, todas estas fuerzas deben ser traducidas a una forma y lo que esa forma est modelando no es cemento, ladrillos o madera. +Es la vida misma. +El poder de sntesis del diseo es solo el intento de colocar en el ncleo ms ntimo de la arquitectura la fuerza de la vida. +Muchas gracias. +Dre Urhahn: Este teatro est en Copacabana, la playa ms famosa del mundo, pero a 25 kilmetros de aqu, al norte de Rio, hay una comunidad llamada Vila Cruzeiro, donde viven unas 60 000 personas. +Mucha gente de Rio conoce Vila Cruzeiro por las noticias, y las noticias de Vila Cruzeiro, por desgracia, a menudo no son buenas. +Vila Cruzeiro es tambin donde empieza nuestra historia. +Jeroen Koolhaas: Hace 10 aos, llegamos por primera vez a Rio para rodar un documental sobre la vida en las favelas. +Ahora aprendimos que las favelas son comunidades informales. +Surgieron con los aos cuando la gente del campo emigr a la ciudad en busca de trabajo, y son como ciudades dentro de las ciudades, conocidas por problemas como la delincuencia, la pobreza, y las guerras violentas entre la polica y los narcotraficantes. +Nos impact saber que esas comunidades fueron construidas por las mismas personas que vivan all, sin un plan maestro y como una gigantesca obra en curso. +Nosotros venimos de Holanda, donde todo est planeado. +Tenemos reglas, incluso para seguir las reglas. +Y entonces imaginamos un gran diseo, una gran obra de arte. +Quin esperara algo como eso en un lugar como este? +Pensamos, sera posible? +Primero empezamos a contar las casas, pronto perdimos la cuenta. +Pero, de algn modo, la idea cuaj. +JK: Tenamos un amigo que tena una ONG en Vila Cruzeiro. +Se llama Nanko, y a l tambin le gust la idea. +Dijo: "A todos aqu les encantara ver sus casas con revoque y pintura, +porque eso es tener la casa terminada". +Nos present a la gente adecuada, y as, Vitor y Maurinho se sumaron a nuestro equipo. +Empezamos con 3 casas en el centro de la comunidad. Hicimos unos cuantos bocetos y a todos les gust este, un nio con una cometa. +Empezamos a pintar y lo primero fue pintar todo de azul, y cremos que qued bastante bien. +Pero los locales lo odiaron. +Dijeron: "Qu hicieron? +Pintaron nuestra casa con el mismo color que la estacin de polica". +En una favela, eso no es algo bueno. +Es tambin el color de las celdas de la crcel. +Nos apresuramos a pintar el nio, y pensamos que habamos terminado, estbamos muy felices, pero no fue as, porque se nos acercaron unos pequeos y dijeron: "Si es un nio remontando la cometa, dnde est la cometa?" +Dijimos: "Es arte. Tienen que imaginar la cometa". +Y dijeron: "No, no, no, queremos ver la cometa". +As que, rpidamente, instalamos una cometa en lo alto del morro, para que se pudiera ver al nio remontndola y que se viera realmente la cometa. +Las noticias locales empezaron a escribir sobre esto, fue genial, y luego incluso The Guardian: "Clebre barriada se vuelve galera de arte al aire libre". +JK: As, alentados por este xito, volvimos a Rio para un segundo proyecto, y nos topamos con esta calle. +Estaba cubierta de hormign para evitar deslizamientos de tierra, y en cierta forma vimos una especie de ro, e imaginamos que este era un ro japons con carpas koi que nadaban corriente arriba. +Decidimos pintar ese ro, e invitamos a Rob Admiraal, un artista del tatuaje, especialista en estilo japons. +No sabamos que pasaramos casi un ao entero pintando ese ro, junto a Geovani, Robinho y Vitor, que vivan cerca. +Hasta nos mudamos al barrio. Uno de los muchachos que viva en esa calle, Elias, nos dijo que podamos ir a vivir a su casa, junto con su familia, algo fantstico. +Por desgracia, durante ese tiempo, estall otra guerra entre la polica y los narcotraficantes. +En ese momento vimos como la comunidad se mantiene unida durante estos tiempos difciles, pero tambin aprendimos algo importante, la importancia de las barbacoas. Porque, cuando uno hace una barbacoa, pasa de husped a anfitrin, as que decidimos hacer una cada 15 das y as conocimos a todo el barrio. +JK: Seguamos con esta idea del morro. +DU: S, s, estbamos hablando de la escala, porque la pintura era increblemente grande, e increblemente detallada, un proceso que casi nos volvi locos. +Pero nos dimos cuenta de que quiz, durante este proceso, todo el tiempo que pasamos en el barrio, era tal vez, an ms importante que la pintura en s. +JK: Despus de todo ese tiempo, este morro, esta idea, estaba todava presente, y empezamos a hacer bocetos, y modelos, y descubrimos algo. +Nos dimos cuenta de que nuestras ideas, nuestros diseos tenan que ser ms simples que ese ltimo proyecto, para poder pintar con ms gente, y cubrir ms casas al mismo tiempo. +Esta imagen recorri el mundo. +DU: Recibimos una llamada inesperada del Programa de Arte Mural de Filadelfia, y nos preguntaron si esta idea, nuestro enfoque, funcionara en el norte de Filadelfia, uno de los barrios ms pobres de EE.UU. +De inmediato dijimos que s. +No tenamos idea de cmo, pero pareca un desafo muy interesante, as que hicimos lo mismo que en Rio, nos mudamos al barrio y empezamos a hacer barbacoas. +El proyecto nos llev casi 2 aos, hicimos diseos individuales para cada casa que pintamos sobre la avenida, e hicimos estos diseos junto con los comerciantes locales, los propietarios de los edificios, y un equipo de una docena de jvenes. +Fueron contratados y luego entrenados como pintores, y juntos transformaron su propio barrio y toda la calle en un mosaico gigante de color. +Y, al final, la ciudad de Filadelfia se lo agradeci a todos y cada uno de ellos y les dio un diploma por su trabajo. +JK: Habamos pintado una calle entera. +Ahora cmo pintar todo este morro? +Empezamos a buscar financiacin, pero a cambio, solo nos encontramos con preguntas. Cuntas casas pintaremos? +Cuntos metros cuadrados es eso? +Cunta pintura usaremos? Cunta gente emplearemos? +Tratamos de escribir planes durante aos para la financiacin y para responder a esas preguntas, pero luego pensamos: "Para responder a esas preguntas hay que saber exactamente qu se har antes de empezar. +Y quiz es un error pensar as. +En lugar de buscar financiacin, iniciamos una campaa de financiacin colectiva y, en poco ms de un mes, ms de 1500 personas donaron ms de USD 100 000. +Para nosotros fue un momento increble porque ahora... porque ahora, por fin tenemos la libertad para usar las lecciones aprendidas y crear un proyecto ideado de la misma forma que la favela, de principio a fin, de abajo hacia arriba, sin un plan maestro. +JK: Volvimos y empleamos a Angelo, un artista local de Vila Cruzeiro, un tipo con mucho talento, que conoce a casi todos all, y luego empleamos a Elias, nuestro viejo amigo que nos invit a su casa, l es nuestro capataz. +Junto a l, decidimos empezar. +Elegimos este lugar en Vila Cruzeiro, donde se estn revocando casas mientras hablamos. +Y lo mejor es que ellos deciden qu casa pintar despus. +Incluso imprimen camisetas, ponen pancartas, donde le explican todo a todos, y hablan con la prensa. +Apareci este artculo sobre Angelo. +DU: Mientras ocurre esto, estamos llevando esta idea a todo el mundo. +Al igual que el proyecto que hicimos en Filadelfia, tambin nos invitan a hacer talleres, por ejemplo en Curaao, y ahora mismo planeamos un proyecto enorme en Hait. +DU: Por eso queremos agradecer a todos los que quisieron ser parte de este sueo y nos dieron su apoyo, esperamos continuar. +JK: S. Por eso un da, muy pronto, cuando los colores empiecen a cubrir estas paredes, esperamos que participen ms personas, y se sumen a este gran sueo, y quiz un da, toda Vila Cruzeiro estar pintada. +DU: Gracias. +Qu trajo al mundo la guerra contra las drogas? +Esta es la historia de mi pas con la prohibicin del alcohol y Al Capone, multiplicada por 50. +Por lo que es particularmente irritante para m como estadounidense saber que somos la fuerza impulsora detrs de esta guerra global contra las drogas. +Por qu hicimos esto? +Algunas personas, especialmente en Latinoamrica, piensan que no se trata de drogas. +Es solo una estrategia para promover los intereses polticos de los EEUU. +En lneas generales, no es as. +No queremos gnsteres y guerrillas financiados con dinero ilegal de la droga, aterrorizando y controlando otras naciones. +No, lo cierto es que EEUU enloquece cuando se trata de drogas. +Recuerden que fuimos nosotros los que creamos que podramos prohibir el alcohol. +Piensen en nuestra guerra mundial contra las drogas no como un modelo de poltica racional, sino como la proyeccin internacional de una psicosis nacional. +Pero hay buenas noticias. +Ahora son los rusos los que lideran la guerra antidroga, no nosotros. +La mayora de los polticos de EEUU quieren relajar la guerra antidroga y meter a menos implicados entre rejas, y estoy orgulloso de decir, como estadounidense, que ahora somos lderes mundiales en reformas polticas sobre la marihuana. +Ahora es legal con fines teraputicos en casi la mitad de los 50 estados, millones de personas pueden comprar su marihuana como medicamento en los dispensarios autorizados y ms de la mitad de mis compatriotas dicen que es el momento de que la marihuana se legalice y se grave ms o menos como al alcohol. +Es lo que estn haciendo Colorado, Washington y Uruguay, y otros seguramente seguirn el ejemplo. +As que esto es lo que hago: tratar de poner fin a la guerra antidroga. +Esta hipocresa me molest, escrib mi tesis doctoral sobre el control internacional de las drogas. +Habl con el Departamento de Estado. +y me dieron autorizacin +para entrevistar a cientos de agentes de la DEA y otros agentes de la ley en toda Europa y Amrica, y les pregunt: "Cual creen que es la solucin?". +Bueno, en Amrica Latina, me dijeron: "No se puede cortar el suministro. +La clave est en los EEUU. Hay que eliminar la demanda". +Regres y habl con las personas involucradas en la lucha antidroga y me dijeron: "Mira Ethan, no se puede eliminar la demanda. +La respuesta est ah. Hay que cortar el suministro". +Luego habl con los de la aduana que tratan de detener el trfico en las fronteras. Me dijeron: "No puedes pararlo aqu. +La respuesta est ah fuera, en la supresin de la oferta y de la demanda". +Y me di cuenta de que todos los involucrados pensaban que la solucin estaba en el rea sobre la que no saban lo ms mnimo. +Entonces empec a leer todo lo que pude sobre las sustancias psicoactivas: la historia, la ciencia, la poltica, todo. Y cuanto ms lea, ms me llamaba la atencin el iluminado e inteligente enfoque que nos llev aqu, mientras que la poltica y las leyes de mi pas nos llevaron en otra direccin. +Y esta discrepancia me pareci un increble rompecabezas intelectual y moral. +Tal vez nunca existi una sociedad libre de drogas. +Prcticamente todas las sociedades han ingerido sustancias psicoactivas para lidiar con el dolor, aumentar su energa, socializar, incluso para comunicarse con Dios. +Nuestro deseo de alterar nuestra conciencia puede ser tan fundamental como nuestros deseos de comida, compaerismo y sexo. +Nuestro verdadero reto es aprender a vivir con las drogas de manera que causen el menor dao posible, y en algunos casos, el mayor beneficio posible. +Les dir algo ms que aprend; que la razn de que algunas drogas sean legales y otras no, no tiene casi nada que ver con la ciencia, la salud o el riesgo relativo de su consumo, y casi todo que ver con quines las utilizan o son percibidos como usuarios de ciertas drogas. +A finales del siglo XIX, cuando la mayora de las drogas que ahora son ilegales eran legales, los principales consumidores de opiceos en mi pas y en otros eran mujeres blancas de mediana edad, que los consuman para aliviar dolores y molestias a falta de otros analgsicos disponibles. +Y nadie pensaba en criminalizarlas porque nadie quera poner a la abuela entre rejas. +La primera ley que prohibi la cocana fue impulsada de manera similar por el miedo racista a que el hombre negro al consumir el polvo blanco olvidara el lugar que le corresponda en la sociedad surea. +Y las primeras leyes que prohiban la marihuana, todo por miedo a los inmigrantes mexicanos en el oeste y suroeste. +Y lo que ocurri en mi pas tambin sucedi en muchos otros, en lo que respecta a los orgenes de estas leyes y su aplicacin. +Digmoslo de esta manera, y exagerando solo un poco: si los principales consumidores de cocana hubieran sido hombres mayores, ricos y blancos, mientras que los principales consumidores de Viagra hubieran sido jvenes negros y pobres, sera fcil conseguir cocana con una receta mdica, mientras que la venta de Viagra te supondra de 5 a 10 aos de prisin. +(Fin aplausos) Yo era profesor y enseaba estas cosas. +Ahora soy un activista de los derechos humanos y lo que me motiva es mi vergenza por vivir en una nacin, tan grande en otras cosas, que tiene menos del 5% la poblacin mundial pero casi el 25% de la poblacin carcelaria del mundo. +Conozco gente que ha perdido a un ser querido por la violencia o en la crcel, a causa de la droga, de una sobredosis o de SIDA, porque nuestra poltica de drogas se centra ms en la criminalizacin que en la salud. +Hay personas buenas cuyo empleo, casa, libertad, incluso sus hijos se los ha llevado el Estado, y no porque hayan hecho dao a alguien sino solo porque eligieron utilizar una droga en lugar de otra. +As que, es la legalizacin la solucin? +No lo tengo claro: tres das a la semana creo que s, tres das a la semana creo que no, y los domingos soy agnstico. +Los mercados de la marihuana, la cocana, la herona y la metanfetamina son mercados mundiales de productos bsicos, al igual que los mercados mundiales del alcohol, tabaco, caf, azcar y tantas otras cosas. +Si hay demanda, hay oferta. +Destruye una fuente e inevitablemente surgir otra. +La gente tiende a pensar en la prohibicin como el ltimo recurso regulatorio, cuando en realidad representa la renuncia a la regulacin, con delincuentes hacindose un hueco. +Por lo que hacer de la ley penal y la polica el frente y el centro del control de un mercado mundial dinmico, es una receta para el desastre. +Y lo que hay que hacer es sacar los mercados de drogas ilegales a la luz y regularlos de la manera ms inteligente posible, para reducir tanto los daos infligidos por las drogas como por las leyes prohibicionistas. +En cuanto a la marihuana, eso obviamente significa regularla y gravarla igual que al alcohol. +Los beneficios de hacerlo son enormes, los riesgos, mnimos. +Habr ms gente consumiendo marihuana? +Tal vez, pero no sern los jvenes, porque no ser legal para ellos, y, francamente, ya tienen acceso a ella. Creo que sern los adultos. +En cuanto a las otras drogas, echen un vistazo a Portugal, nadie va a la crcel por posesin de drogas y el Gobierno se comprometi en serio: tratan la adiccin como un problema de salud. +Fjense en Nueva Zelanda, que promulg recientemente una ley que permite la venta legal de ciertas drogas recreativas siempre que se demuestre que son seguras. +Fjense aqu en Brasil y en otros pases, donde una fuerte sustancia psicoactiva, la ayahuasca, puede comprarse y consumirse legalmente, con tal de que se realice en un contexto religioso. +Miren a Bolivia y Per, donde los productos a base de hoja de coca, la fuente de la cocana, se venden legalmente abiertamente sin dao aparente a la salud pblica. +Recuerden que hasta 1900 la Coca-Cola contena cocana, y como sabemos no era ms adictiva que lo que es hoy. +Por otra parte piensen en los cigarrillos. Nada es tan adictivo o puede matar como los cigarrillos. +Cuando los investigadores preguntan a los heroinmanos cul es la droga ms dura de dejar la mayora dice los cigarrillos. +Sin embargo, en mi pas y muchos otros, la mitad de los que han sido adictos a los cigarrillos ha dejado de fumar sin que nadie sea detenido, encarcelado o enviado a un "programa de tratamiento" por un fiscal o un juez. +Lo que lo logr fueron ms impuestos, restricciones en lo que concierne las horas y lugar de las ventas y uso y campaas antitabaco eficaces. +Podramos reducir el tabaquismo an ms declarndolo ilegal? Probablemente. +Pero imagnense la pesadilla que generara. +As que hoy nos enfrentamos a dos desafos. +El primero es el desafo poltico de crear e implementar alternativas a las polticas prohibicionistas ineficaces mientras mejoramos las actuales y aprendemos a convivir con las drogas legalizadas. +El segundo reto es an ms difcil porque nos incumbe. +Los obstculos para la reforma no solo residen en el poderoso complejo industrial carcelario u otros intereses creados que quieren mantener las cosas como estn, sino tambin en cada uno de nosotros. +Son nuestros miedos, nuestra ignorancia y nuestra falta de imaginacin lo que se interpone en el camino de la verdadera reforma. +Y en ltima instancia se reduce a los nios, al deseo de cada padre de criarlos en una burbuja, y al miedo de que de alguna manera las drogas rompan esa burbuja y los pongan en riesgo. +De hecho, a veces, parece que toda la guerra antidroga se justifica como una gran iniciativa para proteger a la infancia, algo que cualquier joven les contradira. +Esto es lo que le digo a los adolescentes. +En primer lugar, no consumas drogas. +En segundo lugar, no consumas drogas. +En tercer lugar, si lo haces, hay algunas cosas que quiero que sepas, pporque al fin y al cabo, como padre, mi principal inters es que al final de la noche llegues sano y salvo a casa, para crecer y llevar una vida adulta sana y buena. +Ese es mi mantra sobre las drogas: la seguridad ante todo. +Gracias. +Gracias. Gracias. +Chris Anderson: Ethan, enhorabuena, qu reaccin. +Una charla impactante. +Pero no todos se pusieron de pie, as que supongo que algunas personas aqu, y tal vez algunos de los que nos ven en lnea, quiz conocen a algn adolescente, o un amigo o a alguien que est enfermo o que tal vez muri de una sobredosis. +Estoy seguro que ha conocido gente as. +Qu les dices? +EN: Chris, lo ms increble que me pas ltimamente es que he conocido gente que ha perdido a un hermano o un hijo por una sobredosis, y que solo hace 10 aos hubieran deseado fusilar a todos los narcotraficantes para resolver el problema. +Pero se dieron cuenta de que la guerra antidroga no sirvi para proteger a sus hijos, +sino que ms bien estos nios corrieron ms riesgos. +Y que ahora quieren pertenecen a este movimiento de reforma. +Y se apuntan ms padres, con hijos dependientes al alcohol, la cocana o la herona que se preguntan "Por qu algunos chicos pueden paso a paso tratar de curarse y mejorar mientras que otros se enfrentan a la crcel, la polica y los delincuentes?". +Todo el mundo comprende que la guerra antidroga no protege a nadie. +CA: Los EEUU estn en un punto muerto poltico en muchos temas. +Es realista esperar que algo cambie realmente durante los prximos cinco aos? +EN: Yo dira que es sorprendente. Me llaman periodistas y me dicen: "Ethan, hay solo dos temas con futuro poltico en los EEUU hoy: la ley sobre la marihuana y la del matrimonio gay. +Cul es tu secreto?". +Y fijmonos en la ruptura bipartidista republicanos ahora en el Congreso y legisladores estatales pasando proyectos de leyes con el apoyo de la mayora demcrata, as que vemos que hemos pasado de ser un tema poco importante, uno de los ms temidos en EEUU, a uno de los casos ms exitosos. +CA: Ethan, muchas gracias por venir a TEDGlobal. +EN: Chris, muchas gracias. CA: Gracias. +Vincent Moon: Cmo podemos usar las computadoras, cmaras, micrfonos para representar el mundo de una manera alternativa, tanto como sea posible? +Cmo, quiz, es posible usar Internet para crear una nueva forma de cine? +Y en realidad, por qu filmamos? +Bueno, con preguntas tan simples en mi mente empec a hacer pelculas hace 10 aos, primero con un amigo, Christophe Abric. +Tena un sitio web, La Blogothque, dedicado a la msica independiente. +Estbamos locos por la msica. +Queramos representar la msica de una manera diferente, filmar la msica que amamos, los msicos que admiramos, tanto como fuera posible, lejos de la industria de la msica y lejos de los clichs que se le atribuyen. +Comenzamos a publicar todas las semanas sesiones en Internet. +Vamos a ver ahora algunos extractos. +Desde Grizzly Bear en la ducha hasta Sigur Ros tocando en un caf parisino. +Desde Phoenix tocando ante la Torre Eiffel hasta Tom Jones en su habitacin de hotel en Nueva York. +Desde Arcade Fire en un ascensor en las Olimpiadas hasta Beirut bajando una escalera en Brooklyn. +Desde R.E.M. en un auto hasta The National en torno a una mesa en la noche en el sur de Francia. +Desde Bon Iver tocando con unos amigos en un apartamento en Montmartre hasta Yeasayer en una noche larga, y muchas, muchas ms bandas desconocidas o muy famosas. +Publicamos todas esas pelculas de forma gratuita en Internet, y queramos compartir todas esas pelculas y representar la msica de una manera diferente. +Queramos crear otro tipo de intimidad usando todas esas nuevas tecnologas. +En ese momento hace 10 aos en realidad, no exista un proyecto como este en Internet, y supongo que, por eso, el proyecto que hacamos, el Take Away Shows, tuvo tanto xito, llegando a millones de espectadores. +Despus de un rato, me sent un poco... quera ir a otro lugar. +Sent la necesidad de viajar y descubrir otra msica, explorar el mundo, ir a otros rincones, y, en realidad, era tambin esta idea de cine nmada, ms o menos, que tena en mente. +Cmo podran encajar el uso de las tecnologas y la carretera? +Cmo iba a editar mis pelculas en un autobs cruzando los Andes? +As que me fui de viaje cinco aos por todo el mundo. +Empec bajo la marca de la coleccin de pelculas y msica digital Petites Plantes, que fue tambin un homenaje al cineasta francs Chris Marker. +Veamos ahora algunos extractos ms de esas nuevas pelculas. +Desde la diva brega tecno del Norte de Brasil, Gaby Amarantos, hasta un conjunto de mujeres en Chechenia. +Desde msica electrnica experimental en Singapur con One Man Nation al icono brasileo Tom Z cantando en su azotea en So Paolo. +De La Bambir, la gran banda de rock de Armenia hasta algunas canciones tradicionales en un restaurante en Tbilisi, Georgia. +Desde White Shoes, una gran banda de pop retro de Yakarta, Indonesia hasta DakhaBrakha, la banda revolucionaria de Kiev, Ucrania. +Desde Tomi Lebrero y su bandonen y sus amigos en Buenos Aires, Argentina, hasta muchos otros lugares y msicos de todo el mundo. +Mi deseo era hacerlo como una caminata. +Hacer todas esas pelculas, habra sido imposible con una gran compaa detrs mo, o con una estructura. +Yo viajaba solo con una mochila, con computadora, cmara, micrfonos en ella. +Solo, en realidad, pero con la poblacin local, encontrndome con mi equipo que para nada era gente profesional, all, en el lugar. Yendo de un lado a otro y haciendo cine como una caminata. +Realmente crea que el cine poda ser esto tan simple: Quiero hacer una pelcula y t me dars un lugar para pasar la noche. +Te doy un momento de cine y t me ofreces una capirinha. +Bueno u otras bebidas, dependiendo de dnde ests. +En Per, se bebe pisco sour. +Bueno, cuando llegu a Per, en realidad, no tena ni idea de lo que iba a hacer all. +Y, en realidad, solo tena el nmero de telfono, de una persona. +Tres meses ms tarde, tras haber viajado por todo el pas, haba grabado 33 pelculas, solo con la ayuda de la poblacin local, solo con la ayuda de las personas a las que les preguntaba todo el tiempo lo mismo: Qu merece la filmar aqu hoy? +Al vivir de esta manera, trabajando sin ninguna estructura, tuve la oportunidad de reaccionar al momento y decidir, oh, es importante hacer esto ahora. +Esto es importante para grabar a esa persona toda. +Esto es importante para crear este intercambio. +Cuando fui a Chechenia, la primera persona que conoc me mir como si pensara, "Qu ests haciendo aqu? +Eres un periodista? Una ONG? Un poltico? +Qu tipo de problemas vas a estudiar?" +Bueno, yo estaba all para investigar los rituales sufes en Chechenia, en realidad... la increble cultura del sufismo en Chechenia, absolutamente desconocida fuera de la regin. +Tan pronto como la gente entenda que les dara esas pelculas... Las publicara en lnea gratis bajo licencia Creative Commons, pero tambin se las dara a las personas y que hicieran lo que quisieran. +Solo quiero representarlos en una bella luz. +Solo quiero retratarlos de una manera que sus nietos vean a su abuelo, y que piensen: "Vaya, mi abuelo es tan genial como Beyonc". Es una cosa muy importante. +Es muy importante, porque esa es la forma en que la gente ver de forma diferente su propia cultura, su propia tierra. +Ellos pensarn de manera diferente. +Puede ser una forma de mantener una cierta diversidad. +Por qu vas a grabar? +Hmm. Hay una muy buena cita de Hakim Bey, intelectual estadounidense, que dice: "Cada grabacin es una lpida de una actuacin viva". +Es una buena frase para tener en cuenta hoy en da en una era saturada por imgenes. +Qu significa eso? +A dnde vamos con esto? +Yo estaba investigando. Todava tena esta idea en mente: Qu significa eso? +Estaba investigando la msica, intentando sacar, intentando acercarme a un determinado origen de la misma. +De dnde viene todo esto? +Soy francs. No tena ni idea de lo que descubrira, y que es algo muy simple: Todo era sagrado, en un primer momento, y la msica era curacin espiritual. +Cmo iba a utilizar mi cmara, mi pequea herramienta, para acercarme y tal vez no solo capturar el trance sino encontrar un equivalente, un cine-trance, tal vez, algo en completa armona con el pueblo? +Esta es ahora la nueva investigacin que estoy haciendo sobre la espiritualidad, en los nuevos espritus del mundo. +Tal vez un par de extractos ms ahora. +Desde el ritual funerario de Tana Toraja en Indonesia hasta una ceremonia de Pascua en el norte de Etiopa. +Desde un ritual de trance popular jathilan en la isla de Java, hasta Umbanda en el norte de Brasil. +Los rituales sufes de Chechenia hasta una misa en la iglesia ms santa de Armenia. +Algunas canciones sufes en Harar, la ciudad santa de Etiopa, hasta una ceremonia de ayahuasca en la Amazona profunda del Per con los Shipibo. +A mi nuevo proyecto, que estoy haciendo aqu en Brasil, llamado "Hbridos". +Lo estoy haciendo con Priscilla Telmon. +Es la investigacin sobre las nuevas espiritualidades de todo el pas. +Esta es mi propia pequea bsqueda de lo que llamo etnografa experimental, tratando de unir todos esos diferentes gneros, tratando de recuperar una cierta complejidad. +Por qu filmamos? +Yo todava estaba all. +Realmente creo que el cine nos ensea a ver. +La forma de mostrar el mundo va a cambiar la forma que vemos este mundo y vivimos en un momento en el que los medios masivos estn haciendo un trabajo terrible al representar el mundo: violencia, extremistas, solo eventos espectaculares, solo simplificaciones de la vida cotidiana. +Creo que estamos grabando para recuperar una cierta complejidad. +Para reinventar la vida de hoy, tenemos que hacer nuevas formas de imgenes. +Y es muy simple. +Muito obrigado. +Bruno Giussani: Vicente, Vicente, Vicente. +Merci. Tenemos que prepararnos para la siguiente actuacin, y quiero preguntarte algo y es lo siguiente: Te apareces en lugares como los que nos ha mostrado, y llevas una cmara y supongo que eres bienvenido pero seguro que no siempre eres totalmente bienvenido. +Entras en rituales sagrados, en momentos privados en un pueblo, una ciudad, en un grupo de personas. +Cmo rompes la barrera cuando te presentas con una cmara? +VM: Creo que la rompes con tu cuerpo, ms que con el conocimiento. +Eso es lo que me ense viajar, a confiar en la memoria del cuerpo ms que en la memoria del cerebro. +El respeto es un paso adelante, no ir hacia atrs, y realmente creo que mediante la participacin del cuerpo en el momento, en la ceremonia, en los lugares, las personas te dan la bienvenida y entienden tu energa. +BG: Me dijiste que la mayora de los vdeos que haces son en realidad de una sola toma. +Que no haces mucha edicin. +Es decir, las editaste para nosotros al inicio de las sesiones por su longitud, etc. +De otra manera, solo tienes que entrar y filmar lo que pase ante tus ojos sin mucha planificacin, es as? +Es correcto? +VM: Mi idea es que mientras no cortemos, de una manera, siempre y cuando dejamos que el espectador lo vea, ms y ms espectadores se van a sentir ms cerca, van a estar ms cerca del momento, para ese momento y ese lugar. +Realmente creo que es una forma de respetar al espectador, no cortar todo el tiempo de un lugar a otro, y dejar que el tiempo pase. +BG: Dime en pocas palabras algo de tu nuevo proyecto, "Hbridos", aqu en Brasil. +Justo antes de venir a TEDGlobal, t en realidad estuviste viajando por todo el pas para eso. +Cuntanos un par de cosas. +VM: "Hbridos" es... realmente creo que Brasil, lejos de los clichs, es el pas religioso ms grande del mundo, el pas ms grande en trminos de espiritualidad y en experimentos espirituales. +Y es un gran proyecto que estoy haciendo este ao, en que estoy investigando en diferentes regiones de Brasil, en muy diferentes formas de cultos, y tratando de entender cmo la gente vive junto con la espiritualidad hoy en da. +BG: El hombre que va a aparecer en el escenario en un momento, y Vincent lo va a presentar, es uno de los temas de uno de sus vdeos anteriores. +Cundo hiciste un video con l? +VM: Creo que hace cuatro aos, cuatro aos en mi primer viaje. +BG: As que fue uno de los primeros en Brasil. +VM: Fue de los primeros en Brasil, s. +Realic la pelcula en Recife, en el lugar de dnde es. +BG: As que vamos a presentarle. A quin estamos esperando? +VM: Lo har muy corto. +Es un gran honor dar la bienvenida en el escenario a uno de los ms grandes msicos brasileos de todos los tiempos. +Dmosle la bienvenida a Nan Vasconcelos. +BG: Nan Vasconcelos! +Nan Vasconcelos: Vayamos a la selva. +El primer paciente tratado con antibitico fue un polica en Oxford. +En su da libre, se cort con la espina de una rosa mientras trabajaba en el jardn. +y ese pequeo rasguo se infect. +En el transcurso de algunos das, se le inflam la cabeza por abscesos, y, de hecho, su ojo estaba tan infectado que se lo tuvieron que extraer. Para febrero de 1941, el pobre hombre estaba al borde de la muerte. +As que se la dieron a Albert Alexander, a este polica de Oxford, y en 24 horas, empez a mejorar. +La fiebre baj, el apetito regres. +El segundo da, se haba recuperado bastante. +Comenzaba a agotarse la penicilina y entonces procesaron toda su orina para resintetizar a partir de sta ms penicilina y drsela de nuevo, y eso funcion. +El cuarto da iba por buen camino, hacia la recuperacin. +Era un milagro. +El quinto da, se agot la penicilina y el pobre hombre muri. +As que esa historia no acab muy bien pero, para la fortuna de millones de personas, como para esta nia tratada a principios de la dcada 1940, quin, de nuevo, se estaba muriendo por una sepsis, y en solo seis das, como pueden ver, se recuper gracias a este medicamento milagroso, la penicilina. +Millones han sobrevivido y la salud global se ha transformado. +Solo para ahorrarnos algunos centavos en el precio de la carne, hemos gastado muchos antibiticos en animales, no para el tratamiento de animales enfermos, sino para fomentar el crecimiento, principalmente. +Y a dnde nos lleva esto? +Bsicamente, el uso masivo de los antibiticos alrededor del mundo ha impuesto una presin de seleccin tan grande sobre la bacteria que la resistencia ahora es un problema porque hemos seleccionado solo la bacteria resistente. +Estoy seguro que lo han ledo en los peridicos, lo han visto en cada revista con la que se han topado, pero realmente quiero que aprecien la importancia de este problema. +Esto es serio. +La siguiente diapositiva que mostrar muestra la resistencia al carbapenem en acinetobacter. +El acinetobacter es un germen hospitalario fastidioso y el carbapenem es una clase de antibiticos ms potente que podemos administrar a este germen. +Pueden ver que en 1999 este era el patrn de resistencia, mayormente debajo del 10 % en todo EE UU. +Ahora miren lo que ocurre al reproducir el video. +No s dnde viven Uds. pero, sean dnde sean, seguramente es mucho peor ahora que en 1999, y se es el problema de la resistencia al antibitico. +Es un problema mundial que afecta tanto a pases ricos como pobres y, en el fondo, uno podra decir, bueno, no se trata solo un problema clnico? +Si les enseramos a los mdicos a no usar tanto antibitico y a los pacientes a no exigir tanto antibitico, tal vez no sera un problema y tal vez las compaas farmacuticas deberan esforzarse ms por desarrollar ms antibiticos. +Es un problema parecido en otro campo que todos conocemos, el consumo del combustible y la energa, y, por supuesto, el consumo de energa agota la energa y tambin conduce a la contaminacin local y al cambio climtico. +Y, en el caso de la energa, hay dos maneras de lidiar con el problema. +Bien, stas no estn separadas. +Estn asociadas porque, si invertimos excesivamente en nuevos pozos petrolferos, reducimos el incentivo para la conservacin del petrleo de la misma manera que suceder con los antibiticos. +Lo opuesto tambin suceder, que si aprovechamos el antibitico adecuadamente, no necesariamente tenemos que invertir en el desarrollo de nuevos frmacos. +Y si pensaban que haba un completo equilibrio entre las dos opciones, podran considerar el hecho de que es, en realidad, jugamos un juego. +El juego de la coevolucin. Y la coevolucin se desarrolla, en esta imagen en particular, entre el guepardo y la gacela. +El guepardo evolucion para correr ms rpido porque, si no corriera ms rpido, no almorzara. +La gacela evolucion para correr ms rpido porque si no corriera ms rpido, se convertira en almuerzo +Jugamos a lo mismo contra las bacterias, salvo que no somos los guepardos, somos las gacelas. Las bacterias, solo durante el transcurso de esta breve charla, ya habrn tenido hijos y nietos y habrn descubierto cmo ser resistentes por seleccin y ensayo y error, intentndolo una y otra vez. +Mientras tanto, cmo ganamos la carrera a las bacterias? +Contamos con procesos de descubrimiento farmacutico, analizamos molculas, realizamos ensayos clnicos, y, cuando creemos tener un buen frmaco, sigue el proceso regulatorio del FDA. +Y despus de pasar por todo eso, intentamos ir un paso ms all de las bacterias. +Claramente no es un juego que pueda prolongarse o ganarse solo innovando para llevar la ventaja. +Tenemos que atrasar el proceso de la coevolucin y hay ideas que podemos tomar prestadas del campo de la energa que son tiles si se piensa en las medidas que hay que tomar en el caso de los antibiticos. +Si pensamos sobre cmo manejamos los precios de la energa, por ejemplo, los impuestos sobre las emisiones de gases, imponen los costos de la contaminacin a las personas que s consumen esa energa. +Podramos contemplar hacer lo mismo con el antibitico y tal vez eso garantice que los antibiticos se usen adecuadamente. +Existen los subsidios de energa limpia que permiten cambiar a combustibles que no contaminan tanto o que quizs no requieren de combustibles fsiles. +Ahora, la analoga en este caso, es que tal vez necesitamos abstenernos de usar el antibitico y, si lo piensan, cules son buenos sustitutos para el antibitico? +Pues resulta que cualquier cosa que reduzca la necesidad de antibitico sera eficaz. Eso conllevara una mejora en el control de la infeccin hospitalaria o la vacunacin, particularmente contra la gripe estacional. +La gripe estacional es probablemente el impulsor principal detrs del consumo de antibiticos, tanto en este pas como en muchos otros, y eso verdaderamente podra ayudar. +La tercera opcin supondra algo parecido a los permisos de emisin comercializables +Y la educacin del consumidor funciona, sin duda. +Un hospital de St. Louis sola poner en una tabla los nombres de sus cirujanos ordenados por cuntos antibiticos haban utilizado el mes anterior y lo hacan solo por la retroalimentacin informativa, no era embarazoso. Pero, en esencia, se les comunicaba a los cirujanos que podan reflexionar sobre cmo usaban los antibiticos. +Existe mucho por hacer al respecto del suministro tambin. +Si miran los precios de penicilina, el costo por da es de 10 centavos. +Es un frmaco bastante barato. +Los frmacos introducidos desde entonces la linezolida y la daptomicina son mucho ms caros. Para un mundo en el que se acostumbra a pagar 10 centavos al da por antibitico, la idea de pagar 180 dlares al da parece demasiado caro. +Qu nos dice esto? +El precio nos demuestra que ya no debemos creer que los antibiticos baratos y eficaces son algo seguro del futuro predecible y ese precio es una seal de que tal vez necesitamos prestar mucho ms atencin a la conservacin. +El precio tambin es seal de que quizs es hora de mirar otras tecnologas, al igual que el precio de la gasolina es una seal e mpetu, digamos, para desarrollar autos elctricos. +Entonces esto requiere de un cambio de paradigma completo, que puede ocasionar temor porque en muchos lugares del pas, en muchos lugares del mundo, la idea de pagar 200 dlares por un da de tratamiento con antibitico es simplemente inconcebible. +As que debemos pensar en eso. +Ahora, hay otras opciones, otras tecnologas alternativas que se desarrollan actualmente, +tales como los bacterifagos, los probiticos, la percepcin de qurum y los simbiticos. +Todas son buenas vas para explorar y se volvern ms lucrativas cuando el precio de los antibiticos nuevos empiecen a subir. Hemos visto reaccionar al mercado y el gobierno ahora considera nuevas maneras de subvencionar nuevos antibiticos y desarrollo. +Pero existen retos. +No queremos solo tirarle dinero al problema. +Queremos invertir en antibiticos nuevos en maneras que promuevan el uso adecuado y la venta de dichos antibiticos, y se es el verdadero reto. +Volviendo a estas tecnologas, todos recuerdan la frase de esa famosa pelcula sobre dinosaurios, "La vida se abre camino". +No es como si fueran soluciones permanentes. +Ciertamente debemos recordarlo, sin importar la tecnologa, que la naturaleza encontrar alguna manera de contrarrestarlas. +Tal vez piensen, bueno, es solo un problema que se da entre el antibitico y la bacteria, pero resulta que tenemos exactamente el mismo problema en muchos otros campos, un serio problema en India y en Sudfrica. +Miles de pacientes mueren porque los frmacos de segunda lnea son muy caros y, a veces, ni siquiera funcionan y hay XDR TB. +Los virus se vuelven resistentes. +Las plagas en la agricultura. Los parsitos de la malaria. +Hoy, gran parte del mundo depende de un medicamento, los frmacos de la artemisina, esencialmente para el tratamiento de la malaria. +La resistencia a la artemisina ya emergi y si se difundiera, pondra en riesgo el nico frmaco con que tratamos la malaria sin peligro y eficazmente en todo el mundo. +Los zancudos desarrollan la resistencia. +Si tienen nios, probablemente saben de piojos y si son de la ciudad de Nueva York, me cuentan que all la especialidad son las chinches. +Tambin son resistentes. +Hay que presentar un ejemplo del otro lado del charco. +Resulta que las ratas tambin son resistentes al veneno. +Realmente necesitamos comenzar a considerarlos recursos naturales. +Nos paramos en la encrucijada. +Una opcin nos lleva a la reformulacin y la consideracin precavida de los incentivos para cambiar cmo negociamos. +La alternativa es un mundo en el que hasta una brizna de hierba puede ser un arma letal. +Gracias. +Me dijeron que soy una traidora a mi propia profesin, que debera ser despedida, que deberan quitarme la licencia mdica, que regresara a mi propio pas. +Mi e-mail fue pirateado. +En un foro de debate con otros mdicos, alguien se atribuy el "bombardeo" a mi cuenta en Twitter. +Yo no entenda si esto era bueno o malo, pero luego vino la respuesta: "Lstima que no era una bomba de verdad". +Nunca pens que yo hara algo que provocara tal nivel de ira entre los otros mdicos. +Mi sueo era ser mdica. +Crec en China y entre mis primeros recuerdos de infancia recuerdo que me llevaban de urgencia al hospital y que por la gravedad de mi asma tena que ir casi todas las semanas. +Tuve una mdica, la doctora Sam, que siempre me atenda. +Tena casi la misma edad de mi madre, +su pelo era rizado y espectacular, siempre con vestidos amarillos de flores. +Era de aquellos mdicos que, si te caas y te quebrabas el brazo, te preguntaba por qu no te estabas riendo pues era tu hmero (como "humor" en Ingls). Lo entienden? +Bien, te quejabas pero ella siempre te haca sentir mejor despus de la consulta. +Todos tuvimos un hroe en la infancia como quien queramos ser al crecer, cierto? +Bien, yo quera ser como la Dra. Sam. +Cuando tena ocho aos, con mis padres nos mudamos a EEUU, y la nuestra sera la tpica historia de inmigrantes. +Mis padres limpiaban habitaciones de hotel, lavaban platos y atendan en estaciones de gasolina para que yo pudiera perseguir mi sueo. +Llegu a aprender suficiente ingls y mis padres se alegraron mucho el da que entr en la facultad de medicina y cuando llegu a tomar mi juramento mdico. +Hasta que un da, todo cambi. +Mi madre me llam para decirme que no se senta bien, que presentaba una tos constante, que tena dificultad para respirar y se senta cansada. +Yo saba que mi madre no era de quejarse por cualquiera cosa. +Si ella deca que le pasaba algo. era que deba estar muy mal. +Y lo estaba. Descubrimos que tena cncer de mama en etapa IV; que en ese momento le haba alcanzado los pulmones, huesos y cerebro. +Mi madre fue valiente, y no perdi la esperanza. +Se someti a ciruga y radiacin, y en la tercera ronda de quimioterapia fue cuando perdi su libreta de direcciones. +Ella busc el nmero de su onclogo en Internet y lo encontr, pero tambin encontr algo ms. +En muchos sitios web, l apareca como agente bien pagado de una compaa farmacutica; y muchas veces ya haba recomendado el mismo programa de quimioterapia que le haba prescrito. +Ella me llam aterrorizada; yo ya no saba en qu creer. +Tal vez era el mejor tratamiento para ella, pero tal vez no. +Le dio miedo y la hizo dudar. +Cuando se trata de medicina, la confianza es fundamental, y cuando la confianza se acaba, queda slo el miedo. +Ese miedo tiene otra cara. +Como estudiante de medicina, yo estaba tratando a un joven de 19 aos que volviendo a su dormitorio en bicicleta, haba sido golpeado y arrollado por una camioneta 4x4. +Tena siete costillas fracturadas, la pelvis se astill y sangraba internamente en el abdomen y en el cerebro. +Imaginen a sus padres volando desde Seattle, a 3200 kilmetros, para encontrar a su hijo en coma. +Lo lgico era averiguar lo que le pasa a su hijo, cierto? +Pidieron estar presentes en nuestras rondas mdicas en las que discutamos su condicin y su tratamiento, lo que me pareci una solicitud razonable, adems sera una oportunidad de mostrarles cunto nos esforzbamos y nos preocupbamos. +Pero el mdico jefe lo neg. +Dio todo tipo de justificaciones. +Tal vez podran estorbar a la enfermera; +tal vez los estudiantes se abstendran de hacer preguntas; +hasta lleg a decir: "Y qu tal si ven errores y nos demandan?" +Lo que vi detrs de los pretextos fue un profundo miedo y lo que aprend fue que para ser mdico, debemos vestir nuestras batas blancas, erigir una muralla y escondernos detrs de ella. +Hay una epidemia encubierta en la medicina. +Por supuesto, los pacientes tienen miedo cuando van al mdico. +Imagina que despiertas con un dolor de estmago terrible, vas al hospital, ests en un lugar extrao, acostado en una camilla, tienes puesta una bata traslcida, hay extraos que se acercan para hurgarte y pincharte. +No sabes lo que pasar. +Ni siquiera sabes si tendrs la manta que pediste hace 30 minutos. +Pero no slo son los pacientes quienes tienen miedo; los mdicos tambin lo tienen. +Tememos que los pacientes descubran quines somos y de qu se trata la medicina. +Entonces qu hacemos? +Vestimos nuestras batas blancas y nos escondemos detrs de ellas. +Claro que cuanto ms nos escondamos, la gente querr saber ms lo que escondemos. Cuanto ms miedo haya, este se dispara y se convierte en desconfianza +y en una atencin mdica deficiente. +No es solo el miedo que le tenemos a las enfermedades, tenemos la enfermedad del miedo. +Podremos arreglar esa desconexin entre lo que los pacientes precisan y lo que hacen los mdicos? +Podremos superar esa enfermedad del miedo? +Djenme ponerlo de otro modo: si esconderse no es la solucin, qu tal si hacemos lo opuesto? +Que los mdicos se volvieran totalmente transparentes con sus pacientes? +El otoo pasado, llev a cabo un estudio para descubrir qu es lo que la gente quiere saber del servicio mdico. +No slo quera estudiar a los pacientes de hospital, sino a la gente comn. +Mis dos alumnos de medicina, Suhavi Tucker y Laura Johns, literalmente llevaron la investigacin a las calles. +Fueron a los bancos, cafeteras, ancianatos, restaurantes chinos y estaciones de tren. +Y qu descubrieron? +Cuando preguntbamos: "Qu quieres saber de tu servicio sanitario?" +La respuesta de la gente era sobre los mdicos, porque se considera que el servicio sanitario es la interaccin entre paciente y mdico. +Cuando preguntamos: "Qu quieres saber de tus mdicos?" +la gente respondi de tres formas diferentes. +Algunos queran conocer la idoneidad del mdico; que tenga su tarjeta profesional para ejercer la medicina. +Otros queran cerciorarse de que el mdico no est sesgado y que tome decisiones basado en evidencias y en la ciencia, no en quin le paga. +Lo que nos sorprendi es que mucha gente quiere saber algo ms del mdico. +Jonathan, estudiante de derecho de 28 aos, dice que quisiera alguien que se sienta cmodo con pacientes LGBTQ y sea especialista en la salud de LGBT. +Serena, una contadora de 32 aos, dijo que para ella era importante que su mdico tenga sus mismos valores cuando se trata de opcin reproductiva y derechos de la mujer. +Frank, dueo de una ferretera con 59 aos, ni siquiera le gusta consultar al mdico y quiere encontrar a alguien que crea en prevencin ante todo, pero que se sienta cmodo con tratamientos alternativos. +Uno tras otro, nuestros participantes dijeron que la relacin mdico-paciente es profundamente ntima, que para revelar sus cuerpos a sus mdicos y contarles sus ms profundos secretos, quieren entender primero los valores de sus mdicos. +Slo porque los mdicos tengan que atender a todos los pacientes no significa que los pacientes deban ver a toda clase de mdicos. +La gente quiere saber de sus mdicos primero para luego hacer una seleccin informada. +Como resultado, yo cre una campaa llamada "Quin Es Mi Mdico?" +que exige transparencia total en la medicina. +Los mdicos participantes revelan voluntariamente en un sitio web pblico, no slo informacin de dnde estudiaron medicina y cual es su especialidad, sino tambin sus conflictos de inters. +Vamos ms all de lo estipulado en la ley "Gobierno a la luz Pblica" con respecto a afiliaciones con compaas farmacuticas. Hablamos sobre cmo se nos paga. +Los incentivos son importantes. +Si vas al mdico a causa de dolores de espalda, quizs querrs saber que l recibe 5000 dlares por realizar una cirgia de columna frente a 25 dlares por remitirte a un fisioterapeuta, o si recibe lo mismo, sin importar lo que recomiende. +Luego vamos un paso ms; +incluimos nuestros valores con respecto a la salud de la mujer, salud LGBT, medicina alternativa, medicina preventiva y decisiones sobre cmo ponerle fin a la vida. +Nos comprometemos a servir a nuestros pacientes, pues ellos tienen derecho a saber quines somos. +Creemos que la transparencia es la cura para el miedo +Imagin que algunos mdicos se inscribiran y otros no, pero no tena idea de la enorme reaccin que provocara. +Una semana despus de lanzar Quin es Mi Mdico? +el foro pblico de Medscape y muchas comunidades de mdicos en lnea tenan miles de comentarios sobre el tema. +Aqu van algunos. +De un gastroenterlogo en Portland: "Dediqu 12 aos de mi vida como esclavo. +Tengo prstamos e hipotecas. +Dependo de los almuerzos de compaas farmacuticas para servir a mis pacientes". +Los tiempos pueden ser difciles para todos, pero trata de decirle a un paciente que gana 35 000 dlares por ao para sostener a su famlia de cuatro, que necesitas ese almuerzo gratis. +De un cirujano ortopdico en Charlotte: "Par m, publicar las fuentes de mis ingresos, es una invasin a mi privacidad. +Mis pacientes no me revelan sus ingresos. +La fuente de su renta no afecta su salud". +De un psiquiatra en Nueva York: "Luego tendremos que revelar si preferimos los gatos o los perros, qu modelo de auto conducimos, y qu papel higinico usamos". +Lo que uno piensa de Toyota o de Cottonelle no afecta la salud del paciente, pero en cambio s la puede afectar tu opinin sobre el derecho de eleccin de las mujeres, o sobre la medicina preventiva, o sobre las opciones relacionadas con el fin de la vida. +Y mi favorito, de un cardilogo de Kansas City "Ms imposiciones del Gobierno? +La Dra. Wen debe regresarse a su pas". +Bien, aqu tengo dos buenas notcias. +Primero, esto tiene que ser voluntario y no obligatorio, y segundo, soy estadoundiense y ya estoy aqu. +El mes siguiente, mis jefes recibieron llamadas en las que pedan mi despido. Recib cartas en mi casa, +a pesar de no haber revelado mi direccin domiciliaria, con amenazas de pedir a la junta mdica una sancin para m. +Mis amigos y familia insistan que cancelara la campaa. +Tras la amenaza de bomba supe que tena que acabarla. +Y ah fue cuando los pacientes me contactaron. +En los medios sociales, el TweetChat, que en ese momento llegu a conocer, gener 4,3 millones de impresiones, y miles de personas me escribieron para motivarme a seguir adelante. +Escribieron cosas como: "Si los mdicos estn haciendo algo de lo que tanto se avergenzan, no lo deberan hacer". +"Los funcionarios electos tienen que revelar el origen +de los fondos de sus campaas, los abogados deben revelar sus conflictos de inters. +Qu excluye a los mdicos de hacerlo?" +Y finalmente, muchos escribieron diciendo: "Djennos a los pacientes decidir lo que es importante cuando elegimos un mdico". +En la primera ronda, ms de 300 mdicos hicieron la promesa de transparencia. +Qu locura, o no? +Pero de hecho, ese concepto no es del todo tan nuevo. +Se acuerdan de la Dra. Sam, mi mdica en China, la de los chistes tontos y el cabello extico? +Pues, ella era mi mdica, pero tambin era nuestra vecina que viva al otro lado de la calle. +Yo estudi en la misma escuela que su hija. +Mis padres y yo confibamos en ella porque sabamos quin era y en qu crea, y no necesitaba escondernos nada. +Tan slo hace una generacin, esta tambin era la norma en EE.UU. +Se saba que el mdico de la familia tena dos hijos adolescentes, que haba dejado de fumar haca algunos aos, que deca que iba siempre a la iglesia, aunque slo lo vieras dos veces al ao: una vez en Pascua y otra vez cuando su suegra vena de visita. +T sabas lo que pensaba, y no necesitaba escondrtelo. +Pero la enfermedad del miedo tom el control, y los pacientes sufren las consecuencias. +Lo s de primera mano. +Mi madre batall contra el cncer por ocho aos. +Era una planificadora y saba cmo le gustara vivir y cmo le gustara morir. +No slo firm instrucciones anticipadas, sino que, en un documento de 12 pginas, deca haber sufrido ya suficiente, y que ya era su hora de partir. +Un da, siendo yo mdica residente, recib una llamada avisndome que estaba en la unidad de cuidados intensivos. +Cuando llegu, ella estaba a punto de ser entubada para conectarla a una mquina respiradora. +"Pero eso no es lo que ella quiere", yo dije, "tenemos documentos". +El mdico encargado me mir a los ojos, seal a mi hermanita de 16 aos, y dijo: "Te acuerdas cuando tenas esa edad? +Como hubiera sido para ti crecer sin madre?" +Su onclogo estaba all tambin y dijo: "Es tu madre. +Cmo podrs vivir en adelante, por el resto de tu vida, si no haces todo por salvarla?" +Yo conoca a mi madre muy bien. +Comprenda divinamente sus instrucciones, pero yo era mdica. +Fue la decisin ms difcil que he tomado, para dejarla morir en paz, y llevo las palabras de aquellos mdicos conmigo todos los das. +Podemos enmendar la desconexin entre lo que hacen los mdicos y lo que precisan los pacientes. +Podemos alcanzarlo, porque ya estuvimos all, y sabemos que la transparencia conduce a la confianza. +Los estudios muestran que la franqueza tambin ayuda a los mdicos; si se tienen registros mdicos abiertos, si estn dispuesto a hablar de los errores mdicos, aumentar la confianza de los pacientes, mejorarn los resultados de la salud, y disminuir la negligencia profesional. +Esa franqueza, esa confianza, se volver importante en la medida que pasemos del modelo infeccioso de la enfermedad al modelo comportamental. +Puede que a las bacterias les importe poco la confianza o la intimidad, pero para que la gente afronte las difciles opciones de estilo de vida, para abordar asuntos como dejar de fumar, el manejo de la presin sangunea o el control de la diabetes, es necesario brindar confianza. +Aqu tenemos lo que otros mdicos transparentes han dicho. +Brandon Combs, un internista de Denver: "Esto me acerc ms a mis pacientes. +El tipo de relacin que forj, fue la razn por la que estudi medicina". +Aaron Stupple, un internista de Denver: "Les digo a mis pacientes que soy completamente franco con ellos. +No les escondo nada. +Ese soy yo. Ahora cuntame de ti. +Estamos unidos en esto". +May Nguyen, una mdica de familia de Houston: "Mis compaeros se asombran de lo que estoy haciendo. +Me preguntan cmo puedo ser tan valiente. +Les digo, no soy valiente, es mi trabajo". +Les dejar con un ltimo pensamiento. +Da miedo ser totalmente transparente. +Te sientes desnudo, expuesto y vulnerable, pero esa vulnerabilidad, esa humildad, puede ser un beneficio extraordinario en la prctica de la medicina. +Cuando los mdicos aceptemos bajarnos de nuestros pedestales, quitarnos las batas blancas, y mostrarles a los pacientes quines somos y de qu se trata la medicina, es ah cuando empezaremos a superar la enfermedad del miedo. +Es ah cuando se establece la confianza. +Es ah cuando cambiamos el modelo de medicina, de uno con secretos, ocultando cosas, a otro, plenamente abierto y comprometido hacia nuestros pacientes. +Gracias. +El 4 de enero de 1934, un joven entreg un informe al Congreso de Estados Unidos, ya hace 80 aos, que todava afecta la vida de todos los presentes en esta sala, todava afecta la vida de todos en el planeta. +Ese joven no era poltico, no era comerciante, ni activista de derechos civiles, ni lder religioso. +Era el hroe menos pensado, era economista. +Su nombre, Simon Kuznets y el informe que entreg, "Ingreso Nacional, 1929-1932". +Puede que piensen que se trata de un informe soso y deslucido. +Y tienen toda la razn. +Es muy aburrido. +Pero es la base de lo que hoy consideramos el xito de los pases: mejor conocido como Producto Interno Bruto, PIB. +El PIB ha afectado nuestras vidas durante los ltimos 80 aos. +Hoy quiero hablarles de una manera diferente de medir el xito de los pases, una manera diferente de definir y afectar nuestras vidas para los prximos 80 aos. +Pero primero, tenemos que entender cmo lleg el PIB a dominar nuestras vidas. +El informe de Kuznets lleg en un momento de crisis. +La economa de EE.UU. se desplomaba en la Gran Depresin y los polticos daban batalla para responder. +Batallaban porque no saban qu estaba pasando. +No tenan datos ni estadsticas. +Por eso el informe de Kuznets les dio datos confiables sobre qu produca la economa de EE.UU. actualizados ao a ao. +Y con esta informacin los responsables polticos, al final, pudieron encontrar una salida. +Y como la invencin de Kuznets result muy til, se difundi por todo el mundo. +Y hoy todos los pases producen estadsticas de PIB. +Pero en ese primer informe el propio Kuznets hizo una advertencia. +Es en el captulo introductorio. +En la pgina 7 dice: "El bienestar de una nacin puede, por lo tanto, apenas inferirse de una medida de ingreso nacional como se defini anteriormente". +No es algo muy altisonante y est camuflado en cauteloso lenguaje de economista. +Pero su mensaje era claro: el PIB es una herramienta para ayudar a medir el rendimiento econmico. +No es una medida de nuestro bienestar. +Y no debera guiar todas las decisiones. +Pero hemos ignorado la advertencia de Kuznets. +Vivimos en un mundo en el que el PIB es el valor de referencia del xito en la economa mundial. +Nuestros polticos se jactan cuando sube el PIB. +Los mercados se mueven y billones de dlares de capital se mueven por el mundo en funcin de los pases que suben y de los pases que bajan, todo medido con el PIB. +Nuestras sociedades se han vuelto motores que crean ms PIB. +Pero sabemos que el PIB tiene defectos. +Ignora el medio ambiente. +Cuenta las bombas y las prisiones como progreso. +No tiene en cuenta la felicidad o la comunidad. +Y tampoco nada que decir sobre la imparcialidad o la justicia. +Sorprende a alguien que nuestro mundo, que marca al ritmo del PIB, se tambalee al borde del desastre ambiental lleno de ira y conflicto? +Necesitamos una mejor manera para medir nuestras sociedades, una mtrica de las cosas reales que le importan a las personas reales. +Tengo suficientes alimentos? +S leer y escribir? +Estoy seguro? +Tengo derechos? +Vivo en una sociedad en la que no me discriminan? +Mi futuro y el futuro de mis hijos previenen la destruccin del ambiente? +Estas son preguntas que el PIB no responde ni puede responder. +Claro, e han hecho esfuerzos en el pasado para ir ms all del PIB. +Pero creo que vivimos un momento en el que estamos listos para una revolucin de la medicin. +Estamos listos porque vimos la crisis financiera de 2008, y cmo nuestro fetiche del crecimiento econmico nos llev por mal camino. +Vimos, en la Primavera rabe, cmo pases como Tnez, supuestamente una superestrella econmica, pero que como sociedad eran un hervidero de descontento. +Estamos listos porque hoy tenemos la tecnologa para recopilar y analizar datos de formas que Kuznets no habra imaginado. +Hoy quiero presentarles el ndice de Progreso Social. +Es una medida del bienestar de la sociedad, completamente separado del PIB. +Es una manera totalmente nueva de mirar el mundo. +El ndice de Progreso Social empieza definiendo qu significa ser una buena sociedad en funcin de 3 dimensiones. +La primera es, tienen todos cubiertas las necesidades de supervivencia: comida, agua, refugio, seguridad? +La segunda, tienen todos acceso a los bloques de construccin de la mejora de sus vidas: educacin, informacin, salud y ambiente sustentable? +Y la tercera, tienen todos acceso a la posibilidad de cumplir sus objetivos, sueos y ambiciones sin obstculos? +Tienen derechos, libertad de eleccin, estn libres de discriminacin y tienen acceso al conocimiento ms avanzado del mundo? +Juntos, estos 12 componentes forman el marco de Progreso Social. +Y para cada uno de estos 12 componentes, tenemos indicadores para medir el rendimiento de los pases. +No son indicadores de esfuerzo o intencin, sino de logro verdadero. +No medimos cunto gasta un pas en sanidad, medimos la longevidad y calidad de vida de las personas. +No medimos si los gobiernos aprueban leyes contra la discriminacin, medimos si las personas son discriminadas. +Pero quieren saber quin est arriba, no? Lo saba, lo saba, lo saba. +Bueno, se los mostrar. +Se los mostrar en este grfico. +Aqu tienen, en el eje vertical puse el progreso social. +Cuanto ms alto, mejor. +Luego, solo para comparar, por diversin, en el eje horizontal est el PIB per cpita. +En el extremo derecho, es mayor. +El pas del mundo con el mayor progreso social, el pas nmero uno en progreso social es Nueva Zelanda. +Bien hecho! Nunca he estado; debo ir. +El pas con el menor progreso social, lamento decirlo, es Chad. +Nunca he estado; quiz el ao prximo. +O quiz el ao siguiente. +S lo que estn pensando. +Estn pensando, "Aj", pero Nueva Zelanda tiene un PIB ms alto que Chad!" +Muy bien, bien hecho. +Pero les mostrar otros 2 pases. +Este es Estados Unidos, considerablemente ms rico que Nueva Zelanda, pero con un nivel menor de progreso social. +Y luego este es Senegal, tiene un nivel ms alto de progreso social que Chad, pero el mismo nivel de PIB. +Qu est pasando? Bien, veamos. +Mostrar los otros pases del mundo los 132 de los que pudimos medir, cada uno representado con un punto. +All tienen. Muchos puntos. +Obviamente, no puedo hablar de todos, solo destacar algunos aspectos: El pas del G7 mejor clasificado es Canad. +Mi pas, el Reino Unido, est en el medio, algo soso, pero a quin le importa al menos le ganamos a los franceses! +Y pasando a las economas emergentes, en la cima de los BRICS, me complace decir, est Brasil. +Vamos, aplaudan! +Vamos Brasil! +Supera a Sudfrica, luego a Rusia, luego a China, y luego a India. +Escondido a la derecha, vern el punto de un pas con mucho PIB pero no tanto progreso social, es Kuwait. +Justo encima de Brasil, hay una superpotencia del progreso social, es Costa Rica. +Tiene un progreso social similar al de algunos pases de Europa occidental con mucho menos PIB. +La diapositiva se est desordenando un poco as que me gustara tomar distancia. +Quitar estos pases para ver la curva de regresin. +Esto muestra la relacin media entre el PIB y el progreso social. +La primera cosa a notar, es que hay mucho ruido alrededor de la curva de tendencia. +Esto demuestra de manera emprica que el PIB no es destino. +En cada nivel de PIB per cpita, hay oportunidades para ms progreso social, y riesgos de menos. +La segunda cosa a notar es que para los pases pobres la curva es muy empinada. +Esto nos dice que si los pases pobres obtienen un poco ms de PIB, y si lo reinvierten en mdicos, enfermeras, suministro de agua, saneamiento, etc., hay una explosin de progreso social a cambio de la inversin del PIB. +Eso es una buena noticia, y lo hemos visto en los ltimos 20, 30 aos, mucha gente que sali de la pobreza por crecimiento econmico y buenas polticas en los pases ms pobres. +Pero la curva sigue un poco ms, y luego la vemos aplanarse. +Cada dlar adicional de PIB compra cada vez menos progreso social. +Y que haya cada vez ms personas en el mundo que vivan en esta parte de la curva, significa que el PIB se vuelve cada vez menos til como gua para nuestro desarrollo. +Les mostrar un ejemplo de Brasil. +Esto es Brasil: progreso social de un 70 sobre 100, PIB per cpita de unos USD 14 000 al ao. +Y miren, Brasil est sobre la curva. +Brasil est haciendo un trabajo razonablemente bueno de transformar PIB en progreso social. +Pero hacia dnde va Brasil? +Digamos que Brasil adopta un plan econmico audaz para duplicar el PIB en la prxima dcada. +Eso es solo la mitad del plan. +Es menos de la mitad del plan, porque, adnde quiere ir Brasil en progreso social? +Brasil, es posible que aumentes tu crecimiento, que aumentes tu PIB, y te estanques o retrocedas en progreso social. +No queremos que Brasil se vuelva como Rusia. +Uno quiere realmente que Brasil sea cada vez ms eficiente creando progreso social con su PIB, y se vuelva ms como Nueva Zelanda. +Y eso significa que Brasil tiene que priorizar el progreso social en su plan de desarrollo y ver que no se trata solo de crecimiento, sino de crecimiento con progreso social. +Y eso es el ndice de Progreso Social: Replantear el debate del desarrollo, y no confinarlo solo al PIB, sino considerar el crecimiento inclusivo, sustentable que brinda mejoras reales a la vida de la gente. +Y no es solo para pases. +A principios de este ao, con los amigos de Imazon, una ONG brasilea, lanzamos el primer ndice de Progreso Social subnacional. +Lo hicimos para la regin del Amazonas. +Una superficie como la de Europa, con 24 millones de personas, una de las partes ms necesitadas del pas. +Y estos son los resultados, y esto se descompone en unas 800 municipalidades diferentes. +Y es solo el principio. Uds. pueden crear un ndice de Progreso Social para cualquier Estado, regin, ciudad o municipalidad. +Todos conocemos y amamos a TEDx; este es el Progreso Social x. +Es una herramienta para que usen todos. +Contrariamente a lo que se dice a veces, Dios no nos dio el PIB en tabletas de piedra. Es una herramienta de medicin inventada en el siglo XX para abordar los desafos del siglo XX. +En el siglo XXI, enfrentamos nuevos desafos: el envejecimiento, la obesidad, el cambio climtico, etc. +Para enfrentar esos desafos, necesitamos nuevas herramientas de medicin, nuevas formas de valuar el progreso. +Imaginen si pudisemos medir cunto contribuyen las ONG, la caridad, los voluntarios, las organizaciones civiles, en realidad a nuestra sociedad. +Imaginen si las empresas compitiesen no solo por su contribucin econmica, sino por su contribucin al progreso social. +Imaginen si pudisemos hacer responsables a los polticos por mejorar de verdad la vida de la gente. +Imaginen si pudisemos trabajar juntos gobiernos, empresas, sociedad civil, Uds., yo y hacer de este siglo el siglo del progreso social. +Gracias. +Imaginen esto: Es lunes por la maana, y ests en la oficina, preparndote para el da de trabajo, y este tipo que reconoces ms o menos del pasillo, llega a tu cubculo y te roba la silla. +No dice una palabra, solo se la lleva. +No te da ninguna explicacin para llevarse tu silla de entre tantas otras sillas que estn por all. +No reconoce que quizs necesites tu silla para hacer tu trabajo hoy. +T no lo toleraras. Armaras un alboroto. +Seguiras el tipo hasta su cubculo y le diras: "Por qu mi silla?" +Bien, ahora es martes por la maana y ests en la oficina, y una invitacin a una reunin surge en tu calendario. +Y es de esta mujer que conoces ms o menos del pasillo, y la lnea de asunto hace referencia a algn proyecto de que ya oste algo. +Pero no hay cualquier programa. +No hay explicacin de por qu fuiste invitado para la reunin. +Y sin embargo aceptas la invitacin y vas. +Y cuando acaba esa sesin altamente improductiva, regresas a tu mesa, te quedas en tu mesa y dices: "Chico, ojal volviera a recuperar esas dos horas. as como mi silla." +Todos los das, les permitimos a nuestros compaeros, que por lo dems son muy buenas personas, que nos roben. +Y me refiero a algo mucho ms valioso que el mobiliario de oficina. +Estoy hablando de tiempo. Tu tiempo. +En efecto, creo que estemos en medio a una epidemia global de una nueva enfermedad terrible llamada SAI [MAS]: [Mindless Accept Syndrome]. Sndrome de la Aceptacin Insensata +Los sntomas bsicos del Sndrome de la Aceptacin Insensata es aceptar inmediatamente invitaciones tan pronto surjan en tu calendario. +Es un reflejo involuntario; ding, clic, bing; est en tu calendario, "Ya me tengo que ir, me retraso para una reunin." Las reuniones son importantes, verdad? +Y la colaboracin es clave para el xito de una empresa. +Una reunin bien organizada puede rendir resultados positivos y aplicables. +Pero en medio de la globalizacin e informtica omnipresente, la manera como trabajamos se cambi dramticamente en los ltimos aos. +Y somos desgraciados. Somos desgraciados no porque los otros no saben hacer una buena reunin, sino debido al SAI, nuestro Sndrome de Aceptacin Insensata, que es una herida autoinfligida. +En verdad, puedo evidenciar que el SAI es una epidemia global. +Ya les digo por qu. +Hace algunos aos, yo sub un vdeo en Youtube, y en el vdeo represent todas las llamadas terribles que suceden en conferencias. +Sigue as unos cinco minutos, y contiene todo lo que detestamos de malas reuniones. +Hay el moderador que no tiene idea de cmo moderar una reunin. +Estn los participantes que no tienen idea de por qu estn all. +Todo se da, en cierto modo, como un descarrilamiento colaborativo. +Y todos se van enfadados. +Es un poco gracioso. +Echemos un rpido vistazo. +Nuestra meta hoy es llegar a un acuerdo en una importantsima propuesta. +Como grupo debemos decidir... blup blup... Hola, quin se conect? +Hola, soy Joe. Estoy trabajando desde casa hoy. +Hola, Joe. Gracias por acompaarnos aqu, genial. +Deca, tenemos mucha gente convocada, omitamos as pasar lista y ya voy a comenzar. +Nuestra meta hoy es llegar a un acuerdo en una propuesta importantsima. +Como grupo debemos decidir si... blup, blup... Hola, quin se conect? +Nadie? Me pareci haber odo un bip. Les suena familiar? +S, a m me suena familiar tambin. +Unas semanas tras haber subido el vdeo, 500 mil personas de docenas de pases, s, de docenas de pases, vieron el vdeo. +Y tres aos despus, an se ve cientos de veces al mes. +Est llegando a un milln ahora mismo. +Y algunas de las mayores empresas del mundo, empresas que Uds. conocen pero no las nombrar, me pidieron permiso para usar este vdeo como formacin de nuevos trabajadores para ensearles cmo no conducir una reunin en la empresa. +Y si los nmeros... un milln de visualizaciones y todas esas empresas no son prueba suficiente de que reuniones son un problema global, hay an muchos miles de comentarios publicados en lnea despus de que el vdeo hubiese sido publicado. +Miles de personas escribieron cosas como: "Dios mo mi da hoy fue lo mismo!" +"Era igual todos los das!" +"Es mi vida." +Un tipo escribi: "Es gracioso porque es verdad. +La verdad inquietante, triste y deprimente. +Me hizo rer hasta llorar. +Y llor. Y llor un poco ms." +Este pobre hombre dijo: "Mi vida diaria hasta la jubilacin o la muerte. Suspiro." +Son citas reales y es muy triste. +Un tema comn que surge en todos esos comentarios en lnea es esta creencia fundamental en nuestra impotencia para cualquiera otra cosa que no sea ir a reuniones y sufrir con estas reuniones mal conducidas y vivir para cumplir un da ms. +Pero la verdad es que no somos de manera alguna impotentes. +De hecho, el remedio del SAI est en nuestras manos. +Literalmente al alcance de nuestras manos. +Es algo que llamo No SAI! [No MAS] +Que si no recuerdo mal a mi profesora de espaol, significa algo como: [No MAS] "Basta, ya!" +Como funciona el No MAS SAI . Es muy simple. +Primero, la prxima vez que Uds. reciban una invitacin sin mucha informacin en s, hagan clic en el botn de provisional. +Est bien, pueden hacerlo, por eso est all. +Est al lado del botn de Aceptar. +Es el botn Quizs o cualquier botn existente para no aceptar inmediatamente. +Despus, pnganse en contacto con quien les invit a la reunin. +Dganle de su entusiasmo para respaldar su trabajo, pregntenle cul es el objetivo de la reunin, y dganle que les gustara saber cmo pueden ayudarlo a alcanzar su objetivo. +Y si lo hacemos frecuentemente, y con respecto, quizs se vuelven los otros ms concienzudos sobre como crean las invitaciones. Y Uds. pueden decidir ms concienzudamente si las aceptan. +Pueden incluso mismo empezar a enviar programas. Imaginen! +O pueden no convocar una conferencia +con 12 personas para hablar de un estatus, si pueden tan solo enviar un corto e-mail y resolverlo luego. +Los otros pueden empezar a cambiar su comportamiento a causa de sus cambios. +Y quizs incluso le devuelvan la silla. No MAS SAI! +Gracias. +No he dicho a muchas personas esto, pero en mi cabeza tengo miles de mundos secretos que suceden al mismo tiempo. +Yo tambin soy autista. +La gente suele diagnosticar el autismo siguiendo descripciones de casillas de verificacin muy especficas pero en realidad, existe toda una gran variedad de formas de ser. +Por ejemplo, mi hermano pequeo, est muy severamente afectado por el autismo. +No tiene comunicacin verbal. No puede hablar en absoluto. +Pero a m me encanta hablar. +La gente suele asociar autismo con el gusto por las matemticas y las ciencias y nada ms, pero conozco muchas personas con autismo a quienes les encanta ser creativas. +Pero eso es un estereotipo, y los estereotipos son, con frecuencia, por no decir siempre, errneos. +Por ejemplo, muchas personas piensan en autismo y piensan inmediatamente en "Rain Man". +Esa es la creencia comn, que cada persona con autismo es como Dustin Hoffman, y eso no es cierto. +Pero eso no sucede solo con las personas con autismo. +Lo he visto tambin con el colectivo LGBTQ, con las mujeres o con personas de color. +Las personas tienen tanto miedo a la diversidad que tratan de poner todo en una cajita pequea con etiquetas muy especficas. +Esto es algo que en realidad me pas en la vida real: Busqu en Google "los autistas son..." +y aparecen sugerencias para escribir. +Busqu en Google "los autistas son..". +y el primer resultado fue "agresivos". +Eso es lo primero que la gente piensa cuando piensa en el autismo. +Ellos ya los saben. +Una de las cosas que puedo hacer porque soy autista --es una capacidad ms que una discapacidad-- es tener una imaginacin muy viva. +Djenme que lo explique un poco. +Es como caminar a travs de dos mundos la mayora del tiempo. +No es el mundo real, el mundo que todos compartimos, y ah est el mundo en mi mente, y el mundo en mi mente es, a menudo mucho ms real que el mundo real. +Al igual, que es muy fcil para m dejar mi mente volar porque yo no encajo en una cajita pequea. +Esa es una de las mejores cosas de ser autista. +Uds. no tienen la necesidad de hacerlo. +encuentran lo que quieren hacer, una manera de hacerlo, y se ponen a ello. +Si yo intentara encajar en una caja, yo no estara aqu, no habra logrado la mitad de las cosas que tengo ahora. +Sin embargo, existen problemas. +Existen problemas al ser autista, problemas por tener demasiada imaginacin. +La escuela puede ser un problema, en general, pero tener tambin que decir a un maestro diariamente que sus clases son inexplicablemente aburridas y que intentas refugiarte secretamente en un mundo interior mental que no est en esa leccin, se suma a la lista de problemas. +Adems, cuando se afianza mi imaginacin, mi cuerpo adquiere vida propia. +Cuando algo muy emocionante pasa en mi mundo interior, solo tengo que correr. +Tengo que correr de ac para all, o, a veces gritar. +Esto me da mucha energa, y tengo que tener un escape a toda esa energa. +Pero eso he hecho desde nia, incluso desde que era una nia muy pequea. +Y mis padres pensaban que era lindo, as que no tocaban el tema, pero cuando llegu a la escuela, en realidad, no pensaban que era lindo. +Tal vez la gente no quiere hacerse amiga de la chica que empieza a gritar en una clase de lgebra. +Y esto no me suele suceder a esta edad ahora, pero puede ser que la gente no quiera ser amiga de la nia autista. +Puede ser que la gente no quiera tratar con nadie que no desea o no puede encajar en una categora etiquetada como normal. +Pero eso lo llevo bien, porque desecha el grano de la paja, y puedo encontrar aquellas personas genuinas y verdaderas y puedo elegir a estas personas como mis amigos. +Pero al pensar en esto qu es normal? +Qu significa eso? +Imagnense si ese fuera el mejor cumplido que han recibido. +"Guau ests muy normal". +Pero son cumplidos, "Eres extraordinario" o "eres fuera de lo comn". +"Eres increble". +Si la gente desea que le digan eso por qu hay tanta gente que intenta ser normal? +Por qu hay gente que vierte su luz individual brillante en un molde? +Las personas tienen tanto miedo a la diversidad que tratan y obligan a todos, incluso las personas que no quieren o no pueden, convertirse en normal. +Hay campamentos para personas del colectivo LGBTQ o para personas autistas para tratar de crear esta "normalidad" y es aterrador que la gente lo haga hoy en da. +Con todo, yo no cambiara mi autismo y mi imaginacin por la gente. +Y la gente a menudo descarta a los que no tienen lenguaje verbal, pero es una tontera, porque mi hermano y hermana pequeos son los mejores hermanos que podran imaginar. +Son simplemente los mejores, y los quiero tanto y me preocupo por ellos ms que por cualquier otro ser. +Voy a dejarles una pregunta: Si no podemos entrar en la mente de la persona, no importa si son autistas o no, en lugar de castigar todo aquello que se desva de la normalidad, por qu no celebrar la singularidad y animar cuando alguien da rienda suelta a su imaginacin? +Gracias. +Bien, buenas tardes. +Cuntos aceptaron el reto del balde de hielo de ELA? +Impresionante! +Pues tengo que darles las gracias, muchsimas gracias +Saben que al da de hoy la Asociacin ELA ha sumado USD 125 millones? Impresionante! +Esto me hace recordar el verano del 2011. +Mi familia, mis hijos, ya estaban mayores. +Suframos oficialmente del sndrome del nido vaco y decidimos tomar unas vacaciones familiares. +Jenn, mi hija y mi yerno vinieron desde Nueva York. +El ms joven, Andrew, vino desde su casa en Charlestown en Boston donde trabajaba, y mi hijo Pete, que haba jugado bisbol en la Universidad de Boston, haba jugado profesionalmente en Europa, haba regresado a casa y estaba vendiendo seguros colectivos, +tambin se nos uni. Y una noche, estbamos tomando una cerveza con Pete, y Pete me miraba y me dice: "Sabes algo mam? No s, vender seguros no me apasiona". +Deca: "Siento que no estoy usando todo mi potencial. +No creo que esa sea mi misin en la vida". +Y dijo, "A propsito, tengo que interrumpir mis vacaciones porque el equipo de la liga intermunicipal para el que jugu lleg a las finales, y me toca regresar a Boston porque no puedo defraudarlos. +Mi trabajo no me apasiona tanto como el bisbol". +Y entonces, Pete se fue, y dej las vacaciones familiares, rompindole el corazn a su madre, se fue y nosotros lo seguimos 4 das despus para asistir al siguiente partido de las finales. +Y estamos en el partido, con Pete en el plato, y una bola rpida va en camino, y la bola lo golpea en la mueca. +Oh, Pete! +La mueca le qued completamente cada, ms o menos as. +Y los siguientes 6 meses, Pete regres a su casa en Southie, sigui con su empleo nada apasionante y fue a ver mdicos para ver qu tena en esa mueca que nunca volvi a ser la misma. +Seis meses despus, en marzo, nos llam a mi esposo y a m, y nos dijo, pap, mam, hay un mdico que tiene un diagnstico. +Me quieren acompaar a la consulta con este mdico?" +Dije, "Claro que s, iremos". +Esa maana Pete, John y yo, nos levantamos, nos vestimos y nos metimos en los autos, 3 autos porque bamos a ir a trabajar despus de la consulta con el mdico +en la que sabramos qu tena la mueca. Entramos al consultorio del neurlogo y nos sentamos, +entraron 4 neurlogos y el neurlogo en jefe se sent y dijo: "Vers, Pete, revisamos todos los exmenes y tengo que decirte que no es un esguince, ni una fractura, no es dao de un nervio de la mueca, ni es una infeccin, no es la enfermedad de Lyme". +Lo presentaba de esta forma, y yo pensaba para m, a dnde quiere llegar con todo esto? +Luego puso sus manos en las rodillas, mir a mi muchacho de 27 aos y dijo: "No s cmo decirle esto a alguien de 27 aos: Pete, tienes ELA". +ELA? +Tena un amigo que tena un padre de 80 aos con ELA. +Mir a mi esposo, l me mir y luego miramos al mdico, y dijimos, "ELA?". +Est bien, cul es el tratamiento? Dganos! +Qu hacemos? Dganos!". +Nos mir y dijo "Siento decirles esto Seor y Seora Frates, pero no hay tratamiento y no hay cura". +No ramos los mejores interlocutores en este caso. +Ni siquiera entendamos que hubieran pasado 75 aos desde Lou Gehrig y que no se hubiera hecho ningn progreso contra la ELA. +Y entonces todos fuimos a casa, y Jenn y Dan volaron desde Wall Street, Andrew vino desde Charlestown y Pete fue a la Universidad de Boston a recoger a Julie, su novia en ese entonces, y a traerla a casa, y 6 horas despus del diagnstico, estbamos sentados cenando en familia y hablbamos trivialidades. +Ni siquiera recuerdo haber cocinado esa noche. +Pero luego, nuestro lder, Pete, traz el derrotero y nos habl como si furamos su nuevo equipo. +Dijo: "No va a haber golpes de pecho, familia. +No vamos a mirar atrs, vamos a mirar adelante. +Tenemos una oportunidad dorada para cambiar el mundo. +Le voy a cambiar la cara a esta situacin inaceptable de la ELA. +Vamos a mover la aguja, y me voy a poner al frente de filntropos como Bill Gates". +Y eso fue todo. +Se nos dieron las directrices. Y en los das y meses que siguieron, nuestros hermanos y hermanas nuestra familia se nos unieron, y ya estaban creando el Team Frate Train. +El to Dave era administrador del sitio web; el to Artie era el contador; la ta Diana era la diseadora grfica; y mi hijo menor, Andrew, dej su trabajo y su apartamento en Charlestown y dijo: "Voy a cuidar a Pete y ser su enfermero". +Y luego toda esa gente, compaeros de clase y de equipo, compaeros de trabajo a los que Pete inspir a lo largo de toda su vida, todos los crculos de Pete empezaron a conectarse uno con otro y conformaron el Team Frate Train. +Seis meses despus del diagnstico, a Pete le dieron un premio en una cumbre de investigadores, por su defensa. +l se levant y pronunci un discurso muy elocuente, y finalizado el discurso hubo un panel al que asistieron estos mdicos clnicos, bioqumicos y administradores farmacuticos, y yo estoy all sentada escuchndolos, sin entender mucho de lo que decan, yo evit cuanta clase de ciencias pude, +pero estaba vindolos y escuchndolos decir: "Yo hago esto, yo hago aquello", y no se conocan entre ellos. +Y al final de la charla, el panel, hubo una sesin de preguntas y respuestas levant la mano, me dieron el micrfono, los miro y digo: "Gracias. +Muchsimas gracias por trabajar en la ELA. +Significa tanto para nosotros". +"Pero tengo que decirles que veo su lenguaje corporal y escucho lo que dicen, +y es solo que no parece que haya mucha colaboracin aqu. +Y no solo eso, dnde est el papelgrafo con la lista de tareas y los responsables y el seguimiento? +Qu van a hacer despus de dejar esta sala?" +Y entonces me di vuelta y haba como 200 pares de ojos mirndome. +Y en ese momento entend que haba revelado un tema incmodo. +Y as haba empezado con mi misin. +Y entonces, en el siguiente par de aos... Pete, tuvimos altas y bajas. +A Pete se someti a medicamentos obsoletos +era esperanza en un frasco para toda la comunidad de la ELA, +fue en una fase de prueba. +Y 6 meses ms tarde, llegaron las cifras: cero eficacia. +Se supona que haba esperanza al otro lado del mar, y fue como si nos hubieran quitado el piso. +Y durante los siguientes 2 aos, nos limitamos a ver cmo me quitaban a mi hijo poco a poco, da a da. +Dos aos y medio atrs, Pete estaba bateando jonrones en los diamantes de bisbol. +Hoy, Pete est completamente paralizado. +Y no puede sostener la cabeza. +Est confinado a una silla de ruedas. +No puede comer ni tragar. +Tiene una sonda que lo alimenta. +No puede hablar. +Habla con tecnologa para escribir con la mirada y un dispositivo generador de habla, y monitoreamos sus pulmones porque de un momento a otro su diafragma se va a agotar y entonces tendremos que decidir si le ponemos respiracin asistida, o no. +La ELA roba al ser humano todas sus partes fsicas pero le deja el cerebro intacto. +Entonces, el 4 de julio de 2014, a 75 aos de la muerte de Lou Gehrig, llega el discurso inspirador, pues la liga de bisbol le pide a Pete que escriba un artculo para el Bleacher Report. +Y fue muy significativo porque lo hizo con esta tecnologa que usa la mirada. +20 das despus, empez a romperse el hielo. +El 27 de julio, el compaero de cuarto de Pete en Nueva York pas con una camiseta con "Quinn va a ganar", refirindose a Pat Quinn, otro paciente con ELA de Nueva York, y con unas bermudas y dijo: "Acepto el reto del balde de agua helada", recogi el balde y lo vaci sobre su cabeza. +"Y estoy nominando a..." Y lo envi a Boston. +Y eso fue el 27 de julio. +En los siguientes das, nuestro servicio de noticias estuvo lleno de familia y amigos. +Al ver atrs, lo bonito de Facebook es que tiene las fechas, puede uno regresar. +Tienen que ver el Bloody Mary humano del to Artie. +Les digo que es uno de los mejores, y eso fue probablemente en el da 2. +En el da 4, ms o menos, el to Dave, el administrador del sito, no tiene Facebook, me envi un mensaje en el que deca: "Qu rayos est pasando aqu, Nancy?" +El to Dave recibe un hit cada vez que alguien visita la pgina de Pete y su telfono estaba que explotaba. +Nos sentamos a revisar y descubrimos que el dinero estaba llegando, sorprendente. +Entonces, supimos que la conciencia llevara a los fondos, solo que no sabamos que eso pasara en apenas un par de das. +Entonces, nos reunimos, elegimos la mejor categora 501 para el sitio de Pete y all bamos. Semana 1, los medios de Boston. +Semana 2, los medios nacionales. +En la semana 2 el vecino de al lado abri nuestra puerta y nos mand una pizza por el piso de la cocina dicindonos: "Imagino que necesitan comida all adentro". +Semana 3, las celebridades, Entertainment Tonight, Access Hollywod. +Semana 4, el mundo: BBC, Radio Irlanda. +Alguien vio Perdidos en Tokio?" +Mi esposo vio la televisin japonesa. +Fue interesante. +Y esos videos, los ms populares, +El video del glaciar de Paul Bissonnette, increble. +Qu tal el de las monjas de la redencin de Dubln? +Quin vio ese? +Es absolutamente fantstico. +J.T., Justin Timberlake. +Ah fue cuando supimos que era una lista importante de celebridades. +Revis los mensajes de texto, y vi "JT!, JT!" Un mensaje de mi hermana. +Angela Merkel, la canciller alemana. +Increble. +Y los pacientes de ELA, ya saben cules son sus favoritos, y los de sus familias? +Todos ellos. +Porque era una enfermedad rara, malentendida y sin fondos, se sentaron y vieron a la gente decir una y otra vez: "ELA, ELA". +Fue increble. +Y esos detractores. Mencionemos solo un par de estadsticas. +De acuerdo, de la Asociacin ELA, calculan que para final de ao, sern USD 160 millones. +El Instituto para el Desarrollo de Terapias ELA en Cambridge consigui USD 3 millones. +Adivinen qu? +Tenan una prueba clnica para una droga que estaban desarrollando. +Estaba esperando fondos hace 3 aos. +Dos meses. +Se iniciar en 2 meses. +Y YouTube report que 150 pases subieron retos ELA. +Y Facebook, 2,5 millones de videos, y viv una increble aventura cuando visit Facebook la semana pasada, y les dije: "S cmo fue en mi casa. +No puedo imaginarme cmo pudo haber sido aqu". +"Nos dej boquiabiertos", fue todo lo que dijeron. +Y el video favorito de mi familia? +El de Bill Gates. +Porque la noche que a Pete le dieron el diagnstico, l nos dijo que iba a colocar la ELA delante de filntropos como Bill Gates, y lo hizo. +Meta nmero 1, lista. +Y ahora por el tratamiento y la cura. +Despus de todo este hielo, sabemos que fue mucho ms que desperdiciar agua helada sobre la cabeza, y en verdad me gustara dejarles un par de cosas que me gustara que recordaran. +Lo primero es que todas las maanas cuando se despierten, pueden elegir vivir su da con positivismo. +Me culpara alguien si me quedara en posicin fetal y me tapara la cabeza con las cobijas todos los das? +No, creo que nadie me culpara, pero Pete nos ha inspirado para que nos levantemos todos los das y seamos positivos y proactivos. +De hecho, descart grupos de apoyo porque todos all decan que rociar sus cspedes con qumicos era lo que les haba producido ELA, y a m me pareca que no, +y tena que apartarme del negativismo. La segunda cosa que quiero dejarles es que quien est en el centro de todo tiene que tener fortaleza mental para ponerlos all afuera. +Pete todava va a partidos de bisbol y todava se sienta con sus compaeros en el foso, y cuelga su bolsa en las rejas. +Con los muchachos, todo el tiempo ah, +-Pete, est todo bien? -S. +Y luego se lo colocan en el estmago. +Porque l quiere que vean cmo es la realidad, y que l nunca, nunca va a rendirse. +Y lo tercero que quiero dejarles: Si alguna vez atraviesan por una situacin que les parezca as de inaceptable, quiero que hurguen tan profundo como puedan y encuentren lo mejor y lo sigan. +Gracias. +Me estoy pasando de tiempo pero tengo que dejarles esto: los regalos que mi hijo me ha dado. +He tenido el honor de ser la madre de Pete Frates 29 aos. +Pete Frates ha dado inspiracin y liderando toda su vida. +Ha derramado bondad, y toda esa bondad ha regresado a l. +Camina sobre la faz de la tierra ahora y sabe por qu est aqu. +Qu regalo! +Lo segundo que mi hijo me ha dado es una misin en la vida. +Ahora s por qu estoy aqu. +Voy a salvar a mi hijo, y si no sucede a tiempo para l, voy a trabajar para que ninguna madre tenga que pasar lo que yo estoy pasando. +Y el tercer regalo que mi hijo me ha dado, el ltimo, pero no el menor, el broche de oro de ese mes milagroso, agosto de 2014, la novia que l fue a recoger la noche misma del diagnstico es ahora su esposa, y Pete y Julie me han dado una nieta, Lucy Fitzgerald Frates. +Se adelant dos semanas para cerrar con broche de oro el 31 de agosto de 2014. +Y entonces... ahora los dejo con las inspiradoras palabras que Pete le dirige a compaeros de clase, de trabajo y de equipo. +Apasinense. +Sean genuinos. +Sean tenaces. +Y no se olviden de ser grandes. +Gracias. +Imagnen que son un soldado corriendo en el campo de batalla +y que recibes un disparo en la pierna que te secciona la arteria femoral. +Ests sangrado abundantemente y el trauma puede matarte en menos de tres minutos. +Por desgracia, hasta que un mdico finalmente llegue a tratarte con lo que trae en su equipo, se pueden perder cinco minutos o ms intentando detener la presin en ese tipo de hemorragias. +Este problema no solo es un grave problema para el ejrcito sino tambin un gran problema para la comunidad mdica que intenta paliarlo, es decir, dar una solucin a esas lesiones y estabilizarlas rpidamente teniendo en cuenta sus efectos en el cuerpo. +En los ltimos cuatro aos he estado trabajando en el desarrollo de biomateriales inteligentes, que son materiales biocompatibles que ayudan a sanar el cuerpo y consiguen que las heridas cicatricen por si solas. +As que antes de pasar a eso, tenemos que examinar ms de cerca cmo funciona el cuerpo en realidad. +Todo el mundo sabe que el cuerpo est formado por clulas, +la unidad bsica de la vida. +Pero no mucha gente sabe algo ms que esto. +Resulta que sus clulas pertenecen a una red de fibras complejas, protenas y azcares conocidas como la matriz extracelular. +La MEC es en realidad esta malla que mantiene las clulas juntas, proporcionando una estructura para tus tejidos, y tambin un hogar a las clulas. +Esto les permite sentir lo que estn haciendo, dnde estn, y les dice cmo actuar y cmo comportarse. +En realidad, la matriz extracelular es diferente en cada parte del cuerpo. +As que el MEC presente en la piel difiere del MEC del hgado, y vara incluso en diferentes zonas del mismo rgano, por lo que es muy difcil tener un producto sensible a la matriz extracelular local, que es exactamente lo que estamos tratando de hacer. +Piensa, por ejemplo, en la selva. +Tiene el dosel, el sotobosque, y el suelo del bosque +y cada una de estas partes se compone de plantas variadas, y es el hogar de diversos animales. +Al igual que la matriz extracelular en 3D, que es increblemente diversa. +Adems de eso, la MEC es responsable de la cura total de las heridas, y si su cuerpo sufre algn corte, en realidad, hay que reconstruir esta MEC muy compleja para regenerarla. Por esto, una cicatriz es de hecho una MEC mal restaurada. +Detrs de m hay una animacin de la matriz extracelular. +Se ven las clulas distribuidas en esta malla complicada y a medida que avanzamos a travs del tejido, la MEC cambia. +Cualquier tecnologa existente en el mercado solo puede proporcionar una aproximacin bidimensional de la matriz extracelular, lo que significa que no se ajusta tan bien al tejido en s. +En mi primer ao en la Universidad de Nueva York, descubr que, con la ayuda de pequeos polmeros de origen vegetal se puede recubrir la herida. +As que si tienes una hemorragia como la que est detrs de m, puedes taparla con nuestro producto que al igual que los bloques de Lego +ayuda a recuperar el tejido local. Eso significa que si lo aplicas en el hgado, se convierte en algo parecido y si lo aplicas en la piel, se transforma en algo parecido. +As que al aplicar el gel el tejido local se regenera. +Este producto tiene muchsimas aplicaciones, pero bsicamente la idea es que donde quiera que se aplique tenga una capacidad de regeneracin inmediata. +Esto es una hemorragia arterial simulada advertencia sangre con una presin arterial dos veces ms alta. +Este tipo de hemorragia es increblemente traumtica, y como he dicho antes, en realidad se pueden tardar cinco minutos o ms hasta que consigues detenerla. +As que ahora esta tecnologa... gracias. +Ahora, esta tecnologa pasar a manos de veterinarios antes de enero y estamos trabajando muy duro para llevarlo a los mdicos tambin, esperemos que el prximo ao. +Pero, una vez ms, imagnen que son un soldado corriendo en el campo de batalla. +Recibes un disparo en la pierna y para evitar que desangren en menos de tres minutos, con solo sacar una pequea bolsa de gel del cinturn y pulsan un botn, podrn detener la hemorragia y empezar a recuperarse. +Muchas gracias. +Podemos reducir las muertes violentas en todo el mundo en un 50 % en las prximas tres dcadas. +Todo lo que necesitamos hacer es reducir los homicidios en un 2,3 % al ao y vamos a lograr el objetivo. +No me creen? +Bueno, los mejores epidemilogos y criminlogos del mundo parecen creer que podemos, y yo tambin, pero slo si nos concentramos en las ciudades especialmente las ms vulnerables. +Vern, he estado pensando mucho sobre esto. +En los ltimos 20 aos, he trabajado en pases y ciudades devastados por los conflictos, la violencia, el terrorismo o alguna combinacin traicionera de todas ellas. +He rastreado a los contrabandistas de armas desde Rusia a Somalia, he trabajado con los seores de la guerra, en Afganistn y el Congo, he contado cadveres en Colombia, Hait, Sri Lanka y Papua Nueva Guinea. +No hay que estar en primera lnea, para entender que nuestro planeta est saliendo de control, no? +Hay una sensacin de que la inestabilidad internacional es el nuevo estado de normalidad. +Pero quiero que observen ms de cerca, y creo que vern que la geografa de la violencia est cambiando, ya no son tanto los pases que se enfrentan a conflictos y a crmenes sino nuestras ciudades: Aleppo, Bamako, Caracas, Erbil, Mosul, Trpoli, Salvador; +la violencia est migrando a las metrpolis. +Y tal vez esto es de esperar, no? +Despus de todo, la mayora de la gente, hoy en da, vive en la ciudad, no en el campo. +Tan solo 600 ciudades, incluidas 30 megaciudades, representan dos tercios del PIB mundial. +Pero cuando se trata de ciudades, la conversacin la domina el Norte, es decir, Amrica del Norte, Europa Occidental, Australia y Japn donde la violencia est en realidad en mnimos histricos. +En consecuencia, los entusiastas de la ciudad hablan del triunfo de ella, de las clases creativas y de los alcaldes que gobiernan el mundo. +Espero que algn da, los alcaldes gobiernen el mundo pero ya saben, el hecho es, que no se oye ninguna conversacin sobre lo que est sucediendo en el Sur. +Y por Sur, me refiero a Amrica Latina, frica, Asia, donde en algunos casos, la violencia se ha intensificado, donde la infraestructura est sobrecargada, y donde, a veces, el gobierno es ms una aspiracin que una realidad. +Algunos diplomticos, expertos en desarrollo y especialistas hablan de 40 a 50 Estados inestables que contribuirn a la seguridad del siglo XXI. +Creo que sern las ciudades inestables las que definirn el futuro del orden y del desorden. +Esto se debe a que la guerra y la accin humanitaria se concentrarn en nuestras ciudades, y la lucha por el desarrollo, si se define como erradicacin de la pobreza, sistema de salud universal, retroceso del cambio climtico, se ganar o se perder en los barrios y favelas de nuestras ciudades. +Yo quiero hablarles de los cuatro megariesgos que van a definir la inestabilidad de nuestro tiempo, y si podemos hacerles frente, creo que podemos atacar el problema de la violencia mortal. +As que permtanme comenzar con unas buenas noticias. +El hecho es que vivimos en el momento ms pacfico en la historia de la humanidad. +Steven Pinker y otros han mostrado cmo la intensidad y frecuencia de los conflictos, estn en realidad en las cotas ms bajas de todos los tiempos. +Ahora, Gaza, Siria, Sudn, Ucrania, por terribles que dichos conflictos son, y son horribles, representan un pequeo bache en 50 aos de cada. +Es ms, vemos una disminucin sustancial en el ndice de los homicidios. +Manuel Eisner y otros han mostrado que, durante siglos, hemos presenciado esta reduccin impresionante de homicidios especialmente en Occidente. +La mayora de las ciudades del Norte hoy en da son 100 veces ms seguras que hace apenas 100 aos. +Estos dos hechos, la disminucin del conflicto armado y el bajo ndice de los homicidios, se encuentran entre los ms excepcionales, y no previstos logros de la historia humana, y deberamos estar emocionados, verdad? +Bueno, s, que deberamos. +Solo hay un problema: estos dos flagelos todava estn con nosotros. +525 000 personas hombres, mujeres, nios y nias mueren violentamente cada ao. +Mi investigacin junto con Keith Krause y otros muestra que entre 50 000 y 60 000 personas mueren violentamente en zonas de guerra. +El resto, casi 500 000 personas, mueren fuera de la zonas de conflicto. +En otras palabras, 10 veces ms personas mueren fuera de guerras que en ellas. +Hay ms, la violencia se mueve hacia el sur, en Amrica Latina y el Caribe, a partes de frica Central y del Sur, hasta el Oriente Medio y Asia Central. +40 de las 50 ciudades ms peligrosas en el mundo estn aqu en Amrica Latina, de los cuales 13 en Brasil, y la ms peligrosa de todas, San Pedro Sula, la segunda ciudad de Honduras, con una impresionante tasa de homicidios de 187 por cada 100 000 personas. +Eso es 23 veces el promedio mundial. +Ahora bien, si la violencia se congrega geogrficamente tambin se est reconfigurando una nueva topografa en el mundo, porque cuando se trata de ciudades, el mundo no es plano, como le gusta decir a Thomas Friedman. +Tiene puntas. +El predominio de la ciudad como el principal modo de vida urbana es uno de los ms impresionantes cambios demogrficos en la historia y todo sucede tan rpido. +Todos Uds. conocen las cifras, verdad? +Hay 7,3 mil millones de personas en el mundo hoy; habr 9,6 mil millones en 2050. +Pero consideren este hecho: en el siglo XIX, una de cada 30 personas viva en la ciudad, hoy es una de cada dos, maana, prcticamente todo el mundo vivir all. +Y esta expansin urbana no ser ni equitativa ni justa. +La gran mayora, el 90 %, ser en el sur, en las ciudades del sur. +Los gegrafos urbanos y demgrafos dicen que no es el tamao o la densidad de las ciudades lo que predice la violencia, no. +Tokio, con 35 millones de personas, es una de las ms grandes, y algunos dicen, la metrpoli ms segura del mundo. +No, es la velocidad de la urbanizacin lo que cuenta. +Yo lo llamo turbo-urbanizacin y es uno de los principales impulsores de la inestabilidad. +Cuando se imaginan la increble expansin de estas ciudades, y piensan en la turbo-urbanizacin, piensen en Karachi. +Karachi tena unos 500 000 habitantes en 1947, una ciudad animada y bulliciosa. +En la actualidad, hay 21 millones de habitantes, y adems de que representa unas tres cuartas partes del PIB de Pakistn, es tambin una de las ciudades ms violentas del sur de Asia. +Dhaka, Lagos, Kinshasa, estas ciudades son 40 veces ms grandes de lo que eran en los aos 50. +Ahora veamos Nueva York. +La Gran Manzana tard 150 aos para llegar a 8 millones de personas. +So Paulo, Ciudad de Mxico, 15 aos, para alcanzar el mismo nmero. +Qu aspecto tienen estas ciudades grandes medianas, estas mega e hper ciudades? +Cul es su perfil? +Bueno, por un lado, son jvenes. +Lo que se observa en muchas de ellas es el aumento de la poblacin joven. +De hecho, esta es una buena noticia. +Muestra la reduccin de las tasas de mortalidad infantil. +Pero el aumento de la juventud es algo que tenemos que tener en cuenta. +Y significa que la proporcin de jvenes que viven en ciudades inestables es mucho ms grande que la de los que viven en ciudades ms sanas y ricas. +En algunas ciudades inestables, la poblacin menor de 30 aos representa el 75 %. +Piense en eso: 3 de cada 4 personas son menores de 30 aos, +es como Palo Alto con esteroides. +Ahora, si nos fijamos en Mogadiscio por ejemplo el promedio de edad en Mogadiscio es de 16 aos. +Lo mismo en Dhaka, Dili y Kabul. +Y Tokio? Es 46. +El mismo valor que para la mayora de ciudades de Europa occidental. +Ahora, la juventud no es el nico factor que predice necesariamente la violencia. +Es uno de muchos, pero combinado con el desempleo juvenil, el bajo nivel educativo, y lo peor de todo, ser varn, es una proposicin mortal. +Todos estos factores de riesgo se correlacionan estadsticamente con la juventud y tienden a relacionarse con el aumento de la violencia. +Ahora, para aquellos de Uds. que son padres de hijos adolescentes, saben de lo que estoy hablando, verdad? +Imagnense a su hijo sin oficio ni beneficio con esos amigos rebeldes, por ah haciendo cabriolas. +Ahora, quiten los padres, la educacin, limiten sus posibilidades de ir a la escuela, aadan una pizca de drogas, alcohol y armas, y sintense para ver los fuegos artificiales. +Las implicaciones son asombrosas. +Aqu mismo, en Brasil, la esperanza de vida es de 73,6 aos. +Si viven en Ro, lo siento, qutense 2 aos inmediatamente. +Pero si eres joven, sin educacin, no tienes trabajo, eres negro y varn tu esperanza de vida acaba de reducirse a menos de 60 aos de edad. +Hay una razn por la que la juventud y la violencia son los asesinos nmero uno en este pas. +Bueno, no todo es miseria y desolacin en nuestras ciudades. +Despus de todo, las ciudades son los focos de innovacin dinamismo, prosperidad, diversin y conectividad. +Son los centros donde la gente inteligente converge. +Y estos jvenes que acabo de mencionar son ms conocedores de los medios digitales y la tecnologa que nunca. +Y esta explosin de la Internet y la tecnologa mvil significa que la brecha digital que separa el Norte del Sur, los pases entre ellos y dentro de ellos, est en descenso. +Pero como hemos escuchado tantas veces, estas nuevas tecnologas son una herramienta de doble filo. +Tomemos el ejemplo de la aplicacin de la ley. +Policas de todo el mundo comienzan a usar sensores remotos y la tele deteccin de datos para anticipar el crimen. Algunas fuerzas oficiales son capaces de predecir +la violencia criminal incluso antes de que suceda. +La escena del crimen en el futuro ya est aqu, y tenemos que tener cuidado. +Tenemos que gestionar los problemas de seguridad pblica contra los derechos de privacidad de los individuos. +Pero no solo la polica est innovando. +Escuchamos de actividades increbles por parte de grupos ciudadanos que estn participando en acciones colectivas locales y globales y esto est dando lugar a protestas digitales y una verdadera revolucin. +Lo ms preocupante son las bandas criminales que estn ya en lnea y empiezan a colonizar el ciberespacio. +En Ciudad Jurez, en Mxico, donde he estado trabajando, grupos como los Zetas y el crtel de Sinaloa estn secuestrando los medios sociales. +Los estn usando para reclutar, vender sus productos, coaccionar, intimidar y matar. +La violencia se est convirtiendo virtual. +Esta es una muestra parcial de un movimiento rpido y una situacin dinmica y compleja. +Quiero decir, hay otras megariesgos que definirn la inestabilidad en nuestro tiempo, la desigualdad de ingresos, la pobreza, el cambio climtico, la impunidad. +Pero nos enfrentamos a un profundo dilema donde algunas ciudades prosperarn e impulsarn el crecimiento mundial y otras no lo lograrn y lo ralentizarn. +Si queremos cambiar de rumbo, hay que empezar a hablar. +No podemos concentrarnos solo en aquellas ciudades que funcionan como las de Singapur, Kuala Lumpur, Dubi o Shanghi. +Tenemos que traer a las ciudades inestables a la mesa de debate. +Una forma de hacerlo son los acuerdos de hermanamiento de las ciudades inestables con las ms sanas y ricas, iniciar un proceso de aprendizaje y colaboracin e intercambiar prcticas, de lo que funciona y lo que no funciona. +Podemos centrarnos en ciudades pero tambin, lugares peligrosos. +El lugar y la ubicacin contribuye mucho a la formacin de la violencia urbana. +Saban que entre el 1 % y el 2 % de las direcciones de cualquier ciudad inestable puede predecir el 99 % de los crmenes violentos? +Tomemos el caso de So Paulo, donde he estado trabajando. +Ha pasado de ser la ciudad ms peligrosa de Brasil a una de las ms seguras, y lo ha logrado doblando la inversin en la recopilacin de informacin, la cartografa de los puntos calientes, la reforma policial y en el proceso, el homicidio se redujo un 70 % en poco ms de 10 aos. +Tambin tenemos que centrarnos en la gente peligrosa. +Es trgico, pero siendo joven, desempleado, inculto y varn aumenta el riesgo de ser asesinado y de asesinar. +Debemos poner fin a este ciclo de violencia y hacerlo temprano, con nuestros hijos, nuestros nios ms pequeos, valorndolos y sin estigmatizarlos. +Han pasado cosas maravillosas en las que he estado involucrado en Kingston, Jamaica y aqu en Ro, donde la educacin, el empleo, y la recreacin puestas a la disposicin de estos grupos de riesgo ha tenido como resultado, el descenso del ndice de la violencia en las comunidades. +Tenemos que hacer las ciudades ms seguras, ms inclusivas y habitables para todo el mundo. +El hecho es que la cohesin social cuenta, +la movilidad es importante en nuestras ciudades. +Tenemos que deshacernos de este modelo de segregacin, exclusin y de ciudades con muros. +Mi ejemplo favorito de cmo hacer esto viene de Medelln. +Y por ltimo, est la tecnologa. +La tecnologa promete enormemente pero tambin trae peligros. +Hemos visto ejemplos aqu de innovaciones sorprendentes y gran parte de ella procedente de esta sala. La polica est involucrada en anlisis predictivos, +los ciudadanos en soluciones de crowdsourcing, +incluso mi grupo est involucrado en el desarrollo de aplicaciones para proporcionar una mayor responsabilidad de la polica y aumentar la seguridad de los ciudadanos. +Pero tenemos que tener cuidado. +Si tengo un solo mensaje para ustedes es este: no hay nada inevitable sobre la violencia mortal, y podemos hacer que nuestras ciudades sean ms seguras. +Amigos, tenemos una oportunidad nica de reducir la violencia homicida a la mitad durante nuestra vida. +As que tengo solo una pregunta, qu estamos esperando? +Gracias. +En este oasis de inteligencia que es TED y ante Uds. esta noche, me presento como experto en arrastrar cosas pesadas por lugares glidos. +He estado dirigiendo expediciones polares la mayor parte de mi vida adulta, y el mes pasado, mi compaero Tarka L'Herpiniere y yo terminamos la expedicin ms ambiciosa jams intentada. +De hecho, me siento como si hubiera sido transportado directamente aqu despus de 4 meses en medio de la nada, entre gruidos y palabrotas, directamente al escenario de TED. +Se pueden imaginar que la transicin no ha sido del todo perfecta. +Uno de los efectos secundarios ms interesantes parece ser que mi memoria a corto plazo est del todo daada. +As que apunt algunas ideas para evitar el exceso de gruidos y groseras en los prximos 17 minutos. +Esta es la primera charla que doy acerca de esta expedicin, y aunque no estbamos secuenciando genomas o construyendo telescopios espaciales, esta es una historia acerca de cmo lo hemos dado todo para lograr algo que no se haba hecho nunca antes. +As que espero que encuentren algunos elementos de reflexin. +Fue un viaje, una expedicin a la Antrtida, el continente ms fro, con ms vientos, ms seco y mayores alturas de la Tierra. +Es un lugar fascinante. Es enorme. +Dos veces ms extenso que Australia, un continente que tiene el mismo tamao que China e India juntas. +De paso quiero aadir que he imaginado algo interesante en los ltimos das, algo que espero que Chris Hadfield pueda mencionar en TED en unos pocos aos, conversaciones del estilo: "Oh, Antrtida! Impresionante. +Mi marido y yo nos fuimos a la Antrtida con Lindblad para nuestro aniversario..." +O, "Genial! Fueron all para el maratn?" +Nuestro viaje fue, de hecho, 69 maratones consecutivas en 105 das, un viaje de 3000 km ida y vuelta a pie, de la costa antrtica al Polo Sur y de regreso. +Con esta marcha hemos batido el rcord del viaje polar a pie ms largo de la historia por ms de 640 kilmetros. +Para quienes viven en la regin de la Baha de Vancouver, es lo mismo que caminar desde aqu hasta San Francisco y luego dar la vuelta y volver caminando. +Visto como un viaje de campamento fue uno de los largos, y uno que he visto resumido sucintamente aqu en las benditas pginas de Business Insider Malasia. +["Dos exploradores acaban de terminar una expedicin polar que mat a todos los que lo intentaron la ltima vez"] Chris Hadfield habl elocuentemente sobre el miedo y sobre las posibilidades de xito, y de hecho las probabilidades de sobrevivir. +De las 9 personas que haban intentado hacer este viaje antes que nosotros, ninguna lleg al Polo y regres, y 5 murieron en el intento. +Este es el capitn Robert Falcon Scott. +Lider el ltimo equipo que intent esta expedicin. +Scott y su rival Sir Ernest Shackleton, dirigieron, por una dcada, expediciones donde se disputaron el puesto de llegar primero al Polo Sur, para trazar y cartografiar el interior de la Antrtida, un lugar del que, por aquel entonces, se saba menos que de la superficie de la Luna, que podamos ver a travs de telescopios. +La Antrtida era, en su mayor parte, hace un siglo, un terreno inexplorado. +Algunos conocen la historia. +La ltima, la Expedicin Terra Nova de Scott del 1910, comenz como una gran aventura al estilo asedio. +Tena un gran equipo que utilizaba ponis, perros, tractores con motores de gasolina, que programaba y enterraba depsitos de alimentos y combustible con la ayuda de los cuales su ltimo equipo de 5 hombres lleg al Polo, para luego volver y regresar a la costa esquiando y a pie. +Scott con su equipo de 5 hombres lleg al Polo Sur en enero de 1912 para descubrir que haba sido vencido por el equipo noruego de Roald Amundsen que montaba en trineos de perros. +El equipo de Scott viajaba a pie. +Y durante ms de un siglo este viaje ha quedado sin terminar. +El equipo de 5 hombres de Scott muri en el viaje de vuelta. +Y durante la ltima dcada, haba estado preguntndome por qu. +Cmo es que este desafo segua sin superarse? +El equipo de Scott cubri ms de 2500 km a pie. +Nadie se ha acercado a esta distancia desde entonces. +As que ese era un reto para la resistencia humana, el esfuerzo humano, un logro deportivo, sin duda en el clima ms inhspito de la Tierra. +Era como si el rcord de la maratn hubiera permanecido imbatible desde 1912. +Y, por supuesto, una extraa y predecible combinacin de curiosidad, terquedad, y probablemente, arrogancia, me llevaron a pensar que podra ser el hombre adecuado para terminar el trabajo. +A diferencia de la expedicin de Scott, ramos solo 2 en el equipo, que partimos de la costa de Antrtida en octubre del ao pasado, transportndolo todo nosotros mismos, un proceso que Scott llamaba "acarreo humano". +Cuando digo que era como caminar desde aqu a San Francisco y volver, me refiero a que era como arrastrar algo que pesaba un peln ms que el jugador ms pesado de la NFL. +Nuestros trineos pesaban 200 kilos, o 440 libras cada una, a la salida, el mismo peso que poda llevar el ms dbil de los ponis de Scott. +Al principio, avanzbamos un promedio de 800 metros por hora. +Tal vez la razn por la que nadie intent hacer este viaje hasta ahora, durante ms de un siglo, fue que nadie haba sido tan estpido como para intentarlo. +Y aunque no puedo decir que estbamos explorando el continente a la autntica manera eduardiana, en el sentido de que no estbamos dando nombre a ninguna montaa o cartografiando valles inexplorados, creo que entramos en territorio desconocido en lo que a la condicin humana respecta. +Si en el futuro se descubre que existe un rea del cerebro humano que se ilumina cuando uno se maldice a s mismo, yo no me sorprendera en absoluto. +Uds. han odo que en promedio los estadounidenses pasan el 90 % de su vida en los interiores. +No estuvimos entre 4 paredes durante casi 4 meses. +No vimos una puesta de sol tampoco. +Fueron 24 horas de luz. +Las condiciones de vida fueron bastante espartanas. +Me cambi de ropa interior 3 veces en 105 das y Tarka y yo compartamos menos de 3 m cuadrados de tienda de campaa. +Aunque s tuvimos a nuestro alcance tecnologa que Scott nunca pudo haberse imaginado. +Escribamos en nuestro blog cada noche en directo desde la tienda de campaa, a travs de un ordenador porttil y un transmisor satelital a medida, utilizando la energa solar del panel fotovoltaico flexible montado encima de la tienda. +Escribir era importante para m. +De nio me encantaba la literatura de aventuras y de exploraciones, y creo que todos hemos visto aqu esta semana la importancia y el poder de la narracin. +As que tuvimos tecnologa del siglo XXI, pero la realidad es que los desafos a los que Scott se enfrent fueron los mismos a los que nos enfrentamos nosotros: el clima y lo que Scott llamaba deslizamiento, la cantidad de friccin entre los trineos y la nieve. +Las temperaturas ms bajas que sufrimos por el viento fueron de -55 grados y tuvimos visibilidad cero, lo que se llama "blanco total", durante gran parte de nuestro viaje. +Caminamos a lo largo y a lo ancho de uno de los glaciares ms peligrosos del mundo, el glaciar Beardmore. +Tiene 180 kilmetros de largo, y est cubierto en su mayor parte por el llamado hielo azul. +Es una superficie hermosa, brillante, de color azul-acero, cubierta de miles y miles de grietas, profundas grietas en el hielo glacial de hasta 60 metros de profundidad. +Los aviones no pueden aterrizar aqu, as que aqu estuvimos en situacin de riesgo, porque tcnicamente, es cuando menos oportunidades de rescate tenamos. +Llegamos al Polo Sur despus de 61 das de camino, con un solo da de descanso debido al mal tiempo, y lamento decir que sent una especie de decepcin. +Hay una base estadounidense permanente, la Estacin Amundsen-Scott South Pole en el Polo Sur. +Tienen una pista de aterrizaje, un comedor, duchas con agua caliente, una oficina de correos, una tienda para turistas, una cancha de baloncesto que funciona tambin como sala de cine. +As que es un poco diferente hoy en da, y tambin hay hectreas de basura. +Creo que es maravilloso que los humanos pueden vivir all 365 das del ao con hamburguesas y duchas de agua caliente y cines, pero parece que tambin producen un montn de cajas de cartn vacas. +A la izquierda de esta fotografa, varias hectreas de basura a la espera de ser recogida y llevada lejos del Polo Sur. +Pero tambin hay un poste en el Polo Sur, y llegamos all a pie, sin ayuda, sin ningn apoyo, por la ruta ms difcil, 1450 km en un tiempo rcord, acarreando ms peso que nadie en la historia. +Y si hubiramos parado all y vuelto a casa en avin, lo que sin duda hubiera sido lo ms sensato, entonces mi charla terminara aqu y le pondra fin con algo como esto: +Si tienen el equipo adecuado, las herramientas adecuadas, la tecnologa adecuada, y si tienen suficiente confianza en s mismos y suficiente determinacin, entonces cualquier cosa es posible. +Pero luego empezamos el viaje de regreso, y aqu es donde las cosas se ponen interesantes. +All estbamos, en lo alto de la meseta antrtica, a ms de 3 km de altura, con mucho viento, mucho fro y sequedad, estbamos agotados. +Es una forma muy sutil de tortura abstenerse de comer hasta al punto de la inanicin da tras da, a la vez que se arrastra un trineo lleno de comida. +Estuve durante aos escribiendo textos locuaces en las propuestas de patrocinio, acerca de superar los lmites de la resistencia humana, pero en realidad, estar en aquel lugar fue de hecho muy aterrador. +Antes de llegar al Polo tuvimos dos semanas con el viento de cara, lo que nos retras. +Como resultado, pasamos varios das comiendo solo media racin. +Tenamos una cantidad finita de alimentos disponibles en los trineos para este viaje as que tratamos de resolverlo reduciendo el consumo de caloras a la mitad. +Como resultado, nos volvimos hipoglicmicos, los niveles de azcar en la sangre disminuyeron da tras da, y nos volvimos cada vez ms sensibles al fro extremo. +Tarka tom esta foto de m una noche tras casi desmayarme por hipotermia. +Los dos sufrimos ataques recurrentes de hipotermia algo que no haba experimentado antes, y era muy aleccionador por cierto. +Por mucho que a uno le guste pensar, como lo hice yo, que es el tipo de persona que no se rinde, que har frente a las dificultades, la hipotermia no te deja muchas opciones. +Uno se vuelve totalmente incapaz. +Es como ser un nio borracho. +Es pattico. +Recuerdo que solo quera acostarme y dejarlo ya. +Era una extraa y peculiar sensacin, y una verdadera sorpresa para m sentirme dbil hasta ese punto. +Y entonces nos quedamos del todo sin comida, a 75 km distancia del primer depsito que enterramos en nuestro viaje de ida. +Disponamos de 10 depsitos, literalmente enterramos alimentos y combustible; el combustible era para la cocina, para derretir la nieve y conseguir agua. Me vi obligado a tomar la decisin de llamar para pedir provisiones por avin, que nos trajo alimentos para 8 das para ayudarnos a cubrir esa brecha. +Tardaron 12 horas hasta que llegaron desde la otra punta de la Antrtida. +Pedir ese avin fue una de las decisiones ms difciles de mi vida. +Y me siento como quien ha hecho trampa y est aqu luciendo tripa. +He engordado 13 kilos en las ltimas tres semanas. +Esa hambre me ha dejado una cicatriz mental muy interesante, por eso estoy aspirado cada bufete de hotel que puedo encontrar. +Pero estbamos realmente hambrientos y en bastante mal estado. +No me arrepiento de la llamada por un segundo, porque estoy aqu con vida, con todos los dedos intactos, contando esta historia. +Pero recibir ayuda externa nunca fue parte del plan, y es algo con lo que mi ego todava est luchando. +Este haba sido el sueo ms grande que haba tenido, y era casi perfecto. +En el camino de regreso a la costa, los crampones los picos de las botas de hielo que tenamos para cruzar el hielo azul del glaciar se rompieron en la cima de Beardmore. +Nos quedaban 160 kilmetros cuesta abajo por este hielo azul duro como una piedra y muy resbaladizo. +Tenamos que repararlos casi cada hora. +Para que se hagan una idea del tamao, esta es la vista a la boca del glaciar Beardmore. +Todo Manhattan podra caber en la brecha que se ve en el horizonte. +Hay 30 kilmetros entre el Monte Hope y el Monte Kiffin. +Nunca me he sentido tan pequeo como en la Antrtida. +Cuando llegamos abajo, a la boca del glaciar, encontramos nieve fresca cubriendo las decenas de grietas profundas. +Uno de los hombres de Shackleton describi este tipo de terreno al cruzarlo como como caminar sobre el techo de cristal de una estacin de tren. +Camos por ellas ms veces de lo que puedo recordar, con solo poner un esqu o una bota en la nieve. +De vez en cuando caamos y nos hundamos hasta los hombros pero por suerte nunca ms profundo que eso. +Y hace menos de 5 semanas, despus de 105 das, cruzamos esta lnea de meta extraamente desfavorable, en la costa de la isla de Ross en el territorio de Nueva Zelanda en la Antrtida. +Se ve el hielo en primer plano y como rocas desmoronadas al fondo. +Detrs de nosotros, una ininterrumpida pista de esqu de casi 2900 kilmetros. +Habamos hecho el viaje polar ms largo realizado a pie, algo con lo que habamos soado durante ms de una dcada. +Hay muy pocos signos superficiales de lo que he estado haciendo. +He engordado 13 kilos. +Tengo unas cicatrices muy pequeas, quizs cubiertas ahora de maquillaje, +una en la nariz, una en cada mejilla, por donde tena las gafas, pero por dentro, de hecho, soy una persona muy diferente. +Sinceramente, la Antrtida me desafi y me aleccion tan profundamente tanto que no estoy seguro de que jams pueda describirlo con palabras. +Todava estoy intentando conectar mis pensamientos. +Que estoy aqu contando esta historia es una prueba de que todos podemos lograr grandes cosas, a travs de la ambicin, a travs de la pasin, por pura terquedad, por negarse a renunciar, y porque si sueas con algo lo suficiente, como dijo Sting, de hecho aquello puede volverse realidad. +Pero tambin estoy aqu parado diciendo, han odo este clich acerca de que el viaje, es ms importante que el destino? +Hay algo de verdad en eso. +Mucha gente me pregunta, qu sigue? +Ahora mismo estoy muy feliz recuperndome y disfrutando de los bufetes de hotel. +Pero como Bob Hope dijo, me siento muy humilde, pero creo que tengo la fuerza de carcter para luchar contra ello. Gracias. +2014 es un ao muy especial para m: 20 aos como consultor, 20 aos de matrimonio, y cumplo 50 aos en un mes. +Lo que quiere decir que nac en 1964 en un pequeo pueblo de Alemania. +Era un da gris de noviembre y yo ya deba haber nacido. +La sala de maternidad del hospital estaba muy atareada porque nacieron muchos bebs ese da gris de noviembre. +De hecho, 1964 fue el ao con la tasa de natalidad ms alta en Alemania: ms de 1,3 millones. +El ao pasado, solo hubo 600 000 nacimientos, la mitad de entonces. +Lo que se ve aqu es la pirmide de edad alemana, y all, el pequeo punto negro en la parte superior, soy yo. +En rojo, se puede ver la poblacin en edad potencial de trabajar, las personas mayores de 15 y menores de 65, y en realidad solo estoy interesado en esta rea roja. +Hagamos una simulacin sencilla de cmo esta estructura se desarrollar durante los prximos aos. +Como pueden ver, el pico se mueve hacia la derecha, y yo, con muchos otros baby boomers, me retirar en 2030. +Por cierto, no necesito conocer las tasas de natalidad para predecir esta rea roja. +El rea roja, la poblacin en edad de trabajar para el 2030, ya est hoy grabada en piedra, excepto por tasas de migracin mucho ms altas. +Y si se compara esta rea roja en 2030, con el rea roja en 2014, es mucho, mucho ms pequea. +Antes de mostrarles el resto del mundo, qu significa esto para Alemania? +Lo que sabemos de esta imagen es que la fuerza laboral, las personas que proveen la mano de obra, disminuir en Alemania y lo har de forma significativa. +Ahora, qu pasa con la demanda de trabajo? +Ah es donde la cosa se complica. +Como quiz sepan, la respuesta favorita del consultor a cualquier pregunta es: "Eso depende". +As que yo dira que depende. +No queramos pronosticar el futuro. +Demasiada especulacin. +Hicimos algo ms. +Nos fijamos en el PIB y el crecimiento de la productividad de Alemania en los ltimos 20 aos y calculamos el siguiente escenario: si Alemania quiere seguir con este PIB y productividad creciente, podramos calcular directamente cuntas personas necesitara Alemania para apoyar este crecimiento. +Y esa es la lnea verde: la demanda de trabajo. +As que Alemania se encontrar con una gran escasez de talento muy rpidamente. +Faltarn 8 millones de personas, que es ms del 20 % de nuestra fuerza de trabajo actual, nmeros grandes, nmeros muy grandes. +Calculamos varios escenarios, y la imagen siempre se vea as. +Para reducir la diferencia, Alemania tiene que aumentar significativamente la migracin, atraer muchas ms mujeres a la fuerza laboral, aumentar la edad de jubilacin, que por cierto se baj este ao, y todas estas medidas a la vez. +Si Alemania falla, Alemania se estancar. +No vamos a crecer ms. Por qu? +Porque los trabajadores que pueden generar este crecimiento no estn all, +Y las compaas buscarn talento en otro lugar. +Pero dnde lo harn? +Simulamos la fuerza laboral y la demanda de trabajo para las 15 mayores economas del mundo, que representan ms del 70 % del PIB mundial, y el panorama general para el 2020 luce as. +El color azul indica un excedente laboral, el rojo indica un dficit de mano de obra, y el gris son los pases que estn en el lmite. +En 2020, todava vemos un excedente laboral en algunos pases, como Italia, Francia, EE.UU., pero esta imagen va a cambiar drsticamente para el 2030. +Para el ao 2030, nos enfrentaremos a una crisis de mano de obra mundial en la mayora de nuestras economas ms grandes, incluyendo tres de los cuatro pases BRIC. +China, con su anterior poltica de un solo hijo, va a verse afectada, al igual que Brasil y Rusia. +Para ser sinceros, en realidad, la situacin ser an ms difcil. +Lo que se ve aqu son promedios. +Nosotros los despromediamos y los separamos en diferentes niveles de cualificacin, y lo que encontramos fue dficits an mayores para las personas de alta cualificacin y un supervit parcial para los trabajadores poco cualificados. +As que adems de una escasez de mano de obra en general, nos enfrentaremos a un gran desfase de capacidades en el futuro, y esto significa enormes desafos en trminos de educacin, capacitacin, mejora de las cualificaciones de los gobiernos y las empresas. +Luego nos fijamos en los robots, la automatizacin y la tecnologa. +Cambiar la tecnologa la situacin y aumentar la productividad? +La respuesta corta sera que nuestras cifras ya incluyen un crecimiento significativo de la productividad impulsada por la tecnologa. +Una respuesta larga sera algo como esto. +Tomemos Alemania de nuevo. +Los alemanes tienen una cierta reputacin en el mundo en cuando a productividad. +En los aos 90, trabaj en nuestra oficina de Boston durante casi dos aos, y cuando me fui, un antiguo socio me dijo, literalmente, "Manda ms de estos alemanes, trabajan como mquinas". +Eso fue 1998. +Diecisis aos ms tarde, probablemente dira lo contrario. +"Manda ms de estas mquinas. Trabajan como alemanes". +La tecnologa reemplazar muchos puestos de trabajo, puestos de trabajo normales. +No solo en la industria de la produccin, tambin los trabajos de oficina estn en riesgo y podran ser reemplazados por robots, con inteligencia artificial, los grandes datos o la automatizacin. +La pregunta clave no es si la tecnologa sustituir a algunos trabajadores, sino, cundo, con qu rapidez y en qu medida? +O en otras palabras, la tecnologa nos ayudar a resolver esta crisis laboral global? +S y no. +Esta es una versin ms sofisticada de depende. +Tomemos la industria automotriz como ejemplo, ah ya trabajan ms del 40 % de los robots industriales y la automatizacin ya ha tenido lugar. +En 1980, menos del 10 % del costo de produccin de un coche era debido a las partes electrnicas. +Hoy en da, este nmero es de ms del 30 % y crecer a ms del 50 % para el 2030. +Y estas nuevas piezas electrnicas requieren nuevas habilidades y han creado muchos puestos de trabajo nuevos, como el ingeniero de sistemas cognitivo que optimiza la interaccin entre el conductor y el sistema electrnico. +En 1980, nadie tena la ms remota idea de que ese trabajo existira. +De hecho, el nmero total de personas involucradas en la produccin de un automvil solo ha variado ligeramente en las ltimas dcadas, a pesar de los robots y la automatizacin. +As que qu significa esto? +S, la tecnologa sustituir muchos puestos de trabajo, pero tambin veremos emerger nuevos puestos de trabajo y nuevas cualificaciones, y eso significa que la tecnologa va a empeorar la disparidad en cualificaciones. +Y este tipo de despromedio revela el desafo crucial para los gobiernos y las empresas. +As que las personas de alta cualificacin, los talentos, sern lo importante en la prxima dcada. +Si son un recurso escaso, tenemos que comprenderlos mucho mejor. +Estn realmente dispuestos a trabajar en el extranjero? +Cules son sus preferencias laborales? +Para averiguarlo, este ao llevamos a cabo una encuesta mundial entre los ms de 200 000 solicitantes de empleo de 189 pases. +La migracin es sin duda una medida clave para reducir la diferencia, al menos en el corto plazo, as que preguntamos acerca de la movilidad. +Ms del 60 % de estos 200 000 buscadores de empleo estn dispuestos a trabajar en el extranjero. +Para m, un nmero sorprendentemente alto. +Si nos fijamos en los empleados de 21 a 30 aos de edad, este nmero es an mayor. +Si se distribuye este nmero por pases, s, el mundo es mvil, pero solo en parte. +Los pases con menos movilidad son Rusia, Alemania y los EE.UU. +A dnde les gustara mudarse a estas personas? +El nmero 7 es Australia, el 28 % se imagina mudndose all. +Luego Francia, Suiza, Alemania, Canad, Reino Unido, y la mejor opcin en todo el mundo es los EE.UU. +Cules son las preferencias laborales de estas 200 000 personas? +Qu es lo que buscan? +De una lista de 26 preferencias, el salario es solo la nmero 8. +Las 4 primeras tratan sobre la cultura. +La cuarta, tener una buena relacin con el jefe; tercera, disfrutar de un buen equilibrio entre la vida laboral y personal; segunda, una buena relacin con los colegas, y la principal prioridad en todo el mundo es ser reconocido por su trabajo. +Me darn las gracias? +No solo una vez al ao con el pago anual de la prima, sino cada da. +Y ahora, la crisis laboral global se vuelve muy personal. +La gente est buscando reconocimiento. +No buscamos todos reconocimiento en nuestros puestos de trabajo? +Permtanme conectar los puntos. +Nos enfrentaremos a una crisis de mano de obra mundial que consiste en una escasez de trabajo global adems de un enorme desajuste de competencias, ms un desafo cultural grande. +Y esta crisis de fuerza de trabajo mundial se est acercando muy rpido. +Justo en este momento, estamos en el punto de inflexin. +Entonces, qu podemos hacer nosotros, los gobiernos, las empresas? +Cada empresa, y tambin cada pas, necesita una estrategia basada en la gente, y actuar sobre ella de inmediato, y una estrategia de este tipo se compone de 4 partes. +Primera, un plan sobre cmo predecir la oferta y la demanda de los diferentes trabajos y cualificaciones. +La planificacin de personal ser ms importante que la financiera. +Segunda, un plan para atraer a grandes personas: la generacin Y, las mujeres y tambin a los jubilados. +Tercera, un plan para educarles y mejorar sus cualificaciones. +Hay un enorme desafo por delante de perfeccionamiento profesional. +Y cuarta, cmo retener a los mejores profesionales, o en otras palabras, cmo hacer realidad una cultura de reconocimiento y relacin. +Sin embargo, un factor subyacente fundamental es cambiar nuestras actitudes. +Los empleados son recursos, son activos, no costos, ni nmina, ni mquinas, ni siquiera los alemanes. +Gracias. +Hace 10 aos, recib una llamada telefnica que cambi mi vida. +En ese momento, era cardiloga de la UCLA, especializada en tcnicas de imagen cardacas. +La llamada vena de un veterinario del zoolgico de Los ngeles. +Una chimpanc de edad avanzada haba despertado con parlisis facial y estaban preocupados de que fuera una apopleja. +Me pidieron que fuera al zoolgico y escaneara el corazn del animal para buscar una posible causa cardaca. +Debo decir, los zoolgicos de EE.UU. tienen personal veterinario altamente calificado y certificado para cuidar eficientemente a sus pacientes animales. +Pero de vez en cuando, consultan a la comunidad mdica de humanos, particularmente para algunas consultas de especialidad, y yo tuve suerte de ser invitada a ayudar. +Y este procedimiento, que he hecho en muchos pacientes humanos, era idntico, con la excepcin de esa pata y esa cola. +Generalmente, trabajaba en el UCLA Medical Center con los mdicos, discutiendo sntomas, diagnsticos y tratamientos para mis pacientes humanos. Pero algunas veces, trabajaba en el zoolgico de Los ngeles con veterinarios, discutiendo sntomas, diagnsticos y tratamientos para sus pacientes animales. +Y de vez en cuando, en el mismo da, haca rondas en el UCLA Medical Center y en el zoolgico de Los ngeles. +Y esto es lo que empez a ser muy claro para m: +Los mdicos y los veterinarios esencialmente atendan los mismos trastornos en animales y pacientes humanos: insuficiencia cardaca congestiva, tumores cerebrales, leucemia, diabetes, artritis, ELA, cncer de mama, incluso sndromes psiquitricos como depresin, ansiedad, compulsiones, trastornos de la alimentacin y autolesiones. +Debo hacer una confesin. +Aunque estudi fisiologa comparada y biologa evolutiva en la universidad, Incluso hice mi tesis de grado sobre la teora darwiniana, aprender sobre el solapamiento significativo entre los trastornos de animales y humanos, fue una llamada de atencin necesaria para m. +As que empec a preguntarme, con todos estos solapamientos, cmo es que nunca haba pensado en preguntarle a un veterinario, o consultar la literatura veterinaria, para entender ms a mis pacientes humanos? +Por qu nunca, ninguno de mis amigos y colegas mdicos a quien les pregunt, haban asistido a una conferencia veterinaria? +Por lo dems, por qu no es una sorpresa? +Quiero decir, todos los mdicos aceptan alguna conexin biolgica entre los animales y los seres humanos. +Todos los medicamentos que recetamos o que nos hemos dado a nosotros mismos o que le hemos dado a nuestras familias primero se probaron en un animal. +Pero hay algo muy diferente en dar a un animal un medicamento o una enfermedad humana y que el animal desarrolle insuficiencia cardaca congestiva o diabetes o cncer de mama por s mismo. +Tal vez algo de la sorpresa proviene de la creciente separacin en nuestro mundo entre lo urbano y lo no urbano. +Hemos odo hablar de estos nios de la ciudad que creen que la lana crece en los rboles o que el queso proviene de una planta. +Bueno, los hospitales humanos de hoy en da, ms y ms, se estn convirtiendo en catedrales brillantes de la tecnologa +y esto crea una distancia psicolgica entre los pacientes humanos tratados all y los pacientes animales que viven en los ocanos las granjas y las selvas. +Pero creo que hay una razn an ms profunda. +Los mdicos y los cientficos, aceptamos intelectualmente que nuestra especie, Homo sapiens, no es ms que otra especie, no ms nica o especial que cualquier otra. +Pero en nuestros corazones, no lo creemos completamente. +Lo siento yo misma cuando escucho a Mozart o cuando veo fotos del Mars Rover en mi MacBook. +Siento esa idea de la excepcionalidad humana, aun cuando reconozco el costo de aislarnos cientficamente a nosotros mismos como una especie superior, aparte. +Bueno, lo estoy intentando en estos das. +Cuando ahora veo a un paciente humano, siempre me pregunto: qu saben los mdicos de los animales acerca de este problema que yo no s? +y podra tratar mejor a mi paciente humano si lo viera como un paciente animal humano? +Aqu hay algunos ejemplos de conexiones interesantes que este modo de pensar me ha dado. +Insuficiencia cardaca inducida por miedo. +Alrededor del ao 2000, los cardilogos humanos "descubrieron" la insuficiencia cardaca inducida emocionalmente. +Se describi en un padre apostador, que haba perdido los ahorros de su vida en una tirada de dados. En una novia que haban plantado en el altar. +Pero resulta que, este "nuevo" diagnstico humano no era ni nuevo, ni tampoco era exclusivamente humano. +Los veterinarios haba diagnosticado, tratado e incluso prevenido sntomas inducidos emocionalmente en animales, desde monos a flamencos, desde ciervos a conejos, desde la dcada de 1970. +Cuntas vidas humanas podran haberse salvado si este conocimiento veterinario hubiera estado en las manos de paramdicos y cardilogos? +Autolesin. +Algunos pacientes humanos se hieren a s mismos. +Algunos se arrancan el cabello, otros realmente se cortan a s mismos. +Algunos pacientes animales tambin se daan a s mismos. +Hay pjaros que se arrancan plumas. +Hay corceles que repetidamente se muerden sus flancos hasta sangrar. +Pero los veterinarios tienen mtodos muy especficos y muy eficaces para tratar e incluso prevenir la autolesin en sus animales que se autolesionan. +No se debera ponerse este conocimiento veterinario en manos de psicoterapeutas y padres y pacientes que luchan contra la autolesin? +Depresin postparto y psicosis postparto. +A veces, poco despus de dar a luz, algunas mujeres se deprimen, y a veces se deprimen mucho e incluso se vuelven psicticas. +Pueden descuidar su recin nacido, y en algunos casos extremos, incluso daar al nio. +Los veterinarios equinos tambin saben que de vez en cuando, una yegua, poco despus de dar a luz, descuidar el potro, negndose a lactar, y en algunos casos, patean al potro, incluso hasta la muerte. +Pero los veterinarios han ideado una intervencin para tratar este sndrome de rechazo al potro que implica el aumento de la oxitocina en la yegua, +la oxitocina es la hormona de la unin, y esto lleva a un renovado inters, por parte de la yegua, en su potro. +No debera esta informacin estar en manos de obstetras y gineclogos y los mdicos de familia y pacientes que estn luchando con la depresin postparto y la psicosis? +A pesar de esta promesa, por desgracia, el abismo entre nuestros campos sigue siendo grande. +Para explicarlo, me temo que voy a tener que sacar unos trapos al sol. +Algunos mdicos pueden ser unos verdaderos esnobs con los profesionales que no son mdicos. +Estoy hablando de los dentistas y lo optometristas y los psiclogos, pero quizs especialmente los mdicos de los animales. +As que no culpo a los veterinarios por sentirse molestos por la condescendencia y la ignorancia de mi profesin. +Pero esto es de los veterinarios: Cmo llamas a un veterinario que solo puede atender a una especie? +Un mdico. Cerrar la brecha se ha convertido en una pasin para m, y estoy haciendo esto a travs de programas como Darwin en Rondas de la UCLA, donde estamos trayendo expertos en animales y bilogos evolutivos y los juntamos en nuestros equipos mdicos con nuestros pasantes y nuestros residentes. +Y a travs de las conferencias Zoobiquity, donde juntamos las escuelas de medicina, con las escuelas de veterinaria para discusiones colaborativas sobre las enfermedades y los trastornos que comparten los pacientes humanos y los animales. +En los EUA y ahora internacionalmente, en las conferencias Zoobiquity los mdicos y los veterinarios dejan sus actitudes y sus preconcepciones en la puerta y entran juntos como colegas, como compaeros, como mdicos. +Despus de todo, nosotros los humanos tambin somos animales, y es hora de que nosotros los mdicos aceptemos la naturaleza animal de nosotros y de nuestros pacientes y nos unamos a los veterinarios en un enfoque de la salud expandido de las especies. +Porque resulta que, algunos de las mejores y ms humanistas medicinas se practica por los mdicos cuyos pacientes no son humanos. +Y una de las mejores maneras en que podemos tratar al paciente humano es prestando mucha atencin a cmo todos los otros pacientes en el planeta viven, crecen, enferman y sanan. +Gracias. +Cuando llegu a Kiev, el 1 de febrero de este ao, la Plaza de la Independencia estaba sitiada, rodeada por la polica leal al gobierno. +Los protestantes ocupaban Maidn, como se conoce la plaza, listos para la batalla, almacenando armas caseras y produciendo en serie chalecos antibalas improvisados. +Las protestas Euromaidn comenzaron pacficamente a fines del 2013, despus de que el presidente de Ucrania, Viktor Yanukovych, rechazara un acuerdo trascendental con la Unin Europea en favor de vnculos ms estrechos con Rusia. +En respuesta, decenas de miles de ciudadanos insatisfechos salieron al centro de Kiev para manifestarse contra esta lealtad. +Mientras pasaban los meses, las confrontaciones entre la polica y los civiles se intensificaron. +Mont un estudio fotogrfico improvisado junto a las barricadas en Hrushevsky Street. +All, fotografi a los combatientes con una cortina negra de fondo, una cortina que oscureci el fondo altamente seductor y visual de fuego, hielo y humo. +Con el fin de contar las historias humanas individuales all, sent que tena que quitar los dramticos elementos visuales que se haban vuelto tan familiares y repetitivos en los principales medios de comunicacin. +Lo que estaba presenciando no eran solo noticias, sino tambin historia. +Con este entendimiento, estaba libre de las convenciones de fotoperiodismo del peridico y la revista. +Oleg, Vasiliy y Maxim eran hombres comunes con vidas comunes en pueblos comunes. +Pero los elaborados disfraces con los que se haban adornado eran bastante extraordinarios. +Uso la palabra "disfraz" porque no se trataba de ropa que haba sido expedida o coordinada por alguien. +Eran uniformes improvisados hechos de equipo militar decomisado, uniformes de combate irregulares y trofeos quitados a la polica. +Me interes en la forma que escogieron para representarse, esta expresin externa de masculinidad, el ideal del guerrero. +Trabaj lentamente, usando una cmara filmadora anloga con un asa de enfoque manual y un fotmetro de mano. +El proceso es anticuado. +Me da el tiempo para hablar con cada persona y para observarlos, en silencio, mientras ellos me miran a su vez. +Las tensiones crecientes terminaron en el peor da de violencia el 20 de febrero, que vino a conocerse como el Jueves Sangriento. +Francotiradores, leales al gobierno, comenzaron a dispararles a los civiles y protestantes en la Calle Institutskaya. +Muchos fueron asesinados en muy poco tiempo. +La recepcin del Hotel Ucrania se convirti en una morgue improvisada. +Haba filas de cuerpos yaciendo en la calle. +Y haba sangre por todo el pavimento. +Al da siguiente, el Presidente Yanukovych huy de Ucrania. +En total, 3 meses de protestas resultaron en ms de 120 muertes confirmadas y muchos ms desaparecidos. +La historia se desarroll rpidamente, pero la celebracin se mantuvo esquiva en Maidn. +Mientras pasaban los das en la plaza central de Kiev, a las oleadas de combatientes armados se les unieron decenas de miles de personas comunes, llenando las calles en un acto de duelo colectivo. +Muchas eran mujeres que con frecuencia llevaban flores que haban llevado para poner como seales de respeto por los muertos. +Vinieron da tras da y cubrieron la plaza con millones de flores. +La tristeza envolvi a Maidn. +Estaba en silencio y pude or a las aves cantar. +No haba escuchado eso antes. +Detuve a unas mujeres que se acercaban a las barricadas para dejar sus tributos y les pregunt si poda fotografiarlas. +La mayora de las mujeres lloraron cuando las fotografi. +El primer da, mi tcnico, Emine, y yo lloramos con casi todas las mujeres que visitaron nuestro estudio. +Haba habido tal ausencia de mujeres hasta ese momento. El color de sus abrigos pasteles, sus carteras brillantes, y los manojos de claveles rojos, tulipanes blancos y rosas amarillas que llevaban, hicieron temblar la plaza ennegrecida y los hombres ennegrecidos que acampaban ah. +Est claro para m que estos dos sets de fotos no tienen mucho sentido el uno sin el otro. +Tienen que ver con los hombres y mujeres y nuestra forma de ser, no la manera en que lucimos, sino nuestra forma de ser. +Hablan de los diferentes roles de gnero en los conflictos, no solo en Maidn y no solo en Ucrania. +Los hombres luchan la mayora de las guerras y las mujeres las lloran. +Si los hombres representan el ideal del guerrero, las mujeres representan las secuelas de esa violencia. +Cuando tom estas fotos cre que estaba documentando el fin de los eventos violentos en Ucrania. +Pero ahora entiendo que es el registro del comienzo. +Hoy en da hay alrededor de 3000 muertos y cientos de miles han sido desplazados. +Estuve en Ucrania nuevamente seis semanas atrs. +En Maidn, las barricadas han sido desmanteladas, y los adoquines usados como armas en las protestas fueron reemplazados, as que el trfico fluye libremente hacia el centro de la plaza. +Los combatientes, las mujeres y las flores se han ido. +Un enorme cartel que representa gansos volando sobre un campo de trigo cubre la fachada quemada del edificio del sindicato y proclama: "Gloria a Ucrania. +Gloria a los hroes". +Gracias. +Gracias. +Solo tengo 18 minutos para explicar algo que dura horas y das, as que mejor empiezo. +Empecemos con un clip de Puesto de Escucha de Al Jazeera. +Richard Gizbert: Noruega es un pas que tiene relativamente poca cobertura meditica. +Incluso las elecciones de la semana pasada pasaron sin mucho drama. +Y eso es la prensa noruega en pocas palabras: sin mucho drama. +Hace unos aos, NRK, el canal de la TV pblica noruega decidi retransmitir en directo un viaje en tren de 7 horas, 7 horas de metraje simple, un tren rodando por las vas. +A los noruegos, a ms de un milln segn las mediciones, les encant. +Naci un nuevo tipo de reality show, que va en contra de todas las reglas de la TV. +No hay trama, no hay guion, no hay drama, no hay clmax, y se llama "Slow TV". +En los ltimos 2 meses, los noruegos han estado observando el viaje de un crucero por la costa, y hay mucha niebla en esa costa. +Los ejecutivos del Servicio Nacional de Radiodifusin de Noruega ahora estn considerando la transmisin de una noche de tejido a nivel nacional. +En la superficie, suena aburrido, porque lo es, pero algo de este experimento televisivo se ha apoderado de los noruegos. +Enviamos a Marcela Pizarro a Oslo de Puesto de Escucha para averiguar qu es, pero primero una advertencia: Algunas imgenes del siguiente informe pueden resultar decepcionantes. +Thomas Hellum: Y luego sigue una historia de 8 minutos en Al Jazeera sobre algunos programas extraos de TV en la pequea Noruega. +Al Jazeera. CNN. Cmo llegamos ah? +Tenemos que volver a 2009, cuando uno de mis colegas tuvo una gran idea. +De dnde sacas tus ideas? +Del comedor. +l dijo, por qu no hacemos un programa de radio que marque el da de la invasin alemana a Noruega en 1940? +Contamos la historia en el momento exacto durante la noche. +Guau. Una idea brillante, salvo que fue un par de semanas antes del da de la invasin. +Nos sentamos en el comedor y discutimos qu otras historias contar en ese tiempo. +Qu otras cosas llevan un tiempo tan largo? +A alguien se le ocurri lo del tren. +"Oh", dijimos, "un largometraje". +"S, pero nos referimos al programa". +Hubo idas y vueltas. +Por suerte para nosotros, nos recibieron con risas, muy, muy buena risa, as que un da brillante en septiembre, empezamos un programa que pensamos durara 7 horas y 4 minutos. +En realidad, result de 7 horas y 14 minutos debido a un fallo de seal en la ltima estacin. +Tenamos 4 cmaras, 3 de ellas sealando a la hermosa naturaleza. +Estoy dando informacin a los invitados. +Anuncio del tren: Llegaremos a la estacin Haugastl. +TH: Y eso es todo, pero, claro, tambin los 160 tneles nos dieron la oportunidad de usar algunos archivos. +Narrador [en noruego]: Entonces un poco de coqueteo mientras digerimos la comida. +El ltimo tramo de descenso antes de llegar a nuestro destino. +Pasamos la estacin Mjlfjell. +Luego un nuevo tnel. +TH: Y ahora pensamos, s, tenemos un programa brillante. +Ir dirigido a 2000 televidentes en Noruega. +Lo pusimos al aire en noviembre de 2009. +Pero no, fue mucho ms atractivo. +Estos son los 5 canales de TV ms grandes de Noruega un viernes normal, y si se fijan en NRK2 por aqu, miren lo que pas cuando pasaron el show del ferrocarril de Bergen: 1,2 millones de noruegos vieron parte de este programa. +Y otro dato curioso: cuando la anfitriona de nuestro canal principal, despus de dar buenas noticias, dijo: "Y en nuestro segundo canal, el tren casi ha llegado a la estacin de Myrdal". +Miles de personas saltaron al tren en nuestro segundo canal, as. Fue tambin un xito rotundo en los medios sociales. +Fue muy lindo ver a miles de usuarios de Facebook y Twitter discutir la misma imagen, hablando unos a otros como si estuviesen juntos en el tren. +En particular, me gusta este. Es un hombre de 76 aos. +Mir todo el programa, y en la estacin final, se levanta a tomar lo que piensa es su equipaje, y su cabeza golpe la barra de la cortina, y se dio cuenta de que estaba en su sala de estar. +Eso es una TV fuerte y en vivo; +436 minutos un viernes por la noche, y durante esa primera noche, lleg un mensaje de Twitter: Por qu ser cobarde? +Por qu detenerse en el 436 cuando se puede expandir eso a 8040, minuto a minuto, y hacer el viaje icnico en Noruega, el viaje en el buque costero Hurtigruten de Bergen a Kirkenes, casi 3000 kilmetros que cubren la mayor parte de nuestra costa. +tiene 120 aos, una historia muy interesante y literalmente participa de la vida y la muerte a lo largo de la costa. +Una semana despus de lo del ferrocarril de Bergen, llamamos a la compaa Hurtigruten y empezamos a planear nuestro prximo show. +Queramos hacer algo diferente. +El ferrocarril de Bergen fue un programa grabado. +Cuando nos sentamos en la sala de edicin, vimos esta foto todo es en la estacin l vimos a este periodista. +Lo habamos llamado, habamos hablado con l, y cuando salimos de la estacin, l nos tom esta foto e hizo un gesto a la cmara, y pensamos: y si ms personas supieran que estbamos a bordo de ese tren? +Se presentaran ms personas? +Qu aspecto tendra? +Decidimos que nuestro prximo proyecto, debera ser en vivo. +Queramos nuestra foto en el fiordo y en la pantalla al mismo tiempo. +Esta no era la primera vez que NRK estaba a bordo de un barco. +Esto es de 1964, cuando los directores tcnicos usaban traje y corbata y NRK pona todo su equipo a bordo de un buque, y a 200 metros de la costa, retransmita la seal, y en el cuarto de mquinas, hablaban con el tipo de las mquinas, y en la cubierta, tenan un entretenimiento esplndido. +As que no era la primera vez en un buque. +Pero para 5 das y medio seguidos, y en vivo, necesitbamos ayuda. +Le preguntamos a nuestros televidentes qu queran ver. +Qu quieren que rodemos? Qu aspecto quieren que tenga? +Quieren que hagamos un sitio web? Qu quieren que pongamos en l? +Y obtuvimos respuestas, y eso nos ayud mucho a crear el programa. +En junio de 2011 23 de nosotros fuimos a bordo del buque costero Hurtigruten y nos pusimos en marcha. +Tengo recuerdos muy fuertes de esa semana, y se trata de las personas. +Este tipo, por ejemplo, l es el jefe de investigacin en la Universidad de Troms. Les mostrar una prenda, esta. +Es otro recuerdo fuerte. +Pertenece a un tipo llamado Erik Hansen. +Y es gente como esos dos que se aferraron a nuestro programa, y junto a otros miles a lo largo de la ruta, hicieron del programa lo que fue. +Ellos fueron las historias. +Este es Karl, de 9 grado. +Dice: "Llegar un poco tarde a la escuela maana". +Se supona que deba estar en la escuela a las 8. +Lleg a las 9 y no tuvo una nota de su maestro, porque el maestro haba visto el programa. +Cmo hicimos esto? +S, tomamos una sala de conferencias a bordo del Hurtigruten. +La convertimos en una sala completa de control de TV. +Hicimos que todo funcione, claro, y luego llevamos 11 cmaras. +Esta es una de ellas. +Este es mi boceto de febrero, y cuando le das este bosquejo a los profesionales de la empresa de radiodifusin noruega NRK, te devuelven cosas geniales, +con soluciones muy creativas. +Narrador [en noruego]: Crranlo hacia arriba y hacia abajo. +Esta es la perforadora ms importante de Noruega ahora mismo. +Regula la altura de una cmara de arco en la produccin en directo de NRK, una de 11 que capturan grandes tomas del MS Nord-Norge. +8 cables mantienen la estabilidad de la cmara. +Camargrafo: Trabajo en diferentes soluciones de la cmara. +No son ms que herramientas usadas en un contexto diferente. +TH: Otra cmara es esta. Se usa normalmente para deportes. +Hizo posible que tomemos primeros planos de personas a 100 kilmetros de distancia, como este. La gente nos llamaba y preguntaba: cmo est este hombre? +Est bien. Todo sali bien. +Tambin pudimos tomar imgenes de personas que nos saludaban, de personas a lo largo del camino, miles de ellos, y todos tenan un telfono en la mano. +Y cuando uno les toma una foto, y reciben el mensaje, "Ahora estamos en la TV, pap", empiezan a responder el saludo. +Esto fue Saludo TV, durante 5 das y medio, y la gente estaba muy feliz de poder enviar mensajes afectuosos a sus seres queridos. +Fue tambin un gran xito en los medios sociales. +El ltimo da, conocimos a Su Majestad la Reina de Noruega, y Twitter no pudo manejarlo. +Gracias. +Pero es un programa largo, por lo que algunos vieron una parte, como el primer ministro. +Algunos vieron un poco ms. +Dice: "Yo no he usado mi cama en 5 das". +Tiene 82 aos, y apenas dorma. +Sigui viendo porque poda ocurrir algo, aunque quiz no. Este es el nmero de espectadores a lo largo de la ruta. +Pueden ver el famoso Trollfjord y un da despus, el mximo histrico para NRK2. +Si vemos los 4 canales ms grandes de Noruega en junio de 2011, tendremos esto, y como productor de TV, es un placer poner Hurtigruten en la cima. +Tiene este aspecto: 3,2 millones de noruegos vieron este programa, y aqu somos solo 5 millones. +Incluso los pasajeros a bordo el buque costero Hurtigruten optaron por ver la tele en vez de girar 90 grados y mirar por la ventana. +Se nos permiti ser parte de la sala de estar de la gente con este extrao programa de televisin, con msica, naturaleza, gente. +ahora la Slow TV estaba de moda, y empezamos a buscar qu otras cosas podramos hacer en Slow TV. +Podamos tomar algo largo y convertirlo en un tema, como el ferrocarril y el Hurtigruten, o podamos tomar un tema y hacerlo largo. +Este es el ltimo proyecto. Es el show del po. +14 horas de observacin de aves en una pantalla de TV, en realidad 87 das en la web. +Hemos hecho 18 horas de pesca de salmn en vivo. +Pasaron 3 horas hasta atrapar el primer pez, eso s es bastante lento. +Hemos hecho 12 horas de viaje en barco en el hermoso canal de Telemark, y hemos hecho otro viaje en tren con el ferrocarril del norte, y como a esto no podamos hacerlo en vivo, lo hicimos en 4 temporadas solo para darle al espectador otra experiencia sobre el camino. +Nuestro prximo proyecto suscit un poco de atencin fuera de Noruega. +Esto es de la Colbert Report en el canal Comedy Central. +Y oigan esto, lo vio casi el 20 % de la poblacin noruega, 20 %. +TH: Entonces, si una fogata y talar madera puede ser tan interesante, por qu no tejer? +As, en nuestro siguiente proyecto usamos ms de 8 horas en vivo desde la oveja al suter, y a Jimmy Kimmel del show de ABC, le gust. +Jimmy Kimmel: Incluso las personas del show se duermen, y despus de todo eso, los tejedores fracasaron al intentar batir el rcord mundial. +No tuvieron xito, pero recuerden el viejo dicho noruego, ganar o perder no es lo que cuenta. +De hecho, nada cuenta, y la muerte viene para todos nosotros. +TH: Exactamente. As que por qu se destaca esto? +Esto es completamente diferente a otros programas de TV. +Llevamos al espectador en un viaje que sucede ahora en tiempo real, y el espectador tiene la sensacin de estar realmente all, en el tren, en el barco, y tejiendo junto con otros, y la razn por la que creo que lo estn haciendo es porque no editamos la lnea de tiempo. +Es importante no editar la lnea de tiempo y tambin hacer Slow TV algo con lo que relacionarse, con lo que el espectador puede identificarse, y en cierto arraigado a nuestra cultura. +Esta imagen es del verano pasado cuando recorrimos la costa durante 7 semanas. +Y, claro, esto lleva mucha planificacin, mucha logstica. +Este es el plan de trabajo para 150 personas el pasado verano, pero ms importante es lo que uno no planea. +Uno no planea lo que ocurrir. +Uno solo lleva las cmaras consigo. +Es como un evento deportivo. +Uno lo prepara y ve qu ocurre. +Este es el orden de rodaje para Hurtigruten, 134 horas, escrito en una sola pgina. +No sabamos nada ms al salir de Bergen. +Hay que dejar a los espectadores hacer sus propias historias, y les dar un ejemplo de eso. +Esto es del verano pasado, y como productor de TV, es una buena imagen, pero ahora se puede cortar la siguiente. +Pero esto es Slow TV, as que hay que dejar esa imagen hasta que empiece a doler el estmago, y luego dejarla un poco ms, y al dejarla tanto tiempo, estoy seguro de que ahora notaron a la vaca. +Algunos han visto la bandera. +Algunos se empiezan a preguntar, est el granjero en casa? +Se ha ido? Estn viendo la vaca? +A dnde va esa vaca? +Mi idea es, cuanto ms dejemos una imagen como esa, y la dejamos 10 minutos, uno empieza a crear historias en su cabeza. +Eso es Slow TV. +Si la gente sonre, podra ser una buena idea lenta, y, despus de todo, la vida es mejor si es un poco extraa. +Gracias. +La vergonzosa represin policial de los manifestantes en Ferguson, Missouri, despus de que la polica le disparara a Michael Brown, muestra hasta qu punto las avanzadas armas y equipos militares diseados para la guerra, han logrado infiltrarse en los departamentos de polica de pequeas ciudades de EE.UU. +Aunque menos visible, lo mismo est ocurriendo con los equipos de vigilancia. +La vigilancia masiva tipo NSA permite a los departamentos de polica locales recoger grandes cantidades de informacin confidencial sobre todos y cada uno de nosotros de una forma hasta ahora imposible. +La informacin sobre la ubicacin puede ser muy detallada. +Si uno se mueve por EE.UU. en auto, se puede saber si va a un terapeuta, asiste a una reunin de Alcohlicos Annimos, o si va o no a la iglesia. +Y cuando esa informacin personal se junta esa informacin con la de todos los dems, el gobierno puede llegar a tener un retrato detallado de cmo interactan sus ciudadanos en privado. +Esta informacin era privada. +Gracias a las tecnologas modernas el gobierno sabe demasiado sobre lo que ocurre a puertas cerradas. +Y los departamentos de polica locales deciden sobre quin piensan que eres gracias a esta informacin. +Una de las tecnologas claves que sirve para el rastreo masivo de la ubicacin es el supuestamente inofensivo lector automtico de matrculas. +Si no han visto uno tal vez sea porque no saban dnde mirar; estn en todas partes. +Montados sobre las vas o en los autos de polica, estos dispositivos capturan imgenes de todos los autos que pasan y convierten el nmero de la matrcula en textos ledos por mquinas para compararlos con la informacin de las listas negras de los autos ms buscados presuntamente por cometer infracciones. +Pero ms que eso, y cada vez ms, los departamentos de polica mantienen registros pero no solo de las personas que han cometido infracciones, sino de todas las matrculas, lo que resulta en una coleccin de grandes cantidades de datos sobre a dnde han ido los estadounidenses. +Saban que esto estaba ocurriendo? +Cuando Mike-Katz le pidi a su departamento de polica local informacin sobre los datos que el lector haba recolectado sobre l esto fue lo que se le respondi: adems de la fecha, la hora y el sitio, el departamento de polica tena fotos que probaban a dnde iba y, con frecuencia, con quin andaba. +En la segunda imagen de arriba se ve a Mike y a sus dos hijas bajndose de su auto, estacionado frente a su casa. +El gobierno tiene cientos de fotos como esta sobre Mike y su vida diaria. +Y si tienen auto en EE.UU. les apostara a que tienen fotos como estas sobre nuestras actividades diarias. +Mike no ha hecho nada malo. +Por qu es normal que el gobierno tenga toda esta informacin? +La razn por la que ocurre es porque como los costos de almacenar esta informacin han cado en picada, los departamentos de polica simplemente la tienen guardada por si algn da llega a ser til. +La cuestin no es solo si un departamento de polica recoge toda esta informacin por su cuenta o si varios departamentos de polica lo hacen. +Al mismo tiempo, el gobierno federal rene todos estos conjuntos de datos personales, y luego los rene en una gran base de datos con cientos de millones de entradas que muestran a dnde han ido los estadounidenses. +Este documento de la Agencia Federal Antidrogas, que es una de las agencias ms interesadas en esto, es una de muchas que revelaron la existencia de esta base de datos. +Mientras tanto, en la ciudad de Nueva York, la polica tiene autos equipados con lectores de matrcula y pasan por las mezquitas para reunir informacin sobre los asistentes. +El uso y abuso de esta tecnologa no se limita a EE.UU. +En el Reino Unido, el departamento de polica puso a John Kat, de 80 aos, en una lista de sospechosos como participante en una docena de demostraciones polticas legales, ya que le gustaba sentarse en un banco y dibujar a los participantes. +Los lectores de matrculas no son la nica tecnologa de rastreo masivo disponible para las agentes del orden pblico hoy en da. +Por medio de una tcnica conocida como "descarga de datos de antena" los agentes del orden pblico pueden averiguar quin ha usado una o ms antenas de telefona mvil en un momento dado, una tcnica que revela la ubicacin de decenas de miles e incluso cientos de miles de personas. +Usando tambin un dispositivo conocido como StingRay, los agentes del orden pblico pueden enviar seales de rastreo dentro de las casas para identificar los telfonos celulares que hay all. +Y si no conocen la casa de su objetivo, sabemos que esta tecnologa la aplican a vecindarios enteros. +As como la polica en Ferguson posee armas y equipos militares de alta tecnologa, as mismo los departamentos de polica en todo EE.UU. disponen de equipos de vigilancia altamente sofisticados. +El hecho de que no los vean no quiere decir que no existan. +La pregunta es: Qu debemos hacer al respecto? +Creo que esto es una seria amenaza para las libertades civiles. +La historia ha demostrado que una vez que la polica dispone de cantidades masivas de datos, se abusa del rastreo del movimiento de la gente inocente ya sea para chantaje, por ventaja poltica, o quizs por simple curiosidad. +Afortunadamente, hay medidas que podemos tomar. +Los departamentos de polica locales responden ante los consejos municipales, que pueden aprobar leyes obligando a la polica a que se deshaga de los datos de las personas inocentes, permitiendo que el uso continuado de tecnologas sea solo el legtimo. +Gracias. +Cuando pensamos en mapear ciudades, tendemos a pensar en carreteras, calles y edificios, en la historia del asentamiento que condujo a su creacin, o se podra pensar en la visin audaz de un urbanista. Hay otras formas de pensar en el mapeo de ciudades y como debera ser realizado. +Hoy quiero mostrarles un nuevo tipo de mapa. +No es un mapa geogrfico. +Es el mapa de las relaciones entre personas en mi ciudad, de Baltimore, Maryland. Lo que pueden ver aqu es que cada punto representa una persona, una lnea representa una relacin entre estas personas, y cada color representa una comunidad dentro de la red comunitaria. +Vemos a la misma gente una y otra vez porque no exploramos realmente toda la profundidad y amplitud de la ciudad. +En el otro extremo de la red, hay gente interesada en cosas como la msica hip-hop y que se identifican como habitantes del rea de DC/Maryland/Virginia ms que de la ciudad de Baltimore. +Pero en el medio, pueden ver que hay algo que conecta las dos comunidades, y es el deporte. +Tenemos los Baltimore Orioles, en ftbol los Baltimore Ravens Michael Phelps, el olmpico. +Under Armour, quiz la conozcan, es una empresa de Baltimore, y esta comunidad deportiva acta como un puente entre los dos extremos de la red. +Miremos a San Francisco. +En San Francisco sucede algo un poco distinto. +As pueden ver, no obstante, que las tensiones que se han producido en San Francisco con gente preocupada por el aburguesamiento y las nuevas compaas tecnolgicas que generan riqueza y nuevos asentamientos son reales, y se puede ver documentado aqu. +Se puede ver como la comunidad LGTB no se lleva con la comunidad friki tan bien, como con la comunidad artstica, la musical. +Y eso conduce a cosas as. +[desahucia Twitter] Me enviaron esta foto hace unas semanas, y muestra lo que est sucediendo all en San Francisco y creo que pueden tratar de entenderlo mirando un mapa como este. +Veamos Rio de Janeiro. +He pasado unas semanas reuniendo datos sobre Rio y una de las cosas destacables para mi de esta ciudad es que todo parece realmente mezclado. +Es una ciudad muy heterognea de una forma que Baltimore o San Francisco no son. +Sigue habiendo el lugar de la gente del gobierno, peridicos, polticos, columnistas, +TEDxRio est abajo, a la derecha cerca de escritores y blogueros. +Pero hay tambin esta gran diversidad de gente que est interesada en diferentes tipos de msica. +Hasta los fans de Justin Bieber estn representados. +Otras bandas, cantantes de country, msica gospel, funk y rap comedia en vivo, hay incluso toda una seccin en torno a las drogas y las bromas. +No es genial? +El Flamengo tambin est. +As que tienes el mismo tipo de dispersin de deporte, actividades cvicas, artes, msica pero representado de una forma muy distinta y creo que encaja con nuestro concepto de Rio como una ciudad multicultural y musicalmente diversa. +Tenemos pues todos estos datos. +Tenemos un conjunto de datos increblemente rico sobre las ciudades, posiblemente ms rico que cualquier conjunto anterior. +As que, qu podemos hacer con l? +Pienso que lo primero es entender que la segregacin es una construccin social +Es algo que elegimos hacer y que podramos evitar. Y si piensan en ello lo que hacemos es dirigir un telescopio, mirando la ciudad como si fuera la cafetera gigantesca de una escuela, y viendo como todos se sitan en un plano de asientos. +Puede que sea el momento de agitar el plano de asientos un poco. +La otra cosa que comenzamos a comprender es que la raza es una mala aproximacin a la diversidad. +Tenemos representadas personas de todo tipo de razas a lo ancho de todo este mapa mirar solo una raza no contribuye al desarrollo de la diversidad. +As que si estamos tratando de usar la diversidad para arreglar problemas intratables, necesitamos comenzar a pensar sobre diversidad de otra forma. +Y finalmente, tenemos la habilidad de generar intervenciones para comenzar a reformar nuestras ciudades de un nuevo modo, y creo que si tenemos esa capacidad, tenemos la responsabilidad de hacerlo. +Qu es la ciudad? +Gracias. +Mientras me preparaba para mi charla reflexionaba sobre mi vida y trataba de descubrir cundo y dnde exactamente empez mi viaje. +Ha pasado mucho tiempo, y simplemente no he podido determinar el principio, el medio o el final de mi historia. +Sola pensar que mi comienzo fue una tarde en mi comunidad cuando mi madre me dijo que ya me haba escapado de 3 matrimonios arreglados a la edad de 2 aos. +O cuando una noche se fue la luz durante 8 horas en la comunidad, y mi padre se sent, rodeado por todos nosotros, para contarnos historias de cuando de nio luchaba para poder ir a la escuela mientras que su padre, un granjero, quera que trabajara en el campo con l. +O esa noche oscura cuando tena 16 aos y 3 nios pequeos vinieron a m y me susurraron al odo que a mi amiga la haban asesinado por algo llamado asesinato de honor. +En cierto modo, siento que mi vida es el resultado de algunas decisiones sabias que tomaron. +Y al igual que otras de sus decisiones, esto fue para mis hermanos y para m una forma de estar conectados a nuestras races. +Mientras vivamos en una comunidad que recuerdo con cario llamada Rebabad que significa comunidad de los pobres, mi padre se asegur de que tambin tuviramos una casa en nuestro pueblo rural. +Yo soy de una tribu indgena de las montaas de Beluchistn llamada brahui. +Brahui o brohi, significa habitante de la montaa, y tambin es mi idioma. +Gracias a reglas muy estrictas de mi padre de establecer conexin con nuestras costumbres, tuve una vida hermosa de canciones, culturas, tradiciones, historias, montaas, y un montn de ovejas. +Pero viviendo en 2 extremos entre las tradiciones de mi cultura, de mi pueblo, y la educacin moderna en mi escuela no fue fcil. +Yo era consciente de ser la nica chica que tena esa libertad, y me senta culpable por ello. +Mientras iba a la escuela en Karachi y Hyderabad, muchas de mis primas y amigas de la infancia se iban a casar, con hombres mayores, algunas como contrapartida, algunas incluso como segundas esposas. +Llegu a ver la hermosa tradicin y su desvanecimiento ante m cuando vi que el nacimiento de una nia se celebraba con tristeza, se peda a las mujeres tener paciencia ya que esa era principal virtud. +Hasta los 16 aos cur mi tristeza llorando, sobre todo por las noches cuando todo el mundo dorma sollozaba en mi almohada, hasta que una noche, me enter de que mi amiga fue asesinada en nombre del honor. +Los crmenes de honor son una costumbre en la que los hombres y las mujeres sospechosos de tener relaciones antes o fuera del matrimonio, son asesinados por su familia. +Por lo general, el asesino es el hermano, el padre o el to de la familia. +La ONU informa que se perpetran unos 1000 asesinatos de honor cada ao en Pakistn y estos son solo los casos reportados. +Una costumbre que asesina no tiene ningn sentido para m, y ya saba que tena que hacer algo al respecto por aquel entonces. +No iba a llorar hasta quedarme dormida. +Hara cualquier cosa para detenerlo. +Tena 16 aos, empec a escribir poesa y yendo de puerta en puerta hablaba a todo el mundo de los crmenes de honor y por qu ocurre, por qu debe parar intentando sensibilizar al respecto hasta encontrar una mejor manera de manejar este problema. +Entonces vivamos en una casa pequeita, de una sola habitacin en Karachi. +Cada ao, durante la temporada del monzn, nuestra casa se inundaba, con agua de lluvia y aguas residuales, y mi mam y pap achicaban el agua. +En esos das, mi padre trajo a casa una mquina enorme, una computadora. +Tan grande que casi ocupaba la mitad de la nica habitacin que tenamos, y tena muchas piezas y cables que deban conectarse. +Pero era lo ms emocionante que nos haba sucedido a mis hermanas y a m. +Mi hermano mayor Ali estaba a cargo del cuidado de la computadora, y a todos nosotros se nos daban de 10 a 15 minutos cada da para usarla. +En aquellos das, descubr un sitio web llamado Google. +Creci muchsimo en tan solo unos meses. +Logr mucho apoyo de todo el mundo. +Los medios se conectaron con nosotros. +Muchos se fueron sumando para contribuir a crear conciencia con nosotros. +Lleg a ser tan grande que pas de estar en lnea a estar las calles de mi ciudad natal, donde hacamos mtines y huelgas intentando cambiar las polticas en Pakistn para apoyar a las mujeres. +Y si bien pens que todo era perfecto, mi equipo, que era bsicamente mis amigos y vecinos en ese momento, pens que todo iba tan bien, que no tenamos ni idea de la gran oposicin que nos vendra. +Mi comunidad se puso en pie en nuestra contra, diciendo que difundamos un comportamiento no islmico. +Desafibamos las costumbres centenarias de esas comunidades. +Recuerdo que mi padre reciba cartas annimas diciendo: "Tu hija est extendiendo la cultura occidental en las sociedades con honor". +Nuestro auto fue apedreado. +Un da fui a la oficina y encontr nuestro cartel de metal abollado y roto como si mucha gente lo hubiera golpeado con algo pesado. +Las cosas se pusieron tan mal que tuve que esconderme. +Yo suba las ventanillas del auto, ocultaba mi cara, no hablaba en pblico, pero con el tiempo la situacin empeor cuando mi vida fue amenazada, y tuve que salir, volver a Karachi, y detener nuestras acciones. +De vuelta en Karachi, a los 18 aos, pens que era el mayor fracaso de mi vida. +Estaba devastada. +Siendo adolescente, me culpaba por todo lo que pas. +Y resulta que, al empezar a reflexionar, nos dimos cuenta de que, en realidad, mi equipo y yo ramos culpables. +Haba dos grandes razones por las que nuestra campaa fracas estrepitosamente. +La primera razn era que estbamos en pie contra los valores fundamentales de las personas. +Decamos que no a algo que era muy importante para ellos, desafiando su cdigo de honor, hirindolos profundamente en el proceso. +Y la segunda razn, muy importante para aprenderla yo, y con sorpresa deba aprender, es que no incluimos a los verdaderos hroes que deberan luchar por ellos mismos. +Las mujeres de la aldea no tenan idea de que luchbamos por ellas en las calles. +Cada vez que volva, encontraba a mis primas y amigas con pauelos tapando sus rostros, y yo les preguntaba: "Qu pas?" +Y ellas: "Nuestros maridos nos golpearon". +Pero si estamos trabajando en las calles por Uds.! +Estamos cambiando las polticas. +Cmo es que esto no afecta a sus vidas? +Entonces nos dimos cuenta de algo que era muy sorprendente para nosotros. +Las polticas de un pas no necesariamente afectan a las comunidades tribales y rurales. +Fue devastador. Cmo poder realmente hacer algo al respecto? +Y nos dimos cuenta de que hay una enorme brecha entre las polticas oficiales y la verdad real sobre el terreno. +As que esta vez, nos dijimos, vamos a hacer algo diferente. +Vamos a ser estrategas, y volvamos all a pedir disculpas. +S, a disculparnos. +Volvimos a las comunidades y dijimos que estamos avergonzados por lo que hicimos. +Estamos aqu para disculparnos y para hacer las paces con Uds. +Cmo lo hacemos? +Fomentaremos 3 de sus principales culturas. +Sabemos que es la msica, la lengua y el bordado. +Nadie nos crey. +Nadie quera trabajar con nosotros. +Tuvimos muchas discusiones con estas comunidades hasta que se convencieron de que fomentaramos su idioma haciendo un folleto de sus historias, fbulas y cuentos antiguos de la tribu, y que fomentaramos su msica haciendo un CD con canciones de la tribu y con algunos sones de tambores. +Y la tercera, que era mi favorita, fomentamos sus bordados creando un centro en el pueblo donde las mujeres venan todos los das a bordar. +Y as empez todo. +Trabajamos con una aldea y empezamos con nuestro primer centro. +Era un da hermoso. +Empezamos en el centro. +Las mujeres tienen tantos derechos que no hemos escuchado que no han escuchado, que tenamos que decirles lo que deban saber dnde estaban sus derechos y cmo hacer uso de ellos, por qu ellas pueden hacerlo y nosotros no podemos. +Este fue el modelo que, en realidad, funcion, sorprendente. +A travs del bordado, fomentbamos sus tradiciones. +Fuimos al pueblo. Movilizamos la comunidad. +Hicimos un centro al que vendran 30 mujeres durante 6 meses para aprender del valor aadido del bordado tradicional, del desarrollo empresarial, habilidades para la vida, educacin bsica, y sobre sus derechos y cmo decir que no a esas costumbres y cmo destacarse como lderes para ellas y para la sociedad. +Tras 6 meses, dbamos acceso a las mujeres a prstamos y a los mercados donde poder convertirse en empresarias locales en sus comunidades. +Pronto llamamos a este proyecto Sughar. +Sughar es una palabra local usada en muchas lenguas en Pakistn. +Significa mujeres cualificadas y satisfechas. +Sinceramente, creo, que para crear mujeres lderes, hay que hacer una cosa: Simplemente hacerles saber que tienen lo que se necesita para ser una lderes. +Estas mujeres que ven aqu, tienen grandes habilidades y potencial para ser lderes. +Debamos eliminar las barreras que las rodeaban, y eso es lo que decidimos hacer. +Pero entonces, cuando pensbamos que todo iba bien, una vez ms, todo iba fenomenal encontramos el siguiente contratiempo: Muchos hombres empezaron a notar los cambios en sus esposas. +Ellas hablaban ms, tomaban decisiones, Dios mo, ella est mandando en la casa. +Ellos no las dejaron venir a los centros, y esta vez, pensamos que el tiempo era la estrategia nmero 2. +Fuimos a la industria de la moda en Pakistn y decidimos investigar qu ocurre all. +La industria de la moda en Pakistn es muy fuerte y est creciendo da a da, pero hay una menor contribucin de las reas tribales especialmente de las mujeres. +As que decidimos lanzar la primera marca de moda de mujeres tribales, que ahora se llama Nomads. +Y as, las mujeres empezaron a ganar ms, empezaron a contribuir financieramente ms a la casa, y los hombres tuvieron que pensar antes de decirles a ellas que no cuando iban a los centros. +Gracias, gracias. +En 2013, lanzamos nuestro primer Sughar Hub en lugar de un centro. +Nos asociamos con TripAdvisor y creamos una pabelln de cemento en el medio de un pueblo e invitamos a otras muchas organizaciones a trabajar ah. +Hemos creado esta plataforma para organizaciones sin nimo de lucro para que puedan trabajar sobre las dems cuestiones que Sughar no est atendiendo y que ofrece la facilidad para dar capacitaciones, para utilizarlo como escuela granja e incluso como mercado, y para lo que se quiera usar y lo que han estado haciendo es realmente asombroso. +Y hasta ahora, hemos podido apoyar a 900 mujeres en 24 aldeas de Pakistn. +Pero eso en realidad no es lo que quiero. +Mi sueo es llegar a un milln de mujeres en los prximos 10 aos, y para asegurarme de que sucede, este ao lanzamos la Fundacin Sughar en EE.UU. +Esta no solo financiar Sughar, sino muchas organizaciones en Pakistn para replicar la idea y encontrar formas ms innovadoras que liberen el potencial de las mujeres rurales en Pakistn. +Muchas gracias. +Gracias. Gracias. Gracias. +Chris Anderson: Khalida, eres la fuerza de la naturaleza. +Quiero decir, esta historia, parece increble. +Es increble que alguien tan joven pueda lograr tanto con tanta fuerza e ingenio. +As que tengo una pregunta: Es un sueo espectacular dar poder a un milln de mujeres, cunto del xito actual depende de ti, de la fuerza de tu personalidad magntica? +Cmo escalar? +Khalida Brohi: Creo que mi trabajo es inspirar, expandir mi sueo. +No puedo ensear a hacerlo, porque hay muchas maneras diferentes. +Hemos experimentado solo 3 maneras. +Existen cientos de formas de liberar el potencial de las mujeres. +Doy inspiracin y ese es mi trabajo. +Seguir hacindolo. Sughar seguir creciendo. +Planeamos llegar a 2 pueblos ms, y pronto creo que ampliaremos fuera de Pakistn en el sur de Asia y ms all. +CA: Me encanta que cuando hablaste de tu equipo en la charla, quiero decir, cuando entonces tenas 18 aos, +cmo era este equipo? +Eran amigos de la escuela, no? +KB: Cree la gente aqu que a mi edad se supone que tengo que ser abuela en mi pueblo? +Mi madre se cas a los 9 aos y soy la mujer ms vieja no casada y no hago nada de mi vida, en mi pueblo. +CA: Espera, espera, sin hacer nada? +KB: No. CA: Tienes razn. +KB: La gente siente lstima por m, muchas veces. +CA: Pero cunto tiempo pasas ahora de nuevo en Beluchistn? +KB: Yo vivo all. +Vivimos todava, entre Karachi y Beluchistn. +Todos mis hermanos van a la escuela. +Sigo siendo la mayor de 8 hermanos. +CA: Pero lo que haces es, sin duda, una amenaza para algunas personas all. +Cmo se maneja la seguridad? Te sientes segura? +Hay problemas con esto? +KB: Esta pregunta me la han hecho muchas veces, y siento que la palabra "miedo" simplemente llega a m y luego se cae, pero hay un miedo diferente a ese. +El temor de que si me matan, qu pasara con la gente que me ama tanto? +Mi mam me espera hasta tarde en la noche a que vuelva a casa. +Mis hermanas quieren aprender mucho de m, y hay muchas chicas de mi comunidad que quieren hablar conmigo y me preguntan cosas diferentes, y recientemente me compromet para casarme. CA: Est aqu? Tienes que ponerte de pie. +KB: Escapando de matrimonios arreglados, eleg mi propio marido por todo el mundo en Los ngeles, un mundo muy diferente. +Tuve que luchar todo un ao. Esa es una historia totalmente diferente. +Pero creo que eso es lo nico que me da miedo, y no quiero que mi mam no vea a nadie cuando ella me espera por la noche. +CA: Las personas que quieren ayudarte en tu camino, pueden comprar algunas de estas ropas que llevas puestas que se hicieron realidad, por el bordado en Beluchistn? +KB: S. +CA: O pueden participar en la fundacin? +KB: Seguro. Buscamos a tantas personas como podamos, porque ahora que la base est en el proceso de inicio, intento aprender a operar, cmo conseguir financiacin o llegar a ms organizaciones, especialmente va comercio electrnico, que es muy nuevo para m. +Quiero decir, no soy una persona de la moda, creme. +CA: Ha sido increble tenerte aqu. +Por favor, sigue siendo valiente, sigue inteligente y, por favor, estate a salvo. +KB: Muchas gracias. CA: Gracias, Khalida. +Quisiera hablarles de las matemticas del amor. +Creo que todos estamos de acuerdo en que los matemticos son conocidos por su excelencia en encontrar el amor. +Pero esto no solo se debe a nuestras personalidades atractivas, habilidades superiores de conversacin o maravillosas cajas de lpices. +Tambin se debe a que, en realidad, hemos hecho mucho trabajo matemtico sobre cmo encontrar la pareja perfecta. +En mi trabajo favorito sobre el tema, titulado: "Por qu no tengo novia?" Peter Backus intenta evaluar sus posibilidades de encontrar el amor. +Bueno, l no es muy ambicioso. +De todas las mujeres disponibles en el Reino Unido, lo nico que busca Peter es alguien que viva cerca, alguien del grupo de edad adecuado, alguien con ttulo universitario, una persona con la que posiblemente pueda llevarse bien, una persona probablemente atractiva, alguien que lo pueda encontrar atractivo. +Y el resultado es un clculo de 26 mujeres en todo el Reino Unido. +No parece mucho, no es as, Peter? +Solo para verlo en perspectiva, eso es aproximadamente 400 veces menos que los mejores clculos sobre las posibles formas de vida extraterrestre inteligente. +Y tambin ofrece a Peter una probabilidad de 1 en 285 000 de encontrarse con una de estas seoras especiales en una noche determinada. +Quisiera pensar que por esa razn los matemticos ya no se molestan en salir por la noche. +Yo, personalmente, no comparto ese pesimismo. +Porque s, tan bien como Uds., que el amor en realidad no funciona as. Las emocines humanas no estn tan ordenadas, +ni son tan racionales, ni tan fcilmente predecibles. +Pero tambin s que eso no significa que las matemticas no tengan nada que ofrecer, porque el amor, como la mayor parte de la vida, est lleno de patrones. Y las matemticas son, al final y sobre todo, el estudio de patrones. +Patrones que predicen desde el estado del clima, hasta las fluctuaciones en el mercado de valores, hasta el movimiento de los planetas o el crecimiento de las ciudades. +Y, siendo honestos, ninguno de estos es perfectamente ordenado, ni fcilmente predecible. +Pienso que las matemticas son tan poderosas que pueden ofrecernos nuevas formas de ver casi cualquier cosa, +incluso en algo tan misterioso como el amor. +Y para persuadirles de lo sorprendentes, maravillosas, y relevantes que son las matemticas me permito darles mis mejores tres consejos, matemticamente verificables, para el amor. +Consejo prctico nmero 1: Cmo lograr citas en lnea. +Mi sitio favorito de citas en lnea es OkCupid, entre otras cosas porque fue fundado por un grupo de matemticos. +Dado que son matemticos, han ido recogiendo datos de todos los que usan su sitio durante casi una dcada. +Y han intentado buscar patrones sobre la forma en que hablamos de nosotros mismos y la forma como nos relacionamos con los dems en un sitio web de citas en lnea. +Y han obtenido algunos hallazgos bien interesantes. +Lo que ms me llama la atencin es que en un sitio de citas por Internet, lo atractivo que seas no define tu popularidad, y, de hecho, que haya gente que piense que eres feo puede jugar a tu favor. +Les ensear cmo funciona esto. +En una afortunada seccin voluntaria de OkCupid, a uno se le permite evaluar qu tan atractivas parecen las personas, en una escala de 1 a 5. +Si comparamos esos resultados, la puntuacin media, con la cantidad de mensajes que recibe un grupo de personas, uno puede empezar a tener una idea de cmo lo atractivo se relaciona con la popularidad en un sitio web de citas por Internet. +Este es el grfico que han desarrollado los chicos de OkCupid. +Lo interesante es ver que no es totalmente cierto que cuanto ms atractivo uno sea, ms mensajes recibe. +Pero la pregunta que surge entonces es por qu la gente de aqu es mucho ms popular que la de ac abajo, a pesar de tener la misma puntuacin en atractivo? +Y la razn es porque no solo el aspecto es importante. +Tratar de ilustrar esas conclusiones con un ejemplo. +Si tomamos a alguien como Portia de Rossi, por ejemplo, todos estn de acuerdo en que ella es una mujer muy hermosa. +Nadie piensa que sea fea, aunque no es una supermodelo. +Si se compara Portia de Rossi con alguien como Sarah Jessica Parker, mucha gente, incluida yo misma, dira, que Sarah Jessica Parker es verdaderamente estupenda y que, posiblemente, sea una de las criaturas ms hermosas que haya pisado la faz de la Tierra. +Pero la distribucin de votos podra ser muy diferente. +Las puntuaciones para Portia se agruparan en torno al 4 porque todos creen que ella es muy hermosa. Mientras que las opiniones sobre Jessica Parker, resultaran divididas. +Habra una gran separacin en las valoraciones. +Y, de hecho, esas diferencias son las que cuentan. +Este esparcimiento es lo que te hace ms popular en un sitio web de citas por Internet. +Lo que esto significa entonces es que si a algunas personas les pareces atractivo, en realidad es mejor que haya otras que piensen que eres horroroso total. +Eso es mucho mejor a que todo el mundo piense que eres la chica linda de al lado. +Parece que esto empieza a tener un poco ms de sentido si pensamos en las personas que envan esos mensajes. +As que digamos que uno piensa que alguien es atractivo pero sospecha que otras personas no necesariamente piensan igual. +Eso significa que hay menos competencia, un incentivo adicional para ponerse en contacto. +Comparen esto con la situacin en la que uno piensa que alguien es atractivo y sospecha que todos creen lo mismo. +Bueno, para qu molestarse en arriesgarse? Seamos honestos. +Aqu viene lo verdaderamente interesante. +Porque cuando la gente elige las fotos para el servicio de citas en lnea, a menudo intentan minimizar los aspectos que puedan parecer desagradables a los dems. +El ejemplo clsico es el de aquellos que tienen algo de sobrepeso y eligen deliberadamente fotos recortadas. O los hombres calvos, por ejemplo, que eligen cuidadosamente fotos donde aparecen con sombrero. +En realidad esto es lo contrario de lo que uno debe hacer para tener xito. +Por el contrario, uno debe explotar lo que realmente lo hace diferente, incluso si piensa que para algunos esto pueda resultar poco atractivo. +Porque la gente a quien le gustas estar encantada contigo de todos modos, y los dems, a quienes no les gustas, terminan beneficindote. +Bien. Consejo prctico nmero 2: Cmo elegir la pareja perfecta. +Imaginemos ahora que uno est teniendo un xito rotundo en el mundo de las citas. +Entonces surge la pregunta: cmo convertir ese xito en felicidad a largo plazo? y, en particular, cul ser el momento preciso para decidir? +En general, no es recomendable simplemente llegar y casarse con la primera persona que se nos cruce y nos muestre algn inters. +Pero por otra parte, tampoco uno quiere dejar pasar mucho tiempo si se quiere maximizar la probabilidad de felicidad a largo plazo. +Como mi escritora favorita, Jane Austen, dice: "Una mujer soltera de siete y veinte no puede nunca esperar que va a sentir o inspirar afecto otra vez". +Muchas gracias, Jane. Qu sabes t sobre el amor? +Entonces la pregunta es: cmo saber cundo es el momento adecuado para decidir, considerando todas las personas con las que uno puede salir en toda la vida? +Afortunadamente, hay una magnfica parte de las matemticas que podemos usar para esto; la llamada teora de parada ptima. +Imaginemos ahora que uno empieza a salir con gente a los 15 aos e idealmente, desea casarse a los 35. +Existe un nmero de personas con las que posiblemente uno podra tener una cita en algn momento de la vida, con diferentes niveles de aceptacin. +Ahora, la regla es que una vez que uno se decide por alguien y se casa, ya no puede seguir buscando para ver lo que podra haber obtenido, y adems, no se puede volver atrs y cambiar de opinin. +Segn mi experiencia, al menos, creo que, en general, a nadie le gusta ser llamado nuevamente aos despus de ser dejado por otro. O quizs eso me pasa solo a m. +Las matemticas dicen que lo que se debe hacer con el primer 37 % de las citas, es rechazarlas todas, como potencial serio de matrimonio. +Y luego se debe elegir a la siguiente persona que llegue que sea mejor que todas anteriores. +Aqu est el ejemplo. +Si se hace esto, est matemticamente demostrado que puede ser la mejor manera posible de maximizar las posibilidades de encontrar la pareja perfecta. +Sin embargo, he de decir que este mtodo tiene algunos riesgos. +Por ejemplo, imaginen que su pareja perfecta apareci en el primer 37 %. +Por desgracia, hay que rechazarla. +Si seguimos a las matemticas, me temo que nadie ms aparecer que sea mejor que todas las anteriores; as que habra que rechazar a todas y morir solo. +Probablemente rodeado de gatos mordisqueando sus restos. +Pensemos en otro riesgo diferente; supngase que todas las personas que vieron en su primer 37 % son increblemente aburridas, sosas, terribles. +Eso est bien, porque ests en la fase de rechazo, as que sin problema, pueden ser rechazadas. +Pero ahora piensen que la siguiente persona es apenas ligeramente menos aburrida y terrible que todas las anteriores. +Siguiendo las matemticas, me temo que deberan casarse con ella y acabar en una relacin claramente no tan buena. +Lo siento. +Pero s creo que hay una oportunidad aqu para que Hallmark saque provecho y satisfaga este mercado, +con una tarjeta para el da de San Valentn, como esta. "Mi querido esposo: T eres ligeramente menos terrible que el primer 37 % de las personas con las que tuve citas". +En realidad esto es ms romntico de lo que normalmente manejo. +Este mtodo, pues, no ofrece una tasa de xito del 100 %, pero no existe otra estrategia posible que funcione mejor. +Curiosamente, en la naturaleza, hay ciertos tipos de peces que siguen exactamente esta estrategia. +As, rechazan todo pretendiente posible que aparezca en el primer 37 % de la temporada de apareamiento, y luego eligen el siguiente pez que aparece luego. No s si ser ms grande y ms corpulento que todos anteriores. +Creo que inconscientemente, los humanos, de alguna manera, tambin hacemos eso. +Nos damos un poco de tiempo para comenzar el juego, para obtener una sensacin del mercado, o lo que sea, cuando somos jvenes. +Y luego empezamos a buscar seriamente posibles candidatos matrimoniales cuando llegamos a mediados o finales de los 20 aos. +Creo que esto es una prueba concluyente, por si hiciera falta, de que el cerebro de todo el mundo est programado para actuar un poco matemticamente +Este fue el consejo prctico nmero 2. +Ahora, el consejo prctico nmero 3: Cmo evitar el divorcio. +Imaginemos ahora que eligieron la pareja perfecta y que se proyectan con ella para una relacin de por vida. +Me gusta pensar que lo ideal es que todos traten de evitar el divorcio, aparte de, no s, quizs, la esposa de Piers Morgan. +Pero es un hecho triste de la vida moderna que 1 de cada 2 matrimonios en EE.UU., termina en divorcio, y en los otros pases, la cosa es del mismo orden. +Probablemente podra perdonarse si se piensa que las disputas que preceden a una ruptura matrimonial no sean un buen punto para investigacin matemtica. +Por una parete, es muy difcil saber qu se debe medir o qu se debe cuantificar. +Pero esto no impidi que un psiclogo, John Gottman, hiciera exactamente eso. +Gottman observ cientos de parejas conversando y grab todo lo que se puedan imaginar. +Grab lo que se deca en las conversaciones, grab su conductividad de la piel, grab sus expresiones faciales, su ritmo cardaco, la presin arterial, bsicamente todo, aparte de si la mujer era en realidad la que siempre tena razn, que, por cierto, en realidad as era. +Pero lo que encontraron Gottman y su equipo fue que uno de los indicadores ms importantes para saber si una pareja iba a divorciarse o no, era lo positivo o negativo que era cada uno en la conversacin. +Ahora, las parejas de bajo riesgo mostraban muchos ms puntos positivos que negativos en la escala de Gottman. +Mientras que las malas relaciones, las que probablemente se divorciaran, se hallaban en una espiral de negatividad. +Solo usando estas ideas sencillas Gottman y su grupo pudieron predecir si una pareja concreta se iba a divorciar con una precisin del 90 %. +Pero no fue hasta asociarse con un matemtico, James Murray, que empezaron a entender realmente qu causan las espirales de negatividad y cmo se producen. +Y los resultados que encontraron son increble e impresionantemente simples e interesantes. +Las ecuaciones predicen cmo la esposa o el marido responder en su siguiente turno de la conversacin; qu tan positivos o negativos sern. +Estas ecuaciones, dependen del estado de nimo de la persona cuando est sola, su estado de nimo cuando est con su pareja, pero lo ms importante, dependen de lo mucho que el esposo y la esposa se influyen mutuamente. +En este punto, creo que es importante destacar, que precisamente estas ecuaciones han demostrado tambin que pueden perfectamente describir lo que sucede entre dos pases en una carrera armamentista. +Es que, una pareja que discute en la espiral de negatividad y se tambalea al borde del divorcio, en realidad, equivale matemticamente al comienzo de una guerra nuclear. +Pero lo que es realmente importante en esta ecuacin es cmo se influyen las personas entre s, y, en particular, cmo influye el llamado umbral de negatividad. +Puede pensarse en el umbral de negatividad, como lo molesto que puede estar el marido antes de que la mujer empiece a enfadarse verdaderamente, y viceversa. +Siempre pens que los buenos matrimonios se basaban en el compromiso y la comprensin en permitirse ambos tener sus espacios para ser ellos mismos. +Haba pensado que quizs las relaciones ms exitosas eran aquellas en las que haba un umbral muy alto de negatividad. +Cuando las parejas dejan pasar ciertas cosas y solo discuten asuntos realmente problemticos. +Pero, en realidad, las matemticas y los resultados posteriores del equipo han demostrado, que lo contrario es lo correcto. +Las mejores parejas, las ms exitosas, son las que tienen un umbral muy bajo de negatividad. +Son parejas que no pasan por alto las cosas, que no las ignoran y se permiten espacios para quejarse. +Son parejas que continuamente estn tratando de arreglar la relacin, que tienen una visin del matrimonio mucho ms positiva. +Las parejas que no pasan por alto las cosas que no dejan que cosas triviales terminen siendo grandes problemas. +Ahora, por supuesto, se necesita algo ms que un bajo umbral de negatividad y no aceptar nada distinto de una relacin exitosa. +Creo que es bastante interesante saber que hay de verdad evidencia matemtica para poder afirmar que nunca debemos dejar que la ira nos ciegue. +As que estos son mis tres consejos de cmo las matemticas pueden ayudarles con el amor y las relaciones. +Pero espero, aparte de los consejos tiles, haberles dado tambin alguna idea del poder de las matemticas. +Porque para m, las ecuaciones y los smbolos no son solo una cosa, +son una voz que habla acerca de la increble riqueza de la naturaleza y la simplicidad sorprendente de los patrones que giran, se tuercen, se deforman y se desarrollan a nuestro alrededor, desde cmo funciona el mundo hasta la manera de comportamos. +As que espero que tal vez, solo para algunos de Uds. algo de comprensin de las matemticas del amor pueda persuadirles de tener un poco ms de amor por las matemticas. +Gracias. +Han estado alguna vez expuestos a los gases lacrimgenos? +Al gas lacrimgeno? Alguien? +Lamento orlo, tal vez sepan que se trata de una sustancia muy txica pero quiz no saben que es una molcula muy simple con un nombre impronunciable: se llama clorobenzalmalononitrilo. +Lo he dicho. +Tiene varias dcadas de antigedad, pero es muy popular entre las fuerzas del orden ltimamente, parece que de todo el mundo, y en mi experiencia y teniendo en cuenta que involuntariamente he respirado tal gas los gases lacrimgenos tiene 2 efectos principales pero bastante diferentes. +Primero, realmente pueden provocar una fuerte picazn en los ojos, y, segundo, pueden tambin provocar que abran los ojos. +A mi, el gas lacrimgeno definitivamente me ayud a abrirlos sobre algo que quiero compartir con Uds. esta tarde: que transmitir en directo por Internet, el poder de la transmisin independiente puede cambiar la cara del periodismo, del activismo, y tal como lo veo, del discurso poltico tambin. +Esta idea se me ocurri por primera vez a principios de 2011 cuando estaba cubriendo una protesta en So Paulo. +Fue sobre la marcha de la marihuana, donde se reunieron para pedir la legalizacin del cannabis. +Cuando ese grupo se puso en marcha, la polica antidisturbios se acerc por detrs con balas de goma, bombas, y luego con el gas. +As que una semana ms tarde, volv a salir a la calle, pero esta vez no como representante orgulloso de algn medio de comunicacin, +sino como periodista independiente donde todo mi equipamiento bsicamente era prestado. +Tena una cmara muy simple y una mochila con mdems 3G. +Y tena un enlace web que poda compartir a travs de las redes sociales, que se puede publicar en cualquier sitio web, y en aquel momento la protesta se desarrollaba normalmente. +No haba violencia. +No haba mucha accin. +Pero haba algo realmente emocionante, porque pude ver a distancia a los canales de TV cubriendo la protesta, con sus grandes camionetas, equipos y cmaras, y yo estaba haciendo bsicamente lo mismo, pero todo lo que tena era una mochila. +Y aprend algo ms, que era realmente la primera vez que alguien haba hecho algo as en una protesta callejera en nuestro pas. +Y realmente me sorprendi, porque yo no era un friki, no era experto en tecnologa, y todo el equipo necesario ya estaba all, era fcil de conseguir. +Y suena revolucionario para m. +As que luego experiment con diferentes modos de transmisin en directo, no solo en la calle sino tambin en estudios y hogares, hasta principios de 2013, el ao pasado, cuando me convert en el co-fundador de un grupo llamado Midia NINJA. +NINJA es un acrnimo que significa reporteros independientes, periodismo y accin. o en ingls, informes independientes, periodismo y accin. +Era un grupo meditico que tena un pequeo plan de accin. +No tenamos estructura financiera. +No estbamos planeando hacer dinero con esto; algo sabio porque ahora no debes tratar de ganar dinero con el periodismo. +Pero tuvimos una conviccin muy clara y firme. Sabamos que podamos usar la macro-red de los medios sociales para poder crear una red experimental de periodistas profesionales de todo el pas. +As que lanzamos una pgina de Facebook con nuestro manifiesto, y empezamos con los medios ms simples para informar desde las calles. +Pero entonces sucedi algo, algo que no estaba previsto y que nadie poda haber previsto. +En So Paulo estallaron las protestas callejeras. +Empezaron a nivel local por temas especficos. +Estaban en contra de las nuevas tarifas que acababan de implementarse en la ciudad. +Se trata de un autobs. +Aqu dice: "robo". +Pero este tipo de protestas empezaron a crecer, y no paraban de ocurrir. +As que la brutalidad policial contra los manifestantes empez a crecer tambin. +Pero hubo otro conflicto, que creo que es an ms importante en este caso. En realidad, se trataba de un conflicto narrativo. +Las versiones de los hechos por parte de los medios tradicionales de comunicacin eran contrarrestadas fcilmente por los que verdaderamente estaban en la calle y presentaban su propia visin de lo que realmente estaba ocurriendo all. +Y fue este choque de visiones, estas discrepancias entre los informes que convirti esas protestas en un largo perodo de represalias politicas donde cientos de personas, probablemente ms de un milln, salieron a las calles en todo el pas. +Pero ya no se trataba solo del asunto de las tarifas. +Tena que ver con todo. +Las demandas de la gente, sus expectativas, los motivos por los que salieron a la calle, podran ser tan diversos como contradictorios en muchos casos. +Si pudieran leerlo, me entenderan. +Pero este entorno de catarsis que atravesaba el pas y que tena que ver con la poltica, por supuesto, desencaden tambin una nueva forma de organizarse, a travs de una nueva forma de comunicacin, los nuevos medios. +Fue en ese contexto que Midia NINJA pas del casi anonimato a convertirse en un fenmeno nacional porque tenamos el equipo adecuado. +No estamos usando grandes cmaras. +Bsicamente estamos usando esto. +Estamos usando smartphones. +Y eso nos ayud no solo ser invisibles en medio de las protestas, sino que tambin nos permiti hacer algo ms: mostrar cmo era estar en medio de las manifestaciones, presentar a la audiencia una perspectiva subjetiva. +Pero haba algo que es ms importante, creo, que el equipo. +Se trata de nuestra mentalidad, porque no actuamos como los medios de comunicacin. +No estamos compitiendo por las noticias. +Intentamos animar a la gente, invitarla y mostrarle cmo hacerlo, cmo podran tambin convertirse en locutores. +Y eso fue crucial para convertir Midia NINJA de un pequeo grupo de personas, y en cuestin de semanas, a un fenmeno que se ha extendido por todo el pas. +As que en tal solo una semana o dos, como tuvieron lugar nuevas protestas, ramos cientos de jvenes conectados a esta red en/por todo el pas. +Estbamos cubriendo ms de 50 ciudades al mismo tiempo. +Eso es algo que ningn canal de TV podra hacer nunca. +Esa fue la razn por la que de repente nos convertimos en una especie de corriente principal de las redes sociales. +As que pasamos de tener un par de miles de seguidores en Facebook, a tener un cuarto de un milln de seguidores muy pronto. +Nuestros mensajes y nuestros videos han tenido ms de 11 millones de vistas a la semana. +Era mucho ms de que cualquier peridico o revista alcanzar jams. +Y eso convirti a Midia NINJA en otra cosa, en algo ms que un medio, que un proyecto de comunicacin. +Se transform en casi un servicio pblico para el ciudadano, para los manifestantes, para los activistas, porque tenan una herramienta muy simple, eficiente y pacfica para hacer frente tanto a la polica como a la autoridad de los medios. +Muchas de nuestras imgenes empezaron a usarse y transmitidas por los canales de TV convencionales. +Y tambin nuestras transmisiones en directo cuando las cosas se pusieron muy difciles. +Algunas de nuestras imgenes fueron la razn por la cual algunas personas no fueran a la crcel, personas detenidas injustamente bajo falsas acusaciones, y pudimos demostrar su inocencia. +Y eso tambin hizo que Midia NINJA, muy pronto, fuera visto como un enemigo de los policas, por desgracia, y empezamos a ser severamente golpeados, y en ocasiones detenidos en las calle. +Sucedi en muchos casos. +Pero eso tambin nos sirvi porque todava estbamos en la web, lo que ayud a desencadenar un importante debate en el pas sobre el papel de los propios medios y el estado de la libertad de la prensa en el pas. +As Midia NINJA fueron evolucionando y finalmente se consolid en lo que habamos esperado, una red nacional de cientos de jvenes, organizados a nivel local para cubrir temas de derechos sociales, humanos, y manifestarse no solo polticamente pero a travs de los medios tambin. +Lo que me puse a hacer al principio del ao, como Midia NINJA era ya una red organizada, fue dedicarme a otro proyecto. +Se llama Fluxo, que en portugus significa "corriente". +Es un estudio periodstico en el centro de So Paulo, donde experimento en directo con lo que yo llamo los formatos post-TV. +Tambin trato de encontrar nuevas maneras de financiar el periodismo independiente a travs de una relacin directa con el pblico, con un pblico activo, porque realmente quiero tratar de ganarme la vida a base de mi propuesta. +Pero hay algo ms importante aqu, algo que creo que es ms significativo y decisivo que mi ejemplo personal. +Y esa idea, creo, debe ser la intencin y el propsito de un periodismo de calidad, el activismo justo pero sobre todo, la poltica correcta. +Muchas gracias. Ha sido un honor. +El poder del todava. +He odo hablar de una escuela en Chicago, donde para graduarse hay que pasar un cierto nmero de cursos y si no lo consiguen, se les califica con "todava no". +Lo que me pareci fantstico, porque frente a un fracaso uno piensa que no es nada, +pero con un "todava no" entiende que est en proceso de aprendizaje. +Te abre un camino hacia el futuro. +El "todava no" me ayud a entender un incidente de principios de mi carrera que fue un verdadero punto de inflexin. +Quera ver cmo lidian los nios con los retos y las dificultades, as que mande a nios de 10 aos a resolver problemas un tanto difciles. +Algunos reaccionaron sorprendentemente bien. +Decan cosas como: "Me encantan los retos", o "Me esperaba algo positivo". +Entendieron que as pueden desarrollar sus habilidades. +Tenan lo que yo llamo una "mentalidad de desarrollo". +Mientras que otros lo vieron como una tragedia, un desastre. +Desde la posicin de una mentalidad fija pusieron a prueba su inteligencia y fracasaron; +en lugar de prosperar con la ayuda del poder del todava, se quedaron atrapados en la tirana del ahora. +Entonces, qu es lo que harn? +Les dir lo que harn. +Algunas encuestas dicen que probablemente harn trampa en lugar de estudiar ms si fracasan en alguna prueba. +En otro estudio, tras el fracaso, buscaron a quienes consiguieron peores resultados para sentirse mejor con ellos mismos. +Y un estudio tras otro demostraron huir de las dificultades. +Los cientficos midieron la actividad elctrica del cerebro mientras los estudiantes se enfrentaban a errores. +A la izquierda se ven los estudiantes con mentalidad fija. +No hay casi actividad. +Huyen del error. +No se ocupan de l. +A la derecha, tenemos estudiantes con una mentalidad de desarrollo, la idea de que las habilidades se pueden desarrollar. +Estos alumnos se involucran a fondo. +Sus cerebros no dejan de pensar en el "todava". +Estn muy comprometidos. +Procesan el error. +Aprenden de ellos y los corrigen. +Cmo criamos a nuestros hijos? +Los educamos en el espritu del "ahora" o del "todava"? +Estamos criando nios obsesionados con conseguir una nota mxima? +Estamos criando nios que no saben soar a lo grande? +Es su mayor objetivo conseguir la nota mxima en la siguiente prueba? +Arrastran con ellos esta necesidad constante de aprobacin para toda la vida? +Tal vez, porque los empleadores se me acercan y me dicen: hemos formado toda una generacin de jvenes trabajadores que no pueden trabajar un da sin alguna recompensa. +Entonces, qu podemos hacer? +Cmo construimos el puente hacia el todava? +Estas son algunas ideas. +Primero, hay que elogiar con sabidura, no la inteligencia o el talento, +porque esto no ha dado resultados. +No lo hagamos ms. +Hay que elogiar el proceso en el cual el nio se involucra: su esfuerzo, sus estrategias, su enfoque, su perseverancia, su progreso. +Alabando el proceso se crean nios fuertes y resistentes. +Hay otras maneras de recompensar el todava. +Hemos colaborado recientemente con investigadores del juego de la Universidad de Washington, para crear un nuevo juego matemtico en lnea, que premia pensar el "todava". +En este juego, fueron premiados por el esfuerzo, la estrategia y el progreso. +El tpico juego matemtico recompensa las respuestas correctas obtenidas ahora, pero este juego recompensar el proceso. +Y se nos respondi con ms esfuerzo, ms estrategias, mayor compromiso durante largos perodos, y mayor perseverancia frente a problemas realmente muy difciles. +Nos encontramos que solo las palabras "todava" o "an no", daban a los nios una mayor confianza, les mostr el camino hacia el futuro +Y podemos realmente cambiar la mentalidad de los estudiantes. +En un estudio les enseamos que cada vez que daban un paso fuera de su terreno conocido para aprender algo nuevo y difcil, las neuronas de sus cerebros pueden crear nuevos vnculos ms fuertes, y con el tiempo pueden llegar a ser ms inteligentes. +Vean lo que pas: en este estudio, estudiantes a los que no se les ense esta mentalidad de crecimiento, recibieron notas cada vez ms bajas durante esta difcil etapa escolar, pero a los que se les ense esta leccin, mejoraron notablemente en las evaluaciones. +Hemos demostrado esto ahora, este tipo de mejora, en miles y miles de nios, especialmente con dificultades. +Vamos a hablar de la igualdad. +En nuestro pas, existen grupos de estudiantes que obtienen resultados consistentemente bajos, por ejemplo, los nios de los barrios pobres, o los de las reservas aborgenes. +Y han fracasado tanto tiempo que la gente piensa que es inevitable. +Pero cuando los educadores crean aulas donde la mentalidad de crecimiento genera la cultura del todava, brota la igualdad. +Aqu tengo algunos ejemplos. +En solo un ao, una clase infantil en Harlem, Nueva York, pasaron la prueba del examen nacional en un 95 %. +Muchos de estos nios no saban sostener un lpiz cuando llegaron a la escuela. +En un ao, estudiantes del 4 de primaria del sur del Bronx, en desventaja, se convirtieron en la clase de 4 de primaria nmero 1 del estado de Nueva York en el examen estatal de matemticas. +En un ao, ao y medio, estudiantes indgenas en una escuela de la reserva aborigen saltaron del ltimo al primer lugar en su distrito, el mismo crculo que inclua a los barrios ricos de Seattle tambin. +As que los nios aborgenes superaron a los chicos Microsoft. +Esto se debe a que los conceptos de esfuerzo y de dificultad se han redefinido. +Antes, el esfuerzo y la dificultad les hacan sentirse estpidos y les daban ganas de renunciar, pero ahora, el esfuerzo y la dificultad, hacen que sus neuronas formen nuevas conexiones, lazos ms fuertes. +Y se vuelven ms inteligentes. +Hace poco recib una carta de un nio de 13 aos. +Me deca: "Estimada profesora Dweck, agradezco que su material se base en una investigacin cientfica slida, y es por eso que decid ponerlo en prctica. +Pongo ms esfuerzo en mis estudios, en mi relacin con mi familia, y las relaciones con los compaeros en la escuela, y me di cuenta de mi enorme progreso en todos estos campos. +Ahora me doy cuenta de que desperdici la mayor parte de mi vida". +No desperdiciemos ms vidas, porque una vez que sabemos que las habilidades son capaces de tal crecimiento, eso se convierte en un derecho humano fundamental para todos los nios, de vivir en lugares que crean este crecimiento, de vivir en lugares llenos de todavas. +Gracias. +Nuestro mundo tiene muchos superhroes. +Pero tienen el peor de los superpoderes: la invisibilidad. +Por ejemplo, los catadores, los trabajadores que recolectan materiales reciclables para vivir. +Los catadores surgieron de la desigualdad social, el desempleo, y la abundancia de residuos slidos de la deficiencia del sistema de recoleccin de residuos. +Los catadores proporcionan un trabajo pesado, honesto y esencial que beneficia a toda la poblacin. Pero ellos no son reconocidos por ello. +Aqu en Brasil, recogen el 90 % de los residuos que se reciclan. +La mayora de los catadores trabajan independientemente, recogiendo los residuos y vendindolos a depsitos de chatarra a precios muy bajos. +Pueden recolectar ms de 300 kilos en sus bolsas, carritos de compra, bicicletas y carroas. +Las carroas son carritos construidos de madera o de metal y se encuentran en las calles de Brasil, al igual que el graffiti y el arte callejero. +Y as es como conoc a estos superhroes marginados. +Yo soy un artista del graffiti y activista y mi arte es social, ambiental y de naturaleza poltica. +En 2007, llev mi trabajo ms all de las paredes, a las carroas, como un nuevo soporte urbano para mi mensaje. +Pero esta vez, dando voz a los catadores. +Adicionar arte y humor a la causa, la hizo ms atractiva, y ayud a llamar la atencin hacia los catadores y mejorar su autoestima. +Tambin, son famosos ahora en las calles, en los medios de comunicacin y las redes. +Entonces, la cosa es, me sumerg en este universo y no he dejado de trabajar desde entonces. +He pintado ms de 200 carroas en muchas ciudades y me han invitado a hacer exposiciones y viajes por todo el mundo. +Y luego me di cuenta de que los catadores, en su invisibilidad, no son exclusivos de Brasil. +Los conoc en Argentina, Chile, Bolivia, Sudfrica, Turqua e incluso en pases desarrollados como Estados Unidos y Japn. +Fue entonces que me di cuenta de que necesitaba sumar ms gente a la causa porque es un gran reto. +Y entonces, he creado un movimiento colaborativo llamado Pimp My Carroa financiado colectivamente. +Gracias. +Pimp My Carroa es un gran evento financiado colectivamente para ayudar a los catadores y sus carroas. +Los catadores son asistidos por profesionales de la salud, como mdicos, dentistas, podlogos, estilistas, masajistas y mucho ms. +Tambin reciben camisas de seguridad, guantes, impermeables y gafas para ver en alta definicin la ciudad, mientras que sus carroas son renovadas por nuestros increbles voluntarios. +Reciben los elementos de seguridad, tambin: cintas reflectantes, bocinas y espejos. +Entonces, finalmente, pintado por un artista de la calle se convierte en parte de esta enorme, increble exposicin de arte itinerante. +Pimp My Carroa sali a las calles de So Paulo, Rio de Janeiro y Curitiba. +Pero para satisfacer la demanda en otras ciudades, incluso fuera de Brasil, hemos creado Pimpx, que se inspira en TEDx, una edicin de Pimp My Carroa financiada colaborativamente, simplificada, casera. +As que ahora todo el mundo puede unirse. +En dos aos, ms de 170 catadores, 800 voluntarios y 200 artistas de la calle y ms de 1000 donantes han participado en el movimiento Pimp My Carroa, incluso sus acciones se han usado para ensear reciclaje en una escuela local. +As los catadores estn dejando su invisibilidad detrs y son cada vez ms respetados y valorados. +Gracias a sus carroas, pueden luchar contra los prejuicios, aumentar sus ingresos y su interaccin con la sociedad. +Ahora, me gustara desafiarlos a empezar a buscar y reconocer a los catadores y otros superhroes invisibles de sus ciudades. +Traten de ver el mundo como uno, sin lmites ni fronteras. +Crase o no, hay ms de 20 millones de catadores en todo el mundo. +As que la prxima vez que vean uno, reconzcanlo como una parte vital de nuestra sociedad. +Muito orbigado, gracias. +Soy lexicgrafa. +Hago diccionarios. +Como lexicgrafa, mi trabajo consiste en incluir en el diccionario tantas palabras como sea posible. +Mi trabajo no es decidir lo que es una palabra. Ese es su trabajo. +Todos los que hablan ingls deciden juntos lo que es o no es una palabra. +Cada idioma solo es en realidad un grupo de personas que deciden entenderse mutuamente. +A veces cuando se trata de decidir si una palabra es valida o no, la gente en realidad no tiene una buena razn. +As que dicen: "Es la gramtica!" +De hecho, no me importa mucho la gramtica -- no se lo digan a nadie. +Hablando de la palabra gramtica, hay dos tipos de gramtica. +Por un lado, una que existe en su mente, y que, si eres hablante nativo de un idioma o lo hablas muy bien, consiste en las reglas inconscientes que sigues cuando lo hablas. +Es lo que asimilas cuando aprendes un idioma desde la niez. +He aqu un ejemplo: Este es un wug, cierto? +Es un wug. +Ahora, he aqu otro. +Hay dos de estos. +Aqu hay dos... +Pblico: Wugs. +Erin McKean: Exactamente! Saben cmo formar el plural de wug. +Esa regla vive en tu cerebro. +Nunca tuvieron que aprender esta regla, simplemente la entienden. +Este es un experimento diseado por un profesor de la Universidad de Boston, Jean Berko Gleason, all por 1958. +As que hemos estado hablando de esto desde hace tiempo. +Este tipo de reglas naturales que existen en tu cerebro no son como las normas de trfico, sino ms bien como las leyes de la naturaleza. +Y nadie tiene que recordarles que deben obedecer una ley de la naturaleza cierto? +Cuando sale de casa por la maana su madre no le dice: "Cario, creo que har fro, llvate la sudadera, y no te olvides de obedecer la ley de la gravedad", cierto? +Nadie dice esto. +Hay otras normas que tienen que ver ms con la conducta. +As que piensen que una palabra es como un sombrero. +Una vez que aprendes a ponerte un sombrero, nadie te dice: "No te pongas el sombrero en los pies". +Lo que te pueden decir es: "Se puede entrar con el sombrero puesto? +Quin usa sombrero? +Qu tipo de sombrero puede uno ponerse?" +Estos son ejemplos relacionados con la otra clase de gramtica, la que los lingistas llaman a menudo habla, para diferenciarlo de la gramtica. +A veces, la gente usa este tipo de gramtica basada en las reglas, para desmotivar a otros a que inventen nuevas palabras. +Creo que esto es una estupidez. +Por ejemplo, la gente siempre te dice: "S creativo, haz msica, crea arte, inventa cosas; la ciencia y tecnologa". +Pero cuando se trata de las palabras: "No! Ya basta de tanta creatividad, sabelotodo. Vale ya." +Pero eso no tiene sentido. +Las palabras son una maravilla. Deberamos tener ms. +Quiero que inventen tantas palabras como sea posible. +Les hablar de las 6 maneras de crear palabras nuevas en ingls. +La primera es la ms simple. +Bsicamente es robarlas de otros idiomas. +["Vayan a robarles a otros"] Los lingistas lo llaman prstamo, pero nunca las devolvemos, as que voy a ser honesta y lo llamar robo. +Por lo general, robamos las palabras para cosas que nos gustan, como la comida deliciosa. +Tomamos "kumquat" del chino, y "caramelo" del francs. +Tambin robamos palabras para cosas geniales como "ninja" cierto? +La tomamos del japons, lo que es fabuloso porque es difcil robarle a un ninja. +Otra forma de crear palabras en ingls es juntando dos palabras. +Son las palabras compuestas, +porque las palabras en ingls son como el Lego, si aplicas suficiente fuerza puedes juntar dos de ellas. +Esto se hace continuamente en ingls: palabras como corazn roto, ratn de biblioteca, castillo de arena, son todas compuestas. +As que adelante, crea labios anchos, +pero que no le quede mala cara. Otra forma de crear palabras en ingls es similar a la composicin, pero al usar tanta fuerza para juntarlas, terminamos eliminando algunas partes. +Estas son las palabras aglutinadas como "desamuerzo" que es una mezcla de desayuno y almuerzo. +"Motel" es una combinacin de "motor" y "hotel". +Quines saban que "motel" es una palabra aglutinada? +S, esa palabra en ingls es tan antigua que mucha gente no sabe que le falta partes. +"Edunimiento" es una aglutinacin de "educacin" y "entretenimiento". +Y "electrocutar" viene de "elctrico" y "ejecutar". +Tambin pueden crear palabras cambiando su funcin. +Esto se llama conversin. +Tomas palabras que funcionan de cierta forma en la oracin y les das otra funcin. +Bien, quines saban que "hacer amigos" no siempre fue un verbo? +Al principio fue un sustantivo que luego convertimos en verbo. +Casi todas las palabras en ingls pueden convertirse en verbos. +Tambin pueden transformar adjetivos en sustantivos. +"Comercial" era un adjetivo y ahora es un sustantivo. +Y por supuesto que puedes hacer cosas "ecolgicas". +Otra forma de crear palabras en ingls es la derivacin regresiva. +Puedes tomar palabras y reducirlas un poco. +Por ejemplo, en ingls tenemos "editor" que es anterior a la palabra "editar". +"Editar" se form a partir de "editor". +A veces, estas derivaciones suenan un poco raro: Las excavadoras excavan, los servidores sirven y los atracadores atracan. +Otra forma de crear palabras en ingls Administracin Nacional de la Aeronutica y del Espacio se convierte en NASA. +Y claro que lo que pueden hacer con todo esto es ODM Oh, Dios Mo! +As que no importa lo ridculo que suenen las palabras. +Pueden ser buenas palabras en ingls. +"Absquatulate" es una palabra perfectamente vlida en Ingls. +"Mugwump" (poltico independiente) igual. +Las palabras no tienen que sonar bien, pueden sonar ridculas. +Por qu deberan crear palabras? +Deberan crear palabras porque cada una de ellas es una oportunidad para expresar tu idea y dar a entender tu mensaje. +Y las palabras nuevas llaman la atencin de la gente. +Hacen que la gente preste atencin a lo que dices y les ofrece una mayor oportunidad de que entiendan su mensaje. +Mucha gente ha dicho hoy en este escenario: "En el futuro, pueden hacer esto o aquello ayudar con esto, ayudarnos a explorar, a inventar". +Se pueden crear palabras ahora mismo. +El ingls no tiene restricciones de edad. +As que adelante, comiencen a crear palabras hoy, envenmelas, y yo las subir a mi diccionario en lnea, Wordnik. +Muchas gracias. +En los ltimos siglos, los microscopios han revolucionado nuestro mundo. +Nos han revelado un diminuto mundo de objetos, vidas y estructuras, que son muy pequeos para verlos a simple vista. +Una enorme contribucin a la ciencia y la tecnologa. +Hoy quisiera presentarles un nuevo tipo de microscopio, un microscopio de cambios. +No usa la ptica de un microscopio ordinario para agrandar objetos pequeos, sino una cmara de video y procesamiento de imgenes para revelar cambios de color y diminutos movimientos en personas y objetos, cambios que seran imposibles de ver a simpe vista. +Nos permite ver nuestro mundo de una forma completamente nueva. +Qu quiero decir con cambios de color? +Nuestra piel, por ejemplo, cambia de color muy ligeramente, cuando la sangre fluye por ella. +Ese cambio es increblemente sutil, por eso cuando ven a los dems, cuando ven a la persona sentada junto a Uds. no ven que su piel o su cara cambie de color. +Cuando vemos este video de Steve, nos parece una imagen esttica. Pero cuando lo vemos mediante nuestro nuevo microscopio especial repentinamente vemos una imagen completamente diferente. +Lo que ven aqu son los leves cambios de color de la piel de Steve, magnificados 100 veces para hacerlos visibles. +De hecho vemos el pulso humano. +Podemos ver la frecuencia del pulso de Steve, y tambin cmo fluye la sangre en su cara. +Podemos hacer eso no solo para ver el pulso sino para recuperar el ritmo cardiaco y medirlo. +Y lo podemos hacer con cmaras comunes sin tocar a los pacientes. +Aqu vemos el pulso y ritmo cardiaco de un beb recin nacido a partir de un video que tomamos con una cmara DSLR comn y la medicin que obtuvimos del ritmo cardiaco es tan precisa como la que se obtiene de un monitor estndar de hospital +y ni siquiera tiene que ser un video grabado por nosotros. +En esencia podemos hacerlo con otros videos tambin. +Tom una secuencia de "Batman inicia" solo para mostrar el pulso de Christian Bale. +Es de suponer que tiene maquillaje, la luz aqu lo dificulta; aun as, del video, pudimos extraer su pulso y se muestra bastante bien. +Cmo lo hacemos? +Analizamos los cambios de luz que se registran en cada pixel del video en el tiempo y luego empalmamos esos cambios. +Los magnificamos para poder verlos. +El truco es que esas seales, esos cambios que buscamos son en extremo sutiles, por eso debemos ser cuidadosos al separarlos. del ruido que siempre hay en los videos. +As que usamos tcnicas de procesamiento ingeniosas para obtener mediciones precisas del color de cada pixel en el video y la forma como cambia el color con el tiempo para luego amplificar esos cambios. +Los agrandamos para crear videos realzados o magnificados, que en efecto nos muestran esos cambios. +Pero resulta que podemos hacer eso no solo para cambios leves de color, sino tambin para movimientos leves, y eso se debe a que la luz grabada por nuestras cmaras, cambiar no solo si el color del objeto cambia, sino tambin cuando el objeto se mueve. +Esta es mi hija cuando tena dos meses de edad. +Es un video que grab hace tres aos. +Como todo padre primerizo, queremos saber que nuestros bebs estn bien, que estn respirando y que estn vivos, claro. +As que tambin tenamos uno de esos monitores de beb para poder ver a mi hija cuando dorma. +Y esto es lo que veran con un monitor de beb estndar. +Pueden ver al beb durmiendo, pero no hay mucha ms informacin. +No hay mucho que podamos ver. +No sera mejor o ms til o ms informativo si en cambio pudiramos ver esto? +Grab estos movimientos y los magnifiqu 30 veces. Y puedo ver claramente que mi hija en efecto est viva y respirando. +Aqu tienen una comparacin en paralelo +del video fuente, el video original, en el que no podemos ver mucho; pero una vez magnificados, la respiracin se hace ms visible. +Y resulta que hay muchos fenmenos que podemos revelar y magnificar con nuestro microscopio de movimiento. +Podemos ver cmo pulsan nuestras venas y arterias del cuerpo, +que nuestros ojos estn en movimiento constante en este movimiento tembloroso. +Y ese es de hecho mi ojo y este video fue tomado justo despus de que naci mi hija; pueden ver que no haba dormido mucho. Incluso si una persona est quieta, hay mucha informacin que podemos extraer sobre sus patrones de respiracin, leves expresiones faciales. +Quiz pudiramos usar esos movimientos para que nos digan algo de nuestros pensamientos y emociones. +Tambin podemos magnificar movimientos mecnicos diminutos como las vibraciones en mquinas que pueden servir para detectar problemas mecnicos o ver cmo edificios y estructuras reaccionan con el viento o fuerzas. +Todas ellas son mediciones que hacemos de varias formas, pero medir esos movimientos es una cosa y en efecto verlos cuando ocurren es algo totalmente diferente. +Desde que descubrimos esta nueva tecnologa, pusimos nuestro cdigo en lnea para que otros puedan usarlo y experimentar con l. +Es muy sencilla de usar. +Puede funcionar con sus propios videos. +Nuestros colaboradores en Quantum Research incluso crearon un sitio web donde pueden subir sus videos y procesarlos en lnea. As, aunque no tengan experiencia en programacin, pueden fcilmente experimentar con este nuevo microscopio. +Quisiera mostrarles un par de ejemplos de lo que otros han hecho con l. +Este video lo hizo para YouTube, el usuario Tamez85, +a quien no conozco, pero l o ella us nuestro cdigo para magnificar los leves movimientos del vientre durante el embarazo. +Es un poco escalofriante. +La gente lo ha usado para magnificar las venas de sus manos. +No es ciencia real a menos de que usen conejillos de indias y aparentemente este conejillo de indias se llama Tiffany. Y este usuario de YouTube afirma que es el primer roedor del planeta cuyo movimiento ha sido magnificado. +Tambin pueden hacer arte. +Este video me lo envi una estudiante de diseo de Yale. +Quiso ver si haba diferencias en los movimientos de sus compaeros de clase. +Les pidi que estuvieran quietos y luego magnific sus movimientos. +Es como ver fotos fijas que toman vida. +Lo agradable de todos estos ejemplos es que no tenemos nada que ver con ellos. +Solo ofrecimos una nueva herramienta, una forma nueva de ver el mundo y la gente encuentra formas nuevas, creativas e interesantes de usarla. +Pero no nos quedamos ah. +Esta herramienta no solo nos permite ver el mundo de una nueva manera, tambin redefine lo que podemos hacer y reduce los lmites de lo que podemos hacer con nuestras cmaras. +Como cientficos nos empezamos a preguntar, qu otros fenmenos fsicos producen movimientos diminutos que podamos ahora medir con nuestras cmaras? +Uno de esos fenmenos al que nos enfocamos es el sonido. +El sonido, como sabemos, es en esencia cambios en la presin de aire que viaja por el aire. +Esas ondas de presin golpean objetos y crean diminutas vibraciones que es como escuchamos y grabamos el sonido. +Pero resulta que el sonido tambin produce movimientos visuales +que no son visibles para nosotros, pero s para una cmara con el procesamiento correcto. +He aqu dos ejemplos. +Aqu estoy demostrando mis aptitudes de canto. +Tom un video en alta velocidad de mi garganta mientras tarareaba. +Y si miran fijamente el video no hay mucho que puedan ver, pero al magnificarlo 100 veces, vemos los movimientos y ondulaciones involucrados del cuello al producir sonido. +Esa seal est ah en el video. +Tambin sabemos que los cantantes pueden romper una copa de vino, si dan la nota correcta. +Aqu tocaremos una nota en la frecuencia de resonancia de esta copa con un parlante a un lado. +Tocamos la nota y magnificamos el movimiento 250 veces. Podemos ver claramente cmo vibra la copa y resuena en respuesta al sonido. +No es algo que se suela ver a diario. +Pero esto nos hizo reflexionar en una idea loca. +Podemos invertir este proceso y recuperar sonido del video analizando las diminutas vibraciones que las ondas sonoras crean en objetos y convertirlos de vuelta en los sonidos que los produjeron? +De esta forma podemos convertir objetos cotidianos en micrfonos. +Y eso hicimos exactamente. +Esta es una bolsa vaca de papas sobre una mesa y convertiremos esta bolsa de papas en un micrfono filmndola con una cmara de video y analizando los leves movimientos que las ondas sonoras hacen. +Este es el sonido que tocamos. +(Msica: "Mara tena un corderito") Este es un video a alta velocidad grabado de esa bolsa de papas. +Otra vez, est tocando. +No hay forma de que puedan ver que suceda algo en ese video con solo mirarlo, pero este es el sonido que pudimos recuperar analizando los leves movimientos del video. +(Msica: "Mara tena un corderito") Le llamo... gracias. +Le llamo el micrfono visual. +De hecho extraemos seales de audio de las seales de video. +Solo para darles un sentido de la escala del movimiento, un sonido fuerte har que esa bolsa de papas se mueva menos de un micrmetro, +esto es una milsima de un milmetro. +As de pequeos son los movimientos que ahora podemos sacar con tan solo observar los rebotes de luz en los objetos que grabamos con nuestras cmaras. +Podemos recuperar sonidos de otros objetos como plantas. +(Msica: "Mara tena un corderito") Lo mismo que el habla. +Esta es una persona hablando. +Voz: Mara tena un corderito cuya lana era blanca como la nieve y adonde fuera Mara, el corderito seguro la segua. +Michael Rubinstein: Y aqu tienen esa alocucin recuperada de este video con la misma bolsa de papas. +Voz: Mara tena un corderito, cuya lana era blanca como la nieve y adonde fuera Mara, el corderito seguro la segua. +MR: Usamos "Mara tena un corderito", porque se dice que esas fueron las primeras palabras que Toms Edison dijo con su fongrafo en 1877. +Uno de los primeros dispositivos de grabacin de sonido de la historia. +Bsicamente dirige el sonido a un diafragma, que hace vibrar una aguja que graba el sonido en papel estao enrollado en un cilindro. +Esta es una demostracin de grabacin y reproduccin del fongrafo de Edison. +Voz: Probando, probando, uno, dos tres. +Mara tena un corderito cuya lana era blanca como la nieve y adonde fuera Mara, el corderito seguro la segua. +Probando, probando, uno, dos tres. +Mara tena un corderito cuya lana era blanca como la nieve y adonde fuera Mara, el corderito seguro la segua. +MR: Y ahora, 137 aos despus, podemos obtener sonido con una calidad bastante similar tan solo mirando objetos que vibran con el sonido usando cmaras e incluso podemos hacerlo con la cmara a casi 5 metros del objeto detrs de un vidrio insonorizado. +Este es el sonido que pudimos recuperar en este caso. +Voz: Mara tena un corderito cuya lana era blanca como la nieve y adonde fuera Mara, el corderito seguro la segua. +MR: Claro est que la vigilancia es la primera aplicacin que imaginamos. +Pero quiz tambin sera til para otras cosas. +Quiz en el futuro, podamos usarlo por ejemplo, para recuperar sonido del espacio porque el sonido no puede viajar en el espacio, pero s la luz. +Apenas estamos explorando otros posibles usos para esta nueva tecnologa. +Nos permite ver procesos fsicos que conocemos, pero que nunca hemos podido verlos con nuestros propios ojos hasta ahora. +Este es nuestro equipo. +Todo lo mostrado hoy es resultado de una colaboracin con este grandioso equipo de gente que ven aqu. Son bienvenidos a visitar nuestro sitio web para que los prueben Uds. mismos y exploren con nosotros este mundo de movimientos diminutos. +Gracias. +Haba muchas ballenas francas en el siglo XVII en la baha de Cape Cod, frente a la costa este de EE.UU., +y al parecer se poda cruzar caminando sobre sus lomos desde un extremo al otro de la baha. +Hoy en da, quedan unos centenares, y estn en peligro de extincin. +Del mismo modo, la cantidad de muchas especies de ballenas ha disminuido drsticamente como resultado de los 200 aos de caza, donde se cazaba y mataba ballenas por su carne, su grasa y sus huesos. +Hoy tenemos ballenas en nuestras aguas gracias al movimiento "Salvemos a las ballenas" de los aos 70. +Fue decisivo para detener la caza de ballenas con fines comerciales y se basaba en la idea de que si no podemos salvar a las ballenas, entonces a quin podramos salvar? +Fue la prueba definitiva de nuestra capacidad poltica de detener la destruccin del medio ambiente. +As que, a principios de los 80, lleg la prohibicin de la caza comercial que entr en vigor como resultado de esta campaa. +Sin embargo, la cantidad de ballenas en nuestras aguas sigue baja porque se enfrentan a una serie de otras amenazas por parte de los humanos. +Por desgracia, muchos todava piensan que los defensores de las ballenas como yo solo hacemos lo que hacemos porque estas criaturas son carismticas y hermosas. +Les hacen en realidad un flaco favor, porque las ballenas son las ingenieras del medio ambiente. +Ayudan a mantener la estabilidad y la salud de los ocanos, e incluso brindan servicios a la sociedad. +As que hablemos de por qu salvar a las ballenas es esencial para la regeneracin de los ocanos. +Todo se reduce a dos cosas importantes: Caca de ballena y cuerpos en descomposicin. +Como las ballenas se sumergen en las profundidades para alimentarse y salen a la superficie para respirar, realmente liberan estos enormes penachos fecales. +Esta llamada bomba de ballenas trae en realidad nutrientes esenciales de las profundidades del ocano a las aguas superficiales, donde estimula el crecimiento del fitoplancton, base de todas las cadenas alimentarias marinas. +Por eso tener ms ballenas defecando en los ocanos es muy beneficioso para todo el ecosistema. +Las ballenas tambin son famosas por realizar algunas de las migraciones ms largas de todos los mamferos. +Las ballenas grises parten de la costa estadounidense en un viaje migratorio de 16 000 kilmetros entre zonas con comida abundante y menos abundante o zonas de cra, para luego volver cada ao. +Mientras lo hacen, transportan nutrientes en sus heces desde donde estn hasta donde los necesitan. +Las ballenas son realmente importantes en el ciclo de los nutrientes, a lo largo y a lo ancho de los ocanos. +Pero lo realmente interesante es que son tambin muy importantes una vez muertas. +Los cuerpos de las ballenas son una de las mayores fuentes de detrito que cae de las capas superiores del ocano, y se llama cada de ballenas. +Al hundirse, estos cadveres proporcionan un fiesta para unas 400 y pico especies incluyendo la anguila babosa. +A veces, estos cadveres tambin terminan en las playas proporcionando alimento a algunas especies de depredadores terrestres. +Los 200 aos de caza de ballenas han sido claramente perjudiciales y han causado una disminucin de la poblacin de ballenas de un 60 % a un 90 %. +Claramente, el movimiento "Salvemos a las ballenas" ha sido la mejor forma de evitar que contine la caza comercial de ballenas pero tenemos que volver a esta campaa. +Tenemos que abordar los problemas ms modernos, ms apremiantes a los cuales se enfrentan estas ballenas en nuestras aguas hoy. +Entre otras cosas, tenemos que dejar de arrasarlas con buques portacontenedores cuando estn en sus reas de alimentacin, o alejarlas de las redes de pesca en las que quedan enredadas mientras flotan en el ocano. +Tambin tenemos que aprender a contextualizar nuestros mensajes conservacionistas para que la gente entienda realmente el verdadero valor de estas criaturas. +Salvemos de nuevo a las ballenas, pero esta vez, no lo hagamos solo en beneficio de ellas. +Hagmoslo tambin por nosotros. +Gracias. +Soy empresario turstico y constructor de la paz, pero no empec as. +A los 7 aos, recuerdo haber visto en la TV personas tirando piedras, y pensar, esto debe ser algo divertido de hacer. +As que sal a la calle a tirar piedras, sin darme cuenta de que se supona que deba tirar piedras a los autos israeles. +En su lugar, termin lapidando los autos de mis vecinos. No les entusiasm mi patriotismo. +Esta es una foto con mi hermano. +Este soy yo, el pequeo, y s lo que estn pensando: "Eras lindo, qu diablos te pas?" +Pero mi hermano, que es mayor que yo, fue detenido a los 18 aos, llevado a prisin por el delito de tirar piedras. +Fue golpeado cuando se rehus a confesar que tir piedras, y, como resultado tuvo lesiones internas que le provocaron la muerte poco despus de librarse de la prisin. +Me enoj, me amargu, y solo quera venganza. +Pero eso cambi cuando cumpl 18. +Decid aprender hebreo para conseguir empleo y al estudiar hebreo, en ese aula, conoc judos, por primera vez, que no eran soldados. +Y nos conectamos en cosas pequeas, como que me encanta la msica country, algo muy extrao para ser palestino. +Pero fue entonces que me di cuenta tambin de que tenemos un muro de ira, de odio e ignorancia que nos separa. +Decid que no importa lo que me pasa. +Lo que realmente importa es cmo enfrento eso. +Y por lo tanto, decid dedicar mi vida a derribar los muros que separan a las personas. +Lo hago de muchas maneras. +El turismo es una de ellas, pero tambin los medios y la educacin, y puede que se pregunten, el turismo puede cambiar las cosas? +Puede derribar muros? S. +El turismo es la mejor forma sostenible para derribar esos muros y para crear una forma sostenible de conexin mutua y de forjar amistades. +Recuerdo haber hecho un viaje juntos con un amigo llamado Kobi --de una congregacin juda de Chicago, el viaje fue en Jerusaln-- lo llevamos a un campo de refugiados, un campo de refugiados palestinos, y all nos sirvieron esta comida esplndida. +Por cierto, esta es mi madre. Ella es genial. +Esa es la comida palestina llamada maqluba. +Significa "al revs". +Se cocina con arroz y pollo, y se la da vuelta. +Es la mejor comida. +La comimos juntos. +Luego escuchamos una banda mixta, de msicos israeles y palestinos, y bailamos un poco la danza del vientre. +Si no la conocen, se las enseo ms tarde. +Pero cuando nos fuimos, ambos lados, estaban llorando porque no queran irse. +Tres aos ms tarde, todava existen esas relaciones. +Imaginemos juntos si esos 1000 millones de personas que viajan cada ao por el mundo hicieran eso, en vez de ir en bus de un lado al otro, de un hotel a otro, tomando fotos desde las ventanas de sus buses, de las personas y las culturas, se relacionaran con las personas. +Recuerdo una vez que llev a un grupo musulmn del R.U. +a la casa de una familia juda ortodoxa, para celebrar la cena del viernes, la cena de shabat, y comer juntos hamin, que es una comida tpica juda, un guiso, y darse cuenta conversando, al cabo de un rato, que haca cien aos, sus familias vinieron del mismo lugar del norte de frica. +Esta no es una foto de perfil para su Facebook. +No es turismo del desastre. +Es el futuro de los viajes, y los invito a sumarse, a que cambien su forma de viajar. +Lo estamos haciendo en todo el mundo, de Irlanda, a Irn, a Turqua y queremos llegar a todos lados para cambiar el mundo. +Gracias. +Tengo que confesarles algo. +Como ingeniero y cientfico me he centrado en la eficacia durante muchos aos. +Pero la eficacia puede volverse un culto y quiero hablarles hoy de un viaje que me sac de ese culto y me llev de regreso a una realidad mucho ms rica. +Hace unos aos, luego de terminar el doctorado en Londres, me mud a Boston. +Viva en Boston y trabajaba en Cambridge. +Ese verano, compr una bicicleta de carrera y me iba a trabajar en bicicleta todos los das. +Para encontrar el camino, usaba el telfono. +Me indicaba ir por la Avenida Massachusetts, la ruta ms corta de Boston a Cambridge. +Pero, tras un mes de andar en bicicleta todos los das por esa avenida repleta de autos, un da tom un camino distinto. +No s muy bien por qu, ese da fui por otro camino, me desvi. +Recuerdo muy bien la sorpresa que sent: sorpresa por encontrarme con una calle sin autos, en contraste con la cercana Av. Massachusetts llena de autos. Sorpresa de encontrarme con una calle cubierta de hojas y rodeada de rboles. +Pero luego de la sorpresa, sent vergenza. +Cmo pude haber sido tan ciego? +Durante un mes entero, estuve tan atrapado con la aplicacin del mvil que el viaje al trabajo se transform en una sola cosa: el camino ms corto. +En el viaje, no pensaba en disfrutar del camino, ni en el placer de conectarme con la naturaleza, y era imposible mirar a la gente a los ojos. +Por qu? +Porque as acortaba un minuto el viaje al trabajo. +Les pregunto: Estoy solo en esto? +Cuntos de Uds. nunca usaron aplicaciones de mapas para guiarse? +La mayora, si no todos, las usaron. +No me malinterpreten: las aplicaciones de mapas son una innovacin sin igual para animarnos a explorar la ciudad. +Sacan el telfono y saben al instante dnde ir. +Pero la aplicacin da por hecho que hay solo un puado de caminos para cada destino. +Tiene el poder de hacer de ese puado de indicaciones el camino inmejorable a ese destino. +Tras aquella experiencia, cambi. +Cambi la investigacin de un manejo corriente de la informacin a la comprensin de cmo vive las ciudades la gente. +Us herramientas informticas para reproducir experimentos de las ciencias sociales a escala, a la escala de Internet. +Qued encantado por la belleza y el ingenio de los experimentos tradicionales de las ciencias sociales realizados por Jane Jacobs, Stanley Milgram, Kevin Lynch. +El resultado de esa investigacin ha sido la creacin de nuevos mapas, mapas en los que encontrarn no solo el camino ms corto, el azul, sino tambin el ms placentero, el rojo. +Cmo se hizo? +Einstein dijo una vez: "La lgica te llevar de A a B. +La imaginacin te llevar a donde quieras". +As que, con un poco de imaginacin, tuvimos que entender qu lugares de la ciudad eran lindos para la gente. +En la Universidad de Cambridge, con unos colegas, se nos ocurri este sencillo experimento. +Si les mostrara estas dos escenas urbanas y les preguntara cul es ms linda, cul elegiran? +No sean tmidos. +Quin elige A? Quin elige B? +Perfecto. +Basndonos en esa idea, construimos una plataforma de colaboracin masiva, un juego en Internet. +Se muestra a los jugadores pares de imgenes urbanas y se les pide que elijan la ms bella, tranquila y alegre. +Basndonos en miles de votos, nos es posible ver en cules hay mayor consenso. +Podemos saber cules son los lugares de la ciudad que hacen feliz a la gente. +Tras este trabajo, empec a trabajar con Yahoo Labs y form un equipo con Luca y Rossano. Juntos, agrupamos los lugares ganadores de Londres para disear un mapa nuevo de la ciudad, una cartografa que tena en cuenta las emociones humanas. +Con esta cartografa, no solo pueden unir y conectar los puntos A y B con los segmentos ms cortos, sino que tambin pueden ver los segmentos ms felices, el camino bello, el camino tranquilo. +En las pruebas, los participantes encontraron el camino feliz, el bello, el tranquilo, mucho ms agradable que el corto, y solo agregando unos pocos minutos al tiempo de viaje. +Los participantes tambin agregaron recuerdos a los lugares. +Recuerdos compartidos: ah estaba el antiguo edificio de la BBC; y recuerdos personales: ah di mi primer beso. +Tambin recordaron los olores y sonidos de algunos caminos. +Y si tuviramos una herramienta de mapas que nos indicara las rutas ms placenteras con base no solo en la esttica sino tambin en los olores, los sonidos y los recuerdos? +Hacia all se dirige ahora nuestra investigacin. +En lo general, mi investigacin trata de evitar el peligro del camino nico, evitar privar a la gente de vivir sus ciudades plenamente. +Caminen el sendero de la playa, no el de la playa de estacionamiento, y tendrn un camino completamente distinto. +Caminen por el sendero lleno de gente que aprecian, no lleno de autos, y tendrn un camino muy distinto. +Es as de sencillo. +Quisiera terminar con esta idea: Se acuerdan de "The Truman Show"? +Es una stira de los medios en la que una persona real no sabe que est viviendo en un mundo inventado. +Quiz vivamos en un mundo creado para la eficacia. +Pongan atencin a sus rutinas diarias y, tal como hizo Truman en la pelcula, huyan de ese mundo inventado. +Por qu? +Bueno, si piensan que la aventura es peligrosa, prueben con la rutina. Es mortal. +Gracias. +Dicen que para ser poeta hay que bajar alguna vez al infierno. +La primera vez que entr en la crcel no me sorprendi ni el ruido de los candados, ni las puertas que se iban cerrando, ni las rejas, ni nada de todo lo que yo me haba imaginado. +Tal vez porque la crcel est en un lugar que es bastante abierto. +Se ve el cielo. +Las gaviotas pasan volando y te cres que tens el mar ah al lado. Que ests muy cerquita de la playa. +Pero en realidad las gaviotas van a comer al basural que est cerquita de la crcel. +Segu entrando y de repente vea presos moverse por los pabellones, cruzar. +Fue como si diese un paso hacia atrs y pensara que yo podra perfectamente haber sido alguno de ellos. +De haber tenido otra historia, otro contexto, otra suerte. +Porque nadie, nadie, puede elegir el lugar donde nace. +En el ao 2009 me invitaron a participar de un proyecto que la Universidad Nacional de San Martn tiene dentro de la Unidad 48, para coordinar un taller de escritura. +El servicio penitenciario les cedi un terreno en el fondo de la crcel y ah mismo construyeron el edificio del centro universitario. +La primera vez que me reun con los presos, les pregunt por qu estaban pidiendo un taller de escritura y me dijeron que ellos queran poder poner en un papel todo lo que no podan decir y lo que no podan hacer. +Yo ah decid que quera hacer entrar la poesa a la crcel. +Entonces les dije por qu no trabajbamos con la poesa, si saban lo qu era la poesa. +Nadie tena ni idea de qu era realmente la poesa. +Y adems ellos me plantearon que el taller no era solamente para los presos universitarios, sino que tambin abarcaba a toda la poblacin de presos comunes. +Y entonces yo dije para empezar este taller yo necesito alguna herramienta que tengamos todos. +Y esa herramienta era el lenguaje. +Entonces tenamos lenguaje, tenamos taller. Podamos tener poesa. +Pero lo que yo no calcul fue que la desigualdad tambin vive en la crcel +y haba muchos de ellos que no tenan ni siquiera un primario completo. +Muchos no manejaban la letra cursiva, apenas una imprenta. +Tampoco escriban demasiado fluidamente. +Entonces empezamos a buscar poemas cortos, muy cortos, pero muy potentes. +Y empezamos a leer y lemos un autor y lemos otro autor y al leer esos poemas tan cortitos, entre todos se fueron dando cuenta de que lo que haca el lenguaje potico era romper una determianda lgica y armaba otro sistema. +Romper la lgica del lenguaje es tambin romper la lgica del sistema al que ellos estn acostumbrados a responder. +Entonces apareci un nuevo sistema, unas nuevas reglas que los hizo entender muy rpidamente, pero muy rpidamente, que con el lenguaje potico iban a decir absolutamente lo que ellos quisieran. +Dicen que para ser poeta hay que bajar alguna vez al infierno. +Y a ellos infierno les sobra. Les sobra infierno. +Una vez uno de ellos dice: "En la crcel no dorms nunca. +Nunca se puede dormir en la crcel. Jams pods cerrar los prpados". +Y entonces, yo hice as como ahora, un momento de silencio y les digo, chicos, eso es poesa, eso. +El universo carcelario est exhibido, lo tienen en la mano. +Todo esto que dicen, que no duermen nunca. Esto destila miedo. Todo esto no escrito. Todo esto es la poesa. +Entonces empezamos a apropiarnos de ese infierno. Y nos metimos directamente, de cabeza, en el sptimo crculo. +Y en ese sptimo crculo del infierno, tan nuestro, y tan querido, aprendieron que las paredes podan ser invisibles, a hacer gritar a las ventanas, a que nos escondiramos dentro de las sombras. +El primer ao que haba terminado el taller convocamos a una pequea fiesta de fin de ao como se hace cuando se realiza un trabajo con tanto amor. Uno quiere celebrar y hacer una fiesta. +Convocamos a familiares, amigos, autoridades de la universidad. +Lo nico que tenan que hacer ellos era leer un poema, recibir su diploma, aplausos y eso era toda nuestra sencilla fiesta. +Lo nico que yo quiero poder dejar es el momento en que esos hombres, a veces enormes al lado mo. O muchachos jovencsimos, pero con un orgullo tremendo, sostenan su papel y temblaban como chicos y traspiraban y lean su poema con la voz absolutamente quebrada. +Ese momento a m me hizo pensar mucho que seguramente a muchos de ellos era la primera vez que alguien los aplauda por algo que hubiesen hecho. +En la crcel hay cosas que no se pueden hacer. +En la crcel no se puede soar, en la crcel no se puede llorar. +Hay palabras que estn prcticamente prohibidas como la palabra tiempo, la palabra futuro, la palabra deseo. +Pero nosotros nos atrevimos a soar y a soar mucho +porque decidimos que iban a escribir un libro. +No solamente escribieron un libro sino que adems lo encuadernaron. +Eso fue a fines de 2010. +Hicimos una segunda apuesta y escribimos otro libro. +Y encuadernaron otro libro. +Eso fue hace poquito, a fin del ao pasado. +Lo que puedo ver semana a semana es cmo se van convirtiendo en otras personas, cmo se van transformando. +Cmo la palabra les da una dignidad que ellos no conocan, ni siquiera podan imaginar. +No saban que esa dignidad exista y que poda ser de ellos. +En el momento del taller, en ese infierno amado que tenemos, todos damos. +Abrimos las manos y el corazn y damos lo que tenemos lo que podemos. Todos. +Todos por igual. +De esa forma uno siente que al menos muy poquitito est reparando esa tremenda fractura social que hace que a muchsimos como ellos los espera la crcel como nico destino. +Recuerdo un verso de un enorme poeta, un gran poeta, de la Unidad 48 de nuestro taller, Nicols Dorado: "Tengo que conseguir un hilo infinito para coser esta gran lastimadura". +La poesa hace eso. Cose las lastimaduras de la exclusin. +Abre puertas. La poesa hace de espejo. +Inventa un espejo, que es el poema. +Ellos se reconocen, se miran en el poema y escriben desde lo que son y son desde lo que escriben. +Para poder escribir hace falta que ellos se apropien del momento de la escritura que es un momento extraordinario de libertad. +Yo les cont mucho sobre la crcel, mucho sobre lo que experimento cada semana y lo que disfruto y me transformo junto con ellos. +Pero no saben lo que a m me gustara que Uds. pudiesen sentir, vivir, experimentar aunque sea unos pocos segundos lo que yo cada semana disfruto y me hace ser quien soy. +"El corazn mastica lgrimas de tiempo ciego de ver esa luz oculta la velocidad de la existencia donde reman las imgenes +lucha, no se deja ir. +El corazn se agrieta bajo miradas tristes cabalga en tormentas que riegan fuego levanta pechos aminorizados de vergenza, sabe que el mtodo no es solo leer y seguir tambin desea ver el infinito azul. +El corazn se sienta a pensar las cosas, lucha por no caer en lo comn, intenta aprender a amar sin herir, respira el sol dndose coraje, se entrega, viaja a la razn. +El corazn pelea entre cinagas, bordea la lnea del inframundo, cae sin fuerzas y no se entrega a lo fcil mientras pasos desparejos de embriaguez despiertan, despiertan la quietud". +Soy Martn Bustamante, estoy preso en la Unidad 48 de San Martn, hoy es mi da de salidas transitorias. +Y a m la poesa y la literatura me cambiaron la vida. +Muchas gracias! +CD: Gracias! +Guatemala se est recuperando de un conflicto armado de 36 aos. +Un conflicto que se libr durante la Guerra Fra. +En realidad solo era una pequea insurgencia izquierdista con una respuesta devastadora por parte del Estado, +y como resultado, tenemos 200 000 vctimas civiles, 160 000 de ellas asesinadas en las comunidades: nios pequeos, hombres, mujeres, incluso ancianos. +Luego, tenemos a los dems, unos 40 000 que faltan, los que todava los estamos buscando. +Los llamamos los Desaparecidos. +Ahora, el 83 % de las vctimas son vctimas mayas, vctimas descendientes de los habitantes nativos de Centroamrica. +Y solo el 17 % de ellos son de ascendencia europea. +Pero lo ms importante aqu es que los mismos que se supone que nos defienden, la polica, los militares, son los que cometieron la mayora de los crmenes. +Ahora las familias quieren informacin. +Quieren saber qu pas. +Quieren los cuerpos de sus seres queridos. +Pero, sobre todo, los quieren a Uds., quieren que todos sepamos que sus seres queridos no hicieron nada malo. +Ahora, en mi caso, mi padre recibi amenazas de muerte en 1980. +Y nos fuimos. +Salimos de Guatemala y nos vinimos aqu. +As que crec en Nueva York, crec en Brooklyn, de hecho, fui a la secundaria de New Utrecht y me gradu en la Universidad de Brooklyn. +La nico que realmente no saba lo que pas en Guatemala. +No me importaba; era demasiado doloroso. +Y hasta 1995 decid no hacer nada al respecto. +Pero luego volv. +Regres a Guatemala para buscar los cuerpos, para entender lo que sucedi y buscarme a m tambin. +La forma de trabajo: damos informacin a la gente. +Hablamos con los miembros de las familias y dejamos que ellos elijan. +Dejamos que ellos decidan contarnos su historia, lo que vieron, contarnos de sus seres queridos. +Y an ms importante, les dejamos elegir que nos regalen un pedazo de s mismos. +Un poco, una muestra, de quines son. +Y ese ADN es lo que compararemos con el ADN que extraemos de los esqueletos. +Mientras hacemos eso, sin embargo, estamos buscando los cuerpos; +que por ahora son esqueletos, ya que la mayora de estos crmenes ocurri hace 32 aos. +Cuando encontramos la tumba, sacamos la suciedad, limpiamos el cuerpo, lo etiquetamos y lo exhumamos. +Literalmente lo sacamos de la tierra. +No obstante, una vez que tenemos estos cuerpos, los llevamos de regreso a la ciudad, al laboratorio, y empezamos un proceso donde tratamos de entender 2 cosas. Una es cmo murieron estas personas. +Aqu vemos una herida en la nuca causada por un arma de fuego o una herida de machete, por ejemplo. +La otra cosa que queremos descubrir es quines son. +Igual si es un beb, o un adulto. +Si es una mujer o un hombre. +Una vez terminado el anlisis, tomaremos un pequeo fragmento del hueso para extraer el ADN. +Luego tomamos ese ADN y lo comparamos con el ADN de los familiares, por supuesto. +La mejor manera de explicarles esto es mostrndoles 2 casos. +El primero es el caso del diario militar. +Ahora bien, este es un documento de contrabando trado de algn lugar en 1999. +Y lo que demuestra es que el Estado ha estado siguiendo a individuos, personas que, como Uds., queran cambiar su pas, y lo estaban anotando todo. +Y una de las cosas que apuntaron fue cuando los ejecutaron. +Dentro de ese rectngulo amarillo, se ve un cdigo, es un cdigo secreto: 300. +Y luego se ve una fecha. +El 300 significa "ejecutados" y la fecha significa cuando fueron ejecutados. +Todo esto tendr su papel en un segundo. +En 2003 realizamos una exhumacin; exhumamos 220 cuerpos de 53 tumbas de una base militar. +La tumba 9 coincidi con la familia de Sergio Sal Linares. +Sergio fue profesor en la universidad. +Se gradu de la Universidad Estatal de Iowa y regres a Guatemala para cambiar su pas. +Fue capturado el 23 de febrero de 1984. +Y, si observan, fue ejecutado el 29 de marzo de 1984, algo increble. +Tenamos el cuerpo, tenamos informacin de la familia y su ADN, y ahora tenemos documentos que nos dicen exactamente lo que sucedi. +Pero lo ms importante es que 2 semanas despus, obtenemos otra prueba, otra concordancia en la misma tumba, con Amancio Villatoro. +El ADN de ese cuerpo tambin coincidi con el ADN de su familia. +Y entonces nos dimos cuenta de que l tambin estaba en el diario. +Pero fue increble ver que a l tambin lo ejecutaron el 29 de marzo de 1984. +Lo que nos llev a pensar, mmm, cuntos cuerpos haba en la tumba? +Seis. +As que dijimos: "Cuntas personas fueron ejecutadas el 29 de marzo 1984?" +Claro, 6 tambin. +As que tenemos a Juan de Dios, Hugo, Moiss y Zoilo. +Todos ellos ejecutados en la misma fecha, todos capturados en diferentes lugares y en diferentes momentos. +Todos enterrados en esa tumba. +Lo nico que necesitbamos ahora era el ADN de esas 4 familias as que nos fuimos a buscarlas, y los encontramos. +Y identificamos esos seis cuerpos y los devolvimos a las familias. +El otro caso que quiero contarles es el de una base militar llamada CREOMPAZ. +En realidad significa "creo en la paz", pero la sigla significa en realidad Centro Regional de Entrenamiento de Operaciones de Mantenimiento de Paz, +y aqu es donde los militares guatemaltecos entrenaban a las fuerzas de paz de otros pases, a los que trabajan para la ONU +y van a pases como Hait y Congo. +Bueno, tenemos pruebas que dicen que dentro de esta base militar, haba cuerpos, haba tumbas. +As que fuimos all con una orden de cateo y al cabo de 2 horas de estar all encontramos la primera de las 84 tumbas, con un total de 533 cuerpos. +Ahora, si paran a pensar, fuerzas para la paz entrenadas encima de cuerpos. +Es muy irnico. +Pero los cuerpos --boca abajo, la mayora de ellos, manos atadas a la espalda, ojos vendados, todo tipo de traumas-- eran personas indefensas a la hora de ser ejecutados. +Personas que estn buscadas por 533 familias. +Centrmonos en la tumba 15. +Nos dimos cuenta de que la tumba 15 estaba llena de mujeres y nios, un total de 63. +De inmediato pensamos: Dios mo, dnde hay un caso como este? +Cuando llegu a Guatemala en 1995, o hablar del caso de una masacre que ocurri el 14 de mayo de 1982 donde el Ejrcito entr, mat a los hombres, y se llevaron a las mujeres y los nios en helicpteros a un lugar desconocido. +Bueno, adivinen qu? +La ropa de esta tumba se corresponda con la ropa de la regin de donde se llevaron a estas personas, de donde se llevaron a estas mujeres y nios. +As que llevamos a cabo un anlisis del ADN, y adivinen qu? +Identificamos a Martina Rojas y a Manuel Chen. +Ambos desaparecieron en ese caso, y ahora podamos demostrarlo. +Tenemos evidencia fsica que demuestra que esto sucedi y que esas personas fueron trasladadas a esta base. +Manuel Chen tena 3 aos. +Su madre se fue al ro a lavar la ropa, y ella lo dej con un vecino. +Es entonces cuando lleg el Ejrcito y es entonces cuando se lo llevaron en un helicptero y nunca lo han vuelto a ver hasta que lo encontramos en la tumba 15. +As que ahora con la ayuda de la ciencia, la arqueologa, antropologa, la gentica, estamos dndole voz a los sin voz. +Pero estamos haciendo ms que eso. +En realidad, estamos aportando evidencia para los juicios, igual que el juicio por genocidio del ao pasado en Guatemala donde se encontr al general Ros Montt culpable de genocidio y condenado a 80 aos. +As que vine aqu para decirles hoy que esto est sucediendo en todas partes, est sucediendo en Mxico justo delante nuestro, y no podemos dejarlo ir a ms. +Ahora, tenemos que juntarnos y decidir que no vamos a tener ms desaparecidos. +As que no ms desaparecidos. +S? No ms desaparecidos. +Gracias. +Vayamos al sur. +De hecho, todos Uds. van al sur. +Esta es la direccin sur, por aqu. y si caminan 8000 kilmetros, saliendo por la parte de atrs de esta sala, llegaran al punto ms austral donde uno puede ir en la Tierra, el Polo Sur. +No soy explorador. +No soy ambientalista. +Solo soy un sobreviviente. y estas fotografas que les estoy mostrando aqu son peligrosas. +Presentan al hielo que se derrite en los polos Norte y Sur. +Damas y caballeros, necesitan escuchar lo que estos sitios nos estn diciendo, y si no lo hacemos, acabaremos por encontrarnos en una situacin de supervivencia aqu en el planeta Tierra. +Me he enfrentado directamente a estos lugares y cruzar un ocano de hielo fundido es, sin duda, lo ms espantoso que me ha pasado. +La Antrtida es un lugar lleno de esperanza. +Est protegida por el Tratado Antrtico firmado en 1959. +En 1991, se firm otro acuerdo de 50 aos que impide cualquier explotacin en la Antrtida y este acuerdo podr ser alterado, cambiado, modificado o incluso, abandonado, a partir del ao 2041. +Damas y caballeros, gente muy al norte de aqu, en el rtico, ya estn aprovechando este deshielo, aprovechando recursos de las zonas que estaban cubiertas de hielo en los ltimos 10, 20, 30 000 aos, hasta 100 000 aos. +No pueden atar cabos y pensar en por qu el hielo se est derritiendo? +Este es un lugar increble, la Antrtida, y he trabajado arduamente en los ltimos 23 aos de esta misin para asegurarme de que lo que est pasando aqu, en el Norte, nunca suceda, no puede suceder en el Sur. +Dnde empez todo esto? +Para m a los 11 aos. +Miren este corte de pelo. Es un poco raro. A los 11 aos, me inspir en los verdaderos exploradores y quise tratar de ser el primero en ir a los dos polos. +Result extremadamente inspirador que la idea de convertirse en un viajero polar era un muy buen gancho con las chicas en las fiestas, cuando estaba en la universidad. +Fue un poco ms estimulante. +En esta imagen, nos encontramos en una zona del tamao de Estados Unidos y estamos por nuestra cuenta. +No tenemos comunicacin por radio, ningn apoyo. +Bajo nuestros pies, el 90 % de todo el hielo del mundo, El 70 % de todo el agua potable del mundo. +Estamos de pie encima de todo eso. +Este es el poder de la Antrtida. +En este viaje, nos hemos enfrentado a peligrosas grietas, a fro intenso, tanto fro que el sudor se volva hielo por debajo de la ropa, se te pueden agrietar los dientes, el agua puede congelarse en los ojos. +Digamos que hace un poco de fresco. Despus de 70 das de desesperacin, llegamos al Polo Sur. +Lo habamos logrado. +Pero algo me pas en ese viaje de 70 das en 1986 que me trajo aqu, y que me doli. +Mis ojos haban cambiado de color en 70 das debido a los daos, +nuestros rostros estaban llenos de ampollas, +la piel nos colgaba a tiras y nos preguntbamos por qu. +Y cuando llegamos a casa, la NASA nos dijo que haban descubierto un agujero en la capa de ozono sobre el Polo Sur y que hemos andando debajo de l el mismo ao que haba sido descubierto. +Los rayos ultravioleta golpearon el hielo, rebotaron, nos quemaban los ojos, nos desgarr la piel de la cara. +Fue un poco chocante... y me hizo pensar. +En 1989, ahora nos dirigimos hacia el norte. +60 das, cada paso nos aleja de la seguridad de la tierra firme a travs de un ocano congelado. +De nuevo, haca un fro desesperante. +Este soy yo despus de baarme desnudo a 60 grados bajo cero. +Si alguien te dice: "Tengo fro", y tiene este aspecto, entonces tiene fro sin duda. +Y a 1000 km distancia de la seguridad de la tierra firme ocurre el desastre. +El Ocano rtico se derrite bajo nuestros pies 4 meses antes de lo que alguna vez lo hizo en la historia y nosotros estamos a 1000 kilmetros de distancia de la seguridad de la tierra firme. +El hielo se estaba agrietando y resquebrajando a nuestro alrededor y aterrado, pienso: "Vamos a morir?" +Pero ese da, algo hizo clic en mi cabeza, cuando me di cuenta de que, como mundo, estamos en una situacin de supervivencia y esa sensacin nunca ha desaparecido durante estos 25 largos aos. +Pero entonces, tuvimos que marchar o morir. +Y no estbamos en un programa televisivo de supervivencia. +Cuando las cosas van mal, es una cuestin de vida o muerte. Nuestro valiente hroe afroestadounidense, Daryl, quien sera el primer estadounidense en ir al Polo Norte perdi su taln por congelacin a cabo de 200 km de marcha, +pero tiene que continuar, y contina. Despus de 60 das en el hielo, alcanz el Polo Norte. +Lo habamos logrado. +Yo era la primera persona en la historia lo suficientemente estpida como para ir andando a los dos polos, pero era nuestro xito. +Por desgracia, cuando volvimos a casa, no todo fue diversin. +Yo estaba muy deprimido. +Tener xito en algo es a menudo ms difcil que hacer que esto suceda. +Me encontraba vaco, solo, en bancarrota. +No tena esperanza, pero la esperanza apareci en la forma del gran Jacques Cousteau, que me inspir a abrazar la misin 2041. +Jacques me dio instrucciones precisas: "Involucra a los lderes mundiales, habla con la industria y las empresas y, sobre todo, Rob, inspira a los jvenes, porque ellos elijarn el futuro de la conservacin de la Antrtida". +Durante los ltimos 11 aos, hemos llevado a ms de 1000 personas, gente de la industria y los negocios, mujeres y los hombres empresarios, estudiantes de todas partes del mundo, hasta la Antrtida, y durante esas misiones, hemos logrado recuperar ms de 1500 toneladas de metal retorcido que quedaban en la Antrtida. +Eso dur 8 aos y estoy muy orgulloso porque reciclamos todos de nuevo aqu en Amrica del Sur. +Mi inspiracin, desde que empec a caminar por el reciclaje fue mi madre. +Aqu est mi madre... mi madre sigue reciclando, y tiene 100 aos, no es fantstico? +Amo a mi madre. +Pero cuando naci mi madre, la poblacin del planeta era solo de 1,8 millones de personas, y hablando de miles de millones, hemos involucrado a los jvenes de la industria y los negocios de India, de China. Estos son las naciones agentes de cambio +y que jugarn un papel extremadamente importante en la decisin acerca de la conservacin de la Antrtida. +Increblemente, hemos logrado atraer e inspirar mujeres de Oriente Medio que, a menudo, representaron a sus pases por primera vez en la Antrtida. +A fantsticas personas, muy inspirados. +Para cuidar de la Antrtida primero tenemos que involucrar a la gente en este lugar extraordinario, establecer una relacin, forman una unin poner las bases de un poco de amor. +Es un gran privilegio ir a la Antrtida puedo decirlo. +Me siento muy afortunado, he estado all 35 veces en la vida y todas las personas que van con nosotros, vuelven a casa como grandes defensores no solo de la Antrtida, pero para cuestiones locales en sus propios pases. +Volvamos al punto de partida: el deshielo de los Polos Norte y Sur. +Y no es una buena noticia; NASA nos dijo hace 6 meses ya que la capa de hielo de la Antrtida Occidental se est desmoronando. +reas enormes de hielo --vean que grande es la Antrtida comparada incluso con la geografa de aqu-- enormes regiones de hielo se separan de la Antrtida, regiones del tamao de algunos pases pequeos. +La NASA estima que el nivel del mar subir --es un hecho seguro-- un metro en los prximos 100 aos, el mismo tiempo que mi madre ha estado en el planeta Tierra. +Va a pasar, de que la preservacin de la Antrtida y nuestra supervivencia en la Tierra estn vinculadas. +Y hay una solucin muy simple. +Si usamos ms energa renovable en el mundo real, si somos ms eficientes con la energa, si producimos nuestra energa de manera ms limpia, no habr razn econmica alguna para ir y explorar la Antrtida. +No tiene sentido econmico, y si manejamos mejor nuestra energa, es posible tambin ralentizar o incluso detener este gran deshielo que nos amenaza. +Es un gran reto, cul es nuestra respuesta? +Tenemos que volver all por ltima vez, a finales del prximo ao, regresaremos al Polo Sur geogrfico. donde hace 30 aos hemos llegado a pe, y volver sobre nuestros pasos, 1600 kilmetros, pero esta vez usamos solo energa renovable para sobrevivir. +Cruzaremos los casquetes polares que se estn derritiendo, con la esperanza de encontrar algunas soluciones a este problema. +Este es mi hijo, Barney. +Vendr conmigo. +Se ha comprometido caminar al lado de su padre, para traducir estos mensajes e inspirar estos mensajes en otros jvenes lderes del futuro. +Estoy muy orgulloso de l. Bueno de l, Barney. +Damas y caballeros, un sobreviviente --y yo soy uno de ellos-- un sobreviviente no mira un problema y dice: "Lo que t digas". +Un sobreviviente ve un problema y se ocupa de este problema antes de convertirse en una amenaza. +Tenemos 27 aos para preservar la Antrtida. +Nos pertenece a todos. +Todos tenemos una responsabilidad. +El hecho de nadie es dueo de ella, tal vez pueda significar que podemos hacerlo. +Antrtida es una lnea moral en la nieve. Y debemos luchar del mismo lado de esa lnea luchar duro por mantener este hermoso lugar impecable, nico en la Tierra. +S que es posible. +Vamos a conseguirlo. +Les dejo con estas palabras de Goethe; +he tratado vivir de acuerdo con ellas: +"Todo aquello que puedas o suees hacer, cominzalo. La audacia contiene en s misma genio, poder y magia". +Buena suerte a todos. +Muchas gracias. +Cuando los portugueses llegaron a Amrica Latina hace unos 500 aos, se encontraron con este bosque tropical increble. +Y entre toda esta biodiversidad jams vista antes, encontraron una especie que pronto les llam la atencin. +Cuando cortamos la corteza de esta especie damos con una resina de color rojo muy oscuro que sirve muy bien para pintar y teir tejidos para hacer ropa. +Los indgenas llamaron a esta especie "pau-brasil", y eso es porque esta tierra se llam "tierra de Brasil", y ms tarde, Brasil. +Ese es el nico pas del mundo cuyo nombre viene de un rbol. +As que pueden imaginarse qu bonito es ser silvicultor en Brasil, entre otras razones. +Hay muchos productos forestales a nuestro alrededor. +Aparte de eso, el bosque es muy importante para la regulacin del clima. +En Brasil, casi el 70 % de la evaporacin que vuelve en forma de lluvia la proporciona en realidad la selva. +Solo la Amazonia enva a la atmsfera 20 000 millones de toneladas de agua cada da. +Esto es ms de lo que el Amazonas, el ro ms grande del mundo, vierte en el mar al diario, que son 17 000 millones de toneladas. +Si tuviramos que hervir el agua para crear el mismo efecto que la evapotranspiracin, necesitaramos toda la produccin elctrica mundial durante 6 meses. +As que nos brinda un gran servicio a todos. +Hay unos 4000 millones de hectreas de bosques en el mundo. +Esto corresponde, ms o menos, a China, EE.UU., Canad y Brasil todos juntos, en lo que al tamao respeta, para que se den una idea. +Tres cuartas partes se encuentran en la zona templada, y solo una cuarta parte en los trpicos, pero este cuarto, 1000 millones de hectreas, posee la mayor parte de la biodiversidad, y, muy importante, el 50 % de la biomasa viva, el carbono. +Ahora bien, tenamos 6000 millones de hectreas de bosque --un 50 % ms de lo que tenemos hoy-- hace 2000 aos. +Hemos perdido 2 millones de hectreas en los ltimos 2000 aos. +Pero en los ltimos 100 aos, perdimos la mitad de eso. +Fue entonces que pasamos de la deforestacin de los bosques templados a la deforestacin de los bosques tropicales. +As que piensen en ello: en un siglo hemos perdido la misma cantidad de bosque en los trpicos que perdimos en 2000 aos en los bosques templados. +Esa es la tasa de destruccin que estamos sufriendo. +Brasil es una pieza importante de este rompecabezas. +Tenemos el segundo mayor bosque del mundo despus de Rusia. +Esto significa que el 12 % de todos los bosques del mundo se encuentra en Brasil, y la mayor parte en el Amazonas. +Es la porcin ms grande de selva que tenemos. Es una zona muy, muy extensa. +Como pueden ver, aqu cabran un gran nmero de pases europeos. +Todava tenemos un 80 % de la cubierta forestal. +Esa es la buena noticia. +Pero hemos perdido el 15 % en tan solo 30 aos. +As que si continuamos a esta velocidad, muy pronto, vamos a perder esta fuente poderosa que tenemos en el Amazonas para regular nuestro clima. +La deforestacin se expandi y aument su tasa a finales de los aos 90 y al principio del siglo XXI. +(Ruido de motosierra) (Sonido de la tala y cada de rboles) 27 000 kilmetros cuadrados por ao. +Son 2,7 millones de hectreas. +Es algo as como la mitad de Costa Rica cada ao. +As que en este momento --hablo del ao 2003, 2004-- empec a trabajar para el gobierno. +Y junto con otros compaeros del Departamento Forestal Nacional, nos asignaron la tarea de crear un equipo, investigar las causas de la deforestacin y hacer un plan para luchar contra este fenmeno a nivel nacional, con la participacin de las organizaciones gubernamentales locales y civiles, las empresas y las comunidades locales, en un esfuerzo por resolver estas causas. +As que creamos un plan que contiene 144 propuestas en diferentes reas. +Voy a hablar de todas ellas una por una. No, solo dar unos ejemplos de lo que hicimos en los aos siguientes desde entonces. +As que primero, hemos creado un sistema con la agencia espacial nacional, INPE, para poder ver dnde ocurre de hecho la deforestacin, casi en tiempo real. +As que ahora, en Brasil, tenemos este sistema donde cada mes, o cada dos meses, disponemos de informacin acerca de las nuevas zonas desforestadas para que podamos actuar en realidad cuando esto est sucediendo. +Y toda la informacin es totalmente transparente para que otros puedan replicar eso en sistemas independientes. +Esto nos permite, entre otras cosas, recuperar los 1,4 millones de metros cbicos de troncos talados ilegalmente. +Parte serramos y vendemos, y todos los ingresos van a un fondo de donacin que financia proyectos de conservacin de las comunidades locales. +Esto tambin nos permiti llevar a cabo operaciones importantes para detener la corrupcin y las actividades ilegales ayudando a enviar a la crcel a 700 personas incluyendo una gran nmero de funcionarios pblicos. +Luego hicimos la propuesta de que las reas deforestadas ilegalmente no reciban ningn tipo de prstamos o de financiacin. +As que implementamos esto a travs del sistema bancario y luego vinculamos este recurso a los usuarios finales. +As que los supermercados, los mataderos, etc., todos los que compran productos provenientes de la zona de tala ilegal tambin pueden ser responsabilizados por la deforestacin. +As que hay que relacionar todos estos asuntos para ayudar a reducir el problema. +Y tambin trabajamos mucho en la tenencia de la tierra. +Es muy importante para el conflicto. +Fueron creadas 50 millones de hectreas de reas protegidas, un rea del tamao de Espaa. +Y de esos, ocho millones eran tierras indgenas. +Ahora empezamos a ver los resultados. +As que en los ltimos 10 aos, la deforestacin se redujo en Brasil un 75 %. +As que si lo comparamos con el promedio de deforestacin de la ltima dcada, hemos salvado 8,7 millones de hectreas, un rea del tamao de Austria. +Pero lo ms importante es que se evit la emisin de 3000 millones de toneladas de CO2 a la atmsfera. +Por el momento, la mayor reduccin de las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero, hasta hoy, una accin muy positiva. +Uno puede pensar que tales acciones de disminuir, de ralentizar la deforestacin, tendrn un impacto econmico porque no habr mucha actividad econmica o algo as. +De hecho, es interesante notar que es exactamente lo contrario. +De hecho, en el perodo del declive de la deforestacin, la economa creci en promedio 2 veces en comparacin a la dcada anterior, cuando aument la tasa de deforestacin. +Es una buena leccin para nosotros. +Quizs lo que sabemos est completamente desconectado de la realidad, ya que lo hemos aprendido solo cuando disminuy la deforestacin. +Esta es una buena noticia, y es todo un logro, y obviamente deberamos estar muy orgullosos de eso. +Pero ni siquiera se acerca a lo que sera suficiente. +De hecho, si pensamos en la deforestacin de la Amazonia en 2013, esto representa ms de medio milln de hectreas, lo que significa que cada minuto, un rea del tamao de dos campos de ftbol se talaba en la Amazona el ao pasado, solo el ao pasado. +Si a esto sumamos la deforestacin de otras biomasas brasileas, todava hablamos de la mayor tasa de deforestacin del mundo. +Ms o menos, somos los hroes de la selva, pero tambin los campeones de la deforestacin. +As que no podemos estar satisfechos, ni por asomo. +As que el siguiente paso, creo, es luchar para tener cero prdidas de la cubierta forestal en Brasil y que sea una meta para el ao 2020. +Ese es nuestro siguiente paso. +Ahora, siempre he estado interesado en la relacin que hay entre el cambio climtico y los bosques. +Primero, porque el 15 % de las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero provienen de la deforestacin, por lo que esto es una gran parte del problema. +Pero tambin, los bosques pueden ser parte de la solucin ya que son la mejor forma de reducir, capturar y almacenar el carbono. +Sin embargo, hay otra relacin entre el clima y los bosques que en 2008 me llam la atencin hasta el punto de cambiar de carrera, de trabajar con los bosques a trabajar con el cambio climtico. +Fui a visitar Canad, la Columbia Britnica, junto con los jefes de los servicios forestales de otros pases con los que tenemos una especie de alianza, como Canad, Rusia, India, China y Estados Unidos. +Y cuando estuvimos all aprendimos sobre el escarabajo del pino de montaa, que se est comiendo literalmente los bosques de Canad. +Estos rboles marrones que vemos aqu estn muertos. +Estn de pie pero son rboles muertos debido a las larvas del escarabajo. +Lo que ocurre es que este escarabajo es controlado por el fro en el invierno. +Desde hace muchos aos, ya no hace fro suficiente para controlar realmente la poblacin de este escarabajo. +Se ha convertido en una enfermedad matando a miles de millones de rboles. +As que volv con esta idea de que el bosque es en realidad una de las primeras vctimas del cambio climtico. +As que estaba pensando, que si consigo trabajar con todos mis colegas para detener realmente la deforestacin, tal vez nos vamos a perder la batalla en contra del cambio climtico ms tarde, debido a las inundaciones, el calor, los incendios, etc. +As que decid dejar a los Servicios Forestales y empezar a trabajar directamente sobre el cambio climtico, encontrar una manera de entender estos desafos y resolverlos. +El desafo del cambio climtico es bastante claro. +El objetivo es muy claro. +Queremos limitar el aumento del promedio de la temperatura del planeta a 2 grados. +Hay varias razones para esto. +No voy a entrar en eso ahora. +Pero, para llegar a este lmite de 2 grados, que asegurar nuestra supervivencia, el IPCC, un grupo de expertos intergubernamentales sobre el cambio climtico, hace hincapi en que tenemos una previsin de las emisiones de 1000 millones de toneladas de CO2 a partir de ahora hasta el final del siglo. +As que si dividimos esto entre el nmero de aos que tenemos es un presupuesto medio de 11 000 millones de toneladas de CO2 al ao. +Pero qu es una tonelada de CO2? +Es ms o menos lo que un coche pequeo, que recorre 20 kilmetros al da, emitir en un ao. +O uno vuelo, una ida, de So Paulo a Johannesburgo o a Londres, solo la ida. +Ida y vuelta, 2 toneladas. +As que 11 000 millones de toneladas es el doble de esto. +Las emisiones hoy en da son de 50 000 millones de toneladas y aumentan. +Estn aumentando y tal vez se llegar a los 61 000 en 2020. +Mientras que deberamos reducirlo a 10 000 en 2050. +Al mismo tiempo, la poblacin aumentar hasta de 7 a 9 mil millones de personas, la economa aumentar de USD 60 billones en 2010 a USD 200 billones. +Por eso tenemos que ser mucho ms eficaces para disminuir 7 toneladas de carbono por persona y por ao a cerca de una tonelada. +Hay que elegir. Tomar el avin o tener auto. +La pregunta es, podemos hacerlo? +Es exactamente la misma pregunta que me hice cuando estaba desarrollando un plan para combatir la deforestacin. +Es un problema muy grande y complejo. Realmente podemos hacerlo? +Yo creo que s. Piensen en esto: La deforestacin represent el 60 % de las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero en Brasil en la ltima dcada. +Hoy en da, hay menos, un 30 %. +En el mundo, el 60 % lo causa la energa. +As que si podemos abordar directamente la energa, de la misma manera en que abordamos la deforestacin, tal vez podamos tener una oportunidad. +As que hay 5 cosas que creo que debemos hacer. +En primer lugar, tenemos que parar el desarrollo de las emisiones de carbono. +No tenemos que talar los bosques para conseguir realmente ms empleos, desarrollar la agricultura y tener ms economa. +Ya lo hemos demostrado: cuando reducimos la deforestacin, la economa crece. +Lo mismo podra ocurrir en el sector energtico. +Segundo, tenemos que incentivar estos cambios. +Cada ao, se subsidian USD 500 000 millones a los combustibles fsiles. +Por qu no ponemos un precio al carbono y transferimos esto a la energa renovable? +Tercero, necesitamos medir y sacar a la luz dnde, cundo y quin emite gases de efecto invernadero para poder orientar nuestras acciones ms especficamente, por casos. +Cuarto, tenemos que ir ms all del simple desarrollo; no es necesario intentar resolver los problemas por vas obsoletas cuando podemos usar otras ms modernas. +No necesitamos acudir a los combustibles fsiles pensando en los mil millones sin acceso a la energa antes de llegar a la energa limpia. +Y en quinto y ltimo lugar, tenemos que compartir la responsabilidad entre los gobiernos, las empresas y la sociedad civil. +Hay suficiente trabajo para todos y necesitamos que todos se impliquen. +As que para concluir, el futuro no es inevitable, algo donde hay que llegar sin cuestionamientos. +Tenemos que tener el coraje de cambiar nuestro camino, invertir en algo nuevo, pensar que podemos realmente cambiar. +Esto es lo que hacemos en Brasil con la deforestacin, y espero que podamos hacerlo tambin en el mundo con el cambio climtico. +Gracias. +Cuando uno, como yo, crece en un pas en desarrollo como India, instantneamente aprende a dar ms valor a los recursos limitados y encuentra formas creativas de reutilizar lo que ya tiene. +Piensen en Mansukh Prajapati, un alfarero de India. +l ha creado un refrigerador de arcilla que no consume electricidad. +Puede mantener frutas y verduras frescas durante muchos das. +Eso es un invento literalmente genial. +En frica, si se quedan sin batera en el telfono mvil, no se asusten. +Encontrarn emprendedores ingeniosos que recargarn su mvil usando bicicletas. +Y ya que estamos en Amrica del Sur, vayamos a Lima, Per, una regin con alta humedad donde cae solo 2,5 cm de lluvia al ao. +Una universidad de ingeniera en Lima dise una valla publicitaria gigante que absorbe la humedad del aire y la convierte en agua purificada, generando ms de 90 litros de agua al da. +Los peruanos son increbles. +Pueden crear, literalmente, agua de la nada. +Durante los ltimos 7 aos, he conocido y estudiado a cientos de empresarios de India, China, frica y Amrica del Sur y ellos me siguen sorprendiendo. +Muchos no fueron a la escuela. +No inventan cosas en grandes laboratorios de I+D. +La calle es el laboratorio. +Por qu lo hacen? +Por no tener los recursos bsicos que damos por sentado, como el capital y la energa. Y los servicios bsicos como sanidad y educacin. tambin son escasos en esas regiones. +Cuando los recursos externos son escasos, uno tiene que ir por libre para aprovechar el recurso ms abundante, el ingenio humano, para encontrar formas inteligentes de resolver problemas con recursos limitados. +En India, lo llamamos jugaad. +Jugaad es una palabra hind que significa "solucin improvisada", una solucin inteligente nacida en la adversidad. +Las soluciones jugaad no son sofisticadas o perfectas, sino que crean ms valor con menor costo. +Para m, los empresarios que crean soluciones jugaad son como los alquimistas. +Pueden transformar mgicamente la adversidad en oportunidad, y convertir algo de menor valor en algo de gran valor. +En otras palabras, dominan el arte de hacer ms con menos, que es la esencia de la innovacin frugal. +La innovacin frugal es la capacidad de crear ms valor econmico y social usando menos recursos. +La innovacin frugal no se trata de hacer; sino de hacer las cosas mejor. +Quiero mostrarles cmo, a travs de los mercados emergentes, empresarios y empresas adoptan la innovacin frugal a gran escala ofreciendo de forma rentable asistencia sanitaria y energa a miles de millones de personas con pocos ingresos pero muy altas aspiraciones. +Vayamos primero a China, donde el proveedor de servicios de IT ms grande del pas, Neusoft, ha desarrollado una solucin de telemedicina para ayudar a los mdicos en las ciudades a tratar de forma remota a ancianos y pobres de los pueblos chinos. +Esta solucin se basa en usar dispositivos mdicos que los trabajadores de la salud, como las enfermeras usan en clnicas rurales. +China necesita desesperadamente soluciones mdicas frugales porque en el 2050 habr ms de 500 millones de personas mayores. +Ahora vayamos a Kenia, un pas donde la mitad de la poblacin usa M-Pesa, un sistema de pago mvil. +Esta es una gran solucin para el continente africano porque el 80 % de los africanos no tiene una cuenta bancaria, pero lo interesante de M-Pesa es que se est convirtiendo en la fuente de otros modelos de negocio disruptivos en sectores como la energa. +M-KOPA, la solucin solar en casa que viene literalmente en una caja que tiene un panel solar en el techo, 3 luces LED, una radio solar y un cargador de telfono mvil. +Todo el kit cuesta USD 200, demasiado caro para los kenianos y ah es dnde la telefona mvil puede desarrollar una solucin ms asequible. +Hoy en da, uno puede comprar este kit con un depsito inicial de USD 35, y luego pagar el resto al hacer un micropago diario de 45 centavos con el telfono mvil. +Una vez hechos 365 micropagos, el sistema se desbloquea, y uno es dueo del producto empezando a recibir electricidad limpia y gratis. +Esta es una solucin increble para Kenia, donde el 70 % de las personas no tiene acceso a la red elctrica. +Esto demuestra que con la innovacin frugal lo que importa es que se tome lo ms abundante, la conectividad mvil, para hacer frente a lo que es escaso, es decir, la energa. +Con la innovacin frugal, el Sur global est realmente poniendo al da y en algunos casos incluso saltando por encima del Norte. +En lugar de construir hospitales caros, China usa la telemedicina de manera rentable para tratar a millones de pacientes, y frica, en lugar de construir bancos y redes elctricas, va directamente a los pagos mviles y la distribucin de energa limpia. +La innovacin frugal se opone a cmo innovamos en el Norte diametralmente. +Yo vivo en Silicon Valley, donde permanentemente perseguimos las innovaciones tecnolgicas. +Piense en el iPhone 5, 6 y luego 7, 8. +Las empresas de Occidente gastan miles de millones de dlares en I+D, usan toneladas de recursos naturales y crean productos cada vez ms complejos, que les diferencien de las marcas de la competencia, y cobran a los clientes ms por las nuevas funciones. +As que el modelo de negocio tradicional de Occidente es ms por ms. +Pero, este modelo de ms por ms est quedando obsoleto, por 3 razones: Primero, una gran parte de los clientes de Occidente por la disminucin del poder adquisitivo, ya no puede permitirse estos productos caros. +Segundo, nos estamos quedando sin agua natural y petrleo. +En California, donde vivo, la escasez de agua es un gran problema. +Tercero, lo ms importante, debido a la creciente disparidad de ingresos entre los ricos y la clase media occidental, hay una gran desconexin entre los productos, los servicios existentes y las necesidades bsicas de los consumidores. +Saben que hoy hay ms de 70 millones de estadounidenses con servicios bancarios limitados, porque los servicios bancarios existentes no estn diseados para hacer frente a sus necesidades bsicas? +La prolongada crisis econmica en Occidente hace a la gente pensar que estn a punto de perder el alto nivel de vida y que se enfrentan a privaciones. +Creo que la nica forma de sostener el crecimiento y la prosperidad en Occidente es aprendiendo a hacer ms con menos. +La bueno es, que est empezando a suceder. +Varias compaas occidentales estn adoptando la innovacin frugal para crear productos asequibles para consumidores occidentales. +Les dar 2 ejemplos. +Al ver la primera vez este edificio, pens que era un tipo de casa posmoderna. +Es una planta de fabricacin pequea creada por Grameen Danone, una empresa comn del Banco Grameen de Muhammad Yunus y la multinacional de alimentos Danone para hacer yogur de gran calidad en Bangladesh. +Esta fbrica tiene el tamao del 10 % de las fbricas de Danone existentes y su construccin cuesta mucho menos. +Pienso que se podra llamar fbrica de bajo contenido en grasa. +Esta. a diferencia de las fbricas occidentales altamente automatizadas, depende de procesos manuales para generar empleo en comunidades locales. +Danone se sinti tan inspirada con este modelo que combina eficiencia econmica con sostenibilidad social, que planea tambin extenderla a otras partes del mundo. +Al ver este ejemplo, uno puede pensar: "La innovacin frugal es baja tecnologa". +En realidad no. +La innovacin frugal es tambin fabricacin de alta tecnologa ms asequible y ms accesible a ms personas. +Les dar un ejemplo. +En China, los ingenieros de I+D de Siemens Healthcare han diseado un escner CT bastante fcil de usar por trabajadores de la salud menos calificados, como enfermeras y tcnicos. +Este dispositivo puede escanear ms pacientes diariamente, y, sin embargo, consume menos energa lo que es ideal para hospitales, pero tambin ideal para pacientes ya que reduce el costo del tratamiento en un 30 % y la dosis de radiacin hasta en un 60 %. +Esta solucin fue diseada inicialmente para el mercado chino, pero ahora se vende como pan caliente en EE.UU. y Europa, donde los hospitales se ven presionados a dar atencin de calidad a menor costo. +Pero la revolucin de la innovacin frugal en Occidente est en realidad dirigida por empresarios creativos que llegan a soluciones sorprendentes para hacer frente a las necesidades bsicas de EE.UU. y Europa. +Rpidamente dar 3 ejemplos de nuevas empresas que personalmente me inspiran. +La primera fue creada por mi vecino en Silicon Valley. +Se llama gThrive. +Hacen estos sensores inalmbricos diseados como medidores de plstico que los agricultores pueden pegar en diferentes lugares del campo para recoger informacin detallada de las condiciones del suelo. +Estos datos permiten a los agricultores optimizar el uso de la energa del agua mientras mejoran la calidad de los productos y los rendimientos, gran solucin en California que enfrenta a una escasez de agua importante. +Se amortiza en un ao. +El segundo ejemplo es Be-Bound, tambin en Silicon Valley, que permite conectarse a Internet incluso en reas sin ancho de banda donde no hay wi-fi o 3G o 4G. +Cmo lo hacen? +Simplemente usan SMS, una tecnologa bsica, que resulta ser ms fiable y estar ms ampliamente disponible en todo el mundo. +3000 millones de personas con mviles no pueden acceder hoy a Internet. +Esta solucin les puede conectar a Internet de forma frugal. +Y en Francia, hay una empresa llamada Compte Nickel, que est revolucionando el sector bancario. +Esta permite a miles de personas ir a tiendas familiares y en solo 5 minutos activar el servicio que les da 2 productos: una cuenta bancaria internacional y una tarjeta de dbito internacional. +Cobran una cuota de mantenimiento anual fija de solo 20 euros. +Eso significa que uno puede hacer todas las transacciones bancarias como enviar y recibir dinero, pagar con la tarjeta de dbito, todo sin cargo adicional. +Esto es lo que yo llamo la banca bajo costo y sin banco. +Sorprendentemente, el 75 % de los clientes que usa este servicio son clase media francesa que no puede pagar altas comisiones bancarias. +Habl de la innovacin frugal, inicialmente pionera en el Sur, que est siendo adoptada por el Norte. +En ltima instancia, nos gustara ver los pases desarrollados y los pases en desarrollo sumarse y cocrear soluciones frugales que beneficien a toda la humanidad. +La gran noticia es que esto est empezando a suceder. +Vayamos a Nairobi para verlo. +Nairobi tiene atascos horrendos. +La primera vez que los vi, pens: "Santo cielo!" +porque uno debe esquivar las vacas, al manejar en Nairobi. +Para aliviar la situacin, los ingenieros del laboratorio de IBM en Kenia estn probando una solucin llamada Megaffic, inicialmente diseada por ingenieros japoneses. +A diferencia de Occidente, Megaffic no se basa en sensores de carretera, muy caros para instalarlos en Nairobi. +En su lugar, procesan datos de imgenes de trfico, obtenidas de unas pocas webcams de baja resolucin en las calles de Nairobi, y luego usan software analtico para predecir los puntos de congestin, y envan SMS a los conductores rutas alternativas. +Concedido, Megaffic no es tan sexy como los vehculos autodirigidos, pero promete llevar a los conductores de Nairobi del punto A al punto B al menos un 20 % ms rpido. +Y a principios de este ao, UCLA Health cre su Laboratorio Global de Innovacin, para identificar soluciones sanitarias frugales en cualquier parte del mundo que sean al menos 20 % ms baratas que las soluciones existentes en EE.UU. +e incluso ms eficaces. +Tambin trata de reunir a los innovadores del Norte y del Sur para cocrear soluciones de salud asequibles para toda la humanidad. +Les di muchos ejemplos de innovadores frugales de todo el mundo, pero la pregunta es, cmo funciona la adopcin de la innovacin frugal? +He recogido 3 principios de los innovadores frugales de todo el mundo que quiero compartir con Uds. aplicables en su propia organizacin para hacer ms con menos. +Primer principio: Simplifiquen. +No hagan soluciones para impresionar a los clientes. +Hagan cosas lo suficientemente fciles de usar y ampliamente accesibles, al igual que el escner CT que vimos en China. +Segundo principio: No reinventen la rueda. +Aprovechen los recursos y activos existentes ampliamente disponibles, como la telefona mvil para ofrecer energa limpia o tiendas familiares para ofrecer servicios bancarios. +Tercer principio: Piensen y acten de forma horizontal. +Las empresas tienden a escalar verticalmente centralizando operaciones en grandes fbricas y almacenes, pero para ser giles y hacer frente a la inmensa diversidad de clientes, debe escalar horizontalmente mediante una cadena de suministro distribuida con unidades de fabricacin y distribucin ms pequeas, como ha demostrado el Banco Grameen. +El Sur fue pionero en innovacin frugal por pura necesidad. +El Norte est ahora aprendiendo a hacer ms y mejor con menos ya que se enfrenta a la escasez de recursos. +Como ciudadano francs de origen indio que vive en EE.UU. mi esperanza es que superemos esta divisin artificial Norte-Sur para que podamos aprovechar el ingenio colectivo de los innovadores de todo el mundo y cocrear soluciones frugales que mejorarn la calidad de vida de todo el mundo, preservando nuestro precioso planeta. +Muchas gracias. +Los humanos tenemos un potencial extraordinario para la bondad, pero tambin un inmenso poder para hacer dao. +Cualquier herramienta puede usarse para construir o para destruir. +Todo depende de nuestra motivacin. +Por lo tanto, es an ms importante promover una motivacin altruista que una egosta. +De hecho, ahora, en nuestra poca enfrentamos muchos desafos. +Podran ser desafos personales. +Nuestra propia mente puede ser la mejor amiga o la peor enemiga. +Existen tambin desafos sociales: la pobreza en medio de la abundancia, las desigualdades, los conflictos, la injusticia. +Y luego nuevos desafos inesperados. +Hace 10 000 aos, haba cerca de 5 millones de seres humanos en la Tierra. +Cualquier cosa que hicieran, la resiliencia de la Tierra pronto sanaba la actividad humana. +Luego de las revoluciones industrial y tecnolgica, ya no es lo mismo. +Ahora somos el principal agente de impacto en la Tierra. +Entramos en el Antropoceno, la era de los seres humanos. +En cierta forma, si quisiramos continuar este crecimiento sin fin, este uso ilimitado de recursos materiales, es como si este hombre dijera --lo o de un ex jefe de Estado, no voy a decir quin-- "Hace 5 aos, estbamos al borde del precipicio. +Hoy hemos dado un gran paso adelante". +Esta frontera es la que los cientficos definieron como lmites planetarios. +Dentro de esos lmites, pueden darse una serie de factores. +Todava podemos prosperar, la humanidad an puede prosperar durante 150 000 aos si mantenemos la misma estabilidad del clima como en el Holoceno durante los ltimos 10 000 aos. +Pero esto depende de que elijamos una simplicidad voluntaria, crecer cualitativamente, no cuantitativamente. +En 1900, como pueden ver, estbamos bien dentro de los lmites de seguridad. +En 1950, vino la gran aceleracin. +Contengan la respiracin, no demasiado, e imaginen lo que viene despus. +Ahora hemos rebasado ampliamente algunos de los lmites planetarios. +Tomemos por ejemplo la biodiversidad, al ritmo actual, en 2050, un 30 % de las especies terrestres habr desaparecido. +Aunque mantengamos su ADN refrigerado, no ser reversible. +Por eso estoy all sentado frente a un glaciar a 7000 metros (21 000 pies) en Butn. +En el Tercer Polo, 2000 glaciares se estn derritiendo ms rpido que el rtico. +Qu podemos hacer en esta situacin? +Bueno, por compleja que sea en lo poltico, econmico, cientfico, la cuestin del medio ambiente simplemente se reduce a una cuestin de altruismo versus egosmo. +Soy marxista, de Groucho. +Groucho Marx dijo: "Por qu deberan importarme las generaciones futuras? +Qu han hecho ellas por m?" +Por desgracia, he odo al multimillonario Steve Forbes, en Fox News, diciendo exactamente lo mismo, pero en serio. +Consultado sobre la crecida de los ocanos, dijo: "Me parece absurdo cambiar mi comportamiento de hoy por algo que va a pasar dentro de cien aos". +Si no te importan las generaciones futuras, adelante. +Cuando los ambientalistas hablan con los economistas, se produce un dilogo esquizofrnico, completamente incoherente. +No hablan el mismo idioma. +Ahora, en los ltimos 10 aos, fui por todo el mundo; me reun con economistas, cientficos, neurocientficos, ambientalistas, filsofos, pensadores, en el Himalaya, en todos lados. +Me parece que solo hay un concepto que puede conciliar esas 3 escalas de tiempo. +Simplemente, tener ms consideracin por los dems. +Al tener ms consideracin por el otro, tendrn una economa del cuidado, en la que las finanzas estn al servicio de la sociedad y no la sociedad al servicio de las finanzas. +No jugarn en el casino los recursos que las personas les han encomendado. +Si uno tiene ms consideracin por el otro, se asegurar de remediar la desigualdad, de aportar algn tipo de bienestar a la sociedad, en la educacin, en el lugar de trabajo. +De lo contrario, en ser la nacin ms poderosa y rica donde todos son pobres, cul es la idea? +Y si uno tiene ms consideracin por el otro, no saquear el planeta que tenemos; al ritmo actual, no tenemos 3 planetas para continuar de esa manera. +Por eso la pregunta es, bien, el altruismo es la respuesta, no es novedad, pero puede ser una solucin real, pragmtica? +Ante todo, existe el verdadero altruismo, o somos egostas? +Algunos filsofos pensaban que ramos irremediablemente egostas. +Pero, realmente todos somos bribones? +Eso es una buena noticia, no? +Muchos filsofos, como Hobbes, lo han dicho. +Pero no todos parecen bribones. +Es el hombre el lobo del hombre? +Este tipo no parece tan malo. +Es uno de mis amigos en Tbet. +Es muy amable. +Nos encanta la cooperacin. +No hay dicha ms grande que trabajar juntos, no? +Y no solo para los humanos. +Luego, claro, est la lucha por la vida, la supervivencia del ms apto, el darwinismo social. +Pero en la evolucin, la cooperacin --aunque existe la competencia, claro-- la cooperacin tiene que ser mucho ms creativa para ir a mayores niveles de complejidad. +Somos sper cooperadores y deberamos ir ms all. +Y ahora, adems de eso, la calidad en las relaciones humanas. +La OCDE hizo una encuesta con 10 factores, incluyendo ingresos, todo. +Lo primero que las personas sealan como importante para su felicidad, es la calidad de las relaciones sociales. +No solo en humanos. +Miren esas bisabuelas. +Y esta idea de que si profundizamos en nuestro interior, somos irremediablemente egostas, esto es ciencia de silln. +No hay ni un solo estudio sociolgico, ni psicolgico, que haya mostrado eso. +Ms bien, lo contrario. +Mi amigo, Daniel Batson, pas toda una vida poniendo a las personas en el laboratorio en situaciones muy complejas. +Claro, a veces somos egostas, y algunas personas ms que otras. +Pero l encontr que sistemticamente, sin importar nada, hay un nmero significativo de personas que se comportan de manera altruista, sin importar nada. +Si uno ve a alguien profundamente herido, sufriendo mucho, quiere ayudarlo por angustia emptica; uno no puede soportarlo, es mejor ayudar que seguir mirando a esa persona. +Probamos todo eso y, al final, l dijo que claramente podemos ser altruistas. +Eso es una buena noticia. +Y an ms, debemos mirar la banalidad de la bondad. +Miren esto. +Al salir no diremos: "Eso es tan agradable. +No hubo puetazos mientras la masa pensaba en el altruismo". +No, no se espera eso, no es as? +De haber una pelea a puetazos, hablaramos de eso durante meses. +La banalidad de la bondad es algo que no llama la atencin, pero existe. +Veamos esto. +Algunos psiclogos dijeron cuando les cont que realizo 140 proyectos humanitarios en el Himalaya, eso me da mucha alegra, dijeron: "Ya veo, trabajas por el resplandor clido [warm glow]. +Eso no es altruista. Simplemente te sientes bien". +Piensan que este tipo, al saltar frente al tren, pens "Me voy a sentir genial cuando esto termine"? +Pero eso no es todo. +Cuando lo entrevistaron dijo: "No tena alternativa, tena que saltar, claro". +No tiene alternativa. Comportamiento automtico. No es egosta ni altruista. +No hay alternativa? +Bueno, por supuesto, este muchacho no iba a pensar media hora: "Debera darle la mano? Debera no hacerlo?" +Lo hizo. Haba una alternativa, pero obvia, inmediata. +Y luego, tambin, all l tena una opcin. +Hay personas que no tenan opcin, como el pastor Andr Trocm y su esposa, y todo el pueblo de Le Chambon-sur-Lignon en Francia. +En toda la Segunda Guerra Mundial, salvaron a 3500 judos, les dieron refugio, los llevaron a Suiza, contra todo pronstico, arriesgando su vida y la de su familia. +El altruismo existe. +Qu es el altruismo? +Es el deseo de que el otro sea feliz y encuentre la causa de la felicidad. +La empata es la resonancia afectiva o la resonancia cognitiva que les dice: esta persona est alegre, esta persona sufre. +Pero la empata por s sola no es suficiente. +Si uno sigue enfrentado el sufrimiento, es posible padecer angustia emptica, agotamiento, y se requiere una esfera mayor de bondad. +Con Tania Singer del Instituto Max Planck, de Leipzig, demostramos que las redes cerebrales para la empata y la bondad son diferentes. +Todo est bien hecho, lo tenemos por la evolucin, el cuidado materno, el amor de los padres, pero tenemos que extenderlo. +Puede extenderse incluso a otras especies. +Si queremos una sociedad ms altruista, necesitamos 2 cosas: cambio individual y cambio social. +Es posible el cambio individual? +Dos mil aos de estudio contemplativo dijeron que s, que lo es. +Y 15 aos colaborando con la neurociencia y la epigentica dijeron que s, que nuestro cerebro cambia si se entrena en el altruismo. +Pas 120 horas en una mquina de resonancia magntica. +Esa fue la primera vez que estuve 2 horas y media. +El resultado se ha publicado en muchos trabajos cientficos. +Demuestra, sin ambages, que hay un cambio estructural y funcional en el cerebro si se entrena el amor altruista. +Solo para darles una idea: a la izquierda el meditador descansa, hace meditacin de compasin, ven la actividad, y luego el grupo de control descansa, no ocurre nada, sin meditacin, no ocurre nada. +No han sido entrenados. +Se necesitan 50 000 horas de meditacin? No. +Cuatro semanas, 20 minutos por da de meditacin afectiva, consciente, ya genera un cambio estructural en el cerebro comparado con un grupo de control. +Son solo 20 minutos al da, durante 4 semanas. +Incluso con nios en edad preescolar; Richard Davidson lo hizo en Madison. +Un programa de 8 semanas: gratitud, amabilidad, cooperacin, respiracin consciente. +Podran decir: "Son solo nios en edad preescolar". +Miren despus de 8 semanas, el comportamiento pro-social, es esa lnea azul. +Y luego viene la ltima prueba cientfica, la prueba de las pegatinas. +Antes, se debe determinar por cada nio el mejor amigo de la clase, el menos favorito, un nio desconocido, y el nio enfermo, y tienen que asignar pegatinas. +Antes de la intervencin, le dan la mayor parte a su mejor amigo. +Nios de 4, 5 aos, 20 minutos, 3 veces por semana. +Despus de la intervencin, no ms discriminacin: la misma cantidad de pegatinas al mejor amigo y al nio menos favorito. +Eso es algo que debemos hacer en todas las escuelas del mundo. +Cmo sigue esto? +Cuando el Dalai Lama se enter, le dijo a Richard Davidson: "Ve a 10 escuelas, 100 escuelas, a la ONU, al mundo entero". +Cmo sigue? +El cambio individual es posible. +Tenemos que esperar que entre a la raza humana un gen altruista? +Eso llevar 50 000 aos, demasiado para el medio ambiente. +Afortunadamente, existe la evolucin de la cultura. +La cultura, como se ha demostrado, produce cambios ms rpido que los genes. +Eso es una buena noticia. +La actitud hacia la guerra ha cambiado drsticamente en los ltimos aos. +El cambio individual y cultural se modelan mutuamente, y s, podemos lograr una sociedad ms altruista. +Cmo seguimos? +Yo volver a Oriente. +Ahora tratamos 100 000 pacientes al ao en nuestros proyectos. +Tenemos 25 000 nios en la escuela, 4 % por encima. +Algunas personas dicen: "Bueno, tus cosas funcionan en la prctica, pero funciona en la teora?" +Siempre hay desviacin positiva. +As que yo tambin volver a mi ermita para encontrar los recursos internos para servir mejor a los dems. +Pero a nivel ms global, qu podemos hacer? +Necesitamos 3 cosas. +Aumento de la cooperacin: Aprendizaje cooperativo en la escuela en vez de aprendizaje competitivo; cooperacin incondicional dentro de las empresas, puede existir cierta competencia entre empresas, pero no dentro. +Necesitamos armona sustentable. Me encanta este trmino. +Ya no crecimiento sustentable. +Armona sustentable significa que ahora reduciremos la desigualdad. +En el futuro, haremos ms con menos, y seguiremos creciendo cualitativamente, no cuantitativamente. +Necesitamos la economa del cuidado. +El Homo economicus no puede ocuparse de la pobreza en medio de la abundancia, no puede hacer frente al problema de los bienes comunes de la atmsfera, de los ocanos. +Necesitamos una economa del cuidado. +Si uno dice que la economa debera ser compasiva, dicen: "Ese no es nuestro trabajo". +Pero si uno dice que no les importa, eso es mal visto. +Necesitamos compromiso local, y responsabilidad global. +Necesitamos ampliar el altruismo al otro 1,6 milln de especies. +Los seres sensibles son co-ciudadanos en este mundo. +Tenemos que atrevernos al altruismo. +Larga vida a la revolucin altruista. +Viva la revolucin del altruismo. +Gracias. +Soy bloguero, cineasta y carnicero, y voy a explicar cmo estas identidades pueden encajar. +Todo empez hace 4 aos cuando, junto con un amigo, celebr mi primer Ramadn en una de las mezquitas ms frecuentadas en Nueva York. +Muchos hombres con barbas y kips se reunan en la calle. +Algo muy tentador para cualquier agente del FBI. Siendo parte de esta comunidad, sabamos qu tan bien recibido era este espacio en realidad. +Por aos haba visto fotos que documentaban este espacio como un monolito fro y sin vida, muy parecido al estereotipo que se tiene de la experiencia musulmana en EE.UU. +Frustrados por esta imagen miope, mi amigo y yo tuvimos esta loca idea: rompamos nuestro ayuno en una mezquita de un estado diferente cada noche del Ramadn y compartamos estas vivencias en un blog. +Lo llamamos "30 mezquitas en 30 das", y viajamos a los 50 estados, y compartimos vivencias de ms de 100 comunidades musulmanas diferentes, desde los refugiados camboyanos de los suburbios de Los ngeles hasta los sufes negros que viven en los bosques de Carolina del Sur. +El resultado fue un retrato bello y complicado de EE.UU. +La atencin de los medios oblig a los periodistas locales a reconsiderar las comunidades musulmanas, pero lo ms emocionante fue ver a gente de todo el mundo lista para hacer su propio viaje a las 30 mezquitas. +Asistieron incluso dos atletas de la liga de ftbol que pidieron un ao sabtico para hacerlo. +Mientras "30 mezquitas" se daba a conocer por el mundo, yo estaba atascado en Pakistn trabajando en una pelcula. +Mi codirector, Omar, y yo no compartamos con los amigos la forma de promocionar el film. +La pelcula "These Birds Walk" (Estas aves caminan) trata de esos chicos que viven en la calle y tratan de encontrar un sustituto a la familia. +Nos centramos en la complejidades del conflicto familia-jvenes, pero los amigos insistieron que hablramos de drones y asesinatos para darle ms relevancia a la pelcula, esencialmente reduciendo a las personas que nos haban confiado sus historias a meros smbolos sociopolticos. +Nosotros, por supuesto, no les prestamos atencin y, en cambio, promovimos los tiernos gestos de afecto y los imprudentes destellos de la juventud. +solo pretenda empata, una emocin bastante ausente en las pelculas procedentes de nuestra regin. +Y mientras "These Birds Walk" se exhiba en festivales internacionales, por fin llegu a casa en Nueva York, donde, an sin dinero y con mucho tiempo libre, mi mujer me puso a cocinar. +Y cada vez que iba a la carnicera a comprar un poco de carne halal algo me decepcionaba. +Para los que no saben, el trmino halal se usa para la carne de animales criados y sacrificados humanamente, de acuerdo a unas estrictas reglas islmicas. +Desafortunadamente, la mayora de la carne halal en EE.UU. no cumple con los estndares que mi fe reclama. +Cuanto ms me enteraba de estas prcticas nada ticas, ms violentado me senta, sobre todo por aquello de que eran los comerciantes de mi propia comunidad los que sacaban ventaja de mi ortodoxia. +As que, motivado por mis emociones y sin ninguna experiencia en carnicera, unos amigos y yo abrimos una en el corazn del distrito de la moda, en East Village. +Lo llamamos "Cortes honestos" y estamos recuperando el halal, que procede de animales criados humanamente, y es asequible y econmico para las familias de clase trabajadora. +No hay nada como esto en EE.UU., +y lo increble es que el 90 % de nuestros clientes ni siquiera son musulmanes. +Para muchos, es un primer contacto con el Islam a un nivel ms personal. +Todos estos disparatados proyectos... son el resultado de una intranquilidad. +Son una respuesta visceral a negociantes y curadores que trabajan arduamente para reducir mis creencias y mi comunidad, y cuya maquinaria solo se puede derrotar jugando con reglas diferentes. +Debemos pelear con un enfoque inventivo. +Pero se necesita valor creativo no por su relevancia o novedad, +sino simplemente porque tenemos comunidades muy hermosas, nicas, +que nos piden que encontremos maneras no complacientes de ser reconocidos y respetados. +Gracias. +Mis alumnos y yo trabajamos con robots muy pequeos. +Podemos verlos como versiones robticas de algo con lo que todos estamos muy familiarizados: una hormiga. +Todos sabemos que las hormigas y otros insectos de este tamao pueden hacer cosas bastante asombrosas. +Todos hemos visto a un grupo de hormigas, o algo similar, cargando patatas fritas en un picnic, por ejemplo. +Pero cules son los verdaderos desafos para construir estas hormigas? +Bueno, en primer lugar, cmo conseguimos tener las capacidades de una hormiga en un robot del mismo tamao? +Bueno, primero tenemos que averiguar cmo hacer que se muevan siendo tan pequeos. +Necesitamos mecanismos como piernas y motores eficientes para apoyar la locomocin. y sensores, energa y control para juntar todo en un robot hormiga semi-inteligente. +Y, por ltimo, para hacer que estas cosas realmente funcionen, queremos que la mayora trabajen juntos para lograr grandes cosas. +As que empezar con la movilidad. +Los insectos se mueven increblemente bien en su entorno. +Este vdeo es de la Universidad de Berkeley. +Muestra una cucaracha en movimiento sobre un terreno muy accidentado sin que vuelque y es capaz de hacerlo porque sus piernas son una combinacin de materiales rgidos, que es lo que tradicionalmente usamos para hacer robots, y materiales blandos. +Saltar es otra forma muy interesante de moverse cuando uno es muy pequeo. +As que estos insectos almacenan energa en un brinco y la liberan rpidamente para conseguir la fuerza necesaria para salir del agua. +As que una de las grandes contribuciones de mi laboratorio ha sido combinar materiales rgidos y blandos en mecanismos muy, muy pequeos. +Este mecanismo para saltar es de unos 4 milmetros, as que es realmente pequeo. +El material duro que empleamos es el silicio y el blando, caucho de silicona. +Y la idea principal es comprimir esto, almacenar la energa en los muelles, y luego soltarlo para saltar. +As que no hay motores de momento, no hay energa. +Esta se acciona con un mtodo que llamamos en mi laboratorio "estudiante graduado con pinzas". As que lo que van a ver en el siguiente vdeo es a este robot que saltar increblemente bien. +Este es Aarn, el estudiante graduado en cuestin, con las pinzas, y aqu ven un mecanismo de 4 milmetros que salta casi 40 centmetros. +Eso es casi 100 veces su propio tamao. +Y sobrevive, rebota sobre la mesa, es increblemente robusto y, por supuesto, sobrevive bastante bien hasta que lo perdemos porque es muy pequeo. +En ltima instancia, sin embargo, queremos aadirle motores tambin, y tenemos estudiantes en el laboratorio trabajando en motores milimtricos para integrarlos en estos pequeos robots autnomos. +Pero para trabajar la movilidad y la locomocin a esta escala hacemos trampa y usamos imanes. +Esto muestra lo que finalmente pertenecer a una pierna de microrobot, y pueden ver las juntas de la goma de silicona y el imn incorporado que se est moviendo de arriba abajo accionado por un campo magntico externo. +As que todo esto nos lleva al robot que les mostr antes. +Lo realmente interesante es que este robot puede ayudarnos a averiguar cmo se mueven los insectos a esta escala. +Tenemos un modelo muy bueno de cmo todos se mueven, desde una cucaracha hasta un elefante. +Todos nos movemos dando estos saltos cuando corremos. +Pero cuando uno es realmente pequeo, las fuerzas que hay entre los pies y el suelo afectarn la locomocin mucho ms que la masa, y eso es lo que lleva a estos saltos durante el movimiento. +Este robot no funciona todava, pero s que tenemos versiones ligeramente ms grandes que funcionan. +Este tiene cerca de un centmetro cbico, un centmetro de lado, muy pequeo, y hemos logrado que recorra 10 veces su tamao por segundo, eso, 10 centmetros por segundo. +Es bastante rpido para un pequen como este, y solo lo limita nuestro sistema de prueba. +Pero pueden hacerse una idea de cmo funciona en este momento. +Tambin podemos imprimir versiones en 3D que pueden escalar obstculos, modelos bastante parecidos a la cucaracha que vieron antes. +Pero en ltima instancia, queremos aadir todo esto al robot. +Queremos que los detectores, la energa, los controles, acten todos juntos, y no todo tiene que ser de inspiracin biolgica. +Este es un robot del tamao de un Tic Tac. +Y en este caso, en lugar de imanes o msculos para moverse, usamos cohetes. +As que este es un material energtico microfabricado, y podemos crear diminutos pxeles de esto, y podemos poner uno de estos pxeles en el vientre de este robot, para que este robot luego salte al detectar un aumento de luz. +El siguiente vdeo es uno de mis favoritos. +Tenemos a este robot de 300 miligramos que salta unos 8 centmetros en el aire. +Tiene solo 4x4x7 milmetros. +Y vern un gran destello al inicio cuando se dispara el material enrgico, y el robot da vueltas por el aire. +Aqu hubo un gran destello, y pueden ver al robot saltar por los aires. +As que no hay fijaciones, no hay cables conectados. +Todo est a bordo del robot, y salt en respuesta a que un estudiante simplemente encendi una lmpara de escritorio. +As que creo que pueden imaginar todas las cosas interesantes que podramos hacer con robots que pueden correr, gatear saltar y rodar a esta escala. +Imaginen los escombros que quedan despus de un desastre natural como un terremoto. +Imaginen a estos pequeos robots corriendo a travs de esos escombros para buscar supervivientes. +O imaginen un montn de pequeos robots corriendo por un puente para poder inspeccionarlo y asegurarse de que es seguro para evitar derrumbes como este, que ocurri a las afueras de Minepolis en 2007. +O imaginen lo que se puede hacer con robots que podran nadar por el torrente sanguneo. +No? "El viaje fantstico" de Isaac Asimov. +O que podran operar sin tener que abrir, para empezar. +O podramos cambiar radicalmente la forma de construir cosas si tuviramos nuestros pequeos robots trabajando de la misma manera que trabajan las termitas, que construyen estos increbles montculos de 8 metros de altura, edificios de apartamentos eficientes y bien ventilados para otras termitas en frica y en Australia. +As que creo que les he ofrecido algunas de las posibilidades de lo que podemos hacer con estos pequeos robots. +Y hemos hecho algunos avances hasta el momento, pero todava hay un largo camino por recorrer, y es de esperar que alguno de Uds. pueda contribuir a ese destino. +Muchas gracias. +Cuando era joven, me enorgulleca ser una inconformista en la conservadora comunidad del estado donde vivo, Kansas. +No segua al rebao. +No tena miedo a probar tendencias, modas o peinados extraos. +Hablaba libremente y era muy sociable. +Incluso estas fotos y postales de mi semestre en el extranjero, hace 16 aos en Londres, prueban que, obviamente, no me importaba que me vieran extraa o diferente. +Pero aquel mismo ao en Londres, hace 16 aos, descubr algo sobre m misma que en realidad era algo nico, y eso lo cambi todo. +Me convert en lo contrario de lo que crea que era. +Me quedaba en mi habitacin en lugar de socializar. +Dej de ser socia de clubes y participar en actividades de liderazgo. +Ya no quera destacar. +Me dije que era porque estaba creciendo y madurando, no porque de repente estuviera buscando aceptacin. +Siempre cre que era inmune a la necesidad de aceptacin. +Despus de todo, era poco convencional. +Pero ahora me doy cuenta de que en el momento de notar de que haba algo inusual en m, fue exactamente cuando comenc a conformarme y esconderme. +Esconderse es un hbito progresivo, y una vez que empiezas a esconderte, se hace cada vez ms y ms difcil dar un paso adelante y hablar sin miedo. +De hecho, incluso ahora, cuando coment con la gente el tema de esta charla me invent una historia falsa e incluso ocult la verdad sobre mi conferencia TED. +Por lo que es apropiado y aterrador que vuelva a esta ciudad 16 aos despus y haya elegido este escenario para finalmente dejar de esconderme. +Qu he estado ocultando durante 16 aos? +Que soy lesbiana. +Gracias. +He luchado para decir estas palabras, porque no quera que me definieran. +Cada vez que hasta ahora pensaba en salir del armario me deca a m misma que solo quera ser Morgana, simplemente Morgana, no "mi amiga lesbiana Morgana" o "mi compaera gay del trabajo, Morgana". +Solo Morgana. +Para aquellos de Uds. que vienen de las grandes metrpolis esto puede que no sea gran cosa. +Puede parecer extrao que haya ocultado la verdad y me haya escondido durante tanto tiempo. +Pero el miedo a no ser aceptada me paralizaba. +Y no soy la nica, por supuesto. +Un estudio Deloitte del 2013 encontr que un nmero sorprendentemente alto de personas ocultan aspectos de su identidad. +De todos los trabajadores encuestados, el 61 % admitieron cambiar algn aspecto de su comportamiento o en su apariencia con el fin de encajar en el trabajo. +De todos los empleados homosexuales, lesbianas y bisexuales, el 83 % admiti cambiar algunos aspectos de s mismos para que no destacaran como 'demasiado gay' en el trabajo. +El estudio encontr que incluso en empresas que promovan polticas de diversidad y tenan programas de inclusin, los empleados luchaban contra ser ellos mismos en el trabajo porque crean que ser como los dems era algo fundamental para su promocin profesional a largo plazo. +Y aunque me sorprendi que tantas personas como yo gastaran tanta energa tratando de esconderse, me asust al descubrir que mi silencio tena repercusiones de vida o muerte y sociales de largo plazo. +12 aos: ese es el nmero de aos que se reduce la esperanza de vida para los gays, lesbianas y bisexuales de las comunidades altamente anti-gay en comparacin con los que viven en las comunidades que los aceptan. +Una esperanza de vida reducida en 12 aos. +Cuando le eso en la revista The Advocate de este ao, me di cuenta de que ya no poda darme el lujo de guardar silencio. +Los efectos del estrs personal y el estigma social son una combinacin mortal. +El estudio encontr que los gays de las comunidades que no los aceptan eran ms propensos a las enfermedades cardacas, a la violencia y al suicidio. +Lo que una vez pens que era simplemente un asunto personal me di cuenta de que tena un efecto domin que afectaba al lugar de trabajo y a la comunidad con cada historia como la ma. +Mi eleccin de ocultar quin soy realmente puede haber contribuido indirectamente a este mismo entorno y a crear un ambiente de discriminacin. +Yo siempre me dije a m misma que no hay ninguna razn para revelar que era gay, pero la idea de que mi silencio tiene consecuencias sociales se hizo realmente evidente cuando perd una oportunidad de cambiar la atmsfera de discriminacin en mi propio estado, Kansas. +En febrero, la Cmara de Representantes de Kansas propuso un proyecto de ley que esencialmente permita a las empresas utilizar la libertad religiosa como motivo para denegar servicios a los gays. +Una excompaera de trabajo y amiga ma tiene a su padre trabajando en la Cmara de Representantes de Kansas, +y vot a favor del proyecto de ley, a favor de una ley que permitira a las empresas que no me atendiesen. +Qu opina mi amiga sobre lesbianas, gays, bisexuales, transgneros, queers y gente dudosa? +Cmo se siente su padre? +No s, porque yo nunca fui honesta con ellos acerca de quin soy. +Y eso me da escalofros. +Qu pasa si yo le hubiera contado mi historia hace aos? +Podra haberle contado a su padre mi experiencia? +Podra haber contribuido en ltima instancia a cambiar su voto? +Nunca lo sabr, y eso me hizo darme cuenta de que no haba hecho nada para tratar de hacer una diferencia. +Qu irona trabajar en recursos humanos, una profesin que trabaja para dar la bienvenida, conectar y fomentar el desarrollo de los empleados, una profesin que defiende la diversidad de la sociedad y su reflejo en el lugar de trabajo, y aun as, no he hecho nada para abogar por la diversidad. +Cuando llegue a esta empresa hace un ao, me dije a m misma, esta compaa tiene polticas contra la discriminacin que protegen a los gays, lesbianas, bisexuales y transexuales. +Su compromiso con la diversidad es evidente a travs de sus programas de inclusin globales. +Al entrar por las puertas de esta empresa, finalmente saldr del armario. +Pero no lo hice. +En lugar de aprovechar la oportunidad no hice nada. +Al ojear mi diario de Londres y el bloc de notas de aquel semestre en Londres en el extranjero, hace 16 aos, me encontr con esta cita modificada del libro de Toni Morrison, "Paradise". +"Hay cosas ms aterradoras dentro de uno que afuera". +Y luego apunt una nota para m misma en la parte inferior: "Recuerda esto". +Estoy segura de que estaba tratando de animarme a salir y explorar Londres, pero pas por alto el mensaje de que haba que empezar a explorarme y aceptarme. +Lo que no me di cuenta hasta ms tarde, al cabo de todos estos aos, es que los mayores obstculos por superar fueron mis propios miedos e inseguridades. +Yo creo que al enfrentarme a mis miedos, dentro de m, podr cambiar la realidad que me rodea. +Tom una decisin hoy, la de revelar una parte de m que he ocultado durante mucho tiempo. +Espero que esto signifique que nunca voy a volver a ocultarme y espero que al salir hoy del armario contribuya a cambiar las estadsticas y tambin ayudar a otros que se sienten aparte a ser ellos mismos y ms realizados tanto en su vida profesional como en la personal. +Gracias. +El 12 de junio de 2014, precisamente a las 15:33 en una tibia tarde de invierno en So Paulo, Brasil, una tpica tarde de invierno en Amrica del Sur, este chico, este joven que ven celebrando aqu como si hubiera anotado un gol, Juliano Pinto, de 29 aos, hizo una proeza magnfica. +Juliano Pinto dio la patada inicial de la Copa del Mundo Brasil 2014 con solo pensarlo. +No poda mover su cuerpo, pero poda imaginar los movimientos necesarios para patear una pelota. +Antes de la lesin era atleta. Ahora es para-atleta. +Espero que en un par de aos est en los Juegos Paralmpicos. +Pero la lesin de la mdula espinal no le rob a Juliano la capacidad de soar. +Sueo que cumpli esa tarde ante un estadio de 75 000 personas y un pblico de cerca de 1000 millones que lo vieron por TV. +Y a pesar de eso, el escocs y el brasileo perseveraron, porque as nos criaron en nuestros respectivos pases, y durante 12 a 15 aos, hicimos una tras otra demostracin sugiriendo que esto era posible. +Que una interfaz cerebro-mquina no es ciencia aeroespacial, es solo investigacin del cerebro. +Al hacerlo, convertimos estas seales en comandos digitales que cualquier dispositivo mecnico, electrnico, o incluso virtual pueda comprender de modo que el sujeto pueda imaginar qu quiere hacer mover y el dispositivo obedezca ese comando del cerebro. +Dotando a estos dispositivos con diferentes tipos de sensores, como vern en un momento, enviamos de regreso seales al cerebro para confirmar que se activ ese motor voluntario sin importar dnde --prximo al sujeto, en otra habitacin, o al otro lado del planeta-- +Y conforme el cerebro recibi la respuesta el cerebro cumpli su objetivo: hacernos mover. +Este es un experimento que publicamos hace unos aos, en el que un mono, sin mover el cuerpo, aprendi los movimientos del brazo de un avatar, un brazo virtual que no existe. +Lo que escuchan es el sonido del cerebro de este mono mientras explora 3 esferas distintas visualmente idnticas en el espacio virtual. +El almuerzo brasileo perfecto: conseguir el jugo de naranja sin mover un dedo. +Al ver que ocurra esto, volvimos a la idea que habamos publicado 15 aos antes. +Reactivamos este artculo. +Lo sacamos de los cajones, y propusimos que quiz podramos hacer que un cerebro humano paralizado usara la interfaz cerebro-mquina para recuperar movilidad. +La idea era que si uno sufri --esto puede pasarnos a todos-- +Es muy repentino, se los digo. +En un milisegundo de una colisin, un accidente automovilstico cambia tu vida por completo. +Si uno sufre una lesin completa de la mdula espinal, no puede moverse porque las seales del cerebro no pueden llegar a los msculos. +No obstante, las seales se siguen generando en la cabeza. +Los pacientes parapljicos, tetrapljicos cada noche suean con moverse. +Tienen eso dentro de sus cabezas. +El problema es cmo extraer ese cdigo y generar el movimiento otra vez. +Entonces propusimos crear un nuevo cuerpo. +Creemos un chaleco robtico. +Y por eso Juliano pudo patear la pelota con solo pensarlo, porque tena puesto el primer chaleco robtico controlado por el cerebro que los pacientes cuadripljicos pueden usar para moverse y recuperar la seal de respuesta. +Esa fue la idea original, hace 15 aos. +Les mostrar cmo, 156 personas de 25 pases de los 5 continentes de esta hermosa Tierra dejaron sus vidas, dejaron sus patentes, dejaron sus perros, esposas, nios, escuela, trabajos y vinieron a Brasil durante 18 meses para hacer que esto sea posible. +Porque un par de aos despus, de que Brasil fuera galardonado con la Copa del Mundo, supimos que el gobierno brasileo quera hacer algo significativo en la ceremonia inaugural en el pas que reinvent y el ftbol perfeccionado hasta que nos encontramos con los alemanes, por supuesto. +Pero esa es otra charla, que requiere otro neurocientfico diferente. +Brasil quera mostrar un pas completamente diferente, que valora la ciencia y la tecnologa, y puede darle un regalo a millones, 25 millones de personas en el mundo que ya no pueden moverse debido a una lesin en la mdula espinal. +Le propusimos al gobierno brasileo y a la FIFA hagamos que la patada inicial de la Copa del Mundo 2014 lo d un brasileo parapljico usando un exoesqueleto controlado por el cerebro que le permita patear la pelota y sentir el contacto con la pelota. +Nos miraron, pensaron que estbamos completamente locos, y dijeron: "Bueno, intentmoslo". +Tuvimos 18 meses para hacer todo de cero. +No tenamos exoesqueleto, no tenamos pacientes, no tenamos nada. +Estas personas llegaron todas juntas y en 18 meses, tuvimos 8 pacientes en una rutina de entrenamiento y, bsicamente, construimos esto de la nada y lo llamamos Brasil Santos Dumont 1. +El primer exoesqueleto controlado por el cerebro a construir fue bautizado con el nombre del cientfico brasileo ms famoso Alberto Santos Dumont, que el 19 de octubre de 1901 cre y vol l mismo el primer dirigible controlado en el aire en Pars ante un milln de personas. +Lo siento, amigos de EE.UU., vivo en Carolina del Norte, pero eso fue 2 aos antes del vuelo de los Hermanos Wright en la costa de Carolina del Norte. +Este exoesqueleto estaba cubierto con una piel artificial inventada por Gordon Cheng, uno de mis grandes amigos, en Mnich, que permite que la sensacin de articulaciones en movimiento y pie en el suelo vuelva al paciente a travs de un chaleco, de una camisa. +Es una camisa inteligente con elementos de micro-vibracin que bsicamente enva una respuesta y engaa al cerebro del paciente creando una sensacin de que no es una mquina lo que lo mueve, sino que es l quien camina de nuevo. +Lo hicimos funcionar y lo que vern aqu es la primera vez que camin uno de nuestros pacientes, Bruno. +Y l lo hizo bien y ahora empieza a caminar. +Despus de 9 aos sin poder moverse, est caminando por s mismo. +Y ms que eso... ms que solo caminando, est sintiendo el piso, y si aumenta la velocidad del exo, nos dice que est caminando de nuevo en la arena de Santos, el balneario donde sola ir antes de tener el accidente. +Por eso el cerebro crea una sensacin nueva en la cabeza de Bruno. +Camina, y al final del camino --me estoy quedando sin tiempo-- dice: "Saben, muchachos, les pedir prestado esto cuando me case, porque quisiera caminar hasta el altar, ver a mi novia y realmente estar all por mi cuenta. +Claro, lo tendr cuando quiera. +Y eso era lo que queramos mostrar en la Copa del Mundo, y no pudimos, porque por alguna razn misteriosa, la FIFA cort la emisin a la mitad. +Lo que vern muy rpidamente es a Juliano Pinto en el exo dando la patada unos minutos antes de ir al campo de juego y hacerlo de verdad delante de toda la multitud, y las luces que vern simplemente describen la operacin. +Bsicamente, las luces azules pulsantes indican que la exo est listo. +Puede recibir pensamientos y devolver respuestas y cuando Juliano toma la decisin de patear la pelota vern dos rayos de luz verde y amarilla que salen del casco y van a las piernas, que representan los comandos mentales recibidos por el exo para hacerlos realidad. +En bsicamente 13 segundos, Juliano dio la patada. +Pueden ver los comandos. +Se prepara, ponen la pelota, y da la patada. +Y lo ms sorprendente es que 10 segundos despus de hacerlo, nos mira en el campo, y nos dice, celebrando como vieron, "Sent la pelota". +Eso no tiene precio. +Cmo sigue esto? +Tengo 2 minutos para contarles que va hacia los lmites de lo imaginable. +La tecnologa cerebro-accionada est aqu. +Esta es la primera demo. +Ir muy rpido porque quiero mostrarles la ltima. +Aqu vern la primera rata a la que se le muestra una luz a la izquierda de la jaula que tiene que presionar a la izquierda para obtener la recompensa. +Va y lo hace. +Al mismo tiempo enva un mensaje mental a la segunda rata que no vio la luz, y la segunda rata, un 70 % de las veces presionar la palanca izquierda para obtener la recompensa sin siquiera experimentar la luz en la retina. +Un mono controla la dimensin X, el otro mono controla la dimensin Y. +Y lo logran. +El punto negro es la media de toda la actividad cerebral en paralelo, en tiempo real. +Esa es la definicin de computadora biolgica interactuando va actividad cerebral y logrando un objetivo motriz. +Cmo sigue esto? +No tenemos ni idea. +Solo somos cientficos. +Nos pagan para ser nios, para, bsicamente, ir a la frontera y descubrir qu hay ah fuera. +Gracias. +Gracias. +Bruno Giussani: Miguel, gracias por apegarte a tu tiempo. +De hecho, te dara un par de minutos ms, para desarrollar un par de ideas y, por supuesto, claramente parece que necesitamos cerebros conectados para saber cmo sigue esto. +Conectemos todo esto. +Si entiendo bien, uno de los monos recibe una seal y el otro mono reacciona a esa seal solo porque el primero la recibe y le transmite el impulso neurolgico. +Miguel Nicolelis: No, es un poco diferente. +Ningn mono sabe de la existencia de los otros dos. +Reciben una respuesta visual en 2D, pero la tarea que tienen que resolver es en 3D. +Tienen que mover un brazo en 3D. +Pero cada mono solo recibe 2 dimensiones en la pantalla que el mono controla. +Y para lograr el objetivo, hace falta que al menos 2 monos sincronicen sus cerebros, pero lo ideal es que lo hagan los 3. +Descubrimos que cuando un mono empieza a poner menos empeo, los otros dos monos mejoran su desempeo para hacer que el tipo vuelva, eso se ajusta dinmicamente, pero la sincrona global permanece igual. +Ahora, si cambiamos sin decirle al mono las dimensiones que cada cerebro tiene que controlar... si este mono controla X e Y, pero debera controlar ahora Y y Z, instantneamente, el cerebro de ese animal olvida las antiguas dimensiones y empieza a concentrarse en las nuevas dimensiones. +Lo que tengo para decir es que ninguna Mquina de Turing, ninguna computadora puede predecir lo que har la red cerebral. +Por eso absorberemos la tecnologa como parte de nosotros. +La tecnologa nunca nos absorber. +Simplemente es imposible. +BG: Cuntas veces has probado esto? +Y Cuntas veces tuviste xito versus los fracasos? +MN: Decenas de veces. +Con los 3 monos? Varias veces. +No podra hablar de esto aqu de no haberlo hecho un par de veces. +Olvid de mencionar, por falta de tiempo, que hace apenas 3 semanas, un grupo europeo demostr la primera conexin hombre a hombre, cerebro a cerebro. +BG: Y cmo funcion eso? +MN: Fue poca informacin, las grandes ideas empiezan de forma humilde, pero en breve, la actividad cerebral de un sujeto fue transmitida a un segundo objeto, con tecnologa no invasiva. +El primer sujeto recibi un mensaje, como nuestras ratas, un mensaje visual, y lo transmiti al segundo sujeto. +El segundo sujeto recibi un pulso magntico en la corteza visual, o un pulso diferente, dos pulsos diferentes. +En un impulso, el sujeto vio algo. +En el otro pulso, vio algo diferente. +Y pudo indicar verbalmente cul era el mensaje que envi el primer sujeto por Internet atravesando continentes. +BG: Guau. Bueno, hacia all vamos. +Esa es la charla TED para la prxima conferencia. +Miguel Nicolelis, gracias. MN: Gracias, Bruno. Gracias. +Est muy de moda y es apropiado hablar de la comida en todas sus formas, todos sus colores, aromas y sabores. +Pero luego, cuando la comida pasa por el sistema digestivo, y es expulsada como materia fecal, ya no est de moda hablar de ello. +Es algo bastante repugnante. +Soy un tipo que me gradu de mierda en mierda total. +Mi organizacin, Gram Vikas, que significa "organizacin para el desarrollo de los pueblos", trabajaba en el campo de las energas renovables. +Sobre todo, producamos biogs, biogs para las cocinas rurales. +En India producimos biogs a partir del estircol animal, que por lo general, en India, se llama estircol de vaca. +Pero como defensor de la igualdad de gnero que soy, me gustara llamarlo estircol. +Pero, ms tarde al darme cuenta de la importancia de la higiene y de retirar el estircol de manera adecuada, pasamos al terreno de la sanidad. +El 80 % de las enfermedades en India y la mayora de los pases en desarrollo se deben a la mala calidad del agua. +Y cuando miramos por qu la calidad del agua es baja, nos encontramos que la razn es nuestra manera lgubre Los desechos humanos, en su versin ms fresca, +de resolver el tema de los residuos humanos. encuentran un camino de regreso al agua potable, la del bao, para lavado, de riego, cualquier agua que se ve. +Y esta es la causa del 80 % de las enfermedades en las zonas rurales. +En India, por desgracia, solo afecta a las mujeres que transportan el agua. +Para todas las necesidades del hogar, las mujeres necesitan transportar el agua. +As que esa es una situacin lamentable. +La defecacin al aire libre es algo muy comn. +El 70 % de India defeca al aire libre. +Se sientan all a la intemperie, con el viento que sopla, ocultan sus rostros, exponen sus partes privadas, y all estn en la gloria... el 70 % de India. +Y si miramos el total mundial, El 60 % de los residuos que se tiran al aire libre son indios. +Una distincin excelente. +No s si nosotros, los indios, podemos estar orgullosos de tal distincin. +Por lo tanto, junto con un grupo de aldeas empezamos a hablar de cmo enfrentarnos realmente a esta situacin de la higiene. +Y nos unimos y formamos un proyecto llamado MANTRA, +que significa movimiento y accin conjunta para la transformacin del medio rural. +As que estamos hablando de transformacin, cambios en zonas rurales. +Los pueblos que estn de acuerdo con llevar a cabo este proyecto, organizan una sociedad legal donde todos los miembros eligen a un grupo de hombres y mujeres que implementan el proyecto y que, ms tarde, se encarga de la operacin y el mantenimiento. +Deciden construir un inodoro y un aseo con ducha. +Y a partir de una fuente de agua protegida, se lleva agua a un tanque elevado y luego se bombea a todos los hogares a travs de 3 grifos: Uno en el bao, uno en la ducha, y uno en la cocina, las 24 horas del da. +La pena es que nuestras ciudades como Nueva Delhi y Bombay no ofrecen un suministro de agua las 24 horas. +Pero en estos pueblos queremos tenerlo. +Hay una clara diferencia en la calidad del agua. +Bueno en India, tenemos una teora ampliamente aceptada por la burocracia del gobierno y todos a los que concierne, que los pobres merecen soluciones pobres y los absolutamente pobres merecen soluciones patticas. +Esto, combinado con la teora galardonada con un Premio Nobel de que lo ms barato es lo ms econmico, se transforma en un cctel txico que los pobres se ven obligados a beber. +Estamos luchando contra esto. +Sentimos que los pobres han sido humillados durante siglos. +Y, justo en la higiene no deberan ser humillados. +El saneamiento trata ms de la dignidad que de la eliminacin de los desechos humanos. +Por lo que, al construir estos inodoros, muy a menudo, tenemos que or que los baos son mejor que sus casas. +Se puede ver que delante estn las casas adosadas y los otros edificios son los servicios. +As que estas personas, sin una sola excepcin en un pueblo, deciden construir un aseo, un bao. +Y para ello, se juntan, recogen los materiales necesarios, --materiales locales como escombros, arena-- generalmente existe una subvencin del gobierno para cubrir al menos parte del costo de los materiales no disponibles como el cemento, el acero, los accesorios del inodoro. +Y construyen un aseo y una sala de bao. +Adems, a todos los trabajadores no calificados, es decir, los jornaleros, en su mayora campesinos sin tierra, se les da la oportunidad de formarse como albailes y fontaneros. +As, mientras se forma a estas personas las otras estn recolectando los materiales. +Y cuando ambos equipos estn listos, construyen un bao, un aseo con ducha, y por supuesto tambin una torre de agua, un depsito de agua elevado. +Usamos un sistema de dos tanques spticos para tratar los residuos. +Desde el bao, las aguas residuales llegan al primer hoyo. +Y cuando est lleno, se bloquea, y puede pasar al siguiente. +Pero descubrimos que si plantamos plataneros y rboles de papaya alrededor de estos tanques spticos, crecen muy bien porque absorben todos los nutrientes y dan pltanos muy sabrosos y papayas. +Si alguno de Uds. viene a mi casa, estara encantado de compartir estos pltanos y papayas con Uds. +All se pueden ver los baos terminados, los depsitos de agua. +Este es en un pueblo donde la mayora de la gente es incluso analfabeta. +Disponen de un suministro ininterrumpido de agua porque el agua se contamina muy a menudo cuando se almacena: un nio mete la mano, algo cae dentro. +As que no hay agua almacenada. Est siempre disponible. +As se construye un depsito de agua elevado. +Y ese es el producto final. +Porque tiene que ir en lo alto, y queda un poco de espacio disponible, bajo la torre de agua se construyen dos o tres habitaciones que el pueblo las emplea para diferentes reuniones del comit. +Tenemos clara evidencia sobre el impacto de este programa. +Antes de ponerlo en marcha, haba, como es habitual, ms del 80 % de la gente que padeca enfermedades transmitidas por el agua. +Pero despus de esto, tenemos evidencia de que el 82 %, en promedio, de estos pueblos, de las 1200 aldeas que han completado el provecto... las enfermedades transmitidas por el agua han bajado un 82 %. +Las mujeres solan emplear especialmente en los meses de verano, de 6 a 7 horas al da para transportar el agua. +Y cuando iban a buscar agua, porque, como he dicho antes, son solo las mujeres las que traen agua, solan llevarse a sus hijos pequeos, nias tambin, para ayudar, o bien dejarlas en casa para cuidar a sus hermanos. +As que haba menos de un 9 % de nias que asistan a la escuela, en el caso de que hubiera escuela. +Y los nios, un 30 %. +Las estadsticas ahora son de 90 % para las chicas y casi 100 % para los chicos. +El sector ms vulnerable en un pueblo son los trabajadores sin tierra, los jornaleros. +Porque se han formado para ser albailes, fontaneros y herreros, ahora pueden ganar de 300 % a 400 % ms. +Esto es democracia en accin porque hay una junta, un consejo de administracin, un comit. +La gente se cuestiona, se gobierna a s misma, est aprendiendo a manejar sus propios asuntos, tiene el futuro en sus manos. +Y esta es democracia en accin desde la base. +Hasta el momento, ms de 1200 aldeas lo han conseguido. +Se benefician ms de 400 000 personas y el nmero va en aumento. +Y espero que siga as. +Para India y los pases similares en desarrollo, el ejrcito y la industria armamentista, las empresas de software y de naves espaciales no pueden ser tan importantes como los grifos y los inodoros. +Gracias. Muchas gracias. +Gracias. +Les quiero hablar de un conflicto olvidado. +Es un conflicto que apenas aparece en los titulares. +Sucede aqu, en la Repblica Democrtica del Congo. +Pero pocas personas fuera de frica saben algo de la guerra en Congo, as que les dar la informacin clave. +El conflicto congoleo es el ms mortfero desde la Segunda Guerra Mundial. +Ha causado casi 4 millones de muertes. +Durante 18 aos ha desestabilizado la mayor parte de frica central. +Es la mayor crisis humanitaria en curso del mundo. +Por eso me fui al Congo en 2001. +Yo era una joven cooperante humanitaria y conoc a esta mujer de mi edad. +Se llamaba Isabelle. +Las milicias locales atacaron el pueblo de Isabelle. +Mataron a muchos hombres y violaron a muchas mujeres. +Se llevaron todo. +Quisieron llevarse a Isabelle tambin, pero el marido intervino y dijo: "No, por favor, no se lleven a Isabelle, +llvenme a m". +Se fue con ellos, lo llevaron al bosque, e Isabelle nunca volvi a verle. +Bueno, son personas como Isabelle y su marido que hicieron que dedicara mi carrera al estudio de esta guerra de la que sabemos muy poco. +Aunque hay una historia sobre Congo que todos hemos odo antes. +Es la historia de las materias primas y de las violaciones. +Las declaraciones oficiales y los informes de los medios de comunicacin tienden a centrarse solo en una de las causas de la violencia en Congo --la explotacin y el contrabando de los recursos naturales-- y una de sus principales consecuencias: El abuso sexual de mujeres y nias como arma de guerra. +No es que estas dos cuestiones no sean importantes y trgicas. Lo son. +Pero hoy quiero contarles una historia diferente. +Quiero contarles una historia que pone en evidencia la causa central del conflicto actual. +La violencia en Congo aumenta principalmente debido a los conflictos que se agravan a nivel local y que las misiones de paz internacionales no han podido abordar. +La historia empieza con el hecho de que Congo no es famoso solo por ser la mayor crisis humanitaria actual en el mundo, sino que tambin es el epicentro de algunos de los esfuerzos de paz internacionales ms importantes del mundo. +El Congo alberga la mayor y ms costosa misin de paz de Naciones Unidas en el mundo. +Tambin fue el escenario de la primera Misin de Paz Europea y para su primer juicio, la Corte Penal Internacional eligi procesar a los responsables de las guerras congoleas. +En 2006, cuando Congo celebr su primeras elecciones libres en la historia, muchos observadores pensaron que el fin de la violencia en la regin estaba cerca. +La comunidad internacional elogi el xito de estas elecciones como, por fin, un xito de la intervencin internacional en un Estado fallido. +Pero en las provincias orientales los desplazamientos forzosos y masivos de la poblacin continuaron junto a horribles violaciones de los derechos humanos. +Justo antes de regresar all, el verano pasado, ocurri una horrible masacre en la provincia de Kivu del Sur. +Murieron 33 personas, +en su mayora mujeres y nios, y muchos de ellos fueron asesinado a machetazos. +Durante los ltimos 8 aos las luchas en las provincias orientales reavivaron regularmente la guerra civil e internacional. +As que, bsicamente, cada vez que estamos cerca de la paz, el conflicto estalla de nuevo. +Por qu? +Por qu los enormes esfuerzos internacionales no consiguieron la paz y una seguridad duradera en Congo? +Bueno, mi respuesta a esta pregunta gira en torno a 2 observaciones centrales. +En primer lugar, una de las principales razones de la violencia continuada en Congo es bsicamente la realidad a nivel local, y, cuando digo local, me refiero al individuo, la familia, el clan, el municipio, la comunidad, el barrio, a veces, el grupo tnico. +Por ejemplo, se acuerdan de la historia de Isabelle? +Bueno, la razn por la cual la milicia haba atacado la aldea de Isabelle fue porque queran tomar posesin de la tierra que los aldeanos necesitaban para cultivar sus alimentos y sobrevivir. +La segunda observacin es que los esfuerzos internacionales para la paz fracasaron en resolver los conflictos locales por la presencia de una cultura dominante de la promocin de la paz. +Lo que quiero decir es que los diplomticos occidentales y africanos, las fuerzas de paz de Naciones Unidas, los donantes, los empleados de la mayora de las organizaciones no gubernamentales que trabajan en la resolucin de conflictos; comparten todos una manera peculiar de ver el mundo. +Y yo era una de estas personas y he vivido esta cultura. As que s muy bien el poder que tiene. +En todo el mundo y en todas las zonas de conflicto, esta cultura comn mediatiza la comprensin de los que intervienen sobre las causas de la violencia como algo fundamentalmente ubicado en los mbitos nacionales e internacionales. +Esta cultura marca nuestra comprensin sobre el camino hacia la paz como algo que requiere una intervencin de arriba abajo para hacer frente a las tensiones nacionales e internacionales. +Y da forma a nuestra percepcin del papel de los actores internacionales como participantes en los procesos de paz nacional e internacional. +Ms importante an, esta cultural comn hace que los organismos internacionales ignoren las tensiones a nivel local que a menudo comprometen los acuerdos a alto nivel. +As, por ejemplo, en Congo y debido a la forma en la cual fueron socializados y entrenados los funcionarios de Naciones Unidas, los donantes, los diplomticos, y el personal de muchas organizaciones no gubernamentales, la lucha y las masacres continuadas se entienden como problemas que parten de arriba. +Para ellos, la violencia que ven es el resultado de las tensiones entre el presidente Kabila y varios opositores nacionales, y tensiones entre Congo, Ruanda y Uganda. +Adems, estos organismos internacionales para la paz ven estos conflictos locales simplemente como el resultado de las tensiones nacionales e internacionales, una autoridad estatal insuficiente, y lo que ellos llaman propensin inherente a la violencia del pueblo congoleo. +La cultura dominante tambin considera las intervenciones a nivel nacional e internacional como la nica tarea natural y legtima de la ONU y de los diplomticos. +Y eso convierte a las elecciones generales, que ahora es una especie de panacea, en el mecanismo decisivo de reconstruccin del Estado incluso ms que los intentos eficaces para el desarrollo de un Estado que funcione. +Y esto sucede no solo en Congo, sino tambin en muchas otras zonas de conflicto. +Pero adentrmonos ms en las otras causas centrales de la violencia. +En Congo, la violencia continuada est motivada no solo por causas nacionales e internacionales, sino tambin por muchas de las agendas, durante muchos aos, cuyos instigadores principales son los aldeanos, los jefes tradicionales, los lderes de la comunidad y las etnias. +Muchos conflictos giran en torno a factores polticos, sociales y econmicos que son, sin lugar a dudas, intereses a nivel local. +Por ejemplo, hay mucha competencia a nivel de aldea o distrito en cuanto a quin puede ser el jefe del pueblo o del territorio de acuerdo a la leyes tradicionales para el control de la distribucin de la tierra y la explotacin de las minas locales. +Esta competencia a menudo conduce a luchas locales, por ejemplo, en un pueblo o territorio y muy a menudo se convierte en lucha generalizada, a lo largo de toda una provincia, y, a veces, incluso en los pases vecinos. +Consideren el conflicto entre descendientes congoleos y ruandeses y de las denominadas comunidades indgenas de la regin de Kivu. +Este conflicto se inici en la dcada de 1930 durante la colonizacin belga, cuando ambas comunidades compitieron por el dominio de la tierra y el dominio local. +Luego, en 1960, despus de la independencia del Congo, el conflicto se agrav debido a que cada grupo trat de alinearse con las polticas nacionales, pero tambin a la vez, mantener sus agendas a nivel local. +Y luego en 1994, en el momento del genocidio en Ruanda, estos actores locales se aliaron con grupos armados congoleos y ruandeses sin dejar de perseguir sus objetivos locales en las provincias de los kivu. +Desde entonces, estas disputas locales por la tierra y el gobierno local han generado violencia, y puesto en peligro regularmente los acuerdos nacionales e internacionales. +As que uno se pregunta por qu bajo estas circunstancias las fuerzas de paz internacionales no lograron ayudar a aplicar programas locales para construir la paz. +Y la respuesta es que los actores internacionales consideran que la resolucin de los conflictos de base es una tarea sin importancia, ajena e ilegtima. +La sola idea de interferir a nivel local choca enormemente con las normas culturales existentes, y esto amenaza importantes intereses de la organizacin. +Las Naciones Unidas, por ejemplo, como organizacin diplomtica a nivel mundial sera desautorizada si intentara cambiar su enfoque en los conflictos locales. +Y el resultado es que ni la resistencia interna contra las formas dominantes de accin, ni los fallos externos lograron convencer a esos actores internacionales de que deberan revaluar su comprensin sobre la violencia y las intervenciones. +Y hasta ahora, solo ha habido unas pocas excepciones. +Hubo excepciones, pero muy pocas, a esta pauta general. +As que, para concluir, la historia que les cont es la historia de cmo una cultura dominante de la paz hace entender a los implicados en el proceso cules son las causas de la violencia, como se gana la paz, y a qu intervenciones se debera llegar. +Estas ideas hacen que los cooperantes de paz internacionales ignoren fundaciones a nivel micro que son muy necesarias para una paz sostenible. +La consiguiente falta de atencin a los conflictos locales conduce a una paz frgil a corto plazo y a una posible reanudacin de la guerra a largo plazo. +Y lo ms fascinante es que este anlisis nos ayuda a comprender mejor muchos casos de conflictos en curso e intervenciones internacionales fallidas en frica y en otras partes. +Los conflictos locales incitan a la violencia en muchos entornos de guerra y de posguerra, desde Afganistn hasta Sudn pasando por Timor Oriental y, en los casos excepcionales en los que se llevaron a cabo iniciativas integrales de construccin de la paz desde abajo hacia arriba, estos intentos tuvieron xito en lograr una paz sostenible. +Un buen ejemplo es el contraste entre la situacin relativamente pacfica en Somalilandia, que se benefici de iniciativas de pacificacin sostenibles y la violencia que prevalece en el resto de Somalia, donde la paz en muchos casos se busc de arriba hacia abajo. +Y hay muchos otros casos donde la resolucin de los conflictos locales, de la base, supusieron una diferencia crucial. +As que si queremos trabajar por la paz internacional, adems de cualquier intervencin de arriba abajo, Los conflictos deben resolverse de abajo hacia arriba. +Y, de nuevo, no significa que las tensiones nacionales e internacionales no importen. +Importan. +Y eso no quiere decir que la paz nacional e internacional no es necesaria. +Lo es. +Sin embargo, la paz tanto en el mbito macro como micro es necesaria para lograr una paz sostenible, y las organizaciones no gubernamentales locales, las autoridades locales y los representantes de la sociedad civil deberan ser los principales protagonistas del proceso de abajo arriba. +Luego, por supuesto, hay obstculos. +Los protagonistas locales a menudo no tienen ni el capital y a veces tampoco la logstica ni la capacidad tcnica para desarrollar programas de pacificacin de manera eficaz. +Los actores internacionales deben ampliar la financiacin y el apoyo para la resolucin de conflictos locales. +En cuanto al Congo, qu se puede hacer? +Despus de dos dcadas de conflicto y millones de muertos, est claro que tenemos que cambiar nuestro enfoque. +Basndome en mi investigacin de campo, creo que los actores internacionales y congoleos deberan prestar ms atencin a la resolucin de conflictos por la tierra y a la promocin de la reconciliacin intercomunitaria. +Por ejemplo, en la provincia de los kivu, el Instituto Vida y Paz y sus socios congoleos crearon foros intercomunitarios para discutir los detalles del conflicto por la tierra, y en estos foros se han encontrado soluciones para ayudar a controlar la violencia. +Se necesita urgentemente este tipo de programas en todo el este de Congo. +Es con programas como estos que podemos ayudar a la gente como Isabelle y su marido. +No son varitas mgicas, sino que tienen en cuenta las causas profundamente arraigadas de la violencia y podran ser definitivamente un punto de inflexin. +Gracias. +Recientemente, he odo hablar mucho del poder de la protesta en las redes sociales. Y es cierto. Pero despus de ms de una dcada de investigacin y participacin en muchos movimientos sociales, he llegado a darme cuenta de que el modo en el cual la tecnologa ayuda a los movimientos sociales paradjicamente puede a la vez, debilitarlos. +Esto no es algo inevitable, pero cambiarlo requiere entender qu es lo que hace posible el xito a largo plazo. +Y las lecciones se aplican en muchas reas. +Por ejemplo, las protestas en Turqua, el parque Gezi de julio de 2013 que he vuelto a estudiar in-situ; +Twitter fue clave en su organizacin. +Estaba por todo el parque... igual que el gas lacrimgeno. +No todo era alta tecnologa. +Pero la gente que vive en Turqua conoca ya el poder de Twitter debido a un hecho desafortunado ocurrido un ao antes, cuando aviones militares bombardearon y asesinaron a 34 insurgentes kurdos cerca de la frontera. mientras que la prensa turca silenciaba los hechos por completo. +Los editores se quedaron en las salas de redaccin y esperaron a que el gobierno les dijera qu hacer. +Un frustrado periodista no pudo aguantar ms, +se compr un pasaje de avin de su propio bolsillo y se fue a la aldea donde ocurri el ataque. +Y esto es lo que se encuentra: una hilera de atades que bajan la colina, rodeados por parientes y llantos. +Ms tarde me cont lo abrumado que se sinti y que no supo cmo reaccionar. As que sac el telfono, como hubiramos hecho nosotros, tom una foto y la subi a Twitter. +Y, voil, la imagen se convirti en viral, gan a la censura forzada y oblig a los medios de comunicacin a hablar del caso. +As que, al ao, hubo protestas en Gezi que empezaron como una protesta a favor de la edificacin de un parque pero se convirtieron en una protesta contra el gobierno autoritario. +No es de sorprender que los medios la hayan censurado tambin a pesar de sus toques ridculos a veces. +Cuando las cosas se pusieron muy tensas cuando CNN Internacional tuvo que emitir en directo desde Estambul, CNN Turqua transmiti un documental de pinginos. +Me encantan los documentales de pinginos pero esa no era la noticia del da. +Un espectador enojado junt las dos pantallas y tom esta foto, que se convirti tambin en viral. Desde entonces, la gente llama a la prensa turca, la prensa pingino. Pero esta vez, la gente supo qu hacer. +Sacaron sus mviles y buscaron las verdaderas noticias por telfono. +An mejor, se dirigieron al parque, tomaron fotos y participaron envindolas a travs de los medios sociales. +Se us la conexin digital para todo, de donaciones a alimentos. +Todo estaba organizado en parte gracias al uso de las nuevas tecnologas. +El uso de Internet para movilizarse y hacer pblicas las protestas se remonta de hecho, a mucho tiempo atrs. +Recuerdan a los zapatistas, el levantamiento campesino de la regin de Chiapas en Mxico liderado por el carismtico fumador de pipa, el subcomandante Marcos? +Esa fue probablemente la primera revuelta que recibi atencin mundial gracias a Internet. +O los sucesos de Seattle en 1999 cuando esfuerzos internacionales suscitaron atencin mundial hacia una oscura organizacin, la Organizacin Mundial del Comercio haciendo uso de estas tecnologas digitales para organizarse. +Y ms recientemente, protesta tras protesta han desestabilizado un estado tras otro: los levantamientos rabes de Bahrin a Tnez, Egipto y ms; "Los indignados" en Espaa, Italia, Grecia y las protestas del parque Gezi; Taiwn, Euromaidn en Ucrania, Hong Kong. +E iniciativas an ms reciente, por ejemplo, los hashtag "BringBackOurGirls". +Hoy en da, una red de tuits puede desencadenar una campaa mundial de informacin. +Una pgina de Facebook puede convertirse en un medio de movilizacin de masas. +Es increble. +Pero piensen en los movimientos que acabo de mencionar. +Los resultados que obtuvieron no estn exactamente a la altura del tamao y la energa que las inspir. +Se crearon muchas expectativas que no coincidieron con el resultado final. +Y eso plantea una pregunta: si las tecnologas digitales simplifican las cosas por qu las consecuencias positivas no son numerosas tambin? +Al hacer uso de las plataformas digitales para el activismo y la poltica no descuidamos de alguna manera los beneficios de hacer las cosas por el camino ms difcil? +Creo que s. +Creo que la regla general es: Movilizacin fcil no siempre significa obtener resultados. +Ahora, para ser clara, la tecnologa nos da poder de diversas maneras. +Es una herramienta muy poderosa. +En Turqua, he visto cmo 4 estudiantes universitarios organizaron una red nacional de periodistas llamada 140Journos que se convirti en el centro de atencin de las noticias sin censura en el pas. +En Egipto, vi a 4 jvenes haciendo uso de la conexin digital para organizar acciones para el apoyo logstico de 10 hospitales, grandes operaciones, durante los enfrentamientos de la plaza Tahrir en 2011. +Y pregunt al fundador de este proyecto, Tahrir Supplies, Cunto tiempo pas desde que tuvo la idea hasta que comenzar con el proyecto? +"5 minutos", dijo. 5 minutos. +Y no tena experiencia en logstica. +Piensen en el movimiento Occupy que sacudi a todo el mundo en 2011. +Empez con un solo correo electrnico de una revista, Adbusters, para unos 90000 suscriptores. +Dos meses despus de este e-mail, en Estados Unidos haba 600 protestas en curso. +Poco al mes de ocuparse fsicamente el parque Zuccotti ocurri una protesta mundial en 82 pases, 950 ciudades. +Ha sido una de las protestas mundiales ms grande de la historia. +Comprenla con el movimiento de los Derechos Civiles en Alabama en 1955 que protestaba contra la segregacin racial en los autobuses que fueron boicoteados. +Se prepararon durante aos y decidieron que era hora de actuar despus de que Rosa Parks fuera arrestada. +Pero cmo difundir el mensaje "Maana empezamos el boicot" cuando no tenan Facebook, ni mensajera mvil, ni Twitter, ni nada de este tipo? +Tuvieron que imprimir manualmente 52 000 folletos a escondidas en una oficina de una universidad trabajando por la noche, en secreto. +Luego, a travs de 68 organizaciones afro de EE.UU. recorrieron el pas y distribuyeron folletos de mano en mano. +Y todo lo que tena que ver con la logstica era una pesadilla porque era gente pobre. +Tuvieron que trabajar con o sin boicot, por lo que organizaron un sistema para compartir viajes, de nuevo, a travs de las reuniones. +Sin SMS, Twitter o Facebook. +Tenan que reunirse todo el tiempo para ponerse al corriente de las novedades. +Hoy en da, sera mucho ms simple. +Crearamos una base de datos con las rutas disponibles y lo necesario, coordinaramos toda la base de datos, y usaramos SMS. +Ni deberamos reunirnos tanto. +Pero, tengan esto en cuenta: el movimiento de los derechos civiles en EE.UU. se desarroll a travs de un campo de minas lleno de peligros polticos. Se enfrent a la represin, y consigui compromisos importantes navegando e innovando a travs de los riesgos. +Sin embargo, 3 aos despus de que estallara Occupy la conversacin global sobre la desigualdad, y las polticas que la provocaron estn an presentes. +Europa fue sacudida por una ola de protestas contra la austeridad, pero el continente no ha cambiado de direccin. +Con el uso de estas tecnologas, no ignoramos acaso, algunos de los beneficios de un trabajo largo y constante? +Para entender esto, volv a Turqua un ao despus de las protestas en Gezi y entrevist a varias personas, desde activistas a polticos, representantes de los partidos polticos en el poder y los de la oposicin. +Encontr que los manifestantes se haban dispersado. +Estaban frustrados y lograron mucho menos de lo que esperaban. +Esto me record todo lo que haba odo en todas partes por parte de otros manifestantes con los cuales me mantengo en contacto. +Y me di cuenta de que parte del problema es que las protestas de hoy se han convertido en algo as como escalar el Everest con la ayuda de 60 sherpas nepales. Internet es nuestro sherpa. +Lo que estamos haciendo ahora es elegir el camino fcil renunciando a los beneficios que tiene el trbajo constante. +Y si estn en el poder, se dan cuenta del poder que representa esta marcha, no solo la marcha misma, sino que el poder que simboliza, hay que tomarlo en serio. +En cambio, si uno mira las marchas mundiales de Occupy, organizadas en dos semanas, nota mucha insatisfaccin. Pero no se ven los dientes para morder a largo plazo. +Y algo muy importante, el movimiento de los Derechos Civiles invent tcticas de boicots para a las sentadas a los piquetes a las marchas y los viajes de la libertad. +Los movimientos actuales se extienden muy rpidamente, sin base organizativa para hacer frente a los retos. +Son como unas startups que se han desarrollado tanto que no saben qu hacer a continuacin y muy raras veces logran cambiar de tcticas porque no tienen la capacidad de profundizar en dichas transiciones. +Quiero que quede claro, la magia no est en los folletos impresos a mano +sino en la capacidad de trabajar juntos, y en el pensamiento colectivo que se puede construir con el tiempo y con trabajo arduo. +Para entender esto, entrevist a un miembro de un partido en el poder en Turqua y le dije: Cmo lo hacen? +Uds. utilizan tambin ampliamente la tecnologa digital, por lo que no es eso. +Entonces, cul es el secreto? +Bueno, me lo dijo. +Dijo que l nunca pone azcar en el t. +Le pregunt, qu tiene que ver con esto? +Dijo, su partido empieza a prepararse para las siguientes elecciones al da siguiente de las ltimas elecciones, y pasa todo el tiempo, todos los das, reunindose con los votantes en sus casas, en las bodas, ceremonias de circuncisin y despus se rene con otros colegas y comparan sus notas. +nos reunimos por la tarde y ya estaba con un exceso de cafena. +Pero su partido gan dos elecciones importantes un ao despus de las protestas en Gezi, con una ventaja considerable. +Los gobiernos tienen otro tipo de recursos que tienen a su disposicin +que no son lo mismo, pero de las diferencias se aprende. +Y como todas las historias de este tipo, aqu no se trata solo de la tecnologa. +Es lo que nos permite la tecnologa hacer y lo que queremos hacer. +Los movimientos sociales actuales operan de manera informal. +No quieren una direccin institucionalizada. +No se involucran en la poltica, por temor a la corrupcin y cooptacin. +Y tienen razn. +Las democracias representativas modernas estn asfixiadas en muchos pases por intereses poderosos. +Pero actuar de esta manera hace que sea difcil una movilizacin a largo plazo y ejercer presin sobre el sistema que lleva a los manifestantes frustrados a renunciar y a ms corrupcin en la poltica. +Y la poltica y la democracia sin un desafo eficaz cojean, porque las causas que han inspirado los recientes movimientos modernos son cruciales. +El cambio climtico est aqu. +La desigualdad asfixia el crecimiento humano, el potencial y las economas. +El autoritarismo est en las ltimas en muchos pases. +Necesitamos que los movimientos sean ms eficaces. +Ahora, algunas personas han argumentado que el problema es que los movimientos de hoy en da los forman personas que no asumen tantos riesgos como antes, y eso no es cierto. +Desde Gezi a Tahrir a otros lugares, he visto a la gente poner sus vidas y sus medios de vida en juego. +Tampoco es cierto, como afirma Malcolm Gladwell, que los manifestantes de hoy formar lazos virtuales ms dbiles. +No, ellos vienen a estas protestas, al igual que antes, con sus amigos, las redes existentes, ya veces hacen nuevos amigos de por vida. +Todava veo a los amigos que me hice en las protestas globales convocadas ya hace ms de una dcada, y los vnculos entre extraos tienen valor. +Cuando me rociaron con gas lacrimgeno en Gezi, la gente que yo no conoca de nada me ayud y tambin a los dems, en lugar de huir. +En Tahrir, vi a personas, los manifestantes, trabajando muy duro para protegerse entre s y estar seguros. +Y la sensibilizacin digital es fantstica porque cambiar mentalidades es la piedra angular de la evolucin de la poltica. +Pero los movimientos de hoy tienen que ir ms all de la participacin a gran escala y encontrar la manera pensar juntos colectivamente, desarrollar fuertes propuestas polticas, crear consenso, averiguar los pasos polticos y relacionarlos para aprovecharlos porque todas estas buenas intenciones y la valenta y el sacrificio por s mismas no van a ser suficientes. +Y se hacen muchos esfuerzos. +En Nueva Zelanda, un grupo de jvenes estn desarrollando una plataforma llamada Loomio para decisiones participativas a escala. +En Turqua, 140Journos son la celebracin de los maratones informticos para apoyar a las comunidades as como el periodismo ciudadano. +En Argentina, una plataforma de cdigo abierto llamada DemocracyOS est ayudando al parlamento y a los partidos polticos. +Estos son todos ejemplos fantsticos, y necesitamos ms, pero la respuesta no ser solo una toma de decisiones online. porque para actualizar la democracia, vamos a necesitar innovar en todos los niveles, de lo organizativo a lo poltico y a lo social. +Debido a que para tener xito a largo plazo, a veces hace falta un t sin azcar junto a su Twitter. +Gracias. +Cuando me invitaron a dar esta charla hace un par de meses, barajamos unos cuantos ttulos con los organizadores, salieron y se discutieron muchas propuestas diferentes. +Pero nadie propuso este ttulo [Derrotar al bola] y se debe a que hace 2 meses, los casos de bola aumentaron exponencialmente y se extendieron por reas geogrficas como nunca antes, y el mundo estaba aterrado, preocupado y alarmado por esta enfermedad, como no hemos visto en la historia reciente. +Pero hoy, al estar aqu, puedo hablarles de cmo vencer al bola gracias a personas de las que nunca han odo hablar, como Peter Clement, un mdico liberiano que trabaja en el condado de Lofa, un lugar del que muchos de Uds. quiz nunca oyeron hablar, en Liberia. +El condado de Lofa es muy importante porque, hace 5 meses, cuando la epidemia empezaba a extenderse, el condado de Lofa estaba justo en el epicentro de la epidemia. +Mdicos Sin Fronteras y el centro de tratamiento de all atendan por aquel entonces decenas de pacientes todos los das, y estos pacientes, estas comunidades, eran cada vez ms asustados con el paso del tiempo, de la enfermedad y sus consecuencias, en sus familias, en sus comunidades, en sus hijos, en sus familiares. +Peter Clement asumi la responsabilidad y conduj12 horas por un camino difcil desde Monrovia, la capital, hasta el condado de Lofa, para ayudar a controlar una epidemia de rpida difusin. +Al llegar, Peter hall el terror que les contaba. +De modo que habl con los lderes locales, y escuch. +Y lo que oy fue algo desgarrador. +Oy hablar de la devastacin y la desesperacin de las personas afectadas por esta enfermedad. +Escuch historias desgarradoras no solo del dao que le caus el bola a las personas, sino lo que hizo a las familias y lo que hizo a las comunidades. +Y escuch a los jefes locales quienes le dijeron: "Cuando nuestros hijos estn enfermos, moribundos, no podemos estar junto a ellos cuando ms lo necesitan. +No podemos cuidar a nuestros parientes cuando mueren como manda la tradicin. +No se nos permite lavar los cuerpos para enterrarlos como exigen nuestros rituales y la comunidad. +Por esta razn estaban muy afectados y profundamente alarmados al ver delante de ellos como se desataba la epidemia. +Los lugareos se lo tomaban con los mdicos que asistieron, los hroes que haban venido a ayudar a la comunidad, a trabajar con la comunidad, por no tener acceso a ellos. +Entonces Peter explic la situacin a los lderes. +Los lderes escucharon. Y cambiaron de opinin. +Peter explic qu era el bola, qu era la enfermedad. +Les explic qu le hizo a las comunidades. +Y les explic que el bola amenazaba todo lo que nos haca humanos. +El bola hace que no podamos atender a los hijos como en otra situacin. +No podemos enterrar a los muertos como querramos. +Hay que confiar que estas personas de trajes espaciales lo harn. +Damas y caballeros, sucedi algo extraordinario: La comunidad, los trabajadores de la salud, Peter, se sentaron juntos y pusieron en marcha un plan para el control del bola en el condado de Lofa. +Esto es muy importante, damas y caballeros, porque hoy, este pas, epicentro de la epidemia, lo han visto, lo han ledo en los peridicos, lo han visto en la TV, hoy el condado de Lofa lleva 8 semanas sin ver un solo caso de bola. +Esto no significa que termin el trabajo, obviamente. +Todava hay un gran riesgo de que broten nuevos casos. +Pero pudimos aprender que se puede superar el bola. +Eso es lo principal. +Incluso a esta escala, incluso de crecimiento rpido cmo vimos en este ambiente, sabemos ahora que el bola puede ser derrotado. +Cuando las comunidades colaboran con los trabajadores de la salud esta enfermedad puede detenerse. +Pero, cmo lleg el bola al condado de Lofa, en primer lugar? +Bueno, para eso, tenemos que retroceder 12 meses, al inicio de esta epidemia. +Como muchos de Uds. saben, este virus no fue detectado, evadi la deteccin durante 3 o 4 meses cuando empez a extenderse. +Porque no es una enfermedad de frica Occidental. sino que proviene de frica Central, a medio continente de distancia. +La gente no haba visto la enfermedad antes; y tampoco los trabajadores de la salud. +No saban a lo que se enfrentaban y, para hacerlo an ms complicado, el virus estaba causando un sntoma, se presentaba de un modo atpico para la enfermedad. +La gente que conoca el bola, no reconoca la enfermedad. +Por eso evadi la deteccin durante algn tiempo. Y, a veces, hoy, al contrario de la opinin pblica, una vez detectado el virus, la ayuda viene rpidamente. +Los Mdicos Sin Fronteras abrieron rpidamente un centro de tratamiento all, +la Organizacin Mundial de la Salud y los socios con los que trabaja despleg en total cientos de personas en los siguientes 2 meses con el fin de hacer el seguimiento de la evolucin del virus. +El problema, damas y caballeros, es que para entonces, este virus, conocido ahora como bola, se haba extendido demasiado. +Ya haba superado una de las respuestas ms grandes a una movilizacin contra un brote de bola. +A mediados de ao, no solo Guinea sino Sierra Leona y Liberia tambin estaban infectados. +Conforme el virus se propagaba geogrficamente, las victimas aumentaban y en ese momento, no solo haba cientos de personas infectadas que moran por la enfermedad, sino, igual de importante, los trabajadores voluntarios, las personas que fueron a ayudar, los trabajadores de la salud, y los colaboradores tambin enfermaban y moran por docenas. +Los presidentes de estos pases comprendieron la situacin emergencia. +Se reunieron en ese momento, coincidieron en la accin comn y crearon un centro de emergencia de operacin conjunta en Conakry para trabajar juntos, terminar con esta enfermedad y hacer que se detenga, para implementar las estrategias que hablamos. +Pero luego ocurri algo nunca antes visto con el bola: +el virus, o alguien enfermo con el virus, tom un avin, vol a otro pas, y, por primera vez, vimos en otro pas lejano que el virus reapareci. +Esta vez fue en Nigeria, en la bulliciosa metrpolis de Lagos, 21 millones de personas. +Ahora el virus estaba en ese entorno. +Y como pueden anticipar, estall el pnico internacional, la preocupacin internacional a una escala no vista en los ltimos aos provocada por una enfermedad como esta. +La Organizacin Mundial de la Salud convoc de inmediato a una red de expertos que analizaron la situacin y declararon el estado de emergencia internacional. +De este modo, se espera una gigantesca ola de asistencia internacional para ayudar a estos pases que se enfrentaban a tantos problemas y dificultades en ese momento. +Pero notamos algo muy distinto. +Hubo gran respuesta. +Pases que ayudaron, muchas ONGs y otros, como ya saben, pero, al mismo tiempo, en muchos lugares ocurri lo contrario. +Se intensific la alarma y muy pronto estos pases se encontraron sin la ayuda que necesitaban, cada vez ms aislados. +Vimos aerolneas comerciales que al volar a estos pases, a sus pasajeros, que ni siquiera haban estado expuestas al virus ya no se les permita viajar. +Esto caus problemas, obviamente, para los propios pases, pero tambin para la respuesta. +Las organizaciones que trataban de traer personas para ayudar a responder al brote, no poda enviar a la gente en los aviones, no lograban hacerlos llegar a los pases para ofrecer ayuda. +En esa situacin, damas y caballeros, un virus como el bola toma ventaja. +Y vimos algo nunca antes visto. +Damas y caballeros, esta fue una de las emergencias sanitarias internacionales ms preocupantes que hemos visto. +Lo ocurrido en estos pases, muchos de Uds. lo vieron en la TV, lo leyeron en los peridicos, el sistema sanitario empez a colapsar bajo el peso de esta epidemia. +Empezaron a cerrar las escuelas, no abrieron los mercados, nada funcionaba como se esperaba en estos pases. +Prolifer la desinformacin y las interpretaciones errneas difundidas en las comunidades, lo que gener ms alarma sobre la situacin. +Empezaron a evitar a esas personas de trajes espaciales, como las llamaban, que venan a ayudarlos. +Y la situacin empeor an ms. +Los pases tuvieron que declarar un estado de emergencia. +Grandes comunidades en cuarentena, vieron como luego estallaron disturbios. +Fue una situacin muy, muy aterradora. +En todo el mundo, muchas personas empezaron a preguntarse si podemos detener el bola cuando empieza a extenderse as? +Y empezaron a preguntar qu tan bien conocamos realmente a este virus? +La realidad es que no conocemos al bola demasiado bien. +Es una enfermedad relativamente moderna en relacin a todo lo que sabemos de ella. +La conocemos solo desde hace 40 aos, desde que apareci en frica Central en 1976. +Pero a pesar de eso, sabemos muchas cosas: Sabemos que este virus probablemente sobrevive en un tipo de murcilago. +Sabemos que es probable que afecte a una poblacin humana cuando entramos en contacto con un animal salvaje infectado con el virus y quiz enfermo. +Luego sabemos que el virus se propaga de persona a persona a travs de fluidos corporales contaminados. +Como han visto, conocemos lo que provoca esta terrible enfermedad en humanos, causa fiebres graves, diarrea, vmitos, y luego por desgracia, en un 70 % de los casos, o a menudo ms, la muerte. +Esta es una enfermedad muy peligrosa, debilitante y mortal. +Pero a pesar de no conocerla durante tanto tiempo, y no saber todo sobre ella, s sabemos cmo detener la enfermedad. +Hay 4 cosas fundamentales para detener el bola. +En primer lugar, las comunidades tienen que entender esta enfermedad, tienen que entender cmo se transmite y cmo detenerla. +Luego necesitamos sistemas que detecten todos los casos e identifiquen todos los contactos en cada uno de los casos, y conocer las cadenas de transmisin para detenerla. +Necesitamos centros especializados de tratamiento de bola, que protejan a los trabajadores en su intento de ayudar a las personas infectadas, para que puedan sobrevivir a la enfermedad. +Y luego para los que mueren, asegurar un entierro seguro y digno para que no haya propagacin en ese momento, tampoco. +Sabemos cmo detener el bola, damas y caballeros. +Se detuvo el virus en Nigeria con estas 4 estrategias y gracias a la gente que las implement, obviamente. +Se detuvo en Senegal, donde se propag, y tambin en otros pases afectados por este virus, en este brote. +As que no hay duda de que estas estrategias funcionan. +La gran pregunta, damas y caballeros, es si estas estrategias funcionaran a esta escala, en esta situacin, con tantos pases afectados con el crecimiento exponencial que vieron. +Esa era la gran pregunta hace 2 o 3 meses. +Hoy conocemos la respuesta a esa pregunta. +Y conocemos la respuesta gracias a la extraordinaria labor de un grupo increble de ONGs, de gobiernos, de lderes locales, de las agencias de la ONU y otras organizaciones humanitarias que se sumaron a la lucha para detener al bola en frica Occidental. +Pero all haba que hacer algo un tanto diferente. +Estos pases adoptaron esas estrategias que acabo de mostrar; participacin comunitaria, deteccin de casos, localizacin de contactos, etc., pero con una variante. +Haban tantos enfermos, que lo abordaron de manera diferente. +Primero trataron de frenar la epidemia trayendo rpidamente el mximo nmero de casos posibles en centros especializados para evitar la propagacin de la enfermedad por los infectados. +Se crearon rpidamente muchos, muchos equipos de entierro para tratar a los muertos de forma segura y, con eso, trataron de frenar el brote para ver si entonces podan controlarlo con el enfoque clsico de la deteccin de casos y localizacin de contactos. +Cuando fui a frica Occidental hace unos 3 meses, cuando estuve all, vi algo extraordinario. +Vi presidentes abriendo centros de emergencia contra el bola para coordinar, supervisar y liderar esta oleada de apoyo internacional para detener la enfermedad. +Vimos militares locales y extranjeros ayudando a construir centros de tratamiento contra el bola para aislar a los enfermos. +Vimos a la organizacin de la Cruz Roja con sus organismos asociados en el terreno y capacitar a las comunidades para que entierren a sus muertos de forma segura. trabajando de manera digna. +Y vimos agentes de la ONU, del Programa Mundial de Alimentos, construir un gran puente areo para llevar respuesta a todos los rincones rpidamente para implementar las estrategias que hablamos. +Damas y caballeros, quiz lo ms impresionante fue este increble trabajo de los gobiernos, de los lderes de estos pases, con las comunidades, para asegurarse de que la gente entendiera la enfermedad, que entendiera el esfuerzo extraordinario necesario para detener al bola. +Como resultado, damas y caballeros, vimos algo que no sabamos unos 2 o 3 meses antes, si sera posible o no. +Vimos lo que ven en este grfico, cuando hicimos el balance el 1 de diciembre. +Vimos que pudimos doblar esta curva, por as decirlo; cambiar este crecimiento exponencial y devolver algo de esperanza, de mantener bajo control este brote. +Por esto, damas y caballeros, ahora no hay dudas de que podemos controlar este brote en frica Occidental y detener al bola. +La gran pregunta, sin embargo, y que muchas personas se hacen incluso viendo esta curva, es: "Bueno, esperen un minuto, genial, pueden bajar la velocidad, pero pueden bajarla a cero?" +Ya respondimos a esta pregunta al comienzo de la charla, cuando hablamos del condado de Lofa en Liberia. +Les contamos la historia de cmo en el condado de Lofa no se lleg a registrar ningn caso de bola durante 8 semanas. +Pero hay historias similares de otros pases tambin. +De Gueckedou en Guinea, la primera zona en la que se diagnostic el primer caso. +El reto ahora, claro, es hacerlo en la escala necesaria en estos 3 pases, y eso es un gran reto. +Porque cuando uno ha estado involucrado por tanto tiempo, en esta escala, otras 2 grandes amenazas se suman al virus. +La primera es el abandono, el riesgo de que una vez la curva empiece a retroceder, los medios miren para otro lado, el mundo mire para otro lado. +El abandono siempre es un riesgo. +Y otro riesgo, claro, cuando uno ha trabajado arduamente tanto tiempo, y dormido tan pocas horas en los ltimos meses, la gente se cansa, se fatiga, y estos nuevos riesgos empiezan a verse en los que vinieron a ayudar. +Damas y caballeros, puedo decirles y acabo de regresar de frica Occidental, +la gente de estos pases, los lderes de estos pases, no son complacientes. +Quieren acabar con el bola en sus pases. +Y estas personas, s, estn cansados, pero no agotados. +Tienen energa, tienen valenta, tienen la fuerza para terminar la tarea. +Lo que necesitan ahora, damas y caballeros, es el apoyo incondicional de la comunidad internacional, que los apoye, que los proporcione ms apoyo ahora para terminar la tarea. +Porque acabar con el bola ahora significa cambiar de tctica y empezar a cazar al virus. +Recuerden, este virus, toda esta crisis, se inici con un caso, y terminar con un caso. +Pero solo terminar si estos pases consiguen suficientes epidemilogos, suficiente personal sanitario, logstica y gente que trabaje con ellos para detectar todos los casos, rastrear sus contactos y asegurarse de que esta enfermedad se detenga de una vez por todas. +Damas y caballeros, el bola puede superarse. +Ahora necesitamos que difundan esta historia y eduquen a la gente sobre qu significa derrotar al bola, y lo ms importante, necesitamos que aboguen ante las personas que pueden ayudar con los recursos que necesitan estos pases, para derrotar la enfermedad. +Hay mucha gente all que sobrevivir y prosperar, en parte gracias a lo que hagan Uds. para ayudarnos a vencer al bola. +Gracias. +Han odo hablar de su C.I., coeficiente intelectual, pero cul es su inteligencia psicolgica? +Cunto saben de lo que les lleva a actuar? Son buenos prediciendo la conducta de otros o incluso la propia? +Y cunto creen que es incorrecto de lo que saben de psicologa? +Averigemos los diez grandes mitos de la psicologa. +Seguro que han odo decir que si se trata de psicologa, los hombres son de Marte y las mujeres de Venus. +Qu tan diferentes son hombres y mujeres? +Para averiguarlo, empezaremos observando algo en lo que realmente se diferencian trazando diferencias de gnero psicolgicas en la misma escala. +Algo en lo que realmente se diferencian es en lo lejos que pueden lanzar una bola. +Si vemos los datos de los hombres, hay lo que se llama una curva de distribucin normal. +Algunos hombres pueden lanzar la bola muy lejos, algunos no tanto, pero la mayora una distancia media. +Las mujeres comparten la misma distribucin. Pero en realidad hay una gran diferencia. +El hombre promedio puede lanzar la pelota ms lejos que cerca del 98 % de las mujeres. +Veremos qu diferencias psicolgicas de gnero se presentan en la misma escala estandarizada. +Cualquier psiclogo les dir que los hombres son mejores en la percepcin espacial, cosas como leer mapas, por ejemplo, y es verdad, pero veamos la magnitud de esta diferencia. +Pequea. Las lneas estn tan cerca que casi se superponen. +De hecho, la mujer promedio es mejor que el 33 % de todos los hombres, y, por supuesto, si este era el 50 %, entonces ambos gneros seran iguales. +Piensen que esta diferencia y la siguiente son ms o menos las mayores diferencias psicolgicas gnero descubiertas en psicologa. +Aqu la siguiente. +Cualquier psiclogo dir que las mujeres son mejores en lengua y gramtica. +Aqu est la prueba de gramtica estandarizada. +Ah estn las mujeres. Ah los hombres. +Otra vez, las mujeres son mejores en promedio, pero las lneas estn tan cerca que el 33 % de los hombres son mejores que la mujer promedio, y si fuera el 50 %, representara la completa igualdad de gnero. +No es realmente un caso de Marte y Venus. +Es ms un caso de, si acaso, Mars y Snickers: bsicamente lo mismo, pero uno, tal vez, sea un poco ms loco que el otro. +No dir cul. +Una vez entrados en calor, +psicoanalicemos con la famosa prueba de Rorschach. +Probablemente puedan ver dos... dos osos o dos personas o lo que sea. +Pero qu creen que estn haciendo? +Levanten la mano los que creen que dicen "hola". +No mucha gente. Bueno. +Que levanten la mano si creen que chocan los cinco. +Qu pasa con los que piensan que pelean? +Solo unos pocos all. +Bien, si creen que dicen "hola" o chocan los cinco, entonces significa que Uds. son amables. +Si creen que estn luchando, entonces son agresivos o desagradables. +Uds. son bsicamente amables o guerreros. +Qu tal este? +No es una votacin, a la de tres digan todos lo que ven. +Uno, dos, tres. (Audiencia gritando) O hmster. Quin dijo hmster? +Eso era muy preocupante. +Un chico dijo hmster. +Seguro que ven un animal de dos patas aqu, y luego la imagen espejo all. +Si no lo hicieron, entonces significa que tienen dificultad en procesar situaciones complejas donde hay mucho que hacer. +Excepto, claro, que esto no significa eso. +Las pruebas de Rorschach carecen bsicamente de validez para diagnosticar la personalidad de la gente y los psiclogos de hoy no las utilizan. +Un estudio reciente descubri que al intentar diagnosticar la personalidad con esta pruebas se diagnostica esquizofrenia en cerca de una 6 parte de los participantes normales. +Si no hicieron muy bien esto, tal vez no sean personas muy visuales. +Hagamos otro test rpido para averiguarlo. +Al hacer un pastel, --levanten la mano para cada opcin-- prefieren utilizar un libro de recetas con fotos? +S, algunas personas. +Tener un amigo que les vaya explicando? +O ir inventando sobre la marcha? +Muy pocas personas ahora. +As que si uno ha dicho A, significa que es un aprendiz visual y aprende mejor si la informacin se presenta en un estilo visual. +Si uno dijo B, significa que es un aprendiz auditivo, que aprende mejor si la informacin se presenta en formato auditivo. +Y si uno dijo C, significa que es un aprendiz cinestsico, que aprende mejor si est haciendo cosas con las manos. +Excepto, claro, como habrn adivinado, que esto no es as, porque todo esto es un mito. +Los estilos de aprendizaje se inventaron y no se apoyan en evidencia cientfica. +Lo sabemos porque en experimentos muy controlados, al dar los alumnos material para aprender ya sea en su estilo preferido o en un estilo opuesto, no existe ninguna diferencia en la cantidad de informacin que retienen. +Y si lo piensan un segundo, es obvio que esto tiene que ser verdad. +Es obvio que el mejor formato de presentacin no depende de uno, sino de lo que trata de aprender. +Podran aprender a conducir, por ejemplo, solo escuchando a alguien que dice qu deben hacer sin experiencia cinestsica? +Resolveran ecuaciones simultneas mediante explicaciones, sin verlas escritas? +Revisaran sus exmenes de arquitectura con danza interpretativa por ser un aprendiz cinestsico? +No. Hay que hacer es hacer coincidir el material aprendido con el formato de presentacin, no con Ud. +S que muchos de Uds. son estudiantes nivel A que recibieron los resultados de la secundaria. +Y si no lograron lo que esperaban, no pueden culpar a su estilo de aprendizaje, pero quiz deseen culpar a sus genes. +De esto trata un estudio reciente de la Universidad College de Londres donde encontr que el 58 % de la variacin entre los diferentes alumnos y sus resultados de secundaria se relacionaba a factores genticos. +Eso parece un nmero muy concreto, cmo lo podemos decir? +Bueno, al querer descifrar las contribuciones relativas de los genes y del medio ambiente, lo que podemos es hacer un estudio de gemelos. +Los gemelos idnticos comparten el 100 % de su entorno y el 100 % de sus genes, mientras que los gemelos no idnticos comparten el 100 % de su entorno, pero, como cualquier hermano y hermana, comparten solo el 50 % de sus genes. +Al comparar lo similares que son los resultados de secundaria en gemelos idnticos frente a los no idnticos, y al hacer buena matemtica, podemos tener una idea de cunta variacin se debe al entorno y cunta a los genes. +Y resulta que un 58 % se debe a los genes. +Esto no es para boicotear el trabajo duro suyo y de sus maestros. +Si no lograron los resultados de secundaria esperados, siempre se puede intentar culpar a los padres o, al menos, a los genes. +Algo a lo que no se debe culpar es a ser aprendiz orientado al cerebro izquierdo o derecho porque, de nuevo, este es un mito. +El mito es que el cerebro izquierdo es lgico, bueno con ecuaciones, y que el derecho es ms creativo, por eso el hemisferio derecho es mejor para la msica. +Tambin esto es un mito porque casi todo lo que uno hace implica la interaccin de casi todas las partes del cerebro aunque solo sea algo banal como tener una conversacin normal. +Una de las razones, quiz, para que haya sobrevivido este mito es porque hay un ligero pice de verdad. +As que una versin del mito es que las personas zurdas son ms creativas que las diestras, tiene algo de sentido porque el cerebro controla las manos opuestas, as que para los zurdos, el lado derecho cerebral es ligeramente ms activo que el lado izquierdo, y la idea es que el lado derecho es ms creativo. +Pero no es cierto per se que los zurdos sean ms creativos que los diestros. +Lo que es cierto es que las personas ambidiestras, o que utilizan ambas manos para diferentes tareas, son pensadores ms creativos que las personas que usan una mano, porque ser ambidiestro implica tener ambos lados del cerebro interactuando mucho entre s, lo que parece estar vinculado a la creacin del pensamiento flexible. +El mito de que el zurdo es creativo surge del hecho de que ser ambidiestro es ms comn entre los zurdos que los diestros, por lo que hay un pice de verdad en que el zurdo es creativo, pero no mucha. +Un mito relacionado del que pueden haber odo hablar es que solo usamos el 10 % de nuestro cerebro. +Esto es, de nuevo, un mito. +Casi todo lo que hacemos, incluso lo ms mundano, utiliza casi todo el cerebro. +Dicho esto, es cierto, por supuesto, que la mayora no utilizamos la capacidad intelectual tan bien como pudiramos. +Entonces, qu hacer para aumentar la capacidad intelectual? +Tal vez podramos escuchar un poco de Mozart. +Han odo hablar de la idea del efecto Mozart? +Es la idea de que escuchar Mozart nos hace ms inteligentes y mejora el rendimiento en las pruebas de CI. +Lo interesante de este mito es que a pesar de ser bsicamente un mito, hay un pice de verdad. +El estudio original encontr que los participantes que escucharon Mozart durante unos minutos hicieron luego un mejor test de inteligencia que los que simplemente se sentaron en silencio. +Sin embargo, un estudio de seguimiento reclut a personas amantes de Mozart y a un grupo de amantes de las historias de terror de Stephen King. +Y les pusieron msica o historias. +El grupo que prefera la msica de Mozart logr un mejor resultado con Mozart que con historias, pero el grupo que prefera las historias a Mozart tuvo un resultado mejor en su IC con historias de Stephen King que con msica de Mozart. +As que la verdad es que escuchar algo que guste gratifica y ofrece un impulso temporal a su CI, en una estrecha gama de tareas. +No hay ninguna evidencia de que escuchar Mozart, o historias de Stephen King, nos hagan ms listos a largo plazo. +Otra versin del mito de Mozart es que escuchar Mozart puede hacernos no solo ms inteligentes, sino ms sanos, tambin. +Por desgracia, esto no parece ser cierto en alguien que escuchaba msica de Mozart casi todos los das, el propio Mozart, que sufra de gonorrea, de viruela, de artritis, y de, lo que muchos piensan que finalmente lo mat, de sfilis. +Esto sugiere que Mozart deba haber tenido poco ms cuidado, tal vez, a la hora de elegir a sus parejas sexuales. +Pero cmo elegir una pareja? +Un mito que debo mencionar, extendido un poco por socilogos, es que las preferencias de pareja romntica son un producto especfico de nuestra cultura. +Pero, de hecho, los datos no lo respaldan. +Hay un estudio famoso de 37 encuestados de diferentes culturas de todo el mundo, desde estadounidenses a zules, acerca de lo que buscan en una pareja. +Y en cada cultura en todo el mundo, los hombres dan ms nfasis al atractivo fsico de su pareja que las mujeres, y en cada cultura, las mujeres dan ms importancia que los hombres a la ambicin y a lo que ganan. +Y en todas las culturas, los hombres prefieren mujeres ms jvenes que ellos, un promedio de, creo, de 2,66 aos, y en todas las culturas, tambin, las mujeres prefieren hombres mayores que ellas, en un promedio de 3,42 aos, es por ello que tenemos eso de: "Todas necesitan novio viejo adinerado". +As que dejando el tema de cmo se punta a una pareja veamos cmo se punta en baloncesto o ftbol o en el deporte que sea. +El mito de aqu es que los deportistas atraviesan buenas rachas o pocas doradas donde simplemente no pueden perder, como este tipo aqu. +Pero, en realidad, lo que pasa al analizar el patrn de aciertos y errores estadsticamente, es que casi siempre, es aleatorio. +El cerebro crea patrones de aleatoriedad. +Existe una excepcin, los penaltis. +Un estudio reciente analizando los penaltis en el ftbol mostr que los jugadores que representan pases tienen un muy mal rcord de penaltis, como, por ejemplo, Inglaterra, tienden a ser ms rpidos chutando que los pases con mejor registro de penaltis, y, presuntamente como resultado, son ms propensos a fallar. +Lo que plantea la pregunta de si hay alguna manera de mejorar el rendimiento de las personas. +Y algo que pueden pensar hacer es castigar a las personas por sus fallos y ver si eso les mejora. +La idea de que el castigo puede mejorar el rendimiento, es lo que los participantes pensaban que eran las pruebas del famoso experimento aprendizaje y castigo de Milgram del que habrn odo hablar si son estudiantes de psicologa. +La historia cuenta que los participantes daban lo que ellos crean que era una descarga elctrica letal a los participantes, si contestaban mal. solo porque alguien con una bata blanca se lo deca. +Pero esta historia es un mito, por tres razones. +Primera y ms importante, la bata del laboratorio no era blanca, sino gris. +Segunda, a los participantes se les dijo antes y durante el experimento cuando mostraban preocupacin, que si bien las descargas eran dolorosas, no eran letales y que en ningn caso causaban dao permanente. +Y tercera, los participantes no administraron las descargas solo porque alguien con bata se los dijo. +Al entrevistarlos tras el experimento, los participantes dijeron que crean firmemente que el experimento serva a un propsito cientfico digno que tendra beneficios perdurables para la ciencia en contraste a la incomodidad no letal momentnea causada a los participantes. +Curiosamente, hay una excepcin: Bsqueda en TV de familiares desaparecidos. +Es muy fcil predecir si los familiares estn desaparecidos y si los que hacen la solicitud han asesinado a los propios familiares. +As los farsantes son ms propensos a sacudir la cabeza, mirar a otro lado y cometer errores en su discurso, en tanto que los verdaderos tienden a expresar la esperanza de que la persona regresar con bien y evitan el lenguaje agresivo. +Por ejemplo, podran decir "se han llevado" en lugar de "han matado". +Hablando de eso, ya es hora de que mate esta charla, pero antes, quiero solo mostrarles en 30 segundos el mito fundamental de la psicologa. +El mito es que la psicologa es solo una coleccin de teoras interesantes, que dicen algo til y que tienen algo que ofrecer. +Lo que espero haber mostrado en los pasados minutos es que eso no es cierto. +Y es solo as que podemos descubrir cules de estas teoras estn bien fundamentadas y cules, como de las que habl hoy, son mitos. +Gracias. +Hace unos aos, me top con un sencillo ejercicio de diseo que ayuda a las personas a entender y resolver problemas complejos, y como muchos de estos ejercicios parece sencillo al principio, pero tras una inspeccin ms detallada revela verdades inesperadas acerca de cmo trabajamos y entendemos las cosas. +El ejercicio tiene tres partes y empieza con algo que todos sabemos hacer que es hacer una tostada. +Comienza con una hoja de papel y un marcador y sin utilizar palabras, se debe dibujar cmo se hace una tostada. +La mayora de la gente dibuja algo as. +Dibuja una barra de pan, cortada en rebanadas y metida en la tostadora. +El pan se deja durante algn tiempo en la tostadora. +Al saltar, listo! Dos minutos ms tarde, pan y felicidad. +Con los aos, he recopilado varios cientos de estos dibujos, y algunos son muy buenos, porque realmente ilustran el proceso de hacer tostadas con mucha claridad. +Luego hay algunos que, bueno, no son tan buenos. +Algunos son realmente malos, porque no se entiende lo que estn tratando de explicar. +Bajo una inspeccin minuciosa, algunos revelan ciertos aspectos del proceso mientras esconden otros. +As que hay algunos que tratan solo de las tostadas, y todo lo relacionado con la transformacin de la tostada. +Y hay otros que hablan sobre todo de la tostadora, y a los ingenieros les encanta dibujar la mecnica del proceso. +Y luego hay otros diseos que son sobre la gente. +Son sobre las experiencias que tienen las personas. +Y luego hay otros diseos que hablan de la cadena de suministro, desde la produccin hasta la tienda, +y que pasan por la cadena suministro y el transporte areo hasta los campos de trigo, con un dibujo que rastre el proceso hasta el Big Bang. +As que es una locura. +Pero creo que es obvio que aunque estos diseos son muy diferentes, comparten una cualidad comn y me pregunto si se dieron cuenta. +Pueden verla? Qu tienen en comn entre ellos? +La mayora de los diseos tienen nodos y enlaces. +Los nodos representan los objetos tangibles como la tostadora y la gente, y los enlaces representan las conexiones entre los nodos. +Y es esta combinacin de enlaces y nodos lo que produce un modelo de sistemas completo y que hace visible nuestros modelos mentales privados sobre cmo pensamos que funciona algo. +Este es el valor de estas cosas. +Lo interesante de estos modelos de sistemas es la forma en que revelan nuestros puntos de vista diferentes. +Por ejemplo, los estadounidenses hacen tostadas en una tostadora. +Esto parece obvio. +Mientras que muchos europeos lo hacen usando una sartn, por supuesto, y muchos estudiantes hacen las tostadas usando fuego. +Realmente no entiendo esto. Muchos estudiantes de MBA lo hacen. +As que pueden medir la complejidad contando el nmero de nodos, y el dibujo promedio tiene entre 4 y 8 nodos. +Si hay menos que eso, el diseo parece trivial, pero es muy fcil de entender, y si hay ms de 13, el diseo produce un sentimiento de mapa complejo, +demasiado complicado. +As que el nmero ptimo est entre 5 y 13 nudos, +por lo que, si quieren comunicar algo visualmente, usen entre 5 y 13 nudos en sus diagramas. +As, aunque no sean expertos en diseo, lo principal es saber intuitivamente cmo dividir las cosas complejas en cosas simples y luego sintetizarlo todo de nuevo. +Esto nos lleva a la segunda parte del ejercicio que es cmo hacer tostadas, pero ahora con pequeas notas o tarjetas. +Qu pasa ahora? +Con las tarjetas, la mayora tiende a dibujar nodos claramente ms detalladas y lgicos. +Pueden ver paso a paso el anlisis que se lleva a cabo, y mientras construyen su modelo, mueven los nodos reorganizndolos como si fueran piezas de Lego. +Ahora, si bien esto puede parecer trivial, es realmente muy importante. +Esta rpida repeticin de cmo se expresan, reflexionan y analizan es realmente la nica manera de tener una visin clara de todo esto. +Esta es la esencia del proceso de diseo. +Los tericos de los sistemas nos dicen que la facilidad con la que se puede cambiar una representacin est correlacionada con nuestro inters de mejorar el modelo. +As que un sistema con notas post-it no solo es ms fluido sino que tambin produce, en general, ms nodos que los dibujos estticos. +Los dibujos son mucho ms ricos en detalles. +Y esto nos lleva a la tercera parte del ejercicio que es disear cmo hacer tostadas, pero esta vez en grupo. +Qu pasa ahora? +Bueno, esto es lo que pasa. +El proyecto empieza un tanto desordenado, se pone confuso, y luego se vuelve an ms confuso, pero cuando la gente empieza a perfeccionar los modelos, los mejores nodos se vuelven ms visibles, y con cada repeticin, el modelo se vuelve ms claro porque las personas se basan en las ideas de los dems. +Lo que surge es un modelo de sistemas unificado que integra la diversidad de puntos de vista individuales de todos, as que es un resultado muy diferente a lo que suele ocurrir en las reuniones, no? +Estos dibujos pueden contener 20 o ms nodos, pero los participantes no se sienten agobiados porque ellos mismos participaron en la construccin de sus modelos. +Lo que tambin es muy interesante es que los grupos mezclan espontneamente, y aaden otras capas organizacionales. +Para afrontar las contradicciones, por ejemplo, agregan patrones paralelos y patrones de ramificacin. +Ah, y por cierto, si lo hacen en completo silencio, lo hacen mucho mejor y ms rpidamente. +Realmente interesante... la conversacin estorba. +As que aqu tienen algunas de las lecciones que pueden derivarse de esto. +Primero, dibujar nos ayuda a entender las situaciones como sistemas de nodos y relaciones. +Las tarjetas mviles producen mejores modelos de sistemas porque la reiteracin se hace con mayor fluidez. +El trabajo en grupo con notas produce el mejor modelo sistmico, porque sintetiza diferentes puntos de vista. +As que eso es interesante. +Cuando las personas trabajan juntas en las circunstancias adecuadas, los modelos de grupo son mucho mejores que los modelos individuales. +As que este enfoque funciona muy bien para dibujar cmo hacer tostadas, pero y si se quiere dibujar algo ms importante o urgente, como la visin de una organizacin, la experiencia del usuario o la sostenibilidad a largo plazo? +Vivimos una revolucin visual y cada vez ms organizaciones tratan de resolver sus problemas serios dibujndolos en colaboracin. +Estoy convencido de que los que ven su mundo como nodos mviles y enlaces realmente tienen una ventaja. +Y la prctica es realmente muy simple. +Se empieza con una pregunta, se trazan los nodos, se perfeccionan, se rehace todo, elaboran, refinan y perfeccionan y los patrones emergen, y el grupo se aclara y obtiene su respuesta a la pregunta. +As que este simple acto de visualizarlo, de tener que hacerlo y rehacerlo, produce algunos resultados notables. +Lo que es realmente importante saber es que las conversaciones representan los aspectos importantes no los modelos en s mismos. +Y estos marcos de referencia visual pueden llegar a tener hasta varios cientos o incluso miles de nodos. +Un ejemplo de estos sera una organizacin llamada Rodale. +Es una gran editorial. +Perdi mucho dinero en un ao y su equipo ejecutivo trat de visualizar sus mtodos durante tres das. +Lo que es interesante es que despus de visualizar todos los negocios, sistemas tras sistema, lograron 50 millones de dlares de ingresos y tambin subieron en el ranking de sus clientes, de D a A. +Por qu? Debido a los ajustes realizados por el equipo ejecutivo. +As que ahora estoy en la misin de ayudar a las organizaciones a resolver sus problemas persistentes a travs de la visualizacin colaborativa y en un sitio web que he creado llamado drawtoast.com he recogido un conjunto de las mejores prcticas +para que puedan aprender cmo dirigir un taller, aprender ms sobre el lenguaje visual, la estructura de los enlaces y nodos y cmo se pueden aplicar para buscar soluciones a problemas generales, y descargar ejemplos de varias plantillas para resolver los problemas espinosos a los que todos nos enfrentamos en nuestras organizaciones. +As que, el aparentemente trivial ejercicio de diseo de hacer una tostada nos ayuda a lograr claridad, compromiso y alineacin. +As que la prxima vez que se enfrenten a un desafo interesante, recuerden lo que el diseo nos ense. +Hagan sus ideas visibles, tangibles y secuenciales. +Es simple, divertido y de gran alcance y creo que es una idea digna de celebracin. +Gracias. +Soy artista y corto libros. +Una de mis primeras obras en libro se llama +"Ruta alternativa al conocimiento". +Quise crear una pila de libros tal que, cuando alguien entrara en la galera, pensara que solo estaba mirando una pila ordinaria de libros, pero que al acercarse viera este agujero spero tallado en ella y se preguntara qu pasaba, por qu, y pensara en el material del libro. +Me interesa la textura, pero ms el texto y las imgenes que encontramos en los libros. +Solo tallo alrededor de lo que me parece interesante. +As que todo lo que ven dentro de la pieza terminada est exactamente donde estaba en el libro antes de comenzar. +Creo que mi trabajo es como una remezcla porque trabajo con el material de alguien ms de la misma forma que un DJ podra trabajar con la msica de otra persona. +Este fue un libro de pinturas de Rafael, el artista del Renacimiento, y al tallar su obra y remezclarla, tallando en ella, es como hacer algo que es ms nuevo y ms contemporneo. +Estoy pensando tambin en salir de la caja del libro tradicional y empujar ese formato lineal, y tratar de empujar la estructura del libro en s, tal que el libro pueda ser plenamente escultural. +Estoy usando pinzas y cables y todo tipo de materiales, pesos, con el fin de mantener las cosas en su lugar antes de barnizar para pode empujar la forma antes de comenzar, y que algo como esto pueda convertirse en una pieza como esta, hecha solo a partir de un nico diccionario. +O que algo como esto puede convertirse en una pieza como esta. +O algo como esto, que quin sabe lo que va a ser o por qu est en mi estudio, se convierta en una pieza como esta. +Los libros realmente estn vivos. +Pienso en el libro como un cuerpo, y pienso en el libro como una tecnologa. +Pienso en el libro como una herramienta. +Y tambin pienso en el libro como una mquina. +Tambin pienso en el libro como un paisaje. +Este es un conjunto de enciclopedias que se han conectado y lijados juntas, y segn las tallo decido lo que quiero elegir. +Con enciclopedias, podra elegir cualquier cosa, pero especficamente eleg imgenes de paisajes. +Y con el propio material, estoy usando papel de lija y lijando los bordes para que no solo las imgenes sugieran paisaje, sino el material en s sugiera un paisaje tambin. +como creando imgenes, cuando estamos leyendo el texto, y cuando vemos una imagen, en realidad usamos el lenguaje para entender lo que estamos viendo. +As que lo que pasa es una especie de yin-yang, de "ir-volver". +As que estoy creando una obra que el espectador est completando. +Pienso en mi trabajo, si fuera arqueologa. +Estoy excavando e intentando maximizar el potencial, descubrir tanto como me sea posible y exponerlo dentro de mi propio trabajo. +Tengo varios diccionarios en mi propio estudio, y uso la computadora todos los das, y si tengo que buscar una palabra, voy a la computadora, porque puedo ir directamente y de inmediato a lo que estoy buscando. +Creo que el libro nunca fue realmente el formato adecuado para la informacin no lineal, por eso vemos que los libros de referencia son los primeros en peligro de extincin. +As que no creo que el libro muera realmente algn da. +La gente piensa que ahora que tenemos la tecnologa digital, el libro va a morir, estamos viendo que las cosas cambian y evolucionan. +Creo que el libro va a evolucionar, y al igual que la gente deca que la pintura morira cuando la fotografa y el grabado se convirtieron en materiales cotidianos, pero que en realidad permiti que la pintura dejara su trabajo diario. +Le permiti ya no tener esa tarea cotidiana de contar la historia, la pintura se liber y se le permiti contar su propia historia, que fue cuando emergi el Modernismo, y vimos a la pintura entrar a diferentes ramas. +Creo que eso es lo que est pasando con los libros, ahora que nuestra tecnologa, mucha de la informacin, la mayor parte de nuestros registros personales y culturales son digitales, permitir que realmente el libro se convierta en algo nuevo. +Creo que es un momento muy emocionante para un artista como yo, y es muy emocionante ver qu va a pasar con el libro en el futuro. +Gracias. +Enfermedades infecciosas, no? +Las enfermedades infecciosas siguen siendo la principal causa del sufrimiento humano y de la muerte en todo el mundo. +Cada ao, mueren millones de personas de tuberculosis, malaria, VIH, en todo el mundo e incluso en EE. UU. +Cada ao, miles de estadounidenses mueren de gripe estacional. +Ahora, claro, los humanos somos creativos, no? +Hemos hallado formas de protegernos contra estas enfermedades. +Tenemos medicamentos y vacunas. +Y somos conscientes, aprendemos de nuestras experiencias y hallamos soluciones creativas. +Solamos pensar que estbamos solos en esto, pero ahora sabemos que no lo estamos. +No somos los nicos mdicos. +Ahora sabemos que hay gran cantidad de animales que tambin pueden hacerlo. +Los ms famosos, quiz, son los chimpancs. +No son tan diferentes de nosotros y pueden usar plantas para el tratamiento de sus parsitos intestinales. +Pero las ltimas dcadas nos han mostrado que otros animales tambin pueden hacerlo: elefantes, puercoespines, ovejas, cabras, lo que sea. +Y an ms interesante es que los recientes descubrimientos nos indican que los insectos y otros animales con cerebros ms pequeos tambin pueden usar medicamentos. +El problema con las enfermedades infecciosas, como todos sabemos, es que los patgenos siguen evolucionando, y muchos de los medicamentos que hemos desarrollado estn perdiendo su eficacia. +Y, por lo tanto, hay una gran necesidad de encontrar nuevas formas de descubrir frmacos que podemos usar contra nuestras enfermedades. +Ahora, creo que deberamos estudiar estos animales, y aprender de ellos para tratar nuestras propias enfermedades. +Como bilogo, he estado estudiando mariposas monarca en los ltimos 10 aos. +Las monarcas son muy famosas por sus espectaculares migraciones de EE.UU. y Canad a Mxico cada ao, donde se juntan millones de ellas, pero por eso empec a estudiarlas. +Estudio las monarcas porque se enferman. +Se enferman como Uds. Se enferman como yo. +Y creo que lo que hacen nos puede decir mucho sobre los frmacos que podemos desarrollar para humanos. +Los parsitos con los que se infectan las monarcas se llaman ophryocystis elektroscirrha, simple. +Producen esporas, millones de esporas en el exterior de la mariposa que aparecen como pequeas motas en medio de las escamas de la mariposa. +Y esto es realmente perjudicial para la monarca. +Acorta su vida, reduce su capacidad de volar, incluso puede matarlas antes de llegar a ser adultas. +Un parsito muy perjudicial. +Como parte de mi trabajo, paso mucho tiempo en las plantas de invernadero de cultivos, y la razn de esto es que las monarcas son comedoras muy exigentes. +De larvas solo comen asclepias. +Por suerte, hay varias especies de asclepias que pueden usar, y estas asclepias contienen cardenlidos. +Son qumicos txicos. +Son txicos para la mayora de los animales, no para las monarcas. +De hecho, las monarcas pueden tomar qumicos, ponerlos en sus propios cuerpos, y eso las hace txicas contra sus depredadores, como las aves. +Y publicitan esta toxicidad va su hermosa coloracin naranja, negra y blanca. +Durante mi trabajo cultiv plantas en el invernadero, diferentes tipos de asclepias. +Algunas eran txicas, como el algodoncillo tropical, con concentraciones muy altas de estos cardenolides. +Y algunas no eran txicas. +Luego aliment a las monarcas. +Algunas estaban sanas, no estaban enfermas. +Pero otras enfermaron, y descubr que algunas de estas asclepias son medicinales, o sea que reducen los sntomas de la enfermedad en las mariposas monarca, es decir, que estas monarcas pueden vivir ms tiempo cuando se infectan, cuando se alimentan de estas plantas medicinales. +Y cuando me enter de esto, tuve esta idea, y mucha gente dijo que era una idea loca, pero pens, y si las monarcas pueden usar esto? +Y si pueden usar estas plantas como forma propia de medicina? +Y si pueden actuar como mdicos? +Por eso mi equipo y yo empezamos a hacer experimentos. +En los primeros tipos de experimentos, tuvimos orugas, y les dimos una eleccin: asclepias medicinales frente a asclepias no medicinales. +Y luego medimos cunto coman de cada especie durante su vida. +Y el resultado, como tan a menudo en la ciencia, fue aburrido: El 50 % de su alimento era medicinal. El 50 % no lo era. +Estas orugas no hicieron nada por su propio bienestar. +Luego pasamos a las mariposas adultas, y empezamos a preguntarnos si sera que las madres medicaban a su descendencia. +Pueden las madres poner sus huevos en asclepia medicinal para hacer menos vulnerable a la futura descendencia? +Hemos hecho estos experimentos durante varios aos, y siempre tuvimos los mismos resultados. +Pusimos una monarca en una gran jaula, una planta medicinal en un lado, una planta no medicinal en el otro lado, y luego medimos la cantidad de huevos que las monarcas pusieron en cada planta. +Y al hacer eso siempre encontramos lo mismo. +Encontramos que las monarcas prefieren decididamente la asclepia medicinal. +En otras palabras, estas hembras ponen el 68 % de sus huevos en la asclepia medicinal. +Curiosamente, transmiten los parsitos al poner los huevos. +No pueden evitarlo. +Asimismo, no pueden automedicarse. +Pero estos experimentos nos dicen que estas monarcas, estas madres, pueden poner sus huevos en asclepia medicinal que har que la futura descendencia se enferme menos. +Pienso que este es un descubrimiento muy importante no porque nos cuente algo genial de la naturaleza sino porque nos cuenta algo ms sobre cmo deberamos encontrar medicamentos. +Son animales muy pequeos y tendemos a pensar que son muy simples. +Tienen diminutos cerebros, sin embargo, pueden hacer este medicamento muy sofisticado. +Sabemos que an hoy, la mayor parte de nuestros medicamentos derivan de productos naturales, incluyendo las plantas y, en culturas indgenas, los curanderos tradicionales a menudo observan a los animales para encontrar nuevos frmacos. +As, los elefantes nos han dicho cmo tratar el malestar estomacal, y los puercoespines cmo tratar la diarrea con sangre. +Sin embargo, creo que es importante ir ms all de estos mamferos de cerebro grande y darle ms crdito a estos animales simples, a estos insectos que solemos suponer como muy, muy simples, con diminutos cerebros. +El descubrimiento de que estos animales tambin pueden usar medicacin abre nuevas perspectivas y creo que tal vez un da, tratemos enfermedades humanas con frmacos descubiertos primero por las mariposas, y creo que es una oportunidad increble que vale la pena explorar. +Muchas gracias. +Cul es la amenaza creciente para la salud de los estadounidenses? +Cncer? Ataques cardacos? Diabetes? +La respuesta de hecho, es ninguna de ellas; es la enfermedad de Alzheimer. +Cada 67 segundos, alguien en EE.UU. es diagnosticado con Alzheimer. +La cantidad de pacientes con Alzheimer se triplicar para el 2050, y su cuidado, as como del resto de la poblacin envejecida se volver un desafo social abrumador. +Mi familia vivi en carne propia la lucha de cuidar un paciente con Alzheimer. +Al crecer en una familia con 3 generaciones, siempre estuve muy cerca de mi abuelo. +A los 4 aos, mi abuelo y yo recorramos un parque en Japn cuando de pronto se perdi. +Fue uno de los momentos ms aterradores que he vivido y tambin fue la primera instancia que nos alert de que mi abuelo tena Alzheimer. +Durante los ltimos 12 aos, su enfermedad fue de mal en peor, y su deambular en particular le causaba a mi familia mucho estrs. +Mi ta, su cuidadora principal, luchaba para mantenerse despierta de noche para vigilarlo, e incluso as, a menudo no poda evitar que deje la cama. +Me preocupaba mucho la salud de mi ta y la seguridad de mi abuelo. +Buscaba por doquier una solucin para mitigar los problemas de mi familia, pero no poda encontrarla. +Luego, una noche hace unos 2 aos, estaba cuidando a mi abuelo y lo vi salir de la cama. +Cuando apoy el pie en el suelo, pens, por qu no pongo un sensor de presin en su taln? +Al pisar el suelo y salir de la cama el sensor de presin podra detectar el aumento de presin por el peso corporal y luego mandar va inalmbrica una alerta sonora al mvil del cuidador. +As, mi ta podra dormir mucho mejor por la noche sin tener que preocuparse por el deambular de mi abuelo. +Ahora me gustara hacer una demostracin de este calcetn. +Podra subir al escenario por favor mi modelo de calcetn? +Genial. +As, cuando el paciente pone un pie en el suelo... se enva una alerta al smartphone del cuidador. +Gracias. Gracias, modelo de calcetn. +Este es un dibujo de mi diseo preliminar. +Mi deseo de crear una tecnologa basada en sensores quiz surge de mi amor de toda la vida por los sensores y la tecnologa. +A los 6 aos, un amigo de tercera edad de la familia cay en el bao y sufri lesiones graves. +Yo estaba preocupado por mis propios abuelos y decid inventar un sistema de bao inteligente. +Instalamos sensores de movimiento en los azulejos del suelo del bao para detectar cadas de pacientes de la tercera edad en el bao. +Como tena solo 6 aos en ese momento, y todava estaba en el infantil, no tena los recursos necesarios para hacer mi idea realidad pero, no obstante, mi experiencia en investigacin sembr en m el firme deseo de usar sensores para ayudar a la tercera edad. +Creo que los sensores pueden mejorar la calidad de vida de los mayores. +Me enfrent a 3 retos principales al presentar mi plan: primero, crear un sensor; segundo, el diseo del circuito; y tercero, la aplicacin mvil. +Me di cuenta de que mi proyecto era mucho ms difcil de hacer de lo que pens en un principio. +Primero, tuve que crear un sensor porttil fino y suficientemente flexible para colocarse cmodamente en el pie del paciente. +Despus de muchas pruebas con materiales diferentes como el caucho, vi que era demasiado grueso para usarlo en la suela del pie, y decid imprimir un sensor de pelcula con partculas de tinta sensibles a la presin y electroconductoras. +Cuando se ejerce presin, aumenta la conectividad entre las partculas. +Por lo tanto, poda disear un circuito para medir la presin midiendo la resistencia elctrica. +Despus, tuve que disear un circuito inalmbrico porttil, pero la seal inalmbrica consume mucha energa al transmitirse y requiere bateras pesadas y voluminosas. +Por suerte, conoc la tecnologa Bluetooth de bajo consumo, que requiere muy poca energa y puede alimentarse con una batera diminuta. +Esto impidi que el sistema quede sin seal en plena noche. +Por ltimo, hice una aplicacin mvil que, en esencia, transform el smartphone del cuidador en un monitor remoto. +Para esto, tuve que aprender Java, XCode y a programar para dispositivos Bluetooth de baja energa viendo tutoriales en YouTube y leyendo varios manuales. +Integrando estos componentes, pude crear con xito 2 prototipos, uno, con el sensor incrustado dentro de un calcetn, y otro como un kit de sensores re-acoplables que se pueden adherir a cualquier parte que haga contacto con la suela del pie del paciente. +Prob el dispositivo en mi abuelo durante casi un ao, y ha tenido una tasa de xito del 100 % en la deteccin de los ms de 900 casos conocidos de su deambular. +El verano pasado, prob la beta de mi dispositivo en varias residencias de tercera edad de California, y actualmente estoy incorporando las mejoras para crear un producto comercializable. +Probar el dispositivo en un nmero de pacientes me hizo dar cuenta de que necesitaba inventar soluciones para personas que no queran usar los calcetines de noche. +Los datos recolectados en muchos pacientes, pueden ser tiles para mejorar la atencin al paciente y quiz lleve a una cura para la enfermedad tambin. +Por ejemplo, actualmente estoy examinando correlaciones entre la frecuencia del deambular nocturno de un paciente y su dieta y actividades diarias. +Nunca olvidar cuando mi dispositivo detect por primera vez el deambular nocturno de mi abuelo. +En ese momento me impact el poder de la tecnologa de mejorar vidas. +Gente que vive feliz y saludable... ese es el mundo que imagino. +Muchas gracias. +Uno de los primeros pacientes que me toc atender como pediatra fue Sol, una beba hermosa de un mes que entr en la sala con un cuadro de infeccin respiratoria grave. +Yo, hasta ese momento, nunca haba visto un paciente empeorar tan rpido. +En solo dos das entr al respirador y al tercer da falleci. +Sol tena tos convulsa. +Despus de discutir el caso en la sala y despus de una bastante angustiosa catarsis, me acuerdo que mi jefe de residentes me dijo: bueno, respir hondo, lavate la cara, +y ahora nos toca la parte ms difcil, tenemos que ir a hablar con los padres. +En ese momento se te vienen mil preguntas a la cabeza. Desde por qu una beba de un mes corre con una suerte tan desafortunada, +hasta si podramos haber hecho algo para evitarlo. +Antes de que existan las vacunas, muchas de las enfermedades infecciosas mataban millones de personas por ao. +Durante la pandemia de gripe del ao 1918 murieron 50 millones de personas. +Eso es ms que lo que tiene Argentina hoy. +Tal vez, los que son un poco ms grandes se deben acordar de la epidemia de polio +que hubo en Argentina en el ao 1956. En ese momento, no haba una vacuna disponible contra la polio. +La gente no saba que hacer. Estaban como locos. +Salan a la calle a pintar los rboles con cal. +Ponan bolsitas de alcanfor en la ropa de los chicos como si eso pudiera llegar a hacer algo. +Durante la epidemia de polio murieron miles de personas. +Y miles de personas quedaron con secuelas neurolgicas importantsimas. +Yo esto lo s porque lo le, porque gracias a las vacunas mi generacin tuvo la suerte de no vivir una epidemia tan terrible como esa. +Las vacunas son uno de los grandes xitos de la salud pblica del siglo XX. +Despus del agua potable, son la intervencin que ms ha logrado disminuir la mortalidad, incluso ms que los antibiticos. +Las vacunas lograron erradicar del planeta una enfermedad terrible como la viruela y lograron disminuir muchsimo la mortalidad por otras enfermedades como el sarampin, la tos convulsa, la polio y muchas ms. +Todas esas enfermedades estn dentro del grupo de enfermedades que se llaman: enfermedades prevenibles por vacunas. +Qu quiere decir esto? +Que son potencialmente prevenibles, pero para serlo, algo hay que hacer. +Hay que vacunarse. +Me imagino que la gran mayora, si no todos de los que estamos ac, hemos recibido alguna vez en nuestra vida una vacuna. +Ahora, no estara tan segura que muchos de nosotros sepamos cules son las vacunas o los refuerzos que tenemos que recibir despus de la adolescencia. +Alguna vez se preguntaron a quin estamos protegiendo cuando nos vacunamos? +Qu quiere decir? +Hay algn efecto que va ms all del de protegernos a nosotros mismos? +Djenme mostrarles algo. +Imagnense por un momento que estamos en una ciudad que es completamente virgen de una determinada enfermedad, como, por ejemplo, el sarampin. +Qu quiere decir? En esta ciudad nunca nadie ha tenido contacto con la enfermedad, +o sea, que no tiene defensas naturales ni ha sido vacunado contra el sarampin. +Si un da, aparece en esta ciudad una persona enferma con sarampin, la enfermedad no va a encontrar demasiada resistencia y se va a empezar a transmitir de persona a persona, y en muy poco tiempo se va a diseminar por toda la comunidad. +En un determinado tiempo va a haber una gran cantidad de la poblacin enferma. +Esto pasaba cuando no existan las vacunas. +Ahora, imagnense el caso completamente contrario. +Estamos en una ciudad donde ms del 90 % de la poblacin tiene defensas contra el sarampin. Quiere decir que ha tenido la enfermedad y ha generado defensas naturales. Sobrevivi. O ha recibido la vacuna contra el sarampin. +Y un da, aparece en esta ciudad una persona enferma con sarampin. La enfermedad va a encontrar mucha ms resistencia y no se va a poder transmitir tanto de persona a persona. +La diseminacin, probablemente quede contenida y no se genere un brote de sarampin. +Me gustara que presten atencin a algo. +Las personas que estn vacunadas no solo se estn protegiendo a s mismas sino que al bloquear la diseminacin de la enfermedad dentro de la comunidad estn, indirectamente, protegiendo a personas de esta comunidad que no estn vacunadas. +Crean como una especie de escudo protector que al hacer que no entran en contacto con la enfermedad, estas personas queden protegidas. +Este efecto indirecto de proteccin de las personas no vacunadas en una comunidad, por el solo hecho de estar rodeadas de personas vacunadas, se llama inmunidad colectiva. +Muchas personas en la comunidad dependen casi exclusivamente de esta inmunidad colectiva para protegerse de las enfermedades. +Estas personas no son hipotticos en una animacin. +Esas personas son nuestros sobrinos, nuestros hijos, que tal vez son muy chiquititos para haber recibido sus primeras vacunas. +Son nuestros padres, nuestros hermanos, nuestros conocidos, que tal vez tienen alguna enfermedad o estn recibiendo alguna medicacin que les disminuye las defensas. +Tambin son aquellas personas que son alrgicas a alguna determinada vacuna. +Incluso podemos ser cada uno de nosotros que s nos vacunamos, pero en nosotros la vacuna no gener el efecto esperado. Porque no todas las vacunas son siempre 100 % efectivas. +Todas estas personas dependen casi exclusivamente de la inmunidad colectiva para protegerse de las enfermedades. +Para alcanzar este efecto de la inmunidad colectiva, se necesita que un gran porcentaje de la poblacin est vacunado. +Este porcentaje se llama umbral. +Este umbral depende de muchas variables. Depende de las caractersticas del germen, de las caractersticas de la respuesta inmune que genera la vacuna. +Pero todas tienen algo en comn: +Que si el porcentaje de la poblacin en una comunidad que est vacunado, es por debajo de este nmero umbral, la enfermedad se puede empezar a diseminar ms libremente y se puede generar un brote de esa enfermedad en la comunidad. +Incluso enfermedades que hasta ese momento estaban controladas, pueden volver a aparecer. +Esto no es solo una teora. +Esto pas y pasa. +En el ao 98, un investigador britnico public un artculo en una de las revistas ms importantes de medicina que deca que la vacuna triple viral, que es la que se da para sarampin, paperas y rubeola, se asociaba al autismo. +Esto gener un impacto inmediato. +La gente empez a dejar de vacunarse, empez a dejar de vacunar a sus hijos. +Y qu pas? +El nmero de gente vacunada, en muchas comunidades del mundo, baj por debajo de este umbral. +Y hubo brotes de sarampin en muchas ciudades en el mundo. En Estados Unidos, en Europa. +Mucha gente se enferm +y gente se muri de sarampin. +Qu pas? +Este artculo, tambin gener un revuelo enorme dentro de la comunidad mdica. +Decenas de investigadores se pusieron a evaluar si esto realmente era cierto. +No solo que ninguno pudo encontrar una asociacin causal entre la vacuna triple viral y el autismo a nivel poblacional, sino que se encontr que el artculo este tena cosas incorrectas. +Y no solo eso, sino que era fraudulento. +Era fraudulento. +De hecho, la revista se retract pblicamente de este artculo en el ao 2010. +Una de las principales preocupaciones y excusas a la hora de no vacunarnos son los efectos adversos. +Las vacunas, as como los medicamentos, pueden tener posibles efectos adversos. +La mayora son leves y temporales. +Pero los beneficios son siempre mayores que las posibles complicaciones. +Cuando nosotros estamos enfermos, queremos curarnos rpido. +Muchos de los que estamos ac, si tenemos una infeccin, tomamos antibiticos. Si tenemos presin alta tomamos antihipertensivos. Tomamos drogas cardiolgicas. +Por qu? Porque estamos enfermos y queremos curarnos rpido. +Y no nos lo cuestionamos demasiado. +Por qu nos cuesta tanto pensar en prevenir las enfermedades, en cuidarnos cuando estamos sanos? +Nosotros nos cuidamos mucho ante la enfermedad, o nos cuidamos ante situaciones de peligro inminente. +Me imagino que, casi la mayora de los que estn ac, se deben acordar de la pandemia de gripe A que hubo ac en Argentina y en todo el mundo, en el ao 2009. +Cuando los primeros casos empezaron a salir a la luz, nosotros, ac en Argentina, estbamos entrando en la poca invernal. +No se saba absolutamente nada. +Todo era un caos. +La gente sala con barbijos a la calle, nos abalanzbamos en las farmacias para comprar alcohol en gel. +La gente haca colas en la farmacia para recibir una vacuna, que ni siquiera saban si era la vacuna que los protega contra este nuevo virus. +No se saba absolutamente nada. +Yo, en ese momento, adems de estar haciendo mi beca de investigacin en la Fundacin Infant, trabajaba como pediatra a domicilio para una empresa de medicina prepaga. +Me acuerdo que yo empezaba la guardia a las 8 de la maana y ya a las 8 tena una lista de 50 visitas programadas. +Era un caos, la gente no saba qu hacer. +Me acuerdo que a m me llamaba la atencin las caractersticas de los pacientes que yo estaba viendo. +Eran pacientes un poquito ms grandes que lo que acostumbrbamos a ver en los inviernos, con cuadros febriles ms prolongados. +Y me acuerdo que se lo coment a mi mentor de la beca de investigacin y l por su lado haba escuchado, de un colega, la gran cantidad de mujeres embarazadas y de adultos jvenes que estaban siendo internados en terapia intensiva, con cuadros de muy difcil manejo. +En ese momento, nos propusimos entender qu es lo que estaba pasando. +Lunes, a primera hora, agarramos el auto y nos fuimos a un hospital en la Provincia de Buenos Aires, que se supona que era el hospital de referencia para los casos del nuevo virus de influenza. +Llegamos al hospital, atestado de gente. +Todo el personal de salud vestido con trajes de bioseguridad tipo NASA. +Nosotros con un barbijito en el bolsillo. +Yo, hipocondraca, no respir durante 2 horas. +Pero pudimos ver qu es lo que estaba pasando. +Inmediatamente nos pusimos en contacto con pediatras de 6 hospitales en Capital y en el conurbano bonaerense. +Y nos propusimos, en el menor tiempo posible, poder entender cmo se comportaba este nuevo virus en nuestros chicos. +En un trabajo maratnico, +en menos de tres meses, pudimos ver qu caractersticas tena este nuevo virus H1N1 en los 251 chicos internados por este virus en estos hospitales. +Pudimos ver cules eran los chicos que ms gravemente se enfermaban, que eran los menores de 4 aos, especialmente los menores de 1 ao, pacientes con enfermedades neurolgicas, chiquitos con enfermedades pulmonares crnicas. +Identificar esos grupos de riesgo fue importantsimo para poder incluirlos como grupos prioritarios en las recomendaciones de la vacuna antigripal, no solo ac en Argentina, sino en otros pases donde todava no haba llegado la pandemia. +Un ao despus, que haba una vacuna disponible contra el virus pandmico H1N1, quisimos ver qu es lo que haba pasado. +Despus de una enorme campaa de vacunacin, apuntada a proteger los grupos de riesgo, en estos hospitales, con un 93 % de los grupos de riesgo vacunados, no hubo 1 solo paciente internado por el virus pandmico H1N1. +Ao 2009, 251. +Ao 2010, cero. +Vacunarse es un acto de responsabilidad individual, pero que tiene un enorme impacto colectivo. +Si yo me vacuno, no solo me estoy protegiendo a m misma, sino que tambin estoy protegiendo al otro. +Sol tena tos convulsa. +Sol era muy chiquitita y todava no haba recibido su primer vacuna contra la tos convulsa. +Yo todava me pregunto qu hubiera pasado si todas las personas alrededor de Sol hubieran estado vacunadas. +Crec con mi hermano gemelo, que era un hermano increblemente carioso. +Ahora, el hecho de ser un gemelo te hace un experto en la deteccin del favoritismo. +Si su galleta era incluso un poco ms grande que mi galleta, yo tena preguntas. +Y claro, no me estaba muriendo de hambre. +Al hacerme psiclogo, empec a notar el favoritismo de una clase diferente, y es como valoramos mucho ms el cuerpo que la mente. +Emple 9 aos en la universidad para ganar mi doctorado en psicologa, y ni puedo decirles cuntas personas miran mi tarjeta de presentacin y dicen: "Oh, un psiclogo, as que no es un mdico de verdad", como para tener que poner eso en mi tarjeta. +El favoritismo que mostramos del cuerpo sobre la mente, lo veo en todas partes. +Hace poco estuve en la casa de un amigo y su hijo de 5 aos se estaba alistando para ir a la cama. +Estaba sobre un taburete junto al lavamanos cepillndose los dientes, cuando se resbal y se rasp la pierna con el taburete al caer. +Llor por un minuto, pero luego se levant, regres al taburete y alcanz una caja de curitas para ponerse en la herida. +Ahora, este chico apenas poda atarse los cordones de los zapatos, pero saba que uno tiene que cubrir una herida, si no se infecta, y tiene que cepillar sus dientes dos veces al da. +Todos sabemos cmo mantener nuestra salud fsica y cmo practicar la higiene dental, verdad? +Lo hemos sabido desde que tenamos 5 aos de edad. +Pero qu sabemos sobre el mantenimiento de nuestra salud psicolgica? +Bueno, nada. +Qu enseamos a nuestros hijos acerca de higiene emocional? +Nada. +Cmo es que pasamos ms tiempo cuidando nuestros dientes que nuestras mentes? +Por qu es que nuestra salud fsica es mucho ms importante para nosotros que nuestra salud psicolgica? +Tenemos lesiones psicolgicas an ms a menudo de lo que tenemos fsicas, lesiones como el fracaso o el rechazo o la soledad. +Y tambin pueden empeorar, si las ignoramos, y pueden afectar nuestras vidas de un modo dramtico. +Y aunque existen tcnicas cientficamente probadas que podramos usar para tratar este tipo de lesiones psicolgicas, no lo hacemos. +Ni siquiera se nos ocurre que deberamos hacerlo. +"Oh, ests deprimido? Solo qutatelo de encima, todo est en tu cabeza". +Se imaginan diciendo a alguien con una pierna rota: "Oh, simplemente sal a caminar; todo est en tu pierna". +Es hora de que cerramos la brecha entre nuestra salud fsica y psicolgica. +Es hora de hacerla ms igualitaria, ms como gemelas. +Hablando de eso, mi hermano es tambin psiclogo. +As que no es un mdico de verdad, tampoco. +No estudiamos juntos, sin embargo. +De hecho, lo ms difcil que he hecho en mi vida fue cruzar el Atlntico para ir a Nueva York y obtener mi doctorado en psicologa. +Nos separamos, entonces, por primera vez en nuestras vidas y la separacin fue brutal para nosotros dos. +Pero mientras l permaneca entre familiares y amigos, yo estaba solo en un nuevo pas. +Nos extrabamos muchsimo el uno al otro pero las llamadas internacionales eran muy caras, entonces y solo podamos darnos el lujo de hablar 5 minutos a la semana. +Cuando lleg nuestro cumpleaos, fue el primero que no bamos a pasar juntos. +Decidimos derrochar y esa semana hablaramos durante 10 minutos. +Pas la maana dando vueltas por mi habitacin, esperando a que l llamara y esper y esper, pero el telfono no son. +Dada la diferencia de horario, supuse, "OK, est con amigos, va a llamar ms tarde". +No haba telfonos celulares entonces. +Pero no lo hizo. +Y empec a darme cuenta de que despus de estar ausente por ms de 10 meses ya no me extraaba tanto como yo a l. +Saba que iba a llamar por la maana, pero esa noche fue una de las noches ms tristes y largas de mi vida. +Me despert a la maana siguiente. +Mir al telfono y me di cuenta de que haba pateado el auricular caminando el da anterior. +Salt de la cama, colgu el telfono y son un segundo ms tarde, era mi hermano, y cuidado, estaba molesto. +Fue la noche ms triste y ms larga de su vida tambin. +Intent explicar lo que haba pasado, pero me dijo: "No entiendo. Si veas que no te llamaba, por qu no tomaste el telfono y me llamabas?" +Estaba en lo cierto. Por qu no le llam? +No tuve una respuesta entonces, pero hoy s, y es muy simple: la soledad. +La soledad crea una herida psicolgica profunda, una que distorsiona las percepciones y revuelve nuestros pensamientos. +Nos hace creer que quienes nos rodean se preocupan menos de lo que lo hacen. +Nos da miedo buscar ayuda, por qu exponerse al rechazo y al dolor cuando tu corazn ya dolido ms de lo que puedes soportar? +Yo estaba en las garras de una soledad real entonces, pero estaba rodeado de gente todo el da, por lo que nunca se me ocurri. +Pero la definicin de soledad es llanamente subjetiva. +Solo depende de si uno se siente emocional o socialmente desconectado de quienes lo rodean. +Y lo hice. +Hay un montn de investigacin sobre la soledad y toda ella es horrible. +La soledad no slo te hace miserable, mata. +No estoy bromeando. +La soledad crnica incrementa su probabilidad de una muerte temprana en un 14 %. +La soledad causa presin arterial alta, colesterol alto. +Incluso suprime el funcionamiento del sistema inmunolgico, hacindote vulnerable a todo tipo de enfermedades y dolencias. +De hecho, los cientficos han concluido que en conjunto, soledad crnica se presenta como un riesgo significativo de salud a largo plazo y la longevidad igual al consumo de cigarrillos. +Ahora los cigarrillos vienen con una advertencia: "Esto podra matarte". +Pero la soledad no. +Y por eso es tan importante que demos prioridad a nuestra salud psicolgica, que practiquemos higiene emocional. +Porque no se puede tratar una herida psicolgica si ni siquiera se sabe que se est lesionado. +La soledad no es la nica herida psicolgica que distorsiona nuestras percepciones y nos desorienta. +El fracaso lo hace tambin. +Una vez visit un centro de atencin, donde vi a 3 nios pequeos jugando con juguetes de plstico idnticos. +Se tena que deslizar el botn rojo, y un perrito lindo saldra. +Una nia intent tirar del botn prpura, luego lo empuj, y luego se ech hacia atrs y mir a la caja, con su labio inferior temblando. +El nio pequeo a su lado vio que esto suceda, se volvi hacia su caja y se ech a llorar, sin siquiera tocarla. +Mientras tanto, otra nia intent todo lo que poda pensar hasta que desliz el botn rojo, el perrito lindo salt, y ella gritaba de alegra. +As que 3 nios pequeos con juguetes de plstico idnticos, pero con muy diferentes reacciones al fracaso. +Los primeros dos eran perfectamente capaces de deslizar el botn rojo. +Lo nico que les impeda tener xito era que su mente los enga hacindoles creer que no podan. +Ahora, los adultos se dejan engaar de esta manera tambin, todo el tiempo. +Todos tenemos un conjunto predeterminado de sentimientos y creencias que se desencadenan cada vez que nos encontramos con frustraciones y reveses. +Son conscientes de cmo su mente reacciona al fracaso? +Tienen que hacerlo. +Porque si su mente trata de convencerlos de que son incapaces de algo y Uds. se lo creen, entonces como esos dos pequeitos, comenzarn a sentirse indefensos y dejarn de intentar demasiado pronto, o ni siquiera tratar en absoluto. +Entonces estarn an ms convencidos de que no pueden triunfar +Ven, es por eso que tantas personas actan por debajo de su potencial real. +Porque en algn punto del camino, a veces por una sola falla, se convencen de que no podan triunfar y creyeron en eso. +Una vez nos convencemos de algo, es muy difcil cambiar nuestra mente. +Aprend esa leccin de la forma difcil de adolescente con mi hermano. +bamos en coche con unos amigos por un camino oscuro por la noche, cuando la polica nos detuvo. +Haba habido un robo en la zona y estaban buscando a los sospechosos. +El oficial se acerc al coche, y alumbr con su linterna al conductor, luego a mi hermano en el asiento delantero, y luego a m. +Y sus ojos se abrieron y dijo: "Dnde he visto su cara antes?" +Y yo dije: "En el asiento delantero". +Pero eso no tena sentido para l en absoluto. +As que ahora pens que yo estaba en las drogas. +As que me sac del coche, busc antecedentes, me llev al coche de la polica, y solo cuando verific que no tena antecedentes penales, pude demostrarle que tena un gemelo en el asiento delantero. +Pero incluso mientras bamos hacia el coche, se poda ver en su rostro que estaba convencido de que yo estaba metido en algo. +Nuestra mente es difcil cambiar una vez nos convencemos de algo. +Puede ser muy natural sentirse derrotado y desmoralizado despus de fracasar. +Pero no se pueden dejar convencer de que no pueden triunfar. +Tiene que luchar contra los sentimientos de impotencia. +Tiene que tomar el control de la situacin +y de romper este tipo de ciclo negativo antes de que comience. +Nuestras mentes y nuestros sentimientos, no son los amigos de confianza que pensbamos que eran. +Son ms como un amigo temperamental, que puede apoyarte un minuto, y ser realmente desagradable al siguiente. +Una vez trabaj con una mujer que despus de 20 aos de matrimonio y un divorcio muy feo estaba finalmente lista para su primera cita. +Haba conocido a un hombre en lnea, y l pareca agradable y pareca exitoso, y ms importante, pareca realmente interesado en ella. +As que ella estaba muy emocionada, compr un vestido nuevo, y se pusieron cita en un exclusivo bar de Nueva York para tomar una copa. +Diez minutos antes de la cita, el hombre se levanta y dice, "No estoy interesado" y se va. +El rechazo es extremadamente doloroso. +Estaba tan herida que no poda moverse. Lo nico que pudo hacer fue llamar a un amigo. +Esto es lo que dijo el amigo: "Bueno, qu esperas? +Tienes caderas grandes, no tienes nada interesante que decir, por qu un hombre guapo, exitoso como este querra alguna vez salir con una perdedora como t?" +Sorprendente, verdad? Que un amigo pudiera ser tan cruel. +Pero sera mucho menos impactante si le dijera que no fue el amigo quien dijo eso. +Es lo que se dijo la mujer a s misma. +Y eso es algo que todos hacemos, especialmente despus de un rechazo. +Empezamos a pensar en todas nuestras fallas y todos nuestros defectos, lo que nos gustara ser, lo que no, nos ponemos etiquetas. +Tal vez no tan duramente, pero todos lo hacemos. +Y es interesante que lo hagamos, porque nuestra autoestima ya est herida. +Por qu bamos a querer ir y daarla an ms? +No empeoraramos un dao fsico a propsito. +No te cortas el brazo y decides: "Ah, ya s! +Voy a tomar un cuchillo y ver cunto ms profundo que puedo hacerlo". +Pero lo hacemos con las lesiones psicolgicas todo el tiempo. +Por qu? Debido a la falta de higiene emocional. +Debido a que no priorizamos nuestra salud psicolgica. +Sabemos por docenas de estudios que cuando la autoestima es baja, uno es ms vulnerable al estrs y la ansiedad, que los fracasos y rechazos duelen ms y se tarda ms en recuperarse de ellos. +As que cuando se es rechazado, lo primero que se debe hacer es para revivir la autoestima, no unirse al club de la pelea y darse una paliza. +Cuando ests en dolor emocional, trtate con la misma compasin que esperaras de un verdadero buen amigo. +Tenemos que atrapar nuestros hbitos psicolgicos insalubres y cambiarlos. +Uno de los ms insanos y ms comunes se llama rumiar. +Rumiar significa masticar ms. +Es cuando tu jefe te grita, o tu profesor te hace sentir estpido en clase, o si tiene gran pelea con un amigo y uno no puede dejar de reproducir la escena en la cabeza durante das, a veces durante semanas. +Rumiar sobre eventos molestos puede convertirse fcilmente en un hbito, y es muy costoso. +Porque pasar tanto tiempo enfocados en pensamientos perturbadores y negativos, en realidad se ponen en riesgo significativo de desarrollar depresin clnica, alcoholismo, trastornos alimentarios, e incluso enfermedad cardiovascular. +El problema es que el impulso a rumiar puede sentirse muy fuerte e importante, por lo que es un hbito difcil de detener. +S que esto es un hecho, ya que hace poco ms de un ao, desarroll el hbito yo mismo. +A mi hermano gemelo le diagnosticaron un linfoma no-Hodgkin en etapa III. +Su cncer era extremadamente agresivo. +Tena tumores visibles por todo el cuerpo. +Y tuvo que comenzar un curso de dura quimioterapia. +Y yo no poda dejar de pensar en lo que estaba pasando. +No poda dejar de pensar en lo mucho que sufra, a pesar de que nunca se quej ni una sola vez. +Tena esta actitud increblemente positiva. +Su salud psicolgica fue increble. +Yo estaba fsicamente saludable, pero psicolgicamente era un desastre. +Pero yo saba qu hacer. +Los estudios dicen que incluso dos minutos de distraccin son suficientes para romper el impulso de rumiar en ese momento. +As, cada vez que tena un pensamiento inquietante, perturbador negativo, me obligaba a concentrarme en otra cosa hasta que el impulso pasara. +Y en una semana, toda mi perspectiva cambi, se hizo ms positiva y ms esperanzadora. +Nueve semanas despus de que comenz la quimioterapia, mi hermano tuvo un TAC, y yo estaba a su lado cuando recibi los resultados. +Todos los tumores haban desaparecido. +Todava tena tres rondas ms de quimioterapia, pero sabamos que se recuperara. +Esta foto fue tomada hace dos semanas. +Al tomar acciones cuando se est solo, al cambiar sus respuestas al fracaso, al proteger su autoestima, al luchar contra el pensamiento negativo, uno no solo cura sus heridas psicolgicas, construye resistencia emocional, uno prospera. +Hace 100 aos, la gente comenz a practicar higiene personal y las tasas de esperanza de vida aumentaron en ms del 50 % en apenas una cuestin de dcadas. +Creo que nuestra calidad de vida podra aumentar as de drstico si todos empezamos a practicar la higiene emocional. +Se imaginan lo que sera el mundo si todo el mundo fuera psicolgicamente saludable? +Si hubiera menos soledad y menos depresin? +Si la gente supiera cmo superar el fracaso? +Si se sintieran mejor sobre s mismos y ms al mando? +Si fueran ms feliz y ms plenos? +Yo puedo, porque ese es el mundo en el que quiero vivir y que es el mundo en que mi hermano quiere vivir en tambin. +Y si Uds. se informan y cambian algunos hbitos simples, bueno, eso es el mundo en el que todos podamos vivir. +Muchas gracias. +Como fotgrafa y mujer arabe encontr siempre gran inspiracin para mis proyectos en experiencias personales. +La pasin que desarroll por el conocimiento que me permiti romper las barreras hacia una mejor vida fue la motivacin para el proyecto "Leo y escribo". +Movida por mi propia experiencia, al no permitirseme inicialmente continuar con mi educacin superior, decid explorar y documentar historias de otras mujeres quienes cambiaron sus vidas mediante su educacin. Mientras exponan y cuestionaban las barreras a las que ellas se enfrentaban. +Cubr una serie de temas que afectaba la educacin de las mujeres, teniendo en cuenta las diferencias entre los pases rabes por factores econmicos y sociales. +Estos incluan analfabetismo femenino, bastante elevado en la regin; las reformas educativas; los programas de abandono escolar para estudiantes; y el activismo poltico entre los estudiantes universitarios. +Cuando comenc con este trabajo, no siempre era fcil convencer a las mujeres a que participaran. +Solo despus de explicarles cmo sus historias podran influir la vida de otras mujeres, cmo podran convertirse en modelo a seguir para su propia comunidad, algunas accedieron. +En busca de un enfoque colaborativo y reflexivo, les ped que escribieran sus propias palabras e ideas en las impresiones de sus propias imgenes. +Despus esas imgenes se mostraron en algunas aulas, y trabajaron para inspirar y motivar a otras mujeres que pasaban por situaciones y educacin similares. +Aisha, una profesora de Yemen, escribi: "Busqu educacin con el fin de ser independiente y no contar con los hombres para todo." +Uno de mis primeros casos fue Umm El-Saad de Egipto +cuando nos conocimos, ella apenas poda escribir su nombre. +asista a un programa de alfabetizacin de nueve meses dirigido por una ONG local a las afueras de El Cairo. +Meses despus, ella bromeaba de que su esposo la haba amenazado con sacarla de la clase, al enterarse de que su esposa ahora lea y escriba y que poda ver los mensajes texto de su telfono. +Esa traviesa Umm El-Saad. +Pero esto no es por qu Umm El-Saad se uni al programa. +Yo vi como ella anhelaba ganar control sobre sus simples rutinas diarias, pequeos detalles que damos por sentado, desde contar dinero en el supermercado a ayudar a los nios con sus tareas. +A pesar de su pobreza y mentalidad de su comunidad, donde se menosprecia la educacin de las mujeres, Umm El-Saad, junto con sus compaeras de clases egipcias, ansiaban aprender a leer y escribir. +En Tnez, conoc a Asma, una de las cuatro mujeres activistas que entrevist. +la estudiante de bioingeniera es muy activa en las redes sociales. +Respecto a su pas, conocido por acunar lo que ha denominado Primavera rabe, ella dijo, "siempre he soado en descubrir una nueva bacteria. +Ahora, despus de la revolucin, tenemos una nueva cada da." +Asma se refera al aumento del fundamentalismo religioso en la regin, lo cual es otro obstculo particular para las mujeres. +De todas las mujeres que conoc, Fayza de Yemen fue la que ms me afect. +Fayza fue obligada a abandonar la escuela a los 8 aos cuando se cas. +El matrimonio dur un ao. +A los 14 se convirti en la tercera esposa de un hombre de 60 aos, y a los 18 era madre divorciada de tres hijos. +A pesar de su pobreza, a pesar de su estatus social de divorciada en una sociedad ultraconservadora, y, a pesar de la oposicin de sus padres de regresar a la escuela, saba que la nica manera de asumir el control de su vida era mediante la educacin. +Ahora ella tiene 26 aos. +Ella recibi una donacin de una ONG local para financiar sus estudios de negocios en la universidad. +Su objetivo es encontrar un empleo, alquilar un lugar para vivir, y traer a sus hijos de vuelta con ella. +Los estados rabes estn pasando por cambios tremendos, y las luchas a las que las mujeres se enfrentan son abrumadoras. +Al igual que las mujeres a las que fotografi, tuve que superar muchas barreras para convertirme en la fotgrafa que soy hoy. Muchas personas a lo largo del camino dicindome qu y qu no poda hacer. +Umm El-Saad, Asma, Fayza y muchas otras mujeres en todo el mundo rabe, demuestran que es posible superar las barreras mediante la educacin. Ellas saben que es el mejor medio para un mejor futuro. +Y aqu me gustara terminar con una cita de Yasmine una de las cuatro mujeres activistas que entrevist en Tnez. +Yasmine escribi: "Cuestiona tus convicciones. +s quin quieres ser y no quin ellos quieren que seas. +No aceptes su esclavitud. Desde que tu madre dio a luz t eres libre." +Gracias. +Soy polifactico. +Como cientfico, fui comandante de la tripulacin de la NASA para una simulacin a Marte el ao pasado y como artista desarrollo en todo el mundo prcticas artsticas multiculturales. +ltimamente, he estado haciendo un poco de las dos. +Pero antes, hablar un poco ms sobre esa misin de la NASA. +Este es el programa HI-SEAS, +un proyecto patrocinado por la NASA para simular superficies planetarias en el volcn Mauna Loa en Hawi, y es un programa de investigacin diseado especficamente para estudiar los efectos del aislamiento a largo plazo en pequeas tripulaciones. +Viv en esta cpula durante 4 meses junto a una tripulacin de 6 personas, y fue, por supuesto, una experiencia muy interesante. +Hicimos todo tipo de investigaciones. +De hecho, nuestra principal investigacin se centraba en el estudio de los alimentos pero, aparte de eso, de desarrollar un nuevo sistema alimentario para los astronautas que viven en el espacio profundo, tambin hicimos todo tipo de otras investigaciones. +Hicimos actividades fuera del vehculo, como se puede ver aqu, vistiendo prototipos de trajes espaciales pero tambin hicimos muchas otras cosas, como rellenar cuestionarios al final de cada da. +Mucho, mucho trabajo. +Ahora, como pueden imaginar, es todo un reto vivir con solo un puado de personas en un espacio pequeo mucho tiempo. +Hay todo tipo de desafos psicolgicos: cmo mantener un equipo unido en estas circunstancias, cmo hacer frente a la distorsin temporal que uno empieza a sentir viviendo en estas circunstancias; los problemas de sueo que se plantean; etc. +Pero tambin aprendimos mucho. +Aprend mucho acerca de cmo cada miembro de la tripulacin se enfrenta realmente a una situacin similar; cmo se puede mantener un equipo productivo y feliz, por ejemplo, dndoles bastante autonoma es un buen truco para lograrlo; y, sinceramente, aprend mucho sobre el liderazgo, porque yo era el comandante de la tripulacin. +As que al hacer esta misin, empec a pensar ms a fondo en nuestro futuro en el espacio exterior. +Nos aventuraremos en el espacio exterior y empezaremos a habitarlo. +No tengo duda al respecto. +El proceso puede demorar 50 aos o 500 aos, pero, no obstante va a suceder. +Se me ocurri un nuevo proyecto artstico llamado Buscador [Seeker]. +Es en realidad un reto para todas las comunidades mundiales de presentar prototipos de naves espaciales que repiensan la supervivencia y las posibilidades de habitar humanas. +Ese es el ncleo del proyecto. +Ahora, una cosa importante: esto no es un proyecto distpico. +No se trata de: "Dios mo, el mundo se acaba! Tenemos que escapar porque hay que construir otro futuro en otro lugar". +No, no. +El proyecto bsicamente invita a la gente dar un paso ms all de nuestras limitaciones terrestres y, as, reimaginar nuestro futuro. +Es muy til y funciona muy bien, y es realmente la parte ms importante de lo que hacemos. +Ahora, en este proyecto, uso un enfoque cocreativo ligeramente diferente a lo que se suele esperar de muchos artistas. +Prcticamente lanzo una idea bsica a un grupo, en una comunidad, y la gente empieza la ideacin conjunta para darle forma y construir el proyecto. +Es como las termitas, la verdad. +Simplemente trabajamos juntos, e incluso cuando nos visitan los arquitectos, al ver lo que hacemos, a veces tienen dificultades para entender cmo construimos sin un plan maestro. +Siempre proponemos estas esculturas fantsticas a gran escala que en realidad tambin se pueden habitar. +A la primera versin la hizo, en Blgica y Holanda, +un equipo de casi 50 personas. +Esta es la segunda iteracin de ese mismo proyecto, pero en Eslovenia, en un pas diferente, el nuevo grupo quera promover una arquitectura diferente. +De hecho quitaron el planeamiento, manteniendo solo la base de la obra, e imaginaron un nuevo diseo, mucho ms biomrfico encima de ella. +Y eso es otra parte fundamental del proyecto. +Es una obra de arquitectura cambiante, en curso. +Esta fue la ltima versin presentada hace solo unas semanas en Holanda, que usaba caravanas como mdulos para construir una nave espacial. +Compramos algunas caravanas de segunda mano, las abrimos, y las hemos vuelto a montar en una nave espacial. +Ahora, cuando pensamos en naves espaciales, no las pensamos solo como un reto tecnolgico. +En realidad las vemos como una combinacin de 3 sistemas: ecolgico, humano y tecnolgico. +Siempre hay un componente fuerte ecolgico integrado en el proyecto. +Aqu pueden ver los sistemas acuapnicos que realmente rodean a los astronautas, y que estn constantemente en contacto con parte de los alimentos que comen. +Ahora, una cosa muy tpica de este proyecto es que las misiones de aislamiento ocurren dentro de estos proyecto de arte. +En realidad nos encerramos durante varios das para probar lo que hemos construido. +Y esta es, por ejemplo, a la derecha pueden ver una misin de aislamiento en el Museo de Arte Moderno de Ljubljana en Eslovenia, donde se encerraron 6 artistas y diseadores --yo tambin-- durante 4 das en el interior del museo. +Y, por supuesto, es una gran experiencia y muy representativa para todos. +Ahora mismo, estamos desarrollando la siguiente versin del proyecto junto con Camilo Rodrguez-Beltrn, que tambin es un Becario TED, en el desierto de Atacama, en Chile, un lugar mgico. +En primer lugar, es realmente considerado un anlogo de Marte. +Se parece a Marte en ciertos lugares y la NASA lo usa para probar equipos. +Tiene una larga historia por estar conectado con el espacio a travs de las observaciones de estrellas. +Es el hogar de ALMA, el gran telescopio que se construye all. +Pero tambin, es el lugar ms rido del planeta, eso lo hace muy interesante para nuestro proyecto, porque, de repente, la sostenibilidad es algo que tenemos que explorar a fondo. +No tenemos otra opcin, as que estoy a la expectativa de lo que suceda. +Un detalle especfico en esta versin particular del proyecto: me interesa mucho ver cmo podemos conectar con la poblacin local, la poblacin nativa. +Esta gente ha vivido all desde hace mucho tiempo y se les puede considerar expertos en sostenibilidad, por eso me interesa mucho ver qu podemos aprender de ellos, y cmo llevar conocimientos indgenas en la exploracin espacial. +As que estamos tratando de redefinir cmo vemos nuestro futuro en el espacio exterior explorando la integracin, la biologa, la tecnologa y las personas, usando la cocreacin y la exploracin de las tradiciones locales para ver cmo podemos aprender del pasado e integrarlo en nuestro porvenir. +Gracias. +De 18 aos, un afroamericano se alist en la Fuerza Area de los EE. UU. y fue asignado a la Base de la Fuerza Area en Mountain Home y form parte del escuadrn de polica area. +Tan pronto llegu all, mi primera meta fue conseguir un apartamento, para as poder traer a mi esposa y mi nueva beb, Melanie, y reunirnos en Idaho. +Inmediatamente fui a la oficina de personal, y hablando con los de personal me dijeron: "Oye, no hay problema para conseguir apartamento en Mountain Home, Idaho. +La gente all abajo nos adoran porque saben que si tienen un piloto que viene a alquilar uno de sus apartamentos, siempre tendrn su dinero". +Y eso era un dato fundamental. +Dijo: "Aqu est una lista de la gente que puedes llamar y luego te permitirn escoger el apartamento que desees". +Me dio la lista; hice la llamada. +La seora respondi y le dije lo que quera. +Ella dijo: "Oh, genial que hayas llamado. +Tenemos cuatro o cinco apartamentos disponibles en este momento". +Dijo: "Quiere con un dormitorio o dos dormitorios?". +Luego dijo: "No hablemos de eso. +Solo baj, seleccione el apartamento que desea. +Vamos a firmar el contrato y le dar las llaves para que traiga a su familia aqu ahora mismo". +As que estaba emocionado. +Me sub a mi coche. Fui al centro y llam a la puerta. +Cuando llam a la puerta, la mujer sali a la puerta, me mir, y me dijo: "Puedo ayudarle?". +Le dije: "S, soy la persona que llam por lo de los apartamentos. +Vengo a escogerlo". +Ella dijo: "Sabes qu? Lo siento mucho, pero mi marido alquil los apartamentos y no me dijo nada". +Le dije: "Quieres decir que alquil los cinco en una hora?". +No me respondi y lo que dijo fue: "Por qu no deja su nmero, y si tenemos alguno nuevo, le llamo?". +Huelga decir que no recib ninguna llamada de ella. +Tampoco tuve ninguna respuesta de las otras personas de la lista que me dieron donde poda conseguir apartamentos. +As que, como resultado de eso, y de sentirme rechazado, volv a la base y habl con el comandante del escuadrn. +Su nombre era Mayor McDow. +Le dije: "Mayor McDow, necesito su ayuda". +Le dije lo que pas, y esto fue lo que me dijo: "James, me encantara ayudarle. +Pero usted sabe el problema: no podemos hacer que la gente alquile a quienes ellos no quieren alquilarles. +Y, adems, tenemos una gran relacin con la gente de la comunidad y realmente no queremos daarla". +Dijo: "Tal vez esto es lo que debe hacer. +Por qu no deja que su familia se quede en casa, porque como sabe tendr una licencia de 30 das para ir. +As, una vez al ao, puede ir a casa con tu familia, pasar 30 das y luego regresar". +No hace falta decir que no me convenci. +As que despus de salir, volv a personal, y habl con el oficinista, que dijo: "Jim, creo que tengo una solucin para usted. +Hay un aviador que se va y tiene una casa triler. +Si observan, en Mountain Home hay parques de trilers por todas partes. +Puede comprar su triler con un muy buen arreglo porque quiere irse de la ciudad lo antes posible. +Solucionara el problema de l y sera la solucin para usted". +Inmediatamente sub a mi coche, fui al centro, vi el triler, que era un pequeo triler, pero dadas las circunstancias, me imagin que era lo mejor que poda hacer. +As que compr el triler. +Y entonces le pregunt: "Puedo dejar el triler aqu, lo que solucionara mis problemas, y no tendra que buscar otro parque de trilers?". +Dijo: "Antes de decir que s, tengo que revisar con la administracin". +As que regres a la base, me llam y la administracin dijo, "No, no se puede dejar el triler aqu porque habamos prometido el espacio a otra persona". +Lo que fue extrao para m porque haba varios otros espacios sin usar, pero dio la casualidad de que haba prometido ese espacio a otra persona. +Entonces, lo que hice... y l dijo: "No debe preocuparse, Jim, porque hay muchos parques de trilers". +As que hice otra lista exhaustiva de parques de trailers para ir. +Fui a uno tras otro, tras otro. +Y encontr el mismo tipo de rechazo que recib cuando estaba buscando el apartamento. +Y como resultado, el tipo de comentarios que me hicieron, adems de decir que no tenan ningn espacio disponible, alguien dijo, "Jim, la razn por la que no podemos alquilrselo, es que ya tenemos una familia negra en el parque de trilers". +Dijo: "No soy yo, porque me gusta la gente como usted". +Eso fue lo que hice, tambin. Me re, tambin. +l dijo: "Pero este es el problema: Si lo dejo entrar, los otros inquilinos se irn y no puedo darme el lujo de tomar ese tipo de efecto". +l dijo: "Simplemente no le puedo alquilar". +A pesar de que era desalentador, no me detuvo. +Segu buscando, y mir en el otro extremo de la ciudad en Mountain Home, y haba un pequeo parque de trilers +Es decir, realmente pequeo. +No tena caminos pavimentados, no tenan losas de concreto, no tena cercas, ni separacin entre un espacio para un triler y otro. +No tena lavandera. +Pero la conclusin a la que llegu entonces era que no tena muchas otras opciones. +As que llam a mi esposa, y le dije: "Vamos a hacer que funcione". +Y nos mudamos all y nos hicimos dueos de una casa en Mountain Home, Idaho. +Y, por supuesto, con el tiempo las cosas se calmaron. +Cuatro aos despus, recib papeles para pasar de Mountain Home, Idaho a un lugar llamado Goose Bay, Labrador. +No vamos a hablar de eso. Fue otra gran ubicacin. As que mi reto entonces era mudar a mi familia de Mountain Home, Idaho a Sharon, Pennsylvania. +No era un problema porque solo habamos comprado un automvil nuevo. +Mi madre llam y me dijo que volara. +Nos acompaara mientras conducimos, nos ayudara con los nios. +As que sali, ella y Alice pusieron un montn de comida para el viaje. +Esa maana, salimos a las 5 de la maana. +Buen viaje, con un gran tiempo, buena conversacin. +En algn lugar alrededor de las 6:30, 7:00, nos sentimos un poco cansados, y dijimos: "Por qu no paramos en un motel y descansamos y seguimos maana temprano?". +Estbamos buscando los moteles del camino, y vimos uno, era una gran luz que destellaba grande y brillante: "Vacantes, Vacantes, Vacantes". +Nos detuvimos. +Ellas esperaron en el estacionamiento, yo entr. +Cuando entr, la seora estaba terminando un contrato con alguna gente, algunas otras personas venan detrs mo. +Camin hacia el mostrador, y ella dijo: "Puedo ayudarlo?". +Le dije: "Me gustara pasar una noche en el motel con mi familia". +Ella dijo: "Realmente lo siento, Acabo de alquilar el ltimo. +No tendremos nada ms hasta la maana". +Ella dijo: "Pero si siguen por el camino alrededor de una hora, 45 minutos, hay otro parque de trilers ah abajo". +Yo dije: "S, pero usted todava tiene la luz intermitente de 'Vacantes' ". +Ella dijo: "Ah, se me olvid". +Y alarg la mano y apag la luz. +Ella me mir y yo la mir. +Haba otras personas all. +Ella les dio esa clase de mirada. Nadie dijo nada. +Entend la indirecta y me fui, y sal al estacionamiento. +Y les cont a mi madre y a mi esposa y tambin a Melanie, y les dije: "Parece que vamos a tener que conducir un poco ms por el camino adelante para poder dormir esta noche". +Y lo hicimos, pero justo antes de que saliramos del estacionamiento, adivinen lo que pas? +La luz volvi a prenderse. +Y deca: "Vacantes, Vacantes, Vacantes". +Pudimos encontrar un lugar agradable. +No era nuestra preferencia, pero era seguro y estaba limpio. +Y as esa noche dormimos bien. +Lo importante de esto es que tuvimos experiencias similares todo el camino de Idaho a Pennsylvania, donde fuimos rechazados de hoteles, moteles y restaurantes. +Pero llegamos a Pennsylvania. +Conseguimos instalarnos y todos estaban contentos de ver a los nios. +Sub a un avin y sal haca Goose Bay, Labrador, que es otra historia, verdad? +Aqu estoy, 53 aos despus, Ahora tengo 9 nietos, 2 bisnietos. +Cinco de los nietos son varones. +Los tengo con maestra, doctorado, licenciatura, uno estudiando medicina. +Tengo un par que son populares. +Casi, pero no del todo. Tengo uno que ha estado en la universidad ahora hace 8 aos. +Todava no se grada, pero quiere ser comediante. +As que estamos tratando de conseguir que se quede en la escuela. +Porque nunca se sabe, solo porque eres divertido en casa, no te convierte en comediante, verdad? +Pero el punto es que todos son buenos chicos, ni drogadictos ni padres adolescentes, ni criminales. +As que con este de teln de fondo, estaba sentado en la sala viendo televisin, y estaban hablando de Ferguson y todo el alboroto que estaba pasando. +Y, de repente, una de las presentadoras estaba al aire y dijo: "En los ltimos tres meses, ocho varones afroamericanos desarmados han sido asesinados por la polica, propietarios o ciudadanos blancos". +Por alguna razn, en ese momento simplemente todo me golpe. +Dije: "Qu es esto? Es tan demente. +Cul es el odio que lleva a la gente a hacer este tipo de cosas?". +En ese momento, uno de mis nietos llam. +Dijo: "Abuelo, escuchaste lo que dijeron en la televisin?". +Le dije: "S". +l dijo: "Estoy tan confundido. +Hacemos todo lo que hacemos, pero parece que conducir siendo negro, caminar siendo negro, hablar siendo negro, es simplemente peligroso. +Qu podemos hacer? Hacemos todo lo que nos dijiste que hiciramos. +Cuando nos detiene la polica, ponemos las dos manos en el volante en la posicin 12 en punto. +Despus de que se acabe, llmanos y estaremos para que nos regaes". +l dijo: "Y esto es lo que realmente me molesta: Nuestros amigos blancos, nuestros compinches, a los que estamos muy unidos, +cuando oyen hablar de este tipo de cosas que nos suceden, dicen, 'Por qu lo aceptan? +Tienen que pelear. Tienen que desafiar. +Tienen que pedirles su identificacin' ". Y esto es lo que de nios hemos aprendido a decirles: "Sabemos que Uds. pueden hacer eso, pero por favor no lo hagan cuando estn en el coche porque las consecuencias para Uds. son significativamente diferentes de las consecuencias para nosotros". +Y as como abuelo, qu les digo a mis nietos? +Cmo los cuido? Cmo los mantengo vivos? +Como resultado de esto, la gente ha venido y me dice: "Jim, ests enojado?". +Y mi respuesta a eso es esta: "No tengo el lujo de enojarme, y tambin s las consecuencias si me enojo". +As pues, lo nico que puedo hacer es tomar mi intelecto colectivo y mi energa y mis ideas y mis experiencias y dedicarme a impugnar, en cualquier punto en el tiempo, cualquier cosa que parece que podra ser racista. +As que lo primero que tengo que hacer es educar, lo segundo que tengo que hacer es dar a conocer el racismo, y lo ltimo que tengo que hacer es hacer todo lo que est a mi alcance para erradicar el racismo en mi vida por cualquier medio necesario. +Lo segundo que hago es lo siguiente: Quiero hacer un llamamiento a los estadounidenses. +Quiero apelar a su humanidad, a su dignidad, a su orgullo y pertenencia cvica a ser capaces de no reaccionar a estos crmenes atroces de una manera adversa. +Tenemos que cuestionar eso. No tiene ningn sentido. +La nica forma en que pienso que podemos hacerlo es colectivamente. +Tenemos que tener negros y blancos y asiticos e hispanos solo para dar un paso adelante y decir: "No vamos a aceptar ese tipo de comportamiento nunca ms". +Unos 10 000 km de calles, cerca de 1000 km de metro 650 km de ciclovas y 800 m de tranva si han estado en Roosevelth Island. +Son los nmeros que forman la infraestructura de New York. +Son estadsticas de nuestra infraestructura. +Son la clase de nmeros de los informes de las agencias estatales +Por ejemplo, el departamento de transporte informar de cuntos km hay de carretera. +El MTA cuntos km de metro. +La mayora de agencias estatales nos dan estadsticas. +Este es un reporte de este ao de la comisin de taxis y limusinas donde vemos que hay uno 13 500 taxis aqu en Nueva York. +Interesante, cierto? +Se han puesto a pensar de dnde vienen estos nmeros? +Para que estos nmeros existan, alguien en la agencia municipal tuvo que pensar: "Estas cifras pueden interesarle a alguien. +Nuestros ciudadanos quieren conocer estas cifras". +Ellos van a la informacin original, cuentan, agregan, calculan y lo ponen en informes, y los informes tienen nmeros como estos. +El problema es, cmo saben nuestras preguntas? +Tenemos muchas... +De hecho, hay literalmente un nmero infinito de preguntas que podemos hacer sobre nuestra ciudad. +Las agencias no pueden seguir el paso. +El paradigma no est trabajando correctamente y creo que ellos lo saben porque en 2012 el alcalde Bloomberg firm una ley a la que llam "La ms ambiciosa legislacin de datos abiertos en el pas". +En muchos sentidos, estaba en lo correcto. +En los ltimos dos aos, la ciudad public mil bases de datos en nuestro portal, y es muy impresionante. +Vern informacin como sta, y en lugar de solo contar los datos de los taxis, podemos hacer diferentes preguntas. +Yo tena una pregunta. +Cundo es la hora punta en Nueva York? +Es algo muy molesto. Cundo es exactamente? +Y pens, estos taxis no son solo nmeros, son grabadores de GPS cuando transitan por las calles en cada uno de los viajes que hacen. Hay informacin ah. +Y busqu esa informacin, hice un estimado del promedio de la velocidad de los taxis durante todo el da. +Pueden verlo desde la media noche hasta las 5:18 de la maana, la velocidad aumenta, y en ese punto, las cosas cambian, y bajan la velocidad ms y ms hasta las 8:35 am. +cuando terminan a 18 km hora, el taxi promedio va a 18 km hora y se mantiene as el da completo. +Entonces, me dije, +creo que no hay hora punta de trfico, hay da punta. +Tiene sentido. Y esto es importante por un par de razones. +Si son planificadores de transporte, esto podra ser interesante. +Pero si quieren algo rpido, ahora saben programar la alarma a las 4:45 am. +Nueva York, correcto? +Pero hay una historia detrs de esto +Esta informacin no estaba all disponible, se cre. +Vino de algo llamado Solicitud legal de libertad de informacin, o una Solicitud FOIL. +Este formulario lo encuentran la Comisin de taxis y limusinas. +Para acceder a la informacin, deben pedir este formulario, hay que llenarlo, ellos les notificarn. Chris Whong hizo esto +Chris fue all y le dijeron, Traiga un disco externo nuevo a nuestra oficina, djelo y en 5 horas le copiamos la informacin y se lo devolvemos", +y de ah vino esta informacin. +Ahora Chris quiere que la informacin sea pblica, y as termin en lnea para que todos la usen. +Y el hecho de que exista es maravilloso. Estos grabadores de GPS son geniales. +Pero el hecho de que tengamos ciudadanos recogiendo informacin de las agencias estatales y hacindola pblica... era algo ms o menos pblico, se poda conseguir, pero siendo pblico no era pblica. +Y podemos hacerlo mejor que solo como ciudad. +No necesitamos que nuestros ciudadanos vayan por ah con discos duros. +No todos los datos tienen una solicitud FOIL. +Este mapa que hice muestra los cruces ms peligrosos de Nueva York basado en los accidentes de ciclistas. +Las reas rojas son ms peligrosas. +Lo primero que muestra es que en el Este de Manhattan, especialmente al sur, hay ms accidentes de ciclistas. +Esto tendra sentido porque hay ms ciclistas que vienen por los puentes. +Pero hay otros puntos. Est Williambsburg +La Avenida Roosevelth y Queens. +Esta es la clase de informacin que necesitamos para Visin Cero. +Esto es exactamente lo que estamos buscando. +Pero tambin hay una historia detrs de esta informacin. +No apareci de repente +Cuntos de Uds. conocen este logo? +Veo algunas manos levantadas +Han probado copiar y pegar informacin de un PDF y darle sentido? +Veo ms manos levantadas. +Ms han tratado de copiar y pegar que las que reconocen el logo. Me gusta eso. +En este caso la informacin estaba realmente en un PDF. +De hecho, en cientos y cientos y cientos de pginas de PDF publicadas por el NYPD, y para acceder a ella, tenas que copiar y pegar por cientos y cientos de horas o podras ser John Krauss. +Johk Krauss deca "No voy a copiar y pegar esta informacin. Escribir un programa". +Se llama Informacin de primeros auxilios NYPD, y va a la website de NPYD para descargar PDFs. +Todo los das busca, y si encuentra un PDF, lo descarga y entonces activa un programa para extraer el texto del PDF, y hacer mapas en internet como este. +El hecho de que la informacin est ah, que podamos tener acceso... Todo accidente, es una fila en esta tabla, +pueden imaginar cuntos PDFs son todo esto. +Que podamos tener acceso a eso es genial, pero no publiquemos en formato PDF, porque obligamos a los ciudadanos, a extraer el texto de PDFs. +Este no es el mejor uso del tiempo de nuestros ciudadanos, como ciudad podemos hacerlo mejor. +La buena noticia es que en la administracin de Blasio liber la informacin hace unos meses, y ahora podemos tener acceso a esto, pero hay demasiada informacin que sigue en PDF. +Por ejemplo la informacin de delitos est solo en PDF. +Y no solo esta informacin, sino tambin la del presupuesto +de nuestra ciudad est solo en formato PDF. +Y no solo nosotros no podemos analizarla, nuestros propios legisladores que votaron por el presupuesto tambin lo obtienen en PDF. +Nuestros legisladores no pueden analizar el presupuesto que votaron. +Y creo que como ciudad, podemos hacer algo mejor. +Hay mucha informacin que no est escondida en PDF. +Este es un ejemplo de un mapa que hice, estos son los canales ms sucios en la ciudad de New York. +Cmo mido el nivel de contaminacin? +Bueno, es un poco raro, pero busqu niveles de coliformes fecales que es la medida de materia fecal en cada uno de nuestros canales +Cuanto mayor sea el crculo ms sucia el agua; los crculos grandes son agua sucia, los pequeos, ms limpia. +Lo que se ve son canales subterrneos. +Esta es toda la informacin de muestras de la ciudad de los ltimos 5 aos +Los canales subterrneos son, en general, ms sucios +Algunas enseanzas de esto. +Nmero uno: nunca nades en nada que termine en "arroyo" o "canal". +Pero nmero dos: tambin encontr el canal ms sucio de la ciudad para esta medida, una medida En el arroyo Coney Island +que no es Coney Island donde nadas, por suerte. +Est en el otro lado +pero all el 94 % de las muestras que se tomaron los ltimos 5 aos, tenan niveles fecales muy altos que sobrepasaban lo permitido por la ley estatal para nadar. +Y no es el tipo de dato que se ve publicado en un informe de la ciudad, verdad? +No aparecer en la pgina principal de nyc.gov. +El hecho de que podamos acceder a esa informacin, es asombroso +Pero una vez ms, no result muy fcil, porque esta informacin no estaba en el portal de informacin abierta. +Uds. podran ver solo parte de eso, un ao o unos meses. +Estaba en el sitio web del departamento de proteccin ambiental +Cada uno de esos enlaces es una hoja de Excel diferente. +Cada ttulo es diferente: uno copia, pega, reorganiza. +y pueden hacer mapas y es genial, pero de nuevo, podemos hacerlo mejor; podemos normalizar las cosas. +Estamos cerca, porque est este sitio web de Socrata llamado Portal de Informacin abierta de Nueva York. +Hay 1100 archivos de informacin que no sufre de lo que les he contado y el nmero sigue creciendo, es genial. +Pueden descargar informacin en cualquier formato, +en CSV o PDF o Excel. +Pueden bajarla en cualquier formato El problema es, que una vez que lo hacen vern que cada agencia estatal codifica las direcciones diferente. +Como un nombre de una calle, un cruce, calle, barrio, direccin, edificio, direccin de edificio. +An teniendo este portal, uno pierde tiempo normalizando los campos. +Y ese no es el mejor uso del tiempo de los ciudadanos. +Podemos hacerlo mejor como ciudad. +Podemos estandarizar nuestras direcciones, y as hacer ms mapas como este. +Este es un mapa de los hidrantes de Nueva York pero solo de cada hidrante. +Estos son los 250 ms multados por mal estacionamiento cerca de hidrante +Aprend algunas cosas de este mapa y me gusta este mapa. +Nmero uno: no estacionen en Upper East Side. +No importa dnde estacionen, los multarn por estacionar ante un hidrante. +Nmero dos: Los dos hidrantes ms populares en todo Nueva York estn en Lower East Side y producen USD 55 000 anuales en multas de estacionamiento. +Y como me pareci algo extrao fui a investigar y result que hay un hidrante y una extensin de acera, de unos dos metros de espacio para caminar y un espacio para estacionar. +Los autos vienen y el hidrante --"Hay espacio no hay problema"-- en realidad el espacio est marcado para estacionar muy bonito. +Estacionan, pero la Polica no est de acuerdo con esta designacin y los multa. +Y no solo a m me multaron. +Este es el auto de Google Street view con la misma multa por mal estacionamiento. +Entonces escrib de esto en mi blog: I Quant NY, y el DOT respondi, "No habamos recibido ninguna queja sobre esta punto, revisaremos las marcas de la calle y haremos los cambios apropiados". +Y pens para m mismo, tpica respuesta del gobierno, muy bien, de regreso a mi vida normal. +Pero unas pocas semanas despus, algo increble pas. +Repintaron ese punto, y por un segundo pens que haba visto el futuro de la informacin abierta. Porque piensen en lo que pas aqu. +Por 5 aos, este punto haba sido multado y era confuso Y entonces un ciudadano encontr algo, lo comunic a la cuidad y en semanas el problema estaba resuelto. +Asombroso. Se ve la informacin abierta como ser un perro guardin. +No es eso, sino de ser socios. +Podemos empoderar a nuestros ciudadanos para ser mejores socios del gobierno No es difcil. +Solo necesitamos pocos cambios. +Si ven que su informacin est siendo requerida legalmente una y otra vez librenla al pblico, esa es una seal +de que debera hacerse pblica. Si son de un estamento gubernamental que publica PDFs, aprueben una legislacin que haga que se publiquen los datos bsicos +ya que la informacin proviene de algn lugar. y puede hacerse pblica en PDFs. +Adoptemos y compartamos unos estndares de informacin abierta +Empecemos con nuestras direcciones de Nueva York, +normalizando nuestras direcciones. +Porque Nueva York es un lder en informacin abierta, an as +No es ciencia ficcin. De hecho estamos cerca. +Y por cierto, a quin empoderamos con esto? +Porque no es solo John Krauss o Chris Whong. +Hay cientos de reuniones en Nueva York actualmente, reuniones activas +Hay miles de personas que asisten a estas reuniones. +Van despus del trabajo o los fines de semana, y participan en estas reuniones para buscar informacin abierta y hacer de nuestra ciudad un mejor lugar. +Grupos como BETANYC, que la semana pasada liber algo llamado citygram.nyc que nos permite adherirnos a 311 quejas cerca de sus casas u oficinas. +Pones tu direccin y aparecen las quejas del sector +Y no solo est la comunidad tecnolgica tras estas cosas. +Son planeadores urbanos como mis estudiantes en Pratt. +Son defensores de polticas, son todos, son ciudadanos con diferentes antecedentes. +Y con algunos pequeos cambios incrementales, podemos liberar la pasin y las capacidades de nuestros ciudadanos para apoyar la informacin abierta y hacer nuestra ciudad an mejor ya bien mediante una informacin o mediante un lugar para estacionar. +Gracias. +Dediqu los ltimos dos aos a entender cmo las personas cumplen sus sueos. +Si pensamos en los sueos que tenemos, y la huella que queremos dejar en el universo, sorprende la superposicin existente entre los sueos que tenemos y los proyectos no realizados. +Por eso hoy vengo a hablarles de cinco maneras para no cumplir sus sueos. +Uno: Creer en el xito repentino. +Conocen la historia, no? +El tecnlogo que hace una app mvil, la vende rpido y gana mucho dinero. +Puede que la historia sea real, pero apuesto a que est incompleta. +Si uno investiga un poco ms, ese tipo haba creado 30 apps antes y tena un doctorado en ese tema. +Haba trabajado sobre ese tema durante 20 aos. +Esto es muy interesante, yo misma tengo una historia en Brasil, que se cree que fue un xito repentino. +Vengo de una familia humilde, y dos semanas antes de cumplirse el plazo para presentarse al MIT, empec los trmites de solicitud de ingreso. +Y, voil! Entr. +Puede pensarse que fue un xito repentino, pero funcion solo porque durante los 17 aos previos, me tom la vida y la educacin en serio. +El xito de la noche a la maana siempre es producto de todo lo hecho en la vida hasta ese momento. +Dos: Creer que otra persona tiene las respuestas para uno mismo. +Constantemente, la gente quiere ayudar, no? +Todo tipo de gente: la familia, los amigos, los socios comerciales, todos opinan sobre el camino que deberamos tomar: "Permteme que te diga, ve por este camino". +Pero al analizarlo, hay otras alternativas tambin. +Y uno tiene que tomar esas decisiones por su cuenta. +Nadie ms tiene las respuestas perfectas para tu propia vida. +Y hay que seguir tomando esas decisiones, s? +Los caminos son infinitos y encontraremos obstculos, eso es parte del proceso. +Tres, y esto es muy sutil pero muy importante: Asentarse cuando el crecimiento est garantizado. +Cuando te va bien en la vida, has reunido un gran equipo, los ingresos crecen y todo marcha sobre rieles... es hora de asentarse. +Cuando lanc mi primer libro, trabaj muy, muy arduamente para distribuirlo en todo Brasil. +Lo descargaron ms de tres millones de personas y ms de 50 000 personas compraron ejemplares en papel. +Al escribir la secuela, haba un impacto garantizado. +Incluso haciendo poco, se vendera bien. +Pero bien nunca est bien. +Si ests creciendo hacia un pico, tienes que trabajar ms que nunca y alcanzar otro pico. +Quiz. de haber hecho poco, lo habran ledo un par de cientos de miles, y eso ya era importante. +Pero trabajando como nunca antes, puedo llevar ese nmero a millones. +Por eso decid, con mi nuevo libro, recorrer cada estado de Brasil. +Y ya puedo ver un pico ms alto. +No hay tiempo para asentarse. +Cuarto consejo, y es realmente importante: Creer que la culpa es de otro. +Todo el tiempo veo gente que dice: "S, tuve esta gran idea, pero no haba inversores con la visin para invertir". +"Cre este gran producto, pero el mercado estaba tan mal, las ventas no iban bien". +O, "No encuentro talentos; mi equipo no rene las expectativas mnimas". +Si tienen sueos, es su responsabilidad hacerlos realidad. +S, puede que sea difcil encontrar talento. +S, puede que el mercado sea malo. +Pero si nadie invierte en nuestra idea, si nadie compra nuestro producto, seguro que el error de algo de eso es propio. +Sin duda. +Uno tiene que soar y hacer el sueo realidad. +Y nadie logra sus metas solo. +Pero si uno no hace que suceda, la culpa es propia y de nadie ms. +Sean responsables de sus sueos. +ltimo consejo, y este es muy importante tambin: Creer que lo nico que importa son los sueos en s. +Una vez vi un anuncio, haba un montn de amigos, escalaban una montaa, era una montaa muy alta, todo era muy arduo. +Poda verse que transpiraban y que era algo difcil. +Iban subiendo, hasta que finalmente llegaron a la cima. +Claro, celebraron, no? +Vamos a celebrar: "S, lo logramos, estamos en la cima!" +Dos segundos despus, se miran unos a otros y uno dice: "Bueno, bajemos". +La vida no tiene que ver con las metas en s. +La vida es el viaje. +S, uno debera disfrutar las metas en s, pero se suele pensar los sueos como algo que uno persigue y que cuando los alcanza, llega a un lugar mgico que es garanta de felicidad. +Pero cumplir un sueo es una sensacin momentnea y la vida no lo es. +La nica manera de realmente cumplir todos los sueos es disfrutando cada paso del viaje. +Esa es la mejor manera. +Y el viaje es simple... se compone de pasos. +Algunos pasos sern directos. +A veces uno tropezar. +Si es directo, a festejar, porque algunos esperan mucho para celebrar. +Y si tropezamos, transformemos eso en aprendizaje. +Si cada paso se vuelve algo para aprender o para celebrar, sin dudas disfrutaremos el viaje. +Son cinco consejos: Creer en el xito repentino, creer que otra persona tiene la respuesta para nosotros, creer que si el crecimiento est garantizado, es hora de asentarse, creer que la culpa es de otro, y creer que solo importan las metas en s. +Cranme, si lo hacen, destruirn sus sueos. +Gracias. +Los humanos siempre nos hemos preocupado mucho por la salud del cuerpo, pero no siempre hemos sido buenos para entender lo importante. +Veamos a los antiguos egipcios, por ejemplo: pensaban que necesitaban partes del cuerpo en el ms all, les preocupaba, pero dejaron fuera algunas partes. +[El cerebro], por ejemplo. +Si bien conservaban con esmero el estmago, los pulmones, el hgado, etc., hacan pur el cerebro, lo drenaban por la nariz y lo descartaban. Y tiene sentido, en verdad, porque para qu nos sirve el cerebro de todos modos? +Pero imaginen si existiera un rgano olvidado en el cuerpo que pesara tanto como el cerebro y fuera en cierta forma muy importante para nosotros pero del que supiramos muy poco y lo tratramos con esa indiferencia. +E imaginen si, mediante el avance cientfico, empezramos a entender la importancia que tiene para la forma de pensarnos. +No querran saber ms sobre ese rgano? +Bueno, resulta que tenemos algo as: el intestino, o mejor dicho, sus microbios. +Pero no solo son importantes los microbios del intestino. +Los microbios de todo el cuerpo resultan cruciales para toda una gama de diferencias que conforman las diferentes personas que somos. +Por ejemplo, han notado cmo los mosquitos pican mucho ms a algunas personas que a otras? +Parece que las ancdotas del camping son ciertas. +Por ejemplo, a m rara vez me pican los mosquitos, pero mi pareja, Amanda, los atrae en masa. Esto se debe a que tenemos diferentes microbios en la piel que producen distintos qumicos que los mosquitos detectan. +Los microbios son muy importantes en el campo de la medicina. +Por ejemplo, el tipo de microbios que uno tiene en el intestino determina la toxicidad de determinado analgsico para el hgado. +Tambin determina la efectividad de un medicamento para una enfermedad cardiaca. +Y, por lo menos, para la mosca de la fruta, sus microbios determinan con quin quiere tener sexo. +Todava no hemos demostrado esto en humanos pero quiz es cuestin de tiempo hasta que lo descubramos. Los microbios realizan una amplia gama de funciones. +Nos ayudan a digerir los alimentos. +Ayudan a educar al sistema inmunolgico. +Nos ayudan a resistir enfermedades, y hasta pueden afectar nuestro comportamiento. +Qu aspecto tiene un mapa de estas comunidades microbianas? +Bueno, no exactamente este, pero es una gua til para comprender la biodiversidad. +Distintas partes del mundo tienen diferentes paisajes de organismos que caracterizan de inmediato a un lugar o a otro, o a otro. +En microbiologa ms o menos pasa lo mismo, pero ser honesto: Todos los microbios en esencia son iguales bajo el microscopio. +Por eso en vez de tratar de identificarlos visualmente, analizamos sus secuencias de ADN, y en un proyecto llamado Proyecto Microbioma Humano, --el NIH financi este proyecto de USD 173 millones que congrega a cientos de investigadores-- trazamos las A, T, G y C, y todos los microbios del cuerpo humano. +En conjunto, tiene este aspecto. +Ahora es un poco ms difcil decir dnde vive cada uno, no? +Mi laboratorio desarrolla tcnicas informticas que nos permiten analizar estos terabytes de secuencias de datos y convertirlos en algo ms til como un mapa, y al hacerlo con los datos del microbioma humano de 250 voluntarios sanos, tiene este aspecto. +Cada uno de estos puntos representa a los complejos microbios de toda una comunidad microbiana. +Como ya dije, bsicamente, todos tienen el mismo aspecto. +Como vemos, cada punto representa la comunidad microbiana del cuerpo de un voluntario sano. +Como pueden ver, hay diferentes partes del mapa en distintos colores, son casi como continentes separados. +Y resulta que, al ser diferentes partes del cuerpo, contienen microbios muy diferentes. +Arriba en verde, tenemos la comunidad oral. +Arriba al otro lado, en azul, tenemos la comunidad de la piel, la comunidad vaginal, en prpura, y luego abajo, en marrn, tenemos la comunidad fecal. +Recin hace pocos aos descubrimos que los microbios de distintas partes del cuerpo son muy diferentes unos de otros. +Si miro los microbios de solo una persona en la boca y en el intestino, resulta que la diferencia entre esas 2 comunidades microbianas es enorme. +Es ms grande que la diferencia entre los microbios de este arrecife y los microbios de esta pradera. +Si lo piensan, es increble. +Significa que unos centmetros de distancia en el cuerpo humano representan una mayor diferencia para nuestra ecologa microbiana que cientos de kilmetros para la de la Tierra. +Y no quiere decir que 2 personas tengan bsicamente el mismo aspecto en el mismo hbitat corporal, tampoco. +Quiz hayan odo que todos somos bastante iguales en materia de ADN humano. +Uds. son 99,99 % idnticos en trminos de ADN humano con la persona que tienen al lado. +Pero esto no es as para sus microbios: puede que tengan solo un 10 % de similitud con la persona de al lado en materia microbiana intestinal. +Es igual a la diferencia que existe entre las bacterias de esta pradera y las bacterias de este bosque. +Estos diferentes microbios tienen los distintos tipos de funciones que les cont, de digerir alimentos a participar en distintos tipos de enfermedades, metabolizar frmacos, etc. +Pero cmo hacen todo esto? +Bueno, en parte porque aunque tenemos poco ms de un kilo de estos microbios en el intestino, realmente nos superan en nmero. +En cunto nos superan? +Bueno, depende qu consideremos cuerpo. +Son nuestras clulas? +Bueno, todos tenemos unas 10 billones de clulas humanas, pero albergamos unas 100 billones de clulas microbianas. +As que nos superan 10 a 1. +Pero pueden decir, bueno, somos humanos por nuestro ADN, y resulta que tenemos cerca de 20 000 genes humanos, dependiendo exactamente de qu contemos, pero tenemos entre 2 y 20 millones de genes microbianos. +Miremos lo que miremos, nos superan en nmero nuestros simbiontes microbianos. +Y resulta que, adems de trazas de ADN humano, tambin dejamos trazas de ADN microbiano en todo lo que tocamos. +En un estudio hace unos aos demostramos que se puede trazar un paralelo entre la palma de alguien y el ratn de computadora que usa habitualmente con un 95 % de precisin. +Sali en una revista cientfica hace unos aos, pero ms importante, se present en "CSI: Miami", as que ya saben que es verdad. +Pero de dnde vienen los microbios? +Bueno si, como yo, tienen perros y nios probablemente tengan una leve sospecha de dnde vienen, lo cual es verdad, por cierto. +As como podemos trazar un paralelo entre Uds. y sus computadoras por los microbios compartidos, tambin podemos trazarlo entre Uds. y sus perros. +Pero resulta que en adultos, las comunidades microbianas son relativamente estables, as que incluso si viven con alguien, mantendrn la identidad microbiana durante semanas, meses, o incluso aos. +Las primeras comunidades microbianas dependen mucho de dnde nacimos. +Los bebs que nacen de parto natural, bsicamente tienen los microbios de la comunidad vaginal. Mientras que los bebs que nacen por cesrea tienen en cambio los microbios de la comunidad de la piel. +Cuando naci mi hija hace un par de aos por cesrea de emergencia, tomamos cartas en el asunto y nos aseguramos de revestirla de esos microbios vaginales que habra tenido en forma natural. +Pero es muy difcil de decir si esto caus algn efecto en su salud especficamente, s? +Con un tamao muestral de solo un hijo, no importa cunto la queramos, no es un tamao muestral suficiente para determinar qu pasa en promedio, pero en 2 aos, no ha tenido una infeccin de odo todava, seguimos cruzando los dedos. +Adems, estamos empezando a hacer ensayos clnicos con ms nios para averiguar si esto tiene un efecto protector en general. +La forma de nacer tiene un efecto enorme en los microbios que tenemos al inicio, pero cmo sigue esto? +Aqu les muestro nuevamente el mapa de los datos del Proyecto Microbioma Humano. Cada punto representa la muestra de un cuerpo uno de 250 adultos sanos. +Hemos visto a nios desarrollarse fsicamente. +Los hemos visto desarrollarse mentalmente. +Ahora, por primera vez, veremos a los hijos de un colega desarrollarse microbiolgicamente. +Lo que veremos son las heces del beb, la comunidad fecal, que representa al intestino, muestreada semanalmente durante casi 2 aos y medio. +Empezamos un da 1. +El infante empieza con este punto amarillo, pueden ver que empieza bsicamente en la comunidad vaginal, como cabe esperar por su modo de parto. +Esto sigue durante 2 aos y medio y se va desplazando hacia abajo hasta parecerse a la comunidad fecal de los adultos sanos, abajo. +Har que empiece y veremos qu sucede. +Pueden ver que empieza a acercarse a la comunidad fecal adulta. +Esto en el plazo de 2 aos. +Pero aqu est por ocurrir algo asombroso. +Aqu recibe antibiticos por una infeccin de odo. +Pueden ver un cambio enorme en la comunidad seguido por una recuperacin relativamente rpida. +Voy a volver a pasarlo. +Esto es realmente interesante porque plantea cuestiones fundamentales de lo que ocurre si intervenimos en diferentes edades de la vida infantil. +Lo que hagamos a edad temprana, cuando el microbioma cambia tan rpidamente, realmente importa, es como tirar una piedra en un mar revuelto, no veremos las ondas. +Mencion que los microbios tienen funciones importantes, y, en los ltimos aos, se los asocia a toda una gama de diferentes enfermedades, como la enfermedad inflamatoria intestinal, enfermedades del corazn, el cncer de colon, e incluso la obesidad. +Resulta que sobre la obesidad tiene un gran efecto, y hoy, se nota si alguien es delgado u obeso con un 90 % de precisin con mirar los microbios intestinales. +Por eso es asombroso, no? +Eso implicara que el poco ms de un kilo de microbios que llevamos a cuesta podra ser ms importante para algunas enfermedades que cada gen del genoma. +Y luego en ratones, podemos hacer mucho ms. +En ratones, los microbios se vincularon a todo tipo de enfermedades adicionales, como la esclerosis mltiple, la depresin, el autismo y, de nuevo, la obesidad. +Pero cmo determinar si estas diferencias microbianas que se correlacionan con enfermedades son causa o efecto? +Bueno, podemos criar algunos ratones sin microbios propios, en una burbuja libre de grmenes. +Luego podemos aadir algunos microbios que pensamos importantes, y ver qu pasa. +Si tomamos los microbios de un ratn obeso y los trasplantamos a un ratn genticamente normal criado en una burbuja sin microbios propios, engorda ms que si tuviera los de un ratn comn. +Esto ocurre por algo asombroso. +A veces, sucede que los microbios ayudan a digerir alimentos de manera ms eficiente para la misma dieta, y obtienen ms energa de los alimentos, pero otras veces, los microbios afectan su comportamiento. +Comen ms que un ratn normal, por eso solo engordan si les permitimos comer todo lo que quieren. +Esto es notable, no? +Eso implica que los microbios pueden afectar el comportamiento mamfero. +Tambin podemos hacerlo para la desnutricin. +Esto es asombroso, porque sugiere que podemos hacer terapias piloto probndolas en muchos ratones diferentes con comunidades intestinales de personas y quiz hacer esas terapias a medida de las personas. +Por eso pienso que es muy importante que todos tengamos la posibilidad de participar en este descubrimiento. +Hace un par de aos, creamos este proyecto llamado American Gut, que permite a cada uno reclamar un lugar en este mapa microbiano. +Es el mayor proyecto cientfico financiado por la comunidad que conozco tiene ms de 8000 personas registradas hasta el momento. +Funciona as, mandan sus muestras, secuenciamos el ADN de sus microbios y luego les enviamos los resultados. +Tambin liberamos los datos, sin identidad, a cientficos y educadores a miembros interesados del pblico en general, etc. para que todos accedan a los datos. +Por otro lado, cuando recorremos nuestro laboratorio del Instituto BioFrontiers, y explicamos que usamos robots y lseres para estudiar la caca, no todo el mundo quiere conocer los detalles. +Pero supongo que muchos de Uds. s quieren saber, por eso traje kits por si les interesa probar esto Uds. mismos. +Por qu querramos hacer esto? +Bueno, los microbios no son solo importantes para determinar nuestro estado de salud, sino que pueden curar enfermedades. +Esto es lo que pudimos visualizar con los colegas de la Universidad de Minnesota. +Este es el mapa del microbioma humano, otra vez. +Ahora estamos mirando... sumar a la comunidad de personas con C. dif. +Es una forma terrible de diarrea con deposiciones de hasta 20 veces al da. Fracasan en la terapia con antibiticos durante 2 aos antes de ser elegibles para este ensayo. +Y si trasplantamos microbios fecales de un donante sano, esa estrella de la parte inferior, a estos pacientes? +Los microbios buenos combatiran a los malos ayudando a recuperar su salud? +Veamos exactamente qu pasa all. +Cuatro de esos pacientes recibirn un trasplante de ese donante sano de abajo, y vern, de inmediato, un cambio radical en su comunidad intestinal. +Un da despus de ese trasplante, todos esos sntomas desaparecen, la diarrea se desvanece, estn sanos otra vez, y tienen comunidades parecidas a las del donante y se quedan all. +Estamos al principio de este descubrimiento. +Recin estamos encontrando que los microbios traen consecuencias a estos distintos tipos de enfermedades, que van desde infeccin intestinal hasta obesidad, y quiz hasta el autismo y la depresin. +Como desarrollador de software y tecnlogo, he trabajado en varios proyectos de tecnologa cvica en estos aos. +Tecnologa cvica a veces referida como tecnologa para bien, usar la tecnologa para resolver problemas humanitarios. +Esto es Uganda en el 2010, trabajando en una solucin que permiti a los locales evadir la vigilancia del gobierno a sus mviles para expresar desacuerdo. +La misma tecnologa fue usada en frica del Norte con propsitos similares para conectar activistas cuando los gobiernos intencionalmente los desconectaban como medio para controlar a la poblacin. +Pero con los aos, pensado en estas tecnologas y en las cosas en que trabajo, una pregunta me inquieta y es, si estamos errados sobre las virtudes de la tecnologa y si a veces hacemos dao a las comunidades que tratamos de ayudar. +La industria tecnolgica en el mundo opera bajo ciertas premisas que si hacemos grandes cosas, estas afectarn positivamente a todos. +Finalmente, estas innovaciones llagarn a todos. +Pero no es siempre el caso. +Me gusta llamar a esta defensa ciega de la tecnologa "tecnoma de chorreo" para tomar prestada una frase. Pensamos que si diseamos cosas para unos pocos selectos, finalmente estas tecnologas llegarn a todos, y no siempre es el caso. +La tecnologa y la innovacin se comportan como la riqueza y el capital. +Tienden a consolidarse en unos pocos y a veces logran llegar a manos de muchos. +La mayora de Uds. no enfrenta gobiernos opresivos los fines de semana, as que pens en ejemplos ms prximos. +En el mundo de smartphones y apps, hay una gran movimiento a rastrear la salud personal con aplicaciones que miden el nmero de caloras que quemas o si est sentado demasiado o caminado lo suficiente. +Estas tecnologas hacen ms eficiente el ingreso de pacientes a clnicas y a cambio, estas clnicas esperan este tipo de eficiencias. +A medida que estos aparatos llegan a consultorios mdicos y estos los acogen, qu pasa con los tecno invisibles? +Cmo es la experiencia mdica para quien no tiene un telfono o reloj de US$400 rastreando sus movimientos? +Se vuelve una carga para el sistema mdico? +Ha cambiado su experiencia? +En el mundo financiero, el Bitcoin y las cripto-monedas estn revolucionando la forma de mover dinero en el mundo, pero el reto con estas tecnologas es que la barrera de ingreso es muy alta, verdad? +Se necesita acceso a los mismos telfonos, aparatos, conectividad, y aun donde no los necesita, donde hay un representante, usualmente requieren cierto capital para participar. +Y me pregunto, qu pasa con la ltima comunidad que usa dinero de papel cuando el resto del mundo mude a digital? +Otro ejemplo de mi ciudad natal, Filadelfia: recientemente fui all a la biblioteca pblica, y estn teniendo una crisis existencial. +La financiacin pblica est bajando, deben reducir su presencia para seguir abiertos y relevantes, y una forma de hacer esto es digitalizar varios libros y moverlos a la nube. +Es magnfico para los chicos, verdad? +Puede retirar libros desde casa, puede investigar yendo y viniendo del colegio, pero estas son dos grandes suposiciones, primero, que tiene acceso en casa, segundo, que tiene acceso en el mvil, y en Filadelfia, muchos chicos no los tienen. +As que, cmo ser su experiencia educativa en una biblioteca basada completamente basada en la nube que antes era una parte bsica de su educacin? +Cmo se mantendrn competitivos? +Un ejemplo final desde frica Este: hay un gran movimiento para digitalizar derechos de propiedad de tierra, por varias razones. +Comunidades migratorias, viejas generaciones que mueren, y bsicamente un mal manejo de registros ha llevado a conflictos sobre propiedad. +As que hay un gran movimiento para poner esta informacin en lnea, y rastrear la propiedad de estos lotes de tierra, llevarlos a la nube y entregarlos a las comunidades. +Pero realmente, la consecuencia accidental de esto ha sido que inversores de riesgo, y constructores de finca raz, se han precipitado a comprar estos lotes de tierra por encima de estas comunidades, porque tienen acceso a las tecnologas y la conectividad que las hace posibles. +Este es el denominador comn que conecta estos ejemplos, las consecuencias accidentales de los aparatos y las tecnologas que creamos. +Como ingenieros, como tecnlogos, a veces preferimos eficiencia a eficacia. +Pesamos ms en hacer cosas que en los resultados de lo que hacemos. +Esto debe cambiar. +Tenemos la responsabilidad de pensar en los resultados de las tecnologas, especialmente cuando cada vez controlan ms el mundo en que vivimos. +A finales de los 90 haba una gran presin por tica en el mundo financiero y bancario, +Pienso que en el 2014 se ha retrasado un movimiento similar en el rea de tecnologa. +As que los animo a pensar en la siguiente gran cosa, como emprendedores, gerentes, ingenieros y creadores, a pensar acerca de las consecuencias accidentales de las cosas que estamos creando, porque la verdadera innovacin es encontrar formas de incluir a todos. +Gracias. +(Sonidos del bosque tropical) En el verano de 2011, como turista, visit por primera vez los bosques de Borneo, y como se pueden imaginar lo que ms me impresion fueron sus sonidos sobrecogedores. +Haba una constante cacofona de sonidos, +y algunos destacaban ms que otros. +Por ejemplo, este es el sonido de un gran pjaro, un clao rinoceronte. +Este es el canto de una cigarra. +Y este viene de una familia de gibones. +Se estn cantando desde una gran distancia. +De hecho, el lugar donde he grabado era en una reserva de gibones por eso se oyen tantos, pero en ese momento, el sonido ms importante vena del bosque pero no me di cuenta, nadie se percat de ello. +Como dije, era una reserva de gibones. +All, se dedicaba la mayor parte del tiempo a rehabilitar gibones, y tambin se inverta mucho en la proteccin de la zona de tala ilegal. +As que si eliminamos el sonido de la selva y quitamos el de los gibones, de los insectos y el resto, de fondo se puede or todo este tiempo, el sonido de una motosierra en la distancia. +Pero ellos no oyeron las motosierras, porque, ya ven, el bosque es muy, muy ruidoso. +Hoy en da es inaceptable, a unos pocos cientos de metros de la sede de las guardias, en un santuario, que nadie oyera cuando se pone en marcha una motosierra. +Parece imposible, pero es absolutamente cierto. +Entonces, cmo detenemos la tala ilegal? +Como ingeniero, resulta muy tentador encontrar alguna solucin absurda de alta tecnologa, pero de hecho estamos en la selva +y debe ser algo simple, debe ser factible. La otra cosa de la que nos dimos cuenta fue que todo lo que nos haca falta ya estaba all. +Podamos construir un sistema que detuviera la tala usando lo que ya estaba all. +Quin estaba all? Quin estaba ya en el bosque? +Bueno, la gente. +Haba un grupo comprometido, 3 guardias a tiempo completo comprometidos a supervisar, pero necesitan saber qu pasaba en el bosque. +La verdadera sorpresa, y es una gran sorpresa, es que haba cobertura en el bosque. +Haba servicio de telefona mvil all, en medio de la nada. +Pero necesitbamos un dispositivo para ponerlo en los rboles. +Con este dispositivo para grabar los sonidos del bosque, conectado a la red mvil, y el envo de una alarma a la gente de la zona, quiz daramos con una solucin para el problema. +Hablemos un momento de la preservacin de la selva tropical, y es algo de que todos omos hablar todo el tiempo. +A mi generacin se le he hablado de salvar los bosques, desde que ramos nios, y parece que el mensaje nunca ha cambiado: hay que salvar la selva tropical, es una emergencia, ayer se deforest el equivalente a tantos campos de ftbol +y sin embargo aqu estamos hoy, con solo la mitad del bosque, pero parece que el cambio climtico es un problema ms urgente. +De hecho, hay un dato poco conocido que yo no saba entonces: la deforestacin genera ms gases de efecto invernadero que todos los aviones, trenes, autos, camiones y barcos del mundo juntos. +Es la segunda causa del cambio climtico. +Adems, segn Interpol, el 90 % de la tala que ocurre en el bosque es ilegal, al igual que lo que hemos visto nosotros. +Si ayudamos a la gente del bosque aplicar las reglas existentes, podramos reducir esto en un 17 % y generar un mayor impacto a corto plazo. +Podra ser que el modo ms rpido y barato de combatir el cambio climtico, +y este es el sistema que hemos creado para esto. +Parece algo de tecnologa punta. +Al momento que oye el sonido de una motosierra en el bosque, el dispositivo lo capta, y enva una alarma a travs de la red GSM a un guardia en el campo que puede llegar para evitar la tala en tiempo real. +Ya no se trata de salir a buscar rboles talados, +ni a ver un rbol desde el satlite en un rea talada, sino que se trata de intervencin en tiempo real. +He dicho que es la forma ms barata y rpida de hacerlo, pero, como se ha visto, no pudieron aplicarla, as que quizs no es tan barata y rpida. +Pero si los dispositivos en los rboles fueran telfonos mviles, s sera muy barato. +Cada ao se tiran cientos de millones de telfonos, cientos de millones solo en EE.UU. sin contar al resto del mundo, aunque deberamos. De hecho son geniales. +Estn llenos de sensores. +Escuchan los sonidos del bosque +y hay que protegerlos. +Hay que ponerlos en una caja como esta que ven ah, y hay que cargarlos. +Estas tiras se cortan. +Este soy yo armndolo todo en el garaje de mis padres. +Muchas gracias por dejarme hacerlo. +Como se ve este es un dispositivo en un rbol. +Lo que se puede observar desde aqu es que quizs queda bien camuflado en lo alto de la copa del rbol. +Esto es importante porque, aunque pueden captar los sonidos de sierra hasta a un kilmetro de distancia, y cubrir unos 3 kilmetros cuadrados, porque si alguien los quitara dejara el rea desprotegida. +Pero funciona realmente? +Para probarlos volvimos a Indonesia, no en el mismo lugar, a otro sitio, en otra reserva de gibones amenazada da tras da por la tala ilegal. +Al segundo da de instalado, capt sonidos de tala ilegal con motosierras. +Tuvimos una alerta en tiempo real. +Recib un correo en mi telfono. +En realidad, acabbamos de subir al rbol y bajar. +Algunos estaban fumando un cigarrillo cuando recib el e-mail, y todos se callaron, todos omos la motosierra como un sonido muy dbil de fondo, del que nadie se haba dado cuenta hasta entonces. +As que nos encaminamos a detener a los madereros. +Yo estaba muy nervioso. +Este es el momento en que llegamos hasta los madereros. +Y me pueden ver casi arrepentido de todo el esfuerzo. +No estoy seguro de lo que hay ms all de esta colina. +Ese tipo era ms valiente que yo. +Como continu, yo le segu, lleg a lo ms alto, paso al otro lado y pill a los madereros en accin. +ya que nunca antes nadie los haba interrumpido... y supimos por nuestros colegas que no han vuelto desde entonces. +En realidad eran buena gente. +Nos explicaron cul era su trabajo, y nos convencieron de que si podamos llegar en tiempo real para detenerlos era suficiente para disuadirlos. +As que... Gracias. La noticia se difundi quiz porque le dijimos a mucha gente, y empezaron a suceder cosas sorprendentes. +La gente de todo el mundo empez a escribirnos y a llamarnos. +Nos dimos cuenta de que la gente de Asia, frica, Amrica del Sur, nos deca que podran usarlo tambin, y lo ms importante, lo que pensbamos que era una excepcin, que en el bosque haba muy buena seal, +no lo era, y nos dijeron que muchas reas tenan seal, especialmente en la periferia de los bosques ms amenazados. +Luego sucedi algo increble, la gente empez a mandarnos sus viejos telfonos. +Y si el resto del dispositivo puede reciclarse por completo, se convierte en todo un dispositivo reaprovechable. +As que, repito, no hemos inventado una solucin de alta tecnologa. +Usamos lo que estaba disponible, y creo firmemente que, an sin los telfonos, siempre habr algo ah con lo que desarrollar soluciones similares, que sean efectivas en otras situaciones. +Muchas gracias. +Hace 25 aos, los cientficos del CERN crearon la World Wide Web. +Desde entonces, Internet ha transformado la forma de comunicarnos, la forma de hacer negocios e incluso de vivir. +En muchos sentidos, las ideas que dieron origen a Google, Facebook, Twitter, y tantos otros, ahora han transformado nuestras vidas, y esto nos ha trado muchos beneficios reales como una sociedad ms conectada. +Sin embargo, tambin tiene algunos aspectos negativos. +Hoy, la persona promedio tiene una enorme cantidad de informacin personal en lnea, y sumamos a esta informacin en lnea cada vez que publicamos en Facebook, cada vez que buscamos en Google, y cada vez que enviamos un email. +Muchos pensamos que probablemente, no hay nada en un email, verdad? +Pero si vemos un ao de correos, o incluso una vida de correos, en conjunto dice mucho. +Dice dnde hemos estado, a quines conocimos, y en muchos aspectos, incluso qu estamos pensando. +Y lo ms aterrador de todo es que nuestros datos ahora duran para siempre, los datos pueden y nos van a sobrevivir. +En gran medida hemos perdido el control de los datos y tambin nuestra privacidad. +Por eso este ao, en el aniversario 25 de la Web, es importante que nos tomemos un momento para pensar en las consecuencias de esto. +Realmente tenemos que pensar. +Hemos perdido privacidad, s, pero tambin hemos perdido la idea misma de privacidad. +Si lo piensan, muchos de los presentes quiz recordamos cmo era la vida antes de Internet, pero hoy hay una nueva generacin a la que se le ensea a compartir todo en lnea desde nios, una generacin que no recordar la poca de los datos privados. +Si avanzamos por esta va 20 aos, la palabra 'privacidad' tendr un significado totalmente diferente al que tiene para Uds. y para m. +Por eso es momento de detenerse a pensar si hay algo que podamos hacer. +Y yo creo que s. +Veamos una de las formas de comunicacin de ms amplia difusin en el mundo hoy: el email. +Antes de la invencin del email, nos comunicbamos mucho por carta y el proceso era bastante simple. +Uno escriba el mensaje en un trozo de papel, lo pona en un sobre sellado, para continuar, uno lo enviaba luego de ponerle un sello postal y una direccin. +Desafortunadamente, hoy, cuando enviamos un email, no estamos enviando una carta. +En cierto sentido, estamos enviando una postal. Y es una postal en el sentido que todo el que la vea, desde que sali de tu computadora hasta que lleg al destinatario, puede leer todo el contenido. +La solucin a esto se conoce desde hace un tiempo, hubo varios intentos de llevarla a cabo. +La solucin ms simple es la encriptacin, y la idea es muy simple. +Primero, uno encripta la conexin entre la computadora y el servidor de correo. +Luego, se encriptan los datos ubicados en el propio servidor. +Pero hay un problema con esto, y es que los servidores tambin almacenan las claves de encripcin de modo que tenemos un gran candado con la llave a la vista. +Y no solo eso, cualquier gobierno legalmente puede pedir la llave para acceder a tus datos, y todo sin que uno se entere. +La forma de resolver este problema es relativamente fcil, en principio: Se le da a cada uno sus llaves, y luego uno se asegura de que el servidor no tiene las llaves. +Parece de sentido comn, no? +Entonces la pregunta es: por qu no se hizo antes? +Bueno, si lo pensamos, vemos que el modelo de negocio de la Internet actual no es compatible con la privacidad. +Basta con ver los grandes nombres de la Web, para darse cuenta de que la publicidad juega un papel enorme. +De hecho, solo este ao, la publicidad es de USD 137 000 millones. Y para optimizar la publicidad que nos muestran, las empresas tienen que conocer todo sobre nosotros. +Tienen que saber dnde vivimos, cuntos aos tenemos, qu nos gusta, que no nos gusta, y todo lo dems en lo que puedan poner sus manos. +Y si lo piensan, la mejor manera de conseguir esta informacin es invadiendo nuestra privacidad. +Por eso estas empresas no nos darn privacidad. +Si queremos tener privacidad en lnea, tenemos que salir en su bsqueda. +Durante muchos aos, en materia de email, la nica solucin fue algo llamado PGP, algo bastante complicado, solo accesible para los conocedores de la tecnologa. +Este diagrama muestra bsicamente el proceso de encripcin y desencripcin de mensajes. +No hace falta decir que no es una solucin para todos, y en realidad es parte del problema, porque si se piensa en la comunicacin, por definicin, implica tener a alguien para comunicarse. +Si bien PGP es muy bueno para lo que fue diseado, para las personas que no saben usarlo, la opcin de comunicarse en privado simplemente no existe. +Y este es un problema a resolver. +Si queremos tener privacidad en lnea, la nica manera de lograrlo es sumando a todo el mundo, y eso es posible solo si derribamos la barrera de entrada. +Creo que ese es el principal desafo de la comunidad tecnolgica. +Tenemos que trabajar para hacer ms accesible a la privacidad. +El verano pasado, cuando se conoci la historia de Edward Snowden varios colegas y yo decidimos ver si podamos hacerlo realidad. +En ese momento, estbamos trabajando en la Organizacin Europea para la Investigacin Nuclear en el mayor colisionador de partculas del mundo, que, por cierto, colisiona protones. +Todos ramos cientficos, as que usando nuestra creatividad cientfica se nos ocurri un nombre muy creativo para el proyecto: ProtonMail. Muchas startups de hoy empiezan en los garajes de la gente o en los stanos. +Nosotros fuimos diferentes. +Empezamos en la cafetera del CERN, que es genial porque all uno tiene todo el alimento y el agua que pueda necesitar. +Pero mejor que eso, entre las 12 y las 14, de forma gratuita, la cafetera del CERN tiene miles de cientficos e ingenieros que tienen respuesta para todo. +Empezamos en ese entorno. +Nuestro objetivo es tomar el email y hacer que se parezca ms a esto, pero, ms importante, queremos hacerlo de manera que ni sepan que lo hicimos. +Para lograrlo necesitamos una combinacin de tecnologa y tambin diseo. +Entonces, cmo hacemos para hacer algo as? +Bueno, quiz sea buena idea no poner las llaves en el servidor. +Por eso generamos llaves de encripcin en tu computadora, y no generamos una llave simple, sino en realidad un par de llaves, de modo que hay una llave privada RSA y una llave pblica RSA, y estas llaves estn conectadas matemticamente. +Veamos cmo funcionan cuando se comunican varias personas. +Aqu tenemos a Bob y a Alice, que quieren comunicarse en privado. +el desafo principal es tomar el mensaje de Bob y entregrselo a Alice de forma que el servidor no pueda leer el mensaje. +Para esto tenemos que encriptarlo antes de que deje la computadora de Bob, y uno de los trucos es que lo hacemos usando la clave pblica de Alice. +Ahora estos datos encriptados viajan hasta el servidor de Alice, y como el mensaje fue encriptado usando la llave pblica de Alice, la nica llave que puede desencriptarlo es la llave privada de Alice, y resulta que Alice es la nica persona que tiene esta llave. +Logramos el objetivo, que es enviar el mensaje de Bob a Alice sin que el servidor pueda leer el contenido. +En realidad, les he mostrado un esquema muy simplificado. +La realidad es mucho ms compleja y requiere mucho software que tiene este aspecto. +Y este es el principal desafo de diseo: Cmo manejar esta complejidad, todo este software, e implementarlo de modo que el usuario no lo vea? +Creo que con ProtonMail, casi lo hemos logrado. +Veamos cmo funciona en la prctica. +Aqu tenemos a Bob y Alice de nuevo, que tambin se quieren comunicar en forma segura. +Crearon sus cuentas en ProtonMail, algo simple que lleva pocos minutos, la encriptacin y generacin de la llave ocurre automticamente en segundo plano mientras Bob crea su cuenta. +Una vez que se crea la cuenta, Bob hace clic en "Redactar" y puede escribir su email como lo hace hoy. +Completa su informacin, y luego hace clic en "Enviar". Y as, sin entender de criptografa, y sin hacer nada distinto de lo que hace hoy, Bob envi un mensaje encriptado. +Aqu tenemos solo el primer paso, pero muestra que mejorando la tecnologa, la privacidad no tiene que ser difcil, no tiene que ser disruptiva. +Si cambiamos el objetivo de maximizar ganancia por publicidad a proteger datos podemos hacerlo accesible. +S que la pregunta de todos es bien, proteger la privacidad, ese es el gran objetivo, pero pueden hacerlo sin las cuantiosas sumas de dinero que aporta la publicidad? +Y pienso que la respuesta es s, porque hoy, hemos llegado a un punto en el que las personas de todo el mundo entienden la importancia de la privacidad y si uno tiene eso, todo es posible. +A principios de este ao, ProtonMail tuvo tantos usuarios que nos quedamos sin recursos, y cuando eso sucedi, nuestra comunidad de usuarios se reuni y don medio milln de dlares. +Eso es solo un ejemplo de lo que puede suceder cuando uno congrega a la comunidad en torno a un objetivo comn. +Tambin podemos mover el mundo. +En este momento, tenemos 250 000 personas registradas en ProtonMail, personas de todo el mundo, y esto muestra que la privacidad no es un tema solo de EE.UU. o de Europa sino un tema mundial que afecta a todos. +Tenemos que prestarle atencin para avanzar. +Qu haremos para solucionar el problema? +Bueno, ante todo, tenemos que apoyar un modelo de negocios diferente para Internet, que no dependa totalmente de la publicidad para las ganancias y el crecimiento. +Tenemos que construir una nueva Internet en la que la privacidad y el control de nuestros datos sea lo primordial. +Pero ms importante an, tenemos que construir una Internet en la que la privacidad no sea solo una opcin sino tambin la opcin por omisin. +Hemos dado el primer paso con ProtonMail, pero es el primer paso en un camino muy, muy largo. +La buena noticia que puedo compartir con Uds. hoy, la gran noticia, es que no viajamos solos. +El movimiento de proteccin de privacidad y libertad de las personas en lnea est ganando impulso, y hoy hay decenas de proyectos en el mundo trabajando en conjunto para mejorar nuestra privacidad. +Estos proyectos protegen cosas desde nuestro chat a voz, el almacenamiento de archivos, las bsquedas en lnea, la navegacin web, y muchas otras cosas. +Son proyectos que no tienen el respaldo de miles de millones de dlares en publicidad, pero que encontraron apoyo en las personas, de personas como Uds. o yo, de todo el mundo. +Esto es muy importante porque, en ltima instancia, la privacidad depende de cada uno de nosotros, y tenemos que protegernos ahora porque nuestros datos en lnea son ms que solo un conjunto de unos y ceros. +Son mucho ms que eso. +Son nuestras vidas, nuestras historias personales, nuestros amigos, nuestras familias, y, en cierto sentido, tambin nuestras esperanzas y aspiraciones. +Tenemos que invertir tiempo ahora para proteger nuestro derecho a compartir con las personas con las que queremos compartir, porque sin esto, sencillamente no tenemos una sociedad libre. +Es tiempo de que alcemos la voz para decir s, queremos vivir en un mundo con privacidad en lnea, y s, podemos trabajar juntos para hacer realidad esta visin. +Gracias. +Me gustara empezar mi actuacin diciendo que el 90 % de todo es una mierda. +Es la ley de Sturgeon y eso significa que la mayora de lo que sea siempre es malo. +Aqu tengo una jirafa. +Lanzar la jirafa al pblico y el que la atrape tendr que ayudarme con mi prxima demostracin. +Seor, Ud. tiene la jirafa. +Tengo una carta en la mano. +Diga cualquier carta de la baraja. +Miembro del pblico: 10 de corazones. +Helder Guimaraes: 10 de corazones. +Podra haber nombrado cualquier carta de la baraja, pero dijo el 10 de corazones. +El 90 % de todo es una mierda, as que esto va para demostrar que Sturgeon tena razn. +Seor, este no es su nmero. +Guarde la jirafa un momento, de acuerdo? +Jess. +Es de locos. +Bueno, la verdad es, por qu la mayora de todo es malo? +Y mi respuesta es: creo que dejamos de pensar demasiado pronto. +Les dar un pequeo ejemplo claro, algo que la gente sola hacer a principios de siglo... no de este siglo, del otro. +La idea era tomar un pedazo de papel y doblarlo al revs usando solo la mano ms dbil, en mi caso, la mano izquierda. +Algo que se vera as. +Por la forma en que reaccionaron, puedo notar su falta de inters. +Pero est bien, entiendo por qu. +Paramos de pensar demasiado pronto. +Pero si pensramos un momento ms por ejemplo en un clip de papel; +un clip de papel hace que esto sea un poco ms interesante. +No solo esto, si en lugar de usar los dedos de la mano usara mi mano cerrada en un puo, las cosas se pueden poner an ms interesantes. +No solo eso sino que me dar un lmite de tiempo de un segundo, algo que se vera as. +Ahora... no, no, no. +Sturgeon puede tener razn. +Pero no tiene que tener razn siempre. Las cosas siempre pueden cambiar. +Seor, cul era la carta? +El 10 de corazones? +Est esto para demostrar que las cosas siempre pueden cambiar... el 10 de corazones. +Los secretos son importantes. +Y los secretos son valiosos. +Aqu est el secreto mejor guardado que yo he conocido alguna vez. +Empieza con una baraja de cartas sobre la mesa, un anciano y una promesa: "No tocar la baraja hasta el final". +No importa quin fuera el hombre, todo lo que importa es esa frase que sonaba en mi cabeza: "No tocar la baraja hasta el final". +Ahora, durante todo este tiempo, estaba sosteniendo un cuadernito que a veces abra para hojear las pginas y mirar algo. +Pero yo no prestaba realmente atencin al cuaderno porque me concentraba ms en la baraja y en la frase que haba dicho antes: "No tocar la baraja hasta el final". +Ahora seor, Ud. tiene la jirafa. +Adelante, trela en cualquier direccin para que pueda quedrsela otra persona al azar. +Perfecto. Seor, Ud. har mi papel en esta historia. +El anciano se volvi hacia m y me dijo: "Puede elegir una carta roja o una negra". +Mi respuesta fue... +Miembro del pblico 2: La carta negra. +HG: En efecto! +Era una carta negra. +l dijo: "Podra ser el trbol o la pica". Y mi respuesta fue... +Miembro del pblico 2: Pica. +HG: En efecto! Era una pica. +El dijo: "Podra ser una pica ms alta o una ms baja". +Y mi respuesta fue... +Miembro del pblico 2: Una pica alta. +HG: En efecto! Era una pica alta. +Dado que es una pica alta, podra ser un 9, un 10, una sota, el rey, la reina o el as de picas. +Y mi respuesta fue... +Miembro del pblico 2: El rey. +HG: El rey de picas de verdad. +Ahora seor, seamos honestos. +Eligi el negro, la pica, la pica alta, y ha seleccionado... qu era? +Miembro del pblico 2: El rey. HG: El rey de picas. +Se ha dejado influir por m en la decisin? +Miembro del pblico 2: No, pero sent su energa. +HG: Pero fue libre eleccin, verdad? +Porque si no, podramos volver a empezar. +Pero fue realmente justo? Miembro del pblico 2: Por supuesto. +HG: Ahora, el viejo se volvi hacia m y me hizo una pregunta ms, un nmero entre 1 y 52. +Y el primer nmero que pens fue... +Miembro del pblico 2: 17. +HG: En efecto! Era el 17. +El anciano se limit a decir una cosa ms: "Este es el fin". +Y yo saba exactamente lo que quera decir. +Saba que iba a tocar la baraja. +Estn a punto de verlo exactamente como ocurri. +Tom la baraja de la caja. +No hay nada en la caja. +Cont, "1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10". +La tensin aument. +"11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17". +Y en el 17, en lugar del rey de picas, apareci algo en el centro de la baraja que ms tarde, me dara cuenta de que en realidad era un secreto. +El anciano se levant, se fue. +Yo nunca lo volv a ver. +Pero dej su cuaderno que estaba all desde el principio. +Y cuando lo tom, encontr el mejor secreto que he visto nunca. +Nos definimos por los secretos que guardamos y por los secretos que compartimos. +Y esta era su manera de compartir un secreto conmigo. +Qu cosa ms rara! Ahora... Yo creo que las cosas increbles ocurren todo el tiempo. +Realmente lo creo. +Y la razn por la que no las vemos tan a menudo, es porque no nos situamos en una posicin idnea para buscar esas cosas asombrosas. +Pero y si decidimos buscar esas cosas increbles, esas pequeas coincidencias en la vida que son verdaderamente increbles? +As que tiene la jirafa, adelante, vuelva a tirarla en cualquier direccin para que le toque a una ltima persona al azar. +Seor, le preguntar si tiene un billete de 1 dlar. +Miembro del pblico 3: Creo que s. +HG: S? Ven, una coincidencia! +Vamos a asegurarnos de que lo tiene. +Lo tiene? +Miembro del pblico 3: S. HG: S! Perfecto. +Ahora, quiero que haga exactamente lo mismo que estoy a punto de hacer. +Tengo un billete de un dlar aqu como ejemplo. +Quiero que lo tome y lo doble con la parte de Washington adentro, as, +para que pueda hacer este tipo de cuadrado grande, de acuerdo? +Ahora, tome el billete y dblelo como este, a lo largo, y se convierte en un rectngulo, y luego otra vez --realmente dblelo, arrguelo-- y cuando lo tiene, dblelo de nuevo en un pequeo cuadrado como este y avseme cuando lo tenga. +Lo tiene? Perfecto. +Ahora, voy a acercarme y antes de empezar, quiero asegurarme de que hacemos esto en serio. +En primer lugar, quiero asegurarme de que tenemos un marcador y un clip de papel. +Primero, tome el marcador y firme el billete. +Y esta es la razn: luego har muchas cosas en el escenario y no quiero que piense, mientras estaba distrado por Helder, alguien subi al escenario y cambi el billete. +As que asegurmonos de que es exactamente el mismo billete. +Ahora no solo eso, sino que tome el clip y colquelo en el billete. +As que incluso si alguien sube al escenario y cambia el billete no tendr el tiempo suficiente para abrirlo y cerrarlo y ver lo que no quiero que vea. +Le parece bien? +Devulvame el marcador. +Y, muy claramente, quiero asegurarme de que todo est a la vista desde el comienzo de esta experiencia y para asegurarme de que todo el mundo lo ver, vamos a tener realmente un cmara en el escenario. +S, perfecto, de modo que puedan ver. +Esa es su firma? S? Perfecto. +Ahora, usaremos tambin la baraja +y un vaso para esto. Y los colocaremos de tal manera que podamos buscar una coincidencia asombrosa. +Le importa, puede ayudarme con esto? +Adelante, saque algunas cartas y baraje. +Le importa, puede sacar algunas cartas y barajar? +Se puede barajar de diversas maneras. +Puede barajar cartas de diferentes maneras. +Puede barajar cartas as, o de un modo ms desordenado, algo as. +Puede barajar las cartas como en EE.UU. +Como portugus, no reclamo el derecho de ensearles a hacerlo. +Pero la parte importante es que despus de barajar las cartas, hay que recordar cortar y completar la baraja. +Le importa, seor? Por favor, corte y complete. +Y cuando lo tienen, ensee las cartas. +Y Ud. lo mismo. +En el aire. +Una baraja de cartas cortadas y mezcladas por 1, 2, 3, 4 y 5 personas. +Ahora, con toda claridad, reunir toda la baraja. +Y as como as +buscar una coincidencia delante de todos. +Lo intentar. +Tengo algunas cartas que tal vez, quizs, no significan nada. +Pero tal vez eso es porque no estamos prestando mucha atencin. +Porque quiz, tal vez, significan mucho. +Antes de empezar, seor, Ud. me dio un billete de un dlar. +Es sta su firma? +Miembro del pblico 3: S, lo es. +HG: Quiero que vean claramente que voy a abrir su billete y revelar una pequeo secreto que hemos creado. +Y el secreto de este billete es el nmero de serie. +Seora, puede tomar el billete de un dlar? +En el nmero de serie, hay una letra. +Cul es el primer nmero despus de la letra? +Miembro del pblico 4: Siete. +HG: Siete. +Siete. +Pero, tal vez es solo una coincidencia. +Cul es el segundo nmero? Miembro del pblico 4: Nueve. +As que despus del siete, tenemos un nueve. +Y despus del nueve? Miembro del pblico 4: Dos. +HG: El dos. Y despus del dos? Miembro del pblico 4: Tres. +HG: Tres, y despus? +Miembro del pblico 4: Tres. HG: Tres. +Miembro del pblico 4: Siete. HG: Siete. +Miembro del pblico 4: Cuatro. HG: Cuatro. +Miembro del pblico 4: Dos. HG: Dos, y? +Miembro del pblico 4: Q. +HG: Q como en reina? +La reina de pica! +Todas las cartas en orden, solo para Uds. +Y esa es mi nmero. +Muchas gracias y que tengan una noche agradable. +Tenemos que cambiar la cultura en nuestras crceles y prisiones, especialmente entre los jvenes reclusos. +El estado de Nueva York es uno de los dos en EE.UU. +que automticamente arresta y trata a los jvenes de 16-17 aos como adultos. +Esta cultura de la violencia atrapa a estos jvenes y los coloca en un ambiente hostil, mientras que los funcionarios de prisiones permiten que suceda de todo. +En realidad no hay mucho que estos jvenes puedan hacer para mejorar sus talentos y rehabilitarlos de verdad. +Hasta que podamos elevar la edad de la responsabilidad penal a los 18, tenemos que centrarnos en cambiar la vida diaria de estos jvenes. +Lo s por experiencia. +Antes de cumplir los 18, pas aproximadamente 400 das en Rikers Island, y para colmo, de ellos, casi 300 das en rgimen de aislamiento, y djenme decirles esto: gritar en voz alta todo el da a la puerta de su celda, o gritar en voz alta por la ventana es muy agotador. +Dado que no hay mucho que puedas hacer mientras ests all, hay que caminar de un lado a otro en la celda, empiezas a hablar contigo mismo, tus pensamientos se vuelven locos, y luego se convierten en tu peor enemigo. +Las crceles deben servir para la rehabilitacin de una persona, no llevarla a estar ms enojada, frustrada, y sentirse ms desesperada. +Puesto que no hay un plan de reinsercin para estos jvenes, prcticamente regresan a la sociedad sin nada. +Y no hay realmente mucho que hacer para prevenir que reincidan. +Pero todo comienza con los guardias de la prisin. +Es muy fcil para algunas personas mirar a estos oficiales penitenciarios como a los buenos y a los internos como a los malos, o viceversa para algunos, pero hay ms que eso. +Saben, estos funcionarios son gente normal, corriente. +Vienen de los mismos barrios que la poblacin a quien "sirven". +Son gente normal. +No son robots, y no hay nada especial en ellos. +Hacen casi lo mismo que cualquiera hace en la sociedad. +Los guardias varones quieren hablar y coquetean con guardias mujeres. +Juegan a pequeos juegos de nios entre s. +Hacen poltica. +Y los guardias mujeres chismorrean entre s. +Pas mucho tiempo con numerosos guardias de la prisin, y djenme contarles en particular sobre uno de ellos llamado Monroe. +Un da me llev entre las puertas A y B que separan el norte y sur de nuestro bloque. +Me sac de all porque tuve un altercado fsico con otro joven en mi bloque, y senta, ya que haba una mujer guardia que trabaja en la planta, que yo iba a faltarle el respeto en su turno. +As que l me dio un puetazo en el pecho. +El tipo que te deja sin aliento. +Yo no era impulsivo, yo no reacciono de inmediato, porque saba que este era su territorio. +Que no poda ganar. +Todo lo que tena que hacer era pulsar el botn y la ayuda vendra inmediatamente. +As que solo le mir a los ojos y supongo que vio la ira y la frustracin avivadas y me dijo: "Los ojos te metern en un montn de problemas, porque te delatan que quieres pelear". +As que comenz a quitarse el cinturn, se quit la camisa y su placa, y dijo: "Podramos pelear." +As que le pregunt: "Te la guardars?" +Ahora, eso es un trmino que se usa comnmente en Rikers Island lo que significa que no se lo dirs a nadie, y tampoco denunciarlo. +El dijo: "S, yo no dir nada. Y t?" +Ni siquiera respond. +Slo le di un puetazo en plena cara, y empezamos a pelear en ese mismo momento. +Hacia el final de la pelea, me estrell contra la pared, as que mientras estbamos forcejeando, me dijo, "Ests bien?" +como si iba a sacar lo mejor de m, pero en mi mente, saba que lo tena, as que respond muy arrogante, "Oh, estoy bien, y t?" +El dijo: "S, yo estoy bien, todo bien". +Me dej ir, me dio la mano, dijo que me gan su respeto, me dio un cigarrillo y me mand de vuelta. +Aunque no lo crean, te encuentras con algunos guardias en Rikers Island con los cuales luchar uno-a-uno. +Creen que entienden cmo es, y creen que pueden conocerte. +Dado que esta es la forma en que comnmente se resuelven las disputas, podemos manejarlo de esa manera. +Me alejo de l como un hombre, l igual, y eso es todo. +Algunos guardias tienen la impresin de estar encarcelados contigo, +es por eso que tienen esta mentalidad y actitud y actan de acuerdo a este concepto. +A veces, estamos en esto junto con los guardias. +Sin embargo, las instituciones deben dar a estos oficiales la formacin adecuada para tratar correctamente la poblacin adolescente, y tambin sobre cmo lidiar con la salud mental de la poblacin. +Estos guardias son un factor importante en la vida de estos jvenes por x cantidad de tiempo hasta la liberacin. +Por qu no tratar de guiar a estos jvenes mientras estn all? +Por qu no tratar de darles algn tipo de orientacin para hacer un cambio, para que una vez de nuevo en la sociedad, estn haciendo algo positivo? +Una segunda cosa importante para ayudar a nuestros adolescentes en las crceles es una mejor programacin. +Cuando estaba en Rikers Island, el mayor problema era la incomunicacin. +La incomunicacin fue diseada originalmente para romper a una persona mental, fsica y emocionalmente. +Eso es para lo que fue diseada. +El Fiscal General de Estados Unidos recientemente public un informe indicando que van a prohibir la incomunicacin en el estado de Nueva York para los adolescentes. +Una cosa que me mantuvo cuerdo mientras estaba en confinamiento solitario fue la lectura. +Intent educarme tanto como fue posible. +Le cualquier y toda clase de libro que me caa en las manos. +Y aparte de eso, escrib msica y cuentos. +Algunos programas que siento que beneficiaran a nuestros jvenes son los programas de terapia de arte para los nios que les gusta dibujar y tienen ese talento, Y qu pasa con las personas jvenes que tienen talento para la msica? +Qu tal un programa de msica para ellos y que en realidad les ensee cmo escribir y hacer msica? +Es slo una idea. +Cuando los adolescentes llegan a Rikers Island, C74, RNDC es el edificio en el cual se alojan. +Lo apodan la "escuela de gladiadores" porque tenemos a un individuo joven que viene de la calle pensando que es el duro, rodeado por un montn de otros individuos jvenes de todos los otros cinco bloques, y todo el mundo siente que es el duro. +As que ahora tenemos a un montn de jvenes caballeros que sacan el pecho y tienen la sensacin de que tienen que demostrar que son igual de duros que el otro, o ms fuerte que este, ese o aquel. +Pero seamos honestos: esa cultura es muy peligrosa y perjudicial para nuestros jvenes. +Tenemos que ayudar a las instituciones y a estos adolescentes a darse cuenta que no tienen que llevar el mismo estilo de vida que antes cuando estaban en la calle, que realmente pueden cambiar. +Es triste contarles que mientras estuve en la crcel, sola escuchar a tos hablando sobre como, al ser liberados de la prisin, cometern alguna clase de delitos, cuando regresen a la calle. +Las conversaciones solan sonar algo como esto: "Al salir, mi hermano tiene un contacto para esto, eso y lo otro", o "Mi colega aqu presente tiene un contacto a un precio bajo, +intercambiemos la informacin y cuando lleguemos a la ciudad, vamos a hacerlo a lo grande". +Yo sola escuchar estas conversaciones y pensar para mis adentros, "Guau, estos tipos an estn hablando de volver a la calle y cometer crmenes en el futuro" +As que se me ocurri un nombre para eso: Lo llam esquema de-rpida-vuelta-a la-crcel porque realmente, cunto tiempo iban a durar? +Organizamos un plan de jubilacin con eso? +Una pequea pensin? Un 401 ? Un plan 403 ? +Conseguimos un seguro de salud? Dentista? +Pero te dir esto: Estando en la crcel y estando en el trullo me encontr con algunos de los tos ms inteligentes y brillantes, y con ms talento que jams he conocido. +Vi gente agarrando una bolsa de patatas fritas y convertirlo en el marco ms hermoso. +He visto gente que con el jabn que se proporciona de forma gratuita lo han convertido en la escultura ms hermosa que hara que una obra de Miguel ngel parezca de guardera infantil. +A la edad de 21, estaba en una prisin de mxima seguridad llamada el Bloque Correccional Elmira. +Acababa de salir de la sala de pesas y vi a un seor mayor al que conoca, de pie en medio del patio, solo, mirando al cielo. +Un hombre mayor que estaba cumpliendo una condena de 33 aos y que ya haba cumplido 20 aos de esa sentencia. +As que me acerco a l y le digo: "O.G., que est pasando, hombre, ests bien?" +Me mir, y dijo: "S, estoy bien, sangre joven". +Y voy y le digo, "Qu es lo que buscas en el cielo, hombre? +Qu es tan fascinante all arriba?" +El dijo: "Por qu no miras t arriba y me dices lo que ves?" +"Nubes". l dijo: "Muy bien Qu otra cosa ves?" +En ese momento, pasaba un avin. +Le digo: "Muy bien, veo un avin". +El dijo: "Exactamente, y que hay en ese avin?" "Gente". +"Exactamente. Ahora, dnde van ese avin y esas personas?" +"No lo s. T lo sabes? +Por favor, dmelo si es as, y dame los nmeros de la lotera". +El dijo: "Te ests perdiendo de lo que se trata, sangre joven. +Ese avin con esa gente va a alguna parte, mientras nosotros estamos aqu atascados. +El panorama general es el siguiente: Ese avin con esa gente que va a un lugar es la vida que nos pasa por delante mientras estamos atrapados entre estas cuatro paredes". +Desde ese da, algo se despert en mi mente y me hizo saber que tena que cambiar. +Al crecer, yo siempre fui un buen chico, el chico listo. +Algunas personas diran que era demasiado inteligente para ser bueno. +Soaba con ser arquitecto o arquelogo. +Actualmente, estoy trabajando en la Fortune Society, que es un programa de reinsercin y trabajo con gente con alto riesgo de reincidencia. +As que les conecto con los servicios que necesitan una vez que son liberados de la crcel y de la prisin para que puedan hacer una transicin positiva a la sociedad. +Si yo fuera a encontrarme conmigo mismo cuando tena 15 aos, tratara de sentarme y hablar con l y tratara de educarlo y le hara saber: "Escucha, yo soy t. +Somos nosotros. Somos uno... +Todo lo que ests a punto de hacer, s que vas a hacerlo, antes de hacerlo, porque ya lo hice". Y le animara a no pasar el rato con x, y, z personas. +Le dira que no se vaya a tal y tal lugar +le dira, no te pierdas la escuela, hombre, porque es donde tienes que estar, porque eso es lo que te conseguir algo en la vida. +Este es el mensaje que deberamos compartir con nuestros hombres y mujeres jvenes. +No debemos tratarlos como adultos y colocarlos en la cultura de violencia de donde, prcticamente, no pueden escapar. +Gracias. +Hola. +Soy desarrollador de juguetes. +Con el sueo de crear nuevos juguetes que nunca se hubieran visto antes, empec a trabajar en una empresa de juguetes hace 9 aos. +Cuando comenc a trabajar all, propuse muchas nuevas ideas a mi jefe todos los das. +Sin embargo, mi jefe siempre pidi que tuviera datos para demostrar que se venderan y que pensara en nuevos productos luego de analizar los datos del mercado. +Datos, datos, datos. +As que analic los datos de mercado antes de pensar en un producto. +Sin embargo, era incapaz de pensar en algo nuevo en ese momento. +Mis ideas eran poco originales. +No estaba consiguiendo nuevas ideas y me cans de pensar. +Era tan duro que me volv este flacuchento. +Es cierto. Probablemente han tenido experiencias similares y lo sintieron as tambin. +Su jefe estaba siendo difcil. Los datos eran difciles. +Se enferm de pensar. +Ahora, yo tiro los datos. +Mi sueo es crear nuevos juguetes. +Y ahora, en lugar de datos, estoy usando un juego llamado Shiritori para llegar a nuevas ideas. +Me gustara introducir este mtodo hoy. +Qu es Shiritori? +Tomen manzana, elefante y trompeta, por ejemplo. +El juego es que por turnos se digan palabras que empiecen con la ltima letra de la palabra anterior. +Es lo mismo en japons que en ingls. +Pueden jugar Shiritori como quieran: "Neko, kora, raibu, burashi", etc., etc. [Gato, cola, concierto, cepillo] Muchas palabras al azar van a salir. +Ud. fuerza esas palabras para conectarlas a lo que quiere pensar y formar ideas. +En mi caso, por ejemplo, ya que quiero pensar en juguetes, qu podra ser un gato de juguete? +Un gato que cae despus de hacer un salto mortal desde un lugar alto? +Qu tal un juguete con cola? +Una pistola de juguete que dispara soda y deja a alguien empapado? +La ideas ridculas estn bien. La clave es mantenerlas fluyendo. +Cuantas ms ideas producen, seguro surgen algunas buenas, tambin. +Un cepillo, por ejemplo. Podemos hacer de un cepillo de dientes un juguete? +Podramos combinar un cepillo de dientes con una guitarra y... (Sonidos musicales) Tienen un juguete que pueden tocar mientras se cepillan los dientes. +A los nios que no les gusta a cepillarse los dientes; podra empezar a gustarles. +Podemos hacer un sombrero en un juguete? +Qu tal algo como un juego de ruleta, en el que por turnos se pone el sombrero y al que se lo pone, un aliengena aterrador sale de la parte superior gritando, "Ahh!" +Me pregunto si habra una demanda de esto en las fiestas? +Ideas que no surgieron mirando fijamente los datos, comenzarn a salir. +Este plstico de burbujas, que se utiliza para embalar objetos frgiles, combinado con un juguete, hizo el Mugen Pop Pop, un juguete en que se puede hacer estallar burbujas tanto como quiera. +Fue un gran xito cuando lleg a las tiendas. +Los datos no tenan nada que ver con su xito. +A pesar de que solo est haciendo estallar las burbujas, es una gran manera de matar el tiempo, as que por favor pase por ah entre Uds. hoy y jueguen con l. +De todas formas, sigues con ideas intiles. +Piensen en muchas ideas triviales, todos. +Si basan sus ideas en el anlisis de datos y saben a lo que estn apuntando, van a terminar intentando demasiado fuerte y no podrn producir nuevas ideas. +Incluso si saben cul es su objetivo, piensen en ideas tan libremente como lanzar dardos con los ojos cerrados. +Si hace esto, seguramente alguno dar en el centro. +Al menos uno lo har +Ese es el nico que debe elegir. +Si lo hacen, esa idea ser demandada y, por otra parte, ser la nueva marca. +Eso es lo que pienso de las nuevas ideas. +No tiene que ser Shiritori; hay muchos mtodos diferentes. +Solo hay que elegir las palabras al azar. +Pueden hojear un diccionario y elegir palabras al azar. +Por ejemplo, podran mirar dos letras al azar y recopilar los resultados o ir a la tienda y conectar los nombres de productos con lo que quieren pensar. +El punto es reunir palabras al azar, no la informacin de la categora que Ud. estn pensando. +Si hacen esto, recogen los ingredientes para la asociacin de ideas y forman conexiones que van a producir muchas ideas. +La mayor ventaja de este mtodo es el flujo continuo de imgenes. +Debido a que estn pensando en una palabra tras otra, la imagen de la palabra anterior todava est con Uds. +Esa imagen se relacionar automticamente con palabras futuras. +Sin darse cuenta, un concierto se conectar a un cepillo y un juego de la ruleta a un sombrero. +Ni se dara cuenta de ello. +Puede llegar a ideas que no habra pensado de lo contrario. +Este mtodo es, por supuesto, no solo para juguetes. +Pueden tener ideas para libros, aplicaciones, eventos y muchos otros proyectos. +Espero que todos prueben este mtodo. +Hay futuros que nacen a partir de datos. +Sin embargo, el uso de este juego tonto llamado Shiritori, espero con inters el futuro emocionante que va a crear, un futuro que ni siquiera podran imaginar. +Muchas gracias. +Mi nombre es Harry Baker. Harry Baker es mi nombre. +Si su nombre fuese Harry Baker, entonces nos llamaramos igual. +Es una presentacin corta. +S, soy Harry. +Estudio matemticas. Escribo poesa. +Por eso pens en empezar con un poema de amor a los nmeros primos. +Esto se llama "59". +Iba a llamarlo "Hora punta del amor". +Por esa reaccin no lo llam as. +Entonces, 59. +59 se levant por el lado equivocado de la cama. +Not que tena todo el pelo en un lado. +Lleva menos de un minuto entender que fue a causa del lado en que durmi. +l encuentra algo de ropa y se viste. +No puede dejar de mirarse en el espejo y quedar impresionado Cmo es que est desaliado y todava ajado? +Y al mirar por la ventana, ve enseguida a aquel que fue agraciado el 60, cruzando la calle. +El 60 era hermoso. +Con cutculas perfectamente recortadas, vestido adecuadamente. +Nada burdo o vulgar. +Inmejorable, a tiempo como siempre, ms preciso que una bola de billar pero encantado de hacerse el sper cool. +59 quera decirle que conoca su flor favorita. +Pensaba en ella cada segundo, cada minuto, cada hora. +Pero saba que no funcionara, que nunca ganara a la chica. +Porque a pesar de vivir al otro lado de la calle venan de mundos diferentes. +Si bien 59 admiraba la figura perfectamente redonda de 60, 60 pensaba que 59 era extrao. Una de sus pelculas favoritas era "101 Dlmatas". +ella prefera la secuela. +l idealiz la idea de ser amantes desventurados. +Podran superar diferencias de pares e impares al tenerse el uno al otro. +Ella mantena las opiniones estrictas que le impusiera su madre. Esa separata no podra ser equitativa. +Y aunque en ese momento se sinti estpido y tonto por intentar amar a una chica controlada por su madre tonta, tendra que haberse conformado con la simple suma. +Resta 59 al 60, y uno se queda con el uno. +Efectivamente, tras dos meses languideciendo 61 das ms tarde, se encontr a 61. Haba perdido sus llaves y sus padres estaban fuera. +Un da tras la escuela entr en una casa. Al percatarse de los nmeros algo torcidos en la puerta, se pregunt por qu no se present antes. Cuando ella lo dej entrar, se qued asombrado y boquiabierto. +61 era como 60, pero con algo ms. Ella tena los ojos ms bonitos, y una sonrisa cercana, y como l, alrededor, aristas de estilo desenfadado, Y como en l, todo estaba en montones desorganizados, Y como a l, a su madre no le importaba, si los amigos se quedaban un rato. +Porque ella era como l y a l le gustaba ella. +Calcul que a ella le gustara l, si supiera que l era como ella. Y era diferente esta vez. Quiero decir, esta chica era perversa. As que se arm de valor y le pregunt por sus dgitos. +Ella dijo: "Yo soy 61". l sonri y dijo: "Yo soy 59". +"Hoy he pasado un muy buen rato, as que maana, si quieres puedes venir a mi casa". +Ella dijo: "Claro". +Le encantaba hablar con alguien tan peculiar. Ella accedi a esta primera cita oficial. +l estuvo preparado tan solo un minuto antes, pero no import, porque ella lleg con un minuto de retraso. +Y a partir de ese momento no pararon de charlar sin parar. Cmo amaban el factor X, cmo tenan dos factores, Cmo que eso no importaba, el carcter distintivo los hizo mejor, Al final de la noche saban que estaban destinados el uno para el otro. +Y un da hablando de la engreda 60, se dio cuenta de que 59 pareca un poco huidizo. +Se sonroj y le dijo lo de su amor platnico: "Lo mejor es que nunca sucedi porque nos llev a encontrarnos". 61 era inteligente, nada propensa a los celos. Ella lo mir a los ojos y le dijo muy tiernamente: "T 59, yo 61, junto combinamos para ser el doble de lo que podra llegar 60". +En este momento 59 tena lgrimas en los ojos, estaba sper contento de tener a esta chica nica en su vida. +l le dijo a ella la definicin misma de ser primo. Que era la divisin del corazn entre uno y entre l mismo. Y ella era la nica que quera darle a l su corazn. Ella dijo sentir lo mismo, ahora saba que las pelculas eran medias verdades. +Porque eso no era verdadero amor, el amor era solo una muestra. Si se trataba de amor verdadero, ellos eran el ejemplo principal. +A su salud. +Ese fue el primer poema que escrib y fue para una velada potica cuya temtica eran los nmeros primos que result ser un concurso de poesa sobre nmeros primos. +Y cada intrprete tiene tres minutos para recitar y luego el pblico sostiene tarjetas de puntuacin que termina con una calificacin numrica, y esto significa que es como que se hubiera roto la barrera entre intrprete y pblico alentando la conexin con el oyente. +Y tambin significa que uno puede ganar. +Y si uno gana un recital potico, se puede decir que es un ganador y un luchador, y si uno pierde un recital de poesa, se puede decir que la poesa es una forma de arte subjetivo, al que no se puede poner nmeros, +Me encant y me involucr en estos recitales y me convert en el ganador del Reino Unido y me invitaron a la Copa Mundial de Poesa en Pars, que fue increble. +Gente de todo el mundo que hablaba en su lengua materna para ser calificados por cinco franceses desconocidos. +Y de alguna manera, yo lo gan, lo que fue genial, y he podido viajar por el mundo desde que lo hago, pero tambin significa que la pieza siguiente es tcnicamente el mejor poema en el mundo. +Bueno... +De acuerdo con los cinco franceses desconocidos. +Esto es "Personas de papel". +Me gustan las personas. +Me gustara que alguna persona de papel +fuera de papel color prpura. Quiz personas pop de papel prpura. +Personas pop de papel prpura positivo. +"Cmo potenciar a personas pop de papel prpura?" +Te escucho llorar. Pues... +Probablemente potenciando a personas pop de papel prpura positivas con un sujetapapeles de personas de papel prpura propicio. pero preparara adhesivos apropiados alternativos, un paquete descarado de Blu Tack por si acaso el papel se desprende. +Porque podra construir una metrpolis pop, pero +no quisiera tratar con todas las personas polticas de papel. +polticos de papel con sus polticas finas como papel, promesas rotas sin disculpas apropiadas. +No habra algo de papel para m. Y tampoco para ti. +Y podramos ver el papel de TV y todo sera pay-per-view. +Veramos rapear a las amapolas rapereras de papel sobre sus paquetes de papel o ver a personas portadoras de papel atascadas en el trfico de papel en la A4. +Papel. +Habra una princesa papel Kate pero todos admiraramos el papel Pippa, y todos viviramos con el temor al asesino de papel, Jack el destripador, porque la propaganda de papel propaga los prejuicios de las personas, papeles impresos con las fotos de los terroristas fotognicos. +Un poco de papel para m. Y un poco de papel para ti. +Y en una poblacin pop los problemas de las personas aparecen tambin. +No habra un parlamento de papel pomposo que permaneciera ajeno a la realidad, ignorando las protestas de las personas sobre todos los recortes de papel, y las protestas de papel pacficas lograran reventar en pedazos de papel, mediante caones de confeti pilotados por policas preventivos. +Y s, habra todava dinero de papel, por eso habra codicia por papel, y los banqueros de alcancas de papel se embolsaran ms de lo que necesitan, compraran popurr para salpimentar sus propiedades del papel, otros viviran en la pobreza y no se les reconocera. +Una pobre economa apropiada donde muchos son pobres apropiados, pero mientras sus necesidades se ignoran el dinero va a las grandes guerras. +Me gustan las personas. +Porque an cuando algo sea terrible, solo las personas pueden inspirar, y en el papel, es difcil ver cmo lo hacemos. +Pero en el inferior de la caja de Pandora todava hay esperanza, y todava espero, porque creo en las personas. +A las personas les gustan mis abuelos. +quienes desde que nac, diariamente, han dedicado un tiempo de sus maanas para rezar por m. +Son 7892 das seguidos de alguien que comprueba que estoy bien, y eso es increble. +Las personas como mi ta que acta con presos. +Las personas capaces de perdn genuino. +Personas como los palestinos perseguidos. +Personas que se apartan de su camino para lograr una vida mejor, sin esperar nada a cambio. +Las personas tienen el potencial de ser poderosos. +Por el hecho de que las personas del poder suelen pretender ser vctimas no necesitamos sucumbir a ese sistema. +Y una poblacin de papel no es diferente. +Hay un poco de papel para m. Y un poco de papel para ti. +Y en una poblacin pop aparecen tambin problemas personales, pero incluso si todo el mundo sucumbiera seguiramos hacindolo. +Porque somos personas. +Gracias. +Muchas gracias. Solo tengo tiempo para uno ms. +Para m, la poesa ha sido la mejor forma para las ideas sin fronteras. +Cuando empec, las personas que me inspiraron tenan historias asombrosas, y pens, como joven de 18, con una vida feliz, ya era demasiado normal, pero podra crear estos mundos donde poder hablar sobre mis experiencias, sueos y creencias. +As que es increble estar aqu ante Uds. +Gracias por estar aqu. +Si no estuvieran aqu, sera ms o menos como la prueba de sonido de ayer. +Y esto es ms divertido. +As que este ltimo se llama "El Sol nio". +Muchas gracias por su atencin. +Un anciano sol estaba orgulloso de su sol, Iluminaba su da el ver al hijo actuar. No por lo que haba hecho, ni por los problemas superados, Sino porque a pesar de eso, se mantuvo soleado. +No siempre haba sido as. +Hubo momentos en los que haba tratado de ocultar su brillo. Cada estrella atraviesa perodos de dificultades, Se necesita una luz ms brillante para inspirarlas en la oscuridad. +Pero lleg Little Miss Sunshine cantando su cancin favorita de cmo estamos hechos para ser fuertes, y que uno no est equivocado de ser fiel a lo que es, porque todos somos estrellas en el corazn. +Ella dijo: "Toda la oscuridad en el mundo no puede apagar la luz de una sola vela. Entonces, cmo demonios pueden manejar tu luz? +Solo Uds. pueden elegir atenuarla, y el cielo es el lmite, para silenciar las crticas por la quemadura". Y si los ojos son las ventanas al alma, entonces ella descorri las cortinas y dej que el sol brillara atravesando el dolor. +En un universo de adversidad estas estrellas se agruparon. Y si los das se convirtieron en noches, los recuerdos perdurarn por siempre. Aunque lo dijera o no el hombre del tiempo, todo saldr bien. Porque an detrs de las nubes el Sol nio an podr brillar. +S, el Sol nio era brillante, con una personalidad clida. Y en su interior arda salvajemente, impulsado por el fuego inspirado a travs de las galaxias por la chica que le ense a creer. +Muchas gracias. +Les confieso que +soy una profesora de negocios cuya ambicin ha sido ayudar a la gente a aprender a liderar. +Pero hace poco he descubierto que lo que muchos denominamos un gran liderazgo no funciona en trminos de innovacin. +Soy etngrafa. +Uso los mtodos de la antropologa para entender las preguntas que me interesan. +Y, junto con 3 co-conspiradores, pas casi una dcada observando de cerca lderes excepcionales de la innovacin. +Estudiamos 16 hombres y mujeres, de 7 pases de todo el mundo, de 12 industrias diferentes. +En total, pasamos cientos de horas en el campo, en el lugar, observando a estos lderes en accin. +Terminamos con pginas y pginas y pginas de notas de campo en las que analizamos y buscamos patrones en lo que hicieron nuestros lderes. +La conclusin? +Si queremos construir organizaciones que innoven una y otra vez, debemos desaprender nuestras nociones convencionales de liderazgo. +Liderar la innovacin no tiene que ver con crear una visin e inspirar a otros a que la ejecuten. +Pero qu entendemos por innovacin? +Una innovacin es algo nuevo y til. +Puede ser un producto o servicio. +Puede ser un proceso o una forma de organizarse. +Puede ser incremental o disruptiva. +Tenemos una definicin bastante inclusiva. +Cuntos de Uds. reconocen a este hombre? +Levanten la mano. +Levanten la mano si lo conocen. +Qu hay de estos rostros familiares? +Viendo sus manos parece que muchos de Uds. han vistos pelculas de Pixar pero pocos reconocen a Ed Catmull, el fundador y CEO de Pixar, una de las empresas que tuve el privilegio de estudiar. +Mi primera visita a Pixar fue en 2005, cuando estaban trabajando en "Ratatouille", esa pelcula en la que un ratn se convierte en maestro de cocina. +Las pelculas generadas por computadora son algo muy comn hoy en da, pero les llev a Ed y sus colegas cerca de 20 aos crear el primer largometraje generado por computadora. +En los 20 aos, por lo tanto, produjeron 14 pelculas. +Estuve recientemente en Pixar, y estoy aqu para decirles que la nmero 15 seguro ser un xito. +Cuando muchos de nosotros pensamos en innovacin, sin embargo, pensamos en un Einstein con un momento "Aj!". +Pero todos sabemos que eso es un mito. +La innovacin no tiene que ver con un genio solitario, sino con un genio colectivo. +Pensemos un minuto en lo que se necesita para hacer una pelcula de Pixar: A esas pelculas no las produce un genio solitario, ni una chispa de inspiracin. +Al contrario, requiere cerca de 250 personas, durante 4 o 5 aos, hacer una de esas pelculas. +Para ayudar a entender el proceso, un individuo en el estudio dibuj una versin de esta imagen. +Lo hizo a regaadientes, porque sugera que el proceso era una serie ordenada de pasos realizado por grupos discretos. +Incluso con todas esas flechas, pens que realmente no muestra lo iterativo, interrelacionado y, francamente, desordenado que era. +La historia se desarrolla al hacer una pelcula de Pixar. +Pensemos en ello. +Algunas tomas salen rpido. +No todas salen en orden. +Depende del porte de los desafos de cada escena en particular. +Si piensan en la escena de "Up" en la que el nio le pasa el trozo de chocolate al ave, el acabado de esos 10 segundos demandaron 6 meses de un animador. +Otro aspecto de una pelcula de Pixar es que ninguna parte de la pelcula se considera terminada hasta que toda la pelcula est terminada. +En cierto punto de una produccin, un animador dibuj un personaje con una ceja arqueada que sugera un lado travieso. +Cuando el director vio ese dibujo, pens que era genial. +Era hermoso, pero dijo: "Tienes que desecharlo; no encaja con el personaje". +Dos semanas ms tarde el director volvi y dijo: "Pongamos esos pocos segundos del film". +Gracias a que al animador se le permiti compartir lo que denominamos "su rebanada de genio" pudo ayudar al director a repensar el personaje de una manera sutil pero importante que mejoraba la historia. +Sabemos que en el corazn de la innovacin hay una paradoja. +Hay que dar rienda suelta a los talentos y las pasiones de muchas personas y aprovecharlos para que el trabajo sea til. +La innovacin es un viaje. +Es un tipo de resolucin de problemas colaborativa por lo general de personas que tienen distintas experiencias y distintos puntos de vista. +Las innovaciones rara vez se crean de una vez. +Como muchos saben, por lo general, son el resultado de prueba y error. +Hay muchos falsos comienzos, tropiezos y errores. +El trabajo innovador puede ser muy estimulante, pero tambin puede ser francamente aterrador. +Cuando vemos por qu Pixar puede hacer lo que hace, tenemos que preguntarnos, qu sucede aqu? +Por supuesto, la historia y, ciertamente, Hollywood, est llena de equipos plagados de estrellas, que han fracasado. +La mayora de esos fracasos se atribuyen a demasiadas estrellas o demasiados cocineros, si se quiere, en la cocina. +Entonces por qu Pixar, con tantos cocineros, tiene xito una y otra vez? +Cuando estudiamos un banco islmico de Dubi, o una marca de lujo en Corea, o una empresa social en frica, encontramos que las organizaciones innovadoras son comunidades que tienen 3 capacidades: abrasin creativa, agilidad creativa y resolucin creativa. +La abrasin creativa es poder crear un mercado de ideas mediante el debate y el discurso. +En las organizaciones innovadoras, se amplifican las diferencias, no se minimizan. +La abrasin creativa no es una lluvia de ideas, en la que las personas suspenden su juicio. +No, ellos saben cmo tener acaloradas discusiones pero argumentos constructivos para crear una cartera de alternativas. +Los individuos en las organizaciones innovadoras aprenden a indagar, a escuchar activamente, pero adivinen qu? +Tambin aprenden a defender sus puntos de vista. +Entienden que la innovacin rara vez sucede a menos que haya diversidad y conflicto. +La agilidad creativa es poder probar y refinar esa cartera de ideas mediante bsqueda rpida, reflexin y ajuste. +Es aprendizaje por descubrimiento es actuar, en lugar de planificar el camino hacia el futuro. +Es el "pensamiento de diseo" en el que existe esa combinacin interesante de mtodo cientfico y proceso artstico. +Es ejecutar una serie de experimentos, y no una serie de pilotos. +Los experimentos son sobre aprendizaje. +Cuando uno tiene un resultado negativo, realmente aprende algo que necesita saber. +Los pilotos a menudo tienen que ver con tener razn. +Cuando no funcionan, alguien o algo tiene la culpa. +La capacidad final es la resolucin creativa. +Esto tiene que ver con tomar una decisin en la que uno puede combinar incluso ideas opuestas para reconfigurarlas en nuevas combinaciones y producir una solucin nueva y til. +Las organizaciones innovadoras nunca conceden para llevarse bien. +No llegan a soluciones de compromiso. +No permiten que un grupo o un individuo domine, incluso si es el jefe, incluso si es el experto. +En cambio, han desarrollado un proceso de decisin ms bien paciente y ms inclusivo que les permite soluciones AMBAS / Y y no solo soluciones ALGUNA / O. +Por estas 3 capacidades vemos que Pixar puede hacer lo que hace. +Les dar otro ejemplo, el ejemplo es del grupo de infraestructura de Google. +El grupo de infraestructura de Google es el responsable de mantener el sitio web en funcionamiento 24/7. +Cuando Google estaba por presentar Gmail y YouTube, ellos saban que su sistema de almacenamiento de datos no era adecuado. +El jefe del grupo de ingeniera y el grupo de infraestructuras en ese momento era un hombre llamado Bill Coughran. +Bill y su equipo de liderazgo, al que llama "cerebro de confianza", tena que pensar qu hacer con esta situacin. +Lo pensaron durante un tiempo. +En vez de crear un grupo para abordar esta tarea, decidieron permitir que surgieran grupos espontneamente con distintas alternativas. +Dos grupos se fundieron. +Uno se conoca como Big Table, y el otro como Construir Desde Cero. +Big Table propuso construir sobre el sistema actual. +Construir Desde Cero propuso hacer un nuevo sistema. +Por separado, a estos 2 equipos se les permiti trabajar a tiempo completo en sus enfoques particulares. +En las revisiones de ingeniera, Bill describi su papel como una "inyeccin de honestidad en el proceso que propici el debate". +Rpidamente, se anim a los equipos a construir prototipos para "enfrentar la realidad y probar por s mismos las fortalezas y debilidades de sus enfoques particulares". +Cuando Construir Desde Cero comparti su prototipo con el grupo y las alarmas sonaban a media noche si algo iba mal en el sitio web, escucharon en voz alta y clara las limitaciones de su diseo particular. +Conforme la necesidad de una solucin se hizo ms urgente y empezaron a entrar los datos, o las pruebas, se hizo bastante claro que la solucin Big Table era la ms adecuada para el momento. +As que seleccionaron esa. +Pero para asegurarse de no perder el aprendizaje del equipo Construir Desde Cero, Bill les pidi a 2 miembros de ese equipo que se sumaran a un nuevo equipo emergente para trabajar en el sistema de prxima generacin. +Todo este proceso llev casi 2 aos, pero me dijeron que todos trabajaron a una velocidad vertiginosa. +Ni bien empezaron, uno de los ingenieros le dijo a Bill: "Estamos todos muy ocupados por culpa de este sistema ineficiente de ejecutar experimentos en paralelo". +Pero a medida que avanzaba el proyecto, empez a comprender la sabidura de permitir que gente talentosa desplegara sus pasiones. +Admiti: "Si nos hubieras forzado a todos a estar en un equipo, nos habramos centrado en probar quin tena razn, y en ganar, y no en aprender y descubrir la mejor respuesta para Google". +Por qu Pixar y Google pueden innovar una y otra vez? +Porque han dominado las capacidades necesarias para ello. +Saben cmo resolver problemas de manera colaborativa, saben aprender por descubrimiento, y saben tomar decisiones integradas. +Algunos de Uds. all sentados puede que se digan en este momento: "No sabemos hacer esas cosas en mi organizacin. +Cmo es que lo saben en Pixar y cmo lo saben en Google?" +Cuando muchas de las personas que trabajaron para Bill nos dijeron que en su opinin, Bill era uno de los lderes ms finos de Silicon Valley, estuvimos completamente de acuerdo; el hombre es un genio. +El liderazgo es la salsa secreta. +Pero es un tipo distinto de liderazgo, no del tipo en que pensamos al pensar en gran liderazgo. +Uno de los lderes que conoc desde el principio me dijo: "Linda, no leo libros sobre liderazgo. +Me hacen sentir mal". "En el primer captulo dicen que se supone que debo crear una visin. +Pero si trato de hacer algo muy nuevo, no tengo respuestas. +No s en qu direccin vamos y ni siquiera s cmo averiguar cmo llegar all". +Claro, hay veces en las que el liderazgo visionario es exactamente lo que se necesita. +Pero si queremos crear organizaciones que puedan innovar una y otra vez, debemos modificar nuestra comprensin del liderazgo. +Liderar la innovacin es crear el espacio en el que las personas estn dispuestas a trabajar arduamente en la resolucin innovadora de problemas. +En este momento, muchos de Uds. se estarn preguntando: "Cmo es realmente ese liderazgo?" +En Pixar entienden que la innovacin no es algo individual. +Los lderes se centran en crear un sentido de comunidad y en desarrollar esas 3 capacidades. +Cmo definen el liderazgo? +Dicen que el liderazgo tiene que ver con crear un mundo al que la gente quiere pertenecer. +A qu clase de mundo quiere la gente pertenecer en Pixar? +Un mundo en el que uno vive en la frontera. +En qu centran su tiempo? +No en crear una visin. +En cambio, pasan su tiempo pensando: "Cmo disear un estudio con la sensibilidad de una plaza pblica para que las personas interacten? +Pongamos una poltica que cualquiera, sin importar su nivel o funcin, pueda dejarle notas al director sobre sus percepciones respecto de una pelcula en particular. +Qu podemos hacer para asegurar que los disruptores, las voces minoritarias de la organizacin, hablen claro y sean odas? +Finalmente, otorguemos crdito de manera muy generosa". +No s si se han detenido a ver los crditos de una pelcula de Pixar, pero los bebs nacidos durante una produccin se enumeran all. +Cmo pens Bill su papel? +Bill dijo: "Yo conduzco una organizacin de voluntarios. +Las personas talentosas no quieren seguirme a cualquier lugar. +Quieren co-crear conmigo el futuro. +Mi tarea es fomentar el modelo abajo-arriba y que no degenere en caos". +Cmo vea l su rol? +"Soy un modelo a seguir, soy un pegamento humano, soy un conector, un agrupador de puntos de vista. +Nunca soy un dictador de puntos de vista". +Consejos sobre cmo ejercita el rol? +Contraten personas que discutan con Uds. +Y adivinen qu? +A veces es mejor ser deliberadamente confuso e impreciso. +Algunos de Uds. se preguntarn, en qu estn pensando estas personas? +Ellos estn pensando: "Yo no soy el visionario, soy el arquitecto social. +Estoy creando el espacio donde la gente est dispuesta y pueda compartir y combinar sus talentos y pasiones". +Si a alguno le preocupa el hecho de no trabajar en Pixar, o no trabajar en Google, quiero decirles que an hay esperanza. +Hemos estudiado muchas organizaciones, no las organizaciones que uno pensara como lugares de innovacin. +Estudiamos un consejero general en una empresa farmacutica que tena que pensar cmo unos abogados externos, 19 competidores, colaboraban e innovaban. +Estudiamos al jefe de marketing de una automotriz alemana donde, fundamentalmente, crean que eran los ingenieros de diseo, no la gente de marketing, los que podan ser innovadores. +Tambin estudiamos a Vineet Nayar en HCL Technologies, una empresa de outsourcing de India. +Cuando conocimos a Vineet, su empresa estaba a punto, en sus palabras, de volverse irrelevante. +Vimos cmo convirti esa empresa en un dnamo mundial de innovacin en TI. +En HCL Technologies, como en muchas empresas, los lderes haban aprendido a marcar el camino y a asegurarse de que nadie se desviara de l. +Y l les dijo que era hora de repensar lo que se supona que tenan que hacer. +Porque ocurra que todos miraban para arriba y no se vea esa innovacin de abajo arriba que veamos en Pixar o en Google. +Empezaron a trabajar en eso. +Dejaron de dar respuestas, dejaron de tratar de dar soluciones. +En cambio, empezaron a ver a las personas de la base de la pirmide, las chispas jvenes, las personas que estaban ms cerca de los clientes, como la fuente de innovacin. +Empezaron a transferir el crecimiento de la organizacin a ese nivel. +En palabras de Vineet, fue invertir la pirmide para desatar el poder de los muchos aflojando el dominio absoluto de los pocos, y aumentar la calidad y la velocidad de la innovacin que estaba ocurriendo a diario. +Por supuesto, Vineet y los otros lderes que estudiamos, de hecho, eran visionarios. +Por supuesto, entendieron que ese no era su rol. +Por eso pienso que no es coincidencia que muchos de Uds. no reconocieran a Ed. +Porque Ed, como Vineet, entienden que nuestro rol como lderes es preparar el escenario, no actuar en l. +Si queremos inventar un mejor futuro, y sospecho que por eso muchos estamos aqu, tenemos que reimaginar nuestra tarea. +Nuestra tarea es crear el espacio donde todas las rebanadas de genio sean liberadas y aprovechadas, y traducidas en obras de genio colectivo. +Gracias. +No los puedo olvidar. +Sus nombres son Aslan, Alik, Andrei, Fernanda, Fred, Galina, Gunnhild, Hans, Ingeborg, Matti, Natalya, Nancy, Sheryl, Usman, Zarema, y la lista es ms larga. +Para muchos, su existencia, su humanidad, han sido reducidas a estadsticas, registradas framente como "incidentes de seguridad". +Para m, eran colegas de la comunidad de trabajadores de ayuda humanitaria que trataron de llevar un poco de consuelo a las vctimas de las guerras chechenas de los 90. +Eran enfermeros, logsticos, expertos de albergaje, paralegales, intrpretes. +Y por este servicio fueron asesinados, sus familias quedaron destrozadas, y sus historias en gran medida olvidadas. +Nunca juzgaron a nadie por estos crmenes. +Yo no los puedo olvidar. +Ellos viven en m de alguna manera, sus recuerdos me dan sentido cada da. +Pero tambin se instalan en la parte oscura de mi mente. +Como trabajadores de ayuda humanitaria, tomaron la decisin de estar acompaando a la vctima, brindando algn servicio, algn consuelo, alguna proteccin, pero cuando ellos necesitaron proteccin, no la tuvieron. +Si vemos el titular de los peridicos estos das sobre la guerra en Irak o Siria: --auxiliar secuestrado, rehn ejecutado-- Quines son? +Por qu estaban all? +Qu los motivaba? +Cmo nos volvimos tan indiferentes a estos crmenes? +Hoy estoy aqu con Uds. por este motivo. +Debemos encontrar maneras mejores de recordarlos. +Debemos explicar los valores clave a los que ellos dedicaban sus vidas. +Tambin tenemos que demandar justicia. +Cuando en el 96 el Alto Comisionado de la ONU para los Refugiados me envi al Cucaso septentrional, conoc algunos de los riesgos. +Cinco colegas haban sido asesinados, tres haban sido gravemente heridos, siete ya haban sido tomados como rehenes. +As que tuvimos cautela. +Usamos vehculos blindados, autos seuelo, cambios en los patrones de viaje, hogares cambiantes, todo tipo de medidas de seguridad. +Sin embargo, en una fra noche invernal de enero del 98, fue mi turno. +Cuando entr en mi apartamento en Vladikavkaz con un guardia, estaba rodeado de hombres armados. +Redujeron al guardia, lo pusieron en el suelo, lo golpearon frente a m, lo ataron, lo arrastraron. +Yo estaba esposado, con los ojos vendados, me obligaron a arrodillarme, con el silenciador de un arma en mi cuello. +Cuando eso le pasa a uno, no hay tiempo para pensar, no hay tiempo para orar. +Mi cerebro qued en automtico, rebobinando rpido la vida que acababa de dejar atrs. +Me llev un tiempo averiguar que esos hombres enmascarados no estaban all para matarme, sino que alguien, en alguna parte, haba ordenado mi secuestro. +As empez un proceso de deshumanizacin. +Yo no era ms que una mercanca. +Normalmente no hablo de esto, pero me gustara compartir con Uds. algunos de esos 317 das de cautiverio. +Me mantuvieron en una bodega subterrnea, en total oscuridad, durante 23 horas y 45 minutos cada da, y luego venan los guardias, normalmente dos. +Traan un gran trozo de pan, un plato de sopa y una vela. +Esa vela arda durante 15 minutos, 15 minutos de preciosa luz, y luego me la quitaban, y yo volva a la oscuridad. +Yo estaba encadenado con un cable metlico a mi cama. +Poda dar solo cuatro pasos pequeos. +Siempre soaba con el quinto. +No tena TV, ni radio, ni peridicos, ni nadie con quien hablar. +No tena toalla, ni jabn, ni papel higinico. solo dos cubos de metal abiertos, uno para el agua, otro para residuos. +Imaginan que el simulacro de ejecucin pueda ser un pasatiempo para los guardias por sadismo, aburrimiento o embriaguez? +Lentamente colmaban mi paciencia. +El aislamiento y la oscuridad son particularmente difciles de describir. +Cmo describir la nada? +No hay palabras para describir las profundidades de la soledad que sent en esa frontera tan delgada entre la cordura y la locura. +En la oscuridad, a veces jugaba juegos imaginarios de damas. +Me gustaba empezar con las negras, jugar con las blancas, volver a las negras, tratando de engaar al otro lado. +Ya no juego damas. +Me atormentaba el pensamiento de mi familia y mi colega, el guardia, Edik. +No saba lo que le haba sucedido. +Trataba de no pensar, trataba de ocupar mi tiempo haciendo todo tipo de ejercicio fsico en el lugar. +Trat de orar, e intent todo tipo de juegos de memorizacin. +Pero la oscuridad tambin crea imgenes y pensamientos que no son normales. +Una parte del cerebro quiere resistir, gritar, llorar, y la otra parte del cerebro ordena que nos callemos y sobrellevemos la situacin. +Es un debate interno constante; no hay nadie para arbitrar. +Una vez un guardia se acerc a m, muy agresivo, y me dijo: "Hoy vas a arrodillarte y rogar por tu comida". +Yo no estaba de buen humor, as que le insult. +Insult a su madre, insult a sus antepasados. +La consecuencia fue moderada: l arroj la comida a la basura. +Al da siguiente regres con el mismo pedido. +Tuvo la misma respuesta, que tuvo la misma consecuencia. +Cuatro das despus, me dola todo el cuerpo. +Yo no saba que el hambre duele tanto cuando uno tiene tan poco. +As que cuando regresaron los guardias, me arrodill. +Rogu por mi comida. +La sumisin era mi nica manera de conseguir otra vela. +Luego de mi secuestro, me trasladaron de Osetia del Norte a Chechenia, fueron tres das de lenta marcha en diferentes coches, y, al llegar, un tipo llamado Ruslan me interrog durante 11 das. +La rutina siempre era la misma: un poco ms leve, 45 minutos. +l vena a la bodega, peda a los guardias que me ataran a la silla, y pona la msica a todo volumen. +Luego gritaba las preguntas. +Gritaba. Me golpeaba. +Les evitar los detalles. +Hay muchas preguntas que no pude entender, y otras que no quise entender. +El interrogatorio duraba lo que duraba la cinta: 15 canciones, 45 minutos. +Yo siempre aoraba la ltima cancin. +Un da, una noche en la bodega, no s qu era, o el llanto de un nio sobre mi cabeza, un nio, quiz de 2 o 3 aos. +Pasos, confusin, gente corriendo. +Cuando Ruslan regres al da siguiente, antes de que me hiciera la primera pregunta, le pregunt: "Cmo est tu hijo hoy? Est mejor?" +Tom a Ruslan por sorpresa. +Estaba furioso de que los guardias hubieran filtrado detalles de su vida privada. +Segu hablando de las ONGs que proveen medicinas a las clnicas locales que podan ayudar a su hijo a mejorar. +Hablamos de educacin, hablamos de las familias. +l me habl de sus hijos. +Yo le habl de mis hijas. +Y luego l habl de armas, de autos, de mujeres, y yo tuve que hablar de armas, de autos, de mujeres. +Y hablamos hasta la ltima cancin de la cinta. +Ruslan era el tipo ms cruel que conoc. +No me toc nunca ms. +No me hizo ms preguntas. +Yo ya no era solo una mercanca. +Dos das despus, me transfirieron a otro lugar. +All un guardia se me acerc --algo bastante inusual-- y con una voz muy suave dijo: "Quiero agradecerte por la asistencia que tu organizacin le dio a mi familia cuando nos desplazaron en las cercanas de Daguestn". +Qu poda responder yo? +Era muy doloroso. Era como una navaja en el vientre. +Me llev semanas de debate interno tratar de conciliar las buenas razones que tuvimos para ayudar a esa familia y al afortunado soldado en que se convirti. +Era joven, era tmido. +Nunca vi su rostro. +Quiz tena buenas intenciones. +Pero en esos 15 segundos, me hizo cuestionar todo lo que hice, todos los sacrificios. +Me hizo pensar tambin cmo nos ven ellos. +Hasta entonces, yo supona que ellos saban por qu estbamos all y qu estbamos haciendo. +No podemos suponer esto. +Bueno, explicar por qu hacemos esto no es tan fcil, incluso a nuestros parientes ms cercanos. +No somos perfectos, ni superiores, no somos bomberos del mundo, no somos superhroes, no detenemos guerras, sabemos que la respuesta humanitaria no sustituye a la solucin poltica. +Sin embargo, lo hacemos porque cada vida importa. +A veces esa es la nica diferencia que uno marca --una persona, una familia, un pequeo grupo de personas-- y es importante. +Cuando uno tiene un tsunami, un terremoto o un huracn, ve equipos de rescatistas procedentes de todo el mundo, que buscan sobrevivientes durante semanas. +Por qu? Nadie pone en duda esto. +Cada vida importa, o cada vida debera importar. +Es lo mismo para nosotros cuando ayudamos a los refugiados, personas desplazadas dentro de su pas por el conflicto, o personas aptridas, conozco a muchas personas, cuando enfrentan un sufrimiento abrumador, se sienten impotentes y se detienen all. +Es una pena, porque hay muchas formas de ayudar. +No nos detenemos en ese sentimiento. +Tratamos de hacer lo posible por brindar alguna ayuda, algo de proteccin, algo de consuelo. +Tenemos que hacerlo. +No podemos hacer otra cosa. +Es lo que nos hace sentir, no s, simplemente humanos. +Esa es una imagen ma el da de mi liberacin. +Meses despus de mi liberacin, encontr al exprimer ministro francs. +La segunda cosa que me dijo fue: "Ud. fue totalmente irresponsable al ir al Cucaso Norte. +No sabe cuntos problemas nos ha generado". +Fue una reunin corta. +Creo que ayudar a la gente en peligro es ser responsable. +En esa guerra, que nadie seriamente quera detener, y hoy tenemos muchas as, llevar un poco de ayuda a los necesitados y un poco de proteccin no fue solo un acto de humanidad, marc una diferencia real para la gente. +Por qu l no poda entender esto? +Tenemos la responsabilidad de intentarlo. +Conocen ese concepto: la responsabilidad de proteger. +Los resultados pueden depender de diversos parmetros. +Incluso podemos fallar, pero peor que fracasar es no haberlo intentado cuando pudimos hacerlo. +Bueno, si piensan as, si participan en este tipo de trabajo, sus vidas estarn colmadas de alegra y de tristeza, porque hay mucha gente a la que no podemos ayudar, mucha gente a la que no podemos proteger, mucha a la que no podemos salvar. +los llamo mi fantasma, y por haber sido testigo de su sufrimiento de cerca, uno lleva un poco de ese sufrimiento consigo. +Muchos jvenes trabajadores humanitarios transitan su primera experiencia con mucha amargura. +Son arrojados a situaciones en las que son testigos, pero a la vez impotentes de llevar algn cambio. +Tiene que aprender a aceptarlo y poco a poco transformar esto en energa positiva. +Es difcil. +Muchos no tienen xito, pero para quienes s lo tienen, no hay otro trabajo como este. +Uno puede ver la diferencia que marca cada da. +Los trabajadores de ayuda humanitaria conocen el riesgo que estn asumiendo en zonas de conflicto o en situaciones posteriores a conflictos, sin embargo, nuestra vida, nuestro trabajo, cada vez est ms en peligro, y la santidad de la vida se est desvaneciendo. +Saben que desde el inicio del milenio, se ha triplicado la cantidad de ataques contra trabajadores humanitarios? +2013 bati nuevos rcords: 155 colegas asesinados, 171 heridos graves, 134 secuestrados. +Demasiadas vidas rotas. +Hasta el inicio de la guerra civil en Somalia en los pasados aos 80, los trabajadores de ayuda humanitaria a veces eran vctimas de lo que llamamos daos colaterales, pero por lo general no ramos el objetivo de estos ataques. +Esto ha cambiado. +Miren esta imagen. +Bagdad, agosto de 2003: 24 colegas asesinados. +Atrs han quedado los das en que una bandera azul de la ONU o una Cruz Roja nos protegan automticamente. +Grupos criminales y algunos grupos polticos se han mezclado en los ltimos 20 aos, creando esta suerte de hbridos con los que no tenemos forma de comunicarnos. +Cuestionan los principios humanitarios, los ponen a prueba y a menudo los ignoran. Pero quiz, ms importante, hemos abandonado la bsqueda de justicia. +Parece no haber consecuencia alguna de los ataques contra trabajadores de ayuda humanitaria. +Despus de mi liberacin, me dijeron que no buscara justicia. +"No te har ningn bien", me dijeron. +"Adems, pondr en peligro la vida de otros colegas". +Me llev aos ver la sentencia de tres personas asociadas con mi secuestro, pero esto fue la excepcin. +No hubo justicia para los trabajadores de ayuda humanitaria asesinados o secuestrados en Chechenia entre el 95 y el 99, y es as en todo el mundo. +Esto es inaceptable. +Esto es imperdonable. +Los ataques contra trabajadores humanitarios son crmenes de guerra en el derecho internacional. +Esos crmenes no deben quedar impunes. +Debemos poner fin a este ciclo de impunidad. +Consideremos que esos ataques contra los trabajadores de ayuda humanitaria son ataques contra la humanidad misma. +Eso me pone furioso. +S que soy muy afortunado en comparacin con los refugiados para los que trabajo. +No s cmo es ver a mi ciudad destruida. +No s cmo es que maten a mis parientes ante m. +No s cmo es perder la proteccin de mi pas. +Tambin s que soy muy afortunado en comparacin con otros rehenes. +Cuatro das antes de mi accidentada liberacin, decapitaron a cuatro rehenes a pocos km de donde yo estaba en cautiverio. +Por qu a ellos? +Por qu estoy yo hoy aqu? +No hay respuesta fcil. +Recib mucho apoyo de familiares, colegas, amigos, de gente que no conoca. +Ellos me han ayudado a lo largo de los aos a salir de la oscuridad. +No todo el mundo fue tratado con la misma atencin. +Cuntos de mis colegas, despus de un incidente traumtico, retomaron su vida? +Puedo contar los nueve que conoc personalmente. +Cuntos de mis colegas pasaron por un divorcio difcil despus de una experiencia traumtica porque no podan explicarle nada ms a su cnyuge? +He perdido esa cuenta. +Hay un precio para este tipo de vida. +En Rusia, los monumentos de guerra tienen arriba esta hermosa inscripcin. +Dice " , ". "Nadie se olvida, nada se olvida". +Yo no olvido a mis colegas perdidos. +No puedo olvidar nada. +Hago un llamamiento a que recuerden su dedicacin y que exijan que los trabajadores humanitarios de todo el mundo estn mejor protegidos. +No debemos permitir que se apague la luz de la esperanza que trajeron. +Despus de mi experiencia, muchos colegas me preguntaron: "Por qu sigues? +Por qu haces este tipo de trabajo? +Por qu tienes que volver a eso?" +Mi respuesta fue muy simple: De haber renunciado, implicara que ganaron mis secuestradores, +que habran tomado mi alma y mi humanidad. +Gracias. +Quisiera contarles una historia sobre muerte y arquitectura. +Hace cien aos, la tendencia era a morir de enfermedades como neumona, que, si progresaban, acababan con nosotros muy rpido. +Lo frecuente era morir en casa, en la cama, cuidados por la familia, que era la opcin comn ya que muchos no tenan acceso a servicios de salud. +Luego, en el siglo XX, cambiaron muchas cosas. +Se desarrollaron nuevas drogas como la penicilina y se pudo tratar esas enfermedades infecciosas. +Se inventaron nuevas tecnologas como los rayos X. +Y como las mquinas eran tan grandes y costosas, se necesitaban grandes edificios centralizados que se convirtieron en los hospitales modernos. +Despus de la Segunda Guerra Mundial muchos pases montaron sistemas universales de salud para que todos pudieran obtener los tratamientos necesarios. +Como resultado de aquello, la esperanza de vida pas de unos 45 aos a comienzos de siglo, a casi el doble hoy en da. +El siglo XX fue de gran optimismo por lo que la ciencia poda ofrecer, pero con toda la atencin en la vida, nos olvidamos de la muerte, y hasta la forma de percibirla cambi dramticamente. +Soy arquitecta, y he estado observando estos cambios el ltimo ao y medio. pensando en lo que significan para la arquitectura y su relacin con la muerte. +La tendencia actual es a morir de cncer y de enfermedades del corazn, y eso significa que muchos padeceremos largas enfermedades crnicas hacia el final de la vida. +Seguramente pasaremos mucho tiempo en hospitales y clnicas en ese tiempo. +Todos hemos estado en hospitales modernos. +Conocemos esas luces fluorescentes, esos corredores interminables y esas filas de sillas incomodas. +La arquitectura hospitalaria tiene bien ganada su mala reputacin. +Lo sorprendente es que no siempre fue as. +Este es el L'Ospedale degli Innocenti, construido en 1419 por Brunelleschi, uno de los arquitectos ms famosos e influyentes de su tiempo. +Cuando miro este edificio y pienso en los hospitales actuales, me sorprende su ambicin. +Es una edificacin realmente grandiosa. +Tiene estos patios en el centro para que todos los cuartos tengan luz de da y aire fresco, grandes, con cielorrasos altos para que resulten ms confortables a sus ocupantes. +Y es tambin hermoso. +De alguna forma, hemos olvidado que esto es posible incluso para un hospital. +Pero, si queremos mejores lugares para morir, tenemos que hablar sobre ello, y como la muerte es un tema incmodo no hablamos de ella y no cuestionamos la forma como la sociedad lo trata. +Una de las cosas que ms me sorprendi en mi investigacin, sin embargo, es cun susceptibles al cambio son nuestras actitudes. +Este es el primer crematorio del Reino Unido, construido en Woking hacia 1870. +Cuando se construy hubo protestas en la poblacin. +La cremacin no era socialmente aceptada; Se enterraba al 99,8 % de las personas. +Hoy, a solo cien aos de aquello, el 75 % de la gente es cremada. +La gente est realmente abierta al cambio si se los deja hablar de ello. +Esta conversacin sobre muerte y arquitectura era la que yo quera empezar cuando hice mi primera exhibicin sobre ello en Venecia en junio, que se llam "Muerte en Venecia". +Se dise para que fuera divertida y la gente, literalmente, se entretuviera con ella. +Este es una de los objetos; un mapa interactivo de Londres que muestra cunto de la propiedad raz de la ciudad se dedica a la muerte, y cuando uno pasa la mano por el mapa, aparece el nombre de la propiedad, el edificio o el cementerio. +Otra parte de la exposicin fue una serie de tarjetas postales que la gente poda llevarse. +Mostraban hogares, hospitales, cementerios y morgues, y contaban la historia de los distintos espacios por los que pasamos cuando estamos a uno u otro lado de la muerte. +Queramos demostrar que el lugar donde morimos es importante para la forma cmo vamos a morir. +Lo ms extrao fue la reaccin de los visitantes ante la exhibicin, especialmente ante la parte audiovisual. +Haba gente que bailaba, corra y saltaba mientras intentaba activar las obras de diferente forma, y en un momento dado, como que se paraban y recordaban que estaban en una exposicin sobre la muerte y que, tal vez, no era as como se esperaba que actuaran. +Gracias. +Las recetas tradicionales de crecimiento en frica no estn funcionando muy bien. +Despus de un billn de dlares en ayuda al desarrollo de frica en los ltimos 60 aos, el ingreso real per cpita actual es menor que en la dcada de 1970. +La ayuda no est funcionando demasiado bien. +En respuesta, las instituciones de Bretton Woods, el FMI y el Banco Mundial, impulsadas por el libre comercio no proporcionan ayudas, sin embargo, la historia muestra poca evidencia emprica de que el libre comercio lleve al crecimiento econmico. +La frmula milagrosa recin prescrita es el microcrdito. +Parece que estamos obsesionados con esta idea romntica de que cada campesino pobre en frica es un empresario. +Sin embargo, mi trabajo y viajes por ms de 40 pases de frica me han enseado que en vez de eso, la mayora de la gente quiere empleo. +Mi solucin: Olvdense de los microempresarios. +Invirtamos en la construccin de titanes panafricanos como el empresario sudans Mo Ibrahim. +Mo adopt una posicin contraria a frica al fundar Celtel Internacional en 1998 creando un proveedor de telefona celular mvil con 24 millones de suscriptores en 14 pases africanos en 2004. +El modelo Mo podra ser mejor que el del emprendedor para toda persona corriente, lo que impide un medio eficaz de difusin y de intercambio de conocimientos. +Tal vez no estamos en una etapa en frica, donde muchos actores y pequeas empresas llevan al crecimiento movidos por la competencia. +Tengan en cuenta estos dos escenarios alternativos. +Uno: Uno presta USD 200 a cada uno de los 500 productores de banano lo que permite que sus bananos excedentes se sequen y que obtengan 15 % ms de ingresos en el mercado local. +O dos: se da USD 100 000 a un empresario con experiencia y se le ayuda a constituir una fbrica que produzca el 40 % de ingresos a los 500 productores de banano creando 50 empleos adicionales. +Invertimos en el segundo escenario, para apoyar al empresario keniano Eric Muthomi, de 26 aos, a montar una fbrica de procesamiento de productos agrcolas llamada Stawi que produce harina a base de pltano y alimentos sin gluten para bebs. +Stawi aprovecha las economas de escala y el uso de procesos de fabricacin modernos para crear valor no solo para sus propietarios sino para sus trabajadores con una participacin en el negocio. +Nuestro sueo es tener un Eric Muthomi y ayudarle a convertirse en un Mo Ibrahim, lo que requiere habilidad, financiacin, alianzas locales y mundiales, y una extraordinaria perseverancia. +Pero por qu panafricano? +La disputa por frica durante la Conferencia de Berln de 1884, donde, con toda franqueza, a los africanos no se nos consult, dio lugar a la fragmentacin masiva y muchos estados soberanos con poblaciones pequeas: Liberia, cuatro millones; Cabo Verde, 500 000. +Pan frica se compone de 1000 millones de personas, repartidas por 55 pases con barreras comerciales y otros impedimentos, pero nuestros antepasados comercializaban por todo el continente antes de que los europeos trazaran las fronteras alrededor nuestro. +Las oportunidades panafricanas superan a los desafos, y por eso estamos ampliando los mercados de Stawi de Kenia a Argelia, Nigeria, Ghana y a cualquier lugar donde compren nuestros alimentos. +Esperamos contribuir a resolver la seguridad alimentaria, dar poder a los agricultores, crear empleo, desarrollar la economa local y esperamos ser ricos en el proceso. +Si bien no es el enfoque ms sexy, y aunque tal vez no se logra el mismo sentimiento positivo como dando a una mujer USD 100 para comprar una cabra en kiva.org, tal vez apoyando a menos empresarios de mayor impacto para que construyan grandes negocios que escalan por toda frica se pueda contribuir a este cambio. +La libertad poltica por la que lucharon nuestros antepasados no tiene sentido sin la libertad econmica. +Esperamos ayudar a esta lucha por la libertad econmica mediante la creacin de empresas de clase mundial, mediante la creacin de riqueza autctona, proporcionando empleo que necesitamos tan desesperadamente. Y espero que ayudando a lograr este objetivo, +frica se levantar. +Gracias. +Tom Rielly: Sangu, por supuesto, esto es una retrica fuerte. +Ests haciendo un 100 % de contraste entre el microcrdito y la inversin normal y la creciente inversin normal. +Crees que no existe lugar alguno para el microcrdito? +Sangu Delle: Creo que hay sitio para ello. +El microcrdito ha sido una gran forma innovadora de ampliar el acceso financiero en la base de la pirmide. +Pero para los problemas que enfrentamos en frica, si miramos el Plan Marshall usado para revitalizar la Europa devastada por la guerra, no estaba llena de donaciones de ovejas. +Necesitamos algo ms que el microcrdito. +Necesitamos algo ms que dar USD 200. +Tenemos que construir grandes empresas y necesitamos empleos. +TR: Muy bien. Muchas gracias. +Cuntos han odo hablar del sndrome premenstrual, el SPM? +Todos, verdad? +Todos saben que las mujeres enloquecen un poco justo antes del periodo, que el ciclo menstrual las arroja a una inevitable montaa rusa hormonal de irracionalidad e irritabilidad. +En general se considera que las variaciones en las hormonas reproductivas provocan emociones extremas y que esto afecta a la gran mayora de mujeres. +Estoy aqu para contarles que pruebas cientficas afirman que esas suposiciones no son ciertas. +Estoy aqu para darles una buena noticia sobre el SPM. +Pero antes, echemos un vistazo a lo arraigada que est la idea del SPM en la cultura estadounidense. +Si examinan artculos de peridicos o revistas vern lo mucho que se da por sentado que todas tienen SPM. +En un artculo de la revista Redbook titulado ''T: Libre de SPM'', se informaba de que entre el 80 % y el 90 % de las mujeres sufren de SPM. +Detrs de estos artculos, quiz piensen que hay una enorme investigacin que verifica el carcter extendido del SPM. +Sin embargo, tras cinco dcadas de investigacin, no hay un consenso firme en torno a la definicin, la causa, el tratamiento o, siquiera, la existencia del SPM. +Segn la definicin de la mayora de psiclogos, el SPM implica un comportamiento negativo con sntomas cognitivos y fsicos desde la ovulacin hasta la menstruacin. +Pero aqu es donde esto se vuelve delicado. +Se han aplicado ms de 150 sntomas diferentes para diagnosticar el SPM, y aqu solo estn apuntados algunos. +Pero, quiero que quede claro: +No digo que las mujeres no tengan algunos de estos sntomas. +Lo que digo es que tener algunos de estos sntomas no equivale a tener un trastorno mental, y que, cuando los psiclogos se encuentran con un trastorno definido tan vagamente, la categorizacin pierde sentido. +Con una lista de sntomas de esta longitud, yo podra tener SPM, Ud. podra tener SPM, ese chico de la tercera fila podra tener SPM, mi perro podra tener SPM. Algunos investigadores dijeron que se deban tener cinco sntomas. +Algunos dijeron que tres. +Otros afirmaron que los sntomas solo eran significativos si molestan notablemente, pero otros indicaron que los sntomas leves eran igualmente importantes. +Durante muchos aos, como no haba un consenso en la definicin del SPM, cuando los psiclogos intentaban de los ndices de frecuencia, sus clculos oscilaban entre el 5 % de las mujeres y el 97 % de las mujeres, por lo que, al mismo tiempo, casi ninguna y casi todas tenan el SPM. +Las deficiencias de los mtodos de investigacin han sido significativas. +Primero, se peda a las mujeres que en retrospectiva informaran de sus sntomas; que miraran al pasado confiando en la memoria. Se sabe que esto exagera las cifras del SPM con respecto al anlisis prospectivo, que implica llevar un registro diario de los sntomas al menos durante dos meses seguidos. +Adems, muchos estudios se centran solo en mujeres blancas de clase media, esto dificulta la aplicacin de los resultados a todas las mujeres. +Sabemos que hay un componente cultural importante en la creencia del SPM por ser casi desconocido fuera de Occidente. +En tercer lugar, muchos estudios no utilizaron grupos de control. +Si queremos entender las caractersticas especficas de las mujeres con SPM, debemos compararlas con aquellas que no lo tienen. +Y, por ltimo, se usaron muchos cuestionarios distintos para diagnosticar el SPM, y se centraban en diferentes sntomas, duracin e intensidad. +Para hacer una investigacin fiable sobre cualquier trastorno mdico, los cientficos deben coincidir en las caractersticas especficas que constituyen ese trastorno, de forma que hablen realmente de lo mismo, y, con el SPM, este no ha sido el caso. +Sin embargo, en 1994, el Manual Diagnstico y Estadstico de los Trastornos Mentales, conocido como el DSM, por suerte, (tambin es el manual para los profesionales de la salud mental), redefini el SPM como el TDPM: Trastorno disfrico premenstrual. +Y disforia se refiere a un sentimiento de agitacin o incomodidad. +Y segn estos nuevos criterios del SPM, en la mayora de los ciclos menstruales del ao anterior, al menos cinco de los once sntomas posibles deben aparecer en la semana anterior del comienzo de la menstruacin; los sntomas deben aliviarse una vez que la menstruacin ha comenzado; y deben desaparecer la semana posterior al final de la menstruacin. +Uno de los sntomas debe ser uno de esta lista: marcados cambios de humor, irritabilidad, ansiedad o abatimiento. +Los dems sntomas pueden ser de la primera diapositiva o de la segunda, incluso sntomas como sentirse fuera de control y cambios en el sueo o el apetito. +El DSM tambin estableca ahora que los sntomas se asociaran a una angustia clnicamente significativa, como algn tipo de alteracin en el trabajo, en la escuela o en las relaciones sociales, y que los sntomas y su severidad quedaran registrados en un diario durante al menos dos ciclos consecutivos. +Y, finalmente, el DSM estableca que la perturbacin emocional fuera algo ms que una simple exacerbacin de un trastorno ya existente. +As que, cientficamente hablando, esto es un avance. +Ahora tenemos un nmero limitado de sntomas que deben tener una gran repercusin en la actividad diaria; y el registro y control de los tiempos de los sntomas son muy especficos. +Bueno, pues usando estos criterios y analizando los estudios ms recientes, comprobamos que entre el 3 % y el 6 % de las mujeres sufren el TDPM. +No todas las mujeres, no la gran mayora de las mujeres, ni siquiera muchas mujeres: entre un 3 % y un 8 %. +Para todos las dems, variables como momentos estresantes o felices o incluso el da de la semana son indicadores de nimo ms poderosos que un momento del mes, y esta es la informacin que la comunidad cientfica tiene desde los 90. +En 2002, publiqu un artculo con mis compaeros en el que describamos la investigacin sobre el SPM y el TDPM, y hay muchos artculos semejantes en revistas de psicologa. +La cuestin es, por qu no ha llegado esta informacin al pblico? +Por qu persisten estos mitos? +Bueno, la verdad es que la avalancha de mensajes que las mujeres reciben de libros, televisin, pelculas, Internet sobre que todas tienen SPM contribuye a que se convenzan de que debe ser cierto. +Investigaciones afirman que cuanto ms crea una mujer que todas tienen SPM, ms alta es la probabilidad de que afirme, errneamente, que ella lo tiene. +Djenme explicar qu quiero decir con ''errneamente''. +Puede que le pregunten: ''Tienes SPM''? +y ella diga que s, pero entonces, cuando pides que registre diariamente los sntomas psicolgicos por dos meses, no existe correlacin alguna entre sus sntomas y el momento del mes. +Otra razn por la que persiste el mito del SPM est relacionada con la importante limitacin del rol femenino. +Psiclogas feministas como Joan Chrisler han sugerido que con la etiqueta del SPM se pueden expresar de una forma que, que de otra manera, podra considerarse impropia de seoras. +La definicin casi universal de la buena mujer es aquella que es feliz, cariosa, comprensiva con los dems, y que se siente satisfecha de tener este papel. +El SPM se ha convertido en el permiso para estar enfadada, irritada o para quejarse, sin por ello perder el ttulo de buena mujer. +Sabemos que es ms probable que las variables alrededor de una mujer la hagan enfadarse que sus hormonas, pero cuando ella atribuye su enfado a las hormonas, es absuelta de responsabilidad o crtica. +''No es ella realmente. Est fuera de control''. +Y aunque pueda ser una herramienta til, tambin sirve para invalidar sus emociones +Cuando la gente responde al enfado de una mujer pensando: ''Es solo ese momento del mes'', su capacidad para ser tomada en serio o efectuar cambios se limita seriamente. +As que quin ms se beneficia del mito del SPM? +Puedo decirles que el tratamiento para el SPM se ha convertido en una industria prspera y rentable. +Actualmente, ''Amazon.com'' ofrece ms de 1 900 libros sobre su tratamiento. +Una rpida bsqueda en Google devolver una gran cantidad de clnicas, talleres y seminarios. +Prestigiosas fuentes de Internet de informacin mdica, como WebMD o la Mayo Clinic registra el SPM en la lista de trastornos conocidos. +No es un trastorno conocido, pero lo incluyen. +Y tambin anotan los frmacos que los mdicos han prescrito para tratarlo, como antidepresivos u hormonas. +Curiosamente, ambas webs afirman, sin embargo, que el xito de la medicacin al tratar los sntomas del SPM varan de una mujer a otra. +Bien, eso no tiene sentido. +Si se trata de un trastorno claro con una causa clara, como supuestamente lo es el SPM, entonces el tratamiento debera aliviar a un elevado nmero de mujeres. +No ha sido el caso de estos tratamientos, y la normativa de la FDA expone que, para que un frmaco se considere efectivo, una gran parte de la poblacin meta debera tener una mejora clnicamente significativa. +Y eso no ha sucedido, en absoluto, con estos supuestos tratamientos. +Sin embargo, los beneficios econmicos de perpetuar el mito de que el SPM es un trastorno mental comn y de que es tratable, son bastante importantes. +Cuando se prescribe a mujeres medicamentos como antidepresivos u hormonas, el protocolo mdico exige que se realice un seguimiento mdico cada 3 meses. +Eso son muchas visitas al mdico. +Las compaas farmacuticas obtienen beneficios incalculables cuando las mujeres creen que deben tomar un medicamento durante toda su vida reproductiva. +Medicamentos sin receta como Midol aseguran incluso tratar sntomas del SPM como la tensin y la irritabilidad, aunque solo contengan un diurtico, un analgsico y cafena. +No es que yo quiera discutir los poderes mgicos de la cafena, pero reducir la tensin no es uno de ellos. +Desde 2002, Midol ha puesto a la venta Teen Midol para las adolescentes. +Se dirigen a muchachas jvenes para convencerlas de que todas tienen el SPM y de que las har monstruos, pero, espera, hay algo que puedes hacer: Toma Midol y volvers a ser humana. +En 2013, Midol ingres casi 45 millones de dlares en ventas. +Si el perpetuar el mito ha sido lucrativo para algunos, esto entraa algunas consecuencias serias para las mujeres. +Primero, contribuye a la medicalizacin de la salud reproductiva de la mujer. +El mbito mdico tiene experiencia a la hora de conceptualizar procesos reproductivos femeninos como enfermedades tratables, y esto ha supuesto grandes costes, incluso demasiadas cesreas, histerectomas y tratamientos hormonales prescritos que ms que mejorarla han daado la salud de la mujer. +Segundo, el mito del SPM tambin contribuye al estereotipo de que las mujeres son irracionales y demasiado sensibles. +Cuando el periodo menstrual se describe como montaa rusa hormonal que convierte a las mujeres en fieras iracundas, es fcil cuestionar la capacidad de todas las mujeres. +Los psiclogos saben que el humor de hombres y mujeres es ms parecido que diferente. +Un estudio analiz a hombres y mujeres entre 4 y 6 meses y revel que el nmero de cambios de humor que tuvieron y la severidad de esos cambios de humor eran los mismos. +Y, por ltimo, el mito del SPM impide a las mujeres tratar con los asuntos que de verdad les provocan malestar emocional. +Cuestiones como la calidad de las relaciones o las condiciones laborales o temas sociales como el racismo, el sexismo o el yugo cotidiano de la pobreza estn muy relacionadas con el humor diario. +Meter las emociones bajo la alfombra del SPM impide a las mujeres entender la causa de sus emociones negativas, pero tambin les quita la oportunidad de hacer algo para cambiarlas. +As que la buena noticia sobre el SPM es que, aunque algunas mujeres tienen sntomas por su ciclo menstrual, la gran mayora no tiene ningn trastorno mental. +Van al trabajo o a la escuela, cuidan de sus familias, y llevan una vida normal. +Sabemos que las emociones y el humor de hombres y mujeres son ms parecidos que diferentes, as que dejemos el cansino y anticuado mito del SPM sobre las mujeres-brujas y acojamos la realidad de una actividad altamente emotiva y profesional desempeada por la mayora de las mujeres cada da. +Gracias. +Estamos hechos de cosas muy pequeas, e inmersos en un gran cosmos, y no entendemos bien la realidad de ninguna de esas escalas, y eso se debe a que el cerebro no ha evolucionado para entender el mundo en esa escala. +En cambio, estamos atrapados en esta rebanada muy delgada de percepcin justo en el medio. +Pero es extrao, porque incluso en esa rebanada de realidad que llamamos hogar, no vemos gran parte de la accin que ocurre. +Veamos los colores del mundo. +Estas son ondas de luz, radiacin electromagntica que rebota en los objetos y golpea receptores especializados en la parte posterior de los ojos. +Pero no vemos todas las ondas que existen. +De hecho, vemos menos de una diez billonsima parte de lo que existe. +Hay ondas de radio, microondas rayos X y rayos gamma que atraviesan nuestros cuerpos ahora mismo y no somos conscientes de eso, porque no tenmos los receptores biolgicos adecuados para detectarlos. +Hay miles de conversaciones de telfonos mviles y estamos completamente ciegos a eso. +Pero no es que estas cosas sean inherentemente invisibles. +Las serpientes perciben rayos infrarojos las abejas rayos ultravioletas, y, claro, construmos mquinas en los tableros de nuestros autos para capturar seales en el rango de frecuencias de radio, y construmos mquinas en hospitales para capturar rayos X. +Pero no podemos percibir esto solos, al menos no todava, porque no venimos equipados con los sensores adecuados. +Esto significa que nuestra experiencia de la realidad se ve limitada por nuestra biologa, y eso va en contra de la nocin del sentido comn de que la vista, el odo, el tacto apenas percibe la realidad objetiva circundante. +En cambio, el cerebro muestrea solo una parte del mundo. +Ahora, en todo el reino animal, distintos animales perciben diferentes partes de la realidad. +As, en el mundo ciego y sordo de la garrapata, las seales importantes son la temperatura y el cido butrico; en el mundo del pez cuchillo, su ambiente sensorial es profusamente coloreado por campos elctricos; y para el murcilago de ecolocacin, su mundo est compuesto por ondas de aire comprimido. +Esa es la parte del ecosistema que pueden captar, y en la ciencia tenemos una palabra para esto. +Es el "umwelt", trmino alemn para denominar el mundo circundante. +Al parecer los animales suponen que su umwelt es toda la realidad objetiva circundante, ya que por qu dejaramos de imaginar que existe algo ms de lo que podemos percibir. +En cambio, nosotros aceptamos la realidad como se nos presenta. +Hagamos un despertar de conciencia. +Imaginen que somos un perro sabueso. +Nuestro mundo gira en torno al olfato. +Tenemos un morro largo con 200 millones de receptores olfativos, hocicos hmedos que atraen y atrapan molculas de olor, y fosas nasales que tienen hendiduras para inspirar grandes cantidades de aire. +Todo gira en torno al olfato. +Un da tenemos una revelacin. +Miramos a nuestro dueo humano y pensamos: "Cmo debe ser tener esa lamentable, nariz humana tan empobrecida? +Qu se sentir al inspirar pequeas y dbiles cantidades de aire? +Cmo ser no saber que hay un gato a 90 m de distancia, o que tu vecino estuvo aqu mismo hace 6 horas?" +Como somos humanos nunca hemos experimentado ese mundo del olfato, por eso no lo aoramos, porque estamos cmodos en nuestro umwelt. +Pero la pregunta es, debemos quedar atrapados en l? +Como neurlogo, me interesa ver de qu forma la tecnologa podra expandir nuestro umwelt, y cmo eso podra cambiar la experiencia de ser humano. +Ya sabemos que podemos conjugar tecnologa y biologa porque hay cientos de miles de personas que andan por all con odo y vista artificiales. +Eso funciona as, se pone un micrfono, se digitaliza la seal y se coloca una tira de electrodos directamente en el odo interno. +O, con el implante de retina, se coloca una cmara se digitaliza la seal, y luego se enchufa una tira de electrodos directamente en el nervio ptico. +Y, hace apenas 15 aos, muchos cientficos pensaban que estas tecnologas no funcionaran. +Por qu? Estas tecnologas hablan la lengua de Silicon Valley, y esta no es exactamente la misma que la de nuestros rganos sensoriales biolgicos, +pero funcionan. El cerebro se las ingenia para usar las seales. +Cmo podemos entender eso? +Este es el gran secreto. El cerebro ni oye, ni ve esto. +El cerebro est encerrado en una bveda en silencio y oscuridad en el crneo. +Solo ve seales electroqumicas que vienen en diferentes cables de datos, solo trabaja con esto, nada ms. +Sorprendentemente, el cerebro es muy bueno para captar estas seales extraer patrones y darle significado, as, con este cosmos interior, elabora una historia y, de ah, nuestro mundo subjetivo. +Pero aqu est el secreto. El cerebro ni sabe, ni le importa de dnde vienen los datos. +Cualquier informacin que llega, sabe descifrar qu hacer con ella. +Es una mquina muy eficiente. +Bsicamente se trata de un dispositivo de computacin de propsito general, sencillamente recibe todo y se da cuenta qu hacer con eso, y eso, creo, libera a la Madre Naturaleza para probar distintos canales de entrada. +El cerebro determina qu hacer con los datos que recibe. +Si analizamos el reino animal, encontramos muchos perifricos. +Las serpientes tienen hoyos de calor para detectar infrarrojos, y el pez cuchillo tiene electrorreceptores, y el topo de nariz estrellada tiene este apndice con 22 dedos con los que percibe y construye un modelo 3D del mundo, y muchas aves tienen magnetita para orientarse hacia campo magntico del planeta. +Esto significa que la naturaleza no tiene que redisear continuamente al cerebro. +En cambio, establecidos los principios de la operacin del cerebro, la naturaleza solo tiene que disear nuevos perifricos. +Esto significa lo siguiente: La leccin que surge es que no hay nada realmente especial o fundamental en la biologa que traemos. +Es lo que hemos heredado a partir de un complejo camino evolutivo. +Pero no tenemos por qu limitarnos a eso, y la mejor prueba de ese principio viene de lo que se llama "sustitucin sensorial". +Se refiere a la informacin de entrada en el cerebro por canales sensoriales inusuales; el cerebro entiende qu hacer con ella. +Esto puede sonar a especulacin, pero el primer trabajo que demuestra esto se public en la revista Nature en 1969. +Un cientfico llamado Paul Bach-y-Rita puso ciegos en una silla dentada modificada, configur un canal de video, y puso algo en frente de la cmara, para luego sentir una seal tctil en la espalda mediante una red de solenoides. +Si uno mueve una taza de caf frente a la cmara, uno la siente en la espalda, y, sorprendentemente, los ciegos tienen buen desempeo detectando qu hay frente a la cmara mediante vibraciones en la parte baja de la espalda. +Ha habido muchas implementaciones modernas de esto. +Las gafas snicas toman un canal de video del frente y lo convierten en un paisaje sonoro, y conforme las cosas se mueven, se acercan y se alejan, hace un sonido "bzz, bzz, bzz". +Suena como una cacofona, pero despus de varias semanas, los ciegos empiezan a entender bastante bien qu tienen enfrente a partir de lo que escuchan. +Y no tiene por qu ser por los odos: este sistema usa una rejilla electrotctil en la frente, para sentir en la frente lo que est frente a la entrada de video, +Por qu la frente? Porque no se usa para mucho ms. +La implementacin ms moderna se llama "brainport" y es una rejillita elctrica ubicada en la lengua, la seal de video se convierte en pequeas seales electrotctiles, y los ciegos lo usan tan bien que pueden arrojar pelotas en una cesta, o pueden realizar carreras de obstculos complejos. +Pueden ver con la lengua. +Parece de locos, verdad? +Pero recuerden que la visin siempre son seales electroqumicas que recorren el cerebro. +El cerebro no sabe de dnde vienen las seales. +Se da cuenta qu hacer con ellas. +Por eso el inters de mi laboratorio es la "sustitucin sensorial" en sordos, y este es el proyecto que realizamos con un estudiante de posgrado en mi laboratorio, Scott Novich, que encabeza esto en su tesis. +Esto es lo que queramos hacer: queramos hacerlo convirtiendo el sonido del mundo de alguna forma para que un sordo pudiera entender lo que se dice. +Y queramos hacerlo, dado el poder y ubicuidad de la informtica porttil, queramos asegurarnos de que ejecutase en telfonos mviles y tabletas, y tambin queramos hacerlo porttil, algo que pudiramos usar debajo de la ropa. +Este es el concepto. +Conforme hablo, una tableta capta mi sonido, y luego es mapeado en un chaleco cubierto con motores vibratorios, como los motores de sus mviles. +Conforme hablo, el sonido se traduce en patrones de vibracin en el chaleco. +Esto no es solo un concepto: esta tableta transmite va Bluetooth, y ahora mismo tengo uno de esos chalecos. +Conforme hablo... el sonido se traduce en patrones dinmicos de vibracin. +Siento el mundo sonoro a mi alrededor. +Lo hemos estado probando con personas sordas, y resulta que solo un tiempo despus, la gente puede empezar a sentir, a entender el lenguaje del chaleco. +Este es Jonathan. Tiene 37 aos. Tiene un ttulo de maestra. +Naci con sordera profunda, por eso hay una parte de su umwelt que est fuera de su alcance. +Tuvimos que entrenar a Jonathan con el chaleco durante 4 das, 2 horas al da, y aqu est en el quinto da. +Scott Novich: t. +David Eagleman: Scott dice una palabra, Jonathan la siente en el chaleco, y la escribe en la pizarra. +SN: Dnde. Dnde. +DE: Jonathan puede traducir este complicado patrn de vibraciones en una comprensin de lo que se dice. +SN: Tacto. Tacto. +Esta tecnologa tiene el potencial de un cambio importante, porque la nica solucin alternativa a la sordera es un implante coclear, que requiere una ciruga invasiva. +Construir esto es 40 veces ms barato que un implante coclear, permite ofrecer esta tecnologa al mundo, incluso a los pases ms pobres. +Nos animan los resultados obtenidos con la "sustitucin sensorial", pero hemos estado pensando mucho en la "adicin sensorial". +Cmo podramos usar una tecnologa como esta para aadir un nuevo sentido, para ampliar el umvelt humano? +Por ejemplo, podramos ingresar datos en tiempo real de Internet en el cerebro de alguien? Ese alguien puede desarrollar una experiencia perceptiva directa? +Este es un experimento que hacemos en el laboratorio. +Un sujeto siente en tiempo real datos de la Red durante 5 segundos. +Luego, aparecen dos botones, y tiene que hacer una eleccin. +No sabe qu est pasando. +Hace una eleccin, y tiene respuesta despus de un segundo. +Es as: El sujeto no tiene idea del significado de los patrones, pero vemos si mejora en la eleccin de qu botn presionar. +No sabe que los datos que le ingresamos son datos burstiles en tiempo real, y est decidiendo comprar y vender. +La respuesta le dice si tom una buena decisin o no. +Estamos viendo si podemos expandir el umwelt humano una experiencia perceptiva directa de los movimientos econmicos del planeta. +Informaremos de eso ms adelante para ver cmo resulta. +Otra cosa que estamos haciendo: Durante las charlas de la maana, filtramos automticamente en Twitter con el hashtag TED2015, e hicimos un anlisis automatizado de sentimientos es decir, las personas usaron palabras positivas, negativas o neutras? +Y mientras esto suceda lo he estado sintiendo, estoy enchufado a la emocin consolidada de miles de personas en tiempo real, es un nuevo tipo de experiencia humana, porque ahora puedo saber cmo le va a los oradores y cunto les gusta esto a Uds. +Es una experiencia ms grande de la que un ser humano normal puede tener. +Tambin estamos ampliando el umwelt de los pilotos. +En este caso, el chaleco transmite 9 mtricas diferentes desde este cuadricptero, cabeceo, guiada, giro, orientacin y rumbo, y eso mejora la destreza del piloto. +Es como si extendiera su piel, a lo lejos. +Y eso es solo el principio. +Estamos previendo tomar una cabina moderna llena de manmetros y en vez de tratar de leer todo eso, sentirlo. +Ahora vivimos en un mundo de informacin, y hay una diferencia entre acceder a grandes volmenes de datos y experimentarlos. +As que creo que en realidad las posibilidades no tienen fin en el horizonte de la expansin humana. +Imaginen un astronauta que pueda sentir la salud general de la Estacin Espacial Internacional, o, para el caso, que Uds. sientan los estados invisibles de su propia salud, como el nivel de azcar en sangre y el estado del microbioma, o tener visin de 360 o ver en el infrarrojo o ultravioleta. +La clave es esta: conforme avanzamos hacia el futuro, cada vez podremos elegir nuestros propios dispositivos perifricos. +Ya no tenemos que esperar regalos sensoriales de la Madre Naturaleza en sus escalas de tiempo, pero en su lugar, como buena madre, nos ha dado las herramientas necesarias para hacer nuestro propio camino. +As que la pregunta ahora es: cmo quieren salir a experimentar su universo? +Gracias. +Chris Anderson: Puedes sentirlo? DE: S. +En realidad, es la primera vez que siento aplausos en el chaleco. +Es agradable. Es como un masaje. CA: Twitter se vuelve loco. +El experimento del mercado de valores, +podra ser el primer experimento que asegure su financiacin para siempre, de tener xito? +DE: Bueno, es cierto, ya no tendra que escribirle al NIH. +CA: Bueno mira, para ser escptico por un minuto, digo, es asombroso, pero hay evidencia hasta el momento de que funcione la sustitucin sensorial, o la adicin sensorial? +No es posible que el ciego pueda ver por la lengua porque la corteza visual est todava all, lista para procesar, y que eso sea una parte necesaria? +DE: Gran pregunta. En realidad no tenemos ni idea de cules son los lmites tericos de los datos que puede asimilar el cerebro. +La historia general, sin embargo, es que es extraordinariamente flexible. +Cuando una persona queda ciega, lo que llamamos corteza visual es ocupada por el tacto, el odo, el vocabulario. +Eso nos dice que la corteza es acotada. +Solo hace ciertos tipos de clculos sobre las cosas. +Y si miramos a nuestro alrededor las cosas como el braille, por ejemplo, las personas reciben informacin mediante golpes en los dedos. +No creo que haya razn para pensar que existe un lmte terico, que conozcamos ese lmite. +CA: Si esto se comprueba, estars abrumado. +Hay muchas aplicaciones posibles para esto. +Ests listo para esto? Qu es lo que ms te entusiasma? Qu se podra lograr? +DE: Creo que hay gran cantidad de aplicaciones aqu. +En trminos de sustitucin sensorial del maana, algo empec a mencionar de astronautas en la estacin espacial, que pasan mucho tiempo controlando cosas y podran en cambio ver que est pasando, porque esto es bueno para datos multidimensionales. +La clave es: nuestros sistemas visuales son buenos detectando manchas y bordes, pero son muy malos para el mundo actual, con pantallas que tienen infinidad de datos. +Tenemos que rastrear eso con nuestros sistemas de atencin. +Esta es una manera de solo sentir el estado de algo, como conocer el estado del cuerpo sobre la marcha. +La maquinaria pesada, la seguridad, sentir el estado de una fbrica, de un equipo, hacia all va en lo inmediato. +CA: David Eagleman, fue una charla alucinante. Muchas gracias. +DE: Gracias, Chris. +Me ilusiona estar aqu esta noche compartiendo algo en lo que estamos trabajando desde hace dos aos, algo del campo de la fabricacin por adicin, tambin conocida como impresin 3D. +Vean este objeto. +Parece bastante sencillo, pero es muy complejo a la vez. +Es un conjunto de estructuras geodsicas concntricas con conexiones entre cada una. +En su contexto, no se puede fabricar con tcnicas tradicionales de manufactura. +Tiene una simetra tal que no se puede moldear por inyeccin. +No se puede fabricar por fresado. +Es un trabajo para una impresora 3D, pero la mayora de las impresoras 3D gastaran de 3 a 10 horas fabricndolo. Nosotros vamos a arriesgarnos a fabricarlo en el escenario esta noche durante esta charla de diez minutos. +Desennos suerte. +La impresin 3D es, en realidad, un nombre inapropiado. +Es, en realidad, impresin en 2D una sobre otra, y se usan, de hecho, tecnologas asociadas con la impresin 2D. +Piensen en la impresin de inyeccin, donde se pone tinta en un hoja para hacer letras, y luego se hace lo mismo una y otra vez para construir un objeto tridimensional. +En microelectrnica se usa algo llamado litografa para hacer lo mismo, para hacer transistores y circuitos integrados y construir una estructura varias veces. +Esas son todas tecnologas de impresin en 2D. +Ahora bien, soy qumico y cientfico de materiales, y mis co-inventores son tambin cientficos de materiales, qumico el uno, fsico el otro, y nos empezamos a interesar en la impresin 3D. +Es bien sabido que, muchas veces, la ideas nuevas son simples conexiones entre personas de comunidades diferentes con experiencias diferentes, y ese es nuestro caso. +Fuimos inspirados por la escena del T-1000 de "Terminator 2", que nos llev a preguntamos, por qu una impresora 3D no podra operar de esta forma, haciendo que un objeto emergiera de un charco, en esencia, en tiempo real y, esencialmente, con cero desperdicio para hacer un objeto grande? +Si, exactamente como en la pelcula. +Podramos, inspirados en Hollywood, encontrar formas de hacer que esto realmente funcionara? +Y ese fue nuestro reto. +Nuestro enfoque sera, si pudiramos hacer esto, podramos, en lo fundamental, resolver los tres problemas que no dejan que la impresin 3D se convierta en un proceso de manufactura. +Uno: la impresin 3D dura una eternidad. +Hay hongos que crecen ms rpido que las partes impresas en 3D. El proceso, capa por capa, produce defectos en las propiedades mecnicas, y si pudiramos proceder de forma continua podramos eliminar estos defectos. +Y si pudiramos proceder ms rpido, podramos, de hecho, empezar a usar materiales de autocurado y tener propiedades sorprendentes. +Si pudiramos sacar esto adelante, imitar a Hollywood, podramos, de hecho, encarar la manufactura 3D. +Nuestro enfoque es usar conocimientos estndar de la qumica de polmeros para aprovechar la luz y el oxgeno en la fabricacin continua de partes. +La luz y el oxgeno funcionan de manera diferente. +La luz puede tomar una resina y convertirla en un slido, puede convertir un lquido en slido. +El oxgeno inhibe ese proceso. +As que la luz y el oxgeno estn en polos opuestos desde el punto de vista qumico, y si pudiramos controlar en el espacio la luz y el oxgeno, podramos controlar este proceso. +Nos referimos a esto como Interfaz de Produccin Lquida Continua, CLIP, su sigla en ingls. Tiene tres componentes funcionales. +Uno, un tanque que contiene el charco como el del T-1000. +En el fondo del tanque hay una ventana especial, +volver a eso luego. +Tiene adems, una plataforma que descender dentro del charco y sacar el objeto del lquido. +El tercer componente es un sistema de proyeccin de luz digital que va debajo del tanque que ilumina con luz ultravioleta. +La clave es que esta ventana en el fondo del tanque, es un compuesto, es una ventana muy especial. +No solo es transparente a la luz, sino que es permeable al oxgeno. +Tiene caractersticas de lente de contacto. +As que podemos ver cmo funciona el proceso. +Pero con nuestra ventana especial, somos capaces de hacer que el oxgeno que pasa por el fondo mientras la luz acta, inhiba la reaccin y se forme una zona muerta. +Y as tenemos una serie de variables que podemos controlar: el contenido de oxgeno, la luz, la intensidad de la luz, la dosis a curar, la viscosidad, la geometra, y usamos software muy sofisticado para controlar este proceso. +El resultado es realmente asombroso. +Es de 25 a 100 veces ms rpido que las impresoras 3D tradicionales, lo cual es revolucionario. +Adems, como estamos haciendo que las cosas crezcan, eliminamos las capas y las partes son monolticas. +No se ve la estructura de la superficie. +Se tienen superficies molecularmente lisas. +La mayora de partes que se hacen en una impresora 3D, se reconocen porque tienen propiedades mecnicas que dependen de la orientacin con que se imprimieron, debido a la estructura como de capas. +Pero cuando sacamos objetos de esta forma, las propiedades no varan con la direccin de impresin. +Parecen partes moldeadas por inyeccin, lo cual es muy diferente de la fabricacin en 3D tradicional. +Adems, estamos en capacidad de aadirle todo el libro de qumica de polmeros, y estamos en capacidad de disear qumicas que le den nacimiento a las propiedades que hemos querido tener en objetos impresos a 3D. +Ah est. Es grandioso. +Siempre se corre el riesgo de que algo as no funcione en el escenario, verdad? +Podemos tener materiales con propiedades mecnicas geniales. +Por primera vez, podemos tener elastmeros altamente elsticos o que realmente amortigen. +Por ejemplo, para el control de vibracin o para zapatillas especiales. +Podemos hacer materiales que tengan una fuerza increble, de una alta relacin resistencia-peso, materiales realmente fuertes, elastmeros realmente grandiosos. Lancmosle esto al auditorio. +Materiales con propiedades extraordinarias. +La oportunidad que se crea ahora es, si en verdad se hacen partes que tengan propiedades de acabado final y se hacen a velocidades innovadoras, la de poder transformar la manufactura. +Lo que sucede hoy da en la manufactura, es el as llamado hilo digital. En la manufactura digital, +se va del diseo asistido por computador, CAD, su sigla en ingls, a un prototipo y de este a la manufactura. +Con frecuencia, el hilo digital se rompe en el prototipo porque no se puede pasar a la fabricacin, pues la mayora de las partes no tienen propiedades de acabado final. +O la odontologa digital y la elaboracin de esas estructuras incluso mientras Uds. estn en la silla del odontlogo. +Miren las estructuras que mis alumnos estn haciendo en la Universidad de Carolina del Norte. +Son estructuras sorprendentes a micro-escala. +Ya Uds. saben lo buenos que somos en el campo de la nanofrabricacin. +La ley de Moore ha llevado las cosas al orden de las 10 micras y menos todava. +Somos realmente buenos en eso, pero es realmente duro hacer cosas entre 10 y 1000 micras, la mesoescala. +Y las tcnicas sustractivas de la industria del silicn no pueden hacer esto bien. +No pueden grabar obleas as de bien. +Pero este proceso es tan suave, que podemos sacar estos objetos del fondo usando la fabricacin aditiva y hacer cosas sorprendentes en cuestin de segundos, abriendo camino a nuevas tecnologas de sensores, nuevas tcnicas para la administracin de drogas, nuevas aplicaciones de laboratorio-en-un-chip, cosas realmente revolucionarias. +Gracias por escuchar. +Estn ante una mujer silenciada pblicamente durante una dcada. +Obviamente, eso ha cambiado, pero solo recientemente. +Fue hace varios meses cuando di mi primer discurso pblico importante en la cumbre de Forbes para menores de 30, ante 1500 personas brillantes, todas menores de 30. +Eso significaba que, en 1998, el mayor del grupo tena solo 14 aos, y el ms joven, solo cuatro. +Brome con ellos acerca de que solo algunos habran odo hablar de m a travs de canciones de rap. +S, estoy en canciones de rap. +Casi en 40 canciones de rap. Pero en la noche de mi discurso, sucedi algo sorprendente. +A la edad de 41, un chico de 27 aos quiso seducirme. +Lo s, s? +Era encantador y yo me sent halagada, y lo rechac. +Saben cul fue su fallido argumento de seduccin? +Que poda hacerme sentir de nuevo como de 22 aos. +Ms tarde pens que probablemente sea la nica persona de ms de 40 que no desea tener 22 aos otra vez. +A la edad de 22 aos, me enamor de mi jefe, y a la edad de 24, descubr las devastadoras consecuencias. +Pueden alzar las manos quienes aqu a los a 22 no cometieron un error o hicieron algo que lamentaron? +S. Eso es lo que yo pensaba. +Como yo a los 22, puede que algunos de Uds. tambin tomaran vas equivocadas y se enamoraran de la persona equivocada, tal vez incluso de su jefe. +A diferencia ma, sin embargo, su jefe probablemente no era el presidente de EE. UU. +Por supuesto, la vida est llena de sorpresas. +No pasa un da sin que se me recuerde mi error, y lamento ese error profundamente. +En 1998, despus de haber sido arrastrada a un romance dudoso, me vi envuelta en el centro de una vorgine poltica, jurdica y meditica como nunca habamos visto antes. +Recuerden, tan solo unos pocos aos antes, las noticias se consuman solo a travs de tres fuentes: leyendo un peridico o una revista, escuchando radio, o viendo televisin. +Eso era todo. +Pero ese no era mi destino. +En cambio, este escndalo les llego a Uds. mediante la revolucin digital. +Eso signific que se poda acceder a toda la informacin deseada, en cualquier momento y en cualquier lugar, y cuando la historia estall en enero de 1998, emergi en lnea. +Fue la primera vez que la fuente de noticias tradicional fue sustituida por Internet para dar noticias importantes de ltima hora, un clic que retumb en todo el mundo. +Eso signific para m personalmente que de la noche a la maana, pas de ser una figura completamente privada a una figura humillada pblicamente a escala mundial. +Fui la paciente nmero cero en perder la reputacin personal a escala global, de forma casi instantnea. +Este juicio apresurado, posibilitado por la tecnologa, llev a multitudes virtuales a lapidarme. +Cierto es que fue antes de la explosin de los medios sociales, pero la gente ya poda comentar en lnea, enviar historias por correo electrnico, y, por supuesto, enviar bromas crueles. +Las fuentes de noticias ponan fotos mas por todas partes para vender peridicos, anuncios en lnea, y para mantener a la gente viendo la televisin. +Se acuerdan de una foto particular ma, digamos, en la que llevaba una boina? +Bien, admito que comet errores, especialmente usando esa boina. +Pero la atencin y el enjuiciamiento que yo recib, no la historia, que yo personalmente recib, no tenan precedentes. +Fui vilipendiada como golfa, fulana, puta, zorra, guapa tonta, y, por supuesto, como "esa mujer". +Fui vista por muchos pero, en realidad, pocos me conocan. +Y lo entiendo: era fcil olvidar que esa mujer tena una dimensin, tena alma y que alguna vez estuvo intacta. +Cuando esto me sucedi hace 17 aos, no haba nombre para eso. +Ahora lo llamamos acoso ciberntico y acoso en lnea. +Hoy, quiero compartir mi experiencia con Uds., hablar de cmo esa experiencia ha ayudado a formar mis reflexiones culturales, y cmo espero que esa experiencia pueda llevar a un cambio que se traduzca en menos sufrimiento para otros. +En 1998, perd mi reputacin y mi dignidad. +Perd casi todo, y casi pierdo la vida. +Dejen que les pinte el cuadro. +Es septiembre de 1998, +estoy sentada en una oficina sin ventanas en la Oficina del Asesor Independiente bajo el zumbido de luces fluorescentes. +Estoy escuchando el sonido de mi voz, mi voz en llamadas telefnicas grabadas encubiertamente que un supuesto amigo me haba hecho el ao anterior. +Estoy aqu por requerimiento legal para autentificar personalmente todas las 20 horas de conversacin grabada. +Durante los ltimos ocho meses, el contenido misterioso de estas cintas ha cado como una espada de Damocles sobre mi cabeza. +Quiero decir, quin puede recordar lo que dijo hace un ao? +Unos das ms tarde, el informe Starr se pone a disposicin del Congreso, y todas esas cintas y transcripciones, esas palabras robadas son parte de este. +Que las personas puedan leer las transcripciones es ya muy horrendo, pero un par de semanas ms tarde, las cintas de audio se emiten en la televisin, y porciones significativas estn disponibles en lnea. +La humillacin pblica era insoportable. +La vida era casi insoportable. +Esto no era algo que sucediera con regularidad en 1998, y con esto me refiero al robo de palabras de uso privado, acciones de personas, conversaciones o fotos, para luego hacerlo todo pblico, pblico sin consentimiento, pblico fuera de contexto, y pblico sin compasin. +Adelantemos 12 aos a 2010, y ahora los medios de comunicacin social se han instaurado. +El paisaje se ha poblado tristemente mucho ms con casos como el mo, sea o no que alguien en realidad cometa o no un error, y ahora abarca tanto a las personas pblicas, como a las privadas. +Las consecuencias para algunos se han convertido en graves, muy graves. +Estaba hablando por telfono con mi mam en septiembre de 2010, y estbamos hablando de la noticia de un estudiante de primer ao de la Universidad de Rutgers llamado Tyler Clementi. +El dulce, sensible y creativo Tyler fue filmado secretamente por su compaero de cuarto mientras tena relaciones ntimas con otro hombre. +Cuando el mundo en lnea se enter de este incidente, la burla y el acoso ciberntico se encendieron. +Unos das ms tarde, Tyler salt desde el puente George Washington para matarse. +Tena 18 aos. +Hoy en da, muchos padres no han tenido la oportunidad de intervenir y rescatar a sus seres queridos. +Demasiados han sabido del sufrimiento y la humillacin de su hijo despus de que fuera demasiado tarde. +La trgica muerte sin sentido de Tyler fue un momento crucial para m. +Sirvi para recontextualizar mis experiencias, y entonces comenc a mirar el mundo de la humillacin y la intimidacin y ver algo diferente. +En 1998, no tenamos forma de saber adnde nos llevara esta nueva tecnologa valiente llamada Internet. +Desde entonces, ha conectado a la gente de maneras inimaginables, uniendo a hermanos perdidos, salvando vidas, lanzando revoluciones, pero el lado oscuro, el acoso ciberntico y la humillacin de ser tildada de mujerzuela que experiment, se ha multiplicado. +Cada da en lnea, la gente, especialmente los jvenes cuyo desarrollo no est todava a la altura para manejarse con esto, son tan maltratados y humillados que no pueden imaginar vivir hasta el da siguiente, y algunos, por desgracia, no lo hacen, y no hay nada virtual en eso. +A ChildLine, organizacin no lucrativa del Reino Unido centrada en ayudar a los jvenes, public una estadstica asombrosa a finales del ao pasado: Del 2012 al 2013, hubo un aumento del 87 % de llamadas y correos electrnicos relacionados con el acoso ciberntico. +Un metaanlisis realizado en los Pases Bajos mostr, por primera vez, que el ciberacoso llevaba a ideas de suicidio mucho ms significativamente que el acoso no ciberntico. +Y saben lo que me sorprendi, aunque no debera? Otra investigacin del ao pasado determin que la humillacin era una emocin que se siente con ms intensidad que la felicidad o que incluso la ira. +La crueldad con los dems no es nada nuevo, pero en lnea, tecnolgicamente mejorada, la vergenza se amplifica, es incontenible y de acceso permanente. +El eco de la vergenza se usaba solo para ampliar su alcance a tu familia, pueblo, escuela o comunidad, pero ahora es a la comunidad en lnea tambin. +Millones de personas, a menudo de manera annima, puede apualar con sus palabras, y eso produce gran cantidad de dolor, y no hay permetros alrededor de cuntas personas pueden observarte pblicamente y ponerte en una empalizada pblica. +Hay un precio muy personal por la humillacin pblica, y el crecimiento de Internet ha aumentado ese precio. +Durante casi dos dcadas, poco a poco hemos estado sembrando las semillas de la vergenza y la humillacin pblicas en nuestro suelo cultural, tanto en lnea como fuera de ella. +Sitios web de chismes, paparazzi, telerealidad, poltica, agencias de noticias y a veces hackers componen el trfico de la vergenza. +Esto dio lugar a la desensibilizacin y a un ambiente permisivo en lnea que se presta a la pesca, a la invasin de la privacidad y al acoso ciberntico. +Este cambio ha creado lo que llama el profesor Nicolaus Mills una cultura de la humillacin. +Piensen en algunos ejemplos prominentes solo en los ltimos seis meses. +Snapchat, el servicio que utilizan sobre todo las generaciones ms jvenes, afirma que sus mensajes solo tienen una vida til de unos pocos segundos. +Se pueden imaginar la variedad de contenido que corre. +Una aplicacin que los usuarios de Snapchat usan para preservar la vida de los mensajes fue hackeado, y 100 000 conversaciones, fotos y videos personales se publicaron en lnea y ahora tienen una vida perpetua. +A Jennifer Lawrence y a otros actores les han hackeado sus cuentas en iCloud y fotos ntimas, privadas, se divulgaron a travs de Internet sin su permiso. +Un sitio web de chismes tuvo ms de cinco millones de visitas por esta historia. +Y qu decir del robo ciberntico a Sony Pictures? +Los documentos que recibieron mayor atencin fueron los correos privados que tenan el mximo valor de vergenza pblica. +Pero en esta cultura de la humillacin, hay otro tipo de etiqueta de precio adjunta a la humillacin pblica. +El precio no mide el costo de la vctima, que Tyler y muchos otros, en particular mujeres, las minoras, y miembros de la comunidad LGBTI, han pagado, pero el precio mide el beneficio de aquellos que se aprovechan de ellos. +Esta invasin de los dems es una materia prima, aprovechada eficientemente y sin piedad, empaquetada y vendida por beneficio. +Ha surgido un mercado en el que la humillacin pblica es un producto y la vergenza es una industria. +Cmo se hace el dinero? +Clics. +A mayor vergenza, ms clics. +A ms clics, ms dlares de publicidad. +Estamos en un ciclo peligroso. +Cuanto ms clics damos a este tipo de chismes, ms insensibles nos hacemos a las vidas humanas detrs de los clics, y cuanto ms insensibles nos hacemos, ms clics hacemos. +Al tiempo, alguien est haciendo dinero entre bambalinas a costa del sufrimiento de otra persona. +Con cada clic, hacemos una eleccin. +Cuanto ms saturemos nuestra cultura con la humillacin pblica, ms aceptada ser, con ms frecuencia veremos comportamientos como el ciberacoso, algunas formas de piratera, y el acoso en lnea. +Por qu? Porque todos ellos tienen la humillacin en su mdula. +Este comportamiento es un sntoma de la cultura que hemos creado. +Piensen en ello. +Cambiar el comportamiento comienza con cambiar creencias. +Hemos visto que eso es verdad con el racismo, la homofobia, y un montn de otros sesgos, en el presente y en el pasado. +Cambiar las creencias sobre el matrimonio entre personas del mismo sexo, les ha ofrecido libertades igualitarias a ms personas. +Cuando empezamos a valorar la sostenibilidad, ms gente comenz a reciclar. +En lo que a nuestra cultura de la humillacin se refiere, lo que necesitamos es una revolucin cultural. +La humillacin pblica como deporte sanguinario tiene que acabar, y es el momento para una intervencin en Internet y en nuestra cultura. +El cambio comienza con algo sencillo, pero no es fcil. +Tenemos que volver a un valor de larga data como la compasin y la empata. +En lnea, tenemos un dficit de compasin, una crisis de empata. +La investigadora Brene Brown dijo, y cito, "La vergenza no puede sobrevivir a la empata". +La vergenza no puede sobrevivir a la empata. +He visto unos das muy oscuros en mi vida, y fue la compasin y la empata de mi familia, amigos, profesionales, y, a veces, incluso extraos, la que me salv. +Incluso la empata de una persona puede marcar una diferencia. +La teora de la influencia de la minora, propuesta por el psiclogo social Serge Moscovici, dice que, incluso en pequeas cantidades, cuando hay consistencia en el tiempo, el cambio es posible. +En el mundo virtual, podemos fomentar la influencia de la minora volvindonos ntegros. +Convertirnos en personas ntegras significa que, en lugar de la apata del espectador, podemos publicar un comentario positivo a alguien o reportar una situacin de intimidacin. +Confen en m, comentarios compasivos ayudan a abatir la negatividad. +Tambin podemos contrarrestar la cultura mediante el apoyo a las organizaciones que tratan este tipo de problemas, como la Fundacin Tyler Clementi en los EE. UU., en el Reino Unido, el Anti-Bullying Pro, y en Australia, el proyecto Rockit. +Hablamos mucho de nuestro derecho a la libertad de expresin, pero tenemos que hablar ms sobre nuestra responsabilidad con la libertad de expresin. +Todos queremos ser escuchados, pero reconozcamos la diferencia entre hablar con intencin y hablar a favor de la atencin. +Internet es la autopista del "id" o del ello, pero en lnea, mostrar empata con los dems nos beneficia a todos y ayuda a crear un mundo ms seguro y mejor. +Necesitamos comunicarnos en lnea con compasin, consumir noticias con compasin, y hacer clic con compasin. +Solo imaginen caminar un kilmetro en el titular de esa otra persona. +Me gustara terminar con una nota personal. +En los ltimos nueve meses, la pregunta que ms me han planteado es por qu. +Por qu ahora? Por qu saqu la cabeza de mi escondite? +Uds. pueden leer entre lneas en esas preguntas, y la respuesta no tiene nada que ver con poltica. +La respuesta estrella es porque era y es el momento: el momento para dejar de pasar de puntillas por mi pasado; el momento para dejar de tener una vida de desgracia; y el momento para recuperar mi narrativa. +No se trata solo de salvarme a m misma. +Cualquier persona que sufra de vergenza y humillacin pblica tiene que saber una cosa: Puede sobrevivir. +S que es duro. +Puede que no sea indoloro, ni rpido, ni fcil, pero se puede insistir en un final diferente a su historia. +Ten compasin de ti mismo. +Todos merecemos compasin, y vivir tanto en lnea como fuera de ella en un mundo ms compasivo. +Gracias por escucharme. +Les mostrar algo. +Nia: Eso es un gato sentado en una cama. +El nio est acariciando al elefante. +Esas son personas que van en un avin. +Ese es un avin grande. +Fei-Fei Li: As describe una nia de 3 aos lo que ve en una serie de fotos. +Tal vez le falta mucho por aprender sobre este mundo, pero ya es experta en algo importante: entender lo que ve. +Tecnolgicamente, nuestra sociedad est ms avanzada que nunca. +Enviamos personas a la luna, nuestros telfonos nos hablan o personalizan radios para reproducir solo la msica que nos gusta. +Sin embargo, nuestras mquinas y computadoras ms avanzadas an tienen problemas en ese aspecto. +Hoy estoy aqu para darles un reporte de nuestros ltimos avances en visin artificial, una de las tecnologas potencialmente ms revolucionarias en la ciencia de la computacin. +Es cierto, hemos inventado autos que conducen solos, pero sin una visin inteligente, realmente no pueden distinguir entre una bolsa arrugada de papel en el camino, que puede uno pisar, y una roca del mismo tamao, que debemos evitar. +Hemos creado fabulosas cmaras de muchos megapxeles, pero an no podemos devolverle la vista a un ciego. +Los drones pueden volar sobre grandes superficies de tierra, pero no tienen tecnologa de visin suficiente para ayudarnos a monitorear los cambios en los bosques tropicales. +Hay cmaras de seguridad en todas partes, pero no nos alertan cuando un nio se est ahogando en una piscina. +Las fotos y los videos se estn volviendo parte integral de la vida global. +Se generan a un ritmo mucho mayor de lo que cualquier humano, o equipo de humanos, podra ver, y Uds. y yo contribuimos a eso en este TED. +Aun as, nuestro software ms avanzado tiene problemas para entender y gestionar este enorme contenido. +En otras palabras, colectivamente como una sociedad, somos muy ciegos, porque nuestras mquinas ms inteligentes an son ciegas. +Se preguntarn: "Por qu es tan difcil?" +Las cmaras pueden tomar fotos como esta convirtiendo luz en matrices numricas bidimensionales conocidas como pixeles, pero estos son solo nmeros vacos. +En s mismos no tienen significado. +Al igual que or no es lo mismo que escuchar, tomar fotografas no es lo mismo que ver; y solo viendo podemos realmente entender. +De hecho, le tom a la Madre Naturaleza 540 millones de aos de arduo trabajo lograr esta tarea, y mucho de ese esfuerzo consisti en desarrollar el sistema de procesamiento visual en el cerebro, no los ojos en s. +La visin empieza en los ojos, pero, en realidad, ocurre en nuestro cerebro. +Durante 15 aos, empezando desde mi doctorado en Caltech y luego al frente del laboratorio Stanford Vision Lab, he trabajado con mis mentores, colaboradores y estudiantes para ensear a las computadoras a ver. +Nuestro campo de investigacin se llama "visin artificial y aprendizaje automtico". +Es parte del campo de la inteligencia artificial. +Queremos ensear a las mquinas a ver tal como nosotros lo hacemos: nombrar objetos, identificar personas, inferir la geometra 3D de las cosas, entender relaciones, emociones, acciones e intenciones. +Nosotros tejemos historias completas de la gente, los lugares y las cosas simplemente con mirarlas. +El primer paso hacia esta meta es ensear a una computadora a ver objetos, la unidad bsica del mundo visual. +En trminos ms simples, imaginen este proceso mostrando a las computadoras algunas imgenes de entrenamiento de un objeto en particular, digamos gatos, y disear un modelo que aprenda de estas imgenes. +Qu tan difcil puede ser esto? +A fin de cuentas, un gato es solo un conjunto de formas y colores, y eso fue lo que hacamos en los inicios de la modelizacin de objetos. +Decamos al algoritmo de la computadora en un lenguaje matemtico que un gato tiene cara redonda, cuerpo regordete, dos orejas puntiagudas y cola larga, y as quedaba bien. +Pero qu me dicen de este gato? +Est todo retorcido. +Se debe agregar otra figura y otra perspectiva al modelo del objeto. +Y si los gatos estn escondidos? +Qu tal estos gatos tontos? +Ahora entienden mi idea. +Incluso algo tan simple como una mascota puede tener un nmero infinito de variaciones en el modelo del objeto, y eso es solo un objeto. +As que hace unos 8 aos, una observacin simple y profunda cambi mi perspectiva. +Nadie le dice al nio cmo ver, menos an en los primeros aos. +Ellos aprenden a travs de ejemplos y experiencias del mundo real. +Si consideramos los ojos de un nio como un par de cmaras biolgicas, toman una foto cada 200 milisegundos, el tiempo promedio en que el ojo hace un movimiento. +Entonces, a los 3 aos un nio ha visto cientos de millones de fotografas del mundo real. +Esos son muchos ejemplares de entrenamiento. +As que en lugar de enfocarnos solo en mejorar los algoritmos, mi intencin fue dotar a los algoritmos con los datos de entrenamiento que un nio adquiere con la experiencia tanto en cantidad como en calidad. +Al conocer esto supimos que necesitbamos recolectar muchas ms imgenes que nunca, tal vez miles de veces ms; y junto con el profesor Kai Li en la Universidad de Princeton, lanzamos el proyecto ImageNet en 2007. +Por suerte, no tuvimos que ponernos una cmara en la cabeza y esperar muchos aos. +Entramos a Internet, el banco de imgenes ms grande creado por la humanidad. +Descargamos casi 1000 millones de imgenes y usamos tecnologa de crowdsourcing como la plataforma Amazon Mechanical Turk para etiquetar estas imgenes. +En su mejor momento, ImageNet fue uno de los empleadores ms importantes de trabajadores en Amazon Mechanical Turk: Casi 50 000 trabajadores de 167 pases del mundo nos ayudaron a limpiar, separar y etiquetar casi 1000 millones de imgenes candidatas. +Se necesit todo ese esfuerzo para capturar apenas una fraccin de todas las imgenes que un nio asimila en sus primeros aos de desarrollo. +Viendo en retrospectiva, esta idea de usar muchos datos para entrenar algoritmos puede parecer obvia ahora. Sin embargo, en 2007 no era tan evidente. +Estuvimos solos en este viaje por un buen rato. +Algunos colegas me sugeran hacer algo ms til para mi ctedra, y con frecuencia tenamos problemas para conseguir financiamiento. +Incluso llegu a decir a mis alumnos, como broma, que tendra que reabrir mi tintorera para financiar ImageNet. +Despus de todo, as fue como financi mis aos de universidad. +Seguimos adelante. +En 2009, el proyecto ImageNet junt una base de datos con 15 millones de imgenes de 22 000 tipos de objetos organizados por palabra en ingls de uso cotidiano. +En cantidad y calidad, tuvieron una escala sin precedentes. +Por ejemplo, en el caso de los gatos, tenemos ms de 62 000 gatos con todo tipo de apariencias y poses y todo tipo de gatos domsticos y salvajes. +Estbamos entusiasmados por haber creado ImageNet y queramos que todo el mundo de la investigacin se beneficiara, as que, al estilo TED, abrimos toda la base de datos a la comunidad mundial de investigadores de forma gratuita. +Ahora que tenemos los datos para nutrir el cerebro de nuestra computadora, estamos listos para volver a los algoritmos. +La abundancia de informacin aportada por ImageNet fue el complemento perfecto para un tipo particular de algoritmos de aprendizaje automtico llamado red neuronal convolucional, ideado por Kunihiko Fukushima, Geoff Hinton y Yann LeCun en los aos 70 y 80. +Como el cerebro que tiene miles de millones de neuronas muy bien conectadas, la unidad operativa fundamental en una red neuronal es un nodo con forma de neurona. +Toma datos de otros nodos los procesa y los manda a otros nodos. +Adems, estos cientos de miles o incluso millones de nodos se organizan en capas jerrquicas, algo parecido al cerebro. +En una red neuronal tpica que usamos para entrenar nuestro modelo de reconocimiento de objetos hay 24 millones de nodos, 140 millones de parmetros y 15 000 millones de conexiones. +Es un modelo enorme. +Alimentado por la informacin masiva de ImageNet y las CPUs y GPUs modernas que entrenan este inmenso modelo, la red neuronal convolucional tuvo un xito inesperado. +Se volvi la ingeniera ganadora para generar nuevos y emocionantes resultados en reconocimiento de objetos. +Esta es una computadora que nos dice que la foto tiene un gato y dnde est el gato. +Desde luego hay ms cosas aparte de los gatos as que hay un algoritmo informtico que nos dice que hay un nio y un oso de peluche en la foto; un perro, una persona y un papalote al fondo; o una foto de cosas muy ocupadas como un hombre, una patineta, un barandal, una lmpara etc. +Aplicamos este algoritmo a millones de imgenes de Google Street View de cientos de ciudades de Estados Unidos y hemos aprendido algo muy interesante: primero, confirm nuestra idea de que los precios de los autos se relacionan bien con los ingresos del hogar. +Pero sorprendentemente, los precios de los autos se relacionan tambin con las tasas de criminalidad en la ciudades o los patrones de votacin por cdigo postal. +Un minuto. Eso es todo? +Acaso la computadora ya sobrepas las capacidades humanas? +No tan rpido. +Hasta ahora solo hemos enseado a la computadora a ver objetos. +Es como un nio pequeo que aprende a decir palabras. +Es un logro increble, pero es apenas el primer paso. +Pronto daremos otro paso y los nios empiezan a comunicarse con frases. +As que en lugar de decir que hay un gato en la foto, la nia ya dice que el gato est sobre la cama. +As que para ensear a una computadora a ver una foto y generar frases la conjuncin de mucha informacin y el algoritmo de aprendizaje automtico debe dar otro paso. +Ahora, la computadora tiene que aprender de fotografas as como de frases en lenguaje natural generado por humanos. +De la forma en que el cerebro integra visin y lenguaje, desarrollamos un modelo que conecta partes de cosas visuales como fragmentos visuales con palabras y frases en oraciones. +Hace unos 4 meses finalmente juntamos todo esto y produjimos uno de los primeros modelos de visin artificial que puede generar frases como las de un humano cuando ve una foto por primera vez. +Ahora estoy lista para mostrarles lo que dice la computadora cuando ve la fotografa que la nia vio al inicio de esta charla. +Computadora: Un hombre est junto a un elefante. +Un avin grande est encima de una pista de aeropuerto. +FFL: Desde luego, seguimos trabajando para mejorar los algoritmos y an tiene mucho que aprender. +Y la computadora an comete errores. +Computadora: Un gato recostado en la cama en una sbana. +FFL: Y cuando ha visto demasiados gatos, cree que todo lo que ve parece un gato. +Computadora: Un nio tiene un bate de bisbol. +FFL: O si nunca ha visto un cepillo de dientes, lo confunde con un bate de bisbol. +Computadora: Un hombre montando un caballo junto a un edificio. +FFL: No le hemos enseado arte elemental a las computadoras. +Computadora: Una cebra en un campo de hierba. +FFL: Y no ha aprendido a apreciar la belleza deslumbrante de la naturaleza, como lo hacemos nosotros. +As que ha sido un largo camino. +Pasar de los 0 a los 3 aos fue difcil. +El verdadero reto es llegar a los 13 y mucho ms todava. +Recordemos nuevamente esta foto del nio y el pastel. +Hasta ahora, le hemos enseado a la computadora a ver objetos o incluso darnos una pequea historia cuando ve la foto. +Computadora: Una persona sentada a la mesa con un pastel. +FFL: Pero hay mucho ms en esta fotografa que simplemente una persona y un pastel. +Lo que la computadora no ve es que este es un pastel especial italiano exclusivo de Pascua. +El nio viste su camiseta favorita, que le regal su pap tras un viaje a Sdney, y nosotros podemos decir qu tan feliz est y qu pasa por su mente en ese momento. +Ese es mi hijo Leo. +En mi bsqueda de inteligencia visual, pienso constantemente en l y en el futuro en que va a vivir. +Cuando las mquinas puedan ver, los mdicos y enfermeras tendrn un par extra de ojos incansables para ayudarlos a diagnosticar y cuidar de los pacientes. +Los autos andarn de forma inteligente y segura en los caminos. +Robots, y no solo humanos, nos ayudarn a desafiar zonas de desastre para salvar heridos y atrapados. +Descubriremos nuevas especies, mejores materiales, y exploraremos fronteras nunca vistas con ayuda de las mquinas. +Poco a poco, damos a las mquinas el don de la vista. +Primero les enseamos a ver. +Luego ellas nos ayudarn a ver mejor. +Por primera vez, los ojos humanos no sern los nicos que exploren nuestro mundo. +No solo usaremos mquinas por su inteligencia, tambin colaboraremos con ellas de formas que ni siquiera imaginamos. +Esta es mi misin: dar a las computadoras inteligencia visual y crear un mejor futuro para Leo y para el mundo. +Gracias. +"De dnde eres?" dijo el plido hombre tatuado. +"De dnde eres?" +Es 21 de septiembre de 2001, pasados 10 das del peor ataque en EE.UU. desde la Segunda Guerra Mundial. +Todos se preguntan por el prximo avin. +La gente busca chivos expiatorios. +El presidente, la noche anterior, promete: "llevar a los enemigos ante la justicia o justicia a los enemigos". +Y en un minimercado de Dallas, un minimercado de Dallas entre tiendas de neumticos y locales de striptease, un inmigrante de Bangladesh atiende el comercio. +En su pas, Raisuddin Bhuiyan se destac como oficial de la Fuerza Area. +Pero soaba con un nuevo comienzo en EE.UU. +Si deba trabajar all un tiempo para ahorrar para sus clases de TI y para su boda en 2 meses, lo hara. +El 21 de septiembre ese hombre tatuado entra al mercado. +Tiene una escopeta. +Raisuddin lo sabe: pone el dinero sobre el mostrador. +Esta vez el hombre no toca el dinero. +"De dnde eres?", pregunta. +"Disculpe?", responde Raisuddin. +Su acento lo delata. +El hombre tatuado, autodenominado verdadero vigilante de EE.UU., le dispara a Raisuddin en venganza por el 11-S. +Raisuddin siente millones de abejas que le pican el rostro. +De hecho, decenas de perdigones impactan su cabeza. +Detrs del mostrador, se va en sangre. +Pasa una mano sobre su frente para retener eso por lo que haba jugado todo. +Recita versos del Corn, rogando a su Dios poder vivir. +Siente que est muriendo. +No muri. +Perdi su ojo derecho. +Perdi a su novia. +El propietario, dueo del minimercado, lo despidi. +Pronto no tena hogar, pero s deudas mdicas por USD 60 000, incluyendo el costo por llamar a una ambulancia. +Pero Raisuddin vivi. +Y aos ms tarde, se preguntaba qu poda hacer para agradecer a su Dios y ser digno de esta segunda oportunidad. +Lleg a creer, de hecho, que esta oportunidad era un llamado para darle una segunda oportunidad a alguien que podramos pensar que no mereca oportunidades. +Hace 12 aos, yo recin me graduaba y buscaba abrirme camino en el mundo. +Nac en Ohio, hijo de inmigrantes indios, y decid la rebelin suprema contra mis padres: mudarme al pas en el que haban trabajado arduamente para salir. +Lo que pens sera una estancia de 6 meses en Mumbai, fueron 6 aos. +Me hice escritor y me encontr en medio de una historia mgica: el despertar de la esperanza en la mayor parte del llamado Tercer Mundo. +Hace 6 aos regres a EE.UU. y me di cuenta de algo: El "sueo americano" era prspero, pero solo en India. +En EE.UU., no tanto. +De hecho, not que EE.UU. se estaba fragmentando en 2 sociedades distintas: una repblica de los sueos y una repblica de los temores. +Y entonces me top con esta increble historia de 2 vidas de estos 2 EE.UU. que chocaron brutalmente en ese minimercado de Dallas. +De inmediato supe que quera aprender ms, y que con el tiempo me gustara escribir un libro sobre ellos, porque su historia era la historia de la fragmentacin de EE.UU. y de su posible recomposicin. +Despus del disparo, la vida de Raisuddin no fue ms fcil. +El da despus de admitirlo, el hospital lo rechazaba. +No poda ver con el ojo derecho. +No poda hablar. +Tena el rostro salpicado de metal. +No tena seguro, por eso lo rechazaron. +Su familia en Bangladesh le rogaba: "Ven a casa". +Pero l les dijo que tena un sueo por delante. +Encontr trabajo de telemarketing, luego fue camarero en Olive Garden, porque qu mejor lugar para superar el miedo de los blancos que Olive Garden? +Como devoto musulmn, rechazaba el alcohol, ni lo probaba. +Luego supo que de no venderlo su salario bajara. +Pens, como incipiente pragmtico estadounidense: "Bueno, Dios no me quiere ver morir de hambre, no?" +Y en poco tiempo, en algunos meses, Raisuddin para Olive Garden fue el mejor vendedor de alcohol. +Encontr un hombre que le ense la gestin de base de datos. +Consigui trabajos en TI a tiempo parcial. +Finalmente, consigui un trabajo de 6 cifras en tecnologa en Dallas. +Pero conforme EE.UU. empez a responderle a Raisuddin, l evit el clsico error de los afortunados: suponer que es la regla, y no la excepcin. +De hecho, not que muchos con la suerte de haber nacido en EE.UU. quedaron atrapados en vidas sin segundas oportunidades. +Lo vio en el propio restaurante Olive Garden, donde muchos de sus colegas tuvieron historias de horror en su infancia de disfuncin familiar, caos, adiccin y crimen. +Haba odo una historia similar sobre el hombre que le dispar cuando asisti a su juicio. +Cuanto ms se acercaba Raisuddin al EE.UU. que haba codiciado desde lejos, ms se daba cuenta de que exista otro EE.UU., igualmente real, que escatimaba segundas oportunidades. +El hombre que dispar a Raisuddin creci en ese EE.UU. ms mezquino. +Desde afuera, Mark Stroman siempre fue el alma de la fiesta, siempre hizo que las chicas se sintieran hermosas. +Siempre trabajando, sin importar las drogas o peleas de la noche anterior. +Pero l siempre haba combatido sus demonios. +Vino al mundo por las 3 puertas que condenan a tantos jvenes estadounidenses: malos padres, malas escuelas, malas prisiones. +De nio su madre le dijo que, lamentablemente, haba estado a solo USD 50 de abortarlo. +A veces, ese nio iba a la escuela y, de repente, sacaba un cuchillo ante sus compaeros. +A veces, ese mismo niito estaba con sus abuelos dando de comer a caballos con cario. +Lo arrestaron antes siquiera de afeitarse, delincuente juvenil, luego la prisin. +Se volvi supremacista blanco ocasional y, como muchos en su entorno, fue adicto a drogas y padre ausente. +Y luego, en poco tiempo, se encontr en el corredor de la muerte, pues en su contra-jihad de 2001 no haba disparado a un empleado sino a tres. +Solo sobrevivi Raisuddin. +Extraamente, el corredor de la muerte fue la primera institucin que mejor a Stroman. +Sus viejas influencias lo abandonaron. +Las personas que entraron a su vida fueron virtuosas y atentas: pastores, periodistas, amigos por correspondencia de Europa. +Lo escucharon, oraron por l, lo ayudaron a cuestionarse. +Y lo llevaron en un viaje de introspeccin y mejora. +Finalmente, se enfrent al odio que haba definido su vida. +Ley a Viktor Frankl, el sobreviviente del Holocausto y lament sus tatuajes de la esvstica. +Encontr a Dios. +Luego, un da de 2011, 10 aos despus de sus crmenes, Stroman recibi noticias. +Una de sus vctimas, el sobreviviente, estaba luchando para salvarle la vida. +Ya ven, a finales de 2009, 8 aos despus del disparo, Raisuddin haca su propio viaje de peregrinacin a La Meca. +En medio de la multitud sinti una inmensa gratitud, pero tambin un deber. +Record su promesa a Dios, mientras agonizaba en el 2001, si viva, servira a la humanidad el resto de sus das. +Luego, estuvo ocupado reconstruyendo su vida. +Ahora deba saldar su deuda. +Y decidi, tras reflexionar, que su forma de pago sera una intervencin en el ciclo de la venganza entre los mundos musulmn y occidental. +Y cmo iba a intervenir? +Perdonando a Stroman pblicamente en nombre del Islam y de su doctrina de la misericordia. +Y luego demandando al estado de Texas y a su gobernador Rick Perry para evitar la ejecucin de Stroman, lo que le espera a la mayora de la gente que dispara en el rostro. +Sin embargo, la misericordia de Raisuddin no solo vino de la fe. +Como nuevo ciudadano estadounidense, haba llegado a creer que Stroman era producto de un EE.UU. herido y que no poda recibir una inyeccin letal. +Esa visin me llev a escribir el libro "The True American", +Un inmigrante que suplica a EE.UU. que sea tan misericordioso con un hijo nativo como lo fue con uno adoptivo. +En el minimercado, tantos aos atrs, no solo enfrentaron a dos hombres, sino dos EE.UU. +Un EE.UU. que todava suea, que todava se esfuerza, que sigue imaginando que el maana puede construirse hoy, y un EE.UU. resignado al destino, que cede al estrs y al caos, con bajas expectativas, que se zambulle en el ms antiguo de los refugios: en la comunin tribal de la propia estrechez. +Y Raisuddin, a pesar ser un recin llegado, a pesar de ser atacado, a pesar de no tener hogar y estar golpeado, era habitante a la repblica de los sueos y Stroman del otro pas herido, a pesar de haber nacido con el privilegio de ser hombre, blanco y nativo. +Advert que las historias de estos hombres eran una parbola urgente de EE.UU. +El pas del que siento orgullo de llamar como propio no estaba viviendo una cada generalizada como la de Espaa o Grecia, donde las perspectivas se desvanecen para todos. +EE.UU. es a la vez el pas ms y el menos exitoso del mundo industrializado. +Crea las mejores compaas del mundo, y tiene el rcord de nios con hambre. +Ve caer la esperanza de vida para grandes grupos, y ostenta los mejores hospitales del mundo. +EE.UU. es hoy un cuerpo joven alegre, impactado por uno de esos golpes que absorben la vida por un lado, mientras por el otro, todo sigue preocupantemente perfecto. +El 20 de julio de 2011, luego de que un sollozante Raisuddin testificara en defensa de la vida de Stroman, el estado que l tanto amaba lo mat con una inyeccin letal. +Horas antes, cuando Raisuddin todava pensaba que poda salvar a Stroman, los dos hombres hablaron por segunda vez en la historia. +Este es un extracto de la llamada telefnica. +Raisuddin: "Mark, debes saber que estoy orando a Dios, el ms compasivo y misericordioso. +Te perdono y no te odio. +Nunca te odi". +Stroman: "Eres una persona extraordinaria. +Te lo agradezco de corazn. +Te quiero, hermano". +An ms asombroso, despus de la ejecucin, Raisuddin se acerc a la hija mayor de Stroman, Amber, exconvincta y adicta, +y le ofreci su ayuda. +"Puede que hayas perdido un padre", le dijo, "pero ganaste un to". +l quera que ella, tambin, tuviera una segunda oportunidad. +Si la historia humana fuera un desfile, EE.UU. sera un santuario de nen de segundas oportunidades. +Pero EE.UU., generoso en segundas oportunidades para hijos de otras tierras, hoy escatima primeras oportunidades a los hijos propios. +EE.UU. todava deslumbra permitiendo que cualquiera se haga estadounidense. +Pero pierde brillo en eso de que cada estadounidense sea alguien. +En la ltima dcada, 7 millones de extranjeros obtuvieron la ciudadana de EE.UU. +Notable. +Mientras tanto, cuntos estadounidenses llegaron a la clase media? +En realidad, la afluencia neta fue negativa. +Vayamos ms atrs, y es an ms sorprendente: Desde los aos 60, la clase media se ha reducido en un 20 %, principalmente porque las personas dejaron de pertenecer. +Y mi informe de todo el pas dice que el problema es ms severo que la simple desigualdad. +Observo un par de secesiones del centro unificador de la vida en EE.UU. +Una secesin afluente en ascenso, hacia afuera, en enclaves de lite con educacin y una matriz global de trabajo, dinero y conexiones, y una secesin empobrecida en baja, y hacia dentro, con vidas desconectadas, sin salida, con una suerte esquiva. +Y no se consuelen con que son el 99 %. +Otras generaciones tuvieron que construir una sociedad a partir de la esclavitud, superar una depresin, derrotar al fascismo, y a la esclavitud en Mississippi. +El desafo moral de mi generacin, creo, es recomponer estos dos EE.UU, elegir la unin sobre la secesin, una vez ms. +Este no es un problema de poner o quitar impuestos. +No se resolver tuiteando con ms fuerza, o creando aplicaciones ms pulidas, ni creando otro servicio de tostado de caf artesanal. +Es un desafo moral que llama a cada uno de nosotros en el EE.UU. floreciente a apropiarnos del EE.UU. que se marchita como lo hizo Raisuddin. +Como l, podemos peregrinar. +Y all, en Baltimore, en Oregn y en los Apalaches, encontrar un nuevo propsito, como hizo l. +Podemos sumergirnos en ese otro pas, dar testimonio de sus esperanzas y sus tristezas, y, como Raisuddin, preguntarnos qu podemos hacer. +Qu puedes hacer t? +Qu puedes hacer t? +Qu podemos hacer nosotros? +Cmo podemos construir un pas ms misericordioso? +Nosotros, los ms grandes inventores del mundo, podemos inventar soluciones para los problemas de ese EE.UU., no solo para el nuestro. +Los escritores y los periodistas, podemos cubrir historias de esos EE.UU., en vez de cerrar oficinas all. +Podemos financiar las ideas de esos EE.UU., en vez de las ideas de Nueva York y San Francisco. +Podemos poner nuestros estetoscopios en sus espaldas, ensear all, ir a la corte all, hacer all, vivir all, rezar all. +Ese, creo, es el llamado de una generacin. +Un EE.UU. cuyas dos mitades aprendan de nuevo a dar zancadas, a arar, a forjar, a atreverse juntas. +Una repblica de las posibilidades, retejida, renovada, empieza con nosotros. +Gracias. +Soy alfarero, lo que pareciera ser una vocacin bastante humilde. +Yo s mucho de vasijas. +He pasado unos 15 aos hacindolas. +Me siento, como alfarero, que tambin empiezo a aprender a modelar el mundo. +Ha habido momentos que con mi capacidad artstica quera reflejar momentos realmente importantes en la historia de EE.UU., la historia del mundo donde sucedieron cosas terribles. pero cmo hablar de ideas difciles sin separar ese contenido de las personas? +Puedo usar estas viejas bombas contra incendios de Alabama, como arte, para hablar de la complejidad de los derechos civiles en los aos 60? +Es posible hablar de mi padre y de m haciendo proyectos de empleo? +Mi padre era techador, era propietario de una pequea empresa de construccin, y en el 80, estaba listo para jubilarse y hered la caldera de alquitrn. +Una caldera de alquitrn no parece ser mucha herencia. No lo fue. +Era apestosa y quitaba una gran cantidad de espacio en mi estudio, pero le pregunt a mi pap si l estara dispuesto a hacer arte conmigo, si pudiramos imaginar este tipo de material inservible como algo muy especial. +Y al elevar el material y la habilidad de mi padre, podramos empezar de un modo nuevo, a pensar en el alquitrn como arcilla, dndole forma que nos ayuda a imaginar lo posible. +Adems de arcilla, yo entonces tornaba un montn de materiales diferentes, y mi estudio creci mucho porque pens, bueno, en realidad no es el material, sino la capacidad modelar las cosas. +Me senta ms y ms interesado en las ideas y en ms cosas que sucedan ms all de mi estudio. +Para darles un poco de contexto, yo vivo en Chicago. +Vivo en el lado sur. Soy del oeste. +Para aquellos que no son ciudadanos de Chicago, no significa nada, pero si no mencionaba que soy del oeste de Chicago, mucha gente en la ciudad se sentir muy molesta. +El barrio en que vivo es el Grand Crossing. +Es un barrio que ha vivido pocas mejores. +No es con diferencia una comunidad cerrada +Hay mucho abandono en mi barrio, y mientras yo estaba ocupado haciendo vasijas y arte y haciendo una carrera de arte, pasaban todas estas cosas fuera de mi estudio. +Todos sabemos del fracaso del mercado inmobiliario y de los retos del deterioro, y siento que hablamos de ello ms en algunas ciudades que en otras, pero creo que muchas de nuestras ciudades de EE. UU. y ms all tienen el reto de la decadencia, edificios abandonados con los que la gente no sabe qu hacer. +Y pens, existe alguna manera de empezar a pensar en estos edificios como una extensin de mi prctica artstica? +Y si yo lo pensaba con otros creativos, arquitectos, ingenieros, financieros de bienes races, juntos podramos pensar en formas ms complicadas de remodelar las ciudades. +As que compr un edificio. +El edificio era muy asequible. +Lo adornamos. +Lo hicimos tan hermoso como pudimos para intentar albergar actividades en mi barrio. +Una vez que compr el edificio por unos USD 18 000, no me qued dinero. +As que empec a barrer el edificio como un espectculo. +Este era el arte espectculo y la gente vendra y empezara a barrer. +Porque la escoba era gratis y barrer era gratis. +Funcion. +Pero queramos usar el edificio para hacer exposiciones, cenitas, y vimos que ese edificio en mi barrio, el Dorchester, ahora nos referimos al barrio como proyectos Dorchester, que el edificio se convirti en un lugar de eventos y reuniones para diferentes tipos de actividades. +Convertimos el edificio en lo que llamamos ahora la Casa Archivo. +La Casa Archivo sirve para todas estas cosas asombrosas. +Las personas muy importantes de la ciudad y de ms all se encuentran en el centro. +Y fue entonces cuando me sent como si tal vez hubiera una relacin entre mi historia con arcilla y esta cosa nueva que estaba empezando a desarrollar, que acabbamos de iniciar lentamente para remodelar cmo la gente se imaginaba el lado sur de la ciudad. +Una casa se convirti en varias casas, y siempre hemos tratado de proponer que no solo es un recipiente hermoso e importante, sino que el contenido de lo que all sucede tambin es muy importante. +As que no pensbamos en el desarrollo, sino en el programa, pensbamos en el tipo de conexiones que podran suceder entre una casa y otra, entre un vecino y otro. +Este edificio se convirti en lo que llamamos la Casa Escucha, y tiene una coleccin de libros desechados de la Johnson Publishing Corporation, hasta otros libros de una vieja librera en quiebra. +Yo en realidad solo quera activar estos edificios como pudiera con lo que fuera y con todo el que quisiera sumarse. +En Chicago, hay muchos edificios impresionantes. +Este edificio, que haba sido el antiguo fumadero del barrio, al quedar abandonado, se convirti en una gran oportunidad para imaginar qu ms hacer all. +As que convertimos este espacio en lo que llamamos cine negro domstico. +El cine negro domstico fue una oportunidad para proyectar pelculas importantes y relevantes para las personas que vivan all. Si queramos pasar una vieja pelcula de Melvin Van Peebles, podamos hacerlo. +Si queramos pasar "Car Wash", podamos. +Eso era increble. +El edificio pronto qued pequeo, y tuvimos que pasar a un espacio ms grande. +El cine negro domstico hecho de una pequea pieza de barro, tuvo que convertirse en un pedazo mayor de arcilla, que ahora es mi estudio. +Me di cuenta de que, para los adictos a la zonificacin, algunas de las cosas que haca en estos edificios olvidados no funcionaban para los usos para los que se construyeron los edificios, y que no existen polticas urbanas que digan, "Una casa residencial debe seguir siendo residencial". +Pero, qu hacer en los barrios si no hay nadie interesado en vivir all? +Si las personas con medios ya se han ido? +Qu hacemos con estos edificios abandonados? +Por eso, yo intentaba despertarlos usando la cultura. +Encontramos que eso era tan emocionante para la gente, y la gente era tan sensible a esto, que tuvimos que encontrar edificios mayores. +En el momento en que encontramos edificios mayores haba, en parte, los recursos necesarios para pensar en esas cosas. +Este banco que llamamos el Banco de Arte, estaba en muy mal estado. +Haba casi 2 metros de agua estancada. +Fue un proyecto difcil de financiar, porque los bancos no estaban interesados en el barrio porque la gente no estaba interesada en el barrio porque nada haba sucedido all. +Haba suciedad. No haba nada. +As que empezamos a imaginar, qu podra suceder en este edificio? +Uno de los archivos de all es la Johnson Publishing Corporation. +Tambin hemos empezado a recoger objetos que recuerdan la historia estadounidense, de personas que viven o han vivido en ese barrio. +Algunas son imgenes degradadas de gente negra, con historias de contenido muy difcil, y dnde mejor que en un barrio cuyos jvenes estn constantemente preguntando cosas de su identidad para hablar de algunas de las complejidades de raza y clase? +De alguna manera, se nota mucho que soy alfarero, que abordamos las cosas como si estuvieran en el torno, tratamos con la habilidad que tenemos de pensar en el prximo tazn que deseo hacer. +Y esto pas de un recipiente, a una casa singular, a una cuadra de un barrio hasta crear un distrito cultural para pensar sobre la ciudad. Y en cada punto, haba cosas que yo no saba que tena que aprender. +Nunca he aprendido tanto sobre la ley de la zonificacin en mi vida. +Yo nunca pens que tendra que hacerlo. +Pero como resultado, me doy cuenta de que no es solo el espacio para mi propia prctica artstica, hay espacio para un montn de otras prcticas artsticas. +As que las personas empezaron a preguntarme "Theaster, cmo ampliars?" +y "cul es tu plan de sostenibilidad?" +As que ahora, hemos empezado a dar consejos en todo el pas sobre cmo empezar con lo que uno tiene, a empezar con las cosas que estn a nuestro alcance, a crear algo de la nada, a remodelar el mundo en un torno o en tu barrio o a escala de la ciudad. +Muchas gracias. +June Cohen: Gracias. As que creo que mucha gente que vea esto se har la pregunta que acabas de exponer al final: Cmo pueden hacer esto en su propia ciudad? +No te puedes exportar a ti mismo. +Danos unas pinceladas de tus ideas sobre lo que alguien apasionado por su ciudad puede hacer para hacer proyectos como el tuyo. +Theaster Gates: Una de las cosas que he descubierto es realmente importante es una reflexin no solo sobre el tipo de proyecto individual, como el de una casa antigua, sino cul es la relacin entre una casa antigua, una escuela local, una pequea bodega, y si existe algn tipo de sinergia entre esas cosas. +Puedes hacer que hable esa gente? +He visto que en los casos donde los barrios han fracasado, todava existen latidos. +Cmo identificar los latidos en ese lugar, las personas apasionadas? Y entonces cmo conseguir que gente que ha estado luchando, penosamente durante 20 aos, se llene de energa mediante el lugar en que viven? +Y alguien tiene que hacer ese trabajo. +Si fuera un desarrollador tradicional, hablara solo de edificios, y luego pondra un cartel de "Se alquila" en la ventana. +Creo que realmente se tiene que hacer ms que eso, hay una manera en la que se debe ser consciente sobre, qu empresas quiero ver crecer aqu. +Y entonces, existen personas que viven en este lugar que quieren hacer crecer esas empresas conmigo? +Porque creo que no es solo un espacio de cultura o vivienda; tambin debe existir la recreacin de un ncleo econmico. +As que pensar en esas cosas juntas funcionan bien. +JC: Es difcil hacer que reviva la chispa en la gente cuando esas personas han luchado penosamente durante 20 aos. +Has descubierto algn mtodo que ha contribuido a romper eso? +As que si he visto que eres una persona de teatro, tienes que actuar en los festivales de teatro al aire libre. +JC: Qu interesante. +Y cmo asegurarse de que los proyectos que estn creando sean en realidad para los ms desfavorecidos y no solo para el grupo de veganos que miran pelculas indie que podran intentar aprovecharse de esto? +TG: Creo que es ah donde empieza la mala hierba. +JC: Vamos all. TG: En este momento, el Grand Crossing es en un 99 % negro, que por lo menos vive all, y sabemos que a lo mejor un propietario de un lugar es diferente al que va por las calles todos los das. +As que es razonable decir que el Gran Crossing ya est en el proceso de ser algo distinto de lo que es hoy. +As que, cmo empezar a que se desarrollen perros guardianes que aseguren que los recursos que se ponen a disposicin a la nueva gente que viene se distribuya a la gente que ha vivido en un lugar durante mucho tiempo? +JC: Eso tiene mucho sentido. Una pregunta ms: Muestras un caso convincente de la importancia de la belleza y las artes. +Habra otros que argumentan que los fondos deberan usarse mejor en servicios bsicos para los desfavorecidos. +Cmo se puede combatir ese punto de vista? +TG: Yo creo que la belleza es un servicio bsico. +JC: Para m tiene mucho sentido. +Theaster, muchas gracias por estar aqu con nosotros. +Gracias. Theaster Gates. +En mi lugar me llaman perturbador, alborotador, irritante, rebelde, activista, la voz del pueblo. +Pero no siempre fue as. +De nio tena un apodo. +Solan llamarme Softy, que significa muchacho inofensivo. +Al igual que cualquier otro ser humano, evit problemas. +De nio, me ensearon a ser tranquilo. +"No discuta, haga lo que le dicen". +En la escuela dominical me ensearon a evitar la confrontacin, no discutir, e incluso si estoy en lo cierto, a poner la otra mejilla. +Todo esto se vio reforzado por el clima poltico de la poca. +Kenia es un pas donde uno es culpable hasta que es rico. +Los pobres kenianos tienen 5 veces ms probabilidades de ser baleados por la polica que debera protegerles que por los delincuentes. +Esto fue reforzado por el clima poltico del da. +Tuvimos un presidente, Moi, que era dictador. +Gobern el pas con mano de hierro, y cualquiera que se atreviera a cuestionar su autoridad era detenido, torturado, encarcelado o incluso asesinado. +Eso significaba que a las personas se les ense a ser cobardes inteligentes en lugar de ser problemticas. +Ser cobarde no era un insulto. +Ser cobarde era un cumplido. +Nos dijeron que un cobarde vuelve a casa con su madre. +Esto significaba que si uno se mantena alejado de los problemas se mantena con vida. +Dud de ese consejo. Y hace 8 aos cuando tuvimos elecciones en Kenia, y los resultados fueron violentamente disputados, +la eleccin fue seguida de terribles actos de violencia, violaciones, y el asesinato de ms de 1000 personas. +Mi trabajo fue documentar la violencia. +Como fotgrafo, tom miles de imgenes, y despus de dos meses, los dos polticos se reunieron a tomar una taza de t, firmaron un acuerdo de paz, y el pas sigui su camino. +Yo era un hombre muy perturbado porque vi la violencia con mis propios ojos. +Vi los asesinatos. Vi las evacuaciones. +Conoc a mujeres que haban sido violadas, y estaba afectado, pero el pas nunca habl de aquello. +Solamos fingir. Todos se convirtieron en cobardes inteligentes. +Decidimos quedarnos fuera de problemas y no hablar de ello. +Diez meses despus, dej el trabajo. No poda soportarlo ms. +Despus de dejar mi trabajo, decid organizarme con mis amigos para hablar de la violencia en mi pas, para hablar del estado de la nacin, y el 1 de junio 2009 era el da en que tenamos que ir al estadio para tratar de llamar la atencin del presidente. +Es un da de fiesta nacional, se emite en todo el pas, y me present en el estadio. +Mis amigos no se presentaron. +Me encontr solo, y no saba qu hacer. +Estaba asustado, pero saba muy bien que ese da en particular, tena que tomar una decisin. +Iba a vivir como un cobarde, como todos los dems, o iba a resistir? +Y cuando el presidente se puso de pie para hablar, me puse de pie gritando al presidente dicindole que recordar a las vctimas de la violencia postelectoral para detener la corrupcin. +Y de repente, de la nada, la polica se abalanz sobre m como leones hambrientos. +Me cerraron la boca y me arrastraron fuera del estadio, donde me golpearon a fondo y me encerraron en la crcel. +Pas esa noche en el fro suelo de cemento en la crcel y me puse a pensar +por qu me senta de esa manera. +Mis amigos y familiares pensaron que estaba loco, por lo que hice, y que las fotos que haba tomado me perturbaron. +Las imgenes que tom eran solo un nmero para muchos kenianos. +La mayora de los kenianos no vieron la violencia. +Era una historia para ellos. +Y as decid realmente abrir una exposicin callejera para mostrar las imgenes de las agresiones en todo el pas y hacer que la gente hablara de ello. +Viajamos por el pas y mostramos las imgenes, y fue entonces cuando me convert en activista. Decid no callarme ms, hablar de esas cosas. +Viaj, y nuestra meta ms all de la exposicin callejera era el graffiti poltico sobre la situacin del pas, hablando de la corrupcin, la falta de liderazgo. +Tambin hicimos entierros simblicos. +Hemos entregado cerdos vivos al parlamento de Kenia como smbolo de la codicia de nuestros polticos. +Se ha hecho en Uganda y otros pases, y lo ms poderoso es que las imgenes fueron recogidas por los medios de comunicacin y transmitidas al resto del pas y del continente. +Si hace siete aos me qued solo, ahora pertenezco a una comunidad que est a mi lado. +Ya no solo cuando hablo de estas cosas. +Pertenezco a un grupo de jvenes que sienten pasin por el pas, que quieren lograr un cambio, y que ya no tienen miedo, y que ya no son unos cobardes inteligentes. +As que esa fue mi historia. +Ese da en el estadio, me puse de pie como un cobarde inteligente. +Con este gesto, me desped de los 24 aos de cobarda. +Hay dos grandes das en la vida: el da que naces, y el da que descubres por qu. +Ese da, levantndome en el estadio, gritando al presidente, descubr por qu nac de verdad, que yo ya no callar ante la injusticia. +Sabes por qu naciste? +Gracias. +Tom Rielly: Es una historia asombrosa. +solo quiero hacerte un par de preguntas rpidas. +As que PAWA254 ha creado un estudio, un lugar donde los jvenes pueden ir y aprovechar el poder de los medios digitales y hacer algo, actuar. +Qu est pasando ahora con PAWA? +Boniface Mwangi: Tenemos esta comunidad de cineastas, grafiteros, msicos, y cuando hay un problema en el pas, nos reunimos, nos inspiramos, y nos ocupamos del problema. +As que nuestra herramienta ms poderosa es el arte, porque vivimos en un mundo ocupado en el que la gente est siempre ocupada, y no tienen tiempo para leer. +As que empaquetamos nuestro activismo y enviamos el mensaje a travs del arte. +Desde la msica, el graffiti, el arte, que es lo que hacemos. +Puedo decir una cosa ms? +TR: S, por supuesto. BM: A pesar de ser arrestado, golpeado, amenazado, cuando encontr mi voz, donde pude defender aquello en lo que realmente crea, dej de tener miedo. +Me llamaban "Softy", el blandengue, pero ya no soy blando, porque descubr quin soy realmente, y lo que quiero hacer, y eso es muy agradable. +No hay nadie ms poderoso que aquel que conoce su propsito, porque nunca tiene miedo, y sigue viviendo su vida. +Gracias. +Esta noche vengo a demostrar que invitar a un ser querido, un amigo o incluso un extrao a grabar una entrevista significativa con uno, no solo puede convertirse en uno de los momentos ms importantes en la vida de esa persona, sino en la de uno mismo. +A los 22 aos, tuve la suerte de encontrar mi vocacin cuando incursion en la creacin de historias para la radio. +Casi al mismo tiempo, me enter de que mi padre, al que yo me senta muy cercano, era gay. +Me pill por sorpresa. +ramos una familia muy unida, y yo estaba devastado. +En algn momento, en una de nuestras tensas conversaciones, mi padre mencion los disturbios de Stonewall. +Me dijo que una noche en 1969, un grupo de jvenes travestis negros y latinos luchaban contra la polica en un bar gay en Manhattan llamado Stonewall Inn, y cmo esto dio inicio al movimiento moderno de derechos de homosexuales. +Era una historia asombrosa que despert mi inters. +As que decid ir con mi grabadora y averiguar ms. +Con la ayuda de un joven documentalista llamado Michael Shirker, ubicamos a todas las personas que supimos que haban estado en el Stonewall Inn esa noche. +Grabando estas entrevistas, vi cmo el micrfono me dio la licencia para ir a lugares que, de otra manera, nunca habra ido y hablar con gente con la que tampoco habra podido jams haber hablado. +Tuve el privilegio de conocer algunos de los seres humanos ms sorprendentes, feroces y valientes que jams haba conocido. +Era la primera vez que la historia de Stonewall se difunda a una audiencia nacional. +Dediqu el programa a mi pap, esto cambi mi relacin con l y me cambi la vida. +Durante los siguientes 15 aos, hice muchos ms documentales de radio, para arrojar luz sobre personas a las que rara vez se escuchaba en los medios. +Una y otra vez he visto cmo este simple acto de ser entrevistado puede significar mucho para las personas, especialmente a aquellas que se les haba dicho que sus historias no importaban. +Literalmente, pude ver a la gente recuperar la confianza al empezar a hablar ante el micrfono. +En 1998, hice un documental sobre los ltimos hoteles Flophouse en el Bowery en Manhattan. +All se quedaban por dcadas en estos hoteles baratos. +Vivan en cubculos del tamao de celdas de prisin cubiertos con malla de gallinero para impedir que saltaran de una habitacin a otra. +Ms tarde, escrib un libro sobre esos hombres con el fotgrafo Harvey Wang. +Recuerdo entrar en una de esas pensiones con una versin temprana del libro y mostrarle a uno de esos tipos su pgina. +Se qued mirndolo en silencio, entonces me arranc el libro de las manos y empez a correr por el largo y estrecho pasillo, sostenindolo sobre su cabeza y gritando, "Existo! Existo!" +En muchos sentidos, "existo" fue la llamada para StoryCorps, esa loca idea que tuve hace ms de una dcada. +La idea era tomar la tcnica de los documentales y darle un vuelco total. +As, en la terminal de Grand Central hace 11 aos, instalamos un cubculo donde cualquiera puede venir a honrar a una persona y entrevistarla sobre su vida. +Al llegar a este cubculo, un facilitador lo recibe y lo acompaa adentro. +Por ejemplo, uno se sienta frente a su abuelo durante cerca de una hora, escucha y habla. +Mucha gente lo percibe como si esta fuese la ltima conversacin; "Qu querra preguntar y decir a esta persona que significa tanto para m?" +Al final de la sesin, uno se va con una copia de la entrevista y otra copia va al American Folklife Center de la Biblioteca del Congreso para que sus tatara-tatara-tatara-nietos algn da conozcan a su tatara... abuelo con su voz y su historia. +Abrimos este cubculo en uno de los lugares ms concurridos del mundo, para invitar a la gente a tener esta conversacin muy ntima con otra persona. +No tena idea de si funcionara, pero desde el principio, s result. +Las personas abordaron la experiencia con increble respeto y adentro surgieron increbles conversaciones. +Quiero ahora reproducir un extracto animado de una entrevista grabada en ese cubculo original de Grand Central. +Se trata de Joshua Littman, de 12 aos, entrevistando a su madre, Sarah. +Josh tiene el sndrome de Asperger. +Quizs sabrn que los nios con sndrome de Asperger son increblemente inteligentes pero que tienen dificultades sociales. +Por lo general tienen obsesiones. +En el caso de Josh, la suya es con los animales. As es como Josh habl con su madre Sarah en Grand Central, hace 9 aos. +Josh Littman: En una escala de 1 a 10, crees que tu vida sera diferente sin animales? +Sarah Littman: Creo que sera un 8 sin animales, porque ellos aportan mucho placer a la vida. +JL: En qu crees que tu vida sera diferente sin ellos? +SL: Bueno, podra pasar sin cucarachas y sin serpientes. +JL: A m no me molestan las serpientes, si no son venenosas o si no te agreden de alguna manera. +SL: S, yo no soy gran admiradora de las serpientes. JL: Las cucarachas son insectos a los que nos encanta odiar. +SL: S, realmente es as. +JL: Alguna vez has pensado que no soportarias tener un hijo? +SL: Cuando eras beb, tenas unos clicos muy terribles, por lo que llorabas y llorabas. +JL: Qu es un clico? SL: Cuando se tiene un fuerte dolor de estmago y tienes que gritar como por 4 horas. +JL: incluso ms fuerte que Amy? +SL: T eras bastante ruidoso, pero Amy era ms aguda. +JL: Creo que a todo el mundo parece gustarle ms Amy, como si fuera una angelita, perfecta. +SL: Puedo entender por qu piensas que a la gente le gusta ms Amy, y no digo que sea por tu sndrome de Asperger, pero a Amy le resulta fcil ser amable, mientras que creo que, para ti, es ms difcil. Pero las personas que se toman el tiempo para conocerte, te adoran. +JL: Como Ben o Eric o Carlos? SL: S. JL: Es como tener amigos de mejor calidad, aunque en menor cantidad? SL: No juzgo la calidad, pero creo que... JL: Primero Amy quera a Claudia, pero luego la odiaba, despus la amaba y luego la odiaba. +SL: En parte eso son cosas de chicas, cario. +Lo importante para ti es que tienes unos pocos muy buenos amigos, y realmente eso es lo que necesitas en la vida. +JL: Fui yo el hijo que queras cuando nac? +Cumplo tus expectativas? +SL: T has excedido mis expectativas, cario, porque una tiene estas fantasas de cmo ser su hijo, pero me has hecho crecer mucho como madre, porque... JL: Bueno, yo fui quien te hizo madre. +JL: Y eso te ayud cuando naci Amy? +SL:S. Eso me ayud cuando naci Amy. Pero eres increblemente especial para m y soy muy afortunada de tenerte como mi hijo. +David Isay: Despus de que esta historia se emitiera en la radio pblica, Josh recibi cientos de cartas dicindole lo increble que era. +Su madre, Sarah, las recoga en un libro, y cuando Josh volva de la escuela, las lean juntos. +Quisiera agradecer a dos de mis hroes que estn aqu con nosotros esta noche. +Sarah Littman y su hijo Josh, hoy en da universitario con matrcula de honor. +Muchas personas dicen que lloran al or historias de StoryCorps, y no es porque sean tristes. +La mayora no lo son. +Creo que es porque uno oye algo autntico y puro en estos momentos, cuando a veces es difcil discernir entre lo real y los anuncios. +Es una especie de anti-reality show. +Nadie viene a StoryCorps para hacerse rico. +Nadie viene a hacerse famoso. +Se trata simplemente de un acto de generosidad y amor. +Muchos son gente comn que habla sobre su vida llevada con bondad, coraje, decencia y dignidad. Al or esas historias, uno a veces puede sentirse como caminando en tierra sagrada. +Este experimento en el Grand Central funcion y lo ampliamos a todo el pas. +Hoy en da, ms de 100 000 personas de los 50 Estados, en miles de ciudades y pueblos de EE.UU., han grabado entrevistas en StoryCorps. +Actualmente es la coleccin ms grande de voces humanas jams reunida. +Hemos contratado y entrenado a cientos de facilitadores para ayudar a la gente como guas en esa experiencia. +La mayora trabaja un ao o dos con StoryCorps viajando por el pas, recogiendo sabidura de la humanidad. +Los llaman testimoniales. Si se les pregunta, todos los facilitadores dirn que lo ms importante que han aprendido al presenciar estas entrevistas, es que las personas son bsicamente buenas. +Tambin he aprendido mucho de estas entrevistas. +He aprendido sobre poesa, sobre sabidura y sobre la gracia que hay en las palabras de las personas que nos rodean simplemente al tomarnos el tiempo para escuchar. Como en esta entrevista de un empleado de apuestas en Brooklyn llamado Danny Perasa quien trajo a su esposa Annie a StoryCorps para hablarle de su amor por ella. +Danny Perasa: Mira. El asunto es que siempre me siento culpable cuando te digo "te amo". +Lo digo con mucha frecuencia. Y lo digo para recordarte que aunque yo est as deteriorado, me sale del alma. +Es como escuchar una cancin hermosa en un radio viejo. Es precioso que mantengas esa radio encendida por toda la casa. +Annie Perasa: Si no encuentro una nota en la mesa de la cocina, pienso que algo va mal. +Me escribes una carta de amor cada maana. +DP: Lo nico que podra impedirlo es no encontrar un mugre bolgrafo. +AP: Para mi princesa: El tiempo hoy est muy lluvioso. +Te llamar a las 11:20 de la maana. +DP: Es meteorologa romntica. +AP: Y te amo. Te amo. Te amo. +DP: Si uno est felizmente casado, no importa qu pase en el trabajo, ni en el resto del da, siempre hay un refugio al llegar a casa; hay seguridad al saber que uno puede abrazar a alguien sin ser empujado a un lado, diciendo: "Quta esas manos de encima". +Estar casado es como tener una TV en color. +Uno nunca quiere volver a blanco y negro. +DI: Danny mide 1,5 m de altura tiene estrabismo y solo un diente mellado pero Danny Perasa tena ms romanticismo en la punta del dedo que todas las celebridades de Hollywood juntas. +Qu ms he aprendido? +He aprendido sobre la capacidad casi inimaginable del espritu humano para perdonar. +He aprendido sobre la capacidad de recuperacin y sobre la fuerza. +Como en la entrevista de Oseas Israel con Mary Johnson. +Cuando Oseas era adolescente, asesin al nico hijo de Mary, a Laramiun Byrd, en una pelea de pandillas. +Ms de una dcada despus, Mary fue a la crcel para conocer a Oseas y averiguar quin era esta persona que haba destrudo la vida de su hijo. +Poco a poco, extraordinariamente, se hicieron amigos. Y cuando finalmente sali de la crcel, Oseas se mud junto a Mary. +Este es solo un breve extracto de la conversacin que sosuvieron. poco despus de que Oseas sali de la prisin. +Mary Johnson: Mi hijo biolgico ya no est aqu. +Yo no lo vi graduarse, y ahora t vas a la universidad. +Tendr la oportunidad de ver cmo te gradas. +Yo no lo vi casarse. +Esperemos que un da, pueda vivir eso contigo. +Oseas Israel: Solo orte decir esas cosas y estar en mi vida de la manera en que lo haces, es mi motivacin. +Me motiva para asegurarme de que voy por el buen camino. +T todava crees en m, y el hecho de que lo hagas a pesar de todo el dolor que te caus, es asombroso. +MJ: S que no es fcil poder compartir nuestra historia, incluso estar sentados aqu mirndonos en este momento. +S que no es fcil, por eso admiro que puedas hacerlo. +OI: La amo, seora. MJ: Yo tambin te quiero, hijo. +DI: Infinidad de veces me han hecho ser consciente de la valenta y la bondad de la gente, y de cmo el arco de la historia realmente se inclina hacia la justicia. +Como en la historia de Alexis Martnez, que naci como Arthur Martnez en los proyectos Harold Ickes en Chicago. +En la entrevista, ella habla con su hija Lesley de cmo se uni a una pandilla siendo un hombre joven, y ms tarde cmo hizo la transicin a la mujer que siempre debi ser. +Aqu, Alexis y su hija Lesley. +Alexis Martnez: Una de las cosas ms difciles para m... Siempre tuve miedo de no poder participar en la vida de mis nietas. Pero t resolviste completamente esos temores; t y tu marido. +Fruto de esto es que, en mi relacin con mis nietas, ellas a veces discuten sobre si yo soy l o ella. +Lesley Martnez: Pero tienen la libertad para hablar de ello. +AM: Tienen la libertad de hablar de ello, pero para m, es un milagro. +LM: No tienes que disculparte. No tienes que andar de puntillas. +No vamos a cortarte las alas y eso es algo que yo siempre quise, simplemente que supieras, que eres amada. +AM: Ahora yo vivo esto todos los das. +Camino por las calles como mujer, y me siento en paz con lo que soy. +Quiero decir, me gustara tener una voz ms suave, tal vez, pero ahora ando con amor e intento vivir as todos los das. +DI: Ahora ando con amor. +Voy a contales un secreto sobre StoryCorps. +Se necesita coraje para tener estas conversaciones. +StoryCorps le habla a nuestra mortalidad. +Los participantes saben que esta grabacin se escuchar despus de muertos, +Un mdico de cuidados paliativos llamado Ira Byock ha trabajado estrechamente con nosotros grabando entrevistas con personas que se estn muriendo. +El escribi un libro titulado "Las cuatro cosas que ms importan" sobre lo que uno quiere decir a las personas ms importantes en su vida antes de morir: Gracias, te quiero, perdname, te perdono. +Son casi las palabras ms poderosas que podemos decir y muchas veces eso es lo que sucede en una cabina de StoryCorps. +Es una oportunidad de tener una despedida con alguien que uno quiere, sin arrepentimientos, sin dejar nada pendiente. +Es difcil y se necesita valor, pero es por eso que estamos vivos, no? +El Premio TED. +Al enterarme hace unos meses, por Chris, de TED y de la posibilidad de ganar el premio, qued completamente anonadado. +Me pidieron que compartiera brevemente un deseo para la humanidad, en no ms de 50 palabras. +Pens en ello y escrib mis 50 palabras, y unas semanas ms tarde, Chris llam y me dijo: "Ven por ello!". +As que aqu va mi deseo: que todos Uds. ayuden a usar todo lo aprendido con StoryCorps para llevarlo a todo el mundo para que cualquiera, donde sea, pueda grabar una entrevista significativa con otra persona, y luego sea archivada para la historia. +Cmo lo haremos? Con... esto. +Estamos avanzando rpidamente para que todos en el mundo tengan acceso a uno de estos. Tiene un poder nunca antes imaginado, hace 11 aos, cuando empec con StoryCorps. +Tiene un micrfono. Te puede indicar cmo hacer las cosas y puede enviar archivos de audio. +Esas son las funciones clave. +La primera parte del deseo ya es realidad. +En los ltimos dos meses, el equipo de StoryCorps ha estado trabajando arduamente para crear una aplicacin que llevara StoryCorps ms all de nuestros cubculos para que cualquier persona pueda experimentarlo, donde sea, cuando sea. +Recuerden, StoryCorps ha sido siempre dos personas, y un facilitador ayudndolas a grabar su conversacin, que va a ser conservada para siempre. Pero en este mismo momento, estamos lanzando la versin beta pblica de la aplicacin de StoryCorps. +La aplicacin es un facilitador digital que les gua por el proceso de la entrevista de StoryCorps, les ayuda a escoger las preguntas, y les da todas las indicaciones necesarias para grabar una entrevista de StoryCorps, que sea significativa. Luego con un clic, lo subes a nuestro archivo de la Biblioteca del Congreso. +Esa es la parte fcil, la tecnologa. +El verdadero desafo es para Uds.; aprovechar bien esta herramienta y descubrir cmo usarla en todo EE.UU. y por todo el mundo, de manera que en lugar de grabar miles de entrevistas de StoryCorps en un ao, podremos potencialmente grabar decenas de miles o cientos de miles o tal vez an ms. +Imaginemos, por ejemplo, una tarea escolar a nivel nacional donde cada uno de los alumnos de secundaria que estudien historia de los EE.UU., en todo el pas, grabe una entrevista con un anciano el da de Accin de Gracias, de modo que en un solo fin de semana se registra toda una generacin de vidas y experiencias estadounidenses. +Hace 10 aos, grab una entrevista de StoryCorps con mi pap que era psiquiatra, y que se convirti en un activista gay muy conocido. +Esta es nuestra imagen en esa entrevista. +Nunca pens en esta grabacin hasta hace un par de aos, cuando mi padre, que pareca estar en perfecto estado de salud y que todava trataba a pacientes 40 horas a la semana, fue diagnosticado con cncer. +Falleci repentinamente unos das ms tarde. +Fue el 28 de junio del 2012, el aniversario de los disturbios de Stonewall. +Escuch esa entrevista por primera vez a las 3 de la maana el mismo da en que muri. +Para mis dos nios pequeos en casa, la nica manera de que conocieran a esta persona, una figura tan imponente en mi vida, sera a travs de esa sesin. +Yo pensaba que no se poda tener ms fe en StoryCorps que la que ya tena. Pero fue en ese momento que comprend, completa y visceralmente, la relevancia de hacer estas grabaciones. +Cada da, la gente viene a m y me dice: "Me hubiera gustado haber entrevistado a mi padre, a mi abuela o a mi hermano, pero esper demasiado tiempo". +Ahora, nadie tiene que esperar ms. +En este momento, cuando nos comunicamos en gran medida de manera fugaz e intrascendente, smense a nosotros en la creacin de este archivo digital de conversaciones imperecederas e importantes. +Aydennos a crear este regalo para nuestros hijos, este testimonio de lo que somos como seres humanos. +Espero que nos ayuden a hacer este deseo realidad. +Entrevisten a un miembro de la familia, a un amigo o incluso a un extrao. +Juntos, podemos crear un archivo de la sabidura de la humanidad, y tal vez, al hacerlo, aprendamos a escuchar un poco ms y a gritar un poco menos. +Tal vez estas conversaciones nos recordarn lo que realmente importa. +Y tal vez, solo tal vez, nos ayudarn a reconocer la simple verdad de que cada vida, la vida de cada persona, importa por igual, infinitamente. +Muchas gracias. +Gracias. Gracias. +Gracias. +Cuando escrib mis memorias, los editores estaban muy confundidos. +Hablaba de m como nia refugiada, o como mujer que cre una empresa de software de alta tecnologa en los 60, que cotiz en bolsa y lleg a emplear a ms de 8500 personas? +O de m como madre de un hijo autista? +O de la filntropa que ha donado sumas importantes? +Bueno, resulta que soy todo eso. +Les contar mi historia. +Todo lo que soy empieza el da que sub a un tren en Viena, parte del Kindertransport que salv a casi 10 000 nios judos de la Europa Nazi. +Tena 5 aos, agarrada de la mano de mi hermana de 9 aos y tena muy poca idea de lo que estaba pasando. +"Qu es Inglaterra? Por qu voy all?" +Vivo solo gracias a que hace mucho, me ayudaron unos extraos generosos. +Tuve suerte, y fui doblemente afortunada de reencontrarme luego con mis padres biolgicos. +Pero, por desgracia, nunca me vincul con ellos de nuevo. +Pero he hecho ms en las 7 dcadas desde aquel da desgraciado en que mi madre me puso en un tren de lo que jams habra soado posible. +Amo Inglaterra, mi pas adoptivo, con la pasin que quiz solo siente alguien que perdi sus derechos humanos. +Decid hacer de mi vida, una vida digna de ser salvada. +Y luego, segu adelante. +Vayamos a principios de los aos 60. +Para sortear las cuestiones de gnero de la poca, cre mi propia empresa de software, una de las primeras startups de Gran Bretaa. +Pero era tambin una empresa de mujeres, una empresa para mujeres, una empresa social temprana. +La gente se burlaba porque el software, en esa poca, era algo que vena gratis con el hardware. +Nadie compraba software, y claramente no de una mujer. +Aunque las mujeres salan de las universidades con ttulos decentes, haba un lmite invisible a nuestro progreso. +Y yo alcanc ese lmite muy a menudo, y quera dar oportunidades a las mujeres. +Reclut mujeres profesionales que dejaron la industria al casarse, o cuando esperaban al primer hijo y las estructur en una organizacin de trabajo en la casa. +Fuimos pioneros en el concepto de la mujer que vuelve al mercado laboral despus de una pausa en su carrera. +Fuimos pioneros en muchos mtodos nuevos y flexibles: acciones de empleo, participacin en beneficios y, finalmente, copropiedad cuando dej una cuarta parte de la empresa en manos del personal sin costo alguno para nadie ms que para m. +Durante aos fue la primer mujer 'esto', o la nica mujer 'lo otro', +Y en aquellos das, no poda trabajar en la bolsa de valores, no poda conducir un autobs ni pilotar un avin. +De hecho, no poda abrir una cuenta bancaria sin permiso de mi marido. +Mi generacin de mujeres luch por el derecho al trabajo y el derecho a la igualdad de remuneracin. +En realidad, nadie esperaba mucho de nosotras en el trabajo o en la sociedad porque todas las expectativas entonces estaban puestas en la casa y en las responsabilidades familiares. +Y yo no poda soportar eso, as que empec a cuestionar las convenciones de la poca, al punto de cambiar mi nombre de "Stephanie" a "Steve" en mis cartas de desarrollo de negocios, para pasar la puerta antes de que alguien se diera cuenta de que era mujer. +Mi empresa llamada Freelance Programmers, era precisamente eso. No pudo empezar ms pequea: en la mesa del comedor y financiada con el equivalente a USD 100 en trminos actuales, financiados por mi trabajo y pidiendo un crdito con mi casa como garanta. +Mis intereses eran cientficos, el mercado era comercial; cosas como la nmina, me parecan bastante aburridas. +As que tuve que aceptar trabajos de investigacin operativa, que tena el desafo intelectual que me interesaba y el valor comercial valorado por los clientes: cosas como programacin de trenes de carga, cronograma de autobuses, control de mercadera, mucho de eso. +Y finalmente, entr trabajo. +Disfrazamos el trabajo domstico y a tiempo parcial del personal ofreciendo precios fijos, uno de los primeros en hacerlo. +Quin habra dicho que la programacin de la caja negra del Concord supersnico fue programado por un puado de mujeres que trabajaban desde sus casas? +Solo usamos un enfoque simple de "confa en el personal" y un simple telfono. +Solamos preguntarles a las interesadas, "Tienes acceso a un telfono?" +Un proyecto inicial fue desarrollar estndares de software sobre protocolos de control de gestin. +El software fue y sigue siendo una actividad muy difcil de controlar, por eso fue de enorme valor. +Nosotras mismas usbamos los estndares, incluso nos pagaron para actualizarlos durante aos, y, finalmente, fueron adoptados por la OTAN. +Nuestras programadoras --recuerden, solo mujeres, incluyendo gays y transgnero-- trabajaban con lpiz y papel para desarrollar diagramas de flujo, definan cada tarea a realizar. +Luego escriban cdigo, por lo general cdigo mquina, a veces cdigo binario, que luego enviaban por correo a un centro de datos para perforar con eso cintas de papel o tarjetas y luego volver a perforarlos para verificacin. +Todo esto, antes de que llegue a la computadora. +As se programaba a principios de los aos 60. +En 1975, a 13 aos de empezar, se legisl la igualdad de oportunidades en Gran Bretaa y eso hizo ilegal tener nuestras polticas pro-mujer. +Y como ejemplo de consecuencias no deseadas, mi compaa femenina tuvo que dejar entrar a los hombres. +Cuando cre mi empresa de mujeres, los hombres dijeron: "Interesante, funciona solo porque es pequea". +Luego, cuando se hizo ms grande lo aceptaron: "S, ahora es ms grande, pero no es de inters estratgico". +Y luego, cuando era una compaa de ms de USD 3000 millones, --hice millonarios a 70 empleados-- dijeron: "Bien hecho, Steve!" +Siempre pueden reconocer a las mujeres ambiciosas por la forma de sus cabezas: Son planas arriba por exceso de palmadas condescendientes. +Y tenemos los pies ms grandes para estar lejos del lavadero de la cocina. +Compartir con Uds. 2 secretos del xito: Rodense de personas de primera, y personas que les gustan; y elijan a sus parejas con mucha atencin. +Porque el otro da cuando dije: "Mi marido es un ngel", una mujer se quej: "Tienes suerte", dijo, "el mo todava est vivo". +Si el xito fuera fcil, todos seramos millonarios. +Pero en mi caso, vino en medio de trauma familiar y, de hecho, de crisis. +Nuestro difunto hijo, Giles, era hijo nico, un beb hermoso y feliz. +Y luego, a los 2 aos y medio, como un nio cambiado en un cuento de hadas, perdi lo poco que hablaba y se convirti en un nio salvaje, ingobernable. +No eran "los terribles 2 aos"; era profundamente autista y nunca volvi a hablar. +Giles fue el primer residente de la primera casa de caridad que cre, pionera en servicios para el autismo. +Y luego fue una escuela innovadora en Prior's Court para alumnos con autismo, y una organizacin benfica de investigacin mdica para el autismo. +Porque cada vez que encontr un hueco en los servicios, trat de ayudar. +Me gusta hacer cosas nuevas y hacer que ocurran cosas nuevas. +Cre una usina de pensamiento de 3 aos para autismo. +Algo de mi riqueza vuelve a la industria que la forj, tambin fund el Oxford Internet Institute y otras empresas de TI. +El Oxford Internet Institute no solo hace hincapi en la tecnologa, sino en el aspecto social, econmico, jurdico y tico de Internet. +Giles muri inesperadamente hace 17 aos. +He aprendido a vivir sin l, y he aprendido a vivir sin su necesidad de m. +Ahora solo hago filantropa. +No me preocupa perderme porque varias organizaciones benficas vendran rpidamente al rescate. +Una cosa es tener una idea para crear una empresa, pero como sabrn muchos en esta sala, hacer que suceda es algo muy difcil y requiere una energa extraordinaria, confianza en uno mismo y determinacin, el valor para arriesgar familia y hogar, y un compromiso 24/7 que raya en la obsesin. +Es justo decir tambin que soy adicta al trabajo. +Creo en la belleza del trabajo cuando se hace correctamente y con humildad. +El trabajo no es algo que hago cuando preferira estar haciendo otra cosa. +Vivimos la vida hacia adelante. +Qu me ense todo esto? +Me ense que el maana nunca ser como hoy, y ciertamente tampoco como ayer. +Eso me hizo enfrentar el cambio, y, de hecho, con el tiempo, dar la bienvenida al cambio, aunque me han dicho que sigo siendo muy difcil. +Muchas gracias. +Nac con retinoblastoma bilateral, cncer de retina. +Me extirparon el ojo derecho a los siete meses de edad. +Tena 13 meses cuando me extirparon el ojo izquierdo. +Lo primero que hice al despertar de esa ltima ciruga fue salir de la cuna y empezar a deambular por la sala de cuidados intensivos, probablemente en busca de la persona que me hizo esto. +Evidentemente, deambular por la unidad de pediatra no fue un problema para m sin ojos. +El problema era que me descubrieran. +Son las impresiones sobre la ceguera mucho ms amenazantes para los ciegos que la propia ceguera. +Piensen por un momento en sus propias impresiones sobre la ceguera. +Piensen en sus propias reacciones cuando yo llegu al escenario, o en la perspectiva de su propia ceguera, o en la ceguera de un ser querido. +El terror es incomprensible para la mayora de nosotros, porque la ceguera se ve como compendio de la ignorancia y el desconocimiento, una exposicin desafortunada a los estragos de la oscuridad desconocida. +Qu potico. +Afortunadamente para m, mis padres no eran poticos. +Eran pragmticos. +Saban que la ignorancia y el miedo no eran ms que cuestiones mentales y la mente es adaptable. +Crean que deban educarme gozando de las mismas libertades y responsabilidades que los dems. +En sus propias palabras, tena que salir de casa, algo que hice a los 18 aos. Tena que pagar impuestos... Gracias. Y ellos eran conscientes de la diferencia entre el amor y el miedo. +El miedo nos inmoviliza de cara a los desafos. +Saban que la ceguera sera un gran desafo. +No me educaron con miedo. +Antepusieron mi libertad a todo lo dems, porque eso es lo que hace el amor. +Saltando al presente, cmo me las arreglo hoy? +El mundo es una unidad peditrica mucho ms grande. +Afortunadamente, tengo un bastn largo de confianza, uno ms largo que los que usan la mayora de los ciegos. +Yo lo llamo mi equipo de libertad. +Impedir, por ejemplo, que haga una salida indigna del escenario. Veo el borde del precipicio. +Ya nos advirtieron que cualquier accidente imaginable ya ha sucedido a los oradores en el escenario. +No me importa sentar un nuevo precedente. +Pero ms all de eso, muchos habrn odo que haca chasquidos, al entrar al escenario... con la lengua. +Son emisiones de sonido que salen y rebotan en las superficies de mi alrededor, al igual que la ecolocalizacin de un murcilago, regresan a m con patrones, con informacin, igual que la luz lo hace para con Uds. +Y mi cerebro, gracias a mis padres, se ha activado para formar imgenes en mi corteza visual, que ahora llamamos sistema de imgenes, a partir de esos patrones de informacin, como tambin lo hace su cerebro. +Yo llamo a este proceso actualizacin de la ecolocalizacin. +Es la forma en que he aprendido a ver a travs de mi ceguera, para navegar a travs de mi viaje, a travs de la oscuridad desconocida de mis propios desafos, por lo que me he ganado el apodo de "Batman excepcional". +Acepto lo de "Batman". +Los murcilagos son fantsticos. Batman es fantstico. +Pero no me educaron para considerarme "excepcional". +Siempre me he considerado igual a cualquier otra persona que navega por la oscuridad desconocida de sus propios desafos. +Es eso tan excepcional? +Yo no uso los ojos, uso el cerebro. +Ahora, alguien, en algn lugar, debe pensar que eso es excepcional, de lo contrario no estara yo hoy aqu, pero reflexionemos sobre esto por un momento. +Todo aquel que enfrenta o que ha tenido que enfrentarse a algn desafo, que levante la mano. +Guau. Bien. +Muchas manos alzadas, djenme hacer un recuento. +Esto tomar un tiempo. Bien, muchas manos alzadas. +Mantnganlas alzadas. Tengo una idea. +Aquellos que usen el cerebro para navegar estos desafos, que bajen las manos. +Bueno, alguno todava con las manos alzadas tiene desafos propios. As que todos se enfrentan a retos, y todos nos enfrentamos a la oscuridad desconocida, endmica en la mayora de los desafos, a lo que la mayora tenemos miedo. +Pero todos tenemos cerebro que nos permite, que nos permite activar la navegacin a travs del viaje de estos desafos. S? +La cuestin es que vine aqu y no me dijeron dnde estaba el atril. +As que uno no puede confiar en esa gente de TED. +"Encuntrate a ti mismo", dijeron. +Por lo tanto... Y la reverberacin del sistema de megafona no ayuda en absoluto. +As que ahora les presento a Uds. un desafo. +Cierren todos los ojos por un momento, de acuerdo? +Y aprendern cmo funciona la ecolocalizacin. +Har un sonido. +Mantendr este panel delante de m, pero no lo mover. +Basta con escuchar el sonido por un momento. +Shhhhhhhhhh. +Bien, nada muy interesante. +Escuchen lo que sucede con ese mismo sonido cuando muevo el panel. +Shhhhhhhhhhh. (Tono cada vez ms alto y ms bajo) Uds. no conocen el poder del lado oscuro. +No me pude resistir. +Ahora mantengan los ojos cerrados porque... han escuchado la diferencia? +Asegurmonos. +Para su desafo, dganme "ahora", al escuchar que el panel empieza a moverse. +S? Relajmonos. +Shhhhhhh. +Pblico: Ahora. Daniel Kish: Bien. Excelente. +Abran los ojos. +Bien. As que solo con unos pocos centmetros se dan cuenta de la diferencia. +Uds. han experimentado la ecolocalizacin. +Todos podrn ser grandes ciegos. Echemos un vistazo a lo que puede suceder cuando a este proceso de activacin se le presta un poco de tiempo y atencin. +Juan Ruiz: Es como poder ver con los ojos y poder ver con los odos. +Hombre: No es una cuestin de disfrutar ms o menos de esto, se trata de disfrutar de una manera diferente. +Mujer: Se ve a travs. DK: S. +Mujer: Y luego vuelve poco a poco desde abajo. +DK: S! Mujer: Eso es increble. +Puedo ver el auto. Madre ma! +Hombre 2: Me encanta estar ciego. +Si tuviera la oportunidad, sinceramente, no volvera a tener visin. +Hombre 3: Cuanto ms grande es la meta, con ms obstculos se enfrenta uno, y en el otro lado de esa meta est la victoria. +Ha sido bellsimo verlo... TK: Parecen personas aterrorizadas? +No demasiado. +Hemos dado entrenamiento de activacin a decenas de miles de ciegos y deficientes visuales muy diversos en casi 40 pases. +Cuando los ciegos aprenden a ver, los que ven parecen inspirados a querer aprender a ver el camino mejor, con ms claridad, con menos miedo, porque este es un ejemplo de la inmensa capacidad que todos llevamos dentro para navegar por cualquier tipo de reto, a travs de cualquier forma de oscuridad, hacia descubrimientos insospechados cuando se activan. +Les deseo a todos un viaje ms activador. +Muchas gracias. +Chris Anderson: Daniel, amigo mo. +Como puedes ver, hay una gran ovacin, todos en pie en TED. +Gracias por esta charla extraordinaria. +Solo una pregunta ms sobre tu mundo, el mundo interior que construyes. +Creemos que tenemos cosas en nuestro mundo que t como ciego no tienes, pero cmo es tu mundo? +Qu tienes t que no tengamos nosotros? +TK: Una visin de 360, porque mi ecolocalizacin funciona tan bien detrs como delante de m. +Funciona en las esquinas. +Funciona a travs de las superficies. +En general, es una especie de geometra tridimensional difusa. +Uno de mis estudiantes, que ahora es instructor, al perder su visin, tras unos meses, estaba sentado en su casa de 3 pisos y se dio cuenta de que poda or todo lo que sucede en toda la casa: conversaciones, la gente en la cocina, en el bao, a varios pisos de distancia, a varios muros de distancia. +Dijo que era algo as como tener visin de rayos X. +CA: Cmo te imaginas el lugar donde ests ahora? +Cmo te imaginas este teatro? +TK: Lleno de altavoces, francamente. +Es interesante. Cuando las personas hacen un sonido, cuando se ren, cuando estn inquietas, cuando beben, se suenan la nariz o lo que sea, yo escucho todo. +Oigo cada pequeo movimiento que hace cada persona. +Nada de ello realmente se me escapa, y luego, desde una perspectiva de ecolocalizacin, el tamao de la sala, la curva de la audiencia alrededor del escenario, la altura de la sala. +Como digo, toda esta geometra de la superficie tridimensional a mi alrededor. +CA: Daniel, has presentado un trabajo espectacular que nos ayuda a ver el mundo de una manera diferente. +Muchas gracias por eso, de verdad. DK: Gracias. +Cuando yo era nio el desastre ms temido era una guerra nuclear. +Por eso tenamos en el stano un barril como este lleno de tarros de alimentos y agua. +Cuando llegara un ataque nuclear debamos escondernos all abajo y comer lo que hubiera en el barril. +Hoy la mayor catstrofe mundial. no se parece a esto. +Ms bien, es como esto. +Si algo ha de matar a ms de 10 millones de personas en las prximas dcadas, probablemente ser un virus muy infeccioso ms que una guerra. +No misiles, sino microbios. +En parte la razn de esto es que se han invertido enormes cantidades en disuasivos nucleares. +Pero en cambio, muy poco en sistemas para detener epidemias. +No estamos preparados para la prxima epidemia. +Veamos el caso del bola. +Con seguridad todos han ledo en la prensa sobre esos terribles retos. +Yo lo segu cuidadosamente con las herramientas de anlisis de casos, como las que usamos para la erradicacin del polio. +Si se observa lo que sucedi, el problema no fue que el sistema no funcionara adecuadamente, sino que en verdad no tenamos ningn sistema. +De hecho, faltaban unas piezas claves bastante obvias. +No haba equipos de epidemilogos listos a viajar, que hubiesen ido, para ver qu cosa era esa enfermedad y qu tanto se haba expandido. +Los informes se producan impresos en papel. +Hubo enormes demoras antes de ponerlos en internet y adems eran terriblemente imprecisos. +No haba grupos de mdicos listos a viajar. +No tenamos manera de preparar a la gente. +Por su parte, Mdecins Sans Frontires hizo un gran trabajo organizando a los voluntarios. +Pero an as, fuimos mucho ms lentos de lo debido en llevar a a los miles de trabajadores hacia esos pases, +Para una gran epidemia se necesitan cientos de miles de trabajadores. +No haba nadie dedicado a estudiar nuevos mtodos de tratamiento. +Nadie que estudiara los diagnsticos. +Nadie que estudiara cules instrumentos deban usarse. +Por ejemplo, se podra haber tomado sangre de sobrevivientes, para procesarla y aplicar ese plasma a la gente sana, para protegerla. +Pero nunca se intent. +Hicieron falta muchas cosas. +En realidad, fue una fatalidad mundial. +La OMS existe para monitorizar las epidemias, pero no hace nada de lo que estoy hablando. +En el cine todo es bien diferente. +Hay un grupo de epidemilogos, bien parecidos, listos a viajar, se movilizan y salvan la situacin. Pero eso es solo en Hollywood. +La falta de preparacin podra hacer que la prxima epidemia sea mucho ms devastadora que la de bola. Veamos el bola y cmo se difundi este ao. +Murieron unas 10 000 personas, casi todas en esos 3 pases de frica Occidental. +Hay 3 razones por las cuales no se expandi ms. +Primero, por el gran trabajo heroico de los trabajadores de salud. +Encontraban a la gente y prevenan ms infecciones. +Segundo, por la naturaleza del virus. +El bola no se propaga por el aire. +Cuando alguien llega a ser transmisor, ya est tan enfermo que estar en cama. +Tercero, no lleg a muchas reas urbanas. +Esto fue pura suerte. +Si hubiese llegado a muchas ms reas urbanas, el nmero de casos habra sido mucho mayor. +Pero la prxima vez podemos no tener la misma suerte. +Podra ser un virus con el que los transmisores no se sientan mal y puedan viajar en avin o ir al mercado. +La fuente del virus podr ser una epidemia natural, como el bola, o puede venir de bioterrorismo. +As, son muchos los factores que podran hacerlo todo mucho peor. +Por ejemplo, veamos un modelo de un virus que se propaga por el aire, como la Gripa Espaola de 1918, +Aqu est lo que podra suceder. Se difundira por todo el mundo muy, muy rpidamente. +Sabemos que ms de 30 millones de personas murieron en esa ocasin. +O sea, este es un problema bien serio. +Deberamos preocuparnos. +Es posible construir un sistema de respuesta bien eficaz. +Tenemos a favor toda la ciencia y la tecnologa de las que tanto hablamos. +Tenemos celulares para recibir y difundir informacin al pblico. +Tenemos mapas satelitales para ubicar a la gente y ver cmo se moviliza. +Tenemos avances en biologa. por los que cambia dramticamente el tiempo de estudio de patgenso y poder fabricar drogas y vacunas que ataquen esos grmenes. +O sea que s tenemos los instrumentos, pero hay que ponerlos al servicio de un sistema mundial general de salud. +Y necesitamos estar preparados. +Las mejores lecciones, pienso, de cmo prepararnos son otra vez, todo lo referente a la guerra. +En cuanto a soldados, los tenemos de tiempo completo, listos a desplazarse. +Tenemos reservistas que pueden aumentar el nmero enormemente. +La OTAN tiene unidades mviles que pueden activarse con gran rapidez. +Esta organizacin hace simulaciones para ver si la gente est bien entrenada; +si entienden bien cmo manejar los combustibles y toda la logstica al igual que con las radiofrecuencias. +O sea que estn absolutamente listos a desplazarse. +Este es el tipo de cosas que tenemos que hacer para las epidemias. +Cules son las piezas clave? +Primero, necesitamos sistemas de salud fuertes en los pases pobres. +O sea, que las madres puedan dar a luz de manera segura, que los nios tengan todas sus vacunas. +Tambin que podamos detectar el brote desde el principio. +Necesitamos contingentes de reserva mdica; suficiente personal con el conocimiento y el entrenamiento, listo a desplazarse, con todas las habilidades. +Y luego hay que equiparar estos mdicos con los militares, +y beneficiarse de la capacidad de estos para moverse rpidamente, hacer logstica y tener reas seguras. +Hay que hacer simulaciones, ensayar campaas antigrmenes, no campaas de guerra, para detectar dnde estn los agujeros. +La ltima vez que se ensay una campaa antigrmenes en EE. UU. fue en 2001, y no result muy bien. +Hasta ahora, el marcador va, grmenes 1, gente 0. +Adems se necesita mucha investigacin y desarrollo en reas como diagnstico y vacunas. +Hay avances importantes como los virus adeno-asociados que pueden actuar muy bien y con gran rapidez. +Aunque no conozco un presupuesto exacto de lo que esto podra costar, s estoy seguro de que sera muy poco, comparado con el dao potencial. +El Banco Mundial calcula que una posible epidemia mundial de gripa, costara no menos de 3 billones de dlares con millones y millones de muertes. +Las inversiones necesarias conllevan beneficios bien significativos ms all de simplemente alistarnos para las grandes epidemias. +Los servicios primarios de salud, la investigacin y el desarrollo, son asuntos que reduciran la desigualdad en el tema de salud y haran ms justo y ms seguro este mundo. +Por eso pienso que esto debe ser una prioridad absoluta. +Sin necesidad de pnico. +No tenemos que esconder latas de pasta ni meternos en los stanos. +Pero s tenemos que actuar ya, porque el tiempo corre. +En realidad, si hay algo positivo que puede derivarse de la epidemia de bola; es que pudo servir de alarma temprana, de despertador, para que nos alistemos. +Si empezamos ahora, tal vez estaremos listos para la prxima epidemia. +Muchas gracias. +Buenasss, me llamo Kevin. +Soy de Australia. Estoy aqu para ayudar. +Esta noche, quiero contarles una historia de dos ciudades. +Una de esas ciudades se llama Washington, la otra Beijing. +Ven ese hombre? l es francs. +Su nombre es Napolen. +Hace unos cientos de aos, hizo este extraordinario pronstico: "China es un len dormido y, cuando despierte, el mundo temblar". +Napolen se equivoc en algunas cosas; pero en esto, dio totalmente en el clavo. +Debido a que China hoy tan solo ha despertado, China est en pie y China ha comenzado a andar, y la pregunta para todos es adnde ir China y cmo involucramos a este gigante del siglo XXI. +Si miran los nmeros, ellos comienzan ya a desafiarnos a gran escala. +Se pronostica que China se convertir, en funcin de la paridad del poder adquisitivo, en la economa ms grande del mundo en el transcurso de la prxima dcada. +Ya son la mayor nacin comercial, y tambin la mayor nacin exportadora, ya la mayor nacin manufacturera as como tambin los mayores emisores de carbono en el mundo. +EE.UU. ocupa el segundo lugar. +As que si China se convierte en la mayor economa del mundo, piensen en esto: Ser la primera vez desde que este tipo ocupara el trono de Inglaterra, Jorge III, no buen amigo de Napolen, que en el mundo tendremos como economa ms importante un pas que no habla ingls, un pas no occidental, un pas no democrtico-liberal. +Y si no creen que eso afectar la forma de encarar el mundo en el futuro, personalmente creo que han estado fumando algo, y eso no quiere decir que sean de Colorado. +Resumiendo, la pregunta que planteamos esta noche es, cmo entendemos este megacambio, que para m es el ms grande de la primera mitad del siglo XXI? +Va a afectar a muchas cosas. +Penetrar hasta la mdula. +Sucede en silencio. Sucede de forma perseverante. +Sucede en algunos sentidos fuera de nuestro control, ya que todos estamos preocupados con lo que pasa en Ucrania, en Medio Oriente, lo que pasa con ISIS, lo que pasa con ISIL, lo que sucede con el futuro de nuestras economas. +Esta es una revolucin lenta y tranquila. +Y con un megacambio viene tambin un megadesafo, y el megadesafo es este: Pueden estos dos grandes pases, China y EE.UU., China, el Reino Medio, y EE.UU., o Migu, que en chino, significa "el hermoso pas"... +Piensen que ese es el nombre que China dio a este pas hace ms de 100 aos. +Pueden estas dos grandes civilizaciones y grandes pases, labrarse un futuro comn para s y para el mundo? +En resumen, podemos forjar un futuro pacfico y mutuamente prspero, o estamos ante un gran desafo entre la guerra o la paz? +Y tengo 15 minutos para tratar la guerra o la paz, que es un poco menos de tiempo que dieron al chico que escribi "La guerra y la paz". +La gente me pregunta, por qu un nio que crece en el campo en Australia se interes en aprender chino? +Bueno, hay dos razones para ello. +Aqu est la primera de ellas. +Esta es Betsy, la vaca. +Betsy, la vaca, era una de un rebao de ganado lechero donde yo crec en una granja en la Australia rural. +Ven estas manos? No estn hechas para la agricultura. +As que muy pronto, descubr que, de hecho, trabajar en una granja no era lo mo, y China era un movimiento muy seguro fuera de cualquier carrera en una granja de Australia. +Aqu est la segunda razn. +Esa es mi mam. +Hay alguien que obedeci a su mam en lo que deban hacer? +Todo el mundo hace lo que su mam dijo que hicieran? +Yo rara vez lo hice. Pero lo que mi mam me dijo fue, un da, al darme un peridico, con un titular que deca: aqu tenemos un gran cambio. +Y ese cambio era China incorporndose a la ONU. +1971, yo acababa de cumplir 14 aos, y ella me entreg este titular. +Y ella dijo: "Comprndelo y aprndelo, porque esto afectar tu futuro". +As que siendo un muy buen estudiante de Historia, decid que lo mejor era, de hecho, salir y aprender chino. +Lo bueno de aprender chino es que el maestro chino te da un nuevo nombre. +Y me dieron este nombre: K, que significa superar o conquistar, y Wen, y que es el personaje literario o artstico. +K Wen, el Conquistador de los Clsicos. +Alguno de Uds. se llama "Kevin"? +Es una mejora importante de pasar de Kevin a Conquistador de los Clsicos. +Me han llamado Kevin toda mi vida. +Les han llamado Kevin toda su vida? +Prefieren que les llamen Conquistador de los Clsicos? +Y tras eso, me incorpor al servicio diplomtico de Australia, aqu es donde orgullo, antes de orgullo, siempre proviene de una cada. +As que estoy en la embajada en Beijing, fuera de la Gran Sala del Pueblo con nuestro embajador que me haba pedido interpretar en su primera reunin en el Gran Palacio del Pueblo. +Y as tuvo lugar. +Una reunin en China, es una herradura gigante. +A la cabeza de la herradura estn los peces megaimportantes, y abajo al final de la herradura los peces no tan megaimportantes, los pececillos como yo. +Y el embajador comenz con esta frase poco elegante. +l dijo: "China y Australia disfrutan de una relacin de cercana sin precedentes". +Y me dije a m mismo, "Eso suena torpe. Eso suena extrao. +Voy a mejorarlo". +Recuerden: Nunca hagan eso. +Deba ser un poco ms elegante, un poco ms clsico, as que lo arregl de la siguiente manera. + Hubo una pausa larga en la sala. +Se podan ver cmo a los megaimportantes a la cabeza de la herradura, les herva la sangre visiblemente en la cara, y los pececillos del otro extremo de la herradura intentando controlar las carcajadas. +Porque cuando arregl la frase, "Australia y China disfrutan de una relacin de cercana sin precedentes", de hecho, lo que dije fue que Australia y China ahora disfrutaban de un orgasmo fantstico. +Fue la ltima vez que me pidieron interpretar. +Pero en esa pequea historia, hay una enseanza: en cuanto crees saber algo de esta extraordinaria civilizacin de 5000 aos de historia, siempre hay algo nuevo que aprender. +La historia est en contra nuestro si se trata de EE.UU. y China y el intento de forjar juntos un futuro comn. +Quin es ese hombre? +No es chino y tampoco estadounidense. +Es griego. Se llama Tucdides. +Escribi "Historia de la guerra del Peloponeso". +E hizo esta observacin extraordinaria sobre Atenas y Esparta. +"Fue el ascenso de Atenas y el temor que esto inspir a Esparta lo que hizo inevitable la guerra". +Y de ah, toda una literatura sobre la denominada "Trampa de Tucdides". +Este de aqu? Ni es estadounidense, ni griego. Es chino. +Es Sun Tzu y escribi "El arte de la guerra", y si leen entre lneas: "Atcalo donde no est preparado, aparece donde no se te espera". +Nada bueno all para China y EE.UU. +Este es estadounidense. Se llama Graham Allison. +Es profesor de la Escuela Kennedy en Boston. +Est trabajando en un proyecto nico sobre la trampa de Tucdides y la guerra inevitable entre potencias emergentes y las grandes ya establecidas. Aplica esto al futuro de las relaciones entre China y EE.UU.? +Es una cuestin central. +Y Graham ha estudiado 15 casos de la Historia desde el ao 1500 para determinar los precedentes existentes. +Y 11 de 15 de ellos, djenme decirles, han terminado en una guerra catastrfica. +Pueden decir: "Pero Kevin, o Conquistador de los Clsicos, eso era el pasado. +Vivimos ahora en un mundo interdependiente y globalizado. +No podra volver a ocurrir jams". +Saben qu? +Los historiadores econmicos dicen que, de hecho, el momento al que llegamos al punto lgido de integracin econmica y globalizacin fue en el 1914, justo antes de la Primera Guerra Mundial, un reflejo aleccionador de la Historia. +As que si estamos inmersos en esta gran cuestin de cmo China piensa, siente, y se posiciona ante EE.UU., y a la inversa, Cmo podemos llegar a la lnea de referncia de cmo ambos pases y civilizaciones pueden trabajar juntos de alguna manera? +Djenme primero comentar las opiniones de China sobre EE.UU. y el resto de Occidente. +Nmero uno: China, se siente como si hubiera sido humillada por Occidente durante 100 aos de Historia, comenzando con las Guerras del Opio. +Tras eso, las potencias occidentales recortaron China en pedacitos, de modo que para entonces se lleg a los aos 20 y 30, con letreros como este en las calles de Shanghi. +["No se permiten perros, ni chinos"] Cmo se sentiran si fueran chinos, en su propio pas, al ver este letrero? +China tambin cree y siente que en los acontecimientos de 1919, en la Conferencia de Paz de Pars, cuando Alemania devolvi las colonias a todos los pases alrededor del mundo, qu pas con las colonias alemanas en China? +Se entregaron a Japn. +Cuando Japn invadi China en la dcada de 1930, el mundo mir hacia otro lado mostrando indiferencia a lo que suceda en China. +Y adems, los chinos hasta hoy creen que ni EE.UU., ni Occidente aceptan la legitimidad de su sistema poltico por ser radicalmente diferente a la de aquellos de democracias liberales, y creen que EE.UU. hasta el da de hoy busca socavar su sistema poltico. +China tambin cree que est siendo frenada por aliados y por los socios estratgicas de EE.UU. +de su periferia. +Y ms all de todo eso, los chinos tienen este sentimiento en lo ms profundo de su corazn y de sus entraas que todos nosotros en todo Occidente somos demasiado arrogantes. +Es decir, que no reconocemos problemas en nuestro propio sistema, en nuestra poltica y nuestra economa, y somos muy rpidos en sealar con el dedo a otra parte, y creen que, en realidad, nosotros en todo Occidente somos culpables de mucha hipocresa. +Claro est, en las relaciones internacionales, no es solo el sonido de una mano que aplaude. +Existe otro pas tambin, y este es EE.UU. +Y, cmo responde EE.UU. a todo lo dicho? +EE.UU. tiene una respuesta para cada cuestin. +Sobre la cuestin de si EE.UU. controla a China, dicen: "Miren la Historia de la URSS. Eso fue control". +En cambio, EE.UU. y Occidente hemos recibido a China en la economa mundial, y adems la hemos recibido en la Organizacin Mundial del Comercio. +EE.UU. y Occidente dicen que China estafa sobre los derechos de propiedad intelectual, y mediante ciberataques a EE.UU. y a multinacionales. +Por otra parte, EE.UU. dice que el sistema poltico chino es fundamentalmente errneo debido a que existe una variacin fundamental en los derechos humanos, la democracia que se disfruta en el imperio de la ley de EE.UU. y todo Occidente. +Y adems de eso, lo que dice EE.UU. +es que temen que China, cuando tenga capacidad suficiente, establecer una esfera de influencia en el sudeste y el este de Asia, desbancando a EE.UU. y en el tiempo, cuando sea lo suficientemente potente, buscar unilateralmente cambiar las reglas del orden mundial. +As que aparte de todo eso, todo es fino y elegante, en la relacin entre EE.UU. y China. +No hay problemas all. +El reto, sin embargo, existe en esos sentimientos profundamente arraigados, esas emociones y patrones de pensamiento profundamente arraigados. Lo que los chinos llaman "siwei", formas de pensar, cmo podemos elaborar una base para un futuro comn entre ambos? +Yo sostengo simplemente esto: Podemos hacerlo sobre la base de un marco de realismo constructivo para un propsito comn. +Qu quiero decir con esto? +Ser realista sobre las cosas con las que no estamos de acuerdo, y forma de gestin que no permita que cualquiera de esas diferencias desencadene en una guerra o conflicto hasta haber adquirido habilidades diplomticas para resolverlas. +Ser constructivo en reas de compromiso bilateral, regional y mundial entre ambos, marcar la diferencia para toda la humanidad. +Construir una institucin regional capaz de cooperar con Asia, una comunidad Asia-Pacfico. +Y en todo el mundo, adems de actuar, como se comenz a hacer al final del ao pasado al insistir contra el cambio climtico con las manos unidas en lugar de con los puos en alto. +Por supuesto, todo esto sucede con un mecanismo comn y con la voluntad poltica de lograr lo anterior. +Estas cosas son entregables. +Pero la pregunta es, son entregables por s solas? +Esto es lo que dicta nuestra mente que debemos hacer, pero qu pasa con nuestro corazn? +Tengo un poco de experiencia en la cuestin en casa de cmo se intenta reunir a dos pueblos que, francamente, no han tenido mucho en comn en el pasado. +Y entonces es cuando pido disculpas a los pueblos indgenas de Australia. +Este fue un da de ajuste de cuentas en el gobierno australiano, el parlamento australiano, y para el pueblo australiano. +Despus de 200 aos de abuso desenfrenado a los primeros australianos, era hora de que nosotros, los blancos, dijramos que lo sentamos. +Lo importante... Lo importante que recuerdo es de todas las caras de asombro de todos los aborgenes australianos cuando escucharon esta disculpa. +Fue extraordinario ver, por ejemplo, ancianas contndome historias de cuando tenan cinco aos y literalmente fueron arrancadas de sus padres, como esta seora de aqu. +Fue extraordinario para m para luego poder abrazar y besar a los ancianos aborgenes, ya que entraron en el edificio del parlamento, y una mujer me dijo que era la primera vez que un chico blanco la besaba en toda su vida, y ella tena ms de 70. +Esa es una historia terrible. +Y entonces recuerdo esta familia que me dijo que manejaron todo el camino desde el extremo norte hasta Canberra para llegar a esto, conduciendo el camino a travs del pas rural. +Al regresar, se detuvieron en un caf para tomar un batido. +Y entraron en este caf tentativamente, con cautela, un poco ansiosos. +Creo que saben de lo que estoy hablando. +Pero el da despus de la disculpa, qu pas? +Todo el mundo en ese caf, cada uno de los blancos, se puso de pie y aplaudi. +Algo haba ocurrido en los corazones de estas personas en Australia. +Los blancos, nuestros hermanos y hermanas indgenas, no hemos resuelto todos estos problemas juntos, pero djenme decir que haba un nuevo comienzo porque no habamos apuntado solo a la cabeza, sino tambin al corazn. +Entonces, dnde confluye esto en relacin a la gran cuestin que se nos ha pedido hacer frente a esta tarde, que es el futuro de las relaciones entre EE.UU. y China? +La cabeza dice que existe un camino a seguir. +La cabeza dice que hay un marco poltico, una narrativa comn, un mecanismo a travs del proceso de cumbres regulares para hacer estas cosas y hacerlas mejor. +Pero el corazn tambin debe encontrar una manera de reimaginar las posibilidades en la relacin entre EE.UU. y China, y las posibilidades de un futuro en la participacin de China en el mundo. +A veces, la gente, solo tiene que dar un salto de fe sin saber muy bien dnde aterrizar. +En China, ahora hablan del sueo chino. +En EE.UU. todos estamos familiarizados con "el sueo americano". +Creo que es el momento, en todo el mundo, para pensar tambin en algo que tambin podramos llamar un sueo para toda la humanidad. +Porque si lo hacemos, podramos simplemente cambiar la forma de pensar los unos sobre los otros. +[En chino] Ese es mi reto para EE.UU. Ese es mi reto para China. +Ese es mi reto para todos nosotros, creo que cuando hay voluntad y donde hay imaginacin podemos convertir esto en un futuro impulsado por la paz y la prosperidad y no repetir una vez ms las tragedias de la guerra. +Les doy las gracias. +Chris Anderson: Muchas gracias. Muchas gracias por esto. +Parece como si Ud. tuviera un papel que desempear en este puente. +En cierto modo, est en una posicin nica para hablar con ambas partes. +Kevin Rudd: Los australianos somos buenos para organizar las bebidas. As que Uds. los renen y nosotros les sugerimos esto y lo otro entonces vamos a buscar las bebidas. +Pero no, para todos los que somos amigos de estos dos grandes pases, EE.UU. y China, se puede hacer algo. +Se puede hacer una contribucin prctica, y para toda la buena gente de aqu, la prxima vez que encuentren a alguien de China, sintense y conversen. +Vean qu pueden averiguar sobre de dnde vienen y lo que piensan, y mi desafo para todas los chinos que vern esta charla TED en algn momento es el mismo. +Dos tratando de cambiar el mundo pueden marcar una gran diferencia. +Quienes estamos en el medio, podemos hacer una pequea contribucin. +CA: Kevin, que la fuerza le acompae, amigo mo. Gracias. +KR: Gracias. Gracias, amigos. +La realidad virtual empez para m en un lugar inusual. +En los 70. +Empec en esto muy joven, tena 7 aos. +Y la herramienta que us para acceder a la realidad virtual fue la moto de riesgo de Evel Knievel. +Este es un anuncio para ese producto en particular: Grabacin: Qu salto! +Evel conduce la magnfica motocicleta acrobtica. +Este truco lo lanza a ms de 30 m en el aire a toda velocidad. +Chris Milk: As que esto era lo mximo en aquel entonces. +Mont esta motocicleta por todas partes. +Y estaba all con Evel Knievel; saltamos el Snake River Canyon juntos. +Yo quera el cohete. +Nunca consegu el cohete, solo me dieron la motocicleta. +Me sent muy conectado con este mundo. +De pequeo quera ser un doble de accin, no escritor. +Estaba all. Evel Knievel era mi amigo. +Senta empata hacia l. +Pero no funcion. Fui a la escuela de arte. +Empec a hacer videos musicales. +Este es uno de los primeros videos que hice. (Msica: "Tocar el cielo", de Kanye West) CM: Aqu se pueden ver algunas leves similitudes. +Y tengo ese cohete. +Por lo tanto, ahora soy cineasta, o estoy a punto de serlo, y empec a usar las herramientas disponibles para m como cineasta para tratar de contar las historias ms convincentes para la audiencia. +Y el celuloide es una manera increble que nos permite empatizar con personas que son muy diferentes de nosotros y mundos completamente ajenos al nuestro. +Desafortunadamente, Evel Knievel no senta la misma empata por nosotros que nosotros por l, y nos demand por este video poco despus. +Pero el lado bueno, el hombre al que idolatraba de nio, el hombre que quera ser en la edad adulta, finalmente me ayud a conseguir su autgrafo. +Hablemos de pelculas ahora. +Una pelcula es un medio excepcional de comunicacin pero bsicamente no ha cambiado con el tiempo. +Se trata de un conjunto de fotogramas que se ruedan en una secuencia. +Hicimos cosas increbles con estas fotogramas. +Pero me puse a pensar si hay alguna manera de usar tecnologas modernas y emergentes para contar historias de maneras diferentes y otros tipos de historias, que tal vez yo no poda contar usando las herramientas tradicionales de cine que hemos estado usando desde hace 100 aos. +As que empec a experimentar, y estaba tratando de construir la mquina de la empata. +Aqu est uno de los primeros experimentos. As que esto se llama "The Wilderness Downtown". +Fue una colaboracin con Arcade Fire. +Se empezaba por escribir la direccin donde creciste. +Es un sitio web. +A partir de ah surgen ms fotogramas con diferentes ventanas del navegador. +Y se ve a este adolescente corriendo por una calle, y luego se ve imgenes de Google Street View y Google Maps y nos damos cuenta de que esta es nuestra calle. +Y cuando l se detiene frente a una casa, se detiene en frente de su casa. +Y esto fue genial, y vi gente reaccionar emocionalmente, ms fuerte que a las cosas que haba en las fotogramas. +Bsicamente tomo una parte de su pasado y la integro en el marco de una historia. +Pero luego me puse a pensar, bien, as que es una parte de ti, Pero cmo puedo integrar todas las historias en interior del marco? +Para eso, empec a hacer instalaciones. +Y esta es la llamada "La Traicin del Santuario". +Es un trptico. Les ensear el tercer panel. +As que ahora estn en el interior del marco, y vi gente que experiment reacciones emocionales incluso ms viscerales a esta obra que a la anterior. +Pero luego me puse a pensar en los marcos y en lo que significan. +Un marco es solo una ventana. +Todos los medios visuales, la televisin, el cine, son estas ventanas a estos otros mundos. +Y pens, bueno, excelente, te tengo en un marco +pero no te quiero en el marco, no te quiero en la ventana, quiero verte a travs de esta ventana, en el otro lado, en el mundo, viviendo esa realidad. +Eso me lleva de vuelta a la realidad virtual. +Vamos a hablar de la realidad virtual. +Desafortunadamente, hablar de la realidad virtual es como bailar sobre arquitectura. +Y en realidad aqu hay alguien bailando sobre la arquitectura en el mundo virtual. +Por lo tanto, es difcil de explicar. Por qu? +Porque es un soporte experimental, +basado en sentimientos. +Es una mquina, pero dentro de ella, parece la vida real, todo parece real. +Se sienten inmersos en este mundo y se sienten interactuando con las personas que les rodean. +Por lo tanto, les mostrar la demo de una pelcula de realidad virtual: una versin a pantalla completa con toda la informacin que se rueda al filmar en realidad virtual. +As que estamos filmando en todas direcciones. +Se trata de un nuevo sistema que integra cmaras 3D en todas las direcciones y micrfonos estreo orientados en cada direccin. +Con este sistema se construye una esfera del mundo circundante. +Lo que les mostrar no es una visin del mundo, sino todo el mundo proyectado sobre un fotograma. +Esta pelcula se llama "Nubes sobre Sidra" y se hizo en colaboracin con nuestra empresa de realidad virtual llamada VRSE las Naciones Unidas y otro colaborador, Gabo Arora. +Nos fuimos a un campo de refugiados sirios en Jordania en diciembre y filmamos la historia de Sidra, una nia de 12 aos. +Ella y su familia huyeron a Jordania a travs del desierto sirio, y vive en este campamento desde hace ms de un ao y medio. +Sidra: Mi nombre es Sidra. +Tengo 12 aos. +Estoy en quinto grado. +Vengo de Siria, de la provincia de Daraa, ciudad de Inkhil. +Hace un ao y medio que vivo aqu, en Jordania, en el campamento Zaatari. +Tengo una familia numerosa: tres hermanos, uno es todava un beb. +Llora mucho. +Le pregunt a mi padre si yo loraba cuando era pequea y me dijo que no. +Creo que fui una beb ms fuerte que mi hermano. +CM: Cuando se ponen los cascos +no se ve eso, +sino que pueden explorar el mundo que les rodea. +Tendrn una vista de 360 grados en todas las direcciones. +Y al estar sentados ah en su habitacin, observndola, no la vern a travs de una pantalla de televisin, o a travs de una ventana, sino que estarn sentados a su lado. +Al mirar hacia abajo, vern que estn sentados en el mismo suelo que ella. +Y debido a eso, sienten su humanidad de una manera ms profunda. +Empatizas con ella de una manera ms profunda. +Y creo que podemos cambiar mentalidades con esta mquina. +Y ya hemos empezado a cambiar algunas. +En enero, la pelcula se present en el Foro Econmico Mundial de Davos. +Y la mostramos a un grupo de personas cuyas decisiones afectan las vidas de millones de personas. +Se trata de personas que de otra manera no se sentaran en una tienda de campaa en un campo de refugiados en Jordania. +Pero en enero, una tarde en Suiza, de repente, se encontraban todos all. +Y se vieron afectados por lo que vieron. +As que vamos a rodar ms. +Ahora estamos trabajando con Naciones Unidas para rodar toda una serie de pelculas como esta. +Hace poco termin de filmar una historia en Liberia. +Y ahora, rodaremos una historia en India. +Y estamos tomando estas pelculas, y las proyectamos en Naciones Unidas a las personas que trabajan all y la gente que est de visita all. +Y las proyectamos a la gente que realmente puede cambiar el destino de la gente de estas pelculas. +Y ah es donde creo que solo empezamos a acercarnos al verdadero poder de la realidad virtual. +No es una herramienta de los videojuegos. +Conecta a la gente de una manera extraordinaria que nunca haba visto antes con otros medios de comunicacin, +cambiando la percepcin de las personas sobre otras. +De esta manera creo que la realidad virtual tiene el potencial de cambiar el mundo realmente. +Por lo tanto, se trata de una mquina, pero a travs de esta mquina llegamos a ser ms compasivos, nos volvemos ms empticos, ms cerca de los dems. +Y en ltima instancia, nos volvemos ms humanos. +Gracias. +Sera bueno ser objetivo en la vida, y de muchas maneras. +El problema es que no tenemos estas gafas con lentes de colores cuando miramos cada situacin. +Por ejemplo, consideren algo tan simple como una cerveza. +Si les ofrezco unas cervezas para degustarlas y les pido que evalen su intensidad y amargura, diferentes cervezas ocuparan diferentes espacios. +Y si tratsemos de ser objetivos? +En el caso de la cerveza sera muy simple. +Qu pasa si hacemos una cata a ciegas? +Bueno, si hicisemos lo mismo, y catsemos las cervezas, pero a ciegas, el resultado sera un poco diferente. +La mayora de las cervezas estaran en un solo lugar. +Bsicamente, no podran diferenciarlas, excepto, por supuesto, si se trata de Guinness. +Del mismo modo, podemos pensar en la fisiologa. +Qu sucede cuando la gente espera algo de su fisiologa? +Por ejemplo, vendemos analgsicos a la gente. +A algunos les hemos dicho que el frmaco es caro. +A otros, que es barato. +Y la medicina cara funcion mejor. +Alivi ms el dolor de la gente, porque las expectativas cambian realmente nuestra fisiologa. +Y, por supuesto, sabemos que en el deporte, si uno es fan de un equipo en particular, no puede dejar de ver el juego desde la perspectiva de su equipo. +As que todos son casos de nociones preconcebidas y expectativas que tien nuestro mundo. +Pero qu pasa con los temas ms importantes? +Qu sucede con las cuestiones que tienen que ver con la justicia social? +Tratamos de imaginar cul sera la versin de la prueba a ciegas para reflexionar sobre la desigualdad. +Empezamos a mirar a la desigualdad e investigamos a gran escala dentro de EE.UU. y otros pases. +Y planteamos 2 preguntas: Qu sabe la gente sobre el nivel de desigualdad actual? +Y luego, qu nivel de desigualdad queremos tener? +Pensemos en la primera pregunta. +Imaginen que selecciono a todas las personas de EE.UU. +y a los ms pobres les coloco a la derecha y a los ricos, a la izquierda, y luego los separo en 5 grupos: El 20 % ms pobre, el siguiente grupo de 20 %, el siguiente, el siguiente, y por fin, el 20 % ms rico. +Despus, les pido que evalen la cantidad de riqueza que creen que se concentra en cada uno de estos grupos. +Para simplificar, imaginen que les pido que me digan cunta riqueza piensan que se concentra en los 2 grupos ms pobres en el 40 % ms pobre. +Pinsenlo un momento y defnanlo con un nmero. +Por lo general no pensamos en ello. +Pinsenlo un segundo, busquen un nmero. +Lo tienen? +Bueno, esto es lo que nos dicen muchos estadounidenses. +Piensan que el 20 % ms pobre rene alrededor de un 2,9 % de la riqueza, y el siguiente grupo un 6,4 %. por lo cual, juntos, tienen un poco ms del 9 %. +Dicen que el siguiente grupo queda en un 12 % y el ltimo en 20 %, creen que el 20 % ms rico dispone del 58 % de la riqueza. +Pueden ver cmo se compara esto con lo que pensaban. +Ahora, cul es la realidad? +La realidad es algo diferente. +El 20 % ms pobre tiene un 0,1 % de la riqueza. +El siguiente 20 % tiene un 0,2 % de la riqueza. +y juntos, un 0,3 %. +Los siguientes grupos tienen un 3,9 % y un 11,3 %. Y el grupo ms rico cuenta con un 84 % a 85 % de la riqueza. +Lo que realmente tenemos y lo que pensamos que tenemos es muy diferente. +Y qu queremos? +Cmo nos damos cuenta? +Para investigar esto, para averiguar lo que queremos, pensemos en el filsofo John Rawls. +Si se acuerdan de John Rawls, l tena esta idea de qu es una sociedad justa. +Dijo que una sociedad justa es una sociedad donde si uno saba todo sobre ella, deseara estar en un lugar al azar. +Y es una hermosa definicin, porque si uno es rico, es posible que desee que los ricos tengan ms dinero, y los pobres menos. +Si uno es pobre, ser de los que quieren ms igualdad. +Pero si tiene que pertenecer a una sociedad en cualquier posicin posible, y no sabe cul es, debe tener en cuenta todos los aspectos. +Es como la prueba a ciegas en las que no sabe cul ser el resultado al tomar una decisin, y Rawls lo llam el "velo de la ignorancia". +As que tomamos otro grupo, un gran grupo de estadounidenses, e hicimos esta pregunta bajo el velo de la ignorancia. +Cules son las caractersticas de un pas que les haran querer vivir all sabiendo que puede acabar en cualquier lugar? +Y aqu est el resultado. +Cunto quera la gente darle al primer grupo, al ms pobre, al primer 20 %? +Queran darle un 10 % de la riqueza. +Al siguiente grupo, un 14 % de la riqueza, y luego un 21 %, 22 % y 32 %. +Nadie en nuestra muestra quera igualdad total. +Nadie pens que el socialismo es una idea fantstica. +Qu significa esto? Significa que tenemos una brecha de conocimiento entre lo que tenemos y lo que pensamos que tenemos, y tenemos una brecha igual de grande entre lo que pensamos que es justo y lo que pensamos que tenemos. +Ahora podemos hacer otras preguntas, y no solo sobre la riqueza. +Podemos preguntar acerca de otras cosas tambin. +Por ejemplo, preguntar a la gente de diferentes partes del mundo sobre este tema, liberales y conservadores, y nos dieron la misma respuesta. +Preguntamos a ricos y pobres, y nos dieron la misma respuesta, hombres y mujeres, oyentes de NPR y lectores de la revista Forbes. +Preguntamos a gente en Inglaterra, Australia, EE.UU.; respuestas muy similares. +Preguntamos incluso a los diferentes departamentos de una universidad. +Fuimos a Harvard y preguntamos en casi todos los departamentos, y, de hecho, en la Escuela de Negocios de Harvard donde algunas personas quisieron que los ricos sean an ms ricos y los pobres ms pobres, la similitud fue algo increble. +S que algunos de Uds. fueron a la Escuela de Negocios de Harvard. +Tambin pusimos otra pregunta acerca de otra cosa, +la proporcin salarial entre los miembros del directorio y los trabajadores sin experiencia. +Se ve que piensan que es esta proporcin y luego les preguntamos cul debera ser la proporcin? +As podemos ver cul es la realidad. +Y cul es la realidad? Bueno, podemos decir que no es tan mala, verdad? +El rojo y el amarillo no son tan diferentes. +Pero, de hecho, lo son, porque no los hemos dibujado en la misma escala. +Es difcil verlo, pero hay un amarillo y un azul all. +Pero qu pasa con las otras consecuencias de la riqueza? +La riqueza no es solo riqueza. +Qu pasa con otras cosas como la salud? +Cul es la disponibilidad de los medicamentos recetados? +Y la esperanza de vida? +Qu hay de la esperanza de vida de los bebs? +Cmo queremos que estos se distribuyan? +Y la educacin para los jvenes? +Y para las personas mayores? +De todo esto aprendimos que a la gente no le gusta la desigualdad de la riqueza, pero hay otras cosas donde la desigualdad, resultado de la riqueza, parece ms grave; por ejemplo, la desigualdad en la salud y la educacin. +Tambin aprendimos que la gente es especialmente abierta a los cambios en la igualdad cuando se trata de personas que tienen menos autonoma, bsicamente los nios pequeos y los bebs, porque no los consideran responsables por su situacin. +Entonces, qu lecciones podemos aprender de esto? +Hay 2 brechas: tenemos un vaco de conocimiento y una brecha en lo que se desea. La brecha del conocimiento tiene que ver con cmo educar a la gente. +Cmo hacer que la gente piense de manera diferente sobre la desigualdad, y sus consecuencias en la salud, la educacin, la envidia, los ndices de criminalidad, etc. +Luego tenemos la brecha en lo deseable. +Cmo hacer que la gente piense en lo que queremos? +En la definicin de Rawls, de cmo Rawls vea el mundo, su enfoque en la prueba a ciegas anula nuestra motivacin egosta. +Cmo implementamos esto a un nivel superior, a una escala ms amplia? +Y por ltimo, tenemos un vaco de accin. +Cmo abordamos estas cosas para darles un enfoque prctico? +Creo que parte de la respuesta es pensar en ciertas personas, como los nios pequeos y los bebs que no tienen mucha autonoma, porque la gente parece ms dispuesta a hacer eso. +Para resumir, la prxima vez que tomen una cerveza o un vino, piensen en ello, qu es real en su experiencia y qu, en su experiencia, es un efecto placebo derivado de las expectativas? +Despus, piensen en lo que eso significa para otras decisiones de su vida y quizs tambin para cuestiones polticas que nos afectan a todos. +Gracias. +Me gustara llevarlos en la misin pica de la nave espacial Rosetta +a escoltar y aterrizar la sonda en un cometa. Esta ha sido mi pasin los ltimos dos aos. +Para hacer eso, necesito explicarles algo sobre el origen del sistema solar. +Si retrocedemos 4 500 millones aos, haba una nube de gas y polvo. +En el centro de esta nube, se form y encendi nuestro Sol. Paralelo a esto, +se formaron lo que ahora conocemos como planetas, cometas y asteroides. +Lo que pas entonces, de acuerdo con la teora, es que cuando la Tierra se haba enfriado un poco despus de su formacin, los cometas la impactaron masivamente y llevaron all el agua. +Probablemente tambin llevaron material orgnico complejo a la Tierra, y eso puede haber impulsado el surgimiento de la vida. +Pueden comparar esto con tener que resolver un rompecabezas de 250 piezas y no uno de 2 000. +Despus, los planetas grandes como Jpiter y Saturno, que no estaban en el lugar en que estn ahora, interactuaron gravitacionalmente y arrasaron con todo el interior del sistema solar, y los que hoy conocemos como cometas terminaron en algo llamado el Cinturn de Kuiper, que es el cinturn de objetos ms all de la rbita de Neptuno. +Y a veces estos objetos chocan unos con otros, y se desvan por la gravedad hasta que la gravedad de Jpiter los jala de nuevo hacia el sistema solar. +Y entonces se vuelven cometas como los vemos en el cielo. +Lo importante para notar aqu es que durante este tiempo, 4 500 millones de aos, estos cometas han estado detenidos en el exterior del sistema solar, y no han cambiado, versiones absolutamente congeladas de nuestro sistema solar. +En el cielo se ven as. +Los conocemos por sus colas. +Son realmente dos colas. +Una es la cola de polvo, que es proyectada por el viento solar. +La otra es una cola de iones, que son partculas cargadas, y siguen el campo magntico del sistema solar. +Est la coma, est el ncleo, demasiado pequeo para verlo aqu, y tienen que recordar que en el caso de Rosetta, la nave espacial est en ese pxel central. +Estamos a solo 20, 30, 40 km del cometa. +Entonces, qu es importante recordar? +Los cometas tienen el material original del cual se form nuestro sistema solar, as que son ideales para estudiar los componentes que estaban presentes en el momento en que se formaron la Tierra y la vida. +Se sospecha tambin que los cometas trajeron los elementos que pueden haber iniciado la vida. +En 1983, ESA estableci su programa a largo plazo Horizon 2000, una de cuyas piedras angulares sera una misin a un cometa. +Paralelo a esto, una misin pequea fue lanzada al cometa Giotto que ven aqu, y que en 1986 vol cerca del Halley con aquella armada de naves espaciales. +Los resultados de esta misin, dejaron claro inmediatamente que los cometas eran cuerpos ideales para estudiar y entender el sistema solar. +Y fue as como la misin Rosetta fue aprobada en 1993, con fecha esperada de lanzamiento en 2003, hasta que surgi un problema con un cohete Ariane. +Nuestro oficina de relaciones pblicas en medio de su entusiasmo, haba hecho 1000 platos de porcelana azul de Delft con el nombre de otros cometas. +As que no he tenido que volver a comprar vajilla china. Esa es la parte positiva. +Una vez que se resolvi todo el problema, dejamos la Tierra en el 2004 rumbo al cometa recin seleccionado, Churyumov-Gerasimenko. +Este cometa tuvo que ser seleccionado especialmente porque A, se deba poder llegar a l, y B, no deba llevar mucho tiempo en el sistema solar. +Este cometa en particular haba estado en el sistema solar desde 1959. +Esa fue la primera vez que fue desviado por Jpiter, y lleg lo suficientemente cerca del Sol para empezar a cambiar. +As que es un cometa muy nuevo. +Rosetta hizo cosas por primera vez que quedaron par la historia. +Es el primer satlite en orbitar un cometa y escoltarlo en toda su travesa por el sistema solar, la aproximacin ms cercana al Sol en agosto, como veremos, y despus hacia afuera otra vez hacia el exterior. +Es el primer aterrizaje jams hecho en un cometa. +De hecho, orbitamos el cometa usando algo que normalmente no se usa con naves espaciales. +Generalmente, ves el cielo y sabes dnde ests y para dnde vas. +En este caso, no es suficiente. +Navegamos mirando puntos de referencia en el cometa. +Identificamos particularidades --rocas, crteres-- y as es como sabemos donde estamos con respecto al cometa. +Y, por supuesto, es el primer satlite en ir ms all de la rbita de Jpiter usando celdas solares. +Aunque esto suena ms heroico de lo que realmente es, porque la tecnologa para usar generadores trmicos de radioistopos no estaba disponible en Europa en ese momento, as que no haba opcin. +Pero estos paneles solares son grandes. +Esta es un ala y esas personas no son seleccionadas por pequeas. +Son tal como Uds. y yo. +Tenemos dos de estas alas, 65 m cuadrados. +Ms tarde, al llegar al cometa, entendemos que 65 m cuadrados de vela cerca de un cuerpo que est liberando gas no es una eleccin muy prctica. +Ahora bien, cmo llegamos al cometa? +Porque tenamos que ir hasta all para cumplir con los objetivos cientficos de Rosetta, muy lejos, a cuatro veces la distancia de la Tierra al Sol, y tambin a una velocidad mucho mayor que la que permita el combustible, ya que tendramos que llevar 6 veces el peso de la nave espacial en gasolina. +Entonces, qu hacer? +Usas vuelos de reconocimiento por gravedad como catapultas, donde pasas cerca de un planeta a una altitud muy baja, unos cuantos miles de kilmetros, y ganas, gratis, la velocidad de giro alrededor del Sol de ese planeta, +Hicimos esto algunas veces. +Lo hicimos con la Tierra, Marte, la Tierra otra vez, y tambin volamos cerca de dos asteroides, Lutetia y Steins. +En 2011, nos alejamos tanto del Sol que si la nave espacial hubiera tenido algn problema ya no hubiramos podido recuperarla, Y entramos en hibernacin. +Apagamos todo excepto un reloj. +Aqu se ve en blanco la trayectoria, y cmo funciona esto. +Partiendo del crculo inicial, la lnea blanca, se ve como, en efecto, nos hacemos ms y ms elpticos hasta que, finalmente, nos aproximamos al cometa en mayo de 2014, y tenemos que empezar a hacer las maniobras de encuentro. +De ida, pasamos por la Tierra y tomamos algunas fotos para probar las cmaras. +Esta es la Luna emergiendo sobre la Tierra, y esto es lo que ahora llamamos 'selfie', algo que en aquel entonces, por cierto, la palabra no exista. Este es Marte. La tom la cmara CIVA. +Es una de las cmaras en el aterrizador, y apunta justo bajo los paneles solares, y se ven Marte y los paneles solares en la distancia. +Ahora bien, cuando salimos de hibernacin en enero 2014, nos encontrbamos a dos millones de kilmetros del cometa, en mayo. +Pero la velocidad de la nave espacial era demasiado rpida. +bamos 2 800 km/hr ms rpido que el cometa, tenamos que frenar. +Tuvimos que hacer 8 maniobras, y aqu se ve que algunas fueron bastante grandes. +Y llegamos a las inmediaciones del cometa, y estas fueron las primeras fotos que vimos. +El periodo de rotacin real de un cometa es de 12,5 horas, esto est acelerado, y entendern que nuestros ingenieros de dinmica de vuelo pensaran, "este no va a ser un lugar fcil para aterrizar". +Esperbamos que fuera parecido a una papa, donde se pudiera aterrizar fcilmente. +Bueno. Pero nos quedaba una esperanza: quiz era liso. +No. Eso tampoco funcion. En ese punto era claramente inevitable: tenamos que mapear ese cuerpo con todos los detalles posibles porque tenamos que encontrar un rea de 500 m de dimetro y plana. +Por qu 500 m? Es el margen de error que tenemos para aterrizar la sonda. +As que pasamos a este proceso y mapeamos el cometa. +Usamos una tcnica llamada fotoclinometra. +Se usan sombras proyectadas por el Sol. +Lo que ven aqu es una roca en la superficie del cometa, y el Sol alumbra desde arriba. +A partir de la sombra, nosotros, con nuestro cerebro, podemos determinar inmediatamente la forma aproximada de la roca. +Se puede programar eso en una computadora, se hace lo mismo en todo el cometa, y se puede mapear el cometa. +Para esto, seguimos trayectorias especiales comenzando en agosto. +Primero, un tringulo de 100 km de un lado, a 100 km de distancia, y lo repetimos todo a 50 km. +En ese entonces, habamos visto el cometa desde todo tipo de ngulos, y pudimos usar esta tcnica para mapearlo todo. +Esto nos llev a una seleccin de sitios de aterrizaje. +Todo el proceso de mapear el cometa hasta encontrar el sitio de aterrizaje tom 60 das. +No tenamos ms. +Para darles una idea, la misin promedio a Marte requiere que cientos de cientficos se renan por aos y decidan, a dnde iremos? +Nosotros tuvimos 60 das, y no ms. +Finalmente seleccionamos el sitio de aterrizaje final y se prepararon los comandos para que Rosetta lanzara a Philae. +La manera como esto funciona es que Rosetta tiene que estar en el punto correcto en el espacio, y apuntando hacia el cometa, porque el aterrizador es pasivo. +El aterrizador entonces es empujado y se mueve hacia el cometa. +Rosetta tuvo que girarse para hacer que sus cmaras miraran a Philae mientras se alejaba y pudieran comunicarse con l. +La duracin del aterrizaje en toda su trayectoria fue de 7 horas. +Hagan un clculo sencillo: si la velocidad de Rosetta est errada en un centmetro por segundo, en 7 horas son 25 000 segundos. +Eso significa 252 m de error en el cometa. +As que tenamos que conocer la velocidad de Rosetta con un margen de error menor a un centmetro por segundo, y su ubicacin en el espacio con uno menor a 100 m, y todo esto, estando nosotros a 500 millones de kilmetros en la Tierra. +No es cualquier cosa. +Djenme guiarlos rpidamente a travs de la ciencia y los instrumentos. +No los aburrir con todos los detalles de todos los instrumentos, pero tiene todo. +Podemos oler gas, medir partculas de polvo, su forma, su composicin, hay magnetmetros, todo. +Estos son los resultados de un instrumento que mide la densidad del gas en la posicin de Rosetta, gas que ha salido del cometa. +La grfica de abajo es de septiembre del ao pasado. +Hay una variacin a largo plazo, lo cual no es sorprendente, pero vean los picos escarpados. +Es de da en el cometa. +Se puede ver el efecto del Sol en la evaporacin de gas y el hecho de que el cometa est rotando. +Hay un punto, aparentemente, en el que hay mucho saliendo, es calentado por el Sol, y despus se enfra en la parte de atrs. +Y podemos ver las variaciones de densidad de esto. +Estos son los gases y los componentes orgnicos que ya hemos medido. +Vern que es una lista sorprendente, y hay mucho ms por venir, porque hay ms medidas. +De hecho, hay una conferencia en Houston en este momento donde se presentan muchos de estos resultados. +Tambin, medimos partculas de polvo. +Para ustedes, esto puede que no parezca muy impresionante, pero los cientficos se entusiasmaron cuando vieron esto. +Dos partculas de polvo: la de la derecha la llaman Boris, le aplicaron tntalo para analizarla. +Encontramos sodio y magnesio. +Lo que esto nos dice es que esta es la concentracin de estos dos materiales en el momento en que se form el sistema solar, y as aprendemos sobre los materiales que estaban presentes cuando se form el planeta. +Por supuesto, un elemento importante es la construccin de imgenes. +Esta es una de la cmaras de Rosetta, la cmara OSIRIS, y esta la portada de la revista Science el 23 de enero de este ao. +Nadie haba esperado que este cuerpo se viera as. +Rocas, piedras, se parece ms al domo de Yosemite que a otra cosa. +Tambin vimos cosas como esta: dunas, y lo que parece ser sombras elicas, a la derecha. +Sabemos de ellas por Marte, pero este cometa no tiene una atmsfera, as que es difcil que se cree una sombra elica. +Puede ser desgasificacin local, material que sale y regresa. +No sabemos, hay mucho que investigar. +Aqu se ve la misma imagen dos veces. +A mano izquierda, se ve en medio una fosa. +A mano derecha, si miran cuidadosamente, hay 3 chorros saliendo del fondo de la fosa. +Esta es la actividad del cometa. +Al parecer, en el fondo de estas fosas es donde estn las regiones activas y donde el material se evapora hacia el espacio. +Hay una grieta muy interesante en el cuello del cometa. +Se ve en el lado derecho. +Tiene un kilmetro de largo, y 2,5 m de ancho. +Algunos sugieren que cuando estemos cerca del Sol, el cometa se podra dividir en dos, y entonces tendramos que decidir, cul cometa elegimos? +El aterrizador, como les dije, muchos instrumentos, la mayora comparable, excepto por las cosas que golpean el suelo y perforan, etc. +Pero muy similares a Rosetta, y eso es porque quieres comparar lo que encuentras en el espacio con lo que encuentras en el cometa. +Esto se llama medidas de verdad en tierra firme. +Estas son las imgenes de descenso del aterrizaje tomadas por la cmara OSIRIS. +Vemos el aterrizador alejndose cada vez ms de Rosetta. +Arriba a la derecha, se ve una imagen tomada a 60 m del aterrizador, 60 m arriba de la superficie del cometa. +La roca ah es de unos 10 m. +Esta es una de las ltimas imgenes tomadas antes de aterrizar en el cometa. +Aqu, se ve toda la secuencia otra vez, pero desde una perspectiva diferente, y se ven tres ampliaciones de la parte inferior izquierda hacia el centro del aterrizador viajando sobre la superficie del cometa. +Luego, arriba, hay una imagen de antes y despus del aterrizaje. +El nico problema con la imagen de despus es que no hay aterrizador. +Pero si ven cuidadosamente al lado derecho de esta imagen, vimos el aterrizador todava ah, pero haba rebotado. +Se haba ido otra vez. +Un apunte cmico es que Rosetta fue originalmente diseada para tener un aterrizador que rebotara. +Fue descartado porque era demasiado caro. +Nosotros lo olvidamos, pero el aterrizador lo saba. +Durante el primer rebote, los magnetmetros, aqu se ven los datos de ellos, de los tres ejes: x, y, as como z. +A la mitad, se ve una lnea roja. +En esa lnea roja, hay un cambio. +Lo que pas, aparentemente, es que durante el primer rebote, en alguna parte, golpeamos el borde de un crter con una pata del aterrizador, y la velocidad de rotacin del aterrizador cambi. +As que hemos tenido bastante suerte al estar donde estamos. +Esta es una de las imgenes icnicas de Rosetta. +Es un objeto hecho por el hombre, una pata del aterrizador, parado sobre un cometa. +Para m, esta es una de las mejores imgenes de ciencia espacial que he visto en mi vida. +Algo que todava tenemos que hacer es encontrar el aterrizador. +Esta zona azul es donde sabemos que debe estar. +No lo hemos podido encontrar todava, pero la bsqueda continua, as como nuestros esfuerzos para hacer que el aterrizador funcione otra vez. +Escuchamos todos los das, y esperamos que entre ahora y abril, el aterrizador despertar otra vez. +Los resultados de lo que encontramos en el cometa: Flotara en agua, +Tiene la mitad de la densidad del agua. +Parece una roca muy grande, pero no lo es. +El incremento de la actividad que vimos en junio, julio y agosto del ao pasado fue un incremento en actividad cudruple. +Para cuando estemos en el Sol, habr 100 kilos por segundo saliendo de este cometa: gas, polvo, lo que sea. +Eso es 100 millones de kilos diarios. +Finalmente, el da del aterrizaje. +Nunca se me olvidar, una locura total, 250 equipos de televisin en Alemania. +La BBC me entrevist y otro equipo televisivo que me sigui todo el da me film siendo entrevistado, y as fue todo el da. +El equipo de Discovery Channel, de hecho, me abord saliendo de la sala de control, e hicieron la pregunta correcta. Y hombre, me ech a llorar, y an me siento as. +Por un mes y medio, no pude pensar en el da del aterrizaje sin llorar, y todava me siento emocionado. +Me gustara dejarlos con esta imagen del cometa. +Gracias. +Soy un hazara, y la patria de mi pueblo es Afganistn. +Como cientos de miles de otros nios hazara, nac en el exilio. +El actual sistema y la persecucin contra los hazaras obligaron a mis padres a salir de Afganistn. +Esta persecucin tiene una larga historia que se remonta a finales del 1800, y al rgimen del rey Abdur Rahman +que mat al 63 % de la poblacin hazara +y construy minaretes con sus cabezas. +Muchos hazaras fueron vendidos como esclavos, y muchos otros huyeron del pas a los vecinos Irn y Pakistn. +Mis padres tambin huyeron a Pakistn, y se establecieron en Quetta, donde nac. +Tras los atentados del 11-S a las Torres Gemelas, pude ir a Afganistn por primera vez, con periodistas extranjeros. +Con solo 18 aos consegu un empleo como intrprete. +Despus de 4 aos, sent que era bastante seguro mudarme a Afganistn de forma permanente; trabajaba all como fotgrafo documental y trabaj en muchas historias. +Una de las historias que cubr fue la de los jvenes bailarines afganos. +Es una historia trgica sobre una tradicin terrible. +Habla de nios pequeos que bailan para seores de la guerra y hombres poderosos de la sociedad. +Estos nios a menudo son secuestrados o comprados a sus padres pobres, y esclavizados como trabajadores sexuales. +Este es Shukur. +Fue secuestrado en Kabul por un seor de la guerra, +trasladado a otra provincia, y obligado a ser esclavo sexual para el seor de la guerra y sus amigos. +Cuando se public esta historia en The Washington Post, empec a recibir amenazas de muerte, y me vi obligado a salir de Afganistn, al igual que mis padres. +Junto con mi familia, regresamos a Quetta. +La situacin en Quetta haba cambiado drsticamente desde que me fui en 2005. +Lo que alguna vez fue un remanso de paz para los hazaras, se haba convertido en la ciudad ms peligrosa de Pakistn. +Los hazaras estn confinados a dos reas pequeas, son educativa y socialmente marginados y castigados. +Este es Nadir. +Lo conoca desde mi infancia. +Result herido tras una emboscada terrorista a su camioneta en Quetta. +Luego muri a causa de las heridas. +Unos 1600 hazara han muerto en varios ataques, unos 3000 estn heridos, y algunos de ellos tienen discapacidades permanentes. +Los ataques contra la comunidad hazara no hicieron ms que empeorar, por eso no es de extraar que muchos quisieran huir. +Despus de Afganistn, Irn y Pakistn, Australia es el hogar de la cuarta mayor poblacin hazara del mundo. +Cuando lleg el momento de abandonar Pakistn, Australia pareca la opcin obvia. +Financieramente, solo uno de nosotros poda salir, y se decidi que fuese yo, con la esperanza de que si llegaba a mi destino con seguridad, podra trabajar para reunir al resto de la familia ms adelante. +Todos conocamos los riesgos, y lo aterrador que es el viaje. Yo conoca a mucha gente que perdi seres queridos en el mar. +Fue tomar una decisin desesperada, dejar todo atrs, y nadie toma esta decisin fcilmente. +De haber podido simplemente volar a Australia, me habra llevado menos de 24 horas. +Pero era imposible conseguir una visa. +Mi viaje fue mucho ms largo, mucho ms complicado, y ciertamente mucho ms peligroso. Viaj a Tailandia por aire, y luego por carretera y barco a Malasia e Indonesia. Pagu a contrabandistas de personas todo el tiempo y pas mucho tiempo escondido y mucho tiempo con temor a ser atrapado. +En Indonesia, me sum a un grupo de 7 solicitantes de asilo. +Todos compartimos una habitacin en un pueblo en las afueras de Yakarta llamado Bogor. +Luego de pasar una semana en Bogor, 3 de mis compaeros de habitacin emprendieron el peligroso viaje y supimos, 2 das despus, del sufrido hundimiento de un barco camino a la Isla de Navidad. +Nuestros 3 compaeros de cuarto, Nawroz, Jaffar y Shabbir, estaban entre ellos. +Solo rescataron a Jaffar +y no se supo nunca nada ms de Shabbir y de Nawroz. +Eso me hizo pensar si tom la decisin correcta. +Conclu que no tena ms opcin que continuar. +Unas semanas ms tarde, recibimos la llamada del contrabandista de personas; deca que el barco estaba listo para nuestra travesa por mar. +Subimos de noche a la nave principal en una lancha a motor, nos embarcamos en un viejo pesquero que ya estaba sobrecargado. +ramos 93 personas, y estbamos todos bajo cubierta. +Nadie poda estar en la cubierta. +Pagamos USD 6000 cada uno por esta parte del viaje. +La primera noche y el primer da transcurrieron sin problemas, pero en la segunda noche, cambi el clima. +Las olas sacudan con fuerza, y hacan crujir las maderas del barco. +Bajo la cubierta la gente lloraba, rezaba, recordaba a sus seres queridos. +Estaban gritando. +Fue un momento terrible. +Fue como una escena del da del juicio final, o quiz como una de esas escenas de Hollywood que muestran que todo se rompe en pedazos y el mundo llega a su fin. +Eso nos ocurri de verdad. +No tenamos esperanzas. +Nuestro barco flotaba como una caja de cerillas en el agua, sin control. +Las olas eran mucho ms altas que nuestro barco, y el agua entraba ms rpido de lo que las bombas podan sacar. +Todos perdimos la esperanza. +Pensamos, este es el final. +ramos testigos de nuestras muertes, y yo lo estaba documentando. +El capitn nos dijo que no lo lograramos, tenamos que regresar. +Subimos a la cubierta, y encendimos y apagamos las antorchas para llamar la atencin de los barcos que pasaran. +Seguimos tratando de llamar su atencin agitando chalecos salvavidas y silbando. +Por fin llegamos a una pequea isla. +Nuestro barco se estrell contra las rocas, yo me met al agua y destru mi cmara, todo lo que haba documentado. +Pero, por suerte, la tarjeta de memoria sobrevivi. +Era un bosque espeso. +Nos dividimos en varios grupos mientras discutamos qu hacer a continuacin. +Estbamos asustados y confundidos. +Despus de pasar la noche en la playa, encontramos un embarcadero y cocos. +Hicimos seales a un barco de un complejo turstico cercano, y rpidamente nos entregaron a la prefectura indonesia. +En el Centro de Detencin de Serang, un oficial de inmigracin vino y nos registr furtivamente. +Tom mi mvil, mis USD 300 de efectivo, y los zapatos para que no escapramos. Pero seguimos vigilando a los guardias y sus movimientos, y como a las 4 de la madrugada, cuando se sentaron alrededor de una fogata, quitamos las 2 capas de vidrio de la ventana que daba al exterior y salimos por all. +Subimos a un rbol cercano a la pared exterior, cubierto por restos de vidrios. +Colocamos encima una almohada, nos envolvimos los antebrazos con sbanas y trepamos la pared. Huimos con los pies descalzos. +Yo estaba libre, con un futuro incierto, sin dinero. +Lo nico que tena era la tarjeta de memoria con fotografas y videos. +Cuando se emiti mi documental en SBS Dateline, muchos de mis amigos conocieron mi situacin y trataron de ayudarme. +No permitieron que tome otro barco y arriesgue mi vida. +Decid quedarme en Indonesia y tramitar mi caso a travs de ACNUR. Pero tema terminar en Indonesia durante muchos aos sin hacer nada y sin poder trabajar, como cualquier otro solicitante de asilo. +Pero en mi caso fue un poco diferente. +Tuve suerte. +Mis contactos aceleraron el trmite en la ACNUR, y me enviaron a Australia en mayo de 2013. +No todos los solicitante de asilo tienen la suerte que tuve yo. +Es muy difcil vivir una vida con un destino incierto, en el limbo. +El tema de los solicitantes de asilo en Australia se ha politizado a tal extremo que ha perdido su rostro humano. +Los solicitantes de asilo son un estigma y presentados como tal en la sociedad. +Espero que mi historia y la historia de otros hazaras arroje algo de luz y muestre a la sociedad que aguantan estas personas en sus pases de origen, y cmo sufren. Por qu arriesgan sus vidas para solicitar asilo? +Gracias. +Este es un jardn de nios que diseamos en 2007. +Lo diseamos circular. +Es una especie de circulacin sin fin en el techo. +Si son padres, sabrn que a los nios les encanta correr en crculos. +As es como se ve la azotea. +Y por qu lo diseamos as? +El director de este jardn de nios dijo: "No. No quiero que tenga un barandal". +Yo deca: "Es imposible". +Pero l insista: "Qu tal si ponemos una red pegada a la orilla del techo, +que atrape a los nios que se caigan?". +Yo deca "Es imposible". +Y claro, el oficial del gobierno dijo: "Claro que debe tener un barandal!". +Pero pudimos aplicar esa idea alrededor de los rboles. +Hay tres rboles que salen. +Se nos permiti usar esta cuerda como un barandal. +Desde luego, la cuerda no tiene nada que ver con ellos. +Ellos caen en la red. +Y llegan ms... y ms... y ms. +Hasta 40 nios alrededor de un rbol. +El chico de la rama ama tanto el rbol que se lo est comiendo. +Y a la hora de un evento se sientan en la orilla. +Se ve muy simptico desde abajo. +Monitos en un zoolgico. +Hora de comer! +(Risas y aplausos) E hicimos el techo lo ms bajo posible, porque queramos ver a los nios en el techo, no solo debajo de l. +Y si el techo es muy alto, solo se puede ver su lado inferior. +Y este espacio para lavarse los pies --hay muchos tipos de llaves de agua--. +Con los tubos flexibles puede uno salpicar a sus amigos, y la regadera, y la de adelante es bastante normal. +Pero si se fijan, el nio no se est lavando las botas, las est llenando de agua. +Este jardn de nios est completamente abierto la mayor parte del ao. +Y no hay una divisin entre dentro y fuera. +Esto significa bsicamente que esta arquitectura es un tejado. +Tampoco los salones estn separados, +as que no hay barrera acstica. +Si dejan a muchos nios juntos en una caja silenciosa, algunos se ponen muy nerviosos. +Pero en este jardn de nios no hay razn para que estn nerviosos, +porque no hay lmites. +El director dice: "Si el nio en la esquina no quiere estar en el saln, lo dejamos ir. +Acabar por regresar, porque estamos en un crculo". +Pero el punto es que, en ocasiones as, los nios siempre buscan algn lugar para esconderse. +Aqu simplemente van y vienen. +Es un proceso natural. +Segundo: consideramos que el ruido es importante. +Sabemos que los nios duermen mejor cuando hay ruido. +No pueden dormir en un lugar silencioso. +Y en este knder, los nios tienen muy buena concentracin en clase. +Sabemos que la humanidad creci en la jungla, con ruido. +Ellos necesitan ruido. +Podemos hablar con los amigos en un bar con mucho ruido. +No hay razn para estar en silencio. +Y saben? En nuestros das tratamos de tener todo bajo control. +Es completamente abierto. +Y deben de saber que uno puede esquiar a -20 en inverno, +y en verano puede nadar. +La arena est a 50. +Tambin deben saber que estn hechos a prueba de agua. +No se disuelven con la lluvia. +Entonces los nios deberan estar afuera. +As es como deberamos tratarlos. +As es como se dividen los salones. +Se supone que iban a ayudar a sus maestros. +No lo hacen. +Yo no lo met ah. +Un saln. +Y un lavabo. +Se llaman el uno al otro alrededor de la fuente. +Siempre hay algunos rboles en el saln. +Un mono pescando a otro mono desde arriba. +Monos. +Cada saln tiene por lo menos un tragaluz. +Por aqu pasa Santa Claus cuando viene en Navidad. +Este es el edificio anexo, justo al lado de este ovalado jardn de nios. +El edificio tiene solo cinco metros de alto con siete niveles. +Desde luego, el tejado es muy bajo. +Hay que tener en cuenta la seguridad. +As que pusimos a nuestros nios, una hija y un hijo. +Trataron de entrar. +l se peg en la cabeza. +Est bien. Su crneo es bien duro. +l es resiliente. Es mi hijo. +Y quiere ver si es seguro saltar. +Y vemos ms nios. +Los terribles embotellamientos de Tokio, como saben. +La conductora de enfrente tiene que aprender a conducir. +En estos das, los nios necesitan una ligera dosis de peligro. +En ocasiones as ellos aprenden a ayudarse unos a otros. +Estamos perdiendo este tipo de oportunidades actualmente. +Este plano muestra los movimientos de un nio entre las 9:10 y las 9:30. +La circunferencia de este edificio es de 183 metros, +as que no es precisamente pequeo. +Y este nio recorri 6000 metros en la maana. +Pero an falta lo mejor. +Los nios en este knder recorren en promedio 4000 metros. +Estos nios tienen muchas mejores capacidades atlticas que los nios de otros jardines de nios. +El director dice: "Aqu no los entrenamos. Solo los dejamos subirse al techo. +Como las ovejas". +Siguen corriendo. +El punto es que no hay que controlarlos, ni sobreprotegerlos. A veces necesitan caerse, +lastimarse un poco. +Con eso aprendern cmo vivir en este mundo. +Creo que la arquitectura es capaz de cambiar este mundo y la vida de las personas. +Este fue un intento de cambiar la vida de los nios. +Muchas gracias. +Hoy, voy a hablar de la ira. +Cuando tena 11 aos, ver a algunos de mis amigos abandonar la escuela porque sus padres no podan pagar los libros, hizo que me enojara. +Cuando tena 27, or la splica desesperada de un trabajador esclavo cuya hija iba a ser vendida a un burdel, hizo que me enojara. +A los 50, estar tendido en un charco de sangre en la calle, junto a mi hijo, eso hizo que me enojara. +Queridos amigos, durante siglos nos ensearon que la ira es mala. +Nuestros padres, maestros, sacerdotes... todos nos ensearon a controlar y reprimir la ira. +Pero me pregunto por qu? +Por qu no podemos usar la ira por el bien comn? +Por qu no podemos usar la ira para manejar y cambiar lo malo del mundo? +Esto es lo que trato de hacer. +Amigos, la mayor parte de las mejores ideas se me ocurrieron estando iracundo. +Como cuando tena 35 aos y estaba encerrado en un calabozo. +Durante toda la noche estuve enojado. +Pero se me ocurri una nueva idea. +Pero llegar a eso ms adelante. +Comenzar con una historia de cmo consegu un nombre. +Yo era un gran admirador de Mahatma Gandhi desde la infancia. +Gandhi luch y lider el movimiento de la libertad de India. +Pero lo ms importante, nos ense cmo tratar a los sectores ms vulnerables, a los ms desfavorecidos, con justicia y respeto. +As que cuando India celebr el centenario de Mahatma Gandhi en 1969 --en ese momento yo tena 15 aos-- se me ocurri una idea. +Por qu no podemos celebrarlo de manera diferente? +Yo saba, como tal vez saben muchos de Uds., que en India un gran nmero de personas nacen en la casta ms baja. +Son tratados como intocables. +Estas personas no pueden entrar a los templos, ni entrar en casas y tiendas de las castas superiores. +As que me impresion ver a los lderes de la comunidad pronunciarse contra el sistema de castas intocables y hablando de las ideas de Gandhi. +As, inspirado por ellos, pens, vamos a dar ejemplo invitando a comer a estas personas comida preparada y servida por intocables. +Fui a ver a personas de las castas inferiores, llamados intocables, trat de convencerlos, pero era impensable para ellos. +Me dijeron: "No, no, no es posible, nunca sucedi". +Y les dije: "Miren a estos lderes, son tan grandes que estn en contra de la intocabilidad. +Vendrn, y si no viene nadie, podemos dar el ejemplo". +La gente pensaba que yo era demasiado ingenuo. +Finalmente, les convenc. +Mis amigos y yo tomamos las bicicletas e invitamos a los lderes polticos. +Me emocion al ver que todos aceptaron venir. +Pens, "Gran idea, podemos dar ejemplo. +Podemos cambiar la sociedad". +Lleg el da. +De los intocables, 3 mujeres y 2 hombres aceptaron venir. +Recuerdo que llevaban su mejor ropa. +Trajeron utensilios nuevos. +Se haban duchado cientos de veces porque para ellos todo esto era inaudito. +Lleg el momento del cambio. +Cocinaron. La comida ya estaba preparada. +Eran las 7. +Esperamos hasta las 8, porque no es raro que los lderes se retrasen, una hora ms o menos. +Despus de las 8, tomamos las bicicletas y fuimos a las casas de estos lderes, solo para recordarles. +La esposa de uno de los lderes me dijo: "Lo siento, tiene dolor de cabeza, tal vez no pueda ir". +Fui a otro lder y su esposa me dijo: "Est bien, vete que seguro que acude". +As que, pens que la cena se llevara a cabo, aunque a menor escala. +Volv, era en el nuevo parque de Mahatma Gandhi. +Eran las 10. +Ninguno de los lderes apareci. +Me enoj. +Yo estaba de pie apoyado en la estatua de Mahatma Gandhi. +Estaba emocionalmente agotado, bastante agotado. +As que me sent cerca de donde estaba la comida. +Me contuve. +Pero luego, cuando tom el primer bocado, me ech a llorar. +Y de repente sent una mano en mi hombro. +Era el toque maternal y curativo de una mujer intocable. +Me dijo: "Kailash, por qu lloras? +Has hecho tu parte. +Has comido la comida cocinada por un intocable; que recordemos, nunca haba ocurrido antes". +Dijo: "T has ganado hoy". +Y, amigos, tena razn. +Llegu a casa un poco despus de la medianoche, me sorprendi ver a algunos miembros ancianos de las castas superiores sentados en el patio. +Vi a mi madre y a otras mujeres mayores llorando y suplicando a los ancianos porque amenazaban con expulsar de su casta a todos mis familiares. +Y saben, ser expulsado de tu casta es el mayor castigo social imaginable. +De algn modo, acordaron castigarme solo a m, y el castigo era la purificacin. +Dijeron que tena que ir a casi 1000 kilmetros de mi ciudad natal, para baarme en el sagrado ro Ganges. +Despus, tena que organizar una fiesta para los sacerdotes, 101 sacerdotes, lavar sus pies y beber esa agua. +Era una tontera absoluta y me negu a aceptar el castigo. +Cmo me castigaron? +Me prohibieron entrar en la cocina y en el comedor de mi casa, mis cubiertos se pusieron a parte. +Pero la noche cuando estaba tan furioso, porque queran convertirme en paria, +decid convertir en paria a todo el sistema de castas. +Y esto era posible, pero lo primero era cambiar de nombre. En India, la mayora de apellidos son nombres de castas. +As que decid renunciar a mi nombre. +Luego, ms tarde, me di un nuevo nombre: Satyarthi, que significa, "El que busca la verdad". +Y ese fue el comienzo de mi ira transformadora. +Amigos, tal vez alguno de Uds. sepa lo que haca antes de convertirme en un activista pro derechos de los nios. +Alguien lo sabe? +No. +Era ingeniero, ingeniero elctrico. +Luego me enter cmo la energa obtenida quemando carbn, o en explosiones nucleares dentro de las cmaras, o en furiosas corrientes de ro, o de los vientos fuertes, se puede convertir en luz y la vida de millones de personas. +Tambin aprend cmo el tipo ms incontrolado de energa se puede aprovechar para el bien y mejorar la sociedad. +As que volver a la historia de cuando estaba preso en la crcel. Estaba muy feliz por sacar de la esclavitud a una docena de nios y devolverlos a sus padres. +No puedo explicar mi alegra cuando libero a un nio. +Era tan feliz. +Pero mientras esperaba mi tren para volver a mi ciudad, Delhi, vi docenas de nios que llegaban; eran llevados por alguien. +Par a estas personas. +Me quej a la polica. +Entonces la polica, en vez de ayudarme, me puso en un calabozo pequeo, diminuto, como si fuera un animal. +Y pas una noche de furia cuando una de las grandes ideas y de las ms brillantes ha nacido. +Me di cuenta de que si por 10 nios que libero, 50 son esclavizados. esto no se acaba. +Crea en el poder de los consumidores, y dir que esta fue la primera campaa lanzada en el mundo, para educar y sensibilizar a los consumidores para crear una demanda de alfombras libres de trabajo infantil. +En Europa y EE.UU., lo hemos conseguido; +disminuy el trabajo infantil en los pases del sur de Asia en un 80 %. +Y no solo esas campaas del poder de los consumidores, las campaas del consumidor se han extendido por otros pases y en otras industrias --quizs del chocolate, de la ropa, de los zapatos-- sino que fue ms all. +De mi ira a los 11 aos cuando me di cuenta de lo importante que es la educacin para todos los nios, se me ocurri la idea de recoger libros usados y ayudar a los nios pobres. +Cre el banco de libros a los 11 aos. +Pero no me detuve; ms tarde, coparticip en la creacin de la campaa de la sociedad civil ms grande a nivel mundial, que es la Campaa Mundial para la Educacin +que ha ayudado a cambiar todo el pensamiento sobre la educacin desde el modelo de la caridad al de los derechos humanos, y que ha ayudado claramente a reducir la tasa de nios no escolarizados a la mitad en los ltimos 15 aos. +Mi ira a los 27 aos, de liberar a aquella nia que iba a ser vendida a un burdel, me dio la idea de encontrar una nueva estrategia para las redadas y el rescate, para sacar a los nios de la esclavitud. +Y tengo la suerte y el orgullo de decir que no se trata de uno o 10 o 20, sino de que mis compaeros y yo pudimos liberar fsicamente 83 000 nios esclavos y devolverlos a sus familias, a sus madres. +Saba que necesitamos polticas a nivel global, +y organizamos marchas mundiales contra el trabajo infantil organizado que tambin condujo a una nueva conferencia internacional para la proteccin de los nios en los casos ms desafortunados. +Y el resultado tangible fue que el nmero de nios trabajadores en todo el mundo se redujo en un tercio en los ltimos 15 aos. +As que, cada uno de los casos empez con la ira, se convirti en idea y accin. +As que la ira, luego qu sigue? +Una idea y... Accin. Kailash Satyarthi: Ira, idea, accin. Lo que intent hacer. +La ira es poder, la ira es energa, y la ley natural es que la energa nunca se crea ni desaparece, nunca puede ser destruida. +Entonces por qu la energa de la ira no puede traducirse y explotarse para crear un mundo ms justo, mejor, ms hermoso e igual para todos? +La ira se encuentra dentro de cada uno de nosotros y voy a compartir un secreto en unos segundos: si nos limitamos a los caparazones estrechos de nuestro ego, y a los crculos de egosmo, la ira se vuelve odio, violencia, venganza y destruccin. +Pero si podemos romper el crculo, la misma ira puede convertirse en una fuerza tremenda. +Podemos romper el crculo con la ayuda de nuestra compasin intrnseca y conectarnos con el mundo a travs de la compasin para que el mundo sea mejor. +Esa misma ira puede convertirse en compasin. +Amigos tan queridos, hermanas y hermanos, de nuevo, como Premio Nobel, les insto a que se enojen. +Les insto a que se enojen. +Ya que el ms enojado entre nosotros es el que puede transformar su ira en una idea y en accin. +Muchas gracias. +Chris Anderson: Inspir a muchos durante muchos aos. +Quin o qu le han inspirado y por qu? +Kailash Satyarthi: Buena pregunta. +Y soy tan afortunado de que no una vez sino, como he dicho antes, miles de veces, he podido ser testigo de mi Dios en los rostros de los nios y ellos son mi mayor inspiracin. +Gracias. +Esta es una historia sobre el capitalismo. +Un sistema que me encanta por los xitos y oportunidades que me brind a m y a millones de personas. +A los 20 empec a comerciar con materias primas, con algodn, en la bolsa de valores; y si alguna vez hubo un libre mercado para todos, ese lo fue, donde hombres con corbatas, actuaban como gladiadores luchando, fsicamente por beneficios. +Afortunadamente, me fue bastante bien, por lo que a los 30 tuve la opcin de saltar al mundo de la gestin de fondos, donde pas tres dcadas como inversor global a escala macro. +Y durante ese tiempo, he visto muchas cosas locas en los mercados, y he cambiado muchas manas locas. +Y, por desgracia, me entristece informarles que ahora podramos estar en las garras de una de las ms desastrosas, sin duda, de mi carrera. Y una leccin congruente es que las manas nunca terminan bien. +En los ltimos 50 aos, como sociedad vemos nuestras empresas y corporaciones con una tendencia muy cerrada casi monomanaca con respecto a la forma en que las valoramos, y hemos puesto mucho nfasis en los beneficios, en ganancias trimestrales y en precios de acciones a corto plazo, excluyendo todo lo dems. +Es como haber estafado a la humanidad fuera de nuestras empresas. +Pero nosotros no lo hacemos... convenientemente lo reducimos a nmeros con los que se juega, como si de Legos se tratara, eso no lo hacemos en nuestra vida individual. +Nosotros no tratamos a alguien o lo valoramos basndonos en sus ingresos mensuales o su calificacin crediticia. Pero tenemos este doble rasero al valorar nuestras empresas, y saben qu? +Esto amenaza a los propios cimientos de nuestra sociedad. +Ya lo vern. +Este grfico muestra los mrgenes de beneficio corporativo de los ltimos 40 aos en porcentajes de ingresos, y estamos en el valor mximo del 12,5 % de los ltimos 40 aos. +Fabuloso, si uno es accionista, pero si estn al otro lado, y son un trabajador estadounidense promedio, entonces ven que esto no es bueno. +["Participacin de ingresos en EE.UU. a empleados vs. proporcin de retribucin de CEO a trabajador"] Pero, mayor margen de beneficio no aumenta la riqueza de la sociedad. +En realidad, aumenta la desigualdad de ingresos, y eso no es bueno. +Pero intuitivamente, eso tiene sentido, verdad? +Porque si al 10 % de las familias estadounidenses le pertenece el 90 % de las acciones, por tener una mayor participacin en los beneficios empresariales, entonces hay menos riqueza para el resto de la sociedad. +Una vez ms, la desigualdad de ingresos no es buena. +Este grfico realizado por The Equality Trust, muestra 21 pases desde Austria hasta Japn o Nueva Zelanda. +En el eje horizontal est la desigualdad de ingresos. +Cuanto ms a la derecha, mayor es la desigualdad de ingresos. +En el eje vertical hay nueve indicadores sociales y de salud. +Cuanto ms se sube, peores son los problemas, y esas mtricas incluyen esperanza de vida, embarazo adolescente, alfabetizacin, movilidad social, por nombrar unos pocos. +Los estadounidenses se preguntarn, dnde est EE.UU.? +Dnde est en este grfico? +Y adivinan qu? +Estamos, literalmente, fuera del grfico. +S, esos somos nosotros, con la mayor desigualdad de ingresos y los mayores problemas sociales, en funcin de esos parmetros. +Aqu hay un pronstico macro que es fcil de hacer, y esto es que, la brecha entre los ms ricos y los ms pobres, no se conseguir cerrar. +La historia siempre lo hace. +Tpicamente sucede de una de tres maneras: a travs de una revolucin, ms impuestos o guerras. +Ninguno est en mi lista de ltimas voluntades. +Pero hay otra manera de hacerlo, y es aumentando la equidad en el comportamiento de las empresas, pero en este momento lo hacemos de un modo que requiere un cambio tremendo de comportamiento, y al igual que un adicto que trata de dejar el hbito, el primer paso es reconocer que un tiene un problema. +Y permtanme decir, esta mana del beneficios donde estamos, est tan profundamente arraigada que ni siquiera nos damos cuenta de cmo estamos daando a la sociedad. +Aqu hay un ejemplo pequeo pero sorprendente de cmo lo hacemos: Este grfico muestra la contribucin empresarial como un porcentaje de beneficios, no los ingresos de los ltimos 30 aos. +Comprenlo con la tabla anterior sobre los mrgenes de ganancias corporativas, y me pregunto: est esto bien? +Para ser justos, cuando empec a escribir esto, pens: "Qu hace mi empresa?, qu hace Tudor?" +Y me di cuenta de que donamos un 1 % de los beneficios empresariales a la caridad cada ao. +Y se supone que por eso debo ser filntropo. +Cuando me di cuenta de esto, literalmente me sent morir. +Pero el meollo es que esta mana est tan profundamente arraigada que personas bien intencionadas, como yo, no percibimos que somos parte de ella. +Nosotros no cambiaremos el comportamiento empresarial, por el simple aumento de la filantropa corporativa o donaciones caritativas. +Y que, por cierto, hemos cuadruplicado desde que, pero... Por favor. +Pero podemos hacerlo, con un comportamiento ms justo. +Y una manera de hacerlo es, en realidad, confiando en el sistema que nos trajo hasta aqu, en primer lugar, y ese es el sistema de libre mercado. +Hace aproximadamente un ao, algunos amigos mos y yo iniciamos una organizacin sin fines de lucro llamada "Capital justo". +Su misin es muy simple: ayudar a las empresas y corporaciones a aprender a funcionar de una manera ms justa mediante la entrada del pblico para definir bien cules son los criterios para el comportamiento corporativo justo. +Ahora, este es un modelo que empezar en EE.UU. pero se puede expandir a cualquier lugar del mundo, y tal vez descubramos que lo ms importante para el pblico es que creemos puestos de trabajo con salarios dignos o que hagamos productos sanos, o que ayuden o no daen el medio ambiente. +En "Capital Justo" no sabemos, y no lo debemos decidir nosotros. +Solo somos los mensajeros, pero tenemos 100 % confianza y fe en el pblico estadounidense para hacerlo bien. +As que lanzaremos los resultados este septiembre, por primera vez, y luego el ao que viene haremos un nuevo sondeo y daremos el paso aditivo esta vez de clasificar las 1000 empresas ms grandes de EE.UU. del nmero 1 al nmero 1000 y todo lo dems. +Lo llamamos el ndex justo, y recuerden, somos una organizacin independiente sin fines de lucro, sin sesgo, dando al pblico estadounidense una voz. +Y tal vez con el tiempo, averigemos que en funcin de que la gente sepa qu empresas son las ms justas, atraern a ms recursos humanos y econmicos y se convertirn en las ms prsperas y ayudarn a nuestro pas a ser el ms prspero. +El capitalismo ha sido responsable de todas las innovaciones importantes que ha hecho de este mundo un lugar ms inspirador y maravilloso para vivir. +El capitalismo tiene que estar basado en la justicia. +Y debe ser as, ahora ms que nunca, porque la brecha econmica es cada vez ms profunda. +Se estima que el 47 % de los trabajadores estadounidenses se desplazarn en los prximos 20 aos. +No estoy en contra del progreso. +Quiero tanto el auto sin conductor y el jet pack como todos los dems. +Pero defiendo el reconocimiento de que el aumento de riqueza y los beneficios deben ir acompaados de una mayor responsabilidad social de las empresas. +"Si se quita la justicia", dijo Adam Smith, padre del capitalismo, "la inmensa estructura de la sociedad humana inmediatamente se deshar en tomos". +Cuando yo era joven y haba un problema, mi mam sola suspirar siempre y sacudir la cabeza diciendo: "Ten misericordia, ten misericordia". +Ahora no es el momento para nosotros, de mostrarles misericordia. +Ahora es el momento de mostrarles equidad, y podemos hacerlo, Uds. y yo, empezando donde trabajamos, en las empresas que dirigimos. +Y cuando situemos la justicia a la par de los beneficios, obtendremos lo ms maravilloso de todo el mundo. +Retomemos de nuevo nuestra humanidad. +Gracias. +Bueno, ya saben, a veces las cosas ms pequeas son los ms importantes. +Voy a tratar de convencerles en los 15 minutos que tengo, de que los microbios tienen mucho que decir sobre cuestiones tales como "Estamos solos?" +Y nos pueden decir ms no solo sobre la vida en el sistema solar pero tambin quiz fuera de l, y es por eso que les sigo la pista en los lugares ms inaccesibles de la Tierra, en ambientes extremos donde las condiciones les empujan realmente al borde de la supervivencia. +De hecho, a veces, tambin me empujan cuando trato de seguirlos muy de cerca, +pero el hecho es que somos la nica civilizacin avanzada en el sistema solar, pero eso no significa que no haya vida microbiana cerca. +De hecho, los planetas y las lunas que se ven aqu podran albergar vida --todos ellos-- y lo sabemos, y las probabilidades son muy altas. +Si vamos a encontrar vida en estas lunas y planetas, entonces podemos responder preguntas como: "Estamos solos en el sistema solar? +De dnde venimos? +Tenemos familia en el barrio? +Hay vida fuera del sistema solar?" +Piensen en ello como las condiciones del subsuelo de un planeta muy distante de un sol, pero que todava alberga agua, energa, nutrientes que para algunos significan comida y proteccin. +Y si miramos la Tierra, muy lejos de la luz solar, en el ocano profundo, encontramos vida en abundancia que solo se basa en la qumica para los procesos vitales. +Si piensan en ello, en este punto, las barreras desaparecen. +De hecho no hay lmites. +Habrn visto los titulares recientemente, sobre los descubrimientos de un ocano bajo la superficie de Europa, de Ganmedes, de Encelado, de Titn, y que ahora nos encontramos con giseres y aguas termales en Encelado, de forma que el sistema solar se ha convertido en un enorme spa. +Los que han visitado un spa saben que a los grmenes les encanta verdad? +As que ahora piensen en Marte. +Hoy en da, la vida no es posible en Marte, pero todava podra ocultarse bajo la superficie. +Hemos progresado en el significado de habitabilidad pero tambin en lo que sabemos que son las condiciones para la vida terrestre. +Y tenemos lo que llamamos molculas orgnicas, el fundamento de la vida; tenemos fsiles, que pueden ser minerales, biominerales, que se deben a la reaccin entre las bacterias y las rocas, y, por supuesto, tenemos gases en la atmsfera. +Y recordamos cuando nos fijamos en la diminuta alga verde, a la derecha de la diapositiva de aqu, que son los descendientes directos de las que han estado bombeando oxgeno hace miles de millones de aos en la atmsfera terrestre. +Al hacerlo, envenenaron el 90 % de la vida de la superficie terrestre, pero son la razn por la cual Uds. estn respirando este aire hoy. +Pero por mucho que nuestro conocimiento se ampla sobre todas estas cosas, surge una pregunta que todava no podemos responder, y es, de dnde venimos? +Y cada vez es peor, porque no podremos encontrar evidencia fsica de nuestros orgenes en este planeta, porque o ha sobrevivido nada ms antiguo a 4000 millones de aos. +Toda la evidencia desapareci, borrada por la tectnica de placas y la erosin. +Esto es lo que yo llamo horizonte biolgico de la Tierra. +Ms all de este horizonte no sabemos de dnde venimos. +As que est todo perdido? Bueno, tal vez no. +Quiz podamos encontrar evidencia de nuestro propio origen en los lugares ms inesperados, y este lugar es Marte. +Cmo es esto posible? +Bueno, obviamente, en los inicios del sistema solar, Marte y la Tierra fueron bombardeados por grandes cometas y asteroides, y hubo miles de partculas esparcidas por todas partes. +La Tierra y Marte continuaron tirndose piedras durante mucho tiempo. +Pedazos de roca marciana aterrizaron en la Tierra, +y fragmentos terrestres aterrizaron en Marte. +Por lo tanto, los dos planetas fueron sembrados por los mismos materiales. +As que s, quiz el Creador est all sentado en algn lugar, esperndonos. +Pero tambin significa que podemos ir a Marte y tratar de encontrar los rastros de nuestro propio origen. +Marte puede guardar este secreto para nosotros. +Y por eso Marte es tan especial para nosotros. +Pero para que eso suceda, Marte tuvo que ser habitable cuando las condiciones eran las adecuadas. +Por lo tanto, Marte alberg vida? +Tenemos una serie de misiones que hoy nos dicen exactamente lo mismo. +En el momento en que la vida apareci en la Tierra, Marte tena un ocano, tena volcanes, tena lagos, y tena deltas como en esta hermosa imagen que ven aqu. +Esta foto fue enviada por el vehculo Curiosity hace apenas unas semanas. +Muestra los restos de un delta, y esta imagen nos muestra algo: que ha tenido agua en abundancia y fluy en la superficie durante mucho tiempo. +Es una buena noticia para toda la vida. +La qumica de la vida requiere de mucho tiempo para estos efectos. +As que eso es una gran noticia, pero significa esto que si vamos all, ser fcil encontrar vida en Marte? +No necesariamente. +Esto es lo que sucedi: En el momento en que la vida apareci en la superficie terrestre todo empez a ir mal en Marte, literalmente. +El atmsfera fue destruida por los vientos solares, Marte perdi su magnetsfera, y luego los rayos csmicos y ultravioleta bombardearon la zona y el agua se escap a la atmsfera o se infiltr debajo de la superficie. +As que si queremos entender, si queremos encontrar esas huellas prueba de la vida, en la superficie de Marte, si estn all, tenemos que entender el impacto de cada uno de estos eventos en la conservacin de estos restos. +As que para hacer eso, es fcil. +Solo hay que volver unos 3500 millones aos en el pasado del planeta. +Solo que necesitamos una mquina del tiempo. +Fcil, no? +Bueno, en realidad, es fcil. +Miren alrededor; esta es la Tierra. +Esta es nuestra mquina del tiempo. +Los gelogos la usan para regresar al pasado del planeta. +Y yo la estoy usando un poco diferente. +Yo uso la Tierra para llegar a entornos muy extremos donde las condiciones eran similares a las de Marte en el momento en que cambi el clima, donde estoy tratando de averiguar lo que pas. +Cul es la singularidad de la vida? +Qu queda? Cmo la encontramos? +As que por un momento les llevar conmigo en un viaje en esa mquina del tiempo. +Ahora, lo que se ve aqu, es que estamos a 4500 metros de altitud, en los Andes, pero, de hecho, estamos a menos de 1000 millones de aos despus de formarse la Tierra y Marte. +La Tierra y Marte se veran as: volcanes por todas partes, lagos que se evaporan, minerales, aguas termales, y ven los montculos en la orilla de los lagos? +Fueron construidas por los descendientes de los primeros organismos que nos dejaron el primer fsil terrestre. +Pero si queremos entender lo que est pasando, tenemos que ir un poco ms lejos. +Y la otra cosa sobre estas imgenes es que son idnticas a las de Marte hace 3500 millones de aos, con un clima que cambia rpidamente y el agua y el hielo desaparecen. +Pero tenemos que volver a la poca donde todo cambi en Marte y para conseguirlo, tenemos que subir ms alto. +Por qu? +Porque al subir la atmsfera se enrarece y se vuelve menos estable, las temperaturas bajan y la radiacin ultravioleta aumenta. +Bsicamente, nos acercamos a las condiciones de Marte cuando todo cambi. +As que no prometo un paseo agradable en la mquina del tiempo. +No van a sentarse en la mquina del tiempo, +sino que tienen que llevar 450 kg de equipaje a la cima de este volcn en los Andes a una altura de 20 000 pies. +Son unos 6000 metros. +Y tambin hay que dormir en una pendiente de 42 grados y realmente espero que no haya ningn terremoto esta noche. +Pero cuando llegamos a la cima, de hecho es el lago que queramos alcanzar. +A esta altitud, el lago ha experimentado exactamente las mismas condiciones como las de Marte hace 3500 millones de aos. +Y ahora tenemos que cambiar el viaje por un viaje al interior de este lago. Para hacer esto, hay que quitarse el equipo de montaa y ponerse los trajes de neopreno e ir a por ello. +Pero al entrar al lago, justo al entrar al lago, nos remontamos en el tiempo unos 3500 millones aos en el pasado de otro planeta, para encontrar las respuestas que vinimos a buscar. +La vida est en todas partes, absolutamente en todas partes. +Todo lo que ven en esta foto es un ser vivo. +A lo mejor el buzo no, pero todo lo dems s. +Pero esta imagen es muy engaosa. +Estos lagos estn llenos de vida, pero como muchos otros lugares del planeta y debido al cambio climtico hay una enorme prdida de biodiversidad. +En las muestras que tomamos un 36 % de las bacterias que estaban en estos lagos perteneca a 3 cepas, y estas 3 especies son las nicas supervivientes hasta el momento. +Aqu hay otro lago, justo al lado del anterior. +El color rojo que se observa aqu no se debe a los minerales. +Se debe a la presencia de unas algas diminutas. +En este rea, la radiacin ultravioleta es realmente peligrosa. +En cualquier lugar terrestre, 11 se considera un ndice extremo. +Durante las tormentas que hay all, el ndice UV alcanza 43. +La crema de proteccin solar no les ayudar en nada, y el agua es tan transparente en estos lagos que las algas, literalmente, no tienen dnde esconderse, as que desarrollan su propio protector solar, que es este color rojo que ven. +Pero solo pueden adaptarse hasta aqu, porque cuando toda el agua desaparece de la superficie, a los microbios solo les queda una solucin: migrar bajo tierra. +Y estos microbios, si ven las rocas en esta imagen, bueno, viven en las rocas y usan la proteccin de la transparencia de la rocas para recuperar una fraccin UV +descartando la parte que en realidad puede causar daos a su ADN. +Y por eso entrenamos nuestros vehculos en estas reas para buscar vida en Marte porque si hubo vida en Marte hace 3500 millones de aos, tuvo que usar las mismas estrategias de supervivencia para protegerse. +As que es evidente que entrar en estos entornos extremos nos ayuda enormemente para la exploracin de Marte y en la preparacin de futuras misiones. +Hasta ahora nos ha ayudado a entender la geologa de Marte. +Nos ayud a entender el clima marciano y su evolucin pasada pero tambin su potencial para la vida. +Nuestro ltimo vehculo en Marte descubri rastros de materiales orgnicos. +S, hay materiales orgnicos en la superficie marciana. +Y tambin se encontraron rastros de metano. +Y no sabemos todava si este metano tiene origen geolgico o biolgico. +Sin embargo, lo que sabemos es que debido a este descubrimiento, la suposicin actual de que hay vida en Marte sigue siendo una hiptesis viable. +Espero haberles convencido de que Marte es muy especial para nosotros, pero sera un error pensar que Marte es el nico lugar del sistema solar que tiene el potencial de albergar vida microbiana. +Y la razn es que Marte y la Tierra tienen races comunes en el rbol de la vida pero cuando nos alejamos de Marte, ya no es tan fcil. +La mecnica celeste no facilita realmente el intercambio de materiales entre los planetas, as que si encontrramos vida en estos planetas sera diferente a la nuestra. +Sera un tipo de vida diferente. +Pero al final, puede ser que solo estemos nosotros, solo nosotros y Marte, o puede haber muchos rboles de la vida en el sistema solar. +Yo todava no s la respuesta, pero les puedo decir algo: sea cual sea el resultado, cualquiera que sea el nmero mgico, nos dar la norma desde la cual podamos medir el potencial para la vida, abundancia y diversidad ms all del sistema solar. +Y se puede lograr incluso en nuestra generacin. +Este podra ser nuestro legado, pero solo si nos atrevemos a explorar. +Por fin, si alguien les dice que la bsqueda de microbios extraterrestres no es genial porque no se puede tener una conversacin filosfica con ellos, les mostrar por qu y cmo se equivocan. +Bueno, el material orgnico revelar informacin sobre el medio ambiente, la complejidad y la diversidad. +El ADN, o cualquier otro soporte similar informar de la adaptacin, la evolucin, la supervivencia, los cambios planetarios y la transmisin de la informacin. +Juntos nos indican qu es lo que empez como una evolucin microbiana y por qu lo que empez como un evolucin microbiana a veces lleva a la civilizacin, o a veces lleva a un callejn sin salida. +Miren el sistema solar y miren la Tierra. +En la Tierra hay muchas especies inteligentes, pero solo una ha alcanzado un nivel tecnolgico. +Ahora en este viaje a travs del sistema solar, encontramos un mensaje muy importante que muestra cmo debemos buscar la vida extraterrestre, grande o pequea. +As que s, los microbios hablan y nosotros escuchamos, y son ellos los que nos llevan planeta tras planeta, luna tras luna, hacia nuestros hermanos mayores de por all. +Y hablan de la diversidad, de la abundancia de la vida, de cmo esta vida sobrevivi hasta ahora para llegar a la civilizacin, la inteligencia, la tecnologa y de hecho a la filosofa. +Gracias. +Hola, hoy hablar de la risa y quiero empezar reflexionando sobre la primera vez que recuerdo haber descubierto la risa. +Fue de nia, tendra unos 6 aos. +Encontr a mis padres haciendo algo inusual, estaban rindose. +Se rean mucho, mucho. +Estaban tumbados en el suelo rindose. +Estaban llorando de risa. +Yo no saba de qu se rean, pero quera participar. +Quera ser parte de eso, y me sent en el borde y dije: "Juu, juu!" Por cierto, se rean de una cancin que la gente sola cantar, sobre las seales de los baos de los trenes que explicaba qu se poda y qu no se poda hacer en los baos en los trenes. +Y algo que se debe recordar de los ingleses, claro, es que tenemos un inmenso y sofisticado sentido del humor. +En ese momento, sin embargo, no entenda nada de eso. +Solo me importaba la risa, y, de hecho, como neurloga, me interesa de nuevo. +Y es algo muy raro. +Ahora pondr algunos ejemplos de humanos reales riendo, y quiero que piensen en el sonido que hace la gente y lo extrao que puede ser y lo primitiva que es la risa como sonido. +Se parece ms a un sonido animal que al habla. +Tengo aqu algunas risas. La primera es bastante alegre. +(Audio: Risas) Y este tipo, quiero que respire. +Llega un punto en el que digo tienes que respirar, hombre, porque suena como si solo expirase. +(Audio: Risas) No fue editado; as es l. +(Audio: Risas) Y finalmente, esta es una risa femenina. +La risa puede llevarnos a lugares extraos en materia de ruidos. +(Audio: Risas) Ella en realidad dice: "Oh, Dios mo, qu es eso?" en francs. +Nos dejamos llevar por ella. No tengo idea. +Pero para entender la risa, hay que mirar una parte del cuerpo que ni psiclogos, ni neurocientficos suelen observar demasiado: la caja torcica. Y no parece muy emocionante, pero la usamos todo el tiempo. +Algo que todos hacemos ahora con la caja torcica, y sin parar, es respirar. +Todos lo hacemos, todo el tiempo. +En cuanto empezamos a hablar, usamos la respiracin de modo totalmente diferente. +Ahora ven que hago algo como esto. +Al hablar, usamos movimientos muy finos de la caja torcica para expulsar el aire... y, somos los nicos animales capaces de hacerlo. +Por eso podemos hablar. +Pero tanto el hablar como el respirar tienen un enemigo mortal, y ese enemigo es la risa. Porque cuando remos esos mismos msculos empiezan a contraerse con mucha regularidad y tenemos este zigzag muy pronunciado que expulsa el aire. +Es una forma muy elemental de producir un sonido. +Pisotear a alguien, tendra el mismo efecto. +Expiramos aire, y cada una de esas contracciones... Ja! Produce un sonido. +Si estas contracciones ocurren juntas, se dan estos espasmos, y empiezan a ocurrir estos (Respira con dificultad) +Soy brillante en esto. En relacin de la ciencia de la risa, no es mucho, pero resulta que casi todo lo que sabemos de la risa est equivocado. +No es del todo inusual, por ejemplo, escuchar a la gente decir que los humanos somos los nicos animales que remos. +Nietzsche pensaba que los humanos ramos los nicos animales que ren. +De hecho, existe la risa en los mamferos. +Ha sido bien descrita y observada en primates, pero tambin en ratas, y dondequiera que la veamos -- humanos, primates, ratas -- la asociamos a cosas como las cosquillas. +Es lo mismo en los humanos. +Se la asocia con el juego, y todos los mamferos juegan. +Siempre que se la encuentra, se la asocia con las interacciones. +Robert Provine, que investig mucho este tema, seal que somos 30 veces ms propensos a rer si estamos con compaa que si estamos solos, y que la risa est ms presente en interacciones sociales como la conversacin. +Si le preguntamos a alguien: "Cundo res?" +Dirn con una comedia, con el humor, con los chistes. +Si observamos cundo ren, ren con sus amigos. +Y si nos remos con las personas, difcilmente sea de chistes. +Nos remos para mostrar a las personas que uno las entiende, que est de acuerdo con ellas, que uno es parte del grupo. +Nos remos para mostrar que a uno le agradan. +Uno quiz los ame. +Uno hace todo eso mientras les habla, y la risa expresa todas esas emociones por uno. +Es algo que seal Robert Provine, como pueden ver aqu, y es la razn por la cual remos al escuchar esas risas graciosas al principio, y por la que yo re al descubrir a mis padres riendo, y ese es un enorme efecto de comportamiento contagioso. +Uno puede contagiarse la risa de otro, y es ms probable contagiarse la risa si ese otro es alguien conocido. +Por eso todava es modulada por este contexto social. +Aadamos humor en un lado y pensemos en el sentido social de la risa porque all yace su origen. +Me interesan mucho los distintos tipos de risas y tenemos evidencias neurobiolgicas de cmo vocalizamos los humanos que sugieren que podramos tener 2 tipos de risas. +En la evolucin, hemos desarrollado dos maneras distintas de vocalizar. +Las vocalizaciones involuntarias son parte de un sistema ms antiguo que las vocalizaciones ms voluntarias como esta charla que doy ahora. +Podemos imaginar que la risa tiene dos races distintas. +He estudiado esto en ms detalle. +Para esto, he grabado a las personas riendo, y hemos hecho de todo para que se ran, y hemos hecho que esas mismas personas produzcan una risa social ms forzada. +Imaginen que un amigo les cuenta un chiste, y Uds. se ren porque aprecian a su amigo pero no por el chiste. +Les pondr un par de esas risas. +Quiero que me digan si son risas reales, o si piensan que son forzadas. +Estas risas son involuntarias o ms voluntarias? +(Audio: Risas) Qu les parece ese sonido? +Pblico: Forzada. Sophie Scott: Forzada? Forzada. +Y este sonido? +(Audio: Risas) Soy la mejor. +En realidad no. +No, esa era una risa inevitable, y, de hecho, para grabarla solo tuvieron que grabarme viendo a una de mis amigas escuchar algo que saba le hara gracia, y empec a hacer esto. +Podemos ver que somos buenos para notar la diferencia entre la risa real y la forzada. +Nos parecen cosas diferentes. +Curiosamente, vemos algo bastante similar en los chimpancs. +Los chimpancs ren diferente si les hacen cosquillas que si se ren jugando unos con otros, y puede que veamos algo as aqu, la risa involuntaria, la de cosquillas, es diferente de la risa social. +Acsticamente son muy diferentes. +Las risas reales son ms prolongadas. Son ms agudas. +Cuando empiezas a rer con fuerza, empiezas a expulsar aire de los pulmones con mucha ms fuerza de la que ejercemos voluntariamente. +Por ejemplo, yo no podra cantar con una voz tan alta. +Adems, empezamos a hacer contracciones y silbidos extraos, lo que implica que la risa verdadera es muy fcil, podemos detectarla fcilmente. +Por el contrario, la riza forzada, podramos pensar que suena un poco falsa. +En realidad no lo es, es una seal social importante. +La usamos mucho, elegimos rer en muchas situaciones, y parece tener entidad propia. +Por ejemplo, observamos nasalidad en la risa forzada, ese sonido tipo "ja, ja, ja, ja, ja" un sonido que no podramos hacer con la risa involuntaria. +Por lo que parecen ser genuinamente dos tipos de risas diferentes. +Las llevamos al escner para ver cmo responde el cerebro al escuchar las risas. +Hacer esto es un experimento realmente aburrido. +Le pusimos a las personas risas reales y forzadas. +No les dijimos que era un estudio sobre la risa. +Les pusimos otros sonidos para distraerlos; todos estn all oyendo sonidos. +No les pedimos que hagan nada. +Sin embargo, al or risas reales y risas forzadas el cerebro responde de forma totalmente diferente significativamente diferente. +Lo que ven en las zonas de azul, que cae en la corteza auditiva, son las zonas del cerebro que responden ms a la risa real, que parece ser el caso al or a alguien rer involuntariamente, uno oye sonidos que nunca oira en otro contexto. +Es muy ntido y parece estar asociado a un mayor procesamiento auditivo de estos nuevos sonidos. +Por el contrario, al or a alguien riendo de manera forzada, se observan estas zonas en rosa, que ocupan zonas del cerebro asociadas a la mentalizacin, a pensar en lo que otra persona est pensando. +Y pienso que eso significa que incluso si nos escanean el cerebro, algo totalmente aburrido, algo no muy interesante, al or a alguien haciendo "Ja, ja, ja, ja, ja, ja", uno se pregunta por qu se re. +La risa siempre tiene significado. +Siempre tratamos de entenderla en contexto, incluso si, en lo que a uno respecta, en ese momento, no tiene necesariamente nada que ver con uno, siempre querremos saber por qu la gente se re. +Tambin hemos podido observar cmo las personas oyen risas reales y forzadas en todo el rango de edad. +Este es un experimento en lnea que hicimos con la Royal Society, donde hicimos 2 preguntas. +Primero, oyeron algunas risas, y tuvieron que decir cun reales o forzadas sonaban esas risas. +Las risas reales aparecen en rojo y las forzadas en azul. +Se ve que hay un inicio rpido. +Conforme envejecemos, hay una mejor deteccin de la risa real. +Los nios de 6 aos ren al azar, no pueden or la diferencia. +Conforme envejecemos, mejoramos, pero, curiosamente, no llegamos al mximo rendimiento hasta finales de los 30, principios de los 40. +Uno no entiende plenamente la risa en la pubertad. +Uno no entiende plenamente la risa cuando el cerebro ha madurado al final de la pubertad. +Aprendemos sobre la risa durante toda la vida temprana de adulto. +Si cambiamos la pregunta y en vez de decir cmo suena la risa en trminos de real o forzada, y en cambio decimos cuntas ganas de rer te da esta risa, cun contagiosa te resulta esta risa, vemos un perfil diferente. +Aqu, cuando ms joven es uno, ms quiere sumarse a la risa. +Recuerden mi risa con mis padres cuando no tena idea de qu pasaba. +Realmente pueden ver esto. +Todos, jvenes y ancianos, encuentran la risa real ms contagiosa que la risa forzada, pero conforme envejecemos, todo se vuelve menos contagioso. +O perdemos el humor con los aos, o entendemos mejor la risa, y nos volvemos tan buenos en eso, que necesitamos ms que or una risa para querer rer. +Necesitamos el aspecto social. +Tenemos un comportamiento muy interesante sobre el cual tenemos muchas presunciones incorrectas, pero encuentro que la risa es mucho ms que una emocin social importante que deberamos observar porque resulta que las personas expresan muchos matices en el uso de la risa. +Hay unos estudios encantadores de Robert Levenson en California, son estudios longitudinales con parejas. +l lleva parejas casadas, hombres y mujeres, al laboratorio y les da conversaciones estresantes y les coloca un polgrafo para verlos estresarse. +Tiene all a los dos y le dice al marido: "Cuntame algo que haga tu mujer que a ti te irrite". +Y se observa de inmediato... --imaginen eso un instante, Uds. y su pareja-- es de suponer que todo se pone ms tenso cuando esto empieza. +Se ven reacciones fsicas, las personas se tensan. +De hecho, al estudiar relaciones cercanas la risa es un ndice extraordinariamente til de cmo las personas regulan sus emociones juntas. +No solo la emitimos unos a otros para mostrar aprecio mutuo, sino que buscamos sentirnos mejor juntos. +No creo que esto se limite a las relaciones romnticas. +Tiene fro. Est a punto de mojarse. Tiene el traje de bao, tiene una toalla. +Hay hielo. +Qu podra pasar? +Empieza el video. +Seriedad. +Sus amigos ya se estn riendo. Se ren con ganas. +Todava no re. +Empieza a rerse. +Y ahora que estn todos riendo. +Estn en el suelo. +Lo que me gusta de esto es que todo es muy serio hasta que salta al hielo y tan pronto como no atraviesa el hielo pero tampoco hay sangre ni huesos por todas partes, sus amigos empiezan a rer. +Imaginen si ocurriera eso con l all diciendo: "No, en serio, Heinrich, creo que me romp algo", no disfrutaramos al verlo. Nos pondra tensos. +Tampoco si corriese por all riendo con una fractura expuesta, y sus amigos dijeran: "Heinrich, creo que tenemos que ir al hospital ahora", eso tampoco sera gracioso. +La risa funciona porque lo saca de una situacin dolorosa, embarazosa y difcil y lo pone en una situacin graciosa que disfrutamos y creo que es un uso muy interesante que ocurre todo el tiempo. +Por ejemplo, recuerdo que pas algo as en el funeral de mi padre. +No estbamos saltando en el hielo en calzoncillos. +No somos canadienses. +Fue una reaccin muy bsica encontrar alguna razn para hacerlo. +Podemos rer juntas. Vamos a superar esto. +Vamos a estar bien. +De hecho, todos nosotros lo hacemos todo el tiempo. +Lo hacemos tan a menudo, que no lo notamos. +Todos subestimamos todo lo que remos y hacemos algo al rer con la gente, nos permite acceder a un sistema evolutivo muy antiguo que los mamferos hemos evolucionado para crear y mantener vnculos sociales claramente para regular emociones, que nos hagan sentir mejor. +No es algo especfico de los humanos; es un comportamiento muy antiguo que nos ayuda a regular cmo nos sentimos y nos hace sentir mejor. +En otras palabras, en materia de risas, t y yo, beb, no somos ms que mamferos. Gracias. +Mi primer amor fue el cielo nocturno. +El amor es complicado. +Uno observa una marcha con del telescopio espacial Hubble de campo ultraprofundo, una de las imgenes ms distantes del universo observado. +Todo lo que ven aqu es una galaxia, compuesta por miles de millones de estrellas cada una. +Y la galaxia ms lejana est a un billn de billones de km de distancia. +Como astrofsica, tengo el privilegio maravilloso de estudiar algunos de los objetos ms exticos en nuestro universo. +Los objetos que me han cautivado a primera vista en mi carrera son los agujeros negros supermasivos, hiperactivos. +Con un peso de 1000 a 10 000 millones de veces la masa de nuestro Sol, estos agujeros negros galcticos son un material que devora, a una velocidad ms de 1000 veces superior a la del agujero negro supermasivo "promedio". +Estas dos caractersticas, con algunas otras, las hacen cusares. +Al mismo tiempo, los objetos que estudio producen algunos de los flujos de partculas ms poderosos jams observados. +Estas corrientes estrechas, llamadas chorros, se mueven a 99,99 % de la velocidad de la luz, y apuntan directamente a la Tierra. +A estos agujeros negros a chorro, que apuntan a la Tierra, supermasivos e hiperactivos, se los denomina blazares o cusares ardientes. +Lo especial de los blazares es que son uno de los aceleradores de partculas ms eficientes, y transportan cantidades increbles de energa a travs de una galaxia. +Aqu, muestro una concepcin artstica de un blazar. +El plato por el que cae material en el agujero negro se llama disco de acrecin, mostrado aqu en azul. +Parte de ese material es catapultado alrededor del agujero negro y acelerado a velocidades extremadamente altas en el chorro, que vemos aqu en blanco. +Si bien el sistema blazar es raro, el proceso por el cual la naturaleza tira material mediante un disco, y luego arroja algo de ese por un chorro, es ms comn. +Finalmente nos alejaremos del sistema blazar para mostrar su relacin aproximada al contexto galctico ms grande. +Ms all de la contabilidad csmica de lo que entra y lo que sale, uno de los temas candentes en astrofsica de blazares actualmente es saber de dnde proviene la emisin de la ms alta energa a chorro. +En esta imagen, me interesa saber dnde se forma esta mancha blanca y si, como resultado, hay alguna relacin entre el chorro y el material del disco de acrecin. +No hubo respuestas claras a esta pregunta casi hasta 2008, cuando la NASA lanz un nuevo telescopio que detectaba mejor la luz de rayos gamma; es decir, luz con energas un milln de veces ms altas que la exploracin de rayos X estndar. +Comparo simultneamente variaciones entre los datos de la luz de rayos gamma y los datos de la luz visible de da a da y de ao a ao, para ubicar mejor esas manchas de rayos gamma. +Mi investigacin muestra que en algunos casos, estas manchas se forman mucho ms cerca al agujero negro de lo que pensbamos al principio. +Conforme ubicamos con ms precisin el origen de estas manchas de rayos gamma, entendemos mejor cmo se aceleran los chorros, y, en definitiva, revelamos los procesos dinmicos por los cuales se forman algunos de los objetos ms fascinantes del universo. +Todo empez con una historia de amor. +Y lo sigue siendo. +Este amor me transform de joven curiosa por la observacin de estrellas en astrofsica profesional, en la frontera del descubrimiento celestial. +Quin hubiera dicho que persiguiendo al Universo encontrara mi misin tan arraigada aqu en la Tierra? +Por otra parte, cmo saber dnde surgir el primer aleteo de amor? +Gracias. +Estos dragones del pasado remoto son criaturas increbles. +Son extraos, hermosos, y sabemos muy poco de ellos. +Me pasaban estos pensamientos por la cabeza conforme miraba las pginas de mi primer libro de dinosaurios. +Tena unos 5 aos en esa poca, y all, en ese momento, decid ser paleontlogo. +La paleontologa me permiti combinar mi amor por los animales con mi deseo de viajar a los lugares ms remotos del planeta. +Y ahora, unos aos despus, he dirigido varias expediciones al rincn remoto por excelencia en este planeta, el Sahara. +He trabajado en el Sahara en busca de nuevos restos de un extrao y gigantesco dinosaurio depredador llamado Spinosaurus. +Se encontraron huesos de este animal en los desiertos de Egipto y fueron descritos hace unos 100 aos por un paleontlogo alemn. +Por desgracia, los huesos de su Spinosaurus fueron destruidos en la Segunda Guerra Mundial. +Nos quedan solo unos dibujos y notas. +A partir de estos dibujos, sabemos que esta criatura, que vivi hace unos 100 millones de aos, era muy grande, tena espinas altas en su parte posterior, que formaban una magnfica vela, y mandbulas largas y esbeltas, como las de un cocodrilo, con dientes cnicos, que usaba para atrapar a presas resbaladizas, como los peces. +Eso era ms o menos todo lo que supimos de este animal los siguientes 100 aos. +El trabajo de campo me llev a la regin fronteriza entre Marruecos y Argelia, un lugar llamado Kem Kem. +Es un lugar difcil para trabajar. +Uno tiene que enfrentarse a tormentas de arena, serpientes y escorpiones, y es muy difcil de encontrar buenos fsiles all. +Pero nuestro esfuerzo vali la pena. +Descubrimos muchos especmenes increbles. +Ah est el hueso ms grande de dinosaurio encontrado en esta parte del Sahara. +Encontramos restos de dinosaurios depredadores gigantes, dinosaurios depredadores de tamao mediano, y 7 u 8 tipos diferentes de cazadores similares a cocodrilos. +Estos fsiles fueron depositados en un sistema ribereo, +que tambin fue hogar del celacanto gigante, del tamao de un automvil, del pez sierra monstruoso, y sus cielos estaban cubiertos de pterosaurios, unos reptiles voladores. +Era un lugar muy peligroso, no nos gustara viajar all si tuviramos una mquina del tiempo. +Encontramos todos estos increbles fsiles de animales que vivieron junto al Spinosaurus, pero el Spinosaurus en s demostr ser muy escurridizo. +Solo encontrbamos retazos y yo esperaba encontrar un esqueleto parcial en algn momento. +Finalmente, hace muy poco, pudimos ubicar un lugar de excavacin donde un buscador local de fsiles hall varios huesos de Spinosaurus. +Volvimos al sitio, recolectamos algunos huesos ms. +Y as, despus de 100 aos, al fin tenamos otro esqueleto parcial de esta extraa criatura. +Y hemos podido reconstruirla. Ahora sabemos +que el Spinosaurus tena una cabeza parecida a la de un cocodrilo, muy diferente de otros dinosaurios depredadores, muy diferente del T. rex. +Pero lo realmente interesante vino del resto del esqueleto. +Tenamos largas espinas, espinas que forman la gran vela, +los huesos de las patas, y los huesos del crneo, tenamos patas en forma de remo, patas anchas, de nuevo, muy inusual, pues otros dinosaurios tenan patas as... y creemos que pueden haberse usado para caminar en sedimentos blandos, o quiz para remar en el agua. +Tambin observamos la fina microestructura del hueso, la estructura interior de los huesos del Spinosaurus, y resulta ser muy densa y compacta. +Esto es algo que vemos en animales que pasan mucho tiempo en el agua, es til para controlar la flotabilidad en el agua. +Tomografiamos todos los huesos y creamos un esqueleto digital de Spinosaurus. +Y cuando observamos el esqueleto digital, nos dimos cuenta de que s, era un dinosaurio nico. +Conforme dbamos textura a nuestro Spinosaurus --analizando inserciones musculares, envolviendo con piel al dinosaurio-- nos dimos cuenta de que estbamos ante un monstruo de ro, un dinosaurio depredador, ms grande que el T. rex, el lder de este antiguo ro de gigantes, que se alimentaba de los muchos animales acuticos que mostr anteriormente. +Eso es lo que realmente hace de este, un descubrimiento increble. +Es un dinosaurio nico. +Algunos me dijeron: "Este es un descubrimiento nico en la vida. +No hay mucho ms para descubrir en el mundo". +Bueno, creo que nada podra estar ms lejos de la verdad. +Creo que el Sahara todava est lleno de tesoros, y cuando me dicen que no quedan lugares por explorar, me gusta citar a un famoso cazador de fsiles de dinosaurios, Roy Chapman Andrews, que dijo: "Siempre ha habido una aventura a la vuelta de la esquina y el mundo todava est lleno de esquinas". +Eso era cierto hace muchas dcadas cuando Roy Chapman Andrews escribi estas lneas. +Y sigue siendo cierto hoy. +Gracias. +Para serles honesto, por personalidad, no soy muy llorn. +Pero creo que por mi profesin, ha sido bueno. +Soy abogado de derechos civiles, y he visto algunas cosas horribles en el mundo. +Comenc mi carrera trabajando en casos de abuso policial en los EE. UU. +Y en 1994, fui enviado a Ruanda como director de investigacin de genocidios de la ONU. +Resulta que las lgrimas no son de mucha ayuda cuando se intenta investigar un genocidio. +Las cosas que tuve que ver, y sentir y tocar fueron completamente inexplicables. +Lo que puedo decirles es esto: que el genocidio de Ruanda fue uno de los mayores fracasos del mundo en simple compasin. +Esa palabra, compasin, de hecho viene de dos palabras latinas: cum passio, que simplemente significan "sufrir con". +Y las cosas que vi y experiment en Ruanda segn me acercaba al sufrimiento humano, me hicieron, en algunos momentos, llorar. +Pero solo habra deseado que yo, y el resto del mundo, hubiramos llorado antes. +Y no solo llorado, sino tambin haber detenido el genocidio. +En contraste, tambin he estado involucrado en uno de los mayores triunfos mundiales de la compasin. +Y es la lucha contra la pobreza global. +Es una causa que probablemente nos implica a todos. +No s si su primer contacto fueron los coros de "We are the World", o quiz la foto de un nio apadrinado en la puerta de su nevera, o quiz el regalo que donaron para agua limpia. +No recuerdo cul fue mi primer contacto con la pobreza, pero s recuerdo que fue la ms desapacible. +Fue cuando conoc a Venus... es una madre de Zambia, +tiene 3 hijos y es viuda. +Cuando la conoc, haba caminado 26 km con el nico vestido que posea, para venir a la capital y contar su historia. +Se sent conmigo durante horas, y me introdujo en el mundo de la pobreza. +Describi cmo era cuando el carbn del fuego para cocinar se enfriaba completamente. +Cuando la ltima gota de aceite de cocinar se agotaba. +Cuando la ltima comida, a pesar de sus esfuerzos, se acababa. +Tuvo que ver cmo su hijo ms pequeo, Peter, sufra de malnutricin, y sus piernas se doblaban y se volvan intiles. +Cmo sus ojos se nublaban y oscurecan. +Y cmo finalmente Peter languideci. +Durante ms de 50 aos, historias as nos han estado conmoviendo. +A nosotros cuyos hijos tienen comida de sobra. +Y estamos actuando no solo por la pobreza global, sino por intentar poner de nuestra parte para parar el sufrimiento. +Hay mucho espacio para criticar que no hemos hecho suficiente, y que lo que sea que hemos hecho no ha sido lo suficientemente efectivo, pero la verdad es esta: La lucha contra la pobreza global es probablemente la ms amplia y larga manifestacin del fenmeno humano de la compasin en la historia de nuestra especie. +As que me gustara compartir una visin bastante demoledora que podra cambiar para siempre la manera en que piensan sobre esta lucha. +Pero primero, empezar con lo que probablemente ya saben. +Hace 35 aos, cuando me estaba graduando de secundaria, nos dijeron que 40 000 nios moran cada da por la pobreza. +Ese nmero, hoy, ha disminuido a 17 000, +Todava son muchos, por supuesto, pero significa que, cada ao, hay 8 millones de nios que no tienen que morir a causa de la pobreza. +Es ms, el nmero de gente en nuestro mundo que vive en extrema pobreza, definido como vivir con 1.25 dlares al da, ha disminuido de un 50 %, a solo un 15 %. +Este es un progreso enorme, y supera las expectativas de todo el mundo acerca de lo que es posible. +Y creo que Uds. y yo, creo, sinceramente, que nos podemos sentir orgullosos y alentados de ver cmo la compasin tiene el poder de triunfar en detener el sufrimiento de millones. +Pero aqu va la parte que puede que no hayan odo tanto. +Si mueven esa lnea de la pobreza a 2 dlares al da, resulta que virtualmente esos mismos 2 mil millones de personas atrapados en esa cruel pobreza cuando yo iba a la escuela, siguen atrapados ah. 35 aos ms tarde. +As que, por qu hay todava tantos miles de millones atrapados en esa dura pobreza? +Bueno, pensemos en Venus por un momento. +Durante dcadas, mi esposa y yo hemos estado movidos por una compasin comn ayudando a nios, financiando microcrditos, apoyando generosos niveles de ayuda externa. +Pero hasta que habl con Venus, realmente no tena ni idea de que ninguno de esos enfoques se diriga al porqu ella tena que ver morir a su hijo. +"Estbamos bien", deca Venus, "hasta que Brutus comenz a causar problemas". +Brutus es el vecino de Venus y generador de problemas, es lo que ocurri el da despus de que el marido de Venus falleciera, cuando Brutus lleg y ech a Venus y a sus hijos fuera de la casa, les rob su tierra, y su puesto del mercado. +Como ven, Venus fue empujada a la indigencia con violencia. +Y se me ocurri, por supuesto, que ninguno de mis nios apadrinados, ninguno de los microcrditos, ninguno de los programas tradicionales de lucha contra la pobreza iban a detener a Brutus porque no estaban destinados a ello. +Esto se hizo incluso ms evidente para m al conocer a Griselda. +Es una joven maravillosa que vive en una comunidad muy pobre en Guatemala. +Y una de las cosas que he aprendido con los aos es que quiz la cosa ms poderosa que Griselda y su familia pueden hacer para sacar a Griselda y su familia de la pobreza es asegurarse de que ella vaya a la escuela. +Los expertos lo llaman el "Efecto chica". +Pero cuando conoc a Griselda, ella no iba a la escuela. +De hecho, casi nunca sala de su casa. +Das antes de conocerla, mientras iba a casa desde la iglesia con su familia, en plena luz del da, unos hombres de su comunidad la raptaron en la calle, y la violaron brutalmente. +Griselda tena la oportunidad de ir a la escuela, pero no era seguro para ella llegar hasta all. +Y Griselda no es la nica. +Alrededor del mundo, mujeres y nias pobres de entre 15 y 44 aos, son vctimas de violencia diaria de abuso domstico y violencia sexual, esas dos formas de violencia, causan ms muertes y discapacidad que la malaria, que los accidentes de auto y que la guerra, combinados. +La verdad es, que los pobres de este mundo estn atrapados en crculos de violencia. +En Asia del Sur, por ejemplo, pude conducir cerca de este molino de arroz y ver a este hombre cargndose esos sacos de 45 kg de arroz a sus espaldas. +Pero no supe, hasta ms tarde, que, de hecho, era un esclavo, retenido con violencia en ese molino de arroz desde que yo iba a la escuela. +Dcadas de programas de lucha contra la pobreza en su comunidad nunca pudieron rescatarle, ni a ninguno de los otros cientos de esclavos, de los golpes, de las violaciones y de las torturas, de la violencia en ese molino de arroz. +De hecho, medio siglo de programas de lucha contra la pobreza han dejado ms pobres en la esclavitud que en ningn otro tiempo de la historia humana. +Los expertos nos dicen que hoy hay unos 35 millones de personas en esclavitud. +Equivalente a la poblacin entera de Canad, donde estamos hoy. +Por ello, con el tiempo, he llamado a esta epidemia de violencia el efecto langosta. +Porque en las vidas de los pobres, desciende como una plaga y lo destruye todo. +De hecho, cuando estudias comunidades muy, muy pobres, los residentes te dicen que su mayor temor es la violencia. +Pero piensen que la violencia a la que ellos temen no es la violencia de los genocidios o las guerras, es la violencia cotidiana. +As que para m, como abogado, mi primera reaccin fue pensar, claro que tenemos que cambiar todas las leyes. +Tenemos que declarar ilegal toda esta violencia contra los pobres. +Pero entonces encontr, que ya lo es. +El problema no es que los pobres no tengan leyes, sino que no se aplica la ley. +En el mundo en desarrollo, los sistemas bsicos de aplicacin de la ley estn tan daados, recientemente la ONU public un estudio que deca que "la mayora de la gente pobre vive fuera de la proteccin de la ley". +Sinceramente, ni Uds. ni yo tenemos idea de lo que eso significa porque no hemos tenido una experiencia de primera mano. +El funcionamiento de la aplicacin de la ley se da por supuesto. +De hecho, nada describe esa suposicin ms claramente que estos 3 simples nmeros: 9-1-1, que, por supuesto, es el nmero del operador de emergencias policial, aqu en Canad y en los EE. UU., donde el tiempo medio de respuesta a una llamada de emergencia al 911 es de unos 10 minutos. +As que lo damos completamente por hecho. +Pero qu pasara si no hubiera aplicacin de la ley para protegernos? +Una mujer en Oregon recientemente sinti lo que esto significaba. +Estaba sola en su casa a oscuras un sbado por la noche, cuando un hombre intent entrar en su casa. +Esta era su peor pesadilla, porque ese hombre la haba enviado al hospital por otro ataque tan solo dos semanas antes. +Muy asustada, tom el telfono e hizo lo que nosotros habramos hecho: Llam al 911, para enterarse de que debido a los recortes de presupuesto en su condado, la aplicacin de la ley no estaba disponible los fines de semana. +Escuchen. +Operadora: No tengo a nadie para enviar all. +Mujer: Bien. Operadora: Um, obviamente si l entra en su casa y le ataca, puede pedirle que se vaya? +O sabe si est drogado o algo? +Mujer: Ya se lo he pedido. +l ya entr antes, rompi mi puerta, me atac. +Operador: A-h. +Mujer: S... entonces? +Operadora: Hay alguna manera segura de que se vaya de la casa? +Mujer: No, no puedo, porque l est bloqueando la salida completamente. +Operadora: Bueno, lo nico que puedo hacer es darle un consejo, que llame a la oficina del alguacil maana. +Obviamente, si entra y desafortunadamente lleva un arma o intenta hacerle dao, sera un caso diferente. +Ya sabe, la oficina del alguacil no lleva esos casos. +No tengo a nadie a quien enviar". +Trgicamente, la mujer de esa casa fue violentamente atacada; ahogada y violada porque eso es lo que significa vivir fuera de las reglas de la ley. +Y esto es lo que miles de millones de pobres viven. +Cmo se refleja eso? +En Bolivia, por ejemplo, si un hombre asalta sexualmente a un nio pobre, estadsticamente, correr mayor riesgo de caerse en la ducha y morir de que vaya a la crcel por ese crimen. +In Asia del Sur, si esclavizas a un pobre, tendrs mayor riesgo de que te parta un rayo de que te enven a la crcel por ese crimen. +Y la epidemia de la violencia diaria contina. +Y devasta nuestros esfuerzos de intentar ayudar a miles de millones de personas a salir de su infierno de 2 dlares al da. +Porque los datos simplemente no mienten. +Resulta que puedes dar todo tipo de bienes y servicios a los pobres, pero si no se controlan a los matones violentos de robrselo, uno estar muy decepcionado del impacto a largo plazo. +As uno pensar que la desintegracin de la aplicacin bsica de la ley en el mundo en desarrollo sera de alta prioridad para la lucha global contra la pobreza. +Pero no lo es. +Recientemente auditores de asistencia internacional no pudieron encontrar ni un 1 % de ayuda destinada a proteger a los pobres del caos sin ley de la violencia diaria. +Y sinceramente, cuando hablamos de violencia contra los pobres, a veces es de las formas ms extraas. +Una organizacin proveedora de agua limpia cuenta una historia de unas nias que fueron violadas de camino a buscar agua, y entonces se celebra la solucin de un nuevo pozo que acorta en gran parte su camino. +Fin de la historia. +Pero ni una palabra sobre el violador que todava est por ah en la comunidad. +Si una joven en uno de los campus universitarios fuera violada de camino a la biblioteca, nunca celebraramos la solucin de trasladar la biblioteca cerca de la residencia. +Y an as, por alguna razn, esto est bien para la gente pobre. +Pero la verdad es que los expertos tradicionales en desarrollo econmico y alivio de la pobreza, no saben cmo solucionar este problema. +Entonces qu ocurre? +No hablan sobre ello. +Pero la razn fundamental de que la aplicacin de la ley en el mundo en desarrollo est tan abandonada, es porque la gente del mundo en desarrollo, con dinero, no la necesita. +Estuve en el Foro de Desarrollo Econmico no hace mucho hablando con los directores de grandes negocios en el mundo en desarrollo y les pregunt, "Cmo protegen su gente y propiedades de toda la violencia?" +Y se miraron unos a otros, y dijeron, prcticamente al unsono, "Lo compramos". +De hecho, las fuerzas de seguridad privada en el mundo en desarrollo es ahora, 4, 5 y 7 veces mayor que la fuerza de polica pblica. +frica es el mayor empleador del continente es la seguridad privada. +Como ven, los ricos pueden pagar por su seguridad y continuar hacindose ricos, pero los pobres no pueden pagarla y se quedan completamente desprotegidos y siguen siendo arrojados al suelo. +Esta es una indignacin masiva y escandalosa. +Y no tiene por qu ser as. +La aplicacin defectuosa de la ley se puede solucionar. +La violencia puede parar. +Casi todos los sistemas de justicia criminal, comienzan deficientes y corruptos, pero pueden transformarse con gran esfuerzo y compromiso. +El paso adelante es realmente bastante claro. +Nmero 1: Tenemos que empezar a hacer parar la violencia, indispensable para luchar contra la pobreza. +De hecho, cualquier conversacin de pobreza global que no incluya el problema de la violencia no debe tomarse en serio. +Y nmero 2. tenemos que empezar a invertir recursos seriamente y compartir habilidades para apoyar el mundo en desarrollo como una moda nueva, de sistemas pblicos de justicia, no seguridad privada, para dar a todos la oportunidad de estar a salvo. +Estas transformaciones son posibles realmente y estn ocurriendo hoy. +Desde la retrospectiva de la historia, lo que siempre es ms inexplicable e inexcusable son los simples fracasos de la compasin. +Porque creo que la historia convoca a un tribunal a nuestros nietos y nos preguntan, "Abuela, abuelo, dnde estaban Uds.?". +Dnde estabas, abuelo, cuando los judos huan de la Alemania nazi y eran rechazados en nuestras costas? +Dnde estabas? +Y abuelo, dnde estabas cuando llevaban a nuestros vecinos japoneses-americanos a los campos de concentracin? +Y abuelo, dnde estabas cuando pegaban a nuestros vecinos afroamericanos solo porque intentaban registrarse para votar? +Igualmente, cuando nuestros nietos nos pregunten, "Abuela, abuelo, dnde estaban cuando 2 mil millones de los ms pobres del mundo se ahogaban en un caos sin ley de violencia diaria?". +Espero que podamos decir que tenamos compasin, que levantamos nuestras voces, y que, como generacin, nos movimos para parar la violencia. +Muchas gracias. +Chris Anderson: Realmente muy bien argumentado. +Hblanos un poco sobre algunas de las cosas que han ocurrido con, por ejemplo, el impulso del entrenamiento policial. +Cmo de difcil es ese proceso? +GH: Bueno, una de las cosas gloriosas que han comenzado a ocurrir ahora es el colapso de esos sistemas y las consecuencias se han vuelto obvias. +En realidad hay, ahora, voluntad poltica de hacerlo. +Pero requiere una inversin de recursos y transferencia de habilidades. +Hay una lucha de la voluntad poltica que tambin tendr lugar, pero esas luchas se pueden ganar, porque tenemos ejemplos alrededor del mundo en la Misin de Justicia Internacional que son muy alentadores. +CA: Dinos en un pas, cunto cuesta hacer un cambio considerable en la polica, por ejemplo... s que esa es solo una parte de ello. +GH: En Guatemala, por ejemplo, hemos comenzado un proyecto all con la polica local y el sistema de justicia, fiscales, para entrenarlos de manera que puedan llevar estos casos efectivamente. +Y hemos visto cmo las demandas en contra de autores de violencia sexual aumentaban en ms de 1000 %. +CA: Pero para que esto ocurra, hay que mirar a cada parte de la cadena... la polica, quin ms? +CA: Gary, un trabajo espectacular llamando a todos a poner atencin a esto en tu libro y aqu hoy. +Muchas gracias. +Gary Haugen. +De nio no entenda siempre por qu mis padres me hacan seguir las siguientes reglas. +Como por ejemplo cortar el csped. +Y por qu los deberes eran tan importantes? +Por qu no poda mezclar gomitas con avena en el desayuno? +Mi infancia estuvo llena de este tipo de preguntas. +Eran cosas normales en un nio pero tambin darse cuenta de que a veces, era mejor escuchar a los padres incluso cuando no entenda por qu. +Y no es que no queran que yo piense crticamente. +En su papel de padres siempre trataron de reconciliar la tensin entre dejarnos claro a mis hermanos y a m las realidades del mundo, y asegurarse de que no aceptaremos nunca el 'status quo' como algo inevitable. +Llegu a la conclusin de que esto, en s mismo, era una manera de educar con propsito. +Uno de mis mentores, el escritor e investigador brasileo Paulo Freire, habla con claridad acerca de la necesidad de usar la educacin como herramienta para el despertar crtico y la humanidad compartida. +En su famoso libro, "La pedagoga del oprimido", declara: "Nadie puede ser verdaderamente humano y evitar que otros lo sean". +ltimamente he pensado mucho en eso, la idea de la humanidad, y, en concreto, en quien en este mundo goza del privilegio de ser percibido como plenamente humano. +En los ltimos meses el mundo ha visto cmo hombres negros desarmados, y mujeres, fueron asesinados por la polica y los vigilantes. +Estos eventos y todo lo que pas despus me llevaron de vuelta a mi infancia y a las decisiones que mis padres tomaron sobre cmo criar a un nio de color en EE.UU. y que de nio, no siempre las entend como las entiendo ahora. +Pienso en lo difcil que debe haber sido, en la profunda injusticia que deben haber sentido al despojarme de parte de mi infancia solo para que yo pudiera volver a casa salvo por la noche. +Por ejemplo, pienso en cmo una noche, cuando tena 12 aos, durante un viaje de un par de das a otra ciudad, mis amigos y yo compramos pistolas de agua y transformamos el estacionamiento del hotel en nuestro propio campo de batalla acutica. +Nos escondimos detrs de los coches y corrimos en la oscuridad reinante entre las farolas soltando carcajadas interminables por toda la acera. +Pero a los 10 minutos, mi padre sali, me agarr por el brazo, y me llev a nuestra habitacin de una manera inusual. +Antes de poder decir nada, decir lo estpido que me hizo parecer delante de mis amigos, se burl de m por ser tan ingenuo. +Me mir a los ojos, con el miedo dibujado en su rostro y me dijo: "Hijo, lo siento. pero no puedes comportarte como tus amigos blancos. +No puedes fingir que disparas armas de fuego. +No puedes corretear en la oscuridad. +Y no puedes esconderte detrs de nada que no sean tus propios dientes". +Ahora s lo asustado que debe haber estado, lo fcil que podra haberme desvanecido en el vaco de la noche, y que alguien pudiera confundir el agua con un buen motivo para hacerme desaparecer. +Estos son los tipos de mensajes que segu toda la vida escuchando: mantn siempre las manos donde pueden verlas, no te muevas demasiado rpido, qutate la capucha cuando se pone el sol. +Mis padres nos criaron y a mis hermanos a m en un marco de asesoramiento, un ocano de alarmas para que nadie nos robara el aliento de los pulmones, y ellos lleguen a hacer de esta piel un recuerdo. +Para que podamos ser nios, no atades debajo de una losa. +Y no es porque pensaban que esto nos hara mejores que otros sino simplemente porque queran mantenernos con vida. +Todos mis amigos negros crecieron con el mismo mensaje, el que se nos daban cuando ramos suficientemente mayores como para ser confundidos con un clavo listo para ser golpeado en el suelo por la gente que vea el color de nuestra melanina como sinnimo de algo que hay que temer. +Pero, qu hacerle eso a un nio que crece sabiendo que no puede ser simplemente un nio? +Que los caprichos de la adolescencia son demasiado peligrosos para respirar, que no puede ser curioso, que no puede permitirse el lujo de un error, que el sesgo implcito de alguien podra ser la razn por la que maana no vas a despertar. +Pero esto no puede ser lo que nos defina. +Porque tuvimos padres que nos criaron para entender que nuestros cuerpos no fueron hechos para las balas, sino para las cometas y las combas, y para las carcajadas que te hacen explotar el estmago. +Los maestros nos han enseado a levantar la mano en clase, y no como seal de rendicin y que la nica cosa a la que tenemos que renunciar es la idea de que no somos dignos de este mundo. +Gracias. +Isadora Duncan... mujer loca, de piernas largas de San Francisco, cansada de este pas, quera irse. +Isadora se hizo famosa all por el ao 1908 por poner una cortina azul y pararse con las manos sobre su plexo solar y esperar, y esperar, y luego, moverse. +Josh, Somi y yo llamamos a esta pieza "El crculo rojo y la cortina de azul". +El circulo rojo. +Y la cortina azul. +Pero, no estamos a principios del siglo XX. +Estamos por la maana en Vancouver en 2015. +Vamos, Josh! +Vamos! +Acaso hemos llegado? +No lo creo. +Oye, s! +Qu hora es? +Dnde estamos? +Josh. +Somi. +Bill T. +Josh. +Somi. +Bill T. +S, s! +Yo trabajo con un grupo de matemticos, filsofos y cientficos informticos, y nos juntamos para pensar en el futuro de la inteligencia artificial, entre otras cosas. +Algunos piensan que estas cosas son una especie de ciencia ficcin alocadas y alejadas de la verdad. +Pero bueno, me gusta sugerir que analicemos la condicin humana moderna. +As es cmo tienen que ser las cosas. +Pero si lo pensamos, en realidad acabamos de llegar a este planeta, nosotros, la especie humana. +Piensen que si la Tierra hubiera sido creada hace un ao, entonces la raza humana solo tendra 10 minutos de edad +y la era industrial habra empezado hace dos segundos. +Otra forma de abordar esto es pensar en el PIB mundial en los ltimos 10 000 aos, y de hecho, me he tomado la molestia de representarlo en un grfico para Uds. +Se ve as. +Tiene una forma curiosa para ser normal. +Y seguro que no me gustara sentarme en ella. +Preguntmonos cul es la causa de esta anomala actual? +Algunas personas dirn que es la tecnologa. +Ahora bien es cierto que la tecnologa ha aumentado a lo largo de la historia, y en la actualidad avanza muy rpidamente --esa es la causa inmediata-- y por esto la razn de ser muy productivos hoy en da. +Pero me gusta indagar ms all, buscar la causa de todo. +Miren a estos 2 caballeros muy distinguidos: Tenemos a Kanzi, que domina 200 unidades lxicas, una hazaa increble, +y a Ed Witten que desat la segunda revolucin de las supercuerdas. +Si miramos atentamente esto es lo que encontramos: bsicamente la misma cosa. +Uno es un poco ms grande, y puede que tambin tenga algunos trucos ms por la forma en que est diseado, +sin embargo, estas diferencias invisibles no pueden ser demasiado complicadas porque solo nos separan 250 000 generaciones de nuestro ltimo ancestro comn. +Sabemos que los mecanismos complicados tardan mucho tiempo en evolucionar +as que una serie de pequeos cambios nos lleva de Kanzi a Witten, de las ramas de rboles rotas a los misiles balsticos intercontinentales. +As que parece bastante claro que todo lo que hemos logrado, y todo lo que nos importa, depende fundamentalmente de algunos cambios relativamente menores sufridos por la mente humana. +Y el corolario es que, por supuesto, cualquier cambio ulterior que cambiara significativamente el fundamento del pensamiento podra potencialmente acarrear enormes consecuencias. +Algunos de mis colegas piensan que estamos muy cerca de algo que podra causar un cambio significativo en ese fundamento y que eso es la mquina superinteligente. +La inteligencia artificial sola ser la integracin de comandos en una caja, +con programadores humanos que elaboraban conocimiento minuciosamente a mano. +Se construan estos sistemas especializados y eran bastante tiles para ciertos propsitos, pero eran muy frgiles y no se podan ampliar. +Bsicamente, se consegua solamente lo que se inverta en ellos. +Pero desde entonces, hubo un cambio de paradigma en el campo de la inteligencia artificial. +Hoy, la accin gira en torno al aprendizaje mquina. +As que en lugar de producir caractersticas y representar el conocimiento de manera artesanal, creamos algoritmos que aprenden a menudo a partir de datos de percepcin en bruto. +Bsicamente lo mismo que hace el beb humano. +El resultado es inteligencia artificial que no se limita a un solo campo; el mismo sistema puede aprender a traducir entre cualquier par de idiomas o aprender a jugar a cualquier juego de ordenador en la consola Atari. +Ahora, por supuesto, la IA est todava muy lejos de tener el mismo poder y alcance interdisciplinario para aprender y planificar como lo hacen los humanos. +La corteza cerebral an esconde algunos trucos algortmicos que todava no sabemos cmo simular en las mquinas. +As que la pregunta es, cunto nos falta para poder implementar esos trucos? +Hace un par de aos hicimos una encuesta entre los expertos de IA ms importantes del mundo para ver lo que piensan, y una de las preguntas que hicimos fue, "En qu ao crees que habr un 50 % de probabilidad en elevar la inteligencia artificial al mismo nivel que la inteligencia humana?" +Donde hemos definido ese nivel como la capacidad de realizar casi todas las tareas, al menos as como las desarrolla un humano adulto, por lo cual, un nivel real no solo dentro de un rea limitada. +Y la respuesta fue alrededor de 2040 o 2050, dependiendo del grupo de expertos consultados. +Ahora, puede ocurrir mucho ms tarde o ms temprano, la verdad es que nadie lo sabe realmente. +Lo que s sabemos es que el umbral en el procesamiento de informacin en una infraestructura artificial se encuentra mucho ms all de los lmites del tejido biolgico. +Esto pertenece al campo de la fsica. +Una neurona biolgica manda impulsos quiz a 200 Hertz, 200 veces por segundo. +mientras que incluso hoy, un transistor opera a la frecuencia de los gigahercios. +Las neuronas propagan el impulso lentamente a lo largo de los axones, a mximo 100 metros por segundo. +Pero en las computadoras, las seales pueden viajar a la velocidad de la luz. +Tambin hay limitaciones de tamao, como el cerebro humano que tiene que encajar dentro del crneo, pero una computadora puede ser del tamao de un almacn o an ms grande. +As que el potencial de la mquina superinteligente permanece latente en la materia, al igual que el poder atmico a lo largo de toda la historia que esper pacientemente hasta 1945. +De cara a este siglo los cientficos pueden aprender a despertar el poder de la inteligencia artificial +y creo que podramos ser testigos de una explosin de inteligencia. +Cuando la mayora de la gente piensa en lo inteligente o lo tonto creo que tienen en mente una imagen ms o menos as. +En un extremo tenemos al tonto del pueblo, y lejos en el otro extremo, tenemos a Ed Witten o a Albert Einstein, o quien sea su gur favorito. +Y luego, despus de muchos, muchos ms aos de trabajo muy arduo, de mucha inversin, tal vez alcancemos el nivel de inteligencia de un chimpanc. +Y luego, despus de ms aos de trabajo muy, muy arduo alcancemos la inteligencia artificial del tonto del pueblo. +Un poco ms tarde, estaremos ms all de Ed Witten. +El tren del progreso no se detiene en la estacin de los Humanos. +Es probable que ms bien, pase volando. +Esto tiene profundas consecuencias, especialmente si se trata de poder. +Por ejemplo, los chimpancs son fuertes. Un chimpanc es dos veces ms fuerte y en mejor forma fsica que un hombre +y, sin embargo, el destino de Kanzi y sus amigos depende mucho ms de lo que hacemos los humanos que de lo que ellos mismos hacen. +Una vez que hay superinteligencia, el destino de la humanidad depender de lo que haga la superinteligencia. +Piensen en esto: la mquina inteligente es el ltimo invento que la humanidad jams tendr que realizar. +Las mquinas sern entonces mejores inventores que nosotros, y lo harn a escala de tiempo digital +lo que significa bsicamente que acelerarn la cercana al futuro. +Piensen en todas las tecnologas que tal vez, en su opinin, los humanos pueden desarrollar con el paso del tiempo: tratamientos para el envejecimiento, la colonizacin del espacio, nanobots autoreplicantes, mentes integradas en las computadoras, todo tipo de ciencia-ficcin y sin embargo en consonancia con las leyes de la fsica. +Todo esta superinteligencia podra desarrollarse y posiblemente con bastante rapidez. +Ahora, una superinteligencia con tanta madurez tecnolgica sera extremadamente poderosa, y con la excepcin de algunos casos sera capaz de conseguir lo que quiere. +Nuestro futuro se determinara por las preferencias de esta IA. +Y una buena pregunta es cules son esas preferencias? +Aqu se vuelve ms complicado. +Para avanzar con esto, debemos en primer lugar evitar el antropomorfismo. +Y esto es irnico porque cada artculo de prensa sobre el futuro de la IA presenta una imagen como esta: As que creo que tenemos que pensar de manera ms abstracta, no segn escenarios entretenidos de Hollywood. +Tenemos que pensar en la inteligencia como un proceso de optimizacin un proceso que dirige el futuro hacia un conjunto especifico de configuraciones. +Un superinteligencia es un proceso de optimizacin realmente potente. +Es muy bueno en el uso de recursos disponibles para lograr un estado ptimo y alcanzar su objetivo. +Esto significa que no hay ningn vnculo necesario entre ser muy inteligente en este sentido, y tener una meta que para los humanos vale la pena o es significativa. +Por ejemplo, la IA podra tener el objetivo de hacer sonrer a los humanos. +Cuando la IA est en desarrollo, realiza acciones entretenidas para hacer sonrer a su usuario. +Cuando la IA se vuelve superinteligente, se da cuenta de que hay una manera ms eficaz para lograr su objetivo: tomar el control del mundo e introducir electrodos en los msculos faciales de la gente para provocar sonrisas constantes y radiantes. +Otro ejemplo, supongamos que le damos el objetivo de resolver un problema matemtico difcil. +Cuando la IA se vuelve superinteligente, se da cuenta de que la forma ms eficaz para conseguir la solucin a este problema es mediante la transformacin del planeta en un computador gigante, para aumentar su capacidad de pensar. +Y tengan en cuenta que esto da a la IA una razn instrumental para hacer cosas que nosotros no podemos aprobar. +Los seres humanos se convierten en una amenaza, ya que podramos evitar que el problema se resuelva. +Por supuesto, las cosas no tienen necesariamente que pasar de esa manera: son ejemplos de muestra. +Pero lo importante, si crean un proceso de optimizacin muy potente, optimizado para lograr el objetivo X, ms vale asegurarse de que la definicin de X incluye todo lo que importa. +Es una moraleja que tambin se ensea a travs de varios mitos. +El rey Midas deseaba convertir en oro todo lo que tocaba. +Toca a su hija y ella se convierte en oro. +Toca su comida, se convierte en oro. +Es un ejemplo relevante no solo de una metfora de la codicia sino como ilustracin de lo que sucede si crean un proceso de optimizacin potente pero le encomiendan objetivos incomprensibles o sin claridad. +Uno puede pensar: "Si una computadora empieza a poner electrodos en la cara de la gente bastara simplemente con apagarla. +En primer lugar, puede que no sea tan sencillo si somos dependientes del sistema por ejemplo: dnde est el botn para apagar Internet? +En segundo lugar, por qu los chimpancs no tienen acceso al mismo interruptor de la humanidad, o los neandertales? +Sin duda razones tendran. +Tenemos un interruptor de apagado, por ejemplo, aqu mismo. +(Finge estrangulacin) La razn es que somos un adversario inteligente; podemos anticipar amenazas y planificar en consecuencia, +pero tambin podra hacerlo un agente superinteligente, y mucho mejor que nosotros. +El tema es que no debemos confiar que podemos controlar esta situacin. +Y podramos tratar de hacer nuestro trabajo un poco ms fcil digamos, poniendo a la IA en una caja, en un entorno de software seguro, una simulacin de realidad virtual de la que no pueda escapar. +Pero, cmo podemos estar seguros de que la IA no encontrar un error? +Dado que incluso los hackers humanos encuentran errores todo el tiempo, yo dira que probablemente, no podemos estar muy seguros. +As que desconectamos el cable ethernet para crear un espacio vaco, pero una vez ms, al igual que los hackers humanos, podran superar estos espacios usando la ingeniera social. +Ahora mismo, mientras hablo, estoy seguro de que algn empleado, en algn lugar ha sido convencido para revelar los detalles de su cuenta por alguien que dice ser del departamento de IT. +Otros escenarios creativos tambin son posibles, por ejemplo si Ud. es la IA, puede hacer cambios en los electrodos de su circuito interno de seguridad para crear ondas de radio y usarlas para comunicarse. +O tal vez fingir un mal funcionamiento, y cuando los programadores lo abren para entender qu est mal, al mirar el cdigo fuente, pum! ya empieza a manipular. +O podra idear un programa tecnolgico realmente ingenioso, y cuando lo implementamos, tener efectos secundarios ocultos planeados por la IA. +No debemos confiar en nuestra capacidad para mantener un genio superinteligente encerrado en su lmpara para siempre. +Tarde o temprano, saldr. +Creo que la solucin es averiguar cmo crear una IA superinteligente para que incluso si, o cuando se escape, sea todava segura para que fundamentalmente est de nuestro lado y comparta nuestros valores. +No veo cmo evitar este problema difcil. +En realidad soy bastante optimista de que este problema pueda ser resuelto. +No tendramos que escribir una larga lista de todo lo que nos importa, o, peor an, codificarla en algn lenguaje informtico como C++ o Python, sera una reto imposible. +A cambio, crearamos una IA que use su inteligencia para aprender lo que valoramos, y su sistema integrado de motivacin sera diseado para defender nuestros valores y realizar acciones que se ajusten a ellos. +As que usaramos su inteligencia tanto como fuera posible para resolver el problema de la atribucin de valores. +Esto puede suceder, y el resultado podra ser muy bueno para la humanidad. +Pero no sucede automticamente. +Las condiciones iniciales para la explosin de la inteligencia necesitan ser perfectamente definidas si queremos contar con una detonacin controlada. +Los valores de la IA tienen que coincidir con los nuestros no solo en el mbito familiar, donde podemos comprobar fcilmente cmo se comporta, sino tambin en todos los nuevos contextos donde la IA podra encontrarse en un futuro indefinido. +Y tambin hay algunas cuestiones esotricas que habra que resolver: los detalles exactos de su teora de la decisin, cmo manejar la incertidumbre lgica, etc. +As que los problemas tcnicos que hay que resolver para hacer este trabajo parecen muy difciles --no tan difciles como crear una IA superinteligente-- pero bastante difciles. +Este es la preocupacin: crear una IA superinteligente es un reto muy difcil +y crear una que sea segura implica desafos adicionales. +El riesgo es si alguien encuentra la manera de superar el primer reto sin resolver el otro desafo de garantizar la mxima seguridad. +As que creo que deberamos encontrar una solucin al problema del control por adelantado, de modo que est disponible para cuando sea necesario. +Puede ser que no podamos resolver por completo el problema del control de antemano porque tal vez, algunos elementos solo pueden ser desarrollados despus de reunir los detalles tcnicos de la IA en cuestin. +Pero cuanto antes solucionemos el problema del control, mayores sern las probabilidades de que la transicin a la era de las mquinas inteligentes vaya bien. +Esto me parece algo digno de hacer y puedo imaginar que si las cosas salen bien, la gente en un milln de aos discutir nuestro siglo y dir que posiblemente lo nico que hicimos bien y mereci la pena fue superar con xito este reto. +Gracias. +El cerebro es un rgano asombroso y complejo. +Y aunque muchos estn fascinados con el cerebro, realmente no se conocen mucho las propiedades funcionales del cerebro porque no enseamos neurociencia en la escuela. +Y una de las razones es que los equipos son tan complejos y caros que estos trabajos solo se hacen en las grandes universidades e instituciones. +As que, con para poder acceder al cerebro, realmente hay que dedicarse a pasar 6 aos y medio como estudiante de posgrado solo para ser neurocientfico y tener acceso a estas herramientas. +Y eso es una pena porque 1 de cada 5, es decir un 20 % del mundo sufrir de un trastorno neurolgico. +Y no hay cura para estas enfermedades. +Y por eso, parece que lo que deberamos hacer es empezar pronto en el proceso de educacin y ensear neurociencia a los estudiantes para que en el futuro, ellos barajen la posibilidad de ser neurocientficos. +Cuando yo era estudiante graduado, junto con mi compaero de laboratorio Tim Marzullo pensamos en tomar todo ese equipo complejo que tenemos para estudiar el cerebro y transformarlo en algo sencillo y lo suficientemente asequible para que cualquiera, un aficionado o un estudiante de secundaria, pueda aprender y realmente participar en los descubrimientos neurocientficos. +As que hicimos precisamente eso. +Hace unos aos fundamos una compaa llamada Backyard Brains que ofreca un kit domstico para la neurociencia y que traje aqu esta noche, ya que quiero hacer alguna demostracin. +Quieren ver alguna? +Para esto necesito un voluntario. +As que justo antes... cmo te llamas? Sam Kelly: Sam. +Greg Gage: Est bien, Sam, grabar tu cerebro. +Has hecho esto antes? +SK: No. +GG: Necesito que extiendas el brazo para la ciencia, sube la manga un poco, y voy a colocarte estos electrodos en el brazo, mientras t te preguntas si dije que grabar tu cerebro qu estoy haciendo con tu brazo? +Bueno, ahora mismo, tienes unas 80 000 millones de neuronas en tu cerebro +que estn enviando mensajes elctricos y qumicos de un lado a otro, +pero algunas de las neuronas de la corteza motora enviarn mensajes hacia el cuerpo al mover el brazo as. +Ellos bajaran a travs del cuerpo calloso, por la mdula espinal hasta la moto-neurona inferior que se encuentra en los msculos aqu, y cuya descarga elctrica al llegar all se recoger por estos electrodos de aqu y as podremos escuchar exactamente lo que est haciendo tu cerebro. +As que pondr esto en marcha durante un segundo. +Has escuchado alguna vez el sonido de tu cerebro? +SK: No. +GG: Muy bien, vamos a probarlo. As que adelante y aprieta la mano. +Lo que ests escuchando, son tus unidades motoras en accin. +Veamos esto tambin. +As que voy a quedarme aqu, y voy a abrir la aplicacin. +Ahora quiero que aprietes. +As que aqu tenemos las unidades motoras puestas en marcha con el impulso que baja por la mdula a sus msculos de aqu, y mientras ella hace esto Uds. ven la actividad elctrica que tiene lugar aqu. +Pueden incluso con un clic tratar de ver a alguno de ellos. +Sigue apretando con fuerza. +Ahora nos hemos detenido en un potencial de accin motor que ocurre ahora mismo en el interior de su cerebro. +Quieren ver un poco ms? +Eso es interesante, pero vamos a mejorarlo. +Necesito un voluntario ms. +Cmo te llamas? +Miguel Gonalves: Miguel. +GG: Miguel, de acuerdo. +Qudate aqu. +Al mover el brazo as, tu cerebro est enviando un impulso a tus msculos de aqu. +Quiero que muevas el brazo tambin. +As que tu cerebro enviar un impulso a los msculos. +As que, de algn modo, ella te quitar tu libre albedro y no tendrs ningn control sobre tu propia mano. +Ests conmigo? +As que solo tengo que conectarte. +Buscar tu nervio cubital, que se encuentra probablemente justo aqu. +No sabas lo que te esperaba cuando subiste al escenario. +As que ahora me alejar y vamos a conectarte a nuestra interfaz humana. +Bueno Sam, quiero que aprietes la mano de nuevo. +Hazlo de nuevo. Perfecto. +As que ahora voy a conectarte aqu para que te llegue... Te sentirs un poco raro al principio, sentirs como... ya sabes, como cuando pierdes tu libre albedro, y te conviertes en el agente de otra persona s que se siente un poco extrao. +Ahora quiero que relajes la mano. +Sam, ests conmigo? +As que preprate para apretar. +No voy a encenderlo an, as que adelante, un apretn. +Ahora, ests listo, Miguel? +MG: Ms listo que nunca. +GG: Lo he puesto en marcha, as que adelante, aprieta la mano. +Lo sientes un poco? MG: No. +GG: Muy bien, hazlo otra vez. MG: Un poco. +GG: Un poquito? As que reljate. +Aprieta de nuevo. +Ah, perfecto, perfecto. +As que reljate, repite. +Muy bien, as que ahora, tu cerebro est controlando tu brazo y tambin controla el suyo, as que adelante, hazlo una vez ms. +Muy bien, es perfecto. Ahora, qu pasara si me hiciera cargo del control de tu mano? +Relaja la mano. +Qu sucede? +Ah, nada. +Por qu no? +Porque tiene que hacerlo el cerebro. +As que otra vez. +Muy bien, eso es perfecto. +Gracias chicos por cooperar tanto. +Esto est sucediendo en todo el mundo... electrofisiologa! +Haremos la neuro-revolucin. +Gracias. +Puede que no sean conscientes, pero hay ms bacterias en el cuerpo que estrellas en toda la galaxia. +Este universo fascinante de bacterias es parte integral de nuestra salud, y la tecnologa est evolucionando tan rpidamente que hoy podemos programar estas bacterias igual que a las computadoras. +En el diagrama que se ve aqu... s que parece algn tipo de plano deportivo pero en realidad es un plano del primer programa bacteriano que desarroll. +Igual que con el software, podemos imprimir y escribir ADN en diferentes algoritmos y programas dentro de la bacteria. +Este programa produce protenas fluorescentes rtmicamente y genera una molcula pequea que permite a las bacterias comunicarse y sincronizarse como pueden ver en esta pelcula. +La creciente colonia de bacterias que ven aqu tiene en grosor de un cabello humano. +Lo que no pueden ver es que nuestro programa gentico instruye a estas bacterias para producir pequeas molculas, que luego se movern entre los miles de bacterias individuales ordenndoles cuando encenderse y apagarse. +Las bacterias se sincronizan bastante bien a esta escala pero la molcula que sincroniza solo puede viajar a una velocidad limitada, y en colonias ms grandes de bacterias esto da lugar a ondas que se propagan entre bacterias que se encuentran a distancia una de la otra. Pueden ver estas ondas propagandose de derecha a izquierda en la pantalla. +Nuestro programa gentico se basa en un fenmeno natural llamado percepcin de qurum, en que las bacterias coordinan respuestas, a veces virulentas una vez que alcanzan una densidad crtica. +Pueden ver la percepcin de qurum en accin en este video, donde una colonia de bacterias en aumento solo empieza a brillar una vez que alcanza una densidad alta o crtica. +Nuestro programa gentico contina produciendo estas patrones rtmicos de las protenas fluorescentes a medida que la colonia se expande. +Esta pelcula y experimento en particular se llaman La Supernova, porque parece una estrella a punto de explotar. +Adems de programarlas que produzcan estos hermosos patrones me preguntaba, qu ms podemos lograr que hagan? +Y decid investigar cmo podemos programarlas para que detecten y traten enfermedades como el cncer. +Uno de los hechos sorprendentes sobre las bacterias es que pueden crecer de manera natural dentro de los tumores +ya que los tumores normalmente son reas en las que el sistema inmunolgico no tiene acceso, y as las bacterias, al encontrar estos tumores, los usan como un refugio seguro para crecer y prosperar. +Empezamos usando bacterias probiticas que son unas bacterias seguras, beneficiosas para la salud, y descubrimos que al administrarlas por va oral a ratones, estos probiticos se desarollan de manera selectiva en los tumores hepticos. +Pudmos demostrar que esta tecnologa podra sensible y especficamente detectar el cncer de hgado, que de lo contrario es dificil de detectar. +Puesto que estas bacterias se alojan especficamente en los tumores, las programamos no solo para detectar cncer sino tambien para tratarlo mediante la produccin de molculas teraputicas desde dentro del entorno canceroso reduciendo as los tumores existentes y lo hicimos usando programas de percepcin de qurum, los que han visto en los videos anteriores. +En resumen, imaginensen que en el futuro se podrn tomar probiticos programados que detectarn y curarn el cncer o incluso otras enfermedades. +La capacidad de programar bacterias y la vida misma abre nuevos horizontes en la investigacin del cncer, y para compartir esta visin, he trabajado con el artista Vik Muniz para crear el smbolo de la universo, hecho completamente de clulas bacterianas y cancerosas. +En ltima instancia, mi esperanza es que el belleza y el propsito de este universo microscpico inspirar nuevos enfoques creativos para el futuro de la investigacin sobre cncer. +Gracias. +En el camino de los jvenes de EE.UU. a la edad adulta, dos instituciones supervisan el viaje. +La primera, de la que escuchamos mucho es la universidad. +Algunos recordarn la emocin que sintieron cuando partieron a la universidad. +Algunos pueden estar en la universidad ahora y sienten esa emocin en este preciso momento. +La universidad tiene algunas deficiencias. +Es costosa; deja a los jvenes endeudados. +Pero, en general, es un muy buen camino. +Los jvenes salen de la universidad con orgullo, con grandes amigos y con mucho conocimiento del mundo. +Y quiz, lo ms importante, con mejores oportunidades laborales que antes de llegar all. +Hoy quiero hablar de la segunda institucin que supervisa el viaje de los jvenes a la edad adulta en EE. UU. +Esa institucin es la prisin. +Los jvenes en este viaje se renen con agentes de libertad condicional en vez de hacerlo con profesores. +Van a citas en la corte en vez de a clase. +En lugar de primer ao en el extranjero van de viaje a un centro correccional. +Estn saliendo de sus 20 aos no con ttulos en negocios e ingls, sino con antecedentes penales. +Esta institucin tambin nos cuesta mucho, unos USD 40 000 al ao enviar a un joven a prisin en Nueva Jersey. +Pero aqu, los contribuyentes pagan la factura y los chicos reciben una celda fra y una marca permanente en su contra cuando llegan a casa y buscan empleo. +Cada vez hay ms jvenes en este viaje a la edad adulta que en toda la historia de EE.UU. porque en los ltimos 40 aos la tasa de encarcelamiento creci un 700 %. +Tengo una diapositiva para esta charla. +Es esta. +Aqu est nuestra tasa de encarcelamiento, unas 716 personas por cada 100 000 habitantes de la poblacin. +Estos son pases de la OECD. +Es ms, estamos enviando a la crcel a los jvenes pobres, muchos de las comunidades afro y latina, as que la prisin se interpone entre los jvenes y el "sueo americano". +Es la parte oculta de nuestro experimento histrico de castigo: los jvenes temen en cualquier momento ser detenidos, requisados y arrestados. +No solo en las calles, sino en sus hogares, en la escuela y en el trabajo. +Me interes en este otro camino a la edad adulta cuando era estudiante en la Universidad de Pennsylvania en la dcada de 2000. +Penn se encuentra en un histrico barrio afro de EE.UU. +Estos dos viajes paralelos ocurren al mismo tiempo: jvenes que asisten a esta universidad privada, de lite, y jvenes del barrio adyacente, algunos que van a la universidad, y muchos a los que se les enva a la crcel. +En mi segundo ao, empec como tutora de una joven de secundaria que viva a unos 10 minutos de la universidad. +Pronto, su primo lleg de un centro de detencin juvenil. +Tena 15 aos, era estudiante de 1 de secundaria. +Empec a conocerlo y a sus amigos y familiares, y le pregunt qu pensaba de m que escriba sobre su vida para mi tesis de grado en la universidad. +Esta tesis de grado se convirti en una tesis de Princeton y ahora en un libro. +Al final de mi segundo ao, me mud al barrio y pas los siguientes 6 aos intentando entender a lo que enfrentaban los jvenes en su mayora de edad. +La primera semana que pas en este barrio, vi a dos nios, de 5 y 7 aos, jugar a la persecucin, donde el mayor persegua al menor. +Jugaban a policas. +Cuando el polica capturaba al menor, lo tiraba al suelo, le pona esposas imaginarias, tomaba 25 centavos del bolsillo del otro nio, y deca: "Me quedo con esto". +Le pregunt al nio si portaba alguna droga o si tena una orden judicial. +Muchas veces vi repetir este juego, a veces los nios simplemente dejaban de correr, y ponan sus cuerpos contra el suelo con sus manos sobre la cabeza, o hacia arriba contra la pared. +Los nios se gritaban: "Voy a encerrarte, voy a encerrarte y nunca volvers a casa!" +Una vez vi a un nio de 6 aos tirar de los pantalones de otro tratando de hacer una bsqueda de cavidad. +En los primeros 18 meses que viv en ese barrio, anot cada vez que vea cualquier contacto entre la polica y las personas que eran mis vecinos. +As, en los primeros 18 meses, vi a la polica detener peatones o personas en los autos, buscar personas, preguntar nombres, perseguir personas por las calles, sacar personas para interrogarlas, o hacer un arresto diariamente, con 5 excepciones. +52 veces vi a la polica romper puertas, perseguir personas en casas o detener a alguien en su casa. +14 veces en el primer ao y medio vi a la polica pegar, golpear, asfixiar, patear o pisar a jvenes tras haberlos capturado. +Poco a poco, llegu a conocer a dos hermanos, Chuck y Tim. +Chuck tena 18 aos cuando nos conocimos, estudiaba el ltimo ao de secundaria. +Jugaba en el equipo de baloncesto y tena Ces y Bes. +Su hermano, Tim, tena 10 aos. +Tim amaba a Chuck, lo segua mucho, vea a Chuck como un tutor. +Vivan con su madre y abuelo en una casa de 2 pisos con un jardn delantero y un porche trasero. +Su madre luchaba contra la adiccin mientras los muchachos crecan. +Ella nunca poda mantener un trabajo por mucho tiempo. +Vivan con la pensin del abuelo, que no alcanzaba para pagar ropa, alimentos y tiles escolares para los nios. +La familia estaba realmente luchando. +Cuando nos conocimos, Chuck estudiaba el ltimo ao de la secundaria. +Acababa de cumplir 18 aos. +Ese invierno, un nio en el patio de la escuela tild a la madre de Chuck de puta drogadicta. +Chuck empuj la cara del nio a la nieve y los policas escolares lo acusaron de asalto agravado. +El otro chico estaba bien al da siguiente, creo que lesion su orgullo ms que nada. +De todos modos, como Chuck tena 18 aos, este caso lo envi a la crcel de adultos del condado en la carretera estatal del noreste de Filadelfia, donde se qued, por no poder pagar la fianza --no poda permitrselo-- y mientras las fechas de los juicios se extendieron casi todo su ltimo ao. +Finalmente, casi al final de esa temporada, el juez del caso desestim la mayor parte de los cargos y Chuck volvi a casa con cientos de dlares en tasas judiciales sobre su cabeza. +Tim estaba muy feliz ese da. +El siguiente otoo, Chuck trat de volver a su ltimo ao, pero la secretaria de la escuela le dijo que con 19 aos era demasiado mayor para ser readmitido. +Luego el juez del caso emiti una orden de arresto porque l no poda pagar los USD 225 en tasas judiciales que vinieron un par de semanas despus de terminado el caso. +Luego fue un desertor escolar que viva en la carretera. +La primera detencin de Tim lleg ms tarde ese ao despus de cumplir los 11. +Chuck haba conseguido levantar su orden judicial y entr en un plan de pago de las tasas judiciales y llevaba a Tim a la escuela en el auto de su novia. +Un polica los sigue, detiene el auto, y el auto aparece como robado en California. +Chuck no saba que el auto haba sido robado. +El to de su novia lo compr en una subasta de autos usados en el noreste de Filadelfia. +Chuck y Tim nunca haban estado fuera de la tri-estatal, y mucho menos en California. +Pero, de todos modos, en la comisara acusaron a Chuck de recibir propiedad robada. +Y un juez de menores, unos das ms tarde, culp a Tim, de 11 aos, por recibir propiedad robada y le dio 3 aos de libertad condicional. +Con esta sentencia de libertad condicional sobre su cabeza, Chuck se sent con su hermanito y le ense a huir de la polica. +Se sentaban lado a lado en su porche trasero mirando hacia el callejn compartido y Chuck le enseaba a Tim a detectar vehculos encubiertos, cmo negociar una redada policial nocturna, cmo y dnde esconderse. +Quiero que imaginen por un segundo cmo seran las vidas de Chuck y Tim si viviesen en un barrio en el que los chicos fuesen a la universidad, y no a la crcel. +Un barrio como en el que yo tengo que crecer. +Bueno, podrn decir, +pero los nios como Chuck y Tim, estn cometiendo delitos! +No se merecen estar en la crcel? +No se merecen vivir con el temor al arresto? +Bueno, mi respuesta sera no. +No lo merecen. +Y desde luego no por las mismas cosas que los otros jvenes con ms privilegios hacen con impunidad. +Si Chuck hubiese ido a mi secundaria, esa pelea escolar habra terminado all, como una pelea escolar. +Nunca se habra convertido en un caso de asalto agravado. +Ni un solo chico con el que fui a la universidad tiene antecedentes penales ahora. +Ni uno solo. +Pero imaginan cuntos los tendran si la polica los hubiese detenido buscado droga en sus bolsillos de camino a clases? +O si hubiese allanado sus fiestas en medio de la noche? +Bueno, podrn decir, +pero, no es esa alta tasa de encarcelamiento en parte responsable del muy bajo ndice de criminalidad? +El crimen es bajo. Eso es bueno. +Totalmente, es algo bueno. El crimen es bajo. +Cay precipitadamente en los aos 90 y en la dcada de 2000. +Pero de acuerdo con un comit de acadmicos convocado por la Academia Nacional de Ciencias el ao pasado, la relacin entre nuestros ndices de encarcelamiento histricamente altos y nuestra baja tasa de criminalidad es bastante inestable. +La tasa de criminalidad sube y baja independientemente de cuntos jvenes enviemos a la crcel. +Solemos pensar la justicia de manera muy estrecha: buenos y malos, inocentes y culpables. +Injusticia es ser condenado injustamente. +Si uno es condenado por algo que hizo, debe ser castigado por ello. +Hay personas inocentes y culpables, hay vctimas y victimarios. +Quiz podramos pensar de manera un poco ms amplia que eso. +Por qu no damos apoyo a los jvenes que enfrentan estos desafos? +Por qu les ofrecemos solamente esposas, crcel y una existencia fugitiva? +Podemos imaginar algo mejor? +Podemos imaginar un sistema de justicia penal que priorice la recuperacin, la prevencin, la inclusin cvica, en lugar del castigo? +Un sistema de justicia penal que reconozca el legado de exclusin que los pobres de color han enfrentado en EE.UU. y que no fomente y perpete esas exclusiones. +Y, por ltimo, un sistema de justicia penal que crea en los jvenes negros, en vez de tratarlos como el enemigo de la redada. +La buena noticia es que ya lo hacemos. +Hace unos aos, Michelle Alexander escribi "El nuevo Jim Crow", que hizo ver a EE.UU. el encarcelamiento como un asunto de derechos civiles de proporciones histricas como nunca antes se haba visto. +El presidente Obama y el fiscal general Eric Holder abordaron con mucha fuerza la reforma de sentencia, sobre la necesidad de atajar la disparidad racial en la crcel. +Vemos estados que denominan el "parar y cachear" como la violacin de derechos civiles que es. +Vemos ciudades y estados que despenalizan la posesin de marihuana. +Nueva York, Nueva Jersey y California han disminuido sus poblaciones penitenciarias, cierran crceles, y al mismo tiempo ven un gran descenso del crimen. +Texas ahora entr en el juego, tambin cierra prisiones, invierte en educacin. +No pens que iba a ver este momento poltico en mi vida. +Creo que muchas de las personas que han estado trabajando sin descanso para escribir las causas y consecuencias de nuestras altas tasas de encarcelamiento histricas no pensaron que veramos este momento en nuestra vida. +La pregunta para nosotros ahora es, cunto podemos hacer con ella? +Cunto puede cambiar? +Quiero terminar con una llamada a los jvenes, a los jvenes que asisten a la universidad y a los jvenes que luchan por mantenerse fuera de la crcel o por ir a la crcel y volver a casa. +Puede parecer que estos caminos a la adultez son mundos aparte, pero los jvenes que participan en estas dos instituciones que nos transportan a la edad adulta, tienen algo en comn: Ambos pueden ser lderes de la reforma de nuestro sistema de justicia penal. +Los jvenes siempre han sido lderes en la lucha por la igualdad de derechos, en la lucha para que ms personas tengan dignidad y es una oportunidad de luchar por la libertad. +La misin para la generacin joven en este momento de cambio radical, potencialmente, es acabar con la encarcelacin en masa y construir un nuevo sistema de justicia penal, con nfasis en la palabra justicia. +Gracias. +En junio de 1998, Tori Murden McClure zarp de Nags Head, Carolina del Norte, para Francia. +Ese es su barco, la Perla de Amrica. +Tiene 7 metros de largo y casi 2 metros de ancho en su punto ms ancho. +La cubierta era del tamao de una camioneta de carga Ford F-150. +Tori la construy a mano junto con sus amigos y pesaba unos 820 kg. +Su plan era cruzar remando, sola, el Ocano Atlntico --sin motor, ni vela-- algo que ninguna mujer y ningn estadounidense nunca haba hecho antes. +Esta sera su ruta: Ms de 5790 kilmetros a travs del Ocano Atlntico Norte. +Tori trabajaba como gerente de proyectos para la ciudad de Louisville, Kentucky, su ciudad natal, pero su verdadera pasin era la exploracin. +Esta no era su primera gran expedicin. +Se haba convertido unos aos antes en la primera mujer que lleg esquiando al Polo Sur. +En la universidad fue una deportista en remo con mucho xito e incluso compiti por un puesto en el equipo olmpico de Estados Unidos 1992, pero esto era diferente. +Tori Murden McClure: Hola. Es domingo 5 de julio. +Hora local: 9 de la maana. +La misma que en Kentucky. +Dawn Landes: Tori hizo estos videos mientras remaba. +Este fue tomado en su 11 da en el mar. +Para entonces ya haba viajado ms de 1600 km, sin ningn contacto por radio en ms de 2 semanas despus de una tormenta que da todos sus sistemas de comunicacin de largo alcance luego apenas de 5 das en alta mar. +La mayora de los das fue as. +Para entonces, haba dado ms de 200 000 remadas, luchando contra la corriente y el viento. +Mientras que otras veces solo avanzaba 4 o 5 metros. +S. +Y mientras que aquellos das eran frustrantes, otros das eran as. +TMM: Quiero mostrarles a mis amiguitos. +DL: Vio peces, delfines, ballenas, tiburones, e incluso algunas tortugas marinas. +Despus de 2 semanas sin contacto humano, Tori pudo comunicarse con un buque de carga local va radio VHF. +TMM: Tienen la previsin del tiempo? Cambio. +Hombre: Tienes por delante un rea de baja presin, y ya que obviamente te diriges al noreste, hay otra de alta presin detrs, +que tambin parece venir desde el este rumbo al noroeste tambin. +DMM: Bien. +DL: Estaba muy feliz de hablar con alguien en aquel momento. +TMM: As que el pronstico meteorolgico no prev nada drstico. +DL: Lo que la previsin no mencionaba era que estaba remando directamente hacia el huracn Danielle, en la peor temporada de huracanes jams registrada en el Atlntico Norte. +TMM: Acabo de torcerme el tobillo. +Hay un viento muy fuerte ahora que viene del este. +Sopla con fuerza. +Est soplando! +Despus de 12 das de tormenta pude remar durante 4 horas con viento en calma. +No estoy muy contenta en este momento. +Como lo estuve por la maana. No estoy muy feliz ahora, as que... +DL: Despus de casi 3 meses en el mar, ha recorrido ms de 4800 kilmetros. +Le quedaba solo un tercio del camino, pero, en la tormenta, las olas tenan una altura de un edificio de 7 pisos. +Su barco volcaba todo el tiempo. +Algunas volcadas eran de punta a punta y por completo, y era imposible remar. +TMM: 06:30 de la maana. +Estoy en medio de algo grande, malo y feo. +Volqu 2 veces. +La ltima vez arranqu el friso del techo con la espalda. +He volcado unas 6 veces hasta ahora. +La ltima vez boca abajo. +Tengo la baliza Argos conmigo. +Activar la seal de socorro, pero francamente no creo que jams encontrarn este pequeo barco. +Est muy sumergido en este momento, la nica parte que sobresale del agua es prcticamente la cabina. +Es cerca de las 10 de la maana, +he perdido la cuenta de cuntas veces he volcado. +Vuelco cada 15 minutos. +Creo que mi brazo izquierdo est roto. +Las olas estn destrozando el barco en pedazos. +Sigo rezando porque no estoy segura de que saldr con vida de esta. +DL: Tori activ la seal de socorro y fue rescatada por un buque de carga que pasaba por all. +Encontraron su barco abandonado 2 meses ms tarde a la deriva cerca de Francia. +Lo le en el peridico. +En 1998, yo estudiaba en la secundaria y viva en Louisville, Kentucky. +Ahora vivo en la ciudad de Nueva York y soy compositora. +Su valenta me llam la atencin y estoy adaptando su historia para un musical llamado "Remo". +Cuando Tori regres a su casa, estaba desanimada, arruinada, y tena dificultades para reintegrarse en la civilizacin. +En esta escena, ella est en su casa, +el telfono llama, sus amigos la estn llamando, pero ella no sabe cmo hablar con ellos +y canta esta cancin que se llama "Querido corazn". + Mientras yo soaba Mi cuerpo visitaba Lugares hermosos Donde jams estuve + Vi Gibraltar Y las estrellas de Kentucky Reflejadas en el claro de luna Hacindome sonrer + Y cuando me despert aqu El cielo estaba muy nublado + Me fui a una fiesta Donde la gente que conozco Se esforzaba por conocerme ms Y preguntaba dnde he estado Pero no puedo explicarles Lo que he visto + Ah, escucha, querido corazn + Solo presta atencin Hazlo bien desde el principio + Ah, escucha, querido corazn + Puedes renunciar a la fama Pero no te desmorones + Ooh, ooh, ooh Ah, ah, ah, ah, ah + Ah, ah Ah, ah, ah + Cuando estuve ah El ocano me sujet Me sacudi y me tir Como si nada + Pero ahora estoy muy preocupada Nada me consuela + Mi mente es madera flotante Flota descontrolada y libre + Ah, escucha, querido corazn + Solo presta atencin Hazlo bien desde el principio + Ah, escucha, querido corazn + Puedes renunciar a la fama Pero no te desmorones + Ooh +Finalmente, Tori empez a recuperarse. +Y empez a salir con sus amigos de nuevo. +Conoce a un chico y se enamora por primera vez. +Consigue un nuevo trabajo, con un jefe tambin de Louisville, Muhammad Ali. +Un da, almorzando con su nuevo jefe, Tori comparte la noticia de que otras 2 mujeres cruzarn el Atlntico a remo, para hacer algo que a ella casi la mata. +La respuesta de Ali fue memorable: "Nadie quiere pasar a la historia como la mujer que casi cruz el ocano remando". +Estaba en lo cierto. +Tori reconstruy la Perla de Amrica, y en diciembre de 1999, lo logr. +Gracias. +Estas abejas estn en mi patio trasero en Berkeley, California. +Hasta el ao pasado nunca haba tenido abejas, pero National Geographic me pidi fotografiar una historia sobre ellas, y decid, para poder tomar imgenes convincentes, empezar a criar abejas yo mismo. +Como quiz sepan, las abejas polinizan un tercio de nuestros cultivos alimentarios, y ltimamente lo estn pasando muy mal. +Como fotgrafo, realmente quera explorar el aspecto de este problema. +As que les mostrar lo que descubr este ltimo ao. +Esta criaturita peluda es una joven abeja a medio salir de su celda de cra, y las abejas se enfrentan ahora a varios problemas diferentes, incluyendo pesticidas, enfermedades, y la prdida de hbitats, pero la mayor amenaza es un caro parsito procedente de Asia, el Varroa destructor. +Este diminuto caro se arrastra sobre las jvenes abejas y les chupa la sangre. +Con el tiempo, esto destruye la colmena porque debilita el sistema inmune de las abejas, y las hace ms vulnerables al estrs y la enfermedad. +Las abejas son ms vulnerables cuando estn en desarrollo dentro de sus celdas de cra, y yo quera saber cmo era realmente ese proceso, por eso me un a un laboratorio de abejas de la U.C. Davis y descubr cmo criar abejas delante de una cmara. +Les mostrar los primeros 21 das en la vida de una abeja condensados en 60 segundos. +Este es un huevo de abeja que eclosiona en forma de larva, y las larvas recin nacidas nadan girando en el interior de sus celdas, alimentndose de esta secrecin blanca que producen las nodrizas para ellas. +Luego, se diferencian lentamente la cabeza y las patas a medida que se transforman en pupas. +Aqu se ve el mismo proceso en la fase de pupa, y tambin a los caros recorriendo las celdas. +El tejido del cuerpo de la abeja sigue desarrollandose y lentamente aparece el pigmento de sus ojos. +En la ltima fase del proceso la piel se atrofia y le sale el pelo. +As... Como pudieron ver en la mitad de este video los caros corran alrededor de las abejas beb, y los apicultores normalmente se enfrentan a estos caros fumigando las colmenas con productos qumicos. +A la larga, esto una mala noticia, por eso los investigadores buscan alternativas para controlar estos caros. +Esta es una de esas alternativas. +Es un programa de cra experimental del laboratorio de la USDA en Baton Rouge, y esta reina y sus abejas acompaantes son parte de ese programa. +Los investigadores comprobaron que algunas abejas tienen una capacidad natural para combatir caros, as que se dedicaron a criar una lnea de abejas resistentes a los caros. +As se crean abejas en un laboratorio. +La reina virgen es sedada y luego inseminada artificialmente con este instrumento de precisin. +Este procedimiento permite a los investigadores controlar exactamente qu abejas se estn cruzando, pero hay una desventaja en tener tanto control. +Tienen xito en la cra de abejas resistentes al caro pero en ese proceso, las abejas empiezan a perder rasgos como la dulzura y la capacidad para almacenar la miel, de modo que para superar ese problema, los investigadores estn colaborando con apicultores comerciales. +Este es Bret Adee abriendo una de sus 72 000 colmenas. +l y su hermano administran la mayor explotacin apcola del mundo, y la USDA aporta abejas resistentes al caro en sus colmenas con la esperanza de que, con el tiempo, podrn seleccionar las abejas que no solo resistan al caro sino que tambin conserven las cualidades que las hacen tiles para nosotros. +Y decirlo de ese modo suena a que estamos manipulando la explotacin de las abejas, y la verdad es que lo hemos hecho durante miles de aos. +Por eso cuando la gente habla de salvar a las abejas yo entiendo que tenemos que salvar nuestra relacin con las abejas, y para disear nuevas soluciones, tenemos que entender la biologa bsica de las abejas y entender los efectos de los factores de estrs que a veces no podemos ver. +En otras palabras, tenemos que entender a las abejas de cerca. +Gracias. + Dannielle Hadley: Cadena perpetua en Pensilvania significa eso: perpetua, sin posibilidad de libertad condicional. +Para las condenadas de por vida, como nos hacemos llamar, la nica oportunidad de libertad es por conmutacin, que se ha concedido solamente a dos mujeres desde 1989, hace casi 30 aos. +Nuestra cancin: "Este no es nuestro hogar", habla de nuestras experiencias al estar condenadas de por vida sin posibilidad de libertad condicional. +Brenda Watkins: Soy mujer. +Soy abuela. +Soy hija. +Tengo un hijo. +No soy un ngel. +No soy el diablo. +Entr a la crcel cuando era muy joven. +Aqu paso mi tiempo dentro de las paredes de esta prisin. +He perdido amigas que murieron, vi algunas irse a casa. +Vi los aos pasar, gente que viene y que va, mientras yo estoy condenada de por vida sin libertad condicional. +Soy prisionera por el mal que he hecho. +Estoy haciendo tiempo aqu. +Este no es mi hogar. +Sueo con libertad, espero misericordia. +Ver... a mi familia, o morir sola? +Pasan los aos, contengo mis lgrimas, porque si lloro me rindo ante el miedo. +Debo ser fuerte, tengo que resistir. +Debo sobrevivir otro ao. +Soy prisionera por el mal que he hecho. +Estoy haciendo tiempo aqu. Este no es mi hogar. +Sueo con libertad, espero misericordia. +Ver... a mi familia, o morir sola? +No digo que no sea culpable, no digo que no deba pagar. +Lo nico que pido es perdn. +Debo tener la esperanza que algn da ser libre. +Existe algn lugar para m en el mundo exterior? +Algn da sabrn o les importar que estoy encadenada? +Existe redencin por el pecado de mis das de juventud? +Porque he cambiado. +El Seor sabe que he cambiado. +Soy prisionera, por el mal que he hecho. +Estoy haciendo tiempo aqu. Este no es mi hogar. +Sueo con libertad, espero misericordia. +Ver... a mi familia, o morir sola? +Ver... a mi familia, o morir sola? +Me conocen como Prisionera 008106. +Encarcelada por 29 aos. +Mi nombre es Brenda Watkins. +Nac y me cri en Hoffman, Carolina del Norte. +Este no es mi hogar. +Thelma Nichols: Prisionera 0B2472. +He estado encarcelada por 27 aos. +Mi nombre es Thelma Nichols. +Nac y me cri en Filadelfia, PA. +Este no es mi hogar. +DH: 008494. +He estado encarcelada por 27 aos. +Mi nombre es Dannielle Hadley. +Nac y me cri en Filadelfia, PA, y este no es mi hogar. +Theresa Battles: Prisionera 008309. +He estado encarcelada por 27 aos. +Mi nombre es Theresa Battles. +Soy de Norton, Nueva Jersey, y este no es mi hogar. +Debra Brown: me conocen como Prisionera 007080. +He estado encarcelada por 30 aos. +Mi nombre es Debra Brown. +Soy de Pitsburgh, Pensilvania. +Este no es mi hogar. +Joann Butler: 005961. +He estado encarcelada por 37 aos. +Mi nombre es Joann Butler, y nac y me cri en Filadelfia. +Este no es mi hogar. +Diane Hamill Metzger: nmero 005634. +He estado encarcelada por 39 aos y medio. +Mi nombre es Diane Hammil Metzger. +Soy de Filadelfia, Pensilvania, y este no es mi hogar. +Lena Brown: soy 004867. +Encarcelada por 40 aos. +Mi nombre es Lena Brown, y nac y me cri en Pittsburgh, Pensilvania, y este no es mi hogar. +Trina Garnett: mi nmero es 005545. +Mi nombre es Trina Garnett, he estado encarcelada por 37 aos, desde que tena 14 aos. +Nac y me cri en Chester, Pensilvania, y este no es mi hogar. +Ver... a mi familia, o morir sola? +O morir sola? +Cuando tena 9 aos, mi madre me pregunt qu casa me gustara tener y le dibuj esta seta mgica. +Que ella luego realmente construy. +Creo que por aquel entonces no me di cuenta de lo inslito que era y tal vez an sigo porque todava estoy diseando casas. +Esta es una casa de 6 plantas hecha por encargo en la isla de Bali, +y casi en su totalidad de bamb. +El saln tiene vistas al valle desde la cuarta planta, +y se accede a ella por un puente. +En los trpicos puede hacer mucho calor, as que hicimos estos grandes techos curvos para aprovechar las brisas. +Pero algunas habitaciones tienen ventanales para mantener el aire acondicionado dentro y a los insectos alejados. +Dejamos esta habitacin abierta. +Hicimos una cama con dosel, climatizada. +Y una clienta quera una sala de TV en un rincn de su sala de estar. +Dividir el espacio con muros no pareca adecuado, as que preferimos hacer esta gran capsula tejida. +Hoy tenemos todo tipo de comodidades, incluso lavabos. +Esto es un cesto en la esquina de la sala de estar, y debo admitir que algunos dudan a la hora de usarlo. +No hemos resuelto an el problema del aislamiento acstico. +As que hay un montn de cosas en las que todava trabajamos, pero una cosa que he aprendido es que se puede sacar provecho del bamb si se usa correctamente. +En realidad, es una planta silvestre. +Crece en tierras de poco provecho, barrancos, laderas de montaas. +Necesita agua de lluvia, agua de manantial, la luz del sol, y de las 1450 especies de bamb que crecen en todo el mundo, usamos solo 7. +Ese es mi padre. +l es el que me anim a construir con bamb, y est en medio de una zarza de Dendrocalamus asper niger que plant hace solo 7 aos. +Cada ao, el bamb saca una nueva generacin de brotes. +Este de aqu creci un metro en solo 3 das la semana pasada, as que estamos hablando de cosechar madera sostenible en 3 aos. +Construimos de la cosecha de cientos de troncos de nuestra propiedad familiar. +El llamado betung es muy largo, tiene hasta 18 metros de longitud til +--y traten de bajar ese camin por la montaa-- +y es fuerte: tiene la capacidad de traccin del acero, y la resistencia del hormign a la compresin. +Si dejan caer 4 toneladas de peso en cada caa las aguanta. +Debido a que es hueco, es liviano, lo suficiente para ser levantado por unos cuantos hombres, o, al parecer, por una sola mujer. +Y cuando mi padre construy la Escuela Verde en Bali, se decant por el bamb para todos los edificios del campus, porque lo vio prometedor. +Es una promesa a los nios. +Es un material sostenible que nunca escasear. +Y cuando vi por primera vez estas estructuras en construccin hace 6 aos me pareci muy sensato. +Crece a nuestro alrededor. +Es fuerte. Es elegante. +Es resistente a los terremotos. +Por qu no se nos ocurri usarlo antes, y qu podemos hacer con l en el futuro? +As que junto con algunos de los primeros constructores de la Escuela Verde, fund Ibuku. +Ibu significa "madre", y ku "ma", lo que se traduce por "mi Madre Tierra", e Ibuku es un equipo de artesanos, arquitectos y diseadores, y lo que hacemos es crear juntos un nuevo tipo de edificios. +En los ltimos 5 aos juntos, hemos construido ms de 50 instalaciones nicas, la mayora de ellas en Bali. +9 estn en Green Village --y acaban de ver el interior de algunas de estas casas-- y las equipamos con muebles a medida, las rodeamos de huertas, y nos gustara invitar a todos a que vengan a visitarnos algn da. +Una vez all, pueden tambin ver la Escuela Verde donde construimos aulas cada ao y donde hay una casa en forma de seta mgica actualizada. +Tambin estamos trabajando en una casita para la exportacin. +Esta es una casa tradicional sumbanesa, en la cual hemos reproducido todos los detalles y hasta los textiles. +Un restaurante con una cocina al aire libre. +Se parece mucho a una cocina, no? +Y un puente de 22 metros que pasa sobre el ro. +Lo que estamos haciendo no es algo del todo nuevo. +Desde pequeas cabaas hasta en puentes complejos como este en Java, el bamb se ha empleado en todas las regiones tropicales del mundo durante, literalmente, decenas de miles de aos. +Hay islas e incluso continentes que se descubrieron por primera vez al alcanzarlas en balsas de bamb. +Pero hasta hace poco, era casi imposible proteger al bamb de los insectos de una manera fiable, por lo cual, casi todo lo construido anteriormente con bamb desapareci. +El bamb desprotegido envejece. +El bamb sin tratar se carcome, +y es por eso que la mayora de la gente, especialmente en Asia, piensa que solo los muy pobres o los campesinos quieren realmente vivir en una casa hecha de bamb. +As que pensamos, qu se requiere para cambiar de opinin, para convencer a la gente de que el bamb es valioso como material de construccin, y vale la pena aspirar a su pleno uso? +Primero, necesitamos soluciones para un tratamiento seguro. +El brax es una sal natural +y puede transformar el bamb en un material de construccin factible. +Al tratarla correctamente y disearla con cuidado, una estructura de bamb puede durar toda la vida. +Segundo, hacer algo extraordinario con l. +Dejar que inspire a la gente. +Afortunadamente, la cultura balinesa fomenta la artesana, +valora al artesano, +as que combinen esto con las nuevas generaciones de aventureros extremos, los arquitectos, diseadores e ingenieros formados a nivel local. Y siempre recuerden que se est diseando para caas curvadas, estrechas y huecas. No hay 2 caas iguales, no hay lneas rectas, +nada de dimensiones estndar aqu. Las frmulas probadas y practicadas +y el elaborado vocabulario y frmulas arquitectnicas no se aplican aqu. +Hemos tenido que inventar nuestras propias reglas. +Le preguntamos al bamb a qu se presta y qu quiere llegar a ser; se respeta lo que responde, se busca un diseo que refuerce sus puntos fuertes, se protege del agua y sus curvas se aprovechan al mximo. +As que diseamos en 3D, hacemos prototipos estructurales a escala y del mismo material que usaremos ms adelante para construir la casa. +Y el modelado del bamb es un arte, as como algunos detalles de ingeniera. +As que ese es el prototipo de la casa. +Lo traemos al sitio en obras donde medimos cada caa con pequeas reglas, tenemos en cuenta cada curva y elegimos una caa de bamb de la pila para construir la casa a tamao natural. +A la hora de disear los detalles, se toma todo en consideracin. +Por qu las puertas son tan a menudo rectangulares? +Por qu no redondas? +Cmo se construye una puerta mejor? +Las bisagras luchan con la gravedad y la gravedad siempre gana al final, por qu no pivotarlas en el centro donde pueden mantener el equilibrio? +Y ahora que estamos en esto, por qu no hacer puertas en forma de lgrimas? +Para aprovechar los beneficios nicos y trabajar dentro de las limitaciones de este material, realmente tuvimos que esforzarnos, y dentro de estas limitaciones +hemos abierto un espacio para algo innovador. Es un desafo: cmo hacer un techo si no hay juntas planas para trabajar? +A veces sueo con placas de yeso y madera contrachapada. +Pero si disponen de artesanos expertos y clavijas de madera diminutas tejen ese techo, aaden una lona y barnizan. +Cmo se disean encimeras de cocina resistentes que hagan juego con esta instalacin curvada que acabamos de construir? +Cortando un tronco como una barra de pan, tallndola a mano para adaptarse a los dems, y dejando la corteza a la vista. Y casi todo lo que estamos haciendo est hecho a mano. +Reforzamos las juntas de nuestros edificios con acero, pero usamos un montn de clavos de bamb recortados a mano. +Hay miles de dichos clavos en cada suelo. +Este suelo est revestido en tejido de bamb brillante y duradero. +Su textura se nota bajo el pie descalzo. +Y el suelo que pisas, puede afectar la forma en que caminas? +Puede cambiar la huella que, en ltima instancia, dejamos en el mundo? +Recuerdo tener 9 aos y tener un sentimiento de asombro de posibilidad, y un poco de idealismo. +Tenemos un largo camino por recorrer, hay mucho todava por aprender, pero estoy segura de una cosa y es que con creatividad y compromiso, se puede crear belleza, confort, seguridad e incluso algo lujoso de un material que volver a crecer. +Gracias. +S lo que estn pensando: "Por qu se sienta ese hombre?" +Es porque esto es radio. +Yo narro historias sobre diseo en la radio y hablo sobre todo tipo de historias: edificios y cepillos de dientes mascotas, fuentes y autoayuda. +Mi misin es lograr que la gente se comprometa con el diseo para que as empiecen a poner atencin a todas las formas de diseo. +Cuando se codifica el mundo teniendo el diseo en cuenta, el mundo se vuelve mgico. +En lugar de ver objetos rotos, se ven todos los pedacitos de genios que diseadores annimos han creado para hacer nuestras vidas mejores. +Eso es en esencia la definicin de diseo: alegrar la vida y hacerla mejor. +Y pocas cosas me han dado mayor alegra que una bandera bien diseada. +S! +Felicidades a la bandera de Canad por su 50 aniversario. +Es hermosa, de las mejores del mundo. Me encanta. +Tengo una obsesin con las banderas. +A veces hablo de banderas y la gente dice algo as: "No me interesan las banderas". y empezamos a hablar sobre banderas y, cranme, al 100 % de las personas les importan las banderas. +Hay algo en ellas que toca nuestras emociones. +Mi familia envolvi mis regalos de Navidad con diseos de banderas este ao, incluyendo la bolsa de regalo azul que tiene la bandera de Escocia. +Puse esta foto en lnea y, como era de esperar, a los pocos minutos alguien dej un comentario que deca: "Al diablo con tu cruz escocesa". Como pueden ver, a las personas les apasionan las banderas. +As es. Lo que me gusta +de las banderas es que una vez que entendemos su diseo, lo que distingue una buena bandera de una mala, podemos entender el diseo de casi todo. +: Sssssonido. +Listos? Comenzamos. +Tres, dos... +Soy Roman Mars y estamos en "99 % Invisible". +Los 5 principios bsicos del diseo de banderas, +Segn la Asociacin Vexilolgica de EE. UU. +Vexilolgica: +(Voz de Ted Kaye): Vexilologa es el estudio de las banderas, +Ese"l-o-l" es medio hace que suene raro. +: 1. Ser sencilla. +Una bandera debe ser tan sencilla que un nio pueda dibujarla. +Antes de mudarme a Chicago en 2005, no saba que las ciudades tenan banderas. +Las grandes ciudades tienen una. +Yo no lo saba. Por cierto, ese es Ted Kaye. +Hola. Es un experto en banderas. +Es una persona increble. +Soy Ted Kaye. Edit un peridico sobre estudios de banderas, y actualmente trabajo con la asociacin de la bandera de Portland y la asociacin vexilolgica de EE. UU. +Ted escribi un libro sobre diseo de banderas. +: "Banderas buenas y malas" +Es ms como un folleto. Tiene como 16 pginas. +: As es, se llama "Banderas buenas y malas: Cmo disear una gran bandera?" +Esta bandera de ciudad que descubr en Chicago es una belleza: fondo blanco, dos lneas azules horizontales, y cuatro estrellas rojas de seis picos en medio. +2. Usar smbolos significativos. +Las lneas azules representan agua: el ro y el lago. +Sus figuras, colores y diseo deben relacionarse con lo que simbolizan. +Las estrellas rojas representan pasajes histricos locales importantes. +La fundacin de Fort Dearborn, que despus se denomin Chicago: el gran incendio de Chicago, la exposicin universal de Chicago de 1893, que todos recuerdan gracias a la Ciudad Blanca; y la exposicin universal de 1933, que nadie recuerda en absoluto. +: 3. Usar dos o tres colores bsicos. +La regla bsica del color es usar dos o tres colores de la paleta de colores estndar: rojo, blanco, azul, verde, amarillo y negro. +La bandera de Chicago es bien aceptada por una muestra significativo de la ciudad. +Est en todas partes; cada edificio municipal tiene esta bandera. +(Whet Moser) Por lo menos una tienda en cada cuadra vende algo con la bandera de Chicago. +l es Whet Moser de Chicago Magazine. +Por ejemplo: hoy fui a que me cortaran el cabello y cuando me sent en la silla del barbero, haba una bandera de Chicago en la caja donde el barbero guarda sus instrumentos y en el espejo vi una bandera de Chicago detrs de m en la pared. +Cuando sal de ah, un chico que pas traa un pin de la bandera en su mochila. +Es adaptable y mezclable. +Las estrellas de seis picos en particular se ven en todos lados. +El caf que compr el otro da tena una estrella de Chicago. +Es un distintivo del orgullo de Chicago. +Cuando un polica o un bombero muere en Chicago, no siempre es la bandera de EE. UU. la que adorna su fretro. +Tambin se puede usar la bandera de la ciudad de Chicago. +As de profunda es la relevancia de la bandera en Chicago. +Y no solo se debe a que la gente adora Chicago y, con l su bandera; +yo creo que las personas aman ms Chicago porque su bandera es genial. +Ha habido una buena retroalimentacin entre el buen simbolismo y el orgullo cvico. +Cuando volv a San Francisco en 2008, busqu su bandera porque nunca la haba visto en los 8 aos que haba vivido ah antes. +Y me pareci tristemente deficiente. +Lo s. +Tambin a m me duele. +Empecemos por el principio. +: 1. Ser sencilla. +Que sea sencilla. +Narrador: La bandera debe ser tan sencilla que un nio pueda dibujarla. +Es una bandera relativamente compleja. +Bien, vamos. +El elemento principal de la bandera de San Francisco es un fnix que representa su renacimiento de las cenizas despus de los incendios devastadores de 1850. +Es un smbolo poderoso para San Francisco. +No he investigado bien el fnix. +Como diseo es muy tosco y tiene demasiados detalles, as que si intentaran dibujarlo, no lo lograran y se ve mal desde lejos, pero el significado profundo lo pone como un punto a favor. +El fondo tras el fnix es en su mayora blanco, y tiene un borde dorado alrededor. +Este es un elemento muy atractivo en el diseo. +Est bien, pero... Esta es la parte de los "No" de una buena bandera. +4. No contener letras y estampados. +No debe usarse ningn tipo de escritura. +Debajo del fnix hay un listn con el lema "Oro en paz, hierro en guerra". Adems, y ese es el gran problema, dice abajo "San Francisco". +Si necesitas escribir el nombre de lo que tu bandera simboliza, el smbolo no sirve. +La bandera de EE. UU. no tiene un letrero que diga "EE. UU." +De hecho, las banderas de pases suelen apegarse a estas reglas. +Me quito el sombrero ante la de Sudfrica, Turqua e Israel y Somalia y Japn y Gambia. +Hay muchas banderas de pases que son excelentes, pero tienen buenos fundamentos de diseo porque son importantes +a nivel internacional. +Pero las banderas de ciudades, estados y regiones son otra historia. +Sufrimos una plaga de banderas feas y debemos detenerla. +Esa es la verdad y el desafo. +El primer paso es reconocer que tenemos un problema. +Mucha gente piensa que un buen diseo solo es cuestin de gusto, y a veces as es, pero a veces no. +Estos son los principios para el diseo de banderas segn NAVA. +Los 5 principios bsicos para disear una bandera. +1. Ser simple. +2. Usar smbolos significativos. +3. Utilizar dos o tres colores bsicos. +4. No utilizar letras o tipografas. +No se deben usar letras +Porque no es posible leerlas desde lejos. +5. Ser distintiva. +Las mejores banderas cumplen estos principios. +Y como dije antes, las banderas de pases estn bien. +Pero este es el punto. Si le mostraran esta lista a diseadores de cualquier especialidad les diran que estos principios, sencillez, significado, pocos colores, sin tipografas ilegibles y distintivo, son principios que ellos tambin deben aplicar. +Por desgracia, rara vez se toman en cuenta en las banderas de ciudades de EE. UU. +Especialmente el 4 punto: +Parece que no podemos contenernos de incluir los nombres en nuestras banderas, o escudos del municipio con letras pequeitas. +Hay un problema con los escudos municipales: Estn diseados para usarse en papel donde uno puede leerlos, no para banderas que se ven ondeando a 30 m de distancia. +Aqu hay ms banderas. +Los vexillogos las llaman SOB: "Seals on a Bed sheet" --Estampado en una sbana-- y si no se puede distinguir a qu ciudad pertenecen, ah justo est el problema, excepto en la de Anaheim. +Lo arreglaron. Estas banderas estn en todas partes en EE. UU. +El equivalente europeo de los emblemas municipales son los escudos de armas de las ciudades, y podemos aprender mucho de ellos sobre buen diseo. +Este es el blasn de la ciudad de msterdam. +Si esta fuera una bandera de EE. UU. se vera as. +Ya saben. En cambio, la bandera de msterdam es as: +Lejos de incluir el blasn completo en un fondo de color slido con la leyenda "Amsterdam" debajo, ellos solo tomaron los elementos clave del emblema, el escudo, y la convirtieron en la bandera ms increble del mundo. +Y es tan genial que uno puede encontrar esa bandera y sus cruces por todo msterdam, como en el caso de Chicago. +Aunque los estampados de sbana son particularmente molestos y ofensivos para m, nada podra prepararlos para uno de los mayores fracasos en la historia de la vexilologa. +Listos? +La bandera de Milwaukee, Wisconsin. +Definitivamente es distintiva, es lo nico a su favor. +(Steve Kodis) Se adopt en 1955. +La ciudad organiz un concurso y reuni muchas ideas con todo tipo de diseos. +Y el consejal, de nombre Fred Steffan aglutin partes de los diseos para crear el actual diseo de la bandera de Milwaukee. +Parece un trapo de cocina. +Tiene un gran engranaje que representa la industria, un barco que representa el puerto, una espiga gigante de trigo en honor a su industria destiladora. +Es un autntico desastre y Steve Kodis, un diseador grfico local, quiere cambiarla. +Es realmente espantosa. +Un mal paso para la ciudad, por decirlo de modo amable. +Pero lo que colma todo de la bandera de Milwaukee casi al nivel de parodia, es que contiene la bandera de la guerra civil del Regimiento de Milwaukee. +Ese es el ltimo elemento que hace de la bandera ridcula: una bandera dentro de la bandera de Milwaukee. +En la bandera, s, s... S. +Milwaukee es una ciudad fantstica, +he estado ah y me encanta. +Lo ms deprimente para esta bandera es que ha habido dos grandes concursos para redisearla. +El ms reciente fue en 2001 +y se recibieron 105 propuestas de diseo. +Pero al final, el Comit de Arte de Milwaukee decidi que ninguna de las propuestas era digna de ondear sobre la ciudad. +No pudieron ponerse de acuerdo siquiera para cambiar eso. Es desalentador pensar que el buen diseo y la democracia simplemente no armonizan. +Pero Steve Kotis intentar de nuevo redisear la bandera de Milwaukee. +Creo que Milwaukee es una gran ciudad +y una gran ciudad merece una gran bandera. +Su diseo an no est listo. +Algo importante cuando se proponen cosas as se tiene que convencer a las personas y luego revelar el diseo. +Este es el truco: Si quieren disear una gran bandera, como la de Chicago o la de Washington D.C. que tambin es genial, dibjenla en un papel de 2.5x4 cm. +El diseo debe caber en ese pequeo rectngulo. +Esta es la razn: +Una bandera de 1x1,5 m en un asta a 30 m de distancia se ve del mismo tamao que un rectngulo de 2.5x4 cm visto a 40 cm de nuestros ojos. +Se sorprenderan de lo emocionante y sencillo que puede ser el diseo cuando uno se apega a esa restriccin. +Mientras tanto, de vuelta en San Francisco. +Hay algo que podamos hacer? +Me gusta creer que en cada bandera fea hay una buena bandera luchando por surgir. Para hacer de sta una buena bandera hay que quitar el lema, porque no es legible a cierta distancia. +Quitando tambin el nombre podramos engrosar el borde para integrarlo ms a la bandera. +Tambin tomara el fnix y lo podra como el elemento principal, grande y en medio de la bandera. +Pero el fnix actual debe desaparecer. +Yo lo simplificara o lo estilizara. +Pondra una gran ave de alas inmensas surgiendo de las llamas. +Pondra nfasis en las llamas. +Esta es la misma bandera rediseada por Frank Chimero con las ideas de Ted Kaye. +No me imagino lo que hara si no tuviera esas pautas. +Quienes escuchan mi programa en radio y podcasts han escuchado mis quejas sobre las malas banderas. +Me han sugerido otros diseos. +Este es de Neil Mussett. +Ambos son mucho mejores. +Y creo que si se adoptaran, los veramos por toda la ciudad. +En mi cruzada mundial por banderas ms bellas, muchos radioescuchas se han unido para redisear sus banderas e intentar que se adopten oficialmente. +Si Uds. ven su bandera y les gusta, ondenla con orgullo, incluso si rompe una o dos reglas. +No importa. +Pero si no ven la bandera de su ciudad, talvez no exista o s existe pero es horrible. Los reto a que unan esfuerzos para intentar cambiarla. +Mientras ms avancemos, la bandera de la ciudad ser algo ms que un smbolo del lugar: podra convertirse en un smbolo de lo que la ciudad considera buen diseo, en especial ahora que la poblacin empieza a poner atencin al diseo. +Pienso que esta conciencia est en auge. +Una bandera bien diseada puede ser un indicador de cmo las ciudades disean sus sistemas: su trnsito pblico, sus parques, sus sealizaciones, etc. +Puede parecer trivial, pero no lo es. +Cuando los lderes de las ciudades dicen que tienen cosas ms importantes de qu preocuparse que una bandera, mi respuesta es: "Si tuvieran una buena bandera, tendran un smbolo bajo el cual la gente se unira para enfrentar esas cosas ms importantes". +He visto lo que puede lograr una buena bandera en el caso de Chicago. +Un matrimonio entre buen diseo y orgullo ciudadano es necesario en todas partes. +Lo mejor de las banderas de ciudad es que son nuestras. +Son una fuente abierta de propiedad y dominio pblico. +Cuando se disean bien, pueden adaptarse y ser poderosas. +Podramos controlar el imaginario de las ciudades con una buena bandera. En cambio, al tener malas banderas que no usamos, cedemos ese honor a los equipos deportivos, a cmaras de comercio y al turismo. +Los deportes pueden desaparecer y rompernos el corazn. +Adems, a algunos de nosotros no nos importan los deportes. +Y la publicidad turstica puede ser cursi. +Pero una buena bandera de ciudad representa la ciudad para su gente y su gente para todo el mundo. +Y cuando la bandera es hermosa, esa conexin es preciosa. +S! +Eso tiene una marca registrada! Solo verlo me duele. +Gracias por su atencin +[ "Msica por: Melodium y Keegan DeWitt " ] +Me gustara que miren este lpiz. +Es una cosa. Es una cosa legal. +Y tambin pueden serlo sus libros o los autos que tienen. +Son todos cosas legales. +Los grandes simios que ven detrs de m, tambin son cosas, semovientes. +A una cosa legal puedo hacerle esto. +Puedo hacerle lo que quiera a mi libro o a mi coche. +A estos grandes simios, ya se ver. +Las fotografas fueron tomadas por James Mollison autor del libro "James y otros simios". +Y l cuenta en su libro cmo cada uno de ellos, casi todos ellos, son hurfanos que vieron a su madre y a su padre morir ante sus ojos. +Son cosas legales. +Desde hace siglos, ha habido una gran muralla legal que separa a las cosas legales de las personas jurdicas. +Por un lado, las cosas legales son invisibles para los jueces. +No cuentan para la ley. +No tienen ningn derecho legal. +No estn sujetas a los derechos legales. +Son esclavos. +Al otro lado de ese muro legal estn las personas jurdicas. +Las personas jurdicas son muy visibles para los jueces. +Cuentan ante la ley. +Pueden tener muchos derechos. +Tienen competencia en un sinfn de derechos. +Son los maestros. +Hoy, los animales no humanos son cosas legales. +Los seres humanos somos personas jurdicas. +Pero ser humano nunca ha sido, ni lo es hoy, sinnimo de persona jurdica. +Los seres humanos y las personas jurdicas no son sinnimos. +Por un lado, ha habido muchos seres humanos a travs de los siglos considerados cosas legales. +Los esclavos eran cosas legales. +Las mujeres y los nios fueron a veces cosas legales. +De hecho, gran parte de la lucha por los derechos civiles en los ltimos siglos han tenido que ver con perforar ese muro para que esos seres humanos lo atraviesen y se conviertan en personas legales. +Pero, por desgracia, ese agujero se ha cerrado. +Ahora, por otro lado, estn las personas jurdicas, pero nunca se han limitado a los seres humanos. +Hay muchas personas jurdicas, por ejemplo, que ni siquiera estn vivas. +En Estados Unidos, sabemos que las corporaciones son personas jurdicas. +En la India anterior a la independencia, un tribunal sostuvo que un dolo hind era una persona jurdica, que una mezquita era una persona jurdica. +En 2000, la Corte Suprema de India sostuvo que los libros sagrados de la religin sij eran una persona jurdica. Y en 2012, hace poco, hubo un tratado entre los pueblos indgenas de Nueva Zelanda y la Corona, en la que se acord que un ro era una persona jurdica, que era dueo de su propio cauce. +Y empec a trabajar como abogado en proteccin de animales. +Y en 1985, me di cuenta de que estaba tratando de lograr algo literalmente imposible, la razn era que mis clientes, los animales cuyos intereses yo trataba de defender, eran cosas legales; eran invisibles. +En ese momento, no se conoca y se hablaba muy poco verdaderamente de los derechos animales, de la idea de personera jurdica o derechos legales de animales no humanos y saba que llevara mucho tiempo. +En 1985, me di cuenta de que pasaran unos 30 aos antes de poder incluso empezar un litigio estratgico, una campaa a largo plazo, para poder perforar otro agujero en ese muro. +Result que fui pesimista, solo demor 28 aos. +Para empezar no solo tuvimos que escribir artculos en revistas jurdicas y dar clases, escribir libros, sino que tuvimos que empezar a ajustar pernos y tornillos en cmo litigar en ese tipo de casos. +Una de las primeras cosas fue determinar qu era una causa de accin, una causa de accin legal. +Una causa de accin legal es un vehculo que usan los abogados para presentar argumentos en tribunales. +Y resulta que existe un caso muy interesante ocurrido hace casi 250 aos en Londres llamado Somerset vs. Stewart, en el que un esclavo negro us el sistema legal para pasar de cosa legal a persona jurdica. +Eso me interes tanto que hasta escrib un libro sobre el tema. +James Somerset era un nio de 8 aos, cuando fue secuestrado en frica occidental. +Sobrevivi a la travesa del Atlntico, y fue vendido a un comerciante escocs llamado Charles Stewart en Virginia. +20 aos despus, Stewart llev a James Somerset a Londres, y cuando lleg all, James decidi escapar. +Una de las primeras cosas que hizo fue bautizarse, porque quera tener unos padrinos, porque como esclavo del siglo XVIII, saba que una de las responsabilidades principales de un padrino era ayudarte a escapar. +As, en el otoo de 1771, James Somerset tuvo una confrontacin con Charles Stewart. +No sabemos exactamente qu sucedi, pero James se perdi de vista. +Pero los padrinos de James entraron en accin. +Se acercaron al juez ms poderoso, Lord Mansfield, juez superior de la corte de King's Bench, y exigieron que se emita un recurso de habeas corpus a nombre de James Somerset. +La ley comn es el tipo de ley a la que los jueces anglosajones pueden acudir cuando no estn restringidos por estatutos o constituciones, y un recurso de habeas corpus se denomina Gran Mandato, con G y M maysculas, y est destinado a protegernos de detenciones contra nuestra voluntad. +Se emite un recurso de habeas corpus. +Hay que presentar una orden de detencin y dar una razn legalmente suficiente para privar al detenido de su libertad. +Lord Mansfield tuvo que tomar una decisin de buenas a primeras, porque si James Somerset era una cosa legal, no le era aplicable un recurso de habeas corpus, a menos que fuese persona jurdica. +Lord Mansfield decidi que supondra, sin decidir, que James Somerset era de hecho una persona jurdica, y el capitn de la nave trajo a James. +En los siguientes 6 meses hubo una serie de audiencias. +El 22 de junio de 1772, Lord Mansfield dijo que la esclavitud era tan odiosa, y us la palabra "odiosa", que la ley comn no la apoyara, y orden liberar a James. +En ese momento, James Somerset sufri una transubstanciacin legal. +El hombre libre que sali de la sala tena exactamente el mismo aspecto que el esclavo que entr, pero en cuanto a la ley se refiere, no tenan absolutamente nada en comn. +Lo siguiente que hicimos fue el proyecto de derechos no humanos, que fund, y luego empec a ver qu tipo de valores y principios quera presentar ante los jueces. +Qu valores y principios reciben desde la cuna, qu aprenden en la facultad de derecho, qu usan todos los das, creen de todo corazn-- elegimos la libertad y la igualdad. +el derecho a la libertar es ese tipo de derecho que uno recibe por la forma de congregarse, y un derecho fundamental de libertad protege un inters fundamental. +El inters supremo de la ley comn son los derechos a la autonoma y a la autodeterminacin. +Son tan poderosos que en un pas de derecho comn, si uno va a un hospital y renuncia al tratamiento mdico que salva vidas, un juez no lo forzar a aceptarlo porque respetar su autodeterminacin y su autonoma. +A la igualdad uno tiene derecho por parecerse al otro de forma relevante, y ah est el problema, de forma relevante. +Si uno es eso, entonces ya que tiene el derecho, uno es como ellos, tiene derecho a la igualdad. +Pero los tribunales y las legislaturas trazan lneas todo el tiempo. +Algunos estn incluidos, otros estn excluidos. +Pero uno tiene que, como mnimo debe-- esa lnea tiene que ser un medio razonable hacia un fin legtimo. +El proyecto de derechos no humanos argumenta que trazar una lnea para esclavizar a un ser autnomo y autodeterminado como ven detrs de m, es una violacin a la igualdad. +Luego analizamos 80 jurisdicciones, nos llev 7 aos encontrar la jurisdiccin donde queramos empezar presentando el primer litigio. +Elegimos el estado de Nueva York. +Luego decidimos quines seran nuestros demandantes. +Nos decidimos por los chimpancs, no solo porque Jane Goodall estaba en nuestro consejo de directores, sino porque Jane y otros haban estudiado a los chimpancs durante dcadas. +Conocemos las extraordinarias capacidades cognitivas que tienen, semejantes a las de los seres humanos. +Elegimos los chimpancs y empezamos a sondear el mundo en bsqueda de expertos en la cognicin del chimpanc. +Los encontramos en Japn, Suecia, Alemania, Escocia, Inglaterra y EE.UU, y entre todos, escribieron 100 pginas de declaraciones juradas en las que exponan ms de 40 maneras en las que sus complejas capacidades cognitivas, juntas o por separado, daban cuenta de su autonoma y autodeterminacin. +Se inclua, por ejemplo, que eran conscientes. +Pero tambin son conscientes de que son conscientes. +Saben que tienen una mente. Saben que los dems tienen mentes. +Saben que son individuos, y que pueden vivir. +Entienden que vivieron ayer y vivirn maana. +Se embarcan en viajes mentales en el tiempo. Recuerdan lo que sucedi ayer. +Pueden anticipar el maana; por eso es tan terrible encarcelar a un chimpanc, sobre todo solo. +Es lo que hacemos a nuestros peores criminales, y se lo hacemos a los chimpancs sin siquiera pensar en ello. +Tienen cierta capacidad moral. +Cuando juegan juegos econmicos con los seres humanos, espontneamente hacen ofertas justas, incluso si no estn obligados a hacerlo. +Saben de nmeros. Entienden nmeros. +Pueden hacer clculos simples. +Pueden participar en el lenguaje-- o alejarse de las guerras de idiomas, participan en comunicacin intencional y referencial prestando atencin a las actitudes de aquellos con los que hablan. +Tienen cultura. +Tienen una cultura material, una cultura social. +Tienen una cultura simblica. +Los cientficos en los Bosques Tai en Costa de Marfil encontraron chimpancs que usaban estas rocas para abrir las increblemente duras cscaras de nueces. +Lleva mucho tiempo aprender a hacerlo, y excavaron la zona y encontraron esta cultura material, esta forma de hacerlo. Estas rocas se transmitieron durante al menos 4300 aos, unas 225 generaciones de chimpancs. +Ahora tenamos que encontrar a nuestro chimpanc. +Nuestro chimpanc... primero, encontramos 2 en el estado de Nueva York. +Ambos murieron antes siquiera de empezar el litigio. +Luego encontramos a Tommy. +Tommy es un chimpanc; lo ven detrs de m. +Tommy era un chimpanc. Lo encontramos en esa jaula. +Lo encontramos en una sala pequea llena de jaulas en un almacn grande en un remolque en el centro de Nueva York. +Encontramos a Kiko, que es parcialmente sordo. +Kiko estaba en la parte de atrs de una tienda de cemento en el oeste de Massachusetts. +Y encontramos a Hrcules y a Leo. +Son dos chimpancs machos jvenes usados en investigaciones biomdicas, y anatmicas en Stony Brook. +Los encontramos. +Y as, en la ltima semana de diciembre de 2013, el proyecto de derechos no humanos present 3 litigios en el estado de Nueva York usando el mismo recurso de habeas corpus de la ley comn del caso de James Somerset, y exigimos que los jueces emitan recursos de habeas corpus. +Queramos liberar a los chimpancs. Queramos llevarlos a Save the Chimps, un tremendo santuario de chimpancs del sur de la Florida que tiene un lago artificial con 12 o 13 islas; hay 2 o 3 acres donde viven dos docenas de chimpancs en cada una. +Estos chimpancs viven vidas de chimpancs, con otros chimpancs en un entorno lo ms cercano a frica posible. +Todos estos casos siguen en curso. +Todava no encontramos a nuestro Lord Mansfield. +Lo haremos. Lo haremos. +Es una campaa de litigios con estrategia a largo plazo. Lo haremos. +Y para citar a Winston Churchill, nosotros vemos nuestros casos no como el fin, ni siquiera son el principio del fin, sino que son quiz el final del principio. +Gracias. +Si les dijera que esta es la cara de la pura alegra, me llamaran loco? +No les culpo, porque cada vez que miro esta selfie del rtico, me estremezco un poco. +Quiero contarles un poco sobre esta fotografa. +Estaba nadando en las islas Lofoten en Noruega, dentro del Crculo Polar rtico, y el agua se estaba congelando. +El aire? A un enrgico viento helado de -10 C y yo senta literalmente la sangre abandonndome las manos, los pies y la cara para apresuradamente proteger mis rganos vitales. +Es el lugar ms fro donde he estado. +Pero incluso con labios hinchados, ojos hundidos y mejillas enrojecidas, siento que este lugar es un sitio donde encontrar una gran alegra. +Cuando se trata de dolor, el psiclogo Brock Bastian quiz lo dijo mejor al escribir: "El dolor es una especie de atajo para la atencin plena. +Hace que de repente seamos conscientes de todo en el medio ambiente. +Brutalmente nos atrae a una conciencia sensorial virtual del mundo al igual que a la meditacin". +Si temblar es una forma de meditacin, entonces yo me considero un monje. +Antes de entrar en el porqu iba alguien a querer surfear en agua helada +me encantara poner esto en perspectiva en cmo puede ser un da de mi vida. +Hombre: Quiero decir, s que esperbamos buenas olas, pero yo no creo que nadie pensaba qu iba a suceder. +No puedo dejar de temblar. +Tengo mucho fro. +Chris Burkard: El fotgrafo de surf, verdad? +Ni siquiera s si es un puesto de trabajo real, para ser honesto. +Mis padres definitivamente no lo crean cuando les dije a los 19 que dejaba mi trabajo para perseguir este sueo: cielos azules, clidas playas tropicales y un bronceado que dura todo el ao. +Quiero decir, para m, esto era todo. La vida no podra ser mejor. +Sudando, fotografiando a surfistas en los destinos tursticos exticos. +Pero exista solo un problema. +Cuanto ms tiempo pas viajando a estos lugares exticos, menos gratificante parecan. +Me propuse buscar aventuras, y encontraba solo rutina. +Wifi, TV, restaurantes y una conexin celular constante eran para m toda la parafernalia de los lugares masificados en y fuera del agua, y no pas mucho tiempo hasta empezar a sentirme asfixiado. +Empec a ansiar espacios abiertos silvestres, y, por eso, me puse a buscar lugares que otros haban desestimado por demasiado fros, demasiado remotos y demasiado peligrosos para el surf, y ese reto me intrig. +Comenc esta especie de cruzada personal contra lo mundano, porque si hay una cosa de la que me he dado cuenta, es que cualquier carrera, incluso una aparentemente tan glamorosa como la fotografa de surf, tiene el peligro de convertirse en montona. +En mi bsqueda por romper esta monotona, me di cuenta de algo: Solo hay cerca de un tercio de ocanos clidos en la Tierra y es esa banda realmente delgada alrededor del ecuador. +As que si iba a buscar olas perfectas, probablemente iba a suceder en algn lugar fro, donde los mares son muy bravos, y ah es donde exactamente comenc a mirar. +Y fue en mi primer viaje a Islandia donde sent haber encontrado exactamente lo que buscaba. +Me qued asombrado por la belleza natural del paisaje, pero lo ms importante, no poda creer que haba encontrado olas perfectas en una parte tan remota y accidentada del mundo. +Entonces, llegamos a la playa para ver solo trozos enormes de hielo apilados en la costa. +Ellos crearon esta barrera entre nosotros y el oleaje, y tuvimos que hacernos camino en ese laberinto para salir alineados. +y una vez all, pusimos a un lado los trozos de hielo para llegar a las olas. +Fue una experiencia increble, una que nunca olvidar, porque en medio de esas duras condiciones, me sent haberme topado con uno de los ltimos lugares tranquilos, donde encontr una claridad y una conexin con el mundo que jams iba a encontrar en una playa llena de gente. +Me enganch. Me enganch. El agua fra estaba constantemente en mi mente, y a partir de ese momento, mi carrera se centr en estos ambientes hostiles e implacables, y me llev a lugares como Rusia, Noruega, Alaska, Islandia, Chile, las Islas Feroe y a muchos de lugares intermedios. +Y una de mis cosas favoritas sobre estos lugares era simplemente el desafo y la creatividad que supona llegar all. Horas, das, semanas en Google Earth identificando cualquier tramo remoto de playa o arrecife al que poder llegar. +Y una vez all, los vehculos eran muy creativos: motos de nieve, carros de 6 ruedas para transporte de tropas soviticas, y un par de vuelos improvisados en helicptero. +Los helicpteros realmente me dan miedo, por cierto. +Hubo un paseo en barco todo lleno de baches hasta la costa de la isla de Vancouver hasta este lugar remoto para surfear, donde terminamos viendo con impotencia desde el agua como los osos asolaron nuestro campamento. +Caminaron con nuestra comida y trozos de nuestra tienda, dejando claro que estbamos en la parte inferior de la cadena alimentaria y que este era su lugar, no el nuestro. +Pero para m, ese viaje fue un testimonio de haber cambiado las playas tursticas, por lo salvaje. +No fue sino hasta que viaj a Noruega, que realmente aprend a apreciar el fro. +As que este es el lugar donde algunos de las tormentas ms grandes y ms violentas del mundo hacen romper enormes olas en la costa. +Estuvimos en este pequeo fiordo remoto, justo dentro del Crculo Polar rtico. +Tena una mayor poblacin de ovejas que de personas; la ayuda, de ser necesaria no se encontraba en ninguna parte. +Estaba en el agua haciendo fotos de los surfistas y empez a nevar. +Y entonces la temperatura comenz a descender. +Y me dije, no hay posibilidad de salir del agua. +Has viajado hasta aqu, y esto es exactamente lo que deseabas: condiciones fras de congelacin con olas perfectas. +Y a pesar de ni siquiera sentir el dedo para apretar el gatillo, saba que no iba a poder salir. +As que hice lo que pude. Me recuper. +Entonces sent esa rfaga de viento del valle y me golpe, y lo que empez como una ligera nevada se convirti en una completa ventisca, y empec a perder la percepcin de dnde estaba. +No saba si estaba a la deriva hacia el mar o hacia la orilla, y solo poda distinguir el dbil sonido de las gaviotas y las olas. +Saba que el lugar tena una reputacin de hundir barcos y derribar aviones, y mientras flotaba, empec a ponerme un poco nervioso. +En realidad, estaba volvindome totalmente loco, al lmite de la hipotermia, y mis amigos, finalmente, tuvieron que ayudarme a salir del agua. +No s si fue el delirio o qu, pero me dijeron ms tarde que tena una sonrisa en mi cara todo el tiempo. +Fue en ese viaje y, quiz, esa experiencia exacta donde realmente empec a sentir que cada fotografa era preciosa, porque, de repente, en ese momento, era algo que me vi obligado a ganar. +Y me di cuenta de que todos los escalofros me haban enseado algo: En la vida, no hay atajos a la alegra. +Cualquier cosa que vale la pena perseguir nos supondr sufrir solo un poco, y el poquito de sufrimiento que tuve por mi fotografa, aadi un valor a mi trabajo mucho ms significativo para m que simplemente llenar pginas de revistas. +Miren, yo dej un pedazo de m en estos lugares, y cuando los dej tena una sensacin de plenitud que siempre haba buscado. +As que miro en retrospectiva esta fotografa +y es fcil ver los dedos congelados y los trajes de neopreno fros e incluso la lucha que supuso llegar all, pero sobre todo, veo alegra. +Muchas gracias. +En 2011, durante los seis meses finales de la vida de Kim Jong-Il, viv de incgnito en Corea del Norte. +Nac y crec en Corea del Sur, su enemigo. +Vivo en EE.UU., su otro enemigo. +Desde el ao 2002, haba visitado Corea del Norte un par de veces. +Y me di cuenta de que para escribir sobre eso con sentido, o para entender el lugar ms all de la propaganda del rgimen, la nica opcin era la inmersin total. +Por eso me present como profesora y misionera en una universidad de hombres en Pyongyang. +La Universidad de Pyongyang de Ciencia y Tecnologa fundada por cristianos evanglicos que cooperan con el rgimen para educar a los hijos de la lite de Corea del Norte, sin proselitismo, que es un crimen capital all. +Los estudiantes eran 270 jvenes, que se espera que sean los futuros lderes de la dictadura actual ms aislada y brutal. +Cuando llegu, se convirtieron en mis alumnos. +2011 fue un ao especial, aniversario 100 del nacimiento del gran primer lder de Corea del Norte, Kim Il-Sung. +Para celebrar la ocasin, el rgimen cerr todas las universidades, y envi a los estudiantes a los campos para construir el tan anunciado ideal de la RPDC como la nacin ms poderosa y prspera del mundo. +Mis alumnos eran los nicos que se libraron de ese destino. +Corea del Norte es un gulag que se hace pasar por nacin. +Todo all tiene que ver con el Gran Lder. +Cada libro, cada artculo de peridico, cada cancin, cada programa de TV, tiene solo un tema. +Las flores reciben su nombre, en las montaas estn talladas sus consignas. +Cada ciudadano luce la divisa del Gran Lder en todo momento. +Incluso su calendario empieza con el nacimiento de Kim Il-Sung. +La escuela es una prisin fuertemente custodiada, que hace de campus. +Los profesores solo podan salir en grupos acompaados por un cuidador oficial. +Incluso as, nuestros viajes se limitaban a los monumentos nacionales que celebraban al Gran Lder. +A los estudiantes no se les permita salir de la escuela, ni comunicarse con sus padres. +Sus das eran meticulosamente programados y cualquier momento libre se dedicaba a honrar a su Gran Lder. +Las lecciones tenan que ser aprobadas por el personal de Corea del Norte, cada clase se grababa y era informada, cada habitacin tena micrfonos ocultos, y cada conversacin era escuchada. +Cada espacio era cubierto con retratos de Kim Il-Sung y Kim Jong-Il, como en todas partes en Corea del Norte. +Nunca se nos permita discutir el mundo exterior. +Como estudiantes de ciencia y tecnologa, muchos se especializaban en computacin pero no conocan la existencia de Internet. +Nunca haban odo de Mark Zuckerberg o Steve Jobs. +Facebook, Twitter, nada de eso habra significado algo. +Y yo no poda contarles. +Fui all en busca de la verdad. +Pero por dnde empezar siquiera si la ideologa de toda una nacin, la realidad del da a da de mis estudiantes, e incluso mi propio puesto en las universidades, todo se construy sobre mentiras? +Empec con un juego. +Jugamos a "Verdad y mentira". +Un voluntario escriba una oracin en la pizarra, y el resto de los estudiantes tenan que adivinar si era verdad o mentira. +Una vez un estudiante escribi: "Visit China el ao pasado de vacaciones", y todos gritaron: "Mentira!" +Todos saban que eso no era posible. +Prcticamente ningn coreano del norte puede salir del pas. +Incluso viajar dentro de su propio pas requiere un pase de viaje. +Esperaba que este juego revelara algo de verdad acerca de mis estudiantes, porque mienten muy a menudo y fcilmente, ya sea sobre los mticos logros de su Gran Lder, o el reclamo extrao de que clonaron un conejo en 5 grado. +La diferencia entre verdad y mentira a veces pareca difusa para ellos. +Me llev un tiempo entender los diferentes tipos de mentiras; mienten para proteger su sistema del mundo, o les ensearon mentiras, y simplemente las repetan. +O, de a ratos, mentan por hbito. +Pero si todo lo que siempre han conocido eran mentiras, cmo podramos esperar que fueran de otro modo? +Luego, trat de ensearles a escribir ensayos. +Pero eso result casi imposible. +Los ensayos consisten en plantear una tesis propia, y argumentar con base en la evidencia para probarlo. +A estos estudiantes, sin embargo, se les dijo lo que pensar, y ellos obedecieron. +En sus palabras, el pensamiento crtico no estaba permitido. +Les di tambin la tarea semanal de escribir una carta personal a alguien. +Llev un gran tiempo, pero al final algunos empezaron a escribir a sus madres, a sus amigos, a sus novias. +Aunque eran solo tareas, y nunca llegara a sus destinatarios, mis estudiantes poco a poco empezaron a revelar sus verdaderos sentimientos. +Escribieron que estaban hartos de la igualdad de todo. +Que les preocupaba su futuro. +En esas cartas, raramente mencionaban a su Gran Lder. +Pas todo mi tiempo con estos jvenes. +Compartimos comidas juntos, jugamos al baloncesto juntos. +A menudo los llamaba caballeros, algo que les haca rer. +Se sonrojaban al mencionar a las nias. +Y llegu a adorarlos. +Y vindolos abrirse incluso en el ms pequeo de los sentidos, fue profundamente conmovedor. +Pero algo tambin estaba mal. +En esos meses que viv en su mundo, a menudo me preguntaba si la verdad mejorara sus vidas. +Deseaba mucho decirles la verdad sobre su pas, y del mundo exterior, donde jvenes rabes dieron vuelta a su rgimen podrido, usando el poder de los medios sociales, que todos salvo ellos estaban conectados a la World Wide Web, que no era de todo el mundo despus de todo. +Pero para ellos la verdad era peligrosa. +Animarles a correr tras la verdad era ponerlos en peligro de persecucin, de angustia. +Cuando no te permiten expresar nada abiertamente, uno aprende a leer lo que no se dice. +En una de sus cartas personales hacia m, un estudiante escribi que entenda por qu yo siempre los llamaba caballeros. +Era porque yo les deseaba que fuesen gentiles en la vida, deca. +En mi ltimo da en diciembre de 2011, el da que anunciaron la muerte de Kim Jong-Il, su mundo se hizo pedazos. +Yo tuve que dejarlos sin un adis apropiado. +Pero creo que saban lo triste que yo estaba por ellos. +Una vez, hacia el final de mi estancia, un estudiante me dijo: "Profesora, nunca pensamos en Uds. como alguien diferente de nosotros. +Nuestras circunstancias son diferentes, pero Ud. es igual a nosotros. +Queremos que sepa que realmente la pensamos como una igual". +Hoy en da, si pudiera responder a mis estudiantes con una carta, que es, por supuesto, imposible, les dira esto: "Mis queridos caballeros, han pasado poco ms de 3 aos desde la ltima vez que los vi. +Y ahora, Uds. deben tener 22 aos, quiz incluso 23. +En nuestra ltima clase, les pregunt si haba algo que desaban. +El nico deseo que expresaron, la nica cosa que me pidieron en todos los meses que pasamos juntos, fue que les hablara en coreano. +Solo una vez. +Fui a ensearles ingls; saban que no estaba permitido. +Pero entend entonces que queran compartir ese lazo de la lengua materna. +Los llam mis caballeros, pero no s si ser gentiles en la despiadada Corea del Norte de Kim Jong-Un es algo bueno. +No quiero que lideren una revolucin... dejen que otros jvenes la hagan. +El resto del mundo podra casualmente alentar o incluso esperar una especie de Primavera de Corea del Norte pero yo no quiero que Uds. hagan algo peligroso, porque s que en su mundo, siempre hay alguien mirando. +No quiero que imaginen qu podra sucederles a Uds. +Si mis intentos por llegar a Uds. les inspiraron algo nuevo, preferira que me olviden. +Sean soldados de su Gran Lder, y vivan vidas largas y seguras. +Una vez Uds. me preguntaron si pensaba que la ciudad de Pyongyang era hermosa, y yo no poda responder con la verdad entonces. +Pero s por qu preguntaron. +S que era importante para Uds. or que yo, su profesora, que ha visto el mundo que Uds. tienen prohibido ver, declarara que su ciudad era la ms hermosa. +S que or eso hara a sus vidas all un poco ms soportable, pero no, no encuentro hermosa a su capital. +No porque sea montona y de concreto, sino por lo que simboliza: un monstruo que se alimenta del resto del pas, donde los ciudadanos son soldados y esclavos. +Todo lo que veo all es oscuridad. +Pero es su casa, as que no puedo odiarla. +Y espero que en cambio Uds., mi encantadores jvenes caballeros, un da ayuden a embellecerla. +Gracias. +De nio me gustaba mucho jugar al escondite. +Una vez, pens que si suba a un rbol, tendra un gran escondite, pero me ca y me romp el brazo. +Empec el primer grado con un gran yeso en el torso. +Me lo quitaron tras 6 semanas, pero an no poda extender bien el codo, y tena que hacer fisioterapia para flexionarlo y extenderlo, 100 veces al da, 7 das a la semana. +Apenas lo haca, porque me pareca aburrido y doloroso, y como resultado, me cost 6 semanas ms mejorar. +Muchos aos ms tarde, mi madre desarroll un hombro congelado, lo que produce dolor y rigidez en el hombro. +La persona de la que crea la mitad de mi vida que tena superpoderes de repente necesitaba ayuda para vestirse o para cortar alimentos. +Ella iba cada semana a fisioterapia, pero como yo, apenas sigui el tratamiento en casa, y le tom ms de cinco meses sentirse mejor. +Tanto mi madre, como yo necesitbamos fisioterapia, un proceso de hacer una serie de ejercicios repetitivos para recuperar el movimiento perdido por accidente o lesin. +Al principio, un fisioterapeuta trabaja con los pacientes, pero luego les toca a los pacientes hacer sus ejercicios en casa. +Pero los pacientes consideran la fisioterapia aburrida, frustrante, confusa y prolongada antes de ver resultados. +Tristemente, el incumplimiento del paciente puede ser hasta del 70 %. +Esto significa que la mayora de los pacientes no hace sus ejercicios y, por eso, toma mucho ms tiempo mejorar. +Todos los fisioterapeutas coinciden en que los ejercicios especiales reducen el tiempo de recuperacin, pero los pacientes carecen de la motivacin para hacerlos. +As que junto con tres amigos, todos geeks de software, nos preguntamos, no sera estupendo si los pacientes pudieran jugar durante la recuperacin? +Empezamos a crear MIRA, una plataforma de software para PC que utiliza este Kinect, una cmara de captura de movimiento, para transformar los ejercicios tradicionales en juegos de video. +Mi fisioterapeuta ya ha establecido un calendario para mi terapia particular. +Vamos a ver cmo es. +El primer juego me pide hacer volar una abeja arriba y abajo para recoger el polen de las colmenas, mientras tengo que evitar a los otros insectos. +Controlo la abeja extendiendo y flexionando el codo, al igual que cuando tena 7 aos despus de que me quitaran el yeso. +Al disear el juego, primero hablamos con los fisioterapeutas para entender qu movimiento tienen que hacer los pacientes. +Luego diseamos un videojuego para dar a los pacientes objetivos simples y motivadores. +Pero el software es muy personalizable, y los fisioterapeutas tambin pueden crear sus propios ejercicios. +Usando el software, mi fisioterapeuta se graba realizando una abduccin del hombro, un movimiento que mi mam tena que hacer cuando tena el hombro congelado. +Puedo seguir el ejemplo de mi terapeuta en la izquierda de la pantalla, mientras que a la derecha, me veo haciendo el movimiento. +Me siento ms comprometido y confiado, al hacer los ejercicios junto con mi terapeuta haciendo los ejercicios que mi terapeuta considera que son los mejores para m. +Esto bsicamente ampla la aplicacin de los fisioterapias creando lo que consideran que son los mejores ejercicios. +Este es un juego de subastas para la prevencin de cadas, diseado para fortalecer los msculos y mejorar el equilibrio. +Como paciente, debo hacer movimientos de sentarme y levantarme, y cuando me pongo de pie, pujo por los artculos que deseo comprar. +En dos das mi abuela cumplir 82 aos de edad, y hay un 50 % de que los mayores de 80 se caigan por lo menos una vez al ao, lo que podra causar una fractura de cadera o incluso peor. +Un pobre tono muscular y problemas de equilibrio son la causa nmero uno de las cadas, por tanto revertir esos problemas con ejercicios dirigidos, ayudar a mantener a los mayores, como mi abuela, ms seguras e independientes por ms tiempo. +Cuando termina mi programa, MIRA muestra brevemente lo que avanc a lo largo de la sesin. +Solo les he mostrado tres juegos para los nios, adultos y adultos mayores. +Se pueden usar con pacientes ortopdicos o neurolgicos, y pronto tendremos opciones para nios con autismo, salud mental o terapia del habla. +Mi fisioterapeuta puede ir a mi perfil y ver los datos recogidos durante mis sesiones. +Ella puede ver cunto me mov, los puntos que anot, a qu velocidad mov las articulaciones, etc. +Mi fisioterapeuta puede utilizar esto para adaptar mi tratamiento. +Me alegra que esta versin ya est en uso en ms de 10 clnicas en Europa y de EE. UU., y trabajamos en la versin domstica. +Queremos ayudar a los fisioterapeutas a recetar este tratamiento digital y ayudar a los pacientes a jugar el juego de la recuperacin, pero en casa. +Si mi mam o yo hubiramos tenido algo as, cuando necesitamos fisioterapia, habramos tenido ms xito tras el tratamiento, y quizs habramos mejorado mucho antes. +Gracias. +Tom Rielly: As Cosmin, dime qu hardware es este que estn retirando? +De qu est hecho y cunto cuesta? +C. Milhau: Es una Microsoft Surface Pro 3 para la demo, pero solo se necesita una computadora y un Kinect que cuesta USD 120. +TR: Correcto, y Kinect es lo que la gente utiliza en las consolas Xbox para juegos 3D, no? +CM: Exactamente, pero no se necesita la Xbox, solo una cmara. +TR: Correcto, as que esto cuesta menos de USD 1000. +CM: S. Con USD 400 se puede definitivamente usarse. +TR: As que ahora, haces ensayos clnicos en las clnicas. +CM: S. +TR: Con la esperanza de conseguir una versin domstica para hacer mis ejercicios de forma remota, y el terapeuta en la clnica pueda ver qu hago y as. +CM: Exactamente. +TR: Estupendo. Muchas gracias. CM: Gracias. +Chris Anderson: Supongo que... hablaremos de tu vida, con algunas imgenes que compartiste conmigo. +Y creo que deberamos empezar aqu con esta. +Bien, ahora quin es este? +Martine Rothblatt: Este soy yo con nuestro hijo mayor Eli. +Tena unos 5 aos. +Esta foto fue tomada en Nigeria justo despus de pasar el examen del colegio de abogados en Washington, DC. +CA: Bien. Pero no se parece realmente a Martine. +MR: Bueno. As era yo como hombre, as me cri. +Antes de transformarme en Martine. +CA: Naciste Martin Rothblatt. +MR: Correcto. +CA: Y un ao despus de esta foto, te casaste con una mujer hermosa. +Fue amor a primera vista? Qu pas ah? +MR: Fue amor a primera vista. +Vi a Bina en una discoteca en Los ngeles, y luego empezamos a vivir juntos pero en el momento en que la vi, vi un aura de energa que la rodeaba. +La invit a bailar. +Ella dijo que se senta atrada por m. +Yo era padre soltero. Ella era madre soltera. +Nos enseamos las fotos de nuestros hijos uno al otro, y estamos felizmente casados desde hace ms de 30 aos. +CA: En aquel entonces eras un emprendedor de xito y trabajabas con satlites. +Creo que tenas dos empresas de xito, y luego empezaste a pensar cmo usar los satlites para revolucionar la radio. +Cuntanos sobre eso. +MR: Eso es. Siempre me encant la tecnologa espacial y para m, los satlites son una especie de canoas que nuestros antepasados lanzaron primero. +CA: Guau. Quin aqu presente usa Sirius? +MR: Gracias por sus suscripciones mensuales. +CA: Lo has conseguido a pesar de la desconfianza. +Fue un gran xito comercial, pero poco despus de esto, a principios de 1990, hubo un gran cambio en tu vida y te transformaste en Martine. +MR: Correcto. CA: As que cuntame lo que pas. +MR: Sucedi despus de hablar con Bina y nuestros 4 hermosos hijos, y les cont a cada uno de ellos que senta que mi alma siempre fue la de una mujer pero tena miedo de que la gente se riera de m as que siempre la mantuve escondida y solo mostr mi lado masculino. +Y cada uno de ellos tena una opinin diferente sobre esto. +Bina dijo: "Me encanta tu alma, y si te ves como Martin o Martine, no me importa, me encanta tu alma". +Mi hijo dijo: "Si te conviertes en una mujer, seguirs siendo mi padre?" +Y le dije: "Claro, siempre ser tu padre", y sigo siendo su padre hasta hoy. +Mi hija pequea hizo algo absolutamente brillante para sus 5 aos. +Le dijo a la gente: "Yo amo a mi pap y ella me ama". +As que no tena ningn problema con la mezcla de gneros. +CA: Y un par de aos ms tarde publicaste este libro: "El apartheid del sexo". +Cul fue la tesis de este libro? +MR: La tesis de este libro es que hay 7000 millones de personas en el mundo, por lo cual, 7000 millones de maneras nicas de expresar el gnero. +Y mientras que las personas pueden tener los genitales de un hombre o una mujer, los genitales no determinan tu gnero ni incluso tu identidad sexual. +Es solo una cuestin de anatoma y tractos reproductivos, y la gente puede elegir cualquier gnero que quiera si no se ven obligados por la sociedad a encajar en las categoras de masculino y femenino igual que la gente de Sudfrica fue separada por blancos y negros. +La antropologa nos dice que la raza es ficcin, a pesar de que el racismo es muy, muy real. Y ahora sabemos por los estudios culturales que la separacin por gneros es una ficcin construida. +El gnero es en realidad un contnuo y contiene toda una gama del hombre a la mujer. +CA: T mismo no siempre te sientes 100 % una mujer. +MR: Correcto. Yo dira que en cierto modo puedo cambiarme de gnero tan a menudo como cambio de peinado. +CA: Bueno, esta es tu preciosa hija, Gnesis. +Y creo que a esa edad sucedi algo terrible. +MR: S, se dio cuenta de que no poda subir sola por las escaleras de casa a su habitacin, y despus de meses de consultas mdicas, fue diagnosticada con una enfermedad rara, casi mortal, llamada hipertensin arterial pulmonar. +CA: Cmo reaccionaste? +MR: En primer lugar fuimos a los mejores mdicos que pudimos. +Terminamos en el Centro Mdico Infantil de Washington, DC. +El jefe de cardiologa peditrica nos dijo que recomendaba el trasplante de pulmn pero que no nos hiciramos muchas ilusiones, porque existen muy pocos pulmones disponibles, especialmente para los nios. +Dijo que todas las personas con esta enfermedad murieron, y si alguno ha visto la pelcula "El aceite de Lorenzo" hay una escena en la que el protagonista se cae por la escalera llorando y lamentando la suerte de su hijo, y eso es exactamente cmo nos sentimos con Gnesis. +CA: Pero no aceptaste estas limitaciones. +Has buscado otro tratamiento para encontrar alguna cura posible. +MR: S, estuvo en cuidados intensivos durante semanas cada vez, y con Bina nos turnamos en el hospital para que uno pudiera quedarse con el resto de los chicos, y cuando estaba en el hospital y ella estaba durmiendo, fui a la biblioteca del hospital. +Le todos los artculos que pude encontrar sobre la hipertensin pulmonar. +Nunca estudi biologa, ni siquiera en la universidad, as que tuve que aprender desde el principio, hasta llegar a textos de nivel universitario, libros de especialidad mdica, artculos de revistas y, finalmente, saba lo suficiente para creer que es posible encontrar una cura. +As que cre una fundacin sin nimo de lucro. +Ped subvenciones y tambin ped a la gente que enviara donaciones y nosotros pagaramos la investigacin mdica. +Me convert en un experto en el tema, pero los mdicos me dijeron: "Martine, realmente apreciamos tu financiamiento pero no podremos encontrar una cura a tiempo para salvar a tu hija. +Sin embargo, hay un medicamento desarrollada por la Burroughs Wellcome Company que podra detener el avance de la enfermedad, pero Burroughs Wellcome acaba de ser comprada por Glaxo Wellcome. +Que decidieron no invertir en ningn medicamento para las enfermedades raras y tal vez podra usar tu conocimiento en las comunicaciones por satlite para desarrollar esta cura para la hipertensin pulmonar. +CA: Entonces, cmo conseguiste acceso a este medicamento? +Pude superar su resistencia, y el hecho de que no crean en la eficacia del frmaco, pero me dijeron que estaba perdiendo el tiempo +y que lo sienten por mi hija. +Pero en ltima instancia, por USD 25 000 y un 10 % de los beneficios futuros aceptaron cederme los derechos. +CA: Llegaste a comercializarlo de una manera realmente brillante, Bsicamente haciendo lo que haca falta para que esto funcione. +MR: Oh, s, Chris, pero al final no obtuve mi medicamento... despus de firmar el cheque de USD 25 000 dije: "Bueno, dnde est el medicamento para Gnesis?" +me dijeron "Martine, no hay medicina para Gnesis. +Esto es solo algo que probamos en ratas". +Y me dieron una pequea bolsa de plstico que tena una pequea cantidad de polvo. +Me dijeron: "No se lo des a nadie", y me dieron un pedazo de papel que deca que era la patente, con el cual tuvimos que averiguar una manera de producir este medicamento. +100 qumicos de las mejores universidades norteamericanas juraron que la patente nunca podra convertirse en medicamento. +Y si se convierte en medicamento, nunca podra ser comercializada porque se mantena estable en media solo 45 minutos. +CA: Y sin embargo, un ao o dos ms tarde, tenas un frmaco que funcion para Gnesis. +MR: Chris, lo sorprendente es que este polvo intil que tena el brillo de una promesa de esperanza para Gnesis no solo la mantiene a ella y a otras personas con vida hoy, sino que produce casi USD 1500 millones al ao en ingresos. +CA: All est. +Eres una empresa pblica, no? +E hiciste una fortuna. +Y cunto tuviste que pagarles a Glaxo adems de los 25 000? +MR: S, bueno, todos los aos les pagamos un 10 % de los USD 1500 millones, unos USD 150 millones, el ao pasado USD 100 millones. +Es la mejor inversin con la que cuentan. CA: Y la mejor noticia de todas, supongo, es esta. +MR: S. Gnesis es una joven absolutamente brillante. +Est viva, sana y tiene 30 aos. +Aqu estoy con Bina y Gnesis. +Lo ms sorprendente de Gnesis es que ella puede hacer lo que quiere con su vida, y cranme, si hubieran crecido toda sus vidas rodeados de gente que les hubiera dicho en la cara que tienen una enfermedad mortal, probablemente se fueran corriendo a Tahit para no volver a ver a nadie conocido. +Pero en lugar de eso opt por trabajar en United Therapeutics. +Dice que quiere ayudar a los dems con enfermedades hurfanas a recibir medicamentos. Y hoy, ella es nuestra lder de proyecto para todas las actividades de teleasistencia, donde coordina digitalmente toda la empresa y trabajan juntos para encontrar la cura para la hipertensin pulmonar. +CA: Pero no todos los que tienen esta enfermedad han sido tan afortunados. +Todava hay muchas personas que mueren, y te ocupas de eso tambin. Cmo? +MR: Exactamente, Chris. Hay unas 3000 personas al ao en Estados Unidos solamente, quizs 10 veces ms en todo el mundo, que siguen muriendo de esta enfermedad porque la medicina avanza lentamente y para ellos el tiempo cuenta. +El nico tratamiento para la hipertensin pulmonar, la fibrosis pulmonar, la fibrosis qustica, el enfisema, EPOC, de cual sufra Leonard Nimoy, es el trasplante de pulmn, pero por desgracia, no hay suficientes pulmones disponibles para las 2000 personas en EE.UU. cada ao o el casi un medio milln de personas en el mundo que mueren de insuficiencia pulmonar. +CA: Entonces, cmo se puede evitar esto? +MR: Yo barajo la posibilidad de que al igual que mantenemos coches, aviones y edificios para siempre de piezas de construccin y piezas de recambio, por qu no crear un suministro ilimitado de rganos trasplantables para ayudar a las personas a vivir mucho ms, especialmente a las personas con enfermedad pulmonar. +As que nos hemos asociado con el decodificador del genoma humano, Craig Venter, y la compaa que fund junto con Peter Diamandis, el fundador del Premio X, para modificar genticamente el genoma porcino con el fin de que sus rganos no sean rechazados por el cuerpo humano y as crear un suministro ilimitado de rganos trasplantables. +Lo hacemos a travs de nuestra empresa, United Therapeutics. +CA: Entonces realmente crees que dentro de digamos una dcada, este dficit de pulmones trasplantables se resolver as? +MR: Por supuesto, Chris. +Lo estoy en la misma medida que lo estaba del xito que hemos tenido con Sirius XM, la radiodifusin en directo por la televisin. +En realidad no es tan difcil. +Es simple ingeniera entre genes. +Somos muy afortunados de haber nacido en un momento histrico cuando la secuenciacin del genoma es una actividad rutinaria, y el brillante equipo de Synthetic Genomics puede adentrarse en el genoma del cerdo, y encontrar exactamente los genes que dan problemas y arreglarlos. +CA: Pero no solo los cuerpos... eso es increble. +Lo que te interesa ahora que dure ilimitadamente +no es solo el cuerpo sino tambin la mente. +Y creo que este grfico significa mucho para ti. +Qu significa esto? +CA: Y te preparas para este mundo convencido de que pronto podremos tomar el contenido de nuestro cerebro y de alguna manera preservarlo para siempre? +Cmo describiras esto? +CA: No ests bromeando con eso. +En serio. Qu es esto? +MR: Es una versin robtica de mi amada esposa, Bina. +Y la llamamos Bina 48. +Fue programada por Hanson Robotics de Texas. +Hay un artculo en la revista National Geographic con uno de sus cuidadores, y tambin est en Internet, con cientos de horas de los gestos de Bina y su personalidad. +Es como un nio de 2 aos, pero dice cosas que nos deja asombrados algo que ha sido quizs mejor expresado por la periodista del New York Times, Amy Harmon, ganadora del Premio Pulitzer que dice que sus respuestas son a menudo frustrantes, pero otras veces tan convincentes como los de cualquier persona real que ha entrevistado. +CA: Y esperas que esta versin de Bina, u otra, vivan para siempre? MR: S. No solo de Bina, sino de todo el mundo. +No nos cuesta nada aadir nuestros archivos mentales en Facebook, Instagram, lo que quieran. +CA: Esta idea Martine en cualquier conversacin normal, parecera una idea absolutamente loca, pero en el contexto de tu vida, de lo que has hecho hasta ahora y algunas de las cosas que hemos odo esta semana, la realidad intrnseca de la creacin de un producto que contenga la mente es algo por lo cual apuestas. +MR: Bueno, pero eso no me pertenece. +En todo caso, quiz comunico las actividades que llevan a cabo las mayores empresas en China, Japn, India, EE.UU., Europa. +Hay decenas de millones de personas trabajando y escribiendo cdigo que expresa cada vez ms aspectos de nuestra conciencia humana, y no hace falta ser un genio para ver a dnde lleva esto que finalmente crear la conciencia humana, y es algo que tenemos que valorar. +Cada da nos decimos que nos amamos ms que hace 30 aos. +As que para nosotros la perspectiva de la clonacin de la mente y de los cuerpos regenerados significa Chris que nuestra historia de amor puede durar para siempre. +Y no nos aburriremos juntos, esto no pasar. +CA: Bina est aqu? MR: S. +CA: Puede alguien traerme un micrfono de mano? +Bina, podramos invitarte al escenario? Solo quiero hacerte una pregunta. +Adems, queremos verte. +Gracias, gracias. +Ven aqu con Martine. +Quiero decir, mira, cuando te casaste, si alguien te hubiera dicho que en poco tiempo el hombre con el cual te ibas a casar se convertira en una mujer, y unos pocos aos despus de eso, t te convertiras en un robot... qu hubieras dicho? +Bina Rothblatt: Eso ha sido un viaje emocionante, y nunca lo hubiera pensado en aquel momento, pero empezamos a ponernos metas y objetivos y querer lograr cosas, as que antes de darse uno cuenta, ya est transitando este camino y todava no hemos parando, es genial. +CA: Martine me dijo algo realmente hermoso, antes de esto, por Skype, que quera vivir durante cientos de aos como un archivo de la mente, pero contigo. +BR: Es as, queremos hacerlo juntos. +Creemos en la criologa y queremos despertar juntos. +CA: Desde mi punto de vista, sus vidas son unas de las ms sorprendentes que he odo, y su historia de amor es una de las ms asombrosas que he escuchado. +Ha sido un placer tenerte aqu en TED. +Muchas gracias. +MR: Gracias. +Crec en Orlando, Florida. +Soy hijo de un ingeniero aeroespacial. +Viva y respiraba el programa Apolo. +Vimos lanzamientos desde nuestro patio trasero los vimos pilotar sobre el Cabo. +Estaba impresionado por el espacio y todo lo relacionado con l, pero estaba sobre todo muy impresionado por la ingeniera que haba dentro. +Tras de m se ve una vista impresionante, una imagen tomada desde la Estacin Espacial Internacional, y muestra una parte de nuestro planeta que rara vez se ha visto, se ha estudiado poco y casi nunca se ha explorado. +Ese lugar se llama la estratosfera. +Si uno comienza en el planeta y sube, sube y sube, hace ms y ms y ms fro, hasta llegar al inicio de la estratosfera, y luego una cosa increble sucede. +Hace ms fro a un ritmo mucho ms lento y luego comienza a calentar, y luego se pone ms y ms caliente hasta el punto de que casi se puede sobrevivir sin ningn tipo de proteccin, aproximadamente cero grados, y luego al final es ms y ms fro, y esa es la parte superior de la estratosfera. +Es uno de los lugares menos accesibles en nuestro planeta. +Muy a menudo, cuando se ha visitado, es por los astronautas que se lanzan a ella en probablemente varias veces la velocidad del sonido, y consiguen estar unos segundos en el camino, y luego son esta bola ardiente de fuego que entra de nuevo, en el camino de vuelta. +Pero la pregunta que hice es, es posible permanecer en la estratosfera? +Es posible experimentar la estratosfera? +Es posible explorar la estratosfera? +La estudi usando mi buscador favorito durante bastante tiempo, alrededor de un ao, y luego hice una llamada telefnica de miedo. +Era una referencia de un amigo mo que se llama Taber MacCallum de la Corporacin de Desarrollo Espacial Paragon, y le hice la pregunta: es posible construir un sistema para ir a la estratosfera? +Y l dijo que s. +Y despus de unos tres aos, procedimos a hacer precisamente eso. +Y el 24 de octubre del ao pasado, con este traje, empezando desde el suelo, sub 41 420 m en un globo, pero quin est contando? +Volvimos a la Tierra a una velocidad de hasta 1323 km por hora. +Fue un descenso de 4 minutos y 27 segundos. +Y cuando estaba a 3 050 m, abr un paracadas y aterric. +Pero esto es realmente una charla de ciencia y una charla de ingeniera, y lo que fue increble para m de esa experiencia es que Taber dijo, s, creo que podemos construir un traje estratosfrico, y ms que eso, ven maana y hablaremos con el equipo que form el ncleo del grupo que realmente lo construy. +E hicieron algo que creo que es importante, tomaron la analoga del buceo. +En el buceo, uno tiene un sistema autnomo. +Uno tiene todo lo que se pueda necesitar. +Una escafandra autnoma de buceo. +Un traje de neopreno. +Visibilidad. +Y esa escafandra es exactamente este sistema, y lo lanzaremos a la estratosfera. +Tres aos ms tarde, esto es lo que tenemos. +Tenemos un traje increble hecho por ILC Dover. +ILC Dover fue la empresa que hizo que todos los trajes del Apolo y todos los trajes de la actividad extravehicular. +Nunca haban vendido un traje comercialmente, solo para el gobierno, pero me vendieron uno a m, por lo que estoy muy agradecido. +A partir de aqu hay un paracadas. Esto era todo por seguridad. +Todos en el equipo saban que tengo esposa y dos hijos pequeos de 10 y 15 aos, y yo quera volver seguro. +Hay pues un paracadas principal y un paracadas de reserva, y si no hago nada, el paracadas de reserva se abrir con un dispositivo de apertura automtica. +El traje en s me puede proteger del fro. +Esta rea de la parte delantera tiene proteccin trmica. +En realidad, calentar el agua que envuelve mi cuerpo. +Cuenta con dos tanques de oxgeno redundantes. +Incluso si me haca un agujero de 6 mm en este traje, que es muy poco probable, este sistema an me protegera de la baja presin del espacio. +La principal ventaja de este sistema es el peso y la complejidad. +El sistema pesa unos 800 kg, y si se compara con otro intento reciente de subir a la estratosfera, utilizaron una cpsula. +Y en una cpsula, hay mucha complejidad increble, y pesaba alrededor de 1 360 kg y para alzar 1360 kg a una altitud de 41 420 m, que era mi objetivo de altitud, se habra ncesesitado un globo de 13 a 15 millones de metros cbicos. +Porque nuestro sistema pesaba 1360 kg pudimos hacerlo con un globo cinco veces ms pequeo que eso, y eso nos permiti usar un sistema de lanzamiento mucho ms simple que lo que necesita un globo mucho ms grande. +Con esto en mente, quiero llevarlos a Roswell, Nuevo Mxico, el 24 de octubre. +Tenamos un equipo increble que se levant en medio de la noche. +Y aqu est el traje. +Este usa el cargador frontal que vern en un segundo, y quiero mostrar un video del lanzamiento real. +Roswell es un gran lugar para lanzar globos, pero tambin es un lugar fantstico para aterrizar con un paracadas, especialmente cuando se va a aterrizar a 113 km de distancia del lugar de partida. +Eso es un camin de helio al fondo. +Est oscuro. +Ya haba pasado una hora y media con la prerespiracin. +Y aqu se ve colocando el traje. +Se tarda aproximadamente una hora en poner el traje. +Los astronautas lo tienen muy bien con furgn de aire acondicionado para ir a la plataforma de lanzamiento, pero yo tena un cargador frontal. +Aqu se ve la parte superior. Se puede ver el globo all. +Ah es donde est el helio. +Este es Dave despejando el espacio areo con la FAA en 24 km. +Y ah vamos. +Ese soy yo saludando con la mano izquierda. +La razn para saludar con la mano izquierda es porque en la mano derecha est el corte de emergencia. +Mi equipo me prohibi el uso de la mano derecha. +El viaje es hermoso. Es una especie de Google Earth a la inversa. +Se necesitaron dos horas y siete minutos para subir, y fueron las dos horas y siete minutos ms pacficos. +Intentaba en primer lugar relajarme. +Mi ritmo cardaco era muy bajo e intentaba no usar mucho oxgeno. +Se pueden ver cmo los campos en el fondo son relativamente grandes en este punto, y se me puede ver subiendo y subiendo. +Es interesante, porque si nos fijamos, estoy justo en el aeropuerto, y estoy probablemente a 15 000 m, pero estoy a punto de entrar en un viento estratosfrico de ms de 190 km por hora. +Este es mi director de vuelo dicindome que haba alcanzado ms altura de la que nadie haba logrado nunca en un globo, y estaba a unos 1220 m de distancia del lanzamiento. +As es como se ve. +Se ve la oscuridad del espacio, la curvatura de la Tierra, el planeta frgil abajo. +Estoy practicando mis procedimientos de emergencia mental en ese momento. +Si algo sale mal, quiero estar listo. +Y lo principal que quiero hacer aqu es liberarme y dejarme caer y permanecer completamente estable. +control de tierra. Todo el mundo listo? +Cinco. Cuatro. Tres. Dos. Uno. +Alan Eustace: Ese es el globo que pasaba, totalmente inflado en este punto. +Y se puede ver un paracadas estabilizador que demostrar en unos segundos, porque es realmente importante. +Ah est el globo pasando una segunda vez. +En este momento, voy casi a la velocidad del sonido. +No hay nada que me haga ver que es la velocidad del sonido, y muy pronto ir tan rpido como jams se ha hecho antes, a 1323 km por hora. +Control de tierra: Hemos perdido los datos. +AE: Ahora estoy bajando en ese momento y se puede ver el paracadas que sale justo ah. +En ese momento, estoy muy feliz de tener un paracadas. +Pens que era el nico feliz, pero resulta que el control de la misin estaba muy feliz tambin. +Lo realmente bueno de esto es el momento en que lo abr. Un amigo ntimo mo, Blikkies, mi chico para el paracadas. +volaba en otro avin, y de hecho salt y aterriz justo a mi lado. +Era mi compaero de viaje en el descenso. +Este es mi aterrizaje, pero probablemente es ms propio llamarlo estrellarse. +Odio admitirlo, pero este no acercaba siquiera a mi peor aterrizaje. +Hombre: Cmo te va? +AE: Hola! +Hurra. +Quiero contarles algo que no habrn podido ver en ese video, pero una de las partes ms crticas de todo era la liberacin y lo que sucede justo despus de soltarse. +Y lo que intentamos hacer fue utilizar un paracadas de frenado o estabilizador, y haba un paracadas de frenado para estabilizarme. +Y mostrar uno de esos en este momento. +Si alguien ha hecho paracaidismo alguna vez en tndem, probablemente utilizaron uno de estos. +Pero el problema con estas cosas es que cuando se suelta, hay gravedad cero. +As que es muy fcil que esto acabe enrollndose a su alrededor. +Y antes de que darse cuenta, uno puede estar enredado o centrifugado o uno puede soltar este estabilizador tarde, en ese caso se supone que se baja a 1290 km por hora, y esta cosa se autodestruir y no ser muy til. +Pero a los chicos de United Parachute Tecnologas se les ocurri esta idea, y es un rollo que es as, pero miren lo que pasa cuando se tira. +Est formando un tubo. +Este tubo es tan slido que se puede usar el paracadas estabilizador y envolverlo alrededor, y no hay manera de que se enrede alrededor de uno. +Y eso impidi un posible problema muy grave. +As que nada es posible sin un increble equipo de personas. +El ncleo estaba compuesto de unas 20 personas que trabajaron en esto los tres aos, y eran increbles. +La gente me preguntaba cul era la mejor parte de todo esto y fue la oportunidad de trabajar con los mejores expertos en meteorologa, en aeroesttica, en tecnologa de paracadas, en sistemas ambientales y en medicina de altitud. +Fue fantstico. El sueo de un ingeniero es trabajar con ese grupo de personas. +Al mismo tiempo quera agradecer a mis amigos de Google, por apoyarme durante este esfuerzo y tambin por cubrirme en los tiempos que yo no estaba. +Hay otro grupo al que quera agradecer, y ese es mi familia. +Hurra. +Constantemente les daba discursos de la seguridad de la tecnologa, y no escuchaban nada. +Era muy duro para ellos, y la nica razn por la que mi esposa lo aguant era porque volva muy feliz tras cada una de las 250 pruebas, y ella no me lo quera quitar. +Por eso quiero cerrar con una historia. +Mi hija Katelyn, mi hija de 15 aos, ella y yo estbamos en el auto, y estbamos por la carretera en el auto y estaba sentada all, y me dice: "Pap, tengo esta idea". +Y escuch su idea y le dije: "Katelyn, eso es imposible". +Y me mira y me dice: "Pap, despus de lo que acabas de hacer, cmo se puede decir que algo es imposible?" +Y me re y le dije: "Est bien, no es imposible, es muy, muy difcil". +Y entonces me detuve un segundo y dije: "Katelyn, puede que no sea imposible, ni siquiera muy, muy difcil, es solo que no s cmo hacerlo". +Gracias. +Estoy aqu para hablarles de la verdadera bsqueda de vida extraterrestre. +No de pequeos humanoides verdes que llegan en ovnis brillantes, aunque eso sera estupendo. +Sino de la bsqueda de planetas que orbitan alrededor de estrellas lejanas. +Cada estrella en nuestro cielo es un sol. +Y si nuestro Sol tiene planetas: Mercurio, Venus, Tierra, Marte, etc., seguramente esas otras estrellas tambin tienen planetas, y los tienen. +Y en las ltimas dos dcadas, los astrnomos han encontrado miles de exoplanetas. +Nuestro cielo nocturno est literalmente lleno de exoplanetas. +Sabemos, estadsticamente hablando, que cada estrella tiene, al menos, un planeta. +Y en la bsqueda de planetas, y, en el futuro, los planetas que podran ser como la Tierra, podemos contribuir a resolver algunas de las preguntas ms sorprendentes y misteriosas a las que se ha enfrentado la humanidad durante siglos. +Por qu estamos aqu? +Por qu existe el universo? +Cmo se form y evolucion la Tierra ? +Cmo y por qu se origin la vida que ha poblado nuestro planeta? +La segunda pregunta que a menudo se plantea es: Estamos solos? +Hay vida ah fuera? +Quin est ah? +Ya saben, esa pregunta ha existido miles de aos, por lo menos desde la poca de los filsofos griegos. +Pero estoy aqu para decirles lo cerca que estamos de encontrar la respuesta a esta pregunta. +Es la primera vez en la historia que eso realmente est a nuestro alcance. +Ahora, cuando pienso en las posibilidades de la vida por ah, pienso en el hecho de que nuestro Sol no es sino una de las muchas estrellas. +Esta es una foto de una galaxia real creemos que nuestra Va Lctea se parece a esta galaxia. +Es una coleccin de estrellas unidas. +Pero nuestro Sol es uno de cientos de miles de millones de estrellas y nuestra galaxia es una de ms de cientos de miles de millones de galaxias. +Sabiendo que los planetas pequeos son muy comunes, uno puede hacer los clculos. +Y hay tantas estrellas y tantos planetas ah fuera, que sin duda, en algn lugar, tiene que haber vida. +Bueno, los bilogos se ponen furiosos conmigo por decir esto, porque no tenemos evidencia alguna de vida extraterrestre todava. +Si pudiramos ver nuestra galaxia desde el exterior y acercar la imagen de nuestro Sol, veramos un mapa real de estrellas. +Y las estrellas destacadas son las que tienen exoplanetas conocidos. +Esto es realmente solo la punta del iceberg. +Aqu, esta animacin es el zoom en nuestro sistema solar. +Y vern aqu los planetas as como naves espaciales orbitando alrededor de nuestro Sol. +Si nos podemos imaginar ir a la costa oeste de Norteamrica, y mirar hacia el cielo nocturno, esto es lo que nos gustara ver en una noche de primavera. +Pueden ver las constelaciones superpuestas y muchas estrellas con planetas. +Hay un parche especial del cielo, donde tenemos miles de planetas. +Aqu es donde el telescopio espacial Kepler se centr durante muchos aos. +Vamos a acercar y mirar a uno de los exoplanetas favoritos. +Esta estrella se llama Kepler-186F. +Es un sistema de unos cinco planetas. +Y, por cierto, de la mayora de estos exoplanetas, no sabemos demasiado. +Sabemos su tamao, rbita y cosas por el estilo. +Pero hay un planeta muy especial llamado Kepler-186F. +Este planeta se encuentra en una zona no demasiado lejos de la estrella, de modo que la temperatura puede ser adecuada para la vida. +Aqu, la concepcin del artista es solo hacer zoom y mostrar lo que el planeta podra ser. +Muchas personas tienen la nocin romntica de astrnomos yendo al telescopio en la cima de una montaa solitaria y mirando el cielo nocturno espectacular a travs de un gran telescopio. +Pero, en realidad, tan solo trabajamos en nuestras computadoras como los dems, y obtenemos los datos por correo o descargando una base de datos. +Y en vez de venir aqu para hablarles de la naturaleza algo tediosa de los datos y su anlisis, y los modelos complejos de computacin usados, tengo una forma diferente de explicarles cosas en las que pensamos en relacin a los exoplanetas. +Aqu un cartel de viaje: "Kepler-186F: Donde la hierba est siempre ms roja en el otro lado". +Esto se debe a Kepler-186F orbita alrededor de una estrella roja, y solo especulamos que tal vez haya plantas all, si hay vegetacin que hace fotosntesis, tiene diferentes pigmentos y se ve roja. +"Disfruta de la gravedad en HD 40307g, una Super-Tierra". +Este planeta es ms masivo que la Tierra y tiene una gravedad en la superficie superior. +"Reljese en Kepler-16b, donde su sombra siempre tiene compaa". +Sabemos de una docena de planetas que orbitan dos estrellas, y hay probablemente muchos ms por ah. +Si pudiramos visitar uno de esos planetas, se podran ver literalmente dos puestas de sol y tener dos sombras. +En realidad, la ciencia ficcin tiene algunas cosas correctas. +Tatooine de La Guerra de las Galaxias. +Y tengo otros exoplanetas favoritos de los que hablar. +Este es Kepler-10b, es un planeta caliente, caliente. +Orbita 50 veces ms cerca de su estrella que nuestra Tierra alrededor de nuestro Sol. +Y, de hecho, es tan caliente, que no podemos visitar estos planetas, pero si pudiramos, nos fundiramos mucho antes de llegar. +Creemos que la superficie es tan caliente como para derretir la roca y tiene lagos de lava lquida. +Gliese 1214b +De este planeta sabemos la masa y el tamao y que tiene una densidad baja. +Es un poco caliente. +En realidad no sabemos nada sobre este planeta, pero una posibilidad es que sea un mundo acutico, como una versin a escala de una de las lunas heladas de Jpiter que podra componerse del 50 % de agua en masa. +Y en este caso, tendra una atmsfera de vapor de espesor superpuesta a un ocano, no de agua lquida, sino de una forma extica de agua, un superfluido. No es un gas, no es un lquido. +Y debajo de eso no habra roca, sino una forma de hielo de alta presin, como el hielo IX. +As que de todos estos planetas ah fuera, su variedad es simplemente asombrosa, normalmente queremos encontrar planetas Ricitos de Oro, as los llamamos. +Ni demasiado grandes, ni demasiado pequeos, ni demasiado calientes, ni demasiado fros, sino justo el ideal para la vida. +Pero para hacer eso, debemos poder mirar la atmsfera del planeta, ya que la atmsfera acta como una manta que captura calor, el efecto invernadero. +Tenemos que poder evaluar los gases de efecto invernadero en otros planetas. +Bueno, la ciencia ficcin tiene algunas cosas mal. +La nave Star Trek tuvo que viajar a grandes distancias a velocidades increbles a la rbita de otros planetas de manera que el primer oficial Spock pudiera analizar la atmsfera para ver si el planeta era habitable o si haba formas de vida all. +Bueno, no necesitamos viajar a velocidades 'warp' para ver otras atmsferas planetarias, aunque no quiero disuadir a los ingenieros de buscar la manera de hacerlo. +En realidad podemos estudiar las atmsferas planetarias desde aqu, desde la rbita terrestre. +Esta es una imagen, una fotografa del telescopio espacial Hubble tomada por el transbordador Atlantis, cuando parta despus del ltimo vuelo espacial humano de Hubble. +Instalaron una nueva cmara, que utilizamos para atmsferas de exoplanetas. +Y hasta ahora, hemos podido estudiar decenas de atmsferas de exoplanetas, alrededor de seis de ellas con gran detalle. +Pero no son pequeos planetas como la Tierra. +Son planetas grandes y calientes que son fciles de ver. +No estamos listos, no tenemos todava la tecnologa adecuada para estudiar pequeos exoplanetas. +Pero, sin embargo, quera explicarles cmo se estudian las atmsferas de exoplanetas. +Quiero que se imaginen, por un momento, un arco iris. +Y si pudiramos mirar este arco iris de cerca, veramos que faltan algunas lneas oscuras. +Y aqu est nuestro Sol, la luz blanca del Sol se dividi, no por las gotas de lluvia, sino por un espectrgrafo. +Y pueden ver estas lneas verticales oscuras. +Algunas muy estrechas, algunas son anchas, otras sombreadas en los bordes. +Y as es cmo los astrnomos han estudiado objetos en los cielos, durante ms de un siglo. +As que aqu, cada tomo y molcula diferente tiene un conjunto especial de lneas, una huella digital, si se quiere. +Y as es cmo se estudian las atmsferas de exoplanetas. +Nunca olvidar cuando empec a trabajar en atmsferas de exoplanetas hace 20 aos, cuntas personas me dijeron, "Esto nunca suceder. +Nunca podremos estudiarlas. Por qu lo intentas?" +Y por eso me complace hablarles sobre todos los ambientes estudiados ahora, y esto es realmente un campo propio. +As que cuando se trata de otros planetas, otras Tierras, en el futuro, cuando podamos observarlos, qu tipo de gas buscaramos? +Bueno, nuestra propia Tierra tiene oxgeno en la atmsfera en un 20 % de su volumen. +Eso es una gran cantidad de oxgeno. +Pero sin las plantas y la vida fotosinttica, no habra oxgeno, prcticamente nada de oxgeno en nuestra atmsfera. +As que el oxgeno existe, porque hay vida. +Y nuestro objetivo es buscar gases en otras atmsferas planetarias, gases a los que no les atribuiramos la capacidad de contribuir a la vida. +Pero qu molculas deberamos buscar? +En realidad, ya dije cun diversos son los exoplanetas. +Esperamos que esto contine en el futuro cuando nos encontramos con otras Tierras. +Y esa es una de las cosas en las que estoy trabajando. Tengo una teora al respecto. +Me recuerda que casi todos los das, recibo mensajes de correo electrnico de alguien con una teora loca sobre la fsica de la gravedad o la cosmologa o algo as. +As que, por favor, no me enven ninguna de sus locas teoras. +Yo tena mi propia teora loca. +Pero quin iba a ir a ver al profesor del MIT? +Se lo envi a un Premio Nobel de Fisiologa, en Medicina y l dijo: "Claro, venga a hablar conmigo". +As que me llev a mis dos amigos bioqumicos y nos fuimos a hablar con l acerca de nuestra loca teora. +Y esa teora era que la vida produce todas las molculas pequeas, tantas molculas. +Como, todas en las que puedo pensar, pero sin ser una qumica. +Piensen en ello: dixido de carbono, monxido de carbono, hidrgeno molecular, nitrgeno molecular, metano, cloruro de metilo, tantos gases. +Existen tambin por otras razones, pero justo igual que la vida produce ozono. +As que fuimos a hablar con l e inmediatamente, derrib la teora. +Encontr un ejemplo que no exista. +As, nos fuimos de nuevo al tablero de dibujo y cremos haber encontrado algo muy interesante en otro campo. +Pero volvamos a los exoplanetas, el punto es que la vida produce tantos tipos diferentes de gases, literalmente miles de gases. +Y as, lo que hacemos ahora es simplemente tratar de averiguar en qu tipo de exoplanetas, cules gases se podran atribuir a la vida. +Y as, al toparnos con los gases en atmsferas de exoplanetas que no sabemos si los producen extraterrestres inteligentes o rboles, o un pantano, o incluso solo vida microbiana simple, unicelular. +As que trabajar en los modelos y pensar en bioqumica, todo est muy bien. +Pero realmente un gran reto ante nosotros es: cmo? +Cmo vamos a encontrar estos planetas? +Existen muchas maneras de encontrar planetas, varias maneras diferentes. +Pero en la que me centro es en cmo establecer una puerta de enlace de modo que en el futuro, podamos encontrar cientos de Tierras. +Tenemos una oportunidad real de encontrar seales de vida. +Y, de hecho, acabo de liderar un proyecto de dos aos en esa fase muy especial de un concepto que llamamos la sombrilla estelar. +Y la sombrilla estelar es una pantalla en forma muy especial y el objetivo es volar esa sombrilla estelar que bloquee la luz de una estrella para que el telescopio puede ver los planetas directamente. +Aqu, pueden verme a m y a dos miembros del equipo viendo una pequea parte de la sombrilla estelar. +Tiene la forma de una flor gigante, y este es uno de los ptalos prototipo. +El concepto es que una sombrilla estelar y el telescopio podra lanzarse juntos, con los ptalos desplegados desde la posicin de estiba. +La armadura central podra expandirse, con los ptalos abrindose en el lugar. +Ahora, esto debe hacerse con mucha precisin, literalmente, los ptalos a micras y tienen que desplegarse en milmetros. +Y toda esta estructura tendra que volar decenas de miles de km de distancia desde el telescopio. +Se trata de decenas de metros de dimetro. +Y el objetivo es bloquear la luz de las estrellas con increble precisin con lo que podramos ver directamente los planetas. +Y tiene que tener una forma muy especial, debido a la fsica de difraccin. +Este es un proyecto real en el que trabaj, literalmente, no se pueden imaginar lo difcil. +Solo para que me crean, no es solo en formato de pelcula, aqu est una foto real de pruebas para implementar la sombrilla estelar de 2 generacin +Y en este caso, quera que supieran que esa armadura central es lo sobrante desde grandes desplegables de radio en el espacio. +As que tras todo ese trabajo duro donde intentamos pensar en todos los locos gases que podran estar por ah, y construimos telescopios espaciales muy complicados que podran estar por ah, qu vamos a encontrar? +Pues bien, en el mejor de los casos, nos encontraremos con una imagen de otra exo-Tierra. +Aqu est la Tierra como un punto azul plido. +Y esta es realmente una foto real de la Tierra tomada por la nave espacial Voyager 1, 6,4 mil millones de km de distancia. +Y esa luz roja es solo luz dispersada en la ptica de la cmara. +Pero lo que es impresionante a tener en cuenta es que si hay extraterrestres inteligentes orbitando en un planeta alrededor de una estrella cerca de nosotros y construyen complicados telescopios espaciales como los que tratamos de construir, todos vern es este punto azul plido, un punto de luz. +Y as, a veces, cuando me detengo a pensar acerca de mi lucha profesional y ambicin, es difcil pensar en eso en contraste con la inmensidad del universo. +Pero, sin embargo, estoy dedicando el resto de mi vida a la bsqueda de otra Tierra. +Y puedo garantizar que en la prxima generacin de telescopios espaciales, en la segunda generacin, podremos encontrar e identificar otras Tierras. +Y la capacidad de dividir la luz de las estrellas para poder buscar gases y evaluar los gases de efecto invernadero en la atmsfera, estimar la temperatura de la superficie, y buscar signos de vida. +Pero hay ms. +En este caso de la bsqueda de otros planetas como la Tierra, estamos haciendo una nueva especie de mapa de estrellas cercanas y de planetas que orbitan alrededor de ellos, incluyendo aquellos que podran ser habitable por los humanos. +Y as me imagino que nuestros descendientes, cientos de aos a partir de ahora, se embarcarn en un viaje interestelar a otros mundos. +Y nos mirarn en retrospectiva a todos nosotros como la generacin que primero encontr mundos similares a la Tierra. +Gracias. +Junio Cohen: Te paso una pregunta, del gerente del Rosetta Misin, Fred Jansen. +Fred Jansen: Mencionaste que la tecnologa para ver realmente en el espectro de un exoplaneta similar a la Tierra no existe todava. +Cundo esperas que est, y qu se necesita? +Lo que esperamos es lo que llamamos telescopio Hubble de prxima generacin. +Se llama Telescopio Espacial James Webb, y se pondr en marcha en 2018, y eso es lo que vamos a hacer, miraremos un tipo especial de planeta llamados exoplanetas transitorios, y ser nuestra primera oportunidad de estudiar planetas pequeos para gases que podran indicar si el planeta es habitable. +JC: Te har una pregunta de seguimiento, tambin, Sara, como generalista. +Estoy muy impresionada por la idea en tu carrera por la oposicin que enfrentaste, cuando empezaste a pensar en exoplanetas, haba gran escepticismo en la comunidad cientfica que todava existe, y demostraste que estaban equivocados. +Qu hizo que siguieras? +SS: Bueno, como cientficos, se supone que debemos ser escpticos, porque nuestro trabajo para asegurarnos de que lo que otra persona dice en realidad tiene sentido o no. +Pero ser cientfico, creo que lo has visto en esta sesin, es ser un explorador. +Uno tiene esta inmensa curiosidad, esta terquedad, esa firmeza que nos lleva adelante no importa lo que otros digan. +JC: Me encanta eso. Gracias, Sara. +Algunas de las ms importantes lecciones de mi vida las aprend de los traficantes de drogas, de los pandilleros y las prostitutas, y he tenido unas de las conversaciones teolgicas ms profundas no en los sagrados recintos de un seminario sino en la esquina de alguna calle un viernes por la noche, a la 1 de la madrugada. +Eso es un poco raro, ya que soy pastor baptista de profesin, y he pastoreado una iglesia por ms de 20 aos, pero es cierto. +Esto se debe a mi participacin en el plan para la seguridad pblica y la reduccin de la delincuencia, que logr bajar la tasa de delitos violentos un 79 % en unos 8 aos en una ciudad importante. +Pero no empec porque quisiera formar parte de este plan estratgico para la reduccin de la delincuencia. +Tena 25 aos, trabajaba en mi primera iglesia. +Si me hubieran preguntado cul era mi ambicin por aquel entonces, habra respondido que era ser pastor de una megaiglesia. +Yo quera una iglesia de 15 000, 20 000 miembros. +Quera mi propio canal de TV. +Mi propia lnea de ropa. +Quera ser su proveedor a distancia. +Ya saben, todo lo que haga falta. +Despus de aproximadamente un ao de labor pastoral, tena unos 20 feligreses. +As que me quedaba un largo camino para llegar a pastor de una megaiglesia. +Pero en serio, si me hubieran preguntado cul era mi ambicin, +habra dicho que solo quera ser un buen pastor, y poder compartirlo con gente de cualquier condicin, predicar mensajes que tengan una aplicacin real para la gente. Y para la cultura afroestadounidense, poder representar a la comunidad que sirvo. +Pero suceda algo ms en mi ciudad y en todo el rea metropolitana, y en la mayora de las reas metropolitanas en Estados Unidos, concretamente, la tasa de homicidios empez a subir vertiginosamente. +Y haba gente joven matndose entre s por razones que pens que eran muy triviales, como tropezarse con alguien en el pasillo de la escuela, y luego, despus de clases, disparar a esa persona. +Alguien que llevaba el color equivocado de camiseta en la esquina de una calle equivocada en el momento equivocado. +Y algo haba que hacer al respecto. +Se lleg al punto de que comenz a cambiar el carcter de la ciudad. +Si ibas a cualquier barrio de viviendas subvencionadas como, por ejemplo, el que estaba en la misma calle de mi iglesia, y te adentrabas en l, era una ciudad fantasma, porque los padres no dejaban a sus hijos salir a jugar, incluso en verano, debido a la violencia. +En el barrio, en una noche cualquiera, se podan escuchar... para los que no estn acostumbrados a esto, parecan fuegos artificiales, pero eran disparos. +Se podan or casi todas las noches, cuando estabas preparando la cena, a la hora de contarle a tu hijo un cuento antes de ir a dormir, o simplemente mientras veas la televisin. +Y si ibas a las urgencias en cualquier hospital, veas tendidos en las camillas a jvenes negros y latinos tiroteados y moribundos. +Y yo me ocupaba de los funerales pero no de las matriarcas y patriarcas venerados que vivieron una vida larga y de los cuales haba mucho que decir. +Estaba preparando funerales de gente de 18 aos, de 17, de 16, y all estaba de pie en una iglesia o en una funeraria, luchando por decir algo que pudiera tener algn impacto significativo. +As que mientras mis colegas construan estas catedrales grandes y altas y compraban propiedades fuera de la ciudad para llevar all a sus congregaciones, para que pudieran crear o recrear sus ciudades de Dios, el tejido social del centro urbano se deterioraba bajo el peso de toda esta violencia. +As que me qued, porque alguien tena que hacer algo, y basndome en lo que tena, part de ah. +Empec a predicar denunciando la violencia en la comunidad. +Y empec a consultar la programacin de mi iglesia, y crear programas para motivar a los jvenes en situacin de riesgo, los que estaban en el cerco de la violencia. +Incluso intent innovar en mis sermones. +Todos han odo hablar de la msica rap, verdad? +La msica rap? +Incluso intent rapear un sermn una vez. +No funcion, pero al menos lo intent. +Nunca olvidar al joven que se me acerc despus de aquel sermn. +Esper hasta que todo el mundo se haba ido, y me dijo, "Reverendo, un sermn rapeado, eh?"; "S, qu te parece?" +Y me dijo: "No vuelva a hacerlo, reverendo". +Pero he predicado y creado estos programas, y pens que tal vez si mis compaeros hicieran lo mismo esto marcara la diferencia. +Las cosas estaban fuera de control, y no saba qu hacer, y luego pas algo que lo cambi todo para m. +Se trata de un nio llamado Jesse McKie, que se iba andando a casa junto con su amigo Rigoberto Carrin en el barrio de viviendas subvencionadas en la misma calle donde est mi iglesia. +Se encontraron con un grupo de jvenes de una pandilla de Dorchester, y acabaron muertos. +Jesse ech a correr y fue mortalmente herido, en la direccin de mi iglesia, pero muri a unos 100 o 150 metros. +Si hubiera llegado a la iglesia, no habra cambiado su suerte porque las luces estaban apagadas; no haba nadie. +Y eso fue para m una seal. +Cuando atraparon a algunos de los que haban cometido este acto, para mi sorpresa, era gente de mi edad, y el abismo que haba entre nosotros era inmenso. +Era como si estuviramos en 2 mundos completamente diferentes. +As que la paradoja era esta: si realmente quera a la comunidad a la que predicaba, necesitaba dirigirme e incluir este grupo que haba excluido de mi definicin. +Y eso no quera decir solo crear aquellos programas para acercar a los que estaban cerca del crculo de la violencia, sino dirigirme e incluir a los que cometan los actos de violencia, los pandilleros, los traficantes de drogas. +Tan pronto como me di cuenta de esto una pregunta me vino a la cabeza. +Por qu yo? +Quiero decir, no es esto un tema para las autoridades? +No es esa la razn por la cual tenemos a la polica? +Tan pronto como surgi la pregunta, "Por qu yo?" con la misma rapidez lleg la respuesta: Por qu yo? Porque soy el que no puede dormir por la noche pensando en ello. +Porque soy el que est mirando a su alrededor diciendo que alguien tiene que hacer algo al respecto, y estoy empezando a darme cuenta de que ese alguien soy yo. +Quiero decir, no es as como aparecen los movimientos? +Porque no empiezan con una gran asamblea y gente que se rene y luego avanzan juntos a base de una declaracin. +Sino que empiezan con solo unos pocos, o tal vez uno solo. +Empez conmigo en este caso, as que decid investigar la cultura de la violencia en la que se movan estos jvenes que estaban cometindola, y empec por hacer voluntariado en la secundaria. +Despus de 2 semanas de voluntariado en la secundaria, me di cuenta de que los jvenes a los cuales yo trataba de llegar, no iban a la secundaria. +Empec a moverme por el barrio, y no haca falta ser un genio para darse cuenta de que no estaban por la calle durante el da. +As que empec a salir a la calle por la noche, a altas horas de la noche, por los parques donde estaban, estableciendo relaciones. +En Boston ocurri una tragedia que llev a un nmero de clrigos a juntarse, y haba un pequeo grupo que nos dimos cuenta de que tenamos que salir de las 4 paredes de nuestros santuarios y conocer a los jvenes all dnde estaban, en lugar de tratar de averiguar cmo hacer que vengan ellos. +Y as decidimos caminar juntos, y nos juntbamos en uno de los barrios ms peligrosos de la ciudad, en una noche de viernes o sbado por la noche, a las 10, y no nos movamos por el barrio hasta las 2 o 3 de la maana. +Entiendo que esto fue algo inusual cuando empezamos a hacerlo, +quiero decir, no ramos narcotraficantes. +No ramos clientes. +No ramos la polica. Algunos saldran con el alzacuellos puesto. +Probablemente fue una cosa muy extraa. +Porque siempre hay alguien que dice, "Vamos a recuperar las calles", pero siempre parece haber una cmara de televisin con ellos, o un reportero, para mejorar su propia reputacin en detrimento de los de las calles. +As que cuando vieron que no ramos nada de eso, decidieron hablar con nosotros. +Y fue cuando nosotros, como predicadores, hicimos algo asombroso. +Decidimos escuchar y no predicar. +Vamos, me merezco unos aplausos. +Est bien, vamos, me estn acortando mi tiempo, de acuerdo? Pero fue increble. +Les dijimos, "No conocemos nuestras comunidades despus de las 9 de la noche, desde las 9 hasta la 5 de la madrugada, pero Uds. s. +Son expertos en la materia en esa franja horaria. +As que hablen con nosotros, ensennos. +Aydennos a ver lo que no estamos viendo. +Aydennos a entender lo que no entendemos. +Y todos estaban ms que dispuestos a hacerlo, y nos dieron una idea de lo que era la vida en las calles, muy diferente a lo que se ve en las noticias de las 11, muy diferente a lo que se retrata en los medios populares y las redes sociales. +Y al hablar con ellos, una serie de mitos fueron cayendo poco a poco. +Y uno de los mayores mitos era que estos jvenes eran implacables y sin corazn y excesivamente atrevidos en su violencia. +Lo que descubrimos fue exactamente lo contrario. +La mayora de los jvenes que estaban en la calle estn tratando de buscarse la vida. +Y tambin descubrimos que algunas de las personas ms inteligentes y creativas, magnificas y sabias que jams hemos conocido estaban en la calle, comprometidos en una lucha. +Y s que algunos lo llaman supervivencia, pero yo los llamo vencedores, porque cuando se est en las condiciones en las que ellos se encuentran, lograr vivir cada da significa autosuperacin. +Y como resultado de eso, les preguntamos: "Cmo ven esta iglesia, cmo creen que esta institucin puede ayudar en esta situacin?" +Y hemos desarrollado un plan a partir de las conversaciones con estos jvenes. +Dejamos de verlos como el problema a resolver, y empezamos a verlos como socios, como activos, como colaboradores en la lucha para reducir la violencia en la comunidad. +Imagnense la elaboracin de un plan, donde tienen por un lado a un pastor y por el otro a un traficante de herona, para encontrar una manera en que la iglesia ayude a toda la comunidad. +El Milagro de Boston fue unir a la gente. +Tenamos otros socios. +Tuvimos a la ley como socia. +Tuvimos policas. +No era toda la polica, porque todava haba algunos que tenan la mentalidad de "arrstalos a todos" pero haba otros policas que se sintieron honrados de participar en la comunidad, quienes se sentan responsables de trabajar como socios con los lderes comunitarios y religiosos para reducir la violencia en la comunidad. +Ayud a la creacin de una organizacin basada en la fe para hacer frente a este problema hace 20 aos. +Actualmente en Estados Unidos hay un movimiento iniciado por los jvenes del cual estoy muy orgulloso, que estn lidiando con los problemas estructurales que hay que cambiar si queremos ser una sociedad mejor. +Pero existe esta estrategia poltica de enfrentar a la brutalidad y a la mala conducta policial contra la violencia que hay dentro de la poblacin afroestadounidense. +Pero es una ficcin. +Todo est conectado. +Y entonces la solucin que da el Estado es ms policas y ms represin en las zonas calientes. +Todo est conectado, y una de las cosas maravillosas que logramos hacer es poder mostrar el valor de la cooperacin, de la comunidad, de la ley, del sector privado, la ciudad... para reducir la violencia. +Hay que valorar este componente comunitario. +Creo que podemos acabar con la era de la violencia en nuestras ciudades. +Creo que es posible y que la gente trabaja en ello ahora mismo. +Pero necesito su ayuda. +No puede venir solo de la gente que lo dan todo por la comunidad. +Ellos necesitan apoyo. Necesitan ayuda. +Vuelvan a sus ciudades. +Encuentren a esas personas. +"Necesitas ayuda? Te dar una mano". +Busquen a esas personas. Estn all. +Renanlos con la polica, con el sector privado, y la ciudad, con el objetivo de reducir la violencia, pero asegrense de que ese componente comunitario es fuerte. +Porque el viejo dicho de Burundi es cierto: lo que haces para m, sin m, me afecta. +Dios los bendiga. Gracias. +Alguien que se parece a m pasa junto a Uds. por la calle. +Creen que es una madre, una refugiada o una vctima de la opresin? +O piensan que es una cardiloga, abogada, o tal vez su poltico local? +Me mira de arriba abajo, preguntndose el calor que paso, o si mi marido me obliga a llevar este traje? +Qu pasa si me pongo el pauelo de esta manera? +Puedo caminar por la calle con el mismo traje y lo que el mundo espera de m y la forma en que me traten depende de la disposicin de este trozo de tela. +Pero esto no va a ser otro monlogo sobre el hijab, porque Dios sabe, las mujeres musulmanas son mucho ms que una pieza de tela que eligen para envolver o no la cabeza. +Se trata de mirar ms all de su parcialidad. +Qu ocurrira si me cruzara con Uds. y ms tarde supieran que en realidad era un ingeniero de coche de carreras, y que dise mi propio coche de carreras y corr en el equipo de carreras de mi universidad, porque es verdad. +Y si dijera que en realidad practiqu boxeo durante 5 aos? Porque eso es verdad, tambin. +Les sorprendera? +Por qu? +Seoras y seores, en ltima instancia, esa sorpresa y los comportamientos asociados a ella son el producto de algo llamado sesgo inconsciente, o prejuicio implcito. +Y eso resulta en una falta de diversidad muy perjudicial en nuestro mundo laboral y especialmente en reas de importancia. +Hola, Gabinete Federal de Australia. +Permtanme establecer algo desde el principio: el sesgo inconsciente no es lo mismo que la discriminacin consciente. +No estoy diciendo que en todos Uds. haya oculto un sexista o racista al acecho, esperando para salir. +Eso no es lo que estoy diciendo. +Todos tenemos nuestros prejuicios. +Son filtros a travs de los cuales vemos el mundo que nos rodea. +No estoy acusando a nadie, el sesgo no es una acusacin. +Ms bien, es algo que tiene que ser identificado, reconocido y combatido. +El sesgo puede ser sobre la raza, puede ser sobre el gnero. +Tambin puede ser sobre la clase social, la educacin, la discapacidad. +El hecho es que todos tenemos prejuicios contra lo diferente, lo diferente a nuestras normas sociales. +La cosa es que, si queremos vivir en un mundo donde las circunstancias del nacimiento no dicten el futuro y donde la igualdad de oportunidades est generalizada, entonces todos y cada uno de nosotros tenemos un papel que jugar en asegurarnos que el sesgo inconsciente no determina nuestras vidas. +Existe un conocido experimento en el mbito del sesgo inconsciente y que est relacionado con el gnero en los aos 1970 y 1980. +Las orquestas, por aquel entonces eran mayoritariamente de hombres, y solo un 5 % eran mujeres. +Al parecer, eso se deba a que los hombres tocaban de manera diferente, presumiblemente mejor, presumiblemente. +Pero en 1952, la Orquesta Sinfnica de Boston realiz un experimento. +Hicieron audiciones a ciegas. +As que en lugar de audiciones cara a cara, uno tena que tocar detrs de una pantalla. +Curiosamente, no se observ ningn cambio inmediato hasta que se pidi a los aspirantes que se descalzaran antes de entrar en la habitacin. +Porque el clic-clac de los tacones sobre el suelo de madera era suficiente para descubrir a las damas a distancia. +Una vez hecho esto, los resultados de la prueba mostraron que haba un 50 % ms de probabilidades de que una mujer superara la etapa preliminar. +Y casi se triplicaron sus posibilidades de pasar la prueba. +Qu nos dice eso? +Bueno, por desgracia para ellos, los hombres realmente no tocaban de manera diferente, pero exista la percepcin de que lo hacan. +Era el sesgo el que determinaba el resultado. +As que aqu identificamos y reconocemos que existe un sesgo. +Y miren, todos lo hacemos. +Djenme darles un ejemplo. +Un hijo y su padre sufren un horrible accidente de trfico. +El padre muere en el impacto y el hijo, que est gravemente herido, es trasladado al hospital. +El cirujano examina al hijo cuando llega y dice: "No puedo operar". +Por qu? +"El nio es mi hijo". +Cmo puede ser eso? +Seoras y seores, el cirujano es su madre. +Ahora levanten la mano --y no pasa nada-- levanten la mano si supusieron al principio que el cirujano era hombre. +No hay evidencia de que existe sesgo inconsciente, pero solo tenemos que reconocer que est all y luego buscar formas para poder combatirlo y para que podamos buscar soluciones. +Una de las cosas interesantes que rodean al sesgo inconsciente es el tema de las cuotas. +Y esto es algo que a menudo se comenta. +Y muchas de las crticas es esta idea de mrito. +Mira, yo no quiero ser elegida porque soy chica, quiero ser elegida por mis mritos, porque soy la persona indicada para el trabajo. +Es un sentimiento bastante comn entre las ingenieras con las que trabajo y que yo sepa. +Y s, lo entiendo, he pasado por eso. +Pero, si la idea del mrito es cierta, por qu al enviar currculos idnticos en un experimento realizado en 2012 por la Universidad de Yale, currculos idnticos enviados para un puesto de tcnico de laboratorio, por qu se considerar a Jennifer menos competente, ser menos probable que obtenga el trabajo, +y cobrar menos que John? El sesgo inconsciente est ah, pero solo tenemos que mirar cmo podemos combatirlo. +Y, saben, es interesante, hay investigaciones que explican por qu es as y se lo llama paradoja del mrito. +Y en las organizaciones --y esto es un poco irnico-- las organizaciones que hablan del mrito como su principal motor a la hora de contratar, eran ms propensas a contratar hombres y a pagar ms a los chicos porque al parecer el mrito es una cualidad masculina. +Pero, oye. +As que piensan que me han calado, y que saben que pasa aqu. +Se imaginan que puedo encargarme de uno de estos? +Pueden imaginarse andar por all y decir "Oye, chicos, esto es lo que hay. As es cmo se hace". +Bueno, me alegro de que puedan. +Porque seoras y seores, ese es mi trabajo diario. +Y lo bueno de esto es que es bastante entretenido. +En lugares como Malasia, hablar de mujeres musulmanas que trabajen en plataformas +ni siquiera se contempla. +Hay muchas. Pero, es entretenido. +Me acuerdo que le deca a uno de los chicos, "Oye, colega, quiero aprender a surfear". +Y me deca: "Yassmin, no s cmo vas a surfear con todo esa equipo que llevas, Y no conozco ninguna playa solo para mujeres". +Y entonces, el chico vino con una idea brillante, algo as como, "S que diriges esa organizacin Jvenes sin Fronteras, no? +Por qu no creas una lnea de ropa de playa para jvenes musulmanas +Puedes llamarla "Juventud Sin Baadores". +Y le dije, "Gracias, chicos". +Y recuerdo a otro chico que me dijo que debo comer todo el yogur que pueda porque esa era la nica cultura en la cual me iba a mover. +Pero, el problema es que es un tanto verdad porque hay una gran falta de diversidad en nuestro mundo laboral, particularmente en puestos de influencia. +Ahora, en 2010, La Universidad Nacional de Australia hizo un experimento donde se enviaron 4000 solicitudes idnticas para puestos de trabajo no cualificados, esencialmente. +Para obtener el mismo nmero de entrevistas que alguien con un nombre anglosajn, si fueran chinos, tendran que enviar un 68 % ms de solicitudes. +Si fueran de Medio Oriente --Abdel-Magied-- deberan enviar un 64 % ms, y si fueran italianos, es muy afortunado, es suficiente con enviar solo un 12 % ms. +En lugares como Silicon Valley, no es mucho mejor. +En Google, publicaron los datos de diversidad: el 61 % son blancos, el 30 % asiticos, y el 9 % negros, hispanos, todo ese tipo de gente. +En el resto del mundo de la tecnologa no es mucho mejor, lo reconocen, pero no estoy realmente segura qu estn haciendo al respecto. +Y no tienen ningn efecto. +En un estudio realizado por Green Park, --un proveedor britnico importante de altos ejecutivos-- arroj que ms de la mitad de las empresas FTSE 100 no tienen un lder no blanco en su junta directiva, ejecutivo o no ejecutivo. +Y dos de cada tres no tienen un ejecutivo que pertenezca a una minora. +Y la mayora de las minoras que se encuentran en ese tipo de nivel son consejeros no ejecutivos. +As que no tiene mucha influencia. +Les he contado muchas cosas terribles. +Y piensan, "Dios mo, es horrible: Qu puedo hacer al respecto?" +Bueno, por suerte, hemos identificado que hay un problema. +Hay falta de oportunidades y eso se debe al sesgo inconsciente. +Pero podran estar sentados all pensando: "No soy de color. Qu tiene esto que ver conmigo?" +Permtanme ofrecerles una solucin. +Y como he dicho antes, vivimos en un mundo donde estamos buscando un ideal. +Y si queremos crear un mundo donde las circunstancias del nacimiento no importen, todos tenemos que ser parte de la solucin. +Y curiosamente, la autora del experimento del currculum ofreci una solucin. +Dijo que en lo nico en que coincidan las mujeres de xito, lo nico que tenan en comn, fue el hecho de haber tenido buenos mentores. +As que la tutora, todos hemos odo eso antes, es algo propio. +Aqu hay otro reto para Uds. +Les reto a todos y cada uno de Uds. a guiar a alguien diferente. +Piensen en ello. +Todo el mundo quiere ser mentor de alguien que le resulta familiar, que se parece a nosotros, con el que compartimos experiencias. +Si veo a una chica musulmana con algo de actitud, dira: "Qu pasa? Quedamos?" +Si entran en una habitacin y hay alguien que fue a la misma escuela, que practica los mismos deportes, hay gran probabilidad de que quiera ayudarla. +Pero para la persona en la habitacin que no tiene experiencias compartidas con Uds., se vuelve extremadamente difcil encontrar esa conexin. +La idea de encontrar a alguien diferente al mentor, alguien que no viene del mismo entorno, cualquiera que sea este, es abrir puertas para la gente que no poda ni siquiera llegar al bendito pasillo. +Porque seoras y seores, el mundo no es justo. +Las personas no nacen con igualdad de oportunidades. +Nac en una de las ciudades ms pobres del mundo, Jartum. +Nac marrn, nac mujer, y nac musulmana en un mundo que sospecha bastante de nosotros por razones que no puedo controlar. +Sin embargo, tambin reconozco el hecho de nacer con privilegios. +Nac con unos padres increbles, me dieron una educacin y tuve la suerte de emigrar a Australia. +Pero tambin, he sido afortunada con mentores increbles que abrieron puertas para m, que ni siquiera saba que estaban all. +Un mentor que me dijo: "Oye, es interesante tu historia, +vamos a escribir algo al respecto para que pueda compartirlo con la gente". +Otro dijo: "S que representas todas esas cosas que no se encuentran en una plataforma australiana pero vamos a intentarlo". Y aqu estoy, hablando con Uds. Y no soy la nica. +Hay todo tipo de personas a mi alrededor que han sido ayudadas por sus mentores. +Un joven musulmn en Sdney que termin usando la ayuda de su mentor para poner en marcha un certamen de poesa en Bankstown y ahora es algo enorme. +Y puede cambiar la vida de tantos otros jvenes. +O una seora aqu en Brisbane, una seora afgana refugiada, que apenas saba hablar ingls cuando lleg a Australia, sus mentores le ayudaron a convertirse en mdico y fue elegida Joven del Ao 2008 en Queensland. +Es una inspiracin. +Esto no es fcil. +Esta soy yo. +Pero tambin soy la mujer que llevaba el equipo de trabajo, y tambin soy la mujer que llevaba el abaya al principio. +Me hubiera elegido mi mentor de haberme visto en una de esas otras versiones de lo que soy? +Porque soy la misma persona. +Tenemos que mirar ms all de nuestro sesgo inconsciente, encontrar un discpulo que est en el extremo opuesto del espectro, porque el cambio estructural requiere tiempo, y yo no tengo ese nivel de paciencia. +As que si vamos a crear un cambio, si vamos a crear un mundo donde todos tenemos ese tipo de oportunidades, entonces opten por abrir puertas a la gente. +Porque podran pensar que la diversidad no tiene nada que ver con Uds., pero todos somos parte de este sistema y todos podemos ser parte de la solucin. +Y si no saben dnde encontrar a alguien diferente, vayan a lugares a los que no suelen ir. +Si se inscriben en tutoras en escuelas privadas de secundaria, vayan a una escuela estatal local o tal vez solo pasen por el centro de tutora local para refugiados. +O tal vez trabajan en una oficina. +Seoras y seores, hay un problema en nuestra comunidad con la falta de oportunidades, especialmente debido al sesgo inconsciente. +Pero todos y cada uno de Uds. tiene el potencial de cambiar eso. +S que les he planteado una gran cantidad de desafos hoy, pero si pueden aceptar esto y pensar un poco diferente, la diversidad es la magia. +Y les animo a mirar ms all de sus percepciones iniciales porque, les apuesto lo que quieran, a que son probablemente equivocadas. +Gracias. +El FBI es responsable de ms complots terroristas en EE.UU. que cualquier otra organizacin. +Ms que Al Qaeda, ms que Al Shabaab, ms que el Estado Islmico, ms que todos ellos juntos. +Probablemente el FBI no es como Uds. piensan. +Probablemente piensan en agentes del FBI disparando a los malos como John Dillinger o deteniendo a polticos corruptos. +Tras los ataques terroristas del 11-S, el FBI se preocup menos de mafiosos y funcionarios electos corruptos. +El nuevo objetivo fueron los terroristas, y la caza de terroristas absorbi al FBI. +Cada ao, la Oficina gasta USD 3300 millones en actividades antiterroristas nacionales. +Comprenlo con los solo USD 2,6 millones para el crimen organizado, fraude financiero, corrupcin pblica y todo tipo de actividad delictiva tradicional. +He pasado aos metido en los expedientes de juicios de terrorismo en EE.UU. y he llegado a la conclusin de que el FBI es mucho mejor en la creacin de terroristas que en su captura. +En los 14 aos transcurridos tras el 11-S, se pueden contar cerca de 6 ataques terroristas reales en EE.UU. +Incluidos los atentados del maratn de Boston en 2013, as como los ataques fallidos, como el de un hombre llamado Faisal Shahzad que intent poner un auto bomba en Times Square. +Pero en esos mismos 14 aos, la administracin se ha jactado de frustrar docenas de complots terroristas. +En total, el FBI ha detenido a ms de 175 personas en soplos agresivos contraterroristas. +Estas operaciones, que, en general, se derivan de un informante, dan los medios y la oportunidad, e incluso a veces la idea, de que personas con enfermedades mentales y econmicamente desesperadas se conviertan en lo que hoy llamamos terroristas. +Despus del 11-S el FBI recibi la consiga: nunca ms. +Nunca ms otro ataque en suelo estadounidense. +El FBI deba encontrar a terroristas antes de que ellos atacaran. +Para ello, los agentes reclutaron a ms de 15 000 informantes a nivel nacional, todos en busca de alguien que pudiera ser peligroso. +Un informante puede ganar USD 100 000 o ms por cada caso de terrorismo que reporten al FBI. +As es, el FBI paga en su mayora a delincuentes y estafadores una cifra de 6 dgitos para espiar a comunidades en EE.UU. en su mayora comunidades estadounidenses musulmanas. +Estos informantes nombraron a gente como Abu Khalid Abdul-Latif y Walli Mujahidh. +Ambos enfermos mentales. +Abdul-Latif con un historial de esnifar gasolina e intento de suicidio. +Mujahidh con un trastorno esquizoafectivo, tena problemas para distinguir entre realidad y fantasa. +En 2012 el FBI arrest a ambos hombres por conspirar en el ataque a una unidad militar de las afueras de Seattle con armas proporcionadas, por supuesto, por el FBI. +El informante del FBI era Robert Childs, un violador y abusador de nios condenado al que se le pag USD 90 000 por su trabajo en el caso. +Este no es un caso atpico. +En 2009 un informante del FBI huido a Pakistn por cargos de asesinato acus a 4 hombres de un complot para bombardear sinagogas en el Bronx. +El principal acusado fue James Cromitie, un empleado de Walmart en la ruina con un historial de problemas mentales. +Y el informante le haba ofrecido USD 250 000 si participaba en este complot. +Hay muchos ms ejemplos. +Hoy, The Intercept public mi nueva historia sobre una redada contraterrorista en Tampa que implicaba a Sami Osmakac, un joven que viva cerca de Tampa, Florida. +Osmakac tambin tena un trastorno esquizoafectivo. +Tambin en la ruina, y no tena conexiones con grupos terroristas internacionales. +Sin embargo, un informante del FBI le dio un trabajo, le entreg el dinero, le present a un agente encubierto hacindose pasar por terrorista, y le atrajo en un complot para bombardear un bar irlands. +Pero aqu est lo interesante: El agente encubierto --se le puede ver en la foto con la cara borrosa-- volvi a la oficina de campo de Tampa con su equipo de grabacin. +A puerta cerrada, admiti a agentes del FBI que lo que hacan era una farsa. +Un juez federal no quiso que estas conversaciones salieran. +Sell las transcripciones y las coloc bajo orden de proteccin en un intento de evitar que alguien como yo hiciera algo como esto. +A puerta cerrada, el agente jefe, el supervisor de equipo, describi a su aspirante a terrorista como "tonto retrasado que no sabe hacer la O con un canuto". +Describieron sus ambiciones terroristas como quimera confusa. +Pero eso no detuvo al FBI. +Ellos proporcionaron a Sami Osmakac todo lo que necesitaba. +Le dieron un auto bomba, le dieron un fusil AK-47, le ayudaron a hacer un vdeo martirio, e incluso le dieron dinero para un taxi para que se fuera a donde ellos queran que fuera. +Como estaban elaborando el soplo, el supervisor dijo a sus agentes que quera un final de Hollywood. +Y le dieron un final de Hollywood. +Cuando Sami Osmakac intent entregar lo que pensaba que era un auto bomba, fue detenido, condenado y sentenciado a 40 aos de prisin. +Sami Osmakac no est solo. +l es uno de ms de 175 denominados terroristas, para quien el FBI ha creado finales de Hollywood. +Funcionarios del gobierno de EE.UU. lo llaman Guerra contra el Terror. +Es solo teatro, un teatro de la seguridad nacional, con enfermos mentales como Sami Osmakac, actores involuntarios en una produccin cuidadosamente orquestada trada hasta Uds. por el FBI. +Gracias. +Tom Rielly: Esas son acusaciones muy fuertes, denuncias muy fuertes. +Cmo se sostiene esto? +T. Aaronson: Mi investigacin comenz en 2010 al recibir una beca para el Programa de Periodismo Investigativo de la UC Berkeley, y un asistente de investigacin y yo armamos una base de datos de todos los procesamientos de terrorismo de la primera dcada tras el 11-S. +Y usamos el expediente de la corte para saber si los acusados tenan conexiones con grupos terroristas internacionales, si se us un informante, y si el informante desempeaba el papel de agente provocador proporcionando los medios y la oportunidad. +Y lo enviamos al FBI pidindoles que vieran nuestra base de datos. +Si crean que haba algn error, que nos dijeran cules eran y volveramos a ver y actualizar. Nunca desmintieron nuestros hallazgos. +Ms tarde, us esos datos en un artculo de la revista y ms tarde en mi libro, y en apariciones en lugares como CBS y NPR, se les ofreci la oportunidad de nuevo de decir, "los hallazgos de Aaronson son falsos". +Y nunca han dicho: "Existen problemas con los resultados". +Grupos como Human Rights Watch ya han usado los datos en su reciente informe sobre operaciones de seuelo. +Y hasta el momento, el FBI nunca ha respondido a estos cargos de no capturar realmente a terroristas sino de capturar a enfermos mentales que puede vestirse como terroristas en operaciones de seuelo. +TR: The Intercep es la nueva web de periodismo de investigacin, cofundada por Glenn Greenwald. +Hblanos de tu artculo y por qu existe. +As que un lugar como The Intercept se cre para proteger a periodistas y publicar su trabajo cuando tratan temas tan sensibles como este. +Mi historia en The Intercept que acaba de publicarse hoy, cuenta la historia de cmo a Sami Osmakac se le involucr en este montaje del FBI con muchos ms detalles. +En esta charla, solo pude destacar las cosas que dijeron, como llamarlo "tonto retrasado". +Pero fue mucho ms elaborado, al empearse en poner dinero en manos de Sami Osmakac, que luego us para comprar armas del agente encubierto. +Cuando fue a juicio, la pieza central de la evidencia era que l pag por estas armas, cuando estas transcripciones muestran cmo el FBI orquest a alguien con una enfermedad mental y arruinado para que obtuviera dinero y luego pagar por las armas que sirvieran para denunciar una conspiracin. +TR: Una ltima pregunta. +Hace menos de 10 das, el FBI arrest a algunos sospechosos potenciales del ISIS en Brooklyn, diciendo que ellos podran dirigirse a Siria, era as o solo ejemplos de ms de lo mismo? +TA: Hasta ahora sabemos lo que dice el expediente judicial, pero parece sugerir que es un ejemplo ms de lo mismo. +Este tipo de operaciones de seuelo van por modas. +Al principio eran complots de Al Qaeda, y el Estado Islmico es la moda actual. +Digno de mencin es que los 3 hombres acusados solo iniciaron el complot de ir a Siria tras la introduccin del informante del FBI, y de hecho, el informante del FBI los ayud con documentos de viaje necesarios. +En un giro cmico en ese caso particular, la madre de un acusado haba descubierto que l estaba interesado en ir a Siria y escondi su pasaporte. +As que si l hubiera ido al aeropuerto, nunca podra haber viajado a ninguna parte. +Hay personas que podran querer formar parte del Estado Islmico en EE.UU. y esas son las personas que el gobierno de EE.UU. debe buscar para ver si buscan la violencia aqu. +En este caso, dada la evidencia hasta ahora, sugiere que el FBI posibilit que estos chicos planearan ir a Siria, cuando, en primera instancia, estaban lejos de ello. +TR: Muchas gracias, es increble. TA: Gracias. +He estado haciendo fotos desde hace mucho tiempo, y, normalmente una imagen como esta, debera ser, para m, algo fcil de tomar. +Estoy en el sur de Etiopa. Con los daasanach. +Es una familia numerosa, en un rbol muy bonito, y hago este tipo de fotos con una cmara con trpode incmoda, muy engorrosa, poco prctica. +Alguien recuerda las lminas fotogrficas de 10x12 y 20x25 cm? Y hay que configurarla y montarla en el trpode. +Tengo por fin la familia, pas gran parte del da hablando con ellos. +Ms o menos entienden lo que quiero hacer. +Piensan que estoy un poco loco pero esa es otra historia. +Y lo ms importante para m es la belleza, la esttica, y eso se basa en la luz. +As que tengo la luz adecuada a mi izquierda, y mantengo una conversacin continua con los daasanach, con los 30 de la familia, de todas las edades. +Hay bebs y hay abuelos, los subo al rbol, espero la puesta de sol, estoy en ello, aqu viene, aqu viene, solo me queda una lmina fotogrfica, y pienso que todo va bien, tengo el control. +Estoy ajustando, estoy en ello, estoy a punto de tener la luz perfecta, quiero que sea dorada, quiero que sea hermosa. +Quiero que inunde el horizonte para que se cierna sobre esta gente, y les envuelva en un aura de gloria. +Esperen, necesito esta luz. Qudense quietas!" +Y empiezan a gritar, y luego uno de los hombres se da la vuelta y empieza a gritar tambin, y todo el rbol se derrumba, bueno, no el rbol, la gente y mi composicin. +Todos estn corriendo, gritando, y corren de vuelta al pueblo dejando una nube detrs de s, mientras yo me quedo atrs con mi trpode. +La lmina est dentro, la luz se ha ido y no puedo tomar la foto. +Dnde se haban ido todos? No tena ni idea. +Me hizo falta una semana, una semana para hacer esta foto que ven aqu hoy, y les dir por qu. Es muy, muy, muy simple; durante una semana me pase por el pueblo, y pregunt a todos y cada uno de ellos: "Hola, puedes venir al rbol. +Cul es tu historia? Quin eres?" +Y resulta que todo fue por culpa de un novio, por el amor de Dios. +Quiero decir, tengo hijos adolescentes, debera saberlo. +Se trataba de un novio. La chica de arriba haba besado al chico equivocado, y empezaron a pelearse. +Pero esto para m fue una leccin muy, muy hermosa: si iba a fotografiar a estas personas de la manera digna, respetuosa que yo haba previsto, y ponerlos en un pedestal, tena que entenderlos. +No se trataba solo de venir a la cita. Y tampoco solo de estrechar una mano. +No bastaba con solo decir: "Soy Jimmy, soy fotgrafo". +Tuve que llegar a conocerlos a todos y cada uno de ellos, hasta quin era el novio de quin y quin estaba autorizado a besar a quin. +As que por fin, una semana ms tarde, estaba absolutamente exhausto, casi de rodillas implorando: "Por favor, sbase a ese rbol. Tengo que tomar esta foto". +Volvieron todos. Los coloqu a todos en el rbol. Me asegur de que la chica +que abofete a la otra estuviera en la otra esquina. Seguan echndose miradas; si se fijan en ello ms tarde, se nota como se miraban la una a la otra muy enojadas, y controlo el rbol y todo, y justo en el ltimo momento: "La cabra, la cabra! +Necesito algo que atraiga las miradas. Necesito una cabra blanca en el medio". +As que cambi todas las cabras de sitio, las puse en el medio, +pero aun as me equivoqu, porque miren a la izquierda, un pequeo sale enojado porque no eleg su cabra. +As que la moraleja es que tena que aprender a hablar con las cabras, as como lo hice con los daasanach. +Pero de todos modos, todo el esfuerzo queda reflejado en esa foto y en la historia que acabo de contarles, como se pueden imaginar, es solo una de cientos de otras historias excntricas, extraas, de cientos de otras personas del mundo. +Esto fue hace unos 4 aos, cuando sal de viaje, para ser honesto, un viaje muy a mi marcha. +Soy un verdadero romntico. Un idealista, quizs hasta ingenuo. +Pero realmente creo que la gente de este planeta es hermosa. +Es muy, muy sencillo. No es ciencia espacial. +Quera poner a esta gente en un pedestal. +Quera ponerlos en un pedestal como nunca haban sido puestos antes. +As que eleg unos 35 grupos diferentes, 35 tribus, culturas indgenas. +Las eleg puramente por razones estticas, y hablar de esto ms adelante. +No soy antroplogo, no tengo formacin tcnica al respecto, pero me apasiona muchsimo y estaba convencido que tena que elegir a la gente ms hermosa del planeta en su entorno ms bello y ponerlos juntos para presentrselos. +Hace casi un ao publiqu las primeras fotos, y pas algo muy emocionante. +Todo el mundo se me acercaba, y fue una experiencia extraa, porque todo el mundo, de todas partes: "Quines son? Qu representan? Cuntos hay? +Dnde los encontraste? Son reales? No son de verdad. +Dinos, dinos, dnoslo!" Millones de preguntas para las cuales, para serles honesto, no tengo respuesta. +Realmente no tena las respuestas, y de acuerdo, entiendo que son hermosas, y esa era mi intencin, pero las preguntas que me hacan, no saba responderlas. +Y pas algo bastante divertido, cuando hace casi un ao, alguien me dijo: "Te invitan a dar una charla TED". +Y yo dije: "Ted? Qu Ted? Quin es? No conozco a ningn Ted". +"No, una charla TED". Yo dije: "Pero, quin es Ted? +Tengo que hablar con l o hay una entrevista en algn escenario?" +"No, no, el grupo TED. Imposible que no hayas odo de eso". +Y le dije: "He estado en un tipi y en una yurta en los ltimos 5 aos. +Cmo dar con Ted? Presntame". +De todas formas, en resumidas cuentas me dijo: "Tenemos que hacer una charla TED". +Investigo. Qu emocionante! Es fantstico! +Y luego, irs a TED Global. +An ms emocionante. +Pero lo que hay que hacer, es ofrecer una leccin a la gente, lecciones que t mismo has aprendido en tus viajes por mundo de estas tribus. +Pens, lecciones, bien, bien, pero qu aprend? Buena pregunta. +3. Necesitas 3 lecciones, y muy profundas. +Y pens, 3 lecciones, bueno, voy a pensar en ello. +As que reflexion por mucho tiempo y aqu estaba de pie hace 2 das, y ense un poco, tena mis apuntes, el mando en la mano las fotos en la pantalla, tena mis 3 lecciones preparadas, empec a presentarlas, y tuve la extraa sensacin de salir de mi cuerpo. +Me veo a m mismo all de pie, y me digo: "Oye, Jimmy, vaya bobadas que dices. +Todas esta gente habr odo montones de charlas y lecciones como esta. +Quin eres t para decirles lo que has aprendido? +Quin eres t para guiarlos y quin eres t para mostrarles lo que est bien o mal, lo que esta gente tiene que decir?" +Y empec a experimentar una crisis un tanto discreta. +Volv a ello, un poco como el nio que se alej del rbol con sus cabras, muy disgustado, porque aquello no funcionaba, no era lo que yo quera comunicar. +Y reflexion mucho acerca de ello, y pens, bueno, lo nico que puedo transmitir es muy, muy bsico. +Tuve que darle la vuelta por completo. +Hay una sola persona aqu que conozco, y esta soy yo. +Todava estoy tratando de conocerme, esto es un viaje que dura toda una vida, y probablemente no tengo todas las respuestas pero aprend unas cuantas cosas extraordinarias en este viaje. +As que lo que voy a hacer es compartir con Uds. lo que aprend. +Como expliqu al principio, se trata de una manera muy peculiar, muy personal, del cmo y por qu hice estas fotos, y dejo a la audiencia interpretar lo que estas lecciones pueden haber significado para m, lo que podran quizs significar para Uds. +Viaj muchsimo cuando era nio. +Viva una vida muy nmada. En realidad, fue muy emocionante. +Por todo el mundo, y tena la sensacin de que me empujaron a gran velocidad a ser alguien, a convertirme en esa persona, en este Jimmy; +marcharme en el mundo, as que fui corriendo y mi esposa a veces se burla: "Jimmy, eres un poco como Forrest Gump". Pero yo le digo: "No, esto tiene un propsito, confa en m". +As que sigo corriendo y corriendo, y cuando llego a alguna parte, me paro y miro a mi alrededor y pienso: A dnde pertenezco? Dnde encajo yo? +Quin soy? De dnde vengo? No tena ni idea. +As que espero que no haya demasiados psiclogos en la audiencia. +Quiz parte de este viaje se debe a que trato de averiguar a dnde pertenezco. +As que me fui, y no se preocupen, cuando llegu a esas tribus, no me pint de amarillo y empec a correr por all con lanzas y en taparrabo. +Pero s encontr personas con un sentido de pertenencia y fueron ellos quienes me inspiraron, unas personas extraordinarias, y me gustara presentarles a algunos de mis hroes. +Son los huli. +Los huli son una tribu de una belleza singular en nuestro planeta. +Son gente orgullosa. Viven en entre las montaas de Papa Nueva Guinea. +No quedan muchos y se llaman hombres-peluca huli. +Y una imagen como esta, quiero decir que es de lo que se trata para m. +Es lo que hago: paso semanas y meses all hablando con ellos, familiarizndome, y quiero ponerlos en un pedestal, y les digo: "Tienen algo que muchos no han visto. +Rodeados de esta impresionante naturaleza". +Y realmente es lo que se ve, y la verdad es que lucen as. +Esto es de verdad. +Y saben por qu estn orgullosos? Saben por qu se ven as? Y por qu me esforc tanto para fotografiarlos y presentarles? +Es porque tienen estos rituales extraordinarias. +Los huli tienen este ritual, para pasar de la adolescencia a la adultez, de afeitarse la cabeza, para pasar luego el resto de su vida afeitarse la cabeza todos los das. Y lo que hacen con ese pelo es convertirlo en una creacin, algo muy personal. +Son sus creaciones. Una creacin huli. Por eso se llaman los hombres-peluca. +Esa es una de las pelucas que llevan en la cabeza. +Est hecha toda de pelo humano. +Y luego adornan esa peluca con plumas de las aves del paraso, y no se preocupen, hay muchos pjaros de esos all. +As que los huli me inspiraron con su sentido de identidad, +y tal vez tengo que trabajar ms para buscar un ritual que me importe a m y volver a mi pasado para ver dnde realmente encajo. +Una parte muy importante de este proyecto fue la de cmo acercarme para fotografiar a estas personas extraordinarias. +Y hablo bsicamente de la belleza. Creo que la belleza importa. +Pasamos toda nuestra vida en torno a la belleza: lugares hermosos, cosas hermosas, y en ltima instancia, gente hermosa. +Es muy, muy, muy significativo. +He pasado toda mi vida analizando +Cmo me veo? Piensan que soy guapo? +Importa si soy o no guapo o es puramente una cuestin de esttica? +Y luego, al viajar, llegu a una conclusin evidente: +Tengo que ir por el mundo fotografiando, perdn, solo mujeres entre los 25 y 30? Esta es toda la belleza que hay? +Y todo lo que hay antes y despus de ella es completamente irrelevante? +Y esto ocurri cuando me fui de viaje, un viaje tan profundo que me dan escalofros cuando pienso en ello. +Fui a una parte del mundo... y no s si alguno de Uds. ha odo hablar de Chukotka. Alguien ha odo hablar de Chukotka? +Chukotka es, tcnicamente, el lugar donde uno puede ir y todava sentir que se encuentra en un planeta vivo. +Est a 13 horas en avin desde Mosc. +Primero hay que llegar a Mosc, y luego 13 horas de vuelo directo desde Mosc. +Y eso si llegas all. +Como pueden ver, algunos no encontraron la pista. +Y luego cuando aterrizas all en Chukotka, encuentras a los chukchis. +Los chukchis son los ltimos indgenas inuit de Siberia, gente de la que haba odo hablar, casi nunca he visto fotos de ellos, pero saba que estaban all. As que estuve en contacto con este gua que me dijo: "Hay una tribu fantstica. Solo quedan 40 de ellos. +Todo ir bien. Los encontraremos". Y nos embarcamos en este viaje. +Cuando llegamos all, despus de un mes de viajar a travs del hielo, cuando llegamos a ellos, no nos dejaron fotografiarlos. +Dijeron: "No puedes fotografiarnos. Tienes que esperar. +Tienes que esperar hasta que llegues a conocernos. Hasta que nos entiendas. +Hasta que entiendas cmo nos relacionamos". +Y al cabo de muchas, muchas semanas vi el respeto. +No tenan ningn prejuicio. +Solo se observaban el uno al otro, desde los jvenes, a los adultos y ancianos. +Se necesitaban unos a otros. +Los nios masticaban carne todo el da porque los adultos ya no tenan dientes, y tambin ayudaban a los ancianos en el bao porque estaban enfermos, y as se forma esta fantstica comunidad llena de respeto. Se adoran y admiran mutuamente, +y fueron los que realmente me ensearon qu es la belleza. +Ahora voy a pedir un poco de participacin del pblico. +Es extremadamente importante para el final de mi charla. +Les ruego que miren a alguien a su izquierda o derecha, que lo observen y que le digan un piropo. Es muy importante. +Puede ser la nariz o su pelo o incluso su aura, no importa, pero por favor mrense, y felictense. +Tienen que hacerlo rpido, porque no me queda tiempo. +Y hay que recordarlo. +Muy bien, gracias, gracias, gracias, ya se han felicitado. +Y recuerden muy, muy bien el piropo. Para ms tarde. +Y la ltima leccin, extraordinariamente profunda, me pas solo hace 2 semanas cuando volv a ver a los himba. +Los himba viven en el norte de Namibia en la frontera con Angola, y yo haba estado all un par de veces antes, y regres para ensearles este libro que publiqu, para mostrarles las imgenes, abrir una discusin con ellos, decirles: "Es as como los veo, como los quiero. +As es como les muestro mi respecto. Qu les parece? Estoy en lo cierto? Me equivoco?" +No haba una valla aqu la ltima vez que vine? +Ya saben, esta gran valla que protege el pueblo. Me miran y me dicen: "S, es que se ha muerto el jefe". +Y pens, bueno, el jefe muri, arriba hay estrellas, la fogata est aqu... +El jefe ha muerto. Pero que tiene que ver con la valla? +"Cuando el jefe muere, +primero destruimos, luego reflexionamos. +Luego reconstruimos, entonces respetamos". +Y me ech a llorar, porque mi padre acababa de morir antes de este viaje, y yo nunca reconoc su labor, o hice pblico el hecho de que a lo mejor estoy aqu hoy, donde estoy, debido a l. +Estas personas me ensearon que somos lo que somos gracias a nuestros padres, nuestros abuelos y nuestros antepasados y as una y otra vez, de generacin en generacin, y yo, por muy romntico o idealista que sea en este viaje, no lo supe hasta hace 2 semanas. +No lo supe hasta hace 2 semanas. +Entonces, qu significa todo esto? +Bueno, hay una imagen que me gustara mostrarles, una imagen especial, y no era precisamente la imagen que quera elegir. +Al estar sentado all el otro da, pens: tengo que terminar con algo impactante. +Y alguien dijo: "Tienes que mostrarles la foto del nanev. El nanev". +"S, pero no es mi foto favorita". "No, no, que va. Es una imagen increble". +T ests en sus ojos". +"Qu quieres decir que estoy en sus ojos? Es la foto de un nanev". +Y ella dijo: "No, mira con atencin. Ests en sus ojos". +Y si miran bien esta foto, se ve mi reflejo en sus ojos. As que creo que tal vez tiene mi alma, y yo me he quedado en su alma, y mientras estas fotos les miran, les ruego que tambin las miren. +Es posible que no se vean reflejados en sus ojos, pero hay algo sumamente importante en estas personas. +Yo no tengo las respuestas, tal y como les acabo de contar, pero Uds. deben tenerlas, estn en alguna parte. +As que si reflexionan brevemente en lo que acabo de comentarles sobre la belleza, el sentimiento de pertenencia, nuestros antepasados, las races, y por favor, les ruego que se levanten. +Ahora ya no tienen excusa. Es casi la hora del almuerzo. Y esto no va de aplausos calurosos as que no se preocupen, no estoy esperando piropos. +Pero Uds. recibieron uno hace unos minutos. +Ahora les pido que estn bien erguidos. +Quiero que respiren profundamente. Esto es lo que les pido. +Ya no me pondr de rodillas durante 2 semanas. +No les pedir que traigan una cabra, y s que no tienen camellos. +La fotografa tiene un poder extraordinario. +Es este idioma que todos entendemos. +Realmente lo entienden todos, todos tenemos estas chimeneas digitales pero yo quiero compartirles con el mundo porque Uds. son tambin una tribu. +Son la tribu de TED, no? Pero hay que recordar el piropo. +Hay que mantenerse erguidos, respirar por la nariz, y les fotografiar. +Tengo que hacer una foto panormica, por lo que durar un minuto, as que tienen que concentrarse. +Respiren, bien erguidos sin rer. Shh, respiren por la nariz. +Voy a disparar. +Gracias. +Mark Twain resumi lo que considero es uno de los problemas fundamentales de la ciencia cognitiva con un solo chiste. +Dijo: "Hay algo fascinante en la ciencia. +Uno obtiene enormes retornos en conjeturas con muy poca inversin en hechos". +Twain lo deca en broma, claro, pero tiene razn: Hay algo fascinante en la ciencia. +A partir de unos pocos huesos, inferimos la existencia de dinosaurios. +A partir de las lneas espectrales, la composicin de las nebulosas. +A partir de moscas de la fruta, los mecanismos de la herencia, y a partir de imgenes reconstruidas de sangre que fluye a travs del cerebro, o en mi caso, desde el comportamiento de los nios muy pequeos, tratamos de decir algo sobre los mecanismos fundamentales de la cognicin humana. +En particular, en mi laboratorio en el Departamento de Cerebro y Ciencias Cognitivas del MIT, he pasado los ltimos diez aos tratando de entender el misterio de cmo los nios aprenden mucho rpidamente a partir de tan poco. +Porque resulta que lo fascinante de la ciencia es tambin una cosa fascinante en los nios, que, para ponerlo en trminos de Mark Twain, pero ms suave es precisamente su capacidad para dibujar ricas inferencias abstractas rpidamente y con precisin a partir de datos dispersos, confusos. +Dar solo dos ejemplos hoy. +Uno es sobre un problema de generalizacin, y el otro sobre un problema de razonamiento causal. +Y aunque hablar del trabajo en mi laboratorio, este trabajo se inspira y est en deuda con un campo. +Se lo agradezco a los mentores, colegas y colaboradores de todo el mundo. +Permtanme comenzar con el problema de la generalizacin. +Generalizar a partir de pequeas muestras de datos es el pan de cada da de la ciencia. +Entrevistamos a una pequea fraccin del electorado y podemos predecir el resultado de las elecciones nacionales. +Vemos un puado de pacientes responder al tratamiento en un ensayo clnico, y lanzamos los frmacos a un mercado nacional. +Pero esto solo funciona si la muestra se extrae al azar de la poblacin. +Si la muestra es seleccionada de alguna manera --por ejemplo, un sondeo a solo votantes urbanos, o, en un ensayo clnico de tratamientos para enfermedades del corazn, solo incluimos hombres-- los resultados no pueden generalizarse a la poblacin en general. +Los cientficos se preocupan si la evidencia es tomada o no al azar, pero qu tiene esto que ver con los bebs? +Los bebs tienen que generalizar a partir de pequeas muestras de datos todo el tiempo. +Ellos ven un par de patos de goma y aprenden que flotan, o un par de pelotas y aprenden que rebotan. +Y desarrollan expectativas sobre patos y pelotas que van a extender a los patos de goma y a las pelotas por el resto de sus vidas. +El tipo de generalizaciones que los bebs tienen que hacer sobre patos y bolas tienen que hacerlas con casi todo: zapatos y barcos y cera y coles y reyes. +A los bebs les importa si las pocas pruebas que ven, representan una poblacin ms grande? +Vamos a ver. +Les mostrar dos pelculas, una de cada una de las dos condiciones de un experimento, y como son solo dos pelculas, vern solo dos bebs, y los dos bebs difieren entre s en innumerables maneras. +Pero estos bebs, por supuesto, son parte de grupos de bebs, y las diferencias que vern representan diferencias del grupo promedio en el comportamiento segn las condiciones. +En cada pelcula, vern a un beb haciendo exactamente lo que cabra esperar que haga un beb, y difcilmente podemos hacer a los bebs ms mgicos de lo que ya son. +Pero a para mi mente lo mgico, y a lo que quiero que presten atencin, es al contraste entre estas dos condiciones, porque lo nico en que se diferencian estas dos pelculas es la evidencia estadstica que los bebs observarn. +Les mostraremos una caja de bolas de color azul y amarillo, y mi entonces estudiante de posgrado, ahora colega en Stanford, Hyowon Gweon, sacar tres bolas de color azul en fila de esta caja, y al sacar esas bolas fuera, las apretar, y las bolas chirriarn. +Y si fueran el beb, sera como una TED Talk. +No hay nada mejor que eso. +Pero el punto importante es que es muy fcil sacar tres bolas azules en fila de una caja de pelotas en su mayora azules. +Podran hacerlo con los ojos cerrados. +Es posible una muestra aleatoria de esta poblacin. +Y si se pueden sacar de la caja al azar y sacar cosas que chirran, entonces tal vez todo en la caja chirra. +Tal vez los bebs deben esperar que esas bolas amarillas chirren tambin. +Las bolas amarillas tienen palos divertidos al final, as los bebs podran hacer otras cosas con ellas si quisieran. +Podran sacudirlas o golpear a ellas. +Pero vamos a ver lo que hace el beb. +Hyowon Gweon: Ves esto? (Bola chirra) Viste eso? (Bola chirra) Genial. +Ves este? +(Bola chirra) Guauu. +Laura Schulz: Lo dije. HG: Ves este? (Bola chirra) Clara, este es para ti. Puedes jugar. +LS: No tengo ni siquiera que hablar, verdad? +Est bien, es bueno que los bebs generalicen propiedades de bolas azules a amarillas, y es impresionante que pueden aprender de nosotros imitando, pero ido aprendiendo esas cosas de los bebs durante mucho tiempo. +La pregunta realmente interesante es qu sucede cuando les mostramos a los bebs lo mismo, y sabemos que es lo mismo, porque tenemos un compartimiento secreto y que en realidad tomamos las bolas de all, pero esta vez, lo nico que cambiamos es la poblacin aparente de la que se extrae la evidencia. +Esta vez, mostraremos a los bebs tres bolas azules sacadas de una caja de pelotas en su mayora de color amarillo, y adivinen qu? +Seguramente no sacarn al azar tres bolas azules en fila de una caja de pelotas en su mayora amarillas. +Eso no es plausible en muestreos aleatorios. +Esa evidencia sugiere que tal vez Hyowon tomaba deliberadamente las bolas azules. +Tal vez hay algo especial con las bolas azules. +Tal vez solo las bolas azules chirran. +Vamos a ver lo que hace el beb. +HG: Ves esto? (Bola chirra) Ves este juguete? (Bola chirra) Oh, eso fue genial. Ves? (Bola chirra) Este es para que juegues. Puedes jugar. +(Hace ruidos) LS: Acaban de ver dos bebs de 15 meses de edad hacer cosas completamente diferentes basados solo en la probabilidad de la muestra que observaron. +Les ensear los resultados experimentales. +En el eje vertical, vern el porcentaje de bebs que apretaron la pelota en cada condicin, y como vern, los bebs son mucho ms propensos a generalizar las pruebas cuando es plausiblemente representativa de la poblacin que cuando la evidencia es claramente escogida. +Y esto lleva a una prediccin extraa: Supongamos que sacamos solo una bola azul de una caja con mayora amarilla. +Probablemente no sacarn tres azules en fila al azar de una caja de amarillas, pero se podra solo una bola azul al azar. +Esa no es una muestra improbable. +Y si pudieran tomar una al azar de una caja y sacar algo que chirra, tal vez todo en la caja chirriara. +As que a pesar de que los bebs vern mucha menos evidencia de chirridos, y tienen muchas menos acciones para imitar en esta condicin de una bola que es la que van a ver, predijimos que los bebs s la exprimiran ms, y eso es exactamente lo que encontramos. +Los bebs de 15 meses de edad, en este sentido, al igual que los cientficos, tienen cuidado de si la evidencia es de una muestra al azar o no, y utilizan esto para desarrollar expectativas sobre el mundo: que chirra y que no, qu explorar y qu ignorar. +Les mostrar otro ejemplo, sobre un problema de razonamiento causal. +Comienza con un problema confuso de evidencia que todos tenemos, que es que somos parte del mundo. +Puede no parecer un problema, pero como la mayora de los problemas, es solo un problema cuando las cosas van mal. +Tomen este beb, por ejemplo. +Las cosas van mal para l. +Le gustara jugar con este juguete, y no puede. +Les mostrar unos pocos segundos del clip. +Hay dos grandes posibilidades: Tal vez l est haciendo algo mal, o tal vez hay algo mal con el juguete. +As que en el siguiente experimento, daremos a los bebs solo unos pocos datos estadsticos para apoyar una hiptesis sobre la otra, y veremos si pueden usarlos para tomar decisiones diferentes acerca de qu hacer. +Aqu est la configuracin. +Hyowon intentar que el juguete funcione y tenga xito. +Yo a continuacin lo intentar dos veces y fallar en ambas, y luego Hyowon lo intentar de nuevo y tendr xito, lo que resume casi mi relacin con mis estudiantes de posgrado en tecnologa en todos los mbitos. +Pero el punto importante aqu es que proporciona algo de evidencia que el problema no es con el juguete, que es con la persona. +Algunos pueden hacer funcionar este juguete, y otros no pueden. +Cuando el beb recibe el juguete, optar por una alternativa. +Su mam est ah, para que pueda continuar y cambiar a la persona, pero tambin habr otro juguete al final de esa tela, y l puede tirar de la tela hacia l y cambiar el juguete. +As que veamos qu hace el beb. +HG: Dos, tres. Adelante! LS: Uno, dos, tres, ya! +Arthur, voy a intentarlo de nuevo. Uno, dos, tres, ya! +YG: Arthur, djame intentarlo de nuevo, de acuerdo? +Uno, dos, tres, ya! Mira eso. Recuerdas estos juguetes? +Ves estos juguetes? S, voy a poner este aqu, y te voy a dar este. +Puede jugar. +BT: Bueno, Laura, pero, por supuesto, los bebs aman a sus mams. +Claro, los bebs dan juguetes a sus mams cuando no pueden hacer que funcionen. +De nuevo, la pregunta realmente importante es qu sucede cuando cambiamos los datos estadsticos ligeramente. +Esta vez, los bebs vern el juguete funcionar y fallar en el mismo orden, pero cambiamos la distribucin de las pruebas. +Esta vez, Hyowon tendr xito una vez y fallar otra, y yo tambin +Y esto sugiere que no importa quin usa el juguete, el juguete falla. +No funciona todo el tiempo. +Una vez ms, el beb tendr una eleccin. +Su mam est justo al lado, para que ella pueda cambiar a la persona, y habr otro juguete al final de la tela. +Vamos a ver lo que hace. +HG: Dos, tres, ya! Djame intentarlo una vez ms. Uno, dos, tres, ya! +Hmm. +LS: Djame intentar, Clara. +Uno, dos, tres, ya! +Hmm, djame intentarlo de nuevo. +Uno, dos, tres, ya! HG: Voy a poner este por aqu, y te voy a dar ste. +Puedes usarlo y jugar. +LS: Les mostrar los resultados experimentales. +En el eje vertical, vern la distribucin de opciones de los nios en cada condicin, y vern que la distribucin de las opciones de los nios dependen de los ensayos que observan. +As, en el segundo ao de vida, los bebs pueden usar algo de los datos estadsticos para decidir entre dos estrategias fundamentalmente diferentes para actuar en el mundo: pedir ayuda y explorar. +Acabo de mostrarles dos experimentos de laboratorio de literalmente cientos en el campo que llegan a resultados similares, debido a que el punto realmente crtico es que la capacidad de los nios para hacer inferencias a partir de datos escasos subyace a todo el aprendizaje cultural especfico de la especie. +Los nios aprenden nuevas herramientas a partir de solo algunos ejemplos. +Aprenden nuevas relaciones causales a partir de solo algunos ejemplos. +Incluso aprenden nuevas palabras, en este caso en el lenguaje de seas americano. +Quiero cerrar con solo dos puntos. +Si han seguido mi mundo, el campo de las ciencias cerebrales y cognitivas, en los ltimos aos, tres grandes ideas habrn llamado su atencin. +La primera es que esta es la era del cerebro. +Y, en efecto, ha habido descubrimientos asombrosos en neurociencia: localizacin de regiones funcionalmente especializados de la corteza, logrando cerebros de ratn transparentes, la activacin de las neuronas con la luz. +Una segunda gran idea es que esta es la era de los grandes datos y el aprendizaje automtico, y las mquinas que aprenden prometen revolucionar nuestra comprensin de todo, desde las redes sociales a la epidemiologa. +Tal vez, al afrontar problemas de la escena comprensin y el procesamiento del lenguaje natural, nos diga algo sobre la cognicin humana. +Y la gran idea final que habrn odo es que tal vez es una buena idea que vamos a saber tanto de cerebros y tener tanto acceso a grandes datos, porque dejaremos a nuestros propios dispositivos, los seres humanos son falibles, tomamos atajos, erramos, cometemos errores, estamos sesgados, y en innumerables formas, obtenemos el mundo equivocado. +Creo que estas son todas historias importantes, y tienen mucho que decirnos acerca de lo que significa ser humano, pero tengan en cuenta que hoy les cont una historia muy diferente. +Es una historia acerca de la mente y no del cerebro, y, en particular, es una historia sobre los tipos de clculos que las mentes humanas pueden realizar de forma nica, que implican, ricos conocimientos estructurados y capacidad de aprender desde pequeas cantidades de datos, la evidencia de unos pocos ejemplos. +Y fundamentalmente, es una historia sobre cmo iniciar a los nios muy pequeos y continuar hasta el final a los ms grandes logros de nuestra cultura, tenemos al mundo bien. +La mente humana no solo aprende de pequeas cantidades de datos. +Las mentes humanas piensan nuevas ideas. +Las mentes humanas generan investigacin y descubrimiento, y las mentes humanas producen arte y literatura y poesa y teatro, y las mentes humanas cuidan de otros seres humanos: nuestros mayores, nuestros jvenes, nuestros enfermos. +Incluso nos sana. +En los prximos aos, veremos las innovaciones tecnolgicas incluso ms all de lo que yo pueda imaginar, pero es muy poco probable ver cualquier cosa, incluso aproximarse a la potencia de clculo de un nio humano en mi vida o en la suya. +Si invertimos en estos ms poderosos alumnos y en su desarrollo, en los bebs y nios y madres y padres y cuidadores y maestros en la forma en que invertimos en nuestras otras formas ms poderosas y elegantes de tecnologa, ingeniera y diseo, no vamos simplemente a estar soando con un futuro mejor, estaremos planeando para uno. +Muchas gracias. +Chris Anderson: Laura, gracias. En realidad tengo una pregunta. +En primer lugar, la investigacin es una locura. +Quiero decir, quin diseara un experimento como ese? Los he visto un par de veces, y todava honestamente no creo que realmente est pasando, pero otras personas han hecho experimentos similares; revisen. +Los bebs son realmente genios. +LS: Se ven realmente impresionantes en nuestros experimentos, pero piensa en cmo se ven en la vida real, verdad? +Empiezan como un beb. +18 meses ms tarde, hablan contigo, y las primeras palabras no son solo cosas como pelotas y patos, son cosas como "se acab", que se refieren a desaparicin, o "uh-oh", para acciones intencionales. +Tiene que ser tan poderoso. +Tiene que ser mucho ms poderoso que cualquier otra cosa. +Estn averiguando el mundo entero. +Un nio de 4 aos, puede hablarte de casi cualquier cosa. +CA: Y te he entendido bien, el otro punto clave que ests haciendo es, que hemos pasado estos aos donde hay todas estas charlas de lo rara y loca que es nuestra mente, la economa del comportamiento y las teoras subyacentes de que no somos agentes racionales. +Realmente dices que la historia ms grande es lo extraordinario, y que en realidad es el genio que es poco apreciado. +LS: Una de mis citas favoritas de psicologa proviene del psiclogo social Solomon Asch, quien dijo que la tarea fundamental de la psicologa es quitar el velo de la autoevidencia de las cosas. +Hay rdenes de magnitud, ms decisiones que tomar cada da que logran un buen mundo. +Sabes de los objetos y sus propiedades. +Los conoces cuando estn ocultos. Los conoces en la oscuridad. +Puedes caminar por salas. +Puedes averiguar qu estn pensando otros. Puedes hablar con ellos. +Navegas por el espacio. Sabes sobre nmeros. +Sabes las relaciones causales. Y sobre el razonamiento moral. +Lo haces sin esfuerzo, as que no lo ves, pero as es como conseguimos un buen mundo, y es un notable y logros muy difciles de entender. +CA: Sospecho que hay gente en la audiencia que tiene la visin de la aceleracin tecnolgica que podra controvertir tu afirmacin de que en nuestras vidas una computadora no har lo que un nio de tres aos puede hacer, pero lo que est claro es que en cualquier escenario, nuestras mquinas tienen mucho que aprender de nuestros nios. +LS: Creo que s. Habr mquinas de aprendizaje automtico. +Quiero decir, nunca debe apostar en contra de los bebs o los chimpancs o la tecnologa como una cuestin de prctica, pero no se trata solo de una diferencia en la cantidad, es una diferencia en cualidad. +Tenemos computadoras muy potentes, y las hacen hacer cosas muy sofisticadas, a menudo con muy grandes cantidades de datos. +Las mentes humanas hacen, creo, algo muy distinto, y creo que es la naturaleza estructurada y jerrquica del conocimiento humano lo que sigue siendo un verdadero desafo. +CA: Laura Schulz, maravilloso alimento para la reflexin. Muchas gracias. +LS: Gracias. +Estoy muy emocionado de compartir con Uds. algunos hallazgos que realmente me sorprendieron de lo que hace a las compaas ser ms exitosas. Cules son los factores que realmente importan para el xito de arranque. +Creo que la organizacin emergente es una de las mejores formas de hacer del mundo un lugar mejor. +Si toman un grupo de personas con los incentivos de valor adecuados y las organizan en una empresa emergente, se puede liberar el potencial humano de una manera nunca antes posible. +Pueden hacer que logren cosas increbles. +Pero si la organizacin emergente es tan maravillosa, por qu tantas fallan? +Eso era lo que quera descubrir. +Quera saber qu es lo que ms importa para el xito inicial. +Quera tratar de ser sistemtico, evitar algunos instintos y las percepciones errneas que tengo de tantas compaas que he visto a travs de los aos. +Quera saberlo porque he estado lanzado negocios desde que tena 12 aos cuando venda dulces en la parada del autobs en la secundaria, en preparatoria, cuando hice aparatos de energa solar, en la universidad, cuando hice altavoces. y despus, lanc compaas de software. +Hace 20 aos, comenc Idealab, y en los ltimos 20 aos, hemos lanzado ms de 100 compaas, muchos xitos y muchos fracasos grandes. +Aprendimos mucho de esos fracasos. +As que trat de encontrar qu factores contaban ms para el xito y el fracaso de una compaa. +As que mir estas cinco. +Primero, la idea. Sola pensar que la idea era todo. +Nombr mi compaa Idealab por lo mucho que adoro el momento "Aj!" cuando se te ocurre la idea. +Pero con el tiempo, comenc a pensar que quiz el equipo, el desempeo, la flexibilidad, importaban an ms que la idea. +Nunca pens que citara al boxeador Mike Tyson en el escenario de TED, pero una vez dijo: "Todos tenemos un plan, hasta que te pegan en la cara". Y creo que es muy cierto tambin para los negocios. +Mucho del desempeo del equipo tiene que ver con la habilidad de adaptarse a ser golpeado en la cara por el cliente. +El cliente es la realidad verdadera. +Y es como se me ocurri que quiz el equipo es lo ms importante. +Despus empec a ver el modelo de negocio. +Tiene la compaa un camino claro para generar ingresos? +Eso comenz a sobresalir en creencia sobre lo qu era lo ms importante para el xito. +Luego, el financiamiento. +A veces las compaas reciben financiamientos fuertes. +Quiz eso es lo ms importante. +Despus, el momento. Es la idea muy adelantada y el mundo no est listo? +Ests avanzado y tienes que educar al mundo? +Est a tiempo? O demasiado tarde, y tienes mucha competencia? +Trat de ver muy cuidadosamente estos 5 factores en varias compaas, +y mir a lo largo de las 100 compaas de Idealab, y a 100 compaas fuera de Idealab para tratar de salir con algo cientfico. +Primero, en estas compaas de Idealab, la 5 compaas arriba, Citysearch, CarsDirect, Goto, Netzero, Tickets.com, todas esas se volvieron xitos billonarios en dlares. +Y las 5 compaas debajo, Z.com, Insider Pages, Mylife, Desktop Factory, Peoplelink, todos tenamos grandes esperanzas, pero no tuvieron xito. +Trat de clasificar a lo largo de todos esos atributos como crea que esas compaas calificaban en cada una de esas dimensiones. +Y para las compaas fuera de Idealab, mir los xitos desmesurados, como Airbnb e Instagram y Uber y Youtube y Linkedin. +Y algunos fracasos: Webvan, Kozmo, Pets.com, Flooz and Friendster. +Estas compaas tenan financiamiento fuerte, algunas tenan modelos de negocios, pero sin xito. +Trat de ver los factores que realmente contaban ms para el xito y fracaso a lo largo de todas estas compaas, y los resultados realmente me sorprendieron. +No. 1, fue el momento en el tiempo. +El momento oportuno representaba el 42 % de la diferencia entre xito y fracaso. +El equipo y la ejecucin fueron segundo, y la idea, la diferencialidad de la idea, la originalidad de la idea, de hecho, qued en tercer lugar. +Ahora, no es absolutamente definitivo, no digo que la idea no sea importante, pero me sorprendi muchsimo que la idea no fuera lo ms importante. +A veces era ms importante cuando era a tiempo. +Las ltimas dos, modelo de negocio y financiamiento, tienen sentido. +Tiene sentido que el modelo de negocio sea bajo ya que puedes comenzar sin un modelo y aadirlo despus si tus clientes demandan lo que haces. +Y financiamiento, tambin, si tienes poco financiamiento al inicio pero ests ganando terreno, especialmente en estos das, es muy fcil obtener financiamiento fuerte. +Ahora djenme darles algunos ejemplos especficos de cada uno. +Tomemos un gran xito como Airbnb que todos conocen. +Sabemos que muchos inversionistas inteligentes la dejaron pasar, porque la gente pens: "Nadie va a rentar un espacio en su casa a un extrao". +Por supuesto, la gente demostr lo contrario. +Una de las razones de su xito, aparte de un buen modelo de negocio, una buena idea, gran desempeo, es el tiempo. +Esta compaa surgi justo en la cima de la recesin cuando la gente necesitaba dinero extra, y eso quiz ayud a la gente a vencer la objecin a rentar su hogar a un extrao. +Lo mismo con Uber. Uber sali, una compaa increble, gran modelo de negocio, y gran desempeo. +Pero el momento fue perfecto, por su necesidad de atraer choferes a su sistema. +Los choferes buscaban dinero extra; era muy importante. +Uno de nuestros xitos iniciales, Citysearch, sali cuando la gente quera sitios web. +GoTo.com, que anunciamos en TED en 1998, fue cuando las compaas buscaban maneras rentables de obtener trfico. +Pensamos que la idea era genial, pero de hecho, el tiempo fue quiz ms importante. +Algunos de nuestros fracasos. +Lanzamos una compaa llamada Z.com, de entretenimiento en lnea. +Estbamos muy emocionados, tenamos suficiente dinero, un gran modelo de negocio, hasta contratamos talento de Hollywood para unirse a la compaa. +Pero la penetracin de banda ancha era muy baja en 1999-2000. +Era muy difcil ver contenido de video en lnea, tenas que poner cdecs en tu buscador y hacer todo esto, y la compaa finalmente cerr en 2003. +Solo dos aos despus, cuando Adobe Flash resolvi el problema del cdec y cuando la penetracin de la banda ancha cruz el 50 % de EE. UU., YouTube tuvo un tiempo perfecto. +Una idea genial, pero un tiempo increble. +De hecho, ni siquiera tena un modelo de negocio cuando comenz. +Ni siquiera era seguro que funcionara. Pero el tiempo, fue el momento perfecto. +Yo dira, en resumen, que la ejecucin, es definitivamente muy importante. +La idea es muy importante. +Pero el momento en el tiempo podra importar an ms. +Y la mejor manera de evaluar el tiempo es ver cuidadosamente si los consumidores estn realmente listos para lo que les ofreces. +Y ser realmente honesto, no negar ninguno de los resultados que vean, porque si tienen algo que aman, quieren impulsarlo, pero tienen que ser muy honestos, sobre el factor de tiempo. +Como dije anteriormente, creo que las empresas emergentes pueden cambiar el mundo y hacerlo mejor. +Espero que estos conocimientos puedan ayudarlos a tener un radio de xito un poco ms alto, y hagan que algo genial llegue al mundo, que de lo contrario no hubiera ocurrido. +Muchas gracias, han sido un pblico genial. +En la gran pelcula de los 80 "The Blues Brothers" hay una escena en la que John Belushi va a visitar a Dan Aykroyd a su apartamento en Chicago por primera vez. +Es un pequeo espacio reducido y est a solo un paso de las vas del tren. +Cuando John se sienta en la cama de Dan, pasa un tren muy rpido, y sacude toda la habitacin. +John pregunta: "Con qu frecuencia pasa el tren?" +Dan responde: "Tan a menudo, que ni lo notars". +Y luego algo se cae de la pared. +Todos sabemos de qu habla. +Como seres humanos, nos acostumbramos a las cosas cotidianas muy rpidamente. +Como diseador de productos, es mi trabajo ver esas cosas cotidianas, entenderlas y tratar de mejorarlas. +Por ejemplo, en esta fruta. +Ven esta pequea etiqueta? +Esa etiqueta no estaba all cuando yo era nio. +Pero en algn momento con el paso del tiempo, alguien tuvo la brillante idea de poner esa etiqueta en la fruta. +Por qu? Para facilitarnos las cosas en la caja de la tienda. +Eso es genial, podemos entrar y salir de la tienda rpidamente. +Pero ahora hay un nuevo problema. +Cuando vamos a casa y tenemos hambre y vemos esta fruta madura, jugosa, en la frutera, queremos tomarla y comerla. +Salvo que ahora tenemos que mirar si tiene esta pequea etiqueta. +Intentar sacarla con las uas, sin daar la superficie de la fruta. +Luego enrollar esa etiqueta... saben de lo que hablo. +Y luego tratar de despegarla de los dedos. +No es gracioso, para nada. +Pero ocurre algo interesante. +La primera vez que lo hicieron, quiz tuvieron esa sensacin. +Queran comer la fruta. +Se enojaron. Queran ir directo a la fruta. +A la dcima vez, fueron dejando el enojo de lado y empezaron a quitar la etiqueta. +La centsima vez, al menos yo, me volv insensible a eso. +Simplemente tomaba la fruta, quitaba la etiqueta con las uas, intentaba deshacerme de ella y luego me preguntaba: "No tendr otra etiqueta?" +Por qu pasa esto? +Por qu nos acostumbramos a las cosas cotidianas? +Bueno, como humanos, tenemos una capacidad cerebral limitada. +Por eso, el cerebro codifica las cosas cotidianas en hbitos, para que podamos liberar espacio y aprender nuevas cosas. +Es un proceso llamado habituacin y es una de las formas ms bsicas en la que aprendemos como humanos. +La habituacin no siempre es mala. +Recuerdan cuando aprendieron a conducir? +Yo s. +Ambas manos al volante, mirando cada objeto, los autos, luces, peatones... +Es una experiencia estresante. +Tanto, que no poda hablar con nadie en el auto, ni poda escuchar msica. +Pero luego ocurri algo interesante. +Con el transcurrir de las semanas, conducir se volvi ms y ms fcil. +Nos habituamos. +Empez a hacerse divertido y absolutamente natural. +Y entonces pudimos volver a hablar con los amigos y escuchar msica. +Hay una buena razn por la cual los cerebros se habitan a las cosas. +De no hacerlo, notaramos cada simple detalle, todo el tiempo. +Sera extenuante, y no tendramos tiempo para aprender cosas nuevas. +Pero a veces, la habituacin no es buena. +Si no nos deja ver los problemas que nos rodean, bueno, eso es malo. +Si no nos deja ver y corregir esos problemas, bueno, eso es realmente malo. +Los comediantes lo saben. +Jerry Seinfeld hizo toda una carrera notando esos pequeos detalles, esas estupideces que hacemos a diario y ni siquiera recordamos. +l nos cuenta de la vez que visit a sus amigos y solo quera tomar una ducha confortable. +Que tom el mango, gir ligeramente en una direccin, y estaba extremadamente caliente. +Y que gir en la otra direccin, y estaba extremadamente fro. +Y l solo quera una ducha confortable. +A todos nos ha pasado, solo que no lo recordamos. +Pero Jerry lo hizo, y esa es la tarea de un comediante. +Pero para los diseadores, innovadores y emprendedores nuestra tarea no solo es notar esas cosas, sino dar un paso ms y tratar de solucionarlas. +Vean esto, esta persona, es Mary Anderson. +En 1902 en Nueva York, estaba de visita. +Era un da fro, hmedo, nevaba, y ella disfrutaba del calor dentro de un tranva. +De camino a su destino observ que el conductor abra la ventana para limpiar el exceso de nieve y poder conducir con seguridad. +Cuando l abra la ventana, no obstante, dejaba entrar ese aire fro y hmedo, para desgracia de los pasajeros. +Probablemente la mayora de los pasajeros pensaron: "Son cosas de la vida, tiene que abrir la ventana para limpiarla. +As son las cosas". +Pero no para Mary. +Mary pens: "Y si el conductor pudiera limpiar el parabrisas desde el interior para poder conducir de forma segura mientras los pasajeros disfrutan el calor?" +Sac su libreta all mismo, y empez a dibujar lo que se convertira en el primer limpiaparabrisas del mundo. +Como diseador de productos trato de aprender de la gente como Mary para tratar de ver el mundo de la forma que es, no de la forma que pensamos que es. +Por qu? Porque es fcil resolver un problema que casi todos ven. +Pero es difcil resolver un problema que casi nadie ve. +Algunas personas piensan que uno nace con esta capacidad o que no la tiene, como si Mary Anderson estuviera dotada de nacimiento para ver el mundo con claridad. +Ese no fue mi caso. +Yo tuve que trabajar en eso. +Durante mis aos en Apple, Steve Jobs nos desafiaba a trabajar cada da, a ver nuestros productos a travs de los ojos del cliente, del nuevo cliente, del que tiene miedos y quiz frustraciones y alegra y esperanza de que su nuevo producto de tecnologa pudiera funcionar bien para ellos. +Lo llamaba seguir siendo principiantes, y quera que hiciramos hincapi en esos pequeos detalles para que fueren ms rpidos, ms fciles y sin problemas para los nuevos usuarios. +Recuerdo esto claramente de los primeros das del iPod. +All por los aos 90, siendo el friki de los dispositivos que soy, sala corriendo a la tienda tras el ltimo dispositivo que sala. +Me tomaba el tiempo para ir a la tienda, comprar, volver a casa, empezaba a abrir la caja. +Y luego otra pequea etiqueta, esa que deca: "Cargar antes de usar". +Qu?! +No puedo creerlo! +Pas todo este tiempo comprando el producto y ahora tengo que cargarlo antes de usarlo. +Tena que esperar lo que pareca una eternidad para usar el juguete codiciado. +Era una locura. +Pero saben qu? +Casi todos los productos de la poca eran as. +Si tenan bateras, haba que cargarlas antes de usar. +Bueno, Steve not eso y dijo: "No dejaremos que eso le pase a nuestro producto". +Qu hicimos? +Normalmente, cuando uno tiene un producto con un disco duro, lo hace funcionar unos 30 minutos en la fbrica para asegurarse de que el disco duro funcionar aos despus cuando el cliente lo saque de la caja. +Qu hicimos nosotros en cambio? +Probamos el producto durante ms de dos horas. +Por qu? +Bueno, para empezar, podramos hacer un producto de ms alta calidad, fcil de probar, y asegurarnos que era genial para el cliente. +Pero ms importante, la batera vena totalmente cargada al salir de la caja, lista para usar. +As ese cliente, con toda esa alegra, poda empezar a usar el producto. +Fue genial, y funcion. +A la gente le gust. +Hoy, casi todos los productos que tienen bateras vienen de fbrica con carga completa, aunque no tengan un disco duro. +Pero en ese entonces, notamos ese detalle y lo corregimos y ahora todos los dems hacen lo mismo tambin. +Ya no ms: "Cargar antes de usar". +Pero por qu les cuento esto? +Bueno, ver el problema invisible no solo el problema obvio, es importante, no solo para el diseo de productos sino para todo lo que hacemos. +Vern, estamos rodeados de problemas invisibles que podemos resolver. +Pero primero tenemos que verlos, que sentirlos. +Dudo en darles consejos sobre neurociencia o psicologa. +Hay mucha ms gente experimentada en la comunidad TED que sabe mucho ms sobre eso de lo que yo pueda saber jams. +Pero permtanme que les d algunos consejos que todos podemos seguir, para combatir la habituacin. +Mi primer consejo es tener una mirada ms amplia. +Cuando estn abordando un problema, a veces, hay muchos pasos que conducen al problema. +Y a veces, muchos pasos posteriores. +Si dan un paso atrs, y miran con ms amplitud quiz pueden cambiar algunos de estos pasos anteriores al problema. +Quiz pueden combinarlos. +Quiz pueden eliminarlos del todo para un resultado mejor. +Los termostatos, por ejemplo. +En el 1900 cuando aparecieron, eran muy simples de usar. +Uno poda girarlos hacia arriba y hacia abajo. +La gente los entendi. +Pero en los aos 1970, lleg la crisis energtica, y los clientes empezaron a pensar en ahorrar energa. +Y qu ocurri? +Los diseadores de termostatos aadieron algunos pasos. +En vez de girar hacia arriba o abajo, ahora haba que programarlos. +Uno poda indicarles qu temperatura quera en determinado momento. +Eso pareca genial. +Cada termostato empez a incorporar esa caracterstica. +Pero result que nadie ahorr energa. +Por qu? +Bueno, la gente no poda predecir el futuro. +No podan saber cmo cambiaran sus semanas de estacin a estacin, de ao a ao. +Por eso no se ahorr energa, y qu ocurri? +Los diseadores de termostatos volvieron a la mesa de dibujo e hicieron hincapi en ese paso de la programacin. +Hicieron mejores interfaces de usuario, hicieron mejor documentacin. +Pero todava, aos despus, las personas no ahorraban energa porque simplemente no podan predecir el futuro. +Entonces que hicimos? +Pusimos un algoritmo de aprendizaje en vez de la programacin para que observara subir y bajar cundo les gustaba determinada temperatura, cundo suban, o cundo se iban. +Y saben qu? Funcion. +La gente ahorra energa sin programacin. +Por eso no importa lo que hagan. +Si dan un paso atrs y observan todos los pasos quiz haya una forma de eliminar uno o de combinarlos para hacer el proceso mucho ms simple. +Ese es mi primer consejo: mirar con ms amplitud. +Mi segundo consejo, es mirar ms de cerca. +Uno de mis mejores profesores fue mi abuelo. +Me ense todo sobre el mundo. +Me ense cmo se construyeron las cosas y cmo se reparan, las herramientas y tcnicas necesarias para hacer un proyecto exitoso. +Recuerdo una historia que me cont sobre los tornillos, y cmo uno tiene que tener el tornillo apropiado para cada tarea. +Hay muchos tipos de tornillos: tornillos de madera, de metal, anclajes, tornillos de hormign, y la lista sigue. +Nuestro trabajo es hacer productos fciles de instalar para todos los clientes, no solo para profesionales. +Qu hicimos? +Record esa historia que me cont mi abuelo, y pensamos: "Cuntos tornillos diferentes podemos poner en la caja? +Dos, tres, cuatro, cinco? +Porque hay muchos tipos de paredes". +Lo pensamos, lo optimizamos y llegamos a tres tornillos diferentes para la caja. +Pensamos que eso resolvera el problema. +Pero result no ser as. +Lanzamos el producto y la gente no tuvo una gran experiencia. +Qu hicimos? +Volvimos a la mesa de diseo nada ms darnos cuenta de que no lo habamos hecho bien. +Y diseamos un tornillo especial, un tornillo personalizado, muy a pesar de nuestros inversores. +Decan: "Por qu dedicar tanto tiempo a un pequeo tornillo?" +Vayan y vendan ms!" +Y nosotros: "Venderemos ms si hacemos esto bien". +Y result que lo logramos. +Con ese pequeo tornillo a medida, haba solo un tornillo en la caja, que era fcil de montar y poner en la pared. +Por eso, si nos centramos en esos pequeos detalles que pueden no verse y los miramos y decimos: "Son importantes o es la forma en que siempre se hizo? +Quiz hay una forma de deshacerse de ellos". +Y mi ltimo consejo es pensar ms joven. +Afronto preguntas interesantes de parte de mis tres hijos pequeos a diario. +Vienen con preguntas como: "Por qu los autos no vuelan sobre el trnsito?" +O, "Por qu mis cordones no tienen velcro?" +A veces esas preguntas son inteligentes. +Mi hijo vino una vez y le ped: "Ve al buzn y mira qu hay". +Me mir perplejo y dijo: "Por qu el buzn no se fija solo y nos avisa cuando tiene correo?" Me dije: "Esa es una pregunta bastante buena". +Ellos pueden hacer miles de preguntas y a veces descubrimos que no tenemos las respuestas correctas. +Decimos: "Hijo, esa es la forma en que funciona el mundo". +Cuanto ms nos exponemos a algo, ms nos acostumbramos a eso. +Pero los nios no llevan mucho tiempo en este mundo para acostumbrarse a las cosas. +Y cuando encuentran problemas, de inmediato tratan de resolverlos. y a veces encuentran mejores maneras, y esa forma es mucho mejor. +Por eso un consejo que tomamos muy en serio es tener jvenes en el equipo, o personas con mentes jvenes. +Porque si tienen esas mentes jvenes, hacen que todos en la sala tengan un pensamiento ms joven. +Picasso dijo una vez: "Todo nio es un artista. +El problema cuando crece es cmo seguir siendo artista". +Todos vemos el mundo ms claramente cuando lo vemos por primera vez, antes de que una vida de hbitos se interponga en el camino. +Nuestro desafo es volver all, sentir esa frustracin, ver esos pequeos detalles, mirar con ms amplitud, mirar ms de cerca, y pensar ms joven, para seguir siendo principiantes. +No es fcil. +Requiere que cambiemos una de las formas ms bsicas de dar sentido al mundo. +Pero, de hacerlo, podramos lograr cosas bastante sorprendentes. +Para m, espero, implica un mejor diseo de productos. +Para Uds., podra significar otra cosa, algo poderoso. +Nuestro desafo es despertar cada da y decir: "Cmo puedo experimentar mejor el mundo?" +Y si lo hacemos, quiz, solo quiz, podamos deshacernos de estas tontas y pequeas etiquetas. +Muchas gracias. +Hace unos 10 aos, atraves un tiempo un poco difcil. +As que decid ir a ver a una terapeuta. +Fui durante unos meses, y un da me mir y dijo, "Quin te cri en realidad hasta los tres aos?" +Pareca una pregunta extraa. Le dije: "Mis padres". +Y ella dijo: "No creo que en realidad ese sea el caso; porque si lo fuera, hablaramos de cosas mucho ms complicadas que simplemente esto". +Sonaba como si fuera una broma, pero yo saba que hablaba en serio. +Porque cuando empec a verla, trataba de ser la persona ms divertida de la reunin. +Trataba de usar esas bromas, pero ella lo capt muy rpidamente, y siempre que intentaba hacer una broma, ella me miraba y deca: "Eso es realmente muy triste". +Es terrible. +As que saba que tena que ser seria, y le pregunt a mis padres quin me haba criado hasta que tena tres aos. +Y para mi sorpresa, me dijeron que mi cuidadora principal haba sido una pariente lejana de la familia. +Yo la llamaba mi ta. +Recuerdo a mi ta tan claramente, senta como si hubiera sido parte de mi vida de adulta. +Recuerdo su pelo grueso y liso, y cmo me cubra toda como una cortina al inclinarse a cargarme; su acento tailands sureo suave; la forma en que me aferraba a ella, incluso si ella solo quera ir al bao o iba por algo de comer. +Yo la quise, con la ferocidad que un nio tiene a veces antes de entender que el amor tambin requiere dejar ir. +Pero mi ms clara y ntida memoria de mi ta, es tambin uno de mis primeros recuerdos de la vida. +Recuerdo cmo era golpeada y abofeteada por otro miembro de mi familia. +Recuerdo que yo gritaba histricamente para que pararan, cada vez que suceda, por cosas tan pequeas como querer salir con sus amigos, o llegar un poco tarde. +Me puse tan histrica por cmo la trataban, que con el tiempo, la golpeaban a puerta cerrada. +Las cosas se le pusieron tan feas que con el tiempo huy. +De adulta, me enter ms tarde de que la haban trado de Tailandia con solo 19 aos a EE. UU. para cuidarme, con una visa de turista. +Termin trabajando en Illinois un tiempo, antes de finalmente regresar a Tailandia, donde me encontr con ella de nuevo, en una reunin poltica en Bangkok. +Me aferr a ella de nuevo, como lo haca de nia, y la dej ir, y entonces promet que la llamara. +Sin embargo, nunca lo hice. +Porque ella me haba salvado. +Y yo no la haba salvado. +Soy periodista y escribo e investigo sobre el trfico de personas desde hace ocho aos ms o menos, y an as, nunca un esta historia personal con mi vida profesional, hasta muy recientemente. +Creo que esta profunda desconexin en realidad simboliza la mayora de nuestro conocimiento sobre la trata de personas. +Porque la trata de personas es mucho ms frecuente, compleja y cercana de lo que nos damos cuenta. +Pas un tiempo en crceles y burdeles, entrevistado a cientos de supervivientes y policas, trabajadores de ONG. +Y cuando pienso en lo que hemos hecho sobre la trata de personas, estoy enormemente decepcionada. +En parte debido a que ni siquiera hablamos del problema del todo. +Cuando digo "trata de personas" la mayora de Uds. probablemente no piensan en alguien como mi ta. +Probablemente piensan en una chica joven o mujer, obligada brutalmente a la prostitucin por un proxeneta violento. +Eso es verdadero sufrimiento, y es una historia real. +Esa historia, sin embargo, me enoja mucho ms que la realidad de la situacin. +Como periodista, me importa cmo nos relacionamos a travs del lenguaje, y la forma en que contamos esa historia, con todo detalle cruento y violento, los aspectos obscenos --lo llamo periodismo de "observar cicatrices"--. +Utilizamos esa historia para convencernos de que la trata de personas es un mal hombre que hace algo malo a una nia inocente. +Esa historia nos deja fuera. +Se quita todo el contexto social que podra ser acusado de desigualdad estructural o pobreza, o barreras de migracin. +Nos permitimos pensar que la trata de personas es solo sobre prostitucin forzada, cuando en realidad, la trata de personas est incrustada en nuestra vida cotidiana. +Se los mostrar. +La prostitucin forzada representa el 22 % de la trata de personas. +El 10 % est en la mano de obra forzada impuesta. +pero una friolera de 68 % tienen el propsito de crear mercancas y proveer los servicios de los que nosotros dependemos todos los das, en sectores como el trabajo agrcola, domstico y de la construccin. +Esto es comida, cuidado y refugio. +Y de alguna manera, estos trabajadores ms esenciales tambin se encuentran hoy entre los peor pagados y explotados. +La trata de personas es el uso de la fuerza, el fraude o la coaccin para obligar a trabajar a otra persona. +Se encuentra en los campos de algodn, las minas de coltn, e incluso en lavaderos de autos en Noruega e Inglaterra. +Se encuentra en las bases militares estadounidenses en Irak y Afganistn +y en la industria pesquera de Tailandia. +Ese pas se ha convertido en el mayor exportador de camarn del mundo. +Pero cules son las circunstancias tras todo este camarn barato y abundante? +Se capturaron a militares tailandeses vendiendo inmigrantes birmanos y camboyanos en los barcos de pesca. +En esos barcos de pesca, ponen a trabajar a los hombres, y los arrojan por la borda si cometen el error de caer enfermos, o tratan de resistir ese tratamiento. +Estos peces se utilizan para alimentar a los camarones, Los camarones se venden a cuatro principales minoristas mundiales: Costco, Tesco, Wal-Mart y Carrefour. +La trata de personas se encuentra en una escala menor que eso, y en lugares que ni siquiera imaginan. +Los traficantes han obligado a nios a conducir camiones de helados, o cantar en una gira de coros infantiles. +La trata incluso se ha encontrado en una peluquera en Nueva Jersey. +El esquema en ese caso era increble. +Los traficantes encontraron familias jvenes que eran de Ghana y Togo, y les dijeron a estas familias que "sus hijas van a tener una gran educacin en EE. UU.". +Luego localizaron a los ganadores de la lotera de la "green card", y les dieron: "Nosotros les ayudaremos. +Le daremos un boleto de avin. Vamos a pagar sus gastos. +Todo lo que tienen que hacer es tomar esta chica joven, decir que ella es su hermana o su esposa. +Una vez que llegan a Nueva Jersey, a las chicas jvenes se las llevan, y las ponen a trabajar 14 horas al da, 7 das a la semana, 5 aos. +Hacen ganar a sus traficantes unos 4 millones de dlares. +Es un gran problema. +Qu hemos hecho al respecto? +Nos hemos volcado en el sistema judicial. +Pero tengan en cuenta, que la mayora de las vctimas son pobres y marginadas. +Son inmigrantes, personas de color. +A veces estn en el comercio sexual. +Y para grupos como estos, el sistema de justicia es muy a menudo parte del problema, en lugar de la solucin. +Un estudio tras otro, en pases que van desde Bangladesh a EE. UU., entre el 20 y el 60 % de las personas en el comercio sexual encuestadas dijeron que haban sido violadas o asaltadas por la polica en el ltimo ao. +Las personas en prostitucin, incluidas las que han sido vctimas de trata, regularmente reciben mltiples condenas por prostitucin. +Tienen antecedentes penales que hacen que sea mucho ms difcil salir de la pobreza, dejar el abuso o abandonar la prostitucin, si esa persona lo desea. +Los trabajadores fuera del sector del sexo si lo intentan y se resisten a ese tratamiento, pueden ser deportados. +Caso tras caso estudiado, los empleadores no tienen problema de avisar a la polica para amenazar con deportar a sus aterrados trabajadores. +Si estos trabajadores huyen, se arriesgan a convertirse en parte de la gran masa de trabajadores indocumentados sujetos tambin a los caprichos de las fuerzas del orden si son atrapados. +Se supone que la ley identifica a las vctimas y enjuicia a los traficantes. +Pero de un estimado de 21 millones de vctimas de la trata en el mundo, han ayudado e identificado a menos de 50 000 personas. +Eso es como comparar la poblacin del mundo con la poblacin de Los ngeles, proporcionalmente hablando. +En cuanto a los encarcelados, de un estimado de 5700 condenas en 2013, menos de 500 fueron por trfico de mano de obra. +Tengan en cuenta que este trfico representa el 68 % de todo el trfico, pero menos del 10 % de las condenas. +Un experto dice que el trfico se da cuando la necesidad se une a la codicia. +Me gustara aadir un elemento ms a eso. +Se da cuando los trabajadores estn excluidos de las protecciones, y se les niega el derecho a organizarse. +La trata no ocurre en un vaco. +Se da en los ambientes de trabajo sistemticamente degradados. +Podran pensar, ella habla de estados fracasados o devastados por la guerra, o... En realidad estoy hablando de EE. UU. +Djenme que les cuente cmo se ve. +Pas meses investigando un caso de trfico llamado Global Horizons, de cientos de trabajadores agrcolas tailandeses. +Fueron enviados a trabajar en las plantaciones de pia de Hawi, huertos de manzanas de Washington y donde fueran necesarios. +Se les prometi 3 aos de trabajo agrcola slido. +As que tomaron un riesgo calculado. +Vendieron su tierra, vendan joyas de sus esposas, para pagar los honorarios de reclutamiento de Global Horizons. +Pero una vez que los trajeron, les confiscaron sus pasaportes. +Golpearon a algunos y los sometieron a punta de pistola. +Trabajaban muy duro y se desmayaban en el campo. +Este caso me afect mucho. +Despus volv a casa, Estaba por ah en la tienda, y qued congelada en la zona de produccin. +Recordaba las comidas que los sobrevivientes Global Horizons hacan para m cada vez que iba a entrevistarlos. +Terminaron una comida con ese plato de fresas perfectas, de tallo largo, y cuando me las dieron, dijeron, "No son este tipo de fresas las que comes con alguien especial en EE. UU.? +Y no saben mucho mejor cuando conoces las personas cuyas manos los recogieron para ti?". +En esa tienda de alimentos, semanas ms tarde, entend que no tena ni idea a quin agradecer por esta abundancia, y no tena idea de cmo los trataban. +Como periodista, empec a recabar en el sector agrcola. +Y encontr que hay demasiados campos, y muy pocos inspectores de trabajo. +Encontr varias capas de negacin plausible entre productor y distribuidor y procesador, y Dios sabe quin ms. +A los sobrevivientes de Global Horizons los trajeron a EE. UU. en un programa de trabajadores temporales. +Ese programa de trabajador temporal ata la situacin jurdica de una persona a su empleador, y niega a los trabajadores el derecho a organizarse. +Eso s, nada de lo que describo sobre el sector agrcola o el programa de trabajadores huspedes es en realidad trata de personas. +Es simplemente lo que encontramos legalmente tolerable. +Y yo dira que esto es un terreno frtil para la explotacin. +Y todo esto me estaba oprimiendo, antes de intentar entenderlo. +No era la nica persona que lidiaba con estos problemas. +Pierre Omidyar, fundador de eBay, es uno de los mayores filntropos contra la trata en el mundo. +E invirti accidentalmente cerca de 10 millones de dlares en esa plantacin de pia citada por tener las peores condiciones de trabajo en ese caso de Global Horizons. +Cuando se enter, l y su esposa se conmocionaron y horrorizaron, y escribieron un artculo de opinin para un peridico, diciendo que todos debamos aprender todo lo que pudiramos de la mano de obra y suministro de los productos que consumimos. +Estoy totalmente de acuerdo. +Qu pasara si cada uno de nosotros decidimos que ya no vamos a apoyar a las empresas si no eliminan la explotacin de su mano de obra? +Si exigimos leyes pidiendo lo mismo? +Si todos los directivos deciden que van a ir a sus negocios a decir: "No ms"? +Si acabamos las tarifas de contratacin de los trabajadores migrantes? +Si los trabajadores huspedes tienen el derecho a organizarse sin temor a represalias? +Estas seran decisiones escuchadas en todo el mundo. +No la compra de un melocotn de comercio justo ni comprar en una zona libre de culpa con su dinero. +No es as como funciona. +Esta es la decisin de cambiar un sistema daado, y que sin saberlo, pero voluntariamente, nos permite beneficiarnos de l y beneficiarnos demasiado tiempo. +A menudo insistimos en la victimizacin de los supervivientes de la trata. +Pero ese no es mi experiencia con ellos. +Durante todos los aos que he hablado con ellos, me han enseado que somos ms que nuestros peores das. +Cada uno de nosotros es ms de lo que hemos vivido. +Especialmente los sobrevivientes. +Estas personas fueron las ms ingeniosas, resistentes y responsables en sus comunidades. +Eran las personas por las que uno apostara. +Podran decir, vender mis anillos, porque tengo la oportunidad de enviarlo a un futuro mejor. +Ellos fueron los emisarios de la esperanza. +Estos supervivientes no necesitan ahorros. +Ellos necesitan la solidaridad, porque estn detrs algunos de los mejores movimientos de justicia social hoy en da. +Las nieras y amas de casa que marcharon con sus familias y las familias de sus empleadores, su activismo nos consigui un tratado internacional sobre los derechos de los trabajadores domsticos. +Las mujeres nepales que fueron vctimas de la trata en el comercio sexual que se juntaron y decidieron que haran la primera organizacin en el mundo contra la trata dirigida y gestionada por sobrevivientes de la trata. +Estos trabajadores indios fueron objeto de trata para la reconstruccin luego del huracn Katrina. +Fueron amenazados con la deportacin, pero salieron de su campamento de trabajo y marcharon desde Nueva Orleans a Washington, DC, para protestar contra la explotacin laboral. +Cofundaron la Alianza Nacional de Trabajadores Huspedes, y a travs de esta organizacin, han ayudado a otros trabajadores llevando luz a la explotacin y los abusos en las cadenas de suministro en Walmart y las fbricas de Hershey. +Y aunque el Departamento de Justicia se neg a tomar su caso, abogados de derechos civiles ganaron la primera de una docena de demandas civiles este mes de febrero, consiguiendo a sus clientes 14 millones de dlares. +Estos supervivientes luchan por personas que no conocen todava, otros trabajadores, y por la posibilidad de un mundo justo para todos nosotros. +Es nuestra oportunidad de hacer lo mismo. +Es nuestra oportunidad de tomar la decisin que nos dice quines somos, como personas y como sociedad; que nuestra prosperidad no es la prosperidad mayor, hasta que se fije en el dolor de otras personas; que nuestras vidas estn inextricablemente entrelazadas; y que tenemos el poder de hacer una eleccin diferente. +Era reacia a compartir la historia de mi ta con Uds. +Antes de empezar este proceso TED y subir a este escenario, le haba dicho esto a un puado de personas, porque, al igual que muchos periodistas, estoy mucho ms interesada en aprender de sus historias que compartir mucho, si acaso, de m. +Tampoco he construido mi misin periodstica basada en esto. +No he hecho las montaas de solicitudes de documentos, ni entrevistado a cada uno y su madre, ni he encontrado a mi ta todava. +No s la historia de lo que le sucedi, y de su vida ahora. +La historia que les he contado est desordenada y sin terminar. +Pero creo que refleja la situacin desordenada y sin terminar de todos cuando se trata de la trata de personas. +Todos estamos implicados en este problema. +Pero eso significa que todos somos tambin parte de su solucin. +Encontrar la manera de construir un mundo ms justo es nuestro trabajo por hacer, y nuestra historia para contar. +Digamos la forma en que deberamos haberlo hecho, desde el principio. +Vamos a contar esta historia juntos. +Muchas gracias. +Era 1 de noviembre de 2002 mi primer da como directora, pero apenas mi primer da en el distrito escolar de Filadelfia. +Me gradu de escuelas pblicas de Filadelfia, y me fui a ensear educacin especial por 20 aos en una escuela de bajos ingresos y bajo rendimiento escolar en el norte de Filadelfia, donde el crimen es rampante y la pobreza extrema se encuentra entre las ms altas de la nacin. +Poco despus de entrar en mi nueva escuela, estall una gran pelea entre las chicas. +Despus de que las cosas estuvieran rpidamente bajo control, inmediatamente convoqu una reunin en el auditorio de la escuela para presentarme como nueva directora de la escuela. +Entr enojada, un poco nerviosa, pero estaba decidida a establecer el tono para mis nuevos estudiantes. +Empec enumerando tan fuertemente como pude mis expectativas sobre su comportamiento y mis expectativas para lo que iban a aprender en la escuela. +Cuando, de repente, una muchacha en la parte posterior del auditorio, se puso de pie y dijo: "Seorita! +Seorita!". +Cuando nuestros ojos se encontraron, dijo: "Por qu sigue llamando a esto escuela? +Esto no es una escuela". +En un arrebato, Ashley haba expresado lo que yo senta y que nunca pude articular sobre mi propia experiencia al asistir a una escuela de bajo rendimiento en el mismo barrio, muchos, muchos, muchos aos antes. +Sin duda que la escuela no era una escuela. +Adelantemos una dcada a 2012, Yo ingresaba en mi tercera escuela de bajo rendimiento como directora. +Iba a ser la cuarta directora de Strawberry Mansion en cuatro aos. +Fue etiquetada como: "De bajo rendimiento y persistentemente peligrosa" debido a sus bajos puntajes en los exmenes y al alto nmero de armas, drogas, asaltos y detenciones. +Poco despus de acercarme a la puerta de mi nueva escuela y tratar de entrar, encontr la puerta cerrada con cadenas, Poda or la voz de Ashley en mis odos diciendo, "Seorita! Seorita! +Esto no es una escuela". +Los pasillos eran opacos y oscuros por una mala iluminacin. +Haba un montn de pilas de muebles viejos daados y pupitres en las aulas, y haba miles de materiales y recursos sin usar. +Eso no era una escuela. +A medida que avanzaba el ao, me di cuenta de que las aulas estaban casi vacas. +Los estudiantes estaban asustados: asustados de sentarse en filas con temor de que algo sucediera; miedo porque eran objeto de burlas en la cafetera por comer comida gratis. +Tenan miedo de todas las peleas y todo el acoso. +Esto no era una escuela. +Y ah estaban los maestros, increblemente temerosos de su propia seguridad, as que tenan bajas expectativas de los estudiantes y de ellos mismos, y eran totalmente conscientes de su papel en la destruccin de la cultura de la escuela. +Este fue lo ms preocupante de todo. +Ya ven, Ashley estaba en lo cierto, y no solo sobre su escuela. +Para demasiadas escuelas, para los nios que viven en la pobreza, sus escuelas realmente no son las escuelas en absoluto. +Pero esto puede cambiar. +Djenme contarles qu se est haciendo en Strawberry Mansion Secundaria. +Cualquiera que haya trabajado conmigo les dir que soy conocida por mis lemas. +As que hoy, voy a utilizar tres que han sido de suma importancia en nuestra bsqueda del cambio. +Mi primer lema es: si vas a liderar, lidera. +Siempre he credo que lo que sucede y lo que no sucede en una escuela depende del director. +Yo soy la directora, y tener ese ttulo me obliga a liderar. +No iba a permanecer en mi oficina, no iba a delegar mi trabajo, y yo no iba a tener miedo de hacer frente a cualquier cosa que no fuera bueno para los nios, me gustara o no. +Yo soy una lder, as que s que no puedo hacer nada sola. +As, reun un equipo de liderazgo de primera categora que crea en las posibilidades de todos los nios, y juntos, abordamos las cosas pequeas, como restablecer todas las combinaciones de los casilleros manualmente para que cada estudiante pudiera tener un casillero seguro. +Decoramos cada tabln de anuncios en ese edificio con mensajes brillantes, coloridos y positivos. +Tomamos las cadenas de la puerta principal de la escuela. +Reemplazamos las bombillas daadas, y limpiamos todas las aulas a fondo, reciclando cada, cada libro de texto que no fuera necesario, y desechamos miles de materiales y muebles antiguos. +Usamos dos contenedores de basura por da. +Y, por supuesto, por supuesto, abordamos las cosas grandes, como reconvertir todo el presupuesto de la escuela para poder reasignar fondos para tener ms profesores y personal de apoyo. +Reconstruimos todo el programa diario de la escuela a partir de cero para agregar una variedad de tiempos de inicio y fin, remediacin, cursos de honores, actividades extracurriculares, y asesoramiento, todo durante el da escolar. +Todo durante la jornada escolar. +Creamos un plan de despliegue que especificaba dnde encontrar a cada persona de apoyo y oficial de polica cada minuto del da, y monitorizbamos cada segundo del da, y, nuestro mejor invencin, ideamos un programa de disciplina escolar titulado "No negociables". +Era un sistema de comportamiento --diseado para promover siempre un comportamiento positivo--. +Los resultados? +Strawberry Mansion fue retirado de la lista de persistentemente peligrosas nuestro primer ao despus de estar... Tras estar en la lista de peligrosas por 5 aos consecutivos. +Los lderes hacen posible lo imposible. +Esto me lleva a mi segundo lema: Bien, y ahora qu? +Cuando nos fijamos en los datos, y nos reunimos con el personal, haba muchas excusas de por qu Strawberry Mansion era de bajo rendimiento y persistentemente peligrosa. +Despus de decirnos todas las historias de lo mal que estaban las condiciones y los nios, los mir, y dije: "Bien, y ahora qu? +Qu vamos a hacer al respecto?". +Eliminar las excusas en cada paso se convirti en mi principal responsabilidad. +Abordamos cada una de esas excusas a travs de un desarrollo profesional obligatorio, allanando el camino para un enfoque intenso en la enseanza y el aprendizaje. +Despus de muchas observaciones, lo que se determin fue que los maestros saban qu ensear pero no saban cmo ensear a tantos nios con tantas grandes habilidades. +As que desarrollamos un modelo de prestacin de leccin para la enseanza centrado en grupos pequeos, que hace posible a todos los estudiantes lograr sus necesidades individuales en el aula. +Los resultados? +Despus de un ao, los datos del estado revelaron que nuestros puntajes han crecido un 171 % en lgebra y 107 % en literatura. +Tenemos un largo camino por recorrer, un muy largo camino por recorrer, pero ahora abordamos cada obstculo con la actitud "Bien, y ahora qu?". +Y eso me lleva a mi tercera y ltimo lema. +Si nadie te dijo que te amaba hoy, recuerda que yo s, y siempre lo har. +Mis estudiantes tienen problemas: problemas sociales, emocionales y econmicos que nunca Uds. podran imaginar. +Algunos de ellos son sus propios padres, y algunos estn completamente solos. +Si alguien me pregunta mi verdadero secreto de cmo realmente mantengo Strawberry Mansion avanzando, tendra que decir que amo a mis estudiantes y creo en sus posibilidades incondicionalmente. +Cuando los miro, solo puedo ver lo que pueden llegar a ser, y eso es porque yo soy uno de ellos. +Crec pobre tambin, en el norte de Filadelfia. +S lo que se siente al ir a una escuela que no es una escuela. +S lo que se siente preguntarse si hay alguna vez va a haber alguna manera de salir de la pobreza. +Pero debido a mi increble madre, tuve la capacidad de soar a pesar de la pobreza que me rodeaba. +Por lo tanto... si voy a animar a mis estudiantes hacia su sueo y su propsito en la vida, tengo que llegar a saber quines son. +As que tengo que pasar tiempo con ellos, as que me las arreglo en el comedor todos los das. +Y ya que estoy all, hablo con ellos acerca de cosas muy personales, y cuando es su cumpleaos, canto "Feliz cumpleaos" a pesar de que canto nada bien. +A menudo les pregunto, "Por qu quieres que cante si no s cantar nada bien?". +Y ellos responden diciendo, "Porque nos gusta sentirnos especiales". +Llevamos a cabo reuniones mensuales en la sala de juntas para escuchar sus preocupaciones, para averiguar lo que est en sus mentes. +Ellos nos hacen preguntas como: "Por qu tenemos que seguir las reglas?". +"Por qu hay tantas consecuencias?". +"Por qu no podemos simplemente hacer lo que queramos?". +Ellos preguntan y yo respondo cada pregunta con honestidad, y este intercambio en la escucha ayuda a aclarar cualquier malentendido. +Cada momento es un momento de aprendizaje. +Mi recompensa, mi recompensa por ser no negociable en mis reglas y consecuencias es haberme ganado su respeto. +Insisto en que, y debido a esto, podemos lograr cosas juntos. +Ellos tienen claras mis expectativas para ellos, y repito esas expectativas todos los das por los altoparlantes. +Les recuerdo... les recuerdo esos valores fundamentales de foco, tradicin, excelencia, integridad y perseverancia, y les recuerdo todos los das cmo la educacin puede cambiar verdaderamente la vida. +Y termino cada anuncio igual: "Si nadie te dijo que te amaba hoy, recuerda que yo s, y siempre lo har". +Las palabras de Ashley de "Seorita, seorita, esto no es una escuela", estn grabadas en mi mente para siempre. +Si realmente vamos a hacer progresos reales para hacer frente a la pobreza, entonces tenemos que asegurarnos de que cada escuela que atiende a nios en situacin de pobreza sea una verdadera escuela, una escuela, una escuela... una escuela que proporciona el conocimiento y el entrenamiento mental para navegar por el mundo que les rodea. +No s todas las respuestas, pero lo que s s es para aquellos de nosotros que somos privilegiados y tenemos la responsabilidad de dirigir una escuela que atiende a nios en situacin de pobreza, debemos verdaderamente liderar, y cuando nos enfrentamos a desafos increbles, tenemos que parar y preguntarnos: "Bien, y ahora qu? +Qu vamos a hacer al respecto?". +Gracias. +Gracias, Jess. +Esta es una obra de teatro llamada "Ventas/Compras/Citas". +Es mi primera desde "Puente y Tnel", que hice en Broadway, y de esta, --gracias-- he hecho un extracto solo para Uds. As que all vamos. +Bien. Clase. Asegurmonos muy bien de que todos los dispositivos electrnicos estn apagados antes de empezar. +As que, clase, espero que puedan reconocer lo que acaban de orme decir. +Muy bien, el anuncio del telfono celular. +S? Esto tambin se conoce como telfono mvil. +As recordarn, que la gente de esa poca tena un dispositivo electrnico externo. Algo como esto, y todos ellos tenan uno de estos siempre con ellos, y entre sus mayores temores era la pura mortificacin de que uno de esos pudiera sonar en algn momento inoportuno. +S? Para Uds., algo de "trivia" sobre esa era +As que el formato de la clase de hoy es mostrar mltiples mdulos BERT de ese perodo de la historia, comenzando aproximadamente en el 2016. +Y recuerden, este fue el primer ao del programa BERT. +Tenemos un buen nmero para mirar. +Tengan en cuenta, voy a encarnar varios cuerpos diferentes, diferentes edades, tambin lo que se llam razas o grupos tnicos, como recordarn de la Unidad 1. +Y ---- a travs de la serie continua de gnero, voy a encarnar varones tambin. +Era bastante binario entonces. +Tambin, no se olviden, de leer el mdulo del libro para el enfoque de la prxima semana sobre el gnero. +S que algunos han solicitado el libro en forma de pldora. +S que la gente todava cree que ingerir es mejor para la retencin, pero ya que estamos tratando de experimentar lo que hicieron nuestros antepasados, por favor, hagmoslo solo desde la lectura ocular real, de acuerdo? +Y cuntas personas han activado sus derivaciones emocionales? +Por favor, desactvenlas, s? +S que es difcil, pero quiero que puedan sentir toda la gama emocional natural, de acuerdo? +Es esencial para esta parte del programa de estudios. +S, Macy? +Est bien. Entiendo. Si no ests dispuesta... Est bien, podemos discutirlo despus de clase. +Muy bien, hablaremos de tus preocupaciones. +Solo reljate. Nadie muri o se fue al compostaje. +Est bien. Despus de clase. S? Despus de clase. +Vamos a empezar, est bien. +Este primer tema identificado como ama de casa de clase media. +Recuerden, en estos primeros mdulos las identidades completas de estas personas estaban protegidas, y esto les permiti hablar ms libremente sobre nuestro tema, lo que para muchos de ellos era tab. +Bien, cario, ahora, Estoy lista cuando quieras. +No, cario, dije: que estoy lista cuando quieras. +Me estoy congelando. +Se est como en un frigorfico en este estudio de grabacin. +Debera haber trado una manta. +Toda esta tecnologa de fantasa, pero no se dan el lujo de la calefaccin. +Qu dices? No puedo orte! +No puedo or a travs del cristal, cario! +Ests en mi odo. +Puedes orme? +Durante todo el tiempo. +Oh, s, tengo un poco de fro. +S, oh!, el fro es para las mquinas, la nueva tecnologa. Bueno. +S, ahora me recuerdan una vez ms, que me estn grabando no solo la voz sino mis sentimientos y mis recuerdos, cierto? +S, BERT, s, he ledo sobre l. +Tecnologa Bioemptica de Resonancia. +Cierto, cierto, as la gente podr vivir mi experiencia y mi memoria? Bueno. +No, bien, estoy lista. +Solo pens que me haras una prueba para ver cmo ando de mi memoria. +Iba a decirte que tengo malas noticias, es demasiado tarde. +No, no, adelante, cario. +Oh, esa es la primera pregunta? +Qu pienso de la prostitucin? +Me ests solicitando, joven? +He odo hablar de romances de mayo a diciembre, pero dime tienes unos 20 aos de edad? +18? 18 aos? +Creo que tengo caramelos en el bolso de ms de 18 aos. +Te tomo el pelo, cario. S, me siento cmoda con cualquier pregunta. +As que sobre la prostitucin, trabajadora sexual, trabajadora sexual. +No, solo que entonces, lo llamaban prostitucin, no trabajo sexual. +Oh, porque incluye pornografa tambin? +Est bien. +No, bueno, supongo que cuando era nia, no tenamos realmente un nombre para eso. +Habramos dicho revistas sucias, supongo, o pelculas sucias. +Bueno, no es como lo de Internet. +No, bueno, no me importa compartir. +Mi marido y yo, ramos una pareja muy romntica. +Mucha ternura, ya entiendes. +Bueno, a medida que envejeca, en un momento pens que a mi marido le podran ayudar las pldoras que pueden tomar los hombres, pero l no estaba interesado en eso, as que pens, quiz viendo una pelcula para adultos en Internet? +Solo en busca de inspiracin, ya me entiendes. +En aquel entonces, ninguno de los dos ramos muy buenos con la computadora, por lo general, si necesitbamos ayuda con Internet, llambamos a nuestros hijos o nuestros nietos. Pero obviamente, en este caso, esa no era una opcin, as que pens, echar una mirada sola, solo para ver. +Qu tan difcil poda ser? +Uno busca ciertas palabras clave y ves... Oh, guau, ya est, joven. +No te puedes imaginar lo que vi. +Bueno, primero que nada, solo intentaba encontrar parejas, parejas normales que hacen el amor. Pero esto?, muchas personas juntas al mismo tiempo. +No se poda decir qu parte perteneca a qu cuerpo. +Cmo llegaron las cmaras a capturar todo esto? No podra decirte. +Pero la nica cosa que no captaban era hacer el amor. +Haba un montn de actividad de algo, pero se sac solo esa parte del amor de ello, ya sabes, la diversin. +Todo era muy extremo, sabes? +Como t diras de los deportes extremos. +Mucha esfuerzo, pero nunca ternura. +As que de todos modos, no hace falta decir que fueron USD 19,95 nunca ms lo visitar de nuevo, pero solo apareci en la tarjeta de crdito como "servicios de entretenimiento". Mi marido nunca fue el ms sabio, y despus de todo eso, bien, se podra decir que cambi. No necesitaba la inspiracin adicional despus de todo. +Bien. A por el siguiente tema; es una mujer joven ---- tema siguiente, clase, es una joven llamada Bella, estudiante universitaria entrevistada en 2016 durante una clase llamada "Introduccin al porno feminista" como parte de sus estudios sobre trabajo sexual en una universidad en el rea de la baha. +S, solo quiero, como, que me den una grabacin, me estn grabando, como una grabacin meta, o lo que sea. +Es toda esta experiencia, es solo, como decirlo, realmente increble, Y me gustara capturarlo para mi Instagram y mi Tumblr. +Para decir, as, "Hola chicos, soy Bella, y estoy entrevistada en este momento, con esta increble Tecnologa de Bioemptica de Resonancia". Que es, en el fondo donde estn grabando, como se puede ver estos, lo que sea, electrodos, la formacin, como, neuropptidos en mi hipocampo, o lo que sea. +Ellos ms tarde reconstituirn mi propia memoria real, como experiencias reales, Para que otras personas puedan, realmente sentir lo que siento en este momento. +Est bien. Bueno. +As, hola, BERT persona del futuro que me ests experimentando. +Esto es lo que se siente siendo una estudiante universitaria de primer ao, y tambin el dolor de cabeza que ests experimentando a travs mo es el, como, el efecto residual de los 'shots' de gelatina que me com anoche en la fiesta feminista quincenal donde soy coanfitriona los mircoles. +Se llama "No seas Polo-emica" ---- y est en Beekman Hall, y, qu ms?, tambin hay gelatina disponible para veganos, y, oh, bueno, s, totalmente, s, tambin hay que centrarse en tus preguntas. +As que para el informe, hago estudios del trabajo sexual minorizado en los medios sociales con una concentracin de memes notables en YouTube. +S, bueno, por supuesto, cmo me considero, obviamente, feminista. +Fui denominada por Bella Abzug, quin era, como, la famosa feminista de la historia, y, al igual, tambin siento que es, como, importante, como, representar a las mujeres que son, como, feministas positivas al sexo. +Qu es el sexo negativo? +S, yo no pienso en m misma como, proveedora directa de servicios de atencin al sexo per se siendo un requisito para m ser activista. +Apoyo el derecho a otras mujeres a elegir voluntariamente lo que les gusta. +S, pero, al igual que, me veo a m misma en el futuro como, probablemente, protectora de los trabajadores sexuales de sus libertades y derechos legales. +S, as, bsicamente, estoy pensando en ser abogada. +Bien, clase. As que estos prximos dos mdulos tambin son de 2016. +Uno de los sujetos es una irlandesa con una notable relacin con este tema. Pero primero ser una mujer antillana, una autodenominada escolta grabada en el desfile de los trabajadores del sexo a favor de sus derechos. +La entrevistaron mientras desfilaba disfrazada tocando ritmos de carnaval y muy poco ms. +Bien, quieres que empiece a hablar ahora? +S, te dije, puedes poner esos cables donde quieras, siempre que no se interponga en el camino. +S, no, pero, dime otra vez el nombre BERT? BERT? +S, te deca, que creo que en todo ese tiempo tuve al menos un cliente con ese nombre, as, esta no ser mi primera vez que tuve a BERT encima. +Oh, lo siento, pero debes entrar en la onda si vas a entrevistarme. +Bien? Puedes decirlo. +Sin justicia no hay ni pizca! [Juego de palabras "peace" - paz-, "piece" - pizca] +Pero ves la seal? lo entiendes? P-I-E-C-E [pizca / paz). Sin justicia no hay ni un pizca nuestra. +Entiendes? +S, lo que te deca es que cuando llegu a este pas trabaj en todo empleo que pude encontrar. +Fui niera, asistente del cuidado domstico para diferentes personas viejas. Y me dije, nia, si tienes que tocar el trasero de otro hombre blanco, podras obtener mucho mejor pago que haciendo esto, entiendes? +Uff, sabes lo difcil que es ser trabajadora domstica? +Algunos de esos hombres son pesados. +tienes que levantarlos y darles la vuelta. +Ahora dejo que me levanten y me den la vuelta, entiendes? +Una tiene que tener sentido del humor al respecto, es lo que pienso. +No, pero mira, escucha, encuentra a alguien que no odie algo de su trabajo. +Quiero decir, hay muchas cosas sobre este trabajo que odio, pero el dinero no es una de ellas, y te dir, siempre y cuando esta sea la mejor posibilidad para m de ganar dinero real, ser la jamaiquina no falsa, si eso es lo que quieren llamarme. +No, no soy de Jamaica. Es as como me comercializan. +Mi familia es de Trinidad y las Islas Vrgenes. +No saben lo que hago, pero sabes qu? +Mis hijos saben que las cuotas escolares se pagan, tienen sus libros y su computadora, y de esta manera, s que tienen una oportunidad. +No dir que lo que hago, es fcil. No dir que me siento, Qu es eso que dijiste?, liberada? +Pero me siento bien pagada. +Bien. Gracias, precioso, y solo la taza de t, amor, y solo un chorrito de whisky. +Es perfecto, eso es grandioso. Una gota ms. Un chorrito. Perfecto. +Cul era su nombre? Peter? Bien, Peter. +Bien. As que, la parte nica en m, es que termin primero en el convento, y luego en el prostbulo. Es correcto. +As que una mujer en la universidad en Dubln, escribi sobre m. +Dijo, Maureen Fitzroy es la encarnacin viviente de la dicotoma puta virgen. +Bien. No suena como algo para ir al hospital? +Tengo esta terrible dicotoma. +No es as? +Bueno, para m, sin embargo, fue de nia que empez conmigo pap. +Quiero decir, la mitad del tiempo, cuando nos hablaba era para decirnos que ramos unos idiotas intiles podridos, sin moral, y todo ese tipo de cosas. +Y de verdad, no me hago a m misma ningn favor. +Para cuando tena 16 aos, haba empezado a salir con este chico mayor, y quera que fuera nuestro pequeo secreto, y lo hice aunque me dijeron que no lo hiciera y cuando lo supo mi pap, me enviaron inmediatamente al convento. +Pues no, ese hombre mayor, sigui encontrndome en el convento. +S, me dejaba notas metidas en los agujeros del ladrillo en la parte de atrs de la tienda para que pudiramos encontrarnos. +Y l me deca que iba a dejar a su esposa, y yo le crea, hasta que me qued embarazada. +Yo, le dej una nota en nuestro lugar especial all, y nunca ms o hablar de l. +No. Lo di en adopcin para que tuviera una vida digna, y luego no me dejaron entrar de nuevo en el convento. +No, mi nica hermana Virginia me dio cinco libras para el bus a Dubln, y as es como termin aqu. +Bueno, sorpresa, sorpresa, me enamor de otro chico mucho mayor que yo, y me deca a m misma que era feliz porque l no beba. Me cas con un bastardo. +No beba, pero tena solo el problema de la herona no es as? Y... Eso es correcto, y antes de darme cuenta, l fue quien me embarc en la prostitucin, mi propio marido. +Tena que mantenernos a nosotros dos. +Tena 18 aos. +Bueno, no era Pretty Woman, te lo puedo decir. +Si Julia Roberts, alguna vez hubiera tenido que dormir con un hombre que pusiera unas libras en su bolsillo, no creo que ella jams habra hecho esa pelcula. +Bueno, para su registro, mi opinin sobre la legalizacin, estoy en contra. +No me importa lo que dicen estas jvenes. +Viviendo as, uno acaba perdiendo, y, ya sabes, tengo 63 aos. +Todava estoy intentando encontrar quin soy. +Ya sabes, nunca fui esposa o monja, o prostituta, incluso, de verdad, no de verdad. +Nadie pregunt quin quera ser. +Simplemente me dijeron hazlo. Y si se legaliza, entonces una dice realmente a estas chicas "Vengan y pirdanse para ganarse la vida", y muchas de ellas, harn lo que les digan. +De acuerdo, cuatro perspectivas de cuatro de cuatro voces muy diferentes verdad? +Una mujer diciendo que el sexo es algo natural pero la industria del sexo parece mecanizar o industrializarlo. +La segunda mujer considera el trabajo sexual empoderante, liberal y feminista, aunque ella misma, en particular, no pareca dispuesta a ejercerlo. +La tercera mujer, era en realidad una llamada trabajadora sexual, no estaba de acuerdo que fuera liberador pero desea su derecho para su empoderamiento econmico. Luego escuchamos a la cuarta mujer diciendo no solo que la prostitucin en s sino los roles prohibidos a las mujeres, en general, le impidieron siempre descubrir quin era ella, no? +Otro hecho que la mayora de la gente no saba era que el promedio de edad de una nia en riesgo de ser introducida a la industria del sexo y era de 12 o 13. +Tengan en cuenta que la edad cuando todas las nias en la sociedad estaban expuestas a imgenes sexualizadas de mujeres era un poco ms temprano, no? +Esta era una mueca llamada Barbie, verdad? +Primero pens que era una herramienta educativa para prevenir la anorexia, pero en realidad era considerada por muchos como un smbolo de la feminidad sana, y a menudo las jvenes comenzaron lo que se llamaba dieta. +Recuerdan esto? Es restringir la ingesta de alimentos a propsito a la edad de seis aos, y definirse basndose en el atractivo alrededor de esa misma edad S? +S? +Cierto, Bradley, bien, excelente punto. +As que haba un mercado lucrativo en esa sociedad, convencer a todas las personas de que deban tener una manera determinada incluso a tener una vida sexual, no? +Pero sobre todo, se esperaba de las nias, que fueran "sexys", evitando ser percibidas como "putas" por ser sexuales. Verdad? +As que esa muestra de la vergenza que hemos odo. +S. +Valerie, s? Bueno, muy bueno. +Por supuesto, los hombres tenan sexo, as, pero recordarn de las lecturas, como se llamaban a los putos? +Muy bien, se les llamaban hombres. +As que no es fcil vivir en un mundo as, verdad? +Aunque no todo son malas noticias. +La mayora de las mujeres en la dcada de 2000 se consideraban con poder, y los hombres en general, sentan que estaban tambin evolucionando en esta rea, y, de hecho, la mayora de la gente era consciente de los problemas como la trata de personas, por ejemplo, pero lo vean como bastante separado del entretenimiento ms recreativo para adultos. +Y as muy brevemente, clase, no tenemos mucho tiempo, escucharemos muy brevemente a un hombre sobre nuestro tema de esa poca. +Lo entrevistaron sobre el tema en la noche de su despedida de soltero. +Amigos, pueden? Ya est bien. pueden simplemente estar callados? +Estoy tratando de hablar con BERT ahora. +Oh, su nombre no es BERT?. +BERT es el nombre de la, oh, est bien. +No, no, no, totalmente bien. En general estoy sobrio, as que quiero ser til. +S, y estoy totalmente por creer en causas, s, como, todas esas cosas. +Y, de hecho, llevo zapatos Toms ahora. +S, Toms, los zapatos..., uno compra un par y luego un nio en frica tiene agua potable. +S. Totalmente. +Pero cul era la pregunta? Lo siento. +Por supuesto, creo en los derechos de las mujeres. Me caso con una mujer. +No, quiero decir, solo porque est en un club de estripts no significa que sea sexista o lo que sea. +Mi prometida es muy increble, es una chica totalmente fuerte, una mujer, una mujer inteligente en todo. +S, ella sabe que estoy aqu. Ella est quiz en un club de estripts ahora, igual, como diversin, igual que yo. +A mi padrino de boda le dije que poda sorprenderme, y pens que sera divertido, pero esto no es algo... +S, fuimos todos a la escuela juntos. +Wharton. +S, as, amigos, pueden... Est bien, pero es mi despedida de soltero, y puedo pasrmela en el estacionamiento con Anderson Cooper si quiero. +Est bien, ahora all. +Est bien, est bien... lo de Anderson. En primer lugar hacer un estripts pero luego, todo lo otro de lo que hablas, prostitucin y todas esas cosas, eso no es lo mismo, en absoluto. +Sabes? Igual se sigue llamando industria del sexo o lo que sea, es como si la chica quiere ser bailarina extica y tiene 18, es su derecho. +Espera, entiendo lo que dices, pero siento como si la gente, quiere que parezcamos todos los hombres como depredadores, que haramos automticamente lo de ir a una prostituta, o lo que sea. +Incluso, como, cuando me compromet, ya sabes, como cuando me un a mi hermandad. +Mis hermanos, a los que estoy cerca, ellos, todos son como yo. +Somos gente normal, pero, existe ese mito de que hay ese hombre que es un estpido y colegas antes que las novias o lo que sea. +Pero, de hecho, colegas antes que las novias no significa, como lo que suena. +En realidad, es como una forma de bromear para decir que uno se preocupa por sus colegas y los antepone. +S, tampoco se puede culpar a los medios de comunicacin. +Quiero decir, como, si miras "Resacn 2" y piensas que es un manual de instrucciones para la vida, entonces no s qu decirte. +Sabes? Uno no mira "El caso Bourne" y luego maneja su auto sobre una gndola en Venecia. Bueno, s, est bien, si eres un nio o lo que sea, por supuesto que es diferente, pero... S, est bien, me acuerdo de eso. +Yo estaba en la casa de este chico una vez jugando a GTA, al videojuego Grand Theft Auto. +Amigo, eres de Canad? Lo que sea, estaba jugando al Grand Theft Auto, T eres este chico, como, este chico camina o lo que sea, y bsicamente cuantos ms policas matas, ms puntos consigues, y cosas por el estilo. +Pero tambin, uno encuentra prostitutas y, obviamente, se pueden hacer cosas sexuales con ellas, pero se puede matarlas y recuperar el dinero. +S, este chico, me acuerdo que atropell a un par, un par de veces con su auto y consigui todos estos puntos. +ramos unos 10, creo. +Me sent bastante mal, en realidad. +No, no creo que dije nada. Termin de jugar y me fui a casa. +Muchas gracias, qu hermosa audiencia la de TED. +Les ver en "Ventas / Compras / Citas". +Las emociones influyen en cada aspecto de nuestras vidas, de la salud y el aprendizaje, a la forma de hacer negocios y tomar decisiones, grandes y pequeas. +Las emociones influyen en la forma en la cual interaccionamos entre nosotros. +Hemos evolucionado para vivir en un mundo como este, pero en cambio, vivimos la vida cada vez ms de esta manera --este es el mensaje de texto que recib de mi hija anoche-- en un mundo desprovisto de emocin. +Mi misin es cambiar esto. +Quiero devolver las emociones a nuestra experiencia digital. +Empec con esto hace 15 aos. +Era ingeniera informtica en Egipto y fui aceptada en un programa de doctorado en la Universidad de Cambridge. +E hice algo bastante inusual para una joven recin casada, egipcia y musulmana: con el apoyo de mi marido, que deba quedarse en Egipto, hice las maletas y me mud a Inglaterra. +En Cambridge, a miles de kilmetros de casa, me di cuenta de que estaba pasando ms horas con mi laptop que con otros seres humanos. +Pero a pesar de esta intimidad, mi laptop no tena ni idea de mi estado de nimo. +No tena idea de si yo era feliz, si tena un mal da, o estaba estresada o confundida, y eso era frustrante. +Aun peor, cuando me comunicaba en lnea con mi familia en casa, senta que todas mis emociones desaparecan en el ciberespacio. +Senta nostalgia, estaba sola, y algunos das lloraba, pero todo lo que tena para comunicar mis emociones era esto. +Hoy la tecnologa es inteligente pero no emocional mucha inteligencia cognitiva, pero nada de inteligencia emocional. +Eso me hizo pensar, y si la tecnologa pudiera interpretar nuestras emociones? +Y si nuestros dispositivos pudieran detectar y reaccionar en consecuencia, como lo haran los amigos con inteligencia emocional? +Esas preguntas me guiaron a m y a mi equipo a crear tecnologas capaces de leer emociones y responder, y nuestro punto de partida fue el rostro humano. +Nuestro rostro es uno de los canales ms poderosos que usamos para comunicar estados sociales y emocionales, todo, del disfrute y la sorpresa, a la empata y la curiosidad. +En la ciencia de las emociones, cada movimiento de cada msculo facial, es una unidad de accin. +Por ejemplo, la unidad de accin 12, no es una superproduccin de Hollywood, es el tirn de la comisura labial, componente principal de una sonrisa. +Intenten todos. Sonriamos. +Otro ejemplo es la unidad de accin 4, +las lneas de expresin en el entrecejo cuando juntamos las cejas y se forman estos pliegues y arrugas. +No nos gustan, pero es una fuerte seal de una emocin negativa. +Hay unas 45 unidades de accin, y combinadas expresan cientos de emociones, +Ensearle a una computadora a leer estas emociones faciales es difcil, porque estas unidades de accin pueden ser rpidas y sutiles, y se combinan de muchas formas. +Tomemos por ejemplo la sonrisa genuina y la socarrona. +Se parecen pero expresan cosas diferentes. +La sonrisa genuina es positiva, la sonrisa socarrona a veces es negativa. +A veces una mueca puede hacerte clebre. +Pero en serio, es importante para una computadora poder notar la diferencia entre las dos expresiones. +Cmo hacemos esto? +Introducimos en el programa de computacin decenas de miles de ejemplos de personas que sonren de distintas etnias, edades, gneros, y hacemos lo mismo con las sonrisas socarronas. +Luego, los algoritmos en aprendizaje automtico buscan estas lineas, pliegues y cambios musculares faciales y bsicamente aprenden que todas las sonrisas genuinas tienen caractersticas comunes mientras que las sonrisas socarronas tienen otras sensiblemente diferentes. +Y la prxima vez que vean un nuevo rostro, sabrn que este rostro tiene las mismas caractersticas de una sonrisa genuina, y dirn: "Aj, la reconozco. Esta es la expresin de una sonrisa". +Y la mejor manera de demostrar cmo funciona esta tecnologa es con una demo en vivo, para esto necesito un voluntario, preferentemente alguien con un rostro. +Chloe ser nuestra voluntaria de hoy. +En los ltimos 5 aos, pasamos de ser un proyecto de investigacin en el MIT a ser una empresa, donde mi equipo ha trabajado arduamente en esta tecnologa, para que funcione fuera del laboratorio. +Y la hemos compactado tanto como para que el lector de las emociones funcione en un dispositivo mvil con una cmara, como este iPad. +As que probmosla. +Como pueden ver, el algoritmo detect el rostro de Chloe, es este cuadro delimitador blanco, que detecta los contornos principales de sus rasgos faciales, sus cejas, sus ojos, su boca y nariz. +La pregunta es: puede reconocer su expresin? +Vamos a probar la mquina. +Ante todo, pon cara de pquer. S, genial. Y a medida que sonre --esta es una sonrisa genuina, es genial-- +pueden ver como aumenta la barra verde. +Esa fue una gran sonrisa. +Puedes intentar una sonrisa sutil para ver si la computadora la reconoce? +Tambin reconoce sonrisas sutiles. +Hemos trabajado arduamente para que esto suceda. +Luego levanta una ceja, que indica sorpresa. +Frunce el ceo, que indica la confusin. +Enfurruate. S, perfecto. +Estas son diferentes unidades de accin. Hay muchas ms. +Esta es solo una demo superficial. +Llamamos a cada lectura un dato emocional, que luego pueden actuar juntos para crear distintas emociones. +A la derecha de la demo, parece que ests feliz. +Eso es alegra. Se desata la alegra. +Ahora pon cara de disgusto. +Trata de recordar qu sentiste cuando Zayn dej One Direction. +S, arruga la nariz. Genial. +La valencia es bastante negativa, por lo que debe haber sido una gran fan. +La valencia indica cun positiva o negativa es una experiencia, y la vinculacin indica lo expresiva que es tambin. +Imaginen que Chloe tiene acceso a este contenido emocional en tiempo real, y que puede compartir sus emociones con quien quiere. +Gracias. +Hasta ahora contamos con 12 000 millones de estos indicadores emocionales. +Es la base de datos de emociones ms grande del mundo. +La hemos recopilado a partir de 2,9 millones de rostros en videos, de personas que accedieron a compartir sus emociones con nosotros, de 75 pases del mundo. +Crece cada da. +Me resulta impactante que ahora podamos cuantificar algo tan personal como las emociones, y poder hacerlo a esta escala. +Qu hemos aprendido hasta la fecha? +Hay diferencias por gnero. +Nuestros datos confirman algo que Uds. ya sospechaban. +Las mujeres son ms expresivas que los hombres. +No solo sonren ms, sus sonrisas duran ms, y ahora podemos cuantificar cmo es que hombres y mujeres responden de maneras tan diferentes. +Veamos culturalmente: en EE.UU., las mujeres son un 40 % ms expresivas que los hombres, pero curiosamente, no vemos diferencia entre hombres y mujeres en el R.U. +Por edad: las personas de 50 aos o ms son un 25 % ms emotivos que los ms jvenes. +Las mujeres de veintipico sonren mucho ms que los hombres de la misma edad, quiz es una necesidad para las citas. +Pero quiz lo que ms nos sorprende de estos datos es que solemos ser expresivos todo el tiempo, incluso cuando estamos sentados solos frente a nuestros dispositivos y no solo cuando miramos videos de gatos en Facebook. +Somos expresivos cuando mandamos emails, mensajes, cuando compramos en lnea, o incluso pagando impuestos. +Para qu se usan estos datos hoy? +Para entender cmo nos relacionamos con los medios, para entender la viralidad y el comportamiento del voto; y tambin para dar poder dotar de emocin a la tecnologa, y quiero compartir algunos ejemplos particularmente especiales para mi. +Las gafas porttiles con lector emotivo pueden ayudar a las personas con discapacidad visual a leer los rostros de los dems, y a las personas del espectro autista a interpretar pistas emocionales algo que les cuesta mucho. +En educacin, imaginen si sus apps educativas detectaran que estn confundidos y bajaran la velocidad, o que estn aburridos, y aceleraran, como hara un buen profesor en el aula. +Y si una pulsera leyera su estado anmico, o el auto detectara que estn cansados, o quiz si el frigorfico supiera que estn estresados, y se autobloqueara para evitar atracones. Me gustara eso, s. +Y si, cuando estuve en Cambridge, hubiera tenido acceso en tiempo real a mi contenido emocional y hubiera podido compartirlo con mi familia en casa de manera muy natural, como si estuviramos en la misma habitacin juntos? +Creo que dentro de 5 aos, todos los dispositivos tendrn un chip lector de emociones y no recordaremos cmo era no poder fruncir el ceo a nuestro dispositivo y que nuestro dispositivo dijera: "Mmm, no te gusta, no?" +Nuestro desafo ms grande es que hay tantas aplicaciones para esta tecnologa, que mi equipo y yo nos dimos cuenta de que no podemos con todo solos, por eso liberamos esta tecnologa para que otros desarrolladores puedan desarrollarla y ser creativos. +Reconocemos que hay riesgos potenciales y potencial para el abuso, pero en mi opinin, habiendo pasado muchos aos haciendo esto, creo que los beneficios para la humanidad de contar con tecnologa emocionalmente inteligente superan con creces las desventajas por uso indebido. +Y los invito a todos a tomar parte en el debate. +Cuantas ms personas conozcan esta tecnologa, ms podemos decir sobre cmo se usa. +Conforme nuestras vidas se vuelven cada vez ms digitales, estamos librando una batalla perdida tratando de evitar los dispositivos para recuperar nuestras emociones. +Por eso yo propongo, en cambio, incorporar las emociones a la tecnologa y hacer que nuestras tecnologas sean ms receptivas. +Quiero que esos dispositivos que nos han separado nos vuelvan a unir. +Y humanizando la tecnologa, tenemos esta oportunidad excelente de reinventar la manera de conectarnos con las mquinas, y por lo tanto, la manera de como nosotros, los seres humanos, conectamos unos con otros. +Gracias. +A lo largo del viejo cauce del ro Monongahela, Braddock, Pensilvania se encuentra en el este del condado de Allegheny, a unos a 15 km de Pittsburgh. +Un suburbio industrial, Braddock es el hogar de la primera fbrica de acero de Andrew Carnegie, y de la acera Edgar Thompson. +Abierta desde 1875, es la ltima fbrica de acero en funcionamiento de la zona. +Durante 12 aos, he creado retratos en colaboracin, bodegones, paisajes y vistas areas para construir un archivo visual y abordar la superposicin de la industria siderrgica, el medio ambiente, y el impacto del sistema de salud en los cuerpos de mi familia y la comunidad. +La tradicin y la gran narrativa de Braddock est compuesta mayoritariamente por las historias de los magnates industriales y los sindicatos. +En la actualidad, la nueva narrativa de Braddock, un emblema de la revitalizacin econmica del "Cinturn de xido" es una historia de pioneros urbanos que descubren una nueva frontera. +Los medios de comunicacin han omitido el hecho de que Braddock es predominantemente negro. +Nuestra existencia ha sido manipulada, silenciada y borrada. +Soy la cuarta generacin de un matrilinaje y me cri bajo la proteccin y cuidado de la abuela Ruby, en las afueras de la calle 8 en el 805 de Avenida Washington. +Trabaj como gerente para la ONG Goodwill. Mi madre fue auxiliar de enfermera. +Vivi de cerca el cierre de las fbricas de acero +y el abandono de la zona por la poblacin blanca hacia las urbanizaciones. +Cuando lleg el turno de mi generacin, la falta de inversin de las autoridades locales, federales y estatales erosion la infraestructura y la Guerra contra las Drogas destroz a mi familia y a la comunidad. +El padrastro de la abuela Ruby, Gramps, fue uno de los pocos negros que se jubil de la acera Carnegie cobrando una pensin. +Estuvo expuesto a niveles elevados de temperatura, derrib y reconstruy hornos, limpi vertidos y salpicaduras. +La historia de cada lugar est escrita en el cuerpo y en el paisaje. +Un paisaje con trfico intenso de camiones pesados, exposicin al benceno y metales atomizados, y alto riesgo de cncer y lupus. +123 camas de hospital para 652 empleados, programas de rehabilitacin: diezmados. La demanda por discriminacin racial +contra el condado de Allegheny, desestimada y las Torres Talbot, viviendas de proteccin social, demolidas. +La reciente reclasificacin de terrenos para la industria liviana est en auge desde entonces. +El pixelado en Google Maps y Google Earth oculta los residuos inflamables que se usan para forzar a los Bunn a salir de su casa y renunciar al terreno. +En 2013, alquil un helicptero para documentar con mis cmaras este despojo agresivo. +Desde el aire vi miles de paquetes de plstico blanco propiedad de una industria de la proteccin ambiental que afirma que es ecolgico y recicla millones de neumticos para preservar la vida de las personas y para mejorar la vida de las personas. +Mi trabajo cubre el micro y el macrocosmos, revelando historias ocultas. +Recientemente, en el Museo de Arte de Seattle, inaugur con Isaac Bunn esta exposicin, y la us como plataforma para dar voz a su causa. +Mediante la reivindicacin de nuestra propria historia, seguiremos luchando contra la supresin histrica y la desigualdad socioeconmica. +Gracias. +La primera vez que murmur una oracin estaba en una catedral con vidrieras. +Me qued de rodillas mucho despus que la congregacin se pusiera de pie. Mis manos en agua bendita, hago la seal de la cruz; mi diminuto cuerpo se dobla como un signo de interrogacin sobre el banco de madera. +Le ped a Jess que me sane y cuando no me respondi, el silencio se volvi mi amigo con la esperanza de que mi pecado ardiera y aliviara mi boca, disolvindose como el azcar en la lengua, pero la vergenza se qued como un regusto persistente. +Y en un intento por devolverme a la santidad, mi madre me dijo que era un milagro que poda crecer y ser lo que quera. +Decid... ser un chico. +Fue lindo. +Llevaba gorro y una sonrisa desdentada, mi rodillas peladas fueron mi credo, jugu al escondite con lo que quedaba de mi futuro. +Fui aquello. +Campen en un juego que los otros nios no podan jugar. Fui un misterio anatmico, una pregunta que se qued sin respuesta un caminante por la cuerda floja entre el nio torpe y la nia que pide disculpas. Y al cumplir los 12, la fase muchacho dejo de parecer encantadora. +Encontr tas nostlgicas que queran verme las rodillas a la sombra de las faldas y me recordaban que mi actitud nunca iba a traerme un marido en casa, que yo existo para el matrimonio heterosexual y la procreacin. +Y me tragu sus insultos junto con sus afrentes. +Naturalmente, no sal del armario. +Los nios de mi escuela lo abrieron sin mi permiso. +Me llamaban con un nombre que yo no entenda, me decan "lesbiana", pero yo era ms nio que nia, ms Ken que Barbie. +Mi madre teme que me inspir en elegir mi nombre en cosas efmeras. +Conforme cuenta los ecos dejados por Mya Hall, Leelah Alcorn, Blake Brockington +teme que yo muera sin palabra, que me vuelva la conversacin de "qu vergenza" en la parada del bus. +Afirma que me he vuelto un mausoleo, que soy un atad andante, que los titulares han convertido mi identidad en un espectculo. Bruce Jenner est en boca de todos mientras la brutalidad de vivir en este cuerpo se convierte en un asterisco al pie de las pginas sobre la igualdad. +Me pondrn de vuelta en el armario, colgado junto a los otros esqueletos. +Ser la mejor atraccin. +Ven lo fcil que es empujar a la gente para convertirse en atades, y ponerles los nombres equivocados en las lpidas? +Y la gente todava se pregunta por qu los chicos se corrompen, por qu andan por los pasillos de la secundaria con miedo de ser etiquetados en un instante, con miedo a que los debates en clase se vuelvan un juicio final ahora, cuando la sociedad acepta ms nios transgnero que los hacen los padres. +Me pregunto cunto tiempo se tardar para que las notas de suicidio trans empiecen a ser superfluas, para que entendamos que nuestros cuerpos se vuelven lecciones sobre el pecado mucho antes de que nosotros aprendamos a amarlos. +Como Dios no se apiad de esta vida y no fue misericordioso, como mi sangre no es el vino que lav los pies de Jess, +me estoy atragantando con mis oraciones. +A lo mejor ya estoy curado o tal vez no me importe, quizs Dios al fin escuch mis plegarias. +Gracias. +Un bilogo evolutivo en la Universidad de Purdue llamado William Muir, estudi las gallinas. +Le interesaba la productividad --creo que es algo que nos concierne a todos-- pero es fcil de medir en gallinas porque es simplemente contar los huevos. +Quera saber lo que podra hacer ms productivas a sus gallinas, y para ello ide un hermoso experimento. +Las gallinas viven en grupos, por eso ante todo, eligi un grupo promedio, y lo dej solo durante 6 generaciones. +Pero luego cre un segundo grupo de gallinas que en forma individual eran las ms productivas --llammoslas supergallinas-- y las puso juntas en un supergrupo, y en cada generacin, seleccion solo las ms productivas para la cra. +Pasadas 6 generaciones, qu encontr? +Bueno, al primer grupo, el grupo promedio, le iba bien. +Todas estaban regordetas y totalmente emplumadas y la produccin de huevos haba aumentado drsticamente. +Y el segundo grupo? +Bueno, murieron todas menos tres. +Picotearon al resto hasta la muerte. +las gallinas que individualmente eran productivas solo lograban xito suprimiendo la productividad del resto. +Ahora, conforme he ido por el mundo hablando de esto y contando esta historia en todo tipo de organizaciones y empresas, la gente ha visto la relevancia casi al instante, y vienen y me dicen cosas como: "Ese supergrupo es mi empresa". +O, "As es mi pas". +O, "Esa es mi vida". +Toda la vida me han dicho que salimos adelante compitiendo: yendo a la escuela correcta, al trabajo correcto, llegando a la cima, y en realidad nunca lo encontr muy inspirador. +Empec a administrar empresas porque la inventiva es una alegra, y porque trabajar junto a personas brillantes y creativas es en s una recompensa. +Nunca me han motivado demasiado las jerarquas, las supergallinas, ni las superestrellas. +Pero en los ltimos 50 aos, hemos administrado la mayora de las organizaciones y algunas sociedades con el modelo de la supergallina. +Hemos dado por hecho que el xito se logra seleccionado superestrellas, a los hombres ms brillantes de la sala, o en ocasiones las mujeres, y dndoles todos los recursos y todo el poder. +Y el resultado ha sido el mismo del experimento de William Muir: agresin, mal funcionamiento y despilfarro. +Si la nica forma de que el ms productivo tenga xito es suprimiendo la productividad del resto, realmente tenemos que encontrar una mejor manera de trabajar y una manera ms rica de vivir. +Qu hace a algunos grupos obviamente ms exitosos y ms productivos que otros? +Bueno, un equipo del MIT ha investigado ese tema. +Convocaron a cientos de voluntarios, los pusieron en grupos, y les dieron problemas muy difciles para resolver. +Y ocurri exactamente lo esperado, que algunos grupos tuvieron mucho ms xito que otros, pero lo realmente interesante fue que los grupos de alto rendimiento no fueron los que tenan una o dos personas con coeficientes intelectuales altsimos. +Tampoco fueron los grupos con la suma de coeficientes intelectuales ms alta. +En cambio, los equipos realmente exitosos tenan tres caractersticas. +Primero, mostraban un alto grado de sensibilidad social mutua. +Esto se mide con algo llamado prueba de lectura de la mente en los ojos. +Es ampliamente considerada como prueba para la empata, y a los grupos que puntuaron ms alto en esto, les fue mejor. +Segundo, los grupos exitosos dieron aproximadamente el mismo tiempo a todos, as ninguna voz domin, pero tampoco hubo pasajeros. +Y tercero, los grupos ms exitosos tenan ms mujeres. +Ahora, ser que las mujeres por lo general puntan ms alto en las pruebas de lectura de la mente en los ojos y por eso duplicaron el cociente de empata? +O porque aportaron una perspectiva ms diversa? +No lo sabemos bien, pero lo llamativo de este experimento fue que mostr lo que ya sabemos : a algunos grupos les va mejor que a otros, pero el factor clave es su conexin social entre pares. +Qu significa esto en el da a da? +Bueno, significa que realmente importa lo que ocurre entre las personas, porque en los grupos que tienen alta sintona y sensibilidad mutua, las ideas fluyen y prosperan. +Las personas no se estancan, no derrochan energa en callejones sin salida. +Por ejemplo: Arup es una de las firmas de ingeniera ms exitosas del mundo, y le encargaron construir un centro ecuestre para los JJ.OO. de Beijing. +Este edificio tena que recibir 2500 caballos pura sangre realmente muy nerviosos que venan de vuelos de larga distancia, con mucho jet lag, y que no estaban en su mejor momento. +Los ingenieros enfrentaron este problema: qu cantidad de desechos atender? +No ensean esto en la facultad de ingeniera y no es el tipo de cosas en las que uno quisiera equivocarse, podra haber pasado meses hablando con veterinarios, investigando, ajustando la hoja de clculo. +En vez de eso, pidi ayuda y encontr a alguien que haba diseado el Jockey Club de Nueva York. +El problema se resolvi en menos de un da. +Arup cree que la cultura de la ayuda es central para su xito. +Lo de ayuda suena algo endeble, pero es absolutamente medular para los equipos de xito, y supera a diario a la inteligencia individual. +Ayudar implica que no tengo que saberlo todo, solo tengo que trabajar con personas que saben dar y recibir ayuda. +En SAP calculan que pueden responder cualquier pregunta en 17 minutos. +Pero no es la nica empresa de alta tecnologa con la que he trabajado que imagina por un momento que se trata de un problema de tecnologa, porque lo que mueve a la ayuda es que la gente se conozca. +Suena muy obvio, y pensamos que se dar naturalmente, pero no es as. +Cuando gestionaba mi primera empresa de software, me di cuenta de que estbamos estancados. +Haba mucha friccin, pero no mucho ms, y me fui dando cuenta de que las personas brillantes que contrat no se conocan entre ellos. +Estaban tan concentrados en su trabajo individual, que ni saban a quin tenan al lado, y fue entonces que insist en que dejramos de trabajar e invirtiramos tiempo en conocernos unos a otros y que tomaramos impulso de verdad. +Eso fue hace 20 aos, y ahora visito empresas que han prohibido las tazas de caf en los escritorios porque quieren que la gente se rena en torno a la mquina de caf para conversar. +Los suecos tienen un trmino especial para esto. +Lo llaman "fika", que significa ms que una pausa para el caf. +Significa "restauracin colectiva". +En Idexx, una empresa de Maine, han creado huertos en el campus para que las personas de diferentes reas del negocio puedan trabajar juntos y conocer as todo el negocio. +Se han vuelto locos? +Todo lo contrario; han advertido que cuando la cosa se complica, y siempre se complicar, si uno hace un trabajo disruptivo que realmente importa, las personas necesitan soporte social, y tienen que saber a quin pedir ayuda. +Las empresas no tienen ideas; solo las personas las tienen. +Y lo que motiva a las personas son los lazos, la lealtad, y la confianza que desarrollan unos con otros. +Importa el mortero, no solo los ladrillos. +Cuando juntamos todo esto, tenemos algo llamado capital social. +El capital social es la dependencia y la interdependencia que genera confianza. +El trmino viene de los socilogos que estudiaban las comunidades que eran resistentes en momentos de estrs. +El capital social es lo que da impulso a las empresas, el capital social es lo que hace robustas a las empresas. +Qu significa esto en la prctica? +Significa que el tiempo lo es todo, porque el capital social se compone con el tiempo. +A los equipos que trabajan juntos ms tiempo, les va mejor porque lleva tiempo desarrollar la confianza necesaria para llegar a la franqueza y la apertura. +El tiempo construye valor. +Cuando Alex Pentland le sugiri a una empresa que sincronice las pausas para el caf para que las personas puedan conversar las ganancias subieron USD 15 millones, y la satisfaccin de los empleados subi un 10 %. +No es un mal retorno sobre el capital social, y se compone conforme lo gastas. +Pero no se trata de camaradera, ni de incentivar vagos, porque las personas que trabajan as suelen ser un poco speras, impacientes, absolutamente determinadas a pensar por s mismas porque esa es su contribucin. +El conflicto es frecuente porque la franqueza est a salvo. +Y as las buenas ideas se vuelven grandes ideas, porque ninguna idea nace ya formada del todo. +Emerge un poco como nace un nio, en el caos y la confusin, pero pleno de posibilidades. +Y solo gracias a la contribucin generosa, la fe y el desafo es que logran su potencial. +Eso es lo que apoya el capital social. +Pero no solemos hablar de esto, sobre el talento, sobre creatividad, de esta manera. +Solemos hablar de estrellas. +Por eso empec a preguntarme: si empezamos a trabajar as, implica el fin de las estrellas? +Y fui a las audiciones en la Real Academia de Arte Dramtico de Londres. +Y all vi algo que me sorprendi, porque los profesores no buscaban pirotecnia individual. +Buscaban lo que ocurra entre los estudiantes, porque en eso yace el drama. +Y hablando con productores de lbumes exitosos, me dijeron: "Claro, tenemos muchas superestrellas de la msica. +pero no perduran demasiado. +Solo los colaboradores destacados disfrutan de largas carreras, porque sacando lo mejor de los otros es como encuentran lo mejor en ellos". +Y cuando fui a visitar empresas clebres por su ingenio y creatividad, no encontr superestrellas, porque todos all importaban. +Y al reflexionar sobre mi propia carrera, y las personas extraordinarias con las que tuve el privilegio de trabajar, me di cuenta de cunto ms podramos darnos mutuamente si dejramos de tratar de ser supergallinas. +Una vez que uno aprecia de verdad cmo es el trabajo social, muchas cosas tienen que cambiar. +La gestin por concurso de talentos ha enfrentado de manera rutinaria a los empleados unos contra otros. +La rivalidad tiene que ser reemplazada por el capital social. +Durante dcadas, hemos intentado motivar a las personas con dinero, a pesar de contar con gran cantidad de investigacin que muestra que el dinero erosiona la conexin social. +Ahora, tenemos que dejar que las personas motiven a los dems. +Durante aos, pensamos que los lderes eran hroes solitarios y se esperaba que por s mismos, resolvieran problemas complejos. +Tenemos que redefinir el liderazgo como una actividad en la que se crean las condiciones para que cada uno pueda brindar el pensamiento ms valiente, juntos. +Sabemos que eso funciona. +Cuando el Protocolo de Montreal llam a la eliminacin gradual de los CFC, los clorofluorocarbonos implicados en el agujero en la capa de ozono, los riesgos eran inmensos. +Los CFC estaban por doquier, y nadie saba si se poda encontrar un sustituto. +Pero un equipo que acept el reto adopt 3 principios clave. +El primero fue el jefe de ingeniera, Frank Maslen, que dijo: no habr estrellas en este equipo. +Necesitamos a todos. +Todo el mundo tiene una perspectiva vlida. +Segundo, trabajamos con una norma nica: lo mejor imaginable. +Y tercero, le dijo a su jefe, Geoff Tudhope, que tena que alejarse, porque saba lo perjudicial que puede ser el poder. +Esto no signific que Tudhope no hiciera nada. +Le dio cobertura al equipo, y escuchaba para garantizar que honraban sus principios. +Funcion: Por delante de otras empresas que abordaron este difcil problema, este grupo lo hizo primero. +Hasta la fecha, el Protocolo de Montreal es el acuerdo ambiental de mayor xito internacional implementado en la historia. +Haba mucho en juego entonces, y hay mucho en juego ahora, y no resolveremos nuestros problemas si esperamos que sea resuelto por unos pocos superhombres o supermujeres. +Necesitamos a todos, porque solo cuando aceptemos que todos tenemos un valor ser cuando liberaremos la energa, la imaginacin y el impulso necesarios para crear lo mejor inconmensurable. +Gracias. +Hace algunos aos, mi mam desarroll artritis reumatoide. +Sus muecas, rodillas y pies se inflamaron, causndole un dolor crnico y paralizante. +Tuvo que darse de baja por incapacidad. +Dej de ir a la mezquita local. +Algunas veces era muy doloroso para ella hasta lavarse los dientes. +Quera ayudarla, +pero no saba cmo. +No soy mdico. +Soy historiador de la medicina. +Empec a investigar la historia del dolor crnico. +Resulta que la UCLA tiene una coleccin completa que habla sobre el dolor en sus archivos. +Y encontr una historia, una historia fantstica de un hombre que salv --rescat-- a millones de personas del dolor. Personas como mi mam. +Sin embargo, nunca haba escuchado de l. +No haba biografas, ni pelculas de Hollywood de l. +Su nombre era John J. Bonica. +Pero cuando comienza esta historia era mejor conocido como Johnny "El Toro" Walker. +Fue un da de verano en 1941. +El circo acababa de llegar a la poblacin de Brookfield, Nueva York. +Los espectadores se abarrotaban para ver a los trapecistas y los payasos. Si tenan suerte, al hombre bala. +Tambin venan a ver al forzudo, Johnny "El Toro" Walker, un brabucn musculoso que te inmovilizaba por un dlar. +Ese da, se escuch una voz a travs del sistema de sonido del circo. +Necesitaban un mdico urgentemente, en la carpa de los animales. +Algo malo haba sucedido con el domador de leones. +El clmax de su acto haba salido mal, y su cabeza se haba quedado atrapada dentro del hocico del len. +Se estaba quedando sin aire. La gente vea con horror mientras forcejeaba y despus se desmayaba. +Cuando por fin el len relaj su quijada, el domador simplemente cay al suelo, sin moverse. +Cuando regres en s unos minutos despus, vio una figura familiar encorvado frente a l. +Era "El Toro" Walker. +El forzudo le haba dado al domador respiracin de boca a boca, y le haba salvado la vida. +El forzudo, no haba dicho a nadie, pero en realidad era estudiante de tercer ao de medicina. +Se una al circo durante los veranos para pagar su colegiatura, pero lo mantena en secreto para proteger su identidad. +Se supona que era villano, rudo; no un buen muchacho estudioso. +Sus compaeros estudiantes de medicina tampoco conocan su secreto. +Como l deca: "Si eras un atleta, eras un completo tonto". +As que no hablaba del circo, ni que luchaba profesionalmente en las tardes o los fines de semana. +Usaba un seudnimo como "El Toro" Walker, o tambin el de "El Enmascarado Maravilla". +Lo mantuvo en secreto ese mismo ao en el que lo coronaron Campen Mundial Ligero en la categora de Peso Completo. +Durante de varios aos, John J. Bonica vivi estas vidas paralelas. +Era luchador; era mdico. +Era un canalla; era un hroe. +Causaba dolor, y trataba el dolor. +l no lo saba en ese momento, pero por las siguientes cinco dcadas, en las que se bata a duelo con ambas identidades forjara una nueva forma de pensar en el dolor. +Revolucionara la medicina moderna, tanto, que dcadas despus la revista Time lo llamara el padre del alivio del dolor. +Pero eso pas mucho despus. +En 1942, Bonica se gradu de la facultad de medicina y se cas con Emma, el amor de su vida, que conoci en uno de sus combates algunos aos antes. +Todava luchaba en secreto, tena que hacerlo. +En su internado en el Hospital de St. Vincent en Nueva York no le pagaban. +Con su cinturn de campen, sus luchas tenan muy buenas venta de boletos como en el Madison Square Garden, contra grandes oponentes, como Everett "El Oso Rubio" Marshall, o el tres veces campen Angelo Savoldi. +Sus luchas cobraron factura a su cuerpo. Se quebr las uniones de la cadera, se fractur las costillas. +Una noche, el "Turco el Terrible" rasg un lado de su cara con el dedo gordo del pie, como a Capone. +Al da siguiente en su trabajo, tuvo que usar un tapabocas para esconder la herida. +En dos ocasiones Bonica lleg a la sala de operaciones con un ojo tan morado que no poda ver. +Pero lo peor de todo fue cuando lleg con sus orejas todas magulladas, +deca que parecan pelotas de baseball, una de cada lado de su cabeza. +El dolor se iba acumulando en su vida. +Ms adelante, vio a su esposa ir en labor de parto a su hospital. +Ella puj con fuerza en franca angustia. +Su obstetra le llam al practicante en turno para que le diera algunas gotas de ter para reducir el dolor. +Pero el interno era un muchacho joven, con tan solo tres semanas de trabajo. Estaba muy nervioso, as que cuando le aplic el ter irrit la garganta de Emma. +Ella vomit y se estaba ahogando, se comenz a poner azul. +Bonica que estaba viendo todo, quit al practicante, y limpi sus vas respiratorias, As salv a su esposa y su hija. +En ese momento, fue cuando decidi dedicar su vida a la anestesiologa. +Despus, ayudara a desarrollar la epidural, para madres en labor de parto. +Pero antes de enfocarse en la obstetricia, Bonica tuvo que iniciar su entrenamiento bsico. +Muy cercano al da D, Bonica fue al Madigan Army Medical Center, cerca de Tacoma. +Con 7700 camas era uno de los hospitales ms grandes de EE.UU. +Bonica estaba a cargo de todo el control del dolor all. +Tena tan solo 27 aos. +En el tratamiento de tantos pacientes, Bonica empez a notar casos en los que se contradeca todo lo que haba aprendido. +El dolor se supona que deba ser una especie de alarma --de una buena forma-- una seal del cuerpo para mostrar una lesin, como un brazo roto. +Pero en algunos casos, como cuando a un paciente le han amputado una pierna, el paciente poda seguir quejndose de su pierna ya cortada. +Pero si la lesin haba sido tratada, por qu segua sonando la alarma del dolor? +Haba otros casos donde no haba evidencia de lesin alguna, sin embargo al paciente le dola. +Bonica busc a todos los especialistas en el hospital, cirujanos, neurlogos, psiquiatras, entre otros. +Y trat de obtener su opinin sobre los pacientes. +Llevaba tanto tiempo que empez a organizar reuniones durante el almuerzo. +Eran como un equipo de especialistas en lucha contra el dolor de los pacientes. +Nadie se haba enfocado en el dolor de esta forma antes. +Despus de eso, se fue a los libros. +Ley cada libro de texto mdico que llegaba a sus manos, revisando cuidadosamente las reas que decan la palabra "dolor" +De las 14 000 pginas que ley, la palabra "dolor" se mencionaba 17 veces y media +Diecisiete veces y media. +Para lo ms bsico, ms comn, y ms frustrante de ser un paciente. +Bonica estaba asombrado, lo cito, dijo: "Que maldita conclusin se puede sacar de esto? +La parte ms importante desde la perspectiva del paciente, es de la que no se habla". +As que por los siguientes ocho aos, Bonica hablara de esto. +Escribira sobre esto; escribira esas pginas faltantes. +Escribi lo que despus se conocera como la Biblia del Dolor. +En ella, propona nuevas estrategias, nuevos tratamientos usando inyecciones que bloquearan los nervios. +Propuso una nueva institucin, la Clnica del Dolor, basada en esas reuniones de almuerzo. +Pero lo ms importante de ese libro fue que se convirti en una alarma emocional para la medicina. +Una plegaria desesperada a los mdicos para que tomaran el dolor seriamente, en la vida de sus pacientes. +Redefini el propsito de la medicina. +El objetivo no era hacer mejorar a los pacientes, sino hacer que los pacientes se sintieran mejor. +Empuj el tema del dolor por dcadas, hasta que finalmente tom inters a mediados de los aos 70. +Cientos de clnicas del dolor aparecieron por todo el mundo. +Pero conforme aparecieron, sucedi un cambio trgico inesperado. +Los aos de lucha empezaron a hacer estragos sobre Bonica. +Haba estado fuera del ring por ms de 20 aos, pero esos 1500 combates profesionales haban dejado marcas en su cuerpo. +Todava en sus cincuentas sufri una osteoartritis severa. +Durante los siguientes 20 aos tuvo 22 operaciones, incluyendo cuatro operaciones de espina dorsal, y remplazo de cadera en varias ocasiones. +Con trabajo podra levantar su brazo, y mover su cuello. +Necesitaba muletas de aluminio para caminar. +Sus estudiantes y exestudiantes se convirtieron en sus mdicos. +Una vez coment que posiblemente haba tenido ms inyecciones de bloqueo de nervios que cualquier otro en el planeta. +Siendo tan trabajador, trabaj an ms, 15 a 18 horas al da. +Curar a otros se convirti en algo ms que su trabajo, era su forma ms efectiva de sentirse sanado. +"Si no fuera por lo ocupado que estoy", dijo a un reportero en alguna ocasin, "sera una persona completamente discapacitada". +En un viaje de trabajo a Florida a principios de los aos 80, Bonica le pidi a uno de sus antiguos estudiantes que lo llevara al rea de Hyde Park en Tampa. +Manejaron entre las palmeras y se detuvieron en una vieja mansin, que tena caones plateados gigantescos tipo howitzer, escondidos en el garaje. +La casa era propiedad de la familia Zacchini, que eran algo as como la realeza del circo de EE.UU. +Dcadas antes, Bonica los haba visto, ir vestidos en trajes plateados y gafas, haciendo el acto del cual eran pioneros: la bala humana, +pero ahora eran como l: se haban retirado. +Toda esa generacin se ha muerto, incluyendo a Bonica, as que no sabemos exactamente lo que dijeron ese da. +Sin embargo, me gustara imaginrmelo. +El forzudo y las balas humanas reunidos, mostrando sus viejas y nuevas cicatrices. +Tal vez Bonica les dio algn consejo mdico. +Tal vez les dijo aquello que despus dijo de manera oral en una historia, que era que el tiempo en el circo y las luchas haban moldeado su vida. +Bonica vio el dolor muy de cerca. +Lo senta. Lo viva. +Y era imposible que lo ignorara en otros, +de esa empata, gener toda una nueva rama, jug un papel importante en hacer que la medicina le diera crdito al dolor inducido y al dolor mismo. En esa misma historia oral, Bonica deca que el dolor es la experiencia humana ms compleja. +Que involucra tanto tu vida pasada como tu vida actual, tus interacciones y tu familia. +Eso realmente fue cierto para Bonica. +Como tambin fue cierto para mi mam. +Es fcil que los mdicos vean a mi mam como una especie de paciente profesional, una mujer que pasa sus das en las salas de espera. +Algunas veces me quedo paralizado vindola de la misma manera. +Pero como vea el dolor de Bonica, --como un testamento de toda su vida plena-- comienzo a recordar todas las cosas que el dolor de mi mam guarda. +Antes de que se hincharan y se hicieran artrticos, los dedos de mi mam sonaban en el teclado en el departamento de RR.HH. en el hospital en el que ella trabajaba. +Doblaba samosas para la mezquita completa. +Cuando era nio, cortaba mi cabello, me limpiaba la nariz, amarraba mis zapatos. +Gracias. +En cada grupo de mujeres hay una divertida, aquella a la que acudes cuando necesitas llorar, la que te dice que lo aceptes cuando has tenido un mal da. +Y este grupo no era diferente. +Salvo que este era una comunidad de mujeres pioneras que se aliaron-- primero para ser compaeras, despus amigas, y despus familia-- en el menos propicio de los lugares: en el campo de batalla de Operaciones Especiales. +Fue un grupo de mujeres cuya amistad y valor fueron consolidados no solo por lo que haban visto y hecho al filo de la navaja, sino por el hecho de que estuvieron all cuando las mujeres-- al menos, oficialmente-- tenan prohibido el combate terrestre, y Amrica no tena ni idea de que existan. +Todo comenz con los lderes de Operaciones Especiales, algunos de los hombres ms preparados de los Estados Unidos, diciendo, "Necesitamos mujeres que nos ayuden a librar esta guerra." +"Amrica nunca avanzar en la guerra," expusieron. +"Se necesita ms conocimiento y comprensin." +Y como todo el mundo sabe, si quieren entender que est pasando en una comunidad y en un hogar, se habla con mujeres, tanto si se trata del sur de Afganistn, o del sur de California. +Pero all, los hombres no podan hablar con mujeres, Porque en una sociedad tradicional y conservadora como Afganistn, eso implicara un delito grave. +Por lo que se requera soldados mujeres all. +En ese momento de guerra, en que las mujeres que iban a ser reclutadas para servir junto al Regimiento Ranger y al Equipo SEAL, iban a ver ejercer ese tipo de combate a menos de un cinco por ciento de toda la fuerza armada de los Estados Unidos. +Menos del cinco por ciento. +Y se produjo la llamada. +"Soldados mujeres: Sean parte de la historia. +Unos a las Operaciones Especiales del campo de batalla en Afganistn." +Esto es en el 2011. +Y desde Alabama hasta Alaska, un grupo de mujeres que siempre haban querido hacer algo importante junto a los mejores, y marcar la diferencia para nuestro pas, respondieron a esa llamada para servir. +Y para ellas no se trataba de poltica, se trataba de servir con un objetivo. +Las mujeres que vinieron a Carolina del Norte para competir por un lugar en estos equipos que iban a ser puestas en primera lnea de las Operaciones Especiales aterrizaron y establecieron rpidamente una comunidad, que nunca antes haban visto. +Llena de mujeres con tanta fuerza y tan cualificadas como ellas, y motivadas por marcar la diferencia. +No tenan que disculparse por quienes eran, y de hecho, podan celebrarlo. +Y lo que encontraron cuando estuvieron all fue que de repente, haba mucha gente como ellas. +Mientras una de ellas dijo, "era como mirar alrededor y darte cuenta de que haba ms de una jirafa en el zoo." +Entre este equipo de destacadas se encontraba Cassie, una joven que logr ser cadete del ROTC, miembro de una hermandad, y especializada en Estudios Feministas, todo a la vez. +Tristan, estrella de atletismo en West Point, quien siempre corra y marchaba sin calcetines, con zapatos cuyo olor daba fe de ello. +Amber, parecida a Heidi, que siempre quiso estar en infantera, y cuando averigu que las mujeres no podan entrar decidi ser oficial de inteligencia. +Sirvi en Bosnia, y ms tarde ayud al FBI a arrestar bandas de narcos en Pensilvania. +Y despus est Kate, quien jug futbol americano en el instituto los cuatro aos, y en realidad quiso dejarlo despus del primero, para entrar en el coro, pero cuando supo que las chicas no podan jugar a ftbol, decidi quedarse por las nias que vendran despus de ella. +la biologa haba moldeado parte de sus destinos, y puesto, como Cassie dijo, "todo lo noble fuera del alcance de las chicas" +Y sin embargo, ah tenan la oportunidad de servir con los mejores en una misin de importancia para su pas, no a pesar del hecho de que eran mujeres, sino porque lo eran. +Este equipo de mujeres, en muchos sentidos, era como todas las mujeres. +Llevaban maquillaje, y de hecho, compartan su inters por el delineador y el lpiz de ojos en el bao. +Y llevaban chaleco antibalas. +Ponan casi 23 kilos de peso en sus espaldas, y suban a un helicptero para una misin, y a la vuelta vean la pelcula "La boda de mi mejor amiga" +Incluso llevaban una cosa llamada Spanx, porque, descubrieron rpidamente, que los uniformes para hombres eran grandes donde tena que ser pequeos, y pequeos donde tenan que ser grandes. +As que Lane, una veterana de la guerra de Iraq--a mi izquierda-- decidi visitar Amazon y pedir un par de Spanx para su trasero, para que los pantalones le quedaran mejor al salir de misin cada noche. +Estas mujeres se unan por video conferencia desde diversas bases de todas partes de Afganistn, y hablaban sobre como era ser una de las nicas mujeres que hacan aquello. +Intercambiaban chistes, hablaban sobre lo que funcionaba, y lo que no, lo que aprendieron a hacer bien, y lo que necesitaba mejorar. +y hablaban sobre algunos de los momentos ms ligeros de ser mujer al frente de las Operaciones Especiales, lo que incluye el Shewee, utensilio que permite hacer pip como un chico, aunque se dice que ha alcanzado un ndice de precisin de solo un 40%. +Estas mujeres vivan en el "y." +Demostraron que podan actuar con fiereza y ser femeninas. +Que podan llevar mscara y chaleco antibalas. +Que les poda encantar el "CrossFit" y adorar el punto de cruz. +les poda encantar descender de helicpteros as como hornear galletas. +Las mujeres viven en el "y" todos y cada uno de los das, y estas mujeres llevaron eso a la misin tambin. +En ese campo de batalla nunca olvidaron que ser mujer les pudo haber llevado al frente, pero ser un soldado es lo que les acredit all. +Hubo una noche en que Amber sali de misin, y al hablar con las mujeres de la casa, se percat de que haba un tirador atrincherado al acecho de fuerzas americanas y afganas que esperaban para entrar en la casa. +Otra noche fue Tristan quien averigu que haban piezas que formaban explosivos por toda la casa en la que se encontraban, de hecho, estaban por todo el camino entre la casa y donde estaban a punto de dirigirse aquella noche. +Y la noche que otra de sus compaeras demostr sus habilidades ante un escptico equipo de SEAL, al hallar el objeto de inteligencia que buscaban envuelto en paal de beb mojado. +Y est la noche en que Isabel, otra de sus compaeras, encontr las cosas que estaban buscando, y recibi el "Impact Award" de los Rangers quienes dijeron que sin ella, las cosas y las personas que buscaban aquella noche nunca se hubieran encontrado. +Aquella y otras muchas noches, ellas salan para demostrarse a s mismas, no solo a ellas, sino a las que vendran despus de ellas +Y tambin a los hombres con los que servan. +Se dice que detrs de cada gran hombre hay una gran mujer. +Y en este caso, con estas mujeres haban hombres que queran ver como lo lograban. +El Ranger que las entren haba servido en 12 despliegues. +Y cuando le dijeron que tena que entrenar a chicas, no tena ni idea de lo que se iba a encontrar. +Pero tras ocho das con estas mujeres en el verano del 2011, le dijo a su compaero Ranger: "hemos presenciado algo histrico. +Ellas podran ser nuestras aviadoras de Tuskegee." +En el centro de este equipo se encontraba la persona a quien llamaban "la mejor de nosotras." +Ella era una pequea rubia muy dinmica, que apenas media metro sesenta. +Y era una mezcla salvaje entre Martha Steward, y la teniente O'Neil. +A ella le encantaba preparar la comida para su marido, su amor en el ROTC de Kent State quien la anim a superarse, y a confiar en s misma, y a ponerse a prueba ante cada lmite. +Tambin le encantaba cargarse unos 23 kilos a la espalda y correr kilmetros, y deseaba ser un soldado. +Sola tener una mquina panificadora en su oficina en Kandahar, y horneaba pan de pasas y despus se iba al gimnasio y se levantaba 25 o 30 veces de una barra de dominadas. +Era una persona que, si necesitabas un par extra de botas o comida casera, estaba en los nmeros de marcacin rpida. +Porque nunca te hablaba sobre lo buena que era, sino que lo demostraba con acciones. +Era famosa por no tomar el camino fcil. +Y tambin por acercarse a una cuerda de 4 kilmetros y medio, ascender por ella utilizando solo los brazos, y despus alejarse mientras se disculpaba, porque saba que se supona que deba usar los brazos y las piernas, como los Rangers las entrenaron. +Algunos de los hroes vuelven a casa para explicar sus historias. +Y otros no. +Y un 22 de octubre de 2011. La teniente Ashley White fue asesinada junto a dos Rangers, Christopher Horns y Kristoffer Domeij. +Su muerte lanz a este programa construido en la sombra a ser el centro de atencin. +Porque despus de todo, la prohibicin de las mujeres en combate an estaba muy arraigada. +Y en el funeral, el jefe de operaciones especiales vino, y ofreci un testimonio pblico no solo por Ashley White, sino por todo el equipo de hermanas +"No os equivoquis," dijo, "estas mujeres son guerreras, y han escrito un nuevo captulo sobre el significado de ser mujer en el ejrcito de los Estados Unidos." +La madre de Ashley es profesora asistente y conductora de autobs, quien adems hornea galletas. +No recuerda mucho acerca de aquellos abrumadores das, en los que el dolor---gran dolor--- se mezclaba con orgullo. +Pero ella recuerda un momento. +Una desconocida con un nio de la mano se acerc a ella y dijo, "Sra. White, he trado a mi hija aqu hoy, porque quera que supiera qu es un hroe. +Y quera que supiese que los hroes tambin pueden ser mujeres." +Es tiempo de celebrar todas las heronas olvidadas que buscan en su interior y hallan el corazn y las agallas para continuar y poner a prueba cada lmite. +Este grupo inusual de hermanas unidas para siempre en la vida y despus formaron de hecho parte de la historia, y pavimentaron el camino para las que vendrn despus de ellas, como ellas hicieron con las que hubieron antes. +Ellas mostraron que los guerreros se presentan en cualquier forma y tamao. +Y las mujeres pueden ser hroes, tambin. +Muchas gracias. +En 1885, Karl Benz invent el automvil. +Ms tarde ese ao, lo sac para la primera prueba de conduccin pblica, para --historia verdadera-- estrellarse contra una pared. +En los ltimos 130 aos, hemos trabajado en torno a esa parte menos fiable del vehculo, el conductor. +Hemos hecho autos ms fuertes. +Se ha aadido el cinturn de seguridad, las bolsas de aire, y en la ltima dcada empezamos a hacer autos ms inteligentes para solucionar ese problema, el conductor. +Hoy les hablar un poco de la diferencia entre emparchar el problema con sistemas de conduccin asistida y realmente tener autos plenamente autoconducidos y lo que estos pueden hacer por el mundo. +Tambin les hablar un poco de nuestro auto para que vean cmo ve el mundo, cmo reacciona y qu hace, pero primero hablar un poco sobre el problema. +Y es un gran problema. en la carretera en el mundo mueren 1,2 millones de personas al ao. +Solo en EE.UU., mueren 33 000 personas al ao. +Para poner eso en perspectiva, es como si cayeran 737 personas del cielo cada da laboral. +Es increble. +Nos venden los autos as, pero en realidad, la conduccin es algo as. +Cierto? No es soleado, es lluvioso, y Uds. quieren hacer otras cosas que conducir. +Y esta es la razn: El trnsito es cada vez peor. +En EE.UU., entre 1990 y 2010, los kilmetros recorridos por vehculo aumentaron un 38 %. +Las carreteras crecieron un 6 %, as que no es idea de Uds. +El trnsito es sustancialmente peor de lo que fue no hace mucho. +Y todo esto tiene un impacto humano muy alto. +Por ejemplo, el tiempo de viaje promedio en EE.UU. es de unos 50 minutos, lo multiplicamos por los 120 millones de trabajadores, eso da unos 6000 millones de minutos derrochados en desplazamientos cada da. +Es un nmero enorme, as que pongamos esto en perspectiva. +Tomamos esos 6000 millones de minutos y los dividimos entre la edad media de una persona, eso da 162 vidas gastadas cada da, derrochadas, solo para ir de A a B. +Es increble. +Y luego estamos quienes no tenemos el privilegio de sentarnos en el trnsito. +Este es Steve. +Es un tipo muy capaz, pero es ciego, y por eso en vez de conducir 30 minutos para ir al trabajo cada maana, pasa dos horas en el transporte pblico o pidiendo a amigos y familiares que lo lleven. +No tiene la misma libertad que Uds. y yo para moverse. +Deberamos hacer algo al respecto. +El conocimiento convencional afirma que si tomamos estos sistemas de asistencia al conductor si los impulsamos y mejoramos de manera incremental, con el tiempo, se convertirn en vehculos autoconducidos. +Bueno, vengo a decirles que eso es como decir que si nos esforzamos mucho en saltar, un da podremos volar. +Realmente tenemos que hacer algo un poco diferente. +Por eso les hablar de tres formas diferentes en las que los sistemas autoconducidos difieren de los de conduccin asistida. +Empezar con la experiencia propia. +Volviendo a 2013, hicimos la primera prueba de un vehculo autoconducido y se los dimos a probar a la gente comn. +Bueno, casi comunes... eran 100 empleados de Google pero no trabajaban en el proyecto. +Les dimos los autos y les permitimos usarlos en sus vidas diarias. +A diferencia de un vehculo autoconducido real este tena una gran salvedad: Haba que prestar atencin, porque era un vehculo experimental. +Lo probamos mucho, pero poda fallar. +Los capacitamos durante dos horas, los pusimos en el auto, les dejamos que lo usaran, y la respuesta fue asombrosa, como si alguien tratara de crear un producto. +Cada uno de ellos dijo que le encant. +De hecho, tuvimos un conductor de Porsche que vino y nos dijo el primer da: "Esto es totalmente tonto. En qu estamos pensando?" +Pero al final, dijo: "No solo yo debera tenerlo, todos los dems deberan tenerlo, porque las personas conducen muy mal". +Eso fue msica para nuestros odos, pero luego empezamos a observar qu haca la gente dentro del auto, y esto fue revelador. +Se asegura de que el telfono est cargando. +Todo esto a 100 km por hora en la autopista. +Correcto? Increble. +Lo pensamos y dijimos: es obvio, no? +Cuanto mejor sea la tecnologa, menos confiable se volver el conductor. +Al hacer autos cada vez ms inteligentes, quiz no veamos las ganancias que necesitamos. +Ahora hablar de algo un poco tcnico durante un momento. +Estamos viendo en este grfico, en la parte inferior la frecuencia con la que el auto usa los frenos sin necesidad. +Pueden ignorar gran parte de ese eje, porque si conducen en la ciudad, y el auto empieza a detenerse al azar, nunca comprarn ese vehculo. +Y el eje vertical es la frecuencia con la que el auto usar los frenos cuando se supone que debe ayudar a evitar un accidente. +Si vemos la esquina inferior izquierda, este es el auto clsico. +No aplica los frenos por uno, no hace nada torpe, pero tampoco evita un accidente. +Si queremos introducir un sistema de conduccin asistida, digamos con freno de mitigacin de colisiones, pondremos cierta tecnologa all, eso es esa curva, y tendr unas propiedades operativas, pero nunca evitar todos los accidentes, porque no tiene esa capacidad. +Pero tocaremos la curva por aqu, y quiz evite la mitad de los accidentes cometidos por conductores humanos, y eso es increble, no? +Reducimos accidentes viales en un factor de dos. +Ahora hay 17 000 personas menos que mueren al ao en EE.UU. +Pero si queremos un vehculo autoconducido, necesitamos una curva tecnolgica que se parece a esto. +Tendremos que poner ms sensores en el vehculo, y alcanzaremos algn punto por aqu donde bsicamente nunca habr un accidente. +Ocurrirn, pero con una frecuencia muy baja. +Uds. y yo podramos ver esto y argumentar si esto es incremental, y yo podra decir algo como "regla 80-20", y es realmente difcil subir en esa nueva curva. +Pero vemoslo desde una direccin diferente por un momento. +Veamos con qu frecuencia la tecnologa tiene que hacer lo correcto. +Este punto verde de aqu es un sistema de conduccin asistida. +Resulta que los conductores humanos cometen errores que llevan a accidentes de trnsito aproximadamente una vez cada 160 000 km en EE.UU. +Un sistema de autoconduccin, por el contrario, quiz toma decisiones unas 10 veces por segundo, por lo que el orden de magnitud es de unas 1000 veces cada 1,6 km. +Si se compara la distancia entre estos dos, es de 10 a la octava, no? +Ocho rdenes de magnitud. +Es como comparar lo rpido que puedo correr a la velocidad de la luz. +Sin importar lo duro que entrene, nunca llegar all. +Existe una brecha bastante grande. +Y, finalmente, est el manejo de la incertidumbre. +Este peatn podra entrar en la carretera, podra no entrar. +No lo s, ni lo saben nuestros algoritmos, pero en el caso de un sistema de asistencia de conduccin, significa que no puede hacer algo porque, de nuevo, si pisa los frenos inesperadamente, es completamente inaceptable. +Mientras que un sistema autoconducido puede mirar al peatn y decir: no s qu est por hacer, desacelerar, observar mejor y despus reaccionar en consecuencia. +Puede ser mucho ms seguro que un sistema de conduccin asistida. +Eso es suficiente sobre la diferencia entre ambos sistemas. +Hablemos ahora de cmo ve el auto el mundo. +Este es nuestro vehculo. +Empieza por entender dnde est en el mundo, alineando su mapa y los datos de su sensor, y luego apilamos encima lo que ve en el momento. +Las cajas prpura que pueden ver son otros vehculos en la carretera, y la cosa roja all al lado es un ciclista, y a la distancia, si vemos de cerca, se ven unos conos. +Luego sabemos dnde est el auto en el momento, pero tenemos que hacerlo mejor: tenemos que predecir qu ocurrir. +La camioneta de la parte superior derecha est a punto de pasar al carril izquierdo porque la carretera al frente est cerrada, por eso tiene que salir del camino. +Conocer a esa camioneta es genial, pero tenemos que conocer qu piensan todos, por eso se vuelve un problema bastante complicado. +Y sabiendo eso, hay que adivinar cmo debera responder el auto en el momento, qu trayectoria debera seguir, si debera acelerar o desacelerar. +Y luego todo se reduce a seguir el camino: girar el volante a izquierda o derecha, presionar el freno o acelerar. +Son realmente al final solo dos nmeros. +Cun difcil puede ser realmente? +Cuando empezamos en 2009, este era el aspecto de nuestro sistema. +Pueden ver nuestro auto en medio y las otras cajas en la carretera, conduciendo por la autopista. +El auto tiene que entender dnde est y saber dnde estn los otros. +Tiene que entender geomtricamente el mundo. +Cuando empezamos a conducir en las calles del barrio y la ciudad, el problema adquiere un nuevo nivel de dificultad. +Vemos peatones y autos cruzando en todas las direcciones, los semforos, los pasos de peatones. +Es un problema increblemente complicado en comparacin. +Y una vez tenemos el problema resuelto, el vehculo debe poder lidiar con la construccin. +Los conos de la izquierda obligan a conducir a la derecha, pero no se trata solo de la construccin en forma aislada, claro. +Tambin tiene en cuenta personas en movimiento por la zona de construccin. +Y, claro, si alguien no cumple las reglas, la polica est all y el vehculo debe entender que la luz titilante encima del auto significa que no es un vehculo cualquiera sino el de una patrulla de polica. +De manera similar, la caja naranja en el lateral es un bus escolar, y debe recibir un trato especial tambin. +Cuando estamos fuera en la carretera, otras personas tienen expectativas: Cuando un ciclista levanta el brazo, significa que est esperando que el auto le ceda el paso y le haga espacio para hacer un cambio de carril. +Y cuando un oficial de polica se interpone en el camino, nuestro vehculo debe entender que esto significa "alto", y cuando indique avanzar, debemos continuar. +Nuestra manera de lograr esto es intercambiando datos entre vehculos. +El primer modelo, y ms crudo, es cuando un vehculo ve una zona de construccin, y le avisa a otro para que est en el carril correcto y as evitar en parte la dificultad. +Pero en realidad entendemos mucho ms que eso. +Podramos tomar los datos de los autos vistos en el tiempo, los cientos de miles de peatones, ciclistas, y vehculos que hemos visto, entender su aspecto, y usar eso para inferir el aspecto de los otros vehculos y el de los otros peatones. +Y luego, incluso ms importante, podramos extraer un modelo de cmo esperamos que se muevan por el mundo. +Aqu en la caja amarilla hay un peatn que cruza ante nosotros. +La caja azul es un ciclista y anticipamos que se avisaran para sortear el auto y salir hacia la derecha. +Aqu hay un ciclista que va por la carretera y sabemos que seguir la trayectoria de la carretera. +Aqu alguien gira a la derecha, y en un momento, alguien quiere girar en U frente a nosotros, y podemos anticipar ese comportamiento y responder con seguridad. +Todo bien con estas cosas que ya hemos visto antes, pero, claro, uno encuentra muchas cosas que uno nunca antes vio el mundo. +Por ejemplo, hace un par de meses, nuestros vehculos circulaban por Mountain View, y encontraron esto. +Es una mujer en silla de ruedas electrnica persiguiendo a un pato en crculos por la carretera. Y no hay ningn sitio en el manual del DMV que diga cmo resolver algo as, pero nuestros vehculos pudieron resolverlo, redujeron la velocidad, y condujeron de forma segura. +Y no solo tenemos que lidiar con patos. +Miren esta ave que vuela justo frente a nosotros. El auto reacciona. +Aqu lidiamos con unos ciclistas que uno nunca esperara ver en otro sitio que no fuese Mountain View. +Y claro, tenemos que lidiar con los conductores, incluso con los muy pequeos. +Miren a la derecha como alguien salta de este camin hacia nosotros. +Y ahora, miren a la izquierda cuando el auto de la caja verde decide girar a la derecha a ltimo momento. +Aqu, cuando cambiamos de carril, el coche de la izquierda decide que tambin quiere hacerlo. +Y aqu, vemos un auto que pasa un semforo en rojo y cede el paso. +Y, del mismo modo, aqu, un ciclista pasa esa luz tambin. +Y, por supuesto, el vehculo responde en forma segura. +Y, claro, tenemos personas que no s por qu a veces en la carretera, se interponen entre dos vehculos autoconducidos. +Uno se pregunta: "En qu ests pensando?" +Les he mostrado rpidamente muchas cosas por eso analizar en detalle una de ellas rpidamente. +Estamos viendo nuevamente la escena del ciclista, y habrn notado abajo, que todava no podemos ver al ciclista, pero el auto s puede: ese esa pequea caja azul de all, y eso proviene de los datos lser. +En realidad, no es fcil de entender por eso girar esos datos lser para analizarlos, y si son buenos analizando datos lser podrn ver que unos pocos puntos de esa curva, justo all, esa caja azul es el ciclista. +Si bien nuestra luz es roja, la luz del ciclista ya se puso en amarillo, y si observan, pueden verlo en la imagen. +Pero el ciclista seguir por la interseccin. +Nuestra luz ahora es verde, la de l es totalmente roja, y ahora anticipamos que esta bici har el recorrido completo. +Por desgracia, los otros conductores cercanos no prestaron mucha atencin. +Empezaron a avanzar, y afortunadamente para todos, este ciclista reacciona, evita, logra pasar la interseccin. +Y all vamos. +Como pueden ver, hemos hecho progresos apasionantes, y en este momento estamos bastante convencidos de que esta tecnologa saldr al mercado. +Hacemos 4 millones 800 mil km de pruebas en simulador cada da, podrn imaginar la experiencia que tienen nuestros vehculos. +Esperamos con ansia que esta tecnologa salga a las carreteras, y creemos que la forma correcta es el enfoque de la autoconduccin en vez del enfoque de la conduccin asistida porque la urgencia es mucha. +En el tiempo que llev dar esta charla hoy, han muerto 34 personas en las carreteras de EE.UU. +Qu pronto podemos llevarlo a cabo? +Bueno, es difcil de decir porque es un problema muy complicado, pero estos son mis dos nios. +El ms grande tiene 11 aos, o sea que en 4 aos y medio podr tener su licencia de conducir. +Mi equipo y yo estamos decididos a asegurarnos de que eso no pase. +Gracias. +Chris Anderson: Chris, Tengo una pregunta para ti. +Chris Urmson: Claro. +CA: Sin duda, la mente de tus autos es bastante alucinante. +En este debate entre conduccin asistida y autoconduccin... ese debate existe hoy. +Algunas compaas, por ejemplo Tesla, van por la senda de la conduccin asistida. +T dices que ese camino ser un callejn sin salida porque no puedes seguir mejorando esa va y llegar a la autoconduccin en algn momento, y entonces el conductor dir: "Esto parece seguro", girar hacia atrs, y entonces ocurrir algo feo. +CU: Cierto. No, eso es correcto, y no quiere decir que los sistemas de conduccin asistida no vayan a ser increblemente valiosos. +CA: Seguiremos tu progreso con gran inters. +Muchas gracias, Chris. CU: Gracias. +Cuando uno es nio, absolutamente todo es posible. +El reto, tantas veces, es continuar as a medida que crecemos. +Y con cuatro aos de edad, yo tuve la oportunidad de navegar por primera vez. +Nunca me olvidar de la emocin cuando nos acercbamos a la costa. +Nunca me olvidar del sentimiento de aventura cuando suba a bordo del barco y miraba su pequea cabina por primera vez. +Pero el sentimiento ms increble era el sentimiento de libertad, lo que sent cuando izamos sus velas. +Para una nia de cuatro aos, fue la mayor sensacin de libertad que podra haberme imaginado. +En ese momento decid que algn da, de alguna manera, yo navegara alrededor del mundo. +E hice lo que pude en mi vida para alcanzar ese sueo. +Con 10 aos, yo ahorraba mi suelto de la cena escolar. +Cada da durante ocho aos, coma pur y judas, que costaban cuatro peniques, y la salsa era gratuita. +Todos los das apilaba el suelto encima de mi alcanca, y cuando la pila sumaba una libra, la meta y tachaba uno de los 100 cuadrados que yo haba dibujado en un papel. +Finalmente, me compr un botecito. +Me pas horas sentada en l en el jardn soando con mi objetivo. +Le todo lo que pude sobre navegacin, hasta que, cuando me dijeron en la escuela que no era lo bastante lista para ser veterinaria, abandon la escuela con 17 aos para empezar mi aprendizaje en navegacin. +Imagnense como me senta cuatro aos despus sentada en una sala de juntas delante de alguien que yo saba que podra realizar mi sueo. +Me senta como si mi vida dependiera de aquel momento, e increblemente l dijo que s. +Y yo apenas poda contener mi emocin mientras asista a la primera reunin para disear un bote en el que yo navegara en solitario sin parar alrededor del mundo. +Desde la primera reunin hasta la lnea de llegada, todo fue como yo me haba imaginado. +Tal y como en mis sueos, hubo partes asombrosas y partes difciles. +Evitamos un iceberg por seis metros. +Nueve veces trep a su mstil de 28 metros. +El viento soplaba en nuestro costado en el Ocano Austral. +Pero las puestas de sol, la fauna y la lejana eran absolutamente espectaculares. +Tras tres meses en el mar, con solo 24 aos termin en segunda posicin. +Me gust tanto que al cabo de seis meses me decid a navegar alrededor del mundo de nuevo, pero ahora no en una carrera: para intentar ser la persona ms rpida en navegar en solitario continuamente alrededor del mundo. +Bueno, para eso yo necesitaba una embarcacin diferente: ms larga, ms ancha, ms rpida, ms potente. +Solo para dar una idea de escala, yo podra subir por dentro de su mstil hasta la parte superior. +Veintitrs metros de longitud, 18 metros de ancho +Yo la llamaba cariosamente Moby. +Era un multicasco. +Cuando lo construimos, nadie haba logrado en solitario y sin parar dar la vuelta al mundo, pero ya lo haban intentado, y mientras la construamos, un francs, con un barco 25% mayor que el mo, no solo lo hizo, sino que baj el rcord de 93 das hasta 72. +El listn estaba ahora mucho ms alto. +Y era muy emocionante navegar esos barcos. +Aqu un velero para entrenamiento cerca de la costa francesa. +Lo conozco bien, pues fui uno de los cinco miembros de su tripulacin. +Cinco segundos eran suficientes para pasar de "todo bien" a "todo de color negro" mientras las ventanas se sumergan en el agua, y esos cinco segundos pasaban muy rpido. +Miren cmo el mar est muy por debajo de ellos. +Imagnense eso solos en el Ocano Austral sumergidos en aguas glidas, miles de kilmetros lejos de tierra. +Era el da de Navidad. +Yo avanzaba hacia el Ocano Austral debajo de Australia. +Las condiciones eran terribles. +Yo me acercaba a una parte del ocano que estaba a 3.200 kilmetros del pueblo ms cercano. +La tierra ms cercana era la Antrtida, y las personas ms cercanas eran los tripulantes de la Estacin Espacial Europea por encima. +Uno est en el mismo centro de la nada. +Si uno necesita ayuda, y todava est vivo, un barco tarda cuatro das en llegar, y cuatro das ms para que el barco lo lleve de vuelta al puerto. +Ningn helicptero puede llegar all, y ningn avin puede aterrizar. +Avanzbamos hacia una enorme borrasca. +En su interior, vientos de 50 nudos, que eran demasiado fuertes para el barco o para m. +Las olas ya tenan 12 a 15 metros de altura, Y el chapoteo de las crestas rompientes azotaba horizontalmente tal y como nieve en una ventisca. +Si no navegramos suficientemente rpido, seramos engullidos por la borrasca, y volcaramos o seramos destrozados. +Nos aferrbamos literalmente a la vida. Estbamos sobre el filo de la navaja. +La velocidad que yo tanto necesitaba vino acompaada de peligro. +Todos sabemos cmo es conducir un carro a 40 kilmetros por hora, 50, 60. +No es muy estresante. Logramos concentrarnos. +Podemos encender la radio. +Ahora pasen de esos 50, 60, 70, hasta 140, 150, 160 km. por hora. +Ahora estn tensos y agarran con fuerza el volante. +Ahora conduzcan ese carro fuera de la ruta por la noche y quiten los limpiaparabrisas, los parabrisas, los faros y los frenos. +Es exactamente as en el Ocano Austral. +Imagnenselo sera bastante difcil dormir en esa situacin, incluso como pasajero. +Pero uno no es pasajero. +Est solo en un bote, apenas logra ponerse de pie, y tiene que tomar todas las decisiones a bordo. +Yo estaba totalmente agotada, fsica y mentalmente. +Ocho cambios de navegacin en 12 horas. +La vela mayor pesaba tres veces mi peso, y despus de cada cambio, yo me derrumbaba en el suelo empapada de sudor con el aire helado del Ocano Austral quemando mi garganta. +Pero all, lo peor de lo peor a menudo contrasta con lo mejor de lo mejor. +Pocos das ms tarde, salimos de lo peor. +Contra todo pronstico, logramos batir el rcord dentro de aquel cicln. +El cielo se despej, la lluvia ces, y nuestros latidos, el mar atroz a nuestro alrededor se transformaron en las montaas ms bellas bajo la luz de la luna. +Es difcil explicar, pero uno entra en un estado diferente al salir ah fuera. +Su barco es su mundo entero, y lo que lleva consigo cuando se va es todo que tiene. +Si yo dijera ahora: "Salgan a Vancouver y encuentren todo que van a necesitar para sobrevivir en los prximos 3 meses", eso es toda una tarea. +Es comida, combustible, ropas, hasta papel higinico y pasta de dientes. +Eso es lo que hacemos, y cuando partimos, controlamos hasta la ltima gota de gasleo y el ltimo paquete de comida. +Ninguna experiencia en mi vida podra haberme dado una mejor comprensin de la definicin de la palabra "finito". +Lo que all tenemos es todo lo que tenemos. +No hay nada ms. +Y nunca en mi vida haba yo aplicado esa definicin de finito que yo senta a bordo a cualquier cosa aparte de la navegacin hasta que me baj del barco en la lnea de llegada con el rcord batido. +De repente, at cabos. +La economa mundial no es diferente. +Es totalmente dependiente de materiales finitos que solo tenemos una vez en la historia de la humanidad. +Y fue como ver una cosa inesperada bajo una piedra y tener dos opciones: o bien aparto esta piedra y la estudio mejor, o bien la dejo all y sigo con el trabajo de mis sueos navegando alrededor del mundo. +Yo eleg la primera. +La apart y empec un nuevo trayecto de aprendizaje, hablando con directores ejecutivos, expertos, cientficos, economistas para intentar comprender cmo funciona la economa mundial. +Y mi curiosidad me llev hacia lugares extraordinarios. +Esta foto fue tomada en el quemador de una central elctrica de carbn. +Me fascinaba el carbn, esencial para el suministro energtico mudial, pero tambin muy cercano a mi familia. +Mi bisabuelo era minero del carbn, y pas 50 aos de su vida bajo tierra. +sta es una foto suya, y cundo la veo, parece alguien de otra poca. +Nadie usa pantalones de cintura tan alta hoy en da. Pero s, sta soy yo con mi bisabuelo, y, a propsito, esas no son sus orejas de verdad. Estbamos unidos. Recuerdo sentarme en su regazo y escuchar sus historias de minero. +Hablaba de la camaradera bajo tierra, y del hecho de que los mineros guardaran la corteza de sus bocadillos para drsela a los ponies con los que trabajaban bajo tierra. +Parece que fue ayer. +Y en mi trayecto de aprendizaje, visit el sitio web de la Asociacin Mundial del Carbn, y all, en medio de la portada, deca: "Nos quedan unos 118 aos ms de carbn." +Y me dije, bueno, excede mucho el curso de mi vida, y una cifra muchsimo mayor que las predicciones del petrleo. +Pero hice los clculos y me di cuenta de que mi bisabuelo haba nacido exactamente 118 aos antes de aquel ao, y yo me sent en su regazo hasta los 11 aos de edad, y me di cuenta de que eso no es nada en el tiempo, ni en la historia. +Esto me hizo tomar una decisin que nunca pens que tomara: abandonar el deporte de la navegacin en solitario y dedicarme al mayor reto que he encontrado: el futuro de la economa mundial. +Y luego me di cuenta de que no se trataba solo de energa, +sino tambin de materiales. +En 2008, repas un estudio cientfico que analizaba cuntos aos nos quedan de materiales valiosos que extraer del suelo: cobre, 61; estao, zinc, 40; plata, 29. +Esas cifras pueden no ser exactas, pero sabamos que eses materiales eran finitos. +Slo los tenemos por una vez. +Sin embargo, la velocidad con que usamos eses materiales ha aumentado rpidamente exponencialmente. +Con ms gente en el mundo con ms cosas, efectivamente hemos visto 100 aos de cadas de precios de esas mercancas bsicas borrados en apenas 10 aos. +Y eso nos afecta a todos. +Caus enormes volatilidades en los precios, tanto que en 2011, un fabricante de automviles europeos observ un aumento en el precio de la materia prima de 500 millones de euros, eliminando la mitad de sus ganancias operativas a causa de algo de lo que no tienen siquiera el menor control. +Y cunto ms aprenda, ms empezaba yo a cambiar mi propia vida. +Empec a viajar menos, hacer menos, usar menos. +Me pareca que de hecho hacer menos era lo que debamos hacer. +Pero eso me inquietaba. +No me pareca correcto. +Pareca que estbamos ganando tiempo. +Estbamos esforzndonos un poco ms. +Incluso si todos cambiaran, no se solucionara el problema. +No se arreglara el sistema. +Era esencial en la transicin. Pero lo que me fascinaba era, en la transicin hacia qu? Qu podra realmente funcionar? +Me sorprendi que el propio sistema, el contexto en donde vivimos, es defectuoso en su esencia, Y por fin me di cuenta de que nuestro sistema operativo, la manera cmo funciona nuestra economa, tal como se construy, es un sistema en s. +En el mar, yo tena que comprender sistemas complejos. +Yo tena que considerar varias entradas, tena que procesarlas, y tena que comprender el sistema para vencer. +Yo tena que darle sentido. +Y mientras miraba la economa mundial, me di cuenta de que ella tambin es ese sistema, pero un sistema que no logra funcionar eficazmente a largo plazo. +Es una economa que esencialmente no logra funcionar a largo plazo, Y si sabemos que tenemos materiales finitos, Por qu crearamos una economa que de hecho agotara las cosas, que generara desechos? +La vida en s ha existido miles de millones de aos Y continuamente se adapt para usar los materiales eficazmente. +Es un sistema complejo, pero dentro de l no hay desechos. +Todo es metabolizado. +No es en absoluto una economa lineal, sino circular. +Y me sent como la nia en el jardn. +Por primera vez en ese nuevo trayecto, poda ver exactamente adnde bamos. +Si pudiramos crear una economa que usara las cosas en lugar de agotarlas, Podramos construir un futuro que pudiera realmente funcionar a largo plazo. +Yo estaba entusiasmada. +Eso era algo por lo que trabajar. +Sabamos exactamente adnde bamos. Slo tenamos que averiguar cmo llegar hasta all Y fue exactamente con eso presente que creamos la Fundacin Ellen MacArthur en septiembre de 2010. +Muchas corrientes de pensamiento nos sirvieron de base y apuntaban a este modelo: simbiosis industrial, economa del rendimiento, consumo colaborativo, biomimetismo, y claro, diseo de la cuna a la cuna. +Los materiales seran definidos como tcnicos o como biolgicos, los desechos seran completamente eliminados, y tendramos un sistema que lograra funcionar absolutamente a largo plazo. +Bueno, cmo sera esta economa? +Tal vez no compraramos portalmparas, sino pagaramos por el servicio de luz, y los fabricantes recuperaran los materiales y cambiaran los portalmparas cundo tuviramos productos ms eficientes. +Y qu tal embalajes no txicos que pudieran disolverse en gua y los pudiramos beber? Nunca se convertiran en desechos. +Y si los motores fueran re-fabricables, y pudiramos recuperar sus componentes y reducir significativamente la demanda energtica. +Y si pudiramos recuperar componentes de las placas de circuitos, reusarlos, y bsicamente recuperar sus materiales mediante una segunda etapa? +Y si pudiramos recoger restos de comida, excrementos? +Y convertirlos en fertilizantes, calor, energa, volviedo al final a conectar sistemas de nutrientes y reconstruyendo capital natural? +Y carros... Lo que queremos es desplazarnos. +No necesitamos poseer los materiales de que constan. +Los carros podran ser un servicio y proporcionarnos movilidad en el futuro? +Todo eso suena increble, pero no son solo ideas, sino realidades de hoy, que estn en la vanguardia de la economa circular. +Lo que tenemos que hacer es extenderlas y ampliarlas. +Entonces cmo pasar de lo lineal a lo circular? +Desde la Fundacin creemos que a Uds. les gustara trabajar con las mejores universidades del mundo, con los negocios lderes en el mundo, con las mayores plataformas colaborativas del mundo, y los gobiernos. +Que Uds. podran querer trabajar con los mejores analistas y hacerles la pregunta: "Puede la economa circular disociar el crecimiento de las limitaciones de recursos? +La economa circular consigue recrear capital natural? +Podra la economa circular remplazar el uso de fertilizantes qumicos? +S es la respuesta a la disociacin, pero tambin s, podramos reducir el uso actual de fertilizantes sorprendentemente hasta 2,7 veces. +Pero lo que ms que inspir de la economa circular fue su habilidad para inspirar a los jvenes. +Cundo los jvenes miran la economa mediante lentes circulares, ven nuevas oportunidades sobre un horizonte idntico. +Ellos pueden usar su creatividad y conocimiento para reconstruir el sistema entero. Y est ah ahora para quien lo quiera, y cuanto ms rpido lo hagamos, mejor. +Y lo podramos alcanzar a lo largo de sus vidas? +Es realmente posible? +Yo creo que s. +Si uno mira la vida de mi bisabuelo, todo es posible. +Cundo l naci, slo haba 25 carros en el mundo; acababan de inventarlos. +Cuando cumpli 14 aos, volamos por primera vez en la historia. +Ahora hay 100.000 vuelos chrter todos los das. +Cuando cumpli 45 aos, construimos el primer ordenador. +Muchos dijeron que no tendra xito, pero lo tuvo, y apenas 20 aos despus lo convertimos en un microchip de los cules habr miles en este saln hoy. +Diez aos antes de su muerte, construimos el primer telfono mvil. +No era tan mvil, en realidad, pero ahora s lo es, y mientras mi bisabuelo dejaba esta Tierra, llegaba Internet. +Ahora podemos hacer cualquier cosa, pero lo ms importante: ahora tenemos un plan. +Gracias. +A mis colegas y a m nos fascina la ciencia de los puntos mviles. +Qu son estos puntos? +Somos nosotros. +Nos movemos en casa, en la oficina, mientras compramos y viajamos por nuestras ciudades y alrededor del mundo. +No sera genial si pudiramos entender estos movimientos, +si pudiramos encontrar patrones, significado y sentido en eso? +Por fortuna para nosotros, vivimos en una poca en la que somos muy buenos capturando informacin sobre nosotros mismos. +Sea mediante sensores, videos o aplicaciones, podemos rastrear los movimientos con mucho detalle. +Y una de las mejores fuentes de datos sobre el movimiento es en los deportes. +Sea baloncesto o bisbol, ftbol americano o el otro ftbol, equipamos los estadios y jugadores para seguir sus movimientos en cada fraccin de segundo. +As que convertimos a los atletas --quiz lo adivinaron-- en puntos mviles. +Tenemos montaas de puntos mviles y como la mayora de los datos en crudo son difciles de manejar, y no son tan interesantes. +Pero hay cosas que los entrenadores de baloncesto quieren saber. +El problema es que no pueden retener cada segundo de cada juego, recordarlo y procesarlo. +Nadie puede hacer eso, pero una mquina s. +El problema de la mquina es que no ve el juego con ojo de entrenador. +Al menos no poda hasta ahora. +As que qu le enseamos a ver a la mquina? +Empezamos con cosas simples. +Le enseamos cosas como pases, tiros y rebotes. +Cosas que cualquier fan conoce. +Y luego seguimos con cosas levemente ms complicadas: +Posteos, bloqueos y continuacin, aislamientos. +Si no las conocen, est bien. Los jugadores aficionados quiz lo sepan. +Hemos logrado que la mquina entienda secuencias complejas como bloqueos verticales abajo y hasta con rotaciones complejas. +Bsicamente cosas que solo saben los profesionales. +Hemos enseado a la mquina a ver con ojos de entrenador. +Cmo hemos podido hacerlo? +Si pidiera a un entrenador describir un bloqueo y continuacin, me dara una descripcin; y si pusiera eso en un algoritmo, sera terrible. +El bloqueo y continuacin es esa danza del baloncesto entre cuatro jugadores, dos atacantes y dos defensores. +Es ms o menos as. +Hay un tipo en ataque sin la pelota, se pone al lado del tipo que marca y que tiene la posesin de la pelota, se queda all, y ambos se mueven y ocurre, cha-chan, un bloqueo y continuacin. +Eso es un ejemplo de un algoritmo complicado. +Si el jugador que se interpone, llamado bloqueador, se acerca, pero no se detiene, quiz no sea un bloqueo y continuacin. +O si se detiene, pero no queda muy cerca, quiz no sea un bloqueo y continuacin. +O si se acerca al otro y realmente para, pero lo hacen debajo de la cesta, quiz no sea un bloqueo y continuacin. +O podra equivocarme, todos esos casos podran ser bloqueos y continuacin. +Todo depende del tiempo exacto, las distancias, los posicionamientos, y eso lo hace difcil. +Por suerte, con el aprendizaje mquina, podemos exceder nuestra capacidad de describir las cosas que conocemos. +Cmo funciona esto? Bueno, con ejemplos. +Vamos a la mquina y le decimos: "Buenos das, mquina. +Aqu hay bloqueos y continuacin, y aqu otras cosas que no lo son. +Por favor, encuentra cmo establecer la diferencia". +Y la clave de todo esto es encontrar caractersticas que le permitan separar. +Si yo tuviera que ensear la diferencia entre una manzana y una naranja, podra decir: "Por qu no usar el color y la forma?" +El problema que enfrentamos es encontrar esas cosas. +Qu caractersticas son las que permiten a una computadora navegar el mundo de los puntos mviles? +Imaginar todas estas relaciones con ubicacin relativa y absoluta, --distancia, tiempo, velocidad-- es la clave de la ciencia de los puntos mviles, como nos gusta llamarla, reconocimiento espacio-temporal de patrones, en lenguaje acadmico. +Ante todo tenemos que hacer que suene difcil, porque lo es. +Pero la clave para los entrenadores de la NBA no es saber si hubo un bloqueo y continuacin o no. +Ellos quieren saber cmo ocurri. +Y por qu eso es tan importante para ellos? Aqu hay una idea importante. +Resulta que en el baloncesto moderno, el bloqueo y continuacin es quiz el juego ms importante. +Y saber cmo manejarlo, y saber cmo defenderlo, bsicamente es la clave para ganar o perder casi todos los juegos. +Pero resulta que esta danza tiene muchas variantes e identificar las variantes es lo que importa, por eso necesitamos que esto sea muy, muy bueno. +Este es un ejemplo. +Hay dos jugadores en ataque y dos en defensa, listos para la danza del bloqueo y continuacin. +El tipo con la pelota puede usar o no el bloqueo. +Su compaero puede girar a canasta o abrir para recibir el pase. +El que marca al jugador con la pelota puede avanzar o retroceder. +Su compaero puede avanzar, marcar o solo acompaar y juntos pueden cambiar asignacin defensiva o redoblar la marca. Yo no saba casi nada de esto cuando empec y sera estupendo si todos se movieran siguiendo esas flechas. +Hara mucho ms fciles nuestras vidas, pero el movimiento es muy desordenado. +Las personas se menean mucho e identificar estas variaciones con muy alta precisin, en precisin y en recuerdo, es difcil y es lo que hace que un entrenador profesional crea en ti. +Aun con las dificultades de las correctas caractersticas espacio-temporales lo hemos logrado. +Los entrenadores confan en que las mquinas pueden identificar variaciones. +Estamos en el punto en el que casi todos los contendientes en el campeonato de la NBA este ao usan nuestro software, construido en una mquina que entiende los puntos mviles en el baloncesto. +No solo eso, hemos dado consejos que han cambiado estrategias que han ayudado a equipos a ganar juegos muy importantes, y es muy apasionante porque hay entrenadores que han estado en la liga durante 30 aos que desean recibir consejos de una mquina. +Y es muy apasionante, mucho ms que el bloqueo y continuacin. +Nuestra computadora empez con cosas simples, aprendi cosas cada vez ms complejas y ahora sabe cada vez ms cosas. +Francamente, no entiendo gran parte de lo que hace, y si bien no es algo tan especial ser ms inteligente que yo, nos hemos preguntado, puede una mquina saber ms que un entrenador? +Puede saber ms de lo que podra saber una persona? +Y resulta que la respuesta es s. +Los entrenadores quieren que los jugadores disparen bien. +Si estoy cerca de la cesta y no hay nadie cerca, es un buen tiro. +Si estoy lejos, rodeado por defensores, generalmente es un mal tiro. +Pero no sabamos cun bueno o malo era lo "bueno" o lo "malo" cuantitativamente. +Hasta ahora. +Entonces, de nuevo, con las caractersticas espacio-temporales, analizamos cada tiro. +Podemos ver dnde est el tiro, cul es el ngulo a la cesta, +dnde estn los defensores, cules son sus distancias, +cules son los ngulos. +Para mltiples defensores, podemos ver cmo se mueve el jugador y predecir el tipo de tiro. +Podemos ver todas sus velocidades y construir un modelo que prediga la probabilidad de que este disparo vaya en estas circunstancias. +Por qu importa esto? +Podemos tomar un tiro, que antes era una cosa y ahora se transforma en dos cosas: la calidad del tiro y la calidad del tirador. +Este es un grfico de burbujas porque qu es TED sin ellos? +Esos son jugadores de la NBA. +El tamao es el tamao del jugador y el color es su posicin. +En el eje X, tenemos la probabilidad del disparo. +Las personas de la izquierda hacen tiros difciles, a la derecha, hacen tiros fciles. +En el eje Y, es la capacidad de disparo. +Las personas que disparan bien van arriba, las que disparan mal abajo. +Por ejemplo, si haba un jugador que generalmente encestaba el 47 % de los tiros, eso es lo que se saba antes. +Pero hoy, puedo decir que el jugador hace disparos que un jugador medio NBA convertira el 49 % del tiempo, y que ellos son un 2 % peores. +Y es importante porque hay muchos con 47 % por all. +Y por eso es muy importante saber si el 47 % al que estn evaluando pagarle USD 100 millones es un buen tirador que hace malos tiros o un mal tirador que hace buenos tiros. +La comprensin de mquina no cambia la forma de ver a los jugadores, cambia la forma de ver el juego. +Hace unos aos hubo un juego muy apasionante en la final de la NBA. +Miami estaba tres puntos abajo, quedaban 20 segundos. +Estaban a punto de perder el campeonato. +Un caballero de nombre LeBron James tir de tres para empatar. +Fall. +Su compaero Chris Bosh consigui un rebote, hizo un pase a otro compaero llamado Ray Allen. +Clav un triple. Fue en tiempo suplementario. +Ganaron el juego. Ganaron el campeonato. +Fue uno de los juegos de baloncesto ms emocionantes. +Y nuestra capacidad de conocer la probabilidad del tiro de cada jugador a cada segundo, y la probabilidad de conseguir un rebote a cada segundo puede iluminar este momento como nunca antes. +Desafortunadamente, no puedo mostrarles ese video. +Pero lo hemos recreado en nuestro juego semanal de baloncesto hace 3 semanas. +Y recreamos el seguimiento del que extrajimos las ideas. +Aqu estamos. Esto es Chinatown en Los ngeles, un parque en el que jugamos todas las semanas, y all estamos recreando el momento Ray Allen y todo el seguimiento asociado. +Este es el disparo. +Les mostrar ese momento y lo que aprendimos de ese momento. +La nica diferencia es que en vez de jugadores profesionales, somos nosotros, y en vez de un locutor profesional, soy yo. +As que tengan paciencia conmigo. +Miami. +Tres puntos abajo. +Quedan 20 segundos. +Jeff trae la pelota. +Josh la atrapa, marca un triple! +[Calculando probabilidad de tiro: 33 %] [Calidad del tiro: JOSH 33 %] [Probabilidad de rebote: NOEL 12 %] No entrar! +[Probabilidad de rebote: NOEL 37 %] Rebote, Noel. +Vuelve a Daria. +[Calidad del tiro: DARIA 37 %] Su triple... bang! +Empate y quedan 5 segundos. +La multitud enloquece. +Es ms o menos lo que pas. +Ms o menos. +Ese momento tena un 9 % de probabilidad de ocurrir en la NBA; sabemos eso y muchas otras cosas. +No les dir las veces que intentamos hasta que ocurri. +Bien, se los dir! Fueron cuatro. +As se hace, Daria. +Pero lo importante de ese video y las ideas obtenidas en cada segundo de un juego de la NBA, no es eso. +Es que no hay que ser un equipo profesional para seguir el movimiento. +No hay que ser jugador profesional para aprender sobre el movimiento. +De hecho, no se trata del deporte porque nos movemos por doquier. +Nos movemos en nuestras casas, en nuestras oficinas, mientras compramos y viajamos por las ciudades y alrededor del mundo. +Qu conoceremos? Qu aprenderemos? +Quiz en vez de identificar bloqueos y continuacin, una mquina pueda identificar el momento y me avise cuando mi hija d el primer paso. +Algo que podra ocurrir en cualquier momento prximo. +Quiz podamos aprender a usar mejor los edificios, planificar mejor las ciudades. +Creo que con el desarrollo de la ciencia de los puntos mviles, nos moveremos mejor, con ms inteligencia, nos moveremos hacia adelante. +Muchas gracias. +Empezar compartiendo un poema escrito por mi amiga de Malaui, Eileen Piri. +Eileen solo tiene 13 aos pero al ojear la coleccin de poesa que escribimos, encontr su poema muy interesante, muy motivador, +que se los leer. +Su poema se titula "Me casar cuando me plazca". +"Me casar cuando me plazca. +Mi madre no puede obligarme a que me case. +Mi padre no puede obligarme a que me case. +Mi to, mi ta, mi hermano o mi hermana, no pueden obligarme a que me case. +Nadie en el mundo puede obligarme a que me case. +Me casar cuando me plazca. +Si me pegan me echan de casa, incluso si me hacen dao, me casar cuando me plazca. +Me casar cuando me plazca, no antes de terminar la escuela, y no antes de ser mayor. +Me casar cuando me plazca". +Este poema puede parecerles extrao, y escrito por una nia de 13 aos, pero de donde venimos Eileen y yo, este poema que acabo de leerles es un el grito de guerra. +Soy de Malaui. +Malaui es uno de los pases ms pobres, muy pobre, y donde la igualdad de gnero es cuestionable. +Habiendo crecido en ese pas, no pude tomar mis propias decisiones en la vida. +Ni siquiera saba que poda contemplar oportunidades personales en la vida. +Les contar la historia de dos chicas diferentes, dos hermosas nias. +Estas chicas crecieron bajo el mismo techo. +Coman la misma comida. +A veces, vestan la misma ropa, e incluso los mismos zapatos. +Pero su vidas acabaron siendo diferentes, tomaron caminos diferentes. +La otra chica es mi hermana pequea. +Mi hermana pequea tena solo 11 aos cuando qued embarazada. +Esto duele. +No solo le doli a ella, sino a m tambin. +Yo tambin pasaba por un momento difcil. +En mi cultura es costumbre que una vez llegada a la pubertad, se supone que las chicas tienen que ir a los campamentos de iniciacin. +En estos campamentos de iniciacin, se les ensea a complacer sexualmente a los hombres. +Hay un da especial, que se llama "un da muy especial" donde un hombre, que es contratado por la comunidad, viene al campamento y duerme con las nias. +Imaginen el trauma que estas jvenes sufren todos los das. +La mayora de las nias quedan embarazadas. +Incluso contraen VIH y SIDA y otras enfermedades de transmisin sexual. +Mi hermana pequea qued embarazada. +Hoy, a sus 16 aos tiene tres hijos. +Su primer matrimonio no dur ni tampoco su segundo matrimonio. +Por el otro lado, est esta chica, +que es increble. +Digo que es increble porque lo es. +Es fantstica. +Esa chica soy yo. Cuando tena 13 aos, me dijeron que ya era mayor, que haba llegado el momento de ir al campamento de iniciacin. +Yo dije: "Qu? +No ir a ningn campamento de iniciacin". +Saben lo que me dijeron las mujeres? +"Eres una chica estpida y terca. +No respetas las tradiciones de nuestra sociedad, de nuestra comunidad". +Dije que no, porque saba qu quera. +Saba lo que quera en la vida. +Yo tena muchos sueos de pequea. +Quera educarme en la escuela y encontrar un trabajo decente en el futuro. +Me imaginaba abogada sentada en una gran silla. +Era esto lo que me imaginaba y me pasaba por la cabeza todos los das. +Y saba que un da, aportara algo, un poco, a mi comunidad. +Pero todos los das, a partir del da que me negu, las mujeres me decan: "Mrate, ya eres mayor, tu hermana pequea ya tiene un beb. +Y t?" +Escuchaba lo mismo todos los das, y las nias escuchan esto todos los das cuando no hacen algo que la comunidad quiere que hagan. +Al comparar mi historia con la de mi hermana, me dije: "Por qu no puedo hacer algo? +Por qu no puedo cambiar algo que ocurre desde tanto tiempo en nuestra comunidad?" +Fue entonces cuando reun a las otras chicas iguales a mi hermana, que tenan hijos, y que fueron a la escuela pero se olvidaron de leer y escribir. +Le dije: "Vamos, podemos recordar y ayudarnos a volver a leer y escribir, a sostener el lpiz, a leer, a tener un libro en la mano". +Pasamos un rato muy bueno juntas. +No solo que aprend mucho sobre ellas, sino que tambin me contaron sus historias personales, a lo que se enfrentaban todos los das como jvenes madres. +Y yo deca: "Por qu no reunir todos los detalles de lo que nos est pasando y comentarlos a nuestras madres, a nuestros lderes tradicionales, y decirles que todo esto no est bien?" +Era un reto aterrador porque estos lderes tradicionales ya estaban acostumbrados a las cosas como eran desde hace ya mucho tiempo. +Era algo difcil de cambiar, pero mereca la pena intentarlo. +As que lo intentamos. +Fue muy duro, pero insistimos. +Y estoy aqu para decirles que mi comunidad es la primera comunidad donde, despus de que las nias insistieran tanto a nuestro lder tradicional, nos apoy y decidi que ninguna chica ha de casarse antes de cumplir los 18. +En mi comunidad fue la primera vez que una comunidad tuvo que cambiar los estatutos, escribir la primera ordenanza para proteger a las nias de nuestra comunidad. +No nos detuvimos all. +Seguimos delante. +Estbamos decididas a luchar por las nias no solo en mi comunidad, sino tambin de otras comunidades. +Cuando se present el proyecto de matrimonio infantil en febrero, nos presentamos en el Parlamento. +Cada da, cuando los miembros del Parlamento estaban entrando, estbamos all para decirles: "Apoyarn el proyecto de ley?" +Y no disponemos de mucha tecnologa como aqu, pero tenemos nuestros pequeos telfonos. +Dijimos: "Por qu no conseguir sus nmeros y mandarles mensajes de texto?" +As que lo hicimos. Fue una buena decisin. +As que cuando aprobaron el proyecto de ley les volvimos a mandar mensajes: "Gracias por apoyar el proyecto de ley". +Y cuando el presidente firm el proyecto convirtindolo en ley, estuvo an mejor. +Ahora, en Malaui, la edad legal para contraer matrimonio pas de 15 a 18. +Es bueno saber que el proyecto se aprob pero les dir algo: Hay pases donde la edad legal para contraer matrimonio es 18 pero no se escuchan gritos de mujeres y nias todos los das? +Las vidas de las nias se echan a perder cada da. +Ya es hora de que los lderes cumplan con su compromiso. +Porque al cumplirlo, significa que tienen sus intereses en cuenta. +No pueden relegarnos a un segundo plano y tienen que saber que las mujeres, como las que estamos en esta sala, no solo somos mujeres, no solo somos chicas, sino que tambin somos extraordinarias. +Podemos ms que esto. +Y otra cosa para Malaui, y no solo Malaui sino otros pases: Las leyes de ah, no son leyes hasta que se cumplen. +La leyes recientemente adoptadas como las leyes que ya existan en otros pases hace falta que sean apoyadas a nivel local, a nivel comunitario, donde las nias se enfrentan a problemas muy graves. +Las nias se enfrentan con estos problemas y asuntos difciles a nivel comunitario todos los das. +As que si estas jvenes saben que hay leyes que las protegen, podrn valerse y defenderse por s mismas porque sabrn que hay una ley que los protege. +Y la otra cosa que me gustara decir es que las voces de las nias y de las mujeres son hermosas, y las tenemos pero no podemos hacer esto solas. +Los hombres tambin pueden ayudar defendiendo, interviniendo y trabajando junto con nosotras. +Es un trabajo colectivo. +Necesitamos lo que necesitan todas las nias en cualquier lugar: buena educacin y, sobre todo, no casarse a los 11 aos. +Adems, s que juntos, podemos cambiar estos marcos legales, culturales y polticos que niegan a las nias sus derechos. +Estoy aqu hoy para dar fe de que podemos poner fin al matrimonio infantil en una generacin. +Este es el momento donde una chica y otra nia, y millones de nias en todo el mundo, podrn decir: "Me casar cuando me plazca". +Gracias. +En los ltimos 10 aos, he investigado la forma de organizar y visualizar informacin. +Y he notado un cambio interesante. +Durante un largo periodo de tiempo, cremos en un orden de clasificacin natural en el mundo que nos rodea, tambin conocido como la gran cadena del ser, o "Scala naturae" en latn. Estructura de arriba a abajo que comienza con Dios en lo ms alto, seguido por los ngeles, nobles, gente comn, animales, etc. +Esta idea se basa realmente en la ontologa de Aristteles, que clasificaba todo lo conocido por el humano en categoras opuestas, como las que se ven detrs de m. +Pero con el tiempo, curiosamente, este concepto adopt el esquema de ramificacin de un rbol que vino a ser conocido como el rbol de Porfirio, tambin considerado el rbol de conocimiento ms antiguo. +El esquema ramificado del rbol era, de hecho, una metfora tan poderosa para transmitir informacin que con el tiempo, se convirti en una importante herramienta de comunicacin para cartografiar una variedad de sistemas de conocimiento. +Vemos utilizar rboles para mapear la moralidad, con el popular rbol de las virtudes y el rbol de los vicios, como pueden ver en estas hermosas ilustraciones de la Europa medieval. +Podemos ver utilizar rboles para mapear consanguinidad, los diferentes lazos de sangre entre personas. +Tambin utilizar rboles para cartografiar la genealoga, quizs el ms famoso arquetipo del diagrama de rbol. +Creo que muchos en la audiencia han visto rboles genealgicos. +Muchos incluso tienen su propio rbol genealgico elaborado as. +Podemos ver rboles que incluso que mapean sistemas de derecho, los diversos decretos y resoluciones de reyes y gobernantes. +Y, por ltimo, por supuesto, tambin una metfora cientfica muy popular, se usan rboles para cartografiar las especies conocidas por los humanos. +Y los rboles se convirtieron en una poderosa metfora visual porque en muchos sentidos, en realidad, encarnan este deseo humano de orden, equilibrio, unidad y simetra. +Sin embargo, hoy estamos realmente ante nuevos desafos complejos e intrincados que no se pueden entender simplemente empleando un simple diagrama de rbol. +Y est surgiendo una nueva metfora, y est actualmente reemplazando al rbol en la visualizacin de los diferentes sistemas de conocimiento. +Realmente nos proporciona una nueva lente para entender el mundo que nos rodea. +Esta nueva metfora es la metfora de la red. +Podemos ver este cambio de rboles a redes en muchos campos del conocimiento. +Podemos ver este cambio en la forma cmo tratamos de entender el cerebro. +Mientras que antes, solamos pensar en el cerebro como un rgano modular centralizado en el que un rea determinada era responsable de un conjunto de acciones y comportamientos, cuanto ms sabemos sobre el cerebro, ms pensamos en l como una gran sinfona musical, interpretada por cientos y miles de instrumentos. +Esta es una hermosa instantnea creada por el proyecto Blue Brain, donde se ven 10 000 neuronas y 30 millones de conexiones. +Y esto solo es el mapeo del 10 % de un neocrtex de mamfero. +Tambin se ve este cambio en cmo concebimos el conocimiento humano. +Estos son algunos notables rboles de conocimiento o rboles de la ciencia, del erudito espaol Ramn Llull. +Y Llull fue en realidad el precursor, el primero que cre la metfora de la ciencia como un rbol, una metfora que utilizamos todos los das, cuando decimos: "La biologa es una rama de la ciencia", cuando decimos, "La gentica es una rama de la ciencia". +Pero el ms hermoso de todos los rboles del conocimiento, al menos para m, fue creado para la enciclopedia francesa por Diderot y d'Alembert en 1751. +Esto fue realmente el bastin de la Ilustracin francesa, y esta hermosa ilustracin se present como tabla de contenidos para la enciclopedia. +Y realmente cartografa todos los dominios del conocimiento como ramas separadas de un rbol. +Pero el conocimiento es mucho ms complicado que esto. +Estos dos mapas de Wikipedia muestran la interrelacin de artculos, relacionados con historia a la izquierda y matemticas a la derecha. +Y creo que al ver estos mapas y otros creados por Wikipedia, posiblemente una de las estructuras rizomticas ms grandes jams creadas por el humano, realmente entendemos cmo el conocimiento humano es mucho ms complejo e interdependiente, al igual que una red. +Tambin podemos ver este interesante cambio en la forma de mapear las relaciones sociales entre las personas. +Este es el organigrama tpico. +Supongo que muchos de Uds. tambin han visto un diagrama similar en sus propias empresas. +Es una estructura de arriba hacia abajo con el director general en la parte superior, y baja hasta el final a los trabajadores individuales abajo. +Pero los humanos a veces son, bien, en realidad, todos son nicos a su manera, y, a veces realmente no encajan bien en esta estructura tan rgida. +Creo que Internet est cambiando realmente este paradigma. +Este es un mapa fantstico de la colaboracin social en lnea entre los desarrolladores de Perl. +Perl es un lenguaje de programacin famoso, y aqu se puede ver cmo los diferentes programadores, en realidad, intercambian archivos y trabajan juntos en un proyecto concreto. +Y aqu, se ve que se trata de un proceso totalmente descentralizado, no hay lder en esta organizacin, es una red. +Tambin podemos ver este cambio interesante al observar el terrorismo. +Uno de los principales desafos de la comprensin del terrorismo hoy es que son clulas descentralizadas, independientes, donde no hay uno que lidera todo el proceso. +Y aqu, en realidad se puede ver cmo se utiliza la visualizacin. +El diagrama que se ve detrs de m muestra todos los terroristas implicados en el atentado de Madrid en 2004. +Y lo que hicieron aqu es, en realidad, segmentar la red en tres aos diferentes, representado por capas verticales que se ven detrs de m. +Y las lneas azules enlazan las personas presentes en esa red ao tras ao. +Entonces aunque no haya lder per se, estas personas son probablemente las ms influyentes en esa organizacin, las que saben ms sobre el pasado, y los planes y objetivos futuros de esta clula particular. +Tambin podemos ver este cambio de rboles en redes en la forma de clasificar y organizar las especies. +La imagen de la derecha es la nica ilustracin que Darwin incluy en "El origen de las especies" y que Darwin llam "rbol de la vida". +De hecho, hay una carta de Darwin a la editorial, ampliando la importancia de este diagrama particular. +Era fundamental para la teora de la evolucin de Darwin. +Pero recientemente, los cientficos han descubierto que sobre este rbol hay una red densa de bacterias, y estas bacterias son, en realidad, el eslabn entre especies antes completamente separadas, a lo que los cientficos ahora no llaman rbol de la vida, sino red de la vida, la red de la vida. +Y, por ltimo, podemos ver este cambio, de nuevo, cuando nos fijamos en los ecosistemas de todo el planeta. +Ya no hay estos diagramas simplificados depredador-contra-presa que aprendimos en la escuela. +Esta es una representacin mucho ms precisa de un ecosistema. +Este es un diagrama creado por el profesor David Lavigne, que mapea unas 100 especies que interactan con el bacalao frente a las costas de Terranova en Canad. +Y creo que aqu se puede entender la naturaleza compleja e interdependiente de la mayora de los ecosistemas que abundan en nuestro planeta. +Aunque reciente, esta metfora de la red, ya est adoptando diversas estructuras y formas, y se est convirtiendo en una creciente taxonoma visual. +Se est convirtiendo en la sintaxis de un lenguaje nuevo. +Este es un aspecto que realmente me fascina. +Estos son 15 tipologas diferentes que he ido coleccionando a travs del tiempo, y realmente demuestran la inmensa diversidad visual de esta nueva metfora. +Aqu hay un ejemplo. +En la banda muy superior tienen la convergencia radial, un modelo de visualizacin muy popular en los ltimos cinco aos. +En la parte superior izquierda, el primer proyecto es una red de genes, seguido por una red de direcciones IP, mquinas, servidores, seguido por una red de amigos de Facebook. +Es probable que no encuentren temas ms dispares, sin embargo, estn usando la misma metfora, el mismo modelo visual, para mapear las complejidades interminables de su propio tema. +Y aqu algunos ejemplos ms de los muchos que he ido recopilando, de esta creciente taxonoma visual de redes. +Pero las redes no son solo una metfora cientfica. +Diseadores, investigadores y cientficos intentan mapear una variedad de sistemas complejos, que, en muchos aspectos, influyen en campos tradicionales del arte, como la pintura y la escultura, y en muchos artistas diferentes. +Y tal vez porque las redes tienen esta gran fuerza esttica para ellos, son inmensamente preciosas. Lo que realmente se ha convertido en un meme cultural e impulsado un nuevo movimiento de arte, que he denominado "networkismo". +Podemos ver esta influencia en este movimiento en una variedad de maneras. +Este es solo uno de muchos ejemplos, donde se puede ver esta influencia de la ciencia en el arte. +El ejemplo a la izquierda es el mapeo IP, un mapa generado por computadora de direcciones IP. +A su derecha, "Estructuras transitorias y redes inestables" de Sharon Molloy, que usa leo y esmalte sobre lienzo. +Y aqu unas cuantas pinturas de Sharon Molloy, algunas pinturas preciosas e intrincadas. +Y aqu est otro ejemplo de esa interesante polinizacin cruzada entre la ciencia y el arte. +En el lado izquierdo, la "Operacin Sonrisa". +Es un mapa generado por computadora de una red social. +Y a su derecha, "Campo 4", de Emma McNally, que usa solo grafito sobre papel. +Emma McNally es una de las principales lderes de este movimiento, y ella crea estos llamativos paisajes imaginarios, donde se nota la influencia de la visualizacin de la red tradicional. +Pero el networkismo no se da solo en dos dimensiones. +Este es quizs uno de mis proyectos favoritos de este nuevo movimiento. +Y creo que el ttulo lo dice todo, se llama: "La formacin de galaxias con filamentos, como gotas a travs de las hebras de una telaraa". +Y encuentro este proyecto en particular inmensamente poderoso. +Fue creado por Toms Saraceno, y se ocupa de estos grandes espacios, crea estas enormes instalaciones solo con cuerdas elsticas. +Uno navega el espacio y rebota a lo largo de esas cuerdas elsticas, todo tipo de cambios en la red, casi como lo hara una red orgnica verdadera. +Aqu est otro ejemplo de networkismo llevado a un nivel completamente diferente. +Este fue creado por el artista japons Chiharu Shiota en una pieza llamada "En Silencio". +Y Chiharu, como Toms Saraceno, llena estos espacios con esta densa red, esta densa red de cuerdas elsticas y de lana e hilo negro, a veces incluyendo objetos, como se puede ver aqu, a veces, incluso incluyendo a personas, en muchas de sus instalaciones. +Pero las redes tambin no son solo una nueva tendencia, y es demasiado fcil para nosotros descartarlas como tales. +Las redes realmente encarnan nociones de descentralizacin, de interconexin, de la interdependencia. +Y esta nueva forma de pensar es crtica para resolver muchos de los problemas complejos a los que nos enfrentamos hoy, desde la descodificacin del cerebro humano, hasta la comprensin del vasto universo existente. +A la izquierda hay una instantnea de una red neuronal de un ratn, muy similar a la nuestra en esta escala particular. +Y a su derecha, la Simulacin del Milenio. +Fue la simulacin ms realista y ms grande del crecimiento de la estructura csmica. +Pudo recrear la historia de 20 millones de galaxias en aproximadamente 25 terabytes de salida. +Y casualmente o no, acabo de encontrar esta comparacin en particular entre la escala ms pequea de conocimiento, el cerebro, y la mayor escala de conocimiento, el universo. siendo realmente muy sorprendente y fascinante. +Porque, como dijo una vez Bruce Mau, "Cuando todo est conectado con todo lo dems, para bien o para mal, todo importa". +Muchas gracias. +Estbamos en pleno verano y ya era hora de cerrar en el bar del centro de Berkeley donde trabajbamos mi amiga Polly y yo como camareras. +Al terminar el turno solamos tomarnos una copa, pero esa noche no. +"Estoy embarazada. +Todava no s que voy a hacer", le dije. +Sin pensarlo dos veces, Polly dijo: "Yo tuve un aborto". +Aparte de ella, nadie me haba contado que hubiera tenido un aborto. +Tan solo haca unos meses que me haba graduado y acababa de empezar una relacin cuando descubr que estaba embarazada. +Cuando pensaba en mis opciones no saba cmo iba a decidir, qu criterio deba seguir. +Cmo iba a saber cul era la decisin correcta? +Me preocupaba arrepentirme de haber abortado despus. +Al haber cumplido la mayora de edad en California del sur, haba crecido en medio de las guerras por el aborto en nuestra nacin. +Nac en un remolque durante el tercer aniversario de Roe vs. Wade. +La nuestra era una comunidad de surfistas cristianos. +Nos preocupbamos por Dios, los menos afortunados y el ocano. +Todos estaban a favor de la vida. +De nia, el aborto me pona tan triste que ya saba que si quedaba embarazada nunca podra hacerlo. +Pero luego lo hice. +Fue un paso hacia lo desconocido. +Pero Polly me dio un regalo muy especial: el saber que no estaba sola y el darme cuenta de que el aborto era algo de lo que podamos hablar. +El aborto es algo comn. +De acuerdo con el Instituto Guttmacher, una de cada tres mujeres, en los Estados Unidos tendr un aborto en su vida. +Pero en las ltimas dcadas, el debate sobre el aborto en EEUU ha dejado poco lugar para perspectivas +Se trata de un asunto poltico y polarizador. +Pero por mucho que hablemos de ello, todava nos parece raro, como mujeres, o simplemente como personas, hablar entre nosotros sobre los abortos que tenemos. +Existe una brecha entre lo que ocurre en la poltica +y lo que ocurre en la vida real, y en medio de esa brecha, una mentalidad de campo de batalla. +Una postura que echa races: "Ests con o contra nosotros?" +Esto no se trata solo del aborto. +Existen otros asuntos importantes de los que no podemos hablar. +Encontrar maneras de convertir el conflicto en un lugar de dilogo es el trabajo de mi vida. +Hay dos formas fundamentales para empezar a hacerlo. +La primera es escuchar con atencin. +Y la segunda consiste en compartir historias. +As que hace 15 aos cofund la organizacin Exhale para empezar a escuchar a las personas que haban abortado. +Creamos una lnea de ayuda, donde mujeres y hombres podan llamar para recibir apoyo emocional. +Aunque no lo crean, jams ha existido un servicio como el nuestro, alejado de la poltica y libre de juicios. +Necesitbamos un nuevo esquema para recoger todas las experiencias que escuchbamos en las lneas de ayuda. +La feminista que se arrepiente de abortar. +La catlica que lo agradece. +Las experiencias personales que no encajan ni en lo uno ni en lo otro. +No creamos que fuera justo pedirles que escogieran un bando. +Queramos mostrarles que el mundo entero estaba de su parte cuando tenan que atravesar esta experiencia tan dura. +As que inventamos Pro-Voice. Adems del aborto, Pro-Voice trabaja otros temas difciles +contra los que hemos luchado globalmente por aos, temas como: inmigracin, tolerancia religiosa y violencia de gnero. +Tambin trabaja en asuntos personales que solo pueden importarte a ti, y a tus familiares cercanos y amigos: +Los hay, que sufren enfermedades terminales, que tienen una madre que muri, o con hijos con necesidades especiales, y que no pueden hablar de ello. +Escuchar y contar las experiencias son las caractersticas de Pro-Voice. +Escuchar y contar historias. +Esto suena muy bien. +Incluso fcil, no? Todos podramos hacerlo. +Pero no es fcil. Es muy duro. +Pro-Voice es duro porque hablamos de cosas que nos enfrentan o de las que nadie quiere hablar. +Deseara poder decirles que cuando se decide ser Pro-Voice se vive grandes momentos de logros entre jardines repletos de flores, donde escuchar y contar crea momentos maravillosos de aj. +Deseara poder contarles que habr una fiesta feminista de bienvenida o que hay una ya perdida hermandad con integrantes dispuestos a defenderte cuando te golpeen. +Pero contar nuestra propia historia puede ser agotador y hacernos vulnerables si sentimos que a nadie le importa. +Si nos escuchamos de verdad unos a otros, escucharemos cosas que exigen que cambiemos nuestras percepciones. +No hay un tiempo ni un lugar idneos para entablar una conversacin difcil. +Nunca habr un momento en el que todos estemos en la misma pgina, compartamos la misma mirada o conozcamos la misma historia. +Hablemos, entonces, de escuchar y de cmo ser un buen oyente. +Hay muchas formas de serlo y les voy a hablar de solo dos de ellas. +Una consiste en formular preguntas abiertas. +Nos podemos preguntar a nosotros mismos o alguien que conozcamos, "Cmo te sientes?" +"Cmo fue aquello?" +"Qu esperas ahora?" +Otra forma de ser un buen oyente es usando un lenguaje reflexivo. +Si alguien est hablando sobre su experiencia personal, usemos las palabras que ellos utilizan. +Si alguien habla sobre un aborto y pronuncia la palabra "beb", puedes decir "beb". +Si dicen "feto", puedes decir "feto". +Si alguien se refiere a s mismo como "marica", digmosle "marica". +Si alguien tiene apariencia de un l pero dice que es ella, est bien. +Llammosla ella. +Cuando reflejamos la lengua de la persona que comparte su historia estamos mandando el mensaje de que nos interesa entender quines son y por lo que estn pasando. +De la misma forma en que esperamos que la gente se interese por conocernos. +Nunca se me olvidar la vez que estaba en una reunin de Exhale escuchando a un voluntario hablar de la cantidad de llamadas que reciba de mujeres cristianas que hablaban de Dios. +Algunos de nuestros voluntarios son creyentes, pero esta, en particular, no lo era. +Al principio se sinti incomoda hablando con los usuarios de Dios. +Entonces, decidi buscar una mayor comodidad. +Se par frente al espejo en casa y dijo la palabra "Dios". +"Dios". +Una y otra vez, hasta que la palabra ya no son rara saliendo de su boca. +Decir la palabra Dios no convirti a esta voluntaria en cristiana, pero la hizo mucho mejor escucha de mujeres cristianas. +Otra forma de ser Pro-Voice es contar historias y un riesgo que se asume cuando comparten su historia con alguien, es descubrir que bajo circunstancias similares a las suyas, ellos podan haber tomado una decisin diferente. +Descubrir, por ejemplo, cuando cuenta la historia de su aborto, que ella poda haber tenido el beb. +Poda haberlo dado en adopcin. +Poda haberle dicho a sus padres y a su pareja, o no. +Poda haberse sentido segura y confiada, aunque una se sintiera sola y triste. +Eso est bien. +La empata se genera cuando nos colocamos en los zapatos de los otros. +No significa que todos tengamos que terminar en el mismo lugar. +No es acuerdo, no es igualdad lo que Pro-Voice busca. +Pro-Voice crea una cultura y una sociedad que valora lo que nos hace especiales y nicos. +Valora lo que nos hace humanos, nuestras fallas e imperfecciones. +Y esta forma de pensar nos permite ver las diferencias con respeto, y no con temor. +Y genera la empata que necesitamos para superar las distintas formas en que intentamos herirnos los unos a los otros. +Estigma, lstima, prejuicio, discriminacin, opresin. +Pro-Voice es contagioso, y cuanto ms se practica, ms se esparce. El ao pasado qued embarazada otra vez. +Esta vez esperaba la llegada de mi hijo. +Y mientras estuve embarazada, nunca me preguntaron +cmo era que estaba sintiendo tantas cosas en mi vida. +Y sin embargo, respond que, as me sintiera maravillada, excitada o totalmente asustada, siempre hubo alguien all dicindome "aqu estamos". +Fue sorprendente. +Fue una bienvenida, aunque drmatica despedida, de lo que experimento cuando hablo +de la mezcla de mis sentimientos sobre mi aborto. Pro-Voice tiene que ver con historia reales de gente real que tienen impacto en la forma como el aborto y otros temas politizados y estigmatizados se entienden y discuten. +Desde la sexualidad hasta la salud mental, desde la pobreza hasta la prisin. +Ms all de su definicin como derecho o como decisiones equivocadas, nuestras experiencias configuran todo un espectro. +Pro-Voice centra esa conversacin en la experiencia humana y hace del apoyo y el respeto algo posible para todos. +Gracias. +Uno de mis primeros recuerdos es que trat de despertar a un familiar y no pude hacerlo. +Y era solo un nio, y no entend porqu, luego crec, y not en mi familia adiccin a las drogas, incluyendo adiccin a la cocana. +ltimamente he pensado mucho en esto, en parte, porque se cumplen 100 aos de la prohibicin del uso de drogas en EE. UU. y Gran Bretaa, y luego se impuso en todo el mundo. +Hace ya un siglo que tomamos la fatdica decisin, de tomar a los adictos castigarlos y hacerlos sufrir, porque creamos que los disuadira y les dara un incentivo para detenerse. +Hace unos aos, observaba a algunos adictos en mi vida, a quienes amo, y trataba de averiguar, si haba alguna forma de ayudarlos. +Y me di cuenta que haba muchas preguntas increblemente bsicas que no saba como responder, por ejemplo, qu es lo que provoca una adiccin? +Por qu seguimos con esta perspectiva que aparentemente no funciona, acaso no habr una mejor manera que podamos intentar? +Le mucho sobre el tema, y no poda hallar las respuestas que buscaba, y pens, bien, me reunir con personas de todo el mundo que viven y estudian esto, les hablar y ver si puedo aprender de ellos. +Lo que aprend y que cambi mi forma de pensar es, que casi todo lo que creemos saber sobre la adiccin esta mal, y si empezamos a asimilar la nueva evidencia sobre la adiccin, creo que tendramos que cambiar ms, que nuestras polticas de drogas. +Empecemos con lo que creemos que sabemos, lo que pensaba que saba. +Veamos con esta fila de en medio. +Imaginen que Uds., por 20 das, usaron herona tres veces al da. +Algunos se muestran ms entusiastas que otros sobre esto. +No se preocupen, solo es un experimento terico. +Imaginen que lo hicieron est bien? +Qu pasara? +Tenemos una historia de lo que pasara que se ha contado por un siglo. +Pensamos, que como hay ganchos qumicos en la herona, si la tomas por un tiempo, tu cuerpo se har dependiente a estos ganchos, empezars a necesitarlos fsicamente, y cuando acaben esos 20 das, sers un adicto a la herona. Cierto? +Eso era lo que pensaba. +Lo primero que me alert de que algo no estaba bien con esta historia fue cuando me la explicaron. +Si al salir de esta charla de TED, un auto me atropella y me fractura la cadera, me llevaran a un hospital y me administraran mucha diamorfina. +La diamorfina es herona. +Es incluso mucho mejor herona que la se consigue en la calle, porque la que vende el traficante est contaminada, +y contiene muy poca herona, y la que te receta el doctor es mdicamente pura. +Y te la van a recetar por un largo perodo de tiempo. +Hay mucha gente en la audiencia, que no se ha dado cuenta, que ha consumido mucha herona. +Y esto sucede en cualquier parte del mundo. +Y si lo que creemos de la adiccin es correcto... todas las personas expuestas a los ganchos qumicos... Qu debera pasar? Deberan volverse adictos. +Esto se ha estudiado cuidadosamente. +Un profesor de psicologa de Vancouver que realiz un experimento increble que creo que nos ayuda a entender este tema. +El profesor Alexander me explic, la idea de adiccin que todos tenemos, proviene, en parte, de una serie de experimentos realizados a principios del siglo XX. +Eran experimentos muy simples. +Pueden hacerlos en su casa esta noche si se sienten algo sdicos. +Buscan una rata y la ponen en una jaula, y le dan dos botellas de agua. Una es solo agua, y la otra es agua mezclada con herona o cocana. +Si lo hacen, la rata casi siempre preferir el agua con droga y casi siempre terminar con su vida rpidamente. +Eso es, cierto? As es como pensamos que funciona. +En los 70, cuando el profesor Alexander vio el experimento se dio cuenta de algo. +Dijo: ah! la rata est en una jaula vaca. +No tiene nada que hacer excepto usar drogas. +Intentemos algo diferente. +Y el profesor Alexander construy una jaula a la que llam "Parque de ratas", que es bsicamente un cielo para las ratas. +Donde tenan mucho queso, pelotas de colores, y tneles. +Y lo que es crucial, tenan muchos amigos. Podan tener mucho sexo. +Y tambin tenan las dos botellas de agua, de agua normal y de agua con droga. +Y esto es lo fascinante: en el parque de ratas a las ratas no les gustaba el agua con droga. +Casi nunca la tomaban. +Ninguna la us compulsivamente. +Ninguna tuvo sobredosis. +Casi 100% de ellas sufrieron sobredosis al estar aisladas y ninguna present sobredosis en un ambiente feliz y con relaciones. +Y cuando vio esto la primera vez, el profesor Alexander pens: tal vez es algo que solo pasa en ratas, son diferentes a nosotros. +Tal vez no tan diferentes como quisieramos, ya saben. Por fortuna, hubo un experimento en humanos dentro del mismo principio en la misma poca. +Se llam Guerra de Vietnam. +En Vietnam, el 20% de las tropas estadounidenses usaban herona, y si ven las noticias de esa poca, estaban muy preocupados, porque pensaban, Dios!, tendremos cientos de miles de drogadictos en las calles de EE. UU. cuando la guerra termine. Tena sentido. +Se hizo seguimiento en casa a los soldados que usaron herona. +El Archivo de Psiquiatra General hizo un estudio muy detallado, y qu paso con ellos? +Sucedi que ellos no fueron a rehabilitacin. No sufrieron abstinencia. +95% de ellos solo la dejaron. +Si creen en la historia de los anzuelos qumicos, esto no tiene ningn sentido, y el profesor Alexander empezo a pensar que haba una historia diferente de la adiccin. +Dijo: Y si la adiccin no tiene que ver con los ganchos qumicos? +Y si la adiccin tiene que ver con tu jaula? +Y si la adiccin tiene que ver con tu adaptacin al ambiente? +Vemoslo as, otro profesor llamado Peter Cohen de Holanda dijo: "Tal vez ni deberamos llamarlo adiccin. +Tal vez deberamos llamarlo conexin". +El ser humano tiene una necesidad natural e innata de conectarse, y cuando somos felices y saludables, nos vinculamos y conectamos con otros, pero si no pueden hacerlo, porque estn traumatizados o aislados o muy golpeados por la vida, van a vincularse con algo que les de alguna sensacin de alivio. +Podra ser juegos de azar, pornografa, cocana o cannabis, van a vincularse o conectarse con algo porque es nuestra naturaleza. +Es lo que queremos como seres humanos. +Al principio, se me dificultaba, no me entraba en la cabeza, pero hay una forma que me ayud a entender. Puedo ver, que sobre mi asiento tengo una botella de agua, cierto? +Veo que muchos de Uds. tienen botellas de agua. +Olviden las drogas y la guerra contra ellas. +Es legal, esas botellas de agua podran ser botellas de vodka, cierto? +Todos podramos estar embriagndonos, pero no lo hacemos. +Y como pueden pagar muchas libras que es lo que cuesta entrar a las charlas TED, creo que pueden solventar el beber vodka, por los prximos 6 meses. +No acabarn como indigentes. +No van a hacerlo, y la razn para no hacerlo no es porque alguien los detenga. +Es porque ya tienen vnculos y conexiones y quieren estar presentes para ellos. +Tienen un trabajo que aman. Y a personas que aman. +Tienen relaciones saludables. +Y parte fundamental de la adiccin, que pienso, y creo que la evidencia sugiere, es el no poder soportar estar presente en tu vida. +Esto tiene implicaciones muy significativas. +Las implicaciones mas obvias son para la guerra contra las drogas. +Este es un ejemplo extremo, evidentemente en el caso de las cadenas, pero casi en todo el mundo de cierta forma tratamos a los adictos as. +Los castigamos, avergonzamos, les creamos antecedentes penales. +Ponemos barreras para que puedan reconectarse. +Haba un doctor en Canad, el Dr. Gabor Mat, un gran hombre, quien me dijo, si quieres disear un sistema que empeore la adiccin, deberas disear este. +Hay un lugar donde decidieron hacer lo contrario, y fui a ver como funcionaba. +En el 2000, Portugal tena uno de los peores problemas de drogas en Europa. +El 1% de la poblacin era adicta a la herona, que es increble, y todos los aos, usaban el mtodo estadounidense ms y ms. +Castigaban a las personas, las marcaban y avergonzaban, y cada ao el problema era peor. +Un da, el primer ministro y el lder de la oposicin se reunieron y bsicamente dijeron, no podemos seguir con un pas donde ms personas se vuelven adictas a la herona. +Formemos un panel de cientficos y doctores para averiguar realmente como resolver el problema. +Y no es lo que pensamos sobre el tratamiento de drogadiccin en EE. UU. y Gran Bretaa. +Ellos usaron las clnicas de rehabilitacin, terapia psicolgica, que tiene cierto valor. +Y lo ms importante que hicieron fue totalmente opuesto a lo que hacemos: un programa masivo de creacin de empleo para adictos y microcrditos para adictos para crear pequeas empresas. +Supongamos que eran mecnicos. +Cuando se hayan recuperado, irn a un taller y dirn: si le dan empleo por un ao, pagaremos la mitad de su salario. +La meta era asegurarse que cada adicto en Portugal tuviera algo que los hiciera dejar la cama en la maana. +Y cuando conoc a los adictos en Portugal, dijeron que al redescubrir su propsito, redescrubrieron sus vnculos y relaciones con la sociedad. +Este ao se cumplirn 15 aos desde que empez este experimento, y los resultados estn ah: el uso de drogas inyectables se redujo de acuerdo al British Journal of Criminology, en un 50%. +La sobredosis baj y el VIH baj tremendamente entre los adictos, +En cada estudio la adiccin est significativamente a la baja. +Una manera de saber que ha funcionado es que casi nadie en Portugal quiere volver al viejo sistema. +Hay implicaciones polticas. +Creo que hay una capa de implicaciones debajo de toda esta investigacin. +Vivimos en una cultura donde la gente se siente cada vez ms vulnerable a todo tipo de adicciones desde a un telfono inteligente, hasta comprar o comer. +Pero me convenzo cada vez ms que las conexiones que tenemos, o creemos tener, son como una parodia de las conexiones humanas. +Si tienen una crisis en su vida, se darn cuenta de algo. +No sern sus seguidores de Twitter quienes los acompaarn. +No sern sus amigos de Facebook quienes los ayudarn. +Sern sus amigos de carne y hueso con quienes tienen relaciones profundas, estructuradas y cara a cara. Y hay un estudio que conoc gracias a Bill McKibben, el escritor ambientalista, que creo que nos dice mucho sobre esto. +Buscaba el nmero de amigos cercanos que el estadounidense promedio cree que puede llamar durante una crisis. +Este nmero se ha reducido progresivamente desde 1950. +La superficie que una persona tiene en su casa se ha incrementando progresivamente, y creo que es como una metfora de la eleccin que tomamos como cultura. +Intercambiamos amigos por espacio y vnculos por cosas, y el resultado es que somos una de las sociedades ms solitarias que han existido. +Bruce Alexander, quien hizo el Parque de Ratas, dice: hablamos de la adiccin siempre como una recuperacin individual, y est bien hablar as, pero necesitamos hablar ms de una recuperacin social. +Algo est mal con nosotros, como individuos y tambin como grupo. Y creamos una sociedad donde, para muchos, la vida se parece ms a una jaula aislada y menos a un "Parque de Ratas". +Para ser honesto, no es la razn por la que me involucr. +No quera descubrir lo relacionado a la poltica o a la sociedad. +Quera saber como ayudar a la gente que amo. +Y cuando regres de este largo viaje y haba aprendido todo esto, mir a los adictos en mi vida, y para ser franco, es difcil amar a un adicto, y hay muchas personas en este auditorio que lo saben. +Ests enfadado la mayor parte del tiempo, y creo que una de las razones por las que este debate es tan controversial es porque llega al corazn de todos, cierto? +Todos tienen un poco de ellos cuando al ver un adicto piensan: quisiera que alguien pudiera pararlo. +Los guiones de como lidiar con los adictos de nuestra vida son representados, creo, por el reality show "Intervencin", tal vez lo han visto. +Todo en nuestra vida es definido por reality shows, pero eso es otra charla de TED. +Si vieron el programa "Intervencin" tiene un argumento sencillo. +Buscan un adicto y a toda la gente de su vida y los renen a todos, los enfrentan con la situacin, y les dicen, si no te compones vamos a abandonarte. +Lo que hacen es tomar las conexiones del adicto, los amenazan, y los condicionan a tener el comportamiento que ellos desean. +Y comenc a pensar y a ver porque este enfoque no funciona, y pens que es como llevar la lgica de la guerra contra las drogas a nuestras vidas. +Estuve pensando, cmo sera ser portugus? +Y he intentado hacerlo ahora, no puedo decir que lo hago siempre y no puedo decir que es fcil, pero le digo a los adictos en mi vida que quiero profundizar mis conexiones con ellos, les digo que los amo estn usando drogas o no. +Los amo, no importa su condicin, y si me necesitan, vendr y estar con ustedes porque los amo y no quiero que estn solos o que se sientan solos. +Y creo que el mensaje principal, "no ests solo, te amamos" debe ser en cada nivel de respuesta a los adictos, social, poltica e individualmente. +Por 100 aos, hemos cantado canciones de guerra sobre los adictos. +Creo que deberamos estar cantando canciones de amor para ellos, porque lo opuesto a la adiccin no es la sobriedad. +Lo opuesto a la adiccin es la conexin. +Gracias. +Alec Soth: Hace unos 10 aos recib una llamada de una mujer de Texas, Stacey Baker, que haba visto algunas de mis fotografas en una exposicin de arte y se preguntaba si poda encargar un retrato de sus padres. +Por aquel entonces, no conoca a Stacey y pens que se trataba de algn magnate del petrleo y que iba a enriquecerme pero despus me enter de que ella haba solicitado un prstamo bancario para poder costear aquello. +Hice la foto de sus padres, pero en realidad, me interesaba ms fotografiar a Stacey. +La fotografa que tom ese da termin convirtindose en uno de mis retratos ms conocidos. Cuando hice esta foto, +Stacey estaba trabajando como abogada para el estado de Texas. +Poco tiempo despus, dej su trabajo para irse a estudiar fotografa en Maine, y una vez all, conoci al director de fotografa de New York Times Magazine que le ofreci un trabajo. +Stacey Baker: A lo largo del tiempo Alec y yo hemos hecho una serie de proyectos de revistas juntos, y nos hemos hecho amigos. +Hace unos meses, empec a hablarle a Alec de una fascinacin ma. +Siempre he estado obsesionada por el modo en el cual se conocen las parejas. +Le pregunt a Alec cmo conoci a su esposa Rachel, y me dijo que todo empez con un partido de ftbol en la escuela secundaria cuando ella tena 16 aos y l tena 15, y le pregunt si quera salir con l. +A l le gustaba su pelo prpura. +Ella dijo que s y eso fue todo. +Entonces le pregunt a Alec si estara interesado en un proyecto fotogrfico para explorar esta pregunta. +AS: Y yo estaba interesado pero en realidad estaba mucho ms interesado en la motivacin de Stacey por ello, porque nunca vi a Stacey con un novio. +As que pens que este proyecto sera interesante si ella llegara a conocer a alguien. +As que mi idea era enviar a Stacey a algunas citas rpidas en Las Vegas el da de San Valentn. +SB: Terminamos en lo que se anunci como el evento de citas rpidas ms grande del mundo. +Yo tuve 19 citas y cada una dur 3 minutos. +A los participantes se les dio una lista de preguntas para romper el hielo, cosas como: "Si pudieras ser cualquier animal, cul seras?" +Ese tipo de cosas. +Mi primera cita fue con Colin. +Era de Inglaterra, y estuvo casado con una mujer que conoci al anunciarse que buscaba un Capricornio. +Alec y yo lo vimos ms tarde aquella noche, y nos dijo que haba besado a una mujer en la cola de un puesto de comida. +Zack y Chris vinieron a este evento juntos. +Este es Carl. +Le pregunt: "Qu es lo primero que miras en una mujer?" +Me dijo: "Las tetas". +Mattew se siente atrado por las mujeres con pantorrillas musculosas. +Hablamos de carreras. l hace triatlones, yo corro medias maratones. +A Alec le gustaron sus ojos y me pregunt si me senta atrada por l, pero no lo estaba, y creo que l tampoco se senta atrado por m. +Austin y Mike vinieron juntos. +Mike me hizo una pregunta hipottica. +Dijo: "Ests en un ascensor y llegas tarde a una reunin. +Alguien se acerca al ascensor. +Le esperas?" +Le dije que no. +Cliff me dijo que lo primero en lo que se fijaba en una mujer eran sus dientes, as que nos echamos piropos el uno al otro. +Porque suele dormir con la boca abierta, me dijo que tiene que usar el hilo dental ms a menudo para prevenir cualquier enfermedad de las encas, as que le pregunt con qu frecuencia usa hilo dental, y me dijo, "Cada 2 das". +Pero como alguien que usa hilo dental dos veces al da, no estaba muy segura de que eso era usar el hilo dental muy a menudo pero no quise decirlo en voz alta. +Bill es auditor, y hablamos los tres minutos acerca de la auditora. Lo primero en lo que se fija Spencer en una mujer es en su tez. +Piensa que muchas mujeres usan demasiado maquillaje, y que solo deberan usar lo suficiente para acentuar las caractersticas que tienen. +Yo le dije que no llevaba ningn tipo de maquillaje en absoluto y esto le pareci algo bueno. +Craig me dijo que no crea que estuviera dispuesta a ser vulnerable. +Tambin se frustr cuando yo no pude recordar mi momento ms embarazoso. +Crey que estaba mintiendo, pero no menta. +Pens que no le gustaba en absoluto, pero al final de la noche, se me acerc y me regal una caja de bombones. +Me result muy difcil hablar con William. +Creo que estaba borracho. +El actor Chris McKenna presidi el evento. +Sali en "The Young and the Restless". +En realidad no tuve una cita con l. +Alec me dijo que vio a varias mujeres dndole sus nmeros de telfono. +No hace falta decir que no me enamor. +No establec ninguna conexin especial con ningn hombre con los que tuve las citas, y sent que ellos tampoco tuvieron una conexin especial conmigo. +AS: Ahora, la cosa ms hermosa para m... como fotgrafo, es la calidad de la vulnerabilidad. +El aspecto fsico revela un espacio a travs del cual se puede vislumbrar el interior ms frgil. +En el caso de este maratn de citas vi tantos ejemplos similares, pero mientras observaba las citas de Stacey y habl con ella sobre ellos, me di cuenta de lo diferente que eran el amor fotogrfico del amor verdadero. +Qu es el amor verdadero? Cmo funciona? +Con el fin de encarar esta cuestin y para averiguar cmo alguien pasa de tener una cita a tener una vida juntos, Stacey y yo fuimos a Sun City Summerlin, que es la comunidad de jubilados ms grande de Las Vegas. +Nuestro contacto all era George y dirige el club de fotografa de la comunidad. +l se las arregl para que nos encontrramos con otras parejas en su estudio fotogrfico improvisado. +SB: Despus de 45 aos de matrimonio, el esposo de Anastasia muri hace 2 aos, as que le preguntamos si tena alguna foto antigua de la boda. +Ella conoci a su esposo con 15 aos, cuando era camarera en una pequea barbacoa en Michigan. +l tena 30. +Y le minti acerca de su edad. +l fue la primera persona con quin ella sali. +Dean ha sido nombrado el fotgrafo del ao en Las Vegas dos aos seguidos, y esto llam la atencin de Alec, como tambin el hecho de que conoci a su esposa, Judy, a la misma edad con la que Alec conoci a Rachel. +Dean admiti que le gusta mirar a las mujeres hermosas, pero nunca cuestion su decisin de casarse con Judy. +AS: George conoci a Josefina en un baile de la parroquia. +l tena 18 aos, ella tena 15. +Al igual que muchas de las parejas que conocimos, no filosofaban mucho acerca de sus primeras decisiones. +George me dijo algo que me qued grabado. +Me dijo: "Cuando te llega ese sentimiento, te dejas llevar". +Bob y Trudy se conocieron en una cita a ciegas cuando ella todava estaba en la escuela secundaria. +Nos dijeron que no se sintieron atrados el uno por el otro cuando se conocieron. +No obstante, se casaron poco despus. +SB: La historia que ms me impact fue la de George, el presidente del club de fotografa, y de su esposa, Mara. +Este matrimonio fue el segundo para los dos. +Se conocieron en un club country en Louisville, Kentucky, llamado Sahara. +l estaba all solo, bebiendo, y ella estaba con amigos. +Cuando empezaron de novios, l le deba al IRS USD 9000 en impuestos, y ella se ofreci a ayudarle a saldar la deuda, as que durante el ao siguiente, el le entregaba parte de dinero a Mara, y ella le pag la deuda. +George era en realidad alcohlico cuando se casaron, y Mara lo saba. +Reconoci que en algn momento de su matrimonio, lleg a consumir 54 cervezas en un da. +En otra ocasin, al emborracharse, amenaz con matar a Mara y a sus dos hijos, pero ella se libr llamando al equipo SWAT. +Sorprendentemente, Mara le dejo volver, y, finalmente, las cosas mejoraron. +George se apunt a Alcohlicos Annimos y lleva sin beber 36 aos. +Al final del da, despus de salir de Sun City, le dije a Alec que en realidad no me pareca que las historias de cmo estas parejas se conocieron fueran muy interesantes. +Lo que era ms interesante era cmo se las arreglaron para permanecer juntos. +AS: Todos tenan esta hermosa caracterstica de resistencia, pero eso era cierto para los solteros tambin. +El mundo es duro, y los solteros estn all, tratando de conectarse con otras personas, mientras que en las parejas se aferran el uno al otro, despus de todos estos aos. +Mis imgenes favoritas de este viaje son las de Joe y Roseanne. +En el momento en el que conocimos a Joe y Roseanne ya tenamos el hbito de pedirles a las parejas una vieja fotografa de la boda. +En su caso, sacaron de sus carteras, al mismo tiempo la misma fotografa. +Qu es ms hermoso, me dije a m mismo, esta foto de una joven pareja que acaba de enamorarse o la idea de que estas dos personas han guardado esta foto durante dcadas? +Gracias. +La gente les tiene ms miedo a los insectos que a la muerte. +Al menos, segn una encuesta de 1973 del "Book of Lists", el predecesor de estas listas de lo mejor, lo peor y lo ms gracioso que hay hoy en lnea. +Solo las alturas y el hablar en pblico Y sospecho que si hubiera incluido a las araas, la combinacin insectos-arcnidos hubiera simplemente encabezado la lista. +Pero no soy una de esas personas. +Me encantan los insectos. +Creo que son interesantes y hermosos y a veces incluso guapos. +Y no soy la nica. +Durante siglos, algunos de los cientficos ms brillantes, desde Charles Darwin a E.O. Wilson, han encontrado inspiracin en el estudio de las mentes ms pequeas de la Tierra. +Bueno, y eso a qu se debe? +Qu es lo que nos empuja a volver una y otra vez a los insectos? +Parte de ello, por supuesto, se debe simplemente a la magnitud de casi todo lo que les representa. +Son ms numerosos que cualquier otro tipo de animal. +Ni siquiera sabemos todava cuntas especies de insectos hay, porque se estn descubriendo nuevas especies continuamente. +Hay por lo menos un milln, quiz ms, hasta 10 millones. +Esto significa que podramos tener calendarios con el insecto del mes y no tener que volver a usar otra especie durante ms de 80 000 aos. +Tomen eso, pandas y gatitos! +Pero ahora en serio, los insectos son esenciales. +Los necesitamos. +Se estima que 1 de cada 3 bocados de comida se debe a un polinizador. +Los cientficos los usan para hacer descubrimientos fundamentales sobre todo, desde la estructura de nuestro sistema nervioso hasta el funcionamiento de nuestros genes y del ADN. +Pero lo que ms me gusta de los insectos es que nos dan indicios acerca de nuestro propio comportamiento +porque parecen hacer todo lo que hacen los humanos. +Se conocen, se aparean, se pelean, se separan. +Y lo hacen con lo que parece ser el mismo amor o la misma animosidad que nosotros. +Pero lo que impulsa su comportamiento es realmente diferente de todo lo que impulsa al nuestro, y esa diferencia puede ser muy reveladora. +Y esto es especialmente cierto cuando se trata de uno de nuestros intereses ms inmediatos: el sexo. +Ahora bien, sostendr y creo que podr defender lo que a lo mejor puede parecer una declaracin sorprendente. +Creo que el sexo en los insectos es ms interesante que el sexo en los humanos. +Y la increble variedad que venimos observando desafa algunas de nuestras propias creencias sobre lo que significa ser hombre y mujer. +Por supuesto, para empezar, muchos insectos no necesitan aparearse en absoluto para reproducirse. +Los fidos hembras pueden crear pequeos y diminutos clones de s mismos sin aparearse. +Nacimiento virginal, all lo tienen. +En directo en sus rosedales. +Cuando se aparean, incluso su esperma es ms interesante que el humano. +Hay algunos tipos de moscas de la fruta cuyo chorro de esperma es ms largo que el tamao del propio cuerpo del macho. +Y eso es importante porque los machos usan su esperma para competir. +Y los insectos machos compiten con armas, como los cuernos de estos escarabajos. +Pero tambin compiten despus de aparearse con su esperma. +Los penes de las liblulas y de los caballitos del diablo parecen un poco como las navajas suizas, con todos sus componentes desplegados. +Usan estos dispositivos formidables para rascar el esperma de los machos con los que se apare la hembra previamente. +As que, qu podemos aprender de esto? +Est bien, no me refiero a una leccin en el sentido de que hay que imitarlos, o de que ellos marquen una pauta para que nosotros la sigamos. +Lo cual, viendo esto, probablemente no estara mal. +Por cierto, mencion el canibalismo sexual como prctica muy frecuente entre los insectos? +As que, no, no se trata de esto. +Pero creo que los insectos rompen muchas de las reglas que tenemos como humanos sobre los roles sexuales. +La gente tiene esta idea de que la naturaleza dicta lo que tienen que ser las hembras y los machos, como si de una comedia de 1950 se tratara. +Con que los machos tienen que ser siempre dominantes y agresivos, y las hembras pasivas y tmidas. +Pero ese no es el caso. +Tomemos con ejemplo a los saltamontes longicornios que estn emparentados con los grillos y los saltamontes. +Los machos son muy exigentes a la hora de elegir con quin se aparean porque no solo transfieren espermatozoides durante el apareamiento, sino que tambin le hacen a la hembra lo que se llama un regalo nupcial. +En estas fotos se puede ver a 2 saltamontes aparendose. +En ambos casos el macho es el que est a la derecha, y el apndice en forma de espada es el rgano de ovoposicin de la hembra. +La mancha blanca es el esperma, y la mancha verde es el regalo nupcial que el macho fabrica desde su propio cuerpo y que resulta muy costoso de producir. +Puede llegar a pesar hasta un tercio de su masa corporal. +Vamos a parar por un momento para que les deje tiempo de pensar qu significara esto si los machos humanos, cada vez que tuvieron relaciones sexuales, tuvieran que producir algo que pesa entre 20 y 30 kilogramos. +Bueno, no podran hacer eso muy a menudo. +Y de hecho, tampoco los saltamontes. +Y es por eso que los machos son muy quisquillosos sobre a quin le ofrecen este regalo nupcial. +Ahora, el regalo es muy nutritivo, y la hembra lo come durante y despus del apareamiento. +Por lo tanto, cuanto ms grande sea, ser mejor para el macho, porque eso significa ms tiempo para que su esperma entre en el cuerpo de la hembra y fertilice sus huevos. +Pero tambin significa que los machos se tornan muy pasivos en el apareamiento, mientras que las hembras son extremadamente agresivas y competitivas, en sus intentos por obtener el mayor nmero posible de estos regalos nupciales nutritivos. +As que no disponen exactamente de un conjunto de reglas estndar. +Incluso de manera ms general, en realidad, los machos no son tan importantes en la vida de un gran nmero de insectos. +Entre los insectos sociales, las abejas, las avispas y las hormigas, los individuos que se ven todos los das, las hormigas que van y vienen de su azucarero, las abejas productoras de miel que revolotean de flor en flor, todas son exclusivamente hembras. +Siempre hemos tenido dificultades para entender las razones de todo esto, durante milenios. +Los antiguos griegos saban que haba una clase de abejas, los znganos, que son ms grandes que las trabajadoras, aunque desaprobaron vehementemente la pereza de estos znganos, porque vean como solo pululaban alrededor de la colmena hasta el momento del vuelo de apareamiento; all estn los machos. +No hacen nada hasta el vuelo de apareamiento, y no participan en la recoleccin de nctar ni de polen. +Los griegos no pudieron averiguar el sexo de los znganos, en parte por la confusin creada a raz de la capacidad de picar de las abejas, porque les resultaba difcil creer que un animal que llevara un arma pudiera ser una hembra. +Aristteles trat de involucrarse tambin. +Sugiri: "Est bien, si los individuos que pican son los machos..." +Luego no lo tuvo tan claro porque eso habra significado que los machos tambin fueran los que cuidaban de los jvenes en la colonia, y para l esto pareca algo completamente imposible. +As concluy de que tal vez las abejas tuvieran rganos de ambos sexos en el mismo individuo, idea que no es tan descabellada, ya que algunos animales hacen eso, pero en realidad nunca supo resolverlo. +Y saben, incluso hoy en da, mis alumnos por ejemplo, llaman a todos los animales que ven, incluso a los insectos, machos. +Y cuando les digo que los feroces soldados del ejrcito de hormigas con sus mandbulas gigantes, que suelen a defender la colonia son todas hembras, no parecen fiarse de m del todo. +Y claro, todas las pelculas, "Antz", "Bee Movie", retratan al personaje principal de los insectos sociales como macho. +Bueno, qu importancia tiene esto? +Solo son pelculas. Son ficcin. +Salen animales que hablan. +Qu importancia tiene si hablan como Jerry Seinfeld? +Creo que s importa, y es un problema que en realidad es parte de algo ms profundo que tiene consecuencias para la medicina y la salud y muchos otros aspectos de la vida. +Todos saben que los cientficos usan lo que llamamos sistemas de modelo, que son criaturas --ratas blancas o moscas de la fruta-- que son una especie de sustitutos para el resto de los animales, incluidos los humanos. +Y la idea es que lo que es vlido para una persona tambin es cierto para la rata blanca. +Y por lo general, es as. +Pero la idea de un sistema de modelo puede llevarse demasiado lejos. +Y creo que hemos usado a los machos de cualquier especie como representantes del sistema modelo. +Ellos son la norma. +Dictan la forma de hacer las cosas. +Y se ha considerado a las hembras como una especie de variante... algo aparte que solo se estudia despus de tener las bases asentadas. +Bueno, de vuelta a los insectos. +Creo que eso significa que la gente simplemente no entendi qu tena delante de ellos. +Porque supusieron que el mundo estaba poblado en gran parte por machos y que las hembras solo tenan un papel menor. +Pero al hacer eso, perdemos de vista realmente lo que es la naturaleza misma. +Y tambin podemos perder de vista cmo los seres vivos, incluidos los humanos, pueden variar. +Y creo que por eso hemos usado machos como modelos en un gran nmero de investigaciones mdicas, algo que ahora sabemos que es un problema si queremos que los resultados se apliquen tanto a hombres como a mujeres. +Y, por ltimo, lo que me encanta en los insectos es algo que mucha gente encuentra desconcertante en ellos. +Tienen unos pequeos, diminutos cerebros con muy poca capacidad cognitiva, por lo menos tal y como nosotros percibimos dicha capacidad. +Tienen un comportamiento complicado, pero carecen de cerebros complicados. +Por eso, no podemos pensar en ellos como si fueran algo insignificante porque no hacen las cosas a nuestra manera. +Me gusta que sea difcil antropomorfizar a los insectos, mirarlos y solo pensar que son criaturas insignificantes en exoesqueletos y con 6 patas. +De hecho, hay que aceptarlos en sus propios trminos, porque los insectos nos hacen dudar de lo que se considera normal o natural. +Ya saben, la gente escribe ficcin y habla de universos paralelos. +Especula sobre lo sobrenatural, y tal vez sobre espritus de difuntos que caminan entre nosotros. +El encanto del otro mundo es parte de la razn por la que la gente quiere adentrarse en lo paranormal. +Pero en lo que a m respecta, porqu querer ver gente muerta cuando se pueden investigar unos insectos vivos? +Gracias. +En los principios de Twitter era como un lugar de radicales antipudor, +La gente admita sus propios secretos vergonzosos y otras personas decan, "Dios mo, a m me pasa exactamente lo mismo". +Las personas sin voz constataron que tenan una voz, y esta era poderosa y elocuente. +Si un peridico publicaba alguna columna racista u homfoba, sabamos que podamos hacer algo al respecto. +Podramos pillarlos. +Podamos darles con el arma que entendamos, y ellos no, una humillacin en los medios sociales. +Los anunciantes retiraran su publicidad. +Si las personas poderosas hacan mal uso de su privilegio, bamos a por ellas. +Esto era como la democratizacin de la justicia. +Las jerarquas se estaban nivelando. +bamos a hacer mejor las cosas. +Poco despus, Jonah Lehrer, escritor detractor de la ciencia emergente, fue pillado plagiando y falseando citas. Y esto le sumi en vergenza y remordimientos, me dijo. +Y tuvo la oportunidad de pedir disculpas pblicamente en el almuerzo de una fundacin. +Este iba a ser el discurso ms importante de su vida. +Tal vez l lograra un poco de perdn. +Saba antes de su llegada que la fundacin iba a trasmitir en directo su evento, pero lo que no saba, hasta aparecer es que haban puesto una gran pantalla con un feed de Twitter al lado de su cabeza. +Y otra pantalla a la altura de sus ojos. +No creo que los de la fundacin lo hicieran porque eran monstruosos. +Creo que estaban despistados. Creo que este fue un momento nico cuando la bella ingenuidad de Twitter golpeaba la realidad cada vez ms horrible. +Y estos fueron algunos de los tuits que se desplegaban ante sus ojos, como el suyo tratando de pedir disculpas: "Jonah Lehrer, nos aburre hasta que le perdonemos". +Y, "Jonah Lehrer no ha demostrado ser capaz de sentir vergenza". +Ese debe haberlo escrito el mejor psiquiatra nunca visto, por saber eso acerca de una personita detrs de un atril. +Y, "Jonah Lehrer es solo un maldito socipata". +Decir eso ltimo es algo muy humano de hacer, para deshumanizar a las personas que herimos. +Porque queremos destruir a la gente, pero no sentirnos mal por ello. +Imagnense si se tratara de una juicio real, y el acusado se encontrara en la oscuridad, rogando otra oportunidad y el jurado estuviera gritando: "Aburrido! Socipata!" +Cuando vemos dramas legales, tendemos a identificarnos con el abogado defensor de buen corazn, pero danos poder y nos convertimos en jueces verdugos. +El poder cambia rpido. +bamos tras Jonah porque se detect que haba abusado de sus privilegios, pero Jonah ya estaba derrumbado en el suelo y seguamos patendole, y autofelicitndonos por destruirle. +Y empez a ponerse raro, cuando no hubo una persona poderosa que hubiera abusado de su privilegios a la que poder pillar. +Un da sin humillaciones empez a parecer un da recogiendo uas y flotando en el agua. +Les contar una historia. +Se trata de una mujer llamada Justine Sacco. +Una relaciones pblicas de Nueva York con 170 seguidores en Twitter, tuiteaba chistes un poco mordaces, como este en un avin de Nueva York a Londres: [Amigo alemn: Est en 1 clase. Es 2014. Compre un poco de desodorante". +Justine se ri para s y puls Enviar, sin obtener respuesta alguna, y experiment la triste sensacin que todos sentimos cuando Internet no nos felicita por ser graciosos. +Silencio extremo cuando Internet no nos contesta. +Y luego otro mensaje de un buen amigo, "Debes llamarme ahora. +Eres el trending topic nmero uno mundial en Twitter". +Lo que sucedi es que uno de sus 170 seguidores envo el tuit a un periodista de Gawker quien lo retuite a sus 15 000 seguidores: [Y ahora, una broma de fiesta divertida del jefe del IAC] Y entonces fue como un rayo. +Unas semanas ms tarde, habl con el periodista Gawker. +Le envi un correo preguntando cmo se senta y me dijo: "Muy bien". +Y luego dijo: "Estoy seguro de que ella est bien". +Pero ella no estaba bien, porque mientras dorma, Twitter tom el control de su vida desmantelndola pieza a pieza. +Primero fueron los filntropos: [Si las @palabras desafortunadas de @JustineSacco... te molestan, nete en apoyo a @care en frica.] [A la luz del... tuit asqueroso y racista, dono a @care] Luego los horrorizados: [sin palabras por el tuit racista de mierda de Justine Sacco.] +Haba alguien en Twitter esa noche? Algunos de Uds. +Colaps la broma de Justine su feed de Twitter como al mo? +Colaps el mo e imagin que todo el mundo pensaba esa noche: "Guau, alguien est jodido! +La vida de alguien est a punto de ser terrible!" +Y me sent en la cama, me puse la almohada bajo la cabeza, y pens, no estoy del todo seguro de que la broma pretendiera ser racista. +Tal vez en vez de alardear con regocijo de sus privilegios, ella se burlaba del alardeo alegre de los privilegios. +Hay una tradicin de esto en la comedia, como South Park o Colbert o Randy Newman. +Quiz el delito de Justine Sacco no era tan bueno en eso como Randy Newman. +Cuando me encontr con Justine unas semanas ms tarde en un bar, solo estaba hundida, y le ped que explicara la broma, y dijo: "Vivir en EE.UU. nos coloca un poco en una burbuja cuando se trata de lo que sucede en el Tercer Mundo. +Yo estaba mofndome de la burbuja". +Y as, para su vergenza, ella escribi, que se call y observ cmo la vida de Justine era destrozada. +Se empez a poner ms oscuro: [Todos informarn de la puta @JustineSacco] Luego vinieron los llamamientos a que la despidieran. +[Buena suerte con la bsqueda de empleo en el nuevo ao. #SiendoDespedido] Miles de personas en todo el mundo decidieron que era su deber conseguir que la despidieran. +[@JustineSacco ltimo tuit de su carrera. #SorryNotSorry Las corporaciones se involucraron con la esperanza de vender sus productos mediante la aniquilacin de Justine: [La prxima vez que planees tuitear algo estpido antes de despegar, asegurate de tener un @vueloGogo!] Muchas empresas hicieron buen dinero esa noche. +El nombre de Justine se googeleaba 40 veces al mes. +Ese mes, entre el 20 de diciembre y finales de diciembre, su nombre fue googeleado 1 220 000 veces. +Y un economista de Internet me dijo que eso significaba que Google hizo en algn momento entre USD 120 000 y UDS 468 000 de la aniquilacin de Justine, mientras que quienes humillbamos de verdad no obtuvimos nada. +Para Google ramos como avergonzadores voluntarios. +Y luego vinieron los trolls: [Tengo esperanza de que Justine Sacco logre subsidios? lol] Alguien ms escribi, "Alguien con VIH debe violar a esta perra y luego vamos a averiguar si su color de piel la protege del SIDA". +Y esa persona recibi un pase libre. +Nadie fue tras esa persona. +Estbamos tan entusiasmados con la destruccin de Justine, y nuestros cerebros humillantes son tan simples de mente, que no podamos tambin destruir a alguien que fuera inapropiado destruyendo a Justine. +Justine aglutin a un buen nmero de grupos dispares esa noche, desde filntropos hasta lo de "violar a la perra". +[@JustineSacco Espero que te despidan! Puta demente... +Explica al mundo que planeas estar desprotegida en frica.] Las mujeres siempre lo tienen peor que los hombres. +Cuando cae la vergenza sobre un hombre es: "Har que te despidan". +Cuando cae sobre una mujer es: "Har que te despidan, violen y que te corten el tero". +Y entonces los empleadores de Justine se involucraron: [IAC sobre el tuit de @JustineSacco: Es un comentario ofensivo indignante. +En tiempo real. Antes de que ella lo sepa.] Tenamos un arco narrativo encantador. +Sabamos algo que Justine no saba. +Pueden pensar en algo menos judicial que esto? +Justine estaba dormida en un avin y no poda explicarse, y su incapacidad era gran parte de la hilaridad. +En Twitter esa noche ramos como nios persiguiendo un arma. +Alguien descubri en qu avin exactamente y se vincul a un sitio web de seguimiento de vuelo. +[British Airways Vuelo 43 puntual; llega en 1 hora 34 minutos] Un hashtag empez a ser trending topic en todo el mundo: #HaAterrizadoJustine? +Twitter, quiero las imgenes.] Y adivinen qu? S haba. +[@JustineSacco ha aterrizado en Ciudad del Cabo internacional. +Y si quieren saber cmo es descubrir que acabas de ser destrozado por una broma liberal malinterpretada, no por trolls, sino por buena gente como nosotros, as se hace: [Ella ha decidido llevar gafas de sol como disfraz.] As que por qu lo hacemos? +Creo que algunas personas estaban realmente molestas, pero creo que para otras Twitter es bsicamente una mquina de aprobacin mutua. +Nos rodeamos de personas que se parecen a nosotros y nos aprobamos recprocamente, y eso es una muy buena sensacin. +Y si alguien se interpone en el camino, le echamos. +Y saben qu es lo contrario de eso? +Lo contrario a eso es la democracia. +Queramos demostrar que nos importaba personas que mueren de SIDA en frica. +Nuestro deseo de ser vistos como compasivos es lo que nos llev a cometer este acto profundamente anticompasivo. +Como escribi Meghan O'Gieblyn en el Boston Review: "Esto no es justicia social. Es una alternativa catrtica". +Durante los ltimos tres aos, he ido por todo el mundo para conocer gente como Justine Sacco y cranme, hay un montn de gente como Justine Sacco. +Hay ms cada da. +Y queremos pensar que estn bien, pero no estn bien. +Las personas a las que conoc fueron destrozadas. +Me hablaron de depresin, ansiedad, insomnio y pensamientos suicidas. +Una mujer con quien habl, que tambin cont una broma que cay mal, permaneci en casa durante un ao y medio. +Antes de eso, trabaj con adultos con dificultades de aprendizaje, y era aparentemente muy buena en su trabajo. +Justine fue despedida porque los medios sociales lo exigan. +Pero fue peor que eso. +Estaba perdindose a s misma. +Ella se despertaba en la noche, olvidando quin era. +La pillaron porque porque se consider que haba abusado de su privilegio. +Y, claro, eso es mucho mejor que acusar a la gente por estas cosas que por aquellas que solamos acusar, como tener hijos fuera del matrimonio. +La frase "uso indebido de privilegio" se ha convertido en un pase libre destrozando a cualquiera que elegimos. +Se est convirtiendo en un trmino devaluado, y hace que perdamos nuestra capacidad de empata y de distinguir entre delitos graves y poco serios. +Justine tena 170 seguidores en Twitter, y para que funcionara tuvo que ser novelada. +Se corri la voz de que era la hija del multimillonario Desmond Sacco. +[Que no nos engae #JustineSacco, su padre es un multimillonario minero. +Ella no se arrepiente. Y tampoco su padre.] Pens que de Justine era cierto hasta conocerla en un bar, y preguntarle por su padre multimillonario, y ella dijo: "Mi padre vende alfombras". +Y pienso en los primeros das de Twitter, cuando la gente admita secretos vergonzosos propios y otros decan: "Dios mo, me pasa exactamente lo mismo". +En estos das, se va a la caza de secretos vergonzosos de la gente. +Uds. pueden llevar una vida buena y tica, pero alguna frase desafortunada en un tuit puede abrumarlo todo, convirtindola en una pista del mal interior secreto. +Tal vez hay dos tipos de personas en el mundo: aquellas que favorecen a los seres humanos sobre la ideologa, y aquellas que favorecen a la ideologa sobre el ser humano. +Estoy a favor del ser humano sobre la ideologa, pero en este momento, los idelogos estn ganando, y crean un escenario de dramas constantes muy artificiales donde todo el mundo es o un magnfico hroe o un villano repugnante, aunque eso no es la verdad de nuestros compaeros humanos. +Lo que es cierto es que somos listos y tontos; lo que es cierto es que estamos en zonas grises. +Lo genial de los medios sociales es cmo dieron voz a las personas sin voz, pero ahora estamos creando una sociedad de la vigilancia, donde la forma ms inteligente de sobrevivir es volver a no tener voz. +No hagamos eso. +Gracias. +Bruno Giussani: Gracias, Jon. +Jon Ronson: Gracias, Bruno. +BG: No te vayas. +Lo que me llama la atencin de la historia de Justine es el hecho de que si se busca en Google su nombre actual, esta historia ocupa las primeras 100 pginas de resultados, no hay nada ms de ella. +En su libro, mencionas otra historia a otra vctima que lo resolvi por una empresa de gestin de la reputacin, y la publicacin de blogs e historias inocuas y bonitas de su amor por los gatos vacaciones y esas cosas, llev a que la historia ya no estuviera en las primeras pginas de Google, pero no dur mucho. +Tras unas semanas, se reposicionaron hasta alcanzar los primeros resultados. +Es esto una batalla totalmente perdida? +Pero si una humillacin sucede y hay murmullos, como en una democracia, donde las personas discuten, creo que eso es mucho menos perjudicial. +Por eso creo que ese es el camino a seguir, pero es difcil, porque si uno se planta por alguien, es increblemente desagradable. +BG: Entonces hablemos de tu experiencia, porque te plantaste a escribir este libro. +Por cierto, es de lectura obligatoria para todos. +Te pusiste firme a escribir y el libro pone el foco en los avergonzados. +Y supongo que no solamente tiene reacciones amistosas en Twitter. +JR: no cay muy bien a algunas personas. +Quiero decir, t no deseas concentrarte solo... hay mucha gente que entendi, y estaban encantados con el libro. +Pero s, durante 30 aos he escrito historias sobre abusos de poder, y cuando hablo de los poderosos del ejrcito, o de la industria farmacutica, todos me aplauden. +Cuando digo, "Ahora somos los poderosos que abusamos de nuestro poder" la gente dice: "Bueno, debes ser tambin un racista". +BG: La otra noche en la cena, hubo dos debates. +Por un lado hablabas con la gente de la mesa, y era un debate agradable, constructivo. +Por otro, cada vez que consultabas tu telfono, haba una avalancha de insultos. +JR: S. Esto sucedi anoche. Tenamos una cena de TED. +Charlamos y fue encantador y agradable, y decid ver mi Twitter. +Alguien dijo: "Eres un supremacista blanco". +Y luego volv y tuve una agradable conversacin con alguien, y luego volv a Twitter, alguien dijo que mi existencia hace del mundo un lugar peor. +Mi amigo Adam Curtis dice que Internet es como una pelcula de John Carpenter de la dcada de 1980, cuando al final todos empiezan a gritarse y a dispararse entre s, y luego con el tiempo todos huyen a un lugar ms seguro, y estoy empezando a pensar en ello como una opcin muy agradable. +BG: Jon, gracias. JR: Gracias, Bruno. +Esto de aqu detrs era mi cncer cerebral. +Tiene buen aspecto, no? +La palabra clave aqu es "era". Ufff! +Tener cncer cerebral fue, como se pueden imaginar, una noticia que me impact mucho. +No saba nada sobre el cncer. +En las culturas occidentales, cuando se tiene cncer, es como desaparecer en cierta forma. +La vida, la de un ser humano complejo, es reemplazada con datos mdicos: radiografas, exmenes mdicos, resultados de laboratorio, recetas mdicas. +Y todo el mundo cambia tambin. +De repente, uno se convierte en una enfermedad andante. +Los mdicos empiezan a hablar un idioma que uno no entiende. +Empiezan sealando con el dedo a su cuerpo y sus radiografas. +La gente empieza a cambiar tambin porque empiezan a lidiar con la enfermedad y no con el ser humano. +Te preguntan: "Qu dijo el mdico?" +incluso antes de decir: "Hola". +Y mientras tanto, te dejan con preguntas a las que nadie tiene una respuesta. +Estas son las preguntas del tipo "puedo?": Puedo trabajar mientras tengo cncer? +Puedo estudiar? Puedo hacer el amor? Puedo ser creativo? +Y te preguntas: "Qu he hecho yo para merecer esto?" +Uno se pregunta: "Puedo cambiar algo en mi estilo de vida?" +Uno se pregunta: "Puedo hacer algo? +Hay otras opciones?" +Y, obviamente, los mdicos son los chicos buenos en todos estos escenarios, porque son muy profesionales y comprometidos en curarte. +Pero tambin estn muy acostumbrados a tener que lidiar con pacientes, as que yo dira que a veces pierden de vista que esto es una tortura para ti y que uno se convierte, literalmente, en un paciente; "paciente" significa "el que espera". +Las cosas estn cambiando, pero lo tpico es que suelen no implicarse de ninguna manera en la comprensin de su enfermedad, de hacer a sus amigos y familia partcipes, o de mostrarles las opciones para cambiar de estilo de vida para minimizar los riesgos de lo que est pasando. +Pero en cambio, uno se ve obligado a esperar mientras pasa por las manos de una serie de extraos muy profesionales. +Mientras estaba en el hospital ped una copia impresa de me radiografa cerebral y le habl. +Fue muy difcil obtenerla porque no es prctica habitual pedir una copia del propio cncer. +Habl con ella y le dije: "Est bien, cncer, no me representas. +Yo soy ms que esto. +Una cura, cualquiera que sea, tendr que tenerme en cuenta en mi totalidad". +As que al da siguiente sal del hospital en contra del consejo mdico. +Estaba decidido a cambiar mi relacin con el cncer y a aprender ms sobre l antes de decidirme sobre algo tan drstico como la ciruga. +Soy artista, uso varias tecnologas de cdigo abierto e informacin abierta en mi actividad. +As que mi mejor opcin era hacerlo todo pblico como informacin no confidencial y hacerlo de modo que pudiera ser de libre acceso para cualquier persona. +As que he creado un sitio web, que se llama "La Cura", e hice accesibles mis datos mdicos en lnea. +En realidad, tuve que hackearlos y eso es un detalle del que hablar en otra ocasin. +Eleg esta palabra, "La Cura", porque en italiano significa "remedio" y porque en muchas culturas diferentes, la palabra "cura" puede significar muchas cosas diferentes. +En nuestra cultura occidental significa erradicar o hacer retroceder la enfermedad, pero en otras culturas, por ejemplo, las culturas asiticas, las del Mediterrneo, la de los pases latinos, la africana, puede significar muchas otras cosas. +Por supuesto que estaba interesado en las opiniones de los mdicos, del resto de los profesionales de la salud pero tambin estaba interesado en la cura ofrecida por un artista, un poeta, un diseador, o, por qu no, de los msicos. +Estaba interesado en la cura social, la cura psicolgica, la espiritual, la emocional, estaba interesado en cualquier tipo de curacin. +Y funcion. +La pgina web de "La Cura" se convirti en viral. +Recib mucha atencin meditica en Italia y en el extranjero, ms de 500 000 personas me contactaron en muy poco tiempo a travs del correo electrnico, las redes sociales; en la mayora de casos con algn consejo sobre cmo curar el cncer, pero muchos ms trataban de sugerirme cmo curarme como individuo. +Por ejemplo, miles de vdeos, imgenes, fotografas, representaciones artsticas se crearon para "La Cura". +Por ejemplo, aqu vemos a Francesca Fini y su actuacin. +O lo que ha hecho el artista Patrick Lichty: una escultura en 3D de mi tumor a la venta en el Thingiverse. +As que ahora pueden tener mi cncer, tambin! +Lo que es genial si lo piensan, podemos tener el mismo cncer para compartir. +Y esto es lo que pasaba: cientficos, expertos en medicina tradicional, varios investigadores, mdicos, todos conectados conmigo para hacer recomendaciones. +Con base en toda esta informacin y consejos reun un equipo de varios neurocirujanos, mdicos tradicionales, onclogos y varios cientos de voluntarios con quienes tuve la oportunidad de comprobar la informacin que estaba recibiendo, lo cual es muy importante. +Y juntos, pudimos desarrollar una estrategia diseada para mi cura en muchos idiomas, segn muchas culturas. +Y la estrategia actual abarca conocimientos de todo el mundo y miles de aos de historia humana, lo que es bastante impresionante. +[Ciruga] Las siguientes resonancias magnticas confirmaron por fortuna poco crecimiento o ms bien la ausencia del cncer. +As que tuve tiempo para elegir. +Eleg el mdico con quien quera trabajar, dnde hospitalizarme y todo mientras miles de personas me apoyaban sin que nadie sintiera lstima por m. +Todo el mundo senta que poda tener un papel activo para ayudarme a sentirme mejor y esa fue la parte ms importante de "La Cura". +Cules fueron los resultados? +Estoy bien, como se puede ver, muy bien. +Tengo una excelente noticia: despus de la ciruga... tengo... tena un glioma muy pequeo que es un tipo de cncer "bueno" y que no crece mucho. +He cambiado por completo mi vida y mi estilo de vida. +Todo lo que hice fue cuidadosamente diseado para que me mantuviera involucrado. +Todo hasta los ltimos momentos antes de la ciruga, que fue algo muy intenso, me implantaron una serie de electrodos en el cerebro por este lado, para poder construir un mapa funcional de lo que controla el cerebro. +Y justo antes de la operacin pudimos discutir ese mapa funcional de mi cerebro con el mdico, para entender los riesgos que corra y si haba alguno que quera evitar. +Obviamente los haba. +[Ser abierto] Y esta apertura fue realmente la parte fundamental de "La Cura". +Miles de personas compartieron sus historias, sus experiencias. +Los mdicos llegaron a consultar gente con la cual no suelen hablar cuando se trata del cncer. +Me he autoconstituido y me encuentro en un continuo estado de traduccin entre muchos idiomas diferentes, donde la ciencia se encuentra con la emocin y la investigacin acadmica se encuentra con la investigacin tradicional. +[Sociedad] La parte ms importante de "La Cura" fue sentirse parte de una sociedad realmente comprometida y conectada cuyo bienestar depende verdaderamente del bienestar de todos sus componentes. +Esta intervencin global es mi cura de cdigo abierto para el cncer. +Y por lo que veo, es una cura para m, pero tambin para todos nosotros. +Gracias. +En 2012, cuando pint el minarete de la mezquita de Jara en mi ciudad natal de Gabes, en el sur de Tnez, nunca pens que el graffiti llamara tanto la atencin sobre una ciudad. +Al principio, solo estaba buscando una pared en mi ciudad natal, y resulta que el minarete se estaba construyendo en el 94. +Durante 18 aos, los 57 metros de cemento permanecieron grises. +Cuando por primera vez me reun con el imn y le dije lo que quera hacer, me dijo: "Gracias a Dios, por fin llegaste", y me dijo que todos estos aos estuvo esperando a alguien para que hiciera algo al respecto. +Lo ms sorprendente de este imn es que l no me pidi nada, ni un boceto, nada de lo que iba a escribir. +En cada obra que creo, escribo mensajes con mi estilo de calligraffiti, que es una mezcla de caligrafa y graffiti. +Uso citas o poesa. +Pens que el mensaje ms adecuado para el minarete, para colocarlo en una mezquita debera originarse en el Corn, as que eleg este versculo: "Oh humanidad! Nosotros los creamos a partir de un solo hombre y una sola mujer y os hicimos pueblos y tribus para que as podis conoceros unos a otros". +Fue una llamada universal a la paz, la tolerancia y la aceptacin por parte de los que, por lo general, no tienen una buena imagen en los medios de comunicacin. +Me sorprend al ver cmo la comunidad local reaccion ante la pintura, y cmo se enorgullecieron al ver que el minarete llamaba tanto la atencin de la prensa internacional de todo el mundo. +Para el imn, no se trataba solo de la pintura; era algo ms profundo que eso. +Se esperaba que el minarete se convirtiera en un monumento para la ciudad, y atrajera a la gente a este lugar tan olvidado de Tnez. +La universalidad del mensaje, el contexto poltico existente en Tnez en ese momento, y el hecho de que estaba citando el Corn usando el graffiti no pasaron desapercibidos. +Reuni a la comunidad. +Acerc a la gente, a las generaciones futuras, a travs de la caligrafa rabe eso es lo que hago. +Escribir mensajes es la esencia de mi obra. +Lo divertido es que en realidad, incluso la gente de habla rabe necesita realmente fijarse bien para descifrar lo que estoy escribiendo. +Pero no hace falta saber lo que est escrito para sentir la pieza. +Creo que la escritura rabe llega al alma antes de que llegue a los ojos. +Tiene una belleza intrnseca que no es necesario traducir. +Creo que la escritura rabe le habla a cualquiera, a ti, a ti, a ti, a todos, y luego cuando se entiende el significado uno se siente conectado a la misma. +Siempre me aseguro de escribir mensajes relevantes para el lugar donde estoy pintando, pero mensajes que tengan una dimensin universal, para que as cualquiera en el mundo pueda conectar con l. +Yo nac y crec en Francia, en Pars, y empec a aprender a escribir y leer rabe cuando tena 18 aos. +Hoy solo escribo mensajes en rabe. +Una de los razones del porqu esto es muy importante para m, se debe al recibimiento que tuve en todo el mundo. +En Ro de Janeiro, traduje este poema portugus de Gabriela Trres Barbosa, que homenajeaba a los pobres de las favelas, y luego lo pint en la azotea. +La comunidad local estuvo realmente intrigada por lo que estaba haciendo, pero tan pronto les expliqu el significado de la caligrafa, me dio las gracias, ya que se sinti conectada a la pieza. +En Sudfrica, en Ciudad del Cabo, la comunidad filipa local me ofreci el nico muro de hormign de un barrio marginal. +Era de una escuela, y escrib una cita de Nelson Mandela, que dice en rabe: "Parece imposible hasta que se hace", lo que significa: "Parece imposible hasta que se hace". +Un hombre se me acerc y pregunt: "Por qu no escribes en ingls?" +y le respond que hubiera tomado su opinin en cuenta si me hubiese preguntado por qu no escribo en zul. +Una vez en Pars, tuvo lugar un evento, y alguien ofreci su pared para pintarla. +Y cuando vio que estaba pintando en rabe, estaba tan enojado, histrico, que pidi que borrase la pared. +Yo estaba molesto y decepcionado. +Pero una semana despus, el organizador del evento me pidi que regresara, y me dijo que haba una pared justo en frente de la casa de esta persona. +As que este hombre se vio obligado a ver mi pintura todos los das. +Al principio, iba a escribir, "En tu cara", lo que significa "En tu cara", pero... decid ser ms inteligente y escrib "Abre tu corazn", lo que significa, "Abre tu corazn". +Estoy muy orgulloso de mi cultura, y trato de ser su embajador, haciendo uso de mi arte. +Y espero que pueda romper los estereotipos que todos conocemos con la belleza de la escritura rabe. +He dejado de escribir la traduccin del mensaje en la pared. +No quiero que la poesa de la caligrafa sufra, ya que es arte y se puede apreciar sin conocer su significado, igual que la msica de otros pases se puede disfrutar. +Algunos interpretan esto como un rechazo o una puerta cerrada, pero para m, es ms una invitacin hacia mi lengua, mi cultura y mi arte. +Gracias. +Este es un mapa del estado de Nueva York hecho en 1937 por la General Drafting Company. +Agloe, Nueva York, es muy famosa entre los cartgrafos, porque es una ciudad de papel. +Tambin conocida como una trampa de autor. +Los creadores de mapas --como mi mapa de Nueva York y su mapa de Nueva York sern muy similares, a causa de la forma de Nueva York-- a menudo, los cartgrafos insertan lugares falsos en sus mapas, para proteger sus derechos de autor. +As, si mi lugar falso aparece en tu mapa, puedo estar muy y verdaderamente seguro de que me lo has robado. +Agloe es un juego de las iniciales de las dos personas que hicieron de este mapa, Ernest Alpers y Otto Lindberg, y lo publicaron en 1937. +Dcadas ms tarde, Rand McNally publicaron un mapa con Agloe, Nueva York, en l, en la misma exacta interseccin de 2 caminos de tierra en el medio de la nada. +Bueno, se puede imaginar la alegra en General Drafting. +Inmediatamente llaman a Rand McNally, y dicen: "Los pillamos! Inventamos Agloe, Nueva York. +Es un lugar falso. Es una ciudad de papel. +Vamos a demandarlos hasta acabar con ellos!". +Y Rand McNally dice: "No, no, no, no, Agloe es real". +Debido a que la gente segua yendo a la interseccin de 2 caminos de tierra en el medio de la nada, esperando que hubiera un lugar llamado Agloe, alguien construy un lugar llamado Agloe, Nueva York. +Tena una gasolinera, una tienda, dos casas en su apogeo. +Para un novelista, esta es, claro, una metfora completamente irresistible, porque a todos nos gustara creer que las cosas que escribimos en un papel pueden cambiar el mundo real en el que en realidad vivimos, por lo que mi tercer libro se llama "Pueblos de papel". +Pero lo que me interesa en ltimas, ms que el medio en el que sucedi, es el fenmeno en s. +Es bastante fcil de decir que el mundo da forma a nuestros mapas del mundo, no? +Como que la forma global del mundo, obviamente, va a afectar nuestros mapas. +Pero lo que me parece mucho ms interesante es la manera en que la forma en que hacemos un mapa del mundo cambia el mundo. +Ya que el mundo realmente sera un lugar diferente si el Norte se pusiera abajo. +Y el mundo sera un lugar realmente diferente si Alaska y Rusia no estuvieran en lados opuestos del mapa. +Y el mundo sera un lugar diferente si proyectamos Europa para verla en su tamao real. +El mundo cambia por nuestros mapas del mundo. +La forma en que elegimos, especie de empresa cartogrfica personal, tambin da forma al mapa de nuestra vida, que a su vez da forma a nuestras vidas. +Creo que el mapa que hacemos cambia la vida que llevamos. +Y no me refiero a cosas como la red de ngeles de Oprah, ni pensar la forma de salir del cncer. +Pero s creo que, si bien los mapas no te muestran dnde vas a ir en tu vida, s te muestran dnde podras ir. +Uno muy raramente va a un lugar que no est en su mapa personal. +Yo era un estudiante realmente terrible de nio. +Mi promedio fue consistentemente bajo dos desviaciones. +Y creo que la razn de que fuera un estudiante tan malo es que sent que la educacin era solo una serie de obstculos que haban sido erigidos delante de m, y que tena que saltarlos para alcanzar la edad adulta. +Y no tena muchas ganas de saltar estos obstculos, porque parecan completamente arbitrarios, y a menudo no lo haca, y luego la gente me amenaza, saben, me amenaza con esto "est quedando en tu registro" o "nunca vas a conseguir un buen trabajo". +Yo no quera un buen trabajo! +Por lo que poda ver a los 11 o 12 aos, las personas con buenos trabajos se despertaban muy temprano en la maana, y los hombres que tenan buenos empleos, una de las primeras cosas que hacan era atarse un elemento de ropa de estrangulamiento alrededor del cuello. +Literalmente se ponan sogas a s mismos, y luego se iban a sus puestos de trabajo, lo que fueran. +No era una receta para una vida feliz. +Estas personas, en mi obsesiva imaginacin simblica a los 12 aos, estas personas que se estn estrangulando a s mismas como una de las primeras cosas que hacen cada maana, no pueden posiblemente ser felices. +Por qu iba a querer saltar todos estos obstculos y tener ese final? +Ese terrible final! +Y luego, cuando estaba en 10 grado, fui a esta escuela, Indian Springs School, un pequeo internado, en las afueras de Birmingham, Alabama. +Y de repente me convert en aprendiz. +Y me convert en aprendiz, porque me encontr en una comunidad de estudiantes. +Me encontr rodeado de gente que celebraban el intelectualismo y el compromiso, y que pensaban que mi irnica desconexin tan fra no era inteligente, ni divertida, pero que era una respuesta simple y nada espectacular a problemas muy complicados y acuciantes. +Y as empec a aprender, porque aprender era genial. +Aprend que unos conjuntos infinitos son mayores que otros conjuntos infinitos, y qu es pentmetro ymbico y por qu suena tan bien a los odos humanos. +Me enter de que la Guerra Civil fue un conflicto de nacionalizacin, aprend algo de fsica, aprend que la correlacin no se debe confundir con la causalidad --todas estas cosas, por cierto, enriquecieron literalmente mi vida diaria. +Y es cierto que yo no uso la mayora de ellos para mi "trabajo" pero eso no me aplica a m. +Se trata de cartografa. +Cul es el proceso de cartografa? +Es, ya saben, navegar sobre un terreno, y el pensar, "Creo que dibujar este pedacito de tierra" y luego preguntarse, "Tal vez hay algo ms de tierra para dibujar". +Ah realmente comenz el aprendizaje para m. +Es cierto que tuve profesores que no me dejaron renunciar, y fui muy afortunado de tenerlos, pues a menudo les di motivos para pensar que no haba razn para invertir en m. +Pero gran parte del aprendizaje que tuve en la escuela secundaria no fue de lo que pas dentro del aula, fue de lo que pas fuera del aula. +La razn por la que s que es el costo de oportunidad, es porque un da, cuando yo estaba jugando Super Mario Kart en mi sof, mi amigo Emmet entr, y dijo: "Cunto has jugado a Super Mario Kart?". +Y dije: "No s, unas 6 horas?" y l dijo, "Te das cuenta de que si hubieras trabajado en Baskin-Robbins esas 6 horas, habras ganado 30 dlares, as que en cierto modo, pagaste 30 dlares para jugar Super Mario Kart". +Y yo: "Me quedo con ese trato". +Pero aprend lo que es el costo de oportunidad. +Y en el camino, el mapa de mi vida mejor. +Se hizo ms grande; contena ms lugares. +Haba ms cosas que podran ocurrir, ms futuros que podra tener. +No fue un proceso de aprendizaje formal, organizado, y estoy feliz de admitirlo. +Era irregular, era incoherente, haba muchas cosas que no saba. +Podra saber, la idea de Cantor de que algunos conjuntos infinitos son mayores que otros conjuntos infinitos, pero no entiendo muy bien el clculo tras esa idea. +Podra saber la idea de costo de oportunidad, pero no la ley de los rendimientos decrecientes. +Pero lo bueno de imaginar el aprendizaje como cartografa, en vez de como obstculos arbitrarios que uno tiene que saltar, es ver un poco de la costa, y tener ganas de ver ms. +Y ahora s, al menos algunos de los clculos que subyacen todas esas cosas. +Tuve una comunidad de aprendizaje en la secundaria, luego me fui a otra a la universidad, y luego me fui a otra, al empezar a trabajar en la revista "Lista de libros" donde era un ayudante rodeado de gente asombrosamente muy leda. +Y entonces escrib un libro. +Y como todos los autores que suean hacerlo, dej mi trabajo de inmediato. +Y por primera vez desde la secundaria, me encontr sin una comunidad de aprendizaje, y me senta miserable. +Lo odiaba. +Le muchos, muchos libros durante este perodo de 2 aos. +Y luego, en 2006, me encontr con ese chico. +Su nombre es Ze Frank. +En realidad no me he reunido con l, solo en Internet. +Ze Frank estaba haciendo, en ese momento, un programa llamado "El Show con Ze Frank" y lo descubr, y era mi camino de regreso a ser un aprendiz de comunidad de nuevo. +Aqu est Ze hablando de Las Vegas: Ze Frank: Las Vegas fue construido en medio de un enorme desierto. +Casi todo aqu fue trado de otro lugar, el tipo de rocas, los rboles, las cascadas. +Estos peces estn casi tan fuera de lugar como mi cerdo volador. +En contraste con el desierto abrasador que rodea este lugar, hay estas personas. +Aqu, cosas de todo el mundo han sido reconstruidas, lejos de sus historias, y lejos de las personas que las experimentan distinto. +A veces hay mejoras, la esfinge tiene un trabajo en la nariz. +Aqu, no hay razn para sentir que te ests perdiendo algo. +Este Nueva York significa lo mismo para m que para cualquiera. +Todo est fuera de contexto, significa que el contexto permite todo: Parqueadero, centro de eventos, arrecife de tiburones. +Este lugar podra ser uno de los mayores logros del mundo, porque nadie pertenece aqu; sino todos lo pertenecen. +Al caminar en la maana, me di cuenta de que los edificios eran espejos que reflejaban el sol de nuevo al desierto. +Pero a diferencia de la mayora de los espejos, que te presentan con una visin de ti mismo incrustado en un lugar, estos espejos estn vacos. +Juan Verde: Me da nostalgia los das en que veas los pxeles de video en lnea. +Ze es un gran intelectual pblico, y un constructor de comunidad brillante, y la comunidad de que se construy en torno a estos vdeos fue en muchos aspectos una de estudiantes. +As que jugamos con Ze Frank en colaboracin, y le ganamos. +Nos organizamos para hacer un viaje por carretera a travs de EE. UU. +Convertimos la Tierra en un sndwich, al poner a una persona sosteniendo un pedazo de pan en un punto de la Tierra, y en el punto opuesto exacto de la Tierra, tener a otra persona con un pedazo de pan. +S que estas son ideas tontas, pero tambin son ideas "educativas", y eso era muy emocionante para m, y si ven en lnea, pueden encontrar comunidades como esta por todo el lugar. +Siga la etiqueta de clculo en Tumblr, y s, vern gente quejndose del clculo, pero tambin vern la gente contestando esas quejas, defendiendo que el clculo es interesante y hermoso, y aqu es una forma en cmo pensar si el problema que encuentra es irresoluble. +Pueden ir a sitios como Reddit, y encontrar sub-reddits, como "Hacer un historiador" o "Hacer ciencia" donde se puede pedir a las personas que estn en estos campos una amplia gama de cuestiones, desde las muy graves a las muy tontas. +Pero para m, las comunidades ms interesantes de estudiantes que estn creciendo en Internet ahora estn en YouTube, y es cierto, estoy sesgado. +Pero creo que en muchos sentidos, YouTube se asemeja a un saln de clases. +Por ejemplo, en "Minuto de fsica" un tipo ensea al mundo fsica: Cortemos por lo sano. +Desde julio de 2012, el bosn de Higgs es la ltima pieza fundamental del modelo estndar de partculas al ser descubierto experimentalmente. +Pero por qu se incluy el bosn de Higgs en el modelo estndar, junto a partculas bien conocidas como electrones, fotones y quarks, si no se haba descubierto entonces en los 70? +Buena pregunta. Hay 2 razones principales. +As como el electrn es una excitacin en el campo de electrones, el bosn de Higgs es simplemente una partcula que es una excitacin del campo de Higgs que impregna todo. +El campo de Higgs, juega un papel integral en nuestro modelo para la fuerza nuclear dbil. +El campo de Higgs ayuda a explicar por qu es tan dbil. +Hablaremos ms de esto en un video posterior, pero aunque la teora nuclear dbil se confirm en los 80, en las ecuaciones, el campo de Higgs est tan involucrado con la fuerza dbil, que solo ahora pudimos confirmar su existencia real e independiente. +JG: O aqu est un video que hice en mi programa "Crash Course", sobre la I Guerra Mundial: La causa inmediata fue, por supuesto, el asesinato en Sarajevo del archiduque de Austria Francisco Fernando, 28 de junio de 1914, por un nacionalista bosnio-serbio llamado Gavrilo Princip. +Dato rpido: Vale sealar que la primera gran guerra del siglo XX se inici con un acto de terrorismo. +Franz Ferdinand no era muy querido por su to, el emperador Francisco Jos, --eso es un bigote!--. +Pero an as, el asesinato llev a Austria a emitir un ultimtum a Serbia, y Serbia acept algunas, pero no todas, las demandas de Austria, llevando a Austria a declarar la guerra a Serbia. +Y luego Rusia, por su alianza con los serbios, moviliz a su ejrcito. +Alemania, como tena una alianza con Austria, dijo a Rusia que no se movilizara, lo que Rusia no pudo hacer, entonces Alemania moviliz su ejrcito, declar la guerra a Rusia, cimentado una alianza con los otomanos, y luego declarado la guerra a Francia, porque, ya saben, Francia. +Y no es solo fsica e historia del mundo lo que la gente decide aprender a travs de YouTube. +He aqu un video acerca de matemticas abstractas. +Ests en clase de matemticas una vez ms, porque te hacen ir todos los das. +Y ests aprendiendo sobre, no s, las sumas de series infinitas. +Es un tema de secundaria, verdad? +Extrao, porque es un tema genial, pero logran arruinarlo de todos modos. +Por eso que permitirn las series infinitas en el plan de estudios. +Muy comprensiblemente para distraerte, ests haciendo garabatos y piensas en que el plural de "serie" debera ser sobre el tema que nos ocupa: "serieses", "serises", "seris"? +O que el singular se debe cambiar: una "seri" o "serin" igual que el singular de "peces" debera ser "pece". +Que es un poco impresionante, porque se puede lograr un nmero infinito de elefantes en una fila, y todava encaja en una sola pgina de cuaderno. +JG: Y por ltimo, Destin, de "Smarter Every Day" hablando de la conservacin del momento angular, y, ya en YouTube, de gatos: Soy Destin. Hola de nuevo a "Ms inteligente cada da". +Probablemente han observado que los gatos casi siempre caen de pie. +La pregunta de hoy es: por qu? +Como muchas preguntas sencillas, tiene respuesta compleja. +Por ejemplo, permtanme reformularla: Cmo es que un gato cae parado en un marco de cada sin violar la conservacin del momento angular? +JG: Aqu hay algo que estos 4 videos tienen en comn: Todos tienen ms de medio milln de visitas en YouTube. +Y no se miran en las aulas, sino porque son parte de comunidades de aprendizaje que se estn estableciendo en estos canales. +He dicho antes que YouTube es como un aula para m, y en muchos sentidos lo es, porque aqu est el instructor --es como la antigua aula: aqu est el instructor, y luego, debajo del instructor, los estudiantes, y todos estn teniendo una conversacin--. +Y s que los comentarios de YouTube tienen muy mala reputacin en el mundo de Internet, pero de hecho, si van a los comentarios de estos canales, lo que encontrar es a personas que practican la materia, preguntan temas complicados sobre el tema, y luego otras personas responden estas cuestiones. +Y como YouTube est configurado para estar con los comentarios en el exacto punto donde yo estoy hablando con usted a sus comentarios, Uno participa de una manera viva, real y activa en la conversacin. +Y como estoy en los comentarios, tengo la oportunidad de participar con Ud. +Y Ud. lo encuentra, sea en historia del mundo, matemticas, ciencia, o lo que sea. +Tambin se ve jvenes que utilizan las herramientas y gneros de Internet con el fin de crear espacios para el compromiso intelectual, en lugar del distanciamiento irnico que tal vez la mayora asociamos con memes y otros convenios de internet. Ya saben, "Se aburri. Clculo inventado". +O bien, aqu est la Honey Boo Boo criticando el capitalismo industrial: ["El capitalismo liberal no es el bien de la humanidad. +Al contrario; es vehculo del salvajismo, del nihilismo destructivo".] En caso de que no pueda ver lo que dice... s. +Realmente creo que estos espacios, estas comunidades, se han convertido en una nueva generacin de estudiantes, el tipo de comunidades, el tipo de comunidades cartogrficas que tena cuando estaba en secundaria, y luego otra vez en la universidad. +Y como adulto, volver a encontrar estas comunidades me ha vuelto a introducir a una comunidad de estudiantes, y me ha animado a seguir siendo un aprendiz incluso en mi vida adulta, y ya no siento que el aprendizaje es algo reservado a los jvenes. +Vi Hart y "Minute Physics" me introdujeron a todo tipo de cosas que no conoca antes. +Y s que todos escuchamos de nuevo los das del saln parisino en la Ilustracin, o al Algonquin Round Table, y desea, "Oh, me gustara haber sido parte de eso, ojal pudiera haber redo de los chistes de Dorothy Parker". +Pero estoy aqu para decirles que existen estos lugares, que se mantienen vigentes. +Existen en los rincones de Internet, donde los viejos temen pisar. +Realmente, realmente creo que cuando inventamos Agloe, Nueva York, en los 60, cuando hicimos Agloe real, estbamos empezando. +Gracias. +Hay una cita del activista y roquero punk Jello Biafra que me encanta. +Dice: "No odies a los medios. S los medios". +Soy artista. +Me gustan los medios y la tecnologa porque primero, me resultan familiares y me gusta el poder que tienen. +Y en segundo lugar, los odio y me aterra el poder que tienen. +Recuerdo haber visto, en 2003, una entrevista de Tony Snow de Fox News al entonces Secretario de Defensa, Donald Rumsfeld. +Hablaban de la reciente invasin a Irak y le pregunta a Rumsfeld: "Bueno, sabemos de nuestras bajas pero nunca de las de ellos, por qu?" +La respuesta de Rumsfeld fue: "No contamos las vctimas de los dems". +Correcto? +Se estima que murieron entre 150 000 y un milln de civiles iraques como resultado de la invasin liderada por EE.UU. en 2003. +Hay un claro contraste entre esa cifra durante ese mismo lapso de tiempo. +Yo quera hacer algo ms que llamar la atencin sobre esta cifra aterradora. +Quera crear un monumento a los civiles que murieron como resultado de la invasin. +Los monumentos de guerra, como el Memorial de Vietnam de Maya Lin, son a menudo enormes en escala. +Muy impactantes y muy sesgados. +Yo quera que mi monumento tenga vida y que se distribuya en el mundo. +Recuerdo que de nio en la escuela el profesor nos dio la clsica tarea cvica en la que uno escriba una carta para un funcionario del gobierno. +Y nos decan que si realmente escribamos una buena carta, si realmente la sopesbamos, recibiramos ms que una simple carta con membrete como respuesta. +Esta es mi libreta. +Parece el tpico bloc de notas de papel amarillo, normal, pero es en realidad un monumento a los civiles iraques muertos como resultado de la invasin de EE.UU. +"La libreta" es una protesta y un acto de conmemoracin camuflada en el tpico bloc de notas. +Las lneas del papel, al amplificarlas, revelan el texto microimpreso que contiene el detalle de los nombres, las fechas y ubicaciones de los civiles iraques que murieron. +En los ltimos 5 aos, he ocultado estos bloques de papel, montones de ellos, en los suministros de papelera de EE.UU. y los gobiernos de la coalicin. +Entendern que este no es el lugar adecuado para discutir cmo lo hice. +Pero tambin, me reun cara a cara con miembros y exmiembros de la llamada Coalicin de de la Voluntad que colabor en la invasin. +Y, siempre que puedo, me reno con alguno de ellos, y comparto el proyecto con ellos. +Y el verano pasado, tuve la oportunidad de conocer al exfiscal general de EE.UU. y autor del memorando a favor de la tortura Alberto Gonzlez. +Matt Kenyon: Puedo darle esto? +Es un bloc de notas especial. +En realidad, es parte de un proyecto de arte en curso. +Alberto Gonzlez: Es un bloc de notas especial? +MK: S. No lo va a creer, pero est en la coleccin del Museo de Arte Moderno; soy artista. +MK: Y todas las lneas del papel son en realidad... AG: Van a desaparecer? +MK: No, son un microtexto impreso con los nombres de los civiles iraques muertos desde la invasin a Irak. +AG: S. Bien. +AG: Gracias. MK: Gracias. +Su forma de decir "gracias" realmente me asusta. +Bien, me gustara que cada uno de Uds. mire debajo de su silla. +Hay un sobre. +Por favor, branlo. +El papel que tienen en sus manos contiene los detalles de los civiles iraques muertos por la invasin. +Me gustara que usen ese papel para escribir a un miembro del gobierno. +Pueden ayudar a infiltrar este recuento de bajas civiles en los archivos del gobierno. +Porque cada carta enviada al gobierno, y esto es en todo el mundo, por supuesto, cada carta enviada se archiva, se registra y almacena. +Juntos, podemos poner esto en los buzones y bajo las narices de la gente en el poder +Todo lo que se enva finalmente se convierte en parte del archivo permanente de nuestro gobierno, de nuestro registro histrico compartido. +Gracias. +Tom Rielly: Dime Matt, Cmo se te ocurri esta idea de "La Libreta"? +As supe que haba algo que recordaba a nuestros muertos de ultramar, pero que haba una cifra desproporcionada de bajas que eran vctimas civiles. +TR: Muchas gracias. +MK: Gracias. +Hace 70 000 aos, nuestros antepasados eran animales insignificantes. +Lo ms importante que se debe saber sobre los prehistricos es que eran insignificantes. +Su impacto en el mundo no era mucho mayor que el de las medusas, las lucirnagas o los pjaros carpinteros. +Sin embargo, hoy controlamos el planeta. +Y la pregunta es: Cmo hemos llegado hasta aqu? +Cmo hemos pasado de ser simios insignificantes, preocupados por sus propios problemas en un rincn de frica, a ser los gobernantes del planeta Tierra? +Normalmente, buscamos diferencias entre nosotros y otros animales en el plano individual. +Queremos creer, yo quiero creer, que hay algo especial en m, en mi cuerpo, en mi cerebro, que me hacer ser superior a un perro, a un cerdo o a un chimpanc. +Pero lo cierto es que en el plano individual soy vergonzosamente parecido a un chimpanc. +Y si nos llevaran a un chimpanc y a m juntos a una isla desierta y tuvisemos que luchar por sobrevivir para ver quin lo hace mejor, desde luego yo apostara por el chimpanc y no por m. +Y no es que haya algo malo en m personalmente. +Creo que si les dejasen solos a cualquiera de Uds. con un chimpanc en alguna isla el chimpanc lo hara mucho mejor. +La verdadera diferencia entre los humanos y el resto de los animales no est en el plano individual, est en el plano colectivo. +Los humanos controlan el planeta porque son los nicos animales que pueden cooperar flexiblemente y en masa. +Si bien hay otros animales como los insectos sociables, las abejas, las hormigas, que pueden cooperar en masa, no lo hacen de un modo tan flexible. +Su cooperacin es muy rgida. +Una colmena funciona bsicamente de una forma. +Y ante una nueva oportunidad o un nuevo peligro, las abejas no pueden reinventar el sistema social de la noche a la maana. +Por ejemplo, no pueden ejecutar a la reina y establecer una repblica de abejas, o una dictadura comunista de abejas trabajadoras. +Otros animales como los mamferos, los lobos, los elefantes, los delfines, los chimpancs, pueden cooperar con mayor flexibilidad, pero lo hacen solo en grupos pequeos porque la cooperacin entre los chimpancs se basa en el conocimiento ntimo del otro. +Si soy un chimpanc y t eres otro chimpanc y quiero cooperar contigo, +necesito conocerte personalmente. +Qu clase de chimpanc eres? +Eres un chimpanc amigable? +Eres un chimpanc malvado? +Se puede confiar en ti? +Si no te conozco, com podra cooperar contigo? +El nico animal que puede combinar las dos habilidades a la vez y cooperar de forma tanto flexible como en masa somos nosotros, el Homo sapiens. +Uno contra uno, o incluso, diez contra diez, puede que los chimpancs sean mejores que nosotros. +Pero si enfrentas a mil humanos contra mil chimpancs, entonces los humanos ganarn fcilmente por la simple razn de que mil chimpancs no pueden cooperar en absoluto. +Y si intentas meter a 100 mil chimpancs en Oxford Street o en el estadio Wembley o en la plaza Tienanmen o en el Vaticano, todo lo que tendrs ser el caos ms absoluto. +Imaginen el estadio Wembley con 100 mil chimpancs. +Una locura total. +Sin embargo, los humanos pueden concentrarse all por decenas de miles, y normalmente el resultado no es el caos. +Lo que obtenemos son redes de cooperacin sofisticadas y eficaces. +Todos los grandes logros de la historia de la humanidad, desde construir pirmides hasta viajar a la Luna, no se han basado en habilidades individuales sino en la capacidad de cooperar en masa de forma flexible. +Piensen en esta misma charla que estoy dando ahora, estoy aqu delante de una audiencia de unas 300 o 400 personas, la mayora de Uds. son desconocidos para m. +Adems, tampoco conozco a toda la gente que ha organizado y trabajado en este acto. +No conozco al piloto ni a los miembros de la tripulacin del avin que me trajeron ayer aqu, a Londres. +No conozco a la gente que invent y fabric estos micrfonos y estas cmaras, que graban lo que estoy diciendo. +No conozco a las personas que escribieron todos los libros y artculos que he ledo para preparar esta charla. +Y definitivamente no conozco a todas las personas que pueden estar viendo esta charla en Internet, en algn lugar de Buenos Aires o en Nueva Delhi. +Sin embargo, incluso aunque no nos conocemos, podemos trabajar juntos para crear este intercambio mundial de ideas. +Esto es algo que los chimpancs no pueden hacer. +Por supuesto que se comunican pero nunca vern a un chimpanc viajar hasta un grupo distante de chimpancs para darles una charla sobre bananas o elefantes, o cualquier otra cosa que pueda interesar a los chimpancs. +La cooperacin no siempre ha sido para bien, por supuesto. Todas las cosas horribles que los humanos hemos hecho a lo largo de la historia, y hemos hecho algunas cosas verdaderamente horribles, todas esas cosas tambin se basaron en la cooperacin a gran escala. +Las prisiones son un sistema de cooperacin; los mataderos son un sistema de cooperacin; los campos de concentracin son un sistema de cooperacin. +Los chimpancs no tienen mataderos, ni prisiones ni campos de concentracin. +Ahora supongamos que he conseguido convencerles de que s, controlamos el mundo porque podemos cooperar flexiblemente en masa. +La siguiente pregunta que surge inmediatamente en la mente de un oyente curioso es: Cmo lo hacemos exactamente? +De entre todos los animales, cmo es que solo nosotros cooperamos as? +La respuesta es nuestra imaginacin. +Podemos cooperar flexiblemente con infinidad de desconocidos porque solo nosotros de todos los animales del planeta, podemos crear y creer fbulas, historias de ficcin. +Y si todos creen en la misma fbula, entonces todos obedecen y siguen las mismas reglas, las mismas normas, los mismos valores. +El resto de animales tiene su propio sistema de comunicacin que solo describe la realidad. +Un chimpanc puede decir "Mira! Un len huyamos!" +O "Mira! Un banano. Vayamos a por unas bananas!" +Sin embargo, nosotros usamos el lenguaje no solo para describir la realidad sino para crear nuevas realidades, realidades inventadas. +Un humano puede decir "Existe un dios en el cielo! +Y si no haces lo que yo te diga que hagas, entonces cuando mueras, dios te castigar e irs al infierno." +Y si todos creen la historia que acabo de inventar, todos seguirn las mismas normas, las mismas leyes y los mismos valores y podrn cooperar. +Eso es algo que solo los humanos podemos hacer. +Nunca podrn convencer a un chimpanc para que les d una banana prometindole, "...cuando mueras irs al cielo de los chimpancs..." +"...y tendrs un montn de bananas por tus buenas acciones. +As que dame esa banana". +Jams un chimpanc creer esa historia. +Solo los humanos creemos esas historias, y as es como controlamos el mundo y los chimpancs estn encerrados en zoos y en laboratorios de investigacin. +Ahora puede ser que crean que de hecho, en lo religioso cooperamos creyendo en las mismas fbulas. +Millones de personas construyen juntas una catedral o una mezquita o hacen una cruzada o una yihad porque creen en las mismas historias sobre dios, el cielo y el infierno. +Pero quiero hacer hincapi en que ese mismo mecanismo es la base de otras formas de cooperacin humana en masa, no solo en lo que respecta a lo religioso. +Por ejemplo, en lo legal. +Muchos sistemas legales del mundo se basan en los derechos humanos. +Pero, qu son los derechos humanos? +Los derechos humanos, como dios y el cielo son simples historias inventadas. +No son una realidad objetiva, no son un efecto biolgico del Homo sapiens. +Si abren a un humano y lo miran dentro, vern el corazn, riones, neuronas, hormonas, ADN, pero no encontrarn ningn derecho. +El nico lugar donde encontrarn derechos es en las historias que hemos inventado y extendido por todas partes en los ltimos siglos. +Puede que sean historias muy positivas, muy buenas historias, pero siguen siendo fbulas que hemos inventado. +Ocurre lo mismo en el mbito de la poltica. +Los agentes ms importantes en la poltica moderna son los estados y los pases. +Qu son los estados y los pases? +No son una realidad objetiva. +Una montaa es una realidad objetiva. +Pueden verla, tocarla, incluso olerla. +Pero un pas o un estado, como Israel, Irn, Francia o Alemania, no es ms que una historia que hemos inventado y a la que nos hemos aferrado con fuerza. +Lo mismo pasa con la economa. +Los agentes ms importantes en la economa mundial son las empresas y las corporaciones. +Muchos de Uds. quizs trabajan para alguna corporacin, como Google, Toyota o McDonald's. +Qu son exactamente? +Son lo que los abogados llaman ficciones jurdicas. +Son historias inventadas y mantenidas por esos poderosos brujos a los que llamamos abogados. +Y, a qu se dedican las corporaciones? +Principalmente, intentan ganar dinero. +Y, qu es el dinero? +De nuevo, el dinero no es una realidad objetiva, no tiene un valor objetivo. +Tomen este pedazo de papel verde, el dlar. +Mrenlo, no tiene valor. +No se lo pueden comer, ni beber. No pueden vestirlo. +Pero llegaron estos cuentacuentos profesionales, los grandes banqueros, los ministros de finanzas, los primeros ministros, y nos contaron una historia muy convincente; "Ves este pedazo de papel verde? +vale por diez bananas." +Y si me lo creo y se lo creen, y si todos lo creemos, en realidad funciona. +Tomo este pedazo de papel sin valor, voy al supermercado, se lo doy a un completo desconocido a quin nunca he visto antes, y obtengo a cambio bananas reales que puedo comer. +Es increble. +Nunca podremos hacer esto con los chimpancs. +S, los chimpancs intercambian cosas: "Me das un coco y te dar una banana". +Eso puede funcionar. +Pero, me das un pedazo de papel inservible y esperas que yo te d una banana? +Ni hablar! +Me tomas por un humano? +El dinero es de hecho la historia ms exitosa que jams hayan inventado los humanos, porque es la nica historia que todo el mundo cree. +No todos creen en dios, no todos creen en los derechos humanos, no todos creen en los nacionalismos, pero todo el mundo cree en el dinero, y en el dlar. +Por ejemplo, Osama Bin Laden. +Odiaba a los polticos estadounidenses, la religin estadounidense y la cultura estadounidense, pero no tena ningn problema con los dlares de all. +De hecho, le encantaban. +En conclusin, los humanos controlamos el mundo, porque vivimos en una realidad dual. +El resto de animales vive en una realidad objetiva. +Su realidad consiste en entidades objetivas, como ros y rboles o leones y elefantes. +Nosotros los humanos tambin vivimos en una realidad objetiva. +En nuestro mundo tambin hay ros y rboles y leones y elefantes. +Pero con el paso del tiempo, hemos construido sobre esta realidad objetiva una segunda capa de realidad imaginaria, una realidad basada en entidades imaginarias, como pases, dioses, dinero, corporaciones. +Y lo ms increble es que a medida que se desarrollaba la historia, esta realidad inventada fue adquiriendo ms y ms poder, as que hoy las fuerzas ms poderosas del mundo son esas entidades imaginarias. +Hoy, la supervivencia de los ros y de los rboles, leones y elefantes depende solo de las decisiones y deseos de las entidades imaginarias, como EE. UU., Google el Banco Mundial, entidades que solo existen en nuestra imaginacin. +Gracias. +. Bruno Giussani: Tu nuevo libro +Despus de "Sapiens", escribiste otro, y ha salido en hebreo pero an no se ha traducido al... +Yuval Noah Harari: Estoy con la traduccin ahora mismo. +BG: En el libro, si lo he entendido bien, argumentas que los descubrimientos que estamos viviendo ahora mismo no solo mejorarn nuestras vidas, con seguridad, sino que crearn, y cito textualmente, "...nuevas clases y luchas sociales igual que ocurri en la revolucin industrial". +Puedes aclararnos esto? +YNH: S. En la revolucin industrial vimos el nacimiento de una nueva clase; el proletariado urbano. +Y mucha de la historia poltica y social de los ltimos 200 aos implicaba qu hacer con esta clase y los nuevos problemas y oportunidades. +Ahora vemos el nacimiento de una nueva clase multitudinaria de gente intil. +A medida que las computadoras mejoran en ms y ms campos hay una clara posibilidad de que las computadoras nos superen en la mayora de las tareas y los humanos sobraremos. +Y entonces la gran pregunta poltica y econmica del siglo XXI ser "Para qu necesitamos a los humanos?" O al menos "Para qu necesitamos a tantos humanos? +BG: Est la respuesta en tu libro? +YNH: De momento creo que lo mejor es tenerlos contentos con drogas y juegos de computadora... +Pero esto no parece que sea un futuro muy atractivo. +BG: Bsicamente lo que dices en el libro, y ahora, sobre el discurso de la evidencia de una desigualdad econmica notoria, es que estamos ms o menos al comienzo del proceso? +YHN: Insisto, no es una profeca, hay que ver todas las posibilidades que tenemos delante. +Una posibilidad es la creacin de esta clase social ingente de gente intil. +Otra posibilidad es dividir a la humanidad en diferentes castas biolgicas, ascendiendo a los ricos al nivel de dioses virtuales, y degradando a los pobres a este nivel de gente intil. +BG: Creo que habr otra charla TED en un ao o dos. +Gracias por estar aqu. +YNH: Gracias! +Imaginen un lugar donde los vecinos llaman a sus hijos por su nombre; un lugar con vistas maravillosas; un lugar en el que, a solo 20 minutos en auto, uno puedes colocar el barco en el agua. +Suena tentador, no? +Yo no vivo ah. +Pero hice un viaje de 43 000 km durante dos aos por los condados con mayor crecimiento y mayor poblacin blanca de EE.UU. +Blancotopa Qu es una blancotopa? +Yo la defino de tres formas: Primero, en blancotopa la poblacin ha crecido al menos un 6 % desde el 2000. +Segundo, la mayor parte de ese crecimiento lo han provocado emigrantes blancos. +Y tercero, blancotopa tiene un encanto inexplicable, un aspecto y una sensacin agradables, un no s qu. [En francs] +Para saber cmo y por qu las blancotopas estn progresando, me sumerg en tres de ellas durante varios meses cada una: primero, en St. George, Utah; segundo, en Coeur d'Alene, Idaho; y tercero, en Forsyth County, Georgia. +Primera parada: St. George. Preciosa ciudad con paisajes de montaas de rocas rojas. +En la dcada de 1850, Brigham Young envi familias a St. George para cultivar algodn, porque el clima era clido y seco. +As que la llamaron la "Dixie" de Utah, y el mote se mantiene hoy en da. +Abord mi estancia en estas blancotopas como si fuera un antroplogo. +Elabor complejas hojas de clculo sobre las personas influyentes del lugar, sobre a quin deba conocer, sobre lugares donde deba estar. Y me sumerg con gusto en estas comunidades. +Asist a reuniones sobre zonificacin, a clubes de demcratas y a clubes de republicanos. +Jugu partidas de pquer. +En St. George alquil una casa en la "Entrada" una de las mejores urbanizaciones privadas de la ciudad. +No quera moteles baratos ni hoteles. +Viva en esta blancotopa como residente y no como visitante. +Alquil esta casa, por telfono. +El golf es el smbolo ms adecuado para representar las blancotopas. +Cuando comenc mi viaje, prcticamente no haba usado un palo de golf en mi vida. +Cuando termin, jugaba al golf al menos tres veces por semana. +El golf ayuda a crear vnculos. +Algunas de mis mejores entrevistas sucedieron en campos de golf. +Un profesional de finanzas, por ejemplo, me invit a jugar en su club privado donde no haba socios representantes de minoras. +Tambin fui de pesca. +Yo nunca haba pescado, as que este tipo tuvo que ensearme cmo lanzar la caa y qu anzuelo usar. +Adems jugaba al pquer todos los fines de semana. +Jugbamos al Texas Hold'em con una apuesta mnima de USD 10. +Puede que mis compaeros blofearan sobre las cartas que tenan. Pero no lo hacan sobre sus ideales sociales. +Algunas de las conversaciones ms crudas y amargas de todo el viaje ocurrieron durante esas partidas. +Se me da muy bien entretener a la gente. +Me encanta cocinar, he organizado muchas cenas y, a cambio, la gente me invitaba a las suyas. Y a sus barbacoas, y a sus piscinas, y a sus fiestas de cumpleaos. +Pero no todo era pasarlo bien. +Resulta que la inmigracin era un asunto muy presente en blancotopa. +El consejo de ciudadanos para la inmigracin ilegal de St. George llevaba a cabo de forma regular manifestaciones contra la inmigracin, por lo que deduje que en blancotopa el tema generara un debate muy acalorado. +Era un adelanto en directo. Y as ha sido. +Siguiente parada: "Casi paraso", una cabaa que alquil en Coeur d'Alene, en la preciosa franja al norte de Idaho. +Este sitio tambin lo alquil por telfono. +El libro "1000 lugares que ver antes de morir" menciona Coeur d'Alene. Es un precioso paraso para cazadores, barqueros y pescadores. +Mis nuevas habilidades para el golf me fueron muy tiles all. +Jugu al golf con policas de Los ngeles jubilados. +En 1993, unos 11 000 policas y familias, tras los disturbios raciales, se mudaron de Los ngeles al norte de Idaho, donde han construido una comunidad de expatriados. +Debido al carcter conservador de estos policas, no sorprende saber que all apoyan firmemente la posesin de armas. +De hecho, se dice que hay ms vendedores de armas que gasolineras. +As que, qu tiene que hacer uno para encajar? +Me un al club de las armas. +Cuando fui a alquilar un arma, el seor que me atendi fue muy agradable y simptico, hasta que le ense mi carnet de conducir de Nueva York. +Ah es cuando se puso nervioso. +No tengo tan mala puntera como yo crea. +Lo que aprend del norte de Idaho es que existe una paranoia muy peculiar que puede permiar en una comunidad en la que hay tantos policas y pistolas. +En el norte de Idaho, en mi camioneta roja, llevaba siempre un cuaderno, +en el que anot haber visto ms banderas de los Estados Confederados que negros. +Haba banderas de los Estados Confederados en llaveros, en accesorios para el mvil y en autos. +A unos 7 minutos en auto de mi cabaa de lago se encontraba la sede de las Naciones Arias, un grupo de blancos supremacistas. +Los "Ministerios de Promesas Americanos", la religin de las Naciones Arias, organizaba, casualmente, un retiro de tres das durante mi visita. +As que decid colarme. +Que yo sepa, soy el nico periodista no ario que ha hecho algo as. +Entre los varios sucesos memorables de aquel retiro espiritual... +... Abe, un hombre ario, se me acerc sigilosamente. +Me dio una palmada y me dijo: "Hey Rich, quiero que sepas una cosa: +no somos supremacistas blancos, somos separatistas. +No nos creemos mejores que t, solo queremos estar lejos de ti." +Efectivamente, la mayora de ellos no son ni supremacistas blancos ni separatistas blancos. De hecho, para nada estn en blancotopa por motivos raciales explcitos. +Ms bien emigran all porque buscan simpata, comodidad, estabilidad, seguridad... elementos que asocian de manera implcita con la propia raza blanca. +La siguiente parada fue Georgia. +All me aloj en las afueras, al norte de Atlanta. +En Utah descubr el pquer; En Idaho descubr las armas; En Georgia descubr a Dios. +La manerb en la que me sumerg en esta Blancotopa consista en participar activamente en la "Iglesia del Primer Redentor", una iglesia tan grande que tena carritos de golf para llevar a los asistentes a los muchos aparcamientos que haba. +Yo colaboraba activamente con el laicado juvenil. +Y, personalmente, yo me senta ms cmodo en esta blancotopa que, digamos, en Colorado, Idaho, o incluso en la periferia de Boston. +Eso es porque all, en Georgia, los blancos y los negros, histricamente, estn ms acostumbrados a convivir. +Yo no era tan extico en esta blancotopa. +Pero, qu significa todo esto? +Migrar a y soar con una blancotopa es un fenmeno de presin y atraccin repleto de alarmantes presiones y tentadoras atracciones, y blancotopa funciona con prejuicios de manera consciente e inconsciente. +Es posible que haya personas que no estn en blancotopa por motivos racistas, aunque ello tiene resultados racistas. +Muchas de ellas se sienten excluidas por personas ilegales, abusos de la seguridad social, minoras, densidad, escuelas abarrotadas. +Muchas de ellas se sienten atradas por las ventajas, la libertad, la tentacin de privacidad: lugares privados, personas privadas, cosas privadas. +Cmo puede haber racismo sin que haya racistas. Y en blancotopa aprend que en un pas puede existir el racismo sin personas racistas. +Muchos de mis amigos orgullosos, liberales y urbanos no podan creer que me fuera a embarcar en aquella aventura. +Pero muchos estadounidenses blancos son simpticos y agradables. +Las relaciones interpresonales entre razas, las formas de tratarnos, son mucho mejores que en la generacin de mis padres. +Se imaginan si hubiera ido a blancotopa hace 40 aos? +Habra sido todo un viaje. +An as, algunas cosas no han cambiado. +Hoy EE. UU. se encuentra tan segregada residencial y educacionalmente como en 1970. +Como estadounidenses, muchas veces encontramos formas de cocinar juntos, bailar juntos, ser hospitalarios los unos con los otros, pero, por qu eso o se puede traducir en cmo nos tratamos entre colectivos? +Es una irona devastadora, la forma en la que hemos avanzado como individuos, y retrocedido como grupos sociales. +Uno de los puntos de vista de la blancotopa que me sorprendi mucho fue un proverbio: "Un hombre negro es un invitado maravilloso; 50 hombres negros son un gueto." +Uno de los grandes elementos que me animaron a hacer mi viaje fue el ao 2042. +Para el 2042 las personas blancas ya no sern mayora en EE.UU. +En ese caso, habr ms blancotopas? +Si miramos este asunto, el peligro de las blancotopas es que cuanta ms segregacin exista menos podremos mirar y enfrentarnos a prejuicios conscientes e inconscientes. +Me embarqu en este viaje de dos aos y 43 000 km para aprender dnde, por qu y cmo estn desplazndose las personas blancas. pero no esperaba pasrmelo tan bien. +No esperaba aprender tanto sobre m mismo. +No me imagino viviendo en una blancotopa, Es ms, tampoco en una negrotopa. +S pienso seguir jugando al golf siempre que pueda. +Simplemente tendr que dejar las armas y las iglesias de nuevo en blancotopa. +Gracias. +Hoy, quiero hablarles de los sueos. +He soado despierta toda mi vida, y es mucho mejor que en las pelculas. +Adems de volar, escupir fuego, y hacer que aparezcan de la nada hombres atractivos +puedo hacer cosas como leer y componer msica. +Lo curioso es que escrib la solicitud de ingreso para la universidad en un sueo. +Y me aceptaron. As que s. +Pienso visualmente. +Pienso en imgenes, no con palabras. +Para m, las palabras son ms bien instintos y lenguaje. +Hay muchas personas como yo; Nikola Tesla, por ejemplo, quin poda visualizar, disear, probar y solucionar todo --todos sus inventos-- en su mente, en detalle. +De todos modos, el lenguaje no es algo destinado a los de nuestra especie. +Yo soy un poco ms primitiva, como la versin beta de Google Traductor. +Mi cerebro tiene la capacidad de sper concentrarse en las cosas que me interesan. +Por ejemplo, una vez tuve un romance con el clculo que dur ms que el matrimonio de algunos famosos. +Hay otras cosas inusuales sobre m. +A lo mejor han notado que mi diccin no es muy buena +Por eso la gente me confunde a menudo con un GPS. +La comunicacin bsica puede volverse un reto a menos que quiera una direccin. +Gracias. +Hace unos aos, cuando empec a hablar en pblico, fui a hacerme unas fotos por primera vez. +El fotgrafo me dijo que fingiera una mirada provocativa. +No tena ni idea de lo que quera decir. +Me dijo: "Haz eso, ya sabes, con los ojos, cuando ests coqueteando con los chicos". +"Hacer qu?" Le pregunt. +"Ya sabes, entrecierra los ojos". +Y lo intent, de verdad. +Me sali algo as. +Pareca que me preguntaba: "Dnde est Wally?" +Y hay una explicacin, as como hay una razn por la cual Wally se esconde. +Tengo Asperger, una variante muy avanzada de este sndrome que perjudica las habilidades sociales bsicas que se esperan de nosotros. +Me hizo la vida difcil en muchos sentidos y como adulto, luch para encajar socialmente. +Mis amigos contaban chistes, pero yo no los entenda. +Mis hroes fueron George Carlin y Stephen Colbert y ellos me ensearon el sentido del humor. +Mi personalidad cambi y pas de ser tmida y torpe a ser desafiante y maldecir como un marinero. +No hace falta decir que no tena muchos amigos. +Era hipersensible a las texturas. +El agua sobre mi piel me daba una sensacin de hormigueo y por eso, durante aos, me negu a ducharme. +Les aseguro que ahora mi higiene ha vuelto a los niveles normales. +Tuve que trabajar mucho para llegar hasta aqu y mis padres... las cosas se salieron de control cuando fui agredida sexualmente por un compaero, por lo cual, una situacin ya difcil empeor an ms. +Viaj ms de 3000 kilmetros y atravesar el pas para recibir tratamiento y a pocos das despus de que me recetaran un nuevo medicamento, mi vida se convirti en un episodio del Walking Dead. +Me volv paranoica y empec a alucinar viendo cadveres putrefactos que se me acercaban. +Mi familia finalmente me rescat, pero para entonces, haba perdido 9 kilos en esas tres semanas, adems de haber desarrollado una anemia severa y estar al borde del suicidio. +Me trasladaron a un nuevo centro de salud donde entendan mis aversiones, mi trauma y mi ansiedad social, y saban cmo tratarlos, y recib por fin la ayuda que necesitaba. +Y despus de 18 meses de duro trabajo, pas a hacer cosas increbles. +Una de las cosas que pasan cuando uno tiene Asperger es, que muchas veces, estas personas tienen una vida interior muy compleja, y lo s de primera mano: tengo una personalidad muy exuberante estoy llena de ideas y tengo un montn de cosas en la cabeza. +Pero hay una brecha entre donde ocurre todo esto y cmo lo comunico al resto del mundo. +Y esto puede hacer de una comunicacin bsica un desafo. +Pocas empresas estaban dispuestas a contratarme, debido a mi falta de habilidades sociales, razn por la cual present mi solicitud en Waffle House. +Waffle House es un restaurante excepcional abierto las 24 horas --gracias-- donde puedes pedir tus patatas fritas de las mismas numerosas maneras en las que tambin te puedes deshacer de un cadver humano... +en rodajas, a dados, sazonadas, en trozos, recubiertas, rebozadas, o ahogadas. +De acuerdo a las normas sociales solo hay que ir a Waffle House a horas intempestivas de la noche. +As que una vez, a las 2 de la maana, estaba charlando con una camarera y le pregunto: "Qu es lo ms ridculo que te ha pasado en el trabajo?" +Y me dijo que una vez entr un hombre completamente desnudo. +Le dije: "Fantstico, me apunto para el turno de la noche!" +No hace falta mencionar que Waffle House no me contrat. +Padecer de Asperger puede ser visto como una desventaja, y a veces es un asunto realmente desagradable pero tambin puede ser una ventaja. +Es un regalo, y me permite pensar de manera creativa. +A los 19 aos, gan un concurso de investigacin con mi trabajo sobre los arrecifes de coral, y llegu hasta la Convencin sobre la Diversidad Biolgica de la ONU para presentar esta investigacin. +Gracias. +Y a los 22, estoy a punto de terminar la universidad, tambin soy cofundadora de una empresa de biotecnologa llamada AutismSees. +Gracias. +Pero veamos lo que tuve que hacer para llegar hasta aqu: 25 terapeutas, 11 diagnsticos errneos, y aos de dolor y trauma. +Pas mucho tiempo pensando si hay una forma mejor, y creo que es la tecnologa de apoyo para el autismo. +Esta tecnologa podra desempear un papel fundamental para ayudar a las personas con trastornos del espectro autista, o TEA. +La aplicacin Podio, lanzada por mi compaa AutismSees, tiene la capacidad de hacer evaluaciones independientes y ayudar a desarrollar habilidades de comunicacin. +Adems de esto, hace un seguimiento del contacto visual a travs de una cmara y simular un discurso o una entrevista de trabajo. +As que tal vez un da, Waffle House me contratar despus de practicar ms con esta aplicacin. +Y una de las cosas geniales es que he usado Podium para preparar la charla de hoy, y eso me ha ayudado mucho. +Pero es ms que esto. Se puede hacer mucho ms. +Para las personas con TEA... se ha especulado que muchos cientficos innovadores, investigadores, artistas, e ingenieros lo padecen, como, por ejemplo, Emily Dickinson, Jane Austen, Isaac Newton y Bill Gates son algunos ejemplos. +Pero se enfrentan al problema de que a menudo no pueden compartir estas ideas brillantes si la comunicacin es un obstculo. +Por eso, muchas personas con autismo estn siendo infravaloradas cada da y su potencial no se est aprovechado. +As que mi sueo para las personas con autismo es cambiar eso, eliminar los obstculos que les impiden tener xito. +Una de las razones por las que me encanta soar con los ojos abiertos es porque me permite ser libre, sin ser juzgada o sufrir consecuencias sociales o fsicas. +Cuando estoy volando en el entorno que puedo crear en mi mente, encuentro la paz. +Nadie me juzga, as que puedo hacer lo que quiero, saben? +Salgo con Brad Pitt, y a Angelina no le molesta. +Pero el objetivo de crear tecnologa de apoyo para el autismo es ms grande que eso y ms importante. +Mi objetivo es cambiar la opinin de la gente sobre el autismo y de los que sufren de formas avanzadas de Asperger porque es mucho con lo que pueden contribuir. +Quiero decir, veamos a Temple Grandin, por ejemplo. +De esta manera, la gente puede compartir sus talentos con este mundo y ayudar al mundo a mejorar. +Adems, les alentamos a que persigan sus sueos en el mundo real, en tiempo real. +Gracias. +Gracias. +Siempre recordar cuando conoc a la chica del uniforme azul. +Yo tena 8 aos en ese momento, viva en el pueblo con mi abuela, quien me criaba a m y a otros nios. +El hambre haba golpeado mi pas, Zimbabue, y simplemente no tenamos suficiente para comer. +Tenamos hambre. +Y fue entonces cuando la chica del uniforme azul vino a mi pueblo con la ONU para dar de comer a los nios. +Como ella me dio la sopa, le pregunt por qu estaba all, y, sin dudar, dijo: "Como africanos, debemos motivar a todos los pueblos de frica". +Yo no tena la menor idea de lo que quera decir. +Pero sus palabras se me grabaron. +Dos aos despus, la hambruna golpe mi pas por segunda vez. +Mi abuela no tena ms remedio que mandarme a la ciudad a vivir con una ta que nunca antes haba conocido. +As que a los 10 aos, fui a la escuela por primera vez. +Y all, en la escuela de la ciudad, experimentara lo que era la desigualdad. +Vern, en el pueblo, ramos todos iguales. +Pero a los ojos y las mentes de los otros nios, yo no era su igual. +Yo no saba hablar ingls, y estaba muy por detrs en el nivel de lectura y escritura. +Pero este sentimiento de desigualdad se hizo an ms complejo. +Cada da escolar festivo que pasaba en el pueblo con mi abuela me hizo dar cuenta de las desigualdades de esta increble oportunidad que mi propia familia me haba dado. +De repente, tena mucho ms que el resto de mi pueblo. +Y en sus ojos, ya no era su igual. +Me senta culpable. +Pero pensaba en la chica del uniforme azul, y recuerdo que pens: "Yo quiero ser como ella, alguien que motiva a otras personas". +Esta experiencia de la niez me llev a la ONU, y a mi puesto actual en ONU Mujeres, donde abordamos una de las mayores desigualdades que afecta a ms de la mitad de la poblacin mundial, a mujeres y a nias. +Hoy, quiero compartir con Uds. una idea sencilla que busca motivarnos a todos. +Hace ocho meses, bajo el liderazgo visionario de Phumzile Mlambo-Ngcuka, jefe de ONU Mujeres, pusimos en marcha una iniciativa pionera llamada HeForShe [ElPorElla], invitando a hombres y nios de todo el mundo a que se solidarizaran entre ellos y tambin con las mujeres, para crear una visin compartida hacia la igualdad de gnero. +Esta es una invitacin para los que creen en la igualdad para mujeres y hombres, y para aquellos que todava no saben en qu creer. +La iniciativa se basa en una idea simple: que lo que compartimos es mucho ms potente que lo que nos divide. +Todos sentimos las mismas cosas. +Todos queremos las mismas cosas, an cuando esas cosas a veces son tcitas. +HeForShe trata de motivarnos a todos, mujeres y hombres juntos. +Nos lleva hacia un punto de inflexin para la igualdad de gnero. +Imaginen una pgina en blanco con una lnea horizontal de divisin por la mitad. +Ahora imaginen que las mujeres estn representadas aqu, y los hombres aqu. +En nuestra poblacin actual, HeForShe trata de cmo mover a los 3200 millones de hombres, un hombre cada vez, a travs de esa lnea, para que, al final, los hombres estn junto a las mujeres en el lado correcto de la historia, logrando que la igualdad de gnero sea una realidad en el siglo XXI. +Pero, incorporar a los hombres en el movimiento fue bastante controvertido. +Por qu invitar a los hombres? Ellos son el problema. +De hecho, a los hombres no les da igual, nos dijeron. +Pero sucedi algo increble al lanzar HeForShe. +En solo tres das, ms de 100 000 hombres firmaron y se comprometieron a ser agentes de cambio para la igualdad. +En esa primera semana, al menos un hombre en cada pas del mundo nos apoy y se incorpor y dentro de esa misma semana, HeForShe gener ms de 1200 millones de conversaciones en los medios sociales. +Y fue entonces cuando empezaron a llegar los correos electrnicos, a veces hasta mil por da. +Supimos de un hombre fuera de Zimbabue, quien, tras or hablar de HeForShe, cre una "escuela para maridos". +Literalmente fue por su pueblo, convocando a todos los hombres que maltrataban a sus parejas, y se comprometi a convertirlos en mejores esposos y padres. +En Pune, India, un defensor de la juventud organiz un mitin bici innovador movilizando a 700 ciclistas para difundir el mensaje de HeForShe en su propia comunidad. +Otra historia de impacto, un hombre envi una nota muy personal sobre algo que haba sucedido en su propia comunidad. +El escribi: "Querida seora, He vivido toda mi vida al lado de un hombre que golpea continuamente a su esposa. +Hace dos semanas, escuchando la radio, o su voz hablando de algo llamado HeForShe, y la necesidad de que los hombres desempeen su papel. +A las pocas horas, o a la mujer de al lado llorando de nuevo pero por primera vez, no me qued sentando. +Me sent obligado a hacer algo, as que fui y me enfrent al marido. +Seora, desde hace dos semanas, la mujer ya no llora. +Gracias por darme una voz". +Historias de impacto personales como estas muestran que aprovechamos algo dentro de los hombres, pero para llegar a un mundo donde mujeres y hombres son iguales no se trata solo de llevar a los hombres a unirse a la causa. +queremos un cambio concreto, sistemtico, estructural que equilibre las realidades polticas, econmicas y sociales para mujeres y hombres. +Pedimos a los hombres que realicen acciones concretas, llamndolos a intervenir a nivel personal, a cambiar su comportamiento. +Hacemos un llamado a los gobiernos, las empresas, las universidades, a cambiar sus polticas. +Queremos que los lderes masculinos se conviertan en modelos a seguir y cambien los agentes dentro de sus propias instituciones. +Ya se ha redoblado el nmero de hombres y lderes destacados que hicieron compromisos concretos en la lnea de HeForShe. +En uno de los casos de xito iniciales, Accord, una empresa francesa hotelera lder se ha comprometido a eliminar la brecha salarial para sus 180 000 empleados en 2020. +El gobierno de Suecia, bajo su gobierno feminista actual, se ha comprometido a reducir tanto el empleo, como la brecha salarial para todos sus ciudadanos dentro de la actual legislatura. +En Japn, la Universidad de Nagoya est creando, como parte de sus compromisos para HeForShe, lo que ser uno de los centros de investigacin de gnero lder en Japn. +Ahora, ocho meses ms tarde, se ha desarrollado un movimiento. +Observamos cmo hombres de todos los mbitos y de todos los rincones del mundo se adhieren, desde el propio Secretario General, Ban Ki-moon de la ONU a los Secretarios Generales de la OTAN y el Consejo de la UE, desde el primer ministro de Butn hasta el presidente de Sierra Leona. +Solo en Europa, todos los miembros de la Comisin de la UE masculinos y los miembros del Parlamento de los gobiernos de Suecia e Islandia se han adherido a HeForShe. +De hecho, uno de cada 20 hombres en Islandia se ha unido al movimiento. +La llamada de nuestra apasionada embajadora de buena voluntad Emma Watson, ha cosechado ms de 5000 millones de impresiones en los medios, la movilizacin de cientos y miles de estudiantes de todo el mundo para crear ms de un centenar de asociaciones de estudiantes HeForShe. +Ahora bien, este es el comienzo de la visin que tiene HeForShe para el mundo que queremos ver. +Einstein dijo una vez: "Un ser humano es parte del todo... +pero l tiene experiencias, pensamientos y sentimientos, como algo separado del resto... +Esta ilusin es una especie de prisin para nosotros... +Nuestra tarea debe ser liberarnos de esta prisin ampliando nuestro crculo de compasin". +Si las mujeres y los hombres son parte de un todo mayor, como sugiere Einstein, es mi esperanza que HeForShe nos ayude a liberarnos para darnos cuenta de que no es nuestro gnero lo que nos define, sino, en ltima instancia, nuestra humanidad compartida. +HeForShe est aprovechando los sueos de las mujeres y de los hombres, los sueos que tenemos para nosotros mismos, y los sueos que tenemos para nuestras familias, nuestros hijos, amigos y comunidades. +As que de eso se trata. +HeForShe se trata de motivarnos todos juntos. +Gracias. +Durante ms de 100 aos, las compaas telefnicas han proporcionado el acceso de los gobiernos a las escuchas telefnicas. +Durante mucho tiempo esta ayuda era manual. +La vigilancia se hacia de forma manual, los cables se conectaban a mano. +Las llamadas se grababan en cinta. +Pero como en tantas otras industrias, la informtica lo ha cambiado todo. +Las telefnicas integran funciones de vigilancia a la base de sus redes. +Quiero que reflexionen un segundo: nuestros telfonos y las redes que transmiten nuestras llamadas fueron diseadas primero para vigilar. +Primero y ante todo. +As que cuando uno habla con su pareja con sus hijos, con un colega o con el mdico por telfono, alguien podra estar escuchando. +Ese alguien podra ser el propio gobierno; podra ser otro gobierno, un servicio de inteligencia extranjero, o un hacker, un delincuente, un acosador o alguna otra persona que irrumpe en el sistema de vigilancia, que hackea el sistema de vigilancia de las telefnicas. +Pero mientras las telefnicas hicieron de la vigilancia una prioridad, las empresas de Silicon Valley no lo hicieron. +Y cada vez ms, en los ltimos dos aos, las empresas de Silicon Valley han integrado una potente tecnologa de encriptacin en sus productos de comunicacin que dificultan enormemente la vigilancia. +Por ejemplo, muchos de Uds. puede que tengan un iPhone, y si usan un iPhone para enviar un mensaje de texto a otra persona que tiene iPhone, esos mensajes de texto no pueden ser fcilmente interceptados. +De hecho, segn Apple, ni siquiera ellos pueden ver los mensajes de texto. +Del mismo modo, si usan FaceTime para hacer una llamada de voz o una llamada de video con amigos o seres queridos, esa tampoco puede ser fcilmente interceptada. +Y no es solo Apple. +WhatsApp, que ahora pertenece a Facebook y es usado por cientos de millones de personas en el mundo, tambin ha integrado potentes tecnologas de cifrado en sus productos, lo que implica que las personas del hemisferio sur pueden comunicarse fcilmente sin que sus gobiernos, a menudo autoritarios, intercepten sus mensajes de texto. +Tras 100 aos de poder escuchar cualquier llamada telefnica --en cualquier momento, en cualquier lugar-- se imaginarn que los gobiernos no estn muy contentos con esto. +De hecho, es lo que est ocurriendo. +Los funcionarios de gobierno estn extremadamente enojados +y no porque estas herramientas de cifrado estn disponibles. +Lo que ms les molesta es que las empresas tecnolgicas hayan encriptado sus productos y lo hagan de forma predeterminada. +Es el cifrado por omisin lo que cuenta. +En resumen, las empresas de tecnologa han democratizado el cifrado. +Por eso, gobernantes como el primer ministro britnico, David Cameron, creen que todas las comunicaciones -- emails, textos, llamadas de voz-- todo eso debera estar disponible para los gobiernos, y el cifrado lo est dificultando. +Pero vean, yo soy muy afn a ese punto de vista. +Vivimos en momentos peligrosos, en un mundo peligroso, y hay gente mala en el mundo. +Hay terroristas y graves amenazas a la seguridad nacional que sospecho que todos queremos que el FBI y la NSA controlen. +Pero esa vigilancia tiene un costo. +La razn de ello es que no existe algo as como la laptop del terrorista o el mvil del traficante de droga. +Todos usamos los mismos dispositivos de comunicacin. +Eso significa que para interceptar las llamadas del traficante de drogas o las de los terroristas, deben interceptar las nuestras tambin. +Y pienso que realmente debemos preguntarnos: Deberan mil millones de personas en el mundo estar usando dispositivos fcilmente interceptables? +Piratear los sistemas de vigilancia tal y como lo describ no es algo imaginario. +En 2009, los sistemas de vigilancia que Google y Microsoft integraron en sus redes --sistemas que usan para responder solicitudes legales de vigilancia de la polica-- fueron puestos a prueba por el gobierno chino, porque el gobierno chino quera averiguar cules de sus propios agentes eran monitoreados por el gobierno de EE.UU. +Por la misma razn, en 2004, el sistema de vigilancia integrado en la red de Vodafone Grecia --la mayor telefnica de Grecia-- fue puesto a prueba por una entidad desconocida, y ese mismo servicio de vigilancia se us para vigilar al primer ministro griego y a miembros del gabinete griego. +El gobierno extranjero o los piratas informticos nunca fueron capturados. +Con esto llegamos al problema real con estas medidas de vigilancia, las puertas traseras. +Al construir una puerta trasera en un sistema de comunicaciones o en un producto tecnolgico, no hay manera de controlar quin accede a ella, +no hay manera de controlar si ser usado por tu bando o por el otro bando, por los buenos, o por los malos. +Por esa razn, pienso que es mejor construir redes lo ms seguras posibles. +S, esto significa que en el futuro, el cifrado har la vigilancia ms difcil. +Significa que ser ms difcil para la polica atrapar a los malos. +Pero la alternativa sera vivir en un mundo donde las llamadas o los textos de cada uno seran vigilados por delincuentes, acosadores o agencias de inteligencia extranjeras. +Y yo no quiero vivir en ese tipo de mundo. +Por eso, quiz ahora mismo, Uds. tengan las herramientas para frustrar muchos tipos de vigilancia gubernamental en sus telfonos y en sus bolsillos, y no se den cuenta de lo potentes y seguras que son esas herramientas, o lo dbiles que son las otras formas de comunicacin. +Por eso mi mensaje para Uds. es: tenemos que usar estas herramientas. +Necesitamos seguridad en las llamadas. +Necesitamos seguridad en los mensajes de texto. +Quiero que usen estas herramientas. +Quiero que le digan a sus seres queridos, quiero que le digan a sus colegas que usen estas herramientas de comunicacin encriptadas. +No solo las usen por ser econmicas y fciles, senlas porque son seguras. +Gracias. +Esta es una pintura del siglo XVI de Lucas Cranach el Viejo. +Muestra la famosa Fuente de la Juventud. +Si beben de ella o se baan en ella, volvern a ser sanos y jvenes. +Todas las culturas y civilizaciones han soado encontrar la eterna juventud. +Hay muchos, como Alejandro Magno o el explorador Ponce de Len, que pasaron gran parte de sus vidas buscando la Fuente de la Juventud. +Y nunca la encontraron. +Pero y si fuera cierto? +Y si existiera realmente esta fuente de la juventud? +Les contar una novedad absolutamente increble de la investigacin contra el envejecimiento que podra revolucionar la forma de pensar el envejecimiento y cmo tratar enfermedades relacionadas con la edad en el futuro. +Todo empez con experimentos que mostraron en algunos estudios recientes sobre el crecimiento, que animales, como por ejemplo ratones de edad, al serles transfundida sangre de ratones jvenes, rejuvenecan. Esto es similar a lo que ocurre +con los seres humanos, con gemelos siameses --y s que esto suena un poco raro-- +pero Tom Rando, al investigar clulas madre, public en 2007 que un msculo de edad avanzada en un ratn puede rejuvenecer si la sangre que transporta el sistema circulatorio es joven. +Amy repiti este experimento en Harvard unos aos ms tarde, y mostr que se pudieron observar efectos rejuvenecedores similares en el pncreas, el hgado y el corazn. +Pero lo que nos parece ms interesante, a m y a muchos otros laboratorios, es que esto puede incluso ocurrirle al cerebro. +Por lo tanto, descubrimos que un ratn viejo, expuesto a un ambiente joven, durante un proceso llamado parabiosis, muestra tener un cerebro ms joven y que funciona mejor. +Y repito: Un ratn viejo cuyo sistema circulatorio transporta sangre de un ratn joven parece ms joven y sus funciones cerebrales son rejuvenecidas. +Al envejecer, podemos analizar diferentes aspectos de la cognicin humana, y en esta diapositiva aqu pueden ver que hemos observado el razonamiento, la habilidad verbal, etc. +Y hasta alrededor de los 50 o 60 aos estas funciones se mantienen intactas, y basta mirar el pblico joven aqu presente para ver que todo est bien. +Pero da miedo ver cmo todas estas curvas empiezan a bajar. +Y a medida que envejecemos, las enfermedades, puede desarrollarse Alzheimer y otras enfermedades. +Sabemos que con la edad, las conexiones entre neuronas --la forma de comunicacin entre neuronas, las sinapsis-- empiezan a deteriorarse; las neuronas mueren, el cerebro empieza a encogerse, y aumentan las posibilidades de contraer estas enfermedades neurodegenerativas. +Uno de nuestros grandes problemas a la hora de entender realmente la explicacin mecanstica a nivel molecular es que no podemos estudiar los cerebros vivos en detalle. +Podemos realizar pruebas cognitivas, podemos hacer resonancias, todo tipo de pruebas sofisticadas, +pero normalmente tenemos que esperar hasta que la persona muere para llegar a su cerebro y ver cmo evolucion realmente con la edad o a causa de una enfermedad. +Esto es lo hacen por ejemplo los neuropatlogos. +Qu tal si pensamos en el cerebro como parte de un organismo ms grande? +Podramos a lo mejor entender ms sobre que ocurre en el cerebro a nivel molecular si vemos el cerebro como parte de todo el organismo? +As que si el cuerpo envejece o enferma, afecta el cerebro? +Y viceversa: a medida que el cerebro envejece, influye al resto del cuerpo? +Y lo que conecta a los diferentes tejidos del cuerpo es la sangre. +La sangre es un tejido que no solo transporta clulas que a su vez transportan oxgeno, los glbulos rojos, por ejemplo, o clulas que combaten enfermedades infecciosas, pero tambin transporta molculas mensajeras, factores de tipo hormonal portadores de informacin de una clula a otra, de un tejido a otro, incluyendo el cerebro. +As que si nos fijamos en los cambios que sufre la sangre a causa de las enfermedades o de la edad, podemos aprender algo sobre el cerebro? +Sabemos que a medida que envejecemos, la sangre cambia tambin, y que estos factores de tipo hormonal cambian a medida que envejecemos. +Y, en general, los niveles de los factores que sabemos que son responsables del desarrollo y el mantenimiento de los tejidos empiezan a disminuir a medida que envejecemos, mientras que los niveles de los factores responsables de reparar lesiones y combatir inflamaciones aumentan a medida que envejecemos. +As que hay un desequilibrio entre estos factores buenos y malas, por decirlo as. +Y para ilustrar lo que se hace con eso, les mostrar un experimento que hicimos. +Tenamos casi 300 muestras de sangre humana sana provenientes de individuos de entre 20 y 89 aos. y medimos ms de 100 de estos factores transmitidos, estas protenas similares a las hormonas que transmiten informacin entre tejidos. +Y lo primero que observamos es que entre el grupo ms joven y el grupo de mayor edad, aproximadamente la mitad de factores cambiaron significativamente. +Nuestro cuerpo vive en un entorno muy diferente a medida que envejecemos, en relacin a estos factores. +Y con la ayuda de programas estadsticos o bioinformticos, podramos tratar de averiguar los factores que mejor predicen la edad y de cierto modo, calcular la edad de una persona de esta manera. +Eso es lo que se muestra en este grfico. +En uno de los ejes, se muestra la edad real de la persona la edad cronolgica. +Los aos que tiene hasta la fecha. +Y luego consideramos los principales factores que ya les mostr y calculamos su edad relativa, su edad biolgica. +Y lo que se ve es que hay una muy buena correlacin, por lo que podemos predecir bastante bien la edad relativa de una persona. +Pero lo ms interesante son los valores atpicos, lo mismo que ocurre a menudo en la vida real. +Aqu pueden ver que la persona destacada con el punto verde tiene unos 70 aos, pero parece que su edad biolgica, si lo que estamos haciendo aqu es realmente cierto, es solo 45. +Es esta una persona que se ve ms joven que su edad? +Pero lo ms importante: Es una persona tal vez con un bajo riesgo de desarrollar una enfermedad relacionada con la edad que tendr una larga vida llegando a vivir 100 aos o ms? +Por otro lado, la persona aqu resaltada con el punto rojo, ni siquiera tiene 40 aos pero tiene una edad biolgica de 65. +Es esta una persona en alto riesgo de desarrollar una enfermedad relacionada con la edad? +As que en nuestro laboratorio, intentamos entender mejor estos factores, junto a otros muchos grupos de investigacin, cules son los verdaderos factores del envejecimiento y si podemos aprender algo sobre ellos para potencialmente predecir las enfermedades relacionadas con la edad. +As que lo que he mostrado hasta ahora es meramente correlacional +y pueden decir: "Bueno, estos factores cambian con la edad, pero no sabes realmente si influyen el envejecimiento". +As que les mostrar ahora algo realmente remarcable que sugiere que estos factores pueden modular la edad de un tejido. +Y ah es donde volvemos a este modelo llamado parabiosis. +La parabiosis se realiza en ratones conectando dos de ellos juntos quirrgicamente lo que significa que comparten el sistema sanguneo y as poder investigar cmo funciona el cerebro envejecido bajo la influencia de la sangre joven. +Y para este fin, usamos ratones jvenes con edades que equivalen a la de un humano de 20 aos y ratones viejos que ms o menos corresponde a un humano 65 aos. +Lo que encontramos es bastante notable. +Encontramos que hay ms clulas madre neuronales que forman nuevas neuronas en estos viejos cerebros. +La actividad sinptica incrementa, las sinapsis entre las neuronas. Se expresan ms genes, +los que sabemos que estn relacionados en la formacin de nuevos recuerdos. Tambin la inflamacin disminuye. +Pero observamos que no entraban nuevas clulas en el cerebro de estos animales. +As que al conectarlos, en este modelo no hay clulas madres que entran en el cerebro envejecido. +Por ende, concluimos que deben ser los factores solubles, de manera que podamos simplemente recoger esta parte sangunea soluble que se llama plasma e inyectar sea plasma joven o plasma envejecido en estos ratones, y as reproducir estos efectos rejuvenecedores, y tambin llevar a cabo pruebas de memoria con los ratones. +Porque los ratones, al igual que nosotros, tienen problemas de memoria +solo que es ms difcil detectarlos, pero les mostrar enseguida cmo lo hacemos. +Pero hemos querido dar un paso ms all, ms cerca de lo que potencialmente puede ser relevante para los humanos. +Lo que les estoy mostrando ahora son estudios no publicados, donde hemos usado plasma humano, plasma humana joven, y como control, una solucin salina, que luego hemos inyectado en ratones de edad para ver si podemos rejuvenecer a estos viejos ratones. +Podemos volverlos ms inteligentes? +Y para esto hicimos una prueba. Se llama el laberinto de Barnes. +Se trata de una mesa grande que tiene muchos agujeros, con marcas de gua a su alrededor y una luz brillante, como la de este escenario. +Los ratones la odian y tratan de escapar para encontrar el nico agujero que se ve apuntando con una flecha, con un tubo montado debajo a travs del cual pueden escapar y sentirse cmodos en la oscuridad. +As que les enseamos, durante varios das, como encontrar este espacio siguiendo estas seales espaciales algo muy parecido a los humanos, que tratan de encontrar sus coches en el aparcamiento despus de un ajetreado da de compras. +Muchos de nosotros hemos tenido probablemente algunos problemas con eso. +Por lo tanto, veamos a este viejo ratn de aqu. +Es un viejo ratn que tiene problemas de memoria, como lo vern en un momento. +Est buscando en cada agujero pero no crea un mapa espacial que le puede ayudar recordar el ltimo ensayo o el da anterior. +En marcado contraste, este ratn aqu que es un hermano suyo de la misma edad, pero tratado con plasma humano joven durante tres semanas, a travs de pequeas inyecciones cada tres das. +Y como pueden ver, solo mira a su alrededor, "Dnde estoy?" para luego encaminarse directamente hacia ese agujero y se escapa. +Por lo tanto, puede recordar dnde estaba ese agujero. +As que a todos los efectos, este viejo ratn parece estar rejuvenecido, y acta mejor que un ratn joven. +Esto tambin sugiere que hay algo no solo en el plasma de ratas jvenes pero en el de los seres humanos jvenes que tiene la capacidad de ayudar a este viejo cerebro. +Para resumir, descubrimos que el viejo ratn, y su cerebro en particular, son plsticos. +El cerebro no tiene caractersticas inmutables, podemos cambiarlos. +Podemos rejuvenecerlo. +Factores sanguneos renovados pueden contribuir al rejuvenecimiento, y lo que no te les mostr es que en este experimento el joven ratn en realidad resulta perjudicado por su contacto con el viejo, +as que hay factores sanguneos viejos que pueden acelerar el envejecimiento. +Y lo ms importante, los humanos comparten factores similares, ya que con sangre humana joven se obtiene un efecto similar. +La sangre humana envejecida esto ya no lo dije, no tiene este efecto, no rejuvenece los ratones. +Por lo tanto, podemos aplicar esta magia a los seres humanos? +Estamos realizando un pequeo estudio clnico en Stanford, donde tratamos a pacientes con principios de Alzheimer con medio litro de plasma joven proveniente de voluntarios de 20 aos una vez a la semana durante cuatro semanas, y luego evaluamos su cerebros a travs de resonancias. +Hacemos pruebas cognitivas y preguntamos a sus cuidadores por sus actividades diarias. +Esperamos signos de mejora con este tratamiento. +Y si se da el caso, podramos tener la confianza de que lo que les mostr que funciona en ratones podra tambin funcionar en humanos. +No creo que vivamos para siempre. +Pero tal vez descubrimos que la fuente de la juventud es en realidad dentro de nosotros y que solo se sec. +Y si podemos recuperarla solo un poco, tal vez podamos encontrar los factores que estn mediando estos efectos, podemos producir estos factores de manera artificial y podemos tratar las enfermedades del envejecimiento, como el Alzheimer u otras demencias. +Muchas gracias. +Me gustara presentarles un rea emergente de la ciencia, que sigue siendo especulativa, pero muy emocionante, y, sin duda, un rea que est creciendo muy rpidamente. +La biologa cuntica plantea una pregunta muy simple: Juega la mecnica cuntica --esa teora extraa, maravillosa y potente del mundo subatmico de tomos y molculas que sustenta gran parte de la fsica moderna y la qumica--- tambin un papel en el interior de la clula viva? +En otras palabras: Existen procesos, mecanismos, fenmenos, en los organismos vivos que solo pueden explicarse con ayuda de la mecnica cuntica? +La biologa cuntica no es nueva; ha estado presente desde la dcada de 1930. +Pero solo en la ltima dcada ms o menos los experimentos minuciosos, en laboratorios de bioqumica, usando espectroscopia, han mostrado clara y firme evidencia de que hay ciertos mecanismos especficos que requieren de la mecnica cuntica para que puedan explicarse. +La biologa cuntica rene a los fsicos cunticos, bioqumicos, bilogos moleculares... es un campo muy interdisciplinario. +Vengo de la fsica cuntica, as que soy fsico nuclear. +He pasado ms de tres dcadas tratando de entender la mecnica cuntica. +Uno de los fundadores de la mecnica cuntica, Niels Bohr, dijo: Si Ud. no est asombrado por ella, entonces no la ha entendido. +As que me satisface estar todava asombrado por ella. +Eso es bueno. +Pero significa que estudio estructuras muy pequeas del universo, los bloques de construccin de la realidad. +Si pensamos en la escala de tamaos, comienza con un objeto cotidiano como la pelota de tenis, y acaba con rdenes de gran magnitud de tamao: desde el ojo de una aguja hasta la clula, la bacteria y la enzima, para llegar, finalmente, al nanomundo. +Puede que hayan odo hablar de la nanotecnologa. +Un nanmetro es la mil millonsima parte de un metro. +Mi rea es el ncleo atmico, el pequeo punto dentro de un tomo. +Es incluso ms pequeo en escala. +Este es el dominio de la mecnica cuntica, y los fsicos y los qumicos han tenido mucho tiempo para tratar de acostumbrarse a l. +Los bilogos, por el contrario, lo han tratado a la ligera, en mi opinin. +Ellos estn muy contentos con sus modelos de molculas de bolas y palillos +Las bolas son los tomos, los palillos los enlaces entre los tomos. +Y cuando no pueden construirlos fsicamente en el laboratorio, hoy en da, tienen computadoras muy potentes que simularn una molcula enorme. +Esta es una protena formada por 100 000 tomos. +No precisa mucho que la mecnica cuntica se lo explique. +La mecnica cuntica se desarroll en la dcada de 1920. +Es un conjunto de reglas e ideas matemticas bellas y poderosas que explican el mundo de lo muy pequeo. +Y es un mundo muy diferente a nuestro mundo cotidiano, compuesto por miles de millones de tomos. +Es un mundo construido sobre la probabilidad y posibilidad. +Es un mundo difuso. +Es un mundo de fantasmas, donde las partculas tambin se pueden comportar como ondas de propagacin. +Si imaginamos la mecnica cuntica o la fsica cuntica, como la base fundamental de la realidad misma, entonces no es extrao que digamos que la fsica cuntica sustenta la qumica orgnica. +Despus de todo, da las reglas que dictan cmo los tomos se unen para formar molculas orgnicas. +La qumica orgnica, ampliada en la complejidad, nos da la biologa molecular, que por supuesto lleva a la vida misma. +As que en cierto modo, no es una sorpresa. +Es casi trivial: uno dice: +"En ltima instancia, la vida depende de la mecnica cuntica". +Pero lo mismo ocurre con todo lo dems. +Tambin lo hace toda la materia inanimada, formada por miles de millones de tomos. +En ltima instancia, hay un nivel cuntico donde tenemos que profundizar en esta rareza. +Pero en la vida cotidiana, podemos olvidarlo. +Porque una vez que juntas billones de tomos, la rareza cuntica simplemente se disuelve. +La biologa cuntica no trata de esto. +La biologa cuntica no es tan obvia. +Claro, la mecnica cuntica sustenta la vida en algn nivel molecular. +La biologa cuntica trata de buscar lo no trivial, las ideas contraintuitivas en la mecnica cuntica... y al observar si lo hacen, ciertamente, juegan un papel importante en la descripcin de los procesos de la vida. +Este es mi ejemplo perfecto de la contraintuitividad del mundo cuntico. +Es el esquiador cuntico. +Parece intacto, y perfectamente sano, y, sin embargo, parece que ha bordeado ambos lados de ese rbol al mismo tiempo. +Bueno, si vieron pistas como esas se imaginarn que es un truco, por supuesto. +Pero en el mundo cuntico, esto sucede todo el tiempo. +Las partculas pueden ser multitarea, pueden estar en dos lugares a la vez. +Pueden hacer ms de una cosa a la vez. +Las partculas pueden comportarse como ondas de propagacin. +Es casi como magia. +Los fsicos y qumicos han tenido casi un siglo para acostumbrarse a esta rareza. +No culpo a los bilogos por no haber podido o querido aprender mecnica cuntica. +Esta rareza es muy delicada; y los fsicos trabajamos arduamente para mantenerlo en nuestros laboratorios. +Enfriamos nuestro sistema hasta cerca del cero absoluto, llevamos a cabo experimentos en el vaco, tratamos de aislarlos de cualquier perturbacin externa. +Muy diferente al ambiente clido, desordenado y ruidoso de una clula viva. +La biologa en s misma, si piensan en la biologa molecular, parece haber funcionado muy bien describiendo todos los procesos de la vida en trminos qumicos, como reacciones qumicas. +Y estas son las reacciones qumicas reduccionistas, deterministas, que muestran que, en esencia, la vida est hecha de la misma materia que todo lo dems, y si podemos olvidarnos de la mecnica cuntica en el mundo macro, entonces deberamos poder olvidarnos de l en la biologa, tambin. +Bueno, un hombre no estuvo de acuerdo con esta idea. +Erwin Schrdinger, del famoso gato de Schrdinger, fue un fsico austraco. +Uno de los fundadores de la mecnica cuntica en la dcada de 1920. +En 1944, escribi un libro titulado: "Qu es la vida?" +Tuvo una tremenda influencia. +Influy en Francis Crick y en James Watson, descubridores de la estructura de doble hlice del ADN. +Parafraseando una descripcin en el libro, dice: A nivel molecular, los organismos vivos tienen un cierto orden, una estructura para ellos que es muy diferente de los empujones termodinmicos aleatorios de tomos y molculas existente en la materia inanimada de la misma complejidad. +De hecho, la materia viva parece comportarse en este orden, en una estructura, al igual que la materia inanimada se enfra hasta cerca del cero absoluto, donde los efectos cunticos juegan un papel muy importante. +Hay algo especial acerca de la estructura, del orden en el interior de una clula viva. +As, Schrdinger especul con que la mecnica cuntica, tal vez, jugara un papel en la vida. +Es una idea muy especulativa de largo alcance, y, en realidad, no lleg muy lejos. +Pero, como ya dije al principio, en los ltimos 10 aos, han surgido experimentos, que evidencian que algunos fenmenos en biologa parecen requerir de la mecnica cuntica. +Quiero compartirles algunos de los ms emocionantes. +Este es uno de los fenmenos ms conocidos en el mundo cuntico, el tnel cuntico. +A la izquierda de la pared se muestra el paquete de ondas, que extiende una entidad cuntica, una partcula, como un electrn, que no es una pequea pelota que rebota en una pared. +Es una onda que tiene una cierta probabilidad de permear a travs de una pared slida, como un fantasma que la atraviesa hasta el otro lado. +Se ve una mancha tenue de luz en la parte derecha. +El tnel cuntico sugiere que una partcula puede golpear una barrera impenetrable, y, sin embargo, de algn modo, como por arte de magia, desaparece de un lado y reaparece en el otro. +La forma ms bonita de explicarlo es que si quieren lanzar una pelota a una pared, hay que darle con la energa suficiente para alcanzar la parte superior de la pared. +En el mundo cuntico, no hay que lanzarla por encima del muro, se puede lanzar a la pared, con una cierta probabilidad distinta de cero de que desaparezca de su lado, y aparezca en el otro. +Esto no es especulacin, por cierto. +Estamos felices, bueno "felices" no es la palabra correcta, estamos familiarizados con esto. +El tnel cuntico tiene lugar todo el tiempo; de hecho, es la razn de que nuestro Sol brille. +Las partculas se funden, y el Sol convierte hidrgeno en helio a travs del tnel cuntico. +Ya en los aos 70 y 80, se descubri que el efecto tnel cuntico tambin ocurre en el interior de las clulas. +Las enzimas, los caballos de batalla de la vida, los catalizadores de las reacciones qumicas, son biomolculas que aceleran las reacciones qumicas en las clulas vivas, en muchos rdenes de magnitud. +Y siempre ha sido un misterio cmo lo hacen. +Bueno, se descubri que uno de los trucos es que las enzimas han evolucionado para usarlo mediante la transferencia de partculas subatmicas, como los electrones y, de hecho, los protones, de una parte de una molcula a otra a travs del tnel cuntico. +Es eficiente, es rpido, puede desaparecer, un protn puede desaparecer de un lugar y reaparecer en otro. +Las enzimas ayudan a que esto suceda. +Esta es una investigacin llevada a cabo en los 80, por un grupo de Berkeley, Judith Klinman. +Otros grupos en el Reino Unido han confirmado ahora tambin que las enzimas realmente lo hacen. +La investigacin realizada por mi grupo... como he dicho, soy fsico nuclear, y s que tengo estas herramientas para utilizar la mecnica cuntica en los ncleos atmicos, por eso puedo aplicar tambin esas herramientas en otras reas. +Una pregunta que nos hacamos es si el tnel cuntico juega un papel en las mutaciones del ADN. +Esto no es una idea nueva, se remonta a los aos 60. +Las dos hebras de ADN, la estructura de doble hlice, se mantienen unidas por travesaos, como una escalera retorcida. +Y los peldaos de la escalera son enlaces de hidrgeno, protones, que actan como pegamento entre las dos cadenas. +Si nos acercamos, lo que hacen es mantener estas grandes molculas, nucletidos, juntas. +Acercndonos un poco ms. +Esta una simulacin informtica. +Las dos bolas blancas del medio son los protones, y se ve que se trata de un enlace de hidrgeno doble. +Uno prefiere sentarse en un lado; el otro, en el otro lado de las dos hebras de las lneas de abajo verticales, que no se pueden ver. +Puede suceder que estos dos protones puedan saltar por encima. +Miren las dos bolas blancas. +Pueden saltar hacia el otro lado. +Si ambas hebras de ADN se separan, lo que lleva al proceso de replicacin, y los dos protones estn en posiciones errneas, esto puede conducir a una mutacin. +Esto se sabe desde hace medio siglo. +La pregunta es: Cun probable es que lo hagan? Y si lo hacen, cmo lo hacen? +Saltan al otro lado, como la pelota que va por encima del muro? +O pueden traspasarlo por el efecto de tnel cuntico incluso si no tienen suficiente energa? +Las primeras indicaciones sugieren que el efecto tnel cuntico puede jugar un papel aqu. +Todava no sabemos cun importante es; esto es todava una cuestin abierta. +Es especulativa, pero es una de esas preguntas muy importantes, pues si la mecnica cuntica desempea un papel en las mutaciones, sin duda esto tiene grandes implicaciones, para entender ciertos tipos de mutaciones, posiblemente, incluso las que llevan a convertir a una clula en cancerosa. +Otro ejemplo de la mecnica cuntica en la biologa es la coherencia cuntica, en uno de los procesos ms importantes en la biologa, la fotosntesis: plantas y bacterias que obtienen luz solar, y usan esa energa para crear biomasa. +la coherencia cuntica es la idea de que las entidades cunticas son multitarea. +Es el esquiador cuntico. +Es un objeto que se comporta como una onda, de modo que no solo se mueve en una direccin u otra, sino que puede seguir mltiples caminos al mismo tiempo. +Hace algunos aos, el mundo de la ciencia se sorprendi cuando se public un artculo que muestra la evidencia experimental de que la coherencia cuntica sucede dentro de las bacterias, cuando ocurre la fotosntesis. +La idea es que el fotn, la partcula de la luz, la luz del sol, el quantum de luz es captado por una molcula de clorofila, para luego dar lo que se llama el centro de reaccin, donde puede convertirse en energa qumica. +Y llegando ah, no solo sigue una va; sino mltiples vas a la vez, para optimizar la forma ms eficaz de alcanzar el centro de reaccin sin disiparse como calor residual. +La coherencia cuntica ocurre dentro de una clula viva. +Una idea notable y, adems, la evidencia crece cada semana, con nuevos documentos que confirman que esto es as. +Mi tercer y ltimo ejemplo es la idea ms hermosa y maravillosa. +Tambin es todava muy especulativa, pero quiero compartirla con Uds. +El petirrojo europeo migra desde Escandinavia hasta el Mediterrneo, cada otoo, y como muchos animales marinos e incluso insectos, navegan al detectar el campo magntico de la Tierra. +El campo magntico de la Tierra es muy, muy dbil; 100 veces ms dbil que un imn de refrigerador, pero afecta a la qumica, de alguna manera, dentro de un organismo vivo. +Eso no se cuestiona. Una pareja de alemanes ornitlogos, Wolfgang y Roswitha Wiltschko, en los 70, confirmaron que el petirrojo encuentra su camino mediante una forma de deteccin del campo magntico de la Tierra, que les da informacin direccional... una brjula incorporada. +El enigma, el misterio era: Cmo lo hace? +Bueno, la nica teora, no sabemos si es la teora correcta, pero es la nica teora, es que lo hace a travs del entrelazamiento cuntico. +Dentro de la retina del petirrojo, no bromeo, dentro de la retina del petirrojo hay una protena llamada criptocromo sensible a la luz. +Dentro del criptocromo, unos electrones estn enredados cunticamente. +El entrelazamiento cuntico es cuando dos partculas estn muy separadas, y sin embargo permanecen en contacto entre s. +Incluso Einstein odiaba esta idea; la llam "accin fantasmal a distancia". +Y si a Einstein no le gustaba, todos podemos estar incmodos con ello. +Dos electrones cunticos entrelazados dentro de una sola molcula bailan una danza delicada muy sensible a la direccin en la que vuelan las aves en el campo magntico de la Tierra. +No sabemos si es la explicacin correcta, pero guau, no sera emocionante si la mecnica cuntica ayudara a las aves a navegar? +La biologa cuntica est todava en paales. +Sigue siendo especulativa. +Pero creo que se basa en un fundamento cientfico slido. +Tambin creo que en la prxima dcada, empezaremos a ver, en realidad, lo que impregna la vida, que la vida ha desarrollado trucos que utiliza del mundo cuntico. +Miren este espacio. +Gracias. +En nios, los sntomas empiezan con poca fiebre, dolor de cabeza, dolores musculares, seguidos de vmitos y diarrea y luego sangrado de boca, nariz y encas. +Causa de la muerte inminente: fallo multiorgnico debido a la presin arterial baja. +Suena familiar? +Si piensan que es bola, en realidad, en este caso no lo es. +Es una forma extrema de dengue, una enfermedad transmitida por mosquitos, intratable y sin una vacuna eficaz, y mata a 22 000 personas al ao. +Esto corresponde al doble del nmero de personas fallecidas a causa del bola en las casi cuatro dcadas desde su descubrimiento. +En cuanto al sarampin, tan presente en las noticias recientemente, el nmero de muertos es en realidad 10 veces superior. +Sin embargo, en el ltimo ao, fue el bola quien rob los titulares e infundi el miedo. +Es evidente que tiene algo que nos afecta profundamente, algo que nos asusta y nos fascina a la vez ms que otras enfermedades, +pero qu es exactamente? +Bueno, es difcil contraer bola, pero de hacerlo, el riesgo de una muerte horrible es alto. +Por qu? +Porque en este momento, no contamos con terapia ni vacuna eficaz. +Esa es la cuestin. +Podemos tenerla algn da. +Le tememos al bola, y con razn; y no porque mate tantas personas como otras enfermedades. +De hecho, es mucho menos transmisible que un virus como el de la gripe o del sarampin. +Le tememos al bola porque nos mata y no podemos curarla. +Tememos esta inevitabilidad que viene con el bola. +El bola tiene una inevitabilidad que desafa a la ciencia mdica moderna. +Pero un momento, a qu se debe? +Conocemos al bola desde 1976. +Sabemos de lo que es capaz. +Tuvimos muchas oportunidades de estudiarla en los 24 brotes que se han producido. +Y de hecho, hemos tenido algunas vacunas como candidatas, disponibles desde hace ms de una dcada. +Entonces, por qu los ensayos clnicos estn disendose solo ahora? +Esto demuestra el problema fundamental que tenemos con el desarrollo de vacunas para las enfermedades infecciosas. +En resumen, las personas con mayor riesgo de contraer estas enfermedades son tambin quienes menos pueden pagar por las vacunas. +Esto se traduce en poco inters en el mercado y a los ojos de los fabricantes para el desarrollo de las vacunas, a menos que un gran nmero de personas est en situacin de riesgo en los pases ricos. +Sencillamente es un riesgo comercial demasiado alto. +Y para el bola no hay mercado en absoluto, y por eso, la nica razn por la que hay dos vacunas en las ltimas fases del ensayo clnico, tiene en realidad como causa un miedo relativamente sin fundamento. +El bola fue relativamente ignorado hasta el 11-S y los ataques con ntrax cuando, de repente, el bola fue percibida por la poblacin como una posible arma bioterrorista. +Por qu no se desarroll la vacuna del bola en este momento? +Bueno, en parte, porque que era muy difcil o se pensaba que era difcil convertir el virus en arma, pero, sobre todo, por el riesgo financiero de su desarrollo. +Y este es el detalle clave. +La triste realidad es que desarrollamos vacunas no de acuerdo a los riesgos asociados al patgeno para las personas sino teniendo en cuenta el riesgo econmico asociado al desarrollo de estas vacunas. +El desarrollo de vacunas es caro y complicado. +Puede costar cientos de millones de dlares tomar incluso un antgeno conocido y convertirlo en una vacuna viable. +Afortunadamente, para enfermedades como el bola, hay cosas que podemos hacer para superar estas limitaciones. +La primera es reconocer cuando hay una falla total de mercado. +En ese caso, si queremos vacunas, debemos ofrecer incentivos o algn tipo de subsidio. +Tambin debemos mejorar la forma de identificar de manera ms eficaz cules son las enfermedades ms peligrosas. +Al proporcionar recursos a los pases afectados, se les ofrece a esos pases la posibilidad de crear su propias redes de laboratorios y epidemiolgicas capaces de recolectar y categorizar estos patgenos. +Esos datos luego pueden usarse para entender la diversidad geogrfica y gentica que luego nos permitir entender qu cambios inmunolgicos implican y qu tipo de reacciones promueven. +Estas son las medidas que se pueden tomar, pero para hacerlo, si queremos abordar la total falla de mercado, tenemos que cambiar el modo de ver y prevenir las enfermedades infecciosas. +Tenemos que dejar de esperar hasta tener las pruebas de una enfermedad que se vuelve amenaza mundial antes de considerarla como tal. +Cada ao, gastamos miles de millones de dlares, en una flota de submarinos nucleares que patrullan permanentemente los ocanos para protegernos de amenazas que casi con certeza nunca sucedern. +Y, sin embargo, no gastamos prcticamente nada para prevenir algo tan tangible y claramente inevitable como las enfermedades infecciosas epidmicas. +Y no nos equivoquemos, no es cuestin de "si ocurrir", sino de "cundo". +Estos bichos seguirn evolucionando y amenazarn al mundo. +Y las vacunas son nuestra mejor defensa. +De modo que si queremos poder prevenir epidemias como el bola, debemos asumir el riesgo de invertir en el desarrollo de vacunas y la produccin de cantidades suficientes. +Y tenemos que ver esto, entonces, como la medida disuasoria definitiva... algo que nos aseguramos de que est disponible, pero al mismo tiempo, rogamos para que nunca tengamos que usarla. +Gracias. +Ms de un milln de personas mueren cada ao en desastres. +Dos millones y medio de personas quedarn incapacitados de forma permanente o se vern desplazados y se necesitarn de 20 a 30 aos para recuperar tanto a las comunidades como a los miles de millones en prdidas econmicas. +Si durante la fase inicial de respuesta pudiramos reducir el tiempo en un da, podramos reducir la recuperacin global en mil das, o tres aos. +Veamos cmo funciona. +Una importante compaa de seguros me dijo que si reciben la solicitud de un asegurado con un da de antelacin, esto repercuta en una diferencia de hasta seis meses en el tiempo de reparacin de la casa de esta persona. +Y es por eso que me ocupo de rescates mediante robots, porque los robots pueden hacer que un desastre desaparezca ms rpido. +Ahora, ya han visto un par de ellos. +Son vehculos areos no tripulados. +Se trata de dos tipos: una aeronave de alas giratorias o colibr; una de ala fija, un halcn. +que son ampliamente usados desde 2005, y en el huracn Katrina. +Permtanme ensearles cmo funciona este colibr de alas giratorias. +Es fantstico para los ingenieros estructurales +ya que puede observar el dao desde ngulos imposibles de ver con los prismticos desde el suelo o en una imagen de satlite, o determinados vehculos que vuelan a ms altura. +Pero no son solo los ingenieros estructurales y los agentes de seguros los que los necesitan. +Disponemos de cosas como este vehculo de ala fija, este halcn +que podemos usar para los reconocimientos geoespaciales. +Aqu es donde reunimos todas las imgenes y realizamos reconstrucciones en 3D. +Se usaron los dos tipos en el flujo de tierra ocurrido en la localidad de Oso en el estado de Washington, porque el gran problema era la comprensin geoespacial e hidrolgica del desastre, no la bsqueda y rescate. +Los equipos de bsqueda y rescate lo tenan todo bajo control, saban lo que estaban haciendo. +El mayor problema era que el ro y el flujo de tierra podran arrastrar y ahogar a los rescatadores. +Y no solo era un reto para estos equipos y amenazaba con daos a la propiedad, tambin pona en riesgo el futuro de la pesca del salmn en toda esa parte del estado de Washington. +As que necesitaban entender lo que estaba pasando. +En siete horas: conducimos desde Arlington, desde el Puesto de Mando de Incidentes hasta al sitio, volamos los UAVs, procesamos los datos, volvimos a Arlington al puesto de mando; siete horas. +En siete horas conseguimos datos que de cualquier otra manera solo se podan obtener en dos o tres das; adems en alta resolucin. +El juego ha cambiado. +Y no piensen solo en los vehculos areos no tripulados. +Quiero decir, son sexy, pero recuerden, un 80 % de la poblacin mundial vive cerca del agua, eso significa que nuestra infraestructura ms importante est bajo el agua lugares donde no podemos llegar, como los puentes y cosas por el estilo. +Y es por eso que tenemos vehculos marinos no tripulados, uno de estos modelos que ya han visto, un SARbot, un delfn cuadrado. +Se sumergen en el agua y usan el sonar. +Bueno, por qu son tan importantes los vehculos marinos y de hecho, muy, muy importantes? +Porque pasan desapercibidos. +Piensen en el tsunami japons, 644 km de zona costera totalmente devastada, el doble de la devastacin costera causada por Katrina, EE.UU.. +Estamos hablando de puentes, oleoductos, puertos; devastacin total. +Y si no tienen puerto, no tendr como conseguir suficientes suministros para apoyar a una poblacin. +Eso fue un gran problema en el terremoto de Hait. +As que necesitamos vehculos marinos. +Ahora, echemos un vistazo a la visin de un SARbot y de lo que estaban viendo. +Estbamos trabajando en un puerto pesquero. +Pudimos volver a abrir ese puerto pesquero, usando su sonar, en cuatro horas. +Nos dijeron que el puerto sera reabierto dentro de seis meses para las operaciones del equipo de buceo, y que estos necesitaran dos semanas. +Iban a perder la temporada de pesca de otoo, lo ms importante para la economa local de esa zona, muy parecido a Cape Cod. +Vehculos no tripulados. +Pero ya saben, todos los robots que les han demostrado han sido pequeos, y eso se debe a que los robots no hacen las cosas que hacen los humanos. +Llegan a lugares inaccesibles para el hombre. +Y un gran ejemplo de eso es Bujold. +Los vehculos terrestres no tripulados son especialmente pequeos, as que Bujold... Saluden a Bujold. +Bujold se us considerablemente en el World Trade Center para verificar las torres No. 1, 2 y 4. +Escal escombros, hizo rappel, se adentr en los huecos. +Para ver el World Trade Center desde el punto de vista Bujold, miren esto. +Hablamos de desastres donde una persona o un perro no podran acudir y que est en llamas. +La nica esperanza de llegar a un superviviente enterrado en el stano, es a travs de cosas que estn en llamas. +Haca tanto calor, que en uno de los robots, las orugas empezaron a derretirse y caerse. +Los robots no sustituyen a las personas o a los perros, o a los colibres, halcones o delfines. +Ellos hacen otras cosas nuevas. +Ayudan a los rescatadores, a los expertos, de maneras innovadoras. +El mayor problema no es poder hacer robots ms pequeos, sin embargo. +No es hacerlos ms resistentes al calor. +No es hacer ms sensores. +El mayor problema son los datos, la parte informtica, porque estas personas necesitan los datos correctos en el momento adecuado. +As que no sera fantstico si pudiramos proveer a los expertos acceso inmediato a los robots sin tener que perder tiempo desplazandonos al sitio, as que quien sea que est ah, use los robots a travs de la Internet? +Bueno, pensemos en eso. +Piensen en el descarrilamiento de un tren de productos qumicos en una zona rural. +Cules son las probabilidades de que los expertos, el ingeniero qumico, los ingenieros de transporte ferroviario, sepan manipular vehculos no tripulados en esa regin en particular? +Probablemente cero. +As que estamos usando este tipo de interfaces que permiten a la gente usar los robots sin saber qu robot estn usando, o incluso si estn usando un robot o no. +Lo robots ofrecen datos a los expertos. +El problema es: quin obtiene qu datos y cundo? +Una respuesta sera enviar toda la informacin a todo el mundo y dejarles a ellos que decidan. +Pero el problema con eso es que sobrecarga la red y, peor an, sobrecarga las capacidades cognitivas de cada una de las personas que tratan de obtener ese detalle de informacin que necesitan para tomar la decisin que marcar la diferencia. +As que tenemos que pensar en ese tipo de desafos. +Es la informacin. +Volviendo al World Trade Center, tratamos de resolver ese problema grabando los datos emitidos de Bujold solo cuando se adentr entre los escombros, porque eso es lo que el equipo USAR dijo que quera. +Lo que no sabamos en ese momento era que los ingenieros civiles habran querido y necesitado los datos mientras grabamos las cajas viga, los nmeros de serie, las ubicaciones, mientras nos desplazamos entre los escombros. +Hemos perdido datos valiosos. +As que el reto es conseguir todos los datos y hacerlos llegar a las personas adecuadas. +Hay otra razn. +Hemos aprendido que algunos edificios, como escuelas, hospitales, ayuntamientos, son inspeccionados cuatro veces por diferentes agencias a largo de las etapas de rescate. +Ahora contemplamos la posibilidad de compartir los datos de los robots, no solo para poder acortar esta secuencia de etapas, para acortar el tiempo de reaccin, sino tambin para empezar a dar respuestas en paralelo. +Todo el mundo puede ver los datos. +Podemos acortarlo de esa manera. +En realidad, "la robtica del desastre" no es un nombre apropiado. +No se trata de robots. +Se trata de datos. +As que mi reto para Uds.: la prxima vez que oigan hablar de un desastre, busquen a los robots. +pueden estar bajo tierra, pueden estar bajo el agua, pueden estar en el cielo, pero deberan estar all. +Busquen a los robots, porque los robots vienen al rescate. +Cuando tena 14 aos, tena inters por la ciencia, estaba fascinada por ella, y quera aprender ms. +Mi profesor de ciencias en la secundaria nos deca: "Las chicas no tienen por qu escuchar esto". +S, alentador. +Eleg no escuchar... pero solo aquella frase. +Permtanme que les lleve a la cordillera de los Andes chilenos, a unos 500 kilmetros o 300 millas al noreste de Santiago. +Es una zona muy remota, muy rida y es muy hermosa. +No hay mucho all. +Hay cndores, hay tarntulas, Y por la noche, cuando la luz se desvanece, deja paso a uno de los cielos ms oscuros en la Tierra. +Esta montaa es algo mgico. +Revela una maravillosa combinacin de cumbre muy remota y tecnologa extraordinariamente sofisticada. +Y nuestros antepasados, desde los inicios de los registros histricos observaron el cielo nocturno y reflexionaron sobre la naturaleza de la existencia. +Y nuestra generacin no es diferente. +La nica dificultad es que el cielo nocturno, hoy en da, est escondido por el resplandor de las luces de la ciudad. +As que los astrnomos se refugian en estas cimas muy remotas para observar y estudiar el cosmos. +Los telescopios son, por lo tanto, nuestra ventana al cosmos. +No es un exageracin decir que el hemisferio sur ser el futuro de la astronoma en el siglo XXI. +Ya tenemos una red de telescopios en las montaas de los Andes en Chile, y que est pronto se completar con una gama sensacional con capacidades renovadas. +Habr dos grupos internacionales que construirn telescopios gigantes sensibles a la radiacin ptica --como son nuestros ojos-- +habr un telescopio de rastreo que escanear el cielo casi todas las noches, +habr radiotelescopios, sensibles a la radiacin de radio de onda larga. +Tambin habr telescopios espaciales +sucesores del Telescopio Espacial Hubble; como el Telescopio James Webb, que ser puesto en marcha en 2018. +Habr un satlite llamado TESS listo para descubrir planetas existentes fuera de nuestro sistema solar. +En la ltima dcada, he liderado un grupo, un consorcio, un grupo internacional, para construir lo que ser, una vez terminado, el telescopio ptico ms grande jams construido. +Se llama Giant Magallanes Telescope, o GMT. +Este telescopio tendr espejos de 8,4 metros de dimetro, cada uno de los espejos. +Esto equivale a unos 27 pies. +Imaginen esta sala desde el escenario hasta tal vez la cuarta fila. +Cada uno de los siete espejos de este telescopio tendr unos 8,4 metros de dimetro. +Juntos, los 7 espejos de este telescopio tendrn un dimetro de 24 metros. +Bsicamente, el tamao de todo este auditorio. +Todo el telescopio tendr unos 43 metros de altura y, de nuevo, al estar en Ro, algunos de Uds. han ido a ver la estatua gigante de Cristo. +Su tamao es comparable en altura. De hecho, Cristo es ms pequeo de lo que ser el telescopio. +Es comparable en tamao a la Estatua de la Libertad. +Ser ubicado dentro de un recinto de 22 plantas, 60 metros de altura, +un edificio singular para proteger este telescopio +ya que contar con ventanas apuntando hacia el cielo, y girar sobre una base, unas 2000 toneladas de edificio giratorio. +El Telescopio Gigante Magallanes tendr una resolucin 10 veces mayor al Telescopio Espacial Hubble. +Ser 20 millones de veces ms sensible que el ojo humano. +Y podra, por primera vez en la historia, encontrar vida en planetas ubicados fuera de nuestro sistema solar. +Nos permitir mirar atrs, hacia la primera luz del universo, literalmente, los albores csmicos, el amanecer csmico. +Se trata de un telescopio que nos permitir mirar hacia atrs, asistir al momento de la formacin de las galaxias, los primeros agujeros negros en el universo, las primeras galaxias. +Hemos estado estudiando el cosmos desde hace miles de aos, y nos hemos estado preguntando acerca de nuestro lugar en el universo. +Los antiguos griegos nos contaron que la Tierra era el centro del universo. +Hace 500 aos, Coprnico reemplaz a la Tierra y puso al Sol en el centro del cosmos. +Y a lo largo de los siglos hemos aprendido ms; desde Galileo Galilei, el cientfico italiano, que fue el primero en apuntar un pequeo telescopio, muy pequeo, de unos 5 centmetros, hacia el cielo, cada vez que hemos construido telescopios ms grandes, hemos aprendido algo ms sobre el universo, hemos hecho descubrimientos, sin excepcin. +En el siglo XX, hemos aprendido que el universo se estaba expandiendo y que nuestro propio sistema solar no est en el centro de esa expansin. +Ahora sabemos que el universo tiene unas 100 000 millones de galaxias, visibles para nosotros, y cada una de esas galaxias cuenta con 100 000 millones de estrellas. +Estamos viendo ahora la imagen ms lejana del cosmos jams tomada; +fue tomada con la ayuda del Telescopio Espacial Hubble --apuntando el telescopio a lo que antes era una regin vaca en el firmamento antes del lanzamiento del Hubble-- +y si pueden imaginarse esta pequea zona, solo representa una quincuagsima parte del tamao de la luna llena. +Por lo tanto, imaginasen el tamao de la luna llena. +En la actualidad hay 10 000 galaxias visibles en esta imagen. +Y la baja resolucin de esas imgenes y su tamao reducido se debe solo al hecho de que esas galaxias estn muy lejos, a unas distancias enormes. +Y cada una de esas galaxias pueden estar formadas por unos cuantos miles o incluso, cientos de miles de millones de estrellas. +Los telescopios son como mquinas del tiempo: +cuanto ms lejos miramos en el espacio, ms atrs vemos en el tiempo. +Y son como cubos de luz que literalmente recogen la luz. +Por lo tanto, cuanto ms grande es el cubo, mayor es el espejo que tenemos, y cuanta ms luz podemos ver, ms atrs podemos retroceder. +As, en el ltimo siglo hemos descubierto que hay objetos exticos en el universo como los agujeros negros, +e incluso de la existencia de la materia oscura y la energa oscura, que no podemos ver. +Ahora mismo estis viendo una imagen real de la materia oscura. +Lo habis entendido. No toda clase de pblico lo hace. +Pudimos detectar la presencia de la materia oscura que no podemos ver debido a una prueba contundente, la traccin debida a la gravedad. +Ahora podemos mirar este universo y vemos este mar de galaxias, es un universo que se expande. +Lo que hago yo es medir la expansin del universo. Y en uno de los proyectos que llev a cabo en la dcada de 1990 fue usar el Telescopio Espacial Hubble para medir la velocidad de expansin del Universo. +Ahora podemos regresar 14 000 millones de aos atrs, +y hemos aprendido con el tiempo que las estrellas tienen sus propias historias, es decir que nacen, llegan a una mediana edad y que algunas de ellas incluso mueren dramticamente. +Y las cenizas de esas estrellas de hecho, luego forman las nuevas estrellas que vemos, la mayora de las cuales tienen planetas girando a su alrededor. +Y uno de los resultados ms sorprendentes de los ltimos 20 aos fue el descubrimiento de que otros planetas giran alrededor de otras estrellas. +Son llamados exoplanetas. +Y hasta 1995, ni siquiera sabamos la existencia de otros planetas, excepto los que giran alrededor de nuestro propio Sol. +Pero ahora, hay casi otros 2000 planetas que orbitan otras estrellas que ahora podemos detectar, medir su masa, +y 500 de ellos son sistemas multiplanetarios. +Y hay 4000 --y seguimos contando-- de otros candidatos a planetas que orbitan otras estrellas. +Vienen en una gran variedad de diferentes tipos. +Hay planetas similares a Jpiter que estn calientes, hay otros planetas congelados, hay mundos de agua, y hay planetas rocosos como la Tierra, llamados "sper-Tierras", hasta incluso planetas que dicen ser mundos de diamantes. +As que sabemos que hay al menos un planeta, nuestra propia Tierra, en la que hay vida. +Incluso encontramos planetas orbitando dos estrellas +Eso ya no entra en el terreno de la ciencia ficcin. +As que alrededor de nuestro propio planeta, sabemos que hay vida, hemos desarrollado una vida compleja, ahora podemos cuestionar nuestros propios orgenes. +Y dado todo lo que hemos descubierto, los nmeros abrumadores sugieren ahora que puede haber millones, quizs, tal vez incluso cientos de millones de otros [planetas] que estn lo suficientemente cerca, a una distancia exacta de la estrella alrededor de la cual orbitan, para tener agua lquida, y tal vez poder albergar vida. +Nos maravillamos ante esta oportunidad, las probabilidades abrumadoras, y lo sorprendente es que en la prxima dcada, GMT podr captar espectros de las atmsferas de esos planetas y determinar si tienen o no el potencial para la vida. +As que, qu es el proyecto GMT? +Es un proyecto internacional. +Incluye Australia, Corea del Sur, y estoy feliz de decir, estando en Ro, que el socio ms reciente para nuestro telescopio es Brasil. +Tambin incluye una serie de instituciones de EE.UU. Incluyendo la Universidad de Harvard, el Instituto Smithsonian y el Instituto Carnegie, las universidades de Arizona, Chicago, Texas-Austin y Texas A&M. +Chile tambin participa. +El proceso de fabricacin de los espejos del telescopio es igual de fascinante que el telescopio mismo. +Se toman trozos de vidrio y se funden en un horno giratorio. +Esto sucede debajo del estadio de ftbol de la Universidad de Arizona. +Est escondido debajo de 52 000 asientos. +Nadie sabe lo que est sucediendo. +Prcticamente es un caldero giratorio. +Los espejos se moldean y se enfran muy lentamente, y luego se pulen con una exquisita precisin. +Para tener una idea de la precisin de estos espejos las protuberancias en el espejo, lo largo de casi todos los 8,4 metros representan menos de una millonsima de pulgada. +Para darles una idea... +Ay! +Esta es una quinta milsima del ancho de uno de mis cabellos lo largo de casi todos los 8,4 metros. +Es un logro espectacular. +Es lo que nos permite disponer de esta precisin. +Pero qu ganamos con tal precisin? +El TGM, para tener una idea... Si les mostrara una moneda, y resulta que tengo una, al mirar la cara de la moneda, puedo ver desde aqu qu est escrito en ella, puedo ver la cara de esa moneda. +Y apuesto que esto, incluso los de la primera fila, no pueden verlo. +Pero si recurrimos al Telescopio Gigante Magallanes el total de estos 25 metros que vemos en este auditorio, y apuntramos a 300 kilmetros de distancia, si estuviramos en Sao Paulo, podramos ver la cara de la moneda. +Esa es la resolucin extraordinaria y el poder de este telescopio. +Y si furamos... Si un astronauta estuviera en la Luna, a casi 400 000 kilmetros de distancia y encendera una vela, una sola vela, entonces seramos capaces de detectarla usando el TGM. +Todo un logro. +Este es un imagen simulada de un grupo en una galaxia cercana +--"cerca" en trminos astronmicos, es relativo, +son decenas de millones de aos luz de distancia-- +aqu es cmo se vera. +Miren estos 4 objetos brillantes y ahora comprenlos con la imagen tomada por una cmara del telescopio espacial Hubble. +Empiezan a sobresalir pequeos detalles. +Y, por ltimo, --tengan en cuenta el drstico efecto-- veamos qu puede ver el increble TGM. +Miren de nuevo estas imgenes brillantes. +Esto es lo que vemos a travs de uno de los telescopios ms potentes de la Tierra Y esto, una vez ms, lo que ver el GMT. +Precisin extraordinaria. +As que, dnde estamos? +Hemos nivelado la parte superior de la cima de la montaa en Chile. +Hemos quitado la cumbre. +Hemos probado y pulido el primer espejo. +Hemos fundido el segundo y tercer espejos. +Y estamos a punto de empezar el cuarto espejo. +Tuvimos una serie de revisiones este ao, vinieron jurados internacionales para evaluarnos, y nos dijeron: "Ya estn listos para empezar a construir". +As que tenemos la intencin de construir este telescopio con los cuatro primeros espejos. +Queremos darle uso inmediatamente y recoger datos cientficos. Lo que los astrnomos llamamos "la primera luz", en 2021. +El telescopio estar totalmente listo a mediados de la prxima dcada con sus siete espejos. +As que ahora estamos preparados para mirar atrs en el universo lejano, hacia los albores del universo. +Estudiaremos otros planetas con exquisito detalle. +Pero para m, una de las cosas ms emocionantes acerca de la construccin del GMT es la oportunidad de descubrir algo que no sabemos y que no podemos ni siquiera imaginar, algo completamente nuevo. +Y espero que con la construccin de este y de otras instalaciones muchos jvenes se sientan inspiradas e inspirados para apuntar a las estrellas. +Muchas gracias. +Obrigado. +Bruno Giussani: Gracias, Wendy. +Qudate conmigo, porque tengo una pregunta para ti. +Mencionaste diferentes equipos. +Se est construyndose el telescopio Magallanes pero tambin ALMA y otros en Chile y en otros lugares, incluso en Hawi. +Se trata de cooperacin y complementariedad, o competencia? +S que hay competencia en trminos de financiacin, pero qu pasa con la ciencia? +Wendy Freedman: En cuanto a la ciencia, son muy complementarios. +Los telescopios que se encuentran en el espacio, los telescopios en tierra, con diferentes capacidades de longitud de onda, Incluso los telescopios similares, pero con diferentes herramientas, todos miran a diferentes partes de las preguntas que hacemos. +Cuando descubrimos otros planetas podemos probar estas observaciones, podemos medir las atmsferas, y mirar hacia el espacio en alta resolucin. +Son muy complementarios. +Tienes razn acerca de los fondos, estamos compitiendo. Pero desde un punto de vista cientfico, nos complementamos. +BG: Wendy, muchas gracias por venir a TEDGlobal. +WF: Gracias. +Si quieren comprar cocana de alta calidad a bajo precio, realmente solo existe un lugar adonde ir. Son los mercados annimos de la red oscura. +Uno no puede llegar a estos sitios con un navegador normal, con Chrome o Firefox, porque estn en esa parte oculta de Internet, conocida como Tor, red de anonimato, donde las URL son serie de nmeros y letras sin sentido que terminan en .onion, y a la que se accede con un navegador especial llamado el navegador Tor. +El navegador Tor era originalmente un proyecto de la inteligencia naval. +Luego se convirti en cdigo abierto, y permite a cualquiera navegar por la red sin dar a conocer su ubicacin. +Y lo hace mediante la encriptacin de su direccin IP y enrutamiento a travs de otras computadoras de todo el mundo que usan el mismo software. +Se puede usar con la Internet normal pero tambin es la clave para la red oscura. +Y por ese sistema de encriptacin diablicamente inteligente, los 20 o 30 mil sitios que operan all, no lo sabemos exactamente, son increblemente difciles de cerrar. +Es un mundo libre de censura visitado por usuarios annimos. +No es de extraar, entonces, que sea un lugar lgico adonde ir para cualquiera con algo que ocultar, y ese algo, por supuesto, no tiene que ser ilegal. +En la red oscura hay sitios denunciantes, The New Yorker. +Hay blogs de activismo poltico. +Bibliotecas de libros piratas. +Pero tambin hay mercados de drogas, pornografa ilegal, servicios de hacking comerciales, y mucho ms. +La red oscura es uno de los lugares ms interesantes y emocionantes de cualquier lugar de la red. +Y la razn es, porque a pesar de la innovacin, por supuesto, tiene lugar en grandes empresas, en las mejores universidades del mundo, y tambin en los mrgenes, porque aquellos en los mrgenes, los parias, los marginados, a menudo son los ms creativos, porque estn obligados a ello. +En esta parte de Internet, Uds. no encontrarn ni un solo lolcat, ni un anuncio pop-up en ningn lugar. +Y esa es una de las razones por las que creo que muchos de Uds. entrarn en la red oscura muy pronto. +No es que est sugiriendo a nadie en esta audiencia utilizarla y adquirir narcticos de alta calidad. +Pero digamos por un momento, que Uds. lo hiciesen. +Tengan paciencia conmigo. +Lo primero que uno nota al ingresar en uno de estos sitios es lo familiar que resulta. +Cada producto, miles de productos, tiene una imagen brillante, de alta resolucin, una descripcin detallada del producto, un precio. +Hay un icono "Realizar pedido". +Existe incluso, el ms lindo de todos, un botn de "Reportar este tema". +Increble. +Uno navega por el sitio, uno elige, paga con la moneda encriptada bitcoin, introduce una direccin, preferiblemente no la del domicilio, y espera a que su producto llegue por correo, lo que casi siempre sucede. +Y la razn para hacerlo no se debe a la encriptacin inteligente. +Eso es importante. +Es algo mucho ms simple que eso. +Las opiniones de los usuarios. +Uno ve que cada proveedor en estos sitios utiliza un seudnimo, como es natural, pero mantiene el mismo seudnimo para construir una reputacin. +Y como para el comprador es fcil cambiar la lealtad a placer, la nica manera de confiar en un proveedor es que tenga un buen historial de comentarios positivos de otros usuarios del sitio. +Y esta introduccin de competencia y eleccin es exactamente lo que los economistas predicen. +Los precios tienden a bajar, la calidad del producto tiende a subir, y los proveedores estn atentos, son educados, centrados en el consumidor, que ofrecen todo tipo de ofertas especiales, singulares, dos por uno, entrega gratuita, para que uno siga feliz. +Habl con Drugsheaven. +Drugsheaven ofreca una excelente marihuana a un precio razonable. +Tena una poltica de reembolso muy generosa, detallado THC y buenos plazos de entrega. +"Estimado Drugsheaven", escrib va correo electrnico interno tambin encriptado, por supuesto. +"Soy nuevo aqu. Te importa si compro solo un gramo de marihuana?" +Unas horas ms tarde, llega una respuesta. +Ellos siempre responden. +"Hola, gracias por su correo. +Comenzar con algo pequeo es sabio. Si fuera t, tambin, hara lo mismo". +"As que no hay problema, si solo quieres comenzar con un gramo. +Espero que podamos hacer negocios juntos. +Mis mejores deseos, Drugsheaven". +No s por qu tena acento ingls burgus, pero lo imagino. +Este tipo de actitud centrada en el consumidor la razn; por eso, al revisar 120 000 comentarios dejados en uno de estos sitios durante tres meses, el 95 % de ellos puntuaban cinco de cinco. +El cliente, que se ve, es el rey. +Pero qu significa eso? +Pues bien, por una parte, significa que hay ms drogas, disponibles, ms fcilmente, para ms personas. +Y segn mis clculos, eso no es algo bueno. +Pero, por otro lado, si uno toma drogas, se tiene una manera razonablemente buena de garantizar un cierto nivel de pureza y calidad, que es muy importante si uno consume drogas. +Y se puede hacer desde la comodidad de la propia casa, sin los riesgos asociados con la compra en las calles. +Como he dicho, uno debe ser creativo e innovador para sobrevivir en este mercado. +Y los 20 o ms sitios que actualmente funcionan, por cierto, no siempre funcionan, no siempre son perfectos; el sitio que mostr, se cerr hace 18 meses, pero no antes de lograr un volumen de venta de ms de mil millones de dlares. +Pero estos mercados, debido a las difciles condiciones en las que operan, las condiciones inhspitas, siempre innovan, siempre piensan cmo ser ms inteligentes, ms descentralizados, ms difciles de ser censurados, y ms amigables con el cliente. +Abordemos el sistema de pago. +No tienen que pagar con la tarjeta de crdito, pues eso dara directamente con Uds. +Se utiliza la moneda encriptada bitcoin que se intercambia fcilmente por monedas del mundo real y da a sus usuarios un muy alto grado de anonimato. +Pero al comienzo de estos sitios, la gente not una falla. +Algunos comerciantes sin escrpulos huan con los bitcoin de la gente antes de enviar por correo las drogas. +La comunidad se le ocurri una solucin, llamada pagos en custodia multifirmas. +As que para comprar mi artculo, deba enviar mi bitcoin a una zona neutra, un tercer monedero digital seguro. +Brillante! +Elegante. +Funciona. +Entonces vieron que haba un problema con bitcoin, porque cada transaccin bitcoin se registra en un libro de contabilidad pblica. +Siendo inteligente, se puede averiguar quin est detrs de ellos. +As que se les ocurri un servicio. +Cientos de personas envan su bitcoin a una sola direccin, esos son una maraa desordenada, y luego la cantidad correcta se enva a los destinatarios adecuados, pero son diferentes bitcoins: sistemas de microlavado. +Es increble. +Interesados en qu drogas son tendencia ahora en la red oscura? +Comprubenlo en el motor de bsqueda Grams. +Pueden incluso comprar espacio publicitario. +Son consumidores ticos preocupados por lo que la industria farmacutica hace? +S. +Un proveedor le ofrecer cocana orgnica de comercio justo. +Eso no se obtienen de narcotraficantes colombianos, sino de agricultores guatemaltecos. +Incluso se comprometan a reinvertir el 20 % de los beneficios en programas de educacin locales. +Incluso hay un comprador misterioso. +es igual lo que piensen de la moralidad de estos sitios, y sostengo que en realidad no es una pregunta fcil, la creacin del mercados operativos, annimos y competitivos, donde nadie sabe quin es nadie, es decir, siempre bajo riesgo de que sean cerrados por las autoridades, es un logro asombroso, un logro fenomenal. +Y es que el tipo de innovacin es por eso que los de la periferia a menudo son los precursores de lo que est por venir. +Es fcil olvidar que debido a su corta vida, Internet ha cambiado en realidad muchas veces en los ltimos 30 aos. +Se inici en los aos 70 como un proyecto militar, transformado en el decenio de los 80 en una red acadmica, utilizada por empresas en los aos 90, y luego invadido por todos nosotros va medios sociales en la dcada 2000-2010. pero creo que cambiar de nuevo. +Y creo que cosas como los mercados de la red oscura, creativo, seguro, difcil de censurar, creo que ese es el futuro. +Y la razn es el futuro porque a todos nos preocupa nuestra privacidad. +Las encuestas muestran tenazmente preocupaciones sobre la privacidad. +Cunto ms tiempo pasamos en lnea, ms nos preocupa eso, y esas encuestas muestran que nuestra preocupacin crece. +Estamos preocupados por lo que sucede con nuestros datos. +Nos preocupa que puedan estar vindonos. +Desde las revelaciones de Edward Snowden, ha habido un gran nmero creciente de personas que utilizan herramientas para la mejora de la privacidad. +En la actualidad hay entre 2-3 millones de usuarios diarios del navegador Tor, cuyo uso mayoritario es perfectamente legtimo, a veces incluso mundano. +Y hay cientos de activistas de todo el mundo trabajando en tcnicas y herramientas para mantenernos annimos en lnea, por defecto los servicios de mensajera cifrados. +Etereum, proyecto que intenta enlazar discos duros conectados sin uso de millones de computadoras del mundo, para crear una especie de Internet distribuida que nadie controla. +Ya tuvimos antes computacin distribuida, por supuesto. +Lo usamos para todo, para Skype para la bsqueda de vida extraterrestre. +Pero si se aade computacin distribuida y el cifrado de gran alcance eso es muy, muy difcil de censurar y controlar. +Otra llamada MaidSafe trabaja en principios similares. +Otro llamado Twister y as sucesivamente. +Y aqu est el tema, que cuantos ms nos unamos, ms interesantes se convierten estos sitios, y cuantos ms de nosotros nos unamos, etc., etc. +Y creo que eso es lo que va a pasar. +De hecho, ya est sucediendo. +La red oscura ya no es una guarida para distribuidores y un escondite para denunciantes. +Ya est pasando a un primer plano. +Recientemente, el msico Aphex Twin lanz su lbum como un sitio de red oscura. +Facebook ha comenzado un sitio de red oscura. +Un grupo de arquitectos de Londres ha abierto un sitio de red oscura para personas preocupadas por los proyectos de regeneracin. +S, la red oscura pasa a primer plano, y predigo que muy pronto, todas las empresas de medios sociales, todos los medios ms importantes de noticias y, por lo tanto, la mayora de Uds. en esta audiencia, usar la red oscura, tambin. +As que Internet est a punto de ser an ms interesante, ms emocionante, ms innovador, ms terrible, ms destructivo. +Una buena noticia si estn preocupados por la libertad. +Una buena noticia, para preocupados por la libertad. +Una buena noticia si se preocupan por la democracia. +Es tambin una buena noticia si quieren buscar pornografa ilegal y si quieren comprar y vender drogas con impunidad. +Ni del todo oscuro, ni del todo claro. +No solo una parte o la otra ganar, sino ambas. +Muchas gracias de verdad. +Chris Anderson: T eras algo as como un fenmeno matemtico. +De muy joven ya impartas clases en Harvard y en el MIT. +Y luego lleg a llamarte la NSA. +Qu pas? +Jim Simons: Bueno, la NSA, la Agencia de Seguridad Nacional, no vino precisamente a llamarme. +Tenan una operacin en Princeton, y contrataron a matemticos para atacar a los cdigos secretos y cosas por el estilo. +Yo saba que exista. +Tenan una muy buena poltica, porque la mitad del tiempo poda uno trabajar en sus propias matemticas, y la otra mitad trabajabas para las cosas de ellos. +Y pagaban muy bien. +As que era algo irresistible. +Y fui all. +CA: Eras un descifrador de cdigos. +JS: As es. +CA: Hasta que te despidieron. +JS: Me despidieron. S. +CA: Por qu? +JS: Bueno, por qu? +Me despidieron porque la guerra de Vietnam estaba en marcha, y el gran jefe en mi organizacin era un sper fan de la guerra y escribi un artculo en la portada del New York Times sobre cmo bamos a ganar en Vietnam. +Y no me gustaba aquella guerra, pensaba que era absurda. +Y escrib una carta al Times que publicaron, diciendo que no todos los que trabajaban para Maxwell Taylor, --si alguien se acuerda de ese nombre--, estaban de acuerdo con l. +Y di mi propia opinin... +CA: Oh, ya veo... JS: ... que era diferente a la del general Taylor. +Pero al final, nadie dijo nada. +Tena 29 aos entonces, y un chico vino y dijo que era un informante de la revista Newsweek y quera entrevistarme para preguntarme qu haca con respecto a mis opiniones. +Y le dije: "Estoy haciendo sobre todo matemticas y cuando termine la guerra, entonces har sobre todo otras cosas". +Entonces hice lo nico inteligente en ese da. Le dije a mi jefe de departamento que haba dado esa entrevista. +Y l pregunt: "Qu dijiste?". +Y yo le expliqu lo que dije. +Y luego dijo: "Tengo que llamar a Taylor". +Llam a Taylor, dur 10 minutos. +Me despidieron cinco minutos despus de eso. +CA: Bien. +JS: Pero no fue malo. +CA: No fue malo, porque te fuiste a Stony Brook y avanzaste en tu carrera matemtica. +Comenzaste a trabajar con este hombre. +Quin es este? +JS: Shiing-Shen Chern. +Chern era uno de los grandes matemticos del siglo. +Lo haba conocido siendo estudiante en Berkeley. +Yo tena algunas ideas, se las expuse a l y le gustaron. +Juntos, hicimos este trabajo, que pueden ver fcilmente ah. +Ah est. +CA: Eso les llev a la publicacin de un famoso artculo juntos. +Puedes explicar qu era ese trabajo? +JS: No. +JS: Bueno, podra explicrselo a alguien. +CA: Qu tal si lo explicas? +JS: Pero no a muchos. No a mucha gente. +CA: Creo que me dijiste que tena algo que ver con esferas, empecemos por aqu. +JS: S, as es, pero dir de ese trabajo, que s que tena que ver con eso, pero antes de llegar a eso, el trabajo era buenas matemticas. +Yo estaba muy contento y tambin Chern. +Incluso abord un subcampo que ahora est floreciente. +Pero, lo ms interesante, es que se aplic a la fsica, algo de lo que no sabamos nada, al menos yo no saba nada de fsica, y no creo que Chern tampoco supiera mucho. +Unos 10 aos despus de publicarse el artculo Ed Witten en Princeton lo comenz a aplicar a la teora de cuerdas y la gente en Rusia lo aplic a lo llamado "materia condensada". +Hoy, esas cosas se llaman invariantes Chern-Simons que se ha extendido mucho en la fsica. +Y fue increble. +No sabamos de fsica. +Nunca se me ocurri que se aplicara a la fsica. +Pero eso pasa con las matemticas, nunca se sabe dnde irn. +CA: Esto es tan increble. +Hemos hablado de cmo la evolucin da forma a las mentes humanas que pueden o no percibir la verdad. +De alguna manera, con una teora matemtica, sin saber nada de fsica, descubres que dos dcadas despus se aplica para describir detalladamente el mundo fsico real. +Cmo es posible? +JS: Dios lo sabe. +Pero un famoso fsico, Eugenio Wigner, escribi un ensayo sobre la eficacia irracional de las matemticas. +Estas matemticas con races en el mundo real --en cierto sentido, aprendemos a contar, medir, lo que todo el mundo hara--, luego florecen por s solas. +Pero muy a menudo se trata de volver a salvar los muebles. +La relatividad general es un ejemplo. +Hermann Minkowski tena esa geometra, y Einstein se dio cuenta, "Oye! Es en lo mismo que puedo enmarcar la relatividad general". +Por lo tanto, nunca se sabe. Es un misterio. +Es un misterio. +CA: Aqu pues hay algo de ingenuidad matemtica. +Hblanos de esto. +JS: Es una bola, es una esfera, y tiene un enrejado alrededor, sabes, esos cuadrados. +Lo que mostrar, lo observ originalmente Leonhard Euler, el gran matemtico, en el 1700. +Y se desarroll en un campo muy importante de las matemticas: topologa algebraica, geometra. +Ese artculo de entonces tena sus races en esto. +As que, aqu est esto: tiene ocho vrtices, 12 aristas, seis caras. +Y si nos fijamos en la diferencia, vrtices, menos aristas, ms caras, uno obtiene dos. +Bien, dos. Es un buen nmero. +Esta es una manera diferente de hacerlo, son tringulos que cubren... esto tiene 12 vrtices y 30 aristas y 20 caras o 20 azulejos. +Y vrtices menos aristas ms caras todava es igual a dos. +Y de hecho, se puede hacer de cualquier manera, aplicado a todo tipo de polgonos y tringulos y mezclarlos. +Y uno toma vrtices, menos aristas, ms caras y uno siempre obtendr dos. +Aqu hay una forma diferente. +Este es un toro o la superficie de un donut: 16 vrtices cubierto por estos rectngulos, 32 aristas, 16 caras. +Los vrtices menos aristas son cero. +Siempre se obtendr cero. +Cada vez que se cubre un toro con cuadrados o tringulos o lo que sea, se obtiene cero. +Esto se llama la caracterstica de Euler. +Y se llama invariante topolgica. +Es bastante increble. +No importa cmo se haga, siempre se obtiene la misma respuesta. +Ese fue el primer empuje, desde mediados de la dcada de 1700, un tema que ahora se conoce como topologa algebraica. +CA: Y su propio trabajo tom una idea que se traslad en la teora de dimensiones superiores, objetos de dimensiones superiores, y ha encontrado nuevas invariantes? +JS: S. Haba invariantes ya de dimensiones superiores. Clases de Pontryagin, en realidad, tipos de Chern. +Haba un montn de esos tipos de invariantes. +He tenido problemas para trabajar en uno de ellos y modelarlo en una especie de combinatoria, en lugar de la forma cmo se realiza normalmente, y que dio lugar a este trabajo descubriendo cosas nuevas. +Pero si no hubiera sido por el Sr. Euler que escribi casi 70 volmenes de matemticas y tuvo 13 hijos, que al parecer meca en sus rodillas mientras escriba, si no hubiera sido por Euler, tal vez no habran resultado esas invariantes. +CA: Eso por lo menos nos da una idea de esa mente increble. +Hablemos de Renacimiento. +Porque tomaste esa mente increble y de haber sido descifrador de cdigos en la NSA, te convertiste en descifrador de cdigos en la industria financiera. +Seguro que no compraste una teora de mercado eficiente. +Encontraste una forma de crear rendimientos sorprendentes hace ms de dos dcadas. +La forma cmo me han explicado lo notable sobre lo que hiciste no es solo el tamao del rendimiento, es que las tomaste con sorprendentemente baja volatilidad y el riesgo, en comparacin con otros fondos de inversin. +Cmo lo lograste, Jim? +JS: Lo hice uniendo a un grupo maravilloso de personas. +Al empezar con el comercio burstil, estaba un poco cansado de las matemticas. +Tena 30 aos, tena un poco de dinero. +Empec prctica burstil y me fue muy bien. +Hice mucho dinero por pura suerte. +Quiero decir, creo que fue pura suerte. +Ciertamente no fue un modelo matemtico. +Pero en el estudio de los datos, tras un tiempo me di cuenta de que al parece exista cierta estructura. +Y contrat unos matemticos y empec a hacer algunos modelos, como el tipo de cosas que haca en el Instituto de Anlisis de Defensa. +Uno disea un algoritmo, lo prueba en una computadora. +Funciona? No funciona? Etc. +CA: Echamos un vistazo a esto? +Aqu hay un grfico tpico de algunos productos bsicos. +Lo miro y digo: "Eso es solo una caminata aleatoria, arriba y abajo, con una ligera tendencia al alza en todo ese perodo de tiempo". +Cmo pudiste comerciar viendo eso, y detectar algo que no era simplemente al azar? +JS: Hace tiempo, este es un grfico de los viejos tiempos, las materias primas o divisas tenan una tendencia a la tendencia. +No la ligera tendencia que ves aqu, sino tendencias en los perodos. +Y si decides, hoy voy a predecir, con base en el promedio mvil de los ltimos 20 das, tal vez eso sea una buena prediccin, y se puede hacer algo de dinero. +Y, de hecho, hace aos, un sistema as funcionaba, no muy bien, pero funcionaba. +Se haca dinero, se perda dinero, se haca dinero. +Pero el ao vala la pena y podas hacer algo de dinero durante ese perodo. +Es un sistema muy rudimentario. +CA: As que pusiste a prueba longitudes de tendencias en el tiempo para ver si, por ejemplo, una tendencia de 10 das o de 15 era predictiva de lo que suceda despus. +JS: Claro, se poda probar todo eso y ver qu funcionaba mejor. +Seguir tendencias habra sido estupendo en los aos 60, y estaba bien en los aos 70. +Pero en los aos 80, ya no era as. +CA: Debido a que todo el mundo poda detectarlo. +As que, cmo lograste tomar la delantera? +JS: Nos pusimos en la delantera del resto buscando otros enfoques, enfoques de corto plazo hasta cierto punto. +La verdad es que tuvimos que reunir una enorme cantidad de datos, y tuvimos que hacerlo a mano al principio. +Fuimos a la Reserva Federal y copiamos registros de tipos de inters y cosas as, pues no estaban en las computadoras. +Obtuvimos una gran cantidad de datos. +Y gente muy inteligente, esa fue la clave. +Yo en verdad no s cmo contratar gente para el comercio burstil. +Haba contratado a algunos, algunos hicieron dinero, otros no. +No saba hacer ms negocios que eso. +Pero saba cmo contratar cientficos, porque me gusta ese departamento. +Entonces, eso fue lo que hicimos. +Y poco a poco estos modelos se fueron mejorando, y mejorando. +CA: Se les reconoce por hacer algo notable como en Renacimiento, construir esa cultura, ese grupo de personas, que no eran solo armas contratadas, que no estaban por dinero. +Su motivacin era hacer matemticas emocionantes y ciencia. +JS: Bueno, me gustara que fuera cierto. +Pero algunos se movan por el dinero. +CA: Hicieron mucho dinero. +JS: No puedo decir que ninguno no viniera por el dinero. +Creo que a muchos de ellos les mova el dinero. +Pero tambin vinieron porque era fascinante. +CA: Qu papel jug la mquina de aprendizaje en esto? +JS: En cierto modo, hicimos una mquina de aprendizaje. +Ante una gran cantidad de datos, se intenta simular diferentes esquemas de prediccin, hasta que es mejor y mejor. +No necesariamente se retroalimenta la forma cmo lo hicimos. +Pero funcion. +CA: Estos diferentes esquemas de prediccin pueden ser muy descontrolados e inesperados? +Quiero decir, consideraban todo, no? +Observaban el tiempo, la longitud de los vestidos, la opinin poltica? +JS: S, pero la longitud de los vestidos no la consideramos. +CA: Qu cosas, pues? +JS: Bueno, todo. +Todo es grano para el molino, excepto las longitudes del dobladillo. +Tiempo, informes anuales, informes trimestrales, datos histricos, volmenes, lo que sea. +Lo que haya. +Eran terabytes de datos diariamente. +Y lo almacenbamos y lo preparbamos para su anlisis. +Uno busca anomalas. +Uno busca, como has dicho, que la hiptesis del mercado eficiente no es correcta. +CA: Pero cualquiera anomala podra ser algo al azar. +Por lo tanto, el secreto era observar mltiples anomalas extraas y ver cuando se alinean? +JS: Cualquier anomala podra ser algo al azar; Sin embargo, si uno tiene suficientes datos se puede predecir que no lo es. +Se puede observar una anomala que persiste durante un tiempo suficientemente largo, la probabilidad de que no sea aleatoria es alta. +Pero esto se desvirta con el tiempo; las anomalas pueden desteirse. +Hay que mantenerse en la cresta del negocio. +CA: Mucha gente mira el sector de fondos de cobertura y de alguna manera, estn sorprendidos por la cantidad de riqueza que se crea all, y cunto talento se va a all. +Tienes alguna preocupacin concerniente a la industria, y quiz al sector financiero, en general? +Del tipo que est fuera de control, y que contribuya a aumentar la desigualdad? +Cmo se sostendr lo que sucede en el sector de fondos de cobertura? +JS: Creo que en los ltimos 3 o 4 aos, los fondos de cobertura no lo han hecho especialmente bien. +Hemos hecho el dandi, el sector de fondos en su conjunto no lo ha hecho muy bien. +El mercado de valores ha estado de buena racha, subiendo como todos saben, y los ratios precio-beneficios han crecido. +As que una gran cantidad de la riqueza creada en el pasado, digamos, 5 o 6 aos, no se ha creado por los fondos de cobertura. +La gente me preguntaba: "Qu son fondos de cobertura?". +Y yo digo: "1 y 20". +Lo que significa, --ahora es 2 y 20--, 2 % de tarifa fija y el 20 % sobre las ganancias. +Los fondos de cobertura son seres diferentes. +CA: Se dice que cobras honorarios ligeramente ms altos que eso. +JS: Cobramos las tarifas ms altas en el mundo en este momento. +5 y 44, eso es lo que cobramos. +CA: 5 y 44. +As que 5 % tarifa plana, y 44 % de alza. +Y an as haces que tus inversores ganen cantidades espectaculares de dinero. +JS: S, logramos un buen rendimiento. +La gente se molesta: "Cmo se pueden cobrar esas tasas altas?". +Y yo: "Bueno, pueden irse". +Pero, "Cmo puedo obtener ms?", era lo que deca la gente... Pero en un momento dado, como he dicho, compramos todos los inversores, por tener una capacidad para el fondo. +CA: Debemos preocuparnos de que el sector de fondos de cobertura atraiga demasiados talentos matemticos del mundo que trabajen en eso, en vez de aplicarlo a los otros muchos problemas del mundo? +JS: Bueno, no son solo matemticos. +Contratamos astrnomos y fsicos y otros similares. +No creo que debamos preocuparnos demasiado. +Es todava un sector bastante pequeo. +Y, de hecho, llevar la ciencia al mundo de la inversin ha mejorado ese mundo. +Se reduce la volatilidad. Ha aumentado la liquidez. +Los diferenciales son ms estrechos porque las personas los negocian. +Por eso no me preocupa que Einstein se vaya al sector del fondo de cobertura. +CA: Sin embargo, ests en una fase de tu vida en que inviertes en el otro extremo de la cadena de suministro. Ests impulsando las matemticas en todo EE. UU. +Esta es tu esposa, Marilyn. +Estn trabajando en temas filantrpicos juntos. +Hblame de eso. +JS: Bueno, Marilyn comenz, --ah est all, mi bella esposa-- empez la fundacin hace 20 aos. +Creo que en 1994. +Yo digo que en el 93, ella dice que fue en el 94, pero fue uno de esos dos aos. +Empezamos la fundacin, como una forma apropiada de hacer beneficencia. +Ella llevaba la contabilidad y eso. +No tenamos una visin en ese momento, pero poco a poco surgi una visin que era centrarnos en matemticas y ciencias, centrarnos en la investigacin bsica. +Y eso es lo que hemos hecho. +Hace 6 aos me fui de Renacimiento a trabajar en la fundacin. +As que eso es lo que hacemos. +CA: Y as Math for America bsicamente invierte en profesores de matemticas de todo el pas, dndoles un ingreso extra, dndoles apoyo y coaching. +Y realmente tratando de hacer lo que es ms eficaz y hacer una convocatoria a la que los profesores puede aspirar. +JS: S, en vez de desalentar a los malos profesores, que ha creado problemas morales en la comunidad educativa, especialmente en matemticas y ciencias, nos centramos en alentar a los buenos y en darles un estatus. +S, les damos dinero extra, 15 000 dlares al ao. +Tenemos 800 profesores de matemticas y ciencias en Nueva York en las escuelas pblicas hoy, como parte de un ncleo. +Hay una gran moral entre ellos. +Se quedan en el tema. +El ao que viene, sern 1000 y sern el 10 % de los profesores de matemticas y ciencias de las escuelas pblicas en Nueva York. +CA: Jim, hay otro proyecto filantrpico que has apoyado: la investigacin sobre los orgenes de la vida. +Qu vemos aqu? +JS: Bueno, espera un segundo, +y te dir lo que estn viendo. +Los orgenes de la vida es algo fascinante. +Cmo llegamos aqu? +Bueno, hay dos preguntas: Una de ellas, cul es la ruta desde la geologa a la biologa? Cmo llegamos aqu? +Y la otra, con qu empezamos? +Con qu material, qu tenemos que trabajar en esta ruta? +Son dos preguntas muy, muy interesantes. +La primera pregunta es un camino tortuoso desde la geologa hasta el ARN, cmo se lleg ah? +Y la otra, con qu tenemos que trabajar? +Bueno, con ms de lo que pensamos. +As lo de la foto es una estrella en formacin. +Cada ao en nuestra Va Lctea, que tiene 100 mil millones de estrellas, se crean dos nuevas estrellas. +No me preguntes cmo, pero se crean. +Y les toma un milln de aos estabilizarse. +As que, en estado estacionario, hay cerca de dos millones de estrellas en formacin siempre. +Una est en algn estado de este proceso de decantacin. +Y hay toda esta basura circulando alrededor de ella, polvo y otras cosas. +Y que formar, probablemente, un sistema solar, o lo que sea. +Pero aqu est la cuestin, en este polvo que rodea a una estrella en formacin se han encontrado, molculas orgnicas significativas. +Molculas no solo como el metano, sino formaldehdo y cianuro, que son bloques de construccin, semillas, si se quiere, de la vida. +Bueno, puede ser tpico. +Y puede ser tpico que los planetas alrededor del universo empiecen con algunos de estos bloques de construccin bsicos. +Significa eso que existir la vida por todos lados? +Puede ser. +Pero esto es una muestra de lo es tortuoso que este camino desde aquellos inicios frgiles, esas semillas, todo el camino a la vida. +Y la mayora de esas semillas caern en planetas de barbecho. +CA: Para ti, personalmente, encontrar una respuesta a esta pregunta de dnde venimos, de cmo sucedi, es algo que te encantara descubrir? +JS: S, me encantara verlo. +Y gustara saber si ese camino es muy tortuoso, y tan improbable, que no importa cmo empezar, podramos ser una singularidad. +Pero por otro lado, debido a este polvo orgnico flotando alrededor, podramos tener muchos amigos all. +Sera bueno saberlo. +CA: Jim, hace unos aos, tuve la oportunidad de hablar con Elon Musk, y le pregunt el secreto de su xito, y dijo tomarme la fsica en serio fue todo. +Escucharte decir que tomar en serio las matemticas, ha impulsado toda tu vida. +Has hecho una fortuna, y ahora s que te permite invertir en el futuro de miles y miles de nios en todo EE. UU. y en otros lugares. +Podra ser que la ciencia realmente funciona? +Que las matemticas realmente funcionan? +JS: Las matemticas s funcionan. Las matemticas ciertamente funcionan. +Y esto ha sido divertido. +Trabajar con Marilyn y donar ha sido muy bueno, +CA: Acabo de encontrar un pensamiento inspirador para m, que al tomar en serio el conocimiento, se puede obtener mucho ms de l. +As que gracias por tu vida increble, y por venir aqu a TED. +Gracias. +Jim Simons! +Hoy hablar del trabajo. +Y la pregunta que quiero plantear y contestar es: "Por qu trabajamos?". +Por qu nos arrastramos fuera de la cama todas las maanas en lugar de vivir nuestras vidas plenas de una tras otra aventuras tipo TED? +Quiz se estn haciendo esa mismsima pregunta. +Ahora, claro que s que debemos ganarnos la vida, pero nadie en este recinto piensa que esa sea la respuesta a la pregunta, "Por qu trabajamos?". +Para quienes estamos en este recinto, nuestro trabajo es desafiante, comprometido, estimulante, significativo. +Y si tenemos suerte, pudiera ser incluso importante. +No trabajaramos si no nos pagaran, pero ese no es el porqu de lo que hacemos. +En general, pienso que creemos que las recompensas materiales son una razn muy mala para hacer el trabajo que hacemos. +Cuando decimos que alguien "est por la paga", no solamente estamos siendo descriptivos. +Creo que es por dems obvio, pero la misma obviedad plantea lo que para m es una pregunta increblemente profunda. +Por qu, si esto es tan obvio, a qu se debe que la abrumadora mayora de la gente en el planeta, haga un trabajo que carece de las caractersticas que nos hacen levantarnos, salir de la cama e ir a la oficina en las maanas? +Cmo es que permitimos que la mayora de la gente en el planeta tenga un trabajo montono, sin sentido y desalentador? +Por qu el capitalismo desarrollado cre un modo de produccin, de productos y servicios en que se eliminaron todas las satisfacciones inmateriales que podran derivarse del trabajo? +Los trabajadores que hacen este tipo de trabajo, sea en fbricas, en centros de llamadas o en bodegas de suministro lo hacen por la paga. +Ciertamente no hay otra razn terrenal en hacer lo que hacen si no es por la paga. +Entonces la pregunta es: por qu? +Y esta es la respuesta: la respuesta es la tecnologa. +Ya s, ya s... s, s, tecnologa, la automatizacin jode a la gente, bla, bla; no me refiero a eso. +No hablo del tipo de tecnologa que ha permeado nuestras vidas, y de la que la gente va a TED a or. +No hablo de la tecnologa de las cosas, por muy fundamental que sea. +Hablo de otra tecnologa, +de la tecnologa de las ideas. +La llamo "tecnologa de las ideas"... qu perspicaz de mi parte. +Adems de crear cosas, la ciencia crea ideas. +La ciencia crea formas de comprensin, +y en las ciencias sociales, las formas de comprensin que se van creando son las formas de entendernos a nosotros mismos. +Y tienen una enorme influencia en cmo pensamos, a lo que aspiramos y cmo actuamos. +Si creen que su pobreza es la voluntad de Dios, rezarn. +Si creen que su pobreza es resultado de su propia incompetencia, caern en desesperacin. +Si creen que su pobreza es resultado de la opresin y la dominacin, se levantarn en revolucin. +Que su respuesta a la pobreza sea resignacin o revolucin, depende de su entendimiento de las causas de su pobreza. +Este es el rol que juegan las ideas en formarnos como seres humanos y por eso la tecnologa de las ideas quiz sea la tecnologa cabalmente ms importante que la ciencia nos da. +Hay algo especial en la tecnologa de las ideas que la diferencia de la tecnologa de las cosas. +Con las cosas, si la tecnologa es mala, entonces slo desaparece, cierto? +La mala tecnologa desaparece. +Con las ideas... las falsas ideas acerca de los seres humanos no desaparecern si la gente cree que son ciertas. +Porque si la gente cree que son ciertas, crean formas de vida e instituciones que son consistentes con estas mismas falsas ideas. +Es as como la Revolucin Industrial cre un sistema de fabricacin del que en realidad nada se puede sacar de la jornada, excepto la paga al final del da. +Porque el padre, uno de los padres, de la Revolucin Industrial, Adam Smith, estaba convencido de que los seres humanos son por naturaleza flojos, y que no haran nada a menos que hicieras que valiera la pena, y la forma de hacer algo que valiera la pena era los incentivos, darles recompensas. +Esa era la nica razn por la que alguien hara algo. +As que creamos un sistema de fabricacin consistente con esa falsa visin de la naturaleza humana. +Pero una vez que este sistema de produccin estaba establecido, no haba en realidad ninguna otra forma de operacin, excepto una que era consistente con la visin de Adam Smith. +As, el ejemplo del trabajo es meramente un ejemplo de cmo las falsas ideas pueden crear una circunstancia que acaba convirtindose en verdad. +No es verdad, que "ya no puedan conseguir buena ayuda". +Es verdad, que "ya no puedan conseguir buena ayuda", cuando le dan a la gente trabajo que es degradante y desalentador. +Resulta bastante curioso que Adam Smith --el mismo tipo que nos dio este increble invento de la produccin en masa y la divisin del trabajo-- entenda esto. +Deca de la gente que trabajaba en las lneas de ensamble, de quienes trabajaban en las lneas, deca, "En general se vuelven tan estpidos como un ser humano lo puede ser". +Noten aqu que la palabra es "vuelven". +"En general se vuelven tan estpidos como un ser humano lo puede ser". +Con toda intencin o no, lo que Adam Smith deca con eso es que la forma misma de la institucin donde trabaja la gente, crea gente que se adapta a las demandas de esa institucin y las priva de la oportunidad de lograr el tipo de satisfacciones del trabajo que damos por hecho. +La cuestin acerca de la ciencia, de las ciencias naturales, es que podemos volcarnos en teoras fantsticas sobre el cosmos con la plena confianza de que el cosmos es completamente indiferente a nuestras teoras. +Funcionar de la misma maldita manera no importa qu teoras tengamos del cosmos. +Pero s deben preocuparnos las teoras que tenemos sobre la naturaleza humana porque la naturaleza humana cambiar segn las teoras que tengamos, que diseemos para explicar y entender a los seres humanos. +El distinguido antroplogo Clifford Geertz, dijo hace unos aos, que los seres humanos son los "animales sin terminar". +Con eso quiso decir que es slo natural del humano tener naturaleza humana, que es por mucho producto de la sociedad donde vive la gente. +Esa naturaleza humana, es decir nuestra naturaleza humana, es ms creacin que descubrimiento. +Diseamos naturaleza humana al disear instituciones donde la gente habita y trabaja. +Entonces Uds. gente --son por mucho lo ms cercano a lo que estar de los amos del universo-- Uds. gente deben preguntarse, cuando regresen a dirigir sus organizaciones, +sencillamente qu tipo de naturaleza humana quieren contribuir a disear? +Gracias. +Gracias. +Bueno, todos necesitamos una razn para despertarnos. +Para m, fue despus de 11 000 voltios. +S que Uds. son muy educados como para preguntar, as que se los contar. +Una noche, en mi segundo ao de universidad, regresando de las vacaciones de Accin de Gracias, algunos de mis amigos y yo estbamos jugando y decidimos subirnos sobre un tranva estacionado. +Slo para sentarnos ah con los cables elctricos por encima. +De alguna manera, pareca una gran idea en ese momento. +Habamos hecho otras cosas ms tontas. +Me sub por las escaleras traseras, Y cuando me par, la corriente elctrica se me entr por el brazo, baj hacia los pies... y eso fue todo. +Me creeran si les digo que aquel reloj todava funciona? +Se necesita una paliza! +Mi padre lo usa en solidaridad. +Esa noche comenz mi relacin formal con la muerte --mi muerte-- y tambin empez mi camino como paciente. +Es una buena palabra. +Significa aquel que sufre. +As que supongo que todos somos pacientes. +Bueno. El sistema de salud estadounidense tiene ms que su parte correspondiente de disfuncin que se equipara con su brillantez, seguramente. +Hoy soy mdico, doctor de hospicios y medicina paliativa, as que he visto la atencin de ambos lados. +Y cranme: casi todos los que se meten al sector salud realmente quieren lo mejor, quiero decir, de verdad. +Pero los que trabajamos en l tambin somos agentes inconscientes de un sistema que muchas veces no sirve. +Por qu? +Bueno, la respuesta es bastante sencilla, y explica mucho: el sector salud se dise basado en las enfermedades y no en la gente. +Es decir, por supuesto, que est mal diseado. +En ningn lugar los efectos de un mal diseo son ms penosos o donde ms apremia tener un buen diseo que al final de la vida, donde las cosas son ms ntidas y concentradas. +No hay lugar para rehacer. +Mi propsito el da de hoy es pasar por todas las disciplinas para invitar a repensar ese diseo en una gran conversacin. +Esto es, traer propsito y creatividad a la experiencia de morir. +Tenemos una oportunidad monumental frente a nosotros, ante uno de los pocos problemas universales, como individuos y como sociedad civil: repensar y planificar cmo hemos de morir. +As que empecemos por el final. +Para la mayora de las personas, lo ms espantoso de la muerte no es morir, es morir sufriendo. +Es una distincin clave. +Llegar al fondo de esto, puede ser muy til. Aunque el sufrimiento sea necesario se puede tratar de eliminarlo o cambiar lo que se pueda. +Sabemos que es natural, parte esencial de la naturaleza, parte del paquete y para ello necesitamos dar espacio, ajustarnos y crecer. +Sera muy bueno comprender las fuerzas superiores a nosotros mismos. +Nos dan proporcionalidad, como una dimensin csmica adecuada. +Cuando perd mis extremidades, aprend que esa prdida, se volvi inmodificable, una parte esencial de mi vida. Aprend que no poda ya rechazar esta realidad, sin rechazarme a m mismo. +Me tom un tiempo, pero llegu a aceptarlo. +Ahora, algo muy bueno del sufrimiento necesario, es que eso mismo, une al que da los cuidados con el que los recibe, como seres humanos. +Aqu es finalmente donde vemos que sucede la curacin. +Si, con compasin --tal como aprendimos ayer-- sufriendo juntos. +Ahora, vayamos al sistema. Se sabe que buena parte del sufrimiento es innecesario, inventado. +No sirve para ningn buen propsito. +Pero la buena noticia es que, ya que este tipo de sufrimiento es inventado, lo podemos cambiar. +Cmo vamos a morir es algo que podemos alterar. +Hacer que el sistema entienda esta distincin fundamental entre el sufrimiento necesario y el innecesario, nos lleva al primero de los tres puntos que quiero traer aqu hoy. +Despus de todo, nuestro rol como cuidadores, personas conscientes, es aliviar el sufrimiento, no aadir ms. +Fiel a los principios del cuidado paliativo, yo soy tanto un defensor que reflexiona, como un mdico que receta. +Una digresin: el cuidado paliativo es un rea muy importante pero poco entendida, aunque incluye los cuidados al final de la vida, no se limita a ellos. +No est limitado a los hospicios. +Se refiere a comodidad y vivir bien, en cualquier situacin. +As que por favor sepan que no tienes que estar muriendo para beneficiarte del cuidado paliativo. +Ahora, permtanme presentarles a Frank. +Como para convencerlos. +Conozco a Frank desde hace varios aos. +Vive con cncer prosttico avanzado, adems de un largo tiempo con HIV. +Le tratamos su dolor de huesos y su fatiga, pero la mayor parte del tiempo pensamos en voz alta sobre su vida; realmente sobre nuestra vida. +A su manera, Frank se aflige. +De esta forma, se mantiene a flote con cada prdida que va teniendo, y se alista para pasar a la siguiente. +Una prdida es una cosa, pero lamentarse es otra. +Frank siempre ha sido un aventurero, se ve como salido de un cuadro de Norman Rockwell; no se lamenta. +As que no nos sorprendi cuando lleg a la clnica un da, diciendo que quera remar en balsa de goma por el ro Colorado. +Era una buena idea? +Con todos los riesgos a su seguridad y a su salud, algunos diran que no. +Muchos lo dijeron, pero al final lo hizo mientras todava poda hacerlo. +Fue un viaje glorioso y maravilloso; agua helada, calor abrazador, escorpiones, serpientes, vida salvaje pululando de las paredes del Gran Can, todo lo glorioso del mundo ms all de nuestro control. +La decisin de Frank, aunque quiz drstica, es exactamente el tipo de cosas que muchos de nosotros haramos si solo pudiramos hacer lo que mejor nos conviene con el paso del tiempo. +Buena parte de lo que estamos diciendo se refiere a un cambio en perspectiva. +Despus de mi accidente, al regresar a la universidad, cambi de carrera a historia del arte. +Con el arte visual, cre que aprendera algo sobre cmo ver. Una leccin importante para un joven que no podra cambiar mucho de lo que estaba viendo. +Perspectiva, ese tipo de alquimia con la que podemos jugar, para convertir la angustia en flores. +De vuelta al presente; ahora trabajo en un gran lugar en San Francisco llamado el Proyecto del Hospicio Zen, donde tenemos un pequeo ritual que ayuda a hacer este cambio de perspectiva. +Cuando muere uno de los pacientes vienen los de la funeraria y mientras paseamos el cuerpo por el jardn, dirigindonos hacia la puerta, hacemos una pausa. +Quien lo desee; pacientes, familiares, enfermeras, voluntarios, inclusive los conductores de la carroza fnebre, comparten una historia, una cancin o un silencio, y le lanzamos ptalos de flores al cuerpo. +Bien intencionado, por supuesto, en nombre de la esterilidad, pero es que los hospitales tienden a impresionar nuestros sentidos, +y lo ms que podemos esperar de esos recintos es entumecimiento, anestesia, literalmente como el opuesto de la esttica, Tengo gran respeto por los hospitales, por lo que pueden hacer; estoy vivo gracias a ellos. +Pero pedimos demasiado de nuestros hospitales. +Son lugares para traumas agudos y enfermedades curables. +No para vivir y morir; no estn diseados para ello. +Pero no renuncio a la idea de que nuestras instituciones puedan ser ms humanas. +La belleza puede encontrarse en cualquier lugar. +Estuve algunos meses en una unidad de quemados en el Hospital de St. Barnabas en Livingston, Nueva Jersey, donde siempre me cuidaron bien en todos los turnos, incluyendo los buenos cuidados paliativos para mi dolor. +Una noche, comenz a nevar. +Recuerdo a las enfermeras quejndose de tener que manejar con esa nieve, +No haba ventanas en mi cuarto, pero era maravilloso imaginarse, la simple nieve, llegando y pegndose. +Al da siguiente, una de mis enfermeras me trajo a escondidas una bola de nieve. +La meti a la unidad. +No puedo describirles el xtasis que sent al tenerla en mi mano, el fro goteando por mi piel quemada; el milagro que era eso, esa fascinacin al ver cmo se derreta y se converta en agua. +En ese momento, estar en cualquier parte del planeta, en este universo, era ms importante para m que vivir o morir. +Esa pequea bola de nieve me dio toda la inspiracin que necesitaba tanto para tratar de vivir y estar bien, como si no lo lograba. +En un hospital, eso es un momento arrebatado. +En mi trabajo a travs de los aos, he conocido mucha gente lista para irse, lista para morir. +No porque hubieran encontrado la paz final o la trascendencia, sino por sentirse repudiados por lo que su vida se haba convertido, en una palabra, aislados o despreciados. +Muchos de nosotros con enfermedades crnicas o terminales, estamos llegando a edades avanzadas. +Y no estamos listos o preparados para este tsunami de plata. +Necesitamos una infraestructura lo suficiente dinmica para manejar estos movimientos ssmicos de nuestra poblacin. +Ahora es el momento de crear algo nuevo, que sea vital. +S que podemos pues tenemos que hacerlo. +La alternativa no es apenas aceptable. +Los ingredientes claves son conocidos: polticas, educacin y entrenamiento, sistemas, lugares fsicos. +Tenemos muchas ideas sobre planeacin de todo tipo para trabajar en ello. +Sabemos, por ejemplo, por las investigaciones, que lo ms importante para los moribundos es comodidad, sentirse aliviados y no ser cargas para los que ellos aman, paz existencial, espiritualidad y capacidad de maravillarse. +En el Hospicio Zen por casi 30 aos, hemos aprendido muchos detalles sutiles de nuestros residentes. +Las pequeas cosas, no son tan pequeas. +Por ejemplo, Janette. +Le era difcil respirar de un da a otro dada su condicin de ELA. +Pero qu creen? +Quiso volver a fumar otra vez; cigarrillos franceses, por favor. +No era para su autodestruccin, sino para sentir sus pulmones llenos mientras todava los tena. +Las prioridades cambian. +O Kate, que slo quera saber si su perro Austin estaba echado junto a su cama, y sentir su hocico fro en su piel seca, en lugar de ms quimioterapia corriendo por sus venas. Pues lo hizo. +Gratificacin esttica, sensible, donde por un momento, un instante somos premiados slo por existir. +En gran parte viene de amar nuestro tiempo a travs de los sentidos, de nuestro cuerpo, el mismo que hace la vida y la muerte. +Probablemente el lugar ms conmovedor en la casa de huspedes del Hospicio Zen es la cocina, algo raro si uno piensa que muchos de nuestros pacientes pueden comer muy poco, si es que pueden. +Pero sabemos que les damos sustento en varias formas: con olores, con planos simblicos. +En serio, con todo el trabajo pesado bajo nuestro techo, una de las intervenciones ms utilizadas y autnticas que conocemos, es hacer galletas. +(Pausa, suspiro) Mientras tengamos nuestros sentidos, aunque slo sea uno de ellos, tenemos al menos la posibilidad de acceder a lo que nos hace sentir humanos y conectados. +Imaginen los altibajos de esta nocin para los millones de personas que viven y mueren con demencia. +Delicias primitivas sensoriales que dicen aquello para lo que no tenemos palabras, impulsos que nos hacen estar presentes sin necesidad de un pasado o un futuro. +Si deshacernos del sufrimiento innecesario dentro del sistema fue nuestro primer punto de diseo, entonces favorecer la dignidad a travs de los sentidos, a travs del cuerpo, al reino de la esttica, es el punto de diseo nmero dos. +Esto nos lleva rpidamente al tercero y ltimo, por hoy: necesitamos levantar la vista y dirigirla hacia el bienestar, para que la vida, la salud y los cuidados mdicos se conviertan en hacer la vida ms maravillosa, en lugar de hacerla menos terrible. +Beneficencia. +Aqu esto nos lleva a la distincin entre un modelo centrado en las enfermedades y uno centrado en las personas, los pacientes. Es aqu donde el cuidado se vuelve creativo, generativo, e incluso divertido. +"Divertido" puede sonar como una palabra rara en este contexto. +Pero tambin es una de nuestras formas ms elevadas de adaptacin. +Consideren todos los esfuerzos necesarios para llegar a ser un ser humano. +La necesidad de comida dio origen a la cocina. +La necesidad de refugio dio origen a la arquitectura. +La necesidad de vestir, a la moda. +Y por nuestra dependencia del reloj, bueno, creamos la msica. +Dado que la muerte es una parte necesaria de la vida, qu podemos crear con este hecho? +Al decir "diversin" no quiero decir que tomemos a la ligera el morir o que dictemos una forma particular de morir. +Hay cantidades de dolor que no se puede cambiar, y de una forma u otra, todos nos arrodillaremos ante l. +En cambio, pido que hagamos espacio, fsico, psquico, para permitir que la vida real llegue hasta el final, as que ms que apartarse del camino, envejecer y morir pueden ser parte de un proceso de crecimiento hasta el final. +No podemos solucionar la muerte. +S que algunos de Uds. estn trabajando en ello. +Mientras tanto, podemos... podemos planificar pensando en ella. +Partes de m murieron hace tiempo, y eso es algo que todos podemos decir de una forma u otra. +Tuve que redisear mi vida alrededor de este hecho, y les puedo decir que ha sido una liberacin comprender que siempre se puede encontrar un golpe de belleza o significado en lo que la vida te ha dejado, como esa bola de nieve que dura un momento perfecto, mientras se va derritiendo. +Si amamos esos momentos intensamente, entonces tal vez aprendamos a vivir bien, no a pesar de la muerte, pero debido a ella. +Dejemos que la muerte sea la que nos lleve, no la falta de imaginacin. +Gracias. +Me gustara hablarles un poco sobre el miedo y sobre el costo del miedo y sobre la edad del miedo de la que ahora estamos emergiendo. +Me gustara que Uds. se sientan cmodos mientras lo hago, hacindoles saber lo que yo s sobre el miedo y la ansiedad. +Soy un chico judo de New Jersey. +Poda preocuparme antes de poder caminar. +Por favor, aplaudan eso. +Gracias. +Pero tambin me cri en un momento en que haba algo que temer. +Nos llevaron al saln de actos cuando yo era un nio pequeo para ensearnos cmo ponernos los abrigos sobre la cabeza para protegernos de una guerra termonuclear global. +Incluso mi cerebro de 7 aos, saba que no funcionara. +Pero tambin saba que la guerra termonuclear global era algo para preocuparse. +Y, sin embargo, a pesar de haber vivido durante 50 aos con la amenaza de una guerra semejante, la respuesta de nuestro gobierno y de nuestra sociedad fue hacer cosas maravillosas. +Creamos el programa espacial en respuesta a eso. +Construimos nuestro sistema de carreteras en respuesta a eso. +Creamos Internet en respuesta a eso. +As que a veces el miedo puede producir una respuesta constructiva. +Pero a veces puede producir una respuesta no constructiva. +El 11 de septiembre de 2001, 19 chicos se hicieron con el control de cuatro aviones que los volaron atravesando un par de edificios. +Significaron una horrible prdida. +No podemos minimizar lo que supuso. +Pero nuestra respuesta fue claramente desproporcionada, desproporcionada hasta alcanzar el punto del desquicio. +Reorganizamos el aparato de seguridad nacional de EE. UU. y de muchos gobiernos para afrontar una amenaza que, en el momento que se perpetraron esos ataques, era muy limitada. +De hecho, de acuerdo con nuestros servicios de inteligencia, el 11 de septiembre de 2001, haba 100 miembros del ncleo de Al-Qaeda. +Haba unos pocos miles de terroristas. +No planteban una amenaza existencial a nadie. +Pero reorganizamos todo nuestro aparato de seguridad nacional de la forma ms radical desde el final de la Segunda Guerra Mundial. +Iniciamos dos guerras. +Gastamos billones de dlares. +Suspendimos nuestros valores. +Violamos el derecho internacional. +Nos acogimos a la tortura. +Nos acogimos a la idea de que si esos 19 chicos podan hacer esto, cualquiera podra hacerlo. +Y por lo tanto, por primera vez en la historia, bamos a ver a todo el mundo como una amenaza. +Y cul fue el resultado de eso? +Programas de vigilancia para correos electrnicos y llamadas telefnicas de pases enteros, cientos de millones de personas, ignorando si esos pases eran nuestros aliados, ignorando si era por nuestros intereses. +Hay que preguntarse, qu hicimos mal? +Qu hicimos? Cul fue el error cometido? +Se podra decir que, bien visto, Washington es un lugar disfuncional. +Hay disputas por la poltica alimentaria. +Hemos convertido nuestro discurso en un torneo. +Y eso es cierto. +Pero hay otros problemas. +Y los otros problemas surgen a raz de que en Washington y en muchas capitales en este momento, estamos en una crisis de creatividad. +En Washington, en los grupos de reflexin, donde se supone que la gente piensa nuevas ideas, no hay nuevas ideas audaces, porque si se ofrece una nueva idea audaz, no solo uno es atacado en Twitter, sino que no conseguir ser renovado en un trabajo en el gobierno. +Porque somos reactivos al veneno mayor del debate poltico, uno tiene gobiernos con una mentalidad de nosotros contra ellos, pequeos grupos de personas tomando decisiones. +Cuando se est en una sala con personas que toman decisiones, qu se obtiene? +Se obtiene pensamiento grupal. +Todos tienen la misma visin, y cualquier opinin de fuera del grupo se ve como una amenaza. +Eso es un peligro. +Tambin tenemos procesos que se vuelven reactivos a los ciclos de noticias. +As, en las partes del gobierno de EE. UU. que prevn, que miran hacia adelante, y hacen estrategia, --las que en otros gobiernos s lo hacen--, no lo hacen, porque estn reaccionando al ciclo de noticias. +Y entonces, no miramos hacia el futuro. +En el 9/11 tuvimos una crisis porque buscbamos en el camino equivocado. +De hecho, las cosas que vemos en esas partes del mundo pueden ser sntomas. +Pueden ser una reaccin a las tendencias ms grandes. +Y si tratamos el sntoma e ignoramos la tendencia ms grande, entonces tendremos problemas mucho ms grandes que tratar. +Cules son esas tendencias? +Bueno, para un grupo como Uds., las tendencias son evidentes. +Estamos viviendo un momento en que la estructura misma de la sociedad humana se est retejiendo. +Si vieron la portada de The Economist hace un par de das, deca que el 80 % de las personas en el planeta, en el ao 2020, tendran un smartphone. +Tendran una minicomputadora conectado a Internet en su bolsillo. +En la mayor parte de frica, la tasa de uso de la telefona celular es del 80 %. +Pasamos el punto en octubre pasado en que hay ms dispositivos mviles, tarjetas SIM, en el mundo que gente. +Estamos a pocos aos de un momento profundo de nuestra historia, cuando efectivamente cada ser humano en el planeta va a ser parte de un sistema hecho por el humano, por primera vez, capaz de tocar a cualquier persona --tocarlos para bien, tocarlos para mal--. +Y los cambios asociados a esto, estn cambiando la naturaleza misma de todos los aspectos de gobierno y vida en el planeta en formas en que nuestros lderes deberan pensar, cuando piensan en estas amenazas inmediatas. +Por el lado de seguridad. salimos de una Guerra Fra en la que era muy costoso librar una guerra nuclear, y por eso no la hicimos, a un perodo que yo llamo Guerra Cool, guerra ciberntica, en que los costos del conflicto son tan bajos, que nunca se puede parar. +Podemos entrar en un perodo de guerra constante, y lo sabemos porque haber estado en ella durante varios aos. +Sin embargo, no hay doctrinas bsicas que nos guen en este sentido. +No tenemos formuladas las ideas bsicas. +Si alguien nos ataca con un ataque ciberntico, podemos responder con un ataque activo? +No sabemos. +Si alguien lanza un ataque ciberntico, cmo disuadirlos? +Cuando China lanz ataques cibernticos, qu hizo el gobierno de EE. UU.? +Se dijo, acusaremos a algunos de estos tipos chinos, que nunca puedan entrar a EE. UU. +Nunca estarn en ningn lugar cerca de un oficial de la ley quien los aprender. +Es un gesto, no un elemento de disuasin. +Los operadores especiales del campo hoy en da descubren que los pequeos grupos de insurgentes con celulares acceden a las imgenes de satlite que antes solo tenan las superpotencias. +De hecho, si tienen un telfono celular, tienen acceso al poder que una superpotencia no tena, y habra estado clasificada hace 10 aos. +En mi telfono celular, tengo una aplicacin que me dice dnde est cada avin en el mundo, su altitud y su velocidad, qu tipo de avin es, hacia dnde se dirige y dnde aterriza. +Existen aplicaciones que permiten saber lo que su adversario est a punto de hacer. +Se usan estas herramientas de formas nuevas. +Cuando un caf en Sydney fue tomado por un terrorista, entr con un rifle... +y un iPad. +Y el arma era el iPad. +Porque l captur a la gente, los aterroriz, dirigi el iPad hacia ellos, hizo un video, lo puso en Internet, y domin los medios del mundo. +Pero esto no solo afecta a la parte de seguridad. +Las relaciones entre las grandes potencias... pensamos que habamos pasado la era bipolar. +Pensamos que era ya un mundo unipolar, con los grandes temas ya resueltos. +Recuerdan? El fin de la historia. +Pero no es as. +Vemos que nuestros supuestos bsicos sobre Internet, que nos iba a conectar, unir a la sociedad, no son necesariamente ciertos. +En pases como China, existe el Gran Cortafuegos de China. +Hay pases que dicen no, si Internet pasa dentro de nuestras fronteras lo controlamos dentro de ellas. +Controlamos el contenido. Controlaremos nuestra seguridad. +Vamos a controlar Internet. +Diremos lo que puede estar all. +Pondremos un conjunto diferente de reglas. +Podran pensar que eso es solo en China. +Pero no se trata solo de China. +Es China, India, Rusia, +Arabia Saudita, Singapur, Brasil. +Tras el escndalo de la NSA, rusos, chinos, indios, brasileos, dijeron, crearemos una nueva red troncal de Internet, porque no podemos depender de este otro. +Y as, de repente, qu hay? +Existe un nuevo mundo bipolar donde el ciberinternacionalismo, nuestra creencia, es desafiada por el cibernacionalismo, otra creencia. +Vemos estos cambios dondequiera que miremos. +Vemos la llegada del dinero mvil. +Sucede en lugares que no se pueden ni imaginar. +Sucede en Kenia y Tanzania, donde millones de personas sin acceso a servicios financieros realizan todos esos servicios con sus telfonos. +Hay 2,5 millones de personas sin acceso a servicios financieros que los tendrn pronto. +Mil millones tendrn la posibilidad de acceder a ellos en su celular, pronto. +Esto no solo les posibilitar acceder a servicios bancarios, +esto cambiar lo que es la poltica monetaria. +Cambiar lo que es el dinero. +La educacin est cambiando de la misma manera. +La salud est cambiando tambin. +Cmo dan servicios los gobiernos est cambiando tambin. +Y, sin embargo, en Washington, estamos debatiendo si se debe llamar al grupo terrorista que se ha apoderado de Siria e Irak ISIS o ISIL o Estado islmico. +Pero fueron los canales, los ferrocarriles y telgrafos; el radar e Internet. +Fue el Tang, la bebida del desayuno, --probablemente no el ms importante de esos desarrollos--. +Pero exista una asociacin y un dilogo, y el dilogo se ha roto. +Est roto porque en Washington, menos gobierno se considera ms. +Est roto porque hay, lo crean o no, en Washington, una guerra contra la ciencia, a pesar del hecho de que en toda la historia humana, cada vez que alguien ha librado una guerra contra la ciencia, la ciencia ha ganado. +Pero tenemos un gobierno que no quiere escuchar, que no tiene la gente del ms alto nivel que entiende esto. +En la era nuclear, cuando haba gente en empleos de seguridad nacional de alto nivel, se esperaba poner peso en eso. +Se esperaba que supieran la jerga, el vocabulario. +Si van al ms alto nivel del gobierno de EE. UU. ahora y dicen: "Hblenme de ciberntica, de neurociencia, de las cosas que cambiarn el mundo de maana", obtendran una mirada en blanco. +Lo s, porque cuando escrib este libro, habl con 150 personas, muchos cientficos y tcnicos, que sentan como si se les confinaran a la mesa de los nios. +Entretanto, en el lado de la tecnologa, tenemos mucha gente maravillosa que crea cosas maravillosas, que comienzan en garajes y no necesitaban del gobierno no quieren al gobierno. +Muchos de ellos tienen una visin poltica entre libertaria y anrquica: Djenme respirar. +Pero el mundo se derrumba. +Repentinamente, habr cambios regulatorios masivos y temas masivos asociados con el conflicto y temas masivos asociados con la seguridad y la privacidad. +Incluso hemos llegado a las siguientes cuestiones, que son cuestiones filosficas. +Si uno no puede votar, si no tiene un empleo, si no tiene servicios financieros, ni atencin sanitaria, si no se puede educar sin acceso a Internet, es el acceso a Internet un derecho que debe incorporarse en las constituciones? +Si el acceso a Internet es un derecho fundamental, es la electricidad para el 1200 millones sin acceso a ella un derecho fundamental? +Estas son cuestiones fundamentales. Dnde estn los filsofos? +Dnde est el dilogo? +Y eso me lleva a la razn por la que hoy estoy aqu. +Yo vivo en Washington. Tengan piedad de m. +El dilogo no est sucediendo all. +Estos grandes temas que van a cambiar el mundo, la seguridad nacional, la economa, crearn esperanza, crearn amenazas, solo se pueden resolver cuando se renan grupos de personas que entienden de ciencia y tecnologa con el gobierno. +Ambas partes se necesitan mutuamente. +Y si no reactivamos esta conexin, y no hacemos lo que ayud a crecer a EE. UU. y a otros pases, entonces creceremos cada vez de forma ms vulnerable. +Los riesgos asociados con el 9/11 no se medirn en trminos de vidas perdidas por ataques terroristas o edificios destruidos o miles de millones de dlares gastados. +An no estamos all, pero las discusiones como esta y grupos como Uds. son los lugares para plantear esas preguntas. +Y por eso creo que grupos como TED, discusiones de este tipo en todo el planeta, son el lugar donde el futuro de la poltica exterior, la poltica econmica, de la poltica social, de la filosofa, en ltima instancia, se llevarn a cabo. +Y por eso ha sido un placer dirigirme a Uds. +Muchas, muchas gracias. +Billie Jean King: Hola todas! +Gracias, Pat. +Gracias! +Me estn dando mucho nimo, ya! +Pat Mitchell: Bien! +Ya sabes, cuando vea otra vez el vdeo del partido, pens que debes haber sentido como que el destino de las mujeres del mundo estaba en cada golpe que dabas. +Sentas eso? +BJK: En primer lugar, Bobby Riggs era el exnmero uno, no era simplemente un aficionado. +Fue uno de mis hroes y yo lo admiraba. +Y esa fue la razn para derrotarlo, porque yo lo respetaba. +Es verdad, mi madre, y en especial mi padre, siempre deca: "Respeta a tus adversarios, no los subestimes nunca". +Y estaba en lo cierto. l tena toda la razn. +Pero yo saba que se trataba de un cambio social. +Y estaba muy nerviosa cada vez que lo anuncibamos. Senta como si todo el mundo estuviera sobre mis hombros. +Y pensaba: "Si pierdo, esto pondr a la mujer 50 aos atrs, por lo menos". +El ttulo IX de la ley de derechos civiles se aprob justo el ao anterior +en junio del 1972. Y en el tenis profesional femenino, nueve de nosotras firm un contrato de un dlar en 1970. Ahora recuerda que el partido fue en el 73. +As que estbamos solo en el tercer ao de tour donde podamos jugar, tener un lugar para competir y ganarnos la vida. +As que nueve de nosotras firmamos ese contrato de un dlar. +Y el sueo para cualquier chica, de cualquier lugar en el mundo, si era lo suficientemente buena, era tener un lugar para competir y para ganarnos la vida. +Porque antes de 1968, ganbamos 14 dlares al da, y estbamos bajo el control de las organizaciones. +Tenamos muchas ganas de romper con eso. +Y sabamos que no era solo para nuestra generacin, sabamos que era para las futuras generaciones. +Nos apoybamos en las que actuaron antes que nosotras, no hay duda. +Cada generacin tiene la oportunidad de hacerlo mejor. +Eso estaba de verdad en mi mente. +Deseaba empezar a unir los corazones y mentes para el Ttulo IX. +El Ttulo IX, por si alguien no lo sabe, mucha gente probablemente, dice que los fondos federales de una escuela, colegio o universidad, ya sea pblica o privada, debe dar por igual los recursos a los nios y a las nias. +Y eso cambi todo. +As que se puede tener una ley, pero hay que cambiar el corazn y la mente para que se cumpla. +Entonces es cuando es de verdad estupendo. +S estaba en mi mente. +Quera empezar ese cambio en los corazones y las mentes. +Pero dos cosas salieron de ese partido. +Para las mujeres: la autoconfianza, el empoderamiento. +Ya tena suficiente valor para pedir un aumento de sueldo. +Otras mujeres han esperado 10, 15 aos para pedirlo. +Dije: "Ms importante an, lo entienden?". +Y lo hicieron! +Y para los hombres? +Muchos de los hombres de hoy no se dan cuenta, pero si tienen 50, 60 o 40 aos, Uds. son la primera generacin de hombres del Movimiento de Mujeres, les guste o no! +Y para los hombres, lo que sucedi a los hombres, que venan a m, y muchas veces, los hombres son los que tienen los ojos empaados. Es muy revelador. +Dicen: "Billie, era muy joven cuando vi ese partido, y ahora tengo una hija. +Y estoy muy feliz de que me di cuenta siendo joven". +Y uno de esos jvenes, a los 12 aos, era el presidente Obama. +Y cuando me encontr con l, me dijo: "No te das cuenta, pero vi ese partido a los 12 aos. +Y ahora tengo dos hijas, y ha marcado una diferencia en cmo las educo". +As que hombres y mujeres lograron mucho, pero en formas diferentes. +MP: Y ahora hay generaciones, por lo menos una o dos, que han experimentado la igualdad que el Ttulo IX y otras batallas han hecho posible. +Y para las mujeres, hay generaciones con experiencia en trabajo en equipo. +Llegaron a jugar deportes de equipo como no lo haban hecho antes. +As que haba un legado ya construido en trminos de ser atleta, un legado para presionar por la igualdad salarial para las mujeres atletas y la Fundacin de Deportes de Mujeres. +Qu intentas llevar a cabo ahora con la iniciativa de Liderazgo Billie Jean King? +BJK: Creo que se remonta a una revelacin que tuve a los 12. +A los 11, yo quera ser la jugadora N1 del tenis mundial, y un amigo me pidi jugar y dije: "Qu es eso?". +El tenis no era usual en mi familia, el baloncesto s y otros deportes. +Avancemos rpidamente hasta 12 aos, y por fin empiezo a jugar en torneos donde se obtiene el ranking al final del ao. +As que yo soaba despierta en el Club de Tenis de Los ngeles, y me puse a pensar en mi deporte y lo joven que era, pero tambin en que todos jugaban con zapatos blancos y ropa blanca, y con pelotas blancas... Todo el que jugaba era blanco. +Y me dije a los 12 aos: "Dnde est el resto del mundo?". +Y eso segua dndome en mi cerebro. +Y ese momento, me promet que luchara por la igualdad de derechos y oportunidades para nios y nias, hombres y mujeres, el resto de mi vida. +Y por el tenis, tuve la suerte de ser el N 1 --y supe, siendo una nia, que sera muy difcil tener influencia, ya a esa edad-- con esta plataforma. +Y el tenis es global. +Y pens, "Sabes qu?, +he tenido una oportunidad que muy pocas personas tienen". +Yo no saba si iba a lograrlo, eso solo a los 12. +Claro que quera, pero lograrlo es otra cosa. +Solo recuerdo lo que me promet, y trato de mantener mi palabra. +Eso es lo que realmente soy, luchando por la gente. +Y, por desgracia, las mujeres han tenido menos. +Y se nos considera menos. +Y as mi atencin, a dnde deba ir? +Era solo... simplemente tienes que hacerlo. +Y aprender a encararte a ti misma, or tu propia voz. +Oyes las mismas palabras todo el tiempo, y tengo mucha suerte porque tengo una educacin. +Y creo que si puedes verlo puedes llegar a serlo, +si puedes verlo, puedes lograrlo. +Si ves a Pat, ves otros lderes, ves a esos dolos, te ves ti misma, porque todo el mundo, cada uno de nosotros, puede hacer algo extraordinario. +Cada persona. +MP: Y tu historia, Billie, ha inspirado a muchas mujeres en todas partes. +Ahora, con la Iniciativa de Liderazgo Billie Jean King, ests actuando por una causa an mayor. +Porque algo que escuchamos mucho es que las mujeres estn levantando su voz, trabajando para encontrar su camino en las posiciones de liderazgo. +Pero de lo que hablas es an ms grande que eso. +Es un liderazgo integrador. +Esta es una generacin que ha crecido pensando de modo ms inclusivo BJK: No es genial? Mira la tecnologa! +Es increble cmo nos conecta a todos. Se trata de la conexin. +Es simplemente increble lo que hace posible. +Pero la Iniciativa de Liderazgo King Billie Jean es mucho de la fuerza de trabajo, de cmo tratar de cambiarla, que la gente puede ir a trabajar y ser sus autnticos yos. +Dado que la mayora de nosotros tenemos dos trabajos: Uno, para adaptarse... Te dar un ejemplo perfecto. +Una mujer afroamericana se levanta una hora antes de ir a trabajar, se arregla el pelo en el bao, va al bao, probablemente, cuatro, cinco, seis veces al da para arreglarse pelo, para asegurarse de que encaja. +As, ella tiene 2 empleos. +Ella tiene este otro trabajo, sea lo que sea, pero tambin tratar de encajar. +O este pobre hombre que logr su diploma, --fue a la Universidad de Michigan, pero nunca habl de su pobreza de joven, nunca-- simplemente no lo mencion. +Se asegur de que vieran que era bien educado. +Y luego ves a un chico gay que est en la NFL --lo que significa el ftbol americano para todos Uds. algo grande, muy machista-- y hablaba sobre ftbol todo el tiempo, porque era gay y no quera que nadie lo supiera. +Y as a as. +As que mi deseo para todos es puedan ser su autntico yo 24/7, eso sera lo mximo. +Y nos sorprendemos, quiero decir, me sorprendo yo misma. +Incluso siendo gay me sorprendo a m misma estando algo incmoda en mis entraas, sintindome no totalmente cmoda en mi propia piel. +Por eso, creo que hay que preguntarse, quiero que la gente sea ella misma, lo que sea, pero que lo sea. +MP: La primera investigacin de la Iniciativa de Liderazgo mostr que que en estos ejemplos que acabas de usar, muchos tenemos el problema de ser autnticos. +Pero lo que se ve en esta generacin del milenio, que se han beneficiado de toda esta igualdad de oportunidades, quiz no iguales, pero existen en todo lugar. BJK: Primero, soy muy afortunada. +Estar asociada con Teneo, una empresa estratgica que es increble, +es realmente la razn para poder hacer esto. +Dos veces en mi vida realmente he tenido hombres con poder apoyndome. +En los viejos tiempos con Philip Morris con Virginia Slims, y esta es la segunda vez en toda mi vida. +Y ahora Deloitte. +Lo nico que quera eran datos, hechos. +As Deloitte envi una encuesta, y ms de 4000 personas la han respondido, y seguimos en el lugar de trabajo. +Y qu sienten los milenio? +Sienten mucho, pero lo que es tan fantstico es... nuestra generacin pensaba: "Obtendremos representacin". +As que si vas a una sala, ves a todos representados. +Ya no es lo suficientemente bueno, aunque sea bueno. +La generacin milenio es fantstica; quiere conexin, compromiso. +Solo quieren que nos digan lo que sientes y piensas, y encontrar una solucin. +Pueden resolver problemas, y por supuesto, se tiene la informacin al alcance, en comparacin a cuando yo era pequea. +PM: Qu mostr la investigacin sobre esta generacin? +Van a marcar una diferencia? +Crearn un mundo en que haya realmente una fuerza de trabajo inclusiva? +BJK: Bueno, en 2025, el 75 % de la fuerza laboral mundial ser de la generacin milenio. +Creo que ayudarn a resolver problemas. +Creo que tienen los medios para hacerlo. +S que les importa mucho. +Tienen grandes ideas y pueden hacer que se logren grandes cosas. +Quiero quedarme en el ahora con los jvenes, no quiero estar detrs. +PM: No creo que haya oportunidad! +Pero lo que descubriste sobre la generacin milenio no es realmente la experiencia que mucha gente tiene con la generacin del milenio. +BJK: No, bueno, si queremos hablar... OK, he hecho mi pequea mini-encuesta. +He estado hablando con los Boomers, que son sus jefes, y me voy, "Qu piensa Ud. acerca de los milenio?". +Y estoy bastante emocionada, como si fuera bueno, y ponen esta cara "Oh, la generacin 'yo'?". +Yo digo: "De verdad lo crees? +Porque yo creo que se preocupan por el medio ambiente y todas estas cosas". +Y siguen, "Oh, Billie, no pueden concentrarse". +Ellos realmente han demostrado que el enfoque promedio de un joven de 18 aos es de 37 segundos. +No pueden concentrarse. +Y no les importa. +Acabo de escuchar una historia la otra noche: una mujer es duea de una galera y tiene estos trabajadores. +Recibe un texto de una de las trabajadoras, como una interna, que acaba de comenzar: "Oh, por cierto, voy a llegar tarde porque estoy en la peluquera". +As que ella llega, y este jefe dice, "Que tal todo?". +Y dice: "Oh, es tarde, lo siento, cmo va todo?". +Ella dice: "Bueno, adivina qu? Te vas, estas despedida". +Ella dice: "Bien". +No hay problema! +PM: Billie, esa historia... Lo s, eso es lo que asusta a los del "baby boom". Digo, que creo que es bueno compartir. +De verdad es bueno compartir, porque somos nuestro autntico yo y lo que sentimos, as que tenemos que tomar las dos cosas. +Pero tengo gran fe, porque... si has estado en deporte como yo, cada generacin es mejor. +Es un hecho. +Con la Fundacin Deportiva de Mujeres en defensa del Ttulo IX todava, intentamos mantener la proteccin de la ley, porque est en una posicin dbil siempre, as que realmente preocupa, y hacemos mucha investigacin. +Es muy importante para nosotros. +Y lo quiero or de la gente. +Pero realmente tenemos que proteger el Ttulo IX que representa a todos. +Y oyeron al Presidente Carter hablar de cmo el Ttulo IX est protegido. +Y sabes que cada demanda que las nias, al menos en el deporte, han ido en contra --cualesquiera que sean las instituciones-- ha ganado? +Ttulo IX est ah para protegernos. +Y es increble. +Pero todava hay que ganar los corazones y las mentes, que corazones y mentes coincidan con la legislacin es grande. +PM: Qu te hace levantar todas las maanas? +Qu te mantiene motivada en tu trabajo, sostener la lucha por la igualdad, extendindola, explorando nuevas reas, encontrando nuevas maneras...? +BJK: Siempre volva locos a mis padres porque siempre era muy curiosa. +Estoy muy motivada. +Mi hermano menor era jugador de las Grandes Ligas. +A mis pobres padres no les importaba si ramos buenos. +Y los volvimos locos porque insistamos, presionbamos por querer ser los mejores. +Y creo que es por lo que estoy hoy en las charlas de TED. +Creo que al escuchar a estas mujeres diferentes, escuchar a diferentes personas, escuchar al presidente Carter de 90 aos, por cierto, y esas cifras que mostr que yo nunca... Me tengo que ir, "Disculpe, espere un minuto, necesito una lista de estas cifras". +Es la caa, quiero decir, eso es increble, lo siento. +MP: Es un hombre increble. +BJK: Y tendrn a la presidenta Mary Robinson, quien es expresidenta. Gracias, irlandeses! 62 %! LGBTI! S! +El congreso votar en junio el matrimonio entre personas del mismo sexo, son cosas que para algunas personas es muy difcil de escuchar. +Pero recuerden, cada uno de nosotros es un individuo, un ser humano con un corazn que late, que se preocupa y quiere vivir su vida autntica. +No tienen que estar de acuerdo con nadie, pero todos deben tener oportunidad. +Creo que todos tenemos una obligacin de seguir avanzando la aguja, siempre. +Y esta gente ha sido muy inspiradora. +Todo el mundo importa. +Y cada uno es un factor de influencia. +Ud. que nos escucha en el mundo, adems de la gente de aqu, cada persona es un factor de influencia. +Nunca, nunca lo olviden. De acuerdo? +As que no vuelvan a renunciar a Uds. mismos. +PM: Billie, una gran inspiracin para nosotros. +BJK: Gracias, Pat. +Gracias, TED! +Muchas gracias! +Estoy aqu para reclutar a hombres que apoyen la igualdad de gnero. +Esperen, esperen, qu? +Qu tienen que ver los hombres con la igualdad de gnero? +Es una cosa de mujeres, no? +Quiero decir, la palabra "gnero" va de mujeres. +En realidad, estoy hablando como un hombre blanco de clase media. +Pero no siempre fui un hombre blanco de clase media. +Todo sucedi hace 30 aos, cuando estaba en la universidad un grupo de estudiantes salimos juntos un da y comentamos, Hay toda una explosin de debates, teoras y escritos feministas, pero ningn curso todava. +E hicimos lo que un grupo de estudiantes hara en esa situacin +"Vale, vamos a crear un seminario". +"Leeremos un libro para comentarlo luego". "Ser un gran banquete!" +De modo que cada semana me reuna con 11 mujeres. +Leamos algunos textos de teoras feministas y los discutamos. +Y durante una de las discursiones presenci una conversacin que cambi mi vida para siempre. +Era una conversacin entre 2 mujeres. +Una mujer blanca y la otra negra. +La mujer blanca dijo: -ahora puede sonar anacrnico "Todas las mujeres se enfrentan a la misma opresin como mujeres". +"Todas las mujeres estn en un patriarcado, y por eso hay esa solidaridad o hermandad intuitiva entre ellas". +La mujer negra respondi: "No estoy tan segura, +dejme preguntarte algo". +Entonces, la mujer negra dijo a la mujer blanca: "Cuando te levantas por la maana y te miras en el espejo, qu ves?" +Y la mujer blanca respondi: "Veo una mujer" +Entonces la mujer negra dijo: "Lo ves? Ah est el problema". +"Al levantarme por la maana y mirarme al espejo, dijo, veo a una mujer negra". +"La raza es visible para m, pero invisible para ti, t no la ves". +Y despus aadi algo realmente sorprendente +"As es cmo funcionan los privilegios". +"Los privilegios son invisibles para quienes los tienen". +Dira que es un lujo para la gente blanca de la sala no tener que pensar en la raza cada segundo de nuestra vida. +Los privilegios son invisibles para quienes los tienen. +Ahora recuerdo que era el nico hombre del grupo. Por eso, cuando lo presenci pens, "Oh, no." +Y alguien me pregunt, "cul fue tu reaccin?" +Y dije, "cuando me levanto por la maanas y me miro al espejo veo un ser humano". +Soy el tipo de persona diramos normal. +Un hombre blanco de clase media, sin raza, gnero o clase. +Podramos generalizar que soy universal. +A partir de ah, me convert en un hombre blanco de clase media. La raza, la clase y el gnero ya no era algo sobre otra gente sino sobre m. +Y empec a pensar sobre esto y que era un privilegio que me haba hecho invisible mucho tiempo. +Me encantara decirles que la historia termin hace 30 aos con aquel pequeo grupo. Pero hace poco, me acord otra vez en la universidad donde doy clases. +Una colega y yo impartimos un curso de sociologa de la igualdad en semestres alternos. +Ella da una clase como profesora invitada en mi curso +y yo una clase como profesor invitado en su curso. +As que entr en su clase a dar una conferencia con unos 300 estudiantes. y mientras caminaba, uno de ellos me mir y dijo: "Por fin, una opinin objetiva". +Durante todo el semestre, cuando mi colega abra la boca, mis estudiantes vean solo una mujer. +Quiero decir, si les deca, "Hay una desigualdad estructural que se basa en el sexo en EE. UU. replicaban, "es normal que digas eso. +Eres una mujer y por tanto imparcial". +Mientras que si era yo, decan, "Vaya, qu, interesante! +Entrar en el examen? Cmo se deletrea 'estructural'?" +Espero que todos vean que esto es ser objetivo. +Pura racionalidad occidental. +Por cierto, creo que es por eso que los hombres llevan corbata. +Porque si vamos a personificar la racionalidad occidental pura necesitamos un significante y qu mejor significante para la pura racionalidad occidental que una prenda que apunta con un extremo a la nariz y con el otro extremo a los genitales? +Ah est el dualismo mente-cuerpo. +Por tanto visibilizar el gnero a los hombres es el primer paso para que estos participen de la igualdad de gnero. +Cuando los hombres oyen hablar de igualdad por primera vez y empiezan a pensar sobre esto, muchos de ellos piensan que es correcto, justo, lo que tiene que ser; un imperativo tico. +Pero no todos. +algunos hombres piensan cuando ven la luz "S, Dios mio, igualdad de gnero". Y rpidamente empiezan a explicarte tu propia opresin. +Contemplan el apoyo a la igualdad de gnero como un calvario, algo como, "gracias seoras, por hacernos reflexionar sobre esto, a partir de ahora, lo tendremos en cuenta", +El resultado es el "sndrome de autocomplacencia prematura", como me gusta denominarlo. Sin embargo, hay otro grupo que se resiste a la igualdad porque la ven como algo en detrimento de los hombres. +Estaba en un programa de TV con 4 hombres blancos frente a m. +As empieza el libro que escrib, Angry White Men. Eran 4 hombres blancos enfadados que crean que los hombres blancos en EE. UU. eran vctimas de una discriminacin inversa en sus puestos de trabajo. +Contaban lo cualificados que estaban para el trabajo, para que los ascendieran, pero no lo consiguieron y estaban muy enfadados. +Le cuento todo esto porque me gustara que escuchasen el ttulo de este programa en particular. +Era la frase de uno estos hombres y la frase deca: "una mujer negra me rob mi trabajo". +Todas contaban sus historias lo cualificados que estaban para el trabajo, los ascensos y se enfadaron al no conseguirlo. +Entonces era mi turno de palabra. "Solo tengo una pregunta chicos, sobre el ttulo del programa". 'Una mujer negra me quit mi trabajo'. En realidad, se trata solo de una palabra del ttulo, +me gustara saber porque "mi". De dnde sali la idea de que era su trabajo?". +Por qu el programa no se titul "una mujer negra consigui el trabajo" o "una mujer negra consigue un trabajo" Porque sin cuestionar ese sentido del "derecho" de los hombres, nunca entenderemos por qu tantos se resisten a la igualdad. +Vean, creemos que es a nivel del terreno de juego y cualquier poltica que lo incline aunque sea un poco, enseguida pensaremos: "Ay, Dios vamos contracorriente +es una discriminacin inversa contra nosotros". +Permitnme ser muy claro: Los hombres blancos en EE. UU. son los beneficiarios del mejor y el nico programa de accin positiva en la historia del mundo +que se llama "La historia del mundo". +Despus de sealar algunos obstculos para que participen los hombres por qu deberan apoyar la igualdad de gnero? +Desde luego es justo, correcto y es lo que debera ser. +Pero es mucho ms. La igualdad de gnero nos interesa tambin como hombres. +Si escuchamos lo que dicen los hombres sobre lo que quieren en sus vidas, la igualdad, en realidad, es una forma de lograr la vida que queremos vivir. +Para los pases es buena esta igualdad. +Segn la mayora de los estudios, los pases con mayor igualdad, son tambin los que tienen mayor ndice de felicidad. +Y no es porque todos estn en Europa. +Incluso en la propia Europa, los pases con ms igualdad tienen los niveles ms altos de felicidad. +Tambin es buena para las empresas. +Las investigaciones de Catalyst y otros demuestran irrefutablemente que cuanto mayor es la igualdad de gnero en las empresas, mejor es para los trabajadores. Los trabajadores son ms felices. +El volumen de trabajo pendiente y la desgana son tambin menores. +Es ms fcil contratar gente. +El nivel de permanencia es ms alto y el grado de satisfaccin mayor, con tasas de productividad ms altas. +Por eso, lo que preguntan a menudo las empresas: "Esto de la igualdad va a ser algo muy caro, no?" +Y digo : "Para nada, de hecho, lo que tienes que calcular es cuanto te cuesta ya la desigualdad de gnero. +Es muy, pero que muy cara". +Por eso, es buena para los negocios. +Y tambin es buena para los hombres. +Es buena para el tipo de vida que queremos llevar, porque los hombres jvenes, sobre todo, han cambiado mucho. y quieren vidas animadas con relaciones fantsticas e hijos. +Esperan que sus mujeres, sus esposas y sus compaeras, trabajen fuera de casa, comprometidas con sus carreras al igual que lo estn ellos. +Les dar un ejemplo de este cambio. Algunos pueden que lo recuerden. +Cuando era bastante ms joven nos planteaban un acertijo. +Puede que incluso en algunos aparezca una mueca al recordarlo. +El enigma era ms o menos as. +Un padre e hijo van en auto por una una autopista, cuando sufren un terrible accidente. y el padre fallece. Y mientras le llevan a la sala de urgencias del hospital el mdico en la sala, mira al chico y dice: "Es mi hijo, no puedo atenderle". +Cmo es posible? +Nos dejaba perplejos. +No conseguamos resolverlo. +As que hice un experimento con mi hijo pequeo de 16 aos +y un grupo de sus amigos que que rondaban por la casa hace poco, mientras vean un partido en la TV. +As que les plante el acertijo, solo para ver y calibrar el nivel de cambio. +Los chicos de 16 aos inmediatamente se giraron y me dijeron: "Era su madre, no?" +Sin problema, tal cual. +Excepto mi hijo, quien dijo, "Podra tener dos padres". +Es una seal de cmo las cosas han cambiado. +Los chicos jvenes esperan equilibrar trabajo y familia. +Quieren esa dualidad de carrera y pareja. +Quieren encontrar un equilibrio entre la familia, el trabajo y la pareja. +Quieren estar implicados como padres. +Parecer ser que cuanto ms igualitarias son las relaciones ms felices son las parejas. +Los datos de psiclogos y socilogos son bastante persuasivos a este respecto. +Tenemos que ser persuasivos con las cifras y los datos para probar a los hombres que la igualdad de gnero no es un juego de ganar y perder, sino que siempre se gana. +Eso es lo que reflejan los datos. +Cuando los hombres empiezan a participar, equilibrando trabajo y familia, solemos usar dos frases para describir lo que hacemos. +Nos ofrecemos para ayudar y ayudamos. +Les propongo algo ms radical. una sola palabra: "compartir" +Porque aqu estn los datos: Cuando los hombres comparten las labores del hogar y los nios los nios van mejor en la escuela. +El nivel de absentismo de los nios es ms bajo y consiguen mejores notas. +Hay menos probabilidades de diagnosticarlos con THDA +menos probable que vayan al psiquiatra +o que tomen alguna medicacin. +Al compartir los hombres el cuidado de los nios y las tareas domsticas los nios son ms felices y saludables. Y los hombres es lo que quieren. +Cuando los hombres comparten las tareas de casa y los nios las esposas son ms felices vale? +Adems de ser mujeres ms sanas. +Son menos propensas a ir a un terapeuta que les diagnostique una depresin o tomar algn medicacin y seguro que irn ms al gimnasio. Se sienten ms satisfechas en el matrimonio. +Cuando los hombres comparten el cuidado de la casa e hijos las esposas son ms felices y saludables, Y sin duda, es lo mismo para los hombres. +Cuando los hombres comparten las tareas domsticas y los hijos los hombres son ms saludables. +Fuman y beben menos y consumen menos drogas. +Tienen menos tendencia a acudir a urgencias, y ms a ir al mdico a controles rutinarios. +Irn menos a un terapeuta, es menos probable que se les diagnostique depresin y tengan que tomar algn tipo de medicacin. +Los hombres que comparten nios y casa, son hombres ms sanos y felices. +Y quin no querra eso? +Y por ltimo, Cuando comparten casa y nios, los hombres tienen ms sexo. +De estos 4 fascinantes hallazgos, cul les parece que se public en la portada de Mens Health? +"Las labores del hogar la excitan". +No cuando es ella quien las hace. Les dire, solo para recordarles a los hombres entre la audiencia que los datos se recogieron en un perodo de tiempo muy largo, as que no quiero escuchar, "Vale, fregar los platos esta noche". +Los datos se recogieron en un periodo de tiempo muy largo. +Pero muestran algo importante. Al publicarlos en la portada la revista Mens health, lo llamaron tambin seguro que les encanta"Juegos de amor" +Lo que descubrimos es algo muy importante. La igualdad de gnero es algo que interesa a los pases, a las empresas, a los hombres, a los hijos y a las esposas. La igualdad no es un juego de 1 a 0. +No se trata de ganar o perder. +Es una victoria siempre para todos. +Y lo que sabemos tambin es que no se puede empoderar a las mujeres y a las chicas, sin que participen tambin los hombres y los chicos. +Est claro. +Mi posicin es que los hombres necesitan las mismas cosas que las mujeres han identificado, que necesitan llevar la vida que dicen que quieren llevar para vivir la vidas que decimos quereremos vivir +En 1915, la vspera de una de las manifestaciones sufragistas en la Quinta Avenida de Nueva York, un escritor de esa ciudad escribi un artculo para una revista con el siguiente ttulo, Feminismo para los hombres. +Y la primera frase del artculo deca: "El feminismo permitir que los hombres sean libres por primera vez." +Gracias +Una pregunta que siempre me hacen es, cundo me apasion por los derechos humanos y la justicia. +Empez siendo muy joven. +Crec en el oeste de Irlanda, en medio de cuatro hermanos, dos mayores y dos menores. +Por supuesto que tuve que interesarme por los derechos humanos, la igualdad y la justicia, y a punta de codazos! +Y esas preocupaciones se quedaron conmigo y me guiaron, en especial cuando fui elegida la primera mujer presidenta de Irlanda, de 1990 a 1997. +Dediqu mi mandato a abrir espacios para quienes se sentan marginados en la isla de Irlanda, y a reunir comunidades del norte del pas con otras de la Repblica, tratando de construir la paz. +Y como primera presidenta irlandesa fui al Reino Unido a reunirme con la Reina Elizabeth II y tambin la recib en mi residencia oficial, que llamamos "ras an Uachtarin", la casa presidencial, a miembros de la familia real, y de manera notable, al Prncipe de Gales. +Era consciente de que, durante mi presidencia, Irlanda era un pas que empezaba a hacer rpidos progresos econmicos. +ramos un pas que se estaba beneficiando de la solidaridad de la Unin Europea. +Y en verdad, en 1973, cuando Irlanda ingres a la Unin Europea, haba partes del pas que se consideraban en va de desarrollo, incluyendo mi amado condado natal, County Mayo. +Envi delegaciones aqu, a los EEUU, a Japn e India, a alentar la inversin que nos ayudara a crear empleos, a expandir nuestra economa, a fortalecer nuestros sistemas de salud y educacin-- nuestro desarrollo. +Lo que no me toc hacer como presidente fue comprar tierra en Europa continental a la que los irlandeses pudieran ir cuando la isla se quedara bajo el agua. +En lo que no tuve que pensar, ya bien sea como presidenta o como abogada constitucionalista, fue en las implicaciones para la soberana del territorio debido al impacto del cambio climtico. +Eso es en lo que el Presidente Tong, de la Repblica de Kribati, tiene que pensar cada maana. +Ha comprado tierra en Fiji como una pliza de seguro, algo que llama "migracin con dignidad", porque sabe que su pueblo quizs tenga que abandonar sus islas. +Mientras escuchaba al Presidente Tong describiendo la situacin, en verdad senta que ese era un problema que ningn lder debera enfrentar. +Y mientras lo escuchaba hablar de la agona de sus problemas, pens en Eleanor Roosevelt. +Pens en ella y en el equipo que trabaj con ella en la Comisin de Derechos Humanos, que ella presidi en 1948, y que redact la Declaracin Universal de los Derechos Humanos. +Para ellos hubiera sido inimaginable que todo un pas dejara de existir debido al cambio climtico producido por la humanidad. +No llegu al tema del cambio climtico como cientfica o abogada ambiental, no me impresionaban particularmente las imgenes de los osos polares o de los glaciales que se derretan. +Llegu por su impacto en la gente y en sus derechos -- los derechos a comida, a agua potable, a salud, a educacin y a vivienda. +Y lo digo con humildad porque llegu tarde al tema del cambio climtico. +Cuando fui al Alto Comisionado de la ONU para los Derechos Humanos de 1997 a 2002, el cambio climtico no ocupaba mi mente. +No recuerdo haber dado ninguna charla sobre el cambio climtico. +Saba que haba otra instancia de la ONU, por ejemplo, la Convencin sobre Cambio Climtico, que se ocupaba del asunto del cambio climtico. +Fue ms tarde, cuando empec a trabajar en los pases africanos en temas de desarrollo y derechos humanos. +Y todo el tiempo escuchaba esta sentencia taladrante: "Oh, pero las cosas estn mucho peor ahora, las cosas estn mucho peor". +Y entonces hice una exploracin de lo que haba detrs de eso: se trataba de cambios en el clima-- sacudidas del clima, cambios en el estado del tiempo. +Pero en los ltimos aos, para cuando tuvimos esta conversacin, no tenan nada, solo largos perodos de sequa, seguido de inundaciones repentinas, y luego ms sequa. +La escuela fue destruida, se haban quedado sin su sustento, sus cosechas arruinadas. +Form este grupo de mujeres para mantener a la comunidad unida. +Esta realidad de verdad me impact, porque, claro est, Constance Okollet no era responsable de las emisiones de gas que estaban causando el problema. +Y ciertamente, me impact mucho la situacin de Malawi en enero de este ao. +Hubo una inundacin sin precedentes en el pas que cubri cerca de un tercio del pas. ms de 300 personas murieron y cientos de miles perdieron su sustento. +La persona promedio de Malawi emite alrededor de 80 kg de CO2 al ao. +El ciudadano promedio de los EE. UU. emite cerca de 17.5 toneladas mtricas. +O sea que, quienes estn sufriendo de manera desproporcionada no conducen autos, no tienen electricidad, no son consumidores significativos, pero sienten cada vez ms los impactos del cambio climtico, cambios que no los dejan determinar cmo cultivar alimentos apropiadamente, y cmo velar por su futuro. +Creo que fue el tamao de la injusticia lo que ms me impact. +Y s que no podemos paliar esa injusticia en algo siquiera, porque no vamos en camino a un mundo seguro. +Gobiernos de todo el mundo acordaron en la Conferencia en Copenhague, y lo han repetido en cada conferencia del clima, que tenemos que mantenernos por debajo de los 2 C de calentamiento sobre los estndares preindustriales. +Pero vamos camino a los 4 C. +As que la existencia futura de nuestro planeta est amenazada. +Y eso me hace pensar que el cambio climtico es la amenaza ms grande a los derechos humanos en el siglo XXI. +Y eso me llev a la justicia climtica. +La justicia climtica responde al argumento moral-- a las dos cara del argumento moral-- para enfrentar el cambi climtico. +Primero que todo, estar del lado de aqullos que ms sufren y estn ms afectados. +Segundo, asegurarnos que no sean ignorados nuevamente cuando empecemos a movernos y a hacerle frente al cambio climtico con accin climtica, como lo estamos haciendo. +En la gran desigualdad de nuestro mundo actual es impactante ver cunta gente es ignorada. +En un mundo de 7200 millones de personas, cerca de 3000 millones son ignoradas. +1300 millones no tienen acceso a la electricidad, e iluminan sus hogares con querosn y velas y ambos son peligrosos. +De hecho, gastan gran parte de sus insignificantes ingresos en ello. +2600 millones de personas cocinan en fogones de carbn, lea o estircol. +Y esto causa cerca de 4 millones de muertes al ao por la inhalacin de humo en interiores, y, claro est, la mayora de los que mueren son mujeres. +Entonces, el nuestro es un mundo muy desigual y debemos dejar de pensar que es "lo normal". +Y no deberamos subestimar el tamao y la naturaleza transformadora del cambio que se necesita porque tenemos que llegar a cero emisiones de carbono para el 2050 si hemos de mantenernos por debajo de los 2 C de calentamiento. +Y eso significa que tenemos que dejar cerca de 2/3 de los combustibles fsiles donde estn, bajo tierra. +Es un cambio muy grande que, obviamente, implica que los pases industrializados paren sus emisiones y se vuelvan energticamente ms eficientes, y que cuanto antes cambien a las energas renovables. +Los pases en va de desarrollo y las economas emergentes tienen que enfrentar el reto de crecer sin emisiones, porque deben crecer; hay en ellos gentes muy pobres. +Deben crecer sin emisiones, y he ah un nuevo problema. +Ciertamente, ningn pas del mundo ha crecido sin emisiones. +Todos se han desarrollado con combustibles fsiles, y luego pueden haberse movido hacia la energa renovable. +Se trata de un desafo muy grande que requiere del apoyo total de la comunidad internacional, con el financiamiento, las tecnologas, los sistemas y el soporte necesario, porque ningn pas puede hacerse immune a los peligros del cambio climtico por s mismo. +Este es un asunto que requiere de la solidaridad total del gnero humano. +Solidaridad humana, si se quiere, por inters propio-- porque todos estamos en esto, y tenemos que trabajar juntos para asegurarnos de que alcanzaremos cero emisiones de carbono para el 2050. +La buena noticia es que el cambio se est dando, y se est dando muy rpido. +Aqu en California hay un plan ambicioso para reducir las emisiones. +En Hawai se est discutiendo leyes para que el 100 % de la energa sea renovable en el 2045. +Y hay gobiernos con planes ambiciosos en todo el mundo. +En Costa Rica, se han comprometido a ser neutros en carbono para el 2021. +En Etiopa, el compromiso es ser neutros en carbono en el 2027. +Apple ha prometido que sus fbricas usarn energa renovable en China. +Y estamos en una carrera hoy en da por el aprovechamiento energtico de la energa de las olas y las mareas, de manera que podamos dejar el carbn donde est, en el suelo. +Y ese cambio es, a la vez, bienvenido y rpido. +Pero no es suficiente. Y la voluntad poltica no es todava suficiente. +Djenme volver al Presidente Tong y su pueblo en Kiribati. +En realidad, ellos podran tener una solucin y vivir en su isla, pero requerira mucha voluntad poltica. +El Presidente Tong me cont acerca de su idea ambiciosa de hacer flotar las islas donde vive su pueblo o de construir unas nuevas. +Esto, por supuesto, est por encima del presupuesto de Kiribati. +Requerira de una gran solidaridad y apoyo de otros pases y requerira de ideas creativas del tipo de las que se nos ocurren cuando tenemos que poner una estacin espacial en el aire. +Pero no sera maravilloso desarrollar esta ingeniera fabulosa y permitirle a un pueblo permanecer en su territorio soberano, y ser parte de la comunidad de naciones? +Es en ese tipo de idea que deberamos estar pensando. +S, los desafos de la transformacin que necesitamos son grandes, pero pueden ser resueltos. +Como pueblo somos muy capaces de resolver problemas juntos. +Fui muy consciente de esto este ao cuando particip en la celebracin del 70 aniversario del fin de la Segunda Guerra Mundial de 1945. +El ao 1945 fue un ao extraordinario. +Fue un ao en el que el mundo se enfrent a lo que pareca problemas imposibles de resolver-- la devastacin de las guerras mundiales, y ms por la Segunda Guerra Mundial, la frgil paz que se haba alcanzado, la necesidad de una recuperacin econmica total. Pero los lderes de aquel entonces no se dejaron intimidar. +Tuvieron la capacidad y el sentido de compromiso +a no permitir que el mundo tuviera que volverse a enfrentar a un problema similar. +Y tuvieron que crear estructuras para la paz y la seguridad. +Y qu obtuvimos? Qu se logr? +La Carta de las Naciones Unidas, las instituciones de Bretton Woods, como suelen llamarse: El Banco Mundial y el Fondo Monetario Internacional. +Un Plan Marshall para reconstruir una Europa devastada +y unos aos ms tarde, la Declaracin Universal de los Derechos Humanos. +El 2015 es un ao similar en importancia a 1945, con desafos y capacidad de solucin similares. +Este ao habr dos grandes cumbres: la primera, en septiembre en Nueva York, es la cumbre por las metas del desarrollo sostenible. +Y luego est la cumbre en Pars, en diciembre, por un acuerdo climtico. +Las metas del desarrollo sostenible pretenden ayudar a que los pases vivan de manera sustentable, en armona con la madre tierra, no explotando la tierra y destruyendo ecosistemas, sino ms bien en armona con ella, desarrollndose de manera sostenible. +Las metas del desarrollo sostenible regirn para todos los pases a partir de enero de 2016. +El acuerdo climtico-- un acuerdo climtico vinculante-- es necesario, porque hay evidencia cientfica que muestra que vamos camino a un mundo de 4 C y tenemos que cambiar el curso para mantenernos por debajo de los 2C. +Tenemos que dar pasos que sean monitoreados y revisados, de modo que podamos incrementar nuestro objetivo de reducir las emisiones y avanzar ms rpidamente al uso de las energas renovables, y podamos tener un mundo a salvo. +La realidad es que el problema es demasiado importante para dejrselo a los polticos y a la ONU. +Es un problema de todos nosotros, y es un problema en el que necesitamos tener mpetu. +La cara del ambientalismo, en verdad, ha cambiado por la dimensin de la justicia. +Es ahora un asunto para organizaciones religiosas, bajo el buen liderazgo del Papa Francisco, e incluso de la Iglesia Anglicana, que se est alejando de los combustibles fsiles. +Es un asunto para la comunidad econmica, y la buena noticia es que la comunidad econmica est cambiando rpidamente-- con la excepcin de las industrias de los combustibles fsiles. Que incluso han empezado a cambiar su lenguaje-- aunque levemente. +Pero los negocios no solo se mueven aceleradamente hacia los beneficios de las renovables, sino que presiona a los polticos para que den ms seales y as poder moverse todava ms rpido. +Es un asunto de los sindicatos. +Es un asunto de los grupos de mujeres. +Es un asunto de la gente joven. +Me impact mucho saber que Jibreel Khazan, 1 de los 4 estudiantes de Greeensboro que particip en las protestas sentadas de Woolworth, dijo hace poco que el cambio climtico es el momento de "sentarse en la barra" para la gente joven. +El momento de "sentarse en la barra" para la gente joven del siglo XXI-- Un verdadero problema de derechos humanos del siglo XXI-- porque, segn l, es el desafo ms grande para la humanidad y la justicia. +Recuerdo mucho la marcha por el clima de septiembre pasado, fue un gran momentum en Nueva York, y en todo el mundo, +y tenemos que construir sobre eso. +Eso fue lo que sent. +Tengo cinco nietos ahora, me siento feliz, como abuela irlandesa, de tener cinco nietos, y pienso en su mundo, y en cmo ser cuando lo compartan con casi nueve mil millones en el 2050. +Nadie ser dejado de lado. +Y as como hemos estado mirando atrs desde este ao, 2015, a 1945-- mirando hacia atrs 70 aos-- me gustara pensar que ellos mirarn hacia atrs-- que ese mundo mirar hacia atrs 35 aos ms tarde, del 2050 al 2015, y dirn, "No fueron realmente buenos al haber hecho lo que hicieron en el 2015?" +"Agradecemos que hayan tomado decisiones que marcaron la diferencia, y que pusieron al mundo en el sendero correcto, y que nosotros nos podamos beneficiar de ellas hoy". Que sientan que, de alguna manera, asumimos nuestra responsabilidad, e hicimos lo que se hizo, en trminos similares en 1945, que no perdimos la oportunidad, que asumimos nuestra responsabilidad. +De eso es de lo que se trata este ao. +Y para m, alguien a quien admiro mucho, lo defini muy bien con sus palabras. +Fue una mentora, una amiga, que muri demasiado joven, y tena una personalidad extraordinaria; era una campeona del ambiente: Wangari Maathai. +Wangari una vez dijo, "En el curso de la historia, hay ocasiones en que la humanidad tiene que elevar su nivel de conciencia, alcanzar un nivel moral ms alto". +Y eso es lo que tenemos que hacer. +Tenemos que alcanzar un nuevo nivel de conciencia, un nivel moral ms alto. +Y lo tenemos que hacer este ao en estas dos grandes cumbres. +Y eso no pasar a menos que nos llevemos por el mpetu con gente de todo el mundo que dice: "Queremos accin ahora, queremos cambiar el curso, queremos un mundo seguro, seguro para generaciones futuras, un mundo seguro para nuestros hijos y nietos, y estamos en esto juntos". +Gracias. +El ao pasado, hice mi primera gira de promocin de libros. +En 13 meses, vol a 14 pases y di unas cien charlas. +Cada charla, en cada pas, empezaba con una presentacin que empezaba con una mentira: "Taiye Selasi viene de Ghana y Nigeria", o "Taiye Selasi viene de Inglaterra o EE.UU." +Cada vez que oa esa presentacin sin importar con qu pas conclua -- Inglaterra, EE.UU., Ghana, Nigeria -- pensaba: "Eso no es verdad". +S, nac en Inglaterra y me cri en EE.UU. +Mi madre naci en Inglaterra, y se cri en Nigeria, actualmente vive en Ghana. +Mi padre naci en Costa de Oro, una colonia britnica, se cri en Ghana, y ha vivido ms de 30 aos en el Reino de Arabia Saudita. +Por esta razn mis presentadores me llaman tambin "multinacional". +Pero pens: "Nike es multinacional, yo soy un ser humano". +Entonces, un buen da, a mitad de la gira, fui a Louisiana, un museo en Dinamarca donde compart el escenario con el escritor Colum McCann. +Estbamos discutiendo el papel de lo local en la escritura, cuando de repente me di cuenta. +Yo no soy multinacional. +Ni siquiera soy nacional. +Cmo puedo venir de una nacin? +Cmo un ser humano puede venir de un concepto? +Es una pregunta que me haba rondado durante dos dcadas. +A partir de peridicos, libros de texto, conversaciones, haba aprendido a hablar de pases como si fueran eternos, singulares, cosas que ocurren naturalmente, pero me pregunt: Decir que vine de un pas sugiere que el pas era un punto absoluto fijo en el espacio y el tiempo, algo constante, pero lo era? +En mi vida, han desaparecido pases, como Checoslovaquia; aparecido, como Timor Oriental, fracasado, como Somalia. +Mis padres vinieron de pases que no existan cuando nacieron. +Para m, un pas -- eso que podra nacer, morir, expandirse, contraerse -- apenas pareca la base para comprender a un ser humano. +Por eso fue un gran alivio descubrir el estado soberano. +Lo que llamamos pases en realidad son expresiones de estado soberano, una idea que se puso de moda hace solo 400 aos. +Cuando supe esto, en mi maestra en relaciones internacionales, sent como una ola de alivio. +Era como lo haba sospechado. +La historia era verdadera, las culturas eran reales, pero los pases eran inventados. +En los siguientes 10 aos, busqu redefinirme o desdefinirme, mi mundo, mi trabajo, mi experiencia, ms all de la lgica de estado. +En 2005, escrib un ensayo: "Qu es un afropolitano", esbozando una identidad que privilegiaba la cultura por sobre los pases. +Fue emocionante ver cuntas personas se identificaron con mi experiencia, e instructivo ver como muchos otros no aceptaron mi sentido del ser. +"Cmo puede Selasi decirse de Ghana" pregunt una mujer, "si nunca ha conocido las indignidades de viajar al extranjero con un pasaporte ghans?" +Para ser honesta, saba de lo que ella hablaba. +Tengo una amiga llamada Layla que naci y se cri en Ghana. +Sus padres son tercera generacin de ghaneses de ascendencia libanesa. +Layla, habla twi con fluidez y conoce Accra como la palma de su mano, pero cuando la conoc pens: "Ella no es de Ghana". +En mi mente era de Lbano, a pesar del hecho de que toda su experiencia formativa ocurri en las afueras de Accra. +Yo, como mis crticos, imaginaba una Ghana en la que todos los ghaneses eran de tez marrn y nadie tena pasaporte del Reino Unido. +Ca en la trampa restrictiva que supone el discurso del pas de origen: privilegiar una ficcin, el pas singular, sobre la realidad: la experiencia humana. +Hablando con Colum McCann ese da, finalmente me cay la ficha. +"Toda experiencia es local", dijo l. +"Toda identidad es experiencia", pens. +"No soy nacional", proclam en el escenario. +"Soy local. Soy multilocal". +Vean, "Taiye Selasi viene de EE.UU." no es verdad. +No tengo relacin con los EE.UU., no con los 50 estados, realmente. +Mi relacin es con Brooklin, la ciudad donde crec; con Nueva York, donde empec a trabajar; con Lawrenceville, donde pasaba Accin de Gracias. +EE.UU. es mi hogar no por mi pasaporte o mi acento, sino por estas experiencias muy particulares y los lugares donde ocurren. +A pesar de mi orgullo por la cultura ewe, los Black Stars, y mi amor por la comida ghanesa, nunca he tenido una relacin con la Repblica de Ghana, con maysculas. +Mi relacin es con Accra, donde vive mi madre, a donde voy cada ao, con el pequeo jardn de Dzorwulu donde hablo horas con mi padre. +Esos son los lugares que forman mi experiencia. +Mi experiencia es mi origen. +Y si en vez de preguntar "De dnde vienes?" preguntsemos: "Dnde eres local?" +Esto nos dira mucho ms de con quin y cun similares somos. +Dime que eres de Francia, y qu veo?, un conjunto de clichs? +La historia peligrosa de Adichie, el mito de la nacin de Francia? +Dime que eres local de Fez y Paris, an mejor, Goutte d'Or, y veo un conjunto de experiencias. +Nuestra experiencia es nuestro origen. +Dnde eres local? +Les propongo un test de 3 pasos. +Lo llamo las tres "R": rituales, relaciones, restricciones. +Primero, piensen tres rituales diarios, los que sean: hacer el caf, conducir al trabajo, cosechar cultivos, decir sus oraciones. +Qu tipo de rituales son? +Dnde ocurren? +En qu ciudad o ciudades del mundo los comerciantes conocen sus rostros? +De nia, yo tena rituales suburbanos bastante comunes en Boston, con ajustes a los rituales que mi madre trajo de Londres y Lagos. +Nos quitbamos los zapatos en casa, ramos indefectiblemente educados con nuestros mayores, comamos comidas picantes cocidas a fuego lento. +En los nevados EE.UU., nuestros rituales eran del Sur global. +La primera vez que fui a Delhi o al sur de Italia, qued sorprendida e lo familiar que me resultaba. +Los rituales eran familiares. +"R" nmero uno, los rituales. +Ahora, piensen en sus relaciones, en las personas que dan forma a sus das. +Con quines hablan al menos una vez por semana, sea cara a cara o por FaceTime? +Sean razonables en su evaluacin; No hablo de sus amigos de Facebook. +Hablo de las personas que forman sus experiencias emocionales cada semana. +Mi madre en Accra, mi hermana gemela en Boston, mis mejores amigos en Nueva York: estas relaciones son mi hogar. +"R" nmero dos, las relaciones. +Somos locales all donde llevamos nuestros rituales y relaciones, pero cmo experimentamos lo local depende en parte de nuestras restricciones. +Por restricciones me refiero a dnde podemos vivir. +Qu pasaporte tenemos? +Los limita el racismo, se sienten completamente en casa donde viven? +Impide una guerra civil, un gobierno disfuncional, la inflacin econmica, que vivan en la localidad en la que tuvieron sus rituales de infancia? +Esta es la menos sexy de las R, menos lrica que los rituales y las relaciones, pero la pregunta que nos lleva de "Dnde ests ahora?" +a "Por qu no ests all?" +Rituales, relaciones, restricciones. +Tomen un trozo de papel y escriban esas tres palabras en tres columnas, luego traten de completar esas columnas con total honestidad. +Una imagen muy diferente de sus vidas en contexto local, de sus identidades como conjunto de experiencias, puede surgir. +Intentmoslo. +Tengo un amigo llamado Olu. +Tiene 35 aos. +Sus padres nacieron en Nigeria, fueron a Alemania con una beca. +Olu naci en Nuremberg y vivi all hasta los 10 aos. +Cuando su familia se mud a Lagos, l estudi en Londres, luego fue a Berlon. +Le encanta ir a Nigeria -- el clima, la comida, los amigos -- pero detesta la corrupcin poltica de all. +De dnde es Olu? +Tengo otro amigo llamado Udo. +Tiene 35 aos. +Udo naci en Crdoba, del centro de Argentina, a donde sus abuelos migraron desde Alemania, ahora Polonia, despus de la guerra. +Udo estudi en Buenos Aires, y hace nueve aos fue a Berlin. +Le encanta ir a Argentina -- el clima, la comida, los amigos -- pero detesta la corrupcin econmica de all. +De dnde es Udo? +Con cabello rubio y ojos azules, Udo podra pasar por alemn, pero tiene un pasaporte argentino y necesita una visa para vivir en Berlin. +Que Udo sea de Argentina tiene mucho que ver con la historia. +Que sea local de Buenos Aires y Berlin, tiene que ver con la vida. +Olu, que parece nigeriano, necesita visa para visitar Nigeria. +Habla yoruba con acento ingls, e ingls con acento alemn. +Dice no ser "realmente nigeriano", niega su experiencia en Lagos, los rituales que practic al crecer, sus relaciones con la familia y amigos. +Mientras tanto, aunque Lagos es sin duda uno de sus hogares, Olu siempre se siente limitado all, no solo por el hecho de ser gay. +Tanto l como Udo no pueden, por las condiciones polticas de los pases de sus padres, vivir donde ocurren algunos de sus rituales ms significativos y sus relaciones. +Decir que Olu es de Nigeria y Udo de Argentina distrae de sus experiencias comunes. +Sus rituales, sus relaciones, y sus restricciones son las mismas. +Claro, cuando preguntamos: "De dnde vienes?" +usamos una especie de atajo. +Es ms rpido decir "Nigeria" que "Lagos y Berln", y como con Google Maps, siempre podemos acercarnos, del pas, a la ciudad, al barrio. +Pero esa no es la idea. +La diferencia entre "De dnde vienes?" +y "Dnde eres local?" +no es la especificidad de la respuesta; es la intencin de la pregunta. +Reemplazar el lenguaje de la nacionalidad por el de la localidad nos interpela a desplazar el foco hacia donde ocurre la vida real. +Incluso la expresin ms gloriosa de pertenencia a un pas, la Copa del Mundo, nos da equipos nacionales compuestos en su mayora de jugadores multilocales. +Como unidad de medida de la experiencia humana, el pas casi no funciona. +Por eso Olu dice: "Soy alemn, pero mis padres vienen de Nigeria". +El "pero" en esa oracin desmiente la inflexibilidad de las unidades, una entidad fija y una de ficcin que chocan una contra la otra. +"Soy local de Lagos y Berln" sugiere experiencias solapadas, capas que se mezclan, que no pueden negarse ni eliminarse. +Pueden quitarme mi pasaporte, pero no pueden quitarme mi experiencia. +Eso lo llevo conmigo. +Mi origen me acompaa a donde voy. +Para ser clara, no estoy sugiriendo que eliminemos los pases. +Hay mucho que decir de la historia nacional, y ms del estado soberano. +La cultura existe en la comunidad, y la comunidad en el contexto. +Geografa, tradicin, memoria colectiva: estas cosas son importantes. +Lo que yo cuestiono es la primaca. +Todas esas presentaciones en la gira empezaban con referencia a la nacin, como si conocer mi pas de origen le dijese a mi audiencia quin era. +Qu buscamos realmente, entonces, al preguntar a alguien de dnde viene? +Y qu vemos realmente en la respuesta? +Esta es una posibilidad: bsicamente, los pases representan poder. +"De dnde vienes?" Mxico. Polonia. Bangladesh. Menos poder. +EE.UU. Alemania. Japn. Ms poder. +China. Rusia. Ambiguo. +Es posible que sin darnos cuenta, estemos jugando un juego de poder, en especial en el contexto de pases multitnicos. +Como todo inmigrante reciente sabe, la pregunta "De dnde vienes?" o "De dnde eres realmente?" +encubre a menudo "Por qu ests aqu?" +Luego tenemos al erudito William Deresiewicz que escribe de las universidades de elite de EE.UU.: +"Los estudiantes piensan que su entorno es diverso si uno viene de Missouri y otro de Pakistn, sin importar que todos los padres sean mdicos o banqueros". +Pienso igual que l. +Llamar a un estudiante estadounidense y a otro paquistan, y luego proclamar triunfalmente la diversidad del cuerpo estudiantil ignora el hecho de que estos estudiantes son locales del mismo medio. +Lo mismo ocurre en el otro extremo del espectro econmico. +Un jardinero mexicano en Los ngeles y un ama de casa nepal en Nueva Delhi tienen ms en comn en trminos de rituales y restricciones que lo que implica la nacionalidad. +Quiz el problema ms grande de venir de pases sea el mito de volver a ellos. +A menudo me preguntan si planeo "regresar" a Ghana. +Voy a Accra cada ao, pero no puedo "volver" a Ghana. +No porque no haya nacido all. +Mi padre no puede volver, tampoco. +El pas en el que l naci, ese pas ya no existe. +No podemos volver a un lugar y encontrarlo exactamente como lo dejamos. +Algo, en algn lugar siempre habr cambiado; sobre todo, nosotros, +las personas. +Finalmente, estamos hablando de la experiencia humana, este asunto notoria y gloriosamente desordenado. +En la escritura creativa, lo local nos habla de la humanidad. +Cuanto ms conocemos el contexto de una historia, cuanto ms color y textura local tiene, ms humano parecen los personajes, ms fcil identificarse, no menos. +El mito de la identidad nacional y el vocabulario de la procedencia nos confunde y nos pone en categoras mutuamente excluyentes. +de hecho, todos nosotros somos multi-locales, multi-capa. +Comenzar la conversacin reconociendo esta complejidad nos acerca ms, pienso, no nos aleja. +Por eso la prxima vez que me presenten, me encantara or la verdad: "Taiye Selasi es un ser humano, como todos aqu. +No es una ciudadana del mundo, sino una ciudadana de mundos. +Es local en Nueva York, Roma y Accra". +Gracias. +He tenido el gran privilegio de viajar a sitios increbles y fotografiar paisajes lejanos y culturas remotas por todo el mundo. +Adoro mi trabajo. +La gente piensa que es una cadena de epifanas, amaneceres y arcoris, cuando, en realidad, se parece ms a algo as. +Esta es mi oficina. +No podemos permitirnos los alojamientos ms lujosos, as que solemos dormir al exterior. +Mientras estemos secos, es un plus. +Tampoco podemos comer en los mejores restaurantes. +As que comemos lo que nos ofrezca el men local. +Y si uno est en el pramo ecuatoriano, come un gran roedor llamado "cuy". +Por qu es importante contar historias? +Nos ayuda a conectar con nuestra cultura y nuestro patrimonio natural. +Y en el sureste, existe una alarmante desconexin entre el pblico y las reas naturales que nos permiten estar aqu en primer lugar. +Somos criaturas visuales, usamos lo que vemos para ensearnos lo que sabemos. +La mayora de nosotros no se caer a propsito en un pantano. +Entonces cmo podemos esperar que la gente abogue por su proteccin? +No podemos. +Mi trabajo es usar la fotografa como herramienta de comunicacin, para actuar como puente entre la ciencia y la esttica, para conseguir que la gente hable, piense, y que con suerte y, por ltimo, cuide. +Empec a hacer esto hace 15 aos aqu mismo en Gainesville, en mi jardn. +Y me enamor de la aventura y el descubrimiento, explorando todos estos sitios diferentes que estaban a solo unos minutos de mi casa. +Hay muchos sitios bonitos por descubrir. +A pesar de todos los aos que han pasado, an observo el mundo con los ojos de un nio e intento incorporar ese sentimiento de asombro y de curiosidad a mi fotografa todo lo que puedo. +Somos bastante afortunados, porque en el sur an estamos bendecidos por un lienzo relativamente blanco que podemos rellenar con las aventuras ms fantsticas y las experiencias ms increbles. +Es solo cuestin de lo lejos que nuestra imaginacin pueda llevarnos. +Mucha gente mira este rbol y dice: "Ah s, guau, qu rbol ms bonito". +Pero yo no veo solo un rbol. Lo miro y veo oportunidad. +Veo un fin de semana entero. +Porque, cuando era nio, estas eran las imgenes que me empujaban a levantarme del sof y a explorar, a encontrar los bosques y meter la cabeza bajo el agua para ver lo que tenemos. +He estado fotografiando por todo el mundo y les prometo que lo que tenemos aqu, en el Estado del Sol, supera a cualquier cosa que hayan visto jams. +An as, nuestra industria del turismo est ocupada promoviendo lo errneo. +Antes de los 12, los nios habrn ido a Disney World ms veces de las que hayan andado en canoa o acampado bajo un cielo estrellado. +No tengo nada en contra de Disney o Mickey; yo tambin sola ir. +Pero se estn perdiendo esas conexiones fundamentales que crean una verdadera sensacin de orgullo y propiedad por el sitio al que llaman "casa". +Y esto se agrava por el hecho de que los paisajes que definen nuestro patrimonio natural y alimentan nuestro acufero para conseguir agua potable se han considerado como tenebrosos, peligrosos y espeluznantes. +Cuando llegaron nuestros ancestros, advirtieron: "Aljense de aqu, est hechizado". +Est lleno de espritus malignos y fantasmas". +No s de dnde sacaron esa idea. +Pero conduce a una desconexin real, a una mentalidad negativa que ha mantenido al pblico desinteresado, callado, y ha terminado por arriesgar nuestro medio ambiente. +Somos un estado rodeado y delimitado por agua, y, aun as, durante aos, los pantanos han sido tachados como obstculos. +As que los hemos tratado como ecosistemas de clase media por su escaso valor monetario, y porque se sabe que albergan cocodrilos y serpientes, los cuales, admito, no son los embajadores ms adorables. +Se asumi que el nico buen pantano era el drenado. +De hecho, drenar un pantano para dejar paso a la agricultura y al desarrollo se consideraba como la esencia de la conservacin no hace mucho. +Ahora vamos marcha atrs, porque cuanto ms aprendemos de estos paisajes empapados, mayores son los secretos que liberamos acerca de las relaciones entre especies y la conexin de los hbitats, las cuencas y las rutas migratorias. +Por ejemplo, miren este pjaro: es la protonotaria citrea. +Me encanta porque es un pjaro de pantano, en su integridad. +Anidan, se aparean y cran en estos viejos pantanos, en estos bosques inundados. +Y despus de la primavera, despus de criar, vuelan miles de millas por el Golfo de Mxico, hacia Centroamrica y Sudamrica. +Despus del invierno, llega la primavera y vuelven. +Vuelan miles de millas por el Golfo de Mxico. +Y a dnde van? Dnde aterrizan? +En el mismo rbol en el que estaban. +Es alucinante. +Este pjaro tiene el tamao de una pelota de tenis, o sea, es de locos! +Hoy he usado un GPS para llegar aqu, y eso que es mi pueblo. +Es de locos. +Lo que pasa cuando este pjaro vuela por el Golfo de Mxico, hasta Centroamrica, para el invierno, y luego llega la primavera y vuelve, es que vuelve aqu: un campo de golf con csped nuevo? +Esta historia es muy comn en este estado. +Es un proceso que lleva ocurriendo miles de aos, y solo ahora estamos conociendo. +As que pueden imaginarse cunto nos queda por aprender si preservamos el paisaje. +Pero, a pesar de toda la riqueza que abunda en estos pantanos, todava tienen mala fama. +A mucha gente no le hace gracia la idea de meterse en las aguas negras de Florida. +Lo puedo entender. +Pero lo que me encant acerca de crecer en el Estado del Sol es que muchos de nosotros vivimos con este latente pero muy palpable temor de que, al meter el pie en el agua, puede que haya algo ms viejo y mucho ms adaptado que nosotros. +Creo que saber que no eres un mandams es un malestar bienvenido. +En esta era digital moderna y urbana, cuntas veces te has podido sentir vulnerable, o considerado que el mundo quiz no solo se cre para nosotros? +Durante la ltima dcada, empec a localizar estas reas donde el hormign cede paso al bosque y los pinos se convierten en cipreses, e interpret todos estos mosquitos y reptiles, todos estos malestares, como prueba de haber encontrado la verdadera naturaleza, y los recib con los brazos abiertos. +Como fotgrafo de conservacin obsesionado con las aguas negras, solo cabe esperar que acabe en el pantano ms famoso de todos: los Everglades. +Aqu, en el centro-norte de Florida, siempre ha tenido nombres mgicos como Loxahatchee y Fakahatchee, Corkscrew, Big Cypress. +Empec lo que despus se convirti en un proyecto de cinco aos para conducir a los Everglades hacia una nueva luz, una luz ms inspiradora. +Pero saba que sera muy ambicioso, porque tienen un rea que ocupa cerca de un tercio del estado de Florida, es enorme. +Y cuando digo Everglades, mucha gente piensa: "Ah, s, el parque nacional". +S, el parque nacional es el extremo sur de este sistema, pero todo lo que lo hace nico son estas contribuciones que llegan, el agua fresca que nace a 160 kilmetros al norte. +Ninguna frontera poltica o invisible protege el parque de agua contaminada o insuficiente. +Y, por desgracia, eso es precisamente lo que hemos hecho. +Durante los ltimos 60 aos, hemos drenado, contenido, excavado en los Everglades hasta hacer que, ahora, solo un tercio del agua que llegaba a la baha llegue hoy a la baha. +La historia no es todo sol y arcoris, por desgracia. +Para bien o para mal, la historia de los Everglades est intrnsecamente unida a las cumbres y los valles de las relaciones de la humanidad con el mundo natural. +Les voy a ensear estas preciosas fotos porque los pone en situacin. +Y mientras gozo de su atencin, les cuento la verdad. +La verdad es que estamos tomando esto y lo estamos cambiando por esto, con una frecuencia alarmante. +Y lo que mucha gente ha ignorado es la autntica escala de lo que estamos hablando. +Porque los Everglades no es solo responsable del agua potable de 7 millones de floridanos; hoy en da, tambin provee a los campos de agricultura de la cantidad anual de tomates y naranjas para ms de 300 millones de estadounidenses. +Y es ese mismo pulso estacional de agua en verano el que construy el ro de hierba hace 6000 aos. +Irnicamente, tambin es responsable de ms de 1000 kilmetros cuadrados del ro interminable de caa de azcar. +Estos son los mismos campos responsables del excesivo vertido de fertilizantes en el parteaguas, que cambian el sistema para siempre. +Pero para que entendis no solo cmo funciona este sistema, sino para conectaros con l, he decidido dividir la historia en varias historias diferentes. +Quera que la historia comenzase en el lago Okeechobee, el corazn palpitante del sistema de los Everglades. +Para ello, he elegido al embajador, una especie icnica. +Es el caracolero de los Everglades. +Es un pjaro genial, antes solan anidar miles en el norte de los Everglades. +Y, actualmente, el nmero ha descendido a 400 pares de nidos. +Por qu? +Porque se alimentan de un nico animal, el caracol manzana, del tamao de una pelota de ping-pong, un gastrpodo acutico. +Cuando empezamos a contener los Everglades, a construir diques en el lago Okeechobee y a drenar los pantanos, perdimos el hbitat de este caracol. +Por tanto, el nmero de caracoleros descendi. +Quera una foto que no solo transmitiera esta relacin entre pantano, caracol y pjaro, sino que tambin transmitiera lo increble que era esta relacin y la importancia de que hayan llegado a depender el uno del otro, este pantano y este pjaro. +Para ello, hice una lluvia de ideas. +Empec a hacer borradores con el plan para realizar esta fotografa, y lo mand al bilogo de la fauna de Okeechobee (el pjaro est en peligro de extincin, se necesita permiso). +Constru esta plataforma sumergible que mantendra a los caracoles bajo el agua. +Y pas meses planeando esta alocada idea. +Llev esta plataforma al lago Okeechobee y me pas ms de una semana en el agua, para conseguir una imagen que pensara que podra transmitir esto. +Este es el da en el que, por fin, lo consegu: Video: (Mac Stone narrando) Tras instalar la plataforma, miro y veo un caracolero viniendo hacia las totoras. +Lo veo rastreando y buscando algo. +Se coloca encima de la trampa, y veo cmo la ha visto. +Va directamente hacia ella. +En ese momento, todos esos meses planificando, esperando, las quemaduras, las picaduras... de repente, merecen la pena. +(Mac Stone en el vdeo) Oh, Dios mo, no me lo puedo creer! Pueden imaginar lo feliz que estaba cuando ocurri. +Pero la idea era que, para alguien que nunca ha visto este pjaro y que no tiene motivo para que le importe, estas fotos, estas nuevas perspectivas, ayudarn a encontrar un camino para una nica especie que hace que este parteaguas sea tan increble y tenga tanto valor. +S que no puedo venir a Gainesville y hablar de animales de los Everglades sin hablar de caimanes. +Me encantan, siempre me han gustado. +Mis padres siempre me decan que tena una relacin poco sana con ellos. +Pero lo que me gusta de ellos es que son como los tiburones de agua dulce. +Se les teme, se les odia, y son unos incomprendidos. +Porque son especies nicas, no simples y sumos depredadores. +En los Everglades, son los verdaderos arquitectos del sitio, porque, a medida que el agua para en invierno durante la sequa, empiezan a excavar estos hoyos, hoyos de caimn. +Y lo hacen porque, a medida que la lluvia pare, estarn secos y podrn buscar comida. +Esto no solo les afecta a ellos, otros tambin dependen de esta relacin, se convierten en especies clave. +Cmo haces que un sumo depredador, un reptil milenario, parezca que domine el sistema, pero, al mismo tiempo, parezca vulnerable? +Te sumerges en una fosa con 120 de ellos y esperas haber tomado la decisin acertada. +Todava tengo mis dedos, no pasa nada. +Pero lo entiendo, s que no voy a concentrarlos en tropa y que griten "Salven a los Everglades de los caimanes!" +No va a pasar porque son ubicuos, ahora los vemos, son uno de los mayores xitos de conservacin de EE.UU., +Pero hay una especie en los Everglades que, no importa quin seas, siempre te va a gustar. La esptula rosada. +Son geniales, pero lo han pasado mal en los Everglades, porque, al inicio, haba miles de pares de nidos en la Baha de Florida, y, con la llegada del siglo XX, se redujeron a dos. +Por qu? +Porque las mujeres pensaron que lucan mejor en sus sombreros as que volaron al cielo. +Despus se prohibi el comercio de plumas y empezaron a recuperarse. +Y, con el aumento de nmero, los cientficos prestaron atencin y los estudiaron. +Descubrieron que su comportamiento est intrnsecamente ligado a la disminucin anual de agua de los Everglades, que es lo que define su parteaguas. +Descubrieron que estos pjaros anidaban en invierno, con la cada del agua, porque se alimentan de manera tctil, tocando todo lo que comen. +Esperan a estos bancos de peces para poder alimentar a sus cras. +Estos pjaros se convirtieron en el icono de los Everglades, un indicador de la salud general del sistema. +Y, segn aumentaban a mediados del siglo XX, llegando a 900, 1000, 1100, 1200... se empez a drenar el sur de los Everglades. +Y bloqueamos a dos tercios del agua de que llegaran al sur. +Y las consecuencias fueron drsticas. +Y, al igual que esos nmeros alcanzaron su lmite, hoy en da, la verdadera historia de la esptula la autntica foto de su realidad es ms algo como esto. +Hemos bajado a 70 pares de nidos en la Baha de Florida, porque hemos perturbado mucho el sistema. +Diferentes organizaciones gritan, "Los Everglades son frgiles!" +No lo es. +Es resistente. +A pesar de todo lo que hemos quitado, hemos hecho, hemos vaciado, hemos contenido y hemos excavado, an quedan restos de l, esperando a que los unan de nuevo. +Y esto es lo que me encanta del sur de Florida, que, en un mismo sitio, tienes esta fuerza humana imparable que se encuentra con el objeto inamovible de la naturaleza tropical. +En este punto estamos obligados a hacer una nueva estimacin. +Cunto vale la pena la naturaleza? +Cul es el valor de la biodiversidad, del agua potable? +Por suerte, tras dcadas de debate, estamos empezando a actuar ante esas preguntas. +Empezamos a llevar a cabo proyectos para traer ms agua dulce a la baha. +Pero depende de nosotros, como ciudadanos, residentes, representantes, que los oficiales electos cumplan con su promesa. +Qu pueden hacer para ayudar? +Es muy fcil. +Salgan ah fuera. +Lleven a sus amigos, hijos, a su familia. +Alquilen una gua de pesca. +Demuestren que proteger la naturaleza no solo tiene un sentido ecolgico, sino tambin econmico. +Es muy divertido, hganlo, metan los pies en el agua. +El pantano los cambiar, lo prometo. +Durante aos, hemos sido muy generosos con estos otros paisajes ocultndolos con orgullo estadounidense, sitios que hoy en da nos definen: el Gran Can, Yosemite, Yellowstone. +Y usamos estos parques y reas naturales como modelos y confines culturales. +Y, por desgracia, los Everglades suele quedar fuera de la conversacin. +Pero creo que es tan icnico y emblemtico de lo que nos define como pas como cualquiera de estas otras naturalezas. +Es solo otro tipo de naturaleza. +Pero me siento con nimos, porque quiz estemos empezando a cambiar de opinin, ya que, lo que una vez se tach de pramo pantanoso, ahora es Patrimonio de la Humanidad. +Un pantano de importancia internacional. +Hemos recorrido un largo camino los ltimos 60 aos. +Y como mayor y ms ambicioso proyecto de restauracin de pantano del mundo, el foco de atencin internacional est puesto en nosotros. +Si podemos reparar este sistema, se convertir en un icono de la restauracin de pantanos en todo el mundo. +Depende de nosotros decidir a qu legado queremos que pertenezca nuestra bandera. +Dicen que los Everglades son nuestra prueba ms decisiva. +Si la pasamos, conseguimos mantener el planeta. +Me encanta esa cita, porque es un desafo, un empujn. +Podemos hacerlo? Lo haremos? +Tenemos, debemos. +Los Everglades no son solo una prueba. +Es tambin un regalo, y, por ltimo, nuestra responsabilidad. +Gracias. +Durante el ltimo ao, todo el mundo ha estado viendo el mismo programa, y yo no estoy hablando de "Juego de Tronos" sino un de un horrible drama de la vida real que result demasiado fascinante para apagarlo. +Es un espectculo producido por asesinos y compartido por todo el mundo a travs de Internet. +Sus nombres se han vuelto familiares: James Foley, Steven Sotloff, David Haines, Alan Henning, Peter Kassig, Haruna Yukawa, Kenji Goto Jogo. +Sus decapitaciones por el Estado Islmico fueron brbaras, pero si pensamos que eran arcaicos, de una edad oscura, remota, entonces estamos equivocados. +Fueron singularmente modernos, debido a que los asesinos actuaron sabiendo bien que millones de personas podran sintonizarse para ver. +Los titulares los llamaron salvajes y brbaros, porque la imagen de un hombre dominando a otro, matndolo con un cuchillo en la garganta, se ajusta a nuestra idea de la antigedad, a prcticas primitivas, el polo opuesto de nuestras maneras civilizadas urbanas. +Nosotros no hacemos ese tipo de cosas. +Pero esa es la irona. +Creemos que una decapitacin no tiene nada que ver con nosotros, incluso cuando hacemos clic en la pantalla para ver. +Pero tiene que ver con nosotros. +Las decapitaciones del Estado Islmico no son antiguas o remotas. +Son un evento global, del siglo XXI, un acontecimiento del siglo XXI que se realiza en nuestras salas, escritorios, en nuestras pantallas de la computadora. +Son totalmente dependientes de la potencia tecnolgica para conectarnos. +Y nos guste o no, todo el que mira es una parte del espectculo. +Y un montn de gente mira. +No sabemos exactamente cuntos. +Obviamente, es difcil de calcular. +Sin embargo, una encuesta del Reino Unido, por ejemplo, en agosto de 2014, estima que 1.2 millones de personas haba visto la decapitacin de James Foley a los pocos das despus de que fuera lanzada. +Y eso es solo los primeros das, y solo en Gran Bretaa. +Una encuesta similar hecha en EE. UU. en noviembre 2014 encontr que el 9 % de los encuestados haba visto vdeos de decapitacin, y un 23 % adicional haba visto los videos, pero se haba detenido justo antes la muerte. +9 % puede ser una pequea minora de todas las personas que podan ver, pero sigue siendo una gran multitud. +Y por supuesto que la multitud crece todo el tiempo, porque cada semana, cada mes, ms gente va la descarga y la ve. +Si nos remontamos 11 aos, antes de que nacieran los sitios como YouTube y Facebook, fue una historia similar. +Cuando civiles inocentes como Daniel Pearl, Nick Berg, Paul Johnson, fueron decapitados, esos videos fueron mostrados durante la guerra de Irak. +La decapitacin de Nick Berg rpidamente se convirti en uno de los ms buscados por artculos en Internet. +En un da, era el primer trmino de bsqueda de motores de bsqueda como Google, Lycos, Yahoo. +En la semana posterior a la decapitacin de Nick Berg, estos fueron los 10 primeros trminos de bsqueda en EE. UU. +El video de la decapitacin de Berg se mantuvo como el ms popular de la semana, y fue el segundo trmino de bsqueda ms popular de todo el mes de mayo, seguido solo por "American Idol". +El sitio web de al-Qaeda, que primero mostr la decapitacin de Nick Berg tuvo que cerrar en un par de das debido al trfico abrumador para el sitio. +Un propietario del sitio web holands dijo que sus cifras de audiencia diaria aumentaron de 300 000 a 750 000 cada vez que mostraba una decapitacin en Irak. +Dijo a los periodistas 18 meses despus que haba sido descargado millones de veces, y eso es solo una pgina web. +Un patrn similar se observa una y otra vez cuando videos de decapitaciones fueron lanzados durante la Guerra de Irak. +Las redes sociales han hecho que estas imgenes sean ms accesibles que nunca, pero si damos un paso atrs en la historia, veremos que fue la cmara la que primero cre un nuevo tipo de pblico en nuestra historia de decapitaciones como espectculo pblico. +Tan pronto como la cmara apareci en la escena, toda una vida atrs, el 17 de junio de 1939, tuvo un efecto inmediato e inequvoco. +Ese da, la primera pelcula de una decapitacin pblica se film en Francia. +Fue la ejecucin, el guillotinado, de un asesino en serie alemn, Eugen Weidmann, fuera de la prisin de Saint-Pierre, en Versalles. +Weidmann iba a ser ejecutado al amanecer, como era costumbre en la poca, pero su verdugo era nuevo en el trabajo, y haba subestimado cunto tiempo le tomara para prepararse. +As Weidmann fue ejecutado a las 4:30 de la maana, momento en el cual en una maana de junio, haba suficiente luz para tomar fotografas, y un espectador en la multitud film el evento, sin el conocimiento de las autoridades. +Se tomaron varias fotografas tambin y todava se puede ver la pelcula en lnea hoy y mirar las fotografas. +La multitud en el da de la ejecucin de Weidmann fue denominada "rebelde" y "desagradable" por la prensa, pero eso no era nada en comparacin con los miles y miles de personas que ahora podran estudiar la accin una y otra vez, congelar cada detalle. +La cmara puede haber hecho estas escenas ms accesible que nunca jams, pero no se trata solo de la cmara. +Si damos un gran salto hacia atrs en la historia, veremos que durante el tiempo que ha habido ejecuciones judiciales pblicas y decapitaciones, ha habido una multitud para verlas. +En Londres, en fecha tan tarda como el siglo XIX, poda haber 4 o 5 mil personas viendo un ahorcamiento estndar. +Podra haber 40 000 o 50 000 viendo matar a un famoso criminal. +Y una decapitacin, que era un evento raro en Inglaterra en el momento, atraa an ms. +En mayo de 1820, 5 hombres conocidos como Conspiradores de la Calle Cato fueron ejecutados en Londres por planear asesinar a miembros del gobierno britnico. +Fueron colgados y luego decapitados. +Era una escena horripilante. +La cabeza de cada hombre fue cortada y levantada a la multitud. +Y 100 000 personas, eso es 10 000 ms que la que pueden caber en el estadio de Wembley, haba resuelto ir a verlo. +Las calles estaban llenas. +La gente haba alquilado ventanas y tejados. +La gente haba subido a carros y carretas en la calle. +La gente se subi a los postes de luz. +Haba gente muerta en la aglomeracin en los das de ejecuciones pblicas. +La evidencia sugiere que a lo largo de nuestra historia de decapitaciones y ejecuciones pblicas, la gran mayora de las personas que iban a verlas eran o entusiastas o, como mucho, impasibles. +La repugnancia ha sido relativamente rara, e incluso cuando la gente que est disgustada y se horroriza, no siempre deja de salir de todos modos de ver. +Tal vez el ejemplo ms llamativo de la capacidad humana de ver una decapitacin y permanecer impasible e incluso estar decepcionado fue la introduccin en Francia en 1792 de la guillotina, la famosa mquina de decapitacin. +Para nosotros en el siglo XXI, la guillotina puede parecer como un artilugio monstruoso, pero para las primeras multitudes que la vieron, en realidad fue una decepcin. +Estaban acostumbrados a una larga, interminable, ejecucin tortuosa, donde las personas eran mutiladas y quemadas y se separaban lentamente. +Para ellos, ver la guillotina en accin, era tan rpida, que no haba nada que ver. +La hoja cay, la cabeza cay en una cesta en seguida fuera de la vista y gritaron, "Devulveme mis horca, devulveme mis horca de madera". +El fin de las ejecuciones judiciales pblicas de tortura en Europa y EE. UU. era en parte de ser ms humanos hacia el criminal, pero tambin fue en parte porque la gente se neg obstinadamente a comportarse de la manera que deberan. +Con demasiada frecuencia, el da de la ejecucin era ms como un carnaval que como una ceremonia solemne. +Hoy, una ejecucin judicial pblica en Europa o EE. UU. es impensable, pero hay otros escenarios que deberan hacernos cautos al pensar que las cosas son diferentes hoy y que no nos comportamos de esa manera ms. +Tomemos, por ejemplo, los incidentes de hostigamiento del suicidio. +Esto es cuando una multitud se rene para ver una persona que ha subido a la cima de un edificio pblico con el fin de quitarse la vida, y la multitud grita y se burla, "Hazlo! Salta!" +Este es un fenmeno bien conocido. +Un peridico en 1981 encontr que en 10 de 21 amenazas de intento de suicidio, hubo incidentes de incitacin al suicidio y burlones en la multitud. +Y ha habido incidentes reportados en la prensa de este ao. +Este fue un incidente muy ampliamente reportado en Telford y Shropshire en marzo de este ao. +Y cuando sucede hoy en da, las personas toman fotografas y se toman vdeos en sus telfonos y publican los videos en lnea. +Cuando se trata de asesinos brutales que publican sus videos decapitacin, Internet ha creado un nuevo tipo de pblico. +Hoy en da, la accin tiene lugar en un tiempo y lugar lejanos, lo que da al espectador sensacin de desapego de lo que est pasando, un sentido de separacin. +No tiene nada que ver conmigo. +Ya ha pasado. +Tambin nos ofrece un sentido sin precedentes de la intimidad. +Hoy en da, estamos en primera fila. +Todos podemos ver en privado, en nuestro propio tiempo y espacio, y nadie necesita saber nunca que hemos hecho clic en la pantalla para ver. +Este sentido de la separacin --de otras personas, del evento en s-- parece ser clave para entender nuestra capacidad de ver, y hay varias maneras en las que Internet crea un sentido de desprendimiento que parece erosionar la responsabilidad moral individual. +Nuestras actividades en lnea a menudo se contraponen con la vida real, como si las cosas que hacemos en lnea fueran de alguna manera menos reales. +Nos sentimos menos responsables de nuestras acciones cuando interactuamos en lnea. +Hay una sensacin de anonimato, un sentido de la invisibilidad, nos sentimos menos responsables de nuestro comportamiento. +Internet tambin hace que sea mucho ms fcil toparse con cosas sin darse cuenta, cosas que solemos evitar en la vida cotidiana. +Hoy, un vdeo puede empezar a mostrarse incluso antes de saber qu ests viendo. +O uno puede tener la tentacin de ver material que no mirara en la vida normal o uno no mirara si estuviera con otras personas en el momento. +Y cuando la accin es pregrabada y tiene lugar en un tiempo y espacio lejanos verla parece una actividad pasiva. +No hay nada que pueda hacer ahora. +Ya ha pasado. +Todas estas cosas hacen que sea ms fcil como usuarios de Internet que demos sentido a nuestra curiosidad acerca de la muerte, y empujar nuestros lmites personales, para probar nuestro sentido de shock, para explorar nuestro sentido de shock. +Pero no somos pasivos cuando miramos. +Por el contrario, estamos cumpliendo el deseo del asesino de ser visto. +Cuando la vctima de una decapitacin est atada e indefensa, l o ella se convierte en un pen en el espectculo de su asesino. +A diferencia de una cabeza de trofeo que se toma en batalla, que representa la suerte y habilidad que se necesita para ganar una pelea, cuando se pone en escena una decapitacin, cuando es esencialmente una pieza de teatro, el poder viene de la recepcin que el asesino recibe cuando la realiza. +En otras palabras, la observacin es una parte muy importante del evento. +El evento ya no tiene lugar en una nica ubicacin en un cierto punto en el tiempo como antes y como todava puede parecer. +Ahora el evento est extendido en tiempo y lugar, y todo el que mira juega su parte. +Debemos dejar de ver, pero sabemos que no lo haremos. +La historia nos dice que no lo haremos, y los asesinos lo saben tambin. +Gracias. +Bruno Giussani: Gracias. Dmosles espacio. Gracias. +Vamos aqu. Mientras instalan para la prxima actuacin, Quiero hacerte la pregunta que probablemente muchos tienen, que es, cmo llegaste a interesarte en este tema? +Frances Larson: Trabajaba en un museo llamado el Museo Pitt Rivers en Oxford, que era famoso por su exhibicin de cabezas reducidas de Amrica del Sur. +La gente deca: "Oh, el museo de cabezas reducidas, el museo cabezas reducidas!" +Y en ese momento, yo estaba trabajando en la historia de las colecciones cientficas de crneos. +As que quise darle la vuelta y decir: "Vamos a ver con nosotros". +Miramos a travs de un cristal estas cabezas reducidas. +Miremos nuestra historia y nuestra propia fascinacin cultural con estas cosas. +BG: Gracias por compartir esto. +FL: Gracias. +Cuando tena solo 3 o 4 aos, me enamor de la poesa, con los ritmos y la msica de la lengua; con el poder de la metfora y del imaginario poesa en su esencia para la comunicacin - la disciplina, la destilacin. +Y despus de tantos aos, los poemas que voy a leer hoy son de mi recin terminado sptimo libro de poesa. +Hace cinco aos, me diagnosticaron la enfermedad de Parkinson. +Aunque no hay cura todava, los avances en el tratamiento son realmente impresionantes. +Pero se pueden imaginar que me sorprendi saber que las mujeres no son incluidas, en general, en los ensayos de investigacin, a pesar de que los hallazgos mdicos especficos de gnero han demostrado que en realidad no somos solo pequeos hombres -- con diferentes sistemas reproductivos. +La medicina especfica de gnero es tambin buena para hombres. +Pero esto conlleva una crisis sobre que eres como persona incluyendo el momento que has aprendido a invocar a travs del cuidado apasionado y a travs de la accin, los cuales requieren energa, pero tambin la crean. +Empec como activistaen la Fundacin Enfermedad de Parkinson que es pdf.org -- para crear una importante iniciativa para colocar a las mujeres en el mapa de la enfermedad de Parkinson +Y como poetisa, comenc a trabajar con este tema, buscando lo trgico, lo hilarante, y a veces incluso lo alegre. +No me siento disminuida por el Parkinson. Me siento filtrada por l, y, en realidad, muy parecida a la mujer en la que estoy derivando. +"No hay seales de lucha" Crecer pequea requiere mucha voluntad: an sentada en la sala de espera del mdico viendo el futuro al azar dentro y fuera vindolo inclinarse; mirndote mientras intentas no mirar. +Lo raro es un cambio: una ligera sonrisa, irnico reconocimiento. +T eres la nueva chica en el bloque. +Aqu todo el mundo fue t una vez. +Ests an aprendiendo que crecer pequea requiere de grandeza de espritu no se puede encajar todava: aceptacin de ayuda irritante de los que te aman; regalando, haciendo esfuerzos y no se dan por vencidos +T has tragado con fuerza los contenidos de la botella "bbame", y te sentiste encogido. +Ahora, muebles familiares, suelos inclinados, y pomos de las puertas ceden solamente cuando luchas con las dos manos. +Exige paciencia colosal, todo eso creciendo pequeo: tu sueo disminuido por la noche, tu escritura, tu voz, tu estatura. +T eres ms la increble mujer encogiendo que el mstico budista, sereno, conformndose con menos. +Menos no siempre es ms. +Sin embargo, en este espacio vaco, espacio brillante, hacindose visible. +Aqu es un lugar detrs de los ojos de los que estn acostumbrados con lo que algunos llamaran disminucin. +Es un lugar de la poesa sin piedad, un regalo de la presencia ignorada anteriormente, ahogado en el desorden diario. +Aqu cada gesto necesita de la intencin, est vivo con la conciencia. +Nada es automtico. +T puedes detectarlo en la activacin de un botn, un brazo que empuja a una manga, un acto de equilibrio en un bordillo de noche mientras negociaba la oscuridad. +Hazaas de tal modesto valor, quien sospechara que seran ejercicios en una ntima, feroz disciplina, una metafsica de ser implacablemente consciente? +Tal poder subestimado aqu, en estos bailadores tambaleantes que hacen un esfuerzo estupendo en tareas ms vistas como insignificantes. +Tal belleza tranquila aqu, en estos, mi voz suave, personas rgidas; tal determinacin enmascarada por cada rostro plcido. +Se requiere inmensidad en crecer pequeo, tan empeado en tal gracia inflexible. +Gracias. +Este se llama "La donacin de mi cerebro a la ciencia." +No es un problema. +Salten todas las pginas que reafirman a la gente religiosa. +Ya es donante universal: riones, crneas, hgado, pulmones, tejido, corazn, venas, lo que sea. +Es extrao que el cerebro modesto nunca imagin su valor nico en la investigacin tal vez salvar a alguien ms de lo que es, no estn muy seguros de lo que tengo. +Favorecedor, eso. +As que a rellenar los formularios, a explorar en las respuestas, a perforar un espritu alegre. +Y crtenme, rebnenme, comprtanme en sus dispositivas. +Encuentren lo que intento decirles. +Percbanme, aprndanme, escanenme, entrecierren los ojos con su lente. +Descubran lo que me gustara insinuar si pudiera. +Sean mi invitado, esfurcense al mximo, recjanme, localicen las pistas. +Este fue un buen cerebro en vida. +Este fue un cerebro que pag sus penas. +Crtenme, rebnenme, calmnienme en sus diapositivas, mnchenme, explquenme escrranme como una taza. +Comprtanme, escchenme: Quiero ser usada Quiero ser usada Quiero ser utilizada. +(Fin de los aplausos) Y ste se llama "La Luz fantasma." +Iluminado por dentro es la nica manera segura para atravesar la materia oscura. +Algunas formas de vida, ciertas setas, caracoles, medusas, gusanos... brillan bioluminiscente, y las personas tambin emitimos luz infrarroja de nuestro ser ms lcido. +Nuestra tragedia es que no podemos verlo. +Vemos todo reflejado. +Necesitamos biofluorescencia para mostrar nuestros verdaderos colores. +La iluminacin externa puede, sin embargo, distorsionar. +Cuando la gravedad dobla la luz, enormes cmulos de galaxias pueden actuar como telescopios, alargando las imgenes de fondo de sistemas estelares a desmayar arcos un efecto de lente como ver faroles de la calle distantes a travs de una copa de vino. +Una copa de vino o dos ahora me hace entrelazar como si actuara la parte borracha; como si, enamorada con amor no correspondido por los lienzos dinmicos de Turner espiados por el telescopio Hubble, pudiera tambalear en algunas calles de la ciudad, sin provocar la mirada de cada peatn. +Mire fijamente el tiempo que necesite. +Si lo piensas bien, caminar, incluso de pie, es ilgico -- esas pequeas cosas, los pies! especialmente cuando el propio cuerpo ya no est al dente. +Adems, criatura de extremos y excesos, Siempre he pensado en Apolo hermoso pero aburrido, y un poco en una rubia tonta. +Dionisacos no equilibran. +El equilibrio, en otras palabras, nunca ha sido mi punto fuerte. +Pero estoy divagando. +Ms y ms en estos das, la divagacin parece la ruta ms directa de donde me perd o me encontr fuera de lugar, mente, giro, tiempo. +Coloque el pie as, importa cmo lo giras: muy rpido un giro puede tirarte. +Tmate tu tiempo anunciando a la audiencia, diciendo adis a los actores. +La luz fantasma es lo que llaman la nica bombilla colgada sobre el escenario descubierto en un teatro vaco. +Y sta es la ltima +"Esta hora oscura" El final del verano, 4 a.m. +La lluvia disminuye a una parada, goteando an de las hojas anchas de huestes azules invisibles en la oscuridad del jardn. +Descalza, con cuidado en las losas de pizarras lisas, No necesito luz, conozco el camino, agchate junto a la cama de menta, recoge un puado de tierra hmeda, luego busca a tientas una silla, extiende un chal y sintate, respirando el hmedo aire verde de agosto. +Esta es la pequea, an hora antes de que el peridico aterrice en el vestbulo como una granada, suena el telfono, la pantalla del computador parpadea y deslumbra despierta. +Hay esta hora: poema en mi cabeza, el suelo en mi mano: plenitud innominable. +Esta hora, cuando la sangre de mi sangre hueso de los huesos, nia crecida a la madurez ahora, extrao, ntimo, no distante, pero aparte; miente con seguridad, soando melodas mientras el amor duerme, seguro, en sus brazos. +Haber llegado a este lugar, vivido hasta este momento: levedad inconmensurable. +La densidad de negro comienza a desdibujar el ocre. +Tentativa, coloratura de un cardenal, entonces la elega de la paloma de luto. +rayos de marta en direccin gris; objetos emergen, detrs de las sombras; las edades de la noche en direccin al da. +La ciudad despierta. +Habr otros amaneceres, noches, mediodas llamativos. +Probablemente, voy a perder mi camino. +Habr tropiezos, cadas. maldiciendo la oscuridad. +Lo que viene, haba esta hora cuando nada importaba, todo era insoportablemente querido. +Y cuando he terminado con luces del da, deberan los que me amaron, lamentar tanto tiempo, hacerles recordar que yo tuve esta hora, esta perfecta hora oscura, y sonro. +Gracias. +Imaginen que no pueden decir: "tengo hambre", "tengo dolor" "gracias" o "te amo". +Que estn atrapados en el interior de su cuerpo, un cuerpo que no obedece sus rdenes. +Rodeados de gente, sin embargo, completamente solos. +Deseando poder comunicarse, conectarse, confortar, participar. +Durante 13 largos aos, esa era mi realidad. +Generalmente nunca pensamos en el hablar, en la comunicacin. +He pensado mucho en ello. +He tenido mucho tiempo para pensar. +Durante los primeros 12 aos de mi vida, era un nio feliz, normal y saludable. +Luego todo cambi. +Contraje una infeccin cerebral. +Los mdicos no estaban seguros sobre qu tena, pero me trataron lo mejor que pudieron. +Sin embargo, progresivamente empeor. +Con el tiempo, perd la capacidad de controlar mis movimientos, hacer contacto visual, y, por ltimo, mi capacidad de hablar. +Mientras estaba en el hospital, quera ir a casa desesperadamente. +Le dije a mi madre: "Cundo casa?" +Esas fueron las ltimas palabras que dije con mi propia voz. +Con el tiempo fall en todas las pruebas de conciencia mental. +Les dijeron a mis padres que ya no estaba ah. +Era un vegetal, con la inteligencia de un beb de 3 meses. +Les dijeron que me llevaran a casa y trataran de mantenerme cmodo hasta que muriera. +Mis padres, de hecho la vida de toda mi familia, se consumi por cuidar de m lo mejor que pudieron. +Sus amigos se alejaron. +Un ao se convirti en dos, dos se volvieron tres. +Pareca que la persona que una vez fui empezaba a desaparecer. +Quitaron mis Legos y mis circuitos electrnicos que haba amado de nio. +Me pasaron de mi habitacin a otra ms prctica. +Me haba convertido en un fantasma, un recuerdo de un muchacho al que la gente una vez conoci y am. +Mientras tanto, mi mente comenz a ensamblarse a s misma de nuevo. +Poco a poco, mi conciencia empez a regresar. +Pero nadie se dio cuenta de que haba vuelto a la vida. +Estaba al tanto de todo, como cualquier persona normal. +Poda ver y entender todo, pero no poda encontrar una manera de que alguien lo supiera. +Mi personalidad estaba sepultada dentro de un cuerpo aparentemente silencioso, una mente vibrante oculta dentro de una crislida. +La cruda realidad me golpe al imaginar que iba a pasar el resto de mi vida encerrado en m mismo, totalmente solo. +Estaba atrapado con mis pensamientos como nica compaa. +Nunca me rescataran. +Nadie podra demostrarme ternura. +Nunca podra hablar con un amigo. +Nadie podra amarme. +No tena sueos, ni esperanza, ni nada que esperar. +Bueno, nada agradable. +Viva con miedo, y, para decirlo sin rodeos, esperaba la muerte para finalmente liberarme, esperaba morir solo un hogar de cuidado. +No s si es realmente posible expresar con palabras qu es no poder comunicarse. +Tu personalidad parece desvanecerse en una densa niebla, todas tus emociones y deseos se contraen, se sofocan y se silencian. +Para m, lo peor era la sensacin de total impotencia. +Simplemente exista. +Es un lugar muy oscuro para encontrarse porque en cierto sentido, uno ha desaparecido. +Otras personas controlaban todos los aspectos de mi vida. +Decidan qu coma y cundo. +Si habra de estar acostado o en mi silla de ruedas. +A menudo me pasaba los das frente al televisor viendo repeticiones de Barney. +Creo que como Barney es muy feliz y alegre, y yo definitivamente no, eso lo hizo mucho peor. +Era completamente impotente para cambiar nada en mi vida o la percepcin de la gente de m. +Era un observador silencioso e invisible de cmo se comportaban las personas cuando pensaban que nadie estaba mirando. +Por desgracia, no era solo un observador. +Sin manera de comunicarme, me convert en la vctima perfecta: un objeto indefenso, aparentemente desprovisto de sentimientos que las personas usaban para sacar sus deseos ms oscuros. +Durante ms de 10 aos, las personas que me cuidaban abusaron de m fsica, verbal y sexualmente. +A pesar de lo que pensaban, yo senta. +La primera vez que sucedi, me qued muy sorprendido y lleno de incredulidad. +Cmo pudieron hacerme esto? +Estaba confundido. +Qu haba hecho para merecer esto? +Una parte de m quera llorar y otra parte quera luchar. +Dolor, tristeza e ira corran a travs de m. +Me senta intil. +No haba nadie que me consolara. +Pero mis padres no saban lo que estaba sucediendo. +Viva con terror, sabiendo que sucedera una y otra vez. +Nunca saba cundo. +Todo lo que saba era que nunca volvera a ser el mismo. +Recuerdo que una vez escuchando a Whitney Houston cantar: "No importa lo que me quiten, no me pueden quitar mi dignidad", +me dije a m mismo: "quieres apostar?" +Tal vez mis padres pudieran haberlo descubierto y me habran ayudado. +Pero los aos de cuidado constante, tener que despertarse cada 2 horas para darme vuelta, combinado con el duelo por la prdida de su hijo, haban hecho mella en mi madre y mi padre. +Presenciando una acalorada discusin entre mis padres, en un momento de desesperacin, mi madre se volvi hacia m y me dijo que debera morir. +Me qued conmocionado, pero mientras pensaba en lo que haba dicho, estaba lleno de una enorme compasin y amor por mi madre, pero no poda hacer nada al respecto. +Hubo muchos momentos en los que me di por vencido, hundindome en un abismo oscuro. +Recuerdo un momento particularmente bajo. +Mi padre me dej solo en el coche mientras iba rpidamente a comprar algo en la tienda. +Un extrao pas por delante, me mir y sonri. +Nunca sabr por qu, pero ese simple acto, ese momento fugaz de conexin humana, transform cmo me senta, dndome ganas de seguir adelante. +Mi existencia era torturada por la monotona, una realidad que a menudo era demasiado difcil de soportar. +A solas con mis pensamientos, constru fantasas intrincadas sobre hormigas que corran por el suelo. +Me ense a leer la hora notando dnde estaban las sombras. +Mientras aprenda cmo las sombras se movan a lo largo del da, comprend cunto tiempo pasara antes de que me recogieran y me llevaran a casa. +Ver a mi padre caminar a travs de la puerta para recogerme era el mejor momento del da. +Mi mente se convirti en una herramienta que poda usar para ya sea cerrarme y evadirme de mi realidad o para llenar un espacio gigantesco con fantasas. +Esperaba que mi realidad cambiara y alguien pudiera ver que haba vuelto a la vida. +Pero me haban desvanecido como un castillo de arena construido demasiado cerca de las olas, y en mi lugar estaba la persona que esperaban que fuera. +Para algunos era Martin, una cscara vaca, un vegetal, merecedor de palabras duras, rechazo e incluso abuso. +Para otros, era el desgraciado chico con dao cerebral que haba crecido hasta convertirse en un hombre. +Alguien por quin preocuparse y cuidar. +Para bien o para mal, era un lienzo en blanco sobre el que se proyectaron diferentes versiones de m mismo. +Se necesit de alguien nuevo para verme de una manera diferente. +Una aromaterapista comenz a venir a la casa a cuidarme una vez a la semana. +Ya sea por intuicin o atencin a los detalles que los dems no podan ver, se convenci de que poda entender lo que decan. +Inst a mis padres a que me vieran expertos en la comunicacin aumentativa y alternativa. +Y en un ao, estaba empezando a usar un programa de computadora para comunicarme. +Era emocionante, pero a veces frustrante. +Tena tantas palabras en mi mente, que no poda esperar para poder compartirlas. +A veces, me dira cosas a m mismo, simplemente porque poda. +En m mismo, tena un pblico listo, y cre que al expresar mis pensamientos y deseos, los dems tambin escucharan. +Pero cuando comenc a comunicarme ms, me di cuenta de que en realidad era solo el comienzo de crear una voz nueva para m. +Me sumerg en un mundo que no saba muy bien cmo funciona. +Dej de ir al hogar de cuidado y logr conseguir mi primer trabajo haciendo fotocopias. +Tan simple como esto puede sonar, fue increble. +Mi nuevo mundo era muy emocionante pero a menudo bastante abrumador y aterrador. +Era como un hombre-nio, y liberador como a menudo era, luch. +Tambin aprend que muchos de quienes conoca de mucho tiempo les era imposible abandonar la idea del Martin que tenan en sus cabezas. +Mientras que aquellos que apenas acababa de conocer luchaban para ver ms all de un hombre silencioso en una silla de ruedas. +Me di cuenta de que algunas personas solo me escucharan si lo que dijera era acorde a lo que esperaban. +De lo contrario, lo ignoraran y haran lo que consideraban lo mejor. +Descubr que la verdadera comunicacin es algo ms que simplemente transmitir fsicamente un mensaje. +Se trata de hacer que el mensaje sea escuchado y respetado. +An as, las cosas iban bien. +Mi cuerpo estaba ponindose lentamente ms fuerte. +Tena un trabajo en informtica que me encantaba, e incluso tena a Kojak, el perro con el que haba estado soando durante aos. +Sin embargo, deseaba compartir mi vida con alguien. +Recuerdo mirar por la ventana cuando mi padre me llevaba de regreso del trabajo y pensar que tengo tanto amor dentro de m y nadie a quin darlo. +Cuando ya me haba resignado a estar solo el resto de mi vida, conoc a Joan. +No solo es lo mejor que me ha pasado, sino que Joan me ayud a desafiar mis propias ideas falsas sobre m. +Joan dijo que era a travs de mis palabras que se enamor de m. +Sin embargo, despus de todo lo que he pasado, an no poda quitarme la creencia de que nadie realmente poda ver ms all de mi discapacidad y aceptarme por lo que soy. +Tambin me cost comprender que era un hombre. +La primera vez que alguien se refiri a m como un hombre, me detuve en seco. +Pensaba en mirar alrededor y preguntar: "Quin, yo?" +Todo eso cambi con Joan. +Tenemos una conexin increble y he aprendido lo importante que es la comunicacin abierta y honesta. +Me sent seguro y me dio la confianza para decir realmente lo que pensaba. +Empec a sentir de nuevo todo, un hombre digno de amor. +Empec a remodelar mi destino. +Habl un poco ms en el trabajo. +Afirm mi necesidad de independencia con las personas que me rodean. +Con un medio de comunicacin cambi todo. +Us el poder de la palabra y de la voluntad para desafiar los prejuicios de los que me rodean y los que tena de m mismo. +La comunicacin es lo que nos hace humanos, lo que permite conectarnos a un nivel ms profundo con los que nos rodean, contar nuestras propias historias, expresar deseos, necesidades y deseos, o escuchar las de los dems al realmente escuchar. +As es como el mundo sabe quines somos. +As que quines somos nosotros sin ella? +La verdadera comunicacin aumenta la comprensin y crea un mundo ms solidario y compasivo. +Una vez, me perciban como un objeto inanimado, el fantasma sin mente de un nio en una silla de ruedas. +Hoy, soy mucho ms. +Un marido, un hijo, un amigo, un hermano, un empresario, un graduado con honores, un fotgrafo amateur. +Es mi capacidad de comunicar la que me ha dado todo esto. +Se nos dice que las acciones hablan ms que las palabras. +Pero me pregunto, de verdad? +Nuestras palabras, como sea que las comuniquemos son muy poderosas. +Si decimos las palabras con nuestras propias voces, las escribimos con nuestros ojos, o las comunicamos no verbalmente a alguien que las diga por nosotros, las palabras se encuentran entre nuestras herramientas ms poderosas. +He venido a Uds. a travs de una terrible oscuridad, arrebatado de ella por almas solidarias y por el lenguaje mismo. +El acto de que me escuchen hoy lleva ms lejos hacia la luz. +Estamos brillando aqu juntos. +Si hay un obstculo difcil en mi forma de comunicacin, es que a veces me dan ganas de gritar y otras veces simplemente susurrar una palabra de amor o gratitud. +Todo suena igual. +Pero, por favor, imaginen esta prxima palabra tan clidamente como puedan: Gracias. +Durante nuestras vidas, todos hemos contribuido con el cambio climtico. +Las acciones, decisiones y comportamientos que hemos tomado han llevado a un aumento en las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero. +Y creo que este es un pensamiento poderoso. +Pero tiene el potencial de hacernos sentir culpables al pensar en las decisiones que podramos haber tomado sobre dnde viajar, con qu frecuencia y cmo, sobre la energa que elegimos usar en nuestras casas o en nuestros trabajos, o, sencillamente, los estilos de vida que llevamos y gozamos. +Pero tambin podemos convertir esa idea en la cabeza, y pensar que si hemos tenido tal profundo pero negativo impacto en nuestro clima ya, entonces tenemos la oportunidad de influir en la cantidad de cambio climtico futuro que vamos a necesitar para adaptarnos. +As que tenemos una eleccin. +Podemos optar por empezar a tomar en serio el cambio climtico, y mitigar y reducir significativamente las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero, y luego tendremos que adaptarnos a los menores impactos climticos futuros. +O podemos seguir ignorando el problema del cambio climtico. +Pero si hacemos eso, tambin estamos escogiendo adaptarnos a impactos muchsimo ms potente del clima en el futuro. +Y no solo eso. +Como personas que vivimos en pases con altas emisiones per cpita, estamos haciendo la eleccin en nombre de los dems. +Pero la eleccin de que no disponemos es de un futuro sin cambio climtico. +Durante las dos ltimas dcadas, nuestros negociadores del Gobierno y los polticos han estado reunindose para discutir el cambio climtico, y han estado enfocados en evitar un calentamiento de 2 grados centgrados sobre los niveles preindustriales. +Esa es la temperatura que est asociada con impactos peligrosos a travs de una gama de diferentes indicadores, para los seres humanos y para el medio ambiente. +As que 2 grados centgrados constituyen un cambio climtico peligroso. +Pero el cambio peligroso puede ser subjetivo. +As que si pensamos en un evento extremo que podra suceder en alguna parte del mundo, y ocurre en una parte del mundo donde hay una buena infraestructura, donde hay personas que estn bien aseguradas y as, entonces ese impacto puede ser perjudicial. +Puede causar malestar, podra generar costos. +Incluso algunas muertes. +Pero si ese mismo evento pasa en una parte del mundo donde hay infraestructura deficiente, o donde las personas no estn bien aseguradas, o no tienen buenas redes de apoyo, ese mismo impacto del cambio climtico podra ser devastador. +Podra causar una prdida significativa de viviendas, y tambin podra causar cantidades significativas de muertos. +Este es un grfico de las emisiones de CO2 en el lado izquierdo a partir de combustibles fsiles y la industria, y el tiempo antes de la Revolucin Industrial hasta el da de hoy. +Y lo que inmediatamente llama la atencin aqu es que las emisiones han crecido de manera exponencial. +Y luego, en 2012, tuvimos el evento Ro + 20. +Y todo este camino, durante todas estas reuniones y muchas otras ms, y las emisiones han seguido aumentando. +Si nos centramos en la tendencia histrica de emisiones en los ltimos aos, y ponemos que junto a nuestra comprensin del sentido de la marcha en nuestra economa global, entonces estamos mucho ms en el camino para un cambio de 4 grados centgrados del calentamiento global de lo que estamos para el de 2 grados centgrados. +Vamos a hacer una pausa un momento y pensar en esto de 4 grados en la temperatura media global. +La mayor parte de nuestro planeta es en realidad mar. +Debido a que el mar tiene una mayor inercia trmica que la tierra, las temperaturas medias por la tierra son en realidad mayores que las del mar. +La segunda cosa es que como seres humanos no experimentamos las temperaturas medias globales. +Experimentamos los das de calor, los das fros, los das de lluvia, sobre todo si viven en Manchester como yo. +Pnganse en el centro de la ciudad. +Imaginen un lugar en el mundo: Mumbai, Pekn, Nueva York, Londres. +Es el da ms caluroso que alguna vez han experimentado. +El sol caa hay concreto y cristal a su alrededor. +Ahora imaginen que ese mismo da, pero 6, 8 o tal vez de 10 a 12 grados ms caliente en ese da durante la ola de calor. +Ese es el tipo de cosas que vamos a experimentar en un escenario de la temperatura media global de 4 grados. +Y el problema con estos extremos, y no solo con las temperaturas extremas, sino tambin los extremos en trminos de tormentas y otros impactos climticos, es que nuestra infraestructura simplemente no se cre para enfrentar estos eventos. +Nuestros caminos y redes ferroviarias han sido diseados para durar largo tiempo y soportar solo ciertos impactos en diferentes partes del mundo. +Y esto va a ser muy retado. +Se espera que nuestros centrales elctricas sean enfriadas con agua a una temperatura determinada para seguir siendo eficaces y resistentes. +Nuestros edificios estn diseados para ser cmodos dentro de un intervalo de temperatura. +Y todo esto va a ser cuestionado de manera significativa bajo un escenario de tipo de 4 grados. +Nuestra infraestructura no ha sido diseada para hacer frente a esto. +Remontmonos, tambin pensando en unos cuatro grados, no son solo en los impactos directos, sino tambin algunos impactos indirectos. +Si tomamos la seguridad alimentaria, por ejemplo. +Los rendimientos del maz y el trigo en algunas partes del mundo se espera que sean hasta un 40 % ms bajos en un escenario de 4 grados, arroz hasta un 30 % menor. +Esto ser absolutamente devastador para la seguridad alimentaria mundial. +As que en general, los tipos de impactos anticipados bajo este escenario de 4 grados centgrados van a ser incompatibles con la vida organizada global. +De vuelta a nuestras trayectorias y nuestros grficos de 4 grados y 2 grados. +Es razonable an a concentrarse en el camino de los 2 grados? +Hay bastantes de mis colegas y otros cientficos que diran que ya es muy tarde para evitar un calentamiento de 2 grados. +Pero me gustara dibujar mi propia investigacin en sistemas de energa, en sistemas alimentarios, aviacin y tambin navegacin, solo para decir que creo que todava hay una pequea oportunidad de luchar de evitar el peligro de 2 grados de cambio climtico. +Pero necesitamos familiarizarnos con los nmeros para encontrar cmo hacerlo. +Si se centran en esta trayectoria y estos grficos, el crculo amarillo all destaca que la partida de la va de 4 grados roja a va verde de los 2 grados es inmediata. +Y eso es debido a las emisiones acumulativas, o el presupuesto de carbono. +En otras palabras, a causa de las luces y los proyectores que estn en este saln ahora mismo, el CO2 que est yendo a nuestra atmsfera como resultado de que el consumo de electricidad dura un tiempo muy largo. +Algunos estarn en nuestra atmsfera un siglo, tal vez mucho ms tiempo. +Se acumularn y los gases de efecto invernadero tienden a acumularse. +Y eso nos dice algo acerca de estas trayectorias. +En primer lugar, nos dice que es el rea bajo estas curvas lo que importa, no donde se llega en una fecha determinada en el futuro. +Y eso es importante, porque no importa si encontramos alguna increble tecnologa, plum!, para solucionar nuestro problema energtico el ltimo da de 2049, justo a tiempo para arreglar las cosas. +Porque mientras tanto, las emisiones se han acumulado. +As que si seguimos en esta roja, de 4 grados centgrados, cuanto ms tiempo continuamos en ella, ms tendr que ser compensado en aos posteriores para el mismo presupuesto de carbono, para tener la misma rea bajo la curva, lo que significa que esa trayectoria, roja all, se hace ms pronunciada. +En otras palabras, si no reducimos las emisiones en el corto y mediano plazo, vamos a tener que hacer reducciones ms significativas de ao en ao. +Sabemos que tenemos que descarbonizar nuestro sistema energtico. +Pero si no empezamos a reducir las emisiones en el corto y mediano plazo, entonces vamos a tener que hacer eso incluso antes. +As que esto plantea realmente grandes desafos para nosotros. +La otro es que nos dice algo acerca de la poltica energtica. +Si viven en una parte del mundo donde las emisiones per cpita ya son altas, nos orienta hacia la reduccin de la demanda de energa. +Y esto porque con toda la voluntad del mundo, la infraestructura de ingeniera a gran escala que tenemos que desplegar rpidamente para descarbonizar la oferta de nuestro sistema energtico simplemente no va a darse a tiempo. +As que no importa si elegimos la energa nuclear o la captura y almacenamiento de carbono, aumentamos la produccin de biocombustibles, o ir a un mayor despliegue de turbinas de viento y turbinas de onda. +Todo eso llevar tiempo. +As que como es el rea bajo la curva lo que importa, tenemos que centrarnos en la eficiencia energtica, y tambin en la conservacin de energa en otras palabras, el uso de menos energa. +Y si lo hacemos, eso tambin significa que a medida que seguimos lanzando la tecnologa de oferta, tendremos menos que hacer si no nos hemos arreglado para reducir nuestro consumo de energa, porque vamos a tener menos infraestructura en el lado de la oferta. +Otro tema con el que realmente tenemos que lidiar con es el tema de bienestar y equidad. +Hay muchas partes del mundo donde el nivel de vida tiene que subir. +Pero con sistemas de energa de combustibles fsiles, a medida que crecen las economas tambin lo harn las emisiones. +Si todos estamos limitados por el mismo presupuesto de carbono, entonces si en algunas partes del mundo estn necesitando subir, entonces en otras partes las emisiones mundiales deben reducirse. +Esto plantea retos muy importantes para los pases ricos. +Porque de acuerdo con nuestra investigacin, si ests en un pas donde las emisiones per cpita son muy altas, Amrica del Norte, Europa, Australia, la reduccin de emisiones del orden del 10 % al ao, a partir de ahora son necesarias para tener buena oportunidad de evitar la meta de los 2 grados. +Permtanme poner esto en contexto. +El economista Nicholas Stern dijo que las reducciones de emisiones de ms de 1 % por ao solo se haban asociado siempre con recesin econmica o agitacin. +As que esto plantea enormes desafos para la tema del crecimiento econmico, porque al tener nuestra infraestructura de alto carbono en su lugar, significa que si crecen nuestras economas, entonces tambin lo harn nuestras emisiones. +Solo me gustara citar un documento de Kevin Anderson y mo de 2011 donde dijimos que para evitar el el peligroso cambio de 2 grados, el crecimiento econmico tendra que ser cambiado al menos temporalmente por un perodo de austeridad en las naciones ricas. +Este es un mensaje muy difcil de tomar, porque sugiere es que realmente tenemos que hacer las cosas de manera diferente. +No es un cambio incremental. +Se trata de hacer las cosas de manera diferente, cambiar todo el sistema, y, a veces se trata de hacer menos cosas. +Y esto se aplica a todos nosotros, cualquiera que sea la esfera de influencia que tengamos. +Podra ser escribir a nuestro poltico local hablar con nuestro jefe en el trabajo o ser el jefe en el trabajo, o hablar con amigos y familiares, o, simplemente, cambiar nuestro estilo de vida. +Porque realmente tenemos que hacer un cambio significativo. +Por el momento, estamos eligiendo un escenario de 4 grados. +Si realmente queremos evitar el escenario de 2 grados, realmente no hay mejor momento que el presente para actuar. +Gracias. +Bruno Giussani: Alice, lo que ests diciendo, es que a menos que los pases ricos empiezan cortar el 10 % al ao las emisiones ya, este ao, no en 2020 o 25, vamos a ir directamente a la situacin de ms 4 grados. +Me pregunto cul es su opinin sobre el corte en un 70 % para 2070. +Alice Bows-Larkin: S, es justo algo as para evitar 2 grados. +Una de las cosas que a menudo... cuando hay estos estudios de modelos en que se ve lo que tenemos que hacer, se tiende a sobrestimar enormemente la rapidez con que otros pases en el mundo pueden empezar a reducir las emisiones. +As hacen tipo de supuestos heroicos sobre eso. +Cuanto ms lo hacemos, porque son las emisiones acumuladas, el corto plazo es el que realmente importa. +Hace una gran diferencia. +Si un gran pas como China, por ejemplo, sigue creciendo, incluso por unos pocos aos ms, har una gran diferencia para cuando tengamos que descarbonizar. +No creo que ni siquiera podamos decir cundo va a ser, ya que depende de lo que tenemos que hacer en el corto plazo. +Pero creo que tenemos gran alcance, y no tiramos de esas palancas que permitirn reducir la demanda de energa, lo que es una pena. +BG: Alice, gracias por venir a TED y compartir estos datos. +ABL: Gracias. +Podemos, como adultos, desarrollar nuevas neuronas? +Hay todava cierta confusin sobre esta cuestin, ya que es un campo de investigacin bastante nuevo. +Por ejemplo, cuando hablaba con uno de mis colegas, Robert, que es onclogo, me deca: "Sandrine, esto es desconcertante. +Algunos de mis pacientes a los que se les ha dicho que se curaron del cncer an desarrollan sntomas de depresin". +Y le contest: "Bueno, desde mi punto de vista eso tiene sentido. +La medicina que les das y que frena la multiplicacin de clulas cancergenas tambin frena la generacin de nuevas neuronas en el cerebro". +Entonces, Robert me mir como si estuviera loca y dijo: "Pero Sandrine, estos pacientes son adultos; los adultos no desarrollan nuevas neuronas". +Y para su sorpresa, dije: "Bueno, de hecho, s lo hacemos". +Y este es un fenmeno al que llamamos neurognesis. +[Neurognesis] Ahora bien, Robert no es neurocientfico, y cuando fue a la escuela de medicina no le ensearon lo que sabemos hoy: que el cerebro adulto puede generar nuevas neuronas. +Robert, siendo el buen mdico que es, quiso venir a mi laboratorio para entender un poco mejor el tema. +Y le hice conocer una de las partes ms interesantes del cerebro en lo que se refiere a la neurognesis, que es el hipocampo. +Es esta estructura gris en el medio del cerebro. +Lo que sabemos desde hace tiempo, es que es importante para el aprendizaje, la memoria, el humor y las emociones. +Sin embargo, lo que hemos aprendido recientemente es que es una de las pocas partes del cerebro adulto donde se pueden generar nuevas neuronas. +Si cortamos a travs del hipocampo y lo ampliamos, lo que vemos aqu en azul es una neurona recin nacida en el cerebro de un ratn adulto. +Cuando se trata del cerebro humano mi colega Jonas Frisn, del Instituto Karolinska, 700 neuronas nuevas al da en el hipocampo. +Quizs piensen que esto no es mucho, comparado con los miles de millones de neuronas que tenemos. +Pero para cuando cumplamos 50 aos, habremos cambiado las neuronas con que nacimos en esa parte por neuronas nacidas en la edad adulta. +Por qu son importantes y cul es la funcin de estas neuronas? +Primero, sabemos que son importantes para el aprendizaje y la memoria, +y en el laboratorio hemos demostrado que si frenamos la capacidad del cerebro adulto de producir nuevas neuronas en el hipocampo, entonces bloqueamos ciertas capacidades de la memoria. +Esto es especialmente nuevo y cierto para el reconocimiento espacial, como orientarse en la ciudad. +Todava estamos aprendiendo mucho, y las neuronas no solo son importantes para la capacidad de la memoria, sino tambin para la calidad de la memoria. +Y eso ser beneficioso para alargar nuestra memoria y nos ayudar a distinguir memorias similares, como: cmo encuentran su bicicleta que dejan en la estacin cada da en la misma rea, pero en una posicin ligeramente diferente? +Y an ms interesante para mi colega Robert es el trabajo que hemos estado realizando sobre neurognesis y depresin. +En un modelo animal de la depresin hemos notado que tenemos un nivel inferior de neurognesis. +Y si suministramos antidepresivos, entonces aumentamos la produccin de neuronas recin nacidas, y reducimos los sntomas de depresin, lo que establece un vnculo claro entre la neurognesis y la depresin. +Pero adems, si solo se bloquea la neurognesis, entonces se bloquea la eficacia del antidepresivo. +Para entonces, Robert haba comprendido que muy posiblemente sus pacientes estaban sufriendo depresin, incluso despus de haberse curado del cncer, porque el medicamento haba detenido la produccin de neuronas recin nacidas. +Y toma un tiempo generar nuevas neuronas para recuperar las funciones normales. +As, colectivamente, ahora creemos tener evidencias suficientes para decir que la neurognesis es el objetivo primordial si queremos mejorar la formacin de la memoria o el nimo, o incluso prevenir el deterioro asociado al envejecimiento, o asociado al estrs. +La siguiente pregunta es: podemos controlar la neurognesis? +La respuesta es s. +Y ahora vamos a hacer una pequea prueba. +Voy a nombrar una serie de conductas y actividades y me dirn si creen que aumentaran o disminuiran la neurognesis. +Estamos listos? +Bien, vamos. +Qu dicen del aprendizaje? +La aumenta? S. +Aprender aumentar la produccin de estas nuevas neuronas. +Y el estrs? +S, el estrs disminuir la produccin de nuevas neuronas en el hipocampo. +Y la falta de sueo? +Cierto, disminuir la neurognesis. +Y el sexo? +Ah, guau! +Tienen razn, aumentar la produccin de neuronas. +Sin embargo, aqu se trata de un equilibrio. +No queremos llegar en una situacin... en la que mucho sexo acarree falta de sueo. +Qu hay sobre envejecer? +El ritmo de neurognesis disminuye cuando envejecemos pero an contina. +Y, finalmente, qu hay sobre correr? +Les dejar juzgar esa por ustedes mismos. +Este es uno de los primeros estudios que llev a cabo uno de mis mentores, Rusty Gage, del Instituto Salk, y demostr que el entorno puede tener un impacto en la produccin de nuevas neuronas. +Y aqu pueden ver una seccin del hipocampo de un ratn que no tiene una rueda para correr en su jaula +Los pequeos puntos negros que ven son futuras neuronas. +Ahora vean una seccin del hipocampo de un ratn que tena una rueda para correr en su jaula. +Observen el aumento masivo de puntos negros que representan las futuras neuronas. +La actividad afecta a la neurognesis, pero eso no es todo. +Lo que comen afecta la produccin de nuevas neuronas en el hipocampo. +Aqu tenemos un ejemplo de una dieta, de nutrientes que han demostrado tener eficacia. +Solo voy a sealarles algunos: Una reduccin de caloras del 20-30% aumentar la neurognesis. +El ayuno alterno, espaciar los horarios de las comidas aumentar la neurognesis. +El consumo de flavonoides, que contienen el chocolate negro y los arndanos, aumentar la neurognesis. +Los cidos grasos omega-3, presentes en pescados grasos, como el salmn, aumentarn la produccin de estas nuevas neuronas. +Por el contrario, una dieta rica en grasas altamente saturadas tendr un efecto negativo en la neurognesis. +El etanol, la ingesta de alcohol, reducir la neurognesis. +Sin embargo, no todo est perdido; el resveratrol, que se encuentra en el vino tinto, ha mostrado promover la supervivencia de estas nuevas neuronas. +As que la prxima vez que acudan a una cena quizs quieran pedir esta bebida "neutral a la neurognesis". +Y finalmente, permtanme sealar una ltima, una poco convencional. +Los japoneses estn fascinados con las texturas de alimentos y han demostrado que una dieta blanda daa la neurognesis frente a la comida que requiere masticacin o la comida crujiente. +Todos estos datos, donde necesitamos mirar a nivel celular, se han generado utilizando modelos animales. +Creemos que el efecto de la dieta en la salud mental, en la memoria y en el humor est mediada por la produccin de nuevas neuronas en el hipocampo. +Y no es solo lo que comen, sino adems la textura de la comida, cundo la comen y cunto comen. +De nuestro lado, neurocientficos interesados en la neurognesis, necesitamos comprender mejor la funcin de estas nuevas neuronas y cmo podemos controlar su supervivencia y su produccin. +Tambin necesitamos encontrar una forma de proteger +la neurognesis de los pacientes de Robert. Y de su lado, les dejo a cargo su neurognesis. +Gracias. +Margaret Heffernan: Fantstica investigacin, Sandrine. +Sabes, cambiaron mi vida, ahora como muchos arndanos. +Sandrine Thuret: Muy bien. +MH: Estoy muy interesada en lo de correr. +Tengo que correr? +O es solo ejercicio aerbico que lleva oxgeno al cerebro? +Podra ser cualquier tipo de ejercicio intenso? +ST: De momento, no podemos decir realmente si es solo correr, pero creemos que cualquier cosa que aumente la produccin o mueva el flujo sanguneo al cerebro debera ser beneficiosa. +MH: Entonces no necesito una rueda para correr en mi oficina? +ST: No! +MH: Qu alivio! Eso es maravilloso. +Sandrine Thuret, muchas gracias. +ST: Gracias, Margaret. +Quiero hablarles del futuro de la medicina. +Pero antes de hacerlo, quisiera hablar un poco del pasado. +Durante la mayor parte de la historia reciente de la medicina, hemos pensado en la enfermedad y su tratamiento como un modelo profundamente simple. +De hecho, el modelo es tan simple que se puede resumir en tres pasos: contraer una enfermedad, tomar pldoras y matar algo. +La razn del predominio de este modelo es, por supuesto, la revolucin antibitica. +Muchos tal vez no lo sepan, pero estamos celebrando el centenario de la introduccin de los antibiticos en EE.UU. +Pero lo que no saben es que esa introduccin fue absolutamente transformadora. +Una sustancia qumica, ya bien del mundo natural o sintetizada artificialmente en el laboratorio, se abrira paso a travs de su cuerpo, hasta encontrar su destino, y bloquear su objetivo, un microbio o parte de un microbio, para luego desactivarlo y mantenerlo bajo llave con exquisita destreza, y exquisita especificidad. +Y una enfermedad previamente fatal y mortal, como neumona, sfilis, tuberculosis, se transformaba en una enfermedad curable o tratable. +Si uno tiene una neumona, toma penicilina, se mata el microbio y cura la enfermedad. +Era tan seductora esta idea, de la metfora potente de bloquear y cerrar y matar algo, que realmente se extendi en la biologa. +Fue una transformacin como ninguna otra. +Y realmente hemos pasado los ltimos 100 aos tratando de replicar ese modelo una y otra vez con enfermedades no infecciosas, en enfermedades crnicas como diabetes, hipertensin y enfermedades del corazn. +Y ha funcionado, pero solo en parte. +Dejen que lo explique. +Si se toma todo el universo de las reacciones qumicas en el cuerpo humano, todas las reacciones qumicas que el cuerpo puede hacer, la mayora de la gente piensa que esa cifra es de un milln. +Digamos que es un milln. +Y ahora uno se hace la pregunta, qu nmero o fraccin de reacciones en realidad son objetivo de la farmacopea, de toda la qumica medicinal? +Ese nmero es 250. +El resto es oscuridad qumica. +En otras palabras, el 0,025 % de todas las reacciones qumicas del cuerpo son en realidad objeto del mecanismo de bloquear y cerrar. +Si se piensa en la fisiologa humana como una vasta red telefnica mundial que interacta con nodos y piezas, entonces toda nuestra qumica mdica opera en un pequeo rincn en el borde, el borde exterior, de esa red. +Es como si toda nuestra qumica farmacutica fuese un operador de la pole en Wichita, Kansas que manipula entre 10 y 15 lneas telefnicas. +Entonces, qu hacemos con esta idea? +Qu pasa si reorganizamos este enfoque? +De hecho, resulta que el mundo natural nos da una idea de cmo se podra pensar la enfermedad de manera radicalmente diferente, en lugar de enfermedad, frmaco y blanco. +De hecho, el mundo natural est organizado jerrquicamente hacia arriba, no hacia abajo. Se comienza con una unidad semiautnoma y autorregulada llamada clula. +Estas unidades semiautnomas y autorreguladas dan lugar a las unidades semiautnomas y autorreguladas llamadas rganos, y estos rganos se unen para formar los llamados seres humanos, y estos organismos en ltima instancia, viven en entornos que son en parte semiautnomos y en parte autorregulados. +Lo bueno de este sistema, este esquema jerrquico, es que se construye hacia arriba y no hacia abajo, lo que nos permite pensar en la enfermedad de una manera diferente. +Pongamos una enfermedad como el cncer. +Desde la dcada de 1950, se ha intentado desesperadamente aplicar al cncer el modelo de bloqueo y cierre. +Hemos tratado de eliminar las clulas usando una variedad de quimioterapias o terapias dirigidas, y como muchos sabemos, ha funcionado. +Ha funcionado para enfermedades como la leucemia; +para algunos tipos de cncer de mama, pero con el tiempo ese enfoque toca techo. +Y en los ltimos 10 aos ms o menos hemos empezado a pensar en usar el sistema inmunolgico, recordando que la clula cancerosa no crece en el vaco. +En realidad, crece en un organismo humano. +Y se podra utilizar la capacidad del organismo, el sistema inmune que tienen los humanos, para atacar el cncer? +Esto ha conllevado a nuevos y espectaculares frmacos contra el cncer. +Y por ltimo est el nivel del medio ambiente, no? +No pensamos en el cncer como la alteracin del medio ambiente. +Pero dar un ejemplo de un entorno profundamente cancergeno. +Se llama prisin. +Pongan soledad, depresin, confinamiento, y a eso agreguen enrollado en una hojita de papel blanco, uno de los neuroestimulantes conocidos ms potentes, la nicotina, y se agrega una de las sustancias adictivas ms potentes que ya saben, y se obtiene un entorno procancergeno. +Pero se pueden tener ambientes anticancergenos tambin. +Hay intentos de crear ambientes, cambiar p. ej. el medio hormonal para el cncer de mama. +Intentamos cambiar el medio metablico para otras formas de cncer. +O tomar otra enfermedad, como la depresin. +Una vez ms, trabajando hacia arriba, desde los aos 1960 y 1970, de nuevo, hemos intentado, desesperadamente apagar las molculas que operan entre las clulas nerviosas, la serotonina, la dopamina, y tratamos de curar la depresin de esa manera, y funcion, pero luego se alcanza el lmite. +Es imaginable un entorno ms inmersivo para cambiar la depresin? +Se pueden bloquear las seales que provoca la depresin? +Una vez ms, movindonos hacia arriba en esta cadena jerrquica organizativa. +De lo que realmente se trata aqu no es del medicamento en s, sino de una metfora. +En lugar de matar algo, en el caso de las enfermedades degenerativas crnicas como insuficiencia renal, diabetes, hipertensin, artrosis... tal vez lo que hay que hacer es cambiar la metfora para que crezca algo. +Y esa es la clave, quizs, para replantearnos la forma de pensar la medicina. +Ahora bien, esta idea de cambiar, de crear un cambio de percepcin, por as decirlo, lleg a m de una manera muy personal hace unos 10 aos. +Hace unos 10 aos... he sido corredor la mayor parte de mi vida. Iba a correr por la maana del sbado, Volv, me despert y, bsicamente, no poda moverme. +Tena la rodilla derecha hinchada, y se poda or el crujido ominoso del hueso contra el hueso. +Y una de las ventajas de ser mdico es pedir las propias resonancias magnticas. +Y tena una resonancia magntica la siguiente semana y era as. +Esencialmente, el menisco de cartlago de entre el hueso estaba completamente roto y el hueso hecho aicos. +Ahora, si intentan sentir lstima por m, djenme mencionar algunos hechos. +De hacer una resonancia magntica de cada uno de este pblico, el 60 % mostraran signos de degeneracin sea y degeneracin del cartlago como este. +el 85 % de todas las mujeres a la edad de 70 mostrara una degeneracin de moderada a severa del cartlago. +Del 50 % al 60 % de los hombres en esta audiencia tambin tendra tales signos. +As que esta es una enfermedad muy comn. +La segunda ventaja de ser mdico es que uno puede experimentar sus propias dolencias. +As que hace unos 10 aos que comenzamos, llevamos este proceso al laboratorio, y empezamos a hacer experimentos sencillos, para mecnicamente intentar arreglar esta degeneracin. +Tratamos de inyectar qumicos en los espacios de la rodilla de los animales para tratar de revertir la degeneracin del cartlago, y para abreviar el proceso muy largo y doloroso, esencialmente se qued en nada. +No pas nada. +Y hace unos 7 aos, tuvimos un doctorando de Australia. +Lo bueno de los australianos es que estn habituados a ver el mundo al revs. +Y as Dan me sugiri: "Tal vez no sea un problema mecnico. +Puede no ser un problema qumico. Quizs sea un problema de clulas madre". +En otras palabras, tena dos hiptesis. +Nmero uno, no existe algo como una clula madre del esqueleto, una clula madre del esqueleto que rena todo el esqueleto de los vertebrados, hueso, cartlago y elementos fibrosos del esqueleto, al igual que hay una clula madre en la sangre, y al igual que hay una clula madre en el sistema nervioso. +Y dos, que en vez de eso, la degeneracin o disfuncin de esta clula madre es lo que est causando la artritis osteocondral, una dolencia muy comn. +As que en realidad la pregunta fue, buscamos un frmaco, realmente, cuando deberamos buscar una clula. +As que cambiamos nuestros modelos, y empezamos a buscar clulas madre del esqueleto. +Y para acortar de nuevo la versin larga, hace unos cinco aos, encontramos estas clulas. +Ellas viven en el interior del esqueleto. +He aqu un esquema y una foto real de una de ellas. +La materia blanca es hueso, y estas columnas rojas que se ven y las celdas amarillas son clulas surgidas a partir de una clula madre nica del esqueleto, columnas de cartlago, columnas de hueso que sale de una sola clula. +Estas clulas son fascinantes. Tienen cuatro propiedades. +Nmero uno: viven donde se espera que vivan. +Viven justo debajo de la superficie del hueso, bajo el cartlago. +La biologa es ubicacin, ubicacin, ubicacin. +Y se mueven en las reas apropiadas y forman el hueso y el cartlago. +Esa es una. +Nmero dos, una propiedad interesante. +Se pueden extraer del esqueleto de los vertebrados, pueden cultivarse en placas de Petri en el laboratorio, y van muriendo para formar el cartlago. +Recuerden que no podamos generar cartlago por amor o por dinero? +Estas clulas estn muriendo para formar el cartlago. +Forman sus propios rollos de cartlago alrededor de s mismos. +Nmero tres: tambin son los talleres de reparacin ms eficaces de las fracturas que hemos detectado. +Este es un pequeo hueso, un hueso de ratn que fracturamos y dejamos que se cure solo. +Estas clulas madre han entrado y reparado, en amarillo, el hueso, en blanco, el cartlago, casi por completo. +Tanto es as que si se marca con un tinte fluorescente se pueden ver como una especie de pegamento celular peculiar que entra en la zona de una fractura, la repara a nivel local y luego detiene su trabajo. +Nmero cuatro: La ms ominosa, y es que sus nmeros disminuyen vertiginosamente, precipitadamente, 10, 50 veces, a medida que envejece. +Y as lo que haba sucedido, en realidad, es que nos encontramos en un cambio de percepcin. +Fuimos a la caza de los frmacos pero terminamos encontrando teoras. +Y en cierto modo nos habamos enganchado de nuevo con esta idea: clulas, organismos, ambientes, porque estbamos ya pensando en las clulas madre de la mdula, estbamos pensando en la artritis como enfermedad celular. +Y la siguiente pregunta fue, existen rganos? +Se puede construir esto como un rgano fuera del cuerpo? +Se puede implantar cartlago en las reas de un trauma? +Y tal vez lo ms interesante, puede ascender y crear ambientes? +Sabemos que el ejercicio remodela los huesos, pero, ninguno de nosotros hace ejercicio. +As que se podran imaginar formas de carga y descarga pasiva del hueso para que vuelva a crear o regenerar el cartlago degenerado? +Y tal vez ms interesante, y ms importante, puede aplicarse este modelo ms global fuera de la medicina? +Lo que est en juego no es matar algo, sino hacer crecer algo. +Y esto plantea algunas de las preguntas ms interesantes acerca de cmo pensamos la medicina del futuro. +Podra su medicina ser una clula y no una pldora? +Cmo podemos cultivar estas clulas? +Qu podramos hacer para detener el crecimiento maligno de estas clulas? +Hemos odo hablar de los problemas de desatar el crecimiento. +Podramos implantar genes suicidas en estas clulas para detener su crecimiento? +Podra ser su medicina un rgano que se crea fuera del cuerpo y luego se implanta en el mismo? +Podra detener algo la degeneracin? +Y si el rgano que se necesita es para tener memoria? +En casos de enfermedades del sistema nervioso algunos de esos rganos tenan memoria. +Cmo podramos reimplantar esos recuerdos? +Podramos almacenar estos rganos? +Se debera desarrollar un rgano para cada ser humano de forma individual y volverlo a colocar? +Y quizs lo ms desconcertante, podra ser su medicamento un medio ambiente? +Se podra patentar un medio ambiente? +Ya saben, en todas las culturas, los chamanes han utilizado entornos como medicamentos. +Lo podramos imaginar para nuestro futuro? +He hablado mucho sobre modelos. Comenc esta charla con modelos. +As que terminar con reflexiones sobre la construccin de modelos. +Eso es lo que hacemos como cientficos. +Ya saben, cuando un arquitecto construye un modelo, l o ella tratan de mostrar un mundo en miniatura. +Pero cuando un cientfico construye un modelo, l o ella tratan de mostrar al mundo en metfora. +l o ella tratan de crear una nueva forma de ver. +El primero es un cambio de escala. Este ltimo es un cambio de percepcin. +Los antibiticos crean ese cambio perceptual en cmo vemos la medicina, en realidad, teida distorsionada, con gran xito, cmo se ha pensado la medicina durante los ltimos cien aos. +Pero necesitamos nuevos modelos para abordar la medicina en el futuro. +Eso es lo que est en juego. +Existe un tropo popular por ah de que la razn de no haber tenido el impacto transformador en el tratamiento de las enfermedades es por no haber tenido medicamentos lo suficientemente potentes. Y eso es cierto en parte. +Pero tal vez la verdadera razn es no tener suficientes formas poderosas de pensar los medicamentos. +Es cierto que sera estupendo tener nuevos medicamentos. +Pero quizs lo que est realmente en juego son tres extremos intangibles: mecanismos, modelos, metforas. +Gracias. +Chris Anderson: Me gusta mucho esta metfora. +Cmo se enlaza? +Hay mucho que hablar en tecnologilandia sobre la personalizacin de la medicina, con todos estos datos y con los tratamientos mdicos del futuro; ser para ti especficamente, el genoma, el contexto actual. +Es eso aplicable a este modelo tuyo? +Siddhartha Mukherjee: Es una pregunta muy interesante. +Hemos pensado sobre la personalizacin de la medicina muy mucho en relacin a la genmica. +Eso es porque el gen es una metfora muy dominante, una vez ms, para utilizar la misma palabra, en la medicina actual, que creemos que el genoma impulsar la personalizacin de la medicina. +Pero, por supuesto, el genoma es solo la parte inferior de una larga cadena del ser, por as decirlo. +Esa cadena del ser, su primera unidad organizada es la clula. +As que, si realmente abordamos la medicina de esta manera, hay que pensar en la personalizacin de las terapias celulares, y luego personalizar el rgano o las terapias del rgano, y al final, la personalizacin de terapias de inmersin para el entorno. +As que creo que en todas las etapas, existe esa metfora, hay tortugas hasta el final. +Bueno, en este, hay personalizacin en todo el trayecto. +CA: As que cuando dices que la medicina podra ser una clula y no una pldora, ests hablando potencialmente de tus propias clulas. +SM: Por supuesto. CA: Convertidas en clulas madre, tal vez probadas contra todo tipo de frmacos y preparados. +SM: Y quiz no exista. Esto es lo que estamos haciendo. +Esto es lo que est pasando, y nos movemos lentamente, no lejos de la genmica, sino incorporando la genmica en lo que llamamos multiorden, los sistemas semiautnomos y autorregulados, como las clulas, como los rganos, como los entornos. +CA: Muchas gracias. +SM: Un placer. Gracias. +Cantar es compartir. +Cuando cantas, tienes que saber lo que ests diciendo ntimamente, y tienes que estar dispuesto a compartir este conocimiento y regalar un pedazo de ti mismo. +Busco esta intencin de compartir en todo, y me pregunto cules son las intenciones detrs de esta arquitectura o este producto o este restaurante o esta comida? +Y si sus intenciones son impresionar a la gente u obtener el gran aplauso al final, entonces uno est tomando, no dando. +Esta es una cancin que trata... es el tipo de cancin de la que todo el mundo tiene su versin. +En mi laboratorio, construimos robots areos autnomos como el que ven volar aqu. +A diferencia de los drones que se pueden comprar hoy en el mercado, este robot no tiene ningn GPS a bordo. +As que sin GPS, es difcil para los robots como este determinar su posicin. +Este robot utiliza sensores a bordo, cmaras y escneres lser, para escanear el medio ambiente. +Detecta las caractersticas del entorno, y determina dnde est en relacin con esas caractersticas, utilizando un mtodo de triangulacin. +Entonces puede reunir todas estas caractersticas en un mapa, como se ve detrs de m. +Este mapa permite que el robot comprenda dnde estn los obstculos y navegar libre de colisiones. +Lo que quiero mostrarles a continuacin es un conjunto de experimentos que hicimos en nuestro laboratorio, en los que este robot fue capaz de ir a distancias ms largas. +Vern, en la parte superior derecha, lo que el robot ve con la cmara. +En la pantalla principal --por supuesto acelerado por un factor de cuatro-- vern el mapa que est construyendo. +Este es un mapa de alta resolucin del corredor de nuestro laboratorio. +En un minuto vern que entra en nuestro laboratorio, que es reconocible por el desorden que se ve. +Pero el punto que quiero transmitirles es que estos robots son capaces de construir mapas de alta resolucin a resoluciones de 5 cm, permitiendo a alguien que est fuera del laboratorio, o fuera del edificio realizarlos sin tener que entrar, y tratar de inferir lo que sucede en el interior del edificio. +Hay un problema con los robots como ste. +El primer problema es que es bastante grande. +Como es grande, es pesado. +Y estos robots consumen alrededor de 220 vatios por kilo, +que hace su tiempo de misin muy corto. +El segundo problema es que estos robots tienen sensores a bordo que terminan siendo muy caros: un escner lser, una cmara y los procesadores. +Eso aumenta el costo de este robot. +As que nos hicimos una pregunta: qu productos de consumo se pueden comprar en una tienda de electrnica que sean de bajo costo, ligeros, que hagan deteccin a bordo y computacin? +E inventamos el telfono volador. +Este robot utiliza un Samsung Galaxy que se puede comprar comercialmente, y todo lo que se necesita es una aplicacin descargable en nuestra tienda. +Se puede ver a este robot leyendo las letras, "TED" en este caso, mirando las esquinas de la "T" y la "E" y luego triangulando eso, volando de forma autnoma. +Esa palanca est ah para asegurar que si el robot se vuelve loco, Giuseppe puede matarlo. +Adems de la construccin de estos pequeos robots, tambin experimentamos con comportamientos agresivos, como ven aqu. +Este robot est ahora viajando a dos o tres m por segundo, con cabeceo y balanceo agresivo, ya que cambia de direccin. +El punto principal es que podemos tener robots ms pequeos que vayan ms rpido y luego viajar en estos ambientes muy desestructurados. +En el siguiente video, igual que vemos esta ave, un guila, coordinando con gracia sus alas, sus ojos y pies para agarrar presas fuera del agua, nuestro robot puede ir a pescar, tambin. +En este caso, un embutido que est agarrado de la nada. +Pueden ver este robot que va a unos 3 m por segundo, ms rpido que la velocidad al caminar, coordinando sus brazos, sus garras y su vuelo en fracciones de segundo para lograr esta maniobra. +En otro experimento, Quiero mostrar cmo el robot adapta su vuelo para controlar su carga suspendida, cuya longitud es en realidad mayor que la anchura de la ventana. +Para lograr esto, en realidad tiene que lanzar y ajustar la altitud y oscilar la carga. +Por supuesto, queremos hacer esto an menor, y estamos inspirados en particular por las abejas. +Si nos fijamos en las abejas, y este es un vdeo ralentizado, son tan pequeas, la inercia es tan ligera que no les importa, rebotan en mi mano, por ejemplo. +Este es un pequeo robot que imita a las abejas. +Y ms pequeo es mejor, porque junto con el pequeo tamao se obtiene ms baja inercia. +Junto con menor inercia (Robot zumbando, risas) junto con una menor inercia, se es resistente a colisiones. +Y eso te hace ms fuerte. +As como estas abejas, construimos pequeos robots. +Este en particular es de solo 25 gr peso. +Consume solo 6 vatios de potencia. +Y puede viajar hasta a 6 m por segundo. +Si lo normalizo a su tamao, es como un Boeing 787 viajando a 10 veces la velocidad del sonido. +Quiero mostrarles un ejemplo. +Esta es probablemente la primera colisin en vuelo planeado, a una vigsima de la velocidad normal. +Estos van a una velocidad relativa de 2 m por segundo, y esto ilustra el principio bsico. +La jaula de fibra de carbono de 2 gr impide que las hlices se enreden, pero en esencia la colisin es absorbida y el robot responde a las colisiones. +Y muy pequeo tambin significa seguro. +En mi laboratorio, al desarrollar estos robots, comenzamos con estos grandes robots y luego ahora bajamos a estos pequeos robots. +Si se traza un histograma del nmero de banditas que pedimos en el pasado, mostrara un cola disminuyendo. +Porque estos robots son muy seguros. +El tamao pequeo tiene algunas desventajas, y la naturaleza ha encontrado formas de compensar estas desventajas. +La idea bsica es que ellas se unen para formar grandes grupos o enjambres. +Del mismo modo, en nuestro laboratorio, tratamos de crear enjambres de robots. +Y esto es todo un reto porque ahora tienes que pensar en redes de robots. +Y dentro de cada robot, tienes que pensar en la interaccin de deteccin, comunicacin, computacin, y esta red se vuelve muy difcil de controlar y gestionar. +As que de la naturaleza nos llevamos 3 principios organizativos que, bsicamente, nos permiten desarrollar nuestros algoritmos. +La primera idea es que los robots tienen que ser conscientes de sus vecinos. +Tienen que ser capaces de sentir y comunicarse con sus vecinos. +As que este video ilustra la idea bsica. +Tienes cuatro robots, uno ha sido secuestrado por un operador humano, literalmente. +Pero debido a que los robots interactan entre s, sienten a sus vecinos, que en esencia siguen. +Y aqu hay una sola persona capaz de liderar esta red de seguidores. +As que de nuevo, no es porque todos los robots saben dnde se supone que deben ir. +Es porque slo estn reaccionando a las posiciones de sus vecinos. +El siguiente experimento ilustra el segundo principio de organizacin. +Y este principio tiene que ver con el principio de anonimato. +Aqu la idea clave es que los robots son agnsticos a la identidad de sus vecinos. +Se les pide que hagan una forma circular, y no importa cuntos robots se introducen dentro de la formacin, o cuntos robots se sacan, cada robot est simplemente reaccionando a su vecino. +Es consciente del hecho de que se necesita para hacer la forma circular, pero colaborando con sus vecinos hace esta forma sin coordinacin central. +Ahora bien, si uno pone estas ideas juntas, la tercera idea es que esencialmente damos a estos robots descripciones matemticas de la forma que necesitan ejecutar. +Y estas formas pueden ser variables en funcin del tiempo, y vern a estos robots comenzar a partir de una formacin circular, cambiar a una formacin rectangular, estirada a una lnea recta, de nuevo a una elipse. +Y lo hacen con el mismo tipo de coordinacin de fraccin de segundo que se ve en los enjambres naturales, en la naturaleza. +Por qu trabajar con enjambres? +Djenme decirles de 2 aplicaciones en las que estamos muy interesados. +La primera tiene que ver con la agricultura, que es probablemente el mayor problema que enfrentando en el mundo. +Como bien saben, 1 de cada 7 personas en la Tierra est desnutrida. +La mayor parte de la tierra que podemos cultivar ya ha sido cultivada. +La eficiencia de la mayora de sistemas en el mundo est mejorando, pero nuestra eficiencia del sistema de produccin est disminuyendo, +debido a falta de agua, enfermedades de los cultivos, cambio climtico y un par de otras cosas. +Qu pueden hacer los robots? +Bueno, adoptamos un enfoque que se llama agricultura de precisin en la comunidad. +Y la idea bsica es que volamos robots a travs de los huertos, y luego construimos modelos de precisin de las plantas individuales. +As como la medicina personalizada, mientras que uno puede imaginar tratar a cada paciente de forma individual, lo que nos gustara hacer es construir modelos de plantas individuales y luego decirle al agricultor qu tipo de insumos necesita cada planta; las entradas en este caso son el agua, fertilizantes y pesticidas. +Aqu podrn ver los robots viajar a travs de un huerto de manzanas, y en un minuto vern 2 de sus compaeros haciendo lo mismo a la izquierda. +Y lo que estn construyendo esencialmente es un mapa de la huerta. +Dentro del mapa hay uno de las plantas en este huerto. +(Zumbido de robot) Veamos cmo se ven esos mapas parecen. +En el siguiente video, vern las cmaras que est utilizando este robot. +Arriba a la izquierda esencialmente una cmara de color destacada. +A la izquierda en el centro una cmara infrarroja. +Y en la parte inferior izquierda una cmara trmica. +Y en el panel principal, se ve una reconstruccin tridimensional de todo rbol del huerto al pasar los sensores sobre los rboles. +Armados con informacin de este tipo, podemos hacer varias cosas. +Primero y posiblemente lo ms importante es muy simple: contar el nmero de frutas en cada rbol. +Hacer esto, le dice al agricultor cuntas frutas que tiene en cada rbol y le permitir estimar el rendimiento del huerto, optimizar la cadena de produccin aguas abajo. +La segunda cosa que podemos hacer es tomar los modelos de las plantas, la reconstruccin tridimensional, y de all estimar el tamao del manto, y luego correlacionar el manto con la cantidad de rea foliar en cada planta. +Esto se llama el ndice de rea foliar. +Si uno sabe este ndice de rea foliar, esencialmente hace medicin de qu tanta fotosntesis hace cada planta, que a su vez dice qu tan saludable es cada planta. +Mediante la combinacin de informacin visual y de infrarrojos, tambin podemos calcular ndices como el NDVI. +Y en este caso en particular, en esencia se puede ver que algunos cultivos no lo estn haciendo tan bien como otros. +Esto es fcilmente perceptible a partir de imgenes, no solo las imgenes visuales, sino combinadas tanto imgenes visuales como de infrarrojos. +Y por ltimo, algo que nos interesa hacer es detectar la aparicin temprana de la clorosis --esto es un rbol de naranja-- que se ve esencialmente por el amarillamiento de las hojas. +Pero los robots pueden detectar fcilmente esto de manera autnoma y luego informar al agricultor que l o ella tiene un problema en esta parte de la huerta. +Sistemas como estos realmente pueden ayudar, y estamos proyectando rendimientos mejores en alrededor de un 10 % y, sobre todo, disminuir la cantidad de insumos como el agua un 25 % mediante el uso de enjambres de robots areos. +Por ltimo, quiero aplaudir a la gente que realmente crea el futuro, Yash Mulgaonkar, Sikang Liu y Giuseppe Loianno, quienes son responsables de las 3 demostraciones que vieron. +Gracias. +Creen que el mundo va a ser un mejor lugar el ao que viene? +En la prxima dcada? +Podemos acabar con el hambre, lograr la igualdad de gnero, detener el cambio climtico, todo ello en los prximos 15 aos? +Bueno, de acuerdo con los gobiernos del mundo, s podemos. +En los ltimos das, los lderes del mundo, reunidos en la ONU en Nueva York, acordaron un nuevo conjunto de metas mundiales para el desarrollo del mundo para 2030. +Y aqu estn: estos objetivos son el producto de un ejercicio de consulta masiva. +Las Metas Mundiales son lo que nosotros, la humanidad, queremos ser. +Ese es el plan, pero podemos llegar? +Puede realmente lograrse esta visin de un mundo mejor? +Bueno, estoy aqu hoy porque hicimos los nmeros, y la respuesta, sorprendentemente, es que tal vez, en realidad, podamos. +Pero no con lo de siempre. +La idea de que el mundo se va convertir un lugar mejor puede parecer un poco extravagante. +Vean las noticias cada da y el mundo parece ir hacia atrs, no hacia adelante. +Y seamos francos: es bastante fcil ser escptico acerca de los grandes anuncios que salen de la ONU. +Pero por favor, los invito a suspender su incredulidad por un momento. +Debido a que en 2001 la ONU acord otro conjunto de metas, los Objetivos de Desarrollo del Milenio. +El buque insignia fue que haba que bajar a la mitad la proporcin de personas que vivan en la pobreza para el ao 2015. +El objetivo era tomar a partir de una lnea de base de 1990, cuando el 36 % de la poblacin mundial viva en la pobreza, para llegar a un 18 % de pobreza este ao. +Logramos este objetivo? +Bueno, no, no lo hicimos. +Lo hemos superado. +Este ao, la pobreza mundial va a caer a un 12 %. +Todava no es suficientemente bueno, y el mundo tiene todava un montn de problemas. +Pero los pesimistas y fatalistas que dicen que el mundo no puede ser mejor estn simplemente errados. +Y cmo logramos este xito? +Bueno, mucho se debi al crecimiento econmico. +Algunas de las mayores reducciones se dieron en pases como China e India, que han experimentado un rpido crecimiento econmico en los ltimos aos. +Podemos hacer el mismo truco de nuevo? +Puede el crecimiento econmico llevarnos a las metas mundiales? +Para responder a esa pregunta, necesitamos comparar el mundo hoy con las metas mundiales y averiguar qu tanto tenemos que viajar. +Pero eso no es fcil, debido a que las metas mundiales no son solo ambiciosas, tambin son bastante complicadas. +Ms de 17 metas, hay entonces 169 objetivos y, literalmente, cientos de indicadores. +Si bien algunos de los objetivos son bastante especficos, acabar con el hambre, otros son mucho ms vagos, promover sociedades pacficas y tolerantes. +Para ayudarnos con esta comparacin, voy a usar una herramienta llamada el ndice de Progreso Social. +Lo que hace es medir todo lo que las metas mundiales estn tratando de lograr, pero las resume en un nico nmero que podemos usar como punto de referencia y seguir el progreso a travs del tiempo. +El ndice de Progreso Social, bsicamente, hace 3 preguntas fundamentales de una sociedad. +En primer lugar, tienen todos las necesidades bsicas de supervivencia: alimentos, agua, vivienda, seguridad? +En segundo lugar, tiene todo el mundo los componentes bsicos de una vida mejor: educacin, informacin, salud y un medio ambiente sostenible? +Y tiene todo el mundo la oportunidad de mejorar sus vidas, a travs de los derechos, la libertad de eleccin, la no discriminacin, y el acceso al conocimiento ms avanzado del mundo? +El ndice de Progreso Social resume todo esto utilizando 52 indicadores para crear un marcador global en una escala de 0 a 100. +Y lo que encontramos es que hay una gran diversidad de desempeo en el mundo de hoy. +El pas de mayor desempeo, Noruega, punta 88. +El pas menor nivel de rendimiento, la Repblica Centroafricana, punta 31. +Podemos sumar todos los pases juntos, ponderando los diferentes tamaos de poblacin, y que la puntuacin global es 61. +En trminos concretos, eso significa que el humano promedio est viviendo en un nivel de progreso social similar al de Cuba o Kazajstn hoy. +Ah es donde estamos hoy: 61 de 100. +Qu tenemos que lograr para alcanzar las metas mundiales? +Las metas mundiales son ciertamente ambiciosas, pero no son de convertir al mundo en Noruega en tan solo 15 aos. +As que despus de ver los nmeros, mi estimacin es que una puntuacin de 75 no solo sera un paso de gigante en el bienestar humano, tambin servira para dar en el blanco de las metas mundiales. +As que nuestro objetivo es 75 de 100. +Podemos llegar? +El ndice de Progreso Social puede ayudar a calcular esto, porque como se habrn dado cuenta, no hay indicadores econmicos aqu; no est el PIB o el crecimiento econmico en el modelo de ndice de Progreso Social. +Y lo que nos permite hacer es entender la relacin entre el crecimiento econmico y el progreso social. +Se los muestro en este grfico. +En el eje vertical puse el progreso social, lo que quiere lograr las metas mundiales. +Ms alto es mejor. +Y luego en el eje horizontal, est el PIB per cpita. +Ms a la derecha significa ms rico. +Ahora voy a poner todos los pases del mundo, cada uno representado por un punto, y encima voy a poner la lnea de regresin que muestra la relacin media. +Lo que esto nos dice es que a medida que se es ms rico, el progreso social tiende a mejorar. +Sin embargo, a ms riqueza, cada dlar adicional del PIB compra cada vez menos progreso social. +Utilicemos ahora esta informacin para empezar a construir nuestro pronstico. +Aqu est el mundo en 2015. +Tenemos una puntuacin de progreso social de 61 y un PIB per cpita de USD 14 000. +Y queremos llegar, recuerden, a 75, que son las metas mundiales. +Aqu estamos hoy, USD 14 000 PIB per cpita. +Qu tan ricos vamos a ser en el 2030? +Eso es lo que necesitamos saber. +El mejor pronstico es el del Departamento de Agricultura de EE. UU., que prev un 3.1 % de crecimiento econmico global promedio en los prximos 15 aos, lo que significa que en 2030, si es que tienen razn, el PIB per cpita ser de alrededor de USD 23 000. +La pregunta es: si conseguimos esa mayor riqueza, cunto progreso social vamos a conseguir? +Le preguntamos a un equipo de economistas en Deloitte que trabaj los nmeros, y volvieron y dijeron: si la riqueza promedio mundial va de USD 14 000 a USD 23 000 al ao, el progreso social aumentar de 61 a 62.4. +Solo 62.4. Solo un pequeo aumento. +Esto parece un poco extrao. +El crecimiento econmico parece haber ayudado realmente en la lucha contra la pobreza, pero no parece tener mucho impacto en el intento de llegar a las metas mundiales. +Qu est pasando? +Bueno, creo que hay dos cosas. +La primera es que, en cierto modo, somos vctimas de nuestro propio xito. +Hemos utilizado las victorias fciles de crecimiento econmico, y ahora nos movemos a los problemas ms difciles. +Sabemos que el crecimiento econmico viene con costos, as como beneficios. +Costos para el medio, costos por nuevos problemas de salud como la obesidad. +Esa es la mala noticia. +No vamos a llegar a las metas mundiales con solo ser cada vez ms ricos. +As que somos los pesimistas verdad? +Bueno, tal vez no. +Debido a que el ndice de Progreso Social tambin tiene muy buenas noticias. +Vamos de nuevo a esa lnea de regresin. +Esta es la relacin media entre el PIB y el progreso social, y es en lo que se basa nuestro ltimo pronstico. +Pero como ya vieron, en realidad hay mucho ruido alrededor de esta lnea de tendencia. +Lo que esto nos dice, simplemente, es que el PIB no es un destino. +Tenemos pases que son de bajo desempeo en el progreso social, en relacin con su riqueza. +Rusia tiene mucha riqueza en recursos naturales, pero un montn de problemas sociales. +China ha experimentado un auge econmico, pero no ha avanzado mucho en materia de derechos humanos o cuestiones ambientales. +India tiene un programa espacial y millones de personas sin inodoros. +Por otro lado, tenemos los pases que estn sobrevaluados en el progreso social en relacin con su PIB. +Costa Rica ha priorizado la educacin, la salud y la sostenibilidad ambiental, y como resultado, logr un nivel muy alto de progreso social, a pesar de tener un PIB ms bien modesto. +Y Costa Rica no es el nico. +De los pases pobres como Ruanda a los pases ms ricos como Nueva Zelanda, vemos que es posible obtener gran cantidad de progreso social, incluso si su PIB no es tan grande. +Y eso es realmente importante, porque muestra dos cosas. +En primer lugar, muestra que ya en el mundo tenemos las soluciones a muchos de los problemas que las metas mundiales tratan de resolver. +Tambin muestra que no somos esclavos del PIB. +Nuestras elecciones son importantes: si priorizamos el bienestar de las personas, podemos lograr mucho ms progreso que el que se podra esperar de nuestro PIB. +Cunto? Suficiente para llegar a las metas mundiales? +Veamos algunos nmeros. +Lo que ya sabemos: el mundo de hoy tiene 61 en el progreso social, y el lugar que queremos llegar es 75. +Basados solo en el crecimiento econmico vamos a llegar a 62.4. +Supongamos ahora que podemos lograr que los pases que estn actualmente en bajo desempeo en el progreso social, Rusia, China, India, suben por encima de la media. +Cunto progreso social nos da? +Bueno, eso nos lleva a 65. +Es un poco mejor, pero todava un largo camino por recorrer. +As que seamos un poco ms optimistas: qu pasara si todos los pases mejoran un poco en convertir su riqueza en bienestar? +Pues bien, llegamos a 67. +Y ahora vamos a ser an ms audaces. +Qu pasara si todos los pases del mundo escogen ser como Costa Rica, priorizar el bienestar humano, utilizar su riqueza para el bienestar de sus ciudadanos? +Pues bien, se llega a casi el 73, muy cerca de las metas mundiales. +Podemos alcanzar las metas mundiales? +Desde luego, no con lo de siempre. +Incluso una marea de crecimiento econmico no va lograrlo, si solo eleva los mega-yates y los super-ricos y deja el resto detrs. +Si vamos a lograr las metas mundiales tenemos que hacer las cosas distinto. +Tenemos que priorizar el progreso social, y realmente escalar soluciones alrededor del mundo. +Creo que las metas mundiales son una oportunidad histrica, porque los lderes del mundo se han comprometido a lograrlas. +No vamos a descartar los objetivos o deslizarnos en el pesimismo; vamos a mantener esa promesa. +Y tenemos que mantener la promesa hacindolos responsables, siguiendo su progreso todo el camino por los prximos 15 aos. +Y quiero terminar mostrndoles una manera de hacerlo, llamada Libreta de Reporte Popular. +La Libreta de Reporte Popular rene todos estos datos en un marco sencillo con el que estamos familiarizados desde la escuela, para pedirles cuentas. +Mide nuestro desempeo en las metas mundiales en una escala de F a A, F es la humanidad en su peor momento, y A es la humanidad en su mejor momento. +Nuestro mundo de hoy est en una C-. +Las metas mundiales son todas sobre llegar a una A, y es por eso que vamos a estar actualizando la Libreta anualmente, para el mundo y para todos los pases del mundo, para poder llevarles cuentas a nuestros lderes para lograr este objetivo y cumplir esta promesa. +Porque lograremos las metas mundiales solo si hacemos las cosas de forma distinta, si nuestros lderes las hacen de forma distinta y para que eso suceda, tenemos que exigirlo. +As que vamos a rechazar lo usual. +Vamos a exigir un camino diferente. +Elijamos el mundo que queremos. +Gracias. +Bruno Giussani: Gracias, Michael. +Michael, solo una pregunta: los Objetivos de Desarrollo del Milenio establecidos hace 15 aos, se aplicaron a todos los a todos los pases pero result ser realmente un cuadro de mando para los pases emergentes. +Las nuevas metas son explcitamente universales. +Piden a todos los pases mostrar accin y progreso. +Cmo puedo, como ciudadano, usar la libreta de calificaciones para crear presin para la accin? +Michael Green: Es un punto muy importante; es un gran cambio en las prioridades: ya no sobre los pases pobres y solo la pobreza. +Es de todos los pases. +Y cada pas va a tener problemas en llegar a las metas mundiales. +Incluso, lo siento decir, Bruno, Suiza tiene trabajo por hacer. +Y por eso vamos a producir las libretas de calificaciones en el 2016 para todos los pases del mundo. +As podremos ver, cmo lo estamos haciendo? +Y no sern los pases ricos los que califiquen puras Aes. +Entonces, creo, es proporcionar un punto de enfoque para que las personas comiencen a exigir accin y progreso. +BG: Muchas gracias. +Todos vamos a los mdicos. +Y lo hacemos con la confianza y la fe ciega de que la prueba que se estn ordenando y los medicamentos que estn prescribiendo estn basados en la evidencia, evidencia que est diseada para ayudarnos. +Sin embargo, la realidad es que no siempre ha sido el caso para todos. +Qu pasa si les digo que la ciencia mdica descubierta en el siglo pasado se ha basado en solo la mitad de la poblacin? +Soy doctora en medicina de emergencia. +Fui formada para afrontar emergencias mdicas. +Se trata de salvar vidas. Cun genial es eso? +OK, una gran cantidad de secreciones de nariz y pies tropezados, pero no importa que entra por la puerta de la sala de emergencia, ordenamos las mismas pruebas, prescribimos la misma medicacin, sin tener que pensar en el sexo o el gnero de nuestros pacientes. +Por qu lo hacemos? +Nunca nos ensearon que haba diferencias entre hombres y mujeres. +Un estudio reciente de Responsabilidad del Gobierno revel que el 80 % de los medicamentos retirados del mercado lo fueron por los efectos secundarios en las mujeres. +As que vamos a pensar en eso por un minuto. +Por qu estamos descubriendo efectos secundarios en las mujeres solo despus de que un medicamento ha sido lanzado al mercado? +Saben que se necesitan aos para que una droga pase de una idea probada en clulas en un laboratorio, a estudios en animales, a ensayos clnicos en seres humanos, para finalmente pasar por un proceso de aprobacin regulatoria, a estar disponible para su mdico para prescribrselo a Uds.? +Por no hablar de los millones y miles de millones de dlares de fondos que se necesitan para pasar por ese proceso. +As que por qu estamos descubriendo efectos secundarios inaceptables en la mitad de la poblacin despus de que ha pasado por esto? +Qu est sucediendo? +Bueno, resulta que esas clulas utilizadas en ese laboratorio, son clulas masculinas, y los animales utilizados en los estudios con animales eran machos, y los ensayos clnicos se han realizado casi exclusivamente en hombres. +Cmo el modelo masculino se convirti en referencia en investigacin mdica? +Veamos un ejemplo que se ha popularizado en los medios de comunicacin, y tiene que ver con la ayuda para dormir, Ambien. +Ambien fue lanzado al mercado hace ms de 20 aos, y desde entonces, se han escrito cientos de millones de prescripciones, principalmente a mujeres, pues sufren ms trastornos del sueo que los hombres. +Pero solo el ao pasado, la FDA recomend bajar la dosis a la mitad solo para mujeres, porque vieron que las mujeres metabolizan el frmaco a un ritmo menor que los hombres, haciendo que se despierten en la maana con ms del frmaco activo en su sistema. +Y luego estn somnolientas y van a estar al volante del auto, y tienen riesgo de accidentes con vehculos de motor. +Y no puedo dejar de pensar, como mdica de urgencias, cmo muchos de los pacientes que he atendido en los ltimos aos estuvieron involucrados en un accidente de trfico que podran haberse evitado si este tipo de anlisis hubiera realizado y actuado hace 20 aos cuando este frmaco se lanz por primera vez. +Cuntas otras cosas tienen que ser analizadas por gnero? +Qu ms nos estamos perdiendo? +La Segunda Guerra Mundial cambi muchas cosas, y una fue la necesidad de proteger a las personas de ser vctimas de la investigacin mdica sin consentimiento informado. +Se establecieron algunas pautas o reglas muy necesarias y parte de eso fue el deseo de proteger a las mujeres en edad frtil de entrar en cualquier estudio de investigacin mdica. +Haba miedo: y si algo le ocurre al feto durante el estudio? +Quin sera el responsable? +Los cientficos en este momento pensaron en realidad que era una bendicin disfrazada, porque seamos sinceros, los cuerpos de los hombres son bastante homogneos. +No tienen niveles constantemente fluctuantes de hormonas que podran alterar los datos limpios que obtenan si tenan solo hombres. +Era ms fcil. Era ms barato. +Por no hablar, en este momento, de la suposicin general de que los hombres y las mujeres eran iguales en todos los sentidos, salvo sus rganos reproductores y hormonas sexuales. +As que se decidi: la investigacin mdica se realizar en los hombres, y los resultados posteriormente se aplican a mujeres. +Qu hizo esto a la nocin de salud de la mujer? +La salud de la mujer se convirti en sinnimo de reproduccin: pechos, ovarios, tero, embarazo. +Es este trmino que hoy conocemos como "medicina bikini". +Desde entonces, una abrumadora cantidad de evidencia ha salido a la luz que muestra cun diferentes son hombres y mujeres en todos los sentidos. +Tenemos este dicho en medicina: los nios no son adultos pequeos. +Y lo decimos para recordarnos que los nios tienen una fisiologa diferente a la de los adultos normales. +Y es por esto que la especialidad mdica de pediatra sali a la luz. +Y ahora investigamos sobre nios con el fin de mejorar sus vidas. +Y s que lo mismo se puede decir de las mujeres. +Las mujeres no son solo hombres con tetas y tubos. +Tienen su propia anatoma y fisiologa que merece ser estudiada con la misma intensidad. +Tomemos el sistema cardiovascular, por ejemplo. +Esta rea de la medicina es la que ms ha hecho por tratar de averiguar por qu parece que hombres y mujeres tienen ataques al corazn muy diferentes. +La enfermedad cardaca es la principal causa de muerte en hombres y mujeres, pero ms mujeres mueren durante el primer ao de un ataque al corazn. +Los hombres se quejan de dolor opresivo en el pecho --un elefante est sentado en su pecho--. +Y llamamos a esto tpico. +Las mujeres tienen dolor en el pecho, tambin. +Pero ms mujeres que hombres se quejan de "simplemente no me siento bien", "parece que no tengo suficiente aire", "estoy cansada ltimamente". +Y por alguna razn llamamos a este atpico, a pesar de que las mujeres constituyen la mitad de la poblacin. +Qu parte de la evidencia ayuda a explicar algunas de estas diferencias? +Si nos fijamos en la anatoma, los vasos sanguneos del corazn son ms pequeos mujeres que en hombres, y la forma en que estos vasos sanguneos desarrollan la enfermedad es diferente en las mujeres comparadas con los hombres. +La prueba que utilizamos para determinar si se est en riesgo de ataque cardiaco, bueno, se ha diseado y probado y perfeccionados en hombres, y as no son tan buena en la determinacin de ello en mujeres. +Y luego, si pensamos en los medicamentos --medicamentos comunes que usamos, como la aspirina--. +Damos aspirina a los hombres sanos para ayudar a evitar ataques al corazn, pero saben que si le dan aspirina a una mujer sana, en realidad es perjudicial? +Lo que esto hace es simplemente decirnos que estamos araando la superficie. +La medicina de emergencia es una empresa de ritmo rpido. +En cuntas reas de salvamento de vidas en la medicina, como cncer y accidentes cerebrovasculares, existen diferencias importantes entre hombres y mujeres que podramos usar? +O incluso, por qu es que algunas personas tienen secreciones nasales ms que otras, o por qu el analgsico que le damos a los pies golpeados trabaja en algunos s y en otros no? +El Instituto de Medicina ha dicho que cada clula tiene un sexo. +Qu significa esto? +El sexo es el ADN. +El gnero es cmo alguien presenta a s mismos en la sociedad. +Y estos dos pueden no siempre coincidir, como podemos ver con nuestra poblacin transexual. +Pero es importante tener en cuenta que desde el momento de la concepcin, cada clula de nuestro cuerpo --pelo, piel, corazn y los pulmones-- tiene nuestro propio ADN nico, y que el ADN contiene los cromosomas que determinan si llegamos a ser hombre o mujer, hombre o mujer. +Antes se pensaba que esos cromosomas determinantes del sexo dibujados aqu --XY si eres hombre, XX si eres mujer-- simplemente determinaban si nacera con ovarios o los testculos, y era las hormonas sexuales que producen esos rganos eran las responsables de las diferencias que vemos en el sexo opuesto. +Pero ahora sabemos que esa teora estaba equivocada --o es al menos un poco incompleta--. +Este nuevo conocimiento es un cambio de juego, y depende de esos cientficos que continan encontrando evidencia, pero les toca a los mdicos empezar a traducir estos datos junto a la cama, hoy. +Ahora mismo. +Para hacer esto, soy fundadora de la organizacin nacional Colaboracin Sexo y Gnero para la Salud de las Mujeres y recogemos todos estos datos disponibles para la enseanza y el cuidado del paciente. +Y estamos trabajando para reunir a los educadores mdicos. +Eso es un gran trabajo. +Est cambiando cmo se hace la formacin mdica se ha hecho desde siempre. +Pero creo en ellos. +S que van a ver el valor de la incorporacin de la perspectiva de gnero en el currculo actual. +Se trata de formar correctamente a los futuros profesionales de la salud. +Hemos creado un modelo de 360 grados de la educacin. +Tenemos programas para doctores, enfermeras, estudiantes y pacientes. +Porque esto no puede simplemente dejarse a los lderes de atencin mdica. +Todos tenemos un papel en hacer una diferencia. +Pero debo advertirles: esto no es fcil. +De hecho, es difcil. +Est cambiando fundamentalmente la manera en que pensamos sobre medicina salud e investigacin. +Est cambiando nuestra relacin con el sistema de atencin en salud. +Pero no hay vuelta atrs. +Ahora sabemos lo suficiente para saber que no estbamos haciendo las cosas bien. +Martin Luther King, Jr., dijo, "El cambio no rueda en las ruedas de la inevitabilidad, sino que viene a travs de la lucha continua". +Y el primer paso hacia el cambio es la conciencia. +No se trata solo de mejorar la atencin mdica para las mujeres. +Esto es sobre personalizacin, atencin sanitaria individualizada para cada uno. +Es concienciarse del poder de transformar la atencin mdica para hombres y mujeres. +Y de ahora en adelante, quiero que Uds. pregunten a sus mdicos si los tratamientos que estn recibiendo son especficos para su sexo y gnero. +Puede que no sepan la respuesta... an. +Pero la conversacin ha comenzado, y juntos todos podemos aprender. +Recuerden, para m y para mis colegas en este campo, su sexo y gnero importa. +Gracias. +Como cantante y compositora, la gente a menudo me pregunta por mis influencias o, como me gusta decir, mis linajes snicos. +Y podra fcilmente decirles que me form en el jazz y el hip hop con el que crec, por la herencia etope de mis antepasados, o por el pop de la radio de mi infancia en la dcada de 1980. +Pero ms all de gnero, hay otra pregunta: cmo los sonidos que escuchamos cada da influyen en la msica que hacemos? +Creo que todo sonido cotidiano puede ser la inspiracin ms inesperada para escribir canciones, y detallar esta idea un poco ms. Voy a hablar hoy sobre tres cosas: la naturaleza, el lenguaje y el silencio, o ms bien, de la imposibilidad del verdadero silencio. +Y con esto espero darles un sentido a un mundo que ya est vivo de expresin musical, con cada uno de nosotros como participantes activos, seamos o no conscientes de ello. +Voy a empezar hoy con la naturaleza, pero antes de hacerlo, escuchemos este fragmento de una cantante de pera calentando +Aqu est. +(Termina el canto) Es hermoso, no es as? +Trampa! +En realidad, no es el sonido de una cantante de pera calentando. +Ese es el sonido de un pjaro desacelerado a un ritmo que el odo humano reconoce errneamente como propio. +Se public en 1987 como parte de la grabacin del hngaro Peter Szke "La desconocida msica de los pjaros" donde registr a muchos pjaros ralentizando sus tonos para revelar lo que hay debajo. +Escuchmosla a toda velocidad. +(Pjaro cantando) Ahora, vamos a escuchar a las dos juntas para que su cerebro pueda yuxtaponerlas. +(Pjaro cantando lento y luego a toda velocidad) (Termina el canto) Es increble. +Tal vez las tcnicas de canto lrico se inspiraron en el canto de los pjaros. +Como humanos, entendemos intuitivamente que los pjaros son nuestros maestros musicales. +En Etiopa, los pjaros se consideran parte integrante del origen de la msica misma. +La historia va as: Hace 1500 aos un joven naci en el Imperio de Aksum, un importante centro comercial del mundo antiguo. +Su nombre era Yared. +Cuando Yared tena siete aos su padre muri, y su madre lo envi a vivir con un to sacerdote de la tradicin ortodoxa etope, una de las iglesias ms antiguas del mundo. +Esta tradicin tiene una gran cantidad de aprendizaje, y Yared tena que estudiar, estudiar y estudiar y estudiar, y un da estudiando bajo un rbol, tres pjaros vinieron hacia l. +Uno a uno, estos pjaros se convirtieron en sus maestros. +Le ensearon msica, --escalas, de hecho--. +Y Yared, finalmente reconocido como San Yared, utiliz estas escalas para componer cinco volmenes de cantos e himnos para el culto y la celebracin. +Y us estas escalas para componer y crear un sistema de notacin musical indgena. +Estas escalas se desarrollaron en lo que se conoce como kinit, el nico sistema modal pentatnico, de cinco notas, que sigue muy vivo prosperando y evolucionando en Etiopa actualmente. +Me encanta esta historia porque es verdad en mltiples niveles. +San Yared fue un personaje real, histrico, y el mundo natural puede ser nuestro maestro musical. +Y tenemos muchos ejemplos de esto: los pigmeos del Congo afinan sus instrumentos con los tonos de los pjaros del bosque. +El experto musical del paisaje sonoro natural Bernie Krause describe cmo un medio ambiente saludable tiene animales e insectos con bandas de baja, media y alta frecuencia, exactamente de la misma forma que lo hace una sinfona. +Y muchas obras musicales se inspiraron en el canto de pjaros y de los bosques. +El mundo natural puede ser nuestro maestro cultural. +Vayamos ahora al mundo exclusivamente humano del lenguaje. +Cada lengua se comunica con tono en grados diversos, desde el chino mandarn, donde un cambio de inflexin meldica da a la misma slaba fontica un significado muy diferente, a un idioma como el ingls, donde un tono creciente al final de una frase... +(Subiendo de tono) implica una pregunta? +Como una mujer etope de EE. UU., crec con la lengua amrica. +Fue mi primera lengua, la lengua de mis padres, una de las principales lenguas de Etiopa. +Y hay un milln de razones para enamorarse de este idioma: su profundidad potica, sus dobles sentidos, su cera y oro, su humor, sus proverbios que iluminan la sabidura y las locuras de la vida. +Pero tambin este melodicsimo, una musicalidad construida en ella. +Y creo que esto define con ms claridad lo que me gusta denominar lenguaje enftico, el lenguaje que resalta o subraya o que brota de una sorpresa. +Tomemos, por ejemplo, la palabra "Indey" +Si hay etopes en la audiencia, probablemente estn rindose para s, pues la palabra significa algo como "No!" +o "Cmo podra?" o "No, no lo hizo". +En cierto modo depende de la situacin. +Pero cuando yo era nia, esta era mi palabra favorita, y creo que es porque tiene tono. +Tiene una meloda. +Casi se puede ver la forma en que brota de la boca de alguien. +"Indey", se sumerge y, luego, sube de nuevo. +Y como msica y compositora, cuando oigo esa palabra, algo est flotando en mi mente. +(Msica y canta "Indey") (Termina la msica) O tomar, por ejemplo, la frase de "Est bien" o "Es correcto": "Lickih nehu ... Lickih nehu". +Es una afirmacin, un acuerdo. +"Lickih nehu". +Cuando oigo esa frase, algo as comienza a brotar por mi mente. +(Msica y canta "Lickih nehu") (Termina la msica) En ambos casos, lo que hice fue tomar la meloda y la redaccin de esas palabras y frases y les di la vuelta en partes musicales para su uso en estas composiciones cortas. +Y como disfruto escribiendo lneas para bajo, ambas terminaron siendo lneas para bajo. +Esto se basa en la obra de Jason Moran y otros que trabajan ntimamente con la msica y el lenguaje, pero tambin es algo que he tenido en la cabeza desde nia, lo musical que sonaba cuando mis padres se hablaban el uno al otro y a nosotros. +Fue a travs de ellos y del amrico que aprend que estamos inundados de expresin musical por cada palabra y frase que decimos, cada palabra, cada frase que escuchamos. +Tal vez lo pueden escuchar en las palabras que digo ahora mismo. +Por ltimo, vayamos a la dcada de 1950 en EE. UU. a la obra de la composicin de vanguardia ms influyente del siglo XX: John Cage de "04:33", escrita para cualquier instrumento o combinacin de instrumentos. +Se invita al msico o msicos a que vayan al escenario con un cronmetro y que abran la partitura, que fue en verdad comprada por el Museo de Arte Moderno, la partitura. +Y esta partitura no tiene ni una sola nota escrita y tampoco se toca una sola nota durante 4 minutos y 33 segundos. +Y es a la vez enfurecedora y arrebatadora, Cage nos muestra que incluso sin cuerdas sonoras que se rasguen por los dedos o por las manos en las teclas de piano, an as, hay msica, an as hay msica, An as, hay msica. +Y qu es esta msica? +Ese estornudo en la parte posterior. +Es el paisaje sonoro cotidiano que surge de la propia audiencia: sus toses, sus suspiros, sus susurros, sus cuchicheos, sus estornudos, la sala, la madera del suelo y las paredes expandindose y contrayndose, crujiendo y gimiendo con el calor y el fro, las tuberas sonando y aportando. +Y lo polmico que ha sido, e incluso lo controvertido que sigue siendo, la finalidad de Cage es mostrar que no existe el verdadero silencio. +Incluso en los entornos ms silenciosas, todava omos y sentimos el sonido de nuestros propios latidos. +El mundo est lleno de expresin musical. +Ya estamos inmersos. +Tuve mi propio momento de, digamos, la remezcla de John Cage hace un par de meses de pie delante del fogn cocinando lentejas. +Y era tarde una noche y era hora de moverse, as que levant la tapa de la olla, y la puse en la encimera de la cocina junto a m, y comenz a rodar hacia atrs y adelante haciendo este sonido. +(Sonido de tapa de metal tintineando contra encimera) (Termina el ruido) Y me dej fra. +Pens: "Qu ritmo tan estupendo tiene esta tapa de la olla". +As que cuando las lentejas estaban listos y comidas, me met a mi estudio del patio trasero, y compuse esto. +(Canto y msica de la tapa) (Termina la msica) John Cage no instrua a los msicos para minar el paisaje sonoro de texturas sonoras que se convierten en msica. +l estaba diciendo que en s el medio ambiente es musicalmente generativo, que es generoso, que es frtil, y que ya estamos inmersos. +Msico, investigador de msica, cirujano y experto en audicin humana Charles Limb es profesor de la Universidad Johns Hopkins y estudia la msica y el cerebro. +Y tiene una teora que es posible --es posible-- que en verdad el sistema auditivo humano se desarroll para escuchar msica, porque es mucho ms complejo de lo necesario para el lenguaje por s solo. +Y si eso es cierto, significa que estamos programados para la msica, que podemos encontrar en cualquier lugar, que no existe ningn desierto musical, que estamos siempre colgados permanentemente en el oasis, y eso es maravilloso. +Podemos poner bandas sonoras, pero ya se est reproduciendo. +No significa que no se deba estudiar msica. +Estudien msica, rastreen sus linajes snicos y disfruten de esa exploracin. +Pero hay un tipo de linaje snico al que todos pertenecemos. +La prxima vez que busquen inspiracin de percusin, busquen en sus llantas, cuando ruedan sobre los surcos inusuales de la autopista, o el quemador superior derecho de la estufa y la manera extraa que hace clic cuando se enciende la luz. +En bsqueda de inspiracin meldica, no busquen ms que en orquestas de amaneceres y anocheceres o en la cadencia natural del lenguaje enftico. +Somos la audiencia y somos los compositores y tomamos estas piezas que se nos dan. +Hacemos, hacemos, hacemos, hacemos, sabiendo que cuando se trata de naturaleza o lengua o paisaje sonoro, no hay fin a la inspiracin, si estamos escuchando. +Gracias. +El Padre Daniel Berrigan dijo una vez que "escribir sobre presos es un poco como escribir sobre los muertos". +Creo que quera decir que tratamos a los prisioneros como fantasmas. +No son vistos ni odos. +Es fcil, simplemente ignorarlos y es an ms fcil cuando el gobierno hace lo posible por mantenerlos ocultos. +Como periodista, creo que estas historias sobre lo que la gente hace en el poder cuando nadie mira, son precisamente las historias que debemos contar. +Por eso empec a investigar las unidades carcelarias ms secretas y experimentales de EE. UU., para los llamados terroristas "de segundo nivel". +El Gobierno las llama Unidades de Gestin de Comunicaciones o UGC. +Los presos y los guardias las llaman "Pequeo Guantnamo". +Son islas en s mismas. +Pero a diferencia de Guantnamo, existen aqu, en casa, dentro de las crceles federales ms grandes. +Hay 2 UGC. +Una se abri en la prisin de Terre Haute, Indiana, y la otra en el interior de esta prisin, en Marion, Illinois. +Ninguna se someti al proceso de revisin formal requisito legal cuando se abrieron. +Los prisioneros de las UGC estn condenados por delitos. +Algunos son cuestionables y algunos se relacionan con amenazas y violencia. +No estoy aqu para discutir la culpabilidad o inocencia de los prisioneros. +Estoy aqu porque, como dijo el juez del Tribunal Supremo Thurgood Marshall, "Cuando las prisiones y las puertas se cierran de golpe, los presos no pierden su calidad humana". +Cada prisionero que he entrevistado dice que hay tres puntos de luz en la oscuridad de la crcel: las llamadas telefnicas, las cartas y las visitas de familiares. +Las UGC no son reclusiones de incomunicacin, pero la restringen mucho a niveles que cumplen o exceden las prisiones ms extremas de EE. UU. +Sus llamadas telefnicas pueden limitarse a 45 minutos al mes, en comparacin con los 300 minutos que reciben otros prisioneros. +Sus cartas se pueden limitar a seis pedazos de papel. +Sus visitas se pueden limitar a 4 horas al mes, en comparacin con las 35 que personas como Eric Rudolph, que atent con bomba el Parque Olmpico, tienen en prisiones de mxima seguridad. +Adems, las visitas a las UGC son sin contacto; a los presos no se les permite ni siquiera abrazar a su familia. +Como dijo un preso de una UGC, "No somos torturados aqu, salvo psicolgicamente". +El gobierno no dir quin est preso aqu. +Pero por medio de documentos del juzgado, solicitudes de informes y entrevistas con antiguos presos y presos se han abierto pequeas ventanas en las UGC. +Hay entre 60 a 70 prisioneros all, y son mayoritariamente musulmanes. +En ellos se incluyen a personas como el Dr. Rafil Dhafir, que viol las sanciones econmicas contra Irak enviando medicamentos para los nios de all. +Hay personas como Yassin Aref. +l y su familia huyeron a Nueva York del Irak de Saddam Hussein como refugiados. +Fue detenido en 2004 como parte de un montaje del FBI. +Aref es un imn y se le pidi que diera testimonio de un prstamo, que es una tradicin en la cultura islmica. +Una de las personas implicadas en el prstamo intentaba reclutar a otros para un ataque falso. +Aref no lo saba. +Por eso, fue condenado por conspiracin por proveer apoyo material a un grupo terrorista. +La UGC tambin tiene algunos presos no musulmanes. +Los guardias los llaman "equilibradores" que significa que ayudan a equilibrar los nmeros raciales, en la esperanza de desviar demandas judiciales. +Estos equilibradores incluyen a defensores ambientales y de derechos de los animales como Daniel McGowan. +A McGowan se le conden por participar en dos incendios provocados en defensa del medio ambiente como parte del Frente de Liberacin de la Tierra. +Durante su sentencia, tena miedo de ser enviado a una prisin secreta para terroristas. +El juez desestim todos esos temores, diciendo que no se respaldaban con hechos. +Pero eso puede deberse a que el gobierno no ha explicado por qu algunos presos terminan en una UGC, y quin es el responsable de estas decisiones. +Cuando McGowan fue trasladado, se le dijo que era por ser un "terrorista domstico" trmino que el FBI utiliza repetidas veces al hablar de activistas ambientales. +Piensen que hay unos 400 presos en crceles estadounidenses clasificados como terroristas, y solo un puado estn en las UGC. +McGowan estaba anteriormente en una prisin de baja seguridad y no tuvo infracciones de comunicacin. +As que, por qu lo trasladaron? +Igual que otros prisioneros, McGowan pidi repetidas veces una respuesta, una audiencia, o una oportunidad para una apelacin. +Este ejemplo de otro prisionero muestra cmo se ven esas peticiones. +"Quiere una transferencia". "Le dije que no". +En un momento, la prisin de Warden recomienda transferir a McGowan de la UGC por buena conducta, pero la deneg el director de la Unidad Prisiones Antiterrorismo, que trabaja con la unidad antiterrorista del FBI. +Luego me enter de que enviaron a McGowan a una UGC no por lo que hizo, sino por lo que haba dicho. +Una nota de la Unidad Antiterrorista hablaba de las "creencias de McGowan contra el gobierno". +Encarcelado, sigui escribiendo sobre temas ambientales, como que los activistas deban reflexionar sobre sus errores y escucharse unos a otros. +Siendo justos, si Uds. han estado un tiempo en Washington, DC, saben que esto es realmente un concepto radical para el gobierno. +De hecho, ped visitar a McGowan en la UGC. +Y lo obtuve. +Eso supuso un shock. +En primer lugar, porque, como he dicho ya, me enter de que el FBI vigilaba mi trabajo. +En segundo lugar, porque era el primer y nico periodista en visitar una UGC. +Incluso supe por la unidad antiterrorista del departamento de prisiones, que haban vigilado mis charlas sobre las UGC, como esta. +Entonces, cmo me daban el permiso de visita? +Unos das antes de ir a la prisin, me dieron una respuesta. +Se me permiti visitar a McGowan como amigo, no como periodista. +Los periodistas no obtienen permiso aqu. +Funcionarios de la UGC informaron a McGowan de que si preguntaba algo o publicaba alguna historia, sera castigado debido a mis noticias. +Al llegar a la visita, los guardias me recordaron que saban quin era yo y saban de mi trabajo. +Y me dijeron que si intentaba entrevistar a McGowan, la visita se terminara. +El departamento de prisiones describe las UGC como "unidades de vivienda independientes". +Creo que es una manera orwelliana de describir agujeros negros. +Cuando uno visita una UGC, pasa por todos los controles de seguridad imaginables. +Al entrar a la sala de visitas hay silencio. +Si un prisionero de una UGC tiene visita, el resto de la prisin est encerrado. +Me hicieron pasar a una sala pequea, tan pequea que con los brazos extendidos podan tocar las paredes. +Haba un orbe del tamao de un pomelo en el techo para la visita monitoreada en vivo por la unidad antiterrorista en Virginia Occidental. +La unidad obliga a que las visitas hablen en ingls en las UGC, una dificultad adicional para muchas de las familias musulmanas. +Un cristal antibalas grueso y bromoso y al otro lado Daniel McGowan. +Hablamos a travs de dispositivos conectados a la pared y hablamos de libros y pelculas. +Nos esforzamos mucho para encontrar razones para rer. +Para combatir el aburrimiento y divertirse en la UGC, McGowan haba difundido el rumor de que yo era el presidente de un club de fans de Crepsculo en Washington, DC. Para que conste, no lo soy. +Ahora tengo la sospecha de que el FBI piensa que Bella y Edward son nombres de terroristas en clave. +Durante nuestra visita, McGowan habl largo y tendido sobre su sobrina Lily, su esposa Jenny y lo tortuoso que es no poder abrazarlas, de no poder tomar sus manos. +Tres meses despus de esa visita, McGowan fue trasladado fuera de la UGC y luego, sin previo aviso, lo reenviaron de vuelta. +Yo haba publicado documentos filtrados de una UGC en mi sitio web y la unidad antiterrorista dijo que McGowan haba pedido a su esposa enviarlos por correo. +Quera ver lo que el gobierno deca sobre l, y por eso lo regresaron a la UGC. +Cuando finalmente fue liberado al final de su condena, su historia se hizo an ms kafkiana. +Escribi un artculo en el Huffington Post titulado, "Documentos del Tribunal que muestran que me enviaron a una UGC por mi discurso poltico". +Al da siguiente le enviaron de vuelta a la prisin por su discurso poltico. +Sus abogados aseguraron su liberacin pero el mensaje era muy claro: No hables sobre este lugar. +Hoy, tras 9 aos de que la administracin Bush las abriera el gobierno codifica cmo y por qu se crearon las UGC. +Segn la Oficina de Prisiones, son para presos con "significado inspirador". +Creo que es una forma muy buena de decir que son prisiones polticas para presos polticos. +Los presos son enviados a las UGC por su raza, su religin o sus creencias polticas. +Ahora, si creen que la caracterizacin es demasiado fuerte, basta con ver algunos documentos del propio gobierno. +Cuando la UGC rechaz algunos correos de McGowan se le dijo al remitente que era as, porque las cartas estaban destinadas a "presos polticos". +Cuando otro activista preso, defensor de los animales, Andy Stepanian, fue enviado a una UGC, se hizo por sus opiniones antigobierno y anticorporativas. +S que todo esto puede ser difcil de creer, que esto est sucediendo ahora y en EE. UU. +Pero la realidad desconocida es que los EE. UU. tiene una historia oscura de castigo desproporcionado a personas por sus creencias polticas. +En la dcada de 1960, antes de que la ciudad de Marion albergara la UGC, alberg la famosa unidad de control. +Los prisioneros eran encerrados en aislamiento durante 22 horas al da. +El director deca que la unidad era para "controlar las actitudes revolucionarias". +En la dcada del 80, el experimento Unidad de Lexington de Alta Seguridad mantuvo encerradas a mujeres conectadas a los Weather Underground, y a las bandas de liberacin de los negros y puertorriqueos. +La prisin restringe radicalmente la comunicacin y usa la privacin del sueo y la luz constante durante la llamada "conversin ideolgica". +Esas prisiones fueron finalmente cerradas, pero solo gracias a la campaa de grupos religiosos y defensores de derechos humanos, como Amnista Internacional. +Hoy, los abogados de derechos civiles con el Centro de Derechos Humanos, desafan a las UGC en la corte por privar a los presos de sus derechos procesales y por tomar represalias contra ellos y as proteger su propio discurso poltico y religioso. +Muchos de los documentos nunca habran salido a la luz sin esta demanda. +El mensaje de estos grupos y mi mensaje para Uds. hoy es que debemos dar testimonio de lo que se hace a estos prisioneros. +Su trato es un reflejo de los valores existentes tras las paredes de la prisin. +Esta historia no es solo sobre los prisioneros. +Es sobre nosotros. +Se trata de nuestro compromiso con los derechos humanos. +Se trata de si vamos a optar por dejar de repetir los errores de nuestro pasado. +Si no escuchamos lo que el Padre Berrigan describe como historias de la muerte, esas pronto se convertirn en nuestras propias historias. +Gracias. +Tom Rielly: Tengo un par de preguntas. +Cuando estaba en la escuela secundaria, supe de la Carta de Derechos, la Constitucin, la libertad de expresin, y unas 25 leyes y derechos ms que parecen ser violados aqu. +Cmo puede estar pasando? +Will Potter: Creo que esa es la pregunta nmero uno a travs de todo mi trabajo, y la respuesta corta es que la gente no lo sabe. +Creo que la solucin a cualquiera de estos tipos de abusos de los derechos, realmente depende de dos cosas. +Del conocimiento al que se accede realmente y del medio y eficacia para hacer realidad un cambio. +Y, por desgracia, para estos prisioneros, uno, la gente no sabe nada de lo que est sucediendo y adems de que ya estn privados de sus derechos civiles no tienen acceso a abogados, y no son hablantes nativos de ingls. +En algunos de estos casos, esto tiene gran relevancia, pero no es solo una conciencia pblica de lo que est sucediendo. +TR: No se garantiza en la crcel tener derecho a consejo o el acceso al consejo? +WP: Hay una tendencia en nuestra cultura de ver cuando la gente ha sido condenada por un delito, no importa si esa acusacin era falsa o legtima, todo lo que les sucede despus est garantizado. +Y creo que esa narracin que tenemos es muy daina y peligrosa y permite que este tipo de cosas sucedan, como si el pblico en general hiciera un poco la vista gorda a esto. +TR: Todos los documentos mostrados eran reales, palabra por palabra, sin cambios en nada, verdad? +WP: Por supuesto. De hecho, he subido todos a mi pgina web. +Es willpotter.com/CMU y hay una versin anotada de la charla, para que puedan Uds. ver los documentos sin los pequeos fragmentos. +Pueden ver la versin completa. +Me bas bsicamente en documentos de fuentes primarias o en entrevistas primarias con antiguos y actuales presos, con las personas que se ocupan de esta situacin todos los das. +Y como he dicho, he estado all, tambin. +TR: Ests haciendo un trabajo valiente. +WP: Muchas gracias. Gracias a todos. +Esto de aqu es el pequeo pueblo de Elle, cerca de Lista. +Justo en la parte ms al sur de Noruega. +El 2 de enero de este ao, un anciano habitante de este pueblo, sali para ver los efectos en la orilla de una reciente tormenta. +En una zona de hierba justo hasta donde llega el agua, encontr un traje de buzo. +Era gris y negro y pareca barato. +Por el final de cada pierna del traje salan un par de huesos blancos. +Sin duda eran los restos de un humano. +En Noruega, los cadveres suelen identificarse rpido. +y la polica empez a investigar en informes de desapariciones de la zona, en informes nacionales. buscaron en accidentes que pudieran tener relacin. +No encontraron nada. +Realizaron una prueba de ADN y, a travs de la Interpol, buscaron en el extranjero. +Nada. +Era persona que pareca que nadie echara de menos. +Una vida invisible hacia una tumba sin nombre. +Entonces, un mes despus, la polica noruega recibi un mensaje de la polica holandesa. +Un par de meses antes, haban encontrado un cadver en un traje de neopreno idntico y no saban quin era la persona. +La polica holandesa pudo restrear el traje a travs de un chip de radiofrecuencia cosido al traje. +As pudieron afirmar que ambos trajes los compr la misma persona, a la misma hora. El 7 de octubre de 2014, en la ciudad francesa de Calais en el canal de la Mancha. +Y eso fue todo lo que pudieron saber. +Ese cliente pag en efectivo. +No haba cmaras de seguridad en la tienda. +Fue caso cerrado. +Omos la historia, y Tomm Christiansen, fotgrafo, quedamos impactados. Nos hicimos la inevitable pregunta: quines eran esas personas? +Aunque a penas saba nada de Calais, me llev dos o tres segundos averiguar que Calais era conocida por dos cosas. +Es la zona de Europa continental ms cercana a Gran Bretaa. Muchos inmigrantes y refugiados viven en un campamento e intentan cruzar hasta Gran Bretaa a toda costa. +Ah haba una posible teora sobre la identidad de los cadveres y la polica intuy lo mismo tambin. +Si Uds. yo u otra persona conectados a Europa desapareciera en la costa de Francia, la gente lo sabra. +Amigos o familia denunciaran su desaparicin, la polica le buscara, la prensa lo anunciara y pondran fotos en farolas. +Es difcil desaparecer sin dejar rastro. +Aunque si huyes de la guerra de Siria y tu familia, si es que an tienes, no sabe con certeza dnde ests y ests aqu de forma ilegal entre miles de personas que van y vienen a diario. +Claro que si desapareces un da nadie se dar cuenta. +La polica no te buscar porque nadie nota que has desaparecido. +Eso es lo que le ocurri a Shadi Omar Kataf y a Mouaz Al Balkhi, ambos sirios. +Es la historia de cmo todos tenemos un nombre todo el mundo tiene una historia y todo el mundo es alguien. +Pero tambin es la historia de qu significa ser un refugiado en Europa. +Aqu es donde empez nuestra bsqueda. +Esto es Calais. +Actualmente viven aqu entre 3000 y 5000 personas en unas condiciones horribles. +Lo llaman el peor campamento de refugiados de Europa. +Acceso limitado a comida, acceso limitado a agua, acceso limitado a sanidad. +Enfermedades e infecciones por todos lados. +Estn atrapados ah porque quieren llegar hasta Inglaterra y poder solicitar asilo. +Y lo intentan escondindose en camiones que viajan en ferry, o por el Eurotnel. O se cuelan por la noche en la terminal del tnel para esconderse en los trenes. +La mayora quiere ir a Inglaterra porque conocen el idioma y creen que les resultar ms fcil retomar sus vidas ah. +Quieren trabajar, quieren estudiar, quieren poder seguir viviendo sus vidas. +Muchos tienen estudios superiores y estn cualificados. +Si vas a Calais y hablas con ellos, conocers a abogados, polticos, ingenieros, diseadores grficos, granjeros, soldados... +Encuentras todos los oficios. +Pero quines son estas personas deja de saberse cuando hablamos de refugiados y de emigrantes porque solemos usar estadsticas. +Si hay 60 millones de refugiados en total, +sobre medio milln han cruzado este ao el Mediterrneo para llegar hasta Europa y unos 4000 viven en Calais. +Pero eso son solo cifras, y las cifras no dicen nada sobre quines son esas personas, de dnde vienen o por qu estn aqu. +Quiero hablarles de uno de ellos. +Este es Mouaz Al Balkhi, 22 aos, de Siria. +Supimos de l la primera vez que estuvimos en Calais, buscando respuestas a la hiptesis para los dos cadveres. +Tras un tiempo, omos la historia de un hombre sirio que viva en Bradford, Inglaterra, y que haba buscado desesperado a su sobrino Mouaz durante meses. +Result que la ltima vez que alguien supo algo de Mouaz fue el 7 de octure de 2014. +El mismo da en que se compraron los trajes. +Viajamos hasta all y conocimos al to. Le tomamos muestras de ADN y tambin se tomaron muestras del pariente de Mouaz ms cercano, que vive en Jordania. +Los anlisis concluyeron que el cuerpo encontrado en la playa, en Holanda, era de Mouaz al Balkhi. +Mientras realizbamos toda esta investigacin, pudimos conocer la historia de Mouaz. +Naci en la capital siria de Damasco en 1991. +Se cri en una familia de clase media. Su padre, el del centro, es ingeniero qumico que pas 11 en la crcel por pertenecer a la oposicin poltica. +Durante la ausencia de su padre, Mouaz asumi la responsabilidad de cuidar de sus 3 hermanas. +l era as, nos dijeron. +Mouaz estudi ingeniera elctrica en la Universidad de Damasco. +Tras dos aos del comienzo de la guerra, la familia dej Damasco y viajaron hasta el pas vecino. +En Jordania, su padre no poda encontrar trabajo y Mouaz no pudo seguir con sus estudios. Pens: "Lo mejor que puedo hacer para ayudar a mi familia es ir a algn lugar donde pueda acabar mis estudios y encontrar un trabajo". +As que, viaj a Turqua. +En Turqua, no le aceptaron en ninguna universidad y al haberse ido Jordania como refugiado no poda volver a entrar al pas. +Entonces, decidi irse al Reino Unido, donde viva su to. +Consigue llegar a Argelia, camina hasta Libia, paga a un traficante de personas para poder llegar en barco a Italia y, desde all, se dirige a Dunkerque, una ciudad que est al lado de Calais, en el canal de la Mancha. +Sabemos que intent cruzar sin xito el canal hasta 12 veces escondindose en un camin. +En algn momento, tuvo que perder toda fe. +La ltima noche que estuvo vivo, se hosped en un hotel barato cerca de la estacin de tren de Dunkirk. +Vimos su nombre en el registro. Parece que se hosped all solo. +Al da siguiente, se fue a Calais, entr en una tienda de deportes un par de minutos antes de las 8 de la tarde, junto con Shadi Kataf. +Ambos compraron trajes de buzo y la mujer de la tienda fue la ltima persona que sabemos los vio con vida. +Intentamos averiguar dnde se conocieron Shadi y Mouaz, pero no pudimos lograrlo. +Los dos tienen una historia similar. +Nos enteramos de quin era Shadi cuando su primo, que vive en Alemania, ley la traduccin al rabe de la historia de Mouaz en Facebook. +Contactamos con l. +Shadi, un par de aos mayor que Mouaz, tambin se cri en Damasco. +Era un hombre trabajador. +Mont una tienda de neumticos y trabaj en una empresa de edicin. +Viva con su numerosa familia, pero bombardearon su casa cuando empez la guerra. +Huyeron hasta Damasco, a una zona llamada Campo Yarmouk. +Yarmouk es descrito como el peor sitio para vivir de todo el planeta. +Les ha bombardeado el ejrcito, les han asediado, les ha atacado el ISIS y, durante aos, se les ha interrumpido el suministro. +Un oficial de la ONU fue el ao pasado y dijo: "Se han comido todo el csped y ya no queda nada". +De una poblacin de 150 000, al parecer, solo 18 000 personas siguen viviendo en Yarmouk. +Shadi y sus hermanas escaparon. +Sus padres an siguen atrapados all. +Shadi y una hermana suya huyeron a Libia. +Fue despus de la cada de Gaddafi, pero antes de que en Libia estallara una guerra civil. +Justo en ese ltimo perodo de estabilidad en Libia, Shadi empez a bucear y pas sus das bajo el agua. +Se enamor del ocano. Cuando decidi que no poda quedarse ms tiempo en Libia, a finales de agosto de 2014, esperaba encontrar trabajo de buceador una vez en Italia. +La realidad no fue tan fcil. +No averiguamos mucho de sus viajes porque nos cost ponernos en contacto con su familia. Lo que s sabemos es que luch. +A finales de septiembre, viva en las calles de algn lugar de Francia. +El 7 de octubre llam a su primo de Blgica y le cont su situacin. +Le dijo: "Estoy en Calais. Necesito que vengas a por mi mochila y mi computadora. +No puedo pagar a los contrabandistas para poder cruzar hasta Gran Bretaa, pero voy a cruzar a nado con una traje de buzo". +Su primo, claro est, intent disuadirle, el mvil de Shadi se qued sin batera y nunca ms se volvi a encender. +Lo que qued de Shadi lo encontraron 3 meses despus, a 800 kilmetros, en una playa de Noruega con un traje de buzo. +An est esperando su funeral en Noruega y nadie de su familia podr asistir. +Muchos pensarn que la historia de Shadi y Mouaz es una historia sobre la muerte. Yo no estoy de acuerdo. +Para m, es una historia sobre dos preguntas que todos nos hacemos: Qu es una vida mejor? Qu estoy dispuesto a hace para tenerla? +Para m, y para la mayora de Uds., una vida mejor sera poder tener ms tiempo para lo que creemos es significativo, ya sea pasar ms tiempo con la familia y los amigos, viajar a un lugar extico, tener dinero para comprar lo ltimo en tecnologa o las zapatillas de moda. +Todo esto lo podemos tener fcilmente, +pero si huyes de una zona de guerra, las respuestas a esas preguntas son dramticamente distintas. +Una vida mejor es una vida a salvo. +Es una vida digna. +Una vida mejor significa que no bombardeen tu casa, no temer que puedan capturarte. +Significa poder enviar a tus hijos a la escuela, ir a la universidad o encontrar un trabajo para mantenerte a ti y a los tuyos. +Una vida mejor sera un futuro con ciertas posibilidades en comparacin con ninguna. Y eso es una motivacin muy grande. +Me es fcil imaginar que, despus de pasar semanas y meses, como un ciudadano de segunda clase, viviendo en la calle o en un campamento improvisado con un nombre racista y malsonante como "La jungla", la mayora de nosotros hara lo que fuera. +Si pudiera preguntarles a Shadi o Mouaz, justo en el momento en que se hundieron en las aguas heladas del canal, seguramente me diran: "Vale la pena arriesgarse". Ya no vean que les quedara otra opcin. +Eso es desesperacin. Y esa es la realidad de ser un refugiado en la Europa Occidental de 2015. +Gracias. +Bruno Giussani: Gracias, Anders. +Este es Tomm Christiansen, el fotgrafo que tom las fotos que habis visto trabajando juntos. +Tomm, los dos habis estado en Calais hace poco. +Fue el tercer viaje. +Despus de la publicacin del artculo. +Qu ha cambiado? Qu habis visto all? +Tomm Christiansen: La primera vez que fuimos a Calais, haban unos 1.500 refugiados. +Lo estaban pasando mal, pero eran optimistas, tenan esperanza. +La ltima vez, el campamento haba crecido hasta unas 4.000 o 5.000 personas. +Pareca estar ms asentado, haban llegado ONGs, se haba abierto una escuela. +Lo cierto es que los refugiados se han quedado ms tiempo, y el gobierno francs ha logrado acordonar las fronteras mejor, por eso La jungla esta creciendo, y tambin la desesperacin y la desesperanza de los refugiados. +BG: Pensis volver y continuar denunciando la situacin? +TC: S. +BG: Anders, yo antes era periodista, y me parece increble que en este clima de salarios recortados y editores en crisis, Dagbladet ha proporcionado muchos recursos para esta historia, lo que sugiere que los peridicos estn tomando las riendas, cmo la vendsteis a vuestros editores? +Anders Fjellberg: Al principio fue difcil porque no podamos saber lo que bamos a averiguar. +Cuando nos enteramos de que podamos identificar quin era el primer cadver, recibimos el mensaje de que podamos hacer lo que quisiramos, viajar adnde necesitramos y hacer lo que tuviramos que hacer. Acabar el trabajo. +BG: Eso es un editor asumiendo la responsabilidad. +Esta historia se ha traducido y publicado en varios pases europeos y seguro se seguir haciendo. +Y todos queremos leer vuestras novedades. Gracias, Anders. Gracias, Tomm. +Hace unos pocos aos, con mi colega, Emmanuelle Charpentier, invent una nueva tecnologa para editar genomas. +Se llama CRISPR-Cas9. +La tecnologa CRISPR permite a los cientficos realizar cambios en el ADN de las clulas lo que podra permitirnos curar enfermedades genticas. +Quiz les interese saber que la tecnologa CRISPR se desarroll en un proyecto de investigacin bsica cuyo objetivo era descubrir cmo las bacterias combaten infecciones virales. +Las bacterias tienen que lidiar con los virus en su entorno, y podemos pensar en una infeccin viral como una bomba de relojera, una bacteria tiene solo unos minutos para desactivar la bomba antes de que sea destruida. +Muchas bacterias tienen en sus clulas un sistema inmune adaptativo llamado CRISPR, que les permite detectar el ADN viral y destruirlo. +Parte del sistema CRISPR es una protena llamada Cas9, que puede buscar, cortar y eventualmente degradar el ADN viral de una manera especfica. +La tecnologa CRISPR ya se ha usado para cambiar el ADN en las clulas de ratones y monos, y de otros organismos tambin. +Cientficos chinos mostraron recientemente que incluso podran usar la tecnologa CRISPR para cambiar genes en embriones humanos. +Y cientficos en Filadelfia mostraron que podan usar CRISPR para eliminar el ADN de un virus VIH integrado a partir de clulas humanas infectadas. +La oportunidad de hacer este tipo de edicin genoma tambin plantea cuestiones ticas que tenemos que considerar, porque esta tecnologa puede emplearse no solo en clulas adultas, sino tambin en los embriones de los organismos, incluyendo nuestra propia especie. +Y as, junto con mis colegas, he hecho un llamado para una conversacin global sobre la tecnologa que he coinventado, y considerar todas las implicaciones ticas y sociales de una tecnologa como esta. +Lo que quiero hacer ahora es explicar qu es la tecnologa CRISPR, qu puede hacer con ella, dnde estamos hoy. Por eso creo que hay que optar por un camino prudente en la forma en que empleamos esta tecnologa. +Cuando los virus infectan una clula, inyectan su ADN. +Y en una bacteria, el sistema de CRISPR permite que el ADN se extraiga del virus, y se inserte en pequeos trozos en el cromosoma, del ADN de la bacteria. +Y estos trozos integrados de ADN viral se insertan en un sitio llamado CRISPR. +CRISPR significa repeticiones palndromas cortas espaciadas agrupadas regularmente. +Bastante pomposo... ahora entienden por qu usamos el acrnimo CRISPR. +Es un mecanismo que permite a las clulas grabar, con el tiempo, los virus a los que han estado expuestas. +Y ms importante, esos pedacitos de ADN se transmiten a la progenie de la clula, para proteger a las clulas de los virus no solo en una generacin, sino a travs de muchas generaciones de clulas. +Esto permite a las clulas mantener un registro de la infeccin, y como a mi colega Blake Wiedenheft le gusta decir, el locus CRISPR es una tarjeta de vacunacin gentica para las clulas. +Una vez que esos trozos de ADN se han insertado en el cromosoma bacteriano, la clula hace una pequea copia de una molcula llamada ARN, de color naranja en esta imagen, que es una rplica exacta del ADN viral. +El ARN es un primo qumico del ADN, y permite la interaccin con molculas de ADN con una secuencia emparejada. +As que esos pequeos trozos de ARN del locus CRISPR asociados, se unen a la protena llamada Cas9, de color blanco en la imagen, que forma un complejo que funciona como un centinela en la clula. +Se busca a travs de todo el ADN en la clula, para encontrar sitios que coincidan con las secuencias en los ARN unidos. +Y al encontrase estos sitios, -- se puede ver aqu, la molcula de ADN es azul -- este complejo se asocia con el ADN y permite que la cuchilla Cas9 corte el ADN viral. +Hace una pausa muy precisa. +As que podemos pensar en el complejo centinela Cas9 ARN como un par de tijeras que pueden cortar el ADN, Hace un descanso de doble cadena en la hlice del ADN. +Y lo ms importante, este complejo es programable, lo que se puede programar para reconocer secuencias de ADN particulares, y hacer un corte en el ADN en ese sitio. +Como dir ahora, vimos que esa actividad podra ser aprovechada por la ingeniera del genoma, y hacer posible que se hagan cambios muy precisos en el ADN de las clulas en el sitio donde se introdujo esta ruptura. +En cierto modo es similar a la forma de usar un programa de procesamiento de textos para corregir un error tipogrfico en un documento. +La razn para imaginar el uso del sistema CRISPR para la ingeniera del genoma es porque las clulas tienen la capacidad de detectar el ADN roto y repararlo. +Si tenemos una forma de introducir cortes de doble cadena en el ADN en lugares precisos, podemos activar las clulas para reparar esos cortes, ya sea por interrupcin o incorporacin de nueva informacin gentica. +As que si hemos podido programar la tecnologa CRISPR para hacer un corte en el ADN en la posicin de una mutacin causante de la fibrosis qustica, por ejemplo, podramos activar clulas para reparar esa mutacin. +La ingeniera del genoma viene desarrollndose desde 1970. +Se han obtenido tecnologas para secuenciar el ADN, para copiar el ADN, e incluso para la manipulacin de ADN. +Y estas tecnologas eran muy prometedoras, pero el problema resultaba que eran tan ineficaces, o tan difciles de usar que muchos cientficos no aprobaban su uso en sus propios laboratorios, o as tambin su uso en muchos aplicaciones clnicas. +Con una tecnologa como CRISPR es atractiva su utilizacin, debido a su relativa simplicidad. +Podemos pensar en tecnologa de ingeniera del genoma antigua tan similar a tener que volver a reconectar la computadora cada vez que se desee ejecutar un nuevo software. Sin embargo, la tecnologa CRISPR es como software para el genoma, se puede programar fcilmente, usando estos pequeos trozos de ARN. +As que una vez un corte de doble cadena se hace con el ADN, podemos inducir la reparacin, y por lo tanto, lograr potencialmente cosas asombrosas, como corregir mutaciones que causan la anemia de clulas falciformes o que causan la enfermedad de Huntington. +De hecho, creo que las primeras aplicaciones de la tecnologa CRISPR ocurrirn en la sangre, donde es relativamente ms fcil transferir esto dentro de las clulas, en comparacin con tejidos slidos. +En este momento, una gran parte del trabajo se aplica a modelos animales, como ratones, con enfermedades humanas +La tecnologa se usa para realizar cambios muy precisos que nos permiten estudiar estos cambios en el ADN de la clula que afectan a un tejido o, en este caso, un organismo entero. +En este ejemplo, la tecnologa CRISPR se us para alterar un gen haciendo un pequeo cambio en el ADN en un gen responsable de la capa de color negro de estos ratones. +Estos ratones blancos se diferencian de sus hermanos de camada pigmentados solo por un pequeo cambio en un gen en el genoma, y son an as completamente normal. +Y cuando secuenciamos el ADN de estos animales, nos encontramos con que el cambio en el ADN ha ocurrido exactamente en el lugar donde se indujo, usando la tecnologa de CRISPR. +Experimentos adicionales se hacen en otros animales tiles para la creacin de modelos para la enfermedad humana, tales como monos. +Y aqu vemos que podemos usar estos sistemas para probar la aplicacin de esta tecnologa en tejidos particulares, por ejemplo, encontrar cmo transferir la herramienta CRISPR en las clulas. +Tambin queremos entender mejor la manera de controlar cmo el ADN se repara despus del corte, y encontrar la manera de controlar y limitar los elementos fuera del objetivo, o efectos involuntarios del uso de la tecnologa. +Creo que veremos la aplicacin clnica de esta tecnologa, sin duda en los adultos, dentro de los prximos 10 aos. +Creo que lo ms probable es que veamos los ensayos clnicos y posiblemente incluso terapias dentro en ese tiempo, lo que emociona pensar. +Y debido a la emocin en torno a esta tecnologa, hay un gran inters de empresas de nueva creacin fundadas para comercializar la tecnologa CRISPR, y muchos inversores de riesgo que han invertido en estas empresas. +Pero hay que considerar tambin que la tecnologa CRISPR se puede usar para mejoras. +Imaginemos que se intentara disear humanos con propiedades mejoradas, como huesos ms fuertes, o menos susceptibilidad a enfermedades cardiovasculares o incluso con propiedades que consideramos quiz deseables, como un color de ojos diferentes o ser ms altos y cosas as. +"Humanos de diseo", si se quiere. +En este momento, la informacin gentica para entender qu tipos de genes dan lugar a estos rasgos en su mayora no se conocen. +Pero es importante saber que CRISPR es una herramienta para hacer este tipo de cambios, una vez que el conocimiento est disponible. +Esto plantea cuestiones ticas que hay que considerar cuidadosamente, y por eso mis colegas y yo hemos hecho una llamada a una pausa mundial para cualquier aplicacin clnica de CRISPR en embriones humanos, para darnos tiempo y considerar realmente todas las diversas implicaciones al hacerlo. +Y en realidad, es un precedente importante en una pausa tal desde la dcada de 1970, cuando los cientficos se reunieron para pedir una moratoria en el uso de la clonacin molecular, hasta asegurar que la tecnologa fuese probada cuidadosamente y validada. +As, los humanos de ingeniera gentica an no estn con nosotros, pero esto ya no es ciencia ficcin. +Animales y plantas de ingeniera gentica estn sucediendo en este momento. +Y esto nos enfrenta a todos con una gran responsabilidad, de considerar prudentemente tanto las consecuencias no deseadas como los impactos previstos de un avance cientfico. +Gracias. +(Aplausos termina) Bruno Giussani: Jennifer, es una tecnologa con enormes consecuencias, como has sealado. +Tu actitud en pedir una pausa o moratoria o cuarentena es increblemente responsable. +Hay, claro, resultados teraputicos de esta tecnologa, pero luego estn los no teraputicos y parecen ser que son los que ganan, en los medios de comunicacin. +Este es un nmero de la revista The Economist, "Edicin de la humanidad". +Todo es cuestin de mejoramiento gentico, no se trata de la teraputica. +Qu reacciones recibiste en marzo de tus colegas en el mundo de la ciencia, cuando pediste o sugeriste que debemos hacer una pausa por un momento y pensar en ello? +Jennifer Doudna: Mis compaeros, creo yo, estaban encantados de tener la oportunidad de discutir esto abiertamente. +Es interesante que cuando hablo con la gente, mis colegas cientficos, as como otros, hay una gran variedad de puntos de vista al respecto. +Por eso est claro que es un tema que requiere de cuidadosa consideracin. +BG: Habr una gran reunin en diciembre donde t y tus colegas participan junto con la Academia Nacional de Ciencias y otros, qu esperas que saldr de la reunin, en la prctica? +JD: Bueno, espero que intercambiar opiniones de muchos individuos y grupos de inters diferentes quienes piensan en cmo usar esta tecnologa de manera responsable. +Puede que no sea posible llegar a un punto de vista consensuado, pero creo que por lo menos debemos entender que son estos temas a medida que avanzamos. +BG: Colegas tuyos, como George Church en Harvard, dice: "S, cuestiones ticas, son solo una cuestin de seguridad. +Probamos y probamos otra vez en animales y en laboratorios, y una vez que nos sentirmos seguros, pasamos a los seres humanos". +Eso pertenece a la otra escuela de pensamiento, de que debemos aprovechar esta oportunidad e ir a por ello. +Existe una posible divisin en la comunidad cientfica por esto? +Quiero decir, vamos a ver a algunas personas frenando debido a preocupaciones ticas, y otros solo avanzando debido a que algunos pases regulan poco o nada? +JD: Con cualquier nueva tecnologa, especialmente algo como esto, generar una gran variedad de puntos de vista, y creo que eso es perfectamente comprensible. +Creo que, al final, esta tecnologa se usar para la ingeniera del genoma humano, pero creo que hacer eso sin una consideracin cuidadosa de los riesgos y posibles complicaciones no sera responsable. +BG: Hay una gran cantidad de tecnologas en otros campos de la ciencia que estn desarrollando de manera exponencial, como t. +Pensando en la inteligencia artificial, robots autnomos, etc. +nadie parece, a excepcin de los robots autnomas de guerra, nadie parece haber iniciado una discusin similar en esos campos, para pedir una moratoria. +Crees que la discusin puede servir de modelo para otros campos? +JD: Creo que es difcil para los cientficos salir del laboratorio. +Hablando por m ahora mismo, es un poco incmodo hacerlo. +Pero s creo que estar implicada en la gnesis de esto nos coloca a mis colegas y a m en una posicin de responsabilidad. +Y dira que sin duda espero que otras tecnologas sean consideradas de la misma manera, al igual que nos gustara considerar algo que podra tener implicaciones en otros campos adems de la biologa. +BG: Jennifer, gracias por venir a TED. +JD: Gracias. +Me gustara empezar por pedirles que piensen en su zona de confort. +S, su zona de confort, S que tienen una aunque sea falsa. +Bien, estn cmodos? +Bien. +Ahora me gustara que respondieran mentalmente las siguientes preguntas: +Hay algn fluorescente en su zona de confort? +Alguna mesa de plstico? +Suelo de polister? +Telfonos mviles? +No? +Creo que todos sabemos que nuestra zona de confort est destinada a ser algo natural, al aire libre; en una playa, cerca del fuego. +Donde estamos leyendo o comiendo, o tejiendo. +Y estamos rodeados de luz natural y elementos orgnicos. +Las cosas naturales nos hacen felices. +Y la felicidad es una gran motivadora, nos esforzamos por conseguir la felicidad. +Quizs es por eso que siempre estamos redisendolo todo, con la esperanza de que nuestras soluciones se perciban ms naturales. +As que empecemos aqu con la idea de que un buen diseo debera percibirse como natural. +El mvil no es muy natural. +Y probablemente piensen que estn adictos al mvil, pero en realidad no. +No estamos adictos a los aparatos, estamos adictos a la informacin que circula a travs de ellos. +Me pregunto cunto tiempo seran felices en la zona de confort sin ninguna informacin del mundo exterior. +Me interesa cmo accedemos a esa informacin, cmo la experimentamos. +A los humanos tambin nos gustan las herramientas simples. +El telfono no es una herramienta muy simple. +Un tenedor es simple. +Y no nos gustan hechos de plstico, por la misma razn, tampoco me gusta mucho mi mvil, no es as como quiero experimentar la informacin. +Creo que hay mejores soluciones que un mundo mediado por pantallas. +No odio las pantallas, pero no las siento y no creo que nadie se sienta muy bien sobre todo el tiempo que pasamos encorvados sobre ellas. +Por suerte, las grandes compaas tecnolgicas estn de acuerdo. +Han invertido mucho en tacto, voz y gestos, y tambin en los sentidos, en cosas que pueden cambiar objetos mudos, como las tazas, e infundirles la magia de Internet, convirtiendo esta nube digital en algo que es posible de tocar y mover. +Los padres, preocupados por el tiempo de uso de pantallas, necesitan juguetes fsicos digitales que enseen a sus hijos a leer, as como tiendas de apps seguras para la familia. +Y creo que, en realidad, eso ya est sucediendo. +La realidad es ms rica que las pantallas. +Por ejemplo, me encantan los libros. +Para m, son mquinas del tiempo, tomos y molculas enlazados en el espacio, desde el momento de su creacin hasta el momento en que los experimento. +Pero francamente, el contenido es idntico en mi mvil. +Entonces qu es lo hace esto... una mejor experiencia que una pantalla? +Quiero decir, cientficamente. +Necesitamos pantallas, por supuesto. +Les mostrar un vdeo y, claro, necesito la pantalla enorme. +Pero pueden hacer ms cosas con estas cajas mgicas. +El mvil no es la polica de la moda de Internet. +Podemos construir cosas, cosas tangibles, usando la fsica y los pxels, que pueden integrar Internet al mundo que nos rodea. +Les mostrar unos pocos ejemplos de ello. +Hace un tiempo, acab trabajando para una agencia de diseo, Berg, en la exploracin de cmo sera una Internet sin pantallas. +Y nos mostraron de varias maneras cmo la luz puede trabajar con los sentidos simples y objetos fsicos para traer de verdad Internet a la vida, para hacerlo tangible. +Como este asombroso reproductor de YouTube mecnico. +Y esto fue una inspiracin para mi. +Despus trabaj con la agencia japonesa AQ en un proyecto de investigacin sobre salud mental. +Queramos crear un objeto que pudiese recopilar datos subjetivos alrededor de los cambios de humor que son tan esenciales en los diagnsticos. +Este objeto capta el tacto, as que quizs lo aprietes muy fuerte cuando ests enfadado o lo acaricies si ests relajado. +Es como un palo de los emoticones digitales. +Y entonces puedes revisar esos momentos ms tarde, y aadirles un contexto en lnea. +Ms que nada, quisimos crear una cosa bonita e ntima que pudiese vivir en el bolsillo y ser querido. +Los prismticos son, en realidad, un regalo de cumpleaos por el 40 aniversario de la pera de Sdney. +Nuestros amigos de Tellart en Boston trajeron unos prismticos tursticos, de esos que puedes encontrar en el Empire State Building, y los adecuaron con una perspectiva de 360 grados de otras vistas icnicas de patrimonios de la humanidad... usando Street View. +Y despus los plantamos en las aceras. +As que se reconvirtieron para su uso ms simple y fsico, o para ser portales a esos otros iconos. +Por tanto puedes ver Versalles o la Cabaa de Shackleton. +Bsicamente, es realidad virtual de 1955. +En nuestra oficina usamos pelotitas de ropa para intercambiar URLs. +Es increblemente sencillo, como la tarjeta del bus. +Bsicamente introduces una web en el pequeo chip de aqu, y despus haces as y... bumba! la web aparece en el mvil. +Cuesta unos 10 cntimos. +El Abrazrboles es un proyecto en el que trabajamos con "Grumpy Sailor and Finch", aqu en Sdney. +Estoy muy entusiasmado con lo que podra pasar cuando apartemos nuestros mviles y pongamos los bits en los rboles, y mis hijos puedan tener la oportunidad de visitar un bosque encantado guiados por una varita mgica, donde pudieran hablar con hadas digitales y hacerles preguntas, y que les respondieran con preguntas. +Como pueden ver, estamos en la edad del cartn con esto. +Pero estoy muy entusiasmado con la posibilidad de devolver a los nios al exterior, sin pantallas, pero con toda la poderosa magia de Internet al alcance de la mano. +Y esperamos tener algo parecido a esto funcionando para finales de ao. +As que recapitulemos. +Los humanos preferimos las soluciones naturales. +Los humanos amamos la informacin. +Los humanos necesitamos herramientas sencillas. +Estos principios deberan ser la base del diseo en el futuro, no solo para Internet. +Quizs se sientan incmodos con la era de la informacin a la que nos movemos. +Quizs se sientan desafiados, ms que simplemente entusiasmados. +Saben qu? Yo tambin. +Es un periodo realmente extraordinario de la historia humana. +Somos la gente que ha construido nuestro propio mundo, no hay inteligencias artificiales... +an. +Somos nosotros, diseadores, arquitectos, artistas, ingenieros. +Y si nos desafiamos a nosotros mismos, creo que podemos conseguir una zona de confort de verdad llena de la informacin que nos encanta que parezca tan natural y sencillo como encender una bombilla. +Y aunque pueda parecer inevitable que lo que el pblico quiere son relojes, webs y aparatitos, quizs podramos pensar en corcho, luz y pelotitas de ropa. +Muchsimas gracias. +A diario escucho historias desgarradoras de personas que huyen por salvar la vida, a travs de fronteras peligrosas y mares hostiles. +Pero hay una historia que me quita el sueo de noche, y es la de Doaa. +Una refugiada siria de 19 aos, que viva una existencia difcil en Egipto trabajando por jornales. +Su padre pensaba constantemente en su prspero negocio en Siria, reducido a pedazos por una bomba. +Y la guerra que les llev all an haca estragos por cuarto ao. +La comunidad que una vez les dio la bienvenida all se haba cansado de ellos. +Y, un da, hombres en motos trataron de secuestrarla. +La que una vez fue una estudiante que pensaba solo en su futuro, ahora estaba asustada todo el tiempo. +Pero tambin estaba colmada de esperanza, porque estaba enamorada de un compaero refugiado sirio llamado Bassem. +Bassem tambin estaba luchando en Egipto, y le dijo a Doaa: "Vamos a Europa; busquemos asilo, seguridad. +Yo trabajar, t puedes estudiar... es la promesa de una nueva vida". +Y l le pidi al padre de Doaa su mano en matrimonio. +Pero saban que para llegar a Europa tenan que arriesgar sus vidas, atravesar el Mediterrneo, ponerse en manos de contrabandistas, famosos por su crueldad. +Y Doaa tena terror al agua. +Desde siempre. Nunca aprendi a nadar. +Era agosto de ese ao, y ya haban muerto 2000 personas tratando de cruzar el Mediterrneo, pero Doaa conoca a un amigo que haba logrado llegar al norte de Europa, y pens: "Quiz podamos, tambin". +De modo que le pregunt a sus padres si podan ir, y tras una dolorosa discusin, ellos asintieron, y Bassem le dio los ahorros de su vida -- USD 2500 cada uno -- a los contrabandistas. +Era sbado por la maana cuando lleg el llamado, y fueron llevados en bus a la playa, haba cientos de personas en la playa. +Luego fueron llevados en botes pequeos a un viejo pesquero, subieron al bote 500 personas, 300 abajo, 200 encima. +Haba sirios, palestinos, africanos, musulmanes y cristianos, 100 nios, y entre ellos Sandra -- la pequea Sandra, de 6 aos -- y Masa, de 18 meses. +Haba familias en ese bote, hacinadas, hombro con hombro, lado a lado. +Doaa estaba sentada con las piernas pegadas al pecho, Bassen sostena su mano. +El segundo da en altamar, se sentan enfermos y descompuestos del estmago por causa del mar agitado. +Al tercer da, Doaa tuvo una premonicin. +Le dijo a Bassem: "Temo que no lo lograremos. +Temo que el bote se hundir". +Y Bassem le dijo: "Por favor, ten paciencia. +Llegaremos a Suecia, nos casaremos, y tendremos un futuro". +Al cuarto da, los pasajeros comenzaron a inquietarse. +Le preguntaban al capitn: "Cundo llegaremos all?" +l les pidi que se callen, y los insult. +Dijo: "En 16 horas llegaremos a las costas de Italia". +Ellos estaban dbiles y cansados. +Pronto vieron un bote acercarse; un bote pequeo, con 10 hombres a bordo, que comenzaron a gritarles, a proferirles insultos, a tirarles palos, a pedirles que desembarquen y suban a un bote ms pequeo, incapaz de navegar. +Los padres estaban aterrados por sus hijos, y masivamente se negaron a desembarcar. +El bote se alej con ira, y media hora despus regres y deliberadamente hicieron un agujero en el lado de Doaa, justo debajo de donde ella y Bassem estaban sentados. +Y oy cmo gritaban: "Que los peces coman su carne!" +Y comenzaron a rerse conforme el bote zozobraba y se hunda. +Las 300 personas debajo de la cubierta estaban condenados. +Doaa se aferraba a un lado de la embarcacin mientras se hunda, y vio con horror como un nio pequeo fue despedazado por la hlice. +Bassem le dijo: "Por favor, sultalo o sers arrastrada y la hlice te matar a ti tambin". +Y recuerden, ella no sabe nadar. +Pero se solt y comenz a mover sus brazos y sus piernas, pensando: "Esto es nadar". +Y, de milagro, Bassem encontr un inflable. +Era uno de esos inflables de nios que se usan para jugar en las piscinas o en mares calmos. +Y Doaa subi al inflable, sus brazos y sus piernas colgaban de lado. +Bassem era un buen nadador, de modo que le tom la mano y la guio por el agua. +Alrededor de ellos haba cadveres. +Inicialmente, sobrevivieron unas 100 personas, y comenzaron a agruparse, y a rezar por el rescate. +Pero al pasar un da y nadie venir, algunos perdieron la esperanza, y Doaa y Bassem observaban cmo hombres a la distancia se quitaban los chalecos salvavidas y se hudan. +Un hombre se acerc a ellos con una beb pequea encaramada en su hombro, de nueve meses... Malek. +Tena en la mano un bote de gas para mantenerse a flote, y les dijo: "Temo no sobrevivir. +Estoy demasiado dbil. No tengo ms valor". +Y entreg a la pequea Malek a Bassem y Doaa, y ellos la albergaron en el inflable. +Ahora eran tres, Doaa, Bassem y la pequea Malek. +Y permtanme hacer una pausa en esta historia y preguntarles: Por qu los refugiados como Doaa asumen estos riesgos? +Millones de refugiados viven en el exilio, en el limbo. +Viven en pases escapando de una guerra desatada durante cuatro aos. +Incluso si quisieran regresar, no podran hacerlo. +Sus hogares, sus negocios, sus pueblos, sus ciudades, han sido completamente destruidos. +Esta es una ciudad Patrimonio de la Humanidad para la UNESCO, Homs, en Siria. +Las personas siguen huyendo a los pases vecinos, y construimos campos de refugiados para ellos en el desierto. +Cientos de miles de personas viven en campos como estos, y cientos de miles ms, millones, viven en pueblos y ciudades. +Y las comunidades, los pases vecinos, que una vez les dieron la bienvenida con los brazos y corazones abiertos estn abrumados. +Simplemente no hay suficientes escuelas, sistemas de agua, saneamiento. +Ni siquiera los pases europeos ricos podran manejar tal afluencia sin una inversin cuantiosa. +La guerra de Siria ha expulsado a casi 4 millones de personas de las fronteras, pero hay ms de 7 millones de personas en fuga dentro del pas. +Eso significa que ms de la mitad de la poblacin siria ha sido forzada a huir. +Volvamos a los pases vecinos que albergan a tantos. +Sienten que los pases ricos han hecho muy poco por ayudarlos. +Y los das se hicieron meses, y los meses aos. +La estancia de un refugiado se supone que es temporal. +Volvamos a Doaa y Bassem en el agua. +Era su segundo da, y Bassem estaba muy dbil. +Y ahora fue el turno de Doaa quien le dijo a Bassem: "Mi amor, por favor, ten esperanza en nuestro futuro. Lo lograremos". +Y l le dijo: "Mi amor, siento haberte puesto en esta situacin. +Nunca am a nadie tanto como a ti". +Y se dej caer en el agua, y Doaa vio como el amor de su vida se ahogaba frente a sus ojos. +Ms tarde ese da, una madre vino hacia Doaa con su pequea Masa, de 18 meses. +Esta es la pequeita que les mostr en la imagen anterior, con los chalecos salvavidas. +Sandra, su hermana mayor, se acababa de ahogar y su madre saba que tena que hacer todo lo posible para salvar a su hija. +Ella le dijo a Doaa: "Por favor, toma esta nia. +Que sea parte de ti. Yo no sobrevivir". +Y luego sigui su curso y se ahog. +As Doaa, la refugiada de 19 aos que le tena terror al agua, que no saba nadar, se encontr a cargo de dos bebs. +Bebs que tenan sed, y hambre, y estaban inquietos, y ella haca lo mejor para entretenerlos, para cantarles, les deca palabras del Corn. +Estaban rodeados de cuerpos hinchados que se ponan negros. +El sol arda durante el da. +Por la noche, haba luna fra y niebla. +Fue muy aterrador. +Al cuarto da en el agua, Doaa quiz tena este aspecto en el inflable con sus dos nios. +El cuarto da lleg una mujer, se aproxim a Doaa y le pidi recibir a otro nio... un niito de solo cuatro aos. +Cuando Doaa tom al niito y la madre se ahog, le dijo al nio que sollozaba: "Fue a buscar agua y alimento para ti". +Pero su corazn pronto se detuvo, y Doaa tuvo que liberar al pequeo en el agua. +Ms tarde ese da, mir hacia arriba con esperanza, porque divis dos aviones que surcaban el cielo. +Agit sus brazos, esperando que la vieran, pero los aviones pronto se fueron. +Pero esa tarde, mientras el sol se desvaneca vio un barco, un barco mercante. +Y dijo: "Por favor, Dios, que me rescaten". +Agit los brazos y sinti que grit durante unas dos horas. +Oscureci, pero finalmente los reflectores la encontraron y le tendieron una cuerda, se asombraron al ver una mujer aferrada a dos bebs. +Los llevaron hacia el barco, les dieron oxgeno y mantas, y un helicptero griego vino al rescate y los llev a la isla de Creta. +Pero Doaa mir y pregunt: "Qu hay de Malek?" +Y le dijeron que la pequea beb no haba sobrevivido... dej su ltimo aliento en la clnica de la embarcacin. +Pero Doaa estaba segura de que al subir al bote de rescate, la pequea beb estaba sonriente. +Solo 11 personas sobrevivieron en ese naufragio, de las 500. +Nunca hubo una investigacin internacional de lo ocurrido. +Hubo algunos informes en los medios sobre una muerte masiva en altamar, una tragedia terrible, pero solo dur un da. +Y luego hubo otras noticias. +Mientras tanto, en el hospital peditrico de Creta, la pequea Masa estaba al borde de la muerte. +Estaba muy deshidratada. Tena insuficiencia renal. +Y niveles de glucosa peligrosamente bajos. +Los mdicos hicieron todo lo posible para salvarla, y las enfermeras griegas no se apartaban de su lado, sostenindola, abrazndola, cantndole palabras. +Mis colegas tambin la visitaban y le decan bonitas palabras en rabe. +Sorprendentemente, la pequea Masa sobrevivi. +Y pronto la prensa griega empez a informar de la beb milagro, que sobrevivi cuatro das en el agua sin alimento ni nada para beber, y llegaron pedidos de adopcin de todo el pas. +Mientras tanto, Doaa estaba en otro hospital de Creta, delgada, deshidratada. +Una familia egipcia la llev a su hogar ni bien fue dada de alta. +En cuanto se supo que Doaa haba sobrevivido, se public un nmero de telfono en Facebook. +Empezaron a llegar mensajes. +"Doaa, sabes lo que pas con mi hermano? +Mi hermana? Mis padres? Mis amigos? Sabes si ellos sobrevivieron?" +Uno de esos mensajes deca: "Creo que salvaste a mi pequea sobrina, Masa". +Y tena esta foto. +Era del to de Masa, un refugiado sirio que haba llegado a Suecia con su familia y tambin la hermana mayor de Masa. +Pronto, esperamos, Masa se reencontrar con l en Suecia, y hasta entonces, est siendo atendida en un hermoso orfanato en Atenas. +Y Doaa? Bueno, se supo que sobrevivi, tambin. +Y los medios escribieron sobre esta mujer menuda, y no lograban imaginar cmo pudo sobrevivir todo ese tiempo bajo tales condiciones en ese mar, y aun as salvar otra vida. +La Academia de Atenas, una de las instituciones de ms prestigio en Grecia le dio un premio a la valenta, y se merece toda alabanza, y se merece una segunda oportunidad. +Pero todava quiere ir a Suecia. +Quiere reunirse con su familia all. +Quiere llevar a su madre, a su padre y a sus hermanos menores desde Egipto hasta all tambin, y creo que tendr xito. +Quiere ser abogada o poltica o algo que la ayude a luchar contra la injusticia. +Es una superviviente extraordinaria. +Pero tengo que preguntar: Y si no hubiese tenido que asumir ese riesgo? +Por qu tuvo que pasar por todo eso? +Por qu no exista una va legal para que estudiase en Europa? +Por qu no pudo tomar Masa un avin hacia Suecia? +Por qu no pudo Bassem hallar un empleo? +Por qu no hay un programa masivo de reasentamiento para refugiados sirios, vctimas de la peor guerra de nuestros tiempos? +El mundo hizo esto por los vietnamitas en la dcada de 1970. Por qu no ahora? +Por qu hay tan poca inversin en los pases vecinos para albergar a tantos refugiados? +Y por qu, la cuestin de fondo, se est haciendo tan poco para detener las guerras, la persecucin y la pobreza que est conduciendo a tantas personas a las costas de Europa? +Hasta que se resuelvan estas cuestiones, las personas seguirn tomando los mares en busca de seguridad y asilo. +Y qu ocurrir despus? +Bueno, eso es en gran medida eleccin de Europa. +Entiendo los temores del pblico. +La gente se preocupa por su seguridad, su economa, los cambios culturales. +Pero importa ms eso que salvar vidas humanas? +Porque aqu hay algo fundamental que creo anula el resto, y es nuestra humanidad comn. +Ninguna persona que huye de la guerra o de la persecucin debera morir cruzando el mar para alcanzar la seguridad. +Algo es seguro, ningn refugiado estara en esos botes peligrosos si pudieran prosperar donde estn. +Y ningn migrante emprendera ese viaje peligroso si tuviera suficiente alimento para sus hijos y para s mismo. +Nadie pondra los ahorros de su vida en manos de esos contrabandistas de existir una va legar para migrar. +Por eso, en nombre de la pequea Masa y en nombre de Doaa y de Bassem y de esas 500 personas que se ahogaron con ellos: Podemos asegurarnos de que no hayan muerto en vano? +Podramos inspirarnos en lo ocurrido, y tomar partido por un mundo en el que cada vida importe? +Gracias. +Me gustara invitarlos a visitar un continente oscuro. +Es el continente escondido bajo la superficie de la Tierra. +La mayor parte est inexplorada, mal comprendida y es materia de leyendas. +Pero tambin est hecha de paisajes drsticos como esta enorme cmara subterrnea, y es rica en sorprendentes mundos biolgicos y mineralgicos. +Gracias a los esfuerzos de exploradores intrpidos en los ltimos tres siglos, en realidad tambin gracias a los satlites, conocemos casi cada metro cuadrado de la superficie de nuestro planeta. +Pero conocemos muy poco de lo que est oculto en el interior de la Tierra. +Ya que el paisaje de las cuevas, como este profundo pozo en Italia, est oculto, el potencial de exploracin de cuevas,la dimensin geogrfica, se conoce y aprecia poco. +Debido a que somos criaturas que vivimos en la superficie, nuestra percepcin de el lado interno del planeta es en cierto modo sesgada, como tambin de la profundidad de los ocanos o de la atmsfera superior. +Sin embargo, la exploracin sistemtica comenz hace cerca de un siglo, sabemos que existen cuevas en todos los continentes del mundo. +Un sistema nico de cuevas, como la cueva Mammoth, en Kentucky, puede medir ms de 600 km. +Y un abismo como Krubera Voronya, en la regin del Cucaso, que es la cueva ms profunda explorada en el mundo, puede alcanzar ms de 2000 m bajo la superficie. +Eso significa un viaje de semanas para un explorador de cuevas. +Las cuevas se forman en regiones krsticas. +Las regiones krsticas son reas del mundo donde el agua que se infiltra a lo largo de grietas, fracturas, puede disolver fcilmente litologas solubles, formando un sistema de drenaje de tneles, conductos una red tridimensional, en realidad. +Las regiones krsticas cubren casi el 20% de la superficie de los continentes, y sabemos que los espelelogos en los ltimos 50 aos han explorado cerca de 30 000 km de cuevas en todo el mundo, que es bastante. +Pero los gelogos han estimado que lo que todava no se conoce, y que falta por descubrir y cartografiar, es alrededor de 10 millones de km. +Eso significa que por cada metro de cuevas conocidas, que hemos explorado, todava hay algunas decenas de kilmetros de pasajes sin descubrir. +Eso significa que realmente es un continente sin fin, y nunca seremos capaces de explorarlo por completo. +Y esta estimacin se hace sin tener en cuenta otros tipos de cuevas, como, por ejemplo, dentro de los glaciares o incluso cuevas volcnicas, que no son krsticos, sino que se forman por flujos de lava. +Y si vemos a otros planetas como, por ejemplo Marte, veremos que esta caracterstica no es tan especfica de nuestro planeta. +Sin embargo, voy a demostrarles que no necesitamos ir a Marte para explorar mundos aliengenas. +Soy espelelogo, es decir, explorador de cuevas. +Empec con esta pasin cuando era muy joven en las montaas no muy lejos de mi ciudad natal en el norte de Italia, en las regiones krsticas de los Alpes y los Dolomitas. +Pero pronto, la exploracin me llev hasta los ltimos rincones del planeta, en busca de nuevas entradas potenciales de este continente por descubrir. +Y en 2009, tuve la oportunidad de visitar las montaas de la meseta tepuy en las cuencas del Orinoco y el Amazonas. +Me encantaron desde la primera vez que las vi. +Estn rodeadas de paredes de roca verticales vertiginosas con cascadas plateadas que se pierden en el bosque. +Realmente inspiraron en m una sensacin de tierra salvaje, de un alma vieja de millones y millones de aos. +Este espectacular paisaje ha inspirado entre otras obras la novela de 1912 de Conan Doyle "El mundo perdido". +Y es realmente un mundo perdido. +Los cientficos consideran a esas montaas como islas en el tiempo, separadas de las tierras bajas circundantes desde hace decenas de millones de aos atrs. +Estn rodeadas de muros de hasta 1000 m de alto, que asemejan una fortaleza, impenetrable por los seres humanos. +Y, de hecho, solo unas pocas personas han escalado esas montaas y explorado en su parte superior. +Estas montaas guardan tambin una paradoja cientfica: sstn hechas de cuarzo, que es un mineral muy comn en la corteza terrestre, y la roca formada por cuarzo se llama cuarcita, que es unos de los minerales ms duros y menos solubles en la Tierra. +As que no esperbamos para nada encontrar una cueva all. +A pesar de esto, en los ltimos 10 aos, espelelogos de Italia, Eslovaquia, Repblica Checa, y por supuesto, Venezuela y Brasil han explorado varias cuevas en esta rea. +Entonces, cmo puede ser posible? +Pueden imaginar que el agua tuvo decenas o cientos de millones de aos para esculpir las formas ms extraas en las superficies de los tepuyes, y tambin para fracturar la roca y formar ciudades de piedra, campos de torres del famoso paisaje caracterstico de los tepuyes. +Pero nadie podra haber imaginado lo que suceda al interior de la montaa en un perodo tan largo. +Me centr en 2010 en uno de esos macizos, el Auyantepui, famoso por albergar el Salto ngel, que es la cascada ms alta del mundo con unos 979 m de cada. +Estaba buscando indicios de la existencia de sistemas de cuevas a travs de imgenes de satlite, y, finalmente, identificamos un rea con colapsos en la superficie grandes peas, pilas de rocas y eso significaba que hay un vaco debajo. +Era una indicacin clara de que haba algo dentro de la montaa. +As que hicimos varios intentos de llegar a esta zona, por tierra y por helicptero, pero era muy difcil porque deben imaginar, que estn cubiertas por nubes la mayor parte del ao, por la niebla. +Hay fuertes vientos, y hay casi 4000 milmetros de lluvia al ao, por lo que es muy difcil encontrar buenas condiciones. +Hasta el 2013 finalmente aterrizamos y empezamos la exploracin de la cueva. +La cueva es enorme. +Es una enorme red bajo la superficie de la meseta Tepuy, y en slo 10 das de expedicin, exploramos ms de 20 kilmetros de pasajes de la cueva. +Y es una red enorme de ros subterrneos, canales, cmaras enormes, pozos muy profundos. +Es realmente un lugar increble. +Lo nombramos Imawar Yeuta +que en lengua indgena pemn significa "La Casa de los Dioses". +Deben saber que los indgenas nunca haban estado all. +Les era imposible llegar a esta zona. +Sin embargo, haba leyendas sobre la existencia de una cueva en la montaa. +As que cuando empezamos la exploracin, tuvimos que explorar con un gran respeto, tanto por las creencias religiosas de los pueblos indgenas, y porque era realmente un lugar sagrado, porque ningn humano haba entrado all antes. +As que tuvimos que utilizar protocolos especiales para no contaminar el medio ambiente con nuestra presencia y tambin tratamos compartir con la comunidad, con la comunidad indgena, nuestros descubrimientos. +Las cuevas representan una instantnea del pasado. +El tiempo necesario para su formacin puede ser tan largo como 50 o incluso cientos de millones de aos, por lo que tal vez sean las cuevas ms antiguas que podemos explorar. +Lo que podemos encontrar all es evidencia de un mundo perdido. +Al entrar en una cueva de cuarcita, debemos olvidar por completo lo que sabemos sobre cuevas cuevas de piedra caliz clsicas o las cuevas tursticas que se puede visitar en varios lugares del mundo. +Porque lo que aqu parece una estalactita comn no est hecha de carbonato de calcio, sino de palo y pueden requerir decenas de millones de aos para formarse. +Se pueden encontrar formas an ms extraas, como estos hongos de slice que crecen en una roca. +Imaginen nuestras conversaciones cuando explorbamos la cueva. +Fuimos los primeros en entrar y descubrir estas cosas desconocidas, cosas como esos huevos de monstruo. +Tenamos un poco de miedo porque todo era un descubrimiento y no queramos encontrar un dinosaurio. +No encontramos ningn dinosaurio. +De todos modos sabemos que este tipo de formaciones, despus de varios estudios, sabemos que este tipo de formaciones son organismos vivos. +Son colonias bacterianas que usan slice para construir estructuras minerales similares a estromatolitos. +Los estromatolitos son unas de las ms antiguas formas de vida en la Tierra. +Y aqu en los tepuyes, lo interesante es que estas colonias de bacterias han evolucionado en completo aislamiento de la superficie externa, y sin contacto con los seres humanos. +Nunca han estado en contacto con los seres humanos. +Las implicaciones para la ciencia son enormes, porque aqu se puede encontrar, por ejemplo, microbios que podran ser tiles para curar enfermedades, o encontrar un nuevo tipo de material con propiedades desconocidas. +Y, de hecho, descubrimos una nueva estructura mineral para la ciencia, la rossiantonite, un fosfato-sulfato. +As que cualquier cosa en la cueva, incluso un pequeo grillo, ha evolucionado en la oscuridad en completo aislamiento. +Y todo lo que se puede sentir en la cueva son conexiones reales entre el mundo biolgico y el mineralgico. +A medida que exploramos este continente oscuro descubrimos su diversidad mineralgica, biolgica y su singularidad, tal vez encontraremos pistas sobre el origen de la vida en nuestro planeta y en la relacin y evolucin de la vida en relacin con el mundo mineral. +Lo que parece solamente un ambiente oscuro, vaco podra ser, en realidad, un cofre de maravillas lleno de informacin til. +Con un equipo de espelelogos italianos, venezolanos y brasileos, llamados La Venta Teraphosa, regresaremos pronto a Amrica Latina, porque queremos explorar otros tepuyes en las zonas ms alejadas del Amazonas. +Todava hay montaas desconocidas, como Marahuaca, de casi 3000 metros de altura sobre el nivel del mar, o Araca, en la zona superior del Ro Negro en Brasil. +Y suponemos que podramos encontrar sistemas de cuevas an ms grandes, cada uno con su propio mundo por descubrir. +Gracias. +Bruno Giussani: Gracias, Francesco. Empecemos y recapitulemos. +Francesco, dices que no hay que ir a Marte para encontrar vida extraterrestre, y, de hecho, la ltima vez que hablamos, estabas en Cerdea y entrenabas astronautas europeos. +Qu dice y ensea un espelelogo a los astronautas? +Francesco Sauro: S, es un programa de entrenamiento no slo para la agencia europea, tambin para la NASA, Roskosmos, austronautas de JAXA, en una cueva. +Se quedan en una cueva durante una semana en aislamiento. +Tienen que trabajar juntos en un verdadero ambiente peligroso, real y es un ambiente extrao para ellos porque es inusual. +Siempre es oscuro. Tienen que hacer ciencia. Tienen muchas tareas. +Es muy similar a un viaje a Marte o la Estacin Espacial Internacional. +BG: En principio. FS: S. +BG: Quiero volver a una de las imgenes en tu presentacin de diapositivas, que es representativa de las otras fotos, acaso no son increbles esas fotos? S? +Audiencia: S! +FS: Tengo que agradecer a los fotgrafos del equipo de La Venta, porque todas esas fotos son de ellos. +BG: Llevas fotgrafos contigo en la expedicin. +Son profesionales, son espelelogos y fotgrafos. +Pero cuando miro estas fotos, me pregunto, no hay luz ah abajo, pero se ven muy bien expuestas. +Cmo toman estas fotos? +Cmo tus colegas, los fotgrafos, toman estas fotos? +FS: S. Trabajan en un cuarto oscuro, bsicamente, puedes abrir el obturador de la cmara y utilizar las luces para pintar el medio ambiente. +BG: Entonces t haces... FS: S. Puedes mantener el obturador abierto por un minuto y luego pintar el ambiente. +El resultado final es lo que se quiere lograr. +BG: Se roca el ambiente con la luz y eso es lo que obtienes. +Podemos intentarlo en casa algn da, no s. +BG: Francesco, grazie. FS: Grazie. +Una nia que no haba conocido nunca antes cambi mi vida y la vida de miles de personas. +Soy el directora de DoSomething.org. +Es una de las organizaciones ms grandes del mundo para los jvenes. +De hecho, es ms grande que los Boy Scouts de EE. UU. +Y no somos homofbicos. +Y es verdad... nos comunicamos con los jvenes con texto, porque eso es como se comunica la gente joven. +Vamos a realizar ms de 200 campaas este ao, cosas como recoger mantequilla de man para las despensas de alimentos, o hacer tarjetas de San Valentn para los jubilados que estn confinados en casa. +Y les enviaremos mensajes. +Y tendremos una tasa de apertura del 97 %.. +Ir sobre el ndice en hispanos y urbanos. +Recogimos 200 000 frascos de mantequilla de man y ms de 365 mil tarjetas de San Valentn. +Es a gran escala. Bien... Pero hay un efecto secundario raro. +Cada vez que enviamos un mensaje de texto, recibimos algunos mensajes que no tienen nada que ver con mantequilla de man, hambre o la tercera edad, sino con mensajes de texto sobre intimidacin, mensajes de texto sobre ser adictos. +Y el peor mensaje que jams recibimos deca exactamente esto: "No va a dejar de violarme. +Es mi padre. +Me dijo que no se lo diga a nadie. Ests ah?". +No podamos creer lo que suceda. +No podamos creer que algo tan horrible le pudiera pasar a un ser humano, y que ella lo compartiera con nosotros... algo tan ntimo, tan personal. +Y vimos que tenamos que dejar de clasificarlo y construir una lnea de texto de crisis para estas personas sufriendo. +As lanzamos Lnea de Texto para Crisis, sin ruido, en Chicago y El Paso, solo unas pocas miles de personas en cada mercado. +Y en 4 meses, estbamos en todos los 295 cdigos de rea en EE. UU. +Solo para ponerlo en perspectiva, eso es cero mercadeo y un crecimiento superior al lanzamiento de Facebook. +El texto es increblemente privado. +Nadie te oye hablar. +Nos clavamos todos los das al almuerzo... los nios sentados en la mesa y uno piensa que ella est enviando mensajes al chico lindo, pero en realidad nos enva un texto sobre su bulimia. +Y no tenemos un "like" o "um" o hiperventilacin o llanto. +Solo conseguimos hechos. +Tenemos cosas como: "Quiero morir. +Tengo una botella de pldoras en la mesa delante de m". +Y as, el consejero de crisis, dice, "Pon esas pastillas en el cajn mientras escribes?". +Y van y vienen por un tiempo. +Y el consejero consigue que la chica que le d su direccin, porque si envas mensajes a una lnea, deseas ayuda. +Escribe la direccin y el consejero desencadena un rescate activo mientras envan mensajes uno a otro. +Y luego se queda en silencio... 23 minutos sin respuesta por parte de esta chica. +Y el siguiente mensaje que llega dice --es la madre-- "No tena ni idea y yo estaba en la casa, estamos en una ambulancia de camino al hospital". +Como madre uno solo... El siguiente mensaje llega un mes despus. +"Acabo de salir del hospital. +Fui diagnosticada como bipolar, y creo que me pondr bien". +Me encantara decirles que este es un intercambio inusual, pero estamos haciendo un promedio de 2.41 rescates activos al da. +El 30 % de nuestros mensajes son suicidio y depresin... enorme. +Lo bonito de la Lnea de Texto de Crisis es que estos son extraos aconsejando a otros extraos sobre los temas ms ntimos, y convirtiendo momentos calientes en fros. +Es emocionante, y yo les dira que hemos gestionado un total de ms de 6.5 millones de mensajes de texto en menos de 2 aos. +Pero lo que realmente me pone hace sudar con todo esto, lo que realmente me enloquece son los datos: 6.5 millones de mensajes, es el volumen, la velocidad y la variedad para ofrecer un corpus muy jugoso. +Podemos hacer trabajo predictivo. +Podemos sacar todo tipo de conclusiones y aprendizajes a partir de esos datos. +As que podemos ser mejores, y el mundo puede ser mejor. +Cmo se utilizan los datos para hacernos mejores? +Bien, lo ms probable es que alguien aqu, viendo esto, haya visitado un terapeuta o un psiquiatra en algn momento en su vida... no tienen que levantar la mano. +Cmo saben que esa persona es buena? +Ah, tienen un grado de Harvard en la pared? +Estn seguros de que no se gradu en el 10 % inferior? +Cuando con mi marido fuimos a un consejero matrimonial, pens que era un genio cuando dijo: "Los ver en 2 semanas... pero seor, necesito verlo la prxima semana". +Tenemos los datos para saber lo que hace un gran consejero. +Sabemos que si envan las palabras "adormecido" y "manga" hay un de 99 % de que se corten. +Sabemos que si enva en texto las palabras "mg" y "goma elstica" hay un 99 % para abuso de sustancias. +Y sabemos que si enva "sexo", "oral" y "mormn" se est cuestionando si es gay. +Esa es informacin interesante que un consejero puede averiguar pero nuestro algoritmo hace que unas ventanas emergentes digan: "99 % para cortes, intente hacer una de estas preguntas" para afinar al consejero. +O "99 % para el abuso de sustancias, aqu hay 3 clnicas de drogas cerca del redactor de textos". +Nos hace ms precisos. +El da en que Robin Williams se suicid, se inundaron las lneas en todo el pas. +Fue triste ver a un icono, un comediante, que se suicida, y hubo tiempos de 3 horas de espera en cada lnea telefnica en el pas. +Tuvimos un aumento en volumen tambin. +La diferencia fue que si su texto era, "Quiero morir", o "Quiero matarme" el algoritmo lee eso, lo pone en cdigo naranja, y lo convierte en nmero uno en la cola. +As que podemos manejar por gravedad, no cronolgicamente. +Estos datos tambin estn haciendo un mundo mejor porque estoy sentada en el primer mapa mundial de crisis en tiempo real. +Piensen en ello: los 6.5 millones de mensajes, etiquetados a travs de procesos de lenguaje natural, todos estos puntos de datos... les puedo decir el peor da para trastornos alimentarios: el lunes. +El peor momento del da para el abuso de sustancias: 5 am. +Y que Montana es un lugar hermoso para visitar pero uno no quiere vivir all, porque es el estado nmero uno para la ideacin suicida. +Y hemos hecho pblicos estos datos, gratuita y abiertamente. +Hemos quitado toda informacin de identificacin personal. +Y es un lugar llamado CrisisTrends.org. +Porque quiero que las escuelas puedan ver que el lunes es el peor da para los trastornos alimentarios, para que puedan planificar las comidas y tener orientadores los lunes. +Quiero que las familias puedan ver que el pico de abuso de sustancias es las 5 am. +Quiero a alguien para cuidar de esas Reservas Indgenas en Montana. +Datos, evidencia hacer poltica, investigacin, periodismo, polica, consejos escolares... todo mejor. +No creo en m misma como un activista de salud mental. +Pienso en m misma como un activista nacional de salud. +Me entusiasmo mucho con estos datos; soy un poco nerd. +S, eso son demasiado femenino. +Soy nerd. +Me encantan los datos. +Y la nica diferencia realmente entre yo y esa gente en sudaderas en la va con sus empresas de capital de grasa, es que no me inspira ayudarle a encontrar comida china a las 2 am en Dallas, o ayudar a chasquear los dedos y obtener un auto de inmediato, o pasarla bien y acostarte. +Estoy inspirada... (Risas, aplausos) quiero utilizar la tecnologa y los datos para hacer del mundo un lugar mejor. +Quiero ayudar a esa chica, que envi un texto sobre haber sido violada por su padre. +Porque no hemos escuchado ms de ella. +Y espero que ella est en algn lugar seguro y saludable, y espero que ella vea esta charla y sepa que su desesperacin y su coraje inspir la creacin de la Lnea de Texto de Crisis y me inspira cada maldito da. +Quiero contarles tres historias sobre el poder de las relaciones para resolver los profundos y complejos problemas sociales de este siglo. +A veces parece que todos estos problemas de pobreza, desigualdad, mala salud, desempleo, violencia, adiccin tienen una razn de ser en la vida de una persona. +Por eso quiero hablarles de alguien as que conozco. +Voy a llamarla Ela. +Ela vive en una ciudad britnica en una finca desangelada. +Las tiendas han cerrado, ya no existe el pub, el parque infantil est bastante desolado y nunca se us, y dentro de la casa de Ela, la tensin es palpable y el nivel de ruido ensordecedor. +La TV a todo volumen. +Uno de sus hijos est peleando con una de sus hijas. +Otro hijo, Ryan, mantiene este constante maltrato desde la cocina, y los perros encerrados detrs de la puerta del dormitorio. +Ela est bloqueada. +Ela ha vivido con la crisis durante 40 aos. +Ela no conoce nada ms y sabe que no hay salida. +Ela ha tenido una serie de parejas maltratadoras, y, desgraciadamente a uno de sus hijos se lo han llevado los servicios sociales. +Los tres hijos que an viven con ella sufren de una gran gama de problemas, y ninguno est en la escuela. +Y Ela me cuenta que repite el ciclo de la vida que su propia madre tuvo antes. +Pero cuando conoc a Ela, haba 73 servicios diferentes que se ofrecan para ella y su familia en la ciudad donde vive, 73 servicios diferentes gestionados por 24 departamentos en una sola ciudad, y Ela, sus parejas y sus hijos eran conocidos por la mayora de ellos. +Ellos no piensan en llamar a los servicios sociales para tratar de mediar en las muchas peleas que estallaban. +Y a la casa de la familia iban regularmente trabajadores sociales, trabajadores jvenes, un asistente de salud, un oficial de la vivienda, un tutor domstico y la polica local. +Y el gobierno dice que existen 100 000 familias en Gran Bretaa hoy como la de Ela, luchando por romper el ciclo de la privacin econmica, social y ambiental. +Y tambin dicen que gestionar este problema cuesta unos 330 000 por familia por ao y sin embargo, nada cambia. +Ninguno de esos visitantes bien intencionados marcan una diferencia. +Esta es una carta que hicimos en la ciudad con otra familia como la de Ela. +Esta muestra 30 aos de intervencin en la vida de esa familia. +E igual que con Ela, ninguna intervencin es parte de un plan general. +No hay meta final a la vista. +Ninguna intervencin se ocupa de los problemas de fondo. +Estas son solo medidas de contencin, formas de gestionar un problema. +Uno de los policas me dijo: "Yo solo entrego el informe y luego me voy". +He pasado tiempo viviendo con familias como la de Ela en diferentes partes del mundo, porque quiero saber qu podemos aprender de lugares donde nuestras instituciones sociales no funcionan. +Quiero saber lo que se siente vivir en la familia de Ela. +Quiero saber qu pasa y qu podemos hacer de manera diferente. +Lo primero que aprend es que el costo es un concepto muy escurridizo. +Porque cuando el gobierno dice que una familia como la de Ela, cuesta unos 330 000 anuales eso en realidad significa que este sistema cuesta unos 330 000 al ao. +Porque ni un cntimo del dinero va a familiares de Ela para marcar la diferencia. +En su lugar, el sistema es como ese giroscopio costoso que gira en torno a las familias, mantenindolos atrapados en su interior, exactamente dnde estn. +Tambin pas tiempo con trabajadores de primera lnea, y me enter de que es una situacin imposible. +As que le dice a Ryan: "Cuntas veces has fumado? Has bebido? +Cundo vas a la escuela?" +Y esta interaccin descarta la posibilidad de una conversacin normal. +Se descarta la posibilidad de lo necesario para construir una relacin entre Tom y Ryan. +Cuando hicimos esta tabla, los trabajadores de primera lnea estaban absolutamente asombrados. +Reptaban por las paredes de sus oficinas. +Muchas horas, an muy bien intencionadas, pero al final intiles. +Y all estaba este momento de absoluta ruptura, y luego de claridad: tuvimos que trabajar de forma diferente. +As que en un paso muy valiente, los lderes de la ciudad de Ela acordaron empezar invirtiendo la relacin de Ryan. +As, todos los que contactaron con Ela o una familia como la de Ela pasaran el 80 % de su tiempo de trabajo con las familias y solo el 20 % alimentando el sistema. +Y an ms radicalmente, las familias decidiran quin estaba en una mejor posicin para ayudarlos. +As Ela y otra madre pidieron participar en un panel de la entrevista, para elegir entre los profesionales existentes los que trabajaran con ellos. +Y muchas personas queran unirse a nosotros, porque no desempean este oficio para administrar un sistema, lo hacen porque pueden y quieren marcar una diferencia. +As Ela y la madre preguntaron a todos los que entraban "Qu vas a hacer cuando mi hijo me d patadas?" +Y as, la primera persona que dice, "Mirar dnde est la salida ms cercana y retroceder lentamente, y si el ruido sigue, llamar a mi supervisor". +Y las madres: "Ud. es del sistema. Fuera de aqu!" +Y luego la siguiente persona es un polica, y dice: "Echar a su hijo al suelo y luego, no s qu har". +Y las madres dicen: "Gracias". +As, eligieron a profesionales que confesaron no necesariamente tener respuestas, lo que dijeron... no hablaron en jerga... +Mostraron cualidades humanas y convencieron a las madres de que estaran con ellas en las duras y en las maduras, aunque no fuese fcil. +A estos nuevos equipos y a las familias se les dio algo del anterior presupuesto, que podran gastar en todo lo que quisieran. +Y as, una de las familias sali a cenar. +Fueron a McDonalds, se sentaron, hablaron y escucharon por primera vez en mucho tiempo. +Otra familia pidi al equipo si iban a ayudarles a montar su casa. +Y una madre tom el dinero y lo us como flotador para iniciar una empresa social. +Y en un muy corto lapso de tiempo, empez a crecer algo nuevo: una relacin entre el equipo y los trabajadores. +Y ocurrieron algunos cambios notables. +Tal vez no es sorprendente que el viaje de Ela haya tenido grandes pasos hacia atrs pero tambin hacia alante. +Ela ya ha terminado un curso de capacitacin de TI, tiene su primer trabajo pagado, sus hijos estn nuevamente en la escuela, y los vecinos, que antes esperaban que esa familia se mudara a cualquier lugar menos al lado de ellos, estn bien. +Han hecho nuevas amistades. +Y todas las personas han participado en esta transformacin, las mismas familias, los mismos trabajadores. +Pero la relacin entre ellos ha contado con el apoyo al cambio. +As que hablo sobre Ela, porque creo que las relaciones son el recurso crtico que tenemos en la solucin de algunos problemas insolubles. +Pero hoy, nuestras relaciones son todos, tambin los excluidos por nuestras polticas sociales, las instituciones de asistencia social. +Y he aprendido que esto realmente tiene que cambiar. +Entonces, qu quiero decir con relaciones? +Hablo de los vnculos humanos simples entre nosotros, un autntico sentido de conexin, de pertenencia, lazos que nos hacen felices, que nos dan soporte para cambiar, para ser valientes como Ela y probar algo nuevo. +Y, no es casualidad que los que dirigen y trabajan en las instituciones que se supone que apoyan a Ela y su familia no hablan de las relaciones, porque las relaciones estn diseadas expresamente en un modelo de bienestar que se elabor en Gran Bretaa y se exportan a todo el mundo. +Los contemporneos de William Beveridge, el arquitecto del primer estado del bienestar y autor del Informe Beveridge, tena poca fe en lo que llamaron el humano sensual o emocional medio. +En cambio, confiaron en esta idea del sistema impersonal y en el burcrata que trabaja en este sistema. +Y el impacto de Beveridge en la forma en que el Estado moderno ve los asuntos sociales simplemente no puede subestimarse. +El Informe Beveridge vendi ms de 100 000 copias en tan solo las primeras semanas de su publicacin. +La gente hizo cola en una noche lluviosa para hacerse con una copia, y todo el pas lo ley, en todas las colonias, en toda Europa, en todo EE.UU. y tuvo ese gran impacto en el diseo de los estados de bienestar a nivel mundial. +Las culturas, las burocracias, las instituciones, todas son globales, y se han llegado a considerar de sentido comn. +Se ha arraigado tanto en nosotros, que, en realidad, ni siquiera vemos ms all. +Y creo que es muy importante decir que en el siglo XX, estas instituciones tuvieron un xito notable. +Repercuti en vidas ms largas, en la erradicacin de enfermedades, en la vivienda popular, en la educacin casi universal. +Pero, al mismo tiempo, Beveridge sembr las semillas de los retos actuales. +As que les contar una segunda historia. +Cul creen que es hoy el asesino ms grande que una vida de fumador? +Es la soledad. +De acuerdo con estadsticas del gobierno, una persona mayor de 60, 1 de cada 3, no habla o ve a otra persona en una semana. +1 de 10, eso son 850 000 personas, no habla con nadie en un mes. +Y no somos los nicos con este problema; este problema toca todo el mundo occidental. +Y es an ms grave en pases como China, donde un proceso de rpida urbanizacin, y migracin masiva ha dejado a las personas mayores solas en los pueblos. +Y los servicios que Beveridge dise y export no pueden hacer frente a este tipo de problema. +La soledad es un desafo relacional colectivo, y no puede abordarse con una respuesta burocrtica tradicional. +As que hace unos aos, con ganas de entender este problema, empec a trabajar con un grupo de unas 60 personas mayores en el sur de Londres, donde vivo. +Me fui de compras, jugu al bingo, pero, sobre todo, observaba y escuchaba. +Quera saber qu podemos hacer de manera diferente. +Y si se le preguntan, la gente dir que quiere dos cosas. +Quiere a alguien que suba una escalera y cambie una bombilla, o que est cuando salen del hospital. +Quieren bajo demanda, apoyo prctico. +Y quieren divertirse. +Quieren hacer cosas interesantes con gente de ideas afines, y hacer amigos como hemos hecho en todas las etapas de nuestra vida. +As que alquilamos una lnea telefnica, contratamos operarios, y creamos un servicio que llamamos "Crculo". +Y "Crculo" ofrece su membresa local a un nmero gratuito 0 800 donde puedan llamar demandando apoyo. +Y la gente llama por muchas razones. +Llaman porque sus mascotas estn enfermas, su DVD se ha roto, porque olvidaron cmo usar su telfono mvil, o tal vez porque salen del hospital y quieren que alguien est ah. +Y "Crculo" tambin ofrece un rico calendario social. Tejer, jugar a dardos, visitar museos, pasear en globo... lo que sea. +Pero aqu est lo interesante, el cambio muy profundo: con el tiempo, las amistades que se han formado han comenzado a sustituir la oferta prctica. +Permtanme contarles de Belinda. +Belinda es miembro del "Crculo" y fue al hospital para una operacin de cadera, as que llam a su crculo local para decir que no la veran por un tiempo. +Y Damon, que dirige el Crculo local pregunta: "Cmo puedo ayudar?" +Y Belinda dice: "No, no, todo bien... Jocelyn me hace las compras, Tony la jardinera, Melissa y Joe van a venir para cocinar y charlar". +As que cinco miembros del Crculo se haban organizado para cuidar de Belinda. +Y as la octogenaria de Belinda que dice sentirse como de 25, pero tambin dice que se senta bloqueada y deprimida al unirse a "Crculo". +Pero el simple hecho de animarla a ir a ese primer evento la llev a un proceso donde se forman amistades naturales, amistades que hoy reemplazan la necesidad de servicios costosos. +Son relaciones que estn marcando la diferencia. +As que creo que hay tres factores que han convergido que nos permiten poner las relaciones en el corazn y el centro de cmo resolvemos los problemas sociales de hoy. +En primer lugar, la naturaleza de los problemas han cambiado, y requieren soluciones diferentes. +En segundo lugar, el costo humano y financiero de hacer negocios como antes. +Y en tercer lugar, la tecnologa. +He hablado de los dos primeros factores. +Es una tecnologa que permite estos enfoques a escala y apoyar potencialmente ahora a miles de personas. +La tecnologa usada es muy simple, se compone de cosas disponibles como bases de datos, telfonos mviles. +Crculo tiene este sistema muy simple que lo sustenta, permite a un pequeo equipo local apoyar una membresa de hasta mil. +Y se puede comparar esto con una organizacin de vecinos de la dcada de 1970, cuando este tipo de escala no era posible, tampoco la calidad o la estructura que puede proporcionar la tecnologa. +As que es relaciones sustentadas en tecnologa pueden dar la vuelta a los modelos de Beveridge. +Los modelos Beveridge son instituciones con recursos finitos, de acceso de gestin annima. +En mi trabajo directo al pblico he visto una y otra vez cmo hasta el 80 % de los recursos est dedicado a mantener a la gente fuera. +As que los profesionales han de administrar estas formas de gestin cada vez ms complejas que son para detener a la gente al acceso a servicios o para gestionar listas de espera. +Y Crculo, como los servicios relacionales que nosotros y otros han diseado, invierte esta lgica. +Lo que dice es, ms gente, ms relaciones, ms fuerte es la solucin. +Quiero contarles mi tercera y ltima historia, que va sobre desempleo. +En Gran Bretaa, como en casi todos los lugares del mundo, los estados de bienestar se disearon principalmente para que la gente obtuviera empleo, para educarlos para esto, y para mantenerlos sanos. +Pero aqu, tambin, los sistemas estn fallando. +Y as, la respuesta ha sido para hacer estos viejos sistemas an ms eficientes y transaccionales, para acelerar el tiempo de trmite, se divide a las personas en categoras ms pequeas, para tener servicios ms optimizados, en otras palabras, lo contrario a lo relacional. +Pero adivinen cmo la mayora encuentra trabajo hoy en da? +A travs del boca a boca. +En Gran Bretaa hoy la mayora de los nuevos empleos no se anuncian. +Son los amigos que hablan de un trabajo, amigos recomiendan para un trabajo, y es una red social rica y diversa que ayuda a encontrar trabajo. +Tal vez algunos de Uds. aqu estn pensando: "Pero encontr mi trabajo a travs de un anuncio", pero si lo repiensan, probablemente un amigo le mostr el anuncio y luego le anim a solicitarlo. +Pero como es lgico, personas que tal vez ms necesitan esta red rica y diversa son los que estn ms aislados de ella. +As que sabiendo esto, y sabiendo los costos y las deficiencias de los sistemas actuales, diseamos algo nuevo con las relaciones en su centro. +Hemos diseado un servicio que anima a la gente a reunirse, a la gente dentro y fuera del trabajo, para trabajar juntos de forma estructurada y probar nuevas oportunidades. +Y, es muy difcil comparar los resultados de estos nuevos sistemas con los viejos modelos transaccionales, pero parece que, con los primeros 1000 miembros, superamos los servicios existentes por un factor de tres, a una fraccin del costo. +Y aqu, tambin, hemos usado tecnologa pero no para hacer una red de contactos como la de una plataforma social. +la usamos para reunir a la gente cara a cara y conectarlos entre s, construir relaciones reales y ayudar a las personas a buscar empleo. +Al final de su vida, en 1948, Beveridge escribi un tercer informe. +Y en ese dijo que haba cometido un terrible error. +Haba dejado a la gente y sus comunidades fuera. +Y esta omisin, dijo, llev a ver a la gente, y la gente se empez a ver a s misma, dentro de las categoras de las burocracias y de las instituciones. +Y las relaciones humanas se estaban marchitando. +Pero, por desgracia, este tercer informe se ley mucho menos que el trabajo anterior de Beveridge. +Pero hoy en da, hay que llevar a la gente y sus comunidades al centro cuando diseamos nuevos sistemas y nuevos servicios, en un enfoque que llamo "Bienestar Relacional". +Todo tiene que ver con las relaciones. +Las relaciones son el recurso crtico que tenemos. +Gracias. +Hace un ao, nos invit la Embajada de Suiza en Berln a presentar nuestros proyectos de arte. +Solemos recibir invitaciones, pero esta invitacin realmente nos emocion. +La Embajada de Suiza en Berln es especial. +Es el nico edificio antiguo en el distrito gubernamental que no fue destruido durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial, y est justo al lado de la Cancillera Federal. +Nadie est ms cerca de la canciller Merkel que los diplomticos suizos. +En el distrito gubernamental de Berln tambin est el Reichstag, el parlamento alemn, y la Puerta de Brandenburgo, y justo al lado de la puerta hay otras embajadas, en particular la de EE.UU. y la Embajada Britnica. +Aunque Alemania es una democracia avanzada, los ciudadanos estn limitados en sus derechos constitucionales en su distrito gubernamental. +El derecho de reunin y el derecho a manifestarse estn restringidos all. +Y esto es interesante desde un punto de vista artstico. +Las oportunidades para ejercer participacin y para expresarse siempre estn ligadas a un cierto orden y siempre estn sujetas a una regulacin especfica. +Al conocer las dependencias de estas regulaciones, podemos tener una nueva perspectiva. +Los trminos y condiciones dados, forman nuestra percepcin, nuestras acciones y nuestras vidas. +Y esto es crucial en otro contexto. +Durante el ltimo par de aos, supimos que desde las azoteas de las embajadas de EE.UU. y Gran Bretaa, los servicios secretos escuchaban todo el distrito, incluyendo el telfono mvil de Angela Merkel. +Las antenas del GCHQ britnico estn en una cpula cilndrica blanca, mientras que el puesto de escucha de la NSA estadounidense est cubierto por pantallas transparentes de radio. +Pero cmo abordar estas fuerzas escondidas que se disfrazan? +Con mi colega, Christoph Wachter, aceptamos la invitacin de la Embajada de Suiza +y aprovechamos la oportunidad para explotar esta situacin especfica. +Si nos estn espiando, por lgica, escuchan lo que estamos diciendo. +En el techo de la Embajada de Suiza, instalamos una serie de antenas. +No tan sofisticadas como las estadounidenses y britnicas. +Eran antenas improvisadas con latas, sin camuflar, totalmente obvias y visibles. +La Academia de Artes se sum al proyecto, y as construimos otra gran antena en su azotea, exactamente entre los puestos de escucha de la NSA y el GCHQ. +Nunca hemos sido tan observados al construir una instalacin de arte. +Un helicptero sobrevolaba en crculos sobre nuestras cabezas con una cmara que registr cada movimiento que hicimos, y en el techo de la Embajada de EE.UU., patrullaban oficiales de seguridad. +Aunque el distrito gubernamental se rige por un orden policial estricto, no hay leyes especficas relativas a la comunicacin digital. +Nuestra instalacin, por lo tanto, era perfectamente legal. El embajador de Suiza le inform a la canciller Merkel al respecto. +El proyecto se llam "Me oyes?" +Las antenas crearon una conexin abierta a la red de comunicacin Wi-Fi y todo el que quisiera poda participar con un dispositivo habilitado para Wi-Fi sin ningn obstculo, y poda enviar mensajes a quienes escuchan en las frecuencias interceptadas. +Mensajes de texto, chat de voz, uso compartido de archivos, todo poda enviarse de forma annima. +Y las personas se comunicaron. +Se enviaron ms de 15 000 mensajes. +Aqu hay algunos ejemplos. +"Hola mundo, hola Berln, hola NSA, hola GCHQ". +"Agentes de la NSA, hagan lo correcto! Denuncien!" +"Esta es la NSA. En Dios confiamos. A los dems rastreamos!!!!!" +"#@nonymous vigila a #NSA #GCHQ - somos parte de sus organizaciones. +# esprennos. Haremos #shutdown". "Somos el Taln de Aquiles de la NSA. Redes Abiertas". +"Agentes, qu historia retorcida de Uds. mismos le contarn a sus nietos?" +"@NSA Mis vecinos son ruidosos. Por favor enven un ataque de drones". +"Hagamos el amor, no la ciberguerra". +Invitamos a las embajadas y a los departamentos de estado a participar de la red abierta, tambin, y, para nuestra sorpresa, lo hicieron. +Aparecieron archivos en la red, incluidos documentos clasificados filtrados de la comisin de investigacin parlamentaria, que resaltan que la discusin y el libre intercambio de la informacin vital se empieza a dificultar, incluso para los miembros del parlamento. +Tambin organizamos visitas guiadas para vivir y sondear las constelaciones de poder en el lugar. +Los tours visitaron las zonas restringidas alrededor de las embajadas, y discutimos el potencial y lo ms destacado de la comunicacin. +Ser conscientes de la constelacin, de los trminos y condiciones de la comunicacin, no solo ampla nuestro horizonte, nos deja ver ms all de las regulaciones que limitan nuestra visin del mundo, de nuestras convenciones sociales, polticas o estticas. +Veamos un ejemplo real. +El destino de las personas que viven en los asentamientos improvisados en las afueras de Pars est oculto y se desvanece de la vista. +Es un crculo vicioso. +La pobreza, el racismo, la exclusin, no son algo nuevo. +Lo novedoso es cmo se ocultan estas realidades y cmo se invisibiliza a las personas en una era de global y abrumadora comunicacin e intercambio. +Esos asentamientos improvisados se consideran ilegales, y, por lo tanto, los que viven en ellos no tienen la oportunidad de hacer or su voz. +Por el contrario, cuando aparecen, y corren el riesgo de hacerse visibles, simplemente son el motivo de su posterior persecucin, expulsin y represin. +Nos interesaba la forma de conocer este lado oculto. +Buscbamos una interfaz y la encontramos. +No es una interfaz digital, sino fsica: es un hotel. +Lo denominamos "Hotel Gelem". +Junto con familias romanes, creamos varios hoteles Gelem en Europa. Por ejemplo, en Friburgo, en Alemania, en Montreuil, cerca de Pars, y tambin en los Balcanes. +Son hoteles reales. +La gente puede alojarse all. +Pero no son una empresa comercial. +Son un smbolo. +Uno puede ir a la web y pedir una invitacin personal para pasar unos das en el Hotel Gelem, en sus hogares, comer, trabajar y vivir con familias romanes. +Aqu, las familias romanes no son los viajeros; los visitantes lo son. +Aqu, las familias romanes no son una minora; los visitantes lo son. +La idea es no hacer juicios, sino ms bien conocer el contexto que determina estas contradicciones dispares y aparentemente insalvables. +En el mundo de la globalizacin, los continentes se acercan unos a otros cada vez ms. +Culturas, bienes y personas estn en permanente intercambio, pero al mismo tiempo, la brecha entre el mundo de los privilegiados y el mundo de los excluidos va en aumento. +Hace poco estuvimos en Australia. +No tuvimos problemas para entrar al pas. +Tenemos pasaportes europeos, visas y pasajes de avin. +Pero quienes solicitan asilo y llegan en barco a Australia son deportados o enviados a prisin. +La interceptacin de los barcos y la desaparicin de las personas en el sistema de detencin estn velados por las autoridades australianas. +Estos procedimientos se declaran como operaciones militares secretas. +Tras escapes dramticos desde zonas de crisis y de guerra, hombres, mujeres y nios son detenidos por Australia sin juicio, a veces durante aos. +Durante nuestra estancia, sin embargo, conseguimos contactar a solicitantes de asilo encarcelados, a pesar de la estricta vigilancia y aislamiento. +A partir de estos contextos naci una instalacin en el espacio de arte de la Universidad Tecnolgica de Queensland, en Brisbane. +Como se ve, era una instalacin muy simple. +En el suelo, una brjula estilizada daba la direccin a cada centro de detencin de inmigrantes, acompaado por la distancia y el nombre del centro de inmigracin. +Pero la exposicin lleg en forma de conectividad. +Encima de las marcas en el piso, haba un auricular. +Los visitantes tenan la oportunidad de hablar directamente a un refugiado que estaba o haba estado en prisin en un centro de detencin especfico y entablar una conversacin personal. +En el contexto protegido de la exposicin de arte, los solicitantes de asilo se sintieron libres de hablar de s mismos, de su historia y su situacin, sin temor a las consecuencias. +Los visitantes se sumergieron en largas conversaciones sobre familias destrozadas, escapes dramticos de zonas de guerra, sobre intentos de suicidio, sobre el destino de los nios detenidos. +Las emociones eran profundas. Muchos lloraban. +Varios volvieron a la exposicin. +Fue una experiencia poderosa. +Europa enfrenta ahora una corriente de migrantes. +La situacin de los asilados se ve agravada por polticas contradictorias y por la tentacin de respuestas militarizadas. +Tambin hemos establecido sistemas de comunicacin en centros remotos de refugiados en Suiza y Grecia. +Proveen informacin bsica sobre costos mdicos, informacin legal, orientacin. +Pero son significativos. +En la red, hay censura de la informacin que podra asegurar la supervivencia por rutas peligrosas, y se criminaliza cada vez ms el suministro de dicha informacin. +Esto nos lleva de nuevo a nuestra red y a las antenas en el techo de la Embajada de Suiza en Berln y el proyecto "Me oyen?" +No debemos dar por sentado el estar conectados ilimitadamente. +Debemos empezar a hacer nuestras propias conexiones, luchar por esta idea de un mundo igual y globalmente interconectado. +Esto es esencial para superar nuestra mudez y la separacin generada por fuerzas polticas rivales. +Solo al exponernos de verdad al poder transformador de esta experiencia que podremos superar los prejuicios y la exclusin. +Gracias. +Bruno Giussani: Gracias, Mathias. +La otra mitad del do artstico est tambin aqu. +Christoph Wachter, ven al escenario. +Primero, dime un detalle: el nombre del hotel no es aleatorio. +Gelem significa algo especfico en roman. +Mathias Jud: S, "Gelem, Gelem" es el ttulo del himno roman, el oficial, y significa "Recorr un largo camino". +BG: Eso para aportar un detalle a tu charla. +Pero ambos viajaron a la isla de Lesbos hace muy poco, recin regresaron hace un par de das de Grecia, a donde estn llegando miles de refugiados y han estado llegando en los ltimos meses. +Qu vieron all y qu hicieron all? +Christoph Wachter: Bueno, Lesbos es una de las islas griegas cercanas a Turqua, y durante nuestra estancia, llegaron muchos solicitantes de asilo, en botes hacinados, y al llegar, eran abandonados a su suerte. +Se les niega muchos servicios. +Por ejemplo, no se les permite comprar un pasaje de autobs o alquilar una habitacin de hotel, muchas familias literalmente duermen en las calles. +E instalamos redes all para permitir la comunicacin bsica, porque pienso, creo, que no solo tenemos que hablar de los refugiados, pienso que tenemos que empezar a hablar con ellos. +Y al hacerlo, podremos darnos cuenta de que se trata de seres humanos, de sus vidas y de su lucha por sobrevivir. +BG: Y permitirles hablar tambin. +Christoph, gracias por venir a TED. +Mathias, gracias por venir a TED y compartir tu historia. +(Inicia la msica de guitarra) (Acaba la msica) (Inicia la msica de guitarra distorsionada) (Acaba la msica) (Inicia la msica de guitarra ambiente) (Acaba la msica) +Este es uno de los animales ms sorprendentes sobre la faz de la tierra. +Este es un tapir. +Ahora bien, este es un beb tapir, la cra ms linda del reino animal. +Con mucho. +No hay competencia aqu. +He dedicado los ltimos 20 aos de mi vida a la investigacin y conservacin de los tapires en Brasil, y ha sido completamente sorprendente. +Pero de momento, he estado pensando mucho sobre el impacto de mi trabajo. +Me he estado cuestionando sobre la contribucin real que he hecho por la conservacin de estos animales que tanto amo. +Estoy siendo eficaz en salvaguardar su supervivencia? +Estoy haciendo lo suficiente? +Supongo que la gran pregunta aqu es, estoy estudiando a los tapires y contribuyendo a su conservacin, o solo estoy documentado su extincin? +El mundo est afrontando muchas crisis diferentes en conservacin. +Todos lo sabemos. Est en las noticias todos los das. +Se estn destruyendo bosques tropicales y otros ecosistemas, el cambio climtico y muchas especies a punto de la extincin: tigres, leones, elefantes, rinocerontes, tapires. +Este es el tapir de tierras bajas, la especie con la que trabajo, el mamfero terrestre ms grande de Sudamrica. +Son enormes, poderosos. +los adultos pueden pesar hasta 300 kilos. +Eso es la mitad del tamao de un caballo. +Son preciosos. +Se encuentran mayormente en bosques tropicales como el Amazonas, y tienen una necesidad imperiosa de grandes reas de hbitat para que tengan los recursos que necesitan para reproducirse y sobrevivir. +pero su hbitat est siendo destruido, y han sido cazados en varias partes de su distribucin geogrfica. +y esto es muy, muy lamentable porque los tapires son muy importantes para los hbitats donde se ubican. +Son herbvoros. +El 50 % de su dieta consiste en frutas, y cuando comen fruta, tragan las semillas, las cuales dispersan por todo el hbitat a travs de sus heces. +Juegan este importante papel para moldear y mantener la estructura y la diversidad del bosque, y por esa razn, los tapires son conocidos como los jardineros del bosque. +No es eso genial? +Si piensan en ello, la extincin de los tapires afectara seriamente la biodiversidad en su conjunto. +Empec mi trabajo del tapir en 1996, an muy joven, recin egresada, y fue una investigacin y un programa de conservacin pionero. +En ese punto, tenamos una informacin nula sobre los tapires, sobre todo porque son difciles de estudiar. +Son nocturnos, solitarios, y unos animales muy escurridizos; y empezamos obteniendo datos muy bsicos de estos animales. +Pero qu es lo que un conservacionista hace? +bueno, primero, necesitamos datos, +investigacin de campo +y un conjunto de datos a largo plazo para apoyar la labor de conservacin, y ya dije que los tapires son muy difciles de estudiar, as que tenemos que confiar en mtodos indirectos para estudiarlos. +Tenemos que capturarlos y anestesiarlos para que les podamos instalar collares GPS en sus cuellos y seguir sus movimientos, la cual es una tcnica usada por muchos otros conservacionistas en el mundo. +Y luego podemos recolectar datos sobre cmo usan el espacio, cmo se mueven en el territorio, cules son sus hbitats prioritarios, y mucho ms. +Luego, debemos difundir lo que aprendemos. +Tenemos que educar a las personas sobre los tapires y cun importantes son estos animales. +y es sorprendente cuntas personas en el mundo no sepan qu es un tapir. +De hecho, muchas personas creen que este es un tapir. +Djenme decirles, este no es un tapir. +Este es un oso hormiguero. +Los tapires no comen hormigas. Jams. Nunca. +Y luego tenemos que dar entrenamiento, fomentar la capacitacin. +Es nuestra responsabilidad preparar a los conservacionistas del futuro. +Estamos perdiendo muchas batallas en la conservacin, y necesitamos ms personas haciendo lo que hacemos, y necesitan las habilidades, y la pasin para hacerlo. +En ltima instancia, los conservacionistas, debemos ser capaces de aplicar nuestra informacin, para aplicar nuestro conocimiento acumulado para apoyar la labor de conservacin real. +Nuestro primer programa Tapir se dio en el bosque atlntico en la parte este de Brasil, uno de los biomas ms amenazados del mundo. +La destruccin del bosque atlntico empez a inicios de los 1500, cuando los primeros portugueses llegaron a Brasil, comenzando la colonizacin europea en la parte este de Sudamrica. +Este bosque fue casi arrasado en su mayora por la madera, la agricultura, la ganadera y la construccin de ciudades. Hoy solo el 7 % del bosque atlntico an queda de pie. +Y los tapires se encuentran en poblaciones desconectadas y aisladas muy pequeas. +En el bosque atlntico, descubrimos que ellos se mueven a travs de reas abiertas de pastizales y zonas agrcolas yendo de un rea del bosque a otra. +As que la propuesta principal en esta regin fue la de usar los datos para ubicar los posibles lugares del establecimiento de corredores de vida silvestre de entre esas reas de bosque, reconectando el hbitat y as los tapires y otros animales puedan cruzar el territorio con seguridad. +Despus de 12 aos en el bosque atlntico, en 2008, expandimos nuestros esfuerzos de conservacin al Pantanal en la parte oeste de Brasil cerca de la frontera con Bolivia y Paraguay. +Esta es la mayor planicie de corrientes de agua dulce en el mundo, un lugar increble y uno de los bastiones ms importantes para los tapires en Sudamrica. +y trabajar en el Pantanal ha sido extremadamente refrescante porque encontramos grandes poblaciones de tapires saludables en el rea, y los hemos podido estudiar en las condiciones ms naturales que se podran encontrar, muy libres de amenazas. +En los Pantanales, aparte de los collares GPS, estamos usando otra tcnica: la cmara oculta. +Esta cmara est equipada con un sensor de movimiento y fotografa animales cuando caminan frente a ella. +As que gracias a estos geniales dispositivos, hemos sido capaces de recolectar valiosos datos sobre la reproduccin del tapir y su organizacin social, los cuales son piezas importantes del rompecabezas cuando ests tratando de desarrollar estas estrategias de conservacin. +Y ahora mismo, en el 2015, expandimos nuestro trabajo una vez ms al Cerrado brasileo, los pastizales abiertos y bosques de arbustos en la parte central de Brasil. +Hoy, esta regin es el mismo epicentro del desarrollo econmico de mi pas, donde el hbitat natural y comunidades de vida silvestre son rpidamente erradicadas por varias amenazas diferentes, incluyendo una vez ms, la ganadera, grandes plantaciones de caa de azcar y soya, la caza furtiva, atropellos, solo para nombrar algunos. +Y, de alguna manera, los tapires an estn ah, lo cual me da mucha esperanza. +Pero tengo que decir que empezar este nuevo programa en el Cerrado fue como una bofetada en el rostro. +Cuando conduces por el lugar y encuentras tapires muertos a lo largo de las carreteras y los signos de tapires deambulando en medio de plantaciones de caa donde no deberan estar, y hablas a los nios y te dicen que saben cmo sabe la carne de tapir porque sus familias los cazan y los consumen, realmente rompe el corazn. +La situacin en el Cerrado me hizo dar cuenta... me dio la sensacin de urgencia. +Como si nadara contra la corriente. +Eso me hizo dar cuenta que a pesar de 2 dcadas de duro trabajo intentando salvar estos animales, an tenemos mucho por hacer si queremos evitar su desaparicin. +Tenemos que encontrar modos de resolver estos problemas. +Realmente lo hacemos, y saben qu? +Realmente llegamos a un punto en el mundo de la conservacin donde tenemos que pensar fuera de lo comn. +Tendremos que ser ms creativos de lo que ahora somos. +Y, les dije que, las carreteras son un peligro para los tapires en el Cerrado as que se nos ocurri la idea de poner adhesivos reflectores en los collares GPS que les ponemos a los tapires. +Estos son los adhesivos que se usan en los camiones para evitar los choques. +Los Tapires cruzan las carreteras en la noche, as que esperamos que los adhesivos ayuden a los conductores a ver el reflejo en las carreteras, y tal vez as disminuyan un poco. +Por ahora, esta es sola una loca idea. +No lo sabemos. Veremos si se reduce la cantidad de tapires atropellados. +Pero el punto es que, quizs es el tipo de cosas que necesiten hacerse. +Y, aunque estoy luchando con todas estas cuestiones en mi mente ahora mismo, tengo un pacto con los tapires. +S en mi corazn que la conservacin del tapir es mi causa. +Esta es mi pasin. +No estoy sola. +Tengo esta inmensa red de colaboradores detrs de m, y no hay forma de que me detenga. +Continuar haciendo esto, muy probablemente por el resto de mi vida. +Y seguir haciendo esto por Patricia, mi tocaya, una de las primeras tapires que capturamos y cuidamos en el bosque atlntico hace muchos, muchos aos; por Rita y su beb Vincent en el Pantanal. +Y seguir haciendo esto por Ted, un beb tapir capturado en diciembre del ao pasado tambin en el Pantanal. +Y seguir haciendo esto por los cientos de tapires que he tenido el placer de conocer todos estos aos y por los muchos otros que s que encontrar en el futuro. +Estos animales merecen ser cuidados. +Me necesitan. Nos necesitan. +Y saben? Los seres humanos merecemos vivir en un mundo donde podamos salir y ver y beneficiarnos no solo de los tapires sino de todas las dems hermosas especies, ahora y en el futuro. +Muchas gracias. +Quisiera demostrar por primera vez en pblico que es posible transmitir un vdeo desde una bombilla LED comercial estndar a un panel solar con una computadora porttil que acta como receptor. +No hay Wi-Fi involucrado, es solo luz. +Y pueden preguntarse, cul es la razn? +Y la razn es es que habr una extensin masiva de Internet para cerrar la brecha digital, y para permitir lo que llamamos "El Internet de las cosas" --decenas de miles de millones de dispositivos conectados a Internet--. +En mi opinin, una extensin de Internet solo puede funcionar si es casi energticamente neutral. +Lo que significa usar la infraestructura existente tanto como sea posible. +Y aqu es donde la clula solar y el LED intervienen. +Demostr por primera vez, en TED en 2011, la Li-Fi o fidelidad de luz. +La Li-Fi utiliza LEDs comerciales para transmitir datos increblemente rpido, y tambin en una manera segura y protegida. +Los datos se transportan por la luz, codificados en cambios sutiles del brillo. +Si miramos a nuestro alrededor, tenemos muchos LEDs que nos rodean, as que hay una rica infraestructura de transmisores Li-Fi que nos rodea. +Pero hasta ahora, usamos dispositivos especiales, pequeos detectores de fotos, para recibir la informacin codificada en los datos. +Yo quera encontrar una manera de usar tambin la infraestructura existente para recibir los datos de nuestras luces Li-Fi. +Y es por eso que he estado buscando en las clulas solares y paneles solares. +Un panel solar absorbe la luz y la convierte en energa elctrica. +Por eso podemos utilizar un panel solar para cargar nuestro telfono mvil. +Pero recordemos que los datos se codifican en cambios sutiles del brillo del LED, por lo que si la luz entrante flucta, tambin lo hace la energa obtenida de la clula solar. +Esto significa que tenemos un mecanismo principal all para recibir informacin de la luz y por el panel solar, porque las fluctuaciones de la energa recolectada corresponden a los datos transmitidos. +Por supuesto, la pregunta es: podemos recibir los cambios muy rpidos y sutiles de la luminosidad, como los transmitidos por nuestras luces LED? +Y la respuesta a eso es s, s podemos. +Hemos demostrado en el laboratorio que podemos recibir hasta 50 megabytes por segundo de un panel solar comercial estndar. +Ms rpido que la mayora de las conexiones de banda ancha actuales. +Ahora djenme mostrrselos en la prctica. +En esta caja hay una lmpara LED comercial estndar. +Este es un panel solar comercial estndar; est conectado a la computadora porttil. +Y tambin tenemos un instrumento aqu para visualizar la energa que recolectamos del panel solar. +Este instrumento muestra algo en este momento. +Esto se debe a que el panel solar ya recolecta luz de la luz ambiente. +Ahora lo que me gustara hacer primero es encender la luz, y simplemente voy, solo enciendo la luz, por un momento, y lo que notarn es que el instrumento salta a la derecha. +El panel solar, por el momento, est recolectando energa a partir de esta fuente de luz artificial. +Si lo apago, vemos que baja. +Lo enciendo... +As que recolectamos energa con el panel solar. +Pero a continuacin me gustara activar la transmisin del video. +Y lo hago presionando este botn. +As que ahora esta lmpara LED aqu est transmitiendo un video cambiando el brillo del LED de una manera muy sutil, de una manera indetectable a simple vista, porque los cambios son demasiado rpidos para reconocerlos. +Pero con el fin de probar el punto, puedo bloquear la luz de la clula solar. +As que primero se nota es que la recoleccin de energa cae y el video se detiene tambin. +Si quito el bloqueo, el video se reiniciar. +Y puedo repetirlo. +As que detenemos la transmisin del vdeo y la recoleccin de energa tambin. +As demostramos que el panel solar acta como un receptor. +Pero ahora imaginen que esta lmpara LED es una luz de la calle, y hay niebla. +Quiero para simular niebla, y por eso he trado un pauelo conmigo. +Y djenme poner el pauelo sobre el panel solar. +En primer lugar notan que la energa recolectada cae, como se esperaba, pero ahora el video an contina. +Esto significa, que a pesar de la obstruccin, hay suficiente luz que entra por el pauelo al panel solar, de manera que el panel solar puede descodificar y transmitir esa informacin, en este caso, un vdeo de alta definicin. +Lo que realmente importante aqu es que un panel solar se convirti en un receptor para seales inalmbricas de alta velocidad codificadas en la luz, mientras se mantiene su funcin principal de recoleccin de energa. +Por eso es posible utilizar paneles solares existentes en el techo de una choza para actuar como un receptores de banda ancha desde una estacin de lser cerca en una colina, o de hecho, en un poste de luz. +Y realmente no importa dnde el rayo golpea el panel solar. +Y lo mismo es cierto para los paneles solares translcidos integradas en las ventanas, paneles solares integrados en el mobiliario urbano, o, de hecho, paneles solares integrados en estos miles de millones de dispositivos que formarn el Internet de las Cosas. +Porque simplemente, no queremos cargar estos dispositivos regularmente, o peor, reemplazar las bateras cada pocos meses. +Como les dije, esta es la primera vez que he mostrado esto en pblico. +Es una demostracin de laboratorio, un prototipo. +Pero mi equipo y yo estamos seguros de que podemos lanzarlo al mercado en los los prximos 2 - 3 aos. +Y esperamos poder contribuir a cerrar la brecha digital, y contribuir tambin a la conexin de todos estos miles de millones de dispositivos a Internet. +Y todo esto sin causar una explosin masiva del consumo de energa, sino lo contrario por los paneles solares, +Gracias. +Cuando voy a una escuela y hablo con los estudiantes, siempre les pregunto lo mismo: Por qu googlean? +Por qu escogen Google como su motor de bsqueda? +Extrao y todo, siempre dan las mismas 3 respuestas. +Uno: "Porque funciona", que es una gran respuesta; por eso yo tambin googleo. +Dos: --alguno dir-- "No conozco ninguna otra alternativa". +No es una respuesta igual de buena y siempre respondo diciendo: "Intenten googlear 'motor de bsqueda', puede que encuentren un par de alternativas interesantes". +Y por ltimo, pero no menos importante: inevitablemente, un estudiante levantar la mano y dir: "Con Google, estoy seguro de que siempre obtendr el resultado ms imparcial". +Seguro de que siempre obtendr el resultado ms imparcial. +Como hombre de humanidades, aunque hombre de humanidades digitales, esto me eriza la piel, aunque tambin veo que esa confianza, la creencia en el resultado imparcial, es una piedra angular de nuestro amor colectivo y del valor que damos a Google. +Les mostrar por qu, filosficamente, eso es casi un imposible. +Pero djenme primero profundizar, solo un poco, en un principio bsico que hay detrs de toda consulta y que algunas veces parece que olvidamos. +Cuando vayan a googlear, empiece preguntndose lo siguiente: "Busco un hecho aislado?". +Cul es la capital de Francia? +Cules son los componentes bsicos de una molcula de agua? +Listo, googleelo. +No hay un grupo de cientficos que estn a punto de probar que en realidad es Londres y H30. +Uno no ve una gran conspiracin en esas cosas. +Estamos de acuerdo, a escala global, sobre cules son las respuestas a estos hechos aislados. +Pero si uno complica la consulta un poco y pregunta, por ejemplo: "Por qu hay un conflicto entre Israel y Palestina?". +Entonces, ya no busca un hecho particular, uno busca conocimiento, que es algo mucho ms complicado y delicado. +Y para llegar al conocimiento, hay que poner 10, 20 o 100 hechos sobre la mesa y reconocerlos y decir: "S, son todos ciertos." +Pero al ser lo que soy, joven o viejo, negro o blanco, gay o heterosexual, los valorar de manera diferente. +Y dir: "S, esto es cierto, pero esto es ms importante para m que aquello". +Y en este punto es que se vuelve interesante, porque es ah donde nos volvemos humanos. +Ah es cuando empezamos a discutir, a ser sociedad. +Para llegar realmente a alguna parte, necesitamos filtrar todos los hechos, a travs de amigos, vecinos, padres, nios, compaeros de trabajo y peridicos y revistas, y as finalmente estar basados en un conocimiento real, algo en lo que poco puede ayudar un motor de bsqueda. +Les promet un ejemplo solo para mostrar por qu es tan difcil llegar al punto de verdadero conocimiento limpio, objetivo, como alimento del pensamiento. +Llevar a cabo un par de consultas simples, consultas de bsqueda. +Vamos a empezar con "Michelle Obama" la Primera Dama de EE. UU. +Y vamos a buscar por imgenes. +Funciona muy bien, como se puede ver. +Es un resultado de bsqueda perfecto, ms o menos. +Solo est ella en la foto, ni siquiera el Presidente. +Cmo funciona esto? +Bastante sencillo. +Google lo hace con mucha inteligencia, pero es algo bastante sencillo, reparan en dos cosas antes que nada. +Primero, cul es la leyenda a pie de foto en cada sitio web? +Dice "Michelle Obama" a pie de foto? +Bastante buena indicacin de que en realidad ella est all. +Segundo, Google explora en el archivo de imagen, el nombre del archivo subido a la pgina web. +Se llama "MichelleObama.jpeg"? +Buena seal de que Clint Eastwood no est en la foto. +Uno tiene esos criterios y se obtiene un resultado de bsqueda como este. Casi. +En 2009, Michelle Obama fue vctima de una campaa racista, donde la gente empez a insultarla a travs de resultados de bsqueda. +Haba una imagen distribuida ampliamente a travs de Internet con su cara distorsionada para que pareciera un mono. +Y esa foto fue publicada por todas partes. +Y la gente la public muy a propsito, para llegar hasta all en los resultados de bsqueda. +Se aseguraron de escribir "Michelle Obama" en la foto y se aseguraron de cargar la imagen como 'MichelleObama.jpeg' o similares. +Uds. entienden por qu, para manipular el resultado de bsqueda. +Y funcion, tambin. +As que cuando se googleaba 'Michelle Obama' por imgenes en 2009, esa imagen distorsionada como mono apareca entre los primeros resultados. +Los resultados son de autolimpieza, y eso es parte de belleza de esto, porque Google mide la relevancia cada hora, cada da. +Sin embargo, Google no se conform esta vez, pensaron: "Eso es racista y un mal resultado de bsqueda y vamos a limpiar esto manualmente. +Escribiremos algo de cdigo para arreglarlo". Lo hicieron. +Y no creo que nadie aqu crea que haya sido una mala idea. +Yo tampoco. +Pero un par de aos ms tarde, lo ms googleado del mundo fue Anders, Anders Behring Breivik, quien hizo lo que hizo. +El 22 de julio en 2011, un terrible da en la historia de Noruega. +Este hombre, un terrorista, vol un par de edificios del gobierno a poca distancia de donde estamos ahora en Oslo, Noruega, y luego viaj a la isla de Utoya y dispar y mat a un grupo de nios. +Casi 80 personas murieron ese da. +Y un montn de gente describira este acto de terror como dos pasos, que hizo dos cosas: hizo explotar los edificios y dispar a esos nios. +No es verdad. +Fueron tres pasos. +Hizo explotar esos edificios, dispar a esos nios, y se sent y esper a que el mundo lo googleara. +Y prepar los tres pasos igualmente bien. +Y si hubo alguien que inmediatamente entendi esto, fue un desarrollador sueco de webs, un experto en motores de bsqueda de Estocolmo, llamado Nikke Lindqvist. +Tambin es un hombre muy poltico y estaba bien en las redes sociales, en su blog y en Facebook. +Y dijo a todo el mundo, "Si hay algo que este tipo quiere en este momento, es controlar su propia imagen. +Veamos si podemos distorsionar eso. +Veamos si nosotros, el mundo civilizado, podemos protestar contra lo que hizo insultndolo en sus resultados de bsqueda". +Y cmo? +Dijo a todos sus lectores lo siguiente: "Busquen en Internet, encuentren fotos de caca de perro en las aceras encuentren fotos de caca de perro en las aceras, publquenlas en sus feeds, en sus sitios web, en sus blogs. +Asegrense de escribir el nombre del terrorista en la imagen, asegrese de nombrar el archivo de imagen as 'Breivik.jpeg'. +Enseemos a Google que ese es el rostro del terrorista". +Y funcion. +Dos aos despus de la campaa contra Michelle Obama, funcion esta campaa de manipulacin contra Anders Behring Breivik. +Al googlear por imgenes de l semanas tras lo acaecido el 22 de julio en Suecia, se veran imgenes de la caca de perro arriba de los resultados de bsqueda, como una pequea protesta. +Por extrao que parezca, Google no intervino en esta ocasin. +No intervino y no limpi manualmente los resultados de bsqueda. +As la pregunta del milln es hay algo diferente entre estos dos acontecimientos? +Hay algo diferente entre lo que pas con Michelle Obama y lo que le pas con Anders Behring Breivik? +Por supuesto que no. +Es exactamente lo mismo, sin embargo, Google intervino en un caso y no en el otro. +Por qu? +Debido a que Michelle Obama es una persona honorable, por eso, y Anders Behring Breivik es una persona despreciable. +Ven lo que pasa? +Se evala a una persona y solo hay un poder en el mundo con autoridad para decidir quin es quin. +"Le gusta, le disgusta. +Creemos en ti, no creemos en ti. +Tienes razn, te equivocas. Eres verdad, eres falso. +T eres Obama y t Breivik". +Ese es poder sin igual. +Por eso les recuerdo que detrs de cada algoritmo hay siempre una persona, una persona con un conjunto de creencias personales que ningn cdigo puede erradicar completamente. +Y mi mensaje va no solo a Google, sino a todos los creyentes en la fe de cdigo del mundo. +Es necesario identificar su propio sesgo personal. +Es necesario comprender que uno es humano y, en consecuencia, asumir la responsabilidad +Y digo esto porque creo que hemos llegado a un punto en que es absolutamente imperativo atar esos lazos de nuevo, de forma ms ajustada: las humanidades y la tecnologa. +Ms apretados que nunca. +Y para recordarnos que esa idea maravillosamente seductora del resultado de bsqueda limpio imparcial es, y probable siga siendo, un mito. +Gracias por tu tiempo. +Jenni Chang: Cuando les dije a mis padres que era gay, lo primero que me dijeron fue, "Vuelves a Taiwn". +Crean que mi orientacin sexual era culpa de EE.UU. +Occidente me haba corrompido con ideas divergentes y si tan solo mis padres nunca hubieran dejado Taiwn, esto no le habra pasado a su nica hija. +La verdad, me pregunt si tendran razn. +Por supuesto, hay personas homosexuales en Asia, al igual que hay la misma cantidad de gays en cada parte del mundo. +Pero la idea de vivir una vida "distinta", de "soy gay, esta es mi esposa y estamos orgullosas de nuestras vidas" es solo una idea occidental? +Si hubiera crecido en Taiwn o en cualquier lugar distinto a Occidente, hubiera encontrado modelos de personas LGBT felices y prsperas? +Dazols Lisa: Yo tena ideas similares. +Como trabajadora social del VIH en San Francisco, conoc a muchos inmigrantes gays. +Me contaban de la persecucin en sus pases de origen, solo por ser gays y las razones por las que escaparon a los EE.UU. +Vi cmo los haban golpeado. +Despus de 10 aos de hacer este tipo de trabajo, necesitaba mejores historias para m. +Saba que el mundo no era perfecto, pero seguramente no toda historia gay era trgica. +JC: Como pareja tuvimos la necesidad de encontrar historias de esperanza. +As que viajamos por el mundo buscando gente a la que hemos denominado "supergays". +Estos seran los individuos LGBT que estaban haciendo algo extraordinario en el mundo. +Seran valientes, persistentes, y sobre todo, orgullosos de quines eran. +Seran el tipo de persona a la que aspiro ser. +Nuestro plan era compartir sus historias con el mundo a travs del cine. +LD: Pero haba un problema. +No tenamos experiencia cinematogrfica ni de reportaje. +Ni siquiera sabamos dnde encontrar los supergays, as que confiamos en que bamos a resolverlo todo sobre la marcha. +Elegimos 15 pases en Asia, frica y Amrica del Sur, pases fuera de occidente diferentes sobre los derechos LGBT. +Compramos una videocmara, pedimos un libro sobre cmo hacer un documental... se puede aprender mucho en estos das, y salimos en un viaje alrededor del mundo. +JC: Uno de los primeros pases fue Nepal. +A pesar de la pobreza generalizada, una guerra civil de una dcada, y recientemente, un terremoto devastador, Nepal ha dado pasos significativos en la lucha por la igualdad. +Una de las figuras clave en el movimiento es Bhumika Shrestha. +Una hermosa, vibrante mujer transexual, Bhumika ha tenido que superar que la expulsaran de la escuela y la encarcelaran por su apariencia de gnero. +Pero, en 2007, la organizacin de derechos LGBT de Bhumika Nepal apel con xito a la Corte Suprema de Nepal por proteccin contra la discriminacin LGBT. +Esta es Bhumika: BS: De qu estoy ms orgullosa? +Soy una persona transexual. +Estoy muy orgullosa de mi vida. +El 21 de diciembre 2007 el tribunal supremo dio la rden al gobierno de Nepal de dar tarjetas de identidad transgnero y el matrimonio entre personas del mismo sexo. +LD: Puedo apreciar la confianza de Bhumika diariamente. +Algo tan simple como usar un bao pblico puede ser un gran desafo cuando no encajas en las estrictas expectativas de gnero de las personas. +Al viajar a lo largo de Asia, desconcertaba a las mujeres en los baos pblicos. +No estaban acostumbradas a ver algo como yo. +Tuve que inventar alguna estrategia para que pudiera orinar en paz. +As que cuando quera entrar a un bao sacaba el pecho para mostrar mis partes femeninas, y trataba de ser lo menos amenazante posible. +Sacaba mis manos y deca: "Hola" solo para que la gente pudiera escuchar mi voz femenina. +Todo esto era agotador, pero es solo lo que soy. +No puedo ser otra cosa. +JC: Despus de Nepal, viajamos a la India. +Por un lado, la India es una sociedad hind, sin una tradicin de homofobia. +Pero por otra parte, es una sociedad profundamente patriarcal, que rechaza cualquier cosa que amenace el orden masculino-femenino. +Cuando hablamos con activistas, dijeron que el empoderamiento comienza con asegurar la igualdad de gnero, donde se establezca el estatus de las mujeres en la sociedad. +De esta manera, la situacin de las personas LGBT se puede afirmar tambin. +LD: All conocimos al prncipe Manvendra. +Es el primer prncipe abiertamente gay del mundo. +El prncipe Manvendra sali en el programa de Oprah Winfrey muy internacional. +Sus familiares lo repudiaron lo acusaron de traer una gran vergenza para la familia real. +Nos sentamos con el prncipe Manvendra hablamos con l acerca de por qu decidi a salir tan pblicamente. +Aqu est: Prncipe Manvendra: Senta que haba mucha necesidad de romper el estigma y la discriminacin existentes en nuestra sociedad. +Y eso me llevo a salir y a hablar de m abiertamente. +Ya sea que seamos gays, lesbianas, transexuales, bisexuales o cualquier minora sexual, tenemos que unirnos y luchar por nuestros derechos. +Los derechos de los homosexuales no pueden ganarse en los tribunales sino en los corazones y las mentes de las personas. +JC: Al cortarme mi pelo, la mujer que me lo cortaba me pregunt "Tienes marido?" +Ahora, ese era un tema temido que me preguntaban mucho los lugareos durante el viaje. +Cuando le expliqu que estaba con una mujer en lugar de un hombre, no poda creerlo, y me pregunt muchas cosas acerca de las reacciones de mis parientes y si estaba triste porque nunca podra tener hijos. +Le dije que no existen limitaciones en mi vida y Lisa y yo tenemos pensado hacer una familia algn da. +Esta mujer ya me daba por perdida como otra occidental loca ms. +No poda imaginar que tal fenmeno pudiera suceder en su propio pas. +Es decir, hasta que le mostr las fotos de los supergays que entrevistamos en la India. +Reconoci al prncipe Manvendra de la televisin y pronto tuve varias peluqueras interesadas en conocerme. +Y en esa tarde ordinaria, tuve la oportunidad de mostrar a un saln de belleza completo el cambio social que estaba ocurriendo en su propio pas. +LD: De la India viajamos a frica Oriental, una regin conocida por la intolerancia hacia las personas LGBT. +En Kenia, el 89% de las personas gay son repudiadas por su familia. +Los actos homosexuales son un delito y pueden llevar a la crcel. +En Kenia, nos encontramos con la voz suave de David Kuria. +David tena la enorme tarea de querer trabajar por los pobres y mejorar su propio gobierno. +As que decidi postularse para el senado. +Se convirti en el primer candidato poltico abiertamente gay de Kenia. +David quera hacer su campaa sin negar la realidad de quin era. +Pero estaba preocupado por su seguridad porque comenz a recibir amenazas de muerte. +David Kuria: En ese momento estaba muy asustado ya que en realidad pedan que me mataran. +Y, s, hay personas por ah que lo haran y creen que estn cumpliendo un precepto religioso. +JC: David no estaba avergonzado de quin era. +Incluso an con las amenazas, permaneci autntico. +LD: En el extremo opuesto del espectro est Argentina. +Argentina es un pas con un 92% de la poblacin identificada como catlica. +Sin embargo, Argentina tiene leyes LGBT que son ms progresista incluso que las de aqu en los EE.UU. +En 2010, Argentina fue el primer pas en Amrica Latina y el dcimo en el mundo en adoptar el matrimonio homosexual. +All, nos encontramos con Mara Rachid. +Mara fue una fuerza impulsora detrs de ese movimiento. +JC: Cuando visitamos mis tierras ancestrales, Me hubiera gustado poder mostrar a mis familiares lo que encontramos all. +Porque esto es lo que encontramos: Uno, dos, tres. Bienvenido gays a Shanghai! +Toda una comunidad de jvenes y hermosas personas LGBT chinas. +Claro, tenan sus luchas, +pero las estaban luchando. +En Shanghai, tuve la oportunidad de hablar con un grupo de lesbianas locales y contarles nuestra historia en mi pobre chino mandarn. +En Taipei, cada vez que bamos en el metro, veamos otras parejas de lesbianas agarradas de la mano. +Y nos enteramos de que el evento de orgullo LGBT ms grande de Asia ocurre a solo unas manzanas de donde mis abuelos viven. +Si mis padres lo supieran. +LD: Cuando terminamos nuestro viaje gay por el mundo, Habamos recorrido 80.000 km. y registrado 120 horas de vdeo. +Viajamos a 15 pases, y entrevistamos a 50 supergays. +Resulta que no era difcil encontrarlos. +JC: S, todava suceden tragedias en el camino lleno de obstculos a la igualdad. +No olvidemos que 75 pases criminalizan la homosexualidad en la actualidad. +Pero tambin hay historias de esperanza y valor, en todos los rincones del mundo. +Lo que a fin de cuentas aprendimos de nuestro viaje fue que la equidad no es un invento occidental. +LD: Uno de los factores clave en este movimiento es el impulso, impulso a medida que ms y ms gente acepta su ser completamente y utilizan cualquier oportunidad que tengan para cambiar su parte del mundo y el impulso a medida que ms y ms pases encuentran modelos de equidad en otros pases. +Cuando Nepal dio proteccin contra la discriminacin LGBT India empuj con ms fuerza. +Cuando Argentina legaliz la equidad de la boda, Uruguay y Brasil la siguieron. +Cuando Irlanda dijo que s a la equidad, el mundo se detuvo para darse cuenta de ello. +Cuando la corte suprema de EE. UU. hace una declaracin al mundo de la que todos podemos estar orgullosos. +JC: Al revisar nuestro material de archivo, nos dimos cuenta de lo que estbamos viendo era una historia de amor. +Yo no esperaba una historia de amor, sino una llena de ms libertad, aventura y amor de la que pude haber imaginado. +Un ao despus al volver a casa de nuestro viaje, las bodas gays llegaron a California. +Y al final, creemos, el amor triunfar. +Por el poder que me confiere el estado de California y por Dios todopoderoso, los declaro cnyuges para la vida. +Pueden besarse. +Estas son las Air Jordan 3 Cemento Negro. +Podran ser las zapatillas de deporte ms importante en la historia. +Lanzadas por primera vez en 1988, iniciaron la comercializacin de Nike como la conocemos. +Este es el zapato que impuls a todo el linaje de Air Jordan, y tal vez salv a Nike. +Las Air Jordan 3 Cemento Negro hicieron por las zapatillas lo que el iPhone por los telfonos. +Han sido relanzadas en 4 ocasiones. +A cada celebridad se la visto usndolas. +Hay una pgina web sobre qu usar con las Cemento Negro. +Han estado justo debajo de sus narices durante dcadas y nunca miraron hacia abajo. +Y justo ahora, la mayora de Uds. est pensando, "zapatillas de deporte?". +S. +S, zapatillas de deporte. +Algunas cosas extraordinarias acerca de las zapatillas de deporte y datos y Nike y cmo estn relacionados, posiblemente, al futuro de todo el comercio en lnea. +En 2011, la ltima vez que fueron lanzadas las Jordan 3 Cemento Negro, al por menor a USD 160, se agotaron en todo el mundo en cuestin de minutos. +La gente estaba acampando fuera de las tiendas de zapatillas das antes de que salieran a la venta. +Y pocos minutos despus miles de esos pares fueron a eBay por dos y tres veces ese valor. +De hecho, hay ms de 1000 pares en eBay ahora, 4 aos despus. +Pero aqu est el punto: esto sucede cada sbado. +Cada semana hay otro lanzamiento o dos o tres, y cada zapato tiene una historia tan rica y convincente como la de Jordn 3 Cemento Negro. +Esto es Nike construyendo el mercado para 'sneakerheads' --gente que colecciona zapatillas de deporte-- y mi hija. +Esta es una camiseta "Te amo pap". +Para las marcas, los 'sneakerheads' son un grupo muy importante. +Estos son los creadores de tendencias; estos son los fans de Apple. +Porque, quin ms va a comprar un par de zapatillas Volver al futuro por USD 8000? +S, USD 8000. +Y aunque esto es, obviamente, anmalo, el mercado de reventa de zapatillas de deporte no lo es, sin duda. +30 aos hacindolo, lo que comenz como una cultura subrepticia de unos pocos que gustan de las zapatillas algo ms de lo debido, ahora tenemos adicciones a las zapatillas. +En un mercado en el que en los ltimos 12 meses, ha habido ms de 9 millones de pares de zapatos revendidos en EE. UU. solamente, a un valor de USD 1.2 mil millones. +Y esa es una estimacin conservadora, deben saber, soy un 'sneakerhead'. +Esta es mi coleccin. +En el panten de grandes colecciones, la ma ni siquiera registra. +Tengo cerca de 250 pares, pero confen en m, soy de poca monta. +La gente tiene miles. +Soy un muy tpico 'sneakerhead' de 37 aos de edad. +Crec jugando baloncesto cuando Michael Jordan jug. Siempre quise unos Air Jordan, mi madre nunca me los comprara, tan pronto pude me compr unos Air Jordan; literalmente, todos tenemos la misma historia. +Pero aqu es donde la ma cambia. +Despus de iniciar tres empresas, tom un trabajo como consultor de estrategia, y muy pronto me di cuenta de que no saba nada sobre datos. +Pero aprend, porque tena que hacerlo, y me gust. +Pens si podra conseguir algunos datos sobre zapatillas de deporte, solo para jugar, por mi propia diversin. +El objetivo era hacer una gua de precios, una visin con datos reales del mercado. +Cuatro aos ms tarde, estamos analizando ms de 25 millones de transacciones, dando anlisis en tiempo real de miles de zapatillas de deporte. +Hoy los sneakerheads ven precios, mientras que acampan en lanzamientos. +Otros han utilizado los datos para validar reclamaciones a seguros. +Los bancos de inversin ms importantes usan los datos de reventa para analizar la industria del calzado al por menor. +Y aqu est la mejor parte: los sneakerheads tienen carteras de zapatillas de deporte. +Los sneakerheads pueden seguir el valor de su coleccin, compararlo con otros, y tener acceso a los mismos anlisis Uds. en lnea en su cuenta de corretaje. +As el sneakerhead Dan construye su coleccin e identifica los 352 suyos. +Puede ver que vale 103 000 dlares, francamente, una coleccin modesta. +A nivel de activos, puede ver el aumento o prdida por par. +Aqu ha hecho ms de 600 dlares en un par. +Yo tengo uno de esos. +As que, una industria no regulada de USD 1.2 mil millones que crece tanto en la calle como lo hace en lnea, y da lugar a servicios financieros fundamentales para zapatillas de deporte? +Me pregunt a m mismo lo que realmente est pasando en el mercado, y dos comparaciones comenzaron a emerger. +Son las zapatillas ms como las acciones o las drogas? +De hecho, un hombre me escribi para decir que crea que su hijo de 15 aos, estaba vendiendo drogas y luego se enter de que venda zapatillas de deporte. +Y ahora utilizan los datos para hacerlo juntos. +Porque las zapatillas son una oportunidad de inversin donde no existe otra. +Y no solo al chico que vende zapatillas en lugar de las drogas. +Qu hay de todos los muchachos? +Hay que tener 18 aos para jugar en el mercado de valores. +Vend chicle en sexto grado, Blow Pops en el noveno grado y coleccion tarjetas de bisbol en la secundaria. +Las tarjetas son mucho tiempo muerto, y el mercado de dulces es bastante local. +Las zapatillas son una oportunidad de inversin legal y accesible, para muchos, un mercado de valores democratizado, pero a la vez no regulado. +Pero la historia con que probablemente estn ms familiarizados es la de gente matndose por unas zapatillas. +Y aunque sin duda sucede y es trgico, no es la epidemia que algunos medios de comunicacin tratan de hacernos creer. +De hecho, es una muy pequea parte de una historia mucho ms grande y mejor. +Las zapatillas tienen similitudes claras con la bolsa de valores y el comercio ilegal de drogas, pero tal vez lo ms fundamental es la existencia de un actor central. +Alguien est haciendo las reglas. +En el caso de las zapatillas de deporte, ese alguien es Nike. +Djenme ir a travs de algunos nmeros. +El mercado de reventa, lo sabemos, es de $ 1,2 mil millones. +Nike, incluyendo la marca Jordan, representa el 96 % de todos los zapatos que se venden en el mercado secundario. +Simple dominacin completa. +Los sneakerheads aman los Jordans. +Las ganancias en el mercado secundario son de cerca de un tercio. +Eso significa que los sneakerheads hicieron 380 millones de dlares vendiendo zapatillas Nike el ao pasado. +Saltemos al menudeo un segundo. +Skechers, a principios de este ao, se convirti en la segunda marca de calzado en el pas, superando a Adidas, algo grande. +Y en los 12 meses finalizados en junio, la utilidad neta de Skechers fue de USD 209 millones. +Eso significa que los clientes de Nike generaron casi el doble de beneficios que su competidor ms cercano. +Ese... Cmo puede ser posible? +El mercado de zapatillas es solo oferta y demanda, pero Nike es muy buena manejando la oferta --limitando las zapatillas-- y la demanda de esas zapatillas para su propio beneficio. +As que es realmente solo oferta. +Los sneakerheads bromean que mientras que sea limitado y Nike, comprarn. +Los zapatos se venden por USD 8000 porque son muy raros. +No es diferente que cualquier otro mercado de coleccin, solo que este no es un mercado en absoluto. +Es un falso constructo creado por Nike, --ingeniosamente creado por Nike, en el sentido ms positivo-- para vender ms. +Y en el proceso, les da a decenas de miles de personas pasin para toda la vida, yo incluido. +Si Nike quisiera matar el mercado de reventa, podran hacerlo maana, solo tiene que lanzar ms zapatos. +Pero ciertamente no queremos que lo hagan, ni est en su mejor inters. +Porque a diferencia de Apple, que vender un iPhone a cualquiera que quiera uno, Nike no hace su dinero por la simple venta de zapatillas de USD 200. +Venden millones de zapatos a millones de personas a USD 60. +Y los sneakerheads impulsan la comercializacin y el bombo y las relaciones y el prestigio de la marca, y permiten a Nike vender millones de zapatillas de USD 60. +Es marketing. +Es la comercializacin de los gustos como nunca se ha visto antes, ni en ningn libro de texto. +Durante 15 aos Nike ha sostenido un mercado artificial de 'commodities', como si fuera el lanzamiento de acciones de Facebook, cada fin de semana. +Conduzca por cualquier Foot Locker a las 8 am un sbado, y habr una cola en la calle y alrededor de la manzana, y a veces esos chicos que han esperado all toda la semana. +Esas colas locas por iPhones que se ven en las noticias cada ao? +Las colas de Nike ocurren 104 veces ms a menudo. +As que Nike pone las reglas. +Mediante el control de la oferta y la distribucin. +Pero una vez que un par sale del canal minorista, es el salvaje oeste. +Hay muy pocos mercados --si acaso--, no regulados legales de este tamao. +As que Nike no es definitivamente la bolsa de valores. +De hecho, no hay un intercambio central. +El ltimo recuento, haba 48 mercados en lnea diferentes, que yo conozca. +Algunos son clones de eBay, algunos, mercados de telefona mvil, y hay tiendas de consignacin y tiendas de producto, y convenciones y sitios de reventa, y Facebook e Instagram y Twitter, literalmente, en cualquier lugar los sneakerheads se conectan, las zapatillas se compran y venden. +Pero eso significa que no es eficiente, no hay transparencia, a veces ni siquiera autenticidad. +Se imaginan si as fuera como se compraran las acciones? +Y si la forma de comprar acciones de Apple fuera buscar ms de 100 lugares en lnea y fuera, incluyendo cada vez que caminas por la calle solo por la esperanza de que alguien pase con una accin de Apple? +Sin saber quin tiene el mejor precio, o incluso si la accin vendida era real. +Esto seguramente les har decir: [Foro Econmico Mundial?] Claro que no es como compramos acciones. +Pero y si no es as como hay que comprar zapatillas tampoco? +Y si el inverso fuera cierto, y pudiramos comprar zapatillas igual que compramos acciones? +Y si no son solo zapatillas, sino cualquier producto similar, relojes, bolsos y zapatos femeninos, y cualquier coleccin, artculo de temporada y artculo de rebajas? +Y si hubiera un mercado de valores para el comercio? +Un mercado de valores de las cosas. +Y no solo poder comprar de una manera mucho ms educada y eficiente, sino poder participar en todas las transacciones financieras sofisticadas como en el mercado de valores. +Opciones y futuros y bueno, tal vez ver a dnde va esto. +Tal vez quieran invertir en un mercado de valores de las cosas. +Porque si hubieran invertido en un par de Air Jordan 3 Cemento Negro en 2011, podran estar usndolos en el escenario, o haber ganado 162 % de su dinero, duplicar el S&P y 20 % ms que Apple. +Y es por eso que estamos hablando de zapatillas. +Gracias. +La religin es ms que fe. +Es poder e influencia. +Y esa influencia nos afecta a todos, todos los das, sin importar la propia fe. +A pesar de la enorme influencia de la religin en el mundo de hoy, la mantenemos en un nivel diferente de escrutinio y rendicin de cuentas que cualquier otro sector de nuestra sociedad. +Por ejemplo, si hubiera una organizacin multinacional, gobierno o corporacin de hoy que dijera que ninguna mujer puede estar en una junta directiva, ninguna mujer puede tener poder de decisin, ni tampoco una mujer puede manejar asuntos financieros, nos provocara indignacin. +Habra sanciones. +Y, sin embargo, es una prctica comn en casi todas las religiones del mundo. +Aceptamos cosas en nuestras vidas religiosas que no aceptamos en nuestras vidas seculares, y lo s porque lo he estado haciendo durante tres dcadas. +Era el tipo de chica que luchaba contra toda forma de discriminacin de gnero. +Jugu partidos de baloncesto informales con chicos, marcando yo misma canastas. +Dije que sera la primera mujer presidente de EE.UU. +He luchado por la Enmienda de Igualdad de Derechos, que ha estado muerta durante 40 aos. +Soy la primera mujer en ambos lados de mi familia que siempre trabaj fuera de casa y que tena educacin superior. +Nunca acept ser excluida por ser mujer, excepto en mi religin. +En todo ese tiempo, era parte de una religin muy ortodoxa y patriarcal, la mormona. +Crec en una familia sumamente tradicional. +Tengo ocho hermanos y una madre ama de casa. +Mi padre es en realidad un lder religioso en la comunidad. +Y yo crec en un mundo creyendo que mi valor y mi estado estaban en consonancia con estas reglas que yo haba conocido toda mi vida. +Una se casa virgen, una nunca bebe alcohol, no fuma, siempre es servicial. una es una buena chica. +Algunas de las reglas que tenamos eran estrictas, pero una segua las reglas por amor a las personas y por amor a la religin y a lo que una crea. +Todo lo referente al mormonismo decida cmo me vesta, con quin sala y deba casarme. +Decida la ropa interior que llevbamos. +Yo era de una religin, donde todos los que conozco donaban el 10 % de lo que ganaban a la iglesia, incluida yo misma. +Del lo ganado por el buzoneo y por el cuidado de nios donaba el 10 %. +Yo era de la religin donde los padres dicen a los nios que cuando los dejan en una misin de proselitismo de dos aos que prefieren que mueran a que vuelvan a casa sin honor por haber pecado. +Yo era de esa religin donde los nios se suicidan cada ao porque estn aterrorizados de que salga a la luz que son gay en nuestra comunidad. +Pero tambin era de la religin donde no importa en qu lugar del mundo viviera, tena amistad, ayuda mutua instantnea. +Aqu me senta segura. Esta es la certeza y la claridad de la vida. +Tuve ayuda para criar a mi hija pequea. +As que por eso acept sin dudas que solo los hombres pueden liderar, y acept sin discusin que la mujer no tiene la autoridad espiritual de Dios en la Tierra, lo que llamamos el sacerdocio. +Y permit discrepancias entre hombres y mujeres en presupuestos de funcionamiento, en consejos disciplinarios, en la toma de decisiones, y di a mi religin un pase libre porque me encantaba. +Hasta que me detuve, y me di cuenta de que yo haba permitido que me trataran como el personal de asistencia para el trabajo real de los hombres. +Y yo misma me enfrent a esta contradiccin, y me sum a otros activistas en mi comunidad. +Hemos trabajado muy, muy, muy arduamente en la ltima dcada y ms. +Lo primero que hicimos fue aumentar la conciencia. +No puedes cambiar lo que no puedes ver. +Empezamos con el podcasting, blogs, a escribir artculos. +He creado listas de cientos de maneras de que hombres y mujeres no son iguales en nuestra comunidad. +Lo siguiente que hicimos fue construir organizaciones de defensa. +Intentamos hacer cosas que eran rechazables como llevar pantalones a la iglesia e intentar asistir a reuniones de hombres. +Parecen cosas simples, pero para nosotras, las organizadoras, eran enormemente difciles. +Perdimos relaciones. Perdimos puestos de trabajo. +Recibimos cartas de odio a diario. +Fuimos atacadas en los medios sociales y en la prensa nacional. +Recibimos amenazas de muerte. +Se nos ha excluido de nuestra comunidad. A algunas de nosotras nos excomulgaron. +A la mayora nos hicieron un consejo disciplinario, y las comunidades que ambamos nos rechazaron porque queramos mejorarlas, porque creamos que era posible. +Y empec a tener esa expectativa de mi propia gente. +Yo s lo que se siente cuando alguien trata de cambiarte o criticarte. +Pero lo que absolutamente me impact a travs de todo este trabajo es recibir las misma crticas severas de la izquierda laica, la misma vehemencia que la derecha religiosa. +Y lo que mis amigos seculares no vieron es que esta hostilidad religiosa, estas frases de: "Todas las personas religiosas estn locas o son estpidas". +"No hagas caso a la religin". +"Ellos sern homfobos y machistas". +Lo que ellos no entendan es que ese tipo de hostilidad no luchaba contra el extremismo religioso, sino generaba extremismo religioso. +Esos argumentos no funcionan, y lo s porque recuerdo a los que me decan que yo era estpida por ser mormn. +Y lo que hizo que me defendiera a m y a mi gente y todo lo que creemos, porque no somos estpidos. +La crtica y la hostilidad no funcionan, y no escuchaba estos argumentos. +Cuando oigo estos argumentos, todava me sigo erizando, porque tengo familia y amigos. +Esta es mi gente y soy la primera en defenderlos, pero la lucha es real. +Cmo respetamos la creencia religiosa de alguien sin dejar de hacerlos responsables por el dao o perjuicio que esas creencias pueden causar en otros? +Es una pregunta difcil. Todava no tengo la respuesta perfecta. +Mis padres y yo hemos caminado en esta cuerda floja la ltima dcada. +Son personas inteligentes. Son gente encantadora. +E intentar ayudarles a entender su perspectiva. +En el mormonismo, creemos que, despus de la muerte, si uno sigue todas las reglas y todos los rituales, uno puede estar como familia juntos nuevamente. +Y para mis padres, hacer algo tan simple como vestir un top sin mangas ahora, mostrando los hombros, me hace indigna. +No estar con mi familia para la eternidad. +Pero es ms, un hermano mo muri en un trgico accidente a los 15, y algo tan simple como esto significa que no estaremos juntos como familia. +Y mis padres no pueden entender por qu algo tan simple como la moda o los derechos de las mujeres me impedira ver a mi hermano. +Y esa es la mentalidad a la que nos enfrentamos, y la crtica no cambia eso. +Y as, mis padres y yo hemos caminado en esta cuerda floja, explicando nuestra postura, respetndonos los unos a los otros, pero en realidad invalidar creencias bsicas de cada uno por la forma de vivir nuestras vidas ha sido difcil. +La forma de hacerlo es deshacindonos de esos proyectiles defensivos y realmente ver el interior suave de la incredulidad y la fe y tratar de respetar a los dems, mientras se mantienen lmites claros. +Otra cosa que la izquierda secular, los ateos y los ortodoxos y la derecha religiosa, lo que todos ellos no entienden es por qu preocuparse por el activismo religioso. +No puedo decir cuantos cientos de personas me han dicho, "Si no te gusta la religin, salte de ella". +Por qu tratar de cambiarla? +Porque lo que se ensea en el Sabbath transciende a nuestra poltica, a nuestra poltica de salud, la violencia en todo el mundo. +Permea la educacin, el ejrcito, la toma de decisiones fiscal. +Estas leyes estn codificadas legal y culturalmente. +De hecho, mi propia religin ha tenido un enorme efecto en esta nacin. +Por ejemplo, durante la Proposicin 8, mi iglesia recaud ms de USD 22 millones para luchar contra el matrimonio de personas del mismo sexo en California. +Hace 40 aos, los historiadores polticos decan que de no ser por la oposicin mormona a la Enmienda de Igualdad de Derechos, tendramos una Enmienda de Igualdad de Derechos en nuestra Constitucin hoy. +A cuntas vidas afect eso? +Y podemos pasar tiempo luchando por cada una de estas pequeas leyes y normas diminutas, o podemos preguntarnos: por qu existe la desigualdad de gnero por omisin en todo el mundo? +Por qu se asume? +Porque la religin no se limita a crear las races de moral, sino que crea semillas de normalidad. +Las religiones pueden liberar o subyugar, pueden potenciar o explotar, pueden consolar o destruir, y la gente que inclina la balanza hacia la tica y la moral a menudo no es responsable. +Las religiones no pueden ser destituidas o ignoradas. +Tenemos que tomarlas en serio. +Pero no es fcil influir en una religin, como acabamos de decir. +Pero les dir lo que ha hecho mi gente. +Mis grupos son pequeos, somos cientos de personas, pero hemos tenido gran impacto. +Ahora en los pasillos cuelgan imgenes de mujeres junto a la de los hombres por primera vez. +Ahora a las mujeres se les permite orar en las reuniones en toda la iglesia, y antes nunca estaban en asambleas generales, +hasta la semana pasada en una decisin histrica, invitaron a tres mujeres de liderazgo que supervisan toda la iglesia. +Hemos visto cambios de percepcin en la comunidad mormona que permiten hablar de la desigualdad de gnero. +Hemos abierto el espacio, independientemente de ser rechazadas, para las mujeres ms conservadoras que intervienen y hacen cambios reales, y "mujeres" y "sacerdocio" se pueden pronunciar ahora en la misma frase. +Nunca tuve eso. +Mi hija y mis sobrinas estn heredando una religin que nunca tuve, ahora es ms igualitaria, ha surtido efecto. +No fue fcil posicionarse, tratar de entrar en esas reuniones masculinas. +Haba cientos de nosotras, y una por una, al llegar a la puerta, escuch: "Lo siento, esta reunin es solo para hombres" y tuvimos que dar un paso atrs y ver a los hombres entrar a la reunin teniendo tan solo 12 aos, escoltados y pasando ante nosotras, cuando estbamos de pie en fila. +Pero ni una sola mujer en esa fila olvidar ese da, y ningn nio que pas por delante de nosotras olvidar ese da. +Si hubiramos sido una corporacin multinacional o gobierno, lo sucedido habra despertado indignacin, pero somos solo una religin. +Todos somos solo una parte de las religiones. +No podemos seguir mirando la religin de esa manera, porque no solo me afecta, afecta a mi hija y a todas sus hijas y las oportunidades que tienen, lo que pueden vestir, a quin pueden amar y con quin casarse, si tienen acceso a servicios de salud reproductiva. +Tenemos que recuperar la moral en un contexto secular que cree escrutinio tico y responsabilidad para las religiones de todo el mundo, pero tenemos que hacerlo de manera respetuosa que engendre la cooperacin y no el extremismo. +Y podemos hacerlo a travs de actos reconocibles de valenta, defendiendo la igualdad de gnero. +Es hora de que la mitad de la poblacin mundial tenga voz e igualdad en las religiones del mundo, en iglesias, sinagogas, mezquitas y santuarios de todo el mundo. +Estoy trabajando por mi gente. Qu hacen Uds. por la suya? +Te has preguntado lo que los animales piensan y sienten? +Vamos a empezar con una pregunta: Mi perro realmente me ama o solo quiere que lo acaricie? +Bueno, es fcil saber si nuestro perro realmente nos ama, es fcil de ver, cierto?, qu est pasando en esa cabecita greuda. +Qu est pasando? +Algo est pasando. +Pero por qu siempre preguntamos si nos aman? +Por qu siempre es sobre nosotros? +Por qu somos tan narcisistas? +Encontr una pregunta diferente para los animales. +Quin eres? +Hay capacidades de la mente humana que tendemos a pensar que son capacidades nicas del humano. +Pero es cierto? +Qu hacen las otras criaturas con esos cerebros? +Qu piensan y sienten? +Hay alguna manera de saberlo? +Creo que hay una forma de averiguarlo. +Creo que hay varias maneras. +Podemos estudiar la evolucin, podemos mirar sus cerebros y podemos ver qu hacen. +Lo primero cosa a recordar es: nuestro cerebro es heredado. +Las primeras neuronas venan de las medusas. +Las medusas dieron lugar a los primeros cordados. +Los primeros cordados dieron lugar a los primeros vertebrados. +Los vertebrados salieron del mar, y aqu estamos. +Pero es an cierto que una neurona, una clula nerviosa, tiene el mismo aspecto en un cangrejo, en un pjaro o en Uds. +Qu nos dice eso acerca de las mentes de los cangrejos? +Podemos decir algo sobre eso? +Bueno, resulta que si se le da a un cangrejo de ro varias pequeas descargas elctricas cada vez que intenta salir de su madriguera, desarrollar ansiedad. +Si se les da a los cangrejos de ro el mismo medicamento usado para tratar el trastorno de ansiedad en humanos, se relaja y puede salir y explorar. +Cmo demostramos lo mucho que nos preocupa la ansiedad de los cangrejos? +Bsicamente, los hervimos. +Los pulpos utilizan herramientas, al igual que la mayora de los simios y reconocen rostros humanos. +Cmo celebramos la inteligencia simiesca de este invertebrado? +Generalmente lo hervimos. +Si un mero persigue a un pez hasta una grieta en el coral, a veces ir a donde sabe que hay una morena durmiendo y le dir a la morena, "Sgueme", y la morena entender esa seal. +La morena puede entrar en la grieta y coger al pez, pero este puede escapar y el mero puede atraparlo. +Esta es una antigua asociacin que hemos encontrado recientemente. +Cmo celebramos esa antigua alianza? +Por lo general la fremos. +Un patrn est surgiendo y nos dice mucho ms acerca de nosotros que de ellos. +Las nutrias marinas utilizan herramientas y sacan tiempo de lo que estn haciendo para mostrar a sus cras qu hacer, a esto se le llama enseanza. +Los chimpancs no ensean. +Las orcas ensean y comparten alimentos. +Cuando la evolucin hace algo nuevo, utiliza las piezas existentes, las saca del cajn, antes de fabricar algo nuevo. +Y nuestro cerebro nos ha llegado a travs de un largo periodo de tiempo. +Si comparamos el cerebro humano con el del chimpanc, se ve que bsicamente tenemos un gran cerebro de chimpanc. +Es reconfortante que el nuestro sea ms grande, porque somos muy inseguros. +Pero, oh, est el delfn, un cerebro ms grande con ms circunvoluciones. +Tal vez estn pensando, bien, vemos cerebros, pero qu tiene que ver con las mentes? +Bueno, podemos ver el funcionamiento de la mente en la lgica de los comportamientos. +Estos elefantes, como pueden ver, obviamente, estn descansando. +Han encontrado un poco de sombra bajo las palmeras en donde dejan dormir a sus bebs, mientras descansan, pero siguen alerta. +Entendemos perfectamente esa imagen as como lo que estn haciendo porque bajo el mismo sol, en las mismas llanuras, escuchando los aullidos de los mismos peligros, se convirtieron en lo que son y nos convertimos en lo que somos. +Hemos sido vecinos por un tiempo muy largo. +Nadie dira que estos elefantes estn relajados. +Estn, evidentemente, muy preocupado por algo. +De qu estn preocupados? +Resulta que si se graban las voces de los turistas y se reproducen en un altavoz escondido entre los arbustos, los elefantes no le harn caso, porque los turistas nunca los molestan. +Pero si se graban las voces de los pastores que llevan lanzas y con frecuencia los hieren en enfrentamientos en los pozos de agua, los elefantes se amontonarn y huirn del altavoz oculto. +Los elefantes no solo saben que hay humanos, saben que hay diferentes tipos de humanos, y que algunos no hacen dao y algunos son peligrosos. +Nos han observado durante mucho ms tiempo de lo que nosotros a ellos. +Nos conocen mejor de lo que nosotros los conocemos. +Tenemos los mismos imperativos: cuidar a nuestros bebs, encontrar comida, tratar de seguir con vida. +Ya sea que estemos equipamos para vagar por las colinas de frica o para bucear bajo el mar, somos bsicamente iguales. +Somos iguales bajo la piel. +El elefante tiene el mismo esqueleto, la orca tiene el mismo esqueleto, al igual que nosotros. +Los vemos ayudar cuando se necesita ayuda. +Vemos la curiosidad en los jvenes. +Vemos los lazos de conexiones familiares. +Reconocemos el afecto. +El cortejo es el cortejo. +Y entonces nos preguntamos: "son conscientes?". +Cuando les dan anestesia general, quedan inconscientes, lo que significa que no tienen sensacin de nada. +La conciencia es simplemente lo que se siente como algo. +Si ven, si oyen, si sienten, si se dan cuenta de algo, son conscientes y ellos son conscientes. +Algunas personas dicen que hay ciertas cosas que hacen a los humanos, humanos, y una de ellas es la empata. +La empata es la habilidad de la mente para coincidir +con el estado de nimo de sus compaeros. Es algo muy til. +Si sus compaeros se mueven rpidamente, se siente la necesidad de darse prisa. +Todos estamos apurados ahora. +La forma ms antigua de empata es el contagio del miedo. +Si sus compaeros de repente se sobresaltan y huyen, no funcionara muy bien para uno pensar, "Vaya, me pregunto por qu todo el mundo se fue". +La empata es vieja, pero la empata, como todo lo dems en la vida, tiene distintos grados y elaboracin. +As que hay empata bsica: se sienten tristes, me siento triste. +Los veo felices, me siento feliz. +Despus, hay algo a lo que llamo simpata, un poco ms all: "Lamento escuchar que su abuela acaba de fallecer. +No siento el mismo dolor, pero lo entiendo; s lo que siente y me preocupa". +Y luego, si estamos motivados para actuar por simpata, lo llamo compasin. +Lejos de ser lo que nos hace humanos, la empata humana est lejos de ser perfecta. +Reunimos criaturas empticas, las matamos y nos las comemos. +Tal vez piensen, bueno, son especies diferentes. +Es solo depredacin y los humanos somos depredadores. +Pero tampoco tratamos a nuestra propia especie muy bien. +Quienes parecen saber solo una cosa sobre el comportamiento animal saben que nunca se debe atribuir pensamientos y emociones humanas a otras especies. +Bueno, creo que eso es una tontera, porque atribuir pensamientos y emociones humanas a otras especies es la mejor y primera conjetura sobre lo que estn haciendo y cmo se sienten, porque bsicamente sus cerebros son los mismos que los nuestros. +Tienen las mismas estructuras. +Las mismas hormonas que generan estados de nimo y nos motivan, estn tambin presentes en esos cerebros. +No es cientfico decir que tienen hambre cuando estn cazando o que estn cansados cuando sus lenguas cuelgan fuera, y despus decir que cuando estn jugando con sus cras y actan alegres y felices, no tenemos ni idea de si estn experimentando algo. +Eso no es cientfico. +Un periodista me dijo: "Tal vez, pero cmo saber realmente si otros animales pueden pensar y sentir?". +Y empec a buscar a travs de los cientos de referencias cientficas que puse en mi libro y me di cuenta de que la respuesta estaba en la habitacin conmigo. +Cuando mi perro deja la alfombra y se acerca a m, no al sof, a m, y se da la vuelta sobre su espalda y expone su vientre, tiene el pensamiento: "Me gustara que frotaran mi vientre. +S que puedo ir con Carl, va a entender lo que estoy pidiendo. +S que puedo confiar en l porque somos familia. +Va a hacer el trabajo y me sentir bien". +Ha pensado y ha sentido y en realidad no es ms complicado que eso. +Pero vemos a otros animales y decimos: "Oh, mira, orcas, lobos, elefantes: no es as como lo ven". +Ese macho de aleta alta es L41. +Tiene 38 aos. +La hembra a su izquierda es L22. +Tiene 44. +Se conocen desde hace dcadas. +Saben exactamente quines son. +Saben quines son sus amigos. +Saben quines son sus rivales. +Su vida sigue el arco de una carrera. +Saben dnde estn en todo momento. +Este elefante se llama Philo. +Era un joven macho. +Este es l cuatro das ms tarde. +Los seres humanos no solo podemos sentir dolor, tambin creamos mucho. +Queremos tallar sus dientes. +Por qu no podemos esperar a que mueran? +Los elefantes habitaban desde las orillas del Mar Mediterrneo hasta el cabo de Buena Esperanza. +En 1980, hubo grandes fortalezas de elefantes en frica central y oriental. +Y ahora su rea se compone de pequeos fragmentos. +Esta es la geografa de un animal que estamos llevando a la extincin, un compaero, la criatura ms maravillosa en la tierra. +Por supuesto, cuidamos mejor nuestra fauna salvaje en los Estados Unidos. +En el Parque Nacional de Yellowstone, matamos a todos y cada uno de los lobos. +Matamos a todos los lobos al sur de la frontera con Canad, en realidad. +Pero en el parque, los guardabosques lo hicieron en la dcada de 1920, y luego 60 aos ms tarde tuvieron que traerlos de vuelta, porque la poblacin de alces estaba fuera de control. +Y despus vino la gente. +Miles de personas vinieron a ver los lobos, los lobos visibles ms accesibles del mundo. +Y yo fui all y vi una increble familia de lobos. +Una manada es una familia. +Tiene algunos adultos reproductores y jvenes de varias generaciones. +Y vi la manada ms estable y famosa del Parque Nacional de Yellowstone. +Y entonces, cuando vagaban fuera de la frontera, dos de sus adultos fueron asesinados, incluyendo la madre, que a veces llamamos la hembra alfa. +El resto de la familia, de inmediato, se sumi en una lucha entre hermanos. +Hermanas expulsaban a otras hermanas. +La de la izquierda intent durante das reincorporarse a la familia. +No se lo permitieron porque estaban celosas de ella. +Estaba llamando demasiado la atencin de dos nuevos machos, y ella era la precoz. +Eso fue demasiado para ellos. +Termin vagando fuera del parque y recibi un disparo. +El macho alfa termin expulsado de su propia familia. +A medida que se acercaba el invierno, perdi su territorio, su apoyo para cazar, los miembros de su familia y su pareja. +Nosotros les causamos tanto dolor. +El misterio es, por qu no nos hacen ms dao del que causan? +Esta ballena acaba de comerse parte de una ballena gris con sus compaeros que haban matado a esa ballena. +Las personas en el barco no tenan nada que temer. +Esta ballena es T20. +Acaba de partir una foca en tres con dos compaeros. +La foca pesaba casi tanto como la gente en el barco. +No tenan nada que temer. +Se alimentan de focas. +Por qu no nos comen? +Por qu podemos confiarles nuestros nios? +Por qu las orcas han vuelto por investigadores perdidos en la niebla y los han guiado durante kilmetros hasta que la niebla se dispersara y el hogar de los investigadores estuviera ah mismo, en la costa? +Y esto ha pasado ms de una vez. +En las Bahamas, hay una mujer llamada Denise Herzing que estudia delfines moteados y ellos la conocen. +Ella los conoce muy bien. Sabe quines son todos. +Ellos la conocen. Reconocen el barco de investigacin. +Cuando ella aparece, es una gran reunin feliz. +Excepto una vez que se present y no queran acercarse al barco, lo cual fue muy extrao. +No saban que ocurra hasta que alguien sali a cubierta y anunci que una de las personas a bordo haba muerto durante una siesta en su litera. +Cmo podran los delfines saber que uno de los corazones humanos haba dejado de latir? +Por qu les importaba? +Y por qu se asustaron? +Estas cosas misteriosas apuntan a todo lo que sucede en las mentes que estn con nosotros en la Tierra en las que casi nunca pensamos en absoluto. +En un acuario en Sudfrica haba una pequea cra de delfn hocico de botella llamada Dolly. +Estaba lactando y un da un vigilante se tom un descanso y miraba por la ventana a su piscina mientras fumaba. +Dolly se acerc y lo mir, regres con su madre, lact durante un minuto o dos, volvi a la ventana y lanz una nube de leche que envolvi su cabeza como el humo. +De alguna manera, este beb delfn hocico de botella tuvo la idea de utilizar leche para representar el humo. +Cuando los seres humanos utilizan algo para representar otra cosa, lo llamamos arte. +Lo que nos hace humanos no es lo que creemos que nos hace humanos. +Lo que nos hace humanos es que, de todo lo que nuestras mentes y sus mentes tienen, somos los ms extremos. +Somos los ms compasivos, los ms violentos, los ms creativos y el animal ms destructivo que haya habido jams en este planeta y somos todo esto junto. +Pero el amor no es lo que nos hace humanos. +No es nico en nosotros. +No somos los nicos que se preocupan por sus compaeros. +No somos los nicos que se preocupan por sus hijos. +Los albatros con frecuencia vuelan 10 000 e incluso 15 000 km durante varias semanas para llevar una comida, una gran comida, a sus polluelos que los esperan. +Anidan en las islas ms remotas de los ocanos del mundo, y as es como est. +Pasar la vida de una generacin a la siguiente es la cadena del ser. +Si se detiene, todo termina. +Si algo es sagrado, es esto, y a esa relacin sagrada llega nuestra basura de plstico. +Todos estos pjaros tienen plstico en ellos ahora. +Este es un albatros de seis meses, listo para emplumar muerto, lleno de mecheros rojos. +Esta no es la relacin que se supone que tenemos con el resto del mundo. +Pero nosotros, que nos hemos llamado como nuestro cerebro, nunca pensamos en las consecuencias. +Cuando damos la bienvenida a una nueva vida humana en el mundo, damos la bienvenida a nuestros bebs en la compaa de otras criaturas. +Pintamos animales en las paredes. +No pintamos telfonos mviles. +No pintamos cubculos de oficinas. +Pintamos animales para mostrarles que no estamos solos. +Estamos en compaa. +Y cada uno de esos animales en cada pintura del arca de No, considerados dignos de salvacin est en peligro de muerte ahora y su diluvio somos nosotros. +As que empezamos con una pregunta: Nos aman? +Vamos a hacer otra pregunta. +Somos capaces de utilizar lo que tenemos para simplemente dejarlos continuar? +Muchas gracias. +Durante gran parte del siglo pasado, la arquitectura estuvo bajo el influjo de una famosa doctrina. +"La forma sigue a la funcin", el ambicioso manifiesto de la modernidad y una camisa de fuerza perjudicial que despoja a la arquitectura de lo decorativo y la condena al rigor utilitario confinado al propsito. +Claro, la arquitectura tiene que ver con la funcin, pero quiero recordar una reescritura de esta frase de Bernard Tschumi, y quiero proponer una cualidad totalmente diferente. +Si la forma sigue a la ficcin, podramos pensar la arquitectura y los edificios como espacios de historias, historias de las personas que viven all, de las personas que trabajan en estos edificios. +Y podramos empezar a imaginar las experiencias que crean los edificios. +En este sentido, me interesa la ficcin no por lo inverosmil, sino por lo real, por la realidad que implica la arquitectura, por las personas que viven en ella y con ella. +Nuestros edificios son prototipos, ideas de posibles diferencias en el espacio que habitamos o en el espacio laboral, y del posible aspecto actual del espacio cultural y de medios. +Nuestros edificios son reales; se construyen. +Constituyen un compromiso explcito en la realidad fsica y en la posibilidad de los conceptos. +Pienso nuestra arquitectura como estructuras organizativas. +En su ncleo, de hecho, hay pensamiento estructural, de sistema: Cmo disponer los elementos de forma funcional y a la vez dar una experiencia? +Cmo crear estructuras que generen una serie de relaciones y narrativas? +Cmo hacer que las historias ficticias de los habitantes y usuarios de nuestros edificios guen la arquitectura, y que la arquitectura guie esas historias al mismo tiempo? +Y aqu entra en juego el segundo trmino, lo que denomino "hbridos narrativos". Estructuras de mltiples historias simultneas que se despliegan a lo largo de los edificios que creamos. +Por eso podramos pensar la arquitectura como sistemas complejos de relaciones, en lo programtico y en lo funcional, en lo emotivo, lo social y como parte de una experiencia. +Esta es la sede de la emisora nacional de China, que dise junto a Rem Koolhaas en OMA. +En mi primera vez en Pekn en 2002, los planificadores mostraron esta imagen: un bosque de varios cientos de rascacielos en el centro del distrito financiero, salvo que en ese momento, solo exista un puado de edificios. +Tuvimos que disear en un contexto del que sabamos casi nada, salvo una cosa: todo iba a ser vertical. +Claro, un rascacielos es vertical, es una estructura profundamente jerrquica. La parte superior siempre es la mejor, la inferior la peor, y cuanto ms alto ests, mejor, por lo que parece. +Y queramos preguntarnos: Podra tener un edificio una cualidad totalmente diferente? +Podra deshacer esta jerarqua y tratarse de un sistema ms basado en la colaboracin que en el aislamiento? +As que tomamos esta aguja y la inclinamos de nuevo sobre s misma, en un bucle de actividades interconectadas. +Nuestra idea era poner todos los aspectos de la produccin de TV en una estructura simple: noticias, produccin de programas, transmisin, investigacin y entrenamiento, administracin, todo dentro de un circuito de actividades interconectadas donde las personas se encuentren en un proceso de intercambio y colaboracin. +Todava me gusta mucho esta imagen. +Recuerda una clase de biologa, si recuerdan el cuerpo humano con todos sus rganos y el sistema circulatorio, como en la escuela. +Y, de repente, uno ya no piensa la arquitectura como algo construido sino como un organismo, como una forma de vida. +Y conforme diseccionamos este organismo, identificamos una serie de grupos tcnicos primarios: produccin de programas, centro emisor y noticias. +Estn estrechamente entrelazados con los grupos sociales: salas de reuniones, comedores, reas para conversar, espacios informales para reunirse e intercambiar. +La estructura organizativa de este edificio era un hbrido entre lo tcnico y lo social, entre lo humano y el rendimiento. +Y, claro, usamos el bucle del edificio como sistema circulatorio, para entrelazar todo y permitirle tanto a visitantes como al personal experimentar estas funciones diferentes en un marco de gran unidad. +Con 473 000 metros cuadrados, es uno de los edificios ms grandes del mundo. +Tiene una poblacin de ms de 10 000 personas, y, por supuesto, es una escala que excede la comprensin de muchas cosas, y la escala de la arquitectura tpica. +Por eso detuvimos el trabajo un tiempo, nos sentamos a cortar 10 000 palitos y los pegamos en un modelo, para confrontarnos con esa cantidad en la realidad. +Era una manera de guionar y disear el edificio pero, por supuesto, tambin de comunicar sus experiencias. +Esto fue parte de una exposicin en el Museo de Arte Moderno de Nueva York y de Pekn. +Esta es la sala principal de control de transmisin, una instalacin tcnica tan grande que puede transmitir ms de 200 canales en simultneo. +As se ve hoy el edificio en Pekn. +Su primera emisin en directo fue de los JJ.OO. de 2012 en Londres, tras haber sido terminada en el exterior para los Juegos Olmpicos de Pekn. +Y se puede ver en la punta de este voladizo de 75 metros, esos tres circulitos. +Y de hecho son parte de un bucle pblico que pasa por el edificio. +Es de vidrio y uno se puede parar all y mirar la ciudad que pasa debajo en cmara lenta. +El edificio se ha convertido en parte cotidiana de la vida en Pekn. +Est all. +Tambin se ha convertido en un teln de fondo muy popular para fotografas de bodas. +Pero su momento ms importante quiz siga siendo este. +"That's Beijing" es similar a "Time Out", un magazine que difunde lo que ocurre en la ciudad durante la semana, y de repente uno ve que el edificio ya no se presenta como algo material, sino como un actor urbano, como parte de una serie de personajes que definen la vida de la ciudad. +De repente, la arquitectura adquiere la cualidad de actor, de alguien que escribe historias y acta historias. +Y creo que podra ser uno de los significados primarios en los que creemos. +Pero claro, este edificio tiene otra historia. +Es la historia de las personas que lo hicieron... 400 ingenieros y arquitectos a los que yo gui durante ms de una dcada de trabajo colaborativo que pasamos juntos guionando este edificio, imaginando su realidad, y en ltima instancia haciendo que se construya en China. +Este es un desarrollo residencial en Singapur, de gran escala. +Cmo podramos pensar en crear un entorno comunal en el que compartir cosas fuera tan bueno como tenerlas uno mismo? +Y se ve que estos patios no son espacios hermticamente sellados. +Son abiertos, permeables; estn interconectados. +"El entrelazado", lo llamamos, pensando que entrelazamos e interconectamos seres humanos y espacios por igual. +Y la calidad detallada en todo lo que hemos diseado tuvo que ver con animar el espacio y dar espacio a los habitantes. +De hecho, era un sistema principalmente de capas de espacios comunes, apilados a espacios cada vez ms individuales y privados. +Abriramos as un espectro entre lo colectivo y lo individual. +Un poquito de matemticas: si contamos todo el verde que dejamos en el suelo, restamos la huella de carbono de los edificios, y sumamos el verde de las terrazas, tenemos 112 % de espacio verde. O sea, ms naturaleza que si no construamos el edificio. +Y, claro, ese pequeo clculo muestra que estamos multiplicando el espacio disponible para quienes viven all. +Este es, de hecho, el piso 13 de una de esas terrazas. +Ven nuevos planos de referencia, nuevos terrenos para actividad social. +Prestamos mucha atencin a la sustentabilidad. +En los trpicos, el sol es lo ms importante a prestarle atencin, de hecho, se busca la proteccin contra el sol. +Primero demostramos que los apartamentos tendran suficiente luz del da durante todo el ao. +Luego optimizamos los vidrios de las fachadas para reducir al mnimo el consumo de energa del edificio. +Pero lo ms importante, podramos probar que a travs de la geometra del diseo del edificio, el edificio en s proporcionara suficiente sombra a los patios y entonces se podran usar durante todo el ao. +Adems colocamos espejos de agua en los corredores de viento que predominan, as el enfriamiento por evaporacin creara microclimas que, de nuevo, mejoraran la calidad de los espacios disponible para los habitantes. +Esa fue la idea de crear esta variedad de opciones, de la libertad de pensar dnde quieres estar, a dnde quieres escapar, quiz, con la complejidad propia del complejo en el que vives. +Pero pasemos de Asia a Europa: un edificio para una empresa alemana de medios con sede en Berln, que pasa de los medios impresos tradicionales a los medios digitales. +Su director general nos hizo unas preguntas muy pertinentes: Por qu alguien todava hoy querra ir a la oficina, si en realidad puede trabajar desde cualquier lado? +Y cmo encarnar la identidad digital de una empresa en un edificio? +Creamos no solo un objeto, sino que en el centro de este objeto creamos un espacio gigante, y este espacio tena que ver con la experiencia colectiva, la experiencia de colaboracin y de unin. +La comunicacin, la interaccin como centro del espacio que de por s flotara, como eso que llamamos nube de colaboracin, en el medio del edificio, rodeada por una envoltura de oficinas modulares estndar. +As, a solo unos pasos de tu tranquilo escritorio, podras participar de la experiencia colectiva gigante del espacio central. +Finalmente, llegamos a Londres, un proyecto a pedido de la Corporacin para el Desarrollo del Legado de Londres, del alcalde de Londres. +Se nos pidi realizar un estudio e investigar el potencial de un sitio en Stratford, en el Parque Olmpico. +En el siglo XIX, el prncipe Alberto haba creado Albertpolis. +Y Boris Johnson pens en crear Olimpicpolis. +La idea era reunir algunas de las mayores instituciones britnicas, algunas internacionales, y crear un nuevo sistema de sinergias. +El prncipe Alberto, cre Albertpolis en el siglo XIX, con la idea de mostrar los logros de la humanidad, para acercar las artes y las ciencias. +Y construy Exhibition Road, una secuencia lineal de esas instituciones. +Pero, claro, la sociedad actual ya no es la misma de entonces. +Ya no vivimos en un mundo en el que todo est tan claramente delineado o separada una cosa de la otra. +Vivimos en un mundo en el que los lmites empiezan a desdibujarse entre las diferentes esferas, y en el que la colaboracin y la interaccin son mucho ms importantes que mantener las separaciones. +Por eso queramos pensar en una mquina cultural gigante, un edificio que pudiera orquestar y animar varias esferas, y que les permitiera interactuar y colaborar. +En la base hay un mdulo muy simple, un mdulo anular. +Puede funcionar como un corredor de doble carga, tiene luz y ventilacin. +Se le pueden colocar vidrios y transformarse en un espacio gigante de exposiciones. +Estos mdulos se apilan con la idea de que casi cualquier funcin podra, con el tiempo, ocupar cualquiera de estos mdulos. +Las instituciones podran reducirse o contraerse, pues, claro, el futuro de la cultura es, en cierto modo, el ms incierto de todos. +El edificio se ubica al lado del Centro Acutico, frente al Estadio Olmpico. +Y pueden ver cmo sus volmenes en voladizo proyectan y participan del espacio pblico y cmo sus patios animan el interior pblico. +La idea era crear un sistema complejo en el que las entidades institucionales pudieran mantener su propia identidad, y que no quedaran subsumidas en un volumen singular. +Esta es una comparacin de escala con el Centro Pompidou de Pars. +Ambos presentan la escala y el potencial enormes del proyecto, pero tambin la diferencia: Esta tiene la multiplicidad de una estructura heterognea, en la que pueden interactuar distintas entidades sin perder su propia identidad. +Y quiero terminar con un proyecto muy pequeo, en cierta forma, muy diferente: un cine flotante en el ocano de Tailandia. +Unos amigos mos crearon un festival de cine, y pens: si pensamos en las historias y en las narrativas de las pelculas, tambin hay que pensar en los relatos de las personas que las miran. +As que dise una pequea plataforma flotante modular, con base en las tcnicas de los pescadores locales, en su forma de construir factoras de peces y langostas. +Colaboramos con la comunidad local y construimos, con materiales reciclados de su propiedad, esta estupenda plataforma flotante que se mova suavemente en el ocano mientras veamos pelculas del archivo de cine britnico, "Alicia en el pas de las maravillas", de 1914, por ejemplo. +La experiencia ms fundamental del pblico mezclada con las historias de las pelculas. +Por eso creo que la arquitectura excede la esfera de lo fsico, del entorno construido, y se trata ms bien de cmo queremos vivir nuestras vidas, de cmo guionamos nuestras historias y las de los otros. +Gracias. +Y si pudiera presentarles una historia qu pudiesen recordar con todo el cuerpo y no solo con la mente? +Me he visto obligada toda mi vida, como periodista, a tratar de presentar historias que puedan marcar la diferencia y tal vez inspiren ms empata en la gente. +He trabajado en prensa con documentales +y en radiodifusin. +Pero en realidad no fue hasta acercarme a la realidad virtual que empec a ver estas reacciones de verdad autnticas e ingenuas en la gente y eso me sorprendi mucho. +El problema es que con la RV, la realidad virtual, les puedo traer a la escena, en el medio de la historia. +Al colocarse estas gafas que les siguen donde quiera que miren, experimentaran una sensacin corporal total, como si estuvieran realmente all. +As que hace cinco aos empec a ampliar los lmites al juntar la realidad virtual con el periodismo. +Yo quera escribir un artculo sobre el hambre. +Las familias en EE.UU. se estn muriendo de hambre, los bancos de alimentos estn desbordados y a menudo se quedan sin alimentos. +Saba que no poda hacer a la gente sentirse hambrienta pero quiz poda encontrar una manera de que sientan algo fsico. +Bueno, de nuevo, eso era hace cinco aos... y juntar periodismo con realidad virtual era una idea sin ton ni son, y tampoco tena capital. +Cranme, haba muchos de mis colegas que se rieron de m. +Pero tuve una muy buena pasante, una mujer llamada Michaela Kobsa-Mark. +Y juntas nos fuimos a los bancos de alimentos y empezamos a hacer grabaciones de audio y tomar fotos. +Hasta que un da vino a mi oficina llorando, estaba sollozando. +Se encontraba en el medio de una cola muy larga y la organizadora se senta totalmente abrumada, y empez a gritar: "Hay demasiada gente! Demasiada gente!" +Y un hombre con diabetes, que no recibi los alimentos a tiempo tuvo una crisis hipoglucmica, y entr en coma. +Tan pronto como escuch la grabacin, supe que esto sera el tipo de escena evocadora que podra describir lo que estaba pasando en los bancos de alimentos. +As que aqu est la cola de verdad. Pueden ver lo larga que era, no? +Sin embargo, como he dicho, no tenamos mucho capital, as que tuve que reproducirla con personas virtuales que se ofrecieron, y con gente que pidi favores para ayudarme a crear los modelos y a reconstruir todo esto lo ms exacto posible. +Y luego tratamos de transmitir lo que pas ese da con la mayor exactitud posible. +Voz: Hay demasiada gente! Demasiada gente! +Voz: Est teniendo una crisis. +Voz: Necesitamos una ambulancia. +Nonny de la Pea: El hombre de la derecha... est caminando alrededor del hombre cado. +Para l... est en la habitacin con ese hombre. +Como si el hombre estaba a sus pies. +Aun as, con el rabillo del ojo, puede ver lo que hay en el laboratorio, se da cuenta de que no est en la calle, pero siente que est all con aquella gente. +Tiene mucho cuidado de no pisar al hombre que en realidad no est all. +Este video se llev al Festival de Sundance en 2012, una cosa increble, y fue la primera pelcula de realidad virtual que se present, bsicamente. +Y cuando nos presentamos, estaba aterrorizada. +No saba cmo iba a reaccionar la gente y lo que iba a suceder. +Me present con este par de gafas pegadas con cinta. +Ests llorando! Ests llorando. Gina, ests llorando. +Pueden escuchar la sorpresa en mi voz, verdad? +Y ese tipo de reaccin acabo por ser lo que vimos repetirse varias veces. La gente de rodillas tratando de consolar a a la vctima del ataque, tratando de susurrarle algo al odo o de alguna manera ayudar incluso cuando no podan. +Y muchas personas salieron diciendo: "Oh, Dios mo! Que frustrante! No pude ayudar a este hombre". Y quedar con esta culpa. +As que, despus de que se hiciera este video, el decano de la escuela de cine la Universidad del Sur de California invit al director del Foro Econmico Mundial para experimentar el "Hambre" que nada ms sacarse las gafas de realidad virtual encarg un video sobre Siria en aquel mismo momento. +Yo realmente quera hacer algo acerca de los nios refugiados sirios debido a que han sido los ms afectados por la guerra civil en Siria. +Envi un equipo a la frontera iraqu para grabar en los campos de refugiados un rea donde ahora no enviara un equipo, ya que ISIS est operando all. +Y luego recreamos una escena callejera donde una mujer joven est cantando mientras explota una bomba. +Cuando estn en el medio de la escena, y escuchan esos sonidos, y ven a los heridos a su alrededor, lo que se siente es increblemente aterrador y real. +Personas involucradas en atentados reales me han dicho que despierta el mismo tipo de miedo. +[La guerra civil en Siria puede parecer muy lejana] [hasta que la experimentamos nosotros mismos.] (Muchacha cantando) [Proyecto Siria] [Una experiencia de realidad virtual] NP: Nos invitaron a llevar el video al Museo Victoria y Albert, de Londres. +Y sin publicidad. +Nos pusieron en la sala de tapices. +No se anunci en la prensa as que cualquier persona que visitaba el museo ese da iba a vernos rodeados de toda esa luz. +Tal vez vinieron a ver los viejos tapices narrativos, +pero se encontraron con nuestras cmaras de realidad virtual. +Muchas personas lo han probado y al cabo de cinco das tenamos 54 pginas de comentarios en el libro de visitas. Y los custodios nos dijeron que nunca haban visto tantos comentarios. +Cosas como: "Es tan real!", "Increblemente posible!" O, por supuesto, la que ms me entusiasm: "Una verdadera sensacin como si estuvieras en el medio de algo que sueles ver en las noticias de la televisin". +Por lo tanto, funciona, no? Esta cosa funciona. +Realmente no importa de dnde viene o la edad que tenga es muy evocador. +Y no me malinterpreten, no estoy diciendo que cuando ests en una escena te olvidas de dnde ests. +Pero nos sentimos como si estuviramos en dos lugares a la vez. +Tenemos lo que yo llamo ubicuidad dual y creo que es esto lo me permite acceder a estos sentimientos de empata. +Correcto? +As que esto significa, por supuesto, que tengo que tener cuidado a la hora de crear dichas escenas. +Y debo obedecer las mejores prcticas periodsticas Y asegurarme de que estas historias impactantes se construyen con integridad. +Si no recojamos el material nosotros mismos tenemos que ser extremadamente exigentes a la hora de conocer la fuente de donde viene el material, y si es autntico. +Les dar un ejemplo con el caso de Trayvon Martin. Se trata de un joven de 17 aos que compr refrescos y dulces en una tienda, y de camino a casa fue seguido por un vigilante de barrio llamado George Zimmerman, que termin por disparar y matar al chico. +Para recrear esta escena hemos reunido los planos de toda la zona, y reconstruido toda la escena, los interiores y exteriores, en base al proyecto. +Toda la accin se desarrolla segn las grabaciones reales de las llamadas realizadas a la polica. +Y curiosamente, as hemos revelado nuevos hechos de esta historia. +El laboratorio forense que reconstruy el audio, Primeau Producciones, dijo que estaba dispuesto a declarar que George Zimmerman a salir de su coche haba armado la pistola antes de perseguir a Martin. +As se puede observar los principios bsicos del periodismo no cambian, verdad? Todava seguimos los mismos principios que antes. +La diferencia est en la sensacin de estar presente en la escena, de ser testigo de un hombre que se desmaya de hambre o sentir ser una vctima de un ataque con bomba. +Esto es lo que me motiva a ir adelante con estos videos y lo que ha guiado mi pensamiento. +Tratamos de hacerlo una experiencia ms accesible, ms all de los auriculares. +Creamos obras animadas como el video de Trayvon Martin. +Y esto ha impactado. +Algunos estadounidenses han dicho que han autorizado donaciones desde sus cuentas bancarias para los nios refugiados sirios. +El video "El hambre en Los ngeles" fue el punto de partida de una nueva forma de periodismo que creo que unir a todas las dems plataformas convencionales en el futuro. +Gracias. +Hay algo acerca de las cuevas, una abertura de sombras en un acantilado de rocas que atrae. +Al pasar a travs del portal entre la luz y la oscuridad, se entra en un mundo subterrneo, un lugar de oscuridad perpetua, de olores terrosos, de profundo silencio. +Hace mucho tiempo en Europa, los pueblos antiguos tambin entraron a estos mundos subterrneos. +Como testimonio de su paso, dejaron grabados misteriosos y pinturas, como este grupo de personas, tringulos y zigzags del Ojo Guarea en Espaa. +Ahora se recorre el mismo camino que estos primeros artistas. +Y en este lugar surrealista de otro mundo, es casi posible imaginar escuchar las sordas pisadas de botas de piel en la tierra blanda, o ver el parpadeo de una antorcha en la siguiente curva. +Cuando estoy en una cueva, a menudo me pregunto qu llev a estas personas a ir tan profundo, a desafiar pasajes estrechos y peligrosos para dejar su marca. +Este videoclip, que se tom cerca de medio kilmetro bajo tierra en la cueva de Cudn en Espaa, encontramos una serie de pinturas de color rojo en el techo en una seccin previamente inexplorada de la cueva. +Conforme nos arrastrbamos estilo militar, el techo se haca cada vez ms bajo, finalmente llegamos a un punto donde el techo era tan bajo que mi marido y el fotgrafo del proyecto, Dylan, ya no poda enfocar el techo con su cmara rflex digital. +As, mientras me filmaba segu el rastro de pintura roja con una sola luz y una cmara compacta que tenamos para ese tipo de situacin. +A medio kilmetro bajo tierra. +De verdad. +Qu hace alguien all abajo con una antorcha o una lmpara de piedra? +Digo yo, bueno, tiene sentido, cierto? +Pero ya saben, es el tipo de pregunta que trato de responder con mi investigacin. +Estudio parte del arte ms antiguo del mundo. +Creado por estos primeros artistas en Europa hace entre 10 000 y 40 000 aos. +Y el hecho es que no solo lo estudio porque es hermosa, aunque sin duda lo es. +Lo que me interesa es el desarrollo de la mente moderna, de la evolucin de la creatividad, la imaginacin, el pensamiento abstracto, acerca de lo que significa ser humano. +Mientras que todas las especies se comunican de una manera u otra, solo los seres humanos realmente lo hemos llevado a otro nivel. +Nuestro deseo y la capacidad de compartir y colaborar son responsables en gran parte de nuestra historia de xito. +Nuestro mundo moderno se basa en una red global de intercambio de informacin posible, en gran parte, por nuestra capacidad para comunicarnos, en particular, con el uso de formas grficas o escritas de comunicacin. +La cosa es, sin embargo, que hemos estado construyendo sobre los logros mentales de los que vinieron antes de nosotros durante tanto tiempo, que es fcil olvidar que ciertas habilidades no existan. +Es una de las cosas que me parece ms fascinante, sobre el estudio de nuestra historia profunda. +Esas personas no tenan hombros de gigantes para subirse. +Eran los hombros originales. +Y un sorprendente nmero de invenciones importantes provinieron de ese tiempo lejano, y hoy quiero hablarles acerca de la invencin de la comunicacin grfica. +Hay tres tipos principales de comunicacin, hablada, gestual, as como la lengua de signos, y la comunicacin grfica. +Lo oral y lo gestual son por su propia naturaleza efmeros. +Se requiere un contacto estrecho para que un mensaje se enve y se reciba. +Y despus del momento de la transmisin, se ha ido para siempre. +La comunicacin grfica, por otro lado, desacopla esa relacin. +Y con su invencin, se hizo posible por primera vez que un mensaje se transmita y preserve ms all de un solo momento en un lugar y hora. +Europa es uno de los primeros lugares donde empezamos a ver signos grficos con regularidad en cuevas e incluso en algunos sitios al aire libre. +Pero esta no era la Europa que hoy conocemos. +Era un mundo dominado por altas capas de hielo, de tres a cuatro kilmetros de altura, con llanuras de hierba y tundra congelada. +Era la era de hielo. +En el ltimo siglo se han encontrado ms de 350 sitios de arte rupestre de la era de hielo en todo el continente, decorados con animales, formas abstractas e incluso humanas como estas figuras grabadas de Grotta dell'Addaura en Sicilia. +Nos brindan una mirada poco comn sobre el mundo creativo y la imaginacin de estos primeros artistas. +Desde su descubrimiento, los animales han recibido la mayor parte del estudio como este caballo negro de Cullalvera en Espaa, o este bisonte prpura inusual de La Pasiega. +Pero para m, las formas abstractas, los llamados signos geomtricos, fueron lo que me llev a estudiar el arte. +Lo gracioso es que en la mayora de los sitios los signos geomtricos son mucho ms numerosos que los animales y humanos. +Pero cuando empec en el 2007, no haba ni siquiera una lista definitiva de cuntas formas hay, ni haba un sentido fuerte de si aparecieron los mismos a travs del espacio o el tiempo. +Antes de que siquiera pudiera empezar a trabajar en mis preguntas, mi primer paso fue recopilar una base de datos de todos los signos geomtricos conocidos de todos los sitios de arte rupestre. +El problema era que mientras estaban bien documentados en algunos sitios, por lo general los que tenan animales muy bonitos, tambin hubo muchos donde era muy vago, no haba mucha descripcin o detalle. +Algunos de no se haban visitado en medio siglo o ms. +Estos fueron en los que me concentr para mi trabajo de campo. +En el transcurso de dos aos, mi marido Dylan y yo pasamos ms de 300 horas bajo tierra, caminando, arrastrndonos y retorcindonos en alrededor de 52 sitios en Francia, Espaa, Portugal y Sicilia. +Y vali totalmente la pena. +Encontramos glifos nuevos, indocumentados en el 75 % de los sitios que visitamos. +Este es el nivel de precisin que saba que iba a necesitar si quera empezar a responder esas preguntas ms grandes. +As que vamos a esas respuestas. +Salvo un puado de signos atpicos, solo hay 32 signos geomtricos. +Solo 32 signos a lo largo de 30 000 aos y en todo el continente europeo. +Ese es un nmero muy pequeo. +Ahora bien, si eran garabatos o decoraciones al azar, esperaramos ver mucha ms variacin, pero en cambio encontramos los mismos signos repitindose en todo el espacio y el tiempo. +Algunos comienzan fuerte, antes de perder popularidad y olvidarse, mientras que otros signos son invenciones posteriores. +Pero el 65 % de esos signos se mantuvo en uso durante ese perodo de tiempo, cosas como lneas, rectngulos, tringulos, valos y crculos como vemos aqu desde el final de la era de hielo, en un sitio de hace 10 000 aos en los Pirineos. +En un comentario aparte, hay un sorprendente grado de similitud en el arte rupestre ms antiguo del que hay entre Francia y Espaa e Indonesia y Australia. +Muchos de los mismos signos aparecen en lugares tan lejanos, especialmente en ese rango de 30 000 a 40 000 aos, y est empezando a parecer cada vez ms probable que esta invencin en realidad se remonta a un punto comn de origen en frica. +Pero eso me temo, es un tema para una futura charla. +As que de vuelta a la cuestin que nos ocupa. +No caba duda de que estos signos eran significativos para sus creadores, como estas esculturas en bajo relieve de 25 000 aos de La Roque de Venasque en Francia. +No sabemos qu queran decir, pero la gente de la poca, sin duda lo saba. +La repeticin de los mismos signos, por tanto tiempo y en tantos sitios nos dice que los artistas hacan elecciones intencionales. +Si hablamos de formas geomtricas, con significados especficos, culturalmente reconocido y acordados, podramos muy bien estar viendo uno de los ms antiguos sistemas de comunicacin grfica en el mundo. +No hablo acerca de la escritura todava. +Simplemente no haba suficientes caracteres entonces para representar todas las palabras de la lengua hablada, algo que es un requisito para un sistema completo de escritura. +Tampoco vemos que se repitan con suficiente regularidad para sugerir que eran una especie de alfabeto. +Pero lo que s tenemos son algunas intrigantes excepciones, como este panel de La Pasiega en Espaa, conocida como "La Inscripcin" con sus marcas simtricas a la izquierda, posibles representaciones estilizadas de las manos en el medio, y lo que parece un poco como un corchete a la derecha. +Los sistemas ms antiguos de comunicacin grfica en el mundo, la cuneiforme sumeria, los jeroglficos egipcios, la escritura china ms antigua, todos surgieron hace entre 4000 y 5000 aos, y surgieron de un protosistema anterior compuesto de marcas de conteo y representaciones pictogrficas, donde el significado y la imagen eran los mismos. +As que una imagen de un pjaro habra representado ese animal. +Es solo despus de que estas pictografas se vuelven ms estilizadas, hasta casi volverse irreconocibles y tambin empezamos a encontrar ms smbolos inventados para representar todas esas otras palabras que faltan en la lengua, como pronombres, adverbios, adjetivos. +As que sabiendo todo esto, parece poco probable que los signos geomtricos de la edad de hielo de Europa eran verdaderamente caracteres escritos abstractos. +En cambio, lo que es mucho ms probable es que estos primeros artistas tambin estaban haciendo marcas de conteo, tal como esta hilera de lneas de Riparo di Za Minic en Sicilia, as como la creacin de representaciones estilizadas de las cosas del mundo que les rodeaba. +Podran ser los signos de armamento o vivienda? +O qu seran objetos celestes como las constelaciones? +O tal vez incluso ros, montaas, rboles, caractersticas del paisaje, como este signo peniforme negro rodeado de formas de campanas extraas del sitio El Castillo en Espaa. +El trmino peniforme significa "en forma de pluma" en latn, pero podra ser en realidad una representacin de una planta o un rbol? +Algunos investigadores han comenzado a hacer estas preguntas acerca de ciertos signos en sitios especficos, pero debemos volver a examinar esta categora en su conjunto. +La irona en todo esto, por supuesto, es que despus de haber clasificado todos los signos en una sola categora, tengo la sensacin de que mi siguiente paso consistir en dejarlo de lado conforme se identifican y separan diferentes tipos de imgenes. +No me malinterpreten, la posterior creacin de la escritura completamente desarrollada fue una hazaa impresionante por propio derecho. +Pero es importante recordar que esos sistemas de escritura tempranas no salieron de la nada. +Gracias. +Locutor: 10 segundos. +Cinco, cuatro, tres, dos, uno. +Partida. +Ms uno, dos, tres, cuatro, cinco, seis, siete, ocho, nueve, diez. +Guillaume Nry, Francia. +Peso constante, 123 metros, 3 minutos y 25 segundos. +Intento de rcord nacional. +70 metros. +[123 metros] Juez: Cartulina blanca. Guillaume Nry! Rcord nacional! +Guillaume Nry: Gracias. +Gracias, gracias por su bienvenida. +Esta inmersin que acaban de ver es un viaje. Un viaje entre dos inspiraciones. +Un viaje que comienza entre dos inspiraciones, la ltima antes de sumergirse, y la primera inspiracin al regresar a la superficie. +Esta inmersin, es un viaje a las fronteras de los lmites humanos. Un viaje a lo desconocido. +Pero tambin, y sobre todo, es un viaje interior. Pasarn un montn de cosas, ya sean fisiolgicas o mentales. +Y es por eso que estoy aqu hoy con Uds., para compartir este viaje y llevarlos conmigo. +As que comenzamos con la ltima respiracin. +Esta ltima inspiracin, como han visto, es lenta, profunda e intensa. +Termino con una maniobra llamada carpa que me permite almacenar uno a dos litros ms de aire en los pulmones, al comprimir el aire all. +Al dejar la superficie tengo alrededor de 10 litros de aire en los pulmones. +Tan pronto dejo la superficie el primer mecanismo se activa: el reflejo de inmersin. +El reflejo de inmersin, en primer lugar, hace que el ritmo cardaco caiga. +Pasar de 60 y 70 latidos por minuto a 30 o 40 latidos por minuto, en pocos segundos, casi al instante. +Segundo efecto, vasoconstriccin perifrica es decir, el torrente sanguneo abandonar las extremidades del cuerpo para ir a alimentar con prioridad los rganos vitales: los pulmones, el corazn y el cerebro. +Este mecanismo es innato. +Yo no lo controlo. +Si Uds. se hunden en el agua, incluso si nunca lo han hecho, actuar el mismo mecanismo. +Todos los seres humanos, compartimos la misma propiedad. +Y lo que es extraordinario, es que tenemos el mecanismo comn con los mamferos marinos. Todos los mamferos marinos: delfines, ballenas, leones de mar, etc. +Cuando se sumergen y descienden profundamente, este mecanismo se activa, de manera mucho ms fuerte +y funciona mucho mejor en ellos, obviamente. +Es absolutamente fascinante: +Tan pronto dejo la superficie la naturaleza me da un primer impulso que me permite ir con confianza. +Me hundo en el azul, la presin, poco a poco, va a aplastar mis pulmones, +y como es el volumen de aire en los pulmones el que me hace flotar, al descender, mayor presin aplasta los pulmones, el volumen de aire es menor, lo que hace que mi cuerpo caiga ms fcilmente. +Y en algn momento, al llegar a 35 o 40 metros, no necesito nadar +mi cuerpo es lo suficientemente pesado, lo suficientemente denso para caer libremente en las profundidades y atacar la llamada fase de cada libre. +Este es el mejor momento del descenso. +Es por eso que contino en buceo libre. +Debido a que te sientes atrado por el fondo y no tienes que hacer nada. +Desciendo de 35 metros a 123 metros, sin hacer ningn movimiento. +Me dejo atrapar por lo profundo, y tengo la sensacin de volar bajo el agua. +Es una sensacin completamente increble, una sensacin de libertad que es extraordinaria. +Y me deslizo, lentamente, hacia la parte inferior. +Paso los 40 metros, 50 metros, y entre 50 y 60, segunda respuesta fisiolgica que se produce: +mis pulmones alcanzan su volumen residual. El volumen residual es el volumen terico ms all del cual no se supone que el pulmn se pueda comprimir. +El segundo fenmeno que se produce, es el desplazamiento de la sangre. En francs, es la ereccin de pulmn. +Yo prefiero "desplazamiento de sangre". Digmosle "desplazamiento de sangre". +El desplazamiento de sangre, qu es? +Los capilares de los pulmones se llenan de sangre, a causa de la depresin, con el fin de ponerse rgidos y proteger toda la cavidad torcica del aplastamiento. +Evita que las dos superficies de los pulmones colapsen, se unan, cedan. +Gracias a este fenmeno, que tambin compartimos con los mamferos marinos, puedo continuar mi inmersin. +60 metros, 70 metros, Sigo cayendo, ms y ms rpido ya que la presin comprime cada vez ms mi cuerpo, +y desde 80 metros, la presin realmente se hace mucho ms fuerte, y comienzo a sentirla fsicamente. +Empiezo a sentir realmente opresin. +Ven a lo que se parece, no es muy bonita. +El diafragma est completamente retrado, la caja torcica se retrae hacia el interior, y all, mentalmente, tambin ocurre algo. +Dirn: "Bueno, no es muy agradable, +cmo lo hace?". +Si confiara en mis reflejos terrestres, qu hacemos cuando tenemos una restriccin en la tierra, algo que no es agradable? +Queremos resistir, lo contrarrestamos, luchamos. +Bajo el agua, no funciona eso. +Si hace eso bajo el agua, puede desgarrar los pulmones, puede escupir sangre, desencadenar un edema, y dejar de bucear, durante algn tiempo, incluso. +Entonces, lo que hay que hacer con la mente, es decir: la naturaleza es ms fuerte, el elemento es ms fuerte que yo; +dej al agua actuar. +Acepto esta presin y la dejo hacer. +En ese momento, le doy la informacin de mi cuerpo, mis pulmones, todo se relaja, me suelto completamente +y me libero por completo. +La presin me est machacando, y no es en absoluto desagradable. +Incluso tengo una sensacin de capullo, me siento muy protegido. +Y el buceo puede continuar. +80 metros, 85 metros, 90 metros, 100 metros. +100 metros es una cifra mtica. +En todos los deportes, es una cifra mtica. +Natacin, atletismo... y grande tambin para nosotros, buceadores libres, se trata de un nmero de sueo. +Todo el mundo quiere un da ir a 100 metros de profundidad. +Es una cifra simblica para nosotros, porque los mdicos y fisilogos en los aos 70, haban hecho sus clculos y predijeron que a los 100 metros, +estaba el lmite ms all del cual el cuerpo humano no poda bajar. Ms all, el cuerpo colapsara. +Y entonces el pequeo francs, Jacques Mayol, todos Uds. lo conocen, el hroe de Big Blue, pas por all, y se hundi a 100 metros. +Incluso se sumergi a 105 metros. +En ese momento, se sumergi en No limit. +Tom un peso para descender ms rpido y volvi con un baln, como en la pelcula. +Hoy en da, en No limit, vamos a 200 metros. +Yo voy a 123 metros usando solo la fuerza muscular. +Y todo esto es un poco gracias a l, porque l reto las ideas conocidas, porque barri con un revs de su mano todas estas creencias tericas, todas estas limitaciones mentales que el hombre es capaz de imponerse. +Demostr que el cuerpo tena una capacidad de adaptacin infinita. +As que sigo mi cada. +105, 110, 115, +el fondo se est acercando. +120 metros. 123 metros. +Llego al fondo. +Voy a pedirles que participen un poco, y se pongan en mi lugar. +Cierren los ojos. +Se imaginen que llegan a 123 metros. +La superficie est muy muy muy muy lejos. +Estn solos. +No hay prcticamente ninguna luz. +Hace fro. Fro glacial. +La presin los aplasta por completo, 13 veces mayor que en la superficie. +Y all, s que estn dicindose: "Pero qu horror!". +"Qu estoy haciendo aqu?". +"Es completamente enfermo". +Pues no. +No es lo que me digo cuando estoy en el fondo. +Cuando lleg al fondo, me siento bien. +Tengo una sensacin de bienestar extraordinario. +Tal vez porque he abandonado por completo todas las tensiones y me dejo llevar. +Me siento bien y no tengo ningn deseo de respirar. +Sin embargo, hay razones para estar preocupado, admitirn. +Siento ser un pequeo punto, una pequea gota de agua, flotando en la mitad del ocano. +Y siempre me viene esta imagen a la mente. +El Pale Blue Dot, el pequeo punto azul plido. Es el pequeo punto aqu, que seala la flecha, +saben lo que es este pequeo punto? +Este es el planeta Tierra. +Planeta Tierra fotografiado por la sonda Voyager 4 mil millones de kilmetros de distancia, +y que muestra que nosotros, nuestra casa, eso es todo all. Es ese pequeo punto que flota en medio de la nada. +Es un poco como la sensacin que siento en el fondo a 123 metros. +Siento ser un pequeo punto, una mota de polvo, un polvo de estrella flotando en el medio del cosmos, en medio de nada, en medio de la inmensidad. +Es una sensacin fascinante, porque miro hacia arriba, abajo, izquierda, derecha, delante, detrs, y veo la misma cosa: infinito azul, muy profundo. +En ningn otro lugar en la Tierra se puede tener esta sensacin, mirar a tu alrededor y tener la misma visin uniforme. +Es extraordinario. +En ese momento, todava hay un sentimiento, cada momento, en m, es un sentimiento de humildad. +Me siento muy humilde cuando miro esta foto, y cuando me encuentro a esta profundidad, porque no soy nada. Soy un poco de nada que se pierde en este gran conjunto. +Y esto es, despus de todo, completamente fascinante. +Decid volver a la superficie, porque no es mi lugar. +Mi lugar est all arriba, en la superficie, +y comienzo el ascenso. +En el ascenso, hay un gran shock que ocurre, desde el momento en que decido volver. +En primer lugar, requiere un esfuerzo colosal +para salir del fondo, ya que el fondo me atrajo en la bajada, +inevitablemente, tambin me atrae cuando quiero volver. +Tienes que patear el doble de fuerte. +Luego choqu con otro fenmeno: la narcosis. +Quiz sepan de este fenmeno. +Se conoce como el rapto de la profundidad. Sucede en buceadores con tanques, pero tambin en buceadores libres. +Es causada por el nitrgeno que se disuelve en la sangre y genera confusin entre la conciencia y el inconsciente. +Vienen un montn de pensamientos, +a derecha, a izquierda, pasa, girar, uno no puede controlarlo, y sobre todo, no debe tratar de hacerlo. Debes dejarlo hacer. +No tratar de controlarlo. Cuanto ms se trata de controlar, ms complicado de manejar. +Tercera cosa que se aade: el deseo de respirar. +Porque no soy un hombre pez. Soy un ser humano y el deseo de respirar me hace volver a esta realidad. +As que a los 60 o 70 metros, el impulso est presente. +Y entonces, con todo lo que est sucediendo, puede ser muy fcil perder completamente el pie, y caer en el pnico. +"Dnde est la superficie? Quiero la superficie y respirar ya". +Es importante no hacerlo. +Nunca mirar a la superficie con los ojos o con la mente. +No proyectar, nunca. +Permanecer en el momento. +Me quedo con la mirada justo ante m, a la cuerda. La cuerda es el vnculo que me lleva a la superficie. +Y me quedo centrado en el momento presente. +Porque si quiero llegar a la superficie, me entra el pnico +y si me entra el pnico, se acab. +El tiempo se acelera. +A los 30 metros, finalmente, ya no estoy solo. +Mis apnestas de seguridad, mis ngeles de la guarda se unen a m. +Dejan la superficie, nos encontramos a 30 metros, y me acompaan en los ltimos metros, donde, potencialmente, los problemas pueden ocurrir. +Y cada vez me digo a m mismo, cuando los veo: "Es gracias a Uds.". +Gracias a ellos estoy aqu; gracias a mi equipo. +La segunda picadura de recordatorio de humildad. +Sin ellos, sin mi equipo, sin todas las personas que me rodean, las aventuras de profundidad seran imposibles. +Las aventuras de profundidades son, sobre todo, colectivas. +As que estoy contento de terminar este viaje con ellos, ya que es gracias a ellos que estoy aqu. +20 metros, 10 metros. Mis pulmones regresan poco a poco a su volumen, +la flotabilidad me acompaa a la superficie. +Cinco metros antes de la superficie, empec a espirar el aire, por no inspirar tan pronto como llego a la superficie. +Y llego a la superficie. +El aire entra en los pulmones, +es un renacimiento, +una liberacin. Porque, s, se siente bien. +El viaje fue increble, pero necesito sentir estas pequeas molculas de oxgeno que alimentan mi cuerpo. +Es una gran sensacin, +pero a la vez es un pequeo trauma. +Una sorpresa para los sentidos. Imagnense, paso de la oscuridad a la luz del da. +En el tacto, paso del suave aterciopelado, el agua, al aire que frota la cara. +En el gusto, en el olfato, hay este aire que se precipita en mis pulmones. +Mis pulmones tambin se despliegan a su vez. Fueron aplastados por completo un minuto treinta antes, y all se despliegan. +Son muchas cosas a la vez. +Me toma unos segundos para volver a m, a estar muy presente. +Sin embargo, tiene que ir rpido, porque tengo los jueces enfrente, estn ah para validar mi rendimiento. Tengo que demostrar que estoy en perfecta integridad fsica. +Se le llama protocolo de salida. +Justo fuera del agua, tengo 15 segundos para quitar mis pinzas de nariz, hacer que este signo y decir "Estoy bien". +Adems, se me pide que sea bilinge. +Despus de todo lo que he hecho, no es agradable. +Una vez finalizado el protocolo, los jueces me muestran el cartn blanco, y hay s, la explosin de alegra. +Por fin puedo disfrutar realmente de lo que acaba de ocurrir. +Lo que acabo de describir, es un poco una versin extrema del buceo libre. +El buceo libre est lejos de ser eso. +Durante 3 aos, decid tratar mostrar otra cara del buceo libre, porque cuando los medios hablan de l, solo hablan concursos y registros, +pero el buceo libre, es mucho ms que eso. +El buceo libre es ser bueno en el agua. +Es extremadamente esttico, potico y artstico. +As que decidimos, con mi pareja, hacer pelculas, para tratar de mostrar otra cara. Para que Uds. quieran, sobre todo, entrar en el agua. +Les voy a mostrar unas imgenes, y har mi conclusin sobre ellas. +Es un precioso mosaico de imgenes bajo el agua. +Si se intenta un da dejar de respirar, se darn cuenta de que al dejar de respirar, tambin es deja de pensar. +Es calmar su mente. +Nuestra mente, en el siglo XXI, es tensa. +Est sobrecargada de trabajo, siempre, se piensa a 10 000 por hora, se agita continuamente, +y ser capaz del buceo libre, es decir, en algn momento, calmar la mente. +En el buceo libre, esta una oportunidad de experimentar la ingravidez. +Estar bajo el agua, flotando, relajar por completo el cuerpo, +toda la tensin del cuerpo. Este es el mal del siglo XXI: mal de espalda, de cuello, nos duele todo. porque estamos estresados y tensos todo el tiempo +Al entrar en el agua, uno se deja flotar, como en el espacio. +Se relaja por completo. +Una sensacin extraordinaria. Finalmente se encuentra cara a cara +con su cuerpo y su mente, su espritu. +Todo est en paz, todo unido. +Este buceo libre, aprender a bucear as, es aprender a respirar bien. +Respiramos la primera vez al nacer, nacimiento, hasta nuestro ltimo aliento. +La respiracin da ritmo a nuestras vidas. +Aprender a respirar mejor es aprender a vivir mejor. +El buceo libre, el mar, sin tener que ir a 100 metros, ir a 2 o 3 metros, una mscara y aletas, es ir a ver otro mundo, otro universo, completamente mgico. +Ver pequeos peces, algas, ver la fauna y la flora, y observar con discrecin Deslizarse bajo el agua, mirando hacia atrs, a la superficie: no dejar rastro. +Es una gran sensacin ser capaz de ser uno con la naturaleza como est. +Si puedo decir algo ms: el buceo libre, meterse en el agua, encontrar el medio acutico, es volver a conectar. +En la presentacin he hablado mucho sobre esta memoria corporal que se remonta a millones de aos, nuestro origen acutico. +El da que regresen al agua, cuando contengan el aire por unos segundos, volvern a conectarse a los orgenes. +Y les garantizo que es absolutamente mgico. +Los animo a probar. +Gracias. +Chris Anderson: Podramos empezar simplemente escuchando sobre su pas. +Hay tres puntos en el mapa. Esos puntos son bastante grandes. +Creo que cada uno es aproximadamente del tamao de California. +Hblenos sobre Kiribati. +Anote Tong: Bueno, permtame iniciar diciendo que estoy muy agradecido por esta oportunidad de compartir mi historia con gente a la que le importa. +Creo que la he compartido con mucha gente a la que no le importa mucho. +Kiribati la conforman tres grupos de islas: el Grupo de Gilbert en el oeste, las Islas Fnix en el medio, y las Islas de la Lnea en el este. +Y francamente, Kiribati es quizs el nico pas que est realmente en las 4 esquinas del mundo, porque estamos en el hemisferio norte, en el hemisferio sur, as como al este y el oeste de la lnea internacional de cambio de fecha. +Estas islas estn formadas completamente por atolones de coral, y tienen en promedio dos metros sobre el nivel del mar. +Y eso es lo que tenemos. +Por lo general no tienen ms de 2 km. de ancho. +En muchas ocasiones la gente me pregunta "Estn sufriendo, por qu no se mudan?". +No entienden. +No tienen idea de lo que est involucrado. +Con el mar en aumento, dicen: "Bueno, pueden ir ms adentro". +Y esto es lo que les respondo: +si vamos ms dentro, caeremos en el otro lado del ocano. +Pero estos son problemas que la gente no entiende. +CA: Sin duda esto es solo una imagen de su fragilidad. +Cundo se dio cuenta de que puede haber un peligro inminente para su pas? +AT: Bueno, la historia del cambio climtico ha estado presente desde hace varias dcadas. +Y cuando asum el cargo en el 2003, empec a hablar de esto en la Asamblea General de las Naciones Unidas, pero no con tanta pasin, porque entonces todava haba controversia entre los cientficos si era por causa humana, si era real o no. +Pero creo que ese debate concluy en el 2007 con el Cuarto Informe de Evaluacin del IPCC, en el que categricamente declaraba que es real y provocado por el hombre y predice algunos escenarios muy graves para pases como el mo. +Entonces lo tom muy en serio. +En el pasado, haba hablado de ello. +Estbamos preocupados. +Con los escenarios, las predicciones del 2007, se convirti en un verdadero problema para nosotros. +CA: Ahora, esas predicciones son, creo, que para el ao 2100, se pronostica que los niveles del mar aumenten quizs 1 m. +Hay escenarios en los que hay un aumento mayor pero qu le diras a los escptico que dicen: "1 m. no es mucho +estn en promedio de 2 m. sobre el nivel del mar. +Cul es el problema?" +AT: Bueno, creo que se tiene que entender que un aumento marginal en el nivel del mar significa una prdida de una gran cantidad de tierra, porque gran parte de la tierra es baja. +Y aparte de eso, recibimos olas en cada momento. +As que no se trata solo de 1 m. +Creo que mucha gente piensa que el cambio climtico es algo que suceder en el futuro. +Bueno, estamos en el extremo inferior del espectro. +Ya lo tenemos. +Tenemos comunidades desplazadas. +CA: Y entonces, creo que el pas sufri su primer cicln, y est conectado, no? Qu pas? +AT: Bueno, estamos en el ecuador, y estoy seguro de que muchos entienden que al estar en el ecuador, estaramos en las calmas ecuatoriales. No se supone que tengamos ciclones. +Nosotros los creamos y luego los enviamos al norte o al sur. +Pero no se supone que regresen. +Pero por primera vez, a principios de este ao, el cicln Pam destruy Vanuatu, y en el proceso, sus bordes tocaron nuestras dos islas ms meridionales, y todo Tuvalu estaba bajo el agua cuando el huracn Pam golpe. +Pero en nuestras dos islas ms meridionales, tuvimos olas en ms de la mitad de la isla, y esto nunca haba sucedido antes. +Es una experiencia nueva. +Acabo de regresar de mi distrito, y vi estos hermosos rboles que haban estado all por dcadas, totalmente destruidos. +As que esto es lo que est pasando, pero cuando hablamos del aumento del nivel del mar, pensamos que ocurre de manera gradual. +Viene con los vientos, viene con las olas, por lo que se puede ampliar, pero lo que estamos empezando a ver es el cambio en el patrn climtico, que es quizs el desafo ms urgente al que nos enfrentaremos antes que el aumento del nivel del mar. +CA: As que el pas ya est viendo los efectos ahora. +Al mirar hacia adelante, cules son sus opciones como pas, como nacin? +AT: Bien, he contando esta historia cada ao. +Creo que he visitado varios... He estado viajando por el mundo para tratar de generar conciencia. +Tenemos un plan, pensamos que tenemos un plan. +Y en una ocasin habl en Ginebra y haba un caballero que me estaba entrevistando en algo como esto, y le dije: "Estamos buscando islas flotantes", y pens que era divertido, pero alguien dijo, "No, esto no es gracioso. Estas personas estn buscando soluciones". +Y he estado buscando islas flotantes. +Los japoneses estn interesados en construir islas flotantes. +Pero, como pas, hemos hecho un compromiso que no importa lo que pase, vamos a tratar en lo posible de quedarnos y seguir existiendo como nacin. +Lo que costar, va a ser algo muy significativo, muy, muy importante. +O vivimos en las islas flotantes, o construimos sobre las islas para tratar de permanecer fuera del agua conforme el nivel del mar suba y las tormentas sean ms intensas. +Pero an as, va a ser muy, muy difcil obtener los recursos que necesitaramos. +CA: Y entonces el nico recurso es algn tipo de migracin forzada. +AT: Bueno, tambin estamos viendo que en el caso de que no venga nada de la comunidad internacional, nos estamos preparando, no queremos que nos pase lo que est sucediendo en Europa. +No queremos migrar masa en algn momento. +Queremos ser capaces de dar al pueblo la eleccin hoy, los que elijan y quieran emigrar. +No queremos que pase algo por lo que se vean obligados a emigrar sin haberse preparado para hacerlo. +Por supuesto, nuestra cultura y sociedad son muy diferentes y una vez que migraremos a un entorno diferente, una cultura diferente, se requieren hacer muchos ajustes. +CA: Ha habido migraciones forzadas en el pasado de su pas, y creo que esta misma semana, ayer o anteayer, visit estas personas. +Qu fue lo que pas? Cul es la historia? +A: S, lo siento, creo que alguien se preguntaba por qu nos escabullimos para visitar ese lugar. +Tena una buena razn, hay una comunidad de personas de Kiribati viviendo en esa parte de las Islas Salomn, pero eran personas que fueron reubicadas de las Islas Phoenix, en los aos sesentas. +Hubo una grave sequa y la gente no poda seguir viviendo en la isla, por eso se trasladaron a vivir aqu en las Islas Salomn. +Entonces fue muy interesante reunirse ayer con ellos. +No saban quin era yo. No haban odo hablar de m. +Algunos ms tarde me reconocieron, pero creo que estaban muy contentos. +Ms tarde queran darme la bienvenida formalmente. +Pero lo que vi ayer fue muy interesante porque aqu veo a nuestro pueblo. +Habl en nuestro idioma y por supuesto me respondieron, pero tienen acento, estn empezando a no hablar Kiribati correctamente. +Yo los vi, haba una seora con dientes rojos. +Estaba masticando nueces de betel, y no es algo que hagamos en Kiribati. +No masticamos nueces de betel. +Conoc tambin una familia que se han casado con la gente local aqu, as que esto es lo que est sucediendo. +Al entrar en otra comunidad, hay lazos que se cambian. +Hay una cierta prdida de identidad y esto es lo que vamos a afrontar en el futuro siempre y cuando decidamos migrar. +CA: Debe haber sido un da extraordinariamente emotivo debido a estos temas sobre la identidad, la alegra de verle y tal vez un sentimiento de lo que haban perdido. +Es muy inspirador orle decir que lucharn hasta el final para tratar de preservar la nacin en un lugar. +AT: Ese es nuestro deseo. +Nunca nadie quiere abandonar su casa, y as que ha sido una decisin muy difcil para m. +Como lder, no haces planes para dejar tu isla, tu casa, y me han preguntado en varias ocasiones, "Cmo te sientes?" +Y no se siente nada bien. +Es una cosa emocional con la que he tratado de vivir y s que en ocasiones se me acusa de no tratar de resolver el problema porque no puedo resolver el problema. +Es algo que tiene que hacerse de forma colectiva. +El cambio climtico es un fenmeno global, como a menudo menciono, por desgracia, los pases, cuando llegamos a las Naciones Unidas... Estaba en una reunin con los pases del Foro de las Islas del Pacfico del que Australia y Nueva Zelanda tambin son miembros, y tuvimos una discusin. +Sali algo en las noticias porque argumentaban que reducir las emisiones, sera algo que son incapaces de hacer porque afectara las industrias. +Y les deca, Bien, los escucho, entiendo lo que estn diciendo, pero traten tambin de entender lo que estoy diciendo porque si no reducen sus emisiones, entonces nuestra supervivencia est en riesgo. +Es un asunto para que lo evalen, estas cuestiones morales. +Se trata de la industria frente a la supervivencia de un pueblo. +CA: Le pregunt qu le hizo enojar ayer, y dijo: "Yo no me enojo". Pero despus hubo una pausa. +Creo que esto lo hizo enojar. +AT: Te remito a mi declaracin anterior en las Naciones Unidas. +Estaba muy enojado, muy frustrado y deprimido. +Era una sensacin de inutilidad, de que estamos librando una lucha en la que no tenemos esperanza de ganar. +Tuve que cambiar mi enfoque. +Tena que ser ms razonable porque pens que la gente escuchara a alguien racional, pero sigo siendo radicalmente racional, sea lo que sea. +CA: Una parte fundamental de la identidad de su nacin es la pesca. +Ha dicho que casi todo el mundo est involucrado en la pesca de alguna manera. +AT: Bueno, comemos pescado todos, todos los das, y creo no hay duda de que nuestra tasa de consumo de pescado es tal vez la ms alta del mundo. +No tenemos una gran cantidad de ganado, por lo que dependemos del pescado. +CA: As que dependen de peces, tanto en el mbito local como de los ingresos que recibe el pas del negocio mundial de la pesca de atn, sin embargo, hace unos aos se tom un paso muy radical. +Puede hablarnos de ello? +Creo que algo sucedi aqu en las Islas Phoenix. +AT: Voy a dar unos antecedentes de lo que la pesca significa para nosotros. +Tenemos uno de los sectores pesqueros de atn ms grandes que quedan en el mundo. +En el Pacfico, creo que controlamos algo as como el 60 % de la pesca de atn restante, y permanece relativamente saludable para algunas especies, no para todas. +Y Kiribati es uno de los 3 principales propietarios de los recursos, de los recursos de atn. +Y por el momento, obtenemos entre el 80 % a 90 % de nuestros ingresos de los impuestos de acceso y derechos de licencia. +CA: De sus ingresos nacionales. +AT: Los ingresos nacionales, que impulsan todo lo que hacemos en los gobiernos, hospitales, escuelas y lo que sea. +Pero decidimos cerrarla y fue una decisin muy difcil. +Te puedo asegurar que, polticamente, a nivel local, no fue fcil, pero estaba convencido de que tenamos que hacerlo con el fin de asegurar que la pesca siguiera siendo sostenible. +Haba habido algunos indicios de que algunas de las especies, en particular el patudo, estaba bajo seria amenaza. +El aleta amarilla tambin se pesc intensivamente. +El listado se mantiene saludable. +Y tenamos que hacer algo y por esa razn lo hicimos. +Otra razn por la que lo hice fue porque haba estado pidiendo a la comunidad internacional que a fin de hacer frente y luchar contra el cambio climtico tena que haber sacrificios, compromisos. +As que al pedir a la comunidad internacional hacer un sacrificio, pens que nosotros mismos tenamos que hacer ese sacrificio. +Y as que hicimos el sacrificio. +Renunciamos a la pesca comercial en la zona protegida de las Islas Fnix que significara una prdida de ingresos. +Todava estamos tratando de evaluar a cunto asciende la prdida porque lo cerramos en el comienzo de este ao, veremos a finales de este ao lo que significa en trminos de la prdida de ingresos. +CA: Hay muchos jugadores. +Por un lado, se debe fomentar una pesca saludable. +qu tan capaces son de elevar el precio en las reas restantes? +AT: Las negociaciones han sido muy difciles, pero hemos logrado elevar el costo de un da buque. +Para cualquier buque que entre a pescar por un da, hemos elevado el cobro de entre $ 6 000 y $ 8 000, a $ 10 000, $ 12 000 por da buque. +Y as ha habido ese aumento significativo. +Pero al mismo tiempo, lo que hay que tener en cuenta es que mientras que en el pasado estos barcos de pesca pescaban un da y tal vez atrapaban 10 toneladas, ahora pueden pescar 100 toneladas ya que son ms eficientes. +Y as tenemos que responder del mismo modo. +Tenemos que ser muy, muy cuidadosos porque la tecnologa lo ha mejorado. +En un momento la flota brasilea se traslad del Atlntico al Pacfico. +Ellos no podan. +Comenzaron a experimentar si podan, per se. +Pero ahora pueden hacerlo y han llegado a ser muy eficientes. +CA: Puede darnos una idea de cmo son las negociaciones? +Ya que est en contra de empresas que tienen cientos de millones de dlares en juego, en esencia. +Cmo se mantiene la lnea? +Hay algn consejo que pueda dar a otros lderes que estn lidiando con las mismas empresas acerca de cmo obtener el mximo rendimiento de su pas, obtener el mximo por la pesca? +Qu consejo les dara? +AT: Bueno, creo que nos centramos demasiado a menudo en los permisos con el fin de obtener ganancias, porque lo que estamos recibiendo de los derechos es cerca del 10 % del valor de los desembarques de las capturas en el lado del muelle, no en las tiendas al por menor. +Y solo tenemos un 10 %. +Lo que hemos estado tratando de hacer en los ltimos aos es incrementar nuestra participacin en la industria, en la pesca, en el procesamiento, y, finalmente, como es de esperar, la comercializacin. +No son fciles de penetrar, pero estamos trabajando para para mejorar. +Para aumentar nuestras ganancias, tenemos que participar ms. +Y as hemos empezado a trabajar en ello, tenemos que reestructurar la industria. +Tenemos que decirle a esta gente que el mundo ha cambiado. +Ahora queremos producir los peces nosotros mismos. +CA: Y mientras tanto, para sus pescadores locales, todava pueden pescar, pero cmo es el negocio para ellos? +Es cada vez ms difcil? Se agotan las aguas? +O se pesca de forma sostenible? +AT: Para la pesca artesanal, no participamos en la actividad de pesca comercial excepto solo para abastecer el mercado interno. +La pesca de atn es bsicamente para el mercado extranjero, sobre todo aqu en EE. UU., Europa, Japn. +Soy pescador, en gran medida, y yo sola atrapar aleta amarilla. +Ahora es muy, muy raro poder de atrapar aleta amarilla ya que se est pescando por cientos de toneladas por los barcos pesqueros. +CA: Aqu hay un par de hermosas chicas de su pas. +Quiero decir, al pensar en su futuro, qu mensaje tiene para ellos y qu mensaje tiene para el mundo? +AT: Le he estado diciendo al mundo que tenemos que hacer algo acerca de lo que est sucediendo con el clima porque para nosotros, se trata del futuro de estos nios. +Tengo 12 nietos, por lo menos. +Creo que tengo 12, mi esposa sabe. +Y creo que tengo ocho hijos. +Se trata de su futuro. +Cada da que veo a mis nietos, de la misma edad que estas jvenes, y me pregunto, y me enfado a veces, s lo hago. +Me pregunto qu va a ser de ellos. +Y es por ellos que deberamos estar dicindole a todo el mundo, que no se trata de su propio inters nacional, porque el cambio climtico, por desgracia, lamentablemente, muchos pases lo ven como un problema nacional. No lo es. +Esta es la discusin que tuvimos recientemente con nuestros socios, los australianos y neozelandeses, porque haban dicho: "No podemos recortar ms". +Esto es lo que uno de los lderes, el lder de Australia, dijo, que hemos hecho nuestra parte, estamos recortando. +Le dije: Qu pasa con el resto? Por qu no se lo queda? +Si se pudiera quedar con el resto de sus emisiones dentro de sus lmites, dentro de sus fronteras, no tendramos ninguna queja. +Pueden seguir adelante tanto como gusten. +Pero, por desgracia, se atraviesan en nuestro camino. y estn afectando el futuro de nuestros hijos. +Ese es el corazn del problema actual del cambio climtico. +CA: La gente responde mal a los grficos y los nmeros, y cerramos nuestras mentes a ellos. +De alguna manera, las personas, respondemos un poco mejor a esto. +Y parece que es muy posible que su nacin, a pesar de los graves problemas que enfrenta, todava puede ser la luz de advertencia ms visible para el mundo. la ms brillante. +Solo quiero darle las gracias, estoy seguro, a nombre de todos, por su liderazgo extraordinario y por estar aqu. +Seor Presidente, muchas gracias. +AT: Gracias. +Su empresa realiza una bsqueda para un puesto vacante. +Las solicitudes empiezan a llegar y se identifican los candidatos que dan el perfil. +Empieza la seleccin. +Primer candidato: universidad de lite, notas excelentes, currculo impecable, referencias excelentes. +Todo lo ideal. +Segundo candidato: escuela pblica, inestabilidad en sus puestos de trabajo con trabajos ocasionales como cajera y camarera cantante. +Pero recuerden, ambos estn cualificados. +As que les pregunto: a quin elegiran? +Mis colegas y yo creamos un conjunto de trminos muy tcnicos para describir 2 categoras distintas de candidatos. +Llamamos al primero: "la cuchara de plata", uno que tuvo todas las ventajas y estuvo destinado para el xito. +Llamamos a B: "el luchador", uno que tuvo que pelear contra viento y marea para llegar al mismo punto. +S, acaban de escuchar a una directora de RR. HH. referirse a la gente como cucharas y luchador... lo que no es polticamente correcto y suena un poco sesgado. +Pero, antes de revocar mis credenciales en RR.HH. ... permtanme explicarme. +Un currculo cuenta una historia. +Y con los aos, he aprendido algo sobre las personas cuyas experiencias son muy similares a un mosaico de los ms variopinto. Eso me anima a considerarlas detenidamente antes de desechar sus currculos. +Una serie de trabajos temporales pueden indicar inconsistencia, falta de concentracin, imprevisibilidad. +O puede sealar compromiso y perseverancia. +Como mnimo, el luchador merece una entrevista. +Para que quede claro, no tengo nada en contra los cuchara de plata; ingresar y graduarse en una universidad de lite requiere mucho trabajo duro y sacrificio. +Pero si toda tu vida ha sido orientada al xito, cmo afrontars los momentos difciles? +Un empleado sinti que por haber estudiado en una gran universidad, haba ciertas tareas que no estaban a su altura, por ejemplo, un trabajo manual para comprender mejor una operacin. +Al final renunci. +Pero, por el otro lado, qu sucede cuando toda una vida est condenada al fracaso y al final se alcanza el xito? +Les pido encarecidamente que entrevisten al luchador. +S mucho sobre este tema porque yo misma lo fui. +Antes de nacer, mi padre fue diagnosticado con esquizofrenia paranoide y no poda mantener un empleo a pesar de ser brillante. +Nuestras vidas eran una mezcla de "Alguien vol sobre el nido del cuco", un poco de "Despertares" y un poco de "Una Mente Brillante". +Soy la cuarta de 5 hijos criados por una madre soltera en un barri peligroso de Brooklyn, Nueva York. +Nunca tuvimos una casa, un coche o una lavadora, y durante gran parte de mi infancia, no tuvimos siquiera telfono. +As que estaba muy motivada para entender la relacin entre el xito empresarial y los luchadores porque mi vida podra haber seguido un curso muy diferente. +Al conocer hombres de negocios exitosos y leer perfiles de lderes poderosos, me di cuenta de que tenan algo en comn. +Muchos se enfrentaron a dificultades desde una edad temprana, desde pobreza, abandono, prdida temprana de un padre, hasta trastornos de aprendizaje, alcoholismo y violencia. +La mentalidad convencional sugiere que el trauma acaba en sufrimiento y se ha puesto mucho nfasis en los trastornos que esto produce. +Sin embargo, los estudios sobre el tema, revelaron un aspecto inesperado: que aun las peores circunstancias pueden resultar en crecimiento y transformacin. +Se ha descubierto un fenmeno notable y algo contradictorio, que los cientficos denominan crecimiento postraumtico. +En un estudio diseado para medir los efectos de la adversidad sobre nios en situacin de riesgo, entre un subconjunto de 698 nios que vivieron las condiciones ms severas y extremas, un tercio llego a tener una vida adulta sana, productiva y exitosa. +Y triunfaron a pesar de todo y contra todo pronstico. +Un tercio! +Veamos este currculo. +Los padres de este chico lo dieron en adopcin. +Nunca termin la universidad. +Fue de un empleo a otro, vivi en la India por un ao, y, por si fuera poco, tiene dislexia. +Contrataran a este tipo? +Se llama Steve Jobs. +Un estudio sobre los empresarios de mayor xito en el mundo muestra que muchos de ellos tienen dislexia. +En EE. UU., un 35 % de los empresarios tena dislexia. +Y lo ms extraordinario es que los empresarios que experimentaron crecimiento postraumtico, ven su discapacidad de aprendizaje como una dificultad necesaria que les ofreci una ventaja, ya que se han convertido en mejores oyentes que prestan ms atencin a los detalles. +Ellos no creen que son lo que son a pesar de la adversidad, sino que saben que son lo que son debido a la adversidad. +Aceptaron sus traumas e infortunios como elementos clave de lo que han llegado a ser y saben que, sin esas experiencias, no podran haber desarrollado la fuerza y el valor necesarios para tener xito. +La vida de uno de mis colegas dio un giro total debido a la Revolucin Cultural China de 1966. +A la edad de 13, sus padres fueron trasladados a un pueblo, las escuelas se cerraron mientras que l qued solo en Beijing para valerse por s mismo hasta los 16, y encontr un empleo en una fbrica de ropa. +Pero en vez de aceptar su destino, tom la decisin de continuar sus estudios. +11 aos ms tarde, cuando el panorama poltico cambi, se enter de una prueba de acceso a una universidad extremadamente selecta. +Tuvo 3 meses para preparar todas las asignaturas de la escuela primaria y secundaria. +As que, todos los das al regresar de la fbrica a casa, haca una siesta, estudiaba hasta las 4 de la maana, volva a trabajar e hizo lo mismo cada da, durante tres meses. +Y lo consigui. +Su dedicacin a su educacin fue absoluta, nunca perdi la esperanza. +Ha acabado un mster y sus hijas se graduaron en Cornell y Harvard. +Los luchadores tienen la conviccin de que la nica persona que puedes realmente controlar eres t mismo. +Cuando las cosas no salen bien, se preguntan, "Qu puedo cambiar para lograr un mejor resultado?". +Tienen una determinacin que les impide rendirse, algo as como, "Si he sobrevivido a la pobreza, a un padre loco y a varios robos", y luego te enfrentas a "retos laborales"... De veras? +"Pan comido, puedo hacerlo. +Y eso me recuerda el humor. +Los luchadores saben que el humor ayuda en los momentos difciles, y la risa los ayuda a cambiar la perspectiva. +Y por ltimo, las relaciones. +Los que superan la adversidad, no lo hacen solos. +En alguna parte, por el camino, encuentran personas que despiertan lo mejor de ellos y que estn interesadas en su xito. +Tener a alguien con quien se puede contar en cualquier situacin es esencial para superar la adversidad. +Yo tuve suerte. +En mi primer trabajo despus de la graduacin, no tena coche, as que lo compart con una mujer que era la asistente del presidente. +Ella me vio trabajar y me anim a centrarme en mi futuro y no vivir en el pasado. +En el camino he conocido a muchos que me han criticado totalmente honestamente, asesorado y guiado. +A estas personas no les interesa que una vez trabaj como camarera cantante para pagar mis estudios. +Los dejo con una ltima observacin valiosa. +Las compaas comprometidas con la inclusin y la diversidad tienden a apoyar a los luchadores y a superar los competidores. +Segn la revista DiversityInc, un estudio de las 50 mejores empresas pro diversidad superaron el ndice S&P 500 en un 25 %. +As que, de vuelta a mi primera pregunta: +Por quin apostarn: por la cuchara de plata o por el luchador? +Yo digo, elijan al candidato subestimado, cuyas armas secretas son la pasin y la determinacin. +Contraten al luchador. +Ahora... +retrocedamos en el tiempo. +Es 1974. +En alguna galera de arte del mundo, hay una chica joven, de 23 aos, de pie en el centro del espacio. +Delante de ella hay una mesa. +Sobre la mesa hay 76 objetos para el placer y el dolor. +Algunos de los objetos son un vaso de agua, un abrigo, un zapato, una rosa. +Pero tambin un cuchillo, una hoja de afeitar, un martillo y una pistola con una bala. +Hay instrucciones que dicen, "Soy un objeto. +Todo lo de la mesa puede utilizarse en m. +Asumo toda la responsabilidad, incluso si me matan. +Y tienen seis horas". +El inicio de esta actuacin fue fcil. +La gente me daba el vaso con agua para beber, Me daba la rosa. +Pero poco despus, haba un hombre que tom las tijeras y me cort la ropa, y luego arrancaron las espinas de la rosa y me las pegaron en el estmago. +Alguien tom la hoja de afeitar me cort el cuello y bebi mi sangre y todava tengo la cicatriz. +Las mujeres decan a los hombres qu hacer. +Y los hombres no me violaron porque era solo una inauguracin normal, y era todo pblico, y estaban con sus esposas. +Me cargaron y me pusieron sobre la mesa, y me pusieron el cuchillo entre las piernas. +Y alguien tom la pistola y la bala y me la puso en la sien. +Y otra persona tom la pistola y comenz una pelea. +Y despus cumplirse las seis horas, yo... +comenc a caminar hacia el pblico. +Estaba hecha un desastre. +Medio desnuda, llena de sangre y las lgrimas me corran por la cara. +Y todo el mundo se escap, simplemente huyeron. +No podan afrontarme como un ser humano normal. +Y entonces -- lo que pas al irme al hotel, ya eran las dos de la maana. +Y... me mir en el espejo, y tena un pedazo de pelo gris. +Bien -- por favor, squense las vendas de los ojos. +Bienvenidos al mundo del arte efmero. +En primer lugar, explicar qu es el arte efmero. +Muchos artistas dan muchas explicaciones diferentes, pero mi explicacin del arte efmero es muy simple. +El arte efmero es una construccin mental y fsica que el artista hace en un momento determinado en un espacio en frente de una audiencia para que suceda el dilogo vital. +El pblico y el artista componen juntos la pieza. +Y la diferencia entre el arte efmero y el teatro es enorme. +En el teatro, el cuchillo no es un cuchillo y la sangre es solo salsa de tomate. +En el arte efmero, la sangre es el material, y la hoja de afeitar o el cuchillo es la herramienta. +Todo es cuestin de estar all en el tiempo real, y el arte efmero no se puede ensayar, porque no se puede hacer muchas de estas cosas dos veces, una vez. +Lo cual es muy importante en el arte efmero. Uds. saben, los humanos siempre tenemos miedo de cosas muy simples. +Tenemos miedo al sufrimiento, tenemos miedo al dolor, tenemos miedo a la muerte. +As que lo que hago es poner este tipo de temores en escena frente a la audiencia. +Estoy usando su energa, y con esta energa puedo llevar a mi cuerpo al lmite. +Y luego me libero de estos temores. +Y yo soy su espejo. +Si puedo hacer esto sola, Uds. puede hacerlo por Uds. mismos. +Despus de Belgrado, donde nac, fui a msterdam. +Y he estado haciendo actuaciones en los ltimos 40 aos. +Y ah me encontr con Ulay, y l era de la persona que realmente me enamor. +Y durante 12 aos, hemos hecho actuaciones juntos. +Y el cuchillo, las pistolas y las balas, las puedo cambiar por amor y confianza. +Para hacer este tipo de trabajo se debe confiar en la persona por completo porque esta flecha apunta a mi corazn. +Por lo tanto, el corazn late y la adrenalina corre, etc., es una cuestin de confianza, de una total confianza a otro ser humano. +Nuestra relacin era de 12 aos, y trabajamos en muchos temas, tanto la energa masculina, como femenina. +Y como cada relacin llega a su fin, la nuestra tambin. +No queramos hacer llamadas de telfono como hacen las personas normales y decir: Esto se acab". +Caminamos por la Gran Muralla de China para despedirnos. +Yo empec en el Mar Amarillo, y l desde el desierto de Gobi. +Cada uno caminamos durante tres meses, 2500 km. +Haba montaas, fue difcil. +Haba subidas, haba ruinas. +Se trataba de ir a travs de las 12 provincias de China, esto fue antes de que China se abriera en 1987. +Y logramos reunirnos en el centro para decirnos adis. +Y entonces nuestra relacin se detuvo. +Y a partir de ah yo cambi por completo la forma ver al pblico. +Y una pieza muy importante que llev a cabo en aquellos das fue "Balkan Baroque". +Y era la poca de las guerras de los Balcanes, y quera crear una imagen muy fuerte y carismtica, algo que pudiera servir para cualquier guerra en cualquier momento, la guerra de los Balcanes finaliz, pero siempre hay guerra en alguna parte. +As que aqu estoy lavando 2500 huesos de vaca llenos de sangre, grandes y muertos. +No se puede lavar la sangre, nunca se logra lavar la vergenza de las guerras. +As estoy lavando esto 6 horas, 6 das, y de las guerras vienen estos huesos, y se respira un olor insoportable. +Pero entonces algo se queda en la memoria. +Quiero mostrarles qu fue lo que realmente cambi mi vida, y fue la actuacin en el MoMa que hice hace poco. +"En esta actuacin", le dije al curador, "me voy a sentar en la silla, y habr una silla vaca en la parte delantera, y cualquiera del pblico puede venir y sentarse el tiempo que quiera". +El comisario me dijo: "Eso es ridculo, ya sabes, esto es Nueva York, esta silla permanecer vaca, nadie tiene tiempo para sentarse delante de ti". +Pero estuve sentada durante tres meses. +Y me sentaba todos los das, 8 horas, desde que abra el museo, y los viernes 10 horas, porque el museo abre 10 horas, y nunca me mova. +Y quit la mesa y todava estoy sentada, y esto lo cambi todo. +En esta actuacin, tal vez 10 o 15 aos atrs, quiz no habra pasado nada. +Pero la necesidad de la gente de experimentar algo diferente, el pblico no era ms el grupo. La relacin era de uno a uno. +Yo vea a esta gente, que vena y se sentaba frente a m, pero tenan que esperar horas y horas y horas hasta tocarles el turno y, finalmente, se sentaban. +Y qu pas? +Ellos son observados por las otras personas, ellos son fotografiados, ellos estn siendo filmados, estn siendo observados por m y no tienen adonde escapar, excepto a s mismos. +Y eso marca la diferencia. +Haba tanto dolor y soledad, hay tanto cosas increbles al mirar en los ojos de otra persona, porque en la mirada de un extrao, que ni siquiera dices una palabra, todo sucede. +Y comprend cuando me levant de la silla despus de tres meses, que no soy la misma de antes. +Y entend que tengo una misin muy grande, de que tengo que comunicar esta experiencia a todos. +Y es as como naci la idea de tener un instituto de artes escnicas inmateriales. +Porque al pensar en la inmaterialidad, el arte escnico es el arte basado en el tiempo. +No es como una pintura. +Uno tiene la pintura en la pared, al da siguiente sigue ah. +Con el arte efmero, si se quiere ver, es suficiente con la memoria, o la historia de alguien que se lo cuente. Pero en realidad se pierde el todo. +As que hay que estar all. +Y mi opinin, si se habla de arte inmaterial, la msica es lo ms; el arte absolutamente ms elevado de todos, porque es la ms inmaterial. +Y despus de esto es el arte escnico, y luego todo lo dems. +Esa es mi manera subjetiva. +Este instituto se abrir en Hudson, al norte de Nueva York, y estamos intentando construir con Rem Koolhaas, una idea. +Y es muy simple. +Si deseas obtener experiencia, me tienes que dar tu tiempo. +Uno ha de firmar el contrato antes de entrar en el edificio, de que va a pasar all un total de seis horas, uno debe darme su palabra de honor. +Es algo tan pasado de moda, pero si uno no respeta su propia palabra de honor y sale antes, ese no es mi problema. +Pero la experiencia es de seis horas. +Y a continuacin, tras terminar, se obtiene un certificado de logro, que al llegar a casa se puede enmarcar si se desea. +Esta es la sala de orientacin. +El pblico entra y lo primero que debe hacer es ponerse una bata de laboratorio. +Es importante para pasar de ser un simple espectador a un experimentador. +Y luego se va a las taquillas para depositar reloj, iPhone, iPod, PC, y todo lo digital o electrnico. +Y uno va a tener tiempo libre para s mismo por primera vez. +Aunque que no hay nada de malo con la tecnologa, nuestro enfoque de la tecnologa es errneo. +Perdemos el tiempo que tenemos para nosotros mismos. +Este es un instituto que, en realidad, va a devolver este momento. +Entonces, qu hace uno aqu? En primer lugar, hay que caminar lento, hay que disminuir la velocidad. +Se vuelve a la simplicidad. +Despus de caminar lento, uno aprende a beber agua. Muy simple, beber agua potable durante una media hora. +Despus de esto, uno va a la cmara magntica, donde uno crea corrientes magnticas en el cuerpo. +Luego, tras esto, uno va a la cmara de cristal. +Despus de cmara de cristal, a la cmara del ojo observador, despus de la cmara del ojo observador, uno va a una cmara donde uno se acuesta. +As son las tres posiciones bsicas del cuerpo humano, sentado, de pie y acostado. +Y caminar lento. +Y hay una cmara de sonido. +Y a continuacin, tras haber visto todo esto, y haberse preparado mentalmente y fsicamente, entonces uno est listo para ver algo con larga duracin, al igual que en el arte inmaterial. +Puede ser msica, pera o una obra de teatro, Puede ser una pelcula, un video de baile. +Uno va a las sillas de larga duracin porque ahora uno ya est cmodo. +En las sillas de larga duracin, uno es transportado al gran lugar donde se va a ver la obra. +Y si uno se queda dormido, lo cual es muy posible por ser un largo da, uno ser llevado a la zona de aparcamiento. +Y, saben?, dormir es muy importante. +Durmiendo, uno todava percibe el arte. +En el estacionamiento uno permanece durante un cierto periodo de tiempo, y luego despus de esto, uno vuelve, uno ve ms cosas que le gusta ver o vuelve a casa con su certificado. +Este instituto en este momento es virtual. +En este momento, estoy haciendo el instituto en Brasil, luego habr uno en Australia, a continuacin, en Canad y en todas partes. +Y esto es para experimentar un mtodo simple, cmo volver a la sencillez en la propia vida. +Contar arroz es otra de las cosas. +Si se cuenta arroz, se puede ganar la vida, tambin. +Cmo contar arroz durante seis horas? +Es increblemente importante. +Uno pasa por todo, desde aburrirse, estar enojado, estar completamente frustrado, a no terminar de contar la cantidad de arroz. +Y luego se obtiene una paz increble cuando se termina un trabajo satisfactorio. O contar arena en el desierto. +O tener una situacin aislada de sonido, con auriculares que no dejan or nada. Y uno est all sin sonido, con personas experimentando silencio, completo silencio. +Siempre hacemos cosas que nos gustan en la vida. +Y es por esto que uno no cambia. +Uno hace cosas en la vida, y simplemente no pasa nada, si siempre se hacen las cosas de igual manera. +Pero mi mtodo es hacer las cosas que me dan miedo, las cosas que temo, las cosas que no conozco, para ir al territorio que nadie fue. +Y luego tambin para incluir el fracaso. +Creo que el fracaso es importante porque si uno experimenta, puede fallar. +Si uno no entra en esa zona y no falla, en realidad uno se repite una y otra vez. +Y creo que los humanos, en este momento, necesitan un cambio, y el nico cambio que se debe hacer es un cambio a nivel personal. +Uno tiene que hacer su propio cambio. +Debido a que la nica manera de cambiar la conciencia y cambiar el mundo que nos rodea, es empezar con uno mismo. +Es fcil criticar lo diferente, las cosas en el mundo y que no son correctas, como que los gobiernos son corruptos y que hay hambre en el mundo y guerras y muertes. +Pero qu hacemos a nivel personal? Cul es nuestra contribucin a todo esto? +Se pueden girar al vecino de al lado que no conocen y mirarle a los ojos durante dos minutos completos ahora? +Les pido solo dos minutos de su tiempo, eso es muy poco. +Respiren lento, no intenten parpadear, no sean conscientes de s mismos. +Estn relajados. +Y solo miren a un completo extrao a los ojos, en sus ojos. +Gracias por confiar en m. +Chris Anderson: Gracias. +Muchas gracias. +A menudo se dice que se puede saber mucho sobre una persona al ver lo que est en sus libreros. +Qu dicen mis libreros de m? +Bueno, cuando me hice esta pregunta hace unos aos, hice un descubrimiento alarmante. +Siempre me haba visto como alguien bastante culta y cosmopolita. +Pero mis libreras contaban una historia bastante diferente. +Prcticamente todos los ttulos eran de autores britnicos o norteamericanos, y no haba casi nada traducido. +El descubrimiento de este masivo punto ciego cultural en mis lecturas me dej en shock. +Y cuando pens en ello, me pareci una verdadera lstima. +Saba que tena que haber muchas historias increbles por ah de escritores que escriben en lenguas diferentes al ingls. +Y pareca muy triste pensar que por mis hbitos de lectura probablemente nunca me topara con ellos. +As que decid automedicarme un curso intensivo de lectura global. +El 2012 se pens para ser un ao muy internacional para el Reino Unido; fue el ao de los Juegos Olmpicos de Londres. +As que decid utilizarlo como mi calendario para tratar de leer una novela, una coleccin de cuentos o una memoria de todos los pases del mundo. +Y as lo hice. +Y fue muy emocionante y aprend algunas cosas notables e hice algunas conexiones maravillosas que quiero compartirles hoy. +Pero comenz con algunos problemas prcticos. +Despus de haber decidido cul de las diversas listas de pases en el mundo usar para mi proyecto, termin siguiendo la lista de naciones reconocidas por la ONU, a la que aad Taiwn, que me dio un total de 196 pases. +Y despus de haber resuelto cmo ajustar la lectura y bloggeo de aproximadamente, cuatro libros a la semana trabajando cerca de cinco das a la semana, entonces tuve que enfrentar el hecho de que incluso no podra ser capaz de conseguir libros en ingls de todos los pases. +Solo alrededor de un 4.5% de las obras literarias publicadas cada ao en el Reino Unido son traducciones y las cifras son similares para gran parte del mundo de habla inglesa. +Sin embargo, la proporcin de publicaciones de libros traducidos en muchos otros pases es mucho ms alta. +4.5% es lo suficientemente pequeo para empezar, pero lo que esa cifra no dice es que muchos de esos libros vendrn de pases con fuertes redes editoriales y muchos profesionales de la industria preparados para salir a vender esos ttulos a las editoriales en idioma ingls. +As, por ejemplo, aunque poco ms de 100 libros se traducen del francs y se publican cada ao en el Reino Unido la mayora de ellos vendrn de pases como Francia o Suiza. +Por otro lado, la frica de habla francesa, rara vez se tendr en cuenta. +El resultado es que hay muchas naciones que pueden tener poca o ninguna literatura comercial en ingls disponible. +Sus libros siguen siendo invisibles para los lectores del lenguaje con ms publicaciones del mundo. +Pero cuando se trataba de leer el mundo, el mayor reto de todos para m fue el hecho de no saber por dnde empezar. +Despus de haber pasado la vida leyendo casi exclusivamente libros britnicos y de norteamrica no tena idea de cmo conseguir y encontrar historias y escogerlas entre muchas del resto del mundo. +No podra decidir cmo conseguir una historia de Swazilandia. +No conoca una buena novela de Namibia. +No poda ocultarlo: Era una xenfoba literaria sin idea. +Entonces, cmo era posible que yo fuera a leer el mundo? +Iba a tener que pedir ayuda. +As, en octubre de 2011, registr mi blog, ayearofreadingtheworld.com, y publiqu una corta peticin en lnea. +Expliqu quin era, lo cerrada que haba sido mi lectura, y ped a quien quisiera que dejara un mensaje sugiriendo qu podra leer de otras partes del planeta. +Ahora bien, no tena ni idea si alguien estara interesado, pero luego de unas cuantas horas de publicar mi peticin en lnea, la gente empez a ponerse en contacto. +Al principio, eran amigos y colegas. +Luego eran amigos de mis amigos. +Y muy pronto, fueron extraos. +Cuatro das despus de poner mi peticin en lnea, recib un mensaje de una mujer llamada Rafidah en Kuala Lumpur. +Me dijo que le encantaba cmo sonaba mi proyecto y que podra ir a su librera local de libros en ingls y escoger mi libro de Malasia y envirmelo. +Acept con entusiasmo, y unas semanas ms tarde, lleg un paquete con no uno, sino dos libros, la eleccin de Rafidah de Malasia, y un libro de Singapur que tambin haba elegido para m. +En ese momento, me sorprendi que un extrao a casi 10 mil km. de distancia fuera tan lejos para ayudar a alguien que probablemente nunca conocera. +Pero la bondad de Rafidah result ser el patrn en ese ao. +Una y otra vez, la gente haca lo posible para ayudarme. +Algunos se dieron a la investigacin en mi nombre y otros hicieron desvos en vacaciones y viajes de negocios para ir a las libreras por m. +Resulta que, si quieres leer el mundo, si quieres encontrarlo con mente abierta, el mundo te ayudar. +Cuando se trataba de pases con poca o ninguna literatura comercial en ingls disponible las personas fueron an ms lejos. +A menudo los libros provenan de fuentes sorprendentes. +Mi lectura de Panam, por ejemplo, vino a travs de una conversacin que tuve en Twitter con el Canal de Panam +S, el Canal de Panam tiene una cuenta de Twitter. +Y cuando le envi un Tweet sobre mi proyecto, sugiri qu podra probar conseguir el trabajo del autor panameo Juan David Morgan. +Encontr el sitio web de Morgan y le envi un mensaje, preguntando si alguna de sus Novelas en espaol se haban traducido al ingls. +Me respondi que no haba nada publicado, pero tena una traduccin indita de su novela "El Caballo de Oro". +Me la envi por correo electrnico lo que me permiti ser una de las primeras personas en leer ese libro en ingls. +Morgan no fue de ninguna manera el nico escritor en compartir su trabajo conmigo de esta forma. +De Suecia a Palau, escritores y traductores me enviaron libros publicados individualmente y manuscritos inditos de libros que rechazaban las editoriales de habla inglesa o que ya no estaban disponibles, dndome atisbos privilegiados de algunos mundos imaginarios notables. +Le, por ejemplo, sobre el rey de frica Austral Ngungunhane, que lider la resistencia contra los portugueses en el siglo XIX; y sobre los rituales matrimoniales en una aldea remota a orillas del Mar Caspio en Turkmenistn. +Conoc la respuesta de Kuwait para Bridget Jones. +Y le sobre una orga en un rbol en Angola. +Pero tal vez el ejemplo ms sorprendente de las molestias que las personas estaban dispuestas a tomar para ayudarme a leer el mundo, lleg hacia el final de mi bsqueda, cuando buscaba un libro de la pequea nacin insular africana de habla portuguesa Santo Tom y Prncipe. +Despus de haber pasado varios meses intentando todo lo que pude para encontrar un libro traducido al ingls de esta nacin, pareca que la nica opcin que me quedaba era ver si poda conseguir algo traducido para m desde cero. +Realmente dudaba si alguien iba a querer ayudar con esto, y renunciar a su tiempo para algo as. +Pero, tras una semana de hacer un llamado en Twitter y Facebook para hablantes de portugus, tena ms gente de la que poda involucrar en el proyecto, incluyendo a Margaret Jull Costa, una lder en su campo, que ha traducido la obra del Premio Nobel Jos Saramago. +Con mis nueve voluntarios listos, me las arregl para encontrar un libro de un autor de Santo Tom del que poda comprar suficientes copias en lnea. +Aqu est uno. +Envi una copia a a cada una de mis voluntarios. +Todos tomaron un par de historias cortas de esta coleccin, trabajaron, me enviaron sus traducciones, y al cabo de seis semanas, tena todo el libro para leer. +En ese caso, y como me ocurri tan a menudo durante ese ao, mi falta de conocimiento y el estar abierta acerca de mis limitaciones se haban convertido en una gran oportunidad. +En el caso de Santo Tom y Prncipe, fue una oportunidad no solo para aprender algo nuevo y descubrir una nueva coleccin de historias, sino tambin para reunir un grupo de personas y facilitar un esfuerzo creativo conjunto. +Mi debilidad se haba convertido en la fortaleza del proyecto. +Los libros que le ese ao me abrieron los ojos a muchas cosas. +Como quienes disfrutan de la lectura sabrn, los libros tienen el poder extraordinario de llevarte fuera de ti mismo y ponerte en la mente de alguien ms, de modo que, durante un tiempo al menos, miras el mundo a travs de los ojos de alguien ms. +Esa puede ser una experiencia incmoda, especialmente si ests leyendo un libro de una cultura que puede tener valores bastante diferentes a los tuyos. +Pero tambin puede ser muy esclarecedor. +Luchar con ideas poco familiares ayuda a clarificar tu propio pensamiento. +Y tambin puede mostrarte puntos ciegos en la forma en que podras haber estado mirando al mundo. +Cuando volv a la literatura en ingls con la que haba crecido, por ejemplo, empec a ver lo estrecha que era mucha de ella, en comparacin con la riqueza que el mundo tiene para ofrecer. +Y a medida que pasaba las pginas, tambin comenz a suceder algo. +Poco a poco, esa larga lista de pas con la que haba empezado el ao, pas de un registro de nombres de lugares ms bien seco y acadmico a uno de entidades vivas que respiran. +No quiero sugerir que es en forma alguna posible obtener una imagen redondeada de un pas simplemente leyendo un libro. +Pero acumulativamente, las historias que le ese ao me hicieron ms conciente que nunca de la riqueza, diversidad y complejidad de nuestro notable planeta. +Era como si las historias del mundo y las personas que haban llegado a tales extremos para ayudarme a leerlos lo hubieran hecho real para m. +Hoy en da, cuando veo mis estanteras o miro las obras en mi e-reader, me cuentan una historia muy diferente. +Es la historia del poder que tienen los libros para conectarnos a travs de divisiones polticas, geogrficas, religiosas, sociales, culturales. +Es sobre el potencial en el que tienen que trabajar juntos los seres humanos. +Su testamento a los tiempos extraordinarios en que vivimos en donde, gracias a la Internet, es ms fcil que nunca para un extrao compartir una historia, una visin del mundo, un libro con alguien que tal vez nunca conocer, al otro lado del planeta. +Espero que sea una historia que leer durante muchos aos por venir +y espero que mucha ms gente me siga. +Si todos leemos ms ampliamente, los editores tendran ms incentivos para traducir ms libros, y todos nos enriqueceramos por eso. +Gracias. +Tal vez piensan que hay muchas cosas que no puedo hacer porque no veo. +Esto es cierto en gran medida. +De hecho, he necesitado un poco de ayuda para subir al escenario. +Pero tambin hay muchas cosas que puedo hacer. +Esta soy yo en el rocdromo por primera vez. +De hecho, me encantan los deportes y practico varios como natacin, esqu, patinaje, submarinismo, correr, entre otros. +Pero tengo una limitacin: alguien me debe ayudar. +Yo quiero ser independiente. +Perd mi vista a los 14 aos en un accidente de natacin. +Era una adolescente activa e independiente y, de repente, me qued ciega. +Lo ms difcil para m fue perder mi independencia. +Lo que antes pareca sencillo se convirti en algo casi imposible. +Por ejemplo, uno de mis retos eran los libros de texto. +Por aquel entonces, no haba computadores personales, Internet ni telfonos mviles inteligentes. +As que tuve que pedir a uno de mi dos hermanos que lea mis libros para m y tuve que crear mis propios libros en Braille. +Se lo pueden imaginar? +Por supuesto, mis hermanos no estaban satisfechos con la situacin, y me di cuenta de que no estaban presentes siempre que los necesitaba. +Creo que me evitan. +No no los culpo. +Quera librarme de tener que depender de alguien. +Esto se convirti en mi mayor deseo de innovar. +Avancemos hasta mediados de la dcada de 1980. +Llegu a conocer tecnologas de vanguardia y pens: "Cmo puede ser que no haya herramientas informticas para crear libros en Braille? +Estas tecnologas tanto estupendas deben poder tambin ayudar a la gente con limitaciones como yo. +En ese momento comenz mi viaje a travs de la innovacin. +Comenc a desarrollar tecnologas para libros digitales, como un editor digital para textos en Braille, un diccionario de Braille y una red de bibliotecas digitales en Braille. +Ahora, todos los estudiantes con discapacidad visual pueden leer libros de texto mediante computadores personales y dispositivos mviles, ya sea en Braille o en formato audio. +Es posible que no les sorprenda, ya que ahora, en 2015, todo el mundo tiene libros digitales en sus tabletas. +Pero el Braille se digitaliz muchos aos antes de que hubiera libros digitales, ya a finales de los 80s, hace casi 30 aos. +Las fuertes necesidades especificas de la gente ciega se convirtieron en la oportunidad de crear libros digitales en aquel momento. +Y en realidad no es la primera vez que ocurri, porque la historia demuestra que la accesibilidad dinamiza la innovacin. +El telfono fue inventado primero como herramienta de comunicacin para las personas con problemas de audicin. +Algunas teclas tambin se inventaron para ayudar a las personas con discapacidad. +Ahora les dar otro ejemplo personal. +En los aos 90, la gente a mi alrededor empez a hablar de Internet y los navegadores. +Me acuerdo de la primera vez que acced a Internet. +Me qued sorprendida. +Tena acceso a los peridicos en cualquier momento y todos los das. +Incluso poda buscar la informacin por m misma. +Quera desesperadamente ayudar a la gente ciego acceder a Internet, y encontr una manera de hacer la Web disponible a travs de una voz sintetizada lo que simplific radicalmente la interfaz de usuario. +Esto me llev a desarrollar el Home Page Reader en 1997 primero en japons y, a continuacin, disponible y traducido en 11 idiomas. +Cuando desarroll el Home Page Reader, recib muchos comentarios de los usuarios. +Recuerdo uno en particular, que deca: "Para m, Internet es una pequea ventana al mundo". +Fue un momento revolucionario para la gente ciega. +El mundo ciberntico se volvi accesible, y esta tecnologa que hemos creado para los ciegos tuvo muchas aplicaciones, mucho ms all de lo que yo haba imaginado. +Puede ayudar a los conductores escuchar sus mensajes de correo electrnico o que le puede ayudar en la lectura de una receta mientras cocina. +Hoy soy ms independiente, pero esto todava no es suficiente. +Por ejemplo, cuando sub al escenario necesit ayuda. +Mi meta es llegar aqu sola. +Y no solo aqu. +Mi objetivo es viajar y hacer cosas que son simples para ustedes. +Ahora les mostrar las ltimas tecnologas. +Aqu es una aplicacin de telfono inteligente en la que trabajamos. +Voz electrnica: 15,5 metros hasta la puerta, en lnea recta. +Hay dos puertas para salir. La puerta est a la derecha. +Se acerca Nick, parece muy contento. +Chieko Asakawa: Hola, Nick! +CA: Dnde vas? Te veo muy feliz. +Nick: Oh, mi artculo acaba de ser aceptado. +CA: Eso es genial! Felicitaciones. +Nick: Gracias. Pero, cmo sabas que era yo y que estaba feliz? +(Chieko y Nick se ren) Hombre: Hola. +CA: Oh... Hola. +VE: No est hablando con usted, sino por telfono. +Patatas fritas. +Chocolate negro con almendras. +Engordaste 2 kilos y medio desde ayer, come una manzana en lugar de chocolate. +Te ests acercando. +Has llegado. +CA: Ahora... +Gracias. +Esta aplicacin me gua, en base al anlisis de seales de baliza y sensores de telfonos inteligentes y me permite moverme en espacios interiores y exteriores de una manera independiente. +Pero la parte de visin asistida por computador que indica quien se acerca y con qu estado de nimo; todava trabajamos en esto. +Reconocer las expresiones faciales es muy importante para ser sociable. +As que la fusin de las tecnologas est lista para ayudarme ver el mundo real. +Se llama la asistencia cognitiva. +Comprende el mundo que nos rodea y susurra la informacin en mi odo o enva vibraciones a mis dedos. +La asistencia cognitiva aumentar aquellas capacidades que faltan o estn deficientes, en otras palabras, los cinco sentidos. +Esta tecnologa se encuentra todava en su infancia, pero un da ser capaz de encontrar un aula de clase en el campus, comprar con solo mirar el escaparate o encontrar un buen restaurante con solo caminar por la calle. +Ser genial verles por la calle antes de que Uds. me vean. +Esta herramienta va a ser mi mejor amigo, y la de Uds. +Realmente es un gran reto. +Es un reto que requiere colaboracin y es por ello que estamos creando una comunidad abierta que acelerar la fase de investigacin. +Esta maana hemos anunciado la tecnologa central de cdigo abierto tal y como se vio en el video. +La frontera es la realidad. +La comunidad de los ciegos est explorando esta frontera tcnica y el dispositivo de gua. +Espero trabajar con Uds. para explorar esta nueva era y la prxima vez que est en un escenario espero, gracias a la tecnologa y la innovacin, ser capaz de llegar hasta aqu por mi misma. +Muchas gracias. +A qu se parece una madre trabajadora? +Si buscan en Internet, encontrarn esto. +No importa que sea esto lo que realmente produzcas si intentas trabajar en una computadora con un beb en tu regazo. +Pero no, esta no es una madre trabajadora. +Notarn un tema en estas fotos. Veremos muchas fotos. +Ese tema es la sorprendente iluminacin natural, que, como todos sabemos, es el sello distintivo de cada lugar de trabajo estadounidense. +Hay miles de imgenes como estas. +Solo pongan "madre trabajadora" en imgenes de Google, guarden el sitio de fotos. +Estn por toda Internet, llenan los blogs y las noticias, y me he obsesionado con ellas y la mentira que nos dicen y la comodidad que nos dan, que cuando se trata de la nueva maternidad de trabajo en EE.UU., todo est bien. +Pero no est bien. +Como pas, estamos enviando a millones de mujeres a trabajar todos los aos, increble y horriblemente pronto despus de dar a luz. +Este es un problema moral pero hoy tambin dir por qu es un problema econmico. +Solo voy a mostrar dos. +Nada dice "Da a esa chica una promocin", al tener fugas de leche materna en su vestido durante una presentacin. +Se darn cuenta de que no hay beb en esta foto, porque no es as como funciona esto, no para la mayora de las madres trabajadoras. +Saban, y esto va a arruinar su da, que cada vez que pasan un inodoro, el contenido se vuelve un aerosol y se quedar en el aire durante horas? +Y, sin embargo, para muchas madres trabajadoras, este es el nico lugar durante el da, en que pueden hacer la comida para sus recin nacidos. +Puse estas cosas, unas 12, en el mundo. +Quera plantear una idea. +No saba que tambin estaba abriendo una puerta, porque ahora, extraas de todos los mbitos de la vida me escriben todo el tiempo solo para decirme lo que es para ellas volver al trabajo das o semanas despus de tener un beb. +Voy a compartir 10 historias con Uds. hoy. +Son totalmente reales, algunas son muy crudas, y ninguna se parece a esto. +Aqu est la primera. +"Yo era un miembro en servicio activo en una prisin federal. +Volv al trabajo tras el mximo permitido a 8 semanas de mi cesrea. +A un compaero de trabajo le molest que hubiera estado de 'vacaciones' por lo que intencionalmente abri la puerta mientras estaba sacndome leche y se qued en la puerta con los reclusos en el pasillo". +Muchas historias que mujeres totalmente desconocidas, me envan, no son en realidad sobre la lactancia materna. +Una mujer me escribi para decir: "Di a luz a los gemelos y volv al trabajo tras 7 semanas sin pago. +Emocionalmente, era una ruina. +Fsicamente, tuve una hemorragia grave durante el parto, un gran desgarro, as que apenas poda levantarme, sentarme o caminar. +Mi empleador me dijo que no poda usar mis das de vacaciones disponibles porque era poca de presupuesto". +He llegado a creer que no podemos mirar situaciones como estas porque nos horrorizaramos, y si nos horrorizamos entonces tenemos que hacer algo. +As que optamos por mirar, y creer en esta imagen. +Realmente no s qu est pasando en esta foto, porque me parece raro y un poco espeluznante. +Como, qu est haciendo? +Pero s lo que nos dice. +Nos dice que todo est bien. +Esta madre trabajadora, todas las madres que trabajan y sus hijos, estn bien. +No hay nada que ver aqu. +Y, de todos modos, las mujeres han tomado una decisin, por lo que ninguno de sus problemas son nuestros. +Quiero dividir esta cosa de la eleccin en dos partes. +La primera opcin dice que las mujeres han optado por trabajar. +Eso no es cierto. +Hoy en EE.UU., las mujeres representan el 47 % de la fuerza laboral, y en el 40 % de los hogares de EE.UU. una mujer es el sostn nico o principal. +Nuestro trabajo remunerado es una parte enorme del motor de esta economa, y es esencial para los motores de nuestras familias. +A nivel nacional, el trabajo remunerado no es opcional. +La nmero dos dice que las mujeres optan por tener hijos, as que las mujeres solas deben afrontar las consecuencias. +Ya saben, esa es una de esas cosas que si la escuchas de paso, puede sonar correcta. +No te hice tener un beb. +Desde luego, no estaba all cuando pas. +Pero esa postura ignora una verdad fundamental, que es que nuestra procreacin a escala nacional no es opcional. +Los bebs que las mujeres, muchas de ellas trabajadoras, estn teniendo hoy, un da sern nuestra fuerza de trabajo, protegern nuestras costas, conforman nuestra base de impuestos. +Nuestra procreacin a escala nacional no es opcional. +Esas no son opciones. +Necesitamos mujeres en el trabajo. Necesitamos que tengan bebs. +As que debemos hacer esas cosas al mismo tiempo al menos apetecibles, no? +Bueno, es el momento de un examen sorpresa: Qu porcentaje de mujeres que trabajan en EE.UU. no tienen acceso a permiso remunerado por maternidad? +88 %. +Al 88 % de las madres que trabajan no se les paga un minuto de tiempo despus de tener un beb. +As que ahora estn pensando en las licencias no remuneradas. +Existe en EE.UU. Se llama FMLA. No funciona. +Debido a que est estructurada con todo tipo de excepciones, la mitad de las madres no son elegibles para ella. +Este es su aspecto. +"Adoptamos nuestro hijo. +Cuando recib la llamada, el da en que naci, tuve que dejar de trabajar. +No haba estado el tiempo suficiente para calificar para FMLA, as que no era elegible para la licencia sin sueldo. +Cuando tom un tiempo para conocer a mi hijo recin nacido, perd mi trabajo". +Estas fotografas esconden otra realidad, otra capa. +De las que s tienen acceso a solo esa licencia sin sueldo, la mayora no pueden darse el lujo de tomar mucho tiempo. +Una enfermera me dijo: "Yo no califico para la discapacidad a corto plazo porque mi embarazo se considera una condicin preexistente. +Usamos todas las devoluciones de impuestos y la mitad de los ahorros en seis semanas no pagadas. +No poda soportar ms tiempo. +Fsicamente era difcil, emocionalmente fue peor. +Luch durante meses al estar lejos de mi hijo". +As que esta decisin de volver a trabajar tan pronto, es una decisin econmica racional impulsada por las finanzas de la familia, pero a menudo es fsicamente horrible porque traer un ser humano al mundo es complicado. +Una camarera me dijo: "Con mi primer beb, volv al trabajo 5 semanas despus del parto. +Con el segundo, tuve una ciruga mayor despus de dar a luz, as que esper hasta 6 semanas para volver. +Tena lgrimas de tercer grado". +El 23 % de las nuevas madres trabajadoras en EE.UU. estar de vuelta al trabajo a las dos semanas de dar a luz. +"He trabajado como camarera y cocinera, 75 horas a la semana durante el embarazo. +Tuve que volver a trabajar antes del primer mes, a trabajar 60 horas a la semana. +Una de mis compaeras solo pudo pagar 10 das de descanso con su beb". +Claro, esto no es solo un escenario con consecuencias econmicas y fsicas. +El parto es, y siempre ser, un enorme evento psicolgico. +Una profesora me dijo: "Volv a trabajar 8 semanas despus del nacimiento de mi hijo. +Yo ya sufro de ansiedad, pero los ataques de pnico que tena antes de volver eran insoportables". +Estadsticamente hablando, cuanto menor la licencia despus de tener un beb, es ms probable sufrir trastornos del nimo posparto como depresin y ansiedad, y entre muchas potenciales consecuencias de esos trastornos, el suicidio es la segunda causa ms comn de muerte en mujeres despus del primer ao del parto. +Atencin a la siguiente historia. Nunca he conocido a esta mujer, pero me resulta difcil de asimilar: +"Siento tremenda pena y rabia de perder un elemento esencial, un tiempo insustituible y formativo con mi hijo. +El trabajo y parto me dej absolutamente devastada. +Durante meses, todo lo que recuerdo son gritos por clicos, dijeron. +Por dentro me estaba ahogando. +Todas las maanas, me pregunt cunto tiempo ms podra hacerlo. +Se me permiti llevar a mi beb al trabajo. +Cerr la puerta de mi oficina mientras lo meca y callaba y le rogu que dejara de gritar para no meterme en problemas. +Me escond en la oficina cada maldito da y lloraba mientras l gritaba. +Llor en el bao mientras lavaba el equipo de bombeo. +Cada da, lloraba de camino al trabajo y a la vuelta. +Le promet a mi jefe que el trabajo que no hiciera durante el da, lo hara en la noche en la casa. +Pens, hay algo mal en m que no puedo manejar esto". +As que esas son las madres. +Qu hay de los bebs? +Como pas, nos preocupamos por los millones de bebs nacidos de madres que trabajan? +Yo digo que no, no hasta que tengan edad de trabajar, pagar impuestos y hacer el servicio militar. +Les decimos te veremos en 18 aos, y llegar all es cosa de ellos. +Lo s porque los bebs cuyas madres tienen 12 o ms semanas en casa con ellos tienen ms probabilidades de tener las vacunas y chequeos del primer ao, por lo que estarn ms protegidos de enfermedades mortales e incapacitantes. +Pero esas cosas se ocultan detrs de imgenes como esta. +EE.UU. tiene un mensaje para las nuevas madres que trabajan y para sus bebs. +Cualquiera sea el tiempo que pasen juntos, deben estar agradecidas por ello, son un inconveniente para la economa y para sus empleadores. +Esa narrativa de gratitud aparece en muchas de las historias que escucho. +Una mujer me dijo: "Volv a las 8 semanas despus de mi cesrea porque mi marido estaba sin trabajo. +Sin m, mi hija tuvo retraso en el desarrollo. +No tomaba su bibern. +Empez a perder peso. +Afortunadamente, mi jefe fue muy comprensivo. +Dej que mi mam trajera a mi beb, que estaba con oxgeno y un monitor, cuatro veces para que yo pudiera cuidarla". +Hay un pequeo club de pases en el mundo que no ofrecen ninguna licencia nacional pagada a las nuevas madres. +Adivinan cules son? +Los 8 primeros suman 8 millones en poblacin total. +Son Papa Nueva Guinea, Surinam y las pequeas naciones insulares de Micronesia, Islas Marshall, Nauru, Niue, Palau y Tonga. +El nmero nueve es Estados Unidos de Amrica, con 320 millones de personas. +Oh, eso es todo. +Ese es el final de la lista. +Cualquier otra economa del planeta ha encontrado una forma de dar alguna licencia nacional remunerada para la gente que hace el trabajo del futuro de esos pases, pero nosotros decimos: "No podramos hacer eso". +Decimos que el mercado resolver este problema, y nos animamos cuando las empresas ofrecen licencia y atencin a las mujeres que ya tienen mejor instruccin y reciben mejor paga. +Recuerdan ese 88 %? +Esas mujeres de medianos y bajos ingresos no van a participar en eso. +Conocemos los asombrosos costos econmicos, financieros, fsicos y emocionales de este enfoque. +Hemos decidido, decidido, no es un accidente, pasar estos costos directamente a las madres trabajadoras y a sus bebs. +Sabemos que el precio es mayor para mujeres de bajos ingresos, y de manera desproporcionada para las mujeres de color. +Se los pasamos de todos modos. +Todo esto para vergenza de EE.UU. +Pero tambin para riesgo de EE.UU. +Debido a lo que sucedera si todas estas llamadas opciones personales de tener bebs empezaran a convertirse en elecciones personales de no tener bebs. +Una mujer me dijo: "La nueva maternidad es dura. No debera ser traumtica. +Al hablar de expandir nuestra familia ahora, nos centramos en el tiempo que tendra que cuidarme y al nuevo beb. +Si tuviera que hacerlo de nuevo de la misma forma que con el primero, podramos seguir con un nio". +La tasa de natalidad necesaria para mantener la poblacin estable es de 2,1 nacimientos por mujer. +En EE.UU. hoy, estamos en 1,86. +Necesitamos que las mujeres tengan hijos, y estamos desincentivando activamente a las mujeres que trabajan de hacer eso. +Qu le pasara a la fuerza laboral, a la innovacin, al PIB, si una a una, las madres trabajadoras de este pas deciden que no pueden soportar la idea de hacer esto ms de una vez? +Estoy aqu hoy con una sola idea que vale la pena difundir, y han adivinado cul es. +Ha pasado mucho tiempo para que el pas ms poderoso del planeta ofrezca la licencia nacional remunerada a las personas que hacen el trabajo del futuro de este pas y para los bebs que representan ese futuro. +El parto es un bien pblico. +Esta licencia debe ser subsidiada por el Estado. +No debera haber ninguna excepcin por ser pequea empresa, por duracin del empleo ni por emprendimiento. +Se debera poder compartir en la pareja. +He hablado hoy mucho de las madres, pero los padres son importantes en muchos niveles. +Ni una sola mujer ms debera tener que volver a trabajar mientras que est cojeando y sangrando. +Ni una familia ms debera tener que vaciar su cuenta de ahorros para comprar un par de das de descanso, recuperacin y vinculacin. +Ningn frgil beb debera tener que ir de la incubadora a la guardera porque sus padres han agotado todo su magro tiempo sentados en la UCIN. +A ninguna familia trabajadora ms le deberan decir que la colisin de su trabajo, su trabajo necesario y su paternidad necesaria, es solo problema de ellos. +La trampa es que cuando esto le pasa a una nueva familia, se est consumiendo, y una familia con un nuevo beb es financieramente ms vulnerable que nunca antes, por lo que la nueva madre no puede darse el lujo de tener voz propia. +Pero todos tenemos voz. +Yo ya he terminado, ya tuve mis bebs. Uds. quiz estn por tener, o hayan tenido ya, o no tengan beb. +No debera importar. +Tenemos que dejar de enmarcar esto como un tema de la madre, o un asunto de mujeres. +Este es un tema de EE.UU. +Tenemos que dejar de comprar la mentira que nos muestran estas imgenes. +Tenemos que dejar de ser consolados por ellas. +Tenemos que preguntarnos por qu dicen que no puede funcionar cuando vemos que funciona en todas partes del mundo. +Tenemos que reconocer que esta realidad de EE.UU. es para nuestra deshonra y para nuestro propio riesgo. +Debido a que esto no es, esto no es, y este no es el aspecto de una madre trabajadora. +Cul ha sido el trabajo ms difcil que has hecho? +Trabajar en el sol? +Trabajar para alimentar a una familia o una comunidad? +Trabajar da y noche tratando de proteger vidas y propiedades? +trabajabas solo o en un proyecto que no garantizaba tener xito, pero que podra mejorar la salud humana o salvar una vida? +Trabajabas para construir o crear algo, hacer una obra de arte? +Era un trabajo con el que no estabas seguro si sera completamente entendido o apreciado? +La gente en nuestras comunidades que hace estos trabajos merece nuestra atencin, nuestro amor y nuestro apoyo ms profundo. +Pero la gente no es la nica en nuestras comunidades que hace estos trabajos difciles. +Estos trabajos tambin los hacen las plantas, los animales y los ecosistemas de nuestro planeta, incluyendo los ecosistemas que estudio: los arrecifes de coral tropicales. +Los arrecifes de coral son agricultores. +Proporcionan alimentos, ingresos y seguridad alimentaria para cientos de millones de personas en todo el mundo. +Los arrecifes de coral son guardias de seguridad. +Las estructuras que construyen protegen nuestros litorales de mareas y olas de tormenta, y los sistemas biolgicos que albergan filtran el agua y la hacen ms segura para que nosotros trabajemos y juguemos. +Los arrecifes de coral son qumicos. +Las molculas que descubrimos en los arrecifes son cada vez ms importantes en la bsqueda de nuevos antibiticos y medicamentos contra el cncer. +Y los arrecifes de coral son artistas. +Las estructuras que construyen son algunas de las cosas ms hermosas en el planeta Tierra. +Y esta belleza es la base de la industria del turismo en muchos pases con pocos de otros recursos naturales. +As que por todas estas razones, todos estos servicios de los ecosistemas, lo economistas estiman que el valor de los arrecifes de coral del mundo en cientos de miles de millones de dlares por ao. +Sin embargo, a pesar de todo el trabajo duro que hacen para nosotros y toda esa riqueza que ganamos, hemos hecho casi todo lo posible para destruirlos. +Hemos sacado los peces de los ocanos y hemos aadido fertilizantes, aguas residuales, enfermedades, petrleo, contaminacin, sedimentos. +Hemos pisoteado los arrecifes con nuestros barcos, aletas y excavadoras, y hemos cambiado la qumica de todo el mar, calentado las aguas y empeorado las tormentas. +Y todos seran perjudiciales por su cuenta, pero estas amenazas se magnifican entre s y al conjugarse con otros, crean uno peor. +Voy a dar un ejemplo. +Donde vivo y trabajo, en Curazao, pas una tormenta tropical hace unos aos. +Y en el extremo oriental de la isla, donde los arrecifes estn intactos y prosperan, apenas se not que pas una tormenta tropical. +Pero en la ciudad, donde haban muerto por la sobrepesca, la contaminacin, la tormenta tropical recogi los corales muertos y los utiliz como garrotes para matar los corales que quedaban. +Se trata de un coral que estudi durante mi doctorado. Lo llegu a conocer bastante bien. +Y despus de esta tormenta se perdi la mitad de su tejido, se infest de algas, las algas cubrieron el tejido y el coral muri. +Este aumento de las amenazas, la combinacin de factores es lo que Jeremy Jackson llama la "pendiente resbaladiza hacia el limo". +No es una metfora, porque muchos de nuestros arrecifes ahora son literalmente limo de bacterias y algas. +Esta es la parte de la charla donde esperan que lance mi splica para salvar a todos los arrecifes de coral. +Pero tengo una confesin que hacer: esa frase me vuelve loca. +Si lo veo en un tuit, en un titular de prensa o las pginas brillantes de un folleto de conservacin, esa frase me molesta, porque nosotros, lo conservacionistas, hemos hecho sonar las alarmas sobre la muerte de los arrecifes de coral durante dcadas. +Y, sin embargo, no importa que tan educada sea la gente, nunca estn seguros de qu es un coral o de dnde vienen. +Cmo podemos lograr que cuiden los arrecifes de coral del mundo cuando es algo abstracto y apenas pueden entenderlo? +Si no entienden qu es un coral o de dnde viene, o qu tan divertido o interesante o hermoso es, por qu habramos de esperar que se preocuparan por salvarlos? +As que cambiemos eso. +Qu es un coral y de dnde viene? +Los corales nacen de maneras diferentes, pero ms a menudo por el desove masivo: todos los individuos de una sola especie en una noche al ao, liberan todos los huevos que han hecho ese ao en la columna de agua, empaquetados en haces con las clulas de esperma. +Y esos paquetes van a la superficie del ocano y se rompen. +Y con suerte, en la superficie del ocano, los huevos se encuentran con el esperma de otros corales. +Por eso se necesita una gran cantidad de corales en un arrecife para que todos los huevos puedan encontrar su par en la superficie. +Cuando estn fecundados, hacen lo que hace cualquier otro vulo animal: se dividen a la mitad una y otra y otra y otra vez. +Tomar fotos bajo el microscopio cada ao es uno de mis momentos favoritos y ms mgicos del ao. +Al final de la divisin celular, se conviertan en una larva nadadora una pequea gota de grasa del tamao de una semilla de amapola, pero con todos los sistemas sensoriales que tenemos. +Pueden percibir el color y la luz, las texturas, los productos qumicos, pH. +Incluso pueden sentir las ondas de presin; pueden escuchar el sonido. +Y usan esos talentos para buscar en el fondo del arrecife un lugar para fijarse y vivir el resto de sus vidas. +Imaginen encontrar un lugar donde vivir el resto de su vida cuando solo tienen dos das. +Se adhieren al lugar que consideran ms adecuado, construyen un esqueleto debajo de s mismos, construyen una boca y tentculos, y luego comienzan la difcil tarea de construir los arrecifes del mundo. +Un plipo de coral se dividir una y otra vez y otra vez, dejando un esqueleto de piedra caliza debajo de s mismo y creciendo hacia el sol. +Dados cientos de aos y muchas especies, lo que se obtiene es una estructura de piedra caliza masiva que se puede ver desde el espacio en muchos casos, cubiertas por una fina piel de estos animales trabajadores. +Solo hay unos pocos cientos de especies de coral en el planeta, tal vez 1000. +Pero estos sistemas dan casa a millones y millones de otras especies, y esa diversidad es lo que estabiliza los sistemas, y ah hemos encontrado nuestros nuevos medicamentos. +Es donde encontramos nuevas fuentes de alimentos. +Tengo la suerte de trabajar en la isla de Curazao, donde todava tenemos arrecifes que se ven as. +Pero, de hecho, gran parte del Caribe y en gran parte de nuestro mundo es mucho ms parecido a esto. +Los cientficos han estudiado con mayor detalle la prdida de los arrecifes de coral del mundo, y se han documentado con mayor certeza las causas. +Pero en mi investigacin, no me interesa mirar hacia atrs. +Mis colegas y yo en Curaao nos interesa mirar hacia adelante en lo que podra ser. +Y tenemos razones para ser optimistas. +Porque incluso en algunos de estos arrecifes que probablemente podramos haber descartado hace mucho tiempo, a veces vemos corales beb llegar y sobrevivir de todos modos. +Y estamos empezando a pensar que los corales bebs pueden tener la capacidad de adaptarse a algunas de las condiciones que los adultos no podran. +Pueden ajustarse muy ligeramente ms fcilmente a este planeta humano. +As que en la investigacin que hago con mis colegas en Curazao, tratamos de averiguar qu necesita un beb de coral en esa etapa crtica temprana, qu est buscando y cmo podemos tratar de ayudarlo a travs de ese proceso. +Voy a mostrar tres ejemplos del trabajo que hemos hecho para tratar de responder a estas preguntas. +Hace unos aos usamos una impresora 3D para ver la eleccin del coral sobre diferentes colores y diferentes texturas, y simplemente vimos dnde prefera el coral asentarse. +Y encontramos que los corales, incluso sin la biologa involucrada, an prefieren el blanco y el rosa, los colores de un arrecife sano. +Y prefieren grietas y ranuras y orificios, donde estarn a salvo de ser pisoteados o devorados por un depredador. +As que podemos usar este conocimiento, volver atrs y decir, necesitamos incluir esos factores el rosa, el blanco, las grietas, las superficies duras, en nuestros proyectos de conservacin. +Tambin podemos usar ese conocimiento si vamos a poner algo bajo el agua, como un muro de mar o un muelle. +Podemos optar por utilizar los materiales, colores y texturas que podran propiciar que el sistema atraiga los corales. +Adems de las superficies, tambin estudiamos las seales qumicas y microbianas que atraen a los corales a los arrecifes. +hace unos seis aos, empec a cultivar bacterias de las superficies donde los corales se haban asentado. +Y prob uno por uno, buscando las bacterias que convencen a los corales de asentarse y unirse. +Y ahora tenemos muchas cepas bacterianas en nuestro congelador que ayudar a los corales a pasar por ese proceso de fijarse y asentarse. +As que mientras hablamos, mis colegas en Curaao estn estudiando esas bacterias para ver si van a ayudar a atraer ms colonos de coral en el laboratorio, y para ver si los colonos de coral sobrevivirn mejor cuando los pongamos nuevamente bajo el agua. +Adems de estas herramientas, tambin tratamos de descubrir los misterios de las especies que se estudian poco. +Este es uno de mis corales favoritos y siempre lo ha sido: Cylindrus Dendrogyra, el coral pilar. +Me encanta porque hace esta forma ridcula, porque sus tentculos son gordos y se ven pachoncitos y porque son raros. +Encontrar uno de ellos en un arrecife es un placer. +De hecho, es tan raro, que el ao pasado fue catalogado como una especie amenazada en la lista de especies en peligro de extincin. +Y esto porque en ms de 30 aos de estudios de investigacin, los cientficos nunca haban encontrado un coral pilar beb. +No estbamos ni siquiera seguros si todava se podan reproducir, o si se estuvieran reproduciendo. +As que hace cuatro aos, empezamos a seguirlos en la noche y veamos si podamos averiguar cundo desovan en Curazao. +Tenamos algunos buenos consejos de nuestros colegas en Florida, que haba visto uno en 2007, uno en 2008, y con el tiempo nos dimos cuenta cundo desovan en Curaao y lo tomamos. +A la izquierda hay una hembra con algunos huevos en su tejido, a punto de liberarlos en el mar. +Y aqu hay un macho a a derecha, liberando los espermatozoides. +Lo recolectamos, lo llevamos al laboratorio, lo fertilizamos y tuvimos corales pilar beb nadando en nuestro laboratorio. +Gracias al trabajo de nuestras tas y tos cientficos, gracias a los 10 aos de prctica que hemos tenido en Curaao en criar otras especies de coral, tenemos algunas de esas larvas que pasaron por el resto del proceso y se establecieron y se fijaron, y se conviertieron en corales metamorfoseados. +Este es el primer beb coral pilar que alguien haya visto. +Y tengo que decirlos, si creen que los pandas bebs son lindos, este es ms lindo. +Estamos empezando a descubrir los secretos de este proceso, los secretos de la reproduccin del coral y cmo podemos ayudarles. +Y esto es cierto en todo el mundo; los cientficos estn pensando nuevas maneras de manejar sus embriones, para conseguir que se asienten, incluso investigan mtodos para su conservacin a bajas temperaturas, para que podamos preservar su diversidad gentica y trabajar con ellos ms a menudo. +Pero esto sigue siendo baja tecnologa. +Estamos limitados por el espacio y por el numero de gente en el laboratorio y el nmero de cafs que podemos beber. +Ahora, comprenlo con las otras crisis y las otras reas de preocupacin en la sociedad. +Hemos avanzado la tecnologa mdica, tenemos tecnologa de defensa, tenemos tecnologa cientfica, incluso tenemos una tecnologa avanzada para el arte. +Pero nuestra tecnologa para la conservacin est detrs. +Piensen en el trabajo ms difcil que hayan hecho. +Muchos diran que ser padre. +Mi madre describi el ser padre como algo que hace la vida mucho ms increble y mucho ms difcil de lo que podra haber jams imaginado. +He tratado de ayudar a los corales a convertirse en padres por ms de 10 aos. +Y ver la maravilla de la vida sin duda me ha llenado de asombro la esencia de mi alma. +Pero tambin he visto lo difcil que es que se conviertan en padres. +Los corales de pilar desovaron de nuevo hace dos semanas, y recogimos sus huevos y los llevamos al laboratorio. +Y aqu se ve un embrin dividindose, junto con 14 huevos que no se fertilizaron y eclosionarn. +Van a ser infectados con bacterias, van a eclosionar y esas bacterias ponen en peligro la vida de este embrin que tiene una oportunidad. +No sabemos si nuestros mtodos de manipulacin estuvieron mal y no sabemos si era solo este coral en este arrecife que siempre sufra de baja fertilidad. +Cualquiera que sea la causa, tenemos mucho ms trabajo por hacer antes de poder usar los corales beb para cultivarlos o adaptarlos o, s, tal vez salvar los arrecifes de coral. +No importa que valgan cientos de miles de millones de dlares. +Los arrecifes de coral son animales y plantas y microbios y hongos trabajadores. +Nos ofrecen arte, comida y medicina. +Y casi acabamos toda una generacin de corales. +Pero algunos lo lograron, a pesar de nuestros mejores esfuerzos, y ahora es el momento para darles las gracias por el trabajo que hicieron y darles la oportunidad que tienen para crear los arrecifes del futuro, sus bebs de coral. +Muchas gracias. +En las intersecciones ocurren grandes cosas. +De hecho, dira que ocurren cosas de las ms interesantes de la experiencia humana en las intersecciones, en el espacio liminal. Y por liminal me refiero al espacio del medio. +Hay libertad en ese espacio medio; libertad de crear a partir de la indefinicin, del ni aqu ni all, una nueva auto-definicin. +Me vienen a la mente las grandes intersecciones del mundo, como el Arco del Triunfo en Pars, o Times Square en Nueva York, ambos repletos de la emocin de un flujo aparentemente incesante de personas. +Pienso en otras intersecciones, como el puente Edmund Pettus en Selma, Alabama, o Canfield Drive y Copper Creek Court en Ferguson, Missouri, debido a la tremenda energa que hay en la interseccin de personas, ideologas y la lucha por la justicia que est en curso. +Ms all del paisaje fsico de nuestro planeta, algunas de las imgenes celestiales ms famosas son de intersecciones. +Las estrellas nacen en la interseccin desordenada de gas y polvo, instigada por el impulso irrevocable de la gravedad. +Las estrellas mueren por esta misma interseccin, esta vez expulsadas en una violenta colisin de tomos que se intersectan y fusionan con eficiencia en cosas nuevas ms pesadas. +Todos podemos pensar intersecciones que tienen un significado especial. +Que sea liminal, entonces, significa que ocupa una posicin en una interseccin. +Yo he vivido toda mi vida en el espacio del medio, en el espacio liminal entre los sueos y la realidad, entre raza y gnero, pobreza y abundancia, ciencia y sociedad. +Soy a la vez negra y mujer. +Como el nacimiento de las estrellas del firmamento, esta combinacin robusta de conocimiento da un ejemplo brillante de la fusin explosiva de identidades. +Tambin soy astrofsica. +Estudio los blazares, agujeros negros hiperactivos, supermasivos, que se sitan en el centro de galaxias masivas y disparan chorros en las cercanas de esos agujeros negros a velocidades cercanas a las de la luz en un proceso que an tratamos de comprender cabalmente. +So con ser astrofsica desde los 12 aos. +A lo largo del camino encontr lo mejor y lo peor de la vida en la interseccin: la tremenda oportunidad de la autodefinicin, la colisin de expectativa y experiencia, la euforia de los avances victoriosos y, a veces, el dolor explosivo de la regeneracin. +Empec mi experiencia universitaria cuando mi familia se haba desmoronado. +Nuestra situacin financiera se deshizo ni bien mi padre dej nuestras vidas. +Esta madre abandonada, mi hermana y yo, dejamos la comodidad relativa de una vida de clase media para adentrarnos en la lucha constante por llegar a fin de mes. +Fui una de casi un 60 % de mujeres negras que enfrentan la limitacin financiera en sus objetivos educativos. +Afortunadamente, la Universidad Estatal de Norfolk me dio financiacin completa y pude hacer mi licenciatura en fsica. +Tras graduarme, y a pesar de saber que quera doctorarme en astrofsica, ca en las grietas. +Pero un cartel salv mi sueo, y algunas personas y programas increbles. +La Sociedad Estadounidense de Fsica tena este cartel hermoso que animaba a los estudiantes negros a ser fsicos. +Me sorprendi porque destacaba una nia negra, quiz de unos 12 aos, que miraba con atencin unas ecuaciones de fsica. +Recuerdo haber devuelto la mirada a la pequea nia que primero se anim a soar este sueo. +De inmediato escrib a la Sociedad y solicit una copia del cartel, que an hoy cuelga en mi oficina. +Les describ en mi correo mi trayectoria educativa, y mi deseo de embarcarme nuevamente en la bsqueda de la tesis doctoral. +Me dirigieron al Programa Puente de la Universidad Fisk-Vanderbilt, una interseccin de grados de maestra y doctorado en dos instituciones. +Tras dos aos fuera de la escuela, me aceptaron en el programa, y me encontr nuevamente en camino al doctorado. +Tras conseguir mi maestra en fsica, fui a Yale a terminar el doctorado. +Tras ocupar fsicamente el espacio que en ltima instancia dara paso a mis aspiraciones de la infancia, anticip un suave camino al doctorado. +Se hizo evidente de inmediato que no todo el mundo estaba encantado de tener ese grado de liminalidad en su espacio. +Muchos compaeros me condenaron al ostracismo, y uno de ellos se atrevi a invitarme a "hacer lo que vine a hacer" mientras empujaba los platos sucios frente de m para que los limpiara. +Me gustara decir que fue un hecho aislado, pero para muchas mujeres negras en ciencia, tecnologa, ingeniera, matemtica o ciencias bsicas, esto es algo que han soportado durante mucho tiempo. +El 100 % de las 60 mujeres negras entrevistadas en un reciente estudio de Joan C. Williams en UC Hastings inform enfrentar sesgo de gnero racial, como ser confundidas con el personal de limpieza. +Esta confusin de identidad no fue informada por ninguna mujer blanca entrevistada en ese estudio, que comprenda 557 mujeres en total. +Si bien no hay nada inherentemente malo en una posicin de limpieza, y de hecho mis antepasados pudieron ir a la universidad gracias a que sus padres tenan estos trabajos, fue un intento claro por ponerme en mi lugar. +Aparte del indudable e intenso dolor de ese encuentro, el verdadero problema es que mi apariencia no debe indicar nada sobre mi capacidad. +No obstante, ms all de eso, pone de relieve que las mujeres negras de ciencias duras no tienen las mismas dificultades que tienen las mujeres en general o las personas negras. +Por eso hoy quiero destacar a las mujeres negras de las ciencias duras, que inexorablemente, y sin complejos, viven esa inseparable suma de identidades. +Las ciencias duras son en s un trmino liminal, y su verdadera riqueza no se puede apreciar sin tener en cuenta el espacio liminal que existe entre las disciplinas. +La ciencia, la bsqueda de entender el mundo fsico por medio de la qumica, la fsica, la biologa, no puede lograrse en ausencia de las matemticas. +La ingeniera requiere la aplicacin de ciencias bsicas y matemticas a la experiencia vivida. +La tecnologa tiene una fuerte base de matemtica, ingeniera y ciencia. +La propia matemtica juega el papel crtico de la piedra de Rosetta, en la codificacin y decodificacin de los principios fsicos del mundo. +Las ciencias duras estn incompletas sin cada pieza individual. +Esto por no hablar de lo que se enriquecen las ciencias duras al combinarse con otras disciplinas. +Esta charla tiene un doble objetivo: Primero, decirles a las nias negras, latinas, indgenas, aborgenes, o cualquier otra mujer o nia que descansen en la bendita interseccin de raza y gnero, que pueden ser lo que quieran ser. +Espero en lo personal que sean astrofsicas, pero ms all de eso, que sean lo que quieran ser. +No piensen ni por un minuto que por ser quienes son no pueden ser quienes imaginaron ser. +Afrrense a esos sueos y dejen que los lleven a un mundo que ni siquiera imaginan. +Segundo, entre los asuntos ms urgentes de nuestro tiempo, la mayora ahora encuentra su interseccin con las ciencias duras. +Como sociedad global hemos resuelto la mayora de los temas simples de nuestro tiempo. +Los temas restantes requieren una investigacin profunda del espacio liminal entre disciplinas para crear las soluciones multifacticas del maana. +Quin mejor para resolver estos problemas liminales que quienes han enfrentado toda la vida desde las intersecciones. +Nosotros, como lderes de opinin que tomamos decisiones, debemos dar los primeros pasos ms all de la diversidad al territorio ms rico y ms robusto de la plena inclusin y la igualdad de oportunidades. +Uno de mis ejemplos favoritos de excelencia liminal viene de la difunta Dra. Claudia Alexander, una mujer negra fsica del plasma, que falleci el pasado julio tras luchar durante 10 aos contra el cncer de mama. +Encabez por parte de la NASA el proyecto de la misin Rosetta, que se hizo famoso este ao por el aterrizaje de un vehculo en un cometa, y por la misin Galileo a Jpiter de USD 1500 millones, dos victorias cientficos de alto nivel para la NASA, EE. UU. y el mundo. +La Dra. Alexander lo dijo as: "Estoy acostumbrada a caminar entre dos culturas. +Para m, es uno de los propsitos de mi vida llevarnos de estados de ignorancia a estados de comprensin mediante la exploracin audaz que puede hacerse todos los das". +Esto muestra exactamente el poder de una persona liminal. +Ella tena la capacidad tcnica para dirigir una de las misiones espaciales ms ambiciosas de nuestro tiempo, y entenda perfectamente su lugar de ser exactamente quien era en el lugar que estaba. +Jessica Matthews, inventora de la lnea SOCCKET de productos deportivos, como balones de ftbol, que generan energas renovables durante el juego, lo dijo as: "Gran parte de la invencin no consiste solo en crear cosas, sino en entender a las personas y a los sistemas que constituyen este mundo". +Cuento esta historia y la historia de la Dra. Alexander y la de Jessica Matthews porque, en esencia, son historias liminales, historias de vidas vividas en el nexo de la raza, el gnero y la innovacin. +A pesar de cuestiones implcitas y explcitas de mi derecho de estar en un espacio de lite, me enorgullece decirles que cuando me gradu, fui la primera mujer negra en doctorarme en astrofsica en los 312 aos de historia de Yale hasta ese entonces. +Integro un grupo pequeo pero creciente de mujeres negras en ciencias duras destinado a aportar nuevas perspectivas y dar a luz nuevas ideas sobre los problemas ms acuciantes de nuestro tiempo: cosas como las desigualdades educativas, la brutalidad policial, el VIH/SIDA, el cambio climtico, la edicin gentica, la inteligencia artificial y la exploracin de Marte. +Esto es no decir nada de las cosas que ni siquiera hemos pensado todava. +Las mujeres negras en ciencias duras ocupan uno de los temas ms duros, de los temas sociotecnolgicos ms apasionantes de nuestro tiempo. +Por lo tanto, estamos en una posicin nica para contribuir y conducir estas conversaciones para que incluyan una variedad ms amplia de experiencia vivida. +Este punto de vista se puede ampliar a muchas personas liminales cuyas experiencias, positivas y negativas, enriquezcan las conversaciones de manera que sobrepasen incluso los mejores grupos homogneos. +Esto no es un pedido que nace de un deseo de encajar. +Es un recordatorio de que no podemos lograr los mejores resultados posibles para toda la humanidad precisamente sin esta colaboracin, esta conjuncin de lo liminal, lo vivido y experimentado en forma diferente, con impactos dispares. +En pocas palabras, no podemos ser la expresin ms excelsa de nuestro genio colectivo sin incluir a toda la humanidad. +Gracias. +En los ltimos meses, he estado viajando durante semanas con solo una maleta de ropa. +Un da, me invitaron a un evento importante, y quera ponerme algo especial. +Mir en la maleta y no encontr nada que ponerme. +Tuve la suerte de estar en una conferencia de tecnologa ese da, y tena acceso a impresoras 3D. +Rpidamente dise una falda en mi computadora, cargu el modelo en la impresora, +e imprim las partes durante la noche. +A la maana siguiente, ensambl todas las piezas en la habitacin del hotel, y es la falda que estoy usando ahora. +Pero no fue la primera vez que imprim ropa. +Para mi coleccin principal en la escuela de diseo de moda, decid imprimir en 3D una coleccin de moda desde mi casa. +El problema es que no conoca mucho sobre la impresin en 3D, y tena solo 9 meses para averiguar cmo imprimir 5 looks de moda. +Siempre me sent ms creativa trabajando desde casa. +Me encantaba experimentar con nuevos materiales y siempre trataba de desarrollar nuevas tcnicas para confeccionar los textiles ms singulares en mis proyectos. +Me encantaba ir a viejas fbricas y tiendas extraas a buscar sobras de polvos y materiales extraos, para luego llevarlos a casa y experimentar. +Como pueden imaginar, a mis compaeros de cuarto no les agradaba. +As que decid seguir adelante y trabajar con grandes mquinas, unas que no entraban en mi sala de estar. +Me encanta el trabajo a medida y exacto que puedo hacer con todo tipo de tecnologas de la moda, como las mquinas de tejer y de corte por lser e impresin de seda. +En un receso de verano, vine aqu a Nueva York para una pasanta en una casa de moda en el barrio chino. +Trabajamos en dos vestidos increbles que se imprimieron en 3D. +Eran increbles, como pueden ver aqu. +Pero tuve algunos problemas con ellos. +Estaban hechos de plstico duro y eran muy frgiles. +Las modelos no podan lucirlos, e incluso se rasguaron con los plsticos bajo el brazo. +Con la impresin 3D, los diseadores tenan mucha libertad para hacer que los vestidos tuvieran el aspecto que queran, pero aun as, dependan mucho de impresoras industriales grandes y caras ubicadas en un laboratorio lejos del estudio. +Ms tarde ese ao, un amigo me dio un collar impreso en 3D, hecho con una impresora hogarea. +Saba que estas impresoras eran mucho ms econmicas y mucho ms accesible que las que usamos en mi pasanta. +Por eso al ver el collar pens: "si puedo imprimir un collar desde casa, por qu no imprimir mi ropa desde casa tambin?" +Me gust mucho la idea de no tener que ir al mercado y elegir las telas que otra persona decidi vender. Podra disearlas e imprimirlas directamente desde casa. +Encontr un pequeo espacio maker, donde aprend todo lo que s sobre impresin 3D. +Pronto me dieron literalmente la llave del laboratorio, para poder experimentar en la noche, todas las noches. +El principal desafo era encontrar el filamento adecuado para imprimir ropa. +Qu es el filamento? +Es el material con el que se alimenta a la impresora. +Pas como un mes experimentando con PLA, un material duro y spero, que se rompe. +Progres mucho al conocer el Filaflex, un nuevo tipo de filamento. +Es fuerte, pero muy flexible. +Con l pude imprimir la primera prenda de vestir, la chaqueta roja que tena la palabra "Libert", "Libertad" en francs.... estaba incrustada en ella. +Eleg esta palabra porque me senta libre y con poder por el hecho de disear una prenda desde casa y poder imprimirla por mi cuenta. +De hecho, pueden descargar fcilmente esta chaqueta, y cambiarle fcilmente esa palabra por otra cosa. +Por ejemplo, su nombre o el nombre de su amor. +Las placas de impresin son pequeas, as que tuve que ensamblar las piezas, como en un rompecabezas. +Y quera resolver otro desafo. +Quera imprimir textiles que pudiera usar como tejidos normales. +Fue entonces cuando encontr el archivo libre de un arquitecto que dise un patrn que me encanta. +Y con ese patrn pude imprimir un hermoso textil que usara como una tela normal. +En realidad, incluso se parece un poco al encaje. +As que tom su archivo, lo modifiqu, lo cambi, jugu un poco, hice muchas versiones. +Y tena que imprimir otras 1500 horas para terminar de imprimir mi coleccin. +As que llev 6 impresoras a casa e imprim 24x7. +Es un proceso realmente muy lento, pero recordemos que Internet era muchsimo ms lenta hace 20 aos, as que la impresin 3D se acelerar y, en poco tiempo, podremos imprimir una camiseta en casa en un par de horas o incluso en minutos. +Por eso muchachos, quieren ver cmo queda? +Pblico: S! +Danit Peleg: Rebecca lleva uno de mis 5 trajes. +Casi todo lo que lleva puesto, lo imprim en casa. +Hasta sus zapatos estn impresos. +Pblico: Guau! +Pblico: Cool! +Danit Peleg: Gracias, Rebecca. +(Al pblico) Gracias muchachos. +Creo que en el futuro, los materiales evolucionarn, tendrn la textura de los tejidos actuales, como el algodn y la seda. +Imaginen ropa personalizada que se ajuste exactamente a sus medidas. +La msica alguna vez fue algo muy fsico. +Uno tena que ir a la tienda de discos a comprar CDs, pero hoy uno puede bajarse la msica, msica digital, directamente al telfono. +La moda tambin es algo muy fsico. +Y me pregunto qu aspecto tendr nuestro mundo cuando la ropa sea digital, como lo es esta falda. +Muchas gracias. +[Gracias] +Cuando era nio... +esta era mi equipo. +Era psimo para los deportes. +No me gusta jugarlos, no me gustaba verlos. +As que esto es lo que haca. Pescaba. +Y al crecer pescaba en las costas de Connecticut, y estas son las criaturas que vea regularmente. +Pero despus de crecer e ir a la universidad, volv a casa a principios de los 90 y esto es lo que encontr. +Mi equipo se haba reducido. +Era como, literalmente, tener una alineacin devastada. +Y conforme lo vea, desde un punto de vista muy personal como pescador, empec a buscar un poco, bien, qu pensaba el resto del mundo? +Primero vi las pescaderas. +Y al ir a los mercados de pescado, igual donde estuviera, ya sea Carolina del Norte, Pars o Londres, o donde sea, segua viendo estos cuatro seres, una y otra vez, en los mens, en el hielo camarn, atn, salmn y bacalao. +Y me pareci que era bastante extrao, y al verlo, me preguntaba, qu nadie se dio cuenta de esta reduccin del mercado? +Bueno, cuando me fij, me di cuenta de que la gente no lo ve como su equipo. +La gente comn ve el pescado as. +No es una caracterstica humana inusual reducir el mundo natural a muy pocos elementos. +Lo hemos hecho antes, hace 10 000 aos, al salir de nuestras cuevas. +Si nos fijamos en las hogueras de hace de 10 000 aos, vern mapaches, vern, ya saben, lobos, vern todo tipo de criaturas. +Pero si vemos hace 2000 aos, vern estos cuatro mamferos: cerdos, vacas, ovejas y cabras. +Es igual en el caso de las aves. +Al ver en los mens de restaurantes de Nueva York de hace 150- 200 aos, vern escolopcidos, becadas, urogallos, docenas de patos y gansos. +Pero al ver la cra de animales moderna, vern cuatro: pavos, patos, pollos y gansos. +Es lgico que nos hayamos dirigido en esa direccin. +Pero cmo nos hemos dirigido en esta direccin? +Bien.. +primero es un problema muy, muy nuevo. +Es la forma cmo hemos estado pescando en los ocanos en los ltimos 50 aos. +Con la Segunda Guerra Mundial declaramos la guerra contra los peces. +Toda la tecnologa perfeccionada durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial, sonares, polmeros ligeros, todas se redirigieron a los peces. +Y este tremendo incremento de la capacidad pesquera, se cuadruplic con el transcurso del tiempo, desde el final de la Segunda Guerra Mundial hasta nuestros das. +Eso significa que extraemos entre 80 y 90 millones de toneladas mtricas del mar cada ao. +Eso es el equivalente al peso humano de China que se saca del mar cada ao. +Y no es casualidad que use a China como ejemplo porque China es ahora el mayor pas pesquero del mundo. +Bueno, eso es solo la mitad de la historia. +La otra mitad de la historia es este increble auge de la piscicultura y la acuicultura, que ahora, solo en el ltimo ao o dos, empez a superar la cantidad de peces salvajes que extraemos. +As que si se suman los peces salvajes y los cultivados, se obtiene el equivalente a dos Chinas del ocano cada ao. +Y de nuevo, no es una coincidencia que use a China como el ejemplo, porque China, adems de ser el mayor pescador tambin es el mayor acuicultor. +Veamos las cuatro opciones que tenemos en este momento. +La primera, y por mucho el marisco ms consumido en EE. UU. y gran parte de Occidente, es el camarn. +El camarn de la naturaleza, como un producto natural, es un producto terrible. +Se matan 10, 20, 30 kilos de peces salvajes regularmente para llevar medio kg. de camarn al mercado. +Tambin es muy ineficiente llevarlo al mercado en trminos de combustible. +En un estudio reciente de la Universidad de Dalhousie, se encontr que la pesca del camarn es una de las formas ms intensivas de emisin de carbono. +As que se pueden cultivar, y la gente los cultiva, y cultivan mucho en esta misma zona. +El problema es +el lugar donde estn las granjas del camarn son estos hbitats silvestres: los bosques de manglar. +Vean esas races encantadoras bajando. +Las mantienen en el suelo, protegen las costas, crean hbitats para todo tipo de peces y camarones jvenes, y son importantes para este entorno. +Bueno, esto es lo que ocurre con muchos de los manglares costeros. +Hemos perdido millones de acres de manglares costeros en los ltimos 30 o 40 aos. +Esta tasa de destruccin se ha ralentizado, pero todava tenemos un dficit importante de manglares. +Lo otro que est pasando aqu es un fenmeno que el cineasta Marcos Benjamin llama "Moliendo a Nemo". +Este fenmeno es muy, muy relevante para todo lo que se ve en un arrecife tropical. +Porque lo que est pasando en este momento, es que tenemos camaroneros arrastrando con el camarn, una gran cantidad de captura incidental, que su vez, se muele y se convierte en alimento del camarn. +Y a veces, muchas de estas embarcaciones, tripuladas por esclavos, capturan los llamados "peces basura" peces que nos encantara ver en un arrecife, y los muelen y los convierten en alimento para camarones, un ecosistema que literalmente se come a s mismo y escupe camarn. +El segundo pescado ms consumido en EE. UU. y tambin en todo Occidente, es el atn. +As que el atn es el pez mundial definitivo. +Estas reas de gestin enormes se deben vigilar a fin de que el atn est bien administrado. +Nuestra propia rea de gestin, llamado la Organizacin Regional de Ordenacin Pesquera, se llama la CICAA, la Comisin Internacional para la Conservacin del Atn Atlntico. +El gran naturalista Carl Safina la llam una vez, "La conspiracin internacional para pescar todos los atunes." +Por supuesto hemo visto mejoras increbles en la CICAA en los ltimos aos, hay mucho espacio para la mejora, pero queda por decir que el atn es un pescado mundial, y para su gestin, tenemos que manejar el mundo. +Bueno, tambin podramos tratar de criar atn pero el atn es muy malo para la acuicultura. +Muchas personas no saben esto, pero el atn es de sangre caliente. +Pueden calentar sus cuerpos 20 por encima de la temperatura ambiente, pueden nadar a ms de 60 km/hr. +As que eso prcticamente elimina todas las ventajas de la agricultura de peces +Un pescado de piscifactora es o un pez es de sangre fra, o uno que no se mueve mucho. +Eso es bueno para el cultivo de protenas. +Pero si hay una criatura salvaje y loca que nada a 60 km/hr. con sangre caliente, no es un buen candidato para la acuicultura. +La siguiente criatura, ms consumida en EE. UU. y en todo el Occidente es el salmn. +Tambin saqueamos el salmn, pero en realidad no necesariamente por la pesca. +Este es mi estado natal de Connecticut. +Connecticut sola ser el hogar de una gran cantidad de salmn salvaje. +Pero si vemos este mapa de Connecticut, cada punto en este mapa es una presa. +Hay ms de 3000 presas en el estado de Connecticut. +Creo que esta es la razn por laque la gente en Connecticut es muy tensa, Si alguien simplemente desbloqueara el chi de Connecticut, creo que podramos tener un mundo infinitamente mejor. +Hice este comentario particular, en una convencin de oficiales de parques nacionales, y un tipo de Carolina del Norte se me acerc y me dijo, "Sabes, no deberas ser tan duro con Connecticut, porque nosotros aqu en Carolina del Norte, tenemos 35 000 represas". +Es una epidemia nacional e internacional. +Hay presas en todas partes, y precisamente evitan que el salmn salvaje llegue a sus lugares de desove. +As que, como resultado, hemos usado la acuicultura y el salmn es uno de los ms exitosos, al menos en los nmeros. +Cuando empez el cultivo del salmn, poda tomar hasta 3 kg. de peces silvestres para hacer solo medio kg. de salmn. +La industria ha mejorado mucho. +Han llegado por debajo de dos a uno, aunque es un poco engaoso porque si nos fijamos en la manera en que se produce la acuicultura, se est midiendo en grnulos, kilos de grnulos por kilo de salmn. +Estos grnulos son a su vez pescado. +As que en realidad, el pescado que entra y el que sale, es algo difcil de calcular. +Pero en cualquier caso, hay que darle crdito a la industria, se ha reducido la cantidad de pescado por kg. de salmn. +El problema es que aumentamos la cantidad de salmones que estamos produciendo. +La acuicultura es el sistema alimentario de ms rpido crecimiento en el mundo. +Crece algo as como 7 % por ao. +Y as, a pesar de que requerimos menos por pez para ponerlos en el mercado, an estamos matando a una gran cantidad de peces pequeos. +Y no solo estamos alimentando a los peces con peces, tambin estamos alimentando pollos y cerdos con peces. +As que tenemos pollos que comen pescado, pero extraamente, tambin tenemos peces que comen pollo. +Los productos derivados de los pollos como las plumas, sangre, huesos se muelen y alimenta a los peces. +As que me pregunto a menudo, es un pez que se comi un pollo que se comi un pez? +Es como una reelaboracin del huevo y la gallina. Como sea. En conjunto, sin embargo, resulta un problema terrible. +Estamos hablando es algo de entre 20 y 30 millones de toneladas mtricas de criaturas salvajes que se extraen del ocano que se usan y se muelen. +Es el equivalente a un tercio de una China, o todo un EE. UU. de seres humanos que se sacan del mar todos los aos. +El ltimo de los cuatro es una especie de cosa amorfa. +Es lo que la industria llama "pescado blanco". +Hay muchos peces que entran en esta cosa de pescado blanco pero la manera contar la historia, creo, es a travs de esa pieza clsica de la innovacin culinaria yanqui, el sndwich Filet-O-Fish. +El sndwich Filet-O-Fish en realidad comenz con la platija. +Y empez porque un dueo de franquicia local vio que cuando serva hamburgesas el viernes, nadie vena. +Ya que era una comunidad catlica, necesitaban pescado. +As que fue con Ray Kroc y le dijo: "Yo voy a hacer un sndwich de pescado, va a ser de platija". +Ray Kroc dijo: "No creo que vaya a funcionar. +Quiero hacer un Hula Burger, y que va a ser una rodaja de pia en un bollo. +Pero vamos a hacer esto, vamos a hacer una apuesta. +a ver qu sndwich vende ms, ser el sndwich ganador". +Bueno, es un poco triste para el ocano que la hamburguesa Hula no ganara. +As que hizo su sandwich de platija. +Lamentablemente, sin embargo, el sndwich costaba 30 centavos de dlar. +Ray quera el sandwich en 25 centavos, por lo que recurri al bacalao del Atlntico. +Todos sabemos lo que pas con el bacalao del Atlntico, en Nueva Inglaterra. +As que ahora el sndwich Filet-O-Fish se hace de abadejo de Alaska, es la pesca ms grande de peces de aleta en EE. UU. con entre 1 a 1.5 millones de kg. de peces cada ao. +Si dejamos el abadejo, la siguiente opcin es, probablemente, la tilapia. +La tilapia es uno de esos peces del que nadie oa hablar hace 20 aos. +Es un convertidor muy eficiente de la protena vegetal en protena animal, y ha sido una bendicin para el tercer mundo. +En realidad es una solucin tremendamente sostenible, crece del huevo a un adulto en nueve meses. +El problema es que en el Oeste, no hace lo que Occidente quiere que haga. +No tiene lo que se llama un perfil de pescado graso. +No tiene omega-3 EPA y DHA que pensamos nos va a hacer vivir para siempre. +As que qu hacemos? +Primero qu pasa con este pobre pez, los clupeidos? +Los peces que son una gran parte de esas 20 a 30 millones de toneladas mtricas. +Bueno, una posibilidad de que muchos conservacionistas han planteado es si podramos comerlos. +Podemos comerlos directamente en lugar de alimentar a los salmones? +Hay argumentos a favor. +Son muy eficientes con el combustible para llevarlos al mercado, una fraccin del costo de los camarones, y estn en la parte superior de la escala de eficiencia de carbono. +Tambin son ricos en omega-3, una gran fuente de EPA y DHA. +As que hay potencial. +Y si nos vamos a ir por ese camino lo que digo es, en lugar de pagar unos cuantos dlares por kg o por tonelada y hacerlos alimentos acucolas, podemos reducir a la mitad la captura y el doblar el precio para los pescadores y as tratar a estos peces en particular? +Otra posibilidad mucho ms interesante, se enfoca en los bivalvos, en particular los mejillones. +Los mejillones son muy altos en EPA y DHA, similares a las conservas de atn. +Tambin son extremadamente eficientes en combustible. +Para llevar medio kg. de mejillones al mercado se requiere una trigsima parte del carbono de la carne vacuna. +No requieren peces forrajeros, obtienen sus omega-3 mediante la filtracin del agua de las microalgas. +De hecho, de ah es de donde los omega-3 vienen, no provienen de los peces. +Las microalgas hacen los omega-3, solo estn bioconcentrados en los peces. +Los mejillones y otros bivalvos filtran enormes cantidades de agua. +Un solo mejilln puede filtrar decenas de galones diariamente. +Y esto es muy importante cuando vemos el mundo. +La nitrificacin, el uso excesivo de fosfatos en nuestras vas fluviales estn causando enormes floraciones de algas. +Ms de 400 nuevas zonas muertas se han creado en los ltimos 20 aos, enormes fuentes de muerte de vida marina. +Tambin podramos no considerar ningn pez en absoluto. +Podramos ver los vegetales. +Podramos ver las algas, las laminarias, todas las diferentes variedades que pueden ser altos en omega-3, pueden ser altas en protenas, algo tremendamente bueno. +Filtran el agua como lo hacen los mejillones. +Y extraamente, resulta que se puede alimentar a las vacas con l. +Ahora, no soy un gran fan de ganado. +Pero si quieren mantener el ganado en crecimiento en donde los recursos hdricos son limitados, al crecer algas en el agua, no hay que regarla, una mayor consideracin. +Y el ltimo pez es un signo de interrogacin. +Tenemos la capacidad de crear peces de acuicultura que crean una ganancia neta de protena marina para nosotros. +Esta criatura tendra que ser vegetariana, tendra que ser de crecimiento rpido, tendra que adaptarse a un clima cambiante y tendra que tener ese perfil de pescado graso, esa EPA, DHA, los cidos grasos omega-3 que estamos buscando. +Esto existe en el papel. +He estado informando sobre estos temas durante 15 aos. +Cada vez que cuento la historia, alguien me dice, "Podemos hacer todo eso. Podemos hacerlo. Sabemos cmo hacerlo. +Podemos producir un pez con una ganancia neta de protena marina y omega-3". +Excelente. +Pero no parece que se haga a mayor escala. +Es hora de escalar esto. +Si lo hacemos, 30 millones de toneladas, un tercio de las capturas mundiales, permanecern en el agua. +As que lo que digo es que lo hagamos. +Tendemos a seguir nuestros apetitos en lugar de nuestras mentes. +Pero si hacemos esto o alguna alternativa de la misma, podramos tener un poco ms de esto. +Gracias. +Nicole Paris: TEDYouth, un poco de ruido! +TEDYouth, un poco de... (Fin del beatbox) Estn listos? +Estn listos? +Ed Cage: S, s, s! +EC: Les gusta? Les mostrar cmo solamos hacerlo antes... NP: Vamos pap. +EC: de joven, en los aos 90. +(Fin de beatbox) NP: Pap, pap, espera, espera, espera, espera! +Dios mo. +Bueno, intenta provocarme. +Espera, aguarda, espera. +Recuerdas cuando hacas beatbox para que me durmiera? +EC: S, s, lo recuerdo. +Cuando era nia. +Sacbamos sonidos como este. +NP: Lo recuerdo. +NP: Pap, bien, pap, pap, tranquilo. +Espera, espera, espera. +EC: Han visto todos el video. +Esto es una especie de venganza o algo por el estilo para que 50 millones de personas me vean como un perdedor. +NP: Espera, espera. +Pero muchos no son conscientes de lo que es de hecho el beatbox y cmo empez. +EC: Es verdad, verdad. +NP: Sus orgenes. +Por qu no les cuentas un poco... algo simple, un poco de historia del beatbox. +EC: El beatbox naci aqu, en Nueva York. +S! En Nueva York, Nueva York! +Todo el mundo iba, "Guau!" +Bueno, pero nosotros somos de Saint Louis. +NP: Ya pueden dejar de aplaudir. +EC: En cualquier caso, el beatbox empez aqu, en Nueva York. +Lo que pasaba era que ibas a alguna fiesta donde haba un DJ y un rapero. +Pero como no venamos equipados con electricidad tenamos que imitar el ritmo. +As que cuando se miraba al beatboxer, nosotros tambin estbamos all, a su lado. +Mirabas al rapero entrar en la escena y empezar a rapear, y nosotros producamos algn ritmo simple porque antes los ritmos eran simples. O... Eran ritmos simples. +Bueno, que me lo tomo a pecho. +Pero hacemos algo diferente en casa, organizamos estas sesiones, y estos conciertos improvisados consisten en improvisar en la iglesia. +Ya saben, en la iglesia, nos miramos y vamos de, nos mandamos el ritmo el uno al otro. +O estamos en la cocina, de viaje, en el aeropuerto. +NP: De pie en un rincn digo: "Oye, pap, escucha esto". +No, estoy de broma. Pero saben algo? +Hablamos de estas sesiones improvisadas y cosas parecidas. +EC: S. +NP: Vamos a compartir un poquito de lo que hacemos en la sesin. +NP: Quieren escuchar un trozo? EC: Estn preparados para la sesin? +NP: Perdonen? No les oigo. +S! Dale, padre! +(Fin del beatbox) NP: Estoy lista para empezar! +EC: Listos? Todos de pie! Vamos, todos de pie! +Vamos! Venga, a estirarse! +(Fin del beatbox) NP: Ya est. +(Ovaciones y aplausos) Gracias! Un poco de ruido! +EG: Gracias a todos! +NP: Un podo de ruido! Un podo de ruido! +Gracias! +Bueno, tengo una subvalorada, pero potencialmente lucrativa oportunidad de inversin para Uds. +En los ltimos 10 aos, en el Reino Unido, la rentabilidad de los terrenos de cementerio ha superado al mercado inmobiliario del Reino Unido en una proporcin de tres a uno. +Hay cementerios privados que se estn construyendo con lotes a la venta para inversionistas. Y empiezan a alrededor de 3900 libras, +con una proyeccin de crecimiento de casi el 40% +Y la gran ventaja es que se trata de un mercado con una demanda continua. +Ahora, esta es una propuesta real, all afuera hay compaas que de verdad estn ofreciendo esta inversin. Pero mi inters en esto es bien diferente. +Soy arquitecta y diseadora urbana, y durante el ltimo ao y medio he estado observando los enfoques sobre la muerte y el morir, y cmo estos han dado forma a nuestras ciudades y sus edificios. +Entonces, este verano hice mi primera exposicin sobre la muerte y la arquitectura en Venecia, la que llam "Muerte en Venecia". +Y porque la muerte es un tema que para muchos de nosotros es incmodo hablar, la exhibicin fue diseada para que fuera bien ldica, y lograr as en efecto entablar con los asistentes. +Una de nuestras exposiciones era un mapa interactivo de Londres que mostraba hasta dnde los bienes races de la ciudad se destinan a la muerte. +A medida que pasas la mano por el mapa, el nombre del bien raz --edificio o cementerio-- aparece. +Y esos dibujos blancos que ven, son todos los hospitales y hospicios, morgues y cementerios de la ciudad. +De hecho, la mayora son cementerios. +Queramos mostrar que aunque la muerte y los funerales son algo que no queremos hablar, nos rodean y son partes importantes de nuestras ciudades. +Entonces alrededor de medio milln de personas muere en el Reino Unido cada ao, y de ellos, ms o menos un cuarto quieren que los entierren. +Pero al Reino Unido, como a muchos pases de Europa Occidental, se les est acabando el espacio para los entierros, especialmente en las grandes ciudades. +Y la Autoridad del Gran Londres ha estado al corriente de esto desde hace un tiempo. Las principales causas son el crecimiento de la poblacin, y el que los cementerios existentes estn casi llenos. +En el Reino Unido, por tradicin, se considera que las tumbas deben ser ocupadas por siempre. Adems hay una presin de desarrollo: la gente quiere usar ese mismo suelo para construir casas, oficinas o tiendas. +Entonces se propusieron algunas soluciones, +como quizs poder reutilizar estas tumbas despus de 50 aos. +O quizs podemos sepultar gente como de a cuatro. As cuatro personas pueden ser sepultadas en el mismo lote. Y as podemos hacer un uso ms eficiente de la tierra. De esa forma ojal Londres siga teniendo espacio para sepultar gente en el futuro cercano. +Pero tradicionalmente la autoridad local no se ha hecho cargo de los cementerios. +De hecho, lo sorprendente es que para nadie es obligatorio, en el Reino Unido, proveer espacio mortuorio. +Tradicionalmente, se han encargado organizaciones privadas y religiosas como iglesias, mezquitas y sinagogas. +Pero ocasionalmente ha habido un grupo con fines de lucro que ha querido entrar en accin. +Y saben? Ellos miran el pequeo espacio del lote fnebre y ese alto costo, y parece que se puede hacer mucho dinero. +Es ms, si Uds. quisieran emprender su propio cementerio, podran hacerlo. +Haba una pareja en Gales del Sur, tenan una granja y muchos campos alrededor y queran desarrollar esa tierra. +Tenan un montn de ideas. +Primero pensaron hacer un estacionamiento para casas rodantes, pero el municipio dijo que no. +Quisieron hacer un criadero de peces y el municipio dijo de nuevo que no. +Entonces se les ocurri hacer un cementerio. Y calcularon que hacindolo podran subir el valor de sus tierras de 95 000 libras a ms de un milln. +Pero volviendo a la idea de tener ganancias con cementerios, es como un poco ridculo, cierto? +Es que el alto costo de los lotes mortuorios es en verdad muy engaoso. +Parece que son caros, pero ese valor refleja el costo de mantenerlos. Por ejemplo, se tiene que cortar el csped por los prximos 50 aos, +esto implica que es muy difcil ganar dinero de los cementerios. +Razn por la que usualmente pertenezcan al municipio o a un grupo sin fines de lucro. +Pero, como sea, el municipio les dio el permiso, y ahora estn tratando de construir su cementerio. +Para explicarles cmo funciona: si yo quiero construir algo en el Reino Unido, como un cementerio, por ejemplo, primero tengo que solicitar el permiso de construccin. +Si quiero construir un nuevo edificio de oficinas para un cliente, o si quiero ampliar mi casa, o, Uds. saben, si tengo una tienda y quiero convertirla en una oficina, debo hacer un montn de dibujos y mandarlos al municipio para los permisos. +Y ellos vern cosas como de qu manera se integra al entorno. +Y vern cmo se ve. +Pero tambin pensarn en cosas como el impacto que tendr en el medio ambiente. +Y pensarn cosas como, causar polucin? o habr un montn de trfico para ir hacia estas cosas que constru? +Pero tambin cosas buenas. +Va a aportar servicios al barrio, como tiendas, que los vecinos quieran usar? +Y van a comparar las ventajas con las desventajas y tomarn una decisin. +As es cmo funciona si yo quiero construir un gran cementerio. +Pero qu pasa si tengo un pedazo de tierra y solo quiero sepultar unas pocas personas, cinco o seis? +Bueno... en realidad, no necesito el permiso de nadie! +Casi no hay regulacin en el Reino Unido para las sepulturas, y lo poco que hay es sobre no contaminar cursos de agua, no contaminar mantos freticos. +Si quieren hacer su propio cementerio, pueden hacerlo. +Pero, quiero decir, de verdad, quin hace esto? Cierto? +Bueno, si pertenecen a una familia aristocrtica y tienen una gran propiedad, es posible que tengan un mausoleo ah adentro, y sepulten a su familia all. +Pero lo verdaderamente raro es que no necesitan tener un terreno de cierto tamao antes de tener permiso para comenzar a sepultar gente. +Y eso significa, tcnicamente, que se aplica al patio trasero de su casa en los suburbios. +Qu pasa si quieren intentar esto en casa? +Bueno, algunos municipios tienen guas en sus sitios de Internet que pueden ayudarlos. +Lo primero que les dicen es que deben contar con un certificado de muerte antes de comenzar. No pueden solo matar a alguien y enterrarlo en el patio. +Tambin dicen que deben tener un registro de donde est la tumba. +Pero esos son casi todos los requisitos formales. +Bueno, ellos advierten que quizs a sus vecinos no les guste la idea. Pero, legalmente hablando, no pueden hacer casi nada al respecto. +Y por si alguno de Uds. sigue teniendo esa idea de ganancias en la cabeza, sobre cunto cuestan estos lotes y cunto dinero se puede hacer, ellos tambin advierten que el valor de sus casas pueda bajar en un 20% +Pero, en realidad, hay muchas posibilidades de que nadie quiera comprar su casa despus de todo. +Entonces, lo que encuentro fascinante de esto es que esto resume muchas de nuestras actitudes entorno a la muerte. +En el Reino Unido, y creo que la situacin en Europa es probablemente similar, solo un 30% de la gente le ha dicho a alguien sus deseos respecto de su muerte. E incluso para la gente mayor de 75, solo el 45% ha hablado alguna vez de esto. +Y las razones que la gente da, Uds. saben... Piensan que su muerte est muy lejos, o piensan que incomodarn a la gente si hablan de eso. +Y Uds. saben, en cierta medida, hay otras personas all afuera que se hacen cargo de esto por nosotros. +El gobierno tiene toda esta regulacin y burocracia sobre cosas como sepultar a un muerto, por ejemplo. Y hay gente como los dueos de funerarias, quienes consagran una vida a trabajar en este tema. +Pero si se trata de nuestras ciudades, y pensamos en cmo la muerte encaja en nuestras ciudades, hay mucha menos regulacin, diseo y reflexin de lo que podramos imaginar. +Entonces no estamos pensando en esto, pero toda la gente que pensamos que est pensando en esto... Tampoco se estn haciendo cargo. +Gracias. +He pensado mucho sobre la amistad entre mujeres y claro, sobre estas 2 mujeres, a quienes les debo el honor de llamarlas mis amigas ya hace bastante tiempo. +Jane Fonda: S, as es. +PM: Y una de las cosas que le sobre la amistad femenina es sobre algo que Cervantes dijo. +Dijo: Puedes decir mucho sobre alguien, --en este caso de una mujer--, por la compaa de la que se rodea. +As que, empecemos con... JF: Tenemos un gran problema. +Lily Tomlin: Dame uno de esos vasos, Estoy seca. +JF: Ests malgastando el tiempo +Tenemos un limitado LT: Justo estar con ella y ya me quita la vida. +JF: Todava no han visto nada. +En fin... Disculpen. +PM: Entonces, dganme, Qu buscan en una amiga? +LT: Busco que tenga cierto sentido del humor, que sea osada, que sea cercana, que tenga reglas, a alguien que tenga algo de pasin por el planeta, a alguien decente con sentido de la justicia y que crea que merezco la pena. +JF: Saben, estuve pensando esta maana en que ni siquiera s qu es lo que hara sin mis amigas. +Eso significa: Tengo amigas, luego existo. +JF: De verdad, es as. +Existo porque tengo a mis amigas. Ellas T eres una de ellas. +No s t, pero en fin Ya saben, ellas me hacen ms fuerte, ms inteligente, ms valiente. +Ellas me dan una palmada en el hombro cuando necesito orientacin. +Y muchas de ellas son mucho ms jvenes que yo, tambin. +Saben? Eso es genial-- LT: Gracias. +JF: No, es cierto, te incluyo, porque escuchen, Uds. saben es genial tener a alguien cerca con quien jugar y de quien aprender cuando te acercas al final. +Me estoy acercando... Estar all antes que t. +LT: Me alegra tenerte envejeciendo junto a m. +JF: Te estoy mostrando el rumbo +LT: Bueno, s lo haces. +PM: Al hacerse mayores, y atravesar distintos tipos y estilos de vida, qu hacen para conservar la amistad rica y viva? +LT: Tenemos que usar muchas JF: Debo decir que ella no me invita mucho. +LT: Tengo que usar muchas redes sociales Calla un poco. Entonces Reviso mis correos y mis mensajes de texto para encontrarme con mis amigas, as poder responder rpidamente, porque s que necesitan mi consejo. +Necesitan mi apoyo, Porque muchas de mis amigas son escritoras, activistas o actrices y t eres tres en una +y una larga lista de otras frases descriptivas, y quiero verlas tan pronto como sea posible, quiero que sepan que estoy all para Uds. +JF: Usas emoticonos? +LT: Oh... JF: No? +LT: Es embarazoso. JF: Yo s. +LT: No. Yo escribo escribo palabras de felicidad, felicitaciones y tristeza. +JF: Escribes todo? LT: Escribo cada letra. +JF: As es de purista. +Saben, al envejecer, entend mejor la importancia de la amistad, y por so me esfuerzo para tener encuentros sin que pase demasiado tiempo. +Leo mucho. As que, como Lily sabe muy bien, los libros que me gustan, se los envo a amigas +LT: Al saber que estaramos aqu hoy me enviaste muchos libros sobre mujeres y la amistad, y me sorprendi ver tantos libros, cuanta investigacin se ha hecho recientemente JF: Y estabas agradecida? LT: Estaba agradecida. +PM: Y LT: Espera, esto es muy importante porque es otro ejemplo de cuntas mujeres han sido ignoradas, olvidadas y marginadas. +Ha habido muy poca investigacin sobre nosotras, an ofrecindonos voluntarias muchas veces. +JF: Eso es muy cierto. +LT: Es muy fascinante, y todas estarn interesadas en esto. +La Escuela Mdica de Harvard ha demostrado que las mujeres que tienen amigas ntimas tienen menos probabilidad de desarrollar deficiencias deficiencias fsicas al envejecer, y es probable que se vean mucho ms vitales, entusiastas JF: Y ms longevas... LT: Con vidas ms felices. +JF: Vivimos 5 aos ms que los hombres. +LT: Creo que cambiara los aos por alegra. +LT: Pero lo ms importante es que encontraron... los resultados eran tan fascinantes y concluyentes Los investigadores descubrieron que no tener amigas ntimas es devastador para la salud, tanto como fumar o tener sobrepeso. +JF: Y hay algo ms, tambin LT: Ya dije mi parte, as que +JF: Bien, escucha mi parte, porque hay algo adicional. +Porque solo por aos, dcadas Ellos solo investigaron a hombres al intentar entender el estrs, solo hace poco investigaron qu pasa a las mujeres cuando estn estresadas, y resulta que cuando estn estresadas las mujeres, nuestros cuerpos liberan oxitocina. +Que es una hormona de bienestar que calma y reduce el estrs. +Que tambin se incrementa al estar con amigas. +Y creo que esa es una razn por la que vivimos ms. +Y me apeno por los hombres porque ellos no tienen eso. +La testosterona en ellos disminuye los efectos de la oxitocina. +LT: Cuando t, Dolly y yo hicimos el film 9 a 5 +JF: Oh LT: Reamos, s, nos reamos tanto, vimos que tenamos tanto en comn y ramos tan diferentes. +Aqu est ella, como una reina de Hollywood, y yo como una ruda nia de Detroit, ella como una nia surea de un pueblecillo de Tennessee, y descubrimos que congenibamos tanto como mujeres, y debemos tener nos hemos redo tanto como para sumar al menos una dcada a nuestras vidas +JF: Creo que cruzamos mucho las piernas. +Si saben a lo que me refiero. +LT: Creo que todas sabemos a lo que te refieres. +PM: Estn sumando dcadas a sus vidas justo ahora. +As que, entre los libros que Jane nos envi sobre la amistad haba uno de una mujer que admiramos, la hermana Joan Chittister quien dijo sobre la amistad que las amigas no son solo una cuestin social, son una cuestin espiritual. +Ven a sus amigas en un nivel espiritual? +Agregan algo espiritual a sus vidas? +LT: Espiritual Creo sin duda en eso. +Porque especialmente a las personas que conoces bien, personas con las que has pasado tiempo ves su esencia espiritual en ellas su emotividad, su vulnerabilidad. +Hay, de hecho, algo de amor, un elemento de amor en la relacin. +logras ver el fondo de sus almas. +PM: Crees eso, Jane?.. LT: Pero tengo poderes especiales. +JF: Existe toda clase de amigas. +Hay amigas de negocios y de fiestas, Tengo muchas de ellas! +Pero el tipo de amistades que producen la oxitocina tienen +algo espiritual porque nos abren el corazn, cierto? +Ya saben, nos sensibilizan. Y descubro que he llorado en muchos casos con mis amigas ntimas. +No porque est triste sino porque estoy conmovida e inspirada por ellas. +LT: Y ya saben una de Uds. ya se va pronto. +PM: Bueno, dos estamos sentadas aqu, Lily, a quin te refieres? +Y siempre creo que cuando las mujeres hablan sobre sus amigas, los hombres siempre parecen algo intrigados. +Cules son las diferencias, en su opinin, entre las amistades con hombres y amistades con mujeres? +JF: Hay mucha diferencia, creo que debemos tener mucha empata para con los hombres Ellos no tienen lo que nosotras. +Y pueda ser porque mueren ms pronto. +Tengo mucha compasin por los hombres, Porque las mujeres, no bromeo, nosotras las relaciones femeninas, nuestras amistades son abiertas, profundas. +Son sinceras. +Arriesgamos nuestra vulnerabilidad algo que lo hombres no hacen. +Quiero decir, cuntas veces he preguntado: Est bien as? +Me equivoqu en eso? +PM: Lo ests haciendo genial. +JF: Pero, en fin, nosotras hacemos preguntas como esas a nuestras amigas y los hombres no. +La gente describe las relaciones femeninas como personales, mientras que las masculinas son ms impersonales. +LT: Es decir, la mayora del tiempo ellos no quieren expresar sus emociones, Ellos procuran sepultar sus emociones ms profundas. +Y, esa es la idea general y convencional. +Ellos prefirieren marcharse a sus cuevas y ver un juego o golpear pelotas de golf, o hablar sobre deporte, cacera, autos o tener sexo. +Es decir, es justo el tipo de es una actitud ms masculina. +JF: Quisiste decir... LT: Ellos hablan de sexo. +Quise decir que podran tener sexo si ellos pudieran conseguir a alguien en sus cuevas y JF: Saben, sin embargo, lo que encuentro interesante y una vez ms, los psiclogos no lo saban hasta hace poco que los hombres nacen tan sociales como las mujeres. +Si miran los vdeos de los nios y nias recin nacidos, vern que los nios tanto como las nias, buscan el contacto visual materno, ya saben, buscan ese intercambio interpersonal de energa. +Cuando la madre esquiva la mirada, se ver la consternacin en el beb incluso el beb incluso llora. +Ellos necesitan ese vnculo. +As que la pregunta es Por qu al crecer, surge este cambio? +Y la respuesta es la cultura patriarcal, que dice a los nios y a jvenes que intentar relacionarse y ser emocionales con alguien es afeminado. +Que un hombre verdadero no pide orientacin ni expresa necesidad, no van al mdico si se sienten mal. +Ellos no piden ayuda. +Hay una frase que me gusta, Los hombres temen que un nosotros borre su Yo. +Ya saben, su identidad. +Mientras que el sentido de ser femenino siempre ha sido algo poroso. +Pero el Nosotras es nuestra gracia redentora, es lo que nos hace fuertes. +No es que nosotras seamos mejores que ellos, es solo que nosotras no tenemos que probar masculinidad. +LT: Y, bueno JF: Esa es una cita de Gloria Steinem. +Por ello, podemos expresar humanidad. LT: S quien es Gloria Steinem. +JF: S que conoces quien es, pero creo que es una No, pero es una gran frase, creo. +No somos mejores que ellos es solo que no tenemos que probar masculinidad. +Y eso es muy importante. +LT: Pero los hombres estn muy sometidos por la cultura a sentirse cmodos con el patriarcado. +Y debemos hacer que suceda algo diferente. +JF: Las amigas son como una fuente renovable de poder. +LT: Bueno, eso es lo fascinante de este tema. +Es porque nuestras amistades las amigas, son un paso a nuestra hermandad, y la hermandad puede ser una fuerza poderosa, para dar al mundo para convertirlo en lo que como debera ser Las cosas que los humanos desesperadamente necesitan. +PM: Por eso estamos hablando de ello, porque las amigas son, como dijiste, Jane, una fuente renovable de poder. +As que, cmo usamos ese poder? +JF: Las mujeres son el factor demogrfico de crecimiento ms rpido del mundo, especialmente las mujeres de edad. +Y si aprovechamos ese poder, podemos cambiar el mundo. +Y saben qu? Lo necesitamos. +Y necesitamos hacerlo pronto. +Y una de las cosas que necesitamos hacer y podemos hacerlo como mujeres por un lado, es establecer los estndares de consumo +necesitamos consumir menos. +Nosotras en el mundo occidental necesitamos consumir menos y cuando compremos, debemos comprar cosas hechas en la localidad, cuando compremos comida, debemos comprarla cultivada en el lugar. +Necesitamos evitar depender de los servicios pblicos. +Debemos independizarnos de los combustibles fsiles +y de sus compaas... Los Exxons, gasolinas Shell y esos chicos malos porque s lo son... ellos nos dirn que no podremos lograrlo sin remontarnos antes a la Edad de Piedra. +Dirn que an no existen alternativas, y eso no es verdad. +Ahora mismo, hay pases en el mundo que viven principalmente de energa renovable y les va bien. +Y nos dicen que si evitamos los combustibles fsiles vamos a estar de regreso en la Edad de Piedra, y de hecho, si empezamos a usar energa renovable, y no perforamos en el rtico, y no perforamos... LT: Oh, Dios. +JF: Y no perforamos en las arenas petrolferas de Alberta... Cierto. +Pues seremos habr ms democracia y ms empleos y ms bienestar, y son las mujeres quienes van a liderar el rumbo. +LT: Tal vez sea el momento para empezar un tercer movimiento feminista con nuestra hermandad alrededor del mundo, con mujeres que no vemos, mujeres que quiz nunca conozcamos, pero nos unimos juntas en este camino, porque como dijo Aristteles muchas personas La gente morira sin amigos hombres. +Y la palabra clave aqu es hombres +Porque ellos pensaban que la amistad debera ser entre iguales y las mujeres no eran consideradas iguales JF: Los griegos, no crean siquiera que tenamos alma +LT: No, exactamente. Eso muestra cun limitado fue Aristteles. +Y esperen, no, aqu est la mejor parte. +Ya saben, los hombres necesitan a las mujeres ahora. +El planeta necesita a las mujeres. +La constitucin estadounidense necesita a las mujeres. +No estamos siquiera en la Constitucin. +JF: Te refieres a la Enmienda de Igualdad de Derechos +LT: Correcto. +Justice Ginsberg dijo algo como toda constitucin que ha sido escrita desde el final de la 2 Guerra Mundial inclua una disposicin que haca a las mujeres ciudadanas de igual status, pero la nuestra no. +Ese sera un buen punto para empezar. +Muy, muy elemental... JF: Cierto. +Y la igualdad de gnero, es como una marea alzara todos los botes, no solo a mujeres. +PM: Necesitamos nuevos modelos de roles sobre cmo hacer eso. +Cmo ser amigos, cmo pensar sobre nuestro poder en diferentes formas, como consumidoras, como ciudadanas del mundo, y esto es lo que hace a Jane y Lily un modelo de cmo las mujeres pueden ser amigas por un largo tiempo, incluso si ocasionalmente estn en desacuerdo. +Gracias. +Gracias a ambas. +JF: Gracias. +LT: Gracias +JF: Gracias +En 2008, Burhan Hassan, de 17 aos, subi a bordo de un avin en Minneapolis rumbo al Cuerno de frica. +A pesar de que era el recluta ms joven, no se encontraba solo. +Al-Shabaab reclut con xito a ms de 12 jvenes, todos jvenes de hasta 25 aos, involucrados activamente en redes sociales como Facebook. +Internet y otras tecnologas han cambiado nuestras vidas cotidianas pero tambin el modo de reclutamiento, la radicalizacin y las primeras lneas de los conflictos modernos. +Cul es la conexin entre Twitter, Google y los manifestantes que luchan por la democracia? +Estos nmeros representan los servidores DNS pblicos de Google literalmente la nica forma de cruzar la frontera digital que los manifestantes tuvieron y pudieron usar para intercomunicarse, tener acceso al mundo exterior as como dar a conocer de forma viral lo que estaba pasando en sus propios pases. +Hoy en da, los conflictos no tienen fronteras. +Las barreras de los conflictos modernos residen en el mundo digital, no en la geografa fsica. +Y bajo la superficie hay un vaco de poder donde actores no estatales, activistas y empresas privadas tienen ventaja frente a las lentas y obsoletas fuerzas militares y las agencias de inteligencia. +Esto se debe a que en la era de los conflictos digitales, siempre existe un bucle de retroalimentacin en el que las nuevas tecnologas, plataformas como las mencionadas junto a otras ms subversivas pueden ser adaptadas, asimiladas y usadas por individuos y organizaciones ms rpidamente de lo que los gobiernos pueden reaccionar. +Para entender los reflejos del gobierno en este sentido, me gustara hablar de algo tan oportunamente llamado "La Evaluacin de Amenazas Web", donde cada ao, el director de la Agencia de Seguridad Nacional de EE.UU. analiza el panorama de las amenazas globales y decide cules son las amenazas, cules son los detalles y en qu orden les darn importancia. +En 2007 no se hizo mencin alguna a la seguridad ciberntica. +Aparece como ltima mencin por fin en 2011, en una lista por detrs de cosas como el trfico de drogas en frica occidental. +En 2012 sube de clasificacin pero an por detrs de cosas como terrorismo y proliferacin de armas. +En 2013, se convirti en la mayor amenaza, en 2014, tambin; y sigue encabezando la lista para el futuro cercano. +Lo que esto nos muestra es que, hoy por hoy, los gobiernos estn totalmente incapacitados para adaptarse y aprender en un conflicto digital, donde el conflicto puede ser inmaterial, sin fronteras, y muchas veces es completamente imposible de rastrear. +El conflicto no solo se libra en lnea viniendo del mundo real, como en el caso de la radicalizacin del terrorismo; sino que recorre el otro sentido tambin. +Todo el mundo conoce el horrible acontecimiento de Pars este ao, con los ataques contra Charlie Hebdo. +Lo que un individuo o un pequeo grupo de annimos pudieron hacer es tener acceso a los medios de comunicacin social, de los cuales muchos de nosotros formamos parte. +#JeSuisCharlie. +En Facebook, en Twitter, en Google, en todo tipo de lugares, donde millones de personas, incluyndome a m, estaban hablando de lo sucedido y vieron imgenes como esta. Imgenes emocionantes como la de un beb con "Je suis Charlie" escrito en la mueca. +Y esto se convirti en un arma. +Los hackers convirtieron esta imagen en un arma, que las vctimas, inocentes, como todos aquellos presentes en esas conversaciones, la vieron, la descargaron y junto con ella el malware. +As que al bajar la imagen, los hackers tuvieron acceso a su sistema. +Hicieron falta seis das para desarrollar una campaa mundial contra el malware. +La divisin entre el entorno fsico y el digital ha dejado de existir, porque tenemos ataques reales, como los de Pars, aprovechados por los hackers en lnea. +Y ocurre lo mismo con el reclutamiento. +La radicalizacin en lnea de los adolescentes puede ser aprovechada globalmente para ataques terroristas en la vida real. +Por lo tanto, vemos que en el siglo XXI emerge un nuevo tipo de combate en el que los gobiernos no necesariamente participan. +Otro caso es el de Anonymous contra los Zetas. +A principios de septiembre de 2011, en Mxico, los Zetas, uno de los crteles de drogas ms potentes, ahorcaron a dos blogueros con un letrero que deca: "Eso es lo que le ocurrir a los internautas entrometidos". +Una semana ms tarde, decapitaron a una chica. +Le cortaron la cabeza y la pusieron en su computador con una nota parecida. +Tomando la contraofensiva digital, porque los gobiernos ni siquiera podan entender lo que estaba pasando, o actuar, Anonymous, que no siempre se ve como una fuerza positiva en el mundo, actu, no con ataques cibernticos, sino amenazando con revelar informacin. +Dijeron en las redes sociales: "Vamos a revelar informacin que vincula fiscales y gobernadores al trfico de drogas y a los crteles". +Para subir la tensin del conflicto, los Zetas dijeron: "Mataremos a 10 por cada informacin que revelen". +As que todo termin all, porque habra sido terrible continuar. +Lo importante de este caso es que personas annimas, no la polica federal, no los militares o polticos, pudieron causar miedo de verdad en lo ms profundo del corazn de una de las organizaciones ms poderosas y violentas del mundo. +As que vivimos en una era que carece del conocimiento de las razones de los conflictos del pasado, de por qu estamos luchando, de cules son los motivos de los ataques, y las herramientas y las tcnicas que se usaron y la rapidez con la que evolucionan. +Y la pregunta sigue siendo: Qu pueden hacer los individuos, las organizaciones y los gobiernos? +Para responder, se empieza con las personas y creo que la seguridad de persona a persona, P2P, es la solucin. +El mismo modelo desarrollado para atraer a los adolescentes en lnea puede usarse para la seguridad P2P. +Las personas tienen ms poder que nunca para influir en la seguridad nacional e internacional. +Podemos crear relaciones P2P positivas tanto en lnea como en la vida real, podemos ayudar y educar a la prxima generacin de hackers, como yo, en lugar de decir: "O eres criminal, o te alistas en la NSA". +Esto es importante hoy en da. +No son solo los individuos; tambin las organizaciones y las grandes empresas. +Tienen la posibilidad de actuar a travs de ms fronteras, ms rpida y eficientemente que los gobiernos. Hay unas cuantas ventajas reales en esto. +Es rentable y valioso ser visto como alguien fiable en el mundo digital. Y ser an ms para las generaciones futuras. +Sin embargo, no podemos ignorar a los gobiernos, porque son ellos quienes dan valor a la accin colectiva, quienes pueden mantenernos a salvo y seguros. +Pero no nos llevar muy lejos, porque no hay capacidad para adaptarse y aprender en la era digital del conflicto; porque en los niveles ms altos de liderazgo, el director de la CIA, el Ministro de Defensa dicen: "El Ciber Pearl Harbor ocurrir", "El Ciber 11-S es inminente". +Porque todo esto solo infunde ms miedo, no nos hace ms seguros. +Al prohibir la encriptacin favoreciendo la vigilancia y el hackeo masivos claro, el GCHQ y la NSA pueden espiarte. +Pero esto no significa que son los nicos que pueden hacerlo. +Los recursos son baratos, incluso gratis. +La capacidad tcnica est aumentando en todo el mundo, y los individuos y los pequeos grupos tienen ventaja. +Hoy tal vez solo son la NSA y el GCHQ, pero quin asegura que los chinos no pueden dar con una puerta trasera? +O en la siguiente generacin, un joven en un stano de Estonia? +Por lo cual, la cuestin no es lo que los gobiernos pueden hacer, sino lo que no pueden. +Los gobiernos de hoy necesitan renunciar al poder y al control para ayudarnos a estar mejor protegidos. +Renunciar a la vigilancia y al hackeo masivos y a cambio arreglar esas puertas traseras. Significa que s, no podrn espiarnos pero tampoco los chinos o ese hacker estonio de la siguiente generacin. +El apoyo de los gobiernos a las tecnologas como Tor y Bitcoin significa renunciar al control pero tambin que los desarrolladores, los traductores, cualquier persona con una conexin a Internet, en pases como Cuba, Irn, China, pueden vender sus habilidades y productos en un mercado global, y lo ms importante, sus ideas, mostrarnos lo que pasa en sus pases. +Debera inspirar. +Qu nos mantiene sanos y felices conforme avanzamos en la vida? +Si tuvieran que invertir ahora en lo mejor para su futuro, dnde pondran su tiempo y energa? +Una encuesta reciente a la generacin del milenio les pregunt cules eran sus metas ms importantes en la vida, y ms del 80 % dijo que una meta importante para ellos era hacerse ricos. +Y otro 50 % de esos mismos adultos jvenes dijo que otra meta importante era ser famosos. +Y se nos dice constantemente que trabajemos ms, que nos esforcemos para lograr ms. +Nos da la impresin de que debemos perseguir estas cosas para tener una buena vida. +El panorama de una vida, de las decisiones que toma la gente, y el resultado de esas decisiones, es casi imposible de obtener. +Gran parte de lo que sabemos de la vida lo sabemos pidiendo a la gente que recuerde el pasado. Y, como sabemos, la retrospectiva es todo menos agudeza. +Olvidamos grandes fragmentos de lo que nos sucede en la vida, y a veces la memoria es francamente creativa. +Pero y si pudiramos ver vidas enteras conforme se desarrollan en el tiempo? +Y si pudiramos estudiar a las personas desde la adolescencia hasta la adultez para ver qu hace a la gente feliz y saludable? +Lo hicimos. +El Estudio de Desarrollo de Adultos de Harvard puede que sea el estudio ms largo de la vida adulta en la historia. +Durante 75 aos, rastreamos la vida de 724 hombres, ao tras ao, preguntndoles sobre su trabajo, su vida hogarea, su salud, y, claro, preguntando todo ese tiempo sin saber cmo resultaran sus historias de vida. +Estudios como este son extremadamente raros. +Casi todos los proyectos de este tipo se desmoronan pasada una dcada porque muchas personas abandonan el estudio, o por falta de financiamiento, o por distraccin de los investigadores, o porque mueren, y nadie contina la investigacin de campo. +Pero gracias a una combinacin de suerte y persistencia de varias generaciones de investigadores, este estudio sobrevivi. +Unos 60 de los 724 hombres del principio siguen con vida, todava participan en el estudio, la mayora tiene noventa y tantos. +Y ahora empezamos a estudiar los ms de 2000 hijos de estos hombres. +Y yo soy el cuarto director del estudio. +Desde 1938, hemos rastreado las vidas de dos grupos de hombres. +El primer grupo empez el estudio cuando eran estudiantes de segundo ao en la Universidad de Harvard. +Todos terminaron la universidad durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial, y luego la mayora se fue a la guerra. +El segundo grupo que seguimos era un grupo de chicos de los barrios ms pobres de Boston, chicos elegidos para el estudio especficamente porque provenan de las familias con ms problemas y ms desfavorecidas en el Boston de los aos 1930. +La mayora viva hacinada, sin agua corriente, sin agua caliente. +Cuando ingresaron al estudio, se entrevist a todos estos adolescentes. +Se les realizaron exmenes mdicos. +Fuimos a sus hogares y entrevistamos a sus padres. +Y luego estos adolescentes se hicieron adultos y cada uno hizo su vida. +Algunos fueron operarios de fbrica, abogados, albailes, mdicos, uno fue presidente de EE.UU. +Algunos se hicieron alcohlicos. Unos pocos sufrieron esquizofrenia. +Algunos tuvieron ascenso social desde la base hasta la cumbre, y otros fueron en sentido contrario. +Los fundadores de este estudio ni en sus fantasas ms alocadas hubieran imaginado que yo estara hoy aqu, 75 aos despus, contndoles que el estudio contina. +Cada dos aos, nuestro dedicado y paciente personal de investigacin llama a estos hombres y les pregunta si pueden enviarles otra serie de preguntas sobre sus vidas. +Muchos de los hombres de Boston nos preguntan: "Por qu quieren seguir estudindome? Mi vida no es tan interesante". +Los hombres de Harvard nunca hacen esa pregunta. +Para obtener la imagen ms clara de estas vidas, no solo enviamos cuestionarios. +Los entrevistamos en sus salas de estar. +Conseguimos sus historias clnicas. +Les extraemos sangre, escaneamos sus cerebros, hablamos con sus hijos. +Registramos en video las conversaciones con sus esposas sobre sus preocupaciones. +Y cuando, hace una dcada, finalmente les preguntamos a las esposas si queran sumarse como miembros del estudio, muchas mujeres dijeron: "Sabes, ya era hora". +Qu hemos aprendido? +Qu lecciones surgen de las decenas de miles de pginas de informacin que generamos sobre estas vidas? +Bueno, las lecciones no tienen que ver con riqueza, fama, ni con trabajar mucho. +El mensaje ms claro de estos 75 aos de estudio es este: Las buenas relaciones nos hacen ms felices y ms saludables. Punto. +Hemos aprendido tres cosas sobre las relaciones. +La primera es que las conexiones sociales nos hacen bien, y que la soledad mata. +Resulta que las personas con ms vnculos sociales con la familia, los amigos, la comunidad, son ms felices, ms sanos y viven ms que las personas que tienen menos vnculos. +Y experimentar soledad resulta ser txico. +Las personas que estn ms aisladas de lo que quisieran de otras personas encuentran que son menos felices, son ms susceptibles a recadas de salud en la mediana edad, sus funciones cerebrales decaen ms precipitadamente y viven menos que las personas que no estn solas. +Y lo triste es que, en cualquier momento, ms de 1 de cada 5 estadounidenses informarn estar solos. +Y sabemos que podemos estar solos en la multitud y podemos estar solos en un matrimonio, por eso la segunda gran leccin que aprendimos es que no tiene que ver con la cantidad de amigos que tenemos, tampoco tiene que ver con que estemos en una relacin, lo que importa es la calidad de las relaciones ms cercanas. +Resulta que vivir en medio del conflicto es muy malo para la salud. +Los matrimonios muy conflictivos, por ejemplo, sin mucho afecto, resultan ser muy malos para la salud, quiz peores que el divorcio. +Y vivir en medio de relaciones buenas y clidas da proteccin. +Cuando nuestros hombres llegaron a sus ochenta y tantos, quisimos analizar cmo fue su mediana edad para ver si podamos predecir quin se convertira en un octogenario feliz y saludable y quin no. +Y cuando recolectamos todo lo que sabamos de ellos a sus 50 aos, no fueron los niveles de colesterol de la mediana edad los que predijeron cmo envejeceran. +Fue el grado de satisfaccin que tenan en sus relaciones. +Las personas ms satisfechas en sus relaciones a los 50 aos fueron las ms saludables a los 80 aos. +Y bueno, las relaciones cercanas parecen amortiguar algunos de los achaques de envejecer. +Nuestras hombres y mujeres que estn en parejas felices informaron, a sus ochenta y tantos, que cuando sentan ms dolor fsico, seguan de buen humor. +Pero las personas que estaban en relaciones no felices, los das que informaban tener ms dolor fsico, este se magnificaba por el dolor emocional. +Y la tercera gran leccin que aprendimos sobre las relaciones y la salud es que las buenas relaciones no solo protegen el cuerpo, protegen el cerebro. +Resulta que estar en una relacin de apego seguro con otra persona a los 80 y tantos da proteccin, las personas que estn en relaciones en las que sienten que pueden contar con la otra persona si lo necesitan, los recuerdos de esas personas permanecen ms ntidos ms tiempo. +Y las personas en relaciones en que sienten que no pueden contar con la otra persona, son personas que pierden antes la memoria. +Pero las buenas relaciones pueden no ser armoniosas todo el tiempo. +Algunas de nuestras parejas octogenarias podan pelearse a veces pero en tanto sintieran que podan contar con el otro cuando la cosa se pona difcil, esas pelean no quedaban en sus recuerdos. +Pero este mensaje, de que las relaciones buenas y estrechas son buenas para la salud y el bienestar, esta sabidura es vieja como el tiempo. +Por qu es tan difcil de entender y tan fcil de ignorar? +Bueno, somos humanos. +Nos gustara una solucin rpida, algo que nos mejore la vida y que sea permanente. +Las relaciones son un lo, son complicadas, y cuidar a la familia y a los amigos no es atractivo ni glamuroso. +Dura toda la vida. Nunca termina. +En el estudio, las personas de 75 aos ms felices al jubilarse fueron las que activamente reemplazaron compaeros de trabajo por nuevos compaeros de juego. +Como los encuestados de la generacin del milenio, muchos de nuestros hombres cuando eran adultos jvenes crean que la fama, la riqueza y lograr grandes cosas era lo que necesitaban para tener una vida buena. +Pero con el tiempo, en estos 75 aos, nuestro estudio ha demostrado que les fue mejor a las personas que se inclinaron por las relaciones, con la familia, con los amigos, con la comunidad. +Qu hay de ti? +Digamos que tienes 25, o 40, o 60. +Qu implica entregarse a las relaciones? +Bueno, las posibilidades son casi ilimitadas. +Podra ser tan simple como pasar ms tiempo con personas que con pantallas o amenizar una relacin rancia haciendo algo nuevo juntos, caminatas largas o citas nocturnas, o acercarse a ese familiar que no hemos visto en aos, porque esas disputas familiares tan comunes dejan una prdida terrible en las personas que guardan rencores. +Me gustara cerrar con una cita de Mark Twain. +Hace ms de un siglo, l estaba analizando su vida, y escribi esto: "No hay tiempo, muy breve es la vida para disputas, disculpas, animosidades, pedidos de cuenta. +Solo hay tiempo para amar, y solo un instante, por as decirlo, para eso". +La buena vida se construye con buenas relaciones. +Gracias. +Una vez dije: "Si quieres liberar a una sociedad, todo lo que necesitas es Internet". +Me equivoqu. +Dije estas palabras en 2011, cuando una pgina de Facebook, que haba creado annimamente, ayud a desencadenar la revolucin egipcia. +La Primavera rabe revel el gran poder de los medios sociales, pero tambin expuso su mayor defecto. +La misma herramienta que nos una para derrocar dictadores, acab separndonos. +Me gustara compartir mi experiencia en las redes sociales y el activismo y hablar sobre algunos de los desafos a los que me enfrent, y qu podramos hacer contra ellos. +A principios de este siglo, los rabes inundaban la red. +Sedientos de conocimiento, buscando oportunidades para conectar con el resto de la gente del mundo, escapbamos de nuestra frustrante realidad poltica y vivamos una vida virtual alternativa. +Como muchos de ellos, yo era completamente apoltico hasta el 2009. +Entonces, cuando entr en los medios sociales, empec a ver a ms y ms egipcios que aspiraban a un cambio poltico en el pas. +Sent que no estaba solo. +En junio de 2010, Internet me cambi la vida para siempre. +Mientras navegaba por Facebook, vi una foto, una foto aterradora, de un cadver torturado, de un joven egipcio. +Su nombre era Khaled Said. +Khaled era un alejandrino de 29 aos que la polica haba matado. +Me vi a m mismo en esa imagen. +Pens: "yo podra ser Khaled". +No pude dormir esa noche, y decid hacer algo. +Annimamente cre una pgina de Facebook y la llam: "Todos somos Khaled Said". +En solo 3 das, la pgina tena ms de 100 000 seguidores, compaeros egipcios que compartan la misma preocupacin. +Lo que fuera que estuviera pasando tena que parar. +Reclut a un coadministrador, AbdelRahman Mansour. +Trabajamos juntos durante horas y horas. +Recolectbamos ideas de la gente. +Los animbamos. +Convocbamos acciones colectivas, y compartamos noticias que el rgimen no quera que los egipcios supieran. +La pgina se convirti en la ms seguida en el mundo rabe. +Tena ms fans que medios de comunicacin oficiales e incluso ms que gente famosa. +El 14 de enero de 2011, Ben Ali huy de Tnez tras las crecientes protestas contra su rgimen. +Vi una chispa de esperanza. +Los egipcios en las redes sociales se estaban preguntando: "Si se pudo en Tnez, por qu no aqu?" +Publiqu un evento en Facebook y lo llam "Una revolucin contra la corrupcin, la injusticia y la dictadura". +Propuse a los 300 000 seguidores que tena en ese momento la pgina: "Hoy es 14 de enero. +El 25 es el da de la polica. +Es una fiesta nacional. +Si salimos 100 000 de nosotros a las calles de El Cairo, nadie nos va a parar. +Me pregunto si podramos hacerlo". +En unos pocos das la invitacin haba llegado a ms de un milln de personas, y ms de 100 000 confirmaban su asistencia. +Las redes sociales fueron clave para esta campaa. +Ayud a descentralizar el nacimiento del movimiento. +Hizo que la gente se diera cuenta de que no estaban solos +e hizo que fuera imposible que el rgimen lo parara. +Por entonces, ni lo entendan. +El 25 de enero, los egipcios inundaron las calles de El Cairo y otras ciudades, pidiendo el cambio, rompiendo la barrera del miedo y anunciando una nueva era. +Luego, vinieron las consecuencias. +Unas horas antes de que el rgimen cortara Internet y las telecomunicaciones, sobre la media noche, caminaba por una calle oscura de El Cairo, +acababa de tuitear: "Recen por Egipto. +El gobierno debe estar planeando una masacre maana". +Me pegaron un fuerte golpe en la cabeza. +Perd el equilibrio y me ca, vi como cuatro hombres armados me rodeaban. +Uno me tap la boca y el resto me sujet. +Supe que me estaba secuestrando la seguridad nacional. +Me despert en una celda, esposado y con los ojos tapados. +Estaba aterrorizado. +Igual que mi familia, que empez a buscarme en hospitales, comisaras e incluso morgues. +Despus de desaparecer, algunos de mis amigos, que saban que era el administrador de la pgina contaron a los medios mi conexin con la pgina, y que probablemente me haba arrestado la seguridad nacional. +Mis amigos de Google iniciaron una campaa de bsqueda tratando de encontrarme y los manifestantes de la plaza exigieron mi liberacin. +Tras 11 das de absoluta oscuridad, me liberaron. +Y tres das ms tarde, Mubarak se vio obligado a dimitir. +Fue el momento ms inspirador y fortalecedor de mi vida. +Era una poca de esperanza. +Los egipcios vivieron una utopa durante 18 das de revolucin. +Todos compartan la creencia de que realmente podamos vivir juntos pese a nuestras diferencias, que Egipto, tras Mubarak, sera para todos. +Por desgracia, los eventos tras la revolucin fueron como una patada en el estmago. +La euforia se desvaneci, fracasamos en construir un consenso, y la lucha poltica conllev un aumento de la polarizacin. +Las redes sociales solo amplificaron esta situacin, al facilitar la difusin de informaciones falsas, rumores, y manifestaciones de odio. +El ambiente era txico. +Mi mundo virtual se volvi un campo de batalla lleno de trolls, mentiras, odio. +Me empec a preocupar por la seguridad de mi familia. +Pero, por supuesto, no se trataba solo de m. +Recrudeci la polarizacin entre los dos grandes poderes: los simpatizantes del ejrcito y los islamistas. +La gente en el centro, como yo, empez a sentirse desamparada. +Ambos grupos queran que les apoyaras; estabas con ellos o contra ellos. +Y el 3 de julio de 2013, el ejrcito expuls al primer presidente egipcio elegido democrticamente, tras 3 das de protestas populares que pedan su dimisin. +Ese da tom una decisin muy difcil. +Decid permanecer en silencio, completo silencio. +Era un momento de derrota. +Me mantuve en silencio durante ms de dos aos, y us ese tiempo para reflexionar sobre todo lo que haba pasado, intentando entender por qu haba pasado. +Me qued claro que mientras que es cierto que la polarizacin est conducida por nuestro comportamiento humano, las redes sociales dan forma a este comportamiento y aumenta su impacto. +Di que quieres decir algo que no est basado en un hecho, empieza una pelea o ignora a alguien que no te gusta. +Son todo impulsos de la naturaleza humana, pero, que debido a la tecnologa, actuar est a un solo clic. +En mi opinin, hay cinco retos cruciales frente a las redes sociales de hoy en da. +Primero: no sabemos cmo lidiar con los rumores. +Los rumores que confirman los prejuicios de la gente se creen y difunden entre millones de personas. +Segundo: creamos nuestras propias cmaras de eco. +Tendemos a comunicarnos solo con gente con quien estamos de acuerdo, y gracias a las redes sociales, podemos callar, dejar de seguir y bloquear a quien sea. +Tercero: las discusiones en lnea pasan a ser turbas enfurecidas rpidamente. +Eso probablemente lo sabemos todos. +Es como si olvidramos que la gente detrs de la pantalla son personas reales y no solo avatares. +Y cuarto: nos cuesta mucho cambiar de opinin. +Debido a la velocidad y brevedad de las redes sociales, nos vemos obligados a sacar conclusiones y escribir duras opiniones en 140 caracteres sobre problemas globales complejos. +Y una vez hacemos eso, vive para siempre en Internet, y estamos menos motivados a cambiar nuestras opiniones, incluso si aparecen nuevas pruebas. +Quinto, y desde mi punto de vista el ms importante, hoy, nuestras experiencias en las redes sociales estn pensadas de un modo que favorece los mensajes masivos sobre los compromisos, las publicaciones sobre las discusiones, comentarios superficiales sobre conversaciones profundas. +Es como si hubiramos acordado que estamos aqu para hablar al otro en lugar de hablar con el otro. +He presenciado cmo estos importantes retos agravaban a una sociedad egipcia ya polarizada, pero esto no es solo sobre Egipto. +La polarizacin est aumentando por todo el mundo. +Necesitamos trabajar arduamente para averiguar cmo la tecnologa puede ser parte de la solucin, en lugar de parte del problema. +Actualmente hay un gran debate sobre cmo combatir el ciber acoso y luchar contra los trolls. +Esto es muy importante. +Nadie puede negarlo. +Pero tambin necesitamos pensar cmo disear experiencias en redes sociales que promuevan el civismo y premien la meditacin. +S que es un hecho que si escribo una publicacin ms sensacionalista, ms partidista y a veces con enojo y agresiva, conseguir que ms gente vea esta publicacin. +Conseguir ms atencin. +Pero y si nos centramos ms en la calidad? +Qu es ms importante: la cantidad total de vistas del mensaje, o a quines impact lo que escribiste? +No podramos simplemente incentivar a la gente a conversar, en lugar de publicar constantemente opiniones? +O premiar a la gente por leer y responder a las opiniones con las que disienten? +O hacer que est aceptado socialmente cambiar de opinin? O incluso premiarlo? +Y si tenemos una matriz que diga cuntas personas han cambiado de opinin, y han pasado a ser parte de nuestra experiencia en la red? +Si pudiera seguir la cantidad de personas que han cambiado de opinin, probablemente escribira ms meditado, intentando hacerlo en lugar de intentar atraer a la gente que ya est de acuerdo conmigo y conseguir "me gusta" solo porque acabo de confirmar sus prejuicios. +Necesitamos pensar tambin en mecanismos efectivos de colaboracin, comprobar la informacin difundida en lnea, y premiar a la gente que participe en esto. +En resumen, necesitamos reformular el ecosistema actual de los medios sociales y redisear su experiencia para premiar la meditacin, el civismo y la comprensin mutua. +Como creyente en Internet, me he unido con unos cuantos amigos, he iniciado un nuevo proyecto, intentando encontrar respuestas y explorando nuevas posibilidades. +Nuestro primer producto es una nueva plataforma social para conversaciones. +Albergamos conversaciones que promueven el entendimiento mutuo y, con suerte, el intercambio de opiniones. +No afirmamos que tengamos las respuestas, pero empezamos a experimentar con distintas discusiones sobre temas muy polmicos, como la raza, el control de armas, el debate sobre los refugiados, la relacin entre el Islam y el terrorismo. +Son conversaciones importantes. +Hoy, al menos una de cada tres personas en el planeta tiene acceso a Internet. +Pero parte de Internet es presa de los aspectos menos nobles del comportamiento humano. +Hace cinco aos dije: "Si quieres liberar a una sociedad, lo nico que necesitas es Internet". +Hoy, creo que si queremos liberar a la sociedad primero necesitamos liberar Internet. +Muchas gracias. +A finales de enero de 1975, una chica alemana de 17 aos, llamada Vera Brandes sali al escenario de la pera de Colonia. +El auditorio estaba vaco. +Iluminado solo por el tenue resplandor verde de la salida de emergencia. +Este fue el da ms emocionante en la vida de Vera. +Era la promotora de conciertos ms joven de Alemania, y convenci a la pera de Colonia para hacer un concierto nocturno de jazz del msico estadounidense Keith Jarrett. +Asistiran 1400 personas. +Y en apenas unas horas, Jarrett saldra al mismo escenario, se sentara al piano y, sin ensayo ni partitura, comenzara a tocar. +Pero ahora mismo, Vera estaba presentando a Keith el piano en cuestin, y algo no iba bien. +Jarrett mir el instrumento con un poco de cautela, toc algunas notas, camin alrededor, toc algunas notas ms, murmur algo a su productor. +Luego el productor se acerc a Vera y le dijo: +"Si no consigues un piano nuevo, Keith no podr tocar". +Haba habido un error. +El teatro de la pera le haba dado el instrumento equivocado. +Tena un registro alto, duro, de hojalata, porque todo el fieltro se haba desgastado. +Las notas negras sobresalan, las notas blancas estaban desafinadas, los pedales no funcionaban y el piano en s era demasiado pequeo. +No creara el volumen para llenar un gran espacio como el de la pera de Colonia. +As que Keith Jarrett se fue. +Fue a sentarse fuera en su auto, dejando que Vera Brandes intentara encontrar por telfono un piano sustituto. +Ella tena un afinador de pianos, pero no poda conseguir un piano nuevo. +Por eso sali a la calle y se qued bajo la lluvia hablando con Keith Jarrett, rogndole que no cancelara el concierto. +l mir fuera de su auto a esa adolescente alemana desaliada, empapada por la lluvia, se compadeci de ella y le dijo: "Nunca lo olvides... solo por ti". +Y as un par de horas ms tarde, Jarrett, efectivamente, sali al escenario del teatro de la pera, se sent ante ese piano intocable y comenz. +En unos momentos se hizo evidente que algo mgico suceda. +Jarrett estaba evitando esos registros superiores, se aferraba a los tonos medios del teclado, que le daban a la pieza un ambiente relajante. +Pero tambin, dado que el piano estaba tan suave, tuvo que configurar estos sonidos, esos riffs repetitivos en el bajo. +Y se puso de pie serpenteando, golpeando las teclas, tratando desesperadamente de crear volumen para llegar a la gente de atrs. +Fue una actuacin electrizante. +En cierto modo fue pacfica, y a la vez llena de energa, dinmica. +Al pblico le encant. +Y le sigue encantando al pblico porque la grabacin del concierto de Colonia es el lbum de piano ms vendido en la historia y el disco solista de jazz ms vendido en la historia. +A Keith Jarrett le metieron en un lo. +l desafi el lo y remont vuelo. +Pero pensemos por un momento en el instinto inicial de Jarrett. +No quera tocar. +Claro, creo que ninguno en una situacin remotamente similar, sentira lo mismo, tendra el mismo instinto. +No queremos que nos pidan hacer un buen trabajo con malas herramientas. +No queremos tener que sortear obstculos innecesarios. +Pero el instinto de Jarrett estaba equivocado, y por suerte cambi de opinin. +Y creo que nuestro instinto tambin est equivocado. +Creo que tenemos que apreciar ms las ventajas inesperadas de tener que enfrentar un poco de lo. +Les dar algunos ejemplos de la psicologa cognitiva, de la ciencia de la complejidad, de la psicologa social, y por supuesto, del rock 'n' roll. +Primero, la psicologa cognitiva. +Sabemos desde hace un tiempo que ciertos tipos de dificultad, cierto tipo de obstculos, en realidad pueden mejorar nuestro rendimiento. +Por ejemplo, el psiclogo Daniel Oppenheimer, hace unos aos, trabaj con profesores de secundaria. +Les pidi que cambiasen el formato de los apuntes que daban en algunas de sus clases. +Los apuntes normales tenan formato sencillo con fuente Helvetica o Times New Roman. +Pero a la mitad de estas clases se les dio apuntes formateados con tipografa intensa como Haettenschweiler, o con un giro informal como Comic Sans en cursiva. +Son fuentes muy feas, y difciles de leer. +Al final del semestre llegaron los exmenes, y a los estudiantes que tuvieron fuentes ms difciles de leer, les fue mejor en los exmenes en muchas asignaturas. +Esto se debe a que la fuente difcil hizo que fueran ms lentamente, los oblig a trabajar un poco ms arduamente, y a pensar un poco ms en lo que estaban leyendo, para interpretarlo... +por eso aprendieron ms. +Otro ejemplo. +La psicloga Shelley Carson ha probado en estudiantes de Harvard la calidad de sus filtros de atencin. +Qu quiero decir con esto? +Quiero decir, imaginen que estn en un restaurante, estn conversando, hay todo tipo de conversaciones en el restaurante, Uds. quieren filtrarlas, quieren centrarse en lo importante para Uds. +Pueden hacerlo? +Si pueden, tienen filtros de atencin buenos y fuertes. +A algunas personas realmente les cuesta hacerlo. +Algunos de los estudiantes de Carson lucharon con eso. +Tenan filtros dbiles, tenan filtros porosos, incorporaban mucha informacin externa. +O sea, eran interrumpidos constantemente por imgenes y sonidos del mundo circundante. +Si haba una TV encendida mientras estaban haciendo sus ensayos, no podan apartarse de la pantalla. +Podra pensarse que eso era una desventaja... +pero no. +Cuando Carson analiz los logros de estos estudiantes, los que tenan filtros ms dbiles tenan ms probabilidad de haber tenido hitos creativos reales en sus vidas, de haber publicado su primera novela, de haber lanzado su primer lbum. +Estas distracciones eran en realidad ayudas en su proceso creativo. +Pudieron pensar con creatividad porque haba muchos vacos. +Hablemos de la ciencia de la complejidad. +Cmo resolver los problemas complejos. El mundo est lleno de problemas complicados. Cmo resolver un problema realmente complicado? +Por ejemplo, un motor a reaccin. +Hay muchsimas variables, la temperatura de funcionamiento, los materiales, las diferentes dimensiones, la forma. +No se puede resolver ese tipo de problemas de una vez, es muy difcil. +Qu hacer entonces? +Bueno, algo que se puede hacer es tratar de resolverlo paso a paso. +Uno tiene un prototipo, le hace ajustes, lo prueba, lo mejora. +Le hace ajustes, lo prueba, lo mejora. +Esta idea de ganancias marginales con el tiempo da un buen motor a reaccin. +Y ha sido ampliamente implementado en el mundo. +Van a or de eso, por ejemplo, en el ciclismo de alto rendimiento; los diseadores web hablan de optimizar sus pginas web, buscan logros paso a paso. +Es una buena manera de resolver un problema complicado. +Pero saben qu hara que sea una mejor manera? +Un poco de lo. +Se aade aleatoriedad, desde el principio en el proceso, se hacen movimientos locos, se intentan cosas tontas que no deberan funcionar, y eso tender a hacer que funcione mejor la resolucin del problema. +Y la razn de esto es que el problema con el proceso paso a paso, las ganancias marginales, es que pueden llevarnos gradualmente a un callejn sin salida. +Y si uno empieza con aleatoriedad, eso se vuelve menos probable, y la resolucin del problema se vuelve ms robusta. +Hablemos de psicologa social. +La psicloga Katherine Phillips, con algunos colegas, recientemente le dio problemas de misterio y asesinato a estudiantes. Los estudiantes formaron grupos de cuatro personas y recibieron expedientes con informacin sobre un crimen, coartadas y pruebas, declaraciones de testigos y tres sospechosos. +Se le pidi a cada grupo que encontrase al culpable de cometer el crimen. +Y haba dos tratamientos en este experimento. +En algunos casos los cuatro eran amigos, se conocan bien entre ellos. +En otros casos, eran tres amigos y un extrao. +Y pueden ver a dnde apunto con esto. +Obviamente dir que los grupos que tenan al extrao resolvieron el problema con ms eficacia, lo cual es verdad, as fue. +Resolvieron el problema de manera mucho ms eficaz. +Los grupos de cuatro amigos, tuvieron solo una probabilidad del 50 % de responder bien. +Eso no es muy bueno en opciones mltiples para tres respuestas, 50-50 no lo es. +Los tres amigos y el extrao, aunque el extrao no tuviese informacin adicional, aunque se diera el caso de cambiar de conversacin para acomodarse al inconveniente de los tres amigos y el extrao, tenan 75 % de probabilidad de encontrar la respuesta correcta. +Es un gran salto en el rendimiento. +Pero pienso que es muy interesante no solo que a los tres amigos y al extrao les fuera mejor, sino cmo se sintieron al respecto. +Cuando Katherine Phillips entrevist a los grupos de cuatro amigos, ellos pasaron un buen momento, pensaron tambin que hicieron un buen trabajo. +Fueron complacientes. +Cuando habl con los tres amigos y el extrao, no la haban pasado bien, era ms bien difcil, ms bien raro... +y tenan muchas dudas. +Pensaban que no haban hecho un buen trabajo, pero s lo hicieron. +Y pienso que eso es un muy buen ejemplo del desafo que estamos viendo aqu. +Porque, s... la fuente fea, el extrao torpe, el movimiento aleatorio... +estas interrupciones ayudan a resolver problemas, nos ayudan a ser ms creativos. +Pero no sentimos que nos estn ayudando. +Sentimos que se interponen en el camino... +por eso nos resistimos. +Y por eso el ltimo ejemplo es muy importante. +Quiero hablar de alguien del mundo del rock 'n' roll. +Lo van a conocer, es un TEDero. +Se llama Brian Eno. +Es un compositor de msica ambiente, brillante. +Es tambin catalizador de algunos grandes lbumes del rock 'n' roll de los ltimos 40 aos. +Trabaj con David Bowie en "Heroes", trabaj con U2 en "Achtung Baby" y en "The Joshua Tree", trabaj con DEVO, trabaj con Coldplay, trabaj con todos. +Y qu hace para hacer a estas grandes bandas de rock an mejores? +Bueno, hace lo. +Interrumpe en sus procesos creativos. +Hace el papel del extrao torpe. +Hace el papel del que les dice que tienen que tocar con el piano intocable. +Y una de las maneras de crear esta interrupcin es mediante este notable mazo de cartas. Tengo mi copia autografiada aqu, gracias Brian. +Se llaman Estrategias Oblicuas, las desarroll junto con un amigo. +Cuando estn en el estudio, Brian Eno toma una de las cartas. +Saca una al azar, y hace que la banda siga las instrucciones de la carta. +Esta dice... +"Cambia de instrumento". +S, todos intercambian instrumentos, el baterista al piano. Brillante, brillante idea. +"Analiza los detalles ms embarazosos. Amplifcalos". +"Haz una accin de manera intempestiva, destructiva, impredecible. Incorprala". +Estas tarjetas distraen. +Pero han demostrado su valor lbum tras lbum. +Los msicos las odian. +Phil Collins tocaba los tambores en uno de los primeros lbumes de Brian Eno. +Estaba tan frustrado que empez a lanzar latas de cerveza por el estudio. +Carlos Alomar, gran guitarrista de rock, estaba trabajando con Eno en el lbum "Lodger" de David Bowie, y en un momento se gir a Brian y le dijo: "Brian, este experimento es estpido". +El tema es que result ser un lbum bastante bueno, pero tambin, Carlos Alomar, 35 aos despus, ahora usa las Estrategias Oblicuas. +Y pide a sus estudiantes que usen las Estrategias Oblicuas porque se ha dado cuenta de algo: +Que no te guste, no significa que no te sea de ayuda. +Las estrategias en realidad no eran un mazo de cartas al principio, eran simplemente una lista que estaba en la pared del estudio. +Una lista de cosas para probar cuando se acababan las ideas. +La lista no funcion. +Saben por qu? +Les faltaba desorden. +El ojo recorra la lista y poda detenerse en la opcin menos perjudicial, en la menos problemtica, y se desvirtuaba la idea por completo. +Brian Eno se dio cuenta de que s, tenemos que hacer experimentos tontos, tenemos que lidiar con los extraos torpes, tenemos que tratar de leer las fuentes feas. +Esas cosas nos ayudan. +Nos ayudan a resolver problemas, nos ayudan a ser creativos. +Pero tambin... +necesitamos un poco de persuasin para aceptar esto. +Por la razn que sea... +sea por la fuerza de voluntad, sea sacando una carta, o por culpa de una adolescente alemana, todos, de vez en cuando, necesitamos sentarnos y tratar de tocar el piano intocable. +Gracias. +Estoy en busca de otro planeta en el universo en donde la vida exista. +No puedo ver este planeta a simple vista ni con los telescopios ms potentes que actualmente poseemos. +Pero s que est ah. +Y entender las contradicciones que se dan en la naturaleza nos ayudar a encontrarlo. +En nuestro planeta, donde hay agua, hay vida. +As que buscamos planetas que orbiten a la distancia justa de sus estrellas. +A esta distancia, mostrada en azul en este diagrama para estrellas de diferentes temperaturas, los planetas pueden ser tan clidos para que el agua fluya en su superficie, como lagos y ocanos donde podra haber vida. +Algunos astrnomos centran su tiempo y energa en la bsqueda de planetas a esas distancias de sus estrellas. +Lo que yo hago comienza donde termina su trabajo. +Yo modelo los posibles climas de los exoplanetas. +Y es importante por esto: hay muchos factores, adems de la distancia de su estrella que determinan si un planeta puede sustentar la vida. +Por ejemplo, Venus. +Es el nombre de la diosa romana del amor y la belleza, debido a su apariencia benigna, etrea en el cielo. +Pero las mediciones de los satlites revelaron algo diferente. +La temperatura de la superficie es de cerca de 900 F, 500 C. +Eso es tan caliente como para derretir el plomo. +Su atmsfera gruesa, no su distancia del Sol, es la razn. +Provoca un gran efecto invernadero, atrapa el calor del Sol y es abrasador para la superficie del planeta. +La realidad contradice totalmente las percepciones iniciales de este planeta. +Con estas lecciones de nuestro propio sistema solar, hemos aprendido que la atmsfera de un planeta es crucial para su clima y es posible que albergue vida. +No sabemos cmo son las atmsferas de estos planetas porque los planetas son muy pequeos y tenues en comparacin con sus estrellas y estn muy lejos de nosotros. +Por ej., un planeta cercano que podra tener agua superficial se llama Gliese 667 Cc, un nombre glamoroso, bueno para nmero de telfono, est a 23 aos luz de distancia. +Son ms de 160 billones de kilmetros. +Tratar de medir la composicin de la atmsfera de un exoplaneta que pasa frente a su estrella madre es difcil. +Es como tratar de ver una mosca de la fruta que pasa por delante de los faros de un coche. +Bien, ahora imaginen ese coche a 160 billones de km de distancia y que quieren saber el color exacto de esa mosca. +As que uso modelos informticos para calcular el tipo de atmsfera que un planeta necesitara para tener un clima adecuado para el agua y la vida. +Aqu est el concepto de un artista del planeta Kepler-62f, con la Tierra como referencia. +Est a 1200 aos luz de distancia, y solo es 40 % ms grande que la Tierra. +Nuestro trabajo financiado por la NSF encontr que podra ser lo suficientemente caliente para aguas abiertas para muchos tipos de ambientes y orientaciones de su rbita. +Me gustara que los futuros telescopios dieran seguimiento a este planeta para buscar seales de vida. +El hielo en la superficie de un planeta tambin es importante para el clima. +El hielo absorbe por ms tiempo las longitudes de onda ms rojas de la luz y refleja la luz ms corta, ms azul. +Por eso el tmpano en esta foto se ve tan azul. +La luz roja del Sol se absorbe a su paso por el hielo. +Solo la luz azul llega hasta el fondo. +Entonces se refleja de nuevo a nuestros ojos y vemos el hielo azul. +Mis modelos muestran que los planetas que orbitan estrellas ms fras podran ser ms calientes que los que orbitan estrellas ms calientes. +Hay otra contradiccin, el hielo absorbe la longitud de onda ms larga de las estrellas ms fras y esa luz, esa energa, calienta el hielo. +Usar modelos climticos para explorar cmo estas contradicciones pueden afectar al clima del planeta es vital para la bsqueda de vida en otros lugares. +Y no es de extraar que esa sea mi especialidad. +Soy una astrnoma negra de EE.UU. y una actriz con formacin clsica que le encanta usar maquillaje y leer revistas de moda, estoy en una posicin nica para apreciar las contradicciones en la naturaleza ...y cmo pueden informarnos sobre el siguiente planeta donde la vida exista. +Mi organizacin, "Rising Stargirls", ensea astronoma a nias negras de secundaria, usando el teatro, la escritura y las artes visuales. +Gracias. +Quin habra pensado que esta planta de hojas ovaladas, grandes tallos y llamativas flores de lavanda causara tantos estragos en estas comunidades? +Esta planta es conocida como jacinto de agua y su nombre botnico es Eichhornia crassipes. +En Nigeria, esta planta tambin es conocida por otros nombres. Nombres asociados tanto a eventos histricos como a mitos. +En algunos lugares, es llamada babangida. +Babangida hace referencia al ejrcito y al golpe de Estado militar. +Transmite miedo, restriccin. +En el delta del ro Nger, esta planta tambin es conocida como abiola. +Cuando oyes abiola, recuerdas las elecciones anuladas y te transmite "sueos hechos aicos". +En el suroeste de Nigeria, la planta es conocida como gbe'borun. +Gbe'borun es una expresin yoruba traducida como "cotilleo" o "rumor". +La palabra "cotilleo" sugiere: transmisin rpida, destruccin. +En la zona de Nigeria en la que se habla igala, la planta es conocida como kp'iye kp'oma. Cuando oyes esta palabra, piensas en la muerte. +Se traduce literalmente como "muerte de la madre y el hijo". +Me top con esta planta en 2009, +poco despus de trasladarme de EE.UU. a Nigeria. +Haba dejado mi trabajo de corporativa en EE.UU. y decid dar un gran paso, un gran paso basado en la conviccin de que haba mucho que hacer en Nigeria en el mbito del desarrollo sostenible. +As que all estaba en 2009, a finales de 2009 para ser exactos, en el Tercer Puente de Lagos. +Mir a mi izquierda y me top con esta imagen impresionante. +Haba barcos pesqueros atrapados en esta maraa de jacintos de agua. +Me afect mucho lo que vi. Pens: "Estos pobres pescadores, cmo van a llevar a cabo su trabajo en estas condiciones? +Y entonces pens: "Debe haber alguna forma". +Una buena solucin con la que se proteja al medio ambiente, quitando de en medio estas malas hierbas, y se consiga transformar esto en beneficio econmico para las comunidades que se han visto ms afectadas por la invasin de esta planta. +En ese momento se me encendi la bombilla. +Investigu en profundidad para conocer mejor los usos beneficiosos de esta planta. +Entre ellos, el que ms me impact +fue su uso para artesana. +Pens: "Qu gran idea!" +Me encanta la artesana, sobre todo, la artesana que tiene una historia detrs. +Pens: "Esto puede introducirse fcilmente en las comunidades sin la necesidad de contar con destrezas tcnicas". +Se me ocurrieron tres sencillos pasos para una gran solucin. +Primero: Meterse en los canales y sacar los jacintos de agua. +De esta forma, se crea acceso. +Segundo: Secar los tallos de los jacintos de agua. +Y tercero: Convertir los jacintos de agua en productos. +El tercer paso era todo un reto. +Tengo experiencia como informtica pero no en artes creativas. +As que empec mi aventura averiguando cmo aprender a tejer. +Esta bsqueda me llev hasta una comunidad en Ibadan, en la que viv, llamada Sabo. +Sabo se traduce como "el barrio de los extraos" +y la comunidad est formada mayormente por gente del norte del pas. +As que, con las plantas secas en mi poder, tena bastantes, fui de puerta en puerta, buscando a alguien que pudiera ensearme a transformar estos tallos de jacinto de agua en cuerdas. +Me enviaron a casa de Malam Yahaya. +Sin embargo, el problema es que Malam Yahaya no habla ingls y yo tampoco hablo hausa. +Pero unos nios vinieron al rescate y nos ayudaron a traducir. +As fue como empec a aprender a tejer y a transformar estos tallos secos de jacintos de agua en cuerdas largas. +Con estas cuerdas largas listas ya estaba preparada para hacer productos +y ese fue el principio de las colaboraciones. +Trabaj con fabricantes de cestas de mimbre para idear productos. +Contando con todo esto, estaba segura de que podra llevar este conocimiento hasta las comunidades ribereas y ayudarles a transformar su adversidad en prosperidad. +Cogimos estas plantas y las tejimos, transformndolas en productos que pudieran venderse. +Tenamos lpices, posavasos, bolsos, cajas para papel. +De este modo, ayudamos a las comunidades a ver los jacintos de agua desde otra perspectiva. +Los jacintos de agua podan ser valiosos, estticos, duraderos, resistentes y elsticos. +Cambiamos los nombres y la forma de ganarse la vida. +De gbe'borun, cotilleo, a olutosan, narrador. +Y de kp'iye kp'oma que significa "muerte de la madre y el hijo", a Ya du j'ewn w'Iye kp'Oma, "proveedor de comida para madre e hijo". +Me gustara terminar con una cita de Michael Margolis. +Dijo: "Si quieres aprender de una cultura, escucha sus historias. +Si quieres cambiar una cultura, cambia sus historias": +Desde comunidades como Makoko, Abobiri, Ewoi, Kolo, Owahwa o Esaba, hemos cambiado la historia. +Gracias por su atencin. +Hemos evolucionado con las herramientas y estas con nosotros. +Nuestros ancestros crearon estas hachas de mano hace 1,5 millones de aos, moldendolas no solo para ajustar una tarea a las manos, sino tambin a "sus" manos. +Sin embargo, con los aos, estas se han especializado cada vez ms. +Estas herramientas de esculpir han evolucionado con el uso, y cada una tiene una forma diferente que corresponde a su funcin. +Y aprovechan la destreza de nuestras manos para manipular cosas con mucha ms precisin. +Pero como las herramientas se han vuelto cada vez ms complejas, necesitamos controles ms complejos para manejarlas. +Los diseadores se han vuelto hbiles para crear interfaces que nos permitan manipular parmetros mientras atendemos otras cosas, como tomar una fotografa y cambiar el enfoque, o la apertura. +Pero la PC ha cambiado fundamentalmente la forma en que vemos las herramientas porque la computacin es dinmica. +As que uno puede hacer un milln de cosas diferentes y ejecutar un milln de aplicaciones diferentes. +Sin embargo, la PC tiene la misma forma fsica esttica para todas esas diferentes aplicaciones y los mismos elementos de una interfaz tambin esttica. +Y creo que esto es fundamentalmente un problema, porque realmente no nos permite interactuar con las manos y capturar toda la destreza que tenemos en el cuerpo. +Mi idea es que, por ende, necesitamos un nuevo tipo de interfaces que pueda capturar estas ricas capacidades que tenemos y que puedan adaptarse fsicamente a nosotros y permitirnos interactuar en nuevas formas. +Y eso es lo que he estado haciendo en el Media Lab del MIT y ahora en Stanford. +As que, con mis colegas Daniel Leithinger y Hiroshi Ishii, creamos inFORM, donde la interfaz puede de hecho salir de la pantalla y se puede manipular fsicamente. +O se puede visualizar fsicamente informacin en 3D y tocarla y sentirla para entenderla de nuevas formas. +O se puede interactuar a travs de gestos y deformaciones directas para esculpir en plastilina digital. +O pueden surgir de la superficie elementos de la interfaz y cambiar segn la demanda. +Y la idea es que para cada aplicacin individual, la forma fsica se puede ajustar a la aplicacin. +Y creo que esto representa una nueva forma de interactuar con la informacin, hacindola fsica. +As que la pregunta es, cmo usaremos esto? +Tradicionalmente, los urbanistas y arquitectos construyen modelos fsicos de ciudades y edificios para entenderlos mejor. +Con Tony Tang en el Media Lab, creamos una interfaz construida en inFORM para permitir a los urbanistas disear y ver ciudades enteras. +Y ahora se la puede recorrer, pero es dinmica, es fsica, hasta pueden interactuar en directo. +O pueden ver diferentes vistas, como informacin de poblacin o de trnsito, pero de manera fsica. +Creemos tambin que esta forma dinmica muestra que se pueden cambiar las formas de colaborar remotamente con la gente. +As, cuando trabajamos juntos presencialmente, no solo los miro frente a frente sino que tambin estoy gestualizando y manipulando objetos. Y eso es realmente difcil de hacer con herramientas como Skype. +Con inFORM, pueden acceder desde la pantalla y manipular cosas a cierta distancia. +Y se usan pines de visualizacin para representar las manos, permitiendo de hecho tocar y manipular objetos a distancia. +Adems, se puede manipular y tambin colaborar en conjuntos de datos 3D. As que tambin les pueden hacer gestos y manipularlos. +Y eso permite a la gente colaborar en estos nuevos tipos de informacin 3D de forma ms rica de lo que podra ser con los recursos tradicionales. +Y luego tambin pueden traer objetos existentes y capturarlos por un lado y transmitirlos por otro. +O pueden tener un objeto vinculado en dos lugares. As, cuando muevo un baln en un lado, el baln tambin se mueve en el otro. +Y hacemos esto capturando al usuario remoto con una cmara espacio-sensorial como la Kinect, de Microsoft. +Ahora, se podran estar preguntando cmo funciona todo esto, y esencialmente, son 900 accionadores en lnea conectados a estas conexiones mecnicas que permiten que la accin de aqu abajo se propague a estos pines de arriba. +No es complejo comparado a lo que sucede en el CERN, pero construirlo nos llev mucho tiempo. +Empezamos con un solo motor, un solo accionador lineal, y luego tuvimos que disear una placa de circuito a medida para controlarlos. +Ms tarde tuvimos que hacer muchos ms. +Y el problema de hacer 900 de estos, es que hay que hacer cada paso 900 veces. +Por eso haba mucho por hacer. +Y, por as decirlo, pusimos una mini planta explotadora en Media Lab, trajimos universitarios y los convencimos de hacer "investigacin". Tuvimos madrugadas de pelculas y pizza, atornillando miles de tuercas. +Ya saben, investigacin. +Como sea, pienso que nos entusiasmaron mucho las cosas que nos permiti hacer inFORM. +Estamos usando, cada vez ms, equipos mviles, e interactuando donde sea. +Pero estos dispositivos, tanto como las PC's, son usados para muchas aplicaciones diferentes. +Se usan para hablar por telfono, para navegar en la web, jugar videojuegos, tomar fotos, e incluso para miles de otras cosas. +Pero, una vez ms, tienen la misma forma fsica esttica para cada una de estas aplicaciones. +Por ello, queramos llegar a tomar algunas de las mismas interacciones que desarrollamos para inFORM y llevarlas a dispositivos mviles. +As que, en Stanford, creamos esta pantalla de borde hptico; es un equipo mvil con una matriz de actuadores lineales que pueden cambiar de forma, pueden sentir en las manos dnde se est mientras se lee un libro. +O se pueden sentir en el bolsillo nuevos tipos de sensaciones tctiles, ms variadas que la vibracin. +O botones que pueden emerger de un lado, permitiendo interactuar donde uno quiera que estn. +O pueden jugar videojuegos y tener botones reales. +Y pudimos hacer esto insertando 40 pequeos actuadores lineales dentro del dispositivo. Eso permite no solo tocarlos sino regresarlos tambin a su lugar. +Tambin hemos observado otras formas de crear cambios de forma ms complejas. +As que hemos usado un actuador neumtico para crear un equipo mutante donde se puede ir de un modo muy similar a un telfono, +a una pulsera en el proceso. +As que junto con Ken Nakagaki en el Media Lab, creamos esta nueva versin de alta resolucin que usa un rayo de servomotores para pasar de una pulsera interactiva a un dispositivo de acceso tctil, a un telfono. +Tambin estamos interesados en buscar formas en las que los usuarios puedan deformar la interfaz para darle formas en dispositivos que ellos quieran usar. +As, pueden hacer algo como un controlador de juego, y luego el sistema entender en qu forma est y cambiar a ese modo. +As que, a dnde apunta esto? +Cmo avanzamos a partir de aqu? +Creo, realmente, que hoy estamos en esta nueva era de la Internet de las Cosas, donde hay PC's por doquier, en nuestros bolsillos, en las paredes, estn en casi todos los dispositivos que comprarn en los siguientes cinco aos. +Pero qu pasara si dejramos de pensar en dispositivos y en vez de eso pensramos en ambientes? +Y en cmo podemos tener muebles inteligentes o habitaciones inteligentes, o ambientes inteligentes, o ciudades que puedan adaptarse a nosotros fsicamente, y nos permitan tener nuevas formas de colaboracin con la gente y hacer nuevos tipos de tareas. +As, para la Semana del Diseo de Miln, hemos creado TRANSFORM, una mesa interactiva a escala de estos visualizadores de forma que puede mover objetos reales en la superficie y, por ejemplo, recordarles llevar sus llaves. +Pero pueden transformarse tambin para ajustarse a distintas interacciones. +As, si uno quiere trabajar, pueden cambiar y adaptarse al sistema de trabajo. +Y mientras uno lleve el dispositivo consigo, este crear todas las prestaciones necesarias y otros objetos para ayudar a cumplir esos objetivos. +As que, en conclusin, realmente pienso que tenemos que pensar una forma nueva, muy diferente, de interactuar con las PC's. +Necesitamos PC's que puedan adaptarse fsicamente a nosotros y adaptarse a las formas en las que necesitamos usarlas y realmente aprovechar la destreza de las manos, y la facultad de pensar espacialmente la informacin, hacindola fsica. +Pero anticipndonos, creo que necesitamos ir ms all de los dispositivos, para pensar realmente nuevas formas de unir a la gente, de brindar nuestra informacin al mundo, y pensar ambientes inteligentes que se adapten fsicamente a nosotros. +Y con eso, me despido. +Muchas gracias. +Tengo una pregunta. +Puede una mquina escribir poesa? +Es una pregunta provocativa. +Lo pensamos un minuto, y de repente surgen muchas otras preguntas como: Qu es una mquina? +Qu es la poesa? +Qu es la creatividad? +Pero estas son preguntas que tratamos de responder durante toda la vida no solo durante una charla TED. +Por eso lo intentaremos desde otro enfoque. +Aqu tenemos dos poemas. +Uno escrito por un humano, y el otro por una mquina. +Les pedir que me digan cul es cul. +Veamos: Poema 1: Mosquita / tu juego estival / mi mano vil / arras cual vendaval. +No tenemos t y yo / la misma identidad / tu arte no tiene / una misma humanidad? +Poema 2: Nos sentimos / Activistas Durante toda la vida / Amanecer Paramos a ver, papa que odiamos el / no toda la noche para comenzar una / por lo dems genial Muy bien, tiempo. +Levanten la mano si piensan que el Poema 1 fue escrito por un humano. +Bien, la mayora. +Levanten la mano si piensan que el Poema 2 fue escrito por un humano. +Muy valiente de su parte, porque el primer poema fue escrito por el poeta William Blake. +El segundo fue escrito por un algoritmo que tom las palabras de mi Facebook un da y las organiz con un programa, siguiendo los mtodos que describir en unos momentos. +Hagamos otra prueba. +De nuevo, no tendrn mucho tiempo para leer esto, confen en su instinto. +Poema 1: Ruge un len y ladra un perro. Es interesante / y fascinante / que un ave vuele y no / ruja ni ladre. Sueo historias apasionantes de animales y las cantar a todas ellas si no estoy cansado ni agotado. +Poema 2: Oh, canguros, lentejuelas, chocolate, refrescos! / Hermosos! +Perlas, / armnicas, azufaifa, aspirinas! / Las cosas siempre mencionadas Muy bien, tiempo. +Si piensan que el primer poema fue escrito por un humano, levanten la mano. +Bien. +Y si piensan que el segundo poema fue escrito por un humano, levanten la mano. +Tenemos, ms o menos, opiniones divididas. +Fue mucho ms difcil. +La respuesta: El primer poema fue generado por un algoritmo llamado Racter, creado en la dcada de 1970, y el segundo poema fue escrito por un tipo llamado Frank O'Hara, que da la casualidad que es uno de mis poetas favoritos. +Lo que acabamos de hacer es una prueba de Turing de poesa. +Alan Turing fue el primero en proponer este test en 1950, para responder la pregunta: Pueden pensar las mquinas? +Alan Turing crea que si una mquina poda mantener una conversacin basada en un material escrito con un humano, con un dominio tal que el humano no pudiera discernir si estaba hablando con una mquina o un humano, se podra decir entonces que la mquina tiene inteligencia. +Por eso en 2013, mi amigo Benjamin Laird y yo, creamos la prueba de Turing para poesa en lnea. +Se llama "Bot or not", y cualquiera puede acceder e intentar pasarla. +Pero, bsicamente, es el juego que jugamos. +Se muestran dos poemas, y sin que uno sepa cual fue escrito por un humano o por una mquina, tiene que adivinar. +Miles y miles de personas han hecho la prueba en lnea, as que tenemos resultados. +Cules son los resultados? +Bueno, Turing deca que si una mquina pudiera hacer creer a un humano que es un otro ser humano un 30 % de las veces pasaba la prueba de inteligencia de Turing. +Tenemos poemas en la base de "Bot or not" que han hecho pensar a un 65 % de los lectores humanos que fueron escritos por un humano. +Creo que tenemos una respuesta a nuestra pregunta. +Segn la lgica de la prueba de Turing, puede una mquina escribir poesa? +Bueno, s, categricamente. +Pero si se sienten un poco incmodos con la respuesta, est bien. +Si su respuesta es emocional, est bien porque no es el fin de la historia. +Hagamos una tercera y ltima prueba. +De nuevo, tendrn que leer y decirme qu poema piensan que fue escrito por un humano. +Poema 1: Banderas rojas, la razn de hermosas banderas. / Y el blasn. +Blasones de banderas / Y materiales. / Razones para lucir materiales. Poema 2: Un ciervo herido salta ms alto, / He odo al narciso. / He odo la bandera hoy / He odo al cazador decir; / No es ms que el xtasis de la muerte / Y luego es casi irrefrenable. Muy bien, tiempo. +Levanten la mano si piensan que el Poema 1 fue escrito por un humano. +Levanten la mano si piensan que el Poema 2 fue escrito por un humano. +Guau, son muchos ms. +Les sorprender saber que el Poema 1 fue escrito por la mismsima Gertrude Stein. +Y el Poema 2 fue generado por un algoritmo llamado RKCP. +Pero antes de continuar describir, simple y rpidamente, cmo funciona RKCP. +El RKCP es un algoritmo diseado por Ray Kurzweil, un director de ingeniera de Google que cree firmemente en la inteligencia artificial. +Se le proporciona a RKCP un texto fuente, El RKCP analiza el texto para detectar cmo se usa el lenguaje, y luego vuelve a generar el lenguaje que emula al primer texto. +El poema que vimos antes, el Poema 2, el que todos pensaron que era humano, fue creado a base de muchos poemas escritos por la poetisa Emily Dickinson; analiz la forma en que ella usaba el lenguaje, aprendi el modelo, y luego volvi a generar un modelo siguiendo la misma estructura. +Pero lo importante a saber de RKCP es que no conoce el significado de las palabras que usa. +El lenguaje es solo materia prima, podra ser chino, podra ser sueco, podra ser todo lo escrito en su muro de Facebook a lo largo del da. +Un idioma no es ms que materia prima para la machina. +Y, no obstante, es capaz de crear un poema que parece ms humano que el poema de Gertrude Stein, y Gertrude Stein es un ser humano. +Aqu hemos hecho, ms o menos, una prueba de Turing inversa. +Gertrude Stein, humana, puede escribir un poema que lleva a pensar a la mayora de los jueces humanos que fue escrito por una mquina. +Por lo tanto, segn la lgica de la prueba de Turing inversa, Gertrude Stein es una mquina. +Estn confundidos? +Pienso que es normal. +Hasta ahora tuvimos humanos que escriban como humanos, tenemos mquinas que escriben como mquinas, tenemos mquinas que escriben como humanos, pero tambin tenemos, quiz lo que ms confunde, humanos que escriben como mquinas. +Qu aprendemos de todo esto? +Que William Blake en cierta forma es ms humano que Gertrude Stein? +O que Gertrude Stein es ms autmata que William Blake? +Son preguntas que me he hago desde hace dos aos y no tengo respuestas. +Pero tengo un montn de ideas sobre nuestra relacin con la tecnologa. +Mi primera idea es que, por alguna razn, asociamos la poesa con el ser humano. +Por eso cuando nos preguntamos: "Puede una mquina escribir poesa?" +tambin preguntamos: "Qu significa ser humanos y cmo circunscribimos esta categora? +Cmo decidimos quin o qu puede pertenecer a esta categora?" +Creo que es esencialmente una cuestin filosfica, que no podemos solucionar con una prueba binaria, como la prueba de Turing. +Creo que Alan Turing tambin entendi esto, y que cuando ide su prueba all por los aos 50, lo pens como una provocacin filosfica. +Mi segunda idea es que, si aplicamos la prueba de Turing a la poesa, en realidad no probamos la capacidad de las mquinas porque los algoritmos generadores de poesa son bastante simples y han existido, ms o menos, desde los aos 50. +En cambio, lo que hacemos con la prueba de Turing en la poesa es recolectar opiniones sobre el significado de lo humano. +Yo descubr que, lo hemos visto hoy ms temprano, decamos que William Blake es ms humano que Gertrude Stein. +Claro, esto no significa que William Blake sea en realidad ms humano ni que Gertrude Stein sea ms autmata. +Significa simplemente que la categora de lo humano es inestable. +Esto me ha llevado a comprender que lo humano no es un hecho rgido, fro. +Ms bien, es algo construido con opiniones y algo que cambia con el tiempo. +Y mi ltima idea es que la mquina funciona ms o menos como un espejo que refleja cualquier idea humana que le mostramos. Le mostramos a Emily Dickinson y nos devuelve Emily Dickinson. +Le mostramos a William Blake y eso es lo que emula. +Le mostramos a Gertrude Stein y crea en base al estilo de Gertrude Stein. +Ms que cualquier otra tecnologa, la mquina es un espejo que refleja una idea del humano que le mostramos. +Estoy seguro de que muchos de Uds. habrn odo mucho recientemente sobre la inteligencia artificial. +Y el centro de la conversacin es si podemos crearla. +Podemos crear una mquina inteligente? +Podemos crear una mquina creativa? +Parece que nos preguntamos sin cesar: Podemos crear una mquina semejante a un humano? +Pero hasta ahora hemos visto que lo humano no es un hecho cientfico, sino una idea armoniosa y siempre cambiante que cambia con el tiempo. +Cuando empecemos a debatir las ideas de una inteligencia artificial en el futuro, no solo deberamos preguntarnos: "Podemos construirla?" +Tambin deberamos preguntarnos: "Qu idea de lo humano desearamos ver reflejada en nosotros?" +Esta es una idea esencialmente filosfica que no puede responderse solo con software, sino que requiere un momento de reflexin existencial de la especie. +Gracias. +El cdigo es el prximo lenguaje universal. +En los 70, fue la msica punk que condujo a toda una generacin. +En los aos 80, fue probablemente el dinero. +Pero para mi generacin, el software es la interfaz a la imaginacin y al mundo. +Y eso significa que necesitamos un grupo de personas diametralmente ms diverso para construir esos productos, para no ver las computadoras como algo mecnico, solitario, aburrido, mgico, para verlas como algo con lo que poder jugar, que se puede manipular, girar, etc. +Mi viaje personal hacia el mundo de la programacin y la tecnologa empez a la temprana edad de 14 aos. +Tuve un alocado amor adolescente por un hombre mayor, ese hombre mayor en cuestin result ser el vicepresidente de EE.UU., el Sr. Al Gore. +E hice lo que toda adolescente quisiera hacer. +Quera en cierto modo expresar todo este amor, as que le hice un sitio web, est por aqu. +En 2001, no haba Tumblr, no haba Facebook, no haba Pinterest. +Por eso tuve que aprender a programar para expresar esas ansias y ese amor. +As empec a programar. +Primero como medio de autoexpresin. +De la misma forma que de pequea usaba crayones y legos. +De ms mayor, usaba clases de guitarra y obras de teatro. +Pero luego, me apasion por otras cosas, como la poesa, el tejido de calcetines, la conjugacin de verbos irregulares en francs, la invencin de mundos imaginarios, Bertrand Russell y su filosofa. +Y empec a ser de esas personas que sentan que las computadoras eran aburridas, tcnicas y solitarias. +Hoy pienso de esta manera: +Las niitas no saben que no deberan gustarles las computadoras. +Las niitas son increbles. +Son muy, muy buenas para concentrarse en cosas, ser exactas y hacerse preguntas increbles como: "Qu?", "Por qu?", "Cmo? y "Qu tal si?" +Y no saben que se supone que no deberan gustarles las computadoras. +Son los padres quienes lo piensan. +Los padres s sentimos que la informtica es una disciplina esotrica, una ciencia extraa, que solo pertenece a hacedores misteriosos; +que est tan disociada de la vida cotidiana como, digamos, la fsica nuclear. +Y eso tiene parte de razn. +Hay mucha sintaxis, controles, estructuras de datos, algoritmos, prcticas, protocolos y paradigmas en la programacin. +Y, como comunidad, hicimos computadoras cada vez ms pequeas. +Construimos capas y capas de abstraccin unas sobre otras entre el humano y la mquina hasta el punto de no tener idea de cmo funcionan las computadoras, o cmo hablarles. +Y enseamos a nuestros nios cmo funciona el cuerpo humano, les enseamos cmo funcionan los motores de combustin e incluso les decimos que si realmente quieren ser astronautas pueden llegar a serlo. +Pero cuando el nio viene y pregunta: "Qu es un algoritmo de ordenamiento de burbuja?" +Cmo sabe la computadora qu sucede cuando presiono "reproducir"? Cmo sabe qu video mostrar? +Linda, Internet es un lugar?" +Los adultos nos quedamos en un silencio extrao. +"Es magia", dicen unos. +"Es muy complicado", dicen otros. +Bueno, ninguna de las dos. +No es magia ni es complicado. +Sencillamente ocurre muy, muy, muy rpido. +Los informticos construyen hermosas mquinas increbles, pero las hacen tan, tan ajenas a nosotros, y tambin al lenguaje con el que hablamos con las computadoras que ya no sabemos cmo hablar a las mquinas sin nuestras interfaces elaboradas. +Y por eso nadie reconoca que cuando yo conjugaba verbos irregulares en francs, en realidad practicaba reconocimiento de patrones. +Y cuando me apasionaba tejiendo, en realidad segua una secuencia de comandos simblicos que tena bucles. +Y que la eterna bsqueda de Bertrand Russell por encontrar un lenguaje exacto entre el ingls y las matemticas encontr su lugar dentro de la computadora. +Yo era programadora, pero nadie lo saba. +Los nios de hoy tocan, deslizan, y pulsan su camino hacia el mundo. +Pero si no les damos herramientas para construir con computadoras, solo creamos consumidores en vez de creadores. +Toda esta bsqueda me llev a esta nia. +Su nombre es Ruby, tiene seis aos. +No tiene miedo, tiene imaginacin, y es un poco mandona. +Y cada vez que encontraba un problema como autodidacta de la programacin, preguntaba: "Qu es el diseo orientado a objetos o qu es la recoleccin de residuos?" Trataba de imaginar cmo explicara el problema una nia de seis aos. +Y escrib un libro sobre ella y lo ilustr y Ruby me ense estas cosas. +Me ense que no se debe tener miedo a los "bugs" bajo la cama. +Y que hasta el mayor de los problemas es un grupo de pequeos problemas apilados. +Y Ruby me present a sus amigas, el lado colorido de la cultura de Internet. +Ella tiene amigos como el leopardo de las nieves, que es hermoso, pero no quiere jugar con otros nios. +Tiene amigos como los robots verdes muy amigables, pero sper desordenados. +Y tiene amigos como Linux el pingino implacablemente eficiente, pero un poco difcil de entender. +Y zorros idealistas, etc. +En el mundo de Ruby, uno aprende tecnologa mediante el juego. +Y, por ejemplo, las computadoras son muy buenas para repetir cosas, entonces Ruby ensea bucles as. +El paso de baile favorito de Ruby, es: "Palma, palma, pisa, pisa, palma, palma y salto". +Y uno aprende bucles "contadores" repitiendo eso cuatro veces. +Y aprende bucles de tipo "mientras" repitiendo esa secuencia mientras me paro en un pie. +Y aprende bucles de tipo "hasta" repitiendo esa secuencia hasta que mam se enoje. +Y, sobre todo, se aprende que no hay respuestas inmediatas. +Cuando ideaba el plan del mundo de Ruby, precisaba preguntarle a los nios cmo ven el mundo y qu tipo de preguntas tienen, y organizaba sesiones ldicas experimentales. +Empezaba mostrando a los nios estas cuatro imgenes. +Les mostraba la imagen de un auto, una tienda de comestibles, un perro y un sanitario. +Y preguntaba: "Cul piensas que es una computadora?" +Los nios eran muy conservadores y decan: "Ninguna es una computadora. +Yo s lo que es una computadora: es esa caja brillante con la que pap y mam pasan mucho tiempo". +Pero luego hablbamos y descubramos que en realidad un auto es una computadora, pues tiene un sistema de navegacin. +Y un perro no puede ser una computadora, pero tiene un collar y el collar puede tener una computadora dentro. +Y la tienda de comestibles tiene muchos tipos de computadoras, como el sistema del cajero y las alarmas antirrobo. +Y los nios, saben qu? +En Japn, los sanitarios son computadoras e incluso son atacados por "hackers". +Vamos ms lejos y les doy uno de esos adhesivos que tienen botones encendido/apagado. +Y le dije a los nios: "Hoy tienen el poder mgico para transformar cualquier cosa en una computadora". +Y, nuevamente, los nios decan: "Parece difcil, no s la respuesta correcta". +Pero les digo: "No se preocupen, sus padres tampoco conocen la respuesta correcta. +Apenas conocen algo llamado Internet de las Cosas. +Pero Uds. nios, sern quienes vivirn realmente en un mundo en el que todo ser una computadora". +Y luego se me acerc una niita, tom la lmpara de una bici y dijo: "Si esta lmpara fuera una computadora, cambiara de colores". +Y yo dije: "Es una idea muy buena, qu otra cosa podra hacer?" +Ella piensa y piensa, y dice: "Si esta lmpara de bicicleta fuera una computadora, podramos hacer un viaje en bicicleta con pap, dormiramos en una tienda, y esta lmpara de bicicleta tambin podra ser un proyector de pelculas". +Y busco ese momento, en que el nio se da cuenta de que el mundo definitivamente no es algo terminado, que una manera increble de completarlo es creando tecnologa y que cada uno de nosotros puede ser parte de ese cambio. +ltima historia, tambin construimos una computadora. +Conocimos a la CPU mandona y a las tiles memorias RAM y ROM que ayudan a recordar cosas. +Despus de montar la computadora, tambin diseamos una aplicacin. +Y mi historia favorita es la de este niito, tiene seis aos y su cosa favorita en el mundo es ser astronauta. +El nio tiene esos auriculares enormes y est completamente inmerso en su pequea computadora de papel porque vean, construy su propia aplicacin de navegacin planetaria intergalctica. +Y su padre, el astronauta solitario en la rbita marciana, est al otro lado de la sala y la misin importante del nio consiste en traer a su padre a salvo de vuelta a la Tierra. +Estos nios tendrn una visin profundamente diferente del mundo y de la manera de construirlo con tecnologa. +Por ltimo, cuanto ms accesible, ms inclusivo, y diverso hagamos el mundo de la tecnologa, mejor y ms colorido ser el mundo. +Por eso, imaginemos juntos, por un momento, un mundo en el que las historias que contamos sobre cmo se hacen las cosas no solo convoquen a veinteaeros de Silicon Valley, sino tambin a colegialas kenianas y a bibliotecarios noruegos. +Imaginen un mundo en el que la pequea Ada Lovelaces del maana, que viven en una realidad permanente de unos y ceros, crezcan optimistas y valientes respecto de la tecnologa. +Ellas aceptan los poderes, las oportunidades y las limitaciones del mundo. +Un mundo de tecnologas encantadoras, extravagantes, y un poquito extraas. +De nia, quera ser narradora. +Me encantaban los mundos imaginarios; mi situacin favorita era despertar por la maana en Moominvalley, +vagar por la tarde en Tatooines +e ir a dormir por la noche a Narnia. +La programacin termin siendo mi profesin ideal. +Todava creo mundos. +En vez de historias, los hago con cdigo. +La programacin me da ese poder increble para construir mi pequeo universo con sus propias reglas, paradigmas y prcticas. +Para crear algo de la nada con el poder puro de la lgica. +Gracias. +Este es Pleurobot. +Pleurobot es un robot diseado para imitar una especie de salamandra llamada Pleurodeles waltl. +Pleurobot puede caminar, como ven aqu, y luego vern que tambin puede nadar. +Quiz se pregunten por qu diseamos este robot. +Lo diseamos como herramienta cientfica para la neurociencia. +De hecho, lo diseamos junto a los neurobilogos para entender cmo se mueven los animales, y sobre todo cmo la mdula espinal controla la locomocin. +Pero cuanto ms trabajo en biorobtica, ms me impresiona realmente la locomocin animal. +Si lo piensan, un delfn o un gato que corre o salta, o incluso nosotros, cuando corremos o jugamos al tenis, hacemos cosas asombrosas. +De hecho, el sistema nervioso resuelve un problema de control muy, muy complejo. +Tiene que coordinar ms o menos 200 msculos a la perfeccin, porque si la coordinacin es mala, nos caemos o nos movemos mal. +Mi objetivo es entender cmo funciona esto. +Hay cuatro componentes principales detrs de la locomocin animal. +El primer componente es el cuerpo, y, de hecho, nunca se debe subestimar en qu medida la biomecnica en los animales ya simplific la locomocin. +Luego est la mdula espinal, en la mdula espinal hay reflejos, mltiples reflejos que crean un ciclo de coordinacin sensoriomotora entre la actividad neural de la mdula y la actividad mecnica. +Un tercer componente son los generadores de patrones centrales. +Son circuitos muy interesantes de la mdula de los vertebrados que pueden generar, por s mismos, patrones rtmicos de actividad, muy coordinados y al mismo tiempo reciben solo seales de entrada muy simples. +Y estas seales de entrada provenientes de la modulacin descendente desde partes superiores del cerebro, como la corteza motora, cerebelo, ganglios basales, modularn la actividad de la mdula conforme nos desplazamos. +Lo interesante es hasta qu punto solo un componente de bajo nivel, la mdula espinal, junto con el cuerpo, ya resuelven una gran parte del problema de la locomocin. +Quiz ya lo sepan porque al cortar la cabeza a un pollo, este puede seguir corriendo un rato. Eso muestra que con la parte inferior, la mdula y el cuerpo, ya se resuelve gran parte de la locomocin. +Pero entender cmo funciona es algo muy complejo porque, en primer lugar, grabar la actividad de la mdula es muy difcil. +Ms fcil es implantar electrodos en la corteza motora que en la mdula espinal, por estar protegida por las vrtebras. +Sobre todo, en humanos, es muy difcil de hacer. +Segundo, la locomocin se produce gracias a una interaccin muy compleja y muy dinmica entre estos cuatro componentes. +As que es muy difcil averiguar el papel de cada uno en el tiempo. +Aqu es donde los biorobots como Pleurobot y los modelos matemticos realmente pueden ayudar. +Entonces, qu es la biorobtica? +La biorobtica es un campo muy activo de investigacin en robtica que quiere inspirarse en los animales para hacer que los robots salgan al aire libre, como robots de servicio, robots de bsqueda y rescate, o robots de campo. +El gran objetivo aqu es inspirarse en los animales para hacer robots que operen en terrenos complejos: escaleras, montaas, bosques, lugares donde los robots todava tienen dificultades y donde los animales se desempean mucho mejor. +El robot puede ser una gran herramienta cientfica tambin. +Hay proyectos muy buenos en los que se usan robots, como herramienta cientfica en neurociencia, biomecnica, hidrodinmica. +Este es exactamente el propsito de Pleurobot. +En mi laboratorio colaboramos con neurobilogos como Jean-Marie Cabelguen, neurobilogo en Burdeos, Francia, y queremos hacer modelos de la mdula y validarlos en robots. +Queremos empezar de forma sencilla. +Es bueno empezar con animales simples como las lampreas, que son peces muy primitivos, y luego, gradualmente pasar a animales de locomocin ms compleja, como salamandras, pero tambin a gatos y humanos, los mamferos. +Y aqu un robot se convierte en una herramienta interesante para validar nuestros modelos. +Para m, Pleurobot es una especie de sueo hecho realidad. +Hace ms o menos 20 aos yo ya trabajaba haciendo simulaciones informticas del movimiento de lampreas y salamandras durante mi doctorado. +Pero siempre supe que mis simulaciones eran solo aproximaciones. +Como simular la fsica en el agua, o en barro o en un suelo complejo, es muy difcil simularlo correctamente en la computadora. +Por qu no tener un robot real y una fsica real? +De todos estos animales, uno de mis favoritos es la salamandra. +Podrn preguntarse por qu y es porque, dado que es un anfibio, es un animal clave desde un punto de vista evolutivo. +Establece una relacin maravillosa entre nadar, como vemos en la anguila o el pez, y la locomocin del cuadrpedo, como vemos en mamferos, gatos y humanos. +De hecho, la salamandra moderna se parece mucho al primer vertebrado terrestre, por lo que es casi un fsil viviente, lo que nos da acceso a nuestro antepasado, el antepasado de todos los tetrpodos terrestres. +La salamandra nada, haciendo una marcha de natacin anguiliforme, para ello propaga una onda viajera de actividad muscular de la cabeza a la cola. +Y una vez en el suelo, pasa a un modo de andar al trote. +En este caso, se produce una activacin peridica de las extremidades muy bien coordinadas con esta ondulacin estacionaria del cuerpo, y es exactamente la marcha que estn viendo aqu con el Pleurobot. +Pero muy sorprendente y, de hecho, es fascinante, todo esto lo puede generar simplemente la mdula y el cuerpo. +Si tomamos una salamandra sin cerebro, no es tan agradable pero se le quita la cabeza, y le estimulamos la mdula con electricidad, con un bajo nivel de estimulacin inducir un modo de andar similar. +Si se estimula un poco ms, la marcha se acelera. +En un momento, hay un umbral, y automticamente, el animal pasa a nadar. +Es increble. +Sencillamente cambia la marcha, como si pisar el acelerador de la modulacin descendente en la mdula espinal, cambiara por completo entre dos marchas muy diferentes. +De hecho, lo mismo se observa en gatos. +Si uno estimula la mdula de un gato, puede pasar de caminata, a trote, a galope. +O en las aves, uno puede hacer que pasen de caminar, en un nivel bajo de la estimulacin, a batir alas en un nivel alto de estimulacin. +Y esto demuestra que la mdula espinal controla la locomocin de forma muy sofisticada. +Por eso estudiamos la locomocin de la salamandra en ms detalle, y tuvimos acceso a una mquina de rayos X muy buena del profesor Martin Fischer de la Universidad Jena en Alemania. +Gracias a eso, tenemos una mquina increble para grabar el movimiento de los huesos en gran detalle. +As hicimos. +En esencia, descubrimos qu huesos importaban y recolectamos su movimiento en 3D. +Recolectamos una gran base de datos de movimientos, tanto en tierra como en el agua, para obtener una base completa de los comportamientos motrices que puede tener un animal real. +Nuestro trabajo como robotistas fue replicarlo en nuestro robot. +Mediante un proceso de optimizacin encontramos la estructura correcta para colocar los motores, para conectarlos, para poder reproducir esos movimientos lo mejor posible. +Y as cobr vida el Pleurobot. +Veamos cunto se asemeja al animal real. +Aqu ven una comparacin casi directa entre la marca del animal real y la del Pleurobot. +Puede verse que hay casi una reproduccin uno a uno de la marcha a pie. +Hacia atrs y poco a poco, se ve an mejor. +Pero todava mejor, podemos nadar. +Para eso usamos un traje seco y recubrimos todo el robot... y entonces podemos ir al agua y reproducir la marcha de natacin. +Aqu estbamos muy contentos porque esto es difcil de hacer. +La fsica de interaccin es compleja. +El robot es mucho ms grande que un animal pequeo, por eso tuvimos que hacer un escalado dinmico de frecuencias para asegurarnos de lograr la misma fsica de interaccin. +Pero al final, logramos buena compatibilidad, y estbamos muy, muy felices. +Pasemos a la mdula espinal. +Con Jean-Marie Cabelguen modelamos los circuitos de la mdula. +Lo interesante es que la salamandra conserva un circuito muy primitivo, muy similar al de la lamprea, ese pez parecido a una anguila primitiva, y parece que, durante la evolucin, surgieron nuevos neuroosciladores para controlar las extremidades, para lograr la locomocin de las piernas. +Y sabemos dnde estn estos osciladores neurales pero hicimos un modelo matemtico para ver cmo deberan acoplarse y lograr esta transicin entre las dos marchas tan diferentes. +Y lo probamos a bordo de un robot. +Y tiene este aspecto. +Aqu vemos una versin previa del Pleurobot totalmente controlada por nuestro modelo de mdula espinal programado a bordo del robot. +Lo nico que hacemos es enviarle al robot mediante un control remoto las dos seales descendentes que debera recibir normalmente de la parte superior del cerebro. +Y lo interesante es que, jugando con estas seales, podemos controlar completamente velocidad, rumbo y tipo de marcha. +Por ejemplo, si estimulamos en un nivel bajo, tenemos el modo caminar, y, en un momento, si estimulamos mucho, muy rpidamente pasa al modo nadar. +Y, por ltimo, tambin podemos hacer giros muy bien con solo estimular ms un lado de la mdula que el otro. +Y pienso que es realmente hermoso cmo la naturaleza distribuy el control y le dio mucha responsabilidad a la mdula espinal para que la parte superior del cerebro no tenga que ocuparse de cada msculo. +Solo tiene que ocuparse de esta modulacin de alto nivel, y es trabajo de la mdula coordinar cada msculo. +Pasemos ahora a la locomocin del gato y a la importancia de la biomecnica. +Este es otro proyecto en el que estudiamos la biomecnica del gato, y queramos ver en qu medida la morfologa ayuda a la locomocin. +Encontramos tres criterios importantes en las propiedades, bsicamente, de las extremidades. +El primero es que la extremidad del gato se parece ms o menos a una estructura de pantgrafo. +El pantgrafo es una estructura mecnica que mantiene el segmento superior y los segmentos inferiores siempre paralelos. +Es un sistema geomtrico sencillo que coordina un poco el movimiento interno de los segmentos. +Una segunda propiedad de las extremidades del gato: son muy livianas. +La mayor parte de los msculos estn en el tronco, muy buena idea, porque las extremidades tienen baja inercia y pueden moverse muy rpidamente. +La ltima propiedad importante es el comportamiento tan elstico, para manejar impactos y fuerzas. +As diseamos Cheetah-Cub. +Invitemos a Cheetah-Cub al escenario. +Este es Peter Eckert, que hace su doctorado sobre este robot, y como ven, es un pequeo y lindo robot. +Parece un juguete, pero se us como herramienta cientfica para investigar estas propiedades de las patas del gato. +Como ven, es muy compatible, muy liviano, y tambin muy elstico, de modo que podemos pisarlo y no se romper. +De hecho, saltar. +Esta propiedad de ser tan elstico tambin es muy importante. +Tambin se ve un poco las propiedades de estos tres segmentos de la pata como un pantgrafo. +Pero lo interesante de esta marcha bastante dinmica es que se obtiene exclusivamente en lazo abierto, o sea, sin sensores, ni bucles de retroalimentacin complejos. +Y eso es interesante porque significa que la mecnica ya estabiliza esta marcha bastante rpida y que la mecnica realmente buena ya simplifica la locomocin. +Al punto que incluso se puede perturbar un poco la locomocin, como vern en el prximo video, podemos hacer algo de ejercicio, pedirle al robot que baje un escaln, y el robot no se caer, lo cual nos sorprendi. +Hay una pequea protuberancia. +Esperaba que el robot cayera de inmediato, porque no hay sensores, ni bucle de retroalimentacin rpida. +Pero no, sencillamente la mecnica estabiliz la marcha, y el robot no se cay. +Obviamente, con escalones ms grandes y con obstculos, se necesitan bucles de control total, reflejos, y todo. +Pero lo importante aqu es que para perturbaciones pequeas, la mecnica es correcta. +Y pienso que este es un mensaje muy importante de la biomecnica y la robtica para la neurociencia: No hay que subestimar hasta qu punto el cuerpo ya ayuda a la locomocin. +Ahora, qu relacin tiene esto con la locomocin humana? +Claramente, la locomocin humana es ms compleja que la del gato y la salamandra, pero al mismo tiempo, el sistema nervioso de los humanos es muy similar al de otros vertebrados. +Y, sobre todo, la mdula espinal tambin es el controlador clave de la locomocin humana. +Por eso, una lesin en la mdula espinal tiene efectos dramticos. +La persona puede quedar parapljica o tetrapljica. +Y eso debido a que el cerebro pierde la comunicacin con la mdula. +Especialmente, pierde esa modulacin descendente para iniciar y modular la locomocin. +Por eso, un gran objetivo de la neuroprotsica es poder reactivar esa comunicacin mediante estimulaciones elctricas o qumicas. +Y hay varios equipos en el mundo que hacen exactamente eso, especialmente en la EPFL +mis colegas Grgoire Courtine y Silvestro Micera, con quienes colaboro. +Pero para hacerlo correctamente, es muy importante entender cmo funciona la mdula, cmo interacta con el cuerpo, y cmo se comunica el cuerpo con esta. +Es ah donde los robots y los modelos que present hoy espero que jueguen un rol clave en esos objetivos tan importantes. +Gracias. +Bruno Giussani: Auke, he visto en tu laboratorio otros robots que nadan en contaminacin y miden la contaminacin mientras nadan. +Pero para esto, mencionaste en tu charla como efecto secundario, la bsqueda y el rescate, y tiene una cmara en la nariz. +Auke Ijspeert: Por supuesto, el robot... Se desprenden algunos proyectos en los que quisiramos usar robots para inspeccin de bsqueda y rescate, por eso este robot ahora los est viendo. +BG: Claro, suponiendo que las vctimas no se asusten por su forma. +AI: S, probablemente deberamos cambiar la apariencia un poco, porque supongo que un superviviente podra morir de un ataque al corazn por temor a que esto se lo coma. +Pero cambiando la apariencia y hacindolo ms robusto, estoy seguro de que podemos lograr una buena herramienta. +BG: Muchas gracias. Gracias a todo tu equipo. +Cuando estaba aprendiendo a meditar, la instruccin era simplemente poner atencin a la respiracin, y cuando mi mente vagara, traerla de vuelta. +Sonaba bastante simple. +Sin embargo, me sentaba en estos retiros de silencio, sudando en medio del invierno. +Me hubiera gustada tener siestas seguido porque era un trabajo muy duro. +En realidad, fue agotador. +La instruccin era bastante simple pero me faltaba algo realmente importante. +Por qu es tan difcil prestar atencin? +Los estudios muestran que, aun cuando realmente estamos tratando de prestar atencin a algo, como por ejemplo esta charla, en algn momento, cerca de la mitad de nosotros empieza a soar despierto. o tienen esa necesidad de revisar Twitter. +Entonces, qu pasa? +Estamos luchando contra uno de los procesos de aprendizaje evolutivamente mejor conservados que ahora conocemos cientficamente uno que se conserva en los sistemas nerviosos ms bsicos conocidos. +El proceso de aprendizaje basado en la recompensa se llama refuerzo positivo y negativo, y bsicamente va as. +Vemos comida que parce rica, nuestro cerebro dice: "Caloras!.. Sobrevivir!" +Comemos la comida, nos gusta, sabe bien. +Y especialmente con el azcar, nuestros cuerpos le dicen a nuestro cerebro: "Recuerda lo que ests comiendo y de dnde lo encontraste". +Establecemos este recuerdo dependiente del contexto y aprendemos a repetir el proceso la prxima vez. +Ver comida, comer alimentos, sentirse bien, repetir. +Detonante, comportamiento, recompensa. +Sencillo, no? +Despus de un tiempo nuestros cerebros creativos dicen "Sabes qu? +puedes usarlo para algo ms que para recordar dnde est la comida. +Ya sabes, la prxima vez que te sientas mal, por qu no comes algo rico para que te sientas mejor?" +Agradecemos a nuestros cerebros por la buena idea, lo probamos y aprendemos rpido que si comemos chocolate o helado cuando estamos enojados o tristes, nos sentimos mejor. +El mismo proceso, solo un detonante diferente. +En lugar de la seal de hambre procedente de nuestro estmago, esta seal emocional, sentirse triste, desencadena esas ganas de comer. +Tal vez en nuestros aos de adolescencia, ramos unos nerds en la escuela, y veamos a los rebeldes fumar y que pensamos, "Yo quiero ser estar a la onda". +As que empezamos a fumar. +El hombre de Marlboro no era un idiota y no fue accidental. +Estar a la onda, fumar para estar a la onda, sentirse bien. Repetir. +Detonante, comportamiento, recompensa. +Y cada vez que lo hacemos, aprendemos a repetir el proceso y se convierte en un hbito. +Despus, el estar estresados desencadena la necesidad de fumar o comer algo dulce. +Con estos mismos procesos cerebrales, hemos pasado de aprender a sobrevivir a matarnos literalmente a nosotros mismos con estos hbitos. +La obesidad y el tabaquismo estn entre las principales causas evitables de morbilidad y mortalidad en el mundo. +As que de vuelta a mi respiracin. +Y si en lugar de luchar contra nuestro cerebro, o tratar de obligarlo a poner atencin, usaramos este proceso de aprendizaje natural basado en la recompensa +pero aadiendo un giro? +Y si somos realmente curiosos sobre lo que ocurra en nuestra experiencia momentnea? +Voy a dar un ejemplo. +En mi laboratorio se estudi si el entrenamiento mental podra ayudar a las personas a dejar de fumar. +Al igual que al tratar de obligarme a poner atencin a la respiracin, podran tratar de obligarme a dejar de fumar. +Y la mayora lo ha intentado antes y ha fallado, en promedio, seis veces. +Con entrenamiento de la mente, dejamos de forzar y en su lugar nos centramos en ser curiosos. +De hecho, incluso les dijimos que fumaran. +Qu? S, dijimos, "Adelante, fumen, solo sean realmente curiosos sobre lo que se siente cuando lo hacen". +Y de qu se dan cuenta? +Bueno, este es un ejemplo de una de nuestros fumadores. +Dijo: "Fumar conscientemente: huele a queso apestoso y sabe a productos qumicos, Qu asco!" +Saba cognitivamente que fumar era malo para ella, por eso se uni a nuestro programa. +Lo que descubri solo por estar curiosamente consciente al fumar era que fumar sabe a mierda. +Pas del conocimiento a la sabidura. +Pas de saber en su cabeza que fumar era malo para ella a saberlo profundamente y se rompi el hechizo del tabaquismo. +Comenz a desencantarse con su comportamiento. +La corteza prefrontal, la parte ms joven de nuestro cerebro desde una perspectiva evolutiva, entiende en un nivel intelectual que no debemos fumar. +Y trata arduamente de ayudarnos a cambiar nuestro comportamiento, para ayudarnos a dejar de fumar, para ayudarnos a dejar de comer esa segunda, tercera, cuarta galleta. +A esto le llamamos el control cognitivo. +Usamos la cognicin para controlar nuestro comportamiento. +Desafortunadamente, esta es tambin la primera parte de nuestro cerebro que se apaga cuando nos estresamos, algo que no es tan til. +Todos podemos relacionar esto con nuestra propia experiencia. +Somos mucho ms propensos gritarle a nuestro cnyuge o hijos cuando estamos estresados o cansados, a pesar de saber que no va a ser til. +Simplemente no podemos evitarlo. +Cuando la corteza prefrontal se desconecta, volvemos a caer en nuestros viejos hbitos, por lo que este desencanto es tan importante. +Ver lo que obtenemos de nuestros hbitos nos ayuda a comprenderlo a un nivel ms profundo saberlo en nuestros huesos as que no tenemos que obligarnos a detenernos o restringirnos el comportamiento. +Estamos menos interesados en hacerlo en primer lugar. +La atencin tiene que ver con ver muy claramente lo que obtenemos al seguir nuestros comportamientos, quedando desencantados a un nivel visceral y desde esta postura desencantada, dejarlo ir naturalmente. +Esto no quiere decir que por arte de magia dejarn de fumar, +pero con el tiempo, a medida que aprendemos a ver ms y ms claramente los resultados de nuestras acciones, nos desprendemos de los viejos hbitos y formamos nuevos. +La paradoja aqu es que la atencin se trata solo de estar realmente interesado en saber de cerca y personalmente qu est sucediendo realmente en nuestro cuerpo y mente en todo momento. +Esta voluntad de voltear hacia nuestra experiencia en lugar de tratar de desaparecer los hbitos desagradables rpidamente. +Y esta voluntad de volvernos hacia nuestra experiencia con el apoyo de la curiosidad, es, naturalmente, gratificante. +Cmo se siente la curiosidad? +Se siente bien. +Y qu pasa cuando somos curiosos? +Empezamos a notar que los antojos son simplemente sensaciones corporales hay opresin, hay tensin, hay inquietud y estas sensaciones corporales van y vienen. +Son trozos pequeos de experiencias que podemos gestionar de momento a momento en lugar de aplastarnos por ese enorme y escalofriante deseo en el que nos ahogamos. +En otras palabras, cuando somos curiosos, salimos de nuestros viejos patrones de hbitos reactivos basados en el miedo, y damos un paso hacia el ser. +Nos convertimos en ese cientfico interior y esperamos ansiosamente el siguiente punto de los datos. +Esto puede sonar demasiado simplista como para afectar el comportamiento. +Pero en un estudio se encontr que el entrenamiento mental era dos veces mejor que el tratamiento estndar para ayudar a las personas a dejar de fumar. +As que en realidad funciona. +Y al estudiar los cerebros de los meditadores experimentados, encontramos que partes de una red neural de procesamiento autoreferencial llamada la red en modo automtico estaban activa. +Ahora, una hiptesis actual es que una regin de esta red, llamada la corteza cingulada posterior, se activada no necesariamente por antojo propiamente pero cuando nos atrapa, no podemos salir y eso nos lleva a dar un paseo. +Por el contrario, cuando lo dejamos pasar, salimos del proceso solo por tener curiosidad sobre lo que est pasando, esta misma regin del cerebro se calma. +Ahora estamos probando aplicaciones basadas en la atencin plena en lnea que se enfocan en estos mecanismos bsicos e, irnicamente, utiliza la misma tecnologa que nos distrae para ayudarnos a salir de nuestros patrones de hbitos poco saludables como fumar, comer por estrs y otras conductas adictivas. +Recuerdan sobre la memoria dependiente del contexto? +Podemos llevar estas herramientas a las manos de la gente en los contextos que ms importan. +Podemos ayudarles a aprovechar su capacidad inherente de ser curiosos justo cuando desean fumar o comer o lo que sea. +Solo ser otra oportunidad para perpetuar uno de nuestro hbito sin fin... +o salir de ellos. +En lugar de ver el mensaje de texto y responder compulsivamente y sentirte un poco mejor, date cuenta de la urgencia, siente curiosidad, siente la alegra de dejarlo pasar y repite. +Gracias. +Provengo de las personas ms altas del planeta, los holandeses. +No siempre ha sido as. +De hecho, en todo el mundo, la gente ha ido ganando altura. +En los ltimos 150 aos, en los pases desarrollados, en promedio, hemos conseguido 10 cm ms de altura. +Y los cientficos tienen muchas teoras del porqu de esto, pero en casi todas ellas est implicada la nutricin, es decir, el aumento de los productos lcteos y la carne. +En los ltimos 50 aos, el consumo mundial de carne se ha cuadruplicado, de 71 millones a 310 millones de toneladas. +Algo similar ocurre con la leche y los huevos. +En la sociedad que aumentan los ingresos, aumenta el consumo de protenas. +Y sabemos que a nivel mundial, nos hacemos ms ricos. +Y conforme aumenta la clase media, aumenta nuestra poblacin mundial, de 7000 millones hoy a 9700 millones en 2050, lo que significa que para el ao 2050, necesitaremos por lo menos el 70 % ms de protenas de lo disponible actualmente para la humanidad. +Y la ltima prediccin de la ONU pone nmero a esa poblacin, a finales de este siglo, 11 000 millones, lo que significa que necesitaremos mucha ms protena. +Este desafo es asombroso tanto es, que recientemente, un equipo del Instituto Anglia Ruskin para la sostenibilidad mundial sugiri que si no cambiamos nuestras polticas globales y los sistemas de produccin alimentaria, nuestras sociedades en realidad podran colapsar en los prximos 30 aos. +En la actualidad, nuestro ocano sirve como principal fuente de protena animal. +Ms de 2600 millones de personas dependen del ocano cada da. +Al mismo tiempo, nuestras pesqueras mundiales son 2,5 veces ms grandes de lo que los ocanos pueden soportar de manera sostenible. Esto significa que los humanos pescamos muchos ms peces del ocano que los reemplazables por los ocanos de forma natural. +WWF public recientemente un informe que muestra que solo en los ltimos 40 aos, nuestra vida marina mundial se ha reducido a la mitad. +Otro informe muestra que las especies depredadoras de nuestros mayores, como el pez espada y el atn de aleta azul, ha desaparecido en ms del 90 % desde la dcada de 1950. +Y hay muchas grandes iniciativas de pesca sostenible en todo el planeta trabajando para mejorar las prcticas de pesca y administrarlas mejor. +Pero al final, todas estas iniciativas trabajan para mantener constante la captura actual. +Es improbable, incluso en pesqueras bien administradas, que podamos capturar mucho ms del ocano de lo que hacemos hoy. +Hay que detener el saqueo de los ocanos cmo lo hacemos. +Debemos aliviar la presin sobre ellos. +Y nos encontramos en un punto donde s forzamos mucho ms para obtener ms productos, podramos enfrentar un colapso total. +Los sistemas actuales no alimentarn a la creciente poblacin mundial. +Entonces, cmo solucionar este problema? +Cmo ser el mundo en solo 35 cortos aos cuando haya 2700 millones ms compartiendo los mismos recursos? +Todos nos podramos hacer vegetarianos. +Parece una gran idea, pero no es realista y es increblemente difcil hacer un mandato a nivel mundial. +La gente come protenas animales, nos guste o no. +Y supongamos que no podemos cambiar nuestros hbitos y continuamos en el camino de la corriente, no cumpliendo con las demandas. +La Organizacin Mundial de la Salud inform recientemente que 800 millones de personas sufren de malnutricin y escasez de alimentos, debido a los cultivos, la poblacin mundial y la disminucin del acceso a recursos como agua, energa y suelo. +Se necesita poca imaginacin para pensar un mundo de agitacin global, disturbios y an ms desnutricin. +La gente tiene hambre, y estamos peligrosamente bajo en recursos naturales. +Por eso, por muchas razones, hay que cambiar los sistemas de produccin de alimentos a nivel mundial. +Tenemos que hacerlo mejor y hay una solucin. +Y la solucin se encuentra en la acuicultura: el cultivo de peces, plantas como algas, mariscos y crustceos. +Cuando el gran hroe del ocano Jacques Cousteau, dijo: "Hay que usar el ocano como agricultores, no como cazadores. +Eso tiene que ver con la civilizacin: Criar en lugar de cazar". +El pescado es la ltima comida que cazamos. +Y por qu seguimos oyendo frases como: "La vida es demasiado corta para peces de piscifactora", o "capturados en estado salvaje, claro!" +sobre el pez del que no sabemos casi nada? +No sabemos qu comi durante su vida, y no sabemos si ha sufrido contaminacin. +Y si era una especie depredadora de gran tamao, que podra haber pasado por la costa de Fukushima ayer. +No sabemos. +Muy pocas personas saben que la trazabilidad del sector pesquero no va ms all de la del cazador que caz el animal salvaje. +Pero retrocedamos por un segundo para hablar de por qu el pescado es la mejor eleccin alimenticia. +Es saludable, previene enfermedades del corazn, proporciona aminocidos clave y cidos grasos esenciales como el omega-3, es muy diferente a casi cualquier otro tipo de carne. +Y adems de ser saludable, tambin es mucho ms emocionante y diverso. +Piense en eso, la cra de animales es bastante montona. +Vaca es vaca, oveja es oveja, cerdo es cerdo, y en cuanto a aves de corral: pavo, pato, pollo, lo resume todo. +Hay 500 especies de peces que se cran actualmente. +No es lo que los supermercados occidentales reflejan en sus estantes, pero eso no viene al caso ahora. +Y se pueden cultivar peces de manera muy saludable eso es bueno para nosotros, para el planeta y bueno para los peces. +S que suena como una obsesin por los peces. Djenme explicarles: Mi brillante socia y esposa, Amy Novograntz, y yo nos embarcamos en la acuicultura hace un par de aos. +Nos inspiramos en Sylvia Earle, que gan el premio TED en 2009. +En realidad nos encontramos en la Misin Azul de las Galpagos. +Amy estaba all como directora del premio TED; yo, un empresario de los Pases Bajos y ciudadano comprometido, me gusta bucear, apasionado por los ocanos. +La Misin Azul realmente ha cambiado nuestras vidas. +Nos enamoramos, nos casamos, y nos vinimos realmente inspirados, pensando que realmente queramos hacer algo para la conservacin del ocano, algo destinado a durar, que marcara una diferencia real y algo que podramos hacer juntos. +Poco pensamos que eso nos llevara a la piscicultura. +Nos sorprendi or las estadsticas y que no supiramos ms sobre esta industria y nos emocionamos por la oportunidad de ayudar a hacer las cosas bien. +Y hablando de estadsticas, en este momento, la cantidad de pescado que se consume a nivel mundial, de pesca silvestre y de granja combinadas, es dos veces el tonelaje de la cantidad total de carne de vacuno producida en el planeta el ao pasado. +Cada buque de pesca nico combinado, pequeos y grandes, en todo el mundo, en conjunto producen unos 65 millones de toneladas de pescado y mariscos en la naturaleza para el consumo humano. +La acuicultura de este ao, por primera vez en la historia, en realidad produce ms de lo que se actualiza al da en el medio silvestre. +Pero ahora esto: La demanda aumentar. +En los prximos 35 aos, necesitaremos 85 millones de toneladas adicionales para satisfacer la demanda, lo que es casi 1,5 veces ms de lo que nos ponemos al da a nivel mundial en los ocanos. +Un nmero enorme. +Es seguro asumir que eso no vendr desde el ocano. +Ha de proceder de la agricultura. +Y si hablamos de la agricultura, para la agricultura se necesitan recursos. +Igual que un humano necesita comer para crecer y mantenerse con vida, tambin un animal. +Una vaca necesita comer entre 3,5 y 5 kg de alimento y beber casi 8000 litros de agua para generar 0,5 kg de carne. +Los expertos coinciden en que es imposible criar vacas para todos los habitantes de este planeta. +Simplemente no tenemos suficiente alimento o agua. +Y no podemos seguir con la tala de selvas tropicales para ello. +Y sobre el agua dulce, el planeta tiene una oferta muy limitada. +Necesitamos algo ms eficiente para mantener viva a la humanidad en el planeta. +Compararemos eso con la cra de peces. +Se puede criar 0.5 kg de pescado con slo una 0.5 kg de alimento, y dependiendo de las especies, incluso menos. +Y por qu es eso? +Eso es as porque los peces, en primer lugar, flotan. +No tienen que estar de pie todo el da resistiendo la gravedad como nosotros. +Y la mayora de los peces son de sangre fra no necesitan autocalentarse. +El pescado da escalofros. +Y necesita muy poca agua, contradictorio a la intuicin, pero como decimos, el pez nada en ella pero difcilmente se la bebe. +El pescado es la protena animal ms eficiente de los recursos disponibles para la humanidad, aparte de los insectos. +Cunto hemos aprendido desde entonces! +Por ejemplo, en la cima hay 65 millones de toneladas que se pesca al ao para el consumo humano, hay 30 millones de toneladas ms capturadas para la alimentacin animal, sobre todo las sardinas y anchoas para la industria de la acuicultura convertido en harina de pescado y en aceite de pescado. +Esto es una locura. +El 65 % de estas pesqueras a nivel mundial, estn mal administrados. +Algunos de los peores problemas actuales se relacionan con eso. +Est destruyendo nuestros ocanos. +Los peores problemas de la esclavitud se relacionan con eso. +Recientemente, un artculo de Stanford public que si el 50 % de la industria de la acuicultura en el mundo dejara de usar la harina de pescado, nuestros ocanos se salvaran. +Ahora piensen en eso por un minuto. +Sabemos que los ocanos tienen muchos ms problemas... tienen la contaminacin, hay acidificacin, destruccin de arrecifes de coral, etc. +Pero subraya el impacto de nuestras pesqueras, y subraya cmo todo est interconectado. +La pesca, la acuicultura, la deforestacin, el cambio climtico, la seguridad alimentaria, etc. +En bsqueda de alternativas, la industria, en una escala masiva, ha vuelto a las alternativas a base de plantas como la soja, los desechos de pollo industrial, harina de sangre de los mataderos y as. +Y entendemos de dnde vienen estas decisiones, pero esto no es el enfoque correcto. +No es sostenible, no es saludable. +Alguna vez han visto un pollo en el fondo del ocano? +Por supuesto no. +Si se alimenta al salmn solo con soja y nada ms, literalmente explota. +El salmn es un carnvoro, no tiene manera de digerir soja. +Ahora, la piscicultura es, con mucho, la mejor cra de animales disponibles para la humanidad. +Pero ha tenido una muy mala reputacin. +Ha habido un uso excesivo de productos qumicos, ha habido virus y enfermedad transferida a poblaciones silvestres, destruccin de los ecosistemas y contaminacin, mezclas de cra de peces con poblaciones silvestres, alteracin de la reserva gentica en general, y luego, por supuesto, como se mencion, los ingredientes de los alimentos no sostenibles. +Qu benditos fueron los das cuando podamos disfrutar de la comida que estaba en el plato, lo que fuere. +Una vez que uno sabe, sabe. +No se puede volver atrs. +No es divertido. +Necesitamos un sistema alimentario transparente y confiable, que produzca alimentos sanos. +Pero la buena noticia es que dcadas de investigacin y desarrollo han dado lugar a gran cantidad de tecnologas y conocimientos que nos permiten hacerlo mucho mejor. +Ahora podemos criar peces, sin ninguno de estos problemas. +Pienso en la agricultura antes de la revolucin verde, estamos en la acuicultura y en la revolucin azul. +Con nuevas tecnologas ahora podemos producir alimento perfectamente natural, con una huella mnima que consta de microbios, insectos, algas y microalgas. +Saludable para las personas, saludable para los peces, saludable para el planeta. +Los microbios, por ejemplo, pueden ser una alternativa perfecta a la harina de pescado de alta calidad, a escala. +Los insectos son en primer lugar, el reciclaje perfecto porque se cultivan en el desperdicio de alimentos; pero segundo, piensen en la pesca con mosca, y saben qu lgico es en realidad para usarlo como alimento para peces. +No necesita grandes extensiones de tierra ni es necesario talar las selvas tropicales para ello. +Microbios e insectos son en realidad productores netos de agua. +Esta revolucin est comenzando en estos momentos, solo necesita aumentar. +Ahora podemos cultivar muchas ms especies que antes en condiciones naturales, controlados, creando peces felices. +Me imagino, por ejemplo, un sistema cerrado realizado de forma ms eficiente que la cra de insectos, donde se puede producir pescado delicioso, sano, feliz, con poco o ningn efluente, casi ninguna energa y casi nada de agua y una alimentacin natural con una huella mnima. +O un sistema donde crecen hasta 10 especies juntas una al lado de la otra, simulando la naturaleza. +Es necesario muy poco alimento, muy poco espacio. +Pienso en el cultivo de algas fuera del efluente de los peces, por ejemplo. +Hay grandes tecnologas que surgen por todas partes del globo. +De las alternativas para combatir la enfermedad sin necesitar antibiticos ni productos qumicos, a los alimentadores automticos que notan cuando los peces tienen hambre, por eso podemos ahorrar en alimentacin y crear menos contaminacin. +Hay sistemas de software que recopilan datos a travs de granjas, por lo que podemos mejorar las prcticas de cultivo. +Hay cosas realmente interesantes que ocurren en todo el mundo. +Y no se equivoquen, todas estas cosas son posibles a un costo competitivo con respecto a lo que un agricultor paga hoy. +Maana, no habr excusa para nadie para no hacer lo correcto. +As que alguien tiene que conectar los puntos e impulsar estos acontecimientos. +Y en eso hemos trabajado en los ltimos aos, y en eso tenemos que trabajar juntos, repensar todo, desde el principio, con una visin integral en toda la cadena de valor, conectar todas estas cosas en todo el mundo, junto a grandes empresarios que estn dispuestos a compartir una visin colectiva. +Ahora es el momento para crear un cambio en esta industria y para empujar en una direccin sostenible. +Esta industria es an joven, gran parte de su crecimiento est todava por llegar. +Es una gran tarea, pero no es tan descabellada como podra pensarse. +Es posible. +Lo necesitamos para aliviar la presin del ocano. +Queremos comer bien y saludable. +Y si comemos un animal, tiene que ser uno que tuvo una vida feliz y saludable. +Tenemos que tener comida en la que podamos confiar, vivir una vida larga. +Y esto no es solo para la gente de San Francisco o el norte de Europa, esto es para todos nosotros. +Incluso en los pases ms pobres, no se trata solo de dinero. +La gente prefiere algo fresco y saludable en lo que pueda confiar a algo que viene de lejos de lo que no sabemos nada. +Todos somos lo mismo. +Llegar el da en que nos daremos cuenta, demandaremos, peces de piscicultura en el plato cultivados bien y criados sanos, y rechazaremos cualquier otra cosa. +Uds. pueden ayudar a acelerar este proceso. +Hagan preguntas al comprar productos del mar. +De dnde viene mi pescado? +Quin lo pesc? y qu comi? +Informacin acerca de dnde proviene el pescado y la forma en que se produjo tiene que ser mucho ms fcil de conseguir. +Y los consumidores la necesitan para ejercer presin sobre la acuicultura para hacer lo correcto. +As que cada vez que pidan, pregunten por los detalles y demuestren que realmente se preocupan por lo que comen y lo que les han dado. +Y, finalmente, van a escuchar. +Y todos nos beneficiaremos. +Gracias. +Hace 15 aos, me ofrec para participar en un estudio de investigacin que inclua una prueba gentica. +Cuando llegu a la clnica para hacer la prueba, me entregaron un cuestionario. +En una de las primeras preguntas se me pidi marcar mi raza: Blanca, negra, asitica, aborigen. +No saba muy bien cmo responder. +Pretenda medir la diversidad de los antecedentes sociales de los participantes? +En ese caso, respondera con mi identidad social, y marcara la casilla "negra". +Pero y si a los investigadores les interesaba investigar la relacin entre los ancestros y el riesgo de ciertos rasgos genticos? +En ese caso, no querran saber algo sobre mis ancestros, que son tanto europeos como africanos? +Cmo podran hacer hallazgos cientficos sobre mis genes si pona mi identidad social como mujer negra? +Despus de todo, me considero una mujer negra de padre blanco en lugar de una mujer blanca de madre negra debido completamente a razones sociales. +La identidad racial que marco no tiene nada que ver con mis genes. +Bueno, a pesar de la importancia obvia de esta pregunta para la validez cientfica del estudio, me dijeron: "No te preocupes por eso, solo pon lo que te identifique". +As que marqu "negra", pero no confiaba en los resultados de un estudio que trataba a una variable tan crucial de manera tan poco cientfica. +Esa experiencia personal con el uso de la raza en pruebas genticas me hizo pensar: En qu otro mbito de la medicina se usa la raza para hacer falsas predicciones biolgicas? +Bueno, encontr que la raza cala hondo en toda la prctica mdica. +Conforma diagnsticos mdicos, mediciones, tratamientos, recetas, incluso la propia definicin de enfermedades. +Y cuanto ms descubra, ms me perturbaba. +Los socilogos como yo han explicado extensamente que la raza es una construccin social. +Cuando identificamos a la gente como negra, blanca, asitica, aborigen, latina, nos referimos a grupos sociales con delimitaciones inventadas que han cambiado con el tiempo y varan en todo el mundo. +Como jurista tambin he estudiado cmo los legisladores, no los bilogos, han inventado definiciones legales de raza. +No es solo la visin de los cientficos sociales. +Recuerdan cuando se present el mapa del genoma humano en la Casa Blanca, en la ceremonia de junio de 2000? +El presidente Bill Clinton dijo la clebre frase: "Creo que una de las grandes verdades que surgen de esta expedicin triunfal al interior del genoma humano es decir que, en trminos genticos, los seres humanos, independientemente de la raza, somos en ms de un 99,9 % lo mismo". +Y podra haber agregado que esa diferencia de menos de 1 % no cae en las casillas raciales. +Francis Collins, que dirigi el proyecto Genoma Humano y ahora dirige el NIH, parafrase al presidente Clinton: +"Estoy feliz de que hoy hablemos de una nica raza, la raza humana". +Los mdicos se supone que deben practicar la medicina basada en evidencia, y se los llama cada vez a sumarse a la revolucin genmica. +Pero su costumbre de tratar pacientes por la raza est muy por detrs. +Tomemos la estimacin de la tasa de filtracin glomerular, o TFG. +Los mdicos habitualmente interpretan la TFG, este indicador importante de la funcin renal, por la raza. +Como pueden ver en esta prueba de laboratorio, exactamente el mismo nivel de creatinina, la concentracin en la sangre del paciente, produce de forma automtica una estimacin de la TFG diferente en funcin de si el paciente es afroestadounidense o no. +Por qu? +Me han dicho que tiene base en la suposicin de que los afroestadounidenses tienen ms masa muscular que las personas de otras razas. +Pero qu sentido tiene para un mdico suponer automticamente que yo tengo ms masa muscular que esa mujer fisicoculturista? +No sera mucho ms preciso y basado en evidencia determinar la masa muscular de cada paciente sencillamente examinndolos? +Bueno, los mdicos me dicen que usan la raza como un atajo. +Es un intermediario crudo pero conveniente para factores ms importantes como la masa muscular, el nivel de enzimas, los rasgos genticos que simplemente no tienen tiempo para buscar. +Pero la raza es un mal intermediario. +En muchos casos, la raza no aporta informacin relevante en absoluto. +Es solo una distraccin. +Pero la raza tambin suele abrumar las mediciones clnicas. +Ciega a los mdicos de los sntomas de los pacientes, de enfermedades familiares, de su historia, de las propias enfermedades que podran tener... todo con ms fundamento en evidencia que la raza del paciente. +La raza no puede sustituir estas mediciones clnicas importantes sin sacrificar el bienestar del paciente. +Los mdicos me dicen que la raza es solo uno de muchos factores que tienen en cuenta, pero hay numerosas pruebas mdicas, como la TFG, que usan la raza de manera categrica para tratar pacientes negros, blancos, asiticos, de manera diferente solo por su raza. +La medicina racial expone tambin a los pacientes de color a sesgos y estereotipos dainos. +Los pacientes negros y latinos tienen el doble de probabilidad de no recibir calmantes que los blancos por las mismas fracturas dolorosas de huesos largos, por causa del estereotipo de que las personas negras y marrones sienten menos dolor, exageran su dolor, y tienen predisposicin a la adiccin a frmacos. +La Administracin de Alimentos y Drogas aprob un frmaco especfico para la raza. +Es una pldora llamada BiDil para tratar la insuficiencia cardaca en pacientes autoidentificados como afro. +Un cardilogo desarroll el frmaco sin distincin gentica o de raza, pero se volvi conveniente por razones comerciales comercializar el medicamento para pacientes negros. +La FDA luego permiti que la compaa farmacutica probase la eficacia en ensayos clnicos que solo incluyeron a sujetos afroestadounidenses. +Se especul con que la raza actuara de intermediario para algn factor gentico desconocido que afecta la enfermedad cardaca o la respuesta al frmaco. +Pero piensen en el mensaje peligroso que enva: que los cuerpos de las personas negras son tan deficientes que un medicamento probado en ellos no es garanta de que funcione en otros pacientes. +Al final, fall el esquema de comercializacin de la farmacutica. +Por un lado, los pacientes negros tomaron recaudos comprensibles en usar frmacos solo para negros. +Una mujer negra de edad avanzada en una reunin de la comunidad grit: "Denme lo que toman los blancos!" +Y si les sorprende la medicina especfica por raza, esperen a saber que muchos mdicos en Estados Unidos todava usan una versin actualizada de una herramienta de diagnstico desarrollada por un mdico durante la esclavitud, una herramienta de diagnstico levemente vinculada a justificar la esclavitud. +El Dr. Samuel Cartwright se gradu en la Facultad de Medicina de la Universidad de Pensilvania. +Hizo prcticas en el sur profundo antes de la Guerra Civil, y era un conocido experto en lo que entonces se llam "medicina de negros". +l promovi el concepto de enfermedad racial, que las personas de distintas razas padecen enfermedades diferentes y atraviesan enfermedades comunes de manera diferente. +Cartwright argumentaba en los aos 1850 que la esclavitud era beneficiosa para las personas negras por razones mdicas. +Afirmaba que como los negros tenan menor capacidad pulmonar que los blancos, el trabajo forzado era bueno para ellos. +Escribi en una revista mdica: "Es la vital sangre roja que se enva al cerebro la que libera sus mentes cuando estn bajo el control del blanco, y es la falta de suficiencia de vital sangre roja lo que encadena sus mentes a la ignorancia y la barbarie en libertad". +Para sostener esta teora, Cartwright ayud a perfeccionar un dispositivo mdico para medir la respiracin, llamado espirmetro, para mostrar la presunta deficiencia en los pulmones de los negros. +Hoy, los mdicos todava confirman la alegacin de Cartwright de que los negros, como raza, tienen menor capacidad pulmonar que los blancos. +Algunos incluso usan un espirmetro modernizado que en realidad tiene un botn con la etiqueta "raza" para ajustar la mquina a la medicin para cada paciente, segn su raza. +Es una funcin bien conocida llamada "correccin por raza". +El problema de la medicina racial va mucho ms all del diagnstico errneo. +Ya ven, la raza no es una categora biolgica que produce de manera natural estas disparidades en la salud debido a diferencias genticas. +La raza es una categora social que tiene consecuencias biolgicas asombrosas, pero debido al impacto de la inequidad social en la salud de las personas. +Y la medicina racial finge que la respuesta a estas brechas en la salud puede encontrarse en una pldora especfica para la raza. +Es mucho ms fcil y mucho ms lucrativo comercializar una cura tecnolgica para estas brechas en la salud que lidiar con las inequidades estructurales que las producen. +La razn por la que me apasiona terminar con la medicina racial no es solo porque es mala medicina. +Estoy en esta misin porque la forma en que los mdicos practican la medicina sigue promoviendo una visin falsa y txica de la humanidad. +A pesar de tantos avances visionarios que conocemos en la medicina, hay una falta de imaginacin cuando se trata de la raza. +Imaginaran conmigo, por un momento, que pasara si los mdicos dejaran de tratar a los pacientes segn la raza? +Supongamos que rechazaran el sistema de clasificacin del siglo XVIII e incorporaran en su lugar el conocimiento ms avanzado de la unidad y diversidad gentica humana, que los seres humanos no entramos en categoras raciales biolgicas? +Y si en vez de usar la raza como un intermediario crudo de algunos factores ms importantes, los mdicos en realidad investigaran y abordaran ese factor ms importante? +Y si los mdicos se sumaran a la vanguardia de un movimiento para terminar con las desigualdades estructurales provocadas por el racismo, no por la diferencia gentica? +La medicina racial es mala medicina, es ciencia pobre y es una interpretacin falsa de la humanidad. +Es ms urgente que nunca abandonar finalmente este legado del pasado y afirmar nuestra humanidad comn poniendo fin a las inequidades sociales que realmente nos dividen. +Gracias. +Gracias. Gracias. +Gracias. +Soy neurocirujana. +Como la mayora de mis colegas, tengo que tratar cada da con tragedias humanas. +Me doy cuenta cmo puede cambiar la vida de un segundo a otro, despus de un grave derrame cerebral o un accidente automovilstico. +Y lo que es muy frustrante para los neurocirujanos es ver que, a diferencia de otros rganos del cuerpo, el cerebro apenas tiene capacidad para la autoreparacin. +Despus de un grave accidente del sistema nervioso central, los pacientes a menudo se quedan severamente discapacitadas. +Y esa es la razn posiblemente por la que decid ser neurocirujana funcional. +Qu es una neurocirujana funcional? +Es un mdico que intenta mejorar la funcin neurolgica por medio de diferentes estrategias quirrgicas. +Seguramente habrn odo hablar de una de las ms famosas conocida como estimulacin cerebral profunda. Cuando implantamos un electrn en lo ms profundo del cerebro para modular el circuito de las neuronas y as mejorar una funcin neurolgica. +Es realmente una tecnologa increble que ha mejorado el futuro de los pacientes con la enfermedad de Prkinson, con fuertes temblores y dolores. +Sin embargo, la neuromodelizacin no significa reparar las neuronas. +Y el sueo de la neurociruga funcional es reparar el cerebro. +Creo que ahora estamos acercndonos a este sueo. +Y me gustara mostrarles que estamos muy cerca. +Y que con un poco de ayuda, el cerebro podr autorepararse. +La historia comenz hace 15 aos, +cuando era jefa de residentes y trabajaba noche y da en la salas de urgencias. +A menudo tena que cuidar de pacientes con trauma craneal. +Cuando un paciente viene con un trauma grave se tienen que imaginar que el cerebro est inflamado, lo que aumenta la presin intracraneal. +Para poder salvar esas vidas hay que disminuir la presin intracraneal. +Y para hacerlo, a veces, hay que quitar una parte del cerebro inflamado. +En vez de tirar esas partes de cerebro inflamado, decid, junto con mi colega, Franois Brunet, un bilogo, estudiarlas. +Qu quiero decir? +Queramos reproducir clulas de ese tejido. +No es una tarea sencilla. +Reproducir clulas de una parte del tejido es un poco parecido a criar nios muy pequeos lejos de su familia. +As que debamos buscar los nutrientes adecuados, el calor, la humedad, y todos esos ambientes adecuados para que pudiesen prosperar. +As que eso fue exactamente lo que hicimos con esas clulas. +Y despus de muchos intentos, Jean-Francois lo consigui. +Y esto fue lo que vio en el microscopio. +Una gran sorpresa para nosotros. +Por qu? +Porque se pareca exactamente al cultivo de una clula madre. Con grandes clulas verdes, rodeadas de pequeas clulas inmaduras. +Puede que recuerden de las clases de biologa que las clulas madre son clulas inmaduras que pueden transformarse en cualquier tipo de clula en el cuerpo. +El cerebro de un adulto tiene clulas madre, pero son muy raras, y se encuentran en pequeos y profundos nichos en las profundidades del cerebro. +Por eso, fue sorprendente conseguir este tipo de clulas madres de la parte superficial de un cerebro inflamado de la mesa de operaciones. +Y observamos otra cosa curiosa. Las clulas madre son muy activas. Se dividen de forma continua muy rpidamente +y nunca mueren: son inmortales +Pero estas clulas se comportan de manera diferente. +Se dividen muy despacio y despus de unas semanas de cultivo incluso mueren. +As que estbamos delante de una nueva poblacin de clulas que se parecan a las clulas madre, pero que se comportaban diferente. +Y nos llev mucho tiempo, entender de dnde venan. +Provienen de estas clulas. +Estas clulas rojas y azules son clulas corticales positivas de doble cociente. +Todos las tenemos en el cerebro. +Estas clulas representan el 4 % de las clulas corticales del cerebro. +Juegan un papel muy importante durante las etapas de desarrollo. +Cuando Uds. eran fetos stas contribuyeron a formar sus cerebros. +Pero por qu siguen en la cabeza? +No lo sabemos. +Creemos que pueden participar en la reparacin cerebral, porque las encontramos en grandes proporciones en las lesiones cerebrales. +Pero no es seguro. +Aunque una cosa es clara, que de esas clulas provienen nuestras clulas madres. +Estbamos enfrente de un potencial nuevo origen de clulas para reparar el cerebro. +Y tenamos que probarlo. +Para hacerlo, decidimos disear un paradigma experimental. +La idea era hacer la biopsia de una parte del cerebro en una rea no elocuente del cerebro, y despus cultivar las clulas, exactamente como Jean-Franois hizo en su laboratorio, +etiquetarlas y colorearlas para poder seguirlas en el cerebro. +Y en un ltimo paso reimplantarlas en la misma persona. +Lo denominamos "implantes autotrasplantados," autoimplantes. +La primera pregunta que nos hicimos fue qu pasar si reimplantamos estas clulas en un cerebro normal? Y qu pasar si reimplantamos las mismas clulas en un cerebro lesionado? +Gracias a la ayuda del profesor Eric Rouiller, trabajamos con monos. +Por tanto, en el primer escenario, reimplantamos las clulas en un cerebro normal y vimos que desaparecieron por completo a las pocas semanas, como si las extrajeran del cerebro y volvieran a casa. El espacio est ya muy ocupado no hay necesidad de que estn all, y por tanto desaparecen. +En el segundo escenario, reproducimos una lesin, donde implantamos exactamente el mismo tipo de clulas, pero esta vez, las clulas permanecieron y se transformaron en neuronas maduras. +Esta es la imagen que observamos bajo el telescopio. +Estas son las clulas que reimplantamos. +Y la prueba, estos pequeos puntitos que cargan, las clulas que denominamos "in vitro," cuando las cultivamos. +Desde luego, no podamos detenernos aqu. +Ayudaran estas clulas a que un mono se recuperara tras una lesin? +As que adiestramos a monos para realizar una tarea con destreza con las manos. +Tenan que retirar piezas de comida de una bandeja, +Y para eso eran muy buenos! +Y cuando haban alcanzado el nivel mximo de ejecucin, les lesionamos la corteza motora que corresponde al movimiento de las manos. +Por tanto los monos eran plgicos, ya no podan mover ms la mano. +Y exactamente al igual que sucede con los humanos se recuperaron hasta cierto punto de manera espontnea. Exactamente cmo sucede tras un derrame cerebral. +Los placientes son totalmente plgicos, y despus gracias un mecanismo de plasticidad en el cerebro se intentan recuperar y se recuperan hasta cierto punto, al igual que los monos. +Asi que cuando estbamos seguros que los monos alcanzaran este nivel de recuperacin espontnea, les implantamos sus propias clulas. +En el lado izquierdo, el mono se ha recuperado espontneamente. +Aqu est al 40 al 50 % de su comportamiento previo, antes de la lesin. +No es tan preciso, ni tan rpido. +Y miren ahora, cuando les reimplantamos las clulas. El mismo individuo dos meses despus del reimplante. +Les aseguro que para nosotros fueron unos resultados increbles +Desde entonces, hemos aprendido mucho ms de estas clulas. +Sabemos que es posible cultivarlas y conservarlas para usarlas despus. +Sabemos que podemos aplicarlas en otros modelos neuropatolgicos como la enfermedad del Prkinson, por ejemplo, +Pero nuestro sueo es todava implantarlas en las personas. +Y, de verdad, espero que podr ensearles muy pronto, que el cerebro humano nos ofrece las herramientas para autocurarse. +Gracias. +(Bruno Giussani) Gracias por venir a TED. Jocelyne, esto es increble! Estoy seguro de que ahora mismo hay miles personas en la audiencia incluso, una mayora, quienes estn pensando, "Conozco alguien que podra usar esto." +Yo lo hara de cualquier modo. +Y la cuestin es Cules son los mayores obstculos antes de hacer un experimento clnico con personas? +(Jocelyne Bloch) Los grandes obstculos son las leyes. Para conseguir estos increbles resultados hay que rellenar 2 kg de papeles y formularios para poder conducir este tipo de experimentos. +lo que es comprensible, porque el cerebro es delicado. +S lo es, pero lleva mucho tiempo y mucha paciencia, y casi un equipo de profesionales para hacerlo. +BG: Si se proyecta en tiempo, tras haber hecho la investigacin y haber conseguido los permisos para comenzar los experimentos, si se proyecta en el tiempo, cuntos aos tardar en llegar a un hospital para que est disponible como terapia? +Es bastante difcil de decir. +Primero, depende de la aprobacin del experimento. +Nos permitirn las leyes hacerlo pronto? +Y luego, hay que realizar el estudio en un grupo pequeo de pacientes. +Lleva bastante tiempo seleccionar los pacientes ejecutar el tratamiento, y despus evaluar si es realmente til este tipo de tratamiento. +Y luego hay que reproducir el experimento a nivel de varios centros. +Primero hay que probar que es realmente til, antes de ofrecer el tratamiento a todo el mundo. +Y seguro, desde luego JB: S, claro. +Jocelyne, Gracias por venir a TED y compartirlo con nosotros. +Gracias +Hay cosas que todos necesitamos. +Necesitamos respirar aire. +Necesitamos beber agua limpia. +Necesitamos comer, cobijo y amor. +El amor es genial, +pero tambin necesitamos un lugar seguro donde hacer pip. +Verdad? +Como persona transexual, nunca he encajado dentro del binarismo de gnero. Si maana pudiera cambiar el mundo, lo primero que hara sera crear baos unisex de un solo cubculo en todo lugar pblico +Las personas transexuales y los asuntos transexuales estn recibiendo mucha atencin por parte de los medios de comunicacin. +La fama y el dinero asla a estas estrellas transexuales de TV de la mayora de los retos cotidianos a los que el resto de nuestra comunidad debe enfrentarse cada da: +los baos pblicos. +Han sido uno de los primeros problemas que recuerdo desde mi infancia como pequea nia marimacho, hasta mi adultez como organismo de apariencia masculina, pero de organismo predominantemente estrognico. +Hoy en da, como persona transexual, los baos y vestuarios pblicos son los lugares donde es ms probable que se me cuestione o se me acose. +Han arremetido verbalmente contra m detrs de la puerta. +Guardias de seguridad me han sacado de baos con los pantalones a medio subir. +La gente me ha mirado, gritado, criticado y una vez una seora mayor me golpe con su bolso en la cara. Volv a casa con un ojo morado por culpa del bolso que, estoy seguro, contena al menos USD 70 en monedas y un gran surtido de caramelos duros. +S lo que la mayora de Uds. est pensando y tienen razn en gran parte. +Hoy en da, podra utilizar el bao de hombres casi siempre. +Pero eso no soluciona mis problemas en el vestuario, verdad? +No tendra por qu utilizar el vestuario masculino porque no soy un hombre. +Soy una persona transexual. +Y ahora tambin tenemos a nuestros polticos alarmistas que intentan aprobar leyes que regulan los baos pblicos. +Conocan esto? +Estn intentado legislar para forzar a gente como yo a utilizar los baos que ellos consideran los ms apropiados segn el sexo que se me asign al nacer. +Si estos polticos lo consiguen, en Arizona, California o Florida o la semana pasada en Houston, Texas; o en Ottawa, utilizar el bao de hombres no ser una opcin legal para m. +Cada vez que uno de esos polticos pone una de esas leyes sobre la mesa, no puedo evitar preguntarme: Quin se encargar de hacer cumplir estas leyes y de qu manera? +Controles de braguitas? +De verdad? +Exmenes genitales en la puerta de baos y vestuarios en los colegios? +No existe manera legal o tica o posible que permita ejecutar este tipo de leyes. +Solo existen para suscitar miedo y para promover la transfobia. +No protegen a nadie, +sino que hacen de este mundo un lugar ms peligroso para nosotros. +Entretanto, nuestros hijos transexuales sufren +el abandono escolar y abandonan sus vidas por completo. +La gente transexual, especialmente la juventud transexual, la juventud con inconformidad de gnero, se encuentra con problemas aadidos en piscinas y gimnasios, pero tambin en las universidades, hospitales y bibliotecas. +Ni mencionar la forma en la que nos tratan en el aeropuerto. +Si no nos damos prisa para que estos espacios estn abiertos y sean accesibles para todo el mundo, seamos sinceros y dejemos de llamarles espacios pblicos. +Tenemos que admitir que estos espacios estn abiertos para personas que s encajan en uno de los roles de gnero. Y yo no encajo en ninguno. +Nunca he encajado. +Esto viene desde pequeos. +Conozco a una nia que es hija de una amiga. +Se identifica como marimacho. +Hablo de las botas de cowboy, camiones de juguete, tarros con insectos y dems. +Una vez le pregunt cul era su color preferido +y me dijo: "El color del camuflaje". +El pasado octubre, esta increble nia regres a casa despus de su da de jardn de infancia con los pantalones empapados porque se haban metido con ella por intentar utilizar el bao de chicas. +El profesor le advirti que no fuese al bao de los chicos. +Un da se bebi dos vasos de ese zumo de color rojo en la fiesta de Halloween. Quin es capaz de resistirse? Ese zumo rojo es muy rico. +No se poda aguantar el pip mucho ms. +Ella y sus compaeros tenan cuatro aos. +Sus compaeros ya crean tener la potestad de controlar el uso que esta nia podra hacer de los denominados baos pblicos. +Era una nia de cuatro aos. +Ya le haban dado una leccin brutal: no haba ningn bao en su jardn de infancia que tuviese una seal que diese la bienvenida a personas como ella. +Acababa de aprender que el cuarto de bao sera un problema. Un problema que sera de ella y solo para ella. +Mi amiga me pidi que hablase con la nia y habl con ella. +Quera decirle que su madre y yo bamos a hablar con su colegio para solucionar el problema. Pero yo saba que no era verdad. +Quera decirle que todo sera ms fcil cuando creciese, pero tampoco poda. +Le ped que me contase lo que haba ocurrido y le ped que me contase cmo se senta. +"Enfadada y triste", me dijo. +Y le dije que no estaba sola y que lo que le haba pasado no estaba bien. Me pregunt que si alguna vez me haba hecho pip encima. +Le dije que s, pero no por mucho tiempo. +Tambin es mentira, porque ya saben que cuando se cumplen los 40, a veces se escapa el pip al toser o al estornudar al subir las escaleras o al hacer estiramientos. +No digan mentiras. +Esto ocurre, verdad? +No creo que a esta nia le haga falta saber estas cosas. +Le dije que, cuando crecemos, la vejiga tambin crece. +"Cuando crezcas como yo, podrs aguantarte el pip ms tiempo". Se lo promet. +"Hasta llegar a casa?", +me pregunt. +Le dije que s. "S, hasta llegar a casa". +Y, al parecer, eso la consol en parte. +Por qu no instalamos baos unisex y unipersonales con un pequeo banco para cambiarse de ropa para educacin fsica? +No podemos cambiar el mundo de la noche a la maana para nuestros hijos, pero podemos darles un lugar ntimo y seguro para refugiarse de ese mundo, aunque solo sea por unos minutos. +Podemos hacerlo. +Hagmoslo. +Si a Ud. no le importa el bienestar de gente como yo, qu me dice de esas mujeres y nias con problemas de imagen? +Qu me dice de alguien que tenga problemas de percepcin de su imagen? +Qu pasa con el chico que es el bajito de su clase y al que todava no le ha cambiado la voz? +Ay, la adolescencia en la escuela, qu cruel puede llegar a ser. +Verdad? +Qu me dicen de las personas con problemas de ansiedad, +de las personas con discapacidades que necesitan atencin en esos lugares? +Qu me dicen de la gente cuyo cuerpo, por algn motivo, no encaja con los cnones que dictan nuestra apariencia? +A cuntos nos avergenza quitarnos la ropa delante de nuestros compaeros y cuntos vamos a permitir que ese temor nos prohba disfrutar de algo tan importante como la actividad fsica? +No nos beneficiaramos todos de estos baos unipersonales? +No podemos cambiar de repente todas esas mentes transfbicas, pero podemos darle a todo el mundo un espacio donde cambiarse para poder llegar al trabajo y hacer de este mundo un lugar ms seguro para todos nosotros. +Gracias por su atencin. +Gracias. +Uno va al mdico y le hacen varias pruebas. +El mdico determina que el colesterol est alto y que sera bueno tomar una medicacin adecuada. +As que le dan pastillas. +Uno tiene cierta confianza, el mdico confa en que esto va a funcionar. +La empresa que lo cre hizo muchos estudios que revis la FDA. +Lo analizaron cuidadosamente, con escepticismo, lo aprobaron. +Tienen una idea aproximada de cmo funciona, y de cules son aproximadamente los efectos secundarios. +Debera estar bien. +Uno tiene algo ms que una conversacin con su mdico y al mdico le preocupa un poco que uno est desanimado, que no sea uno mismo, que no pueda disfrutar de las cosas de la vida tanto como antes. +El mdico dice: "Sabes, creo que ests un poco deprimido. +Voy a recetarte otras pastillas". +As que ahora hablamos de dos medicamentos. +Tambin esta pastilla la han tomado millones de personas la farmacutica hizo estudios, la FDA los revis, todo bien. +Las cosas deberan ir bien. +Las cosas deberan ir bien. +Pero, esperen un momento. +Cunto sabemos sobre cmo actan las dos juntas? +Es difcil hacer un estudio as. +De hecho, no se suele hacer. +Dependemos de lo que llamamos "supervisin tras la comercializacin", despus de que salgan al mercado. +Cmo podemos averiguar si va a pasar algo malo al combinar dos medicamentos? +Y tres? Cinco? Siete? +Pregunten a quien quieran que tenga varios diagnsticos cuntos medicamentos toma. +Por qu me preocupo por esto? +Me preocupa en serio. +Soy informtico y cientfico de datos y de verdad, en mi opinin, la nica esperanza, nica esperanza, para entender estas interacciones es usar muchas fuentes de datos diferentes para comprender cundo se pueden usar las medicinas juntas con seguridad y cuando no es tan seguro. +Les contar una historia sobre la ciencia de datos. +Comienza con mi estudiante Nick. +Vamos a llamarlo "Nick", porque ese es su nombre. +Nick era un joven estudiante. +Le dije: "Nick, tenemos que entender cmo funcionan las medicinas cmo funcionan juntas y cmo funcionan por separado, y no tenemos una gran visin. +Pero la FDA ha publicado una base de datos increble. +Es una base de datos de reacciones adversas. +Literalmente, han puesto en la web abierta al pblico, todos pueden descargarla ahora mismo, cientos de miles de informes de efectos adversos de pacientes, mdicos, empresas, farmacuticos. +Y estos informes son bastante simples: contienen todas las enfermedades que tiene el paciente, las medicinas que toma y todas las reacciones adversas o efectos secundarios que ha tenido. +No son todas las reacciones adversas que estn dndose hoy en EE.UU., pero son cientos y cientos de miles de medicamentos. +As que le dije a Nick: "Vamos a considerar la glucosa. +La glucosa es muy importante y conocemos su relacin con la diabetes. +Vamos a ver si podemos entender la respuesta de la glucosa. +Envi a Nick. Nick regres. +"Russ", dijo, "He creado un clasificador que examina los efectos secundarios de una medicina explorando esta base de datos, y puede mostrar si es probable que esa medicina cambie o no la glucosa". +l lo hizo. En un sentido, era sencillo. +Eligi las medicinas que sabemos que alteran la glucosa y un puado de medicinas que no la alteran y dijo: "En qu se diferencian los efectos secundarios? +Hay diferencias en el cansancio? En el apetito? En los hbitos urinarios?" +Todo se confabul para darle un muy buen indicador. +Dijo: "Russ, puedo predecir con una precisin del 93 % si una medicina alterar la glucosa". +Dije: "Nick, eso es genial". +Es un estudiante joven, hay que cimentar su confianza. +"Pero hay un problema, Nick. +Todos los mdicos del mundo conocen los medicamentos que alteran la glucosa, porque es fundamental para nuestra prctica. +As que es genial, buen trabajo, pero en realidad no es tan interesante, definitivamente no publicable". +l dijo: "Lo s, Russ. Saba que diras algo as". +Nick es inteligente. +Dijo: "Como saba que lo diras, hice otro experimento. +Estudi a gente en esa base de datos que tomaban ambas medicinas, y busqu marcas similares, seales de alteraciones de la glucosa, de gente que toma ambos medicamentos, pero cada medicina sola no altera la glucosa, pero juntas constat un marcador fuerte". +Y dije: "Eres inteligente. Buena idea. Mustrame la lista". +Hay muchas medicinas, no muy emocionante. +Pero lo que ms me llam la atencin fue que en la lista haba dos, paroxetina o Paxil, un antidepresivo; y pravastatina, o Pravachol, un medicamento para el colesterol. +Y dije: "Hay millones de estadounidenses que toman esos dos medicamentos". +De hecho, como vimos, 15 millones de estadounidenses toman paroxetina en este momento y estimamos que un milln toman las dos. +Un milln de personas podran estar teniendo problemas con su glucosa si este aprendizaje automtico en jerga generado en la base de datos de la FDA fuese vlido. +Y dije: "Todava no es publicable, aunque me encanta lo que hiciste con el aprendizaje automtico en jerga pero en realidad no es una prueba irrefutable". +As que tenemos que hacer algo ms. +Entraremos en el historial clnico electrnico de Stanford. +Tenemos una copia lo que est bien para la investigacin, eliminamos la informacin de identificacin. +Y dije: "Veremos si la gente con ambos frmacos tiene problemas en sus niveles de glucosa". +Pero hay miles y miles de personas en los registros mdicos de Stanford que toman paroxetina y pravastatina. +Necesitbamos pacientes especiales. +Necesitbamos pacientes con uno de ellos y con una medicin de glucosa, luego el segundo con otra medicin de glucosa, todo dentro de un perodo razonable de tiempo, algo as como dos meses. +Y cuando lo hicimos, encontramos 10 pacientes. +Sin embargo, 8 de 10 tuvieron un bache en sus niveles de glucosa cuando consiguieron la segunda P, a esto lo llamamos P y P, cuando consiguieron la segunda P. +Cualquiera de las dos podra ser la primera, lo que aparece, es que la glucosa subi a 20 mg por dl. +As como un recordatorio, uno camina con normalidad, si no es diabtico, con una glucosa de alrededor de 90. +Y si se pone hasta 120, 125, el mdico empieza a pensar en un posible diagnstico de diabetes. +Por eso un aumento de 20 es bastante significativo. +Le dije: "Nick, esto es genial. +Pero, lo siento, todava no podemos publicar porque se trata de 10 pacientes y, en serio, no son suficientes pacientes". +As que dijimos, qu podemos hacer? +Llamaremos a nuestros amigos en Harvard y Vanderbilt, que tambin, de Harvard en Boston, Vanderbilt en Nashville, tienen registros mdicos electrnicos similares a los nuestros. +Vamos a ver si pueden encontrar pacientes similares con una P, la otra P, las mediciones de glucosa en ese rango que necesitamos. +Dios los bendiga, Vanderbilt en una semana encontr 40 de estos pacientes, misma tendencia. +Harvard encontr 100 pacientes, la misma tendencia. +Al final, tuvimos 150 pacientes de tres diferentes centros mdicos que nos decan que los pacientes que ingeran estos dos medicamentos tenan niveles de glucosa alterados de manera significativa. +Ms interesante an, dejamos de lado a los diabticos, porque los diabticos ya tienen alterada la glucosa. +Cuando analizamos, la glucosa de los diabticos llegaba hasta 60 mg por dl, no solo a 20. +Este fue un gran logro, y dijimos: "Tenemos que publicar esto". +Hemos presentado el artculo. +Con toda la evidencia de los datos, datos de la FDA, datos de Stanford, datos de Vanderbilt, datos de la Universidad de Harvard. +No habamos hecho ni un solo experimento real. +Pero estbamos nerviosos. +Mientras que el artculo estaba en revisin, Nick y yo fuimos al laboratorio. +Encontramos a alguien que saba de cosas de laboratorio. +Yo no hago eso. +Me cuido de los pacientes, pero no trabajo con pipetas. +Nos mostraron cmo suministrar frmacos a los ratones. +Nos llevamos ratones y les dimos una P, paroxetina. +Dimos a otros pravastatina. +Y a un tercer grupo de ratones ambos frmacos. +Y la glucosa subi de 20 a 60 mg por dl en los ratones. +El artculo fue aceptado con base solo a la evidencia informtica, pero hemos aadido una pequea nota al final, comentando que si se da esto a los ratones, sube la glucosa. +Eso fue genial, y la historia podra haber terminado ah. +Pero todava tengo seis minutos y medio. +As que sentados pensando en todo esto, no recuerdo quin pens en ello, pero alguien dijo: "Me pregunto si los pacientes que toman ambos frmacos notan efectos secundarios por hiperglucemia. +Podran y deberan notarlos. +Cmo lo podramos comprobar?" +Dijimos, bueno, qu hace uno? +Uno toma un medicamento, uno o dos nuevos medicamentos, y tiene una sensacin extraa. +Qu hace? +Uno va a Google y teclea uno o los dos medicamentos que est tomando y teclea "efectos secundarios". +Qu ests experimentando? +As que dijimos bien, pediremos a Google que comparta sus registros de bsqueda con nosotros, para poder mirar los registros de bsqueda y ver si los pacientes hacen este tipo de bsquedas. +Google, siento decirlo, deneg nuestra peticin. +As que estaba devastado. +En una cena con un colega que trabaja en Microsoft Research dije: "Queramos hacer este estudio, Google dijo que no, es triste". +l dijo: "Bueno, tenemos las bsquedas de Bing". +S. +Eso es genial. +Me sent como si estuviera... Me sent como si estuviera hablando con Nick de nuevo. +l trabaja para una de las empresas ms grandes del mundo, y ya estaba intentando hacerle sentir bien. +Sin embargo, dijo, "No, Russ, creo que no entiendes. +No solo tenemos las bsquedas de Bing, pues si usas Internet Explorer para hacer bsquedas en Google, Yahoo, Bing, cualquiera... +Mantenemos los datos solo con fines de investigacin 18 meses". +Le dije: "As se habla!" +Este era Eric Horvitz, mi amigo en Microsoft. +As que hicimos un estudio donde definimos 50 palabras que una persona normal puede escribir si sufre hiperglucemia, como "fatiga", "prdida de apetito", "orinar mucho", "mear mucho", perdname, pero esa es una de las cosas que se puede teclear. +As que tenamos 50 frases que llamamos "palabras de la diabetes". +Y lo hicimos por primera vez como lnea de partida. +Y resulta que alrededor del 0,5 al 1 % de todas las bsquedas en Internet implican una de esas palabras. +As que esa es nuestra tasa de referencia. +Si la gente escribe "paroxetina" o "Paxil", que son sinnimos, y una de esas palabras, la tasa sube a aproximadamente 2 % de las palabras de tipo diabetes, Si ya se sabe que est la palabra "paroxetina". +Si es "pravastatina", la tasa sube a un 3 % en la lnea de partida. +Si estn "paroxetina" y "pravastatina" presentes en la consulta, sube a 10 %, un aumento enorme de tres a cuatro veces en esas bsquedas con los dos frmacos que nos interesan y las palabras de tipo diabetes o palabras de tipo hiperglucemia. +Hemos publicado esto, y obtuvo algo de atencin. +La razn por la que merece la atencin es que los pacientes nos dicen sus efectos secundarios indirectamente a travs de sus bsquedas. +Llamamos la atencin de la FDA. +Ellos estaban interesados. +Se han aplicado programas de vigilancia en los medios sociales para colaborar con Microsoft, que tena una bonita infraestructura para hacer esto, y otros, mirando los datos en Twitter, los datos en Facebook, mirando los registros de bsqueda, para ver los primeros signos de que los frmacos ya sea individualmente o en conjunto, estn causando problemas. +Qu sacamos de esto? Por qu contar esta historia? +Bueno, en primer lugar, tenemos la promesa de grandes volmenes de datos y de tamao mediano para ayudarnos a entender las interacciones entre medicamentos y, esencialmente, sus efectos. +Cmo funcionan los medicamentos? +Esto crear y ha creado un nuevo ecosistema para comprender cmo funcionan los medicamentos y optimizar su uso. +Nick continu; l es profesor de la Universidad de Columbia ahora. +Ha hecho esto en su tesis doctoral con cientos de pares de medicamentos. +Encontr varias interacciones muy importantes, y lo replicamos y hemos demostrado que esta es una manera que realmente funciona para la bsqueda de interacciones frmaco-frmaco. +Sin embargo, hay algunas salvedades. +No nos limitamos a usar pares de medicamentos. +Como he dicho antes, hay pacientes con tres, cinco, siete, nueve medicamentos. +Cmo estudiamos su interaccin de nueve maneras? +S, podemos hacerlo de a pares A y B, A y C, A y D, pero qu pasa con A, B, C, D, E, F, G todos juntos, en el mismo paciente, tal vez interactan entre s de manera que, o bien los hace ms eficaces o menos eficaces o causa efectos secundarios inesperados? +Realmente no tenemos idea. +Es un campo frtil, abierto al uso de datos para tratar de comprender la interaccin de los frmacos. +Dos lecciones ms: Quiero que piensen en el poder que hemos generado con datos de personas que han presentado reacciones adversas a travs de sus farmacuticos, de ellos mismos y de sus mdicos, personas que permitieron usar las bases de datos de la Universidad de Stanford, Harvard, Vanderbilt, para la investigacin. +La gente est preocupada por los datos. +Est preocupada por su privacidad y la seguridad y deben estarlo. +Necesitamos sistemas seguros. +Pero no podemos tener un sistema que se cierre a los datos, porque es una fuente demasiado rica de inspiracin, innovacin y descubrimiento para cosas nuevas en la medicina. +Y lo ltimo que quiero decir es, en este caso encontramos dos frmacos, una historia triste. +Los dos frmacos causaban realmente problemas. +aumentaban la glucosa. +Podan llevar a alguien a la diabetes que de otra manera no tendra diabetes, y por eso uno debe usar ambos medicamentos juntos con mucho cuidado, o tal vez no juntos, o puede tomar decisiones diferentes al recetar. +Pero haba otra posibilidad. +Podramos haber encontrado dos frmacos o tres que interactuaban de manera beneficiosa. +Podramos haber encontrado nuevos efectos de los medicamentos que ninguno de ellos tiene por s solo, pero en conjunto, en lugar de causar un efecto secundario, podran ser un tratamiento novedoso para enfermedades que no tienen tratamientos o en los que los tratamientos no son efectivos. +Si pensamos en el tratamiento actual con medicamentos, todos los grandes avances para el VIH, la tuberculosis, la depresin, la diabetes... siempre son un cctel de frmacos. +Y eso sera tema para una charla TED otro da: cmo podemos usar las mismas fuentes de datos para encontrar buenos efectos de los frmacos combinados que nos brinden nuevos tratamientos, nuevos conocimientos sobre cmo funcionan los frmacos y nos permitan cuidar de nuestros pacientes an mejor. +Muchas gracias. +Soy artista textil ms bien conocida por iniciar el movimiento del bombardeo de hilos. +El bombardeo de hilos consiste en cubrir con lana o hilo el mobiliario urbano, sustituyendo el graffiti, o, ms especficamente, sin permiso y sin ser multado. +Pero cuando empec esto hace ms de 10 aos, no tena una palabra para ello, tampoco un nombre ambicioso en este sentido, ni visiones de grandeza. +Lo nico que quera era ver algo clido, mullido y humano cubriendo la fra fachada de acero gris que vea todos los das. +As que cubr el mango de la puerta. +Esta es la Pieza Alfa. +No tena ni idea de que esta pequea pieza iba a cambiar el curso de mi vida. +Est claro que la reaccin fue interesante. +Me fascin y me pregunt: "Qu otra cosa poda hacer?" +Puedo hacer algo en el dominio pblico y lograr la misma reaccin? +As que cubr la seal de stop cerca de mi casa. +La reaccin fue salvaje. +La gente se paraba, sala del auto para mirarlo, se rascaba la cabeza y volva a mirar, tomaba fotos, y se sacaba a su lado y todo aquello fue muy emocionante para m, por eso quise cubrir cada seal de stop del barrio. +Y cuanto ms lo hice, ms fuerte fue la reaccin. +De modo que me obsesion. +Estaba enganchada. +Todo esto era atractivo. +Encontr mi nueva pasin y el entorno urbano se volvi mi lugar predilecto. +Aqu pueden ver algunos de mis primeros trabajos. +Me atraa la idea de mejorar lo comn, lo mundano, incluso lo feo, sin quitarle su identidad o su funcionalidad sino solo proveer un buen traje personalizado hecho de punto. +Y esto fue muy divertido para m. +Fue muy divertido tomar objetos inanimados y hacer que cobren vida. +As que... +Creo que todos lo encontramos divertido, pero... llegu a un punto en el que quise tomarlo en serio. +Quera analizarlo. +Quera saber por qu dejaba que esto tome el control de mi vida, por qu me apasionaba y por qu otra gente responda de esta manera. +Y me di cuenta de algo. +Todos vivimos en este mundo digital, acelerado, pero todava anhelamos y deseamos algo con lo que podernos relacionar. +Creo que todos nos hemos vuelto insensibles en estas ciudades nuestras sper desarrolladas donde vivimos, con estas vallas publicitarias y anuncios, y enormes estacionamientos que ni siquiera nos quejamos ms de todas esas cosas. +As que cuando tropezamos con una seal de stop cubierta en lana parece muy fuera de lugar pero luego, gradualmente, curiosamente, encontramos un punto comn y ese es el momento. +Ese es el momento que me encanta y ese es el momento que me encanta compartir con los dems. +En ese momento, mi curiosidad aument. +Pas de las bocas de incendios y de los seales de stop a preguntarme que ms puedo hacer con este material. +Puedo hacer algo grande, a gran escala e insuperable? +Y se me ocurri lo del autobs. +Esto fue realmente un punto de inflexin para m. +Siempre ser mi punto dbil. +A estas alturas, la gente ya daba crdito a mi trabajo pero no haba mucho cubierto en lana o hilo a gran escala, y esto fue, sin duda, el primer autobs de la ciudad cubierto en gancho. +En este momento, experiment, fui testigo de algo interesante: +puede que haya empezado el bombardeo de hilos, pero ya no era de mi propiedad. +Era una tendencia global. +La gente de todo el mundo lo practicaba. +Y lo s porque me gusta viajar a lugares donde nunca he estado, solo para tropezar con una seal de stop que saba que no la cubr yo. +As que mientras yo persegua mis propias metas artsticas --esto es gran parte de mis trabajos recientes-- el bombardeo de hilos tambin. +El bombardeo de hilos estaba creciendo tambin. +Y esa experiencia me mostr el poder oculto de este arte y me mostr que exista este lenguaje que tena en comn con el resto del mundo. +Fue a travs de una aficin de abuelitas --esta aficin sin pretensiones-- que descubr cosas en comn con la gente con la cual nunca pens que poda tener. +As que hoy les cuento mi historia pero a la vez me gustara transmitirles que su potencial puede encontrarse oculto en los lugares ms inesperados y todos tenemos habilidades a la espera de ser descubiertas. +Si piensan en nuestras manos, estas herramientas que nos conectan a todos y en todo lo que son capaces de hacer --construir casas y muebles, y pintar murales enormes-- la mayora de las veces las usamos solo para manejar un joystick o un telfono mvil. +Y soy totalmente culpable de esto tambin. +Pero si lo pensamos, qu pasara si las soltramos? +Qu haramos? Qu crearamos con nuestras propias manos? +Mucha gente piensa que soy una tejedora magistral pero en realidad no saba tejer ni un suter, no lo domino. +Pero hice algo interesante a partir de la lana y el hilo que nunca se haba hecho antes. +Tampoco se supone que iba a ser "una artista" en el sentido de que no me form para serlo; de hecho, me gradu en matemticas, +As que no creo que esto estaba escrito en mi destino, pero tambin s que no fue una casualidad. +Cuando esto me pas me aferr a ello, luch por ello y me siento orgullosa de decir que hoy por hoy, trabajo como artista. +As que al planear el futuro, sepan que su futuro podra no ser tan perfecto. +Y un da, es posible que se sientan tan aburridos como lo estuve yo como para ponerse a cubrir en hilo un mango de puerta y eso cambie su mundo para siempre. +Gracias. +Hace 1300 millones de aos, en una galaxia distante, lejana, dos agujeros negros encerrados en una espiral, se acercaron inexorablemente hasta chocar, convirtiendo la materia de unas tres masas solares en energa pura en una dcima de un segundo. +En ese breve momento en el tiempo, el resplandor fue ms brillante que todas las estrellas de todas las galaxias del Universo conocido. +Fue una explosin muy grande. +Pero eso no liber energa en forma de luz. +Quiero decir, ya saben, son agujeros negros. +Toda esa energa se bombe al propio tejido del espacio-tiempo haciendo que el Universo estallara en ondas gravitacionales. +Le dar una idea de la escala de tiempo. +Hace 1300 millones de aos, en la Tierra haba logrado evolucionar solo la vida multicelular. +Desde entonces, en la Tierra se formaron y evolucionaron corales, peces, plantas, dinosaurios, gente e incluso, Dios nos libre, Internet. +Y hace unos 25 aos, un conjunto particularmente audaz de gente, Rai Weiss del MIT, Kip Thorne y Ronald Drever de Caltech, decidi que sera estupendo construir un detector lser gigante para buscar las ondas gravitacionales provenientes de la colisin de agujeros negros. +La mayora pensaba que estaban locos. +Pero suficientes personas vieron que eran mentes brillantes y la Fundacin Nacional de Ciencia de EE.UU. decidi financiar su idea loca. +As que despus de dcadas de desarrollo, construccin, imaginacin, y una cantidad impresionante de arduo trabajo, construyeron el detector llamado LIGO: El observatorio de ondas gravitacionales de interfermetro lser. +Durante los ltimos aos, LIGO ha experimentado una gran expansin en su exactitud, una enorme mejora en su capacidad de deteccin. +Por eso ahora se llama LIGO Avanzado. +A principios de septiembre de 2015, LIGO se activ para una prueba definitiva mientras nos arreglaron algunos detalles. +Y el 14 de septiembre de 2015 pocos das despus de que el detector estuviera funcionando, las ondas gravitacionales de los agujeros negros en colisin llegaron hasta la Tierra. +Y pasaron a travs de Uds. y de m. +Y a travs del detector. +Scott Hughes: Hay dos momentos en mi vida emocionalmente ms intensos que eso. +Uno es el nacimiento de mi hija. +El otro al tener que despedirme de mi padre quien padeca una enfermedad terminal. +Fue la recompensa de mi carrera, bsicamente. +Por todo lo que haba trabajado, y no es ciencia ficcin. Allan Adams: Este es mi buen amigo y colaborador, Scott Hughes, un fsico terico del MIT, quien ha estudiado las ondas gravitacionales de los agujeros negros y las seales de que podran generar en observatorios como LIGO, durante los ltimos 23 aos. +Quiero aprovechar para contarles qu es una onda gravitacional. +Una onda gravitacional es una ondulacin en la forma del espacio y el tiempo. +Conforme pasa la onda, esta extiende el espacio y todo en l en una direccin, y lo comprime en la otra. +Esto ha generado un sinnmero de instructores de la relatividad general haciendo un baile tonto para demostrar en sus clases la relatividad general. +"Se extiende y se expande, se estira y se expande". +As que el problema con las ondas gravitacionales es que son muy dbiles; que son absurdamente dbiles. +Por ejemplo, las olas que nos golpearon el 14 de septiembre, y si cada uno de Uds. se estirara y comprimiera bajo la accin de la onda, cuando las ondas golpean, la persona promedio se extendera una parte en 10 a la 21. +Eso es cero coma, 20 ceros, y un 1. +Es por eso que todos pensaban que la gente de LIGO estaba loca. +Incluso con un detector lser de 5 km de largo, y eso ya es una locura, tendran que medir la longitud de los detectores a menos de una milsima del radio del ncleo de un tomo. +Y eso es descabellado. +As que hacia el final de su texto clsico de la gravedad, el cofundador de LIGO, Kip Thorne, describe la bsqueda de ondas gravitacionales as. Dijo: "Las dificultades tcnicas que hay que superar en la construccin de tales detectores son enormes. +Pero los fsicos son ingeniosos, y con el apoyo de un amplio pblico, en general, todos los obstculos, sin duda, se superarn". +Thorne lo public en 1973, 42 aos antes de que sucediera. +Ahora, volviendo a LIGO, a Scott le gusta decir que LIGO acta como un odo ms que como un ojo. +Quiero explicar qu significa. +La luz visible tiene una longitud de onda, un tamao, eso es mucho ms pequeo que las cosas a su alrededor, como las facciones de la gente, o el tamao de su telfono mvil. +Y eso es realmente til, ya que le permite hacer una foto o un mapa de las cosas de alrededor, observando la luz proveniente de diferentes lugares en la escena alrededor de Uds. +El sonido es diferente. +El sonido audible tiene una longitud de onda que puede ser de hasta unos 15 m de largo. +Y eso hace que sea muy difcil. De hecho, en la prctica, imposible, que hagan una imagen de algo que realmente importa. +La cara de su hijo. +En su lugar, usamos el sonido para escuchar caractersticas de timbre, tono, ritmo y volumen para inferir una historia tras los sonidos. +Habla Alice. +Bob la interrumpe. +El tonto de Bob. +Lo mismo puede aplicar a las ondas gravitacionales. +No podemos usarlos para hacer imgenes simples de las cosas del Universo. +Pero al escuchar los cambios en la amplitud y la frecuencia de esas ondas, podemos or la historia de lo que dicen esas ondas. +Y al menos LIGO oye las frecuencias que estn en la banda de audio. +As convertimos los patrones de ondas en ondas de presin de aire y en sonido, por eso, literalmente, podemos escuchar cmo nos habla el Universo. +Por ejemplo, escuchando la gravedad, simplemente as, nos puede decir mucho de la colisin de dos agujeros negros, algo a lo que mi colega Scott ha dedicado gran cantidad de tiempo. +SH: Si los dos agujeros negros no giran, se obtiene un chirrido muy simple: Whoop! +Si ambos cuerpos giran muy rpidamente, obtengo el mismo chirrido, pero con una modulacin en la parte superior, que puede ser as, whir, whir, whir... +Es una especie de vocabulario de giro impreso en forma de onda. +AA: Vale la pena pararse a pensar en qu significa eso. +Dos agujeros negros, lo ms denso del Universo, uno con una masa de 29 soles y otro con una masa de 36 soles, que giran uno en torno al otro 100 veces por segundo antes de chocar. +Imaginen el poder de eso. +Es fantstico. +Y lo sabemos porque lo omos. +Esa es la importancia duradera de LIGO. +Es una forma completamente nueva de observar el Universo que nunca hemos tenido antes. +Es una manera que nos permite escuchar el Universo y or lo invisible. +Y hay mucho por ah que no podemos ver... en la prctica, ni siquiera en principio. +Una supernova, por ejemplo. Me gustara saber por qu las estrellas muy masivas explotan en supernovas. +Son muy tiles; con ellas hemos aprendido mucho sobre el universo. +El problema es que toda la fsica interesante ocurre en el ncleo, y el ncleo est oculto tras miles de km de hierro, carbono y silicio. +Nunca veremos a travs de l, es opaco a la luz. +Las ondas gravitacionales pasan por el hierro como si fuera vidrio, es totalmente transparente. +El Big Bang: Me encantara poder explorar los primeros momentos del Universo, pero nunca los veremos, debido a que el Big Bang est oscurecido por su propio resplandor. +Con las ondas gravitacionales, podremos ver todo el camino hasta el principio. +Tal vez lo ms importante, estoy seguro de que hay cosas por ah que nunca hemos visto que es posible que nunca podamos ver y que ni siquiera hemos imaginado. Cosas que solo se descubrirn escuchando. +Y de hecho, incluso en ese primer evento, LIGO encontr cosas que no esperbamos. +Aqu est mi colega y uno de los miembros clave de la colaboracin con LIGO, Matt Evans, mi colega del MIT, abordando exactamente eso: Matt Evans: Los tipos de estrella que producen los agujeros negros que observamos aqu son los dinosaurios del Universo. +Son estas cosas enormes y viejas, de tiempos prehistricos, y los agujeros negros son algo as como los huesos de dinosaurio con la que hacemos esta arqueologa. +Por lo tanto, nos permite tener todo un ngulo de lo que hay en el Universo y cmo las estrellas llegaron a formarse, y al final, claro, cmo escapamos de todo este lo. +AA: Nuestro reto ahora es ser tan audaces como sea posible. +Gracias a LIGO, sabemos construir detectores exquisitos que pueden escuchar el Universo, el susurro y el chirrido del cosmos. +Nuestro trabajo consiste en idear y construir nuevos observatorios... toda una nueva generacin de observatorios, en el suelo, en el espacio. +Qu podra ser ms glorioso que escuchar el Big Bang? +Nuestro trabajo ahora es soar en grande. +Sueen con nosotros. +Gracias. +Lo que comenz como una plataforma para aficionados est por convertirse en una industria multimillonaria. +Inspeccin, vigilancia del medio ambiente, fotografa y cine y periodismo: son algunas de las posibles aplicaciones para drones comerciales, y sus capacidades se estn desarrollando en centros de investigacin de todo el mundo. +Por ejemplo, antes de la entrega area de paquetes entrara en nuestra conciencia social, una flota autnoma de drones construy una torre de 6 metros de altura compuesta de 1500 ladrillos frente de una audiencia en vivo en el Centro FRAC en Francia, y hace varios aos, empezaron a volar con cuerdas. +Atando mquinas voladoras, pueden alcanzar altas velocidades y aceleraciones en espacios muy reducidos. +Tambin pueden construir de forma autnoma estructuras tensadas. +Las habilidades aprendidas incluyen llevar cargas, enfrentar perturbaciones, y, en general, cmo interactuar con el mundo fsico. +Hoy queremos mostrarles algunos nuevos proyectos que hemos trabajado. +Su objetivo es empujar los lmites de lo que puede lograrse con vuelo autnomo. +Para un sistema que funcione de manera autnoma, debe conocer colectivamente la ubicacin de sus objetos mviles en el espacio. +En nuestro laboratorio en ETH Zurich, a menudo utilizamos cmaras externas para localizar objetos, que nos permiten enfocar nuestros esfuerzos en el rpido desarrollo de las tareas altamente dinmicas. +Para las demostraciones de hoy, usaremos tecnologas de localizacin nuevas desarrolladas por Verity Studios, una escisin de nuestro laboratorio. +No hay cmaras externas. +Cada mquina de vuelo con sensores a bordo para determinar su ubicacin en el espacio ya cmputo de abordo para determinar cules deben ser sus acciones. +Los nicos comandos externos son los de alto nivel como "despegue" y "tierra". +Esta es una llamada "tail-sitter". +Es un avin que intenta tener su pastel y comrselo. +Como otros aviones de ala fija, es eficiente en vuelo hacia adelante, mucho ms que los helicpteros y variaciones de los mismos. +A diferencia de la mayora de aeronaves de ala fija, es capaz de vuelo estacionario, que tiene enormes ventajas para el despegue, aterrizaje y versatilidad general. +No hay almuerzo gratis, por desgracia. +Una de las limitaciones con "tal-sitters" es que son susceptibles a perturbaciones como rfagas de viento. +Estamos desarrollando arquitecturas de control y algoritmos para enfrentar esta limitacin. +La idea es que la aeronave se recupere no importa en qu estado se encuentre, y con la prctica, mejore su rendimiento en el tiempo. +Bien. +Al hacer investigacin, a menudo nos hacemos preguntas abstractas fundamentales que tratan de llegar al corazn de la cuestin. +Por ejemplo, una cuestin de este tipo sera, cul es el nmero mnimo de piezas mviles para el vuelo controlado? +Ahora, hay razones prcticas por las que se desea saber la respuesta a esta pregunta. +Helicpteros, por ejemplo, cariosamente conocidas como mquinas con un millar de piezas mviles todas conspirando para hacerte dao corporal. +Resulta que hace dcadas, pilotos cualificados podan pilotar aviones por control remoto con solo 2 partes mviles: una hlice y un timn de cola. +Recientemente hemos descubierto que se poda hacer con una sola. +Este es el "monospinner", la mquina voladora controlable mecnicamente ms simple del mundo, inventada hace tan solo unos meses. +Tiene una sola parte mvil, una hlice. +No tiene aletas, sin bisagras, no hay alerones, no hay otros actuadores, no hay otras superficies de control, solo una hlice simple. +A pesar de que es mecnicamente simple, se hace mucho en su pequeo cerebro electrnico para volar establemente y moverse en cualquier lugar que quiera en el espacio. +Aun as, todava no tiene los algoritmos sofisticados del "tail-sitter", lo que significa que para que vuele, tengo que tirarlo a la perfeccin. +Y dada la probabilidad de que lo lance bien es muy baja, dado que todo el mundo me mira, lo que vamos a hacer en cambio es mostrar un vdeo que rodamos ayer por la noche. +Si el "monospinner" es un ejercicio de austeridad, esta mquina aqu, el "omnicopter", con sus ocho hlices, es un ejercicio de exceso. +Qu se puede hacer con todo este excedente? +Lo que hay que notar es que es muy simtrico. +Como resultado, es ambivalente a la orientacin. +Esto le da una capacidad extraordinaria. +Puede desplazarse a cualquier lugar independientemente del lugar que enfrente e incluso de la forma en que gire. +Tiene sus propias complejidades, principalmente con los flujos que interactan de sus ocho hlices. +Algo puede modelarse, mientras que el resto se puede aprender sobre la marcha. +Vamos a ver. +Si los drones van a entrar en nuestra vida cotidiana, tendrn que llegar a ser extremadamente seguros y fiables. +Esta mquina aqu es en realidad 2 mquinas voladoras de dos hlices separadas. +Esta quiere girar en sentido horario. +Esta otro quiere girar en sentido antihorario. +Cuando se ponen juntas, se comportan como un cuadrocptero de alto rendimiento. +Si algo va mal, sin embargo, --un motor falla, una hlice falla, la electrnica, incluso unas bateras-- la mquina todava puede volar, aunque de forma degradada. +Vamos a demostrrselo ahora con la desactivacin de una de sus mitades. +Esta ltima demostracin es una exploracin de enjambres sintticos. +El gran nmero de entidades autnomas, coordinados ofrece una nueva paleta para la expresin esttica. +Hemos tomado microcuadricpteros disponibles en el mercado, con un peso de menos de una rebanada de pan, y equipados con nuestra tecnologa de localizacin y algoritmos personalizados. +Como cada unidad sabe dnde est en el espacio y es autocontrolada, en realidad no hay lmite a su nmero. +Ojal estas manifestaciones los motiven a soar nuevas funciones revolucionarias para drones. +Ese ultra seguro de all, por ejemplo, tiene aspiraciones de convertirse en una pantalla volador en Broadway. +La realidad es que es difcil de predecir el impacto de la tecnologa incipiente. +Para gente como nosotros, la recompensa verdadera es el viaje y el acto creativo. +Es un recordatorio continuo del maravilloso y mgico universo en el que vivimos, que permite a las criaturas inteligentes, creativas, esculpir de una manera tan espectacular. +El hecho de que esta tecnologa tiene tan enorme potencial comercial y econmico es solo la guinda del pastel. +Gracias. +Hoy quisiera --bueno, esta maana-- quiero hablar sobre el futuro del transporte conducido por el hombre; de cmo podemos reducir la congestin, contaminacin y aparcamiento moviendo a ms gente en menos coches; y cmo podemos hacerlo con la tecnologa que est en nuestros bolsillos. +Y s, estoy hablando de los telfonos inteligentes... +no coches auto-conducidos. +Pero para empezar tenemos que regresar a ms de 100 aos. +Porque resulta que haba una manera de Uber, antes de Uber. +Y si hubiera sobrevivido, el futuro del transporte probablemente ya estara aqu. +As que les presentar los "jitney" [colectivos]. +En 1914 fue creado o inventado por un tipo llamado LP Draper. +Era un vendedor de coches de Los ngeles y tuvo una idea. +Se desplazaba por el centro de Los ngeles, mi ciudad natal, y vio los troles con largas colas de personas que tratan de llegar a donde queran ir. +Penso, adems, por qu no pongo un letrero en mi coche que lleve a la gente a donde quieran ir en un "jitney" que era en argot 5 centavos. +Y para que la gente subiera a bordo, y no solo en Los ngeles sino en todo el pas. +Y en un ao, para 1915, haba 50 000 viajes diarios en Seattle, 45 000 viajes diarios en Kansas y 150 000 viajes diarios en Los ngeles. +Para darles un poco de perspectiva, Uber en Los ngeles est haciendo 157 000 viajes diarios, hoy... +100 aos ms tarde. +Estos son los chicos de los troles, el monopolio de transporte existente en ese momento. +Claramente no estaban contentos con el monstruo colectivo. +Por lo que se pusieron a trabajar y fueron a las ciudades de todo el pas y consiguieron regulaciones para frenar el crecimiento del colectivo. +Haba todo tipo de regulaciones. +Haba licencias, a menudo caras. +En algunas ciudades, si uno era conductor de colectivo, tena la obligacin de estar en el colectivo durante 16 horas diarias. +En otras ciudades, se requieren dos conductores por un colectivo. +Pero haba una regulacin muy interesante que era que tenan que poner una luz en el asiento trasero --instalarla en todos los jitney-- para detener una nueva innovacin perniciosa que llamaron cucharita. +Bien. Entonces, qu pas? +Bueno, en un ao esto se haba acabado. +Pero el jitney, en 1919, fue regulado por completo fuera de existencia. +Eso es lamentable... +porque, cuando no se puede compartir el coche, entonces se tiene que tener uno. +Y la propiedad de coches se dispar y no es de extraar que para el 2007, haba un coche para cada hombre, mujer y nio en los EE. UU. +Y ese fenmeno se hizo global. +En China en 2011, hubo ms ventas de coches en China que en EE. UU. +Ahora, toda esta propiedad privada, por supuesto, tuvo un costo pblico. +En los EE. UU., pasamos 7 mil millones de horas al ao, desperdiciadas, sentados en el trfico. +160 mil millones de dlares en prdidas de productividad, claro, tambin sentados en el trfico, y una quinta parte de todas las emisiones de carbono son echadas al aire por esos coches en lo que estamos sentados. +Sin embargo, ahora eso es solo un 4 % de nuestros problemas. +Porque si tienen que poseer un coche entonces eso significa que el 96 % de las veces su coche est inactivo. +Y as, hasta un 30 % de nuestra suelo y nuestro espacio se utiliza para el almacenamiento de estos trozos de acero. +Incluso tenemos rascacielos construidos para los coches. +Ese es el mundo en que vivimos hoy. +Las ciudades se han ocupado de este problema desde hace dcadas. +Se llama el transporte masivo. +E incluso en una ciudad como Nueva York, una de las ms densamente pobladas del mundo y uno de los sistemas de transporte masivo ms sofisticados del mundo, todava hay 2,5 millones de coches que pasan esos puentes todos los das. +Por qu es eso? +Bueno, es porque el transporte pblico an no sabe cmo llegar a las puertas de todo el mundo. +Y de vuelta en San Francisco, donde vivo, la situacin es mucho peor, de hecho, mucho peor en todo el mundo. +Y as el inicio de Uber en 2010 fue... bueno, solo queramos apretar un botn y tener transporte. +No tenamos ninguna gran ambicin. +Sin embargo, result que mucha gente quera apretar un botn y tener transporte. y en ltima instancia lo que empezamos a ver fue un montn de paseos duplicados. +Vimos a mucha gente presionando el mismo botn al mismo tiempo yendo esencialmente al mismo lugar. +As que empezamos a pensar, cmo podemos hacer que estos dos viajes y se conviertan en uno. +Porque si lo hacamos, ese viaje sera mucho ms barato --hasta un 50 % ms barato-- y claro para la ciudad tendramos mucha ms gente y muchos menos coches. +Y as, la gran pregunta para nosotros fue: funcionara? +Se podra tener un viaje ms barato, tan barato que la gente estuviera dispuesta a compartirlo? +Y la respuesta, afortunadamente, es un s rotundo. +En San Francisco, antes de uberPOOL, tuvimos... bueno, todo el mundo tendra su coche donde diablos quisiera. +Los colores brillantes es donde tenemos ms coches. +Una vez que introducimos uberPOOL, se ve que no hay tantos colores brillantes. +Ms gente movindose por la ciudad en menos coches, sacando coches de las calles. +Parece que uberPOOL est trabajando. +Y as lo pusimos en marcha en Los ngeles hace ocho meses. +Y desde entonces, hemos tomado 12,7 millones de km de las calles y 1,4 miles de toneladas mtricas de CO2 del aire. +Pero la parte de la que estoy realmente... Pero mi estadstica favorita... recuerden soy de Los ngeles, pas aos de mi vida sentado al volante pensando, "Cmo podemos solucionar esto?", mi parte favorita es que 8 meses despus, aadimos 100 000 nuevas personas al uso del coche compartido todas las semanas. +Ahora, en China todo es tamao sper, y por lo que estamos haciendo 15 millones de viajes uberPOOL al mes, eso es de 500 000 por da. +Claro que estamos viendo que se da un crecimiento exponencial. +De hecho, lo vemos en Los ngeles, tambin. +Cuando hablo con mi equipo, no hablamos de, "Bueno, 100 000 personas comparten el coche todas las semanas y listo". +Cmo podemos llegar al milln? +Y en China, que podra ser de varios millones. +Y as uberPOOL es una gran solucin para compartir el coche urbano. +Pero qu pasa con los suburbios? +Esta es la calle donde crec en Los ngeles, es un suburbio llamado Northridge, California, y bueno... miren, esos buzones, del tipo de que estn para siempre. +Y todas las maanas ms o menos al mismo tiempo, coches salen de las casas, la mayora de ellos, una persona en el coche, y van a trabajar, van a su lugar de trabajo. +Nuestra pregunta es: bien, cmo convertirmos a todos estos coches de los suburbios --y literalmente hay decenas de millones de ellos-- cmo los convertimos a todos en coches compartidos? +Tenemos algo para esto lanzado recientemente llamado uberCOMMUTE. +Se levantan en la maana, se preparan para el trabajo, su caf, van a su coche, encienden la aplicacin de Uber, y, de repente, se convierten en un conductor de Uber. +Y van a coincidir con uno de sus vecinos en su camino al trabajo y es una cosa realmente grande. +Solo hay un obstculo... +se llama regulacin. +As que 54 centavos por milla, qu es eso? +Bueno, eso es lo que el gobierno de EE. UU. ha determinado que es el costo de poseer un coche por milla. +Puedes recoger a quien sea en EE. UU. y llevarlo a donde quiera ir en cualquier momento, por 54 centavos por milla o menos. +Pero si cobras 60 centavos por milla, eres un criminal. +Pero qu tal si por 60 centavos por milla pudiramos conseguir medio milln ms de personas en coche compartido en L.A.? +Y si con 60 centavos por milla pudiramos obtener que 50 millones de personas compartieran el coche en EE. UU.? +Si pudiramos, obviamente es algo que debemos hacer. +Y as volvamos a la leccin del jitney. +Si en el ao 1915 esta cosa hubiera despegado, imaginen sin las regulaciones que se dieron, si solo hubiera podido seguir. +Cmo seran nuestras ciudades de diferentes hoy? +Tendramos parques en lugar de estacionamiento? +Pues bien, perdimos esa oportunidad. +Pero la tecnologa nos ha dado otra oportunidad. +Estoy tan emocionado como cualquiera sobre los coches auto-conducidos, pero tenemos que esperar realmente 5, 10 o incluso 20 aos para que nuestras nuevas ciudades sean una realidad? +Con la tecnologa de hoy en nuestros bolsillos, y un poco de regulacin inteligente, podemos convertir cada coche en un coche compartido, y podemos recuperar nuestras ciudades a partir de hoy. +Gracias. +Chris Anderson: Travis, gracias. +Travis Kalanick: Gracias. +CA: Quiero decir... la empresa que crearon es absolutamente sorprendente. +Solo hablaste de una pequea parte de ella aqu --una parte poderosa-- la idea de convertir los coches en transporte pblico as, es genial. +Pero tengo un par de otras preguntas porque s que estn en la mente de las personas. +En primer lugar, la semana pasada, creo que fue, encend mi telfono y trat de reservar un Uber y no pude encontrar la aplicacin. +Sacaron este nuevo diseo muy audaz valiente muy radical. +TK: Seguro. +CA: Cmo te fue? +Vieron que otros no encontrar la aplicacin ese da? +Van a ganar gente por este nuevo diseo? +TK: Primero debo probablemente solo decir, lo que estbamos tratando de lograr. +Creo que si sabes un poco de nuestra historia, tiene mucho ms sentido. +Es que, cuando arrancamos al inicio, era solo coches negros. +Literalmente era presionar un botn y tener un S-Class. +Y as lo hicimos Era lo que yo llamara una versin inmadura de una marca de lujo que pareca la tarjeta de identificacin de un coche de lujo. +Y a medida que vamos a todo el mundo y pasamos de S-Clases a mototaxis en la India, se convirti en algo importante para nosotros ser ms accesibles, ser ms "hiperlocales", serlo en las ciudades en que estbamos y eso es lo que se ve con los patrones y colores. +Y para ser ms icnicos, porque una U no quiere decir nada en snscrito, y una U no significa nada en mandarn. +Y as que fue un poco de lo qu se trataba. +Ahora, la primera vez que despliegas algo por el estilo, es decir, tus manos estn sudando, tienes... sabes, ests un poco preocupado. +Lo que vimos es que mucha gente en realidad, al principio, vimos mucha ms gente abriendo la aplicacin porque curiosidad de lo que encontraran cuando la abrieran. +Y nuestros nmeros fueron ligeramente arriba de lo que esperbamos. +CA: Bien, genial. +Ahora, t, t mismo, eres una especie de enigma, dira. +Tus inversores y seguidores que han estado contigo todo este tiempo creen que la nica oportunidad del tipo de enfrentarse a los poderosos intereses arraigados, de industria del taxi y as sucesivamente, es tener a alguien que es un competidor feroz, implacable, como sin duda has demostrado ser. +Algunos sienten que han llevado esta cultura demasiado lejos, y sabes... al igual que hace un ao o dos hubo una gran controversia en la que muchas mujeres fueron molestadas. +Cmo se sintieron al interior de la empresa durante ese perodo? +Se dieron cuenta de una prdida de negocio? +Aprendiste algo de eso? +TK: Bueno, mira, creo... He sido empresario desde la escuela secundaria y tienes... de varias formas diferentes un empresario ver tiempos difciles y para nosotros, fue hace un ao y medio, y para nosotros fueron tiempos difciles tambin. +Ahora, en el interior, nos sentimos como... creo que al final del da sentimos que ramos buenas personas que hacen un buen trabajo, pero en el exterior eso no era evidente. +Y as que haba muchas cosas que tenamos que hacer una especie de... pasamos de una empresa muy pequea... me refiero si vas, literalmente, dos y medio aos atrs, nuestra empresa era de 400 personas, y en la actualidad es de 6500. +Y as, cuando tienes ese crecimiento, tienes como que cimentar tus valores culturales y hablar de ellos todo el tiempo. +Y asegurarte de que la gente constantemente se pregunte, "Somos buenas personas que hacen un buen trabajo?". +Y si compruebas bien eso, la siguiente parte es asegurarte de que estn contando tu historia. +Creo que aprendimos mucho de la experiencia pero creo que al final salimos ms fuertes. +Pero sin duda fue un perodo difcil. +CA: Me parece, a donde vas, ests frente a personas que de vez en cuando te dan un mal rato. +Algunos conductores Uber en Nueva York y en otros lugares estn furiosos porque has cambiado las cuotas y apenas pueden --afirman-- permitirse repartir ms. +Cmo... has dicho que Uds. han iniciado esto originalmente... solo por la maravilla de presionar un botn y tener transporte. +Esto ha tenido xito, afectas toda la economa mundial, bsicamente, en este punto. +Ests siendo forzado a ser, quiraslo o no, una especie de visionario mundial que est cambiando el mundo. +Quiero decir... quin eres? +Quieres eso? +Ests listo para esto y ser lo que se necesita? +TK: Bueno, hay varias cosas juntas en esa pregunta, as que... En primer lugar est lo de fijacin de precios... Es decir, recordermos, no? +UberX, cuando empezamos, era, literalmente, 10 o 15 % ms barato que nuestro producto coche negro. +Ahora, en muchas ciudades, es la mitad del precio de un taxi. +Y tenemos todos los datos que muestran que los conductores estn haciendo ms por hora que lo que haran como taxistas. +Lo que pasa es que cuando el precio baja, las personas son ms propensas a tomar Uber en diferentes momentos del da que de otra manera haran, y en sitios que los que no lo hubiera hecho antes. +Es decir, para un conductor, donde sea que deje a alguien tendr ms posiblidad de recoger a alguien y seguir andando. +Y eso significa ms viajes por hora, ms minutos de la hora que son productivos y, de hecho, las ganancias suben. +Tenemos ciudades en las que hemos hecho, literalmente, 5 o 6 recortes de precios y hemos visto que los recortes aumentan con el tiempo. +As que incluso en Nueva York, tenemos una entrada en el blog que llamamos "4 septiembres", que compara los resultados septiembre tras septiembre tras septiembre. +Mismo mes cada ao. +Y vemos las ganancias subiendo con el tiempo conforme baja el precio. +Hay un punto de precio perfecto, no se puede bajar para siempre. +Y en aquellos lugares en los que bajas el precio pero no vemos que los resultados suban, subimos los precios. +Esto para la primera parte. +Y ahora el enigma y todo esto... Es decir, el tipo de empresario que soy es uno que se pone muy entusiasmo en la solucin de problemas difciles. +Me gusta de describirlo como algo as como un profesor de matemticas. +Sabes? Si un profesor de matemticas no tiene problemas difciles de resolver, ese es un profesor de matemticas muy triste. +As en Uber nos gustan los problemas difciles y nos gusta estar entusiasmados en ellos y resolverlos. +Pero no cualquier problema de matemticas, sino los ms difciles que podamos encontrar, y queremos que si lo resuelves, hay un poco de un factor sorpresa. +CA: En un par de aos, digamos 5 aos, no s cuando, sacarn los increbles coches auto-conducidos, probablemente a un menor costo al que se paga hoy por un viaje de Uber. +Qu le dices a tu ejrcito de ms de un milln de conductores en ese momento? +TK: Otra vez, en qu momento? +CA: Cuando salgan los coches auto-conduccidos TK: Claro, claro, claro. Lo siento, me perd. +CA: Qu le dices a un conductor? +TK: Bueno, mira, creo que la primera parte es que va a tomar... que probablemente tome mucho ms tiempo de lo que creo que algunos medios de comunicacin esperan. +Esa es la primera parte. +Lo segundo es que tambin va a tomar tiempo, que va a ser una transicin larga. +Estos coches funcionarn en ciertos lugares y en otros no. +Para nosotros es un reto interesante, verdad? +Porque, bueno... Google ha estado invirtiendo en eso desde el ao 2007, Tesla va a estar hacindolo, Apple va a estar hacindolo, los fabricantes van a hacerlo. +Ese es un mundo que va a existir y por buenas razones. +Un milln de personas mueren al ao en los coches. +Ya recuperamos miles de millones, incluso billones de horas en todo el mundo que la gente gasta sentada en ellos, conduciendo frustrada, ansiosa. +Y pensar en la calidad de vida que mejora cuando le devuelves tiempo a la gente y les quitas ansiedad. +As que creo que hay mucho bien. +Y as, la manera en que pensamos sobre esto es que es un reto, pero uno para el liderazgo optimista, Donde en vez de resistirse, resistirse a la tecnologa, tal vez como la industria del taxi, o en la industria del trole, tenemos que aceptarla o ser parte del futuro. +Pero cmo liderar con optimismo a travs de l? +Hay forma de asociarse con las ciudades? +Hay formas de tener los sistemas de educacin, formacin profesional, etc., para ese perodo de transicin? +Llevar ms tiempo de lo que creo que todos esperamos, sobre todo ese perodo de transicin. +Pero es un mundo que va a existir y que va a ser un mundo mejor. +CA: Travis, lo que construyes es absolutamente increble y estoy muy agradecido de que hayas venido a TED de manera tan abierta. +Muchas gracias. TK: Muchas gracias. +En India tenemos grandes familias. +Apuesto a que muchos de Uds. han odo hablar de eso. +Significa que hay gran cantidad de eventos familiares. +De nio, mis padres solan arrastrarme a estos eventos familiares. +Pero lo nico que yo siempre esperaba era jugar con mis primos. +Y siempre estaba ese to que sola estar all, siempre dispuesto a saltar y a jugar con nosotros, haciendo que pasramos grandes momentos. +Este hombre tena mucho xito: mostraba confianza y poder. +Pero luego vino el deterioro de salud de esta persona sana y robusta. +Le diagnosticaron Parkinson. +El Parkinson es una enfermedad que causa degeneracin del sistema nervioso, es decir, que a esta persona que sola ser independiente de repente le resultan difcil tareas como beber caf debido a los temblores. +Mi to empez a usar andador para caminar, y para dar un giro literalmente tena que dar de a un paso a la vez, as, y demoraba mucho tiempo. +Esta persona que sola ser el centro de atencin en las reuniones familiares, de repente se esconda entre la gente. +Se esconda de la mirada lastimosa en los ojos de las personas. +Y no est solo en el mundo. +Cada ao hay 60 000 personas diagnosticadas con Parkinson, y este nmero solo va en aumento. +Como diseadores, soamos que nuestros diseos resuelvan problemas mltiples, una solucin que resuelva todo, pero no siempre tiene que ser as. +Pueden abordarse problemas simples con pequeas soluciones y, finalmente, generar un gran impacto. +Mi objetivo no fue curar su Parkinson, sino simplificar sus tareas cotidianas, y luego logar un impacto. +Bueno, primero me centr en los temblores, s? +Mi to me dijo que haba dejado de beber caf o t en pblico por vergenza, por eso, bueno, dise la taza antiderrame. +Funciona gracias a su forma. +La curva superior desva el lquido hacia adentro en cada temblor, y eso mantiene el lquido dentro en contraste con una taza normal. +Lo importante aqu es que no es solo un producto para pacientes de Parkinson. +Parece una taza para ser usada por Uds., o yo, o cualquier persona torpe, y eso la hace ms cmoda de usar, y pasar desapercibida. +Bueno, un problema resuelto, y mucho ms por delante. +En todo este tiempo, lo entrevist, le pregunt, y me di cuenta de que obtena informacin muy superficial, o solo respuestas a mis preguntas. +Pero tena que profundizar para obtener una nueva perspectiva. +Y pens, bueno, observmoslo en sus tareas cotidianas, mientras come, mientras mira TV. +Y al observarlo caminar hacia su mesa del comedor, me impact que este hombre hallara dificultad al caminar en suelo plano, cmo subir una escalera? +Porque en India no tenemos carriles estupendos para subir escaleras como en los pases desarrollados. +Uno tiene que subir las escaleras. +As que me dijo: "Bueno, te mostrar cmo lo hago". +Veamos lo que yo vi. +Demor mucho en llegar a esta posicin, y en todo este tiempo, pienso, "Dios mo, realmente lo va a hacer? +Realmente lo va a hacer sin andador?" +Y luego... +Dio giros con mucha facilidad. +Impactados? +Bueno, yo tambin. +Esta persona que no poda caminar en suelo plano de repente era un profesional subiendo escaleras. +Investigando, me di cuenta de que se debe a que es un movimiento continuo. +Este otro hombre tiene los mismos sntomas y usa un andador, pero cuando est en una bicicleta, desaparecen sus sntomas, porque es un movimiento continuo. +La clave para m fue traducir esta sensacin de caminar escaleras al suelo plano. +En l, probamos muchas ideas, pero la que finalmente funcion fue esta. Veamos. +Camin ms deprisa, no? +Yo lo llamo la ilusin de la escalera, y en realidad cuando acab la ilusin de la escalera abruptamente, se congel, y esto se llama bloqueo de la marcha. +Sucede mucho, de modo que por qu no tener una ilusin de escalera en cada habitacin, para brindar mucha ms confianza? +La tecnologa no siempre lo es todo. +Necesitamos soluciones centradas en la persona. +Yo poda haber hecho una proyeccin o usar Google Glass, o algo as. +Pero estaba limitada a impresiones en el piso. +Esta impresin podra llevarse a hospitales para hacerlos sentir mucho ms bienvenidos. +Deseo que cada paciente de Parkinson se sienta como mi to aquel da. +l me dijo que le hice sentir que recuperaba su viejo yo otra vez. +"Smart" en el mundo actual es sinnimo de ltima tecnologa, y el mundo se vuelve cada vez ms "smart". +Pero por qu "smart" no puede ser algo simple y efectivo? +Solo necesitamos un poco de empata y un poco de curiosidad, salir y observar. +Pero no paremos all. +Encontremos estos problemas complejos. No les temamos. +Dividmoslos, descompongamos eso en problemas mucho ms pequeos, y luego encontremos soluciones simples para ellos. +Probemos estas soluciones, fallemos si es necesario, pero con ideas nuevas para hacerlo mejor. +Imaginen lo que podramos hacer si todos aportramos soluciones simples. +Cmo sera el mundo si combinramos todas nuestras soluciones simples? +Hagamos un mundo ms inteligente, pero con simplicidad. +Gracias. +Hannah est impaciente por irse a la universidad. +Espera dejar la casa de sus padres para demostrarles que es adulta y a sus nuevos amigos su pertenencia al grupo. +Va a una fiesta en el campus para encontrarse con un chico que le gusta. +Vamos a llamarlo Mike. +Al da siguiente, Hannah se despierta con un terrible dolor de cabeza. +Tiene solo unos cuantos recuerdos confusos de la noche anterior. +Pero recuerda haber vomitado en el pasillo, delante de la habitacin de Mike y haberse quedado mirando el techo mientras que Mike estaba dentro de ella, esperando que todo esto pare. Recuerda que luego regres a su casa temblando. +Se siente incmoda con lo que pas, pero piensa: "Tal vez esto es en realidad el sexo en la universidad". +Uno de cada cinco mujeres y uno de cada 13 hombres sern agredidos sexualmente en algn momento durante su estancia en la universidad en Estados Unidos. +Menos de un 10 % pondrn una denuncia en la universidad o la polica. +Y los que lo hacen, tienen en promedio que esperar 11 meses para presentarla. +Al principio, Hannah piensa lidiar con esto ella sola. +Pero cuando ve a Mike llevar chicas a casa despus de las fiestas se preocupa por ellas. +Despus de la graduacin, Hannah descubre que fue una de las cinco mujeres con las que Mike hizo exactamente lo mismo. +Y esto no es un escenario poco probable ya que el 90 % de los abusos sexuales lo cometen delincuentes reincidentes. +Sin embargo, dado el bajo nmero de quejas, es muy poco probable que incluso ellos sean denunciados y muchsimo menos que les pase algo. +De hecho, solo un 6 % de los delitos informados a la polica terminan con el delincuente condenado a un solo da de crcel. +Es decir, hay un 99 % de probabilidades de que van a salirse con la suya. +Esto significa que prcticamente no hay nada que detenga el abuso en Estados Unidos. +Ahora, por formacin, soy epidemiloga. +Estoy interesada en sistemas y redes y en cmo podemos usar nuestros recursos para el bien comn. +As que para m, este es un problema trgico pero que tiene solucin. +Por eso, cuando las agresiones en los campus universitarios empezaron a salir en los titulares hace un par de aos, pareci una oportunidad nica para cambiar algo. +As que la aprovechamos. +Hablamos con las vctimas, los antiguos alumnos y alumnas. +Con la opcin de crear un documento seguro y fechado de lo que les pas, y guardar las pruebas, incluso si no quieren presentar la queja. +Por ltimo, y quizs lo ms importante, con la posibilidad de denunciar la agresin solo si otra persona demanda al mismo agresor. +Saben, el hecho de que no es uno el nico lo cambia todo. +Cambia la forma de entender nuestra experiencia, la manera de ver al agresor. Significa que si uno declara tendr el apoyo de alguien y que se le devolver este apoyo. +Hemos creado un sitio web que realmente hace esto y lo lanzamos hace dos meses, en agosto, en dos campus universitarios. +Si un sistema de este tipo hubiera existido para Hannah y sus compaeras es ms probable que hubieran presentado una denuncia, se les hubiera credo, y Mike hubiera sido expulsado de la escuela, detenido, o al menos recibido la ayuda que necesitaba. +Y si podemos parar a delincuentes reincidentes como Mike nada ms despus de un segundo delito con base en una identificacin positiva, vctimas como Hannah no seguiran siendo agredidas en primer lugar. +Podramos prevenir un 59 % de las agresiones sexuales con solo detener antes a los reincidentes. +Y como estamos creando un mtodo disuasorio para detener los delitos a lo mejor, por primera vez, gente como Mike no volvera a tratar de abusar de alguien. +El tipo de sistema que estoy describiendo, el tipo de sistema que quieren los afectados es un tipo de informacin de seguridad, donde una entidad que custodia la informacin para nosotros solo la entrega a terceros si se dan ciertas condiciones preestablecidas como en el caso de una identificacin positiva. +La aplicacin que hemos construido es para los campus universitarios. +Sin embargo, el mismo tipo de sistema podra usarse en el ejrcito o en el lugar de trabajo. +No tenemos que vivir en un mundo donde no se condena a un 99 % de los violadores. +Podemos crear un mundo donde las personas que cometen delitos sean considerados responsables, donde las vctimas reciban el apoyo y la justicia que merecen, donde las autoridades reciban toda la informacin que necesitan y donde haya un impedimento real para la violencia en contra de los derechos de otros seres humanos. +Gracias. diff --git a/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/en_es_data/train_tiny.en b/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/en_es_data/train_tiny.en new file mode 100644 index 0000000..de0e5ed --- /dev/null +++ b/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/en_es_data/train_tiny.en @@ -0,0 +1,10 @@ +Thank you so much, Chris. And it's truly a great honor to have the opportunity to come to this stage twice; I'm extremely grateful. +I have been blown away by this conference, and I want to thank all of you for the many nice comments about what I had to say the other night. +And I say that sincerely, partly because (Mock sob) I need that. Put yourselves in my position. +I flew on Air Force Two for eight years. +Now I have to take off my shoes or boots to get on an airplane! +I'll tell you one quick story to illustrate what that's been like for me. +It's a true story -- every bit of this is true. +Soon after Tipper and I left the -- (Mock sob) White House -- we were driving from our home in Nashville to a little farm we have 50 miles east of Nashville. +Driving ourselves. +I know it sounds like a little thing to you, but -- I looked in the rear-view mirror and all of a sudden it just hit me. There was no motorcade back there. diff --git a/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/en_es_data/train_tiny.es b/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/en_es_data/train_tiny.es new file mode 100644 index 0000000..05e1fb1 --- /dev/null +++ b/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/en_es_data/train_tiny.es @@ -0,0 +1,10 @@ +Muchas gracias Chris. Y es en verdad un gran honor tener la oportunidad de venir a este escenario por segunda vez. Estoy extremadamente agradecido. +He quedado conmovido por esta conferencia, y deseo agradecer a todos ustedes sus amables comentarios acerca de lo que tena que decir la otra noche. +Y digo eso sinceramente, en parte porque -- (Sollozos fingidos) -- lo necesito! Pnganse en mi posicin! +Vol en el avin vicepresidencial por ocho aos. +Ahora tengo que quitarme mis zapatos o botas para subirme a un avin! +Les dir una rpida historia para ilustrar lo que ha sido para m. +Es una historia verdadera -- cada parte de esto es verdad. +Poco despus de que Tipper y yo dejamos la -- (Sollozos fingidos) -- Casa Blanca -- -- estbamos viajando desde nuestra casa en Nashville a una pequea granja que tenemos 50 millas al este de Nashville -- +conduciendo nosotros mismos. +S que suena como cualquier cosa para ustedes, pero -- -- mir en el retrovisor y de repente simplemente me golpe. No haba caravana de vehculos all atrs. diff --git a/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/highway.py b/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/highway.py new file mode 100644 index 0000000..69d03ed --- /dev/null +++ b/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/highway.py @@ -0,0 +1,83 @@ +#!/usr/bin/env python3 +# -*- coding: utf-8 -*- + +""" +CS224N 2019-20: Homework 5 + +Usage: + highway.py (options) + +Options: + -h --help show this document + --view view model parameters + --value input, output and intermediate value check +""" + +import torch +import torch.nn as nn +import torch.nn.functional as F +import numpy as np +from scipy.special import expit +from docopt import docopt + +class Highway(nn.Module): + # Remember to delete the above 'pass' after your implementation + ### YOUR CODE HERE for part 1f + def __init__(self, in_dim, out_dim, dropout_rate=0.5): + """Generate highway network layers. + """ + super(Highway, self).__init__() + self.in_dim = in_dim + self.out_dim = out_dim + self.dropout_rate = dropout_rate + + self.proj = nn.Linear(self.in_dim, self.out_dim) + self.gate = nn.Linear(self.in_dim, self.out_dim) + self.dropout = nn.Dropout(self.dropout_rate) + + def forward(self, x): + """ + param: + x tensor (*, in_dim) + return: + x_embed tensor (*, out_dim) + """ + x_proj = F.relu(self.proj(x)) + x_gate = torch.sigmoid(self.gate(x)) + x_highway = x_gate*x_proj + (1-x_gate)*x + x_embed = self.dropout(x_highway) + return x_embed + ### END YOUR CODE + + +if __name__ == '__main__': + args = docopt(__doc__) + print("highway net sanity check......") + seed = 2020 + torch.manual_seed(seed) + torch.cuda.manual_seed(seed) + x = torch.tensor([[1, 2, 3, 4], [-2, -4, -6, -8]], dtype=torch.float) + model = Highway(x.size()[-1], x.size()[-1]) + for p in model.parameters(): + if p.dim() > 1: + nn.init.ones_(p) + else: + nn.init.zeros_(p) + if args['--view']: + print("model parameters dic:\n") + for p in model.parameters(): + print(p) + elif args['--value']: + x_out = model(x) + print("input:\n", x) + print("output:\n", x_out) + print("input size:", x.size(), "type:", x.dtype) + print("output size:", x_out.size(), "type:", x_out.dtype) + + print("expected highway out:") + x = x.numpy() + weight = np.ones((x.shape[-1], x.shape[-1])) + gate = expit(x.dot(weight)) + highway_expect = gate*np.maximum(0, x.dot(weight)) + (1-gate)*x + print(highway_expect) + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/model_embeddings.py b/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/model_embeddings.py new file mode 100644 index 0000000..98fcd95 --- /dev/null +++ b/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/model_embeddings.py @@ -0,0 +1,71 @@ +#!/usr/bin/env python3 +# -*- coding: utf-8 -*- + +""" +CS224N 2019-20: Homework 5 +model_embeddings.py: Embeddings for the NMT model +Pencheng Yin +Sahil Chopra +Anand Dhoot +Michael Hahn +""" + +import torch +import torch.nn as nn + +# Do not change these imports; your module names should be +# `CNN` in the file `cnn.py` +# `Highway` in the file `highway.py` +# Uncomment the following two imports once you're ready to run part 1(j) + +from cnn import CNN +from highway import Highway + + +# End "do not change" + +class ModelEmbeddings(nn.Module): + """ + Class that converts input words to their CNN-based embeddings. + """ + + def __init__(self, word_embed_size, vocab): + """ + Init the Embedding layer for one language + @param word_embed_size (int): Embedding size (dimensionality) for the output word + @param vocab (VocabEntry): VocabEntry object. See vocab.py for documentation. + + Hints: - You may find len(self.vocab.char2id) useful when create the embedding + """ + super(ModelEmbeddings, self).__init__() + + ### YOUR CODE HERE for part 1h + self.word_embed_size = word_embed_size + self.char_embed_size = 50 + self.vocab = vocab + self.char_embed = nn.Embedding(len(self.vocab.char2id), self.char_embed_size, padding_idx=self.vocab.char_pad) + self.cnn = CNN(self.char_embed_size, self.word_embed_size, kernel_size=5, padding=1) + self.highway = Highway(self.word_embed_size, self.word_embed_size, dropout_rate=0.3) + ### END YOUR CODE + + def forward(self, input): + """ + Looks up character-based CNN embeddings for the words in a batch of sentences. + @param input: Tensor of integers of shape (sentence_length, batch_size, max_word_length) where + each integer is an index into the character vocabulary + + @param output: Tensor of shape (sentence_length, batch_size, word_embed_size), containing the + CNN-based embeddings for each word of the sentences in the batch + """ + ### YOUR CODE HERE for part 1h + x = self.char_embed(input).transpose(0, 1) + x_conv = [] + for s in x: + s = s.transpose(1, 2) + s_conv = self.cnn(s) + x_conv.append(s_conv.unsqueeze(0)) + x_conv = torch.cat(x_conv, dim=0) + output = self.highway(x_conv).transpose(0, 1) + + return output + ## END YOUR CODE \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/nmt_model.py b/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/nmt_model.py new file mode 100644 index 0000000..9191272 --- /dev/null +++ b/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/nmt_model.py @@ -0,0 +1,397 @@ +#!/usr/bin/env python3 +# -*- coding: utf-8 -*- + +""" +CS224N 2019-20: Homework 5 +nmt_model.py: NMT Model +Pencheng Yin +Sahil Chopra +""" +from collections import namedtuple +import sys +from typing import List, Tuple, Dict, Set, Union +import torch +import torch.nn as nn +import torch.nn.utils +import torch.nn.functional as F +from torch.nn.utils.rnn import pad_packed_sequence, pack_padded_sequence + +from model_embeddings import ModelEmbeddings +from char_decoder import CharDecoder + +Hypothesis = namedtuple('Hypothesis', ['value', 'score']) + +import random + + +class NMT(nn.Module): + """ Simple Neural Machine Translation Model: + - Bidrectional LSTM Encoder + - Unidirection LSTM Decoder + - Global Attention Model (Luong, et al. 2015) + """ + + def __init__(self, word_embed_size, hidden_size, vocab, dropout_rate=0.3, no_char_decoder=False): + """ Init NMT Model. + + @param word_embed_size (int): Embedding size (dimensionality) of word + @param hidden_size (int): Hidden Size (dimensionality) + @param vocab (Vocab): Vocabulary object containing src and tgt languages + See vocab.py for documentation. + @param dropout_rate (float): Dropout probability, for attention + """ + super(NMT, self).__init__() + + self.model_embeddings_source = ModelEmbeddings(word_embed_size, vocab.src) + self.model_embeddings_target = ModelEmbeddings(word_embed_size, vocab.tgt) + + self.hidden_size = hidden_size + self.dropout_rate = dropout_rate + self.vocab = vocab + + ### COPY OVER YOUR CODE FROM ASSIGNMENT 4 + self.encoder = nn.LSTM(input_size=word_embed_size, hidden_size=hidden_size, bidirectional=True) + self.decoder = nn.LSTMCell(input_size=word_embed_size+hidden_size, hidden_size=hidden_size) + self.h_projection = nn.Linear(2*hidden_size, hidden_size, bias=False) + self.c_projection = nn.Linear(2*hidden_size, hidden_size, bias=False) + self.att_projection = nn.Linear(2*hidden_size, hidden_size, bias=False) + self.combined_output_projection = nn.Linear(3*hidden_size, hidden_size, bias=False) + self.target_vocab_projection = nn.Linear(hidden_size, len(vocab.tgt), bias=False) + self.dropout = nn.Dropout(dropout_rate) + ### END YOUR CODE FROM ASSIGNMENT 4 + + if not no_char_decoder: + self.charDecoder = CharDecoder(hidden_size, target_vocab=vocab.tgt) + else: + self.charDecoder = None + + def forward(self, source: List[List[str]], target: List[List[str]]) -> torch.Tensor: + """ Take a mini-batch of source and target sentences, compute the log-likelihood of + target sentences under the language models learned by the NMT system. + + @param source (List[List[str]]): list of source sentence tokens + @param target (List[List[str]]): list of target sentence tokens, wrapped by `` and `` + + @returns scores (Tensor): a variable/tensor of one number representing the + log-likelihood of generating the gold-standard target sentence for + each example in the input batch. Here b = batch size. + """ + # Compute sentence lengths + source_lengths = [len(s) for s in source] + + # Convert list of lists into tensors + target_padded = self.vocab.tgt.to_input_tensor(target, device=self.device) # Tensor: (tgt_len, b) + source_padded_chars = self.vocab.src.to_input_tensor_char(source, device=self.device) # Tensor: (src_len, b, max_w_len) + target_padded_chars = self.vocab.tgt.to_input_tensor_char(target, device=self.device) # Tensor: (tgt_len, b, max_w_len) + ### YOUR CODE HERE for part 1i + ### TODO: + ### Modify the code lines above as needed to fetch the character-level tensor + ### to feed into encode() and decode(). You should: + ### - Keep `target_padded` from A4 code above for predictions + ### - Add `source_padded_chars` for character level padded encodings for source + ### - Add `target_padded_chars` for character level padded encodings for target + ### - Modify calls to encode() and decode() to use the character level encodings + enc_hiddens, dec_init_state = self.encode(source_padded_chars, source_lengths) + enc_masks = self.generate_sent_masks(enc_hiddens, source_lengths) + combined_outputs = self.decode(enc_hiddens, enc_masks, dec_init_state, target_padded_chars) + ### END YOUR CODE + + P = F.log_softmax(self.target_vocab_projection(combined_outputs), dim=-1) + + # Zero out, probabilities for which we have nothing in the target text + target_masks = (target_padded != self.vocab.tgt['']).float() + + # Compute log probability of generating true target words + target_gold_words_log_prob = torch.gather(P, index=target_padded[1:].unsqueeze(-1), dim=-1).squeeze( + -1) * target_masks[1:] + scores = target_gold_words_log_prob.sum() # mhahn2 Small modification from A4 code. + + if self.charDecoder is not None: + max_word_len = target_padded_chars.shape[-1] + + target_words = target_padded[1:].contiguous().view(-1) + target_chars = target_padded_chars[1:].view(-1, max_word_len) + target_outputs = combined_outputs.view(-1, 256) + + target_chars_oov = target_chars # torch.index_select(target_chars, dim=0, index=oovIndices) + rnn_states_oov = target_outputs # torch.index_select(target_outputs, dim=0, index=oovIndices) + oovs_losses = self.charDecoder.train_forward(target_chars_oov.t().contiguous(), + (rnn_states_oov.unsqueeze(0), rnn_states_oov.unsqueeze(0))) + scores = scores - oovs_losses + + return scores + + def encode(self, source_padded: torch.Tensor, source_lengths: List[int]) -> Tuple[ + torch.Tensor, Tuple[torch.Tensor, torch.Tensor]]: + """ Apply the encoder to source sentences to obtain encoder hidden states. + Additionally, take the final states of the encoder and project them to obtain initial states for decoder. + @param source_padded (Tensor): Tensor of padded source sentences with shape (src_len, b, max_word_length), where + b = batch_size, src_len = maximum source sentence length. Note that + these have already been sorted in order of longest to shortest sentence. + @param source_lengths (List[int]): List of actual lengths for each of the source sentences in the batch + @returns enc_hiddens (Tensor): Tensor of hidden units with shape (b, src_len, h*2), where + b = batch size, src_len = maximum source sentence length, h = hidden size. + @returns dec_init_state (tuple(Tensor, Tensor)): Tuple of tensors representing the decoder's initial + hidden state and cell. + """ + enc_hiddens, dec_init_state = None, None + + ### COPY OVER YOUR CODE FROM ASSIGNMENT 4 + ### Except replace "self.model_embeddings.source" with "self.model_embeddings_source" + X = self.model_embeddings_source(source_padded) + X = pack_padded_sequence(X, torch.tensor(source_lengths)) + enc_hiddens, (last_hidden, last_cell) = self.encoder(X) + enc_hiddens, _ = pad_packed_sequence(enc_hiddens, batch_first=True) + init_dec_hidden = self.h_projection(torch.cat((last_hidden[0], last_hidden[1]), 1)) + init_dec_cell = self.c_projection(torch.cat((last_cell[0], last_cell[1]), 1)) + dec_init_state = (init_dec_hidden, init_dec_cell) + ### END YOUR CODE FROM ASSIGNMENT 4 + + return enc_hiddens, dec_init_state + + def decode(self, enc_hiddens: torch.Tensor, enc_masks: torch.Tensor, + dec_init_state: Tuple[torch.Tensor, torch.Tensor], target_padded: torch.Tensor) -> torch.Tensor: + """Compute combined output vectors for a batch. + @param enc_hiddens (Tensor): Hidden states (b, src_len, h*2), where + b = batch size, src_len = maximum source sentence length, h = hidden size. + @param enc_masks (Tensor): Tensor of sentence masks (b, src_len), where + b = batch size, src_len = maximum source sentence length. + @param dec_init_state (tuple(Tensor, Tensor)): Initial state and cell for decoder + @param target_padded (Tensor): Gold-standard padded target sentences (tgt_len, b, max_word_length), where + tgt_len = maximum target sentence length, b = batch size. + @returns combined_outputs (Tensor): combined output tensor (tgt_len, b, h), where + tgt_len = maximum target sentence length, b = batch_size, h = hidden size + """ + # Chop of the token for max length sentences. + target_padded = target_padded[:-1] + + # Initialize the decoder state (hidden and cell) + dec_state = dec_init_state + + # Initialize previous combined output vector o_{t-1} as zeros + batch_size = enc_hiddens.size(0) + o_prev = torch.zeros(batch_size, self.hidden_size, device=self.device) + + # Initialize a list we will use to collect the combined output o_t on each step + combined_outputs = [] + + ### COPY OVER YOUR CODE FROM ASSIGNMENT 4 + ### Except replace "self.model_embeddings.target" with "self.model_embeddings_target" + enc_hiddens_proj = self.att_projection(enc_hiddens) + Y = self.model_embeddings_target(target_padded) + for Y_t in torch.split(Y, 1, dim=0): + Y_t = torch.squeeze(Y_t, dim=0) + Ybar_t = torch.cat((Y_t, o_prev), dim=1) + dec_state, o_t, _ = self.step(Ybar_t, dec_state, enc_hiddens, enc_hiddens_proj, enc_masks) + combined_outputs.append(o_t) + o_prev = o_t + combined_outputs = torch.stack(combined_outputs, dim=0) + ### END YOUR CODE FROM ASSIGNMENT 4 + + return combined_outputs + + def step(self, Ybar_t: torch.Tensor, + dec_state: Tuple[torch.Tensor, torch.Tensor], + enc_hiddens: torch.Tensor, + enc_hiddens_proj: torch.Tensor, + enc_masks: torch.Tensor) -> Tuple[Tuple, torch.Tensor, torch.Tensor]: + """ Compute one forward step of the LSTM decoder, including the attention computation. + @param Ybar_t (Tensor): Concatenated Tensor of [Y_t o_prev], with shape (b, e + h). The input for the decoder, + where b = batch size, e = embedding size, h = hidden size. + @param dec_state (tuple(Tensor, Tensor)): Tuple of tensors both with shape (b, h), where b = batch size, h = hidden size. + First tensor is decoder's prev hidden state, second tensor is decoder's prev cell. + @param enc_hiddens (Tensor): Encoder hidden states Tensor, with shape (b, src_len, h * 2), where b = batch size, + src_len = maximum source length, h = hidden size. + @param enc_hiddens_proj (Tensor): Encoder hidden states Tensor, projected from (h * 2) to h. Tensor is with shape (b, src_len, h), + where b = batch size, src_len = maximum source length, h = hidden size. + @param enc_masks (Tensor): Tensor of sentence masks shape (b, src_len), + where b = batch size, src_len is maximum source length. + @returns dec_state (tuple (Tensor, Tensor)): Tuple of tensors both shape (b, h), where b = batch size, h = hidden size. + First tensor is decoder's new hidden state, second tensor is decoder's new cell. + @returns combined_output (Tensor): Combined output Tensor at timestep t, shape (b, h), where b = batch size, h = hidden size. + @returns e_t (Tensor): Tensor of shape (b, src_len). It is attention scores distribution. + Note: You will not use this outside of this function. + We are simply returning this value so that we can sanity check + your implementation. + """ + + combined_output = None + + ### COPY OVER YOUR CODE FROM ASSIGNMENT 4 + dec_state = self.decoder(Ybar_t, dec_state) + dec_hidden, dec_cell = dec_state[0], dec_state[1] + e_t = torch.squeeze(torch.bmm(enc_hiddens_proj, torch.unsqueeze(dec_hidden, dim=2)), dim=2) + ### END YOUR CODE FROM ASSIGNMENT 4 + + # Set e_t to -inf where enc_masks has 1 + if enc_masks is not None: + e_t.data.masked_fill_(enc_masks.bool(), -float('inf')) + + ### COPY OVER YOUR CODE FROM ASSIGNMENT 4 + alpha_t = F.softmax(e_t, dim=1) + a_t = torch.squeeze(torch.bmm(torch.unsqueeze(alpha_t, 1), enc_hiddens), dim=1) + U_t = torch.cat((a_t, dec_hidden), dim=1) + V_t = self.combined_output_projection(U_t) + O_t = self.dropout(torch.tanh(V_t)) + ### END YOUR CODE FROM ASSIGNMENT 4 + + combined_output = O_t + return dec_state, combined_output, e_t + + def generate_sent_masks(self, enc_hiddens: torch.Tensor, source_lengths: List[int]) -> torch.Tensor: + """ Generate sentence masks for encoder hidden states. + + @param enc_hiddens (Tensor): encodings of shape (b, src_len, 2*h), where b = batch size, + src_len = max source length, h = hidden size. + @param source_lengths (List[int]): List of actual lengths for each of the sentences in the batch. + + @returns enc_masks (Tensor): Tensor of sentence masks of shape (b, src_len), + where src_len = max source length, h = hidden size. + """ + enc_masks = torch.zeros(enc_hiddens.size(0), enc_hiddens.size(1), dtype=torch.float) + for e_id, src_len in enumerate(source_lengths): + enc_masks[e_id, src_len:] = 1 + return enc_masks.to(self.device) + + def beam_search(self, src_sent: List[str], beam_size: int = 5, max_decoding_time_step: int = 70) -> List[ + Hypothesis]: + """ Given a single source sentence, perform beam search, yielding translations in the target language. + @param src_sent (List[str]): a single source sentence (words) + @param beam_size (int): beam size + @param max_decoding_time_step (int): maximum number of time steps to unroll the decoding RNN + @returns hypotheses (List[Hypothesis]): a list of hypothesis, each hypothesis has two fields: + value: List[str]: the decoded target sentence, represented as a list of words + score: float: the log-likelihood of the target sentence + """ + + src_sents_var = self.vocab.src.to_input_tensor_char([src_sent], self.device) + + src_encodings, dec_init_vec = self.encode(src_sents_var, [len(src_sent)]) + src_encodings_att_linear = self.att_projection(src_encodings) + + h_tm1 = dec_init_vec + att_tm1 = torch.zeros(1, self.hidden_size, device=self.device) + + eos_id = self.vocab.tgt[''] + + hypotheses = [['']] + hyp_scores = torch.zeros(len(hypotheses), dtype=torch.float, device=self.device) + completed_hypotheses = [] + + t = 0 + while len(completed_hypotheses) < beam_size and t < max_decoding_time_step: + t += 1 + hyp_num = len(hypotheses) + + exp_src_encodings = src_encodings.expand(hyp_num, + src_encodings.size(1), + src_encodings.size(2)) + + exp_src_encodings_att_linear = src_encodings_att_linear.expand(hyp_num, + src_encodings_att_linear.size(1), + src_encodings_att_linear.size(2)) + + y_tm1 = self.vocab.tgt.to_input_tensor_char(list([hyp[-1]] for hyp in hypotheses), device=self.device) + y_t_embed = self.model_embeddings_target(y_tm1) + y_t_embed = torch.squeeze(y_t_embed, dim=0) + + x = torch.cat([y_t_embed, att_tm1], dim=-1) + + (h_t, cell_t), att_t, _ = self.step(x, h_tm1, + exp_src_encodings, exp_src_encodings_att_linear, enc_masks=None) + + # log probabilities over target words + log_p_t = F.log_softmax(self.target_vocab_projection(att_t), dim=-1) + + live_hyp_num = beam_size - len(completed_hypotheses) + contiuating_hyp_scores = (hyp_scores.unsqueeze(1).expand_as(log_p_t) + log_p_t).view(-1) + top_cand_hyp_scores, top_cand_hyp_pos = torch.topk(contiuating_hyp_scores, k=live_hyp_num) + + prev_hyp_ids = top_cand_hyp_pos / len(self.vocab.tgt) + hyp_word_ids = top_cand_hyp_pos % len(self.vocab.tgt) + + new_hypotheses = [] + live_hyp_ids = [] + new_hyp_scores = [] + + decoderStatesForUNKsHere = [] + for prev_hyp_id, hyp_word_id, cand_new_hyp_score in zip(prev_hyp_ids, hyp_word_ids, top_cand_hyp_scores): + prev_hyp_id = prev_hyp_id.item() + hyp_word_id = hyp_word_id.item() + cand_new_hyp_score = cand_new_hyp_score.item() + + hyp_word = self.vocab.tgt.id2word[hyp_word_id] + + # Record output layer in case UNK was generated + if hyp_word == "": + hyp_word = "" + str(len(decoderStatesForUNKsHere)) + decoderStatesForUNKsHere.append(att_t[prev_hyp_id]) + + new_hyp_sent = hypotheses[prev_hyp_id] + [hyp_word] + if hyp_word == '': + completed_hypotheses.append(Hypothesis(value=new_hyp_sent[1:-1], + score=cand_new_hyp_score)) + else: + new_hypotheses.append(new_hyp_sent) + live_hyp_ids.append(prev_hyp_id) + new_hyp_scores.append(cand_new_hyp_score) + + if len(decoderStatesForUNKsHere) > 0 and self.charDecoder is not None: # decode UNKs + decoderStatesForUNKsHere = torch.stack(decoderStatesForUNKsHere, dim=0) + decodedWords = self.charDecoder.decode_greedy( + (decoderStatesForUNKsHere.unsqueeze(0), decoderStatesForUNKsHere.unsqueeze(0)), max_length=21, + device=self.device) + assert len(decodedWords) == decoderStatesForUNKsHere.size()[0], "Incorrect number of decoded words" + for hyp in new_hypotheses: + if hyp[-1].startswith(""): + hyp[-1] = decodedWords[int(hyp[-1][5:])] # [:-1] + + if len(completed_hypotheses) == beam_size: + break + + live_hyp_ids = torch.tensor(live_hyp_ids, dtype=torch.long, device=self.device) + h_tm1 = (h_t[live_hyp_ids], cell_t[live_hyp_ids]) + att_tm1 = att_t[live_hyp_ids] + + hypotheses = new_hypotheses + hyp_scores = torch.tensor(new_hyp_scores, dtype=torch.float, device=self.device) + + if len(completed_hypotheses) == 0: + completed_hypotheses.append(Hypothesis(value=hypotheses[0][1:], + score=hyp_scores[0].item())) + + completed_hypotheses.sort(key=lambda hyp: hyp.score, reverse=True) + return completed_hypotheses + + @property + def device(self) -> torch.device: + """ Determine which device to place the Tensors upon, CPU or GPU. + """ + return self.att_projection.weight.device + + @staticmethod + def load(model_path: str, no_char_decoder=False): + """ Load the model from a file. + @param model_path (str): path to model + """ + params = torch.load(model_path, map_location=lambda storage, loc: storage) + args = params['args'] + model = NMT(vocab=params['vocab'], no_char_decoder=no_char_decoder, **args) + model.load_state_dict(params['state_dict']) + + return model + + def save(self, path: str): + """ Save the odel to a file. + @param path (str): path to the model + """ + print('save model parameters to [%s]' % path, file=sys.stderr) + + params = { + 'args': dict(word_embed_size=self.model_embeddings_source.word_embed_size, hidden_size=self.hidden_size, + dropout_rate=self.dropout_rate), + 'vocab': self.vocab, + 'state_dict': self.state_dict() + } + + torch.save(params, path) diff --git a/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/outputs/test_outputs_a4.txt b/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/outputs/test_outputs_a4.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..3b34adc --- /dev/null +++ b/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/outputs/test_outputs_a4.txt @@ -0,0 +1,8064 @@ +You know what I do is to write for the kids, and, in fact, I'm probably the author for kids, you have read in the United States. +And I always tell the people I don't want to seem like a scientist. +I can like farmer, or with leather and no one has chosen a farmer. +I'm here to talk to you about circles and +And you know that an epiphany generally is something that fell in some place. +You just have to go around the apple to see it as a +That's the paint of a circle. +A friend of mine did that -- Richard +It's the kind of complicated circle that I'm going to talk to you. +My circle started in the year at the middle school, in Ohio -- where I was the rare of the class. +When I was just beating up every week in the bathroom of the boys, until a teacher saved my life. +She saved my life by letting me get into the bathroom of the teachers. +He did it in secret. +For three years. +And I had to go out of the city. +I had a thumb, and I ended up in San Francisco, and it ended up in San Francisco, California -- I found a lover -- and in the years, I felt the need to start working in organizations that fight against AIDS. +About three or four years ago, half the night I got a phone call from that the lady who said, "I need to see you. +I'm that we have never come to know us. +You could go to Ohio and please bring that man that I know you've ever found. +And I must tell you that I have pancreatic cancer, and I'd like you to stand up with this, please." +Well, the next day we were in +We were going to see, we were and we realized that she needed to be +We found it a place, the and we take care of their family, because it was necessary, +It's something we knew what to do. +And so as the woman who wanted to as an adult came to it became a box of cinders and was put in my hands. +And what happened was that the circle had been closed, he had turned into a circle -- and that epiphany that I talked to you about it was in itself. + is that death is part of life. +She saved my life, my partner and I saved her. +And you know that that part of life needs everything that the rest of life. +It needs truth and beauty, and I'm very happy that today I talked a lot about this. +It also needs -- needs -- needs dignity, and love and pleasure. And it's our work to provide those things. +Thank you. +As an artist, the connection is very important to me. +Through my work, I'm trying to express that humans are not separated from nature and that everything is interconnected. +I was for the first time to Antarctica almost 10 years ago, and I saw my first +I was +My heart can quickly, I was trying to understand what was in front of me. +I put them around the water -- almost 60 meters, and I couldn't even think that it was about a about another about a + are born when you get out of the glaciers or the ice booms are born. +Every iceberg has its own individual personality. +They have a different way of interacting with their environment and their experiences. +Some of them refuse to embrace and hold down to the end, while others can't get more and in a +It's easy to think, when you see a that are isolated in and themselves, as much as we see us sometimes as humans. +But the reality is the opposite. +As a I'm breathing its atmosphere +As a B15 iceberg releases fresh water in minerals that feeds many forms of life. +I come up to photograph these as if it was about the portraits of my ancestors, knowing that in these unique moments there are that way and won't be going to exist in that way again. +It's not death when it was it's not an end, but a continuation of its way for the cycle of life. +Part of the ice of the I photograph is very it has a couple of years old. +And another part of the ice has over 100,000 years. +The last few pictures I'd like to show you is a iceberg which I photographed on Greenland. +It's unlikely to actually witness an iceberg +Here it is. +You can see the left one little boat. +It's about five meters. +And I'd like you to pay attention to the shape of the iceberg and your +You can see here, it starts to the ship has moved into the other side and the man is standing there. +This is an iceberg in Greenland, average size. + of the water about 120 feet or 40 meters. +This video is in real time. +And so the iceberg shows a different side of his personality. +Thank you. +I want you to imagine two couples in 1979, the same day, exactly at the same time, each one -- a baby. Okay. +So, two couples each with a baby. +I don't want you to go too much to the details of conception, because if you stop thinking about which, I don't pay attention to me. +Let's think about it for a moment. +And in this stage I want you to imagine that, in a case, the chromosome and the sperm came together to the X X +And in the other case, the X chromosome is joined by the X X +Both of them, and it starts life. +We're going to talk about them later. +In my activity to make two roles. +In one of my I work with the history of anatomy. +I am for training, and what I study in this case is the way people came to the anatomy of the anatomy -- you know, human bodies and how they have considered body fluids -- the idea of what they've thought about the body. +The other role that performance in my work is an activist, as a of patients or, as I say sometimes, of people who are medical patients. +In this case, I've worked with people whose physical characteristics defy social norms. +I've been working, for example, with twins -- two people inside one body. +I've worked with people with people much lower than average. +And I've worked with a lot of people with sex, individuals whose physical typology doesn't fit into male and conventional female experiences. +In general lines, we can + adopt many ways. +I'm going to give you some examples in ways of having a sex that doesn't be in common forms or +For example, it's the case of the individual with the which is the gene from the chromosome -- and it tells the that we all have in life that will become +And then, in life -- the testes make testosterone. +But because this individual does lacks testosterone, the body doesn't react to the same. +It's called +So, there are high testosterone but without reaction. +As a result, the body develops a course is +When I the baby is a little bit of a little girl. +It's a boy, it's raised as a little girl. +And often, it's not but until puberty, when it's growing and developing the breast -- but it doesn't have the menstrual period, when someone realizes that something is happening. +And then from doing tests you realize that instead of having and it actually has testicles and a chromosome. +The important thing to understand is that you can think of a man, but it's actually not like that. +Women like men, we have in the body -- something called the areolar +They're in the back of the body. +The areolar produce the hormone +Most women like me -- I think a woman doesn't know his structure, I think to be a typical woman most women like me are sensitive to the +We produce and we respond to the +As a consequence, someone like me has the brain the more exposed to the that the woman who was born with testicles that have +So sex is complicated -- it's not that are in the middle of the in some form can be everywhere. +Another example: a few years ago, I got a call from a 19-year-old who was born and raised as had and sexual relationships with her, he was wearing a life as a guy and I had just found out that he had room and +He had an extreme way of a disease known as +He had the 20th trees and the uterus -- the areolar were so active that in essence, created a male environment. +As a consequence, their genitals were their brain was exposed to the hormone component typically male. +He was born like no one +And it was at the age of 19, when he started to have the medical problems caused by the internal when doctors found that, in fact, it was women in the inside. +Well, another quick example of a case of +Some people with the 20th 20th develop is they develop what is known as -- you have tissue, wrapped up in tissue. +We don't know why that happens. +So, there are many varieties of sex. +The reason that children with this kind of bodies are going to be -- twins or twins are or they are for a better physical health. +In many cases people are perfectly healthy. +The reason they these surgeries is that they are a threat to our social categories. +The system is usually based on the idea that a particular anatomy brings up a particular identity. +We have the idea that being a woman is to have identity, being black means to have African anatomy in terms of +Very simplistic. +And when you present a body that shows something quite different, we have problems with +So we have very divergent ideas in our culture about the +Our nation is based on a very romantic. +Imagine how surprising it is to have children that are born like two people within one body. +The last recent case is last year with the South African was put on judgment of judgment at the +A lot of journalists called them to ask, "What are you going to do to determine whether or is a man or +And I had to explain to the journalists that there is no such test. +In fact, now we know that sex is so complicated that we have to say that nature doesn't trace a line between men and women or between men and and women and we are the people who draw that line. +So what we have is a situation where the more we do the science, the more we have to say that these categories were categories like categories that are directly with categories, are much more than we +And not only in terms of sex. +It's also in terms of race, something that turns out much more complicated than the terminology of +As we see, we go into a rough terrain. + for example, the fact that we share at least 95 percent of the DNA with the chimps. +What do you find? Of them in just a few +And as we thrive in science, we get more and more on a very uncomfortable area in which we have to recognize that the categories that are probably too much +And we're looking at this in all walks of human life. +One of them, for example, in our current culture, in the United States of today, are the struggles at the beginning and the end of life. +It's hard to set up a moment from which a body becomes human and has different rights to the +There are very discussions today not in public, but I know within the about when someone considers themselves dead. +Our ancestors never had to stand up with this question of whether someone was dead. +As a lot of mine would put a pen in front of the nose, and if it was still moving it down. +If I stopped moving the +But we can, for example, extract vital organs from a body and put them in another body. +And as a consequence, we have to deal with the prisoner's dilemma actually actually puts us in a hard situation where we don't have the simple categories of the past. +And maybe think that this explosion of categories could be happy someone like me. +In politics I'm progressive, to people with unusual bodies but I have to admit that he gets a nervous. +And that these categories are much more fragile than we thought I was going to be +It was from the concept point of democracy. +And to tell you about this tension first, I have to admit that I'm a fervent fan of the +I know they were I know they were but they were big. +I mean, they were so brave and audacious and so in what they did, that I find every bit of looking at that music, and not by the music, which is totally +It's because of what happened in with the +The were, for me, the first activists of the anatomy and explain why. +What they was a concept. +And as they all remember, what we our was the idea of The monarchy was based on a very simplistic concept of anatomy. +The monarchs of the old world didn't know the DNA, but they had clear the idea of the right of birth. +They had the concept of blue blood. +They were from the idea that it came to the political power of blood being passed from the grandfather to the father and then the son, and so on. +The rejected that idea and replaced it for a new concept, and that concept was that all men are created equal. +They the game camp and they decided that the anatomy that mattered was the anatomy in common and not the -- that was very radical. +And partly as they were doing it because they were part of a system, where they were being served two things. +It was the democracy and at the same time to look at science. +And it's very clear, if you look at the history of the that many of them were very interested in science and in the idea of a world. +They were taken away from the explanations and therefore the concept of being able to a idea of the right of birth. +They were moving into a concept. +And if you look at for example, the Declaration of Independence, talk about nature and the god of nature. +They don't talk about God and the nature of God. +They talked about the power of nature to tell us who we are. +And in a consequence they were passing the idea of the coincidence. +And in doing so, they were laid the foundation of the future rights movement. +They didn't think about it, but they did it for us, and it was great. +And what about years next? +And women +Then came the success of the Civil Rights Movement with people from saying, "I'm not a +We found men in the rows of the Civil Rights Movement saying, "I'm a man." +And again, people who are going to go to the coincidence of and, again, +We see the same with the Slow Movement. +The problem is, of course, as we look at the we have to start asking why we keep certain +But attention -- I want to keep some timber in our culture. +For example, I don't want to give a fish the same rights that to a human. +I don't mean we had to look at anatomy. +I don't mean that the age of five years were supposed to allow them to have sex or married. +There are some that for me make sense, and I think we should be +But the challenge is to try to figure out what they are, why keep them and make sense. +Well, let's go back to those two things that are at the beginning of this talk. +We have two both in the exactly the same day. +Imagine that one of them, Mary, two months before time: June 1, 1980. +On the contrary, he was born in term: was born one of March March page. +For the only fact that we had been born three months before Mary were attributed all the rights three months before Henry -- the right to the right for the right to the right to +Henry has to wait for all that not because it has a different age, but because it was born later. +We found other in relation to their rights. +So Henry, by virtue of being considered -- if I haven't told you if it's by virtue of being considered a man now is of the author that Mary doesn't have to worry. +Mary, for his hand, it doesn't have the rights to marriage that Henry in all states, for example. +Henry can marry all the states with a woman, but Mary can get married with a woman only in some states. +So still categories that in various aspects are and +And now the question is, what do we do now that the science was moving so much in the field of the anatomy that we get to the point of having to admit that a democracy based on the anatomy of the anatomy of +I don't want to give up in science, but at the same time sometimes I feel like science is +Where do we go from here? +It seems like what happens in our culture is kind of a attitude -- "Well, we need to trace the line somewhere, so we're going to do." +But a lot of people get caught in a strange position. +For example, Texas at a moment has decided to get married with a man doesn't have to have a and to get married with a woman you have to have +Now, in practice they don't make tests of people +But this is also very strange to given the story that I told you at the beginning of the +If we look at one of the founding fathers of modern democracy, Dr. Luther King, in his speech "I wish offers a solution. +It says we should judge people not in their skin, but in the content of their going beyond anatomy. +And I want to say, "Yeah, the idea looks pretty good." +But in practice, how do you do this? +How do you judge people based on the content of their +I want to point out that I'm not sure that I should be able to focus on this for the rights to people, because I have to admit that I know about some who probably deserve more social services than some humans I know. +I also want to tell you that maybe some that I know can make more intelligent intelligent choices and about their sexual relationships than people from 40 to me. +So how do we put the issue of the content of +It turns out very hard. +And one part of me asks what would happen if the character of a person could be measured by an instrument, maybe with an MRI thing. +Do we really want to get at that point? +I'm not sure where we go. +What I know is that it seems to be very important that the United States is still leading this current of thinking about democracy. +We've done a good job in defense of democracy and I think we're going to do a good job in the future. +We don't live, for example, in a context like Iranian where a man feels attracted to other men is susceptible to being unless you're willing to have a change of sex, where it is allowed to live. +We're not in that situation. +I'm glad to say that we don't have a context like the one of a surgeon that I talked about a couple years ago that I had done to sunlight twins to then pick it up, and so they her +But when the phone was asked by the phone of the operation, a very operation, he responded to me that other kids would be very and therefore I had to do it. +What I said, "Well, it's considered political asylum. Instead of separation for +The United States offers huge possibilities to people to be who are to change for the state of the state. +So I think we need to be on your head. +Well, to finish up, I mean, I've been talking about the +And I want to think about what the democracy would be, or as it could have been, if we had given more involvement in the +And I want to say something a little bit radical for a feminist, and it is that I think there may be different ideas coming from different in particular, if there are people thinking in a group. +For years ago, since I've been interested in the I've also been interested in doing the sexual difference. +And one of the things that have been interested in is the differences between men and women in the way of thinking and operate in the world. +And what we know about studies is that women, on average, not all, but in they tend to pay more attention to complex social relationships and to engage in those who are within the group. +And if we think about that, we have an interesting situation in our hands. +And years ago, when I was in graduate school, one of my advisers that I knew I was interested in my feminism -- I thought to me as a made me a + what does women have +And I thought, "It's the most stupid question I've ever heard. +Feminism has to be able to get rid of the stereotypes of gender, so there's nothing female +But the more I have thought about their question, more than there is something in +I mean, there could be something, on average, something different between the female brains and the male that makes us more to complex social relationships and willing to help the most vulnerable. +So if the were very attentive -- they were very attentive to find the way to protect the people in the state, it's possible that, to have gotten more to this concept, maybe we would have enriched the concept of protection with support. +And maybe that's what we need to do in the future when we give the democracy beyond the individual -- think less in the individual body, in terms of identity, and think more about relationships. +So as we try to create a more perfect think about what we do for each other. +Thank you. +In 2007, I decided we had to rethink how we think about economic development. +Our new goal should be that when every family thinking about where they want to go live and work, have the possibility of choosing between at least a handful of different cities that are competing for attracting new residents to do. +Well, at this point, we're far away from that goal. +There are billions of people in developing countries that don't have a single city willing to +But the amazing thing about cities is that they're worth a lot more than their low-cost cost. +So we could easily put it into the world -- maybe hundreds of new cities. +Well, this may sound absurd if you've never thought about new cities. +But they simply replaced by building buildings. +Imagine that half the people who wanted to live in apartments already were owners and the other half still to do that. +You could try to increase the capacity by doing it in all the existing buildings. +But you know that the problem that we're going to do is that those buildings and the areas that surround them have rules to avoid the and the causes of construction. +So it would be very hard to do all of those +But you could go to a whole new place, build a whole new apartment building -- always and when the rules of that place will be built, rather than building +So I suggested that governments are new reform zones to hold cities and gave them a name, cities under +Later I found out that more or less at the same time, and were thinking about the challenge of reform Honduras. +Did you know that every year about 75,000 people would come out of their country to go to the United States, and they wanted to ask what they could do to make sure that those people could stay and do those same things in Honduras. +In the summer of 2009 happened by a constitutional crisis. +In the next few elections that we had to do -- were committed to a platform in which a reforms of reforms and at the same time reconciliation. +He asked who was his head of +Meanwhile, I was preparing for a talk in TEDGlobal. +Through a process of trial and error and a lot of evidence with users, I tried to reduce this complicated concept of cities under to their most fundamental ideas. +The first point was the importance of the norms, such as those rules that they say you can't go and annoy all the current residents of apartments. +It takes a lot of attention to new technologies, but you need both of the technologies like the rules for and usually they are the rules that prevent us forward. +In the fall of 2010, a friend of Guatemala sent him a link to the TEDTalk. +I showed it to +They had me. +They said, this to the leaders of our +So in December we met in Miami, a conference room in a hotel. +I tried to explain to you this point about how valuable the cities are, so much more valuable than its cost. +And I used this picture that shows the value of land in a place like New York City which in some cases, is worth thousands of dollars per square meter. +But it was a pretty abstract argument, and at some point, when there was a pause, when he said, maybe we could see the video of the talk. +And the talk described in very simple terms that a city under is a place where it starts with terrain is a piece where it starts with ground and an option for people to choose if they want to go and not live under those norms. +So the president of came to me, and he told me that we had to do this project, this is important, this could be the way for our country to move it. +He asked me to be and I'd talk about the four and five of January. +So I presented another talk full of data, which included an image like this, which was trying to explain that to make a lot of value to a city, this has to be very big. +This is a photo of and the white line is the new airport that was built in +This airport just covers over 100 square miles. +So I was trying to convince the that to build a new city, you have to start with a site that was going on at least 1,000 square miles. +That's more than 100,000 acres. +All the world's +The public faces were very serious and +The conference leader came up to the platform, and he said, thank you so much for his talk, but maybe we could see the video of the TEDTalk. +I have this here in my +So I felt and showed me the TEDTalk. +And this explained that a new city can provide new choices for people. +There would be a choice of a city that might be able to be in instead of hundreds of miles away into the North. +And we also have new choices for leaders. +Because the leaders of the government would require countries that could benefit from the countries associated with that they would help them set up and make the rules of the so they could all trust the so they could all rely on that the are actually +We went and saw a site. +This picture is from there. +It could take you a few thousand square miles. +And shortly later, the 19 of January, you voted in Congress to their Constitution and add a constitutional tool that would allow you to create these special regions of development. +In a country that had just gone through this crisis, the voting in Congress for this constitutional constitutional for this constitutional constitutional +All the all the in society, +For in the it has to pass twice in Congress. +On February 17 and over the other time was passed on in the other ways, of to one. +Immediately after voting on the time of 21 to 24 of February, a was to the two places in the world that are more interested in building cities. +One of them is South Korea. +This is a picture of a new city center that is building in Korea -- it's bigger than the center of Boston. +All you see there was built in four years, after it was four years old, getting the +The other country interested in building cities is Singapore. +In fact, they've built two cities in China, and they're preparing for a third. +And if you think about this, this is the point where we are. +They have a place, and they're already thinking about a place for the second city. +They are preparing a legal system that would allow the to be able to operate under an external legal system. +A country has been committed to allowing their Supreme Court to be the court of the last instance for this new justice system. +There are urban and cities that are very interested in the project. +You can even get some funding. +But the only thing we know that you've solved you have solved is that they have a good number of people. +There's a lot of companies that wanted to be installed in the especially in a place with a free trade, and there are a lot of people who would like to go live there. +In the world there are 700 million people who say they would like to change it to another place. +There's a million a million a million dollars that comes out of Latin America to go to the United States. +Many of them are parents who have to leave their family back to their family to go to work -- sometimes they are moms who have to earn money for just eating or buy clothes. +Unfortunately, sometimes there are no kids who are trying to meet their parents that haven't seen in some cases, in a decade. +So what do you think about building a new city in +Or build a dozen of these, or a hundred of these all over the world? +What seems to you to think about so that families can choose between various cities that are competing for attracting new +This is an idea worth spreading. +And my friends -- I was asked to say, "Thank you TED. +I'm a and this is my +But before I show you what there is inside, I'm going to make a confession public -- and that's that I live obsessed with +I love to find, dress, and more recently photograph and publish my blog and colorful and colorful and different for every time. +But I don't buy anything new. +All my clothes is a second hand of markets and +Ah, thank you. +The second stores allow me to reduce the impact of my in the environment and my +I go to meet people for the general thing -- my money goes to a good My look like and buying it into my personal search +I mean, what am I going to find today? +I'll be from my size? +I'll like color color. +It will cost less than 20 dollars? +If all the answers are then I feel I've won. +So back to the theme of my I want to tell you what I was doing for this exciting week at TED. +I mean, what does it bring to someone who has all that +So I'm going to show you exactly what I suit. +I've brought seven pairs of underwear, and nothing else. +You're looking inside for a week that's all I've put in my +I thought it would be able to find everything else that I'd like to use after you get here to Palm +And because I don't know how the woman who walks for TED in underwear, that means I found some things. +And I'd like to show you now the sets of data for this week. +It doesn't sound interesting? +While I do, I'm also going to tell you some of the lessons of life that, believe it or not, I've learned in this adventure of not using new clothing. +Let's start with a Sunday. +This is a brilliant tiger man. +You don't have to spend a lot of money to look good. +You almost always see phenomenal for less than 50 dollars. +All the together, including the it took me and it's the most expensive thing I've ever used in the week. + color is power. +It's almost impossible to be when you're wearing a brilliant red phone. +If you're happy, you're going to attract other happy people. + The integration is +I've spent a lot of time in life trying to be myself, and at the same time. +You just know yourself. +If you get away from the right people in the right person, not only do you get rid of you. + of the child who have been inside. +Sometimes people tell me that it seems like I play or I remember her little +I like to and say, + Trust is the key thing. +If you think you do well with something, it's almost sure you are. +And if you think you don't see anything, it's probably also true. +My mother taught me this day after day. +But it wasn't until the 30 years that I really understood their meaning. +And I'm going to explain it in a few seconds. +If you think you're a beautiful person on your interior and outside, there is no look that you can't do it. +So there's no excuse for anybody in this audience. +We must be able to do everything we want to achieve. +Thank you. + A universal truth for you: go with everything. +And finally, a personal and one is a great way to tell the world something about you without having to say a word. +I've tried over and over again when people approached me this week simply by what I was using, and we had fantastic conversations. +Obviously this is not going to go into my little +So before I went home to Brooklyn, I'm going to donate everything. +Because the lesson that I'm trying to learn this week is that you have to leave some things. +I don't need any emotionally to these things, because around the corner, there will always be another crazy, colorful and brilliant suit -- if there is a little bit of love in my heart and +Thank you very much. +Thank you. +This is a representation of your brain that we can split into two parts. +The left side, which is the wrong part, and the right side, which is the intuitive. +So, if you take a scale to measure the of every single we could design a blueprint for our brain. +For example, this would be somebody who is completely logical. +This would be somebody who is completely intuitive. +So where do you get your brain at this scale? +Some for one of these ends, but I think for most of the members of this audience, your brain is something like -- with a great in both at the same time. +It's not that they're mutually +You can be logical and intuitive. +I consider myself one of those people, which just like most of the other quantum physical physicists, we need a lot of logical logic to make these complicated ideas. +But at the same time, we need a lot of intuition to make experiments really work. +How do we develop this Well, we like to play with things. +We are going to play with them and then we see it as and then we developed our intuition from that point. +And actually, you do the same thing. + intuition that you can have developed with the step of the years is the one that says one thing can be only in a place at once. +I mean, it may sound weird to think that one thing is in two different places at the same time, but you weren't born with this +I remember looking at a kid playing in a parking bar. +It was a little kid and didn't do it very well, he always +But I bet you play that bar in the parking bar to show him a valuable lesson, and it's that the big things don't allow the and they stay in a place. +This is a great conceptual model that you can have in the world, except to be a particle physicist. +It would be a terrible model for a particles, because they don't play in parking bars, they play with these strange little particles. +And when they play their particles, they discover that they do all kinds of really rare things -- like they can walk across walls, or that can be in two different places at the same time. +And then they wrote all these observations, and called it theory of quantum mechanics. +At that point there was the physics -- a few years ago -- you needed of quantum mechanics to describe these little particles. +But you didn't need to describe the big objects around us every day. +That didn't fit very well to my intuition, and maybe it's because they don't really play with particles. +Well, sometimes I play with them, but not very much. +And I've never seen them. +I mean, never nobody saw a +But it didn't fit well to my logic. +Because if everything is made of little particles and all the little particles follow the principles of quantum mechanics, then I should all follow the principles of quantum mechanics. +I don't find the reason why it doesn't should. +And so I would feel much better if I could somehow demonstrate that a common object also follows the principles of quantum mechanics. +That's why a few years ago, I proposed to do exactly that. +And I did. +This is the first object that you can see has been in a of quantum mechanics. +What we see here is a little computer chip. +And you can try to see the green dot right in the middle. +That's the little bit of metal I'm going to talk about in a minute. +This is a picture of the object. +And here I'm going to expand a little bit. It's found right at the center. +And then we do a very big approach to small metal +What we see is a little bit of metal with a springboard and that stands up on a platform. +And so I did this almost like you would do a computer chip. +I went to a clean room with a silicon chip and put all the big machines for about 100 hours. +For the last material, I had to build my own machine -- to make this that is under the device. +This device has the ability to be in a quantum overlap but for it needs a little help. +Let me make an analogy. +You know how awkward, it is to be on an elevator full of people. +I mean, when I'm on an elevator for me, I do all kinds of weird things, but then when other people go up with them to do those things, because I don't want them to hear it, or, really, +Quantum mechanics says that inanimate objects behave in the same way. +The colleagues on the journey of inanimate objects are not just the light that it, and the wind that goes on to the side and the heat of the room. +So we knew that if we wanted this little metal piece of metal to behave on quantum mechanics, we would have to all the other passengers. +And that's what we did. + the lights -- then we put a and pulled it out all the air, and then we put it at a temperature at less than a degree on absolute zero. +Now, as being in the the little metal piece is free to act like it. +So we measure their movements. +We found that it was moving in very strange ways. +Instead of staying still, it was and the way it was to it was like a breath in this way -- like a which expands and +And by giving it a smooth station, we were able to make it and they didn't go to the same time -- something that only happens with quantum mechanics. +So what I'm telling you is something really fantastic. +What does it mean that a thing -- and they didn't go to the same time? +Let's think about atoms. +In a case, all the trillion atoms that make that piece of metal are still and at the same time those same atoms are moving up and down and down. +It's just on certain when those are +At the rest of the time they're +It means that every atom is in two different places, at the same time, what it means is that all the piece of metal is in two different places. +I think this is great. +Seriously. +It was the shame in a clean room to do this for all of those years, because, look at this, the difference in scale between one atom between one atom and that little metal piece is more or less the same than the difference between that little metal piece of metal and you. +So if one single atom can be in two different places at the same time, and that metal piece can be in two different places, why don't you too? +I mean, it's my sort of logical part of the logical thing. +So so imagine if they were in a number of places at the same time, what would that be? +How do you make your consciousness if your body was in space? +There's another part of the story. +And it's when we get it, and we turned the lights and we look inside the box, we saw that the metal was still in one piece. +And I could get to this new intuition, apparently all the objects on the elevator are actually only quantum objects that are just in a small space. +You hear a lot about that quantum mechanics says it's all interconnected. +Well, that's not so true. +It's more profound than that. +So those connections, your connections to all the things that are around you, they literally define who you are, and that's the deep strangeness of quantum mechanics. +Thank you. +My name is +And 18 months ago, I was doing another work on Google, until I launched the idea of doing something related to museums and art to my head who's here and that allowed me to take it. +It took me 18 months and me. +A lot of negotiations and stories, were with 17 very interesting museums in nine countries. +But I'm going to focus on the +There's a lot of stories of why we did. +I think my own story is just explaining to this slide and this is access. +I grew up in India. +I had a lot of education -- not but I didn't have access to many of these museums and works of art. +So when I started traveling and go to museums, I started learning a lot. +And working on Google, I try to make the desire to make it more accessible by technology. +So we formed a team, a great team of people, and we started doing it. +You'd better show you the demo to then tell you a couple of interesting things that we have done from their launch. +So, let's go to +Look at all the museums there. +Is the gallery +I'm actually going to go into one of my favorites, the museum in New York City. +There are two ways of doing it -- very simple. +We click and we're already inside the museum. +It doesn't matter where they are, or that doesn't really matter. +You move around and +They want to navigate the +We open the top, and, with one click, we jump inside. +You're inside, that you want to go to the end of the hall, right? +We keep going forward. That would be + +Thank you, but I haven't reached the best. +Now I'm in front of one of my favorite paintings, "The of in the +I see the sign. +If the museum shows us the image, we click on there. +See, this is one of the images. +Here's all the information of +For those of you who are really interested in art, you can click there, but I'm going to click here right now. +And this is one of the images we've captured in what we call the technology. +So this image, for example, I think, about 10,000 million pixels. +And there are a lot of people who ask me, "What do you get with 10,000 million +So I'm going to show you what you actually do with 10 million pixels. +It can zoom in in a very simple way. +You see some fun things that are happening. +I love this guy, his speech has no price. +But if you really want to do a +So I started to play, and I found something that was going on there. +And I said, "Wait a moment, this seems +I walked and discovered that kids were actually playing something. +And it was a little bit, I talked to some people from the and I actually found that this is a game called which consists of hitting a with a +And it would seem very popular. +I don't know why they did, but I've learned something about it. +And now we're going to get into depth even further and see that you can actually get to the cracks. +Now just to give you a little perspective, I'm going to take the image, so you'll see really what there is. +Here's where we were, and this is the painting. +The best thing is to come, a second. +So now we go quickly to jump again at MoMA in New York. +Here's another one of my favorites, +The example I showed you was to find details. +But what if you want to see the +And if you want to see how Van Gogh actually created this work. +It goes up and really get it +I'm going to one of my favorite parts in this picture, and I'm really going to get to the cracks. +This is I think I had never seen it before. +I'm going to show you another one of my favorite functions. +There are a lot more things here, but I don't have time to +This is the really cool part. It's called +All of you, absolutely all, no matter whether it's rich or poor, or if you have a that gives you the same way. +You can online create your own museum, create your own collection from all these images. +It's very simple, we walked -- I've created this function that I call "The -- we just made a zooming around around. +It's about at the National Portrait Gallery, +You can write things, send it to your friends and keep a conversation about what you feel like contemplating these works. +So in conclusion, I think to me, the main thing is that all incredible things actually don't come from Google. +No, in my opinion, they even don't come from museums. +Maybe I should not say this. +Actually, they come from those artists. +And that's been my humble experience with this. +I mean, I hope that in this digital media will do justice to its work of art, and it's represented properly online. +And the great question I'm doing today is: "You did this to repeat the experience of going to a +And the answer is no. +It's to supplement the experience. +And that's all. Thank you. +Thank you. +Good evening everybody. +I have something to show you. +Think this is a a flying pixel ... +In our lab, we call it sensitive design. +Let me tell you a little bit about this. +If you look at this picture -- I'm from Italian, Italian, all the children in Italy grow with this photo on the wall of his bedroom. But the reason I'm showing you this is that it has happened to be something very interesting about corporate careers one in the last two decades. +Now some time ago, if you wanted to win a career of Formula 1, I would take a budget and get it to a good pilot and a good car, and a good car, and a good car, and a good car, and a good car, and a good car. +And if the car and the pilot were good enough, you made the career. +This is what in engineering, you get into real time control system. +It's essentially a system that has two a sensor and a +Today what's interesting is that the control systems in real time are starting to go into our lives. +Our cities, over the last few years, have been covered with networks and electronics. +They're turning computers in the air. +And as are starting to respond differently and can be and + cities is a big thing. +As you can tell, I wanted to mention that cities are only two percent of the planet's cortex but they represent 50 percent of the world's population. +75 percent of the consumption of and to 80 percent of the CO2 emissions. +If we could do something with the cities, it would be a big thing. +Beyond cities, all these and are entering our everyday objects. +This is from an exhibit of for the purposes at MoMA, during the summer. +It's called uncle, +Well, our objects, the environment, they start +In a way, it's like almost all of the existing atoms become sensors and +And that's changing the interaction that we as humans do with the outer environment. +In a certain sense, it's almost like the old dream of Miguel +You know, when Michelangelo the he says that at the end took the hammer, and he threw it over the Moses -- you can still see a little and said, "Nice +Well, today, for the first time, our environment starts to +And I'm going to show you just a few on the idea of getting the environment and push something. +Let's start with the detection. +The first project I wanted to share with you is actually one of the first projects in our lab. +This was four years ago in Italy. +It was a summer in 2006. +It was the year that Italy won the World Cup in the World. +Maybe some of the remember, they played in Italy and France, and at the end of the he gave the +And anyway, at the end I won Italy. +Now let's see what happened that day by looking at activity in the net. +Here we see the city. +You see the in the middle and the River River. +It's tomorrow, before the game. +The timeline. +At the late afternoon, there are people over here and making phone calls, +It starts the silence. + from France. + people do a quick phone call and goes into the bathroom. +Second time. End of time. +First time second. + and at a moment, the +She makes Italy, +That night they all went to at the center. +There you see the big +The next day everyone was at the center of the winning team and the prime minister then. +And then everybody drove down. +You see the picture of the place called where, since the time, people are going to it's a great party, you can see the peak at the end of the day. +This is just an example of how you can measure the pulse of the city in a way that we couldn't do just a few years ago. +Another quick example of is not about people, but things that we use and consume it. +We now know everything about the origin of our objects. +So this is a map that shows all of the chips that make up a how it was +But we know very little about where things are. +So in this project we developed a little bit of small tags to track the trash in their shift by the system. +We started with some volunteers who helped us in Seattle a little more than a year, to label what they were talking about, different kinds of things, as you can see, things that all of all forms +Then we put them a little chip, a label on the garbage and then we started +These are the results. +From +After a week. +With this information we realized that there are a lot of in the system. +We can do the same with much less energy. +These are data that didn't exist. +There are complicated things, and there is a lot of need. +But the other thing that we think is that if you look at every day that the cup that we just stopped not completely lost, that's still somewhere on the planet. +If the plastic bottle that we a day still goes on there. +If we show it to people, then we can promote some behavioral change. +That was the reason for the project. +My colleague from MIT, could tell you a lot more about detection and many other great things that we can do with that, but I wanted to go to the second part that we talked about at the beginning, which is push over the environment. +And the first project is something we did a couple years ago in +It all started with a question of the mayor of the city, which came and told us that Spain and southern Europe have a beautiful tradition of use of the water in public spaces in the architecture. +And the question was, how can technology, new technology, join that? +And one of the ideas we developed at MIT, in a workshop, it was, imagine you have a and put it out of valves just open and +It creates like a water curtain, with water. +If you go down the pixels you can write in them, show patterns, images, +And when we zoom in, the curtain will open so that we can go to happen, as you see in the image. +We introduced this to the mayor +He liked it so much. +And we had a commission to design the building at the entrance to the +We call it +The whole building is made of water. +There are no doors and no windows, but when you open it up and it opens up so you can make it happen. +The ceiling is also covered with water. +And if there is a bit of wind, if you want to minimize the your roof. +Or you can close the building and all the architecture disappears, like this. +Those days there will always be somebody, in the winter, when the roof goes down the roof, someone who was there, and he said, the +No, it's not that it's but when it comes down almost all the architecture away. +Here it is working. +You see the people who are going on the inside. +And here I'm myself trying to do not the sensors that open the water. +I think I should tell you what happened one night when all the sensors stopped working. +That night was actually even more fun. +All the children of came to the building because the way to interact had changed a little bit. +It wasn't a building that was going to open for you to leave you to leave you out, but a building that kept doing and water holes, and you had to jump to not getting wet. + noise) And for us that was really interesting because as architects, engineers, designers, we always think about the use that people will give our designs. +But then the reality is always unpredictable. +And that's the beauty of doing things for that people use. +This is a picture of the building with the physical pixels and the pixels of water, and of projections on them. +And this is what led us to think about the next project I'm going to show you. +Imagine that those pixels could start to fly. +So imagine you could have small helicopters in the air and that each one had a little pixel that changes color as if it was a cloud moving in space. +This is the video. +Imagine a helicopter, as we saw before, which is moving with others in sync. +We could form this cloud, right? +A flexible screen like this with a normal screen in two dimensions. +Or normal -- but in three dimensions, what it changes is light, not the position position. +You can play with a different guy. +Imagine the screen appears in different scales and sizes, in different types of resolution. +And then all of that could be a cloud of pixels in the way that you can reach, and you can see it from very different perspectives. +This is the real going down to form a like it before. +When you turn the lights on, it looks like this. The same thing we saw before. +Imagine each of them with one person. +We can have every pixel with a input that comes from people, of the movement of people, etc., etc. +I want to show you something for the first time. +We've been working with of the best dance dancers of today, the star of the of New York City and the of to capture their 3D movements and use it as input to the +Here we can see dancing. +On the left you see the capture in different +It's both in real time as a movement capture. +It can all the movement. +You can go all the way around. +And once we have the pixels we can play with them, with color and movement, with gravity and +We want to use this as a possible entry to +I wanted to show you the last project we're working on. +It's something for the London Olympics. +It's called the +And the idea is, imagine again, that we could engage people to do something and change our environment, like a farm like but with a cloud. +Imagine that we could make all of you a little bit of a +And I think the remarkable thing that has happened in the last few years is that, in the last two decades, we moved from the physical world to the digital world. +We've seen everything, like knowledge, and it's accessible to the Internet. +Today, for the first time -- and the Obama campaign is we can move from the digital world, from the power of the networks, to the physical world. +In our case, this may we want to use it to design and make a +That would mean something built in a city. +But tomorrow it can be to address the challenges of today: think about climate change, or the emissions of CO2. How do you go from the digital world to the physical world. +The idea is that we can make people involved in doing this together, in a collective way. +The cloud is a cloud, again, made from the same way that the real cloud is a cloud of particles. +And those particles are water, whereas in our cloud are pixels. +It's a physical structure in London, but it covered +You can move around, having different experiences. +You can see it from the bottom, to share the main moments of the 2012 Olympics. +So it's a physical cloud of the sky like something that you can go up, like a +You can go into there. +As if it was a new digital at night, but most important is that it will be a new experience for anyone who goes to the top. +Thank you. +Would you like to be better than they are +Suppose I would tell you that, with only a few changes in your genes, you could improve it for a more precise, more accurate and faster. +Or maybe you would like to be in better ways, to be stronger +Would you like to be more attractive and secure from themselves? +How about living with good health? +Or maybe those people who always wanted to be more creative. +What do you most of you know about it? +What would you do if you could choose something? + from +How many people do we love creativity? +Raise your hand. Let me see. + probably got to the number of creative people. +That's very good. +How many would you want memory? +A few more. +And the physical state. +A little less. +How about +Ah, most of us, that makes me feel very well as a doctor. +If you could have some of this the world is very different. +It's just imagination? +Or maybe that is possible? +Evolution has been a theme here at the TED conference -- but today I want to give you a doctor look at the subject. +The great of the 20th century, who was in addition to the Church -- wrote a trial in biology called "Nothing in biology makes sense except for the light of the +But if you effectively accept biological evolution, consider this: it's just the past, or the future? +Is it about the other or to us? +This is another look to the tree of life. +The human part of this branch, well at the end of the branch, is of course, the most interested. + of a common ancestor with modern chimpanzees about six or eight million years ago. +And in the intervening I've been maybe 20 -- 25 different species of +Some of you have gone and +We have been here about years. +It might seem that we are very far from other parts of this tree of life, but actually in most of the basic meaning of our cells is more or less the same. +You realize that we can harness and control the machinery of a common bacterium to produce the protein of human insulin that is used to treat +This is not like human insulin but it's the same protein, chemically of the +And talking about bacteria -- they realize that we all carry on the little little bacteria than the cells we have in the rest of the body? +Maybe 10 times more. +I mean, think -- when I Antonio it raises the think of the +The gut is a wonderfully pragmatic environment for those bacteria. +It's warm in the sky -- it's very +And we're going to give them all the nutrients that can be able to have no effort in their part. +It's really like a fast thing for bacteria with the occasional of some hasten toward the +But for that, we are a wonderful environment for those bacteria in the same way that they are essential for our life. +They help digest nutrients and protect us from certain diseases. +But what does the future? +We're in a kind of evolutionary balance like species? +Or meant to become something different, something maybe better +In this vast symphony of the universe, the life on Earth is like a brief the animal kingdom, like a single and human life, a little bit of grace. +That was us. +And it was also the part of this talk, so I hope you have +When I first college I had my first kind of biology. +I was fascinated by the and the beauty of biology. +I fell in love with the power of evolution and I realized that most fundamental thing in most of the existence of life, in the organisms, every cell simply is divided and all the genetic energy of that cell is transmitted to the two daughters of that cell is transmitted to the two cells. +But when organisms appear to things start to change. +It goes into the sexual reproduction. +And something very important -- with the emergence of sexual reproduction that the genome is the rest of the body becomes +In fact, you might say that the of the body will come in evolution at the same time of sexual reproduction. +I have to tell you that when I was a college student, I was thinking, well, death -- it looked pretty reasonable at that time, but with every year that was happening, every time I had more +I got to understand the feelings of George who still in Las Vegas in their 90 years. +And one night someone hits his door to hotel. +He opens the door. +And in front of him is a magnificent +He looks at it and he says, in search of a +He said, "It says George, chose the +I realized, as a physician, who was working for a different goal of the goal of the not necessarily different. +I was trying to preserve the body. +I wanted to be healthy +I wanted to regain health in the disease. +I wanted us to live more and more healthy. +Evolution is going to happen to the next and generation generation after generation. +From an evolutionary point of view, you and I are like designed to send the genetic burden into the next level, and then let us fall to the sea. +I think that all of us, the feeling that expressed Woody Allen when he said, "I don't want to achieve immortality for my work. +I want to not +Evolution didn't necessarily apply to longevity. +It doesn't necessarily apply to the greatest or stronger or faster or faster and even the more clever. +Evolution favors the creatures to their environment. +That's the only trial for survival and success. +At the bottom of the ocean -- the bacteria that can survive the heat of the that we would argue if there were fish there, fish dry into empty, yet they have managed to do that a environment. +So what does this mean when we look at what is happening in evolution and if we go back to thinking about the place of humans in evolution, and in particular, if we look at the way back to the I would say there are many possibilities. +The first one is not +We've reached a kind of balance. +And the underlying reasoning would be that through medicine, first of all, we've known to preserve a lot of genes that otherwise would have been and cut out of the population. +And secondly, as a species, we have our environment to be adapted to us as we adapt to it. +And by the way, and so much that it is no longer possible to have the evolution of evolution to happen. +A second possibility is that there is an evolution of the natural type, dictated by the forces of nature. +And the argument here is that the gears of evolution roll slowly, but they're +And as soon as the as a species, distant planets are going to exist in isolation and environmental changes that can produce natural evolution. +But there's a third possibility, an effective, intriguing and terrifying possibility. +I call it the new evolution, which is not simply but and for us as individuals in the decisions that we want. +Now, how could this happen? +How could we get to do this? +So first consider the reality that many people today, in some cultures, are making decisions about their offspring. +In some cultures, they're choosing to have more males than women. +It's not necessarily a good thing for society, but it's what you choose at the individual and family level. +Think of it as it could be possible if you could choose not only the sex of their but in their own body to make genetic adjustments to cure or prevent disease. +And if we could make genetic changes to eliminate diabetes or Alzheimer's or reduce the risk of cancer or eliminate the +You wouldn't want to make those changes in your +If we look at the future that kind of changes are going to be more and more possible. +The Genome Genome Project, and he sued 13 years old. + billion dollars. +The next year of being done, in 2004, I could do the same work for 20 million dollars in three -- four months. +Today, you can get a full sequence of the 3,000 billion base pairs of the human genome at a cost of about 20,000 and a week. +Not a lot of good enough to make the human genome actually for and to be more and more and more and more of the everyone. +You get those changes. +The same technology that has produced human insulin in bacteria can make viruses that aren't only going to protect us themselves, but they're going to induce immunity against other viruses. + or there is no experimental trial in the course of the flu vaccine with the pandemic in cell plants. +Can you imagine something good about the +That's actually today and the future is going to be more and more possible. +So imagine then only other two little +They can change the cells in their bodies but if they could change the cells of their +And if they could change the sperm and the or change the newborn egg, and give their children a better chance of a healthier life, eliminate diabetes, to eliminate reducing the risk of cancer? +Who doesn't want any more +And then, that same analytical technology, that same engine of science that can produce the changes for preventing disease is going to allow us to have also to adopt a better memory. +Why don't you have the ingenuity of a Ken especially if you could go to the next generation of the machine +Why don't you have a muscle that allowed us to run faster and more +Why don't you live longer. +This is going to be +And when we are in conditions to pass this next generation and we can adopt the attributes that we wanted to have the evolution of before in +We're going to take a process that could normally take 100,000 years and we can take it to 1,000 years, and maybe happened within the next 100 years. +These are choices that their grandchildren, or grandchildren of their grandchildren, are going to have to have them. +We're going to use these choices on a better society, more successful. +Or, we're going to choose selectively different attributes that we want for some of us but not for the others? +We're going to build a society that is more boring and more or more robust and more +This is the kind of question we're going to have to face. +And most profound of all, we're going to be able to develop wisdom and inherit the wisdom necessary to make these decisions. +For a good thing or for worse, and before what these choices might be, they are going to depend on us. +Thank you. +Imagine a big explosion when you're at 900 feet high. +Imagine an airplane full of smoke. +Imagine a engine doing + +Well, I had a seat that day -- I was sitting on the +It was the only one I could talk to the flight +So he immediately looked at them, and they said, "No problem. You can probably hit some +The pilot had already taken off the airplane, and we weren't so far. +You could see Manhattan. +Two minutes later, three things happened at the same time. +The pilot is the airplane with the Hudson River. +Usually that's not the road. +Let's run the motors. +Imagine being on an airplane and not +And then he said three words. +The three words I have ever heard. +He said, for +I didn't have to speak more with the flight +I was able to see it in his eyes, +It was terror. Life +I want to share with you three things that I learned about myself that day. +I learned that everything changes in a second. +We have this list of things to do before we die, these things that we want to do in life, and I thought about all the fences that I wanted to get in, all the fences that I wanted to all the experiences that I've wanted to all the experiences that I've wanted to have and never +While I was thinking about that later. I came up with a sentence, which is wine +Because if the wine is ready, and the person is there, I'm going to open. +I don't want to hear anything in life. +And that urgency, that way, has really changed my life. +The second thing I learned that day -- and this is the way we the George Washington bridge, which wasn't for a lot -- I thought, I really feel a big +I've lived a good life. +In my humanity and with my mistakes, I've tried to improve everything I did. +But in my humanity also giving place to my ego. +And I'm sorry about the time that I think about things that didn't care with people who do matter. +And I thought about my relationship with my wife, with my friends, with people. +And then, as in that, I decided to get rid of the negative energy of my life. +It's not perfect, but it's a lot better. +In two years, I haven't had a fight with my wife. +It feels like +I am no longer trying to be right. It will be +The third thing I learned -- and this is like your mental clock is 14, 14, 14, +You see the water +I'm saying, "Please +I don't want this to be broken in 20 pieces like you see in those +And while I had the feeling of, "I will die not fear. +It's almost like we've been for that all of our life. +But it was very sad. +I didn't want to myself, I love my life. +And that sadness sadness is in one thought, which is, I just wish one thing. +I wish I could see my children +One month later, I was on a performance of my daughter -- the first grade, not a lot of artistic talent -- ... And I scream, like a small guy. +And for me, that was the whole reason for the world. +At that point, I understand that two points, which is the only thing that matters in my life is to be a great father. +For all of all, the only goal I have in life is to be a good parent. +I was awarded a miracle, not to die that day. +And he gave me another gift, which was the possibility of looking at the future and come back and live in another way. +You guys are flying today, the challenge to imagine that the same thing happens to you on your airplane -- and please not be like -- but imagine, and how do you +What are you going to do that they still expect to do because they think they're going to live +How do you change their relationships and negative energy in them? +And most importantly, they are the best parents that we have. +Thank you. +I've clearly been in life with lots of projects. +But the most cool thing I worked was for this guy. +The guy is called + was one of the most important in the 1980s. +One day he came home after running and said, "Dad, I feel a in the +And that was the beginning of ALS. +So today, it has total paralysis, +It can only use your eyes. +His work influenced me. +I have a design company and animation so that, obviously, is the graffiti thing that we admire and in the art world. +So we decided that we were going to and their cause. +So I went and met her brother and her father and said, "We're going to give you this money. +What are you going to do with +And his brother said, "Just want to be able to talk to Tony again. +I just want to communicate with him and he will be able to communicate with me." +And I said, "A second -- it's not that seen Stephen not that all people with paralysis, can communicate through those +And he said, "No, unless you get someone important and you have a good insurance you can't actually do it. +These devices are not affordable for people." +And I said, "Well, how do they communicate then?" +Somebody at the film is and +They communicate that way, they are making the finger. +I said, "That's How can it be?" +So I introduced me with the only desire to deliver a check, and instead of that sign a check that I didn't have the least idea of how I was going to +I was engaged with his brother and his father there at that very precise moment, "All right, well, this is the Tony going to talk about, and we're going to build a way to make his art again. +Because it is ridiculous that someone who has so much in their inner inner can't be able to +So I spoke at a conference a couple months later. +I met these guys called Research Research -- which have a technology that enables them to project a light on any surface and then with a laser pointer that they draw over and record negative space. +So they're going around making art facilities like this. +All the things that are they say, they're part of a life cycle. +You start with sexual organs, then with the bad words, then with the Bush attacks, and in the end, people start doing art. +But there was always a life cycle in his +And so I started the journey. +And about two years later, about a year later, after a lot of organization and a lot of organization and a lot of organization and so much moving things on one side of the other we had achieved a couple of things. +One, you touch the gates of the insurance companies and we got a machine so that they could give them a machine like Stephen +Which was great. +And seriously, it's the most I call it because when I speak to the guy you get an email from it, and you say, "Don't This guy is +The other thing that we did was bring seven programmers from all over the corners of the to our home. +My wife, the kids and I, we moved to the garage in the back and these hackers and programmers and and they took control of the house. +Many of our friends thought we were doing something completely stupid and that when they would have taken off the walls of the walls and in their place that would have been +But for two weeks -- we went to the shipping ride. My son was part of my dog, and we created this. +It's called +They are a pair of sunlight that we buy in the shipping ride of Beach, some copper wire and things from Home and +We take a camera the we put it on a light of LED light, and now there's a device that is free -- -- -- and you build one -- we we published the software -- the software is low at free. +And we created a device that has no limitation at all. +There's no insurance company to say +There is no hospital that I can say +Any person with paralysis today has access to drawing and communicate using only their eyes. +Thank you. +Thank you very much. That was awesome. +So at the end of the two weeks we went back to the room. +I love this picture because this is the room in another person, and that's his room. +There was all this and during the great opening. +And after more than a year of planning, two weeks of all night, Tony came back to draw for the first time in seven years. +And this is a wonderful picture because this is the support system and it's looking through the support system of his life. +We ran the bed so I could see. +And we put a projector on a wall of the parking wall outside of the hospital. +And he turned to drawing for the first time in front of his family and friends -- and you can imagine what was the feeling in the parking lot. +The funny thing was that we had to bust in the parking lot, so we felt like we were by graffiti as well. +At the end of this he sent us an email and this was what he said, "This was the first time I was in seven years. +I felt like I had been under the water and someone finally came to and I would get me out there so that I could be able to +Isn't it wonderful? +In a way, that's our +That's what keeps us in movement, +And we have a long way to go through this. +It's a cool device but it's the equivalent of a +Somebody with this artistic potential deserves a lot more. +So we are trying to figure out how to and make it faster and robust. +Since then we've had all kinds of recognition. +We've won many awards. +Remember, none of us are making money with this. +Everything comes out of our own pockets. +The prizes were the "Oh, this is +Armstrong something about us, and then, in December, Time magazine recognized us as one of the 50 best inventions in 2010, and it was really great. +The best thing about all of this -- and this is what ends up close to the is that in April of this year at the center of Los Angeles in the center of Los Angeles is going to be an exhibit called in +And in the is going to have the best of urban art, all of them are going to be there. + is going to be in the show which is pretty impressive. +So basically this is my idea: If you see something that's not possible, do it possible. +None of the things that there is in this room was possible -- the computer, the microphone, the nothing was possible at a moment. +Do it anything in this room. +I am not programmer, I never did anything with recognition technology -- I simply recognized something, and I was excited about wonderful people in order to make it happen. +And these are the questions that I want you all to do every day when we find something that we feel like to do. If it's not now, when? And if I'm not me, +Thank you guys. +I've spent the last few years in very difficult situations and at the same time a little dangerous. +I went to the hard +I worked on a mine. + in areas of difficult and +And I spent 30 days to eat just -- a lot of fun in the beginning, something difficult in the middle, very dangerous at the end. +In fact, in a lot of my career I've been in situations in horrible appearance with the only goal of trying to examine social issues in ways that we would make a lot of interesting, and hopefully analyzing it in a way that would be and accessible to the audience. +So when I knew that I would come out here to do a TEDTalk on the world of brands and I wanted to do something a little bit different. +So some of you may have heard it, or no, a couple of weeks ago, I took a +I sent some text messages on Facebook, some on Twitter, I volunteered the rights from the name of my TEDTalk in 2011. +What was the following: my TEDTalk that you have no idea about what it is and according to content could be in the face, especially if I put it into ridiculous to you or your company to do it. +But this is a very good chance. +Do you know how many people look at these + +It's a degree in progress, by the way. +So even with that I knew that someone was going to buy the rights of the name. +If you had asked me a year ago, I couldn't tell you a year ago. +But in the new film that I'm working, we looked at the world of marketing +And as I said earlier, I've gotten myself in horrible situations in the last few years, but nothing could be done to me for something so difficult or as dangerous as I go into the rooms with these guys. +You see, I had this idea for a movie. +Morgan I want to do a film that tries to be the of products, and marketing and advertising, and that all the film is with marketing and marketing and advertising. +The film is going to call "The largest film ever +What happens in "The largest film ever is that everything above the top at the bottom, it has images of brand, all the time; all the time; all the time from the title, which comes out before the title, +Now this brand, +These people are the film to +And so the film explores all this idea -- is Is what? It's +I'm a +Was it +But we're not just going to have the of the in the title but we're going to make sure that we use all the categories that we can on the film. +Maybe you get a shoe and it becomes the most cool shoe that you have +The most great car that you've driven on the largest film ever -- the best drink that you have of "The largest film ever + The idea is then in addition to showing you the brands as a part of life, making them the -- to make it MS: And we actually show the whole process of how it works. + goal is transparency. +You're going to see the whole process in this movie. +That's the full idea -- it all shot it, from beginning to end. +And I would love to be able to help make it happen. +Robert You know, it's funny because it's the first time I hear that; it's the most respect for the audience. + But I don't know how it is going to be the people. + You have a -- I don't know if you will, it's very but you know how it goes to Not How much money do you need to do this? +MS: One million and a half a million and a half a lot -- John I think it's going to be hard for the meeting with them, but it's certainly going to be worth to convince a couple of big + Who knows, maybe for the moment that the film is going to look at us as a whole bunch of idiots +MS: What do you think it's going to be the answer? +Stuart Most of the answers will be +MS: But it's going to be hard for the film or to be I? +JK: +MS: That means you're not very optimistic. +And so I thought, I need help. +MK: I can help. +MS: All right. Awesome. +MK: We have to think about what brands. +MS: Yeah. That's the When you look at the people you have to do it. +MK: We have some places where you go, the camera. +MS: I thought that meant we have a conversation out of a microphone. + the camera means "We don't want to know anything about your +MS: And so it was, one by one, all of these suddenly disappeared. +No one wanted to have nothing to do with this movie. +I was shocked. +They didn't want to know anything with this project. +And I was very I thought the concept was to present the product to as much as possible, to make so many people see it as possible. +Especially in the world today, this intersection of new media and old media scenario and the stage of the separate media scenario is not the idea to tell that new vehicle that is going to lead the message to the +No, that was what I thought. +But the problem was, you see, my idea had a error and that mistake was this one. +Actually there was no such mistake. +There was no mistake at all. +This would have been okay. +But the problem was what this picture is. +You see, when you look for images on Google -- this is one of the first images that were introduced. +I like your Sergey No. +This was the problem: or easily detected or easily or that is characterized by the visibility or access to information, especially in practice, to be the last line perhaps the bigger problem. +You see, we heard a lot about transparency in these days. +Our politicians have the the president -- even the the +But all of a sudden when it comes to make it really a lot changes suddenly. +But why? Well, transparency day like that rare bear that still continues to +It's Like this rare rural. +And it's also very risky. +What else is +It was a whole bowl of +That's very risky. +When I started talking to companies and to tell you that we wanted to tell this story and said, "No, we want you to be history. +We want it to be a story, but we want to get it story." +See, when I was a child, and my father would lie in some lie -- and that's there, he looked at me as I used to say, "Son, there are three sides in every story. +It's your story, it's my story, and it's the story. +As you can see, in this film we wanted to tell the real story. +But with only one company, a agency wants to help me -- and that just because John Bond and Richard of many years -- I realized that I would have to go on my own, I would have to take off the middle and go to the businesses myself. +So what I started to look at all of a sudden -- and that I started to give me is that when you start talking to companies the idea of understanding your brand is a universal issue. +MS: I have friends who make big films -- massive and others who make small, independent movies, like mine. +And my friends who do Hollywood Hollywood movies say that the reason their movies are so successful is due to the brands that they have. +And then my friends who do independent movies say, "Well, how are we supposed to compete with these big, giant movies of +And the film is called "The largest film ever +How are we going to see specifically in the film? +Every time I'm going to go out, every time I open my you'll see the +At any time during an interview with someone I can say "Are you good for this +You're ready? You see a little nervous. +I want to help you get to you that +Maybe you should get a little bit of this before the +And there was one of these +Both like are going to have their opportunity. +We're going to have so much for man as a solid, to it on bar, like it. +That's the general look. +Now I can answer your questions and give you a look at +Karen Frank: We are a small brand. +We put into the kind of smaller films that we have, we are rather a brand. +So we don't have the budget to have other brands. +So do things like that, you know, remind us to get to people is the reason why this is interested. +MS: What words would use to describe to + is + That's a great question. +Volunteer: +MS: Technology is not the way you want to describe something that you put into the +Man: We talked about something +I think is a great word that actually puts this category at positive versus smell and +It keeps you cool. +How do we keep it so much more more more three times +Things like those who are the benefits. +MS: And that's a company +What about me? What is a common guy. +I need to talk to the word of the street, the people like me, the common +They have to tell me about my brand. +MS: How do they define you your +Volunteer: my +I don't know. +I like a good thing. +Woman: revive the 1980s, the unless it is +MS: All right, what is the + one single Man: I guess the kind of gender, the style I have to be like a +I like dark colors, many gray things like this. +Usually I take shots like or like crystals and so on. +Woman: If Dan was a brand -- it could be a Mercedes +Man 2: The brand I mean, I would call it +Woman 2: Part of the hippie in part of the part -- I don't know. +Man 3: I'm the type of pets. +It took toys for pets in the country and in the world. +So I guess that's my brand. +In my little sector, that's my brand. +Man 4: My brand is FedEx out because he the +Man 5: failure. +Is that anything? + I'm a + I'm a +MS: Well, we can't all be made by Tom, but I would often lie at the intersection of and +I realized I needed an expert. +I needed someone who could go into my head, someone who could help me understand what they call the +And I found a company called in Pittsburgh. +They helped companies like to discover that personality. +If they were able to do it for them, they certainly could do it for me. + the photos, right? +MS: Yes. The first photo is a familiar photograph. +A: Tell me a little bit about how it relates to your thoughts and feelings of your self. +MS: These people shape my way to see the world. +A: Tell me about that world. +MS: That world? I think your world is the world in which you get around you, your friends, your friends, your family, the way you live your life, the work you do. +All of those things come in, and they start in a place and in my case in my case and they start in my family, in West Virginia in West Virginia in West Virginia in West Virginia in West Virginia in West Virginia in West Virginia in West Virginia in West Virginia in West Virginia in West Virginia in West Virginia. +A: What's the next one you want to talk about. +MS: The next one is "This was the best day of my life." +A: How does this relate to your thoughts, feelings and your way to be? +MS: It's like who would like to be me. +I like things different. +I like things, I like weird things. +A: Tell me about Why do we do that? +What's the In what phase of are you now? +Why is it important? What is +Tell me a little bit about that. +You know, little more of you, which is not who you are. +What other have you +I don't have to be frightened. What kind of rollercoaster type are you? +MS: Thank you. No, thank you. +A: Thank you for your patience. Great A: Yes. +MS: Yeah, I don't know what is going to come out of this. +There was a lot of crazy about this. + The first thing that I saw was this idea that there are two different sides -- but you put it in your personality personality -- the brand Morgan is a brand. +It was very well put together. +And I think there's almost a paradox in them. +And I think some companies are only going to lie on one of their strong points or on the other instead of focusing on both. +A lot of companies tend to -- and it's the nature of avoiding the things that aren't they avoid fear, those elements -- and you actually give them a little bit positive for you, and it's nice to see that. +What other brands are this? +The first here is the Apple classic here. +And you can see here to and +Now there are brands and brands -- those things that have gone and come in, but a brand is quite powerful. +MS: +If someone asks you to take your identity, what would it be? +You're a you are somebody who makes blood +Or are you rather a + + attributes are like contemporary or bold as or bold as or mystic as +Or are you more of +Are you conscious like +You are +You're reliable, stable, reliable, safe, sacred, or wise -- like the Dalai Lama or +Over the course of this film we had over 500 companies, and who said, they didn't want to be part of this project. +They didn't want to have anything to do with this film, mostly because they didn't have control, they would have not control over the final product. +We were allowed to tell the story of the and we got to tell the story in this movie of how they now use MRI to identify the centers of the desire in the brain that is so much for commercial marketing as a movies. +We went to San Paulo where advertising is forbidden in the air. +In the entire city for the last five years, there's no there is no no +And we went to school districts in which companies are going to be making the way in schools with money problems in the U.S. +The amazing thing to me is that the projects that I've had the greatest answer or the ones that I've gotten more successful is those in which I have been doing with things directly. +And that's what these brands. + the took their agencies, and they said maybe these agencies don't have my best interest in mind. +I'm going to deal with the artist. +I'm going to work with him to create something different, something that is going to make people, which is going to challenge the way we look at the world. +And how has he gone? They had it success? +Well, since the film was released in the Festival let's take a look. +According to the film came out in January, and since then -- and this is not we've had 900 million impressions in the media for this film. +This covers just a two-year period. +That's just in no press, no television. +The film is still not +It's still not online. It's not in +It's not even presented in other countries yet. +Ultimately, this film has already started to win momentum. +And it's not bad because almost all the rating agencies that we talked about would be part of their clients not going to be a part. +I've always believed that if you take an risks, if you take risks that you have opportunities. +I think when you get to the people that are pushing into failure. +I think that when you train your employees in it's preparing their whole company for a +I feel that what has to happen to move forward is that we have to encourage people to +We need to encourage people who are not afraid of the opportunities that can be +Ultimately, let's move forward, I think we have to give it the fear. +We need to put that bear in a cage. + fear the risk. +From a at the time, we have to embrace the risk. +And ultimately, we have to support transparency. +Today, more than never a bit of honesty is going to run a long way. +And I said this, with honesty and transparency, all my talk -- the has been presented for my good friends of who for bought the rights of the name of + big data in great opportunities for companies around the world. + presents +Thank you very much. +June Cohen: So in the name of transparency, which happened exactly with those +MS: It's a fantastic question. +In my pocket -- I have a check at the name of the TED organization, the Foundation, and a check for to be applied to my for next year. +The idea behind the Gordian worm is actually very simple. +We don't want Iran to get the nuclear bomb. +Their greatest asset to develop nuclear weapons is the plant. +The gray boxes that you see are systems of control in real time. +If we managed to compromise these systems that are able to control speeds and we can cause a lot of problems with the +The gray boxes don't use software is completely different technology. +But if we have to put a cash virus out of Windows in a laptop that was used by an engineer to set up this gray, then we're ready. +This is the plan behind +We started with a Windows. +The enters the gray, box hurts the and the Iranian nuclear program is mission. +It's easy, +I want to tell you how we discovered this. +When we started to investigate about six months ago, the purpose was completely unknown. +The only thing you knew is that it's very, very complex in the using multiple +It seemed like to do something with these these control systems. +And that struck us, and we started an experiment where we infect our environment with and we saw what was going on with this. +So they got very strange. + was like a lab rat that didn't like our but I didn't want to eat. +It didn't make sense for me. +And then to experiment with different flavors of cheese, I realized, and I thought, "This is a attack. +It's completely + is looking at the gray box in the gray box if you find a specific configuration, and even if the program is trying to infect it is effectively working on that location. +If not, does nothing. +So that called my attention, and we started working on this almost 24 hours a day, because we say, "We don't know what the is. +It could be, let's say for example, a U.S. power plant or a chemical plant in Germany. +You'd better get the goal soon. +So we pulled out and the code, and we found that it was in two bombs a small and big one. +We also found that they were armed very professionally by people that obviously had the entire internal information. +We would have all the points to attack. +You probably even know how much it would be the operator. +So they know everything. +And if you've heard the is complex and high technology, let me tell you the payload is very complex. +It's very much above everything we've seen before. +Here you see a sample of this code. +We're talking about 15 lines of code. +It's pretty much like old language. +I want to tell you how we could find sense of this code. +What we were looking at initially was calls to the system, because we know what they do. +Then we were looking at and data structures and tried to deal with the real world, with potential goals of the real world. +We need theories about what we can pass or +To get to theories about goals, we remember that it's definitely a violent and it's probably in Iran because it's where most infections have been +They don't find a lot of goals in that area. +It basically boils down to the nuclear power plant of and the plant. +So I told my a list of all the experts in and power plants between our +I called them and I went to them in an effort for their experience with what we found in code and data. +And it worked pretty well. +So we were able to associate the little digital with the control of the + is that mobile part inside the that black object that you see. +If you run the speed of this they can certainly be and even make it +What we also saw is that the goal of the attack was to make it slow and in an obvious effort to go back to the engineers of so they couldn't solve this quickly. +We tried to figure out the big digital looking at the data and their structures. +So for example, the number of in that code, you can't be +I started to investigate scientific literature about how these are built in and I found that they're in what's called a and every waterfall contains +That makes sense, there was a coincidence. +And it got better yet. +These in Iran are in 15 parts called stages. +And guess what we find in the code of + structure. +So again, that was a good coincidence. +This gave us a lot of confidence in understanding what we had in our hands. +It wasn't it wasn't like this. +The results have been among several weeks of hard work. +We had and we had to go back to begin again. +And yet, we found that both digital would be used to one single and same goal, but from different perspectives. +The little is taking a and doing and and the big communicate with six and manipulating +In we're very confident that we've determined what is +It's and it's just +We should not worry about other goals that are for +So here I show you some very interesting things that we saw -- really me. +That's the orange box -- and you see the +What this thing is doing is the values of the sensors for example, for the pressure sensors and the sensors of vibration and provides code, which is still running during attack, with false data. +And believe it or not, these fake input data is by +It's like the Hollywood movies where, during the the security camera is feeding a video +Is it great +The idea here is obviously not just to the operators in the middle of control. +It's really much more dangerous and +The idea is a digital security system. +We need digital security systems where a human operator couldn't act fast. +For example, in a power plant, when the big water turbine goes down, you have to open valves in a +Obviously this can't do this a human operator, right? +That's where we need digital security systems. +And when they're then you can get bad things. +The plant can exploit. +And neither is the no security system +It scares you. +But it can be worse. +What I'm going to say is very important. +Think about this. This attack is +It has nothing to see specifically, specifically, with +It could work too, for example, in a power plant, or in a factory plant. +It's +And you have no that we disseminate this burden with a key like we saw in the case of +You could also use the conventional technology. +It was the most possible. +And if you made that, what do you do with is a of mass destruction. +That's the consequence we have to face. +Unfortunately, the largest number of goals is not in the Middle East. +It's in the United States and Japan. +All the green areas are spaces with large number of goals. +We need to deal with the implications, and better than we're starting to prepare now. +Thank you. +Chris Anderson: I have a question. + has done public in many sides that people assume that is the main entity behind this. +What's your +Ralph Okay, really want to listen to this? +Yeah. +My view is that is involved, but the engine is not +The engine behind this is the +There is one itself, and that's the United States, luckily, +Because, in another way, our problems would be even greater. +CA: Thank you for Thank you, +So I want you to imagine a robot that can be able to take and give you a or another one that makes users of wheelchair raise raise and go back and go back. +In we call these robots, +They're not different than something that gets into the morning, it gives you a great force that is also increasing its speed, and helps it for example, to handle the balance. +It's actually the real integration of man and the machine. +But not only that -- it can integrate it and connect it with the universe and with other things that are +This is not a idea. +So to show you now what we're working on, we started talking about the American soldier who, on average, has to take on their back to a 45 pounds, and it's going to be carrying even more equipment. +Obviously this leads to some important complications -- injuries on the back, in 30 percent of the soldiers -- with chronic damage from back. +We decided to consider this challenge and create a exoskeleton that could help handle the issue. +Let me introduce you to -- or Human Human Human Human Human Human Human Human Human Human Human Human Human Human Human Human Human Human Human Human Human Human Human Human Human Human Human Human Human Human Human Human Human Human Human Human Human Human Human Human Human Human Human Human Human Human Human Human Human Human Human Human Human Human Human Human Human Human Human Human +Soldier: With the exoskeleton to I can 90 pounds for content for many hours. +Their flexible design, it allows you to put in and running movement. +I want to do what I want to do, or where I want to go, and then my strength increases my strength and my resistance. + We're ready, with our industrial partner to produce this appliance, this new this year. +I mean, it's a reality. +So now I look at users of the wheelchair, about what I feel particularly passionate about. +There are 68 million people on the around the world. +Like one percent of the total population. +And this is a really conservative. +We talk about something that happens often very young people, with damage to the spinal cord that when they start their life -- to 20, 30 or 40 years -- against a wall and the wheelchair turns out to be its only choice. +We also talk about the population that are being added very rapidly. +His only option, many times -- for a brain injury or some other twist -- is the wheelchair. +And this has been like this for the last 500 years, from their successful as I should recognize. +So we decided to start by writing a new chapter about mobility. +Let me introduce you to the which is using Amanda who's 19 years ago had an injury in the neocortical column, and as a result couldn't go back 19 years, so far. +Amanda Thank you. +EB: Amanda is using our that +It's got sensors ... +Not on crutches that send signals to the computer on board, here on the back. +There are some batteries that give the motors on the motors on the and on the knees, and they make it move through this very soft and very natural. +AB: I had 24 years at the top of my life when, for a stranger jump in the air, skiing down down it was +In a fraction of the second, I lost all feeling and all movement from down. +Shortly later, a doctor walked into my room in the hospital, and he said, you'll never go to +That happened 19 years ago. +So I stole it to the last hint of my self. + technology since then, has allowed me to learn to it costs in climbing rocks and even ride on +But they haven't invented anything that allowed me to walk, until now. +Thank you. +EB: As you can see, we have the technology, we have the platforms to sit and talk to you. +It's in our hands, and we have all the potential here to change the life of future generations -- not just of soldiers, but Amanda, and all of the chairs of the wheels, all of the +AB: Thank you. +I just went back from a community that has the secret of human survival. +It's a place where women have practice sex to say hello, and the game is the order of the day -- where fun is serious. +And no, it's not Man or San Francisco. +Ladies and gentlemen, to meet their cousins. +This is the world of the wild Bonobos in Congo. +The Bonobos are, along with the chimpanzees, their closest living parents. +That means that we all share a common ancestry. +Now, chimpanzees are known for their +But unfortunately, we've done very much emphasis on this aspect of our narratives of human evolution. +But the bonobos show us the other side of the coin. +Whereas chimpanzees are dominated by the big, society is in charge of females with power. +These guys have created something special -- because this leads to a very tolerant society where the deadly violence hasn't been +But sadly, the bonobos are the least of the big +They live in the depths of the forest -- and it's been very difficult to +The Congo is a a land of extraordinary biodiversity and beauty, but also the heart of the scenario of a violent conflict that has been been been been been been been been been been been been been been been been been been been been been been been been been been been been been been given for decades and caused almost deaths like the First World War. +No wonder that this destruction also put in danger of the Bonobo. +The meat trade trade and deforestation, make you can't fill and a stadium with the Bonobos that stay in the world -- and honestly, we're not sure about it. +However, in this land of violence and chaos, you can hear laughter hidden the trees. +Who are these +We know it as the apes the love, not the because they have sex and to deal with conflict and solve social problems. +I'm not saying that this is the solution to all the problems of humanity because the life of Bonobos is more than +At like humans, they love to play throughout their lifetime. +Play is not just a +For us, and for them, the game is fundamental to set bonds and encourage +With him learn to and we learn the rules of play. +The game increases creativity and resilience, and it has to do with the generation of diversity of interactions, diversity of behaviors, diversity of connections. +And when you look at the Bonobos Bonobos see the roots of the the same of the laughter, the dance and the human ritual of it. +The game is the glue that comes together. +I don't know how you play you, but I want to show you a few unique videos of the wild. +First, it's a game, and I don't talk about football. +Here we have a female and a young male in the middle of a +Look at what's doing it. +It could be the evolutionary origin of the phrase, "You have +I just think that in this case he loves her, right? +Yeah. +So the sex game is common both in Bonobos as humans. +And this video really is interesting because it turns out this video is really interesting because it shows the invention of bringing unusual elements into the game -- like the and also how play requires trust, and the and the same time is the most fun. +But the game is +The game is it can adopt many ways, some of which are more maybe the place where the wonder. +And I want you to come up with this is a young female -- who is playing with the water +I think that, as it sometimes we play alone, and we explore the limits of our inner worlds and outside. +And it's that playful curiosity that drives us to explore, interact. And then the unexpected connections that we form are the real of creativity. +These are just small samples of the understanding that Bonobos give us from our past and present. +But they also have a secret for our future, a future in which we have to adapt to a more and harder world that we have to adapt to a greater and more cooperation. +The secret is that play is the key to these abilities. +In other words, the game is our of adaptation. +In order to adapt to a world that changes we have to play. +But let's get it at the maximum our ability to game? +The game is not + is critical. +For Bonobos and humans, life is not just cruel and +When you look at least right at least play, you can be the moments that it's the most +So colleagues are primates, let's accept this gift of evolution and together as they creativity, friendship and wonder. +Thank you. +In New York I'm responsible for development of a nonprofit organization called Robin +When I'm not battling poverty, they were as a captain of captain in a fire of firemen volunteers. +And in our city, where volunteers are a highly skilled you have to get to the fire site very soon to get into action. +I remember my first fire. +I was the second volunteer on the site, so I had a pretty high probability of it. +But still, there was a career standing against the other volunteers to get the captain in charge and figure out what our task was. +When I found the I was in a conversation with the owner that certainly went through one of the worst days of his life. +We were at full night, she was standing out in the rain, he was standing out in the rain, under a on his while his house was on fire. +The other volunteer that I had just got before I was, -- and he came first to the captain and he asked him to go and save the dog owner of the house. +The I was +There I was a lawyer or a of money, which for the rest of his life, I would have to tell the people who entered a burning building to save a live alive just because I made me for five seconds. +Well, I was the following. +The captain made me a +He said, I need to go home. +I need you to be the fire, and he brings this woman a pair of shoes." +I promise you I do assure you. +It wasn't exactly what I expected but I got the stairs, at the end of the corridor went to the firemen that at that height or less had ended up on the fire and entered the fourth main room for a pair of shoes. +I know what you're thinking, but I'm not a hero. +I took my load on the staircase where I met my and the gorgeous dog on the front door. +We bring the house from the house for the owner of the house, where, as it was to expect, their treasure. +A few weeks later the department received a letter from the owner of the house by the brave talented effort to save his house. +The kindness that she looked at over the other was someone had ever reached a pair of shoes. +Both of my calling in Robin like in my calling as a volunteer and of acts of the generosity and kindness on a scale, but also about acts of grace and courage to the individual level. +And you know what I've learned? +Everything has its importance. +So when I look in this room to people who have made, or are they -- remarkable levels of success would like to remind you this: not hold on. +Don't wait to win the first million to make the difference in somebody's life. +If you have something to give, now. +We were eating food in a dining room, a neighborhood park. +You're mentors. +Not every day we're going to have the opportunity to save somebody's life, but each day we're going to influence somebody's life. +So they trained the the shoes. +Thank you. +Bruno Giussani: Mark, it comes back. +Mark Thank you. +This may seem odd, but I'm a big fan of the concrete block. +The first building blocks became built in with a very simple idea, concrete modules of a fixed measure that fit in each other. +Very quickly, these became the most used construction unit in the world. +They have allowed us to build bigger things that we, like buildings or bridges, a brick at once. +Essentially, these blocks have become the pillars of our time. +Almost a hundred years later, in 1947, the came up with this. +It was called the brick of assembly itself. +And in a few years, the bricks of came to every home. +It's estimated that they've made more than 400 billion or 75 bricks per person on the planet. +You don't have to be an engineer to build beautiful bridges, buildings, or homes. +It made it accessible. + simply adopted the concrete block of the world, and it turned it into a fundamental piece of our imagination. +Meanwhile, exactly that same year, at the Bell labs, the next revolution was about to the new building block. +The transistor was a small piece of plastic that would take us from a world of aesthetic stacked to each other to a world where everything was interactive. +Just like the concrete block, the transistor allows you to create much bigger circuits and more complex, a brick at once. +But there is a difference. The transistor was just for an expert one. +I personally don't believe that the building blocks of our time are quiet to experts, so I decided to change it. +eight years ago, when I was at the Media Lab, I started to explore the idea of bringing engineers into the hands of artists and designers. +A few years ago, I started developing +I'm going to show you how they work. + are electronic modules each with a specific function. +They're to be light, sound, motors and sensors. +And the best thing about it is that they put together through magnets. +So you can't put it wrong. + have a code in color. +The green is the stream, the rose is the input and the orange of the orange color is the wire. +So you just have to assemble a blue with a green one, and very quickly you can start to make bigger circuits. + blue with one green is making light. +Can we put a button in the middle and so we have a +If we change the button by a that's here, and now we have a light. +We put this to create more impact and we have a noise. +I'm going to stop this. +So beyond the simple game, they are actually very powerful. +Instead of having to connect and and lets us program using very simple +To make it faster or more slow, just to make it faster or just this button that makes the pulse faster or slower. +The idea behind is that it's an increasing collection of it. +We want all the interactions in the world bricks to use. +You know, sounds like, sound, solar panels, everything has to be accessible. +We've given the kids to see them playing with them. +And it's been an incredible experience. +The best is how they start to understand the electronics of every day that you don't learn in schools. +For example, how does a light at night, or why the door of an elevator is being open, or how an iPod responds to touch. +We've also brought back to design schools. +So for example, designers without any experience in electronics start to play with like a material. +Here you can see it with paper bottles and we have + A few weeks ago, we took to the designers of Rhode Island designers who don't have any experience in engineering, only in wood wood and paper and said, Make something. +Here's an example of a project that have done, an canyon of +But wait, here's my favorite project. +It's a that has a fear of darkness. +For these not the engineers, the became another material, electronics became another material. +And we want this material to be at all. +So has open source. +You can go on the website, download all of the design files and +We want to encourage a world of creators, inventors and collaborators because this world in which we live, this interactive world is ours. +So ahead and +Thank you. +I'm going to talk to you today about unexpected discoveries. +I work in the solar technology. +And my little company is seeking to get involved with the environment focused on. + collaboration. +This is a little video of what we do. + Wait a moment. +You can take a little bit of + we can continue better and leave the video on one side. +No. +This is not ... +All right. +The solar technology. +Oh, you know, I was +All right. Thank you very much. +A couple of years ago, I launched an initiative to recruit the best designers and technicians to take a year and work in an environment that represents almost everything that is supposed to be, we asked them to work in the government. +The initiative was called for and would be like Peace +We had a few members and we put them to work with the +Instead of getting it to the Third World we send them to the wild world. +They made great they worked with the +Their task is to show the chances of the current technology. +Do you meet +It's a in the city of Boston. +Here it comes up as if I went to a date, but what it really looks for is that somebody is caught up in the snow because he knows that it's not very good by turning fires out of a meter of snow. +How did it come to ask for help in this way so +Last year in Boston we had a team of for +They were there in February and at that time -- very much last year. +They realized that the city was never wiped out these +But one of the members called Erik noticed something else -- that citizens with shovels the sidewalks right in front of them. +So he did like any good programmer, I developed an app. +It's a nice app that you can embrace a +You embrace when you +By doing that, you put a name, in this case he put it +If you don't do it, somebody can +I mean, it has a playground. +It's a modest app. +It's probably the youngest of the 21 applications of the last year. +But it does something that no other technology of the government +It spreads +It's responsible for the city of the city of to see this application realized that I could use it not for the snow, but for citizens to embrace the tsunami. +It's very important to work with these of tsunami, but people are +That's why they ask citizens to +And then Seattle decided to use it to make citizens +And Chicago just took launch it to make people to clean sidewalks when they +So now we know about nine cities that we use using it. +And this has been spread out of +If you know a little bit of government technology, you know this doesn't happen yet. +The acquisition of software typically takes a couple of years. +Last year in Boston we had a team working on a project that took three people for two and a half months. +It was a tool that parents could choose the best public school for their children. +And then they told us that they had done by the normal channels that would have taken at least two million years and cost about two million dollars. +And that's not anything. +Now there is a project in the judicial power of California that at the moment 2,000 billion dollars, and it doesn't work. +And there are projects like this in every level of government. +So an app that takes program in a couple of days and it spreads into viral form, is a kind of warning. +It suggests to the world's best ways to work, not as in private enterprises, like a lot of people think that should be. +Not like a technological company, but rather like the Internet itself. +I mean, without in the form open and +And that's important. +But the most important thing about this app is that it represents the way to address the question of the government that has the new not as a problem with an institution, but as a collective action problem. +And that's very good because it turns out that we are very good for collective action with digital technology. +And there is a very large community of people who are building the tools for us to engage together with efficacy. +And it's not only for but there are hundreds of people all over the country that contribute to applications that contribute to applications -- every day in their own communities. +You haven't given the government. +They have a huge frustration before that, but they don't get rid of it. +And these people know something that we've lost in sight. +And it is that if we leave the feelings about politics, the line in the and all those other things that put us crazy -- the government is essentially in the words of Tim "What we do together because it alone doesn't exist. +Now, a lot of people have abandoned the government. +If you are one of those people, you would ask you to do it, because things are changing. +The politics isn't the government yes. +And because the government ultimately made us -- you remember that the The way to think about it will affect the way to produce the way of change. +I didn't know a lot of government when I started with this. +And as a lot of people thought the government was to choose people to make them +Well, after two years I've come to the conclusion that the government is about everything, a matter of +This is the center of services and information. +It's the place that serves calls if you mark 311 in the U.S. +Scott this call. +He entered the foundation of official knowledge. +I didn't find anything, started with animal control. +And he finally said, "Hey, can you open the gates of the house, put it hard and see if you get +And it worked. So well by Scott. +But that wasn't the end of the +Boston doesn't have a phone center. +It has a call and a mobile app called +We don't have that application. +It was the work of very smart people from the Bureau of New York City +One day, this really happened is this in my bucket of trash. I don't know if it's dead. +How do I do to +The dynamic is different. +Scott was talking to a person. +In everything is public, so you can all see this. +In this case, it saw a neighbor. +The next report said, "I came to the place, I found the bucket of garbage behind the house. + Yeah. Yes. +I went back the I went home. +Good nights, sweet +Quite simple. +This is great. It's the confluence of the digital and physical thing. +And it's also a great example of the income in the government of the government to +But it's also a great example of government as platform. +And here I don't necessarily mean the definition of the platform. +I'm talking about a platform for people to be and help others. +So, a citizen helped another but here the government had a key role. +I connected the two people. +And it could have been connected to the government services of being necessary but the neighbor is a better and cheaper alternative than the government services. +When a neighbor helps another, they the communities. +If we call the animals, it costs a lot of money. +One important thing we have to think about the government is that it's not the same as politics. +A lot of people will get it, but it thinks you're the entrance to the other. +What our entry to the government system is +How many times have you chosen a leader leader -- sometimes we spend a lot of energy to choose a new political leader and then we hope that the government to our values and it liked our needs, but then we don't see it. +That's because the government is like an immense ocean and politics is the surface layer of it. +That's why we call +And we say that word with a lot of contempt. +But it is that that keeps us that that belongs to us that we funded as something that works in our against, that other thing and a consequence we're losing power. +People believe that politics is sexy. +If we want this institution to work, we need to make the bureaucracy sexy. +Because that's where the real work of government works. +We have to collaborate with the machinery of governance. +That makes the movement. +They have +It's a group of citizens concerned that have written a very detailed report of pages in response to the request of the of about the financial reform system. +That's not political activism it's activism +And for those of us that have been to the government, it's time for us to ask, what world we want to leave our children. +You have to see the huge challenges that they have to face. +Do you really believe that we have to go without solving the institution that can act on the name of all? +We can't do with government, we need it to be more effective. +The good news is that with technology is possible to rethink the root function of government so that it can expand to civil society. +There is a generation that grew up with the Internet and knows that it's not as hard to act -- just to be able to act -- only to be able to articulate the systems in the right way. +The average age of our members is a 28 years old, so I am, to I'm a generation more than a lot of them. +This is a generation that has grown up taking the word and giving that much for granted. +They're not giving that battle that we all face about who is going to be, they're all going to talk. +They can express their opinions on any channel at the same time and they do. +So when they face the government problem not much to make you hear their voices. +They're using their hands. +They set their hands to the work for programming applications that do better to the government. +And those applications allow us to use our hands to improve our communities. +It can be cleaning a by taking off dumping a bucket of junk that has an inside. +We were always able to have cleaned those hydrants and a lot of people do it. +But these applications are like digital that we're not only consumers, we're not only the government that we pay taxes and we get services. +We're more than that; we are citizens. +And we're not going to fix the government until we don't have the citizen to +So I want to ask everybody, when it comes to the important things that we have to do together, we will be a crowd of voices, or we also have a swarm of hands? +Thank you. +This is for me a real honor. +I've spent most of the time in prisons, prisons and the death row. +I've spent most of my life in communities that have been in projects and places where there is a lot of despair. +And to be here at TED watching and hearing these stimulus has given me a lot of energy. +One of the things I've noticed in this short time, is that TED has identity. +And the things that tell you here have impact around the world. +Sometimes if something comes from TED, it has a sense and a force that wouldn't have any other way. +I say this because I think identity is important. +Here we saw fantastic presentations here. +And I think we've learned that the words of a professor can have a lot of sense, but if they teach them with feeling special meaning they can have special meaning. +A doctor can do good things, if it's it can get a lot more. +So I want to talk about the power of identity. +I didn't really learn this in the practice of law, my work. +I learned it from my grandmother. +I grew up in a traditional family house, dominated by a which was my grandmother. +It was hard, he had power. +It was the last word in every single discussion in the family. +She many of the in our home. +It was a daughter of people who had been slaves. +His parents were born in slavery in Virginia +She was born on the and his experience with slavery -- the way it looked like the world. +She was hard, but it was also +When I was little and I looked at it, she was approaching me and give me a good hug. +I was so hard I could barely breathe and then me. +One or two hours later, I went back to and she said, still feel my +And if I told him that no, I went back again and if I told him I know, I was left in peace. +He had this human quality that I would always do would wish to be close to it. +The only problem is that I had 10 children. +My mother was the lowest of 10. +Sometimes, when I was going to spend a time with it, it wasn't easy to get their time and your attention. +My cousins were running everywhere. +I remember when I was eight or nine years old, I woke up one morning, I went to the room and there were all my cousins. +My grandmother was on the other side of the room and looked at me +At first I thought it was a game. +So I looked at it and I smile, but she was very serious. +After 15 to 20 minutes, she got up, I went through the room, and he took me out of my hand and said, "Come on. We are two to +I remember this as if it was yesterday. +I'll never forget it. +It took me outside and said, I'll tell you something, but you can't tell +I said, "It's okay, +She said, "Now I didn't know it, I said, "Sure." +Then she sat down, I looked at me and said, "I want you to know that I've been +And "I think you're +He said, "I think you can do what you like." +I'll never forget it. +Then he said, "Just want me to give me three things, +I said, +And he said, "Well, the first thing I want you to do is that you always want your mother." +I said, "She's not my and you have to that always +As I went to my mom, I said, "Yes, I'll do it." +Then he said, "Well, the second thing I want you to do is that you always do the right thing even though the right thing is +I thought about it, and I said, "Yes, So I'll do it." +And then finally he said, "Well the third thing I want you to do, is that I never get +I was nine years old, and I said, "Yes, I'll do it." +I grew up in the field, in I have a younger brother a year and a younger year. +When I was 14, 15, one day my brother came home with a package -- I don't know where the caught us and I took my sister and I went to the forest. +We just reach out by doing the +He took a sip of beer, offered my sister, she took a little bit and offered me to me. +I said, "No, no, no. You're okay. You know, but I'm not going to take +My brother said, I mean, you know? And you always do the same thing. +I took something, your sister as well. +I said, "No. I wouldn't feel good, you can +Then my brother looked at me +And he said, "What happens? Take a +And I landed the eyes with a force and "Ah, not to be that you're still thinking about the conversation with +I said, "But what are you talking about?" +He said, tells all the grandchildren that are +I was +I have to say something about you. +I'll tell you something that's probably not supposed to say. +I know this will spread +But I have 52 years and I can admit that I've never taken a drop of alcohol. +I'm not saying this to be a I mean by the power that he has the identity. +When we create the right kind of identity, we say things to others that really don't see it. +We can't get them to do things that don't believe you can do. +I think my grandmother naturally believed that all their grandchildren were special. +My grandfather had been a prisoner during the +My uncles died of age-related diseases. +And these were the things that we did with it, we need to +Now, trying to talk about our criminal justice system. +This country is today very different than it was 40 years ago. +In there were 300,000 prisoners. +There's 2.3 million. +In the United States we have the largest incarceration rate in the world. +We have seven million people in parole. +And this massive incarceration in my opinion, has changed fundamentally our world. +In poor communities or black communities, it finds so much so much despair. +One of three black holes between the 18 and 30 years is in jail or a parole. +In urban in the entire country, Los Philadelphia, Los Philadelphia, Washington -- 50 to 60 percent of all the young people in color are in jail or +Our system is not only distorted in front of race, it's also about poverty. +In this country we have a court system that is much better and than if you're poor, and innocent. +It's not it's wealth that affects the results of the results. +And it seems like we feel very +The politics of fear and anger make us believe that these aren't problems. +We're satisfied. +I think that's interesting. +We're looking at our work in some of the things well curious. +In my state, in Alabama, this is like in other states, rights for always if you have a criminal +Right now in Alabama, the of the black males have lost the right to vote. +And if we put it back to the next 10 years the level of rights loss will be as high as it was before they the law of the right to vote. +We have this amazing silence. +I represent children. +Many of my clients are very young. +America is the only country in the world that was sentence to 13 years to die in prison. +We have in this country jail for children, no possibility to go out ever. +Now we're in the process of some +The only country in the world. +People in death row. +This business of death penalty is interesting. +In a certain sense, you have to think that the final question is, people deserve to die for the +Very sensitive question. +But you can think about another way about how we are in our identity. +There is another form of it's not about deciding whether people deserve to die for competitive crimes, but if we deserve to kill. +This is interesting. + death penalty is defined by mistake. +Of each nine people have identified one that is innocent and liberated from death row. +An rate, an innocent innocent rate. +This is interesting. +And in aviation wouldn't allow you to ever fly planes if every nine that you had, you would have +But somehow we get rid of the problem. +It's not our problem. +It's not our charge. +It's not our fight. +I talk a lot about these things. +I'm talking about race and this thing if we deserve to kill. +It's interesting that in my classes with students on history -- I talk about slavery. +I tell you about terrorism, the time that started at the end of the rebuilding and that lasted to the Second World War. +We really don't know a lot about this. +But for black Americans in this country, it was a little defined by terror. +In many communities people were afraid to be +I was worried about being +The threat of terror was what defined their lives. +Now there are people who come up with me and say, "Mr. Stevenson, you teaches talks, you ask me -- you teaches talks, you give people to stop saying that in our history, we deal with terrorism, after the +They ask me to say, "No. Say we grew up with that." +The age of terrorism was obviously and decades of race and separation. +In this country we have a dynamic because we don't like to talk about our problems. +We don't like to talk about our story. +And that's why we haven't understood the meaning of what we've historically done. +All the time we would have to do with each other. +We constantly created tensions and conflict. +It costs me work to talk about races. I think it's because we're not willing to engage with a process of truth and reconciliation. +In South Africa, people understood that couldn't be overcome without a commitment to the truth and reconciliation. +In Rwanda, even before the genocide had this commitment, but in this country we haven't done it. +I was in Germany giving lectures about death row. +It was fascinating, because one of the teachers stood after my presentation and said, "Do you know it's good disturbing to listen to what they + "There is no death death in Germany. +We will never be it here." +The room stayed in silence and a lady said, "There is no way in our history, we could never get to a systematic death of human beings. +It would be irrational that we, and would put us to the people." +So let's get it about this. +How do we focus on a world where a nation like Germany, people, especially if they were in their most +We could not have it. +It would be irrational. +And yet, there is this disconnection. +I think our identity is in danger. +If we don't really care about these very difficult issues, the positive things that positive and wonderful things are, however, +We love innovation. +We are fascinated by technology, creativity. +We love entertainment. +But lately, those realities are by the suffering, the the the +In my opinion, we need to integrate both things. +We talked about the need for more hope, more commitment, more dedication to the basic challenges of the life of this complex world. +I think that means spending more time thinking and talking about the poor, the the ones that never come to TED. +And thinking about them is, in a way, something that's within our being. +It's true that we have to believe in issues that we haven't seen. +So we are. Despite being so rational, so committed to the intellectual, +With innovation, development is not just about brain ideas. +These things come from ideas that are made by the heart of the heart. +This connection to the mind is what drives us to do not only in the bright and but also in dark and hard. + the great leader was talking about this. +He said, "When we were in East Europe, suffering from we looked at all kinds of things, but mainly what we needed was hope, orientation for spirit, an will to be in places of despair and being +Well, that guidance for the spirit is pretty much at the heart of what I believe that even in communities like TED, must be +There is no disconnect related to technology and design, which allowed us to be really human if we don't pay for the due to poverty, to to inequality, to injustice. +Now I want to warn you that these thoughts make it a much more challenging identity than if we ignored these things. +We go back to +I had the great privilege, being a very young lawyer -- to meet Rosa +These women were gathered together to talk. +Occasionally, I was called to me, comes the +You want to come and +I would say, "Yes, lady. I do." +So she said, "Well what are you going to do when you +I was +And so I was going and just +It was very very +And at one occasion was there, I was listening to these and after a couple of hours, Ms. went to me and said, "Now, give me a question that is that idea of justice +Tell me what you're trying to do." +And I started to give me my speech. +I said, "Well, we're trying to question injustice. +We try to help the ones that have been +We try to confront prejudice and discrimination in criminal justice administration. +We try to end up with the sentences of life, without free freedom for the kids. +We try to do something about death row. +We try to reduce the population in prisons. +We try to end the +I gave it all my best and he looked at me and said, +And it was exhausted, exhausted, rather +At that time, Ms. he threw my finger on the face and said, "That's why you have to be very but very +I think that actually, the TED community has to be much more +We need to figure out how to deal with these challenges, those problems, that suffering. +Because finally humanity depends on compassion for others. +I've learned some very simple things in my work. +I've been +I've come to understand and to believe that every one of us is higher to the worst we've ever met. +I think that's true for everyone on the planet. +I'm convinced if someone says a lie, is not because it's a +I'm sure if someone takes something that doesn't blame you, not that it's a +Even if someone kills another, it's not that it's a +So I think there is a basic dignity in the people who must be by the law. +I also believe that in many parts of this country and, certainly in many parts of the world, the opposite of poverty is not wealth. +So it isn't. +I really think that in many parts the opposite of poverty is justice. +And finally, I believe that even though it's very very very exhilarating, we don't know about our technology, for our design -- not for our intellectual and rational. +At the end of the end, the character of a society, not the way they treat the powerful rich, but by the way they treat the poor, the the prisoners. +Because it's in this context as we started to understand real issues about what we are. +Sometimes I feel I'm going to end with a story. +Sometimes I do too much force. + tired, like everyone. +Sometimes those ideas go beyond my reasoning in a very important way. +I've been representing these guys who have been with a lot of +I'm going to jail and I see my clients from 13 and 14 years, that have been for them as adults as adults. +And I start thinking, how can it be? +How can a judge turn someone into what it isn't it? +The judge is as an adult, but I see a kid. +One night I was very late I was awake for God, if the judge can turn you into something you don't say you must have magic powers. +Yes, the judge has magic powers. +You should ask for some of that. +As I was very late, I couldn't think right, but I started working on a +He had a customer a little +I started working on the with a who said, so that my black customer is treated as a privileged white CEO of a +In the I found there had been a behavioral behavior in the in the behavior of the police and in the process. +There was a line on how in this country there is no ethics, but a whole lack of ethics. +The next morning, I woke up thinking that would be a dream, or really +For my horror, it wasn't just the but he had sent it to court. +It took about two months, I had forgotten it. +And finally Oh God, I have to go to cut this case, stupid. +I got into the car, and I felt truly +I went into the car to court. +I thought this would be very difficult and +I finally came down from the car. +I was going down the stairs when I found a black man, he was the of the court. +When he saw me, he came up to me and said, "Who is you?" +I said, "I'm a He said, "It's you I said yes. +And so I went up and got me up. +And I was on the ear, +He said, "I'm proud to +I have to tell you now that that was +I connected deeply with my interior, with my identity with the ability that we all have to contribute to the community with a vision of hope. +Well, I went into the audiences. +When I arrived, the judge saw me saw me. +And he said, "Mr. Stevenson, you wrote this audacity +I said, "Sir, I went me." And we started again." +People started there. They were all +I was the one that had written those crazy things. +They got the cops the prosecutors the +Suddenly, I know how the room was full of people. All right, because we talked about races, because we talked about poverty, because we talked about inequality. +With the of the eye to see the that was going and +You look at the window, and you would try to hear all that +I kept walking over here and over there. +Finally, this old black kid was in the room and sat behind me, almost on the table of lawyers. +About 10 minutes later, the judge is a +During the rest of the he showed because had come in the room. +The assistant on the old black man." +And he said, "Well, what do you do in the room. +And the old black foot stood up, he looked at me and he looked at me and he looked at me and said, this guy in audiences to tell this young woman to keep his view in the goal with +I've come today to TED because I think many of you understand that the moral bow of the universe is very big, but it folds up toward justice. +We cannot really be human if we don't care about human rights and for dignity. +What our survival is linked to each other. +That our visions of technology, design, entertainment and creativity must be to the and justice. +And above all, to those of us who share this, I just want to tell you that keep your view in the goal of +Thank you very much. +Chris Anderson: Tell me to hear and see an obvious wish to the audience, in this community, to help in your purposes, to do something. +Something that is not a What can we do? + There are several opportunities for you. +If you live in the state of California, for example, there will be a this spring in which it's going to be a effort for the funding that you spend today in business policy. +For example, here in California, you're going to spend a billion dollars in the next five years, a billion dollars. +And despite this, the of homicide cases, not in +The of the rapes come to nothing. +Here's an opportunity for change. +This is going to come up with these funds to make it the law of security. +I think there is a very humble opportunity. +CA: There's been a huge decline in crime in the United States, in the last three decades. +Part of the reason is that it has to do with the largest rate. +What would you say to you who believe it is? + Actually, the crime rate with violence has remained relatively stable. +The big growth in mass in this country is not for crimes in violence. +It's the wrong war against drugs. +So this is why this dramatic increase in the population. +And we let us convince us by the rhetoric of punishment. +We have three legal causes to bring people to the supply chain, by stealing a bicycle for small crimes against property, instead of making it those resources to their victims. +I think we have to do more to help the victims of the and not less. +It seems to me that our current philosophy on punishment does nothing for anybody. +I think that is the orientation that has to change. +CA: Have you excited about +You're very inspiring. +Thank you very much for having come to TED. Thank you. +Announcer: threats for Bin Laden's deaths. + two: in Somalia. 3: The police sends gas. + 4: + right, 65 dead. + Olympic tsunami. +Several War, the + Egypt. + Death. +Oh, my God. +Peter These are just some of the clips that I got in the last six months. It would be in the last six months. +The idea is that the media means negative news because our minds pay attention to. +And that responds to a very good reason. +In every second of every day our senses are getting a lot more data than probably the brain can be +And as nothing matters to survive, the first stop of all of those data is an old fragment of the temporal lobe called +The amygdala is our early Olympics, the danger. + and records all the information looking for something in the environment that could make us damage. +So this is why we have a of stories, looking at the negative. +That old saying of the "If there is blood, is very true. +And because all the digital devices give us news news, the seven days of the week, 24 hours a week, 24 hours a day, not surprising to be +It's not surprising that people think the world is going to be wrong with worse. +But maybe not that way. +Maybe instead, what really happens is we get +Perhaps the huge progress that has done in the last century for a series of forces is so we have the potential to create a world of abundance in the next three decades. +I'm not saying that we don't have our good problems, climate change, water water and no doubt of it. +As human beings are very good at the problems and the very long, we just ended up with them. +Let's take it on the last century to see where we go. +In the last hundred years, the average of life has been more than per capita income per capita per capita has around the world. +Child mortality has reduced 10 times. +In addition, the cost of food food, of transit and communications, has fallen 10 to 1,000 times. +Steve Pinker showed us that we're living the most peaceful time in human history. +And Charles important that the world literacy went from 25 to more than 80 percent in the last 130 years. +We're really living an extraordinary time. +A lot of people forget it. +And we continue to make expectations more and higher expectations at all. +In fact, the meaning of poverty. + today in America, much of the people who live under the line of poverty have electricity, water, toilets, TV, air conditioning and cars. +The of the of the last century, the of the planet, would have never been dreamed of such +And so much of this is technology and, lately, exponential growth. +My good friend Ray Kurzweil showed that any tool that was going on in information technology jumps on this curve, Moore's Law and doubling the price of the price of about 12 to 24 months. +So why the mobile phone that has in your pocket is a million times cheaper and a thousand times faster than a supercomputer from the '70s. +Now look at this curve. +It's Moore's Law for the last hundred years. +I want you to look at two things on this curve. +First, the soft thing that is -- in good and bad time, in the war and peace, in the recession, in depression and +It's the of fast computers used to build faster computers. +It doesn't stop any of the big challenges. +And even though it's on a law on the left, the curve goes up. +The growth rate is at least faster and faster. +And in this curve, to Moore's Law is a series of extraordinarily powerful technologies that we count. +And the computation in the cloud, my friends of call sensors and and networks, and 3D output and its ability to democratize and distribute personalized production across the planet, synthetic biology, the malaria and the food, the the digital medicine, the and the A.I. +I mean, how many of you saw the victory in "Jeopardy" "Jeopardy" +It was +I looked at the newspapers the best headline that I was doing. +And I loved this: +"Jeopardy" is not an easy game. +Play with the of human language. +Imagine this artificial intelligence in the cloud, available for all on the cell phone. +Four years ago, here at TED, Ray Kurzweil and I, we launched a new university called +We teach these technologies to our students, and in particular, how can they be used to solve the great challenges of humanity. +And every year we asked them to release a company, or a product or service that can impact the lives of a billion people in a decade. +Think about that, the fact that a group of students today can impact the life of a billion people. +Thirty years ago, that would have been absurd. +Today we can point out a of companies that have already done. +When I think about creating abundance, it doesn't mean to make life for every single is about creating a life of as possible. +It's about taking that that's scarce and making it +You see, dearth is and technology is a force that releases resources. +Let me give you an example. +It's a story in the +He's the guy on the left. + the king of + ate with silver, and the same with gold. +But the king ate with aluminum +You see, aluminum was the most precious metal of the planet, was worth more than gold and +So for that reason, the tip of to Washington is aluminum. +You see, although aluminum is the of the Earth, it doesn't come like pure metal. +It's tied for oxygen and +But then it came the and he did the aluminum thing so cheap that we use it as if it was +Let's give this analogy to the future. +Think about energy. +Ladies and gentlemen, we are on a planet that we would have for 5,000 times more energy than we use in a year. +They get to the Earth 16 of energy every 88 minutes. +It's not about need, it's about +And there's good news. +This year, for the first time, the cost of solar energy in India is 50 percent less than the age of rupees versus 17 rupees. +The cost of solar power dropped 50 percent last year. +Last month, the MIT published a study that shows that in the end of the decade, in the U.S. parts of the United States, it will cost six cents an hour compared to the 15 cents of the national average. +And if we have abundance of energy too, we have abundance of water. +Let's talk about the wars in the water. +Remember when Carl Sagan pointed out the spacecraft spacecraft called the Earth, in 1990, after it was + a famous picture -- how do you +"A +Because we live on a planet planet. +We live on a planet in 70 percent of water. +Yes, the is saltwater, water is ice, two percent is ice, and we fought for the water of the planet, but there's a hope. +It's a technology available not in 10 or 20 years, but right now. +It comes nanotechnology, the +In a conversation with Dean Kamen this morning, one of the innovators from the I would like to share with you, gave me permission to give you your technology called -- it's the size of a small fridge in the size. +It is able to generate a thousand liters of drinking water to the day of any single source -- saltwater, water -- a for less than two cents a gallon. +The president of Coke just convinced me that it will make a significant test of hundreds of these units in the developing world. +If that comes out well, and I have full confidence in which this will be, Coca-Cola will implement the world in countries. +This is an ongoing innovation for this technology that today. +And we've seen it in mobile phones. +My God, we're going to get to the 70 percent penetration of the mobile phones in the developing world for the end of 2013. + that warrior has better mobile communications in Kenya that President Reagan 25 years ago. +And to have a smart phone with Google, it has access to more knowledge and information than the president Clinton 15 years ago. +It lives in a world of abundance of information and communications that nobody could have predicted ever. +And better than that, the things that you and I have paid dozens and hundreds of thousands of dollars -- video, libraries of books and music, diagnostic technology, now and lose market value with mobile phones. +Maybe the best thing to get when it comes to health care. +Last month, I had the pleasure to announce with the Foundation, which is called the X +We're challenging the teams of the world to make these technologies into a mobile device that they talk, and because they have they can be you can get blood from your finger. +To win it has to make better diagnostics than a team. +So imagine this device in the middle of the developing world where there are no doctors, where the payload is 25 percent, and there are from health workers. +When this device is a virus of RNA or DNA that didn't want to call the health care and, first of all, avoiding the pandemic. +But this is the greatest force of producing a world of abundance. +I call it the +The white lines here are the population. +We've just got the brand of 7 billion. +By the way, the best protection against population explosion is to give to the world of education and health. +In 2010, we had less than two billion people online, connected. +By 2020, we will spend two billion to five billion users of the Internet. +Three billion of our minds never before we have to add to the global conversation. +What do these people? +What do you say? What wishes to +And instead of an economic collapse we will have the largest economic injection of history. +These people represent tens of billions of dollars in the global economy. +And of more health than the of a better education with the Khan Academy and because of the use of impressions in 3D, and to computation in the cloud will be more productive than ever before. +What can you give us three billion members of humanity, healthy polite and +How about a voices that are never before the +What if we give them to wherever they are, a voice to be heard and be able to act for the first time? +What do these 3,000 billion? +And if they are contributions we cannot +One thing I learned with the X is that small teams guided by their passion with a goal of course, you can do things -- things that were previously able to make the big companies and governments. +I'm going to finish up with a story that really excites me. +There's a program that maybe some already know. +It's called + at the University of Washington in Seattle. +It's a game where people can take a sequence of amino acids and figure out how to fold the protein. +The folds determine the structure and +It's very important in medical research. +And so far, it was a problem of +They've played this with college professors among each other. +Then hundreds of thousands of people joined and started +And it has shown that today the machinery of human patterns is better protein than the best computers. +Ladies and gentlemen, what gives me a huge trust in the future is that we have more power to take the great challenges of the planet. +We have the tools with this exponential technology. +We have the passion of +We have the capital of +And we have three billion new minds that are going to be taught to work on the solution of the big challenges and do what we should do. +We have for a few decades of extraordinary. +Thank you. +I'm going to talk about a very idea. +The of the point of +And as the idea can be explained in a minute, before I give you three examples to do time. +The first story is about Charles Darwin, one of my heroes. +He was here, as you know, in +You may believe that I pursued but it wasn't like this. +They actually pick up fish. +And he described one of them as very +It was +It caught a lot to the +Now the fish is in the Red +But we've heard this story many times, about the Galapagos and other places, so that has nothing special about it. +But the case is that we still come to the Galapagos. +We still think they're +The leaflets still say they're still +So what happens here? +The second story, also illustrates another concept. +Because I was there in studying a lagoon in West Africa. +I was there because I grew up in Europe and then I wanted to work in Africa. +I thought it could be +I burned a lot with the sun, and I was convinced that I was not there. +This is my first exhibition in the sun. +The water's surrounded by and, as you can see, from a +There was of about 20 percent, the of the black card. +And the fishery of this was very abundant and it was happening for a good moment, so it was taken over the average in Ghana. +When I went there 27 years later, the amount of fish had gone down in half. +I was going to go to the five inches. +We a genetic pressure. +There were still fish. +In a way, they were still happy. +And the fish were still happy to be there. +I mean, nothing to changed, but everything has changed. +My third story is that I was complicit in the introduction of the drag fishery in Southeast Asia. +In the 1970s -- well started in Europe did a lot of development projects. +The fishing development was imposing the countries that had 100,000 the industrial fishing. +And this boat, pretty bad -- called the +And I went out to fish in it, and we did studies in southern China -- and in the South China -- and, above all, in the Aral Sea. +What we capture was something +I know now what the bottom of the sea. +Ninety percent of what we capture was other animals that are in the background. +And most of the fish are kind of tiny remains about remains of coral reef. +In short, the sea bottom came across the deck and then it was +These images are extraordinary because the transition is very fast. +In one year, you do a study and then you start the commercial fishing. +The bottom is going to be a solid background of soft coral in this case, to be a +This is a dead +Not the because they were dead. +We once captured a alive. +I wasn't +So they wanted to because it was a good food. +This mountain of debris is what they collect every time they go to an area that they have never fish. +But it's not +We don't remember it. +It was going to be the start of the start of the beginning, the new level, not remembering what was there. +If you look at this something like this. +And on the axis, we have things -- biodiversity, quantity of killer the water supply happened, the water supply. +And that changes over time. It changes because people do things with +Every generation of images in the beginning of their conscious life as normal and extrapolate forward. +The difference is they perceive loss of loss. +But they don't perceive the loss that happened before. +So you can look at the printing of changes. +And at the end of the end of the +And that, in a big measure, we want to do it now. +We want to keep things that are no longer what they were gone. +But you should think that this problem affects people when societies kill animals without knowing what they've done to a few generations later. +Because, obviously, an animal that's very prevalent before it's +You don't lose animal animals. +You lose animal animals. +Even if this is not perceived as a great loss. +Over time, we focus on the big, and in a sea synonymous with great fish. +They become rare because the +With time you have a few fish, but we think that's the point of +And the question is, why do we accept this? +Well, because we don't know it was different. +In fact, a lot of people, scientists, who was very different. +And they will do it because the evidence was presented in a way that they would expect to have the evidence. +For example, the anecdote that some of them is that some of them as captain such as captain so many fish in this area cannot be used or generally they don't use the scientists of the fishery, because it's not +So we have a situation where people don't know the past, even though we live in societies, because they don't rely on the sources of the past. +Out of the enormous paper that can be able to make a protected marine area. +Because with the marine areas we actually do recreating the past. +You know, the past that people can't conceive of, because the starting point has been done, and it's very low. +That's for the people that you can see a protected marine zone, and they can benefit from the vision that we want, which allows them to erase their +And what about people who can't do that because they don't have access, like the people in the Middle West, for example? +I think that the arts and cinema may fill the void. +This is a simulation of Bay. +A long time ago, there were gray whales in bay 500 years ago. +And you may have noticed that and are like +And if you think about if you think about why people were very touched by the movie -- to talk about the story of why would we get +Because it raises something that, in a sense, has been lost. +So my the only one to give, is to underwater. +Thank you very much. +Hi. I am Kevin the manager and I look at YouTube videos in a professional video. +It's true. +So we're going to see what the videos are and what importance has that. +We all want to be -- When I was younger, that seemed very, very hard. +But today the web video makes any of us, or our actions, copper to a part of our global culture. +Anybody can be famous in the Internet in a +You go up over 48 hours of video to YouTube a minute. +And of those, just a little percentage does viral ago, gets lots and lots and a cultural +How does that happen? +Three things: creators of trends, communities of participation and surprise. +Well, + Oh my God, my God. +KT: Oh, my God! +Wow. + +KA: Last year, published this shot outside his house at the National Park. +In 2010, it was seen 23 million times. +This graph shows the views on the rise of popularity of the past summer. +He was not proposed to do a viral video. +I just wanted to share a rainbow. +That's what you do if it's called Mountain Mountain +There was a lot of videos of nature. +This video was published in January. +So what happened here? +It was Jimmy +Jimmy I published this to the video to the +The subjects of trends like Jimmy are presented with new things and interesting and them to a wider audience. +Rebecca He's on a Friday. You all want to start on the Friday. You all want to get on the Friday. -- a Friday. + of Rebecca is one of the most popular videos of the year. +You saw it almost 200 million times this year. +This graph shows the frequency of use. +Just like this video seemed to have emerged from nothing. +So what happened this day? +Well, it was Friday, it's true. +And if you ask those other they're also a Friday. +But what happened this day, on Friday +Well, I took and many blogs started writing about it. +Michael J. of Science was one of the first people to do a joke about the video on Twitter. +But the important thing is that a person or a bunch of creators embrace a view of view, and they share it with a broader audience, accelerating the process. +So this community of people who share this great joke internal joke then it starts to talk about that and doing things. +And now there are 10,000 pounds of on YouTube. +Just in the first seven days, there was a parody for each other days. +Unlike the entertainment entertainment of the 20th century, this community involvement is our way to be part of the phenomenon, or doing something new with + is a dominated animation, with a music. +That's the thing. +This year you saw it about 50 million times. +And if you think that's rare, you know that there is a three million hours that has seen four million times. +Until cats saw this video. +And there are cats that you saw other cats see the video. +But the important thing here is the creativity that woke up between the Internet community. +There was +Somebody did a version of the ancient one. +And then it became international himself. +All of a sudden, a whole community came out of a community, that made this to happen to be a dumb joke at something that we all can form a part. +Because today not only do you hear it? +Who could have predicted something like this? +Who could be predicted by or Rebecca or +What's wrong with you might have written this situation? +In a world in which you go up two days of video per minute, only that truly unique and unexpected can be able to make it so that these things have done it. +When a friend told me that I had to see this great video of a guy who protest against in New York, I admit that I wasn't interested in too much. +Casey I am for the but we often have obstacles that keep you in properly +KA: Thank you the surprise effect and its humor, Casey did that five million you saw and understand their idea. +So this approach is worth the whole thing that we do in a creative way. +And all this leads to a great question. + What does this mean? + +KA: What does this mean? +The creators of trend -- creative communities of participation, all the unexpected, are characteristics of a new kind of culture, which we all have access and is the audience that defines the +As I said before, one of the current celebrities of the world, Justin started on YouTube. +They don't ask permission to express their ideas. +Now we're all a little masters of our pop culture. +These are not the characteristics of the old media characteristics -- it's just the current media characteristics -- but we have the entertainment of the future. +Thank you. +This is not a story. +It's a puzzle that's still +Let me tell you about some of the pieces. +Imagine the first a man burning the work of a lifetime. +It's a poet, a a man whose entire life had been supported by the only unit of unity and freedom of his country. + while the come into in the fact that their life had been totally in vain. +The words for so much time, friends, now with it. +It was in silence. +He died broken by history. +He's my grandfather. +I never met it. +But our lives are much more than our memories. +My grandmother never allowed me to forget his story. +My task was not to let that have been in and my lesson was to learn that the story tried to, but it was +The next part of the puzzle is on a boat at dawn into the sea. +My mother, was just 18 years old when his father died, and a and two small girls. +For her, life had been meant to a escape and a new life in Australia. +It was inconceivable for her that I couldn't do that. +And then from a that defies fiction, a boat is wrapped up into the sea +All the adults know the risks. +The greatest fear of the rape and death. +Like most adults, my mother carried a with poison. +If we were going to let me first take you my sister and I, and then she and my grandmother. +My first memories are from that boat, the steady rate of the engine, the diving into every and the average horizon and vacuum. +I don't remember the pirates who came several times, but they were with the bravery of men in our boat, or the engine dying and not being able to start for six hours. +But I know I remember the lights of the oil platform, front of the coast of Malaysia, and the young man who collapsed and died, finish the journey was too much for it, and the first apple that I did, given by the men on the platform. +No apple had the same flavor. +And after three months in a refugee camp, he in +And the next piece of the puzzle is about four women across three generations shaping a new life together. +We set up in a class, whose population is comprised of immigrant +Unlike the suburbs of the middle class, whose existence was in there was no sense of the right. +The smells that came from the stores were from the rest of the world. +And the fragments were among the people who had one thing in common: They were starting again. +My mother worked in farms, then on a car assembly line, working six days turn. +And yet, I found time to study English and get a title at IT and get a degree on IT +We were poor. +All the dollars were and it was established an extra in English and math -- no matter what was supposed to be which was generally was always +Two pairs for school, one to hide the holes in the other. +A school uniform for the because I had to last six years. +And there were and on the and some +At home, where? +Something in me is +I was accumulating determination and a voice saying, "I'm going to +My mother, my sister and I in the same bed. +My mother was every night, but we would get rid of our day and we heard the movements of our grandmother at the house. +My mother had every boat. +And my task was to be up until his nightmares started to be able to be able to +She opened a computer store, and then I studied to be and opened another business. +And women would come with their stories about men who couldn't do angry and angry and and boys caught between two worlds. +They looked for subsidies and +And they were created centers. +I lived in parallel worlds. +In one, it was the classic with what I of myself. +On the other, I was in life tragically by violence, abuse of drug and isolation. +But many of them got help over the years. +And for that work, when I studied my last year of waiting, I was elected by the Australian +And I went out of a piece of the puzzle to the other, but the edges, not +So resident was now refugee and social activist invited to speak in places I had never heard of, and in homes whose existence had never ever imagined. +I didn't know the +I didn't know how to use +I didn't know how to talk about wine. +I didn't know how to talk about anything. +I wanted to retreat into the and the comfort of life at a -- a grandmother, a mother and two daughters at the day as they did for about 20 years, on the day of each one and the three in the same bed. +And I told my mom who couldn't do it. +It reminded me that I had now the same age that she had when she gets into the boat. +He hasn't ever been an option. + he said, "What don't you be +So I talked about juvenile and education and to the and the +And the more frankly, the more I talked about, the more it was to speak. +I met people from all the paths of life, so many of them doing what they would do, living on the border of the possible. +And even though I ended up my I realized I couldn't stay in a career. +I had to have another piece of the puzzle. +And I realized at the same time that it's okay to be an unknown, a little bit of the scene -- and not only it's something that is something that will be grateful, maybe a gift of the ship. +Because being inside it can easily mean can easily mean to accept the assumptions of your +I gave these enough steps out of my comfort zone to know that, yes, the world is but not the way we fear. +They didn't have been they were +There was a energy there, a rare mix of humility and +So I kept my intuition. +And they went to a small group of people for the people who the motto cannot it was a challenge. +For a year we didn't have a dime. +At the end of each day, it was a giant +They were going to get to entry at night. +Most of our ideas were crazy, but some brilliant and we open up. +I took the decision to move to the United States. +And after one trip. +My again. +Three months later there was and the adventure +Before I finish up, let me tell you about my grandmother. +She grew up in a time when was the social norm and the local was the person who cared for. +Life had not changed for centuries. +His father died shortly after she was born. +The mother grew up alone. +At 17 became a of a whose mother +Without the support of his husband, I caused an to the and take the cause she did, and so much more caused when I won. +You can't do it proved to be wrong. +I was in the shower room in the room at when she was killed, 1,000 kilometers, in +I looked across the of the shower and I saw the other side stop. +I knew I had come to +My mother called me later. +Days later, we went to a Buddhist temple in and sat around his +We tell stories and make sure that we were still with it. +At night a monk came and told us that he had to close the +My mother asked us to hold his hand. +I asked the "Why his hand is hot, and the rest of the body so +"Because you have taken your hand from the he said. +"Not +If there is a nerve in our family, that runs through women. +Since we were and how life built us, we can now see that the men who have come to our lives would have been + would have +Now I want to have my own kids, and I wonder about the ship. +Who could do that for you? +However, I'm afraid of the privilege of the right thing. +Can I give you a in your life, a brave steady rate in each the rate steady of the engine, the vast horizon that doesn't guarantee anything? +I don't know. +But if I could give it and see them safe I would do it. + and also the mother of this is today, on the fourth or a fifth row. +My story starts in about two years ago. +I was in the desert, under the sky with the +We were having a conversation about how nothing has changed since the old Indian "The +In those days when Indians want to travel to a chariot and we would have the sky. +Now we do it with airplanes. +At that time when I was the great prince of Indian warrior had he pulled a bow and with a on the ground, he got water. +Now we do the same with and machines. +The conclusion that we took was that the machinery had replaced the magic. +And I was very excited about that. +Every time I felt a little bit more +I gave myself this idea of losing the ability to enjoy and appreciate a sunset if I didn't have the camera, if I couldn't get my friends. +It seemed like the technology had to allow the magic to do not +As a child my grandfather gave me his silver +And this kind of technology was for me the most magic thing. +It became a golden door to a world full of images, of pirates and in my imagination. +I had the feeling that mobile phones and the cameras stop and the cameras prevent them. +We will have our inspiration. +So I was I came up with this technological world to see how we use it to create magic, rather than + books from the 16 years. +So when I saw the iPad, I saw a device to connect readers of the entire world. +You can know how to take the book. +Where we are. +Put the text with the image, animation, sound and touch. +The narrative becomes increasingly +But what does that matter? +I'm about to launch an interactive app for iPad. +It says, "You know, your fingers on every light." +And so -- He says, "This box belongs I write my name. +And so I get a character from the book. +At a number of moments I get a -- the iPad knows where I live through the GPS -- that comes led to me. +My inner child gets excited about all of these possibilities. +I've talked a lot about magic. +And I don't mean and but the magic of the childhood, those ideas that we +For some reason, fireflies in a jar always turned me very exciting. +So over here, we have to break the iPad to release the fireflies. +And actually, they light your way into what it looks like in the book. +Another idea that I was fascinated by a girl was that a whole galaxy, in a +So here, every book and every world is turned into a that I would to this magic device inside the device. +And this opens a map. +In all fantasy book there is always been maps but they've been static maps. +This is a map that grows, and guide you for the rest of the book. +In certain dots of the book they also get +Now I'm going to come in. +Another incredibly important thing to me is to create Indian content and the contemporary time. +These are the +We've all heard of fairies and but how many people were out of India know their counterparts +These poor have been trapped in the cameras of Indra for millennia, in an old and wet book. +So we're bringing them back into a children's story. +It is in a story which is the current issues like the environmental crisis. +And talking about the environmental crisis, one of the problems in the last 10 years has been that children have been attached to their they haven't left the outside world. +But now with mobile technology, we can pull our children into the natural world with their technology. +One of the interactions of the book is this adventure where you have to go out there, take the camera or iPad, and we collect images from different natural objects. +As a child, I had a lot of stones, stones, and +For some reason kids don't do it. +So to regain this entire childhood ritual to go out and, in a a photo to a flower and then +On another chapter, you have to take a picture of a piece of cortex and then +And so it creates a digital collection of pictures that can then put on the Web. +A kid in London puts a photo of a and says, "Oh, today I saw a +A kid in India says, "I saw a +And it creates this kind of social network around a collection of digital pictures that have been taking. +Within the variations of connection between the magic and the Earth and technology is so many possibilities. +In the next book, we have an interaction where you go out with the iPad and the video on, and it turns out and by augmented reality you see a group that appear on the inner plants. +At one point the screen is full of leaves it. +And you have to do the sound of the wind and so you can read the rest of the book. +We go to a world in which the forces of nature are focused on technology, and the magic and the technology and the technology gets closer to another. +We the power of the sun. +We're moving into our children and ourselves to the natural world and to that magic world and love and love that we sat through a simple story. +Thank you. +I'd like to talk to you about why many projects of +And I think, really, the most important thing about that is we stop listening to the patients. +And one of the things that we did at the University of was a director of listening. +And not in a very scientific way, she raised a little cup of coffee or tea and asked patients, family and What happens? +"How can we +And we tend to think, that this is one of the biggest problems for what all of all, or maybe not all, but most of the projects of they fail to stop listening. +This is my Wi-Fi scale. It's very simple. +It has a and +Every morning I was +And yes, I have a challenge as you can see. +I was a challenge to reach 95 percent. +But it's so simple, that every time I'm going, it sends my information to Google +And my doctor of has access to him as well. And so he can see what my weight problem is not at the same time when he needs to get care of it, or some urgency of that style -- but it sees it backwards. +But there's another thing. +Like some of you know, I have over 3,000 followers on Twitter. +So every morning I connect to my Wi-Fi scale and before I go up to my car, people start to I think you need a lunch. +That's the best thing that can happen, because it's pressure for the pairs used to help patients, because it could be used for obesity, and also for patients to stop smoking. +On the other hand, it can be to move people out of their chairs and together develop some activity to be more control of their health. +From the week next week. +This little connected to an iPhone or another device. +And people would take care of their houses, take their blood pressure, their doctor and share it with others, for example, for 100 dollars. +This is the point where patients assume a position, return to regain the control and to be captains of their own but it can also help us care for health care because of the challenges that we face, like the behavioral care costs -- the of demand and other issues. + techniques that are simple to use and start with this to engage patients in the team. +And you can do it with techniques like this, but also by +And one of the things we did want to share it with you with a video. +We all have controls navigation at +Maybe we even have our cell phones. +We know perfectly where machines are in +What is all the +And of course, we can find fast food chain. +But where is the closest to help this patient? +We asked them, but nobody +No one knew where to get the saves life right now. +So what we did was we do in the Netherlands. +We created a web website, and we asked the public audience -- you see a for favor for where, when it's open, because sometimes they open up in the office and others are closed. +And more than 10,000 were presented in the Netherlands. +The next step was to look for the app for that. +And we made an app for the iPad. +We created an app for reality to find these +And every time you're in the city of and somebody else is you can use your iPhone, and for the next few weeks to use your cell phone in Microsoft to find the nearest what can save lives. +And from today, I would like to present this one, not just as which is the name of the product, but also as +And we want to take a global level. +We are to all of the colleagues in the world, in other universities, to help us find them and work as a center for the of around the world. +Every time you go on a holiday and someone can be a relative or somebody in front of you, you can find it. +I also wanted to invite companies across the world that could help us validate these +You could be services or people, for example, to see if the which is shown is still in their place. +Please focus on this and not only improve health, but take control of it. +Thank you very much. +I'm here to share photography. +Or is it +Because, of course, it's photographs that can't take with their cameras. +My interest in photography was awakened to my first digital camera at the age of 15 years. +He mixed with my earlier passion for the drawing but it was a little bit different because by using the camera and the process was in planning. +And when you take a photograph with a camera the process ends up when the +For me, photography had more to be in the right place, at the right time. +It seemed like anybody could do it. +So I wanted to create something different, a process that would start by press the +So let's look at it like this: an building on a very road. +But it has an unexpected turn. +And even though it keeps a level of +Or pictures like dark and colorful to the common goal of keeping the level of +And when I say realism I say +Because, of course, it's not something I can do, but I always want it to seem to have been captured in some way like photography. +You know, you will have to think about a moment to discover the trick. +It has more to be able to capture an idea that we can capture a moment. +But what is the trick that does it look real like this. +They're the details or +Would you get light? +What does the +Sometimes the illusion is the perspective. +But at the end of it is our way to interpret the world and how you can perceive it on a surface. +It's actually not about whether it's realistic but what we think is a +So I think the foundations are very simple. +I see it as a puzzle of the reality that we take different pieces of reality and put them to create an alternative reality. +Let me show you a simple example. +Here we have three perfectly objects that we can all relate to the three-dimensional world. +But combined it can be able to create something that still looks like as if it existed. +But at the same time, we know that it doesn't exist. +So let's look at the brain because the brain doesn't embrace the fact that that really doesn't make any sense. +And I see the same process by combining the photographs. +It's really different realities. +And the things that make a photo looks like realistic I think they are those in the ones that don't even get the things around us in our everyday lives. +But by combining photographs is very important, because otherwise something else is going to be wrong. +So I would like to say there are three simple rules that will continue to achieve realistic results. +As you can see, these images are not very special. +But can create something like this. +So the first rule is that the combination of pictures must have the same perspective. +Secondly, the photos are combined to have the same type of light. +And these two images meet these were taken at the same height and with the same kind of light. +The third point is to make it impossible to distinguish the beginning, and the end of the different images with a perfect +It has to be impossible to see where the image. +Here's another example. +You might think this is the image of a landscape and the bottom is +But this picture is completely composed of photographs of different places. +I think it's easier to create a place that is easier to create a place that you find because you don't need to put in danger the ideas that has on your head. +But it takes a lot of planning. +And as I thought about this idea in the winter I knew I had several months to try and find the different locations for the pieces of the puzzle. +For example, the fish was captured on a fishing. + are a different location. +The part was captured in a stone. +And yes, I even made red the house at the top of the island to it as it looks like more +So to get a realistic outcome, I think it takes planning. +It always starts with a sketch, an idea. +Then we have to combine the different pictures. +And here every piece is very well +If you do a good job when you take the pictures the result can be very beautiful and at the same time. +All the tools are there and the only limit is our imagination. +Thank you. +I'm going to start showing a slide about technology, very boring. +Please do if you can +It's a diagram anybody I took from a portfolio of mine. +I'm not really interested in showing you the details but the general thing. +This is a analysis that we were doing about the power of microprocessors versus the power of the local area. +What's interesting about this is that this one, as a lot of other people that we tend to see, is a kind of a straight line on the +In other words, each step here represents an order of magnitude on the scale of performance. +I'm going to talk about technology with is something new. +Here is something weird here. +And that's what I'm going to talk about. +Please turn the lights on. +It gets more intensity because writing about paper. +Why do we see curves on scales. +The answer is that if you draw the drawing on a normal curve, where, say, these are the years, or some of the time, and this would be any measure of the technology that I'd like to give you the diagram would look ridiculous. +It would be something like this. +It doesn't say much. +But if you will, for example, another technology, like transportation, on a curve, it would be very dumb, we would see a straight line. +But if something like this, it turns out a +If the technology of as fast as the last morning we could take a cab and be in Tokyo in 30 seconds. +But it doesn't go through that rhythm. +There is not in the history of technological development of growth that every few years advance of magnitude. +The question I want to make is -- look at these we see that they don't keep forever. +It's not possible to hold this change as fast as it goes. +So let's give it one of two things. +Or it will be turned into a I know like this until it comes to something completely different, or maybe I'll do something like that. +That's all that can happen. +I'm optimistic, so I think maybe something like this. +So we will now be in the middle of a transition. +In this line we are in a transition from what used to be the world, in a new way. +So what I'm trying to ask, and ask me, is, what is that new way to adopt the world? +What new state is going. +The transition is very, very confused if we're engaged in it. +I remember the future was happening in the year 2000 and people used to talk about what would happen in 2000. +This is a conference where people talk about the future, and we see that the future is still the year 2000. +That's all we see. +In other words, the future has been year after year, throughout my life. +But I think it's because we feel something that's going on. +It turns out a transformation. We can feel it. +And we know it doesn't have a lot of sense to think about 30 or 50 years because it all will be so different than extrapolate what we're doing today doesn't make any sense. +So I want to talk to you about how it might be, how could that transition to +But to do that will have to talk a little bit about things that don't have a lot to do with technology and computer technology. +Because I think the only way to understand it is taking distance and look at things in the long term. +The scale of time I would like to do that is the time of life on Earth. +I think this picture makes sense if we look at it every billion years. +So you go back to about two billion years when the Earth was a great sterile rock with many chemicals that around them. +If we look at the way these chemicals organized it to us an idea of how things happened. +And I think there's theories to start to understand the origin of RNA. I'm going to tell you a simple version of this -- and that's that, at the time, there was some oil with all kinds of chemical recipes inside. +Some of those drops of oil had a particular combination of chemicals that made them to bring from the outside of the outside and the drops grew up. +And they started +In a sense, those were the more mobile forms of cell forms -- those of oil. +But those drops were not alive in the current sense, because each one of them contained a random recipe of chemicals. +And every time it was a distribution of the chemicals that we +So every droplet was a little different. +In fact, the drops that somehow it would be better at the time of bringing the chemical more chemicals and more chemicals and +Mostly, they lived more time, they were more +It was a form of life, life -- very simple, but things are going to be interesting when these droplets learned the trick of abstraction. +In some way that we don't understand very well these they learned to store information. +They learned to save information, which was the recipe for the cell, in a special chemical called DNA. +In other words, in this evolution, a writing system that allowed them to record what they were to be able to do it. +The amazing thing is that that writing system seems to have remained stable since it evolved 2.5 billion years ago. +Our recipe, our genes, they have exactly the same code, that same writing system. +In fact, every living being is expressed with exactly the same set of letters and the same code. +And one of the things I did only for Now we can write things with this code. +Here I have 100 of white dust that I try to hide people from the airport. +But took this The code has the common letters that we tend to use in this -- and I wrote my personal data on this clip of DNA and 10 to 22 times. +So if someone wants to be 100 million copies of my personal card -- I have a lot of for all the in fact, for every person in the world and it's here. +If it was a I would have put it on a virus and would have taken it through the room. +What was the next +Writing DNA was an interesting step. +This made these cells be happy another billion years old. +But then another big step occurred in which things were very different, and it was that these cells started to exchange and communicate information forming that cell communities. +I don't know if you know, but bacteria can exchange DNA. +So for example, for example, it evolved resistance to antibiotics. +Some bacteria found the way we avoid penicillin and they were to create their little DNA with other bacteria and now there are so resistant to penicillin because bacteria communicate. +This communication gave rise to communities that, in a way, were together in it, and a + or together, or so if a community was very successful all the individuals of that community, they get more and they were overwhelmed by evolution. +And the inflection point occurred when these communities came to the time that they actually came together and decided to write the whole recipe for the community of a DNA chain. +The next interesting stage for life took another billion years old. +And at that stage we have communities that have communities, communities of many different kinds of different cells working together like a single organism. +In fact, we are a community. +We have a lot of cells that don't act alone. +The cell in the skin is no without the heart, or the muscles or the brain, and so on. +So these communities evolved and produced more interesting levels than cell phone, something we call a organism. +The next level happened within these communities. +These started information. +And to build very special structures that didn't do more than process information in community. +They are structures. +The neurons are the appliances that process the information that those individual cell communities. +In fact, they started within the community being the responsible structures of understanding and transmit the information. +Those were the brains and the nervous system of those communities. +And that gave them an evolutionary +Because at that moment as learning was confined to the duration of an organism, and not the period of evolutionary time. +So an organism could, for example, learn not to eat a certain fruit, because she knew bad and sick last time he ate it. +That could happen during the life of an organism because they had built these kinds of information processing structures that by evolution would have learned for hundreds of thousands of years by the death of individuals who ate that fruit of the individuals who ate that fruit of the men. +So the fact that the nervous system build those structures of information enormously the evolutionary process. +Because evolution could now happen to an individual. +It could happen in time necessary to learn. +But then, of course, individuals discovered the trick of communication. +So for example, the most version that we know is human language. +If we think about it, it's an incredible invention. +I have a very complicated idea an idea in the head. +I'm here sitting here and hopefully building a similar idea, vague and in your heads that holds some analogy to mine. +But we take something very complicated to make it into sound, in sound, and we produce something very complicated in another brain. +That is now allowing us to work like a organism. +In fact, as humanity, we started doing abstractions. +Now we go through periods of similar periods of organisms. +For example, the invention of language was a little step in that direction. +The computer computer tape -- the and so forth, are the specialized mechanisms that we now built to handle that information. +And that brings us into something much bigger and faster and able to evolve more than we do before. +Now evolution can happen at +You saw the evolutionary in which it produced some evolution with the program in front of our eyes. +And now we've accelerated the scales of time again. +The first stages of history that told you for a billion years every single one. +The next stages the nervous system and the brain, took about hundreds of millions of years. +The following, the language etc., they took less than a million years. +And magazine, like electronics, it seems like just a few decades. +The process is I guess is the right word to name something that accelerates its own pace of change. +The more it changes it. +And I think that's what we observed in this +We see the process +But I make my life designing computers and I know that the mechanisms that work for would not be possible without the scientific advances. +But now design objects of such complexity that would be impossible for me to make me +I don't know that every transistor does in that machine of connections. +There are thousands of millions. +Instead, with the designers, designers. We think a level of abstraction, we put it in the machine and the machine with that does something that you can't ever get, it gets much further and faster than ever before. +In fact, sometimes it uses methods that don't even understand good. +A particularly interesting method, that I've been using is evolution itself. +We put into the machine an evolutionary process that operates on the scale of the +And for example, in the most extreme cases, we can evolve a program from a random sequence of instructions. +We say, "Please you can run a hundred million instructions to chance? +You could run these sequences at random, running all those programs, and take those programs, and take those of the things that are to what we want to do?" +In other words, I define what I want. +So let's say I want to make a numbers, just to put a simple example. +So we found the programs that are closer to some of the +Of course, it's unlikely that some random sequences. +But once it was able to find out two numbers in the right order. +And I said, you could take 10 percent of those random sequences that they did the +They put those and the rest. +And now we need the best to ordered the numbers. +And let's go back to following a process of analog to +Let's take two programs, that children -- that and that children will take the properties of both programs. +And so we got a new generation of programs of programs that had a little more successful. +And we say, "Please repeat +Let's get back again. +They were some mutations there. +And it tries to make it new and with another generation. +Well, each generation takes a few milliseconds. +So I can do the equivalent of millions of years of evolution in a few minutes or rather complicated, within hours. +At the end of the end, we ended up with programs that will be absolutely perfect. +In fact, it's much more efficient programs than I could have written by hand. +If I look at those programs I can't tell you how they work. +I've tried to test it to see how they work. +They're very strange programs. +But they have the +In fact, I know that, I have the security of the goal because they come from a lineage from hundreds of thousands of programs that they did it. +In fact, their lives are dependent on doing that. +Once I was going on a 747 with and he takes a card and says, "Look at this. +It says, has hundreds of thousands of who work together to offer a doesn't make you feel +We know that engineering processes don't work very well when they become complicated. +So we started to rely on computers to do very different design processes. +And that allows us to produce much more complex things than the normal engineering. +But we don't understand all the choices that there is. +In that sense, it's in front of us. +Now we use those programs to make computers much faster and so can run these programs much faster. +Or is it +The thing goes faster and faster and so I think it seems so +Because all of these technologies are +Are we +And we are at an analog moment of organisms when they became +We're the and we can't understand what the hell we're creating. +We're at the tipping point. +But I think something comes behind us. +I think it would be very arrogant to our understanding that we are the ultimate product of evolution. +And I think we all are part of the creation of what it is. +But now it comes the lunch and I think I'm going to stop here before I +I think we have to do something with a part of the medical culture that must change. +And I think this starts with a physician, and that's me. +And I've spent time enough to let me give me a part of my fake in that. +Before I treat the theme of my talk, let's talk a little bit about baseball. +Why not? +We're close to the end, this is approaching the World +We love baseball, right? + is full of amazing statistics. +There are hundreds of statistics. +It's because of the the talks about statistics and use them to form a big baseball team. +I'm going to focus on one of them and I hope many of you know about it. +It's called average +And we talked about 300 percent of the to 300. +That means that bat three of 10 times. +That means throwing the ball into the field of play without being and that anyone who tries to launch it at the first base -- not to come back, and the second base will be +Three attempts for 10. +You know what they call a in the Great +Well, you know, maybe the team of stars. +You know what they call a baseball +By the way, that's someone that 10 hit four. + like the Ted Williams, the last player in the League of in running more 400 strokes on a regular season. +Now I'm going to show you this to my world of medicine where I feel much more comfortable -- or maybe less awkward, than I will tell you today. +Suppose you have and they have a surgeon who has also a record in +It doesn't work, right? +Now suppose they live in a place and a has two and their family doctor is derived to a cardiologist whose record in is +But do you know anything? +She's a big improving this year. +And your hits have been +This is not working. +But I'll ask you to ask you. +What do you think of you that must be the average of a heart surgeon or a of a nurse or a +1,000, very well. +And the truth of the matter is that no one in the medicine knows the hits of a nice doctor or a doctor or +What we do, though, is the world, and I would feel like me with the of being perfect. +They never, ever make a mistake and try and figure out how to do it right. +That was the message that I was looking at when I was in medical school. +I was a student. +Once, a fellow in high school said that Brian Goldman studied until a blood +Like that. + in my little in the nursing residence of Toronto, not far from here. +And I learned all of memory. +In my class of anatomy, the origin and the the of every artery that comes out of the the differential diagnosis and not standard. +And I even knew the differential diagnosis about how to classify the +And as much more and more knowledge and more knowledge. +And I was very well; I graduated with +And I went out of the school school with the impression that if you were to everything, then it would know everything, or as possible, close to everything else, because I get rid of the errors. +And it worked for a while, until I met the lady. +I was a resident in a university hospital here, in Toronto when they brought the emergency lady to the emergency service where I worked. +At the time I was assigned to the service of +And when the emergency room requested a cardiologist to go to that patient to go to that patient. +And it comes to the chief of residents and +When I saw the lady, I was +I heard a sound. +And when the I heard a sound in both sides, what it gives me a heart failure. +In these conditions, the heart stops working, and instead of pump the blood forward, the blood goes into the lungs, these are filled with blood, and that's why there's difficulty breathing. +And it wasn't hard to +I did it and I went to work on the treatment that I read it. +I gave aspirin and medication to alleviate the pressure on your heart. +I gave him water pills so that he could eliminate liquid. +And at an hour or two, she started feeling better. +And I felt pretty good. +And that's when I made the first he sent her home. +Actually, I made two more errors. +I sent her home without talking to the chief of residents with me. +I didn't get up the phone and I did what I should have done, which was to call my chief and with him for the +And if my boss would have seen it, it would have been able to bring out information +Maybe I did it for a good reason. +Maybe I didn't want to be a resident to pay attention to you. +Maybe I wanted to be so successful and able to assume that I could take care of my patients without even contact with my boss. +The second mistake I made was worse. +As they sent it home, I didn't recognize a voice to a voice on my inner self that said, it's not a good idea. You don't have it. +In fact, I was so confident that until I asked the nurse I was interested in the "Do you believe that it's okay if you go to his +And the nurse I thought, and then he said, "Yes, I think I'm okay." +I remember that as if it was yesterday. +And so he signed the tall, and the ambulance along with the ambulance and they took her home. +And I went back to the hospital. +The rest of that day, that afternoon, I had a bad in the stomach. +But I went on with my work. +At the end of the day, I was going to leave the hospital and I walked into the parking lot where my car was in order to go home. At that moment I did something that I don't do normally, as usual. +I went through the emergency care service of the way home. +And there was another nurse, not that I was talking about the old lady before, but another three words, those three words that most emergency emergency doctors. +Other specialists fear it too, but there is a in and it's that we see patients +The three words is: does it remember you? +"It remembers the patient who sent his +I asked the other nurse with total +"Well, she the same tone of voice. +She was okay. +But I came back and on the edge of death. +At the time of an hour I had come to his house, after I was a high collapse and her family called the the the brought the emergency room with a blood pressure that means a severe severe. +I just breathe and was blue. +The emergency staff is all their resources. +They gave medication to raise blood pressure. +And they put an artificial +I was and to the core. +He had a mixture of feelings because after was in intensive therapy and waiting for every hope that he was +And in the two or three days it was clear that he never danced. +He had a permanent +The family came together. +And in eight or nine days, it was to what was going on. +And by the ninth day, he was left to go. "The wife, mother and grandmother. +They say they never forget the names of those who die. +That was my first experience. +The few weeks later, I was excited about it, and I experienced for the first time the shame that exists in our medical culture, and I felt lonely, isolated without feeling that healthy shame because you can't get it to your colleagues. +You make peace and you never make that mistake. +It's that shame that leaves a teaching. +Shame is what I talk about is what makes us feel very bad about it. +It's the one that tells us not that what we did was wrong, but we're bad. +And that felt. +And it wasn't for my he was +I talked to the family and I'm sure that I would take the things and make sure that I didn't get paid. +And I kept getting those questions. +Why didn't I ask my Why was he sent to his house? +And in my worst Why made it made such a +Why chose medicine? +Soon that feeling was +And I started feeling better. +And in one day opened the sky and finally came out the sun. And I wondered if I would feel better again. +And I made a deal with me in which if you were to raise the efforts to be perfect for not making any more errors, I would let those voices. +And it did. +I came back to work again. +But it came back again. +Two years later, I was an emergency department in a community hospital in the north of Toronto, and I got a man with a pain in +I was very busy and +And he pointed out here. +I looked at his throat, I was a little bit +She took him penicillin and sent him home. +But as he ran the door on the door he was following his +Two days later, when I came to make my shift change, my head asked to speak to me in your office. +And I gave the three words: Does it remember you? +Remember the patient who saw a pain in the +He came back and didn't have a +He had a potentially deadly condition. called +You can search for Google. It's an infection, it's an infection, but it can cause the closing side of those tracks. +He literally didn't die. +You were going to get antibiotics for and they recovered in the few days. +And I went through the same period of shame and then I went back and went back to work, until it happened again and over and over again. +Two times in the same change in the not +And it's a great effort, especially working in a hospital, because it was going to be 14 patients at the same time. +But in both cases, I didn't send them home and I don't think it's been a +One of them thought I had a calculation on it. +It was an X-ray shot, but it turned normal. A colleague who was checking the patient some sensitivity in the bottom right-hand corner and called the surgeon. +The other patient was very diarrhea. +I read the liquid order for and I asked my colleague who was +I went through it, and when you see some sensitivity in the bottom right-hand corner called the surgeon. +Both were operated and they recovered well. +But every case I was I was +But I would like to tell you that I made the worst mistakes in the first five years of exercise and like many colleagues say, it's a +The most meaningful has been for the last five years. + embarrassed and +And here's the problem: if I can't come to me and talk about my mistakes, if I can't find the to tell me what really happens, how can I share this with my +How do I show you this so that they didn't make the same +If I would go back to a place like this, I would have no idea what you think about me. +When was the last time you heard somebody talking about failure, after failure. +Of course, at a party you'll hear about the mistakes of other doctors, but you'll not hear somebody talking about their own errors. +And if I knew and my colleagues as well as a in my hospital -- the wrong leg -- believe it would have hard to look at your eyes. +This is the system that we have. +The total denial of errors. +It's the system in which there are two sets of mistakes that they make mistakes and those who don't sleep and the ones that I know; those who have outcomes and those who have great results. +And it's almost like a reaction, like antibodies that start to attack that person. +We have the idea that if we go from medicine to people who make mistakes that will be a safe system. +But it brings two problems. +In 20 years about diffusion and medical journalism, I've done a personal study of bad medical memory and mistakes to learn as possible, from the first article that I wrote to the Toronto "Star Black white, white, art. +And what I learned is that mistakes are +We work in a system where mistakes happen every day, where one in 10 drugs are in the hospital are wrong, or the is not correct. +In this country, a thousand Canadian people die in the medical errors. +The U.S. Medical Institute established 100,000. +In both cases, it's about because we're not the problem as we should. +And so that's what things are. +A self-organizing system, where knowledge is added every two or three years, and we don't get rid of us. + +We can't get rid of it. +We have cognitive biases that allow a perfect history of a patient with pain in the chest. +Now, let's take the same patient with a pain in the chest, it comes with eyes, and with breath to alcohol and all of a sudden, my story was to contempt. +It's not the same story. +I'm not a I don't do things always the same. +And my patients are not cars. They don't get their symptoms always in the same way. +All this, the mistakes are inevitable. +So if we take the system like us, and we eliminate all the professional professionals -- well, not to stay anybody. +And with me that people don't want to talk about their most +In my white it's a custom saying, "This is my worst I would tell everybody, from the ambulance to the head of surgery, "This is my worst blah, blah, blah, "What are your And the microphone toward them. +And their students were their head and saliva and start telling their stories. +They want to tell their stories, they want to share them. +You can say, "Look, they didn't make the same +They need a context where they can do it. +They need a medical medical culture. +And it starts with a doctor every time. + doctor is human, you know, the human, they accept it, and they are not proud of their mistakes, but it tries to learn from what happened to teach others. +It supports their experiences with them. +It's support for those who talk about their mistakes. +Do the mistakes of other people not with intent -- but in a loving way and support and support for all of them to +And it works in a medical culture that recognizes that human beings run the system, and when this happens, they make mistakes from time. +My name is Brian +I'm a +I'm human, let's make mistakes. +And I feel very much but effort to learn something that can transmit others. +I don't know what you think about me, but I can live with that. +And let me conclude with three words: I remember. +Do you know how many decisions we take a +Do you know how much we choose a week? +Recently I did a survey over 2,000 people and the average amount of choices that she says to pick a average American, are about 70 a day. +Not a lot of a long ago in a research followed by a week to a group of business presidents ... +The researchers recorded the different tasks that are inspired by these executives and the time that we need to make decisions related to those assignments. +They found that, on average, works for week. +Naturally, every job included a lot of +Half of those decisions took nine minutes or less. +Only 12 percent required an hour or more of their time. +Now think about your elections. +You know how many people belong to the category of nine minutes, and how many of an hour? +How do you figure the way that we're managing those decisions? +I want to talk to you today about one of the biggest problems of the choosing to the options of options. +I want to talk about the problem and some potential solutions. +As I talk about this I'm going to give you a few questions, and I need to know their answers. +When you ask a question, like I'm blind, your hand only if you want to burn calories. +In the other way, when you ask a question, if your answer is positive please give a +And now my first question of the day, are ready to hear about the problem of +Thank you. +As a graduate student at the University of Stanford, this very, very level at least in that time was very sophisticated. +His name was +It was almost like going to a park. +There was like 250 different kinds of mustard and over 500 different types of fruits and vegetables and some 25 water and this was when you take water from the +I loved going to that store, but at one occasion asked me, why never I buy nothing? +This is the oil shelf +They had more than 75 different classes, including the ones that were in box that came from trees. +I once decided I went to the manager and asked him, well, this strategy of offering all of these +He pointed to me the buses full of tourists which came every day, usually with their cameras. +We decided to make a little experiment with the This is the +hall. +They had different classes. +It was a post to right to the store. +We put it out there or 24 flavors -- and we looked at two things: First of all, in which case people were willing to stop testing the +More people stopped when I had taken a hundred than when there was only six, a 40 percent. +We also looked at what case they were more likely to buy an jar of +Here we find the opposite effect. +From those who stopped when there was only 24, only three percent came to buy +When there were six, we saw that 30 percent bought +If we do the calculations, they had six times more likely to buy if they were six times more likely to buy them. +Well, they decide that we don't buy we probably have less is good to preserve but it turns out that the problem of choices is affecting us very hard decisions. +We decided not to decide, even though this is not +Now the theme of the day, the financial savings. +I'm going to describe a study that I did with and where we see the decisions about savings for retirement to a million Americans, from a few of a million Americans, of this country. +We were interested in seeing if the number of choices available to support plans for retirement, for retirement, the program will save people to save for the future. +And we discovered that there was a +We had plans from two, to 59 options. +We found that the bigger the number of funds were less participation. +So if we look at the extremes, we see that in the plans that give you two funds, the rate of participation was 70 or more, not as high as I wanted to. +And in the plans. +It turns out that even if you decide to participate, when we have more options, even in that case, there are negative consequences. +So for those who decided to participate, the more it was the number of choices, more people are going to be paid to avoid actions or hedge funds. +As soon as we had more options, they were more willing to invest in financial accounts. +But none of these extreme decisions are the ones that we to optimize the future financial well-being. +In the earlier decade we've seen three main negative consequences to deliver more and more possibilities. +The most likely is that we would make the decision, that the even though it goes against their self-interest. +It's more likely to take the worse in finance and health. +They are more likely to pick things less even though objectively it would go better. +The main reason is that we with looking at that wide variety of and but we are not able to do the calculations for comparison, contrast and choosing that awesome +Today, I want to introduce you to four simple techniques that we have, in a form or another, in different research, so that they can test in their business. +The first is, +You have heard before, but it's never been more true than today, which has ever been more. +People always bother when I say, +They care about losing space in +But actually what we're seeing more and more is that if you decides to cut, get rid of odd options, odd options, there will be an increase in sales, costs will be a better experience in choice. +When & went from 26 different types of & for 15, you saw a 10 percent increase in sales. +When the corporation were eliminated the products of cats that less are increased by in for two older sales and lower costs. +You know the supermarkets, on the average today, give 45,000 products. +In a Walmart store. It's about 100,000 products. +But the largest store in the world today is and it provides only 1,400 a kind of tomato sauce. +In the world of the financial savings I think one of the best examples that have emerged about how to handle the choices is the by David the Harvard. +All the Harvard employees are automatically to a safe fund of life. +The people who really want to choose, are giving them 20 funds, not 300 or more. +You know, often people say, "I don't know how to +All of them are +The first thing I do is to ask the the differences that are between those options. +And if your employees can't afford it, you can't do it either. +This afternoon, before I started this session, I was talking to +He told me that it would be willing to offer people in this audience a lot of paid to the world's most beautiful road. +Here, a +I want you to read it. +I'm going to give you a few seconds to and then I want you to give you an applause if you're ready to take the supply of + Okay. Whatever is ready to accept the deal. +They're not more? +Well, I'm going to show you something else. +You knew there was a trick. +Who's ready for that +I think I really got to hear more hands. +All right. +In fact, you had more information in the first than in the second, but I can tell you what they thought the second time was more real. +Because the images made it look more real. +This brings me to the second technique to deal with the of the choices that is +For people to understand the differences between choices, they have to understand the consequences of every option, and that the consequences must feel very very concrete ways. +Why do people spend 15 percent more on average when it uses debit cards or credit cards that when it uses +It doesn't seem like real money. +It turns out that it would be more real, it can be a very positive tool for people to get them more +We did a study with and on who worked in these people were in a meeting where they were a plan. +A meeting that exactly like made a little +What we added was that we asked the staff to think about the positive things that they would believe in their lives if they were saving more money. +With this there was an increase in the of 20 percent and an increase in the amount that they were interested in saving or what they wanted to put in their accounts. +The third technique is +We can handle more categories than options. +For example, this is a study that we did in a aisle of magazines. +We saw that in supermarkets, throughout the corridor of the magazine show can contain from different types to +But you know? +Because the rating tells me how to be +These are two +One is called and the other, +If you think the one on the left is and the one on the right is you have a + Well, there are some of them. +If you think the one on the left is and the one on the right is you have a +Well, something else. +It turns out it's right. +The one on the left is and the on the right is but you know anything? +This scheme is completely useless. +The categories must tell you something about the not when they +You often see this problem with these huge lists of fundraising. +Who are you going to be +My fourth complexity. +It turns out that we can handle a lot more information than we think, if we just have a little bit more +We need to increase the costly complexity up. +I'm going to show you an example of what I mean. +Let's see a good decision about the purchase of a car. +This is a German car manufacturer that enables +You have to take 60 decisions, to build the car. +And these decisions vary in the number of choices that offers each other. + color in the car. I have 56 possibilities. + box box of four options. +What I'm going to do is vary the order in which the decisions come in. +So half of the clients are going to go in many choices, 56 colors, to a few examples, four boxes. +The other half of the clients are going to go in a few options, four over 56 colors, many options. +And what am I going to +How about you are. +If you go down, you always have the button on every decision, this indicates that they're or we're +We found that the ones that are going to have a lot of choices to give you the default button and again, and another more. +The +If you go from a few choices to many, they keep there. +The same information, the same kind of options. +The only thing I did was to disrupt the order in which information is presented. +If we start with the easy, you learn to +Although you pick the box of changes not to say anything about the preferences of interior decoration. +We are excited about a product that we're building that now has more with the process. +To sum up. +I've talked about four techniques to mitigate the problem of the overload of to get rid of alternative alternatives -- to make it we can handle more categories of less complexity. +All of these techniques that I've introduced you were designed to help manage the or better, for you, to use them in their own business, or for people to work. +It's that I think the key to getting the best of a choice is to be careful about it. +And the more careful we are in our choices to be able to practice the art of choice. +Thank you very much. +In the 1970s in East Germany in East Germany -- if you had a typewriter to write to the government. +You had to record a piece of text from written by the machine. +And so the government could track the origin of the +If they were written with the wrong message, they could track the footprint to the origin of the idea. +In the West we don't think somebody could do this, how much it could do this, the freedom of expression. +We would never do that in our countries. +But today, in 2011, if you buy a laser color printer and print a page, that page will end up having some yellow yellow printed on every page that follows a pattern that makes them and your printer. +That's happening today. +And no one seems to be a lot of this. +This is an example of the ways that our governments use technology against us, the citizens. +And it's one of the three main causes of problems in the net. +If you look at what happens in the online world, we can put together the attacks on their +There are three main groups. +Are the +As Mr. in the city of in Ukraine. + is very easy to understand. +These guys make money. +They use to make a lot of money, large amounts. +There are really many cases of online, money with their attacks. +This is +This is Alfred +This is Stephen +This is +These are Matthew Anderson, etc., etc., etc. +These guys do their online but they do it by illegal media through banking to steal money from our bills when we buy in or steal our keys to get information from our card when we buy them on a computer. +The U.S. secret service, two months ago, the of this guy, Sam and this tells you had million dollars when it was frozen. +Mr. is you don't know his +And I say that today is more likely than any of us is a victim of a than a real crime. +And it's very obvious that this is going to get worse. +In the future, most of the crimes are going to happen. +The second group of bombers in importance that we see today is not driven by money. +There's another thing that moves, they motivate them to motivate them to motivate them for laughter. +Groups like Anonymous have been in the last 12 months occupying a big role on the online attacks. +Those are the three main bombers that criminals who do it for money, the like Anonymous who do it to protest and the last group are the national United States that +And then we see cases like +That's a good example of heart attack, against their own citizens. + is a authority of the Netherlands, or actually it was. + the last fall fall because of a +You know, the security of the site and causing a +Last week I said, in a meeting with the Dutch government, I asked one of the leaders to be able to the death of people from the heart attack. +And the answer of it was yes. +So how do people die from an attack of these? + is an authority authority. + +What do you do +Well, you need if you have a website with services services like +Except an authority foreign authority. +And they would give up +And in the case of it happened exactly that. +And what happened in the Arab Spring and those things that have happened, for example, in +Well, in Egypt the protesters the headquarters for the Egyptian police police in April 2011 and during the of the building, they found a lot of papers. +Among those papers was this folder called +And within that folder, there was some notes from a company based in Germany that had sold the Egyptian government, tools for the communications of the citizens of the country. +They had sold this tool for 3,000 euros to the Afghan government. +The company headquarters is right here. +So the Western government -- the Western government, provide tools for governments to do this to their citizens. +But Western government, also do this to themselves. +For example, in Germany, just a couple of weeks ago, I found the a used by government officials to find their own citizens. +If you're in a criminal case, it's pretty obvious that your phone is +But today it goes further. +You get the Internet connection. +It was even tools like to infect our computer with a to allow them to see all the communication, and listen to the argument online, to get our data. +When we think carefully about things like the obvious answer should be "Well, it seems bad, but it doesn't really affect me because I'm an honest citizen. +Why do we +I have nothing to do with it. +And that argument doesn't make any sense. +It's +Privacy is not +It's not a matter of privacy against security. +It's about freedom against control. +If we could be trusting our governments today in 2011, any right that we have today will be forever. + in any future government, in a administration that we could have within 50 years? +These are the questions that must be worried about the next 50 years. +This is where I live in Kenya, in the south part of the National Park of Nairobi. +These are the cows of my dad, at the background, and behind the cows, the Nairobi. +The National Park, the National Park has nothing in most of the South, which means that wild animals like migrate freely out of the park. +And predators, like the lions, and this is what they do. +We our cattle. +This is one of the ones that killed at night, and so soon we wake up in the morning, and we found it dead and I found it dead because it was the only that we had. +My community, the we think we came out of the sky with our animals and all the land for and so we value it so much. +So I grew up a lot of the lions. +They were dying of people who protect our community and livestock and also upset with the problem. +So they kill lions. +This is one of the six lions that killed in Nairobi. +I think this is so few in the National Park, of Nairobi. +A child in my community, in the age of nine years old, is responsible for the livestock of his father and this was the same thing that I thought to me. +So I had to find a way to fix this problem. +My first idea was to use fire, because I thought the lions gave them fear. +But I realized that it didn't really exist, because it was even helping the lions to see the +I didn't get +A second idea was to use a +And I was trying to cheat lions so they believed that I was close to the +But lions are very intelligent. They came the first day and they saw the and they were gone, but the second day, they came back and said, this thing is not moving, it's always here. So we jumped and killed and die. +So one night I was walking around the pen with a torch and that day the lions didn't come back. +I found that lions are afraid of light that moves. +So I had an idea. +And I got a switch on which to turn on and turn up the lights. +And this is a little +They put it all. +As you can see, the solar cell load up the battery and the battery -- the electricity to the little box I call it a transformational. +And the box makes the lights +As you can see, the give up because that's where lions. +And this is what lions see it when they come from night. +The lights are and the lions to think I'm walking through the but I'm sleeping in my bed. +Thank you. +So I put them in my house two years ago, and since then, we never had a problem with lions. +And the homes of the neighborhood have heard the idea. +One of them is this grandmother. +And she had killed a lot of animals on lions and asked me if I could put the lights. +I said yes. +You can see it, you can see the bottom, these are the lights for lions. +Since then, I've installed it in seven homes in my community and they're serving a lot. +And my idea is also used now for all Kenya, to scare other predators like and also being used to scare elephants for them. +I was fortunate to get a grant on one of the best schools in Kenya, International School, and I'm very excited. +My new school is now helping to raise funds and +It even took my friends to my community and we installed lights on the houses that don't have them, and I teach them how to +So a year ago, it was just a kid on the meadows of the my father, and he used to see flying airplanes, and I used to see it one day would be inside one. +And here I am. +I got the opportunity to come in an airplane for the first time to TED. +My great dream is to come to be a aviation engineer, and a pilot when I +I used to hate the lions, but now as my invention is saving the cows of my dad and the lions, we can be with lions without any conflict. + What in my tongue means, thank you very much. +Chris Anderson: You don't picture how exciting it is to hear a story like yours. +So you got a Richard Yes. +CA: You're working on other electrical +What's the next in your list? + My next invention is -- I want to do a close CA: One near + I know you have invented but I want to make my own. +CA: You know, I'm going to do this one time, right, and I've tried before, but I stopped because I got a CA: +We go to at every step that I love my friend. +Thank you very much. Thank you very much. +When I was a little girl, I thought my country was the best of the planet. +And I grew up and raised a song called "Not nothing." +And I felt very proud. +In school, we would spend all the time studying the story of Kim but we never learned a lot about the rest of the world, except that America, South Africa, Japan are the enemies. +But sometimes I was wondering about the rest of the world, I thought I would spend my entire life in North Korea, until everything changed in North Korea. +When I was seven years old, I saw my first public run. +But I thought my life in North Korea was normal. +My family wasn't poor and I was never hungry. +But one day, in 1995, my mom brought home a letter from my sister. +And that said, "When we this, the five members of the family will stop in this world, because we haven't eaten in the last two weeks. +We're together on the ground, and our bodies are so weak that we're ready to die." +I was very altered. +It was the first time I heard people were suffering in my country. +At a little time, when I walked in front of the train, I saw something terrible I can't erase my memory. +A woman without life was dead in the streets, holding a kid in his arms looking at his face without being able to do anything. +No one was because they were very concerned about taking care of them and their families. +A huge famine will have left North Korea in the +At the end, more than a million North Koreans died during hunger, and only few survived eating grass, insects and tree cortex. +It also became more and more frequent everything around me was completely dark at night except for the sea lights in China, barely crossing the river from my house. +I always wondered why they had light and we don't. +This is a North North Korean photograph in the night compared to the individual countries. +This is the River that serves between North Korea and China. +As you can see, the river can be very in certain points, allowing North Koreans across +But many people die. +Sometimes, it saw bodies floating on the river. +I can't reveal the details of how I left from North Korea, but I can only tell you that during the years of starvation I went sent to China to live with relatives +But I just thought I would be separate from my family for the short time. +I could never have imagined it would take 14 years to live together. +In China, it was hard to live like a young woman without my family. +I had no idea how life would be like refugee dollars. +But soon I learned that it's not just extremely difficult, but it's also dangerous, because the North refugees in China were considered illegal +So I was living with a constant fear that my identity was and it would be to a horrible destiny in North Korea. +A day, my worst nightmare was actually made when I was arrested by the Chinese police and at the police station. +Somebody had accused me for being then my skills in the Chinese language and asked me a lot of questions. +I was +I thought my heart was going to explode. +If it didn't seem natural, it could be incarcerated and +I thought my life was going to finish up. +But I managed to control my emotions and said the questions. +At the end of the a officer told another, "This was a fake report. She's not +And they let me go. It was a miracle. +Some North Koreans in China are looking asylum. +But many can be arrested by the Chinese police and +These women were very lucky. +Although the had eventually been released after a harsh international pressure. +These North Koreans didn't have so much luck. +Every year countless North Koreans are captured in China and to North Korea, where they are imprisoned or executed in public. +I was lucky to escape a lot of other North Koreans not so much luck. +It's tragic that the North Koreans have to hide their identities and fight so hard just to survive. +Even after learning a new language, and find work, everybody can be able to get it in a second. +That's why after 10 years of hide my identity, I decided to monitor it going to South Korea. +And I started a new life again. + in South Korea was a huge challenge of what I expected. +The English was very important in South Korea, I had to start learning my third language. +Also, I understood that there was a big gap between North and south. +We are all but inside, we have come very different because of 67 years of +It even went through a identity. +I'm or +Where am I? Who am I? +Suddenly, there was not a country that I could call with pride of me. +Although the life in South Korea was not easy, I did a plan. I started studying for the college. +Just when I was starting to my new life, I got an alarming call. +The North Korean authorities had a little bit of money that sent my family, and, like blame, my family was going to be shifted to the force to a location in the +They had to run away immediately. +So I started planning how to help them escape. +North Koreans have to travel long distances on the way to freedom. +It's almost impossible to cross the border between North Korea and South Korea. +So, ironically, I took a flight to China, and I went to the border of North Korea. +Because my family couldn't speak Chinese, I had to it somehow, for over three miles across China, and then across Southeast Asia. +The journey in took a week, and we were almost caught several times. +Once, our bus was stopped and tackled by an official police officer. +And he asked the identification of everybody, and he started asking them questions. +As my family couldn't understand Chinese, I thought my family was going to be arrested. +When the Chinese officer came up to my family, I stood up and told him that they were who was +I looked at me but fortunately I believed me. +We did all the way to the border border, +But I had to spend almost all my money to bribe the border guards in +But even after the border, my family was arrested and imprisoned for crossing the border illegally. +After paying and bribes, my family was released in a month. +But in time, my family was arrested and imprisoned again in the capital of +This was one of the lowest dots in my life. +I did everything for my family and we were so close to my family, and we were so close -- but my family was in prison. +And I was going to come in between the immigration office and the police station, desperately trying to release my family to my family. +But I didn't have enough money to pay more bribes or +I lost hope. +At that time, or the voice of a man, "What is the problem?" +I was so surprised that a stranger would care to ask. +With my poor English and a dictionary, I explained the situation, and without the man was the and he gave me the rest of the money for my family and for other two North Koreans and take them out of prison. +I read it with all my heart, and I asked her, "Why do I +"I'm not he said. +"I'm helping the village +I realized that this was a symbolic moment in my life. +The kind was a new hope for me and for the town to get it to the village -- when I was +And I showed me that the goodness of strangers and the support of the international community are really the that the people need. +Over time, after our long journey, my family and I met in South Korea. +But achieve their freedom is only half the battle. +Many North Koreans are separated from their families and when they went to a new country, they start with a little bit or no money. +So we can benefit from the international community with education, practice language language, practice jobs, and more. +We can also act as a bridge between people within North Korea and the rest of the world. +Because many of us keep in contact with family still inside, and we send information and money that is helping to change North Korea from the inside. +I've been very I've gotten a lot of help and inspiration in my life, so I want to help North Koreans an opportunity to thrive with international support. +I'm sure you're going to see more and more North Koreans all over the world, including at the TED stage. +Thank you. +I live in South Africa. +This is Center for stores -- fast food, terrain +So the city planners came together and they thought, let's change the name of South Pole to represent something else, so they changed to Los Angeles and South Los Angeles as if this what is actually wrong in the city. +This is Los Angeles and the Los Angeles -- -- -- fast food, terrain +Like millions of other Americans, living in a desert. So Los Angeles Center, home to the places of food to take and eat in the car. +What's funny is that the places of food to get killed more people than food in the car. +People are dying of diseases. +For example, the rate of obesity in my neighborhood is five times more than say, which is about 15 miles away. +I emphasize that will happen. +And I ask myself, how would you feel if you didn't have access to healthy food, and if every time you go home you see the effects, that the current food system has in your +I see wheelchair and sold as a car +I look at centers like +And I think this must stop. +I think the problem is the solution. +The food is the problem and it's the solution. +And I also got tired of managing a 45 minutes of back and turned around to buy an apple that doesn't have +What I did, was planting a food forest in front of my house. +In a of land we call a +It's about 45 feet x of three me. +The point is, belongs to the city. +But you have to +I said, "Well, I can do what comes to me at because it is my responsibility and I have to +So this is how I decided to +So my group and I, L.A. we get together, and we started planting our food forest -- trees -- you know, +What we do, we are a kind of a paid group of made up of all the of all the city and completely volunteer, and everything we do is free. +And the yard, was beautiful. +Then somebody gets sick. +The city on me over and gave me a saying that I had to remove my yard, the was made +And I said, "Come on, right? +A order of plant food on a piece of land that no one was And so I was like, "Well, let's go." +Because this time I wasn't going to happen. +L.A. had been written by Steve and he talked to the and one of the members who put a petition to with 900 we were a success. +We had the victory in our hands. +My even called me to say that and what we were doing. +I mean, we go, why not? +The L.A. city is the city of the United States with more ground. +It's +That's about 20 Central +That's space enough to plant million tomato plants. +Why does the Earth do not seem like this? +We have a plant to give a 10,000 seeds. +When a dollar of will give you 75 dollars a result. +It's my when I tell people, cultivate your own food. + your own food is like to print your own money. +You see, I have a legacy for South Africa. +I grew up there, I grew up with my kids there. +I was excited to be part of this reality that was for me for others, and I'm going to give you my own reality. +You see, I'm an artist. + is my I farming my art. +Like an artist from that walls, I would be +I use the garden, the land, like a piece of canvas, and plants and trees, are my of that canvas. +You were going to see what the Earth can do. If they let it be their canvas. +You just can't imagine how amazing it is a sunflower and how it affects people. +What happened? +I witness how my garden became a education tool that became a transformation of my neighborhood. +To change the community, you have to change the composition of the ground. +We are the soil. +It was to see how they affects kids. + is the most act and provocative act that can be done, especially in a +Also, you get +I remember one time, who came a mother and his daughter, were like the of the night and they were in my yard, and they were looking very +I, well, man, man, man, I felt bad -- and I said, you know, you don't have to do this like this. +This is on the street for a reason. +I felt shame when I was so close to me with hungry, and this just reinforces why I do this, people ask me, don't temes that people go to steal your +What I say, "Well, no, I'm not afraid that you go to +That's what it's on the street. +That's what it's about. +I want you to do it, but at the time, I want you to take your +There was another occasion that I put a garden in a homeless shelter in the center of Los Angeles. +They were these guys, who helped me download the truck. +It was great, I shared his stories about how it had affected it, and how they used to plant with their mom and his grandmother, and it was great to see how this changed, so it was so just for a moment. +So Green has come to plant -- maybe 20 +We've had about 50 people who come from, and they work and put them all in a volunteer. +If kids grow up, the boys will eat +If you grow tomatoes, they eat But if none of this are if you don't teach them how the food affects the mind and the body, they eat blind what they put in front of them. +I look at young people who want to work, but they have this thing where they're caught. I see the color of color that are at this way designed for them, which doesn't take them nowhere. +With I see an opportunity in which we can train these kids who were going to train these boys to have sustainable life. +And when we do this, who knows? +Maybe there's the next George Washington +But if we don't change the composition of the land, we never will. +Now this is one of my plans, this is something I want to do. +I want to plant all a block of gardens, where people can share food on the same block. +I want to carry containers and turn them into +I don't get paid. +I'm not talking about free, because free is not sustainable. +The funny thing about sustainability, is that you have to +What I'm talking about is to put people out of the street, getting the kids out the street, who know the joy, the pride and the honor of growing their own food, by opening their own food, by opening farmers. +What I want to do here, we have to make it sexy. +I want everyone to become gardeners +We need to change the script of what a +If you're not a you're not a +Would you take them to take their OK? +That is your weapon of choice. +In if you want to meet with me, well, if you want to see me, don't be called me if you want to sit on the comfortable chairs and have a meeting to talk to you about doing some shit. +If you want to see me, come into the garden with your so we can plant something. +Peace Thank you. +Thank you. + You probably all agree with me that this is a very road. +It's made out of tarmac, and the asphalt is a good material to drive, but not always, especially in days as today, as it rains so much. +You can have a huge amount of water in the asphalt to +And especially if you go into your bicycle and these cars go, that's not very nice. +Also, the asphalt can make a lot of noise. +It's a loud material, and if we build roads, like in the Netherlands, very close to the cities, you would want a silent road. +The solution to that is to do asphalt roads. + asphalt is a material that we use now in most of the Netherlands, has pores and water can go through it, so the water can go through it, so the water is going to flow through the sides and you will have a road, which is easy to drive, and not waste water, never more. +Noise also disappear. +Because it's all the noise to disappear, so it's a very quiet road. +It has of course, and the downside of this road is that you can be +What is You see that in this road, the rocks of the surface is +And first a stone, then several more and more and more, and so on, and well, don't do that. But they can harm your and you won't be happy with that. +And finally, this can also lead to more and more damage. +Sometimes they can create bumps with that. + She's ready. + of course, you can turn into a problem, but we have a solution. +So here you can actually see how damage in this material. +It's an asphalt asphalt as I said, so you just have a little bit of between stones. +Because of the to the light to the this the glue between the and the glue between the are and if they were they will be and they will separate from the +So if you drive on the road, you get the as we saw it here. +To solve this problem, we think of materials. +If we can make this material then we probably have a solution. +So what we can do is use wool of steel -- that to clean and we can cut out the steel wool in very small pieces, and we can mix those little bits with the +And so we have asphalt with small bits of steel in it. +Then you need a machine, like the one you see here, that you use it for a machine. + can heat, especially steel -- it's very good at that. +So what you have to do is heating the steel -- melt the the the of these and the stones are back to the surface. +And I used to have a oven because I can't bring the great machine here onstage. +The microwave oven is a similar system. +I put the show that now I'm going to take you to see what happened. +This is the sample that comes out now. +I said we have this kind of industrial machine in the lab to heat the samples. +We tried a lot of samples there, and then the government, actually saw our results, and they thought, "Well, that's very interesting. We need to +So we donated a piece of road, 400 meters of the highway where we had to do a of trial to test this material. +So that was what we did there, you see where we were doing the test on the road, and then, of course, this road will last several years without any damage. That's what we know about practice. +We take lots of samples of this road, and we test them in the lab. +We did aging the samples, we put a lot of burden into them, and then they have a machine, and we looked at it, and we turned it back to it. +We can repeat this many times. +Well, to conclude, I can tell you that we've done a material using steel, incorporating these fibers, using the energy of to actually increase the lives of the surface of the road, and you can even double the life of the surface of the surface, and they can actually save a lot of money with very simple tricks. +And now, of course, they have curiosity if this worked. +We still have the sample here. It's pretty hot. +You actually have to cool the first before I can show you what works. +But I'm going to do a try. +Let's see. Yes, it worked. +Thank you. +When I was 11 years old, I remember having woken up one morning with the sound of the in my house. +My father was listening BBC to his little gray radio. +He had a great smile on his face that was unusual at the time, because the news is generally +The Taliban screamed at my father. +I didn't know what but I could see that my father was very, very happy. +"Now you can go to a school." +One morning I will never forget. +A real school. +You see, I was six years old, when the Taliban was in Afghanistan, and they were illegal for girls to go to school. +For the next five years, I was as a child to my older sister who could no longer be outside to go to a secret school. +It was the only way that the two we could do it. +Every day, we were taking a different route so that no one could be suspicious of where they +We had to hide books on market bags so it looks like we were shopping. +School was in a house, more than 100 of us in a small room. +It was nice in the winter, but extremely in the summer. +We all knew that our the teacher, students and our parents. +Every time, the school was suddenly for a week, because the Taliban +We always wondered what they knew what they did. +They were +Did you know where to come from? +We were but yet, the school was where we wanted to be. +I was very lucky to grow in a family where education was and the daughters a +My grandfather was an extraordinary man for his time. +A total of a remote province of Afghanistan. And in Afghanistan. And his daughter, my mother went out to school, and so his father was +But my polite mother became a teacher. +This is it. +He went back two years ago, just to turn our home home for girls and women in our neighborhood. +And my father, this is the first of his family in getting education. +There was no doubt that their children had to receive education, even their daughters, despite the despite the risks of risk. +For him, there was a greater risk in not to educate their children. +During the years of the I remember there were moments when I was very frustrated about our life, and he was always scared and I didn't see a future. +I wanted to give up, but my father said, my daughter -- you can lose everything you have in life. +You can steal your money. You can help leave your house during a war. +But there's one thing that always be with you, what's here and if we have to sell our blood to pay your education, we will do it. +So you still want to be +I've been 22 years now. +I grew up in a country that has been destroyed for decades of war. +Less than six percent of women in my age have more than the and if my family had not been so committed to my education, I would be one of them. +Instead, I find myself here to graduate in College. +When I went back to Afghanistan, my grandfather, the one that was from his home for the courage to educate his daughters, was one of the first to +He wasn't just from my college degree, but also that I was the first woman, and I'm the first woman, who took him driving around the streets of Kabul. +My family believe in me. +I have a big dream, but my family has even bigger dreams for +That's why I'm the global ambassador, of a global campaign to educate the women. +It's why I cofounded the first and perhaps the only private school for girls in Afghanistan, a country in which is still risky for girls to go to school. +The exciting thing is I see students in my school with the hard desire for leveraging the opportunity. +And I see their parents and their families, which, like mine, for them, even though it was even in front of a opposition. +As a It's not his name, and I can't show you your face, but Ahmed is the father of one of my students' students. +Less than a month, he and his daughter went on the way from to his village, and literally escaped from being killed by a bomb on the way, for minutes. +When I got to your house, the phone is the phone, a voice would notice that if I kept sending his daughter to school, they would go to try. + already, if he said, "but I don't harm the future of my daughter for his old child and ideas." +What I've realized, in Afghanistan, and it's something which is often in the West, is that behind most of the people who there is a father who recognized the value of his daughter and that sees the success of her own success. +It doesn't mean that our mothers have not been key to our success. +In fact, often they are the first compelling future of their daughters, but in the context of a society like Afghanistan, we need the support of men. +Under the girls who went to school -- remember, it was illegal. +But today, more than three million girls are going to school in Afghanistan. +Afghanistan looks as different from here in the U.S. +I find that Americans see the fragility of changes. +And I'm afraid that these changes didn't last long, after the retirement of the U.S. +But when I go back to Afghanistan, when I look at the students in my school and their parents who are paying for them, I see a future, and a lasting lasting future. +For me, Afghanistan is a country of hope and possibilities for me, and every day the girls of I would tell me. +Like me, they dream big. +Thank you. +Never have I've never forgotten the words of my grandmother who died in the resists against him. +But you never get a revolutionary +They've spent almost two years since the revolution came inspired by the surge of mass both of the revolution like the revolution. +A forces with a lot of other citizen citizens inside and outside the country to call a day of anger and starting a revolution against the regime of +And was a great revolution. +Women and young men who were were at the middle, the fall of the regime, they collect freedom, dignity and social justice. +Have you shown the courage to the +You've shown a great sense of solidarity from the East, to the west, the south. +Finally, after a period of six months of brutal war and a number of losses from about 50,000 dead, we managed to release our country and overthrowing the +However, left a heavy load, a legacy of corruption and +For four decades, the regime of destroyed the infrastructure, the culture and the moral structure of society. + of the devastation and in the challenges, I am dear to a lot of other women, rebuilding civil society, a demographic transition and just toward democracy and national piracy. +There were approximately 200 organizations in and immediately after the roughly 300 300 in +After a period of 33 years of exile, I came back to Libya and with a single enthusiasm I began to organize workshops about the development of capacities and leadership skills. +With an incredible group of women we founded the of women founded a movement of women, leaders, very pragmatic orientation to advocate for the autonomy of the woman and for our right involvement in building democracy and peace. +I found myself with a very difficult environment in the period of an environment that was increasingly than of selfish and domination policies. +Over time, our initiative was saved and successful. +The women won a from the National Congress in 52 years. +But recently, the exhilaration of elections and the revolution like a whole, were every day we were in violence. +One day we woke up with the news of the of mosques and +Another day with the news of murder of the American ambassador, and the attack on +Another day we woke up with the news of the murder murder of the army. +And every day, every day we woke up with the government of the and its human rights from prisoners and their lack of respect of law. +Our society, made a mentality, and it's removed from the ideals and early freedom, dignity, social justice, that we had at the beginning. +The and the became the icons of the revolution. +I'm not here today at all with the of the success of the and the election. +I'm right here today to confess that we, as nation, we chose worse, we made the wrong decision. +We don't prioritize good. +Because elections didn't brought peace and stability and security to Libya. +The list, and the between candidates and brought peace and reconciliation and +No, they didn't. +So what happened then? +Why is our society still and dominated with selfish policies and domination, both for men like +Maybe what was missing wasn't just women, but the female values of compassion, and +Our society needs the national dialogue and the creation of consensus more than we needed the elections, which is only and +Our nation needs representation of how women need to be and it. +We need to stop acting as agents of outrage and call it a few days of anger. +We need to begin to act like compassion and mercy. +We need to develop a female speech that not only but also putting it into practice instead of collaboration in place of competition, the instead of the +These are the ideals that a Libya, in the war, desperately needs to reach the peace of getting peace. +Because peace has a alchemy that tries about the interrelationship and between female perspectives and male perspectives. +That's the real +We need to establish that in an existential way before we do it +According to a of the Koran the word of God +At the same time, the word which is known in all of the traditions -- has the same root in Arabic that the word women and that spans the humanity of the men and women, where all tribes and all the peoples have been +And so just like the uterus covers the that grows up inside, the divine array of compassion is going to take it all of existence. +So it says, "My all the things." +So it says, "My on my +They're all given to them the grace of mercy. +Thank you. +I'm here today to talk to you about a naive question, which has a equally response. +It is about the secrets of domestic violence, and the question I'm going to deal with is the ones that they all make the same guy, why she is left? +Why was someone going to stay with a man who was +I'm not a not a or social worker, no domestic violence. +I'm just a woman with a story to count. +He was at Harvard University. +I had moved to New York City for my first job as a writer and editor in magazine. +I had my first apartment, my first American and he had a very big secret. +My secret was that many, many times, the man, that I was creating my alma mater, me me to the head with a +The man, I loved more than anyone in this world, put a gun in my head and it with more times than I can remember. +I am here to tell you the story of a trap, love, where every year millions of women, and even some men. +It could even be his story. +I don't look like a typical survivor, of domestic violence. +I'm a at English at Harvard University, and I have an MBA in Business +I've spent the most of my career working for companies of the list of between them Johnson & Johnson, Leo and The Washington +I'm almost 20 years married with my second husband and we have three children. +My dog is a black and I'm driving a +So my first message for you is that domestic violence can happen to anyone, all races, all the races, all the income levels and education. +It's everywhere. +And my second message is that everyone thinks that domestic violence happens to women, which is a problem of women. +Not exactly. +Over 85 percent of the are men, and domestic abuse -- just happens in and long duration or or otherwise in the families, the last place we want or we would expect to find reason why, domestic abuse is so puzzling. +I would have told you that it would be the last person in the world that would stay with a man who stick with it, and I made a very typical victim because of my age. +He was 22 years old, and in the United States the women of the 16 and 24 years have three times more likely to be victims of domestic violence than the other ages, and over 500 women and girls in that age are killed every year by partners, and husbands in the United States. +I also was a typical victim, because I didn't know anything about domestic violence, their warning signals or their patterns. +I met on a cold and winter night of January. +I was sitting next to me in the subway in New York City and started with me with me. +He told me two things. +The first one was that he also had at a college of the and he worked on a very important bank of Wall Street. +But what was very impressed in that first meeting was that it was ready and fun, and it seemed like a country in the field. +He had some big like apples and a hair, wheat, and it seemed so sweet. +One of the smartest things that made from the beginning, was to create the illusion that I was the dominant component of +He did it on everything at the beginning of a +And we started out and loved everything from me: which was a list that had gone at Harvard, that I put passion in helping teenagers, and my work. +I wanted to know all about my family, my childhood, my dreams and illusions. + believed in me, as a writer and as a woman, as nobody had ever done. +And it was why the bachelor's in that school and the work on Wall Street and his brilliant future had so much important for him. +I didn't know that the first phase in any relationship of domestic violence is and to the victim. +And I didn't know the second step is +Now, the last thing I wanted to do was to go from New York City and to leave the work of my dreams, but I thought I had to do sacrifices for your spouse, so I I left my job and and I went together from Manhattan. +I had no idea that I was falling on a who was entering head in a physical trap and financial and psychological trap +The next step in the pattern of domestic violence is to introduce the threat of violence to see how it reacts it. +And here is where those guns. +So as soon as we moved to New England you know, that place where you were supposed to do, I had to feel so safe you bought three legs. +One was in the of the car. +Another he kept it under the pillow in our bed, and the third always in his pocket. +And he said that he needed those guns to the trauma that lived in a small basis. +I needed them to feel safe. +But those actually were a message for me, and even though I had never lifted my hand, my life was already serious -- every minute of every day. +The first physical attack of happened five days before our wedding. +It was seven in the morning, and I still had the +Five days later, when the 10 bruises of my neck had I put up my girlfriend and married my mother and married him. +Even though I had occurred, I was sure that we lived happily because I loved her, and he also wanted me a lot. +And I was very, very +It just felt very for the wedding and the fact that they form a family with me. +I had been a single accident, and I would never make any harm. +I spent twice more on our moon of honey. +The first time I was driving up toward a secret beach and and he gave me so hard in the head that we would several times against the of the car. +And then, a couple of days later, driving back on the moon of honey -- went through the traffic and threw me a Big Mac Mac to the face. + he went to one or twice a week for the next two years and a half years of our marriage. +I was excited when I thought it was the only one in this situation. +One of three American women is a victim of domestic violence or onus at some point in their life, and the Center for Disease Control that every year 15 million children are 15 million. +So, actually, I had very good company. +So go back to my question: Why do I +The answer is simple. +I didn't know he was abusing me. +On the contrary, I was a very strong woman in love with a profoundly man, and he was the only person in the world that I could help to face his +The other question that everybody is doing is, why don't you simply do not +Why didn't I get I could have gone at any time. +For me, this is the saddest and agonizing question that people, because we were the victims, because we knew something that you know, you know, it's incredibly dangerous to abandon a +Because the last phase in the pattern of domestic violence is +Over 70 percent of domestic violence in cases of domestic violence occur after the victim has end to the relationship, after because then the has nothing to lose. +Other implications include permanent even after the has become married, of financial resources, and manipulation of the family judicial system for the victim and their children, who are usually forced by judges to spend time to spend time with the man who their mother. +And so we still keep asking why isn't it going? +I was able to take it out of one last he will let me beat my denial. +I realized that the man who loved so much, would have killed me if it was allowed. +So I broke the silence. +I told everyone else, to the police, my neighbors, my friends and family, all unknown, and I'm here today because you all helped me help me. +We have the tendency to victims like women, women -- goods. +The question, "Why is it +For some people is a way to say "The guilt is it for as if the victims deliberately men who want to be +But since I published I've heard hundreds of stories of men and women who also knew that they learned a lesson of what happened to you, and they were happy as wives and mothers, completely free of violence, like mine. +Because it turns out that I'm actually a victim and a survivor, of domestic violence very typical domestic violence. +I became with a cute man, and we have those three children. +I have that black and that +What I'm not going to do is never come back to you, ever -- it's a gun charged with my head in the hands of someone who says I will. +Right now, as you are thinking, that is or what silly but all this time I've actually been talking about you. +I assure you that there are a few people, that you're listening to right now, that are being or that they were or they were themselves. +The could be affecting her daughter, his sister, to his best friend right now. +I was able to end my crazy love of particular love breaking the silence. +And I keep doing it today. +It's my way to help other victims, and it's my last request toward you. +Talk to what you've heard here. + increases only in silence. +They have the power to end domestic violence simply shedding light on it. +The victims we need all the world. +We need each of you to understand the secrets of domestic violence. +Take the to the light talking about it with their kids, their their friends and family. +It was going to look at their vision of survivors as fantastic people, who have a future. +You know, the signs of violence to intervene consciously, to stop their climb and show the victims a safe. +And together we can turn our bed, our tables and our families in the oasis and that should be. +Thank you. +Hello. I call Cameron and for a while, I'm a model. +To be for 10 years ago. +And I feel that there is a very uncomfortable tension in the room because I should not have a dress in the room because I'm lucky, and hopefully I brought her clothes out to +This is the first shift in clothing on a scenario so you have a lot of I think. +If some of the women are when they they don't have to be now, but we find it later on Twitter. +I also want to point out that I have the privilege of being able to change what you think about me in just 10 seconds. +Not everybody has that opportunity. +These are very -- less bad than I don't have to use. +The worst part is going to go through the head, because it's when you're going to laugh at me, so you don't do anything while I cover my mind. +All right. +So why have I done this? +It's been embarrassing. +Well, I hope not as much as this picture. + is powerful, but +I've changed totally what they thought about me in six seconds. +And in this picture, he had never had a boyfriend, in real life. +And I was totally uncomfortable and the photographer told me that he would take the back and put it to the kid's hair. +Of course, except with surgery, or a artificial like the one that I did two days ago for work, there is very little that we can do to transform our appearance, which, even though superficial and has a huge impact on our lives. +So today, to me, will be brave means to be honest. +I'm on this stage because I'm a model. +Because I'm a nice woman and white, and in my workforce, that's being a sexy girl. +I'm going to answer the questions that people always do, but in a form of +The first question is, how do you get to be model? +And I always say, but that doesn't mean anything. +The real reason I made model is because I won the genetic lottery. And I'm the of a heritage, and maybe you're wondering what this heritage. +Well, in the last centuries we have not only defined beauty as health, youth and symmetry, which we are biologically programmed to do -- we also have to a high and shape and and a white skin. +And that's my that I've known to be able to make money. +And I know that there are people in the audience who are now showing and maybe there are some of the fashion that they were going to have to see -- they are Joan +First of all, the of knowing both of our models. +But unfortunately I have to report that in 2007, a Ph.D. student at the University of New York told all of the models in New York told all of the models in the and the models -- just -- less than four percent, were not white. +The next question that people always make me is: Can it be a model when it's +And my first answer is: I don't know, I don't know, I don't know that. +But then, what I would really tell each of these girls is: Why? Can you be what you want. +You can be president of the United States, or the of the next Internet, or a surgeon and poet, which would be awesome, because you are the first. +If after this spectacular list, still No, no, I want to be model, then I tell you, I know my +Because I'm not in charge of anything, and you could be the head of the of American magazine or the next Steven +To say that the more you want to be a model is like saying that you want to win the lottery when you get older. +It's out of your control, it's surprising, and it's not a job that you can choose. +I'm going to show you everything that I learned in 10 years as a model, because unlike surgery, it can be summarized right now. +I don't know what happened there. +Unfortunately, once you have gotten your studies, and you have a check and some jobs and a few jobs to your backs, no matter what you're going to do, if you want to be president of the United States, but you have your Model for 10 years, people will look at you weird. +The next question that people always do is if all the photos are +And yes, virtually the pictures, but that's just a small part of what happens. +So this was the first picture that I thought about, and also the first time I used a and I didn't even have my period. +I know we're moving into the personal field, but it was a little girl. +So I looked at my grandmother a few months earlier. +These two pictures are the same day. +My friend came with me. +Here I am at a party, a few days before the photos for French +Here I am with my soccer team and +And this is me today. +And I hope you'll realize I'm not in those pictures. +They are creations of a professional community, photographers and and all their and people and and they get them to create this. That's not me. +Well, the next question that people are always doing is to make things for free? +I have too many heel of 20 inches and I never use, except for the last couple of that, but the privilege that I get to do is the real life, and the ones that we don't like to talk about. +I grew up in Cambridge, and once I went to a shop and I forgot to take money, and they gave me the dress for free. +When I was a teenager, I was traveling with my friend who was a he jumped on a red light and, of course, and an agent in order to keep +It would be of these privileges the way I am, not by what I am. And there are people who are paying a price for their bodies regardless of who they are. +I live in New York City, and last year, of the teenagers who are standing and 86 percent were black and Latino men, and most of them were young men. +And there are only young black and Latino men in New York City, by what for them, is not a matter of +It's how many times I am +By doing this talk, I learned that by 53 percent of the girls in 13 years in the United States don't like their body, and that figure takes to 78 percent to the 17. +So the last question that people ask me is: How is life of a model? +And I think the answer to you is, if you're a little thinner and you have the most brilliant hair, you'll feel very happy and beautiful. +And behind the cameras, we give an answer that maybe we have it. + It's really wonderful to travel, and also incredible to work with smart creative people. +And that's all the way, but it's just one part of what happens, because what I never say in front of the cameras, is what I've never said in front of them, is: I'm a +And I'm because I have to worry about me every day. +And if you ever ask, with some more thin legs and the most brilliant hair will be happier? +They only have to meet with a group group, because they have the most legs -- the brightest hair, but probably the most women on the planet. +But mostly it was hard to look at a situation of racial oppression and gender when I am one of the biggest +If there is something to hold out of this talk, I hope that you all feel more comfortable when you recognize the power of the image of the image of success and failure. +Thank you. +Photography has been my passion since I was good enough to support a camera, but today I want to share with you my 15 more pictures -- and I didn't have the +There was no no no opportunity to repeat the pictures, not even a minimum care in lighting. +In fact, most of them took random tourists +My story starts when, in New York City to give a my wife dragged me this photo holding my daughter on the day of his first birthday. That's the corner and 5. +He happened that we went back to New York just a year later, so we decided to get the same picture. +Well, you can imagine what comes right now. +When the third birthday of my daughter, my wife told me, why don't you leave you to New York on a journey, and you keep the +So here is when we started to ask the tourists who were going to take us the photo. +It's amazing that the gesture of giving the camera into a complete stranger is so universal. +No one has never been denied and, fortunately, no one has ever been +So, we weren't aware of how much life would change this journey. +It became sacred for us. +This is a picture of a few weeks after the and I had to explain to my daughter what had happened that day that it had occurred that day that a two-year-old girl could understand. +These pictures are much more than a concrete moment or a specific trip. +They're also a way to stop in a week in October and to make us think about our time and our evolution over the years, and not only at the physical, but in all the senses. +Because, even though we always get the same picture, the perspective changes, my daughter gets new and I can see the life through his eyes and how it feels and interact with everything. +That particular time that we spend together is something we hope with illusion all year. +And recently, in one of the trips, we were walking around when they suddenly stopped in the dry and pointed out a red of the grocery store, which was a little bit of a little bit of the +And it described me what felt like the five years of standing in that same place. + he reminded his heart to be able to see that place for the first time nine years ago. +And now what looks in New York is universities, because it's determined to study in New York. +And suddenly I understood that one of the most important things we create is the memories. +So, I want to share the idea of being active in the conscious creation of memories. +I don't know about you, but apart from these 15 pictures, I don't go out in many of the family pictures. +I'm always the one that pulls the photo. +So today, I want to encourage you all to come in the picture, and I didn't get closer to someone and asked them, and you get a picture? +Thank you. +I'd like to talk to you about a very special group of animals. +There are 10,000 species of birds in the world. + are found in the group. +First of all, why do they have so bad +It has also been associated with Disney laughter. as a stupid thing, stupid characters. +More recently, if you've been following the press press, laughter, applause and these are the attributes that associated with the Parliament but I don't accept it. +I don't accept it. You know why? +Because members of Parliament don't keep the environment. The don't help prevent the spread of disease. +It's hardly You're far from And my favorite, the have better presence. +There are the in the New World City that are mainly in the like the and the and the of the World Bank, where we have 16 species from these 16, 11 very high risk of extinction. +So why are we going to be important -- first of all, provide ecological services +It's our of natural + the cadavers to the bone. +They help kill all of the bacteria. They help absorb the anthrax that of not being and caused large loss of livestock and diseases in other animals. +Recent surveys have shown that in areas where there are no the carcasses take three to four times more time in and this has huge ramifications of the spread of disease. + also have huge important importance. +They've been associated with the ancient African culture. + was the symbol of lip and maternity and, along with the the unit between the Alto, and +In the mythology of was the god and his life to save the goddess of 10 heads +In culture, they are doing very important to open sky -- in places like Tibet, there is no place to bury the dead, or wood to so these provide a natural disposal system. +What's the problem with the +We have eight species of in Kenya, which six are at the end of extinction. +The reason is that they're being and the reason they are being is because there are conflict between humans and communities use this venom against predators, and as a consequence, the are victims of this. +In South Asia, in countries like India and Pakistan, four species of are in the crux of danger of extinction, -- which means that at less than 10 or 15 years is and the reason is because they fall from livestock consumption that has been treated with a drug like +This drug has been banned for veterinarian in India and have taken a statement. +Since there are no there's been an spread in the number of the Chinese dogs in and when you have dogs you have a huge time bomb, to the number of cases of anger has increased enormously in India. +Kenya is going to have one of the largest wind farms in Africa, are going to be up in the Lake +I'm not against wind energy, but we have to work with governments, because the wind turbines do this for birds. They cut them by half. +They're +In West Africa, there is a horrible trade of dead to serve the and the market. +So what are you doing? Well, we're researching these birds. We're +We're trying to figure out their basic ecology, and see where they go. +We can see that they travel for different countries, so it will focus on a public problem is not going to be +We need to work with governments at the levels. +We're working with the local communities. +We're talking to them about appreciating the about the need to see these wonderful creatures and services that are +How can they help? It can become active -- make noise. You can write a letter to your government and tell them we have to focus on these very creatures. +When you leave this room, you will tell you about the but talk to their families, with their kids, their neighbors on the +It's very Charles Darwin said that he changed the opinion because he saw it fly without effort, no energy expenditure in the heavens. +Kenya, this world, will be much more poor without these wonderful species. +Thank you very much. +Every thing I do and everything I do -- my life -- it's been for seven years of work during my youth in Africa. +From to -- but I'm no longer am. I worked in Zambia, East Coast, and Somalia. +I worked for an NGO and every project that we set up in sub-Saharan Africa. +And I was + on the 21, that Italians were good people, and we were doing a good job in Africa. +Instead of that, everything we played is +Our first project, which inspired my first book, of the was a project where I just about Italians and we decided to teach people in Zambia to grow food. +So we got with seed south of Zambia to this absolutely magnificent valley that descends into the river and we teach the local and growing tomatoes Italians and and +And of course, people were not at all interested in doing that, so they would give them to come to work, and sometimes they were not We were aware that the food in so fertile valley, didn't have had agriculture. +But instead of asking you how it was possible that we were not anything, we simply said, "Thank God that we're here." -- time to save the people of Zambia from the +And of course, everything in Africa is +We got these magnificent in Italy, a tomato tomato would grow to this size. +And we couldn't believe it, we were telling the "Look how easy it is +When tomatoes were beautiful, and red in the morning, about 200 came up from the river and ate everything. And we said, "Oh my God, the +And the said, "Yes, that's why we don't have agriculture here." "Why don't you get it, "You're never +I thought that only one of us would think that only one of us, the Italians had mistakes in Africa, but then I saw what the Americans, what they were doing and after seeing what they were doing, I felt pretty proud of our project in Zambia. +Because, as you can see, at least we feed the +You can see the -- to see the waste that we would give them to the people in Africa. +He wants to read a book, read +The book was published in 2009. +We, Western communities, we've given the African continent two million dollars in the last 50 years. +I'm not going to tell you about harm that the money has +Just read your book. +It was part of an African woman, the harm that we've done. +So Westerners are conceptual and we treat people just from two things: or or +The two words come from the Latin root which means +But they mean two different things. + I deal with any of a different culture as if they were my children, I want you a lot." + I deal with all of a different culture as if they were my +So white in Africa are called +That book gave me a slap in the face, "I'm just written by who said for the whole economic development -- if people don't want to be +This should be the first principle of help. +The first principle of aid is +This morning, the gentleman who opened this conference put a cane on the ground and said, we can all -- you can imagine a city that's not +I decided for 27 years only to answer people, and I invented a system called where you never start nothing, you would never have to give anyone, but it becomes a of the local passion, the of the local people who have the dream of becoming a better person. +So what do you do? You +You never get to a community with an idea, and you feel with the people of the +We don't work from offices. +We sat down in a coffee. We got together at a bar. +We have zero infrastructure. +And what do we do? We become friends, and we knew what the person wants to do. +The most important thing is the passion. +You can give you an idea to somebody. +If that person doesn't want to do that, what is going to do you? +The passion that she has for its own growth is the most important thing. +The passion that man has for its own personal growth is the most important thing. +And so we helped them find knowledge because nobody in the world can be successful alone. +The person with the idea may not have knowledge but knowledge is available. +So years ago, I had this idea: Why not we, for once instead of getting to a community to tell people what to do, why not for once, but not at the meetings. +Let me tell you a secret. +There's a problem with meetings. + never and they will never be told in a public meeting, what they want to do with their own money, what an opportunity have to +So planning has this point blind. +The smartest person in their community, you don't even know about it, because they don't reach their public meetings. +What do we do? We work for you, and we work with face-to-face face, you have to create social infrastructure, which doesn't exist. +You must create a new profession. +The profession is the business doctor, the family doctor in the business of the business of the business -- that it sets up with you in your house, at the table in your kitchen, and that helps you find the resources to transform their passion in a form of a living. +I started this as a test in city of Western Australia. +I was doing a Ph.D. at the time, trying to get away from this junk that we got to tell you what to do. +In one year, I had 27 projects forward, and the government came to me to see it, "How can you do that? +So how do you do it?" And I said, "I did something very, very hard. +So I am and -- So -- So -- So -- So the government says, We have done it in 300 communities in the world. +We have helped to start 40,000 businesses. +There's a new generation of entrepreneurs who are dying of loneliness. +Peter one of the greatest business in history, passed away to '96, a few years ago. +Peter was a professor of philosophy before they engaged in business, and this is what Peter says Peter is actually incompatible with a society and a economy. + is the kiss of the death of the corporate spirit. +So now rebuilding without knowing what the most people want to do with their own money and their own energy. +You have to learn how to get these people to get to speak with you. +You have to give you a privacy, it has to be fantastic to the and then we will come up in mass. +In a community of 10,000 people, we got 200 clients. +Can you imagine a community of 400,000 people, intelligence and passion? +What do you show you -- more this tomorrow? +Local That's what you have +So, what I tell you is that entrepreneurial spirit is where it is. +We're at the end of the first industrial revolution, the fossils are not renewable fossils and at one point, we have systems that are not sustainable. +The internal combustion engine is not sustainable. + as a way of holding is not sustainable. +What we need to consider, is how to communicate to seven billion people, in a sustainable way. +There is no technology to do that. +Who's going to invent technology for the green revolution -- the +The government? +They will be the entrepreneurs and they're doing it now. +There is a wonderful story that was in a journal many, many years ago. +There was a group of experts who were invited to debate the future of New York City in the year. +And in the year met this group of people, and about what would happen to the city of New York in 100 years, and the conclusion was the city of New York City wouldn't be within 100 years old. +Why? Because they looked at the curve and if the population is growing up to this to move the population of New York to the -- six million horses, and the manure produced by six million horses, and the manure produced by six million horses would be impossible to help address. +They were already in dung. And so in they were this dirty technology that supports New York City. +So what happens? In the next 40 years, in 1900, in the United States -- skilled manufacturers -- +The idea of finding a different technology was absolutely and there were very few factories in places. + Michigan. Michigan. +But there's a secret to work with the entrepreneurs. +First, you have to give you a +Otherwise, I'm not going to come to speak with you. +And then you have to give you an absolute devoted service, +And then then you will have to tell you the truth about +The smallest company, the bigger company -- it has to be able to do three things -- the product that you want to sell has to be fantastic, you have to have a fantastic and you have to tell a great financial administration. +You know what? +We have never met a single human being in the world who can do, to sell and look for the money alone. +It doesn't exist. +This was not born. +We've looked at the 100 Atlantic companies in the world -- Ford, all the new companies, +There's only one thing that all of the successful companies in the world are common, only one of them was started by one person. +I would never have the word but the word 32 times. +He wasn't just when it began. +No one starts a company alone. Nobody. +So we can create the community where we have who come from a small business environment in in bars in bars with their dedicated who will do for you, what someone made for this who talks about this someone who asked you, what needs you need? +What can you? Can you do it? +Okay, so you can it can look for the +"Oh, no, I can't do that." +We activate communities. +Thank you. +Those around us can help us in many ways to improve our lives. +We don't know all the neighbors, so we don't know a lot of knowledge despite sharing the same public spaces. +In the last few years I've tried to share more with my neighbors in the public space, with simple tools like templates and chalk. +These projects came from questions like, how much pay my neighbors for your +How can we pay and borrow more things without calling the door to a bad moment? +How do we share more memories of our abandoned buildings and better understand our +How do we share more of our hopes to the business stores so that our communities can reflect today our needs and +I live in New and I'm in love with New +My soul always finds relief with the giant wild that give and for centuries ago, and I trust a city. +That always gives the music to the music. There is a in New The city has one of the most beautiful architectures in the world, but also one with the most infinite number of the U.S. properties. +I live near this house and thought about how it could turn it into a more nice space for the neighborhood and also in something that changed my life forever. +In 2009, I lost someone who loved a lot. +It was like a mother for +Her death was sudden and was unexpected. +I thought a lot about death and a lot. +And this has been a deep gratitude for the living time. +He gave it to the most significant things of my life today. +But let's have to keep this look in my everyday life. +It seems to me that it's easy to get to catch the day and forget the really important thing for you. +So with the help of old and new friends, he transformed the wall of this house on a giant slate and painted on her phrases for "Before they die +So could take a reflect on their lives and share personal values in the public space. +I didn't know what to wait for this experiment, but the next day the wall was filled with and still +And I'd like to share some things that people wrote on the wall. +Before they died, I want to be Before they die -- Before they die I want to sit on the line of +Before they died, I want to sing for millions of people." +Before I have to die I want to plant a +Before they died, I want to live outside the +Before they died, I want to die once again." +Before they died, I want to go to the Treasure rescue. +Before they die I want to be completely myself." +This abandoned space became constructive and dreams and dreams and hope for people to laugh at me, and they gave me comfort in hard times. +It's about knowing that one is not alone. It's about understanding our neighbors in new and and it's about giving the reflection of the reflection and the and of remembering what is the most important thing for us as we grow and +This happened last year and I started getting hundreds of messages from passionate people who wanted to make a wall in their community. +So with my colleagues in the civic center we made a kit kit and now have been walls in countries around the world, like South Africa, Australia, Argentina and beyond. +We show the power of our public spaces if they give us the opportunity to express ourselves and share each other. +Two of the most valuable things that we have is time and our relationships with other people. +In our age of distractions increasing, it's more important than ever, to find ways to preserve the perspective and remember that life is very simple, difficult. +The death is something that we often avoid talking about, or even thinking, but I understood that we prepare for death is one of those things that were given to us more power. +If you think about the death -- our life. +Our shared spaces, can reflect better what matters as individuals and more media and more media to share hope, and the people around us, cannot only help improve places, can help improve our lives. +Thank you. +Thank you. +I have a only request. +Please don't tell me I'm normal. +Now I'd like to introduce you to my siblings. + has 22 years old, it's high and very hot. +Not speak, but it makes joy better than some of the best + knows what love. +It shares it to happen what happens. +It's not You don't look at the color of the skin. +You don't care about the religious differences and look at this, never +When singing the songs of our childhood, I was trying to tell me the words that I didn't even have a thing: the little thing we know about the mind and how wonderful it must be the unknown. +Samuel has 16 years old. It's It's very hot. +We the most memory. +However, it's a selective memory. +It doesn't remember if I stole my but it reminds me of the year that I came out every one of the songs of my iPod, conversations that we maintained when I was four, I pee on my arm during the first episode of the and the Lady party. +It doesn't look amazing? +But most people agree. +And in fact, because their minds don't fit into the concept of normal society, they're often and +But what propelled my heart and my soul was that even if that was the case, even though that was the case within it, that could only mean one thing: which was autistic and extraordinary. +Now, for those less familiar with the term it's a complex brain disorder that affects social media, learning and sometimes the physical skills. +In each individual it manifests itself differently, from there that is so different to Sam. +And all over the world, every 20 minutes, is being diagnosed a new case of autism, and even though it's one of the disorders of the development that faster in the world, there is no cause and +I don't remember my first encounter with autism, but I don't remember one day without it. +I was only three years old when my brother came to the world, and I was very excited to have a new being in my life. +When a few months, I realized that he was different. +It was very much. +I didn't want to play like the other babies, and in fact, it didn't seem very interested in me at all. + lived and in his own world, with his own rules, and I was pleasure in the very small things, like putting the cars in the row around the room, looking at the washing machine and eat anything that there was +As I grew up more different, and the differences were made more evident. +But beyond the frustration and there was something really a pure nature and innocent, a child who saw the world without a human being that there was never + +I can't deny that there have been some hard moments in my family, moments in which I wish they were just like me. +But I look back at the things that have taught me about individuality, communication and love, and I realize that they are things that wouldn't want to change the normal. + is going to be the beauty that gives us the differences and the fact of being different doesn't mean that anyone is wrong. +It just means there's a different view of what is right. +If I could one thing to and Sam and for you, it would have to be normal. +They can be extraordinary. +Because, I or not, the differences that are a Each one of us has a gift in your inner and, frankly, the search for normality, is the last sacrifice of potential. +The opportunity for the progress and the change dies at the time when we try to be like others. +Please don't tell me I'm normal. +Thank you. +Five years ago, I experienced a little bit of what it must have been in the country of +Penn State asked me to me, a professor of communications, who gave a kind of communication to students in engineering. +It was scared. of these students with their great minds, their big books and their great unknown words. +But they develop those conversations, I felt what he was going to have had felt felt when he fell through the rabbit hole and saw the door in a new world. + I felt when I had those conversations with the students' students, they surprised me the ideas that they had, and I wanted others to experience this wonderful world. +And I think the key to open that door is a great communication. +We desperately need a great communication of our scientists and engineers in order to change the world. +Our scientists and engineers are the ones that are attacking our greatest challenges of energy and healthcare and health care -- and if we don't know about this, the work is not done, and I think it's our responsibility as not scientists to have these interactions. +But these great conversations cannot happen if our scientists and engineers are not invited to see their wonderful world. +So scientists and engineers, please do +I want to share some suggestions about how you can do it to make sure that your science is sexy and your engineering is attractive. +First question for and then what? + why is science relevant to us. +Don't tell us simply that they study the but they study the which are the structure of our bones because it's important to understand and treat +And when you're describing their science, carefully + is an obstacle to our understanding of your ideas. +Sure, you can say and but why don't you say and which is much more accessible to us? + accessible is not the same thing that they do dumb things. +On the contrary, as Einstein said, it's all as simple as possible, but it's not simple. +You can communicate their science without engaging the ideas. +One thing to consider is to use examples, and analogies are ways of and with their content. +And by presenting his work, forget about the signs of +You have asked why they're called What do the kill them and their presentation. +A like this is not only boring, but it's supporting too much in the language of our brain and us. +In contrast, this of Brown is much more effective -- it shows that the special structure of the is so strong that really inspired the unique design of the Tower, that really inspired design. +The trick here is to use a simple phrase -- that the audience can understand if you lose a little bit, and then they provide graphs that would give our other senses and believe a deeper sense of understanding what they would expect. +I think these are just a few key keys that can help others open the door and look at the country of the wonders that's science and engineering. +And so scientists and engineers, when they've solved this equation, by all media -- with Thank you. +One of my favorite words from all the Oxford English is +Just because it sounds very good. +And means +Although there was an editor for the 19th century, which was a lot better defined when he said, "A is the one which is looking for a public charge -- no matter or beginning, and that, when she won, he gets it for the mere use of a monumental +I have no idea what it means +One thing to do with words, I guess. +It's very important that words are the basis in politics, and that all politicians know they have to try to dominate the language. +It wasn't for example, that the British Parliament allowed newspapers to quote the exact words that were said in the chamber. +And all of this was because of the bravery of a guy with the rare name of who was faced at the +He was thrown into the London Tower and he was placed but had enough courage to deal with them, and at the end he had such popular support in London that I won. +And just a few years later, we had the first recorded use of the phrase like the +Most people think it's literal +It's not. It's for an advocate of freedom of expression. +But to show you really how words and politics interact, I want you to go back to America, just after independence. +So, they had to address the question of how to call George Washington, his leader. +You didn't know that. +How do you call the leader of a country. +This is in Congress for a long time. +You had all kinds of suggestions that could be +Some wanted to call it and others, "Your George and other from the of the U.S. +Not very +Some simply wanted to call it +They thought it was to be tested quality. +And not even with it was they had the idea that you could be King King for a fixed term. +And there might be +All the world got tired because this debate was going on for three weeks. +She read the newspaper from a poor and always with this +And the caused the House and was that the House House was against +The House House didn't want Washington to get rid of power. +They didn't want to be King as if it would give him or her ideas. +So they wanted to give the more title and more unfortunate than it came up with. +And that title was +President. I didn't invent the title. There was already before, but it just meant that I would have a +It was like the president of a jury. +And I didn't have much more than the term or +There was a bunch of small presidents of little and and but it was really an insignificant. +And so the Senate is +They said, "is ridiculous, we can't call it +"This guy has to and meet with +"And who would take a serious title with a title and childlike as President of +And finally, after three weeks of debate, the Senate not +We can learn three interesting things about this. +First of all, and this is my favorite to where I've been able to figure out, the Senate has never been as the title of President. +Barack Barack Obama is lucky to keep there waiting for the Senate between action. +The second thing we can learn is that when a government says that a measure is possible that we keep waiting for years. +But the third thing we can learn, and this is the most important, and with this, I want to tell you, is that the title of President of the United States doesn't sound at all as modest today, right? +Especially if you have more than 5,000 nuclear warheads to note, the largest economy in the world and a fleet of air vehicles and so on. +Reality and history have endowed with the title of +So at the end I won the +They got their title of +And also the other concern of the Senate, appearance -- well, it was a +But you know how many nations they have now +And everything because they want to sound like the kind of 5,000 nuclear heads and so on. +So, at the end the Senate won and the House of the House -- because no one is going to feel humble when you tell them that you're the President of +And I think that's the great lesson that we can learn, and that I would like to +politicians are trying to pick and use the words to shape and control reality, but really really change the reality, the words that what these could change reality. +Thank you very much. +I'm 45 to meters under the ground in the space of Ghana. +The air is warm and dust and it's hard to breathe. +I feel the touch of bodies in the dark, but I can't see much more. +I hear voices that talk about but most of all, that cacophony of male and stones with primitive tools. +Like the others, I take a cheap of light on the head with this and I can barely see the branches that they hold the walls of that hole that the walls of that hole that drops hundreds of feet on the ground. +It was my hand and suddenly I remember a that I met days before, that he lost control and dropped a lot of feet on that one. +As I talk to you today, these guys are at the deep on that hole at the risking their lives without paying reward and, often, dying. +I walked out of that hole and I went home but they may never do it because they're prey out of slavery. +In the last 28 years I've been documenting native cultures in over 70 countries in six continents, and in 2009, I had the great honor of being the only at the Summit of the Peace +Among all the amazing people I met there I met a the an NGO that is dedicated to eradicate modern slavery. +So we started talking about slavery and, really, I started learning about slavery because I knew that there was no way in the world, but not as grade. +When we ended up talking very awkward, I was really excited to ignore this of our days and I thought, if I don't know, how much people don't know? +He asked me a stomach and weeks later, I flew to Los Angeles to meet the director of the the and offer me my help. +So I started my journey to modern slavery. +Interestingly, I had been in many of these places. +Some of them, even considered them my second home. +But this time, the dirty +A conservative calculation is that there are more than 27 million people in the world. +It's twice the amount of displaced African population during the whole host of slave slaves +150 years ago, the cost of a planned slave was about three times the annual salary of a U.S. worker. +The equivalent of about 50,000 people today. +However, today, you can be enslaving entire families per generations per generations of +Surprisingly, slavery generates profits from over 13 billion dollars a year around the world. +Many have been with false promises of good education and better work to then discover that they're forced to work without pay, under threatening violence and can't escape. +Today, slavery operates in the the goods produced by the slaves are value, but those who produce them are disposable they're them. +Now, slavery is almost all over the world, and yet, it's illegal around the world. +In India and Nepal, I met the bricks. +This strange and show was like entering the old Egypt or the of + at a temperature of 54 degrees C, men, women, children, in fact, entire families -- out of a pack bricks in their head, to 18 at the time, to 18 at the time, and take them from to trucks that are hundreds of feet. + for the and work in silence, doing this task over and over for 16 to 17 hours a day. +There was no coffee enough to eat, not to drink, and the severe made it just quite +And so was the heat and the dust that my camera became too hot, and it stopped working. +Every 20 minutes, I had to run the car to clean up the team and make it work with air conditioning for and, sitting there, I was thinking, my camera gets a lot better than these people. +Back in the I wanted to cry but the that I was on my side quickly grabbed me and said, "You don't do it. Don't do it here." +And he explained to me very clearly that to prove emotions is very dangerous in places like this, not only for me but for them. +I couldn't give you any direct aid. +I couldn't give them money, nothing. +I wasn't the citizenship of that country. +I could put it in a situation worse than they already were. +I had to rely on the and work within the system for their liberation and trusted when he was +In terms of me, I waited to get home to feel my heart +In the Himalayas, I found children carrying rocks for miles on land until they were waiting down. +Those great were more heavy than the children in the charge and the children would put them into their heads with made of ropes and +It's hard to witness something so +How can we influence something so but so +Some people don't even know that they are slaves -- and work 16 or 17 hours a day -- not because this has been so much of his life. +They have nothing to do with it. +When these their freedom, the their homes. +When you hear the word we often think of sexual trafficking, and because of this global consciousness, I warned me that it would be difficult for me to work with security in this particular business. +In I was women who had been previously had sex +It took me for a little bit which would give up this dirty little +It wasn't exactly a +It was rather a restaurant. + like it is known at craft, they are local for forced prostitution, +They have small, private rooms where the with their girls and kids, some of the only seven years -- they're forced to entertain clients and to buy more food and alcohol. +Each is dark and identified by a number painted on the wall and divided by a and a curtain. +The workers often suffer sexual abuse to their clients. +On the I remember there is a fear and in that instant, I could barely imagine what it should be stuck in that +I just had a the stairs where they +There was no +There were no windows big enough for +Those people don't have and, because you touch a very difficult issue, it's important to point out that slavery, even sexual traffic is happening around us. +There are hundreds of people who are in agriculture, on the domestic service, and the list can continue. +Recently, the New York Times reported that between 100,000 and 300,000 children are sold every year as sex as sex. +It's everywhere, but we don't see it. +The textiles is another activity that often relate to labor +And I went to Indian villages where there were entire families in the trade of the silk trade. +This is a family organ. +Black hands are the father, the of blue and red, of their children. + in these big barrels and they dip the silk into the liquid to the but is toxic. +My performer told me his stories. +"Not they were told. +We still hope, but I can go out of this house someday and go to another place where you really pay our job." +It's estimated that there are more than 4,000 children in Lake the largest Lake lake in the world. +When we got there, I was going to look fast. +I saw what appeared to be a fishing family in a boat, two older, some younger brothers, some children -- it makes sense, right? + They were all +Kids are separated from their families -- and forced to work with long extensive in these boats in the lake, despite even knowing swimming. +This child is eight years old. +When our boat came up to me was that his little canoe was +He was paralyzed by the fear of falling into the water. +The branches of the trees plunged into Lake often trap networks and children, and fear, they got to the water to unlock the branches. +A lot of +Since remember, it's always been forced to work on the lake. +For fear of his love is not going to flee and, like the whole life has been treated with tries to be the younger slaves under his command. +I met these guys at five o'clock in the morning, when we had the last networks, but they had been working from the one one. + in the cold night. +And you can point that these networks weigh more than 400 pounds when they're filled with fish. +I want to introduce you to +Kofi was rescued by a village of fishermen. +I met him in a refuge where the victims of slavery. +Kofi symbolizes as possible. +Who will come to be because someone decided to make a difference in your life? + for a road in Ghana with partners the a fellow with their motorcycle suddenly accelerated and our car and touched the window. +It was asked to take it by a land path to the jungle. +At the end of the road, we would get rid of the car, and he asked the driver to come out quickly. +Then it pointed out this path just visible and said, "This is the path, this is the +As we started up, we took the we took the way down, and after walking around an hour we found that the way I was going to go through the recent so I put up the pictures of photos about my head as they in these waters to the chest. +After two hours of the path, the way he ended up in one of us, and we had a mass of holes that could fit in a soccer field, and they were all full of enslaved. +A lot of women had children strapped to their backs and, as they were looking for gold, in hot waters with + is used in the process of +These miners are in a well in another part of Ghana. +When they came out of the well they were in their own +I remember looking at his little because many had been under land for 72 hours. +The pits are up to 90 feet and these people have got a little bit of stone bags that then they will be transferred to another area in which they took the stone to get the gold. +First sight, the site seems like to be full of strong and but if we look more closely, the margin is going to work at other less fortunate and also children. +They're all victims of injuries, disease and violence. +In fact, it's very likely to be that this the victim of T.B. and for in a few years. +This is When his father died, his uncle took him to work with him in mines. +When you die his uncle, the debt of the uncle who force it to be a slave to the mines. +When I met her, I had worked in the and the leg injury that you see here is a product of an accident in the so serious that the doctors said it should be +In addition to that, has tuberculosis, and yet to that, it's forced to work night and day in that mine. +Yet, he has to be released and with the help of local activists like the and it's this kind of determination, of face to a remote possibility that I'm inspired by a lot respect. +I want to throw a light on the +They knew their images would be seen by you all over the world. +I wanted you to know that we will be testimony of them and we're going to do everything possible to help change their lives. +I really believe that if we can see each other as human beings, then it becomes very difficult to atrocities like slavery. +These images are not people, real people, like you and like me, who deserve equal rights, dignity and respect in their lives. +There is no day that I think I don't think about these many beautiful people, which I've had the great honor to meet. +So I hope that these images show up a force in which you see them in people like you, and I hope that the force will turn into a fire and that fire light on slavery because, without that light, the beast of slavery can continue to live in the shadows. +Thank you very much. +I'm doing the applied math and there is a specific problem for the we are kind of like the management reports. +No one knows what the hell we do. +So I'm going to try and try to explain to you what I do. +Dance is one of the most human activities. +We were the of the and the dancers of -- that we will see going on. +But a degree of extraordinary training -- a high level of dexterity and probably a certain set of dexterity that you can well have a genetic component. +Sadly, neurological disorders like Parkinson's disease -- gradually this extraordinary skill as it does with my friend who, at his time, was a virtuous ballet dancer dance. +Over the last few years has been made a lot of progress on treatment. +However, there are million people in the world who are sick, and they have to deal with a and other symptoms of this disease, so we need tools to be able to detect the disease before it's too late. +We need to be able to measure the progress in an objective way, and ultimately, the only way we know if there really exists a cure is when we have an objective measuring and +But it's so frustrating that for Parkinson's and other disorders of movement can't be so so they don't serve the blood analysis and the best we have is a neurologic test for 20 minutes. +You have to go to a clinic to do that. It's very, very expensive, and that means that, out of the clinical trials, they never do. +And what if patients could do that at home? +That would save a trip to the clinic -- what if patients could be done to do ourselves? +It doesn't need personal. +By the way, it costs about 300 dollars in the neurological clinic. +So what I want to do with you as a conventional to a try, you see, in a sense at least we are all like my friend +This is a video of the +It shows someone healthy while it emits sounds on the talk, we can imagine as a dance of an vocal piano because we have to coordinate all those vocal organs to produce sound and all of us have the genes needed -- the for example. +And like it requires an extraordinary training level. +Let's think about the time that it takes a child to learn how to speak. +From the sound, we can track the position of the vocal cords as you go to and how the Parkinson's affects the it also affects the +On the bottom plot you can see an example of +We see the same +They have +The speech becomes more quiet and after a while, and this is an example of the symptoms. +How do you compare these exams based on the voice with the clinical trials -- well, both are not +The neurological test is not They both use existing infrastructure. +You don't need to design a whole series of hospitals to make them. +They are both OK, but in addition to tests, they are not +I mean, you can be +They do very quickly, take about 30 seconds as a lot. +They're very minimum cost, and we all know what happens to happen. +When something takes a low-cost cost of mass scale. +These are some amazing goals to +We can reduce the of the patients. +I don't need to go to the clinic for the of routine. +With high we could have objective data. +We could make it a low-cost low-cost cost for clinical trials, and for the first time, at a general scale. +We have the opportunity to start looking for the first of the disease before it's too late. +So when we have the first steps in that sense, we are launching the Initiative of Parkinson's disease. +Together with and we want to register a lot of voices around the world to collect enough data and start to deal with these goals. +We have local lines for 750 million people in the world. + with whether or without Parkinson's, it can be under price and leave for a few cents. And I'm pleased to announce that we've reached the six percent goal in only eight hours. +Thank you. Tom Rielly: So taking all these samples of, say, 10,000 people, you can say who's healthy and who doesn't? +What will you get from these +Max Yeah, yeah. What happens is that during the call you have to indicate if you have or not the TR: Yeah. + You see, some people can do not it may not be +But we're going to get a very large show of data in different circumstances, and do it in different circumstances, it's important because we are looking at the confusion of confusion in pursuit of the real markers of disease. +TR: You have a precision at this moment? + A lot more than that. +In fact, my graduate student -- I have to it has done a fantastic job and now has shown that it works on mobile phone web as well, what we did the project. We have an 99 percent accuracy. +TR: and nine. Well, it's a improvement. + Absolutely. +TR: Thank you very much. Max + Thank you, +Before March 2011, I was doing in New York City. +We are creatures. +We were in the dark, in rooms. +We make their family models even more the perfect skin still even more perfect -- we can do the impossible -- and we will become in the press all the time, but some of us are really artists with talent with many years of experience and a real taste of images and the photography. +On March 11, 2011, I saw my house, just like the rest of the world, the events that was happening in Japan. +Shortly after a few time later, an organization where it was there was the place to work like a part of the response team. +I, along with hundreds of other volunteers knew that we couldn't stay sitting at home, so I decided to join the group for three weeks. +On May I went to +It's a little fishermen around the of nearly 50,000 people, one of the first peoples affected by the wave. +It reached over 24 feet of height and more than three miles land. +As you can imagine, the village was +We got rubble from channels and + schools. We took the slime down, and we leave the houses to be and +We took tons and tons of fish, from the local factory. +We were and we loved it. +For weeks, both volunteers like neighbors found similar things. +They found pictures and photos and cameras and cameras and +They all did the same thing. + and take them to different places of villages around the rest of the rest of the world. +It wasn't until I realized that those pictures represented a huge part of the personal losses that that people had +As they went from the and to save their lives, they had to abandon everything that they had. +At the end of my first week I started to help in a center of the people. +It helped clean up the toilets, massive +This place turned out to be the place of the village where the center of pick up the photos. +And there they took them and I had the honor of that day in me to clean the photos. +This was exciting and had heard the expression beyond the but it wasn't until far beyond myself as my horizons that something happened. +When I looked at the pictures, I found some who had more than a hundred years, some of them were still in the lab, I couldn't avoid thinking like how to fix that and repair that and I knew hundreds of people who could do the same thing. +So that night I entered Facebook contacted some of them, and the next morning, the answer was so overwhelming and positive that I knew we had to try. +So we started the photos. +This was the first of all. +It wasn't too but where the water had washed up the face of the girl I had to get to with a lot of precision and +In the other way, that little girl wouldn't have the aspect of it, and that would be as tragic as having the photo +At the time of time, they came for the time and they got more so this is that I went back on Facebook and and five days later, 80 people from 12 countries offered to help. +Within two weeks I had 150 people from +In Japan, in July, we a village to the north of +Once on the week we use our scanner in the city agencies that had been where people were going to reclaim their photos. +The time that we in is a different story, it depended on of the of the photos. +I could make it for an hour. I could make a couple of weeks. +I could make it for months. +This had to draw in the way by hand using the areas that color and detail the water was not +It took a long time. +The water destroyed all these pictures -- it would be covered in bacteria, with algae, and even with oil, all of it along with the step of time I continue to so it was a big part of the project. +We couldn't afford the picture unless it was clean -- dry and would have been for his +We were lucky with +We have a +It's very easy to harm the pictures even more +As he said once he said, the leader of my group is like making a tattoo. +You can't make mistakes. +The woman who brought us these pictures was sort of sort of relative to the photos. +I had started her same but stopped when he realized that even more. +It was also +Without them, the images of their husband and his own face wouldn't have been we were able to put the images into a single photo and the whole picture. +When I collected their photos shared something from their history with us. +A few colleagues from his husband found the pictures in a fire station between the rubble pretty far away from where his house was born, but his colleagues would +The day of the tsunami, his husband was the experimenter to close the barriers to the wave. +It had to go inside the water while the +Her small kids, not as small now, but their two children were at school in different schools. +One of them was caught in the water. +It took him a week to find her whole family and knew that everyone had survived. +The day he gave him his photos his little son is the least 14 years old. +In spite of all this, these pictures were the best gift that he could do -- something that he could come back to look at, something that he could remember from the past that wasn't marked by that day of March when everything in his life changed or was +After six months in Japan 1,100 volunteers had come together with us -- hundreds of them helped us to clean up more photographs -- the great -- the great majority came to their hands of their +Over 500 volunteers all over the world helped us bring back to 90 families hundreds of photos completely and +During this time, we really don't spend more than 1,000 in teams and materials, most on ink to +We take pictures. +A photo is a memory of someone or something, a relationship, someone loved. +They are of our memories and stories, the last thing that we would bring to us, but the first thing we want to look for. +This is the project, of restore little pieces of humanity, of giving someone a connection to the past. +When a picture of a picture is given to someone, a huge difference in the life of the person who receives it. +This project also made a big difference in the life of the +Some of them connected with something bigger with something bigger with something, using their talent for something that won't be thin skin models of the perfect skin. +To finish my email -- I would like to read this email. He sent him Cindy the day I came back from Japan after six months. +While I couldn't stop thinking about people and the stories shown in the images. +One in particular, a picture with women of different ages from the grandmother to the small girl, gathered around a baby, and I was excited about a baby, and I was excited because a picture of my family my grandmother, my mother, I and my daughter hangs on our wall. +In the whole world, in all the few our basic needs are the right? +Thank you. + I was inspired by awe and curiosity with this photo of a bullet that goes through an apple in a millionth of a millionth of a second. +But now, 50 years later, we can go to a million times faster and see the world not a million or a billion to a billion of them per second. +Let me introduce you to a new kind of the a new technique so fast that you can create video in slow motion from the light moving. +And with that, we can create cameras that can see after the beyond the line of vision, or see the interior of the body without using X-rays, and challenging the camera idea. +If I take a laser pointer and I switch it on and put it into a or in a number of to create a whole package of photons just a millimeter wide millimeter wide away. +And that package of photons, that will travel at the speed of light, and, again, a million times faster than a common bullet than a common bullet than a common bullet than a common bullet than a common bullet than a common bullet than a common bullet than a common bullet than a common bullet than a common bullet than a common bullet than a common bullet than a +If you take that bullet and this package of photons and fire in this bottle, how do these photons into this +What's the kind of light in the camera. +Now, all this -- Remember that all of this is actually happening in less than a it's what it takes to travel to travel. +But this video is 10 billion times slower so you can see the light in motion. + this research -- -- lots of things in this this information to show what's going on. +The pulse, our comes into the bottle with an photons package that starts to and that, inside, and it starts to +Part of the light is going on the table, and we started seeing these +Many of the photons finally come to the lid and then explode in various directions. +As you can see, there's an air bubble that bounces inside the inside. +At that time, the waves would travel down the table and because of the reflections of the bottle, you see it at the bottom of the bottle, after several boxes, that the insights will be +Now, if we take a common and bullet and we get it to go the same distance and see it at the camera at about 10 billion times, how much you think it would take us to see the film? +A day? +It would be a very boring film -- of a slow movement. +And what about about nature. +You can see the waves that came from the table, the tomato and the wall wall. +It's like throwing a stone on a pond. +It's the way that nature paints a picture, I was thinking, at the time, but of course, our eyes see a full composition of crap. +But if you look at once more this you'll realize that, as the light goes on the tomato it is still bright. It's not +Why? Because the tomato is and the light bounces into its interior, and it comes back after various of a second. +In the future, when this is in your phone, you're going to be able to go to the supermarket and check if the fruit is grown without having to touch it. +So why do we create this camera at +As photographers, you know, if you take a low photo in the exposure, it gets very little light. +But we're going to go to a billion times faster than so we can barely get some light. + that that package of photons, millions of times, and we recorded over and over again with a very we took those data and the to create those that I showed you. +We can take all of those data into crude and in a interesting way. +Superman can fly. +Other heroes can become invisible people. +And if a new power of a future could be allowed to see it after the +The idea is that we could throw some light on the door to the door, and you get into the room, a part is going to reflect on the door, and from there to the camera. +Where we could get these multiple light +It's not science fiction. We built. +On the left is our +Behind the wall there is a and you get the light on the door. +After the publication of our article in +And a small fraction of the photons will go back to the camera but interestingly, in moments slightly different. +And as we have a camera that works like that quickly, our has unique capacities. +It has very good temporary resolution and you can look at the world at the speed of light. +So we know the distances down to the door and also to the hidden objects, but we don't know what point corresponds to what is a distance. +So when you put a laser can record a picture, you see on the screen, it doesn't really have any sense. +But we will take a lot of images like this, but let's take a lot of images like this, and we will pick them up, and we will try to look at the multiple of light, and with that, we can see the object. +Can we see it +This is our reconstruction here. +We have things for us to explore before we pull this out of the lab, but in the future, we could create cars that would be based on what's going on on the curve, there. +Or we could find survivors in dangerous conditions looking at the light reflected by the open windows. +Or we could build able to see the inside of the body through the body, and the same thing for the +But of course, because of the tissue, and the blood is quite hard, so this is actually a request to scientists to start thinking about like a new to fix the problems of the next generation. +Just like himself a scientist, I became science in art, an art of photographs of photography. +I realized that all of the data scans that we collect every time is not just a scientific visualization, but we can see that we can see. +We create a new form of computer photography with slow motion and color code. +And look at those waves, the time between each of those waves is just a few of a second. +But here's a lot of fun. +If you look at the waves under the these are going on from us. +The waves should be moving towards us. +What happens here? +It turns out, as we are recording almost at the speed of light, we have weird effects, I would have liked to see this image. +The order that events occur in the world sometimes comes in to the camera. + the corresponding warping of space and time, we can correct this +It's time. Thank you. +Hello. This is my mobile phone. +A mobile phone can change life, and it gives you individual freedom. +With a mobile phone can lead a crime against humanity on Syria. +With a mobile phone you can tweet a message and start a protest in Egypt. +With a cell phone you can record a song -- it was and +This is all possible with a cell phone. +I'm a of 1984 and living in the city of +Let's go back to that moment, this city. +So here you can see how hundreds of thousands of people are going to come for a change. +This is the fall of 1989. Imagine if all of these people gathering it was looking for a change, they had a cell phone in your pocket. +Who have a mobile phone here? + +Put your mobile phone up. + A Android, a +It's a lot. Almost all of us have a mobile phone. +But today I talk about my mobile phone, and how I changed life. +I'm going to talk about this. +This is 35 different information lines. + data. +Why is that information there? +Because in the summer of 2006 the E.U. Commission put a +The of +This tells you that every single telephone company, every single Internet vendor in all Europe, has to store a wide range of information from users. +Who calls who. Who sends an email to who. +Who sends a text to whom. +And if we use the mobile phone, where do we are. +This whole piece of information is stored at least six months, and until two years, in their telephone company, or their Internet +And all across Europe and he said, "We don't want this." +They said they didn't want this +We want the in the digital age, and we don't want the telephone providers and Internet providers -- all this information about us. +There was lawyers, journalists, they all said, "We don't want this." +And here you can see a few thousand people who came out to the streets in Berlin and said, not +And some of them even said that this would be Vietnam. +The was the secret police of Eastern sell. +And I also asked myself if this really works. +Can you store all this information about us? +Every time we use the +So I asked my phone -- that in that time, it was the largest telephone company in Germany, and please get me down, all the information they had about me. +I asked them one time, and I went back to ask them, and I didn't get a concrete answer. It was all +But then I said, I want to have this information because you are my life. +So I decided to a lawsuit that I would have because I wanted to have this information. +But said no, we'll give you this information. +At the end of the end, they +They the demand and they send me the information that I +Meanwhile, the Veterans' Court failed the for the German law of the U.S. +So I got this ugly one with a CD inside. +And in the CD there was this. +Thirty and five thousand people, 30 lines of information. +At the beginning, I saw them and I said, well, it's a huge file, OK. +But after a time I realized that's my life. +There are six months of my life in this archive. +It was a little bit what should I do with that? +Because you can see where I am, where I step night, what am I doing. +But then I said, I want this information. +I want to make it public. +Because I want to show people what it means to be +So, next to and Open came from City, we did this. +This is a visualization for six months of my life. +You can zoom in and go backwards and forward. +You can see every step I give it. +And you can see what I'm going to do on the train to and what often I call the way. +This is all possible with this information. +That gives you a bit of fear. +But it's not just about me. +But of all of us. +First, there are things like, I call my wife and she's called, we talked a couple of times. +Then they call me some friends and they call each other. +And then you call the other, and the other one to the other, and we ended up with this big communications network. +You can see how their people communicate with each other to what time they call each other, what time they sleep. +You can see all this. +You can see the centers, the leaders of the group. +If you have access to this information, you can see what the society is. +If you have access to this information, you can control their society. +This is a model for countries like China and Iran. +This is a model to study the form of your society, because you know who speaks to whom, who's an email to whom, all of this is possible if you have access to this information. +And this information is stored at least six months in Europe, and until two years. +As I said at the beginning, imagine if all of these people in the streets of Berlin, in the fall of 1989, they had a mobile phone in your pocket. +And the would have known who I participated in this protest, and if had known who the leaders, it would never have happened. +The fall of the Berlin Wall has never happened. +And as a result, neither is the fall of +Because today, the state agencies and businesses want to store as much information of ourselves as possible within and outside the web. +They want to have the possibility of keeping our lives and they want to be +But the and living in the digital age is not a contradiction. +But today you have to fight for +You have to fight for that every day. +When you go home to your friends that privacy is a 21st-century value of the 21st century, and it's not made of fashion. +When you go home, you get to your representative that only because companies and state agencies can store some information, they don't have to do it. +And if you don't believe me, ask your company -- what information we store of you. +So in the future, every time you use your mobile phones that serves them to remind you that they have to fight for the in the digital era. +Thank you. +Hi TEDWomen, what happens? +It's not enough. +Hi TEDWomen, what happens? +I call myself and I'm not but I know the doctor who brought me to the world. +I went to my mom six times in six different addresses in the poor of me in the process. +As a result, I have cerebral palsy, which is why they all the time. + +It's I'm like a mixture of +Muhammad +The P. C. is not genetics. +It's not can't be +No one the uterus of my mother and not because my parents were brothers, though they are. +It's just by accidents, like the one that happened at birth. +Now, I'm going to tell you, I'm not a source of inspiration. And I don't want any of us to come in. +It feels bad for me, because at some point in life, they wish to be disabled. +Let's take a ride. +Christmas Christmas, you're in the commercial mall, drive in circles for parking lot and what do you see? +16 empty empty places. +And they think, "God, I can be at least a little bit +Also, I tell you, I have 99 problems, and the P. C. is just one of them. +There's a of the I would get the gold medal. +I'm a Muslim woman, disabled and living in New Jersey. +If you don't feel better, maybe you should do it. +I'm from Park in New Jersey. +I always loved that my neighborhood, and my disease had the same initial first. +I also love that if I wanted to walk from my home to New York, I can. +A lot of people with cerebral palsy, don't believe in the +The mantra of my father was, "Can you get them to do it: +If my three plus older sisters I was +If my three older sisters were going to the public school, my parents would come to the school system and get rid of the school system, and they would argue that I was also out there, and if I don't know all the ultimate note -- all of the of my mother. +My father taught me how to walk five years putting my in his feet and just walking. +The other approach that I used was to hang a dollar in front of me so that we would do it. +The that I carry inside was really strong. +Yeah. The first day in the kindergarten was walking around like a boxing champion which has received a lot of +Growing up, there were only six Arabs in my city and were all of the family. +Now there are 20 Arabic, and they're still all the family -- I think no one realized that we were not +This was before 9/11, and that the politicians would think appropriate to use to the as a campaign. +The people I grew up there was no problems with my faith. +But yet, it seemed to be a lot of a lot about hunger during the +I would tell you that I had enough fat to live three months without eating -- so you get the dawn at sunset is very easy. + +Yes, in It's crazy. My parents couldn't afford physical therapy, so they sent me to school dance. +I learned to dance with or I learned I can walk with +I'm from New Jersey, and there we want to be so if my friends used I do too. +And when my friends were going to spend summer vacation on the coast of Jersey, I wasn't going. +I spent my summers on a war zone, because my parents were worried that if not to go back to Palestine all the we would be interested in +On the summer summer of summer in the summer of my father was so I would drink milk from sent me warm cups on the back, and I remember the water me and I was like, +But the cure was yoga. +I must say it's very boring, but before doing yoga it was a comedian of that I couldn't stand up with, +And I can see it in your head. +My parents -- this idea that I could do anything, that no dream was impossible, and my dream was to be at Hospital. +I went to college through positive discrimination and I got a scholarship for the University of Arizona, because it was in all the +It was like the pet of the theater. +And all of me is +I did all the tasks in the least smart, I took the ultimate note in my lectures, and also in their classes. +Every time I was doing a scene from the glass zoo my teachers +But I never got a role. +Finally, in my last year, the decided to make a work called very slow in Jackson. +It's a work of a girl with cerebral +I was a girl with cerebral +So I started screaming at the four "The end will have a +I have +At the end of the end of the end of it. +Thank God I'm going to be +I didn't get the paper. They gave it to Brown. +I went to running the CEO of the theater, crying historically, as if somebody had killed my cat, asking him why and she told me that because they thought I could not do the risk. +And I said, if I can't do the risk stunts I can't do the +It was a role for which there was literally born and they gave it a single actor without the cerebral +The college was imitating my life. +Hollywood has a story of actors without disability papers. +When I came back, I came home and my first tour, it was like extra as extra in a +My dream became true. +And I knew it would be to friend friend in a +Instead, I went there like a I didn't see it more than the and it was clear to me that the are not allowed to white, with disability. +You just get to perfect people. +But there were exceptions to the rule. +I grew up watching and all these women had one thing in common: They were +So I was +In my first tour, I took famous cartoon from New York City to New Jersey, and I will never forget the face of the first comedian that he took when he fell into the realize that I was at high speed by the highway in New Jersey with a driver that had cerebral +I worked in clubs across the United States, and also in Arabic in the Middle East, without censorship and +Some people say I'm the first of the Arab world. +I never like reclaim the first place, but I know that you never heard that small rumor that says that women are not fun, and they are very fun. +In 2003, my brother of another mother and father, Dean and I launched the Festival in New York City, in his 10 year. +Our goal was to change the negative image of the in the media, and then remind the principals that and Arabic are not + the Arabs were much easier than fighting the challenge of the stigma of disability. +My great opportunity came in 2010. +I was like invited to the news program for the cable it has Keith +I walked as if he went to a graduate dance, and I went to a study and sat me in a wheelchair. +I looked at the director and I said, you can give me another +She looked at me and said, four, three, +And we were in +So I was clinging to the desktop of the and I didn't get out of the screen during the and when I finished the interview, I was +At the end of I had my opportunity and the I knew they didn't go to me. +But not only Mr. went back to but I was just like a full-time participant and pasted my chair. +One thing I learned in direct with Keith was that people on the Internet are +It's said that children are but they never fall away from me or a child and even bigger. +All of a sudden, my disability Internet became +I would see online clips with comments like, "Why do you +"It's +And my favorite, +What disease does it have? +We should really pray for it. +A suggested even to add my disability to my + is as visual as race. +If someone in a wheelchair can't make then you can't make somebody in a wheelchair. + are the Yes, man. Come on. + are the largest minority of the world, and the most in the world of entertainment. +The doctors were saying not to come, but I'm here in front of you. +However, having grown up with the media, but I don't think they would be +I hope that together we can create more positive images of disability in media and in everyday life. +Maybe if there were more positive images, that would be more in the Internet. +Or maybe not. +Maybe we even need the whole society to teach our children. +My workload journey has taken me into very spectacular places. +I came to by the red carpet -- by the Susan and the +I came to act on a film with Adam and working with my incredible Dave + the Arab world -- "The Arabs have become +I was a representation of the great state of New Jersey in the of 2008. +And I founded kids -- a charity to give kids Palestinian refugees. +It was the only time my father saw me live, and I do this talk to his memory. + +I call myself and if I can, you can too. +I'd like to tell you a story about a child in a young village. +I don't know his name, but I know his story. +It lives in a little town in the South +This village is about + attracted small people to poverty and the edge of the +Without him there, it's going to be the big city, in this case, the capital of Somalia. +When it comes there, there is no opportunities, there are no work, no work in future. +He's just living in a tent outside of +After maybe a year nothing. +One day I read about a man who offers him to take him to after dinner to dinner, and +It was going to be a of people, which gives you a break. +She gets a little bit of money to buy new clothes -- money to send home to your family. +I show it to a young guy. +They finally went home. +It starts a new life. +It has a life goal. +A beautiful day in under a blue sky bursts a bomb. +That child from that small village with dreams of the great city was the terrorist bus, and that dynamic group of people were to a terrorist terrorist organization with Al Qaeda. +So how do the story of a kid in a small town trying to fulfill their dreams in the city ends with him +He was waiting for it. +I was waiting for an opportunity, waiting to start your future, waiting for a future perspective, and this was the first thing he arrived. +This was the first thing that took him out of what we call the period. +And his story is repeated in urban centers around the world. +It is the story of the young urban urban that we prescribe riots in riots in London, looking at something beyond the of +For young people, the promise of the city, the great dream of the city is the opportunity to work, in well-being, but young people don't participate in the prosperity of their cities. +It's often youth who suffer from the highest rates of unemployment. +By 2030, three of every five people living in cities are less than 18 years old. +If we don't include young people in the growth of our cities, if they didn't give them opportunities, the story of the of the gate of access to terrorism, to to be the story of cities Vietnam. +And in my hometown of birth, 70 percent of the young people is +70 percent don't work, goes to school. +They don't do pretty much. +I went back to last month, and I went to visit the Hospital. +I remember being before that hospital thinking, and if I had never gone? +And if I had seen me forced to be in that same +It would have become +I'm not really sure about the answer. +The reason I was in that month was actually to support some of the youth leaders in a corporate enterprise. +It was going to be 90 percent young leaders. +We sat down and we had a rain of ideas about the solutions to the great challenges that the city faces. +One of the young people in the room was +He was at the University of +There was no work, no opportunities. +I remember when he told me, that because I was a graduate graduate college -- frustrated, was the perfect perfect white for Al and other terrorists, to be +They were looking for people like it. +But this story takes a different path. +In the biggest obstacle to reach from the point B is the street. + years of civil war have destroyed the traffic system, and a motorcycle can be the easiest way to + saw an opportunity and +It started a company of +He started it runs off the local residents who typically couldn't afford it. +I bought 10 with the help of your family and friends, and his dream is at some point to expand hundreds of for the next three years. +Why is this different story? +What does this story different? +I think their ability to identify and leverage a new opportunity. +It's the corporate spirit, and I think that business spirit can be the most powerful tool that is the most powerful tool for the + young people to be the creators of economic opportunities that are looking for so quickly. +And you can train young people to be entrepreneurs. +I want to talk to you about a young man who attended one of my meetings, Mohamed a +I was to train some of the young people at the summit of the business initiative and how to be innovative and how to create a culture of the business initiative to do. +In fact, it's the first that has seen over 22 years, and until recently, until Mohamed arrived, if you wanted flowers for your we were plastic from the overseas. +If you ask someone, "When was the last time you saw +For those who grew up during the civil war, the answer would be: +So, Mohamed saw an opportunity. +It started a company of and design company. +I created a farm on the outskirts of and he started growing up and and he said that he could survive hard climate +And it started the delivery of flowers for me, creating gardens in the houses, and the city companies -- and now it's working on creation of the first public park in in 22 years. +There are no public parks in +It wants to create a space where the families, the young people, can go together, and as he says, smell the +By the way, he doesn't cultivate because they use a lot of water. +So, the first step is to inspire the young people, and in that room, the Mohamed presence had a really profound impact on young people. +They had never thought about starting a business. +They had thought about working for an NGO, working for the government, but their history, their innovation, really had a strong impact on them. +He forced them to look at their city as a place of opportunities. +They encouraged them to believe that they could be businesspeople, that could be of change. +By the end of the day, they had innovative solutions for some of the major challenges facing the city. + business solutions for local problems. +So, to inspire young people and create a culture of business spirit is really a big step, but young people need capital to make their ideas happen. +They need experience and guidance to make it in development and put it out of their business. +And they would get young people with the resources that they need, the support that they need to move from understanding to the creation, and they will create for urban growth. +For me, the business spirit is something more than starting a business. +It is to create a social impact. +Mohamed is not simply selling flowers. +I think it's selling hope. +Its and this is how it is called, when it is created, it will transform the way people see their city. + I hired kids from the street to help rent the for him. +He gave them the opportunity to escape the +These young entrepreneurs are having a tremendous impact on their cities. +So my suggestion is, to turn the young people in businesspeople, and their innovation and have more stories about flowers and that and of +Thank you. +I was about 10 years old, and I went to with my dad in the mountains -- a area north of the state of New York. +It was a beautiful day. +The forest is +The sun was made that the leaves like a and not because of the way that we were born, we almost could pretend that we were the first human beings to step on that land. +We got to our camp. +It was a shed in a with a beautiful adaptive lake when I discovered something horrible. +Behind the shed was a of about four meters of with an apple hearts -- balls, and old. +And I was I was very angry and incredibly +The who were too lazy to pull out what they thought they were going to clean up your +That question went on with me, and it was +Who clean our +No matter as a or where the the who clean our trash into +Who clean our trash in Rio or Paris or in +Here in New York City, the Department of the of the of 11 tons of waste and two thousand tons of products, every day. +I wanted to meet them as individuals. +I wanted to understand who does that work. +What does it feel like to use the uniform and bring that +So I started a research project with them. +I traveled in the trucks and I walked through his routes and I interviewed people in office and facilities across the city, and I learned a lot, but it was still a +I needed to get a lot more. +So I started working like +Now I didn't just travel in trucks. I would +And the mechanical mechanical and bar +It was a remarkable privilege and an amazing learning. +Everybody wonders about the smell. +It's there, but it's not as prevailing as you think, and in the days that it's very strong -- you get very quickly. +It costs a lot of used to weight. +I met people who had worked on it for a number of years, and their bodies were followed by the weight of taking on their body tons of junk every week. +It's also the danger. +According to the Bureau of collection is one of the most dangerous island of the country, and I learned the reason. +You're coming out and enter the traffic all day and pass it around you. +They just want to be so in general the driver is not paying attention. +That's very bad for the worker. +And also the garbage itself is full of dangers that they often fall across the truck and cause terrible damage. +I also learned about it +When you get out of the and you see a city from the back of the truck, you get to understand that garbage is like a force of nature itself. +It never stops coming. +It's also like a form of breathing or circulation. +It always needs to be moving. +And it's also the stigma. +I think stigma is especially ironic because I believe strongly that the of waste are the most important workforce in the streets of the city, for three reasons. +They're the first of public health. +If you don't get rid of the waste in a efficient and effective day every day, this starts to their compost and their dangers and their dangers inherent to us in very real ways. +So we've been for decades, and centuries they come back and start +The economy needs it. +If we can't get rid of the old we don't have room for what the motors of the economy starts to fail when it's endangered as the consumption of the economy. +I'm not advocating for capitalism, but I just point their relationship. +And then it's what I call our average average speed you need. +So with that, I mean just the speed that we used to move used to the +We don't usually care about it, no longer or we took our cup of coffee, our bag of our water bottle. +We use them, we forget them, we forget them, because we know there's a job force on the other side that it would take for it. +So today I want to suggest to you a couple of ways of thinking about the waste collection that maybe help to reduce the stigma and focus on that conversation about how to design a sustainable city. +Her work, I think, is almost +They're on the street every day in the street every day. +They use a uniform in many cities. +Do you know when +And his work allows us to do ours. +They're almost a way to relief. +The flow that keep us apart from ourselves, from our own our own our and that flow must always stay in a form or another. +One day after September 11, 2001, I heard the of a waste collection on the streets, I took my little kid and I went down the stairs and there was a man doing his journey like it did all the +And I tried to thank his work that particular day, but I started crying. +And he looked at me and just and said, "We're going to be okay. +We're going to be okay." +Shortly after that I started to investigate waste collection and I came back to see that man. +It's called We worked together a lot of times, and we made good friends. +I want to believe that was right. +Let's be okay. +But in our efforts for the way we exist on this planet as we have to include and have to account for all the costs, even the very real human cost of the labor of labor. +The municipal waste -- what we think when we talk about trash, represent three percent of the amount of waste from the nation. +It's a remarkable statistic here. +So in the flow of your days and their lives, the next one you see someone whose work is to clean up the trash of you, a moment for + a moment to tell you -- thank you. +My work is focused on the connection of thinking about our community life as a part of the environment where architecture is naturally naturally and local traditions. +Today, I had two recent projects like example. +Both projects are located in the emerging world, one in Ethiopia and the other in Tunisia. +They also share the fact that different analysis from different perspectives become an essential part of the actual work of architecture. +The first example started with an invitation to design a mall in various floors in the capital of Ethiopia, Addis +This is the kind of construction that showed us as example, my team and me, about what we had to design. +At first, the first thing I thought about was, "I want to get +After seeing some of these buildings there are many in the city that we realized that there are three important aspects to +In principle, these buildings are almost empty because they have very large stores in which people cannot afford to buy things. +Secondly, you need to employ a lot of energy because the lining heat in the interior, so you need a lot of +In a city that this should not happen because it's a temperate weather that's about 20 to 25 degrees across the entire year. +And thirdly, what it looks like is nothing to do with Africa or Ethiopia. +It's a bad place for a place as rich in culture and traditions. +In our first visit to Ethiopia, I was really with the old market that is the open air structure where thousands of people, go and buy things every day to small +There is also that idea of using public space to generate external activity. +So I thought that was what I really wanted to design, not a mall. +But the question was about how to build a New York of several stories, applying these principles. +The next challenge was presented to the the site that is located in a much growth area of the city, where much of the buildings we now see in the image, not there. +And it's also between two parallel streets that don't communicate in an extension of hundreds of feet. +So the first thing we did was create a connection between these two streets, assembling all the inputs in the building. +And this spreads out with a that creates a space in the air open in the building that was absorbed by its own way, the sun and rain. +And around this space we've applied the idea of the market with small businesses, that changes in every floor because of the form of space. +I also thought, how do we close the building? +I wanted to find a solution that we would refer to the local climate conditions. +And I started thinking about a similar tissue to a concrete shell. +Then we were inspired by these beautiful buttons on the dresses of the +They have properties of fractal geometry, and this helped us shape the +We're building that with these little parts, which is the windows that leave the air and light in a way controlled by the interior of the building. +This is with these little colored crystals that use the inside of the inside of the building to light the building at night. +With these ideas it wasn't easy to convince the developers because they thought, "That's not a commercial center. It wasn't what we want. +But ultimately we knew that this idea of the market was much more profitable than the commercial center because there were more local to sell. +And the idea of the facade was much more economic -- not just because of the material compared to the glass, but also because it wasn't necessary to have air conditioning. +So we get certain savings in the budget we use to implement the project. +The first thing was to think about how to achieve the power for the building in a city in which electricity is short almost every day. +So we got a great advantage by putting them on the roof. +And then under those panels we think about the roof as a new public space with areas and bars that would create this urban oasis. +And these on the roof, they collect water for the +It's expected for the beginning of the next year, because we go through the fifth floor. +The second example is a master of 2,000 apartments and services in the city of Tunisia. +And to do a big project, the bigger that I have developed, I needed not only to understand the city of Tunisia, but also his environment, his tradition and culture. +During that analysis, I put attention in the a structure that was surrounded by a wall with 12 gates connected by lower lines. +When I went to the place, the first design operation we did was we broaden the streets of existing streets, creating 12 similar building blocks in size and features that there are in Barcelona and other cities in Europe with these +In addition to that, we pick up some points in relation to the idea of the interconnected with straight lines, and this changed the initial model. +And the last operation was to think about the cell, the little cell in the project, like the apartment, as an essential part of the master plan. +I thought, what would be the best guidance for an apartment in the climate. +And it's because it creates a thermal difference between both sides of the house and therefore a natural ventilation. +So we put a framework which claims that most apartments are perfectly in that direction. +And this is the result that is almost like a combination of European block and the Arab city. +It has these blocks with and then in the plant, we have all the connections to our pedestrians. +And they also respond to local norms that make a greater density at the upper levels and a lower density in the ground floor. +And it also reinforces this idea of the doors. +The roof, which is my favorite space space in the project is almost like raising the community of the space that is occupied by construction. +It's where all the neighbors, you can go up and and make such a activities like a two miles per morning, or jump from one building to another. +These two examples, have a common approach in the design process. +And also, they're in emerging countries, where you can see cities are literally growing. +In these cities, the impact of architecture in the life of the people changes communities and local economies at the same rate as the buildings. +For this reason, I see even more important to look at architecture looking for simple solutions, but that improves the relationship between the community and the environment, and that they have as objective to connect nature with people. +Thank you very much. +When I was eight years old, a new girl entered our class. It was so remarkable, as you see all the new girls. +He had huge amounts of hair, very bright hair and a little I was very strong for the capitals of states, very good for +I ended up that year and I was full of until I my sinister plan. +One day I was left time after the of school -- I was a little evening and hid in the bathroom of the girls. +When the coast was I walked into the classroom, I took off the table of my teacher at grades. +And then, I did. +It will give you the ratings from my just a little bit, just a few these. +All the way -- And I set up to return the book to the but to see, some of my other fellows had very good notes as well. +So in a the notes around the world, without any imagination. +I put it all over the side of and I put myself a row out of it, just because it was +I'm still shocked what I did. +I don't understand how the idea came from. +I don't understand why I felt well doing that. +I felt important. +I don't understand why I never get paid. +It's that everything was +I would never get paid. +But most of all, I was struck by the reason why I was telling me that this little girl was so small, was so good for you." +I was +They're so and so +We know that babies suffer from jealousy. +The primates. The birds are very +We know that are the number one cause of spouses in the U.S. +And yet, I've never seen a study that will be or the long duration or the sadness. +So you have to go to fiction, because novels are like the lab that you study in all its possible forms. +In fact, I don't know if it's an exaggeration to say that if I didn't have any it would have no literature. +Well, there would be no I would have no +There is no king no and a +There would be no Shakespeare. +You know, the lists of the school reading because we would be losing "The and the there would be no and and and +Without I know it's fashionable -- I know that has the answers for everything, and in terms of the almost that they have all of them. +This year is spent 100 years of their work "In pursuit of the the most study of sexual and also from the my God, all that we could have. And thinking about we have the details -- right? +We think about a child trying to reconcile the dream. +We think about a in your +We forget how hard that image. +We forget how it is. +I mean, this is the books that Virginia said were as hard as of +I don't know how it is but we assume it's +Let's see why they go so well together, the novel and the and +It's going to be very obvious as the that are reduced to the person, to their desire, their are a narrative +I don't know. I think we got very close to the bone, when we think about what happens when we feel jealousy. +When we feel we tell ourselves a story. +A story about other people, and those stories make us feel terrible because they're designed for that, to make us feel bad. +So as storytellers and audience, we know exactly what details to do to the knife isn't it? +The do all of the and that's something that understood. +Everything that she does to give me pleasure could be pleasure to another one, maybe right now." +And it starts to say to yourself that story, and since then, says that every cool charm that picks it on his lover, adds it to his collection of torture in his private chamber. +You have to say that and were notoriously +You know, would have to abandon the country, if they wanted to break with it. +But you don't have to be so to recognize that it's hard work. Right? + are +Is it a emotion. You have to +And what are the +The get rid of the information. + use the details. + like the great amounts of bright hair, and the cute little of +The were of the photos. +That's why Instagram is so successful -- links well in the language with the jealousy. +When is in your agony of course, listening to the gates and to the of his lover, then defending those behaviors. +He says, "Look, I know you guys think this is but it's not different to the interpretation of an old text or looking at a +He says, "They're scientific research with real value. + is trying to prove that the look and they make us seem but in their they're search of knowledge, a search for truth, a virtuous truth, in fact, to -- the more agonizing the truth, the better. +The pain, the -- these are the toward the wisdom of +He says, "A woman who we need, who makes us fail, causes us to make a lot of feelings and much deeper and vital feelings than a wise man can be able to +It's telling us that we're going to go look for women +No. I think it's trying to say that reveal ourselves. +And there's some other emotion that makes us open to us in this particular way. +Is there any other emotion to us, our our horrible ambition and our +Have any other emotion that teaches us to look at +Freud would write about this later. +One day, Freud visited for a young woman who was consumed with the idea that his woman is being consumed by the idea that his woman would +And Freud said that there was something weird in that man, who didn't get sick in what his wife's did. +So she was everybody knew. +The poor creature was under suspicion without any cause. +But he was looking for things that he did his wife, without realizing it, behaviors. + or not accidentally with a man? +Freud said the man was becoming the of his wife. +And novels are very good at this. +And novels really describe how are made to look at intensity, but +In fact, the more intensely we are, the more we become residents of fantasy. +And for this reason, I think, the lead us to do violent acts or illegal. + drive us to behave in the way it was completely +Now I'm thinking about me about eight years old, the but I'm also thinking about this story that I heard about the news. +A woman from Michigan -- of 52 years of age was captured by having created a fake account on Facebook from which they sent to itself, for a year. +For one year. +She was trying to get back to the new girlfriend of his former boyfriend. I have to confess that when or this, I reacted with +Because, let's be realistic. +What large, even though we do it? Right? +It's like novel. +Like a novel by Patricia + is one of my favorites. +She's a very strange and bright character of the American literature. +It's the author of in a and "The Mr. who try to do our minds, and once we are in the sphere, in the realm of the the membrane that separates what it might be, can be in a second. +Take Tom their most famous character. +Tom is going to be or want what you have to take you out of your self and get it out of what you've ever got, and it's under the floor your name, it takes your rings, and you have your your +It's a way. +But what do we do? We can't take the route of Tom +I can't give you all the world, both like I wanted to. +It's a pity, because we live in times of envy. +We live in times of jealousy. +I mean, we're good at social media, where the coin is right? + show us the I'm not safe. +So we're going to do what characters always do when they're not sure, when they're in front of a mystery. +Let's go to the of Baker Street and asking for +When people think about think of the in Professor that criminal genius. +But I have always been the head of rat that needs needs the genius. +Oh, it sounds so + needs their help, but it would be and with in each of the puzzles. +But how do they work together, something starts to change, and finally in "The of the Six -- one time you get all with his solution, goes back to and says, "We're not Mr. +We're proud of +And he says that there is no person in who didn't want to hold your hands. +It's one of the few times when we see in history. It seems like this very emotional -- that scene is also mysterious, right? +It seems like the like a geometry, no emotion. +You know, in a minute it's the opposite side of +The next minute you're on the same way. +All of a sudden, can admire that idea of being the +It could still be so simple? +What if the are really a matter of geometry, just a matter of where we allow us to be in relation to the other? +Well, maybe we don't have to give us the excellence of the other. +We can do it with it. +But I like plans for +So as we expect that happens, we remember that we have the fiction for +It's only fiction jealousy. +Science used invites them to the table. +And look at what the sweet the scary one, Tom the crazy the +We're in excellent company. +Thank you. +We used to solve big problems. +On July 21, 1969, Buzz Buzz Aldrin jumped out of the of Apollo 11 and descended on the Sargasso Sea. +Armstrong and were alone, but his presence in the dark surface -- the was the culmination of a collective process. +The Apollo program was the largest mobilization. +To get to the moon -- NASA spent about 180 billion dollars of today, or four percent of the federal budget. +The Apollo gave work for about 400,000 people and asked the collaboration of 20,000 businesses, universities and universities and government agencies. +They died, including crew 1. +But before the Apollo program 24 men went to the moon. + walked on his surface, of which rose after the death of Armstrong last year, is now the most +So why do we care? +They didn't get a lot of pounds of old rocks, and something that the 24 later, a new sense of the and the fragility of our common home. +Why do you The cynical answer is that the president Kennedy was going to demonstrate to the that this nation had better rockets. +But the words of Rice at the University of Rice give us a better idea. +John F. Some people ask, why do you +Why does it turn to our goal? +And you could also ask, why can it scale the +35 years ago, why do you fly on the +Why plays Rice +We chose to go to the moon. +We chose to go to the moon. +We chose to go to the moon in this decade, and do other things, not because they're simple, but because they're difficult. +Jason For the the Apollo was not just a victory of the West about this in the Cold War. +At the time, the stronger emotion was the of the powers of the technology. +It was because it was really great to be able to do it. +The landing on the moon occurred in a context of a long list of technological phenomenal. +The first half of the 20th century produced the assembly line and the airplane, penicillin and vaccine for tuberculosis. +In the middle of the century, it was and eliminated the +Technology seemed to own what Alvin was in 1970, called +During most of the history of humanity, we couldn't go faster than a horse, or a ship, but in 1969, the Apollo crew of Apollo 10 miles flew 60 miles away as an hour. +From 1970, no human being turned to the moon. +No one has traveled faster than the crew of Apollo 10, and the optimism is about the power of the technology has been when we see that the technology would be solved as to go to Mars, to create a clean energy, cure cancer, or feeding cancer, or to feed the world population seem to have been +I remember watching Apollo 17. +I was five years old, and my mother told me that he didn't get to the escape of the rocket Saturn +I knew that this would be the last mission, but I was completely sure that I would see the colonies on Mars. +So that of "Anything happened to our ability to solve problems with has become a common place. +We heard it all the time. +We've heard it for the last two days here, at TED. +It seems like the technologists had and there were enriched with trivial, trivial toys, things like applications and social media, or algorithms that speed +There's nothing wrong with most of these things. +They've expanded and enriched our lives. +But we don't mean the great problems of humanity. +What happened? +There is a explanation in Silicon Valley, which is that we have created less ambitious companies than in the years that they would be created by Microsoft, Apple and +Silicon Valley says that markets are the in particular, the incentives that venture capitalists offer business for entrepreneurs. +Silicon Valley says that the risk investment caused the creation of ideas by the funding of problems -- or even false problems. +But I don't think this explanation is good enough. + mostly what's wrong with Valley. +Even when the venture capitalists were at their high point without caring for the risk of small investments that they could go out in 10 years. + have always had trouble to invest with the benefit in technologies like energy, which need a huge capital, and that development is long-term capital, not in the development of technologies intended to solve big problems, because they don't have a immediate commercial value. +No, the reasons why we can't solve big problems are more complicated and profound. +Sometimes, we chose to solve the big problems. +Could we go to Mars if you +NASA has even designed a plan. +But going to Mars it would take a political decision that was popular, and that will never happen. +We don't go to Mars because everyone thinks there are more important things to do on Earth. +Sometimes, we can't solve the big problems because political systems fail. +Today, less than two percent of the world energy consumption comes from renewable energy sources, like solar and wind and Less than two percent, and the reason is completely cheap. +The coal and natural gas is cheaper than solar and wind, and oil is cheaper than +We want alternative energy sources that can be able to compete at the price don't exist. +Now, technologists, entrepreneurs and economists are about what policies and international treaties is developing the development of energy -- a significant increase in research, and some kind of control of the coal. +But there is no hope in the current political climate that we're going to see an energy policy in America or international treaties that reflect that consensus. +Sometimes, the big problems that seem technological, they will not be. +We know for a long time that famines are actually a result of failure in +But 30 years of research, we have taught that famines are political crisis affecting the distribution of food. +Technology can improve things like crops or systems for the storage and of food, but there will be a famines while there were bad governments. +And finally, big problems sometimes we have a solution because we don't understand the problem. +President Nixon declared the war war in 1971, but soon we found that there are many kinds of cancer, some fiercely resistant to the treatment, and only in the last 10 years, they seem to find effective and viable treatments. + problems are hard. +It's not true that we can't solve problems with technology. +We can have and -- but these four elements have to be American leaders and the population must want to solve the problem: the institutions must support it must be really a problem, and we need to understand it. +The mission that has become something like a metaphor for the technology for the technology to solve big problems, it does it +But it's a model in the future. +We're not in +There is no competition -- like in the Cold War, there is no politician like John Kennedy that how hard and dangerous, and there's no popular mythology of science fiction like the system. +In general, go to the moon turned out to be simple. +I was just three days. +And really, it wasn't even no problem. +We're alone in our present, and the solutions of the future will be harder to get. +God knows that we don't have the challenges. +Thank you very much. +Well, I'm going to talk about trust, and I'm going to start with ideas that have about trust. +They're so common that they've become in our society. +I think it's three. +The first is a there has been a huge decline of trust, it's a very general statement. +The second is a we should have more trust. +And the third is a we should regain the trust. +I think the the goal and task is +What I'm going to try and tell you today is a different story about a a goal and a task, which I think gives you a higher idea about the subject. +First of all, the why do people think that trust has +And if I think about the basis of my own I don't know the answer. +It takes me to think that it may have gone down in some activities or institutions that could have risen in others. +I don't have it clear. +But I can turn to opinion surveys and opinion surveys are supposed to be the source of belief that trust has decreased. +When you look at opinion surveys over time, there are no many evidence of it. +I mean, the people who have been 20 years ago, mostly journalists and political -- they follow the same +And the people who were very reliable 20 years ago, they continue to be quite judges, the nurses. +The rest of us are in the middle, and, by the way, the average citizen citizen is almost half the road. +But is this evidence enough? +What opinion surveys are, of course, opinions. +What else can you do? +What you see is the generic attitudes that people manifests when they get certain questions. + in the in the +Now, if someone asked you, in the + in the + at the +You're probably going to be able to ask, "To make what?" +And that would be a very response. +And you could say, when you've answered your question, "Well, I trust some, but in other not." +Which is very rational. +Ultimately, in real life, we tend to turn the confidence in a +We don't assume that the level of confidence that we're going to feel like a kind of a officer or type of person, it's going to be uniform in all cases. +I may, for example, to say that I trust a certain elementary school teacher that I know to give to the classroom, but somehow to drive the school +After all, I could know that it wasn't a good +I could trust my friend more to keep a conversation, but no, maybe to keep a secret. +Simple. +And if we've got those evidence in our everyday lives in the way that trust is why we leave all that knowledge when we think about trust in the more +I think the surveys are very bad tools for measuring the real standard of real trust, because they try to get the good judgment to the fact of trusting something or somebody. +Secondly, what about the goal? +The goal is to have more trust. +Frankly, I think it's a stupid goal. +It's not the goal that I +I would encourage you to have any more confidence in what it is about trust, but not what it is. +In short, I'm not to trust what it's not reliable. +And I believe that those people who have their savings with the very called Mr. who then disappeared with them, I think about them, and I think, well, they were too +Having more trust is not an intelligent goal in this life. + deposited or with intelligence, that's the right goal. +Once you say, it says, yeah, that means that what matters in the first place is not trust, but trustworthiness. +What it's about is about making a judgment about how reliable people are in certain ways. +And I think that we can do a trial, we're forced to focus on three things. +They're They're They're +And if we find that a person is in the and it's responsible and honest, then we will have a very good reason for trusting it, because it's going to be worthy of trust. +But if, on the contrary, they're not responsible we couldn't trust them. +I have friends who are and honest, but not in them to take a letter to the mail because they're +I have friends who are very sure that you can do certain things, but I see that I would take their own +And I'm happy to say that I don't have a lot of friends who are and responsible but extremely +If it's like that, I still haven't been +But that's what we are to work before you trust. + is the answer. + is what we need to be +And of course, it's hard. +Over the last few decades, we tried to build systems of accountability for all kinds of institutions, professional officials and others, that make us easier to judge their trustworthiness. +Many of those systems have had the opposite effect. +They don't work like +I remember once I was talking to a and he said, "Well, you'll see the problem is it takes more time to make the that I will going on in +And we find the same problem in all of our public life, and we understand that the education system that is meant to guarantee the and the testing of actually is making the opposite. +What they do is the work of the people who have to do hard tasks like the that we the as we say. +You must all know the similar examples. +It was all about the goal. +I think that the goal should be more and that things would be different if we would have to be worthy of trust, and they would give them to the people that are reliable and whether other people or political officials are worthy of trust. +It's not easy. It's the trial, the simple actions -- what you don't do properly. +Third, the task. +We would have the task to rebuild the trust, puts things upside down. +It suggests that you and I should rebuild the trust. +Well, we can do it with ourselves. +We can reconstruct a little bit of trustworthiness. +We can do it if they're two people, together, trying to improve the trust. +But the trust, in the end, is because they give them a thousand other people. +You can't reconstruct what other people have given you. +You have to give them the foundation enough to trust you. +You've got to be worthy of trust. +And that, of course, is because you can't afford it for all the people, all the time. +But you also have to be able to figure out that you're worthy of trust. +How do you do that? +That is done every day, everywhere, the common people, the the institutions -- very effectively. +I'll give you a simple commercial example. +The store where I buy my socks -- says I can step over without giving you +I take them and turn it back and turn it back for the color of the color I want. +That's great. I trust them because they themselves became vulnerable to me. +I think there's a great lesson in that. +If you get vulnerable to the other hand, that's a very good test that you're worthy of trust, and you have confidence in what you're saying. +So, in the end, I think that what we're pointing is not very hard to +What people trust is in relationships, and in that framework, you can figure out when and how the other person is worthy of trust. +Thank you. +Since the beginning of the computers we've been we have been by reducing the separation between us and the digital information, the separation between our material and the world of the screen in which the imagination can be +This separation has gone more and more and more and more, to such a point that today is less than one millimeter, the thickness of a glass screen, and the power of computing has become accessible to everyone. +But I ask myself, and if there was no +I started imagining how to +I first created this tool that gets steps into the digital space, so that when the strong against the screen transfers your physical body in the pixel in the pixel so that when the +The designers can their ideas directly in 3D, and surgeons can practice virtual organs underneath the screen. +So with this tool that's broken down the barriers. +But the two hands stay still on the screen. +How do you get inside and interact with digital information using the whole dexterity of your hands? +In the Australian Science division of Microsoft, along with my mentor the computer and transformed a little space on the keyboard in a digital area of work. +We put a little cord transparent to the chambers of depth to detecting the fingers and the face, you can now raise the hands of the keyboard, the inside of the 3D space, and just grab pixels with your hands. +Like the windows and the files have a location in real space, it's as easy as taking a book from a +You can pick up the book and try to draw lines or words with the virtual touch sensor that is down on every floating screen. +Architects can stretch or rotate their models directly with their hands. +So in these examples, we have in the digital world. +And if we invest the papers and make digital information come to us? +We had a lot of us we will have bought and returned things on the Internet. +Now that doesn't have to worry about. +What I have here is a virtual on the Internet. +This is the vision that you get from a device on your head or when the system understands the geometry of your body. +If we take this idea more far, I thought, instead of just seeing pixels in space, how can we make them physical so that we can and +How would a future like this? +At the MIT Media Lab with my tutor Hiroshi and my collaborator Post, we created this only physical creature. +This imam it behaves like a 3D pixel in space, which means that both the computer as the users can move the object anywhere within this little three-dimensional space. + what we did was the gravity and control movement through a combination of quantum levitation and and mechanical and +And by programming the object, we release it from the constraints of time and space, which means that human movements can be and and stay in the physical world. +You can teach it physically and distance and distance and the famous by Michael Jordan can play it as a physical reality the times that we want. +Students can use it as a tool to understand complicated concepts like the movement of the planets, the physics, and, and unlike or textbooks -- this is a real experience, palpable experience that you can play and feel. It's very powerful. +But what is more fascinating than changing the physical part of the computer is to imagine how to program the world is going to change our everyday physical activities. +As you can see, digital information is not just going to show you something but begin to act directly about us as part of the physical world that surrounds us without us that we have to our world. +So we started the talk today about a barrier, but if we discount that barrier, the only limit is our imagination. +Thank you. +I was to become a for two years in China, in the 1960s. +When I was in the first grade, the government wanted to go to a school for athletes on all expenses paid. +But my tiger mother said, "No." +My parents wanted me to become engineering, like them. +After their surviving the Cultural Revolution, they believe firmly that there was only an accurate path toward the a safe job and well +No matter if I work or not. +But my dream was to be a Chinese opera, Chinese architecture. +This was me, in my imaginary piano. +One of the opera singer has to start with from very young to learn the so I tried everything I could to go to the opera school. +And so far, I wrote to the director of the school and the radio radio show. +But no adult would give you the idea. +No adult took me seriously. +I was just my friends, but they were kids, without authority, like me. +So at the age of 15 years, I knew it was too much to train. +My dream is never +You know, for the rest of my life a second class happiness is the only thing I could aspire to. +And this was so unfair. +So I decided to look for another +No one to me wanted to be Okay. +Tell the books. + from the I came to the United States in 1995, and what were the first books on here? +Those who were in China, of course. +"The Good is about life +And it's not a moral +The Bible is interesting, but you know. +That's a subject for another day. +But the fifth commandment for me was a to your father and your mother." + I told myself, "It's so different, and so much better than it is. +So it became my tool to come out of this and to reset the relationship with my parents. +The meeting with a new culture also gave place to my reading reading habit. +We have a lot of perspectives. +For example, at the beginning this map I thought it was out of place because this is what students in China. +I had never occurred to me that China didn't have to be in the center of the world. +A map involves the perspective of people. +It's not something new. +It's a common practice in the academic world. +There are to fields like gender camps and comparative literature. + and gives academics a deeper understanding of a subject. +And I thought that if the comparative reading worked for research, why not do it in life as well. +So I started reading books from two. +You can be from Walter from Walter who were involved in a same or friends with experiences. +For Christ, the are economic and politics and spiritual policy. +For Buddha, they're all lust, fear and Interesting. +If you know other language, it's also fun to read your favorite books in two languages. + path of Thomas +For example, it's through the translation that I realized that I realized in Chinese literally means +And in Chinese, literally means mother." +The books opened me a magic door to connect with people from the past and the present. +I know I will not feel like or powerless before. +Having a broken dream is really not compared to what many others have +I've come to believe that the realization is not the only purpose of a dream. +Their most important purpose is to connect with the place that the dreams come from, where the passion, where happiness comes from. +Until a broken dream can do that for you. +And it's because of the books, that I'm here, happy, living again with purpose, and clearly, most of the time. +So the books always +Thank you. +Thank you. +When I was in my I saw my first customer +I was a Ph.D. student in clinical psychology at Berkeley. +She was a woman called +Alex entered the first session using jeans and a threw on the couch my office and told me he wanted to talk about his problems with men. +When I heard this, I felt so +My roommate had a like the first client. +And I had a I wanted to talk about men. +I thought it could handle it. +But I didn't. +With the stories of that Alex brought me to the it became easy to just move the head while we get the solution. + are the new he said Alex, and so I saw her, she was right. +You start to work after that, then you have children later, until the death goes later. +For as Alex and I had time to eat. +But shortly later, my pushed me to Alex to speak about his life +I was +I said, "Sure, it's coming out of the guys underneath his category, it was with a head, but it's not like it was to marry him." +And then my he said, "No, but maybe it was with the next. +In addition, the best time to work in the marriage of Alex is before it was +This is what psychologists call a moment. +It was when I realized that are not the new +Yes, people feel head after what they would be, but this didn't make the of Alex to be a pause in their development. +This made the of Alex to be the perfect moment, and we were +And so I realized, that this kind of benign problem was a real problem and had real consequences, not only to Alex and his loving life but for the careers, the families and the future of everywhere. +There are 50 million in the United States, today. +This means 15 percent of the population, or 100 percent if you think that no one comes to age without spending before the +Raise your hand if you're in your +I want to see the here. +Oh, sorry. It's amazing. +If you work with they love a you take your dream a I want to see. It's okay. You know, really matter. +This is not just my view. These are the facts. +We know that 80 percent of the key moments in life will happen to the 35 years. +This means that eight of the 10 decisions and experiences and moments that give their life a way to their life to have 30 and +People over 40, don't get +This audience is going to be fine, I think. +We know that the first 10 years of a career has an exponential impact on the amount of money that we have. +We know that more than half the Americans are married, they live or they're coming out with their future couple of 30 years. +We know that the brain ends up their second and last stage of growth in their and they are for the which means that if there is something that you want to change yourself, now is the moment to change it. +We know that the personality changes more times during their than any other time in life and we know that the female fertility is going to its top to the 28, and things become complicated to the + are the moment for about their body and their options. +When we think about the development of the child, we all know that the first five years are critical for language and attachment in the brain. +It's a moment in which his everyday life and common life has an impact on the person who +But what we don't hear is that there's something called an adult development and our are a critical moment in adult development. +But this is not what are listening. +The newspapers talk about changes on the line of the time. +The researchers call the an extended adolescence. +The journalists would call them names by and and +It's true. +As a culture, we've considered a which is actually the decade that defines +Leonard said to make big things, you need a plan and not enough time. +Isn't it true? +What do you think about when you get the to a in your head and say, "You have another 10 years to start your +Nothing happens. +They stole that person the sense of urgency and ambition and it wasn't absolutely nothing. +And then every day, intelligent, interesting like you or your kids and daughters come to my office, and they say something like this: "I know my boyfriend, is not good for me, but this relationship. I'm just killing your time." +Or they say, "Everybody says as long as you start a career before the 30, everything is okay." +But then it starts to sound something like this: "My are for and I still have nothing to show you. +I had better set the day that I graduated from my mind. +And then it starts to sound something like this: "My quotes during the were like the game game. +They were all running, and then at some point around the 30, it turned the music and they all started to sit down. +I didn't want to be the only one to stay standing, so I sometimes think I married my husband because he was the nearest chair when he had +Where are the here? +Don't do that. +Well, that sounds a little bit end, but they don't get rid of the risks are very high. +When you leave a lot of things for the there's a huge pressure on the and so many of you start a career, pick a city, choosing a city, choosing a city, and have two or three children in a much more short period of time. +Many of these things are not and there are a research that starts to show you, which is much harder and stressful to do everything from once to the +The crisis is not about buying red sporting cars. +It's about realizing you can't have the race you want to do now. +You know that you can't have the child you want to do now, or you can't give a brother to your son. +A lot of and you see yourself and me, sitting in the room and talk about their "What was I doing?" What was I thinking?" +I want to change what are doing and thinking. +Here's a story about how it could be. +It's a story about a woman called +By 25, Emma finally came to my office because it was in his own words, having a identity. +He said I'd like to work in art or your entertainment, but you still couldn't decide, so I spent the last few years working like +As it was cheaper, it was living with a boyfriend, which showed more than the ambition. +And in spite of living a lot of their previous life had been even more difficult. + often in our but then they raise her own to say, "You don't choose your family, but he can choose your friends." +Well, one day Emma got his head on his legs and he cried for almost every hour. +I had just bought a new book for and I had spent the entire morning with his many but then he was looking at the empty space that follows after the words "In for +He was about to the when he saw me, and he said, "Who is going to be for me if I have a accident. +Who is going to take care of me if I +At that time, it took me a lot of hard work to resist and say, +What Emma needed was not a which is really +Emma needed a better life, and I knew that this was his opportunity. +I had learned a lot since I worked with Alex as to just sit in the time that the 1950s. +So for the next few weeks and months, I told Emma three things that all or woman, deserves to know. +First of all, I told Emma that he would get rid of that identity crisis and identity capital. +For identity capital, I mean doing something that add value to your person. +Doing something that's an investment in what they want to be next. +He didn't know the future of the race of and nobody knows the future of work, but I know this: capital of identity creates capital capital. +So now it's the moment for that work on the other side of the country, from that company that you want to try it. +I'm not exploration, I am the exploration that shouldn't tell you, by the way, it's not exploration, +It's +I told Emma that I would have jobs and I'll tell them to count. +Secondly, I told Emma that urban tribes are +The best friends are great to take you to the airport, but the who come together with friends with the similar brain limit as much as you know what you know what you know what you know about, how to talk, and where they work. +That new capital of capital, that new person who will come out almost always comes out of its nearest circle. +The new things come from what they call weak bonds of friends from their friends. +Yes, half of the have a bad job or don't have work. +But the other half not -- and the weak bonds are the way we get into this group. +The half of the work created never then, to meet the head of your neighbor is the way to get a work not published. +It's not cheating. It's the science of how information is going on. +For the last but not least, Emma believed that you don't choose your family, but I know their friends. +This was true when I was growing up, but as a Emma would soon get to his family when you have a couple and a form of her own family. +I told Emma that the time to choose his family had come. +You might think that 30 is better age to sit on your head than 20 or even 25 and I agree with you. +But choosing the person in which you live now or now when all on Facebook start to walk into the it's not progress. +The best time to work in your marriage is before you have, and that means to be as intentional in love as you're at work. + your family must be a conscious choice of who and what you want instead of only to do to do is work or kill time with anyone who is to you. +So what happened to +Well, we looked at that and she found the roommate out of a cousin who worked in a art museum, in another state. +This weak link helped me get a job there. +That business supply gave him a reason to leave the boyfriend, I alive. +Now, five years later, it's special events of events in events. +This married one man who chose + his new career, he loves his new family, and I send me a letter to say, "Now the emergency room of emergency sector are not sufficiently +The story of Emma may sound easy, but that's what I love to work with +It's very easy to help them. + are like planes coming out of the Los Angeles airport that go out somewhere in the west of the West. +Just before the a slight on their trajectory makes the difference between landing in Alaska or in +In the same way, at the age of 21, or 25 and even a good conversation, a good TED Talk can have huge effects over the next few years or even in the next generation. +Here is my idea worth of spreading all the who know. +It's as simple as what I learned to say to +It's what I have now the privilege of saying to like Emma every day: are not the new his get an identity, and you use their weak colors, pick your family up. +They don't know what they didn't know or what they didn't do. +They're deciding their life today. +Thank you. +When I was 27 years old, I left a very hard job in management management for a job that was even more the +I was to teach you mathematics to at seventh grade in New York City. +And like any teacher, checking out tests and tests. +I give them assignments. +When the work comes back, I would give grades. grades. +What struck me was that I.Q. was not the only difference between my best and my worst students. +Some of the ones who had a better performance didn't have scores of +Some of my smartest kids were not doing that well. +And that got me thinking. +The kind of things you need to learn in mathematics in seventh grade, safe, are the area of a +But these are not impossible -- and I was very convinced that every one of my students could learn the lesson if they worked hard and during time enough. +After several years more than I came to the conclusion that what we need in education is a better understanding of students and learning from a different perspective, from a psychological perspective. +In education, the only thing we know about how to measure a better way. +It's the but what if you have success in school and life depends on much more than the ability to learn how fast and easy? +So I left the classrooms, and I went to college to become a +I started studying children and adults in all kinds of scenarios -- and in every study my question was, who has success here and why? +My research team and I went to the West West +We tried to predict what in military training and who are +We went to the National National and we tried to predict what kids were going to do as far as in competition. +We studied teachers working in neighborhoods -- really difficult -- what teachers still will be teaching for the end of the school and of who will be the most effective in improving the results of their +We teamed up with private enterprises, asking yourself, which of these marketers are going to keep their job +And who is going to make more money? +In all those very different contexts, it came a trait like a important success of success. +And it wasn't the social intelligence. +It wasn't the good look, the physical health and not I.Q. +It was the + is passion and to achieve very long-term goals. + is to have + is clinging to his future, day after day, not only for the week, not only for the month, but for years and work really hard to make that future a reality. + is to live life as if it was a not a career at all. +A few years ago, I started studying determination in public schools in Chicago. +I asked thousands of high school students to do with my determination questionnaires -- and then waited about more than a year to see who +It turns out that children with more determination were significantly more likely to be able to get rid of even when they were in every trait that I could measure, things like family income, the results of evidence -- even the safety of evidence that children were when they were in school. +So it's not only in West Point or at National where your vision matters also in school, especially for kids at risk. +For me, the most powerful thing about determination is how little we know the science about its development. +Every day, parents and teachers ask me, "How do you develop +What do I have to do to show the kids a robust job ethic. +How do we keep very motivated for the long +The most honest answer is: I don't know. What I know is that talent doesn't give you purpose. +Our data shows very clearly that there are many talented individuals that are simply not going on with their +In fact, in our data, determination is not related to or are even related to the actions of talent. +So far, the best idea I've ever heard about develop the determination of children is something called +This is an idea that was developed at Stanford University, for Carol and it's the belief that the ability to learn is not fixed, that it can change with the effort. +Dr. has shown that when the kids read and learn about the brain and how it changes and it grows in response to the challenge, they're much more likely to be when they don't believe that this is a permanent condition. +So the growth mindset is a great idea to develop purpose. +But we need more. +And that's where my speech, because that's where we are. +That's the work we have on the front. +We need to take our best ideas, our stronger intuitions and we need +We need to measure if they've been successful, and we need to be willing to fail, to to to start everything again with the +In other words, we need to be certain about making our children more +Thank you. + in Taiwan as the daughter of a one of my most controversial memories is my mother the beauty and the shape of the Chinese characters. +Since that time, I was overwhelmed by this incredible language. +But for a abroad, it seems like the Great China. +In the last few years, I've been wondering if I can break this so that whatever you might want to understand and see the beauty of this sophisticated language can do that. +I started thinking about how a new method and fast learning could be useful. +Since I was five years old, I started learning how to draw each of the drawings of every character in the right sequence. +I learned new characters every day for the next 15 years. +Because we only have five minutes, it's better than we do it in a faster and simple way. +An Chinese academic +You just need a thousand to understand basic literacy to the basic literacy of basic science. +The first 200 will allow you to understand 40 percent of the basic literature, enough enough to read traffic signals -- menus to understand the basic idea of the web or newspapers. +Today I start with eight to show you how the method works. +Are you ready? +You open your mouth as much as possible until it's +You get a mouth. +This is a person who is going to take a ride. + +If the shape of the fire is a person with arms on both sides, as if I was shouting at I'm This symbol is actually in the shape of the called, but I like to believe it is in the other way. +This is a tree. +tree. +This is a mountain. +The sun. +The moon. +The symbol of the door looks like a couple of doors of a in the old west +I call these eight characters. +They're building blocks so they create a lot more characters. +One person. +If someone walks back, that's +As the old said, two are company, three are +If a person your arms, this person is saying as well. +The person inside the mouth, the person is +It is a such as inside the whale. +A tree is a tree. Two trees together, we have a forest. +Three trees together, we also have the forest. +Put a table underneath the tree, we have the foundation. +Look at a mouth on the tree, that's a to remember, because a tree would be pretty idiot. +Remember +Two together, it's very hot. +Three percent together, that's a lot of fire. +Put the fire under the two trees, that's +For us, the sun is the source of prosperity. +Two together, +Three together, those are +Put the sun and the shining moon together, that's the +It also means tomorrow, after one day and night. +The sun comes out on the horizon. +A door. You put a table inside the gate, it's the of the door. +Put a mouth inside the door, ask questions. + had someone at home? +This person is coming out of a door, +On the left, we have a woman. +Two women are +Three women together, have care of +So we've already spent for almost 30 characters. +By using this method, the first eight radical -- will allow you to build 32. +The next group of eight characters will build another 32. +So with every small effort, you will be able to learn a couple hundred which is the same thing as learning a Chinese +So after the we started to create sentences. +For example, the mountain and the fire together, we have a mountain of fire. It's a +We know that Japan is the land of the Sun +This is a sun placed with the beginning, because Japan is in this China. +So a sun next to you, we created Japan. +A person behind Japan, what do we have? +A Japanese person. +The character on the left is two mountains stacked over the other. +In ancient China, that meant in exile, because the Chinese to their political enemies beyond the mountains. +Today, the exile has become out. +A mouth that tells you where it's a +This is a slide for remind me that I must stop talking and down the stage. Thank you. +What I prefer to be Dad is the movies I get to see. +I love to share my favorite movies with my when my daughter was four years old, we saw the magician of Oz together. +The movie his imagination for months. +His favorite character was of course. +He gave him a good excuse to use a bright dress and take a magic wand +But when you see that movie so many times, you get to understand that it's extraordinary. +We now live and we raised our children in a kind of an industrial fantasy show of child jobs. +However, the magician of Oz was an event in itself. +It didn't start that trend. +The really took rise to me 40 years later with, interestingly, another movie whose a metal guy who a metal guy and a kid who was going to get a girl dressed as a guard +Do you know what I'm talking about? Yeah. +There's a big difference between these two films, there is a couple of big differences between the of Oz and all the movies that we see today. +One is that there is very little violence in the magician +The monkeys are pretty aggressive, like the +But I think if the magician of Oz would ever do today, the magician would say, you're the salvation of Oz as the prophecy. + magic shoes to defeat the armies of the +But that's not what happens. +Another unique thing about the of Oz is that the most exciting characters and even are women. +I started noticing this when I did see "Star to my daughter, a few years later, and the situation was different. +At that time, I also had a son. +Within three years. +It wasn't invited to the projection because it was still very small for that. +But it was the second son, and the level of the surveillance was And so they stood in the room and he was struck by the way in the room and was struck by the back and I didn't think he understood what was happening, but everything. +I wonder what +Would you be issues of value, perseverance and +So I would have a sense that he was to an army to the government? + this with the +How do I make Dorothy the film? +And doing good with everyone and being a +It's the kind of world that I want my kids to grow up with, but not a world of men who which is where we are. +Why is there so much force of solid capital in the movies for our children, and so little from the way of building +There's a lot of literature about the impact of the movies of male violence in the girls, and they should be It's very good. +I haven't read so much about how kids react to this encouragement. +I know for experience that Princess doesn't give me the proper framework that had been served to navigate the world of the adults who are I think at the moment of the first I really expected the credit to come up because it's the end of the film, right? +My search has finished, I have +Why are you standing there? +I don't know what I should do. +The movies focused on defeat and get their reward, and they don't leave time for other relationships or other +It's almost like a child, you have to be a little animal, and if you're a girl, you have to use a suit. +There are a lot of exceptions, and to defend the Disney princess any of you. +But they send a message to the kids, but they kids, they are not really their goal. +They do a great job by teaching girls how to defend against the but they don't necessarily show kids how to defend the +There is no model for them. +We also have some great women who write new stories for our kids, and so lovely as and but they don't stop being movies of war. +Of course, the most successful subject of all times it continues to look at classic each of them on the adventure of a child or a man, or two men who are friends, or a man and his son, or two men who raised a little girl. +Until a lot of you are thinking, this year, finally came out. +I recommend all of you. It's already available in stores. +Do you remember what the critical criticism when he came out of +I can't believe that Pixar has made a movie of a +It's really good. Don't let it +Well, almost none of these movies passes the test. +I don't know if you've heard about this. +It's still not rooted in the root and already but maybe we're going to start a movement. + is a comic book artist. And in the I recorded a conversation that I had with a friend of the assessment of movies that you saw. +And it's very simple. There are only three questions that you have to do -- in the film, there is more of a female character than I have lines? +So you have to get the requirement. +These women talk to each other. +Their conversations are about something more than the guy who feels so much like it? Right? Thank you. Thank you very much. +Two women that exist and talk about things each other. +I have seen it, and yet very rarely I see it in the cinema we know and love. +In fact, this week I went to see a very good quality movie +Right? of success -- an idea of what is a Hollywood Hollywood movie. + doesn't happen to +And I don't think that because a lot of the film, I don't know if you've seen it, a lot of the film is happening in a embassy where men and women are hidden during the crisis." +We have a lot of scenes of men who have profound conversations and painful in this and it's the great moment for one of the people to take a look at the door and say, "Let's go to bed, +This is Hollywood. +So let's look at the numbers. +In 2011, of the 100 more popular movies, how many of them believe they have protagonists + It's not bad. +It's not the same percentage that the number of women we've chosen recently for Congress, so it's okay. +But there is a larger number than this one that is going to put in this room. +Last year, The New York Times published a study that the government had done. +This is what he would say. +In the United States, one in the United States, one in five women says it's been sexually once in his life. +I don't think it's the of mass entertainment. +I don't think the movies for kids have something to do with that. +I don't think that music music or pornography are intimately closely -- but when I hear that statistics, one of the things I think about is that there is a lot of sexual +Who are those What are those +What do you not get +They're the story that says that the role of a male hero is defeat by and then charge reward, which is a woman who doesn't have friends and not +We are that story? +You know, as a father with the privilege of raising a daughter like those of you who are doing the same thing, we find this world and this very statistic and we want to be +We have tools for us as a and we expect that to ask, is going to be if, at the same time, active or we're educating our children to keep their power to be able to keep their power. +I mean, I think the Netflix list is a way to do something really important, and here I mean mainly the parents. +I think we need to show our kids a new definition of + definition is radically radically changing. +You've read about how the new economy is changing the role of the home of the home and the +It's all changing. +When I asked my daughter -- what was his favorite Star Trek character -- you know what he + + and +What are these two? +Maybe it's not just the brilliant dress. +I think they're experts. +I think these are the two people in those movies that know more than anyone, and they love to share their knowledge with other people to get them to achieve their potential. +They are leaders. +I like that kind of stories for my daughter, and I like that kind of stories for my son. +I want more stories like that. +I want less stories in which I tell my Go and struggle and more stories where it looked like his job is to join a team -- maybe a team led by women, helping other people to improve and be better people, like the magician +Thank you. +I was living in Maine and one of the things that I liked it was to look at fortune cookies on the shores of Maine because my parents told me that I would be lucky. +But you know, it's hard to find these +They're covered in sand, and it's hard to see them. +However, over time, I was to +I started to see shapes and patterns that helped me +This became a passion for finding things, in love for the past and +And finally I started studying I realized that I see with my own eyes wasn't enough. +Because, suddenly, in Egypt, my little beach in Maine had grown up with nearly 1.3 miles of length along with the +And my cookies had grown into the size of cities. +This is really what led me to use satellite images. +To try and make a map of the past, I knew I had to see it differently. +I want to show you an example of how different we look at using the +This is a place in the eastern Delta. of Egypt called +And the place in the naked eye, it seems to be brown, but when we use infrared and we process it using color suddenly the place looks like pink +What you're seeing is the real chemical changes of the landscape caused by the building materials and the activities of the ancient Egyptian. +I want to share with you how we used satellite data to find an old city, called lost for thousands of years. + was the capital of the ancient Egypt for over 400 years in a period of time called the Middle Empire about 4,000 years ago. +The place lies in Egypt, and it's really important because in the Middle Empire there was this great revival of ancient art -- architecture and religion. + have always known that was located somewhere near the pyramids of the two kings that inside the red circles, but somewhere within this enormous +This area is huge measures about per mile away. +Before, right next to and as it changed over time, moved into this and covered the city. +So how do you find a city on a landscape. +And I'll try to find that random would be the equivalent of looking for a needle in a with your eyes, and using baseball +So we use NASA data to make a map of the place, with very subtle changes. +We were able to see where the +But you can see more and it's even more interesting, this area slightly high than you see within the circle here, which we think it might be the location of +So we collaborated with the Egyptians doing working jobs -- you can see it here. +When I say it's like the shots of sample in ice, but instead of layers of climate change, we look for layers of human +Five feet down, underneath a thick layer of principle, we find a dense layer of objects. +This means that in this possible location of five feet down, we have a layer of occupation from several hundred years to date from the Middle Empire exactly the same period that we think it's +We also find jobs and and what proves that there was a shop. +This might seem like it's not much, but when we think about the most common stones used to the jewelry of the Middle Empire -- these are the rocks that are +So we have a dense layer of occupation that goes back from the Middle Empire. +We also have evidence of an elite jewelry shop which proves that what has been there, was a very important city. +We still don't find here, but we would go to the place in a near future for +And even more importantly, we have the resources to train young Egyptians in the use of satellite technology so that they can also make great discoveries. +I want to finish with my favorite quote from the Middle Empire that was probably written in 4,000 years ago. +To share knowledge is the greatest of all the +There's nothing like that in the ground. +So according to it, TED wasn't founded in 1984 C. +Do the ideas really started in 1984 BC. +It certainly puts the search in perspective. +Thank you very much. +Thank you. +I want to invite you to close your eyes. +So imagine standing outside, front of the door +I want you to pay attention to the color of the door, the material that's made. +Now we have a group of obese in bicycles. +They are competing in a career moving career and they go in direction to their entry door. +I need you to see this +They're strong, they're they're +They collide against the door of their house. +There are flying everywhere, wheels that go on their side, rays of the wheels that end up in places -- the threshold of the gate, +When you get to the lobby, or what the other side of the door, and you notice the quality of the light, the light's shining on the of the + +From his chair, on a brown horse. +It's a horse that you speak. +Can you feel your blue fur, you can tickle your nose. +You can smell the cookie and you go on to get into the mouth. +They slept by one side and enter their living room. +Already in the room, and doing a maximum use of your imagination, you imagine Britney +He's with time clothes, dancing on his downtown, singing -- One More One +Now let's go to the kitchen. +The ground has been coated with a yellow way from the oven and from the oven. It comes to you -- the Man of the and Len is "The Wizard of of the hands, jumping up to you. +Okay. Open your eyes. +I want to tell you about a peculiar competition that takes place every spring in New York. +It's called the of the United States." +I went to cover this event a few years ago as a journalist, waiting, I guess, this was like the end of a +There were several men and a few of different ages and different habits of hygiene. +They were hundreds of numbers just once. +It was the names of dozens and tens of strangers. + poems in just minutes. + to see who could memorize as quickly the order of a deck of +And I was like, "This is +These people must be about nature. +And I started talking to some of the competitors. +This is a man named Ed Cook who had come from England and has one of the best memories. +I asked him, when you realized you were a +Ed replied, "I am not a wise. +Actually, I have a average memory. +All of those who participate in this competition say they have normal memory. +"We have trained us to perform these miracle acts of memory using some old techniques that invented a half thousand years ago in Greece, the same techniques that we used to memorize their narratives -- and the academics used to memorize books. +And my reaction was, How do I have no heard of this +We were standing out of the competition of competition, and who is a wonderful and brilliant English who is a little and he said, you are an American journalist. +Do you meet Britney +And I said, "What? +Because I would like to show you Britney how to memorize the order on a deck of live in national television. +That would prove to the world that anybody can do it." +And I said, "Well, I'm not Britney but maybe you can teach me to me. +I mean, you have to start for something right?" +And that was the start of a very strange journey for me. +I ended up spending most of the year that I was not just training my memory, but also trying to understand how it works, why sometimes it doesn't work, and what can be their potential. +I met a lot of really interesting people. +This is a guy called +He's very likely with the worst memory in the world. +His memory was so bad that I didn't even remember that I had a problem is awesome. +Someone incredibly tragic, but it was a window that can allow us to see how our memory makes us who we are. +At the other end of the spectrum I met this man. +This is Kim He's based on the paper of in the movie movie. +We spent one afternoon together in the public library in the Salt Lake City, books, was +And to come back, I read a lot of treaties on the memory of writing something over 2,000 years ago in Latin America, and then in the Middle Ages. +And I learned a lot of really interesting things. +One of the most interesting things I learned is that there was a time when this idea of having a memory called and wasn't a thing as rare as it can look like today. +A long time ago, people invest in their memory, in providing their minds. +These techniques have made possible our modern world, but they also have changed. +They have changed and I would say that they have changed any cognitive too. +As we have no longer need to remember, sometimes it seems like we've forgotten how to do it. +One of the last places on our planet where you still find people who are passionate about this idea of a memory -- and is this very unique competition of memory. +It's actually not that it's like this around the world. +I was I wanted to know how these people do. +A few years ago, a team of researchers from University College in London invited a memory champion to the lab. +They wanted to know, be that it has brains in some form of structural sense, or different from the rest of us? +The answer was, no. +They're more intelligent than +They gave them a cognitive test, and the answer was actually not. +There was yet a really interesting difference between the memory champions and the ones of the control of the control of the control of the control of the +When they put them on an MRI machine, it your brains as well as it numbers, faces and forms of snow -- they found that in memory champions are different parts of the brain, different to others. +They actually or seemed a part of the brain that involves spatial memory and navigation. +Why? There's something we can learn from this? +The tournament in the competitive is managing as a armed career in which every year someone with a new way of remembering more things, and then the rest of the competitors must get a day. +This is my friend Ben three times a memory champion memory. +On his desk, in front of him, there is 36 of cards that he's about to try to memorize in an hour, using a technique that he invented and only he +He used a similar technique to memorize the precise order of digits to +In half an hour. +And while there is a lot of ways of remembering things in these competitions, absolutely all of the techniques that we used at the end of the end, you reduce a single concept that psychologists call +It illustrates with a elegant paradox known as the paradox is says the next word -- I tell two people you remember the same word -- I tell you -- you know, you know that there's a man called +That's your +And then I ask you, "You know, there's a +And when I went back later, and I asked them to that word I told you a +What do you do? +The person who was told that his name is is unlikely to remember the same word that the person who said their work is +The same word, different capacity -- that's weird. +What happens here? +Well, the name Baker, actually doesn't mean anything for you -- it doesn't have any relationship relationship. +With all the other memories he dance for their head. +But the word We know +They use +They have +They have good when they come back home to work. +Would you probably have a +And when we that word for the first time, we started putting for at some point later. +One of the most elaborate techniques to do this goes back two thousand years in the Greece Greece ... +It's known as the of +The story says this: There was a poet called I attended a +They had hired him as entertainment, because before, if you wanted to give a very good party, you didn't bring to a you would go to a poet. +He stood up on the foot, he took his memory of memory, and it was and as soon as the room was + everyone. +But not only killed them, but it shattered the bodies called +No one could say who was there, no one could remember where they were sitting there. +So they could not be +A tragedy behind the other. + standing outside, only survivor, in the rubble, closes the eyes and realized that with the eyes of his mind, I could see where he had been sitting every single side here. +I took the family of the hand where they were their loved ones between the rubble. +What we at that moment is something that we all know more or less and it is that no matter if we're not good at remembering names or phone numbers or instructions for the word of our colleagues, we have visual and spatial memory. +If you let me give you the first 10 words of the history that I just told you about it's very likely to be very difficult to do that. +But I would bet that if you let them tell you who sitting on the horse was brown in his lobby, they would be able to +The idea of the palace of memory is to create this building with the eyes of its mind and images with the things that you want to remember, the more crazy the and is the more it will be. +This is a advice that comes from over 2,000 years ago, the first treated of memory in +And how does it work? +So let's say you were invited at the TED stage to give a talk and you want to do it for memory, in the same way that would have done it -- if they were invited to 2,000 years ago. +What you might do is imagine that you're at the door of your house. +And to come up with some sort of absolutely ridiculous image, crazy and to help you remember that the first thing you want to mention is that fully competition. +And then you can imagine getting into your house, and see the of the mounted on +And that would remind you that you want to introduce your friend Ed +And then you would see Britney to remind this funny anecdote that they want to count. +And then it goes into the kitchen, and the fourth thing that they would talk about would be that strange journey that they did for a whole year, and they have some friends to help you remember it. +So this is like the speakers your narratives -- not word for the word that it will confuse but, typical by typical. +In fact, the term comes from the Greek which means +It's a breath of when people thought about and the rhetoric with this kind of space terms. +The phrase would be like the first place in his palace of memory. +I saw this was just fascinating, and I got filled with it. +I went to some of these memory skills, and I had the idea of writing something long about this +But there was a problem. +The problem was that a memory competition is a boring event boring. +Really, it's kind of like seeing a lot of people sitting taking exams. I mean, the most exciting thing that happens is when someone fell into the front. +I'm a journalist, and I need to write about something. +I know there are amazing things happening in the minds of these people, but I don't have access. +I realized that if I was going to tell this story, I needed to try to get me in your place. +So I started spending 15 or 20 minutes, all the before I sit at the New York Times simply trying to remember something. +Maybe a poem. Or the names of an old school bought in a market. +And I discovered this was a lot of fun. +I would never have hoped I was. +It was fun, because it wasn't just about training memory. +What is really about doing is better more and more the ability to create and imagine these images and hopefully in the eye of the mind. +I was very excited about this. +This is me, using my standard training team for memory competition. +It's a couple of and a pair of security covered with tape leaving only two because the distraction. is the worst enemy of a memory +I ended up coming back to the same contest that I'd covered a year before, I had the idea that I could be able to put it into a kind of experiment. +I thought this could be good enough for all of my research. +The problem was that the experiment came out of control. +And I won the something that didn't have to happen. +Of course, it's nice to be able to memorize and phone numbers, and it's actually not the point. +These are just as a little that works that work. +Because they're based on very basic principles about how the brain works. +And you don't need to be able to build of memory or memorize to benefit with a little bit of insights about how your mind. +We often talk about people with a great memory as if it was a gift -- but it's not the case. +Great memories +At the most basic level, we remember when we pay attention. +We have to focus on when we focus deeply. +The palace of These memory techniques, are just shortcuts. +In fact, it's not even shortcuts. +They work because they make it +You know, a kind of deep processing -- a kind of complete attention that most of you are not going to lie down there. +But the reality is that there is no shortcuts. +This is how things are +And if there is something that I want to leave you with today, is what I the I couldn't even remember that I had a memory problem, and let me tell me, which is the notion that life is the sum of our memories. +How much are we willing to lose from what is our short existence in the or not attention to the human being in front of us, who walks our side to our side, will be so that we didn't even get to process in processing +I learned about the first hand that there are amazing memory capabilities in all of us. +But if you want to live a living, you must be the kind of person you remember remember. +Thank you. +I'm going to tell you about the last 30 years of the history of architecture. +It's a lot to cover it in 18 minutes. +This is a complex issue, so we would just give it a place, New Jersey. +Because 30 years ago, I'm from the Jersey, and I was six years old, and I lived there at the home of my parents in a village called and this was my bedroom. +In the corner, since my bedroom, I was the bathroom I shared with my sister. +And in my bedroom and the toilet, there was a balcony that gave the living room. +And then everybody was looking at the so every time I went out of my room to the toilet, everyone was going to come up with me and put wrapped up in a towel -- all of me. +And I was like this. +It was not and hated it. + that journey, I hated that I hated that room and that house. +That's the architecture. +All right. +Those feelings, those emotions that I felt, that is the power of architecture, because architecture is not about math, because architecture is not about math, not division of areas -- but from those connections, emotional connections, which we feel in the places that we +And it's not surprising that we feel like that, because according to the Environmental Protection Agency -- Americans spend 90 percent of their time under the roof. +I mean, 90 percent of the time we are surrounded by architecture. +That's a lot. +architecture determines us in ways that we don't even realize us. +That makes us a little naive and very, very predictable. +So this means that when I show you a building like this, I know what you might think of, think about and +And I know that you think about it in a building and a half thousand years ago by the Greeks. +This is a trick. +It's a that we use the architects to create an emotional connection with the ways we built our buildings. +It's an emotional connection -- we have used this trick for a long, long time. +We use it 200 years ago to build banks. +We used it in the 19th century to build art museums. +And in the 20th century, we used it to build homes. +See, these stable, front of the sea, away from the elements. +This is very, very useful, because building things is terrifying. +It's expensive, it takes a lot of time and it's very complicated. +The people who are the and governments, always have a fear of innovation, and they prefer to use ways that they are going to work. +So we found ourselves with buildings like this. +It's a nice +It's the Public Library of which was ended in 2004, in my hometown, and you know, it has a it has this round thing round, blood brick that leave what they need, trying to communicate with this children, the values -- the story. +But it doesn't have a lot to do with a library today. +That same year, in 2004, on the other side of the country, the other side of the country, had another library, which looks like this. +It's in Seattle. +This library shows how we used the media in the digital era. +It's a new type of public equipment for the city, a place to come together, read and sharing. +So, how is it that in the same year in the same country, two buildings, both so-called are so completely different? +And the answer is that architecture works by the beginning of the +On the one side is the the architects constantly drives new technologies, new new solutions for the current life. + and so we get away from the people. +All of the black, this tells us, you believe that we feel very well, but we're dead because we have no other choice. +We need to go to the other side and go back to the other side and +So we do it, and we are all happy, but we feel like so we started to experience we do the and over and over and over and over and over and over and over and then we have done it in the last 30 years, and of course, in the last 30 years. +Well, 30 years ago from the 1970s. +Architects were busy experimenting with the so-called +It has to do with the concrete. +That can be guess. + small, on scale. +It's really very hard. +So we are approaching the 1980s, and we started bringing these symbols. + the next one in the other direction. +We take these ways that we know like and + and we added fire and we use new materials. +They love it. +We don't take +We take PET scans, and we turn them into a which can be made of glass. +The shapes were won on audacity and + became columns. + grew up to the size of buildings. +It's crazy. +But it was the 1980s, that was great. +We all spend the time in commercial centers, and we moved to the neighborhoods, and in the suburbs, we can create our own erotic +Those fantasies could be for French or the Italian one. +You may have an infinite thing of bread. +This is what happens with the +This is what happens with the symbols. +They're easy, it's cheap, because instead of creating new spaces, we remix memories of other places. +I know very well, and you all know, this is not the +This is Ohio. +Architects are feeling frustrated and we started to make the in the other direction. +In the 1980s and early '90s, we started to experiment with the so-called +You know, symbols now we have new design techniques, and we find ourselves with new a few ways that are against other forms. +This is an academic and and it's super You have totally +Typically, the again in the opposite direction. +But then something +In 1997, it opened this building. +It's the of Frank +This building fundamentally changed the relationship of the world with architecture. +Paul said that Bilbao was one of those rare moments when critical academic and public science were completely aware of a building. +The New York Times this building of + in Bilbao grew up in a 2,500 percent when they finished the building. +So suddenly, everybody wanted one of those Los Angeles, Seattle, Chicago, Chicago, New York, Cleveland, +Everybody wanted one, and I remember it everywhere. +He was our first +But how is it possible that these wild forms, and how is it possible to become ubiquitous across the world? +And it happened, because media is around them and very quickly learned that these shapes meant culture and tourism. +We've created an emotional reaction with these forms. +And the main mayors in the world. +So everyone believed that if they had these forms, they had culture and tourism. +This phenomenon of the beginning of the new millennials happened with other new architects. +It went to and and what happened with these few elite architects on the threshold of the new millennium, actually started going through all the architecture, digital media started to increase the speed of information consumption. +So think, for example, how do they eat architecture. +A thousand years ago, you would have to have walked to the next town to see a building. +This is they can take a boat, an airplane, can be + technology, you can see in the newspapers, on TV, and at the end, we're all photographers from architecture, and the building is beyond their physical location. +The architecture is everywhere right now, that means the speed of communications has finally reached the speed of architecture. +Because architecture is moving so fast. +It's not accurate time to think about a building. +It takes a lot of time to build a building, three or four years, and at that time, an architect can design two, eight, or 100 more buildings, before I knew if the one I designed four years ago, it was a success or not. +Because there's never been good feedback in architecture. +That's how we find buildings like this. +The wasn't a movement, but 20 years old. +For 20 years, we were building buildings like this because we had no idea how much the +That is never going to happen to because we are on the threshold of the largest revolution in architecture from the invention of the steel or the elevator or the elevator -- and it's the media revolution. +My theory is that when you apply the media -- it starts to faster and faster to be in both extremes of and effectively the difference between innovation and symbol, between us, the architects, and you, the public. +Now we can do almost symbols of something completely new. +I'll show you how the system works in a project that my company ended up recently. +We were to replace this building that was +This is the center of a village called in Island, in the state of New York. +It's a vacation. +But that meant that two years before the building became the building, it was a part of the community, and as the drawings looked exactly like the product done, there was no surprises. +The building came to be part of the community, that first summer, when people started to reach and share it in social media, the building stopped being a building, it became a form of communication, because these are not just images of a building, it's the images that you did from the building. +And as you use it to tell your story, they become part of the personal narrative become part of the personal narrative -- and that makes it with collective memory, and to charge these symbols, we learn. +I mean, we don't need the Greeks tell us how to think of architecture. +We can tell each other what we think of architecture, because digital media hasn't only changed the relationship between us, but that have changed the relationship between us and buildings. +Think about a second in those librarians of +If that building would build today, first to the Internet looking for + bombarded with examples of innovation, what can be a library. +That's + that you can take the mayor of to the people of and tell them that there is no unique answer to what a library can be today. +Let's be part of this. +This abundance of solutions to experience. +It's all different now. +Architects are already not these mysterious creatures that use words and words and complicated, and you're no longer that doesn't embrace something that hasn't seen before. +The architects can listen, and you don't leave it for the architecture. +That means that the of a style to another, is irrelevant. +In fact, we can go ahead and find appropriate solutions to the problems facing society. +This is the end of the architecture, which means that the buildings in the morning will be very different than the buildings today. +This means that a public space in the former city of can be unique and adapted to the measure of a modern city. +This means that a stadium in Brooklyn can be that, a stadium in Brooklyn, and not a bad imitation of red brick with based on ideas of what it must be a +This means that some robots will be able to build our buildings, because we finally will be ready for ways that are going to produce. +That means that the buildings are to the whims of nature and not the reverse. +This means that a parking hole in Miami in Miami -- Florida, also can serve for a sports or for or even you can get married in the night. +This means that three architects can dream of swimming in the East of New York City, and raise half a million dollars of the community together around that cause, no longer a customer alone. +It means that no building is too small for innovation, like this little pavilion of so and like the animals that are going to observe. +Because no matter if it's a cow or a robot who builds our buildings. +It doesn't matter how we built, what we build. +Architects already know how to make more green buildings, more intelligent and more kind. +We've been waiting for all of you to want. +Finally, we're not on the opposite side. +Find an architect, and together to make better buildings, better cities, for a better world, because there is a lot at play. +The buildings not only reflect our society, but they give it way to the most space, the local libraries of the local city, the homes where we form our children, and the step of the bedroom. +Thank you very much. +This is my +It just turned a year and she started walking. +And it does it in the very great way, of the children of a year, as if their body was moving too fast for their legs. +It's totally +And one of the things that I like to do is look at the mirror. +She really loves his reflection. +And it gets and and it gives itself the big kisses and +It's beautiful. +Apparently, all of his friends do this and my mom tells me that I used to do this, and he asked me thinking, "When did I stop doing this? +How do we suddenly be comfortable with our +Because, apparently, we don't like it. +Every month, 10,000 people are looking for Google: "I'm +This is it's 13 years old and lives in +And as any teenager just wants to be dear and fit in. +It's Sunday at night. +It's preparing for the next week in school. +It has a little bit confused because, despite the fact that his mom tells him everything that he is beautiful, every day in school, someone says it's ugly. +The mom that his mom tells you and what his friends, or they say, you don't know who you believe. +So a video of her own, he publishes it on YouTube, and asking others to leave a "I'm a nice or a +Well, so far, has received more than 13 comments. +Some of these are so that it doesn't even deserve to think about them. +We talk about a normal and normal teenager who gets these answers at one of the most vulnerable and emotionally. +Thousands of people are publishing videos like this, mostly teenage girls trying to communicate in this way. +But what's going to do this? +Well, teenagers today are almost never alone. +They're under pressure on being online and available all the time, speaking, to -- this is never ends. +We never have been so connected, in a continuous way, so so young. +As a mother said, "It's like there's a party in your room all the +There is just no privacy. +And the social pressures that go from hand with that are +This environment, which is always connected to our children to based on the number of likes that they have and the kinds of comments that they get. +There is no divide between a online life and real life. +It's really hard to know the differences between what is real or what it isn't. +And also, it's very hard to know the difference between what is authentic and what is +What is the most important thing in the life of someone in front of what is normal in a daily context. +And where are you looking for the +Well, you can see the kind of images that are of the news news now. + of size, still dominate our + technique, is now a routine. +And trends like, and +For those of the means +These trends are associated with women in the popular culture of today. +It's not hard to see what young people are compared to. +But the kids are also not immune to this. +Like the star stars, and the singers who are +But what's the problem with all this? +Well, we certainly want our children to grow healthy and be healthy individuals. +But in a culture, we are teaching our children to spend more time and effort to look at their appearance, the price of all other aspects of their identity. +Things like their relationships, the development of their physical skills, their studies and other aspects start to be hurt. +Six in 10 girls would prefer to do something because they think they don't see nice enough. +These are not activities. +They are fundamental activities for their growth as human beings, and as to society and the field of working development. +31 percent, almost one in three teenagers are not interested in class. +One out of five are not attending at all the time during the days when they don't feel comfortable about it. +And in the test season, if you don't think you see it good enough, specifically if you don't believe that you're good enough -- a lower note on the average of your fellow who don't care about what it looks like. +And this phenomenon has been widespread in Finland, America and China. +And it gives it regardless of what these young people. +So to make it well of course, we are talking about you as you see you -- not how you are. +The lower self-worth on your body is the academic performance. +And it's also health. + with little self-worth do less physical activity, they eat fewer fruits and vegetables, participating in more diet that are not healthy than they can take them to a food +They have low self-esteem. +They're more easily, by the people around the surrounding people and are at most risk of depression. +And we think it's all of this so that they make more decisions like the consumption of alcohol and drug consumption -- diets -- aesthetic surgery, aesthetic sexual relationships to the early ages and damage. +The pursuit of the perfect body is pushing into the health system, and our government costs billions of dollars every year. +And we're not +Women who believe they are overweight again, regardless of whether or not they have higher rates of +On 17 percent of women are not presented to a job interview in a day that they don't feel safe with the way you see. +Think for a moment in what this is doing to our economy. +If we could overcome this, what would that + this potential is for each of us. +But how do we do that? +Well, talking about itself, it doesn't take you very far. +It's not enough. +If you really want to change things, you have to do something. +And we've learned that there are three key ways. The first is that we have to instill trust in their own body. +We need to help our teenagers develop strategies to overcome the pressure of the perfect images and building their self-esteem. +The good news is that there are a lot of software available to do it. +The bad news is that most of these don't work. +I was very shocked when I learned that a lot of good programs, without realizing it, the situation. +So we must make sure that the program that our children are not only going to have a positive impact, but also an lasting lasting impact. +And research studies show that the best programs focused on six key areas -- the first is the influence of family, friends and relationships. +These six aspects are starting to be critical points for anyone to provide an education in body self-worth than work. +An education is hard, but to deal with this problem requires each of us to take the in the issue and be a better model to follow women and girls in our own lives. + the status status of how women are seen and mentioned in our circles. +It's not good to tell you with the input of our politicians at or the size of your or the size of the or the size of an athlete or the success of an Olympic athlete. +We need to start to judge people for what they are, not because you see them. +All of us can start by taking responsibility for the kind of images and comments that we published in our social networks. +We can tell people based on their effort and their actions and not their appearance. +And let me ask you, "When was the last time you had a +In short, we have to work together as communities, like governments and like companies, to change our culture, so that our children will grow to valuing their own person, valuing the individuality, and diversity, +We need to put people who are really making the difference in a +It's going to make a difference in the real world, let's make them the ones that go out on the big screen because we just create a different world. +A world where our children are free to become the best version of themselves, where the way they believe that you see that they have never been to be who they are, or to achieve what they want in their lives. +Think about what this can mean for someone in their lives. +Who do you have in mind? +His +His +His +His A +It could be simply the woman who is two seats. What would it mean for her if it was liberated from that voice in his interior, which would take you out of not having long legs -- more +What would it mean for her if we did this, and we would unlock their potential. +Right now, the obsession of our culture with the images are holding us all together. +But let's give our children the truth. +It turns out that the way you see you is just a part of your identity, and that the truth is that we love them for those who are and what they do, and as they make us feel. +They would take the self-esteem in the of our schools. +Let's change each of us, the way we talk about and we compared to other people. +And we together as a community, from small groups to governments, so that the small of a year of today, they become consumer agents of change themselves tomorrow. +So let's do it. +On the five of November 1990, a gentleman named came to a hotel in Manhattan and killed the rabbi the leader of the Defense of Defense +At the initially it was what Amy innocent, but being a prisoner for other charges in the company of others, started planning a number of 12 icons from New York City, including and the United States. +Luckily those plans was by an FBI +Sadly, the bomb from 1993 was in the World Trade Center, couldn't have been. +Later it would be convicted of their involvement in that + is my father. +I was born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, in 1983, being a engineer, with a loving mother and elementary school teacher in the two did all the possible for me to give me a happy childhood, +Just when I was seven years old, our family started to change. +My father taught me a way of Islam, that very few, even most Muslims come to meet. +For experience, I saw that when people take time for it doesn't need a lot to get to look at the same things in life. +However, in all religion, in the whole group of human group, there is always a small fraction of people who are so to their convictions that they think that we have to use all the possible means for everyone living as them. +A few months before the arrest he sat with me and explained that in the weekends of week, he and some friends, they had been doing to throw it on Long Island, to practice. +He told me that I would go with him the next day. +We got to the which, without knowing our group, was by the FBI. +When I touched my my father helped me hold the on the shoulder and explained to me how to aim for about 30 feet. +That day, with the last bullet that I shot at the little orange light on the goal and for all of all, particularly mine, all the goal went out on fire. +My uncle came back to the other and the Arabic, said +Of such a father, such son. +And all of all, the comment had been a lot of laughter. but only a few years later I understood what they were so funny. +Did you see in me, the same level of destruction that my father could +Those people later would be condemned by putting a stick with 700 pounds of explosives in the parking lot of the North World tower Center, causing a explosion that killed six people and another 1,000. +I admired those men. +He called them which means uncle. +When I turned 19, I had moved 20 times. That instability during my childhood was not allowed to do a lot of +Every time I started to feel comfortable about someone was a moment of packing and left another city. +As I was always the new face of the class -- it was often the victim of + secret my identity to avoid being the white -- but it will be the new of the class, silent and was enough to +So most of the time was spent on home reading books, watching television or playing video games. +For these reasons it didn't have developed social skills, to put it very and growing under I wasn't prepared for the real world. +I was opera, judge people, based on indicators like race or their religion. +So how could I open the eyes? +One of the first experiences that they put in test my way of thinking, it was during the presidential elections, in 2000. +In a program I participated in the National Convention in Philadelphia. +My group was in the subject of juvenile violence like me had been a victim of almost all my life, was something that I felt a lot of passion. +The members of this group came from various +One day, toward the end of the convention, I found that one of the kids we had done friendship, was Jewish in it. +I took a number of days to go out to the light this detail and realized that there was no between the two. +I had never had a Jewish friend and I felt very proud of being able to beat the barrier that my whole life had made me believe it was +Another crucial moment when I got a summer job in Bush -- a park. +I found people from all kinds of beliefs and cultures. That experience was fundamental in the development of my character. +My whole life had been taught that the was a sin and, by extension, all gay people were bad +By the point. I had the opportunity to work with gay actors there, in a show, and I could see that several of them were the most nice and less critical thing I had seen in life. +Having been as a child, I developed a sense of empathy toward suffering from others, but it wasn't easy for me to treat exactly the way I wish to be treated. +For that feeling was able to contrast the stereotypes that they had taught me as a child, with the experience of the interaction in real life. +I don't know what it is to be homosexual but I know what it's going to be for something beyond my control. +Then came the +Every night, Jon Stewart would make me be honest about my and I helped me see that race of people, religion or sexual orientation, don't have anything to do with character. +In many ways, he became my figure at a moment when I was desperately +Sometimes, the inspiration can come from the unexpected and a Jewish comedian would have had a better influence in my life than my own father, wasn't in vain. +One day I had a conversation with my mother about how I was changing my thinking, and she told me something that keep in my heart forever, while he's alive. +She looked at me with my tired eyes of someone who has suffered enough with endless and said, "I'm tired of +At that time, I realized how much negative power you need to keep all that hate in your inside. +My real name is not +It changed when my family decided to break the relationship with my father and start a new life. +So why did I decided to go out and put myself in a possible risk? +Well, it's simple. +I've done it because I hope somebody someday, who is trying to bring violence to violence, I can hear my story and understand that there is a better way that even though I was overwhelmed with this violent ideology and I didn't get to me +On the contrary, I decided to use my experience to fight against terrorism and against the prejudice. +I do it for the victims of terrorism and for their loved ones, and the loss that terrorism has been produced in their lives. +For the victims of terrorism talking, they against those acts as rejection to my father's actions. +With this I put me here as proof that violence is not inherent to any religion or race, which kids don't have to follow their parents. +I'm not my father. +Thank you. Thank you. Thank you. +At this point, there is a film that projects in their minds. +It's an incredible movie. +It's in 3D and it has sound that you hear and see right now, but that's just the beginning. +Your film has and texture. +Do you feel your body, your your pleasure. +It has emotions, anger and happiness. +It has memories, as moments of your childhood that we project in front of your eyes. +And he has constantly a voice superimposed on your +The heart of the movie is you who experience everything directly. +This film is your flow of consciousness, the subject of the experience of the mind and the world. +Consciousness is one of the fundamental truths of the existence of the human being. +Each of us is conscious. +We all have an internal movie that you, you, you and you. +There is nothing to make them more directly. +At least I know I have a +I have no certain that you are conscious. +Consciousness is also the reason to live. +If we weren't aware of it, nothing in our lives would make sense or value. +But at the same time it's the most mysterious phenomenon of the universe. +Why are we +Why do we have these movies +Why aren't we just the robots that we have to do to produce outcomes without experiencing the movie +At this point, no one knows the answers to those questions. +I suggest that to integrate awareness to science, you need some radical ideas. +Some people say it's impossible a science of consciousness. + for nature, is objective by nature. + by nature, is subjective at nature. +Then you can never have a science of consciousness. +Because for almost all the 20th century, that vision is +Creativity is the psychology of the behavior, the the neuroscience is a brain, but nobody mentioned consciousness. +Even 30 years ago, when TED began, there were very few scientists on consciousness. + 20 years ago, everything started to change. + like Francis Crick and physicists like Roger said, is the moment for science, +And since then, there was a real bang, a of the scientific work about consciousness. +And this work was fantastic. It was great. +But it also has fundamental limitations to the moment. +The center of the science of consciousness in the recent years was the search for correlations between some areas of the brain and some states of consciousness. +We saw something about this kind of work that I introduced Nancy a few minutes ago. +Now we understand a lot better, for example, areas of the brain that are related to the conscious experience or feeling pain or feeling happy. +But this is still a science of +It's not a science of +We know that these areas of the brain are related to certain kinds of conscious experiences, but we don't know why. +I would like to explain that this kind of work in neuroscience responds some questions that we want to explain consciousness about, questions about what they do certain areas of the brain and what it would be? +But in a sense, those are the easy problems. +No offend the +There's no easy problem with consciousness. +Well, not tackles the real mystery of this why all the physical process in the brain has to be accompanied by consciousness? +Why is there an internal movie +At this moment, we can't understand. +And you can say, let's give it a few years to neuroscience. +It's going to become another emerging phenomenon like like life, and we're going to find explanation. +The typical are all kinds of emergent behaviors, how do we operate the how they work, how they are and they adapt their living organisms -- they're all questions about how they work. +That could be apply to the human brain to explain some behaviors and the functions of the human brain as a phenomenon, how we speak, how we speak, how we speak, how we talk, all of them are questions about behavior. +But when it comes to consciousness, the questions about behavior are among the easy problems. +But the hard problem is the question why is that all behavior is accompanied by a experience. +And here it is, the standard paradigm of the standard paradigm of neuroscience, really doesn't have a lot to say. +I'm a scientist of heart. +I want a scientific theory of the that it works. For a long time, I would hit my head against the wall looking for a theory of consciousness in pure terms of physical terms. +But at the end I came to the conclusion that that didn't work for reasons for granted. +I think we're going to stand at this point. +We have a very cool supply chain, and we had used to this, the physics explains chemistry, the chemistry explains biology -- chemistry explains biology biology, explains a part of psychology. +But consciousness doesn't seem to fit into this scheme. +On the one hand, it's a fact that we're aware of. +For the other, we don't know how to that idea to our scientific worldview. +I think consciousness right now, is kind of a something that we need to integrate into our view of the world, but we don't know yet how. +With an anomaly like this, you can need radical ideas, I think we need ideas that at the beginning, crazy before we can deal with consciousness in a scientific way. +There are some possibilities for those crazy ideas. +My friend Dan Dennett, who's here today, has one. +His crazy idea is that there is no such hard problem of consciousness. +All the idea of the subjective music movie includes a kind of illusion or confusion. +Actually, what you have to do, is to explain the functions of the brain -- the behaviors of the brain, and so it studies everything that needs explanation. +Well, more power for him. +That's the kind of radical idea that we need to explore if we want to have a theory of pure consciousness based on the brain. +At the same time, for me and for many others, that vision is pretty close to simply denying that the observation of consciousness is satisfying to me. +But I'm in a different direction. +In the time that we have, I want to explore two crazy ideas that I think can be +The first crazy idea is that consciousness is critical. + sometimes take some aspects of the universe like space, time and mass. + laws that as the laws of gravity or quantum mechanics. +These laws and properties don't explain in terms of the most basic +On the contrary, they think about the world, and that is built the world. +Sometimes, the list of the critical +In the 19th century, Maxwell discovered that you can't explain electromagnetic phenomena in terms of fundamental concepts -- space, mass, mass laws of Newton. So the electrical charge of the and the electrical charge as a fundamental concept that those laws are +I think that's the situation we find ourselves with consciousness. +If you can't explain consciousness in terms of fundamental ideas, you can see space, time, time, then for the question, you have to cut the list. +The most natural thing would be consciousness as a fundamental thing, a fundamental brick of nature. +This doesn't mean that suddenly it's not the object of science. +It opens up the way for scientifically. +So what we need is what we need is to study the fundamental laws that govern consciousness, the laws that connect consciousness with other fundamental concepts -- the space, time, the mass, the mass, the mass, the mass, the mass, the mass, the mass, the mass, the mass, the mass, the mass, the mass, the mass, the mass, the mass, the mass, the mass, the mass, the mass, the mass, + sometimes they say that we want the fundamental laws so we can get them into a +The situation of consciousness is something like this. +We want to find fundamental laws so simple that we can get them into a t-shirt. +We still don't know what laws are, but that's what we need. +The second crazy idea is that consciousness can be universal. +Every system can have a degree of consciousness. +This vision is sometimes called by everyone, in mind, every system is conscious, not only humans, and dogs, the dogs, even the microbes of Rob the elementary particles. +Even a has some degree of consciousness. +The idea is not that photons are smart or +It's not that a can be full of anxiety when they say, "Oh, always traveling at the speed of light. +I can never slow down and smell the +No, no. +But the thought is that the photons can have some element of aesthetic feeling feeling some precursor to consciousness. +This may sound a little crazy for you. +How would anybody think that +Part of this comes from the first crazy idea, which consciousness is a fundamental thing. +If it's fundamental -- like space, time and mass, it's natural to assume that it can also be universal, just like others. +It's also worth noticing that although the idea seems to us, it's much less for the people of different cultures, where the human mind seems more a continuum with nature. +A deeper reason comes from the idea that perhaps the simplest and powerful way of finding fundamental laws that the thinking with the physical process, is consciousness with information. +Whenever there is information processing -- there's awareness. + of complex like in a human being, consciousness is complex. + of simple, simple information. +It's very exciting is that in the recent years a neuroscientist, a neuroscientist, took this kind of theory, and developed it with mathematical methods, with mathematicians. +It has a mathematical measure of information integration, which is called which measures the degree of information integrated in a system. +And I'm supposed to it has to do with consciousness. +So in a human brain, there is an incredible degree of information integration, a high degree of a lot of consciousness. +In a mouse there is a middle degree of data, just as significant, degree of consciousness, quite important. +But when you get to the microbes, particles, the degree of +The level of integration integration is smaller, but it's not zero either. +In the theory, there will still be a different level of consciousness of zero. +It actually brings a fundamental law of high degree of consciousness. +Moreover, another reason is that can help us integrate consciousness to the physical world. + and philosophers are often observed that the physics is curiously abstract. +It describes the structure of reality using a lot of equations, but we don't talk about the reality that underlies the bottom. +As Stephen painted, "Where is the fire of the +From the vision, the equations of physics, can you leave as they are, but you can use it to describe the flow of consciousness. +That's what physicists do basically describe the flow of consciousness. +According to this vision, consciousness is the of the equations. +In that vision, consciousness is not found out of the physical world as a kind of +It's right there in the center. +This vision, I think, vision, has the potential for our relationship with nature, and it can have very serious social and ethical consequences. +Some can be +I used to think that I had not to eat anything that had consciousness, then I had to be a +If you're a and you take that vision, you'll have a lot of hunger. +I think about thinking about it, this tends to transform your while what matters in ethical terms and moral is not both the fact that the fact of consciousness, but its complexity and its complexity. +It's also natural to ask for consciousness in other systems, like computers. +What about the artificial intelligence system, in the movie +It's +According to the vision of information, she has a complicated processing processing, so that the answer is yes, if it's conscious. +If this is right, you find very serious ethical problems about the development of the development of smart computers and the ethical +Finally, you can ask for collective awareness -- the planet. +Canada has a +Or at a more local level, an integrated group, like the audience at a TED Talk, right now, we have a collective awareness -- an internal film for this whole group of the whole of the different parts of every single +I don't know the answer to that question, but I think at least is a question that needs to be done. +So this is a radical vision, and I don't know if it's correct. +I'm actually more sure about the first crazy idea, that consciousness is a fundamental thing, which is the second thing, which is universal. +The vision raises a lot of questions, so many challenges, like, how do those bits of thinking contribute to the kind of complex consciousness, we know and love it. +If we can answer those questions, then I think we go through the right way to a theory of serious awareness. +If not, well, probably this is the hardest problem of science and philosophy. +We can't wait for the night to the morning. +But I think we finally go to find it. +Understanding consciousness is the real key, I think, to understand the universe and to understand ourselves. +Maybe we just need the crazy idea. +Thank you. +I grew up in a small rural village in the world. +He had a very normal profile. It's a very normal +I went to school, I was with my friends, my younger sisters. +It was all very normal. +And when I was 15 years old, a member of my community came up to my parents, because I wanted to be a community prize. +And my parents said, "Well, that's very nice, but there is a ridiculous problem. +She hasn't really gotten anything." And they were right. +I went to school, I had good grades. After school, I had good grades. After my mother, and I spent a lot of time looking at the and +Yes, I know. What a contradiction. +But they were right. +I didn't do anything that was extraordinary at all. +Nothing to be considered as an achievement if we take the disability out of the equation. +Many years later, I was in the second part of the teaching in a high school school, just after about 20 minutes in the middle class, a guy raised the hand and said, "Hey, when to give your +I said, "What do you do?" +Well, I had been talking about the law of for a good 20 minutes. +And he said, "You know, your speech. +When people on chairs of wheels, they talk about things at school?" + in the hall. +And it was when I realized, this child had had experiences with disabled people like +And we don't. And it's not the guilt of the boy, that's true for many of us. +For us, people with disability are not our teachers or our doctors or our +We're not real people. We're there for +And in fact, I'm on this stage -- in fact, what I do in this and probably you are waiting for you, right? Yeah. +Well, ladies and gentlemen, I'm afraid. +I'm not here for +I'm here to tell you that you have lied to disability. +Yes, you have sold the lie that disability is a +It's a bad thing and living with a disability is a remarkable thing. +It's not a bad thing and it doesn't make you +And in the last few years, we've been able to spread even more this through social media. +You may have seen images like this: "The only disability in life is a bad +Or this "Your excuse is +Or this Before +These are just a couple of examples, but there is a lot of them. +You may have seen one, of the child without drawing a pen that was held by the mouth. +You may have seen a child who runs with carbon fiber legs. +And there's a lot of these images, which are what we call +And I use the porn term because we would take a group of people for the benefit of another group of people. +So in this case, we would have the disability to benefit people without disabilities. +The purpose of these images is so that we can see them and think, "Well, that's why my life, it could be worse. +I could be that person." +But if you're that person? +I've lost the account of the number of times that have been related to me to say that they believe that I am brave or a source of inspiration, and this is going to happen before my work had a public profile. +It was like me getting up in the morning and remember my own name. And this is +These images, those images that are related to people with disability for people without disabilities. +You're there for you to see them and think that things aren't as bad for you, or to put their concerns in perspective. +And life as a disabled person is really hard. +So let's get a few things. +But the things that we do is not the things that you can think of. +They're not relative things to our bodies. +I use the term because I was because I was called the social model of the disability, that tells us that we are more disabled because of the society that we live in that because of our bodies or +So I've lived in this body for a long time. +I'm very with him. +The things that I need to do, and I've learned how to get the best of your ability as well as you do, and that's what happens with kids as well. +They're not doing anything outside the common. +They are simply using their bodies pulling out the best of their ability. +So it's really just in the way we do it, when we share those +When people say, "You're a source of it says it as a compliment. +And I know why it happens. +It's because of the lie, because they've sold this lie that disability makes us +And honestly don't do it. +And I know what you're thinking. +I'm here inspiration, and you think, "My God, is not sometimes inspired by anything?" +And I actually know I am. + of other people with disability at all time. +However, I don't know that I'm more lucky than them. + which is a great idea to use some of to pick up the things that fall over. the ingenious trick of how to upload the mobile phone on the battery on the chair. +Great. +We learn from the force and resistance of others, not against our bodies and our but against a world that would be and +I really believe that that lie that they've been sold to disability is the greatest +It makes us hard life. +And that quote: "The only disability in life is a bad the reason that that's lie is because of the social model of disability. +A lot of smiles in the side of a hole at a hole has never done it becomes a +Never. +Not a lot of people in the middle of a and a positive attitude to turn all those books into the +It's just not going to happen. +I want to really live in a world where disability isn't exception, but the norm. +I want to live in where a 10-year-old girl sitting in his bedroom watching the didn't consider any of nothing for being on a chair. +I want to live in a world where we don't have as low expectations of the people with disability that we are to stand up with the bed and remember our names in the morning. +I want to live in a world where you value the genuine achievement of people with disabilities, and I want to live in a world where a child at 11 grade school is not a little bit surprised that his new teacher is a user player. +The disability doesn't make us but question what you think to know about what you do it. +Thank you. +What do you have to see augmented reality and professional with the +And what is the average speed of a without +Unfortunately, today just answer one of those questions, so please don't get +When people think about it, they think about "Minority and in Tom the hands in the air, but augmented reality is not science fiction. + reality is something that will happen in our days and will happen because we have the tools for it, and people need to learn, because augmented reality will change our lives as well as the Internet and mobile phones. +So how do we get to the reality. +The first step, is what I wear Google +I'm sure many people are familiar with them. +What you may not know is that Google are a device that lets you see what I see. +It will allow them to experience what is to be a professional in the field. +Right now, the only way to be in the field is that I try +I have to use words. +I have to create a framework that will fill with your imagination. +We can use Google Glass, underneath a helmet and know what it is to run by the game of playing a blood beating your ears. +We can know that it feels like a man of 110 pounds of us, trying to get rid of their own being. +I've been there and I assure you, it's not nice. +So let's take a few videos to show you what the Google looks like, under the hull, and give you an idea of that. +Unfortunately, it's not images of the practices of because the idea of the of emerging technology is a submarine going up to the surface, but we do what we can. +So let's look at a video. +Chris Come on. +It's horrible being +A few a little bit. + +Go! +Chris As you can see, it's a of what is going to be in the soccer field. +You may have realized that we lack people, the rest of the equipment. +We have a video of them, from the University of Washington. + +Blue eight, Blue Go! +Chris This is a little bit more of the feeling in the field, but it has nothing to do with being in the + want that experience. + want to be in the field, be their favorite and you have asked me on YouTube and you can see from the angle of a field +Or a +We want to experience that." +Once we have that experience with and Google Glass, how do we go from how do we take it to the next +We took it to that level using something called which probably many of you know about. +The Rift has been described as the most realistic device ever created, and it's not cheap. +And I'm going to show you why with this video. +Man: Oh, yeah. +No, no, no! I don't want to keep No! +Oh my God. Ah! + That's the experience of a man on a roller coaster of his life. +What will be the experience of a fan when you a video of Adrian across the line, from a with the arm before they run and make a which will be the experience of a fan experience. +When I can be running by the by launching the ball on the of the network? Or you can do a in +What will be your experience when you go from a mountain to more than 100 miles an hour like a +Maybe the sales of diapers for adults. +But this is not even +It's just virtual reality, +How do we get to reality + augmented reality when I the and the owners look at the information of what people want to see and think, "How do we use this to improve our +How do we use it to win +Because they always use technology to gain. +They like to win. It gives you money. +So here's a quick review on technology in the +In 1965, the of Baltimore was put on a to his field to play faster. +They won the Super Bowl that year. +Other teams decided to do this. +More people saw the party because it was more exciting, faster. +In 1994, the I put radios. +They had more viewers because it was faster, more entertaining. +In imagine that you are a player coming back to your group, and you see your next step here in front of you, in a plastic bombsight that you carry on. You won't have to worry about forget a +Or to memorize the strategy. +They just go out to the field and +And the coaches want it because if you don't follow their instructions, they lose parties, and they hate to lose games. +If you lose parties like a coach. +And they don't want that. +But augmented reality is not just a strategies. + reality is also a way to collect information and use it in real time to improve your way to play the game. +How do you do that? +Well, a very simple option would be to have a camera in every corner of the stadium having a view from the people who are down. +You also get information from the and the something that is already working. +And all that information comes to your +The good teams will know +The bad people will have information +This is to the good equipment. +So your computer team is going to be as important as your and data analysis to stop being for +It will be also for Who would have +How would it be in the country? +Imagine that you are the +You get the ball and + a open receiver of a sudden, a on the left of your bombsight -- you know, that a defense behind you is going to be Usually they don't get it, but the system will +It takes to the protection. +Another you have a open +You get the but you get +And the ball loses the trajectory. +You don't know where the receptor is, though, the receptor sees in its bombsight an area of grass that lights up and can modify the race. +They catching the runs and +The public is crazy and fans have followed the way from every angle. +This is something that creates a massive emotion in the party. +I'm going to do that lots of people see it, because people want to live that experience. + want to be in the ground. +They want your favorite player. + reality will be part of sports because it's too profitable to not be. +But what I ask you is, we want this to be the only use of reality +We're going to use it just like bread and like our entertainment. +Because I think we can use it for something else. +I think that we can use augmented reality to encourage empathy between human beings, to show someone what it is, literally, be in the other person's place. +We know what this technology is worth for +It generates billions of dollars a year. +But how much is this technology for a professor in the classroom trying to show a how bad their actions are from the perspective of +How much is this technology worth for a gay in Uganda or Russia trying to show you the world how they live to be +How much does it be true for a or a trying to inspire a generation of children to think more about space and science instead of sticky notes and +Ladies and gentlemen, the augmented reality is coming. +The questions we do, the choices that we take and the challenges that we face, as usual, of us. +Thank you. +I recently told me after 23 years of service in the of California. +Most of those 23 years -- the southern end of Lofa County -- which includes the bridge. +The bridge is a structure, known to its beautiful views of San Francisco, the Pacific Ocean and its inspiring architectural +Unfortunately, it's also a magnet for suicide, being one of the most used places in the world. +The Bridge was open in +Joseph an engineer, chief engineer, to build the bridge, said that, "The bridge is pretty much for +suicide from the bridge is not practical and +But from its openness, over 1,600 people have jumped to their death from that bridge. +Some of you believe that traveling between the two towers will take them to another dimension, this bridge has been as such, so that each of it has shown you from all your concerns and pain, and the waters that go under your soul. +But let me tell you that happens when the bridge is used to commit suicide. +After a free from four to five seconds, the body hits the water about 120 miles an hour. +The impact is bones, some of which we have vital organs. +Most of them die in the impact. +The ones that don't usually get rid of the water and then they +I don't think that the this method of suicide will realize the death of the +This is the wire. +Except about the two towers, you have 32 inches of steel parallel to the bridge. +This is where most people are in order to get their life. +I can tell you for experience that once the person is on that edge, and at the most dark time, it's very difficult to bring it back. +I took this picture last year while this young man was talking to an officer watching his life. +I want to tell you with joy that we had success that day to bring it back on the +When I started working on the bridge, we had no formal training. +So let's take it to channel the way through these calls. +This was not just a bad service for those who suicide, but the officials as well. +We've come a long way since then. +Today, official veterans and psychologists train the new official people. +This is Jason +I met him with 22 last year when you get a call from a possible sitting on the near the center. + and when I got there, I looked at Jason talking with an officer from the bridge, +Jason was only 32 years old, and he had flown over here from New Jersey. +In fact, he had flown over here two times before New Jersey to try to commit suicide from this bridge. +After about an hour talking to we asked them if we knew the story of the box. + the mythology -- created and sent the Earth with a box, and he said, never open that +Well, one day, I was curious about it, and she opened the box. +And she came up with and all kinds of +The only good thing in the box was hope. +So Jason asked us, "What if you open the box and there's no +He stopped leaned on the right, and he left. +This kind of guy in New Jersey just had to get his life. +I talked to the parents of Jason that night, and I guess when I was talking to them, it didn't seem to be ringing very well, because the next day, the great rabbi of the family called me to see what I was. +The parents of Jason had been + damage affects a lot of people. +I give you these questions: What would you do if a member of your family, a friend or someone would love to be +What do you find? +What do we say? +In my experience, it's not just to talk, but you have to listen to it. +Listening to understand. +Not or say to the person you know how it feels feel, because they probably won't. +Just being there, you can be the inflection point that you need. +If you think someone is you don't have a fear of and ask the question. +One way to ask you the question is, in the very similar circumstances have thought about their life, you've had these +He would save the person in front of it can save the life and be the inflection point for them. +Other signs to despair, believe that things are terrible and that never go to believe that there is nothing that you can do to the social isolation, and a lost of interest in life. +I came up with this talk just a couple of days, and I got an email from a lady and I'd like to read you your letter. +She lost his son on the 19th of January of this year, and he wrote me this email just a couple of days, and he's with his permission and blessing that I read it. +"Hi, I imagine you're at the TED conference. +It must be a whole experience to be there. +I'm thinking, I should go to the bridge this weekend. +I just wanted to leave you a note. +I hope you can tell a lot of people and go home talking about it to your friends who tell your friends, and so on. +I'm still quite but noticing more moments to realize that Mike didn't really go home. +Mike was driving from to San Francisco to see the party with his father the 19 of January. +It never came there. +I called the police of and as disappeared that night. +The next morning, two officers came to my house and reported that the Mike was down on the bridge. +A witness had seen him jump from the bridge to the at the late day before. +Thank you very much for fighting those who may be temporarily too weak to fight for themselves. +Who hasn't been before bad without having a real mental disease. +It should not be so easy to end up with it. +My sentences are with you for your fight. +The Bridge is supposed to be a passage through our beautiful not a +Good luck this week, +I can't imagine the value that she needed to go to the bridge, and go on the path that his son took that day, and also the value to go forward. +I'd like to introduce you to a man that I mean with hope and value. +On March 11 of March 2005, I wrote a radio call by a on the sidewalk near the north. +I took me off the sidewalk and watched this man, Kevin standing on the sidewalk. +When I saw me, crossed the and stopped in that little tube that goes around the tower. +During the time and half the next, I heard as Kevin talked about his depression and despair. +Kevin decided that day to come back on that lane and give it to life another opportunity. +When Kevin +"This is a new beginning, a new life." +But I asked him, "What was it that he made it and gave it to hope and life +And you know what he told me? +He said, "Are you +They stopped me talking and just +Shortly after that incident, I got a letter from the mother of Kevin, and I have that letter with me, and I would like to +"Dear Mr. Nothing erase the events of the 11th of March, and you're one of the reasons I Kevin still with us. +Honestly, I think Kevin was for help. +It's been diagnosed with a mental illness for which it has been properly +I heard Kevin when I was only six months, completely unconscious, of all of those traits -- but thank God, now we know. +Kevin is in order, like he said. +We give God for you. +I had failed debt with you, +And at the end she wrote, When I went to the General General of San Francisco at the night, you were like the patient. +I know I did have to get it +Today, Kevin is a father and active member of society. +Talk openly about the events of that day and his depression with the hope that their story will inspire others. +suicide is not just something that I've found at work. +It's personal. +My grandfather is with poison. +That act, even though their own pain, I'm an opportunity to meet him. +This is what marriage does. +For most people or those who consider the suicide, you wouldn't think about hurt another person. +They just want their own pain out of it. +So the overall way, this is achieved only three things: sleep or alcohol or death. +In my career, I have responded and I've been involved in hundreds of mental illness and calls suicide about the bridge. +Of those incidents that I've been directly involved, I've only lost two, but those two are too much. +One was +The other one was a man who spoke about an hour. +And for that time, I was at three times. +At the end of the end, I looked at me, and he said, I'm sorry, but I have to go." +And + absolutely horrible. +I want to tell you, though, that the vast majority of the people we get to contact with that bridge is not +In addition, those few who have jumped from the bridge, and living and that you can talk about it, that one one percent or most of those people have said that the railing leave the railing realize that they had made a mistake and they wanted to live. +I tell people, the bridge doesn't just connect to San Francisco, but also the people. +That connection, or the bridge that we do, is something that everyone and every one of us have to do to do to do. + can prevent. +There is no hope. There's hope. +Thank you very much. +The world causes you to be what you're not from, but in your inner mind, you know what you are, and a question will tell you, how do you +I have to be something unique in that sense, but I'm not alone in any way I'm alone. +When I became a model that I had finally achieved the dream that I had ever had as a child. +My outside finally with my inner truth, with my inner truth. +For complicated reasons, the ones that I refer to later, when I look at this photo -- I think, like, +But last October, I found that I'm starting. +We all care about our families, our religion, our society, our moment in history, even our bodies. +Some of you have the value value to get rid of the color of the skin color or by the beliefs of those who surround us. +They are people who always challenge the status quo -- what is considered +In my case, the last nine years, a lot of my neighbors, a lot of my friends, my agent in fact, ignored my story. +I think this puzzle is called revelation. +This is mine. +I was in at birth because of my genital appearance of my +I remember my five years in the Philippines, in my house, I was always wearing this shirt on his head. +And my mom was going, "Why do you always have that t-shirt +I said, "Mom, it's my hair. I am a +I knew then how do you get +The gender is always considered a but now we know that, really, is something more complex and mystery in the end. +Because of my success, I would never bother sharing my story, not because I thought I will be a bad thing, but why the world is about the people who want to be +Every day I thank you to be a woman. +I have mom, my dad and a family who took me like I am. +Many are not so lucky. +There's a long tradition in the culture that celebrates the mystery of gender. +There's a Buddhist goddess of compassion. +There's a goddess of +And when I was eight years old, I was at a party in the Philippines that celebrated these puzzles. +I was in front of the stage and I remember that this beautiful woman came to me, and I remember that moment as if something got me, this is the kind of woman I would like to be. +And when I was 15 years old, when I was still about a man, I met this woman called +It's the CEO of a +That night she asked me, "Why haven't you've done in the competition. +He told me that if she was and the and the And that night, I won in the bathroom, I won in and I won a between over 40 candidates. +That moment changed my life. +Suddenly, I was inside the world of beauty. +Not many people can say that their first job was from queen of women, but I can. +I also met the goddess of especially when they went to the provinces of the Philippines. +But more important than all that, I met my best friends in that community. +In 2001 my mother who had moved to San Francisco, called me and told me that I passed my to the green card that I could go to live to the United States. +I was +I told my mother, "Mom, I'm +I'm here with friends, I like to travel and be a queen +But then, two weeks later, I called me and said, "Do you know that if you get to the United States you can change the name and the identity of +It was all I needed to hear. +My mom suggested to put me two to my name. +She also accompanied me when I was in Thailand about 19 years old. +It's curious that in some of the most rural cities in Thailand do make surgeries more sophisticated and safe surgery. +In that time in the U.S., it was necessary to be done before the name and gender. +So in 2001 I went to San Francisco, and I remember looking at the driver's license with the name -- and the of +It was a great time. +For some people, their identity document means power to drive or be able to get a but to me it was a license to live, to feel +Suddenly, my fears looked +I felt I could conquer my dream and move to New York, and be a model. +Many are not so lucky. +I think of this woman from +A young woman from New York who who was living his truth, but he didn't end up his life. +For many of my community, that's the reality that they live. +Our suicide rates are eight times higher than the rest of the population. +Every 20 November we do a global waking percent of Day. +I'm on this stage because of a long history of people who and stood in front of injustice. +These are Marsha P. Johnson and Sylvia +Today, right now, I'm coming out of the closet. +I can't keep living my truth and just for me. +I want to do the best to help others live their truth without shame, not fear. +I'm here, for some day no longer than 20 percent of +My deepest truth took me to accept what I am. +Will you you? +Thank you very much. +Thank you, thank you. a quick question. + Of all, thank you first, thank with all my +And my support network, my parents especially in my family, which is very strong. +I remember all the times that I've been to young women who have been and sometimes when they were called me and a few times, when they were called me and told me that their parents couldn't accept it, he would take my mom and said, "Mom, you can call this +Sometimes it worked. It's not. It's not the identity of gender, that's what is in the center of what we are, right? +I mean, all of us were assigned a gender to birth, and what I try to do is put on the table that some times that task doesn't block, and that should have a space that would allow people to and this is a conversation that we should have with parents, with colleagues. +The movement is compared to the gay movement. +There's still a lot of work to do. +There should be understanding. +There should be space for curiosity and to ask questions, and I hope you all are my allies. +KS: Thank you. Thank you. +In many societies, and tribal societies, parents generally know for their kids, but I'm one of the few parents who are known for your daughter and I'm proud of it. +He started his campaign for education defending their rights in 2007. And when they were their efforts in 2011, and the National became very famous -- a very popular girl in his country. +Before that, I was my daughter, but now I'm his father. +Ladies and gentlemen, if you will, a look at the history of humanity, the story of women is the history of inequality, of violence and exploitation. +You see, in the societies right from the very beginning, when at birth a little girl, their birth is not +It's not overwhelmed and by his father, or by his mother. +The neighborhood comes out, gives her to the mother and nobody the father. +And a mother was a lot to have a little girl. +When it gives birth to the first girl, the first child, the first daughter gets sad. +And when he gives birth to the second daughter, and, with the hope of a son, when he went to her third daughter, it feels guilty like a criminal. +Not only did the mother suffering, but the daughter, when it grows, he suffers as well. +At the age of five years, when I should go to school, she stays home and school can bring their siblings. +Until the age of 12 years old, it has a good life. +It can be +It can play with your friends on the street, and it can move around the streets like a butterfly. +But when it comes in childhood when it comes to 13 years, you have to get on your house without a male +It's confined to four walls in their house. +It's not a free person. +It becomes the name of his father and his siblings and his family and his family, and if you had the code of that they could even kill. +And it's interesting that this one of the honor code, not only affect the life of a also affects the life of male members of the family. +So this brother, the joys of their life and the happiness of his sisters in the name of the honor. +And there is a more standard of societies called +It's supposed to be very very humble and very +It's the judgment. +The model of a good girl must be +It's supposed to be and accepts the decisions of their father and their mother and the decisions of the old people even if you don't will. +If you get a guy with a man who doesn't like it, or if he was with a man who has to be because he doesn't want to be +If the too young, it has to embrace it. +Otherwise, +And what happens to the end? +In the words of a "The the and then it gives birth to more children and +And the irony of the situation is that this mother, the same lesson. +And this vicious circle continues and continues. + brothers and sisters, when he was born, and for the first time, believe me, I don't like the newborns, to be honest, but when I was there, and I looked at her eyes, believe me, I felt incredibly +And a lot before I was born, I thought about his name, and I was fascinated with a of the freedom in Afghanistan. +His name was and he called my daughter so on. +But when I was they were all men, and I grabbed my pen, and I took a line of my name, and I wrote, +And when she grew, when she was four and a half years, I was in my school. +You might ask, why should I mention the of a girl in a school? +Yes, I have to +You can take it for sitting in Canada, in the United States, in many developed countries, but in poor countries, in tribal societies, it's a great event for life life. + in a school means the recognition of your identity and his name. +A to school means that it has entered the world of dreams and aspirations where it can explore their potential for future life. +I have five sisters, and none of them was able to go to school, and you would be spent two weeks earlier, when I was the form of and I was on the relative side to the family, I couldn't remember the of some of my sisters. +And the reason was that I had never seen the names of my sisters in any document. +That was the reason for my daughter. +What my father couldn't give to my sisters, I thought I had to change it. +I used to see the intelligence and the of my daughter. +So the to sit with me when my friends came to me. +He encouraged me to go with me to different meetings. +And all of these values, I've tried to focus on their personality. +And this wasn't just for her, just for +I've got all these good values in my school to girls and boys and kids. +I used education for + my daughters, taught the students, forget the lesson of the +He taught students to forget the lesson of the so-called + brothers and sisters, for more rights for women, and to have more and more space for women in society. +But we found ourselves with a new phenomenon. +It was a lethal for human rights, and in particular, for women's rights. +His name was +That means a complete denial of women's involvement in all of the political, economic and social activities. +Hundreds of schools were lost. +The girls were banned to go to school. +Women were forced to use and stopped going to the markets. +The musicians were the and the singers were killed. + millions, but a few and it was scary to have around those people who kill and when you talk about their rights. +It's really terrifying. +At 10 years, got up and got up the right to education. +He wrote a daily he wrote a for the BBC in New York Times -- and he talked about every platform he could. +And his voice was the most powerful. +It was like a around the world. +And that was the reason why the Taliban couldn't tolerate their campaign and October October 2012, he was shot in the head. +It was a day for my family and me. +The world became a big black hole. +While my daughter was between life and death, I would love to the ear of my wife and "I have to for what happened to my daughter, +And he said, "Please do not +Let's have the fair cause. + your life in play by the cause of the truth, for the cause of peace, and because of education, and your daughter was inspired by you and +Both were on the right way and God +These few words are very much for me, and I didn't go back again. +When I was I was in the hospital and he had severe headaches and strong headaches because his facial nerve was I used to see a dark shadow that was by the face of my wife. +But my daughter was never +I used to say, "I'm good with my smile and with my face. +I'm going to be okay. Please do not +It was comfort for us, and it was + brothers and sisters, have learned from her how to resist the most difficult moments, and I'm pleased to share with you that despite being an icon for children and women, it's like any 16 years old. + when they didn't finish their job. +They stand with their brothers, and I'm very happy for that. +People ask me, "What is special in my who has done as bold to so colorful and and +I mean, don't ask me what I did. + what I didn't. +I didn't cut their wings and that's all. +Thank you very much. +Thank you. Thank you very much. Thank you. +I was of the brain 18 years ago, and from that day, science science has become a personal passion. +I am engineering. +And I want to tell you that I've recently joined the Google group of Google, where I've had a to my the of Google -- but all the work that I'm talking about today about the science of the brain, I did before I joined Google or outside my work there. +Having said this, there is a stigma when you give you to a brain surgery. +Are you still just like smart or not? +It wouldn't be like that, you can be +After the I was missing a part of the brain, and I had to live with it. +It wasn't gray matter, but it was the dead part of the center that I create important hormones and +Immediately after the operation, I had to decide how much to take, for more than a dozen chemicals every day, because if they didn't take anything, they would die in a few hours. +Every day, for the last 18 years, I've had to decide about combinations and mix of chemicals, and try to deal with them to live with life. +Over once I have saved a little. +But luckily, I have a alma soul for what I decided that I would take to try and get the because it really doesn't have a clear map to say it in +I started testing with different mixes -- and I was shocked by looking at how small changes in the dose of the dramatically -- my sense of who I was, my way to think, my behavior with the others. +A particularly case for a few months, I tried dose and chemical doses for a man of and I was shocked to see how to fix my thoughts. +I was always I thought all the time on sex, and I thought it was the smartest person in the world, and -- -- -- of course, a lot of times in the past I've met several guys like this, or maybe some versions of +It turned out like an extreme. +But my great surprise was that I wasn't trying to be +In fact, I was a lot of fixing a problem that I had on the front, and it just didn't. +So I couldn't manage it. +It changed my +But I think that experience I gave me a new appreciation for men and about what they have to do -- I've been better at the men. +What I was trying to do is to set those hormones and neurotransmitters and so forth, was to regain my intelligence after the disease and my creative thinking, my +I used to think about almost always in pictures, and that became my key reference, how I can get those images that I use to create my ideas, if they were new ideas and situations. +This kind of thoughts is not new. + like Descartes and look at things like this. +They thought that images and mental ideas were the same thing. +Today there is the question of this idea, and there are a lot of arguments about how your mind works -- for me is simple: for most of us, the mental images are fundamental to thinking about, and +So after a number of years, I got to find the point right now, and I have a lot of great mental really very, very sophisticated and +Now, I'm working on how to get fast these mental images from my mind to the computer screen. +Can you imagine what if a film director would be able to use their imagination only to drive the world that has the +Or if a musician could get the music of your head? +There are incredible possibility with this, as the way that creative people can get to share at the speed of light. +And the truth is, the only difficulty in order to do this is simply to increase the resolution of our brain scanning systems. +Let me show you why I believe that we are pretty close to get to this with two recent experiments that were done by two groups leading in neuroscience. +Both of them used MRI technology, image by functional MRI to represent the brain. You can see the brain scan done by and his colleagues at Harvard. +The column on the left shows the scan of the brain that looks at a image. +The column in the middle shows the scan of the brain of that same individual as it was done, looking at that same image. +The column on the right is created by the contents of the left column on the left. You see that the difference is almost +This is repeated in many different individuals with a lot of different images, always with a similar outcome. +The difference between looking at a picture and imagining that same image is almost +Now, let me share with you another experiment. This is from the lab by Jack in Berkeley, California. +They managed to turn the brain waves into the visual fields. +Let's put it in this way. +In this experiment, it showed the people hundreds of hours of YouTube videos while they looked at their brains to create a great of brain reactions to the video video. +And then I showed you a film with new, new people, new animals, and while they had a new +The computer using only brain information scanning it to show you what appeared that the person was looking at. +On the right you can see the of the computer, and on the left, the video that I showed you. +This blew us +We're very close to doing that. +We just need to improve resolution. +And now, remember, when you see a picture and when you imagine that same image, it creates in the brain the same +And this took place with the brain scanning systems of the most resolution available today, and their resolution has been up to a thousand times in the last few years. +Now we need to increase resolution a thousand times more to get a deeper look. +How do you do that? +There are many techniques to do that. +One is open up the skull and introduce electrodes. +I don't offer that one. +Most of them are proposing new projection techniques for images, even me, with the recent outcome of MRI -- first we have to ask, this technology will be the end of the way? +The conventional wisdom says that the only way to get greater resolution is the only way to get resolution is but at this point, magnets only give small improvements at the resolution not for thousands of us as we need. +I propose this idea: rather than we make better magnets. +Can we create a lot more complex structures with slightly different arrangements like a +And why does this matter? +Over the last few years, a lot of effort in MRI were to make +However, most of the recent advances in and brilliant solutions on and in the and frequency of FM radio systems in MRI systems. +At its time, instead of a magnetic field, they were structured patterns that are structured at the frequencies of the radio. +So when we combine magnetic patterns with the patterns of radio processing patterns, we can increase the information that you can extract in a single +In addition, we can then split our growing knowledge on the structure of the brain and memory to create the increase in the thousands we need. +By using we should be able to measure not only the blood fluid, but the hormones and that I mentioned and perhaps even neural activity -- this is the dream. +We will be able to write our ideas into a direct way to digital media. +Can you imagine if we could go above the language and communicate directly through the +What would we be +And how do we learn how to deal with the truths of human thinking without +You thought the Internet is a big thing. +These are great questions. +It would be as a tool to amplify our thinking and communication skills. +Certainly, this same tool could lead to the cure of Alzheimer's and similar diseases. +We have a few choices to open this door. +Anyway, let's pick it a year to happen in five or 15 years? +It's hard to imagine it's going to take a lot more. +We have to learn how to give this step together. +Thank you. +I'm going to tell you tonight about coming out of the closet, and not in a traditional sense, not just the gay closet +I think we all have +His may be telling some person for the first time or tell someone who's pregnant, or tell someone who is pregnant, or say to someone who has cancer, or any other difficult conversation that you have to have in your life. +It's a hard conversation -- and even though our subjects can vary the experience of I've experienced and have come out of that closet is a universal thing. +It's afraid, and we don't like it, and it must happen. +A lot of years ago, I worked in the South Side I had a restaurant in the city, and I was there, I had to go through several stages of the intensity of the I didn't get my armpits, and I quote the letters of gave like a +And I'm going to be by the of my foot, and I had to stand up my head -- I would say, "Hey, usually a child would say, "Hey, you're a kid or +And it would appear as a awkward silence on the table. + my jaw a little bit more, I would take my coffee with a little bit of +The father the newspaper and the mother tossed a cold, look at his son. +But I would not say anything, and it was +And I came to the point that every time I went to a place where there was a child between three and 10 years, I was ready to fight. +And that's a terrible feeling. +So I promised that next time I would say something. +It would have that hard conversation. +So after a few weeks, it happened again. +"You are a guy or a +A family silence -- but this time I was prepared and I was about to go into the female issues on the table. I had the quotes of Betty + +Even a fragment of the "Vagina Monologues," I +And so I took a deep back and I went down and my backs -- a little girl who had a pink dress looking at me, which is not a challenge for a mama, just a kid with a question: "Are you +So I would take it back to again, again, I went from around it, and I said, "Hey, I know this is +I have the short hair like the one guy, and I saw a boy, but I'm a girl, and you know, as well as you like to use a pink dress and sometimes you like to use a comfortable pajamas. +Now, I'm more of the kind of girl in a pajamas. +And that girl looked at me and he said, "My favorite friends is and he has a fish. +Can you give me a for +And that was all it, they just said, "These are you a girl. +What about the that +It was the difficult conversation that I ever had. +And by because the girl of the and I, both were one with the other. +So as many of us, I've lived in some sessions in my life, and yes, often, my walls used to be a +But inside, in the dark, you can't know what color walls. +You just know how one feels living in a closet. +It's like my closet I am not different about you or yours or yours. +I would give you a hundred reasons for why to go out of my closet it was harder to get out of his, but this is the +The hard thing is hard. +Who can tell me that to explain to someone who have declared bank in a broken bank is harder to tell you that it's been +Who can tell me that this story that I tell you is more difficult to say to your five years than you are going to be +There's no more difficult thing to have just hard. +We must stop projecting what we're hard to do about how hard for someone else to make us feel better or worse in relation to our closets and we must only feel empathy because we all live something hard. +At some point in our lives, we all live in and they can make you feel security, or at least more security than the other side of the door. +But I'm here to tell you that it doesn't matter what your walls, a closet is not a place to live. +Thank you. Imagine 20 years ago. +I, who had a horse, a dress and shoes. +It wasn't the lesbian lesbian for the fight for any four years that would go to coffee. +It was frozen for fear, in a corner of my dark closet -- my grenade gay, and the moving one is a muscle is the most scary thing I've ever done. +My family, my whole friends, full strangers I've spent my entire life trying to do not and now the world was turned around to purpose. +He was burning the pages of a script that we've all followed for so long, but if you don't toss that you will kill you." +One of my most memorable launches was in the wedding of my sister. +It was the first time that a lot of the guests knew it was gay, and by doing my lady on my black dress and walked around the tables and finally came to one of the tables and finally came to one where my parents' friends, people who knew me was years old. +And after talking to a moment, one of the women to Nathan +And the battle of the gay story had begun. +Have you ever been in the +"Well, yes, the truth is that we have friends in San +"Well, we've never gone there, but we've heard it is + meet my +It's very good and never talked about having +What is your favorite TV show. +Our favorite program Will and Grace +And you know who us +Jack is our +And then a woman, but instead of going to show you desperately his support, to get me to know that I was on my side, he finally said, "Well, sometimes my husband is using me?" +And I had an opportunity at that moment, like all the + could have been easy to tell where they felt +It's not very hard to find them and realize the fact that they were +And what else can you ask someone, but +If you are going to be authentic with someone, you have to be prepared for the authentic thing that we want. +So this is how hard conversations are still going to be my strong point. +Ask anyone with the ones that I have +But I'm getting better, and I keep doing what I like to call the three principles of the +Now, please see this through the prospect gay perspective, but understand that what involves going out of any closet is essentially the same thing. +Number one: Be authentic. + armor. Be yourself. +That girl in the coffee didn't have armor but I was ready for battle. +If you want someone to be the others needs to know that we do suffer. +Number two: Just your +If you know they're gay, +If they say to your parents who may be gay, they will maintain the hope that that could change. +Don't give them a sense of false hope. +And number three, and more important -- let the complex stuff. +You communicate their truth. +I would never get rid of that. +And some of you can get hurt secure, for what they've done, but I'm never sorry for what they are. +And yes, maybe some will feel but that's something in them, not in you. +Those are the expectations of them about what you are, but not your own. +That's the story of them, but not of you. +The only story that matters is what you want to write. +So the next time you find in a dark problem: a must know that we've all been there before. +And you can feel very themselves, but they're not. +Thank you, Enjoy the + what is that? +If you look at the story of how the intelligence has been seen -- a productive example has been the famous quote by that "The question of if a machine can think of it is as interesting as the question of if a submarine can +When wrote this as a critical thing to the pioneers of computer like Alan +And so a few years ago, we had a program to try to understand the fundamental physical mechanisms of intelligence. +Let's take a step. +We first start with a mental experiment. +Imagine that they are of an alien race that you don't know about the biology of the Earth or the neuroscience of the Earth, but they have incredible telescopes, and you can see the Earth, and they have incredibly long lives, and you can look at the Earth, and they have incredibly long lives, so you can see the Earth for millions, even billions of years. +And you see a very strange effect. +Of course, as we know that the reason is that we're trying to save ourselves. +We're trying to avoid an impact. +But if you're from an alien race that doesn't know anything about this, that it doesn't have any concept about the Earth of the Earth, you would see that to develop a physical theory that explained how to a certain moment in time, the asteroids that will be able to get the surface of a planet, they stop doing it. +And so I claim that this is the same question that understanding the physical nature of intelligence. +So in this program that I conducted a number of years ago, I looked at a variety of issues through science, through various disciplines, that I think, to a single underlying mechanism of intelligence. +In for example, there have been a variety of evidence that our universe seems like to be carefully carefully for development of intelligence, and, in particular, for the development of economic states that we prescribe the diversity of possible future. +Finally, in the of robotic movement, there have been a variety of recent techniques that have tried to harness the skills of robots to maximize the future freedom of action with the end of doing complex tasks. +And so by taking all these different issues and together, I asked them for a number of years, there is a underlying mechanism for intelligence that we can get from all these different +There's only one equation for +And I think the answer is yes. What you're seeing is probably the closest equivalent of a E = for the intelligence that I ever seen. +So what you're seeing here is a claim that intelligence is a strong strength, that acts in order to maximize the future freedom of action. +It acts to maximize the future freedom of action, or keeping the open choices with a T, with the diversity of possible future accessible, and yes, up to an imminent time +In a few words, the intelligence doesn't like it to be +The intelligence is trying to maximize the future freedom of action and keep our choices open. +And so having to account with this equation, it's natural to ask, what can you do with this? +How is it? + the human +Would the intelligence +So I'm going to show you now a video I'm thinking, to show some of the amazing applications of this simple equation. +Narrator: research in cosmology have suggested that the universes that produce more disorder, or during their life should have to have more favorable conditions for the existence of intelligent beings like us. +But what if that connection is between entropy and intelligence -- a more relationship. +What if intelligent behavior is not just correlates with the production of entropy in the long term, but actually it comes directly from it? +To find out, we've developed a software engine called designed to maximize the production of entropy long-term entropy in any system that you can find inside. + could be able to spend multiple animal tests to play human intelligence, and they even make money actions, all of it without being asked to do that. +Here are some examples of in action. +Just like a human standing here we see automatically a pole using a +This behavior is remarkable partly because we never gave it a goal. +He just decided for his mind to balance +This ability to balance will have applications for global robotics and human care technologies. +This ability use tools will have applications in intelligent manufacturing and agriculture. +In addition, just like some other animals can cooperate throwing away on opposite sides of a rope at the same time to release the food, we see that can make a version of the model of that task. +This ability to cooperation has interesting consequences for economic development and in a variety of other fields. + is widely applicable to a variety of +For example, here we have successfully playing a game of against itself, their potential for play. +Here we see new connections in a social network where the friends are constantly and keep the network right on. +This same network of network can also have applications in healthcare, in energy and intelligence. +Here we see organizing the routes of a fleet of boats, which we found successfully and using the Panama Canal to extend its reach from the Atlantic to the Pacific. +In the same way, is widely applicable in defense and logistics and transportation. +Finally, here we see spontaneously discovering and run a strategy in a simulated set of actions, successfully increasing assets under their economic management. +This ability for risk management will have tremendous applications in finance and safe. +Alex What you've seen is that a variety of intelligent cognitive behaviors, such as the use of tools, walking upright and social cooperation, all flow from one equation, which leads to a system to maximize their future freedom of action. +Now, here's a deep +Let's go back to the first term of the term -- the work, there was always the concept that if they were smart machines, there would be a rebellion that if you were smart machines. +Machines are against us. +One of the biggest consequences of this work is that maybe all of these decades, we've had all the concept of rebellion in reverse. +It's not that the machines first become smart and then and try to take over the world. +It's all the opposite, that the impulse to take control of all possible future is a more fundamental principle than the intelligence of intelligence can actually arise out directly from taking control, rather than being backwards. +Another important consequence is the search for goal. +They often ask me, how do you look for goals about this kind of +My equivalent to that statement to go to the descendants of them to help them build artificial artificial intelligence or to help them understand human intelligence, or to help them understand human intelligence, it's the following: intelligence must be seen as a physical process that tries to maximize the future freedom of action and avoid the restrictions in their own future. +Thank you very much. +We're at a tipping point in human history, something between the of the stars and losing the planet that we call +Except, in the last few years, we've expanded our knowledge of how it fits the Earth in the context of the universe. +The Kepler Kepler has discovered thousands of possible planets orbiting other other stars, which points that the Earth is only one between the billions of planets in our galaxy. +Kepler is a space telescope that measures the faint light intensity of the stars when planets go around in front of them, and they jam a little bit of that light to us. +The data gathered by Kepler shows the sizes of the planets in addition to the distance that there are between them and their stem star. +And together, this helps us understand if these planets are small and like the planets on our solar system, and also the amount of light that they get from their +At the time, this gives me clues about whether these planets that we find are habitable or not. +Unfortunately, as we are finding this treasure trove of worlds that are potentially our own planet is under the weight of humanity. +The hottest year was the + and sea ice -- which have been with us from a millennia, now are disappearing in a matter of decades. +These environmental changes that have caused global scale have come over the global scale of our ability to disrupt their course. +But I am not a weather scientist, no +But I study the of the planet influenced by the stars, with the hope of finding places in the universe where to discover life beyond our planet. +You might say that I look for alien opportunities in the property sector. +Now, as someone very interested in the quest for life in the universe can tell you that the more I look for planets like the Earth, more enjoy our own planet. +Each of these new worlds invites a comparison between the newly discovered planet and the planets that we know better -- our solar system. +Let's take our neighbor Mars. +Mars is small and and even though it's a little farther away from the Sun, it can be considered a potentially livable world, demonstrated this by a mission as the Kepler is. +In fact, it's possible that Mars has been habitable in the past, and in part, that's why we study both to Mars. +Our like the are tracking their surface in pursuit of the origins of life as we know it. +The satellites that the like the atmosphere, they take samples from the atmosphere, and they try to understand how Mars has been able to lose their +Business companies now offer not only short space flights but also the possibility of living on Mars. +But even though all these images are remind us of our planet, and places that are linked in our imagination with the ideas, and compared to the Earth, Mars is a pretty terrible place to live. +Let's take the expansion of the areas of our planet that are still left by places that are really -- compared to Mars. +Even in the most dry and higher places on the Earth, the air is cool and full of oxygen by our tropical forests to thousands of miles away. +I worry that this enthusiasm by the colonization of Mars and other planets drag it with a great and sad amount of the implication and the belief that we have to wait for us to save this of the only planet that we know that it's truly the Earth. +For a lot of me like the exploration, I'm deep directly with this idea. +There are a lot of good reasons to go to Mars, but to say that Mars will be there to safeguard humanity is as imagine that the captain of the Titanic will tell us that the captain of Titanic will be later on the Thank you. +But the goals for exploration, and climate preservation is not +No, they are actually faces of the same the goal of understanding, preserve and improve life in the future. +The extreme environments in our world look like aliens. +They are just closer to home. +If we can understand how to create and keep spaces in the hostile areas of the land, we may be able to meet the need to preserve our environment and go beyond that. +Let me leave you with an experiment -- the paradox of +A lot of years, the physicist Enrico Fermi Enrico Fermi asked me to have to realize that our universe has existed for a long time, and we hope that there were many planets in this universe, we should have found evidence of alien life so far. +Well, where are they? +Well, an possible solution to the Fermi paradox is that when civilizations become advanced enough to consider to live between the stars, they lose the notion of how important the origin of the planets is that we have this development. +It's arrogant to think that only colonization we will save us from ourselves, but human preservation and exploration, can work together. +If we really believe in our ability to address the hostile environments of Mars for human presence, then we should be able to overcome the most easy task to preserve the on Earth. +Thank you. +And a few years ago, I was my own house. +And while I was on the front porch looking at my pockets, I realized I didn't have the keys. +In fact, I could see the window that were on the dining table where there were +So quickly tried to open up all the other doors and windows, and they were all right. +I thought I would call a at least I had my cell phone, but midnight, a could take a lot of time to get there, and it was cold. +I couldn't go back home from my friend of Jeff to spend night because I had an early flight in Europe in the next morning, and I took my passport and my bag. + expensive, but they don't have more expensive than a half a half night, so I thought that even though the circumstances, I was very stopped. +I'm a career neurologist and I know a little bit about how the brain works under stress. + who increases your heart rate -- will go down the adrenaline levels and the thinking. +And when I got to the in the airport, I realized I didn't have my passport. +Well, I had a lot of time to think about those eight hours without sleep. +And I started to ask myself, if there was something that I could do, systems that could put in your place, which was going to make bad things happen. +Or at least if it happens, if you get bad things that will be the likelihood that it's a total catastrophe in the core. +So I started thinking about that, but until a month later, my thoughts. +I was having dinner with my colleague Danny who was the Nobel Prize, and a little embarrassed I talked about the window, and that I had forgotten my passport, and I had forgotten my passport, and Danny shared with me that he had been practicing something called retrospective thing. +It's something that he had learned from the psychologist Gary who had written this a few years earlier, known as the +Everybody knows what the is. +Every time there's a disaster, a team of experts come and tries to figure out what went wrong, right? +In like explaining you look forward and tries to figure out all the things that might be wrong, then tries to figure out what it can do to prevent things out or to minimize the damage. +So what I want to talk to you about is some things that we can do in the form of a +Some of them are others are not so evident. +I'm going to start with the obvious. +At the house, it was a place for things that are very easily. +This sounds like common sense, and it is, but there's a lot of science that supports this based on how our space memory works. +There is a structure in the brain called hippocampus, which has evolved over thousands of years, to be tracking the location of the important things, where the fish are all the fish, where the fish are the ones that live trees -- where the tribes and the tribes live and +The hippocampus is the part of the brain that in the in London. +It's the part of the brain that lets the find their nuts. +And if somebody actually did the experiment if someone really did the experiment, they cut it out of the and they still could find their nuts. +They didn't use the smell, but the hippocampus, that very evolved mechanism of the brain to find things. +But it's really good for things that don't move so much, not so good for things that move so much. +This is the reason for losing car keys, reading and +So at home I would take a place for the keys, a hook next to the door, maybe a dish. +For your passport, a particular objection is in it. +To their reading glasses -- a particular +If you go to a place and they are with it -- your things will always be there when the +What about the +Take a phone phone a picture of your credit card card, you're going to be able to drive, passport, you're going to be in the cloud. +If these things lose or it can facilitate the +These are some of the most obvious things. +Remember, when it's under stress, the brain frees up. + is toxic and the thinking. +So some of the practice is to recognize that under stress will not be at the best time, and you have to put the systems on your site. +And there is perhaps not more stressful than when you faced with a medical decision. +And at some point, we will all be in that situation, to have to make a very important decision about the future of our medical care or one to be dear to help them with a decision. +And so I want to talk about that. +And to talk about a very particular medical condition. +But this is like a for all of their medical decisions, and in fact for social decisions and social decisions, any kind of decision that you have to get would benefit from the facts. +So suppose you go to the doctor and the doctor says, "I've got the result of the lab and the cholesterol is a little bit +You all know that high cholesterol cholesterol is associated with a greater risk of heart disease, heart attack to the heart, stroke, +So you're thinking that having high cholesterol cholesterol is not the best, then the doctor says, "I'd like to give you a drug to help you reduce the a +And maybe you have heard about the and you know that it's one of the most drugs in the world today -- even as you might know people who are +So you think, "Yes, +But there is a question that you have to do then, a statistic that you should ask for which most doctors don't want to talk, and companies even less. +It's for the the number necessary to treat. +And what is this, the +It's the number of people who have to take a drug or play a surgery in any medical procedure before you help a person. +And you must think about what kind of statistic is +Number one must be one. +My doctor didn't give me something if it wasn't going to help me. +But actually, medical practice doesn't work like this. +And it's not the guilt of the doctor, and if it's somebody's guilt like me. +We haven't understood very well mechanisms. +But the estimates that 90 percent of drugs works only about 30 percent of the people. +So the number needs to treat the most widely what do you think it is? +How many people have to take it before you help an person? +300. +This according to the research of the cynical researchers and Pamela independently +I was the numbers. +300 people have to take the drug for a year before avoiding a single heart attack, or another event. +Now maybe you think, "Well, one chance in 300 to lower my +Why not the recipe for all +But then you have to ask for a more statistic and it is, of the Right? +For this particular drug, the side effects are produced by five percent of the patients. +And those include physical pain muscle pain and pain -- but now they think, "The five percent is not very likely to happen to me, still take the +But a moment. +You remember under stress don't think clearly. +So think of how to do this with time, so you don't have to make the string of reasoning on the act. +300 people take the drug -- right? A person has taken them five percent of the 300 people have that's 15 people. +You have 15 times more likely to be by the drug that you can help you drug drug. +I'm not saying it or not to take the +I just say you must have this conversation with your doctor. +The medical ethics requires, is a part of the informed consent principle. +We have right to have access to this kind of information to start the conversation about whether you want to take the risks or not. +You're probably thinking that I've launched this number in the air of the crash, but actually this number necessary to treat is quite typical. +For the surgery that you do more than the older men in 50 percent of prostate cancer, the number necessary to treat is +That's what it is, 49 surgeries for a person who has gone in. +And the side effects in that case is produced in 50 percent of the patients. +Those include the helplessness or dysfunction -- +And if you're lucky, and it's one of that 50 percent of the effects only one year or two. +So the idea of the is to think before time the questions that you can make that the conversation forward. +You don't have to make all this on the act. +And they also want to think about the quality of life. +Because you have an option many times, they want a shorter life of pain, or a longer life that might have a lot of pain into the end? +These are the things that they speak and think about now, with their family and their loved ones. +You can change the heat of the moment, but at least you're trained in this kind of thinking. +Remember, our brain releases under stress, and one of the things that happens at that moment is that they turn out a lot of systems. +There's a evolutionary reason for this. +Face the face of the face with a predatory system, you don't need the system, or the or your immune system, because if the body is spending the metabolism on those things, it doesn't react very quickly. You could get lunch for the lions, so none of that matters. +Unfortunately, one of the things that goes through the window during those moments of stress is kind of rational thought, like Danny and his colleagues have been shown. +So we have to think about the future to this kind of situations. +I think the important thing here is to recognize that we are all +We're all going to fail to do that. +The idea is to think about the future of how they might be those to put the systems into the place that will help minimize harm or to avoid the bad things in the first place. +I went to the night of snow in Montreal when I came back from my journey, my contractor and I installed a combination of combination next to the door, with a key to the door, with a key to the entry door in the way, an easy way to remember it. +And I have to admit that I still have lots of cards that I haven't heard of, and lots of messages that I haven't seen. +So I'm not very organized, but I see the organization as a process, and I'm doing it. +Thank you very much. +Interpreter: is my favorite music. +It means playing +If you're playing a musical instrument, you see a in the you need to be +Two even more smooth. +Four extremely smooth. +This is my drawing of a tree of there you see that it doesn't matter how many thousands and thousands of may be, I will never get a complete silence. +That's my current definition of a very dark sound. +I'd like to share a little bit about the history of the American American system, the in addition to a little bit of my own story. +The French sign language came over the decade of 1800, and at the time of time, it mixed with the local lines, and developed the language that we now know as +So it has a story about 200 years. +I was born And I was taught to believe that sound wasn't a part of my life. +And I thought it was true. +However, I realize that it's not true for nothing. +The sounds are a very important part of my life, they really are in my mind every day. +As a person who lives in a sound world, it's like I lived in a foreign country, following blindly their rules, behaviors and norms without +So how do I understand the sound of that? +Well, I see how people behave and respond to the sound. +People are like my speakers and the sound. +It will be and that behavior. +At the same time, I've learned that I can create sound, and I've seen how people +So I've learned for example. +"Don't the +"Don't do a lot of noise by eating the bag of potato +"Not and when you're eating, you don't mean in the +I call this +Maybe I think about the sound label more than the average person does it. +I'm a +And I'm always waiting for the sound, the sound that's for coming next. +From there, this drawing. + +It keeps it going. + for +You can see the doesn't have some notes on the lines. +That's because the lines contain sounds through the subtle and +In the culture, the movement is equivalent to the sound. +This is the signal for in +A typical has five lines. +However, to me, do the self with my thumb so it doesn't feel natural. +That's why I just have four lines on the paper. +In the year 2008, I had the opportunity to travel to Berlin, Germany, for an art there. +Before this time, I had worked like +During this summer, I visited museums and different and while I went from one place to another, I realized that there was no visual art there. +At that time, the sound was the trend and that was called the +There was no visual art, everything was +Now sound has come in my territory of art. +It's going to become more of the art? +I realized it doesn't have to be like this. +In fact, I know the sound. +I know it so well that you don't just experience through your ears. +I can feel it or experience visually, or even as an idea. +So I decided to reclaim sound ownership and focus on my artistic practice. +And everything that had taught me in the sound of the sound, I decided to leave it and +I started to create a new job of work. +And when I presented it to the artistic community, I was with the amount of support and attention that I got. +I realized that sound is like money, power -- the social currency, social currency. +In the bottom of my mind, I always felt that sound was was something a person listener. +And sound is so powerful that it could be to me and my artistic work, or I could tell me. +I chose it to +There's a massive culture around the speech language. +And just because I don't use my literal voice to communicate, the eyes of the society is like it didn't have a voice at all. +So I have to work with people who can support the same way and become my voice. +So I am able to be relevant to the current society. +So in school, I work and institutions, work with a lot of different performers from +And his voice becomes my voice and identity. +They help me be +And their voices have value and weight. +Ironically, when you ask your voices, I am able to keep a temporary form of value on something like taking a loan with a very high interest rate. +If I'm not going to continue with this practice, I feel that it could be in and not have any kind of social value. +So with the sound like my new artistic medium in the music of the music. +And I was surprised to see the similarities between music and +For example, a musical note cannot capture and express all of the paper. +And the same thing can be said to a concept in +The two are very and highly which means that subtle changes can affect all the meaning as much of the signals like the sounds. +I'd like to share with you a metaphor at the piano, so you understand better how the works. +So imagine a piano. + is divided into a lot of different parameters, different ways. +If we a different parameter for every finger while you play piano, like facial expression, the movement, the body movement, the body movement, the shape of the hand, and so while the piano, the English is a linear, English language, as if it gets only one key at once. +However, the is more like a situation -- you need the 10 fingers in the way to express a concept of clear or idea. +If only one key would change the situation would create a completely different meaning. +The same thing happens with music in terms of pitch, and volume. +In by using these different parameters you can be able to express different ideas. +For example, the sign in that." +This is the sign in that." +I'm looking at you. + +Oh, I was +Almost, oh. +What are you +Ah, +So I started thinking, and if I see the through the +If I had to create a sign and it would take it over and over again, it could be like a piece of visual music. +For example, this is the sign of the the sun comes out and +This is all day." +If you get it and the speed, it looks like a piece of music. +All day. +I feel like the same thing can be true. +"All tonight." +This is all night, in this drawing. +And this led me to think about three different kinds of +I feel that the third one has more than the other two. +This represents the time in and how the distance to the body can express the changes in time. +For example, one is a hand, two is two hands, the present one -- it gets closer and in front of the body, the future is in front of the body and the past is on the back. +So the first example is a lot of time." +Then, and the last one, which is my favorite, with a very romantic idea, a dramatic idea at the time, again." + is a musical term with a specific rhythm of +However, when I see the word I think automatically I think automatically +Look at hand left hand. +We have the across the head and the chest. + +Can you do it with me? +All with high hands. +Now we're going to do that as much in your head as the chest, and as well as or +Yes, very well. +That means in the international system. +The international system, as a note, is a visual tool to help communicate in all cultures and signs across the world. +The second one I'd like to show you is this. Please do it with me again. +And now this. +It means in +Now, the third. Please go back again. +And over again. +It's in the +Let's do three together. + and +Good job. +Look at how the three signs are very similar. They all happen in your head and the chest but they transmit very different. +It's incredible to see how the is alive and thriving as music. +However, today, we live in a very world. +And just because the doesn't have sound, it doesn't have a social value. +We have to start questioning what the social value defines and allow to develop their own value, without sounds. +And this could be a step to make a more inclusive society. +And maybe people will understand that you don't have to be deaf, and I don't have to hear music to learn music. + is a rich trove of treasure. +I would like to your ears, open your eyes, to participate in our culture and experience our visual language. +And you never know, they can even fall in love with us. +Thank you. + Hey, that's me. +As a child, my parents would say, "Can you look at everything, but then you have to + involves responsibility. +But my imagination led me to all these wonderful places, where everything was possible. +So I grew up in a bubble of innocence or a bubble of ignorance -- I must say, because adults would lie to protect ourselves from the horrible truth. +When I get older, I found out that the adults also and that they're not very good to clean the other people. +Over time, I am now an adult and teaching citizens and invention in the middle school, Hong Kong. +You don't have to wait much for my students to walk around the beach with lots of crap. +So as good citizens, you know, the beaches, and no, it's not eating alcohol, and if it is, I don't know it. +It's sad to say, but more than 80 percent of the oceans contain plastic. +It's kind of creepy. +And in the last few decades, we've been coming out with these big ships and networks, and we collect those chunks of plastic to actually look at the microscope, and the and this information on a map. +But it lasts for an eternity and it's very expensive and it's also very risky to use those enormous fish. +So along with my students, with ages six to 15 years, we dream to invent a better way. +We've transformed our tiny classroom in Hong Kong in a workshop. +We started building this work for the kids very they can also participate. +And I'll tell you, kids who manipulate electrical tools are very cool and safe. +Not exactly. +Let's go back to plastic. +We collect the plastic and we reduce the size that we find it in the ocean, which is very small, because of its +So we do. +I leave it to the imagination of my students. +My job is to try to take the best ideas of every child and try to focus on something that we hope to work. +We decided that instead of collecting chunks of plastic, just information. +By using a robot, we took a picture of this the children are very excited about the robots. +Then we created very quickly what we call "a +We're so quick in the creation of prototypes that we ended up before lunch. +And it turns out the lights and web cameras and in a floating robot that is slowly moving through the water and the plastic that we have there, and this is the picture captured by the robot. +We see those chunks of plastic floating through the sensor while the computer on board process this image and measure the size of every particle, to get an estimate of the amount of plastic in the water. +It was going to be on a website on a website for inventors called with the hope that someone would get it even more. +The great thing about this project is that the students saw a local problem, and they are trying to be trying to fix them immediately. +I was looking at my problem -- but my students in Hong Kong are very +You see the news, the Internet, and with this +A child, maybe less than 10 years, cleaning a oil spill, only using the hands of the world in the largest forest in the world in Bangladesh. +They were very shocked because this is the water that is the water that the water where they live in the water where they live. +You can also see that the water is brown the mud and the oil also are brown color and when everything is it's very hard to see what there is in the water. +But there is a simple technology called which allows you to see what there is in the water. +We built a first prototype of a which can be driven through all kinds of substances that produce different which can help identify what there is in the water. +We put this prototype with a sensor and we send it to Bangladesh. +The great thing about this project is that beyond solving a local problem, or to analyze a local problem, my students used their empathy and their sense of creativity to help other children. + I looked at a problem with I was forced to do a second experiment, and I wanted to go a little bit further away, maybe even tackle a more difficult problem, and also closer to me. +I am half Japanese and French half and probably remember, in 2011, there was a devastating earthquake in Japan. +It was so violent that it made several giant waves called and those destroy various cities on the east coast of Japan. +Over 14 people died in a second. +It also gives the nuclear power plant in Fukushima, a nuclear power station close to the water. +And today, according to the reports an average of 300 tons are still of the nuclear plant in the Pacific Ocean. +Today, the entire Pacific Ocean has traces of +If we go to the west coast, we can measure radiation radiation everywhere. +But if you look at the map, it seems that most of the radiation is gone, the Japanese coast -- and most of the time, it has a safe, it's blue. +Well, the reality is a little bit more complicated than that. +I've been back to every year from the accident and research in other scientists, the land, the river, and this time we wanted to take the kids. +Of course not the the parents don't +But every night we reported the center of here you see the use of different masks here. +It might seem like they didn't take a serious job, but they did because they're going to have to live with the all your life. +Along with them we discussed the data, that day and we talked about what we were going to do later, the strategies, the and so on. +And to do this, we created a map of the region around the nuclear power plant. +We created the map of to represent data in real time from and water to simulate the rain. +We were able to notice that the radioactive dust is from the summit of the mountain towards the and in the ocean. +It was a +But based on this, we organized a civil expedition the nearest to the date. +We get closer to five miles of the nuclear station, and with the fishermen aid in the area we were collecting sediments from the sea of the sea with a chip of sediment as we invented and we built. +Here we see a we've gone from a local problem to a remote problem to a global problem. +And it's been very exciting to work on these different scales, also with open source technologies and very simple technologies. +But at the same time, it has been increasingly frustrating because we've only been starting to measure the damage that we've done. +We haven't even started trying to solve problems. +I wonder if we should take the jump and try to invent better ways to do all of these things. +So the classroom became a little bit small so we found an industrial installation in Hong Kong and turn it into the largest space dedicated to social impact and environmental impact. +It's in the center of Hong Kong and it's a place where we can work with wood, metal, chemistry, a little bit of biology, basically, can be built almost all over there. +It's also a place where adults and kids can play together. +It's a place where the dreams of children can actually become the help of adults, and where adults can be children again. + + We asked things like, can we invent the future of mobility with renewable energy? +For example. +Or we can help in the mobility of the age of advanced age transforming their standard wheelchair into new vehicles. +The plastic, the oil and are terrible, but the worst legacy we can leave our children are the lies. +We can't afford to protect the children of the horrible truth because we need their imagination to invent the solutions. +So, citizen scientists, creators, we need to prepare the next generation to care about the environment and people, and so that I can actually do something about it. +Thank you. +Two two cultures of radically opposite design. +One is made from thousands of pieces of steel, the other one of a +One of them is synthetic the other organic one. +One is imposes on the environment, the other I needed it. +One is designed by nature, the other one for it. +Michelangelo said that when he looked at the he saw a figure that struggle for being free. + was only a tool of +But living creatures are not +They grow up. +And in the smallest units of life, cells, we have all the information that was required by every cell to work and to make it. +The tools also have consequences. +At least since the Industrial Revolution, the world of design has been dominated by and manufacturing production. + lines have dictated a world made of parts, the imagination of designers and architects, to think of their objects, as parts of different parts of different ways. +But you don't find of material in nature. +Think about human skin, for example. +Our facial skins are thin with pores +The skins of the back are with little +You act primarily like the other mainly as a barrier, and yet, it's the same there's no there's no +It's a system that vary gradually its functionality by variation in +Here's a divided screen, which represents my view of the world -- the double personality of every designer and architect to work on the and the gene, between the assembly and the gene, between the assembly and the organism, between Henry Ford and Charles Darwin. +These two visions of the world, my left hemisphere and the right, analysis and synthetic analysis -- it shows on the two screens after me. +My job at the simplest level, it tries to bring these two visions of the world, moving from assembly and coming to the growth. +You probably ask yourself, why do you now? +Why wasn't it possible about 10 or even five years? +We live in a very special moment in history, a very special moment, where we were doing four disciplines that give designers access to the tools that we had never had access before. +And at the intersection of these four fields, my team and I create. +Please meet the minds and my hands of my students. +We design objects, products, structures and tools and tools across scales, in scale, like this robotic arm with a reach of 24 meters in diameter with a base, which someday not to print buildings and graphics made from genetically altered that glow in the dark. +Here we have the an archetype of the ancient Arab architecture and has created a screen where every opening is size to shape the form of light and heat through it. +In our next project, we explored the possibility of creating a layer and a -- this was for a fashion fashion fashion with they're going to be It's like a second skin made from one piece, in the flexible around the waist. +Together with 3D printing we print this layer and 3D between the cells -- I'll show you more objects like that. +This helmet combines and soft materials in the resolution of 20 +This is the resolution of a human hair. +It's also the resolution of an MRI scanner, too. +And that designers have access to this analytical analytical for the instruments that allow us to design products that are not only the shape of our bodies, but also the physiological structure of our tissues. +We've also designed a acoustic chair a chair at the same way, and also it absorbs sound. +The Carter professor, my collaborator came back to nature for and to design this pattern -- it becomes + this surface of 44 different properties that vary in and color, to the pressure points in the human body. +Their surface, like in nature, vary its functionality not by addition to another material or another but continuously and the material property. +But it's the nature. +There are no parts in nature? +I wasn't raised in a Jewish house, but when I was young, my grandmother told me about the Bible and one of them came to me and came to define a lot of what it matters. +As she said, "In the third day of the God sent the Earth to grow a tree +For that first tree, it would have no difference between trunk, branches, leaves and +The whole tree was a +Instead, the land has made trees grow trees with twigs, cortex, water and flowers. +The earth created a world made of parts. +I often ask myself, "What would be the design if objects made it out of a +Tell a better state of the +So we looked for the material -- the kind of tree of the tree of the tree -- with fruit, and we found it. +The second in the planet is called and about 100 million tons to produce every year for organisms like shrimp, and crab, and +We think that if we could tune their property, we could generate structures in one piece. +So that's what we did. +We call it a legal We asked a lot of and and produced + the chemical concentrations -- we've been able to achieve a wide range of properties, from hard and to light, soft and transparent. +To print the large-scale structures that was built a system with multiple +The robot was able to vary the properties of the material and create these structures made of a single material for a long material -- 100 percent recyclable percent. +When the pieces are lists, it leaves it dry to find a natural way to the contact with the air. +So why do we keep designing with +The air bubbles that were a byproduct of the printing process that were used to contain that came up for the first time on the planet making a billion years ago, as we heard yesterday. +Together with our collaborators at Harvard and MIT, bacteria designed to capture basically carbon from the atmosphere and turn it into sugar. +For the first time, we have been able to generate structures that make their transition with no problems with and if it grows even more to windows. +A tree +Working with an ancient material, one of the first forms of life on the planet, with abundant water and a little bit of synthetic biology, we've transformed a structure made of in an architecture that behaves like a tree. +And here is the best part: for objects that are designed for put in the sea, life and placed on the ground, will help grow a tree. +The fit for our next exploration using the same design principles was the solar system. +We're looking for the possibility of creating clothes to keep the life for the +To do that, we must dominate the bacteria and control their flow. +So like the board, we did our own table, new forms of life created made and +I like to think of synthetic biology, like liquid just that instead of metals -- new biological into very small channels. +This field is called + our own 3D channels to control the flow of these crops. +And in our first piece of clothing, we had two microorganisms. +The first is +He lives in our oceans and in the ponds of fresh water. +And second, E. the bacteria that in the human intestine. +A light turns into sugar, the other consumes sugar and produces useful biofuels for the built environment. +But these two don't interact in nature. +In fact, never +They're here, designed for the first time, to have a relationship in a piece of clothes. +Think of it as evolution, not by natural selection, but evolution by design. +In order to contain these relationships, we've created a only channel that looks like the tract of that will help you get these bacteria and to make their function as well. +And so we started to grow those channels in the human body, and they will make the properties of the material of material according to the functionality that is +If we wanted more +This system, when it stretches out of one end to another, it is 60 meters. +This is half the length of a soccer camp and 10 times more than our own little +And here it is, as at TED, our first channels -- bright channels with life inside the clothes. +Thank you. +Mary said, "We are dead creatures, only half is +What if design would get the other +And if we could create structures that increase the +And if we could create personal that we prescribe our skin, our heart tissue and our +Think of this as a way to edit biology. +I call this the material ecology. +For that, you always have to go back to nature. +So now, you know that a 3D printer does it 3D +You also know that nature doesn't do this. + with +This cocoon of for example, creates a highly architecture within which it was + will not be about this level of +It does it through the combination of two materials, but two proteins in different +A acts like structure, the other is the glue or the matrix, comparing those fibers to each other. +And this happens across scales. +The silk worm first turns into the environment, creates a structure, and then it starts to a cocoon of compression. +The tension and the two forces of life, they manifest themselves in a single material. +In order to understand better how this complex process, we attach a small magnet to the head of a silk worm to the +We put it into a box with magnetic sensors, and that allowed us to create this cloud of points in three dimensions and visualize the complex architecture of the silk worm. +However, when you put the silk worm in a flat patch -- not inside a box, we realized that it was a flat, flat cocoon and still +So we started to design different different and we've discovered that the form, the composition, the structure of the it was transmitted directly through the environment. +You often have the silk worms to death within their their silk is and it's used in the industry. +We saw that designing these templates we could shape the raw silk without boiling a single +It was and we could create these things. +So we climbed this process up to the architectural scale. +We had a robot. +We knew that silk worms to the most dark areas and so we use a solar path diagram to reveal the distribution of light and the heat in our structure. +And so we create holes or to block the rays of light and heat, and color worms over the structure. +We were ready to get +We asked of silk to a online silk farm. +And after four weeks, they were ready to be prepared with us. +We put them carefully at the bottom edge of the and as they were they would put eggs, and life starts again, like us, but much, much faster. + Fuller said the tension is the great integrity, and he was right. +Al biological silk about give all this pavilion through their integrity. +And in a little more than two or three weeks, it was +In a curious symmetry, this is also the length of the silk route. + after the produce 1.5 million eggs. +This could be used for 250 extra in the future. +So here are the two visions of the world. +A silk arm, the other full empty arm. +If the last frontier of the design is to give the products and the buildings around us, to form an ecology of two materials, designers must bring these two views in the world. +What it takes us around, of course, at the beginning. +Here's a new era of design, a new age of the creation, that brings us from a inspired design in nature to a nature inspired by design, which demands us, for the first time, that we make ourselves in charge of nature. +Thank you. +Thank you very much. Thank you. +Hands up if you've ever asked you "What do you want to be +If you had to remember how old they had when you first asked this? +You can do it with your fingers. +Three. Five. Three. Five. Five. +Now, raise your hand if you ask the question, "What do you want to be +It has caused some kind of anxiety. +Any anxiety. +I'm somebody who could never answer the question, "What do you want to be +The problem wasn't that I didn't have any interest, but I had +In the school I liked English, the and the art and the art and the arts and then he was playing the guitar in a punk band called +Maybe you've heard about us. +And in general, I like to test and persist anyway, for having spent a lot of time and energy and sometimes money in this field. +But with time this feeling of boredom, this feeling of, this is no longer a challenge, it comes to +And I have to let it go. +But then I was struck by something else, something that's totally different, and I was excited about it, and I will get me to absorb and feel I've found it and then again this point where I start to +And finally, I want to move on. +But then I'd like to discover something new and different, and I'd like to go into that. +This pattern caused me a lot of anxiety, for two reasons. +The first one was because I wasn't sure how I was going to turn all this into a career. +I thought I had to choose one thing, to deny all of my other passions and to +Another reason why I had so much anxiety was a little more personal. +I was worried that there was something wrong with this, and something bad for me for not at all. +I was worried that I was afraid of commitment, or being overwhelmed or or my own success. +If you can relate to my story and these feelings, I would like to ask you something that I'd like to have asked you then. +It will be where they learned to allocate the meaning of evil or abnormal to make things. +Let me tell you where the they learned about the culture. +You know, ask us, "What do you want to be +When we have about five years. +And the truth is that nobody cares about that age. +It's considered a naive question to make nice answers in children like, or or want to be + the here. +So this question makes us over and over again as we grow in a different way, to high school students are asking you to pick up in college. +And at some point, "What do you want to be +It happens to be the cute exercise before what makes us sleep. +Why? +If this question is inspired by kids to dream about what they might be, not inspired to dream of everything they might be. +In fact, it does just the opposite, because when someone asks you what you want to be, you can't answer with 20 different things, but even a good thing -- maybe you're going to be and say, "Oh, what cute, but you can't be and +You've got to +This is Dr. Bob and he's a and +And this Amy editor turned into teacher and +But most kids don't hear about people like this. +All the ones you hear is they are going to have to choose. +But it's more than that. +The notion of life is very in our culture. +It's this idea of fate or the real calling that every one of us has something to do what you spend during your time on this land, and you have to figure out what that thing and dedicate your life to it. +But what if you're somebody who is not connected to this way? +What if there are a lot of different issues that show their curiosity and lots of different things that want to do? +There is no place for someone like one in that frame. +And so you can feel alone. +You can feel it doesn't have a goal. +And I feel like there's something wrong with one. +There's nothing wrong with you. +You're a +A is someone with a lot of interests and creative activities. +This is a breath that I say. +It could help if you divide three parts: multiple potential and +You can also use other terms that we would make the same idea, like +During the Renaissance time, the ideal was the fact that I was good at in multiple disciplines. +Barbara refers to us as +You know, whatever they like or you or +It seems like a kind of adapt to a community, we cannot agree with a single identity. +It's easy to see the as a limitation or that you have to win. +But what I've learned to talk about with people and writing about these ideas on my website, is that there is huge strengths in being this way. +Here are three superpowers +One: synthesis of ideas. +I mean, the combination of two or more fields and creation of something new in the intersection. + and Rachel their interests shared on cartography, visualization of data, travel, mathematics and design, when I found + is a company that creates artificial + and Rachel came up with this unique idea for his mixture of skills and experiences. +Innovation is happening at intersections. +And then the new ideas. +And the with all their background, can be able to get a lot of these points of intersection. +The second factor, is hard learning. +When the are interested in something, we go to it. +We looked at everything we can have in our hands. +We're used to being by having been a lot of times in the past, and this means we have less afraid to test new things and come out of our comfort. +A lot of skills are to other disciplines, and we bring everything that we have learned to every new area that we need to do, so we rarely start from zero. + is a full-time and independent man. +As a child girl, an incredible ability to develop muscle memory. +Now, she is the fastest known as this. +Before it became writer, was a huge financial decline. +He had to learn the most thin retail mechanics when they started their practices, and this ability to write the compelling launches for the editors. + is rarely a waste of time to get to what you can do -- even if at the end of the end of it. +Is it possible to apply that knowledge in a completely different field, in a way that you couldn't have +The third superpower, is the adaptability. That is the ability to turn into anything you need in a situation. + is sometimes the director of videos, other digital pages, sometimes riding from Kickstarter, sometimes teacher, and, sometimes, as James +It's valuable because it does a good job. +He is even more valuable because it can take different depending on the needs of your clients. + Company defines adaptability as the most important skill for development to thrive in the 21st century. +The economic world changes as quickly and that are the individuals and organizations that can be able to be able to meet the market needs to be the ones that really + of ideas, fast learning and three skills where the are very and three skills that you could lose if they're to reduce their targets. +As a society, we have a huge interest in encouraging them to be themselves. +We have complex problems, right now, and we need creative thinkers not to deal with them in front of them. +Let's say they are, in your heart, specialists. + the belly knowing that, because they wanted to be Jackson +Don't worry, there's nothing wrong with you either. +In fact, some of the best teams make a specialist and a +The doctor can dive deep and put on ideas, and provides a amplitude of knowledge to the project. +It's a beautiful relationship. +But we should all design lives and careers that are connected to how we are connected. +And unfortunately, the in a large part of them will tell them to just be more like their +I once said that, if there is one thing that you take from this talk, I hope that it is this: with inner whatever. +If you're a heart specialist then, you know, all the media. +That's where you will give the best of it. +But for the in the room, including those who just had to realize is one of them in the last 12 minutes, I say, with your many passions. +Follow his curiosity for those +Let's see the intersections. + our internal leads to a more authentic and happy. +And perhaps most importantly, the world is +Thank you. +In the year a woman called they took a psychiatric + and I couldn't remember even the most basic details of your life. +His doctor was called + I didn't know how to help but for her, until unfortunately passed away from +After his death, did a glimpse and found strange and weird plates in the brain of a guy who never had seen before. +The most amazing thing is even more amazing. +If we had been living today, we could have been living today, we could not give her more help than the one that he did -- he gave him years ago. + was Dr. Alzheimer's disease. +And the first patient to get a diagnosis that we now call Alzheimer's disease. +From medicine has advanced a lot. +They've discovered antibiotics and vaccines to protect ourselves from the many treatments for cancer, antiretroviral drugs for HIV, for and much more. +But shortly has been made on the treatment of Alzheimer's disease. +I am a part of a team of scientists working to find a cure for Alzheimer's for more than a decade. +So I think about this all the time. +Alzheimer's now affects 40 million across the world. +But by 2050, it will affect 150 million that, by the way, to include many of you. +If you expect to live at 85 years or more, the possibility of Alzheimer's disease will be almost one of each two. +In other words, there is the likelihood that you have to spend their years to have Alzheimer's disease or helping to take care of a friend or to be dear with Alzheimer's. +In America, health care costs 200 billion dollars every year. +One of five dollars of healthcare is spends in Alzheimer's disease. +Today it's the most expensive disease and its costs per five times in the year by 2050, as the generation of the boom. +It may surprise you, but Alzheimer's is one of the greatest doctors and social challenges of our generation. +But it's done relatively little to +Today, one of the first 10 causes of death around the world, Alzheimer's is the only one that cannot be able to cure or even slow down their development. +We understand less than Alzheimer's than other diseases, because we've invested less time and money in the research itself. +The U.S. government spends 10 times more every year in the cancer cancer that in Alzheimer's disease, despite the fact that it costs us more Alzheimer's and because of a annual number of deaths as cancer. +The lack of resources is due to one more fundamental cause, the lack of consciousness. +Because this is what little people knows, but everyone else -- Alzheimer's disease is a disease, and we can +For most of the last years, everybody, even scientists, with aging. +We think that will be in a normal and inevitable part of aging. +But you only have to look at a picture of a healthy brain compared to the one of a Alzheimer's patient to see the real physical damage caused by this disease. +In addition to trigger a severe memory of memory and mental skills, the damage to the brain caused by Alzheimer's reduction significantly life expectancy and it's always deadly. +Remember, Dr. Alzheimer's found plates and strangers in the brain of a century. +For almost a century, we didn't know a lot about this. +Today we know that they are made of protein molecules. +You can think of a protein molecule like a piece of paper that folds up like an origami. +There are places in the paper that are +And when it folds up, these silent dots end up inside. +But sometimes things go wrong, and some of the are left in the outside. +So this makes the protein molecules each other, forming groups that can form big plates and +That's what we see in the brain of patients with Alzheimer's disease. +We've spent the last 10 years at Cambridge University trying to understand how this works. +There are a lot of steps, and the identification of which block is complex, as a bomb. +You can do a cable + others can make the bomb +You have to find the right step that it is done, and then create a drug that does it. +Until recently, most of the wires have been reduced and expected the best. +But now there's a diverse group of people, doctors, biologists, chemicals, physical, engineers, engineers, and mathematicians. +And together, we have managed to identify a critical step in the process. You are now testing a new kind of drugs that block specifically this step to stop the disease. +Let me show you some of our last results. +No one outside our lab has seen it yet. +Let's look at a few videos of what happened when we test these drugs in +These are the healthy and you can see it +These maggots, on the other hand, have molecules of protein that stick with each other within them, like humans with Alzheimer's. +And you can see that they're clearly sick. +But when we give our new drugs to these worms at an early stage, then we see it and they live a normal life. +This is just a positive outcome, but the research as this shows that Alzheimer's is a disease that we can understand and cure. +After years of wait, there's a real hope of what can be achieved in the next 10 or 20 years. +But to grow that hope, from overcoming Alzheimer's disease, we need help. +It's not about scientists like me, it's about you. +We need to convince ourselves that Alzheimer's is a disease and that if we can calculate it, we can +In the case of other diseases, the patients and their families have mastered more research and pressure on governments, industry and +That was essential to move in HIV treatment at the late 1980s. +Today we see that same unit to overcome cancer. +But Alzheimer's patients often can't speak for themselves. +And their families, the hidden, of their loved ones day and night, are often too much to go out and advocate for change. +So, it really depends on you. +Alzheimer's is not in most cases a genetic disease. +Everybody with a brain runs the risk. +Today, there are 40 million patients like who can't create the change that they need for themselves. + talking about them, and help to demand a cure. +Thank you. +I put this article on the New York Times column, in January of this year. +To fall in love with someone, do this. +The article is a spiritual study designed to create romantic love in the lab, and of my own experience when I tried to test it as a night last summer. +So the procedure is quite simple: Two strangers are to get 36 questions more and more and more and more and then you look at the eyes without talking for four minutes. +Here's a couple of questions of example. +Number If you could wake up tomorrow with a quality or skill, which would be? +Number When was the last time you would die for another person? +And + that are increasingly +Number three: really me to your partner what you like to or her, I know very honest at this time, and I gave things that you don't say to someone you've ever met. +When I came across this study a few years ago, a little detail really struck me, the gadget that two of the participants had married six months later and invited everything from the lab to +So, it was about this process of making romantic love, but of course, it was also +And when I had a chance to test this study with someone who knew not particularly well, I didn't expect to +But nonetheless, and -- -- and I thought it was a good story, so I send it to the column of the column for a few months later. +That was published in January, and now it's so I suppose some of you probably ask, keep together +And the reason I think that's question this is because I've done this question over and over again in the last seven months. +And this question is just what I want to talk about today. +But let's go back to that. +One week before the paper was I was very nervous. +I had been working on a romantic book in the last few years, so I had told me to write about my experience in romantic love on my blog. +But a blog input can come to a few hundred views like a lot, and those were usually only from my Facebook friends and imagined that my article in the New York Times would probably have a few different backgrounds. +And that came up with a good burden of attention into a relatively new relationship. +But it didn't have a clue. +The article was published on a Friday at night, and on Saturday, this happened on the traffic of my blog. +And the Sunday, I had been called Today and Good +In one month, the article received over eight million views, and I was like, to say something, little prepared for this kind of attention. +One thing is to foster trust writing very carefully about own experience, but another thing is to discover that the loving life of one has international news -- and that people all over the world are really interested in the state of your new relationship. +And when people call it, or I was writing what they did every day for weeks, always, they were doing the same question: still follow together? +In fact, when I was preparing this talk, I did a quick search for the mailbox of my email with the phrase, keep +And several messages came up immediately. +They were from students and journalists and weird strangers like this. +I was interviewed on radio and +Even, I gave a talk, and a woman screamed at the stage, "Hey where is your +And I immediately got red. +I understand this is a part of the deal. +If you write about your relationship in an international journal, you should expect people to feel comfortable asking about it. +But I wasn't prepared for the wingspan of the answer. +The 36 questions seemed to have life. +In fact, the New York Times published an article called for San which included the experiences of readers when we test the study in them with different degrees of success. +So, my first impulse to all this attention was really with my own relationship. +I said not to every petition that both of us did a public onset together. +He interviews, and he refused orders for two of us two. +I think I was afraid to become the icons of the process, a range for which I didn't feel at all +And I understand that people didn't want to know only if the study worked, they wanted to know if it really was, if I was able to make love not just an adventure, but real love, love +But this was a question I didn't feel like to respond. +My relationship had just a few months, and I felt about everything, that people made the wrong question. +How do you know if they were going to go together or not, and also +If the answer was no, it would make the experience of doing these 36 questions. +Dr. Arthur wrote first about these questions in this same study in 1997. And there was the goal of the researcher was not to produce romantic love. +Instead of that, I was looking for interpersonal between college students, using what they called and +Sounds romantic, right? +But the study worked. +The participants were felt more close after doing a number of the later protocol as well as a quick way of creating trust and interaction between strangers. +They have used it between members of the police and the community, and they have used it among people in opposite people. +The original version of the story, which I tested last summer, and that combines personal questions with four minutes of visual contact, it was cited in this article -- but unfortunately it never happens. +A few months ago, I was giving a talk about a little liberal arts university, and then a student came up to me and told me with the studio and didn't work. +He seemed for it. +And I said, "You want to say that you would fall from the person who you do it. +Well he did a pause. +I think she just wants us to be friends. +I said, but they became better friends? + that they did get better known to test the +The +So, I said. +But I don't think that was the answer that he was looking for. +In fact, I don't think it's the answer that neither of you is looking for when it comes to love. +I stumbled across the study for the first time when I was 29, and I was going through a really difficult separation to me. +I had that relationship since I had 20, which was probably my first adult life, and he was my first true love, and he had no idea how or I could live without it. +So I went to the science. +I did everything I could find about the science of romantic love, and I expected that kind of the heart. +I don't know if I realized this at the moment, I thought I only looked for the book that I was writing for, but in retrospect, it seems really +I thought that if I built up with the knowledge of romantic love, I would never have to feel as bad and used as I felt like then. +And all this knowledge has been useful in one way or another. +I'm more patient with love. I'm more +I have more trust to demand what we would expect. +But I can also see me more clearly, and I can realize that what I'm looking for, is sometimes more than reasonably likely to demand me. +What I'm looking for of love is an not just about being today and to be tomorrow, but to keep being from the person I love. +It may be that this is the guarantee that people asked when they wanted to know if we were still together. +The story that the media told about the 36 questions is that there may be a shortcut to +There may be a way to mitigate some sort of mitigate the and this is a very scary story because they fall in love to feel beautifully, but it's also terrifying. +But I think when it comes to love, we're very willing to accept the short version of the story. +The story of the history that asks, still follow together? +And his content with an answer with a Yes or No. +So more than a question, you know, let's ask more questions, questions like, how do you decide who your love deserves and who doesn't? +How do you stay in love when things go and how do you know when to cut and +How do you live with the uncertainty that inevitably leads to a relationship? +I don't know the answers to these questions, but I think they're a good start to have a more controversial conversation about what to love somebody. +So, if you want the brief version of my relationship, it's a year ago, a known one, and I applied a study designed to create romantic love, we still get together, and I'm very +But fall in love is not the same as being + is the easy part. +So at the end of my article. Love didn't happen. + fell in love because we take the choice to be. +And I a little bit when I read it now, not because it's not true, but because at the moment, there was no considered everything that a choice was supposed to do. +It didn't mean how many times we would have both to make that decision, and how many times it will have to keep that choice without knowing before he always chose or not. +I want it to be enough to have done and responded 36 questions, I have chosen to love someone so generous, and fun and have expressed that choice in the largest daily newspaper. +But what I've done, instead, is to convert my relationship to the kind of myth that I don't think of. +And what we and what maybe will spend my life looking for is that that myth is true. +I want the very happy ending implicit in the title of my article which is, by the way, the only part of the article that I didn't really written. +But what I have in change is the opportunity to love someone, and the hope that he also love, and it's but that's the deal with love. +Thank you. +I was raised by a lesbian full mountain, and in a way, I got a in the forest. + One of the city in New York makes a while. So something really affected me, but more details later on. +I'm going to start with when I was eight years old. +I took a box of wood, and you put it a ticket for a dollar, a pen and a fork in one place in Colorado. +And I thought that some or a few aliens would find this box about 500 years later and how our sort of ideas, for example, how we eat +I had no idea. +Anyway, it has fun because I am, 30 years later, and I'm still making boxes. +At one point, I was in like to go from and doing and all of those things and I was doing a collage of my mother. +And I took a dictionary and I took it all the pages and I made a kind of to the style Agnes Martin, the covered in and a bee +Well, my mother has a fear of bees and it is to them, so I put more on the canvas, thinking that I could +Instead, it was the opposite of it, somehow it looked like it grew up as size, as if it was to play the text with a +So I did I built more boxes. +This time, I started to add electronic elements, frogs strange bottles that I could find on the street, everything I could find, because I was looking for things all my life, trying to and tell stories about these objects. +So I started drawing around the objects, and I realized that God can draw in space. +I can flow -- I can flow like this, and I can flow like you do about a body in the crime scene. +And I took the objects and I created my own taxonomy of specimens +First of all, we will be able to make an idea. +Then I did some insects and weird creatures. +It was very much fun to draw in the layers of +And it was great, because I started building exhibitions and stuff, and I was earning some money, to take my girlfriend for dinner, for example, going to +It was great man. +At some point I became interested in human form, sculptures of the natural size of human beings in layers. +It was cool, except for one thing: I was +I didn't know what to do, because the resin was going to kill me. +And I was going to bed every night thinking about it. +So I tried to use glass. +So I started drawing on the glass layers, similar to the drawing on a window, and then on another window, and another window, and he had all these windows together that they put together a three-dimensional composition together. +And this really worked, and so I could stop using +So I did this for years, and my work with something really big -- which I call +For the I was inspired by a lot in "The garden of which is a painting at the Museum of in Spain. +You know? +Well, it's a fantastic picture. +They say it's a little bit ahead of your time. +Well, the this piece. +It weighs 11 pounds. +5.5 feet long. +It has double face, so it's 10 meters of composition. +It's kind of weird. +Well, that's the source of blood. +On the left is Jesus and +There's a cave where all these creatures with the heads of animals travel between two worlds. +You're going on the world of to this mesh where you get +So here is where creatures with animals are run by lists to suicide mass in the ocean. +The ocean is comprised of thousands of elements. +This is a bird tied to a +Billy Graham is in the The -- the platform of the the Osama +Anyway, also a kind of +It's coming out of the ocean, and it spits out oil in a hand while the other hand is coming out of it. +Their hands are like and it looks like a mythological being that keeps the Earth and the cosmos in balance. +So it's a +It's a little bit of a story. +That's the hand that we +And then, when you go to the other hand, you have a like a bird's and it spits out clouds of this +It also has a 5.5 percent tail. +Anyway, his tail turn on the on a +I don't know why it happened. +Things that go, you know. +His tail ends up in a made from punch cards. +They have +It was made in the 1980s, as if they were baseball cards of the terrorists. +It takes me to my last project. +I'm in the middle of two One is called +This is a six-year-old project to make 100 of these human beings. +And each one is an archive of our culture, through media and material and material or magazine or magazines. +But each of you acting as a kind of file in a form of human being, and they travel in groups of 20, four or 12 at once. +They're like cells, they come together, +And you can walk between them. It's getting years. +Each one is basically a microscope which weighs 1.3 pounds of a human being stuck inside. +This has a little cave in the chest. +That's the it's it can be +I will accompany you for the rest of the body -- there's a waterfall that comes out of the chest, and it covers the penis or or whatever you have, a kind of thing. +It's a quick review of these works because I can't afford it for a long time. +We have layers, you can see. +This is a game in half. +This has two heads -- and it's communicating between the two. +There's some pills that go out and come into the head of this strange statue there. +There's a little ice scene inside the chest +Can you be +Anyway, this talk is about these just like the boxes that we live in. +We're in a box, the solar system is a box. +This brings me to my last box. +It's a box. It's called +Within this box is a physicist, a neuroscientist, a musician, a musician, a musician, a musician, a musician, a radio, a musician, a arm that spreads all the content that we do in the world -- and a garden. +We put the box and all the people in it hits each other like particles. +And I think that's the way to change the world. +When you who is and the box that it's living in. +And together we got to realize that we're all together in this, that this illusion that we are different, these concepts of the countries of the borders, the religion, it doesn't work. +We're all very made out of the same matter and in the same box. +And if we don't start trading those things with sweet and we all are going to die very soon. +Thank you very much. +What do they do when they hurts your head? +They take a +But for this pill to have effect against pain, first passes through the stomach, the guts and other organs. +You take a pill is the most effective, and system so that any drug is going to be in your body. +The though, is the any drug +And this is a big problem, especially in HIV patients. +When you take drugs that serve the amount of viruses in blood, and you will increase the heart of stem cells. +But they are also known by their side effects on its world, because in time that they take it to the current -- you get and worse for the time that they take it to their fate, which is where it's more important, in the of HIV. +These are regions in the body like the nodes -- the nervous system, the lungs, where the virus is and it cannot easily be in the blood flow of patients that are to regular drug therapy with antiretroviral drugs. +However, after the of treatment, the virus can wake up and infect new stem cells. +This is the great deal of HIV treatment with the current drugs that is a treatment of life that is oral +One day, I sat down, and I thought, "You know, make the treatment directly to the warehouse of the virus, without the risk of of +As a scientific expert in the answer was in front of me, the of course. +If you used to be used in for wounds and surgery, they can be used for anything else, including the transport transport of drugs. +In fact, we're using pulses of laser to open or drill extremely small holes, which opens up and closing the cells that are infected with HIV to introduce drugs. +The best people ask, "How is that +We sent a little laser beam and laser on the cell membrane that these cells are embedded in a liquid that contains the drug. +The laser passes through the cell, while the cell absorbs the drug in a matter of +Before you even notice the hole is +We're testing this technology in vitro or in plates, but the goal is to bring this technology into the human body, apply it to the human body. +"How is that you can ask. +Well, the answer is: through a device of three heads. +With the first head, which is our laser, we're going to do a in the place of infection. +The second head, which is a camera, it goes into the site of infection. +Finally, the third head, a we store it directly in the site, as the laser is used again to keep the cells open. +Well, this doesn't seem a lot of time. +But one day, if it's successful, this technology can lead to the eradication of HIV in the body. +Yeah. A cure for HIV. +This is the dream of all research researcher in our case, a laser treatment. +Thank you. +Over the last decade, I've been studying armed groups, like terrorists, insurgents or +They're going to do what these groups do when they're not +My goal is to understand better to these agents of violence and study ways to encourage the transition from violent involvement to the confrontation not violent. +I do work work, in the world of politics and +Understanding these groups is key to solving most conflict in course, because the war has changed. +It used to be an dispute between states. +Not anymore. +Now it's a conflict between the states and non-state actors. +For example, of the peace deals between 1975 and 2011, was signed between a state and a non-governmental actor. +So we have to understand these we have even or in any process of successful conflict resolution. +But how do you do that? +We need to know what motivates these organizations. +We know very good for the reasons why they do it, but no one is looking at what they do when they don't exist. +The armed struggle and policies are not armed with it. +It's all part of the same organization. +We can't understand these groups, not much less without a global vision. + groups are organizations. +For example, the known for his violent against Israel. +From its creation in the 1980s, the has also established a political game, a network of social services and a military system. +Likewise, the Palestinian met by their suicide attacks against Israel, also runs the of Gaza since 2007. +So these groups make more than simply shooting. +They're multitasking +It was going to be a complex machinery of communication, radio stations radio channels and websites and Internet websites and strategies in social media. +And here's the magazine magazine in English and published for +Living groups are also investing in a complex fundraising fund without but by using business -- for example, construction companies. +These are a key thing. +They allow these groups to increase their strength, increase their funds, to recruit better and build their brand. + groups also make something else: create stronger ties with their population investing in social services. +They build schools -- they run hospitals, they put their professional training programs or programs. + offers all these services and more. + groups are also trying to conquer the population by offering something that the state didn't develop security and protection. +The rise of Taliban in an Afghan Afghanistan -- the war or even the beginning of the can also understand the efforts of these groups for delivering security. +Unfortunately, in these cases, security has an elevated price for the population. +But in general, providing social services means to fill a void, a divide, gap by the government, and allow these groups to strengthen and increase their power. +For example, the electoral victory of 2006 from Palestinian Hamas cannot be understood by the social work of the group. +It's a really complex scenario -- even in the West, when we look at groups, we just think about the violent side. +But that's not enough to understand the strengths of these groups, the strategy or long-term vision. +These groups are + because they fill in gaps by government, and emerge like groups, and political groups, participating in the violent struggle and provide governance. +And the more complex and the more complex are these organizations, we can have a little bit less like it to a state. +How do you call a group like +It was part of a territory, and they run all their function, collect the garbage, you run the system. +It's a state? It's a group. +Or maybe it's something else, something new and different. +And what is +The lines are +We live in a world of states, and we live in a world of nations and hybrids and the more weak states, like in the Middle East today, more accurate, and they fill that gap the non-state actors. +This is important for governments, because to counter these groups will have to invest more in the digital tools. + that government vacuum has to be at the center of any sustainable approach. +This is very important to set up and put the peace. +If we understand better groups -- we'll understand what incentives will offer to foster the transition from violence to violence. +In this new dispute between states and actors are not the military power can make some battle, but not to give peace and stability. +In order to achieve these goals we need long-term investments to fill that security vacuum to fill that security vacuum that allowed these groups to thrive in a principle. +Thank you. +I'm a failure as a woman and as a feminist. +My opinions on gender equality are but I'm afraid to accept openly the label would be unfair for +I'm but pretty bad. +And so I was excited about as a bad feminist. +Or at least I wrote an article and a book called "The and then on interviews, people started to call me +So what started as a personal joke meant to me and a has become a little bigger. +Let me take a step back. +When I was young, especially in my youth and 20 years old, I had strange ideas about the these women with men and hate sex. Like if that was bad. +Today, I see what are the women all around the world and anger, in particular, looks like a perfectly reasonable response. +But at the time, I was worried about the tone that I was using people to that could be a feminist. +Being labeled as a feminist was a a taboo and unpleasant word. +I was as a woman who doesn't follow the rules, who ask too much, with high self-worth and dare to believe that it's equal or superior to a man. +No one wants to be that woman until he realizes that it's actually that woman, and it can't imagine being another person. +Over time, as I was growing up, I started to accept that I am, in fact, feminist, and also proud to be. +For me, certain claims are women are equal to men. +It was the same wages for the same work. +We have a right to travel around the world as free or violence. +We have a right to use easy and accessible the contraceptives and services +We have the right to decide about our bodies, without needing or doctrines to +We have the right to respect. +There's more. +When you talk about the needs of women, we need to have to account our other +We're not just women. +We're people with a different body, expression of gender, religion and social skills, skills and so much more. +We need to have the difference and how we behave in the same way that matters what we have in common. +Without this kind of our Feminism is nothing. +For me, these truths are but to be clear: I'm a disaster. +I'm full of contradictions. +There's a lot of things that make me a bad feminist. +I have another confession. +When I go to work, I hear rap music to all volume. +Although the letter degrades to the women and deep -- the classic of the yin is amazing. +Do you really get your shirt + until you hit the +Think about it. +You know, poetry, right? +I'm completely overwhelmed by my musical evidence. +I firmly believe in the work of man, which is everything I don't want to do, -- all the but also killing insects, the of the and maintenance of +I don't want to have anything to do with that. +The rose is my favorite color. + of fashion magazines, and nice things. +I can see "The and the and I have erotic fantasies about the fairy tales, which make you happen. +Some of my crimes are more +If a woman wants to adopt the name of his husband, it's his choice, and I'm not who to be +If a woman decides to stay home to raise their kids, I accepted that choice, too. +The problem is not that it becomes economically vulnerable through this same choice, the problem is that our society is so that it makes women economically vulnerable when they + this problem. +And the conventional Feminism that has ignored or historically the needs of color women, the workers, gay workers, and and for white, + if that's good Feminism -- I'm a very bad feminist player. +It also happens this: As a feminist, I feel a lot of pressure. +We have this tendency to put memory in a +We hope that we would turn it right. +When we get older, we take a lot of taste from the same where the +As I said, I'm a I think of that before you try to put in there. + women, particularly innovative and the leaders of the sector, are afraid to be as +They are afraid to stand up and say, "Yes, I am for fear of what it means to be able to be able to be able to be able to be able to be able to be able to be able to be able to be able to be able to be able to be able to be able to be able to be able to achieve +Let's take or like I call them, +In the last few years, it's a feminist feminist story. +In Music in 2014, in in front of the word +It was a show of looking at this star of the pop star embrace the feminism and to make young men and young men who will be feminist is something to be proud of. + the time, the cultural critics started arguments if it was it was not quite feminist. + his feminism, instead of simply believing the word of an adult woman and + perfection is because we're still fighting for a lot, we want a lot, we need so +We go so much beyond sensible criticism and to feminism of any woman, until there is nothing left. +We don't need to do that. +The bad feminism, or more well, one feminism is the point of +But what happens next? +We went from to recognize our to give them the action and be a little bit more brave. +If I listen to music, I am creating a demand for artists that would be more happy to provide a living supply of it. +These artists will not change their way of talking about women in their songs until they make it change affecting the change affecting their profit. +It's certainly hard. +Why has his music to be so +It's hard to choose something better and so easy to justify a worse choice. +But when bad decisions are allowed to allow it to be more difficult for women to achieve equality, equality that we all deserve and is our responsibility. +I think of my three and four years. +It's two girls and and brilliant and also very brave. I want you to grow up in a world. +And where they were excited by the strong creatures that they are. +I think of them, all of a sudden, the best choice is going to be as something much easier to do. +We can all make better decisions. +We can change the channel when a television program is about sexual violence against women like sport, the play. +We can change the radio radio when we listen to songs that treat women like anything. +We can spend our money to go to the cinema elsewhere when movies don't treat women more than like objects. +We can stop supporting professional sports where athletes treat their classmates like +In any case, men, especially white men can say, "No, I'm not going to publish his magazine, to be in his project, or work with you, until it doesn't have a number of enough women, both to participate in how to make decisions. +I'm not going to work with you until your or your organization is more with a wider range of people in the people." +Those of us who are but they will be able to participate in this kind of projects, we can also engage them to be including more like us to be able to overcome the barriers to the decision making. +We are no longer Without these efforts, without embracing these our achievements are going to mean very little. +We can make these little courage of bravery and hope that our decisions will come to the top, people in the power of the power and movie producers and music, the the people who can make great decisions, more courageous, to create a meaningful and meaningful change. +We can also tell the courage with the courage -- good, bad, or any +The last line of my book, says, will be a bad feminist is not to be a +This is true because of a lot of reasons, but I tell you about everything, because the old voice was to me, and Feminism helped me +There was one incident. +I call it incident to deal with what happened. +And a few kids would tell me when I was very young, and I didn't know kids can do this to a girl. +They were treated as if it was nothing. +I started to believe that it was nothing. +It was going to be my voice, and after everything I didn't bother to believe I could say something that might matter. +But I was writing. +And I went back to +I was in a stronger version of myself. +The words of those women who could understand a story like mine, and the women who looked like mine, and they knew what meant living in this world if you have brown skin. +The words of women who showed me that wasn't nothing. +I learned to write like them, and then I learned how to write like myself. +I found my voice again, and I started to believe that my voice is powerful beyond what you can measure. +Through writing and feminism, also found that if it was a little brave another woman could hear me and see me and realize that none of us is the nothing that the world is about telling us that we are. +In one hand, I have the power to achieve anything. +And in the other, I was my reality that I'm just a woman. +I'm a bad generalization I'm a good generalization I'm trying to improve my way to think, what I mean and what I do, without abandon everything that makes me human. +I hope that we can all do the same thing. +I hope that we can all be a little courageous, when you need to be a +Just after Christmas last year, kids in California had measles to have been visited by being visited -- or being exposed to someone who had been there. +The virus then went through the border with Canada, over 100 children in +One of the things about this outbreak is that measles that can be terrible for a child with an immune system, is one of the most readily disease in the world. +There is an effective vaccine against this for more than half a century -- but many of the kids involved in the outbreak hadn't been vaccinated because their parents were afraid of something that was supposed to be +But a moment, it was not the article that unleashed the argument about autism, and vaccines were and marked by being an fraud fraud by the British Medical School. +It doesn't believe most intelligent scientists that the theory that is causing autism is a +I think most of you know, but millions of parents around the world are still that vaccines will put in danger to their children with autism. +Why? +Here's why. +This is a graph of the rise of autism increase in time. +For most of the 20th century, autism, considered a very rare disease. +The few psychologists and assume that I had heard about her create a whole professional life without seeing one case. +For decades, the prevalence of prevalence followed a stable only three or four children per 100,000. +But then, in the 1990s, the numbers started to + of fundraising as refer to autism as an epidemic as if I could catch another child in +What's going on? +If you're not the vaccines, what is it? +If you ask people about the Center for Disease Control from Atlanta -- what's going on, tend to be based on phrases like diagnostic -- and a better detection detection to explain these figures +But that kind of language not a lot of the fears of a young mother looking for the face of his two-year-old son. +If the diagnostic criteria they had to do -- why were they so reduced to the beginning? +Why were the cases of autism so difficult to find out before the decade of +Five years ago, I decided to figure out the answers to these questions. +I learned that what happened has less to do with the slow progress and of science that with the power of storytelling. +For most of the 20th century, doctors told a story about what autism, and how it discovered, but that story turned out to be fake, and the consequences of the same are having a devastating impact on global public health. +There was a second most accurate story of autism that had been lost and forgotten in the dark corners of the clinical literature. +This second story tells us everything about how we got here and where we need to go. +The first story starts with a child psychiatrist I read Leo Leo at Johns Hopkins Hospital. +They could have fun for hours by waving for their hands on their faces, but they were prey from panic for like when they didn't put their favorite toy in their usual place without knowing them. +The base of the patients treated in their clinic, that autism is very rare. +For the 1950s, as the main authority of the world in the subject, I declared that there were seen less than 150 true cases of their syndrome, while they would make of places as distant as South Africa. +This is really no wonder, because the criteria for the diagnosis of autism were very +For example, giving up that diagnosis of children with but now we know that epilepsy is very common in autism. +Once he was that he had become nine of 10 children sent for other doctors to his doctor's office, without giving them a diagnosis of autism. + was a smart man, but part of his theories were not + autism as a form of sexual caused by cold, cold lives. +These kids, he said, they have been very carefully at a fridge that I don't know. +At the same time, though, I noticed that some of his young patients had special skills that cluster in certain areas like music, math and memory. +One of the kids in their clinic could distinguish between 18 before I turned two years. +When his mother put one of his favorite records he said, +But had a bad opinion of these skills, stating things like the kids were simply what they had heard of their parents -- desperate to make their approval. +As a result, autism became a source of shame for families, and two generations of autistic children were sent to institutions for their own good, becoming invisible to the world in general. +Amazingly, it wasn't until the 1970s that researchers started to test the theory of that autism was weird. + a U.S. cognitive psychologist. I thought the theory of mothers from was pretty stupid. +She and her husband John was warm and and they had a deep autistic daughter called + and John knew how hard it was to raise a child as no support services, without special education, and without access to other resources without a diagnosis. +To defend the National Service Service, they needed more resources for autistic children and their families, and his fellow Judith Gould decided to do something that should have done 30 years ago. +They launched a study of autism prevalence in the general population. +It was a suburb of London called to try autistic children in the community. +What you saw was that the model was too limited, because the fact of the autism actually was much more and diverse people. +Some kids couldn't speak at all, while others were in their fascination by astrophysics, in dinosaurs or in the genealogy of +So in other ways, these kids didn't go into the little frames and like and they saw a lot of them, much more than the model of would have predicted. +At first, they were lost by trying to make sense of their data. +How did no one didn't realize these children before? +But then I was I found a reference to an article published in German in the next year to the article -- and then he turned down, buried under the cinders of a terrible time that nobody wanted to remember. + I knew about this article of competition, but I stopped in his own work. +There was not even a translation of the English, but luckily, the husband of spoke German, and he did it for her. +The paper is offering a alternative story of autism. +His author was a man named Hans who ran a integrated clinic with a boarding school in Vienna, in the 1930s. + ideas for teaching children with learning differences were even for standards. +The morning in their clinic started with music, and the kids followed their games on Sunday afternoon. +Instead of blaming the parents of causing autism, described as disability for life that required forms of support and spaces during the course of life. +Instead of treating children in their clinic as patients called the their little teachers, and he took them to help in the development of education methods that were especially right for them. + saw autism as a diverse continuum that included an amazing variety of gifts, and disabilities. +He believed that autism, and autistic features were common, and they always been, looking at aspects of this continuum of in the pop culture like awkward social scientist and Professor +He was beyond even to say, that for success in science and art, a hint of autism is critical. + and Judith found that he was wrong when autism was as well as the parents were the +Over the next few years, they worked as a silence with the American Association of to expand the criteria of the diagnostic that they called the diversity of what they called +At the end of the 1980s and early '90s, their changes in the limited model of by a wide and inclusive. +These changes didn't fell in a broken + when I and Judith worked with me to reform these people all over the world to see a autistic child for the first time. +Before I was going to come up with in 1988, just a little circle, I knew about experts knew what it was like autism, but after the and and with four awards from the psychologists and parents all over the world knew what it was. +At the same time, they were introduced first clinical tests to use to diagnose autism. +It wasn't supposed to have a connection with that little circle of experts to get a diagnosis for his son. +The combination of changes in the criteria and the introduction of these tests created a net effect on the consciousness of autism. +The number of diagnoses started to the same way they predicted and in fact they were expected to be out there, making the people with autism, and their families finally the support and services that are +So Andrew came to blame vaccines for the increase in and a simple, history as bad as theory that autism was +If the current estimate of the preventing one of every 68 children in the United States are in the spectrum, it's right, are one of the largest groups in the world. +In the last few years, people are connected on the Internet to refuse the idea that the puzzles is to solve for new medical advances -- the term to celebrate strains of human cognition. +A way to understand is to think in terms of human operating systems. +The fact that a PC doesn't work with it doesn't mean it's broken up. +According to the standards, the normal human brain is easily social and it suffers from a attention deficit to the details. +Certainly people are struggling to live in a world not built for them. +70 years later, we're still reaching that creates the for the most aspects of autism are found in the understanding of teachers, employers with ability, and parents to support, and parents with the potential for their children. +A autistic woman named once said, "We need all the hands on cover for the +As we went into an uncertain future, we need all the forms of human intelligence on the planet to deal with the challenges that we face as a society. +We can't afford to lose a brain. +Thank you. diff --git a/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/outputs/test_outputs_local_q1.txt b/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/outputs/test_outputs_local_q1.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..336d936 --- /dev/null +++ b/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/outputs/test_outputs_local_q1.txt @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +It's a true story -- every bit of this is true. +Soon after Tipper and I left the -- (Mock sob) White House -- we were driving from our home in Nashville to a little farm we have 50 miles east of Nashville. +Driving ourselves. +I know it sounds like a little thing to you, but -- I looked in the rear-view mirror and all of a sudden it just hit me . There was no motorcade back there. diff --git a/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/outputs/test_outputs_local_q2.txt b/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/outputs/test_outputs_local_q2.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..336d936 --- /dev/null +++ b/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/outputs/test_outputs_local_q2.txt @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +It's a true story -- every bit of this is true. +Soon after Tipper and I left the -- (Mock sob) White House -- we were driving from our home in Nashville to a little farm we have 50 miles east of Nashville. +Driving ourselves. +I know it sounds like a little thing to you, but -- I looked in the rear-view mirror and all of a sudden it just hit me . There was no motorcade back there. diff --git a/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/run.py b/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/run.py new file mode 100644 index 0000000..4f56eef --- /dev/null +++ b/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/run.py @@ -0,0 +1,351 @@ +#!/usr/bin/env python3 +# -*- coding: utf-8 -*- + +""" +CS224N 2019-20: Homework 5 +run.py: Run Script for Simple NMT Model +Pencheng Yin +Sahil Chopra +Kuangcong Liu + +Usage: + run.py train --train-src= --train-tgt= --dev-src= --dev-tgt= --vocab= [options] + run.py decode [options] MODEL_PATH TEST_SOURCE_FILE OUTPUT_FILE + run.py decode [options] MODEL_PATH TEST_SOURCE_FILE TEST_TARGET_FILE OUTPUT_FILE + +Options: + -h --help show this screen. + --cuda use GPU + --train-src= train source file + --train-tgt= train target file + --dev-src= dev source file + --dev-tgt= dev target file + --vocab= vocab file + --seed= seed [default: 0] + --batch-size= batch size [default: 32] + --word-embed-size= word embedding size [default: 256] + --hidden-size= hidden size [default: 256] + --clip-grad= gradient clipping [default: 5.0] + --log-every= log every [default: 10] + --max-epoch= max epoch [default: 30] + --input-feed use input feeding + --patience= wait for how many iterations to decay learning rate [default: 5] + --max-num-trial= terminate training after how many trials [default: 5] + --lr-decay= learning rate decay [default: 0.5] + --beam-size= beam size [default: 5] + --sample-size= sample size [default: 5] + --lr= learning rate [default: 0.001] + --uniform-init= uniformly initialize all parameters [default: 0.1] + --save-to= model save path [default: model.bin] + --valid-niter= perform validation after how many iterations [default: 2000] + --dropout= dropout [default: 0.3] + --max-decoding-time-step= maximum number of decoding time steps [default: 70] + --no-char-decoder do not use the character decoder +""" +import math +import sys +import pickle +import time +import re + +from docopt import docopt +from nltk.translate.bleu_score import corpus_bleu, sentence_bleu, SmoothingFunction +from nmt_model import Hypothesis, NMT +import numpy as np +from typing import List, Tuple, Dict, Set, Union +from tqdm import tqdm +from utils import read_corpus, batch_iter +from vocab import Vocab, VocabEntry + +import torch +import torch.nn.utils + +from nltk.tokenize.treebank import TreebankWordDetokenizer + +def evaluate_ppl(model, dev_data, batch_size=32): + """ Evaluate perplexity on dev sentences + @param model (NMT): NMT Model + @param dev_data (list of (src_sent, tgt_sent)): list of tuples containing source and target sentence + @param batch_size (batch size) + @returns ppl (perplixty on dev sentences) + """ + was_training = model.training + model.eval() + + cum_loss = 0. + cum_tgt_words = 0. + + # no_grad() signals backend to throw away all gradients + with torch.no_grad(): + for src_sents, tgt_sents in batch_iter(dev_data, batch_size): + loss = -model(src_sents, tgt_sents).sum() + + cum_loss += loss.item() + tgt_word_num_to_predict = sum(len(s[1:]) for s in tgt_sents) # omitting leading `` + cum_tgt_words += tgt_word_num_to_predict + + ppl = np.exp(cum_loss / cum_tgt_words) + + if was_training: + model.train() + + return ppl + + +def compute_corpus_level_bleu_score(references: List[List[str]], hypotheses: List[Hypothesis]) -> float: + """ Given decoding results and reference sentences, compute corpus-level BLEU score. + @param references (List[List[str]]): a list of gold-standard reference target sentences + @param hypotheses (List[Hypothesis]): a list of hypotheses, one for each reference + @returns bleu_score: corpus-level BLEU score + """ + if references[0][0] == '': + references = [ref[1:-1] for ref in references] + bleu_score = corpus_bleu([[ref] for ref in references], + [hyp.value for hyp in hypotheses]) + return bleu_score + + +def train(args: Dict): + """ Train the NMT Model. + @param args (Dict): args from cmd line + """ + train_data_src = read_corpus(args['--train-src'], source='src') + train_data_tgt = read_corpus(args['--train-tgt'], source='tgt') + + dev_data_src = read_corpus(args['--dev-src'], source='src') + dev_data_tgt = read_corpus(args['--dev-tgt'], source='tgt') + + train_data = list(zip(train_data_src, train_data_tgt)) + dev_data = list(zip(dev_data_src, dev_data_tgt)) + + train_batch_size = int(args['--batch-size']) + + clip_grad = float(args['--clip-grad']) + valid_niter = int(args['--valid-niter']) + log_every = int(args['--log-every']) + model_save_path = args['--save-to'] + + vocab = Vocab.load(args['--vocab']) + + model = NMT(word_embed_size=int(args['--word-embed-size']), + hidden_size=int(args['--hidden-size']), + dropout_rate=float(args['--dropout']), + vocab=vocab, no_char_decoder=args['--no-char-decoder']) + model.train() + + uniform_init = float(args['--uniform-init']) + if np.abs(uniform_init) > 0.: + print('uniformly initialize parameters [-%f, +%f]' % (uniform_init, uniform_init), file=sys.stderr) + for p in model.parameters(): + p.data.uniform_(-uniform_init, uniform_init) + + vocab_mask = torch.ones(len(vocab.tgt)) + vocab_mask[vocab.tgt['']] = 0 + +# device = torch.device("cuda:0" if args['--cuda'] else "cpu") + device = torch.device("cuda:0" if torch.cuda.is_available() else "cpu") + print('use device: %s' % device, file=sys.stderr) + + model = model.to(device) + + optimizer = torch.optim.Adam(model.parameters(), lr=float(args['--lr'])) + + num_trial = 0 + train_iter = patience = cum_loss = report_loss = cum_tgt_words = report_tgt_words = 0 + cum_examples = report_examples = epoch = valid_num = 0 + hist_valid_scores = [] + train_time = begin_time = time.time() + print('begin Maximum Likelihood training') + + while True: + epoch += 1 + + for src_sents, tgt_sents in batch_iter(train_data, batch_size=train_batch_size, shuffle=True): + train_iter += 1 + + optimizer.zero_grad() + + batch_size = len(src_sents) + + example_losses = -model(src_sents, tgt_sents) # (batch_size,) + batch_loss = example_losses.sum() + loss = batch_loss / batch_size + + loss.backward() + + # clip gradient + grad_norm = torch.nn.utils.clip_grad_norm_(model.parameters(), clip_grad) + + optimizer.step() + + batch_losses_val = batch_loss.item() + report_loss += batch_losses_val + cum_loss += batch_losses_val + + tgt_words_num_to_predict = sum(len(s[1:]) for s in tgt_sents) # omitting leading `` + report_tgt_words += tgt_words_num_to_predict + cum_tgt_words += tgt_words_num_to_predict + report_examples += batch_size + cum_examples += batch_size + + if train_iter % log_every == 0: + print('epoch %d, iter %d, avg. loss %.2f, avg. ppl %.2f ' \ + 'cum. examples %d, speed %.2f words/sec, time elapsed %.2f sec' % (epoch, train_iter, + report_loss / report_examples, + math.exp(report_loss / report_tgt_words), + cum_examples, + report_tgt_words / (time.time() - train_time), + time.time() - begin_time), file=sys.stderr) + + train_time = time.time() + report_loss = report_tgt_words = report_examples = 0. + + # perform validation + if train_iter % valid_niter == 0: + print('epoch %d, iter %d, cum. loss %.2f, cum. ppl %.2f cum. examples %d' % (epoch, train_iter, + cum_loss / cum_examples, + np.exp(cum_loss / cum_tgt_words), + cum_examples), file=sys.stderr) + + cum_loss = cum_examples = cum_tgt_words = 0. + valid_num += 1 + + print('begin validation ...', file=sys.stderr) + + # compute dev. ppl and bleu + dev_ppl = evaluate_ppl(model, dev_data, batch_size=128) # dev batch size can be a bit larger + valid_metric = -dev_ppl + + print('validation: iter %d, dev. ppl %f' % (train_iter, dev_ppl), file=sys.stderr) + + is_better = len(hist_valid_scores) == 0 or valid_metric > max(hist_valid_scores) + hist_valid_scores.append(valid_metric) + + if is_better: + patience = 0 + print('save currently the best model to [%s]' % model_save_path, file=sys.stderr) + model.save(model_save_path) + + # also save the optimizers' state + torch.save(optimizer.state_dict(), model_save_path + '.optim') + elif patience < int(args['--patience']): + patience += 1 + print('hit patience %d' % patience, file=sys.stderr) + + if patience == int(args['--patience']): + num_trial += 1 + print('hit #%d trial' % num_trial, file=sys.stderr) + if num_trial == int(args['--max-num-trial']): + print('early stop!', file=sys.stderr) + exit(0) + + # decay lr, and restore from previously best checkpoint + lr = optimizer.param_groups[0]['lr'] * float(args['--lr-decay']) + print('load previously best model and decay learning rate to %f' % lr, file=sys.stderr) + + # load model + params = torch.load(model_save_path, map_location=lambda storage, loc: storage) + model.load_state_dict(params['state_dict']) + model = model.to(device) + + print('restore parameters of the optimizers', file=sys.stderr) + optimizer.load_state_dict(torch.load(model_save_path + '.optim')) + + # set new lr + for param_group in optimizer.param_groups: + param_group['lr'] = lr + + # reset patience + patience = 0 + + if epoch == int(args['--max-epoch']): + print('reached maximum number of epochs!', file=sys.stderr) + exit(0) + + +def decode(args: Dict[str, str]): + """ Performs decoding on a test set, and save the best-scoring decoding results. + If the target gold-standard sentences are given, the function also computes + corpus-level BLEU score. + @param args (Dict): args from cmd line + """ + + print("load test source sentences from [{}]".format(args['TEST_SOURCE_FILE']), file=sys.stderr) + test_data_src = read_corpus(args['TEST_SOURCE_FILE'], source='src') + if args['TEST_TARGET_FILE']: + print("load test target sentences from [{}]".format(args['TEST_TARGET_FILE']), file=sys.stderr) + test_data_tgt = read_corpus(args['TEST_TARGET_FILE'], source='tgt') + + print("load model from {}".format(args['MODEL_PATH']), file=sys.stderr) + model = NMT.load(args['MODEL_PATH'], no_char_decoder=args['--no-char-decoder']) + + if args['--cuda']: + model = model.to(torch.device("cuda:0")) + + hypotheses = beam_search(model, test_data_src, + beam_size=int(args['--beam-size']), + max_decoding_time_step=int(args['--max-decoding-time-step'])) + + if args['TEST_TARGET_FILE']: + top_hypotheses = [hyps[0] for hyps in hypotheses] + bleu_score = compute_corpus_level_bleu_score(test_data_tgt, top_hypotheses) + print('Corpus BLEU: {}'.format(bleu_score * 100), file=sys.stderr) + + with open(args['OUTPUT_FILE'], 'w') as f: + for src_sent, hyps in zip(test_data_src, hypotheses): + top_hyp = hyps[0] + detokenizer = TreebankWordDetokenizer() + detokenizer.DOUBLE_DASHES = (re.compile(r'--'), r'--') + hyp_sent = detokenizer.detokenize(top_hyp.value) + # hyp_sent = ' '.join(top_hyp.value) + f.write(hyp_sent + '\n') + + +def beam_search(model: NMT, test_data_src: List[List[str]], beam_size: int, max_decoding_time_step: int) -> List[List[Hypothesis]]: + """ Run beam search to construct hypotheses for a list of src-language sentences. + @param model (NMT): NMT Model + @param test_data_src (List[List[str]]): List of sentences (words) in source language, from test set. + @param beam_size (int): beam_size (# of hypotheses to hold for a translation at every step) + @param max_decoding_time_step (int): maximum sentence length that Beam search can produce + @returns hypotheses (List[List[Hypothesis]]): List of Hypothesis translations for every source sentence. + """ + was_training = model.training + model.eval() + + hypotheses = [] + with torch.no_grad(): + for src_sent in tqdm(test_data_src, desc='Decoding', file=sys.stdout): + example_hyps = model.beam_search(src_sent, beam_size=beam_size, max_decoding_time_step=max_decoding_time_step) + + hypotheses.append(example_hyps) + + if was_training: model.train(was_training) + + return hypotheses + + +def main(): + """ Main func. + """ + args = docopt(__doc__) + + # Check pytorch version + assert(torch.__version__ >= "1.0.0"), "Please update your installation of PyTorch. You have {} and you should have version 1.0.0".format(torch.__version__) + + # seed the random number generators + seed = int(args['--seed']) + torch.manual_seed(seed) + if args['--cuda']: + torch.cuda.manual_seed(seed) + np.random.seed(seed * 13 // 7) + + if args['train']: + train(args) + elif args['decode']: + decode(args) + else: + raise RuntimeError('invalid run mode') + + +if __name__ == '__main__': + main() diff --git a/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/run.sh b/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/run.sh new file mode 100644 index 0000000..c20a088 --- /dev/null +++ b/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/run.sh @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +#!/bin/bash + +if [ "$1" = "train" ]; then + CUDA_VISIBLE_DEVICES=0 python run.py train --train-src=./en_es_data/train.es --train-tgt=./en_es_data/train.en \ + --dev-src=./en_es_data/dev.es --dev-tgt=./en_es_data/dev.en --vocab=vocab.json --cuda +elif [ "$1" = "test" ]; then + mkdir -p outputs + touch outputs/test_outputs.txt + CUDA_VISIBLE_DEVICES=0 python run.py decode model.bin ./en_es_data/test.es ./en_es_data/test.en outputs/test_outputs.txt --cuda +elif [ "$1" = "train_local_q1" ]; then + python run.py train --train-src=./en_es_data/train_tiny.es --train-tgt=./en_es_data/train_tiny.en \ + --dev-src=./en_es_data/dev_tiny.es --dev-tgt=./en_es_data/dev_tiny.en --vocab=vocab_tiny_q1.json --batch-size=2 \ + --valid-niter=100 --max-epoch=101 --no-char-decoder +elif [ "$1" = "test_local_q1" ]; then + mkdir -p outputs + touch outputs/test_outputs_local_q1.txt + python run.py decode model.bin ./en_es_data/test_tiny.es ./en_es_data/test_tiny.en outputs/test_outputs_local_q1.txt \ + --no-char-decoder +elif [ "$1" = "train_local_q2" ]; then + python run.py train --train-src=./en_es_data/train_tiny.es --train-tgt=./en_es_data/train_tiny.en \ + --dev-src=./en_es_data/dev_tiny.es --dev-tgt=./en_es_data/dev_tiny.en --vocab=vocab_tiny_q2.json --batch-size=2 \ + --max-epoch=201 --valid-niter=100 +elif [ "$1" = "test_local_q2" ]; then + mkdir -p outputs + touch outputs/test_outputs_local_q2.txt + python run.py decode model.bin ./en_es_data/test_tiny.es ./en_es_data/test_tiny.en outputs/test_outputs_local_q2.txt +elif [ "$1" = "vocab" ]; then + python vocab.py --train-src=./en_es_data/train_tiny.es --train-tgt=./en_es_data/train_tiny.en \ + --size=200 --freq-cutoff=1 vocab_tiny_q1.json + python vocab.py --train-src=./en_es_data/train_tiny.es --train-tgt=./en_es_data/train_tiny.en \ + vocab_tiny_q2.json + python vocab.py --train-src=./en_es_data/train.es --train-tgt=./en_es_data/train.en vocab.json +else + echo "Invalid Option Selected" +fi diff --git a/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/sanity_check.py b/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/sanity_check.py new file mode 100644 index 0000000..0a4f1aa --- /dev/null +++ b/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/sanity_check.py @@ -0,0 +1,185 @@ +#!/usr/bin/env python3 +# -*- coding: utf-8 -*- + +""" +CS224N 2019-20: Homework 5 +sanity_check.py: sanity checks for assignment 5 +Usage: + sanity_check.py 1e + sanity_check.py 1h + sanity_check.py 2a + sanity_check.py 2b + sanity_check.py 2c +""" +import json +import math +import pickle +import sys +import time + +import numpy as np + +from docopt import docopt +from typing import List, Tuple, Dict, Set, Union +from tqdm import tqdm +from utils import pad_sents_char, batch_iter, read_corpus +from vocab import Vocab, VocabEntry + +from char_decoder import CharDecoder +from nmt_model import NMT + + +import torch +import torch.nn as nn +import torch.nn.utils + +#---------- +# CONSTANTS +#---------- +BATCH_SIZE = 5 +EMBED_SIZE = 3 +HIDDEN_SIZE = 4 +DROPOUT_RATE = 0.0 + +class DummyVocab(): + def __init__(self): + self.char2id = json.load(open('./sanity_check_en_es_data/char_vocab_sanity_check.json', 'r')) + self.id2char = {id: char for char, id in self.char2id.items()} + self.char_pad = self.char2id[''] + self.char_unk = self.char2id[''] + self.start_of_word = self.char2id["{"] + self.end_of_word = self.char2id["}"] + +def question_1e_sanity_check(): + """ Sanity check for to_input_tensor_char() function. + """ + print ("-"*80) + print("Running Sanity Check for Question 1e: To Input Tensor Char") + print ("-"*80) + vocabEntry = VocabEntry() + + print("Running test on a list of sentences") + sentences = [['Human', ':', 'What', 'do', 'we', 'want', '?'], ['Computer', ':', 'Natural', 'language', 'processing', '!'], ['Human', ':', 'When', 'do', 'we', 'want', 'it', '?'], ['Computer', ':', 'When', 'do', 'we', 'want', 'what', '?']] + sentence_length = 8 + BATCH_SIZE = 4 + word_length = 12 + output = vocabEntry.to_input_tensor_char(sentences, 'cpu') + output_expected_size = [sentence_length, BATCH_SIZE, word_length] + assert list(output.size()) == output_expected_size, "output shape is incorrect: it should be:\n {} but is:\n{}".format(output_expected_size, list(output.size())) + + print("Sanity Check Passed for Question 1e: To Input Tensor Char!") + print("-"*80) + +def question_1h_sanity_check(model): + """ Sanity check for model_embeddings.py + basic shape check + """ + print ("-"*80) + print("Running Sanity Check for Question 1h: Model Embedding") + print ("-"*80) + sentence_length = 10 + max_word_length = 21 + inpt = torch.zeros(sentence_length, BATCH_SIZE, max_word_length, dtype=torch.long) + ME_source = model.model_embeddings_source + output = ME_source.forward(inpt) + output_expected_size = [sentence_length, BATCH_SIZE, EMBED_SIZE] + assert(list(output.size()) == output_expected_size), "output shape is incorrect: it should be:\n {} but is:\n{}".format(output_expected_size, list(output.size())) + print("Sanity Check Passed for Question 1h: Model Embedding!") + print("-"*80) + +def question_2a_sanity_check(decoder, char_vocab): + """ Sanity check for CharDecoder.forward() + basic shape check + """ + print ("-"*80) + print("Running Sanity Check for Question 2a: CharDecoder.forward()") + print ("-"*80) + sequence_length = 4 + inpt = torch.zeros(sequence_length, BATCH_SIZE, dtype=torch.long) + logits, (dec_hidden1, dec_hidden2) = decoder.forward(inpt) + logits_expected_size = [sequence_length, BATCH_SIZE, len(char_vocab.char2id)] + dec_hidden_expected_size = [1, BATCH_SIZE, HIDDEN_SIZE] + assert(list(logits.size()) == logits_expected_size), "Logits shape is incorrect:\n it should be {} but is:\n{}".format(logits_expected_size, list(logits.size())) + assert(list(dec_hidden1.size()) == dec_hidden_expected_size), "Decoder hidden state shape is incorrect:\n it should be {} but is: {}".format(dec_hidden_expected_size, list(dec_hidden1.size())) + assert(list(dec_hidden2.size()) == dec_hidden_expected_size), "Decoder hidden state shape is incorrect:\n it should be {} but is: {}".format(dec_hidden_expected_size, list(dec_hidden2.size())) + print("Sanity Check Passed for Question 2a: CharDecoder.forward()!") + print("-"*80) + +def question_2b_sanity_check(decoder): + """ Sanity check for CharDecoder.train_forward() + basic shape check + """ + print ("-"*80) + print("Running Sanity Check for Question 2b: CharDecoder.train_forward()") + print ("-"*80) + sequence_length = 4 + inpt = torch.zeros(sequence_length, BATCH_SIZE, dtype=torch.long) + loss = decoder.train_forward(inpt) + assert(list(loss.size()) == []), "Loss should be a scalar but its shape is: {}".format(list(loss.size())) + print("Sanity Check Passed for Question 2b: CharDecoder.train_forward()!") + print("-"*80) + +def question_2c_sanity_check(decoder): + """ Sanity check for CharDecoder.decode_greedy() + basic shape check + """ + print ("-"*80) + print("Running Sanity Check for Question 2c: CharDecoder.decode_greedy()") + print ("-"*80) + sequence_length = 4 + inpt = torch.zeros(1, BATCH_SIZE, HIDDEN_SIZE, dtype=torch.float) + initialStates = (inpt, inpt) + device = decoder.char_output_projection.weight.device + decodedWords = decoder.decode_greedy(initialStates, device) + assert(len(decodedWords) == BATCH_SIZE), "Length of decodedWords should be {} but is: {}".format(BATCH_SIZE, len(decodedWords)) + print("Sanity Check Passed for Question 2c: CharDecoder.decode_greedy()!") + print("-"*80) + +def main(): + """ Main func. + """ + args = docopt(__doc__) + + # Check Python & PyTorch Versions + assert (sys.version_info >= (3, 5)), "Please update your installation of Python to version >= 3.5" + assert(torch.__version__ >= "1.0.0"), "Please update your installation of PyTorch. You have {} and you should have version 1.0.0".format(torch.__version__) + + # Seed the Random Number Generators + seed = 1234 + torch.manual_seed(seed) + torch.cuda.manual_seed(seed) + np.random.seed(seed * 13 // 7) + + vocab = Vocab.load('./sanity_check_en_es_data/vocab_sanity_check.json') + + # Create NMT Model + model = NMT( + word_embed_size=EMBED_SIZE, + hidden_size=HIDDEN_SIZE, + dropout_rate=DROPOUT_RATE, + vocab=vocab) + + char_vocab = DummyVocab() + + # Initialize CharDecoder + decoder = CharDecoder( + hidden_size=HIDDEN_SIZE, + char_embedding_size=EMBED_SIZE, + target_vocab=char_vocab) + + if args['1e']: + question_1e_sanity_check() + elif args['1h']: + question_1h_sanity_check(model) + elif args['2a']: + question_2a_sanity_check(decoder, char_vocab) + elif args['2b']: + question_2b_sanity_check(decoder) + elif args['2c']: + question_2c_sanity_check(decoder) + else: + raise RuntimeError('invalid run mode') + + +if __name__ == '__main__': + main() diff --git 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b/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/utils.py new file mode 100644 index 0000000..3f67f83 --- /dev/null +++ b/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/utils.py @@ -0,0 +1,116 @@ +#!/usr/bin/env python3 +# -*- coding: utf-8 -*- + +""" +CS224N 2019-20: Homework 5 +utils.py: +Pencheng Yin +Sahil Chopra +""" + +import math +from typing import List + +import numpy as np +import torch +import torch.nn as nn +import torch.nn.functional as F +import nltk +nltk.data.path.append('/home/ubuntu/MyFiles/myData/nltk_data') +# nltk.download('punkt') + +def pad_sents_char(sents, char_pad_token): + """ Pad list of sentences according to the longest sentence in the batch and longest words in all sentences. + @param sents (list[list[list[int]]]): list of sentences, result of `words2charindices()` + from `vocab.py` + @param char_pad_token (int): index of the character-padding token + @returns sents_padded (list[list[list[int]]]): list of sentences where sentences/words shorter + than the max length sentence/word are padded out with the appropriate pad token, such that + each sentence in the batch now has same number of words and each word has an equal + number of characters + Output shape: (batch_size, max_sentence_length, max_word_length) + """ + + sents_padded = [] + max_word_length = max(len(w) for s in sents for w in s ) + max_sent_len = max(len(s) for s in sents) + batch_size = len(sents) + + for k in range(batch_size): + sentence = sents[k] + sent_padded = [] + + for w in sentence: + data = [c for c in w] + [char_pad_token for _ in range(max_word_length-len(w))] + if len(data) > max_word_length: + data = data[:max_word_length] + sent_padded.append(data) + + sent_padded = sent_padded[:max_sent_len] + [[char_pad_token]*max_word_length] * max(0, max_sent_len - len(sent_padded)) + sents_padded.append(sent_padded) + + return sents_padded + + +def pad_sents(sents, pad_token): + """ Pad list of sentences according to the longest sentence in the batch. + @param sents (list[list[int]]): list of sentences, where each sentence + is represented as a list of words + @param pad_token (int): padding token + @returns sents_padded (list[list[int]]): list of sentences where sentences shorter + than the max length sentence are padded out with the pad_token, such that + each sentences in the batch now has equal length. + Output shape: (batch_size, max_sentence_length) + """ + sents_padded = [] + + ### COPY OVER YOUR CODE FROM ASSIGNMENT 4 + max_length = -1 + for s in sents: + max_length = max(max_length, len(s)) + for s in sents: + sents_padded.append(s[:] + [pad_token]*(max_length-len(s))) + ### END YOUR CODE FROM ASSIGNMENT 4 + + return sents_padded + + + +def read_corpus(file_path, source): + """ Read file, where each sentence is dilineated by a `\n`. + @param file_path (str): path to file containing corpus + @param source (str): "tgt" or "src" indicating whether text + is of the source language or target language + """ + data = [] + for line in open(file_path): + sent = nltk.word_tokenize(line) + # only append and to the target sentence + if source == 'tgt': + sent = [''] + sent + [''] + data.append(sent) + + return data + +def batch_iter(data, batch_size, shuffle=False): + """ Yield batches of source and target sentences reverse sorted by length (largest to smallest). + @param data (list of (src_sent, tgt_sent)): list of tuples containing source and target sentence + @param batch_size (int): batch size + @param shuffle (boolean): whether to randomly shuffle the dataset + """ + batch_num = math.ceil(len(data) / batch_size) + index_array = list(range(len(data))) + + if shuffle: + np.random.shuffle(index_array) + + for i in range(batch_num): + indices = index_array[i * batch_size: (i + 1) * batch_size] + examples = [data[idx] for idx in indices] + + examples = sorted(examples, key=lambda e: len(e[0]), reverse=True) + src_sents = [e[0] for e in examples] + tgt_sents = [e[1] for e in examples] + + yield src_sents, tgt_sents + diff --git 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21924, + "Plateau": 21925, + "pastures": 21926, + "Polaroid": 21927, + "Ecuadorian": 21928, + "drumming": 21929, + "juniper": 21930, + "Stan": 21931, + "Maurice": 21932, + "'53": 21933, + "pairing": 21934, + "four-letter": 21935, + "Sultanbelyi": 21936, + "feeble": 21937, + "shanty": 21938, + "huts": 21939, + "Hilary": 21940, + "scavenged": 21941, + "mattress": 21942, + "stuffing": 21943, + "self-built": 21944, + "crickets": 21945, + "itinerant": 21946, + "redistribute": 21947, + "Bush-Kerry": 21948, + "edits": 21949, + "tight-knit": 21950, + "fanatical": 21951, + "Explosion": 21952, + "thickening": 21953, + "discreet": 21954, + "erratic": 21955, + "reverse-engineering": 21956, + "Hofstadter": 21957, + "Experience": 21958, + "prevailed": 21959, + "condemning": 21960, + "ghastly": 21961, + "agitating": 21962, + "geriatrics": 21963, + "equivalently": 21964, + "youthfulness": 21965, + "first-generation": 21966, + "denote": 21967, + "mitochondria": 21968, + "undergoes": 21969, + "lagoon": 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"Aakash": 38979, + "moneyball": 38980, + "statewide": 38981, + "b": 38982, + "Judges": 38983, + "subjectively": 38984, + "McKenna": 38985, + "Oven": 38986, + "Change.org": 38987, + "Liquidsore29": 38988, + "Haters": 38989, + "Malicious": 38990, + "Dishes": 38991, + "Pollinators": 38992, + "fundraise": 38993, + "Dinner": 38994, + "petabytes": 38995, + "enclaves": 38996, + "engendered": 38997, + "perpetuated": 38998, + "upholding": 38999, + "barricaded": 39000, + "unsteady": 39001, + "Decoy": 39002, + "carefree": 39003, + "ETH": 39004, + "a-rhythm-etic": 39005, + "a-one-two-three-four": 39006, + "A-one-two-three-four": 39007, + "gastroenteritis": 39008, + "inescapable": 39009, + "abrogated": 39010, + "overbearing": 39011, + "unprejudiced": 39012, + "rationalization": 39013, + "disvalue": 39014, + "self-mockery": 39015, + "Leyla": 39016, + "eco-materials": 39017, + "biodegradability": 39018, + "Soggy": 39019, + "disassembly": 39020, + "systems-based": 39021, + "Pentair": 39022, + "Hesta": 39023, + "CalPERS": 39024, + "prudent": 39025, + "Bunnell": 39026, + "overriding": 39027, + "money-printing": 39028, + "40-year": 39029, + "high-potential": 39030, + "nave": 39031, + "vocalization": 39032, + "Meg": 39033, + "monogamously": 39034, + "southwestern": 39035, + "CR": 39036, + "Schopenhauer": 39037, + "brigade.codeforamerica.org": 39038, + "interception": 39039, + "pedophiles": 39040, + "untraceable": 39041, + "bright-field": 39042, + "foldscopes": 39043, + "extractions": 39044, + "eking": 39045, + "privileging": 39046, + "siesta": 39047, + "advantaged": 39048, + "patching": 39049, + "birthing": 39050, + "championing": 39051, + "pay-as-you-go": 39052, + "Merrifield": 39053, + "sordid": 39054, + "daydreams": 39055, + "barnacle": 39056, + "Mm-hm": 39057, + "choosy": 39058, + "Bit": 39059, + "amygdalae": 39060, + "reoffending": 39061, + "irredeemable": 39062, + "externals": 39063, + "endocrinology": 39064, + "plunk": 39065, + "unfathomable": 39066, + "incapacitated": 39067, + "connector": 39068, + "inordinate": 39069, + "privacy-enhancing": 39070, + "215": 39071, + "congressmen": 39072, + "amnesty": 39073, + "undisclosed": 39074, + "lanyard": 39075, + "mind-controlling": 39076, + "subverting": 39077, + "estuaries": 39078, + "stinger": 39079, + "Orwellian": 39080, + "Rae": 39081, + "Pantheons": 39082, + "tech-savvy": 39083, + "one-in-a-million": 39084, + "99.999": 39085, + "geodata": 39086, + "electromechanics": 39087, + "compliances": 39088, + "Mallette": 39089, + "Haslet-Davis": 39090, + "Rehabilitation": 39091, + "Niemller": 39092, + "Swartz": 39093, + "amen": 39094, + "Amen": 39095, + "pulpit": 39096, + "wonky": 39097, + "mock-up": 39098, + "rezoning": 39099, + "plantings": 39100, + "crowned": 39101, + "unseeable": 39102, + "aphasia": 39103, + "senate": 39104, + "Stronger": 39105, + "Peggy": 39106, + "Deeper": 39107, + "Newtown": 39108, + "savors": 39109, + "Barnes": 39110, + "science-minded": 39111, + "Oath": 39112, + "corona": 39113, + "diffraction": 39114, + "unfurl": 39115, + "sub-scale": 39116, + "occulter": 39117, + "Bzier": 39118, + "Zuzana": 39119, + "18-unit": 39120, + "raster": 39121, + "serifs": 39122, + "nonexistent": 39123, + "Verdana": 39124, + "attrition": 39125, + "archer": 39126, + "medalists": 39127, + "proximate": 39128, + "heptathlon": 39129, + "Satellites": 39130, + "corgis": 39131, + "comprehensively": 39132, + "sub-four": 39133, + "performance-enhancing": 39134, + "Cycling": 39135, + "shot-putter": 39136, + "Vitruvian": 39137, + "marathoners": 39138, + "limiter": 39139, + "ligaments": 39140, + "ultra-endurance": 39141, + "Peek": 39142, + "approximations": 39143, + "sulfate": 39144, + "stop-and-frisk": 39145, + "post-racial": 39146, + "Skipper": 39147, + "Audiences": 39148, + "Abracadabra": 39149, + "anthropomorphize": 39150, + "declassify": 39151, + "Tilson": 39152, + "KR": 39153, + "Ronson": 39154, + "Notorious": 39155, + "Biggie": 39156, + "reinterprets": 39157, + "ineligible": 39158, + "great-grandmothers": 39159, + "defraud": 39160, + "borrower": 39161, + "horrifically": 39162, + "medevac": 39163, + "comforts": 39164, + "Restrepo": 39165, + "strafed": 39166, + "AWOL": 39167, + "rejoin": 39168, + "flirt": 39169, + "Neary": 39170, + "Movie": 39171, + "Measure": 39172, + "executioner": 39173, + "Bront": 39174, + "comfy": 39175, + "L.D": 39176, + "extravagance": 39177, + "plump": 39178, + "Josephine": 39179, + "Butenandt": 39180, + "suckle": 39181, + "push-pull": 39182, + "traceability": 39183, + "co-lead": 39184, + "Forging": 39185, + "Thida": 39186, + "privation": 39187, + "bedraggled": 39188, + "banish": 39189, + "unforgiving": 39190, + "Addiction": 39191, + "Rolls-Royce": 39192, + "shortsighted": 39193, + "nonexistence": 39194, + "18-year-olds": 39195, + "O'Hara": 39196, + "Oleander": 39197, + "outworn": 39198, + "reversals": 39199, + "Fears": 39200, + "Denise": 39201, + "self-stabilize": 39202, + "rallies": 39203, + "mid-20th": 39204, + "Bayard": 39205, + "DOMA": 39206, + "Taylor-Hughes": 39207, + "KSM": 39208, + "criminalized": 39209, + "Apartheid": 39210, + "Frustrated": 39211, + "stifling": 39212, + "Scoop": 39213, + "feuds": 39214, + "uncovers": 39215, + "agonize": 39216, + "armchair": 39217, + "donuts": 39218, + "sock-wearing": 39219, + "Sociologists": 39220, + "sabbath": 39221, + "shrines": 39222, + "cobbler": 39223, + "Hull": 39224, + "unimagined": 39225, + "tangrams": 39226, + "scribbles": 39227, + "FU": 39228, + "atoning": 39229, + "xkcd": 39230, + "Cadell": 39231, + "impart": 39232, + "monotone": 39233, + "aw": 39234, + "weeeaawww": 39235, + "detonator": 39236, + "95th": 39237, + "fast-growing": 39238, + "blistering": 39239, + "terrorizing": 39240, + "non-alien": 39241, + "B.I.": 39242, + "Sorona": 39243, + "pipettes": 39244, + "paring": 39245, + "Fundamentalism": 39246, + "coped": 39247, + "fundamentalisms": 39248, + "Faizan": 39249, + "Bashir": 39250, + "Bashirs": 39251, + "google": 39252, + "Westgate": 39253, + "Somali-American": 39254, + "Abubakar": 39255, + "As-Saddique": 39256, + "5:17": 39257, + "5:18": 39258, + "anxiety-provoking": 39259, + "epidurals": 39260, + "epidural": 39261, + "retracts": 39262, + "Jacobaeus": 39263, + "polycephalum": 39264, + "citing": 39265, + "deltas": 39266, + "accreditation": 39267, + "deform": 39268, + "stutterer": 39269, + "m-m-m-my": 39270, + "vamp": 39271, + "Talithia": 39272, + "miscarry": 39273, + "ovulation": 39274, + "decongestant": 39275, + "TW": 39276, + "noose": 39277, + "cure-all": 39278, + "Migrant": 39279, + "Jeannie": 39280, + "erasure": 39281, + "Scenario": 39282, + "water-rich": 39283, + "Seventeen": 39284, + "ontological": 39285, + "vacuity": 39286, + "Elegant": 39287, + "Morgenbesser": 39288, + "loosening": 39289, + "trilbies": 39290, + "epigenetics": 39291, + "payers": 39292, + "metamorphosed": 39293, + "specializations": 39294, + "guaranteeing": 39295, + "Kopenawa": 39296, + "Yanomami": 39297, + "humiliates": 39298, + "Venn": 39299, + "reconfigured": 39300, + "bylaw": 39301, + "rehabilitating": 39302, + "Ki-moon": 39303, + "wipers": 39304, + "Castillo": 39305, + "Tocamacho": 39306, + "Honduran": 39307, + "Creole": 39308, + "shamans": 39309, + "staffed": 39310, + "Performed": 39311, + "agitation": 39312, + "Complexo": 39313, + "Alemo": 39314, + "Obrigado": 39315, + "Lifebuoy": 39316, + "Myo": 39317, + "biomarker": 39318, + "Ashraf": 39319, + "unseaworthy": 39320, + "rations": 39321, + "blinked": 39322, + "Cahana": 39323, + "Fotokite": 39324, + "Sphinx": 39325, + "panoramas": 39326, + "quadrocopter": 39327, + "houseguest": 39328, + "CSV": 39329, + "nascent": 39330, + "place-making": 39331, + "Wally": 39332, + "homicidal": 39333, + "331": 39334, + "Andres": 39335, + "Christmastime": 39336, + "Terminalia": 39337, + "heterophylly": 39338, + "palaver": 39339, + "Adansonia": 39340, + "digitata": 39341, + "onslaught": 39342, + "asiatica": 39343, + "3S": 39344, + "million-person": 39345, + "expropriation": 39346, + "Vitor": 39347, + "Elias": 39348, + "barbecues": 39349, + "Capone": 39350, + "prohibitionist": 39351, + "ayahuasca": 39352, + "Ros": 39353, + "Armenia": 39354, + "Alone": 39355, + "spiritualities": 39356, + "Muito": 39357, + "obrigado": 39358, + "carbapenem": 39359, + "teetering": 39360, + "googled": 39361, + "playoff": 39362, + "Frate": 39363, + "webmaster": 39364, + "biochemists": 39365, + "Quinn": 39366, + "megarisks": 39367, + "Krause": 39368, + "turbo-urbanization": 39369, + "self-belief": 39370, + "bouts": 39371, + "upskilling": 39372, + "Zoobiquity": 39373, + "Euromaidan": 39374, + "Yanukovych": 39375, + "confrontations": 39376, + "blackened": 39377, + "Glory": 39378, + "NRK2": 39379, + "Kimmel": 39380, + "Alcoholics": 39381, + "Plate": 39382, + "wrongdoing": 39383, + "Brahui": 39384, + "Brohi": 39385, + "predictors": 39386, + "Tear": 39387, + "catharsis": 39388, + "duckface": 39389, + "Motel": 39390, + "verbed": 39391, + "DSLR": 39392, + "Tourism": 39393, + "penitentiary": 39394, + "Bustamante": 39395, + "Regional": 39396, + "Guatemalan": 39397, + "533": 39398, + "2041": 39399, + "cost-effectively": 39400, + "C.T": 39401, + "entrusted": 39402, + "irredeemably": 39403, + "fistfight": 39404, + "loving-kindness": 39405, + "Davidson": 39406, + "Mosques": 39407, + "tweezers": 39408, + "Dumont": 39409, + "Santos": 39410, + "MANTRA": 39411, + "landless": 39412, + "intervener": 39413, + "deem": 39414, + "upended": 39415, + "Timor-Leste": 39416, + "inter-community": 39417, + "140Journos": 39418, + "mimeograph": 39419, + "Clement": 39420, + "evaded": 39421, + "misperceptions": 39422, + "logisticians": 39423, + "high-fiving": 39424, + "non-identical": 39425, + "left-hander": 39426, + "toast-making": 39427, + "porcupines": 39428, + "cardenolides": 39429, + "non-medicinal": 39430, + "unvaccinated": 39431, + "MMR": 39432, + "251": 39433, + "doggie": 39434, + "Yasmine": 39435, + "HI-SEAS": 39436, + "Seeker": 39437, + "caravans": 39438, + "performative": 39439, + "ALMA": 39440, + "Taxi": 39441, + "Limousine": 39442, + "FOIL": 39443, + "Whong": 39444, + "dirtier": 39445, + "normalize": 39446, + "Microbes": 39447, + "99.99": 39448, + "ranger": 39449, + "Interpol": 39450, + "PGP": 39451, + "RSA": 39452, + "Helder": 39453, + "17-year-olds": 39454, + "comforted": 39455, + "blushed": 39456, + "number-themed": 39457, + "thered": 39458, + "discovery-driven": 39459, + "HCL": 39460, + "Humanitarian": 39461, + "inexcusable": 39462, + "hospices": 39463, + "mortuaries": 39464, + "Muthomi": 39465, + "Sangu": 39466, + "erroneously": 39467, + "child-bearing": 39468, + "knifefish": 39469, + "bzz": 39470, + "electrotactile": 39471, + "Novich": 39472, + "Eagleman": 39473, + "SN": 39474, + "T-1000": 39475, + "elastomers": 39476, + "tramp": 39477, + "Clementi": 39478, + "reopen": 39479, + "convolutional": 39480, + "vigilante": 39481, + "fracturing": 39482, + "stingier": 39483, + "rewoven": 39484, + "Sider": 39485, + "abandonment": 39486, + "slogging": 39487, + "softy": 39488, + "flophouse": 39489, + "lectern": 39490, + "exemplifies": 39491, + "Sans": 39492, + "bloke": 39493, + "mega-change": 39494, + "ISIL": 39495, + "mega-challenge": 39496, + "Wn": 39497, + "woodchucks": 39498, + "Trap": 39499, + "deliverable": 39500, + "bootstrapped": 39501, + "boulders": 39502, + "outgassing": 39503, + "selfie": 39504, + "Philae": 39505, + "departing": 39506, + "magnetometers": 39507, + "OSIRIS": 39508, + "wind-blown": 39509, + "bottom-left": 39510, + "Bogor": 39511, + "Nawroz": 39512, + "Jaffar": 39513, + "Shabbir": 39514, + "smuggler": 39515, + "UNHCR": 39516, + "high-caste": 39517, + "untouchability": 39518, + "Satyarthi": 39519, + "justness": 39520, + "habitability": 39521, + "Provine": 39522, + "Kem": 39523, + "sheriff": 39524, + "Haugen": 39525, + "restrain": 39526, + "abound": 39527, + "Isadora": 39528, + "fiction-y": 39529, + "A.I.": 39530, + "aggravated": 39531, + "Injustice": 39532, + "Murden": 39533, + "pitchpole": 39534, + "brood": 39535, + "Dannielle": 39536, + "Hadley": 39537, + "Watkins": 39538, + "Incarcerated": 39539, + "Thelma": 39540, + "Debra": 39541, + "Joann": 39542, + "Hamill": 39543, + "Metzger": 39544, + "Trina": 39545, + "Garnett": 39546, + "Ibuku": 39547, + "Exposition": 39548, + "Whet": 39549, + "Moser": 39550, + "WM": 39551, + "Kodis": 39552, + "godparents": 39553, + "odious": 39554, + "Kiko": 39555, + "Helicopters": 39556, + "all-male": 39557, + "merciless": 39558, + "MIRA": 39559, + "Cosmin": 39560, + "Sirius": 39561, + "Glaxo": 39562, + "Taber": 39563, + "822": 39564, + "ILC": 39565, + "Dover": 39566, + "AE": 39567, + "Gliese": 39568, + "overlaying": 39569, + "truss": 39570, + "megachurch": 39571, + "Rev": 39572, + "non-executive": 39573, + "Abdul-Latif": 39574, + "Mujahidh": 39575, + "schizoaffective": 39576, + "Aaronson": 39577, + "TA": 39578, + "wigmen": 39579, + "Chukchis": 39580, + "cherry-picked": 39581, + "innumerable": 39582, + "Gweon": 39583, + "non-Idealab": 39584, + "Citysearch": 39585, + "Z.com": 39586, + "Thermostat": 39587, + "machine-learning": 39588, + "deportation": 39589, + "anti-trafficking": 39590, + "Persistently": 39591, + "Sell/Buy/Date": 39592, + "Bio-Empathetic": 39593, + "sluts": 39594, + "bros": 39595, + "hos": 39596, + "furrow": 39597, + "Allegheny": 39598, + "co-opted": 39599, + "superflock": 39600, + "CFCs": 39601, + "Tudhope": 39602, + "nerve-block": 39603, + "osteoarthritis": 39604, + "SEALs": 39605, + "Cassie": 39606, + "ROTC": 39607, + "Tristan": 39608, + "driver-assisted": 39609, + "CU": 39610, + "fittings": 39611, + "contender": 39612, + "Llull": 39613, + "Perl": 39614, + "Molloy": 39615, + "Saraceno": 39616, + "Chiharu": 39617, + "pro-life": 39618, + "abortions": 39619, + "Exhale": 39620, + "talk-line": 39621, + "Intervention": 39622, + "date-a-thon": 39623, + "flosses": 39624, + "Roseanne": 39625, + "walk-on": 39626, + "Gawker": 39627, + "IAC": 39628, + "flaunting": 39629, + "Drafting": 39630, + "excitation": 39631, + "Destin": 39632, + "micro-printed": 39633, + "Whitopias": 39634, + "Immigration": 39635, + "notepad": 39636, + "sidled": 39637, + "supremacists": 39638, + "Whitopians": 39639, + "AutismSees": 39640, + "autism-assistive": 39641, + "ASD": 39642, + "Podium": 39643, + "wiretapped": 39644, + "FaceTime": 39645, + "wiretap": 39646, + "backdoors": 39647, + "rejuvenating": 39648, + "Particles": 39649, + "cryptochrome": 39650, + "quantum-entangled": 39651, + "rotorcraft": 39652, + "SARbot": 39653, + "coastland": 39654, + "overwhelms": 39655, + "consumer-centric": 39656, + "torus": 39657, + "satisfactions": 39658, + "Tennis": 39659, + "influencer": 39660, + "Privilege": 39661, + "signifier": 39662, + "Stole": 39663, + "Colum": 39664, + "McCann": 39665, + "Layla": 39666, + "formative": 39667, + "multi-local": 39668, + "Gainesville": 39669, + "blackwater": 39670, + "Everglade": 39671, + "spoonbill": 39672, + "unmoved": 39673, + "baiting": 39674, + "immensity": 39675, + "well-insured": 39676, + "neurons-to-be": 39677, + "Thuret": 39678, + "organismal": 39679, + "powerful-enough": 39680, + "runny": 39681, + "stubbed": 39682, + "fast-paced": 39683, + "melodic": 39684, + "Amharia": 39685, + "Indey": 39686, + "clanking": 39687, + "Berrigan": 39688, + "Marion": 39689, + "Kataf": 39690, + "Dunkirk": 39691, + "consented": 39692, + "hacky": 39693, + "vests": 39694, + "dehydrated": 39695, + "speleologist": 39696, + "tepui": 39697, + "massifs": 39698, + "Venta": 39699, + "5am": 39700, + "frontline": 39701, + "Agents": 39702, + "lowland": 39703, + "MichelleObama.jpeg": 39704, + "picture-Googled": 39705, + "disowned": 39706, + "instigated": 39707, + "Kuria": 39708, + "Mara": 39709, + "Skechers": 39710, + "collectible": 39711, + "Mormonism": 39712, + "unignorable": 39713, + "chordates": 39714, + "bottle-nosed": 39715, + "Albertopolis": 39716, + "Trayvon": 39717, + "Zimmerman": 39718, + "Pasiega": 39719, + "penniform": 39720, + "Assessment": 39721, + "hardships": 39722, + "Piece": 39723, + "eye-gazing": 39724, + "Panamanian": 39725, + "Prncipe": 39726, + "Chieko": 39727, + "FMLA": 39728, + "Childbirth": 39729, + "breakable": 39730, + "Danit": 39731, + "Peleg": 39732, + "ICCAT": 39733, + "Tunas": 39734, + "cold-blooded": 39735, + "Aquaculture": 39736, + "whitefish": 39737, + "Hula": 39738, + "pollock": 39739, + "bivalves": 39740, + "TEDYouth": 39741, + "emojis": 39742, + "724": 39743, + "75-year": 39744, + "octogenarian": 39745, + "civility": 39746, + "thoughtfulness": 39747, + "Brandes": 39748, + "Alomar": 39749, + "Babangida": 39750, + "Abiola": 39751, + "Kp'iye": 39752, + "Kp'oma": 39753, + "Sabo": 39754, + "Malam": 39755, + "Yahaya": 39756, + "wristband": 39757, + "conjugating": 39758, + "biorobotics": 39759, + "Jean-Marie": 39760, + "Cabelguen": 39761, + "oscillators": 39762, + "pantograph": 39763, + "Cheetah-Cub": 39764, + "Auke": 39765, + "reward-based": 39766, + "context-dependent": 39767, + "Trigger": 39768, + "underlines": 39769, + "self-identified": 39770, + "spirometer": 39771, + "intracranial": 39772, + "plegic": 39773, + "gender-neutral": 39774, + "Trans": 39775, + "mumbo": 39776, + "diabetes-type": 39777, + "Yarn": 39778, + "tail-sitter": 39779, + "monospinner": 39780, + "assailant": 39781 + } +} \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/vocab.py b/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/vocab.py new file mode 100644 index 0000000..dc43982 --- /dev/null +++ b/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/vocab.py @@ -0,0 +1,271 @@ +#!/usr/bin/env python3 +# -*- coding: utf-8 -*- + +""" +CS224N 2019-20: Homework 5 +vocab.py: Vocabulary Generation +Pencheng Yin +Sahil Chopra + +Usage: + vocab.py --train-src= --train-tgt= [options] VOCAB_FILE + +Options: + -h --help Show this screen. + --train-src= File of training source sentences + --train-tgt= File of training target sentences + --size= vocab size [default: 50000] + --freq-cutoff= frequency cutoff [default: 2] +""" + +from collections import Counter +from docopt import docopt +from itertools import chain +import json +import torch +from typing import List +from utils import read_corpus, pad_sents, pad_sents_char + + +class VocabEntry(object): + """ Vocabulary Entry, i.e. structure containing either + src or tgt language terms. + """ + + def __init__(self, word2id=None): + """ Init VocabEntry Instance. + @param word2id (dict): dictionary mapping words 2 indices + """ + if word2id: + self.word2id = word2id + else: + self.word2id = dict() + self.word2id[''] = 0 # Pad Token + self.word2id[''] = 1 # Start Token + self.word2id[''] = 2 # End Token + self.word2id[''] = 3 # Unknown Token + self.unk_id = self.word2id[''] + self.id2word = {v: k for k, v in self.word2id.items()} + + ## Additions to the A4 code: + self.char_list = list( + """ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz0123456789,;.!?:'\"/\\|_@#$%^&*~`+-=<>()[]""") + + self.char2id = dict() # Converts characters to integers + self.char2id[''] = 0 # token ∏ + self.char2id['{'] = 1 # start of word token + self.char2id['}'] = 2 # end of word token + self.char2id[''] = 3 # token Û + for i, c in enumerate(self.char_list): + self.char2id[c] = len(self.char2id) + self.char_pad = self.char2id[''] + self.char_unk = self.char2id[''] + self.start_of_word = self.char2id["{"] + self.end_of_word = self.char2id["}"] + assert self.start_of_word + 1 == self.end_of_word + + self.id2char = {v: k for k, v in self.char2id.items()} # Converts integers to characters + ## End additions to the A4 code + + def __getitem__(self, word): + """ Retrieve word's index. Return the index for the unk + token if the word is out of vocabulary. + @param word (str): word to look up. + @returns index (int): index of word + """ + return self.word2id.get(word, self.unk_id) + + def __contains__(self, word): + """ Check if word is captured by VocabEntry. + @param word (str): word to look up + @returns contains (bool): whether word is contained + """ + return word in self.word2id + + def __setitem__(self, key, value): + """ Raise error, if one tries to edit the VocabEntry. + """ + raise ValueError('vocabulary is readonly') + + def __len__(self): + """ Compute number of words in VocabEntry. + @returns len (int): number of words in VocabEntry + """ + return len(self.word2id) + + def __repr__(self): + """ Representation of VocabEntry to be used + when printing the object. + """ + return 'Vocabulary[size=%d]' % len(self) + + def id2word(self, wid): + """ Return mapping of index to word. + @param wid (int): word index + @returns word (str): word corresponding to index + """ + return self.id2word[wid] + + def add(self, word): + """ Add word to VocabEntry, if it is previously unseen. + @param word (str): word to add to VocabEntry + @return index (int): index that the word has been assigned + """ + if word not in self: + wid = self.word2id[word] = len(self) + self.id2word[wid] = word + return wid + else: + return self[word] + + def words2charindices(self, sents): + """ Convert list of sentences of words into list of list of list of character indices. + @param sents (list[list[str]]): sentence(s) in words + @return word_ids (list[list[list[int]]]): sentence(s) in indices + """ + return [[[self.char2id.get(c, self.char_unk) for c in ("{" + w + "}")] for w in s] for s in sents] + + def words2indices(self, sents): + """ Convert list of sentences of words into list of list of indices. + @param sents (list[list[str]]): sentence(s) in words + @return word_ids (list[list[int]]): sentence(s) in indices + """ + return [[self[w] for w in s] for s in sents] + + def indices2words(self, word_ids): + """ Convert list of indices into words. + @param word_ids (list[int]): list of word ids + @return sents (list[str]): list of words + """ + return [self.id2word[w_id] for w_id in word_ids] + + def to_input_tensor_char(self, sents: List[List[str]], device: torch.device) -> torch.Tensor: + """ Convert list of sentences (words) into tensor with necessary padding for + shorter sentences. + + @param sents (List[List[str]]): list of sentences (words) + @param device: device on which to load the tensor, i.e. CPU or GPU + + @returns sents_var: tensor of (max_sentence_length, batch_size, max_word_length) + """ + ### YOUR CODE HERE for part 1e + ### TODO: + ### - Use `words2charindices()` from this file, which converts each character to its corresponding index in the + ### character-vocabulary. + ### - Use `pad_sents_char()` from utils.py, which pads all words to max_word_length of all words in the batch, + ### and pads all sentences to max length of all sentences in the batch. Read __init__ to see how to get + ### index of character-padding token + ### - Connect these two parts to convert the resulting padded sentences to a torch tensor. + ### HINT: + ### - You may find .contiguous() useful after reshaping. Check the following links for more details: + ### https://pytorch.org/docs/stable/tensors.html#torch.Tensor.contiguous + ### https://pytorch.org/docs/stable/tensors.html#torch.Tensor.view + sents_char = self.words2charindices(sents) + sents_char_padded = pad_sents_char(sents_char, self.char_pad) + sents_var = torch.tensor(sents_char_padded, device=device).transpose(0, 1).contiguous() + + return sents_var + ### END YOUR CODE + + def to_input_tensor(self, sents: List[List[str]], device: torch.device) -> torch.Tensor: + """ Convert list of sentences (words) into tensor with necessary padding for + shorter sentences. + + @param sents (List[List[str]]): list of sentences (words) + @param device: device on which to load the tesnor, i.e. CPU or GPU + + @returns sents_var: tensor of (max_sentence_length, batch_size) + """ + word_ids = self.words2indices(sents) + sents_t = pad_sents(word_ids, self['']) + sents_var = torch.tensor(sents_t, dtype=torch.long, device=device) + return torch.t(sents_var) + + @staticmethod + def from_corpus(corpus, size, freq_cutoff=2): + """ Given a corpus construct a Vocab Entry. + @param corpus (list[str]): corpus of text produced by read_corpus function + @param size (int): # of words in vocabulary + @param freq_cutoff (int): if word occurs n < freq_cutoff times, drop the word + @returns vocab_entry (VocabEntry): VocabEntry instance produced from provided corpus + """ + vocab_entry = VocabEntry() + word_freq = Counter(chain(*corpus)) + valid_words = [w for w, v in word_freq.items() if v >= freq_cutoff] + print('number of word types: {}, number of word types w/ frequency >= {}: {}' + .format(len(word_freq), freq_cutoff, len(valid_words))) + top_k_words = sorted(valid_words, key=lambda w: word_freq[w], reverse=True)[:size] + for word in top_k_words: + vocab_entry.add(word) + return vocab_entry + + +class Vocab(object): + """ Vocab encapsulating src and target langauges. + """ + + def __init__(self, src_vocab: VocabEntry, tgt_vocab: VocabEntry): + """ Init Vocab. + @param src_vocab (VocabEntry): VocabEntry for source language + @param tgt_vocab (VocabEntry): VocabEntry for target language + """ + self.src = src_vocab + self.tgt = tgt_vocab + + @staticmethod + def build(src_sents, tgt_sents, vocab_size, freq_cutoff) -> 'Vocab': + """ Build Vocabulary. + @param src_sents (list[str]): Source sentences provided by read_corpus() function + @param tgt_sents (list[str]): Target sentences provided by read_corpus() function + @param vocab_size (int): Size of vocabulary for both source and target languages + @param freq_cutoff (int): if word occurs n < freq_cutoff times, drop the word. + """ + assert len(src_sents) == len(tgt_sents) + + print('initialize source vocabulary ..') + src = VocabEntry.from_corpus(src_sents, vocab_size, freq_cutoff) + + print('initialize target vocabulary ..') + tgt = VocabEntry.from_corpus(tgt_sents, vocab_size, freq_cutoff) + + return Vocab(src, tgt) + + def save(self, file_path): + """ Save Vocab to file as JSON dump. + @param file_path (str): file path to vocab file + """ + json.dump(dict(src_word2id=self.src.word2id, tgt_word2id=self.tgt.word2id), open(file_path, 'w'), indent=2) + + @staticmethod + def load(file_path): + """ Load vocabulary from JSON dump. + @param file_path (str): file path to vocab file + @returns Vocab object loaded from JSON dump + """ + entry = json.load(open(file_path, 'r')) + src_word2id = entry['src_word2id'] + tgt_word2id = entry['tgt_word2id'] + + return Vocab(VocabEntry(src_word2id), VocabEntry(tgt_word2id)) + + def __repr__(self): + """ Representation of Vocab to be used + when printing the object. + """ + return 'Vocab(source %d words, target %d words)' % (len(self.src), len(self.tgt)) + + +if __name__ == '__main__': + args = docopt(__doc__) + + print('read in source sentences: %s' % args['--train-src']) + print('read in target sentences: %s' % args['--train-tgt']) + + src_sents = read_corpus(args['--train-src'], source='src') + tgt_sents = read_corpus(args['--train-tgt'], source='tgt') + + vocab = Vocab.build(src_sents, tgt_sents, int(args['--size']), int(args['--freq-cutoff'])) + print('generated vocabulary, source %d words, target %d words' % (len(vocab.src), len(vocab.tgt))) + + vocab.save(args['VOCAB_FILE']) + print('vocabulary saved to %s' % args['VOCAB_FILE']) diff --git a/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/vocab_tiny_q1.json b/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/vocab_tiny_q1.json new file mode 100644 index 0000000..547a474 --- /dev/null +++ b/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/vocab_tiny_q1.json @@ -0,0 +1,271 @@ +{ + "src_word2id": { + "": 0, + "": 1, + "": 2, + "": 3, + ".": 4, + "--": 5, + "de": 6, + "que": 7, + "en": 8, + "a": 9, + "para": 10, + "la": 11, + "por": 12, + ",": 13, + "y": 14, + "lo": 15, + "!": 16, + "una": 17, + "Y": 18, + "es": 19, + "verdad": 20, + "un": 21, + "este": 22, + "ustedes": 23, + "parte": 24, + "(": 25, + "Sollozos": 26, + "fingidos": 27, + ")": 28, + "el": 29, + "avin": 30, + "historia": 31, + "Nashville": 32, + "Muchas": 33, + "gracias": 34, + "Chris": 35, + "gran": 36, + "honor": 37, + "tener": 38, + "oportunidad": 39, + "venir": 40, + "escenario": 41, + "segunda": 42, + "vez": 43, + "Estoy": 44, + "extremadamente": 45, + "agradecido": 46, + "He": 47, + "quedado": 48, + "conmovido": 49, + "esta": 50, + "conferencia": 51, + "deseo": 52, + "agradecer": 53, + "todos": 54, + "sus": 55, + "amables": 56, + "comentarios": 57, + "acerca": 58, + "tena": 59, + "decir": 60, + "otra": 61, + "noche": 62, + "digo": 63, + "eso": 64, + "sinceramente": 65, + "porque": 66, + "necesito": 67, + "Pnganse": 68, + "mi": 69, + "posicin": 70, + "Vol": 71, + "vicepresidencial": 72, + "ocho": 73, + "aos": 74, + "Ahora": 75, + "tengo": 76, + "quitarme": 77, + "mis": 78, + "zapatos": 79, + "o": 80, + "botas": 81, + "subirme": 82, + "Les": 83, + "dir": 84, + "rpida": 85, + "ilustrar": 86, + "ha": 87, + "sido": 88, + "m": 89, + "Es": 90, + "verdadera": 91, + "cada": 92, + "esto": 93, + "Poco": 94, + "despus": 95, + "Tipper": 96, + "yo": 97, + "dejamos": 98, + "Casa": 99, + "Blanca": 100, + "estbamos": 101, + "viajando": 102, + "desde": 103, + "nuestra": 104, + "casa": 105, + "pequea": 106, + "granja": 107, + "tenemos": 108, + "50": 109, + "millas": 110, + "al": 111, + "conduciendo": 112, + "nosotros": 113, + "mismos": 114, + "S": 115, + "suena": 116, + "como": 117, + "cualquier": 118, + "cosa": 119, + "pero": 120, + "mir": 121, + "retrovisor": 122, + "repente": 123, + "simplemente": 124, + "me": 125, + "golpe": 126, + "No": 127, + "haba": 128, + "caravana": 129, + "vehculos": 130, + "all": 131, + "atrs": 132 + }, + "tgt_word2id": { + "": 0, + "": 1, + "": 2, + "": 3, + ".": 4, + "I": 5, + "to": 6, + "a": 7, + "the": 8, + "you": 9, + ",": 10, + "have": 11, + "of": 12, + "--": 13, + "it": 14, + "'s": 15, + "this": 16, + "and": 17, + "for": 18, + "that": 19, + "in": 20, + "And": 21, + "been": 22, + "all": 23, + "what": 24, + "say": 25, + "(": 26, + "Mock": 27, + "sob": 28, + ")": 29, + "my": 30, + "on": 31, + "story": 32, + "like": 33, + "me": 34, + "true": 35, + "we": 36, + "Nashville": 37, + "little": 38, + "Thank": 39, + "so": 40, + "much": 41, + "Chris": 42, + "truly": 43, + "great": 44, + "honor": 45, + "opportunity": 46, + "come": 47, + "stage": 48, + "twice": 49, + ";": 50, + "'m": 51, + "extremely": 52, + "grateful": 53, + "blown": 54, + "away": 55, + "by": 56, + "conference": 57, + "want": 58, + "thank": 59, + "many": 60, + "nice": 61, + "comments": 62, + "about": 63, + "had": 64, + "other": 65, + "night": 66, + "sincerely": 67, + "partly": 68, + "because": 69, + "need": 70, + "Put": 71, + "yourselves": 72, + "position": 73, + "flew": 74, + "Air": 75, + "Force": 76, + "Two": 77, + "eight": 78, + "years": 79, + "Now": 80, + "take": 81, + "off": 82, + "shoes": 83, + "or": 84, + "boots": 85, + "get": 86, + "an": 87, + "airplane": 88, + "!": 89, + "'ll": 90, + "tell": 91, + "one": 92, + "quick": 93, + "illustrate": 94, + "It": 95, + "every": 96, + "bit": 97, + "is": 98, + "Soon": 99, + "after": 100, + "Tipper": 101, + "left": 102, + "White": 103, + "House": 104, + "were": 105, + "driving": 106, + "from": 107, + "our": 108, + "home": 109, + "farm": 110, + "50": 111, + "miles": 112, + "east": 113, + "Driving": 114, + "ourselves": 115, + "know": 116, + "sounds": 117, + "thing": 118, + "but": 119, + "looked": 120, + "rear-view": 121, + "mirror": 122, + "sudden": 123, + "just": 124, + "hit": 125, + "There": 126, + "was": 127, + "no": 128, + "motorcade": 129, + "back": 130, + "there": 131 + } +} \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/vocab_tiny_q2.json b/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/vocab_tiny_q2.json new file mode 100644 index 0000000..229b97e --- /dev/null +++ b/Assignments/assignment5/logan0czy/vocab_tiny_q2.json @@ -0,0 +1,78 @@ +{ + "src_word2id": { + "": 0, + "": 1, + "": 2, + "": 3, + ".": 4, + "--": 5, + "de": 6, + "que": 7, + "en": 8, + "a": 9, + "para": 10, + "la": 11, + "por": 12, + ",": 13, + "y": 14, + "lo": 15, + "!": 16, + "una": 17, + "Y": 18, + "es": 19, + "verdad": 20, + "un": 21, + "este": 22, + "ustedes": 23, + "parte": 24, + "(": 25, + "Sollozos": 26, + "fingidos": 27, + ")": 28, + "el": 29, + "avin": 30, + "historia": 31, + "Nashville": 32 + }, + "tgt_word2id": { + "": 0, + "": 1, + "": 2, + "": 3, + ".": 4, + "I": 5, + "to": 6, + "a": 7, + "the": 8, + "you": 9, + ",": 10, + "have": 11, + "of": 12, + "--": 13, + "it": 14, + "'s": 15, + "this": 16, + "and": 17, + "for": 18, + "that": 19, + "in": 20, + "And": 21, + "been": 22, + "all": 23, + "what": 24, + "say": 25, + "(": 26, + "Mock": 27, + "sob": 28, + ")": 29, + "my": 30, + "on": 31, + "story": 32, + "like": 33, + "me": 34, + "true": 35, + "we": 36, + "Nashville": 37, + "little": 38 + } +} \ No newline at end of file